wr.
^-eTCTY O^
PUBLISHERS OF f\
ae Eclectic Educational Series.
■ g — — &
W. HORACE SOPER,
Corresponding Agent,
ti;
^ Jvfkfrn,
(lass
R-ok.
PRESENTED BY
HARVEY'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PRACTICAL GRAMMAR
OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
FOR THE
USE OF SCHOOLS OF EVERY GRADE,
BY
THOS. W. HARVEY, A. M.
CINCINNATI:
WILSON, HINKLE & CO.
PHIL'A: CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELEINGER.
NEW YORK: CLARK & MAYNARD.
m
TEu/i
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 18G8, by
WILSON, HINKLE & CO.,
In the Clerk's office of the District Court of the United States, for the
Southern District of Ohio.
ELECTROTYPES AT THE FRANKLIN TYPE FOUNDRY, CINCINNATI.
Gift
Mrs. Ada SpinkS
\uo. 16 1934
PPFFACF.
In the preparation of this treatise, the ever-recurring wants
and requirements of the class-room have been kept constantly in
view. The aim of the author has been to make a practical text-
book— a useful manual for the learner, not a reference book for
the learned.
The whole plan of the work is in accordance with the educa-
tional doctrine that accuracy and facility in the use of language,
both spoken and written, are the ends to be secured by the study
of grammar: that to secure these ends, a thorough acquaintance
with the elements, forms, structure, and laws of our mother tongue,
is indispensable; and that a practical knowledge of these can be
acquired only by patient, persistent exercise in the analysis and
synthesis of syllables, words, and sentences.
The author has endeavored to present the subject in a simple,
concise, and perspicuous manner. He has purposely avoided the
discussion of mere theories; preferring, rather, a plain didactic
statement of his own views. Experience has taught him that
such discussions serve only to confuse and discourage the begin-
ner, and are of questionable utility to the advanced student.
Neither the erudition of the teacher, nor the exhaustive com-
pleteness of the text-book used, can compensate for the lack of
drill in the class-room.
The distinguishing features of this treatise, to which special
attention is invited, are the following :
1. The methodical arrangement and logical development of the
subjects discussed.
(iii)
fv PREFACE.
2. The brevity, clearness, and uniformity of the rules and
definitions.
3. The simple yet complete system of Analysis.
4. The great variety of carefully prepared Models for Paus-
ing and Analysis. By these models, the pupil is taught how
to parse every kind of word, and how to analyze every kind
of sentence.
5. The abundance of appropriate exercises and illustrations,
systematically arranged, and numbered for convenient reference.
6. The definite statement or clear indication of opinion upon
those points which annoy and perplex both pupil and teacher.
7. The practical character and systematic classification of the
instruction and exercises in False Syntax.
8. The lucid and comprehensive treatment of Punctuation and
Prosody — both important subjects, too much neglected in most
schools.
9. The superior mechanical execution of the work.
Actuated by a desire to render the labor of the class-room
more pleasant and effective, by furnishing an attractive means
for instruction in a useful branch of study, the author ventures
the hope that this treatise will commend itself to the favorable
notice and consideration of his fellow-teachers.
CONTENTS.
ORTHOGKAPHY
PAGE
Models for Parsing,
PAGB
• 56
Elementary Sounds,
8
Relative, .
57-59
Vowels,
9
Models for Parsing,
59-61
Consonants, ....
9
Interrogative,
. 62
Diphthongs, ....
. 11
Models for Parsing,
. 63
Digraphs, . . .
. 11
The Verb, .
. 65
Trigraphs, ....
. 11
Classes,
66-68
Double Consonauts,
. 11
Voice, ...
. 68
Substitutes, ....
. 12
The Participle,
. 70
Capital Letters, ....
13-17
Auxiliaries,
. 71
Italics,
. 18
Mode,
72-77
Small Capitals, .
. 18
Tense,
77-81
Syllables, ....
. 19
Forms,
. 81
Words, Classes, ...
20-22
Person and Number,
Unipersonal Verbs,
. 82
. 84
ETYMOLOGY.
Conjugation, .
Irregular Verbs,
84-95
95-98
Definitions, ....
. 23
Defective Verbs,
. 98
The Noun, . . . . ' ,
. 24
Models for Parsing,
100-102
Classes, .
. 25
The Adverb, .
. 104
Classes,
. 105
Person,
. 28
Comparison,
107
Number, ....
Models for Parsing,
108
Case,
31-33
The Preposition,
109
Declension,
List, ....
111
Models for Parsing,
. 34
Models for Parsing,
114
The Conjunction,
115
Descriptive, . . .
. 3S
Classes of Connectives,
116
Definitive,
Classes of Conjunctions
117
Articles, ....
. 39
Models for Parsing,
119
Pronominals, . . .
40-43
The Interjection, t
120
Numerals,
. 43
Model for Parsing,
121
Comparison,
Models for Parsing,
. 46
SYNTAX.
The Pronoun,
Oral Lessons, . . .
. 124-129
Personal, .
51-53
Definitions,
. .130
Models for Parsing,
Sentences,
. 131
Possessive,
. 56
Classification, .
i;
1-134
(v)
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PAGS
Elements, ....
135
False Syntax, .
199
Principal Elements, .
135-137
Improper Words,
190
Arrangement,
137
Improper Forms,
201-204
Subordinate Elements,
139
Improper Expressions,
204
Objective,
139-142
Unnecessary Words, .
205-207
Adjective,
142-144
Omission of Words, .
207-209
Adverbial,
141-146
Improper Arrangement,
209-212
Attendant,
146
Words Variously Classifiei
>, 215-223
Classes, ....
147
Figures, ....
225
Models for Analysis, .
148
Of Etymology,
225
Classes of Elements,
151
Of Syntax, .
226
Simple, ....
151
Of Rhetoric,
227-231
Complex,
152-156
Punctuation,
232
Compound, .
. 157
Comma,
232-236
Phrases Classified,
158
Semicolon,
237-239
Clauses "
159
Colon,
239
Contracted Sentences, .
161
Period, . '.
211
Ellipsis, .
161-163
Interrogation Point, .
242
Abridgment,
163
Exclamation Point, .
242
Directions for Analysis,
165-166
Dash, ....
243
Rules of Syntax, .
. 171
Curves, ....
. 244
Subject-Nominative, .
172
Brackets,
246
Predicate-Nominative,
. 173
Other Marks,
216-248
Possessive Case,
Apposition, .
174
175
PEOSODY.
Absolute Case,
176
Definitions, ....
249
Objective Case,
177-179
Poetic Feet,
256-252
Pronouns,
180-184
Kinds of Verse, .
253
Adjectives, .
185
Poetic Pauses, .
253
Participles, .
1S5
Iambic Measures,
254-257
Verbs, .
186-190
Trochaic Measures,
257
Infinitives, .
190-193
Anapestic Measures,
25S
Adverbs,
193-195
Dactylic Measures,
259
Prepositions,
196
Amphibrach Measure
s, .
260
Coordinate Connectives,
196
Mixed Verse,
200
Subordinate Connectives,
197
Poetic License, .
261
Intersections,
.
193
Scanning,
263
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1. Definitions,
1. A Word is the sign of an idea.
2. ILanguage is the expression of thought by means
of words. It may be either spoken or written.
3. Spoiten language is the expression of ideas by the voice.
4. Written Language is the expression of ideas by the use of
written or printed characters representing sounds.
5. Grammar treats of the principles and usages of
language.
6. Englisla Grammar teaches how to speak and
write the English language correctly.
7. English Grammar is divided into four parts: Or-
thography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
8. Ortfoograpliy treats of elementary sounds, letters,
syllables/ and spelling.
9. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation,
and properties of words.
10. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences.
11. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, of ac-
cent, and of the laws of versification.
(7)
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
2. Definitions.
1. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, letters,
syllables, and spelling.
2. An Elementary Sound is one which can not be
separated into two or more distinct sounds.
3. A ILetter is a character used to represent either an
elementary sound, or a combination of elementary sounds;
as, a, x.
4. A Syllable is a sound or a combination of sounds
uttered with one impulse of the voice; as, man, man-ner.
5. A Word is either a syllable, or a combination of syl-
lables; as, hat, men-tion, phi-los-o-phy.
3. Elementary Sounds.
1. There are forty elementary sounds in the English
language.
2. They are divided into Vowels and Consonants. Con-
sonants are subdivided into Subvocals and Aspirates.
3. Towels, or Vocals, are those sounds which are
made with the vocal organs open, and consist of pure tone
only. They are also called Tonics.
4. Subvocals are those sounds which are obstructed by
the vocal organs, in the process of articulation. They are
sometimes called Subtonics.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
9
5. Aspirates are mere emissions of breath, articulated
by the lips, tongue, teeth, and palate. They are sometimes
called Atonies.
TABM3 OF ELEMENTARY SOUUHDSo
h Vowels,
a long, as
in late.
i long, as
in time.
a short, i
1 hat.
i short,
' tin.
a middle, '
■ ask.
o long,
' cold.
a Italian, '
1 arm.
o short,
' hot.
a broad, '
' all.
oo long,
' ooze.
e long, l
' eve.
oo short,
1 book
e short, '
< ell.
u long,
u short,
' lute.
1 cup.
-V
5. Consonants.
1. Consonants may be divided into six classes, viz.:
Labials, or lip-sounds, which are made by the lips;
Xiinguais, or tongue-sounds, made by the tongue;
i.ing no-dentals, or tongue-teeth- sounds, made by the tongue
and teeth;
liinguo-nasals, or tongue-nose-sounds, articulated by the tongue,
the sound passing through the nose;
Paiato-nasais, or palate-nose-sounds, made by the palate, the
sound passing through the nose;
Palatals, or palate-sounds, made by the palate.
2. The Subvocals are arranged on the left of the page,
and the corresponding Aspirates on the right.
Labials.
b, as in bib,
v, " save,
w, " way,
m, ." am,
p, as in lip,
f, " life,
wn, " when.
10
ENGLISH GRAMMAR-.
d, as in lid,
th, " with,
J% " jar,
z, " size,
zli,
azure,
riiiiguo-Dentals.
t, as in tat,
tli, " myth,
cli, " rich,
sh,
hush.
1, as in lull,
r, " roar.
]Ling»als.
(Have no corresponding aspirates.]
Unguo-Xasal.
n, as in man. (Has no corresponding aspirate.)
Palate-Nasal.
US', as in song. | (Has no corresponding aspirate.)
Palatals.
g, as in nag,
y, " yes,
It, as in kick,
li, " how.
Rem. — The sounds represented by I, m, n, and r, are sometimes
called liqaidSy because they easily unite with other consonant
sounds.
6. Letters,
1. There are twenty-six letters in the English alphabet.
As there are more elementary sounds than letters, it becomes
necessary that some letters represent more than one sound.
Letters also combine to represent sounds for which there are
no single representatives. Letters and combinations of let-
ters are often used as substitutes for other letters.
ORTHOGRAPHY. 11
7. Diphthongs, Digraphs, and Trigraphs.
1. A XHpiithong consists of two vowels sounded to-
gether in the same syllable.
Rem. — There are two diphthongal sounds, represented by four
diphthongs, viz. : ou, ow, oi, oy, as in foul, now, boil, cloy.
2. A Digraph, consists of two vowel letters written to-
gether in the same syllable, one only being pronounced, or
both representing a single elementary sound.
Hem. — There are twenty-four digraphs, viz. : act, Canaan ; ai,
gain ; ao, gaol ; au, maul ; aw, maw ; ay, may ; ea, meat ; ee, need ;
ei, ceiling ; eo, people ; eu, feud ; ew, new ; ey, they ; ie, lief; oa, coat ;
oe, foe; oi, avoirdupois; oo, moon; ow, tour; ow, flow; ua7 guard;
ue, sue ; ui, guise ; uy, buy.
3. A Ti'igrapla consists of three vowel letters written
together in the same syllable, one only being pronounced,
or the three together representing a single vowel sound, or
diphthong.
Rem. ic — There are seven trigraphs, viz. : aye, aye ; awe, awe ;
eau, beau, beauty ; eou\, gorgeous ; eye, eye ; ieu, lieu ; iew, view.
Rem. 2. — In such words as Christian, alien, union, i does not
form a digraph with the following vowel, but is a substitute for y.
In the unaccented terminations cean, cial, sion, Hon, the combina-
tions ce, ci, si, ti, are substitutes for sh.
Hem. 3. — In such words as herbaceous, gracious, precious, e and i
do not form trigraphs with the following vowels, but the combina-
tions ce, ci are substitutes for sh.
+
8. Double Consonants.
DoiiMe Con&onamts consist of , two consonant letters
written together in the same syllable, representing a single
elementary sound.
Rem. — They are ch, chord ; gh, laugh ; ph, physic ; sh, hush ;
th, thin, this; wh, when; ng, sing.
12
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
9. Substitutes.
A Substitute represents a sound usually represented by
another letter or combination of letters,
A long has four substitutes : $, te*te ; ei, feint ; ey, they ; ao, gaol.
A middle has two substitutes: e, there; ei, heir.
A broad has two substitutes : o, cord ; ou, sought.
E long has three substitutes : i, marine ; ie, fiend ; ay, quay.
E short has four substitutes : ay, says ; w, bury ; i, irksome ; ie, friend.
I long has three substitutes : y, thyme ; ei, Steinway ; oi, choir.
I short has six substitutes: y, hymn; e, England; u, busy; o,
women; ee, been; ai, captain.
O long has three substitutes : eau, beau ; ew, sew ; oa, goal.
O sftor£ has two substitutes : a, what ; ow, knowledge.
U long has five substitutes : eau, beauty ; ieu, lieu ; iew9 view ;
eiy, new ; ui, suit.
U s/ior£ has three substitutes : e, her ; i, sir ; o, son.
F has two substitutes : ghy laugh ; ph, philosophy.
J has two substitutes : g, rage ; di, soldier.
S has two substitutes : c before e, i, and y / z, quartz.
T has one substitute : ed final, after any aspirate except t,
V has two substitutes : /, of ; ph, Stephen.
W has one substitute : u, quick. It is understood before o in one,
once.
X is used as a substitute for ks, as in wax ; gz, as in exact ; ksh, as
in noxious.
Y has one substitute: i, alien. It is frequently understood before u,
as in verdure.
Z has three substitutes : c, sacrifice ; s, his ; x, Xenia.
CH has one substitute : ti, question.
SH has six substitutes : ce, ocean ; ci, facial ; si, losion ; ti, motion ;
ch, chaise ; s, sugar.
ZH has four substitutes: si, fusion; zi, brazier; z, azure; s, rasure.
NG has one substitute : n, generally before palatal sounds ; as in
ink, uncle, conquer.
ORTHOGRAPHY, 13
10. Forms of the Letters.
1. ^Letters are of different styles; as, Rornan, Italic,
>9*uYit ©ft ISngltsrt).
2. Types for printing are of various sizes:
Great Primer, SmaiiPica, Minion,
T? I- i 7 Long Primer, Nonpareil,
° Bourgeois, Pearl(
X lCct, Brevier, Diamond.
3. Letters are used either as capital letters or as lower-
case, or small letters.
11. Capital Letters.
I. The first word of every sentence, or the first word after
a full pause, should begin with a capital letter.
Ex~ — Winds blow. Snow falls. The heavens are aflame.
II. The first word after an introductory word or clause
may begin with a capital letter.
Ex, — "Resolved, That the sum of $3000 be appropriated/' &c.
uBe it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Ohio, That
section fourteen/' &c.
III. Each new line or paragraph of an enumeration of
particulars, arranged in lines or paragraphs, should begin
with a capital letter.
Ex. — " These expenditures are in proportion to the whole expend-
itures of government
In Austria, as thirty-three per cent. :
In France, as thirty-eight per cent. :
In Great Britain, as seventy-four per cent."
IV. The first word of a direct quotation, or of an impor-
14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
tant statement, a distinct speech, &cv should begin with a
capital letter.
Ex. — "When thou saidst, Seek ye my face, my heart said unto
thee, Thy face, Lord, will I seek." " Dora said, ' My uncle took the
boy.' " " One truth is clear : Whatever is, is right."
V. The first word in every line of poetry should begin
with a capital letter.
Ex. — " Put your best foot foremost, or I fear
That we shall miss the mail : and here it comes
With five at top ; as quaint a four in hand
As you shall see — three piebalds and a roan."
" Faith, he 's got the Knicker-
Bocker Magazine."
VI. Proper names of persons, places, months, days, &c, "v
should begin with capital letters.
Ex. — James, Emma, Boston, July, Wednesday, James Monroe,
O. W. Holmes.
VII. Titles of honor or distinction, used alone or ac-
companied by nouns, should begin with capital letters.
Ex.-EaH Eussell; the Duke of York; Mr. Wilson, Mrs. Smith;
Dr. Johnson ; Gen. Harrison ; Sir Bobert Peel ; George the Third ;
Charles the Bold; "O had I a thousand a year, Gaffer Green;"
"The Elder spake as follows."
VIII. Names of things personified become proper nouns
in sense, and should begin with capital letters.
Ex. — "Come, gentle Spring! ethereal Mildness! come."
"In Miserifs darkest cavern known,
His useful care was nigh,
When hopeless Anguish poured his groan,
And lonely Want retired to die."
IX. Words or phrases used as names for particular ob-
jects should begin with capital letters.
Ex. — The Falls ; Yellow Creek ; the Havana ; the City of Broth-
erly Love ; the Cape of Good Hope ; John o' Groat's House ; the
ORTHOGRAPHY. 15
Round Tower; the Sailor's Home; "I have read 'The Tent on the
Beach.' "
X. All appellations of the Deity should begin with cap-
ital letters.
Ex. — God; the Most High; the Supreme; the Infinite One;
Divine Providence ; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; our
Lord Jesus Christ.
XI. A common word must sometimes begin with a cap-
ital letter, to show its reference to the Deity.
Ex. — "The Hand that made us is divine."
"The spangled heavens, a shining frame,
Their great Original proclaim0"
Rem. — A word that describes rather than denotes a name of
the Deity, and a pronoun whose expressed antecedent is the name
of the Deity, usually require no capitals; as, "O thou merciful
God!" "The all-powerful Lord of lords;''' "God provides for all
his creatures."
XII. Nouns denoting the race or nation of individuals
should begin with capital letters.
Ex. — The French ; the Spaniards ; the English ; the Anglo-Saxons.
XIII. Words derived from proper names should begin
with capital letters.
Ex. — American, Mainote, Danish, Johnsonian, Icelandic.
Hesn.-— When such words become common nouns by losing
their reference to their original proper nouns, they should not
begin with capital letters ; as, a louis d' or ; a guinea ; china-ware.
XIV. Words of special importance may begin with cap-
ital letters.
Ex. — The Tariff; the Sub-Treasury Bill ; the Commissioner of
Common Schools ; "Be prepared for the Great Day;" "Angler's
Companion : a Complete and Superior Treatise on the Art of An-
gling."
16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
XV. In natural history, generic names, or names of
genera, should commence with capital letters. Specific
names, or names of species, if derived from proper nouns,
should also commence with capitals: otherwise with small
letters. Scientific terms are usually printed in italics.
Ex. — Rosa Gallica, Rosa alba; Anomma Burmeisteri, Anomma
rubella ; Spongites Townsendi, Spongites fiexuosus,
XVI. The pronoun / and interjection 0 should be
capitals.
Ex.— "Sleep, O gentle Sleep,
Nature's soft nurse, how have I lighted thee."
GENERAL REMARKS.
1. Indirect quotations, or words quoted as the peculiar language
of authors, should not begin with capital letters ; as, " A man is
an 'individual,' or a 'person/ or a 'party.'" "A fine house is
always a 'palatial residence.'"
2. The pronouns he, his, him, thy, and thee, referring to names
of the Deity, in sentences where their antecedents are understood,
or when they are used for emphasis, may sometimes begin with
capital letters; as, "The hope of my spirit turns trembling to
Thee;" " Trust in Him, for He will sustain thee."
3. In writing many compound names of places, usage is not
uniform, When the parts remain separate, or are connected by a
hyphen,- each should begin with a capital letter: when the parts
are consolidated, but one capital letter should be used; as, New
Castle, Newr-Castle, Newcastle.
4. In phrases or sentences used as headings or titles, nouns,
adjectives, participles, or other important words, only, should
begin with capital letters: unimportant words and connectives
should begin with small letters.
5. In advertisements, show-bills, &c, different styles and sizes
of type are frequently used, and the liberty of capitalizing is car-
ried to an indefinite extent.
6. Names, signs, titles, and mottoes, designed to attract atten-
tion, are printed in various styles ; most frequently in capitals.
ORTHOGRAPHY. 17
12. Exercises to be Corrected.
1. — it is a pleasant thing to see the sun. man is mortal, flow-
ers bloom in summer. ^>
2. — Resolved, that the framers of the constitution, &c.
3. — The town has expended, the past year,
for grading streets, J^/ §15,000 :
for public buildings, 15,000.
4. — He said "you are too impulsive;" Remember the maxim,
"a penny saved is a penny earned."
5. — " The day is past and gone ;
the evening shades appear ;
O may we all remember well
the night of death draws near."
6, — James and samuel went to baltimore last august; The
general assembly meets on the first monday in february.
7. — The bill was vetoed by the president; John Jones, esq.;
Richard the third; "The opposition was led by lord Brougham."
8. — "When music, heavenly maid, was young,
While yet, in early Greece, she sung,
The passions, oft, to hear her shell,
Throng'd around her magic cell."
9. — The central park; the Ohio river; I have read "great ex-
pectations;" the mountains of the moon are in Africa.
10. — The lord shall endure forever; Remember thy creator;
divine love and wisdom; "The ways of providence.'7
11. — " I know that my redeemer liveth; ""I am the way, the
truth, the life ; " " The word was made flesh,"
12. — Those are chinamen ; the turcomans are a wandering race ;
the gypsies of Spain; the Indians are fast disappearing.
13. — The swiss family Robinson ; a russian serf; " The rank is
but the Guinea's stamp ; " a Cashmere shawl ; a Damask rose.
14. — The emancipation proclamation; the art of cookery, (a
title) ; the Missouri compromise ; the whisky insurrection ; " A
treatise on the science of education and the art of teaching."
16, — 5 don't like to study grammar, i write correct enough,
now. o, how i wish school was out! A
H. G. %
18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
y 13, Italics, Small Capitals, etc.
I. Emphatic words, phrases, and clauses are frequently
printed in italics.
Ex. — "Do not you grieve at this?" "The truth is, his lordship
weeps for the press, and wipes his eyes with the public." — Curran.
II. Words borrowed from foreign languages should be
printed in italics.
Ex. — " Each word stood quite per se" — Lamb. " This odd quid
pro quo surprised me into vehement laughter." — Walpole.
III. The names of authors, annexed to selections from
their writings, are usually printed in italics.
Ex. — "His coward lips did from their color fly." — Shakspeare.
IV. Parenthetical words and phrases are frequently
printed in italics.
Ex. — Old gentleman {looking quite unconcerned), "Run away, has
she?"
V. Names of ships, books, newspapers, and periodicals
are frequently printed in italics or small capitals.
Ex. — "The Quaker City has arrived." "The Journal is com-
mitted to no such policy as that."
VI. Names of important personages are frequently
printed in small capitals.
VII. Words requiring special emphasis are frequently
printed in small capitals or capitals.
Ex. — " I brand him as a rogue, a thief, a COWARD." — Placard.
Rem. l — Italicized words in the Bible are those supplied by
translators to explain the original.
Rem. 2. — In manuscripts, one line drawn under a word indi-
cates italics; two lines, small capitals; three lines, CAPITALS.
Rem. 3 — In this work, full-faced types are also used for dis-
tinction.
ORTHOGRAPHY. 19
14. Syllables.
1. A Syllable may be composed,
1. Of a vowel, digraph, or trigraph; as, o-men, ow-ranography,
mw-de-cologne.
2. Of a vowel or diphthong, with one or more consonants pre-
fixed or affixed; as, 1-0, b-oy, a-m, a-nd.
3. Of a vowel or diphthong, with one or more consonants pre-
fixed and affixed; as, 6-a-c?, fr~&-nk.
2. A vowel sound is an essential part of a syllable.
3. Synthesis is the process of combining elementary
sounds.
4. Analysis is the process of separating a syllable or
word into its elementary sounds.
15. Models for Analyzing Syllables.
Model I.
I<o. — Give both sounds in quick succession, li-o, and pronounce the
word.
Model II.
&o ... is a syllable, containing two elementary sounds.
Ii .... is a consonant-subvocal-lingual. {Give its sound.)
0 .... is a vowel, long sound. (Give its sound.)
Model III.
Clank.. — Give the five sounds in quick succession, c-1-a-n-k, and
pronounce the word.
Model IV.
Clank is a syllable, containing five elementary sounds.
C .... is a consonant-aspirate-palatal, substitute for A;. (Give its sound.)
1 .... is a consonant-subvocal-lingual. (Give its sound.)
a .... is a vowel, short sound. (Give its sound.)
n .... is a consonant-sub vocal-palatal-nasal, substitute for ng. ( Give
its sound.)
k .... is a consonant-aspirate-palatal. (Give its sound.)
20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Model V.
Boy. — Give the three sounds in quick succession, b-a-i, and pro-
nounce the word.
Model VI.
Boy . . is a syllable, containing three elementary sounds.
B. ... is a consonant-sub vocal-labial. (Give its sound.)
oy ... is a diphthong, representing a broad, and % short. (Give the
sound of each in quick succession.)
Model VII.
View. — Give the two sounds in quick succession, v-u, and pronounce
the word.
Model VIII.
View . is a syllable, containing two elementary sounds.
V .... is a consonant-subvocal-labial. (Give its sound.)
lew . . is a trigraph, equivalent to u long. (Give its sound.)
Kote. — Either set of models may be used in analyzing syllables.
The models for complete analysis need not be used after the classifi-
cation of elementary sounds shall have been thoroughly learned.
Analyze the following words, omitting all silent letters :
And, fly, warm, elm, fin, sing, wax, when, sue, light, pot, home,
zinc, valve, kid, ask, sun, goat, jolt.
Form syllables by prefixing a consonant to a, ay, can, oy ;
By prefixing two or more consonants to c, oo, aw, i ;
By affixing one, two, or more consonants to any of the vowels or
diphthongs.
16. Words.
1. A Word may consist of one, two, or more syllables.
A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as, care, man.
A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable; as, care-ful,
man-ly.
A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable; as, care-ful-
ness, man-li-ness.
A word of four or more syllables is called a polysyllable ; as,
com-mu-ni-ty, ec-cen-tric-i-ty.
ORTHOGRAPHY. 21
2. Accent is a stress of voice placed upon a particular
syllable. It may be either primary or secondary,
the primary being the move forcible.
3. Every word of more than one syllable has one of its
syllables accented.
4. In words having both a primary and a secondary
accent, the secondary occurs nearest the beginning; as, in"-
compatibility, in" comprehensible. \J
17. Models for Analyzing Words.
Tree is a word of one syllable: therefore a monosyllable.
Nature . ... is a word of two syllables : therefore .a dissyllable. It
is accented on the first syllable.
Commotion. . is a word of three syllables: therefore a trisyllable.
It is accented on the second syllable.
Indefatigable is a word of six syllables : therefore a polysyllable.
Its secondary accent is on the first syllable, and its
primary accent on the third.
Note. — A word having been analyzed according to one of these
models, analyze each syllable according to the preceding models.
In separating a word into syllables, divide it as it is pronounced.
In writing, never divide a syllable at the end of a line. Each
line should end with a word or an entire syllable.
Analyze the following words :
Sand, lead, sack ; unction, famous, greatly ; endeavor, infamous,
candidly; unpopular, information, gratuitous; domestication/ in-
terrogation, incredulity ; incomprehensible, indefensibleness ; in-
compatibility, incompassionately.
Write each of these words on your slates, and divide them into sylla-
bles, marking the accented syllables.
Correct the accent in the following ivords ;
Advertisement, primary, contrary, legislature, lamentable,
secondary, infa/mous, armistice, admirable, interesting.
22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Change the accent of the following ivords to the second syllable, and
give the meaning of each word before and after the change :
Insult, fer'ment, reb'el, rec'ord, pre'lude, conjure, entrance,
escort, increase, in7 valid, object, intense, es'say.
18. Classes.
1. Words are either Primitive or Derivative.
2. A Primitive or Radical word is one in no way
derived from another in the same language ; as, mind, faith.
3. A derivative word is one formed by joining to a
primitive some letter or syllable to modify its meaning ; as,
re-raind, faithful.
4. A Compound word is one formed by uniting two
or more primitive or derivative words; as, man-worship,
Anglo-Saxon.
5. A Prefix is that part of a derivative word which
is placed before the radical; as, re-call, sub-join.
6. A Suffix is that part of a derivative word which is
placed after the radical; as, ikith-ful, change-able.
7. Prefixes and suffixes are called Affixes.
Note. — The meaning and use of affixes should be learned from
some work prepared for that purpose. — See DeWolfs Instructive
Speller and Hand-Book of Derivative Words.
V
ETYMOLOGY. 23
PART II.
ETYMOLOGY.
19. Definitions.
1. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation,
and properties of words.
2. With reference to meaning and use, words are divided
into nine classes, called Pa^ts of Speech; viz., Noun,
Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition,
Conjunction, Interjection.
3. A ffoian is a name; as, house, Charlotte, magnetism.
4. An Adjective is a word used to describe or define
the meaning of a noun; as,_J?ne houses; studious pupils;
animal magnetism.
5. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as,
his house; my book; your children; "Whom did you see?"
6. A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, or
state; as, I am; George writes; the house stands.
7. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, par-
taking of the properties of a verb and of an adjective or
a noun ; as, "A light, shining from afar;" "A letter, written
in haste."
8. An Advert is a word used to modify the meaning
of a verb, adjective, participle, or an adverb; as, "He runs
swiftly;" "You are very kind;" "The letter was written
hastily."
24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
9. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation
between its object and some other word; as, "The house
stands on the hill."
10. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words,
sentences, or parts of sentences y as, " John and Elisha are
brothers." "Winds blow and rains descend."
11. An Interjection is a word used to denote some
sudden or strong emotion ; as, 0, ah, alas, pshaw.
THE NOUN.
20. Oral Lesson.
Write on your slates the names of five objects in the school-
room. These words, as you perceive, are not the objects them-
selves, but their names. They are called Nouns, which means
names. Now write the names of five objects not in the school-
room. What are these words called? Ans. — Nouns. Why?
Ans. — Because they are names. Write the names of five of your
school-mates. What are these words called? Ans. — Nouns. Why?
A ns. — Because they are names.
Are there not other names by which your school-mates are
called? Ans. — Yes; they may be called girls and boys. Can the
name "girl" be applied to all the girls in the room? Ans. — Yes.
Can the name "Sarah" be applied to all the girls in the room?
Ans. — It can not. Why? Ans. — All the girls are not named
"Sarah." There are Mary, and Charlotte, and Jane, and Susan,
and many other names for girls.
We have, then, two kinds of Nouns, or names. One kind can
be applied to each one of a class, and the other kind can be
applied to a particular one only. The first kind are called Com-
mon Nouns, and the second Proper Nouns. What kind are the
names horse, boo/:, boy, girl, map, blackboard? Ans. — Common
Nouns. Why? Ans. — Because they can be applied to each one
of a class. What kind are the names John, Charles, Washington,
Boston, Europe? Ans. — Proper Nouns. Why? Ans. — Because
they can be applied to particular persons, or particular places,
onlv.
ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 25
21. Definition.
A Xoun is a name ; as, desk, Richard, goodness, army.
22. Glasses.
1. There are two classes of Nouns : Common and Proper.
2. A Common ¥oun is a name which may be applied
to any one of a kind or class of objects ; as, boy, child,
book, radiation.
3. A Proper Woun is the name of some particular
person, place, people, or thing ; as, Charles, Cincinnati,
The French, The Sun.
Rem. 1. — Common nouns have meaning, and admit of definition.
Most propei* nouns originally had meaning, but it is not taken
into consideration in applying them; and, therefore, they do not
admit of definition. There are about 30,000 common nouns, and
70,000 proper nouns, in the English language.
Rem. 2, — Whenever a proper noun assumes a meaning, so that
it can be applied to each individual of a class, it becomes a com-
mon noun; as, "He is the Cicero of our age;" "Bolivar was the
Washington of South America ; " " He piled Ossa upon Pelimi to
accomplish his purpose."
Rem. 3. — Whenever a common noun is used to distinguish one
individual from another of the same class, it becomes a proper
noun; as, The Havana; The Falls; The Laurel Ridge.
Rem. 4. — When two or more words form but one name, they
are taken together as one noun; as New York; Niagara Falls;
John Milton; Lord Bacon; Chief Justice Chase.
4. Common louns may be divided into four classes :
Class Nouns, Abstract Nouns, Collective Nouns, and Verbal
Nouns.
5. Class ^Toims are names which can be applied to
each individual of a class or group of objects ; as, horse,
apple, man.
H. G. 3.
26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
6. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality con-
sidered apart from the object in which it is found } as,
brightness, brittleness, cohesion.
7. A Collective Noun is a name singular in form,
though denoting more than one; as, herd, jury, swarm,
school, assembly.
8. A Verbal Jtfoun is the name of an action, or a state
of being ; as, singing, standing, seeming.
Rem. i. — Words, phrases, and clauses, used as nouns, or in the
relations in which nouns occur, are called substantives, and
when thus used have all the properties of nouns.
Rem. 2. —Such words as mass, heap, furniture, names of collect
tions of objects without life, are class nouns, not collective nouns.
They are sometimes called mass nouns.
23. Properties.
The Properties of the Noun are Gender, Person,
Number, and Case. y
24. Gender.
1. Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns with
regard to sex.
2. There are four genders: Masculine, Feminine, Com-
mon, and Neuter.
3. The Masculine Gender denotes males ; as, father,
uncle, king, governor.
4. The Feminine Gender denotes females; as,
mother, aunt, queen, governess.
5. The Common Gender denotes either males or fe-
males, or both ; as, parent, children, bird, cattlef
ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 27
6. The Stouter Gender denotes neither males nor fe-
males ; as, stove, city, pen, ink, tree, house.
Rem. l. — By a figure of speech called Personification, gender is
sometimes ascribed to inanimate objects. They should then be
regarded as either masculine or feminine.
Ex. — "The ship has lost her rudder." "The meek-eyed morn
appears, mother of dews." " The sun in his glory ; the moon in her
wane."
Rem. 2. — When masculine or feminine qualities are ascribed to
animals, they are regarded as either masculine or feminine.
Ex. — "The nightingale sings her song." "The lion meets his foe
boldly." "The fox made his escape."
Rem. 3. — Nouns used to denote both genders, though strictly
applicable to males only, or females only, are usually regarded as
masculine.
Ex. — "Heirs are often disappointed." " The English are a proud
people." " The poets of America."
Rem. 4. — The distinction of gender is not observed in speaking
of inferior animals, and sometimes even of children.
Ex. — " The bee on its wing." " The child in its cradle."
7. There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine
and feminine genders :
1. By using different words :
Ex. — Bachelor, maid, spinster ; bridegroom, bride ; brother, sister ;
boy, girl; cock, hen; drake, duck; earl, countess; father, mother;
gentleman, lady; hart, roe: male, female; man, woman; Mr., Mrs.;
Sir, Madam; nephew, niece; son, daughter; uncle, aunt; Charles,
Caroline; Augustus, Augusta.
2. By different terminations :
Ex. — Abbot, abbess; baron, baroness; host, hostess; actor, actress;
prior, prioress; benefactor, benefactress; executor, executrix; mur-
derer, murderess; sorcerer, sorceress.
3. By prefixes and suffixes:
Ex. — Man-servant, maid-servant ; he-bear, she-bear ; male-descend-
ant, female-descendant ; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow ; Mr. Smith, Mrs.
Smith, Miss Smith ; pea-cock, pea-hen.
28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
25. Person.
1. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun
which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to,
and the person or object spoken of.
2. There are three persons : 'First, Second, and Third.
3. The First Person denotes the speaker; as, UI}
Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States." " Many
evils beset us mortals."
4. The Second Person denotes the person addressed;
as, "James, be more careful." "Fellow Citizens, the crisis
demands the utmost vigilance."
5. The Tliird Person denotes the person or object
spoken of; as, " Milton was a poet ;" "Rome was a city of
flame" "I am reading Tennyson's Poems"
Rem. l. — The writer or speaker often speaks of himself, or the
person he addresses, in the third person; as, "Mr. Johnson has the
pleasure of informing Mr. Mason that he has been elected Honor-
ary Member of the Oriental Society."
Rem. 2. — A noun in the predicate is of the third person, though
the subject may be of the first or second.
Ex. — "You are the man wanted." " We are strangers." "I am he
whom you saw."
26. Number.
1. Number is that property of a noun which distin-
guishes one from more than one.
2. There are two numbers : Singular and Plural
3. The Singular lumber denotes but one ; as, apple,
flower, boy, girl*
4. The Plural IVumber denotes more than one; as,
apples, flowers, boys, girls.
ET YMOLOG Y NOUNS. 29
27. Formation of the Plural.
1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with 5, form their plurals
by adding s only to the singular; as, book, booh; boy> boys;
desk, desks.
2. Nouns whose last sound will not unite with s, form their
plurals by adding es to the singular ; as, church, churches ; box,
boxes; witness, witnesses.
3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into
ies; as, glory, glories ; mercy, mercies,
4. Most nouns ending in/ or fe, change these endings into ves;
as, beef, beeves; wife, wives.
5. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es;
as, cargo, cargoes. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel, add s ;
as, folio, folios.
6. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly; as, man, men;
ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice.
7. Letters, figures, marks and signs add 's; as, "Mind your
p's and q's;" the 9's and ll's; the *'s; the +'s; "Those g's
and B's."
8. In compound words, the part which is described by the rest
is generally pluralized; as, brothers-in-law, courts-martial, wagon-
loads, ox-carts.
9. Compound words from foreign languages form their plurals
according to (1) and (2); as, tete-d-tetes, piano-fortes, ipse-dixits,
scire-faciases.
10. Some compound words have both parts made plural; as,
man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-templars; ignis-
fatuus, ignes-fatui.
11. Compound terms composed of a proper noun and a title,
may be pluralized by adding a plural termination to either the
name or the title, but not to both ; as, the Miss Browns, the Misses
Brown ; the Messrs. Thompson ; " May there be Sir Isaac Newtons
in every science."
12. When the title is preceded by a numeral, the name is always
pluralized, as, the three Miss Johnsons; the two Dr. Bensons; the
two Mrs. Kendricks.
30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
#
13. Some nouns have two plurals, but with a difference in mean-
ing; as, brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the
same society) ; die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (for gaming) ;
fish, fishes (individuals), fish (quantity, or the species) ; genius,
geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits) ; index, indexes (tables of
contents), indices (algebraic signs) ; penny, pennies (pieces of
money), pence (how much in value) ; pea, peas (individuals),
pease (in distinction from other vegetables).
14. Proper nouns, and words generally used as other parts of
speech, are changed as little as possible, and usually add s only in
forming their plurals; as, Mary, Marys; Sarah, Sarahs; Nero,
Neros ; "The novel is full of ohs, bys, whys, alsos, and nos." There
is good authority, however, for using Maries, Neroes, tvhies, noes.
15. Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original
plurals, changing us to i ; um and on to a ; is to es or ides ; a to ce
or ata ; and x to ces or ices ; as, calculus, calculi ; arcanum, arcana ;
criterion, criteria, thesis, theses; ephemeris, ephemerides ; nebula,
nebulce; calix, calices; index, indices.
28. General Eemarks on Number.
1. Abstract nouns, and names of material substances, have no
plural forms, as, silver, vinegar, hemp, tar, frankness, darkness.
When different kinds of the same substance are referred to, a plu-
ral form may be used ; as, sugars, vinegars, wines, oils.
2. Some nouns have no singular forms ; as, ashes, assets, bellows,
billiards, compasses, clothes, drawers, lees, scissors, shears, tongs. Neivs
and molasses have the plural form, but are regarded as singular.
Lungs, bowels, and a few others, have a singular form denoting a
part of the whole ; as, " The left lung."
3. Some nouns have no singular forms, but are singular or plural
in meaning; as, alms, amends, corps, mumps, measles, nuptials, odds,
riches, series, suds, tidings, wages, and some others.
4. The names of some of the sciences are either singular or
plural in meaning, according as they denote the science, or the
objects of which the science treats; as, ethics, mechanics, mathe-
matics, optics, pedagogics, physics, &c.
5. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, ver*
min, couple, salmon, trout, dozen, gross, hdse, yoke.
ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 31
29. Case.
Case is the relation of a noun or pronoun to other
words. Nouns have four cases: Nominative, Possessive,
Objective, and Absolute.
30. Nominative Case.
The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or pro-
noun as the subject or the predicate of a proposition.
Ex. — " The sun is shining." " That man is a sailor.11 In the
first sentence, " sun " is in the nominative case, because it is used
as the subject of the proposition; in the second, "sailor" is in the
nominative case, because it is used as the predicate of the prop-
osition.
31. Possessive Case.
1. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or pro-
noun to denote ownership, authorship, origin, or kind.
Ex. — Susan1 s book ; Gray's Botany ; the surfs rays ; boys1 hats ;
menJs clothing.
2. The Possessive Case Singular is formed by annexing
's to the nominative ; as, John's, Clarence's.
3. The Possessive Case Plural is formed by annexing
the apostrophe only, when the nominative plural ends with
s; as, boys'; "The Ohio State Teachers' Association."
Rem. i. — Plural nouns not ending with s, form their possessive
case by annexing 's ; as, men's hats ; children1 s shoes.
Rem. 2. — In compound names, the possessive sign is annexed to
the last word ; as, u Daniel Webster1 s speeches :" in complex names
it is annexed to the last word ; as, " The Bishop of Dublin1 s pal-
ace:" in a series of terms, and common possession, it is annexed
to the last term ; as, "Day & Martin1 s Blacking , " in a series of
terms, and separate possession, it is annexed to each term; as,
" Webster1 s and Worcester's Dictionaries."
32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. 3. — When a noun in the possessive case is limited by a
noun in apposition with it, or by a descriptive phrase, the possess-
ive sign is annexed to the noun immediately preceding the object
possessed, though not always to the name of the possessor; as,
" Her Majesty, Queen Victoria's government ; " " The captain of the
Fulton's wife died yesterday." Here "captain" is in the possessive
case, and "Fulton" in the objective, governed by the preposition
"of."
Rem. 4. — In compound words, the sign of possession is placed
at the end; as, "The knight-templar's costume ;" "My brother-in-
law's residence."
Rem. 5. — " For conscience' sake," " For goodness' sake," &c, are
idiomatic exceptions to the general rule for forming the possessive
case singular.
Rem. 6. — The sign (,s), is a contraction of is or es; as, John's,
King's; anciently written Johnis} Kingis, or Johnes, Kinges.
32. Objective Case.
The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pronoun
as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of
a preposition.
Ex. — "John studies grammar ." "The book is on the table."
In the first sentence, " grammar " is the object of the transitive
verb "studies;" in the second, "table" is the object of the prep-
osition "on."
Rem. l. — Nouns of measure, quantity, time, distance, value, or
direction, are in the objective case without a governing word ; as,
"The lake is ten miles long;" "The child is six months old;"
u He is worth a hundred thousand dollars ; " " That is a ten horse-
power engine ; " " The men traveled north"
Rem. 2. — A noun or pronoun used to complete the meaning
of a transitive verb is called a dflrect object: when added to a
verb to denote that to or for which any thing is or is done, or that
from which any thing proceeds, it is called an indirect object.
When an indirect object precedes the direct, the preposition should
be omitted ; when it follows, it should be expressed ; as, "I gave
him an apple ; " "I gave an apple to him."
ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 33
33. Absolute Case.
The Absolute Case is the use of a noun independent
of any governing word.
Ex. — "Joh?i, bring me a book ; " " Your fathers, where are they ? "
"Honor being lost, all is lost."
Rem. — A noun may be in the absolute case,
1. By direct address ; as, "Charles, come to me." This use is
sometimes called the Vocative Case.
2. By mere exclamation; as, "Oh, Popular Applause!"
3. By pleonasm, or by placing the noun before the sentence in
which an affirmation is made concerning it; as, "Gad, a troop
shall overcome him."
4. With a participle ; as, "The sun being risen, we pursued our
journey."
34. Nouns in Apposition.
A noun limiting the meaning of another noun, denoting
the same person, place, or thing, is, by apposition, in the
same case.
Ex. — "Washington the general became Washington the states-
many "We visited New York, the metropolis of the United
States." " In her brother Abraham's house."
35. Declension.
The I>eclension of a noun is its variation to denote
number and case.
Examples.
Singular. Plural.
Nom. Fly, Flies,
Boss. Fly's, Flies',
Sinyidar. Plural,
Nom. Boy, Boys,
Poss. Boy's, Boys',
Obj. Boy. Boys.
Nom. Charles, ■
Poss. Charles's,
Obj. Charles. - — —
Obj. Fly. Flies.
Nom. Goodness,
Poss. Goodness',
Obj. Goodness.
34
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
36. Parsing.
Parsing consists (1) in naming the part of speech;
(2) In telling its properties ; (3) In pointing out its rela-
tion to other words; (4) In giving the rule for its con-
struction.
37. Order of Parsing.
1. A Noun, and why?
2. Common or Proper, and why?
3. If Common, whether a Class Noun, &c, and why?
4. Gender, and why?
5. Person, and why?
6. Number, and why?
7. Case, and why?
8. Eule for construction.
38. Models for Parsing.
I. " Mary sings."
Marjr ... is a noun ; it is a name : proper; it is the name of a par-
ticular person : feminine gender; it denotes a female : third
person ; it denotes the person spoken of: singular number;
it denotes but one: nominative ease; it is used as the sub-
ject of the proposition " Mary sings." Rule I. " The sub-
ject of a proposition is in the nominative case."
II. " Horses are animals"
Animals . is a noun ; (why?) : common; it can be applied to any one
of a class or kind : common gender; it denotes either males
or females : third person ; (why ?) : plural number; it de-
notes more than one: nominative case; it is used as the
predicate of the proposition " Horses are animals." Rule
II. "A noun or pronoun, used as the predicate of a prop-
osition, is in the nominative case."
III. " The poet Milton was blind."
Milton . . is a noun; (why): proper; (why?): masculine gender; it
denotes a male: third person; (why 1): singular number;
ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS.
35
(why?) : nominative case, in apposition with "poet." Rule
IV. "A noun or pronoun, used to limit the meaning of a
noun or pronoun, by denoting the same person, place, or
thing, is in the same case."
IV. "Henry's lesson is learned."
Henry's . is a noun; (why?): proper; (why?): masculine gender;
(why?): third person; (why?): singular number; (why?):
possessive case; it denotes possession, and modifies " lesson."
Rule III. "A noun or pronoun, used to limit the meaning
of a noun denoting a different thing, is in the possessive
case."
V. "John studies grammar."
Grammar is a noun ; (why ?) : common ; (why ?) : neuter gender;
(why?) : third person ; (why?) : singular number; (why?) :
objective case; it is used as the object of the transitive verb
" studies." Rule VI. " The object of a transitive verb in
the active voice, or its participles, is in the objective case."
VI. "The book lies on the table."
Table ... is a noun ; (why ?) : common ; (why ?) : neuter gender;
(why?) : third person ; (why?) : singular number; (why?) :
objective case; it is used as the object of the preposition
" on." Rule VII. " The object of a preposition is in the
objective case."
VII. "William, open the door."
William . is a noun ; (why?): proper; (why?): masculine gender;
(why?) : second person; (why?) : singular number; (why?) :
absolute case ; it is the name of a person addressed. Rule
V. " A noun or pronoun used independently, is in the
absolute case."
39. Exercises,
1. Nominative Case. 1. The wind blows. 2. The sun shines.
3. Horses run. 4. Rain descends. 5. The vessel sails. 6. Schol-
ars study. 7. Grass grows. 8. Fire burns. 9. Liberty is sweet.
10. St. Helena is an island. 11. Lead is a metal. 12. Water is a
liquid. 13. Cicero was an orator. 14. Webster was a statesman.
15. Grammar is a science, 16, Birds are animals.
36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. Possessive Case. 1. The storm's fury is past. 2. Henry's
health is good. 3. The king's palace is on fire. 4. Mary's task is
done. 5. Byron's poems are published. 6. Jane borrowed Sarah's
book. 7. Mr. Johnson sells boys' hats. 8. The defeat of Xerxes'
army was the downfall of Persia.
3. Objective Case. 1. John struck James. 2. Joseph bought
the book. 3. The widow lost her son. 4. Peter studies algebra.
5. The horse kicked the boy. 6. The man wrote a letter. 7. A
dog bit a man. 8. Samuel lives over the river. 9. Martha went
with Susan. 10. The house stands on the hill. 11. James is going
to Cincinnati. 12. The boy ran by the mill.
4. Absolute Case. 1. The rebellion being ended, the army
disbanded. 2. Henry being away, the work was not done. 3.
"Friends, Eomans, Countrymen! lend me your ears!" 4. "To
arms! they come! the Greek! the Greek!" 5. "My daughter!
oh, my daughter!" 6. "Your fathers, where are they?" 7. "My
son, have you seen him?"
Parse all the nouns in the following sentences :
1. Boys like to play. 2. The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand
miles wide. 3. Johnson the doctor is a brother of Johnson the
lawyer. 4. Shakspeare lived in Queen Elizabeth's reign. 5. "Ah,
Warwick! Warwick! wert thou as we are!"
6. Temperance is a virtue. 7. King Agrippa, believest thou the
prophets? 8. The inferior animals are divided into five classes:
quadrupeds, fowls, fishes, reptiles, and insects. 9. The little army
fought bravely on that day. 10. Where are the Platos and Aris-
totles of modern times? 11. I have seen Mr. Squires, the book-
seller, and stationer.
Correct all errors in the following sentences :
1. I have two brother-in-laws. 2. There were three knight-
templars in the procession. 3. Nebulas are sometimes called star-
dust. 4. I saw the two Mrs. Jackson. 5. The Friends' are hold-
ing a meeting: some people call them Quaker's. 6. He called at
Steele's the banker's. 7. The Jones' were all there.
8. The boys slate was broken. 9. The mens' wages should be
paid promptly. 10. The colonel's of the 7th regiment's horse ran
away. 11. She is reading in her sister's Susan's book. 12. He
studied O. B. Pierce' Grammar. 13. The fellows impudence was
intolerable. 14. He has octavoes, quartoes, and folioes, among
his books.
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 37
THE ADJECTIVE.
40. Oral Lesson.
Here are some apples, nice for eating: what shall we call them?
Arts, — Ripe apples. I have just eaten one, and it tasted sweet:
what else can we call them ? Arts. — Sweet apples. They are quite
soft: what else can we call them? Ans. — Mellow apples. Write
on your slates, "Ripe, sweet, mellow apples." All these words de-
note some quality of the apples : what shall we call them ? Ans. —
Quality-words. A very good name.
Let us count the apples : one apple, two apples, three apples, four
apples. Let us also number them : the first apple, the second apple,
the third apple, the fourth apple. Write these numbers on your
slates, as I write them on the blackboard — one, two, three, four:
first, second, third, fourth. What shall we call these words ? Ans. —
Number -words.
When I speak of the apple nearest me, I say, "This apple;"
when of one farther from me, "That apple." Do the words this
and that denote any quality of the apples? Ans. — They do not.
What do they do, then ? Ans. — They point them out. Very well :
what shall we call themf Ans. — Pointing-out-words.
You see that all the words we have used, in some manner de-
scribe " apples." Some denote quality : some, number : some merely
point out. What is the word " apple?" Ans. — A noun. Then
they all describe a noun. We will call those words which describe
or limit the meaning of nouns, Adjectives. What are all of these
words? Ans. — Adjectives.
The " quality- words " we will call Descriptive Adjectives, because
they describe by denoting some quality. The "number-words"
and " pointing-out-words " do not denote quality. We will call
them Definitive Adjectives.
Write "This is a good book." What is "good?" Ans.— An
adjective. Why? Ans.— It describes the word "book." What
kind ? Ans. — Descriptive. Why ? Ans. — It denotes a quality be-
longing to the book. Write " These two books are mine." What
are " these " and " two ? " Ans. — Adjectives. Why? Ans. — They
describe " books." What kind? Ans. — Definitive. Why? Ans. —
They define without denoting any quality.
Write "Every man can do some good." What are "every" and
"some?" Ans. — Adjectives. Why? Ans. — They limit nouns.
What kind? Ans. — Definitive. Why? Ans. — They define with-
out denoting any quality.
38 - ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
41. Definition.
An Adjective is a word used to describe or define the
meaning of a noun; as, wise men, that book, three steam-
ships, the fourth stanza.
Rem. — The English language has about 7,000 adjectives.
42. Classes.
Adjectives may be divided into two general classes:
Descriptive and Definitive.
43. Descriptive Adjectives.
1. A Descriptive Adjective describes the meaning
of a noun by denoting some quality belonging to it.
Ex. — A round table, a square table, a sour apple, a sweet apple,
a good boy, a bad boy, an Italian sunset, twinkling stars, thick-
warbled songs.
2. There are three kinds of Descriptive Adjectives : Com-
mon, Proper, and Participial.
3. A Common Adjective is any ordinary epithet; as,
good, hard,' broad, flexible.
4. A Proper Adjective is an adjective derived from
a proper noun ; as, French, American, Websterian.
5. A Participial Adjective is a participle placed be-
fore the noun which it describes; as, a shining light, echo-
ing shouts, a written agreement.
Rem. l. — Words commonly used as other parts of speech, some-
times perform the office of descriptive adjectives, and should be
parsed as such.
Ex. — A gold ring, a silver cord, the California pine, a make-believe
patriot, double-distilled nonsense. " The West is as truly American, as
genuinely Jonathan, as any other part of our country."
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 39
Rem. 2. — An adjective is frequently limited by a word joined
to it by a hyphen. The compound term thus formed is called a
compound adjective, and should be parsed as a single word.
Ex. — A high-sounding title, an ill-matched pair.
Rem. 3 Participial adjectives are derived directly from verbs.
Participles usually follow the nouns they describe.
Rem* 4. — When a descriptive adjective represents a noun un-
derstood, or not expressed, the article must be prefixed; as, "The
wise are provident;" "The good are happy." Adjectives thus used
should be parsed as " adjectives used as nouns."
Tell which of the adjectives in the following sentences are Common,
Proper, and Participial:
1. The unfortunate man was a hard-working mechanic. 2. The
fields looked beautiful. 3. English books are costly. 4. The howl-
ing storm is passed. 5. The soil is veiy productive. 6. The water
falls into a marble basin. 7. I prefer a New England winter to an
Australian summer,
44. DefmitiYe Adjectires.
1. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines the mean-
ing or application of a noun without expressing any of its
qualities.
Ex. — The Ohio, that man, three dollars, the third seal, a twofold
reference. "All men are mortal." "Each soldier received his pay."
2. Definitive Adjectives are divided into three classes:
Articles, Pronominal Adjectives, and Numeral Adjectives.
45. Articles.
1. The is called the Definite Article, because it definitely
points out the object which it defines or restricts; as, "The
book is on the table;" "Tlie horse ran over the bridge."
2. A or An is called the Indefinite Article, because it
defines or restricts in an indefinite or general manner; as^
"A book is on a table;" "A horse ran over a bridge,"
40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. An should be used before words beginning with a vowel
sound; A before words beginning with a consonant sound. They
are spoken of as one article, because they are merely, a later and
an earlier form of the same word.
Rem. l. — The definite article is used,
1. To point out a particular object or class of objects, or a par-
ticular individual or portion of a class; as, "The sun and the
moon;" "The Turks and the Greeks are at war;" "The rich and
the poor here meet together."
2. To distinguish an object from another having the same
name; as, Mississippi, the name of a State; the Mississippi, the
name of a river : Robert Fulton, the name of a person ; the Robert-
Fulton, the name of a steam-boat.
3. To point out an object as familiarly known or spoken of, or
as preeminently distinguished ; as, " The Hibernia sailed yesterday ;"
"The Capitol is a noble building;" "The immortal Washington."
Rem. 2. — The indefinite article is used to show that no particular
one of a class is meant — the leading idea being any or one.; as, a
man, i, e.y any man, or one man ; "A picture hangs on the wall,"
L e., one picture. " Bring me a book," i. e.} any book.
Rem. 3. — The indefinite article may be used,
1. To point out a single individual; as, a plum, i. e., one plum;
a horse, i. e., one horse; an ox, L e., one ox.
2. To point out a single sum or aggregate ; as, a dozen apples,
a few dimes, a hundred dollars, a wealthy people.
Rem. 4. — An article sometimes limits, not a noun alone, but a
noun as limited by other words; as, "The old men retired early;
the yaung men remained until midnight." The article here limits
the complex ideas " old men " and " young men." "An early spring
is no sign of a fruitful season" The article here limits the complex
ideas "early spring" and "fruitful season."
46. Pronominal Adjectives.
1. Pronominal Adjectives are definitives, most of
which may, without an article prefixed, represent a noun
understood; as, all men, each soldier, yonder mountain.
2. They may be divided into three classes: Demonstra-
tives, Distributives, and Indefinites.
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 41
47. Demonstratives.
1. Demonstratives point out objects definitely. They
are this, that, these, those, former, latter, both, same, yon,
yonder.
2. This, (plural these,) distinctly points out an object as near
in place or time; as, "This desk and these books."
3. That, (plural those,) distinctly points out an object as not
near, or not so near as some other object; as, "That desk and those
books."
4. In speaking of two objects, that should refer to the former,
and this to the latter; as, "These horses are larger than those."
5. Former and latter are used to designate which of two
objects previously mentioned is referred to; as, aThe cry of danger
to the Union was raised to divert their assaults upon the Constitu-
tion. It was the latter, and not the former, which was in danger."
6. Both implies not only the one but the other also ; as, "Both
forts were taken;" " James and Silas were both tardy."
7. Same denotes an identical or similar object; as, "That is
the same man we saw yesterday ;" " Both tables are made of the
same wood."
8. Yon and yonder point out some object in sight; as, "Yon
house on the hill;" "Yonder mountain is a volcano."
48. Distributives.
1. Distributives represent objects as taken separately.
There are four distributives : each, every, either, neither.
2. Each can be applied to one of two or any greater number ;
as, "Each warrior drew his battle blade;" "Useless each without
the other."
3. Every can be applied to one of more than two individuals
only; as, "They received every man a penny;" "Every person in
the room was astonished."
4. Either can be applied to one of two objects only ; as, "Either
of the two roads leads to town ;" " You may have either house."
5. Neither means not either ; as, "Which of the two shall I
take? both? one? ov neither?"
H. G. 4.
42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
49. Indefinites.
1. Indefinites refer to objects in a general way, without
pointing out any one in particular. The principal indefinites
are all, any, another, certain, divers, enough, few, little,
many, much, no, none, one, own, other, several, some,
sundry, which, whichever, whichsoever, what, whatever,
whatsoever.
2. All describes objects taken together; as, "All the years of
man's life ;" "All men are mortal."
3. Any denotes a single one of many; as, "Have you any
wheat to sell ? " " Neither go into the town, nor tell it to any in
the town."
4. Another, or other, denotes something distinct from some-
thing else of the same kind; as, "He took another road;" "He will
let out his vineyard to other husbandmen. "
5. Certain denotes one or some in an indefinite sense ; as, "And
I, Daniel, was sick certain days ;" " I shall not vote for a certain
individual."
6. Divers means unlike, various, numerous; as, "A prey of
divers colors of needle-work;" "Divers miracles."
7. Enough denotes a sufficiency ; as, " I have enough for my
brother;" "Enough has been said already."
8. Few denotes not many, a small number; as, " Many shall be
called, but few chosen ;" " I have a few old books."
9. utile means small in quantity, amount, or duration; as,
"A little learning is a dangerous thing;" "A little sleep, a little
slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep."
10. Many denotes a large number; as, "Many men of many
minds ;" " The mutable, rank-scented many.''1 — Shakspeare.
11. Much denotes a large quantity; as, "There is much wealth
in this town;" "Thou shalt carry much seed out into the field,
and shalt gather but little in."
12. No means not any, none. As a noun it means one who votes
in the negative ; as, " The noes have it."
13. None means not one, or not any; as, "Ye shall flee when
none pursueth you;" "Thou shalt have none assurance of thy
life."
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 43
14. One corresponds to another; as, "They love one anotlier,"
i e.j each person loves the other.
15. Own implies possession with emphasis or distinction; as,
"My own home;" "Our own dear mother."
16. Several denotes any small number more than two ; as, "Sev-
eral victories." Also, single, individual; as, "I'll kiss each several
paper for amends."
17. Some denotes a certain but indeterminate number or quan-
tity; as, "Some money;" "I have brought some books."
18. Sundry means various, divers; as, "So teach sundry gram-
marians."
19. What and which, and their compounds, point out objects
definitely or indefinitely ; as, " What lesson shall we learn to-
50. Numeral Adjectives.
1. Numeral Adjectives are those which express num-
ber and order definitely ; as, four, fourth, fourfold.
2. They are divided into three classes: Cardinal, Or-
dinal, and Multiplicative.
3. Cardinal Numerals denote simply the number of
objects; as, two, thirteen, fifty, a thousand.
4. Ordinal Numerals mark the position of an object
in a series; as, second, thirteenth, fiftieth, the thousandth.
5. Multiplicative Numerals denote how many fold;
as, twofold, fourfold.
GENERAL REMARKS.
1. When a noun, limited by either a descriptive or a definitive
adjective, is some indefinite word/or has been previously used in
the same sentence,, it may be omitted; as, "The cedars highest on
the mountain are the smallest;" "The foremost horse is a better
animal than the hindmost" " Give me this book, and you may
have thai"
44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. Such, many, only, but, much, and not, when used alone limit
plural nouns only. When followed by the indefinite article a or
an, the phrases such a, many a, &c., limit singular nouns; as, "If
you repay me not on such a day ;" "Many a time ;" " He is but a
man ;" "Not a drum was heard." These phrases should be parsed
as single words.
3. When definitive adjectives are used in connection with de-
scriptive, the former should be placed first; as, "That valuable
property;" "Ten small houses."
4. When cardinal and ordinal numerals are used together, the
latter should be placed first; as, "The last two days;" "The first
three chapters."
5. A cardinal numeral used as -a noun, requires no article : an
ordinal should have the article prefixed; as, "Were not ten
cleansed?" "The tenth was rescued."
6. Each other and one another are sometimes called reciprocals,
because they are reciprocally related ; as, " They mutually assist
each other-" "They help one another"
7. Adjectives which vary in form to denote number, should
agree in that property with the nouns they limit. Say, " this sort,"
not "these sort."
8. Other parts of speech should not be improperly used as
adjectives. Say "these books," not "them books;" "His voice
sounds harsh" not "harshly"
51. Comparison.
1. * Comparison is a variation of the adjective to ex-
press different degrees of quality; as, wise, wiser, wisest;
good, better, best.
2. There are three I>egrees of Comparison: the
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
3. The Positive degree ascribes to an object the simple
quality, or an equal degree of the quality; as, "A mild
winter;" "She is as good as she is beautiful"
4. The Comparative degree ascribes to one of two
objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than that
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 45
expressed by the positive; as, "A milder winter than usual f
"Mary is less studious than Emma."
5. The Superlative degree ascribes the highest or low-
est degree of the quality to one of more than two objects ;
as, "The mildest winter ever known;" "The least skillful
rider could do no worse."
Rem. l. — The suffix ish, and the words rather, somewhat, &c,
denote the possession of a little of the quality ; as, bluish, rather
young, somewhat uncomfortable.
Rem. 2. — The words altogether, far, by far, vastly, much, very,
exceedingly, a most, a little, too, very, slightly, greatly, &c., denote a
high degree of the quality without implying comparison ; as, very
useful, exceedingly welcome, a most valuable invention.
Rem. 3. — Adjectives denoting qualities which can not exist in
different degrees, can not, with propriety, be compared — though
some writers, not taking them in their full sense, often use them
in the comparative and superlative degrees.
Ex. — Blind, deaf, perfect, right, level, square, straight, perpendic-
ular, equal, naked, honest, sincere, hollow, empty, dead. " My sin-
cerest regards." " Our sight is the most perfect of our senses."
52. Of Comparatives and Superlatives.
1. In Ascending comparison, the comparative and su-
perlative degrees are regularly formed,
1st. By adding to the positive of monosyllables, r or er
for the comparative, and st or est for the superlative; as,
wise, wiser, wisest; hard, harder, hardest.
2d. By prefixing to the positive of adjectives of more
than one syllable, more for the comparative, and most for
the superlative; as, honorable, more honorable, most honor-
able.
Rem. i. — Most adjectives of two syllables ending in y or le, after
a consonant, or accented on the second syllable, form their com-
parative and superlative degrees like monosyllables ; as, holy, holier,
holiest ; gentle, gentler, gentlest.
46 ENGLISH GKAMMAR.
Hem. 2. —Some adjectives of two syllables, ending in a vowel
or liquid sound, form their comparative and superlative degrees
like monosyllables; as, handsome, handsomer, handsomest; narrow,
narrower, narrowest.
Rem. 3. — Some words are expressed in the superlative degree
by adding the suffix most; as, hindmost, innermost,
2. In I&escen&ing comparison, the comparative is
formed by prefixing less, and the superlative by prefixing
least, to the positive; as, wise, less wise, least wise.
3. Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good,
better, best; bad, worse, worst
Rem. i. — Poets sometimes compare monosyllables by prefixing
more and most; as, "A foot more light, a step more true"
Rem. 2. — When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adjectives come
together, the monosyllables are placed first, and all are compared
by prefixing more and most; as, "The more nice and elegant parts ;"
"The most rude and barbarous people."
Rem. 3 — Adjectives should not be doubly compared; as, "A
more healthier climate ;" "After the most strictest sect of our relig-
ion, I lived a Pharisee."
53. Order of Parsing.
1. An Adjective, and why?
2. Descriptive or Definitive, and why?
3. Compare it, if it admits of comparison.
4. Degree of comparison, and why?
5. What does it describe or define?
6. Rule.
54. Models for Parsing.
I. "Every diligent boy received merited praise."
Ev^ry ... is an adjective ; it is a word used to describe or define the
meaning of a noun : definitive; it defines without expressing
any quality: distributive pronominal; it represents objects
taken separately : it can not be compared, and belongs to
" boy." Rule XII. "An adjective or participle belongs to
some noun or pronoun."
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES.
47
Diligent . is an adjective; (why?) : descriptive; it describes a noun by
denoting some quality: common; it is an ordinary epithet:
compared, pos. diligent, comp. more diligent, sup. most dili-
gent: positive degree, and belongs to "boy." Rule XII.
Merited . is an adjective; (why?): descriptive; (why?): participial;
it is a participle placed before the noun it limits: com-
pared, pos. merited, comp. more merited, sup most merited:
positive degree, and belongs to "praise." Eule XII.
II. "Many a fine intellect is buried in poverty."
Many a. . is an adjective; (why?): definitive; (why?): indefinite pro-
nominal; it refers to objects in a general way: it can not
be compared, and belongs to " intellect." Rule XII.
Fine .... is an adjective; (why?): descriptive; (why?): common;
(why?) : compared, pos. fine, comp. finer, sup. finest: positive
degree, and belongs to "intellect." Rule XII.
III. "The first two engravings are American harvest scenes."
The .... is an adjective ; (why?): definitive; (why?): definite article ;
(why?): it can not be compared, and belongs to "engrav-
ings." Rule XII.
First. ... is an adjective; (why?): definitive; (why?): numeral; it
denotes number : ordinal ; it marks the position of an ob-
ject in a series : it can not be compared, and belongs to
"engravings." Rule XII.
Two .... is an adjective; (why?): definitive; (why?): numeral;
(why?): cardinal; it denotes the number of objects: it
can not be compared, and belongs to "engravings."
Rule XII.
American is an adjective; (why?) : descriptive; (why?): proper; it is
derived from a proper noun : it can not be compared, and
belongs to "scenes." Rule XII.
Harvest .is an adjective; (why?): descriptive; (why?) common;
(why?) : it can not be compared, and belongs to "scenes."
Rule XII.
IV. " The weather is pleasant."
Pleasant . is an adjective; (why?): descriptive; (why?): common;
(why?) : compared, pos. pleasant, comp. more pleasant; sup.
most pleasant : positive degree^ and belongs to " weather."
Rule XII.
48 ENGLISH GBAMMAR.
55. Exercises.
Parse the nouns and adjectives in the following sentences:
1. A loud report was heard. 2. Fearful storms sweep over these
beautiful islands. 3. Life is but a vapor. 4. These walks are quiet
and secluded. 5. I feel sad and lonely. 6. The fields look green.
7. He took a twofold view of the subject. 8. Bright an4 joyful is the
morn. 9. The steak was cooked rare.
10. Either road leads to town. 11. Each soldier was a host in him-
self. 12. Both horses are lame. 13. Such a law is a disgrace to any
state. 14. Repeat the first four lines in concert. 15. My drowsy
powers, why sleep ye so? 16. Homer was a greater poet than Virgil.
17. One story is good until another is told. 18. Silver and gold have
I none. 19. The Australian gold fields are very extensive. 20. The
floor was formed of six-inch boards.
21. My opening eyes with rapture see
The dawn of this returning day.
22. With many a weary step, and many a groan,
Up the high hill he heaves a huge round stone.
23. Strong Creator, Savior mild,
Humbled to a little child,
Captive, beaten, bound, reviled —
Jesus ! hear and save.
Exercises to be corrected:
1. Put them books on the table. 2. You may have either of them
six apples. 3. Neither of my three hats is large enough. 4. That
book you are now reading was printed in 1578. 5. These men we
saw yesterday were Italians. 6. He gave a reward to all of the four
men. 7. None of the two young ladies is very beautiful.
8. There are less boys in school now than formerly. — (Less suggests
quantity — fewer suggests number.) 9. I have caught less fish than you.
10. They worship both the sun, moon, and stars. 11. There is no
glory in doing what every body can do. 12. Such persons as desire
may remain. — (Do not use such instead of all.) 13. The gravel walk
was rolled smoothly. 14. I like our now minister very much. 15.
The eggs were boiled hardly. 16. John reads too loudly.
17. The relative should be placed as nearly as possible to its ante-
cedent. 18. Often touching will soil silver. 19. There are not
fewer than ten tons of iron in that bridge. 20. Every member are
expected to contribute something. 21. Sing the two first and the two
last verses.
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 49
22. You may have the peaches on the three first trees in them two
rows. 23. The former of them five sentences is incorrect. 24. I never
saw a more happier man. 25. Worser evils than poverty can be im-
agined. 26. That was the most unkindest cut of all. 27. He is the
awkwardest, backwardest boy in school.
28. I do not like these kind of apples. 29. I would rather have a
squarer box. 30. Which is meanest, a miser or a thief? 31. Jacob
loved Joseph, more than all his children. 32. None of our family was
at the party last evening. 33. That man occupies the largest store-
room of any in the town.
THE PRONOUN.
56. Oral Lesson0
Notice what I write: " John took John's hat, and put John's
hat on John's desk." Do you think this is a correct sentence?
Ans. — No, sir, we do not. What words are unnecessarily repeated ?
Ans. — "John" and "hat." Write the sentence on your slates as
you think it should be written. Sarah, you may read wThat you
have written. (Sarah reads " John took his hat, and put it on his
desk." The teacher writes it on the blackboard.) Now, the words
used in the place of "John" and "hat," are called Pronouns, which
means "instead of nouns." What shall we call all words used in-
stead of nouns? Ans. — Pronouns.
I will write again : "i" write, you read, but he wThispers." What
are the words "I," "you," and "he"? An$. — Pronouns. Why?
Ans. — Because they are used instead of nouns. What person is
"I"? Ans. — First person, because it stands for the person speak-
ing. What person is "you"? Ans. — Second person, because it
stands for the person spoken to. What person is "he"? Ans. —
Third person, because it stands for the person spoken of. Those
words which show by their form the person of the nouns they rep-
resent are called Personal Pronouns. What kind of pronouns are
these words? Ans. — Personal Pronouns.
Write this sentence: "The man wTho was with me is a lawyer."
What is " me " ? Ans. — A pronoun. What other pronoun is there
in the sentence? Ans. — "Who." That is right — and what word
does "who" stand for? Ans. — Man. But "who" can be used to
represent the first, second, or third person ; as, " I who speak to you ;"
"You who listen;" "He who whispers." It does not change fts
H. G. 5.
r
50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
form to denote person, but relates to some noun, and must be of
the same person and number as the noun to which it relates. It is
therefore called a Relative Pronoun. What shall Ave call all similar
words? Ans. — Relative Pronouns.
Write this sentence: "Who has lost a pencil?" The word
" who" is here used in asking a question. We will call it an Inter-
rogative Pronoun. What shall we call those pronouns which are
used in a similar manner? Ans. — Interrogative Pronouns.
Write this sentence: "That book is mine." What two words
can I use instead of " mine? " Ans. — " My book." " Mine," then,
stands for both the possessor and the thing possessed. We will
call it a Possessive Pronoun. What shall we call all words used in
a similar manner? Ans. — Possessive Pronouns.
57. Definition.
1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as,
his book, my house; "Whom did you see?"
2. The Antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, or
equivalent expression, instead of which the pronoun is used.
It usually precedes, but sometimes follows the pronoun.
Ex. — "The poor widow lost her only son." Here "widow" is
the antecedent of " her." " True to his flag, the soldier braved even
death." " Soldier " is the antecedent of " his."
3.. The Antecedent may be a noun, a different pronoun,
a phrase, or a clause.
Ex.— "A pupil that is studious will learn." "Pupil" is the
antecedent of "that." "He who runs may read." "He" is the
antecedent of "who." "He desired to pray, but it was denied
him." "To pray" is the antecedent of "it." "He has squandered
his money, and he now regrets it? "He has squandered his
money " is the antecedent of " it."
4. The Antecedent may be omitted; in which case it is
said to be understood.
Ex.— "Who steals my purse steals trash." "The person/" or
"he," understood, is the antecedent of "who."
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 5 1
58. Properties.
1. The Properties of a Pronoun are Gender, Person,
Number, and Case.
2. The gender, person, and number of a pronoun are
always the same as those of its antecedent, but its case de-
pends upon the construction of the clause in which it is
found.
59. Classes.
Pronouns are divided into four classes : Personal, Pos-
sessive, Relative, and Interrogative.
60. Persona] Pronouns.
1. Personal Pronouns both represent nouns, and
show by their form whether they are of the first, second, or
third person. They are either Simple or Compound.
2. The Simple Personal Pronouns are I, thou,
he, she, and it, with their declined forms, we, our, us, my,
mine, ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him, her, its, they,
their, them.
3. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed
by adding self or selves to some form of the Simple Person-
als; as, myself, yourselves, himself, themselves.
61. Declension.
1. The Simple Personal Pronouns are declined as fol-
lows :
First Person.
Singular.
Nom. I,
Poss. My or mine,
Obj. Me.
Plural,
Nom. We,
Poss. Our.
Obj. Us.
52
ENGLISH GEAMMAK.
Second Person.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural
Norn.
Thou,
Ye,
Nom.
You,
You,
Poss.
Thy or
thine,
Your,
Poss.
Your,
Your,
Obj.
Thee,
Singular
You.
Third ]
Obj.
Person.
You,
Plural.
You.
Mas.
Fern.
Neut.
Neut. or Com.
Nom.
He,
She,
It,
Nom.
They,
Poss.
His,
Her,
Its,
Poss.
Their,
Obj.
Him,
Her,
It.
Obj.
Them.
2. The Compound Personal Pronouns are declined as
follows:
First Person.
Singular. \ Plural.
Nom. & Obj.
Myself.
Nom. & Obj. Ourselves.
Second Person,
Singular.
Nom. & Obj. Thyself or Yourself.
Plural.
Nom. & Obj. Yourselves.
Third Person
Singular.
Mas., Fern. & Neut.
(Himself,
Herself,
Itself.
Plural.
Nom. & Obj. Themselves
GEXERAI, REMARKS.
x. Mine and thine were formerly used before words commencing
with a vowel sound, in preference to my and thy. They are still
used thus in poetry; as, "Thine eyes I see thee raise."
2. Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, though habitually used
by the Friends, and frequently in poetry, in the Bible, and other
sacred writings, are now seldom used except in solemn style.
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 53
They may be regarded as antiquated forms. You, your, yours, and
yourself, are now preferred.
3. You, originally plural, and still plural in its grammatical
relations, is used to represent singular as well as plural nouns.
4. We is often used in place of 7", in royal proclamations, edito-
rials, and when the speaker or writer wishes to avoid the appear-
ance of egotism ; as, " We, George III, King of Great Britain and
Ireland, do proclaim/' &c. " We formerly thought differently, but
have changed our mind."
5. It is sometimes used in the nominative without referring to
any particular antecedent; and in the objective for euphony alone ;
as, "It thunders;" "It seems to me;" "It is a true saying;" "Come
and trip it on the green."
6. The compound personal pronouns are used in the nominative
and objective cases only. To express emphatic distinction in the
possessive case, the word own is used instead of self or selves ; as,
" Let every pupil use his own book ;" " Successful merchants mind
their own business, not that of their neighbors."
7. The English language being destitute of a pronoun of the
third person singular and common gender, usage has sanctioned
the employment of the masculine forms he, his, him, for that pur-
pose; as, in speaking of scholars generally, we say, "A thorough
scholar studies his lesson carefully."
8. When reference is made to an assemblage containing males
only, or females only, the masculine or feminine forms should be
used, as the case may require.
9. When pronouns of different persons are used, the second should
precede the third, and me third the first; as, " You, and he, and /
were boys together."
62. Order of Parsing.
1. A Pronoun, and why?
2. Personal, and why?
3. Simple or Compound.
4. What its antecedent?
5. Gender, person, and number? Rule.
6. Decline it.
7. Case, and why?
8. Rule.
54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
63. Models for Parsing.
I. "J have seen him.19
I is a pronoun; (why?) : personal; it shows by its form
whether it is of the first, second, or third person : sim-
ple ; its antecedent is the name, understood, of the per-
son speaking : gender, first person, singular number,
to agree with its antecedent : Rule IX. " Pronouns must
agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and
number :" declined, singular, nom. I, poss, my, obj. me ;
plural, nom. we, poss. our, obj. us: nominative case;
(why?): Rule I.
Him is a pronoun; (why?): personal; (why?): simple; its
antecedent is the name, understood, of the person spoken
of: masculine gender, third person, singular number, to
agree with its antecedent : Kule IX : declined, sing.,
nom. he, poss, his, obj. him; plural, nom. they, poss.
their, obj, them : objective case; (why?): Rule VI.
II. "James, lend me your book."
Me is a pronoun; (why?): personal; (why?): simple; its
antecedent is the name, understood, of the speaker:
gender, first person, singular number, to agree with
its antecedent : Rule IX : decline it : objective case, it is
the indirect object of transitive verb "lend." Rule VI.
III. "The soldiers helped themselves."
Themselves is a pronoun ; (why ?) : compound personal ; it is formed
by adding selves to one of the declined forms of a sim-
ple personal: its antecedent is "soldiers:" masculine
gender, third person, plural number, to agree with its
antecedent : Rule IX : decline it : objective case, it is the
object of the transitive verb " helped." Rule XI.
IV. "I, myself, heard him say so."
Rlyself. • . . is a pronoun; (why?): compound personal; (why?) : its
antecedent is the name, understood, of the speaker:
gender, first person, singular number, to agree with
its antecedent : Rule IX : decline it : nominative case,
in apposition with ik I :" Rule IV.
ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 55
64. Exercises.
Parse the nouns, personal pronouns, and adjectives in t/ie following
sentences :
1. He and I attend the same school. 2. She gave her sister a
new book. 3. Have you seen him to-day? 4. I saw it with my
own eyes. 5. You, yourself, told me so. 6. The wicked is snared
in the work of his own hands. 7. I bought the book, and read it/
8. They live in our house.
9. I see them on their winding way. 10. For we dare not make
ourselves of the number, or compare ourselves with some that com-
mend themselves: but they, measuring themselves by themselves,
and comparing themselves among themselves, are not wise.
11. My country, 't is of thee,
Sweet land of liberty,
Of thee, I sing.
12. Thou great Instructor, lest I stray,
Teach thou my erring feet thy way.
Correct the following sentences :
1. Him and me both study grammar. 2. I and he were play-
mates. 3. Her and my aunt are great friends. 4. Every person
should try to improve their mind and heart. 5. Each scholar
should try to learn their lessons. 6. Those molasses, they cost one
dollar a gallon. 7. Many a thoughtless youth make good business
men — but it is after they have reformed.
8. Both John and S^nuel got his lesson. 9. If a fish is caught
foul, they are more difficult to land. 10. People should be kind to
each other. 11. Did you see which of the scholars finished their
examples first? 12. Every hoy and girl shall have their reward.
13. Let the President and the Senate make such appointments as
it pleases. 14. If any member of the congregation wishes to con-
nect themselves with this church, they will please come forward
while the choir sings.
15. They had some victuals left, and we ate it. 16. Every person
and every thing was in its proper place. 17. The hen-hawk caught
a hen, and killed her on her own nest. 18. The earth is my mother,
and I will repose on its bosom. 19. It is me, and not her, who you
wish to see. 20. If any passenger has not paid his fare, they will
come up to the captain's office and pay it.
56 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
65. Possessive Pronouns.
1. Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent
both the possessor and the thing possessed. They are mine,
thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.
2. To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used for
mine, his own for his, thy own for thine, our own for ours,
your own for yours, their own for theirs.
Ex. — "This book is my own;" "Stand, the ground's your own.
my braves ! " " Do not borrow or lend pencils : each scholar should
have one of his own"
Rem. — Two sets of models are given for parsing Possessive
Pronouns. Both methods are sanctioned by good authorities.
66. Order of Parsing.
1. A Pronoun, and why?
2. Possessive, and why?
3. What is its antecedent?
4. Gender, person, and number, and why? Rule.
5. Case, and why? Rule.
67. Models for Parsing.
I. "That book is hers, not yours"
FIRST METHOD. •
Hers .... is a pronoun; (why?): possessive; it represents both the
possessor and the thing possessed; its antecedent is
"book;" neuter gender, third person, singular number, to
agree with its antecedent: Rule IX: nominative case, it
is used as the predicate of the proposition "That book
is hers:" Rule II.
Yours ... is parsed in a similar manner ; equivalent to " your book."
SECOND METHOD.
Hers ... is a pronoun ; (why ?) : possessive ; (why ?) : it is equivalent
to "her book." Parse "her" as a personal pronoun in
the possessive case, according to Rule III, and "book"
as predicate-nominative, according to Rule II.
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 57
II. " The ground 's your own"
FIRST METHOD.
Your own is a pronoun; (why?) : possessive; (wjay?): its antecedent
is "ground:" neuter gender, third person, singular number;
(why?): nominative case; it is used as the predicate of
the proposition " The ground 's your own." Rule II.
SECOND METHOD.
Y©ur own is a pronoun; (why?) : possessive; (why?) : it is equivalent
to "your ground." Parse "your" as a personal pronoun
in the possessive case, according to Eule III, and " ground"
as the predicate-nominative, according to Rule II.
68. Exercises.
Parse the possessive pronouns in the following sentences :
1. The farm is neither his nor theirs. 2. Is that horse of yours
lame yet? 3. I did not hear that lecture of yours last evening.
4. He is an old friend of ours. 5. This book is not mine ; it must
be his or hers. 6. That carriage of theirs is a very fine one. 7.
Friend of mine, why so sad?
Exercises to be corrected:
1. That horse is his'n. 2. Is that book your'n or her'n? 3. I
think it is her'n. 4. He had no team; so he borrowed our'n.
5. Your hat is not so pretty as her 'n. 6. We 'uns are better off
than you 'uns. 7. You 'tins are a low set.
69. Relative Pronouns.
1. A Relative Pronoun is used to represent a pre-
ceding word or phrase, called its antecedent, to which it
joins a limiting clause; as, "The man whom you saw is
my father."
Rem. l — The antecedent is a word or phrase on which the rel-
ative clause depends. It may be either a definite or an indefinite
object. When the object is indefinite, the relative clause stands
alone; as, "Who steals my purse steals trash."
Rem. 2 — The difference between personal and relative pronouns
is shown by the following distinctions : 1. Personal pronouns have
a distinct form for each grammatical person; as, first person, //
58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
second person, thou, or you; third person, he, she, or it: the rela-
tives do not change their form for person. 2. A personal pronoun
may be the subject of an independent sentence ; as, "He is well :"
a relative can never be thus used ; it is always found in a depend-
ent clause ; as, " Laws which are unjust should be repealed."
Rem. 3 — Relatives serve two purposes in a sentence: one, to
represent nouns in any relation; the other, to join a limiting
clause to the antecedent. The first is a pronominal, the second, a
conjunctive use.
2. Eelative Pronouns are either Simple or Compound.
3. The Simple Relatives are who, used to represent
persons; which and what, to represent things; that, to rep-
resent both persons and things; and as, to take the place
of who, which, or that, after such, many, and same.
Rem. i. — What is sometimes used as a definitive adjective, as
well as a relative, in the same sentence : in which case it is placed
before the noun it limits ; as, "I send you what money I have," i. e.y
" I send you the money which I have." When the noun it limits
is understood, what takes its place, and should be parsed, first as a
pronominal adjective, and secondly as a relative.
Rem. 2. — That is a relative when wlio, whom, or which can be
substituted for it ; as, " He that [ivho] is slow to wrath, is of great
understanding." It is a pronominal adjective when it immediately
precedes a noun, expressed or understood; as, "That book is
yours;" "I did not say that" It is a conjunction when it joins
a dependent clause to its principal; as, "I know that my Ee-
deemer liveth."
Rem. 3. — What, when a relative, can be changed into that
which, or the thing which; as, "Tell me what [that which] you
know;" "I got what [the thing which] I desired." That, or the
thing, should be parsed as the antecedent part of what, and which
as the relative. The antecedent part, that, is usually a pronom-
inal adjective, either limiting a noun expressed, or representing
it understood.
Rem. 4 — Besides being a relative, what may be an interrogative
pronoun; as "What did you say?" — a pronominal adjective; as,
" Wliat book have you?" — an interjection ; as, " What! is thy serv-
ant a dog, that he should do this?" — an adverb ; as, " What [partly]
by force, and what by fraild, he secures his ends."
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 59
70. Declension.
Singular and Plural.
Nom. Who,
Poss. Whose,
Obj. Whom.
Singular and Plural.
Nom. Which,
Poss. Whose,
Obj. Which.
The Compound Relatives are formed by adding
ever, so, and soever to the simple relatives. They are who-
ever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and
whatsoever.
Rem. — Whoever y whoso, and whosoever, are equivalent to he who,
or any one who ; as, " WJioever studies will learn," i. e., "Any one who
studies will learn." Whichever said whichsoever are equivalent to
any ivhich; as, " Whichever way you may take will lead to the
city," i. e., "Any way which you may take," &c. WJiatever and what-
soever are equivalent to any thing which; as, "I am pleased with
whatever you may do," i. e., " I am pleased with any thing which you
may do." Compound relatives are indeclinable, and should be
parsed like the simple relative what.
71. Order of Parsing.
1. A Pronoun, and why?
2. Eelative, and why?
3. Name its antecedent.
4. Simple or Compound?
5. Gender, person, and number, and why? Eule.
6. Decline it.
7. Case, and Eule.
72. Models for Parsing.
I. "A man who is industrious, will prosper."
Who .... is a pronoun ; (why?) : relative; it represents a preceding
word or phrase, to which it joins a limiting clause : its ante-
cedent is " man :" simple : masculine gender, third person,
singular number, to agree with its antecedent: Eule IX:
nominative case; it is used as the subject of the subordi-
nate proposition " who is industrious :" Eule I.
60
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
II. "I am he whom ye seek."
Whom ... is a pronoun; (why?) : relative ; (why?) : its antecedent Is
" he :" simple : masculine gender, third person, singular num-
ber; (why ?) : Rule IX : objective case ; it is the object of
the transitive verb " seek :" Rule VI.
III. " Happy is the man that findeth wisdom."
That .... is a pronoun ; (why?) : relative; (why?) : its antecedent is
"man:" simple: masculine gender, third person, singular
number; (why?): Rule IX: nominative case; it is the
subject of the subordinate proposition "That findeth wis-
dom:" Eule I.
IV. "The horse which you sold me is lame."
Which ... is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): its antecedent is
"horse:" simple: masculine gender, third person, singular
number; (why?): Rule IX: objective case; it is the object
of the transitive verb "sold:" Rule VI.
V. "I remember what you said."
What. ... is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): it is equivalent
to that which — "that" being the antecedent part, and "which"
the relative. Parse "that" as a "pronominal adjective used
as a noun," in the objective case after "remember."
Which. . . is a pronoun (why?): relative; (why?): its antecedent is
"that:" neuter gender, third person, singular number; (why?) :
objective case; object of the transitive verb "said :" Rule VI.
VI. "That is the man whose house we occupy."
Whose. . . is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): its antecedent is
"man:" masculine gender, third person, singular number;
(why?): Rule IX : possessive case; modifies " house :" Rule III.
VII. "Whoever studies will learn."
Whoever, is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): compound; it is
equivalent to he who, or any one who — "he" being the an-
teccdent part, and "who" the relative. Parse "he" as a
personal pronoun, subject of "will learn," or "one" as a
"pronominal adjective used as a noun," subject of "will
learn," and "who" as a relative, by preceding models.
-I
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 61
VIII. " Whatever purifies sanctifies."
Whatever is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): compound; it is
equivalent to that which. Parse "that" and "which" ac-
cording to Model V — "that" being the subject of "sanc-
tifies," "which" of " purifies."
IX. "Whoso keepeth the law is a wise son."
Whoso. . . is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): compound; it is
equivalent to he who, or any one who. Parse according to
Model VII. i
X. "As many as came were baptized."
As is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): its antecedent is
"many:" simple: common gender, third person, plural
number; (why?): Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as
the subject of the subordinate proposition "as came," i. e.,
who came: Rule I.
7B. Exercises.
•Parse the relative pronouns in the following sentences :
1. Those who sow will reap. 2. He that hateth, dissembleth
with his lips. 3. They that forsake the law, praise the wicked;
but such as keep the law, contend with them. 4. There is no class
of persons that I dislike so much as those who slander their neigh-
bors. 5. The house which you admire so much, belongs to the
man whom we see yonder.
6. Whatever is, is right. 7. Whatsoever ye shall ask in my
name, that will I do. 8. He wTill do what is right. 9. This is the
dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that
lay in the house that Jack built. 10. A kind boy avoids doing
whatever injures others.
Correct the following sentences:
1. Tell me who you saw. 2. Those which are rich should assist
the poor. 3. I am the chap what is not afraid of ghosts. 4. I gave
all what I had. 5. This is the man who we sent for. 6. The dog
whom you bought, was stolen.
7. Who went with me, I shall not tell. 8. I am happy in the
62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
friend which I have long proved. 9. Whom, when they had
scourged him, they let him go. 10. They compose the easiest that
have learned to compose. 11. Do you know who you are talking
to? 12. They are the sort of people who I do not like. 13. This
is the child who was lost.
74. Interrogative Pronouns.
1. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which,
and what, when used in asking questions; as, "Who goes
there?" "Which is yours?" "What did you say?"
2. The Subsequent of an Interrogative Pronoun is
that part of the answer which is represented by it. An
Interrogative must agree with its subsequent in gender,
person, and number.
Rem. l. — Who seeks to designate some person: which, to dis-
tinguish a certain individual from others: what, to describe the
character or occupation of the person inquired for; as, "Who is
that gentleman?"— Mr. Webster.— "Which one?"— Daniel Web-
ster.— "What is he?" — An eminent lawyer and statesman.
Rem. 2. — When a definite object is referred to, which and what
are pronominal adjectives, limiting the name of the object inquired
for ; as, " Which lesson shall we learn ? " " What book shall we
study?" When an indefinite object is referred to, the interroga-
tive takes its place; as, "Which is mine?" " What say you?"
Rem. 3. — The interrogatives who and which are declined like
relative pronouns.
Rem. 4. — Apply Rule IX in parsing interrogatives, changing
"antecedents" to " subsequents."
#
75. Order of Parsing.
1. A Pronoun, and why?
2. Interrogative, and why?
3. Name its subsequent, if expressed.
4. Gender, person, and number. Rule.
5. Decline it.
6. Case, and why? Rule.
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 63
76. Models for Parsing.
I. "Who goes there?"
Who . . is a pronoun; (why?): interrogative; it is used in asking a
question : its subsequent is indefinite : gender and person inde-
terminate: singular number, to agree with its subsequent:
Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the subject of the
sentence "Who goes there?" Rule I.
II. "Which is yours?" — The large one.
Which is a pronoun (why?): interrogative; (why?) : its subsequent is
"one:" neuter gender, third person, singular number; (why?):
Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the subject of the sen-
tence "Which is yours?" Rule I.
III. "What is that man?"— A blacksmith.
What . is a pronoun; (why?): interrogative; (why?): its subsequent is
"blacksmith:" masculine gender, third person, singular number;
(why?) : Rule IX : nominative case; it is used as the predicate
of the sentence "What is that man?" Rule II.
77. Exercises.
Parse the interrogative pronouns in the following sentences :
1. Who saw the horse run? 2. Whose house is that on the hill
yonder? 3. Whom did he call? — James. 4. For whom did he
inquire ? 5. Which will you have, the large or the small book ?
6. Whom did you take me to be? 7. WThat shall I do?— Wait.
8. What can be more beautiful than that landscape? 9, Which is
the lesson? 10. Who told you howT to parse "what"?
Parse the relative and interrogative pronouns in the following sen-
tences :
1. Who is in the garden ? — My father. 2. I do not know who
is in the garden. 3. Tell me what I should do. 4. What vessel
is that? 5. Always seek for what you need the most.
6. Whose house was burned last night? — Mr. Hubbard's. 7.
The boy closed the shutters, wThich darkened the room. 8. What
is his name ? 9. Whoever enters here should have a pure heart.
10. I gave all that I had.
64 ENGLISH GKAMMAR.
Correct the following sentences :
1. Whom do you suppose it was? 2. Who do you suppose it
to be? 3. Those who consider themselves a good critic are not so
considered always by others. 4. One should not think too favor-
ably of themselves. 5. Do you know who you are talking to ?
6. The army was cut up, or at least they suffered much. 7. Be
sure to tell nobody whom you are. 8. Each of the sexes should
be kept within their proper bounds. 9. The council were divided
in its estimates. 10. No one could have acted more gallantly than
him who bore the standard of the legion.
11. I wish I was her. 12. Many a youth have injured their pros-
pects for life by one imprudent step. 13, The moon appears, but
the light is not his own. 14. Between he and 1 there is some dis-
parity of years, but none between he and she.
15. Whom say the people that I am? 16. Every one of those
pleasures that are pursued to excess, convert themselves into
poison. 17. They that honor me, I will honor. 18. The very
men that had fought in the Peninsular war, and who had received
the plaudits of all Europe, were defeated at New Orleans.
19. She was a conspicuous flower, which he had sensibility to
love, ambition to attempt, and skill to win. 20. Those lots, if they
had been sold sooner, they wouM have brought more money.
Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the following sentences :
1. Virtue is the condition of happiness. 2. Ye are the light
of the world. 3. That garment is not well made. 4. One ounce
of gold is worth sixteen ounces of silver. 5. The prayers of David,
the son of Jesse, are ended. 6. Every man went to his own house.
7. The army is loaded with the spoils of many nations. 8. Be of
the same mind one toward another.
9. He sacrificed every thing he had in the world : what could
we ask more? 10. Who 's here so base that would be a bondman?
11. I speak as to wise men : judge ye what I say. 12. Liberty was
theirs as men: without it they did not esteem themselves men.
13. The death of Socrates, peacefully philosophizing with his
friends, is the most pleasant that could be desired. 14. I was a
stricken deer, that left the herd long since.
15. O Popular Applause ! what heart of man
Is proof against thy sweet, seducing charms ?
16. Beauty is but a vain, a fleeting good :
A shining gloss, that fadeth suddenly.
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 65
17. What black, what ceaseless cares besiege our state :
What strokes we feel from fancy and from fate.
18. Unveil thy bosom, faithful tomb ;
Take this new treasure to thy trust ;
And give these sacred relics room
To slumber in the silent dust.
19. Thy spirit, Independence, let me share,
Lord of the lion-heart and eagle-eye :
Thy steps I '11 follow with my bosom bare ;
Nor heed the storm that howls along the sky.
20. The gay will laugh
When thou art gone ; the solemn brood of care
Plod on, and each one as before will chase
His favorite phantom: yet all these shall leave
Their mirth and their employment, and shall come
And make their bed with thee. — Bryant.
THE VERB.
78, Oral Lesson.
The teacher writes on the blackboard, "A horse runs," and asks
" What does the horse do ? " Arts. — A horse runs. What else may
a horse do? Ans. — A horse trots, walks, gallops, eats, drinks, &c.
Write these words on your slates. Are they the names of things?
Ans. — They are not : they are the names of actions. What shall
we call them? Ans. — Action-ivords. A very good name, but gram-
marians call them Verbs.
Write on your slates, "John studies." What is the subject of
the sentence? Ans. — "John." What is the predicate? Ans. —
"Studies." Does the sentence tell what John studies? Ans. — It
does not. Write "grammar" after the verb "studies." The sen-
tence now reads "John studies grammar." In this sentence, the
meaning of "studies" is completed by the word "grammar." What
element is that word? Ans. — An objective element.
A verb which requires an objective element to complete its
meaning, is called a transitive verb; a verb which does not require
an objective element to complete its meaning is called an intransi-
tive verb.
H. G. 6.
66~ ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Why? Ans. — Because its meaning is completed by an objective
element. What is "run," in the sentence "John runs?" Ans.—
An intransitive verb. Why? Ana, — Because its meaning is not
completed by an objective element.
Write this sentence on your slates: "The fields look green."
What is the subject of this sentence ? Ans. — " Fields." What is
the predicate ? Ans. — " Green." What is the office of the word
"look"? Ans. — It asserts the predicate "green" of the- subject
"fields." Correctly answered: its use is copulative; and all copu-
lative words, except the various forms of " be," are called copulative
verbs. What is " look " in this sentence ? Ans. — A copulative verb.
What is "seems" in the sentence "He seems afraid?" Ans. — A
copulative verb. Why? Ans. — Because it asserts the predicate of
the subject.
79. Definition.
A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state;
as, I am; George writes; The house stands.
Rem. — The being, action, or state, may be stated abstractly, or
represented as belonging to a subject; as, "To write;" "Boys
write;" "To seem;" "He seems discouraged."
80. Classes with Respect to Use.
1. With respect to their use, Verbs may be divided into
Copulative, Transitive, and Intransitive.
2. A Copulative Verb is used to assert the predicate
of a proposition of the subject; as, "Sugar is sweet;" "He
seems honest."
Rem. — The copula to be is the only pure copulative. The verbs
become, seem, appear, stand, walk, and other verbs of motion, position,
and condition, together with the passive verbs is named, is called, is
styled, is elected, is appointed, is constituted, is made, is chosen, is es-
teemed, and some others, are frequently used as copulatives.
Ex. — "The road became rough;" "The men appeared cheerful;"
uHe is styled the Czar of all the Russias;" "Sir Walter Scott is called
the Wizard of the North ;" " Gen. Washington was elected first Presi-
dent of the United States."
ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 67
3. A Transitive Verb requires an object to complete
its meaning; as, "The hunter killed a bear;" "The scholar
learned his lesson;" "That house has seven gables,"
4. An Intransitive Verb does not require an object
to complete its meaning; as, "Flowers bloom;" "Grass
grows;" "The wind blows furiously."
Rem. i. — The action expressed by a transitive verb has refer-
ence to some object external to the subject, upon which it termi-
nates: the action expressed by an intransitive verb has no such
reference, but affects the subject only. If an object is required to
complete its meaning, a verb is transitive, otherwise intransitive.
A verb in the passive form is transitive, if its subject in the passive
voice can be made its object in the active.
Ex. — "That boy studies algebra." The verb "studies" is transitive,
because its meaning is completed by the object "algebra." "That boy
studies" The verb "studies" is transitive, because some word, as les-
son, grammar, &c, is required to complete its meaning. " The winds
blow" The verb "blow" is intransitive, because the action expressed
by it affects the subject only, and does not require the addition of an
object to complete its meaning. " The letter was written by nie," i. e.y
I wrote the letter. The verb "was written" is transitive, because its
subject in the passive voice becomes its object in the active.
Rem. 2. — Verbs which signify to cause to do what an intransi-
tive verb expresses, are said to be used in a causative sense.
Ex. — "The farmer burns wood," i.e., "The farmer causes wood to
burn" The verb " burns " is used in a causative sense.
Rem. 3. — Some verbs are transitive in one signification, and in-
transitive in another.
Ex. — "It breaks my chain;" "Glass breaks easily;" "He returned
the book;" " I returned home ;" "The vessel ran the blockade;" "The
horses ran."
Hem. 4. — A verb usually intransitive, sometimes becomes tran-
sitive. This generally occurs, in poetical expressions, when the
object is like the verb in meaning, and when the verb is used in
a causative sense.
Ex. — "He lives a. noble life;" "And he dreamed yet another dream;"
" Those men are playing a game of chess ;" " Grinned horribly a ghastly
smile;" "The pirate sank the ship;" "To equip and march armies re-
quires money as well as forethought."
68 ENGLISH GBAMMAB.
81. Classes with Respect to Nature.
1. With respect to their nature, Verbs may be divided
into Active, Passive, and Neuter.
2. An Active Verb expresses action; as, "Horses gal-
lop;" "The farmer plows"
3. A Passive Verb represents its subject as acted
upon; as, "The field was plowed;" "The soldier was
wounded"
4. A Xeufer Verb implies being, or condition; as, "I
am;" "Your hat lies on the stand;" "The child sleeps in
its mother's arms."
82. Classes with Respect to Form.
1. "With respect to their form, Verbs are either Reg-
ular or Irregular.
2. A Regular Verb forms its past indicative and per-
fect participle by adding d or ed to the present indicative,
or simplest form of the verb; as, love, love-d, love-d; count,
count-ed, count-ed.
3. An Irregular Verb does not form its past indica-
tive and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present
indicative; as, see, saw, seen; go, went, gone.
83. Properties.
The Properties of Verbs are Voice, Mode, Tense,
Number, and Person.
84. Voice.
1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which
shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon.
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 69
2. Transitive Verbs have two voices: an Active and
a Passive Voice.
3. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting
npon an object; as, " John struck James;" "The boy was
studying;" "The cat caught the mouse."
4. The Passive Voice represents the subject as being
acted upon ; as, " James was struck by John ;" " The mouse
was caught;" "The lesson was studied"
5. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing some form
of the neuter verb to be to the perfect participle of a
transitive verb.
Rem. l. — A verb in the active voice is changed into the pas-
sive, by making the direct object in the active the subject in the
passive.
Ex. — "The boy shut the door," (active;) "The door was shut by
the boy," (passive.) "He saw the comet;" "The comet was seen by
';he astronomer."
Rem. 2.— Certain verbs are sometimes used, with a passive sig-
nification, in the active voice. They then denote the capacity to
receive an act, rather than its actual reception.
Ex. — "This stick splits easily;" " Butter sells for forty cents ;" "This
cloth wears well;" "This timber saws well ;" "The bridge is building;"
"I have nothing to wear;" "He has some ax to ginnd;" "He has no
money to spend foolishly."
Rem. 3. — A few verbs sometimes assume the passive form,
though used in an active sense.
Ex. — "The melancholy days are come," i.e., have come; "Babylon
is fallen " i. e.} has fallen; "She is gone" i. e., has gone; "The hour
is arrived" i. e., has arrived.
Rem. 4. — The passive voice is used when the agent is unknown,
or when we wish to conceal it and call attention to the act and its
object alone; as, "The robbery ivas committed (by some person un-
known, or known but not mentioned) in broad daylight." When
we wish to make the agent prominent, the active voice should be
used; as, "The escaped convict committed the robbery in broad
davhVht."
70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
85a Exercises.
Tell which of the verbs, in the following sentences, are in the active
voice, and which in the passive :
1. Sarah loves flowers. 2. John was astonished at the news.
3. William saw a meteor. 4. A meteor was seen. 5. I have writ-
ten a letter. 6. That poem was written by Saxe. 7. He should
have waited longer, 8. The heavens declare the glory of God.
9. He found the money.
86. The Participle.
1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, par-
taking of the properties of a verb and of an adjective or
a noun.
Rem. — The participle is so called from its partaking of the
properties of a verb, and of an adjective and a noun. It is the
attributive part of the verb, used without assertion. It is not a
verb, consequently neither mode nor tense belongs to it. It simply
denotes continuance or completion of action, being, or state, rela-
tively to the time denoted by the principal verb of the sentence
in which it is found.
2. There are three Participles: the Present, the Perfect,
and the Compound. The present and the compound have
both an active and a passive form and use. The perfect
has an active and a passive use.
3. The Present Participle denotes the continuance
of action, being, or state; as, loving, being loved.
Rem. — The present active participle always ends in ing. It may
be used,
1st. As an adjective; as, "Twinkling stars."
2d. As a predicate ; as, " The stars are twinkling:7
3d. As a noun ; as, " I am fond of reading."
4th. As a noun, with the modifications of a verb ; as, "Describ-
ing a past event as present, has a fine effect in language."
4. The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of
action, being, or state ; as, seen, appointed.
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 7 1
Hem. — This participle generally, though not always, ends in d
or ed. It is frequently used as an adjective, but never as a noun,
and is usually found in compound forms of the verb.
Ex. — aHe died, loved by all;" "Her promise, made cheerfully, was
kept faithfully.
5. The Compound Participle denotes the completion
of action, being, or state, at or before the time represented
by the principal verb; as, "Having written the letter, he
mailed it."
Rem. — This participle is formed by placing having or having
been before the perfect participle, and may be used as a noun ; as,
" I am accused of having plotted treason ;" " He is charged with
having been engaged in the slave-trade." It is also formed by
placing having been before the present participle ; as, "Having been
loving"
87. Exercises.
Give the present, perfect, and compound participles of the following
verbs :
Eely, find, help, study, recite, inquire, answer, plow, cultivate,
join, emulate, spell, grow, paint, resemble, hope, suffer, sit, see, go,
come, lay, arrive, exhaust, enjoy, write, read, learn, ventilate.
Form sentences, using any of the above participles as predicates.
Model. — "Mary is studying her lesson."
88. Auxiliaries.
1. Auxiliary Verbs are those which are used in the
conjugation of other verbs.
2. They are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must
Rem. l.— Do, be, have, and will are often used as principal
verbs; as, "He does well;" "I am;" "We have cares and anx-
ieties;" "He willed me a thousand dollars."
Rem. 2 The auxiliaries were originally used as principal
verbs, followed by the infinitives of what are now called the prin-
72
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
cipal verbs; as, "I can [to] read;" "You may [to] go;" "He has
[to] come." The sign to is now dropped, and the infinitive is
regarded as the principal verb ; the auxiliaries being mere form-
words, showing the relations of mode and tense.
Rem. 3. — The auxiliaries, when used as such, except must,
which is used in the present tense only, have two tenses: the
present and the past, s
89. Conjugation of the Auxiliaries.
Present Tense.
Singular.
Plural.
1st Person.
2d Person.
3d Person.
lsf Person.
2d Person.
3d Person.
I
Thou
He
We
You
They
Am,
art,
is,
Are,
are,
are,
Do,
dost,
does,
Do,
do,
do,
Have,
hast,
has,
Have,
have,
have,
Will,
wilt,
will,
Will,
will,
will,
Shall,
shalt,
shall,
Shall,
shall,
shall,
May,
mayst,
may,
May,
may,
may,
Can,
canst,
can,
Can,
can,
can,
Must,
must,
must,
Past '
Must,
rense.
must,
must.
Was,
wast,
was,
Were,
wrere,
were,
Did,
didst,
did,
Did,
did,
did,
Had,
hadst,
had,
Had,
had,
had,
Would,
wouldst,
would,
Would,
would,
would^
Should,
shouldst,
should,
Should,
should,
should
Might,
mightst,
might,
Might,
might,
might,
Could,
couldst,
could,
Could,
could,
could.
MODE.
90. Definition.
1. Mode is the manner in which the action, being, or
state is expressed.
2. There are five modes: the Indicative, Subjunctive,
Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive.
ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 73
91. Indicative Mode.
The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact, or as
actually existing; as, "The man walks;" "The house was
burned"
Rem. — The indicative mode may be used in interrogative and
exclamatory sentences ; also, in subordinate propositions, to denote
what is actual, or what is assumed as actual ; as, "Is he a mer-
chant ?" "The rascal has stolen my horse!" "I learn that you have
removed from town."
92. Subjunctive Mode.
The Subjunctive Mode asserts a thing as doubtful, as
a wish, a supposition, or a future contingency ; as, "If this
be true, all will end well;" "Had I the wings of a dove;"
" I shall leave, if you remain"
Rem. i. — The subjunctive mode is so called because it is used
in subjoined or subordinate propositions only. It represents an
ideal act, or a real act placed under a condition of more or less
doubt, and is joined to the verb of the principal proposition by
the subordinate connectives if, though, except, lest, that, unless,
and some others. These connectives are called the signs of the
subjunctive.
Rem. 2. —The sign is frequently omitted, in which case the
auxiliary or copula precedes the subject; as, "Had I time," i.e.,
If I had time ; " Were I a king," i. e., If I were a king.
Rem. 3 — The present subjunctive represents the thing supposed
as possible, though doubtful; as, "If I go:" I may go or I may
not. It implies future time; as, "If it rain, I shall not go;" "It
is necessary that the dispatch be sent as soon as possible." " If it
rains " is indicative, denoting present time ; i. e., it implies that
the speaker does not know whether it is raining now or not.
Rem. 4. — The past subjunctive denotes indefinite or present
time, and represents a supposition contrary to the fact, or unreal ;
as, " If he were honest, [implying that he is not,] he would pay
me." "If he was honest" is indicative, implying that the speaker
H. G. 7.
74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
does not know whether the person spoken of was honest, in time
past, or not.
Rem. 5. — The past perfect subjunctive denotes past time, and
represents a supposition contrary to the fact; as, "If I had been
invited, [implying that I had not,] I should have gone"
Kem. 6. — The subjunctive is very generally used in expressing
suppositions and conclusions in reasoning ; as, " If a regular hex-
agon be inscribed in a circle, any side will be equal to the radius
of the circle ;" " If the thankful refrained, it would be pain and
grief to them."
93. Potential Mode.
The Potential Mode asserts the power, necessity, lib-
erty, duty, or liability of acting, or being in a certain state ;
as, "You can read;" "He must go;" "You may retire;"
" They should be more careful."
Rem. l. — The potential mode, like the indicative, is used in
interrogative and exclamatory sentences; also, in subordinate
propositions, to represent what is assumed as actual, or what has
not been realized; as, "I know that I may be disappointed;"
"He says that I may study algebra."
Rem. 2. — The signs of the potential mode are the auxiliaries
may, can, must, might, could, would, and should.
1. Can or could implies power or ability within one's self; as,
"He can do it," i. e., he has ability to do it without assistance
from others.
2. May or might implies an agency without or beyond one's
self; hence, possibility, probability, permission, wishing — the act
being contingent on something beyond one's own will or power ;
as, "He may go," i. e., all hindrances are removed: "You may all
go to the picnic," denotes permission : " O, that he might return,"
denotes a wish that all hindrance to his return be removed.
3. Must denotes physical, mental, or moral necessity; as, "We
must submit to the laws," i. e., in the nature or fitness of things,
there is a necessity for our doing so.
4. Should denotes that the act or state is not dependent upon
the doer's will, but on that of another; hence, duty or obligation;
ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 75
as, "He should pay his debts," i. e., it is his duty, or he is under a
moral obligation to pay his debts.
5. Would implies inclination, wish, or desire; as, "He would
pay his debts, if he could," i. e., he has the inclination or desire.
94. Imperative Mode.
The Imperative Mode expresses a command, an ex-*
hortation, an entreaty, or a permission; as, "Charge, Ches-
ter, charge!" "Do come to see us;" "Lead us not into
temptation."
Rem. i. — The imperative mode may usually be known by the
omission of the subject; as, " Write" [thou, you, or ye]. It denotes
a command, when a superior speaks to an inferior; an exhorta-
tion, when an equal speaks to an equal; a prayer or supplication,
when an inferior addresses a superior. It is used mostly in prin-
cipal propositions, and is made subordinate in direct quotations
only; as, "He said, 'Be silent.' "
Rein. 2. — The expressions "Let Ellen come," 'Let him go," &c,
are made up of the imperative of the verb let, and the objective
case of a noun or pronoun, limited by an infinitive. They are
equivalent to "Permit [thou] Ellen to go," &c.
Rem. 3. — These expressions are sometimes abridged by drop-
ping the verb let, changing the infinitive to the imperative, and
the objective case to the nominative ; as, "Come one, come all," i. e.,
Let one come, let all come: "Sing we to our God above," i. e., Let
us sing to our God above. In such cases, the noun or pronoun
should be parsed as the subject of the proposition, the imperative
agreeing with it in number and person. This use of the impera-
tive, in the first or third person, is not uncommon.
Ex. — "Ruin seize thee, ruthless king." — Gray. "Laugh those who
may, iveep those who must." — Scott. "Then turn we to her latest trib-
une's name." — Byron. "Proceed we therefore to our subject." — Pope.
"Be it enacted."— States of Ohio. "Be it so."— Webster. " Somebody
call my wife." — Shakspeare. "So help me God." "Hallowed be thy
name."
Rem. 4. — The imperative mode is sometimes used to denote
merely the intention or wish of the speaker, without special refer-
ence to any person addressed; as, "God said, Let there be light;"
76 ENGLISH GKAMMAK.
"Deliver me from such friends." It may also be used to denote
indifference or unconcern on the part of the speaker; as, "Let it
rain:" "Let him sue me if he dare."
95. Infinitive Mode.
The Infinitive Mode expresses the action, being, or
state, without affirming it; as, to write; to have written;
"He rose to speak"
Rem. 1. — The infinitive may usually be known by the sign to
placed before it. This sign is omitted after the verbs bid, dare,
feel, hear, help, let, make, need, see, and a few others ; as, "Bid them
be quiet;" "Let them come on;" "See him run."
Rem. 2 — The infinitive, as an abstract noun, may be the
subject or predicate of a sentence; may be in apposition with a
noun; and may be the object of a transitive verb or preposition;
as, "To lie is disgraceful;" "To work is to pray;" "Delightful
task, to rear the tender thought;" "I love to read;" "Can save
the son of Thetis from to die"
Although the infinitive has the construction of a noun, it may
govern an object, or be modified by an adverb. It is never lim-
ited by an adjective attribute, but may have a predicate adjective
belonging to it; as, "To converse is pleasant"
96. Exercises.
Tell the mode of the verbs in the following sentences:
1. A great storm is raging. 2. You may go or stay. 3. Bring
me some flowers. 4. Hope thou in God. 5. If he study, he will
excel. 6. If he studies, it is when he is alone. 7. Were I rich, I
would purchase that property. 8. Who will go with me? 9. Do
let me see your book.
10. I must not be tardy. 11. Lift up your heads, O ye gates!
12. Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the kingdom of
heaven. 13. He should have told you. 14. They dare not puzzle
us for their own sakes. 15. Let us not, I beseech you, deceive our-
selves longer.
16. God help us I what a poor world this would be, if this were
the true doctrine. 17. If a line is parallel to a line of a plane, it
ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 77
is parallel to that plane. 18. If a plane intersect two parallel
planes, the lines of intersection will be parallel. 19. Sucn a man
were one for whom a woman's heart should beat constant while
he breathes, and break when he dies.
20. Keign thou in hell, thy kingdom ; let me serve
In heaven, God ever blest. — Milton.
21. Place me on Sunium's marble steep,
Where nothing, save the waves and I,
May hear our mutual murmurs sweep ;
There, swan-like, let me sing and die. — Byron.
TENSE.
97. Definition.
1. Tense denotes the time of an action or event.
2. There are three divisions of time : Past, Present, and
Future. Each division has two tenses : an absolute and
a relative.
3. The Absolute Tenses are the Present, the Past,
and the Future. They denote indefinite or incomplete
action.
4. The Relative Tenses are the Present Perfect, the
Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect They denote com-
pleted action.
98. Present Tense.
The Present Tense denotes present time; as, "I walk;"
" The army is marching."
Rem. 1. — The present tense is used in expressing a general
truth, or what is habitual; as, "Perseverance conquers all things;"
"The mail arrives at six P. M."
Rem. 2 — The historical present is the present used for the past,
to describe more vividly what took place in past time ; as, " Tacitus
describes the manners and customs of the ancient Germans;"
78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
"Ulysses wakes, not knowing where he was." — Pope. "Matthew
traces the descent of Joseph ; Luke traces that of Mary."
Hem. 3. — The present subjunctive implies future time ; as, " If I
go, I shall not return."
The present potential implies either present or future time ; as,
"It may be snowing" (now) ; "I may go" (to-morrow).
The present imperative is future in regard to the act or state ; as,
"Come again," i. e., at some future time.
Rem. 4. — The present of the speaker or hearer is what is meant
by present time. The present of the reader may not be the same
as that of the writer.
Rem. 5.— When preceded by a relative pronoun, or by con-
junctive adverbs of time, the present tensers sometimes future in
its reference; as, "He will please all who employ him;" "The
flowers will bloom when spring comes"
99. Present Perfect Tense,
The Present Perfect Tense represents an action or
event as past, but connected with present time; as, "I have
learned my lesson/'
Rem. i. — Have, the sign of the present perfect tense, originally
denoted possession. It retains this meaning when used as a prin-
cipal verb. As an auxiliary, it denotes completion; as, "The hunt-
ers have killed a wolf;" "A man has fallen from the bridge."
i
Rem. 3. — The present perfect indicative also expresses action
completed in past time, but continued in itself, or in its effects, to
the present; as, "He has lived here ten years," (and lives here
noiv); "Cicero has written orations," (and still lives in his
writings).
The present perfect potential usually denotes the present or
future probability that an act relatively past was performed; as,
" I must have paid that note," (a fact now probable) ; " In two
years he may have outgrown you," (a fact then to be probable).
Rem. 3 — When preceded by a conjunctive adverb of time, the
present perfect tense sometimes denotes future time; as, "He will
forward the goods as soon as he has received them."
1
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 79
100, Past Tense.
The Past Tense expresses what took place in time
wholly past; as, "I wrote;" "I was sailing"
Rem. — The past indicative denotes what was habitual or cus-
tomary; as, "We lived high in those days." In the progressive
form, it denotes an act in past time, but not completed ; as, " He
was driving furiously when I saw him."
The past subjunctive generally expresses a supposition contrary
to the fact, and represents present time; as, "If I were going
[now], I would ride."
The past potential denotes (1) a duty or obligation, without ref-
erence to time; as, "Judges should be merciful:" (2) a habit or
custom; as, "He would be absent a week at a time:" (3) ability
possessed in past time; as, "He could walk yesterday:" (4) present
possibility or power; as, "I could write [now] if I would:" (5) a
future possibility; as, "If I should write to you [hereafter], you
must answer immediately."
101. Past Perfect Tense.
The Past Perfect Tense represents an act as ended
or completed in time fully past; as, "The cars had started
before we reached the depot."
Rem. l. — The past is frequently used instead of the past perfect,
to denote the completion of an act at or before a certain past time
mentioned; as, "The boat left before midnight."
Rem. 2 — The past perfect subjunctive and past perfect potential
denote past time simply, and deny the action or event ; as, " If I
had started sooner, I should have overtaken you."
102. Future Tense.
The Future Tense expresses what will take place in
future time; as, "I shall return soon;" "The lion shall eat
straw like the ox."
Rem. l. — shall and will are the signs of the future tense.
Shall expresses the action or event (1) as a duty commanded or
80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
authorized; as, "He shall pay you;" "Thou shalt not steal:" (2)
as something unavoidable, unless a certain condition be complied
with; as, "I shall suffer, if I do not take my overcoat:" (3) as
future; as, "I shall leave at noon;" "You shall often find the
richest men the meanest."
Will expresses the action or event (1) as something determined
upon, or proceeding from the nature of things; as, "I will go:
no power on earth can prevent me;" "The cause will raise up
armies:" (2) as future; as, "You will feel better to-morrow."
Rem. 2. — Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and
third, are usually employed to denote futurity; as, "We shall
arrive there by noon;" "You will be glad to see us;" "He will be
with us."
Will is used, in the first person, to denote determination; and
shall, in the second and third, to denote necessity ; as, " I will write
to you;" "Neither he nor you shall go without me."
103. Future Perfect Tense.
The Future Perfect Tense represents an action as
finished or ended at or before a certain future time; as, "I
shall have finished my task at three o'clock;" "We shall
have dined before you arrive."
104. Tenses in all the Modes.
l; The Indicative Mode has the six tenses.
2. The Subjunctive Mode has three tenses: the present,
pasty and past perfect.
3. The Potential Mode has four tenses: the present,
present perfect, past, and past perfect
4. The Imperative Mode has one tense: the present.
5. The Infinitive Mode has too tenses: the present and
present perfect.
Rem. — Tense does not properly belong to the infinitive mode.
Its tenses are mere forms, without regard to time. The present
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS, 81
tense denotes progressive or completed action or state, with refer-
ence to past, present, or future time; the present perfect, a com-
pleted action or state in an unlimited manner.
105. Signs of the Tenses : Active Voice.
Indicative Mode.
Present, . . . Simple form of the verb.
Past, .... When regular, add ed to the simple form.
Future, . . . Prefix shall or will to the simple form.
Present Perfect, " have, hast, or has to the perfect participle.
Past Perfect, . " had or hadst to the perfect participle.
Future Perfect, " shall have or will have to the perfect participle.
Subjunctive Mode.
If, though, except, unless, &c, placed before tense forms given in the
Conjugation, are signs of the subjunctive mode.
Potential Mode.
Present, . . . Prefix may, can, or must to the simple form.
Past, .... " might, could, would, or should to the simple form.
Present Perfect, » " may, can, or must have to the perfect participle.
Past Perfect, . " might, could, would, or should have to the perfect
participle.
Imperative Mode.
Present, . . . Let, or a command.
Infinitive Mode.
Present, . . . Prefix to to the simple form.
Present Perfect, " to have to the perfect participle.
Participles.
Present, . . . Add ing to the simple form.
Perfect, . . . When regular, add ed or d to the simple form.
Compound, . . Prefix having to the perfect participle.
106. Forms of the Yerb.
1. Verbs have five forms, which may be considered
subdivisions of the tenses: the Common, the Emphatic, the
Progressive, the Passive, and the Ancient, or Solemn Style.
82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. The Common Form represents an act as a custom,
or as completed without reference to its progress; as, "I
write;" "I shall write"
3. The Emphatic Form represents an act with em-
phasis; as, "1 do write;" "He did go."
Rem. — This form is used in the present and past indicative and
subjunctive, and in the present imperative. It is formed by pre-
fixing the present and past tenses of to do to the simple form of
the verb.
4. The Progressive Form is used to denote action
or state in progress; as, "I am writing;" "He had been
singing."
Rem. — The progressive form may be used in all the modes and
tenses, and is formed by prefixing the various modes and tenses
of the neuter verb to be to the present participle of the principal
verb.
5. The Passive Form denotes the reception of an act
by its subject; as, "I am struck;" "John was punished;"
" I shall be loved"
Rem. — The passive form is used in all the modes and, tenses,
and is formed by prefixing the various modes and tenses of the
neuter verb to be to the perfect participle of the principal verb.
6. The Ancient Form, or Solemn Style, is used in
the Bible, in religious worship, and sometimes in poetry
and burlesque; as, "Thou art the man;" "So shalt thou
rest;" "Thou art a pretty fellow."
107. Person and Number.
1. The Person and Xumber of verbs are the changes
which they undergo to mark their agreement with their
subjects.
2. A subject in the second person singular, generally
requires the verb, or its auxiliary, to end in t, st, or est;
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 83
as, "Thou shalt not steal ?' "Thou canst read;" "Thou
runnest;"
3. A subject in the third person singular, generally
requires the verb, or its auxiliary, to end in s, es, or eth;
as, "Julia reads;" "The horse goes;" "God loveth us."
4. The personal terminations in the plural are the same
as the first person singular, except in the verb to be.
5. A verb must agree with its subject in person and
number.
Rem. i. — When two or more nominatives, differing in person,
are taken collectively, the verb prefers the first to the second, and
the second to the third. When they are connected by or or nor,
or are taken separately, it prefers the person of the nominative
next to it. Courtesy requires the first place to be given to the
second person, and last place to the first.
Ex. — "You, he, and I have to remain;'' "You and he have to learn
that long lesson;" "You or I am mistaken;" "Thou and thy friends
are to make reparation."
Rem. 2 — A verb must be in the singular number (1) when its
nominative is in the singular; (2) when its nominative is a group
of objects viewed as one thing; (3) when its nominative is an
object conceived as a unit, though denoted by a plural nominative;
(4) when its nominative is two or more objects taken singly, and
denoted by different or by several nominatives.
Ex. — "Rain falls;" "The army is marching;11 " Dombey & Son
was written by Dickens;" "The ten dollars was duly paid;" "Descent
and fall to us is adverse;" "For thine is the kingdom, and the power,
and the glory.11
Rem. 3. — A verb must^be in the plural number (1) when its
nominative is a single object, or a group of objects conceived as to
its individual parts; (2) when its nominative is plural; (3) when
plural nominatives are used in connection with singular nomina-
tives, taken separately, or connected by or or nor; (4) when it has
two or more objects taken collectively.
Ex. — "The rains descend;11 "The multitude pursue pleasure;"
"Either the magistrate or the laivs are at fault;" "You, he, and I
are here."
84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
108. Unipersonal Yerfos.
A Unipersonal Verb is one by which an act or
state is asserted independently of any particular subject;
as, "It snows;" "It cleared off;" "It behooves us to
be careful."
Rem. — Meseems, meseemed, methinks, methought, may be regarded
as unipersonal verbs, equivalent to it seems, it seemed to me, I think,
I thought,
109. Conjugation.
1. The Conjugation of a verb, is the correct expres-
sion, in regular order, of its modes, tenses, voices, persons,
and numbers.
2. There are four forms of conjugation: the Regular,
the Emphatic, the Progressive, and the Interrogative.
3. The Principal Parts of a verb are the present
indicative, the past indicative, and the perfect participle.
4. The Synopsis of a verb is its variation in form,
through the different modes and tenses, in a single number
and person.
110. Conjugation of the Terb "To Be."
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle.
Be, or am, Was, Been.
SYNOPSIS.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present, ... I am. Past Perfect, . I had been.
Present Perfect, I have been. Future, ... I shall be.
Past, .... I was. Future Perfect, I shall have been.
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 85
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present, . . . If I be. Past, . . . . If I were.
Past Perfect, .... If I had been.
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present, ... I may, can, or must be.
Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have been.
Past, .... I might, could, would, or should be.
Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have been.
REGULAR CONJUGATION.
Note. — Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and
third, future tenses, are used to denote futurity. When will is used
in the first person, or shall, in the second or third, determination or
necessity is represented.
INDICATIVE MODE.
1.
2.
3.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
I am, 1. We are,
Thou art, 2. You are,
He is ; 3. They are.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1.
2.
3.
I have been, 1. We have been,
Thou hast been, 2. You have been,
He has been; 3. They have been.
PAST TENSE.
1.
2.
3.
I was, 1. We were,
Thou wast, 2. You were,
He was ; 3. They were.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I had been, 1. We had been,
2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been,
3. He had been; 3. They had been.
86
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1.
2.
3.
FUTURE 1
Singular.
I shall be,
Thou wilt be,
He will be;
^ens
1.
2.
3.
E.
Flural.
We shall be.
You will ber
They will be.
FUTURE
PERFECT
tense.
1.
2.
3.
I shall have been,
Thou wilt have been,
He will have been;
1.
2.
3.
We shall have been,
You will have been,
They will hav* been
\r
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
1. If I be, 1. If we be,
2. If thou be, 2. If you be,
3. If he be; 3. If they be.
1. If I were,
2. If thou wert,
3. If he were;
PAST TENSE.
1. If we were,
2. If you were,
3. If they were.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. If I had been, 1. If we had been,
2. If thou hadst been, 2. If you had been,
3. If he had been; 3. If they had beenc
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
1. I may be,
2. Thou mayst be,
3. He may be;
1. We may be,
2. You may be,
3. They may be.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I may have been,
2. Thou mayst have been,
3. He may have been ;
1. We may have been,
2. You may have been,
3. They may have been.
ETYMOLOGY — VEKBS. 8 7
PAST TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might be, 1. We might be,
2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be,
3. He might be; 3. They might be.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I might have been, 1. We might have been,
2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been,
3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been.
Mote. — In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must.
IMPEEATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
2. Be, or do thou be ; 2. Be, or do ye or you be.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present, To be. Present Perfect, To have been.
PAETICIPLES.
Present, Being. Perfect, Been. Compound, Having been.
HI. Conjugation of the Verb "To loYe."
ACTIVE VOICE.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle.
Love. Loved. Loved.
SYNOPSIS.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present, ... I love. Past Perfect, . I had loved.
Present Perfect, I have loved. Future, ... I shall love.
Past, .... I loved. Future Perfect, I shall have loved.
88 ENGL.ISH GRAMMAR.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present, . . . If I love. Past, . . . If I loved.
Past Perfect, .... If I had loved.
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present, ... I may, can, or must love.
Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have loved.
Past, .... I might, could, would, or should love.
Past Perfect, I might, could, would, or should have loved.
REGULAR CONJUGATION.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular, Plural.
1. I love, 1. We love,
2. Thou lovest, 2. You love,
3. He loves; 3. They love.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I have loved, 1. We have loved,
2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved,
3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved.
PAST TENSE.
. 1. I loved, 1. We loved,
2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved,
3. He loved ; 3. They loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I had loved, 1. We had loved,
2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved,
3. He had loved; 3. They had loved.
FUTURE TENSE.
1. I shall love, 1. We shall love,
2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love,
3. He will love ; 3. They will love.
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 89
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved,
2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved,
3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
1. If I love, 1. If we love,
2. If thou love, 2. If you love,
3. If he love; 3. If they love.
PAST TENSE.
1. If I loved, 1. If we loved,
2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved,
3. If he loved; 3. If they loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved,
2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved>
3. If he had loved ; 3. If they had loved.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
1. I may love, 1. We may love,
2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love,
3. He may love; 3. They may love,
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved,
2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved,
3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved.
PAST TENSE.
1. I might love, 1. We might love,
2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love,
3. He might love; 3. They might love.
H. G. 8-
90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved,
2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved,
3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved.
IMPEKATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
2. Love, or do thou love; 2. Love, or do ye or you love.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present, To love. Present Perfect, To have loved.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Loving. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having loved.
112. Conjugation of the Verb "To Loye."
PASSIVE VOICE.
The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing, as an auxiliary,
the various forms of the neuter verb to be, to the perfect participle
of a transitive verb. The tense of the verb to be determines the
tense in the Passive Voice.
SYNOPSIS.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present, I am loved.
Present Perfect, ... I have been loved.
Past, I was loved.
Past Perfect, . . . . I had been loved.
Future, I shall be loved.
Future Perfect, ... I shall have been loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present, . . If I be loved. Past, . . If I were loved.
Past Perfect, ... If I had been loved.
ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 9 1
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present, I may be loved.
Present Perfect, ... I may have been loved.
Past, I might be loved.
Past Perfect, .... I might have been loved.
REGULAR CONJUGATION.
INDICATIVE MODE.
1.
2.
Singular.
I am loved,
Thou art loved,
PRESENT
TENSE.
Plural
1. We are loved,
2. You are lovea,
3.
He is loved;
3. They are loved.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved,
2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved,
3. He has been loved; 3. They have been loved.
PAST TENSE.
1. I was loved, 1. We were lovea,
2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved,
3. He was loved; 3. They were loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved,
2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved.
3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved
FUTURE TENSE.
1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved,
2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved,
3. He will be loved ; 3. They will be loved.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved,
2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved,
3. He will have been loved ; 3. They will have been loved.
92 ENGLISH GKAMMAE.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved,
2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved,
3. If lie be loved; 3. If they be loved.
PAST TENSE.
1. If I were loved, 1. Were I loved, 1. If we were loved,
2. If thou wert loved, 2. Wert thou loved, 2. If you were loved,
3. If he were loved ; -3. Were he loved ; 3. If they were loved.
Rem. — For the Past Perfect Tense, prefix if to the forms of the
past perfect indicative.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved,
2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved,
3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved,
2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved,
3. He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved.
PAST TENSE.
1. I -might be loved, 1. We might be loved,
2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved,
3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved,
2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved,
3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved.
Note. — In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
2. Be loved, or be thou loved ; 2. Be loved, or be you loved
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 93
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present, To be loved. Pres. Perfect, To have been loved.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres., Being loved. Perfect, Loved. Compound Having been loved.
113. Coordinate Forms of Conjugation.
The Progressive, the Emphatic, and the Interrogative are called
the Coordinate Forms of Conjugation.
SYNOPSIS.
PROGRESSIVE FORM.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present, I am loving.
Present Perfect, ... I have been loving.
Past, I was loving.
Past Perfect, .... I had been loving.
Future, I shall be loving.
Future Perfect, ... I shall have been loving.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present, . . If I be loving. Past, . . If I were loving.
Past Perfect, ... If I had been loving.
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present, I may be loving.
Present Perfect, ... I may have been loving.
Past, . I might be loving.
Past Perfect, .... I might have been loving.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present, To be loving. Present Perfect, To have been loving.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present, .... Be thou loving.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Loving. Compound, Having been loving.
94
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
THE EMPHATIC FORM.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present, I do love. Past, I did love.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present, If I do love. Past, If I did love.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present, Do thou love.
INTERROGATIVE FORM.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present, . . . Love I ? Do I love ? Am I loving ?
Present Perfect, Have I loved ? Have I been loving ?
Past, .... Loved I? Did I love? Was I loving?
Past Perfect, . Had I loved ? Had I been loving ?
Future, . . . Shall I love? Shall I be loving?
Future Perfect, Shall I have loved? Shall I have been loving?
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present, . . Must I love ? Past, . . . Might I love ?
Pres. Perfect, Must I have loved ? Past Perfect, Might I have loved ?
114. Negative Forms.
1. To conjugate a verb negatively, place not after it, or
after the first auxiliary; but before the infinitive and the
participles.
Ex. — Indicative, I learn not, or I do not learn. I have not learned.
I learned not, or did not learn, &c.
Infinitive. — Not to learn. J^ot to have learned.
Participle. — Not learning. Not learned. Not having learned.
2. To conjugate a verb interrogatively and negatively, in
the indicative and potential modes, place the subject and
not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary.
En. — Learn I not? or, Do I not learn? Have I not learned? Did
I not learn ? &c.
I
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.
95
115. Exercises.
Write a synopsis of the transitive verbs write, think, row, arouse,
build, conquer, command, entreat, teach, and instruct, in the In-
dicative, Subjunctive, and Potential Modes, Active and Passive
Voices.
Tell the mode, tense, person, and number of each verb in the follovj-
ing sentences :
1. He has gone. 2. I might write. 3. We had gone. 4. He
had been assured. 5. If I were loved. 6. They may have been
left. 7. You were seen. 8. Thou wilt have loved. 9. She will
have been invited. 10. He might have built. 11. You might
have been seen. 12. The vessel will have sailed.
13. We might have written. 14. They were loved. 15. If I had
been loved. 16. If he is loved. 17. Though he love. 18. Though
he is loved. 19. If I may be seen. 20. We can go. 21. Go.
22. Eemain. 23. If he return. 24. If he returns.
116. Irregular Verbs.
An Irregular Verb is one which does not form its
past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the
present tense; as, do, did, done; go, went, gone.
The following list contains the Principal Parts of most of the
Irregular verbs. Those marked n have also the regular forms.
Present.
Past.
Perfect
Participle.
Present.
PaM.
Perfect
Participle.
Abide,
abode,
abode.
Become,
became,
become.
Am,
was,
been.
Befall,
befell,
befallen.
Awake,
awoke, r.
/ awaked,
^ awoke.
Be^et,
/ hegat,
I begot,
begotten,
O 1
begot.
Arise,
arose,
arisen.
Begin,
began,
begun.
Bear,
f bore,
) I bare,
born.
Behold,
beheld,
beheld.
(bring forth,
Belay,
belaid, r.
belaid, r.
Bear, (carry,) bore,
borne.
Bend,
bent, r.
bent, R.
Beat,
beat,
f beaten,
*> beat.
Bereave,
bereft, r.
bereft, R.
Beseech,
besought,
besought.
96
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Resent.
Past.
Perfect
Participle.
Present.
Past.
Perfect
Participle.
Bet,
bet, R.
bet, R.
Dream,
dreamt, ]
R dreamt, r.
Betide,
j betided,
I betid,
betided,
Dress,
drest, R.
drest, r.
betid.
Dwell,
dwelt, R.
dwelt, R.
Bid,
/bid,
J. bade,
bid,
Drive,
drove,
driven.
* bidden.
Eat,
ate,
eaten.
"DUn
bit,
f bitten,
I bit.
Fall,
fell,
fallen.
Jt>ite,
Feed,
fed,
fed.
Bind,
bound,
bound.
Feel,
felt,
felt.
Bleed,
bled,
bled.
Fight,
fought,
fought.
Bless,
f blessed,
t blest,
blessed,
Find,
found,
found.
blest.
Forbear,
forbore,
forborne.
Breed,
bred,
bred.
Forget,
forgot,
f forgotten,
I forgot.
Break,
f broke,
I brake,
broken,
broke.
Forsake,
forsook,
forsaken.
Bring,
brought,
brought.
Flee,
fled,
fled.
Build,
built, R.
built, r.
Fling,
flung,
flung.
Burn,
burnt, R.
burnt, R.
Fly,
flew,
flown.
Burst,
burst,
burst.
Freeze,
froze,
frozen.
Buy,
bought,
bought.
Freight,
freighted, fraught, r.
Cast,
cast,
cast.
Get,
got,
f got,
\ gotten.
Catch,
caught, R
caught, r.
Chide,
chid,
f chidden,
1 chid.
Give,
gave,
given.
Gild,
gilt, R.
gilt, R.
Choose,
chose,
chosen.
Gird;
girt, R.
girt, R.
Cleave,
f cleaved,
l clave,
cleaved.
Go, '
went,
gone.
(adhere,.
Grave,
graved,
graven, R.
Cleave,
(split,
c cleft,
cleft.
Grind,
ground,
ground.
-j clove,
cloven,
Grow,
grew,
grown.
v clave,
cleaved.
Hang,
hung, R.
hung, R.
Cling,
clung,
clung.
Have,
had,
had.
Clothe
f clothed,
I clad,
clothed,
Heave,
hove, R.
hoven, R.
\~/X\Jvl.X\s}
clad.
Hew,
hewed,
hewn, R.
Come,
came,
come.
Hear,
heard,
heard.
Cost,
cost,
cost.
Hide,
hid,
/ hidden,
Ihid.
Creep,
crept,
crept.
Crow,
crew, R.
crowed.
Hit,
hit,
hit.
Cut,
cut,
cut.
Hold,
held,
f held,
I holden.
Dare,
durst, R.
dared.
Deal,
dealt,
dealt.
Hurt,
hurt,
hurt.
Dig,
dug, R.
dug, R.
Keep,
kept,
kept.
Do,
did,
done.
Kneel,
knelt, R
knelt.
Draw,
drew,
drawn.
Knit,
knit, R.
knit, R.
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.
97
Present.
Past.
Know,
knew,
Lay,
laid,
Lead,
led,
Lean,
leant, R.
Leap,
leapt, R.
Learn,
learnt, R.
Leave,
left,
Lend,
lent,
Let,
let,
Lie, ( recline, )lay,
Light,
lit, r.
Lose,
lost,
Load,
loaded,
Make,
made,
Mean,
meant,
Meet,
met,
Mow,
mowed,
Pay,
paid,
Pass,
past, r.
Pen,( inclose, ) pent, r.
Plead,
f plead, R.
\ pled,
Put,
put,
Quit,
quit, R.
Bap,
rapt, R.
Head,
read,
Beave,
reft,
Bend,
rent,
Eid,
rid,
Kide,
rode,
Eing,
/ ^ng,
1- rung,
Eise,
rore,
Eive,
rived,
Eun,
ran,
Saw,
sawed,
Say,
said,
See,
saw,
Seethe,
sod, R.
Seek,
sought,
Set,
set,
H. G. S
Perfect
Participle.
known.
laid.
led.
leant, R.
leapt, R.
learnt, R.
left.
lent.
let.
lain.
lit, R.
lost.
laden, R.
made.
meant.
met.
mown, r.
paid.
past.
pent, R.
plead, R.
pled.
put.
quit, R.
rapt, R.
read.
reft.
rent.
rid.
f ridden,
I rode.
rung.
risen,
riven, r.
run.
sawn, r.
said.
. seen,
sodden, R.
sought,
set.
Present.
Past
Perfect
Participle
Shake,
shook,
shaken.
Shape,
shaped,
shapen, R.
Shave,
shaved.
shaven, r.
Shear,
shore, R.
shorn, R.
Shed,
shed,
shed.
Shine,
shone, R.
shone, R
Shoe,
shod,
shod.
Shoot,
shot,
shot.
Show,
showed,
shown.
Shred,
shred,
shred.
Shut,
shut,
shut.
Sit,
sat,
sat.
Sing,
| sang,
I sung,
sung.
Sink,
f sank,
v sunk,
sunk.
S0W,(sca«cr,)S0Wed,
sown, r.
Slay,
slew,
slain.
Sleep,
slept,
slept.
Sling,
slung,
slung.
Slink,
slunk,
slunk.
Slit,
slit,
slit,
Smell,
smelt,
smelt, R.
Smite,
smote,
f smitten,
I smit.
Speak,
spoke,
spoken.
Speed,
sped,
sped,
Spell,
spelt, r:
spelt, r.
Spend,
spent,
spent.
Spill,
spilt, R.
spilt, R.
Spin,
J spun,
^ span,
spun.
Spit,
f spit,
f> spat,
spit,
spitten.
Split,
split,
split.
Spread,
spread,
spread.
Spring,
f sprang,
^ sprung,
sprung.
Spoil,
spoilt, R.
spoilt, R.
Stay,
staid, R.
staid, R.
Stand,
stood,
stood.
Stave,
stove, R.
stove, R.
98
ENGLISH GEAMMAE.
Present*
PcjsL
Perfect
Participle.
Present.
Past.
Perfect
Participtc.
Steal,
stole,
stolen.
Tear,
tore,
torn.
Stick,
stuck,
stuck.
Tell,
told,
told.
Sting,
stung,
stung.
Think,
thought,
thought.
Stride,
J strode,
l strid,
stridden,
Thrive,
throve, B
. thriven, r.
strid.
Throw,
threw,
thrown.
Strike,
String,
struck,
strung,
f struck,
I stricken,
strung.
Thrust,
Tread,
thrust,
trod,
thrust,
f trodden,
\ trod.
Strive,
strove,
striven.
Wax,
waxed,
waxen, R.
Strow,
strowed,
J strowed,
t strown.
Wear,
Weave,
wore,
wove, r.
worn,
woven, R.
Swear,
f swore,
I sware,
sworn.
Weep,
Wake,
wept,
woke, R.
wept,
woke, R.
Sweat,
sweat, E.
sweat, r.
Wed,
wed, r.
wed, r.
Sweep,
swept,
swept.
Wet,
wet, R.
wet, r.
Swell,
swelled,
swollen, r.
Whet,
whet, r,
whet, r.
Swim,
f swam,
I swum,
swum.
Win,
won,
won.
Wind,
wound,
wound.
Swing,
swung,
swung.
Work,
wrought,
R. wrought, xt.
Take,
took,
taken.
Wring,
wrung,
wrung.
Teach,
taught,
taught.
Write,
wrote,
written.
Rem
. — The 'auxiliaries are a
[1 irregular verbs.
Their forms
may be found in the paradigm f
or their conjugation
117. Defective and Redundant Terbs.
1. ^Defective Verbs are those which want some of the
Principal Parts.
Ex. — Beware, from be and aware, used mostly in the impera-
tive mode, but may be used wherever be would occur in the con-
jugation of the verb to be; as, "Beware the awful avalanche!"
"If angels fell, why should not men beware?"
Ought, used in both present and past tenses; as, "I know I
ought to go," (now) ; " I knew he ought to have gone/7 (then).
Quoth, used for said; as, " 'Not 1/ quoth Sancho." It always
stands before its subject. Quod is also used in the same sense,
by old authors.
wit, in the sense of know; as, To wit, i. e., namely. Wot,
wis, wert, wist, wote, derived from wit, are found in old authors.
ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 99
2. The Auxiliaries are also defective, wanting the
perfect participle.
3. Redundant Terbs are those which have more
than one form for their past tense or perfect participle.
Ex. — Cleave; cleft, clove, or clave; cleft, cloven, or cleaved.
118. Exercises.
Exercises to be corrected:
1. The cloth was weaved beautiful. 2. I seen him run when
you come. 3. The boys fit 'most an hour. 4. I stringed the rasp-
berries on a spear of grass. 5. Were the cattle drove to pasture?
6. She has took my pencil. 7. The ship which springed a leak has
just hoved in sight. 8. The plastering has fell from the ceiling.
9. Charles winned the prize after he had strove many times.
10. I did not git my exercise wrote in time. 11. The wind has
blowed the fence down. 12. He has went and brung some snow
into the house. 13. Who learned you how to spell. 14. The
stone smit him right in the face. 15. I laid down, and ris much
refreshed. 16. The cars have ran off the track. 17. The bells
ringed when we come into town.
18. He could have went. 19. I have saw some fine cattle to-
day. 20. I and you is going to the concert, aint we? 21. Neither
he nor she are good to me. 22. The steamboat come a puffing
along. 23. His face has wore a sad expression for more 'n a week.
24. I 'm in a quandary whether a horse or a grayhound run
the fastest. 25. The man throwed a stone, and made the coon git.
26. John dumb the tree, and shaked the chestnuts down.
119. Order of Parsing.
1. A Verb, and why?
2. Regular or Irregular, and why?
3. Give its principal parts.
4. Copulative, transitive, or intransitive, and why?
5. Voice and form, and why?
6. Mode, and why?
7. Tense, and why? Inflect the tense,
8. Person and number, and why? Rule.
100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
120. Models for Parsing.
I. "Mary has recited her lesson."
Has recited is a verb; it is a word which expresses being, action,
or state: regular; it forms its past tense and perfect
participle by adding ed: principal parts are pres., recite,
past, recited, perfect participle, recited: transitive; it re-
quires the addition of an object to complete its meaning:
active voice; it represents the subject as acting: common
form; it represents a customary act: indicative mode; it
asserts a thing as actual: present perfect tense; it repre-
sents a past act as completed in present time: third
person, singular number; to agree with its subject
"Mary," according to Rule XIII: "A verb must agree
with its subject in person and number.".
II. "I shall go if you stay"
Shall go ... is a verb; (why?): irregular; it does not form its past
tense and perfect participle by adding ed: 'principal
parts are go, went, gone: intransitive; (why?): common
form; (why?): indicative mode; (why?): future tense;
(why?): first person, singular number; (why?): Rule
XIII.
, is a verb; (why?): regular; (why?): principal parts;
(give them): intransitive; (why?): common form;
(why?): subjunctive mode; it represents an act as con-
ditional : present tense in form, but denotes future time :
second person7 singular or plural number; (why?): Rule
XIII.
III. "He should have answered my letter."
Should have answered is a verb; (why?): regular; (why?): prin-
cipal parts; (give them): transitive; (why?): active
voice; (why?): common form; (why?): potential mode;
it represents an act as obligatory : past perfect tense ; it
is the form used to represent an act as completed at or
before some other act: third person, singular number;
(why?): Rule XIII.
IV. "Bring me a glass of water."
Bring is a verb; (why?) : irregular; (why?) : principal parts ;
(give them): transitive; (why?): active voice; (why?).'
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 101
common form ; (why?): imperative mode ; (why?): present
tense; (why?): second person, singular number, to agree
with its subject "thou" understood: Eule XIII.
V. "He attempted to ascend the mountain."
To ascend . . is a verb; (why?): regular; (why?): principal parts;
(give them) : transitive; (why?): active voice; (why?):
common form; (why ?) : infinitive mode ; (why?): present
tense; (why?): object of "attempted" : Eule VI.
VI. " The letter was written yesterday."
Was written is a verb; (why?) : irregular ; (why?) : principal parts;
(give them): transitive; (why?): passive voice; it rep-
resents the subject as being acted upon : indicative mode ;
(why?) : past tense; (why?) : third person, singular num-
ber*; (why?): Eule XIII.
VII. "Liberty is sweet."
Is is a verb; (why?) : irregular; (why?) : principal parts;
(give them): neuter; (why?): copulative; it is used to
connect the predicate "sweet " to the subject "liberty":
indicative mode; (why?): present tense; (why?): third
person, singular number, to agree with its subject "lib-
erty": Eule XIII.
VIII. "He ivas considered rich.
Was considered is a verb; (why?): regular; (why?): principal
parts; (give them) : passive form; (why?): copulative;
(why?): indicative mode; (why?): past tense; (why?):
third person, singular number ; (why?): Eule XIII.
IX. "The fields look green."
Look is a verb; (why?) : regular; (why?) : principal parts;
(give them) : copulative ; it connects the predicate
"green" to the subject "fields": indicative mode;
(why ?) : present tense ; (why ?) : third person, plural
number; (why?): Eule XIII.
X. "John hastened to assist us."
To assist . .". is a verb; (why?) : regular; (why?) : principal parts;
(give them): transitive; (why?): active voice; (why?);
infinitive mode; it expresses action without affirming it:
it depends upon "hastened": Eule XVII.
102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
XI. " To lie is disgraceful."
To lie is a verb; (why?) : regular; (why?): principal parts;
(give them): infinitive mode; (why?): it is the subject
of the sentence "To lie is disgraceful," and is in the
nominative case ; Rule I.
XII. "I heard the wolves howling in the forest."
Howling ... is a participle ; it partakes of the properties of a verb
and of an adjective: it is derived from the verb
"howl": present participle; it denotes continuance: it
belongs to "wolves": Rule XII.
XIII. " Take this letter, written by myself."
Written .... is a participle; (why?): (from what word derived?):
perfect participle; it denotes completion: it belongs to
"letter": Rule XII.
XIV. "He has been reading Shakspeare."
Has been reading is a verb ; (why?) : irregular; (why?) : principal
parts; (give them): active voice; (why?): progressive
form; it denotes continuance of action: indicative mode;
(why?): present perfect tense; (why?): third person,
singular number ; (why?): Rule XIII.
XV. "That man did buy our house."
I>id buy ... is a verb; (why?): irregular; (why?): principal parts;
(give them): active voice; (why?): emphatic form; it
denotes assertion with emphasis: indicative mode;
(why?): past tense; (why?): third person, singular num-
ber; (why?): Rule XIII.
121. Exercises.
Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs in the following
sentences :
1. They commenced plowing yesterday. 2. I seldom write let-
ters. 3. My father brought me some pine-apples when he came
from the city. 4. She had gone to walk. 5. When do you intend
to return my umbrella ? 6. The workmen should have been more
careful. 7. Hallowed be thy name.. 8. Eespect the aged. 9. I
could not learn to do it.
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 103
10. The weather was unpleasant. 11. He should have been
more industrious. 12. Shall I assist you? 13. How many regi-
ments were mustered out? 14. Have all the gifts of healing?
15. Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 16. The
poor must work in their grief. 17. We were speedily convinced
that his professions were insincere.
18. Hear, father, hear our prayer!
Long hath thy goodness our footsteps attended.
19. That very law that molds a tear,
And bids it trickle from its source,
That law preserves the earth a sphere,
And guides the planets in their course. — Rogers.
20. Why restless, why cast down, my soul?
Hope still, and thou shalt sing
The praise of Him who is thy God,
Thy Savior, and thy King.
Passive Forms. 1. He was beaten with many stripes. 2. The
sheep were destroyed by wolves. 3. Every crime should be pun-
ished. 4. You, he, and I were invited. 5. America was discov-
ered by Christopher Columbus. 6. He has been elected mayor of
our city. 7. This lake is said to be one hundred feet deep.
8. The work might have been finished yesterday.
Progressive, Emphatic, and Interrogative Forms. 1. He
is writing a letter. 2. They should have been studying their les-
sons. 3. They were digging for gold. 4. I do wish you were here.
5. He did not commit forgery. 6. How do you learn so fast?
7. Why does he persist in denying it? 8. Where were you going
when I met you?
Exercises to be corrected:
1. John didn't go to do any mischief. 2. He laid down to take
a nap. 3. I reckon you are from the East. 4. You had not ought
to have done so, for you knowed better. 5. Had I have known
that, I should rather have not seen him. 6. The blacksmith shoed
my horse. 7. I should not of known him. 8. He could have
went as well as not.
9. I have saw a steam-boat to-day. 10. I never seen any thing
like it. 11. He has gone and done it. 12. Mary was chose on
my side. 13. The water has ran into our cellar. 14. He knew
104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
nothing of what was being done. 15. Those trees will bear being
pruned more yet. 16. A new school-house is being built in our
district. 17. The boy had swam the river.
18. I will be drowned : nobody shall help me. 19. Would we
have a good time if we should go? 20. Was I to play truant, I
should get punished. 21. By following me, you shall get there
sooner. 22. We will receive our money to-morrow. 23. Writing
is to make letters with a pen or pencil.
24. The order served rather to exasperate instead of quieting the
people. 25. Money is scarce and times hard. 26. I never could,
and presume I never shall understand that passage. 27. Your in-
tentions might, and probably were, good. 28. No one ever worked
so hard as I have done to-day. 29. Any word that will compare
is an adjective.
30. Time and tide waits for no man. 31. Either Stephen or
Jonas have to stay at home. 32. What black despair, what horror
fill his mind? 33. That a belle should be vain, or a fop ignorant,
are not to be wondered at. 34. Our potatoes is all gone.
THE ADVERB.
122. Oral Lesson.
Write this sentence on your slates: "Jane sang a song" What
element is "song"? Arts. — An objective element. Why? Arts. —
Because it completes the meaning of the predicate. Write " Jane
sang a song sweetly." Does "sweetly" complete the meaning of
the predicate? Ans. — It does not. What word is modified by it,
however? Ans. — "Sang." Ho w does it modify " sang " ? Ans. —
It tells how Jane sang.
Write this sentence: "You are very kind." What word is
modified by "very"? Ans. — "Kind." What part of speech is
"kind"? Ans. — An adjective. Write "A letter, hastily written,
was sent me yesterday." What does "hastily" modify? Ans. —
"Written." What part of speech is "written?" Ans. — A parti-
ciple. Write "The letter was written very hastily." What does
" very " modify ? Ans.—11 Hastily." What does " hastily " modify ?
Ans. — " Was written."
Those words, and all others used in a similar manner, are called
Adverbs*
ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS. 105
123. Definition. ,
An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a
verb, adjective, participle, or an adverb; as, "She sings
sweetly ;" "The roads are very rough;" "The ranks were
quickly broken ;" " He reads tolerably well."
item. i. — An adverb is equivalent to a phrase consisting of a
preposition and its object, limited by an adjective.
Ex. — "He walks rapidly" i. e., He walks in a rapid manner. "He
lives there" i. e., He lives at that place. "The work is intensely inter-
esting," i. e., The work is interesting in an intense degree.
Rem. 2. — An adverb sometimes modifies a phrase or a clause.
Ex. — "He sailed nearly round the globe;" "The old man likewise
came to the city." In the first sentence, nearly limits the phrase
"around the globe;" and in the second, likewise modifies the entire
proposition.
124. Classes.
1. With respect to their meaning and use, adverbs are
divided into five classes: Adverbs of Time, Place, Cause,
Manner, and Degree.
2. Adverbs of Time answer the questions, When?
How long? How often?
Ex. — After, again, ago, always, anon, early, ever, never, forever,
frequently, hereafter, hitherto, immediately, lately, now, often,
seldom, soon, sometimes, then, when, while, weekly, until, yet, &c.
Rem. — To-day, to-morrow, to-night, yesterday, yesternight, (for-
merly written y ester day and y ester night,) are nouns, not adverbs.
When used as modifiers, they should be parsed as nouns in the
objective case, without a governing word. (See Eule VIII.)
Ex.— "He will come to-day;" "They all left yesterday;" "We had
a severe storm yesternight."
3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions, Wliere?
Whither? Whence?
Ex. — Above, below, down, up, hither, thither, here, there, where,
herein, therein, wherein, hence, thence, whence, every-where, no-
106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
where, somewhere, far, yonder, back, forth, aloof, away, aboard,
aloft, ashore, backwards, forwards, first, secondly, wherever, &c.
Rem. — There is sometimes used as an expletive to introduce a
sentence; as, "There were giants in those days;" " Breathes there a
man with soul so dead?"
4. Adverbs of Cause answer the questions, WJiy?
Wherefore ?
Ex. — Wherefore, therefore, then, why. •
5. Adverbs of Manner answer the question, How ?
Ex. — Amiss, asunder, anyhow, well, badly, easily, foolishly,
sweetly, certainly, indeed, surely, verily, nay, no, not, nowise,
haply, perhaps, perchance, peradventure, probably, &c.
Rem. — Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding ly to
adjectives or participles; as, wise, wisely ; united, unitedly,
6. Adverbs of Degree answer the questions, How
much? How little?
Ex. — As, almost, altogether, enough, even, equally, much, more,
most, little, less, least, wholly, partly, only, quite, scarcely, nearly,
excellently, too, chiefly, somewhat, &c.
7. Adverbs which show the manner of the assertion are
called modal adverbs ; as, verily, truly, not, no, yes, &c.
8. When, where, why, &c, when used in asking ques-
tions, are called interrogative adverbs.
9. An Adverbial Phrase is a combination of words
used as a single adverb.
Ex. — " In general ;" "hand in hand;" "by and by;" "through
and through;" "no more;" "for the most part;" "as usual," &c.
Such combinations may be parsed as single adverbs.
10. Conjunctive Adverbs are those which connect
two propositions, and modify a word in each.
Ex. — "I shall see you again when I return;" "Go where glory
waits thee;" "I have been to Boston since I saw you last;" "Pay
ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS. 107
your bills before you leave;" "The book remained where I left it;"
" I will go as soon as I have eaten my dinner."
Rem. i. — Conjunctive adverbs are equivalent to two phrases;
one containing a relative pronoun, the other the antecedent of the
relative. In the sentence, "He defends himself when he is at-
tacked," ivhen == at the time in which. "At the time " modifies
"defends," and "in which" modifies "attacked;" hence when, the
equivalent of the two phrases, modifies both.
Rem. a. — The principal conjunctive adverbs are as, after, before,
how, since, therefore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while, and
why.
125. Comparison.
Many adverbs admit of comparison.
1. Derivatives ending in ly are usually compared by prefixing
more and most, less and least to the simple form; as, wisely, more
wisely, most wisely; firmly, more firmly, most firmly.
2. Three adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the
simple form, viz.: fast, faster, fastest; often, oftener, oftenest; soon,
sooner, soonest
3. Some adverbs are compared irregularly; as, well, better, best;
ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most, &c.
CJEXJERAIL REMARKS.
1. Some adverbs seem to be used independently ; as, yes, no, why,
well, &c, in certain constructions. They may be parsed as modi-
fying the entire proposition, the preceding sentence, something
understood, or as independent.
Ex.— "Have you my book?— No." " Why, that is strange." " Well,
I am surprised." "Yea, the Lord sitteth King forever."
2. An adverb frequently denotes manner when it modifies a
verb, and degree when it modifies an adjective or an adverb; as,
"I think so" = manner; "I feel so lonely" = degree.
3. Adverbs frequently become adjectives after copulative and
passive verbs; as, " He reads better" = adverb ; " He seems better" =
adjective. " It runs well" = adverb ; " He looks ivell" = adjective.
4. The adjective form of a word, or the adjective mode of com-
108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
parison, is allowed in poetry to a greater extent than in prose ; as,
"Breathe soft, ye winds;" "Drink deep;" "Dry clanked his har-
ness."
5. Certain words are used sometimes as adverbs and sometimes
as adjectives. They are adverbs when they modify verbs, adjec-
tives, and other adverbs, and adjectives when they modify nouns
or pronouns.
Ex. — "I can remain no longer;" "Let no man deceive you." In
the first sentence, "no" is an adverb, modifying "longer"; in the
second, it is an adjective, modifying "man."
6. In such expressions as "He works for hire only" "One man
only was injured," "only" is an adjective, modifying the preced-
ing noun. "He sells drugs and books also" Here "also" is an
adverb, modifying "sells" understood. "He sells drugs, and he
also sells books."
126. Order of Parsing.
1. An Adverb, and why?
2. Compare it.
3. Tell what it modifies.
4. Eule.
127. Models for Parsing.
I. "He acted wisely"
Wisely is an adverb; it is used to modify the meaning of a
verb: compared, wisely more wisely, most wisely:
it is an adverb of manner, and modifies "acted":
Eule XVIII: "Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives,
participles, and adverbs."
II. "Why do you laugh?"
Why is an adverb; (why?) : it is not compared: interroga-
tive adverb, and modifies "do laugh": Eule XVIII.
III. "They walk hand in hand"
Hand in Siand is an adverbial phrase; it is a combination of words
used as a simple adverb: it modifies "walk":
Eule XVIII.
ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 109
TV. "I shall certainly recover."
Certainly. . . is an adverb; (why?): modal; it shows the manner
in which the assertion is made: it modifies "shall
recover": Rule XVIII.
V. "I will go whenever you wish."
Whenever . . . is an adverb; (why?): conjunctive adverb ; it connects
two clauses, and modifies a word in each : it modifies
"will go" and "wish": Rule XVIII.
128. Exercises.
Parse the adverbs in the following sentences:
1. They lived very happily. 2. Why do you look so sad? 3.
When spring comes, the flowers will bloom. 4. How rapidly the
moments fly! 5. He signed it then and there. 6. I have read it
again and again. 7. He will do so no more. 8. The mystery will
be explained by and by. 9. Perchance you are the man.
10. Whither has he gone? 11. They were agreeably disap-
pointed. 12. He lives just over the hill yonder. 13. Henceforth
let no man fear that God will forsake us. 14. I saw him before
he left. 15. I will not be unjust. 16. I have not seen him since I
returned from New York. 17. Doubtless, ye are the people. 18.
Perhaps I shall go.
THE PREPOSITION.
129. Oral Lesson.
Write this sentence on your slates: "Mr. Olds is a wealthy
man." What element is "wealthy"? Ans. — An adjective ele-
ment. What does it modify? Ans. — "Man." Write this sen-
tence: "Mr. Olds is a man of wealth." You see that "of wealth,"
in this sentence, has the same meaning as " wealthy " in the other.
What part of speech is "wealth"? Ans. — A noun. The word
"of" connects "man" and "wealth," and shows the relation be-
tween the ideas expressed by them. In this case, the relation is
that of possession: "man" possesses "'wealth." Words used in
this manner are called Prepositions, because they are usually placed
before nouns.
In the sentence "We live in London," what words tell where
110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
we live? Ans. — "In London." These words constitute what is
called a phrase, and form an adverbial element. The word limited
by the phrase is called the antecedent term of relation, and the noun
following the preposition, the subsequent term, or object. The ante-
cedent term may be any thing which can be modified, but the
subsequent must be the objective case of a noun or something used
as a noun.
In the sentence "I recite in the afternoon," what is the ante-
cedent term of relation ? Ans. — "Kecite." Why? Ans. — Because
it is the word which is modified by the phrase "in the afternoon."
What is the subsequent term, or object? Ans. — "Afternoon."
Why? Ans. — Because it is the object of the preposition "in."
130. Definition.
A Preposition is a word used to show the relation
between its object and some other word; as, "The man of
Uz ;" " Ellen is walking in the garden."
Kern. i. — A preposition and its object form a separable phrase,
which modifies some word or combination of words, called the
antecedent term of the relation expressed by the preposition; the
object of the preposition being the subsequent term. In the sen-
tence, "The house stands on a hill," stands is the antecedent term
of relation, and hill the subsequent.
Kem. 2. — The object of a preposition may be a word, a phrase,
or an entire proposition; as, "He lives in Chicago;" "The ship
was about to be launched;" "Reason and Justice have been jury-
men since before Noah was a sailor."
Rem. 3. — Two prepositions are frequently combined and used
as one ; as, " He came from over the sea ;" " The church stands over
against the school-house." In such cases, parse the two preposi-
tions as one, calling the combination a complex preposition.
Rem. 4. — Sometimes the object of a preposition is omitted ; as,
uThe boys went out;" "The regiment marched by" In such
cases, parse the preposition as an adverb.
Rem. 5 — The antecedent term is sometimes omitted; as,
"'From Vermont V asked the landlord;" "'As to that/ said the
dial-plate." In such cases, parse the preposition as showing the
relation between its object and an antecedent term understood.
ETYMOLOGY PREPOSITIONS. Ill
For, in the complex phrases, "For him to lie," "For you to de-
ceive," &c, may be parsed as an introductory preposition.
Rem. 6. — When the relations between objects of thought are
so obvious that they need no expression, the prepositions are
usually omitted; as, "I came home yesterday;" aHe is worth a
million /" " The bridge is a mile long." In such cases, the subse-
quent term of relation is said to be in the objective case without
a governing word.
131, List of Prepositions.
A — at, on, or in; "Be quiet, and go a-angling."
Aboard; "Aboard ships, dull shocks are sometimes felt."
About; "It was a day to be at home, crowding about the fire."
Above; "Above your voices sounds the wail of starving men."
According to ; " Proceed according to law."
Across; " Their way was across a stretch of open meadow."
After; "After life's fitful fever, he sleeps well."
Against ; " Uplift against the sky, your mighty shapes."
Along-; "I hear the waves resounding along the shore."
Amid, amidst; "A lark reared her brood amid the corn."
Among, amongst; "He was always foremost among them."
Around ; " I hear around me cries of fear."
As to ; "As to the parts of the cargo, they were already made fast."
At ; " She is at church ;" " The bell rings at noon."
Athwart; "Athwart the waste the pleasant home-light shines."
Before; "Who shall go before them?" "Ileft before sunrise."
Behind ; " We have seen the moon rising behind the eastern pines.''
Below ; "It was on the road to Kennebec, below the town of Bath."
Beneath; "The steps creaked beneath his noiseless tread."
Beside; "I sat beside her;" "He is beside himself."
Besides; "There is nothing at all besides this manna."
Between ; " The town is situated between two mountains."
Betwixt; "The waters roll betwixt him and the wooded knoll."
Beyond; "His thoughts turned to his home beyond the sea."
But == except; "He had retained nothing but his father's belt."
By; "Strength came by working in the mines."
Concerning; "The Lord hath spoken good concerning Israel-"'
Down; "They wandered in throngs down' the valley."
Bnring; "He staid at home during the war."
Ere ; " Nile flowed ere the wonted season."
Except; "Are they all gone except you?"
Fob?; "I looked up for a moment;" "I sell for cash."
112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
From; "He felt like a leaf torn from a romance."
In; "Late in life, he began life in earnest."
Info; "He gazed into the vast surrounding darkness."
Notwithstanding; "He is proud, notwithstanding his poverty."
Of; "'Tis the middle watch of a summer's night."
Off; "The vessel was becalmed off Cuba."
On; "He sprang on a rock;" "I leave on Saturday."
Out of; "No one was moving, at least out of doors."
Over; "The billows had rolled over him;" "He rules over us."
Past; "He drove past our house this morning."
Round ; "A shoreless ocean tumbled round the globe."
Save; "Silent is all save the dropping rain."
Since ; " The Lord hath blessed thee since my coming."
Till, until; "Not till the next morning did the boys appear."
Through; "Then stept she down through town and field."
Throughout ; " There was much anxiety felt throughout the land."
To ; " Let the old tree go down to the earth."
Toward, towards; "He turned me toward the moonlight."
Under; "He stands erect under the curved roof."
Unto; "Verily, I say unto you."
Up ; " Pie sailed up the river."
Upon ; " They were walking upon the hurricane deck."
With; "The sky was red with flame."
Within; "Something of ambition and pride stirred within him."
Without; "The morning broke without a sun."
Rem. l. — The following prepositions, less commonly used, may
be added to the foregoing list:
Abaft, aloft, alongside, afore, adown, aloof, aneath, aslant, atween,
atwixt, despite, inside, outside, maugre, minus, plus, per, sans, underneath,
versus, via, as for, along with, despite of, from among, from before, from
betwixt, from off, from under, off of, over against, round about, but for;
and the participial forms excepting, regarding, bating, touching, respect-
ing, &c, when followed by objects.
Rem. 2. — But, for, since, and some others, are sometimes used
as conjunctions; as, "I must go, for it is late."
item. 3. — Care should be taken to select such prepositions as
express the relations intended.
Ex. — Among, amongst are applicable to more than two objects; as,
"He divided the estate among the four brothers:" between, betwixt, are
applicable to two objects only; as, "He divided the estate between
the two brothers."
ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 113
During should be used when the event continues through all the
period mentioned; as, "I have examined law papers during the day:"
in, at, or within, when the event does not continue during the whole
period; as, "I alluded to that in my remarks this morning;" "The
principal must be paid within the year."
Of denotes possession of a quality or thing; as, "He is a friend of
mine:" to denotes that the quality or thing is directed towards some-
thing else; as, "He has been a friend to me."
In or at is used before the names of countries, cities, and towns ; as,
"She lives in New York;" "They reside at Glendale;" "We stayed
in London."
Into should be used after verbs denoting entrance; as, "He came
into the office;" "He put the knife into his pocket."
At is generally used after to be, not followed by a predicate; as,
"They are at home;" "She is at church." When a predicate is un-
derstood, or clearly implied, to should be used; as, "I have been to
Cincinnati," i. e., I have been (traveling) to Cincinnati.
Of, not about, should be used after boast and brag; as, "He boasts
of his wealth ;" " He brags of his strength."
Upon should follow bestow and dependent; as, "Many favors were
bestowed upon me;" "He is dependent upon his friends."
From should follow differ and dissent; as, "I differ from you;" "I
dissent from that decision."
Of should follow diminution; as, "Any diminution of expenses is
impossible."
In should follow confide; as, "I confide in you."
Of should be used Avhen we are disappointed in obtaining a thing ;
as, "I was disappointed of money:" in, when we are disappointed in
the quality of a thing, or the character of a person; as, "I am disap-
pointed in that mower;" "I am disappointed in Mr. Johnson."
With denotes an instrument; by, sl cause: with, the immediate, by,
the remoter means; as, "A man is killed with a sword, and dies by
violence;" "He walks with a cane by moonlight."
132. Order of Parsing.
1. A Preposition, and why?
2. What relation does it show?
3. Rule.
H. G. 10.
114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
133. Models for Parsing.
I. "The horse ran over the hill."
Over is a 'preposition; it is a word used to show the relation
between its object and some other word: it shows the
relation between "hill" arid "ran:" Rule XIX: "A
preposition shows the relation of its object to the word
- upon which the latter depends."
II. "He came out from under the bridge."
From under is a complex preposition ; (why?) : it shows the relation
between "bridge" and "came": Rule XIX.
134. Exercises.
Parse the prepositions in the following sentences :
1. Will you go with me into the garden? 2. In my father's
house are many mansions. 3. We went over the river, through
the corn-fields, into the woods yonder. 4. I am not satisfied as to
that affair. 5. All came but Mary. 6. The Ehone flows out from
among the Alps. 7. He went from St. Louis, across the plains, to
California. 8. Light moves in straight lines, and in all directions
from the point of emission. 9. They went aboard the ship.
10. Night, sable goddess! from her ebon throne,
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth
Her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world. — Young.
Exercises to be corrected:
1. Divide the peaches among the two children. 2. I will pay
you during the year. 3. Washington was a friend of his country.
4. He took the book in his own hand. 5. There is the key to that
piano. 6. He arrived in Cleveland on Friday. 7. It corresponds
with the sample. 8. They differ with each other in opinion. 9.
The book was left out in the package I sent you. 10. The still,
sultry morning was followed with a hailstorm.
11. Never depart out of the straight path. 12. He put money in
his pbcket. 13. He came in my office yesterday. 14. What is my
grief in comparison of that which she bears? 15. He was eager of
making money. 16. He went out of a fine morning, with a bundle
in his hand. 17. He is conversant with Italian. 18. He boasted
ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 115
about the money he had made. 19. They are to church. 20. I
wish you would stay to home. 21. He is dependent on his daily
labor for his support.
22. I can make no diminution in my tuition rates. 23. He died
with a fever. 24. He left the room accompanied with his wife.
25. Crossing the isthmus is not attended with many difficulties.
26. Do not interfere among your neighbors' concerns. 27. We
ought to profit from the errors of others. 28. The scenery was
different to what I had supposed. 29. He does business in No. 147
Canal Street. 30. The space between the three roads is intended
for a parade ground.
THE CONJUNCTION.
135. Oral Lesson.
In the sentence "Emma and Eva study algebra/' what is the
subject? Arts. — " Emma and Eva." Why? Ans. — Because some-
thing is affirmed of them. That is right. They are both subjects
of the same predicate ; and to indicate that they both sustain the
same relation to the rest of the sentence, they are joined by the
word "and." This is called a Conjunction, because its use is to
join words. It is a copulative conjunction, because it joins ele-
ments of the same rank or name.
In the sentence "Emma or Eva studies algebra," "or" is a
conjunction, but it denotes opposition of meaning. If Emma
studies algebra, Eva does not. Those words which connect other
words, but denote opposition of meaning, are called disjunctive
conjunctions.
In the sentence "Both Emma and Eva study algebra," "both"
and "and" are called correlative conjunctions, because each an-
swers or refers to the other.
136. Definition.
A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sen-
tences, and parts of sentences.
Ex.— " The horse and wagon were captured, but the driver
escaped ;" " He lives out of town, and on a farm." In the first
sentence, and connects "horse" and "wagon," and but connects
116 ENGLISH GRAMMAE.
the two propositions, "the horse and wagon were captured" and
"the driver escaped." In the second sentence, and connects the
phrases "out of town" and "on a farm."
Rem. — Conjunctions sometimes merely introduce sentences ; as,
"And it came -to pass in those days;" "That the times are hard, is
undeniable."
137. Classes of Connectives.
1. Connectives are divided into two general classes:
Coordinate and Subordinate.
2. Coordinate Connectives are those which join ele-
ments of the same rank or name.
3. Subordinate Connectives are those which join
elements of different ranks or names.
Rem. 1. — Coordinate connecti ves are pure conjunctions. They
form no part of the material of t rhich a sentence is composed —
their use being to unite the materi; il into a single sentence.
Ex. — "The man and his wife wei e both drowned;" "Knowledge
comes, but wisdom lingers;" "The lir is damp, and hushed, and
close;" "And love the offender, yet de;est the offense."
Rem. 2. — Subordinate connectrv 2s are either relative pronouns,
conjunctions, or conjunctive adverbs. Relative pronouns represent
antecedents, and join those antecedents to clauses which describe
them : conjunctions introduce limiting clauses : conjunctive adverbs
connect clauses, and modify a word in each.
Ex. — "The man whom you saw is my father." Whom represents
"man," and joins to it the limiting clause "whom you saw." "I
know that my Redeemer liveth." That joins the objective clause
"my Redeemer liveth" to the verb "know." "The wind bloweth
ichere it listeth." Where connects the two sentences, and modifies
"bloweth" and "listeth."
Rem. 3. — In parsing pure conjunctions, give the rule for coor-
dinate connectives. In parsing conjunctions which introduce limit-
ing clauses, give the rule for subordinate connectives. Conjunctive
adverbs should be parsed (1) as subordinate connectives; (2) as
adverbs. A relative pronoun should be parsed (1) as a subordi-
nate connective; (2) as a relative.
ETYMOLOGY CON J UNCTIONS. 117
138. Classes of Conjunctions.
1. Conjunctions are divided into three classes: Cop-
ulative, Disjunctive, and Correlative.
2. Copulative Conjunctions join on members de-
noting an addition, consequence, cause, or supposition.
They are,
And ; " Cold and hunger awake not her care."
Also ; As used in an enumeration of particulars.
As ; " Always speak as you think."
Because; "He learns, because he is studious."
Consequently; "I am sick, consequently I can not come."
Even; "It was very cold; even mercury was frozen."
For; "If any, speak: for him have I offended."
If; "I shall not go if it rain."
So; "For Brutus is an honorable man;
So are they all, all honorable men."
Since ; " They submit, since they can not conquer."
Seeing"; "Wherefore come ye to me, seeing ye hate me?"
Than; used after comparatives; "He is oldef'than I,"
That, ; " These things I say, that ye might be saved."
Then ; " You know our rules : then obey them."
Moreover; sometimes used as an introductory word.
Therefore ; "Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom."
Wherefore; used like therefore in drawing inferences.
3. Xfrisjunctive Conjunctions join on members de-
noting opposition of meaning. They are,
Although, though ; " Though coarse, it is good."
But; "I go, but I return."
Either; "Either John or Charles will come."
Neither ; "Neither John nor Charles will come."
Except; "Except it be because her method is so glib and easy."
Eest ; " Ye shall not eat it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die,"
Nor; "Simois nor Xanthus shall be wanting there."
Not withstanding'; "He is just, notwithstanding he is stern."
Or; "He may study medicine, or law, or divinity."
Provided; "He will go, provided his fare is paid."
Save; "When all slept sound, save she who bore them both."
Still; "He has many faults, still he is very popular."
118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Unless; "We can not thrive, unless we are industrious and frugal."
Whether; "I will ascertain whether he has come."
Whereas; "Are not those found to be the greatest zealots who
are most notoriously ignorant? whereas true piety should always
begin with true knowledge."
Yet ; " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him."
4. Correlative Conjunctions are copulatives or dis-
junctives used in pairs, one referring or answering to an-
other. They are,
Both and ; " He is both learned and wise."
As as ; "I am as tall as you."
As t so ; " As it was then, so it is now."
So as; "He is not so tall as I."
So that; "It was so cold that I nearly perished."
Either .... or; "I will either send it or bring it."
Neither . . . nor ; u Neither hath this man sinned, nor his parents."
If then ; "If he confessed it, then forgive him."
Though . . . yet, nevertheless; "Though deep, yet clear."
Xot only . . but also; " He was not only rich, but also generous."
Whether. . . or ; "I care not whether it rains or snows."
Or or,
Xor nor
V sometimes used for either . . or, neither . . nor.
r; J
5. Certain combinations of words have the force of con-
nectives, and should be parsed as conjunctions or conjunc-
tive adverbs. They are,
As if, as though, as well as, as soon as, as far as, as many as,
except that, forasmuch as, in so much that, but also, but likewise,
notivithstanding that, not only, &c.
Ex. — "Facts may be transmitted by tradition as well as by
history ;" " He went as far as the first line of pickets ;" " You talk
as if you were an idiot."
139. Order of Parsing.
1. A Conjunction, and why?
2. Copulative, Disjunctive, or Correlative, and why?
3. What does it connect?
4. Rule.
ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 119
140. Models for Parsing,
I. "He came and went like a pleasant thought."
And is a conjunction; it connects words: copulative; it denotes
addition: it connects "came" and "went." Rule XX:
"Coordinate connectives join similar elements."
II. "He or I will assist you."
Or is a conjunction ; (why?) : disjunctive; it denotes opposi-
tion of meaning: it connects "he" and "I." Eule XX.
III. u Neither James nor John had his lesson."
Neither. . . nor . . . are conjunctions ; (why?) : correlative; one refers
or answers to the other: neither introduces the sentence,
and nor connects "James" and "John." Rule XX.
IV. "Unto us was the gospel preached as well as unto them."
As well as is a conjunction; (why?) : copulative; (why?) : it connects
and emphatically distinguishes the two phrases, "unto
us" and "unto them": Rule XX.
141. Exercises.
Parse all the words in the folloiuing sentences :
1. I am a poor man, and argue with you, and convince you.
2. He 'd sooner die than ask you, or any man, for a shilling. 3.
Talent is something, but tact is every thing. 4. Neither military
nor civil pomp was wanting. 5. The truth is, that I am tired of
ticking. 6. I remember a mass of things, but nothing distinctly.
7. I alone was solitary and idle. 8. Both the ties of nature
and the dictates of policy demand this. 9. There was no reply, for
a slight fear was upon every man. 10. No man more highly es-
teems or honors the British troops than I do. 11. The soldier
marches on and on, inflicting and suffering, as before. 12. There
may be wisdom without knowledge, and there may be knowledge
without wisdom.
Exercises to be collected:
1. The answer is the same with that I have. 2. I can not
weather this storm without some one helps me. 3. You are too
120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
stuck up, so as you can never be popular. 4. Some of my books,
and for which I paid a large price, are good for nothing. 5. Nei-
ther borrow or lend umbrellas. 6. I could not see nor hear him.
7. The loafer seems to be created for no other purpose, but to
keep up the ancient and honorable order of idleness. 8. They told
us how that it happened. 9. This is the reason that I remained at
home. 10. Silver is both mined in Mexico and Peru. 11. The
court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the
common law. 12. I as well as my sister are going West in the
spring.
THE INTEEJECTION.
142, Definition.
An Interjection is a word used to denote some sud-
den or strong emotion; as, "Hark! some one comes."
" Pshaiv ! that is ridiculous."
The principal interjections are the following:
Ah, aha, hurra, huzza ; oh, alas, welladay, alack ; ha, in-
deed, zounds ; bravo ; faugh, fie, fudge, pshaw ; heigh-ho ; ha, ha,
ha, (laughter) ; avaunt, begone; hail, all-hail; adieu, farewell, good-
by ; hallo, ahoy, lo, hark ; hist, whist, hush, tush ; avast, hold ;
eh? hey?
Rem. l. — Interjections have no definite meaning or grammati-
cal construction. They occur frequently in colloquial or impas-
sioned discourse ; but are expressions of emotion only, and can not
be used as signs of thought. As their name imports, they may be
throivn in between connected parts of discourse, but are generally
found at the commencement of sentences.
Rem. 2. — Other parts of speech, when used as exclamations,
may be treated as interjections; as, "What! art thou mad?"
"My stars/ what can all this be?" "Revenge! about, — seek, —
bum, — fire, — kill, — slay! — let not a traitor live!" In most cases,
however, words thus used may be parsed otherwise ; as, " 'Magnifi-
cent!' cried all at once." " Magnificent " may be parsed as an
adjective, the attribute of the sentence, "It is magnificent."
"Behold! your house is left unto you desolate!" "Behold" may
be parsed as a verb in the imperative mode.
ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 121
143. Order of Parsing.
1. An Interjection, and why?
2. Eule.
144. Model for Parsing.
I. "0, let me live."
O ... is an interjection ; it denotes some strong emotion . Eule XXII:
"An interjection has no dependence upon other words."
145. Exercises.
Parse all the words in the following sentences :
1. Ha! laughest thou? 2. Heigh! sirs, what a noise you make
here. 3. Huzza ! huzza ! Long live lord Eobin ! 4. Hah ! it is a
sight to freeze one. 5. Let them be desolate for a reward of their
shame which say unto me, Aha ! aha !
6. Oh, that the salvation of Israel were come out of Zion!
7. Alas ! all earthly good still blends itself with home ! 8. Tush !
tush! man, I made no reference to you. 9. Hark! what nearer
war-drum shakes the gale? 10. Soft! I did but dream!
11. What! old acquaintance! could not all this flesh
Keep in a little life ? Poor Jack, farewell !
I could have better spared a better man. — Shakspeare.
146. Miscellaneous Exercises.
1. A mercenary informer knows no distinction. 2. I send you
here a" sort of allegory. 3. Our island home is far beyond the sea.
4. Love took up the harp of life, and smote on all the chords with
might. 5. Your Jf is the only peace-maker: much virtue in If.
6. He is very prodigal of his ohs and ahs.
7. He looked upward at the rugged heights that towered above
him in the gloom. 8. He possessed that rare union of reason, sim-
plicity, and vehemence, which formed the prince of orators. 9.
Mark well my fall, and that that ruined me. 10. The jingling of
the guinea helps the hurt that honor feels. — Tennyson.
11. His qualities were so happily blended, that the result was
a great and perfect whole. 12. There is no joy but calm. 13. I
H. G. 11.
122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
must be cruel, only to be kind. 14. Why are we weighed upon
with heaviness ? 15. Now blessings light on him that first invented
sleep: it covers a man all over, thoughts and all, like a cloak. — .
Cervantes.
16. Many a morning on the moorlands did we hear the copses
ring. 17. He stretched out his right hand at these words, and laid
it gently on the boy's head. 18. He acted ever as if his country's
welfare, and that alone, was the moving spirit. 19. The great
contention of criticism is to find the faults of the moderns, and the
beauties of the ancients. Whilst an author is yet living, we esti-
mate his powers by his worst performance; and when he is dead,
we estimate them by his best. — Johnson.
20. I will work in my own sphere, nor wish it other than it is.
21. As his authority was undisputed, so it required no jealous pre-
cautions, no rigorous severity. 22. Like all men of genius, he de-
lighted to take refuge in poetry. 23. To know how to say what
other people only think, is what makes men poets and sages ; and
to dare to say what others only dare to think, makes men martyrs
or reformers, or both. 24. That done, she turned to the old man
with a lovely smile upon her face, — such, they said, as they had
never seen, and never could forget, — and clung with both her arms
about his neck. — Dickens.
25. To live in hearts we leave behind,
Is not to die. — Campbell.
26. But war's a game which, were their subjects wise,
Kings would not play at. — Cowper.
27. Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see,
Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. — Pope.
28. The Niobe of nations, there she stands,
Childless and crownless, in her voiceless woe;
An empty urn within her withered hands,
Whose holy dust was scattered long ago. — Byron.
29. Can storied urn or animated bust
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath?
Can Honor's voice provoke the sleeping dust,
Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? — Gray,
30. A thing of beauty is a joy forever ;
Its loveliness increases; it will never
Pass into nothingness. — Keats. -
ETYMOLOGY. 123
31. Forth from his dark and lonely hiding-place,
(Portentous sight!) the owlet Atheism,
Sailing on obscure wings athwart the noon,
Drops his blue-fringed lids, and holds them close,
And hooting at the glorious sun in heaven,
Cries out, "Where is it?" — Coleridge.
32. Dry clank'd his harness in the icy caves
And barren chasms, and all to left and right
The bare black cliff clang'd round him, as he based
His feet on jets of slippery crag that rang
Sharp-smitten with the dint of armed heels. — Tennyson.
33. Then came wrandering by
A shadow, like an angel wTith bright hair
' Dabbled in blood ; and he shriek'd out aloud :
" Clarence is come ! false, fleeting, perjur'd Clarence !
That stabbed me in the field by Tewksbury : .
Seize on him, furies, take him to your torments ! " — Shahspearc.
34. There are things of which I may not speak :
There are dreams that can not die:
There are thoughts that make the strong heart weak,
And bring a pallor upon the cheek,
And a mist before the eye.
And the words of that fatal song
Come over me like a chill:
"A boy's will is the wind's will,
And the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts."
Longfellow.
35. These ages have no memory — but they left
A record in the desert — columns strown
On the waste sands, and statues fallen and cleft,
Heap'd like a host in battle overthrown;
Vast ruins, where the mountain's ribs of stone
Were hewn into a city : streets that spread
In the dark earth, where never breath has blown
Of heaven's sweet air, nor foot of man dares tread,
The long and perilous ways — the Cities of the Dead. — Bryant
124 ENGLISH GKAMMAK.
PART III.
SYNTAX.
147. Preliminary Oral Lessons.
Note to Teachers. — The object of these lessons is (1) To exer-
cise pupils in the construction of simple sentences: (2) To teach
the uses and definitions of the elements of a sentence : (3) To teach
the analysis of sentences containing elements of the first class.
Use Oral Lesson on page 24 as introductory to these.
LESSON I.
I hold in my hand a piece of chalk : what is its color ? Ans. —
It is white. It breaks easily : what else can be said of it ? Ans. —
It is brittle. It crumbles readily : hence, we say it is friable. Each
of the words, white, brittle, j riable, expresses some quality belonging
to chalk: what shall we call them? Ans. — Quality-words. We
will now unite these quality-words with "chalk," by the word "is,"
thus :
Chalk is white ;
Chalk is brittle ;
Chalk is friable.
Each of these groups of words is called a Sentence; for
"A Sentence is an assemblage of words making complete
sense."
Write the definition on your slates. Now repeat it in concert.
Each group is also called a Proposition; for
"A Proposition is a thought expressed in words."
Write this definition on your slates. Repeat it in concert.
In the proposition " Chalk is white," the noun " chalk " is called
the Subject; for
"The Subject of a proposition is that of which something is
affirmed."
SYNTAX — OKAL LESSONS. 125
"White" is called the Predicate; for
" The Predicate of a proposition is that which is affirmed of
the subject. "
The word "is" is called the Copula; for
" The Copula is a word or group of words used to affirm or
assert the predicate of the subject."
In this sentence, it affirms that the quality "white" belongs to
"chalk."
Write these definitions on your slates. Eepeat them in concert.
In the proposition "Chalk is brittle," what is the subject?
Ans. — "Chalk." Why? Ans. — It is that of which something is
affirmed. What is the predicate? Arts.— "Brittle." Why?
Ans. — It is that which is affirmed of the subject.
Affirm qualities of the following subjects :
Iron, gold, silver, lead, ink, cork, sugar, vinegar, grass, books,
lessons.
Model. — Iron is heavy.
Affirm the following qualities of appropriate subjects :
Transparent, opaque, hard, round, square, good, bad, bitter,
heavy, rough, smooth, red, yellow, green.
Model. — Glass is transparent.
LESSON II.
In the sentence "Iron is a metal," is any quality affirmed of
" iron " ? Ans. — There is not. That is right. The predicate " metal "
denotes kind or class, not quality. It is a predicate, however, be-
cause it is affirmed of the subject "iron." In the sentence "Horses
are animals," what is the subject? Ans. — "Horses." Why?
Ans. — Because it is that of which something is affirmed. What
is the predicate? Ans. — "Animals." Why? Ans. — Because it is
that which is affirmed of the subject. What is the copula ? Ans. —
The word "are."
Affirm class of the following subjects :
Horses, oxen, coal, wood, hay, oats, wheat, ax, hoe, locomotive,
dogs, sheep, copper, gold, apples, trees, wagons, houses.
Model. — Wheat is a vegetable.
Affirm qualities of the same subjects.
126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LESSON III.
Write this sentence on your slates: "Horses run." You see
that the predicate "run" is affirmed directly of the subject without
the use of the copula. The copula and predicate are united in
one word; for " Horses run" means the same as "Horses are
running."
What is the subject in this sentence: "Boys learn"? Ans. —
"Boys." What is the predicate? Ans. — "Learn." Why?
Ans. — It is that which is affirmed of the subject. Words which
affirm any thing of subjects are called Verbs. What are the words
"run" and "learn"? Ans. — Verbs. Why? Ans. — Because they
affirm something of their subjects.
Write sentences, using the following verbs as predicates :
Walk, sing, whistle, swim, wrestle, play, write, study, plow, reap,
drive, neigh, cackle, whine, snarl, gobble, quarrel, fight.
Model. — Cattle walk.
LESSON IV.
Write on your slates, and then repeat in concert :
"An Element is one of the distinct parts of a sentence."
The Subject and Predicate are called Principal Elements, because
no sentence can be formed without them.
The Copula is not an element : it is used merely to affirm the
predicate of the subject.
Separating a sentence into its elements is called Analysis.
We will now analyze some sentences according to the following
MODELS.
I. "Apples are ripe."
Apples ... is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed:
ripe is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of the
subject; are is the copula.
II. "Birds fly."
Birds .... is the subject; (why?): fly is the predicate; (why?).
EXERCISES.
1. Ink is black. 2. Gold is yellow. 3. Lead is a metal. 4.
Birds sing. 5. Vessels sail. 6. Trees are plants. 7. Fishes swim.
SYNTAX— OB AL LESSONS. 127
8. Elihu was tardy. 9. Mary was studious. 10. Enoch may be
angry. 11. Snow falls. 12. Houses stand.
LESSON V.
Write this sentence on your slates : " Horses eat." While you
were writing did you not think some word should be added, repre-
senting what horses eat? Ans. — We did. What word shall we
add? Ans. — Oats. Write " oats " after the verb. This word com-
pletes the meaning of the verb, and is called an Objective Element,
or Object. In the sentence " Pupils study arithmetic," what word
completes the meaning of the predicate or verb ? Ans. — "Arith-
metic." What element is it ? Ans. — An objective element. Why?
Ans. — Because it completes the meaning of the verb.
Write ten sentences, each containing an objective element.
Model. — Indians hunt buffaloes.
Analyze the sentences you have written, using this model:
"Children love play."
Children is the subject; (why?): love, the predicate; (why?): the
predicate is modified by play? an objective element.
Analyze also the following sentences :
1. Heat melts lead. 2. Men love money. 3. I study botany.
4. Haste makes waste. 5. Cats catch mice. 6. Mr. Jones sells
calicoes. 7. Clouds bring rain.
LESSON VI.
Write this sentence on your slates: "Apples are ripe." What
is the subject of the sentence? Ans. — "Apples." Why? Ans. —
It is that of which something is affirmed. What is the word
"apples"? Ans. — It is a noun. Why? Ans. — It is a name.
What is the predicate? Ans. — "Ripe." Why? Ans. — It is that
which is affirmed of the subject. Now write these words, "Ripe
apples." Is this a sentence? Ans. — It is not. Why? Ans. —
There is nothing affirmed. That is correct. The word "ripe" is
here used to modify the meaning of "apples," as an attribute, not
as a predicate : that, is, it is assumed, or taken for granted, that it
belongs to "apples." All words which modify the meaning of
nouns in this manner, are called Adjective Elements..
Write this sentence: "Ripe apples are cheap." What is
128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
"ripe"? Ans. — An adjective element. Why? Arts. — It modifies
the meaning of a noun. " Samuel's hat is torn." What element
is " Samuel's"? Ans. — An adjective element. Why? Ans. — It
modifies the meaning of the noun "hat." "Mr. Smith the mason
is sick." What is "mason"? Ans. — An adjective element. Why?
Ans. — It modifies the meaning of "Mr. Smith," a noun. What
are the words "Samuel's" and "mason"? Ans. — They are nouns.
Nouns, then, are adjective elements when they modify nouns.
Write five sentences, limiting the subjects by adjective elements de-
noting quality.
Models. — Cross dogs bite. Cold winter comes.
Write five sentences, limiting their subjects by adjective elements de-
noting number.
Models. — Two boys fought. Three men left.
Wt^ite five sentences, limiting their subjects by words which merely
point them out.
Models. — That boy is studious. This boy is lazy.
Write five sentences, limiting their subjects by nouns.
Models. — Eli's uncle is rich. Mr. Tod the lawyer is young.
Write five sentences, limiting both subjects and objects by adjective
elements.
Model. — Emma's mother bought a new bonnet.
Analyze the following sentences, using these models :
I. "Milton the poet was blind."
Milton . is the subject; (why?): blind is the predicate; (why?):
"Milton" is modified by poet, an adjective element, and
"poet" by tlie, an adjective element: was is the copula.
II. "Evil communications corrupt good manners."
Communications is the subject; (why?): corrupt, the predicate;
(why?): "communications" is modified by evil, an adjec-
tive element; " corrupt," by manners, an objective element ;
and "manners," by good, an adjective element.
EXERCISES.
1. Sarah's book is lost. 2. Mrs. Elkins the milliner found Sarah's
book. 3. Old people love quiet. 4. Young children love play.
5. I like ripe cherries. 6. You have found my pencil.
SYNTAX — ORAL LESSONS. 129
LESSON VII.
Write this sentence on your slates : " Birds sing sweetly." Does
" sweetly " denote what the birds sing ? Arts. — It does not ; it tells
how they sing. That is right. " Sweetly " does not complete the
meaning of " sing," like an objective element; but it modifies its
meaning in another way. All words used in such a manner are
called Adverbial Elements. Words which modify adjectives are
called adverbial elements also. In this sentence, " The storm
rages violently," what is the subject? Arts. — " Storm." What is
the predicate? Ans. — "Kages." What is "violently"? Arts. —
An adverbial element. Why ? Ans. — It modifies a verb, but does
not complete its meaning.
In the sentence " Very large vessels were seen," what is modified
by "very"? Ans. — "Large." What is "large"? Ans.— An ad-
jective. What element, then, is "very"? Ans. — An adverbial
element. Why? Ans. — It modifies an adjective. Adverbial ele-
ments also modify other adverbial elements.
Write ten sentences, modifying the verbs by adverbial elements.
Model. — The wind blows furiously.
Write ten sentences, containing adjective elements modified by ad-
verbial elements.
Model. — James recited a very long lesson.
Analyze the following sentences, using these models :
I. "The wind blows violently."
Wind . is the subject; (why?): blows, the predicate; (why?):
"wind" is modified by the, an adjective element: "blows"
is modified by violently, an adverbial element.
II. " Emma has a very severe headache."
Emma is the subject; (why?): has, the predicate; (why?): "has"
is modified by headache, an objective element; "headache"
by a and severe, adjective elements; and "severe," by very,
an adverbial element.
EXERCISES.
1. A sluggard sleeps soundly. 2. The horses were much fatigued.
3. Very loud reports were heard. 4. That boy spends his money
foolishly. 5. You may go now. 6. He then left the country.
130 ENGLISH GKAMMAR.
148. Definitions.
1. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences.
2. A Sentence is an assemblage of words making
complete sense.
Ex. — Birds fly. Man is mortal. "The great throat of the
chimney laughed." "When the farmer came down in the morn-
ing, he declared that his watch had gained half an hour in the
night."
3. A Proposition is a thought expressed in words.
Ex. — The weather is pleasant. Pupils should be studious. The
boy seems frightened. Horses are animals.
Rem. — The term sentence is applied to any assemblage of words
so arranged as to make complete sense ; proposition, to the thought
which those words express. The same assemblage of words, there-
fore, may be both a sentence and a proposition.
4. Propositions are either Principal or Subordinate.
5. A Principal Proposition is one which makes
complete sense when standing alone.
6. A Subordinate Proposition is one which does
not make complete sense when standing alone, but which
must be connected with another proposition.
Ex. — "The man that does no good does harm." In this sen-
tence, "the man does harm" is the principal proposition, for it
makes complete sense when standing alone: "that does no good"
is a subordinate proposition, for it does not make complete sense
when standing alone.
7. A Phrase is an assemblage of words forming a
single expression, but not making complete sense.
Ex. — Till lately ; in haste ; since then ; year by year ; little by
little ; to see ; to have seen ; to be seen.
8. A Discourse is a series of sentences on the same
subject, arranged in logical order.
SYNTAX — SENTENCES. 131
9. A Paragraph is a series of sentences on the same
branch of a subject.
10. An Element is one of the component parts of a
sentence.
11. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its
elements.
12. Syntliesis is the construction of sentences from
words.
SENTENCES.
149, Classification with Respect to Use.
1. With respect to use, sentences are divided into four
classes: Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Ex-
clamatory.
2. A declarative Sentence is one used to affirm
or deny something.
Ex. — Fishes swim. Fishes do not walk.
Rem. — Direct Discourse is telling what somebody thinks or
says, by using his own words; as, "Our teacher said, lBe frank,
honest, and truthful.'' "
Indirect Discourse is giving the substance of what somebody
thinks or says, but not using his own words; as, "Our teacher
said, that we should be frank, honest, and truthful."
3. An Interrogative Sentence is one used to ask a
question.
Ex. — Are you angry? "Where does that man live?
Rem — A Direct Question is one which can be answered by
yes or no; as, "Has the money been paid?"
An indirect Question is one which can not be answered by
yes or no; as, "Who paid the money?"
4. An Imperative Sentence is one used to express
a command or an entreaty.
Ex. — Bring me that book. Do not strike me.
132 ENGLISH GEAMMAPw
5. An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in ex-
clamations, or in the expression of strong emotion.
Ex. — Oh, how glad I am to see you!
150. Exercises.
Tell to which class each of the following sentences belongs:
Model. — "The dews bring their jewels."
This is a declarative sentence; it is used to affirm something.
1. The days are calm. 2. How many quarts are there in a gal-
lon? 3. The winds bring perfumes. 4. Study diligently. 5. He
waved his arm. 6. And the fellow calls himself a painter! 7. He
deserved punishment rather than pity.
8. O, how careless you are ! 9. What was the Eubicon ? 10.
How brightly the sun shines ! 11. Alas for the man who has not
learned to work! 12. Bring forth the prisoner now. 13. I had a
dream which was not all a dream. 14. A plague of all cowards,
still say I.
15. Attend to the duties I have assigned you. 16. Many fell by
thy arm: they were consumed in the flame of thy wrath. 17.
When shall it be morn in the grave, to bid the slumberer awake?
18. The commons, faithful to their system, remained in a wise and
masterly inactivity. — Mackintosh.
151. Classification with Respect to Form.
1. With respect to form, sentences are divided into three
classes: Simple, Complex, and Compound.
2. A Simple Sentence consists of a single propo-
sition.
Ex. — Flowers bloom. Who is he? Tread lightly. How glad
I am!
3. A Complex Sentence consists of a principal prop-
osition, some part of which is modified by one or more
subordinate propositions.
Ex. — Flowers bloom when spring returns. He who is diligent
SYNTAX — SENTENCES. 133
shall be rewarded. I hear that you have sold your farm, and that
you are going to California.
Rem. — The propositions in complex sentences are called
Clauses. They are named and numbered according to the order
of their subordination.
Ex. — " I believe that he is honest." In this sentence, " I believe " is
the principal clause, and "that he is honest" is the subordinate.
4. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more
simple or complex sentences, joined by coordinate con-
nectives.
Ex — Spring comes, and the flowers bloom. "I go, but I re-
turn." " Though Truth is fearless and absolute, yet she is meek
and modest."
Rem. i. — The simple or complex sentences of which compound
sentences are composed, are called Members. They are num-
bered according to their place in the sentence.
Ex. — " Every man desires to live long; but no man would be old."
In this sentence, " every man desires to live long" is the first member,
and "no man would be old" is the second.
Rem. 2. —The clauses of complex sentences are connected by
relative pronouns, conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs. The mem-
bers of compound sentences are connected by conjunctions.
Rem. 3 — The connectives are sometimes omitted; as, "I
thought [that] he was absent;" "Talent is power, [but] tact is
skill."
152. Models for Classification.
I. "The nights are tranquil."
This is a sentence ; it is an assemblage of words making complete
sense: declarative; it is used to affirm something: simple; it consists
of a single proposition.
II. "Shall I return the book which you lent me?"
This is a sentence; (why?) : interrogative; it is used to ask a ques8-
tion: complex; it is composed of a principal and a subordinate propo-
sition: "Shall I return the book" is the principal proposition, and
"which you lent me" the subordinate, limiting "book." "Which" is
the connective.
134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
III. "She counseled him, that when he arose in the morning, he
should beat them without mercy." — Bunyan.
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): complex; (why?):
"She counseled him," is the principal proposition; uthat he should beat
them without mercy" the first subordinate, modifying "counseled" ; and
"when he rose in the morning" the second subordinate, modifying
"'beat." "That" and "when" are connectives.
IV. " Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dry den : but Dry den cer-
tainly wanted the diligence of Pope." — Johnson.
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): compound; it is
composed of two propositions, joined by a coordinate connective:
"Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden " is the first member, and
"Dryden certainly wanted the diligence of Pope" is the second. "But"
is the connective.
153. Exercises.
1. Thy feet are fetterless. 2. Level spread the lake before him.
3. He waved his broad felt hat for silence. 4. A soldier of the
Legion lay dying in Algiers. 5. It sank from sight before it set.
6. Ye softening dews, ye tender showers, descend I 7. None will
flatter the poor. 8. Ye are the things that tower. 9. The house
was wrapped in flames.
10. Hope and fear are the bane of human life. 11. The village
all declared how much he knew. 12. He that refuseth instruction
despiseth his own soul. 13. Is it for thee the lark ascends and
sings? 14. How dreadful is this place, for God is here! 15. He
dares not touch a hair of Catiline. 16. What can compensate for
the loss of character? 17. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver
us from evil.
18. Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope. 19. All
were sealed with the seal which is never to be broken till the great
day. 20. O God, we are but leaves on thy stream, clouds in thy
sky. 21. Talk to the point, and stop when you have reached it.
22. " It was now the Sabbath-day, and a small congregation, of
about a hundred souls, had met for divine service, in a place more
magnificent than any temple that human hands had ever built to
Deity."— Wilson.
23. I know thou art gone where the weary are blest,
And the mourner looks up and is glad.
SYNTAX ELEMENTS. 135
24. What matter how the night behaved?
What matter how the north wind raved? — Whittier.
25. Bird of the broad and sweeping wing,
Thy home is high in heaven,
Where the wide storms their banners fling,
And the tempest-clouds are driven. — Percival.
ELEMENTS.
154. Principal Elements.
1. The Principal Elements of a proposition are those
which are necessary to its construction. They are the Sub-
ject and the Predicate.
2. The Subject of a proposition is that of which some-
thing is affirmed.
Ex. — "Time is precious." "Time" is the subject; it is that of
which " precious" is affirmed.
3. The Predicate of a proposition is that which is
affirmed of the subject.
Ex. — "Time is precious." "Precious" is the predicate; it is
that which is affirmed of the subject.
Rem. — In these definitions, the term "affirm" is meant to in-
clude say , ash for, command, entreat, or exclaim.
4. The Subject may be a tvord, a phrase, or a clause.
Ex. — Winter is coming. H is a letter. To steal is base. "Pay
as you go," is a good rule. "Why will he persist?" is often asked.
Rem. — The subject of a proposition may be known by its an-
swering the question formed by using Who? or What? with the
predicate.
Ex. — "John is careless." Who is careless? Ans. — "John."
"John/' therefore, is the subject. " To be sick is disagreeable." What
is disagreeable? Ans. — "To be sick." "To be sick," therefore, is the
subject.
5. The Copula is some form of the verb to be, (is, was,
136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
has been, might be, &c.,) or a copulative verb. Its office is
to affirm the predicate of the subject.
Ex. — " Silence is impressive." " Is " is the copula, and " impress-
ive" the predicate. "Gold is a metal." "Is" is the copula, and
"metal" the predicate. "He may have been injudicious." "May-
have been" is the copula, and "injudicious" the predicate. "The
fields look green." "Look" is the copula, and "green" the pred-
icate.
6. In affirming action, being, or state, the copula and
predicate are generally united in one word, or one form,
called a verb.
Ex. — Pupils study. I cm* The house stands. Rain is falling.
tetters are written.
7. The Predicate may be a word, a phrase, or a clause.
Ex. — Horses gallop. Wheat is a vegetable. The sun was shin-
ing. " To obey is to enjoy P He seems honest. My desire is, that
you attend school.
Rem. — The predicate is sometimes erroneously called the attri-
bute of a proposition, and the copula and predicate, taken to-
gether, the predicate.
155. Models for Analysis.
I. "Birds sing."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
Birds is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed;
sing is the predicate ; it is that which is affirmed of the subject.
II. "Scholars should be studious."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
Scholars is the subject; (why?): studious is the predicate;
(why?): should be is the copula.
III. " Franklin was a philosopher."
This is a sentence; (why?) : declarative; (why?) : simple; (why?).
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 137
Franklin is the subject; (why?): philosopher is the predicate ;
(why?): was is the copula.
IV. " He was considered responsible."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
He is the subject; (why?) : responsible is the predicate; (why?):
was considered is the copula.
V. "Be truthful."
This is a sentence; (why?): imperative; (why?): simple; (why?).
Thou or yon, understood, is the subject; (why?): truthful is
the predicate; (why?): he is the copula.
156. Exercises in Analysis.
1. Children play. 2. Virtue ennobles. 3. Spring has come.
4. Winter has departed. 5. You may go. 6. Mary might have
sung. 7. Horses can run. 8. Flowers are blooming. 9. Money
may be loaned. 10. Books will be bought. 11. Stars were shining.
12. John should have been studying.
13. Glass is brittle. 14. Water is transparent. 15. Savages may
be merciful. 16. Men should be just. 17. Samuel should have
been obedient. 18. Geography is interesting. 19. Job was pa-
tient. 20. I will be industrious. 21. They have been successful.
22. Iron is a metal. 23. Flies are insects. 24. Napoleon wras a
general. 25. Ostriches are birds. 26. " Men wrould be angels ;
angels would be gods." 27. They may have been truants. 28.
Howard was a philanthropist. 29. He might have been a lawyer.
30. George had been a captain.
31. John looks cold. 32. I feel aguish. 33. Ants appear indus-
trious. 34. Washington was elected president. 35. Avarice has
become his master. 36. He seems dejected. 37. He became
wealthy. 38. It was deemed inexpedient.
157. Arrangement of Elements.
1. Arrangement is the correct placing of elements.
2. Elements are arranged in Natural or Inverted order.
H. G. 12.
138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. The Natural order of arrangement is that which is
most customary.
4. The Inverted order of arrangement is any depart-
ure from the natural order.
Rem. — In inverted order, the elements are said to be trans-
posed.
5. The Natural order of arrangement is,
In Declarative Sentences:
1. Subject .... Predicate; as "Winds blow."
2. Subject .... Copula .... Predicate ; as, " Chalk is white."
3. Subject .... Auxiliary . . Predicate; as, "You may go."
In Interrogative Sentences:
1. Copula .... Subject .... Predicate; as, "Is he wise?"
2. Auxiliary . . Subject .... Predicate; as, "May I go?"
3. Predicate . . Subject; as, "Say you so?"
4. Subject .... Predicate; as, "Who remained?"
In Imperative Sentences:
1. Predicate . . Subject; as, "Go thou."
2. Copula .... Subject .... Predicate; as, "Be ye merciful."
In Exclamatory Sentences, the arrangement is the same as
in declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.
6. The Inverted order is used when the predicate is
made emphatic.
Rem. — inversion occurs in declarative and exclamatory sen-
tences. The usual order of arrangement is Predicate . . . Copula . . .
Subject ; as, "Great was our wonder;" "Known unto God are all
his works."
158. Exercises in Synthesis.
Affirm actions of the following subjects :
Winds, waters, stars, fire, light, acorns, sheep, rabbits, fishes,
men, women, boys, girls, children, thunder, lightning, storms,
nobles, kings, merchants.
Models. — Winds blow. Storms rage.
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 139
Affirm quality of the following subjects :
Apples, cherries, peaches, fruit, books, desks, winter, spring,
summer, autumn, sugar, quinine, vinegar, grammar, writing, even-
ings, darkness, chemistry, geography.
Models. — Apples are ripe. Quinine is bitter.
Ascertain all the distinguishing properties of five substances. Affirm
them of the substances to which they belong.
Models. — Chalk is white; chalk is opaque; chalk is brittle;
chalk is incombustible, &c.
Affirm class or kind of the following subjects :
Oranges, horses, hens, flies, Henry, Washington, ships, gold,
silver, sharks, water, air, table.
Models. — Oranges are fruit. Henry is a clerk.
159. Subordinate Elements.
1. A Modifier is a word, phrase, or clause joined to a
term to limit or restrict its meaning or application.
Ex. — A wealthy man. Chairs to mend. A man who is 'wealthy.
2. Subordinate Elements are those which modify
other elements. They are distinguished as Objective, Ad-
jective, and Adverbial.
160. Objective Element.
An Objective Element is a word or group of words
which completes the meaning of a transitive verb in the
active voice, or of its participles. It is usually called the
object.
Ex. — Heat melts metals. Men love money. I wish to be quiet.
Alice knew that we were not at home. Him they sought.
Rem. i — The objective element answers the question formed
by using Whom? or What? with the predicate, or with the subject
and predicate.
Ex. — " John writes letters." Writes what? Ans. — " Letters n== the
object. "Brutus killed Caesar." Brutus killed whom? Jtwj.— "Ca-
sar"— the object.
140 ENGLISH GKAMMAK.
Rem. 3. — By " completing the meaning of a verb " is meant
restricting its application, by stating that on which its action ter-
minates. In the sentence "John writes," the predicate "writes"
is taken in its most general sense : what John writes is not men-
tioned. In the sentence "John writes letters," the application of
the predicate is restricted to the single act of writing letters.
"Letters" being the object on which the act of writing terminates,
it is called the objective element.
Rem. 3. — Some verbs are followed by two objects: one denoting
a person or thing; the other, the rank, office, occupation, or character
of the person, or the species of the thing. See, also, I 32, Eem. 2.
Ex. — They elected Charles captain. He called him a scoundrel.
He makes the sea his home. They declared self-government a de-
lusion.
Rem. 4. — Another class of verbs is followed by two objects :
one denoting a person or thing ; the other, that to or from which
the act tends. The former is called the direct, the latter the
indirect object.
Ex. — He taught me arithmetic. He sold me a horse. I gave him
money. They sent John a telegram.
161. Models for Analysis.
, VI. "Columbus discovered America."
This is a sentence; (why?) : declarative; (why?) : simple; (why?).
Columbus is the subject; (why?): discovered is the predicate:
(why ?). The predicate is modified by America, an objective element.
VII. "Whom did you see?"
This is a sentence; (why?): interrogative; (why?): simple; (why?).
You is the subject; (why?): did see is the predicate; (why?).
The predicate is modified by whom, an objective element.
VIII. " Bring me flowers."
This is a sentence; (why?): imperative; (why?): simple; (why?).
Thou or you, understood, is the subject: (why?): bring is the
predicate; (why?). The predicate is modified by me, an indirect,
and by flowers, a direct object.
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 141
IX. " They have chosen Mr. Ames speaker."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
Tliey is the subject ; (why ?) : nave chosen is the predicate ;
(why ?). The predicate is modified by Mr. Ames, an objective element;
and Mr. Ames, by speaker, an adjective element, denoting office.
162. Exercises in Analysis.
1. He examined the books. 2. Silas studied geology. 3. They
watched the storm. 4. You must obey the laws. 5. We earn
money. 6. Merchants sell goods. 7. Engineers run locomotives.
8. Blacksmiths shoe horses.
9. Farmers sow grain. 10. Give me music. 11. They chose
him. 12. We have chosen him director. 13. Bring^him a book.
14. Whom did you call?
163. Exercises in Synthesis.
Sentences containing objective elements are arranged as
follows :
Declarative; Subject . . Predicate . . Object; as, "I found it."
interrogative ; 1. Object . .Predicate . . Subject; as, " What see you?"
2. Object . . Auxiliary . . Subject . . Verb ; as, " What did you see ? "
Imperative; Predicate . . Object; as, "Practice economy."
Rem. l. — In inverted order, the arrangement of declarative
sentences, is
Object . . Subject . . Predicate; as, "Him they found."
Write sentences containing an objective element, using the following
words as subjects:
Men, boys, heat, lightning, horses, locomotives, scythe, knife,
shears, clerks, merchants, blacksmith, tailor, mason, doctors, lion,
oxen, eagles.
Models. — Men drive horses. Boys fly kites. Merchants sell
goods.
142 ENGLISH GRAM MAE.
Write sentences containing two objects, using the above or any other
nouns :
Models. — Charles calls doctors physicians. Frank calls a sleigh
a cutter. I consider William a genius.
Write sentences containing a direct and an indirect object, using the
following verbs:
Ask, buy, bring, do, draw, deny, find, get, leave, make, pass,
pour, promise, provide, present, sell, send, show, refuse, teach,
tell, throw, write.
Models. — Emma asked me a question. He bought Charles a pony.
Change each of the verbs, in sentences written last, into the passive
voice, making either object the subject.
Models. — I was asked a question. A pony was bought for Charles,
Analyze the sentences you have written.
164. Adjectiye Element.
An Adjective Element is a word or group of words
which modifies a noun, or any expression used as a noun.
Ex. — A good man. Mr. Myers the banker. Friend Hiram.
"If you can: a sensible if." "Done gone," a vulgarism, is fre-
quently heard. My book is on Ellen's desk. A letter, written in
haste. She came, laughing.
Rem. i. — An adjective element is a definitive or descriptive
term used to modify the meaning of a noun or its substitute.
The relation which a predicate attribute sustains to the subject is
affirmed: the relation which an adjective element sustains to the
term it modifies is assumed, or taken for granted.
Ex. — "That man is wealthy." The predicate " wealthy" is affirmed
to belong to "man." "A wealthy man." The attribute "wealthy" is
here assumed to belong to "man," and is an adjective element.
Rem. 2 — An adjective element containing a single word
may be,
1. An Adjective; as, "Ripe apples."
2. A Participle; as, "Hats made to order."
3. A Xoun in Apposition ; as,. " Powers the sculptor"
4. A Possessive ; as, "Eli's pen." "His hat."
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 143
165. Models for Analysis.
X. " Small lakes are abundant."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
lakes is the subject: (why?): abundant is the predicate;.
(why?): are is the copula. The subject is modified by small, an
adjective element.
XI. "The steamship Hibernia has arrived."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative: (why?): simple; (why?).
Steamship is the subject; ywhy ?) : has arrived is the predicate;
(why?). The subject is modified by the and Hibernia, both adjec*
tive elements.
XII. "My brother broke Stephen's slate."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
Brother is the subject ; (why?): broke is the predicate ; (why?).
The subject is modified by my, an adjective element. The predicate
is modified by slate, an objective element, and "slate" is modified by
Stephen's, an adjective element.
XIII. "The old man, laughing, said 'Yes.'"
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
Man is the subject; (why?): said is the predicate; (why?). The
subject is modified by the, old, and langhing, adjective elements.
The predicate is modified by Yes, an objective element.
166. Exercises in Analysis.
1. A large house was burned. 2. I wrote a long letter. 3. This
land is government property. 4. Many hands make quick work.
5. A wise son maketh a glad father. 6. Man's necessity is God's
opportunity. 7. Mr. Hodge the farmer hired Mr. Olds the ma-
son. 8. Great wits jump.
9. He is a vain, conceited blockhead. 10. I want the largest
apple. 11. Mary has chosen the better part. 12. Carlo's barking
wakened the family. 13. I saw six swans. 14. This is my fortieth
birthday. 15. Every man received a penny.
144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
167o Exercises in Synthesis.
Adjectives and possessives are usually placed before, and
participles and nouns in apposition, after the nouns they
modify.
Write seven sentences, limiting the subject by one of the following
adjectives :
Round, square, oval, rough, smooth, transparent, translucent,
white, green, sour, sweet, old, young, new, wise, foolish, lucky,
unlucky, careful, careless. * .
Models. — A round table was purchased. A square box was
found.
Write seven sentences, limiting both subject and object by an adjective.
Model. — A stout horse draws heavy loads.
WHte seven sentences, limiting the subject or object by the possessive
case of one of the following nouns :
Elephant, swan, hawk, sparrow, summer, winter, father, mother,
uncle, aunt, John, Samuel, Celia, Harriet, Jackson, teacher,
doctoi, pupil, merchant.
Models. — An elephant's tusks are white. A swan's movements
are graceful.
Write seven sentences, limiting the subject or object, or both, by a noun
in apposition.
Models. — Mr. Sledge the blacksmith is sick. Wilson the burg-
lar robbed Wilson the banker.
Analyze the sentences you have written.
168. Adverbial Element.
An Adverbial Element is a word or group of words
used to modify a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb.
Ex. — The stranger was very kind. The wind blows fiercely.
Come here. Who goes there ?
Rem. l. — Adverbial elements, when they modify the meaning
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 145
of verbs, usually denote some circumstance of time, place, cause,
degree, or manner.
Ex. — He calls frequently. There is no night there. Why are you
angry? The teacher labored faithfully.
Rem. 2. — Adverbial elements which modify the manner of the
assertion, and not the predicate itself, are called modal adverbs.
Ex. — He has not come. Perhaps I shall go. He was absent, prcb
ably. He will certainly resign.
169. Models for Analysis.
XIV. "He is strictly honest."
This is a sentence; (why?) : declarative; (why?) : simple; (why?).
He is the subject: (why?): honest is the predicate: (why?).
The predicate is modified by strictly, an adverbial element.
XV. " The sun shines brightly."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
Sun is the subject; (why?): shines is the predicate; (why?).
The subject is modified by the, an adjective element; the predicate
by brightly, an adverbial element.
XVI. "He is not handsome."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
He is the subject; (why?): handsome is the predicate; (why?).
The copula is is modified by not, an adverbial element.
170. Exercises in Analysis.
1. The birds sing sweetly. 2. We struck the vessel just amid-
ships. 3. I now demand your votes. 4. He formerly lived here.
5. The fire went out. 6. He seems very sad. 7. The boy wrote
the letter carelessly. 8. They have been long absent. 9. I shall
certainly defend you.
171. Exercises in Synthesis.
In the natural order of arrangement, the adverbial ele-
ment is placed after the word or group of words, it limits.
Ex. — He denied the charge vehemently.
H. G. 13.
146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. — In inverted order, the adverbial element is placed be-
tween the subject and predicate, or at the head of the sentence.
Ex. — He vehemently denied the charge. Vehemently did he deny
the charge.
Write seven sentences, limiting the predicates by an adverbial element
of manner.
Models. — She writes rapidly. He does his work thoroughly.
Write seven sentences, limiting the predicates by an adverbial element
of place.
Models. — He lives there. Wliere do you live ?
Write seven sentences, limiting the predicates by an adverbial element
of time.
Models. — I was very happy then. When will you come?
Write seven sentences, limiting the predicates by an adverbial element
of cause or degree.
Models. — Why are you sad? The work is scarcely commenced.
Write seven sentences, limiting the copulas by a modal adverb.
Models. — He is certainly insane. James is not a truant.
Write seven sentences, containing adjectives modified by adverbial
elements.
Models. — That tree is very tall. It is a remarkably fine gem.
Analyze the sentences you have written.
172. Attendant Elements.
Attendant or Independent Elements are words or
expressions not used as principal or subordinate elements of
the sentences in which they are found. They are,
1. Nouns and pronouns in the absolute case; as, "Children,
obey your parents;" "Rome, her glory has departed;" "He having
arrived, we returned."
2. Interjections and nouns used in broken exclamations; as.
"Pshaw, what nonsense!" "Wretched man that I am!"
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 147
3. Expletives, and words used to introduce sentences in a pe-
culiar way; as, "Now, Barabbas was a robber;" "There is no re-
port of any disaster;" "It is a shameful thing to tell a lie."
4. Words used for emphasis merely ; as, " You yourself told me
so;" "Either he or I will come."
5. All phrases and clauses which have no perceptible connection
with the rest of the sentence.
Rem. — Attendant elements should be omitted in the analysis
of the sentences containing them. They have no grammatical con-
nection with other words, except in certain constructions in which
they are used as antecedents of pronouns. Sometimes the entire
group of words of which they form a part has the force of an ad-
verbial element.
Ex. — "Gad, a troop shall overcome him." The attendant element
"Gad," is the antecedent of the pronoun "him." "They having left,
order was restored." The attendant element "they," is connected
with " having left," and the combination has the force of the adverbial
clause " after they left."
173. Words, Phrases, and Clauses.
1. Elements are divided into three classes: Words,
Phrases, and Clauses.
2. An element consisting of a word, is an element of the
first class.
Ex. — "A careless boy seldom learns his lesson." In this sen^
tence, all the elements are single words, therefore of the first class.
3. A phrase consisting of an infinitive, or of a prepo-
sition and its object, is an element of the second class.
Rem — There are two kinds of phrases: Separable and In-
separable.
A Separable Phrase is one whose words should always be
parsed separately ; " He rode in a wagon." The three words com-
posing the phrase "in a wagon," should be parsed separately —
"in" as a preposition; "a" as an adjective; "wagon" as a noun.
An inseparable Phrase is one whose words need not be sep-
arated in parsing; as, "I will come by and by;" "He labors in
148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
vain," The phrases "by and by" and "in vain" may be parsed
as single words. All the forms of the infinitive mode are insep-
arable phrases.
4. A clause, or subordinate proposition, is an element of
the third class.
Ex. — "A man who is indolent will not prosper ;" "I learn that
you are out of employment" The clauses "who is indolent" and
" that you are out of employment " are elements of the third class.
174. Models for Analysis.
XVII. "Tumultuous murder shook the midnight air."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
Murder is the subject; (why?): shook is the predicate; (why?).
The subject, "murder," is modified by tumultuous, an adjective
element of the first class: the predicate "shook" is modified by air,
an objective element of the first class: "air" is modified by the and
midnight, adjective elements of the first class.
XVIII. "A life of prayer is a life of heaven."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple: (why?
Life is the subject; (why?): life is the predicate; (why?): is is
the copula. The subject, " life," is modified by a, an adjective ele-
ment of the first class, and by of prayer, an adjective element of the
second class. The predicate, "life," is modified by a, an adjective
element of the first class, and by of heaven, an adjective element of
the second class.
XIX.' "He sold me a farm."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
He is the subject; (why?): sold is the predicate; (why?). The
predicate, "sold," is modified by me, an indirect objective element
of the first class, and by farm, a direct objective element of the first
class: "farm" is modified by a, an adjective element of the first class.
XX. " To love is to obey."
This is a sentence; (why?) : declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
To love is the subject; (why?): it is an element of the second
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 149
class : to obey is the predicate ; (why ?) : it is an element of the sec-
ond class: is is the copula.
XXI. " Many actions apt to procure fame, are not conducive to our
ultimate happiness."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?); simple; (why?).
Actions is the subject; (why?): conducive is the predicate;
(why?): are is the copula. The subject, " actions," is modified by
many and apt, adjective elements of the first class: "apt" is modi-
fied by to procure, an adverbial element of the second class, and
" to procure," by fame, an objective element of the first class. The
copula, "are," is modified by not, a modal adverbial element of the
first class; and the predicate, " conducive," by to happiness, an ad-
verbial element of the second class, and " happiness," by our and
ultimate, adjective elements of the first class.
XXII. "The credulity which has faith in goodness, is a sign of
goodness."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): complex; (why?).
"Credulity is a sign of goodness" is the principal proposition, and
" which has faith in goodness" the subordinate.
Credulity is the subject of the principal proposition; (why?):
sign is the predicate; (why?): is is the copula. The subject, "cre-
dulity," is modified by the, an adjective element of the first class,
and by which has faith in goodness, an adjective element of the
third class: "sign," the predicate, is modified by a, an adjective ele-
ment of the first class, and by of goodness, an adjective element of
the second class. Which is the subject of the subordinate propo-
sition; (why?): has is the predicate ; (why?). The predicate, "has,"
is modified by faith, an objective element of the first class, and by
in goodness, -an adverbial element of the second class.
XXIII. "I thought, when I saw you last, that I should never see
you again."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): complex; (why?).
"I thought" is the principal proposition: "when I saw you last" and
" that I should never see you again" are subordinate propositions.
I is the subject of the principal proposition; (why?): thought is
the predicate; (why?). The predicate, "thought," is modified by
when I saw you last, an adverbial element of the third class, and
by that I should never see you again, an objective element of
150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
the third class. I is the subject of the objective clause; (why?):
should see is the predicate; (why?): "should see" is modified by
you, an objective element of the first class, and by never and again,
adverbial elements of the first class. I is the subject of the adverbial
clause; (why?): saw is the predicate; (why?): "saw" is modified
by you, an objective element of the first class, and by when and
last, adverbial elements of the first class. When and that are con-
nectives, joining the clauses they introduce to "thought."
175. Exercises in Analysis,
1. Thou hast uttered cruel words. 2. I bow reverently to thy
dictates. 3. He shakes the woods on the mountain side. 4. He
builds a palace of ice where the torrents fall. 5. The panther's
track is fresh in the snow. 6. Black crags behind thee pierce the
clear blue sky. 7. Soon rested those who fought. 8. His home
lay low in the valley. 9. He had a remarkably good view of their
features. 10. All said that Love had suffered wrong. 11. Heaven
burns with the descending sun. 12. I will go to-morrow.
13. How pleasant it is to see the sun ! 14. To doubt the promise
of a friend is a sin. 15. He wishes to go to the house. 16. It was
now a matter of curiosity, who the old gentleman was. 17. The
fires of the bivouac complete what the fires kindled by the battle
have not consumed. 18. In my daily walks in the country, I was
accustomed to pass a certain cottage. 19. Toward night, the school-
master walked over to the cottage where bis little friend lay sick.
20. I am now at liberty to confess that much which I have heard
objected to my late friend's writings, was well founded. 21. One
of his favorite maxims was, that the only way to keep a secret is
never to let any one suspect that you have one. 22. How his essays
will read, now they are brought together, is a question for the pub-
lishers, who have thus ventured to draw out into one piece his
" weaved-up follies." — Lamb.
23. Examples may be heaped until they hide
The rules that they were made to render plain.
24. Merciful wind, sing me a hoarse, rough song,
For there is other music made to-night
That I would fain not hear.
25. Woe worth the chase ! woe worth the day !
That cost thy life, my gallant gray. — Scott.
SYNTAX — CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 151
176. Exercises in Synthesis.
Write seven sentences, limiting their subjects by an adjective element of
the second class.
Models. — Love of display is a sin. Greed of gain is wrong.
Write seven sentences, limiting their subjects by an adjective element of
the third class.
Model. — The house which you see yonder, belongs to my father.
Write seven sentences, limiting their predicates by an objective element
of the second or third class.
Models. — I wish to remain. He says that he can not walk.
Write seven sentences, limiting their predicates by an adverbial element
of the second or third class.
Models. — I study to learn. I will come when you call me.
Write seven sentences, introducing attendant elements.
Model. — I think, my dear friend, that you are mistaken.
Analyze the sentences you have written.
KINDS OF ELEMENTS.
177. Simple Elements.
1. A Simple Element is one which is not restricted
by: a modifier.
Ex. — "A rich man;" "A man of wealth;" "A man who is
rvealthy." The word rich, the phrase of wealth, and the clause
who is wealthy, are simple adjective elements.
2. The Grammatical Subject is the simple subject.
3. The Grammatical Predicate is the simple pred-
icate.
Rem — The same distinction may be made in the other
elements.
152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
178. Models for Complete Analysis,
XXIV. "To err is human."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; ^why?).
To err is the grammatical subject; (why?): liuman is the gram-
matical predicate; (why?): is is the copula.
XXV. "I am in haste."
This is a sentence; (why?) : declarative; (why?) : simple; (why?).
I is the grammatical subject; (why?): in haste is the grammat-
ical predicate ; (why ?) : am is the copula.
179. Exercises.
1. Banners were waving. 2. To forgive is divine. 3. It is pleas-
ant to read. 4. Stars have been shining. 5. Weapons were pro-
cured. 6. To covet is sinful. 7. To quarrel is disgraceful. 8. To
rob is to plunder. 9. Vessels are in sight.
180. Complex Elements.
1. A Complex Element is one which contains a
leading element, restricted in meaning by one or more
modifiers.
2. The leading element is called the basis.
Rem. — The basis determines the class of a complex element.
If it be of the first, second, or third class, the entire element is said
to be of the first, second, or third class.
Ex. — "A very rich raan.!, Very rich is a complex adjective element
of the first class, modifying "man": rich is the basis, and is modified
by very, an adverbial element.
"A man faithful when others were faithless." The words in italics
form a complex adjective element of the first class, modifying "man":
faithful is the basis, and is modified by the clause when others were
faithless, an adverbial element of the third class.
"He wishes to know who you are," The words in italics form a
complex objective element of the second class; Iq Jctiqvj is the 6askJ
SYNTAX — CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 153
and is modified by the clause who you are, an objective element of the
third class.
" I like people that listen when I talk" The words in italics form
a complex adjective element of the third class: that listen is the basis;
and listen, the predicate, is modified by the clause when I talk, an ad-
verbial element of the third class.
3. The Complex or ^Logical Subject is the simple
subject taken with all its modifiers.
Rem. 1. — The simple subject, when a noun, may be modified,
1. By an adjective; as, "Loud reports followed."
2. By a participle; as, "The hour appointed has come."
3. By a possessive; as, "George's plan succeeded."
4. By a noun in the same case; as, "Gay the poet is dead."
5. By a phrase; as, "A storm of applause followed."
6. By a clause; as, "Money which I earn is my own."
Rem. 2. — A subject may have all the preceding modifications
in the same sentence.
Rem. 3. — When the simple subject is a pronoun, it may have
all the modifications of a noun, except that made by a noun or
pronoun in the possessive case.
Rem. 4 — An infinitive or participial noun, used as a subject,
may be modified (1) as a noun, by a word, phrase, or clause in
the nominative case, in apposition with it; (2) as a verb, by the
modifiers of a verb.
4. The Complex or ^Logical Predicate is the sim-
ple predicate taken with all its modifiers.
Rem. l. — The simple predicate, when a verb, may be modified,
1. If transitive, by an object; as, " He saves money."
2. By an adverb; as, "The horse runs swiftly"
3. By a phrase; as, "He lives in Troy;" "He studies to learn."
4. By a clause; as, "He knows where the mushrooms grow"
Rem. 2. — When the predicate is an adjective, a participle, a
noun, or any thing used as a noun, it may have all the modifica-
tions of the part of speech with which it is classed.
154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. 3. — The copula is modified by modal adverbs and adverbs
of time only.
Rem. 4. — A predicate may have all the modifications given
above in the same sentence.
5. A Complex Objective Element is the simple
object taken with all its modifiers.
item. — A complex objective element may be,
1. A word, modified by words, phrases, or clauses; as, "We
found much gold;" " He owns the house on the hill;99 "I love those
who are frank99
2. A phrase, modified by single words, phrases, or clauses; as,
"He desires to learn rapidly ;" "He desires to learn to write;" "He
desires to repeat what he has heard"
3. A clause, some part of which is modified by another clause ;
as, " I said that he was present when the assault was made"
6. A Complex Adjective Element is the simple
adjective element taken with all its modifiers.
Rem. — A complex adjective element may be,
1. An adjective, modified by an adverb ; as, " A very large lot."
2. A participle, with all the modifiers of a verb; as, "The
young man was seen clandestinely entering a dram-shop"
3. A noun or pronoun, with the modifications of a noun or
pronoun ; as, "Mr. Elder9 s house ;" " Thompson, the faithful guar-
dian of our cousins;" "Our own dear native land."
4. A phrase, modified by a word, phrase, or clause; as, "A
time to make friends ;" ,u k. time to learn to write;" "A time to
repeat what you have learned."
5. A clause, some part of which is modified by another clause ;
as, "A man who is angry whenever his views are controverted."
7. A Complex Adverbial Element is the simple
adverbial element taken with all its modifiers.
Rem. — A complex adverbial element may be,
1. An adverb, modified by a single word, phrase, or clause; as,
"We rode very rapidly;" " It is too badly done to last;" "He spoke
so indistinctly that we could not understand him."
SYNTAX— CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 155
2. A phrase, modified by a single word, phrase, or clause; as,
"I am ready to begin the work;" "I shall be ready to commence
work by daylight:" "I am ready to go wherever duty calls me."
3. A clause, some part of which is modified by another clause ;
as, "He is afraid that you will not return before he leaves"
181. Models for Complete Analysis.
XXVI. "A lad, made orphan by a winter shipwreck, played among
the waste."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
"A lad, made orphan by a winter shipwreck" is the logical subject,
and "played among the waste " is the logical predicate.
I*ad is the grammatical subject; (why?): played is the grammat-
ical predicate; (why?). The subject, "lad," is modified by a, a sim-
ple adjective element of the first class, and by made orphan by a
winter shipwreck, a complex adjective element of the first class.
" Made orphan," the basis, is modified by by a winter snip wreck,
an adverbial element of the second class: "shipwreck" is modified
by a and winter, adjective elements of the first class.
The predicate, " played," is modified by among the waste, an
adverbial element of the second class; and "waste" by the, an ad-
jective element of the first class. " Made orphan " is an abridged
proposition, equivalent to "that was made an orphan."
XXVII. "He who does as he lists, without regard to the wishes of
others, will soon cease to do well."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): complex; (why?).
61 He will soon cease to do well" is the principal proposition: "who does
as he lists, without regard to the wishes of others" the complex sub-
ordinate proposition.
"He who does as he lists, without regard to the wishes of others" is the
logical subject, and "will soon cease to do well" the logical predicate.
He is the grammatical subject of the principal proposition;
(why?): will cease is the predicate. The subject "he," is modified
by who does as he lists, &c, a complex adjective element of the
third class.
Who is the subject of this dependent proposition; (why?): does
is the predicate; (why?): "does" is modified by as he lists, an ad-
verbial element of the third class ; of which as is the connective, he is
156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
the subject, and lists is the predicate; also by without regard to
the wishes of others, a complex adverbial element of the second
class, of which regard is modified by to the wishes of others, a
complex adjective element of the second class. Wishes is modified
by the, an adjective element of the first class, and by of others, an
adjective element of the second class.
"Will cease," the predicate, is modified by soon, an adverbial
element of the first class, and by to do well, a complex objective
\element of the second class; of which, to do, the basis, is modified by
well, an adverbial element of the first class,
182. Exercises.
1. God's balance, watched by angels, is hung across the sky. 2.
My eyes pursued him far away among the honest shoulders of the
crowd. 3. Nothing is law that is not reason. 4. Vice itself lost
half its evil by losing all its grossness. 5. There is a limit at which
forbearance ceases to be a virtue, 6. If ye love me, keep my com-
mandments. 7. Were I not Diogenes, I would be Alexander. 8.
Unless he reforms soon, he is a ruined man. 9< Except ye repent,
ye shall all likewise perish.
10. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he weary
of thee, and so hate thee. 11. I am quite sure that Mr. Hutchins
rode through the village this morning. 12. Seest thou a man wise
in his own conceit? There is more hope of a fool than of him.
13. He spake as one having authority. 14. He never has a lesson,
because he is too lazy to study. 15. Not many generations ago,
where you now sit, the rank thistle nodded in the wind. 16. Do
not forget to write when you reach home. 17. Even by means of
our sorrows, we belong to the eternal plan.
18. The gentleman who was dressed in brown-once-black, had a
sort of medico-theological exterior, which we afterward found to
be representative of the inward man.
19. Multitudes of little floating clouds,
Ere we, who saw, of change, were conscious, pierced
Through their ethereal texture, had become
Vivid as fire. — Wordsworth.
20. Honest work for the day, honest hope for the morrow :
Are these worth nothing more than the hand they make weary,
The heart they have saddened, the life they leave dreary?
SYNTAX — CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 157
183. Compound Elements.
A Compound Element consists of two or more inde-
pendent simple or complex elements, joined by coordinate
connectives.
Ex. — The moon and stars are shining. You may go or stay.
Rem. — All the elements of a sentence may be compound.
184. Models for Complete Analysis.
XXVIII. " Industry, honesty, and economy generally insure success."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?).
"Industry, honesty , and economy" is the logical subject: "generally
insure success" is the logical*predicate.
Industry, honesty, and economy is the compound grammat-
ical subject; (why?): insure is the grammatical predicate; (why?).
The subject is not modified. The predicate, "insure," is modified by
generally, an adverbial element of the first class, and by success,
an objective element of the first class.
XXIX. "The charities that soothe, and heal, and bless,
Are scattered at the feet of man like flowers."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): complex; (why?).
Name the principal and the subordinate clause.
"The charities that soothe, and heal, and bless" is the logical subject:
"Are scattered at the feet of man like flowers" is the logical predicate.
Charities is the grammatical subject of the principal proposition ;
(why?): are scattered is the grammatical predicate; (why?). The
subject, " charities," is modified by the, an adjective element of the
first class, and by that soothe, and heal, and bless, an adjective
element of the third class; of which that is the subject, and soothe,
and heal, and Mess is the compound predicate; and being the
connective.
The predicate, "scattered," is modified (1) by at the feet of man,
a complex adverbial element of the second class; of which "feet,"
is modified by the, an adjective element of the first class, and by
of man, an adjective element of the second class ; (2) by like flowers,
an adverbial element of the second class.
158 ENGLISH GllAMMAR.
185. Exercises.
1. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 2.
Youth is bright and lovely. 3. He is neither old nor infirm. 4. He
is not angry, but excited. 5. They wash, iron, cook, eat, and sleep
in the same room. 6. I want to be quiet, and to be let alone. 7.
The book which I loaned you, and which you lost, was a present
from my father. 8. To live in a fine house and drive fast horses is
the height of his ambition.
9. All the girls were in tears and white muslins, except a select
two or three, who were being honored with a private .view of the
bride and bridesmaids, up stairs.
10. There was another tap at the door — a smart, potential tap,
which seemed to say, " Here I am, and in I Jm coming."
11. Not a truth has to art or to science been given,
But brows have ached for it, and souls toiled and striven.
Lytton.
186. Classification of Phrases.
1. Complex elements of the first and second classes, and
abridged propositions, are sometimes called phrases.
Rem. — The basis of the element, the manner in wrhich it mod-
ifies, the connective, or the leading word, determines the name of
the phrase.
2. Phrases may be,
1. Appositive ; as, " Washington, the father of his country J1
2. Adjective; as, "A man, tenacious of principle."
3. Adverbial ; as, " He lives just round the corner"
4. Prepositional ; as, " We walked on the bank of the river"
5. Infinitive; as, "He hoped to receive a telegram."
6. Participial ; as, "Being unwell, he remained at home."
7. Absolnte; as, "He being sich, I remained."
8. Independent; as, "0 my ducats!"
Rem. 1. — The infinitive, or participial phrase, when used as
SYNTAX — CLASSES .OF ELEMENTS. 159
subject, is called the Subject Phrase: when used as predicate, the
Predicate Phrase,
Rem. 2. — The absolute phrase is an abridged proposition. It
usually modifies the predicate of the sentence of which it forms a
part, but may modify the subject and predicate combined.
187. Classification of Clauses.
Clauses are classified with reference to their use or
position in sentences. They are,
1. The Subject clause: a proposition used as the subject of a
sentence; as, "How the accident occurred, is not known."
2. The Predicate Clause: a proposition used as the predicate
of a sentence; as, "The question is, How did he obtain the
money?"
3. The Relative Clause: a dependent proposition introduced
by a relative pronoun; as, "The vessel which you see yonder, is a
sloop."
4. The Appositive Clause: a proposition put in apposition
with a noun; as, "The question, Are we a nation? is now an-
swered."
5. The Interrogative Clause : a proposition introduced by an
interrogative word; as, "Who said so?" " What vessel is that?"
"Where do you live?"
6. The Objective Clause: a proposition used as an objective
element; as, "The chairman declared that the motion was lost"
7. The Adverbial Clause: a proposition used as an adverbial
element; as, "I will pay you when I receive my week's wages."
Rem. l. — Subject, predicate, and objective clauses are used as
nouns.
Rem. 2. — Relative clauses are either restrictive or explanatory.
If restrictive, the antecedent is usually modified by a, the, or that;
as, "The vessel which capsized, was a bark." If explanatory, the
antecedent is not so modified ; as, " Steamships, which are a modern
invention, make quick voyages."
A proposition introduced by a compound relative is frequently
equivalent to an adverbial element; as, "He will succeed, whoever
may oppose him."
160 ENGLISH- GRAMMAR.
Rem. 3. — Interrogative clauses may be introduced by interrog-
ative pronouns, interrogative adjectives, or interrogative adverbs.
i>irect and indirect questions are asked by means of principal
propositions; as, "Is he honest ?" "Whose book is that?"
indefinite questions are asked by means of subordinate propo-
sitions; as, " I do not know whose book that is."
The disjunctive or, correlative with whether, connects the parts
of a double indirect question ; as, " I do not know whether I shall
go or stay"
Rem. 4. — Adverbial clauses may be classified as follows :
1. Temporal: dependent clauses denoting time; as, "I was ab-
sent when the accident occurred"
2. Local: dependent clauses denoting place; as, "Go where
duty calls thee"
3. Causal: dependent clauses denoting cause; as, "He is be-
loved, for he is good."
4. Final: dependent clauses denoting a purpose or a result;
as, "We came that we might assist you;" "Love not sleep, lest thou
come to poverty."
5. Comparative: dependent clauses, expressing comparison;
as, "He is older than I [am] ;" "Men generally die as they live."
6. Conditional : dependent clauses modifying propositions con-
taining deductions or conclusions; as, "He will be ruined, unless he
reform; " " I would pay you, if I could."
7. Concessive : dependent clauses denoting a concession or ad-
mission; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him."
Rem. 5. — Two clauses which mutually qualify are called cor-
relative ; as, " The deeper the well, the cooler the water."
188. Exercises.
v% Classify the phrases and clauses in the following sentences:
1. No one came to his assistance. 2. He were no lion, were not
Romans hinds. 3. I would that ye all spake with tongues. 4. Thou
shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. 5. Launch thy bark, mariner !
6. He made them give up their spoils. 7. Go quickly, that you
may meet them.
8. Voltaire, who might have seen him, speaks repeatedly of his
SYNTAX — CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 161
majestic stature. 9. The French, a mighty people, combined for
the regeneration of Europe. 10. Not many generations ago, where
you now sit, circled with all that exalts and embellishes civilized life,
the rank thistle nodded in the wind, and the wild fox dug his hole
unscared.
11. Very few men, properly speaking, live at present: most are
preparing to live another time. 12. I lisped in numbers, for the
numbers came. 13. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slum-
bered and slept. 14. Study nature, whose laws and phenomena
are all deeply interesting. 15. Its qualities exist, since they are
known, and are known because they exist. 16. At ten o'clock, my
task being finished, I went down to the river.
17. Some say, that ever 'gainst that season comes
Wherein our Savior's birth is celebrated,
This bird of warning singeth all night long :
And then no spirit dares stir abroad ;
The nights are wholesome : then no planets strike,
No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm,
So hallowed and so gracious is the time. — Shakspeare.
CONTRACTED SENTENCES.
Sentences are contracted by ellipsis, abridgment, or by
substituting a different expression.
Rem. — The object of contraction is to secure conciseness of
expression by means of brevity in the construction of sentences.
189. Ellipsis.
1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words of a
sentence. The words omitted are said to be understood.
Rem. — If required in analysis or parsing, the words omitted
must be supplied.
2. A Simple Sentence is contracted by omitting all,
or nearly all, but the most important part.
1. The subject may be omitted; as, " Come " == Come thou, or
do thou come.
H. G. 14.
162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. The predicate may be omitted; as, "Who will go? He [will
go]:9 "I'll [go] hence to London ;" "Ye are Christ's [dis-
ciples]"
3. Both subject and predicate may be omitted ; as, " Water ! " =
Give me some water ; " Forward ! " = March ye forward.
4. The object may be omitted; as, "Whose book have you?
John's "==I have John's book.
5. The neuter verb to be, in all its forms, may be omitted; as,
"Where now [are] her glittering towers?" "A professed Catholic,
he imprisoned the Pope" = Being a professed Catholic, &c. ; "Eng-
land's friend, Ireland's foe " = To be England's friend is to be Ire-
land's foe.
6. Prepositions and conjunctions may be omitted ; as, " Build
[for] me here seven altars;" "Woe is [to] me;" "I know [that]
you are honest;" "Each officer, [and] each private did his duty."
7. A simple sentence, whose subject or predicate is a propo-
sition, may be contracted by changing the proposition to an infin-
itive or participial phrase; as, "That I may remain here, is my
desire " == To remain here is my desire ; " My desire is, that I may
remain here " = My desire is, to remain here.
3. A Compound Sentence may be contracted by
uniting the parts not common to all its members, and using
the common parts but once.
Ex. — "Exercise strengthens the constitution, and temperance
strengthens the constitution "= Exercise and temperance strengthen
the constitution. " Behold my mother and behold my brethren" ==
Behold my mother and my brethren.
190. Exercises.
Tell what parts are omitted in the following sentences:
1. Advance. 2. Up, comrades, up. 3. Quick, quick, or we are
lost. 4. Honest, my lord? 5. Impossible ! 6. This done, we in-
stantly departed. 7. Thou denied a grave ! 8. What would con-
tent you? Talent? 9. How, now, Jenkinson? 10. A rope to the
side! 11. Rather he, than I. 12. The orphan of St. Louis, he
became the adopted child of the Republic.
Compound Subjects. — 1. Wisdom, judgment, prudence, and
firmness, were his predominant traits. 2. To love God and to do
SYNTAX — COMPOUND SENTENCES. 163
good to men are the leading purposes of every Christian. 3.
That the climate of the northern hemisphere has changed, and that
its mean temperature nearly resembled that of the tropics, is the
opinion of many naturalists.
Compound Predicates. — 1. Rural employments are certainly
natural, amusing, and healthy. 2. Education expands and ele-
vates the mind. 3. His excuse was, that the roads were very bad,
that the supply train could not be brought up, and that the army
was not well enough equipped for offensive operations.
Compound Objective Elements. — 1. He had a good mind, a
sound judgment, and a vivid imagination. 2. Learn to labor and
to wait. 3. The writings of the sages show that the best empire is
self-government, and that subduing our passions is the noblest of
conquests.
Compound Adjective Elements. — 1. He is a good, faithful,
and generous boy. 2. I am not the advocate of indolence and
improvidence. 3. The chastity of honor, which felt a stain like a
wound, which inspired courage while it mitigated ferocity, which
ennobled whatever it touched, and under which vice itself lost half
its evil by losing its grossness, is gone.
Compound Adverbial Elements. — 1. Man is fearfully and
wonderfully made. 2. During our voyage, we whiled away our
time in reading, in writing a journal, and in studying navigation.
3. When public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occa-
sions, when great interests are at stake, and strong passions excited,
nothing is valuable in speech further than it is connected with
high intellectual and moral endowments.
191. Abridgment.
9
1. Complex Sentences are often changed into simple
sentences by abridging their subordinate clauses.
2. Contracted clauses are called abridged propositions.
Ex. — "We came that ve might assist you" = We came to assist
you. "I believe that he is honest" = I believe him to be holiest
Rem. — There is an essential difference between a sentence
shortened by ellipsis and an abridged proposition. In the former,
the omitted words are clearly implied, and must be restored before
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
the sentence can be analyzed or parsed : in the latter, an equiva-
lent expression is substituted for an entire proposition. The pred-
icate is always retained, but is used as an assumed attribute, the
assertion being wholly omitted.
3. To abridge a subordinate clause,
1st. Drop the subject, if it be already expressed in the principal
clause : if not, retain it changing its case to the possessive, object-
ive, or absolute.
2d. Drop the connective, and change the copula or verbal pred-
icate to a participle or an infinitive.
Rem. 1. — The abridged form of an adjective clause is a par-
ticipial, infinitive, or prepositional phrase.
Ex. — "Our friends who live in the city11 = Our friends living in the
dty — Our friends in the city. "A book that may amuse you" = A
book to amuse you.
Rem. 2 — The abridged form of an adverbial clause is a par-
ticipial, infinitive, prepositional, or absolute phrase.
Ex. — "When we heard the explosion, we hastened to the spot" =
Hearing the explosion, we hastened, &c. ; "I attend school that I may
learn" = I attend school to learn; "If he be economical, he will become
rich" = He will become rich by being economical; "When the soldiers
arrived, the mob dispersed "=The soldiers having arrived, &c.
Rem. 3. — The abridged form of an objective clause is an infin-
itive phrase.
Ex. — "We wish that you would stay" = We wish you to stay. "I
thought that he was a merchant" = I thought him to be a merchant.
Rem. 4. — Abridged propositions retain the logical construction
of the clauses which they represent: i. c, abridged adjective, ad-
verbial, or objective clauses become, respectively, adjective, adverb-
ial, or objective phrases.
192. Model for Analysis.
XXX. "The shower having passed, we resumed our journey."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): simple; (why?). ,
We is the subject; (why?): resumed is the grammatical, and
resume:! our journey, the shower having: passed, is the logical
predicate. "Resumed" is modified by journey, an objective element
SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 165
of the first class, which is modified by oar, an adjective element of
the first class. " Resumed" is also modified by the absolute phrase,
the shower having' passed, an abridged proposition, equivalent to
"when the shower had passed." "Shower" is modified by the and
having passed, adjective elements of the first class.
193. Exercises.
Analyze the following sentences, giving equivalent clauses for the
abridged propositions:
1. Caesar having crossed the Kubicon, Pompey prepared for
battle. 2. Having accumulated a large fortune, he retired from
business. 3. Being but dust, be humble and wise. 4. Judging
from his dress, I should pronounce him an artisan.
5. I believe him to be an honest man. 6. There is no hope of
his recovering his health. 7. There is no prospect of the storm's
abating. 8. Having been detained by this accident, he lost the
opportunity of seeing them.
194. Directions for Analysis.
SENTENCES.
I. — In analyzing,
1. Eead the sentence.
2. Determine from its form and use, whether it is declarative,
interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
3. Determine whether it is simple, complex, or compound.
4. Arrange all the parts in natural order.
5. If necessary for analysis or parsing, supply all ellipses.
II. — If it is a simple sentence,
1. Point out the logical subject and logical predicate.
2. Point out the grammatical subject and grammatical predicate.
3. Determine whether the subject is simple, complex, or com-
pound; and when complex, point out and classify its modifiers
with their qualifications.
4. Determine whether the predicate is simple, complex, or com-
pound; and when complex, point out and classify (1) its objective
modifiers, (2) its adverbial modifiers, with their qualifications.
166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
5, Point out the attendant elements, and all the connectives.
III. — If it is a complex sentence,
1. Analyze the principal clause as in (II).
2. Analyze the subordinate clause or clauses as in (II).
IV. — If it is a compound sentence, each member should be
analyzed as a simple or complex sentence, as in (II)
or (III).
ELEMENTS.
V. — 1. If an element is a single word, it is completely reduced.
2. If an element is a phrase or a clause, determine,
a. The connective, and the parts it joins.
b. In a phrase, determine the antecedent and subsequent
terms of relation of the preposition.
c. In a clause, point out the subject and predicate.
3. If an element is complex,
a. Eeduce it to simple elements.
b. First point out the basis of each complex element, then the
others in their order.
4. If an element is compound,
a. Separate it into its component simple elements.
b. Point out and classify the connective which joins them.
c. Dispose of each element separately, as in (1) and (2) above.
Rem. — The sentence being reduced by analysis to the parts of
speech of which it is composed, let the teacher select such words
as should be parsed, and instruct his pupils how to dispose of them
according to the " models for parsing."
195. Model for Complete Analysis.
XXXI. "The patriot, whom the corrupt tremble to see arise, may
well feel a grateful satisfaction in the mighty power which heaven
has delegated to him, when he thinks that he has used it for those
purposes only which heaven approves."
This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?): complex; (why?).
It is composed of six clauses. The principal clause is,
SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 167
The patriot may well feel a grateful satisfaction in the mighty power.
The subordinate clauses are,
1. Whom the corrupt tremble to see arise;
2. Which heaven has delegated to him;
3. When he thinks;
4. That he has used it for those purposes only ;
5. Which heaven approves,
"Patriot" is the subject of the principal clause; "may feel" is the
predicate. — -
The subject, "patriot," is modified (1) by "the" an adjective ele-
ment of the first class, and (2) by "whom the corrupt tremble to see
aiise" an adjective element of the third class; of which "whom" is
the connective, "corrupt" is the subject, and "tremble" is the predicate.
"Corrupt" is modified by "the" an adjective element of the first class:
"tremble" is modified by "to see" an adverbial element of the second
class; which is modified by "whom," an objective element of the first
class, and "whom" is modified by "[to"] arise" an adjective element of
the second class.
The predicate, "may feel '," is modified (1) by "well" an adverbial
element of the first class: (2) by "satisfaction" an objective element
of the first class; which is modified by "a" and "grateful" adjective
elements of the first class: and (3) by "in the mighty power which
heaven has delegated to him" an adverbial element of the second class;
of which "in power" is the basis, "in" is the connective, and "power"
is the object. "Power" is modified (1) by "the" and "mighty" adject-
ive elements of the first class: (2) by "which heaven has delegated to
him" an adjective element of the third class; of which "which" is the
connective, "heaven" is the subject, and "has delegated" is the predi-
cate: " has delegated" is modified (1) by "which" an objective element
of the first class: (2) by "to him" an adverbial element of the second
class; of which "to" is the connective, and "him" is the object.
"May feel" is modified (4) by "when he thinks" <&c, an adverbial ele-
ment of the third class; of which "when" is the connective, "he" is
the subject, and "thinks" is the predicate. "Thinks" is modified by
"that he. has used it" &c, an objective element of the third class; of
which "that" is the connective, "he" is the subject, and "has used"
is the predicate. "Has used" is modified (1) by "it" an objective
element of the first class: (2) by "for those purposes only" &c, an ad-
verbial element of the second class; of which "for purposes" is the
basis, "for" is the connective, and "purposes" is the object. "Pur-
poses" is modified (1) by "those" and "only" adjective elements of
the first class: and (2) by "which heaven approves" an adjective ele-
168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ment of the third class; of which "which" is the connective, "heaven"
is the subject, and "approves" is the predicate. "Approves" is modi-
fied by "which" an objective element of the first class.
196. Brief Method of Analysis.
"Patriot" is the subject; "may feel" is the predicate.
The subject, "patriot" is modified (1) by "the" an adjective ele-
ment of the first class, and (2) by "whom the corrupt tremble to see
arise" an adjective element of the third class.
The predicate, "may feel" is modified (1) by "well" an adverbial
element of the first class, denoting manner: (2) by "a grateful satisfac-
tion" a complex objective element of the first class: (3) by "in the
mighty power which .... him" a complex adverbial element of the
second class: and (4) by "when he thinks ..... approves" a complex
adverbial element of the third class, denoting time.
197. Miscellaneous Examples,
1. Hypocrisy is a sort of homage that vice pays to virtue.
2. The gods have set a price on every real and noble pleasure.
3. He was a very young boy ; quite a little child. 4. It has all the
contortions of the sibyl, without the inspiration. — Burke.
5. "Well, what is it?" said my lady Brook. 6. Suddenly the
watch gave the alarm of "A sail ahead ! " 7. He saw a star shoot
from heaven, and glittering in its fall, vanish upon the earth. 8.
Sweet are thy murmurs, O stream! — Ossian.
9. Their slumbers are sound, and their wakings cheerful. 10.
We, one day descried some shapeless object floating at a distance.
11. And behold there came a voice unto him, and said, What dost
thou here, Elijah? — Bible.
12. I passed the house many successive days. 13. He wore an
ample cloak of black sheep's wool, which, having faded into a dull
brown, had been refreshed by an enormous patch of the original
color. His countenance was that of the faded part of his cloak. —
Bryant.
14. The line which bisects the vertical angle of a triangle, divides
the base into segments proportional to the adjacent sides. 15. He
is so good, he is good for nothing. 16. The clouds are divided in
heaven : over the green hills flies the inconstant sun : red, through
the stony vale, comes down the stream of the hills. — Ossian.
SYNTAX — EXERCISES. 169
17. The accusing angel flew up to Heaven's chancery with the
oath, and blushed as he gave it in. And the recording angel, as
he wrote it down, dropped a tear on the word, and blotted it out
forever. — Sterne.
18. In the awful mystery of human life, it is a consolation some-
times to believe that our mistakes, perhaps even oar sins, are per-
mitted to be instruments of our education for immortality. 19.
Even if his criticisms had been uniformly indulgent, the position
of the nobles and leading citizens, thus subjected to a constant, but
secfet superintendence, would have been too galling to be tol-
erated.— Motley.
20. No ax had leveled the giant progeny of the crowded groves,
in which the fantastic forms of withered limbs, that had been
blasted and riven by lightning, contrasted strangely with the
verdant freshness of a younger growth of branches. — Bancroft
21. The sun was now resting his huge disk upon the edge of the
level ocean, and gilding the accumulation of clouds through which
he had traveled the livelong day; and which now assembled on all
sides, like misfortunes and disasters around a sinking empire and
falling monarch. — Scott.
22. It is, therefore, a certain and a very curious fact, that the
representative, at this time, of any great whig family, who probably
imagines that he is treading in the footsteps of his forefathers, in
reality, while adhering to their party names, is acting against
almost every one of their party principles. — Lord Mahon.
23. Rivers will always have one shingly shore to .play over, where
they may be shallow, and foolish, and childlike ; and another steep
shore, under which they can pause, and purify themselves, and get
their strength of waves fully together for due occasion. — Ruslcin.
24. I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore,
and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble
or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay
all undiscovered before me. — Newton.
25. We 're nettles, some of us,
And give offense by the act of springing up. — Browning.
26. The twilight deepened round us. Still and black
The great woods climbed the mountain at our back.
27. May God forgive the child of dust
Who seeks to know where Faith should frvst — Whittier.
H. G. K>.
170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
28. Better far
Pursue a. frivolous trade by serious means,
Than a sublime art frivolously.
29. With grave
Aspect he rose, and in his rising seemed
A pillar of state ; deep on his front engraven,
Deliberation sat, and public care;
And princely counsel in his face yet shone,
Majestic, though in ruin. — Milton.
30. Summer's dun cloud, that, slowly rising, holds
The sweeping tempest in its rising folds,
Though o'er the ridges of its thundering breast,
The King of Terrors lifts his lightning crest,
Pleased Ave behold, when those dark folds we find
Fringed with the golden light that glows behind. — Pierpont.
31. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled,
And still where many a garden flower grows wild,
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose,
The village preacher's modest mansion rose,
A man he was to all the country dear,
And passing rich with forty pounds a year. — Goldsmith,
32. As when upon a tranced summer night
Those green-robed senators of mighty woods,
Tall oaks, branch-charmed by the earnest stars,
Dream, and so dream all night without a stir,
Save from one gradual, solitary gust,
Which comes upon the silence, and dies off,
As if the ebbing air had but one wave:
So came these words, and went. — Keats.
33. When Freedom, from her mountain height,
Unfurled her standard to the air,
She tore the azure robe of night
And set the stars of glory there.
She mingled with its gorgeous dyes
The milky baldric of the skies,
And striped its pure, celestial white,
With streakings of the morning light. — Drake.
SYNTAX — KULES. 171
RULES OF SYNTAX.
Rule I. — The subject of a proposition is in the nom-
inative case.
Rule II. — A noun or pronoun, used as the predicate
of a proposition, is in the nominative case.
Rule III.— A noun or pronoun, used to limit the
meaning of a noun denoting a different person or thing,
is in the possessive case.
Rule IV.— A noun or pronoun, used to limit the mean-
ing of a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing,
is in the same case.
Rule V. — A noun or pronoun, used independently, is in
the absolute case.
Rule VI. — The object of a transitive verb, in the active
voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case.
Rule VII. — The object of a preposition is in the ob-
jective case.
Rule VIII. — Nouns denoting time, distance, measure,
or value, after verbs and adjectives, are in the objective case
without a governing word.
Rule IX. — Pronouns must agree with their antecedents
in person, gender, and number.
Rule X. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents in
the singular, connected by. and, must be plural.
Rule XI. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents
in the singular, connected by or or nor, must be singular.
Rule XII. — An adjective or participle belongr to ~ome
noun or pronoun.
172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rule XIII. — A verb must agree with its subject in
person and number.
Rule XIV. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the
singular, connected by and, must be plural.
Rule XT. — A verb, with ..two or more subjects in the
singular, connected by or or nor, must be singular.
Rule XVIo — An infinitive may be used as a noun in
any case except the possessive.
Rule XVII*. — An infinitive not used as a noun, de-
pends upon the word it limits, or which leads to its use.
Rule XVIIIo — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, par-
ticiples, and adverbs.
Rule XIX. — A preposition shows the relation of its
object to the word upon which the latter depends.
Rule XX. — Co5rdinate connectives join similar ele-
ments.
Rule XXI. — Subordinate connectives join dissimilar
elements.
Rule XXII. — An interjection has no dependence upon
other words.
198. Subject-Nominative.
Rule I. — The subject of a proposition is in the nom-
inative case.
Rem. l. — Any thing that may be used as a noun may be the
subject; as, "A is a vowel;" "To lie is base;" "What time he took
orders doth not appear."
Rem. 2. — The subject generally precedes the predicate, but is
placed after it, or the first auxiliary, (1) When a wish is expressed
by the potential ; as, "May you prosper:" (2) When if or though,
denoting a supposition, is suppressed; as, "Had they been wise,
SYNTAX — RULES. 173
/
they would have listened to me:" (3) When the verb is in the
imperative mode, or is used interrogatively; as, "Best ye;" "Why
do you persist?"
Rem. 3. — The subject of the imperative mode is usually omitted ;
as, "Depart ! " "Shut the door." It is also omitted after while, when,
if, though, or than, when the verb is made one of the terms of a
comparison; as, "He talks while [he is] writing;" "He is kind
ivhen [he is] sober;" "I will come, if [it be] possible;" "They are
honest, though [they are] poor;" "He has more knowledge than
[he has] wisdom."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected and parsed.
1. Him and me study grammar. 2. I never saw larger horses
than them are. 3. Me and John sit together. 4. I knowed it as
well as him or her. 5. Whom besides I do you suppose got a prize?
6. I am as tall as he, but she is taller than him. 7. Whom do you
suppose has come to visit us? 8. We sorrow not as them that
have no hope.
9. Thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just; and him but
naked, though locked up in steel, whose conscience with injustice
is corrupted. 10. Them are the fellows that stoled your apples.
11. Who wants an orange? — Me. 12. No other pupil is so stu-
dious as her. 13. He is older than me. 14. I know not whom
else are expected. 15. None of his companions is more beloved
than him.
199. Predicate-Nominative.
Rule II. — A noun or pronoun, used as the predicate
of a proposition, is in the nominative case.
Rem. i. — The predicate-nominative denotes the same person or
thing as the subject; and must agree with it in case, and usually
in gender and number. It may be any thing that may be used as
a noun; as, "That letter is B ;" "To work is to pray;" "The
command was, 'Storm the fort at daybreak.'"
Rem. 2 — In questions, and when the predicate is emphatically
distinguished, the subject and predicate change places; as, " ]Vho
is that man?" "Are you the ticket agent?" "His pavilion round
about him were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky."
174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem; 3. — The neuter pronoun it, as subject, may represent a
noun or pronoun of any person, number, or gender, as predicate;
as, "It is I;" "It was you;" "It is Sarah."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected and parsed.
1. It is me. 2. It was her and him who you saw. 3. If I were
him, I would go to Europe. 4. Whom do you say they were?
5. I do not know whom they are.
6. It was not me nor him who played truant. 7. It is not them
who are to blame. 8. I disbelieve it to be he. 9. I have no doubt
of its being them.
200. Possessive Case.
Rule III. — A noun or pronoun, used to limit the
meaning of a noun denoting a different person or thing, is
in the possessive case.
Rem. i. — The possessive term is always an adjective element.
It may limit a noun of any class or form, or a participial phrase ;
as, "Our houses;" "0 my ducats!" "Our country's welfare;" "All
their dearest hopes were blasted;" "His being a foreigner should
not induce us to underrate him."
Rem. 2. — The relation of possession may be expressed by the
preposition of, with the objective; as, "My friend's house " = The
house of my friend. This form should be used when two or more
nouns in the possessive would otherwise come together; as, "My
friend's father's house " = The house of my friend's father.
Rem. 3. — The limited noun is sometimes omitted; as, "This
house is the doctor's [house]." "We visited St. Paul's [church]."
"This is a farm of my father's [farms]."
Rem. 4 — The limited noun need not be plural because the pos-
sessive is plural; as, " Their judgment is good;" " Our decision is
made;" "The women's hope failed."
Rem. 5. — When a noun is put in apposition with a noun or
pronoun in the possessive case, the sign maybe omitted; as, "This
was Webster's opinion, the most eminent lawyer in the country."
SYNTAX — RULES. 175
Rem. 6. — In some compound words, formed from the possessive
and the word limited by it, both the hyphen and sign of possession
are omitted; as, hogshead, catshead, &c.
EXERCISES.
To be corrected and parsed.
1. The boys story was believed. 2. He wore the knight's-
templar's costume. 3. The goods were sent by the Merchants
Union Express. 4. That book is his 'n. 5. The Bishop's of Dub-
lin's palace. 6. My fathers health is not good. 7. My book is
larger than your's. 8. The mistake was the teacher, not the
pupil's.
9. The general's aids horse was killed. 10. No one could prevent
him escaping. 11. I purchased this at Penfields', the bookseller's.
12. Some people regret the King of France's, Louis XVI, being
beheaded. 13. He bought a hog's head of sugar. 14. William's
and Mary's reign was prosperous. 15. It was John, not Emma's
fault.
201. Apposition.
Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun, used to limit the mean-
ing of a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing,
is in the same case.
Rem. l. — A noun may be in apposition with a sentence, and a
sentence with a noun; as, "/ resolved to practice temperance — a
resolution I have ever kept." "Remember Franklin's maxim:
'God helps them that help themselves.' "
Rem. 2* — A noun in apposition sometimes precedes the noun it
identifies ; as, " Child of the Sun, refulgent Summer, comes."
Rem. 3. — Though a noun or pronoun usually agrees with the
noun it identifies, in number and gender, it is not necessary that it "
agree with it in any thing else than case; as, "My lunch — fried
oysters and crackers — was soon eaten."
Rem. 4. — When possessives are in apposition, the sign of pos-
session is used only with the one next to the noun limited by the
entire possessive term; as, "Peter the Hermit's eloquence."
Rem. 5. — Sometimes the noun in apposition is separated from
the limited noun by as, denoting rank, office, or capacity; as5 "Me
176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Jones, as my attorney, sold the land ;" " My son sails as supercargo"
Equivalent terms are sometimes introduced by or; as, " The puma,
or American lion, is found in South America."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected and parsed.
1. Will you discard me ; I who have always been your friend ?
2. What was the General; him you wished to see? 3. I bought it
of Mrs. Wilson ; she who keeps the milliner's shop. 4. Ira Jacobs,
him who you punished, was not to be blamed. 5. Whom shall we
praise? — They who do their duty. 6. My watch was lost near
Wilkins's the blacksmith's.
7. They are the lovely, them in whom unite
Youth's fleeting charms, with virtue's lovely light.
202. Absolute Case.
Rule V. — A noun or pronoun, used independently, is
in the absolute case.
Rem. l. — For the four forms of the absolute case, see \ 33.
Rem. 2. — The case absolute with a participle is generally equiv-
alent to an adverbial element of the third class, commencing with
if, because, since, when, or while; as, "He being rich, they feared his
influence " = They feared his influence because he was rich. "The
sun being risen, we pursued our journey" = When the sun had risen,
we pursued our journey.
Rem. 3. — In mottoes and abbreviated sayings, and frequently
in exclamations, nouns seem to have relation to something under-
stood ; as, " Laird's Bloom of Youth " = Use Laird's Bloom of
Youth; "Confidence" (a motto) = This is a token of confidence;
" A rat ! a rat ! " = There is a rat. It is better, however, to recog-
nize the absolute case as a distinct use of a noun, than to destroy
the force of an expression by supplying an awkward ellipsis.
EXERCISES.
Examples to be parsed.
1. Soldier, rest! thy warfare o'er, 2. "Stop! the hat!" he ex-
claims. 3. Our fathers, where are they? 4. I being a child, was
a plea for my admission. 5. The north and the south, thou hast
SYNTAX — RULES. 177
created them. 6. John, James, and Henry, they are my scholars.
7. O Nelly Gray! O Nelly Gray! 8. "The Moon and the>Stars—
A Fable." 9. Problem III. — To construct a mean proportional
between two given lines.
203. Objective Case.
Rule VI. — The object of a transitive verb, in the active
voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case.
Rem. i. — The natural order of arrangement is, subject — verb —
object; but in poetry, or when it is made emphatic, the object
precedes the subject; as, "Myself I can not save;" "Silver and
gold have I none." To avoid ambiguity, the natural order should
be observed when the subject and object are both nouns. Say,
"Alexander conquered Darius," not "Alexander Darius conquered."
A relative or interrogative pronoun is placed at the head of its
clause; as, "I am he whom ye seek;" " Whom shall I invite?"
Rem. 2. — The object may be a participial noun, a phrase, or a
clause; as, "I like running- aid jumping better than studying;"
"He hopes to succeed;" "'Our armies swore terribly in Flanders?
cried my Uncle Toby."
Rem. 3. — A phrase beginning with a noun or pronoun, may be
the object of a transitive verb; as, "I want boohs to read;" "The
merchant ordered the goods to be shipped;" " I heard the water
lapping on the crag;" "I want him to go" In such cases, the
entire phrase is the object of the verb; but it is best to apply
Kule VI in parsing the noun or pronoun beginning the phrase,
Rule XVII in parsing the infinitive, and Eule XII in parsing
the participle.
Rem. 4. — Some verbs used as copulatives in the passive voice,
have two objects, one representing a person or thing, the other a
thing; as, "They made him their leader:" "They chose him chair-
man" When such verbs are made passive, either object may be
taken as the subject, but the other, if retained, becomes a predicate-
nominative. If the thing is made nominative, the person is gov-
erned by a preposition, expressed or understood : if the person is
made nominative, the thing may be parsed by Eule II.
Rem. 5. — A transitive verb may have several objects connected
by conjunctions; as, "He owns houses^ lands, and bank-stock"
178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. 6. — Participial or verbal nouns may be limited by objective
elements ; as, " Writing notes is forbidden ;" " I like hunting buffa-
loes"
EXERCISES.
Examples to be corrected.
1. Who did you write to? 2. Please let him and I sit together.
3. I do not know who to trust. 4. He who did the mischief you
should punish, not I. 5. I saw she and him at the concert last
evening. 6. And me, what shall I do ?
7. We will go at once, him and me. 8. Every one can master
a grief but he that hath it. 9. He was presented a gold watch
by his employers. 10. Who are you looking for?
Examples to be parsed.
1. We will rear new homes. 2. The parting words shall pass
my lips no more. 3. I said that at sea all is vacancy. 4. They
have left unstained what there they found. 5. Bring forth this
counterfeit model. 6. Mad frenzy fires him now.
7. Reading makes a full man, conference a ready man, and
writing an exact man. 8. Thou hast left no son — but thy song
shall preserve thy name. 9. His disciples said, Who, then, can
be saved? 10. I was forbidden the premises. 11. They were de-
barred the privilege of walking in the park.
12. "But what good came of it at last?"
Quoth little Peterkin.
" Why, that I can not tell," said he ;
" But ?t was a famous victory." — Southey.
204. Objective after Prepositions.
Rule VII. — The object of a preposition is in the ob-
jective case.
Rem. l. — A preposition usually precedes its object ; but in poetry
this order is sometimes reversed; as, "From crag to crag, the rat-
tling peaks among" = among the rattling peaks; " Come walk with
me the jungle through."
Rem. 2. — Interrogative pronouns frequently precede the prepo-
sitions which govern them; as, "What are you laughing at?"
SYNTAX RULES. 179
Such expressions as "Whom are you talking to?" "Which
house do you live in?" are inelegant, if not ungrammatical. The
proper construction is, "To whom are you talking?" "In which
house do you live ? "
Rem. 3. — Some phrases consist of a preposition, followed by an
adjective or an adverb; as, in vain, at once, in secret, from below,
on high, from above, till now, till lately, &c. In such phrases, an
object may be understood ; the word following the preposition,
parsed as an adjective or adverb used as a noun; or the entire
expression may be regarded as an inseparable phrase.
Rem. 4. — A preposition should never be placed between a verb
and its object; as, "He does not want for any thing." Say "He
does not want any thing."
Rem. 5. — A noun or pronoun which is the object of mo or more
prepositions, or of a preposition and a transitive verb, should be
placed after the first verb or preposition, and be represented by a
pronoun following each of the others. " He came into and passed
through the cars," should be " He came into the cars, and passed
through them" "He first called, and then sent for, the sergeant"
should be " He first called the sergeant, and then sent for him."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected.
1. The army shall not want for supplies. 2. Which school do
you go to? 3. What firm are you agent for? 4. What country
are you a native of? 5. I will not permit of such conduct.
6. It is our duty to assist and sympathize with those in distress.
7. The convicts are hired by and employed for the benefit of a few
speculators. 8. He lives in and came from Pittsburgh.
To be parsed.
1. We cruised about for several hours in the dense fog. 2. He
has a touch of our family. 3. Here rests his head upon the lap
of earth. 4. He will steal, sir, an egg out of a cloister. 5. The
pile sank down into the opening earth.
6. The ground lifts like a sea. 7. The clouds are driven about
in the sky, like squadrons of combatants rushing to the conflict.
8. In vain does the old dragon rage. 9. I had supposed till lately
that you were my friend. 10. A shoreless ocean tumbled round
the globe. 11. The morning broke without a sun.
180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rule VIII. — Nouns denoting time, distance, measure,
or value, after verbs and adjectives, are in the objective
case without a governing word.
Rem. l. — The names of things, following the passive forms of
the verbs ask, lend, teach, refuse, provide, and some others, are in the
objective case without a governing word; as, "He was asked a
question;" "John was refused admittance;" "I was taught gram-
mar"
Rem. 2. — The following expressions are elliptical : " Wilson,
Hinkle & Co., No. 137 Walnut St., Cincinnati, 0."=To Wilson,
Hinkle & Co., No. 137 on Walnut St., in Cincinnati, in Ohio.
"July 4, 1776" == On the 4th day of July, in the year 1776.
EXERCISES.
To be parsed.
1. The horse ran a mile. 2. I do not care a straw. 3. He is
worth a million of dollars. 4. The child is nine years old. 5.
They marched Indian file. 6. He wore his coat cloak-fashion.
7. Spring has already covered thy grave, twelve times, with
flowers. 8. The ship sailed four knots an hour.
9. This is worth remembering. 10. The tower is 250 feet high.
11. How many square yards of plastering in a room 21 feet long,
15 feet wide, and 10 feet high? 12. The poor, dissipated student
was refused his diploma.
205. Pronouns.
Rule IX. — Pronouns must agree with their antecedents
in person, gender, and number.
Rem. 1. — The person, gender, and number of an interrogative
pronoun are indeterminate when no answer is given to the ques-
tion in which it is found; as, "WJio owns that vessel?" The
answer may be, "Mr. Gordon owns it," "Jones & Smith own it,"
"/own it," "He and / own it," or "You yourself own it." When
an answer is given, or when one can be inferred from well-known
facts, these properties are determinate ; as, " Who owns that ves-
sel?— /own it." "Who" is in the first person, common gender,
singular number, agreeing with "I." " Who commanded the allied
SYNTAX RULES. 181
forces at the battle of Waterloo?" "Who" is in the third person,
masculine gender, singular number — the answer, though not given,
being well known.
Rem. 2. — There being no pronoun of the third person singular,
denoting either sex, in the English language, the masculine forms,
he, his, him, are used in its place. Do not say, " Each pupil should
learn his or her lesson:" use his alone. Say, "Should any one de-
sire to consult me, let him call at my office," even though the
invitation be intended for both sexes. Should the gender of the
person referred to, be known, use a masculine or feminine pronoun,
as the case requires.
Rem. 3. — Things personified should be represented as mascu-
line or feminine by the pronouns referring to them; as, "Night,
sable goddess, from her ebon throne ;" " Grim-visaged War has
smoothed his wrinkled front."
Rem. 4. — A pronoun sometimes precedes its antecedent; as,
"Thy chosen temple, Lord, how fair!" "Hark! they whisper,
angels say."
Rem. 5 — The relative pronoun is frequently omitted ; as, "That
is the house [which] we live in;" "This is the book [which] you
inquired for."
Rem. 6. — That, as a relative, should generally be used after a,
all, every, same, and very; after who, used interrogatively; after
arr adjective in the superlative degree; and when both persons
and things are referred to.
Ex. — "He is a man that all respect;" "I gave him all that I had;"
"Is this the same book that I lent you?" "It is the very book that you
lent me ;" " He is the wisest that says the least ;" " Who that has once
heard him does not wish to hear him once again ;" " Here are the per-
sons and things that were sent for."
Rem. 7. — Unless great emphasis is required, a noun or pronoun
should not be used in the absolute case by pleonasm. Say " The
horse ran away," not "The horse, it ran away;" "Many words
darken speech," not " Many words, they darken speech."
Rem. 8 — To avoid ambiguity, a relative pronoun should be
placed as near as possible to its antecedent.
Ex. — "A purse was lost in the street, which contained a large sum
of money." The clause introduced by "which," should be placed
immediately after "purse."
182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rein. 9. — A pronoun whose antecedent is a collective noun
conveying the idea of unity, should be in the neuter singular:
one whose antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of
plurality, should be plural, taking the gender of the individuals
composing the collection.
Rem. 10. — It is used to represent (1) a noun or pronoun in any
person, in either number, or of any gender; (2) a sentence, or a
part of a sentence; or (3) it may be used without representing
any person or thing. .
Ex. — "It is I;99 "It was land-warrants that I purchased ;" uIt was
Milton who wrote Paradise Lost;" "You have wronged me, and will
repent of it;" "It snows;" "We roughed it in the woods."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected.
1. James, he has been whispering. 2. Whom, when they had
washed, they laid her in an upper chamber. 3. The names I called
you, I am now sorry for them. 4. If any one has not paid their
fare, let them call at the captain's office. 5. Every one should
have his or her life insured.
6. Every one should have their lives insured. 7. That book is
in the book-case, which contains pictures. 8. This is the dog whom
my father bought. 9. These are the men and the guns which we
captured. 10. That is the same pen which I sold you. 11. He is
the wisest which lives the most nobly.
12. The moon took its station still higher. 13. The jury could
not agree in its verdict. 14. The news came of defeat, but no one
believed them. 15. If you see an error or a fault in my conduct,
remind me of them.
■
To be parsed.
1. The hand that governs in April, governed in January. 2. I
perish by this people which I made. 3. Many a man shall envy
him who henceforth limps. 4. I venerate the man whose heart is
warm. 5. Your sorrows are our gladness. 6. The blooming morn-
ing oped her dewy eyes.
7. Men are like birds that build their nests in trees that hang
over rivers. 8. He was followed by another worthless rogue, who
flung away his modesty instead of his ignorance. 9. A bird is
placed in a bell-glass, A, which stands over the mercury.
SYNTAX — RULES. 183
10. Remorseless Time !
Fierce spirit of the glass and scythe I What power
Can stay him in his silent course, or melt
His iron heart to pity? — Prentice.
11. "Banished from Rome!" what's banished, but set free
From daily contact of the things I loathe?
"Tried and convicted traitor!" Who says this?
Who'll prove it, at his peril, on my head? — Croly.
206. Antecedents connected by "And."
Rule X. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents in
the singular, connected by and, must be plural.
Bern. i. — When the antecedents are but different names for the
same person or thing, the pronoun must be singular; as, "The
eminent lawyer and statesman has resigned his office."
Rem. 2 — When the antecedents are emphatically distinguished,
the pronoun should be singular ; as, " The mind as well as the body
has its diseases;" "The country and not the government has its
admirers."
Mem. 3. — When the antecedents are limited by each, every, or
no, the pronoun must be singular; as, "Each man and each boy
did his duty;" "Every hill and every mountain has its echo;"
"No land and no clime possesses all earth's blessings."
Rem. 4. — When the antecedents taken together are regarded as
a single thing, the pronoun must be singular ; as, " The horse and
wagofc is in its place."
EXERCISES.
To be parsed.
1. Charles and Henry are flying their kites. 2. You and I should
study our lessons. 3. The child wants some bread and milk : will
you get it? 4. The good man, and the sinner, too, shall have his
reward. 5. The great philosopher and statesman is laid in his
grave. 6. He bought a horse and a wagon, and sold them at a
profit. 7. Every house and lot has its price set opposite its
number.
184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
207. Antecedents Connected by "Or" or "Nor."
Rule XI. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents
in the singular, connected by or or nor, must be singular.
Rem. 1. — When the two antecedents are of different genders,
the use of a singular masculine pronoun to represent them is
improper. In such cases,
1. Use a plural pronoun that may represent both genders ; as,
"Not on outward charms could he or she build their pretensions
to please*"
2. Use different pronouns ; as, " No boy or girl should whisper
to his or her neighbor:"
3. Substitute a general term, including both, for the two ante-
cedents, and represent this general term by a singular masculine
pronoun; as, "No pupil (boy or girl) should whisper to his
neighbor."
Rem. 2. — When one of the antecedents is plural, it should be
placed last, and the pronoun should be plural; as, "Neither the
farmer nor his sons were aware of their danger."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected,
1. No father or mother lives that does not love his or her chil-
dren. 2. George or Charles are diligent in their business. 3. If
an Aristotle, a Pythagoras, or a Galileo, suffer for their opinions,
they are martyrs. 4. If you see my horse or mule, turn them into
your pasture. 5. Poverty or wealth have their own temptations.
To be parsed. ^
1. Henry or Samuel will lend you his book. 2. If thy hand or
thy foot offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee. 3. Neither
James nor John has gained much credit for himself.
4. Either Mary or Sarah will recite her lesson. 5. Even a
rugged rock, or a barren heath, though in itself disagreeable, con-
tributes by contrast to the beauty of the whole.
6. Beginning with Latin or Greek hexameter, which is the
same. 7. Either James or his father was mistaken in his opinion.
8. Neither the teacher nor the scholars used their books in the
class.
SYNTAX — KULES. 185
208. Adjectiyes and Participles.
Rule XII. — An adjective or participle belongs to some
noun or pronoun.
Rem. i. — An adjective used as the predicate of a sentence, may
modify an infinitive or a substantive clause, used as the subject;
as, "To lie is sinful;" "That all men are created equal, is self-
evident."
Rem. 2. — An adjective may modify a noun and another ad-
jective, taken together ; as, "A rich old miser ;" "A large bay horse."
Rem. 3. — After infinitives and -participles, adjectives are fre-
quently used which do not belong to any particular noun or pro-
noun; as, "To be good is to be happy;" "The main secret of
being sublime, is to say great things in few and plain words."
Rem. 4. — An adjective should agree in number with the noun
to which it belongs ; as, that kind, those kinds ; one man, two men.
To denote a collective number, a singular adjective may precede a
plural noun; as, "One thousand dollars;" "The census is taken
every ten years." To denote plurality, many a is used instead of
many ; as, "Many a time ;" "Many a morning."
Rem. 5. — In poetry, an adjective relating to a noun or pronoun
is sometimes used instead of an adverb modifying a verb or a
participle; as, "Incessant still you flow;" "Swift on his downy
pinions flies from woe."
Rem. 6- — Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns; as, "The
rich and the poor here meet together;" "One said, 'Let us go;'
another, ' No, let us remain.' "
Rem. 7. — Two adjectives are frequently connected by a hyphen,
forming a compound adjective; as, "A sweet-faced girl."
Rem. 8. — Numeral and pronominal adjectives precede another
adjective which modifies the same noun; as, "The seven wise
men;" "That old house."
EXERCISES,
To be parsed.
1. His spirit was so bird-like and so pure. 2. Dim, cheerless, is
the scene my path around. 3. This life of ours is a wild iEolian
harp of many a joyous strain. 4. Every tree-top has its shadow.
H. G. 16.
186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
5. With fleecy clouds the sky is blanched. 6. Still stands the
forest primeval. 7. 'Tis impious in a good man to be sad. 8. To
hope the best is pious, brave, and wise. 9. Time wasted is exist-
ence ; used, is life.
10. Thoughts shut up, want air,
And spoil, like bales unopened to the sun.
11. Tell me not in mournful numbers,
Life is but an empty dream.
12. Pray for the living, in whose breast
The struggle between right and wrong
Is raging terrible and strong.
13. Petulant she spoke, and at herself she laughed;
A rose-bud set with little willful thorns,
And sweet as English air could make her.
14. The hills are dearest which our childish feet
Have climbed the earliest, and the streams most sweet
Are ever those at which our young lips drank,
Stoop'd to their waters o'er the grassy bank.
15. Sometimes her narrow kitchen walls
Stretched away into stately halls. — Whittier.
209. Verbs.
Rule XIII. — A verb must agree with its subject in
person and number.
Rem. 1. — When the subject is a collective noun, conveying
plurality of idea, the verb should be plural ; as, " In France, the
peasantry go barefooted, while the middle class ivear wooden shoes."
Hem. 2. — When a subject, plural in form, represents a single
thing, the verb must be singular; as, "The 'Pleasures of Memory1
was published in 1792;" "Politics is his trade;" "The news is
confirmed."
Rem. 3. — When the subject is a mere word or sign, an infin-
itive, or a substantive clause, the verb should be in the third
person singular; as, "They is a personal pronoun;" "+ is the
sign of addition;" "To deceive is wrong;" "lWlio comes there?1
was heard from within."
SYNTAX RULES. 187
Rem. 4. — A verb in the imperative mode usually agrees with
thou, you, or ye, expressed or understood ; as, "Look [ye] to your
hearths, my lords!" "Smooth [thou] thy brow."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected.
1. You and I was walking together. 2. The horses has been
fed. 3. I called, but you was not at home. 4. Thou can assist me
if thou will. 5. There was mountains where I came from. 6. A
committee were appointed to report resolutions. 7. The fleet were
seen off Hatteras.
8. The legislature have adjourned. 9. The corporation is indi-
vidually responsible. 10. The Pleasures of Hope are a fine poem.
11. The scissors is dull. 12. We are a personal pronoun. 13. The
derivation of these words are uncertain. 14. The board of trus-
tees have a meeting to-night.
To be parsed.
1. Thus many a sad to-morrow came and went. 2. Eeturn, O
beautiful days of youth ! 3. I alone was solitary and idle. 4. This
well deserves meditating. 5. At an early hour, arrive the diligences.
6. He waved his arm.
7. Every rational creature has all nature for his dowry and
estate. 8. The present needs us. 9. The jury were not unani-
mous. 10. Generation after generation passes away. 11. The
public are respectfully invited to attend.
12. Every age
Bequeathes the next for heritage,
No lazy luxury or delight.
13. There 's not a beggar in the street
Makes such a sorry sight.
14. He that attends to his interior self,
That has a heart, and keeps it — has a mind
That hungers and supplies it, and who seeks
A social, not a dissipated life,
Has business.
15. Between Nose and Eyes a strange contest arose
The spectacles set them unhappily wrong ;
The point in dispute was, as all the world knows,
To which the said spectacles ought to belong. — Cowper.
188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
210. Subjects Connected by "And."
Rule XIY. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the
singular, connected by and, must be plural.
Rem. 1. — When two or more subjects in the singular, connected
by and, are but different names for the same person or thing, or,
when taken together, they represent a single idea, the verb should
be singular; as, "Descent and fall to us is adverse;" "A hue and
cry was raised."
Rem. 2. — When two or more singular subjects are emphatically
distinguished, or are preceded by each, every, or no, the verb should
be singular; as, "The father, as well as the son, was in fault;"
"All work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy ;" "Every bird and
beast cowers before the wild blast."
Rem. 3. — When two or more subjects, of different numbers, are
emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with the first; as,
"Diligent industry, and not mean savings, constitutes honorable
competence."
Rem. 4. — Two or more singular subjects, connected by with, in
company with, together with, &c, require a singular verb ; as, "Mr.
Brown, in company with Mr. Shriver, is opening a new coal mine;"
" The general, with all his army, was captured.
EXERCISES.
To be corrected.
1. Mr. Johnson and his brother was at the meeting. 2. Time
and tide waits for no man. 3. Bread and milk are good food. 4.
Each man, each child, and each woman know the hour. 5. The
boy's mother, but not his father, deserve great praise.
6. Patience and diligence removes mountains. 7. I, together
with my sister, are intending to make you a visit. 8. The salmon,
as well as the trout, have become scarce in these waters. 9. A
number of horses, together with a large amount of other property,
were stolen last night.
To be parsed.
1. Her beauty, and not her talents, attracts attention. 2. No
wife and no mother was there to comfort him. 3. Out of the same
mouth proceed blessing and cursing. 4. You and I look alike.
SYNTAX — RULES. 189
5. My uncle, with his wife, is in town. 6. Charles and Emma
are good scholars. 7. Charles, together with his sister Emma, is
studying botany. 8. The crime, not the scaffold, makes the shame.
9. The ambition and avarice of man are the sources of his un-
happiness.
10. Fire of imagination, strength of mind, and firmness of soul
are gifts of nature. 11. Each battle sees the other's umbered face.
12. A coach and six is, in our time, never seen, except as a part
of some pageant.
211. Subjects Connected by "Or" or "Nor."
Rule XV. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the
singular, connected by or or nor, must be singular.
Rem. 1. — When the subjects are of different persons or num-
bers, the verb must agree with the nearest, unless another be the
principal term; as, " Neither you nor I am to blame ;" "Neither
you nor he is in his place."
Rem. 2. — When two or more infinitives, or substantive clauses,
are connected by or or nor, the verb must be singular, and a
predicate nominative, following the verb, must be singular also ;
as, - Why we are thus detained, or why we receive no intelligence
from home, is mysterious;" "To be, or not to be, that is the
question."
Rem. 3. — When the subjects are singular, but of different
genders, the verb is singular, relating to them taken separately;
but a pronoun may be plural, relating to them taken conjointly;
as, "Mary or her sister has lost their umbrella" — the umbrella be-
ing theirs by joint ownership.
EXERCISES.
To be corrected.
1. Has the horses or the cattle been found? 2. Were the boy
or the girl badly bruised ? 3. The ax or the hammer were lost.
4. Poverty or misfortune have been his lot. 5. Neither the horse
nor the wagon are worth much. 6. Either you or I are to blame.
7. Neither the mule nor the horses is found. 8. He comes — nor
want nor cold his course delay. 9. Neither avarice nor pleasure
move me. 10. A lucky anecdote, or an enlivening tale, relieve the
folio page.
190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
11. Not the Mogul, or Czar of Muscovy,
Not Prester John, or Cham of Tartary,
Are in their houses monarchs more than I.
To be parsed.
1. To give an affront, or to take one tamely, is no mark of a
great mind. 2. Neither he nor she has spoken to him. 3. To
reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, is contemptible perfidy.
4. Either ability or inclination was wanting.
5. Hatred or revenge deserves censure. 6. Neither poverty nor
riches is desirable. 7. The vanity, the ambition, or the pride of
some men keeps them always in trouble. 8. Emma or Jane has
lost her dictionary.
9. The breezy call of incense-breathing morn,
The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed,
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn,
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. — Gray.
10. From the high host
Of stars to the lulled lake, and mountain coast,
All is concentered in a life intense,
Where not a beam, nor air, nor leaf is lost. — JByronr.
11. Time, nor Eternity, hath seen
A repetition of delight
In all its phases; ne'er hath been
For men or angels that which is.
212. Infinitives.
Rule XVI. — An infinitive- may be used as a noun in
any case except the possessive.
Rem. l — An infinitive represents being, action, or state ab-
stractly. It is the mere verb, without limitation. As such, it
may be used,
1. As the subject of a proposition; as, "To err is human."
2. As the predicate of a proposition ; as, " To obey is to enjoy"
3. As the object of a transitive verb or of its participles; as,
"He loves to play;" "He is trying to learn."
SYNTAX — RULES. 191
4. In apposition with a noun; as, "Time to come is called
future."
5. Abstractly, or independently; as, "To tell the truth, I was
inattentive,"
Rem. 2. — The infinitive always retains its verbal signification.
Hence, as a noun, it may be limited by a predicate adjective or
predicate nominative, and, as a verb, be followed by an object, or
modified by an adverb; as, "To spend money recklessly is crim-
inal."
Rem. 3. — The sign to should never be separated from the
rest of the infinitive. "To correctly report a speech is difficult,"
should be "To report sl speech correctly is difficult."
Rem. 4. — The preposition for should not be used immediately
before the infinitive. " I study for to learn," should be " I study
to learn."
Rem. 5. — The sign to should never be used alone. " I never
told a lie, and never intend to," should be "I never told a lie,
and never intend to do so."
Rem. 6. — After the verbs bid, dare (venture), hear, feel, let,
make, need, see, in the active voice, and let, in the passive, the sign
to is generally omitted; as, "He bade him depart;" "I saw him
fall" The sign to is sometimes omitted after several other verbs.
Rem. 7.— Verbs expressing hope, expectation, command, inten-
tion, &c, require the present infinitive after them ; as, " I hoped
to see you;" "I intended to call for you;" "He expected to see
you yesterday."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected,
1. What came ye out for to see? 2. I never voted that ticket,
and never intend to. 3. To greedily eat one's dinner is ill-
mannered. 4. I dared him come to me. 5. He durst not to
leave his room. 6. I saw him to write on his slate.
7. I have known him to frequently be tardy. 8. He made his
horses to go very fast. 9. He needs study more carefully. 10. He
need not to remain long. 11. He intended to have written to
you. 12. They had hoped to have seen you before they left.
To be parsed.
1. To do right, is to do that which is ordered to be done. 2. To
192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
die is to be banished from myself. 3. To do justice and judgment
is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice. 4. It is our duty to
try, and our determination to succeed. 5. He had dared to think
for himself. 6. She shall rejoice in time to come.
7. It is the curse of kings to be attended
By slaves that take their humors for a warrant
To break within the bloody house of life,
And on the winking of authority,
To understand a law. — Shakspeare.
8. Have ye brave sons? Look in the next fierce brawl
To see them die. Have ye fair daughters? Look
To see them live, torn from your arms, distained,
Dishonored, and if ye dare call for justice,
Be answered by the lash. — Mitford.
213. Infinitives not used as Nouns.
Rule XVII. — An infinitive not used as a noun, de-
pends upon the word it limits, or which leads to its use,
Rem. 1. — An infinitive may depend upon,
1. A noun; as, "Flee from the wrath to come"
2. A pronoun; as, "I heard him declaim."
3. A verb; as, "He went to see the show."
4. An adjective; as, "The gods are hard to reconcile"
5. A participle; as, "The rain threatening to fall, we left."
6. An adverb; as, "He told me when to come"
Rem. 2. — The sign to is sometimes improperly omitted ; as,
"Please excuse James for absence." Supply to before "excuse."
Rem. 3 — The infinitive is often understood; as, "I considered
him [to be] honest."
Rem. 4. — The sign to may be omitted before all but the first
of two or more infinitives in the same construction; as, "They
tried to cheat, rob, and murder me."
EXERCISES.
To be parsed,
1. I come not here to talk. 2. I can not see to spin my flax.
3. In sooth, deceit maketh no mortal gay. 4. I saw along the
SYNTAX — RULES. 193
winter snow a spectral column pour. 5. Let the great world spin
forever down the ringing grooves of change.
6. He lived to die, and died to live. 7. It is a brave thing to
understand something of what we see. 8, It is better to fight for
the good than to rail at the ill.
9. Let us be content in work,
To do the thing we can, and not presume
To fret because it's little.
10. One day with life and heart,
Is more than time enough to find a world.
11. Xeedful auxiliars are our friends, to give
To social man true relish of himself.
12. Learn well to know how much need not be known.
And what that knowledge which, impairs your sense.
13. Let him not violate kind nature's laws,
But own man born to live as well as die.
14. The blood more stirs
To rouse a lion than to start a hare.
15. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend.
Eternity mourns that.
214. Adverbs.
Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, par-
ticiples, and adverbs.
Rem. i. — Adverbs sometimes modify phrases and entire propo-
sitions; as^ "He lives just over the hill;" "Verily, ye are the
people."
Rem. 2. — Adverbs are frequently used as expletives ; as, " Well,
that is a strange story ;" "There, now, you have said enough."
Rem. 3. — The adverbs yes, no, aye, yea, and nay, are generally
answers to questions, and are equivalent to a whole sentence.
They are then used independently, or modify the sentences preced-
ing or following them.
Ex. — "Are you angry? — ATo." "Yea, they shall sing in the ways
of the Lord;" "Nay ; but it is really true."
Rem. 4. — Two contradictory negatives in the same clause are
H. G. 17.
194 ENGLISH GKAMMAR.
equivalent to an affirmative ; as, " I can not write no more " — I
can write more. Hence, two negatives should never be employed
to express a negation. Say "I want no assistance," not "I don't
want no assistance." Two or more negatives, not contradictory, do
not destroy the negative character of a sentence; as, "Pie will
never consent, no, never, not he, nor I neither"
Rem. 5. — When the quality of an object, and not the manner
of an action, is to be expressed, an adjective should be used as
predicate; as, "He arrived safe" not "safely;" "She looks beau-
tiful" not "beautifully"
Rem. 6. — Though sanctioned by good authority, the use of
from before whence, hence, and thence should be avoided. Say,
" Whence came you?" not "From, whence came you?"
Rem. 7. — The word modified by an adverb is sometimes omitted;
as, "Down, royal state!" Supply "fall." "Up in the morning
early." Supply "get" or "rise." "I'll hence to London." Sup-
ply " go." In some cases, adverbs thus used seem to have the force
of verbs in the imperative mode, but not always. Up and out, fol-
lowed by the preposition with, take the place of verbs in declara-
tive sentences; as, "She up with her fist, and took him on the
face."
Rem. s. — There is frequently used as an expletive to introduce
a sentence; as, "There was no grass there;" "There were three
of us."
Rem. 9. — An adverbial phrase should not be parsed as a single'
word when its parts can be parsed separately; as, "They walked
hand in hand." Place "with" before the phrase.
Rem. io. — The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives,
preceded by the definite article, are often used as adverbs; as, "The
longer I study, the better I like it;" "He lives best who acts the
noblest."
Rem. 11. — Adverbs should be so placed as to render the sen-
tence clear, correct, and elegant. The sense intended to be con-
veyed depends on their position. Compare " He is thought to be
generally honest," with " He is generally thought to be honest."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected.
1. He won't give me no satisfaction. 2. We did n't find nobody
at home. 3. Nobody never saw such a crowd of people. 4. The
SYNTAX — RULES. 195
nation never was more prosperous, nor never was more ungrateful.
5. Neither he, nor nobody else who do n't do no work, can have
my vote.
6. The velvet feels smoothly. 7. He speaks slow and distinct.
8. The children all looked beautifully. 9. You did splendid last
examination. 10. I am tolerable well, I thank you. 11. Sure,
you don't mean to humbug me. 12. I scarce know what I am
saying.
13. He did handsomer than he promised. 14. He out with his
knife, and slashed right and left, (See Rem. 7.) 15. The dog
grabbed him by the throat, and downed him. 16. I only want
to borrow your umbrella.
17. The dog wanted in, but he now wants out. 18. There is
nothing better pleases me than to see boys truthful. 19. There is
still a wider field for enterprise in California. 20. It rains most
every day. 21. I would not have believed no tongue but Hu-
bert's.
To be parsed.
1. All the world was ours once more. 2. Up goes my grave
Impudence to the maid. 3. I saw the blue Rhine sweep along.
4. Death erects his batteries right over against our homes. 5.
Slowly the throng moves o'er the tomb-paved ground. 6. The
complication of a town is often happily unraveled by starting from
a main trunk.
7. Man desires not only to be loved, but to be lovely, 8. West-
ward the course of empire takes its way. 9. Your menaces move
me not. 10. We see but dimly through the mists and vapors.
11. Man by man, and foot by foot, did the soldiers proceed over
the Alps. 12. Finally, the war is already begun, and we must
either conquer or perish. 13. He heaped up great riches, but
passed his time miserably.
14. Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day,
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain's top. — Shakspeare.
15. I '11 look no more, —
Lest my brain turn, and the deficient, sight
Topple down headlong.
16. Not a word to each other ; we kept the great pace —
Neck by neck, stride by stride, never changing our place.
Browning.
196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
17. Who does the best his circumstance allows,
Does well, acts nobly, angels could no more.
Our outward act indeed admits restraint;
'T is not in things o'er thought to domineer.
Guard well thy thought, our thoughts are heard in heaven.
Young.
215. Prepositions.
Mule XIX. — A preposition shows the relation of its
object to the word upon which the latter depends.
Rem. i. — The object of a preposition, as well as the preceding
term of relation, often determines what preposition should be used;
as, "He read to me about the war, with much feeling;" "He wrote
to me in great haste concerning his losses."
Rem. 2. — Prepositions are frequently omitted ; as, " He lives
opposite [to] the court-house;" "Lend [to] me a pencil;" "His
house is near [to] the river."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected and parsed.
1. The man is dependent on his relatives. 2. I differ with you
on that point. 3. The man was killed by a sword and died with
violence. 4. The two thieves divided the money among them. 5.
During his life-time, he was twice shipwrecked.
6. Above the clouds and tempests' rage,
Across yon blue and radiant arch,
Upon their long, high pilgrimage,
I watched their glittering armies march.
216. Coordinate Connectives.
Rule XX. — Coordinate connectives join similar ele-
ments.
Hem. i. — Elements placed in the same relation or rank are
similar; as, nouns or pronouns in the same case, verbs in the
same construction, words, phrases, and clauses limiting the same
term, &c.
SYNTAX — RULES. 197
Item. 2. — Conjunctions are sometimes omitted ; as, " Had I the
means, I would buy that farm " = If I had the means, &c. " He
is rich, noble, wise, [and] generous."
Rem. 3. — In a series of similar terms, the conjunction is usually
omitted, except between the last two ; as, " Henry, Horace, and
Samuel are my pupils." When great emphasis is required, the
conjunction should be supplied; as, "You have been an honest,
and a bold, and a faithful hound."
Rem. 4. — Dissimilar or disproportionate terms should never be
joined by conjunctions; as, "I always have [been] and always
shall be of this opinion."
Rem. 5. — Conjunctions are sometimes used as introductory
words, either to awaken expectation, or to make the introduction
of a sentence less abrupt; as, u And it came to pass in those
days," &c; "So you are going to New Orleans, it seems."
EXERCISES.
To be corrected and parsed.
1. We moved along silently and with caution. 2. To play is
more pleasant than working. 3. They either could not, nor desired
to learn. 4. He can brag, but is not able to do much. 5. That
lot is preferable and cheaper than yours. 6. He looks as though
he was hungry. 7. He has no love nor veneration for him.
8. I can not tell whether he has returned or not. 9. All were
drowned save me. 10. Neither James or John came home yester-
day. 11. I always desire and always wished for your society. 12.
The boy would and did have his own way. 13. The parliament
addressed the king, and has been prorogued the same day.
217. Subordinate Connectives.
l&ule SSIe — Subordinate connectives join dissimilar
elements.
Rem. i. — A clause introduced by a subordinate connective per-
forms the office of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The con-
nective always unites the clause which it introduces to the word
or phrase which is modified; as, "He said that he would come;"
"The man whom you saw is the sheriff;" "Do you know where
I live?"
198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. 2. — A subordinate connective is almost invariably placed
at the beginning of the clause which it introduces. When this
clause is used as the subject of a sentence, or is put in apposition
with a noun in any case, the connective is a mere introductory
word; as, "That you have deceived me doth appear from this;"
"The rumor that he is insane is unfounded."
EXERCISES.
To be parsed,
I. Come as the winds come, when navies are stranded. 2. I
never thought that it could be so. 3. He locks the door after the
horse is stolen. 4. I now know why you deceived me. 5. He will
have friends wherever he may be.
6. I could distinguish the merchant to whom the ship was
consigned. 7. However stern he may seem, he is a good man.
8. While there is life, there is hope. 9. Blessed are the merciful :
for they shall obtain mercy. 10. He rushes to the fray as if he
were summoned to a banquet.
II. Whether the planets are inhabited, was discussed last even-
ing. 12. I consent to the constitution, because I expect no better,
and because I am not sure it is not the best. 13. I do not know
where he is. 14. There was so much noise that I could not sleep.
218. Interjections.
Rule XXII. — An interjection has no dependence upon
oilier words.
EXERCISES.
To be parsed.
I. What! might Rome have been taken? 2. Ha! laughest
thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? 3. Ho! warden! 4. Oh,
fearful woe! 5. Ah, my saying was true.
6. Hark! hark! to God the chorus breaks. 7. Halloo! my
boys, halloo! 8. Pshaw! there's no distress in that. 9. Hem!
what is it? 10. Aha, is that you?
II. Alas, poor Yorick! 12. Adieu, adieu, my native land!
13. Hark ! they whisper : jangels say,
Sister spirit, come away.
FALSE SYNTAX. 199
FALSE SYNTAX.
219. Definition.
1. False Syntax is any violation of the laws of good
usage, in the application of words or in the construction of
sentences.
2. Errors in the use of language arise from,
1. The use of Improper Words, Forms, and Expressions :
2. The Insertion of Unnecessary Words :
3. The Omission of Necessary Words:
4. The Improper Arrangement of the parts of a Sentence.
220. Model for Correcting False Syntax.
1. State that the sentence is not correct.
2. State in what respect it is incorrect.
3. Correct it.
4. Give reasons for the correction.
221. Improper Words, Forms, and Expressions.
I. IMPKOPER WOEDS.
Caution. — Avoid the use of words with a wrong
meaning.
Ex. — Nouns. — 1. He treated me with great negligence. 2. It
is a matter of no consequence. 3. I have sold the balance of the
goods. 4. The new play is attributed to the pen of Bulwer.
5. You may take either alternative. 6. I bought a couple of
ducks. 7. He went up two pair of stairs. 8. Our ice companies
are getting in their crops for the season.
Verbs. — 1. I expect he has gone home. 2. I suspect the farm
is a good one. 3. He donated $5000 to the college. 4. They
teamed a large quantity of ice to the Boston Highlands. 5. The
sun is sitting. 6. Set down on that chair. 7. The teacher sat him
on the platform.
8. He learned me to read. 9. I love buckwheat cakes. 10. He
laid down on the hay. 11. Where were you raised? 12. He enjoys
200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
very bad health. 13. The medicine affected a cure. 14. The Ohio
empties into the Mississippi, which has now overflown its banks.
15. If you will not go, I will come to you. 16. He has carried the
horses to water.
Adjectives and Peonouns. — 1. They resemble each other.
2. He has ne'er a [nary] horse, nor e'er a [ary] wagon. 3. That
very same man came here yesterday. 4. A proper fraction is less
than one. 5. We are incident to late frosts. 6. Do not call one
another nicknames.
See also "Exercises to be corrected/' \ 55, 64.
Adverbs and Conjunctions. — 1. Gravitation is where one
body attracts another. 2. Anarchy is while no laws are enforced.
3. Mr. Elkins is such a nice man. 4. Snow seldom or ever falls
in Florida. 5. I shall not forgive him be he never so penitent.
6. Home is home, be it never so homely. 7. He is a mighty
mean man.
8. He came here about a week since. 9. He said nothing far-
ther. 10. They went no further. 11. There are some styles of
writing where too much ornament is used. 12. He walks like I
do. 13. Henry is not tall like I am. 14. You should never do
no mischief.
15. John is not as tall as I am. 16. He has neither money or
credit. 17. I should like to know if you are going West. 18. Let
me see if your face is clean. 19. I have no doubt but you can
help him.
20. He was afraid lest he should be caught in the rain. 21. You
shiver as though you had the ague. 22. Whether or no the charge
can be sustained is questionable. 23. He was the more pleased
that it was done cheerfully.
See also "Exercises to be corrected," ? 141, 217.
Prepositions. — 1. I have an abhorrence to such men. 2. We
then witnessed a combat between a Bengal tiger with a Himalaya
bear. 3. The vessel was turned out of the true course. 4. What
need is there for so much preparation? 5. They make a great
noise of nights. 6. The boy climbed up in a tree. 7. He was
accused with forgery.
8. You will always find the old gentleman to home. 9. He
rolled from his bed out on to the floor. 10. The bird flew in the
window. 11. He put his hand in his pocket for his knife*
See also "Exercises to be corrected/' \ 134.
▲ 1
FALSE SYNTAX. 201
II. IMPEOPEK FOKMS.
Note. — Sentences in which wrong forms of nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, verbs, and participles are used may be found among
"Exercises to be corrected," under appropriate heads. These
should be carefully corrected.
Caution I. — Avoid the use of A before vowel sounds,
and of An before consonant sounds.
Ex. — 1. An hundred thousand. 2. An humorous person. 3.
We are an united people. 4. Such an one is a honest man.
5. The regiment was formed in line in a open field. 6. She is an
heroine. 7. That was a heroic deed. (Use an before h faintly
sounded when the following syllable is accented.)
Caution II, — Observe that the denotes the class or a
particular one, and a an indefinite one of several.
Ex. — 1. The farthing is the fourth part of a penny. 2. A fox
is cunning. 3. A horse is a useful animal. 4. The owl sleeps
during a day. 5. A steam engine is a modern invention.
Caution III. — Do not use them for those, this here for
this, that 'ere or that there for that, or might of, should
of, &c, for might have, should have, &c.
Ex. — 1. Give me them peaches. 2. I can not remember them
rules. 3. That 'ere farm is very sandy. 4. What will you give
for this here slate? 5. I do not like that 'ere way of doing things.
6. Did you buy them needles of this here peddler? 7. He might
of helped me. 8. They should of told you.
Caution IV. — Avoid the use of how before that, or in
its stead.
Ex. — 1. He told me how that he was going to Oregon. 2. They
said how they knew it was so, 3. She told me how that she had
a new bonnet. 4. Father said how he believed the man was a
swindler.
Caution V.— Never use will for shall, nor would for
should.
Ex. — 1. I was afraid I would be tardy. 2. I shall go ; no one
202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
will prevent me. 3. If I would earn money, I would not spend it
foolishly. 4. Whoever will swear falsely will be punished. 5. I
should be sorry if you would be sick.
Caution VI. — Do not use adjectives as adverbs.
Ex. — 1. You ought to value time higher. 2. The cars moved
very slow. 3. I am exceeding glad to see you. 4. She dresses
neat. 5. We walked silent through the cemetery. 6. I am tol-
erable well, I thank you. 7. He reads slow and distinct. 8. I
came there previous to his coming. 9. He speaks German fluent.
10. The whisper was scarce audible. 11. They are near discour-
aged. 12. I am that sick I can not sit up any longer.
Caution VII. — Do not use adverbs as adjectives.
Ex.— 1. We arrived safely. 2. The country looks beautifully
after a shower. 3. I feel very poetically. 4. Things look more
favorably this morning. 5. Ice feels coldly.
Caution VIII. — Avoid the use of different kinds of
pronouns in the same construction.
Ex. — 1. If you will go, I will pay thy expenses. 2. I hope you
will put money into thy purse. 3. What we saw, and which
frightened us very much, we thought was a ghost. 4. You have
mine and I have thine. 5. A man who is industrious, and that is
not extravagant, will prosper. 6. Finish thy task, then amuse
yourself.
Caution IX. — Do not use the indicative mode where
the subjunctive will be more elegant or expressive.
Ex. — 1. He will take due heed lest he miscarries. 2. Be careful
lest thou breakest some of the rules. 3. If he does but intimate
his desire, it will be sufficient to produce obedience. 4. Though he
falls, he shall not be utterly cast down. 5. Was I to tell the whole
truth, I should not be believed.
Caution X. — Tense forms should denote time in har-
mony with that indicated by other parts of the sentence.
Ex. — 1. They proposed to have visited Paris the following year.
2. After I learned my lesson, I took a walk. 3. He was absent this
FALSE SYNTAX. 203
whole week. 4. He was under great obligations to have assisted
me. 5. He will remain here if he could find employment.
6. They would readily believe this statement, if they can break
away from their prejudices. 7. His step was then firm, and his
figure erect, though he has seemed old and decrepit. 8. He de-
clared himself to have been innocent of the charge brought against
him. 9. He had neglected their dearest interest, but he strikes
their imagination.
Caution XI. — In compound sentences, tense forms should
generally be alike.
Ex. — 1. He pays his taxes and liveth honestly. 2. He was here
last week, and has been long expected. 3. Then did the officer
lay hold on him, and executed him immediately. 4. Thou art the
fellow who was at my house, and hast stolen my watch. 5. I went
to town, and have heard some good news.
Caution XII. — Avoid the expression of universal truths
or present facts in any other tense than the present.
Ex. — 1. He demonstrated that the earth was round. 2. What
did you say was the capital of Chili? 3. I should think it was
time to hear from home. 4. He did not know that brass was made
of zinc and copper. 5. I always thought that dew fell. 6. What
did you say her name was ? 7. Every one knows that air had
weight. 8. Heat will radiate best from rough substances.
Caution XIII. — Do not use the perfect participle to
express past time, nor the past-tense form instead of the
perfect participle.
Ex. — 1. I seen him yesterday. 2. He come here to-day. 3. He
has ran home. 4. The boys all said he done it. 5. I have saw an
old friend to-day. 6. After the storm, we found that the large oak
had fell, and that it was broke in two.
Caution XIV. — Avoid the use of improper passive
forms.
Ex — 1. He was retired from active service. 2. Evening was
come when we reached the summit of the mountain. 3. He is
possessed of a large number of farms. 4. The disputants were
agreed on that. 5. The hour for adjournment is arrived.
204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Caution XV. — Avoid the improper use of compound
participles.
Ex. — 1. The new bridge is being built. 2. Such a foolish an-
ecdote is not worth being repeated. 3. Butter is now being sold
for thirty cents a pound. 4. That is not intended for being com-
mitted to memory. 5. A petition is being circulated. 6. Stores
are now being closed at 8 o'clock P. M.
Caution XVI. — Avoid the inelegant use of participles
in place of nouns, infinitives, and clauses.
Ex. — 1. He failed fulfilling his promise. 2. He neglected the
learning of his lesson. 3. One should be ashamed of being found
in bad company. 4. What is the reason of your not having done
your task to-day?
5. They who are set ruling over others should be just. 6. No
one likes being made fun of. 7. Going to Congress is no evidence
of greatness. 8. Such will ever be the consequences of youth
associating with vicious companions.
Caution XVII. — Avoid the recurrence, at short inter-
vals, of the same word in different senses.
Ex. — 1. He turned to the left, and then left abruptly. 2. If the
show of any thing be good for any thing, sincerity is better. 3. The
truth is, that error and truth are blended in their minds. 4. His
reason might have suggested better reasons. 5. The king commu-
nicated his intention to the minister, who disclosed it to the secre-
tary, who made it known to the public.
III. IMPEOPER EXPRESSIONS.
Caution lo — Avoid provincialisms: i. e., expressions
not national, but confined to certain districts in the same
country.
Ex. — 1. We raised a right smart chance of corn last year. 2. Our
grapes are all done gone. 3. He has done spent all his money.
4. I reckon you have the ague, stranger. 5. I guess I will go
home. 6. Watch out for the steamboat. 7. What time does
school take up? 8. I am right glad to see you. 9. He toted his
plunder on his back all the way from Virginia. 10. Sow the grain
FALSE SYNTAX. 205
suant. 11. I disremember where you live. 12. I didn't go to
do it. 13. Where did you loss it? 14. He is in cahoot with me.
15. Three goes in twelve four times.
Caution IIo — Avoid slang phrases, and all low expres-
sions used by the uneducated.
Ex. — 1. That 's what 's the matter. 2. If any one insults you,
go for him. 3. That 's tip-top. 4. He 's a brick with a gilt edge.
5. He can get every thing he wants : he has lots of tin. 6. They
went at each other with their mauleys. 7. I closed his peepers for
him. 8. Where shall I dump my cart? 9. She is setter 'n an old
hen.
Caution IIIo — Avoid all perversions: i. e., words habit-
ually mispronounced or misapplied.
Ex. — 1. This is a mountainious country. 2. I onc't went a
miled to get some voilets. 3. He got into a voilent passion. 4. He
is a candidate for the sheriffality. 5. How do you sell them cow-
cumbers? 6. I am necessitated to take medicine. 7. This is beau-
tiful apple sauce. 8. He efected a cure. 9. The trees are clothed
in green foilage. 10. We had some nice lattice (lettuce) and spar-
row-grass (asparagus) for dinner.
Caution IV. — Avoid all improper contractions ; as, it }s
for it is or H is, is n't or aint for is not, have n't or haint
for have not, H aint for it is not, better ;n for better than, &c.
Ex. — 1. It's now ready for use. 2. 'Taint my house that is
burning. 3. I haint got my lesson. 4. Isn't she beautiful? 5.
He aint a good skater. 6. My book is better 'n yours. 7. He is
older 'n I am.
222, Insertion of Unnecessary Words.
Caution I. — Do not use unnecessary words.
Ex. — 1. Amos Wilkins his book. 2. Henry he ran, and Samuel
he ran. 3. They are very nice, these oranges. 4. The girls they
all staid in at recess. 5. It took us two hours time to learn that
lesson. 6. My father and mother are both of them sick. 7. She
206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
is a poor widow lady. 8. It is above a year since the time I left
school.
9. Oil and water will not mix together. 10. You never denied
but that you came from Nova Scotia. 11. This is a pretty smart
sort of a place. 12. He may probably make the attempt, but he
can not possibly succeed.
13. There are but few other men like him. 14. He came here
about the latter end of last month. 15. Those who have not
bought tickets must now buy their tickets. 1(3. Who first invented
gunpowder? 17. It is six years ago since I saw you. 18. When-
ever he sees me, he always inquires about your health.
19. He had ought to be more punctual. 20. He had not ought
to use profane language. 21. I have no doubt but that he will
come. 22. One is equally as beautiful as the other. 23. I learned
much by the listening to his conversation. 24. You will not never
have such a chance.
25. I am stronger than you think for. 26. We passed over
through the forest. 27. I will never enter into his house again.
28. He deserted from his friends. 29. Pharaoh and his host pur-
sued after them. 30. They presented him with a gold watch. 31.
Mr. Ellison talks of buying of- our farm. 32. He followed on
after us.
33. I do not recollect of hearing him say so. 34. You need not
to go to the post-office. 35. From whence came you? 36. He came
from thence last week. 37. You need not to have staid so long.
38. Their chagrin can hardly be conceived of. 39. They got angry
in their settling of their account. 40. He has got a long lesson to
learn.
Caution II. — Avoid double comparatives and super-
latives.
Ex — 1. He is the most unhappiest man I ever saw. 2. More
sharper than a serpent's tooth is vile ingratitude. 3. He seems
more cheerfuller since his return. 4. Choose the lesser of two
evils. 5. He is the most strictest teacher in the city.
Caution III, — Avoid the use of two negatives to ex-
press negation.
Ex. — 1. He do n't know nothing about my affairs. 2. Time
and tide don't wait for no one. 3. We didn't find nobody at
FALSE SYNTAX. 207
home. 4. The best way to keep a secret is to say nothing to no-
body about it. 5. You do n't look no older than you did ten years
ago. 6. She will never be no better : so the doctor says. 7. Nei-
ther her nor nobody else never saw a white blackbird. 8. There
can not be nothing more insignificant than vanity.
Caution IV. — Omit the article before a word used as a
title, as a mere name, or to denote a class generally.
Ex. — 1. The king conferred on him the title of a duke. 2. What
kind of a man is he? 3. I have a sort of a misgiving about it. 4.
A rascal formerly meant a servant, and a knave a boy. 5. Eiches
and honor are the gifts of fortune.
6. Some think the Indians are the descendants of the ten lost
tribes. 7. They voted for Mr. Weston as a senator. 8. They
elected him a chairman. 9. She is not so good a cook as a mil-
liner. 10. He is a better blacksmith than a doctor.
Caution V. — Avoid the needless repetition of words.
Ex. — 1. The earth is a sphere, a globe, or a ball. 2. The days,
the hours, and the minutes drag slowly along. 3. He went to St.
Louis and to Chicago. 4. He is a man of wealth, and of charac-
ter, and of influence. 5. That wise and that good man has many
friends.
6. There is another and a better world. 7. Their idleness and
their luxury and pleasures, their criminal deeds and their im-
moderate passions, and their timidity and baseness of mind, have
dejected them to such a degree as to make them weary of life.
223. Omission of Necessary Words.
Caution I. — Avoid the omission of words necessary to
complete the sense.
Ex. — 1. I was amused at the way he told it. 2. What use
would it be to me? 3. The remark is worthy the dunce that
made it. 4. The insult does not admit of an apology. 5. That
depends upon what precedes and follows. 6. What prevented him
going?
7. This is the way I hold my pen. 8. That is the best can be
said of him. 9. The steamboat is on the bar; I saw it stuck fast.
208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
10. Having been condemned, there was no pardon. 11. This not
only excited our hopes, but fears also. 12. He is an honest man.
but unfortunate.
13. That is as hard a story to swallow as Gulliver himself.
14. He lives on the other side the river. 15. Our house is the
other end of the street. 16. He was banished his native land.
17. The lazy fellow was expelled the college. 18. I would rather
live in poverty than wealth acquired dishonestly.
19. Small farms are more profitable than large. 20. A squirrel
can climb a tree quicker than a boy. 21. I could not refrain
laughing. 22. The convict escaped the penitentiary. 23. The rich
and poor are alike mortal. 24. All admire the beauties of nature
and art.
25. I will be so candid to own I was mistaken. 26. It has or
will be announced. 27. I have, nor shall not consent to such an
arrangement. 28. Number the trees in the order they stand. 29.
I help who help me. 30. The house in which I lived, and had
long owned, was destroyed by fire. 31. I gave some to Edwin as
well as Jonas. 32. I never read the book, and never mean to.
33. It is better to live on a little than outlive a great deal. 34.
Please excuse Jane at recess. 35. How do you like out there?
36. He was seen go into a billiard saloon.
37. Using of tobacco is a bad habit. 38. Be careful in the
spelling your words. 39. In building of houses there has been
much improvement. 40. A modest man never indulges in praising
of himself. 41. Gypsies are noted for telling of fortunes.
42. When the air is reduced to 32°, water will freeze. 43. I like
to skate about as well as any thing. 44. By time they got that done
it was noon. 45. Outdoor croquet is played on the ground instead
of on a table, and also much larger.
Caution II. — Avoid the omission of words necessary to
denote emphatic distinction.
Ex. — 1. I like neither his principles nor practice. 2. He has
checks for his valise and overcoat. 3. This is not only a question
of policy, but right also. 4. Both his hat and umbrella were lost.
5. Neither his hat nor umbrella was found. 6. His hat, as well as
umbrella, was stolen. 7. He has sold either his house or store.
8. He is beloved for his honesty and goodness.
FALSE SYNTAX. - 209
Caution III. — Avoid the improper omission of modi-
fiers arid connectives in expressing a succession of par-
ticulars.
Ex. — 1. We are in need of food, fuel, and of clothing. 2. He
is the most zealous, most sanguine, and energetic man I ever knew.
3. In pain, trouble, and in sorrow, he wrote the treatise. 4. The
country is full of idlers, swindlers, and of spendthrifts. 5. Farmers
and mechanics, lawyers, doctors, and miners, are nocking to this
new territory.
Caution IV. — Do not omit the subjects of declarative
sentences, whether principal or subordinate.
Ex. — 1. Hope to see you soon. 2. Sorry to hear you have been
so unfortunate. 3. They knew what was best to do. 4. It is a long
road has no turning. 5. After a long night's rest, rose much re-
freshed. 6. It was he discouraged the undertaking. 7. That there
were any were dissatisfied I do not believe.
Caution V. — Avoid the improper omission of pronom-
inals in making comparisons.
Ex. — 1. Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. 2. No
one is so kind to me as he. 3. John thinks he is smarter than
any body. 4. He owns more land than any man in the county.
5. No country is so cold as Greenland. 6. There is no land so
fertile anywhere.
224. Improper Arrangement.
Caution I. — Modifying words, phrases, and clauses
should be placed as near as may be to the parts which
they modify.
Rem. — Adverbs and adjectives generally precede the words
which they modify ; but there are so many exceptions to this
arrangement, that it can not be regarded as a general rule. In
fact, no general rule for the position of modifiers can be given to
which there are no exceptions. That position is always the best
which conveys the meaning with the most precision.
H. G. 18.
210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Ex. — Single Words. — 1. He was overcome totally by the sad
intelligence. 2. Carefully scrutinize the sentiments contained in
the books you read. 3. We always are controlled by circum-
stances. 4. I only saw him once. 5. Ice only forms during cold
weather.
6. Theism can only be opposed by polytheism. 7. Only you
have I known of all the nations of the earth. 8. Not only he
found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. 9. He read the
book only, but did not return it. 10. I would prefer being hung a
thousand times.
11. They called together their friends. 12. The officers arrested
also the saloon keeper. 13. It is impossible constantly to study.
14. They were nearly dressed alike. 15. He chiefly spoke of him-
self, not of his employers.
16. By doing the same thing, it often becomes habitual. 17. The
necessity of some new method has been felt long. 18. He was
pleasing not often because he was vain. 19. The good man not
only deserves the respect but the love of his fellow beings. 20. He
is considered generally insane.
21. It is a general time of health. 22. Edward has a new pair
of boots. v 23. We have a young yoke of oxen. 24. All homes are
not such as these. 25. You will hardly find such another man.
26. We have just received a fresh supply of fish.
27. The settler here the savage slew. 28. The advocate the court
addressed. 29. The Divine Being heapeth favors on his servants,
ever liberal and faithful. 30. An old, venerable, tall man just then
broke in upon the circle. 31. Sing the four first verses of the
hymn just read.
Phrases. — 1. The witness had been ordered to withdraw from
the bar, in consequence of being intoxicated, by the motion of an
honorable member. 2. Wanted, a young man to take care of some
horses of a religious turn of mind. 3. Notice. — A lecture on theater-
going at eleven o'clock.
4. He went to town, and drove a flock of sheep, on horseback.
5. Study to unite with firmness gentle manners. 6. All anxiety
about the issue divest yourselves of. 7. Hunting is a pastime
many are very fond of. 8. These lines were written by a young man
who has lain in his grave twelve years, for his own amusement.
9. We should carefully examine into, and candidly pass judg-
ment on, our faults. 10. A good man may go beyond the evenness
FALSE SYNTAX. 211
of a wise Christian, in a sudden anger. 11. Eeason is a ray, darted
into the soul, of divinity.
12. The skin is closely allied to horny matter in its composition.
13. From the foregoing considerations, it will be seen that the in-
fluence of air is all-controlling over the human constitution. 14.
Laughter, by the aid of phonetics, is easily taught as an art.
Clauses. — 1. We must endure the follies of others, who will have
their kindness. 2. He needs no spectacles that can not see, nor
boots that can not walk. 3. From a habit of saving time and paper,
which they acquired at the university, many write in so diminutive
a manner, with such frequent blots and interlineations, that they
are hardly able to go on without perpetual hesitation or extempo-
rary expletives. 4. It is true what he says, but it is not appli-
cable to the point. 5. These are the general's orders, who must
be obeyed.
6. Mr. French needs a surgeon, who has broken his arm. 7. The
figs were in small wooden boxes, which we ate. 8. Found, a silver
fruit-knife, by a child, which has a broken back. 9. For sale, a
cottage containing eight rooms, located in a respectable neighbor-
hood, which has double parlors and a detached office.
Caution II. — Avoid any choice or arrangement of
words subversive of clearness, precision, and elegance.
Rem. l. — Looseness and vagueness of style should be guarded
against with the greatest care. Hence, inversions, though allow-
able for rhetorical effect, should be avoided whenever they pervert
or obscure the meaning.
Ex. — 1. Nature mixes the elements variously and curiously some-
times, it is true. 2. They have the property of receiving rays of one
refrangibility, and emitting them at a lower one. 3. They were per-
sons of very moderate intellects, even before they were impaired by
their passions. 4. He neither cares for you nor me. 5. Adversity
both taught you to think and to reason.
6. The young now have many advantages which our forefathers
were deprived of. 7. From what I have said, you will perceive
readily the subject I am to proceed upon. 8. Having not known, or
having not considered the subject, he declined expressing any opinion.
9. Cook the potatoes with their jackets, as I call them, on. *
Rem. 2. — The leading proposition, in a contracted compound
sentence, should generally be expressed fully. The parts con-
212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
tracted by ellipsis should be joined to the leading proposition, and
to each other, by appropriate connectives.
Ex. — 1. He is older, but not so influential, as his brother. [He is
older than his brother, but not so influential.] 2. It is larger, but
inferior to the other. 3. The camel has as much strength, and more
endurance, than the horse. 4. I would rather spend the summer in
traveling as in working.
5. He deemed himself, and meant to be, an honest man. 6. You
can and ought to be more charitable. 7. The route has or will soon
be surveyed. 8. It is our duty to protect this government and that
flag from every assailant.
225. Miscellaneous Exercises.
1. If the mean temperature is low, it will require more days to
ripen than if it were high. 2. We have done no more than it was
our duty to have done. 3. I saw a white and brown bear at the
menagerie. 4. The pleasures of the understanding are more, pref-
erable than those of the senses.
5. He is engaged in a monograph of the Carices. 6. It is diffi-
cult for him to speak three sentences together. 7. We have seen
how fluids rise in tubes by wetting their sides. 8. I had hoped to
have seen you ere this. 9. He is a man too vain to be proud.
10. He used to use many expressions not usually used, and which
good usage will not permit one to use.
11. I could see that the desks had been scratched, with half an
eye. 12. I seen the horse run away just as I come down street.
13. She married my uncle's first wife's brother. 14. They have
heard from their cousins, they who live in Iowa. 15. They are
much further north than us.
16. Charlotte seldom or ever comes to see us now. 17. Whether
or no this is the man which committed the burglary is uncertain.
18. The time of John reciting his lesson is arrived. 19. The un-
grateful man has forsook his friends. 20. I will show you another
and a better way. 21. It 's now most time for dinner. 22. The
tree beareth fruit after his kind.
23. This style of architecture prevailed during the tenth and
eleventh century. 24. His servants ye are to whom ye obey.
25. Having did the work satisfactorily, he is entitled to his pay.
26. Both minister and magistrate is compelled sometimes to choose
FALSE SYNTAX. 213
between his duty and reputation. 27. They are them strangers
who come here yesterday. 28. You need not scarce mention it.
29. He is a better farmer than a lawyer.
30. John locked the door, and put the key in his pocket. 31.
Some men prefer cold to warm weather, but I differ with them.
32. In learning of this lesson, study carefully the third and fourth
section. 33. Come quick. 34. He did the work prompt. 35. I was
almost froze when we arrove there.
36. Let each esteem the other better than themselves. 37. I
found an empty old pocket-book this morning. 38. The posthu-
mous volumes appeared in considerable intervals. 39. He is not
only lazy, but improvident also. 40. I am resolved to try and
accomplish the difficult undertaking. 41. There are certain mis-
eries in idleness which the idle can only conceive.
42. The orator had just began, when the hissing commenced.
43. As time advances, it leaves behind him the traces of its flight.
44. Neither wealth nor honor confers happiness on their votaries.
45. He was purposed that he would not lie. 46. Hard work is not
congenial with his disposition.
47. They wanted for the necessaries of life. 48. There are mil-
lions of people in China whose support is derived almost entirely
from rice. 49. Thinks I to myself, symptoms. 50. So, says he,
you are not going to pay me, are you? 51. The trial of these
men take place to-morrow.
52; The public is requested to attend for their own benefit.
53. Nearly a thousand head of cattle was transported over this
road yesterday. 54. Three cheers for our flag — the red, the white,
and the blue. 55. Multiply each figure in the multiplier on to
each figure in the multiplicand. 56. Take and add the subtra-
hend and remainder together.
57. He belongs to the very selectest circle in the city. 58. That
report was very universally believed. 59. He took two spoonsful
of laudanum. 60. He gave me three double handsful of cherries.
61. Deceiving is much the same thing as to lie. 62. I never have
and never shall desert from my party : I allers votes the straight
ticket. 63. I forgit the man's name ; but he 's the reverendest
looking person I ever see.
64. Will you be to home this evening? 65. If you will go into
too deep water, you shall be drownded. 66. I did not think that
St. Petersburg was situated so fur north. 67. He can not lay still
214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
or set still scarce a single minute, says she. 68. The enemy at-
tackted us about three o'clock in the morning, before the day had
began to break.
69. There is a great deal of good horses in this county. 70. I
tried to learn him to cipher — but it aint no use. 71. I had rather
not alit on my head, but it haint hurt me much : I feel tolerable
hunky. 72. If any one has been missed, let them rise in their
places. 73. I allude to Washington, who is a name for all which
is just. 74. Next November, I shall be here twelve years.
75. The missionary gave an account of how Christianity has
formerly been propagated among heathen nations. 76. Though he
falls, he shall not be utterly cast down. 77. Though he be high,
he hath respect to the lowly. 78. We have done no more than it
was our duty to have done.
79. Can you not assign a more satisfactory and stronger reason
than that? 80. The scandal is unworthy the least attention. 81. I
have received no assistance from any source, neither from my
friends nor from my relatives. 82. Punishments may, and often
are, inflicted upon accessories to crimes.
83. He is liker to a half-breed than an Indian. 84. For lacking
of diligent observing the clouds, we were caught in the rain. 85.
Eve was the fairest of her daughters. 86. I found them in the
same place I left them. 87. A poor widow woman drawed the
highest prize in the lottery.
88. He has not broke his promise to confine himself to his
speciality. 89. He left the t out in spelling chestnut, which ought
not never to be done. 90. This is John Perkins his book. 91.
She danced beautiful, and sang sweet. 92. I am in favor of an
uniform system of taxation.
93. There is some hope of him recovering his senses. 94. Co-
lumbus had fondly hoped, at one time, to have rendered the
natives civilized, industrious, and tributary subjects of the crown.
95. Them ghosts you was talking about, was they in white or
black clothes?
96. They dared to bravely fight, or to nobly die, for their
country. 97. He looked severe, and told them to quietly resume
their seats. 98. He set his face against, and violently denounced,
all innocent amusements. 99. Young industrious men can always
find employment.
100. The mind of man can not continue long without some food
SYNTAX — WORDS CLASSIFIED. 215
to nourish the activity of his thoughts. 101. A great variety of
fancy goods are offered for sale below cost. 102. Lost, a gutta-
percha cane, by a gentleman, with a gold head.
103. Eapt into future times, the bard begun. — Pope.
104. They are the lovely, them in whom unite
Youth's fleeting charms with virtue's lovely light.
105. Ah, Jockey, ill advises those, I wis,
To think of songs at such a time as this.
106. Ere you remark another's sin
Bid thy own conscience look within. — Gay.
107. Even now, where Alpine solitudes ascend,
I sit me down a pensive hour to spend. — Goldsmith.
WORDS VARIOUSLY CLASSIFIED.
226. Of the Use of Words.
1. The same word may belong to different parts of speech.
2. The manner in which a word is used determines its
classification.
3. The normal use of a word is its use according to
its ordinary meaning and classification.
4. The abnormal or exceptional use of a word is a
variation from its usual meaning or classification.
5. The idiomatic use of a word or expression is a
departure from the principles of universal grammar.
227. Examples.
A (1) Adj., "A man;" "An ox." (2) Prep., "I go a fish-
ing."
About ... (1) Adv., "He wanders about:' (2) Prep., "We talked
about the weather."
Above ... (1) Adv., "He soars above." (2) Prep., "He soars above
the clouds."
216
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Adieu ...(1) Noun, "He bade me adieu" (2) Interjection,
" Adieu/ adieu/ niy native land."
After (1) Adv., "I left soon after." (2) Prep., "He ran after
me." (3) Conj. adv., " He came after you left."
Again ... (1) Adv., " Come again." (2) Conj., "Again, you have
frequently seen," &c.
Alike (1) Adj., "Those girls look alike." (2) Adv., "I am
alike pleased with them both."
All (1) Noun, "That is his all." (2) Adj., uAll men;"
"Good-by to you all;" uAll were there" (3) Adv.,
"He is all right;" "We were left all alone."
Any (1) Adj., "Have you any objections?" (2) Adv., "He
is not any better."
As (1) Adv., "As black as night." (2) Conj. adv., "Do as
I do," {manner)-, "He is as tall as I am," (comparison);
"The men cheered as he passed," (time) ; "I will go now,
as [since'] I am a little lame," (cause or reason). (3) Cor.
Conj., "As the door turneth on its hinges, so doth the
slothful man on his bed." (4) itel. pron., "They are
such as I could find." (5) An index of apposition,
"He shipped as second mate;" "As mayor of the city, I
feel much aggrieved." (6) Part of a comp. prep., "As
to that;" "As for me," &c.
As follows may be parsed as an adverbial phrase, equivalent to thus,
or the pronoun it may be supplied as the grammatical subject of
"follows." Always supply it in parsing as appears, as concerns, and
as regards.
Before ... (1) Adv., "He went before." (2) Prep., "The hills rise
before him." (3) Conj. adv., " He spoke before I did."
Below ... (1) Noun, "I came from below." (2) Adj., "He is in
one of the offices below." (3) Adv., " Go below." (4)
Prep., "Stand below me."
Best (1) Noun, "Now do your best." (2) Adj., "Covet the
best gifts." (3) Adv., "Who can best work and best agree?"
(4) Adv. pnr., " Tones he loved the best."
Better ... (1) Noun, "They scorn their betters" (2) Verb, "Love
betters what is best." (3) Adj., "The gray mare is the
better beast." (4) Adv., "Never was monarch better
feared."
•
SYNTAX WORDS CLASSIFIED.
217
Both (1) Adj., "Hear both sides." (2) Pron. adj., "Both of
them made a covenant;" "They are both vagabonds."
(3) Cor. conj., " She is both young and beautiful."
But (1) Adv., "If they kill us, we shall but die." (2) But a,
Adj., "He is but a man." (3) Prep., "All but two
were drowned;" "None knew thee but to love thee;"
"Whence all but him had fled." (4) Part of comp.
prep., "He would steal but for the law." (5) Conj.,
"Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers;" "When pride
comes, then cometh shame; but with the lowly is wis-
dom."
By (1) Adv., "He passed by on the other side." (2) Prep.,
"We have come by the valley road."
Close .... (1) Adj., "From a close bower this dainty music flowed;"
" He is a close, selfish man." (2) Adv., " He followed
close behind."
Each ....(1) Pron. adj., "They searched each house;" "Each
officer;" "They took one each;" "Wandering each his
several way." " They resemble each other" (Parse each
as being in apposition with " they," or each other as a com-
pound word.)
Else (1) Adj., "Do not call any one else" (2) Adv., "How
else can this be done?" (3) Conj., "Thou desirest not
sacrifice, else would I give it."
(1) Noun, "He has enough" (2) Adj., "I have trouble
enough." (3) Adv., " I know you well enough"
Enough
Except .
, (1) Verb, "Which our author could not except against."
(2) Prep., "I could see nothing except the sky;" "Except
these bonds." (3) Conj., "Except the Lord build the house,
they labor in vain that build it."
Far ..... (1) Noun, "He came from far." (2) Adj., "We be come
from a far country." (3) Adv., "Over the hills and far
away;" "Far from his home."
Farewell . (1) Noun, "A last farewell." (2) Adj., "A farewell con-
cert." (3) Int., "Farewell/"
(1) Noun, "A surfeit is the father of much fast." "An
annual fast." (2) Verb, "Thou didst fast and weep for
thy child." (3) Adj., "He is my fast friend." (4) Adv.,
"We will bind thee fast;" "He runs fast."
H. G. 19.
Fast.
218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Few (1) Noun, "A few escaped;" "The few and the many."
(2) Adj., "We have a few copies left."
For (1) Prep., "We waited for you;" "He writes not for
money nor for praise." (2) Conj., "Give thanks unto
the Lord; for he is good; for his mercy endureth for-
ever." See As.
Full (1) Noun, "The full of the moon." (2) Verb, "The
moon fulls to-night;" "They full cloth at the factory."
(3) Adj., "The house was full;'9 "A full supply." (4)
Adv., "He spake full well."
Hard (1) Adj., "This is hard work." (2) Adv., "He works
hard;" "He lives hard by the river." (Hard modifies
the phrase "by the river.")
However . (1) Adv., "Hoivever great." (2) €onj., "However, your
house was not burned."
Ill (1) Jfoan, "Throw off the ills;" "The ills of life." (2)
Adj., "I was quite ill yesterday." (3) Adv., "Ill fares the
larid to hastening ills a prey."
Indeed. . . (1) Adv., "It is indeed true." (2) Conj., "Indeed, I was
not aware of it."
Late (1) Adj., "A late frost destroyed the fruit." (2) Adv.,
"We studied early and late"
Like .... (1) Noun, "Like produces like" (2) Verb, "I like frank
people." (3) Adj., "We have like chances;" " The staff
of his spear was like a weaver's beam." (4) Adv., "He
ran like a deer;" "The Assyrian came down like a wolf
on the fold." (Supply coming before "on.")
Low (1) Adj., "He is very low this evening." (2) Adv., "Aim
low ;" "He speaks too low."
More .... (1) Jfoun, "Have you any more?" "They saved some
more, some less." (2) Adj., "We want more men;" "Let
us hear no more complaints." (3) Adv., " Which returned
not again unto him any more"
Much . ... (1) Noun, "They made much of the little they had."
(2) Adj., "He displayed much learning." (3) Adv., "I
am much disheartened;" "He reads much"
Nay (1) Noun, "The nays have it;" "I say imy." (2) Adv.,
"Nay, I said not so."
SYNTAX — WORDS CLASSIFIED. 219
Ay, aye, yea, are similar to nay in use and construction; as, "The
ayes have it;" "Yea, verily." Yea and nay are also used as conjunc-
tions to denote emphatic addition; as, "What carefulness it wrought
in you, yea, what clearing of yourselves, yea, what indignation, yea,
what fear, yea, what vehement desire, yea, what zeal, yea, what re-
venge."— 2 Cor. vii, 11.
No (1) Noun, "The noes have it." (2) Adj., "This is no
place for mirth." (3) Adv., "I can walk no faster."
Notwithstanding. (1) Prep., "We walked notwithstanding the
rain." (2) Conj., "He is kind, notwithstanding he is
stern."
Now (1) Noun, "Now is the accepted time;" "Eternity is a
never-ending now" (2) Adv., "Come novj" (3) Conjo,
"Now, Barabbas was a robber."
Once .... (1) Noun, "Forgive me just this once." (2) Adv,, "He
visits us once a year."
Only (1) Adj., "Is this the only hotel in town?" (2) Adv.,
"I sing only, I can not play."
Over .... (1) Adv., "They passed over;" "Turn over a new leaf."
(2) Prep., "We drove over the bridge;" "Over the
hills." (3) Part of a comp. prep., "Over against this
mountain."
Right ... (1) Noun, "The right will finally triumph;" "I stand
here on my right;" "Our rights." (2) Adj., "The right
man in the right place;" "You are right." (3) Adv.,
"Bight Eeverend;" "Let thine eyes look right on."
Save (1) Verb, "Now save a nation and now save a groat."
(2) Prep., "Of the Jews, five times received I forty
stripes save one." (3) Conj., "And that no man might
buy or sell save he that had the mark." — Rev. xiii, 17.
So (1) Adv., "Why are you so angry?" "He said so."
(2) Conj., "As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all
be made alive."
That .... (1) Adj., "Watch that man;" "That house is sold;" "This
is as good soil as that." (2) Rel. pron., "Ye that fear
the Lord, bless the Lord ;" " It was 1^ not he, that did it."
(3) Conj., "He heard that his friend was sick;" "Treat
it kindly that it may wish with us to stay,"
220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The (1) Article, "The stars." (2) Adv., "The more, the bet-
ter." (3) When the modifies an adverb, it forms with it
an adv. phrase; as, "I like you the better for that."
Then .... (1) lown. "Alas, the change twixt now and then"
(2) Adv., "We then ascended the tower." (3) Conj.,
"If you do not want it, then do not buy it."
There ... (1) Adv., "I live there;1'' "Grass grows there now."
(2) Expletive, used to introduce a sentence in a par-
ticular way; as, "There were three of us."
Till (1) Konn, "The money was in the till" (2) Verb,
"Farmers till the ground." (3) Prep., "Stay till next
Monday." (4) Conj. adv., "Stay till I return."
Up (1) Xoun, "The ups and downs of life are many." (2)
Adv., "Go up, baldhead." (3) Prep., "They sailed up
the river."
Well (1) Nonn, "The well is sixty feet deep." (2) Verb,
" Blood that welled from the wound." (3) Adj., " Is it
well with thee?" (4) Adv., "The work was well done."
(5) Ind. adv., "Well, what do you say?"
What . . . . (1) Mel. pron., "Pay what you owe." (2) Int. pron.,
"What peases you?" (3) Adj., "What vessel is that?"
(4) Adv., " What [partly] with entreaty, what with threat-
ening, I succeeded." (5) Interj., "What! is thy servant
a dog?"
When (1) Nonn, "Since when was it?" (2) Adv., "When you
were there." (3) Conj. adv., "Write when you reach
Boston." So, where.
Whieh. . . (1) Kel. pron., "The house in which I live." (2) Int.
pron., "Which is he?" (3) Adj., "Which road shall I
take?" So, who.
While ... (1) Nonn, "That is worth while." (2) Verb, "We will
while away an hour." (3) Adv., "While waiting for the
train." (4) Conj. adv., "We listened while he played."
Worse ...(1) Noun, "For better or worse." (2) Adj., "He i3
worse to-day." (3) Adv., "He might do worse."
Worth ... (1) Nonn, "They have lost their dignity and worth." (2)
Verb, an old imperative of a word meaning to be, " Woe
worth the day." (3) Adj., "He is worth a million."
SYNTAX — WORDS CLASSIFIED. 221
Yet (1) Adv., "Our country yet remains." (2) Conj., "I am
disappointed, yet not discouraged."
Yonder . . (1) Adj., "Yonder mountain." (2) Adv., "Who beckons
to us yonder."
Hem. 1. — Nouns may perform an adjective use, and still be re-
garded as nouns; as, "The sun's rays;" "Gen. Harrison's resi-
dence;" " Peter the Hermit /" "Dionysius the Tyrant.77
Rem. 2. — By being placed before the words which they modify,
nouns may be used as adjectives; as, "Our Indian summer;"
"Christmas eve;" "Strawberry short-cake." Nouns thus used may
be modified by adjectives; as, "The High Church Party;" "The
Protective Tariff Bill."
A compound expression may be formed by uniting two nouns,
or a noun and an adjective, by a hyphen; as, "Fire-clay brick;"
" air-pump experiments;" "a white-oak pail;" "a white oak-pail."
In all cases, the limiting noun must be in the singular number ; as,
"A four-rod chain;" "a ten-foot pole." "This medicine cures
ft^-diseases ;" "a spectacle-maker;" " a scissor-hill."
A compound expression may be formed of an indefinite number
of words, joined by hyphens, the entire phrase being used as a
single word; as, "The Kansas- Nebraska Bill;" "an out-and-out
falsehood;" "He was dressed in brown-once-black"
Hem. 3. — Nouns connected by conjunctions frequently form a
compound term, which must be regarded as a single thing, though
composed of distinct parts; as, "Three dollars a day and board is
all I ask;" "A horse and wagon was stolen."
Rem. 4. — Phrases, inseparable in thought, may be formed by
uniting prepositions with themselves or other parts of speech.
1. A verb and preposition ; as, to cast up, to buy off, to bring to,
to come to, to go over, &c. The preposition should be considered an
inseparable part of the verb, but it may be parsed as an adverb.
2. A preposition and adjective; as, on high, at large, in tamest,
at most, &c. : inseparable phrases, either adjective or adverbial.
3. Preposition and preposition ; as, over and over, by and by, in
and in, through and through, &c. : inseparable adverbial phrases.
4. Noun, preposition, and noun; as, day by day, face to face,
stride by stride, cheek by jowl, &c. As the expressiveness of these
phrases is destroyed by supplying any ellipsis, they should be
222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
classed among inseparable adverbial phrases. If preferred, how-
ever, each word may be parsed separately, the first noun being
made the object of a preposition understood.
Rem. 5, — Two prepositions frequently come together : in which
case they form a complex preposition; the first in order is an
adverb, or both are adverbs; as, "He comes from over [complex
preposition) the sea;" "They rode by [adverb) in a carriage;"
"The whole subject was gone over with" (both adverbs.)
Rem. 6.^ — Two or more conjunctions may come together: in
which case each has its use, which should always be regarded in
parsing: as, "Now when even had come;" "And so I penned it
down."
228, Exercises.
1. He has been ill since November. 2. I will go, provided he
sends for me. 3. Can you not still this noise ? 4. The rain still
continues. 5. The before-mentioned facts are before you. 6. Does
he live anywhere in Ohio ? 7. This boy is full ten years old. 8. I
never saw a saw saw a saw as that saw saws a saw. 9. What with
the bread, and what with the water, he sustained himself for sev-
eral weeks. 10. Give me such as I bargained for, and as much as I
bargained for.
11. What, then, could be done? 12. He has come round. 13.
That man purchased a round of beef. 14. The weight of this box
is forty pounds. 15. The stars are out by twos and threes. 16.
Whether is greater, the gold or the temple? 17. Sing unto the
Lord, O ye saints of his. 18. No man can come unto me except
the Father draws him. 19. He maketh me to lie down in green
pastures. 20. They have promised, yet they do not perform. 21.
One came, methought, and whispered in my ear.
22. He that catches at more than belongs to him, justly deserves
to lose what he has. 23. All this, I heard as one half dead ; but
answer had I none to words so true, save tears for my sins. 24.
Dreaming, she knew it was a dream. 25. I have told what, and
how true thou art. 26. He thought only of his subject. 27. The
path of glory leads but to the grave. 28. Kings will be tyrants
from policy when subjects are rebels from principle. 29. Angling
is somewhat like poetry : men are apt to be born so. — Walton.
30. And the final event to himself has been that, as he rose
like a rocket, he fell like the stick.— Paine. 31. There shall
SYNTAX — WORDS CLASSIFIED. 223
nothing die of all that is the children's of Israel. 32. We have
just come from Brown and Starr's. 33. Three times seven are
twenty-one. 34. I paid thirty-seven and a half cents for butter
this morning. 35. Wheat is two dollars a bushel. 36. That hill
is four miles off. 37. He ran the train at the rate of forty miles an
hour. 38. The more I see of him the better I like him.
39. Let your communication be yea, yea, and nay, nay. 40. As
far as the east is from the west, so far hath He removed our trans-
gressions from us. 41. Therefore, if thine enemy hunger, feed him ;
if he thirst, give him drink : for in so doing, thou shalt heap coals
of fire on his head. 42. It is good for us to be here. 43. Consider
the lilies of the field, how they grow ; they toil not, neither do they
spin. 44. A little one shall become a thousand, and a small one a
strong nation. 45. If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right
hand forget her cunning.
46. Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further. 47. Yet man is
born unto trouble, as the sparks fly upward. 48. One fault he has;
I know but only one. 49. " Madam," said I emphatically, " you
are in an error." 50. In this case, it will vanish by degrees. 51.
To be a foreigner, was always in England a reason of dislike.
52. How feeble were the attempts at planting towns, is evident from
the nature of the tenure by which the lands near the Saco were
held. — Bancroft. 53. This is — what shall we call it? 54. It is he,
even he. bb. He wras not even invited to be present.
66. Are you fond of skating? — Somewhat. 57. Is your health
good, now? — Eather so. 58. The garret was filled with broken
chairs, cast-off garments, and what not. 59. He gave me such a
warm reception. 60. How long wras it before the man came to? —
About three-quarters of an hour. 61. How did he come by his
property? 62. No quips, nowr, Pistol : indeed "I am in the waist two
yards about. 63. That 's certain ; I for my part knew the tailor
( that made the wings she flew withal.
64. He that wTill not when he may,
When he would, he shall have nay.
65. Then say not man 's imperfect, Heaven in fault ;
Say, rather, man 's as perfect as he ought. — Pope.
66. For what is worth in any thing
But so much money as ?t will bring? — Butler*
67. O, what a tangled web we weave,
When first we practice to deceive. — ScotL
224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
68. The swaD on still St. Mary's lake,
Float double, swan and shadow. — Wordswwth.
69. In the hexameter rises the fountain's silvery column,
In the pentameter aye falling in melody back. — Coleridge.
70. Here lies what once was Matthew Prior;
The son of Adam and Eve :
Can Bourbon or Nassau claim higher? — Matt. Prior.
71. "Moreover, it is written that my race
Hewed Ammon, hip and thigh, from Aroer
On Arnon unto Minnith." Here her face
Glowed as I looked at her. — Tennyson.
72. I can not tell what you and other men
Think of this life ; but for my single self,
I had as lief not be as live to be
In awe of such a thing as I myself. — Shahpeare.
73. Think for thyself— one good idea,
But known to be thine own,
Is better than a thousand gleaned
% From fields by others sown. — Wilson.
74. So we were left galloping, Joris and I,
Past Looz and past Tongres, no cloud in the sky :
The broad sun above laughed a pitiless laugh;
'Neath our feet broke the brittle bright stubble like chaff;
Till over by Dalhem a dome-spire sprang white,
And " Gallop," gasped Joris, " for Aix is in sight."
Browning,
75. Fate seemed to wind him up for four-score years:
Yet proudly fan he on ten winters more:
Till like a clock worn out with eating time,
The wheels of weary life at last stood still. — Dryden.
76. This well may be
The Day of Judgment which the world awaits;
But, be it so or not, I only know
My present duty, and my Lord's command
To occupy till he come. So at the post
Where he hath set me in his providence,
I choose for one to meet him face to face, —
No faithless servant frightened from my task,
But ready when the Lord of the harvest calls. — Wliittier.
SYNTAX — FIGURES. 225
FIGURES OF LANGUAGE.
229. Definitions.
1. A Figure of Speech is a departure from the
ordinary form, regular construction, or literal signification
of words.
2. A Figure of Etymology is a departure from the
usual form of a word.
3. A Figure of Syntax is a departure from the usual
construction of words.
4. A Figure of Rhetoric is a departure from the
primitive or literal sense of a word.
230. Figures of Etymology.
1. Apheresis is the elision of a letter or syllable from
the beginning of a word; as, 'gainst, for against; 'gan,
for began.
2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or syllable to
a word; as, adown, for down; beloved, for loved.
3. Syncope is the omission of one or more letters in
the middle of a word; as, ne'er, for never; slumbering, for
slumbering.
4. Tmesis is the separation of a compound word by
the insertion of a word between its parts; as, to us ward,
for toward us; how high soever, for howsoever high.
5. Apocope is the omission of the last letter or syllable
of a wrord; as, th\ for the; yond, for yonder.
6. Paragoge is the addition of a letter or syllable to
the end of a word; as, bounden, for bound; withouten, for
without.
226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
7. Syneresis is the contraction of two syllables into
one; as, donH, for do not; canH, for can not.
8. XHeresis is the separation of two vowel letters
which might otherwise form a diphthong or digraph; as,
aerial, preeminent
231. Figures of Syntax.
1. Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, or clause
which is necessary to complete the construction of a sen-
tence.
Note. — For examples of Ellipsis, see 1 190.
2. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are
necessary.
Ex. — "I saw it with these eyes." "All ye inhabitants of the
world, and dwellers on the earth"
Rem. l. — Polysyndeton is the repetition of a conjunction ; as,
" He is good, and wise, and generous."
Rem. 2. — Asyndeton is the omission of connective words in a
sentence.
Ex. — "I came, I saw, I conquered;" "He is wise, honest, faith-
ful ;" " We walked slowly, noiselessly, with bated breath."
Rem. 3. — Anadiplosis is the use of the same word or expres-
sion in the termination of one clause of a sentence, and at the
beginning of the next.
Ex. — "Has he a gust for blood? Blood shall fill his cup."
Rem. 4. — Epizeuxis is the emphatic repetition of the same
word or words.
Ex. — Alone, alone, all, all alone,
Alone on a wide, wide sea. — Coleridge.
3. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one
form, for another.
Ex. — We, for I; you, for thou; "Slow [slowly] rises worth;"
" What is writ is writ."
SYNTAX FIGURES. 227
4. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words from the
plain grammatical order.
Ex. — "He wanders earth around;" "From peak to peak, the
rattling crags among;" "Lightly from fair to fair he flew"
5. Syllepsis is the agreement of one word with the
figurative sense of another.
Ex. — "The Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us: and
we beheld his glory.7' — John i, 14. "A dauntless soul erect, who
smiles on death." — Thomson.
6. Parenthesis is the insertion of a word or sentence
between the parts of another sentence.
Ex. — "Every planet, (for God has made nothing in vain,) is
most probably inhabited."
7. Zeugma is a figure by which an adjective or verb,
which agrees with a nearer word, is referred to one more
remote.
Ex. — "Lust overcame shame; boldness, fear; and madness,
reason."
232. Figures of Rhetoric.
1. Simile is an express or formal comparison.
Ex. — Like a dog, he hunts in dreams. — Tennyson.
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
When a new planet swims into his ken ;
Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes
He stared at the Pacific. — Keats.
2. Metaphor is the expression of similitude without
the signs of comparison.
Ex — "A flash of wit;" "A sea of troubles;" "The moralist is
a scout for consequences;" "The wish is father to the thought."
3. Personification consists in attributing life and
mind to inanimate objects.
228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Ex. — "O Winter! ruler of the inverted year;" "The earth
mourneth and fadeth away."
" Yes, the Year is growing old,
And his eye is pale and bleared:
Death j with frosty hand and cold,
Plucks the old man by the beard,
Sorely, sorely ! " — Longfellow.
4. Allegory is a discourse in which one subject is de-
scribed by another resembling it.
Ex. — The Pilgrim's Progress; Spencer's Faerie Queene; Swift's
Tale of a Tub ; The Vision of Mirza.
Kem. 1. — A Fable is a short allegory.
Ex. — ^Esop's and La Fontaine's Fables. Most fables are short
stories about certain animals that are regarded as representatives of
particular qualities ; as, the fox, of cunning ; the lion, of strength.
Rem. 2. — A Parable is a relation of something real in nature
from which a moral is drawn.
Ex. — Parable of the Poor Man and his Lamb. — 2 Sam. xii, 1-5.
Of the Sower.— Matt. xiii. Of the Ten Virgins.— Matt. xxv.
5. Synecdoche is a figure by which the whole is put
for a part, or a part for the whole; a species for a genus,
or a genus for a species, &c.
Ex. — Roof, for house or dwelling; bread, for food generally;
cut-throaty for assassin.
"Belinda smiled and all the world was gay." — Pope.
Rem. l. — Antonomasia is the use of a proper name for a com-
mon name, or the name of some office, rank, profession, trade, or
peculiarity, instead of the true name of a people or class.
Ex. — "He is a Buckeye" i. e., an Ohioan; "The Crescent City"
i.e., New Orleans.
"Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest,
Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood."
Rem. 2. — Euphemism is the substitution of a delicate word oi
expression for one which is harsh or offensive.
SYNTAX — FIGURES. 229
Ex. — Departed, gone to rest, fallen asleep, for dead; stopped payment,
for become bankrupt; embezzlement, for theft.
"Sleep had seized her senses.
There did the traveler find her in the morning:
Death had released her." — Southey.
6. Metonymy is a change of names, or a figure by
which one word is put for another.
Ex. — Gray hairs, for old age; purse, for money ; fare, for a pas-
senger; city, for its inhabitants; "Ye devour widow's houses;"
" They have Moses and the prophets."
7. Antithesis is the opposition of words and sentiments
contained in the same sentence.
Ex. — "Excess of ceremony shows want of breeding;" "Wit
laughs at things; Humor laughs with them." — Whipple.
"Men may come and men may go,
But I go on forever." — Tennyson.
8. Epigram is a sentence in which the form of the
language contradicts the meaning conveyed.
Ex. — "I can not see the city for the houses." "Summer has
set in with its usual severity." — Walpole. "Any thing awful
always makes me laugh."- — Lamb. "Nothing so fallacious as
facts, except figures." — Canning. "I believe it, because it is im-
possible."
Rem. l. — The Epigram awakens attention by the seeming ir-
relevance of the assertion, or by the form given to it.
Rem. 3. — The Paronomasia, or Pun, is a play on the various
meanings of the same word.
Ex. — A friend of Curran, hearing a person near him say curosity
instead of curiosity, exclaimed, "How that man murders the English
language ! " " Not so bad," said Curran, " He has only knocked an
* out." /
Rem. 3 — The Conundrum is a sort of riddle, in which some
odd resemblance between things unlike is proposed for dis-
covery.
9. Hyperbole is an exaggeration of the meaning in-
230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
tended to be conveyed, by magnifying objects beyond their
proper bounds.
Ex. — "Bivers of water run down mine eyes because they keep
not thy law." "The land flows with milk and honey." "The
English gain two hours a day by clipping words." — Voltaire.
10. Interrogation is the putting in the form of a
question what is meant to be strongly affirmative.
Ex. — " Canst thou by searching find out God ? "
" Oh, who can hold a fire in his hand,
By thinking on the frosty Caucasus?
Or cloy the hungry edge of appetite
By bare imagination of a feast?" — ShaJcspeare.
11. Climax is an arrangement of the parts of a sen-
tence, by which they are made to rise step by step in
interest or importance.
Ex. — " It is an outrage to bind a Eoman citizen ; to scourge him
is an atrocious crime; to put him to death is almost a parricide;
but to crucify him — what shall I call it?" — Cicero.
Rem. — Anti-climax is any great departure from the order
required in climax.
Ex. — "That all-softening, overpowering knell,
The tocsin of the soul — the dinner-nell."* — Byron,
"Die, and endow a college or a cat." — Pope.
12. Exclamation is the animated or impassioned ex-
pression of sudden and intense emotion0
Ex. — " Oh, what a pity ! " "A horse, a horse, my kingdom for
a horse ! " " Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks ! "
13. Apostrophe is the turning away from the real
auditory, and addressing an absent or imaginary one.
Ex. — "Ye winds that wafted the Pilgrims to the land of
promise, fan, in their children's hearts, the love of freedom!" —
Everett.
"Ye toppling crags of ice!
Ye avalanches, whom a breath draws down,
In mountainous overwhelming, come and crush me." — Byron.
SYNTAX — FIGURES. 231
Rem. — Etypotyposis, or Vision, is a description of things in
such strong and lively colors, as to bring the absent before the
mind with the force of present reality.
Ex. — " I see the rural virtues leave the land." — Goldsmith.
"Greece cries to us by the convulsed lips of her poisoned, dying
Demosthenes." — Everett.
14. Innuendo is a covert suggestion of an author's
meaning, instead of an open expression of it.
Ex. — "What evil have I done that he should praise me?"
"He did his party all the harm in his power: he spoke for it, and
voted against it."
15. Irony is a mode of expression by which what is
said is contrary to what is meant.
Ex. — " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die
with you."
"And on our City Hall a justice stands :
A neater form was never made of board;
Holding majestically in her hands
A pair of steelyards and a wooden sword,
And looking down with complaisant civility —
Emblem of dignity and durability," — HallecJc.
Rem. — Sarcasm is a keen, reproachful, and scornful expression.
Ex. — "Who but must laugh, if such a man there be?
Who would not weep if Atticus were he ? " — Pope.
16. litotes is a mode of expressing something by deny-
ing the contrary.
Ex. — "Nor are thy lips ungrateful, sire of men,
Nor tongue inadequate: for God on thee
Abundantly his gifts hath also poured." — Milton.
17. Catachresis is wresting a word from its original
signification, and making it express something at variance
with its true meaning.
Ex. — "Silver curling-irons;" "A glass ink-horn;" "Her voic©
as but the shadow of a sound." — Young.
232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PUNCTUATION.
233. Definition.
1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written dis-
course into sentences and parts of sentences, by means of
points or marks.
Rem. i. — Points are principally used for the purpose of ren-
dering the sense more intelligible. They do not mark all the
pauses made in reading, though a pause is generally made where
a point is used.
Rem. 2. — A change in the punctuation of a sentence, generally
produces a change in the meaning.
Ex. — John Keys the lawyer says he is guilty.
John, Keys the lawyer says he is guilty.
John Keys, the lawyer says he is guilty.
" John Keys the lawyer," says he, "is guilty."
2. The principal marks used in punctuation are the
following :
Comma, ....
Semicolon, . . .
Colon,
Period, ....
Interrogation Point,
Exclamation Point, !
Dash, —
Curves, ....()
Brackets, . . . . [ ]
234. The Comma.
The Comma denotes the slightest degree of separation
between the elements of a sentence.
Rule I. — A complex subject, if long, should be sep-
arated from the predicate by a comma.
Ex.— The patriarchal church, inconsiderable in size and mean
in decoration, stands on the outermost islet of the Venetian
group. — Ruthin.
PUNCTUATION. 233
Rule II. — A clause used as subject, if it ends with a
verb, should be separated from the predicate by a comma.
Ex. — 1. Whatever is, is right. 2. Whosoever perseveres, will
succeed.
Rule III. — Nouns and pronouns in the absolute case
by pleonasm or direct address, should be separated from the
rest of the sentence by commas.
Ex. — 1. Our souls, how heavily they go, to reach immortal
joys. 2. Take, O boatman, thrice thy fee. 3. Think of that,
Master Brook.
Rule IV. — Adjective, participial, appositive, and abso-
lute phrases, should be separated from the context by
commas.
Ex. — 1. Faithful to his promise, he assisted me in obtaining
employment. 2. Having once lost the good opinion of our friends,
it is difficult for us to reclaim it. 3. The maxim, M Enough is as
good as a feast," has silenced many a vain wish. 4. The storm
having ceased, we weighed anchor and set sail.
Rem. i. — Nouns in apposition, unmodified, or modified by the
only, are not separated by commas ; as, " The Emperor Nero was
a cruel tyrant ;" " Thomson the poet was indolent."
Rem. 2. — An appositive word or expression introduced by as or
or, should be set off by a comma ; as, " So that he, as God, sitteth
in the temple of God ;" " Maize, or Indian corn, is a staple produc-
tion of the United States."
Rule Vo — Transposed words, phrases, and clauses are
usually set off by commas.
Ex. — 1. Doubtless, the r%an is guilty: the evidence, however,
is not conclusive. 2. Now, faith is the substance of things hoped
for, the evidence of things not seen. 3. Integrity is, no doubt, the
first requisite. 4. Whom ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I
unto you.
Rem. i. — A transposed objective element is not usually set off
by a comma ; as, " That book he has never returned."
Rem. 2. — When an inverted expression begins with it is or only,
it is not set off by a comma; as, "It is a pleasant thing to see
H.G.20..
234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
the sun;" "Only on slight occasions they felt disposed to be
merciful."
Rule VI. — Parenthetical words, phrases, and clauses
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas.
Rem. — A parenthetical word or expression is one which is not
essential to the grammatical construction of a sentence, but is
required to express its full meaning.
Ex. — 1. He invented, it is said, the theory of moral science.
2. That excitement, too, was of the most dangerous kind. 3. Their
great predecessors, it is true, were as bad critics as themselves.
Rule VII. — Adverbs used independently, or modify-
ing an entire proposition, should be set off by commas.
Ex. — 1. Yea, the earth itself shall pass away. 2. Well, if this
is law, I want no more of it. 3. Indeed, you must wait awhile.
Rule VIII. — When a verb is omitted to avoid repe-
tition, its place is usually supplied by a comma.
Ex. — 1. One murder makes a villain; millions, a hero. 2. War
is the law of violence ; peace, the law of love. 3. The young are
slaves to novelty; the old, to custom; the middle-aged, to both;
the dead, to neither.
Rem. — There are many exceptions to this rule. The general
practice is, to omit the comma unless clearness and precision
demand its insertion; as, "Reading maketh a full man, confer-
ence a ready man, and writing an exact man." — Bacon.
Rule IX. — Antithetical words, phrases, and clauses
should be separated by commas.
Ex. — 1. Talent has many a compliment from the bench, but
tact touches fees. 2. Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce con-
viction. 3. Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull.
Rule X. — The members of compound sentences, when
short and connected by conjunctions, should be separated
by commas.
PUNCTUATION. 235
Ex. — The simplicity of his character inspired confidence, the
ardor of his eloquence roused enthusiasm, and the gentleness of his
manners invited friendship.
Rule XI. — Two correlative clauses should be separated
by commas.
Ex. — As the lightning that lighteneth out of the one part under
heaven, shineth unto the other part under heaven, so shall the
Son of Man be in his day.
Rem. — Two correlative clauses, joined by as or than, should
not be separated by a comma; as, "She is as old as he?" "A good
name is rather to be chosen than great riches."
Rule XIIo — The clauses of complex sentences should
be separated by commas, unless the dependent clauses are
very short and the connection very close.
Ex. — 1, Men of great and stirring powers, who are destined to
mold the age in which they are born, must first mold themselves
upon it. — Coleridge. 2. I took notice, in particular, of a very
profligate fellow, who, I did not question, came loaded with his
crimes; but upon searching his bundle, I found that, instead of
throwing his guilt from him, he had only laid down his memory.—
Addison.
Rule XIII. — When words are arranged in pairs, each
couplet should be set off by commas.
Ex. — 1. Hope and fear, pleasure and pain, diversify our lives.
2. Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand and my heart to
this vote.
Rule XIV. — Each term of a series of words in the
same construction, should be set off by commas.
Ex. — 1. War, peace, darts, spears, towns, rivers, every thing, in
his writings, is alive.
2. Sky, mountains, river, winds, lake, lightnings ! ye
With night, and clouds, and thunder, and a soul
To make these felt and feeling, wTell may be
Things that have made me watchful. — Byron.
Rem — Two words, closely connected by a conjunction, should
not be separated ; as, " Honor and fame from no condition rise."
236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rule XV. — The terms of a coordinate series, used as
the antecedent of a relative pronoun, should be set off by
commas, to show that the relative belongs equally to each
term.
Ex. — The oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, which unite to
form the atmosphere, are mingled in unequal proportions.
Rule XVI. — A direct quotation, separated by a principal
clause, should be set off by commas.
Ex. — 1. "Oh, Mr. Pickwick," said Mrs. Bardell, trembling with
agitation, " you ?re very kind, sir." 2. " Sir," said Mr. Adams,
"my definition of charity is, a generous disposition to relieve the
distressed."
Rule XVII. — A quoted sentence, a long infinitive phrase,
or an indirect quotation, introduced by that, should usually
be set off by a comma.
Ex. — 1. He asked, "Why are you so melancholy?" 2. I have
heard say of thee, that thou canst understand a dream to inter-
pret it. 3. To correct such gross vices as lead us to commit a real
injury to others, is the part of morals, and the object of the most
ordinary education. — Hume.
Rule XVIII. — Words repeated for emphasis should be
set off by commas.
Ex. — 1. Verily, verily, I say unto you. 2. "Treason, treason,
treason," reechoed from every part of the house.
Rule XIX. — Whenever ambiguity would arise from its
omission, a comma should be inserted.
Ex. — 1. I have a house with nine rooms, and out-buildings.
2. He has seven yoke of oxen, and horses.
EXERCISES.
Insert commas wherever required in these sentences:
1. A man who does so care has a garment embroidered with
hooks v/hich catches at every thing that passes by. 2. There were
burly tradesmen with an air of quiet satisfaction sauntering about
or leaning against railings. 3. Come Eollo — let us take a walk-
PUNCTUATION. 237
4. Ill-sorted marriages will hardly bring agreement and from those
of convenience will hardly come love. 5. We often commend as
well as censure imprudently.
6. The deaf and the blind and the lame were there. 7. The
rich and the poor — the high and the loww-the learned and the un-
learned— have access alike to this fountain of peace. 8. It shows
a love breaking through the reserve and distance which we all feel
to belong to the method of teaching us by his works alone. 9. I
see then in revelation a purpose corresponding with that for which
human teaching was instituted. 10. The oranges, lemons and figs
which grow in the northern range of the Southern States are of an
inferior quality.
11. "Think you Abel" said Paul at last "that the storm drove
thither?" 12. Yes, I am sure it is so. 13. As it was then so it is
now. 14. If one burden can be borne so can another and another.
15. He that seeketh findeth. 16. I lisped in numbers for the
numbers came. 17. Concession is no humiliation nor admission of
error any disgrace. 18. The idle want steadiness of purpose ; the
indolent power of exertion. 19. It was said of Socrates that he
brought philosophy down from heaven to dwell among men.
20. " No no no," said she greatly agitated. 21. He plagues you
with no doubts no half views no criticism. 22. Daniel Webster
the great American statesman died at Marshfield Mass. 23. An
indirect advantage but a very considerable one attendant upon
various modes of recreation is that they provide opportunities of
excelling in something to boys and men who are dull in things
which form the staple of education.
235. The Semicolon.
The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation greater
than that denoted by the comma.
Rule I. — The semicolon should be used before as,
namely, to wit, viz., introducing an example or an illus-
tration.
Ex. — 1. One part only of an antithesis is sometimes expressed;
as, "A friendly eye would never see such faults." 2. Some men
distinguish the period of the world into four ages ; viz., the golden
age, the silver age, the brazen age, and the iron age.
238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rule II. — The semicolon is used to separate the mem-
bers of a compound sentence, when the connective is
omitted.
Ex. — The earth glows with the colors of civilization ; the banks
of the stream are enameled with the richest grasses ; woodlands
and cultivated fields are harmoniously blended ; the birds of spring
find their delight in orchards and trim gardens, variegated with
choicest plants from every temperate zone; while the brilliant
flowers of the tropics bloom from the windows of the green-house
and the saloon. — Bancroft.
Rule III. — The members of a compound sentence, if
long, or if their parts are set off by commas, should be
separated by semicolons, even when joined by connectives.
Ex — 1. And he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and
some, evangelists ; and some, pastors and teachers. 2. I only know
that I had been torn from my dromedary, borne along, and buried
by the sand ; and that the young child was still in my arms.—
Ware.
Rule IV. — Successive clauses having a common depend-
ence, should be separated by semicolons.
Ex. — My imagination would conjure up all that I had heard or
read of the watery world beneath me; of the finny tribes that
roam in the fathomless valleys ; of shapeless monsters that lurk
among the very foundations of the earth ; and those wild phan-
tasms that swell the tales of fishermen and sailors. — Irving.
Rem. — This rule applies, also, to a series of phrases, some one
of which is composed of parts separated by commas ; as, " To be
delivered from trouble ; to be relieved from power ; to see oppres-
sion humbled ; to be freed from sickness and distress ; to lie down
as in a bed of security, in a long oblivion of our woes ; to sleep
in peace without the fear of interruption; — how pleasing the
prospect ! "
*
Rule V. — An inferential, contrasted, or explanatory
clause, introduced by for, but, and, or an equivalent con-
nective, is usually set off by a semicolon.
Ex. — 1. Eejoice the soul of thy servant; for unto thee, O Lord,
PUNCTUATION, 239
I lift up my soul. 2. The person he chanced to see, was, to ap-
pearance, an old, sordid, blind man ; but upon his following him
from place to place, he at last found, by his own confession, that
he was Plutus, the god of riches, and that he was just come out
of the house of a miser.
Rem. — When the clauses are short, the semicolon is frequently
replaced by the comma; as, "I go, but I return;''* "They had not
come in search of gain, for the soil was sterile and unproductive."
EXERCISES.
Insert semicolons wherever required in these sentences:
1. A Scotch mist becomes a shower, and a shower, a flood, and
a flood, a storm, and a storm, a tempest, and a tempest, thunder
and lightning, and thunder and lightning, heaven-quake and
earth-quake.
2. And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith,
virtue, and to virtue, knowledge, and to knowledge, temperance,
and to temperance, patience, and to patience, godliness, and to
godliness, brotherly kindness, and to brotherly kindness, charity.
3. Wit is abrupt, darting, scornful, and tosses its analogies in
your face, Humor is slow and shy, insinuating its fun into your
heart. 4. An enigma is a dark saying, an obscure question, a
riddle.
5. I take no notice of his brutal conduct, I do not speak of his
treachery and malice. 6. Never value yourself upon your fortune
for this is the sign of a weak mind. 7. He has two farms namely
a large one and a small one.
236. The Colon.
The Colon denotes a degree of separation greater than
that indicated by the semicolon.
Rule I. — The colon should be used after the formal
introduction to a speech, a course of reasoning, a lengthy
quotation, or an enumeration of particulars.
Ex. — 1. Then closing the book, he proceded in a lower tone:
" The philosophers of whom you have read in the dictionary, pos-
sessed this wisdom only in part, because they were heathens."
240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. The reason of things, also, doth help to explain these words,
and to show why they are prohibited : because these harsh terms
are needless ; because they are commonly unjust : because they are
uncharitable ; because, also, they produce mischievous effects,
3. Be our plain answer this : the throne we honor is the people's
choice; the laws we reverence are our brave father's legacy; the
faith we follow teaches us to live in bonds -of charity with all
mankind, and die with hope of bliss beyond the grave.
Rule I!* — The colon should be used before an explan-
atory remark, or one which presents the meaning of the
preceding sentence in another form.
Ex. — 1. All reasoning is retrospective : it consists in the appli-
cation of facts and principles previously known. 2. By degrees he
infuses into it the poison of his own ambition : he breathes into it
the fire of his own courage.
Rule III. — The members of a compound sentence,
whose parts are phrases or clauses set off by semicolons^
should be separated by colons.
Ex. — We do not say that his error lies in being a good mem-
ber of society; this, though only a circumstance at present, is a
very fortunate one: the error lies in his having discarded the
authority of God, as his legislator; or, rather, in his not having
admitted the influence of that authority over his mind, heart, or
practice.
EXER ZJISES.
Insert colons wherever required in these sentences:
1. There are five senses, sight, hearing, feeling, taste, and smell.
2. The discourse consisted of two parts, in the first was shown
the necessity of exercise ; in the second, the advantages that would
result from it. 3. Men's evil manners live in brass, their virtues
we write in water. 4. Write on your slates the following example,
the lake is very deep.
5. He sunk to repose where the red heaths are blended ;
One dream of his childhood his fancy passed o'er,
But his battles are fought, and his march it is ended ;
The sound of the bagpipe shall wake him no more.
PUNCTUATION. 241
237. The Period.
The Period denotes the greatest degree of separation.
Rule I. — The period should be placed at the end of a
declarative or imperative sentence.
Ex. — 1. Contrivance proves design. 2. Study diligently.
Rem. — A period is sometimes placed at the end of the first of
two or more complete sentences joined by conjunctions; as, "See-
ing, then, that these things can not be spoken against, ye ought
to be quiet, and to do nothing rashly. For ye have brought
hither these men, who are neither robbers of churches, nor yet
blasphemers of your goddess."
Rule II. — The period should be placed at the end of
every abbreviated word.
Ex.— 1. H. M. Swainson, Esq., b. Feb. 10, 1757, d. Ap. 3, 1812.
2. See Ms., pp. 5 and 6.
Rem. l. — The period, thus used, is a part of the abbreviation.
Except at the end of a sentence, the point required by the con-
struction should be used after it ; as, " Sir Humphrey Davy,
F. K. S., &c. ;" "Ohio is bounded N. by Mich, and L. E. ; E. by
Pa. and Va.; S. by Va. and Ky. ; W. by Ind."
Bern. 2. — Some proper names, though shortened, should not be
regarded as abbreviations; as, "Tom Moore ;" "Will Shak-
speare;" " 0 rare Ben Jonson."
Sem. 3. — Such expressions as 4to, 8vo, 12mo, 1st, 2d, 3d, 5's,
IPs, 4°, 7', &c, are not abbreviations. The figures supply the
place of the first letters of the words, and the signs or indices
supply the place of words.
Rem. 4. — The period should be placed before decimals, and
between the denominations of sterling money; as, $35.75;
£5. 125. 6d.
Rem. 5. — The period should always be placed after letters used
as numerals ; as, Ps. lxxv., 6, 7. ; George III., King of England.
Rem. 6. — The period should be placed at the end of titles,
headings, &c. ; as, " Concerning Veal." " Hopkins & Co." " The
Preposition." " Chap. XXVII."
H. G. 21/
242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES.
Insert periods wherever required in these sentences:
1. It was a past that never was present 2. By indignities men
come to dignities 3. D. K, Merwin Esq was chosen chairman
4. H C Cartwright b A D 1825, d Feb 2, 1854 5. See Eev xii 11.
6. Chapter XX I IV Part II 7. It cost in London, £6, 7s, 8d.
238. The Interrogation Point.
The Interrogation Point denotes that a question is
asked.
Rule I. — The interrogation point should be used at the
end of an interrogative sentence.
Ex. — 1. Were you there? 2 By whom was this extraordinary
work of art executed ?
Rem. l. — When a question is composed of several parts, and
when several questions are contained in one sentence, one answer
only being required, the interrogation point is placed only at the
end ; as, " By whom is this profession praised, but by wretches
who consider him as subservient to their purposes ; sirens that
entice him to shipwreck ; and cyclops that are gaping to devour
him?"
Rem. 2. — The interrogation point should be used after each
successive particular of a series of questions, related in sense, but
distinct in construction; as, "Why was the French revolution so
bloody and destructive? Why was our revolution of 1641 com-
paratively mild? .Why was our revolution of 1688 milder still?
Why was the American revolution, considered as an internal
movement, the mildest of all?"
239. The Exclamation Point.
The Exclamation Point denotes passion or emotion.
Rule I. — The exclamation point should be placed after
expressions denoting strong emotion.
Ex. — 1. Avaunt, thou witch! 2. Mercy, sir, how the folks will
talk of it ! 3. Alas, poor Yorick I
PUNCTUATION. 243
Rem.— The exclamation point should not be used after inter-
jections closely connected with other words, but at the end of
each expression of which the interjections form a part; as, "Fie
upon you!" "All hail, ye patriots brave!"
EXERCISES.
Insert the points required in these sentences:
1. What did my father's godson seek your life He whom my
father named 2. See there behold look lo if I stand here I saw
him 3. Is this a vision Is this a dream Do I sleep Master Ford
awake awake 4. What is civilization — where is it — what does it
consist in — by what is it excluded — where does it commence —
where does it end — by what sign is it known — how is it denned —
in short, what does it mean
240. The Bash.
The Bash is a straight, horizontal line, placed between
the parts of a sentence.
Rule I. — The dash should be used where there is a
sudden break or stop in a sentence, or a change in its
meaning or construction.
Ex. — 1. Dim — dim — I faint — darkness comes over my eyes.
2. It glitters awhile — and then melts into tears. 3. He stamped
and he stormed — then his language ! — Oh, dear ! 4. Miss frowned,
and blushed, and then was — married. 5. The flowers, the fruits,
the birds, the woods, the waters, the course, the vicissitudes, and
the vast phenomena of nature, created, regulated, and preserved by
the mighty hand of an Omnipotent Being — all are legitimate and
reasonable sources of enjoyment, within the reach of every rational
being. — Paulding.
Rule II. — The dash is frequently used before words
repeated in an emphatic manner.
Ex. — 1. Why should I speak of his neglect — neglect did I say?
call it rather contempt. 2. The consequences which resulted from
the events of that day, to us, to this continent, and to the world —
consequences which we know must continue, and rain their innu-
244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ence on the destinies of mankind to the end of time, surpass all
the most arduous study of the closet, and even the inspiration of
genius. — Webster.
Rule III. — The dash is frequently placed both before
and after a parenthesis — the curves being omitted.
Ex. — They see three of the cardinal virtues of dog or man —
courage, endurance, and skill — in intense action.
Rein. — A comma should precede each dash used to set off a
parenthetical expression; as, "The archetypes, the ideal forms of
things without, — if not, as some philosophers have said, in a meta-
physical sense, yet in a literal one, — exist within us."
Note. — An interrogation or an exclamation point should pre-
cede the second dash, when the parenthetical expression is a
question or denotes emotion.
Rule IV. — The dash is often used where there is an
omission of letters or figures, or of words commonly used
to introduce an enumeration of particulars.
Ex. — 1. L— d B — n; i. e., Lord Byron. 2. Ps. xxxv., 6 — 10; i. e.,
Ps. xxxv., 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 3. Amongst us men, these three things
are a large part of our virtues, — to endure, to forgive, and our-
selves to get pardon. 4. He looked like his works, — nimble,
vigorous, and gentle; open, and yet reserved; seeing every thing,
saying not much; capable of heartiest mirth, but generally
quiet. — Dr. Brown.
241. The Marks of Parenthesis.
The Curves include an expression which has no neces-
sary connection, in sense or construction, with the sentence
in which it is inserted.
Rem. — Such an expression is called a parenthesis.
Rule. — The curves should include those words which
may be omitted without injury to the sense, or without
affecting the grammatical construction of the sentence.
Ex.— 1. Shall we continue (alas, that I should be constrained
PUNCTUATION. 245
to ask the question!) in a course so dangerous to health, so
enfeebling to mind, so destructive to character?
2. The tuneful Nine (so sacred legends tell)
First waked their heavenly lyre these scenes to tell!
Rem. 1. — When any point is required after the word preceding
a parenthesis, it should be placed after the second curve; as, "My"
gun was on my arm (as it always is in that district), but I let the
stoat kill the rabbit/ '
But, should the parenthesis be a question, or an exclamatory
expression, the point should be placed before the first curve, and
that which belongs to the parenthesis before the second; as, " She
had managed this matter so well, (oh, she was the most artful of
women !) that my father's heart was gone before I suspected it was
in danger."
Rem. a. — The words included by the curves should be punc-
tuated as an independent expression; as,
" The Frenchman, first in literary fame,
(Mention him, if you please. Voltaire? — The same.)
With spirit, genius, eloquence supplied,
Lived long, wrote much, laughed heartily, and died."
Rem. 3. — The curves sometimes include letters or figures used
to enumerate subjects or divisions of a subject, treated of in didactic
or scientific works; as, "(a.) What it does; (b.) What it is."
"The beds of the Jackson epoch, or Upper Eocene, are (1) Lig-
nitic clay; (2) White and blue marls, the former often indurated."
They are also used to include references; as, "(See page 21.)"
"(§V., Eem. 7.)" "(247, a., 6.)"
EXERCISES.
Insert the dash and the curves wherever required in these sentences:
1. He had a large blunt head; his muzzle black as night, his
mouth blacker than any night ; a tooth or two, being all he had,
gleaming out of his jaws of darkness. 2. The faithful man acts not
from impulse but from conviction, conviction of duty, the most
stringent, solemn, and inspiring conviction that can sway the
mind.
3. Know ye not, brethren, for I speak to them that know the
law, that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he
liveth?
246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4. The Egyptian style of architecture see Dr. Pocock, not his
discourses, but his prints was apparently the mother of the Greek.
242. Brackets.
Brackets are used to inclose words, phrases, and clauses
explanatory of what precedes them, or to correct an error.
Ex. — 1. They [the Indians] are fast disappearing. 2. I wish
you would do like [as] I do.
243. Other Marks Used in Writing.
I. The Apostrophe [ 9 ] is used to denote the omission
of one or more letters, or to mark the possessive case.
Ex. — 1. You're overwatched, my lord. 2. Variety's the very
spice of life. 3. The King's English. 4. Webster's Dictionary.
Rem. — The apostrophe is also used in forming the plurals of
letters, figures, marks, &c. ; as, " Dot your i's and cross your tf's."
"Cast out the 9's." "fs and ?'s."
II. The Hyphen [ - ] is used (1) to join the parts
of compound words and expressions; (2) to divide words
into syllables; (3) after a syllable at the end of a line, when
the rest of the word is carried to the next line.
Ex. — 1. Heaven-born band. 2. Thou many-headed monster
thing. — Scott. 3. He is my father-in-law, and always wears a pep-
per-and-salt suit. 4. Com-mu-ni-ca-tive-ness.
III. The Quotation Marks [ " " ] are used to show
that a passage is taken verbatim from some author.
Ex — Cowper says, " Slaves can not breathe in England."
Rem. — A quotation included within another should be preceded
by a single inverted comma and closed by a single apostrophe ; as,
" ' War, war,' is still the cry, ' war even to the knife.' "
IV. The Index [ ^iP* ] and Asterism [ %.* ] point
out a passage to which special attention is directed; as,
"tig^ Do not forget the time and place of meeting."
SYNTAX — FIGURES. 247
V. The Asterisk [ * ] , the Obelisk, or J>agger,
[ t L tne ®oufele I>agger [ J ], the Section [ § ], the
Parallels [ ] , and the Paragraph [ ^[ ] refer to notes
in the margin, or at the bottom of the page.
Rem. — Lower case letters and figures7 of a smaller size, or
letters and figures included in curves, are used for reference
marks.
VI. A long dash. [ ] or several asterisks
[ * * * * ] denote the omission of letters in a word, of
words in a sentence, or sentences in a paragraph.
Ex Miss M *'* * * n. Mr. A -h.
VII. The Brace [ ,~A — n ] connects a number of
words with a common term.
VIII. The Paragraph [ % ] denotes the beginning
of a new subject.
IX. The Section [ § ] denotes the divisions of a
treatise.
X. The Tilde [ n ], — a Spanish mark placed over n, —
annexes to it the sound of y; as, canon, pronounced
can-yon.
XI. The Cedilla [ § ], — a French mark, joined to
c, — gives to this letter the sound of s; as, fagade.
XII. The Caret [ a ] is used in writing, to show that
some letter, word, or phrase has been omitted.
a not countries
Ex. — The sesons are alike in all of the same region.
A A A
XIII. The Macron [ ~ ] marks a long sound, as in
lone; the Breve [*.■], a short sound, as in not; the
IHeresis [ •• ] separates two vowels into two syllables, as
aeriform.
248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
XIV. The Acute Accent [ x ] commonly denotes a
sharp sound; the l^rave Accent [ v ], a depressed sound;
the Circumflex Accent [ ^ or ^ ], a broad sound.
Rem. — In most works on elocution, the acute accent denotes
the rising inflection; the grave accent, the falling inflection; the
circumflex, a union of the acute and the grave.
EXERCISES.
Note to Teachers. — Exercises in punctuation may be selected
from the Eeaders in general use. Require pupils to give rules or cite
remarks for the use of all the points they may find. Select, also, pas-
sages from good authors, and pronounce the words in consecutive order,
slowly and distinctly, as in a spelling lesson, without indicating the
grammatical construction by tone or inflection. Require pupils to
write these as pronounced, and to separate them into sentences and
parts of sentences by the proper points.
Punctuate properly the following examples, and observe ike rules for
the use of capitals:
the noonday sun came slanting down the rocky slopes of la
riccia and its masses of entangled foliage whose autumnal tints
were mixed with the wet verdure of a thousand evergreens were
penetrated with it as with rain I can not call it color it was con-
flagration purple and crimson ana scarlet like the curtain of God's
tabernacle the rejoicing trees sank into the valley in showers of
light every separate leaf quivering with buoyant and burning life
each as it turned to reflect or to transmit the sunbeam first a
torch and then an emerald. rushin
What tubero did that naked sword of yours mean in the battle
of pharsalia at whose breast was its point aimed what was then
the meaning of your arms your spirit your eyes your hands your
ardor of soul what did you desire* what wish for I press the
youth too much he seems disturbed let me return to myself I
too bore arms on the same side cicero
presently my soul grew stronger hesitating then no longer
sir said I or madam truly your forgiveness I implore
but the fact is I was napping and so gently you came rapping
and so faintly you came tapping tapping at my chamber door
that I scarce was sure I heard you here I opened wide the door
darkness there and nothing more poe
PROSODY. 249
PAET IV.
PROSODY.
2M. Definitions.
1. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, of
accent, and of the laws of versification.
2. A Terse is a line consisting of a certain number of
accented and unaccented syllables, disposed according to
metrical rules.
3. Versification is the art of metrical composition.
4. Discourse is written either in Prose or Verse.
5. Prose is discourse written in language as ordinarily
used, having reference, mainly, to a clear and distinct state-
ment of the author's meaning.
6. Poetry is discourse written in metrical language.
Its aim is to please, by addressing the imagination and the
sensibilities.
7. Poetry is written either in Rhyme or in Blank Verse.
8. Rhyme is a correspondence of sound in the last
syllables of two or more lines, succeeding each other im-
mediately, or at no great distance.
Ex. — "Onward its course the present keeps;
Onward the constant current sweeps."
Rem. 1. — Perfect rhymes require, (1) that the syllables be ac-
cented, and that the vowel sounds be the same; (2) that the
sounds following the vowels be the same; (3) that the sounds
preceding the vowels be different.
Ex. — Talk and walk, town and crown are perfect rhymes. Breathe
and teeth, home and conic are imperfect rhymes.
250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. 2. — A single rhyme is an accented syllable standing alone
at the end of a line ; as, mind, refined.
A double rhyme consists of an accented syllable, followed by
an unaccented one ; as, dreaming, seeming.
A triple rhyme consists of an accented syllable, followed by
two unaccented ones ; as, fearfully, cheerfully.
Rem. 3. — A couplet, or distich, consists of two lines rhyming
together.
A triplet consists of three lines rhyming together.
Rem. 4. — Middle rhyme is that which exists between the last
accented syllables of the two sections of a verse or line.
Ex.- — " We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea."- — Coleridge.
" Come weal, come woe, we '11 gather and go,
And live and die wi' Charlie." — Burns.
9. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme.
Ex. — "The primal duties shine aloft, like stars;
The charities that soothe, and heal, and bless,
Are scattered at the feet of man, like flowers."
Wordsworth.
Rem. — In blank verse, every line should end with an impor-
tant word.
10. A Stanza is a group of lines forming a division
of a poem.
245. Poetic Feet.
1. A Foot is a certain portion of a line in poetry,
combined according to accent.
2. Accent is a stress of voice on a certain syllable of
a word or foot.
Rem. l. — In Greek and Latin, verse is made according to the
quantity of syllables ; i.e., the relative time employed in pronounc-
ing them. A long syllable requires twice the time in uttering it
that a short one requires.
PROSODY. 251
In English, verse is composed wholly according to accent. An
accented syllable is considered long ; an unaccented syllable, short.
Rem. 2. — In poetry, monosyllables receive accent.
Ex. — " And to' | and /ro7, | and m7 | and out/
The wan7 | stars danced7 | between."
3. The principal feet used in English verse, are the
Iambus, the Trochee, the Pyrrhic, the Spondee, the Ana-
pest, the Dactyl, and the Amphibrach.
Rem. — In the formulas, an accented, or long syllable, is repre-
sented by a; an unaccented, or short syllable, by u.
4. The Iambus consists of an unaccented and an ac-
cented syllable. Its formula is ua.
Ex. — "A mind7 | not to7 | be changed7 | by place7 | or time7."
5. The Trochee consists of an accented and an unac-
cented syllable. Its formula is a u.
Ex — " Eu7in | seize7 thee, | ruth7less | king'."
6. The Spondee consists of two accented syllables.
Its formula is a a.
iTx. — "Kocks7, caves7, | lakes7, fens7, | bogs7, dens7, | and
shades7 [ of death7."
7. The Pyrrhic consists of two unaccented syllables.
Its formula is u u.
Rem. — The pyrrhic is sometimes used in iambic verse, to avoid
accenting an unimportant word.
Ex.— "What could7 | be less7 ] than to | afford7 | him praise7?"
Instead of resting on a short syllable, the accent is sometimes
allowed to pass to the first syllable of the next foot, making that
foot a spondee.
Ex. — "Of the ) low, sun7- | set clouds7, | and the | blue7 sky7."
8. The Anapest consists of two unaccented and an
accented syllable. Its formula is u u a.
Ex. — "All at once7 | and all o'er7 | with a might7- | y uproar7."
252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
9. The Dactyl consists of one accented and two unac-
cented syllables. Its formula is a u u.
Ex. — "Heed7 not the | corpse7, though a | king's7, in your |
path7."
10. The Amphibrach consists of one unaccented,
one accented, and one unaccented syllable. Its formula
is u a u.
Ex. — "A pret7ti- | er din7ner | I nev7er | set eyes7 on."
11. A long or accented syllable used as one foot is called
a Caesura.
Ex.— Gold7, | gold7, | gold7, | gold7!
Hea7vy to | get7 and | light7 to | hold7.— Hood.
12. A foot of three unaccented syllables is called a Tri-
brach. It is rarely found in English poetry.
Rem. l. — The iambus and the anapest, — the accent falling on
the same part of the foot in each, — are interchangeable feet.
Ex. — "There were grace7- | ful heads7, | with their ring7- | lets
bright7,
Which tossed7 | in the breeze7, | with a play7 | of light7."
Rem. 2. — For a similar reason, the trochee and the dactyl are
sometimes used promiscuously.
Ex. — "Joy7 to the | spirit | came7,
Through7 the wide | rent7 in | Time's e- | tergal | veil7."
Rem. 3. — The following lines by Coleridge will assist in remem-
bering the character of the different kinds of feet :
"Tro7cliees | trip7 from | long7 to | short7.
From long7 | to long7, | in sol7- I emn sort7,
Slow7Spon7 | <lee7stalks7; | strong foot7, yet | ill7 able
Ev7er to | come7 up with | B>ac7tyl tri-, | syllable.
lam' | bics march7 | from short7 | to long7.
With a leap7 | and a bound7, | the swift An7 | apests throng7.
One syl7la- ( ble long7, with | one short7 at | each side7
Amphi7brach- | ys hastes7 with | a state7ly stride."
PROSODY. 253
246. Kinds of Terse.
1. Verse is named from the kind of foot which pre-
dominates in a line; as, the Iambic, from the iambus; the
Trochaic, from the trochee; the Anapestic, from the ana-
.pest; the Dactylic, from the dactyl.
2. A verse containing one foot is called a Monometer;
one containing two, a Dimeter; one containing three, a
Trimeter; one containing four, a Tetrameter; one con-
taining five, a Pentameter; one containing six, a Hex-
ameter; one containing seven, a Heptameter; and one
containing eight, an Odometer.
3. Verse, therefore, may be Iambic Monometer, Iambic Dimeter,
&c. ; Trochaic Monometer, Trochaic Dimeter, &c. ; Anapestic Mono-
meter, Anapestic Dimeter, &c; Dactylic Monometer, Dactylic Di-
meter, &c.
4. A verse or foot in which a syllable is wanting at the
end, is called catalectic: a frill verse or foot is called acata-
lectic: a verse or foot in which a syllable is wanting at the
beginning, is called acephalous : a line which has a redun-
dant syllable at the end, is called hypermeter, or hyper-
catalectic.
247. Poetic Pauses.
1. There are two pauses in every verse: a Final and
a Ccesural.
2. The Final Pause is a pause made at the end of
a line, in reading.
Rem. — Some kinds of verse can be distinguished from prose
only by means of the final pause. This pause should always be
observed in reading verse, even when not required by the gram-
matical construction.
3. The Csesural Pause is a pause in a verse.
254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. — The csesural pause is a natural suspension of the voice
in reading. The shorter kinds of verse are without it. Its natural
place is near the middle of the line ; but the sense often requires
that it be placed elsewhere. In well-constructed verse, it always
occurs where the thought requires a pause.
Ex. — "Warms in the sun, || refreshes in the breeze,
Glows in the stars, || and blossoms in the trees." — Pope.
"And now |] my tongue the secret tells."
"And on the sightless eyeballs || pour the day."
EXERCISES.
Show the place of the ccesural pause in the following :
Many are poets who have never penned
Their inspirations, and, perchance, the best.
They felt, and loved, and died, but would not lend
Their thoughts to meaner beings ; they compressed
The God within them, and rejoined the stars
Unlaurerd upon earth, but far more bless'd
Than those who are degraded by the jars
Of passion, and their frailties linked to fame,
Conquerors of high renown, but full of scars. — Byron.
248. Iambic Measures.
1. Iambic Monometer ,
Invite7,
Delight7.
2. Iambic Dimeter . . . . u a X 2
And called7 | the brave7
To blood7- | y grave7.
3. Iambic Trimeter waX3.
What sought7 | they thus7 | afar7?
Bright jew7- | els of7 | the mind7?
4. Iambic Tetrameter . . . . u a X 4.
Majes7 | tic mon7- | arch of7 | the cloud7!
Who rear'st7 | aloft7 | thy re7- j gal form7.
5. Iambic Pentameter . . . . u a X 5.
O then7, | meth ought7, | what pain7 | it was7 | to drown7 I
What dread7- | ful noise7 | of wa7- | ters in7 | my ears7 1
PEOSODY. 255
Rem. — This is often called Heroic Measure, because epic or
heroic poetry is written in it. Khymed iambic pentameter is some-
times called Heroic €onplet.
6. Iambic Hexameter . . . . u a X 6.
Then from7 | her bur7- | nished gate7, | the good7-ly glit'- 1
tering East7
Gilds ev7- \ ery loft7- | y top7, | which late/ | the hu7- j mor-
ous Night7
Bespan7- | gled had7 | with pearl7, | to please [ the Morn7- 1
ing's sight7.
Rem. — This verse is called Alexandrine.
7. Iambic Heptameter . . . . u a X 7.
How hard7 | when those7 | who do7 | not wish7 | to lend7, |
thus lose7, | their books7, -
Are snared7 | by an7- | glers, — folks7 | that fish7 | with lit7- [
era7- | ry hooks7!
8. Long Meter is iambic tetrameter, arranged in stanzas of
four lines, rhyming in couplets or alternately.
Ex. — Praise God7 | from whom7 | all bless7- | ings flow7:
Praise him7 | all creat7- | ures here7 I below7;
Praise him7 | above7, | ye heaven7- | ly host7;
Praise Fath7- | er, Son7, | and Ho7- | ly Ghost7.
9. Common Meter is a stanza of four iambic lines, the first
and third being tetrameter, the second and fourth, trimeter.
' Ex. — Come let7 | us join7 | our cheer7- | ful songs,7
With an7- | gels round7 | the throne7:
Ten thou7- | sand thou7- | sand are7 | their tongues'',
But all7 | their joys7 | are one7.
10. Snort Meter is a stanza of four iambic lines, the first,
second, and fourth being trimeter, the third, tetrameter.
Ex. — There sin7 | and sor7- j row cease7,
And ev7- | ery con7- j flict's o'er7;
There we7 | shall dwell7 [ in end7-.| less peace
Nor thirst7 | nor hun7- j ger more7
11. Hallelujah Meter is a stanza of six iambic lines, the first
four being trimeter, the last two, tetrameter.
256 ENGLISH GKAMMAR.
Ex. — Now may7 | the king7 | descend7,
And fill7 | his throne7 | of grace7;
Thy seep7- | ter, Lord7! | extend7,
While saints7 | address7 | thy face7:
Let sin'- | ners feel7 | thy quick7- | 'ning word7,
And learn7 | to know7 | and fear7 | the Lord7.
Rem. — The last two lines are frequently separated into four,
containing two iambics each.
12. Gay's stanza has the formula u a X 3 + for the odd lines;
for the even, lines, u a X 3.
Ex. — 'T was when7 | the sea7 | was roar'- | ing
With hoi7- | low blasts7 | of wind7,
A dam7- | sel lay7 | deplor7- | ing
All on7 -|*a rock7 | reclined7. — Gay.
13. Bnrns's Stanza consists of six lmes, having the formula
waX4 for the first, second, third, and fifth, and uaX2 for the
fourth and sixth.
Ex. — Some hint7 | the lov7- | ers harm7- | less wile7;
Some grace7 | the maid7- | en's art7- | less smile7 ;
Some soothe7 | the la7- | b'rer's wea7- | ry toil7,
For hum7- | ble gains7,
And make7 | his cot7- | tage scenes7 | beguile7
His cares7 | and pains7. — Burns.
13. Byron's Stanza, (the Ottava Rima of the Italians,) consists
of eight lines, the first six rhyming alternately, the last two, in
couplets. Its formula is usually ua><5.
Ex. — 'T is sweet7 | to hear7 | the watch7- | dog's hon7- | est bark7
Bay deep-7 | mouth'd wel7- | come as7 | we draw7 | near
home7;
'T is sweet7 | to know7 | there is7 | an eye7 | will mark'
Our com7 | ing, and7 | look bright7- | er when7 | we come';
'T is sweet7 | to be' | awak7- | en'd by7 | the lark7,
Or lull'd7 | by fall7- | ing wa7- | ters ; sweet7 | the hum7
Of bees7, | the voice7 | of girls7, | the song' ) of birds7,
The lisp7 | of chil7- | dren, and7 | their ear7- | liest words7.
14. The Elegiac Stanza consists of four iambic lines, rhyming
alternately, with the formula «aX5. ^
PROSODY. 257
Ex. — The cur7- | few tolls7 | the knell7 | of part7- | ing day/;
The low7- | ing herds/ | wind slow/- | ly o'er7 | the lea7;
The plow7- | man home7- | ward plods7 | his wea7- | ry way7;
And leaves7 | the world7 | to dark7- | ness and7 | to me7.
Gray,
15. The Spenserian stanza (so called because invented by
Spenser, author of the Fairy Queen , which poem is written in
this stanza,) consists of nine iambic lines, the first eight having
the formula m«X5, the last, w a X 6 ; the first and third rhym-
ing ; the second, fourth, fifth, and seventh ; and the sixth, eighth,
and ninth.
Ex. — A lit7- | tie low7- | ly her7- | mitage7 | it was7
Down in7 | a dale7, | hard by7 | a for7- | est's side7,
Far from7 | resort7 | of peo7- | pie that7 | did pass7
In trav7- | el to7 | and fro7: | a lit7- | tie wide7
There was7, | a ho7- | ly chap7- | el ed7- | ified7,
Wherein7 | the her7- | mit du7- | ly wont7 | to say
His ho7- j ly things7 | each morn7 | and ev7- | en-tide7;
Thereby7 ! a crys7- | tal stream7 j did gen7- | tly play7,
Which from7] a sa7-J cred fount7-) ain well7- j ed forth7 1 alway7.
Spenser.
16. A Sonnet is a poem complete in fourteen iambic lines.
Its formula is «aX5.
17. Iambic Hypermeters.
«o+ Relent7- j ing.
it a X 2 + * Thine eye7- | lids quiv7- | er.
waX3+ 'T is sweet7 | to love7 | in child7- | hood.
«oX4+ . . . . What seek7 1 ye from7 1 the fields7 | of heav7- | en?
u a X 5 + . . The air7 | is full7 | of fare7- | well to7 j the dy7- 1 ing.
«cX6+ . Thine eye7 | Jove's light7- | ning seems7, I thy voice7 |
his dread7- | ful thun7- | der.
u a X 7 + I think7 | I will7 | not go7 | with you7 | to hear7 | the
toasts7 ! and speech7- | es.
249. Trochaic Measures.
1. Trochaic Monometer
Changing,
Rang7ing.
H. G. 22.
Trochaic Dimeter . . . a u X 2.
Hope7 is | vanished,
Joys7 are | ban7ished.
258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. Trochaic Trimeter au X 3.
Then7 let | mem/,ry | bring7 thee
Strains7 I | used7 to j sing7 thee.
4. Trochaic Tetrameter . . . . a u X 4.
Tell7 me | not7 in | mourn7 ful | num7bers,
Life7 is | but7 an | emp7ty | dream7.
5. Trochaic Pentameter . . . . a u X 5.
Nar7rowing | in7to | where7 they \ sat7 as- | sem7bled,
Low7 vo- | lup7tuous | mu7sic | wind7ing | trem/bled.
6. Trochaic Hexameter .... a u X 6.
On7 a | mountain | stretched7 be- ] neath7 a | hoai^y | wil7low,
Lay7 a | shep7herd | swain7, and | viewed7 the | roll7ing |
biFlow.
7. Trochaic Heptameter, . . . au>(7.
In7 the | spring7 a | fee/ble | crim7son | comes7 up- | on7 the |
rob7in's | breast7;
In7 the | spring7 the | wan7ton | lap7wing | gets7 him- | self7
an- | oth7er | nest7.
8. Trochaic Hypermeters.
au+ Mei^ry | May7.
o«X2+ All7 that's | bright7 must | fade7.
a u X 3 + Chill'y | win7ter Js | gone7 a- | way/.
a u X 4 + . . . . Fdle | af 7ter | din7ner | in7 his | chair.7
awX5+ . . . Hail7 to | thee7, blithe | spirit ! | bird7, thou |
nev7er | wert7.
otiXH • • Half7 the | charms7 to | me7 it | yield7eth, | mon7ey |
can7 not | buy7.
a u X 7 + Bet7ter | fif7ty | years7 of | Eu7rope | than7 a | cy7cle | ofy
Cath- | ay7.
250. Anapestic Measures.
1. Anapestic Monometer . ... una.
Move your feet7
To our sound7.
2. Anapestic Dimeter uuay^%
In my rage7, | shall be seen7
The revenge7 | of a queen7.
PROSODY.
259
3. Anapestic Trimeter uua^XS.
I have found' | out a gift/ | for my fair7.
I have found7 | where the wood7- | pigeons breed7.
4. Anapestic Tetrameter .... «waX4.
Through the ranks7 | of the Sax7- | ons he hew'd7 | his red
way7 —
Through Ian7- | ces, and sa7- | bers, and hos7- | tile array7.
Rem. — The first foot of an anapestic verse may be an iambus.
Ex. — Our life7 | is a dream7,
Our time7, | as a stream7,
Glides swift7- | ly away7. — Wesley.
5. Anapestic Hypermeters.
u u a X 2 + . . . . Like the dew7 j on the mount7- | ain.
Like the foam7 | on the riv7- | er.
u u a X 3 + .... If they rob7 | us of name7, | or pursue7 | us with
bea7- | gles,
* Give their roof7 | to the flame7 | and their flesh7 |
to the ea7- | gles.
251. Dactylic Measures.
1. Dactylic Monometer . auu.
Fear7fully.
Tearfully.
2. Dactylic Dimeter . auuy^2.
Coital reefs | un7der her,
Read7y to | sun7der her.
3. Dactylic Trimeter a u u X 3.
Wearing a- | way7 in his | usefulness,
Love7liness, | beau7ty, and j truth7fulness.
4. Dactylic Tetrameter auu\4.
Boy7 will an- j tic7ipate, | lav7ish, and | dis7sipate
All7 that your | bu7sy pate | hoard7ed with | care.
5. Dactylic Hexameter duuyib -\- au.
This7 is the | forest pri- | me7val; but | where7 are the [
hearts7 that be- | neath7 it
Leaped7 like the | roe7, when he | hears7 in the [ wood7land
the I voice7 of the I hunt-er?
260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. — A dactylic verse rarely ends with a dactyl. It is some*
times catalectic, or ends with a trochee; sometimes hypermeter,
or ends with a long syllable.
Ex. — Brightest and | best7 of the | sons7 of the | morning,
Dawn7 on our | darkless, and | lend7 us thine | aid7.
252. Amphibrach Measures.
1. Amphibrach Monometer uau.
Hearts beat7ing, Tears starting,
At meet7ing; At part7ing.
2. Amphibrach Dimeter u a u X 2.
O would7 I | were dead7 now,
Or up7 in | my bed7 now,
To cov7er ( my head7 now,
And have7 a | good cry7,
3. Amphibrach Trimeter uauX3.
A breath7 of | submission | we breathe7 not ;
The sword7 we | have drawn7 we | will sheathe7 not,
4. Amphibrach Trimeter Catalectic . . . . u a u X 3 — .
Ye shep7herds | so cheerful | and gay7,
Whose flocks7 nev- | er care7less- | ly roam7.
5. Amphibrach Tetrameter wawX4.
The flesh7 was | a pict7ure | for paint7ers | to stud7y,
The fat7 was | so white7 and | the lean7 was | so rud'dy.
6. Amphibrach Tetrameter Catalectic . . . u a a X 4 — .
But hang7 it, — | to po7ets | who sel7dom | can eat7,
Your ver7y | good mut7ton 's | a ver'y | good treat7.
253. Mixed Terse.
1. Different kinds of feet are often found in the same
line.
2. Different measures are frequently used in the same
poem.
PROSODY. 261
EXERCISES.
Tell what feet compose each line of the following examples:
1. My heart was a river
Without a main, —
Would I had loved thee never,
Florence Vane. — Cooke.
2. Merrily swinging on briar and weed,
Near to the nest of his little dame,
Over the mountain-side or mead,
Robert of Lincoln is telling his name,
Bob-o-link, Bob-o-link;
Spink, spank, spink;
Snug and safe is that nest of ours,
Hidden among the summer flowers.
Chee, chee, chee. — Bryant.
3. My tears must stop, for every drop
Hinders needle and thread. — Hood.
4. No matter, no matter! the path shines plain
These pure snow-crystals will deaden pain;
Above, like stars in the deep blue dark,
Eyes that love us look down and mark.
Let us go, let us go
Whither heaven leads in the path through the snow.
Miss Muloch.
254. Poetic License.
Poetic XJLcense is an indulgence in the use of peculiar
words, forms, and expressions, allowed to poets by com-
mon consent.
Rem. l. — The requirements of versification render poetic license
necessary.
Rem. 3. — Poetic license permits the use of antiquated words
and phrases, foreign words, and common words shortened, length- .
ened, or changed in pronunciation.
Ex. — Eke, erst, eyne, eve, beweep, evanish, albeit, fount, trow, hight
(called), vastly, wis, ween, wight, &c. "A train-band captain eke was
he;" "His timeless death beweeping."
262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. 3. — It permits the use of compound epithets to a greater
extent than prose.
Ex. — Sphere-descended, violet-embroidered, dim-discovered, broad-eyed,
&c. " 0 Music! sphere-descended hiaid;" "Pun-provoking thyme."
Rem. 4. — It permits intransitive verbs to be used trans-
itively.
Ex. — They lived the rural day, and talked the flowing heart.
Rem. 5. — It permits the use of foreign idioms.
Ex. — "He came; and, standing in the midst, explained
The peace rejected, and the truce detained"
Rem. 6. — Poets make use of an inverted order of arrangement
more frequently than prose writers.
Ex. — Predicate . . Subject; as, "Sunk was the sun"
Object .... Predicate; as, "His voice they heard.11
Noun .... Adjective; as, " Visions fair;" "Twilight gray"
Object .... Preposition; as, "The rattling crags among"
Rem. 7 — Poetic license permits any ellipsis which will not per-
vert or destroy the sense.
Ex. — Of the antecedent; as, "Who steals my purse, steals trash."
Of the relative; as, "There's nothing ill can dwell in such a temple."
Of the pronoun it; as, " Suffice to-night, these orders to obey."
Of the article; as, "Like shipwrecked mariner on desert coast."
255. Scanning.
Scanning is an analysis of versification. To scan a
line is to divide it into the feet of which it is composed.
Rem. — The following are intended to be used not only as
scanning exercises, but as final Review Exercises in Analysis and
Parsing.
EXERCISES.
1. Sweet day ! so cool, so calm, so bright,
The bridal of the earth and sky;
• The dews shall weep thy fall to-night;
For thou must die. — Herbert.
PROSODY. 263
2. Under the greenwood tree
Who loves to lie with me,
And tune his merry note
Unto the sweet bird's throat, —
Come hither, come hither, come hither I
Here shall he see no enemy
But winter and rough weather. — Shakspcare.
3. Nature, attend! join, every living soul,
Beneath the spacious temple of the sky;
In adoration join ; and, ardent, raise
One general song! To Him, ye vocal gales,
Breathe soft, whose Spirit in your freshness breathes ;
Oh, talk of Him in solitary glooms,
Where, o'er the rock, the scarcely waving pine
Fills the brown shade with a religious awe. — Thomson.
4. With fruitless labor, Clara bound
And strove to stanch the gushing wound:
The Monk, with unavailing cares,
Exhausted all the church's prayers:
Ever, he said, that, close and near,
A lady's voice was in his ear,
And that the priest he could not hear,
For that she ever sung,
" In the lost battle, borne down by the flying,
Where mingles war's rattle with groans of the dying !"
So the notes rung. — Scott.
5. Bird of the wilderness,
Blithesome and cumberless,
Sweet be thy matin o'er moorland and lea!
Emblem of happiness,
Blest is thy dwelling-place, —
Oh to abide in the desert with thee ! — Hogg.
6. What is this stanza called?
Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear;
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray.
7. We look before and after, and pine for what is not:
Our sincerest laughter with some pain is fraught;
Our sweetest songs are those which tell of saddest thought.
Shelley.
264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
8. What is this stanza called?
And this is in the night : most glorious night !
Thou wert not sent for slumber ! let me be
A sharer in thy fierce and far delight,
A portion of the tempest and of thee !
How the lit lake shines, a phosphoric sea,
And the big rain comes dancing to the earth!
And now again ?t is black, — and now the glee
Of the loud hill shakes with its mountain mirth,
As if they did rejoice o'er a young earthquake's birth.
Byron.
9. Do you hear the children weeping, O my brothers !
Ere the sorrow comes with years?
They are leaning their young heads against their mother's,
And that can not stop their tears.
The young lambs are bleating in the meadows,
The young birds are chirping in the nest,
The young fawns are playing in the shadows,
The young flowers are blooming from the west;
But the young, young children, O my brothers!
They are weeping bitterly !
They are weeping in the play-time of the others,
In the country of the free. — Mrs. Browning.
10. Our bugles sang truce, for the night-cloud had lowered,
And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky;
And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered ;
The weary to sleep, and the wounded to die. — Campbell.
11. Thou art! — directing, guiding all, — Thou art!
Direct my understanding, then, to Thee;
Control my spirit, guide my wandering heart;
Though but an atom midst immensity,
Still I am something fashioned by thy hand!
I hold a middle rank 'twixt heaven and earth,-
On the last verge of mortal being stand,
Close to the realms whe"re angels have their birth,
Just on the boundaries of the spirit land. — Derzhaven.
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