Skip to main content

Full text of "Harvey's English grammar"

See other formats


wr. 


^-eTCTY    O^ 


PUBLISHERS  OF  f\ 

ae  Eclectic  Educational  Series. 
■ g — —    & 

W.   HORACE  SOPER, 


Corresponding  Agent, 


ti; 


^  Jvfkfrn, 


(lass 


R-ok. 


PRESENTED   BY 


HARVEY'S    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR 


OF  THE 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE, 


FOR  THE 


USE  OF  SCHOOLS  OF  EVERY  GRADE, 


BY 

THOS.  W.  HARVEY,  A.  M. 


CINCINNATI: 
WILSON,    HINKLE    &    CO. 

PHIL'A:  CLAXTON,  REMSEN  &  HAFFELEINGER. 
NEW  YORK:  CLARK  &  MAYNARD. 


m 

TEu/i 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  18G8,  by 

WILSON,    HINKLE   &    CO., 

In  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
Southern  District  of  Ohio. 

ELECTROTYPES    AT    THE    FRANKLIN    TYPE    FOUNDRY,    CINCINNATI. 


Gift 

Mrs.  Ada  SpinkS 
\uo.      16    1934 


PPFFACF. 


In  the  preparation  of  this  treatise,  the  ever-recurring  wants 
and  requirements  of  the  class-room  have  been  kept  constantly  in 
view.  The  aim  of  the  author  has  been  to  make  a  practical  text- 
book— a  useful  manual  for  the  learner,  not  a  reference  book  for 
the  learned. 

The  whole  plan  of  the  work  is  in  accordance  with  the  educa- 
tional doctrine  that  accuracy  and  facility  in  the  use  of  language, 
both  spoken  and  written,  are  the  ends  to  be  secured  by  the  study 
of  grammar:  that  to  secure  these  ends,  a  thorough  acquaintance 
with  the  elements,  forms,  structure,  and  laws  of  our  mother  tongue, 
is  indispensable;  and  that  a  practical  knowledge  of  these  can  be 
acquired  only  by  patient,  persistent  exercise  in  the  analysis  and 
synthesis  of  syllables,  words,  and  sentences. 

The  author  has  endeavored  to  present  the  subject  in  a  simple, 
concise,  and  perspicuous  manner.  He  has  purposely  avoided  the 
discussion  of  mere  theories;  preferring,  rather,  a  plain  didactic 
statement  of  his  own  views.  Experience  has  taught  him  that 
such  discussions  serve  only  to  confuse  and  discourage  the  begin- 
ner, and  are  of  questionable  utility  to  the  advanced  student. 
Neither  the  erudition  of  the  teacher,  nor  the  exhaustive  com- 
pleteness of  the  text-book  used,  can  compensate  for  the  lack  of 
drill  in  the  class-room. 

The  distinguishing  features  of  this  treatise,  to  which  special 
attention  is  invited,  are  the  following : 

1.  The  methodical  arrangement  and  logical  development  of  the 
subjects  discussed. 

(iii) 


fv  PREFACE. 

2.  The  brevity,  clearness,  and  uniformity  of  the  rules  and 
definitions. 

3.  The  simple  yet  complete  system  of  Analysis. 

4.  The  great  variety  of  carefully  prepared  Models  for  Paus- 
ing and  Analysis.  By  these  models,  the  pupil  is  taught  how 
to  parse  every  kind  of  word,  and  how  to  analyze  every  kind 
of  sentence. 

5.  The  abundance  of  appropriate  exercises  and  illustrations, 
systematically  arranged,  and  numbered  for  convenient  reference. 

6.  The  definite  statement  or  clear  indication  of  opinion  upon 
those  points  which  annoy  and  perplex  both  pupil  and  teacher. 

7.  The  practical  character  and  systematic  classification  of  the 
instruction  and  exercises  in  False  Syntax. 

8.  The  lucid  and  comprehensive  treatment  of  Punctuation  and 
Prosody — both  important  subjects,  too  much  neglected  in  most 
schools. 

9.  The  superior  mechanical  execution  of  the  work. 

Actuated  by  a  desire  to  render  the  labor  of  the  class-room 
more  pleasant  and  effective,  by  furnishing  an  attractive  means 
for  instruction  in  a  useful  branch  of  study,  the  author  ventures 
the  hope  that  this  treatise  will  commend  itself  to  the  favorable 
notice  and  consideration  of  his  fellow-teachers. 


CONTENTS. 


ORTHOGKAPHY 

PAGE 

Models  for  Parsing, 

PAGB 

•      56 

Elementary  Sounds, 

8 

Relative,    . 

57-59 

Vowels, 

9 

Models  for  Parsing, 

59-61 

Consonants,     .... 

9 

Interrogative, 

.      62 

Diphthongs,     .... 

.      11 

Models  for  Parsing, 

.      63 

Digraphs,         .       .       . 

.      11 

The  Verb,       . 

.      65 

Trigraphs,        .... 

.      11 

Classes, 

66-68 

Double  Consonauts, 

.      11 

Voice,         ... 

.      68 

Substitutes,     .... 

.      12 

The  Participle, 

.      70 

Capital  Letters,      .... 

13-17 

Auxiliaries, 

.      71 

Italics, 

.      18 

Mode, 

72-77 

Small  Capitals,        . 

.      18 

Tense, 

77-81 

Syllables,         .... 

.      19 

Forms, 

.      81 

Words,  Classes,      ... 

20-22 

Person  and  Number, 
Unipersonal  Verbs, 

.      82 
.      84 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Conjugation,     . 
Irregular  Verbs, 

84-95 
95-98 

Definitions,      .... 

.      23 

Defective  Verbs, 

.      98 

The  Noun,      .       .       .       .  '    , 

.      24 

Models  for  Parsing, 

100-102 

Classes,                              . 

.      25 

The  Adverb,  . 

.     104 

Classes, 

.    105 

Person, 

.      28 

Comparison, 

107 

Number,    .... 

Models  for  Parsing, 

108 

Case, 

31-33 

The  Preposition, 

109 

Declension, 

List,    .... 

111 

Models  for  Parsing, 

.      34 

Models  for  Parsing, 

114 

The  Conjunction, 

115 

Descriptive,       .        .        . 

.      3S 

Classes  of  Connectives, 

116 

Definitive, 

Classes  of  Conjunctions 

117 

Articles,     .... 

.      39 

Models  for  Parsing, 

119 

Pronominals,    .        .        . 

40-43 

The  Interjection,       t 

120 

Numerals, 

.      43 

Model  for  Parsing, 

121 

Comparison, 
Models  for  Parsing, 

.       46 

SYNTAX. 

The  Pronoun, 

Oral  Lessons,          .    .    . 

.      124-129 

Personal,    . 

51-53 

Definitions, 

.        .130 

Models  for  Parsing, 

Sentences, 

.    131 

Possessive, 

.      56 

Classification,  . 

i; 

1-134 

(v) 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PAGS 

Elements,     .... 

135 

False  Syntax,  . 

199 

Principal  Elements,    . 

135-137 

Improper  Words, 

190 

Arrangement, 

137 

Improper  Forms, 

201-204 

Subordinate  Elements, 

139 

Improper  Expressions, 

204 

Objective, 

139-142 

Unnecessary  Words,    . 

205-207 

Adjective, 

142-144 

Omission  of  Words,     . 

207-209 

Adverbial, 

141-146 

Improper  Arrangement, 

209-212 

Attendant, 

146 

Words  Variously  Classifiei 

>,        215-223 

Classes,   .... 

147 

Figures,       .... 

225 

Models  for  Analysis,  . 

148 

Of  Etymology, 

225 

Classes  of  Elements, 

151 

Of  Syntax,     . 

226 

Simple,    .... 

151 

Of  Rhetoric, 

227-231 

Complex, 

152-156 

Punctuation, 

232 

Compound,    . 

.        157 

Comma, 

232-236 

Phrases  Classified, 

158 

Semicolon, 

237-239 

Clauses        " 

159 

Colon, 

239 

Contracted  Sentences,  . 

161 

Period,     .        '. 

211 

Ellipsis,  . 

161-163 

Interrogation  Point,  . 

242 

Abridgment, 

163 

Exclamation  Point,    . 

242 

Directions  for  Analysis, 

165-166 

Dash,       .... 

243 

Rules  of  Syntax,      . 

.        171 

Curves,    .... 

.        244 

Subject-Nominative,   . 

172 

Brackets, 

246 

Predicate-Nominative, 

.        173 

Other  Marks, 

216-248 

Possessive  Case, 
Apposition,    . 

174 

175 

PEOSODY. 

Absolute  Case, 

176 

Definitions,  .... 

249 

Objective  Case, 

177-179 

Poetic  Feet, 

256-252 

Pronouns, 

180-184 

Kinds  of  Verse,   . 

253 

Adjectives,     . 

185 

Poetic  Pauses,     . 

253 

Participles,    . 

1S5 

Iambic  Measures, 

254-257 

Verbs,     . 

186-190 

Trochaic  Measures, 

257 

Infinitives,     . 

190-193 

Anapestic  Measures, 

25S 

Adverbs, 

193-195 

Dactylic  Measures, 

259 

Prepositions, 

196 

Amphibrach  Measure 

s,     . 

260 

Coordinate  Connectives, 

196 

Mixed  Verse, 

200 

Subordinate  Connectives, 

197 

Poetic  License,  . 

261 

Intersections, 

. 

193 

Scanning, 

263 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


1.  Definitions, 


1.  A  Word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

2.  ILanguage  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means 
of  words.     It  may  be  either  spoken  or  written. 

3.  Spoiten  language  is  the  expression  of  ideas  by  the  voice. 

4.  Written  Language  is  the  expression  of  ideas  by  the  use  of 
written  or  printed  characters  representing  sounds. 

5.  Grammar  treats  of  the  principles  and  usages  of 
language. 

6.  Englisla  Grammar  teaches  how  to  speak  and 
write  the  English  language  correctly. 

7.  English  Grammar  is  divided   into   four  parts:   Or- 
thography, Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

8.  Ortfoograpliy  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  letters, 
syllables/ and  spelling. 

9.  Etymology  treats   of  the   classification,   derivation, 
and  properties  of  words. 

10.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

11.  Prosody  treats  of  the  quantity  of  syllables,  of  ac- 
cent, and  of  the  laws  of  versification. 

(7) 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


PART  I. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 
2.  Definitions. 

1.  Orthography  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  letters, 
syllables,  and  spelling. 

2.  An  Elementary  Sound  is  one  which  can  not  be 
separated  into  two  or  more  distinct  sounds. 

3.  A  ILetter  is  a  character  used  to  represent  either  an 
elementary  sound,  or  a  combination  of  elementary  sounds; 
as,  a,  x. 

4.  A  Syllable  is  a  sound  or  a  combination  of  sounds 
uttered  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice;  as,  man,  man-ner. 

5.  A  Word  is  either  a  syllable,  or  a  combination  of  syl- 
lables; as,  hat,  men-tion,  phi-los-o-phy. 

3.  Elementary  Sounds. 

1.  There  are  forty  elementary  sounds  in  the  English 
language. 

2.  They  are  divided  into  Vowels  and  Consonants.  Con- 
sonants are  subdivided  into  Subvocals  and  Aspirates. 

3.  Towels,  or  Vocals,  are  those  sounds  which  are 
made  with  the  vocal  organs  open,  and  consist  of  pure  tone 
only.     They  are  also  called  Tonics. 

4.  Subvocals  are  those  sounds  which  are  obstructed  by 
the  vocal  organs,  in  the  process  of  articulation.  They  are 
sometimes  called  Subtonics. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


9 


5.  Aspirates  are  mere  emissions  of  breath,  articulated 
by  the  lips,  tongue,  teeth,  and  palate.  They  are  sometimes 
called  Atonies. 


TABM3  OF  ELEMENTARY  SOUUHDSo 


h  Vowels, 

a  long,   as 

in  late. 

i     long,  as 

in  time. 

a  short,      i 

1     hat. 

i     short, 

'     tin. 

a  middle,  ' 

■      ask. 

o    long, 

'      cold. 

a  Italian,  ' 

1      arm. 

o    short, 

'     hot. 

a  broad,     ' 

'      all. 

oo  long, 

'     ooze. 

e  long,       l 

'      eve. 

oo  short, 

1     book 

e  short,      ' 

<     ell. 

u    long, 

u    short, 

'     lute. 
1     cup. 

-V 


5.  Consonants. 


1.  Consonants  may  be  divided  into  six  classes,  viz.: 

Labials,  or  lip-sounds,  which  are  made  by  the  lips; 

Xiinguais,  or  tongue-sounds,  made  by  the  tongue; 

i.ing  no-dentals,  or  tongue-teeth- sounds,  made  by  the  tongue 
and  teeth; 

liinguo-nasals,  or  tongue-nose-sounds,  articulated  by  the  tongue, 
the  sound  passing  through  the  nose; 

Paiato-nasais,  or  palate-nose-sounds,  made  by  the  palate,  the 
sound  passing  through  the  nose; 

Palatals,  or  palate-sounds,  made  by  the  palate. 

2.  The  Subvocals  are  arranged  on  the  left  of  the  page, 
and  the  corresponding  Aspirates  on  the  right. 


Labials. 


b,  as  in  bib, 
v,      "      save, 
w,      "      way, 
m,    ."      am, 


p,  as  in  lip, 
f,  "  life, 
wn,  "      when. 


10 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR-. 


d,    as  in  lid, 
th,      "     with, 
J%        "     jar, 
z,        "     size, 


zli, 


azure, 


riiiiguo-Dentals. 


t,    as  in  tat, 
tli,     "      myth, 
cli,     "     rich, 


sh, 


hush. 


1,    as  in  lull, 
r,       "       roar. 


]Ling»als. 

(Have  no  corresponding  aspirates.] 


Unguo-Xasal. 

n,  as  in  man.  (Has  no  corresponding  aspirate.) 

Palate-Nasal. 

US',  as  in  song.  |  (Has  no  corresponding  aspirate.) 

Palatals. 


g,  as  in  nag, 
y,       "     yes, 


It,  as  in  kick, 
li,      "      how. 


Rem. — The  sounds  represented  by  I,  m,  n,  and  r,  are  sometimes 
called  liqaidSy  because  they  easily  unite  with  other  consonant 
sounds. 


6.  Letters, 

1.  There  are  twenty-six  letters  in  the  English  alphabet. 
As  there  are  more  elementary  sounds  than  letters,  it  becomes 
necessary  that  some  letters  represent  more  than  one  sound. 
Letters  also  combine  to  represent  sounds  for  which  there  are 
no  single  representatives.  Letters  and  combinations  of  let- 
ters are  often  used  as  substitutes  for  other  letters. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  11 


7.  Diphthongs,  Digraphs,  and  Trigraphs. 

1.  A  XHpiithong  consists  of  two  vowels  sounded  to- 
gether in  the  same  syllable. 

Rem. — There  are  two  diphthongal  sounds,  represented  by  four 
diphthongs,  viz. :  ou,  ow,  oi,  oy,  as  in  foul,  now,  boil,  cloy. 

2.  A  Digraph,  consists  of  two  vowel  letters  written  to- 
gether in  the  same  syllable,  one  only  being  pronounced,  or 
both  representing  a  single  elementary  sound. 

Hem. — There  are  twenty-four  digraphs,  viz. :  act,  Canaan ;  ai, 
gain ;  ao,  gaol ;  au,  maul ;  aw,  maw ;  ay,  may ;  ea,  meat ;  ee,  need ; 
ei,  ceiling ;  eo,  people ;  eu,  feud ;  ew,  new ;  ey,  they ;  ie,  lief;  oa,  coat ; 
oe,  foe;  oi,  avoirdupois;  oo,  moon;  ow,  tour;  ow,  flow;  ua7  guard; 
ue,  sue ;  ui,  guise ;  uy,  buy. 

3.  A  Ti'igrapla  consists  of  three  vowel  letters  written 
together  in  the  same  syllable,  one  only  being  pronounced, 
or  the  three  together  representing  a  single  vowel  sound,  or 
diphthong. 

Rem.  ic — There  are  seven  trigraphs,  viz. :  aye,  aye ;  awe,  awe ; 
eau,  beau,  beauty ;  eou\,  gorgeous ;  eye,  eye ;  ieu,  lieu ;  iew,  view. 

Rem.  2. — In  such  words  as  Christian,  alien,  union,  i  does  not 
form  a  digraph  with  the  following  vowel,  but  is  a  substitute  for  y. 
In  the  unaccented  terminations  cean,  cial,  sion,  Hon,  the  combina- 
tions ce,  ci,  si,  ti,  are  substitutes  for  sh. 

Hem.  3. — In  such  words  as  herbaceous,  gracious,  precious,  e  and  i 
do  not  form  trigraphs  with  the  following  vowels,  but  the  combina- 
tions ce,  ci  are  substitutes  for  sh. 

+ 

8.  Double  Consonants. 

DoiiMe  Con&onamts  consist  of , two  consonant  letters 
written  together  in  the  same  syllable,  representing  a  single 
elementary  sound. 

Rem. — They  are  ch,  chord ;  gh,  laugh ;  ph,  physic ;  sh,  hush ; 
th,  thin,  this;  wh,  when;  ng,  sing. 


12 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


9.  Substitutes. 

A  Substitute  represents  a  sound  usually  represented  by 
another  letter  or  combination  of  letters, 

A  long  has  four  substitutes :  $,  te*te ;  ei,  feint ;  ey,  they ;  ao,  gaol. 

A  middle  has  two  substitutes:  e,  there;  ei,  heir. 

A  broad  has  two  substitutes :  o,  cord ;  ou,  sought. 

E  long  has  three  substitutes :  i,  marine ;  ie,  fiend ;  ay,  quay. 

E  short  has  four  substitutes :  ay,  says ;  w,  bury ;  i,  irksome ;  ie,  friend. 

I    long  has  three  substitutes :  y,  thyme ;  ei,  Steinway ;  oi,  choir. 

I  short  has  six  substitutes:  y,  hymn;  e,  England;  u,  busy;  o, 
women;  ee,  been;  ai,  captain. 

O  long  has  three  substitutes :  eau,  beau ;  ew,  sew ;  oa,  goal. 

O  sftor£  has  two  substitutes :  a,  what ;  ow,  knowledge. 

U  long  has  five  substitutes :  eau,  beauty ;  ieu,  lieu ;  iew9  view ; 
eiy,  new ;  ui,  suit. 

U  s/ior£  has  three  substitutes :  e,  her ;  i,  sir ;  o,  son. 

F  has  two  substitutes :  ghy  laugh ;  ph,  philosophy. 

J   has  two  substitutes :  g,  rage ;  di,  soldier. 

S  has  two  substitutes :  c  before  e,  i,  and  y  /  z,  quartz. 

T  has  one  substitute :  ed  final,  after  any  aspirate  except  t, 

V  has  two  substitutes :  /,  of ;  ph,  Stephen. 

W  has  one  substitute :  u,  quick.  It  is  understood  before  o  in  one, 
once. 

X  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  ks,  as  in  wax  ;  gz,  as  in  exact ;  ksh,  as 
in  noxious. 

Y  has  one  substitute:  i,  alien.  It  is  frequently  understood  before  u, 
as  in  verdure. 

Z  has  three  substitutes :  c,  sacrifice ;  s,  his  ;  x,  Xenia. 

CH  has  one  substitute  :  ti,  question. 

SH  has  six  substitutes :  ce,  ocean ;  ci,  facial ;  si,  losion  ;  ti,  motion ; 
ch,  chaise  ;  s,  sugar. 

ZH  has  four  substitutes:  si,  fusion;  zi,  brazier;  z,  azure;  s,  rasure. 

NG  has  one  substitute :  n,  generally  before  palatal  sounds ;  as  in 
ink,  uncle,  conquer. 


ORTHOGRAPHY,  13 

10.  Forms  of  the  Letters. 

1.  ^Letters  are  of  different  styles;  as,  Rornan,  Italic, 
>9*uYit  ©ft  ISngltsrt). 

2.  Types  for  printing  are  of  various  sizes: 

Great  Primer,     SmaiiPica,         Minion, 

T? I-    i  7  Long  Primer,  Nonpareil, 

°  Bourgeois,  Pearl( 

X  lCct,  Brevier,  Diamond. 

3.  Letters  are  used  either  as  capital  letters  or  as  lower- 
case, or  small  letters. 

11.  Capital  Letters. 

I.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence,  or  the  first  word  after 
a  full  pause,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex~ — Winds  blow.     Snow  falls.     The  heavens  are  aflame. 

II.  The  first  word  after  an  introductory  word  or  clause 
may  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex, — "Resolved,  That  the  sum  of  $3000  be  appropriated/'  &c. 
uBe  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  That 
section  fourteen/'  &c. 

III.  Each  new  line  or  paragraph  of  an  enumeration  of 
particulars,  arranged  in  lines  or  paragraphs,  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex. — "  These  expenditures  are  in  proportion  to  the  whole  expend- 
itures of  government 

In  Austria,  as  thirty-three  per  cent. : 
In  France,  as  thirty-eight  per  cent. : 
In  Great  Britain,  as  seventy-four  per  cent." 

IV.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  or  of  an  impor- 


14  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

tant  statement,  a  distinct  speech,  &cv  should  begin  with  a 

capital  letter. 

Ex. — "When  thou  saidst,  Seek  ye  my  face,  my  heart  said  unto 
thee,  Thy  face,  Lord,  will  I  seek."  "  Dora  said,  '  My  uncle  took  the 
boy.' "     "  One  truth  is  clear :  Whatever  is,  is  right." 

V.  The  first  word  in  every  line  of  poetry  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex. — "  Put  your  best  foot  foremost,  or  I  fear 

That  we  shall  miss  the  mail :  and  here  it  comes 
With  five  at  top ;  as  quaint  a  four  in  hand 
As  you  shall  see — three  piebalds  and  a  roan." 
"  Faith,  he 's  got  the  Knicker- 
Bocker  Magazine." 

VI.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  months,  days,  &c,  "v 
should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex. — James,  Emma,  Boston,  July,  Wednesday,  James  Monroe, 
O.  W.  Holmes. 

VII.  Titles  of  honor  or  distinction,  used  alone  or  ac- 
companied by  nouns,  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex.-EaH  Eussell;  the  Duke  of  York;  Mr.  Wilson,  Mrs.  Smith; 
Dr.  Johnson  ;  Gen.  Harrison  ;  Sir  Bobert  Peel ;  George  the  Third  ; 
Charles  the  Bold;  "O  had  I  a  thousand  a  year,  Gaffer  Green;" 
"The  Elder  spake  as  follows." 

VIII.  Names  of  things  personified  become  proper  nouns 
in  sense,  and  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex. — "Come,  gentle  Spring!  ethereal  Mildness!  come." 
"In  Miserifs  darkest  cavern  known, 
His  useful  care  was  nigh, 
When  hopeless  Anguish  poured  his  groan, 
And  lonely  Want  retired  to  die." 

IX.  Words  or  phrases  used  as  names  for  particular  ob- 
jects should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex. — The  Falls ;  Yellow  Creek  ;  the  Havana ;  the  City  of  Broth- 
erly Love ;    the  Cape   of  Good  Hope ;    John  o'  Groat's  House ;  the 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  15 

Round  Tower;    the  Sailor's  Home;    "I  have  read  'The  Tent  on  the 
Beach.' " 

X.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  cap- 
ital letters. 

Ex. — God;  the  Most  High;  the  Supreme;  the  Infinite  One; 
Divine  Providence ;  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ;  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

XI.  A  common  word  must  sometimes  begin  with  a  cap- 
ital letter,  to  show  its  reference  to  the  Deity. 

Ex. — "The  Hand  that  made  us  is  divine." 

"The  spangled  heavens,  a  shining  frame, 
Their  great  Original  proclaim0" 

Rem. — A  word  that  describes  rather  than  denotes  a  name  of 
the  Deity,  and  a  pronoun  whose  expressed  antecedent  is  the  name 
of  the  Deity,  usually  require  no  capitals;  as,  "O  thou  merciful 
God!"  "The  all-powerful  Lord  of  lords;'''  "God  provides  for  all 
his  creatures." 

XII.  Nouns  denoting  the  race  or  nation  of  individuals 
should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex. — The  French  ;  the  Spaniards  ;  the  English  ;  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

XIII.  Words  derived  from  proper  names  should  begin 
with  capital  letters. 

Ex. — American,  Mainote,  Danish,  Johnsonian,  Icelandic. 

Hesn.-— When  such  words  become  common  nouns  by  losing 
their  reference  to  their  original  proper  nouns,  they  should  not 
begin  with  capital  letters ;  as,  a  louis  d'  or ;  a  guinea ;  china-ware. 

XIV.  Words  of  special  importance  may  begin  with  cap- 
ital letters. 

Ex. — The  Tariff;  the  Sub-Treasury  Bill ;  the  Commissioner  of 
Common  Schools ;  "Be  prepared  for  the  Great  Day;"  "Angler's 
Companion :  a  Complete  and  Superior  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  An- 
gling." 


16  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

XV.  In  natural  history,  generic  names,  or  names  of 
genera,  should  commence  with  capital  letters.  Specific 
names,  or  names  of  species,  if  derived  from  proper  nouns, 
should  also  commence  with  capitals:  otherwise  with  small 
letters.     Scientific  terms  are  usually  printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — Rosa  Gallica,  Rosa  alba;  Anomma  Burmeisteri,  Anomma 
rubella ;  Spongites  Townsendi,  Spongites  fiexuosus, 

XVI.  The  pronoun  /  and  interjection  0  should  be 
capitals. 

Ex.—  "Sleep,  O  gentle  Sleep, 

Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  have  I  lighted  thee." 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 

1.  Indirect  quotations,  or  words  quoted  as  the  peculiar  language 
of  authors,  should  not  begin  with  capital  letters ;  as,  "  A  man  is 
an  'individual,'  or  a  'person/  or  a  'party.'"  "A  fine  house  is 
always  a  'palatial  residence.'" 

2.  The  pronouns  he,  his,  him,  thy,  and  thee,  referring  to  names 
of  the  Deity,  in  sentences  where  their  antecedents  are  understood, 
or  when  they  are  used  for  emphasis,  may  sometimes  begin  with 
capital  letters;  as,  "The  hope  of  my  spirit  turns  trembling  to 
Thee;"   " Trust  in  Him,  for  He  will  sustain  thee." 

3.  In  writing  many  compound  names  of  places,  usage  is  not 
uniform,  When  the  parts  remain  separate,  or  are  connected  by  a 
hyphen,-  each  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter:  when  the  parts 
are  consolidated,  but  one  capital  letter  should  be  used;  as,  New 
Castle,  Newr-Castle,  Newcastle. 

4.  In  phrases  or  sentences  used  as  headings  or  titles,  nouns, 
adjectives,  participles,  or  other  important  words,  only,  should 
begin  with  capital  letters:  unimportant  words  and  connectives 
should  begin  with  small  letters. 

5.  In  advertisements,  show-bills,  &c,  different  styles  and  sizes 
of  type  are  frequently  used,  and  the  liberty  of  capitalizing  is  car- 
ried to  an  indefinite  extent. 

6.  Names,  signs,  titles,  and  mottoes,  designed  to  attract  atten- 
tion, are  printed  in  various  styles ;  most  frequently  in  capitals. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  17 

12.  Exercises  to  be  Corrected. 

1. — it  is  a  pleasant  thing  to  see  the  sun.  man  is  mortal,  flow- 
ers bloom  in  summer.  ^> 

2. — Resolved,  that  the  framers  of  the  constitution,  &c. 
3. — The  town  has  expended,  the  past  year, 

for  grading  streets,  J^/  §15,000  : 

for  public  buildings,  15,000. 

4. — He  said  "you  are  too  impulsive;"  Remember  the  maxim, 
"a  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned." 
5. — "  The  day  is  past  and  gone ; 

the  evening  shades  appear ; 
O  may  we  all  remember  well 
the  night  of  death  draws  near." 
6, — James  and  samuel  went  to  baltimore  last  august;    The 
general  assembly  meets  on  the  first  monday  in  february. 

7. — The  bill  was  vetoed  by  the  president;    John  Jones,  esq.; 
Richard  the  third;  "The  opposition  was  led  by  lord  Brougham." 
8. — "When  music,  heavenly  maid,  was  young, 
While  yet,  in  early  Greece,  she  sung, 
The  passions,  oft,  to  hear  her  shell, 
Throng'd  around  her  magic  cell." 
9. — The  central  park;  the  Ohio  river;  I  have  read  "great  ex- 
pectations;"  the  mountains  of  the  moon  are  in  Africa. 

10. — The  lord  shall  endure  forever;  Remember  thy  creator; 
divine  love  and  wisdom;   "The  ways  of  providence.'7 

11. — "  I  know  that  my  redeemer  liveth;  ""I  am  the  way,  the 
truth,  the  life ; "    "  The  word  was  made  flesh," 

12. — Those  are  chinamen ;  the  turcomans  are  a  wandering  race ; 
the  gypsies  of  Spain;  the  Indians  are  fast  disappearing. 

13. — The  swiss  family  Robinson ;  a  russian  serf;  "  The  rank  is 
but  the  Guinea's  stamp ; "   a  Cashmere  shawl ;   a  Damask  rose. 

14. — The  emancipation  proclamation;  the  art  of  cookery,  (a 
title) ;  the  Missouri  compromise ;  the  whisky  insurrection ;  "  A 
treatise  on  the  science  of  education  and  the  art  of  teaching." 

16,  — 5  don't  like  to  study  grammar,      i  write  correct  enough, 
now.     o,  how  i  wish  school  was  out! A 
H.  G.  % 


18  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

y        13,  Italics,  Small  Capitals,  etc. 

I.  Emphatic  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are  frequently 
printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — "Do  not  you  grieve  at  this?"     "The  truth  is,  his  lordship 

weeps  for  the  press,  and  wipes  his  eyes  with  the  public." — Curran. 

II.  Words  borrowed  from  foreign  languages  should  be 

printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — "  Each  word  stood  quite  per  se" — Lamb.  "  This  odd  quid 
pro  quo  surprised  me  into  vehement  laughter." — Walpole. 

III.  The  names  of  authors,  annexed  to  selections  from 
their  writings,  are  usually  printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — "His  coward  lips  did  from  their  color  fly." — Shakspeare. 

IV.  Parenthetical    words    and   phrases    are   frequently 

printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — Old  gentleman  {looking  quite  unconcerned),  "Run  away,  has 
she?" 

V.  Names  of  ships,  books,  newspapers,  and  periodicals 

are  frequently  printed  in  italics  or  small  capitals. 

Ex. — "The  Quaker  City  has  arrived."  "The  Journal  is  com- 
mitted to  no  such  policy  as  that." 

VI.  Names  of  important  personages  are  frequently 
printed  in  small  capitals. 

VII.  Words  requiring  special  emphasis  are  frequently 
printed  in  small  capitals  or  capitals. 

Ex. — "  I  brand  him  as  a  rogue,  a  thief,  a  COWARD." — Placard. 

Rem.  l — Italicized  words  in  the  Bible  are  those  supplied  by 
translators  to  explain  the  original. 

Rem.  2. — In  manuscripts,  one  line  drawn  under  a  word  indi- 
cates italics;  two  lines,  small  capitals;  three  lines,  CAPITALS. 

Rem.  3 — In  this  work,  full-faced  types  are  also  used  for  dis- 
tinction. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  19 


14.  Syllables. 

1.  A  Syllable  may  be  composed, 


1.  Of  a  vowel,  digraph,  or  trigraph;  as,  o-men,  ow-ranography, 
mw-de-cologne. 

2.  Of  a  vowel  or  diphthong,  with  one  or  more  consonants  pre- 
fixed or  affixed;  as,  1-0,  b-oy,  a-m,  a-nd. 

3.  Of  a  vowel  or  diphthong,  with  one  or  more  consonants  pre- 
fixed and  affixed;  as,  6-a-c?,  fr~&-nk. 

2.  A  vowel  sound  is  an  essential  part  of  a  syllable. 

3.  Synthesis  is  the  process  of  combining  elementary 
sounds. 

4.  Analysis  is  the  process  of  separating  a  syllable  or 
word  into  its  elementary  sounds. 

15.  Models  for  Analyzing  Syllables. 

Model  I. 

I<o. — Give  both  sounds  in  quick  succession,  li-o,  and  pronounce  the 
word. 

Model  II. 

&o  ...  is  a  syllable,  containing  two  elementary  sounds. 
Ii  ....  is  a  consonant-subvocal-lingual.     {Give  its  sound.) 

0  ....  is  a  vowel,  long  sound.     (Give  its  sound.) 

Model  III. 

Clank.. — Give  the  five   sounds  in  quick  succession,  c-1-a-n-k,  and 

pronounce  the  word. 

Model  IV. 

Clank  is  a  syllable,  containing  five  elementary  sounds. 

C  ....  is  a  consonant-aspirate-palatal,  substitute  for  A;.  (Give  its  sound.) 

1  ....  is  a  consonant-subvocal-lingual.     (Give  its  sound.) 
a  ....  is  a  vowel,  short  sound.     (Give  its  sound.) 

n  ....  is  a  consonant-sub  vocal-palatal-nasal,  substitute  for  ng.     ( Give 

its  sound.) 
k  ....  is  a  consonant-aspirate-palatal.     (Give  its  sound.) 


20  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Model  V. 

Boy. — Give  the  three  sounds  in  quick  succession,  b-a-i,   and  pro- 
nounce the  word. 

Model  VI. 

Boy .  .  is  a  syllable,  containing  three  elementary  sounds. 
B.  ...  is  a  consonant-sub  vocal-labial.     (Give  its  sound.) 
oy  ...  is  a  diphthong,  representing  a  broad,  and  %  short.     (Give  the 
sound  of  each  in  quick  succession.) 

Model  VII. 

View. — Give  the  two  sounds  in  quick  succession,  v-u,  and  pronounce 
the  word. 

Model  VIII. 

View  .  is  a  syllable,  containing  two  elementary  sounds. 
V  ....  is  a  consonant-subvocal-labial.  (Give  its  sound.) 
lew  .  .  is  a  trigraph,  equivalent  to  u  long.     (Give  its  sound.) 

Kote. — Either  set  of  models  may  be  used  in  analyzing  syllables. 
The  models  for  complete  analysis  need  not  be  used  after  the  classifi- 
cation of  elementary  sounds  shall  have  been  thoroughly  learned. 

Analyze  the  following  words,  omitting  all  silent  letters  : 

And,  fly,  warm,  elm,  fin,  sing,  wax,  when,  sue,  light,  pot,  home, 
zinc,  valve,  kid,  ask,  sun,  goat,  jolt. 

Form  syllables  by  prefixing  a  consonant  to  a,  ay,  can,  oy ; 

By  prefixing  two  or  more  consonants  to  c,  oo,  aw,  i ; 

By  affixing  one,  two,  or  more  consonants  to  any  of  the  vowels  or 
diphthongs. 

16.  Words. 

1.   A  Word  may  consist  of  one,  two,  or  more  syllables. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable ;  as,  care,  man. 

A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  dissyllable;  as,  care-ful, 
man-ly. 

A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  trisyllable;  as,  care-ful- 
ness, man-li-ness. 

A  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  is  called  a  polysyllable ;  as, 
com-mu-ni-ty,  ec-cen-tric-i-ty. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  21 

2.  Accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  placed  upon  a  particular 
syllable.     It   may  be   either  primary   or   secondary, 

the  primary  being  the  move  forcible. 

3.  Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable  has  one  of  its 
syllables  accented. 

4.  In  words  having  both  a  primary  and  a  secondary 
accent,  the  secondary  occurs  nearest  the  beginning;  as,  in"- 
compatibility,  in" comprehensible.    \J 


17.  Models  for  Analyzing  Words. 

Tree is  a  word  of  one  syllable:  therefore  a  monosyllable. 

Nature  .     ...  is  a  word  of  two  syllables :  therefore  .a  dissyllable.    It 

is  accented  on  the  first  syllable. 
Commotion.  .  is  a  word  of  three  syllables:   therefore  a  trisyllable. 

It  is  accented  on  the  second  syllable. 
Indefatigable  is  a  word  of  six  syllables :    therefore  a  polysyllable. 

Its  secondary  accent  is  on  the  first  syllable,  and  its 

primary  accent  on  the  third. 

Note. — A  word  having  been  analyzed  according  to  one  of  these 
models,  analyze  each  syllable  according  to  the  preceding  models. 
In  separating  a  word  into  syllables,  divide  it  as  it  is  pronounced. 
In  writing,  never  divide  a  syllable  at  the  end  of  a  line.  Each 
line  should  end  with  a  word  or  an  entire  syllable. 

Analyze  the  following  words  : 

Sand,  lead,  sack ;  unction,  famous,  greatly ;  endeavor,  infamous, 
candidly;  unpopular,  information,  gratuitous;  domestication/ in- 
terrogation, incredulity ;  incomprehensible,  indefensibleness ;  in- 
compatibility, incompassionately. 

Write  each  of  these  words  on  your  slates,  and  divide  them  into  sylla- 
bles, marking  the  accented  syllables. 

Correct  the  accent  in  the  following  ivords  ; 

Advertisement,  primary,  contrary,  legislature,  lamentable, 
secondary,  infa/mous,  armistice,  admirable,  interesting. 


22  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Change  the  accent  of  the  following  ivords  to  the  second  syllable,  and 
give  the  meaning  of  each  word  before  and  after  the  change : 
Insult,  fer'ment,  reb'el,  rec'ord,  pre'lude,  conjure,  entrance, 

escort,  increase,  in7 valid,  object,  intense,  es'say. 

18.  Classes. 

1.  Words  are  either  Primitive  or  Derivative. 

2.  A  Primitive  or  Radical  word  is  one  in  no  way 

derived  from  another  in  the  same  language ;  as,  mind,  faith. 

3.  A  derivative  word  is  one  formed  by  joining  to  a 
primitive  some  letter  or  syllable  to  modify  its  meaning ;  as, 
re-raind,  faithful. 

4.  A  Compound  word  is  one  formed  by  uniting  two 
or  more  primitive  or  derivative  words;  as,  man-worship, 
Anglo-Saxon. 

5.  A  Prefix  is  that  part  of  a  derivative  word  which 
is  placed  before  the  radical;  as,  re-call,  sub-join. 

6.  A  Suffix  is  that  part  of  a  derivative  word  which  is 
placed  after  the  radical;  as,  ikith-ful,  change-able. 

7.  Prefixes  and  suffixes  are  called  Affixes. 

Note. — The  meaning  and  use  of  affixes  should  be  learned  from 
some  work  prepared  for  that  purpose. — See  DeWolfs  Instructive 
Speller  and  Hand-Book  of  Derivative  Words. 

V 


ETYMOLOGY.  23 


PART  II. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

19.  Definitions. 

1.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  derivation, 
and  properties  of  words. 

2.  With  reference  to  meaning  and  use,  words  are  divided 
into  nine  classes,  called  Pa^ts  of  Speech;  viz.,  Noun, 
Adjective,  Pronoun,  Verb,  Participle,  Adverb,  Preposition, 
Conjunction,  Interjection. 

3.  A  ffoian  is  a  name;  as,  house,  Charlotte,  magnetism. 

4.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  describe  or  define 
the  meaning  of  a  noun;  as,_J?ne  houses;  studious  pupils; 
animal  magnetism. 

5.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun ;  as, 
his  house;  my  book;  your  children;  "Whom  did  you  see?" 

6.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or 
state;  as,  I  am;  George  writes;  the  house  stands. 

7.  A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  par- 
taking of  the  properties  of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjective  or 
a  noun ;  as,  "A  light,  shining  from  afar;"  "A  letter,  written 
in  haste." 

8.  An  Advert  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning 
of  a  verb,  adjective,  participle,  or  an  adverb;  as,  "He  runs 
swiftly;"  "You  are  very  kind;"  "The  letter  was  written 
hastily." 


24  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

9.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  its  object  and  some  other  word;  as,  "The  house 
stands  on  the  hill." 

10.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences  y  as,  "  John  and  Elisha  are 
brothers."     "Winds  blow  and  rains  descend." 

11.  An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  to  denote  some 
sudden  or  strong  emotion ;  as,  0,  ah,  alas,  pshaw. 

THE    NOUN. 
20.  Oral  Lesson. 

Write  on  your  slates  the  names  of  five  objects  in  the  school- 
room. These  words,  as  you  perceive,  are  not  the  objects  them- 
selves, but  their  names.  They  are  called  Nouns,  which  means 
names.  Now  write  the  names  of  five  objects  not  in  the  school- 
room. What  are  these  words  called?  Ans. — Nouns.  Why? 
Ans. — Because  they  are  names.  Write  the  names  of  five  of  your 
school-mates.  What  are  these  words  called?  Ans. — Nouns.  Why? 
A  ns. — Because  they  are  names. 

Are  there  not  other  names  by  which  your  school-mates  are 
called?  Ans. — Yes;  they  may  be  called  girls  and  boys.  Can  the 
name  "girl"  be  applied  to  all  the  girls  in  the  room?  Ans. — Yes. 
Can  the  name  "Sarah"  be  applied  to  all  the  girls  in  the  room? 
Ans. — It  can  not.  Why?  Ans. — All  the  girls  are  not  named 
"Sarah."  There  are  Mary,  and  Charlotte,  and  Jane,  and  Susan, 
and  many  other  names  for  girls. 

We  have,  then,  two  kinds  of  Nouns,  or  names.  One  kind  can 
be  applied  to  each  one  of  a  class,  and  the  other  kind  can  be 
applied  to  a  particular  one  only.  The  first  kind  are  called  Com- 
mon Nouns,  and  the  second  Proper  Nouns.  What  kind  are  the 
names  horse,  boo/:,  boy,  girl,  map,  blackboard?  Ans. — Common 
Nouns.  Why?  Ans. — Because  they  can  be  applied  to  each  one 
of  a  class.  What  kind  are  the  names  John,  Charles,  Washington, 
Boston,  Europe?  Ans. — Proper  Nouns.  Why?  Ans. — Because 
they  can  be  applied  to  particular  persons,  or  particular  places, 
onlv. 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS.  25 

21.  Definition. 

A  Xoun  is  a  name ;  as,  desk,  Richard,  goodness,  army. 

22.  Glasses. 

1.  There  are  two  classes  of  Nouns  :  Common  and  Proper. 

2.  A  Common  ¥oun  is  a  name  which  may  be  applied 
to  any  one  of  a  kind  or  class  of  objects ;  as,  boy,  child, 
book,  radiation. 

3.  A  Proper  Woun  is  the  name  of  some  particular 
person,  place,  people,  or  thing ;  as,  Charles,  Cincinnati, 
The  French,  The  Sun. 

Rem.  1. — Common  nouns  have  meaning,  and  admit  of  definition. 
Most  propei*  nouns  originally  had  meaning,  but  it  is  not  taken 
into  consideration  in  applying  them;  and,  therefore,  they  do  not 
admit  of  definition.  There  are  about  30,000  common  nouns,  and 
70,000  proper  nouns,  in  the  English  language. 

Rem.  2, — Whenever  a  proper  noun  assumes  a  meaning,  so  that 
it  can  be  applied  to  each  individual  of  a  class,  it  becomes  a  com- 
mon noun;  as,  "He  is  the  Cicero  of  our  age;"  "Bolivar  was  the 
Washington  of  South  America ; "  "  He  piled  Ossa  upon  Pelimi  to 
accomplish  his  purpose." 

Rem.  3. — Whenever  a  common  noun  is  used  to  distinguish  one 
individual  from  another  of  the  same  class,  it  becomes  a  proper 
noun;  as,  The  Havana;    The  Falls;    The  Laurel  Ridge. 

Rem.  4. — When  two  or  more  words  form  but  one  name,  they 
are  taken  together  as  one  noun;  as  New  York;  Niagara  Falls; 
John  Milton;  Lord  Bacon;  Chief  Justice  Chase. 

4.  Common  louns  may  be  divided  into  four  classes : 
Class  Nouns,  Abstract  Nouns,  Collective  Nouns,  and  Verbal 
Nouns. 

5.  Class  ^Toims  are  names  which  can  be  applied  to 
each  individual  of  a  class  or  group  of  objects ;  as,  horse, 
apple,  man. 

H.  G.  3. 


26  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

6.  An  Abstract  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  con- 
sidered apart  from  the  object  in  which  it  is  found }  as, 
brightness,  brittleness,  cohesion. 

7.  A  Collective  Noun  is  a  name  singular  in  form, 
though  denoting  more  than  one;  as,  herd,  jury,  swarm, 
school,  assembly. 

8.  A  Verbal  Jtfoun  is  the  name  of  an  action,  or  a  state 
of  being ;  as,  singing,  standing,  seeming. 

Rem.  i. — Words,  phrases,  and  clauses,  used  as  nouns,  or  in  the 
relations  in  which  nouns  occur,  are  called  substantives,  and 
when  thus  used  have  all  the  properties  of  nouns. 

Rem.  2.  —Such  words  as  mass,  heap,  furniture,  names  of  collect 
tions  of  objects  without  life,  are  class  nouns,  not  collective  nouns. 
They  are  sometimes  called  mass  nouns. 


23.  Properties. 

The  Properties   of  the   Noun   are   Gender,  Person, 
Number,  and  Case.  y 

24.  Gender. 

1.  Gender  is  a  distinction  of  nouns  and  pronouns  with 
regard  to  sex. 

2.  There  are  four  genders:   Masculine,  Feminine,  Com- 
mon, and  Neuter. 

3.  The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  males ;  as,  father, 
uncle,  king,  governor. 

4.  The    Feminine    Gender    denotes    females;     as, 
mother,  aunt,  queen,  governess. 

5.  The  Common  Gender  denotes  either  males  or  fe- 
males, or  both ;  as,  parent,  children,  bird,  cattlef 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS.  27 

6.  The  Stouter  Gender  denotes  neither  males  nor  fe- 
males ;  as,  stove,  city,  pen,  ink,  tree,  house. 

Rem.  l. — By  a  figure  of  speech  called  Personification,  gender  is 
sometimes  ascribed  to  inanimate  objects.  They  should  then  be 
regarded  as  either  masculine  or  feminine. 

Ex. — "The  ship  has  lost  her  rudder."  "The  meek-eyed  morn 
appears,  mother  of  dews."  "  The  sun  in  his  glory ;  the  moon  in  her 
wane." 

Rem.  2. — When  masculine  or  feminine  qualities  are  ascribed  to 
animals,  they  are  regarded  as  either  masculine  or  feminine. 

Ex. — "The  nightingale  sings  her  song."  "The  lion  meets  his  foe 
boldly."     "The  fox  made  his  escape." 

Rem.  3. — Nouns  used  to  denote  both  genders,  though  strictly 
applicable  to  males  only,  or  females  only,  are  usually  regarded  as 
masculine. 

Ex. — "Heirs  are  often  disappointed."  "  The  English  are  a  proud 
people."     "  The  poets  of  America." 

Rem.  4. — The  distinction  of  gender  is  not  observed  in  speaking 
of  inferior  animals,  and  sometimes  even  of  children. 
Ex. — "  The  bee  on  its  wing."     "  The  child  in  its  cradle." 

7.  There  are  three  ways  of  distinguishing  the  masculine 
and  feminine  genders : 

1.  By  using  different  words : 

Ex. — Bachelor,  maid,  spinster ;  bridegroom,  bride ;  brother,  sister ; 
boy,  girl;  cock,  hen;  drake,  duck;  earl,  countess;  father,  mother; 
gentleman,  lady;  hart,  roe:  male,  female;  man,  woman;  Mr.,  Mrs.; 
Sir,  Madam;  nephew,  niece;  son,  daughter;  uncle,  aunt;  Charles, 
Caroline;  Augustus,  Augusta. 

2.  By  different  terminations : 

Ex. — Abbot,  abbess;  baron,  baroness;  host,  hostess;  actor,  actress; 
prior,  prioress;  benefactor,  benefactress;  executor,  executrix;  mur- 
derer, murderess;  sorcerer,  sorceress. 

3.  By  prefixes  and  suffixes: 

Ex. — Man-servant,  maid-servant ;  he-bear,  she-bear ;  male-descend- 
ant, female-descendant ;  cock-sparrow,  hen-sparrow ;  Mr.  Smith,  Mrs. 
Smith,  Miss  Smith ;  pea-cock,  pea-hen. 


28  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

25.  Person. 

1.  Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
which  distinguishes  the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to, 
and  the  person  or  object  spoken  of. 

2.  There  are  three  persons :    'First,  Second,  and  Third. 

3.  The  First  Person  denotes  the  speaker;  as,  UI} 
Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of  the  United  States."  "  Many 
evils  beset  us  mortals." 

4.  The  Second  Person  denotes  the  person  addressed; 
as,  "James,  be  more  careful."  "Fellow  Citizens,  the  crisis 
demands  the  utmost  vigilance." 

5.  The  Tliird  Person  denotes  the  person  or  object 
spoken  of;  as,  "  Milton  was  a  poet ;"  "Rome  was  a  city  of 
flame"     "I  am  reading  Tennyson's  Poems" 

Rem.  l. — The  writer  or  speaker  often  speaks  of  himself,  or  the 
person  he  addresses,  in  the  third  person;  as,  "Mr.  Johnson  has  the 
pleasure  of  informing  Mr.  Mason  that  he  has  been  elected  Honor- 
ary Member  of  the  Oriental  Society." 

Rem.  2. — A  noun  in  the  predicate  is  of  the  third  person,  though 
the  subject  may  be  of  the  first  or  second. 

Ex. — "You  are  the  man  wanted."  "  We  are  strangers."  "I  am  he 
whom  you  saw." 

26.  Number. 

1.  Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  which  distin- 
guishes one  from  more  than  one. 

2.  There  are  two  numbers :    Singular  and  Plural 

3.  The  Singular  lumber  denotes  but  one ;  as,  apple, 
flower,  boy,  girl* 

4.  The  Plural  IVumber  denotes  more  than  one;  as, 
apples,  flowers,  boys,  girls. 


ET  YMOLOG  Y NOUNS.  29 


27.  Formation  of  the  Plural. 

1.  Nouns  whose  last  sound  will  unite  with  5,  form  their  plurals 
by  adding  s  only  to  the  singular;  as,  book,  booh;  boy>  boys; 
desk,  desks. 

2.  Nouns  whose  last  sound  will  not  unite  with  s,  form  their 
plurals  by  adding  es  to  the  singular ;  as,  church,  churches ;  box, 
boxes;  witness,  witnesses. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y  into 
ies;  as,  glory,  glories ;  mercy,  mercies, 

4.  Most  nouns  ending  in/  or  fe,  change  these  endings  into  ves; 
as,  beef,  beeves;  wife,  wives. 

5.  Most  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  es; 
as,  cargo,  cargoes.  Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  vowel,  add  s  ; 
as,  folio,  folios. 

6.  Some  nouns  form  their  plurals  irregularly;  as,  man,  men; 
ox,  oxen;  tooth,  teeth;  mouse,  mice. 

7.  Letters,  figures,  marks  and  signs  add  's;  as,  "Mind  your 
p's  and  q's;"  the  9's  and  ll's;  the  *'s;  the  +'s;  "Those  g's 
and  B's." 

8.  In  compound  words,  the  part  which  is  described  by  the  rest 
is  generally  pluralized;  as,  brothers-in-law,  courts-martial,  wagon- 
loads,  ox-carts. 

9.  Compound  words  from  foreign  languages  form  their  plurals 
according  to  (1)  and  (2);  as,  tete-d-tetes,  piano-fortes,  ipse-dixits, 
scire-faciases. 

10.  Some  compound  words  have  both  parts  made  plural;  as, 
man-servant,  men-servants;  knight-templar,  knights-templars;  ignis- 
fatuus,  ignes-fatui. 

11.  Compound  terms  composed  of  a  proper  noun  and  a  title, 
may  be  pluralized  by  adding  a  plural  termination  to  either  the 
name  or  the  title,  but  not  to  both ;  as,  the  Miss  Browns,  the  Misses 
Brown ;  the  Messrs.  Thompson ;  "  May  there  be  Sir  Isaac  Newtons 
in  every  science." 

12.  When  the  title  is  preceded  by  a  numeral,  the  name  is  always 
pluralized,  as,  the  three  Miss  Johnsons;  the  two  Dr.  Bensons;  the 
two  Mrs.  Kendricks. 


30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

# 

13.  Some  nouns  have  two  plurals,  but  with  a  difference  in  mean- 
ing; as,  brother,  brothers  (of  the  same  family),  brethren  (of  the 
same  society) ;  die,  dies  (stamps  for  coining),  dice  (for  gaming) ; 
fish,  fishes  (individuals),  fish  (quantity,  or  the  species) ;  genius, 
geniuses  (men  of  genius),  genii  (spirits) ;  index,  indexes  (tables  of 
contents),  indices  (algebraic  signs) ;  penny,  pennies  (pieces  of 
money),  pence  (how  much  in  value) ;  pea,  peas  (individuals), 
pease  (in  distinction  from  other  vegetables). 

14.  Proper  nouns,  and  words  generally  used  as  other  parts  of 
speech,  are  changed  as  little  as  possible,  and  usually  add  s  only  in 
forming  their  plurals;  as,  Mary,  Marys;  Sarah,  Sarahs;  Nero, 
Neros ;  "The  novel  is  full  of  ohs,  bys,  whys,  alsos,  and  nos."  There 
is  good  authority,  however,  for  using  Maries,  Neroes,  tvhies,  noes. 

15.  Many  nouns  from  foreign  languages  retain  their  original 
plurals,  changing  us  to  i  ;  um  and  on  to  a ;  is  to  es  or  ides ;  a  to  ce 
or  ata  ;  and  x  to  ces  or  ices  ;  as,  calculus,  calculi ;  arcanum,  arcana  ; 
criterion,  criteria,  thesis,  theses;  ephemeris,  ephemerides ;  nebula, 
nebulce;  calix,  calices;  index,  indices. 

28.  General  Eemarks  on  Number. 

1.  Abstract  nouns,  and  names  of  material  substances,  have  no 
plural  forms,  as,  silver,  vinegar,  hemp,  tar,  frankness,  darkness. 
When  different  kinds  of  the  same  substance  are  referred  to,  a  plu- 
ral form  may  be  used ;  as,  sugars,  vinegars,  wines,  oils. 

2.  Some  nouns  have  no  singular  forms ;  as,  ashes,  assets,  bellows, 
billiards,  compasses,  clothes,  drawers,  lees,  scissors,  shears,  tongs.  Neivs 
and  molasses  have  the  plural  form,  but  are  regarded  as  singular. 
Lungs,  bowels,  and  a  few  others,  have  a  singular  form  denoting  a 
part  of  the  whole ;  as,  "  The  left  lung." 

3.  Some  nouns  have  no  singular  forms,  but  are  singular  or  plural 
in  meaning;  as,  alms,  amends,  corps,  mumps,  measles,  nuptials,  odds, 
riches,  series,  suds,  tidings,  wages,  and  some  others. 

4.  The  names  of  some  of  the  sciences  are  either  singular  or 
plural  in  meaning,  according  as  they  denote  the  science,  or  the 
objects  of  which  the  science  treats;  as,  ethics,  mechanics,  mathe- 
matics, optics,  pedagogics,  physics,  &c. 

5.  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers;  as,  sheep,  deer,  ver* 
min,  couple,  salmon,  trout,  dozen,  gross,  hdse,  yoke. 


ETYMOLOGY NOUNS.  31 


29.  Case. 

Case  is  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  other 
words.  Nouns  have  four  cases:  Nominative,  Possessive, 
Objective,  and  Absolute. 

30.  Nominative  Case. 

The  Nominative  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun as  the  subject  or  the  predicate  of  a  proposition. 

Ex. — "  The  sun  is  shining."  "  That  man  is  a  sailor.11  In  the 
first  sentence,  "  sun "  is  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  used 
as  the  subject  of  the  proposition;  in  the  second,  "sailor"  is  in  the 
nominative  case,  because  it  is  used  as  the  predicate  of  the  prop- 
osition. 

31.  Possessive  Case. 

1.  The  Possessive  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun to  denote  ownership,  authorship,  origin,  or  kind. 

Ex. — Susan1  s  book ;  Gray's  Botany ;  the  surfs  rays ;  boys1  hats ; 
menJs  clothing. 

2.  The  Possessive  Case  Singular  is  formed  by  annexing 
's  to  the  nominative ;  as,  John's,  Clarence's. 

3.  The  Possessive  Case  Plural  is  formed  by  annexing 
the  apostrophe  only,  when  the  nominative  plural  ends  with 
s;  as,  boys';  "The  Ohio  State  Teachers'  Association." 

Rem.  i. — Plural  nouns  not  ending  with  s,  form  their  possessive 
case  by  annexing  's ;  as,  men's  hats ;  children1  s  shoes. 

Rem.  2. — In  compound  names,  the  possessive  sign  is  annexed  to 
the  last  word  ;  as,  u Daniel  Webster1  s  speeches :"  in  complex  names 
it  is  annexed  to  the  last  word  ;  as,  "  The  Bishop  of  Dublin1  s  pal- 
ace:" in  a  series  of  terms,  and  common  possession,  it  is  annexed 
to  the  last  term ;  as,  "Day  &  Martin1  s  Blacking , "  in  a  series  of 
terms,  and  separate  possession,  it  is  annexed  to  each  term;  as, 
"  Webster1  s  and  Worcester's  Dictionaries." 


32  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  3. — When  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case  is  limited  by  a 
noun  in  apposition  with  it,  or  by  a  descriptive  phrase,  the  possess- 
ive sign  is  annexed  to  the  noun  immediately  preceding  the  object 
possessed,  though  not  always  to  the  name  of  the  possessor;  as, 
"  Her  Majesty,  Queen  Victoria's  government ; "  "  The  captain  of  the 
Fulton's  wife  died  yesterday."  Here  "captain"  is  in  the  possessive 
case,  and  "Fulton"  in  the  objective,  governed  by  the  preposition 
"of." 

Rem.  4. — In  compound  words,  the  sign  of  possession  is  placed 
at  the  end;  as,  "The  knight-templar's  costume ;"  "My  brother-in- 
law's  residence." 

Rem.  5. — "  For  conscience'  sake,"  "  For  goodness'  sake,"  &c,  are 
idiomatic  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  for  forming  the  possessive 
case  singular. 

Rem.  6. — The  sign  (,s),  is  a  contraction  of  is  or  es;  as,  John's, 
King's;  anciently  written  Johnis}  Kingis,  or  Johnes,  Kinges. 


32.  Objective  Case. 

The  Objective  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  or  of 
a  preposition. 

Ex. — "John  studies  grammar ."  "The  book  is  on  the  table." 
In  the  first  sentence,  "  grammar "  is  the  object  of  the  transitive 
verb  "studies;"  in  the  second,  "table"  is  the  object  of  the  prep- 
osition "on." 

Rem.  l. — Nouns  of  measure,  quantity,  time,  distance,  value,  or 
direction,  are  in  the  objective  case  without  a  governing  word ;  as, 
"The  lake  is  ten  miles  long;"  "The  child  is  six  months  old;" 
u  He  is  worth  a  hundred  thousand  dollars  ;  "  "  That  is  a  ten  horse- 
power engine ; "  " The  men  traveled  north" 

Rem.  2. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  complete  the  meaning 
of  a  transitive  verb  is  called  a  dflrect  object:  when  added  to  a 
verb  to  denote  that  to  or  for  which  any  thing  is  or  is  done,  or  that 
from  which  any  thing  proceeds,  it  is  called  an  indirect  object. 
When  an  indirect  object  precedes  the  direct,  the  preposition  should 
be  omitted ;  when  it  follows,  it  should  be  expressed ;  as,  "I  gave 
him  an  apple ; "  "I  gave  an  apple  to  him." 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS.  33 

33.  Absolute  Case. 

The  Absolute  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  independent 
of  any  governing  word. 

Ex. — "Joh?i,  bring  me  a  book ; "  "  Your  fathers,  where  are  they  ?  " 
"Honor  being  lost,  all  is  lost." 

Rem. — A  noun  may  be  in  the  absolute  case, 

1.  By  direct  address ;  as,  "Charles,  come  to  me."  This  use  is 
sometimes  called  the  Vocative  Case. 

2.  By  mere  exclamation;  as,  "Oh,  Popular  Applause!" 

3.  By  pleonasm,  or  by  placing  the  noun  before  the  sentence  in 
which  an  affirmation  is  made  concerning  it;  as,  "Gad,  a  troop 
shall  overcome  him." 

4.  With  a  participle ;  as,  "The  sun  being  risen,  we  pursued  our 
journey." 

34.  Nouns  in  Apposition. 

A  noun  limiting  the  meaning  of  another  noun,  denoting 
the  same  person,  place,  or  thing,  is,  by  apposition,  in  the 
same  case. 

Ex. — "Washington  the  general  became  Washington  the  states- 
many  "We  visited  New  York,  the  metropolis  of  the  United 
States."     "  In  her  brother  Abraham's  house." 


35.  Declension. 

The  I>eclension  of  a  noun  is  its  variation  to  denote 
number  and  case. 

Examples. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Fly,  Flies, 

Boss.   Fly's,  Flies', 


Sinyidar.  Plural, 

Nom.  Boy,  Boys, 

Poss.  Boy's,  Boys', 

Obj.    Boy.  Boys. 

Nom.  Charles,  ■ 

Poss.   Charles's,  

Obj.    Charles.  - — — 


Obj.  Fly.  Flies. 

Nom.  Goodness, 

Poss.  Goodness', 

Obj.  Goodness. 


34 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


36.  Parsing. 

Parsing  consists  (1)  in  naming  the  part  of  speech; 
(2)  In  telling  its  properties ;  (3)  In  pointing  out  its  rela- 
tion to  other  words;  (4)  In  giving  the  rule  for  its  con- 
struction. 

37.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Noun, and  why? 

2.  Common  or  Proper,  and  why? 

3.  If  Common,  whether  a  Class  Noun,  &c,  and  why? 

4.  Gender,  and  why? 

5.  Person,  and  why? 

6.  Number,  and  why? 

7.  Case,  and  why? 

8.  Eule  for  construction. 


38.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "  Mary  sings." 
Marjr  ...  is  a  noun ;  it  is  a  name :  proper;  it  is  the  name  of  a  par- 
ticular person  :  feminine  gender;  it  denotes  a  female :  third 
person  ;  it  denotes  the  person  spoken  of:  singular  number; 
it  denotes  but  one:  nominative  ease;  it  is  used  as  the  sub- 
ject of  the  proposition  "  Mary  sings."  Rule  I.  "  The  sub- 
ject of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nominative  case." 

II.  "  Horses  are  animals" 
Animals  .  is  a  noun ;  (why?) :  common;  it  can  be  applied  to  any  one 
of  a  class  or  kind :  common  gender;  it  denotes  either  males 
or  females :  third  person  ;  (why  ?) :  plural  number;  it  de- 
notes more  than  one:  nominative  case;  it  is  used  as  the 
predicate  of  the  proposition  "  Horses  are  animals."  Rule 
II.  "A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  predicate  of  a  prop- 
osition, is  in  the  nominative  case." 


III.   "  The  poet  Milton  was  blind." 
Milton  .  .  is  a  noun;  (why):   proper;  (why?):   masculine  gender;  it 
denotes  a  male:  third  person;  (why  1):  singular  number; 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 


35 


(why?) :  nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  "poet."   Rule 

IV.  "A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  by  denoting  the  same  person,  place,  or 
thing,  is  in  the  same  case." 

IV.  "Henry's  lesson  is  learned." 
Henry's  .  is  a  noun;  (why?):  proper;  (why?):  masculine  gender; 
(why?):  third  person;  (why?):  singular  number;  (why?): 
possessive  case;  it  denotes  possession,  and  modifies  "  lesson." 
Rule  III.  "A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the  meaning 
of  a  noun  denoting  a  different  thing,  is  in  the  possessive 
case." 

V.  "John  studies  grammar." 
Grammar  is  a  noun  ;  (why  ?) :  common  ;  (why  ?) :  neuter  gender; 
(why?) :  third  person  ;  (why?) :  singular  number;  (why?) : 
objective  case;  it  is  used  as  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
"  studies."  Rule  VI.  "  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in 
the  active  voice,  or  its  participles,  is  in  the  objective  case." 

VI.  "The  book  lies  on  the  table." 
Table  ...  is  a  noun ;  (why  ?) :  common ;  (why  ?)  :  neuter  gender; 
(why?) :  third  person ;  (why?) :  singular  number;  (why?) : 
objective  case;  it  is  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposition 
"  on."  Rule  VII.  "  The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in  the 
objective  case." 

VII.    "William,  open  the  door." 
William  .  is  a  noun ;  (why?):  proper;   (why?):   masculine  gender; 
(why?) :  second  person;  (why?) :  singular  number;  (why?) : 
absolute  case  ;  it  is  the  name  of  a  person  addressed.    Rule 

V.  "  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  independently,  is  in  the 
absolute  case." 


39.  Exercises, 

1.  Nominative  Case.  1.  The  wind  blows.  2.  The  sun  shines. 
3.  Horses  run.  4.  Rain  descends.  5.  The  vessel  sails.  6.  Schol- 
ars study.  7.  Grass  grows.  8.  Fire  burns.  9.  Liberty  is  sweet. 
10.  St.  Helena  is  an  island.  11.  Lead  is  a  metal.  12.  Water  is  a 
liquid.  13.  Cicero  was  an  orator.  14.  Webster  was  a  statesman. 
15.  Grammar  is  a  science,     16,  Birds  are  animals. 


36  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  Possessive  Case.  1.  The  storm's  fury  is  past.  2.  Henry's 
health  is  good.  3.  The  king's  palace  is  on  fire.  4.  Mary's  task  is 
done.  5.  Byron's  poems  are  published.  6.  Jane  borrowed  Sarah's 
book.  7.  Mr.  Johnson  sells  boys'  hats.  8.  The  defeat  of  Xerxes' 
army  was  the  downfall  of  Persia. 

3.  Objective  Case.  1.  John  struck  James.  2.  Joseph  bought 
the  book.  3.  The  widow  lost  her  son.  4.  Peter  studies  algebra. 
5.  The  horse  kicked  the  boy.  6.  The  man  wrote  a  letter.  7.  A 
dog  bit  a  man.  8.  Samuel  lives  over  the  river.  9.  Martha  went 
with  Susan.  10.  The  house  stands  on  the  hill.  11.  James  is  going 
to  Cincinnati.    12.  The  boy  ran  by  the  mill. 

4.  Absolute  Case.  1.  The  rebellion  being  ended,  the  army 
disbanded.  2.  Henry  being  away,  the  work  was  not  done.  3. 
"Friends,  Eomans,  Countrymen!  lend  me  your  ears!"  4.  "To 
arms!  they  come!  the  Greek!  the  Greek!"  5.  "My  daughter! 
oh,  my  daughter!"  6.  "Your  fathers,  where  are  they?"  7.  "My 
son,  have  you  seen  him?" 

Parse  all  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Boys  like  to  play.  2.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  is  three  thousand 
miles  wide.  3.  Johnson  the  doctor  is  a  brother  of  Johnson  the 
lawyer.  4.  Shakspeare  lived  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  5.  "Ah, 
Warwick!  Warwick!  wert  thou  as  we  are!" 

6.  Temperance  is  a  virtue.  7.  King  Agrippa,  believest  thou  the 
prophets?  8.  The  inferior  animals  are  divided  into  five  classes: 
quadrupeds,  fowls,  fishes,  reptiles,  and  insects.  9.  The  little  army 
fought  bravely  on  that  day.  10.  Where  are  the  Platos  and  Aris- 
totles  of  modern  times?  11.  I  have  seen  Mr.  Squires,  the  book- 
seller, and  stationer. 

Correct  all  errors  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  I  have  two  brother-in-laws.  2.  There  were  three  knight- 
templars  in  the  procession.  3.  Nebulas  are  sometimes  called  star- 
dust.  4.  I  saw  the  two  Mrs.  Jackson.  5.  The  Friends'  are  hold- 
ing a  meeting:  some  people  call  them  Quaker's.  6.  He  called  at 
Steele's  the  banker's.     7.  The  Jones'  were  all  there. 

8.  The  boys  slate  was  broken.  9.  The  mens'  wages  should  be 
paid  promptly.  10.  The  colonel's  of  the  7th  regiment's  horse  ran 
away.  11.  She  is  reading  in  her  sister's  Susan's  book.  12.  He 
studied  O.  B.  Pierce'  Grammar.  13.  The  fellows  impudence  was 
intolerable.  14.  He  has  octavoes,  quartoes,  and  folioes,  among 
his  books. 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES.  37 

THE   ADJECTIVE. 
40.  Oral  Lesson. 

Here  are  some  apples,  nice  for  eating:  what  shall  we  call  them? 
Arts, — Ripe  apples.  I  have  just  eaten  one,  and  it  tasted  sweet: 
what  else  can  we  call  them  ?  Arts. — Sweet  apples.  They  are  quite 
soft:  what  else  can  we  call  them?  Ans. — Mellow  apples.  Write 
on  your  slates,  "Ripe,  sweet,  mellow  apples."  All  these  words  de- 
note some  quality  of  the  apples :  what  shall  we  call  them  ?  Ans. — 
Quality-words.    A  very  good  name. 

Let  us  count  the  apples :  one  apple,  two  apples,  three  apples,  four 
apples.  Let  us  also  number  them :  the  first  apple,  the  second  apple, 
the  third  apple,  the  fourth  apple.  Write  these  numbers  on  your 
slates,  as  I  write  them  on  the  blackboard — one,  two,  three,  four: 
first,  second,  third,  fourth.  What  shall  we  call  these  words  ?  Ans. — 
Number -words. 

When  I  speak  of  the  apple  nearest  me,  I  say,  "This  apple;" 
when  of  one  farther  from  me,  "That  apple."  Do  the  words  this 
and  that  denote  any  quality  of  the  apples?  Ans. — They  do  not. 
What  do  they  do,  then  ?  Ans. — They  point  them  out.  Very  well : 
what  shall  we  call  themf    Ans. — Pointing-out-words. 

You  see  that  all  the  words  we  have  used,  in  some  manner  de- 
scribe "  apples."  Some  denote  quality :  some,  number :  some  merely 
point  out.  What  is  the  word  " apple?"  Ans. — A  noun.  Then 
they  all  describe  a  noun.  We  will  call  those  words  which  describe 
or  limit  the  meaning  of  nouns,  Adjectives.  What  are  all  of  these 
words?    Ans. — Adjectives. 

The  "  quality- words  "  we  will  call  Descriptive  Adjectives,  because 
they  describe  by  denoting  some  quality.  The  "number-words" 
and  "  pointing-out-words "  do  not  denote  quality.  We  will  call 
them  Definitive  Adjectives. 

Write  "This  is  a  good  book."  What  is  "good?"  Ans.— An 
adjective.  Why?  Ans.— It  describes  the  word  "book."  What 
kind  ?  Ans. — Descriptive.  Why  ?  Ans. — It  denotes  a  quality  be- 
longing to  the  book.  Write  "  These  two  books  are  mine."  What 
are  " these "  and  " two ? "  Ans. — Adjectives.  Why?  Ans. — They 
describe  "  books."  What  kind?  Ans. — Definitive.  Why?  Ans. — 
They  define  without  denoting  any  quality. 

Write  "Every  man  can  do  some  good."  What  are  "every"  and 
"some?"  Ans. — Adjectives.  Why?  Ans. — They  limit  nouns. 
What  kind?  Ans. — Definitive.  Why?  Ans. — They  define  with- 
out denoting  any  quality. 


38  -  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

41.  Definition. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  describe  or  define  the 
meaning  of  a  noun;  as,  wise  men,  that  book,  three  steam- 
ships, the  fourth  stanza. 

Rem. — The  English  language  has  about  7,000  adjectives. 

42.  Classes. 

Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes: 
Descriptive  and  Definitive. 

43.  Descriptive  Adjectives. 

1.  A  Descriptive  Adjective  describes  the  meaning 
of  a  noun  by  denoting  some  quality  belonging  to  it. 

Ex. — A  round  table,  a  square  table,  a  sour  apple,  a  sweet  apple, 
a  good  boy,  a  bad  boy,  an  Italian  sunset,  twinkling  stars,  thick- 
warbled  songs. 

2.  There  are  three  kinds  of  Descriptive  Adjectives :  Com- 
mon, Proper,  and  Participial. 

3.  A  Common  Adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet;  as, 
good,  hard,' broad,  flexible. 

4.  A  Proper  Adjective  is  an  adjective  derived  from 
a  proper  noun ;  as,  French,  American,  Websterian. 

5.  A  Participial  Adjective  is  a  participle  placed  be- 
fore the  noun  which  it  describes;  as,  a  shining  light,  echo- 
ing  shouts,  a  written  agreement. 

Rem.  l. — Words  commonly  used  as  other  parts  of  speech,  some- 
times perform  the  office  of  descriptive  adjectives,  and  should  be 
parsed  as  such. 

Ex. — A  gold  ring,  a  silver  cord,  the  California  pine,  a  make-believe 
patriot,  double-distilled  nonsense.  "  The  West  is  as  truly  American,  as 
genuinely  Jonathan,  as  any  other  part  of  our  country." 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES.  39 

Rem.  2. — An  adjective  is  frequently  limited  by  a  word  joined 
to  it  by  a  hyphen.  The  compound  term  thus  formed  is  called  a 
compound  adjective,  and  should  be  parsed  as  a  single  word. 

Ex. — A  high-sounding  title,  an  ill-matched  pair. 

Rem.  3 Participial  adjectives  are  derived  directly  from  verbs. 

Participles  usually  follow  the  nouns  they  describe. 

Rem*  4. — When  a  descriptive  adjective  represents  a  noun  un- 
derstood, or  not  expressed,  the  article  must  be  prefixed;  as,  "The 
wise  are  provident;"  "The  good  are  happy."  Adjectives  thus  used 
should  be  parsed  as  "  adjectives  used  as  nouns." 

Tell  which  of  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  are  Common, 

Proper,  and  Participial: 

1.  The  unfortunate  man  was  a  hard-working  mechanic.  2.  The 
fields  looked  beautiful.  3.  English  books  are  costly.  4.  The  howl- 
ing storm  is  passed.  5.  The  soil  is  veiy  productive.  6.  The  water 
falls  into  a  marble  basin.  7.  I  prefer  a  New  England  winter  to  an 
Australian  summer, 

44.  DefmitiYe  Adjectires. 

1.  A  Definitive  Adjective  limits  or  defines  the  mean- 
ing or  application  of  a  noun  without  expressing  any  of  its 
qualities. 

Ex. — The  Ohio,  that  man,  three  dollars,  the  third  seal,  a  twofold 
reference.     "All  men  are  mortal."     "Each  soldier  received  his  pay." 

2.  Definitive  Adjectives  are  divided  into  three  classes: 
Articles,  Pronominal  Adjectives,  and  Numeral  Adjectives. 

45.  Articles. 

1.  The  is  called  the  Definite  Article,  because  it  definitely 
points  out  the  object  which  it  defines  or  restricts;  as,  "The 
book  is  on  the  table;"  "Tlie  horse  ran  over  the  bridge." 

2.  A  or  An  is  called  the  Indefinite  Article,  because  it 
defines  or  restricts  in  an  indefinite  or  general  manner;  as^ 
"A  book  is  on  a  table;"  "A  horse  ran  over  a  bridge," 


40  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3.  An  should  be  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel 
sound;  A  before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant  sound.  They 
are  spoken  of  as  one  article,  because  they  are  merely,  a  later  and 
an  earlier  form  of  the  same  word. 

Rem.  l. — The  definite  article  is  used, 

1.  To  point  out  a  particular  object  or  class  of  objects,  or  a  par- 
ticular individual  or  portion  of  a  class;  as,  "The  sun  and  the 
moon;"  "The  Turks  and  the  Greeks  are  at  war;"  "The  rich  and 
the  poor  here  meet  together." 

2.  To  distinguish  an  object  from  another  having  the  same 
name;  as,  Mississippi,  the  name  of  a  State;  the  Mississippi,  the 
name  of  a  river :  Robert  Fulton,  the  name  of  a  person ;  the  Robert- 
Fulton,  the  name  of  a  steam-boat. 

3.  To  point  out  an  object  as  familiarly  known  or  spoken  of,  or 
as  preeminently  distinguished ;  as,  "  The  Hibernia  sailed  yesterday ;" 
"The  Capitol  is  a  noble  building;"  "The  immortal  Washington." 

Rem.  2. — The  indefinite  article  is  used  to  show  that  no  particular 
one  of  a  class  is  meant — the  leading  idea  being  any  or  one.;  as,  a 
man,  i,  e.y  any  man,  or  one  man ;  "A  picture  hangs  on  the  wall," 
L  e.,  one  picture.     "  Bring  me  a  book,"  i.  e.}  any  book. 

Rem.  3. — The  indefinite  article  may  be  used, 

1.  To  point  out  a  single  individual;  as,  a  plum,  i.  e.,  one  plum; 
a  horse,  i.  e.,  one  horse;  an  ox,  L  e.,  one  ox. 

2.  To  point  out  a  single  sum  or  aggregate ;  as,  a  dozen  apples, 
a  few  dimes,  a  hundred  dollars,  a  wealthy  people. 

Rem.  4. — An  article  sometimes  limits,  not  a  noun  alone,  but  a 
noun  as  limited  by  other  words;  as,  "The  old  men  retired  early; 
the  yaung  men  remained  until  midnight."  The  article  here  limits 
the  complex  ideas  "  old  men  "  and  "  young  men."  "An  early  spring 
is  no  sign  of  a  fruitful  season"  The  article  here  limits  the  complex 
ideas  "early  spring"  and  "fruitful  season." 

46.  Pronominal  Adjectives. 

1.  Pronominal  Adjectives  are  definitives,  most  of 
which  may,  without  an  article  prefixed,  represent  a  noun 
understood;  as,  all  men,  each  soldier,  yonder  mountain. 

2.  They  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  Demonstra- 
tives, Distributives,  and  Indefinites. 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES.  41 


47.  Demonstratives. 

1.  Demonstratives  point  out  objects  definitely.  They 
are  this,  that,  these,  those,  former,  latter,  both,  same,  yon, 
yonder. 

2.  This,  (plural  these,)  distinctly  points  out  an  object  as  near 
in  place  or  time;  as,  "This  desk  and  these  books." 

3.  That,  (plural  those,)  distinctly  points  out  an  object  as  not 
near,  or  not  so  near  as  some  other  object;  as,  "That  desk  and  those 
books." 

4.  In  speaking  of  two  objects,  that  should  refer  to  the  former, 
and  this  to  the  latter;  as,  "These  horses  are  larger  than  those." 

5.  Former  and  latter  are  used  to  designate  which  of  two 
objects  previously  mentioned  is  referred  to;  as,  aThe  cry  of  danger 
to  the  Union  was  raised  to  divert  their  assaults  upon  the  Constitu- 
tion.    It  was  the  latter,  and  not  the  former,  which  was  in  danger." 

6.  Both  implies  not  only  the  one  but  the  other  also ;  as,  "Both 
forts  were  taken;"  "  James  and  Silas  were  both  tardy." 

7.  Same  denotes  an  identical  or  similar  object;  as,  "That  is 
the  same  man  we  saw  yesterday ;"  "  Both  tables  are  made  of  the 
same  wood." 

8.  Yon  and  yonder  point  out  some  object  in  sight;  as,  "Yon 
house  on  the  hill;"  "Yonder  mountain  is  a  volcano." 

48.  Distributives. 

1.  Distributives  represent  objects  as  taken  separately. 
There  are  four  distributives :  each,  every,  either,  neither. 

2.  Each  can  be  applied  to  one  of  two  or  any  greater  number  ; 
as,  "Each  warrior  drew  his  battle  blade;"  "Useless  each  without 
the  other." 

3.  Every  can  be  applied  to  one  of  more  than  two  individuals 
only;  as,  "They  received  every  man  a  penny;"  "Every  person  in 
the  room  was  astonished." 

4.  Either  can  be  applied  to  one  of  two  objects  only ;  as,  "Either 
of  the  two  roads  leads  to  town  ;"   "  You  may  have  either  house." 

5.  Neither  means  not  either ;  as,  "Which  of  the  two  shall  I 
take?  both?   one?  ov  neither?" 

H.  G.  4. 


42  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


49.  Indefinites. 

1.  Indefinites  refer  to  objects  in  a  general  way,  without 
pointing  out  any  one  in  particular.  The  principal  indefinites 
are  all,  any,  another,  certain,  divers,  enough,  few,  little, 
many,  much,  no,  none,  one,  own,  other,  several,  some, 
sundry,  which,  whichever,  whichsoever,  what,  whatever, 
whatsoever. 

2.  All  describes  objects  taken  together;  as,  "All  the  years  of 
man's  life ;"  "All  men  are  mortal." 

3.  Any  denotes  a  single  one  of  many;  as,  "Have  you  any 
wheat  to  sell  ?  "  "  Neither  go  into  the  town,  nor  tell  it  to  any  in 
the  town." 

4.  Another,  or  other,  denotes  something  distinct  from  some- 
thing else  of  the  same  kind;  as,  "He  took  another  road;"  "He  will 
let  out  his  vineyard  to  other  husbandmen. " 

5.  Certain  denotes  one  or  some  in  an  indefinite  sense ;  as,  "And 
I,  Daniel,  was  sick  certain  days ;"  "  I  shall  not  vote  for  a  certain 
individual." 

6.  Divers  means  unlike,  various,  numerous;  as,  "A  prey  of 
divers  colors  of  needle-work;"   "Divers  miracles." 

7.  Enough  denotes  a  sufficiency ;  as,  "  I  have  enough  for  my 
brother;"  "Enough  has  been  said  already." 

8.  Few  denotes  not  many,  a  small  number;  as,  "  Many  shall  be 
called,  but  few  chosen ;"  "  I  have  a  few  old  books." 

9.  utile  means  small  in  quantity,  amount,  or  duration;  as, 
"A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing;"  "A  little  sleep,  a  little 
slumber,  a  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep." 

10.  Many  denotes  a  large  number;  as,  "Many  men  of  many 
minds ;"  "  The  mutable,  rank-scented  many.''1 — Shakspeare. 

11.  Much  denotes  a  large  quantity;  as,  "There  is  much  wealth 
in  this  town;"  "Thou  shalt  carry  much  seed  out  into  the  field, 
and  shalt  gather  but  little  in." 

12.  No  means  not  any,  none.  As  a  noun  it  means  one  who  votes 
in  the  negative ;  as,  "  The  noes  have  it." 

13.  None  means  not  one,  or  not  any;  as,  "Ye  shall  flee  when 
none  pursueth  you;"  "Thou  shalt  have  none  assurance  of  thy 
life." 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES.  43 

14.  One  corresponds  to  another;  as,  "They  love  one  anotlier," 
i  e.j  each  person  loves  the  other. 

15.  Own  implies  possession  with  emphasis  or  distinction;  as, 
"My  own  home;"  "Our  own  dear  mother." 

16.  Several  denotes  any  small  number  more  than  two ;  as,  "Sev- 
eral victories."  Also,  single,  individual;  as,  "I'll  kiss  each  several 
paper  for  amends." 

17.  Some  denotes  a  certain  but  indeterminate  number  or  quan- 
tity; as,  "Some  money;"  "I  have  brought  some  books." 

18.  Sundry  means  various,  divers;  as,  "So  teach  sundry  gram- 
marians." 

19.  What  and  which,  and  their  compounds,  point  out  objects 
definitely   or   indefinitely ;    as,   "  What    lesson   shall   we   learn   to- 


50.  Numeral  Adjectives. 

1.  Numeral  Adjectives  are  those  which  express  num- 
ber and  order  definitely ;  as,  four,  fourth,  fourfold. 

2.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes:  Cardinal,  Or- 
dinal, and  Multiplicative. 

3.  Cardinal  Numerals  denote  simply  the  number  of 
objects;  as,  two,  thirteen,  fifty,  a  thousand. 

4.  Ordinal  Numerals  mark  the  position  of  an  object 
in  a  series;  as,  second,  thirteenth,  fiftieth,  the  thousandth. 

5.  Multiplicative  Numerals  denote  how  many  fold; 
as,  twofold,  fourfold. 

GENERAL   REMARKS. 

1.  When  a  noun,  limited  by  either  a  descriptive  or  a  definitive 
adjective,  is  some  indefinite  word/or  has  been  previously  used  in 
the  same  sentence,,  it  may  be  omitted;  as,  "The  cedars  highest  on 
the  mountain  are  the  smallest;"  "The  foremost  horse  is  a  better 
animal  than  the  hindmost"  " Give  me  this  book,  and  you  may 
have  thai" 


44  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  Such,  many,  only,  but,  much,  and  not,  when  used  alone  limit 
plural  nouns  only.  When  followed  by  the  indefinite  article  a  or 
an,  the  phrases  such  a,  many  a,  &c.,  limit  singular  nouns;  as,  "If 
you  repay  me  not  on  such  a  day ;"  "Many  a  time ;"  "  He  is  but  a 
man ;"  "Not  a  drum  was  heard."  These  phrases  should  be  parsed 
as  single  words. 

3.  When  definitive  adjectives  are  used  in  connection  with  de- 
scriptive, the  former  should  be  placed  first;  as,  "That  valuable 
property;"  "Ten  small  houses." 

4.  When  cardinal  and  ordinal  numerals  are  used  together,  the 
latter  should  be  placed  first;  as,  "The  last  two  days;"  "The  first 
three  chapters." 

5.  A  cardinal  numeral  used  as  -a  noun,  requires  no  article :  an 
ordinal  should  have  the  article  prefixed;  as,  "Were  not  ten 
cleansed?"  "The  tenth  was  rescued." 

6.  Each  other  and  one  another  are  sometimes  called  reciprocals, 
because  they  are  reciprocally  related  ;  as,  "  They  mutually  assist 
each  other-"  "They  help  one  another" 

7.  Adjectives  which  vary  in  form  to  denote  number,  should 
agree  in  that  property  with  the  nouns  they  limit.  Say,  "  this  sort," 
not  "these  sort." 

8.  Other  parts  of  speech  should  not  be  improperly  used  as 
adjectives.  Say  "these  books,"  not  "them  books;"  "His  voice 
sounds  harsh"  not  "harshly" 

51.  Comparison. 

1.  *  Comparison  is  a  variation  of  the  adjective  to  ex- 
press different  degrees  of  quality;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest; 
good,  better,  best. 

2.  There  are  three  I>egrees  of  Comparison:    the 

Positive,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative. 

3.  The  Positive  degree  ascribes  to  an  object  the  simple 
quality,  or  an  equal  degree  of  the  quality;  as,  "A  mild 
winter;"  "She  is  as  good  as  she  is  beautiful" 

4.  The  Comparative  degree  ascribes  to  one  of  two 
objects  a  higher  or  lower  degree  of  the  quality  than  that 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES.  45 

expressed  by  the  positive;  as,  "A  milder  winter  than  usual  f 

"Mary  is  less  studious  than  Emma." 

5.  The  Superlative  degree  ascribes  the  highest  or  low- 
est degree  of  the  quality  to  one  of  more  than  two  objects ; 
as,  "The  mildest  winter  ever  known;"  "The  least  skillful 
rider  could  do  no  worse." 

Rem.  l. — The  suffix  ish,  and  the  words  rather,  somewhat,  &c, 
denote  the  possession  of  a  little  of  the  quality ;  as,  bluish,  rather 
young,  somewhat  uncomfortable. 

Rem.  2. — The  words  altogether,  far,  by  far,  vastly,  much,  very, 
exceedingly,  a  most,  a  little,  too,  very,  slightly,  greatly,  &c.,  denote  a 
high  degree  of  the  quality  without  implying  comparison ;  as,  very 
useful,  exceedingly  welcome,  a  most  valuable  invention. 

Rem.  3. — Adjectives  denoting  qualities  which  can  not  exist  in 
different  degrees,  can  not,  with  propriety,  be  compared — though 
some  writers,  not  taking  them  in  their  full  sense,  often  use  them 
in  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees. 

Ex. — Blind,  deaf,  perfect,  right,  level,  square,  straight,  perpendic- 
ular, equal,  naked,  honest,  sincere,  hollow,  empty,  dead.  "  My  sin- 
cerest  regards."     "  Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect  of  our  senses." 

52.  Of  Comparatives  and  Superlatives. 

1.  In  Ascending  comparison,  the  comparative  and  su- 
perlative degrees  are  regularly  formed, 

1st.  By  adding  to  the  positive  of  monosyllables,  r  or  er 
for  the  comparative,  and  st  or  est  for  the  superlative;  as, 
wise,  wiser,  wisest;  hard,  harder,  hardest. 

2d.  By  prefixing  to  the  positive  of  adjectives  of  more 
than  one  syllable,  more  for  the  comparative,  and  most  for 
the  superlative;  as,  honorable,  more  honorable,  most  honor- 
able. 

Rem.  i. — Most  adjectives  of  two  syllables  ending  in  y  or  le,  after 
a  consonant,  or  accented  on  the  second  syllable,  form  their  com- 
parative and  superlative  degrees  like  monosyllables ;  as,  holy,  holier, 
holiest ;  gentle,  gentler,  gentlest. 


46  ENGLISH   GKAMMAR. 

Hem.  2.  —Some  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  ending  in  a  vowel 
or  liquid  sound,  form  their  comparative  and  superlative  degrees 
like  monosyllables;  as,  handsome,  handsomer,  handsomest;  narrow, 
narrower,  narrowest. 

Rem.  3. — Some  words  are  expressed  in  the  superlative  degree 
by  adding  the  suffix  most;  as,  hindmost,  innermost, 

2.  In  I&escen&ing  comparison,  the  comparative  is 
formed  by  prefixing  less,  and  the  superlative  by  prefixing 
least,  to  the  positive;   as,  wise,  less  wise,  least  wise. 

3.  Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly;  as,  good, 
better,  best;  bad,  worse,  worst 

Rem.  i. — Poets  sometimes  compare  monosyllables  by  prefixing 
more  and  most;  as,  "A  foot  more  light,  a  step  more  true" 

Rem.  2. — When  monosyllabic  and  polysyllabic  adjectives  come 
together,  the  monosyllables  are  placed  first,  and  all  are  compared 
by  prefixing  more  and  most;  as,  "The  more  nice  and  elegant  parts ;" 
"The  most  rude  and  barbarous  people." 

Rem.  3 — Adjectives  should  not  be  doubly  compared;  as,  "A 
more  healthier  climate ;"  "After  the  most  strictest  sect  of  our  relig- 
ion, I  lived  a  Pharisee." 

53.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  An  Adjective,  and  why? 

2.  Descriptive  or  Definitive,  and  why? 

3.  Compare  it,  if  it  admits  of  comparison. 

4.  Degree  of  comparison,  and  why? 

5.  What  does  it  describe  or  define? 

6.  Rule. 

54.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "Every  diligent  boy  received  merited  praise." 

Ev^ry ...  is  an  adjective ;  it  is  a  word  used  to  describe  or  define  the 
meaning  of  a  noun :  definitive;  it  defines  without  expressing 
any  quality:  distributive  pronominal;  it  represents  objects 
taken  separately :  it  can  not  be  compared,  and  belongs  to 
"  boy."  Rule  XII.  "An  adjective  or  participle  belongs  to 
some  noun  or  pronoun." 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 


47 


Diligent  .  is  an  adjective;  (why?) :  descriptive;  it  describes  a  noun  by 
denoting  some  quality:  common;  it  is  an  ordinary  epithet: 
compared,  pos.  diligent,  comp.  more  diligent,  sup.  most  dili- 
gent: positive  degree,  and  belongs  to  "boy."    Rule  XII. 

Merited  .  is  an  adjective;  (why?):  descriptive;  (why?):  participial; 
it  is  a  participle  placed  before  the  noun  it  limits:  com- 
pared, pos.  merited,  comp.  more  merited,  sup  most  merited: 
positive  degree,  and  belongs  to  "praise."     Eule  XII. 

II.   "Many  a  fine  intellect  is  buried  in  poverty." 

Many  a.  .  is  an  adjective;  (why?):  definitive;  (why?):  indefinite  pro- 
nominal; it  refers  to  objects  in  a  general  way:  it  can  not 
be  compared,  and  belongs  to  "  intellect."     Rule  XII. 

Fine  ....  is  an  adjective;  (why?):  descriptive;  (why?):  common; 
(why?) :  compared,  pos.  fine,  comp.  finer,  sup.  finest:  positive 
degree,  and  belongs  to  "intellect."     Rule  XII. 

III.   "The  first  two  engravings  are  American  harvest  scenes." 

The  ....  is  an  adjective ;  (why?):  definitive;  (why?):  definite  article ; 
(why?):  it  can  not  be  compared,  and  belongs  to  "engrav- 
ings."    Rule  XII. 

First.  ...  is  an  adjective;  (why?):  definitive;  (why?):  numeral;  it 
denotes  number :  ordinal ;  it  marks  the  position  of  an  ob- 
ject in  a  series :  it  can  not  be  compared,  and  belongs  to 
"engravings."     Rule  XII. 

Two  ....  is  an  adjective;  (why?):  definitive;  (why?):  numeral; 
(why?):  cardinal;  it  denotes  the  number  of  objects:  it 
can  not  be  compared,  and  belongs  to  "engravings." 
Rule  XII. 

American  is  an  adjective;  (why?)  :  descriptive;  (why?):  proper;  it  is 
derived  from  a  proper  noun :  it  can  not  be  compared,  and 
belongs  to  "scenes."     Rule  XII. 

Harvest  .is  an  adjective;  (why?):  descriptive;  (why?)  common; 
(why?) :  it  can  not  be  compared,  and  belongs  to  "scenes." 
Rule  XII. 


IV.   "  The  weather  is  pleasant." 

Pleasant .  is  an  adjective;  (why?):  descriptive;  (why?):  common; 
(why?) :  compared,  pos.  pleasant,  comp.  more  pleasant;  sup. 
most  pleasant :  positive  degree^  and  belongs  to  "  weather." 
Rule  XII. 


48  ENGLISH    GBAMMAR. 


55.  Exercises. 

Parse  the  nouns  and  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  A  loud  report  was  heard.  2.  Fearful  storms  sweep  over  these 
beautiful  islands.  3.  Life  is  but  a  vapor.  4.  These  walks  are  quiet 
and  secluded.  5.  I  feel  sad  and  lonely.  6.  The  fields  look  green. 
7.  He  took  a  twofold  view  of  the  subject.  8.  Bright  an4  joyful  is  the 
morn.     9.  The  steak  was  cooked  rare. 

10.  Either  road  leads  to  town.  11.  Each  soldier  was  a  host  in  him- 
self. 12.  Both  horses  are  lame.  13.  Such  a  law  is  a  disgrace  to  any 
state.  14.  Repeat  the  first  four  lines  in  concert.  15.  My  drowsy 
powers,  why  sleep  ye  so?  16.  Homer  was  a  greater  poet  than  Virgil. 
17.  One  story  is  good  until  another  is  told.  18.  Silver  and  gold  have 
I  none.  19.  The  Australian  gold  fields  are  very  extensive.  20.  The 
floor  was  formed  of  six-inch  boards. 

21.  My  opening  eyes  with  rapture  see 
The  dawn  of  this  returning  day. 

22.  With  many  a  weary  step,  and  many  a  groan, 

Up  the  high  hill  he  heaves  a  huge  round  stone. 

23.  Strong  Creator,  Savior  mild, 
Humbled  to  a  little  child, 
Captive,  beaten,  bound,  reviled — 

Jesus !  hear  and  save. 

Exercises  to  be  corrected: 

1.  Put  them  books  on  the  table.  2.  You  may  have  either  of  them 
six  apples.  3.  Neither  of  my  three  hats  is  large  enough.  4.  That 
book  you  are  now  reading  was  printed  in  1578.  5.  These  men  we 
saw  yesterday  were  Italians.  6.  He  gave  a  reward  to  all  of  the  four 
men.     7.  None  of  the  two  young  ladies  is  very  beautiful. 

8.  There  are  less  boys  in  school  now  than  formerly. — (Less  suggests 
quantity — fewer  suggests  number.)  9.  I  have  caught  less  fish  than  you. 
10.  They  worship  both  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  11.  There  is  no 
glory  in  doing  what  every  body  can  do.  12.  Such  persons  as  desire 
may  remain. — (Do  not  use  such  instead  of  all.)  13.  The  gravel  walk 
was  rolled  smoothly.  14.  I  like  our  now  minister  very  much.  15. 
The  eggs  were  boiled  hardly.     16.  John  reads  too  loudly. 

17.  The  relative  should  be  placed  as  nearly  as  possible  to  its  ante- 
cedent. 18.  Often  touching  will  soil  silver.  19.  There  are  not 
fewer  than  ten  tons  of  iron  in  that  bridge.  20.  Every  member  are 
expected  to  contribute  something.  21.  Sing  the  two  first  and  the  two 
last  verses. 


ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS.  49 

22.  You  may  have  the  peaches  on  the  three  first  trees  in  them  two 
rows.  23.  The  former  of  them  five  sentences  is  incorrect.  24.  I  never 
saw  a  more  happier  man.  25.  Worser  evils  than  poverty  can  be  im- 
agined. 26.  That  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all.  27.  He  is  the 
awkwardest,  backwardest  boy  in  school. 

28.  I  do  not  like  these  kind  of  apples.  29.  I  would  rather  have  a 
squarer  box.  30.  Which  is  meanest,  a  miser  or  a  thief?  31.  Jacob 
loved  Joseph,  more  than  all  his  children.  32.  None  of  our  family  was 
at  the  party  last  evening.  33.  That  man  occupies  the  largest  store- 
room of  any  in  the  town. 


THE    PRONOUN. 
56.  Oral  Lesson0 

Notice  what  I  write:  "  John  took  John's  hat,  and  put  John's 
hat  on  John's  desk."  Do  you  think  this  is  a  correct  sentence? 
Ans. — No,  sir,  we  do  not.  What  words  are  unnecessarily  repeated  ? 
Ans. — "John"  and  "hat."  Write  the  sentence  on  your  slates  as 
you  think  it  should  be  written.  Sarah,  you  may  read  wThat  you 
have  written.  (Sarah  reads  "  John  took  his  hat,  and  put  it  on  his 
desk."  The  teacher  writes  it  on  the  blackboard.)  Now,  the  words 
used  in  the  place  of  "John"  and  "hat,"  are  called  Pronouns,  which 
means  "instead  of  nouns."  What  shall  we  call  all  words  used  in- 
stead of  nouns?    Ans. — Pronouns. 

I  will  write  again :  "i"  write,  you  read,  but  he  wThispers."  What 
are  the  words  "I,"  "you,"  and  "he"?  An$. — Pronouns.  Why? 
Ans. — Because  they  are  used  instead  of  nouns.  What  person  is 
"I"?  Ans. — First  person,  because  it  stands  for  the  person  speak- 
ing. What  person  is  "you"?  Ans. — Second  person,  because  it 
stands  for  the  person  spoken  to.  What  person  is  "he"?  Ans. — 
Third  person,  because  it  stands  for  the  person  spoken  of.  Those 
words  which  show  by  their  form  the  person  of  the  nouns  they  rep- 
resent are  called  Personal  Pronouns.  What  kind  of  pronouns  are 
these  words?    Ans. — Personal  Pronouns. 

Write  this  sentence:  "The  man  wTho  was  with  me  is  a  lawyer." 
What  is  "  me  "  ?  Ans. — A  pronoun.  What  other  pronoun  is  there 
in  the  sentence?  Ans. — "Who."  That  is  right — and  what  word 
does  "who"  stand  for?  Ans. — Man.  But  "who"  can  be  used  to 
represent  the  first,  second,  or  third  person  ;  as,  "  I  who  speak  to  you ;" 
"You  who  listen;"  "He  who  whispers."  It  does  not  change  fts 
H.  G.  5. 


r 


50  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

form  to  denote  person,  but  relates  to  some  noun,  and  must  be  of 
the  same  person  and  number  as  the  noun  to  which  it  relates.  It  is 
therefore  called  a  Relative  Pronoun.  What  shall  Ave  call  all  similar 
words?    Ans. — Relative  Pronouns. 

Write  this  sentence:  "Who  has  lost  a  pencil?"  The  word 
"  who"  is  here  used  in  asking  a  question.  We  will  call  it  an  Inter- 
rogative Pronoun.  What  shall  we  call  those  pronouns  which  are 
used  in  a  similar  manner?    Ans. — Interrogative  Pronouns. 

Write  this  sentence:  "That  book  is  mine."  What  two  words 
can  I  use  instead  of  "  mine?  "  Ans. — "  My  book."  "  Mine,"  then, 
stands  for  both  the  possessor  and  the  thing  possessed.  We  will 
call  it  a  Possessive  Pronoun.  What  shall  we  call  all  words  used  in 
a  similar  manner?    Ans. — Possessive  Pronouns. 


57.  Definition. 

1.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun;  as, 
his  book,  my  house;  "Whom  did  you  see?" 

2.  The  Antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  noun,  or 
equivalent  expression,  instead  of  which  the  pronoun  is  used. 
It  usually  precedes,  but  sometimes  follows  the  pronoun. 

Ex. — "The  poor  widow  lost  her  only  son."  Here  "widow"  is 
the  antecedent  of  "  her."  "  True  to  his  flag,  the  soldier  braved  even 
death."     "  Soldier  "  is  the  antecedent  of  "  his." 

3..  The  Antecedent  may  be  a  noun,  a  different  pronoun, 

a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

Ex.— "A  pupil  that  is  studious  will  learn."  "Pupil"  is  the 
antecedent  of  "that."  "He  who  runs  may  read."  "He"  is  the 
antecedent  of  "who."  "He  desired  to  pray,  but  it  was  denied 
him."  "To  pray"  is  the  antecedent  of  "it."  "He  has  squandered 
his  money,  and  he  now  regrets  it?  "He  has  squandered  his 
money  "  is  the  antecedent  of  "  it." 

4.  The  Antecedent  may  be  omitted;  in  which  case  it  is 
said  to  be  understood. 

Ex.— "Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash."  "The  person/"  or 
"he,"  understood,  is  the  antecedent  of  "who." 


ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS.  5 1 


58.  Properties. 

1.  The  Properties  of  a  Pronoun  are  Gender,  Person, 
Number,  and  Case. 

2.  The  gender,  person,  and  number  of  a  pronoun  are 
always  the  same  as  those  of  its  antecedent,  but  its  case  de- 
pends upon  the  construction  of  the  clause  in  which  it  is 
found. 

59.  Classes. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  four  classes :  Personal,  Pos- 
sessive, Relative,  and  Interrogative. 

60.  Persona]  Pronouns. 

1.  Personal  Pronouns  both  represent  nouns,  and 
show  by  their  form  whether  they  are  of  the  first,  second,  or 
third  person.     They  are  either  Simple  or  Compound. 

2.  The  Simple  Personal  Pronouns  are  I,  thou, 
he,  she,  and  it,  with  their  declined  forms,  we,  our,  us,  my, 
mine,  ye,  you,  your,  thy,  thine,  thee,  his,  him,  her,  its,  they, 
their,  them. 

3.  The  Compound  Personal  Pronouns  are  formed 
by  adding  self  or  selves  to  some  form  of  the  Simple  Person- 
als; as,  myself,  yourselves,  himself,  themselves. 

61.  Declension. 

1.  The  Simple  Personal  Pronouns  are  declined  as  fol- 
lows : 

First  Person. 


Singular. 
Nom.     I, 

Poss.     My  or  mine, 
Obj.      Me. 


Plural, 
Nom.    We, 
Poss.     Our. 
Obj.      Us. 


52 


ENGLISH   GEAMMAK. 


Second  Person. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural 

Norn. 

Thou, 

Ye, 

Nom. 

You, 

You, 

Poss. 

Thy  or 

thine, 

Your, 

Poss. 

Your, 

Your, 

Obj. 

Thee, 

Singular 

You. 
Third  ] 

Obj. 
Person. 

You, 
Plural. 

You. 

Mas. 

Fern. 

Neut. 

Neut.  or  Com. 

Nom. 

He, 

She, 

It, 

Nom. 

They, 

Poss. 

His, 

Her, 

Its, 

Poss. 

Their, 

Obj. 

Him, 

Her, 

It. 

Obj. 

Them. 

2.   The  Compound  Personal  Pronouns  are  declined  as 
follows: 

First  Person. 

Singular.  \  Plural. 


Nom.  &  Obj. 


Myself. 


Nom.  &  Obj.      Ourselves. 


Second  Person, 

Singular. 
Nom.  &  Obj.  Thyself  or  Yourself. 


Plural. 
Nom.  &  Obj.       Yourselves. 


Third  Person 

Singular. 

Mas.,  Fern.  &  Neut. 

(Himself, 
Herself, 
Itself. 


Plural. 


Nom.  &  Obj.       Themselves 


GEXERAI,   REMARKS. 

x.  Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  used  before  words  commencing 
with  a  vowel  sound,  in  preference  to  my  and  thy.  They  are  still 
used  thus  in  poetry;   as,  "Thine  eyes  I  see  thee  raise." 

2.  Thou,  thy,  thine,  thee,  thyself,  and  ye,  though  habitually  used 
by  the  Friends,  and  frequently  in  poetry,  in  the  Bible,  and  other 
sacred  writings,   are   now  seldom  used  except   in    solemn  style. 


ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS.  53 

They  may  be  regarded  as  antiquated  forms.     You,  your,  yours,  and 
yourself,  are  now  preferred. 

3.  You,  originally  plural,  and  still  plural  in  its  grammatical 
relations,  is  used  to  represent  singular  as  well  as  plural  nouns. 

4.  We  is  often  used  in  place  of  7",  in  royal  proclamations,  edito- 
rials, and  when  the  speaker  or  writer  wishes  to  avoid  the  appear- 
ance of  egotism ;  as,  "  We,  George  III,  King  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  do  proclaim/'  &c.  "  We  formerly  thought  differently,  but 
have  changed  our  mind." 

5.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  the  nominative  without  referring  to 
any  particular  antecedent;  and  in  the  objective  for  euphony  alone ; 
as,  "It  thunders;"  "It  seems  to  me;"  "It  is  a  true  saying;"  "Come 
and  trip  it  on  the  green." 

6.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  used  in  the  nominative 
and  objective  cases  only.  To  express  emphatic  distinction  in  the 
possessive  case,  the  word  own  is  used  instead  of  self  or  selves ;  as, 
"  Let  every  pupil  use  his  own  book ;"  "  Successful  merchants  mind 
their  own  business,  not  that  of  their  neighbors." 

7.  The  English  language  being  destitute  of  a  pronoun  of  the 
third  person  singular  and  common  gender,  usage  has  sanctioned 
the  employment  of  the  masculine  forms  he,  his,  him,  for  that  pur- 
pose; as,  in  speaking  of  scholars  generally,  we  say,  "A  thorough 
scholar  studies  his  lesson  carefully." 

8.  When  reference  is  made  to  an  assemblage  containing  males 
only,  or  females  only,  the  masculine  or  feminine  forms  should  be 
used,  as  the  case  may  require. 

9.  When  pronouns  of  different  persons  are  used,  the  second  should 
precede  the  third,  and  me  third  the  first;  as,  "  You,  and  he,  and  / 
were  boys  together." 

62.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Personal,  and  why? 

3.  Simple  or  Compound. 

4.  What  its  antecedent? 

5.  Gender,  person,  and  number?    Rule. 

6.  Decline  it. 

7.  Case,  and  why? 

8.  Rule. 


54  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

63.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "J  have  seen  him.19 

I is  a  pronoun;  (why?) :   personal;  it  shows  by  its  form 

whether  it  is  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  person :  sim- 
ple ;  its  antecedent  is  the  name,  understood,  of  the  per- 
son speaking :  gender,  first  person,  singular  number, 

to  agree  with  its  antecedent :  Rule  IX.  "  Pronouns  must 
agree  with  their  antecedents  in  gender,  person,  and 
number :"  declined,  singular,  nom.  I,  poss,  my,  obj.  me ; 
plural,  nom.  we,  poss.  our,  obj.  us:  nominative  case; 
(why?):   Rule  I. 

Him is  a  pronoun;  (why?):   personal;  (why?):  simple;  its 

antecedent  is  the  name,  understood,  of  the  person  spoken 
of:  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  to 
agree  with  its  antecedent :  Kule  IX :  declined,  sing., 
nom.  he,  poss,  his,  obj.  him;  plural,  nom.  they,  poss. 
their,  obj,  them :   objective  case;  (why?):  Rule  VI. 

II.  "James,  lend  me  your  book." 

Me is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  personal;  (why?):  simple;  its 

antecedent  is  the  name,  understood,  of  the   speaker: 

gender,  first  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with 

its  antecedent :  Rule  IX :  decline  it :  objective  case,  it  is 
the  indirect  object  of  transitive  verb  "lend."    Rule  VI. 

III.  "The  soldiers  helped  themselves." 

Themselves  is  a  pronoun  ;  (why  ?) :  compound  personal ;  it  is  formed 
by  adding  selves  to  one  of  the  declined  forms  of  a  sim- 
ple personal:  its  antecedent  is  "soldiers:"  masculine 
gender,  third  person,  plural  number,  to  agree  with  its 
antecedent :  Rule  IX :  decline  it :  objective  case,  it  is  the 
object  of  the  transitive  verb  "  helped."     Rule  XI. 

IV.  "I,  myself,  heard  him  say  so." 

Rlyself.  •  .  .  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  compound  personal;  (why?) :  its 
antecedent  is  the    name,  understood,   of  the   speaker: 

gender,  first  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with 

its  antecedent :  Rule  IX  :  decline  it :  nominative  case, 
in  apposition  with  ik  I :"  Rule  IV. 


ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS.  55 


64.  Exercises. 

Parse  the  nouns,  personal  pronouns,  and  adjectives  in  t/ie  following 

sentences  : 

1.  He  and  I  attend  the  same  school.     2.  She  gave  her  sister  a 
new  book.    3.  Have  you  seen  him  to-day?    4.  I  saw  it  with  my 
own  eyes.    5.  You,  yourself,  told  me  so.    6.  The  wicked  is  snared 
in  the  work  of  his  own  hands.    7.  I  bought  the  book,  and  read  it/ 
8.  They  live  in  our  house. 

9.  I  see  them  on  their  winding  way.  10.  For  we  dare  not  make 
ourselves  of  the  number,  or  compare  ourselves  with  some  that  com- 
mend themselves:  but  they,  measuring  themselves  by  themselves, 
and  comparing  themselves  among  themselves,  are  not  wise. 

11.  My  country,  't  is  of  thee, 
Sweet  land  of  liberty, 

Of  thee,  I  sing. 

12.  Thou  great  Instructor,  lest  I  stray, 
Teach  thou  my  erring  feet  thy  way. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Him  and  me  both  study  grammar.  2.  I  and  he  were  play- 
mates. 3.  Her  and  my  aunt  are  great  friends.  4.  Every  person 
should  try  to  improve  their  mind  and  heart.  5.  Each  scholar 
should  try  to  learn  their  lessons.  6.  Those  molasses,  they  cost  one 
dollar  a  gallon.  7.  Many  a  thoughtless  youth  make  good  business 
men — but  it  is  after  they  have  reformed. 

8.  Both  John  and  S^nuel  got  his  lesson.  9.  If  a  fish  is  caught 
foul,  they  are  more  difficult  to  land.  10.  People  should  be  kind  to 
each  other.  11.  Did  you  see  which  of  the  scholars  finished  their 
examples  first?  12.  Every  hoy  and  girl  shall  have  their  reward. 
13.  Let  the  President  and  the  Senate  make  such  appointments  as 
it  pleases.  14.  If  any  member  of  the  congregation  wishes  to  con- 
nect themselves  with  this  church,  they  will  please  come  forward 
while  the  choir  sings. 

15.  They  had  some  victuals  left,  and  we  ate  it.  16.  Every  person 
and  every  thing  was  in  its  proper  place.  17.  The  hen-hawk  caught 
a  hen,  and  killed  her  on  her  own  nest.  18.  The  earth  is  my  mother, 
and  I  will  repose  on  its  bosom.  19.  It  is  me,  and  not  her,  who  you 
wish  to  see.  20.  If  any  passenger  has  not  paid  his  fare,  they  will 
come  up  to  the  captain's  office  and  pay  it. 


56    •  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


65.  Possessive  Pronouns. 

1.  Possessive  Pronouns  are  words  used  to  represent 
both  the  possessor  and  the  thing  possessed.  They  are  mine, 
thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  theirs. 

2.  To  denote  emphatic  distinction,  my  own  is  used  for 
mine,  his  own  for  his,  thy  own  for  thine,  our  own  for  ours, 
your  own  for  yours,  their  own  for  theirs. 

Ex. — "This  book  is  my  own;"  "Stand,  the  ground's  your  own. 
my  braves ! "  "  Do  not  borrow  or  lend  pencils :  each  scholar  should 
have  one  of  his  own" 

Rem. — Two  sets  of  models  are  given  for  parsing  Possessive 
Pronouns.    Both  methods  are  sanctioned  by  good  authorities. 

66.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Possessive,  and  why? 

3.  What  is  its  antecedent? 

4.  Gender,  person,  and  number,  and  why?    Rule. 

5.  Case,  and  why?    Rule. 

67.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "That  book  is  hers,  not  yours" 
FIRST   METHOD.   • 

Hers  ....  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  possessive;  it  represents  both  the 
possessor  and  the  thing  possessed;  its  antecedent  is 
"book;"  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  to 
agree  with  its  antecedent:  Rule  IX:  nominative  case,  it 
is  used  as  the  predicate  of  the  proposition  "That  book 
is  hers:"  Rule  II. 

Yours  ...  is  parsed  in  a  similar  manner ;  equivalent  to  "  your  book." 

SECOND  METHOD. 
Hers  ...     is  a  pronoun  ;  (why  ?) :  possessive  ;  (why  ?) :  it  is  equivalent 
to  "her  book."     Parse  "her"  as  a  personal  pronoun  in 
the  possessive  case,  according  to  Rule  III,  and  "book" 
as  predicate-nominative,  according  to  Rule  II. 


ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS.  57 

II.  " The  ground 's  your  own" 

FIRST  METHOD. 

Your  own  is  a  pronoun;  (why?)  :  possessive;  (wjay?):  its  antecedent 
is  "ground:"  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular  number; 
(why?):  nominative  case;  it  is  used  as  the  predicate  of 
the  proposition  "  The  ground 's  your  own."     Rule  II. 

SECOND   METHOD. 
Y©ur  own  is  a  pronoun;  (why?) :  possessive;  (why?) :  it  is  equivalent 
to  "your  ground."     Parse  "your"  as  a  personal  pronoun 
in  the  possessive  case,  according  to  Eule  III,  and  "  ground" 
as  the  predicate-nominative,  according  to  Rule  II. 

68.  Exercises. 

Parse  the  possessive  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  The  farm  is  neither  his  nor  theirs.  2.  Is  that  horse  of  yours 
lame  yet?    3.  I  did  not  hear  that  lecture  of  yours  last  evening. 

4.  He  is  an  old  friend  of  ours.  5.  This  book  is  not  mine ;  it  must 
be  his  or  hers.  6.  That  carriage  of  theirs  is  a  very  fine  one.  7. 
Friend  of  mine,  why  so  sad? 

Exercises  to  be  corrected: 

1.  That  horse  is  his'n.  2.  Is  that  book  your'n  or  her'n?  3.  I 
think  it  is  her'n.     4.  He  had  no  team;  so  he  borrowed  our'n. 

5.  Your  hat  is  not  so  pretty  as  her  'n.  6.  We  'uns  are  better  off 
than  you  'uns.    7.  You  'tins  are  a  low  set. 

69.  Relative  Pronouns. 

1.  A  Relative  Pronoun  is  used  to  represent  a  pre- 
ceding word  or  phrase,  called  its  antecedent,  to  which  it 
joins  a  limiting  clause;  as,  "The  man  whom  you  saw  is 
my  father." 

Rem.  l — The  antecedent  is  a  word  or  phrase  on  which  the  rel- 
ative clause  depends.  It  may  be  either  a  definite  or  an  indefinite 
object.  When  the  object  is  indefinite,  the  relative  clause  stands 
alone;  as,  "Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash." 

Rem.  2 — The  difference  between  personal  and  relative  pronouns 
is  shown  by  the  following  distinctions :  1.  Personal  pronouns  have 
a  distinct  form  for  each  grammatical  person;  as,  first  person,  // 


58  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

second  person,  thou,  or  you;  third  person,  he,  she,  or  it:  the  rela- 
tives do  not  change  their  form  for  person.  2.  A  personal  pronoun 
may  be  the  subject  of  an  independent  sentence ;  as,  "He  is  well :" 
a  relative  can  never  be  thus  used ;  it  is  always  found  in  a  depend- 
ent clause ;  as,  "  Laws  which  are  unjust  should  be  repealed." 

Rem.  3 — Relatives  serve  two  purposes  in  a  sentence:  one,  to 
represent  nouns  in  any  relation;  the  other,  to  join  a  limiting 
clause  to  the  antecedent.  The  first  is  a  pronominal,  the  second,  a 
conjunctive  use. 

2.  Eelative  Pronouns  are  either  Simple  or  Compound. 

3.  The  Simple  Relatives  are  who,  used  to  represent 
persons;  which  and  what,  to  represent  things;  that,  to  rep- 
resent both  persons  and  things;  and  as,  to  take  the  place 
of  who,  which,  or  that,  after  such,  many,  and  same. 

Rem.  i. —  What  is  sometimes  used  as  a  definitive  adjective,  as 
well  as  a  relative,  in  the  same  sentence :  in  which  case  it  is  placed 
before  the  noun  it  limits ;  as,  "I  send  you  what  money  I  have,"  i.  e.y 
"  I  send  you  the  money  which  I  have."  When  the  noun  it  limits 
is  understood,  what  takes  its  place,  and  should  be  parsed,  first  as  a 
pronominal  adjective,  and  secondly  as  a  relative. 

Rem.  2. — That  is  a  relative  when  wlio,  whom,  or  which  can  be 
substituted  for  it ;  as,  "  He  that  [ivho]  is  slow  to  wrath,  is  of  great 
understanding."  It  is  a  pronominal  adjective  when  it  immediately 
precedes  a  noun,  expressed  or  understood;  as,  "That  book  is 
yours;"  "I  did  not  say  that"  It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  joins 
a  dependent  clause  to  its  principal;  as,  "I  know  that  my  Ee- 
deemer  liveth." 

Rem.  3. —  What,  when  a  relative,  can  be  changed  into  that 
which,  or  the  thing  which;  as,  "Tell  me  what  [that  which]  you 
know;"  "I  got  what  [the  thing  which]  I  desired."  That,  or  the 
thing,  should  be  parsed  as  the  antecedent  part  of  what,  and  which 
as  the  relative.  The  antecedent  part,  that,  is  usually  a  pronom- 
inal adjective,  either  limiting  a  noun  expressed,  or  representing 
it  understood. 

Rem.  4 — Besides  being  a  relative,  what  may  be  an  interrogative 
pronoun;  as  "What  did  you  say?" — a  pronominal  adjective;  as, 
"  Wliat  book  have  you?" — an  interjection ;  as,  "  What!  is  thy  serv- 
ant a  dog,  that  he  should  do  this?" — an  adverb ;  as,  "  What  [partly] 
by  force,  and  what  by  fraild,  he  secures  his  ends." 


ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS.  59 

70.  Declension. 


Singular  and  Plural. 
Nom.  Who, 

Poss.  Whose, 

Obj.  Whom. 


Singular  and  Plural. 
Nom.  Which, 

Poss.  Whose, 

Obj.  Which. 


The  Compound  Relatives  are  formed  by  adding 
ever,  so,  and  soever  to  the  simple  relatives.  They  are  who- 
ever, whoso,  whosoever,  whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever,  and 
whatsoever. 

Rem. —  Whoever y  whoso,  and  whosoever,  are  equivalent  to  he  who, 
or  any  one  who  ;  as,  "  WJioever  studies  will  learn,"  i.  e.,  "Any  one  who 
studies  will  learn."  Whichever  said  whichsoever  are  equivalent  to 
any  ivhich;  as,  "  Whichever  way  you  may  take  will  lead  to  the 
city,"  i.  e.,  "Any  way  which  you  may  take,"  &c.  WJiatever  and  what- 
soever are  equivalent  to  any  thing  which;  as,  "I  am  pleased  with 
whatever  you  may  do,"  i.  e.,  "  I  am  pleased  with  any  thing  which  you 
may  do."  Compound  relatives  are  indeclinable,  and  should  be 
parsed  like  the  simple  relative  what. 

71.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Eelative,  and  why? 

3.  Name  its  antecedent. 

4.  Simple  or  Compound? 

5.  Gender,  person,  and  number,  and  why?    Eule. 

6.  Decline  it. 

7.  Case,  and  Eule. 

72.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.   "A  man  who  is  industrious,  will  prosper." 

Who ....  is  a  pronoun ;  (why?) :  relative;  it  represents  a  preceding 
word  or  phrase,  to  which  it  joins  a  limiting  clause :  its  ante- 
cedent is  "  man :"  simple :  masculine  gender,  third  person, 
singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  antecedent:  Eule  IX: 
nominative  case;  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  subordi- 
nate proposition  "  who  is  industrious :"  Eule  I. 


60 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


II.   "I  am  he  whom  ye  seek." 

Whom  ...  is  a  pronoun;  (why?) :  relative ;  (why?) :  its  antecedent  Is 
"  he :"  simple :  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber; (why  ?) :  Rule  IX :  objective  case  ;  it  is  the  object  of 
the  transitive  verb  "  seek :"  Rule  VI. 

III.   "  Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth  wisdom." 

That  ....  is  a  pronoun ;  (why?) :  relative;  (why?) :  its  antecedent  is 
"man:"  simple:  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular 
number;  (why?):  Rule  IX:  nominative  case;  it  is  the 
subject  of  the  subordinate  proposition  "That  findeth  wis- 
dom:" Eule  I. 

IV.    "The  horse  which  you  sold  me  is  lame." 

Which  ...  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  relative;  (why?):  its  antecedent  is 
"horse:"  simple:  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular 
number;  (why?):  Rule  IX:  objective  case;  it  is  the  object 
of  the  transitive  verb  "sold:"   Rule  VI. 

V.    "I  remember  what  you  said." 

What.  ...  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  relative;  (why?):  it  is  equivalent 
to  that  which — "that"  being  the  antecedent  part,  and  "which" 
the  relative.  Parse  "that"  as  a  "pronominal  adjective  used 
as  a  noun,"  in  the  objective  case  after  "remember." 

Which.  .  .  is  a  pronoun  (why?):  relative;  (why?):  its  antecedent  is 
"that:"  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular  number;  (why?) : 
objective  case;  object  of  the  transitive  verb  "said :"  Rule  VI. 

VI.  "That  is  the  man  whose  house  we  occupy." 

Whose.  .  .  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  relative;  (why?):  its  antecedent  is 
"man:"  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  number; 
(why?):  Rule  IX :  possessive  case;  modifies  "  house :"  Rule  III. 


VII.   "Whoever  studies  will  learn." 

Whoever,  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  relative;  (why?):  compound;  it  is 
equivalent  to  he  who,  or  any  one  who — "he"  being  the  an- 
teccdent  part,  and  "who"  the  relative.  Parse  "he"  as  a 
personal  pronoun,  subject  of  "will  learn,"  or  "one"  as  a 
"pronominal  adjective  used  as  a  noun,"  subject  of  "will 
learn,"  and  "who"  as  a  relative,  by  preceding  models. 


-I 


ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS.  61 

VIII.    "  Whatever  purifies  sanctifies." 

Whatever  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  relative;  (why?):  compound;  it  is 
equivalent  to  that  which.  Parse  "that"  and  "which"  ac- 
cording to  Model  V — "that"  being  the  subject  of  "sanc- 
tifies," "which"  of  " purifies." 

IX.   "Whoso  keepeth  the  law  is  a  wise  son." 

Whoso.  .  .  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  relative;  (why?):  compound;  it  is 
equivalent  to  he  who,  or  any  one  who.  Parse  according  to 
Model  VII.  i 

X.    "As  many  as  came  were  baptized." 

As is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  relative;  (why?):   its  antecedent  is 

"many:"  simple:  common  gender,  third  person,  plural 
number;  (why?):  Rule  IX:  nominative  case;  it  is  used  as 
the  subject  of  the  subordinate  proposition  "as  came,"  i.  e., 
who  came:   Rule  I. 


7B.  Exercises. 

•Parse  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Those  who  sow  will  reap.  2.  He  that  hateth,  dissembleth 
with  his  lips.  3.  They  that  forsake  the  law,  praise  the  wicked; 
but  such  as  keep  the  law,  contend  with  them.  4.  There  is  no  class 
of  persons  that  I  dislike  so  much  as  those  who  slander  their  neigh- 
bors. 5.  The  house  which  you  admire  so  much,  belongs  to  the 
man  whom  we  see  yonder. 

6.  Whatever  is,  is  right.  7.  Whatsoever  ye  shall  ask  in  my 
name,  that  will  I  do.  8.  He  wTill  do  what  is  right.  9.  This  is  the 
dog  that  worried  the  cat  that  killed  the  rat  that  ate  the  malt  that 
lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built.  10.  A  kind  boy  avoids  doing 
whatever  injures  others. 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Tell  me  who  you  saw.  2.  Those  which  are  rich  should  assist 
the  poor.  3.  I  am  the  chap  what  is  not  afraid  of  ghosts.  4.  I  gave 
all  what  I  had.  5.  This  is  the  man  who  we  sent  for.  6.  The  dog 
whom  you  bought,  was  stolen. 

7.  Who  went  with  me,  I  shall  not  tell.     8.  I  am  happy  in  the 


62  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

friend  which  I  have  long  proved.  9.  Whom,  when  they  had 
scourged  him,  they  let  him  go.  10.  They  compose  the  easiest  that 
have  learned  to  compose.  11.  Do  you  know  who  you  are  talking 
to?  12.  They  are  the  sort  of  people  who  I  do  not  like.  13.  This 
is  the  child  who  was  lost. 

74.  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

1.  The  Interrogative  Pronouns  are  who,  which, 
and  what,  when  used  in  asking  questions;  as,  "Who  goes 
there?"  "Which  is  yours?"  "What  did  you  say?" 

2.  The  Subsequent  of  an  Interrogative  Pronoun  is 
that  part  of  the  answer  which  is  represented  by  it.  An 
Interrogative  must  agree  with  its  subsequent  in  gender, 
person,  and  number. 

Rem.  l. —  Who  seeks  to  designate  some  person:  which,  to  dis- 
tinguish a  certain  individual  from  others:  what,  to  describe  the 
character  or  occupation  of  the  person  inquired  for;  as,  "Who  is 
that  gentleman?"— Mr.  Webster.— "Which  one?"— Daniel  Web- 
ster.— "What  is  he?" — An  eminent  lawyer  and  statesman. 

Rem.  2. — When  a  definite  object  is  referred  to,  which  and  what 
are  pronominal  adjectives,  limiting  the  name  of  the  object  inquired 
for ;  as,  "  Which  lesson  shall  we  learn  ? "  "  What  book  shall  we 
study?"  When  an  indefinite  object  is  referred  to,  the  interroga- 
tive takes  its  place;  as,  "Which  is  mine?"  "  What  say  you?" 

Rem.  3. — The  interrogatives  who  and  which  are  declined  like 
relative  pronouns. 

Rem.  4. — Apply  Rule  IX  in  parsing  interrogatives,  changing 
"antecedents"  to  " subsequents." 

# 

75.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Interrogative,  and  why? 

3.  Name  its  subsequent,  if  expressed. 

4.  Gender,  person,  and  number.     Rule. 

5.  Decline  it. 

6.  Case,  and  why?     Rule. 


ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS.  63 


76.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.   "Who  goes  there?" 

Who .  .  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  interrogative;  it  is  used  in  asking  a 
question :  its  subsequent  is  indefinite :  gender  and  person  inde- 
terminate: singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  subsequent: 
Rule  IX:  nominative  case;  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the 
sentence  "Who  goes  there?"     Rule  I. 

II.   "Which  is  yours?" — The  large  one. 

Which  is  a  pronoun  (why?):  interrogative;  (why?) :  its  subsequent  is 
"one:"  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular  number;  (why?): 
Rule  IX:  nominative  case;  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tence "Which  is  yours?"     Rule  I. 

III.   "What  is  that  man?"— A  blacksmith. 

What .  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  interrogative;  (why?):  its  subsequent  is 
"blacksmith:"  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  number; 
(why?) :  Rule  IX :  nominative  case;  it  is  used  as  the  predicate 
of  the  sentence  "What  is  that  man?"    Rule  II. 

77.  Exercises. 

Parse  the  interrogative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Who  saw  the  horse  run?  2.  Whose  house  is  that  on  the  hill 
yonder?  3.  Whom  did  he  call? — James.  4.  For  whom  did  he 
inquire  ?    5.  Which  will  you  have,  the  large  or  the  small  book  ? 

6.  Whom  did  you  take  me  to  be?  7.  WThat  shall  I  do?— Wait. 
8.  What  can  be  more  beautiful  than  that  landscape?  9,  Which  is 
the  lesson?    10.  Who  told  you  howT  to  parse  "what"? 

Parse  the  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

1.  Who  is  in  the  garden  ? — My  father.  2.  I  do  not  know  who 
is  in  the  garden.  3.  Tell  me  what  I  should  do.  4.  What  vessel 
is  that?    5.  Always  seek  for  what  you  need  the  most. 

6.  Whose  house  was  burned  last  night? — Mr.  Hubbard's.  7. 
The  boy  closed  the  shutters,  wThich  darkened  the  room.  8.  What 
is  his  name  ?  9.  Whoever  enters  here  should  have  a  pure  heart. 
10.  I  gave  all  that  I  had. 


64  ENGLISH   GKAMMAR. 

Correct  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Whom  do  you  suppose  it  was?  2.  Who  do  you  suppose  it 
to  be?  3.  Those  who  consider  themselves  a  good  critic  are  not  so 
considered  always  by  others.  4.  One  should  not  think  too  favor- 
ably of  themselves.     5.  Do  you  know  who  you  are  talking  to  ? 

6.  The  army  was  cut  up,  or  at  least  they  suffered  much.  7.  Be 
sure  to  tell  nobody  whom  you  are.  8.  Each  of  the  sexes  should 
be  kept  within  their  proper  bounds.  9.  The  council  were  divided 
in  its  estimates.  10.  No  one  could  have  acted  more  gallantly  than 
him  who  bore  the  standard  of  the  legion. 

11.  I  wish  I  was  her.  12.  Many  a  youth  have  injured  their  pros- 
pects for  life  by  one  imprudent  step.  13,  The  moon  appears,  but 
the  light  is  not  his  own.  14.  Between  he  and  1  there  is  some  dis- 
parity of  years,  but  none  between  he  and  she. 

15.  Whom  say  the  people  that  I  am?  16.  Every  one  of  those 
pleasures  that  are  pursued  to  excess,  convert  themselves  into 
poison.  17.  They  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor.  18.  The  very 
men  that  had  fought  in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  who  had  received 
the  plaudits  of  all  Europe,  were  defeated  at  New  Orleans. 

19.  She  was  a  conspicuous  flower,  which  he  had  sensibility  to 
love,  ambition  to  attempt,  and  skill  to  win.  20.  Those  lots,  if  they 
had  been  sold  sooner,  they  wouM  have  brought  more  money. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences : 
1.  Virtue  is  the  condition  of  happiness.  2.  Ye  are  the  light 
of  the  world.  3.  That  garment  is  not  well  made.  4.  One  ounce 
of  gold  is  worth  sixteen  ounces  of  silver.  5.  The  prayers  of  David, 
the  son  of  Jesse,  are  ended.  6.  Every  man  went  to  his  own  house. 
7.  The  army  is  loaded  with  the  spoils  of  many  nations.  8.  Be  of 
the  same  mind  one  toward  another. 

9.  He  sacrificed  every  thing  he  had  in  the  world :  what  could 
we  ask  more?  10.  Who 's  here  so  base  that  would  be  a  bondman? 
11.  I  speak  as  to  wise  men :  judge  ye  what  I  say.  12.  Liberty  was 
theirs  as  men:  without  it  they  did  not  esteem  themselves  men. 
13.  The  death  of  Socrates,  peacefully  philosophizing  with  his 
friends,  is  the  most  pleasant  that  could  be  desired.  14.  I  was  a 
stricken  deer,  that  left  the  herd  long  since. 

15.  O  Popular  Applause !  what  heart  of  man 

Is  proof  against  thy  sweet,  seducing  charms  ? 

16.  Beauty  is  but  a  vain,  a  fleeting  good : 
A  shining  gloss,  that  fadeth  suddenly. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  65 

17.  What  black,  what  ceaseless  cares  besiege  our  state : 
What  strokes  we  feel  from  fancy  and  from  fate. 

18.  Unveil  thy  bosom,  faithful  tomb ; 

Take  this  new  treasure  to  thy  trust ; 
And  give  these  sacred  relics  room 
To  slumber  in  the  silent  dust. 

19.  Thy  spirit,  Independence,  let  me  share, 

Lord  of  the  lion-heart  and  eagle-eye : 
Thy  steps  I  '11  follow  with  my  bosom  bare  ; 

Nor  heed  the  storm  that  howls  along  the  sky. 

20.  The  gay  will  laugh 
When  thou  art  gone ;  the  solemn  brood  of  care 
Plod  on,  and  each  one  as  before  will  chase 
His  favorite  phantom:  yet  all  these  shall  leave 
Their  mirth  and  their  employment,  and  shall  come 
And  make  their  bed  with  thee. — Bryant. 


THE   VERB. 
78,  Oral  Lesson. 

The  teacher  writes  on  the  blackboard,  "A  horse  runs,"  and  asks 
"  What  does  the  horse  do  ?  "  Arts. — A  horse  runs.  What  else  may 
a  horse  do?  Ans. — A  horse  trots,  walks,  gallops,  eats,  drinks,  &c. 
Write  these  words  on  your  slates.  Are  they  the  names  of  things? 
Ans. — They  are  not :  they  are  the  names  of  actions.  What  shall 
we  call  them?  Ans. — Action-ivords.  A  very  good  name,  but  gram- 
marians call  them  Verbs. 

Write  on  your  slates,  "John  studies."  What  is  the  subject  of 
the  sentence?  Ans. — "John."  What  is  the  predicate?  Ans. — 
"Studies."  Does  the  sentence  tell  what  John  studies?  Ans. — It 
does  not.  Write  "grammar"  after  the  verb  "studies."  The  sen- 
tence now  reads  "John  studies  grammar."  In  this  sentence,  the 
meaning  of  "studies"  is  completed  by  the  word  "grammar."  What 
element  is  that  word?     Ans. — An  objective  element. 

A  verb  which  requires  an  objective  element  to  complete  its 
meaning,  is  called  a  transitive  verb;  a  verb  which  does  not  require 
an  objective  element  to  complete  its  meaning  is  called  an  intransi- 
tive verb. 

H.  G.  6. 


66~  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Why?  Ans. — Because  its  meaning  is  completed  by  an  objective 
element.  What  is  "run,"  in  the  sentence  "John  runs?"  Ans.— 
An  intransitive  verb.  Why?  Ana, — Because  its  meaning  is  not 
completed  by  an  objective  element. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "The  fields  look  green." 
What  is  the  subject  of  this  sentence  ?  Ans. — "  Fields."  What  is 
the  predicate  ?  Ans. — "  Green."  What  is  the  office  of  the  word 
"look"?  Ans. — It  asserts  the  predicate  "green"  of  the-  subject 
"fields."  Correctly  answered:  its  use  is  copulative;  and  all  copu- 
lative words,  except  the  various  forms  of  "  be,"  are  called  copulative 
verbs.  What  is  "  look  "  in  this  sentence  ?  Ans. — A  copulative  verb. 
What  is  "seems"  in  the  sentence  "He  seems  afraid?"  Ans. — A 
copulative  verb.  Why?  Ans. — Because  it  asserts  the  predicate  of 
the  subject. 

79.  Definition. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or  state; 
as,  I  am;  George  writes;  The  house  stands. 

Rem. — The  being,  action,  or  state,  may  be  stated  abstractly,  or 
represented  as  belonging  to  a  subject;  as,  "To  write;"  "Boys 
write;"   "To  seem;"   "He  seems  discouraged." 

80.  Classes  with  Respect  to  Use. 

1.  With  respect  to  their  use,  Verbs  may  be  divided  into 
Copulative,  Transitive,  and  Intransitive. 

2.  A  Copulative  Verb  is  used  to  assert  the  predicate 
of  a  proposition  of  the  subject;  as,  "Sugar  is  sweet;"  "He 
seems  honest." 

Rem. — The  copula  to  be  is  the  only  pure  copulative.  The  verbs 
become,  seem,  appear,  stand,  walk,  and  other  verbs  of  motion,  position, 
and  condition,  together  with  the  passive  verbs  is  named,  is  called,  is 
styled,  is  elected,  is  appointed,  is  constituted,  is  made,  is  chosen,  is  es- 
teemed, and  some  others,  are  frequently  used  as  copulatives. 

Ex. — "The  road  became  rough;"  "The  men  appeared  cheerful;" 
uHe  is  styled  the  Czar  of  all  the  Russias;"  "Sir  Walter  Scott  is  called 
the  Wizard  of  the  North ;"  "  Gen.  Washington  was  elected  first  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States." 


ETYMOLOGY VERBS.  67 

3.  A  Transitive  Verb  requires  an  object  to  complete 
its  meaning;  as,  "The  hunter  killed  a  bear;"  "The  scholar 
learned  his  lesson;"  "That  house  has  seven  gables," 

4.  An  Intransitive  Verb  does  not  require  an  object 
to  complete  its  meaning;  as,  "Flowers  bloom;"  "Grass 
grows;"  "The  wind  blows  furiously." 

Rem.  i. — The  action  expressed  by  a  transitive  verb  has  refer- 
ence to  some  object  external  to  the  subject,  upon  which  it  termi- 
nates: the  action  expressed  by  an  intransitive  verb  has  no  such 
reference,  but  affects  the  subject  only.  If  an  object  is  required  to 
complete  its  meaning,  a  verb  is  transitive,  otherwise  intransitive. 
A  verb  in  the  passive  form  is  transitive,  if  its  subject  in  the  passive 
voice  can  be  made  its  object  in  the  active. 

Ex. — "That  boy  studies  algebra."  The  verb  "studies"  is  transitive, 
because  its  meaning  is  completed  by  the  object  "algebra."  "That  boy 
studies"  The  verb  "studies"  is  transitive,  because  some  word,  as  les- 
son, grammar,  &c,  is  required  to  complete  its  meaning.  "  The  winds 
blow"  The  verb  "blow"  is  intransitive,  because  the  action  expressed 
by  it  affects  the  subject  only,  and  does  not  require  the  addition  of  an 
object  to  complete  its  meaning.  "  The  letter  was  written  by  nie,"  i.  e.y 
I  wrote  the  letter.  The  verb  "was  written"  is  transitive,  because  its 
subject  in  the  passive  voice  becomes  its  object  in  the  active. 

Rem.  2. — Verbs  which  signify  to  cause  to  do  what  an  intransi- 
tive verb  expresses,  are  said  to  be  used  in  a  causative  sense. 

Ex. — "The  farmer  burns  wood,"  i.e.,  "The  farmer  causes  wood  to 
burn"    The  verb  "  burns  "  is  used  in  a  causative  sense. 

Rem.  3. — Some  verbs  are  transitive  in  one  signification,  and  in- 
transitive in  another. 

Ex. — "It  breaks  my  chain;"  "Glass  breaks  easily;"  "He  returned 
the  book;"  " I  returned  home ;"  "The vessel  ran  the  blockade;"  "The 
horses  ran." 

Hem.  4. — A  verb  usually  intransitive,  sometimes  becomes  tran- 
sitive. This  generally  occurs,  in  poetical  expressions,  when  the 
object  is  like  the  verb  in  meaning,  and  when  the  verb  is  used  in 
a  causative  sense. 

Ex. — "He  lives  a. noble  life;"  "And  he  dreamed  yet  another  dream;" 
"  Those  men  are  playing  a  game  of  chess ;"  " Grinned  horribly  a  ghastly 
smile;"  "The  pirate  sank  the  ship;"  "To  equip  and  march  armies  re- 
quires money  as  well  as  forethought." 


68  ENGLISH   GBAMMAB. 

81.  Classes  with  Respect  to  Nature. 

1.  With  respect  to  their  nature,  Verbs  may  be  divided 
into  Active,  Passive,  and  Neuter. 

2.  An  Active  Verb  expresses  action;  as,  "Horses  gal- 
lop;" "The  farmer  plows" 

3.  A  Passive  Verb  represents  its  subject  as  acted 
upon;  as,  "The  field  was  plowed;"  "The  soldier  was 
wounded" 

4.  A  Xeufer  Verb  implies  being,  or  condition;  as,  "I 
am;"  "Your  hat  lies  on  the  stand;"  "The  child  sleeps  in 
its  mother's  arms." 

82.  Classes  with  Respect  to  Form. 

1.  "With  respect  to  their  form,  Verbs  are  either  Reg- 
ular or  Irregular. 

2.  A  Regular  Verb  forms  its  past  indicative  and  per- 
fect participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present  indicative, 
or  simplest  form  of  the  verb;  as,  love,  love-d,  love-d;  count, 
count-ed,  count-ed. 

3.  An  Irregular  Verb  does  not  form  its  past  indica- 
tive and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present 
indicative;  as,  see,  saw,  seen;  go,  went,  gone. 

83.  Properties. 

The  Properties  of  Verbs  are  Voice,  Mode,  Tense, 
Number,  and  Person. 

84.  Voice. 

1.  Voice  is  that  form  of  the  transitive  verb  which 
shows  whether  the  subject  acts  or  is  acted  upon. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  69 

2.  Transitive  Verbs  have  two  voices:  an  Active  and 
a  Passive  Voice. 

3.  The  Active  Voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting 
npon  an  object;  as,  "  John  struck  James;"  "The  boy  was 
studying;"  "The  cat  caught  the  mouse." 

4.  The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  as  being 
acted  upon ;  as,  "  James  was  struck  by  John ;"  "  The  mouse 
was  caught;"  "The  lesson  was  studied" 

5.  The  Passive  Voice  is  formed  by  prefixing  some  form 
of  the  neuter  verb  to  be  to  the  perfect  participle  of  a 
transitive  verb. 

Rem.  l. — A  verb  in  the  active  voice  is  changed  into  the  pas- 
sive, by  making  the  direct  object  in  the  active  the  subject  in  the 
passive. 

Ex. — "The  boy  shut  the  door,"  (active;)  "The  door  was  shut  by 
the  boy,"  (passive.)  "He  saw  the  comet;"  "The  comet  was  seen  by 
';he  astronomer." 

Rem.  2.— Certain  verbs  are  sometimes  used,  with  a  passive  sig- 
nification, in  the  active  voice.  They  then  denote  the  capacity  to 
receive  an  act,  rather  than  its  actual  reception. 

Ex. — "This  stick  splits  easily;"  "  Butter  sells  for  forty  cents ;"  "This 
cloth  wears  well;"  "This  timber  saws  well ;"  "The  bridge  is  building;" 
"I  have  nothing  to  wear;"  "He  has  some  ax  to  ginnd;"  "He  has  no 
money  to  spend  foolishly." 

Rem.  3. — A  few  verbs  sometimes  assume  the  passive  form, 
though  used  in  an  active  sense. 

Ex. — "The  melancholy  days  are  come,"  i.e.,  have  come;  "Babylon 
is  fallen  "  i.  e.}  has  fallen;  "She  is  gone"  i.  e.,  has  gone;  "The  hour 
is  arrived"  i.  e.,  has  arrived. 

Rem.  4. — The  passive  voice  is  used  when  the  agent  is  unknown, 
or  when  we  wish  to  conceal  it  and  call  attention  to  the  act  and  its 
object  alone;  as,  "The  robbery  ivas  committed  (by  some  person  un- 
known, or  known  but  not  mentioned)  in  broad  daylight."  When 
we  wish  to  make  the  agent  prominent,  the  active  voice  should  be 
used;  as,  "The  escaped  convict  committed  the  robbery  in  broad 
davhVht." 


70  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


85a  Exercises. 

Tell  which  of  the  verbs,  in  the  following  sentences,  are  in  the  active 

voice,  and  which  in  the  passive : 

1.  Sarah  loves  flowers.  2.  John  was  astonished  at  the  news. 
3.  William  saw  a  meteor.  4.  A  meteor  was  seen.  5.  I  have  writ- 
ten a  letter.  6.  That  poem  was  written  by  Saxe.  7.  He  should 
have  waited  longer,  8.  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God. 
9.  He  found  the  money. 


86.  The  Participle. 

1.  A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  par- 
taking of  the  properties  of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjective  or 
a  noun. 

Rem. — The  participle  is  so  called  from  its  partaking  of  the 
properties  of  a  verb,  and  of  an  adjective  and  a  noun.  It  is  the 
attributive  part  of  the  verb,  used  without  assertion.  It  is  not  a 
verb,  consequently  neither  mode  nor  tense  belongs  to  it.  It  simply 
denotes  continuance  or  completion  of  action,  being,  or  state,  rela- 
tively to  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb  of  the  sentence 
in  which  it  is  found. 

2.  There  are  three  Participles:  the  Present,  the  Perfect, 
and  the  Compound.  The  present  and  the  compound  have 
both  an  active  and  a  passive  form  and  use.  The  perfect 
has  an  active  and  a  passive  use. 

3.  The  Present  Participle  denotes  the  continuance 
of  action,  being,  or  state;  as,  loving,  being  loved. 

Rem. — The  present  active  participle  always  ends  in  ing.  It  may 
be  used, 

1st.   As  an  adjective;  as,  "Twinkling  stars." 

2d.    As  a  predicate ;  as,  "  The  stars  are  twinkling:7 

3d.    As  a  noun ;  as,  "  I  am  fond  of  reading." 

4th.  As  a  noun,  with  the  modifications  of  a  verb ;  as,  "Describ- 
ing a  past  event  as  present,  has  a  fine  effect  in  language." 

4.  The  Perfect  Participle  denotes  the  completion  of 
action,  being,  or  state ;  as,  seen,  appointed. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  7 1 

Hem. — This  participle  generally,  though  not  always,  ends  in  d 
or  ed.  It  is  frequently  used  as  an  adjective,  but  never  as  a  noun, 
and  is  usually  found  in  compound  forms  of  the  verb. 

Ex. — aHe  died,  loved  by  all;"  "Her  promise,  made  cheerfully,  was 
kept  faithfully. 

5.  The  Compound  Participle  denotes  the  completion 
of  action,  being,  or  state,  at  or  before  the  time  represented 
by  the  principal  verb;  as,  "Having  written  the  letter,  he 
mailed  it." 

Rem. — This  participle  is  formed  by  placing  having  or  having 
been  before  the  perfect  participle,  and  may  be  used  as  a  noun ;  as, 
"  I  am  accused  of  having  plotted  treason ;"  "  He  is  charged  with 
having  been  engaged  in  the  slave-trade."  It  is  also  formed  by 
placing  having  been  before  the  present  participle ;  as,  "Having  been 
loving" 

87.  Exercises. 

Give  the  present,  perfect,  and  compound  participles  of  the  following 

verbs  : 

Eely,  find,  help,  study,  recite,  inquire,  answer,  plow,  cultivate, 
join,  emulate,  spell,  grow,  paint,  resemble,  hope,  suffer,  sit,  see,  go, 
come,  lay,  arrive,  exhaust,  enjoy,  write,  read,  learn,  ventilate. 

Form  sentences,  using  any  of  the  above  participles  as  predicates. 
Model. — "Mary  is  studying  her  lesson." 

88.  Auxiliaries. 

1.  Auxiliary  Verbs  are  those  which  are  used  in  the 
conjugation  of  other  verbs. 

2.  They  are  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must 

Rem.  l.— Do,  be,  have,  and  will  are  often  used  as  principal 
verbs;  as,  "He  does  well;"  "I  am;"  "We  have  cares  and  anx- 
ieties;" "He  willed  me  a  thousand  dollars." 

Rem.  2 The   auxiliaries   were    originally   used   as   principal 

verbs,  followed  by  the  infinitives  of  what  are  now  called  the  prin- 


72 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


cipal  verbs;  as,  "I  can  [to]  read;"  "You  may  [to]  go;"  "He  has 
[to]  come."  The  sign  to  is  now  dropped,  and  the  infinitive  is 
regarded  as  the  principal  verb ;  the  auxiliaries  being  mere  form- 
words,  showing  the  relations  of  mode  and  tense. 

Rem.  3. — The  auxiliaries,  when  used  as  such,  except  must, 
which  is  used  in  the  present  tense  only,  have  two  tenses:  the 
present  and  the  past,  s 


89.  Conjugation  of  the  Auxiliaries. 


Present  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1st  Person. 

2d  Person. 

3d  Person. 

lsf  Person. 

2d  Person. 

3d  Person. 

I 

Thou 

He 

We 

You 

They 

Am, 

art, 

is, 

Are, 

are, 

are, 

Do, 

dost, 

does, 

Do, 

do, 

do, 

Have, 

hast, 

has, 

Have, 

have, 

have, 

Will, 

wilt, 

will, 

Will, 

will, 

will, 

Shall, 

shalt, 

shall, 

Shall, 

shall, 

shall, 

May, 

mayst, 

may, 

May, 

may, 

may, 

Can, 

canst, 

can, 

Can, 

can, 

can, 

Must, 

must, 

must, 

Past  ' 

Must, 
rense. 

must, 

must. 

Was, 

wast, 

was, 

Were, 

wrere, 

were, 

Did, 

didst, 

did, 

Did, 

did, 

did, 

Had, 

hadst, 

had, 

Had, 

had, 

had, 

Would, 

wouldst, 

would, 

Would, 

would, 

would^ 

Should, 

shouldst, 

should, 

Should, 

should, 

should 

Might, 

mightst, 

might, 

Might, 

might, 

might, 

Could, 

couldst, 

could, 

Could, 

could, 

could. 

MODE. 

90.  Definition. 

1.  Mode  is  the  manner  in  which  the  action,  being,  or 
state  is  expressed. 

2.  There  are   five  modes:    the  Indicative,  Subjunctive, 
Potential,  Imperative,  and  Infinitive. 


ETYMOLOGY VERBS.  73 


91.  Indicative  Mode. 

The  Indicative  Mode  asserts  a  thing  as  a  fact,  or  as 
actually  existing;  as,  "The  man  walks;"  "The  house  was 
burned" 

Rem. — The  indicative  mode  may  be  used  in  interrogative  and 
exclamatory  sentences ;  also,  in  subordinate  propositions,  to  denote 
what  is  actual,  or  what  is  assumed  as  actual ;  as,  "Is  he  a  mer- 
chant ?"  "The  rascal  has  stolen  my  horse!"  "I  learn  that  you  have 
removed  from  town." 


92.  Subjunctive  Mode. 

The  Subjunctive  Mode  asserts  a  thing  as  doubtful,  as 
a  wish,  a  supposition,  or  a  future  contingency ;  as,  "If  this 
be  true,  all  will  end  well;"  "Had  I  the  wings  of  a  dove;" 
" I  shall  leave,  if  you  remain" 

Rem.  i. — The  subjunctive  mode  is  so  called  because  it  is  used 
in  subjoined  or  subordinate  propositions  only.  It  represents  an 
ideal  act,  or  a  real  act  placed  under  a  condition  of  more  or  less 
doubt,  and  is  joined  to  the  verb  of  the  principal  proposition  by 
the  subordinate  connectives  if,  though,  except,  lest,  that,  unless, 
and  some  others.  These  connectives  are  called  the  signs  of  the 
subjunctive. 

Rem.  2.  —The  sign  is  frequently  omitted,  in  which  case  the 
auxiliary  or  copula  precedes  the  subject;  as,  "Had  I  time,"  i.e., 
If  I  had  time ;  "  Were  I  a  king,"  i.  e.,  If  I  were  a  king. 

Rem.  3 — The  present  subjunctive  represents  the  thing  supposed 
as  possible,  though  doubtful;  as,  "If  I  go:"  I  may  go  or  I  may 
not.  It  implies  future  time;  as,  "If  it  rain,  I  shall  not  go;"  "It 
is  necessary  that  the  dispatch  be  sent  as  soon  as  possible."  "  If  it 
rains "  is  indicative,  denoting  present  time ;  i.  e.,  it  implies  that 
the  speaker  does  not  know  whether  it  is  raining  now  or  not. 

Rem.  4. — The  past  subjunctive   denotes   indefinite  or  present 

time,  and  represents  a  supposition  contrary  to  the  fact,  or  unreal  ; 

as,  "  If  he  were  honest,  [implying  that  he  is  not,]  he  would  pay 

me."     "If  he  was  honest"  is  indicative,  implying  that  the  speaker 

H.  G.  7. 


74  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

does  not  know  whether  the  person  spoken  of  was  honest,  in  time 
past,  or  not. 

Rem.  5. — The  past  perfect  subjunctive  denotes  past  time,  and 
represents  a  supposition  contrary  to  the  fact;  as,  "If  I  had  been 
invited,  [implying  that  I  had  not,]  I  should  have  gone" 

Kem.  6. — The  subjunctive  is  very  generally  used  in  expressing 
suppositions  and  conclusions  in  reasoning ;  as,  "  If  a  regular  hex- 
agon be  inscribed  in  a  circle,  any  side  will  be  equal  to  the  radius 
of  the  circle ;"  "  If  the  thankful  refrained,  it  would  be  pain  and 
grief  to  them." 

93.  Potential  Mode. 

The  Potential  Mode  asserts  the  power,  necessity,  lib- 
erty,  duty,  or  liability  of  acting,  or  being  in  a  certain  state ; 
as,  "You  can  read;"  "He  must  go;"  "You  may  retire;" 
"  They  should  be  more  careful." 

Rem.  l. — The  potential  mode,  like  the  indicative,  is  used  in 
interrogative  and  exclamatory  sentences;  also,  in  subordinate 
propositions,  to  represent  what  is  assumed  as  actual,  or  what  has 
not  been  realized;  as,  "I  know  that  I  may  be  disappointed;" 
"He  says  that  I  may  study  algebra." 

Rem.  2. — The  signs  of  the  potential  mode  are  the  auxiliaries 
may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should. 

1.  Can  or  could  implies  power  or  ability  within  one's  self;  as, 
"He  can  do  it,"  i.  e.,  he  has  ability  to  do  it  without  assistance 
from  others. 

2.  May  or  might  implies  an  agency  without  or  beyond  one's 
self;  hence,  possibility,  probability,  permission,  wishing — the  act 
being  contingent  on  something  beyond  one's  own  will  or  power ; 
as,  "He  may  go,"  i.  e.,  all  hindrances  are  removed:  "You  may  all 
go  to  the  picnic,"  denotes  permission :  "  O,  that  he  might  return," 
denotes  a  wish  that  all  hindrance  to  his  return  be  removed. 

3.  Must  denotes  physical,  mental,  or  moral  necessity;  as,  "We 
must  submit  to  the  laws,"  i.  e.,  in  the  nature  or  fitness  of  things, 
there  is  a  necessity  for  our  doing  so. 

4.  Should  denotes  that  the  act  or  state  is  not  dependent  upon 
the  doer's  will,  but  on  that  of  another;  hence,  duty  or  obligation; 


ETYMOLOGY VERBS.  75 

as,  "He  should  pay  his  debts,"  i.  e.,  it  is  his  duty,  or  he  is  under  a 
moral  obligation  to  pay  his  debts. 

5.  Would  implies  inclination,  wish,  or  desire;  as,  "He  would 
pay  his  debts,  if  he  could,"  i.  e.,  he  has  the  inclination  or  desire. 

94.  Imperative  Mode. 

The  Imperative  Mode  expresses  a  command,  an  ex-* 
hortation,  an  entreaty,  or  a  permission;  as,  "Charge,  Ches- 
ter, charge!"  "Do  come  to  see  us;"  "Lead  us  not  into 
temptation." 

Rem.  i. — The  imperative  mode  may  usually  be  known  by  the 
omission  of  the  subject;  as,  "  Write"  [thou,  you,  or  ye].  It  denotes 
a  command,  when  a  superior  speaks  to  an  inferior;  an  exhorta- 
tion, when  an  equal  speaks  to  an  equal;  a  prayer  or  supplication, 
when  an  inferior  addresses  a  superior.  It  is  used  mostly  in  prin- 
cipal propositions,  and  is  made  subordinate  in  direct  quotations 
only;   as,  "He  said,  'Be  silent.' " 

Rein.  2. — The  expressions  "Let  Ellen  come,"  'Let  him  go,"  &c, 
are  made  up  of  the  imperative  of  the  verb  let,  and  the  objective 
case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  limited  by  an  infinitive.  They  are 
equivalent  to  "Permit  [thou]  Ellen  to  go,"  &c. 

Rem.  3. — These  expressions  are  sometimes  abridged  by  drop- 
ping the  verb  let,  changing  the  infinitive  to  the  imperative,  and 
the  objective  case  to  the  nominative ;  as,  "Come  one,  come  all,"  i.  e., 
Let  one  come,  let  all  come:  "Sing  we  to  our  God  above,"  i.  e.,  Let 
us  sing  to  our  God  above.  In  such  cases,  the  noun  or  pronoun 
should  be  parsed  as  the  subject  of  the  proposition,  the  imperative 
agreeing  with  it  in  number  and  person.  This  use  of  the  impera- 
tive, in  the  first  or  third  person,  is  not  uncommon. 

Ex. — "Ruin  seize  thee,  ruthless  king." — Gray.  "Laugh  those  who 
may,  iveep  those  who  must." — Scott.  "Then  turn  we  to  her  latest  trib- 
une's name." — Byron.  "Proceed  we  therefore  to  our  subject." — Pope. 
"Be  it  enacted."— States  of  Ohio.  "Be  it  so."—  Webster.  "  Somebody 
call  my  wife." — Shakspeare.  "So  help  me  God."  "Hallowed  be  thy 
name." 

Rem.  4. — The  imperative  mode  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
merely  the  intention  or  wish  of  the  speaker,  without  special  refer- 
ence to  any  person  addressed;  as,  "God  said,  Let  there  be  light;" 


76  ENGLISH   GKAMMAK. 

"Deliver  me  from  such  friends."  It  may  also  be  used  to  denote 
indifference  or  unconcern  on  the  part  of  the  speaker;  as,  "Let  it 
rain:"  "Let  him  sue  me  if  he  dare." 


95.  Infinitive  Mode. 

The  Infinitive  Mode  expresses  the  action,  being,  or 
state,  without  affirming  it;  as,  to  write;  to  have  written; 
"He  rose  to  speak" 

Rem.  1. — The  infinitive  may  usually  be  known  by  the  sign  to 
placed  before  it.  This  sign  is  omitted  after  the  verbs  bid,  dare, 
feel,  hear,  help,  let,  make,  need,  see,  and  a  few  others ;  as,  "Bid  them 
be  quiet;"  "Let  them  come  on;"  "See  him  run." 

Rem.  2 — The  infinitive,  as  an  abstract  noun,  may  be  the 
subject  or  predicate  of  a  sentence;  may  be  in  apposition  with  a 
noun;  and  may  be  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  preposition; 
as,  "To  lie  is  disgraceful;"  "To  work  is  to  pray;"  "Delightful 
task,  to  rear  the  tender  thought;"  "I  love  to  read;"  "Can  save 
the  son  of  Thetis  from  to  die" 

Although  the  infinitive  has  the  construction  of  a  noun,  it  may 
govern  an  object,  or  be  modified  by  an  adverb.  It  is  never  lim- 
ited by  an  adjective  attribute,  but  may  have  a  predicate  adjective 
belonging  to  it;  as,  "To  converse  is  pleasant" 

96.  Exercises. 

Tell  the  mode  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  A  great  storm  is  raging.  2.  You  may  go  or  stay.  3.  Bring 
me  some  flowers.  4.  Hope  thou  in  God.  5.  If  he  study,  he  will 
excel.  6.  If  he  studies,  it  is  when  he  is  alone.  7.  Were  I  rich,  I 
would  purchase  that  property.  8.  Who  will  go  with  me?  9.  Do 
let  me  see  your  book. 

10.  I  must  not  be  tardy.  11.  Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates! 
12.  Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit;  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of 
heaven.  13.  He  should  have  told  you.  14.  They  dare  not  puzzle 
us  for  their  own  sakes.  15.  Let  us  not,  I  beseech  you,  deceive  our- 
selves longer. 

16.  God  help  us  I  what  a  poor  world  this  would  be,  if  this  were 
the  true  doctrine.     17.  If  a  line  is  parallel  to  a  line  of  a  plane,  it 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  77 

is  parallel  to  that  plane.  18.  If  a  plane  intersect  two  parallel 
planes,  the  lines  of  intersection  will  be  parallel.  19.  Sucn  a  man 
were  one  for  whom  a  woman's  heart  should  beat  constant  while 
he  breathes,  and  break  when  he  dies. 

20.  Keign  thou  in  hell,  thy  kingdom ;  let  me  serve 
In  heaven,  God  ever  blest. — Milton. 

21.  Place  me  on  Sunium's  marble  steep, 

Where  nothing,  save  the  waves  and  I, 
May  hear  our  mutual  murmurs  sweep ; 

There,  swan-like,  let  me  sing  and  die. — Byron. 

TENSE. 

97.  Definition. 

1.  Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or  event. 

2.  There  are  three  divisions  of  time :  Past,  Present,  and 
Future.  Each  division  has  two  tenses :  an  absolute  and 
a  relative. 

3.  The  Absolute  Tenses  are  the  Present,  the  Past, 
and  the  Future.  They  denote  indefinite  or  incomplete 
action. 

4.  The  Relative  Tenses  are  the  Present  Perfect,  the 
Past  Perfect,  and  the  Future  Perfect  They  denote  com- 
pleted action. 

98.  Present  Tense. 

The  Present  Tense  denotes  present  time;  as,  "I  walk;" 
"  The  army  is  marching." 

Rem.  1. — The  present  tense  is  used  in  expressing  a  general 
truth,  or  what  is  habitual;  as,  "Perseverance  conquers  all  things;" 
"The  mail  arrives at  six  P.  M." 

Rem.  2 — The  historical  present  is  the  present  used  for  the  past, 
to  describe  more  vividly  what  took  place  in  past  time ;  as,  "  Tacitus 
describes  the   manners  and   customs   of  the  ancient  Germans;" 


78  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

"Ulysses  wakes,  not  knowing  where  he  was." — Pope.     "Matthew 
traces  the  descent  of  Joseph ;  Luke  traces  that  of  Mary." 

Hem.  3. — The  present  subjunctive  implies  future  time ;  as,  "  If  I 
go,  I  shall  not  return." 

The  present  potential  implies  either  present  or  future  time ;  as, 
"It  may  be  snowing"  (now) ;  "I  may  go"  (to-morrow). 

The  present  imperative  is  future  in  regard  to  the  act  or  state ;  as, 
"Come  again,"  i.  e.,  at  some  future  time. 

Rem.  4. — The  present  of  the  speaker  or  hearer  is  what  is  meant 
by  present  time.  The  present  of  the  reader  may  not  be  the  same 
as  that  of  the  writer. 

Rem.  5.— When  preceded  by  a  relative  pronoun,  or  by  con- 
junctive adverbs  of  time,  the  present  tensers  sometimes  future  in 
its  reference;  as,  "He  will  please  all  who  employ  him;"  "The 
flowers  will  bloom  when  spring  comes" 


99.  Present  Perfect  Tense, 

The  Present  Perfect  Tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  as  past,  but  connected  with  present  time;  as,  "I  have 
learned  my  lesson/' 

Rem.  i. — Have,  the  sign  of  the  present  perfect  tense,  originally 
denoted  possession.     It  retains  this  meaning  when  used  as  a  prin- 
cipal verb.     As  an  auxiliary,  it  denotes  completion;  as,  "The  hunt- 
ers have  killed  a  wolf;"  "A  man  has  fallen  from  the  bridge." 
i 

Rem.  3. — The  present  perfect  indicative  also  expresses  action 
completed  in  past  time,  but  continued  in  itself,  or  in  its  effects,  to 
the  present;  as,  "He  has  lived  here  ten  years,"  (and  lives  here 
noiv);  "Cicero  has  written  orations,"  (and  still  lives  in  his 
writings). 

The  present  perfect  potential  usually  denotes  the  present  or 
future  probability  that  an  act  relatively  past  was  performed;  as, 
"  I  must  have  paid  that  note,"  (a  fact  now  probable) ;  "  In  two 
years  he  may  have  outgrown  you,"  (a  fact  then  to  be  probable). 

Rem.  3 — When  preceded  by  a  conjunctive  adverb  of  time,  the 
present  perfect  tense  sometimes  denotes  future  time;  as,  "He  will 
forward  the  goods  as  soon  as  he  has  received  them." 


1 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  79 


100,  Past  Tense. 

The  Past  Tense  expresses  what  took  place  in  time 
wholly  past;  as,  "I  wrote;"  "I  was  sailing" 

Rem. — The  past  indicative  denotes  what  was  habitual  or  cus- 
tomary; as,  "We  lived  high  in  those  days."  In  the  progressive 
form,  it  denotes  an  act  in  past  time,  but  not  completed ;  as,  "  He 
was  driving  furiously  when  I  saw  him." 

The  past  subjunctive  generally  expresses  a  supposition  contrary 
to  the  fact,  and  represents  present  time;  as,  "If  I  were  going 
[now],  I  would  ride." 

The  past  potential  denotes  (1)  a  duty  or  obligation,  without  ref- 
erence to  time;  as,  "Judges  should  be  merciful:"  (2)  a  habit  or 
custom;  as,  "He  would  be  absent  a  week  at  a  time:"  (3)  ability 
possessed  in  past  time;  as,  "He  could  walk  yesterday:"  (4)  present 
possibility  or  power;  as,  "I  could  write  [now]  if  I  would:"  (5)  a 
future  possibility;  as,  "If  I  should  write  to  you  [hereafter],  you 
must  answer  immediately." 

101.  Past  Perfect  Tense. 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  represents  an  act  as  ended 
or  completed  in  time  fully  past;  as,  "The  cars  had  started 
before  we  reached  the  depot." 

Rem.  l. — The  past  is  frequently  used  instead  of  the  past  perfect, 
to  denote  the  completion  of  an  act  at  or  before  a  certain  past  time 
mentioned;  as,  "The  boat  left  before  midnight." 

Rem.  2 — The  past  perfect  subjunctive  and  past  perfect  potential 
denote  past  time  simply,  and  deny  the  action  or  event ;  as,  "  If  I 
had  started  sooner,  I  should  have  overtaken  you." 

102.  Future  Tense. 

The  Future  Tense  expresses  what  will  take  place  in 
future  time;  as,  "I  shall  return  soon;"  "The  lion  shall  eat 
straw  like  the  ox." 

Rem.  l. — shall  and  will  are  the  signs  of  the  future  tense. 
Shall  expresses  the  action  or  event  (1)  as  a  duty  commanded  or 


80  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

authorized;  as,  "He  shall  pay  you;"  "Thou  shalt  not  steal:"  (2) 
as  something  unavoidable,  unless  a  certain  condition  be  complied 
with;  as,  "I  shall  suffer,  if  I  do  not  take  my  overcoat:"  (3)  as 
future;  as,  "I  shall  leave  at  noon;"  "You  shall  often  find  the 
richest  men  the  meanest." 

Will  expresses  the  action  or  event  (1)  as  something  determined 
upon,  or  proceeding  from  the  nature  of  things;  as,  "I  will  go: 
no  power  on  earth  can  prevent  me;"  "The  cause  will  raise  up 
armies:"  (2)  as  future;  as,  "You  will  feel  better  to-morrow." 

Rem.  2. — Shall,  in  the  first  person,  and  will,  in  the  second  and 
third,  are  usually  employed  to  denote  futurity;  as,  "We  shall 
arrive  there  by  noon;"  "You  will  be  glad  to  see  us;"  "He  will  be 
with  us." 

Will  is  used,  in  the  first  person,  to  denote  determination;  and 
shall,  in  the  second  and  third,  to  denote  necessity ;  as,  "  I  will  write 
to  you;"  "Neither  he  nor  you  shall  go  without  me." 

103.  Future  Perfect  Tense. 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  represents  an  action  as 
finished  or  ended  at  or  before  a  certain  future  time;  as,  "I 
shall  have  finished  my  task  at  three  o'clock;"  "We  shall 
have  dined  before  you  arrive." 

104.  Tenses  in  all  the  Modes. 

l;   The  Indicative  Mode  has  the  six  tenses. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  Mode  has  three  tenses:  the  present, 
pasty  and  past  perfect. 

3.  The  Potential  Mode  has  four  tenses:  the  present, 
present  perfect,  past,  and  past  perfect 

4.  The  Imperative  Mode  has  one  tense:  the  present. 

5.  The  Infinitive  Mode  has  too  tenses:  the  present  and 
present  perfect. 

Rem. — Tense  does  not  properly  belong  to  the  infinitive  mode. 
Its  tenses  are  mere  forms,  without  regard  to  time.     The  present 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS,  81 

tense  denotes  progressive  or  completed  action  or  state,  with  refer- 
ence to  past,  present,  or  future  time;  the  present  perfect,  a  com- 
pleted action  or  state  in  an  unlimited  manner. 


105.  Signs  of  the  Tenses :  Active  Voice. 

Indicative  Mode. 

Present,    .    .    .  Simple  form  of  the  verb. 

Past,    ....  When  regular,  add  ed  to  the  simple  form. 

Future,     .    .    .  Prefix  shall  or  will  to  the  simple  form. 

Present  Perfect,        "      have,  hast,  or  has  to  the  perfect  participle. 

Past  Perfect,    .        "      had  or  hadst  to  the  perfect  participle. 

Future  Perfect,         "      shall  have  or  will  have  to  the  perfect  participle. 

Subjunctive  Mode. 

If,  though,  except,  unless,  &c,  placed  before  tense  forms  given  in  the 
Conjugation,  are  signs  of  the  subjunctive  mode. 

Potential  Mode. 

Present,    .     .     .  Prefix  may,  can,  or  must  to  the  simple  form. 
Past,   ....       "       might,  could,  would,  or  should  to  the  simple  form. 
Present  Perfect,  »     "      may,  can,  or  must  have  to  the  perfect  participle. 
Past  Perfect,     .       "      might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  to  the  perfect 
participle. 

Imperative  Mode. 

Present,    .    .    .  Let,  or  a  command. 

Infinitive  Mode. 

Present,    .    .    .  Prefix  to  to  the  simple  form. 

Present  Perfect,        "      to  have  to  the  perfect  participle. 

Participles. 

Present,    .    .    .  Add  ing  to  the  simple  form. 

Perfect,     .    .    .  When  regular,  add  ed  or  d  to  the  simple  form. 

Compound,    .    .  Prefix  having  to  the  perfect  participle. 


106.  Forms  of  the  Yerb. 

1.  Verbs  have  five  forms,  which  may  be  considered 
subdivisions  of  the  tenses:  the  Common,  the  Emphatic,  the 
Progressive,  the  Passive,  and  the  Ancient,  or  Solemn  Style. 


82  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  Common  Form  represents  an  act  as  a  custom, 
or  as  completed  without  reference  to  its  progress;  as,  "I 
write;"  "I  shall  write" 

3.  The  Emphatic  Form  represents  an  act  with  em- 
phasis; as,  "1  do  write;"  "He  did  go." 

Rem. — This  form  is  used  in  the  present  and  past  indicative  and 
subjunctive,  and  in  the  present  imperative.  It  is  formed  by  pre- 
fixing the  present  and  past  tenses  of  to  do  to  the  simple  form  of 
the  verb. 

4.  The  Progressive  Form  is  used  to  denote  action 
or  state  in  progress;  as,  "I  am  writing;"  "He  had  been 
singing." 

Rem. — The  progressive  form  may  be  used  in  all  the  modes  and 
tenses,  and  is  formed  by  prefixing  the  various  modes  and  tenses 
of  the  neuter  verb  to  be  to  the  present  participle  of  the  principal 
verb. 

5.  The  Passive  Form  denotes  the  reception  of  an  act 
by  its  subject;  as,  "I  am  struck;"  "John  was  punished;" 
" I  shall  be  loved" 

Rem. — The  passive  form  is  used  in  all  the  modes  and,  tenses, 
and  is  formed  by  prefixing  the  various  modes  and  tenses  of  the 
neuter  verb  to  be  to  the  perfect  participle  of  the  principal  verb. 

6.  The  Ancient  Form,  or  Solemn  Style,  is  used  in 
the  Bible,  in  religious  worship,  and  sometimes  in  poetry 
and  burlesque;  as,  "Thou  art  the  man;"  "So  shalt  thou 
rest;"  "Thou  art  a  pretty  fellow." 

107.  Person  and  Number. 

1.  The  Person  and  Xumber  of  verbs  are  the  changes 
which  they  undergo  to  mark  their  agreement  with  their 
subjects. 

2.  A  subject  in  the  second  person  singular,  generally 
requires  the  verb,  or  its  auxiliary,  to  end  in  t,  st,  or  est; 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  83 

as,  "Thou  shalt  not  steal ?'   "Thou  canst  read;"   "Thou 
runnest;" 

3.  A  subject  in  the  third  person  singular,  generally 
requires  the  verb,  or  its  auxiliary,  to  end  in  s,  es,  or  eth; 
as,  "Julia  reads;"  "The  horse  goes;"  "God  loveth  us." 

4.  The  personal  terminations  in  the  plural  are  the  same 
as  the  first  person  singular,  except  in  the  verb  to  be. 

5.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  person  and 
number. 

Rem.  i. — When  two  or  more  nominatives,  differing  in  person, 
are  taken  collectively,  the  verb  prefers  the  first  to  the  second,  and 
the  second  to  the  third.  When  they  are  connected  by  or  or  nor, 
or  are  taken  separately,  it  prefers  the  person  of  the  nominative 
next  to  it.  Courtesy  requires  the  first  place  to  be  given  to  the 
second  person,  and  last  place  to  the  first. 

Ex. — "You,  he,  and  I  have  to  remain;''  "You  and  he  have  to  learn 
that  long  lesson;"  "You  or  I  am  mistaken;"  "Thou  and  thy  friends 
are  to  make  reparation." 

Rem.  2 — A  verb  must  be  in  the  singular  number  (1)  when  its 
nominative  is  in  the  singular;  (2)  when  its  nominative  is  a  group 
of  objects  viewed  as  one  thing;  (3)  when  its  nominative  is  an 
object  conceived  as  a  unit,  though  denoted  by  a  plural  nominative; 
(4)  when  its  nominative  is  two  or  more  objects  taken  singly,  and 
denoted  by  different  or  by  several  nominatives. 

Ex. — "Rain  falls;"  "The  army  is  marching;11  "  Dombey  &  Son 
was  written  by  Dickens;"  "The  ten  dollars  was  duly  paid;"  "Descent 
and  fall  to  us  is  adverse;"  "For  thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power, 
and  the  glory.11 

Rem.  3. — A  verb  must^be  in  the  plural  number  (1)  when  its 
nominative  is  a  single  object,  or  a  group  of  objects  conceived  as  to 
its  individual  parts;  (2)  when  its  nominative  is  plural;  (3)  when 
plural  nominatives  are  used  in  connection  with  singular  nomina- 
tives, taken  separately,  or  connected  by  or  or  nor;  (4)  when  it  has 
two  or  more  objects  taken  collectively. 

Ex. — "The  rains  descend;11  "The  multitude  pursue  pleasure;" 
"Either  the  magistrate  or  the  laivs  are  at  fault;"  "You,  he,  and  I 
are  here." 


84  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


108.  Unipersonal  Yerfos. 

A  Unipersonal  Verb  is  one  by  which  an  act  or 
state  is  asserted  independently  of  any  particular  subject; 
as,  "It  snows;"  "It  cleared  off;"  "It  behooves  us  to 
be  careful." 

Rem. — Meseems,  meseemed,  methinks,  methought,  may  be  regarded 
as  unipersonal  verbs,  equivalent  to  it  seems,  it  seemed  to  me,  I  think, 
I  thought, 

109.  Conjugation. 

1.  The  Conjugation  of  a  verb,  is  the  correct  expres- 
sion, in  regular  order,  of  its  modes,  tenses,  voices,  persons, 
and  numbers. 

2.  There  are  four  forms  of  conjugation:  the  Regular, 
the  Emphatic,  the  Progressive,  and  the  Interrogative. 

3.  The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present 
indicative,  the  past  indicative,  and  the  perfect  participle. 

4.  The  Synopsis  of  a  verb  is  its  variation  in  form, 
through  the  different  modes  and  tenses,  in  a  single  number 
and  person. 

110.  Conjugation  of  the  Terb  "To  Be." 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Perfect  Participle. 

Be,  or  am,  Was,  Been. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

Present,   ...  I  am.  Past  Perfect,   .  I  had  been. 

Present  Perfect,  I  have  been.         Future,  ...  I  shall  be. 

Past,  ....  I  was.  Future  Perfect,  I  shall  have  been. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  85 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 
Present,    .    .    .  If  I  be.  Past,  .    .    .    .  If  I  were. 

Past  Perfect,    ....    If  I  had  been. 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Present,    ...  I  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

Present  Perfect,  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  been. 

Past,  ....  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be. 

Past  Perfect,    .  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been. 

REGULAR   CONJUGATION. 

Note. — Shall,  in  the  first  person,  and  will,  in  the  second  and 
third,  future  tenses,  are  used  to  denote  futurity.  When  will  is  used 
in  the  first  person,  or  shall,  in  the  second  or  third,  determination  or 
necessity  is  represented. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 


1. 

2. 
3. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
Singular.                                                 Plural. 
I  am,                                        1.   We  are, 
Thou  art,                                  2.   You  are, 
He  is ;                                       3.   They  are. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

I  have  been,                             1.   We  have  been, 
Thou  hast  been,                        2.   You  have  been, 
He  has  been;                            3.  They  have  been. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

I  was,                                        1.   We  were, 
Thou  wast,                                 2.   You  were, 
He  was ;                                    3.   They  were. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  had  been,  1.   We  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  2.   You  had  been, 

3.  He  had  been;  3.  They  had  been. 


86 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

FUTURE  1 
Singular. 
I  shall  be, 
Thou  wilt  be, 
He  will  be; 

^ens 

1. 
2. 
3. 

E. 

Flural. 
We  shall  be. 
You  will  ber 
They  will  be. 

FUTURE 

PERFECT 

tense. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

I  shall  have  been, 
Thou  wilt  have  been, 
He  will  have  been; 

1. 

2. 
3. 

We  shall  have  been, 
You  will  have  been, 
They  will  hav*  been 

\r 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  be,  1.   If  we  be, 

2.  If  thou  be,  2.   If  you  be, 

3.  If  he  be;  3.   If  they  be. 


1.  If  I  were, 

2.  If  thou  wert, 

3.  If  he  were; 


PAST    TENSE. 


1.  If  we  were, 

2.  If  you  were, 

3.  If  they  were. 


PAST   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  had  been,  1.   If  we  had  been, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been,  2.   If  you  had  been, 

3.  If  he  had  been;  3.   If  they  had  beenc 


POTENTIAL  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


1.  I  may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be, 

3.  He  may  be; 


1.  We  may  be, 

2.  You  may  be, 

3.  They  may  be. 


PRESENT   PERFECT  TENSE. 


1.  I  may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been ; 


1.  We  may  have  been, 

2.  You  may  have  been, 

3.  They  may  have  been. 


ETYMOLOGY — VEKBS.  8  7 

PAST  TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  be,  1.   We  might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be,  2.   You  might  be, 

3.  He  might  be;  3.   They  might  be. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  might  have  been,  1.   We  might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,         2.   You  might  have  been, 

3.  He  might  have  been ;  3.   They  might  have  been. 

Mote. — In  reviews,  use  the  auxiliary  can  or  must. 
IMPEEATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

2.   Be,  or  do  thou  be ;  2.  Be,  or  do  ye  or  you  be. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 
Present,     To  be.  Present  Perfect,     To  have  been. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present,  Being.        Perfect,  Been.         Compound,  Having  been. 


HI.  Conjugation  of  the  Verb  "To  loYe." 

ACTIVE   VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Perfect  Participle. 

Love.  Loved.  Loved. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present,  ...  I  love.  Past  Perfect,    .  I  had  loved. 

Present  Perfect,  I  have  loved.        Future,  ...  I  shall  love. 
Past,  ....  I  loved.  Future  Perfect,  I  shall  have  loved. 


88  ENGL.ISH   GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 
Present,  .     .     .  If  I  love.  Past,     .     .    .  If  I  loved. 

Past  Perfect,     ....    If  I  had  loved. 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Present,  ...  I  may,  can,  or  must  love. 

Present  Perfect,  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

Past,  ....  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 

Past  Perfect,       I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 

REGULAR    CONJUGATION. 
INDICATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  love,  1.  We  love, 

2.  Thou  lovest,  2.   You  love, 

3.  He  loves;  3.   They  love. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  have  loved,  1.   We  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  2.   You  have  loved, 

3.  He  has  loved ;  3.   They  have  loved. 

PAST   TENSE. 

.  1.  I  loved,  1.   We  loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.   You  loved, 

3.  He  loved ;  3.   They  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  had  loved,  1.  We  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.   You  had  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved;  3.   They  had  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  love,  1.   We  shall  love, 

2.  Thou  wilt  love,  2.   You  will  love, 

3.  He  will  love ;  3.   They  will  love. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  89 

FUTURE   PERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  loved,  1.   We  shall  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved,  2.   You  will  have  loved, 

3.  He  will  have  loved;  3.   They  will  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  love,  1.   If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  2.   If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  love;  3.   If  they  love. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  loved,  1.  If  we  loved, 

2.  If  thou  loved,  2.  If  you  loved, 

3.  If  he  loved;  3.  If  they  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  had  loved,  1.  If  we  had  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  loved,       2.  If  you  had  loved> 

3.  If  he  had  loved ;         3.  If  they  had  loved. 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  I  may  love,  1.   We  may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  2.   You  may  love, 

3.  He  may  love;  3.   They  may  love, 

PRESENT   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  may  have  loved,  1.   We  may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  2.   You  may  have  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  loved;  3.   They  may  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  might  love,  1.   We  might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love,  2.   You  might  love, 

3.  He  might  love;  3.  They  might  love. 

H.  G.  8- 


90  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  loved,  1.   We  might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,  2.  You  might  have  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  loved ;  3.  They  might  have  loved. 

IMPEKATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

2.  Love,  or  do  thou  love;         2.  Love,  or  do  ye  or  you  love. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 
Present,    To  love.  Present  Perfect,    To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present,  Loving.        Perfect,  Loved.        Compound,  Having  loved. 


112.  Conjugation  of  the  Verb  "To  Loye." 

PASSIVE   VOICE. 

The  Passive  Voice  is  formed  by  prefixing,  as  an  auxiliary, 
the  various  forms  of  the  neuter  verb  to  be,  to  the  perfect  participle 
of  a  transitive  verb.  The  tense  of  the  verb  to  be  determines  the 
tense  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present, I  am  loved. 

Present  Perfect,      ...  I  have  been  loved. 

Past, I  was  loved. 

Past  Perfect,     .     .     .     .  I  had  been  loved. 

Future, I  shall  be  loved. 

Future  Perfect,      ...  I  shall  have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present,    .    .    If  I  be  loved.  Past,    .    .    If  I  were  loved. 

Past  Perfect,    ...    If  I  had  been  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY VERBS.  9 1 


POTENTIAL  MODE. 


Present, I  may  be  loved. 

Present  Perfect,       ...  I  may  have  been  loved. 

Past, I  might  be  loved. 

Past  Perfect,       ....  I  might  have  been  loved. 


REGULAR   CONJUGATION. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 


1. 

2. 

Singular. 
I  am  loved, 
Thou  art  loved, 

PRESENT 

TENSE. 

Plural 

1.  We  are  loved, 

2.  You  are  lovea, 

3. 

He  is  loved; 

3.   They  are  loved. 

PRESENT   PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  I  have  been  loved,  1.   We  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved.  2.   You  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  has  been  loved;  3.   They  have  been  loved. 

PAST   TENSE. 

1.  I  was  loved,  1.   We  were  lovea, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved,  2.   You  were  loved, 

3.  He  was  loved;  3.    They  were  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  had  been  loved,  1.   We  had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,  2.   You  had  been  loved. 

3.  He  had  been  loved ;  3.   They  had  been  loved 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  be  loved,  1.  We  shall  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  loved,  2.   You  will  be  loved, 

3.  He  will  be  loved ;  3.   They  will  be  loved. 

FUTURE    PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  have  been  loved,  1.   We  shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  loved,      2.   You  will  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  will  have  been  loved ;        3.   They  will  have  been  loved. 


92  ENGLISH   GKAMMAE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be  loved,  1.   If  we  be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved,  2.   If  you  be  loved, 

3.  If  lie  be  loved;  3.  If  they  be  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  were  loved,         1.  Were  I  loved,         1.  If  we  were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,    2.  Wert  thou  loved,    2.  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  were  loved ;     -3.  Were  he  loved ;      3.  If  they  were  loved. 

Rem. — For  the  Past  Perfect  Tense,  prefix  if  to  the  forms  of  the 
past  perfect  indicative. 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  I  may  be  loved,  1.   We  may  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved,  2.  You  may  be  loved, 

3.  He  may  be  loved ;  3.   They  may  be  loved. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved,  1.   We  may  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved,     2.   You  may  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  been  loved ;  3.  They  may  have  been  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I -might  be  loved,  1.   We  might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,  2.   You  might  be  loved, 

3.  He  might  be  loved ;  3.   They  might  be  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved,  1.  We  might  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved,    2.  You  might  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  been  loved ;        3.  They  might  have  been  loved. 

Note. — In  reviews,  use  the  auxiliary  can  or  must 
IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

2.  Be  loved,  or  be  thou  loved ;    2.  Be  loved,  or  be  you  loved 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  93 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 
Present,    To  be  loved.  Pres.  Perfect,    To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.,  Being  loved.    Perfect,  Loved.     Compound  Having  been  loved. 


113.  Coordinate  Forms  of  Conjugation. 

The  Progressive,  the  Emphatic,  and  the  Interrogative  are  called 
the  Coordinate  Forms  of  Conjugation. 

SYNOPSIS. 

PROGRESSIVE  FORM. 
INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present, I  am  loving. 

Present  Perfect,      ...     I  have  been  loving. 

Past, I  was  loving. 

Past  Perfect,     ....     I  had  been  loving. 

Future, I  shall  be  loving. 

Future  Perfect,      ...     I  shall  have  been  loving. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present,    .    .    If  I  be  loving.  Past,    .    .    If  I  were  loving. 

Past  Perfect,    ...    If  I  had  been  loving. 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Present, I  may  be  loving. 

Present  Perfect,       ...     I  may  have  been  loving. 

Past, .     I  might  be  loving. 

Past  Perfect,      ....     I  might  have  been  loving. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 
Present,  To  be  loving.         Present  Perfect,  To  have  been  loving. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 
Present,     ....     Be  thou  loving. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present,     Loving.  Compound,     Having  been  loving. 


94 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


THE  EMPHATIC  FORM. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 
Present,    I  do  love.  Past,     I  did  love. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present,    If  I  do  love.  Past,    If  I  did  love. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present, Do  thou  love. 


INTERROGATIVE  FORM. 
INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present,  .     .     .  Love  I  ?    Do  I  love  ?    Am  I  loving  ? 

Present  Perfect,  Have  I  loved  ?    Have  I  been  loving  ? 

Past,  ....  Loved  I?    Did  I  love?    Was  I  loving? 

Past  Perfect,    .  Had  I  loved  ?    Had  I  been  loving  ? 

Future,   .     .     .  Shall  I  love?    Shall  I  be  loving? 

Future  Perfect,  Shall  I  have  loved?    Shall  I  have  been  loving? 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 
Present,    .     .  Must  I  love  ?  Past,  .     .     .  Might  I  love  ? 

Pres.  Perfect,  Must  I  have  loved  ?  Past  Perfect,  Might  I  have  loved  ? 


114.  Negative  Forms. 

1.  To  conjugate  a  verb  negatively,  place  not  after  it,  or 
after  the  first  auxiliary;  but  before  the  infinitive  and  the 
participles. 

Ex. — Indicative,  I  learn  not,  or  I  do  not  learn.  I  have  not  learned. 
I  learned  not,  or  did  not  learn,  &c. 

Infinitive. — Not  to  learn.     J^ot  to  have  learned. 

Participle. — Not  learning.     Not  learned.     Not  having  learned. 

2.  To  conjugate  a  verb  interrogatively  and  negatively,  in 

the  indicative  and  potential  modes,  place  the  subject  and 

not  after  the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary. 

En. — Learn  I  not?  or,  Do  I  not  learn?  Have  I  not  learned?  Did 
I  not  learn  ?  &c. 


I 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 


95 


115.  Exercises. 

Write  a  synopsis  of  the  transitive  verbs  write,  think,  row,  arouse, 
build,  conquer,  command,  entreat,  teach,  and  instruct,  in  the  In- 
dicative, Subjunctive,  and  Potential  Modes,  Active  and  Passive 
Voices. 


Tell  the  mode,  tense,  person,  and  number  of  each  verb  in  the  follovj- 
ing  sentences : 

1.  He  has  gone.  2.  I  might  write.  3.  We  had  gone.  4.  He 
had  been  assured.  5.  If  I  were  loved.  6.  They  may  have  been 
left.  7.  You  were  seen.  8.  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  9.  She  will 
have  been  invited.  10.  He  might  have  built.  11.  You  might 
have  been  seen.     12.  The  vessel  will  have  sailed. 

13.  We  might  have  written.  14.  They  were  loved.  15.  If  I  had 
been  loved.  16.  If  he  is  loved.  17.  Though  he  love.  18.  Though 
he  is  loved.  19.  If  I  may  be  seen.  20.  We  can  go.  21.  Go. 
22.  Eemain.     23.  If  he  return.     24.  If  he  returns. 


116.  Irregular  Verbs. 

An  Irregular  Verb  is  one  which  does  not  form  its 
past  tense  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the 
present  tense;  as,  do,  did,  done;  go,  went,  gone. 

The  following  list  contains  the  Principal  Parts  of  most  of  the 
Irregular  verbs.     Those  marked  n  have  also  the  regular  forms. 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Present. 

PaM. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Abide, 

abode, 

abode. 

Become, 

became, 

become. 

Am, 

was, 

been. 

Befall, 

befell, 

befallen. 

Awake, 

awoke,  r. 

/  awaked, 
^  awoke. 

Be^et, 

/  hegat, 
I  begot, 

begotten, 

O       1 

begot. 

Arise, 

arose, 

arisen. 

Begin, 

began, 

begun. 

Bear, 

f  bore, 
)  I  bare, 

born. 

Behold, 

beheld, 

beheld. 

(bring  forth, 

Belay, 

belaid,  r. 

belaid,  r. 

Bear,  (carry,)  bore, 

borne. 

Bend, 

bent,  r. 

bent,  R. 

Beat, 

beat, 

f  beaten, 
*>  beat. 

Bereave, 

bereft,  r. 

bereft,  R. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

besought. 

96 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Resent. 

Past. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Present. 

Past. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Bet, 

bet,  R. 

bet,  R. 

Dream, 

dreamt,  ] 

R    dreamt,  r. 

Betide, 

j  betided, 
I  betid, 

betided, 

Dress, 

drest,  R. 

drest,  r. 

betid. 

Dwell, 

dwelt,  R. 

dwelt,  R. 

Bid, 

/bid, 

J.  bade, 

bid, 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

*     bidden. 

Eat, 

ate, 

eaten. 

"DUn 

bit, 

f  bitten, 
I  bit. 

Fall, 

fell, 

fallen. 

Jt>ite, 

Feed, 

fed, 

fed. 

Bind, 

bound, 

bound. 

Feel, 

felt, 

felt. 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bled. 

Fight, 

fought, 

fought. 

Bless, 

f  blessed, 
t  blest, 

blessed, 

Find, 

found, 

found. 

blest. 

Forbear, 

forbore, 

forborne. 

Breed, 

bred, 

bred. 

Forget, 

forgot, 

f  forgotten, 
I  forgot. 

Break, 

f  broke, 
I  brake, 

broken, 

broke. 

Forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaken. 

Bring, 

brought, 

brought. 

Flee, 

fled, 

fled. 

Build, 

built,  R. 

built,  r. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flung. 

Burn, 

burnt,  R. 

burnt,  R. 

Fly, 

flew, 

flown. 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Buy, 

bought, 

bought. 

Freight, 

freighted,    fraught,  r. 

Cast, 

cast, 

cast. 

Get, 

got, 

f  got, 
\  gotten. 

Catch, 

caught,  R 

caught,  r. 

Chide, 

chid, 

f  chidden, 
1  chid. 

Give, 

gave, 

given. 

Gild, 

gilt,  R. 

gilt,  R. 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

Gird; 

girt,  R. 

girt,  R. 

Cleave, 

f  cleaved, 
l  clave, 

cleaved. 

Go,  ' 

went, 

gone. 

(adhere,. 

Grave, 

graved, 

graven,  R. 

Cleave, 

(split, 

c  cleft, 

cleft. 

Grind, 

ground, 

ground. 

-j  clove, 

cloven, 

Grow, 

grew, 

grown. 

v  clave, 

cleaved. 

Hang, 

hung,  R. 

hung,  R. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clung. 

Have, 

had, 

had. 

Clothe 

f  clothed, 
I  clad, 

clothed, 

Heave, 

hove,  R. 

hoven,  R. 

\~/X\Jvl.X\s} 

clad. 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewn,  R. 

Come, 

came, 

come. 

Hear, 

heard, 

heard. 

Cost, 

cost, 

cost. 

Hide, 

hid, 

/  hidden, 
Ihid. 

Creep, 

crept, 

crept. 

Crow, 

crew,  R. 

crowed. 

Hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

Cut, 

cut, 

cut. 

Hold, 

held, 

f  held, 
I  holden. 

Dare, 

durst,  R. 

dared. 

Deal, 

dealt, 

dealt. 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurt. 

Dig, 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

Keep, 

kept, 

kept. 

Do, 

did, 

done. 

Kneel, 

knelt,  R 

knelt. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawn. 

Knit, 

knit,  R. 

knit,  R. 

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 


97 


Present. 

Past. 

Know, 

knew, 

Lay, 

laid, 

Lead, 

led, 

Lean, 

leant,  R. 

Leap, 

leapt,  R. 

Learn, 

learnt,  R. 

Leave, 

left, 

Lend, 

lent, 

Let, 

let, 

Lie,  ( recline,  )lay, 

Light, 

lit,  r. 

Lose, 

lost, 

Load, 

loaded, 

Make, 

made, 

Mean, 

meant, 

Meet, 

met, 

Mow, 

mowed, 

Pay, 

paid, 

Pass, 

past,  r. 

Pen,(  inclose, )  pent,  r. 

Plead, 

f  plead,  R. 
\  pled, 

Put, 

put, 

Quit, 

quit,  R. 

Bap, 

rapt,  R. 

Head, 

read, 

Beave, 

reft, 

Bend, 

rent, 

Eid, 

rid, 

Kide, 

rode, 

Eing, 

/  ^ng, 
1-  rung, 

Eise, 

rore, 

Eive, 

rived, 

Eun, 

ran, 

Saw, 

sawed, 

Say, 

said, 

See, 

saw, 

Seethe, 

sod,  R. 

Seek, 

sought, 

Set, 

set, 

H.  G.  S 

Perfect 
Participle. 

known. 

laid. 

led. 

leant,  R. 

leapt,  R. 

learnt,  R. 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lain. 

lit,  R. 

lost. 

laden,  R. 

made. 

meant. 

met. 

mown,  r. 

paid. 

past. 

pent,  R. 

plead,  R. 

pled. 

put. 

quit,  R. 

rapt,  R. 

read. 

reft. 

rent. 

rid. 
f  ridden, 
I  rode. 

rung. 

risen, 
riven,  r. 
run. 

sawn,  r. 
said. 
.    seen, 
sodden,  R. 
sought, 
set. 


Present. 

Past 

Perfect 
Participle 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Shape, 

shaped, 

shapen,  R. 

Shave, 

shaved. 

shaven,  r. 

Shear, 

shore,  R. 

shorn,  R. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

Shine, 

shone,  R. 

shone,  R 

Shoe, 

shod, 

shod. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot. 

Show, 

showed, 

shown. 

Shred, 

shred, 

shred. 

Shut, 

shut, 

shut. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sat. 

Sing, 

|  sang, 
I  sung, 

sung. 

Sink, 

f  sank, 
v  sunk, 

sunk. 

S0W,(sca«cr,)S0Wed, 

sown,  r. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

Sleep, 

slept, 

slept. 

Sling, 

slung, 

slung. 

Slink, 

slunk, 

slunk. 

Slit, 

slit, 

slit, 

Smell, 

smelt, 

smelt,  R. 

Smite, 

smote, 

f  smitten, 
I  smit. 

Speak, 

spoke, 

spoken. 

Speed, 

sped, 

sped, 

Spell, 

spelt,  r: 

spelt,  r. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spent. 

Spill, 

spilt,  R. 

spilt,  R. 

Spin, 

J  spun, 
^  span, 

spun. 

Spit, 

f  spit, 
f>  spat, 

spit, 
spitten. 

Split, 

split, 

split. 

Spread, 

spread, 

spread. 

Spring, 

f  sprang, 
^  sprung, 

sprung. 

Spoil, 

spoilt,  R. 

spoilt,  R. 

Stay, 

staid,  R. 

staid,  R. 

Stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

Stave, 

stove,  R. 

stove,  R. 

98 


ENGLISH   GEAMMAE. 


Present* 

PcjsL 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Present. 

Past. 

Perfect 
Participtc. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stolen. 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

stuck. 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stung. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

Stride, 

J  strode, 
l  strid, 

stridden, 

Thrive, 

throve,  B 

.    thriven,  r. 

strid. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Strike, 
String, 

struck, 
strung, 

f  struck, 
I  stricken, 
strung. 

Thrust, 
Tread, 

thrust, 
trod, 

thrust, 
f  trodden, 
\  trod. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striven. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxen,  R. 

Strow, 

strowed, 

J  strowed, 
t  strown. 

Wear, 
Weave, 

wore, 
wove,  r. 

worn, 
woven,  R. 

Swear, 

f  swore, 
I  sware, 

sworn. 

Weep, 
Wake, 

wept, 
woke,  R. 

wept, 
woke,  R. 

Sweat, 

sweat,  E. 

sweat,  r. 

Wed, 

wed,  r. 

wed,  r. 

Sweep, 

swept, 

swept. 

Wet, 

wet,  R. 

wet,  r. 

Swell, 

swelled, 

swollen,  r. 

Whet, 

whet,  r, 

whet,  r. 

Swim, 

f  swam, 
I  swum, 

swum. 

Win, 

won, 

won. 

Wind, 

wound, 

wound. 

Swing, 

swung, 

swung. 

Work, 

wrought, 

R.  wrought,  xt. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

Wring, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

Teach, 

taught, 

taught. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

Rem 

. — The  'auxiliaries  are   a 

[1  irregular  verbs. 

Their  forms 

may  be  found  in  the  paradigm  f 

or  their  conjugation 

117.  Defective  and  Redundant  Terbs. 

1.  ^Defective  Verbs  are  those  which  want  some  of  the 
Principal  Parts. 

Ex. — Beware,  from  be  and  aware,  used  mostly  in  the  impera- 
tive mode,  but  may  be  used  wherever  be  would  occur  in  the  con- 
jugation of  the  verb  to  be;  as,  "Beware  the  awful  avalanche!" 
"If  angels  fell,  why  should  not  men  beware?" 

Ought,  used  in  both  present  and  past  tenses;  as,  "I  know  I 
ought  to  go,"  (now) ;   "  I  knew  he  ought  to  have  gone/7  (then). 

Quoth,  used  for  said;  as,  "  'Not  1/  quoth  Sancho."  It  always 
stands  before  its  subject.  Quod  is  also  used  in  the  same  sense, 
by  old  authors. 

wit,  in  the  sense  of  know;  as,  To  wit,  i.  e.,  namely.  Wot, 
wis,  wert,  wist,  wote,  derived  from  wit,  are  found  in  old  authors. 


ETYMOLOGY VERBS.  99 

2.  The  Auxiliaries  are  also  defective,  wanting  the 
perfect  participle. 

3.  Redundant  Terbs  are  those  which  have  more 
than  one  form  for  their  past  tense  or  perfect  participle. 

Ex. — Cleave;  cleft,  clove,  or  clave;  cleft,  cloven,  or  cleaved. 

118.  Exercises. 

Exercises  to  be  corrected: 

1.  The  cloth  was  weaved  beautiful.  2.  I  seen  him  run  when 
you  come.  3.  The  boys  fit  'most  an  hour.  4.  I  stringed  the  rasp- 
berries on  a  spear  of  grass.  5.  Were  the  cattle  drove  to  pasture? 
6.  She  has  took  my  pencil.  7.  The  ship  which  springed  a  leak  has 
just  hoved  in  sight.  8.  The  plastering  has  fell  from  the  ceiling. 
9.  Charles  winned  the  prize  after  he  had  strove  many  times. 

10.  I  did  not  git  my  exercise  wrote  in  time.  11.  The  wind  has 
blowed  the  fence  down.  12.  He  has  went  and  brung  some  snow 
into  the  house.  13.  Who  learned  you  how  to  spell.  14.  The 
stone  smit  him  right  in  the  face.  15.  I  laid  down,  and  ris  much 
refreshed.  16.  The  cars  have  ran  off  the  track.  17.  The  bells 
ringed  when  we  come  into  town. 

18.  He  could  have  went.  19.  I  have  saw  some  fine  cattle  to- 
day. 20.  I  and  you  is  going  to  the  concert,  aint  we?  21.  Neither 
he  nor  she  are  good  to  me.  22.  The  steamboat  come  a  puffing 
along.     23.  His  face  has  wore  a  sad  expression  for  more  'n  a  week. 

24.  I  'm  in  a  quandary  whether  a  horse  or  a  grayhound  run 
the  fastest.  25.  The  man  throwed  a  stone,  and  made  the  coon  git. 
26.  John  dumb  the  tree,  and  shaked  the  chestnuts  down. 

119.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Verb,  and  why? 

2.  Regular  or  Irregular,  and  why? 

3.  Give  its  principal  parts. 

4.  Copulative,  transitive,  or  intransitive,  and  why? 

5.  Voice  and  form,  and  why? 

6.  Mode,  and  why? 

7.  Tense,  and  why?    Inflect  the  tense, 

8.  Person  and  number,  and  why?     Rule. 


100  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


120.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "Mary  has  recited  her  lesson." 
Has  recited  is  a  verb;  it  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action, 
or  state:  regular;  it  forms  its  past  tense  and  perfect 
participle  by  adding  ed:  principal  parts  are  pres.,  recite, 
past,  recited,  perfect  participle,  recited:  transitive;  it  re- 
quires the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning: 
active  voice;  it  represents  the  subject  as  acting:  common 
form;  it  represents  a  customary  act:  indicative  mode;  it 
asserts  a  thing  as  actual:  present  perfect  tense;  it  repre- 
sents a  past  act  as  completed  in  present  time:  third 
person,  singular  number;  to  agree  with  its  subject 
"Mary,"  according  to  Rule  XIII:  "A  verb  must  agree 
with  its  subject  in  person  and  number.". 

II.  "I  shall  go  if  you  stay" 
Shall  go  ...  is  a  verb;  (why?):  irregular;  it  does  not  form  its  past 
tense  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  ed:  'principal 
parts  are  go,  went,  gone:  intransitive;  (why?):  common 
form;  (why?):  indicative  mode;  (why?):  future  tense; 
(why?):  first  person,  singular  number;  (why?):  Rule 
XIII. 


, is  a  verb;   (why?):   regular;   (why?):  principal  parts; 

(give  them):  intransitive;  (why?):  common  form; 
(why?):  subjunctive  mode;  it  represents  an  act  as  con- 
ditional :  present  tense  in  form,  but  denotes  future  time  : 
second  person7  singular  or  plural  number;  (why?):  Rule 
XIII. 

III.  "He  should  have  answered  my  letter." 
Should  have  answered  is  a  verb;  (why?):  regular;  (why?):  prin- 
cipal parts;  (give  them):  transitive;  (why?):  active 
voice;  (why?):  common  form;  (why?):  potential  mode; 
it  represents  an  act  as  obligatory :  past  perfect  tense ;  it 
is  the  form  used  to  represent  an  act  as  completed  at  or 
before  some  other  act:  third  person,  singular  number; 
(why?):   Rule  XIII. 

IV.    "Bring  me  a  glass  of  water." 

Bring is  a  verb;  (why?) :  irregular;  (why?) :  principal  parts ; 

(give  them):    transitive;  (why?):  active  voice;  (why?).' 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  101 

common  form ;  (why?):  imperative  mode ;  (why?):  present 
tense;  (why?):  second  person,  singular  number,  to  agree 
with  its  subject  "thou"  understood:  Eule  XIII. 

V.    "He  attempted  to  ascend  the  mountain." 
To  ascend  .  .  is  a  verb;    (why?):   regular;  (why?):    principal  parts; 
(give  them) :    transitive;  (why?):   active  voice;  (why?): 
common  form;  (why  ?) :  infinitive  mode ;  (why?):  present 
tense;  (why?):  object  of  "attempted" :  Eule  VI. 

VI.  "  The  letter  was  written  yesterday." 
Was  written  is  a  verb;  (why?) :  irregular ;  (why?) :  principal  parts; 
(give  them):  transitive;  (why?):  passive  voice;  it  rep- 
resents the  subject  as  being  acted  upon :  indicative  mode  ; 
(why?) :  past  tense;  (why?) :  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber*; (why?):  Eule  XIII. 

VII.  "Liberty  is  sweet." 

Is is  a  verb;  (why?) :  irregular;  (why?) :  principal  parts; 

(give  them):  neuter;  (why?):  copulative;  it  is  used  to 
connect  the  predicate  "sweet "  to  the  subject  "liberty": 
indicative  mode;  (why?):  present  tense;  (why?):  third 
person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  subject  "lib- 
erty": Eule  XIII. 

VIII.    "He  ivas  considered  rich. 
Was  considered  is    a   verb;    (why?):    regular;    (why?):    principal 
parts;  (give  them) :  passive  form;  (why?):  copulative; 
(why?):  indicative  mode;  (why?):  past  tense;  (why?): 
third  person,  singular  number ;  (why?):   Eule  XIII. 

IX.    "The  fields  look  green." 

Look is  a  verb;   (why?) :   regular;  (why?) :   principal  parts; 

(give   them) :    copulative ;    it    connects    the     predicate 
"green"    to    the    subject    "fields":    indicative    mode; 
(why  ?) :    present   tense ;    (why  ?) :    third  person,   plural 
number;  (why?):   Eule  XIII. 

X.    "John  hastened  to  assist  us." 

To  assist  .  .".  is  a  verb;  (why?) :  regular;  (why?) :  principal  parts; 
(give  them):  transitive;  (why?):  active  voice;  (why?); 
infinitive  mode;  it  expresses  action  without  affirming  it: 
it  depends  upon  "hastened":  Eule  XVII. 


102  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


XI.   "  To  lie  is  disgraceful." 

To  lie is  a  verb;   (why?) :    regular;  (why?):   principal  parts; 

(give  them):  infinitive  mode;  (why?):  it  is  the  subject 
of  the  sentence  "To  lie  is  disgraceful,"  and  is  in  the 
nominative  case ;  Rule  I. 

XII.   "I  heard  the  wolves  howling  in  the  forest." 
Howling  ...  is  a  participle ;  it  partakes  of  the  properties  of  a  verb 
and    of   an    adjective:    it   is   derived    from    the   verb 
"howl":   present  participle;   it  denotes  continuance:   it 
belongs  to  "wolves":   Rule  XII. 

XIII.   "  Take  this  letter,  written  by  myself." 
Written ....  is  a  participle;   (why?):    (from  what  word  derived?): 
perfect  participle;   it  denotes  completion:  it  belongs  to 
"letter":   Rule  XII. 

XIV.  "He  has  been  reading  Shakspeare." 
Has  been  reading  is  a  verb ;  (why?) :  irregular;  (why?) :  principal 
parts;  (give  them):  active  voice;  (why?):  progressive 
form;  it  denotes  continuance  of  action:  indicative  mode; 
(why?):  present  perfect  tense;  (why?):  third  person, 
singular  number ;  (why?):    Rule  XIII. 

XV.    "That  man  did  buy  our  house." 

I>id  buy  ...  is  a  verb;  (why?):  irregular;  (why?):  principal  parts; 
(give  them):  active  voice;  (why?):  emphatic  form;  it 
denotes  assertion  with  emphasis:  indicative  mode; 
(why?):  past  tense;  (why?):  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber; (why?):   Rule  XIII. 


121.  Exercises. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  in  the  following 

sentences  : 

1.  They  commenced  plowing  yesterday.  2.  I  seldom  write  let- 
ters. 3.  My  father  brought  me  some  pine-apples  when  he  came 
from  the  city.  4.  She  had  gone  to  walk.  5.  When  do  you  intend 
to  return  my  umbrella  ?  6.  The  workmen  should  have  been  more 
careful.  7.  Hallowed  be  thy  name..  8.  Eespect  the  aged.  9.  I 
could  not  learn  to  do  it. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  103 

10.  The  weather  was  unpleasant.  11.  He  should  have  been 
more  industrious.  12.  Shall  I  assist  you?  13.  How  many  regi- 
ments were  mustered  out?  14.  Have  all  the  gifts  of  healing? 
15.  Remember  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth.  16.  The 
poor  must  work  in  their  grief.  17.  We  were  speedily  convinced 
that  his  professions  were  insincere. 

18.  Hear,  father,  hear  our  prayer! 

Long  hath  thy  goodness  our  footsteps  attended. 

19.  That  very  law  that  molds  a  tear, 

And  bids  it  trickle  from  its  source, 
That  law  preserves  the  earth  a  sphere, 

And  guides  the  planets  in  their  course. — Rogers. 

20.  Why  restless,  why  cast  down,  my  soul? 

Hope  still,  and  thou  shalt  sing 
The  praise  of  Him  who  is  thy  God, 
Thy  Savior,  and  thy  King. 

Passive  Forms.  1.  He  was  beaten  with  many  stripes.  2.  The 
sheep  were  destroyed  by  wolves.  3.  Every  crime  should  be  pun- 
ished. 4.  You,  he,  and  I  were  invited.  5.  America  was  discov- 
ered by  Christopher  Columbus.  6.  He  has  been  elected  mayor  of 
our  city.  7.  This  lake  is  said  to  be  one  hundred  feet  deep. 
8.  The  work  might  have  been  finished  yesterday. 

Progressive,  Emphatic,  and  Interrogative  Forms.      1.  He 

is  writing  a  letter.  2.  They  should  have  been  studying  their  les- 
sons. 3.  They  were  digging  for  gold.  4.  I  do  wish  you  were  here. 
5.  He  did  not  commit  forgery.  6.  How  do  you  learn  so  fast? 
7.  Why  does  he  persist  in  denying  it?  8.  Where  were  you  going 
when  I  met  you? 

Exercises  to  be  corrected: 

1.  John  didn't  go  to  do  any  mischief.  2.  He  laid  down  to  take 
a  nap.  3.  I  reckon  you  are  from  the  East.  4.  You  had  not  ought 
to  have  done  so,  for  you  knowed  better.  5.  Had  I  have  known 
that,  I  should  rather  have  not  seen  him.  6.  The  blacksmith  shoed 
my  horse.  7.  I  should  not  of  known  him.  8.  He  could  have 
went  as  well  as  not. 

9.  I  have  saw  a  steam-boat  to-day.  10.  I  never  seen  any  thing 
like  it.  11.  He  has  gone  and  done  it.  12.  Mary  was  chose  on 
my  side.     13.  The  water  has  ran  into  our  cellar.     14.  He  knew 


104  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

nothing  of  what  was  being  done.  15.  Those  trees  will  bear  being 
pruned  more  yet.  16.  A  new  school-house  is  being  built  in  our 
district.     17.  The  boy  had  swam  the  river. 

18.  I  will  be  drowned :  nobody  shall  help  me.  19.  Would  we 
have  a  good  time  if  we  should  go?  20.  Was  I  to  play  truant,  I 
should  get  punished.  21.  By  following  me,  you  shall  get  there 
sooner.  22.  We  will  receive  our  money  to-morrow.  23.  Writing 
is  to  make  letters  with  a  pen  or  pencil. 

24.  The  order  served  rather  to  exasperate  instead  of  quieting  the 
people.  25.  Money  is  scarce  and  times  hard.  26.  I  never  could, 
and  presume  I  never  shall  understand  that  passage.  27.  Your  in- 
tentions might,  and  probably  were,  good.  28.  No  one  ever  worked 
so  hard  as  I  have  done  to-day.  29.  Any  word  that  will  compare 
is  an  adjective. 

30.  Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man.  31.  Either  Stephen  or 
Jonas  have  to  stay  at  home.  32.  What  black  despair,  what  horror 
fill  his  mind?  33.  That  a  belle  should  be  vain,  or  a  fop  ignorant, 
are  not  to  be  wondered  at.    34.  Our  potatoes  is  all  gone. 


THE    ADVERB. 
122.  Oral  Lesson. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "Jane  sang  a  song"  What 
element  is  "song"?  Arts. — An  objective  element.  Why?  Arts. — 
Because  it  completes  the  meaning  of  the  predicate.  Write  "  Jane 
sang  a  song  sweetly."  Does  "sweetly"  complete  the  meaning  of 
the  predicate?  Ans. — It  does  not.  What  word  is  modified  by  it, 
however?  Ans. — "Sang."  Ho w  does  it  modify  " sang " ?  Ans. — 
It  tells  how  Jane  sang. 

Write  this  sentence:  "You  are  very  kind."  What  word  is 
modified  by  "very"?  Ans. — "Kind."  What  part  of  speech  is 
"kind"?  Ans. — An  adjective.  Write  "A  letter,  hastily  written, 
was  sent  me  yesterday."  What  does  "hastily"  modify?  Ans. — 
"Written."  What  part  of  speech  is  "written?"  Ans. — A  parti- 
ciple. Write  "The  letter  was  written  very  hastily."  What  does 
"  very  "  modify  ?  Ans.—11  Hastily."  What  does  "  hastily  "  modify  ? 
Ans. — "  Was  written." 

Those  words,  and  all  others  used  in  a  similar  manner,  are  called 
Adverbs* 


ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS.  105 


123.  Definition.    , 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
verb,  adjective,  participle,  or  an  adverb;  as,  "She  sings 
sweetly ;"  "The  roads  are  very  rough;"  "The  ranks  were 
quickly  broken ;"   "  He  reads  tolerably  well." 

item.  i. — An  adverb  is  equivalent  to  a  phrase  consisting  of  a 
preposition  and  its  object,  limited  by  an  adjective. 

Ex. — "He  walks  rapidly"  i.  e.,  He  walks  in  a  rapid  manner.  "He 
lives  there"  i.  e.,  He  lives  at  that  place.  "The  work  is  intensely  inter- 
esting," i.  e.,  The  work  is  interesting  in  an  intense  degree. 

Rem.  2. — An  adverb  sometimes  modifies  a  phrase  or  a  clause. 

Ex. — "He  sailed  nearly  round  the  globe;"  "The  old  man  likewise 
came  to  the  city."  In  the  first  sentence,  nearly  limits  the  phrase 
"around  the  globe;"  and  in  the  second,  likewise  modifies  the  entire 
proposition. 

124.  Classes. 

1.  With  respect  to  their  meaning  and  use,  adverbs  are 
divided  into  five  classes:  Adverbs  of  Time,  Place,  Cause, 
Manner,  and  Degree. 

2.  Adverbs  of  Time  answer  the  questions,  When? 
How  long?     How  often? 

Ex. — After,  again,  ago,  always,  anon,  early,  ever,  never,  forever, 
frequently,  hereafter,  hitherto,  immediately,  lately,  now,  often, 
seldom,  soon,  sometimes,  then,  when,  while,  weekly,  until,  yet,  &c. 

Rem. —  To-day,  to-morrow,  to-night,  yesterday,  yesternight,  (for- 
merly written  y ester  day  and  y ester  night,)  are  nouns,  not  adverbs. 
When  used  as  modifiers,  they  should  be  parsed  as  nouns  in  the 
objective  case,  without  a  governing  word.     (See  Eule  VIII.) 

Ex.— "He  will  come  to-day;"  "They  all  left  yesterday;"  "We  had 
a  severe  storm  yesternight." 

3.  Adverbs  of  Place  answer  the  questions,  Wliere? 
Whither?     Whence? 

Ex. — Above,  below,  down,  up,  hither,  thither,  here,  there,  where, 
herein,  therein,  wherein,  hence,  thence,  whence,  every-where,  no- 


106  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

where,  somewhere,  far,  yonder,  back,  forth,  aloof,  away,  aboard, 
aloft,  ashore,  backwards,  forwards,  first,  secondly,  wherever,  &c. 

Rem. — There  is  sometimes  used  as  an  expletive  to  introduce  a 
sentence;  as,  "There  were  giants  in  those  days;"  " Breathes  there  a 
man  with  soul  so  dead?" 

4.  Adverbs   of  Cause  answer  the  questions,  WJiy? 

Wherefore  ? 

Ex. — Wherefore,  therefore,  then,  why.  • 

5.  Adverbs  of  Manner  answer  the  question,  How  ? 

Ex. — Amiss,  asunder,  anyhow,  well,  badly,  easily,  foolishly, 
sweetly,  certainly,  indeed,  surely,  verily,  nay,  no,  not,  nowise, 
haply,  perhaps,  perchance,  peradventure,  probably,  &c. 

Rem. — Most  adverbs  of  manner  are  formed  by  adding  ly  to 
adjectives  or  participles;  as,  wise,  wisely ;  united,  unitedly, 

6.  Adverbs   of  Degree  answer  the  questions,  How 
much?     How  little? 

Ex. — As,  almost,  altogether,  enough,  even,  equally,  much,  more, 
most,  little,  less,  least,  wholly,  partly,  only,  quite,  scarcely,  nearly, 
excellently,  too,  chiefly,  somewhat,  &c. 

7.  Adverbs  which  show  the  manner  of  the  assertion  are 
called  modal  adverbs ;  as,  verily,  truly,  not,  no,  yes,  &c. 

8.  When,  where,  why,  &c,  when  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions, are  called  interrogative  adverbs. 

9.  An  Adverbial  Phrase  is  a  combination  of  words 

used  as  a  single  adverb. 

Ex. — " In  general ;"  "hand  in  hand;"  "by  and  by;"  "through 
and  through;"  "no  more;"  "for  the  most  part;"  "as  usual,"  &c. 
Such  combinations  may  be  parsed  as  single  adverbs. 

10.  Conjunctive  Adverbs  are  those  which  connect 
two  propositions,  and  modify  a  word  in  each. 

Ex. — "I  shall  see  you  again  when  I  return;"  "Go  where  glory 
waits  thee;"  "I  have  been  to  Boston  since  I  saw  you  last;"  "Pay 


ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS.  107 

your  bills  before  you  leave;"  "The  book  remained  where  I  left  it;" 
"  I  will  go  as  soon  as  I  have  eaten  my  dinner." 

Rem.  i. — Conjunctive  adverbs  are  equivalent  to  two  phrases; 
one  containing  a  relative  pronoun,  the  other  the  antecedent  of  the 
relative.  In  the  sentence,  "He  defends  himself  when  he  is  at- 
tacked," ivhen  ==  at  the  time  in  which.  "At  the  time "  modifies 
"defends,"  and  "in  which"  modifies  "attacked;"  hence  when,  the 
equivalent  of  the  two  phrases,  modifies  both. 

Rem.  a. — The  principal  conjunctive  adverbs  are  as,  after,  before, 
how,  since,  therefore,  till,  until,  when,  where,  wherefore,  while,  and 
why. 

125.  Comparison. 

Many  adverbs  admit  of  comparison. 

1.  Derivatives  ending  in  ly  are  usually  compared  by  prefixing 
more  and  most,  less  and  least  to  the  simple  form;  as,  wisely,  more 
wisely,  most  wisely;  firmly,  more  firmly,  most  firmly. 

2.  Three  adverbs  are  compared  by  adding  er  and  est  to  the 
simple  form,  viz.:  fast,  faster,  fastest;  often,  oftener,  oftenest;  soon, 
sooner,  soonest 

3.  Some  adverbs  are  compared  irregularly;  as,  well,  better,  best; 
ill,  worse,  worst;  little,  less,  least;  much,  more,  most,  &c. 

CJEXJERAIL   REMARKS. 

1.  Some  adverbs  seem  to  be  used  independently ;  as,  yes,  no,  why, 
well,  &c,  in  certain  constructions.  They  may  be  parsed  as  modi- 
fying the  entire  proposition,  the  preceding  sentence,  something 
understood,  or  as  independent. 

Ex.— "Have  you  my  book?— No."  "  Why,  that  is  strange."  "  Well, 
I  am  surprised."     "Yea,  the  Lord  sitteth  King  forever." 

2.  An  adverb  frequently  denotes  manner  when  it  modifies  a 
verb,  and  degree  when  it  modifies  an  adjective  or  an  adverb;  as, 
"I  think  so"  =  manner;  "I  feel  so  lonely"  =  degree. 

3.  Adverbs  frequently  become  adjectives  after  copulative  and 
passive  verbs;  as,  "  He  reads  better"  =  adverb ;  "  He  seems  better"  = 
adjective.    "  It  runs  well"  =  adverb ;  "  He  looks  ivell"  =  adjective. 

4.  The  adjective  form  of  a  word,  or  the  adjective  mode  of  com- 


108  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

parison,  is  allowed  in  poetry  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  prose ;  as, 
"Breathe  soft,  ye  winds;"  "Drink  deep;"  "Dry  clanked  his  har- 
ness." 

5.  Certain  words  are  used  sometimes  as  adverbs  and  sometimes 
as  adjectives.  They  are  adverbs  when  they  modify  verbs,  adjec- 
tives, and  other  adverbs,  and  adjectives  when  they  modify  nouns 
or  pronouns. 

Ex. — "I  can  remain  no  longer;"  "Let  no  man  deceive  you."  In 
the  first  sentence,  "no"  is  an  adverb,  modifying  "longer";  in  the 
second,  it  is  an  adjective,  modifying  "man." 

6.  In  such  expressions  as  "He  works  for  hire  only"  "One  man 
only  was  injured,"  "only"  is  an  adjective,  modifying  the  preced- 
ing noun.  "He  sells  drugs  and  books  also"  Here  "also"  is  an 
adverb,  modifying  "sells"  understood.  "He  sells  drugs,  and  he 
also  sells  books." 

126.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  An  Adverb,  and  why? 

2.  Compare  it. 

3.  Tell  what  it  modifies. 

4.  Eule. 

127.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.    "He  acted  wisely" 

Wisely is  an  adverb;  it  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 

verb:  compared,  wisely  more  wisely,  most  wisely: 
it  is  an  adverb  of  manner,  and  modifies  "acted": 
Eule  XVIII:  "Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives, 
participles,  and  adverbs." 

II.  "Why  do  you  laugh?" 

Why is  an  adverb;  (why?) :  it  is  not  compared:  interroga- 
tive adverb,  and  modifies  "do  laugh":  Eule  XVIII. 

III.   "They  walk  hand  in  hand" 

Hand  in  Siand  is  an  adverbial  phrase;  it  is  a  combination  of  words 
used  as  a  simple  adverb:  it  modifies  "walk": 
Eule  XVIII. 


ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS.  109 

TV.    "I  shall  certainly  recover." 

Certainly.  .  .  is  an  adverb;  (why?):  modal;  it  shows  the  manner 
in  which  the  assertion  is  made:  it  modifies  "shall 
recover":  Rule  XVIII. 

V.    "I  will  go  whenever  you  wish." 

Whenever  .  .  .  is  an  adverb;  (why?):  conjunctive  adverb ;  it  connects 
two  clauses,  and  modifies  a  word  in  each :  it  modifies 
"will  go"  and  "wish":   Rule  XVIII. 

128.  Exercises. 

Parse  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  They  lived  very  happily.  2.  Why  do  you  look  so  sad?  3. 
When  spring  comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom.  4.  How  rapidly  the 
moments  fly!  5.  He  signed  it  then  and  there.  6.  I  have  read  it 
again  and  again.  7.  He  will  do  so  no  more.  8.  The  mystery  will 
be  explained  by  and  by.     9.  Perchance  you  are  the  man. 

10.  Whither  has  he  gone?  11.  They  were  agreeably  disap- 
pointed. 12.  He  lives  just  over  the  hill  yonder.  13.  Henceforth 
let  no  man  fear  that  God  will  forsake  us.  14.  I  saw  him  before 
he  left.  15.  I  will  not  be  unjust.  16.  I  have  not  seen  him  since  I 
returned  from  New  York.  17.  Doubtless,  ye  are  the  people.  18. 
Perhaps  I  shall  go. 

THE    PREPOSITION. 
129.  Oral  Lesson. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "Mr.  Olds  is  a  wealthy 
man."  What  element  is  "wealthy"?  Ans. — An  adjective  ele- 
ment. What  does  it  modify?  Ans. — "Man."  Write  this  sen- 
tence: "Mr.  Olds  is  a  man  of  wealth."  You  see  that  "of  wealth," 
in  this  sentence,  has  the  same  meaning  as  "  wealthy  "  in  the  other. 
What  part  of  speech  is  "wealth"?  Ans. — A  noun.  The  word 
"of"  connects  "man"  and  "wealth,"  and  shows  the  relation  be- 
tween the  ideas  expressed  by  them.  In  this  case,  the  relation  is 
that  of  possession:  "man"  possesses  "'wealth."  Words  used  in 
this  manner  are  called  Prepositions,  because  they  are  usually  placed 
before  nouns. 

In  the  sentence  "We  live  in  London,"  what  words  tell  where 


110  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

we  live?  Ans. — "In  London."  These  words  constitute  what  is 
called  a  phrase,  and  form  an  adverbial  element.  The  word  limited 
by  the  phrase  is  called  the  antecedent  term  of  relation,  and  the  noun 
following  the  preposition,  the  subsequent  term,  or  object.  The  ante- 
cedent term  may  be  any  thing  which  can  be  modified,  but  the 
subsequent  must  be  the  objective  case  of  a  noun  or  something  used 
as  a  noun. 

In  the  sentence  "I  recite  in  the  afternoon,"  what  is  the  ante- 
cedent term  of  relation  ?  Ans. — "Kecite."  Why?  Ans. — Because 
it  is  the  word  which  is  modified  by  the  phrase  "in  the  afternoon." 
What  is  the  subsequent  term,  or  object?  Ans. — "Afternoon." 
Why?    Ans. — Because  it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  "in." 

130.  Definition. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  its  object  and  some  other  word;  as,  "The  man  of 
Uz ;"  "  Ellen  is  walking  in  the  garden." 

Kern.  i. — A  preposition  and  its  object  form  a  separable  phrase, 
which  modifies  some  word  or  combination  of  words,  called  the 
antecedent  term  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the  preposition;  the 
object  of  the  preposition  being  the  subsequent  term.  In  the  sen- 
tence, "The  house  stands  on  a  hill,"  stands  is  the  antecedent  term 
of  relation,  and  hill  the  subsequent. 

Kem.  2. — The  object  of  a  preposition  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase, 
or  an  entire  proposition;  as,  "He  lives  in  Chicago;"  "The  ship 
was  about  to  be  launched;"  "Reason  and  Justice  have  been  jury- 
men since  before  Noah  was  a  sailor." 

Rem.  3. — Two  prepositions  are  frequently  combined  and  used 
as  one ;  as,  "  He  came  from  over  the  sea ;"  "  The  church  stands  over 
against  the  school-house."  In  such  cases,  parse  the  two  preposi- 
tions as  one,  calling  the  combination  a  complex  preposition. 

Rem.  4. — Sometimes  the  object  of  a  preposition  is  omitted ;  as, 
uThe  boys  went  out;"  "The  regiment  marched  by"  In  such 
cases,  parse  the  preposition  as  an  adverb. 

Rem.  5 — The  antecedent  term  is  sometimes  omitted;  as, 
"'From  Vermont V  asked  the  landlord;"  "'As  to  that/  said  the 
dial-plate."  In  such  cases,  parse  the  preposition  as  showing  the 
relation  between  its  object  and  an  antecedent  term  understood. 


ETYMOLOGY PREPOSITIONS.  Ill 

For,  in  the  complex  phrases,  "For  him  to  lie,"  "For  you  to  de- 
ceive," &c,  may  be  parsed  as  an  introductory  preposition. 

Rem.  6. — When  the  relations  between  objects  of  thought  are 
so  obvious  that  they  need  no  expression,  the  prepositions  are 
usually  omitted;  as,  "I  came  home  yesterday;"  aHe  is  worth  a 
million /"  "  The  bridge  is  a  mile  long."  In  such  cases,  the  subse- 
quent term  of  relation  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case  without 
a  governing  word. 

131,  List  of  Prepositions. 

A  —  at,  on,  or  in;  "Be  quiet,  and  go  a-angling." 
Aboard;    "Aboard  ships,  dull  shocks  are  sometimes  felt." 
About;    "It  was  a  day  to  be  at  home,  crowding  about  the  fire." 
Above;    "Above  your  voices  sounds  the  wail  of  starving  men." 
According  to ;    "  Proceed  according  to  law." 
Across;    " Their  way  was  across  a  stretch  of  open  meadow." 
After;    "After  life's  fitful  fever,  he  sleeps  well." 
Against ;    "  Uplift  against  the  sky,  your  mighty  shapes." 
Along-;    "I  hear  the  waves  resounding  along  the  shore." 
Amid,  amidst;    "A  lark  reared  her  brood  amid  the  corn." 
Among,  amongst;    "He  was  always  foremost  among  them." 
Around ;    "  I  hear  around  me  cries  of  fear." 

As  to  ;    "As  to  the  parts  of  the  cargo,  they  were  already  made  fast." 
At ;    "  She  is  at  church  ;"   "  The  bell  rings  at  noon." 
Athwart;    "Athwart  the  waste  the  pleasant  home-light  shines." 
Before;    "Who  shall  go  before  them?"   "Ileft  before  sunrise." 
Behind  ;  "  We  have  seen  the  moon  rising  behind  the  eastern  pines.'' 
Below  ;  "It  was  on  the  road  to  Kennebec,  below  the  town  of  Bath." 
Beneath;    "The  steps  creaked  beneath  his  noiseless  tread." 
Beside;    "I  sat  beside  her;"    "He  is  beside  himself." 
Besides;    "There  is  nothing  at  all  besides  this  manna." 
Between  ;    "  The  town  is  situated  between  two  mountains." 
Betwixt;    "The  waters  roll  betwixt  him  and  the  wooded  knoll." 
Beyond;    "His  thoughts  turned  to  his  home  beyond  the  sea." 
But  ==  except;  "He  had  retained  nothing  but  his  father's  belt." 
By;    "Strength  came  by  working  in  the  mines." 
Concerning;    "The  Lord  hath  spoken  good  concerning  Israel-"' 
Down;    "They  wandered  in  throngs  down' the  valley." 
Bnring;    "He  staid  at  home  during  the  war." 
Ere  ;    "  Nile  flowed  ere  the  wonted  season." 
Except;    "Are  they  all  gone  except  you?" 
Fob?;    "I  looked  up  for  a  moment;"   "I  sell  for  cash." 


112  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

From;    "He  felt  like  a  leaf  torn  from  a  romance." 

In;    "Late  in  life,  he  began  life  in  earnest." 

Info;    "He  gazed  into  the  vast  surrounding  darkness." 

Notwithstanding;   "He  is  proud,  notwithstanding  his  poverty." 

Of;    "'Tis  the  middle  watch  of  a  summer's  night." 

Off;    "The  vessel  was  becalmed  off  Cuba." 

On;    "He  sprang  on  a  rock;"  "I  leave  on  Saturday." 

Out  of;    "No  one  was  moving,  at  least  out  of  doors." 

Over;    "The  billows  had  rolled  over  him;"  "He  rules  over  us." 

Past;    "He  drove  past  our  house  this  morning." 

Round ;    "A  shoreless  ocean  tumbled  round  the  globe." 

Save;    "Silent  is  all  save  the  dropping  rain." 

Since ;    "  The  Lord  hath  blessed  thee  since  my  coming." 

Till,  until;    "Not  till  the  next  morning  did  the  boys  appear." 

Through;    "Then  stept  she  down  through  town  and  field." 

Throughout ;  "  There  was  much  anxiety  felt  throughout  the  land." 

To ;    "  Let  the  old  tree  go  down  to  the  earth." 

Toward,  towards;    "He  turned  me  toward  the  moonlight." 

Under;    "He  stands  erect  under  the  curved  roof." 

Unto;    "Verily,  I  say  unto  you." 

Up  ;    "  Pie  sailed  up  the  river." 

Upon  ;    "  They  were  walking  upon  the  hurricane  deck." 

With;    "The  sky  was  red  with  flame." 

Within;   "Something  of  ambition  and  pride  stirred  within  him." 

Without;    "The  morning  broke  without  a  sun." 

Rem.  l. — The  following  prepositions,  less  commonly  used,  may 
be  added  to  the  foregoing  list: 

Abaft,  aloft,  alongside,  afore,  adown,  aloof,  aneath,  aslant,  atween, 
atwixt,  despite,  inside,  outside,  maugre,  minus,  plus,  per,  sans,  underneath, 
versus,  via,  as  for,  along  with,  despite  of,  from  among,  from  before,  from 
betwixt,  from  off,  from  under,  off  of,  over  against,  round  about,  but  for; 
and  the  participial  forms  excepting,  regarding,  bating,  touching,  respect- 
ing, &c,  when  followed  by  objects. 

Rem.  2. — But,  for,  since,  and  some  others,  are  sometimes  used 
as  conjunctions;  as,  "I  must  go,  for  it  is  late." 

item.  3. — Care  should  be  taken  to  select  such  prepositions  as 
express  the  relations  intended. 

Ex. — Among,  amongst  are  applicable  to  more  than  two  objects;  as, 
"He  divided  the  estate  among  the  four  brothers:"  between,  betwixt,  are 
applicable  to  two  objects  only;  as,  "He  divided  the  estate  between 
the  two  brothers." 


ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS.  113 

During  should  be  used  when  the  event  continues  through  all  the 
period  mentioned;  as,  "I  have  examined  law  papers  during  the  day:" 
in,  at,  or  within,  when  the  event  does  not  continue  during  the  whole 
period;  as,  "I  alluded  to  that  in  my  remarks  this  morning;"  "The 
principal  must  be  paid  within  the  year." 

Of  denotes  possession  of  a  quality  or  thing;  as,  "He  is  a  friend  of 
mine:"  to  denotes  that  the  quality  or  thing  is  directed  towards  some- 
thing else;  as,  "He  has  been  a  friend  to  me." 

In  or  at  is  used  before  the  names  of  countries,  cities,  and  towns ;  as, 
"She  lives  in  New  York;"  "They  reside  at  Glendale;"  "We  stayed 
in  London." 

Into  should  be  used  after  verbs  denoting  entrance;  as,  "He  came 
into  the  office;"  "He  put  the  knife  into  his  pocket." 

At  is  generally  used  after  to  be,  not  followed  by  a  predicate;  as, 
"They  are  at  home;"  "She  is  at  church."  When  a  predicate  is  un- 
derstood, or  clearly  implied,  to  should  be  used;  as,  "I  have  been  to 
Cincinnati,"  i.  e.,  I  have  been  (traveling)  to  Cincinnati. 

Of,  not  about,  should  be  used  after  boast  and  brag;  as,  "He  boasts 
of  his  wealth ;"  "  He  brags  of  his  strength." 

Upon  should  follow  bestow  and  dependent;  as,  "Many  favors  were 
bestowed  upon  me;"  "He  is  dependent  upon  his  friends." 

From  should  follow  differ  and  dissent;  as,  "I  differ  from  you;"  "I 
dissent  from  that  decision." 

Of  should  follow  diminution;  as,  "Any  diminution  of  expenses  is 
impossible." 

In  should  follow  confide;  as,  "I  confide  in  you." 

Of  should  be  used  Avhen  we  are  disappointed  in  obtaining  a  thing ; 
as,  "I  was  disappointed  of  money:"  in,  when  we  are  disappointed  in 
the  quality  of  a  thing,  or  the  character  of  a  person;  as,  "I  am  disap- 
pointed in  that  mower;"  "I  am  disappointed  in  Mr.  Johnson." 

With  denotes  an  instrument;  by,  sl  cause:  with,  the  immediate,  by, 
the  remoter  means;  as,  "A  man  is  killed  with  a  sword,  and  dies  by 
violence;"  "He  walks  with  a  cane  by  moonlight." 

132.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Preposition,  and  why? 

2.  What  relation  does  it  show? 

3.  Rule. 

H.  G.  10. 


114  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


133.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.   "The  horse  ran  over  the  hill." 

Over is  a  'preposition;  it  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 

between  its  object  and  some  other  word:  it  shows  the 
relation  between  "hill"  arid  "ran:"     Rule  XIX:  "A 
preposition  shows  the  relation  of  its  object  to  the  word 
-  upon  which  the  latter  depends." 

II.   "He  came  out  from  under  the  bridge." 

From  under  is  a  complex  preposition ;  (why?) :  it  shows  the  relation 
between  "bridge"  and  "came":  Rule  XIX. 

134.  Exercises. 

Parse  the  prepositions  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Will  you  go  with  me  into  the  garden?  2.  In  my  father's 
house  are  many  mansions.  3.  We  went  over  the  river,  through 
the  corn-fields,  into  the  woods  yonder.  4.  I  am  not  satisfied  as  to 
that  affair.  5.  All  came  but  Mary.  6.  The  Ehone  flows  out  from 
among  the  Alps.  7.  He  went  from  St.  Louis,  across  the  plains,  to 
California.  8.  Light  moves  in  straight  lines,  and  in  all  directions 
from  the  point  of  emission.     9.  They  went  aboard  the  ship. 

10.  Night,  sable  goddess!  from  her  ebon  throne, 
In  rayless  majesty,  now  stretches  forth 
Her  leaden  scepter  o'er  a  slumbering  world. —  Young. 

Exercises  to  be  corrected: 

1.  Divide  the  peaches  among  the  two  children.  2.  I  will  pay 
you  during  the  year.  3.  Washington  was  a  friend  of  his  country. 
4.  He  took  the  book  in  his  own  hand.  5.  There  is  the  key  to  that 
piano.  6.  He  arrived  in  Cleveland  on  Friday.  7.  It  corresponds 
with  the  sample.  8.  They  differ  with  each  other  in  opinion.  9. 
The  book  was  left  out  in  the  package  I  sent  you.  10.  The  still, 
sultry  morning  was  followed  with  a  hailstorm. 

11.  Never  depart  out  of  the  straight  path.  12.  He  put  money  in 
his  pbcket.  13.  He  came  in  my  office  yesterday.  14.  What  is  my 
grief  in  comparison  of  that  which  she  bears?  15.  He  was  eager  of 
making  money.  16.  He  went  out  of  a  fine  morning,  with  a  bundle 
in  his  hand.     17.  He  is  conversant  with  Italian.     18.  He  boasted 


ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS.  115 

about  the  money  he  had  made.  19.  They  are  to  church.  20.  I 
wish  you  would  stay  to  home.  21.  He  is  dependent  on  his  daily 
labor  for  his  support. 

22.  I  can  make  no  diminution  in  my  tuition  rates.  23.  He  died 
with  a  fever.     24.  He  left  the  room  accompanied  with  his  wife. 

25.  Crossing  the  isthmus  is  not  attended  with  many  difficulties. 

26.  Do  not  interfere  among  your  neighbors'  concerns.  27.  We 
ought  to  profit  from  the  errors  of  others.  28.  The  scenery  was 
different  to  what  I  had  supposed.  29.  He  does  business  in  No.  147 
Canal  Street.  30.  The  space  between  the  three  roads  is  intended 
for  a  parade  ground. 

THE    CONJUNCTION. 
135.  Oral  Lesson. 

In  the  sentence  "Emma  and  Eva  study  algebra/'  what  is  the 
subject?  Arts. — " Emma  and  Eva."  Why?  Ans. — Because  some- 
thing is  affirmed  of  them.  That  is  right.  They  are  both  subjects 
of  the  same  predicate ;  and  to  indicate  that  they  both  sustain  the 
same  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  they  are  joined  by  the 
word  "and."  This  is  called  a  Conjunction,  because  its  use  is  to 
join  words.  It  is  a  copulative  conjunction,  because  it  joins  ele- 
ments of  the  same  rank  or  name. 

In  the  sentence  "Emma  or  Eva  studies  algebra,"  "or"  is  a 
conjunction,  but  it  denotes  opposition  of  meaning.  If  Emma 
studies  algebra,  Eva  does  not.  Those  words  which  connect  other 
words,  but  denote  opposition  of  meaning,  are  called  disjunctive 
conjunctions. 

In  the  sentence  "Both  Emma  and  Eva  study  algebra,"  "both" 
and  "and"  are  called  correlative  conjunctions,  because  each  an- 
swers or  refers  to  the  other. 

136.  Definition. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  sen- 
tences, and  parts  of  sentences. 

Ex.— "  The  horse  and  wagon  were  captured,  but  the  driver 
escaped ;"  "  He  lives  out  of  town,  and  on  a  farm."  In  the  first 
sentence,  and  connects  "horse"  and  "wagon,"  and  but  connects 


116  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE. 

the  two  propositions,  "the  horse  and  wagon  were  captured"  and 
"the  driver  escaped."  In  the  second  sentence,  and  connects  the 
phrases  "out  of  town"  and  "on  a  farm." 

Rem. — Conjunctions  sometimes  merely  introduce  sentences ;  as, 
"And  it  came -to  pass  in  those  days;"  "That  the  times  are  hard,  is 
undeniable." 

137.  Classes  of  Connectives. 

1.  Connectives  are  divided  into  two  general  classes: 
Coordinate  and  Subordinate. 

2.  Coordinate  Connectives  are  those  which  join  ele- 
ments of  the  same  rank  or  name. 

3.  Subordinate  Connectives  are  those  which  join 
elements  of  different  ranks  or  names. 

Rem.  1. — Coordinate  connecti  ves  are  pure  conjunctions.  They 
form  no  part  of  the  material  of  t  rhich  a  sentence  is  composed — 
their  use  being  to  unite  the  materi;  il  into  a  single  sentence. 

Ex. — "The  man  and  his  wife  wei  e  both  drowned;"  "Knowledge 
comes,  but  wisdom  lingers;"  "The  lir  is  damp,  and  hushed,  and 
close;"  "And  love  the  offender,  yet  de;est  the  offense." 

Rem.  2. — Subordinate  connectrv  2s  are  either  relative  pronouns, 
conjunctions,  or  conjunctive  adverbs.  Relative  pronouns  represent 
antecedents,  and  join  those  antecedents  to  clauses  which  describe 
them :  conjunctions  introduce  limiting  clauses :  conjunctive  adverbs 
connect  clauses,  and  modify  a  word  in  each. 

Ex. — "The  man  whom  you  saw  is  my  father."  Whom  represents 
"man,"  and  joins  to  it  the  limiting  clause  "whom  you  saw."  "I 
know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth."  That  joins  the  objective  clause 
"my  Redeemer  liveth"  to  the  verb  "know."  "The  wind  bloweth 
ichere  it  listeth."  Where  connects  the  two  sentences,  and  modifies 
"bloweth"  and  "listeth." 

Rem.  3. — In  parsing  pure  conjunctions,  give  the  rule  for  coor- 
dinate connectives.  In  parsing  conjunctions  which  introduce  limit- 
ing clauses,  give  the  rule  for  subordinate  connectives.  Conjunctive 
adverbs  should  be  parsed  (1)  as  subordinate  connectives;  (2)  as 
adverbs.  A  relative  pronoun  should  be  parsed  (1)  as  a  subordi- 
nate connective;    (2)  as  a  relative. 


ETYMOLOGY CON  J  UNCTIONS.  117 


138.  Classes  of  Conjunctions. 

1.  Conjunctions  are  divided  into  three  classes:  Cop- 
ulative, Disjunctive,  and  Correlative. 

2.  Copulative  Conjunctions  join  on  members  de- 
noting an  addition,  consequence,  cause,  or  supposition. 
They  are, 

And ;    "  Cold  and  hunger  awake  not  her  care." 

Also ;    As  used  in  an  enumeration  of  particulars. 

As  ;    "  Always  speak  as  you  think." 

Because;    "He  learns,  because  he  is  studious." 

Consequently;    "I  am  sick,  consequently  I  can  not  come." 

Even;    "It  was  very  cold;   even  mercury  was  frozen." 

For;    "If  any,  speak:  for  him  have  I  offended." 

If;    "I  shall  not  go  if  it  rain." 

So;    "For  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man; 

So  are  they  all,  all  honorable  men." 
Since ;    "  They  submit,  since  they  can  not  conquer." 
Seeing";    "Wherefore  come  ye  to  me,  seeing  ye  hate  me?" 
Than;    used  after  comparatives;  "He  is  oldef'than  I," 
That, ;    "  These  things  I  say,  that  ye  might  be  saved." 
Then  ;    "  You  know  our  rules :   then  obey  them." 
Moreover;    sometimes  used  as  an  introductory  word. 
Therefore ;  "Wisdom  is  the  principal  thing,  therefore  get  wisdom." 
Wherefore;    used  like  therefore  in  drawing  inferences. 

3.  Xfrisjunctive  Conjunctions  join  on  members  de- 
noting opposition  of  meaning.     They  are, 

Although,  though ;    "  Though  coarse,  it  is  good." 

But;    "I  go,  but  I  return." 

Either;    "Either  John  or  Charles  will  come." 

Neither ;    "Neither  John  nor  Charles  will  come." 

Except;    "Except  it  be  because  her  method  is  so  glib  and  easy." 

Eest ;    "  Ye  shall  not  eat  it,  neither  shall  ye  touch  it,  lest  ye  die," 

Nor;    "Simois  nor  Xanthus  shall  be  wanting  there." 

Not  withstanding';    "He  is  just,  notwithstanding  he  is  stern." 

Or;    "He  may  study  medicine,  or  law,  or  divinity." 

Provided;    "He  will  go,  provided  his  fare  is  paid." 

Save;    "When  all  slept  sound,  save  she  who  bore  them  both." 

Still;    "He  has  many  faults,  still  he  is  very  popular." 


118  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Unless;  "We  can  not  thrive,  unless  we  are  industrious  and  frugal." 

Whether;    "I  will  ascertain  whether  he  has  come." 

Whereas;    "Are  not  those  found  to  be  the   greatest  zealots  who 

are    most   notoriously   ignorant?    whereas  true  piety    should   always 

begin  with  true  knowledge." 
Yet ;    "  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him." 

4.  Correlative  Conjunctions  are  copulatives  or  dis- 
junctives used  in  pairs,  one  referring  or  answering  to  an- 
other.    They  are, 

Both and ;    "  He  is  both  learned  and  wise." 

As as ;    "I  am  as  tall  as  you." 

As  t so ;    " As  it  was  then,  so  it  is  now." 

So as;    "He  is  not  so  tall  as  I." 

So that;    "It  was  so  cold  that  I  nearly  perished." 

Either  ....  or;    "I  will  either  send  it  or  bring  it." 

Neither   .  .  .  nor ;  u Neither  hath  this  man  sinned,  nor  his  parents." 

If then ;    "If  he  confessed  it,  then  forgive  him." 

Though  .  .  .  yet,  nevertheless;    "Though  deep,  yet  clear." 
Xot  only   .  .  but  also;  " He  was  not  only  rich,  but  also  generous." 
Whether.  .  .  or ;    "I  care  not  whether  it  rains  or  snows." 


Or or, 

Xor nor 


V  sometimes  used  for  either . .  or,  neither .  .  nor. 
r;  J 


5.  Certain  combinations  of  words  have  the  force  of  con- 
nectives, and  should  be  parsed  as  conjunctions  or  conjunc- 
tive adverbs.     They  are, 

As  if,  as  though,  as  well  as,  as  soon  as,  as  far  as,  as  many  as, 
except  that,  forasmuch  as,  in  so  much  that,  but  also,  but  likewise, 
notivithstanding  that,  not  only,  &c. 

Ex. — "Facts  may  be  transmitted  by  tradition  as  well  as  by 
history ;"  "  He  went  as  far  as  the  first  line  of  pickets ;"  "  You  talk 
as  if  you  were  an  idiot." 


139.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Conjunction,  and  why? 

2.  Copulative,  Disjunctive,  or  Correlative,  and  why? 

3.  What  does  it  connect? 

4.  Rule. 


ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS.  119 


140.  Models  for  Parsing, 

I.    "He  came  and  went  like  a  pleasant  thought." 

And is  a  conjunction;  it  connects  words:  copulative;  it  denotes 

addition:  it  connects  "came"  and  "went."     Rule  XX: 
"Coordinate  connectives  join  similar  elements." 

II.    "He  or  I  will  assist  you." 
Or is  a  conjunction ;  (why?) :  disjunctive;  it  denotes  opposi- 
tion of  meaning:  it  connects  "he"  and  "I."    Eule  XX. 

III.    u Neither  James  nor  John  had  his  lesson." 
Neither.  .  .  nor  .  .  .  are  conjunctions ;  (why?) :  correlative;  one  refers 
or  answers  to  the  other:   neither  introduces  the  sentence, 
and  nor  connects  "James"  and  "John."     Rule  XX. 

IV.    "Unto  us  was  the  gospel  preached  as  well  as  unto  them." 
As  well  as  is  a  conjunction;  (why?) :  copulative;  (why?) :  it  connects 
and  emphatically  distinguishes  the  two  phrases,  "unto 
us"  and  "unto  them":   Rule  XX. 


141.  Exercises. 

Parse  all  the  words  in  the  folloiuing  sentences  : 

1.  I  am  a  poor  man,  and  argue  with  you,  and  convince  you. 
2.  He  'd  sooner  die  than  ask  you,  or  any  man,  for  a  shilling.  3. 
Talent  is  something,  but  tact  is  every  thing.  4.  Neither  military 
nor  civil  pomp  was  wanting.  5.  The  truth  is,  that  I  am  tired  of 
ticking.     6.  I  remember  a  mass  of  things,  but  nothing  distinctly. 

7.  I  alone  was  solitary  and  idle.  8.  Both  the  ties  of  nature 
and  the  dictates  of  policy  demand  this.  9.  There  was  no  reply,  for 
a  slight  fear  was  upon  every  man.  10.  No  man  more  highly  es- 
teems or  honors  the  British  troops  than  I  do.  11.  The  soldier 
marches  on  and  on,  inflicting  and  suffering,  as  before.  12.  There 
may  be  wisdom  without  knowledge,  and  there  may  be  knowledge 
without  wisdom. 

Exercises  to  be  collected: 

1.  The  answer  is  the  same  with  that  I  have.  2.  I  can  not 
weather  this  storm  without  some  one  helps  me.     3.  You  are  too 


120  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

stuck  up,  so  as  you  can  never  be  popular.  4.  Some  of  my  books, 
and  for  which  I  paid  a  large  price,  are  good  for  nothing.  5.  Nei- 
ther borrow  or  lend  umbrellas.     6.  I  could  not  see  nor  hear  him. 

7.  The  loafer  seems  to  be  created  for  no  other  purpose,  but  to 
keep  up  the  ancient  and  honorable  order  of  idleness.  8.  They  told 
us  how  that  it  happened.  9.  This  is  the  reason  that  I  remained  at 
home.  10.  Silver  is  both  mined  in  Mexico  and  Peru.  11.  The 
court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and  breaks  the  teeth  of  the 
common  law.  12.  I  as  well  as  my  sister  are  going  West  in  the 
spring. 

THE    INTEEJECTION. 

142,  Definition. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  to  denote  some  sud- 
den or  strong  emotion;  as,  "Hark!  some  one  comes." 
"  Pshaiv  !  that  is  ridiculous." 

The  principal  interjections  are  the  following: 

Ah,  aha,  hurra,  huzza ;  oh,  alas,  welladay,  alack ;  ha,  in- 
deed, zounds ;  bravo ;  faugh,  fie,  fudge,  pshaw ;  heigh-ho ;  ha,  ha, 
ha,  (laughter) ;  avaunt,  begone;  hail,  all-hail;  adieu,  farewell,  good- 
by ;  hallo,  ahoy,  lo,  hark ;  hist,  whist,  hush,  tush ;  avast,  hold ; 
eh?  hey? 

Rem.  l. — Interjections  have  no  definite  meaning  or  grammati- 
cal construction.  They  occur  frequently  in  colloquial  or  impas- 
sioned discourse ;  but  are  expressions  of  emotion  only,  and  can  not 
be  used  as  signs  of  thought.  As  their  name  imports,  they  may  be 
throivn  in  between  connected  parts  of  discourse,  but  are  generally 
found  at  the  commencement  of  sentences. 

Rem.  2. — Other  parts  of  speech,  when  used  as  exclamations, 
may  be  treated  as  interjections;  as,  "What!  art  thou  mad?" 
"My  stars/  what  can  all  this  be?"  "Revenge!  about, — seek, — 
bum, — fire, — kill, — slay! — let  not  a  traitor  live!"  In  most  cases, 
however,  words  thus  used  may  be  parsed  otherwise ;  as,  "  'Magnifi- 
cent!' cried  all  at  once."  "  Magnificent "  may  be  parsed  as  an 
adjective,  the  attribute  of  the  sentence,  "It  is  magnificent." 
"Behold!  your  house  is  left  unto  you  desolate!"  "Behold"  may 
be  parsed  as  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode. 


ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS.  121 


143.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  An  Interjection,  and  why? 

2.  Eule. 

144.  Model  for  Parsing. 

I.    "0,  let  me  live." 

O  ...  is  an  interjection ;  it  denotes  some  strong  emotion  .  Eule  XXII: 
"An  interjection  has  no  dependence  upon  other  words." 

145.  Exercises. 

Parse  all  the  words  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Ha!  laughest  thou?  2.  Heigh!  sirs,  what  a  noise  you  make 
here.  3.  Huzza !  huzza !  Long  live  lord  Eobin !  4.  Hah !  it  is  a 
sight  to  freeze  one.  5.  Let  them  be  desolate  for  a  reward  of  their 
shame  which  say  unto  me,  Aha !  aha ! 

6.  Oh,  that  the  salvation  of  Israel  were  come  out  of  Zion! 
7.  Alas !  all  earthly  good  still  blends  itself  with  home !  8.  Tush ! 
tush!  man,  I  made  no  reference  to  you.  9.  Hark!  what  nearer 
war-drum  shakes  the  gale?    10.  Soft!  I  did  but  dream! 

11.  What!  old  acquaintance!  could  not  all  this  flesh 
Keep  in  a  little  life  ?    Poor  Jack,  farewell ! 
I  could  have  better  spared  a  better  man. — Shakspeare. 

146.  Miscellaneous  Exercises. 

1.  A  mercenary  informer  knows  no  distinction.  2.  I  send  you 
here  a"  sort  of  allegory.  3.  Our  island  home  is  far  beyond  the  sea. 
4.  Love  took  up  the  harp  of  life,  and  smote  on  all  the  chords  with 
might.  5.  Your  Jf  is  the  only  peace-maker:  much  virtue  in  If. 
6.  He  is  very  prodigal  of  his  ohs  and  ahs. 

7.  He  looked  upward  at  the  rugged  heights  that  towered  above 
him  in  the  gloom.  8.  He  possessed  that  rare  union  of  reason,  sim- 
plicity, and  vehemence,  which  formed  the  prince  of  orators.  9. 
Mark  well  my  fall,  and  that  that  ruined  me.  10.  The  jingling  of 
the  guinea  helps  the  hurt  that  honor  feels. — Tennyson. 

11.  His  qualities  were  so  happily  blended,  that  the  result  was 
a  great  and  perfect  whole.  12.  There  is  no  joy  but  calm.  13.  I 
H.  G.  11. 


122  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

must  be  cruel,  only  to  be  kind.  14.  Why  are  we  weighed  upon 
with  heaviness  ?  15.  Now  blessings  light  on  him  that  first  invented 
sleep:  it  covers  a  man  all  over,  thoughts  and  all,  like  a  cloak. — . 
Cervantes. 

16.  Many  a  morning  on  the  moorlands  did  we  hear  the  copses 
ring.  17.  He  stretched  out  his  right  hand  at  these  words,  and  laid 
it  gently  on  the  boy's  head.  18.  He  acted  ever  as  if  his  country's 
welfare,  and  that  alone,  was  the  moving  spirit.  19.  The  great 
contention  of  criticism  is  to  find  the  faults  of  the  moderns,  and  the 
beauties  of  the  ancients.  Whilst  an  author  is  yet  living,  we  esti- 
mate his  powers  by  his  worst  performance;  and  when  he  is  dead, 
we  estimate  them  by  his  best. — Johnson. 

20.  I  will  work  in  my  own  sphere,  nor  wish  it  other  than  it  is. 
21.  As  his  authority  was  undisputed,  so  it  required  no  jealous  pre- 
cautions, no  rigorous  severity.  22.  Like  all  men  of  genius,  he  de- 
lighted to  take  refuge  in  poetry.  23.  To  know  how  to  say  what 
other  people  only  think,  is  what  makes  men  poets  and  sages ;  and 
to  dare  to  say  what  others  only  dare  to  think,  makes  men  martyrs 
or  reformers,  or  both.  24.  That  done,  she  turned  to  the  old  man 
with  a  lovely  smile  upon  her  face, — such,  they  said,  as  they  had 
never  seen,  and  never  could  forget, — and  clung  with  both  her  arms 
about  his  neck. — Dickens. 

25.  To  live  in  hearts  we  leave  behind, 

Is  not  to  die. —  Campbell. 

26.  But  war's  a  game  which,  were  their  subjects  wise, 

Kings  would  not  play  at. — Cowper. 

27.  Whoever  thinks  a  faultless  piece  to  see, 

Thinks  what  ne'er  was,  nor  is,  nor  e'er  shall  be. — Pope. 

28.  The  Niobe  of  nations,  there  she  stands, 

Childless  and  crownless,  in  her  voiceless  woe; 
An  empty  urn  within  her  withered  hands, 

Whose  holy  dust  was  scattered  long  ago. — Byron. 

29.  Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath? 
Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  sleeping  dust, 

Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death? — Gray, 

30.  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever ; 
Its  loveliness  increases;  it  will  never 
Pass  into  nothingness. — Keats.  - 


ETYMOLOGY.  123 

31.  Forth  from  his  dark  and  lonely  hiding-place, 
(Portentous  sight!)  the  owlet  Atheism, 
Sailing  on  obscure  wings  athwart  the  noon, 
Drops  his  blue-fringed  lids,  and  holds  them  close, 
And  hooting  at  the  glorious  sun  in  heaven, 
Cries  out,  "Where  is  it?" — Coleridge. 

32.  Dry  clank'd  his  harness  in  the  icy  caves 
And  barren  chasms,  and  all  to  left  and  right 

The  bare  black  cliff  clang'd  round  him,  as  he  based 
His  feet  on  jets  of  slippery  crag  that  rang 
Sharp-smitten  with  the  dint  of  armed  heels. — Tennyson. 

33.  Then  came  wrandering  by 

A  shadow,  like  an  angel  wTith  bright  hair 
'   Dabbled  in  blood ;  and  he  shriek'd  out  aloud  : 

"  Clarence  is  come !  false,  fleeting,  perjur'd  Clarence  ! 

That  stabbed  me  in  the  field  by  Tewksbury :  . 

Seize  on  him,  furies,  take  him  to  your  torments ! " — Shahspearc. 

34.  There  are  things  of  which  I  may  not  speak : 

There  are  dreams  that  can  not  die: 
There  are  thoughts  that  make  the  strong  heart  weak, 
And  bring  a  pallor  upon  the  cheek, 
And  a  mist  before  the  eye. 
And  the  words  of  that  fatal  song 
Come  over  me  like  a  chill: 
"A  boy's  will  is  the  wind's  will, 
And  the  thoughts  of  youth  are  long,  long  thoughts." 

Longfellow. 

35.  These  ages  have  no  memory — but  they  left 

A  record  in  the  desert — columns  strown 
On  the  waste  sands,  and  statues  fallen  and  cleft, 

Heap'd  like  a  host  in  battle  overthrown; 
Vast  ruins,  where  the  mountain's  ribs  of  stone 

Were  hewn  into  a  city :  streets  that  spread 
In  the  dark  earth,  where  never  breath  has  blown 

Of  heaven's  sweet  air,  nor  foot  of  man  dares  tread, 
The  long  and  perilous  ways — the  Cities  of  the  Dead. — Bryant 


124  ENGLISH   GKAMMAK. 


PART  III. 


SYNTAX. 
147.  Preliminary  Oral  Lessons. 

Note  to  Teachers. — The  object  of  these  lessons  is  (1)  To  exer- 
cise pupils  in  the  construction  of  simple  sentences:  (2)  To  teach 
the  uses  and  definitions  of  the  elements  of  a  sentence :  (3)  To  teach 
the  analysis  of  sentences  containing  elements  of  the  first  class. 

Use  Oral  Lesson  on  page  24  as  introductory  to  these. 

LESSON  I. 

I  hold  in  my  hand  a  piece  of  chalk :  what  is  its  color  ?  Ans. — 
It  is  white.  It  breaks  easily :  what  else  can  be  said  of  it  ?  Ans. — 
It  is  brittle.  It  crumbles  readily :  hence,  we  say  it  is  friable.  Each 
of  the  words,  white,  brittle,  j riable,  expresses  some  quality  belonging 
to  chalk:  what  shall  we  call  them?  Ans. —  Quality-words.  We 
will  now  unite  these  quality-words  with  "chalk,"  by  the  word  "is," 
thus : 

Chalk  is  white ; 
Chalk  is  brittle ; 
Chalk  is  friable. 

Each  of  these  groups  of  words  is  called  a  Sentence;  for 

"A  Sentence  is   an   assemblage   of  words   making   complete 

sense." 

Write  the  definition  on  your  slates.  Now  repeat  it  in  concert. 
Each  group  is  also  called  a  Proposition;  for 

"A  Proposition  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words." 

Write  this  definition  on  your  slates.     Repeat  it  in  concert. 

In  the  proposition  "  Chalk  is  white,"  the  noun  "  chalk  "  is  called 
the  Subject;  for 

"The  Subject  of  a  proposition  is  that  of  which  something  is 
affirmed." 


SYNTAX — OKAL   LESSONS.  125 

"White"  is  called  the  Predicate;  for 

"  The  Predicate  of  a  proposition  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of 
the  subject. " 

The  word  "is"  is  called  the  Copula;  for 

"  The  Copula  is  a  word  or  group  of  words  used  to  affirm  or 
assert  the  predicate  of  the  subject." 

In  this  sentence,  it  affirms  that  the  quality  "white"  belongs  to 
"chalk." 

Write  these  definitions  on  your  slates.    Eepeat  them  in  concert. 

In  the  proposition  "Chalk  is  brittle,"  what  is  the  subject? 
Ans. — "Chalk."  Why?  Ans. — It  is  that  of  which  something  is 
affirmed.  What  is  the  predicate?  Arts.— "Brittle."  Why? 
Ans. — It  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

Affirm  qualities  of  the  following  subjects  : 

Iron,  gold,  silver,  lead,  ink,  cork,  sugar,  vinegar,  grass,  books, 
lessons. 

Model. — Iron  is  heavy. 

Affirm  the  following  qualities  of  appropriate  subjects : 

Transparent,  opaque,  hard,  round,  square,   good,   bad,  bitter, 

heavy,  rough,  smooth,  red,  yellow,  green. 
Model. — Glass  is  transparent. 

LESSON  II. 

In  the  sentence  "Iron  is  a  metal,"  is  any  quality  affirmed  of 
"  iron  "  ?  Ans. — There  is  not.  That  is  right.  The  predicate  "  metal " 
denotes  kind  or  class,  not  quality.  It  is  a  predicate,  however,  be- 
cause it  is  affirmed  of  the  subject  "iron."  In  the  sentence  "Horses 
are  animals,"  what  is  the  subject?  Ans. — "Horses."  Why? 
Ans. — Because  it  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed.  What 
is  the  predicate?  Ans. — "Animals."  Why?  Ans. — Because  it  is 
that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject.  What  is  the  copula  ?  Ans. — 
The  word  "are." 

Affirm  class  of  the  following  subjects : 

Horses,  oxen,  coal,  wood,  hay,  oats,  wheat,  ax,  hoe,  locomotive, 
dogs,  sheep,  copper,  gold,  apples,  trees,  wagons,  houses. 

Model. — Wheat  is  a  vegetable. 
Affirm  qualities  of  the  same  subjects. 


126  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


LESSON  III. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "Horses  run."  You  see 
that  the  predicate  "run"  is  affirmed  directly  of  the  subject  without 
the  use  of  the  copula.  The  copula  and  predicate  are  united  in 
one  word;  for  " Horses  run"  means  the  same  as  "Horses  are 
running." 

What  is  the  subject  in  this  sentence:  "Boys  learn"?  Ans. — 
"Boys."  What  is  the  predicate?  Ans. —  "Learn."  Why? 
Ans. — It  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject.  Words  which 
affirm  any  thing  of  subjects  are  called  Verbs.  What  are  the  words 
"run"  and  "learn"?  Ans. — Verbs.  Why?  Ans. — Because  they 
affirm  something  of  their  subjects. 

Write  sentences,  using  the  following  verbs  as  predicates  : 

Walk,  sing,  whistle,  swim,  wrestle,  play,  write,  study,  plow,  reap, 

drive,  neigh,  cackle,  whine,  snarl,  gobble,  quarrel,  fight. 
Model. — Cattle  walk. 

LESSON  IV. 
Write  on  your  slates,  and  then  repeat  in  concert : 
"An  Element  is  one  of  the  distinct  parts  of  a  sentence." 
The  Subject  and  Predicate  are  called  Principal  Elements,  because 
no  sentence  can  be  formed  without  them. 

The  Copula  is  not  an  element :  it  is  used  merely  to  affirm  the 
predicate  of  the  subject. 

Separating  a  sentence  into  its  elements  is  called  Analysis. 
We  will  now  analyze  some  sentences  according  to  the  following 

MODELS. 
I.   "Apples  are  ripe." 
Apples  ...  is  the  subject;  it  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed: 
ripe  is  the  predicate;  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the 
subject;  are  is  the  copula. 

II.  "Birds  fly." 
Birds  ....  is  the  subject;  (why?):   fly  is  the  predicate;  (why?). 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Ink  is  black.  2.  Gold  is  yellow.  3.  Lead  is  a  metal.  4. 
Birds  sing.    5.  Vessels  sail.    6.  Trees  are  plants.    7.  Fishes  swim. 


SYNTAX—  OB AL   LESSONS.  127 

8.  Elihu  was  tardy.     9.  Mary  was  studious.     10.  Enoch  may  be 
angry.     11.  Snow  falls.     12.  Houses  stand. 

LESSON  V. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates :  "  Horses  eat."  While  you 
were  writing  did  you  not  think  some  word  should  be  added,  repre- 
senting what  horses  eat?  Ans. — We  did.  What  word  shall  we 
add?  Ans. — Oats.  Write  " oats "  after  the  verb.  This  word  com- 
pletes the  meaning  of  the  verb,  and  is  called  an  Objective  Element, 
or  Object.  In  the  sentence  "  Pupils  study  arithmetic,"  what  word 
completes  the  meaning  of  the  predicate  or  verb  ?  Ans. — "Arith- 
metic." What  element  is  it ?  Ans. — An  objective  element.  Why? 
Ans. — Because  it  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb. 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  an  objective  element. 
Model. — Indians  hunt  buffaloes. 

Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written,  using  this  model: 

"Children  love  play." 
Children  is  the  subject;  (why?):   love,  the  predicate;  (why?):    the 
predicate  is  modified  by  play?  an  objective  element. 

Analyze  also  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Heat  melts  lead.  2.  Men  love  money.  3.  I  study  botany. 
4.  Haste  makes  waste.  5.  Cats  catch  mice.  6.  Mr.  Jones  sells 
calicoes.    7.  Clouds  bring  rain. 

LESSON  VI. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "Apples  are  ripe."  What 
is  the  subject  of  the  sentence?  Ans. — "Apples."  Why?  Ans. — 
It  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed.  What  is  the  word 
"apples"?  Ans. — It  is  a  noun.  Why?  Ans. — It  is  a  name. 
What  is  the  predicate?  Ans. — "Ripe."  Why?  Ans. — It  is  that 
which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject.  Now  write  these  words,  "Ripe 
apples."  Is  this  a  sentence?  Ans. — It  is  not.  Why?  Ans. — 
There  is  nothing  affirmed.  That  is  correct.  The  word  "ripe"  is 
here  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  "apples,"  as  an  attribute,  not 
as  a  predicate :  that,  is,  it  is  assumed,  or  taken  for  granted,  that  it 
belongs  to  "apples."  All  words  which  modify  the  meaning  of 
nouns  in  this  manner,  are  called  Adjective  Elements.. 

Write    this   sentence:    "Ripe   apples   are   cheap."     What   is 


128  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

"ripe"?  Ans. — An  adjective  element.  Why?  Arts. — It  modifies 
the  meaning  of  a  noun.  "  Samuel's  hat  is  torn."  What  element 
is  " Samuel's"?  Ans. — An  adjective  element.  Why?  Ans. — It 
modifies  the  meaning  of  the  noun  "hat."  "Mr.  Smith  the  mason 
is  sick."  What  is  "mason"?  Ans. — An  adjective  element.  Why? 
Ans. — It  modifies  the  meaning  of  "Mr.  Smith,"  a  noun.  What 
are  the  words  "Samuel's"  and  "mason"?  Ans. — They  are  nouns. 
Nouns,  then,  are  adjective  elements  when  they  modify  nouns. 

Write  five  sentences,  limiting  the  subjects  by  adjective  elements  de- 
noting quality. 
Models. — Cross  dogs  bite.     Cold  winter  comes. 

Write  five  sentences,  limiting  their  subjects  by  adjective  elements  de- 
noting number. 

Models. — Two  boys  fought.     Three  men  left. 
Wt^ite  five  sentences,  limiting  their  subjects  by  words  which  merely 

point  them  out. 

Models. —  That  boy  is  studious.     This  boy  is  lazy. 
Write  five  sentences,  limiting  their  subjects  by  nouns. 

Models. — Eli's  uncle  is  rich.    Mr.  Tod  the  lawyer  is  young. 

Write  five  sentences,  limiting  both  subjects  and  objects  by  adjective 
elements. 
Model. — Emma's  mother  bought  a  new  bonnet. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  using  these  models  : 

I.    "Milton  the  poet  was  blind." 
Milton  .  is  the  subject;    (why?):    blind  is  the  predicate;    (why?): 
"Milton"  is   modified  by  poet,  an  adjective  element,  and 
"poet"  by  tlie,  an  adjective  element:  was  is  the  copula. 

II.    "Evil  communications  corrupt  good  manners." 
Communications  is  the  subject;  (why?):   corrupt,  the  predicate; 
(why?):    "communications"  is  modified  by  evil,  an  adjec- 
tive element;  "  corrupt,"  by  manners,  an  objective  element ; 
and  "manners,"  by  good,  an  adjective  element. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Sarah's  book  is  lost.  2.  Mrs.  Elkins  the  milliner  found  Sarah's 
book.  3.  Old  people  love  quiet.  4.  Young  children  love  play. 
5.  I  like  ripe  cherries.    6.  You  have  found  my  pencil. 


SYNTAX — ORAL    LESSONS.  129 


LESSON  VII. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates :  "  Birds  sing  sweetly."  Does 
"  sweetly  "  denote  what  the  birds  sing  ?  Arts. — It  does  not ;  it  tells 
how  they  sing.  That  is  right.  "  Sweetly  "  does  not  complete  the 
meaning  of  " sing,"  like  an  objective  element;  but  it  modifies  its 
meaning  in  another  way.  All  words  used  in  such  a  manner  are 
called  Adverbial  Elements.  Words  which  modify  adjectives  are 
called  adverbial  elements  also.  In  this  sentence,  "  The  storm 
rages  violently,"  what  is  the  subject?  Arts. — " Storm."  What  is 
the  predicate?  Ans. — "Kages."  What  is  "violently"?  Arts. — 
An  adverbial  element.  Why  ?  Ans. — It  modifies  a  verb,  but  does 
not  complete  its  meaning. 

In  the  sentence  "  Very  large  vessels  were  seen,"  what  is  modified 
by  "very"?  Ans. — "Large."  What  is  "large"?  Ans.— An  ad- 
jective. What  element,  then,  is  "very"?  Ans. — An  adverbial 
element.  Why?  Ans. — It  modifies  an  adjective.  Adverbial  ele- 
ments also  modify  other  adverbial  elements. 

Write  ten  sentences,  modifying  the  verbs  by  adverbial  elements. 
Model. — The  wind  blows  furiously. 

Write  ten  sentences,  containing  adjective  elements  modified  by  ad- 
verbial elements. 
Model. — James  recited  a  very  long  lesson. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  using  these  models : 
I.   "The  wind  blows  violently." 

Wind  .  is  the  subject;  (why?):  blows,  the  predicate;  (why?): 
"wind"  is  modified  by  the,  an  adjective  element:  "blows" 
is  modified  by  violently,  an  adverbial  element. 

II.   "  Emma  has  a  very  severe  headache." 
Emma  is  the  subject;  (why?):  has,  the  predicate;   (why?):    "has" 
is  modified  by  headache,  an  objective  element;  "headache" 
by  a  and  severe,  adjective  elements;  and  "severe,"  by  very, 
an  adverbial  element. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  A  sluggard  sleeps  soundly.  2.  The  horses  were  much  fatigued. 
3.  Very  loud  reports  were  heard.  4.  That  boy  spends  his  money 
foolishly.     5.  You  may  go  now.     6.  He  then  left  the  country. 


130  ENGLISH    GKAMMAR. 

148.  Definitions. 

1.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

2.  A  Sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making 
complete  sense. 

Ex. — Birds  fly.  Man  is  mortal.  "The  great  throat  of  the 
chimney  laughed."  "When  the  farmer  came  down  in  the  morn- 
ing, he  declared  that  his  watch  had  gained  half  an  hour  in  the 
night." 

3.  A  Proposition  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words. 

Ex. — The  weather  is  pleasant.  Pupils  should  be  studious.  The 
boy  seems  frightened.     Horses  are  animals. 

Rem. — The  term  sentence  is  applied  to  any  assemblage  of  words 
so  arranged  as  to  make  complete  sense ;  proposition,  to  the  thought 
which  those  words  express.  The  same  assemblage  of  words,  there- 
fore, may  be  both  a  sentence  and  a  proposition. 

4.  Propositions  are  either  Principal  or  Subordinate. 

5.  A  Principal  Proposition  is  one  which  makes 
complete  sense  when  standing  alone. 

6.  A  Subordinate  Proposition  is  one  which  does 
not  make  complete  sense  when  standing  alone,  but  which 
must  be  connected  with  another  proposition. 

Ex. — "The  man  that  does  no  good  does  harm."  In  this  sen- 
tence, "the  man  does  harm"  is  the  principal  proposition,  for  it 
makes  complete  sense  when  standing  alone:  "that  does  no  good" 
is  a  subordinate  proposition,  for  it  does  not  make  complete  sense 
when  standing  alone. 

7.  A  Phrase  is  an  assemblage  of  words  forming  a 
single  expression,  but  not  making  complete  sense. 

Ex. — Till  lately ;  in  haste ;  since  then ;  year  by  year ;  little  by 
little ;  to  see ;  to  have  seen ;  to  be  seen. 

8.  A  Discourse  is  a  series  of  sentences  on  the  same 
subject,  arranged  in  logical  order. 


SYNTAX — SENTENCES.  131 

9.  A  Paragraph  is  a  series  of  sentences  on  the  same 
branch  of  a  subject. 

10.  An  Element  is  one  of  the  component  parts  of  a 
sentence. 

11.  Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  its 
elements. 

12.  Syntliesis  is  the  construction  of  sentences  from 
words. 

SENTENCES. 
149,  Classification  with  Respect  to  Use. 

1.  With  respect  to  use,  sentences  are  divided  into  four 
classes:  Declarative,  Interrogative,  Imperative,  and  Ex- 
clamatory. 

2.  A  declarative  Sentence  is  one  used  to  affirm 
or  deny  something. 

Ex. — Fishes  swim.     Fishes  do  not  walk. 

Rem. — Direct  Discourse  is  telling  what  somebody  thinks  or 
says,  by  using  his  own  words;  as,  "Our  teacher  said,  lBe  frank, 
honest,  and  truthful.'' " 

Indirect  Discourse  is  giving  the  substance  of  what  somebody 
thinks  or  says,  but  not  using  his  own  words;  as,  "Our  teacher 
said,  that  we  should  be  frank,  honest,  and  truthful." 

3.  An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  one  used  to  ask  a 
question. 

Ex. — Are  you  angry?     "Where  does  that  man  live? 

Rem — A  Direct  Question  is  one  which  can  be  answered  by 
yes  or  no;   as,  "Has  the  money  been  paid?" 

An  indirect  Question  is  one  which  can  not  be  answered  by 
yes  or  no;  as,  "Who  paid  the  money?" 

4.  An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  used  to  express 
a  command  or  an  entreaty. 

Ex. — Bring  me  that  book.     Do  not  strike  me. 


132  ENGLISH    GEAMMAPw 

5.    An  Exclamatory  Sentence   is  one  used  in  ex- 
clamations, or  in  the  expression  of  strong  emotion. 
Ex. — Oh,  how  glad  I  am  to  see  you! 

150.  Exercises. 

Tell  to  which  class  each  of  the  following  sentences  belongs: 
Model. — "The  dews  bring  their  jewels." 
This  is  a  declarative  sentence;  it  is  used  to  affirm  something. 

1.  The  days  are  calm.  2.  How  many  quarts  are  there  in  a  gal- 
lon? 3.  The  winds  bring  perfumes.  4.  Study  diligently.  5.  He 
waved  his  arm.  6.  And  the  fellow  calls  himself  a  painter!  7.  He 
deserved  punishment  rather  than  pity. 

8.  O,  how  careless  you  are !  9.  What  was  the  Eubicon  ?  10. 
How  brightly  the  sun  shines !  11.  Alas  for  the  man  who  has  not 
learned  to  work!  12.  Bring  forth  the  prisoner  now.  13.  I  had  a 
dream  which  was  not  all  a  dream.  14.  A  plague  of  all  cowards, 
still  say  I. 

15.  Attend  to  the  duties  I  have  assigned  you.  16.  Many  fell  by 
thy  arm:  they  were  consumed  in  the  flame  of  thy  wrath.  17. 
When  shall  it  be  morn  in  the  grave,  to  bid  the  slumberer  awake? 
18.  The  commons,  faithful  to  their  system,  remained  in  a  wise  and 
masterly  inactivity. — Mackintosh. 

151.  Classification  with  Respect  to  Form. 

1.  With  respect  to  form,  sentences  are  divided  into  three 
classes:  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound. 

2.  A  Simple  Sentence  consists  of  a  single  propo- 
sition. 

Ex. — Flowers  bloom.  Who  is  he?  Tread  lightly.  How  glad 
I  am! 

3.  A  Complex  Sentence  consists  of  a  principal  prop- 
osition, some  part  of  which  is  modified  by  one  or  more 
subordinate  propositions. 

Ex. — Flowers  bloom  when  spring  returns.     He  who  is  diligent 


SYNTAX — SENTENCES.  133 

shall  be  rewarded.     I  hear  that  you  have  sold  your  farm,  and  that 
you  are  going  to  California. 

Rem. — The  propositions  in  complex  sentences  are  called 
Clauses.  They  are  named  and  numbered  according  to  the  order 
of  their  subordination. 

Ex. — "  I  believe  that  he  is  honest."  In  this  sentence,  " I  believe  "  is 
the  principal  clause,  and  "that  he  is  honest"  is  the  subordinate. 

4.  A  Compound  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
simple  or  complex  sentences,  joined  by  coordinate  con- 
nectives. 

Ex — Spring  comes,  and  the  flowers  bloom.  "I  go,  but  I  re- 
turn." "  Though  Truth  is  fearless  and  absolute,  yet  she  is  meek 
and  modest." 

Rem.  i. — The  simple  or  complex  sentences  of  which  compound 
sentences  are  composed,  are  called  Members.  They  are  num- 
bered according  to  their  place  in  the  sentence. 

Ex. — " Every  man  desires  to  live  long;  but  no  man  would  be  old." 
In  this  sentence,  " every  man  desires  to  live  long"  is  the  first  member, 
and  "no  man  would  be  old"  is  the  second. 

Rem.  2.  —The  clauses  of  complex  sentences  are  connected  by 
relative  pronouns,  conjunctions,  and  conjunctive  adverbs.  The  mem- 
bers of  compound  sentences  are  connected  by  conjunctions. 

Rem.  3 — The  connectives  are  sometimes  omitted;  as,  "I 
thought  [that]  he  was  absent;"  "Talent  is  power,  [but]  tact  is 
skill." 

152.  Models  for  Classification. 

I.    "The  nights  are  tranquil." 

This  is  a  sentence  ;  it  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making  complete 
sense:  declarative;  it  is  used  to  affirm  something:  simple;  it  consists 
of  a  single  proposition. 

II.   "Shall  I  return  the  book  which  you  lent  me?" 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?) :  interrogative;  it  is  used  to  ask  a  ques8- 
tion:  complex;  it  is  composed  of  a  principal  and  a  subordinate  propo- 
sition: "Shall  I  return  the  book"  is  the  principal  proposition,  and 
"which  you  lent  me"  the  subordinate,  limiting  "book."  "Which"  is 
the  connective. 


134  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

III.  "She  counseled  him,  that  when  he   arose  in  the  morning,  he 

should  beat  them  without  mercy." — Bunyan. 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  complex;  (why?): 
"She  counseled  him,"  is  the  principal  proposition;  uthat  he  should  beat 
them  without  mercy"  the  first  subordinate,  modifying  "counseled"  ;  and 
"when  he  rose  in  the  morning"  the  second  subordinate,  modifying 
"'beat."     "That"  and  "when"  are  connectives. 

IV.  "  Pope  had  perhaps  the  judgment  of  Dry  den :   but  Dry  den  cer- 

tainly wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope." — Johnson. 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  compound;  it  is 
composed  of  two  propositions,  joined  by  a  coordinate  connective: 
"Pope  had  perhaps  the  judgment  of  Dryden "  is  the  first  member,  and 
"Dryden  certainly  wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope"  is  the  second.  "But" 
is  the  connective. 

153.  Exercises. 

1.  Thy  feet  are  fetterless.  2.  Level  spread  the  lake  before  him. 
3.  He  waved  his  broad  felt  hat  for  silence.  4.  A  soldier  of  the 
Legion  lay  dying  in  Algiers.  5.  It  sank  from  sight  before  it  set. 
6.  Ye  softening  dews,  ye  tender  showers,  descend  I  7.  None  will 
flatter  the  poor.  8.  Ye  are  the  things  that  tower.  9.  The  house 
was  wrapped  in  flames. 

10.  Hope  and  fear  are  the  bane  of  human  life.  11.  The  village 
all  declared  how  much  he  knew.  12.  He  that  refuseth  instruction 
despiseth  his  own  soul.  13.  Is  it  for  thee  the  lark  ascends  and 
sings?  14.  How  dreadful  is  this  place,  for  God  is  here!  15.  He 
dares  not  touch  a  hair  of  Catiline.  16.  What  can  compensate  for 
the  loss  of  character?  17.  Lead  us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver 
us  from  evil. 

18.  Time  slept  on  flowers,  and  lent  his  glass  to  Hope.  19.  All 
were  sealed  with  the  seal  which  is  never  to  be  broken  till  the  great 
day.  20.  O  God,  we  are  but  leaves  on  thy  stream,  clouds  in  thy 
sky.     21.  Talk  to  the  point,  and  stop  when  you  have  reached  it. 

22.  "  It  was  now  the  Sabbath-day,  and  a  small  congregation,  of 
about  a  hundred  souls,  had  met  for  divine  service,  in  a  place  more 
magnificent  than  any  temple  that  human  hands  had  ever  built  to 
Deity."—  Wilson. 

23.  I  know  thou  art  gone  where  the  weary  are  blest, 
And  the  mourner  looks  up  and  is  glad. 


SYNTAX ELEMENTS.  135 

24.  What  matter  how  the  night  behaved? 

What  matter  how  the  north  wind  raved? — Whittier. 

25.  Bird  of  the  broad  and  sweeping  wing, 

Thy  home  is  high  in  heaven, 
Where  the  wide  storms  their  banners  fling, 
And  the  tempest-clouds  are  driven. — Percival. 


ELEMENTS. 
154.  Principal  Elements. 

1.  The  Principal  Elements  of  a  proposition  are  those 
which  are  necessary  to  its  construction.  They  are  the  Sub- 
ject and  the  Predicate. 

2.  The  Subject  of  a  proposition  is  that  of  which  some- 
thing is  affirmed. 

Ex. — "Time  is  precious."  "Time"  is  the  subject;  it  is  that  of 
which  " precious"  is  affirmed. 

3.  The  Predicate  of  a  proposition  is  that  which  is 
affirmed  of  the  subject. 

Ex. — "Time  is  precious."  "Precious"  is  the  predicate;  it  is 
that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

Rem. — In  these  definitions,  the  term  "affirm"  is  meant  to  in- 
clude say ,  ash  for,  command,  entreat,  or  exclaim. 

4.  The  Subject  may  be  a  tvord,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

Ex. —  Winter  is  coming.  H  is  a  letter.  To  steal  is  base.  "Pay 
as  you  go,"  is  a  good  rule.     "Why  will  he  persist?"  is  often  asked. 

Rem. — The  subject  of  a  proposition  may  be  known  by  its  an- 
swering the  question  formed  by  using  Who?  or  What?  with  the 
predicate. 

Ex. — "John  is  careless."  Who  is  careless?  Ans. — "John." 
"John/'  therefore,  is  the  subject.  "  To  be  sick  is  disagreeable."  What 
is  disagreeable?  Ans. — "To  be  sick."  "To  be  sick,"  therefore,  is  the 
subject. 

5.  The  Copula  is  some  form  of  the  verb  to  be,  (is,  was, 


136  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

has  been,  might  be,  &c.,)  or  a  copulative  verb.     Its  office  is 
to  affirm  the  predicate  of  the  subject. 

Ex. — "  Silence  is  impressive."  "  Is  "  is  the  copula,  and  "  impress- 
ive" the  predicate.  "Gold  is  a  metal."  "Is"  is  the  copula,  and 
"metal"  the  predicate.  "He  may  have  been  injudicious."  "May- 
have  been"  is  the  copula,  and  "injudicious"  the  predicate.  "The 
fields  look  green."  "Look"  is  the  copula,  and  "green"  the  pred- 
icate. 

6.  In  affirming  action,  being,  or  state,  the  copula  and 
predicate  are  generally  united  in  one  word,  or  one  form, 
called  a  verb. 

Ex. — Pupils  study.  I  cm*  The  house  stands.  Rain  is  falling. 
tetters  are  written. 

7.  The  Predicate  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

Ex. — Horses  gallop.  Wheat  is  a  vegetable.  The  sun  was  shin- 
ing. "  To  obey  is  to  enjoy  P  He  seems  honest.  My  desire  is,  that 
you  attend  school. 

Rem. — The  predicate  is  sometimes  erroneously  called  the  attri- 
bute of  a  proposition,  and  the  copula  and  predicate,  taken  to- 
gether, the  predicate. 


155.  Models  for  Analysis. 

I.   "Birds  sing." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

Birds  is  the  subject;    it  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed; 
sing  is  the  predicate ;  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

II.  "Scholars  should  be  studious." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

Scholars   is   the    subject;    (why?):    studious   is  the  predicate; 
(why?):    should  be  is  the  copula. 

III.   "  Franklin  was  a  philosopher." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?) :  declarative;  (why?) :  simple;  (why?). 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  137 

Franklin  is  the  subject;  (why?):  philosopher  is  the  predicate ; 
(why?):   was  is  the  copula. 

IV.    "  He  was  considered  responsible." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

He  is  the  subject;  (why?) :  responsible  is  the  predicate;  (why?): 
was  considered  is  the  copula. 

V.   "Be  truthful." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  imperative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

Thou  or  yon,  understood,  is  the   subject;    (why?):    truthful  is 

the  predicate;  (why?):   he  is  the  copula. 

156.  Exercises  in  Analysis. 

1.  Children  play.  2.  Virtue  ennobles.  3.  Spring  has  come. 
4.  Winter  has  departed.  5.  You  may  go.  6.  Mary  might  have 
sung.  7.  Horses  can  run.  8.  Flowers  are  blooming.  9.  Money 
may  be  loaned.  10.  Books  will  be  bought.  11.  Stars  were  shining. 
12.  John  should  have  been  studying. 

13.  Glass  is  brittle.  14.  Water  is  transparent.  15.  Savages  may 
be  merciful.  16.  Men  should  be  just.  17.  Samuel  should  have 
been  obedient.  18.  Geography  is  interesting.  19.  Job  was  pa- 
tient.    20.  I  will  be  industrious.     21.  They  have  been  successful. 

22.  Iron  is  a  metal.  23.  Flies  are  insects.  24.  Napoleon  wras  a 
general.  25.  Ostriches  are  birds.  26.  "  Men  wrould  be  angels  ; 
angels  would  be  gods."  27.  They  may  have  been  truants.  28. 
Howard  was  a  philanthropist.  29.  He  might  have  been  a  lawyer. 
30.  George  had  been  a  captain. 

31.  John  looks  cold.  32.  I  feel  aguish.  33.  Ants  appear  indus- 
trious. 34.  Washington  was  elected  president.  35.  Avarice  has 
become  his  master.  36.  He  seems  dejected.  37.  He  became 
wealthy.     38.  It  was  deemed  inexpedient. 

157.  Arrangement  of  Elements. 

1.  Arrangement  is  the  correct  placing  of  elements. 

2.  Elements  are  arranged  in  Natural  or  Inverted  order. 

H.  G.  12. 


138  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3.  The  Natural  order  of  arrangement  is  that  which  is 

most  customary. 

4.  The  Inverted  order  of  arrangement  is  any  depart- 
ure from  the  natural  order. 

Rem. — In  inverted  order,  the  elements  are  said  to  be  trans- 
posed. 

5.  The  Natural  order  of  arrangement  is, 

In  Declarative  Sentences: 

1.  Subject  ....  Predicate;   as  "Winds  blow." 

2.  Subject ....  Copula  ....  Predicate ;   as,  "  Chalk  is  white." 

3.  Subject ....  Auxiliary  .  .  Predicate;  as,  "You  may  go." 

In  Interrogative  Sentences: 

1.  Copula  ....  Subject ....  Predicate;   as,  "Is  he  wise?" 

2.  Auxiliary  .  .  Subject ....  Predicate;   as,  "May  I  go?" 

3.  Predicate  .  .  Subject;   as,  "Say  you  so?" 

4.  Subject ....  Predicate;   as,  "Who  remained?" 

In  Imperative  Sentences: 

1.  Predicate  .  .  Subject;   as,  "Go  thou." 

2.  Copula  ....  Subject ....  Predicate;   as,  "Be  ye  merciful." 

In  Exclamatory  Sentences,  the  arrangement  is  the  same  as 
in  declarative,  interrogative,  and  imperative  sentences. 

6.  The  Inverted  order  is  used  when  the  predicate  is 
made  emphatic. 

Rem. — inversion  occurs  in  declarative  and  exclamatory  sen- 
tences. The  usual  order  of  arrangement  is  Predicate . . .  Copula  . . . 
Subject ;  as,  "Great  was  our  wonder;"  "Known  unto  God  are  all 
his  works." 

158.  Exercises  in  Synthesis. 

Affirm  actions  of  the  following  subjects  : 

Winds,  waters,  stars,  fire,  light,  acorns,  sheep,  rabbits,  fishes, 
men,  women,  boys,  girls,  children,  thunder,  lightning,  storms, 
nobles,  kings,  merchants. 

Models. — Winds  blow.    Storms  rage. 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  139 

Affirm  quality  of  the  following  subjects : 

Apples,  cherries,  peaches,  fruit,  books,  desks,  winter,  spring, 
summer,  autumn,  sugar,  quinine,  vinegar,  grammar,  writing,  even- 
ings, darkness,  chemistry,  geography. 

Models. — Apples  are  ripe.     Quinine  is  bitter. 

Ascertain  all  the  distinguishing  properties  of  five  substances.     Affirm 

them  of  the  substances  to  which  they  belong. 

Models. — Chalk  is  white;  chalk  is  opaque;  chalk  is  brittle; 
chalk  is  incombustible,  &c. 

Affirm  class  or  kind  of  the  following  subjects  : 

Oranges,  horses,  hens,  flies,  Henry,  Washington,  ships,  gold, 
silver,  sharks,  water,  air,  table. 

Models. — Oranges  are  fruit.    Henry  is  a  clerk. 

159.  Subordinate  Elements. 

1.  A  Modifier  is  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  joined  to  a 
term  to  limit  or  restrict  its  meaning  or  application. 

Ex. — A  wealthy  man.     Chairs  to  mend.     A  man  who  is  'wealthy. 

2.  Subordinate  Elements  are  those  which  modify 
other  elements.  They  are  distinguished  as  Objective,  Ad- 
jective, and  Adverbial. 

160.  Objective  Element. 

An  Objective  Element  is  a  word  or  group  of  words 
which  completes  the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  or  of  its  participles.  It  is  usually  called  the 
object. 

Ex. — Heat  melts  metals.  Men  love  money.  I  wish  to  be  quiet. 
Alice  knew  that  we  were  not  at  home.    Him  they  sought. 

Rem.  i — The  objective  element  answers  the  question  formed 
by  using  Whom?  or  What?  with  the  predicate,  or  with  the  subject 
and  predicate. 

Ex. — "  John  writes  letters."  Writes  what?  Ans. — " Letters n==  the 
object.  "Brutus  killed  Caesar."  Brutus  killed  whom?  Jtwj.— "Ca- 
sar"— the  object. 


140  ENGLISH   GKAMMAK. 

Rem.  3. — By  "  completing  the  meaning  of  a  verb "  is  meant 
restricting  its  application,  by  stating  that  on  which  its  action  ter- 
minates. In  the  sentence  "John  writes,"  the  predicate  "writes" 
is  taken  in  its  most  general  sense :  what  John  writes  is  not  men- 
tioned. In  the  sentence  "John  writes  letters,"  the  application  of 
the  predicate  is  restricted  to  the  single  act  of  writing  letters. 
"Letters"  being  the  object  on  which  the  act  of  writing  terminates, 
it  is  called  the  objective  element. 

Rem.  3. — Some  verbs  are  followed  by  two  objects:  one  denoting 
a  person  or  thing;  the  other,  the  rank,  office,  occupation,  or  character 
of  the  person,  or  the  species  of  the  thing.    See,  also,  I  32,  Eem.  2. 

Ex. — They  elected  Charles  captain.  He  called  him  a  scoundrel. 
He  makes  the  sea  his  home.  They  declared  self-government  a  de- 
lusion. 

Rem.  4. — Another  class  of  verbs  is  followed  by  two  objects : 
one  denoting  a  person  or  thing ;  the  other,  that  to  or  from  which 
the  act  tends.  The  former  is  called  the  direct,  the  latter  the 
indirect  object. 

Ex. — He  taught  me  arithmetic.  He  sold  me  a  horse.  I  gave  him 
money.    They  sent  John  a  telegram. 


161.  Models  for  Analysis. 

,     VI.   "Columbus  discovered  America." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?) :  declarative;  (why?) :  simple;  (why?). 

Columbus  is  the  subject;  (why?):  discovered  is  the  predicate: 
(why  ?).     The  predicate  is  modified  by  America,  an  objective  element. 

VII.   "Whom  did  you  see?" 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  interrogative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

You  is  the  subject;  (why?):  did  see  is  the  predicate;  (why?). 
The  predicate  is  modified  by  whom,  an  objective  element. 

VIII.   "  Bring  me  flowers." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  imperative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

Thou  or  you,  understood,  is  the  subject:  (why?):  bring  is  the 
predicate;  (why?).  The  predicate  is  modified  by  me,  an  indirect, 
and  by  flowers,  a  direct  object. 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  141 

IX.   "  They  have  chosen  Mr.  Ames  speaker." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

Tliey  is  the  subject ;  (why  ?)  :  nave  chosen  is  the  predicate ; 
(why  ?).  The  predicate  is  modified  by  Mr.  Ames,  an  objective  element; 
and  Mr.  Ames,  by  speaker,  an  adjective  element,  denoting  office. 

162.  Exercises  in  Analysis. 

1.  He  examined  the  books.  2.  Silas  studied  geology.  3.  They 
watched  the  storm.  4.  You  must  obey  the  laws.  5.  We  earn 
money.  6.  Merchants  sell  goods.  7.  Engineers  run  locomotives. 
8.  Blacksmiths  shoe  horses. 

9.  Farmers  sow  grain.  10.  Give  me  music.  11.  They  chose 
him.  12.  We  have  chosen  him  director.  13.  Bring^him  a  book. 
14.  Whom  did  you  call? 

163.  Exercises  in  Synthesis. 

Sentences  containing  objective  elements  are  arranged  as 
follows : 

Declarative;  Subject .  .  Predicate  .  .  Object;  as,  "I  found  it." 
interrogative ;  1.  Object .  .Predicate . .  Subject;  as, "  What  see  you?" 

2.  Object . .  Auxiliary  . .  Subject . .  Verb  ;  as,  "  What  did  you  see  ?  " 

Imperative;  Predicate  .  .   Object;  as,  "Practice  economy." 

Rem.  l. — In  inverted  order,  the  arrangement  of  declarative 
sentences,  is 

Object  .  .  Subject  .  .  Predicate;  as,  "Him  they  found." 

Write  sentences  containing  an  objective  element,  using  the  following 
words  as  subjects: 

Men,  boys,  heat,  lightning,  horses,  locomotives,  scythe,  knife, 
shears,  clerks,  merchants,  blacksmith,  tailor,  mason,  doctors,  lion, 
oxen,  eagles. 

Models. — Men  drive  horses.  Boys  fly  kites.  Merchants  sell 
goods. 


142  ENGLISH   GRAM  MAE. 

Write  sentences  containing  two  objects,  using  the  above  or  any  other 
nouns  : 

Models. — Charles  calls  doctors  physicians.  Frank  calls  a  sleigh 
a  cutter.     I  consider  William  a  genius. 

Write  sentences  containing  a  direct  and  an  indirect  object,  using  the 

following  verbs: 

Ask,  buy,  bring,  do,  draw,  deny,  find,  get,  leave,  make,  pass, 
pour,  promise,  provide,  present,  sell,  send,  show,  refuse,  teach, 
tell,  throw,  write. 

Models. — Emma  asked  me  a  question.    He  bought  Charles  a  pony. 

Change  each  of  the  verbs,  in  sentences  written  last,  into  the  passive 
voice,  making  either  object  the  subject. 
Models. — I  was  asked  a  question.    A  pony  was  bought  for  Charles, 

Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written. 

164.  Adjectiye  Element. 

An  Adjective  Element  is  a  word  or  group  of  words 
which  modifies  a  noun,  or  any  expression  used  as  a  noun. 

Ex. — A  good  man.  Mr.  Myers  the  banker.  Friend  Hiram. 
"If  you  can:  a  sensible  if."  "Done  gone,"  a  vulgarism,  is  fre- 
quently heard.  My  book  is  on  Ellen's  desk.  A  letter,  written  in 
haste.     She  came,  laughing. 

Rem.  i. — An  adjective  element  is  a  definitive  or  descriptive 
term  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  its  substitute. 
The  relation  which  a  predicate  attribute  sustains  to  the  subject  is 
affirmed:  the  relation  which  an  adjective  element  sustains  to  the 
term  it  modifies  is  assumed,  or  taken  for  granted. 

Ex. — "That  man  is  wealthy."  The  predicate  " wealthy"  is  affirmed 
to  belong  to  "man."  "A  wealthy  man."  The  attribute  "wealthy"  is 
here  assumed  to  belong  to  "man,"  and  is  an  adjective  element. 

Rem.  2 — An  adjective  element  containing  a  single  word 
may  be, 

1.  An  Adjective;    as,  "Ripe  apples." 

2.  A  Participle;   as,  "Hats  made  to  order." 

3.  A  Xoun  in  Apposition ;   as,. "  Powers  the  sculptor" 

4.  A  Possessive ;   as,  "Eli's  pen."     "His  hat." 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  143 

165.  Models  for  Analysis. 

X.   "  Small  lakes  are  abundant." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

lakes  is  the  subject:  (why?):  abundant  is  the  predicate;. 
(why?):  are  is  the  copula.  The  subject  is  modified  by  small,  an 
adjective  element. 

XI.   "The  steamship  Hibernia  has  arrived." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative:  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

Steamship  is  the  subject;  ywhy  ?) :  has  arrived  is  the  predicate; 
(why?).  The  subject  is  modified  by  the  and  Hibernia,  both  adjec* 
tive  elements. 

XII.   "My  brother  broke  Stephen's  slate." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

Brother  is  the  subject ;  (why?):  broke  is  the  predicate ;  (why?). 
The  subject  is  modified  by  my,  an  adjective  element.  The  predicate 
is  modified  by  slate,  an  objective  element,  and  "slate"  is  modified  by 
Stephen's,  an  adjective  element. 

XIII.   "The  old  man,  laughing,  said  'Yes.'" 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

Man  is  the  subject;  (why?):  said  is  the  predicate;  (why?).  The 
subject  is  modified  by  the,  old,  and  langhing,  adjective  elements. 
The  predicate  is  modified  by  Yes,  an  objective  element. 

166.  Exercises  in  Analysis. 

1.  A  large  house  was  burned.  2.  I  wrote  a  long  letter.  3.  This 
land  is  government  property.  4.  Many  hands  make  quick  work. 
5.  A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father.  6.  Man's  necessity  is  God's 
opportunity.  7.  Mr.  Hodge  the  farmer  hired  Mr.  Olds  the  ma- 
son.   8.  Great  wits  jump. 

9.  He  is  a  vain,  conceited  blockhead.  10.  I  want  the  largest 
apple.  11.  Mary  has  chosen  the  better  part.  12.  Carlo's  barking 
wakened  the  family.  13.  I  saw  six  swans.  14.  This  is  my  fortieth 
birthday.    15.  Every  man  received  a  penny. 


144  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


167o  Exercises  in  Synthesis. 

Adjectives  and  possessives  are  usually  placed  before,  and 
participles  and  nouns  in  apposition,  after  the  nouns  they 
modify. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  subject  by  one  of  the  following 

adjectives  : 

Round,  square,  oval,  rough,  smooth,  transparent,  translucent, 
white,  green,  sour,  sweet,  old,  young,  new,  wise,  foolish,  lucky, 
unlucky,  careful,  careless.  *  . 

Models. — A  round  table  was  purchased.  A  square  box  was 
found. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  both  subject  and  object  by  an  adjective. 
Model. — A  stout  horse  draws  heavy  loads. 

WHte  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  subject  or  object  by  the  possessive 

case  of  one  of  the  following  nouns  : 

Elephant,  swan,  hawk,  sparrow,  summer,  winter,  father,  mother, 
uncle,  aunt,  John,  Samuel,  Celia,  Harriet,  Jackson,  teacher, 
doctoi,  pupil,  merchant. 

Models. — An  elephant's  tusks  are  white.  A  swan's  movements 
are  graceful. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  subject  or  object,  or  both,  by  a  noun 

in  apposition. 

Models. — Mr.  Sledge  the  blacksmith  is  sick.  Wilson  the  burg- 
lar robbed  Wilson  the  banker. 

Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written. 

168.  Adverbial  Element. 

An  Adverbial  Element  is  a  word  or  group  of  words 
used  to  modify  a  verb,  participle,  adjective,  or  adverb. 

Ex. — The  stranger  was  very  kind.  The  wind  blows  fiercely. 
Come  here.    Who  goes  there  ? 

Rem.  l. — Adverbial  elements,  when  they  modify  the  meaning 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  145 

of  verbs,  usually  denote  some  circumstance  of  time,  place,  cause, 
degree,  or  manner. 

Ex. — He  calls  frequently.  There  is  no  night  there.  Why  are  you 
angry?     The  teacher  labored  faithfully. 

Rem.  2. — Adverbial  elements  which  modify  the  manner  of  the 
assertion,  and  not  the  predicate  itself,  are  called  modal  adverbs. 

Ex. — He  has  not  come.  Perhaps  I  shall  go.  He  was  absent,  prcb 
ably.     He  will  certainly  resign. 

169.  Models  for  Analysis. 

XIV.   "He  is  strictly  honest." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?) :  declarative;  (why?) :  simple;  (why?). 
He  is  the   subject:    (why?):    honest  is  the   predicate:    (why?). 
The  predicate  is  modified  by  strictly,  an  adverbial  element. 

XV.   "  The  sun  shines  brightly." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 
Sun  is  the  subject;    (why?):    shines  is  the  predicate;    (why?). 

The  subject  is  modified  by  the,  an  adjective  element;   the  predicate 

by  brightly,  an  adverbial  element. 

XVI.  "He  is  not  handsome." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 
He  is  the  subject;   (why?):   handsome  is  the  predicate;  (why?). 
The  copula  is  is  modified  by  not,  an  adverbial  element. 

170.  Exercises  in  Analysis. 

1.  The  birds  sing  sweetly.  2.  We  struck  the  vessel  just  amid- 
ships. 3.  I  now  demand  your  votes.  4.  He  formerly  lived  here. 
5.  The  fire  went  out.  6.  He  seems  very  sad.  7.  The  boy  wrote 
the  letter  carelessly.  8.  They  have  been  long  absent.  9.  I  shall 
certainly  defend  you. 

171.  Exercises  in  Synthesis. 

In  the  natural  order  of  arrangement,  the  adverbial  ele- 
ment is  placed  after  the  word  or  group  of  words,  it  limits. 

Ex. — He  denied  the  charge  vehemently. 
H.  G.  13. 


146  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rem. — In  inverted  order,  the  adverbial  element  is  placed  be- 
tween the  subject  and  predicate,  or  at  the  head  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — He  vehemently  denied  the  charge.     Vehemently  did  he  deny 
the  charge. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  predicates  by  an  adverbial  element 
of  manner. 

Models. — She  writes  rapidly.    He  does  his  work  thoroughly. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  predicates  by  an  adverbial  element 
of  place. 

Models. — He  lives  there.     Wliere  do  you  live  ? 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  predicates  by  an  adverbial  element 
of  time. 
Models. — I  was  very  happy  then.     When  will  you  come? 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  predicates  by  an  adverbial  element 
of  cause  or  degree. 

Models. —  Why  are  you  sad?    The  work  is  scarcely  commenced. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  copulas  by  a  modal  adverb. 
Models. — He  is  certainly  insane.     James  is  not  a  truant. 

Write  seven   sentences,   containing   adjectives  modified  by  adverbial 

elements. 

Models. — That  tree  is  very  tall.     It  is  a  remarkably  fine  gem. 
Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written. 


172.  Attendant  Elements. 

Attendant  or  Independent  Elements  are  words  or 
expressions  not  used  as  principal  or  subordinate  elements  of 
the  sentences  in  which  they  are  found.     They  are, 

1.  Nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  absolute  case;  as,  "Children, 
obey  your  parents;"  "Rome,  her  glory  has  departed;"  "He  having 
arrived,  we  returned." 

2.  Interjections  and  nouns  used  in  broken  exclamations;  as. 
"Pshaw,  what  nonsense!"  "Wretched  man  that  I  am!" 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  147 

3.  Expletives,  and  words  used  to  introduce  sentences  in  a  pe- 
culiar way;  as,  "Now,  Barabbas  was  a  robber;"  "There  is  no  re- 
port of  any  disaster;"   "It  is  a  shameful  thing  to  tell  a  lie." 

4.  Words  used  for  emphasis  merely ;  as,  "  You  yourself  told  me 
so;"   "Either  he  or  I  will  come." 

5.  All  phrases  and  clauses  which  have  no  perceptible  connection 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Rem. — Attendant  elements  should  be  omitted  in  the  analysis 
of  the  sentences  containing  them.  They  have  no  grammatical  con- 
nection with  other  words,  except  in  certain  constructions  in  which 
they  are  used  as  antecedents  of  pronouns.  Sometimes  the  entire 
group  of  words  of  which  they  form  a  part  has  the  force  of  an  ad- 
verbial element. 

Ex. — "Gad,  a  troop  shall  overcome  him."  The  attendant  element 
"Gad,"  is  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun  "him."  "They  having  left, 
order  was  restored."  The  attendant  element  "they,"  is  connected 
with  "  having  left,"  and  the  combination  has  the  force  of  the  adverbial 
clause  "  after  they  left." 

173.  Words,  Phrases,  and  Clauses. 

1.  Elements  are  divided  into  three  classes:  Words, 
Phrases,  and  Clauses. 

2.  An  element  consisting  of  a  word,  is  an  element  of  the 
first  class. 

Ex. — "A  careless  boy  seldom  learns  his  lesson."  In  this  sen^ 
tence,  all  the  elements  are  single  words,  therefore  of  the  first  class. 

3.  A  phrase  consisting  of  an  infinitive,  or  of  a  prepo- 
sition and  its  object,  is  an  element  of  the  second  class. 

Rem — There  are  two  kinds  of  phrases:  Separable  and  In- 
separable. 

A  Separable  Phrase  is  one  whose  words  should  always  be 
parsed  separately ;  "  He  rode  in  a  wagon."  The  three  words  com- 
posing the  phrase  "in  a  wagon,"  should  be  parsed  separately — 
"in"  as  a  preposition;  "a"  as  an  adjective;  "wagon"  as  a  noun. 

An  inseparable  Phrase  is  one  whose  words  need  not  be  sep- 
arated in  parsing;   as,  "I  will  come  by  and  by;"  "He  labors  in 


148  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

vain,"  The  phrases  "by  and  by"  and  "in  vain"  may  be  parsed 
as  single  words.  All  the  forms  of  the  infinitive  mode  are  insep- 
arable phrases. 

4.  A  clause,  or  subordinate  proposition,  is  an  element  of 
the  third  class. 

Ex. — "A  man  who  is  indolent  will  not  prosper ;"  "I  learn  that 
you  are  out  of  employment"  The  clauses  "who  is  indolent"  and 
"  that  you  are  out  of  employment "  are  elements  of  the  third  class. 

174.  Models  for  Analysis. 

XVII.  "Tumultuous  murder  shook  the  midnight  air." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

Murder  is  the  subject;  (why?):  shook  is  the  predicate;  (why?). 
The  subject,  "murder,"  is  modified  by  tumultuous,  an  adjective 
element  of  the  first  class:  the  predicate  "shook"  is  modified  by  air, 
an  objective  element  of  the  first  class:  "air"  is  modified  by  the  and 
midnight,  adjective  elements  of  the  first  class. 

XVIII.    "A  life  of  prayer  is  a  life  of  heaven." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple:  (why? 

Life  is  the  subject;  (why?):  life  is  the  predicate;  (why?):  is  is 
the  copula.  The  subject,  "  life,"  is  modified  by  a,  an  adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  and  by  of  prayer,  an  adjective  element  of  the 
second  class.  The  predicate,  "life,"  is  modified  by  a,  an  adjective 
element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  of  heaven,  an  adjective  element  of 
the  second  class. 

XIX.'  "He  sold  me  a  farm." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

He  is  the  subject;  (why?):  sold  is  the  predicate;  (why?).  The 
predicate,  "sold,"  is  modified  by  me,  an  indirect  objective  element 
of  the  first  class,  and  by  farm,  a  direct  objective  element  of  the  first 
class:   "farm"  is  modified  by  a,  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  class. 

XX.   "  To  love  is  to  obey." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?) :  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 
To  love  is  the  subject;  (why?):    it  is  an  element  of  the  second 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  149 

class :  to  obey  is  the  predicate ;  (why  ?) :  it  is  an  element  of  the  sec- 
ond class:  is  is  the  copula. 

XXI.  "  Many  actions  apt  to  procure  fame,  are  not  conducive  to  our 

ultimate  happiness." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?);  simple;  (why?). 

Actions  is  the  subject;  (why?):  conducive  is  the  predicate; 
(why?):  are  is  the  copula.  The  subject,  " actions,"  is  modified  by 
many  and  apt,  adjective  elements  of  the  first  class:  "apt"  is  modi- 
fied by  to  procure,  an  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class,  and 
"  to  procure,"  by  fame,  an  objective  element  of  the  first  class.  The 
copula,  "are,"  is  modified  by  not,  a  modal  adverbial  element  of  the 
first  class;  and  the  predicate,  " conducive,"  by  to  happiness,  an  ad- 
verbial element  of  the  second  class,  and  "  happiness,"  by  our  and 
ultimate,  adjective  elements  of  the  first  class. 

XXII.  "The    credulity  which  has  faith  in  goodness,  is  a  sign  of 

goodness." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  complex;  (why?). 
"Credulity  is  a  sign  of  goodness"  is  the  principal  proposition,  and 
" which  has  faith  in  goodness"  the  subordinate. 

Credulity  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition;  (why?): 
sign  is  the  predicate;  (why?):  is  is  the  copula.  The  subject,  "cre- 
dulity," is  modified  by  the,  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  class, 
and  by  which  has  faith  in  goodness,  an  adjective  element  of  the 
third  class:  "sign,"  the  predicate,  is  modified  by  a,  an  adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  and  by  of  goodness,  an  adjective  element  of 
the  second  class.  Which  is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  propo- 
sition; (why?):  has  is  the  predicate ;  (why?).  The  predicate,  "has," 
is  modified  by  faith,  an  objective  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by 
in  goodness, -an  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class. 

XXIII.  "I  thought,  when  I  saw  you  last,  that  I  should  never  see 

you  again." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  complex;  (why?). 
"I  thought"  is  the  principal  proposition:  "when  I  saw  you  last"  and 
" that  I  should  never  see  you  again"  are  subordinate  propositions. 

I  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition;  (why?):  thought  is 
the  predicate;  (why?).  The  predicate,  "thought,"  is  modified  by 
when  I  saw  you  last,  an  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class,  and 
by  that  I  should  never  see  you  again,  an  objective  element  of 


150  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  third  class.  I  is  the  subject  of  the  objective  clause;  (why?): 
should  see  is  the  predicate;  (why?):  "should  see"  is  modified  by 
you,  an  objective  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  never  and  again, 
adverbial  elements  of  the  first  class.  I  is  the  subject  of  the  adverbial 
clause;  (why?):  saw  is  the  predicate;  (why?):  "saw"  is  modified 
by  you,  an  objective  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  when  and 
last,  adverbial  elements  of  the  first  class.  When  and  that  are  con- 
nectives, joining  the  clauses  they  introduce  to  "thought." 


175.  Exercises  in  Analysis, 

1.  Thou  hast  uttered  cruel  words.  2.  I  bow  reverently  to  thy 
dictates.  3.  He  shakes  the  woods  on  the  mountain  side.  4.  He 
builds  a  palace  of  ice  where  the  torrents  fall.  5.  The  panther's 
track  is  fresh  in  the  snow.  6.  Black  crags  behind  thee  pierce  the 
clear  blue  sky.  7.  Soon  rested  those  who  fought.  8.  His  home 
lay  low  in  the  valley.  9.  He  had  a  remarkably  good  view  of  their 
features.  10.  All  said  that  Love  had  suffered  wrong.  11.  Heaven 
burns  with  the  descending  sun.     12.  I  will  go  to-morrow. 

13.  How  pleasant  it  is  to  see  the  sun !  14.  To  doubt  the  promise 
of  a  friend  is  a  sin.  15.  He  wishes  to  go  to  the  house.  16.  It  was 
now  a  matter  of  curiosity,  who  the  old  gentleman  was.  17.  The 
fires  of  the  bivouac  complete  what  the  fires  kindled  by  the  battle 
have  not  consumed.  18.  In  my  daily  walks  in  the  country,  I  was 
accustomed  to  pass  a  certain  cottage.  19.  Toward  night,  the  school- 
master walked  over  to  the  cottage  where  bis  little  friend  lay  sick. 

20.  I  am  now  at  liberty  to  confess  that  much  which  I  have  heard 
objected  to  my  late  friend's  writings,  was  well  founded.  21.  One 
of  his  favorite  maxims  was,  that  the  only  way  to  keep  a  secret  is 
never  to  let  any  one  suspect  that  you  have  one.  22.  How  his  essays 
will  read,  now  they  are  brought  together,  is  a  question  for  the  pub- 
lishers, who  have  thus  ventured  to  draw  out  into  one  piece  his 
"  weaved-up  follies." — Lamb. 

23.  Examples  may  be  heaped  until  they  hide 
The  rules  that  they  were  made  to  render  plain. 

24.  Merciful  wind,  sing  me  a  hoarse,  rough  song, 
For  there  is  other  music  made  to-night 
That  I  would  fain  not  hear. 

25.  Woe  worth  the  chase !  woe  worth  the  day ! 
That  cost  thy  life,  my  gallant  gray. — Scott. 


SYNTAX — CLASSES   OF   ELEMENTS.  151 


176.  Exercises  in  Synthesis. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  their  subjects  by  an  adjective  element  of 
the  second  class. 
Models. — Love  of  display  is  a  sin.     Greed  of  gain  is  wrong. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  their  subjects  by  an  adjective  element  of 
the  third  class. 
Model. — The  house  which  you  see  yonder,  belongs  to  my  father. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  their  predicates  by  an  objective  element 
of  the  second  or  third  class. 

Models. — I  wish  to  remain.     He  says  that  he  can  not  walk. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  their  predicates  by  an  adverbial  element 
of  the  second  or  third  class. 

Models. — I  study  to  learn.     I  will  come  when  you  call  me. 

Write  seven  sentences,  introducing  attendant  elements. 

Model. — I  think,  my  dear  friend,  that  you  are  mistaken. 

Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written. 


KINDS   OF   ELEMENTS. 
177.  Simple  Elements. 

1.  A  Simple  Element  is  one  which  is  not  restricted 
by:  a  modifier. 

Ex. — "A  rich  man;"  "A  man  of  wealth;"  "A  man  who  is 
rvealthy."  The  word  rich,  the  phrase  of  wealth,  and  the  clause 
who  is  wealthy,  are  simple  adjective  elements. 

2.  The  Grammatical  Subject  is  the  simple  subject. 

3.  The  Grammatical  Predicate  is  the  simple  pred- 
icate. 

Rem — The  same  distinction  may  be  made  in  the  other 
elements. 


152  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

178.  Models  for  Complete  Analysis, 

XXIV.   "To  err  is  human." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  ^why?). 

To  err  is  the  grammatical  subject;  (why?):  liuman  is  the  gram- 
matical predicate;  (why?):  is  is  the  copula. 

XXV.   "I  am  in  haste." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?) :  declarative;  (why?) :  simple;  (why?). 

I  is  the  grammatical  subject;  (why?):  in  haste  is  the  grammat- 
ical predicate ;  (why  ?) :  am  is  the  copula. 

179.  Exercises. 

1.  Banners  were  waving.  2.  To  forgive  is  divine.  3.  It  is  pleas- 
ant to  read.  4.  Stars  have  been  shining.  5.  Weapons  were  pro- 
cured. 6.  To  covet  is  sinful.  7.  To  quarrel  is  disgraceful.  8.  To 
rob  is  to  plunder.    9.  Vessels  are  in  sight. 

180.  Complex  Elements. 

1.  A  Complex  Element  is  one  which  contains  a 
leading  element,  restricted  in  meaning  by  one  or  more 
modifiers. 

2.  The  leading  element  is  called  the  basis. 

Rem. — The  basis  determines  the  class  of  a  complex  element. 
If  it  be  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  class,  the  entire  element  is  said 
to  be  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  class. 

Ex. — "A  very  rich  raan.!,  Very  rich  is  a  complex  adjective  element 
of  the  first  class,  modifying  "man":  rich  is  the  basis,  and  is  modified 
by  very,  an  adverbial  element. 

"A  man  faithful  when  others  were  faithless."  The  words  in  italics 
form  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  first  class,  modifying  "man": 
faithful  is  the  basis,  and  is  modified  by  the  clause  when  others  were 
faithless,  an  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class. 

"He  wishes  to  know  who  you  are,"  The  words  in  italics  form  a 
complex  objective  element  of  the  second  class;   Iq  Jctiqvj  is  the  6askJ 


SYNTAX — CLASSES    OF    ELEMENTS.  153 

and  is  modified  by  the  clause  who  you  are,  an  objective  element  of  the 
third  class. 

" I  like  people  that  listen  when  I  talk"  The  words  in  italics  form 
a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  third  class:  that  listen  is  the  basis; 
and  listen,  the  predicate,  is  modified  by  the  clause  when  I  talk,  an  ad- 
verbial element  of  the  third  class. 

3.  The  Complex  or  ^Logical  Subject  is  the  simple 
subject  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Rem.  1. — The  simple  subject,  when  a  noun,  may  be  modified, 

1.  By  an  adjective;  as,  "Loud  reports  followed." 

2.  By  a  participle;  as,  "The  hour  appointed  has  come." 

3.  By  a  possessive;  as,  "George's  plan  succeeded." 

4.  By  a  noun  in  the  same  case;  as,  "Gay  the  poet  is  dead." 

5.  By  a  phrase;  as,  "A  storm  of  applause  followed." 

6.  By  a  clause;  as,  "Money  which  I  earn  is  my  own." 

Rem.  2. — A  subject  may  have  all  the  preceding  modifications 
in  the  same  sentence. 

Rem.  3. — When  the  simple  subject  is  a  pronoun,  it  may  have 
all  the  modifications  of  a  noun,  except  that  made  by  a  noun  or 
pronoun  in  the  possessive  case. 

Rem.  4 — An  infinitive  or  participial  noun,  used  as  a  subject, 
may  be  modified  (1)  as  a  noun,  by  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  in 
the  nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  it;  (2)  as  a  verb,  by  the 
modifiers  of  a  verb. 

4.  The  Complex  or  ^Logical  Predicate  is  the  sim- 
ple predicate  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Rem.  l. — The  simple  predicate,  when  a  verb,  may  be  modified, 

1.  If  transitive,  by  an  object;  as,  "  He  saves  money." 

2.  By  an  adverb;  as,  "The  horse  runs  swiftly" 

3.  By  a  phrase;  as,  "He  lives  in  Troy;"  "He  studies  to  learn." 

4.  By  a  clause;  as,  "He  knows  where  the  mushrooms  grow" 

Rem.  2. — When  the  predicate  is  an  adjective,  a  participle,  a 
noun,  or  any  thing  used  as  a  noun,  it  may  have  all  the  modifica- 
tions of  the  part  of  speech  with  which  it  is  classed. 


154  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  3. — The  copula  is  modified  by  modal  adverbs  and  adverbs 
of  time  only. 

Rem.  4. — A  predicate  may  have  all  the  modifications  given 
above  in  the  same  sentence. 

5.  A  Complex  Objective  Element  is  the  simple 
object  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

item. — A  complex  objective  element  may  be, 

1.  A  word,  modified  by  words,  phrases,  or  clauses;  as,  "We 
found  much  gold;"  "  He  owns  the  house  on  the  hill;99  "I  love  those 
who  are  frank99 

2.  A  phrase,  modified  by  single  words,  phrases,  or  clauses;  as, 
"He  desires  to  learn  rapidly ;"  "He  desires  to  learn  to  write;"  "He 
desires  to  repeat  what  he  has  heard" 

3.  A  clause,  some  part  of  which  is  modified  by  another  clause ; 
as,  " I  said  that  he  was  present  when  the  assault  was  made" 

6.  A  Complex  Adjective  Element  is  the  simple 
adjective  element  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Rem. — A  complex  adjective  element  may  be, 

1.  An  adjective,  modified  by  an  adverb ;  as,  "  A  very  large  lot." 

2.  A  participle,  with  all  the  modifiers  of  a  verb;  as,  "The 
young  man  was  seen  clandestinely  entering  a  dram-shop" 

3.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  the  modifications  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun ;  as,  "Mr.  Elder9 s  house ;"  "  Thompson,  the  faithful  guar- 
dian of  our  cousins;"  "Our  own  dear  native  land." 

4.  A  phrase,  modified  by  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause;  as,  "A 
time  to  make  friends  ;"  ,u  k.  time  to  learn  to  write;"  "A  time  to 
repeat  what  you  have  learned." 

5.  A  clause,  some  part  of  which  is  modified  by  another  clause  ; 
as,  "A  man  who  is  angry  whenever  his  views  are  controverted." 

7.  A  Complex  Adverbial  Element  is  the  simple 
adverbial  element  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Rem. — A  complex  adverbial  element  may  be, 

1.  An  adverb,  modified  by  a  single  word,  phrase,  or  clause;  as, 
"We  rode  very  rapidly;"  " It  is  too  badly  done  to  last;"  "He  spoke 
so  indistinctly  that  we  could  not  understand  him." 


SYNTAX— CLASSES   OF   ELEMENTS.  155 

2.  A  phrase,  modified  by  a  single  word,  phrase,  or  clause;  as, 
"I  am  ready  to  begin  the  work;"  "I  shall  be  ready  to  commence 
work  by  daylight:"  "I  am  ready  to  go  wherever  duty  calls  me." 

3.  A  clause,  some  part  of  which  is  modified  by  another  clause ; 
as,  "He  is  afraid  that  you  will  not  return  before  he  leaves" 

181.  Models  for  Complete  Analysis. 

XXVI.    "A  lad,  made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  played  among 

the  waste." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

"A  lad,  made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck"  is  the  logical  subject, 
and  "played  among  the  waste "  is  the  logical  predicate. 

I*ad  is  the  grammatical  subject;  (why?):  played  is  the  grammat- 
ical predicate;  (why?).  The  subject,  "lad,"  is  modified  by  a,  a  sim- 
ple adjective  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  made  orphan  by  a 
winter  shipwreck,  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  first  class. 
"  Made  orphan,"  the  basis,  is  modified  by  by  a  winter  snip  wreck, 
an  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class:  "shipwreck"  is  modified 
by  a  and  winter,  adjective  elements  of  the  first  class. 

The  predicate,  "  played,"  is  modified  by  among  the  waste,  an 
adverbial  element  of  the  second  class;  and  "waste"  by  the,  an  ad- 
jective element  of  the  first  class.  "  Made  orphan "  is  an  abridged 
proposition,  equivalent  to  "that  was  made  an  orphan." 

XXVII.   "He  who  does  as  he  lists,  without  regard  to  the  wishes  of 
others,  will  soon  cease  to  do  well." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):   declarative;  (why?):    complex;  (why?). 

61  He  will  soon  cease  to  do  well"  is  the  principal  proposition:  "who  does 
as  he  lists,  without  regard  to  the  wishes  of  others"  the  complex  sub- 
ordinate proposition. 

"He  who  does  as  he  lists,  without  regard  to  the  wishes  of  others"  is  the 
logical  subject,  and  "will  soon  cease  to  do  well"  the  logical  predicate. 

He  is  the  grammatical  subject  of  the  principal  proposition; 
(why?):  will  cease  is  the  predicate.  The  subject  "he,"  is  modified 
by  who  does  as  he  lists,  &c,  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the 
third  class. 

Who  is  the  subject  of  this  dependent  proposition;  (why?):  does 
is  the  predicate;  (why?):  "does"  is  modified  by  as  he  lists,  an  ad- 
verbial element  of  the  third  class ;  of  which  as  is  the  connective,  he  is 


156  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  subject,  and  lists  is  the  predicate;  also  by  without  regard  to 
the  wishes  of  others,  a  complex  adverbial  element  of  the  second 
class,  of  which  regard  is  modified  by  to  the  wishes  of  others,  a 

complex  adjective  element  of  the  second  class.  Wishes  is  modified 
by  the,  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  of  others,  an 
adjective  element  of  the  second  class. 

"Will  cease,"   the  predicate,   is  modified  by  soon,  an  adverbial 
element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  to  do  well,  a  complex  objective 
\element  of  the  second  class;  of  which,  to  do,  the  basis,  is  modified  by 
well,  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class, 

182.  Exercises. 

1.  God's  balance,  watched  by  angels,  is  hung  across  the  sky.  2. 
My  eyes  pursued  him  far  away  among  the  honest  shoulders  of  the 
crowd.  3.  Nothing  is  law  that  is  not  reason.  4.  Vice  itself  lost 
half  its  evil  by  losing  all  its  grossness.  5.  There  is  a  limit  at  which 
forbearance  ceases  to  be  a  virtue,  6.  If  ye  love  me,  keep  my  com- 
mandments. 7.  Were  I  not  Diogenes,  I  would  be  Alexander.  8. 
Unless  he  reforms  soon,  he  is  a  ruined  man.  9<  Except  ye  repent, 
ye  shall  all  likewise  perish. 

10.  Withdraw  thy  foot  from  thy  neighbor's  house,  lest  he  weary 
of  thee,  and  so  hate  thee.  11.  I  am  quite  sure  that  Mr.  Hutchins 
rode  through  the  village  this  morning.  12.  Seest  thou  a  man  wise 
in  his  own  conceit?  There  is  more  hope  of  a  fool  than  of  him. 
13.  He  spake  as  one  having  authority.  14.  He  never  has  a  lesson, 
because  he  is  too  lazy  to  study.  15.  Not  many  generations  ago, 
where  you  now  sit,  the  rank  thistle  nodded  in  the  wind.  16.  Do 
not  forget  to  write  when  you  reach  home.  17.  Even  by  means  of 
our  sorrows,  we  belong  to  the  eternal  plan. 

18.  The  gentleman  who  was  dressed  in  brown-once-black,  had  a 
sort  of  medico-theological  exterior,  which  we  afterward  found  to 
be  representative  of  the  inward  man. 

19.  Multitudes  of  little  floating  clouds, 

Ere  we,  who  saw,  of  change,  were  conscious,  pierced 
Through  their  ethereal  texture,  had  become 
Vivid  as  fire. —  Wordsworth. 

20.  Honest  work  for  the  day,  honest  hope  for  the  morrow : 
Are  these  worth  nothing  more  than  the  hand  they  make  weary, 
The  heart  they  have  saddened,  the  life  they  leave  dreary? 


SYNTAX — CLASSES   OF   ELEMENTS.  157 

183.  Compound  Elements. 

A  Compound  Element  consists  of  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent simple  or  complex  elements,  joined  by  coordinate 
connectives. 

Ex. — The  moon  and  stars  are  shining.     You  may  go  or  stay. 

Rem. — All  the  elements  of  a  sentence  may  be  compound. 

184.  Models  for  Complete  Analysis. 

XXVIII.  "  Industry,  honesty,  and  economy  generally  insure  success." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?). 

"Industry,  honesty ,  and  economy"  is  the  logical  subject:  "generally 
insure  success"  is  the  logical*predicate. 

Industry,  honesty,  and  economy  is  the  compound  grammat- 
ical subject;  (why?):  insure  is  the  grammatical  predicate;  (why?). 
The  subject  is  not  modified.  The  predicate,  "insure,"  is  modified  by 
generally,  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  success, 
an  objective  element  of  the  first  class. 

XXIX.  "The  charities  that  soothe,  and  heal,  and  bless, 
Are  scattered  at  the  feet  of  man  like  flowers." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  complex;  (why?). 
Name  the  principal  and  the  subordinate  clause. 

"The  charities  that  soothe,  and  heal,  and  bless"  is  the  logical  subject: 
"Are  scattered  at  the  feet  of  man  like  flowers"  is  the  logical  predicate. 

Charities  is  the  grammatical  subject  of  the  principal  proposition ; 
(why?):  are  scattered  is  the  grammatical  predicate;  (why?).  The 
subject,  "  charities,"  is  modified  by  the,  an  adjective  element  of  the 
first  class,  and  by  that  soothe,  and  heal,  and  bless,  an  adjective 
element  of  the  third  class;  of  which  that  is  the  subject,  and  soothe, 
and  heal,  and  Mess  is  the  compound  predicate;  and  being  the 
connective. 

The  predicate,  "scattered,"  is  modified  (1)  by  at  the  feet  of  man, 
a  complex  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class;  of  which  "feet," 
is  modified  by  the,  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by 
of  man,  an  adjective  element  of  the  second  class  ;  (2)  by  like  flowers, 
an  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class. 


158  ENGLISH   GllAMMAR. 


185.  Exercises. 

1.  Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen  the  constitution.  2. 
Youth  is  bright  and  lovely.  3.  He  is  neither  old  nor  infirm.  4.  He 
is  not  angry,  but  excited.  5.  They  wash,  iron,  cook,  eat,  and  sleep 
in  the  same  room.  6.  I  want  to  be  quiet,  and  to  be  let  alone.  7. 
The  book  which  I  loaned  you,  and  which  you  lost,  was  a  present 
from  my  father.  8.  To  live  in  a  fine  house  and  drive  fast  horses  is 
the  height  of  his  ambition. 

9.  All  the  girls  were  in  tears  and  white  muslins,  except  a  select 
two  or  three,  who  were  being  honored  with  a  private  .view  of  the 
bride  and  bridesmaids,  up  stairs. 

10.  There  was  another  tap  at  the  door — a  smart,  potential  tap, 
which  seemed  to  say,  "  Here  I  am,  and  in  I  Jm  coming." 

11.  Not  a  truth  has  to  art  or  to  science  been  given, 

But  brows  have  ached  for  it,  and  souls  toiled  and  striven. 

Lytton. 

186.  Classification  of  Phrases. 

1.  Complex  elements  of  the  first  and  second  classes,  and 
abridged  propositions,  are  sometimes  called  phrases. 

Rem. — The  basis  of  the  element,  the  manner  in  wrhich  it  mod- 
ifies, the  connective,  or  the  leading  word,  determines  the  name  of 
the  phrase. 

2.  Phrases  may  be, 

1.  Appositive ;    as,  "  Washington,  the  father  of  his  country  J1 

2.  Adjective;    as,  "A  man,  tenacious  of  principle." 

3.  Adverbial ;    as,  " He  lives  just  round  the  corner" 

4.  Prepositional ;    as,  "  We  walked  on  the  bank  of  the  river" 

5.  Infinitive;    as,  "He  hoped  to  receive  a  telegram." 

6.  Participial ;   as,  "Being  unwell,  he  remained  at  home." 

7.  Absolnte;    as,  "He  being  sich,  I  remained." 

8.  Independent;    as,  "0  my  ducats!" 

Rem.  1. — The  infinitive,  or  participial  phrase,  when  used  as 


SYNTAX — CLASSES  .OF   ELEMENTS.  159 

subject,  is  called  the  Subject  Phrase:  when  used  as  predicate,  the 
Predicate  Phrase, 

Rem.  2. — The  absolute  phrase  is  an  abridged  proposition.  It 
usually  modifies  the  predicate  of  the  sentence  of  which  it  forms  a 
part,  but  may  modify  the  subject  and  predicate  combined. 

187.  Classification  of  Clauses. 

Clauses  are  classified  with  reference  to  their  use  or 
position  in  sentences.     They  are, 

1.  The  Subject  clause:  a  proposition  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
sentence;  as,  "How  the  accident  occurred,  is  not  known." 

2.  The  Predicate  Clause:  a  proposition  used  as  the  predicate 
of  a  sentence;  as,  "The  question  is,  How  did  he  obtain  the 
money?" 

3.  The  Relative  Clause:  a  dependent  proposition  introduced 
by  a  relative  pronoun;  as,  "The  vessel  which  you  see  yonder,  is  a 
sloop." 

4.  The  Appositive  Clause:  a  proposition  put  in  apposition 
with  a  noun;  as,  "The  question,  Are  we  a  nation?  is  now  an- 
swered." 

5.  The  Interrogative  Clause :  a  proposition  introduced  by  an 
interrogative  word;  as,  "Who  said  so?"  " What  vessel  is  that?" 
"Where  do  you  live?" 

6.  The  Objective  Clause:  a  proposition  used  as  an  objective 
element;  as,  "The  chairman  declared  that  the  motion  was  lost" 

7.  The  Adverbial  Clause:  a  proposition  used  as  an  adverbial 
element;  as,  "I  will  pay  you  when  I  receive  my  week's  wages." 

Rem.  l. — Subject,  predicate,  and  objective  clauses  are  used  as 
nouns. 

Rem.  2. — Relative  clauses  are  either  restrictive  or  explanatory. 
If  restrictive,  the  antecedent  is  usually  modified  by  a,  the,  or  that; 
as,  "The  vessel  which  capsized,  was  a  bark."  If  explanatory,  the 
antecedent  is  not  so  modified ;  as,  "  Steamships,  which  are  a  modern 
invention,  make  quick  voyages." 

A  proposition  introduced  by  a  compound  relative  is  frequently 
equivalent  to  an  adverbial  element;  as,  "He  will  succeed,  whoever 
may  oppose  him." 


160  ENGLISH-  GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  3. — Interrogative  clauses  may  be  introduced  by  interrog- 
ative pronouns,  interrogative  adjectives,  or  interrogative  adverbs. 

i>irect  and  indirect  questions  are  asked  by  means  of  principal 
propositions;  as,  "Is  he  honest ?"  "Whose  book  is  that?" 

indefinite  questions  are  asked  by  means  of  subordinate  propo- 
sitions;  as,  "  I  do  not  know  whose  book  that  is." 

The  disjunctive  or,  correlative  with  whether,  connects  the  parts 
of  a  double  indirect  question ;  as,  "  I  do  not  know  whether  I  shall 
go  or  stay" 

Rem.  4. — Adverbial  clauses  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

1.  Temporal:  dependent  clauses  denoting  time;  as,  "I  was  ab- 
sent when  the  accident  occurred" 

2.  Local:  dependent  clauses  denoting  place;  as,  "Go  where 
duty  calls  thee" 

3.  Causal:  dependent  clauses  denoting  cause;  as,  "He  is  be- 
loved, for  he  is  good." 

4.  Final:  dependent  clauses  denoting  a  purpose  or  a  result; 
as,  "We  came  that  we  might  assist  you;"  "Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou 
come  to  poverty." 

5.  Comparative:  dependent  clauses,  expressing  comparison; 
as,  "He  is  older  than  I  [am] ;"   "Men  generally  die  as  they  live." 

6.  Conditional :  dependent  clauses  modifying  propositions  con- 
taining deductions  or  conclusions;  as,  "He  will  be  ruined,  unless  he 
reform; "    "  I  would  pay  you,  if  I  could." 

7.  Concessive :  dependent  clauses  denoting  a  concession  or  ad- 
mission; as,  "  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him." 

Rem.  5. — Two  clauses  which  mutually  qualify  are  called  cor- 
relative ;  as,  "  The  deeper  the  well,  the  cooler  the  water." 

188.  Exercises. 

v%  Classify  the  phrases  and  clauses  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  No  one  came  to  his  assistance.  2.  He  were  no  lion,  were  not 
Romans  hinds.  3.  I  would  that  ye  all  spake  with  tongues.  4.  Thou 
shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself.  5.  Launch  thy  bark,  mariner ! 
6.  He  made  them  give  up  their  spoils.  7.  Go  quickly,  that  you 
may  meet  them. 

8.  Voltaire,  who  might  have  seen  him,  speaks  repeatedly  of  his 


SYNTAX — CONTRACTED   SENTENCES.  161 

majestic  stature.  9.  The  French,  a  mighty  people,  combined  for 
the  regeneration  of  Europe.  10.  Not  many  generations  ago,  where 
you  now  sit,  circled  with  all  that  exalts  and  embellishes  civilized  life, 
the  rank  thistle  nodded  in  the  wind,  and  the  wild  fox  dug  his  hole 
unscared. 

11.  Very  few  men,  properly  speaking,  live  at  present:  most  are 
preparing  to  live  another  time.  12.  I  lisped  in  numbers,  for  the 
numbers  came.  13.  While  the  bridegroom  tarried,  they  all  slum- 
bered and  slept.  14.  Study  nature,  whose  laws  and  phenomena 
are  all  deeply  interesting.  15.  Its  qualities  exist,  since  they  are 
known,  and  are  known  because  they  exist.  16.  At  ten  o'clock,  my 
task  being  finished,  I  went  down  to  the  river. 

17.  Some  say,  that  ever  'gainst  that  season  comes 
Wherein  our  Savior's  birth  is  celebrated, 
This  bird  of  warning  singeth  all  night  long : 
And  then  no  spirit  dares  stir  abroad  ; 
The  nights  are  wholesome :  then  no  planets  strike, 
No  fairy  takes,  nor  witch  hath  power  to  charm, 
So  hallowed  and  so  gracious  is  the  time. — Shakspeare. 


CONTRACTED    SENTENCES. 

Sentences  are  contracted  by  ellipsis,  abridgment,  or  by 
substituting  a  different  expression. 

Rem. — The  object  of  contraction  is  to  secure  conciseness  of 
expression  by  means  of  brevity  in  the  construction  of  sentences. 


189.  Ellipsis. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  of  a 
sentence.     The  words  omitted  are  said  to  be  understood. 

Rem. — If  required  in  analysis  or  parsing,  the  words  omitted 
must  be  supplied. 

2.  A  Simple  Sentence  is  contracted  by  omitting  all, 
or  nearly  all,  but  the  most  important  part. 

1.  The  subject  may  be  omitted;   as,  " Come "  ==  Come  thou,  or 
do  thou  come. 

H.  G.  14. 


162  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  predicate  may  be  omitted;  as,  "Who  will  go?  He  [will 
go]:9  "I'll  [go]  hence  to  London ;"  "Ye  are  Christ's  [dis- 
ciples]" 

3.  Both  subject  and  predicate  may  be  omitted ;  as,  "  Water ! "  = 
Give  me  some  water ;  "  Forward ! "  =  March  ye  forward. 

4.  The  object  may  be  omitted;  as,  "Whose  book  have  you? 
John's  "==I  have  John's  book. 

5.  The  neuter  verb  to  be,  in  all  its  forms,  may  be  omitted;  as, 
"Where  now  [are]  her  glittering  towers?"  "A  professed  Catholic, 
he  imprisoned  the  Pope"  =  Being  a  professed  Catholic,  &c. ;  "Eng- 
land's friend,  Ireland's  foe "  =  To  be  England's  friend  is  to  be  Ire- 
land's foe. 

6.  Prepositions  and  conjunctions  may  be  omitted ;  as,  "  Build 
[for]  me  here  seven  altars;"  "Woe  is  [to]  me;"  "I  know  [that] 
you  are  honest;"  "Each  officer,  [and]  each  private  did  his  duty." 

7.  A  simple  sentence,  whose  subject  or  predicate  is  a  propo- 
sition, may  be  contracted  by  changing  the  proposition  to  an  infin- 
itive or  participial  phrase;  as,  "That  I  may  remain  here,  is  my 
desire  "  ==  To  remain  here  is  my  desire ;  "  My  desire  is,  that  I  may 
remain  here  "  =  My  desire  is,  to  remain  here. 

3.  A  Compound  Sentence  may  be  contracted  by 
uniting  the  parts  not  common  to  all  its  members,  and  using 
the  common  parts  but  once. 

Ex. — "Exercise  strengthens  the  constitution,  and  temperance 
strengthens  the  constitution  "=  Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen 
the  constitution.  "  Behold  my  mother  and  behold  my  brethren"  == 
Behold  my  mother  and  my  brethren. 

190.  Exercises. 

Tell  what  parts  are  omitted  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Advance.  2.  Up,  comrades,  up.  3.  Quick,  quick,  or  we  are 
lost.  4.  Honest,  my  lord?  5.  Impossible !  6.  This  done,  we  in- 
stantly departed.  7.  Thou  denied  a  grave !  8.  What  would  con- 
tent you?  Talent?  9.  How,  now,  Jenkinson?  10.  A  rope  to  the 
side!  11.  Rather  he,  than  I.  12.  The  orphan  of  St.  Louis,  he 
became  the  adopted  child  of  the  Republic. 

Compound  Subjects. — 1.  Wisdom,  judgment,  prudence,  and 
firmness,  were  his  predominant  traits.     2.  To  love  God  and  to  do 


SYNTAX — COMPOUND   SENTENCES.  163 

good  to  men  are  the  leading  purposes  of  every  Christian.  3. 
That  the  climate  of  the  northern  hemisphere  has  changed,  and  that 
its  mean  temperature  nearly  resembled  that  of  the  tropics,  is  the 
opinion  of  many  naturalists. 

Compound  Predicates. — 1.  Rural  employments  are  certainly 
natural,  amusing,  and  healthy.  2.  Education  expands  and  ele- 
vates the  mind.  3.  His  excuse  was,  that  the  roads  were  very  bad, 
that  the  supply  train  could  not  be  brought  up,  and  that  the  army 
was  not  well  enough  equipped  for  offensive  operations. 

Compound  Objective  Elements. — 1.  He  had  a  good  mind,  a 
sound  judgment,  and  a  vivid  imagination.  2.  Learn  to  labor  and 
to  wait.  3.  The  writings  of  the  sages  show  that  the  best  empire  is 
self-government,  and  that  subduing  our  passions  is  the  noblest  of 
conquests. 

Compound  Adjective  Elements. — 1.  He  is  a  good,  faithful, 
and  generous  boy.  2.  I  am  not  the  advocate  of  indolence  and 
improvidence.  3.  The  chastity  of  honor,  which  felt  a  stain  like  a 
wound,  which  inspired  courage  while  it  mitigated  ferocity,  which 
ennobled  whatever  it  touched,  and  under  which  vice  itself  lost  half 
its  evil  by  losing  its  grossness,  is  gone. 

Compound  Adverbial  Elements. — 1.  Man  is  fearfully  and 
wonderfully  made.  2.  During  our  voyage,  we  whiled  away  our 
time  in  reading,  in  writing  a  journal,  and  in  studying  navigation. 
3.  When  public  bodies  are  to  be  addressed  on  momentous  occa- 
sions, when  great  interests  are  at  stake,  and  strong  passions  excited, 
nothing  is  valuable  in  speech  further  than  it  is  connected  with 
high  intellectual  and  moral  endowments. 

191.  Abridgment. 

9 

1.  Complex  Sentences  are  often  changed  into  simple 
sentences  by  abridging  their  subordinate  clauses. 

2.  Contracted  clauses  are  called  abridged  propositions. 

Ex. — "We  came  that  ve  might  assist  you"  =  We  came  to  assist 
you.     "I  believe  that  he  is  honest"  =  I  believe  him  to  be  holiest 

Rem. — There  is  an  essential  difference  between  a  sentence 
shortened  by  ellipsis  and  an  abridged  proposition.  In  the  former, 
the  omitted  words  are  clearly  implied,  and  must  be  restored  before 


164  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  sentence  can  be  analyzed  or  parsed :  in  the  latter,  an  equiva- 
lent expression  is  substituted  for  an  entire  proposition.  The  pred- 
icate is  always  retained,  but  is  used  as  an  assumed  attribute,  the 
assertion  being  wholly  omitted. 

3.   To  abridge  a  subordinate  clause, 

1st.  Drop  the  subject,  if  it  be  already  expressed  in  the  principal 
clause :  if  not,  retain  it  changing  its  case  to  the  possessive,  object- 
ive, or  absolute. 

2d.  Drop  the  connective,  and  change  the  copula  or  verbal  pred- 
icate to  a  participle  or  an  infinitive. 

Rem.  1. — The  abridged  form  of  an  adjective  clause  is  a  par- 
ticipial, infinitive,  or  prepositional  phrase. 

Ex. — "Our  friends  who  live  in  the  city11  =  Our  friends  living  in  the 
dty  —  Our  friends  in  the  city.  "A  book  that  may  amuse  you"  =  A 
book  to  amuse  you. 

Rem.  2 — The  abridged  form  of  an  adverbial  clause  is  a  par- 
ticipial, infinitive,  prepositional,  or  absolute  phrase. 

Ex. — "When  we  heard  the  explosion,  we  hastened  to  the  spot"  = 
Hearing  the  explosion,  we  hastened,  &c. ;  "I  attend  school  that  I  may 
learn"  =  I  attend  school  to  learn;  "If  he  be  economical,  he  will  become 
rich"  =  He  will  become  rich  by  being  economical;  "When  the  soldiers 
arrived,  the  mob  dispersed  "=The  soldiers  having  arrived,  &c. 

Rem.  3. — The  abridged  form  of  an  objective  clause  is  an  infin- 
itive phrase. 

Ex. — "We  wish  that  you  would  stay"  =  We  wish  you  to  stay.  "I 
thought  that  he  was  a  merchant"  =  I  thought  him  to  be  a  merchant. 

Rem.  4. — Abridged  propositions  retain  the  logical  construction 
of  the  clauses  which  they  represent:  i.  c,  abridged  adjective,  ad- 
verbial, or  objective  clauses  become,  respectively,  adjective,  adverb- 
ial, or  objective  phrases. 

192.  Model  for  Analysis. 

XXX.   "The  shower  having  passed,  we  resumed  our  journey." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):  simple;  (why?).    , 

We  is  the  subject;   (why?):    resumed  is  the  grammatical,  and 

resume:!  our  journey,  the  shower  having:  passed,  is  the  logical 

predicate.     "Resumed"  is  modified  by  journey,  an  objective  element 


SYNTAX ANALYSIS.  165 

of  the  first  class,  which  is  modified  by  oar,  an  adjective  element  of 
the  first  class.  " Resumed"  is  also  modified  by  the  absolute  phrase, 
the  shower  having'  passed,  an  abridged  proposition,  equivalent  to 
"when  the  shower  had  passed."  "Shower"  is  modified  by  the  and 
having  passed,  adjective  elements  of  the  first  class. 

193.  Exercises. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,   giving  equivalent   clauses  for  the 
abridged  propositions: 

1.  Caesar  having  crossed  the  Kubicon,  Pompey  prepared  for 
battle.  2.  Having  accumulated  a  large  fortune,  he  retired  from 
business.  3.  Being  but  dust,  be  humble  and  wise.  4.  Judging 
from  his  dress,  I  should  pronounce  him  an  artisan. 

5.  I  believe  him  to  be  an  honest  man.  6.  There  is  no  hope  of 
his  recovering  his  health.  7.  There  is  no  prospect  of  the  storm's 
abating.  8.  Having  been  detained  by  this  accident,  he  lost  the 
opportunity  of  seeing  them. 

194.  Directions  for  Analysis. 

SENTENCES. 
I. — In  analyzing, 

1.  Eead  the  sentence. 

2.  Determine  from  its  form  and  use,  whether  it  is  declarative, 
interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclamatory. 

3.  Determine  whether  it  is  simple,  complex,  or  compound. 

4.  Arrange  all  the  parts  in  natural  order. 

5.  If  necessary  for  analysis  or  parsing,  supply  all  ellipses. 

II. — If  it  is  a  simple  sentence, 

1.  Point  out  the  logical  subject  and  logical  predicate. 

2.  Point  out  the  grammatical  subject  and  grammatical  predicate. 

3.  Determine  whether  the  subject  is  simple,  complex,  or  com- 
pound;  and  when  complex,  point  out  and  classify  its  modifiers 
with  their  qualifications. 

4.  Determine  whether  the  predicate  is  simple,  complex,  or  com- 
pound; and  when  complex,  point  out  and  classify  (1)  its  objective 
modifiers,  (2)  its  adverbial  modifiers,  with  their  qualifications. 


166  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

5,  Point  out  the  attendant  elements,  and  all  the  connectives. 

III. — If  it  is  a  complex  sentence, 

1.  Analyze  the  principal  clause  as  in  (II). 

2.  Analyze  the  subordinate  clause  or  clauses  as  in  (II). 

IV. — If  it  is  a  compound  sentence,  each  member  should  be 
analyzed  as  a  simple  or  complex  sentence,  as  in  (II) 
or  (III). 

ELEMENTS. 

V. — 1.  If  an  element  is  a  single  word,  it  is  completely  reduced. 

2.  If  an  element  is  a  phrase  or  a  clause,  determine, 

a.  The  connective,  and  the  parts  it  joins. 

b.  In  a  phrase,   determine  the  antecedent  and  subsequent 
terms  of  relation  of  the  preposition. 

c.  In  a  clause,  point  out  the  subject  and  predicate. 

3.  If  an  element  is  complex, 

a.  Eeduce  it  to  simple  elements. 

b.  First  point  out  the  basis  of  each  complex  element,  then  the 
others  in  their  order. 

4.  If  an  element  is  compound, 

a.  Separate  it  into  its  component  simple  elements. 

b.  Point  out  and  classify  the  connective  which  joins  them. 

c.  Dispose  of  each  element  separately,  as  in  (1)  and  (2)  above. 

Rem. — The  sentence  being  reduced  by  analysis  to  the  parts  of 
speech  of  which  it  is  composed,  let  the  teacher  select  such  words 
as  should  be  parsed,  and  instruct  his  pupils  how  to  dispose  of  them 
according  to  the  "  models  for  parsing." 


195.  Model  for  Complete  Analysis. 

XXXI.  "The  patriot,  whom  the  corrupt  tremble  to  see  arise,  may 
well  feel  a  grateful  satisfaction  in  the  mighty  power  which  heaven 
has  delegated  to  him,  when  he  thinks  that  he  has  used  it  for  those 
purposes  only  which  heaven  approves." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  declarative;  (why?):   complex;  (why?). 
It  is  composed  of  six  clauses.     The  principal  clause  is, 


SYNTAX ANALYSIS.  167 

The  patriot  may  well  feel  a  grateful  satisfaction  in  the  mighty  power. 
The  subordinate  clauses  are, 

1.  Whom  the  corrupt  tremble  to  see  arise; 

2.  Which  heaven  has  delegated  to  him; 

3.  When  he  thinks; 

4.  That  he  has  used  it  for  those  purposes  only  ; 

5.  Which  heaven  approves, 

"Patriot"  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause;  "may  feel"  is  the 
predicate.  — - 

The  subject,  "patriot,"  is  modified  (1)  by  "the"  an  adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  and  (2)  by  "whom  the  corrupt  tremble  to  see 
aiise"  an  adjective  element  of  the  third  class;  of  which  "whom"  is 
the  connective,  "corrupt"  is  the  subject,  and  "tremble"  is  the  predicate. 
"Corrupt"  is  modified  by  "the"  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  class: 
"tremble"  is  modified  by  "to  see"  an  adverbial  element  of  the  second 
class;  which  is  modified  by  "whom,"  an  objective  element  of  the  first 
class,  and  "whom"  is  modified  by  "[to"]  arise"  an  adjective  element  of 
the  second  class. 

The  predicate,  "may  feel ',"  is  modified  (1)  by  "well"  an  adverbial 
element  of  the  first  class:  (2)  by  "satisfaction"  an  objective  element 
of  the  first  class;  which  is  modified  by  "a"  and  "grateful"  adjective 
elements  of  the  first  class:  and  (3)  by  "in  the  mighty  power  which 
heaven  has  delegated  to  him"  an  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class; 
of  which  "in  power"  is  the  basis,  "in"  is  the  connective,  and  "power" 
is  the  object.  "Power"  is  modified  (1)  by  "the"  and  "mighty"  adject- 
ive elements  of  the  first  class:  (2)  by  "which  heaven  has  delegated  to 
him"  an  adjective  element  of  the  third  class;  of  which  "which"  is  the 
connective,  "heaven"  is  the  subject,  and  "has  delegated"  is  the  predi- 
cate: "  has  delegated"  is  modified  (1)  by  "which"  an  objective  element 
of  the  first  class:  (2)  by  "to  him"  an  adverbial  element  of  the  second 
class;  of  which  "to"  is  the  connective,  and  "him"  is  the  object. 

"May  feel"  is  modified  (4)  by  "when  he  thinks"  <&c,  an  adverbial  ele- 
ment of  the  third  class;  of  which  "when"  is  the  connective,  "he"  is 
the  subject,  and  "thinks"  is  the  predicate.  "Thinks"  is  modified  by 
"that  he. has  used  it"  &c,  an  objective  element  of  the  third  class;  of 
which  "that"  is  the  connective,  "he"  is  the  subject,  and  "has  used" 
is  the  predicate.  "Has  used"  is  modified  (1)  by  "it"  an  objective 
element  of  the  first  class:  (2)  by  "for  those  purposes  only"  &c,  an  ad- 
verbial element  of  the  second  class;  of  which  "for  purposes"  is  the 
basis,  "for"  is  the  connective,  and  "purposes"  is  the  object.  "Pur- 
poses"  is  modified  (1)  by  "those"  and  "only"  adjective  elements  of 
the  first  class:   and  (2)  by  "which  heaven  approves"  an  adjective  ele- 


168  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

ment  of  the  third  class;  of  which  "which"  is  the  connective,  "heaven" 
is  the  subject,  and  "approves"  is  the  predicate.  "Approves"  is  modi- 
fied by  "which"  an  objective  element  of  the  first  class. 

196.  Brief  Method  of  Analysis. 

"Patriot"  is  the  subject;  "may  feel"  is  the  predicate. 

The  subject,  "patriot"  is  modified  (1)  by  "the"  an  adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  and  (2)  by  "whom  the  corrupt  tremble  to  see 
arise"  an  adjective  element  of  the  third  class. 

The  predicate,  "may  feel"  is  modified  (1)  by  "well"  an  adverbial 
element  of  the  first  class,  denoting  manner:  (2)  by  "a  grateful  satisfac- 
tion" a  complex  objective  element  of  the  first  class:  (3)  by  "in  the 
mighty  power  which  ....  him"  a  complex  adverbial  element  of  the 
second  class:  and  (4)  by  "when  he  thinks  .....  approves"  a  complex 
adverbial  element  of  the  third  class,  denoting  time. 

197.  Miscellaneous  Examples, 

1.  Hypocrisy  is  a  sort  of  homage  that  vice  pays  to  virtue. 

2.  The  gods  have  set  a  price  on  every  real  and  noble  pleasure. 

3.  He  was  a  very  young  boy ;  quite  a  little  child.  4.  It  has  all  the 
contortions  of  the  sibyl,  without  the  inspiration. — Burke. 

5.  "Well,  what  is  it?"  said  my  lady  Brook.  6.  Suddenly  the 
watch  gave  the  alarm  of  "A  sail  ahead ! "  7.  He  saw  a  star  shoot 
from  heaven,  and  glittering  in  its  fall,  vanish  upon  the  earth.  8. 
Sweet  are  thy  murmurs,  O  stream! — Ossian. 

9.  Their  slumbers  are  sound,  and  their  wakings  cheerful.  10. 
We, one  day  descried  some  shapeless  object  floating  at  a  distance. 
11.  And  behold  there  came  a  voice  unto  him,  and  said,  What  dost 
thou  here,  Elijah? — Bible. 

12.  I  passed  the  house  many  successive  days.  13.  He  wore  an 
ample  cloak  of  black  sheep's  wool,  which,  having  faded  into  a  dull 
brown,  had  been  refreshed  by  an  enormous  patch  of  the  original 
color.  His  countenance  was  that  of  the  faded  part  of  his  cloak. — 
Bryant. 

14.  The  line  which  bisects  the  vertical  angle  of  a  triangle,  divides 
the  base  into  segments  proportional  to  the  adjacent  sides.  15.  He 
is  so  good,  he  is  good  for  nothing.  16.  The  clouds  are  divided  in 
heaven :  over  the  green  hills  flies  the  inconstant  sun :  red,  through 
the  stony  vale,  comes  down  the  stream  of  the  hills. — Ossian. 


SYNTAX — EXERCISES.  169 

17.  The  accusing  angel  flew  up  to  Heaven's  chancery  with  the 
oath,  and  blushed  as  he  gave  it  in.  And  the  recording  angel,  as 
he  wrote  it  down,  dropped  a  tear  on  the  word,  and  blotted  it  out 
forever. — Sterne. 

18.  In  the  awful  mystery  of  human  life,  it  is  a  consolation  some- 
times to  believe  that  our  mistakes,  perhaps  even  oar  sins,  are  per- 
mitted to  be  instruments  of  our  education  for  immortality.  19. 
Even  if  his  criticisms  had  been  uniformly  indulgent,  the  position 
of  the  nobles  and  leading  citizens,  thus  subjected  to  a  constant,  but 
secfet  superintendence,  would  have  been  too  galling  to  be  tol- 
erated.— Motley. 

20.  No  ax  had  leveled  the  giant  progeny  of  the  crowded  groves, 
in  which  the  fantastic  forms  of  withered  limbs,  that  had  been 
blasted  and  riven  by  lightning,  contrasted  strangely  with  the 
verdant  freshness  of  a  younger  growth  of  branches. — Bancroft 

21.  The  sun  was  now  resting  his  huge  disk  upon  the  edge  of  the 
level  ocean,  and  gilding  the  accumulation  of  clouds  through  which 
he  had  traveled  the  livelong  day;  and  which  now  assembled  on  all 
sides,  like  misfortunes  and  disasters  around  a  sinking  empire  and 
falling  monarch. — Scott. 

22.  It  is,  therefore,  a  certain  and  a  very  curious  fact,  that  the 
representative,  at  this  time,  of  any  great  whig  family,  who  probably 
imagines  that  he  is  treading  in  the  footsteps  of  his  forefathers,  in 
reality,  while  adhering  to  their  party  names,  is  acting  against 
almost  every  one  of  their  party  principles. — Lord  Mahon. 

23.  Rivers  will  always  have  one  shingly  shore  to  .play  over,  where 
they  may  be  shallow,  and  foolish,  and  childlike ;  and  another  steep 
shore,  under  which  they  can  pause,  and  purify  themselves,  and  get 
their  strength  of  waves  fully  together  for  due  occasion. — Ruslcin. 

24.  I  seem  to  have  been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the  sea-shore, 
and  diverting  myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a  smoother  pebble 
or  a  prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  whilst  the  great  ocean  of  truth  lay 
all  undiscovered  before  me. — Newton. 

25.  We  're  nettles,  some  of  us, 

And  give  offense  by  the  act  of  springing  up. — Browning. 

26.  The  twilight  deepened  round  us.    Still  and  black 
The  great  woods  climbed  the  mountain  at  our  back. 

27.  May  God  forgive  the  child  of  dust 

Who  seeks  to  know  where  Faith  should  frvst — Whittier. 
H.  G.  K>. 


170  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

28.  Better  far 
Pursue  a.  frivolous  trade  by  serious  means, 
Than  a  sublime  art  frivolously. 

29.  With  grave 
Aspect  he  rose,  and  in  his  rising  seemed 

A  pillar  of  state ;  deep  on  his  front  engraven, 
Deliberation  sat,  and  public  care; 
And  princely  counsel  in  his  face  yet  shone, 
Majestic,  though  in  ruin. — Milton. 

30.  Summer's  dun  cloud,  that,  slowly  rising,  holds 
The  sweeping  tempest  in  its  rising  folds, 
Though  o'er  the  ridges  of  its  thundering  breast, 
The  King  of  Terrors  lifts  his  lightning  crest, 
Pleased  Ave  behold,  when  those  dark  folds  we  find 
Fringed  with  the  golden  light  that  glows  behind. — Pierpont. 

31.  Near  yonder  copse,  where  once  the  garden  smiled, 
And  still  where  many  a  garden  flower  grows  wild, 
There,  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose, 
The  village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose, 

A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear, 

And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year. — Goldsmith, 

32.  As  when  upon  a  tranced  summer  night 
Those  green-robed  senators  of  mighty  woods, 
Tall  oaks,  branch-charmed  by  the  earnest  stars, 
Dream,  and  so  dream  all  night  without  a  stir, 
Save  from  one  gradual,  solitary  gust, 

Which  comes  upon  the  silence,  and  dies  off, 
As  if  the  ebbing  air  had  but  one  wave: 
So  came  these  words,  and  went. — Keats. 

33.  When  Freedom,  from  her  mountain  height, 

Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air, 
She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night 

And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there. 
She  mingled  with  its  gorgeous  dyes 
The  milky  baldric  of  the  skies, 
And  striped  its  pure,  celestial  white, 
With  streakings  of  the  morning  light. — Drake. 


SYNTAX — KULES.  171 


RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

Rule  I. — The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

Rule  II. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  predicate 
of  a  proposition,  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Rule  III.— A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing, 
is  in  the  possessive  case. 

Rule  IV.— A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the  mean- 
ing of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing, 
is  in  the  same  case. 

Rule  V. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  independently,  is  in 
the  absolute  case. 

Rule  VI. — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  in  the  active 
voice,  or  of  its  participles,  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Rule  VII. — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

Rule  VIII. — Nouns  denoting  time,  distance,  measure, 
or  value,  after  verbs  and  adjectives,  are  in  the  objective  case 
without  a  governing  word. 

Rule  IX. — Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  antecedents 
in  person,  gender,  and  number. 

Rule  X. — A  pronoun,  with  two  or  more  antecedents  in 
the  singular,  connected  by.  and,  must  be  plural. 

Rule  XI. — A  pronoun,  with  two  or  more  antecedents 
in  the  singular,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be  singular. 

Rule  XII. — An  adjective  or  participle  belongr  to  ~ome 
noun  or  pronoun. 


172  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rule  XIII. — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
person  and  number. 

Rule  XIV. — A  verb,  with  two  or  more  subjects  in  the 
singular,  connected  by  and,  must  be  plural. 

Rule  XT. — A  verb,  with  ..two  or  more  subjects  in  the 
singular,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be  singular. 

Rule  XVIo — An  infinitive  may  be  used  as  a  noun  in 
any  case  except  the  possessive. 

Rule  XVII*. — An  infinitive  not  used  as  a  noun,  de- 
pends upon  the  word  it  limits,  or  which  leads  to  its  use. 

Rule  XVIIIo — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  par- 
ticiples, and  adverbs. 

Rule  XIX. — A  preposition  shows  the  relation  of  its 
object  to  the  word  upon  which  the  latter  depends. 

Rule  XX. — Co5rdinate  connectives  join  similar  ele- 
ments. 

Rule  XXI. — Subordinate  connectives  join  dissimilar 
elements. 

Rule  XXII. — An  interjection  has  no  dependence  upon 
other  words. 

198.  Subject-Nominative. 

Rule  I. — The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

Rem.  l. — Any  thing  that  may  be  used  as  a  noun  may  be  the 
subject;  as,  "A  is  a  vowel;"  "To  lie  is  base;"  "What  time  he  took 
orders  doth  not  appear." 

Rem.  2. — The  subject  generally  precedes  the  predicate,  but  is 
placed  after  it,  or  the  first  auxiliary,  (1)  When  a  wish  is  expressed 
by  the  potential ;  as,  "May  you  prosper:"  (2)  When  if  or  though, 
denoting  a  supposition,  is  suppressed;  as,  "Had  they  been  wise, 


SYNTAX — RULES.  173 

/ 

they  would  have  listened  to  me:"  (3)  When  the  verb  is  in  the 
imperative  mode,  or  is  used  interrogatively;  as,  "Best  ye;"  "Why 
do  you  persist?" 

Rem.  3. — The  subject  of  the  imperative  mode  is  usually  omitted  ; 
as,  "Depart !  "  "Shut  the  door."  It  is  also  omitted  after  while,  when, 
if,  though,  or  than,  when  the  verb  is  made  one  of  the  terms  of  a 
comparison;  as,  "He  talks  while  [he  is]  writing;"  "He  is  kind 
ivhen  [he  is]  sober;"  "I  will  come,  if  [it  be]  possible;"  "They  are 
honest,  though  [they  are]  poor;"  "He  has  more  knowledge  than 
[he  has]  wisdom." 

EXERCISES. 
To  be  corrected  and  parsed. 

1.  Him  and  me  study  grammar.  2.  I  never  saw  larger  horses 
than  them  are.  3.  Me  and  John  sit  together.  4.  I  knowed  it  as 
well  as  him  or  her.  5.  Whom  besides  I  do  you  suppose  got  a  prize? 
6.  I  am  as  tall  as  he,  but  she  is  taller  than  him.  7.  Whom  do  you 
suppose  has  come  to  visit  us?  8.  We  sorrow  not  as  them  that 
have  no  hope. 

9.  Thrice  is  he  armed  who  hath  his  quarrel  just;  and  him  but 
naked,  though  locked  up  in  steel,  whose  conscience  with  injustice 
is  corrupted.  10.  Them  are  the  fellows  that  stoled  your  apples. 
11.  Who  wants  an  orange? — Me.  12.  No  other  pupil  is  so  stu- 
dious as  her.  13.  He  is  older  than  me.  14.  I  know  not  whom 
else  are  expected.  15.  None  of  his  companions  is  more  beloved 
than  him. 

199.  Predicate-Nominative. 

Rule  II. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  predicate 
of  a  proposition,  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Rem.  i. — The  predicate-nominative  denotes  the  same  person  or 
thing  as  the  subject;  and  must  agree  with  it  in  case,  and  usually 
in  gender  and  number.  It  may  be  any  thing  that  may  be  used  as 
a  noun;  as,  "That  letter  is  B ;"  "To  work  is  to  pray;"  "The 
command  was,  'Storm  the  fort  at  daybreak.'" 

Rem.  2 — In  questions,  and  when  the  predicate  is  emphatically 
distinguished,  the  subject  and  predicate  change  places;  as,  "  ]Vho 
is  that  man?"  "Are  you  the  ticket  agent?"  "His  pavilion  round 
about  him  were  dark  waters  and  thick  clouds  of  the  sky." 


174  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rem;  3. — The  neuter  pronoun  it,  as  subject,  may  represent  a 
noun  or  pronoun  of  any  person,  number,  or  gender,  as  predicate; 
as,  "It  is  I;"  "It  was  you;"  "It  is  Sarah." 

EXERCISES. 
To  be  corrected  and  parsed. 

1.  It  is  me.  2.  It  was  her  and  him  who  you  saw.  3.  If  I  were 
him,  I  would  go  to  Europe.  4.  Whom  do  you  say  they  were? 
5.  I  do  not  know  whom  they  are. 

6.  It  was  not  me  nor  him  who  played  truant.  7.  It  is  not  them 
who  are  to  blame.  8.  I  disbelieve  it  to  be  he.  9.  I  have  no  doubt 
of  its  being  them. 


200.  Possessive  Case. 

Rule  III. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing,  is 
in  the  possessive  case. 

Rem.  i. — The  possessive  term  is  always  an  adjective  element. 
It  may  limit  a  noun  of  any  class  or  form,  or  a  participial  phrase ; 
as,  "Our  houses;"  "0  my  ducats!"  "Our  country's  welfare;"  "All 
their  dearest  hopes  were  blasted;"  "His  being  a  foreigner  should 
not  induce  us  to  underrate  him." 

Rem.  2. — The  relation  of  possession  may  be  expressed  by  the 
preposition  of,  with  the  objective;  as,  "My  friend's  house "  =  The 
house  of  my  friend.  This  form  should  be  used  when  two  or  more 
nouns  in  the  possessive  would  otherwise  come  together;  as,  "My 
friend's  father's  house  "  =  The  house  of  my  friend's  father. 

Rem.  3. — The  limited  noun  is  sometimes  omitted;  as,  "This 
house  is  the  doctor's  [house]."  "We  visited  St.  Paul's  [church]." 
"This  is  a  farm  of  my  father's  [farms]." 

Rem.  4 — The  limited  noun  need  not  be  plural  because  the  pos- 
sessive is  plural;  as,  " Their  judgment  is  good;"  "  Our  decision  is 
made;"  "The  women's  hope  failed." 

Rem.  5. — When  a  noun  is  put  in  apposition  with  a  noun  or 
pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  the  sign  maybe  omitted;  as,  "This 
was  Webster's  opinion,  the  most  eminent  lawyer  in  the  country." 


SYNTAX — RULES.  175 

Rem.  6. — In  some  compound  words,  formed  from  the  possessive 
and  the  word  limited  by  it,  both  the  hyphen  and  sign  of  possession 
are  omitted;  as,  hogshead,  catshead,  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected  and  parsed. 

1.  The  boys  story  was  believed.  2.  He  wore  the  knight's- 
templar's  costume.  3.  The  goods  were  sent  by  the  Merchants 
Union  Express.  4.  That  book  is  his  'n.  5.  The  Bishop's  of  Dub- 
lin's palace.  6.  My  fathers  health  is  not  good.  7.  My  book  is 
larger  than  your's.  8.  The  mistake  was  the  teacher,  not  the 
pupil's. 

9.  The  general's  aids  horse  was  killed.  10.  No  one  could  prevent 
him  escaping.  11.  I  purchased  this  at  Penfields',  the  bookseller's. 
12.  Some  people  regret  the  King  of  France's,  Louis  XVI,  being 
beheaded.  13.  He  bought  a  hog's  head  of  sugar.  14.  William's 
and  Mary's  reign  was  prosperous.  15.  It  was  John,  not  Emma's 
fault. 

201.  Apposition. 

Rule  IV. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the  mean- 
ing of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing, 
is  in  the  same  case. 

Rem.  l. — A  noun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  sentence,  and  a 
sentence  with  a  noun;  as,  "/  resolved  to  practice  temperance — a 
resolution  I  have  ever  kept."  "Remember  Franklin's  maxim: 
'God  helps  them  that  help  themselves.' " 

Rem.  2* — A  noun  in  apposition  sometimes  precedes  the  noun  it 
identifies ;   as,  "  Child  of  the  Sun,  refulgent  Summer,  comes." 

Rem.  3. — Though  a  noun  or  pronoun  usually  agrees  with  the 
noun  it  identifies,  in  number  and  gender,  it  is  not  necessary  that  it  " 
agree  with  it  in  any  thing  else  than  case;  as,  "My  lunch — fried 
oysters  and  crackers — was  soon  eaten." 

Rem.  4. — When  possessives  are  in  apposition,  the  sign  of  pos- 
session is  used  only  with  the  one  next  to  the  noun  limited  by  the 
entire  possessive  term;   as,  "Peter  the  Hermit's  eloquence." 

Rem.  5. — Sometimes  the  noun  in  apposition  is  separated  from 
the  limited  noun  by  as,  denoting  rank,  office,  or  capacity;  as5  "Me 


176  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Jones,  as  my  attorney,  sold  the  land ;"  "  My  son  sails  as  supercargo" 
Equivalent  terms  are  sometimes  introduced  by  or;  as,  "  The  puma, 
or  American  lion,  is  found  in  South  America." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected  and  parsed. 

1.  Will  you  discard  me ;  I  who  have  always  been  your  friend  ? 
2.  What  was  the  General;  him  you  wished  to  see?  3.  I  bought  it 
of  Mrs.  Wilson ;  she  who  keeps  the  milliner's  shop.  4.  Ira  Jacobs, 
him  who  you  punished,  was  not  to  be  blamed.  5.  Whom  shall  we 
praise? — They  who  do  their  duty.  6.  My  watch  was  lost  near 
Wilkins's  the  blacksmith's. 

7.  They  are  the  lovely,  them  in  whom  unite 

Youth's  fleeting  charms,  with  virtue's  lovely  light. 

202.  Absolute  Case. 

Rule  V. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  independently,  is 
in  the  absolute  case. 

Rem.  l. — For  the  four  forms  of  the  absolute  case,  see  \  33. 

Rem.  2. — The  case  absolute  with  a  participle  is  generally  equiv- 
alent to  an  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class,  commencing  with 
if,  because,  since,  when,  or  while;  as,  "He  being  rich,  they  feared  his 
influence "  =  They  feared  his  influence  because  he  was  rich.  "The 
sun  being  risen,  we  pursued  our  journey"  =  When  the  sun  had  risen, 
we  pursued  our  journey. 

Rem.  3. — In  mottoes  and  abbreviated  sayings,  and  frequently 
in  exclamations,  nouns  seem  to  have  relation  to  something  under- 
stood ;  as,  "  Laird's  Bloom  of  Youth "  =  Use  Laird's  Bloom  of 
Youth;  "Confidence"  (a  motto)  =  This  is  a  token  of  confidence; 
" A  rat !  a  rat ! "  =  There  is  a  rat.  It  is  better,  however,  to  recog- 
nize the  absolute  case  as  a  distinct  use  of  a  noun,  than  to  destroy 
the  force  of  an  expression  by  supplying  an  awkward  ellipsis. 

EXERCISES. 

Examples  to  be  parsed. 

1.  Soldier,  rest!  thy  warfare  o'er,  2.  "Stop!  the  hat!"  he  ex- 
claims. 3.  Our  fathers,  where  are  they?  4.  I  being  a  child,  was 
a  plea  for  my  admission.    5.  The  north  and  the  south,  thou  hast 


SYNTAX — RULES.  177 

created  them.  6.  John,  James,  and  Henry,  they  are  my  scholars. 
7.  O  Nelly  Gray!  O  Nelly  Gray!  8.  "The  Moon  and  the>Stars— 
A  Fable."  9.  Problem  III. — To  construct  a  mean  proportional 
between  two  given  lines. 

203.  Objective  Case. 

Rule  VI. — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  in  the  active 
voice,  or  of  its  participles,  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Rem.  i. — The  natural  order  of  arrangement  is,  subject — verb — 
object;  but  in  poetry,  or  when  it  is  made  emphatic,  the  object 
precedes  the  subject;  as,  "Myself  I  can  not  save;"  "Silver  and 
gold  have  I  none."  To  avoid  ambiguity,  the  natural  order  should 
be  observed  when  the  subject  and  object  are  both  nouns.  Say, 
"Alexander  conquered  Darius,"  not  "Alexander  Darius  conquered." 
A  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun  is  placed  at  the  head  of  its 
clause;   as,  "I  am  he  whom  ye  seek;"  "  Whom  shall  I  invite?" 

Rem.  2. — The  object  may  be  a  participial  noun,  a  phrase,  or  a 
clause;  as,  "I  like  running- aid  jumping  better  than  studying;" 
"He  hopes  to  succeed;"  "'Our  armies  swore  terribly  in  Flanders? 
cried  my  Uncle  Toby." 

Rem.  3. — A  phrase  beginning  with  a  noun  or  pronoun,  may  be 
the  object  of  a  transitive  verb;  as,  "I  want  boohs  to  read;"  "The 
merchant  ordered  the  goods  to  be  shipped;"  "  I  heard  the  water 
lapping  on  the  crag;"  "I  want  him  to  go"  In  such  cases,  the 
entire  phrase  is  the  object  of  the  verb;  but  it  is  best  to  apply 
Kule  VI  in  parsing  the  noun  or  pronoun  beginning  the  phrase, 
Rule  XVII  in  parsing  the  infinitive,  and  Eule  XII  in  parsing 
the  participle. 

Rem.  4. — Some  verbs  used  as  copulatives  in  the  passive  voice, 
have  two  objects,  one  representing  a  person  or  thing,  the  other  a 
thing;  as,  "They  made  him  their  leader:"  "They  chose  him  chair- 
man" When  such  verbs  are  made  passive,  either  object  may  be 
taken  as  the  subject,  but  the  other,  if  retained,  becomes  a  predicate- 
nominative.  If  the  thing  is  made  nominative,  the  person  is  gov- 
erned by  a  preposition,  expressed  or  understood :  if  the  person  is 
made  nominative,  the  thing  may  be  parsed  by  Eule  II. 

Rem.  5. — A  transitive  verb  may  have  several  objects  connected 
by  conjunctions;  as,  "He  owns  houses^  lands,  and  bank-stock" 


178  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  6. — Participial  or  verbal  nouns  may  be  limited  by  objective 
elements ;  as,  "  Writing  notes  is  forbidden ;"  "  I  like  hunting  buffa- 
loes" 

EXERCISES. 

Examples  to  be  corrected. 

1.  Who  did  you  write  to?  2.  Please  let  him  and  I  sit  together. 
3.  I  do  not  know  who  to  trust.  4.  He  who  did  the  mischief  you 
should  punish,  not  I.  5.  I  saw  she  and  him  at  the  concert  last 
evening.     6.  And  me,  what  shall  I  do  ? 

7.  We  will  go  at  once,  him  and  me.  8.  Every  one  can  master 
a  grief  but  he  that  hath  it.  9.  He  was  presented  a  gold  watch 
by  his  employers.     10.  Who  are  you  looking  for? 

Examples  to  be  parsed. 

1.  We  will  rear  new  homes.  2.  The  parting  words  shall  pass 
my  lips  no  more.  3.  I  said  that  at  sea  all  is  vacancy.  4.  They 
have  left  unstained  what  there  they  found.  5.  Bring  forth  this 
counterfeit  model.     6.  Mad  frenzy  fires  him  now. 

7.  Reading  makes  a  full  man,  conference  a  ready  man,  and 
writing  an  exact  man.  8.  Thou  hast  left  no  son — but  thy  song 
shall  preserve  thy  name.  9.  His  disciples  said,  Who,  then,  can 
be  saved?  10.  I  was  forbidden  the  premises.  11.  They  were  de- 
barred the  privilege  of  walking  in  the  park. 

12.  "But  what  good  came  of  it  at  last?" 
Quoth  little  Peterkin. 
"  Why,  that  I  can  not  tell,"  said  he ; 
"  But  ?t  was  a  famous  victory." — Southey. 


204.  Objective  after  Prepositions. 

Rule  VII. — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

Rem.  l. — A  preposition  usually  precedes  its  object ;  but  in  poetry 
this  order  is  sometimes  reversed;  as,  "From  crag  to  crag,  the  rat- 
tling peaks  among"  =  among  the  rattling  peaks;  "  Come  walk  with 
me  the  jungle  through." 

Rem.  2. — Interrogative  pronouns  frequently  precede  the  prepo- 
sitions which  govern  them;    as,  "What  are  you  laughing  at?" 


SYNTAX RULES.  179 

Such  expressions  as  "Whom  are  you  talking  to?"  "Which 
house  do  you  live  in?"  are  inelegant,  if  not  ungrammatical.  The 
proper  construction  is,  "To  whom  are  you  talking?"  "In  which 
house  do  you  live  ?  " 

Rem.  3. — Some  phrases  consist  of  a  preposition,  followed  by  an 
adjective  or  an  adverb;  as,  in  vain,  at  once,  in  secret,  from  below, 
on  high,  from  above,  till  now,  till  lately,  &c.  In  such  phrases,  an 
object  may  be  understood ;  the  word  following  the  preposition, 
parsed  as  an  adjective  or  adverb  used  as  a  noun;  or  the  entire 
expression  may  be  regarded  as  an  inseparable  phrase. 

Rem.  4. — A  preposition  should  never  be  placed  between  a  verb 
and  its  object;  as,  "He  does  not  want  for  any  thing."  Say  "He 
does  not  want  any  thing." 

Rem.  5. — A  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  object  of  mo  or  more 
prepositions,  or  of  a  preposition  and  a  transitive  verb,  should  be 
placed  after  the  first  verb  or  preposition,  and  be  represented  by  a 
pronoun  following  each  of  the  others.  "  He  came  into  and  passed 
through  the  cars,"  should  be  "  He  came  into  the  cars,  and  passed 
through  them"  "He  first  called,  and  then  sent  for,  the  sergeant" 
should  be  "  He  first  called  the  sergeant,  and  then  sent  for  him." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected. 

1.  The  army  shall  not  want  for  supplies.  2.  Which  school  do 
you  go  to?  3.  What  firm  are  you  agent  for?  4.  What  country 
are  you  a  native  of?    5.  I  will  not  permit  of  such  conduct. 

6.  It  is  our  duty  to  assist  and  sympathize  with  those  in  distress. 

7.  The  convicts  are  hired  by  and  employed  for  the  benefit  of  a  few 
speculators.     8.  He  lives  in  and  came  from  Pittsburgh. 

To  be  parsed. 

1.  We  cruised  about  for  several  hours  in  the  dense  fog.  2.  He 
has  a  touch  of  our  family.  3.  Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap 
of  earth.  4.  He  will  steal,  sir,  an  egg  out  of  a  cloister.  5.  The 
pile  sank  down  into  the  opening  earth. 

6.  The  ground  lifts  like  a  sea.  7.  The  clouds  are  driven  about 
in  the  sky,  like  squadrons  of  combatants  rushing  to  the  conflict. 

8.  In  vain  does  the  old  dragon  rage.  9.  I  had  supposed  till  lately 
that  you  were  my  friend.  10.  A  shoreless  ocean  tumbled  round 
the  globe.     11.  The  morning  broke  without  a  sun. 


180  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rule  VIII. — Nouns  denoting  time,  distance,  measure, 
or  value,  after  verbs  and  adjectives,  are  in  the  objective 
case  without  a  governing  word. 

Rem.  l. — The  names  of  things,  following  the  passive  forms  of 
the  verbs  ask,  lend,  teach,  refuse,  provide,  and  some  others,  are  in  the 
objective  case  without  a  governing  word;  as,  "He  was  asked  a 
question;"  "John  was  refused  admittance;"  "I  was  taught  gram- 
mar" 

Rem.  2. — The  following  expressions  are  elliptical :  "  Wilson, 
Hinkle  &  Co.,  No.  137  Walnut  St.,  Cincinnati,  0."=To  Wilson, 
Hinkle  &  Co.,  No.  137  on  Walnut  St.,  in  Cincinnati,  in  Ohio. 
"July  4,  1776"  ==  On  the  4th  day  of  July,  in  the  year  1776. 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  parsed. 

1.  The  horse  ran  a  mile.  2.  I  do  not  care  a  straw.  3.  He  is 
worth  a  million  of  dollars.  4.  The  child  is  nine  years  old.  5. 
They  marched  Indian  file.  6.  He  wore  his  coat  cloak-fashion. 
7.  Spring  has  already  covered  thy  grave,  twelve  times,  with 
flowers.     8.  The  ship  sailed  four  knots  an  hour. 

9.  This  is  worth  remembering.  10.  The  tower  is  250  feet  high. 
11.  How  many  square  yards  of  plastering  in  a  room  21  feet  long, 
15  feet  wide,  and  10  feet  high?  12.  The  poor,  dissipated  student 
was  refused  his  diploma. 

205.  Pronouns. 

Rule  IX. — Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  antecedents 
in  person,  gender,  and  number. 

Rem.  1. — The  person,  gender,  and  number  of  an  interrogative 
pronoun  are  indeterminate  when  no  answer  is  given  to  the  ques- 
tion in  which  it  is  found;  as,  "WJio  owns  that  vessel?"  The 
answer  may  be,  "Mr.  Gordon  owns  it,"  "Jones  &  Smith  own  it," 
"/own  it,"  "He  and  /  own  it,"  or  "You  yourself  own  it."  When 
an  answer  is  given,  or  when  one  can  be  inferred  from  well-known 
facts,  these  properties  are  determinate ;  as,  "  Who  owns  that  ves- 
sel?— /own  it."  "Who"  is  in  the  first  person,  common  gender, 
singular  number,  agreeing  with  "I."    "  Who  commanded  the  allied 


SYNTAX RULES.  181 

forces  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo?"  "Who"  is  in  the  third  person, 
masculine  gender,  singular  number — the  answer,  though  not  given, 
being  well  known. 

Rem.  2. — There  being  no  pronoun  of  the  third  person  singular, 
denoting  either  sex,  in  the  English  language,  the  masculine  forms, 
he,  his,  him,  are  used  in  its  place.  Do  not  say,  "  Each  pupil  should 
learn  his  or  her  lesson:"  use  his  alone.  Say,  "Should  any  one  de- 
sire to  consult  me,  let  him  call  at  my  office,"  even  though  the 
invitation  be  intended  for  both  sexes.  Should  the  gender  of  the 
person  referred  to,  be  known,  use  a  masculine  or  feminine  pronoun, 
as  the  case  requires. 

Rem.  3. — Things  personified  should  be  represented  as  mascu- 
line or  feminine  by  the  pronouns  referring  to  them;  as,  "Night, 
sable  goddess,  from  her  ebon  throne ;"  "  Grim-visaged  War  has 
smoothed  his  wrinkled  front." 

Rem.  4. — A  pronoun  sometimes  precedes  its  antecedent;  as, 
"Thy  chosen  temple,  Lord,  how  fair!"  "Hark!  they  whisper, 
angels  say." 

Rem.  5 — The  relative  pronoun  is  frequently  omitted ;  as,  "That 
is  the  house  [which]  we  live  in;"  "This  is  the  book  [which]  you 
inquired  for." 

Rem.  6. — That,  as  a  relative,  should  generally  be  used  after  a, 
all,  every,  same,  and  very;  after  who,  used  interrogatively;  after 
arr  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree;  and  when  both  persons 
and  things  are  referred  to. 

Ex. — "He  is  a  man  that  all  respect;"  "I  gave  him  all  that  I  had;" 
"Is  this  the  same  book  that  I  lent  you?"  "It  is  the  very  book  that  you 
lent  me ;"  "  He  is  the  wisest  that  says  the  least ;"  "  Who  that  has  once 
heard  him  does  not  wish  to  hear  him  once  again ;"  "  Here  are  the  per- 
sons and  things  that  were  sent  for." 

Rem.  7. — Unless  great  emphasis  is  required,  a  noun  or  pronoun 
should  not  be  used  in  the  absolute  case  by  pleonasm.  Say  "  The 
horse  ran  away,"  not  "The  horse,  it  ran  away;"  "Many  words 
darken  speech,"  not  "  Many  words,  they  darken  speech." 

Rem.  8 — To  avoid  ambiguity,  a  relative  pronoun  should  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  its  antecedent. 

Ex. — "A  purse  was  lost  in  the  street,  which  contained  a  large  sum 
of  money."  The  clause  introduced  by  "which,"  should  be  placed 
immediately  after  "purse." 


182  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Rein.  9. — A  pronoun  whose  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun 
conveying  the  idea  of  unity,  should  be  in  the  neuter  singular: 
one  whose  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of 
plurality,  should  be  plural,  taking  the  gender  of  the  individuals 
composing  the  collection. 

Rem.  10. — It  is  used  to  represent  (1)  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  any 
person,  in  either  number,  or  of  any  gender;  (2)  a  sentence,  or  a 
part  of  a  sentence;  or  (3)  it  may  be  used  without  representing 
any  person  or  thing.  . 

Ex. — "It  is  I;99  "It  was  land-warrants  that  I  purchased ;"  uIt  was 
Milton  who  wrote  Paradise  Lost;"  "You  have  wronged  me,  and  will 
repent  of  it;"   "It  snows;"   "We  roughed  it  in  the  woods." 

EXERCISES. 
To  be  corrected. 

1.  James,  he  has  been  whispering.  2.  Whom,  when  they  had 
washed,  they  laid  her  in  an  upper  chamber.  3.  The  names  I  called 
you,  I  am  now  sorry  for  them.  4.  If  any  one  has  not  paid  their 
fare,  let  them  call  at  the  captain's  office.  5.  Every  one  should 
have  his  or  her  life  insured. 

6.  Every  one  should  have  their  lives  insured.  7.  That  book  is 
in  the  book-case,  which  contains  pictures.  8.  This  is  the  dog  whom 
my  father  bought.  9.  These  are  the  men  and  the  guns  which  we 
captured.  10.  That  is  the  same  pen  which  I  sold  you.  11.  He  is 
the  wisest  which  lives  the  most  nobly. 

12.  The  moon  took  its  station  still  higher.  13.  The  jury  could 
not  agree  in  its  verdict.  14.  The  news  came  of  defeat,  but  no  one 
believed  them.  15.  If  you  see  an  error  or  a  fault  in  my  conduct, 
remind  me  of  them. 

■ 
To  be  parsed. 

1.  The  hand  that  governs  in  April,  governed  in  January.  2.  I 
perish  by  this  people  which  I  made.  3.  Many  a  man  shall  envy 
him  who  henceforth  limps.  4.  I  venerate  the  man  whose  heart  is 
warm.  5.  Your  sorrows  are  our  gladness.  6.  The  blooming  morn- 
ing oped  her  dewy  eyes. 

7.  Men  are  like  birds  that  build  their  nests  in  trees  that  hang 
over  rivers.  8.  He  was  followed  by  another  worthless  rogue,  who 
flung  away  his  modesty  instead  of  his  ignorance.  9.  A  bird  is 
placed  in  a  bell-glass,  A,  which  stands  over  the  mercury. 


SYNTAX — RULES.  183 

10.  Remorseless  Time ! 

Fierce  spirit  of  the  glass  and  scythe  I    What  power 
Can  stay  him  in  his  silent  course,  or  melt 
His  iron  heart  to  pity? — Prentice. 

11.  "Banished  from  Rome!"  what's  banished,  but  set  free 
From  daily  contact  of  the  things  I  loathe? 

"Tried  and  convicted  traitor!"     Who  says  this? 
Who'll  prove  it,  at  his  peril,  on  my  head? — Croly. 


206.  Antecedents  connected  by  "And." 

Rule  X. — A  pronoun,  with  two  or  more  antecedents  in 
the  singular,  connected  by  and,  must  be  plural. 

Bern.  i. — When  the  antecedents  are  but  different  names  for  the 
same  person  or  thing,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular;  as,  "The 
eminent  lawyer  and  statesman  has  resigned  his  office." 

Rem.  2 — When  the  antecedents  are  emphatically  distinguished, 
the  pronoun  should  be  singular ;  as,  "  The  mind  as  well  as  the  body 
has  its  diseases;"  "The  country  and  not  the  government  has  its 
admirers." 

Mem.  3. — When  the  antecedents  are  limited  by  each,  every,  or 
no,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular;  as,  "Each  man  and  each  boy 
did  his  duty;"  "Every  hill  and  every  mountain  has  its  echo;" 
"No  land  and  no  clime  possesses  all  earth's  blessings." 

Rem.  4. — When  the  antecedents  taken  together  are  regarded  as 
a  single  thing,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular ;  as,  "  The  horse  and 
wagofc  is  in  its  place." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  parsed. 

1.  Charles  and  Henry  are  flying  their  kites.  2.  You  and  I  should 
study  our  lessons.  3.  The  child  wants  some  bread  and  milk :  will 
you  get  it?  4.  The  good  man,  and  the  sinner,  too,  shall  have  his 
reward.  5.  The  great  philosopher  and  statesman  is  laid  in  his 
grave.  6.  He  bought  a  horse  and  a  wagon,  and  sold  them  at  a 
profit.  7.  Every  house  and  lot  has  its  price  set  opposite  its 
number. 


184  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

207.  Antecedents  Connected  by  "Or"  or  "Nor." 

Rule  XI. — A  pronoun,  with  two  or  more  antecedents 
in  the  singular,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be  singular. 

Rem.  1. — When  the  two  antecedents  are  of  different  genders, 
the  use  of  a  singular  masculine  pronoun  to  represent  them  is 
improper.    In  such  cases, 

1.  Use  a  plural  pronoun  that  may  represent  both  genders ;  as, 
"Not  on  outward  charms  could  he  or  she  build  their  pretensions 
to  please*" 

2.  Use  different  pronouns ;  as,  "  No  boy  or  girl  should  whisper 
to  his  or  her  neighbor:" 

3.  Substitute  a  general  term,  including  both,  for  the  two  ante- 
cedents, and  represent  this  general  term  by  a  singular  masculine 
pronoun;  as,  "No  pupil  (boy  or  girl)  should  whisper  to  his 
neighbor." 

Rem.  2. — When  one  of  the  antecedents  is  plural,  it  should  be 
placed  last,  and  the  pronoun  should  be  plural;  as,  "Neither  the 
farmer  nor  his  sons  were  aware  of  their  danger." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected, 

1.  No  father  or  mother  lives  that  does  not  love  his  or  her  chil- 
dren. 2.  George  or  Charles  are  diligent  in  their  business.  3.  If 
an  Aristotle,  a  Pythagoras,  or  a  Galileo,  suffer  for  their  opinions, 
they  are  martyrs.  4.  If  you  see  my  horse  or  mule,  turn  them  into 
your  pasture.     5.  Poverty  or  wealth  have  their  own  temptations. 

To  be  parsed.  ^ 

1.  Henry  or  Samuel  will  lend  you  his  book.  2.  If  thy  hand  or 
thy  foot  offend  thee,  cut  it  off,  and  cast  it  from  thee.  3.  Neither 
James  nor  John  has  gained  much  credit  for  himself. 

4.  Either  Mary  or  Sarah  will  recite  her  lesson.  5.  Even  a 
rugged  rock,  or  a  barren  heath,  though  in  itself  disagreeable,  con- 
tributes by  contrast  to  the  beauty  of  the  whole. 

6.  Beginning  with  Latin  or  Greek  hexameter,  which  is  the 
same.  7.  Either  James  or  his  father  was  mistaken  in  his  opinion. 
8.  Neither  the  teacher  nor  the  scholars  used  their  books  in  the 
class. 


SYNTAX — KULES.  185 


208.  Adjectiyes  and  Participles. 

Rule  XII. — An  adjective  or  participle  belongs  to  some 
noun  or  pronoun. 

Rem.  i. — An  adjective  used  as  the  predicate  of  a  sentence,  may 
modify  an  infinitive  or  a  substantive  clause,  used  as  the  subject; 
as,  "To  lie  is  sinful;"  "That  all  men  are  created  equal,  is  self- 
evident." 

Rem.  2. — An  adjective  may  modify  a  noun  and  another  ad- 
jective, taken  together ;  as,  "A  rich  old  miser ;"  "A  large  bay  horse." 

Rem.  3. — After  infinitives  and  -participles,  adjectives  are  fre- 
quently used  which  do  not  belong  to  any  particular  noun  or  pro- 
noun; as,  "To  be  good  is  to  be  happy;"  "The  main  secret  of 
being  sublime,  is  to  say  great  things  in  few  and  plain  words." 

Rem.  4. — An  adjective  should  agree  in  number  with  the  noun 
to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  that  kind,  those  kinds  ;  one  man,  two  men. 
To  denote  a  collective  number,  a  singular  adjective  may  precede  a 
plural  noun;  as,  "One  thousand  dollars;"  "The  census  is  taken 
every  ten  years."  To  denote  plurality,  many  a  is  used  instead  of 
many ;  as,  "Many  a  time ;"   "Many  a  morning." 

Rem.  5. — In  poetry,  an  adjective  relating  to  a  noun  or  pronoun 
is  sometimes  used  instead  of  an  adverb  modifying  a  verb  or  a 
participle;  as,  "Incessant  still  you  flow;"  "Swift  on  his  downy 
pinions  flies  from  woe." 

Rem.  6- — Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  as  nouns;  as,  "The 
rich  and  the  poor  here  meet  together;"  "One  said,  'Let  us  go;' 
another,  '  No,  let  us  remain.' " 

Rem.  7. — Two  adjectives  are  frequently  connected  by  a  hyphen, 

forming  a  compound  adjective;  as,  "A  sweet-faced  girl." 

Rem.  8. — Numeral  and  pronominal  adjectives  precede  another 
adjective  which  modifies  the  same  noun;  as,  "The  seven  wise 
men;"  "That  old  house." 

EXERCISES, 

To  be  parsed. 

1.  His  spirit  was  so  bird-like  and  so  pure.    2.  Dim,  cheerless,  is 
the  scene  my  path  around.     3.  This  life  of  ours  is  a  wild  iEolian 
harp  of  many  a  joyous  strain.    4.  Every  tree-top  has  its  shadow. 
H.  G.  16. 


186  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

5.  With  fleecy  clouds  the  sky  is  blanched.  6.  Still  stands  the 
forest  primeval.  7.  'Tis  impious  in  a  good  man  to  be  sad.  8.  To 
hope  the  best  is  pious,  brave,  and  wise.  9.  Time  wasted  is  exist- 
ence ;   used,  is  life. 

10.  Thoughts  shut  up,  want  air, 
And  spoil,  like  bales  unopened  to  the  sun. 

11.  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers, 

Life  is  but  an  empty  dream. 

12.  Pray  for  the  living,  in  whose  breast 
The  struggle  between  right  and  wrong 
Is  raging  terrible  and  strong. 

13.  Petulant  she  spoke,  and  at  herself  she  laughed; 
A  rose-bud  set  with  little  willful  thorns, 

And  sweet  as  English  air  could  make  her. 

14.  The  hills  are  dearest  which  our  childish  feet 

Have  climbed  the  earliest,  and  the  streams  most  sweet 
Are  ever  those  at  which  our  young  lips  drank, 
Stoop'd  to  their  waters  o'er  the  grassy  bank. 

15.  Sometimes  her  narrow  kitchen  walls 
Stretched  away  into  stately  halls. —  Whittier. 


209.  Verbs. 

Rule  XIII. — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
person  and  number. 

Rem.  1. — When  the  subject  is  a  collective  noun,  conveying 
plurality  of  idea,  the  verb  should  be  plural ;  as,  "  In  France,  the 
peasantry  go  barefooted,  while  the  middle  class  ivear  wooden  shoes." 

Hem.  2. — When  a  subject,  plural  in  form,  represents  a  single 
thing,  the  verb  must  be  singular;  as,  "The  'Pleasures  of  Memory1 
was  published  in  1792;"  "Politics  is  his  trade;"  "The  news  is 
confirmed." 

Rem.  3. — When  the  subject  is  a  mere  word  or  sign,  an  infin- 
itive, or  a  substantive  clause,  the  verb  should  be  in  the  third 
person  singular;  as,  "They  is  a  personal  pronoun;"  "+  is  the 
sign  of  addition;"  "To  deceive  is  wrong;"  "lWlio  comes  there?1 
was  heard  from  within." 


SYNTAX RULES.  187 

Rem.  4. — A  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  usually  agrees  with 
thou,  you,  or  ye,  expressed  or  understood ;  as,  "Look  [ye]  to  your 
hearths,  my  lords!"    "Smooth  [thou]  thy  brow." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected. 

1.  You  and  I  was  walking  together.  2.  The  horses  has  been 
fed.  3.  I  called,  but  you  was  not  at  home.  4.  Thou  can  assist  me 
if  thou  will.  5.  There  was  mountains  where  I  came  from.  6.  A 
committee  were  appointed  to  report  resolutions.  7.  The  fleet  were 
seen  off  Hatteras. 

8.  The  legislature  have  adjourned.  9.  The  corporation  is  indi- 
vidually responsible.  10.  The  Pleasures  of  Hope  are  a  fine  poem. 
11.  The  scissors  is  dull.  12.  We  are  a  personal  pronoun.  13.  The 
derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain.  14.  The  board  of  trus- 
tees have  a  meeting  to-night. 

To  be  parsed. 

1.  Thus  many  a  sad  to-morrow  came  and  went.  2.  Eeturn,  O 
beautiful  days  of  youth !  3.  I  alone  was  solitary  and  idle.  4.  This 
well  deserves  meditating.  5.  At  an  early  hour,  arrive  the  diligences. 
6.  He  waved  his  arm. 

7.  Every  rational  creature  has  all  nature  for  his  dowry  and 
estate.  8.  The  present  needs  us.  9.  The  jury  were  not  unani- 
mous. 10.  Generation  after  generation  passes  away.  11.  The 
public  are  respectfully  invited  to  attend. 

12.  Every  age 
Bequeathes  the  next  for  heritage, 
No  lazy  luxury  or  delight. 

13.  There 's  not  a  beggar  in  the  street 

Makes  such  a  sorry  sight. 

14.  He  that  attends  to  his  interior  self, 

That  has  a  heart,  and  keeps  it — has  a  mind 
That  hungers  and  supplies  it,  and  who  seeks 
A  social,  not  a  dissipated  life, 
Has  business. 

15.  Between  Nose  and  Eyes  a  strange  contest  arose 

The  spectacles  set  them  unhappily  wrong ; 
The  point  in  dispute  was,  as  all  the  world  knows, 
To  which  the  said  spectacles  ought  to  belong. — Cowper. 


188  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 


210.  Subjects  Connected  by  "And." 

Rule  XIY. — A  verb,  with  two  or  more  subjects  in  the 
singular,  connected  by  and,  must  be  plural. 

Rem.  1. — When  two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular,  connected 
by  and,  are  but  different  names  for  the  same  person  or  thing,  or, 
when  taken  together,  they  represent  a  single  idea,  the  verb  should 
be  singular;  as,  "Descent  and  fall  to  us  is  adverse;"  "A  hue  and 
cry  was  raised." 

Rem.  2. — When  two  or  more  singular  subjects  are  emphatically 
distinguished,  or  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  or  no,  the  verb  should 
be  singular;  as,  "The  father,  as  well  as  the  son,  was  in  fault;" 
"All  work  and  no  play,  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy ;"  "Every  bird  and 
beast  cowers  before  the  wild  blast." 

Rem.  3. — When  two  or  more  subjects,  of  different  numbers,  are 
emphatically  distinguished,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  first;  as, 
"Diligent  industry,  and  not  mean  savings,  constitutes  honorable 
competence." 

Rem.  4. — Two  or  more  singular  subjects,  connected  by  with,  in 
company  with,  together  with,  &c,  require  a  singular  verb ;  as,  "Mr. 
Brown,  in  company  with  Mr.  Shriver,  is  opening  a  new  coal  mine;" 
"  The  general,  with  all  his  army,  was  captured. 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected. 

1.  Mr.  Johnson  and  his  brother  was  at  the  meeting.  2.  Time 
and  tide  waits  for  no  man.  3.  Bread  and  milk  are  good  food.  4. 
Each  man,  each  child,  and  each  woman  know  the  hour.  5.  The 
boy's  mother,  but  not  his  father,  deserve  great  praise. 

6.  Patience  and  diligence  removes  mountains.  7.  I,  together 
with  my  sister,  are  intending  to  make  you  a  visit.  8.  The  salmon, 
as  well  as  the  trout,  have  become  scarce  in  these  waters.  9.  A 
number  of  horses,  together  with  a  large  amount  of  other  property, 
were  stolen  last  night. 

To  be  parsed. 

1.  Her  beauty,  and  not  her  talents,  attracts  attention.  2.  No 
wife  and  no  mother  was  there  to  comfort  him.  3.  Out  of  the  same 
mouth  proceed  blessing  and  cursing.     4.  You  and  I  look  alike. 


SYNTAX — RULES.  189 

5.  My  uncle,  with  his  wife,  is  in  town.  6.  Charles  and  Emma 
are  good  scholars.  7.  Charles,  together  with  his  sister  Emma,  is 
studying  botany.  8.  The  crime,  not  the  scaffold,  makes  the  shame. 
9.  The  ambition  and  avarice  of  man  are  the  sources  of  his  un- 
happiness. 

10.  Fire  of  imagination,  strength  of  mind,  and  firmness  of  soul 
are  gifts  of  nature.  11.  Each  battle  sees  the  other's  umbered  face. 
12.  A  coach  and  six  is,  in  our  time,  never  seen,  except  as  a  part 
of  some  pageant. 

211.  Subjects  Connected  by  "Or"  or  "Nor." 

Rule  XV. — A  verb,  with  two  or  more  subjects  in  the 
singular,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be  singular. 

Rem.  1. — When  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons  or  num- 
bers, the  verb  must  agree  with  the  nearest,  unless  another  be  the 
principal  term;  as,  "  Neither  you  nor  I  am  to  blame ;"  "Neither 
you  nor  he  is  in  his  place." 

Rem.  2. — When  two  or  more  infinitives,  or  substantive  clauses, 
are  connected  by  or  or  nor,  the  verb  must  be  singular,  and  a 
predicate  nominative,  following  the  verb,  must  be  singular  also ; 
as,  -  Why  we  are  thus  detained,  or  why  we  receive  no  intelligence 
from  home,  is  mysterious;"  "To  be,  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the 
question." 

Rem.  3. — When  the  subjects  are  singular,  but  of  different 
genders,  the  verb  is  singular,  relating  to  them  taken  separately; 
but  a  pronoun  may  be  plural,  relating  to  them  taken  conjointly; 
as,  "Mary  or  her  sister  has  lost  their  umbrella" — the  umbrella  be- 
ing theirs  by  joint  ownership. 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected. 

1.  Has  the  horses  or  the  cattle  been  found?  2.  Were  the  boy 
or  the  girl  badly  bruised  ?  3.  The  ax  or  the  hammer  were  lost. 
4.  Poverty  or  misfortune  have  been  his  lot.  5.  Neither  the  horse 
nor  the  wagon  are  worth  much.  6.  Either  you  or  I  are  to  blame. 
7.  Neither  the  mule  nor  the  horses  is  found.  8.  He  comes — nor 
want  nor  cold  his  course  delay.  9.  Neither  avarice  nor  pleasure 
move  me.  10.  A  lucky  anecdote,  or  an  enlivening  tale,  relieve  the 
folio  page. 


190  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

11.  Not  the  Mogul,  or  Czar  of  Muscovy, 
Not  Prester  John,  or  Cham  of  Tartary, 
Are  in  their  houses  monarchs  more  than  I. 

To  be  parsed. 

1.  To  give  an  affront,  or  to  take  one  tamely,  is  no  mark  of  a 
great  mind.  2.  Neither  he  nor  she  has  spoken  to  him.  3.  To 
reveal  secrets,  or  to  betray  one's  friends,  is  contemptible  perfidy. 
4.  Either  ability  or  inclination  was  wanting. 

5.  Hatred  or  revenge  deserves  censure.  6.  Neither  poverty  nor 
riches  is  desirable.  7.  The  vanity,  the  ambition,  or  the  pride  of 
some  men  keeps  them  always  in  trouble.  8.  Emma  or  Jane  has 
lost  her  dictionary. 

9.  The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  morn, 

The  swallow  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed, 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 

No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. — Gray. 

10.  From  the  high  host 

Of  stars  to  the  lulled  lake,  and  mountain  coast, 

All  is  concentered  in  a  life  intense, 
Where  not  a  beam,  nor  air,  nor  leaf  is  lost. — JByronr. 

11.  Time,  nor  Eternity,  hath  seen 

A  repetition  of  delight 
In  all  its  phases;  ne'er  hath  been 
For  men  or  angels  that  which  is. 


212.  Infinitives. 

Rule  XVI. — An  infinitive-  may  be  used  as  a  noun  in 
any  case  except  the  possessive. 

Rem.  l — An  infinitive  represents  being,  action,  or  state  ab- 
stractly. It  is  the  mere  verb,  without  limitation.  As  such,  it 
may  be  used, 

1.  As  the  subject  of  a  proposition;   as,  "To  err  is  human." 

2.  As  the  predicate  of  a  proposition ;  as,  " To  obey  is  to  enjoy" 

3.  As  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  of  its  participles;  as, 
"He  loves  to  play;"  "He  is  trying  to  learn." 


SYNTAX — RULES.  191 

4.  In  apposition  with  a  noun;  as,  "Time  to  come  is  called 
future." 

5.  Abstractly,  or  independently;  as,  "To  tell  the  truth,  I  was 
inattentive," 

Rem.  2. — The  infinitive  always  retains  its  verbal  signification. 
Hence,  as  a  noun,  it  may  be  limited  by  a  predicate  adjective  or 
predicate  nominative,  and,  as  a  verb,  be  followed  by  an  object,  or 
modified  by  an  adverb;  as,  "To  spend  money  recklessly  is  crim- 
inal." 

Rem.  3. — The  sign  to  should  never  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  infinitive.  "To  correctly  report  a  speech  is  difficult," 
should  be  "To  report  sl  speech  correctly  is  difficult." 

Rem.  4. — The  preposition  for  should  not  be  used  immediately 
before  the  infinitive.  "  I  study  for  to  learn,"  should  be  "  I  study 
to  learn." 

Rem.  5. — The  sign  to  should  never  be  used  alone.  "  I  never 
told  a  lie,  and  never  intend  to,"  should  be  "I  never  told  a  lie, 
and  never  intend  to  do  so." 

Rem.  6. — After  the  verbs  bid,  dare  (venture),  hear,  feel,  let, 
make,  need,  see,  in  the  active  voice,  and  let,  in  the  passive,  the  sign 
to  is  generally  omitted;  as,  "He  bade  him  depart;"  "I  saw  him 
fall"    The  sign  to  is  sometimes  omitted  after  several  other  verbs. 

Rem.  7.— Verbs  expressing  hope,  expectation,  command,  inten- 
tion, &c,  require  the  present  infinitive  after  them ;  as,  "  I  hoped 
to  see  you;"  "I  intended  to  call  for  you;"  "He  expected  to  see 
you  yesterday." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected, 

1.  What  came  ye  out  for  to  see?  2.  I  never  voted  that  ticket, 
and  never  intend  to.  3.  To  greedily  eat  one's  dinner  is  ill- 
mannered.  4.  I  dared  him  come  to  me.  5.  He  durst  not  to 
leave  his  room.     6.  I  saw  him  to  write  on  his  slate. 

7.  I  have  known  him  to  frequently  be  tardy.  8.  He  made  his 
horses  to  go  very  fast.  9.  He  needs  study  more  carefully.  10.  He 
need  not  to  remain  long.  11.  He  intended  to  have  written  to 
you.     12.  They  had  hoped  to  have  seen  you  before  they  left. 

To  be  parsed. 

1.  To  do  right,  is  to  do  that  which  is  ordered  to  be  done.    2.  To 


192  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

die  is  to  be  banished  from  myself.  3.  To  do  justice  and  judgment 
is  more  acceptable  to  the  Lord  than  sacrifice.  4.  It  is  our  duty  to 
try,  and  our  determination  to  succeed.  5.  He  had  dared  to  think 
for  himself.     6.  She  shall  rejoice  in  time  to  come. 

7.  It  is  the  curse  of  kings  to  be  attended 

By  slaves  that  take  their  humors  for  a  warrant 
To  break  within  the  bloody  house  of  life, 
And  on  the  winking  of  authority, 
To  understand  a  law. — Shakspeare. 

8.  Have  ye  brave  sons?    Look  in  the  next  fierce  brawl 
To  see  them  die.     Have  ye  fair  daughters?    Look 
To  see  them  live,  torn  from  your  arms,  distained, 
Dishonored,  and  if  ye  dare  call  for  justice, 

Be  answered  by  the  lash. — Mitford. 

213.  Infinitives  not  used  as  Nouns. 

Rule  XVII. — An  infinitive  not  used  as  a  noun,  de- 
pends upon  the  word  it  limits,  or  which  leads  to  its  use, 

Rem.  1. — An  infinitive  may  depend  upon, 

1.  A  noun;  as,  "Flee  from  the  wrath  to  come" 

2.  A  pronoun;  as,  "I  heard  him  declaim." 

3.  A  verb;  as,  "He  went  to  see  the  show." 

4.  An  adjective;  as,  "The  gods  are  hard  to  reconcile" 

5.  A  participle;  as,  "The  rain  threatening  to  fall,  we  left." 

6.  An  adverb;  as,  "He  told  me  when  to  come" 

Rem.  2. — The  sign  to  is  sometimes  improperly  omitted ;  as, 
"Please  excuse  James  for  absence."    Supply  to  before  "excuse." 

Rem.  3 — The  infinitive  is  often  understood;  as,  "I  considered 
him  [to  be]  honest." 

Rem.  4. — The  sign  to  may  be  omitted  before  all  but  the  first 
of  two  or  more  infinitives  in  the  same  construction;  as,  "They 
tried  to  cheat,  rob,  and  murder  me." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  parsed, 

1.  I  come  not  here  to  talk.  2.  I  can  not  see  to  spin  my  flax. 
3.  In  sooth,  deceit  maketh  no  mortal  gay.     4.  I  saw  along  the 


SYNTAX — RULES.  193 

winter  snow  a  spectral  column  pour.    5.  Let  the  great  world  spin 
forever  down  the  ringing  grooves  of  change. 

6.  He  lived  to  die,  and  died  to  live.  7.  It  is  a  brave  thing  to 
understand  something  of  what  we  see.  8,  It  is  better  to  fight  for 
the  good  than  to  rail  at  the  ill. 

9.  Let  us  be  content  in  work, 

To  do  the  thing  we  can,  and  not  presume 
To  fret  because  it's  little. 

10.  One  day  with  life  and  heart, 

Is  more  than  time  enough  to  find  a  world. 

11.  Xeedful  auxiliars  are  our  friends,  to  give 
To  social  man  true  relish  of  himself. 

12.  Learn  well  to  know  how  much  need  not  be  known. 
And  what  that  knowledge  which,  impairs  your  sense. 

13.  Let  him  not  violate  kind  nature's  laws, 
But  own  man  born  to  live  as  well  as  die. 

14.  The  blood  more  stirs 
To  rouse  a  lion  than  to  start  a  hare. 

15.  He  that  lacks  time  to  mourn  lacks  time  to  mend. 
Eternity  mourns  that. 

214.  Adverbs. 

Rule  XVIII. — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  par- 
ticiples, and  adverbs. 

Rem.  i. — Adverbs  sometimes  modify  phrases  and  entire  propo- 
sitions; as^  "He  lives  just  over  the  hill;"  "Verily,  ye  are  the 
people." 

Rem.  2. — Adverbs  are  frequently  used  as  expletives ;  as,  "  Well, 
that  is  a  strange  story ;"    "There,  now,  you  have  said  enough." 

Rem.  3. — The  adverbs  yes,  no,  aye,  yea,  and  nay,  are  generally 
answers  to  questions,  and  are  equivalent  to  a  whole  sentence. 
They  are  then  used  independently,  or  modify  the  sentences  preced- 
ing or  following  them. 

Ex. — "Are  you  angry? — ATo."  "Yea,  they  shall  sing  in  the  ways 
of  the  Lord;"    "Nay ;  but  it  is  really  true." 

Rem.  4. — Two  contradictory  negatives  in  the  same  clause  are 
H.  G.  17. 


194  ENGLISH    GKAMMAR. 

equivalent  to  an  affirmative ;  as,  "  I  can  not  write  no  more "  —  I 
can  write  more.  Hence,  two  negatives  should  never  be  employed 
to  express  a  negation.  Say  "I  want  no  assistance,"  not  "I  don't 
want  no  assistance."  Two  or  more  negatives,  not  contradictory,  do 
not  destroy  the  negative  character  of  a  sentence;  as,  "Pie  will 
never  consent,  no,  never,  not  he,  nor  I  neither" 

Rem.  5. — When  the  quality  of  an  object,  and  not  the  manner 
of  an  action,  is  to  be  expressed,  an  adjective  should  be  used  as 
predicate;  as,  "He  arrived  safe"  not  "safely;"  "She  looks  beau- 
tiful" not  "beautifully" 

Rem.  6. — Though  sanctioned  by  good  authority,  the  use  of 
from  before  whence,  hence,  and  thence  should  be  avoided.  Say, 
"  Whence  came  you?"  not  "From,  whence  came  you?" 

Rem.  7. — The  word  modified  by  an  adverb  is  sometimes  omitted; 
as,  "Down,  royal  state!"  Supply  "fall."  "Up  in  the  morning 
early."  Supply  "get"  or  "rise."  "I'll  hence  to  London."  Sup- 
ply "  go."  In  some  cases,  adverbs  thus  used  seem  to  have  the  force 
of  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode,  but  not  always.  Up  and  out,  fol- 
lowed by  the  preposition  with,  take  the  place  of  verbs  in  declara- 
tive sentences;  as,  "She  up  with  her  fist,  and  took  him  on  the 
face." 

Rem.  s. — There  is  frequently  used  as  an  expletive  to  introduce 
a  sentence;  as,  "There  was  no  grass  there;"  "There  were  three 
of  us." 

Rem.  9. — An  adverbial  phrase  should  not  be  parsed  as  a  single' 
word  when  its  parts  can  be  parsed  separately;  as,  "They  walked 
hand  in  hand."     Place  "with"  before  the  phrase. 

Rem.  io. — The  comparative  and  superlative  forms  of  adjectives, 
preceded  by  the  definite  article,  are  often  used  as  adverbs;  as,  "The 
longer  I  study,  the  better  I  like  it;"  "He  lives  best  who  acts  the 
noblest." 

Rem.  11. — Adverbs  should  be  so  placed  as  to  render  the  sen- 
tence clear,  correct,  and  elegant.  The  sense  intended  to  be  con- 
veyed depends  on  their  position.  Compare  "  He  is  thought  to  be 
generally  honest,"  with  "  He  is  generally  thought  to  be  honest." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected. 

1.  He  won't  give  me  no  satisfaction.  2.  We  did  n't  find  nobody 
at  home.     3.  Nobody  never  saw  such  a  crowd  of  people.    4.  The 


SYNTAX — RULES.  195 

nation  never  was  more  prosperous,  nor  never  was  more  ungrateful. 
5.  Neither  he,  nor  nobody  else  who  do  n't  do  no  work,  can  have 
my  vote. 

6.  The  velvet  feels  smoothly.  7.  He  speaks  slow  and  distinct. 
8.  The  children  all  looked  beautifully.  9.  You  did  splendid  last 
examination.  10.  I  am  tolerable  well,  I  thank  you.  11.  Sure, 
you  don't  mean  to  humbug  me.  12.  I  scarce  know  what  I  am 
saying. 

13.  He  did  handsomer  than  he  promised.  14.  He  out  with  his 
knife,  and  slashed  right  and  left,  (See  Rem.  7.)  15.  The  dog 
grabbed  him  by  the  throat,  and  downed  him.  16.  I  only  want 
to  borrow  your  umbrella. 

17.  The  dog  wanted  in,  but  he  now  wants  out.  18.  There  is 
nothing  better  pleases  me  than  to  see  boys  truthful.  19.  There  is 
still  a  wider  field  for  enterprise  in  California.  20.  It  rains  most 
every  day.  21.  I  would  not  have  believed  no  tongue  but  Hu- 
bert's. 

To  be  parsed. 

1.  All  the  world  was  ours  once  more.  2.  Up  goes  my  grave 
Impudence  to  the  maid.  3.  I  saw  the  blue  Rhine  sweep  along. 
4.  Death  erects  his  batteries  right  over  against  our  homes.  5. 
Slowly  the  throng  moves  o'er  the  tomb-paved  ground.  6.  The 
complication  of  a  town  is  often  happily  unraveled  by  starting  from 
a  main  trunk. 

7.  Man  desires  not  only  to  be  loved,  but  to  be  lovely,  8.  West- 
ward the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way.  9.  Your  menaces  move 
me  not.  10.  We  see  but  dimly  through  the  mists  and  vapors. 
11.  Man  by  man,  and  foot  by  foot,  did  the  soldiers  proceed  over 
the  Alps.  12.  Finally,  the  war  is  already  begun,  and  we  must 
either  conquer  or  perish.  13.  He  heaped  up  great  riches,  but 
passed  his  time  miserably. 

14.  Night's  candles  are  burnt  out,  and  jocund  Day, 
Stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain's  top. — Shakspeare. 

15.  I  '11  look  no  more, — 
Lest  my  brain  turn,  and  the  deficient,  sight 
Topple  down  headlong. 

16.  Not  a  word  to  each  other ;  we  kept  the  great  pace — 
Neck  by  neck,  stride  by  stride,  never  changing  our  place. 

Browning. 


196  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

17.  Who  does  the  best  his  circumstance  allows, 
Does  well,  acts  nobly,  angels  could  no  more. 
Our  outward  act  indeed  admits  restraint; 
'T  is  not  in  things  o'er  thought  to  domineer. 
Guard  well  thy  thought,  our  thoughts  are  heard  in  heaven. 

Young. 

215.  Prepositions. 

Mule  XIX. — A  preposition  shows  the  relation  of  its 
object  to  the  word  upon  which  the  latter  depends. 

Rem.  i. — The  object  of  a  preposition,  as  well  as  the  preceding 
term  of  relation,  often  determines  what  preposition  should  be  used; 
as,  "He  read  to  me  about  the  war,  with  much  feeling;"  "He  wrote 
to  me  in  great  haste  concerning  his  losses." 

Rem.  2. — Prepositions  are  frequently  omitted ;  as,  "  He  lives 
opposite  [to]  the  court-house;"  "Lend  [to]  me  a  pencil;"  "His 
house  is  near  [to]  the  river." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected  and  parsed. 

1.  The  man  is  dependent  on  his  relatives.  2.  I  differ  with  you 
on  that  point.  3.  The  man  was  killed  by  a  sword  and  died  with 
violence.  4.  The  two  thieves  divided  the  money  among  them.  5. 
During  his  life-time,  he  was  twice  shipwrecked. 

6.  Above  the  clouds  and  tempests'  rage, 
Across  yon  blue  and  radiant  arch, 
Upon  their  long,  high  pilgrimage, 
I  watched  their  glittering  armies  march. 


216.  Coordinate  Connectives. 

Rule  XX. — Coordinate  connectives  join  similar  ele- 
ments. 

Hem.  i. — Elements  placed  in  the  same  relation  or  rank  are 
similar;  as,  nouns  or  pronouns  in  the  same  case,  verbs  in  the 
same  construction,  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  limiting  the  same 
term,  &c. 


SYNTAX — RULES.  197 

Item.  2. — Conjunctions  are  sometimes  omitted ;  as,  "  Had  I  the 
means,  I  would  buy  that  farm  "  =  If  I  had  the  means,  &c.  "  He 
is  rich,  noble,  wise,  [and]  generous." 

Rem.  3. — In  a  series  of  similar  terms,  the  conjunction  is  usually 
omitted,  except  between  the  last  two ;  as,  "  Henry,  Horace,  and 
Samuel  are  my  pupils."  When  great  emphasis  is  required,  the 
conjunction  should  be  supplied;  as,  "You  have  been  an  honest, 
and  a  bold,  and  a  faithful  hound." 

Rem.  4. — Dissimilar  or  disproportionate  terms  should  never  be 
joined  by  conjunctions;  as,  "I  always  have  [been]  and  always 
shall  be  of  this  opinion." 

Rem.  5. — Conjunctions  are  sometimes  used  as  introductory 
words,  either  to  awaken  expectation,  or  to  make  the  introduction 
of  a  sentence  less  abrupt;  as,  u And  it  came  to  pass  in  those 
days,"  &c;   "So  you  are  going  to  New  Orleans,  it  seems." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected  and  parsed. 

1.  We  moved  along  silently  and  with  caution.  2.  To  play  is 
more  pleasant  than  working.  3.  They  either  could  not,  nor  desired 
to  learn.  4.  He  can  brag,  but  is  not  able  to  do  much.  5.  That 
lot  is  preferable  and  cheaper  than  yours.  6.  He  looks  as  though 
he  was  hungry.     7.  He  has  no  love  nor  veneration  for  him. 

8.  I  can  not  tell  whether  he  has  returned  or  not.  9.  All  were 
drowned  save  me.  10.  Neither  James  or  John  came  home  yester- 
day. 11.  I  always  desire  and  always  wished  for  your  society.  12. 
The  boy  would  and  did  have  his  own  way.  13.  The  parliament 
addressed  the  king,  and  has  been  prorogued  the  same  day. 

217.  Subordinate  Connectives. 

l&ule  SSIe — Subordinate  connectives  join  dissimilar 
elements. 

Rem.  i. — A  clause  introduced  by  a  subordinate  connective  per- 
forms the  office  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  The  con- 
nective always  unites  the  clause  which  it  introduces  to  the  word 
or  phrase  which  is  modified;  as,  "He  said  that  he  would  come;" 
"The  man  whom  you  saw  is  the  sheriff;"  "Do  you  know  where 
I  live?" 


198  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  2. — A  subordinate  connective  is  almost  invariably  placed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  clause  which  it  introduces.  When  this 
clause  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  or  is  put  in  apposition 
with  a  noun  in  any  case,  the  connective  is  a  mere  introductory 
word;  as,  "That  you  have  deceived  me  doth  appear  from  this;" 
"The  rumor  that  he  is  insane  is  unfounded." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  parsed, 

I.  Come  as  the  winds  come,  when  navies  are  stranded.  2.  I 
never  thought  that  it  could  be  so.  3.  He  locks  the  door  after  the 
horse  is  stolen.  4.  I  now  know  why  you  deceived  me.  5.  He  will 
have  friends  wherever  he  may  be. 

6.  I  could  distinguish  the  merchant  to  whom  the  ship  was 
consigned.  7.  However  stern  he  may  seem,  he  is  a  good  man. 
8.  While  there  is  life,  there  is  hope.  9.  Blessed  are  the  merciful : 
for  they  shall  obtain  mercy.  10.  He  rushes  to  the  fray  as  if  he 
were  summoned  to  a  banquet. 

II.  Whether  the  planets  are  inhabited,  was  discussed  last  even- 
ing. 12.  I  consent  to  the  constitution,  because  I  expect  no  better, 
and  because  I  am  not  sure  it  is  not  the  best.  13.  I  do  not  know 
where  he  is.    14.  There  was  so  much  noise  that  I  could  not  sleep. 


218.  Interjections. 

Rule  XXII. — An  interjection  has  no  dependence  upon 
oilier  words. 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  parsed. 

I.  What!  might  Rome  have  been  taken?  2.  Ha!  laughest 
thou,  Lochiel,  my  vision  to  scorn?  3.  Ho!  warden!  4.  Oh, 
fearful  woe!    5.  Ah,  my  saying  was  true. 

6.  Hark!  hark!  to  God  the  chorus  breaks.  7.  Halloo!  my 
boys,  halloo!  8.  Pshaw!  there's  no  distress  in  that.  9.  Hem! 
what  is  it?     10.  Aha,  is  that  you? 

II.  Alas,  poor  Yorick!     12.  Adieu,  adieu,  my  native  land! 

13.  Hark !  they  whisper :  jangels  say, 
Sister  spirit,  come  away. 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  199 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 
219.  Definition. 

1.  False  Syntax  is  any  violation  of  the  laws  of  good 
usage,  in  the  application  of  words  or  in  the  construction  of 
sentences. 

2.  Errors  in  the  use  of  language  arise  from, 

1.  The  use  of  Improper  Words,  Forms,  and  Expressions : 

2.  The  Insertion  of  Unnecessary  Words : 

3.  The  Omission  of  Necessary  Words: 

4.  The  Improper  Arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  Sentence. 

220.  Model  for  Correcting  False  Syntax. 

1.  State  that  the  sentence  is  not  correct. 

2.  State  in  what  respect  it  is  incorrect. 

3.  Correct  it. 

4.  Give  reasons  for  the  correction. 

221.  Improper  Words,  Forms,  and  Expressions. 

I.  IMPKOPER  WOEDS. 

Caution. — Avoid  the  use  of  words  with  a  wrong 
meaning. 

Ex. — Nouns. — 1.  He  treated  me  with  great  negligence.  2.  It 
is  a  matter  of  no  consequence.  3.  I  have  sold  the  balance  of  the 
goods.  4.  The  new  play  is  attributed  to  the  pen  of  Bulwer. 
5.  You  may  take  either  alternative.  6.  I  bought  a  couple  of 
ducks.  7.  He  went  up  two  pair  of  stairs.  8.  Our  ice  companies 
are  getting  in  their  crops  for  the  season. 

Verbs. — 1.  I  expect  he  has  gone  home.  2.  I  suspect  the  farm 
is  a  good  one.  3.  He  donated  $5000  to  the  college.  4.  They 
teamed  a  large  quantity  of  ice  to  the  Boston  Highlands.  5.  The 
sun  is  sitting.  6.  Set  down  on  that  chair.  7.  The  teacher  sat  him 
on  the  platform. 

8.  He  learned  me  to  read.  9.  I  love  buckwheat  cakes.  10.  He 
laid  down  on  the  hay.    11.  Where  were  you  raised?    12.  He  enjoys 


200  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

very  bad  health.  13.  The  medicine  affected  a  cure.  14.  The  Ohio 
empties  into  the  Mississippi,  which  has  now  overflown  its  banks. 
15.  If  you  will  not  go,  I  will  come  to  you.  16.  He  has  carried  the 
horses  to  water. 

Adjectives  and  Peonouns. — 1.  They  resemble  each  other. 

2.  He  has  ne'er  a  [nary]  horse,  nor  e'er  a  [ary]  wagon.  3.  That 
very  same  man  came  here  yesterday.  4.  A  proper  fraction  is  less 
than  one.  5.  We  are  incident  to  late  frosts.  6.  Do  not  call  one 
another  nicknames. 

See  also  "Exercises  to  be  corrected/'  \  55,  64. 

Adverbs  and  Conjunctions. — 1.  Gravitation  is  where  one 
body  attracts  another.     2.  Anarchy  is  while  no  laws  are  enforced. 

3.  Mr.  Elkins  is  such  a  nice  man.  4.  Snow  seldom  or  ever  falls 
in  Florida.  5.  I  shall  not  forgive  him  be  he  never  so  penitent. 
6.  Home  is  home,  be  it  never  so  homely.  7.  He  is  a  mighty 
mean  man. 

8.  He  came  here  about  a  week  since.  9.  He  said  nothing  far- 
ther. 10.  They  went  no  further.  11.  There  are  some  styles  of 
writing  where  too  much  ornament  is  used.  12.  He  walks  like  I 
do.  13.  Henry  is  not  tall  like  I  am.  14.  You  should  never  do 
no  mischief. 

15.  John  is  not  as  tall  as  I  am.  16.  He  has  neither  money  or 
credit.  17.  I  should  like  to  know  if  you  are  going  West.  18.  Let 
me  see  if  your  face  is  clean.  19.  I  have  no  doubt  but  you  can 
help  him. 

20.  He  was  afraid  lest  he  should  be  caught  in  the  rain.  21.  You 
shiver  as  though  you  had  the  ague.  22.  Whether  or  no  the  charge 
can  be  sustained  is  questionable.  23.  He  was  the  more  pleased 
that  it  was  done  cheerfully. 

See  also  "Exercises  to  be  corrected,"  ?  141,  217. 

Prepositions. — 1.  I  have  an  abhorrence  to  such  men.  2.  We 
then  witnessed  a  combat  between  a  Bengal  tiger  with  a  Himalaya 
bear.  3.  The  vessel  was  turned  out  of  the  true  course.  4.  What 
need  is  there  for  so  much  preparation?  5.  They  make  a  great 
noise  of  nights.  6.  The  boy  climbed  up  in  a  tree.  7.  He  was 
accused  with  forgery. 

8.  You  will  always  find  the  old  gentleman  to  home.  9.  He 
rolled  from  his  bed  out  on  to  the  floor.  10.  The  bird  flew  in  the 
window.     11.  He  put  his  hand  in  his  pocket  for  his  knife* 

See  also  "Exercises  to  be  corrected/'  \  134. 


▲  1 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  201 


II.  IMPEOPEK  FOKMS. 

Note. — Sentences  in  which  wrong  forms  of  nouns,  pronouns, 
adjectives,  verbs,  and  participles  are  used  may  be  found  among 
"Exercises  to  be  corrected,"  under  appropriate  heads.  These 
should  be  carefully  corrected. 

Caution  I. — Avoid  the  use  of  A  before  vowel  sounds, 
and  of  An  before  consonant  sounds. 

Ex. — 1.  An  hundred  thousand.  2.  An  humorous  person.  3. 
We   are   an   united  people.     4.  Such   an   one   is   a  honest  man. 

5.  The  regiment  was  formed  in  line  in  a  open  field.  6.  She  is  an 
heroine.  7.  That  was  a  heroic  deed.  (Use  an  before  h  faintly 
sounded  when  the  following  syllable  is  accented.) 

Caution  II, — Observe  that  the  denotes  the  class  or  a 
particular  one,  and  a  an  indefinite  one  of  several. 

Ex. — 1.  The  farthing  is  the  fourth  part  of  a  penny.  2.  A  fox 
is  cunning.  3.  A  horse  is  a  useful  animal.  4.  The  owl  sleeps 
during  a  day.     5.  A  steam  engine  is  a  modern  invention. 

Caution  III. — Do  not  use  them  for  those,  this  here  for 
this,  that  'ere  or  that  there  for  that,  or  might  of,  should 
of,  &c,  for  might  have,  should  have,  &c. 

Ex. — 1.  Give  me  them  peaches.  2.  I  can  not  remember  them 
rules.  3.  That  'ere  farm  is  very  sandy.  4.  What  will  you  give 
for  this  here  slate?     5.  I  do  not  like  that  'ere  way  of  doing  things. 

6.  Did  you  buy  them  needles  of  this  here  peddler?  7.  He  might 
of  helped  me.     8.  They  should  of  told  you. 

Caution  IV. — Avoid  the  use  of  how  before  that,  or  in 

its  stead. 

Ex. — 1.  He  told  me  how  that  he  was  going  to  Oregon.  2.  They 
said  how  they  knew  it  was  so,  3.  She  told  me  how  that  she  had 
a  new  bonnet.  4.  Father  said  how  he  believed  the  man  was  a 
swindler. 

Caution  V.— Never  use  will  for  shall,  nor  would  for 
should. 

Ex. — 1.  I  was  afraid  I  would  be  tardy.     2.  I  shall  go ;  no  one 


202  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

will  prevent  me.  3.  If  I  would  earn  money,  I  would  not  spend  it 
foolishly.  4.  Whoever  will  swear  falsely  will  be  punished.  5.  I 
should  be  sorry  if  you  would  be  sick. 

Caution  VI. — Do  not  use  adjectives  as  adverbs. 

Ex. — 1.  You  ought  to  value  time  higher.  2.  The  cars  moved 
very  slow.  3.  I  am  exceeding  glad  to  see  you.  4.  She  dresses 
neat.  5.  We  walked  silent  through  the  cemetery.  6.  I  am  tol- 
erable well,  I  thank  you.  7.  He  reads  slow  and  distinct.  8.  I 
came  there  previous  to  his  coming.  9.  He  speaks  German  fluent. 
10.  The  whisper  was  scarce  audible.  11.  They  are  near  discour- 
aged.    12.  I  am  that  sick  I  can  not  sit  up  any  longer. 

Caution  VII. — Do  not  use  adverbs  as  adjectives. 

Ex.— 1.  We  arrived  safely.  2.  The  country  looks  beautifully 
after  a  shower.  3.  I  feel  very  poetically.  4.  Things  look  more 
favorably  this  morning.    5.  Ice  feels  coldly. 

Caution  VIII. — Avoid  the  use  of  different  kinds  of 
pronouns  in  the  same  construction. 

Ex. — 1.  If  you  will  go,  I  will  pay  thy  expenses.  2.  I  hope  you 
will  put  money  into  thy  purse.  3.  What  we  saw,  and  which 
frightened  us  very  much,  we  thought  was  a  ghost.  4.  You  have 
mine  and  I  have  thine.  5.  A  man  who  is  industrious,  and  that  is 
not  extravagant,  will  prosper.  6.  Finish  thy  task,  then  amuse 
yourself. 

Caution  IX. — Do  not  use  the  indicative  mode  where 
the  subjunctive  will  be  more  elegant  or  expressive. 

Ex. — 1.  He  will  take  due  heed  lest  he  miscarries.  2.  Be  careful 
lest  thou  breakest  some  of  the  rules.  3.  If  he  does  but  intimate 
his  desire,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  produce  obedience.  4.  Though  he 
falls,  he  shall  not  be  utterly  cast  down.  5.  Was  I  to  tell  the  whole 
truth,  I  should  not  be  believed. 

Caution  X. — Tense  forms  should  denote  time  in  har- 
mony with  that  indicated  by  other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — 1.  They  proposed  to  have  visited  Paris  the  following  year. 
2.  After  I  learned  my  lesson,  I  took  a  walk.     3.  He  was  absent  this 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  203 

whole  week.    4.  He  was  under  great  obligations  to  have  assisted 
me.     5.  He  will  remain  here  if  he  could  find  employment. 

6.  They  would  readily  believe  this  statement,  if  they  can  break 
away  from  their  prejudices.  7.  His  step  was  then  firm,  and  his 
figure  erect,  though  he  has  seemed  old  and  decrepit.  8.  He  de- 
clared himself  to  have  been  innocent  of  the  charge  brought  against 
him.  9.  He  had  neglected  their  dearest  interest,  but  he  strikes 
their  imagination. 

Caution  XI. — In  compound  sentences,  tense  forms  should 
generally  be  alike. 

Ex. — 1.  He  pays  his  taxes  and  liveth  honestly.  2.  He  was  here 
last  week,  and  has  been  long  expected.  3.  Then  did  the  officer 
lay  hold  on  him,  and  executed  him  immediately.  4.  Thou  art  the 
fellow  who  was  at  my  house,  and  hast  stolen  my  watch.  5.  I  went 
to  town,  and  have  heard  some  good  news. 

Caution  XII. — Avoid  the  expression  of  universal  truths 
or  present  facts  in  any  other  tense  than  the  present. 

Ex. — 1.  He  demonstrated  that  the  earth  was  round.  2.  What 
did  you  say  was  the  capital  of  Chili?  3.  I  should  think  it  was 
time  to  hear  from  home.  4.  He  did  not  know  that  brass  was  made 
of  zinc  and  copper.  5.  I  always  thought  that  dew  fell.  6.  What 
did  you  say  her  name  was  ?  7.  Every  one  knows  that  air  had 
weight.     8.  Heat  will  radiate  best  from  rough  substances. 

Caution  XIII. — Do  not  use  the  perfect  participle  to 
express  past  time,  nor  the  past-tense  form  instead  of  the 
perfect  participle. 

Ex. — 1.  I  seen  him  yesterday.  2.  He  come  here  to-day.  3.  He 
has  ran  home.  4.  The  boys  all  said  he  done  it.  5.  I  have  saw  an 
old  friend  to-day.  6.  After  the  storm,  we  found  that  the  large  oak 
had  fell,  and  that  it  was  broke  in  two. 

Caution  XIV. — Avoid  the  use  of  improper  passive 
forms. 

Ex — 1.  He  was  retired  from  active  service.  2.  Evening  was 
come  when  we  reached  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  3.  He  is 
possessed  of  a  large  number  of  farms.  4.  The  disputants  were 
agreed  on  that.     5.  The  hour  for  adjournment  is  arrived. 


204  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Caution  XV. — Avoid  the  improper  use  of  compound 
participles. 

Ex. — 1.  The  new  bridge  is  being  built.  2.  Such  a  foolish  an- 
ecdote is  not  worth  being  repeated.  3.  Butter  is  now  being  sold 
for  thirty  cents  a  pound.  4.  That  is  not  intended  for  being  com- 
mitted to  memory.  5.  A  petition  is  being  circulated.  6.  Stores 
are  now  being  closed  at  8  o'clock  P.  M. 

Caution  XVI. — Avoid  the  inelegant  use  of  participles 
in  place  of  nouns,  infinitives,  and  clauses. 

Ex. — 1.  He  failed  fulfilling  his  promise.  2.  He  neglected  the 
learning  of  his  lesson.  3.  One  should  be  ashamed  of  being  found 
in  bad  company.  4.  What  is  the  reason  of  your  not  having  done 
your  task  to-day? 

5.  They  who  are  set  ruling  over  others  should  be  just.  6.  No 
one  likes  being  made  fun  of.  7.  Going  to  Congress  is  no  evidence 
of  greatness.  8.  Such  will  ever  be  the  consequences  of  youth 
associating  with  vicious  companions. 

Caution  XVII. — Avoid  the  recurrence,  at  short  inter- 
vals, of  the  same  word  in  different  senses. 

Ex. — 1.  He  turned  to  the  left,  and  then  left  abruptly.  2.  If  the 
show  of  any  thing  be  good  for  any  thing,  sincerity  is  better.  3.  The 
truth  is,  that  error  and  truth  are  blended  in  their  minds.  4.  His 
reason  might  have  suggested  better  reasons.  5.  The  king  commu- 
nicated his  intention  to  the  minister,  who  disclosed  it  to  the  secre- 
tary, who  made  it  known  to  the  public. 

III.  IMPEOPER  EXPRESSIONS. 

Caution  lo — Avoid  provincialisms:  i.  e.,  expressions 
not  national,  but  confined  to  certain  districts  in  the  same 
country. 

Ex. — 1.  We  raised  a  right  smart  chance  of  corn  last  year.  2.  Our 
grapes  are  all  done  gone.  3.  He  has  done  spent  all  his  money. 
4.  I  reckon  you  have  the  ague,  stranger.  5.  I  guess  I  will  go 
home.  6.  Watch  out  for  the  steamboat.  7.  What  time  does 
school  take  up?  8.  I  am  right  glad  to  see  you.  9.  He  toted  his 
plunder  on  his  back  all  the  way  from  Virginia.     10.  Sow  the  grain 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  205 

suant.  11.  I  disremember  where  you  live.  12.  I  didn't  go  to 
do  it.  13.  Where  did  you  loss  it?  14.  He  is  in  cahoot  with  me. 
15.  Three  goes  in  twelve  four  times. 

Caution  IIo — Avoid  slang  phrases,  and  all  low  expres- 
sions used  by  the  uneducated. 

Ex. — 1.  That 's  what  's  the  matter.  2.  If  any  one  insults  you, 
go  for  him.  3.  That  's  tip-top.  4.  He  's  a  brick  with  a  gilt  edge. 
5.  He  can  get  every  thing  he  wants :  he  has  lots  of  tin.  6.  They 
went  at  each  other  with  their  mauleys.  7.  I  closed  his  peepers  for 
him.  8.  Where  shall  I  dump  my  cart?  9.  She  is  setter  'n  an  old 
hen. 

Caution  IIIo — Avoid  all  perversions:  i.  e.,  words  habit- 
ually mispronounced  or  misapplied. 

Ex. — 1.  This  is  a  mountainious  country.  2.  I  onc't  went  a 
miled  to  get  some  voilets.  3.  He  got  into  a  voilent  passion.  4.  He 
is  a  candidate  for  the  sheriffality.  5.  How  do  you  sell  them  cow- 
cumbers?  6.  I  am  necessitated  to  take  medicine.  7.  This  is  beau- 
tiful apple  sauce.  8.  He  efected  a  cure.  9.  The  trees  are  clothed 
in  green  foilage.  10.  We  had  some  nice  lattice  (lettuce)  and  spar- 
row-grass (asparagus)  for  dinner. 

Caution  IV. — Avoid  all  improper  contractions ;  as,  it }s 
for  it  is  or  H  is,  is  n't  or  aint  for  is  not,  have  n't  or  haint 
for  have  not,  H  aint  for  it  is  not,  better  ;n  for  better  than,  &c. 

Ex. — 1.  It's  now  ready  for  use.  2.  'Taint  my  house  that  is 
burning.  3.  I  haint  got  my  lesson.  4.  Isn't  she  beautiful?  5. 
He  aint  a  good  skater.  6.  My  book  is  better  'n  yours.  7.  He  is 
older 'n  I  am. 


222,  Insertion  of  Unnecessary  Words. 

Caution  I. — Do  not  use  unnecessary  words. 

Ex. — 1.  Amos  Wilkins  his  book.  2.  Henry  he  ran,  and  Samuel 
he  ran.  3.  They  are  very  nice,  these  oranges.  4.  The  girls  they 
all  staid  in  at  recess.  5.  It  took  us  two  hours  time  to  learn  that 
lesson.     6.  My  father  and  mother  are  both  of  them  sick.     7.  She 


206  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

is  a  poor  widow  lady.    8.  It  is  above  a  year  since  the  time  I  left 
school. 

9.  Oil  and  water  will  not  mix  together.  10.  You  never  denied 
but  that  you  came  from  Nova  Scotia.  11.  This  is  a  pretty  smart 
sort  of  a  place.  12.  He  may  probably  make  the  attempt,  but  he 
can  not  possibly  succeed. 

13.  There  are  but  few  other  men  like  him.  14.  He  came  here 
about  the  latter  end  of  last  month.  15.  Those  who  have  not 
bought  tickets  must  now  buy  their  tickets.  1(3.  Who  first  invented 
gunpowder?  17.  It  is  six  years  ago  since  I  saw  you.  18.  When- 
ever he  sees  me,  he  always  inquires  about  your  health. 

19.  He  had  ought  to  be  more  punctual.  20.  He  had  not  ought 
to  use  profane  language.  21.  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  he  will 
come.  22.  One  is  equally  as  beautiful  as  the  other.  23.  I  learned 
much  by  the  listening  to  his  conversation.  24.  You  will  not  never 
have  such  a  chance. 

25.  I  am  stronger  than  you  think  for.  26.  We  passed  over 
through  the  forest.  27.  I  will  never  enter  into  his  house  again. 
28.  He  deserted  from  his  friends.  29.  Pharaoh  and  his  host  pur- 
sued after  them.  30.  They  presented  him  with  a  gold  watch.  31. 
Mr.  Ellison  talks  of  buying  of-  our  farm.  32.  He  followed  on 
after  us. 

33.  I  do  not  recollect  of  hearing  him  say  so.  34.  You  need  not 
to  go  to  the  post-office.  35.  From  whence  came  you?  36.  He  came 
from  thence  last  week.  37.  You  need  not  to  have  staid  so  long. 
38.  Their  chagrin  can  hardly  be  conceived  of.  39.  They  got  angry 
in  their  settling  of  their  account.  40.  He  has  got  a  long  lesson  to 
learn. 

Caution  II. — Avoid  double  comparatives  and  super- 
latives. 

Ex — 1.  He  is  the  most  unhappiest  man  I  ever  saw.  2.  More 
sharper  than  a  serpent's  tooth  is  vile  ingratitude.  3.  He  seems 
more  cheerfuller  since  his  return.  4.  Choose  the  lesser  of  two 
evils.     5.  He  is  the  most  strictest  teacher  in  the  city. 

Caution  III, — Avoid  the  use  of  two  negatives  to  ex- 
press negation. 

Ex. — 1.  He  do  n't  know  nothing  about  my  affairs.  2.  Time 
and  tide  don't  wait   for  no  one.     3.  We  didn't  find  nobody  at 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  207 

home.  4.  The  best  way  to  keep  a  secret  is  to  say  nothing  to  no- 
body about  it.  5.  You  do  n't  look  no  older  than  you  did  ten  years 
ago.  6.  She  will  never  be  no  better :  so  the  doctor  says.  7.  Nei- 
ther her  nor  nobody  else  never  saw  a  white  blackbird.  8.  There 
can  not  be  nothing  more  insignificant  than  vanity. 

Caution  IV. — Omit  the  article  before  a  word  used  as  a 
title,  as  a  mere  name,  or  to  denote  a  class  generally. 

Ex. — 1.  The  king  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  a  duke.  2.  What 
kind  of  a  man  is  he?  3.  I  have  a  sort  of  a  misgiving  about  it.  4. 
A  rascal  formerly  meant  a  servant,  and  a  knave  a  boy.  5.  Eiches 
and  honor  are  the  gifts  of  fortune. 

6.  Some  think  the  Indians  are  the  descendants  of  the  ten  lost 
tribes.  7.  They  voted  for  Mr.  Weston  as  a  senator.  8.  They 
elected  him  a  chairman.  9.  She  is  not  so  good  a  cook  as  a  mil- 
liner.    10.  He  is  a  better  blacksmith  than  a  doctor. 

Caution  V. — Avoid  the  needless  repetition  of  words. 

Ex. — 1.  The  earth  is  a  sphere,  a  globe,  or  a  ball.  2.  The  days, 
the  hours,  and  the  minutes  drag  slowly  along.  3.  He  went  to  St. 
Louis  and  to  Chicago.  4.  He  is  a  man  of  wealth,  and  of  charac- 
ter, and  of  influence.  5.  That  wise  and  that  good  man  has  many 
friends. 

6.  There  is  another  and  a  better  world.  7.  Their  idleness  and 
their  luxury  and  pleasures,  their  criminal  deeds  and  their  im- 
moderate passions,  and  their  timidity  and  baseness  of  mind,  have 
dejected  them  to  such  a  degree  as  to  make  them  weary  of  life. 

223.  Omission  of  Necessary  Words. 

Caution  I. — Avoid  the  omission  of  words  necessary  to 
complete  the  sense. 

Ex. — 1.  I  was  amused  at  the  way  he  told  it.  2.  What  use 
would  it  be  to  me?  3.  The  remark  is  worthy  the  dunce  that 
made  it.  4.  The  insult  does  not  admit  of  an  apology.  5.  That 
depends  upon  what  precedes  and  follows.  6.  What  prevented  him 
going? 

7.  This  is  the  way  I  hold  my  pen.  8.  That  is  the  best  can  be 
said  of  him.     9.  The  steamboat  is  on  the  bar;  I  saw  it  stuck  fast. 


208  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

10.  Having  been  condemned,  there  was  no  pardon.  11.  This  not 
only  excited  our  hopes,  but  fears  also.  12.  He  is  an  honest  man. 
but  unfortunate. 

13.  That  is  as  hard  a  story  to  swallow  as  Gulliver  himself. 
14.  He  lives  on  the  other  side  the  river.  15.  Our  house  is  the 
other  end  of  the  street.  16.  He  was  banished  his  native  land. 
17.  The  lazy  fellow  was  expelled  the  college.  18.  I  would  rather 
live  in  poverty  than  wealth  acquired  dishonestly. 

19.  Small  farms  are  more  profitable  than  large.  20.  A  squirrel 
can  climb  a  tree  quicker  than  a  boy.  21.  I  could  not  refrain 
laughing.  22.  The  convict  escaped  the  penitentiary.  23.  The  rich 
and  poor  are  alike  mortal.  24.  All  admire  the  beauties  of  nature 
and  art. 

25.  I  will  be  so  candid  to  own  I  was  mistaken.  26.  It  has  or 
will  be  announced.  27.  I  have,  nor  shall  not  consent  to  such  an 
arrangement.  28.  Number  the  trees  in  the  order  they  stand.  29. 
I  help  who  help  me.  30.  The  house  in  which  I  lived,  and  had 
long  owned,  was  destroyed  by  fire.  31.  I  gave  some  to  Edwin  as 
well  as  Jonas.  32.  I  never  read  the  book,  and  never  mean  to. 
33.  It  is  better  to  live  on  a  little  than  outlive  a  great  deal.  34. 
Please  excuse  Jane  at  recess.  35.  How  do  you  like  out  there? 
36.  He  was  seen  go  into  a  billiard  saloon. 

37.  Using  of  tobacco  is  a  bad  habit.  38.  Be  careful  in  the 
spelling  your  words.  39.  In  building  of  houses  there  has  been 
much  improvement.  40.  A  modest  man  never  indulges  in  praising 
of  himself.    41.  Gypsies  are  noted  for  telling  of  fortunes. 

42.  When  the  air  is  reduced  to  32°,  water  will  freeze.  43.  I  like 
to  skate  about  as  well  as  any  thing.  44.  By  time  they  got  that  done 
it  was  noon.  45.  Outdoor  croquet  is  played  on  the  ground  instead 
of  on  a  table,  and  also  much  larger. 

Caution  II. — Avoid  the  omission  of  words  necessary  to 
denote  emphatic  distinction. 

Ex. — 1.  I  like  neither  his  principles  nor  practice.  2.  He  has 
checks  for  his  valise  and  overcoat.  3.  This  is  not  only  a  question 
of  policy,  but  right  also.  4.  Both  his  hat  and  umbrella  were  lost. 
5.  Neither  his  hat  nor  umbrella  was  found.  6.  His  hat,  as  well  as 
umbrella,  was  stolen.  7.  He  has  sold  either  his  house  or  store. 
8.  He  is  beloved  for  his  honesty  and  goodness. 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  -  209 

Caution  III. — Avoid  the  improper  omission  of  modi- 
fiers arid  connectives  in  expressing  a  succession  of  par- 
ticulars. 

Ex. — 1.  We  are  in  need  of  food,  fuel,  and  of  clothing.  2.  He 
is  the  most  zealous,  most  sanguine,  and  energetic  man  I  ever  knew. 
3.  In  pain,  trouble,  and  in  sorrow,  he  wrote  the  treatise.  4.  The 
country  is  full  of  idlers,  swindlers,  and  of  spendthrifts.  5.  Farmers 
and  mechanics,  lawyers,  doctors,  and  miners,  are  nocking  to  this 
new  territory. 

Caution  IV. — Do  not  omit  the  subjects  of  declarative 
sentences,  whether  principal  or  subordinate. 

Ex. — 1.  Hope  to  see  you  soon.  2.  Sorry  to  hear  you  have  been 
so  unfortunate.  3.  They  knew  what  was  best  to  do.  4.  It  is  a  long 
road  has  no  turning.  5.  After  a  long  night's  rest,  rose  much  re- 
freshed. 6.  It  was  he  discouraged  the  undertaking.  7.  That  there 
were  any  were  dissatisfied  I  do  not  believe. 

Caution  V. — Avoid  the  improper  omission  of  pronom- 
inals  in  making  comparisons. 

Ex. — 1.  Jacob  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  children.  2.  No 
one  is  so  kind  to  me  as  he.  3.  John  thinks  he  is  smarter  than 
any  body.  4.  He  owns  more  land  than  any  man  in  the  county. 
5.  No  country  is  so  cold  as  Greenland.  6.  There  is  no  land  so 
fertile  anywhere. 


224.  Improper  Arrangement. 

Caution  I. — Modifying  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
should  be  placed  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  parts  which 
they  modify. 

Rem. — Adverbs  and  adjectives  generally  precede  the  words 
which  they  modify ;  but  there  are  so  many  exceptions  to  this 
arrangement,  that  it  can  not  be  regarded  as  a  general  rule.  In 
fact,  no  general  rule  for  the  position  of  modifiers  can  be  given  to 
which  there  are  no  exceptions.  That  position  is  always  the  best 
which  conveys  the  meaning  with  the  most  precision. 
H.  G.  18. 


210  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — Single  Words. — 1.  He  was  overcome  totally  by  the  sad 
intelligence.  2.  Carefully  scrutinize  the  sentiments  contained  in 
the  books  you  read.  3.  We  always  are  controlled  by  circum- 
stances. 4.  I  only  saw  him  once.  5.  Ice  only  forms  during  cold 
weather. 

6.  Theism  can  only  be  opposed  by  polytheism.  7.  Only  you 
have  I  known  of  all  the  nations  of  the  earth.  8.  Not  only  he 
found  her  employed,  but  pleased  and  tranquil  also.  9.  He  read  the 
book  only,  but  did  not  return  it.  10.  I  would  prefer  being  hung  a 
thousand  times. 

11.  They  called  together  their  friends.  12.  The  officers  arrested 
also  the  saloon  keeper.  13.  It  is  impossible  constantly  to  study. 
14.  They  were  nearly  dressed  alike.  15.  He  chiefly  spoke  of  him- 
self, not  of  his  employers. 

16.  By  doing  the  same  thing,  it  often  becomes  habitual.  17.  The 
necessity  of  some  new  method  has  been  felt  long.  18.  He  was 
pleasing  not  often  because  he  was  vain.  19.  The  good  man  not 
only  deserves  the  respect  but  the  love  of  his  fellow  beings.  20.  He 
is  considered  generally  insane. 

21.  It  is  a  general  time  of  health.  22.  Edward  has  a  new  pair 
of  boots.  v  23.  We  have  a  young  yoke  of  oxen.  24.  All  homes  are 
not  such  as  these.  25.  You  will  hardly  find  such  another  man. 
26.  We  have  just  received  a  fresh  supply  of  fish. 

27.  The  settler  here  the  savage  slew.  28.  The  advocate  the  court 
addressed.  29.  The  Divine  Being  heapeth  favors  on  his  servants, 
ever  liberal  and  faithful.  30.  An  old,  venerable,  tall  man  just  then 
broke  in  upon  the  circle.  31.  Sing  the  four  first  verses  of  the 
hymn  just  read. 

Phrases. — 1.  The  witness  had  been  ordered  to  withdraw  from 
the  bar,  in  consequence  of  being  intoxicated,  by  the  motion  of  an 
honorable  member.  2.  Wanted,  a  young  man  to  take  care  of  some 
horses  of  a  religious  turn  of  mind.  3.  Notice. — A  lecture  on  theater- 
going at  eleven  o'clock. 

4.  He  went  to  town,  and  drove  a  flock  of  sheep,  on  horseback. 
5.  Study  to  unite  with  firmness  gentle  manners.  6.  All  anxiety 
about  the  issue  divest  yourselves  of.  7.  Hunting  is  a  pastime 
many  are  very  fond  of.  8.  These  lines  were  written  by  a  young  man 
who  has  lain  in  his  grave  twelve  years,  for  his  own  amusement. 

9.  We  should  carefully  examine  into,  and  candidly  pass  judg- 
ment on,  our  faults.     10.  A  good  man  may  go  beyond  the  evenness 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  211 

of  a  wise  Christian,  in  a  sudden  anger.     11.  Eeason  is  a  ray,  darted 
into  the  soul,  of  divinity. 

12.  The  skin  is  closely  allied  to  horny  matter  in  its  composition. 
13.  From  the  foregoing  considerations,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  in- 
fluence of  air  is  all-controlling  over  the  human  constitution.  14. 
Laughter,  by  the  aid  of  phonetics,  is  easily  taught  as  an  art. 

Clauses. — 1.  We  must  endure  the  follies  of  others,  who  will  have 
their  kindness.  2.  He  needs  no  spectacles  that  can  not  see,  nor 
boots  that  can  not  walk.  3.  From  a  habit  of  saving  time  and  paper, 
which  they  acquired  at  the  university,  many  write  in  so  diminutive 
a  manner,  with  such  frequent  blots  and  interlineations,  that  they 
are  hardly  able  to  go  on  without  perpetual  hesitation  or  extempo- 
rary expletives.  4.  It  is  true  what  he  says,  but  it  is  not  appli- 
cable to  the  point.  5.  These  are  the  general's  orders,  who  must 
be  obeyed. 

6.  Mr.  French  needs  a  surgeon,  who  has  broken  his  arm.  7.  The 
figs  were  in  small  wooden  boxes,  which  we  ate.  8.  Found,  a  silver 
fruit-knife,  by  a  child,  which  has  a  broken  back.  9.  For  sale,  a 
cottage  containing  eight  rooms,  located  in  a  respectable  neighbor- 
hood, which  has  double  parlors  and  a  detached  office. 

Caution  II. — Avoid  any  choice  or  arrangement  of 
words  subversive  of  clearness,  precision,  and  elegance. 

Rem.  l. — Looseness  and  vagueness  of  style  should  be  guarded 
against  with  the  greatest  care.  Hence,  inversions,  though  allow- 
able for  rhetorical  effect,  should  be  avoided  whenever  they  pervert 
or  obscure  the  meaning. 

Ex. — 1.  Nature  mixes  the  elements  variously  and  curiously  some- 
times, it  is  true.  2.  They  have  the  property  of  receiving  rays  of  one 
refrangibility,  and  emitting  them  at  a  lower  one.  3.  They  were  per- 
sons of  very  moderate  intellects,  even  before  they  were  impaired  by 
their  passions.  4.  He  neither  cares  for  you  nor  me.  5.  Adversity 
both  taught  you  to  think  and  to  reason. 

6.  The  young  now  have  many  advantages  which  our  forefathers 
were  deprived  of.  7.  From  what  I  have  said,  you  will  perceive 
readily  the  subject  I  am  to  proceed  upon.  8.  Having  not  known,  or 
having  not  considered  the  subject,  he  declined  expressing  any  opinion. 
9.  Cook  the  potatoes  with  their  jackets,  as  I  call  them,  on.  * 

Rem.  2. — The  leading  proposition,  in  a  contracted  compound 
sentence,  should  generally  be  expressed  fully.     The  parts  con- 


212  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

tracted  by  ellipsis  should  be  joined  to  the  leading  proposition,  and 
to  each  other,  by  appropriate  connectives. 

Ex. — 1.  He  is  older,  but  not  so  influential,  as  his  brother.  [He  is 
older  than  his  brother,  but  not  so  influential.]  2.  It  is  larger,  but 
inferior  to  the  other.  3.  The  camel  has  as  much  strength,  and  more 
endurance,  than  the  horse.  4.  I  would  rather  spend  the  summer  in 
traveling  as  in  working. 

5.  He  deemed  himself,  and  meant  to  be,  an  honest  man.  6.  You 
can  and  ought  to  be  more  charitable.  7.  The  route  has  or  will  soon 
be  surveyed.  8.  It  is  our  duty  to  protect  this  government  and  that 
flag  from  every  assailant. 


225.  Miscellaneous  Exercises. 

1.  If  the  mean  temperature  is  low,  it  will  require  more  days  to 
ripen  than  if  it  were  high.  2.  We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was 
our  duty  to  have  done.  3.  I  saw  a  white  and  brown  bear  at  the 
menagerie.  4.  The  pleasures  of  the  understanding  are  more,  pref- 
erable than  those  of  the  senses. 

5.  He  is  engaged  in  a  monograph  of  the  Carices.  6.  It  is  diffi- 
cult for  him  to  speak  three  sentences  together.  7.  We  have  seen 
how  fluids  rise  in  tubes  by  wetting  their  sides.  8.  I  had  hoped  to 
have  seen  you  ere  this.  9.  He  is  a  man  too  vain  to  be  proud. 
10.  He  used  to  use  many  expressions  not  usually  used,  and  which 
good  usage  will  not  permit  one  to  use. 

11.  I  could  see  that  the  desks  had  been  scratched,  with  half  an 
eye.  12.  I  seen  the  horse  run  away  just  as  I  come  down  street. 
13.  She  married  my  uncle's  first  wife's  brother.  14.  They  have 
heard  from  their  cousins,  they  who  live  in  Iowa.  15.  They  are 
much  further  north  than  us. 

16.  Charlotte  seldom  or  ever  comes  to  see  us  now.  17.  Whether 
or  no  this  is  the  man  which  committed  the  burglary  is  uncertain. 
18.  The  time  of  John  reciting  his  lesson  is  arrived.  19.  The  un- 
grateful man  has  forsook  his  friends.  20.  I  will  show  you  another 
and  a  better  way.  21.  It 's  now  most  time  for  dinner.  22.  The 
tree  beareth  fruit  after  his  kind. 

23.  This  style  of  architecture  prevailed  during  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  century.     24.  His  servants   ye  are  to   whom   ye  obey. 

25.  Having  did  the  work  satisfactorily,  he  is  entitled  to  his  pay. 

26.  Both  minister  and  magistrate  is  compelled  sometimes  to  choose 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  213 

between  his  duty  and  reputation.  27.  They  are  them  strangers 
who  come  here  yesterday.  28.  You  need  not  scarce  mention  it. 
29.  He  is  a  better  farmer  than  a  lawyer. 

30.  John  locked  the  door,  and  put  the  key  in  his  pocket.  31. 
Some  men  prefer  cold  to  warm  weather,  but  I  differ  with  them. 
32.  In  learning  of  this  lesson,  study  carefully  the  third  and  fourth 
section.  33.  Come  quick.  34.  He  did  the  work  prompt.  35.  I  was 
almost  froze  when  we  arrove  there. 

36.  Let  each  esteem  the  other  better  than  themselves.  37.  I 
found  an  empty  old  pocket-book  this  morning.  38.  The  posthu- 
mous volumes  appeared  in  considerable  intervals.  39.  He  is  not 
only  lazy,  but  improvident  also.  40.  I  am  resolved  to  try  and 
accomplish  the  difficult  undertaking.  41.  There  are  certain  mis- 
eries in  idleness  which  the  idle  can  only  conceive. 

42.  The  orator  had  just  began,  when  the  hissing  commenced. 

43.  As  time  advances,  it  leaves  behind  him  the  traces  of  its  flight. 

44.  Neither  wealth  nor  honor  confers  happiness  on  their  votaries. 

45.  He  was  purposed  that  he  would  not  lie.  46.  Hard  work  is  not 
congenial  with  his  disposition. 

47.  They  wanted  for  the  necessaries  of  life.  48.  There  are  mil- 
lions of  people  in  China  whose  support  is  derived  almost  entirely 
from  rice.  49.  Thinks  I  to  myself,  symptoms.  50.  So,  says  he, 
you  are  not  going  to  pay  me,  are  you?  51.  The  trial  of  these 
men  take  place  to-morrow. 

52;  The  public  is  requested  to  attend  for  their  own  benefit. 
53.  Nearly  a  thousand  head  of  cattle  was  transported  over  this 
road  yesterday.  54.  Three  cheers  for  our  flag — the  red,  the  white, 
and  the  blue.  55.  Multiply  each  figure  in  the  multiplier  on  to 
each  figure  in  the  multiplicand.  56.  Take  and  add  the  subtra- 
hend and  remainder  together. 

57.  He  belongs  to  the  very  selectest  circle  in  the  city.  58.  That 
report  was  very  universally  believed.  59.  He  took  two  spoonsful 
of  laudanum.  60.  He  gave  me  three  double  handsful  of  cherries. 
61.  Deceiving  is  much  the  same  thing  as  to  lie.  62.  I  never  have 
and  never  shall  desert  from  my  party :  I  allers  votes  the  straight 
ticket.  63.  I  forgit  the  man's  name ;  but  he 's  the  reverendest 
looking  person  I  ever  see. 

64.  Will  you  be  to  home  this  evening?  65.  If  you  will  go  into 
too  deep  water,  you  shall  be  drownded.  66.  I  did  not  think  that 
St.  Petersburg  was  situated  so  fur  north.     67.  He  can  not  lay  still 


214  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

or  set  still  scarce  a  single  minute,  says  she.  68.  The  enemy  at- 
tackted  us  about  three  o'clock  in  the  morning,  before  the  day  had 
began  to  break. 

69.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  good  horses  in  this  county.  70.  I 
tried  to  learn  him  to  cipher — but  it  aint  no  use.  71.  I  had  rather 
not  alit  on  my  head,  but  it  haint  hurt  me  much :  I  feel  tolerable 
hunky.  72.  If  any  one  has  been  missed,  let  them  rise  in  their 
places.  73.  I  allude  to  Washington,  who  is  a  name  for  all  which 
is  just.     74.  Next  November,  I  shall  be  here  twelve  years. 

75.  The  missionary  gave  an  account  of  how  Christianity  has 
formerly  been  propagated  among  heathen  nations.  76.  Though  he 
falls,  he  shall  not  be  utterly  cast  down.  77.  Though  he  be  high, 
he  hath  respect  to  the  lowly.  78.  We  have  done  no  more  than  it 
was  our  duty  to  have  done. 

79.  Can  you  not  assign  a  more  satisfactory  and  stronger  reason 
than  that?  80.  The  scandal  is  unworthy  the  least  attention.  81.  I 
have  received  no  assistance  from  any  source,  neither  from  my 
friends  nor  from  my  relatives.  82.  Punishments  may,  and  often 
are,  inflicted  upon  accessories  to  crimes. 

83.  He  is  liker  to  a  half-breed  than  an  Indian.  84.  For  lacking 
of  diligent  observing  the  clouds,  we  were  caught  in  the  rain.  85. 
Eve  was  the  fairest  of  her  daughters.  86.  I  found  them  in  the 
same  place  I  left  them.  87.  A  poor  widow  woman  drawed  the 
highest  prize  in  the  lottery. 

88.  He  has  not  broke  his  promise  to  confine  himself  to  his 
speciality.  89.  He  left  the  t  out  in  spelling  chestnut,  which  ought 
not  never  to  be  done.  90.  This  is  John  Perkins  his  book.  91. 
She  danced  beautiful,  and  sang  sweet.  92.  I  am  in  favor  of  an 
uniform  system  of  taxation. 

93.  There  is  some  hope  of  him  recovering  his  senses.  94.  Co- 
lumbus had  fondly  hoped,  at  one  time,  to  have  rendered  the 
natives  civilized,  industrious,  and  tributary  subjects  of  the  crown. 
95.  Them  ghosts  you  was  talking  about,  was  they  in  white  or 
black  clothes? 

96.  They  dared  to  bravely  fight,  or  to  nobly  die,  for  their 
country.  97.  He  looked  severe,  and  told  them  to  quietly  resume 
their  seats.  98.  He  set  his  face  against,  and  violently  denounced, 
all  innocent  amusements.  99.  Young  industrious  men  can  always 
find  employment. 

100.  The  mind  of  man  can  not  continue  long  without  some  food 


SYNTAX — WORDS   CLASSIFIED.  215 

to  nourish  the  activity  of  his  thoughts.  101.  A  great  variety  of 
fancy  goods  are  offered  for  sale  below  cost.  102.  Lost,  a  gutta- 
percha cane,  by  a  gentleman,  with  a  gold  head. 

103.  Eapt  into  future  times,  the  bard  begun. — Pope. 

104.  They  are  the  lovely,  them  in  whom  unite 
Youth's  fleeting  charms  with  virtue's  lovely  light. 

105.  Ah,  Jockey,  ill  advises  those,  I  wis, 

To  think  of  songs  at  such  a  time  as  this. 

106.  Ere  you  remark  another's  sin 

Bid  thy  own  conscience  look  within. — Gay. 

107.  Even  now,  where  Alpine  solitudes  ascend, 

I  sit  me  down  a  pensive  hour  to  spend. — Goldsmith. 


WORDS  VARIOUSLY  CLASSIFIED. 
226.  Of  the  Use  of  Words. 

1.  The  same  word  may  belong  to  different  parts  of  speech. 

2.  The  manner  in  which  a  word  is  used  determines  its 
classification. 

3.  The  normal  use  of  a  word  is  its  use  according  to 
its  ordinary  meaning  and  classification. 

4.  The  abnormal   or  exceptional  use  of  a  word  is  a 
variation  from  its  usual  meaning  or  classification. 

5.  The  idiomatic   use  of  a  word   or  expression  is  a 
departure  from  the  principles  of  universal  grammar. 

227.  Examples. 

A (1)  Adj.,  "A  man;"   "An  ox."     (2)  Prep.,  "I  go  a  fish- 

ing." 

About  ...  (1)  Adv.,  "He  wanders  about:'     (2)  Prep.,  "We  talked 
about  the  weather." 

Above  ...  (1)  Adv.,  "He  soars  above."    (2)  Prep.,  "He  soars  above 
the  clouds." 


216 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Adieu  ...(1)  Noun,   "He   bade   me  adieu"      (2)    Interjection, 

" Adieu/  adieu/  niy  native  land." 

After (1)  Adv.,  "I  left  soon  after."     (2)  Prep.,  "He  ran  after 

me."     (3)  Conj.  adv.,  "  He  came  after  you  left." 

Again  ...  (1)  Adv.,  "  Come  again."  (2)  Conj.,  "Again,  you  have 
frequently  seen,"  &c. 

Alike (1)  Adj.,  "Those  girls  look  alike."      (2)    Adv.,  "I  am 

alike  pleased  with  them  both." 

All (1)  Noun,  "That    is    his    all."      (2)    Adj.,   uAll    men;" 

"Good-by  to  you  all;"  uAll  were  there"  (3)  Adv., 
"He  is  all  right;"  "We  were  left  all  alone." 

Any (1)  Adj.,  "Have  you  any  objections?"     (2)   Adv.,  "He 

is  not  any  better." 

As (1)  Adv.,  "As  black  as  night."     (2)  Conj.  adv.,  "Do  as 

I  do,"  {manner)-,  "He  is  as  tall  as  I  am,"  (comparison); 
"The  men  cheered  as  he  passed,"  (time) ;  "I  will  go  now, 
as  [since']  I  am  a  little  lame,"  (cause  or  reason).  (3)  Cor. 
Conj.,  "As  the  door  turneth  on  its  hinges,  so  doth  the 
slothful  man  on  his  bed."  (4)  itel.  pron.,  "They  are 
such  as  I  could  find."  (5)  An  index  of  apposition, 
"He  shipped  as  second  mate;"  "As  mayor  of  the  city,  I 
feel  much  aggrieved."  (6)  Part  of  a  comp.  prep.,  "As 
to  that;"   "As  for  me,"  &c. 

As  follows  may  be  parsed  as  an  adverbial  phrase,  equivalent  to  thus, 
or  the  pronoun  it  may  be  supplied  as  the  grammatical  subject  of 
"follows."  Always  supply  it  in  parsing  as  appears,  as  concerns,  and 
as  regards. 

Before  ...  (1)  Adv.,  "He  went  before."  (2)  Prep.,  "The  hills  rise 
before  him."     (3)  Conj.  adv.,  "  He  spoke  before  I  did." 

Below  ...  (1)  Noun,  "I  came  from  below."  (2)  Adj.,  "He  is  in 
one  of  the  offices  below."  (3)  Adv.,  "  Go  below."  (4) 
Prep.,  "Stand  below  me." 

Best (1)  Noun,  "Now  do  your  best."     (2)   Adj.,  "Covet  the 

best  gifts."  (3)  Adv.,  "Who  can  best  work  and  best  agree?" 
(4)  Adv.  pnr.,  "  Tones  he  loved  the  best." 

Better  ...  (1)  Noun,  "They  scorn  their  betters"  (2)  Verb,  "Love 
betters  what  is  best."  (3)  Adj.,  "The  gray  mare  is  the 
better  beast."  (4)  Adv.,  "Never  was  monarch  better 
feared." 


• 


SYNTAX WORDS    CLASSIFIED. 


217 


Both (1)  Adj.,  "Hear  both  sides."      (2)  Pron.  adj.,  "Both  of 

them  made  a  covenant;"  "They  are  both  vagabonds." 
(3)  Cor.  conj.,  "  She  is  both  young  and  beautiful." 

But (1)  Adv.,  "If  they  kill  us,  we  shall  but  die."     (2)  But  a, 

Adj.,  "He  is  but  a  man."  (3)  Prep.,  "All  but  two 
were  drowned;"  "None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee;" 
"Whence  all  but  him  had  fled."  (4)  Part  of  comp. 
prep.,  "He  would  steal  but  for  the  law."  (5)  Conj., 
"Knowledge  comes,  but  wisdom  lingers;"  "When  pride 
comes,  then  cometh  shame;  but  with  the  lowly  is  wis- 
dom." 


By (1)  Adv.,  "He  passed  by  on  the  other  side."     (2)  Prep., 

"We  have  come  by  the  valley  road." 

Close  ....  (1)  Adj.,  "From  a  close  bower  this  dainty  music  flowed;" 
"  He  is  a  close,  selfish  man."  (2)  Adv.,  "  He  followed 
close  behind." 

Each  ....(1)  Pron.  adj.,  "They  searched  each  house;"  "Each 
officer;"  "They  took  one  each;"  "Wandering  each  his 
several  way."  "  They  resemble  each  other"  (Parse  each 
as  being  in  apposition  with  "  they,"  or  each  other  as  a  com- 
pound word.) 

Else (1)  Adj.,  "Do  not  call  any  one  else"     (2)  Adv.,  "How 

else  can  this  be  done?"     (3)   Conj.,  "Thou  desirest  not 
sacrifice,  else  would  I  give  it." 

(1)  Noun,   "He  has  enough"     (2)  Adj.,  "I  have  trouble 
enough."     (3)  Adv.,  " I  know  you  well  enough" 


Enough 
Except . 


,  (1)  Verb,  "Which  our  author  could  not  except  against." 
(2)  Prep.,  "I  could  see  nothing  except  the  sky;"  "Except 
these  bonds."  (3)  Conj.,  "Except  the  Lord  build  the  house, 
they  labor  in  vain  that  build  it." 

Far  .....  (1)  Noun,  "He  came  from  far."  (2)  Adj.,  "We  be  come 
from  a  far  country."  (3)  Adv.,  "Over  the  hills  and  far 
away;"   "Far  from  his  home." 

Farewell .  (1)  Noun,  "A  last  farewell."  (2)  Adj.,  "A  farewell  con- 
cert."    (3)  Int.,  "Farewell/" 

(1)  Noun,  "A  surfeit  is  the  father  of  much  fast."     "An 
annual  fast."      (2)  Verb,    "Thou  didst  fast  and  weep  for 
thy  child."    (3)  Adj.,  "He  is  my  fast  friend."     (4)  Adv., 
"We  will  bind  thee  fast;"  "He  runs  fast." 
H.  G.  19. 


Fast. 


218  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Few (1)  Noun,  "A  few  escaped;"    "The  few  and  the  many." 

(2)  Adj.,  "We  have  a  few  copies  left." 

For (1)  Prep.,  "We  waited  for  you;"    "He  writes  not  for 

money  nor  for  praise."  (2)  Conj.,  "Give  thanks  unto 
the  Lord;  for  he  is  good;  for  his  mercy  endureth  for- 
ever."    See  As. 

Full (1)  Noun,  "The  full  of  the  moon."     (2)   Verb,  "The 

moon  fulls  to-night;"  "They  full  cloth  at  the  factory." 

(3)  Adj.,  "The  house  was  full;'9  "A  full  supply."  (4) 
Adv.,  "He  spake  full  well." 

Hard (1)  Adj.,  "This  is  hard  work."      (2)  Adv.,  "He  works 

hard;"  "He  lives  hard  by  the  river."  (Hard  modifies 
the  phrase  "by  the  river.") 

However .  (1)  Adv.,  "Hoivever  great."  (2)  €onj.,  "However,  your 
house  was  not  burned." 

Ill (1)  Jfoan,  "Throw  off  the  ills;"  "The  ills  of  life."     (2) 

Adj.,  "I  was  quite  ill  yesterday."  (3)  Adv.,  "Ill  fares  the 
larid  to  hastening  ills  a  prey." 

Indeed.  .  .  (1)  Adv.,  "It  is  indeed  true."  (2)  Conj.,  "Indeed,  I  was 
not  aware  of  it." 

Late (1)  Adj.,  "A  late  frost  destroyed  the  fruit."     (2)  Adv., 

"We  studied  early  and  late" 

Like  ....  (1)  Noun,  "Like  produces  like"  (2)  Verb,  "I  like  frank 
people."  (3)  Adj.,  "We  have  like  chances;"  "  The  staff 
of  his  spear  was  like  a  weaver's  beam."  (4)  Adv.,  "He 
ran  like  a  deer;"  "The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf 
on  the  fold."     (Supply  coming  before  "on.") 

Low (1)  Adj.,  "He  is  very  low  this  evening."     (2)  Adv.,  "Aim 

low ;"   "He  speaks  too  low." 

More  ....  (1)  Jfoun,  "Have  you  any  more?"  "They  saved  some 
more,  some  less."  (2)  Adj.,  "We  want  more  men;"  "Let 
us  hear  no  more  complaints."  (3)  Adv.,  "  Which  returned 
not  again  unto  him  any  more" 

Much .  ...  (1)  Noun,  "They  made  much  of  the  little  they  had." 
(2)  Adj.,  "He  displayed  much  learning."  (3)  Adv.,  "I 
am  much  disheartened;"   "He  reads  much" 

Nay (1)  Noun,  "The  nays  have  it;"   "I  say  imy."     (2)  Adv., 

"Nay,  I  said  not  so." 


SYNTAX — WORDS   CLASSIFIED.  219 

Ay,  aye,  yea,  are  similar  to  nay  in  use  and  construction;  as,  "The 
ayes  have  it;"  "Yea,  verily."  Yea  and  nay  are  also  used  as  conjunc- 
tions to  denote  emphatic  addition;  as,  "What  carefulness  it  wrought 
in  you,  yea,  what  clearing  of  yourselves,  yea,  what  indignation,  yea, 
what  fear,  yea,  what  vehement  desire,  yea,  what  zeal,  yea,  what  re- 
venge."— 2  Cor.  vii,  11. 

No (1)  Noun,  "The  noes  have  it."      (2)   Adj.,  "This  is  no 

place  for  mirth."     (3)  Adv.,  "I  can  walk  no  faster." 

Notwithstanding.     (1)    Prep.,  "We    walked    notwithstanding    the 

rain."  (2)  Conj.,  "He  is  kind,  notwithstanding  he  is 
stern." 

Now (1)  Noun,  "Now  is  the  accepted  time;"   "Eternity  is  a 

never-ending  now"  (2)  Adv.,  "Come  novj"  (3)  Conjo, 
"Now,  Barabbas  was  a  robber." 

Once  ....  (1)  Noun,  "Forgive  me  just  this  once."     (2)  Adv,,  "He 

visits  us  once  a  year." 

Only (1)  Adj.,  "Is  this  the  only  hotel  in  town?"      (2)    Adv., 

"I  sing  only,  I  can  not  play." 

Over  ....  (1)  Adv.,  "They  passed  over;"  "Turn  over  a  new  leaf." 
(2)  Prep.,  "We  drove  over  the  bridge;"  "Over  the 
hills."  (3)  Part  of  a  comp.  prep.,  "Over  against  this 
mountain." 

Right  ...  (1)  Noun,  "The  right  will  finally  triumph;"  "I  stand 
here  on  my  right;"  "Our  rights."  (2)  Adj.,  "The  right 
man  in  the  right  place;"  "You  are  right."  (3)  Adv., 
"Bight  Eeverend;"    "Let  thine  eyes  look  right  on." 

Save (1)  Verb,  "Now  save  a  nation   and   now  save  a  groat." 

(2)  Prep.,  "Of  the  Jews,  five  times  received  I  forty 
stripes  save  one."  (3)  Conj.,  "And  that  no  man  might 
buy  or  sell  save  he  that  had  the  mark." — Rev.  xiii,  17. 

So (1)  Adv.,  "Why   are    you   so   angry?"    "He    said    so." 

(2)  Conj.,  "As  in  Adam  all  die,  so  in  Christ  shall  all 
be  made  alive." 

That  ....  (1)  Adj.,  "Watch  that  man;"  "That  house  is  sold;"  "This 
is  as  good  soil  as  that."  (2)  Rel.  pron.,  "Ye  that  fear 
the  Lord,  bless  the  Lord ;"  "  It  was  1^  not  he,  that  did  it." 

(3)  Conj.,  "He  heard  that  his  friend  was  sick;"  "Treat 
it  kindly  that  it  may  wish  with  us  to  stay," 


220  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The (1)  Article,  "The  stars."  (2)  Adv.,  "The  more,  the  bet- 
ter." (3)  When  the  modifies  an  adverb,  it  forms  with  it 
an  adv.  phrase;  as,  "I  like  you  the  better  for  that." 

Then  ....  (1)  lown.  "Alas,  the  change  twixt  now  and  then" 
(2)  Adv.,  "We  then  ascended  the  tower."  (3)  Conj., 
"If  you  do  not  want  it,  then  do  not  buy  it." 

There  ...  (1)  Adv.,  "I  live  there;1''  "Grass  grows  there  now." 
(2)  Expletive,  used  to  introduce  a  sentence  in  a  par- 
ticular way;   as,  "There  were  three  of  us." 

Till (1)  Konn,  "The  money   was   in  the   till"      (2)    Verb, 

"Farmers  till  the  ground."  (3)  Prep.,  "Stay  till  next 
Monday."     (4)  Conj.  adv.,  "Stay  till  I  return." 

Up (1)  Xoun,  "The  ups  and  downs  of  life  are  many."     (2) 

Adv.,  "Go  up,  baldhead."  (3)  Prep.,  "They  sailed  up 
the  river." 

Well (1)  Nonn,  "The  well  is   sixty   feet  deep."      (2)  Verb, 

"  Blood  that  welled  from  the  wound."  (3)  Adj.,  "  Is  it 
well  with  thee?"  (4)  Adv.,  "The  work  was  well  done." 
(5)  Ind.  adv.,  "Well,  what  do  you  say?" 

What  . . .  .  (1)  Mel.  pron.,  "Pay  what  you  owe."     (2)  Int.  pron., 

"What  peases  you?"  (3)  Adj.,  "What  vessel  is  that?" 
(4)  Adv.,  "  What  [partly]  with  entreaty,  what  with  threat- 
ening, I  succeeded."  (5)  Interj.,  "What!  is  thy  servant 
a  dog?" 

When (1)  Nonn,  "Since  when  was  it?"     (2)  Adv.,  "When  you 

were  there."  (3)  Conj.  adv.,  "Write  when  you  reach 
Boston."     So,  where. 

Whieh.  .  .  (1)  Kel.  pron.,  "The  house  in  which  I  live."     (2)  Int. 

pron.,  "Which  is  he?"  (3)  Adj.,  "Which  road  shall  I 
take?"     So,  who. 

While  ...  (1)  Nonn,  "That  is  worth  while."  (2)  Verb,  "We  will 
while  away  an  hour."  (3)  Adv.,  "While  waiting  for  the 
train."     (4)  Conj.  adv.,  "We  listened  while  he  played." 

Worse  ...(1)  Noun,  "For  better  or  worse."  (2)  Adj.,  "He  i3 
worse  to-day."     (3)  Adv.,  "He  might  do  worse." 

Worth  ...  (1)  Nonn,  "They  have  lost  their  dignity  and  worth."  (2) 
Verb,  an  old  imperative  of  a  word  meaning  to  be,  "  Woe 
worth  the  day."     (3)  Adj.,  "He  is  worth  a  million." 


SYNTAX — WORDS    CLASSIFIED.  221 

Yet (1)  Adv.,  "Our  country  yet  remains."     (2)  Conj.,  "I  am 

disappointed,  yet  not  discouraged." 

Yonder  .  .  (1)  Adj.,  "Yonder  mountain."     (2)  Adv.,  "Who  beckons 
to  us  yonder." 

Hem.  1. — Nouns  may  perform  an  adjective  use,  and  still  be  re- 
garded as  nouns;  as,  "The  sun's  rays;"  "Gen.  Harrison's  resi- 
dence;" "  Peter  the  Hermit /"  "Dionysius  the  Tyrant.77 

Rem.  2. — By  being  placed  before  the  words  which  they  modify, 
nouns  may  be  used  as  adjectives;  as,  "Our  Indian  summer;" 
"Christmas  eve;"  "Strawberry  short-cake."  Nouns  thus  used  may 
be  modified  by  adjectives;  as,  "The  High  Church  Party;"  "The 
Protective  Tariff  Bill." 

A  compound  expression  may  be  formed  by  uniting  two  nouns, 
or  a  noun  and  an  adjective,  by  a  hyphen;  as,  "Fire-clay  brick;" 
" air-pump  experiments;"  "a  white-oak  pail;"  "a  white  oak-pail." 
In  all  cases,  the  limiting  noun  must  be  in  the  singular  number ;  as, 
"A  four-rod  chain;"  "a  ten-foot  pole."  "This  medicine  cures 
ft^-diseases ;"  "a  spectacle-maker;"  " a  scissor-hill." 

A  compound  expression  may  be  formed  of  an  indefinite  number 
of  words,  joined  by  hyphens,  the  entire  phrase  being  used  as  a 
single  word;  as,  "The  Kansas- Nebraska  Bill;"  "an  out-and-out 
falsehood;"   "He  was  dressed  in  brown-once-black" 

Hem.  3. — Nouns  connected  by  conjunctions  frequently  form  a 
compound  term,  which  must  be  regarded  as  a  single  thing,  though 
composed  of  distinct  parts;  as,  "Three  dollars  a  day  and  board  is 
all  I  ask;"  "A  horse  and  wagon  was  stolen." 

Rem.  4. — Phrases,  inseparable  in  thought,  may  be  formed  by 
uniting  prepositions  with  themselves  or  other  parts  of  speech. 

1.  A  verb  and  preposition ;  as,  to  cast  up,  to  buy  off,  to  bring  to, 
to  come  to,  to  go  over,  &c.  The  preposition  should  be  considered  an 
inseparable  part  of  the  verb,  but  it  may  be  parsed  as  an  adverb. 

2.  A  preposition  and  adjective;  as,  on  high,  at  large,  in  tamest, 
at  most,  &c. :  inseparable  phrases,  either  adjective  or  adverbial. 

3.  Preposition  and  preposition ;  as,  over  and  over,  by  and  by,  in 
and  in,  through  and  through,  &c. :  inseparable  adverbial  phrases. 

4.  Noun,  preposition,  and  noun;  as,  day  by  day,  face  to  face, 
stride  by  stride,  cheek  by  jowl,  &c.  As  the  expressiveness  of  these 
phrases  is  destroyed  by  supplying  any  ellipsis,  they  should  be 


222  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

classed  among  inseparable  adverbial  phrases.  If  preferred,  how- 
ever, each  word  may  be  parsed  separately,  the  first  noun  being 
made  the  object  of  a  preposition  understood. 

Rem.  5, — Two  prepositions  frequently  come  together :  in  which 
case  they  form  a  complex  preposition;  the  first  in  order  is  an 
adverb,  or  both  are  adverbs;  as,  "He  comes  from  over  [complex 
preposition)  the  sea;"  "They  rode  by  [adverb)  in  a  carriage;" 
"The  whole  subject  was  gone  over  with"  (both  adverbs.) 

Rem.  6.^ — Two  or  more  conjunctions  may  come  together:  in 
which  case  each  has  its  use,  which  should  always  be  regarded  in 
parsing:  as,  "Now  when  even  had  come;"  "And  so  I  penned  it 
down." 

228,  Exercises. 

1.  He  has  been  ill  since  November.  2.  I  will  go,  provided  he 
sends  for  me.  3.  Can  you  not  still  this  noise  ?  4.  The  rain  still 
continues.  5.  The  before-mentioned  facts  are  before  you.  6.  Does 
he  live  anywhere  in  Ohio  ?  7.  This  boy  is  full  ten  years  old.  8.  I 
never  saw  a  saw  saw  a  saw  as  that  saw  saws  a  saw.  9.  What  with 
the  bread,  and  what  with  the  water,  he  sustained  himself  for  sev- 
eral weeks.  10.  Give  me  such  as  I  bargained  for,  and  as  much  as  I 
bargained  for. 

11.  What,  then,  could  be  done?  12.  He  has  come  round.  13. 
That  man  purchased  a  round  of  beef.  14.  The  weight  of  this  box 
is  forty  pounds.  15.  The  stars  are  out  by  twos  and  threes.  16. 
Whether  is  greater,  the  gold  or  the  temple?  17.  Sing  unto  the 
Lord,  O  ye  saints  of  his.  18.  No  man  can  come  unto  me  except 
the  Father  draws  him.  19.  He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green 
pastures.  20.  They  have  promised,  yet  they  do  not  perform.  21. 
One  came,  methought,  and  whispered  in  my  ear. 

22.  He  that  catches  at  more  than  belongs  to  him,  justly  deserves 
to  lose  what  he  has.  23.  All  this,  I  heard  as  one  half  dead ;  but 
answer  had  I  none  to  words  so  true,  save  tears  for  my  sins.  24. 
Dreaming,  she  knew  it  was  a  dream.  25.  I  have  told  what,  and 
how  true  thou  art.  26.  He  thought  only  of  his  subject.  27.  The 
path  of  glory  leads  but  to  the  grave.  28.  Kings  will  be  tyrants 
from  policy  when  subjects  are  rebels  from  principle.  29.  Angling 
is  somewhat  like  poetry :  men  are  apt  to  be  born  so. —  Walton. 

30.  And  the  final  event  to  himself  has  been  that,  as  he  rose 
like  a  rocket,  he  fell   like   the   stick.— Paine.     31.  There   shall 


SYNTAX — WORDS   CLASSIFIED.  223 

nothing  die  of  all  that  is  the  children's  of  Israel.  32.  We  have 
just  come  from  Brown  and  Starr's.  33.  Three  times  seven  are 
twenty-one.  34.  I  paid  thirty-seven  and  a  half  cents  for  butter 
this  morning.  35.  Wheat  is  two  dollars  a  bushel.  36.  That  hill 
is  four  miles  off.  37.  He  ran  the  train  at  the  rate  of  forty  miles  an 
hour.     38.  The  more  I  see  of  him  the  better  I  like  him. 

39.  Let  your  communication  be  yea,  yea,  and  nay,  nay.  40.  As 
far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west,  so  far  hath  He  removed  our  trans- 
gressions from  us.  41.  Therefore,  if  thine  enemy  hunger,  feed  him ; 
if  he  thirst,  give  him  drink :  for  in  so  doing,  thou  shalt  heap  coals 
of  fire  on  his  head.  42.  It  is  good  for  us  to  be  here.  43.  Consider 
the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow ;  they  toil  not,  neither  do  they 
spin.  44.  A  little  one  shall  become  a  thousand,  and  a  small  one  a 
strong  nation.  45.  If  I  forget  thee,  O  Jerusalem,  let  my  right 
hand  forget  her  cunning. 

46.  Hitherto  shalt  thou  come,  but  no  further.  47.  Yet  man  is 
born  unto  trouble,  as  the  sparks  fly  upward.  48.  One  fault  he  has; 
I  know  but  only  one.  49.  "  Madam,"  said  I  emphatically,  "  you 
are  in  an  error."  50.  In  this  case,  it  will  vanish  by  degrees.  51. 
To  be  a  foreigner,  was  always  in  England  a  reason  of  dislike. 
52.  How  feeble  were  the  attempts  at  planting  towns,  is  evident  from 
the  nature  of  the  tenure  by  which  the  lands  near  the  Saco  were 
held. — Bancroft.  53.  This  is — what  shall  we  call  it?  54.  It  is  he, 
even  he.    bb.  He  wras  not  even  invited  to  be  present. 

66.  Are  you  fond  of  skating? — Somewhat.  57.  Is  your  health 
good,  now? — Eather  so.  58.  The  garret  was  filled  with  broken 
chairs,  cast-off  garments,  and  what  not.  59.  He  gave  me  such  a 
warm  reception.  60.  How  long  wras  it  before  the  man  came  to? — 
About  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  61.  How  did  he  come  by  his 
property?  62.  No  quips,  nowr,  Pistol :  indeed  "I  am  in  the  waist  two 
yards  about.  63.  That 's  certain ;  I  for  my  part  knew  the  tailor 
(  that  made  the  wings  she  flew  withal. 

64.  He  that  wTill  not  when  he  may, 
When  he  would,  he  shall  have  nay. 

65.  Then  say  not  man  's  imperfect,  Heaven  in  fault ; 
Say,  rather,  man  's  as  perfect  as  he  ought. — Pope. 

66.  For  what  is  worth  in  any  thing 

But  so  much  money  as  ?t  will  bring? — Butler* 

67.  O,  what  a  tangled  web  we  weave, 
When  first  we  practice  to  deceive. — ScotL 


224  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

68.  The  swaD  on  still  St.  Mary's  lake, 

Float  double,  swan  and  shadow. —  Wordswwth. 

69.  In  the  hexameter  rises  the  fountain's  silvery  column, 

In  the  pentameter  aye  falling  in  melody  back. — Coleridge. 

70.  Here  lies  what  once  was  Matthew  Prior; 

The  son  of  Adam  and  Eve : 
Can  Bourbon  or  Nassau  claim  higher? — Matt.  Prior. 

71.  "Moreover,  it  is  written  that  my  race 

Hewed  Ammon,  hip  and  thigh,  from  Aroer 
On  Arnon  unto  Minnith."     Here  her  face 
Glowed  as  I  looked  at  her. — Tennyson. 

72.  I  can  not  tell  what  you  and  other  men 
Think  of  this  life ;  but  for  my  single  self, 
I  had  as  lief  not  be  as  live  to  be 

In  awe  of  such  a  thing  as  I  myself. — Shahpeare. 

73.  Think  for  thyself— one  good  idea, 

But  known  to  be  thine  own, 
Is  better  than  a  thousand  gleaned 
%     From  fields  by  others  sown. —  Wilson. 

74.  So  we  were  left  galloping,  Joris  and  I, 

Past  Looz  and  past  Tongres,  no  cloud  in  the  sky : 
The  broad  sun  above  laughed  a  pitiless  laugh; 
'Neath  our  feet  broke  the  brittle  bright  stubble  like  chaff; 
Till  over  by  Dalhem  a  dome-spire  sprang  white, 
And  "  Gallop,"  gasped  Joris,  "  for  Aix  is  in  sight." 

Browning, 

75.  Fate  seemed  to  wind  him  up  for  four-score  years: 
Yet  proudly  fan  he  on  ten  winters  more: 

Till  like  a  clock  worn  out  with  eating  time, 

The  wheels  of  weary  life  at  last  stood  still. — Dryden. 

76.  This  well  may  be 

The  Day  of  Judgment  which  the  world  awaits; 

But,  be  it  so  or  not,  I  only  know 

My  present  duty,  and  my  Lord's  command 

To  occupy  till  he  come.     So  at  the  post 

Where  he  hath  set  me  in  his  providence, 

I  choose  for  one  to  meet  him  face  to  face, — 

No  faithless  servant  frightened  from  my  task, 

But  ready  when  the  Lord  of  the  harvest  calls. —  Wliittier. 


SYNTAX — FIGURES.  225 

FIGURES    OF   LANGUAGE. 
229.  Definitions. 

1.  A  Figure  of  Speech  is  a  departure  from  the 
ordinary  form,  regular  construction,  or  literal  signification 
of  words. 

2.  A  Figure  of  Etymology  is  a  departure  from  the 
usual  form  of  a  word. 

3.  A  Figure  of  Syntax  is  a  departure  from  the  usual 
construction  of  words. 

4.  A  Figure  of  Rhetoric  is  a  departure  from  the 
primitive  or  literal  sense  of  a  word. 

230.  Figures  of  Etymology. 

1.  Apheresis  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  syllable  from 
the  beginning  of  a  word;  as,  'gainst,  for  against;  'gan, 
for  began. 

2.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  a  letter  or  syllable  to 
a  word;  as,  adown,  for  down;    beloved,  for  loved. 

3.  Syncope  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  letters  in 
the  middle  of  a  word;  as,  ne'er,  for  never;  slumbering,  for 
slumbering. 

4.  Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  a  compound  word  by 
the  insertion  of  a  word  between  its  parts;  as,  to  us  ward, 
for  toward  us;  how  high  soever,  for  howsoever  high. 

5.  Apocope  is  the  omission  of  the  last  letter  or  syllable 
of  a  wrord;   as,  th\  for  the;  yond,  for  yonder. 

6.  Paragoge  is  the  addition  of  a  letter  or  syllable  to 
the  end  of  a  word;  as,  bounden,  for  bound;  withouten,  for 
without. 


226  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

7.  Syneresis  is  the  contraction  of  two  syllables  into 
one;  as,  donH,  for  do  not;  canH,  for  can  not. 

8.  XHeresis  is  the  separation  of  two  vowel  letters 
which  might  otherwise  form  a  diphthong  or  digraph;  as, 
aerial,  preeminent 

231.  Figures  of  Syntax. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause 
which  is  necessary  to  complete  the  construction  of  a  sen- 
tence. 

Note. — For  examples  of  Ellipsis,  see  1 190. 

2.  Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  more  words  than  are 
necessary. 

Ex. — "I  saw  it  with  these  eyes."  "All  ye  inhabitants  of  the 
world,  and  dwellers  on  the  earth" 

Rem.  l. — Polysyndeton  is  the  repetition  of  a  conjunction ;  as, 
"  He  is  good,  and  wise,  and  generous." 

Rem.  2. — Asyndeton  is  the  omission  of  connective  words  in  a 
sentence. 

Ex. — "I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered;"  "He  is  wise,  honest,  faith- 
ful ;"   "  We  walked  slowly,  noiselessly,  with  bated  breath." 

Rem.  3. — Anadiplosis  is  the  use  of  the  same  word  or  expres- 
sion in  the  termination  of  one  clause  of  a  sentence,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  next. 

Ex. — "Has  he  a  gust  for  blood?    Blood  shall  fill  his  cup." 

Rem.  4. — Epizeuxis  is  the  emphatic  repetition  of  the  same 
word  or  words. 

Ex. — Alone,  alone,  all,  all  alone, 

Alone  on  a  wide,  wide  sea. — Coleridge. 

3.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of  one 
form,  for  another. 

Ex. —  We,  for  I;  you,  for  thou;  "Slow  [slowly]  rises  worth;" 
"  What  is  writ  is  writ." 


SYNTAX FIGURES.  227 

4.  Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words  from  the 
plain  grammatical  order. 

Ex. — "He  wanders  earth  around;"  "From  peak  to  peak,  the 
rattling  crags  among;"    "Lightly  from  fair  to  fair  he  flew" 

5.  Syllepsis  is  the  agreement  of  one  word  with  the 
figurative  sense  of  another. 

Ex. — "The  Word  was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us:  and 
we  beheld  his  glory.7' — John  i,  14.  "A  dauntless  soul  erect,  who 
smiles  on  death." — Thomson. 

6.  Parenthesis  is  the  insertion  of  a  word  or  sentence 
between  the  parts  of  another  sentence. 

Ex. — "Every  planet,  (for  God  has  made  nothing  in  vain,)  is 
most  probably  inhabited." 

7.  Zeugma  is  a  figure  by  which  an  adjective  or  verb, 

which  agrees  with  a  nearer  word,  is  referred  to  one  more 

remote. 

Ex. — "Lust  overcame  shame;  boldness,  fear;  and  madness, 
reason." 

232.  Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

1.  Simile  is  an  express  or  formal  comparison. 
Ex. — Like  a  dog,  he  hunts  in  dreams. — Tennyson. 

Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken  ; 

Or  like  stout  Cortez,  when  with  eagle  eyes 
He  stared  at  the  Pacific. — Keats. 

2.  Metaphor  is  the  expression  of  similitude  without 
the  signs  of  comparison. 

Ex — "A  flash  of  wit;"  "A  sea  of  troubles;"  "The  moralist  is 
a  scout  for  consequences;"   "The  wish  is  father  to  the  thought." 

3.  Personification  consists  in  attributing  life  and 
mind  to  inanimate  objects. 


228  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — "O  Winter!  ruler  of  the  inverted  year;"  "The  earth 
mourneth  and  fadeth  away." 

"  Yes,  the  Year  is  growing  old, 

And  his  eye  is  pale  and  bleared: 
Death j  with  frosty  hand  and  cold, 
Plucks  the  old  man  by  the  beard, 
Sorely,  sorely ! " — Longfellow. 

4.  Allegory  is  a  discourse  in  which  one  subject  is  de- 
scribed by  another  resembling  it. 

Ex. — The  Pilgrim's  Progress;  Spencer's  Faerie  Queene;  Swift's 
Tale  of  a  Tub ;  The  Vision  of  Mirza. 

Kem.  1. — A  Fable  is  a  short  allegory. 

Ex. — ^Esop's  and  La  Fontaine's  Fables.  Most  fables  are  short 
stories  about  certain  animals  that  are  regarded  as  representatives  of 
particular  qualities  ;   as,  the  fox,  of  cunning ;  the  lion,  of  strength. 

Rem.  2. — A  Parable  is  a  relation  of  something  real  in  nature 
from  which  a  moral  is  drawn. 

Ex. — Parable  of  the  Poor  Man  and  his  Lamb. — 2  Sam.  xii,  1-5. 
Of  the  Sower.— Matt.  xiii.     Of  the  Ten  Virgins.— Matt.  xxv. 

5.  Synecdoche  is  a  figure  by  which  the  whole  is  put 
for  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole;  a  species  for  a  genus, 
or  a  genus  for  a  species,  &c. 

Ex. — Roof,  for  house  or  dwelling;  bread,  for  food  generally; 
cut-throaty  for  assassin. 

"Belinda  smiled  and  all  the  world  was  gay." — Pope. 

Rem.  l. — Antonomasia  is  the  use  of  a  proper  name  for  a  com- 
mon name,  or  the  name  of  some  office,  rank,  profession,  trade,  or 
peculiarity,  instead  of  the  true  name  of  a  people  or  class. 

Ex. — "He  is  a  Buckeye"  i.  e.,  an  Ohioan;  "The  Crescent  City" 
i.e.,  New  Orleans. 

"Some  mute,  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest, 

Some  Cromwell,  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood." 

Rem.  2. — Euphemism  is  the  substitution  of  a  delicate  word  oi 
expression  for  one  which  is  harsh  or  offensive. 


SYNTAX — FIGURES.  229 

Ex. — Departed,  gone  to  rest,  fallen  asleep,  for  dead;  stopped  payment, 
for  become  bankrupt;  embezzlement,  for  theft. 

"Sleep  had  seized  her  senses. 
There  did  the  traveler  find  her  in  the  morning: 
Death  had  released  her." — Southey. 

6.  Metonymy  is  a  change  of  names,  or  a  figure  by 
which  one  word  is  put  for  another. 

Ex. — Gray  hairs,  for  old  age;  purse,  for  money ;  fare,  for  a  pas- 
senger;  city,  for  its  inhabitants;  "Ye  devour  widow's  houses;" 
"  They  have  Moses  and  the  prophets." 

7.  Antithesis  is  the  opposition  of  words  and  sentiments 
contained  in  the  same  sentence. 

Ex. — "Excess  of  ceremony  shows  want  of  breeding;"  "Wit 
laughs  at  things;  Humor  laughs  with  them." — Whipple. 

"Men  may  come  and  men  may  go, 
But  I  go  on  forever." — Tennyson. 

8.  Epigram  is  a  sentence  in  which  the  form  of  the 
language  contradicts  the  meaning  conveyed. 

Ex. — "I  can  not  see  the  city  for  the  houses."  "Summer  has 
set  in  with  its  usual  severity." — Walpole.  "Any  thing  awful 
always  makes  me  laugh."- — Lamb.  "Nothing  so  fallacious  as 
facts,  except  figures." — Canning.  "I  believe  it,  because  it  is  im- 
possible." 

Rem.  l. — The  Epigram  awakens  attention  by  the  seeming  ir- 
relevance of  the  assertion,  or  by  the  form  given  to  it. 

Rem.  3. — The  Paronomasia,  or  Pun,  is  a  play  on  the  various 
meanings  of  the  same  word. 

Ex. — A  friend  of  Curran,  hearing  a  person  near  him  say  curosity 
instead  of  curiosity,  exclaimed,  "How  that  man  murders  the  English 
language  ! "  "  Not  so  bad,"  said  Curran,  "  He  has  only  knocked  an 
*  out."  / 

Rem.  3 — The  Conundrum  is  a  sort  of  riddle,  in  which  some 
odd  resemblance  between  things  unlike  is  proposed  for  dis- 
covery. 

9.  Hyperbole  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  meaning  in- 


230  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

tended  to  be  conveyed,  by  magnifying  objects  beyond  their 
proper  bounds. 

Ex. — "Bivers  of  water  run  down  mine  eyes  because  they  keep 
not  thy  law."  "The  land  flows  with  milk  and  honey."  "The 
English  gain  two  hours  a  day  by  clipping  words." —  Voltaire. 

10.  Interrogation  is  the  putting  in  the  form  of  a 
question  what  is  meant  to  be  strongly  affirmative. 

Ex. — "  Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God  ?  " 
"  Oh,  who  can  hold  a  fire  in  his  hand, 
By  thinking  on  the  frosty  Caucasus? 
Or  cloy  the  hungry  edge  of  appetite 
By  bare  imagination  of  a  feast?" — ShaJcspeare. 

11.  Climax  is  an  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, by  which  they  are  made  to  rise  step  by  step  in 
interest  or  importance. 

Ex. — "  It  is  an  outrage  to  bind  a  Eoman  citizen ;  to  scourge  him 
is  an  atrocious  crime;  to  put  him  to  death  is  almost  a  parricide; 
but  to  crucify  him — what  shall  I  call  it?" — Cicero. 

Rem. — Anti-climax  is  any  great  departure  from  the  order 
required  in  climax. 

Ex. — "That  all-softening,  overpowering  knell, 

The  tocsin  of  the  soul — the  dinner-nell."* — Byron, 
"Die,  and  endow  a  college  or  a  cat." — Pope. 

12.  Exclamation  is  the  animated  or  impassioned  ex- 
pression of  sudden  and  intense  emotion0 

Ex. — "  Oh,  what  a  pity ! "  "A  horse,  a  horse,  my  kingdom  for 
a  horse  !  "    "  Blow,  winds,  and  crack  your  cheeks ! " 

13.  Apostrophe  is  the  turning  away  from  the  real 
auditory,  and  addressing  an  absent  or  imaginary  one. 

Ex. — "Ye  winds  that  wafted  the  Pilgrims  to  the  land  of 
promise,  fan,  in  their  children's  hearts,  the  love  of  freedom!" — 
Everett. 

"Ye  toppling  crags  of  ice! 
Ye  avalanches,  whom  a  breath  draws  down, 
In  mountainous  overwhelming,  come  and  crush  me." — Byron. 


SYNTAX — FIGURES.  231 

Rem. — Etypotyposis,  or  Vision,  is  a  description  of  things  in 
such  strong  and  lively  colors,  as  to  bring  the  absent  before  the 
mind  with  the  force  of  present  reality. 

Ex. — "  I  see  the  rural  virtues  leave  the  land." — Goldsmith. 
"Greece  cries  to  us  by  the  convulsed  lips  of  her  poisoned,  dying 
Demosthenes." — Everett. 

14.  Innuendo  is  a  covert  suggestion  of  an  author's 
meaning,  instead  of  an  open  expression  of  it. 

Ex. — "What  evil  have  I  done  that  he  should  praise  me?" 
"He  did  his  party  all  the  harm  in  his  power:  he  spoke  for  it,  and 
voted  against  it." 

15.  Irony  is  a  mode  of  expression  by  which  what  is 
said  is  contrary  to  what  is  meant. 

Ex. — "  No  doubt  but  ye  are  the  people,  and  wisdom  will  die 
with  you." 

"And  on  our  City  Hall  a  justice  stands  : 
A  neater  form  was  never  made  of  board; 
Holding  majestically  in  her  hands 

A  pair  of  steelyards  and  a  wooden  sword, 
And  looking  down  with  complaisant  civility — 
Emblem  of  dignity  and  durability," — HallecJc. 

Rem. — Sarcasm  is  a  keen,  reproachful,  and  scornful  expression. 

Ex. — "Who  but  must  laugh,  if  such  a  man  there  be? 

Who  would  not  weep  if  Atticus  were  he  ?  " — Pope. 

16.  litotes  is  a  mode  of  expressing  something  by  deny- 
ing the  contrary. 

Ex. — "Nor  are  thy  lips  ungrateful,  sire  of  men, 
Nor  tongue  inadequate:  for  God  on  thee 
Abundantly  his  gifts  hath  also  poured." — Milton. 

17.  Catachresis  is  wresting  a  word  from  its  original 
signification,  and  making  it  express  something  at  variance 
with  its  true  meaning. 

Ex. — "Silver  curling-irons;"   "A  glass  ink-horn;"  "Her  voic© 
as  but  the  shadow  of  a  sound." —  Young. 


232  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

PUNCTUATION. 
233.  Definition. 

1.  Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  dis- 
course into  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences,  by  means  of 
points  or  marks. 

Rem.  i. — Points  are  principally  used  for  the  purpose  of  ren- 
dering the  sense  more  intelligible.  They  do  not  mark  all  the 
pauses  made  in  reading,  though  a  pause  is  generally  made  where 
a  point  is  used. 

Rem.  2. — A  change  in  the  punctuation  of  a  sentence,  generally 
produces  a  change  in  the  meaning. 

Ex. — John  Keys  the  lawyer  says  he  is  guilty. 
John,  Keys  the  lawyer  says  he  is  guilty. 
John  Keys,  the  lawyer  says  he  is  guilty. 
"  John  Keys  the  lawyer,"  says  he,  "is  guilty." 

2.  The  principal  marks  used  in  punctuation  are  the 
following : 


Comma,      .... 
Semicolon,      .     .     . 

Colon, 

Period,       .... 
Interrogation  Point, 


Exclamation  Point,    ! 

Dash, — 

Curves,       ....() 
Brackets,   .    .    .    .   [  ] 


234.  The  Comma. 

The  Comma  denotes  the  slightest  degree  of  separation 
between  the  elements  of  a  sentence. 

Rule  I. — A  complex  subject,  if  long,  should  be  sep- 
arated from  the  predicate  by  a  comma. 

Ex.— The  patriarchal  church,  inconsiderable  in  size  and  mean 
in  decoration,  stands  on  the  outermost  islet  of  the  Venetian 
group. — Ruthin. 


PUNCTUATION.  233 

Rule  II. — A  clause  used  as  subject,  if  it  ends  with  a 
verb,  should  be  separated  from  the  predicate  by  a  comma. 

Ex. — 1.  Whatever  is,  is  right.  2.  Whosoever  perseveres,  will 
succeed. 

Rule  III. — Nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  absolute  case 
by  pleonasm  or  direct  address,  should  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Our  souls,  how  heavily  they  go,  to  reach  immortal 
joys.  2.  Take,  O  boatman,  thrice  thy  fee.  3.  Think  of  that, 
Master  Brook. 

Rule  IV. — Adjective,  participial,  appositive,  and  abso- 
lute phrases,  should  be  separated  from  the  context  by 
commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Faithful  to  his  promise,  he  assisted  me  in  obtaining 
employment.  2.  Having  once  lost  the  good  opinion  of  our  friends, 
it  is  difficult  for  us  to  reclaim  it.  3.  The  maxim,  M  Enough  is  as 
good  as  a  feast,"  has  silenced  many  a  vain  wish.  4.  The  storm 
having  ceased,  we  weighed  anchor  and  set  sail. 

Rem.  i. — Nouns  in  apposition,  unmodified,  or  modified  by  the 
only,  are  not  separated  by  commas ;  as,  "  The  Emperor  Nero  was 
a  cruel  tyrant ;"   "  Thomson  the  poet  was  indolent." 

Rem.  2. — An  appositive  word  or  expression  introduced  by  as  or 
or,  should  be  set  off  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  So  that  he,  as  God,  sitteth 
in  the  temple  of  God ;"  "  Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  is  a  staple  produc- 
tion of  the  United  States." 

Rule  Vo — Transposed  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are 
usually  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Doubtless,  the  r%an  is  guilty:  the  evidence,  however, 
is  not  conclusive.  2.  Now,  faith  is  the  substance  of  things  hoped 
for,  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen.  3.  Integrity  is,  no  doubt,  the 
first  requisite.  4.  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  Him  declare  I 
unto  you. 

Rem.  i. — A  transposed  objective  element  is  not  usually  set  off 
by  a  comma ;  as,  "  That  book  he  has  never  returned." 

Rem.  2. — When  an  inverted  expression  begins  with  it  is  or  only, 
it  is  not  set  off  by  a  comma;   as,  "It  is  a  pleasant  thing  to  see 
H.G.20.. 


234  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  sun;"   "Only  on   slight  occasions  they  felt   disposed  to  be 

merciful." 

Rule  VI. — Parenthetical  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
commas. 

Rem. — A  parenthetical  word  or  expression  is  one  which  is  not 
essential  to  the  grammatical  construction  of  a  sentence,  but  is 
required  to  express  its  full  meaning. 

Ex. — 1.  He  invented,  it  is  said,  the  theory  of  moral  science. 
2.  That  excitement,  too,  was  of  the  most  dangerous  kind.  3.  Their 
great  predecessors,  it  is  true,  were  as  bad  critics  as  themselves. 

Rule  VII. — Adverbs  used  independently,  or  modify- 
ing an  entire  proposition,  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Yea,  the  earth  itself  shall  pass  away.  2.  Well,  if  this 
is  law,  I  want  no  more  of  it.     3.  Indeed,  you  must  wait  awhile. 

Rule  VIII. — When  a  verb  is  omitted  to  avoid  repe- 
tition, its  place  is  usually  supplied  by  a  comma. 

Ex. — 1.  One  murder  makes  a  villain;  millions,  a  hero.  2.  War 
is  the  law  of  violence ;  peace,  the  law  of  love.  3.  The  young  are 
slaves  to  novelty;  the  old,  to  custom;  the  middle-aged,  to  both; 
the  dead,  to  neither. 

Rem. — There  are  many  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  general 
practice  is,  to  omit  the  comma  unless  clearness  and  precision 
demand  its  insertion;  as,  "Reading  maketh  a  full  man,  confer- 
ence a  ready  man,  and  writing  an  exact  man." — Bacon. 

Rule  IX. — Antithetical  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
should  be  separated  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Talent  has  many  a  compliment  from  the  bench,  but 
tact  touches  fees.  2.  Strong  proofs,  not  a  loud  voice,  produce  con- 
viction.    3.  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull. 

Rule  X. — The  members  of  compound  sentences,  when 
short  and  connected  by  conjunctions,  should  be  separated 
by  commas. 


PUNCTUATION.  235 

Ex. — The  simplicity  of  his  character  inspired  confidence,  the 
ardor  of  his  eloquence  roused  enthusiasm,  and  the  gentleness  of  his 
manners  invited  friendship. 

Rule  XI. — Two  correlative  clauses  should  be  separated 
by  commas. 

Ex. — As  the  lightning  that  lighteneth  out  of  the  one  part  under 
heaven,  shineth  unto  the  other  part  under  heaven,  so  shall  the 
Son  of  Man  be  in  his  day. 

Rem. — Two  correlative  clauses,  joined  by  as  or  than,  should 
not  be  separated  by  a  comma;  as,  "She  is  as  old  as  he?"  "A  good 
name  is  rather  to  be  chosen  than  great  riches." 

Rule  XIIo — The  clauses  of  complex  sentences  should 
be  separated  by  commas,  unless  the  dependent  clauses  are 
very  short  and  the  connection  very  close. 

Ex. — 1,  Men  of  great  and  stirring  powers,  who  are  destined  to 
mold  the  age  in  which  they  are  born,  must  first  mold  themselves 
upon  it. — Coleridge.  2.  I  took  notice,  in  particular,  of  a  very 
profligate  fellow,  who,  I  did  not  question,  came  loaded  with  his 
crimes;  but  upon  searching  his  bundle,  I  found  that,  instead  of 
throwing  his  guilt  from  him,  he  had  only  laid  down  his  memory.— 
Addison. 

Rule  XIII. — When  words  are  arranged  in  pairs,  each 
couplet  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Hope  and  fear,  pleasure  and  pain,  diversify  our  lives. 
2.  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  I  give  my  hand  and  my  heart  to 
this  vote. 

Rule  XIV. — Each  term  of  a  series  of  words  in  the 
same  construction,  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  War,  peace,  darts,  spears,  towns,  rivers,  every  thing,  in 
his  writings,  is  alive. 

2.  Sky,  mountains,  river,  winds,  lake,  lightnings !  ye 
With  night,  and  clouds,  and  thunder,  and  a  soul 
To  make  these  felt  and  feeling,  wTell  may  be 
Things  that  have  made  me  watchful. — Byron. 

Rem — Two  words,  closely  connected  by  a  conjunction,  should 
not  be  separated ;  as,  "  Honor  and  fame  from  no  condition  rise." 


236  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rule  XV. — The  terms  of  a  coordinate  series,  used  as 
the  antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun,  should  be  set  off  by 
commas,  to  show  that  the  relative  belongs  equally  to  each 
term. 

Ex. — The  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid,  which  unite  to 
form  the  atmosphere,  are  mingled  in  unequal  proportions. 

Rule  XVI. — A  direct  quotation,  separated  by  a  principal 
clause,  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  "Oh,  Mr.  Pickwick,"  said  Mrs.  Bardell,  trembling  with 
agitation,  "  you  ?re  very  kind,  sir."  2.  "  Sir,"  said  Mr.  Adams, 
"my  definition  of  charity  is,  a  generous  disposition  to  relieve  the 
distressed." 

Rule  XVII. — A  quoted  sentence,  a  long  infinitive  phrase, 
or  an  indirect  quotation,  introduced  by  that,  should  usually 
be  set  off  by  a  comma. 

Ex. — 1.  He  asked,  "Why  are  you  so  melancholy?"  2.  I  have 
heard  say  of  thee,  that  thou  canst  understand  a  dream  to  inter- 
pret it.  3.  To  correct  such  gross  vices  as  lead  us  to  commit  a  real 
injury  to  others,  is  the  part  of  morals,  and  the  object  of  the  most 
ordinary  education. — Hume. 

Rule  XVIII. — Words  repeated  for  emphasis  should  be 
set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you.  2.  "Treason,  treason, 
treason,"  reechoed  from  every  part  of  the  house. 

Rule  XIX. — Whenever  ambiguity  would  arise  from  its 
omission,  a  comma  should  be  inserted. 

Ex. — 1.  I  have  a  house  with  nine  rooms,  and  out-buildings. 
2.  He  has  seven  yoke  of  oxen,  and  horses. 

EXERCISES. 

Insert  commas  wherever  required  in  these  sentences: 

1.  A  man  who  does  so  care  has  a  garment  embroidered  with 
hooks  v/hich  catches  at  every  thing  that  passes  by.  2.  There  were 
burly  tradesmen  with  an  air  of  quiet  satisfaction  sauntering  about 
or  leaning  against  railings.    3.  Come  Eollo — let  us  take  a  walk- 


PUNCTUATION.  237 

4.  Ill-sorted  marriages  will  hardly  bring  agreement  and  from  those 
of  convenience  will  hardly  come  love.  5.  We  often  commend  as 
well  as  censure  imprudently. 

6.  The  deaf  and  the  blind  and  the  lame  were  there.  7.  The 
rich  and  the  poor — the  high  and  the  loww-the  learned  and  the  un- 
learned— have  access  alike  to  this  fountain  of  peace.  8.  It  shows 
a  love  breaking  through  the  reserve  and  distance  which  we  all  feel 
to  belong  to  the  method  of  teaching  us  by  his  works  alone.  9.  I 
see  then  in  revelation  a  purpose  corresponding  with  that  for  which 
human  teaching  was  instituted.  10.  The  oranges,  lemons  and  figs 
which  grow  in  the  northern  range  of  the  Southern  States  are  of  an 
inferior  quality. 

11.  "Think  you  Abel"  said  Paul  at  last  "that  the  storm  drove 
thither?"  12.  Yes,  I  am  sure  it  is  so.  13.  As  it  was  then  so  it  is 
now.  14.  If  one  burden  can  be  borne  so  can  another  and  another. 
15.  He  that  seeketh  findeth.  16.  I  lisped  in  numbers  for  the 
numbers  came.  17.  Concession  is  no  humiliation  nor  admission  of 
error  any  disgrace.  18.  The  idle  want  steadiness  of  purpose ;  the 
indolent  power  of  exertion.  19.  It  was  said  of  Socrates  that  he 
brought  philosophy  down  from  heaven  to  dwell  among  men. 

20.  "  No  no  no,"  said  she  greatly  agitated.  21.  He  plagues  you 
with  no  doubts  no  half  views  no  criticism.  22.  Daniel  Webster 
the  great  American  statesman  died  at  Marshfield  Mass.  23.  An 
indirect  advantage  but  a  very  considerable  one  attendant  upon 
various  modes  of  recreation  is  that  they  provide  opportunities  of 
excelling  in  something  to  boys  and  men  who  are  dull  in  things 
which  form  the  staple  of  education. 

235.  The  Semicolon. 

The  Semicolon  denotes  a  degree  of  separation  greater 
than  that  denoted  by  the  comma. 

Rule  I. — The  semicolon  should  be  used  before  as, 
namely,  to  wit,  viz.,  introducing  an  example  or  an  illus- 
tration. 

Ex. — 1.  One  part  only  of  an  antithesis  is  sometimes  expressed; 
as,  "A  friendly  eye  would  never  see  such  faults."  2.  Some  men 
distinguish  the  period  of  the  world  into  four  ages ;  viz.,  the  golden 
age,  the  silver  age,  the  brazen  age,  and  the  iron  age. 


238  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rule  II. — The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  the  mem- 
bers of  a  compound  sentence,  when  the  connective  is 
omitted. 

Ex. — The  earth  glows  with  the  colors  of  civilization ;  the  banks 
of  the  stream  are  enameled  with  the  richest  grasses ;  woodlands 
and  cultivated  fields  are  harmoniously  blended  ;  the  birds  of  spring 
find  their  delight  in  orchards  and  trim  gardens,  variegated  with 
choicest  plants  from  every  temperate  zone;  while  the  brilliant 
flowers  of  the  tropics  bloom  from  the  windows  of  the  green-house 
and  the  saloon. — Bancroft. 

Rule  III. — The  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  if 
long,  or  if  their  parts  are  set  off  by  commas,  should  be 
separated  by  semicolons,  even  when  joined  by  connectives. 

Ex — 1.  And  he  gave  some,  apostles;  and  some,  prophets;  and 
some,  evangelists ;  and  some,  pastors  and  teachers.  2.  I  only  know 
that  I  had  been  torn  from  my  dromedary,  borne  along,  and  buried 
by  the  sand ;  and  that  the  young  child  was  still  in  my  arms.— 
Ware. 

Rule  IV. — Successive  clauses  having  a  common  depend- 
ence, should  be  separated  by  semicolons. 

Ex. — My  imagination  would  conjure  up  all  that  I  had  heard  or 
read  of  the  watery  world  beneath  me;  of  the  finny  tribes  that 
roam  in  the  fathomless  valleys ;  of  shapeless  monsters  that  lurk 
among  the  very  foundations  of  the  earth ;  and  those  wild  phan- 
tasms that  swell  the  tales  of  fishermen  and  sailors. — Irving. 

Rem. — This  rule  applies,  also,  to  a  series  of  phrases,  some  one 
of  which  is  composed  of  parts  separated  by  commas ;  as,  "  To  be 
delivered  from  trouble ;  to  be  relieved  from  power ;  to  see  oppres- 
sion humbled ;  to  be  freed  from  sickness  and  distress ;  to  lie  down 
as  in  a  bed  of  security,  in  a  long  oblivion  of  our  woes ;  to  sleep 
in  peace  without   the  fear  of  interruption;  —  how  pleasing  the 

prospect ! " 

* 

Rule  V. — An  inferential,  contrasted,  or  explanatory 
clause,  introduced  by  for,  but,  and,  or  an  equivalent  con- 
nective, is  usually  set  off  by  a  semicolon. 

Ex. — 1.  Eejoice  the  soul  of  thy  servant;  for  unto  thee,  O  Lord, 


PUNCTUATION,  239 

I  lift  up  my  soul.  2.  The  person  he  chanced  to  see,  was,  to  ap- 
pearance, an  old,  sordid,  blind  man ;  but  upon  his  following  him 
from  place  to  place,  he  at  last  found,  by  his  own  confession,  that 
he  was  Plutus,  the  god  of  riches,  and  that  he  was  just  come  out 
of  the  house  of  a  miser. 

Rem. — When  the  clauses  are  short,  the  semicolon  is  frequently 
replaced  by  the  comma;  as,  "I  go,  but  I  return;''*  "They  had  not 
come  in  search  of  gain,  for  the  soil  was  sterile  and  unproductive." 

EXERCISES. 

Insert  semicolons  wherever  required  in  these  sentences: 

1.  A  Scotch  mist  becomes  a  shower,  and  a  shower,  a  flood,  and 
a  flood,  a  storm,  and  a  storm,  a  tempest,  and  a  tempest,  thunder 
and  lightning,  and  thunder  and  lightning,  heaven-quake  and 
earth-quake. 

2.  And  besides  this,  giving  all  diligence,  add  to  your  faith, 
virtue,  and  to  virtue,  knowledge,  and  to  knowledge,  temperance, 
and  to  temperance,  patience,  and  to  patience,  godliness,  and  to 
godliness,  brotherly  kindness,  and  to  brotherly  kindness,  charity. 

3.  Wit  is  abrupt,  darting,  scornful,  and  tosses  its  analogies  in 
your  face,  Humor  is  slow  and  shy,  insinuating  its  fun  into  your 
heart.  4.  An  enigma  is  a  dark  saying,  an  obscure  question,  a 
riddle. 

5.  I  take  no  notice  of  his  brutal  conduct,  I  do  not  speak  of  his 
treachery  and  malice.  6.  Never  value  yourself  upon  your  fortune 
for  this  is  the  sign  of  a  weak  mind.  7.  He  has  two  farms  namely 
a  large  one  and  a  small  one. 


236.  The  Colon. 

The  Colon  denotes  a  degree  of  separation  greater  than 
that  indicated  by  the  semicolon. 

Rule  I. — The  colon  should  be  used  after  the  formal 
introduction  to  a  speech,  a  course  of  reasoning,  a  lengthy 
quotation,  or  an  enumeration  of  particulars. 

Ex. — 1.  Then  closing  the  book,  he  proceded  in  a  lower  tone: 
"  The  philosophers  of  whom  you  have  read  in  the  dictionary,  pos- 
sessed this  wisdom  only  in  part,  because  they  were  heathens." 


240  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  reason  of  things,  also,  doth  help  to  explain  these  words, 
and  to  show  why  they  are  prohibited :  because  these  harsh  terms 
are  needless ;  because  they  are  commonly  unjust :  because  they  are 
uncharitable ;  because,  also,  they  produce  mischievous  effects, 

3.  Be  our  plain  answer  this :  the  throne  we  honor  is  the  people's 
choice;  the  laws  we  reverence  are  our  brave  father's  legacy;  the 
faith  we  follow  teaches  us  to  live  in  bonds  -of  charity  with  all 
mankind,  and  die  with  hope  of  bliss  beyond  the  grave. 

Rule  I!* — The  colon  should  be  used  before  an  explan- 
atory remark,  or  one  which  presents  the  meaning  of  the 
preceding  sentence  in  another  form. 

Ex. — 1.  All  reasoning  is  retrospective :  it  consists  in  the  appli- 
cation of  facts  and  principles  previously  known.  2.  By  degrees  he 
infuses  into  it  the  poison  of  his  own  ambition :  he  breathes  into  it 
the  fire  of  his  own  courage. 

Rule  III. — The  members  of  a  compound  sentence, 
whose  parts  are  phrases  or  clauses  set  off  by  semicolons^ 
should  be  separated  by  colons. 

Ex. — We  do  not  say  that  his  error  lies  in  being  a  good  mem- 
ber of  society;  this,  though  only  a  circumstance  at  present,  is  a 
very  fortunate  one:  the  error  lies  in  his  having  discarded  the 
authority  of  God,  as  his  legislator;  or,  rather,  in  his  not  having 
admitted  the  influence  of  that  authority  over  his  mind,  heart,  or 
practice. 

EXER  ZJISES. 

Insert  colons  wherever  required  in  these  sentences: 

1.  There  are  five  senses,  sight,  hearing,  feeling,  taste,  and  smell. 
2.  The  discourse  consisted  of  two  parts,  in  the  first  was  shown 
the  necessity  of  exercise ;  in  the  second,  the  advantages  that  would 
result  from  it.  3.  Men's  evil  manners  live  in  brass,  their  virtues 
we  write  in  water.  4.  Write  on  your  slates  the  following  example, 
the  lake  is  very  deep. 

5.  He  sunk  to  repose  where  the  red  heaths  are  blended  ; 
One  dream  of  his  childhood  his  fancy  passed  o'er, 
But  his  battles  are  fought,  and  his  march  it  is  ended  ; 
The  sound  of  the  bagpipe  shall  wake  him  no  more. 


PUNCTUATION.  241 

237.  The  Period. 

The  Period  denotes  the  greatest  degree  of  separation. 

Rule  I. — The  period  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  a 

declarative  or  imperative  sentence. 

Ex. — 1.  Contrivance  proves  design.     2.  Study  diligently. 

Rem. — A  period  is  sometimes  placed  at  the  end  of  the  first  of 
two  or  more  complete  sentences  joined  by  conjunctions;  as,  "See- 
ing, then,  that  these  things  can  not  be  spoken  against,  ye  ought 
to  be  quiet,  and  to  do  nothing  rashly.  For  ye  have  brought 
hither  these  men,  who  are  neither  robbers  of  churches,  nor  yet 
blasphemers  of  your  goddess." 

Rule  II. — The  period  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of 
every  abbreviated  word. 

Ex.— 1.  H.  M.  Swainson,  Esq.,  b.  Feb.  10,  1757,  d.  Ap.  3,  1812. 
2.  See  Ms.,  pp.  5  and  6. 

Rem.  l. — The  period,  thus  used,  is  a  part  of  the  abbreviation. 
Except  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  the  point  required  by  the  con- 
struction should  be  used  after  it ;  as,  "  Sir  Humphrey  Davy, 
F.  K.  S.,  &c. ;"  "Ohio  is  bounded  N.  by  Mich,  and  L.  E. ;  E.  by 
Pa.  and  Va.;  S.  by  Va.  and  Ky. ;  W.  by  Ind." 

Bern.  2. — Some  proper  names,  though  shortened,  should  not  be 
regarded  as  abbreviations;  as,  "Tom  Moore ;"  "Will  Shak- 
speare;"    "  0  rare  Ben  Jonson." 

Sem.  3. — Such  expressions  as  4to,  8vo,  12mo,  1st,  2d,  3d,  5's, 
IPs,  4°,  7',  &c,  are  not  abbreviations.  The  figures  supply  the 
place  of  the  first  letters  of  the  words,  and  the  signs  or  indices 
supply  the  place  of  words. 

Rem.  4. — The  period  should  be  placed  before  decimals,  and 
between  the  denominations  of  sterling  money;  as,  $35.75; 
£5. 125. 6d. 

Rem.  5. — The  period  should  always  be  placed  after  letters  used 
as  numerals ;  as,  Ps.  lxxv.,  6,  7. ;  George  III.,  King  of  England. 

Rem.  6. — The  period  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  titles, 
headings,  &c. ;  as,  "  Concerning  Veal."     "  Hopkins  &  Co."     "  The 
Preposition."     "  Chap.  XXVII." 
H.  G.  21/ 


242  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 
Insert  periods  wherever  required  in  these  sentences: 

1.  It  was  a  past  that  never  was  present  2.  By  indignities  men 
come  to  dignities  3.  D.  K,  Merwin  Esq  was  chosen  chairman 
4.  H  C  Cartwright  b  A  D  1825,  d  Feb  2,  1854  5.  See  Eev  xii  11. 
6.  Chapter  XX  I  IV  Part  II    7.  It  cost  in  London,  £6,  7s,  8d. 

238.  The  Interrogation  Point. 

The  Interrogation  Point  denotes  that  a  question  is 
asked. 

Rule  I. — The  interrogation  point  should  be  used  at  the 
end  of  an  interrogative  sentence. 

Ex. — 1.  Were  you  there?  2  By  whom  was  this  extraordinary 
work  of  art  executed  ? 

Rem.  l. — When  a  question  is  composed  of  several  parts,  and 
when  several  questions  are  contained  in  one  sentence,  one  answer 
only  being  required,  the  interrogation  point  is  placed  only  at  the 
end ;  as,  "  By  whom  is  this  profession  praised,  but  by  wretches 
who  consider  him  as  subservient  to  their  purposes ;  sirens  that 
entice  him  to  shipwreck ;  and  cyclops  that  are  gaping  to  devour 
him?" 

Rem.  2. — The  interrogation  point  should  be  used  after  each 
successive  particular  of  a  series  of  questions,  related  in  sense,  but 
distinct  in  construction;  as,  "Why  was  the  French  revolution  so 
bloody  and  destructive?  Why  was  our  revolution  of  1641  com- 
paratively mild?  .Why  was  our  revolution  of  1688  milder  still? 
Why  was  the  American  revolution,  considered  as  an  internal 
movement,  the  mildest  of  all?" 

239.  The  Exclamation  Point. 

The  Exclamation  Point  denotes  passion  or  emotion. 

Rule  I. — The  exclamation  point  should  be  placed  after 
expressions  denoting  strong  emotion. 

Ex. — 1.  Avaunt,  thou  witch!  2.  Mercy,  sir,  how  the  folks  will 
talk  of  it !    3.  Alas,  poor  Yorick  I 


PUNCTUATION.  243 

Rem.— The  exclamation  point  should  not  be  used  after  inter- 
jections closely  connected  with  other  words,  but  at  the  end  of 
each  expression  of  which  the  interjections  form  a  part;  as,  "Fie 
upon  you!"     "All  hail,  ye  patriots  brave!" 

EXERCISES. 

Insert  the  points  required  in  these  sentences: 

1.  What  did  my  father's  godson  seek  your  life  He  whom  my 
father  named  2.  See  there  behold  look  lo  if  I  stand  here  I  saw 
him  3.  Is  this  a  vision  Is  this  a  dream  Do  I  sleep  Master  Ford 
awake  awake  4.  What  is  civilization — where  is  it — what  does  it 
consist  in — by  what  is  it  excluded — where  does  it  commence — 
where  does  it  end — by  what  sign  is  it  known — how  is  it  denned — 
in  short,  what  does  it  mean 

240.  The  Bash. 

The  Bash  is  a  straight,  horizontal  line,  placed  between 
the  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Rule  I. — The  dash  should  be  used  where  there  is  a 
sudden  break  or  stop  in  a  sentence,  or  a  change  in  its 
meaning  or  construction. 

Ex. — 1.  Dim — dim — I  faint — darkness  comes  over  my  eyes. 
2.  It  glitters  awhile — and  then  melts  into  tears.  3.  He  stamped 
and  he  stormed — then  his  language ! — Oh,  dear !  4.  Miss  frowned, 
and  blushed,  and  then  was — married.  5.  The  flowers,  the  fruits, 
the  birds,  the  woods,  the  waters,  the  course,  the  vicissitudes,  and 
the  vast  phenomena  of  nature,  created,  regulated,  and  preserved  by 
the  mighty  hand  of  an  Omnipotent  Being — all  are  legitimate  and 
reasonable  sources  of  enjoyment,  within  the  reach  of  every  rational 
being. — Paulding. 

Rule  II. — The  dash  is  frequently  used  before  words 
repeated  in  an  emphatic  manner. 

Ex. — 1.  Why  should  I  speak  of  his  neglect — neglect  did  I  say? 
call  it  rather  contempt.  2.  The  consequences  which  resulted  from 
the  events  of  that  day,  to  us,  to  this  continent,  and  to  the  world — 
consequences  which  we  know  must  continue,  and  rain  their  innu- 


244  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

ence  on  the  destinies  of  mankind  to  the  end  of  time,  surpass  all 
the  most  arduous  study  of  the  closet,  and  even  the  inspiration  of 
genius. —  Webster. 

Rule  III. — The  dash  is  frequently  placed  both  before 
and  after  a  parenthesis — the  curves  being  omitted. 

Ex. — They  see  three  of  the  cardinal  virtues  of  dog  or  man — 
courage,  endurance,  and  skill — in  intense  action. 

Rein. — A  comma  should  precede  each  dash  used  to  set  off  a 
parenthetical  expression;  as,  "The  archetypes,  the  ideal  forms  of 
things  without, — if  not,  as  some  philosophers  have  said,  in  a  meta- 
physical sense,  yet  in  a  literal  one, — exist  within  us." 

Note. — An  interrogation  or  an  exclamation  point  should  pre- 
cede the  second  dash,  when  the  parenthetical  expression  is  a 
question  or  denotes  emotion. 

Rule  IV. — The  dash  is  often  used  where  there  is  an 
omission  of  letters  or  figures,  or  of  words  commonly  used 
to  introduce  an  enumeration  of  particulars. 

Ex. — 1.  L— d  B — n;  i.  e.,  Lord  Byron.  2.  Ps.  xxxv.,  6 — 10;  i.  e., 
Ps.  xxxv.,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10.  3.  Amongst  us  men,  these  three  things 
are  a  large  part  of  our  virtues, — to  endure,  to  forgive,  and  our- 
selves to  get  pardon.  4.  He  looked  like  his  works, — nimble, 
vigorous,  and  gentle;  open,  and  yet  reserved;  seeing  every  thing, 
saying  not  much;  capable  of  heartiest  mirth,  but  generally 
quiet. — Dr.  Brown. 

241.  The  Marks  of  Parenthesis. 

The  Curves  include  an  expression  which  has  no  neces- 
sary connection,  in  sense  or  construction,  with  the  sentence 
in  which  it  is  inserted. 

Rem. — Such  an  expression  is  called  a  parenthesis. 

Rule. — The  curves  should  include  those  words  which 
may  be  omitted  without  injury  to  the  sense,  or  without 
affecting  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  sentence. 

Ex.— 1.  Shall  we  continue  (alas,  that  I  should  be  constrained 


PUNCTUATION.  245 

to  ask  the  question!)   in  a  course   so   dangerous  to  health,  so 
enfeebling  to  mind,  so  destructive  to  character? 

2.  The  tuneful  Nine  (so  sacred  legends  tell) 

First  waked  their  heavenly  lyre  these  scenes  to  tell! 

Rem.  1. — When  any  point  is  required  after  the  word  preceding 
a  parenthesis,  it  should  be  placed  after  the  second  curve;  as,  "My" 
gun  was  on  my  arm  (as  it  always  is  in  that  district),  but  I  let  the 
stoat  kill  the  rabbit/ ' 

But,  should  the  parenthesis  be  a  question,  or  an  exclamatory 
expression,  the  point  should  be  placed  before  the  first  curve,  and 
that  which  belongs  to  the  parenthesis  before  the  second;  as,  "  She 
had  managed  this  matter  so  well,  (oh,  she  was  the  most  artful  of 
women !)  that  my  father's  heart  was  gone  before  I  suspected  it  was 
in  danger." 

Rem.  a. — The  words  included  by  the  curves  should  be  punc- 
tuated as  an  independent  expression;  as, 

"  The  Frenchman,  first  in  literary  fame, 
(Mention  him,  if  you  please.     Voltaire? — The  same.) 
With  spirit,  genius,  eloquence  supplied, 
Lived  long,  wrote  much,  laughed  heartily,  and  died." 

Rem.  3. — The  curves  sometimes  include  letters  or  figures  used 
to  enumerate  subjects  or  divisions  of  a  subject,  treated  of  in  didactic 
or  scientific  works;  as,  "(a.)  What  it  does;  (b.)  What  it  is." 
"The  beds  of  the  Jackson  epoch,  or  Upper  Eocene,  are  (1)  Lig- 
nitic  clay;  (2)  White  and  blue  marls,  the  former  often  indurated." 
They  are  also  used  to  include  references;  as,  "(See  page  21.)" 
"(§V.,  Eem.  7.)"   "(247,  a.,  6.)" 

EXERCISES. 
Insert  the  dash  and  the  curves  wherever  required  in  these  sentences: 

1.  He  had  a  large  blunt  head;  his  muzzle  black  as  night,  his 
mouth  blacker  than  any  night ;  a  tooth  or  two,  being  all  he  had, 
gleaming  out  of  his  jaws  of  darkness.  2.  The  faithful  man  acts  not 
from  impulse  but  from  conviction,  conviction  of  duty,  the  most 
stringent,  solemn,  and  inspiring  conviction  that  can  sway  the 
mind. 

3.  Know  ye  not,  brethren,  for  I  speak  to  them  that  know  the 
law,  that  the  law  hath  dominion  over  a  man  as  long  as  he 
liveth? 


246  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

4.  The  Egyptian  style  of  architecture  see  Dr.  Pocock,  not  his 
discourses,  but  his  prints  was  apparently  the  mother  of  the  Greek. 

242.  Brackets. 

Brackets  are  used  to  inclose  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
explanatory  of  what  precedes  them,  or  to  correct  an  error. 

Ex. — 1.  They  [the  Indians]  are  fast  disappearing.  2.  I  wish 
you  would  do  like  [as]  I  do. 

243.  Other  Marks  Used  in  Writing. 

I.  The  Apostrophe  [ 9  ]  is  used  to  denote  the  omission 
of  one  or  more  letters,  or  to  mark  the  possessive  case. 

Ex. — 1.  You're  overwatched,  my  lord.  2.  Variety's  the  very 
spice  of  life.     3.  The  King's  English.    4.  Webster's  Dictionary. 

Rem. — The  apostrophe  is  also  used  in  forming  the  plurals  of 
letters,  figures,  marks,  &c. ;  as,  "  Dot  your  i's  and  cross  your  tf's." 
"Cast  out  the  9's."    "fs  and  ?'s." 

II.  The  Hyphen  [  -  ]  is  used  (1)  to  join  the  parts 
of  compound  words  and  expressions;  (2)  to  divide  words 
into  syllables;  (3)  after  a  syllable  at  the  end  of  a  line,  when 
the  rest  of  the  word  is  carried  to  the  next  line. 

Ex. — 1.  Heaven-born  band.  2.  Thou  many-headed  monster 
thing. — Scott.  3.  He  is  my  father-in-law,  and  always  wears  a  pep- 
per-and-salt suit.     4.  Com-mu-ni-ca-tive-ness. 

III.  The  Quotation  Marks  [  "  "  ]  are  used  to  show 
that  a  passage  is  taken  verbatim  from  some  author. 

Ex — Cowper  says,  "  Slaves  can  not  breathe  in  England." 

Rem. — A  quotation  included  within  another  should  be  preceded 
by  a  single  inverted  comma  and  closed  by  a  single  apostrophe ;  as, 
" '  War,  war,'  is  still  the  cry,  '  war  even  to  the  knife.'  " 

IV.  The  Index  [  ^iP*  ]  and  Asterism  [  %.*  ]  point 
out  a  passage  to  which  special  attention  is  directed;  as, 
"tig^  Do  not  forget  the  time  and  place  of  meeting." 


SYNTAX — FIGURES.  247 

V.  The   Asterisk   [  *  ] ,  the  Obelisk,  or  J>agger, 

[  t  L  tne  ®oufele  I>agger  [  J  ],  the  Section  [  §  ],  the 
Parallels  [  ] ,  and  the  Paragraph  [  ^[  ]  refer  to  notes 
in  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

Rem. — Lower  case  letters  and  figures7  of  a  smaller  size,  or 
letters  and  figures  included  in  curves,  are  used  for  reference 
marks. 

VI.  A  long  dash.  [ ]  or  several  asterisks 

[  *  *  *  *  ]  denote  the  omission  of  letters  in  a  word,  of 
words  in  a  sentence,  or  sentences  in  a  paragraph. 

Ex Miss  M  *'*  *  *  n.    Mr.  A -h. 

VII.  The  Brace  [  ,~A — n  ]  connects  a  number  of 
words  with  a  common  term. 

VIII.  The  Paragraph  [  %  ]  denotes  the  beginning 
of  a  new  subject. 

IX.  The  Section  [  §  ]  denotes  the  divisions  of  a 
treatise. 

X.  The  Tilde  [  n  ], — a  Spanish  mark  placed  over  n, — 
annexes  to  it  the  sound  of  y;  as,  canon,  pronounced 
can-yon. 

XI.  The  Cedilla  [  §  ], —  a  French  mark,  joined  to 
c, — gives  to  this  letter  the  sound  of  s;  as,  fagade. 

XII.  The  Caret  [  a  ]  is  used  in  writing,  to  show  that 
some  letter,  word,  or  phrase  has  been  omitted. 

a  not  countries 

Ex. — The  sesons  are  alike  in  all  of  the  same  region. 

A  A  A 

XIII.  The  Macron  [  ~  ]  marks  a  long  sound,  as  in 
lone;  the  Breve  [*.■],  a  short  sound,  as  in  not;  the 
IHeresis  [  ••  ]  separates  two  vowels  into  two  syllables,  as 
aeriform. 


248  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

XIV.  The  Acute  Accent  [  x  ]  commonly  denotes  a 
sharp  sound;  the  l^rave  Accent  [  v  ],  a  depressed  sound; 
the  Circumflex  Accent  [  ^  or  ^  ],  a  broad  sound. 

Rem. — In  most  works  on  elocution,  the  acute  accent  denotes 
the  rising  inflection;  the  grave  accent,  the  falling  inflection;  the 
circumflex,  a  union  of  the  acute  and  the  grave. 

EXERCISES. 

Note  to  Teachers. — Exercises  in  punctuation  may  be  selected 
from  the  Eeaders  in  general  use.  Require  pupils  to  give  rules  or  cite 
remarks  for  the  use  of  all  the  points  they  may  find.  Select,  also,  pas- 
sages from  good  authors,  and  pronounce  the  words  in  consecutive  order, 
slowly  and  distinctly,  as  in  a  spelling  lesson,  without  indicating  the 
grammatical  construction  by  tone  or  inflection.  Require  pupils  to 
write  these  as  pronounced,  and  to  separate  them  into  sentences  and 
parts  of  sentences  by  the  proper  points. 

Punctuate  properly  the  following  examples,  and  observe  ike  rules  for 

the  use  of  capitals: 

the  noonday  sun  came  slanting  down  the  rocky  slopes  of  la 
riccia  and  its  masses  of  entangled  foliage  whose  autumnal  tints 
were  mixed  with  the  wet  verdure  of  a  thousand  evergreens  were 
penetrated  with  it  as  with  rain  I  can  not  call  it  color  it  was  con- 
flagration purple  and  crimson  ana  scarlet  like  the  curtain  of  God's 
tabernacle  the  rejoicing  trees  sank  into  the  valley  in  showers  of 
light  every  separate  leaf  quivering  with  buoyant  and  burning  life 
each  as  it  turned  to  reflect  or  to  transmit  the  sunbeam  first  a 
torch  and  then  an  emerald.  rushin 

What  tubero  did  that  naked  sword  of  yours  mean  in  the  battle 
of  pharsalia  at  whose  breast  was  its  point  aimed  what  was  then 
the  meaning  of  your  arms  your  spirit  your  eyes  your  hands  your 
ardor  of  soul  what  did  you  desire*  what  wish  for  I  press  the 
youth  too  much  he  seems  disturbed  let  me  return  to  myself  I 
too  bore  arms  on  the  same  side  cicero 

presently  my  soul  grew  stronger  hesitating  then  no  longer 
sir  said  I  or  madam  truly  your  forgiveness  I  implore 
but  the  fact  is  I  was  napping  and  so  gently  you  came  rapping 
and  so  faintly  you  came  tapping  tapping  at  my  chamber  door 
that  I  scarce  was  sure  I  heard  you    here  I  opened  wide  the  door 
darkness  there  and  nothing  more  poe 


PROSODY.  249 


PAET  IV. 


PROSODY. 
2M.  Definitions. 

1.  Prosody  treats  of  the  quantity  of  syllables,  of 
accent,  and  of  the  laws  of  versification. 

2.  A  Terse  is  a  line  consisting  of  a  certain  number  of 
accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  disposed  according  to 
metrical  rules. 

3.  Versification  is  the  art  of  metrical  composition. 

4.  Discourse  is  written  either  in  Prose  or  Verse. 

5.  Prose  is  discourse  written  in  language  as  ordinarily 
used,  having  reference,  mainly,  to  a  clear  and  distinct  state- 
ment of  the  author's  meaning. 

6.  Poetry  is  discourse  written  in  metrical  language. 
Its  aim  is  to  please,  by  addressing  the  imagination  and  the 
sensibilities. 

7.  Poetry  is  written  either  in  Rhyme  or  in  Blank  Verse. 

8.  Rhyme  is  a  correspondence  of  sound  in  the  last 
syllables  of  two  or  more  lines,  succeeding  each  other  im- 
mediately, or  at  no  great  distance. 

Ex. — "Onward  its  course  the  present  keeps; 
Onward  the  constant  current  sweeps." 

Rem.  1. — Perfect  rhymes  require,  (1)  that  the  syllables  be  ac- 
cented, and  that  the  vowel  sounds  be  the  same;  (2)  that  the 
sounds  following  the  vowels  be  the  same;  (3)  that  the  sounds 
preceding  the  vowels  be  different. 

Ex. — Talk  and  walk,  town  and  crown  are  perfect  rhymes.  Breathe 
and  teeth,  home  and  conic  are  imperfect  rhymes. 


250  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  2. — A  single  rhyme  is  an  accented  syllable  standing  alone 
at  the  end  of  a  line ;   as,  mind,  refined. 

A  double  rhyme  consists  of  an  accented  syllable,  followed  by 
an  unaccented  one ;   as,  dreaming,  seeming. 

A  triple  rhyme  consists  of  an  accented  syllable,  followed  by 
two  unaccented  ones ;   as,  fearfully,  cheerfully. 

Rem.  3. — A  couplet,  or  distich,  consists  of  two  lines  rhyming 
together. 

A  triplet  consists  of  three  lines  rhyming  together. 

Rem.  4. — Middle  rhyme  is  that  which  exists  between  the  last 
accented  syllables  of  the  two  sections  of  a  verse  or  line. 

Ex.- — "  We  were  the  first  that  ever  burst 
Into  that  silent  sea."- — Coleridge. 

"  Come  weal,  come  woe,  we  '11  gather  and  go, 
And  live  and  die  wi'  Charlie." — Burns. 

9.   Blank  Verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 

Ex. — "The  primal  duties  shine  aloft,  like  stars; 

The  charities  that  soothe,  and  heal,  and  bless, 
Are  scattered  at  the  feet  of  man,  like  flowers." 

Wordsworth. 
Rem. — In  blank  verse,  every  line  should  end  with  an  impor- 
tant word. 

10.  A  Stanza  is  a  group  of  lines  forming  a  division 
of  a  poem. 

245.  Poetic  Feet. 

1.  A  Foot  is  a  certain  portion  of  a  line  in  poetry, 
combined  according  to  accent. 

2.  Accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  on  a  certain  syllable  of 
a  word  or  foot. 

Rem.  l. — In  Greek  and  Latin,  verse  is  made  according  to  the 
quantity  of  syllables ;  i.e.,  the  relative  time  employed  in  pronounc- 
ing them.  A  long  syllable  requires  twice  the  time  in  uttering  it 
that  a  short  one  requires. 


PROSODY.  251 

In  English,  verse  is  composed  wholly  according  to  accent.  An 
accented  syllable  is  considered  long  ;  an  unaccented  syllable,  short. 

Rem.  2. — In  poetry,  monosyllables  receive  accent. 
Ex. — "  And  to'  |  and  /ro7,  |  and  m7  |  and  out/ 
The  wan7  |  stars  danced7  |  between." 

3.  The  principal  feet  used  in  English  verse,  are  the 
Iambus,  the  Trochee,  the  Pyrrhic,  the  Spondee,  the  Ana- 
pest,  the  Dactyl,  and  the  Amphibrach. 

Rem. — In  the  formulas,  an  accented,  or  long  syllable,  is  repre- 
sented by  a;  an  unaccented,  or  short  syllable,  by  u. 

4.  The  Iambus  consists  of  an  unaccented  and  an  ac- 
cented syllable.     Its  formula  is  ua. 

Ex. — "A  mind7  |  not  to7  |  be  changed7  |  by  place7  |  or  time7." 

5.  The  Trochee  consists  of  an  accented  and  an  unac- 
cented syllable.     Its  formula  is  a  u. 

Ex — "  Eu7in  |  seize7  thee,  |  ruth7less  |  king'." 

6.  The  Spondee  consists  of  two  accented  syllables. 
Its  formula  is  a  a. 

iTx. — "Kocks7,    caves7,  |   lakes7,    fens7,  |   bogs7,    dens7,  |   and 
shades7  [  of  death7." 

7.  The  Pyrrhic  consists  of  two  unaccented  syllables. 
Its  formula  is  u  u. 

Rem. — The  pyrrhic  is  sometimes  used  in  iambic  verse,  to  avoid 
accenting  an  unimportant  word. 

Ex.— "What  could7  |  be  less7  ]  than  to  |  afford7  |  him  praise7?" 

Instead  of  resting  on  a  short  syllable,  the  accent  is  sometimes 
allowed  to  pass  to  the  first  syllable  of  the  next  foot,  making  that 
foot  a  spondee. 

Ex. — "Of  the  )  low,  sun7-  |  set  clouds7,  |  and  the  |  blue7  sky7." 

8.  The  Anapest  consists  of  two  unaccented  and  an 
accented  syllable.     Its  formula  is  u  u  a. 

Ex. — "All  at  once7  |  and  all  o'er7  |  with  a  might7-  |  y  uproar7." 


252  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

9.  The  Dactyl  consists  of  one  accented  and  two  unac- 
cented syllables.     Its  formula  is  a  u  u. 

Ex. — "Heed7  not  the  |  corpse7,  though  a  |  king's7,  in  your  | 
path7." 

10.  The  Amphibrach  consists  of  one  unaccented, 
one  accented,  and  one  unaccented  syllable.  Its  formula 
is  u  a  u. 

Ex. — "A  pret7ti-  |  er  din7ner  |  I  nev7er  |  set  eyes7  on." 

11.  A  long  or  accented  syllable  used  as  one  foot  is  called 
a  Caesura. 

Ex.— Gold7,  |  gold7,  |  gold7,  |  gold7! 

Hea7vy  to  |  get7  and  |  light7  to  |  hold7.— Hood. 

12.  A  foot  of  three  unaccented  syllables  is  called  a  Tri- 
brach.    It  is  rarely  found  in  English  poetry. 

Rem.  l. — The  iambus  and  the  anapest, — the  accent  falling  on 
the  same  part  of  the  foot  in  each, — are  interchangeable  feet. 

Ex. — "There  were   grace7-  |  ful  heads7,  |  with  their  ring7-  |  lets 
bright7, 
Which  tossed7  |  in  the  breeze7,  |  with  a  play7  |  of  light7." 

Rem.  2. — For  a  similar  reason,  the  trochee  and  the  dactyl  are 
sometimes  used  promiscuously. 

Ex. —  "Joy7  to  the  |  spirit  |  came7, 

Through7  the  wide  |  rent7  in  |  Time's  e-  |  tergal  |  veil7." 

Rem.  3. — The  following  lines  by  Coleridge  will  assist  in  remem- 
bering the  character  of  the  different  kinds  of  feet : 

"Tro7cliees  |  trip7  from  |  long7  to  |  short7. 
From  long7  |  to  long7,  |  in  sol7-  I  emn  sort7, 
Slow7Spon7  |  <lee7stalks7;  |  strong  foot7,  yet  |  ill7  able 
Ev7er  to  |  come7  up  with  |  B>ac7tyl  tri-,  |  syllable. 
lam'  |  bics  march7  |  from  short7  |  to  long7. 
With  a  leap7  |  and  a  bound7,  |  the  swift  An7  |  apests  throng7. 
One  syl7la-  (  ble  long7,  with  |  one  short7  at  |  each  side7 
Amphi7brach-  |  ys  hastes7  with  |  a  state7ly  stride." 


PROSODY.  253 


246.  Kinds  of  Terse. 

1.  Verse  is  named  from  the  kind  of  foot  which  pre- 
dominates in  a  line;  as,  the  Iambic,  from  the  iambus;  the 
Trochaic,  from  the  trochee;  the  Anapestic,  from  the  ana- 
.pest;  the  Dactylic,  from  the  dactyl. 

2.  A  verse  containing  one  foot  is  called  a  Monometer; 
one  containing  two,  a  Dimeter;  one  containing  three,  a 
Trimeter;  one  containing  four,  a  Tetrameter;  one  con- 
taining five,  a  Pentameter;  one  containing  six,  a  Hex- 
ameter; one  containing  seven,  a  Heptameter;  and  one 
containing  eight,  an  Odometer. 

3.  Verse,  therefore,  may  be  Iambic  Monometer,  Iambic  Dimeter, 
&c. ;  Trochaic  Monometer,  Trochaic  Dimeter,  &c. ;  Anapestic  Mono- 
meter,  Anapestic  Dimeter,  &c;  Dactylic  Monometer,  Dactylic  Di- 
meter, &c. 

4.  A  verse  or  foot  in  which  a  syllable  is  wanting  at  the 
end,  is  called  catalectic:  a  frill  verse  or  foot  is  called  acata- 
lectic:  a  verse  or  foot  in  which  a  syllable  is  wanting  at  the 
beginning,  is  called  acephalous :  a  line  which  has  a  redun- 
dant syllable  at  the  end,  is  called  hypermeter,  or  hyper- 
catalectic. 

247.  Poetic  Pauses. 

1.  There  are  two  pauses  in  every  verse:  a  Final  and 
a  Ccesural. 

2.  The  Final  Pause  is  a  pause  made  at  the  end  of 
a  line,  in  reading. 

Rem. — Some  kinds  of  verse  can  be  distinguished  from  prose 
only  by  means  of  the  final  pause.  This  pause  should  always  be 
observed  in  reading  verse,  even  when  not  required  by  the  gram- 
matical construction. 

3.  The  Csesural  Pause  is  a  pause  in  a  verse. 


254  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rem. — The  csesural  pause  is  a  natural  suspension  of  the  voice 
in  reading.  The  shorter  kinds  of  verse  are  without  it.  Its  natural 
place  is  near  the  middle  of  the  line ;  but  the  sense  often  requires 
that  it  be  placed  elsewhere.  In  well-constructed  verse,  it  always 
occurs  where  the  thought  requires  a  pause. 

Ex. — "Warms  in  the  sun,  ||  refreshes  in  the  breeze, 

Glows  in  the  stars,  ||  and  blossoms  in  the  trees." — Pope. 

"And  now  |]  my  tongue  the  secret  tells." 

"And  on  the  sightless  eyeballs  ||  pour  the  day." 

EXERCISES. 

Show  the  place  of  the  ccesural  pause  in  the  following  : 

Many  are  poets  who  have  never  penned 

Their  inspirations,  and,  perchance,  the  best. 
They  felt,  and  loved,  and  died,  but  would  not  lend 

Their  thoughts  to  meaner  beings ;  they  compressed 
The  God  within  them,  and  rejoined  the  stars 

Unlaurerd  upon  earth,  but  far  more  bless'd 
Than  those  who  are  degraded  by  the  jars 

Of  passion,  and  their  frailties  linked  to  fame, 
Conquerors  of  high  renown,  but  full  of  scars. — Byron. 

248.  Iambic  Measures. 


1.  Iambic  Monometer , 

Invite7, 
Delight7. 


2.  Iambic  Dimeter  .  .  .  .  u  a  X  2 

And  called7  |  the  brave7 
To  blood7-  |  y  grave7. 


3.  Iambic  Trimeter waX3. 

What  sought7  |  they  thus7  |  afar7? 
Bright  jew7-  |  els  of7  |  the  mind7? 

4.  Iambic  Tetrameter  .  .  .  .  u  a  X  4. 

Majes7  |  tic  mon7-  |  arch  of7  |  the  cloud7! 
Who  rear'st7  |  aloft7  |  thy  re7-  j  gal  form7. 

5.  Iambic  Pentameter  . .  .  .  u  a  X  5. 

O  then7,  |  meth ought7,  |  what  pain7  |  it  was7  |  to  drown7 I 
What  dread7-  |  ful  noise7  |  of  wa7-  |  ters  in7  |  my  ears7 1 


PEOSODY.  255 

Rem. — This  is  often  called  Heroic  Measure,  because  epic  or 
heroic  poetry  is  written  in  it.  Khymed  iambic  pentameter  is  some- 
times called  Heroic  €onplet. 

6.  Iambic  Hexameter  .  .  .  .  u  a  X  6. 

Then  from7  |  her  bur7-  |  nished  gate7,  |  the  good7-ly  glit'- 1 

tering  East7 
Gilds  ev7-  \  ery  loft7-  |  y  top7,  |  which  late/  |  the  hu7-  j  mor- 

ous  Night7 
Bespan7-  |  gled  had7  |  with  pearl7,  |  to  please  [  the  Morn7- 1 

ing's  sight7. 

Rem. — This  verse  is  called  Alexandrine. 

7.  Iambic  Heptameter  .  .  .  .  u  a  X  7. 

How  hard7  |  when   those7  |  who   do7  |  not  wish7  |  to   lend7,  | 

thus  lose7,  |  their  books7,  - 
Are  snared7  |  by  an7-  |  glers, — folks7  |  that  fish7  |  with  lit7-  [ 

era7-  |  ry  hooks7! 

8.  Long  Meter  is  iambic  tetrameter,  arranged  in  stanzas  of 
four  lines,  rhyming  in  couplets  or  alternately. 

Ex. — Praise  God7  |  from  whom7  |  all  bless7-  |  ings  flow7: 
Praise  him7  |  all  creat7-  |  ures  here7  I  below7; 
Praise  him7  |  above7,  |  ye  heaven7-  |  ly  host7; 
Praise  Fath7-  |  er,  Son7,  |  and  Ho7-  |  ly  Ghost7. 

9.  Common  Meter  is  a  stanza  of  four  iambic  lines,  the  first 
and  third  being  tetrameter,  the  second  and  fourth,  trimeter. 

'  Ex. — Come  let7  |  us  join7  |  our  cheer7-  |  ful  songs,7 
With  an7-  |  gels  round7  |  the  throne7: 
Ten  thou7-  |  sand  thou7-  |  sand  are7  |  their  tongues'', 
But  all7  |  their  joys7  |  are  one7. 

10.  Snort  Meter  is  a  stanza  of  four  iambic  lines,  the  first, 
second,  and  fourth  being  trimeter,  the  third,  tetrameter. 

Ex. — There  sin7  |  and  sor7-  j  row  cease7, 

And  ev7-  |  ery  con7-  j  flict's  o'er7; 
There  we7  |  shall  dwell7  [  in  end7-.|  less  peace 
Nor  thirst7  |  nor  hun7-  j  ger  more7 

11.  Hallelujah  Meter  is  a  stanza  of  six  iambic  lines,  the  first 
four  being  trimeter,  the  last  two,  tetrameter. 


256  ENGLISH   GKAMMAR. 

Ex. — Now  may7  |  the  king7  |  descend7, 

And  fill7  |  his  throne7  |  of  grace7; 
Thy  seep7-  |  ter,  Lord7!  |  extend7, 

While  saints7  |  address7  |  thy  face7: 
Let  sin'-  |  ners  feel7  |  thy  quick7-  |  'ning  word7, 
And  learn7  |  to  know7  |  and  fear7  |  the  Lord7. 

Rem. — The  last  two  lines  are  frequently  separated  into  four, 
containing  two  iambics  each. 

12.  Gay's  stanza  has  the  formula  u  a  X  3  +  for  the  odd  lines; 
for  the  even,  lines,  u  a  X  3. 

Ex. — 'T  was  when7  |  the  sea7  |  was  roar'-  |  ing 
With  hoi7-  |  low  blasts7  |  of  wind7, 
A  dam7-  |  sel  lay7  |  deplor7-  |  ing 
All  on7  -|*a  rock7  |  reclined7. — Gay. 

13.  Bnrns's  Stanza  consists  of  six  lmes,  having  the  formula 
waX4  for  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fifth,  and  uaX2  for  the 
fourth  and  sixth. 

Ex. — Some  hint7  |  the  lov7-  |  ers  harm7-  |  less  wile7; 
Some  grace7  |  the  maid7-  |  en's  art7-  |  less  smile7 ; 
Some  soothe7  |  the  la7-  |  b'rer's  wea7-  |  ry  toil7, 

For  hum7-  |  ble  gains7, 
And  make7  |  his  cot7-  |  tage  scenes7  |  beguile7 

His  cares7  |  and  pains7. — Burns. 

13.  Byron's  Stanza,  (the  Ottava  Rima  of  the  Italians,)  consists 
of  eight  lines,  the  first  six  rhyming  alternately,  the  last  two,  in 
couplets.     Its  formula  is  usually  ua><5. 

Ex. — 'T  is  sweet7  |  to  hear7  |  the  watch7-  |  dog's  hon7-  |  est  bark7 
Bay  deep-7  |  mouth'd  wel7-  |  come  as7  |  we  draw7  |  near 
home7; 
'T  is  sweet7  |  to  know7  |  there  is7  |  an  eye7  |  will  mark' 

Our  com7  |  ing,  and7  |  look  bright7-  |  er  when7  |  we  come'; 
'T  is  sweet7  |  to  be'  |  awak7-  |  en'd  by7  |  the  lark7, 

Or  lull'd7  |  by  fall7-  |  ing  wa7-  |  ters ;  sweet7  |  the  hum7 
Of  bees7,  |  the  voice7  |  of  girls7,  |  the  song'  )  of  birds7, 
The  lisp7  |  of  chil7-  |  dren,  and7  |  their  ear7-  |  liest  words7. 

14.  The  Elegiac  Stanza  consists  of  four  iambic  lines,  rhyming 
alternately,  with  the  formula  «aX5.    ^ 


PROSODY.  257 

Ex. — The  cur7-  |  few  tolls7  |  the  knell7  |  of  part7-  |  ing  day/; 

The  low7-  |  ing  herds/  |  wind  slow/-  |  ly  o'er7  |  the  lea7; 

The  plow7-  |  man  home7-  |  ward  plods7  |  his  wea7-  |  ry  way7; 

And  leaves7  |  the  world7  |  to  dark7-  |  ness  and7  |  to  me7. 

Gray, 

15.  The  Spenserian  stanza  (so  called  because  invented  by 
Spenser,  author  of  the  Fairy  Queen ,  which  poem  is  written  in 
this  stanza,)  consists  of  nine  iambic  lines,  the  first  eight  having 
the  formula  m«X5,  the  last,  w  a  X  6 ;  the  first  and  third  rhym- 
ing ;  the  second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh ;  and  the  sixth,  eighth, 
and  ninth. 

Ex. — A  lit7-  |  tie  low7-  |  ly  her7-  |  mitage7  |  it  was7 

Down  in7  |  a  dale7,  |  hard  by7  |  a  for7-  |  est's  side7, 
Far  from7  |  resort7  |  of  peo7-  |  pie  that7  |  did  pass7 
In  trav7-  |  el  to7  |  and  fro7:  |  a  lit7-  |  tie  wide7 
There  was7,  |  a  ho7-  |  ly  chap7-  |  el  ed7-  |  ified7, 
Wherein7  |  the  her7-  |  mit  du7-  |  ly  wont7  |  to  say 
His  ho7-  j  ly  things7  |  each  morn7  |  and  ev7-  |  en-tide7; 
Thereby7  !  a  crys7-  |  tal  stream7  j  did  gen7-  |  tly  play7, 
Which  from7]  a  sa7-J  cred  fount7-)  ain  well7-  j  ed  forth7 1  alway7. 

Spenser. 

16.  A  Sonnet  is  a  poem  complete  in  fourteen  iambic  lines. 
Its  formula  is  «aX5. 

17.  Iambic  Hypermeters. 

«o+ Relent7-  j  ing. 

it  a  X  2  + *       Thine  eye7-  |  lids  quiv7-  |  er. 

waX3+ 'T  is  sweet7  |  to  love7  |  in  child7-  |  hood. 

«oX4+  .  .  .  .  What  seek7 1  ye  from7 1  the  fields7  |  of  heav7- |  en? 
u  a  X  5  +  .  .  The  air7  |  is  full7  |  of  fare7-  |  well  to7  j  the  dy7- 1  ing. 
«cX6+    .      Thine  eye7  |  Jove's  light7-  |  ning  seems7,  I  thy  voice7  | 

his  dread7-  |  ful  thun7-  |  der. 
u  a  X  7  +    I  think7  |  I  will7  |  not  go7   |  with  you7  |  to  hear7  |  the 
toasts7  !  and  speech7-  |  es. 


249.  Trochaic  Measures. 


1.  Trochaic  Monometer 

Changing, 
Rang7ing. 

H.  G.  22. 


Trochaic  Dimeter  .  .  .  a  u  X  2. 
Hope7  is  |  vanished, 
Joys7  are  |  ban7ished. 


258  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3.  Trochaic  Trimeter au  X  3. 

Then7  let  |  mem/,ry  |  bring7  thee 
Strains7  I  |  used7  to  j  sing7  thee. 

4.  Trochaic  Tetrameter  .  .  .  .  a  u  X  4. 

Tell7  me  |  not7  in  |  mourn7  ful  |  num7bers, 
Life7  is  |  but7  an  |  emp7ty  |  dream7. 

5.  Trochaic  Pentameter  .  .  .  .  a  u  X  5. 

Nar7rowing  |  in7to  |  where7  they  \  sat7  as-  |  sem7bled, 
Low7  vo-  |  lup7tuous  |  mu7sic  |  wind7ing  |  trem/bled. 

6.  Trochaic  Hexameter  ....  a  u  X  6. 

On7  a  |  mountain  |  stretched7  be-  ]  neath7  a  |  hoai^y  |  wil7low, 
Lay7  a  |  shep7herd  |  swain7,  and  |  viewed7  the  |  roll7ing  | 
biFlow. 

7.  Trochaic  Heptameter,  .  .  .  au>(7. 

In7  the  |  spring7  a  |  fee/ble  |  crim7son  |  comes7  up-  |  on7  the  | 

rob7in's  |  breast7; 
In7  the  |  spring7  the  |  wan7ton  |  lap7wing  |  gets7  him-  |  self7 

an-  |  oth7er  |  nest7. 

8.  Trochaic  Hypermeters. 

au+       Mei^ry  |  May7. 

o«X2+ All7  that's  |  bright7  must  |  fade7. 

a  u  X  3  + Chill'y  |  win7ter  Js  |  gone7  a-  |  way/. 

a  u  X  4  +    .     .     .     .     Fdle  |  af  7ter  |  din7ner  |  in7  his  |  chair.7 
awX5+    .     .     .     Hail7  to  |  thee7,   blithe  |  spirit !    |  bird7,   thou  | 

nev7er  |  wert7. 
otiXH    •    •  Half7  the  |  charms7  to  |  me7  it  |  yield7eth, |  mon7ey  | 

can7  not  |  buy7. 
a  u  X  7  +    Bet7ter  |  fif7ty  |  years7  of  |  Eu7rope  |  than7  a  |  cy7cle  |  ofy 
Cath-  |  ay7. 

250.  Anapestic  Measures. 

1.  Anapestic  Monometer  .  ...  una. 

Move  your  feet7 
To  our  sound7. 

2.  Anapestic  Dimeter uuay^% 

In  my  rage7,  |  shall  be  seen7 
The  revenge7  |  of  a  queen7. 


PROSODY. 


259 


3.  Anapestic  Trimeter uua^XS. 

I  have  found'  |  out  a  gift/  |  for  my  fair7. 

I  have  found7  |  where  the  wood7-  |  pigeons  breed7. 

4.  Anapestic  Tetrameter  ....  «waX4. 

Through  the  ranks7  |  of  the  Sax7-  |  ons  he  hew'd7  |  his  red 

way7  — 
Through  Ian7-  |  ces,  and  sa7-  |  bers,  and  hos7-  |  tile  array7. 

Rem. — The  first  foot  of  an  anapestic  verse  may  be  an  iambus. 

Ex. — Our  life7  |  is  a  dream7, 
Our  time7,  |  as  a  stream7, 
Glides  swift7-  |  ly  away7. —  Wesley. 

5.  Anapestic  Hypermeters. 

u  u  a  X  2  +  . .  .  .  Like  the  dew7  j  on  the  mount7-  |  ain. 
Like  the  foam7  |  on  the  riv7-  |  er. 

u  u  a  X  3  +  ....  If  they  rob7  |  us   of  name7,  |  or   pursue7  |  us  with 
bea7-  |  gles, 
*  Give  their  roof7  |  to  the  flame7  |  and  their  flesh7  | 
to  the  ea7-  |  gles. 

251.  Dactylic  Measures. 


1.  Dactylic  Monometer  .  auu. 
Fear7fully. 
Tearfully. 


2.  Dactylic  Dimeter  .  auuy^2. 
Coital  reefs  |  un7der  her, 
Read7y  to  |  sun7der  her. 


3.  Dactylic  Trimeter a  u  u  X  3. 

Wearing  a-  |  way7  in  his  |  usefulness, 
Love7liness,  |  beau7ty,  and  j  truth7fulness. 

4.  Dactylic  Tetrameter auu\4. 

Boy7  will  an-  j  tic7ipate,  |  lav7ish,  and  |  dis7sipate 
All7  that  your  |  bu7sy  pate  |  hoard7ed  with  |  care. 

5.  Dactylic  Hexameter duuyib  -\-  au. 

This7  is  the  |  forest  pri-  |  me7val;   but  |  where7  are  the  [ 

hearts7  that  be-  |  neath7  it 
Leaped7  like  the  |  roe7,  when  he  |  hears7  in  the  [  wood7land 

the  I  voice7  of  the  I  hunt-er? 


260  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rem. — A  dactylic  verse  rarely  ends  with  a  dactyl.  It  is  some* 
times  catalectic,  or  ends  with  a  trochee;  sometimes  hypermeter, 
or  ends  with  a  long  syllable. 

Ex. — Brightest  and  |  best7  of  the  |  sons7  of  the  |  morning, 
Dawn7  on  our  |  darkless,  and  |  lend7  us  thine  |  aid7. 

252.  Amphibrach  Measures. 

1.  Amphibrach  Monometer uau. 

Hearts  beat7ing,  Tears  starting, 

At  meet7ing;  At  part7ing. 

2.  Amphibrach  Dimeter u  a  u  X  2. 

O  would7  I  |  were  dead7  now, 
Or  up7  in  |  my  bed7  now, 
To  cov7er  (  my  head7  now, 

And  have7  a  |  good  cry7, 

3.  Amphibrach  Trimeter uauX3. 

A  breath7  of  |  submission  |  we  breathe7  not ; 

The  sword7  we  |  have  drawn7  we  |  will  sheathe7  not, 

4.  Amphibrach  Trimeter  Catalectic  .  .  .  .  u  a  u  X  3  — . 

Ye  shep7herds  |  so  cheerful  |  and  gay7, 
Whose  flocks7  nev-  |  er  care7less-  |  ly  roam7. 

5.  Amphibrach  Tetrameter wawX4. 

The  flesh7  was  |  a  pict7ure  |  for  paint7ers  |  to  stud7y, 
The  fat7  was  |  so  white7  and  |  the  lean7  was  |  so  rud'dy. 

6.  Amphibrach  Tetrameter  Catalectic  .  .  .  u  a  a  X  4  — . 

But  hang7  it, —  |  to  po7ets  |  who  sel7dom  |  can  eat7, 
Your  ver7y  |  good  mut7ton  's  |  a  ver'y  |  good  treat7. 

253.  Mixed  Terse. 

1.  Different  kinds  of  feet  are  often  found  in  the  same 
line. 

2.  Different  measures  are  frequently  used  in  the  same 
poem. 


PROSODY.  261 


EXERCISES. 

Tell  what  feet  compose  each  line  of  the  following  examples: 

1.  My  heart  was  a  river 

Without  a  main, — 
Would  I  had  loved  thee  never, 
Florence  Vane. — Cooke. 

2.  Merrily  swinging  on  briar  and  weed, 

Near  to  the  nest  of  his  little  dame, 
Over  the  mountain-side  or  mead, 

Robert  of  Lincoln  is  telling  his  name, 
Bob-o-link,  Bob-o-link; 
Spink,  spank,  spink; 
Snug  and  safe  is  that  nest  of  ours, 
Hidden  among  the  summer  flowers. 
Chee,  chee,  chee. — Bryant. 

3.  My  tears  must  stop,  for  every  drop 

Hinders  needle  and  thread. — Hood. 

4.  No  matter,  no  matter!   the  path  shines  plain 
These  pure  snow-crystals  will  deaden  pain; 
Above,  like  stars  in  the  deep  blue  dark, 
Eyes  that  love  us  look  down  and  mark. 

Let  us  go,  let  us  go 
Whither  heaven  leads  in  the  path  through  the  snow. 

Miss  Muloch. 


254.  Poetic  License. 

Poetic  XJLcense  is  an  indulgence  in  the  use  of  peculiar 
words,  forms,  and  expressions,  allowed  to  poets  by  com- 
mon consent. 

Rem.  l. — The  requirements  of  versification  render  poetic  license 
necessary. 

Rem.  3. — Poetic  license  permits  the  use  of  antiquated  words 
and  phrases,  foreign  words,  and  common  words  shortened,  length- . 
ened,  or  changed  in  pronunciation. 

Ex. — Eke,  erst,  eyne,  eve,  beweep,  evanish,  albeit,  fount,  trow,  hight 
(called),  vastly,  wis,  ween,  wight,  &c.  "A  train-band  captain  eke  was 
he;"  "His  timeless  death  beweeping." 


262  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  3. — It  permits  the  use  of  compound  epithets  to  a  greater 
extent  than  prose. 

Ex. — Sphere-descended,  violet-embroidered,  dim-discovered,  broad-eyed, 
&c.     " 0  Music!  sphere-descended  hiaid;"    "Pun-provoking  thyme." 

Rem.  4. — It    permits    intransitive    verbs    to    be    used    trans- 
itively. 

Ex. — They  lived  the  rural  day,  and  talked  the  flowing  heart. 

Rem.  5. — It  permits  the  use  of  foreign  idioms. 

Ex. — "He  came;  and,  standing  in  the  midst,  explained 
The  peace  rejected,  and  the  truce  detained" 

Rem.  6. — Poets  make  use  of  an  inverted  order  of  arrangement 
more  frequently  than  prose  writers. 

Ex. — Predicate  .  .  Subject;         as,  "Sunk  was  the  sun" 

Object  ....  Predicate;     as,  "His  voice  they  heard.11 

Noun  ....  Adjective;       as,  "  Visions  fair;"  "Twilight  gray" 

Object  ....  Preposition;  as,  "The  rattling  crags  among" 

Rem.  7 — Poetic  license  permits  any  ellipsis  which  will  not  per- 
vert or  destroy  the  sense. 

Ex. — Of  the  antecedent;   as,  "Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash." 
Of  the  relative;  as,  "There's  nothing  ill  can  dwell  in  such  a  temple." 
Of  the  pronoun  it;  as,  "  Suffice  to-night,  these  orders  to  obey." 
Of  the  article;  as,  "Like  shipwrecked  mariner  on  desert  coast." 


255.  Scanning. 

Scanning  is  an  analysis  of  versification.  To  scan  a 
line  is  to  divide  it  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is  composed. 

Rem. — The  following  are  intended  to  be  used  not  only  as 
scanning  exercises,  but  as  final  Review  Exercises  in  Analysis  and 
Parsing. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Sweet  day !   so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright, 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky; 
•  The  dews  shall  weep  thy  fall  to-night; 
For  thou  must  die. — Herbert. 


PROSODY.  263 

2.  Under  the  greenwood  tree 
Who  loves  to  lie  with  me, 
And  tune  his  merry  note 
Unto  the  sweet  bird's  throat, — 

Come  hither,  come  hither,  come  hither  I 

Here  shall  he  see  no  enemy 
But  winter  and  rough  weather. — Shakspcare. 

3.  Nature,  attend!  join,  every  living  soul, 
Beneath  the  spacious  temple  of  the  sky; 
In  adoration  join ;  and,  ardent,  raise 

One  general  song!     To  Him,  ye  vocal  gales, 

Breathe  soft,  whose  Spirit  in  your  freshness  breathes ; 

Oh,  talk  of  Him  in  solitary  glooms, 

Where,  o'er  the  rock,  the  scarcely  waving  pine 

Fills  the  brown  shade  with  a  religious  awe. — Thomson. 

4.  With  fruitless  labor,  Clara  bound 

And  strove  to  stanch  the  gushing  wound: 
The  Monk,  with  unavailing  cares, 
Exhausted  all  the  church's  prayers: 
Ever,  he  said,  that,  close  and  near, 
A  lady's  voice  was  in  his  ear, 
And  that  the  priest  he  could  not  hear, 

For  that  she  ever  sung, 
"  In  the  lost  battle,  borne  down  by  the  flying, 
Where  mingles  war's  rattle  with  groans  of  the  dying !" 

So  the  notes  rung. — Scott. 

5.  Bird  of  the  wilderness, 
Blithesome  and  cumberless, 

Sweet  be  thy  matin  o'er  moorland  and  lea! 

Emblem  of  happiness, 

Blest  is  thy  dwelling-place, — 
Oh  to  abide  in  the  desert  with  thee ! — Hogg. 

6.  What  is  this  stanza  called? 

Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene, 

The  dark,  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear; 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 

And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. — Gray. 

7.  We  look  before  and  after,  and  pine  for  what  is  not: 
Our  sincerest  laughter  with  some  pain  is  fraught; 

Our  sweetest  songs  are  those  which  tell  of  saddest  thought. 

Shelley. 


264  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

8.  What  is  this  stanza  called? 

And  this  is  in  the  night :  most  glorious  night ! 
Thou  wert  not  sent  for  slumber !  let  me  be 
A  sharer  in  thy  fierce  and  far  delight, 
A  portion  of  the  tempest  and  of  thee ! 
How  the  lit  lake  shines,  a  phosphoric  sea, 
And  the  big  rain  comes  dancing  to  the  earth! 
And  now  again  ?t  is  black, — and  now  the  glee 
Of  the  loud  hill  shakes  with  its  mountain  mirth, 
As  if  they  did  rejoice  o'er  a  young  earthquake's  birth. 

Byron. 

9.  Do  you  hear  the  children  weeping,  O  my  brothers ! 

Ere  the  sorrow  comes  with  years? 
They  are  leaning  their  young  heads  against  their  mother's, 

And  that  can  not  stop  their  tears. 
The  young  lambs  are  bleating  in  the  meadows, 

The  young  birds  are  chirping  in  the  nest, 
The  young  fawns  are  playing  in  the  shadows, 

The  young  flowers  are  blooming  from  the  west; 
But  the  young,  young  children,  O  my  brothers! 

They  are  weeping  bitterly ! 
They  are  weeping  in  the  play-time  of  the  others, 

In  the  country  of  the  free. — Mrs.  Browning. 

10.  Our  bugles  sang  truce,  for  the  night-cloud  had  lowered, 

And  the  sentinel  stars  set  their  watch  in  the  sky; 
And  thousands  had  sunk  on  the  ground  overpowered  ; 
The  weary  to  sleep,  and  the  wounded  to  die. — Campbell. 

11.  Thou  art! — directing,  guiding  all, — Thou  art! 

Direct  my  understanding,  then,  to  Thee; 
Control  my  spirit,  guide  my  wandering  heart; 

Though  but  an  atom  midst  immensity, 
Still  I  am  something  fashioned  by  thy  hand! 

I  hold  a  middle  rank  'twixt  heaven  and  earth,- 
On  the  last  verge  of  mortal  being  stand, 

Close  to  the  realms  whe"re  angels  have  their  birth, 
Just  on  the  boundaries  of  the  spirit  land. — Derzhaven. 


\ 


V 


\  S 


<**■%:&. 


*SJ/ ;/&/'/ 


tl