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HAYDN'S 
DICTIONARY    OF    DATES 

COMPREHENDING 

REMARKABLE   OCCURRENCES,  ANCIENT  AND   MODERN, 

THE  FOUNDATION,  LAWS,  AND  GOVERNMENTS  OF  COUNTRIES — THEIR  PROGRESS  IN  ARTS, 

SCIENCE,    AND   LITERATURE — THEIR  ACHIEVEMENTS   IN  ARMS — AND 

THEIR  CIVIL,    MILITARY,    RELIGIOUS,   AND  PHILANTHROPIC 

INSTITUTIONS,    PARTICULARLY  OF 

THE    BRITISH    EMPIRE. 


'    ~T ,      H  0  M"  O  V\ 

" 

HAYDN'S 

DICTIONARY  OF  DATES 

RELATING   TO    ALL   AGES    ANIMATIONS  :;^  ; 


FOR 


UNIVERSAL      REFERENCE. 

TWELFTH   EDITION, 
CORRECTED  TO  FEBRUARY,   1866. 

BY    BENJAMIN    VINCENT, 

ASSISTANT   SECRETARY   AND   KEEPER  OF  THE   LIBRARY  OF   THE   ROYAL   INSTITUTION   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN. 


LONDON : 
EDWARD    MOXON    AND    CO.,    DOVER    STREET. 

1866. 


TO 


LONDON 
BRADBUEY,   EVANS,  AND  CO.,  PRINTERS,   WHITEFHIARS. 


PBEFACE 


TO 


THE     TWELFTH     EDITION. 


IN  1855,  when  the  printing  of  the  Seventh  Edition  of  this  Dic- 
tionary had  begun,  and  Mr.  Haydn's  failing  health  prevented  the 
continuance  of  his  labours,  I  acceded  to  the  request  of  the  publisher 
to  correct  the  press  and  supply  the  continuations  of  the  articles.  In 
doing  so  I  soon  perceived  that  the  execution  of  the  work  was  far  from 
being  equal  to  the  merit  of  its  conception ;  and  after  much  considera- 
tion, I  was  eventually  induced  to  undertake  its  gradual  revision  and 
completion,  in  order  to  render  the  book  more  worthy  of  its  established 
reputation.  During  the  last  ten  years  the  chronological  tables  have 
been  examined  and  continued ;  a  great  number  of  articles  have  been  re- 
written, and  new  ones  inserted,  and  much  geographical,  biographical, 
literary,  and  scientific  information  supplied,  together  with  a  Table  of 
the  Populations  and  Governments  01  the  various  countries  of  the  world ; 
and  the  Index  has  been  greatly  augmented  by  the  insertion  of  dates 
relating  to  eminent  persons  of  past  and  present  times.  With  the 
present  edition  is  given  a  table  of  Contemporary  European  Sovereigns 
since  the  Norman  Conquest.  To  afford  room  for  these  additions,  the 
size  of  the  page  and  the  bulk  of  the  volume  have  been  enlarged, 
and  very  many  articles  have  been  condensed.  My  aim  has  been 
throughout  to  make  this  book  not  a  mere  Dictionary  of  Dates,  but  a 
dated  Encyclopaedia,  a  digested  summary  of  every  department  of  human 
history  brought  down  to  the  very  eve  of  publication.  The  latest  Addi- 
tions and  Corrections  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

BENJAMIN  VINCENT. 

FEBRUARY,  180*6, 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 

THE  design  of  the  Author  has  been  to  attempt  the  compression  of  the 
itest  body  of  general  information  that  has  ever  appeared  in  a  single  volume, 
and  to  produce  a  Book  of  Keference  whose  extensive  usefulness  may  render  its 
possession  material  to  every  individual — in  the  same  manner  that  a  London 
Directory  is  indispensable,  on  business  affairs,  to  a  London  merchant. 

He  grounds  his  hope  of  the  Public  taking  an  interest  in  this  work  altogether 
upon  its  own  intrinsic  utility.  Its  articles  are  drawn  principally  from  historians 
of  the  first  rank,  and  the  most  authentic  annalists ;  and  the  DICTIONARY  OP 
DATES  will,  in  almost  every  instance,  save  its  possessor  the  trouble  of  turning 
over  voluminous  authors  to  refresh  his  memory,  or  to  ascertain  the  date,  order, 
and  features  of  any  particular  occurrence. 

The  volume  contains  upwards  of  FIFTEEN  THOUSAND  ARTICLES,  alphabeti- 
cally arranged ;  and,  from  the  selection  xof  its  materials,  it  must  be  important 
to  every  man  in  the  British  Empire,  whether  learned  or  unlearned,  or  whether 
connected  with  the  professions  or  engaged  in  trade. 

It  would  be  dime  alt  to  name  all  the  authors  from  whose  works  the  Compiler 
of  this  volume  has  copiously  extracted ;  but  he  may  mention  among  the  classics, 
Herodotus,  Livy,  Pliny,  and  Plutarch.  He  has  chosen  in  general  chronology, 
Petavius,  Usher,  Blair,  Prideaux,  and  the  Abbe  Lenglet  Dufresnoy.  For  the 
events  embraced  in  foreign  history,  he  has  relied  upon  Renault,  Voltaire,  La 
Combe,  Rollin,  Melchior  Adam,  the  Nouveau  Dictionnaire,  and  chief  authors  of 
their  respective  countries.  On  subjects  of  general  literature,  his  authorities 
are  Cave's  Nistoria  Literaria,  Moreri,  Bayle,  Priestley,  and  others  of  equal 
repute.  And  English  occurrences  are  drawn  from  Camden,  Stow,  Hall,  Baker, 
Holinshed,  Chamberlayne,  Rapin,  Hume,  Gibbon,  Goldsmith,  <kc.  Besides 
these,  the  Compiler  has  freely  used  the  various  abridgments  that  have  brought 
facts  and  dates  more  prominently  forward ;  and  he  is  largely  indebted  to 


riii  PREFACE. 

Chambers,  Aspin,  Beatson,  Anderson,  Beckmann,  the  Cyclopaedias,  Annual 
Register,  Statutes  at  Large,  and  numerous  other  compilations.  In  almost  every 
instance  the  authority  is  quoted  for  the  extract  made  and  date  assigned, 
though  inadvertence  may  have  prevented,  in  some  few  cases,  a  due 
acknowledgment. 

The  leading  events  of  every  country,  whether  ancient  or  modern  kingdoms, 
are  to  be  found  in  the  annals  of  each  respectively,  as  in  the  cases,  for  instance, 
of  GREECE,  ROME,  the  EASTERN  EMPIRE,  ENGLAND,  FRANCE,  and  GERMANY. 
But,  independently  of  this  plan  of  reference,  when  any  historical  occurrence 
claims,  from  its  importance,  more  specific  mention,  it  is  made  in  a  separate 
article,  according  to  alphabetical  arrangement.  Thus,  in  the  annals  of 
England,  the  dates  are  given  of  the  foundation  of  our  universities,  the 
institution  of  honorary  orders,  and  signature  of  Magna  Charta ;  we  find,  in 
those  annals,  the  periods  of  our  civil  wars,  and  remarkable  eras  in  our  history, 
set  down  as  they  have  occurred ;  but  if  more  ample  information  be  necessary 
'  to  the  Reader,  and  if  he  desire  to  know  more  than  the  mere  date  of  any  fact  or 
incident,  the  particulars  are  supplied  under  a  distinct  head.  In  the  same  way, 
the  pages  of  Battles  supply  the  date  of  each,  in  the  order  of  time ;  yet  in  all 
instances  where  the  battle  has  any  relation  to  our  own  country,  or  is 
memorable  or  momentous,  the  chief  features  of  it  are  stated  in  another  part 
of  the  volume. 

The  Compiler  persuades  himself  that  the  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES  will  be 
received  as  a  useful  companion  to  all  Biographical  works,  relating,  as  it  does, 
to  things  as  those  do  to  persons,  and  affording  information  not  included  in  the 
range  or  design  of  such  publications, 

JOSEPH  HAYDN. 

LONDON,  May,  1841.  [Died  ./an.  17,  1856.] 


POPULATION  AND  GOVERNMENTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

(According  to  the  Almanack  de  Gothafor  1866.) 


Anhalt,    Population    in    Dec.  1864 

:  Argentine  Confederation     .    .  1859 

Austrian  Empire     .    .    .  Oct.  1857 

Baden Dec.  1864 

Bavaria Dec.  1864 

Belgium      Dec.  1863 

Bolivia 1858 

Brazil 1856 

Bremen  (free  city)  .  .  .  Dec.  1864 
Brunswick- Wolf enblittel .  Dec.  1864 

!  Chili  (estimated) 1857 

Chinese  Empire  (estimated)  .  1849 
Costa  Rica  (estimated)  .  .  .  1861 
Denmark  and  colonies  .  .  .  1865 
Equator  (estimated)  ....  1858 

Egypt 1859 

France  and  colonies  (estimatd.)  1862 
Frankfort  (free  city)  .  .  Dec.  1864 
Great  Britain  &  colonies  (estm.)  1861 
Greece  and  Ionian  Islands  (est.)  1865 

Guatemala 1858 

Hamburg  (free  city)     ....  1860 

Hanover Dec.  1864 

Hayti  and  St.  Domingo"(est.)   .  1865 

Hesse-Cassel Dec.  1864 

H  ssse-Darmstadt  .  .  .  Dec.  1864 
Hesse-Homburg  ....  Dec.  1864 
Holland  and  colonies  ....  1863 

Holstein 1865 

Honduras 1858 

Italy  (estimated) 1864 

Japan  (estimated) 

Liechtenstein 1858 

Lippe Dec.  1864 

Liibeck  (free  city) 1862 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin     .  Dec.  1864 
!  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  ....  1860 

;  Mexico  (estimated) 1865 

i  Monaco 1864 

i  Montenegro  (estimated)  .    .    .  1859 

!  Morocco about 

!  Nassau Dec.  1864 

I  New  Granada 1864 

i  Nicaragua 1858 

Oldenburg Dec.  1864 

Piinama 1864 

Pspal  States  (estimated)  .    .    .  1863 

Pa,raguay 1857 

i  Persia  (estimated) 1859 

!  Peru 1859 

Portugal  and  colonies  .    .  Dec.  1863 

Prussia Dec.  1865 

Reuss-Greiz Dec.  1864 

Reuss-Schleiz Dec.  1864 

Roumania  (Dan.  Prncip.)estim.  1862 
Russia,  Poland,  &c.  (estim.)  .  1865 
Sandwich  Islands  (Hawaii,  &c.)  1861 

San  Marino 1858 

San  Salvador 1858 

Saxony Dec.  1864 

Saxe-Altenburg  ....  Dec.  1864 

Saxe-Coburg-Gothrt      .     .  Dec.  1864 

Saxe-Meiningen  ....  Dec.  1864 

Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach   .  Dec.  1864 

Schaumburg-Lippe      .    .  Dec.  1864 

:  Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt,  Dec.  1864 

i  Schwartzburg-Sondershausen  ,,  1864 

i  Servia 1865 

!  Sleswig 1865 

!  Spain  and  colonies 1864 

•  Sweden  and  Norway  (estimtd.)  1863 

!  Switzerland Dec.  1860 

i  Turkish  Empire  (estimated)    .  1865 

i  Uruguay 1860 

Venezuela 1859 

Waldeck Dec.  1864 

Wiirtemberg Dec.  1864 

United  States  of  America    .    .  I860 


POPULA- 
TION. 


193,046 
1,171,800 
35,018  988 
1,431,754 
4,807,440 
4,893,021 
1,987,352 
7,677,800 
104,091 
293,388 
1,559,000 
415,000,000 
135,000 
1,825,220 
1,040,371 
5,125,000 
43,534,245 
91,180 


1,325,341 
850000 
229,941 
1,923,492 
572,000 
745,063 
853,315 
27.374 
21,805,607 
554,510 
350,000 
22  104,789 
35  to  40  mil 
7,150 
111,336 
50,614 
552,612 


8,218,080 

1,687 

125,000 

8,000,000 

468,311 

2,794,473 

400,000 

301,812 

2,784,473 

700,000 

1,337,431 

10,000,000 

2,500,000 

8,037,194 

19,304.843 

43,924 

86,472 

4,003,000 

80,255,430 

69,800 

8,000 

600,000 

2,343,994 

141,839 

164,527 

178,065 

280,201 

31,382 

73,752 

66,189 

1,220,000 

406,486 

21,031,258 

5,700,000 

2,510,494 

39,000,000 

240,965 

1,565,500 

59,143 

1,748,328 

31,445,080 


Leopold,  duke 

Bartolomeo  Mitre,  president  . 
Francis-Joseph,  emperor  .  . 
Frederick,  grand-duke  .  .  . 

Louis  II.,  king 

Leopold  II.,  king 

Gen.  M.  Melgarejo, president . 
Pedro  II.,  emperor  .  .  .  , 
C.  Mehr,  burgomaster  .  .  , 

William,  duke 

Jose"  J.  Perez,  president .  .  . 
Ki-tsiaug,  emperor  .  .  .  , 
J.  Ximenes,  president  .  .  . 
Christian  IX.,  king  .  .  .  , 
G.  Carrson,  president  .  .  , 
Ismail  Pacha,  viceroy  .  .  , 
Napoleon  III.,  emperor  .  .  . 
Two  Burgomasters. 
Victoria,  queen 


BIRTH. 


Oct.  1.  1794.  . 

Aug.  18,  1830  ! 

Sept.  9,  1826  . 

Aug.  25,  1845  . 

April  9,  1835  . 

Dec.  2,  1825'.  '. 


ACCESSION. 


April  25,  1806  . 


April  5,  1855 
April'8,  1818 


April  20,  1808 
May  24,  1819 


George  I.,  king Dec.  24,  1845 

Vincent  Cerna,  president    .    .  i 

Senate 

George  V.,  king May  27,  1819 

N.  Fabre  Geffrard,  president     \ 

Frederic- William  I.,  elector  . 
Louis  III.,  grand-duke  .  .  . 
Ferdinand,  landgrave  .  .  . 
William  III.,  ton?  .... 
Held  by  Austria. 
J.  M.  Medina,  president  .  . 
Victor-Emmanuel,  king  .  . 
Mikado  (spiritual)  ;  Tycoon 


Aug.  20,  1802  . 
June  9,  1806  . 
April  26,  1783  . 
Feb.  19,  1817  . 


March  14,  1820 
(temporal). 


John  II.,  prince Oct.  5,  1840 

Leopold,  prince Sept.  1.  1821 

Burgomasters  and  Senate. 
Frederic  Francis,  grand-duke .     Feb.  28,  1823 
Frederic  William,  grand-duke     Oct.  17,  1819 
Maximilian  I.,  emperor .     .    .     July  6,  1832 . 

Charles,  prince Dec.  8,  1818 . 

Nicholas  I.,  prince      ....     1840 

Sidi  Mohamed,  sultan 

Adolphus,  duke July  24,  1817 

M.  Murillo,  president 

T.  Martinez,  president 

Peter,  grand-duke July  8,  1827 .    . 

JilColunje,  governor 

Pius  IX.,  pope May  13,  1792    . 

F.  S.  Lopez i  .     .     .     . 

Nassir-ed-Deen,  shah      .    .    .  \      1829 .... 

M.  Canseco,  president    ...  I 

Louis  I.,  king i  Oct.  31,  1838     . 

William  I.,  king I  March  22,  1797 

Henry  XXII.,  prince  ...  I  March  28,  1846 
Henry  LXIX.,  prince  ...  I  May  19,  1792  . 
Alex.  John  I.  (Cousa)  hospodar  March  10,  1820 
Alexander  II.,  czar  ....  April  29,  1818  . 

Kamghameha  V Dec.  11,  1830   . 

Capitani  reggent  i. 

F.  Duenas,  president  .    .    .    . 

John,  king |  Dec.  12,  1801    . 

Ernest,  duke '  Sept.  16,  1826  . 

Ernest  II.,  dul;r. June  21,  1818   . 

Bernard,  duke i  Dec.  17,  1800    . 

Charles- Alexander,  grand-duke  \  June  24,  1818  . 

Adolphus,  prince ' 

Gunther,  prince      .        ... 
Gunther,  prince .... 
Michael  III.  (Milosch)    .    .    . 
Held  by  Prussia. 

Isabella  II.,  queen 

Charles  XV.,  king 

Annual  president 

Abdul-Aziz,  sultan  .... 
Gen.  V.  Fiords,  prov.  president 
J.  E.  Falcon,  president  .  .  , 

George  V.,  prince 

Charles,  king 

Andrew  Johnson,  president    .        1809  . 


Aug.  1,  1817 
Nov.  6,  1793 
Sept.  24,  1801 
Sept.  4,  1825 

Oct.  10,  1830 
May  3,  1826 . 

Feb.  9,1830 '. 


Jan.  14,  1831. 


Aug.  9,  1817. 
Oct.  12,  1862. 
Dec.  2,  1848. 
April  24,  1852. 
March  10,  1864. 
Dec.  10.  1865. 
Dec.  1864. 
April  7,  1831. 
Dec,  31,  1863. 
April  25,  1831. 
Sept.  18,  1861. 
Aug.  22,  1861. 
April  3,  1863. 
Nov.  15,  1862. 

1865. 

Jan.  18,  1863. 
Dec.  2,  1853. 

June  20,  1837. 
June  5,  1863. 
May  3,  1865. 

Nov.  18,  1851. 
Jan.  23,  1859. 
Nov.  20,  1847. 
June  16,  1848. 
Sept.  8,  1848. 
March  17,  1849. 

Feb.  1864. 
March  17,  1861. 

Nov.  12,  1858. 
Jan.  1,  1851. 

March  7,  1842. 
Sept.  6,  1860. 
April  10,  1864. 
June  20,  1856. 
Aug.  14,  1860. 
Sept.  1859. 
Aug.  20,  1839. 
April  1,  1864. 
March  1,  1859. 
Feb.  27,  1853. 
March  10,  1865. 
June  16,  1846. 
"     '    1862. 


Nov.,  1865. 
Nov.  11,  1861. 
Jan.  2.  1861. 
Nov.  8,  1859. 
Sept.  16,  1856. 
Jan.  1859. 
March  2,  1855. 
Nov.,  1863. 

April,  1865. 
Aug.  9,  1854. 
Aug.  3,  1853. 
Jan.  29,  1844. 
Dec.  24,  1803. 
July  8,  1853. 
Nov.  21,  1860. 
April  28,  1807. 
Aug.  19,  1835. 
Sept.  26,  1860. 

29,  1833. 


July  4,  1864. 
June  25.  1861. 
Feb.,  1865. 
March  18,  1865. 
May  15,  1845. 
June  25,  1864. 
April  15,  1865. 


TABLE    OF    CONTEMPORARY 


Great  Britain. 

Peninsula. 

ENGLAND. 

SCOTLAND. 

France. 

CASTILE. 

ARRAGON. 

PORTUGAL. 

Germany. 

Hunga 

1066.  Will.  I. 

1057.  Male.  3. 
1093.  Donald 

1060.  Philip.  I. 

1066.  Sancho  II. 

1065.  Sancho. 

1065.  Sancho  of 
Castile. 

1056.  Hen.  4, 
emperor. 

1064.  Sol 

1087.  Wil.  II. 

1094.  Dune. 
1094.  Donald 

1072.  Alfonso  VI. 

1072.  Alfonso  VI. 

1075.  Gei 
1076.  Lac 

again. 

P  t 

1093.  Henry, 

1098.  Col 

1098.  Edgar. 

1094. 

count. 

man. 

i  ioo.  Hen  I. 

1  107.  Alex.  I. 

1108.  Louis  VI. 

1109.  Urracaand 
Alfonso  VII. 

1104.  Alfonso  I. 

1  1  12.  Alfonso,  as 
count. 

1106.  Hen.  5. 

1114.  Ste 

1124.  Dav.  I. 

1126.  Alfon.VII. 

ii2S.Loth.2. 

1131.  Bel 

1135.  Steph. 

1137.  Louis  VII. 

1134.  Ramiro. 

1154.  Hen.  2. 

1153.  MaUV. 

1157.  Sancho  III. 

1137.  Petronella 
and  Raymond. 

1139.  Alfonso  I., 
as  king. 

ii38.Conr.3. 

ii4i.Qeis 

ii58.Alfon.VIII. 

1172.  (Ireld. 

1165.  Will. 

1152.  Fred.  i. 

1161.  Ste 

annexed.  ) 

1163.  Alfonso  II. 

1173.  Bel 

1180.  Philip  II. 

1189.  Rich.  i. 

1185.  Sancho  I. 

1190.  Hen.  6. 

1199.  John. 

1196.  Peter  II. 

1  198.  Philip. 

1196.  Em 

1216.  Hen.  3.  1214.  Alex.  2. 

1214.  Henry  I. 

1213.  James  I. 

1212.  Alfonso  II. 

1208.  Otho  4. 

1204.  Lac 

1223.  Louis  VIII. 

las  II. 

1215.  Fred.  2. 

1205.  An 

1226.  Louis  IX. 

1230.  Ferdin.III. 

1223.  Sancho  II. 

drew  I 

1235.  Bel 

1249.  Alex.3. 

1252.  Alfonso  X. 

1248.  Alfon.  III. 

1250.  Con.  4. 

1254.  Will. 

1257.  Rich. 

1272.  Ed.  I. 

1282    (Wales 
annexed.) 

Interregnum. 

1270.  Philip  III. 
1285.  Philip  IV. 

1284.  Sancho  IV. 

1276.  Peter  III. 
1285.  Alfons.  III. 

1279.  Dionysius 
or  Denis. 

1273.  Ro- 
dolph. 

1270.  Ste 
1272.  Lao 

1792.  John 

1292.  Adolp. 

1295.  Ferdin.  IV.  1291.  James  II. 

1298.  Alb.  i. 

1290.  Anc 

1307.  Ed.  II. 

1306.  Robert 

1308.  Hen.  7. 

1301.  Cha 

1327.  Ed.  III. 

(Bruce)  I. 
i329.Dav.II. 

1314.  Louis  X. 
1316.  John. 
Phil.  V. 

1312.  AlfonsoXI. 

1327.  AlfonsoIV. 

1325.  AlfonsoIV. 

1314.  Lou.  5. 

bert. 

i332.Ed.Bal. 

1321.  Chas.  IV. 

1  342.  Dav.  II. 

1328.  Phil.  VI. 

1336.  Peter  IV. 

again. 

1342.  Lou 

1347.  Chas.  4. 

1377.  Rich.  2. 

1  371.  Rob.  II. 
(Stuart). 

1350.  John. 
1364.  Chas.  V. 

1380.  Chas.  VI. 

1350.  Peter. 
1369.  Henry. 
1379.  John  I. 

1387.  John  I. 

1357.  Peter. 
1367.  Ferdinand. 

1383.  John  I. 

1378.  Weu- 
ceslas. 

1382.  Ma 
1387.  Ma 

1399.  Hen.  4. 

1390.  Rob.  3. 

1390.  Henry  II. 

1395.  Martin. 

1400.  Rupert 

Wigismu 

1413.  Hen.s. 
1422.  Hen.  6. 

1406.  Jas.  I. 

1422.  Chas.  VII. 

1406.  John  II. 

1410.  Interregnm. 
1412.  Ferdinand 

1410.  Sigismund. 

of  Sicily. 

1437.  Jas.  II. 

1416.  Alfonso  V. 

1433.  Edward. 

1454.  Henry  IV. 

1438.  Alfonso  V. 

1438.  Albert. 

1461.  Ed.IV. 

i46o.Jas.III. 

1461.  Louis  XI. 

1474.  Isabella. 

1458.  John  II. 
1479.  Ferdin.  II. 

1  440.  Fred.  3. 

1440.  Lac 
1445.  Lar 

T.o,    -pvi   V 

Spain. 

I458'     JVl3r 

thias. 

1403*  J&ci.  v  . 
Rich.  3. 

1483.  Chas.  VIII. 

1479.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

1481.  John  II. 

1493.  Max.  i. 

1485.  Hen.  7. 

i488.Jas.IV. 

1498  Louis  XII. 

1495.  Emanuel. 

1499  Switz. 
independ. 

1490.  Lac 

EUROPEAN    SOVEREIGNS. 


Scandinavia. 

Italy. 

*Dstl««M  Jl 

Eastern 

Jroiana, 

Empire. 

SWEDEN. 

NORWAY. 

DENMARK. 

POPES. 

NAPLES  AND  SICILY. 

66.  Halstan. 

1069.  Olaf. 

1047.  Sweyn  II. 

1058.  Boles- 

1068.  Rom.  4 

1061.  Alex.  II. 

1076.  Harold. 
1080.  Canute  IV. 

las. 
1082.  Ladis- 

1071.  Mich.  7 

1073.  Greg.  VII. 

1086.  Olaus  IV. 

las. 

1078.  Nicep.  •: 

00       TT~U  TT 

90.  Ingo. 

1093.  Magnus. 

1095.  Eric  I. 

us  11099.  Pascal  II. 

xa.  Philip. 

1  8.  Ingo  II. 

1103.  Sigurd  I., 
and  others. 

1105.  Eric  II. 

1102.  Boles.  3 

1118.  John 
Cornnenus. 

1118.  Gelas.  II. 
1119.  Calixt.  II. 

29.  Swerker. 

1124.  Honor.  II. 

1  1  22.  Sigurd  I. 

1130.  Innoc.  II. 

1131.  Roger  I. 

1143.  Celest.  II. 

1144.  Lucius  II. 

55.  Eric  I. 

1130.  MagnusIV. 
and  others. 

1137.  Eric  III. 

1138.  Lad.  2. 
1145.  Boles.  4 

1  143.  Manuel 
Comnenus. 

1145.  Eugen.  III. 
1153.  Anasta.IV. 

1154.  William  I. 

5i.  Char.  VII. 

Civil  war  and 

1147.  Sweyn  III. 
Canute  V. 

1154.  Adrian  IV. 
1159.  Alex.  III. 

1166.  William  II. 

anarchy. 

1157.  Waldemar. 

1173.  Miecis- 

1181.  Lucius  III. 

37.  Canute. 

las  III. 

1180.  Alex.2. 

1185.  Urban  HI. 

1178.  Ca- 
semir  II. 

1183.  Andro- 
nicus  C. 

1  187.  Greg.  VIII. 
Clem.  III. 

1189.  Tancred. 
1194.  William  III. 

#.  Swerk.  II. 

1  1  86.  Swerro. 

1182.  Canute  VI. 

ii94.Lesk.5. 

1185.  Isaac  2. 
1195.  Alex.  3. 

1191.  Celest.  III. 
1198.  Innoc.  III. 

1197.  Fred.  II.  of  Germny 

to.  Eric  II. 

1202.  Hako  HI. 

1202.  Walde.  II. 

1200.  Miec.3. 

i204.Theodo. 

1216.  Honor.  III. 

16.  John  I. 

and  others. 

1202.  Lad.  3. 

1222.  John 

1227.  Greg.  IX. 

1207.  Hako  IV. 

1227.  Boles.5 

Ducas. 

1241.  Celest.  IV. 

22.  Eric  III. 

1243.  Innoc.  IV. 

1250.  Conrad. 

1254.  Alex.  IV. 

1254.  Conradin. 

1241.  Eric  IV. 

i255.Theo.2. 

1261.  Urban  IV. 

1258.  Manfred. 

;o.  Birger,  Jarl 

1250.  Abel. 
1252.  Christoph. 

1258.  John 

1265.  Clem.  IV. 
1268-9.  Vacant. 

1266.  Charles  of  Anjou. 

56.  Waldemar. 

1263.  MagnusVI. 

1259.  Eric  V. 

Lascaris. 
1  259.  Mich.  8. 

1271.  Gregory  X. 
1276.  Innoc.  V. 

Adrian  V. 

•5.  Magnus  I. 

i279.Lesk.6. 

1276.  John  XXI. 
1277.  Nichol.III. 

Sicily. 

1280.  Eric. 

1281.  Martin  IV. 

1285.  Chas.2.  1282.  Peter 

1285.  Honor.  IV. 

of  Arragon 

1289.  Anarch. 

1282.  Andro- 

1288.  Nich.  IV. 

1285.  James 

i29o.Premiff- 

nicus  II. 

1292-3.  Vacant. 

hs. 

1294.  Celest.  V. 

)o.  Birger  II. 

1299.  Hako  V. 

1296.  Ladis.4 

Bonif.VIII. 

1295.  Fred.  2 

9.  Magn.  II. 

1319.  United  to 

1320.  Christo- 

1 300.  Winces- 
las. 

1303.  Bened.  XI. 
1305.  Clement  V. 

1309.  Robt. 

Sweden. 

pher  II. 

(Avignon). 

. 

1314-15.  Vacant. 

1334.  Interregnm. 

1333.  Cas.  3. 

1332.  And.3. 

1316.  JohnXXII. 

1334.  Bene.  XII. 

i337.Peter  2 

1350.  Eric  IV. 
1359.  Magnus  II. 

1340.  Wald.  III. 

1341.  Johns. 

1342.  Clem.  VI. 
1352.  Innoc.  VI. 

1343.  Joan.  2.  1342.  Louis. 
&  Andrew  1355.  Fred.  3 

1363.  Albert. 

1375.  Interregnm. 

1370.  Louis. 

1362.  Urban  V. 

of  Hung. 

1376.  Olaus  V. 

(Rome). 

1349.  Louis.    1376.  Maria 

9.  Margaret. 

1380.  United  to 
Denmark. 

1387.  Margaret. 

1382.  Mary. 
1384.  Hedw. 

391.  Man-  ' 

1370.  Greg.  XI. 
1378.  Urban  VI. 

&  Martin 
1381.  Chas.  3. 

1396.  Lad.  5. 

uel  VI. 

1389.  Bonif.  IX. 

1385.  Ladislas. 

1412.  Eric.  XIII. 

1434.  Lad.  6. 

1425.  John  6. 

1404.  Innoc.  VII. 
1406.  Greg.  XII. 
1409.  Alex.  V. 

1402.  Mart,  i 
1409.  Mart.  2 
1414.  Joan.  2.      (United  to 
Arragon) 

1440.  Christc 
8.  Chas.  VIII. 
I457-  Christi 

>pher  III. 

an    T 

1448.  Christn.  I. 

1445.  Casi.  4. 

1448.  Con- 
stant. 13. 

1410.  John  23. 
1417.  Martin  V. 
1431.  Eugen.  IV. 
1447.  Nicholas  V. 
1455.  Calix.  III. 
14158   Pius  II 

1410.  Ferd.i 
1416.  Alfo.i 

1435.  Alfonso  I. 
1458.  Ferd.  1.1458.  John. 

Turkey. 

1433.  Ma- 

1464.' Paul  IL 

homet  II. 

1471.  Sixtus  IV. 

1494.  Alfo.2.    479-     e  a» 

1483.  John  of  Denmark. 

1481.  John. 

48i.Bajaz.2. 

1484.  Inno.  VIII. 

1495.  Ferd.2. 

1492.  Albert 

1492.  Alex.  VI. 

1496.  Fred.  2. 

TABLE    OF  CONTEMPORARY 


Great  Britain, 

Peninsula. 

NGLAND.     SCOTLAND. 

France, 

CASTILE. 

ARRAGON. 

PORTUGAL. 

Germany. 

Hungai 

i5<.>9.  Hen.  8. 
1513.  Jas.  V. 

1515.  Francis  I. 

1504.  Joanna  & 
Philip  I. 

Ferdinand  II. 

1521.  John  HI. 

1519.  Chas.  5 
(I.  of  Sp.) 

1516.  Lov 
1526.  Jn. 
polski 

15,17.  Ed.  VI.  1542.  Mary. 

1512.  Ferd.V.(Cast.)II.  (Arragon). 
1547.  Henry  II.    1516.  Charles  I.  (V.  of  Germ.  1519). 

Ferdin 

iS,i3.  Mary, 
ijv!  EUz. 

1559.  Francis  II. 
1560.  Charles  IX. 

(KINGS  OF  HUNGAR 

1  567.  Jas.  VI. 

1558.  Ferdinand. 

1556.  rnmp  ii.                               1557.  Sebastian. 
1574.  Henry  III.                                 Holland. 

1564.  Maximilian  I 

11579.  William  of  1578.  Henry. 

1576.  Rodolph  II. 

Orange,  stadt- 

holder. 

1589.  Henry  IV. 

xsSo.  Annexed  to 

1598.  Philip  III.   1587.  Maurice.          Spain. 

16  >3.  Jas.  I.  (VI.  of  Scot.) 
1615.  Charles  I. 

1610.  LouisXIII. 

1621.  Philip  IV. 

1625.  Fred.  Hen. 

Kingdom  restored 

1612.  Mathias. 
1619.  Ferdinand  II. 

1637.  Ferdinand  II] 

16  [g.  Commonwealth. 

1643.  Louis  XIV.                              ;  1647.  William  II. 

1640.  John  of 

1650-72.  No 

Braganza. 

1660.  Charles  II. 

1665.  Charles  II            stadtfiolder. 

1656.  Alfonso  VI. 

1658.  Leopold  I. 

1667.  Peter, 

16^5.  James  II. 

1672.  Will.  Hen. 

regent. 

i6Jg.  William  and  Mary. 

(Will.  III.  of 

1683.  Peter  II. 

1695.  William  III. 

England.) 

1702.  Anne. 
17^4.  George  I. 

1715.  Louis  XV. 

1700.  Philip  V. 
(abdicated). 

1702-47.  No           1706.  John  V. 

stadlkolder.\ 

1705.  Joseph 
1711.  Chas  6. 

Fruss 

17.17.  George  II. 

1724.  Louis. 

Philip  V. 

1701.  Fix 

again. 

1713.  Fr< 

1742.  Chas.  7. 

Williai 

1746.  Ferd.  VI.     1747.  Will.  Hen.   1750.  Joseph. 

1  745.  Francis 

1740.  Fre 

r  759.  Chas.  III.     1757.  Will.  IV. 

17  Jo.  George  III. 

1765.  Jos.  2. 

1774.  Louis  XVI. 

1777.  Maria  aiul 

Peter  III. 

1786.  Fn 

1788.  Chas.  IV. 

1786.  Maria, 

Williai 

1793.  Lou.  XVII. 
Republic. 

(abdicated.)                                      alone. 
:i795.  Annexed  to 
France.       \  1791.  Johii,regent 

i79o.Leop.2. 
1  792.  Fran.  2. 

1797.  Fr 
Williai 

1812.  (George  Prince  of 
Wales,  regent.)* 

1802.  Consulate. 
1  804.  Napoleon  I. 
i8z4.Loo.ZYUt 

1808.  Ferd.  VII. 

•(dethroned). 
Jos.  Bonap. 

1806.  Louis,ii»</. 

1816.  John  VI. 

Austria. 

Netherlands. 

1  8  K>.  George  IV. 

1814.  Ferd.  VII. 
(restored). 

1814.  Will.  Fred. 
king.* 

1826.  Peter  IV. 
Maria  II. 
1828.  Miguel. 

1806.  Fran.  i.  i 

1824.  Charles  X. 

1830.  William  IV. 
1837.  Victoria. 

1  830.  Lou.  Philip. 

1833.  Isabella  II. 

1840.  William  II. 

1833.  Maria  II. 

1835.  Ferd.  2. 

1840.  Fr 

1848.  Republic. 

1849.  Will.  III. 

i848.Francis 

Willia 

Joseph. 

1852.  Napol.  III. 

1853.  Peter  V. 

• 

1860.  Wi 

1861.  Luis  I. 

Belgium, — 1831.  Leopold  I. 
1865.  Leopold  II. 


5UROPEAN  SOVEREIGNS,  continued. 


Scandinavia. 

Poland, 

Eastern 
Empire, 

Italy. 

SWEDEN. 

1520.  Chi 

i.  Gustavus 
Vasa. 

.  Eric  XIV. 
.  John  III. 

.  Sigismund 

NORWAY. 

DENMARK. 

POPES. 

NAPLES 

•istian  II. 

1513.  Christn.  II. 

1323.  Fredrick  I. 
an  d  Norway. 

1534.  Christ.  III. 
1559.  Fred.  II. 

i588.Christn.IV. 

1501.  Alex. 
1506.  Sig.  I. 

1548.  Sig.II. 

iS73.Henry. 
1575.  Steph. 
1587.  Sig.  3. 

1512.  Selim. 

1520.  Soly- 
man  II. 

1566.  Sel.  2. 

1574.  Amu- 
rath  III. 

i595.Mah.  3. 

1503.  Pius  III. 
Julius  II. 
1513.  Leo  X. 
1522.  Adrian  VI. 
1523.  Clem.  VII. 
1534.  Paul  III. 
1550.  Julius  III. 
1555.  Marcel.  II. 
Paul  IV. 
1559.  Pius  IV. 
1566.  Pius  V. 
1572.  Greg.XIII. 
1585.  Sixtus  V. 
1590.  Urban  VII. 
Greg.  XIV. 
1591.  Innoc.  IX. 
1592.  Clem.  VIII. 

1501.  Utu 

Russia.* 

1533.  Ivan  IV. 

1584.  Feodor  I. 
1598.  Boris. 

.  Chas.  IX. 
Gustavus 
lolphus. 

.  Christina. 

.  Chas.  X. 
.  Chas.  XI. 

Chas.  XII. 

1606.  Basil. 
1613.  Michael 
(Romanoff). 

1645.  Alexis. 

1676.  Feodor. 
1682.  Ivan  V.  & 
Peter  I. 
1689.  Peter  I. 

1648.  Fred.  III. 
1670.  Christn.  V. 

1699.  Fred.  IV. 

1632.  Lad.  7. 
1648.  John  C. 
1669.  Mich. 
1674.  John 
Sobieski. 

1697.  Fredk. 
August,  i. 

1603.  Ach.  i  . 
1617.  Mus.  i. 
1618   Osm.2. 
1622.  Musta- 
pha,  again. 
1623.  Am.  4. 
1640.  Ibrah. 
1648.  Mah.4. 
1687.  Sol.  3. 
1691.  Ach.  2. 
1695.  Mus.  2. 

1605.  Leo  XI. 
Paul  V. 
1621.  Greg.  XV. 
i623.UrbanVIII. 
1644.  InnocentX. 
1665.  Alex.  VII. 
1667.  Clem.  IX. 
1670.  Clem.  X. 
1676.  Innoc.  XI. 
1689.  Alex.  VIII. 
1691.  Innoc.XII. 

Naples  an 
Sicily. 

Ulrica  and 
ederick  I. 

! 

1725.  Gather.  I. 
1727.  Peter  II. 
1730.  Anne. 

1730.  Christn.  VI. 

1704.  Stan,  i- 
1709.  Fredk. 
Augustus, 
restored. 

1703.  Ach.  3. 
1730.  Mah.5. 

1700.  Clem.  XI. 

1721.  Inno.XIII. 
1724.  Bene.XlII. 

Fred.  I. 

,  Adolphus 
ederick. 


Gustav.III. 


1740.  Ivan  VI. 

1741.  Elizabeth. 


1762.  Peter  III. 
Gather.  II. 


1746.  Fred.  V. 
1 1766.  Christ. VII. 


/  cotw/  etc. 

1733.  Fredk. 
August.  2. 

1754.  Osm.3. 
1764.  Stan.2.:i757.  Mus. 3. 


1730.  Clem.  XI  I. 
1740.  Bene.XIV. 


1 758.  Clem.XIII 
,1769.  Clem. XIV. 
1774.  Ach.  4.  1775.  Pius  VI. 


1713.  Chas.  3. 
Naples. 
Victor- 
|     Am.  of  Sa- 
voy, Sicily. 
1 1720  Annexed 
|  to  Germany^ 


1720.  Victor- 
Amadeus.  ] 

i73o.Charlss  ' 
Emmau.  i. 

1773.  Victor- 


Gustav.IV.  1796.  Paul  I. 


Chas.XIII.i8oi.  Alexand.  I, 

Norway  an- ! 

ccd.  1 828.  Nicholas. 

Chas.  XIV.  I 


i784.PrmceFred. 
regent. 

> 

1795.  Parti- 
tion. 

1800.  Pius  VII. 

1738.  Chas.  4. 
Naples. 
1759.  Fred.  4. 
Sicily. 

Amade.  2. 

1  796.  Charles 
Emman.  2. 

1808.  Fred.  VI. 
1814.  Norway 

Greece, 

1807.  Mus.  4. 
1808.  Mah.6. 

1823.  Leo  XII. 

Naples. 

1802.  Victor- 
Emman.  i. 

taken  away. 
1839.  Chris.  VIII. 

1832.  Otho  I. 

1839.  Abdul 

1829.  Pius  VIII. 
1831.  Greg.  XVI. 

1806.  Joseph 
Bonaparte 
1808.  Joach. 
Murat. 

iBos.Annexed 
to  kingdom 
of  Italy. 
1814.  Victor- 
Emman.i. 
1  82  1.  Charles 
PVM-x- 

Medjid. 

i8^T  Dharlfis 

Oscar. 
Chas.  XV. 


1855.  Alex.  II. 


1848.  Fred.  VII. 


1846.  Pius  IX. 


Naple  and 
Sicily. 

1815.  Ferd.i. 

1825.  Fran.  i. 
ji83o.  Ferd.2. ! 
11859.  Fran.  2.  • 
:  1860. Annexed  \ 
to  Italy. 


Albert. 

1849.  Victor- 

Emman,  2. 


Italy. 


i86j.  Abdul 
1863.  Ohrisn.  IX.  1863.  Geo.  I.  \    Aziz. 


1861.  Victor-Emmanuel. 


tiee  Article  RUSSIA  for  preceding  Rulers. 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


AAR  ABC 

AARGAU  (Switzerland,)  formerly  included  in  Berne,  was  formed  into  an  independent 
canton  in  1803,  and  finally  settled  as  such  in  1815.  It  was  much  disturbed  by  religious  dis- 
sensions in  1841 — 44. 

ABACUS,  the  capital  of  the  Corinthian  order  of  architecture,  ascribed  to  Callimachus, 
about  540  B.C. — This  name  is  also  given  to  a  frame  traversed  by  stiff  wires,  on  which  beads 
or  counters  are  strung,  used  by  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Chinese.  M.  Lalanne  published 
an  ABACUS  at  Paris  in  1845. — The  multiplication  table  has  been  called  the  Pythagorean 
abacus. 

ABATTOIRS,  slaughter-houses  for  cattle.  In  1810  Napoleon  decreed  that  five  should  be 
erected  near  Paris  ;  they  were  opened  in  1818.  An  abattoir  was  erected  at  Edinburgh  in 
1851  ;  and  abattoirs  form  part  of  the  new  London  metropolitan  cattle-market,  opened  on 
June  13,  1855. 

ABBASSIDES,  descendants  of  Mahomet's  uncle,  Abbas-Ben^Abdul-Motalleb.  Abul 
Abbas  defeated  Merwan  II.,  the  last  caliph  of  the  Ommiades,  in  750,  and  became  the  ruler 
of  the  faithful.  The  Abbasside  colour  was  blacks  Thirty-seven  caliphs  of  this  race  reigned 
from  750  to  1258. 

ABB  AYE,  a  military  prison  near  St.  Germain  des  Pres,  Paris,  where  164  prisoners  were 
murdered  by  infuriated  republicans  led  by  Maillard,  Sept.  2  and  3,  1792. 

ABBEYS,  monasteries  for  men  or  women.  See  Monachism  and  Convents.  The  first  abbey 
founded  in  England  was  at  Bangor  in  560  ;  in  France,  at  Poitiers,  about  360  ;  in  Ireland  in 
the  fifth  century  ;  in  Scotland  in  the  sixth  century.  1 10  monasteries  and  priories  were  sup- 
pressed in  England,  2  Henry  V.  1414.  Salmon.  These  institutions  (containing  then  about 
47,721  persons)  were  totally  suppressed  throughout  the  realm  by  Henry  VIII.,  1539.* 
Abbeys  were  suppressed  in  France  in  1790  ;  and  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1861. 

ABBOT  (from  Ab,  father),  the  head  of  an  abbey.  In  England,  rnitred  abbots  were  lords  of 
parliament  ;  there  were  twenty-seven  abbots  and  two  priors  thus  distinguished  in  1329  ;  but 
the  number  was  reduced  to  twenty-five  in  1396.  Coke.  The  abbots  of  Reading,  Glastonbury, 
nnd  St.  John's,  Colchester,  were  hanged  and  quartered  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy,  and 
not  surrendering  their  abbeys,  1539.  See  Glastonbury. 

A  B  C  CLUB.  A  name  adopted  by  a  number  of  republican  enthusiasts  in  Paris,  their 
object  being  to  relieve  the  abaisses  or  depressed.  They  broke  out  into  an  insurrection  on 
June  5,  1832,  which  was  suppressed  with  bloodshed,  after  Paris  had  been  put  into  a  state  of 
siege  on  June  6.  These  events  are  described  by  Victor  Hugo  in  Lcs  Miserables,  published 
in  1862. 

*  Viz.,  374  large  monasteries  (revenue  104,919?.  13*.  30!.),  186  less  monasteries  ^revenue  33, 479^.  i3s 
and    48    houses    of   the    knights    hospitallers  (revenue  2385?.    izs.    Bd.) :  total,   houses,  608  ;    revenue," 
1 40, 784 1.   19?.  6%d. 


ABE 


ASDIC! ATIONS  of* sovereigns,  voluntary  and  compulsory,  are  numerous  in  history.    The 
following  are  the  most  remarkable  : — 


Sylla,  Roman  dictator      B.C. 

Diocletian,    Roman  emperor 

A.D. 

Stephen  II.,  of  Hungary 
Albert,   the    Bear  of    Br£ 
denburg  .... 
Lescov  V.  of  Poland 
Uladislaus  III.  of  Poland  . 
John  Balliol,  of  Scotland 
Otho  (of  Bavaria),  of  Hun 

Eric  IX.,  of  Denmark,  &c. 
Pope  Felix  V.  ... 
Charles  V.,  as  emperor  . 

,,          as  king  of  Spain 
Christina,  of  Sweden      . 
John  Casimir,  of  Poland  . 
James  II.,  of  England   . 
Frederick  Augustus  II.,   of 
Poland 1704 


79 

305 
1131 

1142 
1 200 
1206 
1306 

1309 

1439 
1449 

1555 
*556 
1654 


Philip     V.,    of     Spain    (re- 
sumed)     1724 

Victor  Amadeus,  of  Sardinia  1730 
Charles,  of  Naples  .  .  .  1759 
Stanislaus,  of  Poland  .  .  1795 
Charles  Emmanuel  II.,  of 

Sardinia       .         .     June  4,  1802 
Francis     II.,     of     Germany, 
who    became    emperor    of 
Austria         .        .  Aug.  n,  1804 
Charles    IV.,    of    Spain,    in 
favour  of  his  son,  March  19 ; 
in    favour    of    Bonaparte. 
See  Spain      .        .    May  i,  1808 
Gustavus  IV. ,  of  Sweden  .     .  1809 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  of  Naples 

(for  Spain)  .  June  i,  1808 
Louis,  of  Holland  .  July  i,  1810 
Jerome,  of  Westphalia, 


Napoleon,  of  France,  April  5,  1814 
Victor    Emmanuel,    of    Sar- 
dinia       .        .      March  13,  1821 
Pedro  IV.,   of    Portugal, 

May  2,  1826 
Charles   X.,    of  France, 

Aug.  2,  1830 

Pedro  I.,  of  Brazil  .  April  7,  1831 
Dom    Miguel,     of    Portugal 

(by  leaving  it)  .  May  26,  1834 
William  I., of  Holland,  Oct.  8,  1840 
Louis-Philippe,  of  France, 

Feb.  24,  1848 
Louis    Charles,    of  Bavaria, 

March  21,  1848 

Ferdinand  of  Austria,  Dec.  2,  1848 
Charles  Albert,  of  Sardinia, 

March  26,  1849 
Leopold'  II.,    grand-duke   of 
Tuscany  .        .        .     July,  1859 


Oct.  20,  1813 

ABECEDARIANS,  followers  of  Stork,  an  Anabaptist  in  the  sixteenth  century,  deriving 
their  name  from  their  rejection  of  all  worldly  knowledge,  even  of  the  alphabet. 

ABELARD  AND  HELOISE,  celebrated  for  their  passionate  love,  which  commenced  at 
Paris,  1118,  when  Heloise  (a  canon's  daughter)  was  under  seventeen  years  of  age.  Abelard 
built  the  convent  of  the  Paraclete  and  made  her  abbess  in  1121.  Here  he  taught  what  was 
condemned  as  heresy,  1122  and  1140.  After  suffering  an  ignominious  injury,  he  became 
a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and  died  of  grief  in  1142,  at  St.  Marcel.  Helo'ise  begged 
his  body,  buried  it  in  the  Paraclete,  and  was  interred  beside  him  in  1 163.  The  ashes  of  both 
were  carried  to  the  Museum  of  French  Monuments  in  1800  ;  and  the  museum  having  been 
subsequently  broken  up,  they  were  finally  removed  to  the  burying-ground  of  Pere  La  Chaise, 
in  1817.  Their  works  and  letters  were  published  in  one  volume  in  1616.  Pope's  imitations 


1817. 
of  the  latter  are  well  known. 


ABENCERRAGES,  a  powerful  Moorish  tribe  of  Granada,  opposed  to  that  of  the  Zegris. 
From  1480  to  1493  their  quarrels  deluged  Granada  with  blood  and  hastened  the  fall  of  the 
kingdom.  They  were  exterminated  by  Boabdil  (Abu  Abdallah),  the  last  king,  who  was 
dethroned  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  1492  ;  his  dominions  were  annexed  to  Castile. 

ABENSBERG.     See  Eckmuhl. 

ABERDEEN"  (N.  Scotland),  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  third  century  after  Christ. 
Gregory  the  Great  conferred  peculiar  privileges  on  Aberdeen,  in  893.  Old  Aberdeen  was 
made  a  royal  burgh  in  1154;  it  was  burnt  by  the  English  in  1336  ;  and  soon  after  New 
Aberdeen  was  built.  The  university  was  founded  by  bishop  William  Elphinstone,  who  had  a 
bull  from  the  pope  Alexander  VI.  in  1494.  King's  college  was  erected  in  1500-6.  Marischal 
college  was  founded  by  George  Keith,  earl  marischal  of  Scotland,  in  1593  ;  rebuilt  in  1837.  In 
1858  the  universities  and  colleges  were  united.— Malcolm  III.  having  gained  a  great  victory 
over  the  Danes  in  the  year  1010,  resolved  to  found  a  new  bishopric,  in  token  of  his  gratitude 
for  his  success,  and  pitched  upon  Mortlach  in  Banffshire,  where  St.  Beanus  was  first  bishop, 
1015.  The  see,  removed  to  Aberdeen  early  in  the  twelfth  century,  was  discontinued  at  the 
revolution,  1689,  and  is  now  a  post-revolution  bishopric,  instituted  in  1721.  See  Bishops. 

ABERDEEN  ADMINISTRATION,  called  the  Coalition  Ministry,  as  including  Whigs, 
Radicals,  and  followers  of  Sir  R.  Peel.  Formed  in  consequence  of  the  resignation  of  the  first 
Derby  administration;  sworn  in  Dec.  28,  1852;  resigned  Jan.  30,  1855;  succeeded  by  the 
Palmerston  administration,  which  see. 


Earl  of  Aberdeen,  *  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Lord  Gran  worth,  lord  chancellor. 

Earl  Granville,  president  of  the  council 

Duke  of  Argyll,  lord  privy  seal. 

Lord  John  Russell,  \  foreign. 

Viscount  Palmerston,  home  secretary. 

Duke  of  Newcastle,  \  colonial  and  war  secretary. 

William  Ewart  Gladstone,  chancellor  of  exchequer. 


Sir  James  Graham,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 
Sir  Charles  Wood,  president  of  the  India  board. 
P^dward  Cardwell,  president  of  board  of  trade. 
Hon.  Sidney  Herbert,  secretary-at-war. 
Sir  William  Molesworth,  chief  commissioner  of  works. 
Marquess  of  Lansdowne  (without  office). 
Viscount  Canning,  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderley,  right 
hon.  Edward  Strutt,  &c. 


*  Born  in  1784 ;  engaged  in  foreign  diplomacy,  1813  ; 
the  party  of  SirR.  Peel,  1846;  died,  Dec.  14,  1860. 


became  foreign  secretary,  Jan.    1828 ;  joined 

t  Lord  John  Russell  was  succeeded  as  foreign  secretary  by  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  but  continued  a 
member  of  the  cabinet,  without  office  ;  he  afterwards  became  president  of  the  council,  in  the  room  of 
earl  Granville,  appointed  to  the  duchy  of  Lancaster. 

J  On  June  T  i,  1854,  the  offices  were  separated  ;  the  duke  of  Newcastle  remained  secretary  of  war,  and 
sir  George  Grey  was  made  colonial  secretary. 


u. 

s 


ABH  3  ABS 

ABHORRERS,  a  political  court-party  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the 
opponents  of  the  Addressers  (afterwards  Whigs),  so  called  from  their  address  to  the  king 
praying  for  the  immediate  assembly  of  the  parliament  which  was  delayed  on  account  of  its 
being  adverse  to  the  court,  The  first  mentioned  (afterwards  Tories)  expressed  their  abhorrence 
of  those  who  endeavoured  to  encroach  on  the  royal  prerogative,  1680.*  Hume. 

ABINGDON  LAW.  In  1645,  lord  Essex  and  "Waller  held  Abingdon,  in  Berks,  against 
Charles  I.  The  town  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  sir  Stephen  Hawkins  in  1644,  and  by 
prince  Rupert  in  1645.  On  these  occasions  the  defenders  put  every  Irish  prisoner  to  death 
without  trial  :  hence  the  term  "  Abingdon  law."  = 

T ABJURATION  of  certain  doctrines  of  the  church  of  Rome  was  enjoined  by  statute  25 
Charles  II.  1672.  The  oath  of  abjuration  of  the  pope  and  the  pretender  was  first  administered 
"iy  statute  13  William  III.  1701  ;  the  form  was  changed  in  after  reigns.  By  21  &  22  Viet. 

48  (1858)  an  alteration  in  this  oath  was  authorised  for  Jews. 

ABO,  a  port  of  Russia,  founded  prior  to  1157,  was  till  1809  capital  of  Swedish  Finland. 
It  has  suffered  much  by  fire,  especially  in  1775  and  1827;  was  seized  by  the  Russians  in 
Feb.,  1808  ;  ceded  to  them  in  1809  ;  and  rebuilt  by  them  after  the  fire  in  1827.  A  university 
was  erected  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Christina,  1640,  et  seq.,  and  removed  to  Helsingfors 
in  1827.  The  peace  of  Abo,  between  Russia  and  Sweden,  was  signed  in  1743. 

ABORIGINES  (from  db  origine,  without  origin),  a  name  given  to  the  earliest  known 
inhabitants  of  Italy  (whence  came  the  Latini)  ;  now  applied  to  the  original  inhabitants  of 
any  country. — The  Aborigines  Protection  Society  was  established  in  1838.  Reports  on  the 
condition  of  the  aborigines  in  the  British  colonies  were  presented  to  parliament  in  1834 
and  1837. 

ABOUKIR  (Egypt),  the  ancient  Canopus.  The  bay  is  famous  for  the  defeat  of  the 
French  fleet  by  Nelson,  August  1,  1798.  See  Nile.  A  Turkish  army  of  15,000  was  defeated 
here  by  5000  French  under  Bonaparte,  July  25,  1799.  A  British  expedition  to  Egypt  under 
general  sir  Ralph  Abercromby  landed  here,  and  Aboukir  surrendered  to  them  after  an 
obstinate  and  sanguinary  conflict  with  the  French,  March  8,  1801.  See  Alexandria. 

ABRAHAM,  EKA  OF,  used  by  Eusebius  ;  so  called  from  the  patriarch  Abraham,  who  died 
B.C.  1821.  It  began  October  I,  2016  B.C.  To  reduce  this  era  to  the  Christian,  subtract 
2015  years  and  three  months. 

ABRAHAM,  HEIGHTS  OF,  near  Quebec,  Lower  Canada.  The  French  were  defeated  here 
by  general  Wolfe,  who  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory,  Sept.  13,  1759.  See  Quebec. 

ABRAHAMITES,  a  sect  which  adopted  the  errors  of  Paulus,  and  was  suppressed  by 
Cyriacus,  the  patriarch  of  Antioch.  In  the  ninth  century,  there  sprang  up  a  community  of 
monks  under  a  like  designation :  it,  too,  was  suppressed,  or  rather  exterminated,  for  worshipping 
images.  A  mongrel  sect  of  this  name  was  banished  from  Bohemia  by  Joseph  II.  in  1783. 

ABSALOM'S  REBELLION,  ending  in  his  death  (1024-3  B.O.)  is  described  in  2  Sam. 
xv. — xix. 

ABSENTEE  TAX  (four  shillings  in  the  pound)  was  first  levied  in  Ireland  in  1715  on  the 
incomes  and  pensions  of  absentees  (persons  who  derive  their  income  from  one  country  and 
.spend  it  in  another)  but  ceased  in  1753.  A  tax  of  2s.  in  the  pound  was  vainly  proposed  by 
Mr.  Flood  in  1773  and  by  Mr.  Molyneux  in  1783. 

ABSOLUTION,  ECCLESIASTICAL.  Till  the  third  century,  the  consent  of  the  congregation 
was  necessary  to  absolution  ;  but  soon  after  the  power  was  reserved  to  the  bishop  ;  and  in 
the  twelfth  century  the  form  "/absolve  thee"  had  become  general. 

ABSTINENCE.  It  is  said  that  St.  Anthony  lived  to  the  age  of  105  on  twelve  ounces  of 
bread  and  water  daily,  and  James  the  hermit  to  the  age  of  104.  St.  Epiphanius  lived 
thus  to  115;  Simeon  the  Stylite  to  112;  and  Kentigern,  commonly  called  St.  Mungo, 
to  185  years  of  age.  Spottisivood.  Ann  Moore,  the  fasting  woman  of  Tutbury,  Staffordshire, 
was  said  to  have  lived  twenty  months  without  food  ;  but  her  imposture  was  detected  by  Dr. 
A.  Henderson,  Nov.  1808.  At  Newry,  in  Ireland,  a  man  named  Cavanagh  was  reported  to 
have  lived  two  years  without  meat  or  drink,  Aug.  1840.  His  imposture  was  afterwards 
discovered  in  England,  where  he  was  imprisoned  as  a  cheat,  Nov.  1841.  See  Fasts. 

*  The  commons  expelled  several  members  for  being  Abhorrers,  among  them  sir  Francis  Withens 
(whom  they  sent  to  the  Tower),  and  prayed  his  majesty  to  remove  others  from  places  of  trust.  They  also 
resolved,  "  that  it  is  the  undoubted  right  of  the  subject  to  petition  for  the  calling  of  a  parliament,  and 
that  to  traduce  such  petitions  as  tumultuous  and  seditious,  is  to  contribute  to  the  design  of  altering  the 
constitution."  Oct.  1680.  Salmon. 

B   2 


ABS 


ACA 


ABSTINENTS,  ascetics  that  wholly  abstained  from  wine,  flesh,  and  marriage,  appeared 
in  France  and  Spain  in  the  third  century. 

ABYSSINIA,  a  large  country  in  N.  E.  Africa.  Its  ancient  history  is  very  uncertain. 
The  kingdom  of  Auxumitse  (from  its  chief  town  Auxume)  flourished  in  the  1st  and  2nd 
centuries  after  Christ.  The  religion  of  the  Abyssinians  is  a  corrupt  form  of  Christianity 
introduced  about  329  by  Frumentius.  About  960,  Judith,  a  Jewish  princess,  murdered  a 
great  part  of  the  royal  family,  and  reigned  forty  years.  The  young  king  escaped  :  and  the 
royal  house  was  restored  in  1268  in  the  person  of  his  descendant  Icon  Amlac.  In  the  middle 
ages  it  was  said  to  be  ruled  by  Prester  John  or  Prete  Janni.  The  Portuguese  missions  com- 
menced in  the  I5th  century,  but  were  expelled  about  1632  in  consequence  of  the  tyranny  of 
Mendez  and  the  Jesuits.  The  encroachments  of  the  Gallas  and  intestine  disorders  soon  after 
broke  up  the  empire  into  petty  governments.  Missions  were  sent  from  England  in  1829  and 
1841.  Much  information  respecting  Abyssinia  has  been  given  by  Bruce  (1790),  Salt 
(1805—9),  Riippell  (1838),  and  Parkyns  (1853).* 

ABYSSINIAN  ERA  is  reckoned  from  the  creation,  which  the  Abyssinians  place  in  the 
5493rd  year  before  our  era,  on  the  29th  Aug.  old  style  :  and  their  dates  consequently  exceed 
ours  by  5492  years  and  125  days.  To  reduce  Abyssinian  time  to  the  Julian  year,  subtract 
5492  years  and  125  days. 

ACADEMIES.  Academia  was  a  shady  grove  without  the  walls  of  Athens  (bequeathed  to 
Academus  for  gymnastic  exercises),  where  Plato  first  taught  philosophy,  and  his  followers 
took  the  title  of  Academics,  378  B.C.  Stanley. — Rome  had  no  academies. — Ptolemy  Soter  is 
said  to  have  founded  an  academy  at  Alexandria,  about  314  B.C.  Abderahman  I.,  caliph  of 
Spain,  founded  academies  about  A.D.  773.  Theodosius  the  Younger,  Charlemagne,  and 
Alfred  are  also  named  as  founders  of  academies.  Italy  is  celebrated  for  its  academies  ;  and 
Jarckius  mentions  550,  of  which  25  were  in  the  city  of  Milan.  The  following  are  among  the 
principal  academies  : — 

Milan,  Architecture,  1380  ;  Sciences,  1719. 

Munich,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1759. 

Naples,  Rossana,  1540;  Mathematics,  1560;  Sciences, 
1695 ;  Herculaneum,  1755. 

New  York,  Literature  and  Philosophy,  1814. 

Nismes,  Royal  Academy,  1682. 

Padua,  for  Poetry,  1613  ;  Sciences,  1792. 

Palermo,  Medical,  1645. 

Paris,  Sorbonne,  1253 ;  Painting,  1391  ;  Music,  1543 
and  1672  ;  French  (by  Richelieu),  1635  ;  Fine  Arts, 
1648  ;  Inscriptions  et  Bellas  Lettres  (by  Colbert), 
1663  ;  Sciences  (by  Colbert),  1666 ;  Architecture, 
1671  ;  Surgery,  1731 ;  Military,  1751 ;  Natural 
Philosophy,  1796. 

Parma,  the  Innominati,  1550. 

Perousa,  Insensati,  1561 ;  Filigirti,  1574. 

Philadelphia,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1749. 

Portsmouth,  Naval,  1722  ;  enlarged,  1806. 

Rome,  Umoristi,  1611 ;  Fantascici,  1625  ;  Infccoiidi, 
1653  ;  Painting,  1665 ;  Arcadi,  1690  ;  English, 
1752  ;  Lincei,  about  1600  ;  Nuovi  Lincei,  1847. 

St.  Petersburg,  Sciences,  1723  ;  Military,  1732  ;  the 
School  of  Arts,  1764. 

Stockholm,  of  Science,  1741 ;  Belles  Lettres,  1753  ; 
Agriculture,  1781 ;  Royal  Swedish,  1786. 

Toulon,  Military,  1682. 

Turin   Sciences,  about  1759;  Fine  Arts,  1778. 

Turkey,  Military  School,  1775. 

Upsal,  Royal  Society,  Sciences,  1720. 

Venice,  Medical,  &c.,  1701. 

Verona,  Music,  1543  ;  Sciences,  1780. 

Vienna,  Sculpture  and  the  Arts,  1705  ;  Surgery, 
1783  ;  Oriental,  1810. 

Warsaw,  Languages,  and  History,  1753. 

Washington,  United  States,  America,  1863. 

Woolwich,  Military,  1741. 


American  Academy  of  Sciences,  Boston,  1780. 

Ancona,  of  the  Caglinosi,  1642. 

Basil,  1460. 

Berlin,  Royal,  1700  ;  of  Princes,  1703  ;  Architecture, 

1799. 
Bologna,  Ecclesiastical,   1687 ;   Mathematics,   1690 ; 

Sciences  and  Arts,  1712. 
Brescia,  of  the  Erranti,  1626. 
Brest  and  Toulon,  Military,  1682. 
Brussels,  Belles  Lettres,  1773. 
Caen,  Belles  Lettres,  1705. 
Copenhagen,  of  Sciences,  1743. 
Cortona,  Antiquities,  1726. 

Dublin,  Arts,  1742  ;  Painting,  Sculpture,  &c.,  1823. 
Erfurt,  Saxony,  Sciences,  1754. 
Faenza,  the  Philoponi,  1612. 
Florence,   Belles  Lettres,    1272 ;    Delia    Crusca    (now 

united  with  the  Florentine,   and  merged  under 

that  name),  1582  ;  Del  Cimento,  1657  (by  cardinal 

de'  Medici)  ;  Antiquities,  1807. 
Geneva,  Medical,  1715. 
Genoa,  Painting,  &c.,  1751  ;  Sciences,  1783. 
Germany,  Naturae  Curiosi,  now  L> op Q Idine,  1662. 
GOttingen,  1750 
Haerlem,  the  Sciences,  1760. 
Irish  Academy,  Royal,  Dublin,  1782. 
Lisbon,  History,  1720  ;  Sciences,  1779. 
London.      See  Societies.      Royal  Academy  of   Fine 

Arts,  1768  ;  of  Music,  1734-43  ;  and  1822. 
Lyons,    Sciences,    1710 ;    Physic  and   Mathematics 

added,  1758. 
Madrid,  the  Royal  Spanish,    1713;   History,  1730; 

Painting  and  the  Arts,  1753. 
Manheim,  Sciences,  1755  ;  Sculpture,  1775. 
Mantua,  the  Vigilanti,  Sciences,  1704. 
Marseilles,  Belles  Lettres,  1726. 
Massachusetts,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1780. 


*  Abyssinia  has  long  been  in  a  state  of  anarchy.  In  1855  the  emperor  Ras  Ali  was  deposed  by  his 
son-in-law  Theodore,  the  present  ruler,  who  invited  the  European  sovereigns  to  join  him  in  a  crusade 
against  his  neighbours  the  Turks.  Our  consul  (Plowden)  at  Massowah  imprudently  joined  this  sovereign, 
and  lost  his  life  while  opposing  an  insurrection  ;  and  his  successor  (col.  Cameron)  and  other  persons  are 
now  imprisoned  by  Theodore,  who  is  jealous  of  their  favouring  the  Turks.  The  subject  was  discussed 
in  parliament  in  July,  1865,  and  the  consul  was  censured  by  government  for  havin^  disregarded  his 
instructions. 


^ 


AC A  5  ACH 

ACADIA.     See  Nova  Scotia. 

ACANTHUS,   the  foliage  forming  the  volutes  of  the  Corinthian  capital,  ascribed  to 
llimachus,  about  540  B.C. 

ACAPULCO,  a  Spanish  galleon,  from  Acapulco,  laden  with  gold  and  precious  wares 
(estimated  at  above  i,ooo,oooZ.  sterling),  taken  by  lord  Anson,  who  had  previously  acquired 
booty  in  his  voyage  amounting  to  6oo,oooZ.  He  arrived  at  Spithead  in  the  Centurion,  after 
having  circumnavigated  the  globe,  June  15,  1744. 

ACARNANIA,  1ST.  Greece.  The  people  became  prominent  in  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
having  invited  the  help  of  the  Athenians  against  the  Ambracians,  432  B.C.  The  Acarnanians 
wore  subdued  by  the  Lacedaemonians  in  390 ;  they  took  part  with  Macedon  against  the  Romans 
in  200,  by  whom  they  were  subjugated  in  197  ;  finally,  in  145. 

ACCENTS.  The  most  ancient  manuscripts  are  written  without  accents,  and  without  any 
ration  of  words  ;  nor  was  it  until  after  the  ninth  century  that  the  copyists  began  to  leave 
spaces  between  the  words.  Michaelis,  after  Wetstein,  ascribes  the  insertion  of  accents  to 
Euthalius,  bishop  of  Sulca,  in  Egypt,  A.D.  458.  Accents  were  first  used  by  the  French  in 

reign  of  Louis  XIII.  (about  1610). 

ACCESSION,  THE,  i.e.  that  of  the  house  of  Hanover  to  the  throne  of  England,  in  the 
person  of  George  I.,  elector  of  Hanover,  the  son  of  Sophia,  the  daughter  of  Elizabeth,  the 
daughter  of  James  I.  He  succeeded  to  the  crown,  Aug.  I,  1714,  by  virtue  of  the  act  of 
settlement  passed  in  the  reign  of  William  III.,  June  12,  1701,  which  limited  the  succession 
to  his  mother  (as  a  protestant)  in  the  event  of  queen  Anne  dying  without  issue. 

ACCESSORIES  TO  CRIMES.  The  law  respecting  them  consolidated  and  amended  in  1861. 

ACCIDENTS.  See  Coal,  Fires,  Railways,  &c.  For  compensation  for  accidents,  see 
Campbell's  Act  and  Passengers. 

ACCLIMATISATION  OF  ANIMALS.  This  has  been  prosecuted  with  great  vigour  since  the 
establishment  of  the  Zoological  society  of  London  in  1829,  and  of  the  Societe"  d'Acclimata- 
tion  in  Paris.  Numbers  of  European  animals  have  been  naturalised  in  Australia  ;  the 
camel  has  been  conveyed  to  Brazil  (1859)  ;  alpacas  are  bred  at  Paris  ;  and  ostriches  in  Italy 
(1859).  On  Oct.  6,  1860,  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  near  Paris,  was  opened  as  a  zoological 
Garden,  containing  only  acclimatised  animals.  An  English  acclimatisation  society  was 
founded  June  10,  1860,  by  hon.  Grantley  Berkeley,  Mr.  J.  Crockford,  Mr.  F.  Buckland,  &c., 
and  the  prince  of  Wales  became  president  in  April,  1865.  An  acclimatising  garden  was 
established  at  Melbourne,  Australia,  in  Feb.  1861,  and  efforts  are  being  made  to  naturalise 
English  birds,  fishes,  &c. 

ACCORDION,  a  small  wind-instrument  witli*keys,  introduced  into  England  from  Germany 
about  1828. 

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL  IN  CHANCEHY.  The  office  was  appointed  in  1726,  and 
abolished  in  1841  ;  it  was  always  held  by  a  master  in  chancery.  Hardy. 

ACCUSERS.  By  the  occult  writers,  such  as  Agrippa,  accusers  are  the  eighth  order  of 
devils,  whose  chief  is  called  Asteroth,  or  Spy.  In  the  Revelation,  ch.  xii.  10,  the  devil  is 
called  "  the  accuser  of  the  brethren." — False  accusers  were  to  be  hanged,  by  24  Henry  VI. 
1446  ;  and  burnt  in  the  face  with  an  F,  by  37  Henry  VIII.  1545.  Stow. 

ACELDAMA,  a  field,  said  to  have  been  the  one  bought  with  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  given 
to  Judas  Iscariot  for  betraying  Christ,  is  still  shown  to  travellers.  It  is  covered  with  an  arched 
roof,  and  retains  the  name  Aceldama,  that  is  "the  field  of  blood,"  to  this  day.  Matthew 
xxvii.  8;  Actsi.  19. — This  name  was  given  to  an  estate  purchased  by  judge  Jeffreys  after 
the  "bloody  assizes"  in  1685. 

ACETYLENE,  a  luminous  hydrocarbon  gas  resembling  coal  gas,  discovered  by  Berthelot, 
and  made  known  in  1862. 

ACHAIA  (N.  Peloponnesus),  Greece  ;  the  capital  was  settled  by  Achseus,  the  son  of 
Xuthus,  about  1330  B.C.  ( ?)  The  kingdom  was  united  with  Sicyon  or  subject  to  the  ^Etolians 
until  about  284  B.  c.  The  Achaei,  descendants  of  Achseus,  originally  inhabited  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Argos  ;  but  when  the  Heraclidse  drove  them  thence,  they  retired  among  the 
louians,  expelled  the  natives,  and  seized  their  thirteen  cities,  viz.,  Pellene,  jEgira,  ^Egium, 
Bura,  Tritsea,  Leontium,  Rhypes,  Cerynea,  Olenos,  Helice,  Patrse,  Dyme,  and  Pharae,  form- 
ing the  ACHAEAN  LEAGUE,  which  was  broken  up  soon  after  the  death  of  Alexander  of  Macedon, 
323  B.C. 


AOH 


ACR 


Achaia  invaded  by  Epaminondas      .         .B.C.     366 
The    Achaean  league   revived   by  four  cities 

about  280 — 

Aratus  made  praetor 245 

The  league  joined  by  Corinth,  Megara,  &c.  243—236 


Supported  by  Athens  and  Antigonus  Doson  . 

War  with  the  Spartans  ;  the  Achseans  defeated 
at  Ladocea,  by  the  Spartans  under  Cleo- 
menes  III.,  226;  but  totally  defeat  them  at 
Sellasia .  . 

The  Social  war  begun  ;  battle  of  Caphyss,  in 
Arcadia  ;  Aratus  defeated  . 

The  Peloponnesus  ravaged  by  the  ^Etolians 

Aratus  poisoned  at  jEgium     . 

Philopcemen,  leader  of  the  league,  defeats  the 


Spartan  tyrant  Machanidas 
Alliance  of  the  league  with  the  Romans 
Philopcemen    defeated   by   Nabis  in  a  naval 

battle 194 

Sparta  joined  to  the  league         .        .        .  191 

War  with  Messene :   Philopcemen   made  pri 

soner  and  slain 183 


229 


220 
2I9 
213 

208 


The  Achseans  overrun  Messeniawitb  fire  &  sword    182 
The  Romans  enter  Achaia,  and  carry  off  num- 
bers of  the  people,  among  whom  is  the  cele- 
brated Polybius 165 

Metellus  enters  Greece  .        .        .  .    .     147 

The  Achseans  defeated  by  Mummius  at  Leuco- 
petra ;  the  league  dissolved  by  Mummius  ; 
Corinth  taken  ;  Greece  subjected  to  Rome, 
and  named  the  province  of  Achaia  .  .  .  146 
Achaia  made  a  Latin  principality,  A.D.  1205 ; 
founded  by  William  of  Champlitte,  1205  ;  ob- 
tained by  Geoffrey  Villehardouin,  1210  ;  by 
Geoffrey  II.,  1218;  by  his  brother  William, 
1246  ;  who  conquers  the  Moors,  1248  ;  makes 
war  with  the  emperor  Michael,  1259,  and 
gains  three  fortresses,  1262 ;  succeeded 
by  Isabella,  1277 ;  who  marries  Florenz 
of  Hainult,  1291  ;  their  daughter  Maud, 
princess,  1311 ;  thrice  married  ;  forcibly  mar- 
ried to  John  de  Gravina,  and  dies  in  prison  ; 
Achaia  subject  to  the  kings  of  Naples  .  .  1324 


Conquered  by  the  Turks 


about  1540 


ACHONRY,  SLIGO  (N.  Ireland)  ;  a  bishopric  founded  by  St.  Finian,  who  erected  the 
church  of  Achad,  usually  called  Achonry,  about  520,  and  conferred  it  on  his  disciple  Nathy 
(Dathy,  or  David),  the  first  bishop.  The  see,  held  with  Killala  since  1612,  was  united  with 
Tuam  in  1834. 

ACHROMATIC  TELESCOPES,  in  which  colour  is  got  rid  of,  were  invented  by  John 
Dollond,  and  described  in  Phil.  Trans,  of  the  Royal  Society,  London,  1753-8. 

ACIDS  (now  defined  as  salts  of  hydrogen)  are  generally  soluble  in  water,  redden  organic 
blues,  decompose  carbonates,  and  destroy  the  properties  of  alkalies,  forming  alkaline  salts. 
The  number  was  increased  by  the  Arabs  ;  Geber  (8th  century)  knew  nitric  acid  and 
sulphuric  acid.  Theories  of  the  constitution  of  acids  were  put  forth  by  Becher  (1669), 
Lemery  (1675),  and  Stahl  (1723).  After  the  discovery  of  oxygen  by  Priestley,  Aug.  I,  1774, 
Lavoisier  (1778)  concluded  that  oxygen  was  a  constituent  of  all  acids  ;  but  about  1810  Davy, 
Gay-Lussac,  and  others,  proved  the  existence  of  acids  free  from  oxygen.  In  1816  Dulong 
proposed  the  binary  or  hydrogen  theory  of  acids,  and  in  1837  Liebig  applied  the  theories  of 
Davy  and  Dulong  to  explain  the  constitution  of  several  organic  acids.  Oxygen  acids  are 
now  termed  anhydrides.  An  innumerable  number  of  acids  have  been  discovered  through  the 
advance  of  organic  chemistry.  Watts. 

ACOLYTES,  an  inferior  order  of  clergy  in  the  Latin  church,  unknown  to  the  Greek 
church  for  four  hundred  years  after  Christ. 

ACOUSTICS  (from  akouo),  Greek,  I  hear),  the  science  of  sound,  so  named  by  Sauveur  in 
the  1 7th  century.  The  communication  of  sounds  to  the  air  by  the  vibrations  of  the 
atmosphere,  strings,  &c.,  was  explained  by  Pythagoras  about  500  B.C.,  and  by  Aristotle, 
33°  B-c- 


The  speaking  trumpet  is  said  to  have  been  used  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  335  B.C. 

Galileo's  discoveries,  about  A.D.  1600. 

His  theorem  of  the  harmonic  curve  demonstrated 
by  Dr.  Brook  Taylor,  in  1714  ;  further  perfected 
by  D'Alembert,  Euler,  Bernouilli,  and  La  Grange, 
at  various  periods  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Hooke  calculated  the  vibration  of  sounds  by  the 
striking  of  the  teeth  of  brass  wheels,  1681. 

Sauveur  determined  the  number  of  vibrations  be- 
longing to  a  given  note,  about  1700. 


Velocity  of  sound  said  to  be  1473  feet  in  a  second, 
by  Gassendi ;  1172  feet  by  Cassini,  Romer  and 
others  ;  968  by  Newton,  about  1700. 

Chladni  (who  raised  acoustics  to  an  independent 
science)  published  his  important  discoveries  on 
the  figures  produced  in  layers  of  sand  by  harmonic 
chords,  <fec.,  in  1787,  and  since. 

Cagniard-Latour  invented  the  sirdne  (which  'see).  1819. 

Biot,  Savart,  Wheatstone,  Lissajous,  Helmholtz, 
Tyndall,  and  others  in  the  present  century  have 
greatly  increased  our  knowledge  of  acoustics. 


ACRE.  This  measure  was  formerly  of  uncertain  quantity,  and  differed  in  various  parts 
of  the  realm,  until  made  standard  by  statute  31  Edward  I.  1303,  and  fixed  at  40  poles  or 
perches  in  length,  and  4  in  breadth — or  160  square  poles,  containing  4840  square  yards, 
or  43,560  square  feet.  In  certain  counties  and  places  the  measure  is  larger.  Pardon. 

ACRE,  Acca,  anciently  Ptolemais,  in  Syria,  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  in  638  ;  by  the 
crusaders  under  Baldwin  I.  in  1104  ;  by  Saladin  in  1187  ;  and  again  by  Richard  I.  and  other 
crusaders,  July  12,  1191,  after  a  siege  of  two  years,  with  a  loss  of  6  archbishops,  12  bishops, 
40  earls,  500  barons,  and  300,000  soldiers.  It  was  then  named  St.  Jean  d'Acre.  It  was 
retaken  by  the  Saracens  in  1291,  when  60,000  Christians  perished.  This  capture  was 
rendered  memorable  by  the  murder  of  the  nuns,  who  had  mangled  their  faces  to  repress  the 


ACR 


ACT 


fst  of  the  infidels. — Acre,  gallantly  defended  by  Djezzar  Racha  against  Bonaparte  in  July, 
1798,  was  relieved  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  who  resisted  twelve  attempts  by  the  French,  between 
March  16  and  May'  20,  1799,  when  Bonaparte  retreated. — St  Jean  d'Acre,  as  a  pachalic 
subject  to  the  Porte,  was  seized  July  2,  1832,  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  who  had  revolted.  On 
Nov.  3,  1840,  it  was  stormed  by  the  British  fleet  under  sir  Robert  Stopford,  and  taken  after 
a  bombardment  of  a  few  hours,  the  Egyptians  losing  upwards  of  2000  in  killed  and  wounded, 
and  3000  prisoners,  while  the  British  had  but  twelve  killed  and  42  wounded.  See  Syria,  and 
Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS,  the  citadel  of  Athens,  was  built  on  a  rock,  and  accessible  only  on  one  side  ; 
Minerva  had  a  temple  at  the  bottom.  The  roof  of  this  vast  pile,  which  had  stood  above 
2000  years,  was  destroyed  by  the  Venetians  who  took  Athens  in  1687. 

ACS  (Hungary).  The  Hungarians  under  Gorgey  were  defeated  here  by  the  Austrians 
and  Russians,  on  July  10,  1849. 

ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT,  &c.    See  Accession,  Succession,  Supremacy,  and  Uniformity  Acts. 

ACTA  SANCTORUM  (acts  of  the  saints),  a  work  commenced  by  the  Jesuits  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  first  volume  appeared  in  1643  :  the  publication  was  interrupted 
in  1734,  when  the  fifty-third  volume  was  published,  but  was  resumed  in  1846,  and  is  still  in 
progress  :  having  advanced  in  the  order  of  the  months  as  far  as  October.  From  one  of  the 
first  editors,  Bolland,  the  writers  have  been  named  Bollandists. 

ACTINOMETER,  an  instrument  to  measure  the  power  of  the  solar  rays,  invented  by  sir 
J.  F.  Herschel,  about  1825.  See  Sun. 

ACTIUM,  a  promontory  of  Acarnania,  W.  Greece,  near  which  was  fought,  on  Sept.  2, 
31  B  c.,  the  battle  between  the  fleets  of  Octavianus  Caesar  on  the  one  side,  and  of  Marc  Antony 
and  Cleopatra  on  the  other,  which  decided  the  fate  of  Antony  ;  300  of  his  galleys  going  over 
to  Csesar.  This  victory  made  Octavianus  master  of  the  world,  and  the  Roman  empire  is 
commonly  dated  Jan.  i,  30  B.C.  (the  Actian  Era).  The  conqueror  built  Nicopolis  (the  city 
of  victory),  and  instituted  the  Actian  games.  Blair. 

ACTRESSES  appear  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  ancients ;  men  or  eunuchs  performing 
the  female  parts.  Charles  II.  is  said  to  have  first  encouraged  the  public  appearance  of 
women  on  the  stage  in  England,  in  1662  ;  but  the  queen  of  James  I.  had  previously  per- 
formed in  a  theatre  at  court.  Thcat.  Biog.  Mrs.  Colman  was  the  first  actress  on  the  stage  ; 
she  performed  the  part  of  lanthe  in  Davenant's  "Siege  of  Rht)des,"  in  1656.  Victor. 


ACTS  or  PARLIAMENT,  or  STATUTES. 
most  celebrated  early  statutes  : — • 

Statutes  of  Clarendon,  to  restrain  the  power  of  the 
clergy,  enacted  in  10  Hen.  II.  1164.  Provisions 
of  Merton,  1235-6.  Statute  of  Marlborough,  1267. 
Of  Bigamy,  1275-6.  Of  Gloucester,  the  earliest 
statute  of  which  any  record  exists,  6  Edw.  I., 
1278.  Of  (Mortmain,  1279.  Quo  Warranto,  Oct. 
1280.  Statutes  of  Wales,  1284.  Of  Winchester,  Oct. 
1284.  Of  Westminster,  1285.  Statute  forbidding 
the  levying  of  taxes  without  the  consent  of  par- 
liament, 1297.  Magna  Charta,  1297.  Of  Prse- 
munire,  1306. 

Between  1823  and  1829,  1126  acts  were  wholly  re- 
pealed, and  443  repealed  in  part,  chiefly  arising 
out  of  the  consolidation  of  the  laws  by  Mr.  (after- 
wards sir  Robert)  Peel ;  of  these  acts,  1344  related 
to  the  kingdom  at  large,  and  225  to  Ireland  solely; 
and  in  1856  many  obsolete  statutes  (enacted  be- 
tween 1285  and  1777)  were  repealed. 

By  the  Statute  Law  Revision  Act  of  1861,  770  acts 
were  wholly  repealed,  and  a  great  many  pai'tially. 
By  the  similar  Act  of  1863,  a  great  number  of 
enactments  were  repealed,  commencing  with  the 
Provisions  of  Merton,  20  Henry  III.  (1236),  and 
ending  with  i  James  II.  (1685). 

The  greatest  number  of  acts  passed  in  any  one  year 


See  Parliament,     The  following  are  among  the 


since  1800,  was  570,  in  1846  (the  railway  year)  ; 
402  were  local  and  personal,  51  private,  and  117 
public  acts.  In  1841,  only  13  were  passed  (the 
lowest  number),  of  which  two  were  private.  In 
three  instances  only,  the  annual  number  was 
under  a  hundred.  The  average  number  of  the  first 
ten  years  of  the  present  century  was  132  public 
acts.  In  the  ten  years  ending  1850,  the  average 
number  of  acts,  of  public  interest,  was  112. 
The  number  of  public  general  acts  passed  in  1851 
was  106  ;  in  1852,  88  ;  in  1853,  J37  '>  *n  I854>  125  ; 
in  1855,  134;  in  1856,  120;  in  1857,  86;  in  1858, 
109  ;  in  1859,  I01  >  in  1860,  154;  in  1861,  134;  in 


1862,  114;  in  1863,  125;  in  1864,  121. 
In  1850.  i^  Viet.  c.  13,  was  passed  to  curtail  Repeti- 

tions in  statutes. 
Statutes  first  printed  in  the  reign  of  Richard  III., 


Statutes  of  the  Realm,  from  Magna  Charta  to 
George  I.,  printed  from  the  original  records  and 
MSS.  in  12  vols.  folio,  under  the  direction  of  com- 
missioners appointed  in  1801,  1811 — 28. 

The  statutes  passed  during  each  session  are  now 
printed  annually  in  4to.  and  8vo.  Abstracts  are 
given  in  the  Cabinet  Lawyer. 


ACTS,  in  dramatic  poetry,  first  employed  by  the  Romans.    Five  acts  are  mentioned  by 
Horace  (Art  of  Poetry)  as  the  rule  (about  B.C.  8). 

ACTUARY,  ACTUARIUS,  the  Roman  accountant.    The  Institute  of  Actuaries  founded  in 
1848,  publishes  its  proceedings  in  the  "Assurance  Magazine." 


ADA  8  ADM 

ADAM  AND  EVE,  ERA  OF,  set  down  by  most  Christian  writers  as  being  4004  B.C.  There 
have  been  as  many  as  one  hundred  and  forty  opinions  on  the  distance  of  time  between  the 
creation  of  the  world  and  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer  :  some  make  it  3616  years,  and  some  as 
great  as  6484  years.  See  Creation. 

ADAMITES,  a  sect  said  to  have  existed  about  130,  and  to  have  assembled  quite  naked 
in  their  places  of  worship,  asserting  that  if  Adam  had  not  sinned  there  would  have  been  no 
marriages.  Their  chief  was  named  Prodicus  ;  they  deified  the  elements,  rejected  prayer,  ajid 
said  it  was  not  necessary  to  confess  Christ.  Eusebius.  A  similar  sect  arose  at  Antwerp  in  the 
twelfth  century,  under  Taudemus,  or  Tanchelin,  whose  followers,  3000  soldiers  and  others, 
committed  many  crimes  under  spiritual  names.  The  sect  became  extinct  soon  after  the 
death  of  its  chief ;  but  another  of  the  same  kind,  named  Turlupins,  appeared  shortly  after  in 
Savoy  and  Dauphiny.  A  Fleming  named  Pieard,  revived  this  sect  in  Bohemia,  about  1415  ; 
it  was  suppressed  by  Ziska. 

ADDINGTON  ADMINISTRATION.     Mr.    Pitt,   having  engaged  to  procure   Roman 
Catholic  emancipation  to  secure  the   union  with  Ireland,   and  being  unable  to  do  so  as  a 
minister,  resigned  Feb.  3,  1801.      A  new  ministry  was  formed  by  Mr.  Addington,  March 
1 80 1  ;  after  various  changes  it  terminated  May  n,  1804. 
Henry  Addington,*  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 


chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor. 
Duke  of  Portland,  lord  president. 
Earl  of  Westmoreland,  lord  privy  seal. 
Lord  Pelham,  home  secretary. 


Lord  Hawkesbxxry,  foreign  secretary. 
Lord  Hobart,  colonial  secretary. 
Earl  St.  Vincent,  admiralty. 
Earl  of  Chatham,  ordnance. 
Charles  Yorke,  secretary -at-war. 
Viscount  Lewisham,  Lord  Auckland,  <fec. 


ADDISCOMBE  COLLEGE,  near  Croydon,  Surrey,  established  by  the  East  India 
company,  in  1809,  for  the  education  of  candidates  for  the  scientific  branches  of  the  Indian 
army,  was  closed  in  1861. 

ADDLED  PARLIAMENT.     See  Parliament,  1614. 
ADDRESSERS.     See  Abhorrers. 

ADELAIDE,  the  capital  of  South  Australia,  was  founded  in  1836.  It  contained  14,000 
inhabitants  in  1850,  and  18,259  in  1855.  It  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1847. 

ADELPHI  (Greek  for  brothers),  a  series  of  streets  on  the  south  side  of  the  Strand,  London, 
erected  about  1768  by  the  brothers,  John,  Robert,  James,  and  "William  Adam,  after  whom 
the  streets  are  named.  Adelphji  Theatre,  see  under  Theatres. 

ADEN,  a  free  port  on  the  S.  W.  corner  of  Arabia,  where  in  1837  a  British  ship  was 
wrecked  and  plundered.  The  sultan  promised  compensation,  and  agreed  to  cede  the  place 
to  the  English.  The  sultau!s  son  refusing  to  fulfil  this  agreement  to  captain  Haynes,  a 
naval  and  military  force,  under  captain  H.  Smith,  of  the  Volage,  was  dispatched  to  Aden, 
which  captured  it,  Jan.  19,  1839.  It  is  now  a  coal  dep6t  for  Indian  steamers,  &c. 

ADIGE,  a  river  in  N.  Italy,  near  which  the  Austrians  defeated  the  French  on  March  26, 
30,  and  April  5,  1799. 

ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  ENGLAND,  AND  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  t  For  a  fuller  account  of 
each,  since  1700,  see  separate  articles  headed  with  the  name  of  the  PREMIER. 

*  Born  1757;  became  viscount  Sidmouth  in  1805;  held  various  offices  afterwards,  and  died  in  1844. 
His  circular  to  the  lords  lieutenants,  dated  March  27,  1817,  directing  them  to  adopt  severe  measures  against 
the  authors  of  blasphemous  and  seditious  pamphlets,  was  greatly  censured,  and  not  carried  into  effect. 

t  Until  the  Restoration,  there  was  not  in  fact  anything  that  could  be  exclusively  called  a  Cabinet. 
The  sovereign  latterly  governed  by  a  collection  of  privy  councillors,  sometimes  of  larger,  sometimes  of 
smaller  number,  the  men  and  offices  being  frequently  changed.  The  separation  of  the  Cabinet  from  the 
Privy  Council  became  greater  during  the  reign  of  William  III.,  and  the  control  of  the  chief,  now  termed 
the  ''premier,"  was  established  in  the  reign  of  Anne.  "The  era  of  ministries  may  most  properly  be 
reckoned  from  the  day  of  the  meeting  of  the  parliament  after  the  general  election  of  1698." — Lord 
Macaulay.  "  In  Walpole's  time  there  was  an  interior  council,  of  Walpole,  the  chancellor,  and  secretaries 
of  state,  who.  in  the  first  instance,  consulted  together  on  the  more  confidential  points." — Croker's 
Memoirs  of  Lord  Hervey.  Till  1850  the  cabinet  council  usually  consisted  of  the  following  twelve  members  : 
— First  lord  of  the  treasury ;  lord  chancellor  ;  lord  president  of  the  council ;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  ; 
lord  privy  seal ;  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries ;  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  ;  president  of  the 
board  of  trade;  president  of  the  board  of  control;  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.  In  1850,  the 
number  was  fifteen,  and  included  the  secretary-at-war,  the  postmaster-general,  and  the  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland.  In  the  Palmerston-Russell  cabinet  (which  see),  the  president  of  the  poor-law-board  replaced  the 
secretary  for  Ireland.  The  average  duration  of  a  ministry  has  been  set  down  at  four,  five,  and  six  years  ; 
but  instances  have  occurred  of  the  duration  of  a  ministry  for  much  longer  periods  :  sir  Robert  Walpole 
was  minister  from  1721  to  1742  (21  years);  Mr.  Pitt,  1783  to  1801  (18  years);  and  lord  Liverpool,  1812  to 
1827  (15  years).  Several  ministries  have  not  endured  beyond  a  few  months,  as  the  Coalition  Ministry  in 
1783,  and  the  "  Talents"  Ministry  in  1806.  The  "  Short-lived"  Administration  lasted  Feb.  10  to  12,  1746. 


ADM 


ADM 


ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  ENGLAND,  AND  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


HENRY  VIII.— Abp.  Warham  ;  Bps.  Fisher  and 
Fox;  earl  of  Surrey,  &c.  .  .  .  A.D.  1509 

Cardinal  Thomas  Wolsey,  &c 1514 

Earl  of  Surrey ;  Tunstall,  bishop  of  London,  <fcc.   1523 
Sir  Thomas  More ;  bishops  Tunstall  and  Gardi- 
ner, and  Cranmer  (afterwards  abp.  of  Canter- 
bury)           1529 

Abp.  Cranmer;    lord   Cromwell,  aft.    earl    of 

Essex  ;  Thos.  Boleyn,  earl  of  Wiltshire,  &c.  .  1532 
Thomas,   duke    of    Norfolk;     Henry,   earl    of 
Surrey ;  Thomas,  lord  Audley ;  bishop  Gardi- 
ner ;  sir  Ralph  Sadler,  &c 1540 

LordWriothesley;  Thomas, duke  of  Norfolk;  lord 

Lisle;  sir  William  Petre;  sir  William  Paget,  &c.  1544 
EDWARD  VI.  — Lord  Wriothesley,  now  earl  of 
Southampton,  lord  chancellor  (expelled) ; 
Edward,  earl  of  Hertford,  lord  protector, 
created  duke  of  Somerset;  John,  lord  Rus- 
sell ;  Henry,  earl  of  Arundel ;  Thomas,  lord 
Seymour;  sir  William  Paget;  sir  William 

Petre,  &c . 

John  Dudley,  late  lord  Lisle  and  earl  of  War- 
wick,  created    duke    of   Northumberland  ; 
John,  earl  of  Bedford;  bishop  Goodrich,  sir 
William  Cecil,  &c.     .         .  .         .        .  1551 

MARY.— Stephen  Gardiner,  bp.  of  Winchester ; 
Edmund  Bonner,  bp.  of  London ;  William, 
marquess  of  Winchester ;  sir  Edwd.  Hastings, 
&c.  ......  .  1554 

ELIZABETH. — Sir  Nicholas  Bacon  ;  Edward,  lord 
Clinton  ;  sir  Robert  Dudley,  aftd<.  earl  of 
Leicester;  sir  Wm.  Cecil,  aftds.  lord  Burleigh.   1558 
Lord  Burleigh  (minister  during  nearly  all  the 

reign)  ;  sir  N.  Bacon,  &c 1572 

William,  lord  Burleigh  ;  sir  Thomas  Bromley ; 

Robert  Devereux,  earl  of  Essex  (a  favourite) ; 

earl  of  Leicester ;  earl  of  Lincoln  ;  sir  Walter 

Mildmay  ;  sir  Francis  Walsingham,  &c.         .  1579 

Lord  Burleigh ;    Robert,   earl  of   Essex ;    sir 

Christopher  Hatton,  «fec 1587 

Thomas  Sackville,  lord  Buckhurst,  afterwards 
earl  of  Dorset ;  sir  Thomas  Egerton,  after- 
wards lord  Ellesmere  and  viscount  Brackley ; 

sir  Robert  Cecil,  &c 1599 

JAMES  I.— Thomas,  earl  of  Dorset;  Thomas, 
lord  Ellesmere  ;  Charles,  earl  of  Nottingham  ; 
Thomas,  earl  of  Suffolk ;  Edward,  earl  of 
Worcester;  Robert  Cecil,  afterwards  earl  of 

Salisbury,  &c 1603 

Robert  Cecil,  earl  of  Salisbury ;  Thomas,  lord 
Ellesmere ;  Henry,  earl  of  Northampton ; 
Charles,  earl  of  Nottingham ;  Thomas,  earl  of 

Suffolk,  &c. 1609 

Henry,  earl  of  Northampton;  Thomas,  lord 
Ellesmere  ;  Edward,  earl  of  Worcester ;  sir 
Ralph  Winwood ;  Charles,  earl  of  Notting- 
ham ;  Robert,  viscount  Rochester,  afterwards 

earl  of  Somerset,  &c 1612 

Thomas,  lord  Ellesmere  ;  Thomas,  earl  of 
Suffolk;  Charles,  earl  of  Nottingham;  sir 
George  Villiers  (a  favourite),  afterwards  vis- 
count Villiers,  and  successively  earl,  mar- 
quess, and  duke  of  Buckingham  .  .  .  1615 
Sir  Henry  Montagu,  afterwards  viscount  Man- 

deville  and  earl  of  Manchester  .  .  .  1620 
Lionel,  lord  Cranfield,  afterwards  earl  of  Middle- 
sex ;  Edward,  earl  of  Worcester ;  John,  earl 
of  Bristol  ;  John  Williams,  dean  of  West- 
minster; George  Villiers,  now  marquess  of 
Buckingham ;  sir  Edward  Conway,  &c.  .  1621 
CHARLES  I. — Richard,  lord  Weston,  afterwards 
earl  of  Portland;  sir  Thomas  Coventry,  after- 
wards lord  Coventry ;  Henry,  earl  of  Man- 
chester (succeeded  by  James,  earl  of  Marl- 
borough,  who,  in  turn,  gave  place  to  Edward, 
lord,  afterwards  viscount,  Conway);  William 
Laud,  bishop  of  London  ;  sir  Albert  Morton, 

&c t628 

William  Laud,  noio  archbishop  of  Canterbury  ; 
Francis,  lord  Cottiiigton  ;  James,  marquess  . 


of  Hamilton  ;    Edward,  earl  of  Dorset  ;    sir 
John  Coke  ;  sir  Francis  Windebank,  &c.        . 
William  Juxon,  bishop  of  London  ;  sir  John 
Finch,  afterwards  lord  Finch  ;  Francis,  lord 
Cottiugton  ;    Wentworth,  earl  of  Strafford  ; 
Algernon,  earl  of  Northumberland  ;  James' 
marquess  of  Hamilton  ;  Laud,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury;    sir    Francis   Windebank;    sir 
Henry  Vane,  &c  ...... 

[The  king  beheaded,  Jan.  30,  1649.] 
COMMONWEALTH.  —  Oliver  Cromwell,  protector, 
named  a  council,  the  number  at  no  time  to 
exceed  twenty-one  members,  or  be  less  than 
thirteen     ........ 

Richard  Cromwell,  son  of  Oliver,  succeeded  on 
the  death  of  the  latter.     A  council  of  officers 
ruled  at  Wallingford  house       .        .         .     . 

CHARLES  II.—  Sir  Edward  Hyde,  afterwards  earl 
of  Clarendon  ;  George  Monk,  created  duke  of 
Albemarle  ;  Edward  Montagu,  created  earl  of 
Sandwich  ;  lord  Saye  and  Sele  ;  earl  of  Man- 
chester; lord  Seymour;  sir  Robert  Long,  &c. 
George  Monk,  duke  of  Albemarle,  made  first 
commissioner  of  the  treasury,  &c.  .        .        . 

"Cabal"  Ministry:  Clifford,  Ashley,  Bucking- 
ham, Arlington,  Lauderdale.     (See  Cabal.)    . 
Thomas,  lord  Clifford  ;  Anthony,  earl  of  Shaftes- 
bury;    Henry,  earl    of  Arlington;    Arthur, 
earl  of  Anglesey;  sir  Thomas  Osborne,  created 
viscount    Latimer  ;    Henry    Coventry  ;    sir 
George  Carteret  ;  Edward  Seymour,  &c.        . 
Thomas,  viscount  Latimer,  afterwards  earl  of 
Danby,  made  lord  high  treasurer      June  26, 
Arthur,  earl  of  Essex  (succeeded  by  Lawrence 
Hyde,  aft.  earl  of  Rochester)  ;  Robert,  earl  of 
Sunderlaud,  <fec  ....... 

[The  king  nominated  a  new  council  on  April  21, 
consisting  of  thirty  members  only,  of  whom 
the  principal  were  the  great  officers  of  state 
and  great  officers  of  the  household.] 
Sidney,   lord  Godolphin  ;    Lawrence,   earl  of 
Rochester  :    Daniel,    earl    of    Nottingham  ; 
Robert,   earl    of   Sunderland  ;    sir  Thomas 
Chicheley  ;  George,  lord  Dartmouth  ;  Henry, 
earl  of  Clarendon;  earls  of  Bath  and  Radnor, 
&c  .......... 

JAMES  II.  —  Lawrence.earl  of  Rochester  ;  George 
^narquess  of  Halifax;    sir  George  Jeffreys' 
afterwards  lord  Jeffreys  ;  Henry,  earl  of  Cla- 
rendon ;  sir  John  Ernley  ;  viscount  Preston, 
&c  ........      ,  .         . 

The  earl  of  Rochester  was  displaced,  and  John, 
lord  Belasyse,  made  first  commissioner~~Df- 
the  treasury  in  his  room,  Jan.  4  ;  the  earl  of 
Sunderland  made  president  of  the  council  ; 
viscount  Preston,   secretary  of  state;   and 
various  other  changes  took  place  hi  this  and 
the  following  year   .... 

[The  king  left  Whitehall  in  the  night  of  Dec.  17', 
and  quitting  the  kingdom,  landed  at  Amble- 
teuse,  in  France,  on  Dec.  23,  1688.] 
WILLIAM  III.  AND  MARY.  —  Charles,   viscount 
Mordaunt  ;  Thomas  Osborne,  earl  of  Danby, 
created  marquess  of  Carmarthen,  afterwards 
duke  of  Leeds  ;  George,  marquess  of  Halifax  ; 
Arthur  Herbert,  afterwards  lord  Torrington  ; 
earls  of  Shrewsbury,  Nottingham  and  Sun- 
derland ;    earl    of   Dorset    and    Middlesex  ; 
William,  earl  (afterwards  duke)  of  Devon- 
shire ;  lord  Godolphin;  lord  Montagu;  lord 
De  la  Mere,  &c.          ......  i 

Sidney,    lord    Godolphin  ;    Thomas,    earl    of 
Danby;  Richard  Hampden  ;  Thomas,  earl  of 
Pembroke  ;  Henry,  viscount  Sydney  ;  Daniel, 
earl  of  Nottingham,  &c.  ....   t 

Sir  John  Somers  became  lord  Somers  in  1697, 
and  lord  chancellor  ;  Charles  Montagu,  after- 
wards lord  Halifax,  was  made  first  commis- 
sioner of  the  treasury,  May  i,  1698,  succeeded 
by  Ford,  earl  of  Tankerville,  in  1699. 


1635 


1653 
1658 


1660 
1667 
1670 

1672 
1673 

1679 


ADM 


10 


ADM 


ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  continued. 


ANNE. — Sidney,  lord  (afterwards  earl  of)  Godol- 
phin;  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke,  &c.  May,  1702 

Robert  Harley,  earl  of  Oxford  ;  sir  Simon  Har- 
court,  &c June  i,  1711 

Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury,  made  lord  trea- 
surer three  days  before  the  queen's  death, 
&c July  30,  1714 

GEORGE  I. — Charles,  earl  of  Halifax  (succeeded 
on  his  death  by  the  earl  of  Carlisle),  &c.  .  1714 

Kobert  Walpole,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  &c.  .  .  .1715 

James  (afterwards  earl)  Stanhope ;  William,  lord 
Cowper,  &c 1717 

Charles,  earl  of  Sunderland,  &c 1718 

Robert  Walpole,  afterwards  sir  Robert  Walpole, 
and  earl  of  Orford,  &c 1721 

GEORGE  II. — Robert  Walpole,  continued        .     .  1727 

[Sir  Robert  remained  prime  minister  twenty- 
one  years ;  numerous  changes  occurring  in 
the  time.  See  Walpole.] 

Earl  of  Wilmington  ;  lord  Hard wicke,  &c.         .  1742 

Henry  Pelham,  in  the  room  of  earl  of  Wilming- 
ton, deceased Aug.  1743 

" Broad  Bottom"  administration— Henry  Pel- 
ham;  lord  Hardwicke,  &c.  .  .  Nov.  1744 

"Short-lived"  administration— earl  of  Bath; 
lords  Winchilsea  and  Gran ville  Feb.  10-12,  1746 

Henry  Pelham,  &c. ,  again  .      Feb.  12,  1746 

Thos.  H.  Pelham,  duke  of  Newcastle;  earl  of 
Holdernesse,  &c April,  1754 

Duke  of  Devonshire;  William  Pitt,  &c.        Nov.  1756 

Duke  of  Newcastle,  and  Mr.  Pitt,  afterwards 
earl  of  Chatham,  <fec.  -  ...  June,  1757 

GEORGE  III.— Duke  of  Newcastle,  Mr.  Pitt's 
ministry,  continued 1760 

Earl  of  Bute;  lord  Henley,  &c.        .        .   May,  1762 

George  Grenville;  earls  of  Halifax  and  Sand* 
wich,  &c April,  1763 

Marquess  of  Rockingham;  earl  of  Winchilsea, 

&c -  July,  1765 

Earl  of  Chatham;  duke  of  Graf  ton,  &c.      Aug.  1766 

Duke  of  Grafton ;  lord  North,  &c.       .        Dec.  1767 

Frederick,  lord  North  ;  earl  Gower,  &c.       Jan.  1770 

[Lord  North  was  minister  during  the  whole  of 
the  American  war.  ] 

Marquess  of  Rockingham;  lord  Camden ;  C.  J. 
Fox  ;  Edmund  Burke,  &c.  .  .  March,  1782 

Earl  ofShelburne  (afterwards  marquess  of  Lans- 
downe) ;  William  Pitt,  &c.  .  .  .  July,  „ 

"Coalition  Ministry,"  duke  of  Portland;  lord 
North ;  C.  J.  Fox ;  Edmund  Burke,  &c,  April,  1783 

William  Pitt;  Henry  Dundas,  <fec.        .        Dec.      „ 

[During  Mr.  Pitt's  long  administration,  nume- 
rous changes  in  the  ministry  took  place.] 

Henry  Addington ;  duke  of  Portland ;  lord 
Eldon,  &c March,  et  seq.  1801 

William  Pitt;  lord  Eldon;  George  Canning, 
&c May,  et  seq.  1804 

[Mr.  Pitt  died  Jan.  23,  18o6.] 

"All  the  Talents"  administration— lord  Gren- 
ville ;  lord  Henry  Petty ;  lord  Erskine ;  C.  J. 
Fox ;  sir  Charles  Grey  (after 'wards  earl  Grey). 

Feb.  1806 

[Mr.  Fox's  death,  Feb.  13,  1806,  led  to  nume- 
rous changes.] 

Duke  of  Port  land;  lord  Eldon,  &c.*       March,  1807 

Spencer  Perceval;  earl  of  Liverpool ;  viscount 
Palmerston,  <fec.  .  .  .  Nov.  and  Dec.  1809 

REGENCY.  —  Mr.  Spencer  Perceval  (shot  by 
Bellingham,  May  u,  1812),  &c.,  continued 

Feb.  5,  1811 

Earl  of  Liverpool;  lord  Eldon ;  Mr.  Vansittart ; 
lord  Melville;  viscount  Castlereagh,  &c. 

May,  June,  1812 

GEORGE  IV.— Earl  of  Liverpool,  &c.,  continued 

Jan.  29,  1820 

[During  lord  Liverpool's  long  administration, 


1827 


numerous  changes  in,  and  accessions  to, 
office  occurred.] 

George  Canning;  lord  Lyndhurst ;  viscount 
Goderich ;  Mr.  Huskisson ;  lord  Palmerston  ; 
duke  of  Clarence,  &c.  .  .  .  April, 

[Mr.  Canning  died  Aug.  8,  1827.] 

Viscount  Goderich :  viscount  Palmerston ;  mar- 
quess of  Lansdowne ;  Mr.  Huskisson,  <fcc. 

Aug.  ,, 

Duke  of  Wellington;  Robert  Peel;  Mr.  Hus- 
kisson, &c Jan.  1828 

[The  ministry  was  reconstructed  on  the  retire- 
ment of  the  earl  of  Dudley ;  lord  Palmerston  ; 
Mr.  Grant ;  and  Mr.  Huskisson.]  May  and 

June,  ,, 

WILLIAM  IV.— Duke  of  Wellington,  &c.,  con- 
tinued   June  26,  1830 

Earl  Grey ;  marquess  of  Lansdowne ;  lord 
Brougham  ;  viscount  Althorpe  ;  earl  of  Dur- 
ham ;  viscounts  Melbourne,  Palmerston,  and 
Goderich ;  sir  James  Graham ;  lord  John 
Russell,  &c Nov.  „ 

[Earl  Grey  resigns  office,  owing  to  a  majority 
against  him  in  the  lords,  on  the  Reform  Bill, 
May  10 ;  but  resumes  his  post]  .  May  18,  1832 

Viscount  Melbourne ;  <fec.        .         .        .     July,  1834 

[Viscount  Melbourne's  administration  dissolved, 
Nov.  1834.  The  duke  of  Wellington  held  the 
seals  of  office  till  the  return  of  sir  Robert 
Peel  from  Italy,  Dec.  1834.] 

Sir  Robert  Peel ;  lord  Lyndhurst ;  duke  of 
Wellington ;  earl  of  Aberdeen ;  &c.  Nov. 

and  Dec.  „ 

Viscount  Melbourne,  &c.         .        .        .     April,  1835 

VICTORIA. — Viscount  Melbourne,  &c.,  continued 

June  20,  1837 

[Among  the  subsequent  accessions  were  F.  T. 
Baring ;  earl  of  Clarendon  ;  T.  B.  Macaulay, 
&c.] 

[Viscount  Melbourne  resigns,  and  sir  Robert 
Peel  receives  the  queen's  commands  to  form 
a  new  administration,  May  8.  Thia  command 
is  withdrawn,  and  on  May  10,  lord  Melbourne 
and  his  friends  return  to  power]  .  .  .  1839 

Sir  Robert  Peel ;  duke  of  Wellington  ;  lord 
Lyndhurst ;  sir  James  Graham  ;  earl  of  Aber- 
deen ;  lord  Stanley,  &c.  .  Aug.  and  Sept.  1841 

[Among  the  accessions  were,  Sidney  Herbert ; 
W.  E.  Gladstone,  &c.] 

Lord  John  Russell ;  viscount  Palmerston  ;  earl 
Grey,  &c July,  1846 

[Among  the  accessions  were  :  earl  Gran  ville  ; 
Mr.  Fox  Maule  ;  earl  of  Carlisle  ;  sir  Thomas 
Wilde,  created  lord  Truro,  <fec.] 

[Feb.  24.  Lord  John  Russell  announced  to  the 
commons,  and  the  marquess  of  Lansdowne 
to  the  lords,  that  the  ministers  had  resigned, 
owing  to  their  defeat  on  Mr.  Locke  King's 
motion  respecting  the  franchise,  the  majo- 
rity against  them  being  48  (100  to  52)  ;  and 
on  March  3,  the  same  personages  informed 
parliament,  that  it  having  been  found  im- 
possible to  construct  a  coalition  ministry, 
the  queen,  by  the  advice  of  the  duke  of  Wel- 
lington, had  called  upon  her  late  ministers 
to  resume  office.  Lord  Stanley  (since  earl  of 
Derby)  had  been  charged  by  her  majesty,  in 
the  interval,  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  but  had 
not  succeeded] 

Lord  John  Russell  and  his  colleagues  continued. 

March,  ,, 

Earl  of  Derby  (late  Lord  Stanley);  lord  St.  Leo- 
nards ;  Benjamin  Disraeli ;  Spencer  H.  Wal- 
pole ;  earl  of  Malmesbury  ;  sir  John  Paking- 
ton;  duke  of  Northumberland,  <fcc.  Feb.  27,  1852 

Earl  of  Aberdeen :  lord  John  Russell ;  viscount 
Palmerston,  &c Dec.  28  ,, 


1851 


*  The  duel  between  lord  Castlereagh  and  Mr.  Canning,  Sept  22,  1809,  led  to  the  breaking  up  of  this 
administration. 


ADM 


11 


ADM 


ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  continued. 


[In  this  last  ministry  various  changes  of  offices 
took  place  ;  a  fourth  secretary  of  state  was 
appointed,  by  a  separation  of  the  war  from  the 
colonia  I  department.  See  Secretaries  of  State.] 

[Tbe  retirement  of  Lord  J.  Russell,  Jan.  24, 
1855,  and  a  majority  in  the  commons  against 
ministers  of  157(305  to  148)011  Mr.  Roebuck's 
motion  respecting  the  conduct  of  the  war, 
led  to  the  resignation  of  lord  Aberdeen  and 
his  colleagues,  Jan.  30  ;  the  cabinet  was  re- 
constructed under  lord  Palmerston.  ] 

Viscount  Palmerston;  lord  Cran worth ;  &c. 

Feb  7, 

[Viscount  Palmerston,  owing  to  the  secession 
of  Sir  J.  Graham,  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  Mr.  S. 
Herbert,  had  to  reconstruct  his  ministry.  ] 

Viscount  Palmerston  ;  lord  John  Russell ;  earl 
of  Clarendon  ;  sir  G.  Grey ;  sir  G.  C.  Lewis  ; 
W.  Molesworth,  &c.  .  .  Feb.  24, 


1855 


On  the  second  reading  of  the  Foreign  Con- 
spiracy bill,  the  government  (defeated  by  a 
vote  of  censure  being  passed  by  u  majority  of 
19,  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  Milner  Gibson)  re- 
signed immediately  ....  Feb.  19,  1858 

Earl  of  Derby  :  B.  Disraeli ;  Spencer  Walpole  ; 
lord  Stanley ;  sir  F,  Thesiger  (lord  Chelms- 
ford),  &e Feb.  26  „ 

[The  Derby  administration,  in  consequence  of 
a  vote  of  want  of  confidence  in  it  being 
carried  by  a  majority  of  13,  June  10,  1859, 
resigned  the  next  day.  Earl  Granville  at- 
tempted to  form  an  administration  in  vain  ; 
and  lord  Palmerston  and  lord  John  Russell 
came  into  office.] 

P  ALMEBSTON-  R  ussE  LL  administration — viscount 
Palmerston;  lord  John  (since  earl)  Russell,  &c. 

June  1 8,  1859 


ADMINISTRATIVE  REFORM  ASSOCIATION  derived  its- origin  from  a  general  opinion 
that  the  disasters  which  occurred  to  the  army  in  the  Crimea  in  1854-5  were  attributable  to 
the  inefficient  and  irresponsible  management  of  the  various  departments  of  the  state.  The 
association  was  organised  in  London,  May  5,  1855.  A  meeting  was  held  in  Drury-lane 
theatre,  on  June  13,  and  Mr.  Layard's  motion  on  the  subject  in  parliament  was  negatived 
June  1 8  following.  The  association  was  reorganised  in  1856,  Mr.  Roebuck,  M.P.,  becoming 
chairman,  but  soon  became  unimportant.  See  Civil  Service. 

ADMIRAL.  This  distinction  does  not  appear  to  have  been  adopted  in  these  realms  until 
about  the  year  1300,  but  the  title  was  in  use  some  time  previously  in  France.  Sir  Harris 
Nicolas.  Alfred,  Athelstan,  Edgar,  Harold,  and  other  kings,  had  been  previously  the  com- 
manders of  their  own  fleets.  The  first  French  admiral  is  said  to  have  been  appointed  1284. 
The  rank  of  admiral  of  the  English  seas  was  one  of  great  distinction,  and  was  first  given  to 
William  de  Leybourne  by  Edward  I.  in  1297.  Spelman;  Rymer.  The  first  LORD  HIGH 
ADMIRAL  in  England  was  created  by  Richard  II.  in  1385  :  there  had  been  previously  high 
admirals  of  districts — the  north,  west,  and  south.  This  office  has  seldom  been  entrusted  to 
single  hands,  the  duties  being  generally  executed  by  lords  commissioners.  A  similar  dignity 
existed  in  Scotland  from  the  reign  of  Robert  III.  :  in  1673,  the  king  bestowed  it  upon  his 
natural  son  Charles  Lennox,  afterwards  duke  of  Richmond,  then  an  infant,  who  resigned  the 
office  to  the  crown  in  1703  :  after  the  union  it  was  discontinued. — The  dignity  of  lord  high 
admiral  of  Ireland  (of  brief  existence)  Was  conferred  upon  James  Butler  by  Henry  VIII.,  in 
May,  1534.  The  Admiral  of  the  Fleet  is  the  highest  rank  in  the  Royal  Navy,  corresponding 
to  that  of  marshal  in  the  army.  "We  have  now  three  admirals  of  the  fleet,  twenty-one 
admirals,  and  twenty-seven  vice-admirals  (1865).  See  Navy. 

ADMIRALTY,  COURT  OF,  said  to  have  been  erected  by  Edward  III.,  in  1357 ;  a  civil 
court  for  the  trial  of  causes  relating  to  maritime  affairs.  It  was  enacted  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII. ,  that  criminal  causes  should  be  tried  by  witnesses  and  a  jury,  some  of  the 
judges  at  Westminster  (or,  as  now,  at  the  Old  Bailey)  assisting.  The  judgeship  of  the 
admiralty  was  constituted  in  1514,  and  was  filled  by  two  or  more  functionaries  until  the 
Revolution,  when  it  was  restricted  to  one.  Beatson.  The  judge  has  usually  been  an 
eminent  doctor  of  the  civil  law.  In  1844  the  criminal  jurisdiction  of  this  court  was 
removed,  and  by  20  &  21  Vic.  c.  77  (1857)  the  judge  of  the  Probate  court  was  to  be  also 
judge  of  the  Admiralty  court.  Sir  John  Dodson,  the  last  admiralty  judge,  died  in  1858. 
The  jurisdiction  of  this  court  was  extended  in  1861. 

ADMIRALTY  OFFICE  dates  from  1512,  when  Henry  VIII.  appointed  commissioners  to 
inspect  his  ships  of  war,  &c.  In  1662  the  admiralty  was  first  put  into  commission,  the 
great  officers  of  state  being  the  commissioners.  During  the  commonwealth  the  admiralty 
affairs  were  managed  by  a  committee  of  the  parliament;  and  at  the  restoration  in  1660, 
James,  duke  of  York,  became  lord  high  admiral.  See  succeeding  changes  below.  In  1688-9, 
the  admiralty  was  put  into  commission,  and  the  board  appears  to  have  assembled  at  admiral 
Herbert's  lodgings,  in  Channel-row,  Westminster,  he  being  at  that  time  first  lord.  In 
1830,  1832,  and  1836  various  changes  were  made  in  the  civil  departments,  several  offices 
being  abolished  or  consolidated  with  others.  In  March,  1861,  a  royal  commission  recom- 
mended the  abolition  of  the  board  of  admiralty  and  the  appointment  of  a  minister  of  the 
navy  department. 


ADM 


12 


ADU 


FIRST   LORDS   OF   THE   ADMIRALTY,    ETC. 


1660.  JAMES,  DUKE  OF  YORK,  lord  high  admiral,  June  6. 
1673.  KING  CHARLES  II.,  June  14. 
„      PRINCE  RUPERT,  July  9. 

1679.  Sir  Henry  Capel,  Feb.  14. 

1680.  Daniel  Finch,  esq.,  Feb   19. 

1681.  Daniel,  lord  Finch,  Jan.  20. 

1683.  Daniel,  earl  of  Nottingham,  April  17. 

1684.  KINO  CHARLES  II. 

1685.  KING  JAMES  II.,  May  17. 

Office  in  commission. 

1689.  Arthur  Herbert,  esq.,  March  8. 

1690.  Thomas  earl  of  Pembroke  and  Montgomery, 

Jan.  20. 

1692.  Charles,  lord  Cornwallis,  March  10. 

1693.  Anthony  viscount  Falkland,  April  15. 

1694.  Edward  Russell,  esq.  (aft. earl  of  Orford),  May  2. 
1699.  John,  earl  of  Bridge  water,  June  2. 

1701.  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke,  April  4. 

1702.  GEORGE,  PRINCE  OF  DENMARK,  lord  high  ad- 

miral, May  20. 

1708.  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke,  ditto,  Nov.  29. 

Office  in  commission. 

1709.  Edward,  earl  of  Orford,  Nov.  8. 

1710.  Sir  John  Leake,  Oct.  4. 

1712.  Thomas,  earl  of  Straff  ord,  Sept.  30. 
1714.  Edward,  earl  of  Orford,  Oct.  14. 
1717.  James,  earl  of  Berkeley,  March  19. 
1727.  George,  viscount  Torrington,  Aug  2. 
1733.  Sir  Charles  Wagner,  knt.,  June  25. 
1742.  Daniel,  earl  of  WinchiJsea,  March  19. 
1744.  John,  duke  of  Bedford,  Dec.  27. 
1748.  John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  Feb.  10. 
1751.  George,  lord  Anson,  June  22. 

1756.  Richard,  earl  Temple,  Nov.  19. 

1757.  Daniel,  earl  of  Winchilsea,  April  6. 
,,      George,  lord  Anson,  July  2. 

1762.  George  M.  Dunk,  earl  of  Halifax,  June  19. 


1763.  George  Grenville,  esq.,  Jan.  i. 

,,      John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  April  23. 

,,      John,  earl  of  Egmont,  Sept.  10. 
1766.  Sir  Charles  Saunders,  Sept.  10. 

,,       Sir  Edward  Hawke,  Dec.  10. 
1771.  John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  Jan.  12. 

1782.  Hon.  Augustus  Keppel,  April  i. 

,,      Augustus,  viscount  Keppel,  July  18. 

1783.  Richard,  viscount  Howe,  Jan.  28. 
1788.  John,  earl  of  Chatham,  July  16. 
1794.  George  John,  earl  Spencer,  Dec.  20. 
1801.  John,  earl  St.  Vincent,  Feb.  19. 

1804.  Henry,  viscount  Melville,  May  15. 

1805.  Charles,  lord  Barham,  May  2. 

1806.  Hon.  Charles  Grey,  Feb.  10. 

,,       Thomas  Grenville,  esq.,  Oct.  23. 

1807.  Henry,  lord  Mulgrave,  April  6. 
1809.  Charles  Torke,  esq.,  May  10. 

1812.  Robert,  viscount  MelviUe,  March  25. 

1827.  WILLIAM  HENRY,   DUKE    OF    CLARENCE,    lord 

high  admiral,  May  2,  resigned  Aug.  12,  1828. 

1828.  Robert,  viscount  Melville,  Sept.  19. 
1830.  Sir  James  R.  G.  Graham,  bart.,  Nov.  25. 

1834.  George,  lord  Auckland,  June  n. 

,,      Thomas  Philip,  earl  de  Grey,  Dec.  23. 

1835.  George,  lord  Auckland,  April  25. 
,,       Gilbert,  earl  of  Minto,  Sept.  19. 

1841:  Thomas,  earl  of  Haddington,  Sept.  8. 
1846.  Edward,  earl  of  Ellenborough,  Jan.  13. 

,,      George,  earl  of  Auckland,  July  24. 
1849.  Sir  Francis  Thoruhill  Baring,  Jan.  18. 

1852.  Algernon,  duke  of  Northumberland,  Feb.  28. 

1853.  Sir  James  Robert  George  Graham,  Jan  5. 
1855.  Sir  Charles  Wood,  bart.,  Feb.  24. 

1858.  Sir  John  Pakington,  Feb.  26. 

1859.  Edward,  duke  of  Somerset,  the  PRESENT  First 

Lord  (1865). 


ADMIRALTY,  Whitehall.  "  At  the  south  end  of  Duke-street,  Westminster,  was  seated 
a  large  house,  made  use  of  for  the  admiralty  office,  until  the  business  was  removed  to 
Greenwich,  and  thence  to  Wallingford-house,  against  Whitehall."  It  Avas  rebuilt  by  Ripley 
about*  1 726  ;  the  screen  was  erected,  to  conceal  the  ugliness  of  the  building,  by  the  brothers 
Adam,  in  1776. — Lord  Nelson  lay  in  state  in  one  of  the  apartments  on  Jan.  8,  1806  ;  and  on 
the  next  day  was  buried  at  St.  Paul's. 

"  ADMONITION  TO  THE  PARLIAMENT,"  condemning  all  religious  ceremonies  but  those 
commanded  in  the  New  Testament,  was  published  by  certain  Puritans  in  1571.  It  was 
answered  by  abp.  Whitgift.  Its  presumed  authors,  Field  and  Wilcox,  were  imprisoned. 

ADRIAN'S  WALL  (to  prevent  the  irruptions  of  the  Scots  and  Picts  into  the  northern 
counties  of  England,  then  under  the  Roman  government)  extended  from  the  Tyne  to  Solway 
firth,  and  was  eighty  miles  long,  twelve  feet  high,  and  eight  in  thickness,  with  watch-towers; 
built  121.  It  was  named  after  its  second  founder,  the  emperor  Adrian,  and  was  repaired  by 
Severus,  208. 

ADRIANOPLE,  in  Turkey,  so  named  after  its  restorer  the  emperor  Adrian  (who  died 
July  10,  138).  Near  here  was  fought  the  battle  by  which  Constantino  gained  the  empire, 
July  3,  323  ;  also,  near  here  the  emperor  Valens  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Goths,  Aug. 
9,  378.  Adrianople  Was  taken  by  the  Turks  under  Amurath  in  1361,  and  was  the  seat  of 
their  empire  till  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453.  Mahomet  II.  was  born  here  in  1430. 
Priestley. — Adrianople  was  taken  by  the  Russians  on  Aug.  20,  1829  ;  but  was  restored  at 
the  close  of  the  war,  Sept.  14,  same  year.  See  Turkey. 

ADRIATIC.  The  ceremony  of  the  doge  of  Venice  wedding  the  Adriatic  sea  (instituted 
about  1173),  took  place  annually  on  Ascension-day.  The  doge  dropped  a  ring  into  the  sea 
from  his  bucentaur,  or  state  barge,  being  attended  by  his  nobility  and  foreign  ambassadors. 
The  ceremony  was  first  omitted  in  1 797. 

ADULTERATION  OF  FOOD  was  the  subject  of  legislation  in  England  in  1267.  Much 
attention  was  drawn  to  it  in  1822,  through  Mr.  Accum's  book,  popularly  called  "Death 
in  the  Pot,"  and  in  1855  through  Dr.  Hassan's  book,  "  Food  and  its  Adulterations."  By  an 
act  for  preventing  the  adulteration  of  food,  passed  in  1860,  parochial  chemical  analysts  may 
be  appointed. 


ADU  13  ML 

ADULTERY,  by  the  law  of  Moses  (1490  B.C.)  was  punished  with  death,  Lev.  xx.  10.  — 
Lycurgus  (884  B.C.)  punished  the  offender  as  he  did  a  parricide,  and  the  Locrians  and  Spar- 
tans tore  out  the  offender's  eyes.  The  early  Saxons  burnt  the  adulteress,  and  erected  a 
gibbet  over  her  ashes,  whereon  they  hanged  the  adulterer.  The  ears  and  nose  were  cut  off 
under  Canute,  1031.  Ordained  to  be  punished  capitally  under  Cromwell,  May  14,  1650  : 
but  there  is  no  record  of  this  law  taking  effect.  In  New  England  a  law  was  ordained 
whereby  adultery  was  made  capital  to  both  parties,  even  though  the  man  were  unmarried  ; 
and  several  suffered  under  it,  1662.  Hardie.  Till  1857  the  legal  redress  against  the  male 
offender  was  by  civil  action  for  a  money  compensation  ;  the  female  being  liable  to  divorce. 
By  20  &  21  Vic.  c.  85  (1857)  the  "action  for  criminal  conversation"  was  abolished  and  tho 
"Court  for  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Causes"  was  established,  with  power  to  grant  divorces 
for  adultery  and  ill  usage.  See  Divorce. 

ADVENT  (adveniens,  coming).  The  season  includes  four  Sundays,  previous  to  Christmas, 
the  lirst  being  the  nearest  Sunday  to  St.  Andrew's  day  (Nov.  30),  before  or  after.  Homilies 
respecting  Advent  are  mentioned  prior  to  378.  Advent  Sunday,  1865,  Dec.  3  ;  1866,  Dec.  2  ; 
1867,  Dec.  i. 

ADVENTURE  BAY,  at  the  S.E.  end  .of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  discovered  in  1773  by  capt. 
Furneaux  in  his  first  voyage  to  the  Pacific,  and  named  from  his  ship  Adventure.  It  was 
visited  by  captain  Bligh  in  1788. 

ADVENTURERS,  MERCHANT,  a  celebrated  company  of  enterprising  merchants,  originally 
formed  for  the  discovery  of  territories,  and  the  extension  of  commerce,  by  John,  duke  of 
Brabant,  in  1296,  was  transferred  to  England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Elizabeth  formed 
it  into  an  English  corporation  in  1564.  Anderson. 

ADVERTISEMENTS  IN  NEWSPAPERS,  as  now  published,  were  not  general  in  England 
till  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  penalty  of  50^.  was  inflicted  on  persons 
advertising  a  reward  with  "  No  questions  to  be  asked"  for  the  return  of  things  stolen,  and 
on  the  printer,  25  Geo.  II.  1754.  Statutes.  The  advertisement  duty  was  formerly  charged 
according  to  the  number  of  lines  ;  it  was  afterwards  fixed,  in  England,  at  35.  6d.,  and  in 
Ireland  at  25.  6d.  each  advertisement.  The  duty  was  further  reduced,  in  England,  to  is.  6d. 
and  in  Ireland  to  is.  each,  in  1833,  and  was  altogether  abolished  in  the  United  Kingdom,  by 
16  &  17  Vic.  c.  63  (Aug.  4,  1853).*  ADVERTISING  VANS,  a  great  nuisance,  were  prohibited 
by  16  &  17  Vic.  c.  33  (1853). 

ADVOCATE,  THE  KING'S.  This  office  was  instituted  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  ;  and  the  advocate  (always  a  doctor  of  the  civil  law)  was  empowered  to  prosecute  at 
his  own  instance  certain  crimes,  1597.  The  I^ORD  ADVOCATE  in  Scotland  is  the  same 
as  the  attorney  -general  in  England.—  It  was  decided  in  the  parliament  of  Paris,  in  1685, 
that  the  king's  advocate  of  France  might  at  the  same  time  be  a  judge  ;  so  in  like  manner  it 
was  allowed  in  Scotland,  where  sir  John  Nesbit  and  sir  William  Oliphant  were  lord  advocates 
and  lords  of  session  at  the  same  time.  Beatson.  —  The  Advocates'  library  in  Edinburgh  was 
established  by  sir  G.  Mackenzie  in  1682. 

J5DILES,  magistrates  of  Rome,  first  created  492  B.C.  There  were  three  degrees  of  these 
officers,  with  functions  similar  to  those  of  our  justices  of  the  peace.  The  plebeian  sediles 
presided  over  the  more  minute  affairs  of  the  state,  the  maintenance  of  order,  the  reparation 
of  the  streets,  the  supply  of  provisions,  &c.  Varro. 

LEGATES  ISLES,  W.  of  Sicily  :  near  these,  during  the  first  Punic  war,  the  Roman 
consul  Lutatius  Catulus  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Carthaginian  fleet  under  Hanno, 
March  10,  241  B.C.  Peace  ensued,  the  Romans  obtaining  Sicily  and  a  tribute  of  3200  talents. 


,  a  Greek  island,  a  rival  of  Athens,  was  humbled  by  Themistocles,  B.C.  485  ;  and 
taken  455.  Its  inhabitants,  expelled  431,  were  restored  by  the  Spartans,  404  :  they  renewed 
war  with  Athens  388,  and  made  peace,  387. 

^EGOSPOTAMOS,  the  Goat-  river,  in  the  Chersonesus,  where  Lysander,  the  Lacedaemonian, 
defeated  the  Athenian  fleet,  405  B.C.,  and  ended  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

^ELIA  CAPITOLINA,  built  on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  131. 

*  On  Oct.  16,  1860,  the  whole  of  the  libretto  of  MacFarren's  opera,  Robin  Hood,  was  inserted  as  an 
advertisement  in  the  Times  (4^  columns). 


JEM.  14  AFF 

./EMILIA,  the  name  given  to  the  provinces  of  Parma,  Modena,  and  the  Roinagna,  united 
to  Sardinia  in  1860  ;  and  now  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 


,  the  great  Latin  epic  poem,  relating  the  adventures  of  JEneas,  written  about  24 
B.C.  by  Virgil,  who  died  Sept.  22,  19  B.C.,  before  he  had  finally  corrected  the  poem.  It  was 
first  printed  in  1469,  at  Rome. 

ENIGMA.  Samson's  riddle  (about  1141  B.C.  ;  Judges  xiv.  12)  is  the  earliest  on  record. 
The  ancient  oracles  frequently  gave  responses  admitting  of  perfectly  contrary  interpretations. 
Gale  attributes  senigmatieal  speeches  to  the  Egyptians.  In  Nero's  time,  the  Romans  were 
often  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  this  method  of  concealing  truth  under  obscure  language. 
The  following  epitaph  on  Fair  Rosamond  (mistress  of  our  Henry  11.  about  1173)  is  a  medi- 
seval  specimen  :  —  "  Hie  jacet  in  tomba  Rosa  mundi,  non  Rosa  inunda  ;  Non  redolet,  sed 
olet,  qu?e  redolere  solet." 

JEOLIA,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  colonised  by  a  principal  branch  of  the  Hellenic  race  :  begin- 
ning about  1124  B.C.  The  ^Eolians  built  several  large  cities  both  on  the  mainland  and  the 
neighbouring  islands  ;  Mitylene,  in  Lesbos,  was  considered  the  capital. 

AEOLIAN  HARP.     Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Kiroher,  1653,  but  it  was  known  before. 

^EOLOPILE,  a  hollow  ball  with  an  orifice  in  which  a  tube  might  be  screwed,  was  used  in 
the  1  7th  century  as  a  boiler  for  experimental  steam-engines. 

JEQUI,  an  ancient  Italian  race,  were  subdued  by  the  Romans,  and  their  lands  annexed 
after  a  conflict,  471-302  B.C. 

jERAS.     See  Eras. 

AERATED  WATERS.  Apparatus  for  combining  gases  with  water  have  been  patented  by 
Thomson  in  1807  ;  Bakewell  in  1832  and  1847  ;  Tylor  in  1840,  and  by  several  other 
persons.  Aerated  bread  is  made  by  processes  patented  by  Dr.  Dauglish,  1856-7. 

AERIANS,  followers  of  Aerius,  a  presbyter,  in  the  4th  century,  who  held  that  there  was 
no  distinction  between  a  bishop  and  a  presbyter  ;  that  there  was  no  Pasch  to  be  observed  by 
Christians  ;  that  the  Lent  and  other  fasts  should  not  be  observed  ;  and  that  prayers  should 
not  be  offered  for  the  dead.  EpipJianius. 

AERONAUTICS,  AND  AEROSTATICS.     See  Plying,  and  Balloons. 

JSSOP'S  FABLES,  said  to  have  been  written  about  619,  571,  or  565  B.C.  They  are,  no 
doubt,  a  compilation  from  various  sources.  Phsedrus's  Latin  paraphrases  in  Iambics  (about 
A.D.  8)  are  very  elegant. 

AESTHETICS  (from  the  Greek  aisthesis,  perception),  the  science  of  the  beautiful  (especially 
in  art)  ;  a  term  invented  by  Baumgarten,  a  German  philosopher,  whose  work  '  '  jEsthetica  " 
was  published  in  1750. 

./ETHIOPIA.     See  Ethiopia.  MTNA.     See  Etna. 

^ETOLIA,  in  Greece,  a  country  named  after  JEtolus  of  Elis,  who,  having  accidentally 
killed  a  son  of  Phoroneus,  king  of  Argos,  left  the  Peloponnesus,  and  settled  here.  After 
the  ruin  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  the  JEtolians  became  the  rivals  of  the  Achseans,  and  alter- 
nately allies  and  enemies  of  Rome. 


The  ^tolians  join  Sparta  against  Athens      B.C.  455 
Subdued  by  Antipater  during  the  Lamian  war  .  322 
Aid  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Gauls         .        .        .279 
Invade  the  Peloponnesus,  and  ravage  Messenia 
(Social  War),    and    defeat   the   Ach&ans    at 

Caphyaa 220 

Philip  V. ,  of  Macedon,  invades  .ffitolia,  and  takes 

Thermum — Peace  concluded     .        .        .        .217 
Alliance  with  Rome 211 


War  with  Philip,  202  ;  deserted  by  the  Romans, 

the  ^Etolians  make  peace     .        .         .        B.C.  205 
They  invite  the  kings  of  Macedon,  Syria,  and 
Sparta,   to  coalesce  with  them  against   the 

Romans 193-2 

Defeat  of  the  allies  near  Thermopylae  .  .  .  IQI 
Conquered  by  the  Romans  under  Fulvius  .  .189 
Leading  patriots  massacred  by  the  Roman  party  167 
Made  a  province  of  Rome 146 


AFFINITY.  Marriage  within  certain  degrees  of  kindred  was  prohibited  in  almost  every 
age  and  country,  but  has  yet  taken  place  to  a  considerable  extent.  See  Leviticus,  chap,  xviii. 
(1490  B.C.).  In  England,  a  table  restricting  marriage  within  certain  near  degrees  was  set 
forth  by  authority,  1563.  Prohibited  marriages  were  adjudged  to  be  incestuous  and  unlawful 
by  the  99th  canon,  in  1603.  All  marriages  within  the  forbidden  degrees  are  declared  to  be 
absolutely  void  by  statute  5  &  6  "Will.  IV.  c.  54,  1835.  See  Marriage  (of  deceased  Wife's 
Sister). 


AFF 


15 


AGA 


AFFIRMATION".  See  Quakers.  The  affirmation  was  altered  in  1702,  1721,  1837,  and 
in  April,  1859. — The  indulgence  was  granted  to  persons  who  were  formerly  Quakers,  but 
who  had  seceded  from  that  sect,  2  Vic.  1838 ;  and  extended  to  other  dissenters  by  9  Geo.  IV. 
c.  32  (1828),  and  18  &  19  Vic.  c.  2  (1855). 

AFGHANISTAN,  a  large  country  in  central  Asia,  formerly  part  of  the  Persian  and  Greek 
empires,  was  conquered  by  the  Tartars  about  997. 

His  son  and  successor,  Timour,  died  in  1793  ;  whose 
son,  Zemaun,  was  dethroned  and  blinded  after 
reigning  ten  years.  Since  then  the  history  is  a 
series  of  broils,  crimes,  and  murders. 

Runjeet  Sing,  the  Sikh  chief  of  Lahore,  conquers  a 
large  part  of  the  country  in  1818. 

Dost  Mohammed  becomes  ruler,  1829. 


The  Mahommedan  dynasty,  the  Ghaznevides,  said 

to  have  ruled  from  1186  to  1206. 
They  were  conquered  by  Genghis  Khan  about  1221, 

and  by  Tamerlane,  1398. 
Baber  conquered  Caubul  in  1523. 
On  his  death  Afghanistan  divided  between  Persia 

and  Hindostan. 
The  Afghans  revolt  in  1720 ;  invade  Persia  and  take 

Ispahan;  repulsed  by  Nadir  Shah  in  1728,  who 

subdues  the  whole  of  the  country,  1737. 
On  his  assassination,  one  of  his  officers,  Ahmed  Shah, 

an  Afghan,  forms  Afghanistan  into  an  independent 

kingdom,  and  reigns  prosperously,  1747-73. 


gi"or  the  Afghan  war«with  England,  see  India,  1838.] 
ost  Mohammed  takes  Herat,  May  26  ;   dies,  after 
designating  his  eldest  son,  Shir-Ali,  his  successor, 
May  29,  1863  ;  a  war  of  succession  ensues. 
The  English  remain  neutral,  June,  &c.  1863. 
Treachery  and  anarchy  prevailing,  June,  1865. 


AFRICA,  called  Libya  by  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  three  parts  of  the  ancient  world,  and 
the  greatest  peninsula  of  the  universe  ;  said  to  have  been  first  peopled  by  Ham.  For  its 
history  see  Egypt,  Carthage,  Gyrene,  Abyssinia,  Algiers,  Morocco,  &c. 

unexplored.  His  book  was  published  in  Nov. 
1857.  In  Fqb.  1858,  he  was  appointed  British 
consul  for  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Africa, 
and  left  England  shortly  after. 

The  publication  of  M.  du  Chaillu's  travels  in  central 
Africa  created  much  controversy  and  excitement 
in  1861, 

Second  expedition  of  Dr.  Livingstone,  March,  1858. 

Captains  Speke  and  Grant  announce  the  discovery 
of  the  source  of  the  Nile  in  Lake  Nyanza  Victoria, 
Feb.  23,  1863. 

[Capt.  Speke  was  accidentally  shot  by  his  own  gun 
while  alone  near  Bath,  Sept.  15,  1864.] 

Some  Dutch  ladies  unsuccessfully  explore  the  White 
Nile,  and  undergo  many  privations,  July,  1863— 
1864. 

Oxford  mission.    Bishop  Mackenzie  sent  out ;  dies 
1863. 

Du  Chaillu  starts  on  a  fresh  expedition,  6  Aug.  1863. 

Dr.  Livingstone  returns  July  23,  1864. 

Death  of  Dr.  W.  B.  Baikie,  at  Sierra  Leone,  Nov.  30, 
1864. 

pHe  was  sent  as  special  envoy  to  the  Negro  tribes 
near  the  Niger  by  the  Foreign  Office  about  1854. 
He  opened  commercial  relations  with  Central 
Africa,] 

Mr.  Samuel  Baker  discovered  a  lake,  supposed  to  be 
another  source  of  the  Nile,  which  he  named  Lake 
Nyanza  Albert,  March,  1864, 

Dr.  Livingstone  appointed  British  consul  for  Inner 
Africa,  March  24,  1865. 

AFRICAN  ASSOCIATION,  for  promoting  the  exploration 
of  Central  Africa,  was  formed  in  June,  1788, 
principally  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  ;  and  under  its 
auspices  many  additions  were  made  to  African 
geography  by  Ledyard,  Park,  Burckhardt, 
Hornemann,  &c.  It  merged  into  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society  in  1831. 

AFKICAN  COMPANY  (merchants  trading  to  Africa), 
arose  out  of  an  association  in  Exeter,  formed  in 
1588.  A  charter  was  granted  to  a  joint-stock 
company  in  1618;  a  third  company  was  created  in 
1631 ;  a  fourth  corporation  in  1662  ;  another  was 
formed  by  letters  patent  in  1672;  remodelled  in 
1695.  In  1821  the  company  was  abolished. 

AFRICAN  INSTITUTION,  founded  in  London  in  i8cy,  for 
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and  the  civilisa- 
tion of  Africa.  Many  schools  have  been  established 
with  success,  particularly  at  Sierra  Leone. 


Carthage  subdued  by  the  Romans  146  B.C.  ;  other 

provinces  gained  by  Pompey,  82. 
N.    Africa     conquered     by     the     Vandals     under 

Genseric,  A.D.  429-35,  reconquered  by  Belisarius, 

The  Saracens  subdue  the  north  of  Africa  637 — 709. 

Portuguese  settlements  begun  1450. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  discovered  by  Diaz,  1487. 

English  merchants  visit  Guinea  in  1550  ;  and  Eliza- 
beth granted  a  patent  to  an  African  company  in 
1588. 

Dutch  colony  at  the  Cape  founded,  1650. 

(-'apt.  Btubbs  sailed  up  the  Gambia,  1723. 

Bruce  commenced  his  travels  in  1768. 

Sierra  Leone  settled  by  the  English  1787. '' 

Mungo  Park,  who  made  his  first  voyage  to  Africa, 
May  22,  1795;  and  his  second  voyage,  January  30, 
1804,  but  from  which  he  never  returned  (see 
Park). 

Visited  by  Salt  in  1805  and  1809;  Burckhardt  in 
1812  ;  Hornemann  in  1816  ;  Denham  and  Clapper- 
ton  in  1822  ;  the  brothers  Lander  in  1830. 

The  great  Niger  expedition  (for  which  parliament 
voted  6i,oooZ.)»  consisting  of  the  Albert,  Wilber- 
force,  and  Soudan  steam-ships,  commenced  the 
ascent  of  the  Niger,  Aug.  20,  1841 ;  but  when  they 
reached  Iddah,  fever  broke  out  among  the  crews, 
and  they  were  successively  obliged  to  return,  the 
Albert  having  ascended  the  river  to  Egga,  320  miles 
from  the  sea,  Sept.  28.  The  expedition  was,  in 
the  end,  relinquished  owing  to  disease,  heat,  and 
hardships,  and  all  the  vessels  had  cast  anchor  at 
Clircnce  Cove,  Fernando  Po,  Oct.  17,  1841. 

James  Richardson  explored  the  great  Sahara  in 
1845-6,  and  in  1849  (by  direction  of  the  Foreign 
Office)  he  left  England  to  explore  central  Africa, 
accompanied  by  Drs.  Earth  and  Overweg. 
Richardson  died,  March  4,  1851  ;  and  Overweg, 
Sept.  27,  1852. 

Dr.  Vogel  sent  out  with  reinforcements  to  Dr. 
Barth,  Feb.  20,  1853;  in  April,  1857,  said  to  have 
been  assassinated. 

Dr.  Barth  returned  to  England,  and  received  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society's  medal,  May  16,  1856. 
His  travels  were  published  in  5  vols.  in  1858. 

Dr.  David  Livingstone,  a  missionary  traveller,  re- 
turned to  England  in  Dec.  1856,  after  an  absence 
of  16  years,  during  which  he  traversed  a  large 
part  of  the  heart  of  S.  Africa,  and  walked  about 
n,ooo  miles,  principally  over  country  hitherto 


AGAPJE  (agape,  Greek  for  love,  charity),  "feasts  of  charity,"  referred  to  Jude  12,  and 
described  by  Tertullian,  of  which  the  first  Christians  of  all  ranks  partook,  in  memory  of  the 


AGA  16  AGI 

last  time  when  Christ  ate  with  his  disciples.  In  consequence  of  disorders  creeping  in,  these 
feasts  were  forbidden  to  be  celebrated  in  churches  by  the  councils  of  Laodicea  (366),  and 
Carthage  (390).  These  feasts  are  still  recognised  by  the  Greek  church,  and  are  held  in  their 
original  form  weekly  by  the  Sandemanians,  and  also  in  some  measure  by  the  Moravians 
and  Wesleyans. 

AGAPEMONI ANS,  a  sect  which  originated  with  Henry  James  Prince,  an  ex-clergyman  of 
the  church  of  England,  who  claimed  the  attributes  of  omnipotence,  and  thereby  obtained 
great  influence  over  his  wealthy  dupes  in  1845.  They  professed  to  live  in  a  state  of  brotherly 
love,  delivering  themselves  up  to  innocent  amusements,  not  vexing  themselves  with  the 
cares  of  ordinary  mortals.  Various  disclosures  did  not  at  all  confirm  these  statements. 
They  resided  in  a  building  called  "Agapemone"  (Greek  for  "the  abode  of  love"),  near 
Bridgewater,  in  Somersetshire.* 

AGE.  Chronologers  have  commonly  divided  the  time  between  the  creation  and  the  birth 
of  Christ  into  periods  called  ages.  Hesiod  (about  850  B.C.)  described  the  Golden,  Silver, 
Brazen,  and  Iron  Ages.  See  Dark  Ages. 

B.C. 


FIRST  AGE  (from  the  Creation  to  the 

Deluge) 4004-2349 

SECOND  AGE  (to  the  coining  of  Abraham 


FOURTH  AGE  (to  the  founding  of  Solo- 
mon's Temple) 1490—1014 

FIFTH  AGE  (to  the  capture  of  Jerusalem)    1014 —  588 


into  Canaan) 2348—1922  I  SIXTH  AGE  (to  the  birth  of  Christ)          .       588 —      4 

THIRD  AGE  (to  the  Exodus  from  Egypt)    1921—1491  |  SEVENTH  AGE  (to  the  present  time)  B.C.  4— A.D.  1865 

AGE,  OF.  Varied  in  different  countries.  In  Greece  and  Rome  twenty-five  was  full  age 
for  both  sexes,  but  a  greater  age  was  requisite  for  the  holding  certain  offices  :  e.g.  thirty  for 
tribunes  ;  forty-three  for  consuls.  In  England  the  minority  of  a  male  terminates  at  twenty- 
one,  and  of  a  female  in  some  cases,  as  that  of  a  queen,  at  eighteen.  In  1547,  the  majority  of 
Edward  VI.  was,  by  the  will  of  his  father,  fixed  at  eighteen  years  ;  previously  to  completing 
which  age,  Henry  VIII.  had  himself  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  in  1509. — A  male  of 
twelve  may  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  ;  at  fourteen  he  may  consent  to  a  marriage,  or 
choose  a  guardian  ;  at  seventeen  he  may  be  an  executor,  and  at  twenty-one  he  is  of 
age  ;  but  according  to  the  statute  of  wills,  7  "Will.  IV.  and  I  Viet.  c.  26,  1837,  no  will 
made  by  any  person  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  shall  be  valid.  A  female  at 
twelve  may  consent  to  a  marriage  ;  at  fourteen  she  may  choose  a  guardian,  and  at  twenty- 
one  she  is  of  age. 

AGIXCOURT  (K  France),  a  village,  where  Henry  V.  of  England,  with  about  9000  men, 
defeated  about  60,000  French  on  St.  Crispin's  day,  Oct.  25,  1415.  Of  the  French,  whose 
leaders  acted  with  little  judgment,  there  were  according  to  some  accounts  10,000  killed, 
including  the  dukes  of  Alen9on,  Brabant,  and  Bar,  the  archbishop  of  Sens,  one  marshal, 
thirteen  earls,  ninety-two  barons,  and  1500  knights  ;  and  14,000  prisoners,  among  whom 
were  the  diikes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon,  and  7000  barons,  knights,  and  gentlemen.  The 
English  lost  the  duke  of  York,  the  earl  of  Suffolk,  and  about  20  others.  St.  Remy  asserts 
with  more  probability  that  the  English  lost  1600  men.  Henry  V.  soon  after  obtained  the 
kingdom  of  France. 

AGITATORS  (or  Adjutators),  officers  appointed  by  the  English  army  in  1647,  to  take  care 
of  its  interests  :  each  troop  or  company  had  two.  The  protector  Cromwell  was  eventually 
obliged  to  repress  their  seditious  power.  At  a  review  he  seized  the  ringleaders  of  a  mutiny, 
shot  one  instantly,  in  the  presence  of  his  companions  and  the  forces  on  the  ground,  and  thus 
restored  discipline.  Hume. — Daniel  O'Connell,  called  the  agitator  of  Ireland,  was  born  in 
1775.  He  began  to  agitate  at  the  elections  in  1826  ;  was  elected  for  Clare,  July  5,  1828  ; 
the  election  being  declared  void,  he  was  re-elected  July  30,  1829.  After  the  passing  of  the 
Catholic  emancipation  bill,  he  agitated  in  vain  for  the  repeal  of  the  union,  1834  to  1843. 
He  died  May  15,  1847. — Richard  Cobden  and  John  Bright  were  the  chief  Anti-corn-law 
agitators,  1841-45. 

*.  On  May  22,  1850,  Thomas  "Robinson  sought  to  recover  the  possession  of  his  child  from  the  care  of  its 
mother  ("from  whom  Thomas  had  separated) ;  the  application  was  refused  by  the  vice-chancellor,  on  the 
ground  that  the  father  would  instil  the  doctrines  of  this  sect  into  the  child  in  educating  it,  and  the  court 
held  it  a  duty  to  "save  it  from  the  pollution  of  the  parent's  teaching."  Several  suicides  have  been  com- 
mitted by  the  deluded  females  of  this  sect.— On  Aug.  21,  1858,  Miss  Louisa  Jane  Nottidge  died,  having 
transferred  her  property  to  Mr.  H.  J.  Prince.  Her  brother,  Mr.  Nottidge,  by  an  action,  recovered  from 
Prince  5728?.,  as  having  been  fraudulently  obtained.  Extraordinary  disclosures  were  made  during  the 
trial,  July  25,  1860.  In  the  autumn  of  1860,  the  R-v.  Mr.  Price,  after  several  vain  attempts,  succeeded  in 
rescuing  his  wife  from  the  Agapemone.  They  had  both  been  early  supporters  of  it. 


AGN 


17 


AGR 


AGNADELLO  (N.  E.  Italy).  Here  Louis  XII.  of  France  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Venetians,  some  of  whose  troops  were  accused  of  cowardice  and  treachery  ;  May  14,  1509. 
The  conflict  is  also  termed  the  battle  of  the  Rivolta. 


(from  agnoia,  Greek,  ignorance).  I.  a  sect  founded  by  Theophronius  of 
Cappadocia  about  370  :  said  to  have  doubted  the  omniscience  of  God.  2.  the  followers  of 
Themistius  of  Alexandria  about  530,  who  held  peculiar  views  as  to  the  body  of  Christ,  and 
doubted  his  divinity. 

AGONISTICI  (from  agon,  Greek,  a  conflict),  also  termed  circutores,  a  branch  of  the  Donatists 
(which  see).  They  preached  their  heretical  doctrines  with  great  boldness  in  public  places, 
and  hence  incurred  the  severe  persecution  of  the  emperors  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries. 

AGRA  (N.  W.  India),  founded  by  Akbar  in  1566,  was  the  capital  of  the  great  mogul.  See 
Mausoleums.  In  1658  Aurungzebe  removed  to  Delhi.  —  The  fortress  of  Agra,  termed  the  key 
of  Hindostan,  in  the  war  with  the  Mahrattas,  surrendered  to  the  British  forces,  under  general 
Lake,  Oct.  17,  1803,  after  one  day's  siege  :  162  pieces  of  ordnance  and  240,0002.  were  captured. 
—  In  June,  1857,  the  city  was  abandoned  to  the  mutineers  by  the  Europeans,  who  took 
refuge  in  the  fort,  from  which  they  were  rescued  by  major  Montgomery  and  colonel 
Greathed.—  Allahabad  was  made  capital  of  the  N.  W.  provinces  of  India,  instead  of  Agra,  in 
1861. 

AGRARIAN  LAW  (Agraria  lex)  decreed  an  equal  division  among  the  Roman  people  of 
all  the  lands  acquired  by  conquest,  limiting  the  acres  which  each  person  should  enjoy.  It 
was  first  proposed  by  the  consul  Spurius  Cassius,  486  B.C.,  and  occasioned  his  judicial  murder 
when  he  went  out  of  office  in  485.  It  was  re-introduced  by  the  tribune  Licinius  Stolo,  376, 
and  by  the  tribune  Tiberius  Gracchus,  132  B.C.  The  law  at  last  proved  fatal  to  the  freedom 
of  Rome  under  Julius  Caesar,  60  B.C.  Llvy  ;  Vossius.  In  modern  times  the  term  has  been 
misinterpreted  to  signify  a  division  of  the  lands  of  the  rich  among  the  poor,  frequently 
proposed  by  demagogues,  such  as  Gracchus  Babeuf,*  editor  of  the  Tribun  du  Peuple,  in  1794. 

AGRI  COLA'S  WALL.     See  Roman  Watts. 

AGRICULTURE.  "Abel  was  a  keeper  of  sheep,  but  Cain  was  a  tiller  of  the  ground," 
Genesis  iv.  2.  The  Athenians  asserted  that  the  art  of  sowing  corn  began  with  them  ;  and 
the  Cretans,  Sicilians,  and  Egyptians  made  the  same  claim. 


Cato  the  Censor  (died  149  B.C.)  and  Varro  (died  28 
B.C.)  were  eminent  Roman  writers  on  agriculture. 
It  was  brought  into  England  by  the  Romans  about 
A.D.  27. 

Fitzherbert's  "Book  of  Husbandry,"  printed  in 
1524. 

Tusser's  "Five  Hundred  Points  of  Husbandry," 
1562 

Blythe's  "Improver,"  1649. 

Hartlib's  "  Legacy,"  1650. 

Jethro  Tail's  "  Horse-hoeing  Husbandry,"  1701. 

About  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  fallowing  was 
gradually  superseded  by  turnips  and  other  green 
crops. 

AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES. — The  earliest  mentioned 
in  the  British  Isles  was  the  Society  of  Improvers 
of  Agriculture  in  Scotland,  instituted  in  1723. 
The  Dublin  Agricultural  Society  (1749)  gave  a 
stimulus  to  agriculture  in  Ireland ;  its  origin  is 
attributed  to  Mr.  Prior  of  Rathdowney,  Queen's 
County,  in  1731.  The  Bath  and  West  of  England 
Society  established,  1777 ;  and  the  Highland 
Society  of  Scotland,  1793.  County  Agricultural 
Societies  are  now  numerous. 

London  Board  of  Agriculture  established  by  act  of 
parliament,  1793. 

Francis,  duke  of  Bedford,  a  great  promoter  of  agri- 
culture, died,  March  2,  1802. 

Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  established 
in  1838,  by  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  the  chief 
landed  proprietors  in  the  kingdom,  and  incor- 
porated by  royal  charter,  1840.  It  holds  two 


meetings  annually,  one  in  London  the  other  in 
the  country  ;  the  first  country  meeting  at  Oxford, 
in  1839.  It  awards  prizes,  and  publishes  a 
valuable  journal.  The  London  meeting  at  Batter- 
sea  in  June,  1862,  was  highly  successful. 

"Chambers  of  Agriculture"  were  established  in 
France  in  1851. 

The  Royal  Agricultural  College  at  Cirencester 
organised,  1842  ;  chartered,  1845. 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  —  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
delivered  lectures  on  this  subject  (afterwards 
published),  at  the  instance  of  the  Hoard  of  Agri- 
culture, in  1812  ;  but  it  excited  little  attention 
till  the  publication  of  Liebig's  work  in  1840,  which 
made  a  powerful  impression.  Boussingault's 
"  Economie  Rurale,"  an  equally  important  work, 
appeared  in  1844.  The  immoderate  expectations 
from  this  study  having  been  somewhat  dis- 
appointed, a  partial  reaction  took  place.  Liebig's 
"  Letters  on  Agriculture  "  appeared  in  1859. 

AGRICULTURAL  HALL,  Islington,  N.  London,  chiefly 
for  the  meetings  of  the  Smithfield  Club.  The 
foundation  stone  was  laid  by  the  president,  lord 
Berners,  Nov.  5,  1861.  A  remarkable  exhibition 
of  dogs  was  opened  here  on  June  24,  1862 ;  and  of 
horses  and  of  donkeys,  in  July,  1864,  1865. 

In  Aug.  1855,  a  committee  presented  a  report  on 
the  best  mode  of  obtaining  accurate  Agricultural 
Statistics,  which  has  not  been  acted  on.  There 
were,  in  1831,  1,055,982  agricultural  labourers  in 
Great  Britain,  and  in  Ireland,  1,131,715. 


*  In  1796  he  conspired  against  the  directory  with  the  view  of  obtaining  a  division  of  property,  and  was 
executed. 


AGR 


AGRICULTURE,  continued. 


18 


AIR 


The  following  Table,  drawn  up  by  Mr.  William  Coaling,  C.E.,  in  1827, 
Report  of  the  Emigration  Committee  : — 


is  extracted  from  the  Third 


Countries. 

Cultivated. 

"Wastes 
capable  of 
Improvement. 

Unprofitable. 

Total. 

ACKF.S. 

ACRES. 

ACRES. 

ACRES. 

Wales 

5,   3  > 

Scotland    
Ireland  
British  Islands 

5,265,000 
12,125,280 

383,690 

5,950,000 
4,900,000 
166,000 

8,523,930 
2,416,664 
569,469 

19,738,930 

*9>441,944 
1,119,159 

46,522,970 

15,000,000 

15,871,463 

77,394,433 

AGRIGENTUM  (now  Girgenti),  a  celebrated  city  of  Sicily,  built  about  582  B.C.  It  was 
governed  by  tyrants  from  566  to  470  ;  among  these  were  Phalaris  (see  Brazen  Bull]  ; 
Alcamanes  ;  Theroii  who,  with  his  step-father  Gelon,  defeated  the  Carthaginians  at  Himera  ; 
and  Thrasydaeus,  his  son,  expelled  in  470  ;  when  a  republic  was  established  and  Agrigeritum 
became  opulent  and  luxurious.  It  was  taken  by  the  Carthaginians  in  405  B.C.,  and  held, 
except  during  short  intervals,  till  wrested  from  them  by  the  Romans  in  262  B.  c.  From 
A.D.  825  till  1086  it  was  held  by  the  Saracens. 

AHMEDNUGGUR  (W.  India),  once  capital  of  a  state  founded  by  Ahmed  Shah,  about  1494, 
which  after  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Moguls  and  the  Mahrattas,  was  taken  from  the 
latter  by  Arthur  Wellesley,  Aug.  1  2,  1  803,  and  finally  annexed  to  the  British  dominions  in  1  8  1  7. 

AID.     See  Ayde. 
AILANTINE. 


AIR,  OB,  ATMOSPHERE.  Anaximenes  of  Miletus  (530  B.  c.  )  declared  air  to  be  a  self-existent 
deity,  and  the  first  cause  of  everything  created.  Posidonius  (about  79  B.  c.)  calculated  the 
height  of  the  atmosphere  to  be  800  stadia.  The  pressure  of  air,  about  15  Ibs.  to  the  square 
inch,  was  discovered  by  Torricelli  A.D.  1645,  and  was  found  by  Pascal,  in  1647,  to  vary  with 
the  height.  Halley,  Newton,  and  others,  up  to  the  present  time  have  illustrated  the  agency 
and  influences  of  this  great  power  by  various  experiments,  and  numerous  inventions  have 
followed  ;  among  others  the  AIR-GUN  of  Guter  of  Nuremberg  about  1656  ;  the  AIR-PUMP, 
invented  by  Otto  von  Guericke  of  Magdeburg  about  1650  ;  improved  by  the  illustrious 
Boyle  in  1657  ;  and  the  AIR-PIPE,  invented  by  Mr.  Sutton,  a  brewer  of  London,  about  1756. 
The  density  and  elasticity  of  air  were  determined  by  Boyle  ;  and  its  relation  to  light  and 
sound  by  Hooke,  Newton,  and  Derham.  The  extension  of  our  atmosphere  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  long  considered  as  about  45  miles,  was  thought  by  admiral  FitzRoy  to  be 
only  about  9  or  10  miles  '(1862).  —  Its  composition,  about  77  parts  of  nitrogen,  21  of  oxygen, 
and  2  of  other  matters  (such  as  carbonic  acid,  watery  vapour,  a  trace  of  ammonia,  &c.),  was 
gradually  ascertained  by  Priestley  (who  discovered  oxygen  gas  in  1774),  Scheele  (1775?, 
Lavoisier,  and  Cavendish  ;  and  its  laws  of  refraction  were  investigated  by  Dr.  Bradley,  1737. 
Dr.  Stenhouse's  Air-filters  (in  which  powdered  charcoal  is  used)  were  first  set  up  at  the 
Mansion-house,  London,  in  1854.  In  1858,  Dr.  R.  Angus  Smith  made  known  a  chemical 
method  of  ascertaining  the  amount  of  organic  matter  in  the  air.  The  researches  of  Dr. 
Schbnbein,  a  German  chemist  of  Basel,  between  1840  and  1859,  led  to  the  discovery  of  two 
states  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  which  he  calls  ozone  and  antozone.  See  Oxygen,  Nitrogen, 
Ozone,  Atmospheric  Railway,  and  Pneumatic  Despatch.  —  The  force  of  compressed  air  has  been 
employed  in  boring  the  Cenis  tunnel,  which  see. 

*  At  that  period  it  was  computed  that  the  soil  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  annually  cropped  in  the 
following  proportions  :  — 

ACRES. 

Brought  forward 

Nursery-grounds        .... 
Inclosed  fruit,  flower,  kitchen,  and  other 

gardens        ..... 
Pleasure-grounds 
Land  depastured  by  cattle    . 
Hedge-rows,  copses,  and  woods 
Ways,  water,  &c  .......     2,  100,000 


Wheat 7,000,000 

Barley  and  rye 1,950,000 

Potatoes,  oats,  and  beans       .        ...  6,500,000 

Turnips,  cabbages,  and  other  vegetables  .  1,150,000 

Clover,  rye-grass,  &c 1,750,000 

Fallow 2,800,000 

Hop-grounds 60,000 


ACRES. 
2I,2IO,OOO 
20,000 

IIO,OOO 
100,000 

21,000.000 
2,000,000 


Forward 


21,210,000 


Cultivated  land 


46,540,000 


It  was  reckoned  by  the  Agricultural  Committee,  that  the  cultivation  of  waste  lands  would  yield  above 
2o,ooo,ooo£.  a  year.  It  was  calculated  in  1854  that  there  were  in  England  32,160,000  acres  in  cultivation,  of 
the  annual  value  of  37,412,000?.  Since  that  time  much  land  has  been  brought  into  cultivation.  See  Wheat. 


AIX 


19 


ALB 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (AACHEN),  a  Roman  city,  now  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  Here  Charle- 
magne was  born  742,  and  died  814  ;  having  built  the  minster  (796-804),  and  conferred  many 
privileges  on  the  city,  in  which  fifty-five  emperors  have  since  been  crowned.  The  city  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1792  ;  retaken  by  the  Austrians,  1793  ;  by  the  French,  1794  ;  reverted 
to  Prussia,  1814. — The  first  Treaty  of  peace  signed  here  was  between  France  and  Spain, 
when  France  yielded  Franche  Cbmte,  but  retained  her  conquests  in  the  Netherlands,  May  2, 
1668. — The  second,  or  celebrated  treaty,  was  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Holland. 
Germany,  Spain,  and  Genoa.  (By  it  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  of  Nimeguen  in 
1678  and  1679,  of  Ryswick  in  1697,  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  of  Baden  in  1714,  of  the  Triple 
Alliance  in  1717,  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance  in  1718,  and  of  Vienna  in  1738,  were  renewed 
and  confirmed.)  Signed  on  the  part  of  England  by  John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  and  sir  Thomas 
Robinson,  Oct.  7,  1748. — A  Congress  of  the  sovereigns  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia, 
assisted  by  ministers  from  England  and  France,  was  held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  a  conven- 
tion signed,  Oct.  9,  1818.  The  sum  then  due  from  France  to  the  allies  was  settled  at 
265,000,000  of  francs. 

AJACCIO.     See  Corsica. 

AJNADIN  (Syria).  Here  the  Mahometans  defeated  the  army  of  the  emperor  Heraclius, 
in  July,  633.  They  took  Damascus  in  634. 

AKERMAN  (Bessarabia).  After  being  several  times  taken,  it  was  ceded  to  Russia  in  1812. 
Here  the  celebrated  treaty  between  Russia  and  Turkey  was  concluded  in  1826,  which  secured 
for  the  former  the  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  recognised  the  Danubian  principalities,  &c. 

ALABAMA,  a  Southern  slave  state,  originally  part  of  Georgia,  N.  America  ;  made  an 
independent  state  in  1819  :  commercial  metropolis,  Mobile.  It  seceded  from  the  Union  by 
an  ordinance  passed  Jan.  II,  1861,  and  was  reunited  in  1865.* 

ALAND  ISLES  (Gulf  of  Bothnia),  taken  from  Sweden  by  Russians,  1809.  See  Bomar- 
sund. 

ALANI,  a  Tartar  race,  invaded  Parthia,  75.  They  joined  the  Huns  in  invading  the 
Roman 'empire,  were  defeated  by  Theodosius,  379-382.  They  were  subdued  by  the  Visigoths, 
452  ;  and  were  eventually  incorporated  with  them. 

ALARCOS  (Central  Spain).  Here  the  Spaniards  under  Alfonso  IX.,  king  of  Castile,  were 
totally  defeated  by  the  Moors,  July  19,  1195. 

ALBA  LONGA,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Ascanius,  son  of 
1 152  B.C.     Its  history  is  of  doubtful  authenticity. 

Agrippa ;  Romulus  Silvius,  864  ;  Aventinus, 
845  ;  Procas,  808  ;  Numitor  .  .  .B.C. 

Amulius,t  the  brother  of  Numitor,  seizes  the 
throne,  794  ;  killed  by  his  grandson, 
Romulus,  who  restores  Numitor  .  .  . 

Romulus  builds  and  fortifies  Rome  (see  Rome)    753 

Alba  conquered  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  and  in- 
corporated with  Rome 


Ascanius,  son  of  JEneas,  1152  B.C.  ;  Sylvius  Pos- 
thumus,  1143;  ./Eneas  Sylvius  .  .  B.C.  1114 

Reign  of  Latinus,  1048  ;  Alba,  1038  ;  Atys,  or 
Capettis,  1002 ;  Capys,  976  ;  Capetus 

Reign  of  Tiberinus,  903 ;  being  defeated  in 
battle,  near  the  river  Albula,  he  throws  him- 
self into  the  stream,  is  drowned,  and  hence 
this  river  is  now  called  the  Tiber 


916 


895 


795 


754 


665 


ALBANIA,  a  province  in  European  Turkey,  formerly  part  of  the  ancient  Epirus.  The 
Albanians  became  independent  during  the  decline  of  the  Greek  empire.  They  were  success- 
fully attacked  by  the  Turks  in  1388.  About  1443,  under  George  Castriot  (Scanderbeg),  they 
baffled  the  efforts  of  Mahomed  II.  to  subdue  them  till  the  siege  of  Scutari  in  1478,  when 
they  partially  submitted.  Albania  became  independent  under  Ali  Pacha,  of  Janina,  in  1812, 
who  defeated  the  Turkish  pachas,  and  governed  ably,  but  cruelly  and  despotically,  till  Feb. 
1822,  when  he  and  his  two  sons  were  slain,  after  surrendering  under  a  solemn  promise  of 
safety.  A  revolt  in  Albania  was  suppressed  in  1843. 

*  The  "  Alabama,"  a  steam- vessel  belonging  to  the  Southern  States  of  North  America,  was  built  at 
Birkenhcad,  and  sailed  under  a  false  name  from  the  Mersey,  July  28,  1862.  Under  the  command  of 
captain  Semmes  it  made  much  havock  in  the  Federal  trading  vessels.  The  "  Alabama  "  was  attacked  and 
sunk  by  the  Federal  iron-clad  "  Kearsage  "  near  Cherbourg,  on  Sunday  morning,  June  19,  1864.  Part  of 
the  crew  were  saved  by  Mr.  John  Lancaster  in  an  English  j^acht. 

t  Early  traditions  state,  that  when  Arnulius  dethroned  his  brother,  he  condemned  Ilia,  the  daughter 
of  Numitor,  to  a  life  of  celibacy,  by  obliging  her  to  take  the  vows  and  office  of  a  vestal,  thereby  to  assure 
his  safety  in  the  usurpation.  His  object  was,  however,  frustrated  ;  violence  was  offered  to  Ilia,  and  she 
became  the  mother  of  twins,  for  which  Amulius  ordered  her  to  be  buried  alive,  and  her  offspring  to  be 
thrown  into  the  Tiber,  770  B.C.  But  the  little  bark  in  which  the  infants  were  sent  adrift  stopped  near 
mount  Aventiue,  and  was  brought  ashore  by  Faustulus,  the  king's  chief  shepherd,  who  reared  the  children 
as  his  own,  and  called  them  Romulus  and  Remus.  His  wife,  Acca-Laurentia,  was  surnamed  Lupa ;  whence 
arose  the  fable  that  Romulus  and  his  brother  were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf.  At  sixteen  years  of  age,  Romulus 
avenged  the  wrongs  of  Ilia  and  Numitor,  754  B.C.,  and  the  next  year  founded  Rome.  Varro. 

C   2 


ALB  20  ALB 

ALBAN'S,  ST.  (Hertfordshire),  near  the  Roman  Verulam,  derived  its  present  name  from 
Alban,  the  British  protomartyr,  said  to  have  been  beheaded  during  the  persecution  by 
Diocletian,  June  23,  286.  A  stately  monastery  to  his  memory  was  erected  by  Orfa,  king 
of  Mercia,  about  793,  who  granted  it  many  privileges.  Its  superior  sat  as  premier  abbot  in 
parliament  till  the  dissolution  in  1539.  It  was  taken  from  Cassivelaunus  by  Julius  Csesar,  54 
B.C.,  and  retaken  with  much  slaughter  by  Boadicea  or  Bunduica,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  A.D.  61. 
On  May  22  or  23,  1455,  was  fought  the  first  battle  of  St.  Albaris,  when  the  Lancastrians  were 
defeated,  their  leader,  Edmund  duke  of  Somerset  slain,  and  king  Henry  VI.  taken  prisoner, 
by  the  duke  of  York  and  his  partisans.  In  the  second  battle,  on  Shrove  Tuesday,  Feb.  17, 
1461,  queen  Margaret  totally  defeated  the  Yorkists  under  the  earl  of  Warwick  and  rescued 
the  king.  There  was  much  blood  shed  in  these  desperate  conflicts.  St.  Alban's  was  incor- 
porated by  Edward  VI.  in  1553,  and  disfranchised  for  bribery,  June  17,  1852.  St.  Alban's 
raid,  see  United  States,  1804. 

ALBANY  (on  ALBAINN),  the  ancient  name  of  the  Scottish  Highlands.  The  brother  of 
Robert  III.  of  Scotland  was  made  duke  of  Albany  in  1398.  Frederick,  son  of  George  III., 
was  duke  of  York  and  Albany.  He  died  Jan.  5,  1827. 

ALBERT  MEMORIAL.  The  Prince  Consort  died  on  Dec.  14,  1861,  deeply  lamented  by 
the  whole  civilised  world.  A  meeting  to  organise  a  method  of  receiving  contributions  for  a 
great  national  memorial  was  held  at  the  Mansion-house,  Jan.  14,  1862  ;  and  a  large  sum 
was  quickly  subscribed.  36,000^.  had  been  received  on  March  i,  and  50,220^.  on  June  n, 

1862.  The  nature  of  the  memorial  was  referred  to  the  queen  herself.     In  a  letter  to  the 
lord  mayor,  dated  Feb.  19,  1862,  sir  Charles  Grey  says,  on  behalf  of  her  majesty,  "  It  would 
be  more  in  accordance  with  her  own  feelings,  and  she  believes  with  those  of  the  country  in 
general,  that  the  monument  should  be  directly  personal  to  its  object.     After  giving  the 
subject  her  maturest  consideration,  her  majesty  has  come  to  the  conclusion,  that  nothing 
would  be  more  appropriate,  provided  it  is  on  a  scale  of  sufficient  grandeur,  than  an  obelisk 
to  be  erected  in  Hyde-park  on  the  site  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  or  on  some  spot 
immediately  contiguous  to    it.      Nor  would   any  proposal  that  could  be  made  be  more 
gratifying  to  the  queen  herself  personally,  for  she  can  never  forget  that  the  prince  himself 
had  highly  approved  of  the  idea  of  a  memorial  of  this  character  being  raised  on  the  same  spot  in 
remembrance  of  the  Great  Exhibition. "    In  a  second  letter  the  queen  expressed  her  intention  of 
personally  contributing  towards  erecting  the  memorial,  that  "it  might  be  recorded  in  future 
ages  as  raised  by  the  queen  and  people  of  a  grateful  country  to  the  memory  of  its  benefactor." 
Shortly  after  a  committee  was  appointed  to  fulfil  her  majesty's  desire.     As  a  suitable  block 
of  granite  could  not  be  obtained,  the  proposal  for  an  obelisk  was  given  up.     On  April  22, 

1863,  the  queen  approved  of  the  design  of  Mr.  Gilbert  G.  Scott  for  an  Eleanor  Cross,  with  a 
spire  150  feet  high,  accompanied  by  statues,  &c. ;  and  on  April  23,  parliament  voted  50,000^., 
in  addition  to  the  6o.oooZ.  received  by  voluntary  contributions.     The  sculptors  employed 
are  M'Dowell,  Foley,   Theed,  John  Bell,  and  Armistead  :  material,  Sicilian  marble.     (Jan. 
1865.)     Many  memorials  of  the  prince  have  been  set  up  throughout  the  empire.* 

ALBIGENSES,  a  name  giyen  to  various  bodies  of  persons  who  opposed  the  doctrines  and 
corruptions  of  the  church  of  Rome,  living  at  Albiga,  in  Languedoc,  and  at  Toulouse  in  the 
1 2th  century.  They  were  persecuted  as  Manichseans,  1163,  and  a  crusade  (proclaimed  by 
pope  Innocent  III.)  commenced  against  them  in  1207.  Simon  de  Montfort  (to  whom  Toulouse 
was  given)  commanded,  and  at  Bezieres  he  and  the  pope's  legate  put  friends  and  foes  to  the 
sword,  saying,  "God  will  find  his  own  !"  At  Minerba  he  burnt  150  of  the  Albigenses 
alive  ;  and  at  La  Vaur  he  hanged  the  governor,  and  beheaded  the  chief  people,  drowning  the 
governor's  wife,  and  murdering  other  women.  He  next  defeated  the  count  of  Toulouse,  but 
was  himself  killed  in  1218.  Louis  VIII.  and  IX.,  kings  of  France,  patronised  the  crusade  ; 
count  Raymond  was  subdued  in  1229  ;  and  the  heretics  were  given  up  to  the  Inquisition. 
See  Waldenses. 

ALBION  (probably  derived  from  albus  or  alp,  white).  Britain  is  said  to  have  been  so 
called  by  Julius  Csesar  and  others,  on  account  of  the  chalky  cliffs  upon  its  coast. 

ALBUERA  (on  ALBTJHERA),  Estremadura,  Spain,  where  a  battle  was  fought  between  the 
French,  commanded  by  marshal  Soult,  and  the  British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  under 
marshal,  afterwards  lord  Beresford,  May  16,  1811.  The  allies  obtained  the  victory,  one  of 

*  Inscription  on  the  "Memorial  Cairn"  on  a  high  mountain  overlooking1  Balmoral  palace: — "To  the 
beloved  memory  of  ALBERT  the  great  and  good  Prince  Consort,  erected  by  his  broken-hearted  widow, 
VICTORIA  R.,  2ist  Aug.  1862."  Upon  another  dressed  slab,  a  few  inches  below  the  above,  is  this  quota- 
tion:—"  He  being  made  perfect  in  a  short  time,  fulfilled  a  long  time:  for  his  soul  pleased  the  Lord, 
therefore  hasted  he  to  take  him  away  from  among  the  wicked."—  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  chap.  iv.  13,  14. 


ALB  21  ALD 

the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  the  war.  The  French  loss  exceeded  8000  men  previously 
to  their  retreat ;  but  the  allies  lost  a  large  number.  The  chief  brunt  of  the  action  fell  on 
the  British  ;  colonel  Inglis,  22  officers,  and  more  than  400  men,  out  of  570  who  had 
mounted  a  hill,  fell, — out  of  the  57th  regiment  alone  ;  the  other  regiments  were  scarcely 
better  off,  not  one-third  being  left  standing  ;  "  1500  unwounded  men,  the  remnant  of  6000 
unconquerable  British  soldiers,  stood  triumphant  on  this  fatal  hill."  Napier. 

ALBUFERA  (Spain,  East  Central),  a  lagoon,  near  ^vhich  the  French  marshal  Such?t 
(afterwards  duke  of  Albufera)  defeated  the  Spaniards  under  Blake,  Jan.  4,  1812  :  this  led  to 
his  capture  of  Valencia  on  Jan.  9. 

ALCANTARA,  an  illustrious  Spanish  military  order  of  knighthood,  established  in  1156. 
The  sovereign  of  Spain  has  been  grand  master  since  1495. 

ALCAZAR- QUIVER,  hear  Fez,  N.  W.  Africa,  where  the  Moors  totally  defeated  the 
Portuguese,  whose  gallant  king  Sebastian  was  slain,  Aug.  4,  1578.  The  Portuguese 
disbelieved  his  death  and  anxiously  expected  his  return  ;  this  led  to  the  successive  appear- 
ance of  five  impostors. 

ALCHEMY,  the  forerunner  of  the  science  of  chemistry  :  its  chief  objects  being  the 
discovery  of  the  philosopher's  stone  (which  was  to  effect  the  transmutation  of  metals  into 
gold),  an  alkahest  or  universal  menstruum,  and  the  elixir  of  life.  Alchemy  is  said  to  be  as 
old  as  the  Flood  ;  yet  few  writers,  from  Homer  till  400  years  after  Christ,  mention  any  such 
thing.  The  alchemists  assert  that  their  founder  was  Hermes  Trismegistus  (thrice  greatest), 
an  ancient  Egyptian  king. — Pliny  says,  the  emperor  Caligula  was  the  first  who  prepared 
natural  arsenic,  in  order  to  make  gold  of  it,  but  left  it  off,  because  "the  charge  exceeded  the 
profit.  Others  say,  the  Egyptians  knew  the  secret.  Zosimus  wrote  on  the  subject  about 
410.  The  Arabians  are  said  to  have  invented  this  art,  wherein  they  were  vainly  followed 
(in  the  I3th  century)  by  Roger  Bacon,  Albertus  Magnus,  Aquinus,  and  Raymond  Lullius, 
by  Basil  Valentine  (born  1394),  and  by  Paracelsus  (died  1541),  and  others. — In  1404  the 
craft  of  multiplying  gold  and  silver  was  made  felony  by  5  Hen.  IV.  c.  4,  which  act  was 
repealed  in  1689.  A  licence  for  practising  alchemy  with  all  kinds  of  metals  and  minerals 
was  granted  to  one  Richard  Carter,  1476.  Rymer's  Feed.  Dr.  Price,  of  Guildford,  in  1782 
published  an  account  of  his  experiments  in  this  way,  and  pretended  to  success  :  he  brought 
his  specimens  of  gold  to  the  king,  affirming  that  they  were  made  by  means  of  a  red  and 
white  powder.  Being  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  he  was  required,  upon  pain  of  expulsion, 
to  repeat  his  experiments  before  Messrs.  Kirwan  and  Wolfe  (some  say  Higgins) ;  but  after 
much  equivocation  and  delay  he  took  poison  and  died,  Aug.  1783. 

ALCOHOL.  Pure  spirit  of  wine  or  hydrated  alcohol  was  obtained  by  the  distillation  of 
fermented  liquors  by  Abucasis  in  the  1 2th  century  ;  and  the  dehydration  of  this  liquor 
was  first  partially  effected  by  Raymond  Lullius  in  the  I3th  century  by  carbonate  of  potas- 
sium. Alcohol  has  never  been  reduced  to  the  solid  state,  but  becomes  viscid  at  very  low 
temperatures.  In  1820,  Faraday  and  Hennell  obtained  traces  of  alcohol  by  passing  olefiant 
gas  (bi-carburetted  hydrogen)  through  sulphuric  acid ;  and  in  1862  this  process  was 
examined  and  confirmed  by  Berthelot.  See  Distillation,  Spirits,  Brandy,  Gin,  Rum. 

AL-CORAN.     See  Koran,  Mahomelanism,  &c. 

ALDERMAN.  The  Saxon  ealdorman  was  next  to  the  king  and  frequently  a  viceroy :  but 
after  the  settlement  of  the  Danes  the  title  was  gradually  displaced  by  that  of  earl.  Aldermen 
are  now  next  in  dignity  to  the  mayor.  They  were  appointed  in  London  (where  there  are 
twenty-six)  in  1242  ;  and  in  Dublin  (where  there  are  twenty-four)  in  1323.  Aldermen 
chosen  for  life,  instead  of  annually,  17  Richard  II.  1394.  Present  mode  of  election 
established  n  Geo.  I.  1725.  Aldermen  made  justices  of  the  peace  15  Geo.  II.  1741. 

ALDERNEY  (English  Channel),  with  Jersey,  &c.,  was  incorporated  with  the  kingdom  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  1066.  The  "Race"  is  celebrated  for  two  fatal  occurrences; 
William  of  Normandy,  son  of  Henry  I.  of  England,  and  many  young  nobles  ( 140  youths  of 
the  principal  families  of  France  and  Britain),  were  overtaken  by  a  storm,  and  all  lost,  Nov. 
25,  1 120.  The  British  man-of-war  Victory,  of  100  guns  and  1160  men,  was  wrecked  here, 
Oct.  5,  1744  ;  the  admiral,  sir  John  Balchan,  and  all  his  crew  perished.  Through  this  strait 
the  French  escaped  after  their  defeat  at  La  Hogue  by  admiral  Rooke,  May,  1692. 

ALDERSHOT  CAMP,  a  moor  near  Farnham,  about  35  miles  from  London.  In  April, 
1854,  the  W^ar  office,  having  obtained  a  grant  of  ioo,ooo£.,  purchased  4000  acres  of  land 
for  a  permanent  camp  for  20,000  men.  Additional  land  was  purchased  in  1856.  Barracks 


ALD 


22 


ALE 


have  been  since  erected  for  4000  infantry,  1 500  cavalry,  and  several  batteries  of  artillery. 
Great  improvements  in  military  cookery  were  introduced  here  under  the  superintendence  of 
captain  John  Grant  in  1857.  See  Cookery. — It  was  visited  by  the  queen  April  19,  1856  ; 
and  on  July  7  the  queen  reviewed  the  troops  returned  from  the  Crimea  ;  and  again  on  the 
1 6th,  in  the  presence  of  both  houses  of  parliament.  In  1859,  about  15,000  men  were 
stationed  here.  (Cost,  up  to  Feb.  1860,  said  to  be  1,291,531^.)  An  industrial  and  hue  art 
exhibition,  furnished  by  officers  and  men  and  their  wives,  was  opened  here  June  29,  and 
closed  July  14,  1864. 

ALDINE  PRESS,  that  of  Aldus  Manutius,  at  Yenice,  where  were  printed  many  of  the 
first  editions  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  classics,  commencing  in  1494  with  Musseus. 

ALE,  BEER  (and  Wine)  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Bacchus  ;  the  first  in  Egypt, 
where  the  soil  was  considered  unable  to  produce  grapes.  Ale  was  known  as  a  beverage  at 
least  in  404  B.  c.  Herodotus  ascribes  the  first  discovery  of  the  art  of  brewing  barley- wine  to 
Isis,  the  wife  of  Osiris. — A  beverage  of  this  kind  is  mentioned  by  Xenophon,  401  B.C.  The 
Romans  and  Germans  very  early  learned  from  the  Egyptians  the  process  of  preparing  a 
liquor  from  corn  by  means  of  fermentation.  Tacitus.  Ale-houses  are  made  mention  of 
in  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of  Wessex  (A.D.  688).  Booths  were  set  up  in  England  728,  when 
laws  were  passed  for  their  regulation.  Ale-houses  were  subjected  to  regulation  by  5  &  6 
Edw.  VI.  c.  25  (1551).  By  I  James  I.  c.  9  (1603),  one  full  quart  of  the  best,  and  two 
quarts  of  small  ale  were  to  be  sold  for  one  penny.  Excise  duty  on  ale  and  beer  was  imposed 
by  the  parliament  in  1643,  and  continued  by  Charles  II.  (1660).  See  Beer,  Porter,  Wine. 

ALEMANNI,  OR  ALL  MEN  (i.e.  men  of  all  nations),  hence  Allemand,  German.  A  body 
of  Suevi,  who  took  this  name,  were  defeated  by  Caracalla,  214.  After  several  repulses,  they 
invaded  the  empire  under  Aurelian,  who  subdued  them  in  three  battles,  270.  They  were 
again  vanquished  by  Julian,  356,  357.  They  were  defeated  and  subjugated  by  Clovis  at 
Tolbiac  (or  Zulpich),  496.  The  Suabians  are  their  descendants. 

ALENCON  (N.  France)  gave  title  to  a  count  and  duke. 


1268.  Peter  made  count  by  his  father  king  Louis  IX. 
1293.  Charles  I.,  of  Valois,  made  count  by  his  bro- 
ther king  Philip  the  Fair. 
1325.  Charles  II.,  his  son,  killed  at  Crecy. 
1346.  Charles  III.  (his  son),  became  a  priest. 
1361.  Peter,  his  brother. 


1404.  John  (his  son),  made  DUKE  in  1414,  killed  at 
Agin  court,  1415. 

1415.  John  II.  Chis  son),  intrigued  against  the  king. 

1476.  Charles  IV.  fled  after  the  battle  of  Pavia  in 
1525,  and  died  shortly  after  of  chagrin.  The 
duchy  was  absorbed  by  the  crown. 


ALEPPO  (anciently  Beroea),  a  large  town,  X.  Syria,  so  named  by  Seleucus  Nicator  about 
299  B.C.  The  pachalic  of  Aleppo  is  one  of  the  five  governments  of  Syria.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Turks,  A.D.  638,  who  restored  its  ancient  name  Haleb  or  Chaleb  ;  by  Saladin,  1193  ;  and 
sacked  by  Timour,  1400.  Its  depopulation  by  the  plague  has  been  frequent  ;  60,000  persons 
were  computed  to  have  perished  by  it  in  1797.  It  suffered  by  the  plague  in  1827,  and  the 
cholera  in  1832.  Aleppo  suffered  severely  from  the  terrible  earthquakes  in  1822  and  1830  ; 
and  has  often  been  the  scene  of  fanatical  massacres.  On  Oct.  16,  1850,  the  Mahometans 
attacked  the  Christian  inhabitants.  They  burnt  everything  in  their  way  ;  three  churches 
were  destroyed,  five  others  were  plundered,  thousands  of  persons  were  slain,  and  the  total 
loss  of  property  amounted  to  about  a  million  sterling  ;  no  interference  was  attempted  by  the 
pacha  or  the  Turkish  soldiers. 

ALESSANDRIA,  a  city  of  Piedmont,  built  in  1168  under  the  name  of  Csesarea  by  the 
Milanese  and  Cremonese,  to  defend  the  Tanaro  against  the  emperor,  and  named  Alessandria 
after  pope  Alexander  III.  It  has  been  frequently  besieged  and  taken.  The  French  took 
Alessandria  in  1798,  but  were  driven  out  July  21,  1799.  They  recovered  it  after  the  battle 
of  Marengo,  in  1800.  Alessandria  was  strongly  fortified  by  Napoleon.  Its  works  were 
destroyed  at  the  peace  in  1814,  but  a  European  subscription  was  commenced  in  1856,  to 
restore  them. 

ALEXANDER,  ERA  OF,  dated  from  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Nov.  12,  323  B.C. 
In  the  computation  of  this  era,  the  period  of  the  Creation  was  considered  to  be  5502  years 
before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and,  in  consequence,  the  year  i  A.D.  was  equal  to  5503.  'This 
computation  continued  to  the  year  A.D.  284,  which  was  called  5786.  In  the  next  year  (A.D. 
285),  which  should  have  been  5787,  ten  years  were  discarded,  and  the  date  became  5777. 
This  is  still  used  in  the  Abyssinian  era,  which  see.  The  date  is  reduced  to  the  Christian  era 
by  subtracting  5502  until  the  year  5786,  and  after  that  time  by  subtracting  5492. 

"ALEXANDRA  CASE."     See  Trials,  1862-64. 


ALE 


23 


ALG 


ALEXANDRA  PARK,  Muswell  Hill,  London,  N.,  purchased  by  a  company,  and  named 
after  the  Princess  of  Wales,  was  opened  with  a  flower  show,  July  23,  1863.  A  portion  of 
the  Exhibition  of  1862  is  to  be  erected  within  it.  The  work,  which  rapidly  proceeded  in 
1864,  is  now  suspended  (1865). 

ALEXANDRIA  (Egypt),  the  walls  whereof  were  six  miles  in  circuit,  was  built  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  332  B.C.,  who  was  buried  here,  322.  It  became  the  residence  of  the 
Greek  sovereigns  of  Egypt,  the  Ptolemies. 

Alexandria  captured  by  Chosroes  II.  of  Persia, 
616  ;  and  by  Amrou,  the  general  of  the  caliph 
Omar,  who  ordered  the  library  to  be  burnt,  * 
•whereby  the  baths  were  supplied  with  fuel 
for  six  months  ....  Dec.  22,  640 

Cairo  founded  by  the  Saracens  ;  which  tends  to 
the  decay  of  Alexandria 969 

Alexandria  surprised  and  plundered  by  the 
Crusaders 1365 

The  French  invade  Egypt  and  capture  Alex- 
andria   July,  1798 

A  British  army  under  gen.  Ralph  Abercromby 
land,  and  defeat  the  French  under  Menou, 

March  21,  1801 

Abercromby  dies  of  his  wounds,  March  28 ; 
Menou  and  10,000  French  surrender  to 
Hutchinson,  who  transmit  them  to  France, 

Sept.  1801 

Alexandria  taken  by  the  British  under  Fraser, 
March  20  ;  evacuated  by  them  .  Sept.  23,  1807 

Railway  to  Cairo  formed 1851 


Ptolemy  Soter  erects  the  Museum,  the  Sera- 

peum,   the    Pharo,   and  other    edifices,    and 

begins  the  library  about  .  .  .  .B.C.  298 
These  works  completed  by  his  son  P.  Philadel- 

phus  and  his  grandson  P.  Energetes  .  283-222 
Alexandria  taken  by  Julius  Csesar  ;  when  a 

library  is  burnt 48 

Which  Antony  replaces  by  one  brought  from 

Pergamus 36 

The  city  restored  by  Adrian  .  .  .  A.D.  122 
Massacre  of  the  youth  by  Caracalla,  in  revenge 

for  an  old  insult 211 

Alexandria  supporting  the  usurper  Achilleus  is 

taken  by  Diocletian  after  a  long  siege  .  .  297 
Alexandria  disturbed  by  the  feuds  between  the 

Athanasians  and  Arians 321 

George  of  Cappadocia  was  killed  362,  and 

Athanasius  finally  restored  ....  363 
50,000  persons  perish  by  an  earthquake  .  .  365 
Paganism  suppressed  by  Theodosius,  when  a 

second  library  is  burnt 390 


ALEXANDRIAN  CODEX,  a  MS.  of  the  Bible  in  Greek,  said  to  have  been  written  by  a 
lady  named  Thecla,  in  the  6th  century,  and  to  have  belonged  to  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria 
in  1098.  It  was  presented  to  Charles  I.  of  England  in  1628  by  Cyrillus  Lascaris,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  and  was  placed  in  the  British  Museum  in  1753.  It  was  printed  in  fac- 
simile, 1786-1821. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOLS  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  The  first  school  arose  soon  after  the 
foundation  of  Alexandria,  332  B.C.  It  flourished  under  the  patronage  of  the  Ptolemies  till 
about  100  B.C.  It  included  Euclid (300),  Archimedes  (287—212),  Apollonius  (250),  Hippar- 
chus  (150),  and  Hero  (150).  The  second  school  arose  about  A.D.  140,  and  lasted  till  about 
400.  Its  most  eminent  members  were  Ptolemy,  the  author  of  the  Ptolemaic  system  (150), 
Diophantus,  the  arithmetician  (200),  and  Pappus,  the  geometer  (350). 

ALEXANDRINES,  verses  of  twelve  syllabus,  first  written  by  Alexander  of  Paris,  about 
1164,  and  since  called  after  him.  The  last  line  of  the  Spenserian  stanza  is  an  Alexandrine. 
In  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism,  this  verse  is  thus  happily  exemplified  : — 

"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 
That,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  along." 

The  longest  English  poem  wholly  in  Alexandrine  verse  is  Drayton's  Polyolbion,  published 
in  1612.     Chapman's  Homer's  Iliad  (1598)  is  in  this  measure. 

ALFORD  (N.  Scotland),  BATTLE  OF.  General  Baillie,  with  a  large  body  of  Covenanters, 
was  defeated  by  the  marquess  of  Montrose,  July  2,  1645. 

ALGEBRA  :  Diophantus,  said  to  be  the  inventor,  first  wrote  upon  it,  probably  about 
200.  It  was  much  cultivated  in  the  9th  century  by  the  Arabs,  who  brought  it  into 
Spain.  Among  its  votaries  in  Italy  was  Leonardo  Bonaccio  of  Pisa,  in  1220.  In  1494 
Luca  Paciolo  published  the  first  printed  book  on  algebra  in  Europe.  Serret.  Some  of  the 
algebraic  signs  were  introduced  either  by  Christophe  Rudolph  (1522-6)  or  Michael  Stifelius 
of  Nuremberg,  1544,  and  others  by  Francis  Vieta,  in  1590,  when  algebra  came  into  general 
use.  Moreri.  Descartes  applied  algebra  to  geometry  about  1637.  The  binomial  theorem 
of  Newton,  the  basis  of  the  doctrine  of  fluxions,  and  the  new  analysis,  1668.  Dean, 
Peacock's  "Algebra"  is  a  first-class  work. 

ALGERIA.     Bee  Algiers. 

*  The  celebrated  saying  of  Omar—"  That  if  the  books  agreed  with  the  book  of  God,  they  were  useless; 
if  they  disagreed,  they  were  pernicious" — is  denied  by  Mahometans.  It  is  also  attributed  to  Theophilus, 
archbishop  of  Alexandria  (390),  and  to  cardinal  Xiraenes  (1500). 


ALGESIRAS,  OR  OLD  GIBRALTAR  (S.  Spain).  By  this  city,  the  Moors  entered  Spain  ir 
710,  and  held  it  till  1343.- — Two  engagements  took  place  here  between  the  English  fleet 
under  sir  James  Saumarez  and  the  united  French  and  Spanish  fleets,  July  6  and  12,  1801. 
In  the  first  the  enemy  was  victorious,  the  English  losing  the  Pompey  ;  but  their  honour  was 
redeemed  in  the  latter  conflict,  the  San  Antonio,  74  guns,  being  captured.  By  an  unfortu- 
nate error,  two  Spanish  ships  fired  on  each  other  and  took  fire  ;  of  2000  men  on  board,  250 
were  saved  by  the  English.  Alison. 

ALGIEKS,  now  ALGERIA,  N.  W.  Africa ;  part  of  the  Ancient  Mauritania,  which  was 
conquered  by  the  Romans,  46  B.C.  ;  by  the  Vandals,  439  A.D.  ;  recovered  for  the  empire  by 
Belisarius,  534  ;  and  subdued  by  the  Arabs  about  690. 


General    Damremont     attacked    Constantina 

(which  see) Oct.  13,  1837 

After  various  engagements  Abd-el-Kader  sur- 
renders          Dec.  22,  1847* 

An  insurrection  of  the  Kabyles  subdued  by  the 

French,  after  several  sharp  engagements  .      1851! 
The  government  entrusted  (for  a  short  time) 

to  prince  Napoleon 1858 

The  Arab  tribes  attack  the  French  ;  defeated, 

Oct.  31  and  Nov.  6,  1859 
Algiers  visited  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  III., 

Sept.   1860 
Marshal  Pelissier,  duke  of  Malakhoff,  appointed 

governor-general  of  Algeria        .        .       Nov.  1860 
The  emperor  promises  a  constitution  securing 
the  rights  of  the  Arabs,   saying:  "I  am  as 
much  emperor  of  the  Arabs  as  of  the  French." 

Feb.   1863 
Insurrection  of  the   Arabs — May;  submission 

announced June  15,  1864 

Death    of    Pelissier— dies    May    22 ;    marshal 
M'Mahon,  duke  of   Magenta,  succeeds  him, 

Sept.  8,  1864 
Fresh  revolt :  insurgents  defeated  by  Jolivet, 

Oct.  2,  1864 
The  emperor  well  received  during  his  visit, 

May  3 — June  1865 

More  rights  and  privileges   promised  to  the 
natives July,  1865 


The  town  Algiers  founded  by  the  Arabs  on  the 

site  of  Icosium about    935 

Becoming  the  seat  of  the  Barbary  pirates,  it 

is  captured  by  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  1509;  but 

is  retaken   by  Horuc   and   Hayreddin  Bar- 

barossa,  and  made   the   capital  of   a    state ; 

governed  by  a  dey,  nominally  subject  to  the 

sultan  of  Turkey 1516 — 20 

The  emperor  Charles  V.  loses  a  fine  fleet  and 

army  in  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against 

them 1541 

Algiers    terrified    into    pacific    measures    by 

Blake,  1655  ;  by  Du  Quesne    ....  1683 
In  consequence  of  the  continued  piracy  of  the 

Algerines,  the  city  was    successfully  bom- 
barded by  the  British  fleet,   under  admiral 

lord  Exmouth Aug.  27,  1816 

A  new  treaty  followed,  and  Christian  slavery 

was  abolished. 
Algiers   surrendered  to  a  French    armament 

under  Bourmont  and  Duperre",  after  severe 

conflicts ;  the  dey  is  deposed,  and  the   bar- 
barian government  wholly  overthrown  July 

5,  1830.    The  French  ministry  announce  their 

intention    to    retain   Algiers    permanently, 

May  20,  1834 
The  Arab  chief,  Abd-el-Kader,  preaches  a  holy 

war,  becomes    powerful,   and    attacks    the 

French,  at  first  successfully    .        .        .         1834-5 
Marshal  Clausel    defeats    the    Arabs    in   two 

battles,  and  enters  Mascara        .        .   Dec.  8,  1836 

ALHAMBRA,  a  Moorish  palace  and  fortress  near  Granada,  S.  Spain,  founded  by  Moham- 
med I.  of  Granada  about  1253.  It  surrendered  to  the  Christians  Jan.  6,  1496.  The  remains 
have  been  described  in  a  magnificent  work  by  Owen  Jones  and  Jules  Goury,  published 
1842-5.  There  is  a  fac-simile  of  a  part  of  this  palace  in  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham. 
The  Panopticon  (which  see)  was  opened  as  a  circus,  &c.,  under  this  name,  in  March  1858.  The 
Alhambra  Palace  Company,  incorporated  in  July  1863,  applied  for  dissolution  in  Jan.  1865. 

ALI,  SECT  OF,  founded  by  Ali  (who  married  Mahomet's  daughter  Fatima),  about  632. 
He  became  Mahomet's  vizir,  613;  and  caliph,  655.  Ali  was  called  by  the  prophet,  "the 
lion  of  God,  always  victorious  ; "  and  the  Persians  follow  the  interpretation  of  the  Koran 
according  to  Ali,  while  other  Mahometans  adhere  to  that  of  Abubeker  and  Omar.  Ali  was 
assassinated  in  660.  £—  This  sect  is  called  Shiites  and  Fatimites. 

ALIENS,  OR  FOREIGNERS,  were  banished  in  1155,  being  thought  too  numerous.  In  1343 
they  were  excluded  from  enjoying  ecclesiastical  benefices.  By  2  Rich.  II.  st.  I,  1378,  they 
were  much  relieved.  When  they  were  to  be  tried  criminally,  the  juries  were  to  be  half 
foreigners,  if  they  so  desired,  1430.  They  were  restrained  from  exercising  any  trade  or 
handicraft  by  retail,  1483,  a  prohibition  which  was  relaxed  in  1663.  The  celebrated 

*  He,  with  his  suite,  embarked  at  Oran,  and  landed  at  Toulon  on  Dec.  28  following.  He  was  removed 
to  the  castle  of  Amboisc,  near  Tours,  Nov.  2,  1848,  and  released  from  his  confinement  by  Louis  Napoleon, 
Oct.  16,  1852,  after  swearing  on  the  Koran  never  to  disturb  Africa  again  ;  he  was  to  reside  henceforward  at 
Broussa,  in  Asia  Minor  ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  earthquake  at  that  place  Feb.  28,  1855,  he  removed  to 
Constantinople.  In  July,  1860,  Abd-el-Kader  held  the  citadel  of  Damascus,  and  there  protected  many  of 
the  Chiistians  whom  he  had  rescued  from  the  massacres  then  in  perpetration  by  the  Turks.  He  received 
honours  from  the  English,  French,  and  Sardinian  sovereigns. 

t  500  Arabs  in  a  cave  refuse  to  surrender :  suffocated  by  smoke ;  said  to  have  been  ordered  by  general 
Pelissier,  June  18,  1845. 

J  The  first  four  successors  of  Mahomet — Abubeker,  Omar,  Othman,  and  Ali,  his  chief  agents  in  estab- 
lishing his  religion  and  extirpating  unbelievers,  and  whom  on  that  account  he  styled  the  "  cutting  swords 
of  God,"  all  died  violent  deaths  ;  and  his  family  was  wholly  extirpated  within  thirty  years  after  his  own 
decease. 


ALI 


25 


ALL 


Alien  Bill  passed,  Jan.  1793.  Act  to  register  aliens,  1795. — Tne  celebrated  baron  Geramb, 
a  conspicuous  and  fashionable  foreigner,  known  ac  court,  was  ordered  out  of  England, 
April  6,  1812. — Bill  to  abolish  their  naturalisation  by  the  holding  of  stock  in  the  banks  of 
Scotland,  June,  1820.  New  registration  act,  7  Geo.  IV.  1826.  This  last  act  was  repealed 
and  another  statute  passed,  6  Will.  IV.  1836.  The  rigour  of  the  alien  laws  was  much 
mitigated  by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  66  (1844). — ALIEN  PRIORIES  were  suppressed  in  England 
in  1414.* 

ALIWAL,  a  village  in  N.  W.  India,  the  site  of  a  battle  on  Jan.  28,  1846,  between  the 
Sikh  army  under  sirdar  Runjoor  Singh  Majeethea,  19,000  strong,  supported  by  68  pieces  of 
ca:iuon,  and  the  British  under  sir  H.  Smith,  7000  men,  with  32  guns.  The  contest  was 
obstinate,  but  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Sikhs,  who  lost  nearly  6000  killed  or  drowned  in 
attempting  to  recross  the  Sutlej. 

ALKALIES  (from  kali,  the  Arabic  name  for  the  plant  from  which  an  alkaline  substance 
was  first  procured)  are  ammonia,  potash,  soda,  and  lithia.  Black  discovered  the  nature  of 
the  difference  between  caustic  and  mild  alkalies  in  1736. 


The  fixed  alkalies,  potash  and  soda,  decomposed  by 
Humphry  Davy  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London, 
1808.  Dr.  Ure  invented  an  alkalimeter,  1816. 

The  manufacture  of  alkalies,  very  extensive  in 
Lancashire  and  Cheshire,  are  based  on  the  decom- 
position of  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  by 
a  process  invented  by  a  Frenchman  named  Le 
Blanc,  about  1792. 

Mr.  Losh  obtained  crystals  of  soda  from  brine  about 
1814.  Various  modifications  of  these  processes 
are  now  in  use. 


"Alkali  works  "  are  defined  as  works  for  the  manu- 
facture of  alkali,  sulphates  of  soda,  sulphate  of 
potash,  and  in  which  muriatic  gas  is  evolved. 

Mr.  Wm.  Gossage's  process  for  condensing  muriatic 
acid  gas  patented  in  1836. 

In  consequence  of  the  serious  injury  to  vegetation 
produced  by  the  numerous  alkali  works  in  Lanca- 
shire and  Cheshire,  the  Alkali  act  "for  the  more 
effectual  condensation  [of  95  per  cent.]  of  muriatic 
acid  gas  "  (or  hydrochloric  acid)  was  passed,  July 
28,  1863,  to  come  into  operation  Jan.  i,  1864. 


ALKMAER.     See  Bergen. 

ALLAHABAD  (N.  W.  Hindostan),  the  "holy  city  "  of  the  Indian  Mahometans,  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Jumna  and  Ganges.  The  province  of  Allahabad  was  succes- 
sively subject  to  the  kings  of  Delhi  and  Oude,  but  in  1803  was  wholly  incorporated  with  the 
British  possessions.  By  treaty  here,  Bengal,  &c.,  was  ceded  to  the  English  in  1765. — 
During  the  sepoy  mutiny  several  regiments  of  the  East  India  company  rose  and  massacred 
their  officers,  June  4,  1857  ;  colonel  Neil  marched  promptly  from  Benares  and  suppressed 
the  insurrection.  In  Nov.  1861,  lord  Canning  made  this  city  the  capital  of  the  N.  W. 
provinces. 

ALLEGIANCE.     See  Oaths. 

ALLEGORY  is  as  old  as  language,  and  abounds  in  the  Scriptures  and  Homer  :  see 
Jacob's  blessing  upon  his  sons,  Genesis  xlix.  (B.C>  1689),  Ps&lm.lxxx.,  and  all  the  prophets. 
Spenser's  faerie  Queene  (1590)  and  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  (1678)  are  allegories 
throughout ;  Addison's  writings  in  the  Spectator  (1711)  abound  in  allegories. 

ALLIA  (Italy),  a  small  river  flowing  into  the  Tiber,  where  Brennus  and  the  Gauls 
defeated  the  Romans,  July  16,  390  B.C.  The  Gauls  sacked  Rome  and  committed  so  much 
injury  that  the  day  was  thereafter  held  to  be  unlucky  (nefas),  and  no  public  business  was 
permitted  to  be  done  thereon. 

ALLIANCE,  TREATIES  OF,  between  the  high  European  powers.  The  following  are  the 
principal.  See  Coalitions,  Conventions,  Treaties,  United  Kingdom,  &c. 

ALLIANCE. 

Of  England,  France,  &  Turkey 
(at  Constantinople)  Mar.  12,  1854 

Of  England  and  France  rati- 
fied .  .  .  April  3,  ,, 

Of  Sardinia  with  the  Western 
Powers  (at  Turin)  Jan.  26,  1855 

Of  Sweden  with  the  Western 
Powers  .  .  Dec.  19,  ,, 

ALLOTMENTS.     See  Land,  note. 

ALL  SAINTS'  DAY  (Nov.  i),  or  All-Hallows,  a  festival  said  to  have  been  begun  by  pope 
Boniface  IV.  about  607,  and  celebrated  in  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  and  established  by  pope 
Gregory  IV.  (about  830)  for  the  commemoration  of  all  those  saints  and  martyrs  in  whose 

*  "  Foreigners  have  reclaimed  our  marshes,  drained  our  fens,  fished  our  eeas,  and  built  our  bridges 
and  harbours."  Smiles,  1861. 


ALLIANCE. 

Of  Leipsic  . 
Of  Vienna     . 
The  Triple 
Of  Warsaw  . 
The  Grand 
The  Hague    . 
The  Quadruple 
Of  Vienna  . 

April  9,  1631 
May  27,  1657 
Jan.  28,  1668 
March  31,  1683 
May  12,  1689 
Jan.  4,  1717 
Aug.  2,  1718 
March  16,  1731 

ALLIANCE. 

Of  Versailles  .     . 
Germanic 
Of  Paris  .         .     . 
Of  St.  Petersburg 
Austrian 
Of  Sweden      .     . 
Of  Toplitz    . 
Holy  Alliance      . 

May  i,  1756 
July  23,  1785 
May  16,  1795 
April  8,  1805 
March  14,  1812 
March  24,     ,, 
Sept.  9,  1813 
Sept.  26,  1815 

ALL  26  ALM 

honour  no  particular  day  is  assigned.  The  reformers  of  the  English  church,  1549,  struck 
out  of  their  calendar  altogether  a  great  number  of  anniversaries,  leaving  only  those  which  at 
their  time  were  connected  with  popular  feeling  or  tradition. 

ALL  SOULS'  DAY  (Nov.  2),  a  festival  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  to  commemorate 
the  souls  that  are  in  purgatory,  instituted,  it  is  said,  at  Cluny  about  993  or  1000. 

"ALL  THE  TALENTS"  ADMINISTRATION.     See  Grenmlle  Administrations. 

ALMA,  a  river  in  the  Crimea,  near  which  was  fought  a  great  battle  on  Sept.  20,  1854.  See 
Russo-Turkish  War  and  Crimea.  The  English,  French,  and  Turkish  army  (about  57,ooo 
men)  moved  out  of  their  first  encampment  in  the  Crimea  on  Sept.  19,  and  bivouacked  for  the 
night  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bulganac.  The  Russians  (commanded  by  Prince  Menschikoff ), 
mustering  40,000  infantry,  had  180  field-pieces  on  the  heights,  and  on  the  morning  of  Sept. 
2Oth  were  joined  by  6000  cavalry  from  Theodosia  (or  Kaffa).  The  English  forces,  under 
lord  Raglan,  consisted  of  26,000  men;  the  French  of  24,000,  under  marshal  St.  Arnaud. 
At  12  o'clock  the  signal  to  advance  was  made  ;  the  river  Alma  was  crossed,  while  prince 
Napoleon  took  possession  of  the  village  under  the  fire  of  the  Russian  batteries.  At  4,  after 
a  sanguinary  fight,  the  allies  were  completely  victorious.  The  enemy,  utterly  routed,  threw 
away  their  arms  and  knapsacks  in  their  flight,  having  lost  about  5000  men,  of  whom  900 
were  made  prisoners,  mostly  wounded.  The  loss  of  the  British  was  26  officers  and  327  men 
killed,  and  73  officers  and  1539  men  wounded  (chiefly  from  the  23rd,  7th,  and  33rd  regi- 
ments) ;  that  of  the  French,  3  officers  and  233  men  killed,  and  54  officers  and  1033  men 
wounded.  Total  loss  of  allies,  about  3300. 

ALMACK'S  ASSEMBLY-ROOMS,  King-street,  St.  James's,  London,  at  first  very 
exclusive,  were  erected  by  a  Scotchman  named  Almack,  and  opened  Feb.  12,  1765. 

ALMANACS  (from  the  Arabic  al  manah,  to  count).*  The  Egyptians  computed  time  by 
instruments.  The  Alexandrians  had  almanacs.  Log  calendars  were  anciently  in  use.  In 
the  British  Museum  and  universities  are  curious  specimens  of  early  almanacs.  Michael 
Nostradamus,  the  celebrated  astrologer,  wrote  an  almanac  in  the  style  of  Merlin,  1556. 
Dufresnoy.  Professor  Augustus  De  Morgan's  valuable  "Book  of  Almanacs,  with  an  index 
of  reference,  by  which  the  almanac  may  be  found  for  every  year,"  was  published  in  March, 
1851.  Among  the  earlier  and  more  remarkable  almanacs  were 

John  Somer's  Calendar,  written  in  Oxford 
One  in  Lambeth  palace,  written  in 
First  printed  one,  published  at  Buda 
First  printed  in  England,  by  Richard  Pynson 
Tybalt's  Prognostications        .... 
Almanac  Lie"geois 


Lilly's  Ephemeris    . 
Poor  Robin's  Almanac 
British  Merlin 


1380 
1460 
1472 
M97 
J533 
1636 
1644 
1652 
1658 


Moore's  Almanac      ....        1698  or  1713 

Lady's  Diary 1705 

Season  on  the  Seasons 1735 

Gentleman's  Diary       ......  1741 

Nautical  Almanac,  begun  by  Dr.  Neville  Mas- 
kelyne  (materially  improved  in  1834)        .    .  1767 

British  Imperial  Kalendar 1809 

Hone's  Every-Day  Book 1826 

British  Almanac  and  Companion  .  .  .1828 
Anniversary  Calendar,  published  by  W.  Kidd  1832 
Chambers'  Book  of  Days  ....  1862 — 3 


Edinburgh  Almanac 1683 

Connaissance  des  Temps  (by  Picard)    .        .    .  1699 

ALMANZA  (S.  E.  Spain).  Here,  on  April  25  (0.  S.  14),  1714,  the  English,  Dutch, 
and  Portuguese  forces  under  the  earl  of  Galway,  were  totally  defeated  by  the  French  and 
Spanish  commanded  by  James  Fitzjames,  duke  of  Berwick  (illegitimate  son  of  James  II.). 
Most  of  the  English  were  killed  or  made  prisoners,  having  been  abandoned  by  the 
Portuguese  at  the  first  charge. 

ALMEIDA  (Portugal),  a  frontier  town,  captured  by  Massena,  Aug.  27,  1810.  The  French 
crossed  into  Spain,  leaving  a  garrison  at  Almeida,  blockaded  by  the  English,  April  6,  1811. 
Almeida  was  retaken  by  Wellington  (May  10),  who  eventually  compelled  Masseua  to  retire 
from  Portugal,  his  route  being  tracked  by  horrid  desolation. 

ALMENARA,  a  village,  N.  E.  Spain,  where,  on  July  28,  1710,  an  English  and  German 
army  defeated  the  Spanish  army  supporting  Philip  V.,  the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France. 
Stanhope,  the  English  general,  killed  the  Spanish  general,  Ainezaga,  in  single  conflict,  an 
act  almost  unexampled  in  modern  warfare. 

»  Of  Moore's  (under  the  management  of  Henry  Andrews,  the  able  computer  of  the  Nautical  Ephemeris) 
at  one  time  upwards  of  430,000  copies  were  annually  sold.  He  died  in  1820.  The  Stationers'  company 
claimed  the  exclusive  right  of  publishing  almanacs  in  virtue  of  letters  patent  from  James  I.,  granting  the 
privilege  to  them  and  the  two  universities  ;  but  the  monopoly  was  broken  up  by  a  decision  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  in  1775.  A  bill  to  renew  the  privilege  was  lost  in  1779.  The  stamp  duty  on  English 
almanacs,  first  imposed  in  1710,  was  abolished  in  August,  1834;  since  when  almanacs  have  become  in- 
numerable, being  issued  by  tradesmen  with  their  goods.  Of  Foreign  Almanac*,  the  principal  are  the 
"  Almanach  de  France,"  first  published  in  1699,  and  the  "  Almanach  de  Gotha,"  1764. 


ALM 


ALP 


ALMOHADES,  Mahometan  partisans,  followers  of  El-Mehxli  in  Africa,  about  1120. 
They  subdued  Morocco,  1145  ;  entered  Spain  and  cook  Seville,  Cordova,  and  Granada, 
1146-56  ;  ruled  Spain  till  1232,  and  Africa  till  12/6. 

ALMONER,  an  office  of  uncertain  origin,  anciently  allotted  to  a  dignified  clergyman,  who 
had  the  privilege  of  giving  the  fir  >t  dish  from  the  royal  table  to  the  poor,  or  instead  thereot 
an  alms  in  money.  By  an  ancbnt  canon  all  bishops  were  required  to  keep  almoners.  The 
grand  almoner  of  France  (le  grand  aumonier)  was  the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignity  in  that 
kingdom  before  the  revolution,  1789.  Queen  Victoria's  almoner  (now  the  bishop  of  Oxford) 
or  his  sub-altiioner  distributes  the  queen's  gifts  on  Maundy  Thursday  (which  see). 

ALMORAVIDES,  Mahometan  partisans  in  Africa,  rose  about  1050  ;  entered  Spain  by 
invitation,  1086  ;  were  overcome  by  the  Almohades  in  1145. 

ALMSHOUSES  for  aged  and  infirm  persons  have  been  erected  by  very  many  public 
companies  and  benevolent  individuals,  particularly  since  the  destruction  of  religious  houses 
at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  in  the  i6th  century.  A  list  of  them,  with  useful  information, 
will  be  found  in  "  Low's  Charities  of  London,"  ed.  1862. 

Cornelius  Van  Dun  founded  the  Red  Lion  alms-  Dame  Owen's  almshouses,  Islington,  built  in 

houses,  Westminster 1577  1613  (in  gratitude  for  her  escape    from  an 

Emmanuel  College,  Westminster,  founded  by  arrow-shot)    were   rebuilt   by  the   Brewers' 

Lady  Dacre 1594  company ^Q 

Whittington's    almshouses,   founded   in   1621,  Bancroft's  almshouses,  Mile  End,  were  erected  1735 

were  rebuilt  near  Highgate-hill  by  the  Mer-  The  London  almshouses,  in  commemoration  of 

cers'  company 1826  the  passing  of   the   Reform   Bill,    built  at 

The    Fishmongers'    company   founded    alms-  Brixton X833 

houses  in  1618,  and  rebuilt  them  on  Wands-  Numerous    almshouses     since     erected     for 

worth  common 1850  printers,  bookbinders,  &c. 

Haberdashers'    almshouses,   Hoxton,   founded 
by  Robert  Aske 1692 

ALNEY.  A  combat  is  asserted  to  have  taken  place  between  Edmund  Ironside  and  Canute 
the  Great,  on  Alney,  an  island  on  the  Severn,  Gloucestershire,  in  sight  of  their  armies  ; 
when  the  latter  was  wounded,  he  proposed  a  division  of  the  kingdom,  the  south  part  falling 
to  Edmund.  Edmund  was  murdered  at  Oxford  shortly  after  the  treaty,  according  to  some 
by  the  treachery  of  JMric  Streon,  and  Canute  obtained  possession  of  the  whole  kingdom 
1016. 

ALNWICK  (Saxon  Ealmtric),  on  the  river  Alne  in  Northumberland,  was  given  at  the 
conquest  to  Ivo  de  Vesco.  It  has  belonged  to  the  Percies  since  1310.  Malcolm,  king  of 
Scotland,  besieged  Alnwick  in  1093,  when  he  and  his  sous  were  killed.  It  was  taken  by 
David  I.  in  1136,  and  attempted  in  1174  by  William  the  Lion,  who  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner.  It  was  burnt  by  king  John  in  1215,  and  by  the  Scots  in  1448.  Since  1854 
the  castle  has  been  repaired  and  enlarged  with  great  taste  and  at  unsparing  expense. 

ALPACA  (or  Paco),  a  species  of  the  S.  American  quadruped  the  Llama,  the  soft  hairy 
wool  of  which  is  now  largely  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  cloths.  It  was  introduced  into 
this  country  about  1836,  by  the  earl  of  Derby.  An  alpaca  factory,  &c.  (covering  n  acres), 
was  erected  at  Saltaire,  near  Shipley,  Yorkshire,  by  Mr.  Titus  Salt  in  1852. 

ALPHABET.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  hieroglyphics, 
and  to  have  written  thus  the  history  of  the  Egyptians,  2122  B.C.  Blair.  But  Josephus 
affirms  that  he  had  seen  inscriptions  by  Seth,  the  son  of  Adam  ;  this  is  deemed  fabulous. 

they  became  the  ground  of  the  Roman  letters, 
now  used  all  over  Europe.  Palamedes  of  Argos 
invented  the  double  characters,  0,  X,  4>,  S,,  about 
1224  B.C.  ;  and  Simonides  added,  Z,  •*",  H,  11,  about 
4898.0.  Arundelian  Marbles. — When  the  E  was 
introduced  is  not  precisely  known.  The  Greek 
alphabet  consisted  of  16  letters  till  399  (or  403) 
B.C.,  when  the  Ionic  of  24  characters  was  intro- 
duced. The  small  letters,  for  the  convenience  of 
writing,  are  of  later  invention.  The  alphabets  of 
the  different  nations  contain  the  following  number 
ot  letters :— 


The  Egyptian  alphabet  is  ascribed  to  Memnon, 
1822  B.C. 

The  first  letter  of  the  Phoenician  and  Hebrew 
alphabet  was  ahph,  called  by  the  Greeks  alpha,  and 
abbreviated  by  the  moderns  to  A.  The  Hebrew 
is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Phoenician. 

Cadmus  the  founder  of  Cadmea,  1493  B.C.,  is  said 
to  have  brought  the  Phoenician  letters  (fifteen  in 
number)  into  Greece,  viz.  :— A,  B,  T.  A,  I,  K,  A, 
M,  N,  O,  n,  P,  ^  T,  T.  These  letters  were 
originally  either  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  or  Assyrian 
characters,  and  changed  gradually  in  form  till 

English      . 

French  .... 

Italian 


German 
Slavonic 
Russian 
Latin  . 


.  26 
.  42 
•  35 


Greek 
Hebrew. 
Arabic 
Persian . 


Turkish     ...     28 
Sanscrit         .        .     .     44 
Chinese  radical  cha- 
racters   .        .        .214 


Spanish         .        .     . 

ALPHONSINE  TABLES,  astronomical  tables,  composed  by  Spanish  and  Arab  astro- 
nomers, and  collected  in  1253  under  the  direction  of  Alphonsus  X.  of  Castile,  surnamed  the 


ALP  28  ALU 

Wise,  who  is  said  to  have  expended  upwards  of  400,000  crowns  in  completing  the  work  ;  he 
himself  wrote  the  preface.  The  Spanish  government  ordered  the  work  to  be  reprinted  from 
the  best  MSS.  ;  three  volumes  have  appeared,  1863-5. 

ALPS,  a  European  range  of  mountains.  Those  between  France  and  Italy  were  passed  by 
Hannibal  218  B.C.,  by  the  Romans  154  B.C.,  and  by  Napoleon  I.  in  A.D.  1800.  Roads  over 
Mont  Cenis  and  the  Simplon,  connecting  France  and  Italy,  were  constructed  by  order  of 
Napoleon,  between  iSoi-6.  See  Simplon.  A  sub-alpine  tunnel  through  Mont  Cenis  to 
connect  Savoy  and  Piedmont  has  been  in  progress  since  1857.*  In  1859  the  "  Alpine  Club," 
which  consists  of  British  travellers  in  the  Alps,  published  their  first  work,  "  Peaks,  Passes, 
and  Glaciers." 

ALSACE  (N.  E.  France),  formerly  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  now  the  departments 
of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Rhine.  It  was  incorporated  into  the  German  empire  in  the  loth 
century.  A  portion  was  restored  to  France,  1648,  and  the  whole,  including  Strasburg,  in 
1697.  The  precinct  of  Whitefriars,  London,  called  Alsatia,  is  described  in  Scott's  "Fortunes 
of  Nigel."  Its  privilege  of  sanctuary  was  abolished  in  1696. 

ALTAR.  One  was  built  by  Noah,  2348  B.C.  (Gen.  viii.  20)  ;  others  by  Abraham,  1921 
(Gen.  xii.  8).  Directions  for  making  an  altar  are  given  Exod.  xx.  24,  1491  B.C.  Altars 
were  raised  to  Jupiter,  in  Greece,  by  Cecrops,  1556  B.C.  He  introduced  among  the  Greeks 
the  worship  of  the  deities  of  Egypt.  Herodotus.  The  term  "altar"  was  applied  to  the 
Lord's  table  for  the  first  three  centuries  after  Christ  (ffeb.  xiii.  10).  Christian  altars  in 
churches  were  instituted  by  pope  Sixtus  I.,  A.D.  135  ;  and  were  first  consecrated  by  pope 
Sylvester.  The  first  Christian  altar  in  Britain  was  in  634.  Stow.  The  church  of  England 
terms  the  table  on  which  the  elements  are  placed  an  altar.  Since  the  time  of  Elizabeth 
there  has  been  much  controversy  on  the  subject,  and  the  Puritans  in  the  civil  war  destroyed 
many  of  the  ancient  stone  altars,  substituting  wooden  tables.  In  1845  it  was  decided  in 
the  Arches  Court  that  stone  altars  were  not  to  be  erected  in  English  churches. 

ALTER  EGO  (another  or  second  /),  a  term  applied  to  Spanish  viceroys  when  exercising 
regal  power  ;  used  at  Naples  when  the  crown  prince  was  appointed  vicar-general  during  an 
insurrection  in  July,  1820. 

ALT-RANS^ADT  (Prussia),  where  the  treaty  of  peace  dictated  by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden, 
to  Frederick  Augustus  of  Poland,  was  signed,  Sept.  24,  1706.  Frederick,  deposed  in  1704, 
regained  the  throne  of  Poland  after  the  defeat  of  Charles  XII.,  in  1709. 

ALUM  is  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  at  Rocha,  in  Syria,  about  1300  ;  it  was  found 
in  Tuscany  about  1470 ;  was  brought  to  perfection  in  England  by  sir  T.  Challoner,  who 
established  large  alum  works  near  "Whit by  in  1608;  was  discovered  in  Ireland  in  1757; 
and  in  Anglesey  in  1790.  Alum  is  a  salt  used  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing  ;  and  also  to  harden 
tallow,  to  whiten  bread,  and  in  the  paper  manufacture.  It  may  be  made  of  pure  clay 
exposed  to  vapours  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  sulphate  of  potash  added  to  the  ley  ;  but  is 
usually  obtained  by  means  of  ore  called  alum  slate. 

ALUMBAGH,  a  fort  near  Liicknow,  Oude,  India,  seized  and  heroically  defended  by  the 
British  under  sir  James  Outram  during  the  mutiny  in  1857.  He  defeated  an  attack  of 
30,000  sepoys  on  Jan.  12,  1858,  and  of  20,000  on  Feb.  21.  He  was  relieved  by  sir  Colin 
Campbell  in  March. 

ALUMINIUM,  a  metal,  the  base  of  the  earth  alumina  (clay),  which  was  shown  to  be  a 
distinct  earth  by  Marggraff  in  1754,  having  been  previously  confounded  with  lime.  Oerstedt 
in  1826  obtained  the  chloride  of  aluminium  ;  and  in  1827  the  metal  itself  was  first  obtained 
by  F.  Wohler,  but  was  for  some  time  merely  a  scientific  curiosity,  the  process  being 
expensive.  The  mode  of  production  was  afterwards  simplified  by  Bunsen  and  others,  more 
especially  by  H.  Ste. -Claire  Deville,  who  in  1856  succeeded  in  procuring  considerable  quan- 
tities of  this  metal.  It  is  very  light  (sp.  g.  2*25),  malleable,  and  sonorous  ;  when  pure  does 
not  rust,  and  is  not  acted  on  by  sulphur  or  any  acid  except  hydrochloric.  These  qualities 
will  render  it  very  useful  when  improved  processes  render  it  cheaper.  In  March,  1856,  it 
was  3^.  the  ounce ;  in  June,  1857,  us.  or  125.,  and  it  is  now  much  cheaper  (1865).  The  eagles 
of  the  French  colours  have  been  made  of  it,  and  many  other  ornamental  and  useful  articles. 
Deville's  work,  "De  1'Aluminium,"  was  published  in  1859.  An  aluminium  manufactory 
was  established  at  Newcastle  in  1860,  by  Messrs.  Belt  They  obtain  the  metal  from  a 

*  At  first  the  boring  was  effected  by  ordinary  machinery ;  in  1860  steam  power  was  employed;  but 
afterwards  compressed  air  was  used  as  a  motive  power  with  great  success.  It  is  confidently  expected  that 
the  tunnel  will  be  completed  in  1870.  In  1865  Messrs.  Brassey  proposed  laying  down  a  line  of  steeply 
inclined  railway  for  47  miles,  to  be  used  till  the  tunnel  is  completed. 


AMA  29  AMB 

French  mineral,  bauxite.  Their  aluminium  bronze,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  aluminium, 
invented  by  Dr.  John  Percy,  F.R.S.,  came  into  use  for  watch-cases,  &c.,  manufactured  by 
Messrs.  Reid  of  Newcastle,  in  1862. 

AMADIS  OF  GAUL,  a  Spanish  or  Portuguese  romance,  stated  to  have  been  written  about 
1342  by  Vasco  de  Lobeiro.  It  was  translated  and  enlarged  by  De  Montalvo,  about  1485. 

AMALEKITES  (descendants  of  Amalek,  grandson  of  Esau  or  Edom,  the  brother  of  Jacob} 
attacked  the  Israelites  1491  B.C.,  when  perpetual  war  was  denounced  by  God  against  them. 
They  were  subdued  by  Saul  about  1079  ;  by  David,  1058  and  1056  ;  and  by  the  Simeonites 
about  715  B.C. 

A^MALFI,  a  city  on  the  gulf  of  Salerno,  Naples,  in  the  8th  century  became  the  seat  of 
a  republic,  and  flourished  by  its  commerce  till  1075,  when  it  was  taken  by  Roger  Guiscard. 
It  eventually  was  incorporated  into  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  The  Pisans,  in  their  sack  of  the 
town  in  1135,  are  said  to  have  found  a  copy  of  the  Pandects  of  Justinian,  and  thus  to  have 
induced  the  revival  of  the  study  of  Roman  law  in  Western  Europe.  Flavio  Gioia,  a  native 
of  Amain,  is  the  reputed  discoverer  of  the  mariner's  compass,  about  1302. 

AMAZON,  West  India  mail  steam  ship,  left  Southampton  on  her  first  voyage,  Friday, 
Jan.  2,  1852,  and  on  Sunday  morning,  Jan.  4,  was  destroyed  by  fire  at  sea,  about  no  miles 
W.S.W.  of  Scilly  (ascribed  to  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  combustible  matter  placed  near 
the  engine-room).  Out  of  161  persons  on  board,  102  persons  must  have  perished  by  fire  or 
drowning.  21  persons  were  saved  by  the  life-boat  of  the  ship  ;  25  more  were  carried 
into  Brest  harbour  by  a  Dutch  vessel  passing  by  ;  and  13  others  were  picked  up  in  the  bay 
of  Biscay,  also  by  a  Dutch  galliot.  Eliot  Warburton,  a  distinguished  writer  in  general 
literature,  was  among  those  lost. 

AMAZONIA  (S.  America)  was  discovered  by  Francisco  Orellana,  in  1540.  Coming  from 
Peru,  he  sailed  down  the  river  Amazon  to  the  Atlantic,  and  observing  companies  of  women 
in  arms  on  its  bank,  he  called  the  country  Amazonia,  and  gave  the  name  of  Amazon  to  the 
river,  which  had  previously  been  called  Maranon. 

AMAZONS.  Three  nations  of  Amazons  have  been  mentioned — the  Asiatic,  Scythian,  and 
African.  They  are  said  to  have  been  the  descendants  of  Scythians  inhabiting  Cappadocia, 
where  their  husbands,  having  made  incursions,  were  all  slain,  being  surprised  in  ambuscades 
by  their  enemies.  Their  widows  resolved  to  form  a  female  state,  and  having  firmly  established 
themselves,  they  decreed  that  matrimony  was  a  shameful  servitude.  Quintw  Curtius.  They 
were  said  to  have  been  conquered  by  Theseus,  about  1231  B.C.  The  Amazons  were  constantly 
employed  in  wars  ;  and  that  they  might  throw  the  javelin  with  more  force,  their  right 
breasts  were  burned  off,  whence  their  name  from  the  Greek,  a,  no,  mazos,  breast.  Others 
•  derive  the  name  from,  maza,  the  moon,  whom  they  are  supposed  to  have  worshipped.  About 
330  B.C.  their  queen,  Thalestris,  visited  Alexander  the  Great,  while  he  was  pursuing  his 
conquests  in  Asia  ;  three  hundred  females  were  in  her  train.  Herodotus. 

AMBASSADORS.  Accredited  agents,  and  representatives  from  one  court  to  another,  are 
referred  to  early  ages.  In  most  countries  they  have  great  privileges  ;  and  in  England,  they 
and  their  servants  are  secured  against  arrest.  England  usually  has  twenty-five  ambassadors 
or  envoys  extraordinary,  and  about  thirty-six  chief  consuls,  resident  at  foreign  courts,  exclu- 
sive of  inferior  agents ;  the  ambassadors  and  other  chief  agents  from  abroad  at  the  court  of 
London  in  1865  were  47. 


The  Russian  ambassador's  being  imprisoned  for 
debt  by  a  lace-merchant,  July  27,  1708,  led  to  the 
passing  the  statute  of  8  Anne,  for  the  protection 
of  ambassadors,  1709. 

Two  men,  convicted  of  arresting  the  servant  of  an 
ambassador,  were  sentenced  to  be  conducted  to 
the  house  of  the  ambassador,  with  a  label  on  their 


breasts,  to  ask  his  pardon,  and  then  one  of  them 
to  be  imprisoned  three  months,  and  the  other 
fined,  May  12,  1780. 

The  first  ambassador  from  the  United  States  of 
America  to  England,  John  Adams,  presented  to 
the  king,  June  2,  1785  ;  the  first  from  Great 
Britain  to  America  was  Mr.  Hammond,  in  1791. 


AMBER,  a  carbonaceous  mineral,*  principally  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  of 
great  repute  in  the  world  from  the  earliest  time  ;  esteemed  as  a  medicine  before  the  Christian 
era  :  Theophrastus  wrote  upon  it ;  300  B.C.  Upwards  of  150  tons  of  amber  have  been  found 
in  one  year  on  the  sands  of  the  shore  near  Pillau.  Phillips. 

*  Much  diversity  of  opinion  still  prevails  among  naturalists  and  chemists,  respecting  the  origin  or 
amber,  some  referring  it  to  the  vegetable,  others  to  the  mineral,  and  some  to  the  animal  kingdom ;  its 
natural  history  and  chemical  analysis  affording  something  in  favour  of  each  opinion.  It  is  considered  by 
Berzelius  to  have  been  a  resin  dissolved  in  volatile  oil.  It  often  contains  delicately-formed  insects.  Sir  D. 
Brewster  concludes  it  to  be  indurated  vegetable  juice.  When  rubbed  it  becomes  electrical,  and  from  ita 
Greek  name,  electron,  the  Urm  Electricity  is  derived. 


AMB 


30 


AME 


AMBOISE  (C.  France).  A  conspiracy  of  the  Huguenots  against  Francis  II. ,  Catherine  de 
Medicis,  and  the  Guises,  was  suppressed  at  this  place  in  Jan.  1560.  On  March  19,  1563, 
the  Pacification  of  Amboise  was  published,  whereby  toleration  was  granted  to  the  Huguenots. 
The  civil  war  was  however  soon  renewed. 

AMBOYNA,  one  of  the  Molucca  isles,  discovered  about  1512  by  the  Portuguese,  but  not 
wholly  occupied  by  them  till  1580.  It  was  taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1605.  The  English 
factors  at  this  settlement  were  cruelly  tortured  and  put  to  death,  Feb.  17,  1623-4,  by  the 
Dutch,  oh  an  accusation  of  a  conspiracy  to  expel  them  from  the  island,  where  the  two 
nations  resided  and  jointly  shared  in  the  pepper  trade  of  Java.  Cromwell  compelled  the 
Dutch  to  give  a  sum  of  money  to  the  descendants  of  the  sufferers.  Amboyna  was  seized  by 
the  English,  Feb.  16,  1796,  but  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  in  1802.  It  was 
again  seized  by  the  British,  Feb.  17-19,  1810  ;  and  again  restored  at  the  peace  of  1814. 

AMBROSIAN  CHANT.     See  Chant. 

AMEN,  an  ancient  Hebrew  word  meaning  true,  faithful,  certain.  At  the  end  of  a  prayer, 
it  implies  so  be  it;  at  the  termination  of  a  creed,  so  it  is.  It  is  used  in  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  assemblies,  at  the  conclusion  of  prayer.  See  I  Cor.  xiv.  16  (A.D.  59). 

AMENDE  HONORABLE,  in  France,  in  the  9th  century,  was  an  infamous  punishment 
inflicted  on  traitors  and  sacrilegious  persons  :  the  offender  was  delivered  into  the  hands  of 
the  hangman  :  his  shirt  was  stripped  off,  a  rope  put  about  his  neck,  and  a  taper  in  his  hand  ; 
he  was  then  led  into  court,  and  was  obliged  to  beg  pardon  of  God  and  the  country.  Death 
or  banishment  sometimes  followed. 

AMERCEMENT,  IN  LAW,  a  fine  assessed  for  an  offence  done,  or  pecuniary  punishment  at 
the  mercy  of  the  court  :  thus  differing  from  a  fine  directed  and  fixed  by  a  statute.  By 
Magna  Charta  a  freeman  cannot  be  amerced  for  a  small  fault,  but  in  proportion  to  the  offence 
he  has  committed,  9  Henry  III.  1225. 

AMERICA,*  the  great  Western  Continent,  is  about  9000  miles  long,  with  an  area  of  about 
13,668,000  square  miles.  It  is  now  believed  to  have  been  visited  by  the  Norsemen  or 
Vikings  in  the  roth  and  nth  centuries  ;  but  the  modern  discovery  is  due  to  the  sagacity 
and  courage  of  the  Genoese  navigator,  Christopher  Columbus,  +  who,  after  having"his  scheme 
long  contemptuously  rejected,  sailed  on  his  first  expedition  from  Palos  in  Andalusia  on 
Friday,  Aug.  3,  1492,  with  vessels  supplied  by  the  sovereigns  of  Spain. 


Columbus  lands  on  Guanahani,  one  of  the  Baha- 
mas ;  takes  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  names 
it  San  Salvador  .  .  .  Friday,  Oct.  12,  1492 

He  discovers  Cuba,  Oct.  28 ;  and  Hispaniola 
(now  Hayti),  where  he  builds  a  fort,  La  Navi- 
cjad Dec.  6,  ,, 

He  returns  to  Spain,  March  15  ;  sails  from  Cadiz 
on  his  second  expedition,  Sept.  25 ;  discovers 
the  Caribbee  isles,— Dominica.  Nov.  3  ;  Gua- 
daloupe,  Nov.  4  ;  Antigua,  Nov.  10 ;  founds 
Isabella  in  Hispaniola,  the  first  Christian 
city  in  the  New  World  .  .  .  Dec.,  1493 

He  discovers  Jamaica,  May  3  ;  and  Evangelista 
(now  Isle  of  Pines),  June  13 ;  war  with  the 
natives  of  Hispaniola 1494 


He  visits  the  various  isles ;  and  explores  their 
coasts  ........  1495-6 

Returns  to  Spain  to  meet  the  charges  of  his 
enemies June  u,  1496 

Cabot  (sent  out  by  Henry  VII.  of  England)  dis- 
covers Labrador  on  the  coast  of  North  Ame- 
rica [he  is  erroneously  said  to  have  dis- 
covered Florida,  and  also  Newfoundland, 
and  to  have  named  it  Prima  Vista]  June  24,  1497 

Columbus  sails  on  his  third  voyage,  May  30 ; 
discovers  Trinidad,  July  31 ;  lands  on  Terra 
Firma,  without  knowing  it  to  be  the  new 
continent,  naming  it  Isla  Santa  .  Aug.  i,  1498 

Ojeda  discovers  Surinam,  June;  and  the  gulf 
of  Venezuela  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  1499 


*  The  name  is  derived  from  Amerigo  Vespucci,  a  Florentine  merchant,  who  died  in  1512.  He  accom- 
panied Ojeda  in  his  voyage  on  the  eastern  coasts  in  1498  ;  and  described  the  country  in  letters  sent  to  his 
friends  in  Italy.  He  is  charged  with  presumptuously  inserting  "  Tierra  de  Amerigo  "  in  his  maps.  Irving 
discusses  the  question  in  the  Appendix  to  the  Life  of  Columbus,  but  comes  to  no  conclusion.  Humboldt 
asserts  that  the  name  was  given  to  the  continent  in  the  popular  works  of  Waldseemiiller,  a  German  geo- 
grapher, without  the  knowledge  of  Vespucci.  To  America  we  are  indebted,  among  other  things,  for 
maize,  the  turkey,  the  potato,  Peruvian  bark,  and  tobacco. 

f  Christoforo  Cohimbo  was  born  about  1445  ;  first  went  to  sea  about  1460  ;  settled  at  Lisbon  in  1470, 
where  he  married  Felipa,  the  daughter  of  Perestrello,  an  Italian  navigator  ;  whereby  he  obtained  rmich 
geographical  knowledge.  He  is  said  to  have  laid  the  plans  of  his  voyage  of  discovery  before  the  republic 
of  Genoa,  in  1485,  and  other  powers,  and  finally  before  the  court  of  Spain,  where  at  length  the  queen 
Isabella  became  his  patron.  After  undergoing  much  ingratitude  and  cruel  persecution  from  his  own 
followers  and  the  Spanish  court,  he  died  on  May  20,  1506 ;  and  was  buried  with  much  pomp  at  Valladolid. 
His  remains  were  transferred,  in  1513,  to  Seville;  in  1536  to  San  Domingo;  and  in  Jan.  1796  to  the 
Havanna,  Cuba.  The  original  inscription  on  his  tomb  is  said  to  have  been  :  "  A  Castilla  y  a"  Leon  Nuevo 
Mundo  di6  Colon."  "To  Castile  and  Leon  Colon  gave  a  New  World."  Humboldt  says  beautifully,  that  the 
success  of  Columbus  was  "  a  conquest  of  reflection!  " 


AME 


31 


AME 


AMERICA,  continued. 

to  Yafiez  Pinzon  discovers  Brazil,  South 
•••/,  Jan.  26;  and  the  river  Marafion(the 
Amazon);  Cabral  the  Portuguese  lands  in 
Bra/il  (see  Brazil)     ....       May  3,  1500 

Cortereal  discovers  Labrador         .        .     ,, 
i  ibus  is  imprisoned  in  chains  at  San  Do- 
n lingo  by  Bobadilla,  sent  out  to  investigate 
into  his  conduct,  May;  conveyed  to  Spain, 
where  he  is  honourably  received        Dee.  17,     ,, 
Columbus  sails  on  his  fourth  voyage,  May  9 ; 
discovers  various  isles  on  the  coast  of  Hon- 
duras, and  explores  the  coast  of  the  isthmus, 
July,  &c.  ;  discovers  and  names  Porto  Bello, 

Nov.  2,  1502 

slaves  imported  into  Hispaniola          .     1501-3 
AV«  irried  by  the  machinations  of  his  enemies,  he 
returns  to  Spain,  Nov.  7;  his  friend,  queen 
Isabella,  dies        ....        Nov.  20,  1504 
He  dies  while  treated  with  base  ingratitude  by 

the  Spanish  government          .        .     May  20,  1506 
Sulis  and  Pinzon  discover  Yucatan        .        .     .     „ 
Ojeda  founds  San  Sebastian,  the  first  colony  on 

the  mainland 1510 

Subjugation  of  Cuba  by  Velazquez  .  .  .  1511 
The  coast  of  Florida  discovered  by  Ponce  de 

Leon  1512 

Vasco  de  Balboa  crosses  the  isthmus  of  Darien, 

an .1  discovers  the  South  Pacific  Ocean  .        .   1513 
Grijalva  penetrates  into  Yucatan,  and  names  it 

New  Spain 1518 

Passage  of  Magellan's  Straits  by  him  .  .  1520 
Conquest  of  Mexico  by  Fernando  Cortes  .  1519-21 
PizaiTO  discovers  the  coast  of  Quito  .  .  .  1526 
lie  invades  and  conquers  Peru  .  .  .  1532-5 
I  artier,  a  Frenchman,  enters  the  Gulf  of  St. 

Lawrence,  and  sails  up  to  Montreal       .         1534-5 
Grijalva's  expedition,  equipped  by  Cortes,  dis- 
covers California 1535 

Mendoza  founds  Buenos  Ayres,  and  conquers 
the  adjacent  country        .....,, 

Chili  conquered  by  Valdivia 1541 

Orel!  ana  sails  down  the  Amazon  to  the  sea  .     .      ,, 
Louisiana  conquered  by  De  Soto  ,, 

Rebellion  in  Peru — tranquillity  established  by 

Gasca 1548 

Davis's  Straits  discovered  by  him  .  .  .  1585 
Raleigh  establishes  the  first  English  settlement 

—at  Roanoke,  Virginia ,, 

Falkland  isles  discovered  by  Davis  .  .  .  1592 
De  Monts,  a  Frenchman,  settles  in  Acadia,  now 

Nova  Scotia 1604 

Jamestown,  in  Virginia,  the  first  English  settle- 


1610 

1614 


ment  on  the  mainland,  founded  by  lord  de  la 

Warr 

Quebec  founded  by  the  French  .... 

Hudson's  bay  discovered  by  him   .        .        .     . 

The  Dutch  build  Manhattan,  or  New  Amster- 
dam (now  New  York)  on  the  Hudson     . 
Settlement  in  New  England  begun  by  capt. 
Smith    ......... 

New  Plymouth  built  by  the  banished  English     ' 

nonconformists I620 

Nova  Scotia  settled  by  the  Scotch  under  sir 

Wm.  Alexander ^22 

Delaware  settled  by  the  Swedes  and  Dutch      .  1627 
Massachusetts,  by  sir  H.  Boswell      .        .  ,, 

Maryland,  by  lord  Baltimore .        .         .        .        1632 
Connecticut  granted  to  lord  Say  and  Broke  in 
1630;  but  no  English  settlement  was  made 

here  till 1635 

Rhode  Island  settled  by  Roger  Williams  and  his 

brethren,  driven  from  Massachusetts        .     .      ,, 
New  Jersey  settled  by  the  Dutch,   1614,  and 
Swedes,  1627  ;  granted  to  the  duke  of  York, 
who  sells  it  to  lord  Berkeley  ....  1664 
New  York  captured  by  the  English       .        .     .      „ 
Carolina  settled  by  the  English  ....  1669 
Pennsylvania    settled  by  William  Peun,   the 

celebrated  Quaker 1682 

Louisiana  settled  by  the  French  .      „ 

The  Mississippi  explored 1699 

The  Scotch  settlement  at  Darien  (1698-9)  aban- 
doned  ijdty- 

New  Orleans  built 1717 

Georgia  settled  by  general  Oglethorpe      .        .  1732 

Kentucky,  by  colonel  Boon 1754 

Canada    conquered  by  the    English,    1759-60; 

ceded  to  Great  Britain 1763 

American  war— declaration  of  independence  by 
the  United  States,  1776;  recognised  by  Great 

Britain 1783 

Louisiana  ceded  to  Spain,  1762  ;  transferred  to 

France,  1800  ;  sold  to- the  United  States         .  1803 
Florida  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  1763  ;  taken  by 
Spain,  1781 ;  to  whom  it  is  ceded,  1783;  ceded 

to  the  United  States 1820 

Revolution  in  Mexico— declaration  of  indepen- 
dence   1821 

Revolutions  in  Spanish  America ;  independence 
established  by  Chili,  1810  ;  Paraguay,  1811  ; 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  other  provinces,  1816 ; 

Peru 1826 

[See    United  States,   Mexico,  and    other  states, 
throughout  the  volume.] 


AMERICA,  BRITISH.     See  British  America. 

AMERICA,  CENTRAL,  including  the  states  of  Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nica- 
ragua, and  Costa  Rica,  which  see,  declared  their  independence  Sept.  21,  1821,  and  separated 
from  the  Mexican  confederation,  July  21,  1823.  The  states  made  a  treaty  of  union  between 
themselves  March  21,  1847.  There  has  been  among  them  since  much  anarchy  and  blood- 
shed, aggravated  greatly  by  the  irruption  of  American  filibusters  under  Kenny  and  Walker, 
x^54-5-  In  Jan.  1863,  a  war  began  between  Guatemala  (afterwards  joined  by  Nicaragua)  and 
San  Salvador  (afterwards  supported  by  Honduras).  The  latter  were  defeated  at  Santa  Rosa 
June  1 6,  and  San  Salvador  was  taken  Oct.  26  ;  the  president  of  San  Salvador,  Barrios,  fled ;  and 
Can-era,  the  dictator  of  Guatemala  became  predominant  over  the  confederacy. — Population, 
1859,  about  2,355,000.  See  Nicaragua,  Darien,  and  Panama. 

AMERICA,  SOUTH.     See  Brazil,  Argentine,  Peru,  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  &c. 

"AMERICA,"  an  American  yacht,  schooner-built,  171  tons  burthen.  On  Aug.  22,  1851, 
at  Cowes  regatta,  in  a  match  round  the  Isle  of  Wight  for  a  cup  worth  looL,  open  to 
all  nations,  she  came  in  first  by  8  miles,  due  to  her  superior  construction  on  the  wave 
principle. 

AMERICANISMS  :  a  useful  dictionary  of  these  expressions  was  compiled  by  John  R. 
Bartlett,  and  first  published  in  1848. 


AME  32  AMS 

AMETHYST,  the  ninth  stone  upon  the  breastplate  of  the  Jewish  high  priest  ;  and  on  it 
was  engraved  the  name  Issachar.  It  is  of  a  rich  violet  colour.  One  worth  200  rix-dollars, 
having  been  rendered  colourless,  equalled  a  diamond  in  lustre,  valued  at  18,000  gold 
crowns.  De  Boot,  Hist.  GfemmariMn. — Amethysts  discovered  at  Kerry,  in  Ireland,  in  1775. 

AMIENS,  an  ancient  city  in  Picardy  (N.  France)  :  the  cathedral  was  built  in  1220.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Spanish  and  English  Sept.  25,  1597.  The  preliminary  articles  of  the 
memorable  peace  between  Great  Britain,  Holland,  France,  and  Spain,  fifteen  in  number, 
were  signed  in  London  by  lord  Hawkesbury  and  M.  Otto,  on  the  part  of  England  and 
France,  Oct.  I,  1801  ;  and  the  definitive  treaty  was  subscribed  at  Amiens,  on  March  27,  1802, 
by  the  marquess  of  Cornwallis  for  England,  Joseph  Bonaparte  for  France,  Azara  for  Spain, 
and  Schimmelpenninck  for  Holland. — War  was  declared  again  in  1803. 

AMMONIA,  the  volatile  alkali,  mainly  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  organic  sub- 
stances. Its  name  is  ascribed  to  its  having  been  procured  from  heated  camel's  dung  near 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  in  Libya.  The  discovery  of  its  being  a  compound  of  nitrogen 
and  hydrogen  is  ascribed  to  Joseph  Priestley  in  1774.  By  the  recent  labours  of  chemists  the 
oxide  of  the  once  hypothetical  metal  ammonium,  and  ammonium  amalgam,  have  been 
formed  ;  and  specimens  of  each  were  shown  at  the  Royal  Institution  in  1856  by  Dr.  A.  W. 
Hofmann,  who  has  done  very  much  for  the  chemical  history  of  ammonia. 

AMMONITES,  descended  from  Ben-Ammi,  the  son  of  Lot  (1897  B.C.).  They  invaded 
the  land  of  Canaan  and  made  the  Israelites  tributaries,  but  they  were  defeated  by  Jephthah, 
1143  B.C.  They  again  invaded  Canaan  in  the  reign  of  Saul,  with  an  intention  to  put  out  the 
right  eye  of  all  those  they  subdued  ;  but  Saul  overthrew  them,  1095  B-c-  They  were  after- 
wards many  times  vanquished  ;  and  Antiochus  the  Great  took  Kabbah  their  capital,  and 
destroyed  all  the  walls,  198  B.C.  Josephus. 

AMNESTY  (a  general  pardon  after  political  disturbances,  &c.)  was  granted  by  Thrasy- 
bulus,  the  Athenian  patriot,  after  expelling  the  thirty  tyrants  with  the  assistance  of  only 
thirty  friends,  403  B.C.  Acts  of  amnesty  were  passed  after  the  civil  war  in  1651,  and  after 
the  two  rebellions  in  England  in  1715  and  1745. — After  his  victorious  campaign  in  Italy, 
Napoleon  III.  of  France  granted  an  amnesty  to  all  political  offenders,  Aug.  17,  1859.  An 
amnesty,  with  certain  exemptions,  was  granted  to  the  vanquished  southern  states  of 
North  America  by  president  Johnson,  May  29,  1865. 

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL,  asserted  traditionally  to  have  been  established  at  Ther- 
mopylae by  Amphictyon,  for  the  management  of  all  affairs  relative  to  Greece.  This  cele- 
brated council,  composed  of  twelve  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  men  of  various  cities  of 
Greece,  began  1498  [1113,  Clinton']  B.C.  Other  cities  in  time  sent  also  chosen  citizens  to 
the  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  and  in  the  age  of  Antoninus  Pius,  they  were  increased 
to  the  number  of  thirty.  Suidas.  Its  immediate  office  was  to  attend  to  the  temples  and 
oracles  of  Delphi.  Its  interference  caused  the  Sacred  wars,  595 — 586,  and  356 — 346. 

AMPHION,  a  British  frigate,  of  38  guns,  blown  up  while  riding  at  anchor  in  Plymouth 
Sound,  and  the  whole  of  her  crew  then  on  board,  consisting  of  more  than  two  hundred  and 
fifty  persons,  officers  and  men,  perished  Sept.  22,  1796.  Butler. 

AMPHITHEATRES,  said  to  have  been  first  constructed  by  Curio,  76  B.C.,  and  Julius 
Caesar  46  B.  c.  In  the  Roman  amphitheatres,  which  were  vast  round  or  oval  buildings,  the  people 
assembled  to  see  the  combats  of  gladiators,  of  wild  beasts,  and  other  exhibitions.  They  were 
generally  built  of  wood,  but  Statilius  Taurus  made  one  of  stone,  under  Augustus  Caesar. 
See  Coliseum.  The  amphitheatre  of  Vespasian  (capable  of  holding  87,000  persons)  was  built 
between  A.  D.  75  and  80;  and  is  said  to  have  been  a  regular  fortress  in  1312.  The  amphi- 
theatre at  Verona  was  next  in  size,  and  then  that  of  Nismes. 

AMPHITR1TE,  THE  SHIP.     See  Wrecks,  Aug.  30,  1833. 

AMPUTATION,  in  surgery,  was  greatly  aided  by  the  invention  of  the  tourniquet  by 
Morel,  a  French  surgeon  in  1674  ;  and  of  the  flap-method  by  Lowdham  of  Exeter  in  1679. 

AMSTERDAM  (Holland).  The  castle  of  Am stel  was  commenced  in  noo;  the  build- 
ing of  the  city  in  1203.  Its  commerce  was  greatly  increased  by  the  decay  of  that  of  Antwerp 
after  1609.  The  exchange  was  built  in  1634  ;  and  the  noble  stadthouse  in  1648  ;  the  latter 
cost  three  millions  of  guilders,  then  a  large  sum.  It  is  built  upon  13,659  piles.  Amsterdam 
surrendered,  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  when  that  prince  invaded  Holland,  in  favour  of  the 
stadtholder,  in  1787.  The  French  were  admitted  without  resistance,  Jan.  18,  1795.  The 
Dutch  government  was  restored  in  December,  1813.  The  crystal  palace  for  an  industrial 
exhibition  was  opened  by  prince  Frederick  of  the  Netherlands  Aug.  16,  1864. 


AMU'  33  ANA 

AMULETS,  on  CHARMS,  employed  from  the  earliest  times.     Amulets  were  made  of  the 
of  the  true  cross,  about  328.     They  have   been    sanctioned   in    modern    times   by 
2dical  men— witness  the  anodyne  necklace,  &c. 

AMYLENE,  a  colourless,  very  mobile  liquid,  first  procured  by  M.  Balard  of  Paris  in  1844 , 
by  distilling  fousel  oil  (potato-spirit)  with  chloride  of  zinc.  The  vapour  was  employed 
instead  of  chloroform  first  by  Dr.  Snow  in  1856.  It  has  since  been  tried  in  many  hospitals 
here,  and  in  France.  The  odour  is  more  unpleasant  than  chloroform,  and  more  vapour  must 
be  used.  It  is,  however,  thought  less  dangerous. 

ANABAPTISTS.  The  sect  arose  about  1521,  and  was  known  in  England  before  1549. 
John  of  Leyden,  Muncer,  Storck,  and  other  German  enthusiasts,  about  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  taught  that  infant  baptism  was  a  contrivance  of  the  devil,  that  there  is  no 
original  sin,  that  men  have  a  free  will  in  spiritual  things,  and  other  doctrines  still  more  wild 
and  absurd.  They  committed  many  violences,  and  in  1534  seized  Miinster,  calling  it  Mount 
Zion,  and  declared  one  Mathias,  a  baker,  to  be  the  king  of  Zion.  Their  enthusiasm  led 
them  to  the  maddest  practices,  and  they  at  length  rose  in  arms  under  pretence  of  gospel 
liberty.  Minister  was  taken  June  24,  1535,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  Anabaptists  were  put  to 
death. — On  Jan.  6,  1661,  about  80  anabaptists  in  London  appeared  in  arms,  headed  by  their 
preacher,  Thomas  Venner,  a  wine-cooper.  They  fought  desperately,  and  killed  many  of  the 
soldiers  brought  against  them.  Their  leader  and  sixteen  others  were  executed,  Jan.  19  and 
21.  Annals  of  England. — For  the  modern  Anabaptists  see  baptists. 

ANACREONTIC  VERSE,  commonly  of  the  jovial  or  bacchanalian  strain,  named  after 
Anacreon  of  Teos,  the  Greek  lyric  poet,  whose  odes  are  much  prized.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  choked  by  a  grape-stone  in  his  eighty-fifth  }7ear,  about  514  B.C.  His  odes  have  been 
frequently  translated;  Thomas  Moore's  celebrated  version  was  published  in  1800. 

ANAESTHETICS.  See  Chloroform,  Ether,  Amylcne,  Kerosolene.  Intense  cold  is  also 
employed  in  deadening  pain. 

ANADOLIA  (Asia  Minor),  comprises  the  ancient  Lycia,  Caria,  Lydia,  Mysia,  Bithynia, 
Paphlagonia  and  Phrygia,  whicli^see. 

ANAGRAMS,  formed  by  the  transposition  of  the  letters  of  a  name  or  sentence  :  as  army 
from  Mary,  are  said  to  have  been  made  by  ancient  Jews,  Greeks,  &c.  On  the  question  put 
by  Pilate  to  Our  Saviour,  "Quid  est  veritas?"  (what  is  truth?)  we  have  the  remarkable 
anagram,  "  Est  vir  qui  adest "  (the  man  who  is  here).  Another  good  one  is  "Horatio  Nelson, " 
and  "  Honor  est  a  Nilo  "  ("  there  is  Honour  from  the  Nile"). — The  French  are  said  to  have 
introduced  the  art  as  now  practised,  about  the  year  1560,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX. 
Henault. 

AN  AM.     See  Annam. 

ANASTATIC  PRINTING.     See  Printing,  \S^i. 

ANATHEMA,  among  the  Jews,  was  the  devoting  some  person  or  thing  to  destruction, 
as  in  the  case  of  Jericho  (Joshua  vi.  17).  The  word  occurs  i  Cor.  xvi.  22.  Anathemas  were 
used  by  the  primitive  churches,  387.  See  Excommunication. 

ANATOMY  (Greek,  cutting  up).  The  study  of  the  human  body  was  part  of  the  philo- 
sophical investigations  of  Plato,  Xenophon,  and  Aristotle  ;  and  it  became  a  branch  of  medical 
art  under  Hippocrates,  about  420  B.  c.  Erasistratus  and  Herophilus  may  be  regarded  as 
the  fathers  of  anatomy  ;  they  were  the  first  to  dissect  the  human  form,  as  anatomical 
research  had  been  previously  confined  to  animals  :  it  is  mentioned  that  they  practised  upon 
the  bodies  of  living  criminals,  about  300  and  293  B.C.  Galen,  who  died  A. D.  193,  was  a 
great  anatomist.  In  England,  the  schools  were  supplied  with  subjects  unlawfully  exhumed 
from  graves  ;  and  until  lately,  the  bodies  of  executed  criminals  were  ordered  for  dissection.* 
Pope  Boniface  VIII.  forbade  the  dissection  of  dead  bodies,  1297.  The  first  anatomical 
plates,  designed  by  Titian,  were  employed  by  Vesalius,  about  1538.  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
Raphael,  and  Michael  Angelo,  studied  anatomy.  The  great  discoveries  of  Harvey  were 

*  By  32  Henry  VIII.,  c.  42  (1540),  surgeons  were  granted  four  bodies  of  executed  malefactors  for 
"  anatkomyes,"  which  privilege  was  extended  in  following  reigns  :  but  in  consequence  of  the  crimes  com- 
mitted by  resurrection-men  in  order  to  supply  the  surgical  schools  (robbing  churchyards  and  even  com- 
mitting murder,  see  Burking),  a  new  statute  was  passed  in  1832,  which  abated  the  ignominy  of  dissection 
by  prohibiting  that  of  executed  murderers,  and  made  provision  for  the  wants  of  surgeons  by  permitting, 
under  certain  regulations,  the  dissection  of  persons  dying  in  workhouses,  <fcc.  The  act  also  appointed 
inspectors  of  anatomy,  regulated  the  schools,  and  required  persons  practising  anatomy  to  obtain  a 
licence.  It  repealed  the  clause  of  the  act  of  1828,  which  directed  the  dissection  of  the  body  of  an  executed 
murderer. 


ANC  34  AND 

made  in  1616.  William  and  John  Hunter  were  great  anatomists;  they  died  in  1783  and 
J793-  Quain's  and  Wilson's  large  anatomical  plates  were  published  in  1842.  Comparative 
anatomy  has  been  treated  systematically  by  Cuvier,  Owen,  Miiller,  Huxley,  and  others. 
The  anatomy  of  plants  has  been  studied  since  1680.  See  Botany. 

ANCHORITES.     See  MonacUism. 

ANCHORS  are  of  ancient  use,  and  the  invention  belongs  to  the  Tuscans.  Pliny.  The 
second  tooth,  or  fluke,  was  added  by  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian  (592  B.C.)  Strabo.  Anchors 
were  first  forged  in  England  A.D.  578.  Those  of  a  first-rate  ship  of  war  (four)  will  weigh  99 
cwt.  each,  costing  450^.  Phillips.  The  Admiralty  anchor  was  introduced  about  1841. 
Improved  anchors  were  made  by  Pering  and  Rodgers  about  1831  ;  by  Porter  1846  ;  by 
Costell  1848  ;  by  Trotman  1853  ;  and  by  several  other  persons.  Trotman's  is  attached  to 
the  Queen's  yacht  the  Fairy.  The  anchors  of  the  Great  Eastern  are  of  enormous  size.  An 
act  for  the  proving  and  sale  of  chain  cables  and  anchors,  was  passed  in  1864. 

ANCIENT  HISTORY  commences  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  in  the  history  of 
Herodotus  about  1687  B.C.  It  is  considered  as  ending  with  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
empire  in  Italy,  A.D.  476.  Modern  history  begins  with  Mahomet  (A.D.  622),  or  Charle- 
magne (768). 

ANCIENTS.     See  Councils. 

ANCONA,  an  ancient  Roman  port  on  the  Adriatic.  The  mole  was  built  by  Trajan, 
A.D.  107.  After  many  changes  of  rulers  Ancona  was  finally  annexed  to  the  papal  states  in 
1532.  In  1798  it  was  taken  by  the  French  ;  but  was  retaken  by  the  Austrians  in  1799. 
It  was  occupied  by  the  French  in  1832  ;  evacuated  in  1838  ;  after. an  insurrection  it  was 
bombarded  and  captured  by  the  Austrians,  June  18,  1849.  The  Marches  (comprising  this 
city)  rebelled  against  the  Papal  government  in  Sept.  1860.  Lamoriciere,  the  papal  general, 
fled  to  Ancoua  after  his  defeat  at  Castelfidaixio,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  himself,  tlu- 
city,  and  the  garrison,  on  Sept.  29.  The  king  of  Sardinia  entered  soon  after. 

ANCYRA,  in  ancient  Galatia,  now  Angora  or  Engour,  Asia  Minor.  A  council  was  held 
here  in  314.  Near  this  city,  on  July  28,  1402,  Tim  our  or  Tamerlane  defeated  and  took 
prisoner  the  sultan  Bajazet,  and  is  said  to  have  conveyed  him  to  Samarcand  in  a  cage. 

ANDALUSIA  (S.  Spain),  a  province  forming  part  of  the  ancient  Lusitania  and  Bcetica. 
The  name  is  a  corruption  of  Vandalitia,  acquired  in  consequence  of  its  having  been  held  by 
the  Vandals  from  419  to  421,  when  it  was  acquired  by  the  Visigoths.  The  latter  were 
expelled  by  the  Moors  in  711,  who  established  in  it  the  kingdom  of  Cordova,  which  they 
retained  till  their  final  overthrow  in  1492. 

ANDERNACH,  Rhenish  Prussia,  once  an  imperial  city.  Near  here,  the  emperor  Charles 
the  First,  while  attempting  to  deprive  his  nephews  of  their  inheritance,  was  totally  defeated 
by  one  of  them,  Louis  of  Saxony,  Oct.  8,  876. 

ANDORRA,  a  small  republic  in  the  Pyrenees,  bearing  the  title  of  "the  valleys  and 
sovereignties  of  Andorra,"  was  made  independent  by  Charlemagne  about  778,  certain  rights 
being  reserved  to  the  bishop  of  Urgel.  The  feudal  sovereignty,  which  long  appertained  to 
the  counts  of  Foix,  reverted  to  the  French  king,  Henry  IV.,  in  1589  ;  but  was  given  up  in 
1790.  On  March  27,  1806,  an  imperial  decree  restored  the  old  relations  between  Andorra 
und  France.  The  republic  is  now  governed  by  a  council  elected  for  life  ;  but  the  magistrates 
ure  appointed  alternately  by  the  French  government  and  the  Spanish  bishop  of  Urgel.  Tin,' 
population  was  about  18,000,  in  1850.  Guibcrt. 

ANDRE'S  EXECUTION.     See  United  States,  1780. 

ANDREW,  ST.,  said  to  have  been  martyred  by  crucifixion,  Nov.  30,  69,  at  Pahw,  in 
Aehaia.  The  festival  was  instituted  about  359.  Andrew  is  the  titular  saint  of  Scotland, 
owing  to  Hungus,  the  Pictish  prince,  having  dreamed  that  the  saint  was  to  be  his  friend  in 
a  pending  battle  with  the  Northumbrians.  St.  Andrew's  cross  ( x )  appeared  in  the  air 
during  the  fight,  and  Hungus  conquered.  The  collar  of  an  order  of  knighthood,  founded  on 
this  legend,  is  formed  of  thistles  (not  to  be  touched)  and  of  rue  (an  antidote  against  poison) ; 
the  motto  is  Nemo  me  impune  lacessit  (No  one  assails  me  with  impunity}.  The  institution  of 
the  order  is  attributed  to  Achaius  about  809  ;  its  revival  is  due  to  king  James  V.  in  1540, 
and  to  James  II.  of  England  in  1687.  See  Thistle.  The  Russian  order  of  St.  Andrew  was 
instituted  in  1698  by  Peter  I. 

ANDREW'S,  St.  (E.  Scotland).  Here  Robert  Bruce  held  his  first  parliament  in  1309  ; 
and  here  Wishart  was  burnt  by  archbishop  Beaton,  who  himself  was  murdered  here  in 


AND  35  ANH 

The  university  was  founded  in  1411  by  bishop  Wardlaw.  The  bishopric  originated 
ith  the  establishment  of  Christianity  in  Scotland.  Sir  R,  Sibbald's  list  of  the  bishops  of 
fc.  Andrew's  commences  with  Killach,  872.  The  see  became  archiepiscopal  in  1470,  and 

ceased  soon  after  the  Revolution,  1689.     St.  Andrew's  is  now  a  post-revolution  bishopric, 

re-instituted  in  1844.     See  Bishops. 

ANDRUSSOV,  PEACE  OF  (Jan.  20.  1667),  between  Russia  and  Poland,  by  which  tho 
latter  lost  the  greater  part  of  her  conquests  among  the  Cossacks. 

ANEMOMETER  (Greek,  anemos,  the  wind),  a  measurer  of  the  strength  and  velocity  of 
the  wind,  was  invented  by  Wolfius,  in  1709.  The  extreme  velocity  was  found  by  Dr.  Liud  to 
bp  93  miles  per  hour.  Osier's  and  Whewell's  anemometers  were  highly  approved  of  in  1844. 

ANEROID.     See  Barometer. 

ANGEL,  an  ancient  gold  coin,  weighing  fourjiennyweights,  was  valued  at  6s.  Sd.  in  the 
jn  of  Henry  VI.,  and  at  los.  in  the  re 
value  half  an  angel,  was  struck  at  Paris 


,  . 

ign  of  Henry  VI.,  and  at  105.  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1562.     The  angelot,  a  gold  coin, 

is  when  held  by  the  English,  in  1431.     Wood. 


ANGELIC  KNIGHTS  or  ST.  GEORGE.  This  order  is  said  to-  have  been  instituted 
in  Greece,  456.  The  Angclici  were  instituted  by  the  emperor  Angelus  Comnenus,  1191. 
—The  Angelica,  an  order  of  nuns,  was  founded  at  Milan  by  Louisa  Torelli,  1534. 

ANGERS  (W.  Central  France),  formerly  the  Roman  city  Juliomagus,  possessing  an  amphi- 
theatre ;  afterwards  Andegarum,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Anjou,  which  see.  It  was 
frequently  besieged,  and  many  councils  were  held  in  it  between  453  and  1448,  relating  to 
ecclesiastical  discipline. 

ANGERSTEIN  GALLERY.     See  National  Gallery. 

ANGLESEY,  called  by  the  Romans  Mona  (N.  Wales),  the  seat  of  the  Druids,  who  were 
massacred  in  great  numbers,  when  Suetonius  Paulinus  took  the  isle,  61.  It  was  conquered 
by  Agricola,  in  78;  occupied  by  the  Normans,  1090;  and  with  the  rest  of  Wales  was  annexed 
by  Edward  I.  in  1284.  He  built  the  fortress  of  Beaumaris  in  1295.  The  Menai  suspension 
bridge  was  erected  1818-25,  and  the  Britannia  tubular  bridge  1849-50. 

ANGLICAN  CHURCH.     See  Church  of  England. 

ANGLING.  Its  origin  is  uncertain  ;  allusion  is  made  to  it  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  in  the  Bible;  Amos,  iv.  2  (787  B.C.) 


oppian    wrote    his    "  Halieutics,"    a    Greek    epic 
poem  on  Fishes  and    Fishing,   probably    about 


A.D.  198.  k    with  an  An  file. 

'   " 


Tn  the  book  on  "  Hawkyncie  andHuntynye,"  by  Juliana 
Berners  or  Barnes,  prioress  of  Sopwith,  near  St. 


Albans,  "emprinted  at  Westmestre  by  Wynkyn 
de  Worde,"  in  1496,  is  "  The  Treatise  of  fysshyng 


in  1653. 


alton's  "  CompUat  Angler  "  was  first  published 


ANGLO-SAXONS,  or,  ANGLES,  derive  their  name  from  a  village  near  Sleswick,  called 
A  it  glen,  whose  population  (called  Angli  by  Tacitus,)  joined  the  first  Saxon  freebooters. 
East  Auglia  was  a  kingdom  of  the  heptarchy,  founded  by  the  Angles,  one  of  whose  chiefs, 
Uffa,  assumed  the  title  of  king,  571  ;  the  kingdom  ceased  in  792.  See  Britain.  Csedmon 
paraphrased  part  of  the  Bible  in  Anglo-Saxon  about  680  ;  a  translation  of  the  gospels  was 
made  by  abbot  Egbert,  of  I  on  a,  721  ;  of  Boethius,  Orosius,  &c.,  by  Alfred,  888.  The  Anglo-- 
Snxon  laws  were  printed  by  order  of  government,  in  1840. 

ANGOLA  (S.  W.  Africa),  settled  by  the  Portuguese  soon  after  the  discovery,  by  Diego 
('am,  about  1486.  Loanda,  their  capital,  was  built  1578.  Their  authority  over  the  interior 
is  very  limited. 

ANGORA.     See  Ancyra. 

ANGOULEME,  capital  of  the  old  province  of  Angoumois,  Central  France,  W.,  was  n 
bishopric  in  260.  After  sharing  the  fortunes  of  the  country,  Angoulemc  became  an  inde- 
pendent county  about  856.  It  was  united  to  the  French  crown  in  1308.  It  was  held  by 
the  English,  1360  to  1372,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  The  count  of  Angouleme  became 
king  of  France  as  Francis  I.  in  1515. 

ANGELA'S  FORT.     See  India,  1756. 

ANHALT,  HOUSE  OF,  in  Germany,  deduces  its  origin  from  Berenthobaldus,  who  made 
war  upon  the  Thuringians  in  the  sixth  century.  In  1606,  the  principality  was  divided 
among  the  four  sons  of  Joachim  Ernest,  by  the  eldest,  John  George.  Tims  began  the  four 


AXII  36 

branches — Anlialt-Dessau  (descended  from  John-George)  ;  Bernbourg,*  extinct,  1863  ; 
Plotsgau  or  Coethen,  extinct,  1847  ;  and  Zerbst,  extinct,  1793.  The  princes  of  Anhalt 
became  dukes  in  1809. 

DUKE  OF  ANHALT  (Subjects  181,824).  •#«"*>  h*8    eon.   prince    Frederic,    born    April    29, 

Leopold  (born  Oct.  i,  1794),  became  duke  of  Anhalt-        1831. 
Dessau,  1817,  and  of  Aiihalt- Bernbourg  1863. 

ANHOLT,  ISLAND  OF,  Denmark,  \vastakenpossessionofby  England,  May  18,  1809,  in 
the  French  war,  on  account  of  Danish  cruisers  injuring  British  commerce."  The  Danes 
made  an  attempt  to  regain  it  with  a  force  which  exceeded  1000  men,  but  were  gallantly 
repulsed  by  the  British  force  not  amounting  to  more  than  150,  March  27,  1811. 

ANILINE,  a  basic  oily  body  discovered  in  1826  by  Unverdorben  among  the  products  of 
distillation  of  indigo.  Bechamp,  in  1856,  obtained  it  from  benzole  by  the  successive  treat- 
ment of  this  substance  with  concentrated  nitric  acid  and  reducing  agents.  The  scientific 
relations  of  aniline  have  been  carefully  examined  by  several  chemists,  more  especially  by 
Dr.  A.  "W.  Hofinann.  It  was  long  known  to  yield  a  series  of  coloured  compoiinds,  but  it  was 
only  in  1856  that  Mr.  W.  A.  Perkin  showed  how  a  violet  oxidation-product  (mauve)  could 
be  applied  in  dyeing.  Aniline  is  now  manufactured  upon  a  large  scale  for  the  commercial 
production  of  "  Mauve"  and  "Magenta"  (rosaniline),  and  several  other  colouring  matters. 

ANIMALCULES.  Leeuwenhoek's  researches  in  1677  produced  the  most  astonishing 
revelations.  His  Arcana  Naturce  was  published  at  Leyden  in  1696.  The  great  works  of 
Ehrenberg  of  Berlin,  on  the  Infusorial  Animalcule,  &c.,  were  issued  1838-57.  Pritchard's 
Infusoria,  ed.  1860,  is  a  valuable  summary  of  our  present  knowledge  of  animalcule. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  was  introduced  by  father  Hehl,  a  Jesuit,  at  Vienna,  about 
1774  ;  and  had  its  dupes  in  France  and  England  in  about  1788-89^  See  Mesmerism. 

ANIMALS,  CRUELTY  TO.  The  late  Mr.  Martin,  M.P.,  as  a  senator,  zealously  laboured 
to  repress  this  odious  offence  ;  and  a  society  in  London,  which  was  established  in  1824, 
effects  much  good  this  way.  See  Cruelty  to  Animals  Society.  Mr.  Martin's  act  passed 
3  Geo.  IV.  (1822).  Similar  acts  were  passed  in  1827,  1835,  1837,  1849,  and  1854.  Dogs 
were  forbidden  to  be  used  for  draught  by  2  &  3  Viet.  c.  47  (1839). 

ANJOU,  a  province  in  France,  was  inherited  by  Henry  II.  of  England  from  his  father 
Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  count  of  Anjou,  who  married  the  empress  Matilda  in  1127.  It  was 
taken  from  his  son  John  by  Philip  of  France  in  1205  ;  was  reconquered  by  Edward  III.,  but 
relinquished  by  him  in  1360  ;  and  was  given  by  Charles  V.  to  his  brother  Louis  with  the 
title  of  duke.  It  afterwards  became  an  appanage  of  the  French  crown.  The  university 
was  formed  in  1349. 

DUKES   OF  ANJOU. 

1360.  Louis  I.    invested    by    the    pope    with    the 

dominions   of  Joanna   of    Naples,    1381 ;   his 

invading  army  destroyed  by  the  plague,  1383 ; 

he  dies,  1384. 

1384.  Louis  II.,  his  son,  receives  the  same  grant, 

but  is  also  unsuccessful. 
Louis  III.,  adopted  by  Joanna  as   heir;  dies 

1434.  Eegnier  or  Rene"e  (a  prisoner)  declared  king 


of  Naples,  1435 ;  his  daughter,  Margaret, 
married  Henry  VI.  of  England,  1445  ;  he  was 
expelled  from  Anjou  by  Louis  XL,  1474,  and 
his  estates  confiscated. 

Francis,  duke  of  Alencon,  brother  to  Henry  III. 
of  France,  became  duke  of  Anjou;  at  one 
time  he  favoured  the  protestants,  and  vainly 
offered  marriage  to  Elizabeth  of  England, 
1581-82;  died  1584.  . 


ANJOU,  OR  BEAUG£,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  English  and  French  ;  the  latter  com- 
manded by  the  dauphin  of  France,  March  22,  1421.  The  English  were  defeated  :  the  duke 
of  Clarence  was  slain  by  sir  Allan  Swiuton,  a  Scotch  knight,  and  1500  men  perished  on  the 
field ;  the  earls  of  Somerset,  Dorset,  and  Huntingdon  were  taken  prisoners.  Beauge'  was 
the  first  battle  that  turned  the  tide  of  success  against  the  English. 

ANNAM,  OR  ANAM,  an  empire  of  Asia,  to  the  east  of  India,  comprising  Tonquin,  Cochin 
China,  part  of  Cambodia,  and  various  islands  in  the  Chinese  Sea;  said  to  have  been 
conquered  by  the  Chinese  234  B.C.,  and  held  by  them  till  A.D.  263.  In  1406  they  recon- 

*  Alexander,  the  last  duke  of  Anhalt-Bernbourg,  (born  March  2,  1805  ;  duke,  March  24,  1834;)  died 
without  issue,  Aug.  22,  1863,  when  his  duchy  reverted  to  the  duke  of  Anhalt-Dessau. 

t  It  was  a  pretended  mode  of  curing  all  manner  of  diseases  by  means  of  sympathetic  affection  between 
the  sick  person  and  the  operator.  The  effect  on  the  patient  was  supposed  to  depend  on  certain  motions  of 
the  fingers  and  features  of  the  operator,  he  placing  himself  immediately  before  the  patient,  whose  eyes 
were  to  be  fixed  on  his.  After  playing  in  this  manner  on  the  imagination  and  enfeebled  mind  of  the  sick, 
and  performing  a  number  of  distortions  and  grimaces,  the  cure  was  said  to  be  completed.  Hehl,  for  a 
short  time  associated  with  Mesmer,  but  they  soon  quarrelled.— Mr.  Perkins  (who  died  in  1799)  invented 
"  Metallic  Tractors  for  collecting,  condensing,  and  applying  animal  magnetism;"  but  Drs.  Falconer  and 
Haygarth  put  an  end  to  his  pretensions  by  performing  many  wonders  with  a  pair  of  wooden  tractors. 
Brande. 


I 


ANN  37  ANO 


quered  it,  but  abandoned  it  in  1428.  After  much  anarchy,  bishop  Adran,  a  French 
missionary,  obtained  the  friendship  of  Louis  XVI.  for  his  pupil  Gia-long,  the  son  of  the 
nominally  reigning  monarch,  and  with  the  aid  of  a  few  of  his  countrymen  established  Gia- 
long  on  the  throne,  who  reigned  till  his  death  in  1821,  when  his  son  became  king.  In  1859 
war  broke  out  with  the  French,  who  defeated  the  army  of  Annam,  10,000  strong,  about 
April  22,  when  500  were  killed.  On  June  3,  1862,  peace  was  made  ;  three  provinces  were 
ceded  to  the  French,  and  toleration  of  the  Christians  granted.  An  insurrection  in  these 
provinces  against  the  French,  begun  about  Dec.  17,  1862,  was  suppressed  in  Feb.  1863. 
Ambassadors  sent  from  Annam  with  the  view  of  regaining  the  ceded  provinces  arrived  at 
Paris  in  Sept.  1863,  had  no  success.  A  new  treaty  with  France  was  concluded  July  26, 
1864,  which  established  a  French  protectorate,  toleration  for  Christian  missionaries,  &c. 

ANNATES.     See  First  Fruits. 

ANNO  DOMINI,  A.D.,  the  year  of  Our  Lord,  of  Grace,  of  the  Incarnation,  of  the  Cir- 
cumcision, and  of  the  Crucifixion  (Trabeationis).  The  Christian  era  commenced  Jan.  i,  in 
the  middle  of  the  4th  year  of  the  I94th  Olympiad,  the  753rd  year  of  the  building  of  Rome, 
and  in  47 1 4  of  the  Julian  period.  It  is  now  held  that  Christ  was  born  Friday,  April  5, 
4  B.C.  This  era  was  invented  by  a  monk,  Dionysius  Exiguus,  about  532.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  Italy  in  the  6th  century,  and  ordered  to  be  used  by  bishops  by  the  council  of 
Chelsea,  in  816,  but  not  generally  employed  for  several  centuries.  Charles  III.  of  Germany 
was  the  first  who  added  "in  the  year  of  our  Lord"  to  his  reign,  in  879. 

"  ANNOYANCE  JURIES,"  of  Westminster,  chosen  from  the  householders  in  conformity 
with  27  Eliz.  c.  17  (1585),  were  abolished  in  1861. 

ANNUAL  REGISTER,  a  summary  of  the  history  of  each  year  (beginning  with  1758,  and 
continued  to  the  present  time),  was  commenced  by  R.  &  J.  Dodsley.  (Edmund  Burke  at 
first  wrote  the  whole  work,  but  afterwards  became  only  an  occasional  contributor.  Prior.) 
The  somewhat  similar  but  more  elaborate  work,  the  "Annuaire  des  Deux  Mondes,"  began  in 
Paris  in  1850. 

ANNUALS,  the  name  given  to  richly  bound  volumes,  containing  poetry,  tales,  and  essays, 
by  eminent  authors,  illustrated  by  engravings,  published  annually.  They  were  imitations 
of  similar  books  in  Germany,  and  first  appeared  in  London  in  1823.  The  duration  of  the 
chief  of  these  publications  is  here  given  : 

Amulet 1827 — 34 

Keepsake 1828—56 


Forget-me  not  (Ackerrnan's)      .        .        .     1823—48 

Friendship's  Offering 1824—44 

Literary  Souvenir  (first  as  "  the  Graces  ")    1824—34 


eepsa 
Hood's  Comic  Annual.        .  •  .        .     1830 — 38 

ANNUITIES,  OR  PENSIONS,  were  first  granted  in  1512,  when  2ol.  were  given  to  a  lady 
of  the  court  for  services  done  ;  and  61.  135.  4^.  for  the  maintenance  of  a  gentleman,  1536. 
13?.  65.  Sd.  deemed  competent  to  support  a  gentleman  in  the  study  of  the  law,  15^4-  An 
act  was  passed  empowering  the  government  toxborrow  one  million  sterling  upon  an  annuity 
of  fourteen  per  cent.,  4—6  Will.  &  Mary,  1691-3.  This  mode  of  borrowing  soon  afterwards 
became  general  among  civilised  governments.  An  annuity  of  il  2s.  lid.  per  annum,  accu- 
mulating at  10 per  cent.,  compound  interest,  amounts  in  100  years  to  20,000?.  The  Govern- 
ment Annuities  and  Life  Assurances  Act  was  passed  in  1864,  for  the  benefit  of  the  working 
classes ;  since  it  enables  the  government  to  grant  deferred  annuities  on  condition  that  the 
sum  required  may  be  payable  in  small  instalments. 

ANNUITY  TAX :  a  tax  levied  to  provide  stipends  for  ministers  in  Edinburgh  and 
Montrose,  and  which  caused  much  disaffection,  was  abolished  in  1860,  and  other  provisions 
made  for  the  purpose.  These,  however,  have  proved  equally  unpalatable. 

ANNUNCIATION  OF  THE  VIRGIN  MARY,  the  2$th  of  March,  Lady-day  (which  see). 
A  festival  commemorating  the  tidings  brought  to  Mary  by  the  angel  Gabriel  (Luke  i.  26)  :  its 
origin  is  referred  variously  by  ecclesiastical  writers  to  the  fourth  and  seventh  century.  The 
religious  order  of  the  Annunciation  was  instituted  in  1232,  and  the  military  order,  in  Savoy, 
by  Amadeus,  count  of  Savoy  in  memory  of  Amadeus  I.,  who  had  bravely  defended  Rhodes 
against  the  Turks,  1355. 

ANOINTING,  an  ancient  ceremony  observed  at  the  inauguration  of  kings,  bishops,  and 
other  eminent  personages.  Aaron  was  anointed  as  high  priest,  B.C.  1491;  and  Saul,  as  king, 
B.C.  1095.  Alfred  the  Great  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  English  king^ anointed,  A.D.  871  ; 
and  Edgar  of  Scotland,  1098. — The  religious  rite  is  derived  from  the  epistle  of  James,  ch.  v. 
14,  about  A.D.  60.  Some  authors  assert  that  in  550,  dying  persons,  and  persons  in  extreme 
danger  of  death,  were  anointed  with  consecrated  oil,  and  that  this  was  the  origin  of  Extreme 
Unction  (one  of  the  sacraments  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church). 


ANONYMOUS  LETTERS.  The  sending  of  anonymous  letters  denouncing  persons,  or 
demanding  money,  or  using  threats  to  obtain  money,  was  made  felony  by  the  Black  Act,  9 
Geo.  I.  (1722).  See  Thrcatcniny  Letters. 

ANTALCIDAS,  PEACE  OF.  In  387  r,.c.  Antalcidas  the  Lacedemonian  made  peace  with 
Artaxerxes  of  Persia,  strongly  in  favour  of  Sparta,  and  generally  in  favour  of  Greece,  but 
giving  up  the  cities  of  Ionia  to  the  king. 

ANTARCTIC  POLE,  the  opposite  to  the  north  or  arctic  pole.    See  Southern  Continent. 

ANTEDILUVIANS.  According  to  the  tables  of  Mr.  Whiston,  the  number  of  people  in 
the  ancient  world,  as  it  existed  previous  to  the  Flood,  reached  to  the  enormous  amount  of 
549,755  millions  in  the  year  of  the  world  1482.* 

ANTHEMS,  OR  HYMNS  (see  Hymns).  Hilary,  bishop  of  Poictiers,  and  St.  Ambrose  were 
the  first  who  composed  them,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  Lcnglet.  They  were 
introduced  into  the  church  service  in  386.  Baker.  Ignatius  is  said  to  have  introduced 
them  into  the  Greek,  and  St.  Ambrose  into  the  Western  Church.  They  were  introduced 
into  the  Reformed  churches  in  queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  about  1565. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI  (eaters  of  human  flesh)  have  existed  in  all  ages  of  the  world. 
Homer  says  that  the  Cyclops  and  Lestrygones  were  such  ;  and  the  Essedonian  Scythians 
were  so,  according  to  Herodotus.  Diogenes  asserted  that  we  might  as  well  eat  the  rlesh  of 
men  as  that  of  other  animals  ;  and  the  practice  still  exists  in  Africa  and  the  South  Se;i 
Islands.  The  annals  of  Milan  assert  that  a  Milanese  woman,  named  Elizabeth,  had  an 
invincible  inclination  to  human  flesh  ;  she  enticed  children  to  her  house,  and  killed  and 
salted  them  ;  and  on  a  discovery  being  made,  she  was  broken  on  the  wheel  and  burnt,  in 
1519.  Cannibals  were  detected  in  Perthshire  about  1339. 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  (antlirdpos,  Greek,  man)  for  promoting  the  science  «,!' 
man  and  mankind,  held  its  first  meeting  on  Feb.  24,  1863.  Dr.  James  Hunt,  president,  in 
the  chair.  The  "  Anthropological  Review  "  first  came  out  in  May,  1863. 

ANTICHRIST  (opponent  of  Christ),  the  name  given  by  St.  John  (i  Ep.  ii.  18)  to  him 
whom  St.  Paul  calls  the  Man  of  Sin  (2  Thess.  ii.  3),  who,  as  some  assert,  at  the  latter  end 
of  the  world,  is  to  appear  very  remarkably  in  opposition  to  Christianity,  t 

ANTI-CORN-LA"VY  LEAGUE,  an  association  formed  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  the 
repeal  of  the  laws  charging  duty  on  the  importation  of  foreign  corn.  See  Corn-Laics.  It 
sprang  from  various  metropolitan  and  provincial  associations  (1834-8),  headed  by  Messrs.  C. 
Villiers,  R.  Cobden,  J.  Bright,  &c.  See  Protcctwiiixf*. 

The  Anti-Com-Law  League  formed  at  51  an-          I  Bazaar  at  Covent- Garden  opened  .        .  Mays,  1843 

eliester Sept.  18,  1838    Great    Manchester    meeting,    at    which     iho 

Meetings  held  in  various  places  March  &  April,  1841       League  proposed    to  raise  a  quarter   of    a 
Excited  meeting  at  Manchester     .          May  18,      ,,          million  sterling         ....     Dec.  2;,      ,. 
A  bazaar  held  at    Manchester,    at  which  the  ',  The  Corn  Importation  Bill  having  passed,  Juno 

League  realised  io,oooL  .         .        .        Feb.  2,  1842        26  ;  the  League  is  formally  dissolved;  and  Mr. 
About  600  deputies  connected  with  provincial  Cobden  was  rewarded  by  a  national    sub- 

associations  assemble  in  London,  Feb. — Aug.      „         scription,     amounting     to    nearly    iv 
The  League  at  Manchester  proposed  to  raise  July-,   .• .  ,< 

50,000?.,  to  depute  lecturers  throughout  the  Appointment  of  the  Derby  ministry,  a  revival 

country,  and  to  print  pamphlets         Oct.  20,      „    |     of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League  was  proposed 
First  meeting  at  Drury-laiie  Theatre,  March  15,  1843       at  a  meeting  held  at  Manchester,  and  a  sub- 
Scries  of  monthly  meetings  at  Covent-Garden,  j      scription  for  the  purpose  was  opened,  which 
commenced  Sept.  28;   and  great  free-trade  I     produced  within  half  an  hour  27,5201.  Mar.  2,  1852 
meeting  at  Manchester  Nov.  14,  1843,  and           :  [Subsequently,  the  reconstruction  of  the  League 

Jan.  22,   1845  '     was  deemed  to  be  unnecessary.] 


*  Bumet  has  supposed  that  the  first  human  pair  might  have  left,  at  the  end  of  the  first  century,  tell 
married  couples ;  and  from  these,  allowing  them  to  multiply  in  the  same  decuple  proportion  as  the  first 
pair  did,  would  rise,  in  1500  years,  a  greater  number  of  persons  than  the  earth  was  capable  of  holding. 
He  therefore  suggests  a  quadruple  multiplication  only  :  and  then  exhibits  the  following  table  of  increase 
during  the  first  sixteen  centuries  that  preceded  the  Flood  (at  least  ten  times  the  present  number  of 
mankind) : — 


1 10 

ir 4o 

in.        .      .      .  160 

iru 640 


V.  2,560 

VI.  .         .  10,240 

VII.  .          .          .       40,960 
VJIl.  .         .     .    163,840 


655,360 
12,621,440 
10,485,760 
41,943,040 


167,172,160 
671,088,640 

2,684,354,560 


i  IJis  reign,  it  is  supposed,  will  continue  three  years  and  a  half,  during  which  time  there  will  be  a 
persecution.  This  is  the  opinion  of  the  Roman  Catholics  ;  but  the  Protestants,  as  they  differ  from  them, 
so  they  differ  among  themselves.  Grotius  and  Dr.  Hammond  suppose  the  time  to  be  past,  and  the  cha- 
racters to 'be  furnished  in  the  persons  of  Caligula,  Simon  Magus,  and  the  Gnostics.  Some  have  believed 
the  pope  to  be  the  true  Antichrist,  as  at  the  council  held  at  Gap,  in  1603.  Many  consider  that  the  k;ng- 
d'~>m  of  Antichrist  comprehends  all  who  are  opposed  to  Christ,  openly  or  secretly. 


ANT  39  ANT 

ANTIETAM  CREEK,  near  Sharpsburg,  Maryland,  IT.  S.  Here  was  fought  a  terribl<: 
battle  on  Sept.  17,  1862,  between  the  Federals  under  general  M'Clellan  and  the  Confederates 
under  Lee.  The  latter  after  his  victoiy  at  Bull  Rim  or  Manassas,  Aug.  30,  having  invaded 
Maryland,  was  immediately  followed  by  M'Clellan.  On  the  i6th  Lee  was  joined  by  Jackson, 
and  at  five  o'clock  next  morning  the  conflict  began.  About  100,000  men  were  engaged,  and 
the  conflict  raged  with  great  fury  from  daylight  to  dark.  The  Federals  were  repeatedly 
repulsed  ;  but  eventually  the  Confederates  retreated  and  repassed  the  Potomac  on  Sept.  18 
and  19.  The  loss  of  the  Federals  was  estimated  at  12,469  ;  of  the  Confederates,  14,000. 

ANTIGUA,  a  West  India  Island,  discovered  by  Columbus  in  Nov.  1493  ;  settled  by  the 
English  in  1632  ;  made  a  bishopric,  1842.  Population  in  1861,  36,412. 

ANTILLES,  an  early  name  of  the  West  Indies,  which  sec. 

ANTIMONY,  a  white  brittle  metal.  Compounds  of  this  mineral  were  early  known,  and 
applied.  It  was  used  as  paint  to  blacken  both  men's  and  women's  eyes,  as  appears  from 
2  Kings  ix.  30,  and  Jeremiah  iv.  30,  and  in  eastern  countries  it  is  used  to  this  day.  When 
mixed  with  lead  it  forms  printing  type  metal.  Basil  Valentine  wrote  on  antimony  about 
1410.  Priestley. 

ANTINOMIANS  (from  the  Greek  anti,  against,  and  nomos,  law),  a  name  given  by  Luther 
(in  1538)  to  John  Agricola,  who  is  said  to  have  held  "that  it  mattered  not  how  wicked  a 
man  was  if  he  had  but  faith."  (Opposed  to  Rom.  iii.  28,  and  v.  I,  2).  He  retracted  in 
1540.  These  doctrines  were  condemned  by  the  British  parliament,  1648. 

ANTIOCH,  Syria,  built  by  Seleucus,  300  B.C.,  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  in  such  grandeur 
as  to  acquire  the  name  "  Queen  of  the  East."  Here  the  disciples  were  first  called  Christians, 
A.D.  42  (Acts  xi.  26).  Antioch  was  taken  by  the  Persians,  540  ;  by  the  Saracens  about  638  ; 
recovered  for  the  Eastern  emperor,  966 ;  lost  again  in  1086  ;  retaken  by  the  Crusaders  in 
1098,  and  held  by  them  till  1268,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt.  It  was 
taken  from  the  Turks  in  the  Syrian  war,  Aug.  I,  1832,  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  but  restored  at  the 
peace.— The  ERA  of  Antioch  is  much  used  by  the  early  Christian  writers  of  Antioch  and 
Alexandria  ;  it  placed  the  Creation  5492  years  B.C. 

ANTIPODES.  Plato  is  said  to  be  the  first  who  thought  it  possible  that  antipodes  existed 
(about  368  B.C.).  Boniface,  archbishop  of  Mentz,  legate  of  pope  Zachary,  is  said  to  have 
denounced  a  bishop  as  a  heretic  for  maintaining  this  doctrine,  A.D.  741.  The  antipodes  of 
England  lie  to  the  south-east  of  New  Zealand,  near  Antipodes  Island.  Brookes. 

ANTI-POPES,  rival  popes  elected  at  various  times,  especially  by  the  French  and  Italian 
factious,  from  1305  to  1439.  In  the  article  Popes,  the  Anti-popes  are  printed  in  italics. 

ANTIQUARIES.  A  college  of  antiquaries  is  said  to  have  existed  in  Ireland  700 
years  B.C. 

A  society  was  founded  by  archbishop  Parker,  Cam-  •  British    Archaeological    Association    founded    Dec, 

den,  Stow,  and  others  in  1572.     Kpdmcn.  1843;     the    Archaeological    Institute    of     Great 

\uplicution  was  made  in  1589  to  Elizabeth  for  a  ;      Britain  was  formed  by  a  seceding  part  of  th<- 

charter,  but  her  death  ensued,  and  her  successor,  !      Association,    1845.      Journals    are    published  by 

•Tames  I.,  was  far  from  favouring  the  design.  both  societies. 

The  Society  of  Antiquaries  revived,  1707 ;  received  i  Society  of  Antiquaries   of    Edinburgh   founded  in 

its  charter  of  incorporation  from  George  II.,  1751  ;  I     .  1780. 

and  apartments  in  Somerset-house  granted  to  it    Since    1845    many  county  archaeological    societies 


in  1777.     Its  Memoirs,  entitled  Archawlogia,  first 


have  been  formed  in  the  United  Kingdom. 


published  in  1770;  present  president,  earl  Stan-     The  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  France  (1814)  began  in 
hope,  elected,  1846.  1805  as  the  Celtic  Academy. 

ANTI-TRINITARIANS.  Theodotus  of  Byzantium  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
who  advocated  the  simple  humanity  of  Jesus,  at  the  close  of  the  second  century.  ^  This 
doctrine,  advocated  by  Arius  about  318,  spread  widely  after  the  Reformation,  when  it  was 
adopted  by  Lrelius  and  Eaustus  Socinus.  Baylc.  SeoArians,  Socinians,  Unitarians. 

ANTIUM,  maritime  city  of  Latium,  now  Porto  d'Anzio,  near  Rome,  after  a  long  struggle 
for  independence,  became  a  Roman  colony,  at  the  end  of  the  great  Latin  war,  340-338  B.C; 
It  was  mentioned  by  Horace,  and  was  a  favourite  retreat  of  the  emperors  and  wealthy 
Romans,  who  erected  many  villas  in  its  vicinity.  The  treasures  deposited  in  the  temple  of 
Fortune  here  were  taken  by  Octavius  Caesar  during  his  war  with  Antony,  41  B.C. 

ANTWERP,  the  principal  sea-port  of  Belgium,  is  mentioned  in  history  in  A.D.  517.      It 


APA 


40 


APO 


was  a  small  republic  in  the  eleventh  century.     It  was  the  first  commercial  city  in  Europe 
till  the  wars  of  the  i6th  and  i  yth  centuries. 

after  a  dreadful  conflict,  being  driven  into 
the  citadel,  cannonaded  the  town  with  red- 
hot  balls  and  shells,  doing  immense  mischief 

Oct.  27,  1830 

The  citadel  bombarded  by  the  French,  Dec.  4 ; 
surrendered  by  gen.  Chasse  .  .  Dec.  23,  1832 

The  exchange  burnt ;  and  valuable  archives, 
&c.  destroyed  ....  Aug.  2,  1858 

Proposal  to  strengthen  the  fortifications  adopted 

Aug.  1859 

A  Fine  Art  fete  held    .         .        .        Aug.  17-20  1861 

Great  Napoleon  wharf  destroyed  by  fire,  loss  25 
lives  and  about  400,000^.  .  .  Dec.  2  ,, 

Great  fete  at  the  opening  of  the  port  by  the 
abolition  of  the  Scheldt  dues  .  .  Aug.  3,  1863 


Ps  fine  exchange  built  in 1531 

Taken  after  a  long  siege  by  the  prince  of  Parma  1585 
Truce  of  Antwerp  (between  Spain  and  United 

Provinces) 1609 

Much  injured  by  the  imposition  of  a  toll  on  the 

Scheldt  by  the  treaty  of  Munster    .    '    .        .  1648  I 
After     Marlborough's    victory     at    Ramillies, 

Antwerp  surrenders  without  firing  a  shot 

June  6,  1706  > 
The  Barrier  treaty  concluded  here         Nov.  16,  1715  | 

Taken  by  marshal  Saxe 1746  ; 

Occupied  by  the  French         .        .   1792-3,1794-1814! 
Civil  war  between  the  Belgians  and  the  House 

of  Orange.     See  Belgium          .        .        .       1830-31 
The  Belgian  troops,  having  entered  Antwerp, 

were  opposed  by  the  Dutch  garrison,  who, 

APATITE,  mineral  phosphate  of  lime.  About  1856  it  began  to  be  largely  employed  as 
manure.  It  is  abundant  in  Norway,  and  in  Sombrero,  a  small  West  India  island. 

APOCALYPSE,  OR  REVELATION,  written  by  St.  John  in  the  isle  of  Patmos  about  95. 
Irenceus.  Some  ascribe  the  authorship  to  Cerintlms,  the  heretic,  and  others  to  John, 
the  presbyter,  of  Ephesus.  In  the  first  centuries  many  churches  disowned  it,  and  in  the 
fourth  century  it  was  excluded  from  the  sacred  canon  by  the  council  of  Laodicea,  but  was 
again  received  by  other  councils,  and  confirmed  by  that  of  Trent,  held  in  I545>  e^  Se1- 
Although  the  book  has  been  rejected  by  Luther,  Michaelis,  and  others,  and  its  authority 
questioned  in  all  ages,  from  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  (who  wrote  his  first  Apology  for 
the  Christians  in  A.D.  139),  yet  its  canonical  authority  is  still  almost  universally  ac- 
knowledged. 

APOCRYPHA.  In  the  preface  to  the  Apocrypha  it  is  said,  "These  books  are  neyther 
found  in  the  Hebrue  nor  in  the  Chalde."  Bible,  1539.'  The  history  of  the  Apocrypha 
ends  135  B.C.  The  books  were  not  in  the  Jewish  canon,  were  rejected  at  the  council  of 
Laodicea  about  A.  D.  366,  but  were  received  as  canonical  by .  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  at 
the  council  of  Trent  on  April  8,  1546.  Parts  of  the  'Apocrypha  are  read  as  lessons  by 
the  Anglican  church. 

i  Esdras,  from  about  B.C.    623-445 


2  Esdras 
Tobit 
Judith 
Esther 


734-678 
656 
510 


Wisdom  of  Solomon  .        .     *    * 

Ecclesiasticus  ( John)        300  or  180 

Baruch 

Song  of  the  Three  Children  * 

History  of  Susannah     .        *    * 


Bel  and  the  Dragon  .        . 
Prayer  of  Manasses      B.  c. 


676 


1  Maccabees,  about  .        .  323-135 

2  Maccabees,  from  about  .  187-161 


There  are  also  Apocryphal  writings  in  connection  with  the  New  Testament. 


APOLLINARISTS,  followers  of  Apollinaris,  a  reader  in  the  church  of  Laodicea,  who  taught 
(366)  that  the  divinity  of  Christ  was  instead  of  a  soul  to  him  ;  that  his  flesh  was  pre- 
existent  to  his  appearance  upon  earth,  and  that  it  was  sent  down  from  heaven,  and  conveyed 
through  the  Yirgin,  as  through  a  channel  ;  that  there  were  two  sons,  one  born  of  God,  the 
other  of  the  Yirgin,  &c.  These  opinions  were  condemned  by  the  council  of  Constanti- 
nople, 381. 

APOLLO,  the  god  of  the  fine  arts,  medicine,  music,  poetry,  and  eloquence,  had  many 
temples  and  statues  erected  to  him,  particularly  in  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Italy.  His  most 
splendid  temple  was  at  Delphi,  built  1263  B.C.  See  Delphi.  His  temple  at  Daphne,  built 
434  B.C.,  during  a  period  in  which  pestilence  raged,  was  burnt  A.D.  362,  and  the  Christians 
were  accused  of  the  crime.  Lenglet.  The  statue  of  Apollo  Belvedere,  discovered  in  the 
remains  of  Antium,  in  Italy,  in  1503,  was  purchased  by  pope  Julius  II.,  who  placed  it  in 
the  Vatican. 

APOLLONICON,  an  elaborate  musical  instrument,  constructed  on  the  principle  of  the 
organ,  was  invented  by  Messrs.  Flight  and  Robson,  of  St.  Martin's  lane,  Westminster,  and 
exhibited  by  them  first  in  1817.  Timbs. 

APOSTLES  (Greek  apostolos,  one  sent  forth).  Twelve  were  appointed  by  Christ,  31  ; 
viz.  Simon  Peter  and  Andrew  (brothers),  James  and  John  (sons  of  Zebedee),  Philip,  Nathanael 
(or  Bartholomew),  Matthew  (Levi),  Thomas,  James  the  Less  (son  of  Alphseus),  Simon  the 
Canaanite  and  Jude  or  Thaddseus  (brothers),  and  Judas  Iscariot.  Matthias  was  elected  in 
the  room  of  Judas  Iscariot,  33  (Ads  i.)  ;  and  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  appointed  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  A.D.  45  (Acts  xiii.  2). 


Oh 


APOSTLES'  CREED,  a  summary  of  the  Christian  faith,  attributed  to  the  apostles,  is 
mentioned  by  Ruffinus,  390,  and  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  gradually  composed 
a  great  while  after  their  time.  Irenseus,  bishop  of  Lyons  (A.D.  177),  gives  a  similar  creed. 
Its  repetition  in  public  worship  was  ordained  in  the  Greek  church  at  Antioch,  and  in  the 
Roman  church  in  the  nth  century,  whence  it  passed  to  the  Church  of  England. 

APOSTOLICI,  a  sect  which  arose  at  the  end  of  the  2nd  century;  they  renounced 
marriage,  wine,  flesh,  meats,  &c.  A  second  sect  was  founded  by  Segarelli  about  1261. 
They  wandered  about,  clothed  in  white,  with  long  beards,  dishevelled  hair,  and  bare  heads, 
accompanied  by  women  whom  they  called  their  spiritual  sisters,  preaching  against  the 
growing  corruption  of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  predicting  its  downfall.  They  renounced 
baptism,  the  mass,  purgatory,  &c. ,  and  by  their  enemies  are  accused  of  gross  licentiousness. 
Segarelli  was  burnt  alive  at  Parma  in  1300  during  a  crusade  against  his  followers,  who  were 
all  dispersed  in  1307. 

APOTHECARY  (literally  a  keeper  of  a  storehouse).  On  Oct.  10,  1345,  Edward  III. 
settled  six  pence  per  diem  for  life  on  Coursus  de  Gangeland,  ' '  Apothecarius  London, "  for 
taking  care  of  him  during  his  severe  illness  in  Scotland.  Rymcr's  Fcedera.  Apothecaries 
were  exempted  from  serving  on  juries  or  other  civil  offices  in  1712.  The  London  Apothecaries' 
Company  was  separated  from  the  Grocers'  and  incorporated  1617.  Their  hall  was  built  in 
670  ;  and  their  practice  regulated  and  their  authority  extended  over  all  England,  by  55 
J  o.  III.  c.  19  (1815),  amended  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  133  (1825).  The  Botanical  Garden  at 
.elsea  was  left  by  sir  Hans  Sloane  to  the  company  of  Apothecaries,  Jan.  1753,  on  condition 
of  their  introducing  every  year  fifty  new  plants,  until  their  number  should  amount  to  2000. 
The  Dublin  guild  was  incorporated,  1745.  See  Pharmacy. 

APOTHEOSIS,  a  ceremony  of  the  ancient  nations  of  the  world,  by  which  they  raised 
their  kings  and  heroes  to  the  rank  of  deities.  The  deifying  a  deceased  emperor  was  begun  at 
Rome  by  Augustus,  in  favour 'of  Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  13.  Tillemont. 

APPEAL,  OR  ASSIZE  OF  BATTLE.  By  the  old  law  of  England,  a  man  charged  with 
murder  might  fight  with  the  appellant,  thereby  to  make  proof  of  his  guilt  or  innocence.  In 
1817,  a  young  maid,  Mary  Ashford,  was  believed  to  have  been  violated  and  murdered  by 
Abraham  Thornton,  who,  in  an  appeal,  claimed  his  right  by  his  wager  of  battle,  which  the 
court  allowed ;  but  the  appellant  (the  brother  of  the  maid)  refused  the  challenge,  and  the 
accused  escaped,  April  16,  1818.  This  law  was  immediately  afterwards  struck  from  off  the 
statute-book,  by  59  Geo.  III.  (1819). 

APPEALS.  In  the  time  of  Alfred  (A.D.  869-901),  appeals  lay  from  courts  of  justice  to  the 
king  in  council  ;  but  being  soon  overwhelmed  with  appeals  from  all  parts  of  England,  he 
framed  the  body  of  laws  which  long  served  as  the  basis  of  English  jurisprudence.  The  house 
of  lords  is  the  highest  court  of  appeal  in  civil  causes.  Courts  of  appeal  at  the  Exchequer 
Chamber,  in  error  from  the  judgments  of  the  King's  Bench,  Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer, 
were  regulated  by  statutes  in  1830  and  1831.  Appeals  from  English  tribunals  to  the  pope 
were  first  introduced  about  1151;  were  long  vainly  opposed,  and  were  finally  abolished  by 
Henry  VIII.  in  1534.  See  Privy  Council. 

APPE1STZELL,  a  Swiss  canton,  threw  off  the  feudal  supremacy  of  the  abbots  of  St.  Gall 
early  in  the  I5th  century,  and  became  the  thirteenth  member  of  the  Swiss  confederation 
in  1513. 

APPIAN  WAY,  an  ancient  Roman  road,  made  by  Appius  Claudius  Csecus,  while 
censor,  3123.0. 

APPLES.  Several  kinds  are  indigenous  to  England  ;  but  those  in  general  use  have  been 
brought  at  various  times  from  the  continent.  Richard  Harris,  fruiterer  to  Henry  VIII.,  is 
said  to  have  planted  a  great  number  of  the  orchards  in  Kent,  and  Lord  Scudamore,  ambas- 
sador to  France  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  planted  many  of  those  in  Herefordshire.  Ray 
reckons  78  varieties  of  apples  in  his  day  (1688). 

APPRAISERS.  The  valuation  of  goods  for  another  was  an  early  business  in  England  ; 
and  so  early  as  1283,  by  the  statute  of  merchants,  "it  was  enacted  that  if  they  valued  the 
goods  of  parties  too  high,  the  appraisers  should  take  them  at  such  price  as  they  have  limited. " 
In  1845  their  annual  licence  was  raised  from  105.  to  405. 

APPRENTICES.  Those  of  London  were  obliged  to  wear  blue  cloaks  in  summer,  and 
blue  gowns  in  winter,  in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  1558.  Ten  pounds  was  then  a  great 
apprentice  fee.  From  twenty  to  one  hundred  pounds  were  given  in  the  reign  of  James  I. 
Stovfs  Sarvry.  The  apprentice  tax,  enacted  43  Geo.  Ill,  1802.  An  act  for  the  protection 


APP  42 

of  apprentices,  &c.,  was  passed  in  1851.  The  term  of  seven  years,  not  to  expire  till  the 
apprentice  was  24  years  old,  required  by  the  statute  of  Elizabeth  (1563),  Avas  abolished  in 
1814.  The  apprentices  of  London  have  been  at  times  very  riotous  ;  they  rose  into  insurrection 
against  foreigners  on  Evil  Maij-day,  which  see. 

APPROPRIATION  CLAUSE,  or  the  Irish  Tithe  Bill  of  1835,  brought  forward  by  lord 
John  Russell,  whereby  any  surplus  revenue  that  might  accrue  by  the  working  of  the  act  was 
to  be  appropriated  for  the  education  of  all  classes  of  the  people.  The  clause  was  adopted  by 
the  commons  but  rejected  by  the  lords  in  1835  and  1836,  whereupon  it  was  totallv 
abandoned. 

APPROPRIATION'S  (property  taken  from  the  church),  began  in  the  time  of  William  T., 
the  parochial  clergy  being  then  commonly  Saxons,  and  the  bishops  and  higher  clergy 
Normans.  These  impoverished  the  inferior  clergy  to  enrich  monasteries,  which  wen- 
generally  possessed  by  the  conqueror's  friends.  Where  the  churches  and  tithes  were  so 
appropriated,  the  vicar  had  only  such  .a  competency  as  the  bishop  or  superior  thought  lit  to 
allow.  Pope  Alexander  IV.  complained  of  this  as  the  bane  of  religion,  the  destruction  of 
the  church,  and  a  poison  that  had  infected  the  whole  nation.  Pardon. 

APRICOT,  Prunus  Armeniaca,  first  planted  in  England  about  1540,  by  the'gardencr  of 
Henry  VIII.  It  originally  came  from  Asia  Minor. 

APRIL,  the  fourth  month  of  our  year,  the  second  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

APTERYX  (wingless),  a  bird,  a  native  of  New  Zealand,  first  brought  to  this  country  in 
1813,  and  deposited  in  the  collection  of  the  earl  of  Derby.  Fossil  specimens  of  a  gigantic 
species  of  this  bird  (named  Dinornis)  were  discovered  in  New  Zealand  by  Mr.  Walter  Mantell 
in  1843,  and  since. 

APULIA,  a  province  in  S.  E.  Italy,  conquered  by  the  Normans,  whose  leader  Gniscard 
received  the  title  of  duke  of  Apulia  from  pope  Nicholas  II.  in  1059.  After  many  changes 
of  masters,  it  was  absorbed  into  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1265. 

AQUARII,  a  sect  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Tatian  in  the  2nd  century,  who  forbore 
the  use  of  wine  even  in  the  sacrament,  and  used  nothing  but  water,  during  persecution  when 
they  met  secretly*  in  the  night,  for  fear  of  discovery.  For  this  they  were  censured  by 
Cyprian  (martyred  258). 

AQUARIUM  on  AQTTAVTVAEIUM,  a  vessel  containing  water  (marine  or  fresh)  in  which 
animals  and  plants  may  co-exist,  mutually  supporting  each  other  ;  snails  being  introduced 
(is  scavengers.  In  1849,  Mr.  N.  B.  Ward  succeeded  in  growing  sea- weeds  in  artificial  sea- 
water  ;  in  1850,  Mr.  R.  Warington  demonstrated  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
animals  and  plants  in  jars  of  water  ;  and  in  1853  the  glass  tanks  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
Regent's  Park,  were  set  up  under  the  skilful  direction  of  Mr.  D.  Mitchell.  In  1854,  Mr. 
Gosse  published  "The  Aquarium."  Mr.  W.  Alford  Lloyd,  late  of  Portland-road,  London, 
by  his  enterprise  in  collecting  specimens  did  much  to  increase  the  value,  and  interest  of 
nquaria.  The  great  aquarium  (50  yards  long  and  12  wide)  at  the  Jardin  d'Acclimatfttion  ;•! 
Paris,  was  constructed  under  his  direction  in  1860. 

AQUATINT.     See  JEngraviny. 

AQUEDUCT,  an  artificial  watercourse  on  an  inclined  plane.  Xo  remains  of  Greek 
aqueducts  exist.  Appius  Claudius  advised  and  constructed  the  first  Roman  aqueduct,  as  well 
as  the  Appianway,  about  3 12  B.C.  Aqueducts  of  every  kind  were  among  the  wonders  of 
Rome.  Livy.  There  are  now  some  remarkable  aqueducts  in  Europe  :  that  at  Lisbon  is  of 
great  extent  and  beauty  ;  that  at  Segovia  has  129  arches  ;  and  that  at  Versailles  is  three 
miles  long,  and  of  immense  height,  with  242  arches  in  three  stories.  The  stupendous 
aqueduct  on  the  Ellesmere  canal,  in  England,  is  1007  feet  in  length,  and  126  feet  high  ;  it 
wras  completed  by  T.  Telford,  and  opened  Dec.  26,  1805.  The  Lisbon  aqueduct  was  com- 
pleted in  1738,  and  the  Croton  aqueduct,  near  New  York,  was  constructed  between  1837  and 
1842.  The  aqueduct  to  supply  Marseilles  with  water  was  commenced  in  1830. 

AQUILEIA  (Istria),  made  a  Roman  colony  about  180  B.C.,  and  fortified  A,D.  168, 
Constantino  II.  was  slain  in  a  battle  with  Constans,  fought  at  Aquileia  towards  the  close  of 
March  340.  Maximus  defeated  and  slain  by  Theodosius,  near  Aquileia  July  28,  388. 
Theodosius  defeated  Eugenius  and  Arbogastcs,  the  Gaul,  near  Aquileia,  and  remained  sole 
emperor,  Sept.  6,  394.  Eugenius  was  put  to  death,  and  Arbogastes  died  by  his  own  hand, 
mortified  by  his  overthrow.  St.  .Ambrose  held  a  synod  here  in  381.  In  452  Aquileia  was 
almost  totally  destroyed  by  Attila  the  Hun,  and  near  it  in  489  Theodoric  and  the  Ostrogoths 
totally  defeated  Odoaror.  the  king  of  Italy. 


fron 


AQU  43  ARC 


i 


AQUJTAINE,   a   province  (^S.W.    France).     Subdued  by  the  Visigoths,  418,  and  taken 
in  them  by  Clovis  in  507.    Henry  II.  of  England  inherited  it  from  his  mother,  1 152.  It  was 
erected  into  a  principality  for  Edward  the  Black  Prince  in  1362  ;  but  was  annexed  to  Franc-- 
in    1370.     The  title  of  duke  of  Aquitainc  was  taken  by  the   crown  of   England  on  tin- 
iqtiest  of  this  duchy  by  Henry  Y.  in  1418.  The  province  was  lost  in  the  reign  of  Henry  \\ . 

ARABIA  (W.  Asia).  The  terms  Petrwa  (stony),  Fdti  (happy),  and  Deserta  are  said  to 
have  been  applied  to  its  divisions  by  Ptolemy,  about  A.P.  140.  The  Arabs  claim  descent 
from  Ishmael,  the  eldest  son  of  Abraham,  born  1910  B.C.,  Gen.  xvi.  The  country  was  unsuc- 
>  «'^sfully  invaded  by  Gallus,  the  Roman  governor  of  Egypt,  24  B.C.  In  A.I).  622,  the  Arabian* 
under  the  name  of  "Saracens,  followers  of  Mahomet  (born  at  Mecca,  570),  their  general  and 
prophet,  commenced  their  course  of  conquest.  See  Mahometan-ism.  The  Arabs  greatly  favoured 
literature  and  the  sciences,  especially  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  chemistry.  To  them  we 
owe  our  ordinary  numerals  and  arithmetical  notation.  The  Koran  was  written  in  Arabic 
(622-632).  The  Bible  was  printed  in  Arabic  in  1671. 

ARABIAN  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAINMENTS  (or  1001  Tales)  were  translated  into  French 
by  C-alland,  and  published  in  1704  ;  but  their  authenticity  was  not  acknowledged  till  many 
years  after.  The  best  English  translation  from  the  Arabic  is  that  of  Mr.  E.  W.  Lane,  pub- 
lished in  1839,  with  valuable  notes  and  beautiful  illustrations. 

ARABICI,  a  sect  which  sprung  up  in  Arabia,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  was,  that  the 
died  with  the  body,  arrd  rose  again  with  it,  207. 

AKAGON,   part   of  the   Roman    Tarraconensis,   a    kingdom,    N.    E.    Spain.      It   was 
quered  by  the  Carthaginians,  Avho  were  expelled  by  the  Romans  about  200  B.C.     It  par- 
k  of  the  fortunes  of  the  country,  but  became  an  independent  monarchy  in  1035.     See 
pain. 

ARAM,  the  ancient  name  of  Syria,  which  sec. 

ARANJUEZ  (Central  Spain),  contains  a  fine  royal  palace,  at  which  several  important 
treaties  were  concluded.  On  March  17,  1 808,  an  insurrection  broke  out  here  against  Charles 
I  V.  and  his  favourite,  Godoy,  the  prince  of  peace.  The  former  was  compelled  to  abdicate  in 
favour  of  his  son,  Ferdinand  VII. 

ARBELA.  The  third  and  decisive  battle  between  Alexander  the  Great  and  Darius 
Codomanus  decided  the  fate  of  Persia,  Oct.  i,  331  B.C.,  on  a  plain  in  Assyria,  between  Arbela 
find  Gaugamela.  The  army  of  Darius  consisted  of  1,000,000  foot  and  40,000  horse;  the 
Macedonian  arm}'  amounted  to  only  40,000  foot  and  7000  horse.  Arrian.  The  gold  and 
r.ilver  found  in  the  cities  of  Susa,  Persepolis,  and  Babylon,  which  fell  to  Alexander  from  this 
victory,  amounted  to  thirty  millions  sterling;  and  the  jewels  and  other  precious  spoil, 
belonging  to  Darius,  sufficed  to  load  20,000  mutes  and  5000  camels.  Plutarch. 

ARBITRATION.  Submission  to  arbitration  was  authorised  and  made  equivalent  in 
fi-rcc  to  the  decision  of  a  jury,  by  9  &  10  "Will.  III.  (1698).  Submissions  to  arbitration  may 
be  made  rules  of  any  court  of  law  or  equity,  and  arbitrators  may  compel  the  attendance  of 
witnesses,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  42  (1833).  See  Ouzel  Gcdley.  The  Common  Law  Procedure 
Act  (1854)  authorises  the  judges  of  superior  courts  to  order  compulsory  arbitration  ;  and,  by 
an  act  passed  in  1859,  railway  companies  may  settle  disputes  with  each  other  by  arbitration. 

ARBUTUS.  The  Arbutus  Andrachne,  oriental  strawberry-tree,  was  brought  to  England 
from  the  Levant  about  1724. 

ARCADES,  OR  WALKS  ARCHED  OVER.  The  principal  in  London  are  the  Burlington - 
arcade,  opened  in  March,  1819  ;  and  the  Lowther-arcade,  Strand,  opened  at  the  period  of  the 
Strand  improvements.  See,  Nmnd.  Exeter  Change,  London,  was  rebuilt  and  opened  in 
1845.  See  Exeter  Change.  The  Royal-arcade,  Dublin,  opened  June,  1820,  was  burnt  to  the 
ground,  April  25,  1837. 

ARCADIA,  in  the  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus,  Grec;:c.  The  A  read  inns  regarded  their 
nation  as  the  most  ancient  of  Greece,  and  older  than  the  moon  (Proseluni,  which  word 
Doderlem  conjectures  to  mean  Prc-Hcllenic).  They  were  more  simple  in  their  manners  and 
moderate  in  their  desires  than  the  other  Greeks,  from  whom  they  were  separated  by 
mountains.  Pelasgus  is  said  to  have  taught  them  to  feed  on  acorns,  as  being  more  nutritious 
than  herbs,  their  former  food;  for  which  they  honoured  him  as  a  god.  1521  B.C.  Arcadia 
hail  twenty-five  kings,  whoso  historv  is  altogether  fabulous. 


ARC 


ARC 


ARCADIA  (continued). 

Magna  Grpecia,  in  S.  Italy,  said  to  have  been 
colonised  by  Arcadians  under  (Enotrus,  about 
1710  B.C.  ;  and  under  Evander  .  .  B.C.  1240 

Pelasgus  begins  his  reign        .        .         .        .     .   1521 

Supposed  institution  of  the  Lupercalia,  in 
honour  of  Jupiter  by  Lycaon  ;  reigned  .  .  1514 

Areas,  from  whom  the  kingdom  received  its 
name,  and  who  taught  his  subjects  agricul- 
ture and  the  art  of  spinning  wool  .  .  .1514 

Lyctean  games  instituted,  in  honour  of  Pan      .   1320 

Agapenor  appears  at  the  head  of  the  Arcadians 
at  the  siege  of  Troy  (Homer)  ....  1194 

The  Lacedaemonians  invade  Arcadia,  and  are 


beaten  by  the  women  of  the  country,  in  the 
absence  of  their  husbands  (?)  .  .  B.  c.  1 102 

Aristocrates  I.  (of  Orchomenus)  is  put  to  death 
for  offering  violence  to  the  priestess  of  Diana  715 

Aristocrates  II.  stoned  to  death,  and  a  republic 
established 63 1 

The  supremacy  of  Sparta  (acknowledged  560) 
is  abolished  by  the  Thebans  ;  Megalopolis 
founded  by  Epaminondas 371 

The  Arcadians  make  alliance  with  Athens,  and 
are  defeated  by  Archidamus  .  .  .  -367 

Arcadia,  having  joined  the  Achtean  league,  on 
its  suppression  becomes  part  of  the  Roman 
empire 146 

ARCH.  It  appears  in  early  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  architecture.  The  oldest  arch  in 
Europe  is  probably  in  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  at  Rome,  constructed  under  the  early  kings, 
about  588  B.C.  The  Chinese  bridges,  which  are  very  ancient,  are  of  great  magnitude,  and 
are  built  with  stone  arches  similar  to  those  that  have  been  considered  a  Roman  invention.* 
The  TRIUMPHAL  arches  of  the  Romans  formed  a  leading  feature  in  their  architecture.  The 
arch  of  Titus  (A.D.  80),  that  of  Trajan  (114),  and  that  of  Constantino  (312),  were  magnificent. 
The  arches  in  our  parks  in  London  were  erected  about  1828.  The  Marble  Arch,  which 
formerly  stood  before  Buckingham  Palace  (whence  it  was  renjoved  to  Cumberland-gate, 
Hyde  Park,  in  1851)  was  modelled  from  the  arch  of  Constantine.  See  Hyde  Park.  • 

ARCHANGEL  (N.  Russia),  a  city,  is  thus  named  from  a  monastery  founded  here,  and 
dedicated  to  St.  Michael  in  1584.  The  passage  to  Archangel  was  discovered  by  the  English 
navigator  Richard  Chancellor  in  1553,  and  it  was  the  only  seaport  of  Russia  till  the  formation 
of  the  docks  at  Cronstadt,  and  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg  in  1703.  The  dreadful  fire  here 
by  which  the  cathedral  and  upwards  of  3000  houses  were  destroyed,  occurred  in  June,  1793. 

ARCHBISHOP  (Greek  archiepiscopos],  a  title  given  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries  to  the 
bishops  of  chief  cities,  such  as  Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Constantinople,  who  pre- 
sided over  the  other  metropolitans  and  bishops  in  the  districts  attached  to  those  places.  The 
word  is  first  found  in  the  Apology  against  the  Arians  by  Athanasius,  who  died  373.  The 
Eastern  archbishops  have  since  been  styled  patriarchs."^  Riddle. 

ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN.  The  elector  of  Brandenburg  was  appointed  the  hereditary 
arch-chamberlain  of  the  German  Empire  by  the  golden  bull  of  Charles  IV.  in  1356,  and  in 
that  quality  he  bore  the  sceptre  before  the  emperor. 

ARCH-CHANCELLORS  were  appointed  under  the  two  first  races  of  the  kings  of  France 
^418 — 986),  and  when  their  territories  were  divided,  the  archbishops  of  Mentz,  Cologne,  and 
Treves  became  arch-chancellors  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  Aries. 

ARCHDEACON.  The  name  was  early  given  to  the  first  or  eldest  deacon,  who  attended 
on  the  bishop  Avithout  any  power  ;  but  since  the  council  of  Nice,  his  function  is  become  a 
dignity,  and  set  above  that  of  priest,  though  anciently  it  was  quite  otherwise.  The  ap- 
pointment in  these  countries  is  referred  to  1075.  There  are  seventy-one  archdeacons  in 
England  (1865),  and  thirty-three  in  Ireland.  The  archdeacon's  court  is  the  lowest  in  eccle- 
siastical polity  :  an  appeal  lies  from  it  to  the  consistorial  court,  by  24  Henry  VIII.  (1532). 

*  The  new  bridge  of  Chester,  whose  span  is  200  feet,  was  commenced  in  1829.  The  central  arch  of 
London  Bridge  is  152  feet ;  and  the  three  cast  iron  arches  of  Southwark  bridge,  which  rest  on  massive  stone 
piers  and  abutments  are,  the  two  side  ones  210  feet  each,  and  the  centre  240  feet  :  thus  the  centre  arch 
exceeds  the  admired  bridge  of  Sunderland  by  four  feet  in  the  span,  and  the  long-famed  Rialto  at  Venice, 
by  167  feet.  See  Bridges. 

t  In  these  realms  the  dignity  is  nearly  coeval  wit-h  the  establishment  of  Christianity.  Before  the 
Saxons  came  into  England  there  were  three  sees  :  London,  York,  and  Caerleon-upon-Usk ;  but  soon  after 
the  arrival  of  St.  Austin  he  settled  the  metropolitan  see  at  Canterbury,  602.  See  Canterbury.  York 
continued  archiepiscopal ;  but  London  and  Caerleon  lost  the  dignity.  Caerleon  was  found,  previously,  to 
be  too  near  the  dominions  of  the  Saxons  ;  and  in  the  time  of  King  Arthur  the  archbishopric  was  transferred 
to  St.  David's,  of  which  St.  Sampson  was  the  26th  and  last  Welsh  archbishop.  See  St.  David's.  The 
bishoprics  in  Scotland  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishop  of  York  until  the  erection  of  the 
archiepiscopal  sees  of  St.  Andrew's  and  Glasgow,  in  1470  and  1491 ;  these  last  were  discontinued  at  the 
Revolution.  See  Glasgow  and  St.  Andrew's.  The  bishop  of  Moray,  &c. ,  is  now  (1865)  styled  Primus.  The 
rank  of  archbishop  was  of  early  institution  in  Ireland.  See  Ferns.  Four  archbishoprics  were  constituted 
in  Ireland,  1151,  namely,  Armagh,  Cashel,  Dublin,  and  Tuam ;  until  then  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
had  jurisdiction  over  the  Irish  as  well  as  English  bishops,  in  like  manner  as  the  archbishop  of  York  had 
jurisdiction  over  those  of  Scotland.  Of  these  four  archbishoprics  two  were  reduced  to  bishoprics,  namely, 
Cashel,  and  Tuam,  conformably  with  the  statute  3  «fe  4  Will.  IV.  1833,  by  which  also  the  number  of  sees  m 
Ireland  was  to  be  reduced  (as  the  incumbents  often  of  them  respectively  died)  from  twenty-two  to  twelve, 
the  present  number.  See  tiithojts,  Caskcl,  Tuam  ;  Pallium,  d-c. 


ARC 


ARG 


ARCHERY.  Plato  ascribes  the  invention  to  Apollo,  by  whom  it  was  communicated  to 
the  Cretans.  Ishmael  "became  an  archer"  (Gen.  xxi.  20),  1892  B.C.  The  Philistine 
archers  overcame  Saul  (i  Sam.  xxxi.  3),  1055  B.C.  David  commanded  the  use  of  the  bow 
to  be  taught  (2  Sam.  i.  18).  Aster  of  Amphipolis,  having  been  slighted  by  Philip,  king  of 
Macedon,  at  the  siege  of  Methone,  353  B.C.,  shot  an  arrow,  on  which  was  written  "  Aimed 
at  Philip's  right  eye,"  which  struck  it  and  put  it  out ;  Philip  threw  back  the  arrow  with 
these  words  :  "If  Philip  take  the  town,  Aster  shall  be  hanged."  The  conqueror  kept  his 
word. 


440 


1066 


Archery  introduced  into  England  previously  to 

Harold  and  his  two  brothers  were  killed  by 
arrows  shot  from  the  cross-bows  of  the  Nor- 
man soldiers  at  the  battle  of  Hastings  in 

Richard  I.  revived  archery  in  England  in  1190, 
and  was  himself  killed  by  an  arrow  in  .  .1 199 

The  victories  of  Crecy  (1346),  Poitiers  (1356), 
and  Agincourt  (1415),  were  won  chiefly  by 
archers.* 

thousand  archers  surrounded  the  houses 


of  parliament,  ready  to  shoot  the  king  and 
the  members,  21  Richard  II.  (Stow.)  .  .  1397 

The  citizens  of  London  formed  into  com- 
panies of  archers  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
III. ;  and  into  a  corporate  body  by  the  style 
of  "  The  Fraternity  of  St.  George,"  29  Henry 
VIII.  .  ..  .  ...  I538 

Roger  Ascham's  "  Toxophilus,  the  School  of 
Shooting,"  published  in  ...  .  1571 

See  Artillery  Company,  Toxophilites,  &c. 


AKCHES,  COURT  or,  the  most  ancient  consistory  court,  chiefly  a  court  of  appeal  from 
inferior  jurisdictions  within  the  province  of  Canterbury  ;  it  derives  its  name  from  the  church 
of  St.  Mary-le-Bow  (Sancta  Maria  de  Arcubus),  London,  where  it  was  held  ;  and  whose  top 
is  raised  on  stone  pillars  built  archwise.  Cowell.  Appeals  from  this  court  lie  to  the  judicial 
committee  of  the  privy  council,  by  statute,  1832. 

ARCHITECTURE  (from  the  Greek  archi-tekton,  chief  artificer),  ornamental  building. 
The  live  great  orders  of  architecture  are, — the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  (Greek)  ; — the 
Tuscan  and  Composite  (Roman).  The  Gothic  began  to  prevail  in  the  ninth  century.  See 
the  Orders  respectively  and  Gothic. 

B.C.   1500  !  The  Parthenon  finished       .        .        .        .B.C.     438 
.     .  1004  i  The  Pantheon,  &c.,  built  at  Rome         .       A.D.       13 
.     900    The  Colosseum  (or  Coliseum)      ....       70 
.     .     650    Hadrian  builds  temples  at  Rome,  &c.    .        .     .     117 
550    Diocletian's  palace  at  Spalatro  ....     284 

Basilicas  at  Rome 330-900 

.     616    St.  Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  begun         .        .     532 
.    600    Rock-cut  temples  in  India— Caves  ot'Ellora  .  500-800 
500-420  |  Canterbury  cathedral,  founded      .        .        .     .     602 
.     335    Mosque  of  Omar,  at  Jerusalem  ....     637 

•     335    York  Minster,  begun  about 741 

480-320    St.  Peter's,  Rome        .        .    '    .        .        .    1450-1626 
450-420    St.  Paul's,  London 1675-1710 


The  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  begun  about 

Solomon's  Temple,  begun 

Birs  Nimroud,  in  Assyria  about 

The  Doric  order  begins  about         .        .        .     . 

Doric  Temple  at  ./Egina 

Temple  of  Jupiter  and  Cloaca  Maxima,  at  Rome, 

founded 

Babylon  built 

The  Ionic  order  begins  about 
The  Corinthian  order  begins 
Choragic  Monument  of  Lysikrates 
Architecture  flourishes  at  Athens 
Erechtheum  at  Athens   . 


EMINENT   ARCHITECTS. 


Born.  Dud. 
Vitruvius,  about .        .        B.C.    27 

A.D. 

William  of  Wickham    .   1324 — 1405 
Michael  Angelo  Buo- 
narotti       .        .         .   1474 — 1564 


A.  Palladio       . 
Inigo  Jones  . 
Bernini     . 
Christopher  Wren 
J.  Vanbrugh 


Born.  Died.  \ 

.  1518—1580    James  Gibbs   . 

.  1572—1652    R.  and  J.  Adams. 

.  1598—1680  I  A.  W.  Pugin   . 

.  1632—1723  I  C.  Barry 

.  1670 — 1726  I 


Born.  Died. 
.  1674—1754 
.  1728—1794 
.  1811—1852 
.  1795—1860 


An  Architectural  Club  was  formed  in  1791.  An  Architectural  Society  existed  in  London  in  1808. 
The  ROYAL  INSTITUTE  OF  BRITISH  ARCHITECTS  was  founded  in  1834— Earl  de  Grey,  president,  1835-61. 
The  Architectural  Society,  established  in  1831,  was  united  to  the  Institute  in  1842.  The  Architectural 
Association  began  about  1846. 

ARCHONS.  When  royalty  was  abolished  at  Athens,  in  memory  of  king  Codrus,  killed  in 
battle,  1044  B.C.  (or  1070),  the  executive  government  was  vested  in  elective  magistrates 
called  archons,  whose  office  continued  for  life.  Medon,  eldest  son  of  Codrus,  was  the  first 
archon.  The  office  was  limited  to  ten  years,  752  B.C.,  and  to  one  year  683  B.C. 

ARCOLA  (Lombardy),  the  site  of  battles  between  the  French  under  Bonaparte,  and  the 
Austrians  under  field-marshal  Alvinizi,  fought  Nov.  15 — 17,  1796.  The  result  was  the  loss 
on  the  part  of  the  Austrians  of  18,000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  four  flags, 
and  eighteen  guns.  The  loss  of  the  French  was  estimated  at  15,000.  They  became  masters 
of  Italy.  In  one  of  the  contests  Bonaparte  was  in  most  imminent  danger,  and  was  only 
rescued  by  the  impetuosity  of  his  troops. 

*  The  long-bow  was  six  feet  long,  and  the  arrow  three  feet ;  the  usual  range  from  300  to  500  yards. 
Robin  Hood  is  said  to  have  shot  from  600  to  800  yards.  A  Persian  hero,  Arish,  is  stated  to  have  shot  over 
between  400  and  500  miles,  as  related  by  Ferdousi !  The  cross-bow  was  tixed  to  a  stock,  and  discharged 
with  a  trigger. 


ARC  46  AEG 

ARGOT  (East  Indies).  This  city  (founded  1716)  was  taken  by  colonel  Clive,  Aug.  31, 
1751  ;  was  retaken,  but  again  surrendered  to  colonel  Coote,  Feb.  10,  1760.  Besieged  by 
Hyder  Ali,  when  the  British  under  colonel  Baillie  suffered  severe  defeats,  Sept.  10  and 
Oct.  31,  1780.  Arcot  has  been  subject  to  Great  Britain  since  1801.  See  India. 

ARCTIC  EXPEDITIONS.     See  North-West  Passage  and  Franklins  Expedition. 

AR.DAGH,  an  ancient  prelacy  in  Ireland,  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  who  made  his  nephew, 
Mell,  the  first  bishop,  previously  to  454.  This  prelacy  was  formerly  held  with  Kilmore  ;  but 
since  1742  it  has  been  held  in"  commend  am  with  Tuam  (which  sec).  It  was  united  with 
Kilmore  in  1839,  and  with  Elphin  in  1841. 

ARDFERT  AND  AGHADOE,  bishopricks  in  Ireland  long  united  ;  the  former  was  called 
the  bishoprick  of  Kerry  ;  Ert  presided  in  the  5th  century.  William  Fuller  appointed  in 
1663,  became  bishop  of  Limerick  in  1667,  since  when  Ardfert  and  Aghadoe  have  been  united 
to  that  prelacy.  Near  the  cathedral  an  anchorite  tower,  120  feet  high,  the  loftiest  and  finest 
in  the  kingdom,  suddenly  fell,  1770. 

ARDOCH.     See  Grampians. 

AREIOPAGUS  on  AREOPAGUS,  a  venerable  Greek  tribunal,  said  to  have  heard  causes 
in  the  dark,  because  the  judges  should  be  blind  to  all  but  facts,  instituted  at  Athens  about 
1507  B.C.  Arund.  Marbles.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  Arieos  pagos,  the  hill  of 
Mars,  through  the  tradition  that  Mars  was  the  first  who  was  tried  there  for  the  murder  of 
1  [alirrhotius,  Avho  had  violated  his  daughter  Alcippe.  The  powers  of  this  court  were  enlarged 
by  Solon,  about  594  B.C.,  but  diminished  by  the  jealousy  of  Pericles,  461  B.C.  Paul  preached 
on  Mars'  hill,  A.D.  52  (Acts  xvii.). 

AREZZO,  near  the  ancient  Arretium,  or  Aretinum,  an  Etrurian  city,  which  made  peace 
with  Rome  for  30  years,  308  B.C.,  was  besieged  by  the  Galli  Senones,  about  283  B.C.,  who 
defeated  the  Roman  army  Metellus  sent  to  its  relief — a  disgrace  avenged  signally  by  Dolabella. 
Arezzo  was  an  ancient  bishopric  :  the  cathedral  was  founded  in  1277.  It  is  renowned  as 
the  birthplace  of  Maecenas,  Petrarch,  Yasari,  and  other  eminent  men.  Michael  Angelo  was 
born  in  the  vicinity. 

ARGAUM,  in  the  Deccan,  India,  where  sir  A.  Wellesley,  on  Nov.  29,  1803,  thoroughly 
defeated  the  rajah  of  Beraraud  the  Mahratta  chief  Scindiah,  who  became  in  consequence  rjuifo 
subservient  to  the  British. 

ARGENTARIA,  Alsace  (now  COLMATI,  N.  E.  France),  where  the  Roman  emperor  Gratian 
totally  defeated  the  Alemanni,  and  secured  the  peace  of  Gaul,  378. 

ARGENTINE  (OR  LA  PLATA)  CONFEDERATION,  S.  America,  14  provinces.  This 
country  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1515  ;  settled  by  them  in  1553,  and  formed  part 
of  the  great  vice-royalty  of  Peru  till  1778,  when  it  became  that  of  Rio  de  la  Plata.  It  joined 
the  insurrection  in  1811,  and  became  independent  in  1816.  It  was  at  war  with  Brazil  from 
1826  to  1828,  for  the  possession  of  Uruguay,  which  became  independent  as  Monte-Video, 
and  at  war  with  France  from  1838-40.  Buenos  Ayres  seceded  in  1853,  and  was  reunited  in 
1859.  An  insurrection  began  in  San  Juan,  in  Nov.  1860,  and  was  suppressed  in  Jan.  1861, 
J.  Urquiza,  elected  president,  Nov.  20,  1853,  wras  succeeded  by  Dr.  S.  Derqui,  Feb.  8,  1860. 
Gen.  B.  Mitre,  elected  for  six  years,  assumed  the  president's  office,  Oct.  12,  1862.  In  April, 
1855,  Lopez,  president  of  Paraguay,  made  an  alliance  with  Buenos  Ayres,  declared  Avar 
against  Mitre,  and  invaded  the  Argentine  territories,  May.  Mitre  made  an  alliance  with 
Brazil.  Population  in  1859,  about  1,171,800.  See  Buenos  Ayres  for  the  disputes  with 
that  state. 

ARGINUS/E  ISLES,  between  Lesbos  and  Asia  Minor ;  near  these  Conon  and  the 
Athenian  fleet  defeated  the  Spartan  admiral  Callicratidas,  406  B.C. 

ARGONAUTIC  EXPEDITION,  1263  B.C.  (1225,  Clinton),  undertaken  by  Jason  to 
avenge  the  death  of  his  kinsman  Phryxus,  and  recover  his  treasures  seized  by  his  murderer, 
-•Eetes,  king  of  Colchis.  The  ship  in  which  Phryxus  had  sailed  to  Colchis  having  been 
adorned  with  the  figure  of  a  ram,  it  induced  the  poets  to  pretend  that  the  journey  of  Jason 
v\*as  for  the  recovery  of  the  golden  fleece.  This  is  the  first  naval  expedition  on  record. 
.Many  kings  and  heroes  accompanied  Jason,  whose  ship  was  called  Argo,  from  its  build 07-. 
Dtffrcfniot/. 


ARG  47  Aid 

ARGOS,  the  most  ancient  city  of  Greece,  said  to  have  been  founded  either  by  Inachus, 
1856  B.C.,  or  his  son,  Phoroneus,  1807,  received  its  name  from  Argus,  the  fourth  of  the 
luachiche,  1711  B.C. 

Reign  of  Triopas  ;  Polycaon  seizes  part  of  the  j  Sparta  becomes  superior  to  Argos        .     B.C.  495-490 

kingdom,  and  calls  it  after  his  wife,  Messenia  Tkemistpcles  an  exile  at  Argos  .        .        .        .471 

The  Argives  destroy  My  cense  and  regain  their 

superiority 468 

Peloponnesian  war — Argos  long  neutral ;  but 

joins  Athens 420 

The  aristocratical  party  makes  peace  with 
Sparta,  and  overthrows  the  democratical 
government 417 


B.C.  1552 
Gelanor,  last    of    the    Inachidse,  deposed    by 

Danaus,  an  Egyptian 1475 

Feast  of  the  Flambeaux,  instituted  in  honour  of 
Hypermnestra,  who  saved  her  husband,  Lyn- 
ceus,  son  of  ^Egyptus,  on  his  nuptial  night, 
while  her  forty-nine  sisters  sacrificed  theirs, 
at  the  command  of  their  father,  Dauaus  .  1425 


A  reaction — alliance  with  Athens  resumed 


395 


Lynoeus  dethi-ones  Danaus 1425  j  Pyrrhus   of   Macedon   slain    while    besieging 

The  kingdom  divided  by  the  brothers  Acrisius  Argqs 272 

ann  Prcetus        ....          1344(1313.  Cl.)  I  Argos  long  governed  by  tyrants  supported  by  , 
Perseus,  grandson  of  Acrisius,   leaves  Argos,  Macedon ;  it  is  freed  and  joins  the  Achsean 

and  founds  Mycenae  (which  fee)     .        .     .     .1313         league 229 

The  Heraclidae  retake  the  Peloponnesus,  and  |  Subjugated  by  the  Romans         .        .        .        .146 

Temenus  seizes  Argos 1102  j  Argos  taken  from  the  Venetians        .        .  A.D.  1686 


Pheidon's  prosperous  rule       ....  770-730 

The  Argives  fine  Sicyon  and  JEgiua,  for  helping 

Cleomenes  of  Sparta,  with  whom  they  are  at 


Taken  by  the  Turks  1716,  who  held  it  until      .  1826 
United  to  Greece  under  King  Otho  (see  Greece) 

Jan.  25,  1833 


ARGYLE  (W.  Scotland),  BISHOPRIC  OF,  founded  about  1200,  Evaldus  being  the  first 
bishop  ;  the  diocese  was  previously  part  of  the  see  of  Dunkeld  ;  it  ended  with  the  abolition 
of  episcopacy  in  Scotland,  1688.  Argyle  and  the  Isles  is  a  post-revolution  bishopric,  1847. 
See  Bishoprics. 

ARIAN,  OR  ARYAN  (in  Sanskrit  signifying  noble,  warlike),  a  term  now  frequently 
applied  to  the  hypothetical  Indo-Gerinanic  family  of  nations. 

ARIANS,  the  followers  of  Arms  of  Alexandria,  who  preached  against  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  about  315,  and  died  in  336.  The  controversy  was  taken  up  by  Constantino,  who 
presided  at  the  council  of  Nice,  325,  when  the  Arians  were  condemned  ;  but  their  doctrine 
prevailed  for  a  time  in  the  East.  It  was  favoured  by  Constantius  II.  341  ;  and  carried  into 
Africa  under  the  Vandals  in  the  5th  century,  and  into  Asia  under  the  Goths.  Servetus 
published  his  treatise  against  the  Trinity,  1531,  and  was  burnt,  1553.  See  Atlianasian 
Crml.  Leggatt,  an  Arian,  was  burnt  at  Sinithh'eld  in  1614. 

ARISTOTELIAN  PHILOSOPHY  :  the  most  comprehensive  system  ever  devised  by  man. 
Aristotle  was  born  at  Stagyra  (hence  termed  the  Stagyrite),  384  B.C.  ;  was  a  pupil  of.  Plato 
from  364  to  347  ;  became  preceptor  of  Alexander,  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  in  342  ;  and  died 
in  322.  He  divided  the  circle  of  knowledge  into  Metaphysics  and  Logic,  Physics,  including 
part  of  the  science  of  mind,  and  Ethics.  His  philosophy  was  too  much  exalted  by  the 
schoolmen  during  the  middle  ages,  and  too  much  depreciated  after  the  Reformation.  His 
Avorks  on  natural  science  contain  a  vast  collection  of  facts  and  an  extraordinary  mixture  of 
sound  and  chimerical  opinions.  To  him  is  attributed  the  assertion  that  nature  abhors  a 
vacuum,  an  opinion  now  maintained  by  some  eminent  modern  philosophers. 

ARITHMETIC  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  Egypt  into  Greece  by  Thales,  about 
600  B.C.  The  Chinese  used  the  abacus  at  an  early  period.  *  It  is  asserted  that  the  ancient 
Hindus  adopted  a  system  having  ten  as  a  basis. 

The  oldest  treatise  upon  arithmetic  is  by  Euclid 

(7th,   8th,   and  9th  books  of  his  Elements), 

about  B.O.     300 
The  sexagesimal  arithmetic  of  Ptolemy  was 

used A.D.     130 

I  tiophantus,  of  Alexandria,  was  the  author  of 

t  hirteen  books  of  arithmetical  questions  (of 

which  six  are  now  extant)    .        .        .  about    156 
Notation  by  nine  digits  and  zero,  known  at 

least  as  early  as  the  sixth  century  in  Hindo- 

stan— introduced  from  thence  into  Arabia, 

about    900 — into    Europe,    about   080 — into 


The  date  in  Caxton's  Mirrour  of  the  World, 
Arabic  characters,  is 1480 

Arithmetic  of  decimals  invented        .        .         .   1482 

John  Shirwood  bishop  of  Durham's  Ludus 
Arithmo  Machine*, "  printed  at  Rome  .  .  .  148.2 

First  work  printed  in  England  on  arithmetic 
(de  Arte  Svpputandi)  was  by  Tonstall,  bishop 
of  Durham 1522 

The  theory  of  decimal  fractions  was  perfected 
by  Napier  in  his  Rhabdologin,  in  .  .  .1617 

Cocker  s  Arithmetic  appeared  in  .         .        .     .   1677 

Xystrom's  Tonal  system  with  16  as  a  basis  pub- 


France,  by  Gerbert,  991— into  Spain,  1050 —  lished 1863 

into  England 1253  I 

ARIZONA,  a  territory  of  the  Unitnl  States,  origin ally  part  of  N>w  Mexu-o,  was  organised 
Fob.  24,  1863  ;  capital,  Tucson. 


ARK  43  ARM 

ARK.  Mount  Ararat  is  venerak'd  by  the  Armenians,  from  a  "belief  of  its  being  the  place 
on  which  Noah's  ark  rested,  after  the  universal  deluge,  2347  B.C.  But  Aparnea,  in  Phrygia, 
claims  to  be  the  spot ;  and  medals  have  been  struck  there  with  a  chest  on  the  waters,  and 
the  letters  NOE,  and  two  doves  :  this  place  is  300  miles  west  of  Ararat.  The  ark  was  300 
cubits  in  length,  fifty  in  breadth,  and  thirty  high  ;  but  most  interpreters  suppose  this  cubit 
to  be  about  a  foot  and  a-half,  and  not  the  geometrical  one  of  six. 

ARKANSAS,  originally  part  of  Louisiana,  purchased  from  France  by  the  United  States 
in  1803,  was  admitted  into  the  Union,  1836,  and  seceded  from  it  May  6,  1861.  Several 
battles  were  fought  in  this  state  in  1862.  Capital,  Little  Rock. 

ARKLOW  (in  Wicklow),  where  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  insurgent  Irish,  amount- 
ing to  31,000,  and  a  small  regular  force  of  British,  which  signally  defeated  them,  June  10, 
1798.  The  town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  insurgents  in  May  previous.— Native  gold  was 
discovered  in  Arklow,  in  Sept.  1795.  Phil,  Trans,  vol.  86. 

ARLES,  an  ancient  town  in  France,  in  879  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries  or  Lower 
Burgundy.  Here  are  the  remains  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre,  capable  of  holding  between 
20,000  and  30,000  persons.  English  bishops  are  said  to  have  been  present  at  the  council 
held  here  against  the  Donatists,  314. 

ARMADA,  THE  INVINCIBLE.  The  famous  Spanish  armament,  so  called,  consisted  of  130 
ships  of  war,  besides  transports,  &c.,  2650  great  guns,  20,000  soldiers,  11,000  sailors,  and 
2000  volunteers,  under  the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  and  180  priests  and  monks.  It  sailed 
from  the.  Tagn s,  May  28-30,  1588,  and  arrived  in  the  channel,  July  19,  1588,  and  was 
defeated  the  next  day  by  Drake  and  Howard.  Ten  fire-ships  having  been  sent  into  the 
enemies'  fleet,  they  cut  their  cables,  put  to  sea  and  endeavoured  to  return  to  their  rendezvous 
between  Calais  and  Gravelines  :  the  English  fell  upon  them,  took  many  ships,  and  admiral 
Howard  maintained  a  running  fight  from  the  2 1st  July  to  the  28th,  obliging  the  shattered  fleet 
to  bear  away  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  a  storm  dispersed  them,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  armament  returned  by  the  North  Sea  to  Spain.  The  Spaniards  lost  fifteen  capital  ships 
in  the  engagement,  and  5000  men  ;  seventeen  ships  were  lost  or  taken  on  the  coast  of  Ireland, 
and  upwards  of  5000  men  were  drowned,  killed,  or  taken  prisoners.  The  English  lost  but 
one  ship.  About  one-third  of  the  armament  returned  to  Spain. 

ARMAGH,  in  N.  Ireland,  of  which  it  was  the  metropolis  from  the  5th  to  the  9th  century, 
was  the  first  ecclesiastical  dignity  in  Ireland,  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  its  first  bishop,  about 
444,  who  is  said  to  have  built  the  first  cathedral  450.  Six  saints  of  the  Roman  calendar 
have  been  bishops  of  this  see.  In  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  taken  15  James  I.,  it  is 
valued  at  400?.  sterling  a  year  ;  and  until  lately,  was  estimated  at  15,000?.  per  annum.  The 
see  was  re-constituted  (see  Pallium}  in  1151.  Beatson.  Armagh  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes 
on  Easter-day,  852,  and  by  O'Neilin  1564. 

ARMAGNACS,  a  political  party  in  France,  followers  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  derived  their 
name  from  his  father-in-law,  the  count  of  Armaguac.  About  3500  of  this  party  were 
massacred  at  Paris  in  May,  1418,  by  their  opponents,  the  followers  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy. 

ARMED  NEUTRALITY,  the  confederacy  of  the  northern  powers  against  England, 
formed  by  the  empress  of  Russia  in  1780  ;  ended  in  1781.  The  confederacy  was  renewed, 
and  a  treaty  ratified  in  order  to  cause  their  flags  to  be  respected  by  the  belligerent  powers, 
Dec.  1 6,  1800.  The  principle  that  neutral  flags  protect  neutral  bottoms  being  contrary  to 
the  maritime  system  of  England,  the  British  cabinet  remonstrated,  war  ensued,  and  Nelson 
and  Parker  destroyed  the  fleet  of  Denmark  before  Copenhagen,  April  2,  1801.  This  event 
and  the  murder  of  the  emperor  Paul  of  Russia  led  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Armed 
Neutrality. 

ARMENIA,  Asia  Minor.  Here  Noah  is  said  to  have  resided  when  he  left  the  ark,  2347 
B.C.  Armenia,  after  forming  part  of  the  Assyrian,  Median,  and  Persian  empires,  became 
subject  to  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria,  after  the  defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  190  B.C.;  the 
Romans  established  the  kingdoms  of  Armenia  Major  and  Minor,  but  their  influence  over 
them  was  frequently  interrupted  by  the  aggressions  of  the  Parthians.  The  modern  Christian 
kingdom  of  Armenia  arose  about  1080  in  the  rebellion  of  Philaretus  Brachancius  against  the 
Greek  emperor.  It  lasted  amid  many  struggles  till  the  I4th  century.  In  all  their  political 
troubles  the  Armenians  have  maintained  the  profession  of  Christianity.  Their  church  is 
governed  by  patriarchs,  not  subject  to  Rome.  Since  1715  an  Armenian  convent  has  existed 
at  Venice,  where  books  on  all  subjects  are  printed  in  the  Armenian  language. 


ARM 


49 


ARM 


ARMENIA,  continued. 


City  of  Artaxarta  built 

Antiochus  Epiphanes  invades  Armenia 

Tigranes  the  Great  reigns  in  Armenia  Major 

Becomes  king  of  Syria,  and  assumes  the  title 
of  "  King  of  Kings  " 

Defeated  by  Lucullus,  69 ;  he  lays  his  crown  at 
the  feet  of  Pompey 

His  son,  Artavasdes,  reigns,  54 ;  he  assists 
Pompey  against  Julius  Caesar,  48;  and  the 
Parthians  against  Marc  Antony 

Antony  subdues,  and  sends  him  loaded  with 
silver  chains  to  Egypt 

Artaxias,  his  son,  made  king  by  the  Parthians 

Deposed  by  the  Romans,  who  enthrone  Ti- 
granes II 

Armenia  subjected  to  Parthia        .        .       A.D. 

Reconquered  by  Germanicus,  grandson  of  Au- 
gustus   

After  many  changes  Tiridates  is  made  king  by 
the  Romans 

The  Parthian  conquerors  of  Armenia  are  ex- 
pelled by  Trajan  

makes  Volagarses  king  of  part  of 
snia 


B.C.     1 86    Christianity  introduced,  between 


S6A= 
AP 


165 
95-60 

83 
66 


199 


Armenia  added  to  the  Persian  empire 


IOO-2OO 
3I2 


Tiridates  obtains  the  throne  through  Dio- 
cletian, 286 ;  is  expelled  by  Narses,  294 ; 
restored  by  Galerius 298 

On  his  death,  Armenia  becomes  subject  to 
Persia,  342 ;  is  made  neutral  by  Rome  and 
Persia,  384 ;  who  divide  it  by  treaty  .  .  443 

Armenia  conquered  and  reconquered  by  the 
Greek  and  Persian  sovereigns  .  .  577-687 

And  by  the  Greek  emperors  and  the  Mahom- 
medans  .  .  .  .  .  .  693-1065 

Leon  VI.,  last  king  of  Armenia,  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Saracens,  1375  ;  released  ;  he  dies  at 
Paris 1393 

Overrun  by  the  Mongols,  1235 ;  by  Timour, 
1383  ;  by  the  Turks,  1516  ;  by  the  Persians, 
1534  ;  t>y  tb-e  Turks 1583 

Shah  Abbas,  of  Persia,  surrenders  Armenia  to 
the  Turks,  but  transports  22,000  Armenian 
families  into  his  own  states  .  ...  1589 

Overrun  by  the  Russians 1828 

Surrender  of  Erzeroum   ....    July,  1829 
(See  Syria  and  Russo- Turkish  War.) 


ARMENIAN  ERA,  commenced  on  the  9th  of  July,  552  ;  the  ecclesiastical  year  on 
the  nth  August.  To  reduce  this  last  to  our  time,  add  551  years,  and  221  days  ;'  and  in 
leap  years  subtract  one  day  from  March  I  to  August  10.  The  Armenians  used  the  old 
Julian  style  and  months  in  their  correspondence  with  Europeans. 

ARM1LLARY  SPHERE,  an  instrument  devised  to  give  an  idea  of  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  It  is  commonly  made  of  brass,  and  disposed  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
greater  and  lesser  circles  of  the  sphere  are  seen  in  their  natural  position  and  motion  ;  the 
whole  being  comprised  in  a  frame.  It  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Eratosthenes,  about 
255  B.C.  ;  and  was  employed  by  Tycho  Brahe  and  other  astronomers. 

ARMINIANS  (OR  REMONSTRANTS)  derive  their  former  name  from  James  Arminius  (or 
Harmensen),  a  Protestant  divine,  of  Leyden,  Holland  (died,  1609);  the  latter  name  from 
his  followers  having  presented  a  Remonstrance  to  the  States-General  in  1610.  They 
separated  from  the  Calvinists,  considering  Calvin's  views  of  grace  and  predestination  in 
opposition  to  free  will  too  severe.  A  tierce  controversy  raged  to  1625,  when  the  Arminians, 
who  had  been  exiled,  returned  to  their  homes.  Their  doctrines  were  condemned  in  1619, 
at  the  synod  of  Dort  (which  see).  The  Calvinists  were  then  sometimes  styled  Gomarists, 
from  Gomar,  the  chief  opponent  to  Arminius.  "*  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  favoured  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Arminians,  which  still  prevail  largely  in  Holland  and  elsewhere. 

ARMORIAL  BEARINGS  became  hereditary  in  families  at  the  close  of  the  I2th  century. 
They  took  their  rise  from  the  knights  painting  their  banners  with  different  figures,  and  were 
employed  by  the  crusaders,  ^  in  order  at  first  to  distinguish  noblemen  in  battle,  noo. 
The  lines  to  denote  colours  in  arms,  by  their  direction  or  intersection,  were  invented  by 
Columbiere  in  1639.  Armorial  bearings  were  taxed  in  1798,  and  again  in  1808.  The  armo- 
rial bearings  of  the  English  sovereigns  are  given  under  the  article  England. 


ARMORICA,  now  Brittany,  N.  France,  was  conquered  by  Julius  Ctesar,  56  B.C. 
Gauls  retired  there  and  preserved  the  Celtic  tongue,  A.D.  584.     See  Brittany. 


Many 


ARMOUR.  That  of  Goliath  is  described  (about  1063  B.C.)  I  Sam.  xvii.  5.  The  warlike 
Europeans  at  first  despised  any  other  defence  than  the  shield.  Skins  and  padded  hides  were 
first  used  ;  and  brass  and  iron  armour,  in  plates  or  scales,  followed.  The  first  body  armour 
of  the  Britons  was  skins  of  wild  beasts,  exchanged,  after  the  Roman  conquest,  for  the  well- 
tanned  leathern  cuirass.  Tacitus.  This  latter  continued  till  the  Anglo-Saxon  era. 
Hengist  is  said  to  have  had  scale  armour,  A.D.  449.  The  Norman  armour  formed  breeches 
and  jacket,  1066.  The  hauberk  had  its  hood  of  the  same  piece,  1 100.  John  wore  a  surtout 
over  a  hauberk  of  rings  set  edgeways,  1199.  The  heavy  cavalry  were  covered  with  a  coat  of 
mail,  Henry  III.  1216.  Some  horsemen  had  vizors,  and  scull-caps,  same  reign.  Armour 
became  exceedingly  splendid  about  1350.  The  armour  of  plate  commenced  1407.  Black 
armour,  used  not  only  for  battle,  but  for  mourning,  Henry  V.  1413.  The  armour  of  Henry  VII. 
consisted  of  a  cuirass  of  steel,  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  stays,  about  1500.  Armour  ceased 
to  reach  below  the  knees,  Charles  I.  1625.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  officers  wore  no  other 


ARM 


50 


ARM 


armour  than  a 
the  present  day. 


orget,  which  is  commemorated  in  the  diminutive  ornament  known  at 

cyriclc. 


ARMS.  The  club  was  the  first  offensive  weapon  ;  then  followed  the  mace,  battle-axe, 
pike,  spear,  javelin,  sword  and  dagger,  bows  and  arrows.  Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  of 
the  sling  to  the  Phoenicians.  See  articles  on  the  various  weapons  throughout  the  volume. 

ARMS.     See  Armorial  bearings  and  Heraldry. 

ARMS'  BILL,  for  the  repression  of  crime  and  insurrection  in  Ireland,  was  passed  Oct.  15, 
1831.  It  was  a  revival  of  the  expired  statutes  of  George  III.  The  guns  registered  under 
this  act  throughout  the  kingdom  at  the  close  of  the  first  year  scarcely  amounted  to  3000, 
and  the  number  was  equally  snmll  of  all  other  kinds  of  arms.  The  new  Arms'  bill  passed 
Aug.  22,  1843.  It  has  been  since  renewed,  but  has  not  been  rigidly  enforced. 

ARMY.  Ninus  and  Semiramis  had  armies  amounting  to  nearly  two  millions  of  fighting 
men,  2017  B.C.  The  first  guards  and  regular  troops  as  a  standing  army  were  formed  by 
Saul,  1093  B.C.  Eusebius,  The  army  of  Xerxes  invading  Greece  is  said  to  have  been 
1,700,000  foot  and  80,000  horse  :  480  B.C.  One  of  the  first  standing  armies  of  which  we 
have  any  account,  is  that  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  The  army  which  Darius  opposed  to 
Alexander  the  Great  (332  B.C.)  is  set  down  as  between  750,000  and  a  million.  The  first 
standing  army  which  existed  as  such,  in  modern  times,  was  maintained  in  France  by 
Charles  VII.  in  1445.  The  chief  European  nations  have  had  in  their  service  the  following 
armies:  Spain,  150,000  men  ;  Great  Britain,  310,000;  Prussia,  350,000;  Turkey,  450,000; 
Austria,  500,000  ;  Russia,  560,000  ;  and  France,  680,000.  Estimated  number  in  Europe  in 
1863,  6,000,000  soldiers,  1,000,000  horses,  u,oooguns. 

ARMY,  BRITISH,  mainly  arose  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  in  1661,  in  consequence  of  the 
extinction  of  feudal  tenures.  The  first  five  regiments  of  British  infantry  were  established 
between  1633  and  1680.  James  II.  established  several  regiments  of  dragoon  guards  (1685-8). 
In  1685  the  army  consisted  of  7000  foot  and  1700  cavalry.  Standing  armies  were  introduced 
by  Charles  I.  in  1638  ;  they  were  declared  illegal  in  England,  31  Charles  II.  1679  ;  but  one 
was  then  gradually  forming,  which  was  maintained  by  William  III.  1689,  when  the  Mutiny 
Act  was  passed.  See  Regiments.  Grose's  "History  of  the  British  Army"  was  published  in 
1801.  The  effective  rank-and-file  of  the  army  actually  serving  in  the  pay  of  Great  Britain 
on  the  24th  Dec.  1800,  amounted  to  168,082  ;  and  the  estimates  of  the  whole  army  in  that 
year  were  17,973,000?.  The  militia,  volunteer,  and  other  auxiliary  forces  were  of  immense 
amount  at  some  periods  of  the  war  ending  in  1815.  The  strength  of  the  volunteer  corps 
was  greatest  between  the  years  1798  and  1804,  in  which  latter  year  this  species  of  force 
amounted  to  410,000  men,  of  whom  70,000  were  Irish;  and  the  militia  had  increased  to 
130,000  men,  previously  to  the  regular  regiments  being  recruited  from  its  ranks  in  1809. 
The  following  are  statements  of  the  effective  military  strength  of  the  United  Kingdom  at 
the  periods  mentioned,  and  of  the  sums  voted  for  military  expenditure  : 

1780,  Time  of  war :  troops  of 

the  line 

1800,  War 

1810,  War:    army  including 

foreign  troops 

1815,  Last  year  of  the  war     . 
1820,  Time  of  peace;  war  in- 

cumbrances    .        .     . 
1830,  Peace     ..... 
1840,  Peace         .        .        .     . 
1850,  Peace     .'.'*•....„. 
1852,  Peace  (except  Kaffir  war)  101,937 
1854,  War  with  Russia 

ARMY,    AND   NAVY,    AND   OTHER  CHARGES   OF   THE   WAR  WITH   RUSSIA. 

Original  Estimate  1854-5  Actual  Charge  1854-5  Estimate  for  1855-6 

Army         ....    £6,287,486         .        .        .      £7,167,486  ....    £13,721,158 

Navy 7,487,948    ....       10,417,309      .  .     .       10,716,338 

Ordnance  ....       3,845,878         .        .        .        5,986,662  ....        7,808,042 
Transports  (increase  in  Navy) 3,582,474      .        ...        5,181,465 


Men. 

Sum  voted. 

Men. 

Sum  voted. 

1855,  War  with  Russia  .        .     178,645* 

£13,721,158 

110,000 

£7,847,000 

1856,  War  with  Russia  (effec- 

168,000 

17,973,000 

tive  men  154,806)    .     .     206,836 

i4>545,°59 

300,000 

26,748,000 

(Sept.  5,  1856,  reduced  to  125,000  men, 
exclusive  of  the  Indian  army.) 

300,000 

39,150,000 

1859,  Prospect    of    European  |        g 

13,300,000 

88,100 

18,253,000 

war  in  April—  June  (in  >  /on'i  v  th 
Great  Britain)         .     .  )  v       •* 

ose  at  home) 

89,300 

6,991,000 

1860,  War  with  China     .        .     235,852 

14,842,000 

93.471 

6,890,267 

1861,     212,773 

1  4.,  168,621 

99,118 

6,763,488 

1862,           

,, 

IOI>937 

7,018,164 

1863,  (With  Indian  army)  .     .     220,918 

15,060,237 

112,977 

7,167,486 

Total.        .     .£17,621,312  £27,153,931 

VOLUNTEERS  in  Great  Britain  in  1862,  stated  to  be  167,291. 


£37,427,003 


*  Besides  this  national  army,  14,950  foreign  troops  were  voted  for  the  service  of  the  year  1855-6;  and 
the  English  militia  was  called  out,  and  increased  to  the  number  of  120,000  men,  thus  forming  a  total  of 
3I3>595>  exclusive  of  20,000  Turkish  auxiliaries  taken  into  British  pay. 


ARM 


51 


ARR 


ARMY,  BRITISH,  continued. 

BRITISH  ARMY;  NON-COMMISSIONED  OFFICERS  AND  PRIVATES,  IN  1840. 


English    .... 
Scotch.        .                 .     . 
Irish         .... 

Total        .        .     . 

Life  Guards. 

Horse  Guards. 

Foot  Guards. 

Cavalry. 

Infantry. 

724 
67 
19 

367 

22 
10 

4.3H 

472 
64 

6,174 
781 
2,569 

35,783 
12,046 
36,53i 

810 

3Q9 

4,850 

9>524 

84,362 

Army  Service  Acts :  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  37 
(June  21,  1847),  and  18  Viet.  c.  4    .     Feb.  27,  1855 

The  Mutiny  Act  is  passed  annually ;  alterations 
were  made  in  this  Act  and  in  the  Articles  of 
War  in  1855.  See  Militia  and  Volunteers. 

Officers  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany to  have  the  same  rank  and  precedence 
as  those  in  the  regular  army  .  April  25,  „ 

The  office  of  Master-General  of  the  Ordnance 
abolished,  and  the  civil  administration  of  the 
Army  and  Ordnance  vested  in  the  hands  of  . 
Lord  Panmure,  the  Minister  of  War    May  25,    ,, 

Examination  of  staff  officers  previous  to  their 
appointment  ordered  .  .  .  April  9,  1857 

Thf  -  — * "    *  •      "      —  -    -  -   • 

_.c 


The  army  largely  recruited  in  1857  and  1858,  in 
lia. 


consequence  of  the  war  in  Indi 
The  East  India  Company's  army  was  transferred 

to  the  Queen 1859 

Much  dissatisfaction  arose  in  that  army  in  con- 


sequence of  no  bounty  being  granted ;  and 
threatenings  of  mutiny  appeared,  which 
subsided  after  an  arrangement  was  made 
granting  discharge  to  those  who  desired  it. 
See  India  .  . 1859 

Examination  of  candidates  for  the  Military 
Academy,  previously  confined  to  pupils  from 
Sandhurst,  was  thrown  open,  1855 ;  the  prin- 
ciple of  this  measure  was  affirmed  by  the 
House  of  Commons  by  vote  .  April  26,  1858 

By  22  &  23  Viet.  c.  42,  provision  made  for  a  re- 
serve force,  not  to  exceed  20,000  men,  who 
had  been  in  her  majesty's  service  .  .  .  1859 

Flogging  virtually  abolished  in  the  army :  First 
class  soldiers  to  be  degraded  to  second  class 
before  being  liable  to  it  .  .  .  Nov.  9,  , , 

A  report  of  a  commission  in  1858  causes  great 


sanitary  improvements  in  the  army,  barracks, 
&c.,  under  direction  of  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert  i£ 


859-60 


ARMY  OF  OCCUPATION.  The  allied  powers,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  by  the  treaty, 
signed  Nov.  20,  1815,  established  the  boundaries  of  France,  and  stipulated  for  the  occupa- 
tion of  certain  fortresses  by  foreign  troops  for  three  years,  to  the  intense  disgust  of  the 
natives. 

AROMATICS.  Acron  of  Agrigentum  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  caused  great  fires 
to  be  made,  and  aromatics  to  be  thrown  into  them,  to  purify  the  air,  by  which  means  he  put 
a  stop  to  the  plague  at  Athens,  473  B.C.  Nouv.  Diet. 

ARP1NUM  (S.  Italy),  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  Cicero,  Jan.  3,  106  B.C.  ;  many 
remains  still  bear  his  name. 

ARQUEBUS.    See  Fire  Arms. 

ARQUES  (N.  France).  Near  here  the  League  army,  commanded  by  tlic  due  do  Mayenne, 
was  defeated  by  Henry  IV.  Sept.  21,  1589. 

ARRACAN,  a  province  of  N.E.  India.  Arracan,  the  capital,  was  taken  by  the  Burmese, 
1783  ;  and  taken  from  them  by  general  Morrison,  April  I,  1825.  The  subjugation  of  the 
whole  province  soon  followed. 

ARRAIGNMENT  consists  in  reading  the  indictment  by  the  officer  of  the  court,  and 
calling  upon  the  prisoner  to  say  whether  he  is  guilty  or  not  guilty.  Formerly,  persons  who 
refused  to  plead  in  cases  of  felony  were  pressed  to  death  by  weights  placed  upon  the  breast. 
A  person  standing  mute  was  declared  convicted  by  an  act  passed  1772;  but  in  1827,  the 
court  was  directed  to  enter  a  plea  of  " not  guilty"  in  such  cases.  See  Mute. 

ARRAS  (N.E.  of  France),  the  ancient  Atrebates,  the  seat  of  a  bishop  since  390. 
Here  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  king  of  France  and  duke  of  Burgundy,  when  the 
latter  abandoned  his  alliance  with  England,  Sept.  22,  1435.  Another  treaty  was  concluded 
by  Maximilian  of  Austria  with  Louis  XI.  of  France,  whereby  the  counties  of  Burgundy  and 
Artois  were  given  to  the  dauphin  as  a  marriage  portion  ;  this  latter  was  entered  into  in 
1482.  Vclly.  Arras  was  held  by  the  Austrians  from  1493  till  1640,  when  it  was  taken  by 
Louis  XIII. 

ARRAY.  On  Dec.  23,  1324,  Edward  II.  directed  the  bishop  of  Durham  to  -make 
"arraier"  his  men-of-arms,  horse  and  foot,  and  cause  them  to  proceed  to  Portsmouth; 
thence  to  proceed  to  the  war  in  Gascony.  Rymtr's  Fculcrci.  Hallam  says  that  this  was  the 
earliest  commission  of  array  that  he  could  find,  and  that  the  latest  was  dated  1557.  The 

E  2 


ARE, 


ART 


attempt  of  Charles  I.  to  revive  commissions  of  array  in  1642,  founded  on  a  statute  of  Henry 
IV.,  was  strenuously  opposed  as  illegal. 

AEREST  FOR  DEBT.     The  persons  of  peers,  members  of  parliament,  &c.,  are  protected 
from  arrest.     See  Ambassadors;  Ferrars' Arrest. 


Statute  abolishing  arrest  for  debt  on  mesne 
process,  except  in  cases  wherein  there  is 
ground  to  show  that  the  defendant  designs 
to  leave  the  country,  2  Viet. ,  Aug.  .  .  1838 

By  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  96,  the  power  of  imprison- 
ment even  upon  final  process,  that  is  judg- 
ment debts,  is  abolished  if  the  sum  does  not 
exceed  2ol.  exclusive  of  costs,  1844 ;  and  by 
9  &  10  Viet.  c.  95,  the  judge  has  no  power  to 
punish,  except  in  case  of  fraud  or  contempt 
of  court  .  .  • 1846 

By  the  Absconding  Debtors'  Arrest  Act,  ab- 
sconding debtors  owing  20 1.  and  upwards  are 
liable  to  arrest 1851 


Clergymen   performing    divine  service    privi- 
leged, soEdw.  Ill 1375 

Seamen  privileged  from  debts  under  zol,  by 

30  Geo.  II 1756 

Barristers  privileged  from  arrest  while  going 

to,  attending  upon,  and  returning  from  court, 

on  the  business  of  their  clients. 
By  statute  29  Charles  II.  no  arrest  can  be  made, 

nor  process  served,  upon  a  Sunday.     This 

law  was  extended  by  William  III. 
Vexatious  arrests  prevented  by  act,  May,  1733. 

Prohibited  for  less  than  io£.  on  process,  1779 : 

and  for  less  than  zol.        .        .        .        July,  1827 
Arrests  for  less  than  20?.  were  prohibited  on 

mesne  process  in  Ireland,  in  June          .        .  1829 

ARRETINUM.     See  Arezzo. 

ARSENAL,  a  great  military  or  naval  repository.  The  largest  in  this  countiy  is  at  Wool- 
wich, which  see. 

ARSENIC,  a  steel-gray  coloured  brittle  metal,  extremely  poisonous,  known  in  early 
times.  Brandt,  in  1733,  made  the  first  accurate  experiments  on  its  chemical  nature.  The 
heinous  crimes  committed  by  means  of  this  mineral  obliged  the  legislature  to  enact  regula- 
tions for  its  sale,  14  Viet.  cap.  13,  June  5,  1851.  The  sale  of  all  colourless  preparations  of 
arsenic  is  regulated  by  this  act.  In  1858  Dr.  A.  S.  Taylor  asserted  that  green  paper- 
hangings  prepared  from  arsenic  were  injurious  to  health ;  which  appears  to  be  true,  although 
doubted  by  some  chemists.  See  Cacodyl. 

ARSEN1TE  SCHISM.     See  Eastern  Church,  1255. 

ARSON  was  punished  with  death  by  the  Saxons,  and  remained  a  capital  crime  on  the 
consolidation  of  the  laws  in  1827,  1837,  and  1861.  If  any  house  be  fired,  persons  being 
therein,  or  if  any  vessel  be  fired,  with  a  view  to  murder  or  plunder,  it  shall  be  death,  statute 
i  Viet.,  July,  1837. 

ARSOUF  (Syria),  BATTLE  OF,  in  which  Richard  I.  of  England,  commanding  the  Christian 
forces,  reduced  to  30,000,  defeated  Saladin's  army  of  300,000  Saracens  and  other  infidels,  on 
Sept.  3  or  7,  1191.  Ascalon  surrendered.  Richard  marched  to  Jerusalem,  1192. 

ARTEMISIUM,  a  promontory  in  Eubcea,  near  which  indecisive  conflicts  took  place 
between  the  Greek  and  Persian  fleets  for  three  days ;  480  B.C.  The  former  retired  on  hearing 
of  the  battle  of  Thermopylee. 

ARTESIAN  WELLS  (from  Artesia,  now  Artois,  in  France,  where  they  frequently  occur) 
are  formed  by  boring  through  the  upper  soil  to  strata  containing  water,  which  has  percolated 
from  a  higher  level,  and  which  rises  to  that  level  through  the  boring  tube.  The  fountains 
in  Trafalgar  square  and  government  offices  near  have  been  supplied  since  1844  by  two  of 
these  wells  (393  feet  deep).  At  Paris  the  Crenelle  well  (1798  feet  deep),  was  completed  in 
1841,  after  eight  years  of  exertion,  by  M.  Mulot  at  an  expense  of  about  12,000^.,  and  the 
well  at  Passy,  which  it  is  said  will  supply  sufficient  water  for  nearly  500,000  persons,  was 
begun  in  1855,  and  completed  in  1860  by  M.  Kind.  Messrs.  Amos  and  Easton  completed 
an  artesian  well  for  the  Horticultural  Society's  garden  in  1862.  It  yielded  880,000  gallons 
of  water,  at  the  temperature  of  81°  Fahr.,  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  well  at  Kissingen  was 
completed  in  1850.  Artesian  wells  are  now  becoming  common. 

ARTICHOKES  are  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  the  East  into  Western  Europe  in 
the  1 5th  century,  and  to  have  reached  England  about  1502. 

ARTICLES  OF  RELIGION.  In  June  8,  1536,  after  much  disputing,  the  English  clergy 
in  convocation  published  ''Articles  decreed  by  the  king's  highness"  Henry  VIII.,  who 
published  in  1539  the  "  Statute  of  Six  Articles,"  viz.  transubstantiation,  communion  in  one 
kind,  vows  of  chastity,  private  masses,  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  auricular  confession.  In 
1551  forty-two  were  published  without  the  consent  of  parliament.  These  forty-two  were 
modified  and  reduced  to  THIRTY-NINE  in  Jan.  1563  ;  and  they  received  the  royal  authority 
and  the  authority  of  parliament  in  1571.  The  Lambeth  Articles,  of  a  more  Calvinistic 
character,  attempted  to  be  imposed  by  archbishop  Whitgift,  were  withdrawn  in  consequence 


ART  53  ARU 


„ 


of  the  displeasure  of  queen  Elizabeth,  1595.  One  hundred  and  four  articles  were  drawn  up 
for  Ireland  by  archbishop  Usher  in  1614.  On  the  union  of  the  churches,  the  Irish  adopted 
the  English  articles.  See  Perth  Articles. 

ARTICLES  OF  WAR  were  decreed  in  the  time  of  Richard  I.  and  John.  Those  made  by 
Richard  II.  in  1485  appear  in  Grose's  "Military  Antiquities."  The  Articles  of  "War  now  in 
force  are  based  upon  an  act,  passed  by  William  III.  in  1689,  to  regulate  the  army  about  to 
engage  in  his  continental  warfare. 

ARTIFICERS  AND  MANUFACTURERS.  Their  affairs  were  severely  regulated  by  the 
statutes  of  1349,  1351,  1360,  1562.  They  were  prohibited  from  leaving  England,  and  those 
abroad  were  outlawed,  if  they  did  not  return  within  six  months  after  the  notice  given  them. 
A  line  of  iooZ.,  and  imprisonment  for  three  months,  were  the  penalties  for  seducing  them 
from  these  realms,  by  9  Geo.  II.  (1736)  and  other  statutes,  which  were  repealed  in  1824. 

ARTILLERY,  a  term  including  properly  all  missiles  :  now  applies  to  cannon.  The  first 
iece  was  a  small  one,  contrived  by  Schwartz,  a  German  cordelier,  soon  after  the  invention 
of  gunpowder,  in  1330.  Artillery  wras  used,  it  is  said,  by  the  Moors  of  Algesiras,  in  Spain, 
in  the  siege  of  1343  ;  it  was  used,  according  to  our  historians,  at  the  battle  of  Crecy,  in  1346, 
when  Edward  III.  had  four  pieces  of  cannon,  which  gained  him  the  battle.  We  had  artillery 
at  the  siege  of  Calais,  1347.  The  Venetians  first  employed  artillery  against  the  Genoese  at 
sea,  1377.  Voltaire.  Said  to  have  been  used  by  the  English  at  Calais  in  1383.  Cast  in 
England,  together  with  mortars  for  bomb-shells,  by  Flemish  artists,  in  Sussex,  1543. 
Rymer's  Fcedera.  Made  of  brass  1635  ;  improvements  by  Browne,  1728. — See  Cannon, 
Bombs,  Carronades  (under  Carron),  Mortars,  Howitzers,  Petard,  Rockets,  Fire-arms.  The 
Royal  Artillery  regiment  was  established  in  the  reign  of  Anne. 

ARTILLERY  COMPANY  OF  LONDON,  HONOURABLE,  instituted  in  1585,  having  ceased, 
was  revived  in  1610.  It  met  for  military  exercise  at  the  Artillery  ground,  Finsbury,  where 
the  London  Archers  had  met  since  1498.  (See  Archery.}  In  the  civil  war,  1641-8,  the 
company  took  the  side  of  the  parliament,  and  greatly  contributed  towards  its  success.  The 
company  numbered  1200  in  1803  and  800  in  1861.  Since  1842  the  officers  have  been 
appointed  by  the  Queen.  On  the  decease  of  the  duke  of  Sussex  in  1843,  the  Prince  Consort 
became  colonel  and  captain-general.  He  died  Dec.  14,  1861,  and  the  Prince  of  Wales  was 
appointed  his  successor  Aug.  24,  1863. 

ARTISTS'  FUND  was  established  in  1810  to  provide  allowances  for  sick,  and  annuities 
for  incapacitated  members. 

ARTS.  In  the  8th  century,  the  whole  circle  of  sciences  was  composed  of  seven  liberal 
arts — grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  Harris.  The 
Royal  Society  of  England  (which  see)  obtained  its  charter  April  2,  1663.  The  Society  of 
Arts,  to  promote  the  polite  arts,  commerce,  manufactures,  and  mechanics,  was  instituted  in 
1754  ;  it  originated  in  the  patriotic  zeal  of  Mr.  Shipley,  and  of  its  first  president,  lord  Folke- 
stone.— FINE  ARTS.  The  first  public  exhibition  by  the  artists  of  the  British  metropolis  took 
place  in  1760,  at  the  rooms  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  was  repeated  there  for  several  years, 
till,  in  process  of  time,  the  Royal  Academy  was  founded.  See  Royal  Academy.  The  Society 
of  British  Artists  was  instituted  May  21,  1823  ;  and  their  first  exhibition  was  opened  April 
19,  1824.  The  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  the  Fine  Arts  was  founded  in  Dec.  1858. 
See  British  Institution  ;  National  Gallery. 

ART-UNIONS  began  in  France  and  Germany  early  in  the  present  century.  The  first  in 
Britain  was  established  at  Edinburgh  ;  that  in  London  was  founded  in  1836,  and  chartered 
in  1846,  when  these  unions  were  legalised.  Every  subscriber  is  entitled  to  prints,  and  has 
the  chance  of  drawing  prizes. 

ARUNDEL  CASTLE  (Sussex),  built  by  the  Saxons  about  800.  The  duke  of  Norfolk 
enjoys  the  earldom  of  Arundel,  as  a  feudal  honour,  by  inheritance  and  possession  of  the 
castle,  without  any  other  creation.  Philip  Howard,  son  of  the  attainted  duke  of  Norfolk, 
was  made  earl  of  Arundel,  by  summons,  as  possessor  of  this  castle,  1580.  It  was  thoroughly 
repaired  by  a  late  duke  at  a  vast  expense. 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES,  called  also  Oxford  Marbles  ;  one  containing  the  chronology 
of  ancient  history  from  1582  to  355  B.C.,  and  said  to  have  been  sculptured  264  B.C.  They 
consist  of  37  statues,  128  busts,  and  250  inscriptions,  and  were  found  in  the  isle  of  Paros,  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.,  about  1610.  They  were  collected  by  Mr.  W.  Petty,  purchased  by 
lord  Arundel,  and  given  by  his  grandson  Henry  Howard,  afterwards  duke  of  Norfolk,  to  the 
university  of  Oxford  in  '1667  ;  and  are  therefore  called  also  OXFORD  MARBLES.  The 


ARU 


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characters  of  the  inscriptions  are  Greek.  There  are  two  translations  :  by  Sdden,  1628  :  by 
Pridcaux,  1676.  A  variorum  edition  of  the  inscriptions,  by  Maittaire,  appeared  in  1732, 
and  a  fine  one  by  Chandler  in  1763.  See  Kidds  Tracts  ;  and  Parson's  Treatise,  1789. 

ARUSPICES.     See  Haruspices. 

AS,  a  Roman  weight  and  coin  :  when  considered  as  a  weight,  it  was  a  pound  ;  when  a 
coin,  it  had  different  weights,  but  always  the  same  value.  In  the  reign  of  Servius,  the  as 
weighed  a  pound  of  brass  ;  in  the  first  Panic  war,  it  weighed  two  ounces,  264  B.C.  ;  in  the 
second  Punic  war,  one  ounce,  218  B.C.  ;  and  afterwards  half  an  ounce  ;  its  value  was  about 
three  farthings  sterling. 

ASAPH,  ST.  (N.  Wales),  a  bishopric  founded  by  Kentigeru,  bishop  of  Glasgow.  On 
returning  into  Scotland  about  560,  he  left  a  holy  man,  St.  Asapli,  his  successor,  from  whom 
the  see  takes  its  name.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  187^.  us.  6d.  By  an  order  in 
council,  1838,  the  sees  of  St.  Asapli  and  Bangor  were  to  have  been  united  on  the  next 
vacancy  in  either  ;  and  the  bishopric  of  Manchester  was  to  have  been  then  created.  This 
order  was  annulled  in  1846,  and  the  two  sees  still  exist.  Present  income,  4200?.  See 
Manchester. 

RECENT   BISHOPS  OF   ST.    ASAPH. 


1802.  Samuel  Horsley,  died  Oct.  4,  1806. 
1806.  William  Cleaver,  died  May  15,  1815. 
1815.  John  Luxmoore,  died  Jan.  21,  1830. 


1830.     William  Carey,  died  Sept.  13,  1846. 

1846.    Thomas  Vowler  Short  (PRESENT  bishop,  1865). 


ASBESTOS,  a  native  fossil  stone,  which  may  be  split  into  threads  and  filaments,  and 
which  is  endued  with  the  property  of  remaining  unconsumed  in  fire.  Cloth  Avas  made  of  it 
by  the  Egyptians  (Herodotus),  and  napkins  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  74  ;  and  also  paper.  The 
spinning  of  asbestos  known  at  Venice,  about  1500.  Porta. 

ASCALON  (Syria),  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  shared  the  fate  of  Phoenicia  and  Judea.  The 
Egyptian  army  was  defeated  here  by  the  Crusaders,  under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Aug.  12, 
1099.  Ascalon  was  besieged  by  the  latter  in  1148,  taken  in  1153  ;  and  again  in  1191.  Its 
fortifications  were  destroyed  for  fear  of  the  Crusaders  by  the  Sultan  in  1270. 

ASCENSION,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  800  miles  N.  W.  of  St.  Helena,  discovered 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1501  ;  and  taken  possession  of  by  the  English  in  1815. 

ASCENSION  DAY,  a]so  called  Holy  Thursday,  when  the  church  celebrates  the  ascension 
of  our  Saviour,  the  fortieth  day  after  his  resurrection  from  the  dead,  May  14,  33  ;  first  com- 
memorated, it  is  said,  68.  Ascension  day,  1866,  May  10;  1867,  May  30  ;  1868,  May  21. 

ASCULUM,  now  Ascoli,  a  city  of  the  Picentes,  Central  Italy,  E.  Near  it,  Pyrrhus  of 
Epirus  defeated  the  Romans,  279  B.C.  In  268  B.C.,  the  whole  country  of  the  Picentes  was 
subdued  by  the  consul  Sempronius.  In  1190  A.D.  Andrea,  the  general  of  the  emperor 
Henry  VI.,  who  was  endeavouring  to  wrest  the  crown  of  Naples  from  Tancred,  was  defeated 
and  slain. 

ASHANTEES,  a  warlike  tribe  of  negroes  of  West  Africa.  In  1807  they  conquered 
Fantee,  in  which  the  British  settlement  Cape  Coast  Castle  is  situated.  On  the  death  of  the 
king,  who  had  been  friendly  to  the  English,  hostilities  began  ;  and  on  Jan.  21,  1824,  the 
Ashantees  defeated  about  1000  British  under  sir  Charles  M'Carthy  at  Accra,  and  brought 
away  his  skull  with  others  as  trophies.  They  were  totally  defeated,  Aug.  27,  1826,  by  col. 
Purdon.  The  governor  of  Cape  Coast  Castle  began  a  war  with  the  Ashantees  in  spring  of 
1863.  The  British  troops  suffered  much  through  disease  ;  and  the  war  was  suspended  by 
the  government  in  May,  1864. 

ASHBURTON  TREATY,  concluded  at  Washington,  Aug.  9,  1842,  by  Alexander,  lord 
Ashburton,  and  John  Tyler,  president  of  the  United  States  :  it  defined  the  boundaries  of 
the  respective  countries  between  Canada  and  the  state  of  Maine,  settled  the  extradition  of 
criminals,  &c. 

ASHDOD,  or  Azotus,  the  seat  of  the  worship  of  the  Phoenician  god  Dagou,  which  fell 
down  before  the  ark  of  the  Lord  ;  captured  by  the  Philistines  from  the  Israelites,  about 
1141  B.C.  (i  Sam.  v.). 

ASHDOWN,  or  Assendulie,  now  thought  to  be  Aston,  Berks,  where  Ethelred  and  his 
brother  Alfred  defeated  the  Danes  in  871. 

ASHMOLEAN  LIBRARY  (books,  manuscripts,  coins,  &c;),  was  presented  to  the 
university  of  Oxford  by  Klias  Ashmole,  the  herald  and  antiquary,  about  1682.  It  included 


ASH 


55 


ASS 


the  collections  of  the  Tradescants,  to  whom  he  was  executor.     He  died  at  Lambeth  in  1692. 
The  Ashmolean  Society,  Oxford  (scientific),  was  established  in  1828. 

ASHTAROTH,  a  Phoenician  goddess,  occasionally  worshipped  by  the  Israelites  (see 
Judges  ii.  13)  about  1406  B.C.,  and  even  by  Solomon,  about  984  B.C.  (i  Kings  xi.  5). 

ASH- WEDNESDAY,  the  first  day  of  Lent,  which  in  early  times  began  on  the  Sunday 
now  called  the  first  in  Lent.  Pope  Felix  III.,  in  487,  first  added  the  four  days  preceding 
the  old  Lent  Sunday,  to  raise  the  number  of  fasting  days  to  forty  ;  Gregory  the  Great  (pope, 
590)  introduced  the  sprinkling  of  ashes  on  the  first  of  the  four  additional  days,  and  hence 
the  name  of  Dies  Cinerum,  or  Ash-Wednesday.  At  the  Reformation  this  practice  was 
abolished,  "as  being  a  mere  shadow,  or  vain  show." 

ASIA,  the  largest  division  of  the  globe,  so  called  by  the  Greeks,  from  the  nymph  Asia, 
the  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  the  wife  of  Japhet.  Asia  was  the  first  quarter  of  the 
world  peopled  :  here  the  law  of  God  was  first  promulgated  ;  here  many  of  the  greatest 
monarchies  of  the  earth  had  their  rise  ;  and  hence  most  of  the  arts  and  sciences  have  been 
derived.  Its  early  history  is  derived  from  Herodotus,  who  relates  the  wars  of  Croesus,  Cyrus, 
and  others.  See  China,  India,  Persia,  and  the  oilier  countries. 

ASIA  MINOR  (now  Anatolia),  comprised  the  Ionian  colonies  on  the  coast,  the  early 
seats  of  Greek  civilisation,  and  the  countries  Mysia,  Phrygia,  Lycia,  Bithynia,  Caria,  Lydia, 
Cappadocia,  Galatia,  &c.,  with  the  cities  Troy,  Ephesus,  Smyrna  (all  which  see).  From  the 
time  of  the  rise  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  about  2000  B.C.,  to  that  of  the  Turks  under 
Osman,  Asia  Minor  was  the  battle-field  of  the  conquerors  of  the  world. 


First  settlement  of  the  Ionian  Greeks,  about  B.  c.  1043 
Asia  Minor  subdued  by  the  Medes  .  about  711 
Conquered  by  Cyrus  ....  about  546 
Contest  between  the  Greeks  and  Persians  begins  544 
Asia  Minor  conquered  by  Alexander  .  .  332 
Contended  for  by  his  successors ;  separate 
kingdoms  established  ....  321-278 


Gradually  acquired  by  the  Romans  B.  c.  1 88  to  A.  D.  15 

Possessed  by  the  Persians 609 

Partially  recovered  by  the  emperor  Basil     .     .     874 
Invaded  by  Timour 1402 


Taken  from  the  Greek  enij 
as  an  empire  by  the  Tur 


jr,  and  established 
under  Mahomet  I.  1413 


ASIATIC  SOCIETIES.     The  "  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,"  at  Calcutta,  was  established 


volumes  of  Eastern  literature  (1865). 


ASKESIAN  SOCIETY  (from  the  Greek  askesis,  exercise),  instituted  in  March,  1796,  by 
a  number  of  young  men  for  discussing  philosophical  subjects.  Its  founders  were  the  after- 
wards celebrated  Wm.  Allen,  Wm.  Phillips,  Alex.  Tilloch,  Luke  Howard,  "W.  H.  Pepys,  and 
others.  In  1806  it  merged  into  the  Geological  Society. 

ASPERNE  AND  ESSLING,  near  the  Danube  and  Vienna,  where  a  series  of  desperate  con- 
flicts took  place  between  the  Austrian  army  under  the  archduke  Charles,  and  the  French 
under  Napoleon,  Massena,  &c.,  on  May  21-22,  1809,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  ;  the 
severest  check  that  he  had  yet  received.  The  loss  of  the  former  exceeded  20,000  men,  ami 
of  the  latter  30,000.  The  daring  marshal  Lannes  was  killed  ;  the  bridge  of  the  Danube  was 
destroyed,  and  Napoleon's  retreat  endangered ;  but  the  success  of  the  Austriaus  had  no 
beneficial  effect  on  the  subsequent  prosecution  of  the  war. 

ASPHALT,  a  solid  bituminous  substance,  which  in  nature  probably  derived  its  origin 
from  decayed  vegetable  matter.  The  artificial  asphalt  obtained  from  gas-works  began  to  be 
used  as  pavement  about  1838.  Claridge's  patent  asphalt  was  laid  down  in  Trafalgar-square, 
Jan.  1864. 

ASPROMONTE,  Naples.  Here  Garibaldi  was  defeated,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoner 
Aug.  29,  1862,  having  injudiciously  risen  against  the  French  occupation  of  Rome. 

ASSAM  (N.  E.  India)  came  under  British  dominion  in  1825,  and  was  surrendered  by 
the  king  of  Ava  in  1826.  The  tea-plant  Was  discovered  here  by  Mr.  Bruce  in  1823.  A 
superintendent  of  the  tea-forests  was  appointed  in  1836,  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  having 
been  recommended  by  lord  William  Bentinck,  in  1834.  The  Assam  Tea  Company  was 
established  in  1839.  The  tea  was  much  in  use  in  England  in  1841.  Chinese  labour  has 
been  introduced,  and  the  growth  of  tea  is  enormously  increasing. 

ASSASSINATION  PLOT,  said  to  have  been  formed  by  the  earl  of  Aylesbury  and 
others  to  assassinate  William  III.,  near  Richmond,  Surrey,  and  restore  James  II.  Its 
object  would  have  been  attained,  Feb.  14,  1695-6,  but  for  its  timely  discovery  by 
Prendergast. 


ASS  56  ASS 

ASSASSINS,  OR  ASSASSINIANS,  a  band  of  fanatical  Mahometans,  collected  by  Hassan- 
ben-Sabah,  and  settled  in  Persia  about  1090.  In  Syria  they  possessed  a  large  tract  of  land 
among  the  mountains  of  Lebanon.  They  murdered  the  marquis  of  Montferrat  in  1192; 
Lewis  of  Bavaria  in  1213  ;  and  the  khan  of  Tartary  in  1254.  They  were  conquered  by  the 
Tartars  in  1257  ;  and  were  extirpated  in  1272.  The  chief  or  king  of  the  corps  assumed  the 
title  of  "Ancient  of  the  Mountain,"  and  "  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain."  *  They  trained  up 
young  people  to  assassinate  such  persons  as  their  chief  had  devoted  to  destruction.  Henault. 
From  this  fraternity  the  word  assassin  has  been  derived. 

ASSAY  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  originated  with  the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  a  royal  treasurer  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  I.  Du  Cange.  But  certainly  some  species  of  assay  was  practised  as 
early  as  the  Koman  conquest.  Assay  was  established  in  England  1354  ;  regulated  13  "Will. 
III.  1700,  and  4  Anne,  1705.  Assay  masters  appointed  at  Sheffield  and  Birmingham,  1773. 
The  alloy  of  gold  is  silver  and  copper,  that  of  silver  is  copper.  Standard  gold  is  2  carats  of 
alloy  to  22  of  fine  gold.  Standard  silver  is  18  dwts.  of  copper  to  n  ozs.  2  dwts.  of  fine  silver. 
See  Goldsmith  Company. 

ASSAYE  (E.  Indies),  BATTLE  OF.  The  British  army,  under  general  Arthur  "Wellesley 
(afterwards  duke  of  "Wellington),  entered  the  Mahratta  states  on  the  south  ;  took  the  fort  of 
Ahmednuggur,  Aug.  12  ;  and  defeated  Scindiah  and  the  rajah  of  Berar  at  Assay e,  Sept.  23, 
1803.  This  was  "Wellington's  first  great  battle,  in  which  he  opposed  a  force  full  more  than 
ten  times  greater  than  his  own  (only  4500  men).  The  enemy  retired  in  great  disorder,  leaving 
behind  the  whole  of  their  artillery,  ammunition,  and  stores. 

ASSEMBLY  OF  DIVINES  held  at  Westminster,  July  i,  1643,  convoked  by  order  of 
parliament,  to  consider  the  liturgy,  government,  and  doctrines  of  the  church.  Two  members 
were  elected  for  each  county.  They  adopted  the  Scottish  covenant,  and  drew  up  the  direc- 
tory for  public  worship,  a  confession,  and  the  catechisms  now  used  by  the  church  of  Scotland. 
The  last  (u63rd)  meeting  was  on  Feb.  22,  1649.  See  Church  of  Scotland. 

ASSENT.     See  Royal  Assent. 

ASSESSED  TAXES.  The  date  of  their  introduction  has  been  as  variously  stated  as  the 
taxes  coming  under  this  head  have  been  defined— all  things  have  been  assessed,  from  lands 
and  houses  to  dogs  and  hair-powder.  By  some  the  date  is  referred  to  the  reign  of  Ethelbert, 
in  991  ;  by  others  to  that  of  Henry  VIII.  1522  ;  and  by  more,  to  the  reign  of  "William  III. 
1689,  when  a  land-tax  was  imposed.  See  Land  Tax.  The  assessed  taxes  yielded  in  1815 
(the  last  year  of  the  war),  exclusively  of  the  land-tax,  6,524,766^.,  their  highest  amount. 
These  imposts  have  varied  in  their  nature  and  amount,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the 
state,  and  the  contingencies  of  war  and  peace.  They  were  considerably  advanced  in  1797 
and  1801,  et  seq.,  but  considerably  reduced  in  1816,  and  in  subsequent  years.  The  last  act 
for  the  repeal  of  certain  assessed  taxes  was  passed  16  &  17  Viet.  cap.  90,  Aug.  20,  1853, 
which  was  explained  and  amended  by  17  &  18  Viet.  cap.  I,  Feb.  17,  1854. — Acts  for  the 
better  securing  and  accounting  for  the  Assessed  and  Income  Taxes,  Aug.  10,  1854.  See 
Taxes  and  Income  Tax. 

ASSIENTO,  a  contract  between  the  king  of  Spain  and  other  powers,  for  furnishing  the 
Spanish  dominions  in  America  with  negro  slaves,  began  with  the  Flemings.  By  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht  in  1713,  the  British  government  engaged  to  furnish  4800  negroes  annually  to 
Spanish  America  for  thirty  years.  The  contract  was  vested  in  the  South  Sea  Company  ;  but 
this  infamous  contract  was  given  up  in  1 750.  See  Guinea. 

ASSIGNATS,  a  paper  currency,  ordered  by  the  National  Assembly  of  France  to  support 
public  credit  during  the  revolution,  April,  1 790.  At  one  period,  eight  milliards,  or  nearly 
350  millions  of  pounds  sterling,  of  this  paper  were  in  circulation  in  France  and  its  depen- 
dencies. Alison.  Assignats  were  superseded  by  mandats  in  1796. 

ASSIZE  OF  BATTLE.     See  Appeal. 

ASSIZE  OF  BREAD,  &c.     See  Bread  and  Wood. 

ASSIZE  COUETS  (from  assideo,  I  sit)  are  of  very  ancient  institution  in  England,  and  in 
old  law  books  are  defined  to  be  an  assembly  of  knights  and  other  substantial  men,  with 
the  justice,  to  meet  at  a  certain  time  and  place  :  regulated  by  Magna  Charta,  1215. 
The  present  justices  of  assize  and  Nisi  Prius  are  derived  from  the  statute  of  Westminster, 
13  Edw.  I.  1284.  Coke;  JBlacfatone.  ''The  king  doth  will  that  no  lord,  or  other  of  the 

*  He  sent  his  emissaries  to  assassinate  Louis  IX.  of  France,  called  St.  Louis  :  but  being  afterwards 
affected  by  the  fame  of  this  king's  virtues,  and  he  being  at  the  time  in  his  minority,  he  gave  the  prince 
notice  to  take  care  of  himself .  Henault.  This  statement  is  doubted. 


ASS 


AST 


country,  shall  sit  upon  the  bench  with  the  justices  to  take  assize  in  their  sessions  in  the 
counties  of  England,  upon  great  forfeiture  to  the  king,"  20  Rich.  II.  1396.  Statutes, 
Urough  Act.  Assizes  are  general  or  special ;  general  when  the  judges  go  their  circuits, 
and  special  when  a  commission  is  issued  to  take  cognisance  of  one  or  more  causes.  See 
Bloody  Assize. 

ASSOCIATIONS.     See  National  Associations. 

ASSUMPTION,  FEAST  OF  THE,  Aug.  15.  It  is  observed  by  the  church  of  Rome  in 
honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  who  is  said  to  have  been  taken  up  to  heaven  in  her  corporeal 
form,  body  and  spirit,  on  this  day,  45,  in  her  75th  year.  The  festival  was  instituted  in  the 
7th  century,  and  enjoined  by  the  council  of  Mentz,  813. 

ASSURANCE.     See  Insurance. 

ASSYRIA,  an  Asiatic  country  between  Mesopotamia  and  Media,  was  the  seat  of  the 
earliest  recorded  monarchy.  Its  history  is  mainly  derived  from  Ctesias,  an  early  Greek 
historian  of  doubtful  authenticity,  Herodotus,  and  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  discovery  of 
the  very  interesting  Ninevite  antiquities,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  by  Mr.  Layard,-  and 
the  deciphering  of  many  ancient  cuneiform  inscriptions,  by  Grotefend,  sir  H.  Rawlinson, 
and  other  scholars,  have  drawn  much  attention  to  the  Assyrians.  The  chronologers,  Blair, 
Usher,  Hales,  and  Clinton,  differ  much  in  the  dates  they  assign  to  events  in  Assyrian 
history,  of  which  a  large  portion  is  now  considered  fabulous  by  modern  writers. 


Nimrod  or  Belus  reigns  B.C.  [2554  H.  2235  C.}  2245 
"  Asshur  builded  Nineveh  "  (Gen.  x.  u)  about  2218 
Ninus,  son  of  Belus,  reigns  in  Assyria,  and 

names  his  capital  Nineveh  .  .  [2182  C*.]  2069 
Babylon  taken  by  Ninus,  who  having  subdued 

the  Armenians,  Persians,  Bactrians,  and  all 

Asia  Minor,  establishes  what  is  properly  the 

Assyrian  monarchy,  of  which  Nineveh  was 

the  seat  of  empire.  Blair  .  .  [2233  C1.]  2059 
Ninyas,  an  infant,  succeeds  Ninus  .  .  .  2017 
Semiramis,  mother  of  Ninyas,  usurps  the 

government,  enlai-ges  and  embellishes  Baby- 
lon, and  makes  it  the  seat  of  her  dominion 

[2130  <?.]  2007 

She  invades  Libya,  Ethiopia,  and  India.  Lenglet  1975 
She  is  put  to  death  by  her  son  Ninyas  .  1965 

Ninyas  put  to  death,  and  Arius  reigns          .        1927 

Reign  of  Aralius 1897 

Belochus,  the  last  king  of  the  race  of  Ninus  1446 
lie  makes  his  daughter  Atossa,  surnamed  Se 

miramis  II.,  his  associate  on  the  throne  143? 

Atossa  procures  the  death  of  her  father,  and 

marries  Belatores  (or  Belapares)  who  reigns     1421 
****** 

The  prophet  Jonah  appears  in  Nineveh,  and 

foretells  its  destruction.  Blair  .  .  .  840 
Nineveh  taken  by  Arbaces.  [Sardanapalus,  the 

king,  is  mythically   said  to  have  enclosed 

himself,  his  court,  and  women,  in  his  palace, 

and  to  have  perished  in  the  fire  kindled  by 

himself.] 820 

ASTLEY'S  AMPHITHEATRE.     See  under  Theatres. 

ASTORGA  (N.  AV.  Spain),  the  ancient  Asturica  Augusta,  was  taken  by  the  French  in 
1810,  and  treated  with  great  severity. 

ASTRACAN  (S.  E.  Russia),  a  province  acquired  from  the  Mogul's  empire  in  1554;  visited 
and  settled  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1722. 

ASTROLOGY.  Judicial  astrology  was  invented  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  hence  was  trans- 
mitted to  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  It  was  much  in  vogue  in  Italy  and  France 
in  the  time  of  Catherine  de  Medicis  (married  to  Francis  I.  of  France,  1533).  H^nault.  The 
early  history  of  astrology  in  England  is  very  little  known.  It  is  said  that  Bede,  673 — 
735,  was  addicted  to  it ;  and  Roger  Bacon,  1214—1292.  Lord  Burleigh  calculated  the 
nativity  of  Elizabeth,  and  she,  and  all  the  European  princes,  were  the  humble  servants  of 
Dee,  the  astrologer  and  conjuror  ;  but  the  period  of  the  Stuarts  was  the  acme  of  astrology 
amongst  us.  It  is  stated  that  Lilly  was  consulted  by  Charles  I.  respecting  his  projected 
escape  from  Carisbrook  castle  in  1647.  Ferguson.  Astrological  almanacs  are  still  pub- 
lished in  London. 


Phul  raised  to  the  throne.     Blair,      about  B.C.     777 

He  invades  Israel,  but  departs  without  drawing 
a  sword.  Blair ;  2  Kings  xv.  19,  20  .  .  770 

Tiglath-Pileser  invades  Syria,  takes  Damascus, 
and  makes  great  conquests  .  .  .  .  740 

Shalmaneser  takes  Samaria,  transports  the 
people,  whom  he  replaces  by  a  colony  of 
Cutheans  and  others,  and  thus  finishes  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  Blair 72 1 

He  retires  from  before  Tyre,  after  a  siege  of  five 
years.     Blair 713 

Sennacherib  invades  Judea,  and  his  general, 
Rabshakeh,  besieges  Jerusalem,  when  the 
angel  of  the  Lord  in  one  night  destroys 
180,000  of  his  army.  Isaiah  xxxvii.  .  .  710 

[Commentators  suppose  that  this  messenger  of 
death  was  the  fatal  blast  known  in  eastern 
countries  by  the  name  of  Samiel.] 

Esar-haddon  invades  Judea        ....     680 

Holofernes  is  slain  by  Judith  (?)    .        .        .     .    677 

Sarac  (Sardanapalus  II.)  besieged,  kills  his  wife 
and  children,  and  burns  himself  in  his 
palace 621 

Nineveh  razed  to  the  ground,  and  Assyria  be- 
comes a  Median  province 605 

Assyria  subdued  by  Alexander  the  Great          .     332 

It  subsequently  formed  part  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Syria,  Parthia,  and  Persia. 

It  was  conquered  by  the  Turks        .        .     A.D.  1637 


AST 


58 


ATH 


ASTRONOMY.  The  earliest  astronomical  observations  were  made  at  Babylon  about 
2234  B.C.  The  study  of  astronomy  was  much  advanced  in  Chaldsea  under  Nabonassar  ;  it 
was  known  to  the  Chinese  about  noo  B.C.  ;  some  say  many  centuries  before.  See  Eclipses, 
Planets,  Comets. 


Lunar  eclipses  observed  "at  Babylon,  and  re- 
corded by  Ptolemy  .  .  .  about  B.C. 

Spherical  form  of  the  earth,  and  the  true  cause 
of  lunar  eclipses,  taught  by  Thales,  died 


720 


Further  discoveries  by  Pythagoras,  who  taught 
the  doctrine  of  celestial  motions,  and  believed 
in  the  plurality  of  habitable  worlds,  died  about 

Meton  introduces  the  lunar-solar  cycle  about   . 

Treatises  of  Aristotle  "concerning  the  heavens," 
and  of  Autolycus  "on  the  motion  of  the 
sphere  "  (the  earliest  extant  works  on  astro- 
nomy)    about 

Aratus  writes  a  poem  on  astronomy 

Archimedes  observes  solstices,  &c.       .        .     .     212 

Hipparchus,  greatest  of  Greek  astronomers, 
determines  mean  motion  of  sun  and  moon  ; 
discovers  precession  of  equinoxes,  &c.  .  160-125 

The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  confirmed, 
and  the  places  and  distances  of  the  planets 
discovered  by  Ptolemy  .  .  .  A.D.  130-150 

Astronomy  and  geography  cultivated  by  the 
Arabs  about  760  :  brought  .into  Europe  about  1200 

Alphonsine  tables  (which  see)  composed  about  .  1253 

1500 


Discoveries  of  Picard 

Charts  of  the  moon  constructed  by  Scheiner, 


1669 


1543 
1582 
1609 


Clocks  first  used  in  astronomy      .        .     about 

True  doctrine  of  the  motions  of  the  planetary 
bodies  revived  by  Copernicus,  founder  of 
modern  astronomy,  author  of  the  almagest, 
published.  . 

Astronomy  advanced  by  Tycho  Brahe,  who  yet 
adheres  to  the  Ptolemaic  system  .  about 

True  laws  of  the  planetary  motions  announced 
by  Kepler  

Galileo  constructs  a  telescope,  1609 ;  and  dis- 
covers Jupiter's  satellites,  &c.  .  .  Jan.  8,  1610 

Various  forms  of  telescopes  and  other  instru- 
ments used  in  astronomy  invented  .  .  1608-40 

Cartesian  system  published  by  Des  Cartes        .  1637 

The  transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disc  first 
observed  by  Horrocks  .  .  .  Nov.  24,  1639 1 

Cassini  draws  his  meridian  line,  after  Dante. 
SceBoloyna 1655^ 

The  aberration  of  the  light  of  the  fixed  stars 
discovered  by  Horrebow  ....  1659 

Huyghens  completes  the  discovery  of  Saturn's 
ring 1654 

Gregory  invents  a  reflecting  telescope      .        .  1663  ' 


Langrenus,   Hevelius,   Riccioli,  and  others, 
.'    546  about  1670 

Discoveries  of  Romer  on  the  velocity  of  light, 

and  his  observation  of  Jupiter's  satellites      .   1675 
Greenwich  Observatory  founded        .  ,, 

Motion  of  the  sun  round  its  own  axis  proved 

byHalley 1676 

Newton's  Principia  published ;  and  the  system, 

as  now  taught,  demonstrated  ....  1687 
350    Catalogue  of  the  stars  m-i.de  by  Flamsteed   .     .   1688 
281  |  Cassini's  chart  of  the  full  moon  executed          .   1692 
Satellites  of  Saturn,  &c.,  discovered  by  Cassini  1701 
Halley  predicts  the  return  of  the   comet  (of 

1758) 1705 

Flamsteed's  Historia  Cosiest  is  published  .  .  1725 
Aberration  of  the  stars  clearly  explained  by 

Dr.  Bradley 1757 

John  Harrison  produces  chronometers  for  de- 
termining  the  longitude,  1735  et  seq.,  and 

obtains  the  reward 1764 

Nautical  almanac  first  published  .  .  .  1767 
Celestial  inequalities  found  by  La  Grange  .  .  1780 
Uranus  and  satellites  discovered  by  Ilerschel. 

See  Georrtium  Sidux  .        .         March  13,  1781 

Md'tanique  Celeste,  by  La  Place,  published  .  .  1796 
Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  London  founded, 

1820;  chartered 1831 

Beer  and  Madler's  map  of  the  moon  published  1834 
Lord  Rosse's  telescope  constructed  .  1828-45 

The  planet  Neptune  discovered  .  Sept.  23,  1846 
Bond  photographs  the  rnoon  (see  Pkotoffraphy, 

celestial) 1851 

Hanson's  table  of  the  moon  published  at  ex- 
pense of  the  British  government  .  .  .  1857 
Trustees  of  the  late  rev.  Richard  Sheepshanks 
present  lo.oooZ.  stock  to  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  for  the  promotion  of  the  study 
of  astronomy,  meteorology,  and  magnetism, 

Dec.  2,  1858 
Large  photograph  of  the  moon  by  Warren  De 

la  Rue 1863 

[For  the  minor  planets  recently  discovered,  see 
Planets.} 


ASTURIAS  (N.  W.  Spain),  an  ancient  principality,  the  cradle  of  the  present  monarchy. 
Here  Pelago  collected  the  Gothic  fugitives,  about  713,  and  founded  a  new  kingdom,  and  by 
his  victories  permanently  checked  the  progress  of  Moorish  conquest.  For  a  list  of  his 
successors,  see  the  article  Spain.  The  heir-apparent  of  the  monarchy  has  borne  the  title 
"prince  of  Asturias  "  since  1388,  when  it  was  assumed  by  Henry,  son  of  John  I.  king  of  Leon, 
on  his  marriage  with  a  descendant  of  Peter  of  Castile.  In  1808,  the  junta  of  Asturias  began 
the  organised  resistance  to  the  French  usurpation. 

ASYLUMS,  OR  PRIVILEGED  PLACES,  at  first  were  places  of  refuge  for  those  who  by 
accident  or  necessity  had  done  things  that  rendered  them  obnoxious  to  the  law.  God  com- 
manded the  Jews  to  build  certain  cities  for  this  purpose,  1451  B.C.,  Numbers  xxv. — The 
posterity  of  Hercules  are  said  to  have  built  one  at  Athens,  to  protect  themselves  against  such 
as  their  father  had  irritated.  Cadmus  built  one  at  Thebes,  1490  B.C.,  and  .Romulus  one  at 
Mount  Palatine,  751  B.C.  See  Sanctuaries. 

ATELIERS  NAT10NAUX  (National  Workshops)  were  established  by  the  French  pro- 
visional government  in  Feb.  1848.  They  interfered  greatly  with  private  trade,  and  about 
100,000  workmen  threw  themselves  upon  the  government  for  labour  and  payment.  The 
breaking-up  of  the  system  led  to  the  fearful  conflicts  in  June  following.  The  system  was 
abolished  in  July. 

ATHANASIAN  CREED.  Athanasius,  of  Alexandria,  was  elected  bishop,  326.  He 
firmly  opposed  the  doctrines  of  Arius  (who  denied  Christ's  divinity) ;  was  several  times  exiled  j 


ATII  59  ATH 

and  died  in  373.  The  creed  which  goes  by  his  name  is  supposed  by  many  authorities  to 
have  been  written  about  340 ;  by  others  to  be  the  compilation  of  Vigilius  Tapsensis,  an 
African  bishop  in  the  5th  century.  It  was  first  commented  on  by  Venatius  Fortunatus, 
bishop  of  Foictiers  in  570.  Dr.  Waterland'a  History  of  this  creed  (1723)  is  exhaustive.  See 
Arians. 

ATHEISM  (from  the  Greek  a,  without,  Theos,  God,  see  Psalm  xiv.  i).  This  doctrine 
has  had  its  votaries  and  martyrs.  Spinoza  was  the  defender  of  a-  similar  doctrine  (1632 — 
1677).  Lucilio  Vaniui  publicly  taught  atheism  in  France,  and  was  condemned  to  be  burnt 
at  Toulouse  in  1619.  Mathias  Knutzen,  of  Holstein,  openly  professed  atheism,  and  had 
upwards  of  a  thousand  disciples  in  Germany  about  1674;  he  travelled  to  make  proselytes, 
and  his  followers  were  called  Conscienciaries,  because  they  held  that  there  is  no  other  deity 
than  conscience.  Many  eminent  men  have  professed  atheism.  "Though  a  small  draught  of 
philosophy  may  lead  a  man  into  atheism,  a  deep  draught  will  certainly  bring  him  back^again 
to  the  belie1  f  of  a  God."  Lord  Bacon. 

ATHE1SLEA  were  great  festivals  celebrated  at  Athens  in  honour  of  Minerva.  One  was 
called  Paiiathenere,  the  other  Chalcea  ;  they  are  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Erechtheu.s 
or  Orpheus,  1397  or  1495  B-c-  >  ana<  Theseus  afterwards  renewed  them,  and  caused  them  to 
be  observed  by  all  the  Athenians,  the  first  every  fifth  year,  1234  B.C.  Plutarch. 

ATHEN/EUM,  a  place  at  Athens,  sacred  to  Minerva,  where  the  poets  and  philosophers 
recited  their  compositions.  The  most  celebrated  Athensea  were  at  Athens,  Rome,  and 
Lyons:  that  of  Koine,  of  great  beauty,  was  erected  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  125. — The 
ATHENJEUM  CLUB  of  London  was  formed  in  1823,  for  the  association  of  persons  of  scientific 
and  literary  attainments,  artists,  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  patrons  of  learning,  &c.,  by 
the  earl  of  Aberdeen,  marquess  of  Lansdowne,  Dr.  T.  Young,  Moore,  Davy,  Scott,  Mackin- 
tosh, Croker,  Chantrey,  Faraday,  Lawrence,  and  others  ;  the  clubhouse  was  erected  in 
1829-30  011  the  site  of  the  late  Carlton-palace  ;  it  is  of  Grecian  architecture,  and  the  frieze  is 
an  exact  copy  of  the  Panathenaic  procession  which  formed  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon. — The 
Liverpool  Athenaeum  was  opened  Jan.  i,  1799. — At  Manchester,  Bristol,  and  many  other 
places,  buildings  under  this  name,  and  for  a  like  purpose,  have  been  founded. — The  Athc- 
nceum,  a  weekly  literary  journal,  first  appeared  in  1828. 

ATHENS,  the  capital  of  ancient  Attica,  and  of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece.  The  first 
sovereign  mentioned  is  Ogyges,  who  reigned  in  Bceotia,  and  was  master  of  Attica,  then  called 
Ionia.  In  his  reign  (about  1764  B.C.)  a  deluge  took  place  (by  some  supposed  to  be  the 
universal  deluge),  that  laid  waste  the  country,  in  which  state  it  remained  two  hundred  years, 
until  the  arrival  of  the  Egyptian  Cecrops  and  a  colony,  by  whom  the  land  was  re-peopled, 
and  twelve  cities  founded,  1556  B.C.  The  city  is  said  to  have  been  first  called  Cecropia  ;  the 
name  having  been  changed  to  Athens  in  honour  of  Minerva  (Athene),  her  worship  having 
been  introduced  by  Erechtheus  1383  B.C.  Athens  was  ruled  by  seventeen  successive  kings 
(487  years),  by  thirteen  perpetual  archons  (316  years),  seven  decennial  archons  (70  years), 
and  lastly  by  annual  archons  (760  years).  It  attained  great  power,  and  perhaps  no  other 
city  in  the  world  can  boast,  in  such  a  short  space  of  time,  of  so  great  a  number  of  citizens 
illustrious  for  wisdom,  genius,  and  valour.  The  ancients,  to  distinguish  Athens  in  a  more 
peculiar  manner,  called  it  Astu,  the  city,  by  eminence,  and  one  of  the  eyes  of  Greece.  See 
Greece. 


Arrival  of  Cecrops        .       B.C.  [1558 //.  1433  C7.]  1556 
The  Areopagus  established 1507 


Deucalion  arrives  in  Attic; 


1502 


Reign  of  Amphict yon  .  •  .  [1499  H.]  1497 

The  Panathenajan  Games  .  .  [1481  H.\  1495 

Erichthoniua  reigns 1487 

Erechtheus  teaches  husbandry  .  .  .  .  1383 
Bleusinian  mysteries  introduced  by  Eumolpus  1356 
Erechtheus  killed  in  battle  with  the  Eleu- 

sinians 1347 

.Kgeus  invades  Attica,  and  ascends  the  throne .  1283 
He  throws  himself  into  the  sea,  and  is  drowned  ; 

hence  the  name  of  the  .'Egeaii  Sea.     Eusebiu*  1235 


In  a  battle  with  the  Heraclidse,  Codrus  is  killed : 
he  had  resolved  to  perish  ;  the  oracle  having 
declared  that  the  victory  should  be  with  the 
side  whose  leader  was  killed,  1070.     Royalty 
abolished;  —  Athens  governed    by  archons, 
Medon  the  first  [1070 //.]    .         ....  1044 
Alcmeon,  last  perpetual  archon,  dies  .        .        .     753 
Cheropa,  first  decennial  archon       .        .         .     .     752 
Hippomcnes  deposed  for  his  cruelty  ;  among 
other  acts  he  exposed  his  own  daughter  to  be 
devoured  by  horses,  on  account  of  an  illicit 

amour 713 

Erixias,    seventh  and    last    decennial   archon, 

dies .     .    684 

Creon  first  an Hi'.n.l  archon    .  .        .     683 

Draco,  the  twelfth  annual  archon,  publishes  his 


Theseus,  his  son,  succeeds,  and  reigns  30  years 
He  collects  his  subjects  into  one    city,  and 

names  it  Athens^ 1234    _        , 

Reign  of  Mnestheus,  1205  ;  Demophoon     .        .  1182        laws,  said  "to  have  been  written  in  blood "    621 

<'<  mrt  of  Ephetes  established 1 1 79  j  Solon  supersedes  them  by  his  excellent  code     .     594 

The  Priaiiepsjw  instituted 1178 

Melanthua  conquers  Xuthus  in  single  combat 


and  is  chosen  king -1128 

of  CVlrus,  his  son,  the  last  king      .        .  1092 


Pisistratus,  the  "  tyrant,"  seizes  the  supreme 
power,  560  ;  flight  of  Solon,  559.  Pisistratus 
establishes  his  government,  537;  collects  a 
public  library,  531 ;  dios 527 


ATH 


60 


ATM 


ATHENS,  continued. 

First  tragedy  acted  at  Athens,  on  a  waggon,  by 

Thespis B  c.     535 

Hipparchus    assassinated  by  Harmodius  and 

Aristogeiton 514 

The  law  of  ostracism  established ;  Hippias  and 

the  Pisistratidae  banished         .        .        .        .510 

Lemnos  taken  by  Miltiades 504 

Invasion  of  the  Persians,  who  are  defeated  at 

Marathon 490 

Death  of  Miltiades 489 

Aristides,  surnamed  the  Just,  banished  .  .  483 
Athens  taken  by  the  Persian  Xerxes  .  .  .  480 
Burnt  to  the  ground  by  Mardonius  .  .  .  479 
Rebuilt  and  fortified  ;  Piraeus  built  .  .  .  478 

Themistocles  banished 471 

Cimoii,  son  of  Miltiades,  overruns  all  Thrace  .  469 
Pericles  takes  part  in  public  affairs,  469 ;  he  and 

Cimon  adorn  Athens.  464  ;  the  latter  banished 

through  his  influence 461 

Athens  begins  to  tyrannise  over  Greece     .        .     459 
Literature,  philosophy,  and  art  flourish        .     .     448 
The  first  sacred  (or  social)  war  ;  which  see  .        .      ,, 
Tolmidas  conducts  an  expedition  into  Boeotia, 

and  is  defeated  and  killed  near  Coronea  .  447 
The  thirty  years'  truce  between  the  Athenians 

and  Lacedaemonians 445 

Herodotus  said  to  have  read  his  history  in  the 

council  at  Athens „ 

Pericles  obtains  the  government  .        .        .     .     444 

Pericles  subdues  Samos 440 

Comedies  prohibited  at  Athens      .         .         .     .      ,, 
Alliance  between  Athens  and  Corcyra,  then  at 

war  with  Corinth,  433  ;  leads  to  the  Pelopon- 

nesian  war  (lasted  27  years) ;  it  began  .  .431 
A  dreadful  pestilence,  which  had  ravaged 

Ethiopia,  Libya,  Egypt,  and  Persia,  extends 

to  Athens,  and  continues  for  five  years  .  .  430 
Death  of  Pericles  of  the  plague  .  .  .  .  429 
Disastrous  expedition  against  Sicily  ;  death  of 

the  commanders,  Demosthenes  and  Nicias  ; 

Athenian  fleet  destroyed  by  Gylippus  .  415-413 
Government  of  the  "  four  hundred  ".  .  .411 
Alcibiades  defeats  the  Lacedaemonians  at 

Cyzicus  ;  which  sei 

Alcibiades,  accused  of   aspiring  to  sovereign 

power,  banished 

Athenian    fleet    destroyed     by    Lysander    at 

^gospotamos 

He  besieges  Athens  by  land  and  sea  ;  its  walls 

are  destroyed,  and  it  capitulates,   and  the 

Peloponnesian  war  terminates         .        .        . 
Rule  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  who  are  overthrown 

by  Thrasybulus 


410 
407 


B.C. 


Socrates  (aged  70)  put  to  death 

The  Corinthian  war  begins      ..... 

Cinon    rebuilds   the  long  walls,  and  fortifies 

the  Piraeus         ....... 

The  Lacedaemonian  fleet  defeated  at  Naxus  by 

Chabrias        .  '      ....... 

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  opposes  the  Atheni- 

ans.    See  Macedon    ...... 

Second  sacred  (or  social)  war  . 

First  Philippic  of  Demosthenes  . 

Battle  of  Chaeronea,  which  see  ;  the  Athenians 

and  Thebans  defeated  by  Philip  .  .  .  . 
Philip  assassinated  by  Pausanias  .  .  . 
Athens  submits  to  Alexander,  who  spares  the 

orators       ........ 

Death  of  Alexander         ...... 

The  Athenians  rising  against  Macedon,  defeated 

at  Cranon  ;  Demosthenes  poisons  himself  . 
Athens  surrenders  to  Cassander,  who  governs 

well    ......... 

Demetrius  Poliorcetes  expels  Demetrius  Phale- 

reus,  and  restores  the  Athenian  democracy, 

307  ;  the  latter  takes  the  chair  of  philosophy 
A  league  between  Athens,  Sparta,  and  Egypt  . 
Athens  taken  by  Antigonus  Gonatas,  king  of 
Macedon,  268  ;  restored  by  Aratus  .  . 
The  Athenians  join  the  Achaean  league  .  .  . 
They  join  the  JStolians  against  Macedon,  and 

send  for  assistance  to  Rome        .        .        .     . 

A  Roman  fleet  arrives  at  Athens         .        .        . 
The  Romans  proclaim  liberty  at  Athens       .     . 
Subjugation  of  Greece  ...... 

The  Athenians  implore  assistance  against  the 

Romans  from  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus, 

whose  general,   Archelaus,    makes    himself 

master  of  Athens  ....... 

Athens  besieged  by  Sylla,  the  Roman  general, 

it  is  reduced  to  surrender  by  famine  .  .  . 
Cicero  studies  at  Athens,  79  ;  and  Horace  .  . 
The  Athenians  desert  Pompey,  to  follow  the 

interests  of  Caesar         ...... 

Athens  visited  by  the  Apostle  Paul   .        .  A.D. 
Many  temples,  <fec.,  erected  by  Hadrian 
Athens  taken  by    Alaric,    and    spared 

slaughter  ........ 

By  Mahomet  II  ....... 

By  the  Venetians  ...... 

Restored  to  the  Turks      ..... 

Athens  suffered  much  during  the  insurrection, 

1821-7.     Taken  May  17 


399 
395 

393 
376 

359 

357-355 
352 

338 
336 

335 
323 

322 


296 
277 

256 
229 

215 
211 
196 
144 


404    Becomes  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  modern 
Greece  ......... 

403    Population,  50,000        ...... 

(See  Article  Greece.) 


88 

86 
42 

47 
52 

.    122-135 
from 

396 
1456 
1466 
1479 

1827 

1833 
1857 


ATHLONE,  Roscommon,  Ireland,  formerly  a  place  of  great  strength  and  beauty,  was 
burnt  during  the  civil  war  in  1641.  After  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  colonel  R.  Grace  held 
Athlone  for  James  II.  against  a  besieging  army,  but  fell  when  it  was  taken  by  assault  by 
Ginckel,  June  30,  1691.  See  Aughrim. 

ATLANTA.     See  United  States,  1864. 

ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH.     See  Submarine  Telegraph. 

ATMOLYSIS,  a  method  of  separating  the  constituent  gases  of  a  compound  gas  (such  as 
atmospheric  air)  by  causing  it  to  pass  through  a  vessel  of  porous  material  (such  as  graphite)  ; 
first  made  known  in  Aug.,  1863,  by  the  discoverer,  professor  T.  Graham,  F.R.S.,  Master  of 
the  Mint. 

ATMOSPHERE.     See  Air. 

ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAYS.  The  idea  of  producing  motion  by  atmospheric  pressure  was 
conceived  by  Papin,  the  French  engineer,  about  1680.  Experiments  were  made  on  a  line  of  rail, 
laid  down  across  Wormwood  Scrubs,  London,  between  Shepherd's  Bush  and  the  Great  Western 
railroad,  to  test  the  efficacy  of  atmospheric  tubes,  the  working  of  the  air-pump,  and  speed  of 
carriages  upon  this  new  principle  011  railroads  in  June,  1840,  and  then  tried  on  a  line  between 
Croydon  and  London,  1845.  An  atmospheric  railway  was  commenced  between  Dalkey  and 
Killiney,  in  the  vicinity  of  Dublin,  in  Sept.  1843  :  opened  March  29,  1844  ;  discontinued 


ATO 


61 


ATT 


in  1855.  A  similar  railway  was  proposed  to  be  laid  down  in  the  streets  of  London  by  Mr. 
T.  W.  Rammell  in  1857.  Mr.  Rammell' s  Pneumatic  Railway  was  put  in  action  successfully 
at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  Aug.  27,  1864,  and  following  days.  An  act  for  a  pneumatic  railway 
between  the  Waterloo  railway  station  and  Whitehall  was  passed  in  July,  1865. 

ATOMIC  THEORY,  in  chemistry,  deals  with  the  indivisible  particles  of  all  substances. 
The  somewhat  incoherent  labours  of  his  predecessors  (such  as  Wenzel  in  1777)  were  reduced 
by  John  Dalton  to  four  laws  of  combining  proportion,  which  have  received  the  name  of 
"Atomic  Theory."  His  ''Chemical  Philosophy,"  containing  the  exposition  of  his  views, 
appeared  in  1808.  Dr.  C.  Daubeny's  work  on  the  Atomic  Theory  was  published  in  1850. 
In  his  standard  of  Atomic  weights  Dalton  takes  hydrogen  as  I.  Berzelius,  who  commenced  his 
elaborate  researches  on  the  subject  in  1848,  adopts  oxygen  as  100.  The  former  standard  is 
used  in  this  country,  the  latter  on  the  continent. 

ATTAINDER,  ACTS  OF,  whereby  a  person  not  only  forfeited  his  land,  but  his  blood  was 
attainted,  have  been  numerous.  Two  witnesses  in  cases  of  high  treason  are  necessary  where 
corruption  of  blood  is  incurred,  unless  the  party  accused  shall  confess,  or  stand  mute,  7  &  8 
Will.  III.  1694-5.  Blackstone.  In  1814  and  1833  the  severity  of  attainders  was  mitigated. 
The  attainder  of  lord  Russell,  who  was  beheaded  in  Lincoln's-inn-fields,  July  21,  1683,  was 
reversed  under  William,  in  1689.  The  rolls  and  records  of  the  acts  of  attainder  passed  in 
the  reign  of  James  II.  were  cancelled  and  publicly  burnt,  Oct.  2,  1695.  Amongst  the  last 
acts  reversed  was  the  attaint  of  the  children  of  lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  (who  was  implicated 
in  the  rebellion  in  Ireland  of  1798),  July  I,  1819. 

ATTICA.     See  Athens. 

ATTILA,  surnamedthe  "Scourge  of  God"  and  thus  distinguished  for  his  conquests  and 
his  crimes,  having  ravaged  the  eastern  empire  from  445  to  450,  when  he  made  peace 
with  Theodosius.  He  invaded  the  western  empire,  450,  and  was  defeated  by  Aetius  at 
Chalons,  451  ;  he  then  retired  into  Pannonia,  where  he  died  .through  the  bursting  of  a 
bloodvessel  on  the  night  of  his  nuptials  with  a  beautiful  virgin  named  Ildico,  453. 

ATTORNEY  (from  toiir,  turn),  a  person  qualified  to  act  for  others  at  law.  The  number 
in  Edward  III. 's  reign  was  under  400  for  the  whole  kingdom.  In  the  32nd  of  Henry  VI. 
1454,  a  law  reduced  the  practitioners  in  Norfolk,  Norwich,  and  Suffolk,  from  eighty  to  four- 
teen, and  restricted  their  increase.  The  number  of  attorneys  now  practising  in  England,  or 
registered,  or  retired,  is  said  to  be  about  13,000.  The  number  in  Ireland  is  stated  at  2000. 
The  qualifications  of  practice  of  attorneys  and  solicitors  are  now  regulated  by  acts  passed  in 
1843  and  1861. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL,  a  law  officer  of  the  crown,  appointed  by  letters  patent.  He 
has  to  exhibit  informations  and  prosecute  for  the  king  in  matters  criminal ;  and  to  file  bills 
in  exchequer,  for  any  claims  concerning  the  crown  in  inheritance  or  profit.  Others  may 
bring  bills  against  the  king's  attorney.  The  first  attorney-general  was  William  de  Gisilham, 
7  Edward  I.  1278.  Beatson. 

ATTORNEY- GENERALS  SINCE  THE  RESTORATION. 
Sir  Jeffery  Palmer 1660 


Sir  Heneage  Finch,  afterwards  lord  Finch 


1670 


Sir  Francis  North,  knt.,  a/Ms,  lord  Guildford   .  1673 

Sir  William  Jones 1674 

Sir  Cresvel  Levinz,  or  Levinge,  knt.      .        .     .  1679 

Sir  Robert  Sawyer,  knt 1681 

Sir  Thomas  Powis,  knt 1687 

Henry  Pollexfen,  esq. 1689 

Sir^George  Treby,  knt , 

Sir 'John  Somers,  knt.,  afterwards  lord  Somers .  1692 

Edward  "Ward,  esq 1693 

Sir  Thomas  Trevor,  knt. ,  oftds.  lord  Trevor       .  1695 

Edward  Northey,  esq 1701 

Sir  Simon  Harcourt,  knt 1707 

Sir  James  Montagu,  knt 1708 

Sir  Simon  Harcourt,  again  ;  aft.  lord  Harcourt .  1710 
Sir  Edward  Northey,  knt. ,  again        .        .        .     , , 
Nicholas  Lechmere,  esq.,  aft.  lord  Lecbmere   .   1718 
Sir  Robert  Raymond,  aft.  lord  Raymond  .         .1720 
Sir  Philip  Yorke,  aft.  earl  of  Hardwicke        .     .  1724 

Sir  John  Willes,  knt 1733 

Sir  Dudley  Ryder,  knt 1737 

Hon.  William  Murray,  oft.  earl  of  Mansfield  .  1754 
Sir  Robert  Henley,'knt.,  a/5.  earl  of  Northington  1756 
Sir  Charles  Pratt,  knt.,  aftericards lord  Camdeii  1757 

Hon.  Charles  Yorke 1762 

Sir  Fletcher  Norton,  knt.,  aft.  lord  Grantley    .  1763 


Hon.  Charles  Yorke,  again ;    afterwards  lord 

Morden,  and  lord  chancellor.  See  Chancellors  1765 
William  de  Grey,  afterwards  lord  Walsingham  .  1766 
Edward  Thurlow,  esq.,  afterwards  lord  Thurlow  1771 
Alex.  Wedderburne,  aft.  lord  Loughborough  .  1778 

James  Wallace,  esq 1780 

Lloyd  Kenyon,  esq 1782 

James  Wallace,  esq 1783 

John  Lee,  esq ,, 

Lloyd  Kenyon,  again ;  afterwards  lord  Kenyon     ,,  J 
Sir  Richard  P.  Arden,  aft.  lord  Alvanley  .        .  1784 

Sir  Archibald  Macdonald 1788 

Sir  John  Scott,  afterwards  lord  Eldon  .  .  1793 
Sir  J.  Mitford,  afterwards  lord  Redesdale  .  .  1800 
Sir  Edward  Law,  aft.  Id.  Ellenborough,  Feb.  14,  1801 
Hon.  Spencer  Percival  (murdered  bj, 
ham,  May  n, 


ncer  Percival  (murdered  by  Belling- 

1812)  ....     April  15,  1802 

Sir  Arthur  Pigott Feb.  12,  1806 

Sir  Vicary  Gibbs,  afterwards   chief  justice    of 

the  common  pleas         .        .         .        April  7,  1807 
Sir  Thomas  Plumer,  aftei-wards  first  vice-chan- 
cellor of  England      ....    June  26,  1812 
Sir  William  Garrow         ....  May  4,  1813 

Sir  Samuel  Shepherd May  7,  1817 

Sir  Robert  Gifford,  aft.  lord  Gifford        July  24,  1819 
Sir  John    Singleton    Copley,    afterwards   lord 
Lyndhurst         .....      Jan.  9,  1824 


ATT  62  AUG 


ATTORNEY-GENERAL,  continued. 


Sir  Chcarles  Wetherell      . 

Sir  James  Scarlett 

Sir  Charles  Wetherell,  again   . 

SirJas.  Scarlett,  agn. ;  aft.  Id.  Abinge 

Sir  Thos.  Denmaii,  aft.  lord  Denman 

Sir  William  Home 


Sept.  20,  1826  j  Sir  John  Jervis,  afterwards  chief  justice  of  the 
April  27,  1827        common  pleas July  13,  1846 


eb.  19,  1828    SirJohn  Romilly,  aft.  mast,  of  the  rolls,  July  n,  1850 

June  29,  1829  I  Sir  Alex.  James  Edmund  Cockburn  .March  28,  1851 

Nov.  26,  1830  j  Sir  Frederick  Thesiger,  again  ;  afterwards  lord 

Nov.  26,  1832  I      Chelmsford,  and  lord  chancellor      .  March  2,  1852 


Sir  Alexander  Cockburn,  again  ;  aft.  ch.  just. 

of  common  plsas  and  queen's  bench,  Dec.  28,  1852 
Sir  Richard  Bethell  ....  Nov.  15,  1856 

Sir  Fitzroy  Kelly Feb.  27,  1858 

Sir  R.  Bethell  (since  lord  Westbury,  and  lord 

chancellor) June  18,  1859 

Sir  William  Atherton  ....  July,  1861 
Sir  Roundell  Palmer  (present  officer)  .  Oct.  2,  1863 


Sir  John  Campbell March  i,  1834 

Sir  Frederick  Pollock  ....    Dec.  17,    ,, 
Sir   John  Campbell,   again;     afterwards    lord 

Campbell  (and,  1859,  Id.  chancelloi-),  April  30,  1835 
Sir  Thomas  Wilde         .  July  3,  1841 

Sir  F.  Pollock,  again;  aft.  chief  baron    Sept.  6,     „ 
Sir  William  W.  Pollett         .        .        .  April  17,  1844 
Sir  Frederick  Thesiger    .        .        .     .      July  4,  1845 
Sir   Thomas   Wilde,    again  ;    afterwards   lord 

Truro,  and  lord  chancellor       .        .      July  6,  1846 

ATTRACTION  is  described  by  Copernicus,  about  1520,  as  an  appetence  or  appetite  which 
the  Creator  impressed  upon  all  parts  of  matter.  It  was  described  by  Kepler  to  be  a  corporeal 
affection  tending  to  union,  1605.  In  1687,  sir  I.  Newton  published  his  "Prineipia,"  con- 
taining his  important  researches  on  this  subject.  There  are  the  attractions  of  Gravitation, 
Magnetism,  and  Electricity,  which  see. 

AUBAINE,  a  right  of  the  French  kings,  which  existed  from  the  beginning  of  the 
monarchy,  whereby  they  claimed  the  property  of  every  stranger  who  died  in  their  country, 
without  having  been  naturalised,  was  abolished  by  the  national  assembly  in  1790;  re-esta- 
blished by  Napoleon  ;  and  finally  annulled  July  14,  1819. 

AUCKLAND,  capital  of  New  Zealand  (north  island),  was  founded  in  1840.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  district,  in  1857,  was  estimated  at  15,000  Europeans,  and  35,000  natives. 

AUCTION,  a  kind  of  sale  known  to  the  Romans,  mentioned  by  Petronius  Arbiter  (about 
66).  The  first  in  Britain  was  about  1700,  by  Elisha  Yale,  a  governor  of  Fort  George  in 
the  East  Indies,  who  thus  sold  the  goods  he  had  brought  home.  Auction  and  sales'  tax 
began,  1779.  Various  acts  of  parliament  have  regulated  auctions  and  imposed  duties,  in 
some  cases  as  high  as  five  per  cent.  By  8  Viet.  c.  15  (1845),  the  duties  were  repealed,  and 
a  charge  imposed  "  on  the  licence  to  be  taken  out  by  all  auctioneers  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
of  loZ."  In  1858  there  were  4358  licences  granted,  producing  43,580^.  Certain  sales  are 
now  exempt  from  being  conducted  by  a  licensed  auctioneer,  such  as  goods  and  chattels  under 
a  distress  for  rent,  and  sales  under  the  provisions  of  the  Small  Debts'  acts  for  Scotland  and 
Ireland. 

AUDIANI,  followers  of  Audeus  of  Mesopotamia,  who  had  been  expelled  from  the  Syrian 
church  on  account  of  his  severely  reproving  the  vices  of  the  clergy,  about  338,  formed  a  sect 
and  became  its  bishop.  He  was  banished  to  Scythia,  where  he  is  said  to  have  made  many 
converts.  His  followers  celebrated  Easter  at  the  time  of  the  Jewish  passover,  attributed  the 
human  figure  to  the  Deity,  and  had  other  peculiar  tenets. 

AUDIT-OFFICE,  Somerset  House.  Commissioners  for  auditing  the  public  accounts 
were  appointed  in  1785.  Many  statutes  regulating  their  duties  have  since  been  enacted. 

AUERSTADT  (Prussia).  Here  and  at  Jena,  on  Oct.  14,  1806,  the  French  signally  de- 
feated the  Prussians.  See  Jena. 

AUGHRIM,  near  Athlone,  in  Ireland,  where,  on  July  12,  1691,  a  battle  was  fought 
between  the  Irish,  headed  by  the  French  general  St.  Ruth,  and  the  English  under  general 
Ginckel.  The  former  were  defeated  and  lost  7000  men  ;  the  latter  lost  only  600  killed  and 
960  wounded.  St.  Ruth  was  slain.  This  engagement  proved  decisively  fatal  to  the  interests 
of  James  II.  in  Ireland.  Ginckel  was  immediately  after  created  earl  of  Athlone.  The 
ball  by  which  St.  Ruth  was  killed  is  still  suspended  in  the  choir  of  St.  Patrick's  cathedral, 
Dublin. 

AUGMENTATION  OF  POOR  LIVINGS'  OFFICE,  was  established  in  1704.  5597  poor 
clerical  livings,  not  exceeding  50?.  per  annum,  were  found  by  the  commissioners  under 
the  act  of  Anne  capable  of  augmentation,  by  means  of  the  bounty  then  established  by 
parliament. 

AUGMENTATIONS  COURT  was  established  in  1535  by  27  Henry  VIII.  c.  27,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  working  of  cap.  28  of  the  same  session,  which  gave  to  the  king  the  property  of  all 
monasteries  having  200?.  a  year.  The  court  was  abolished  by  Mary  in  1553,  and  restored  by 
Elizabeth  in  1558. 


AUGSBURG  (Bavaria),  originally  a  colony  settled  by  Augustus,  about  12  B.C.  ;  became 
n  free  city,  and  flourished  during  the  middle  ages.  Here  many  important  diets  of  the 
empire  have  been  held.  In  A.T>.  952,  a  council  confirmed  the  order  for  the  celibacy  of  the 
priesthood;  and  on  Sept.  25,  1555,  the  celebrated  treaty  of  Nassau  was  signed,  by  which 
religious  liberty  was  secured  to  Germany.  League  of  Augsburg.  A  treaty  between  Holland 
nnd  other  European  powers,  to  cause  the  treaties  of  Munster  and  Nimeguen  to  be  respected, 
signed  1686.  See  Munster  and  Nimeguen.  Augsburg  has  suffered  much  by  war,  having 
been  frequently  taken  by  siege,  788,  1703,  1704,  and,  last,  by  the  French,  Oct.  10,  1805" 
who  restored  it  to  Bavaria  in  March,  1806. 

AUGSBURG  CONFESSION"  (Articles  of  Faith,  drawn  up  by  Luther,  Melanchthon,  and 
other  reformers,  and  presented  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  June  25,  1530),  was  directly 
opposed  to  the  abuses  of  the  church  of  Rome.  It  was  signed  by  the  elector  of  Saxony,  and 
other  princes  of  Germany,  and  was  delivered  to  the  emperor  in  the  palace  of  the  bishop  of 
Augsburg.  See  Interim. 

AUGURY.  Husbandry  was  in  part  regulated  by  the  coming  or  going  of  birds,  long 
before  the  time  of  Hesiod.  Three  augurs,  at  Rome,  with  vestals  and  several  orders  of  the 
priesthood,  were  formally  constituted  by  Numa,  7103.0.  The  number  had  increased,  and 
was  fifteen  at  the  time  of  Sylla,  81  B.C.',  and  the  college  of  augurs  was  abolished  by  Theo- 
dosius  about  A.D.  391. 

AUGUST,  the  eighth  Roman  month  of  the  year  (previously  called  Sextilis,  or  the  sixth 
from  March),  by  a  decree  of  the  senate  received  its  present  name  in  honour  of  Augustus 
Csesar,  in  the  year  8,  or  27,  or  30  B.C.,  because  in  this  month  he  was  created  consul,  had 
thrice  triumphed  in  Rome,  added  Egypt  to  the  Roman  empire,  and  made  an  end  of  the 
civil  Avars.  He  added  one  day  to  the  month,  making  it  31  days. 

AUGUSTINS,  a  religious  mendicant  "order,  which  ascribes  its  origin  to  St.  Augustin, 
bishop  of  Hippo,  who  died  430.  These  monks  (termed  Austin  friars)  first  appeared  about 
the  nth  century,  and  the  order  was  constituted  by  pope  Alexander  IV.,  in  1256.  Th'e  rule 
requires  strict  poverty,  humility,  and  chastity.  Martin  Luther  was  an  Augustin  monk. 
The  Augustins  held  the  doctrine  of  free  grace,  and  were  rivals  of  the  Dominicans.  The  order 
appeared  in  England  soon  after  the  conquest.  One  of  their  churches,  at  Austin  Friars, 
London,  erected  in  1354,  and  since  the  Reformation  used  by  Dutch  protestants,  was  partially 
destroyed  by  fire,  Nov.  22,  1862.  A  religious  house  of  the  order,  dedicated  to  S.  Monica, 
mother  of  Augustin,  was  founded  in  Hoxton-square,  London,  1864. 

AULIC  COUNCIL,  a  sovereign  court  in  Germany,  established  by  the  emperor  Maximilian 
I.,  in  1506,  being  one  of  the  two  courts,  the  first  called  the  Imperial  Chamber,  formerly 
held  at  Spires,  and  afterwards  at  "Wetzlar,  and  the  other  the  Aulic  council  at  Vienna.  These 
courts,  having  concurrent  jurisdiction,  were  instituted  for  appeals  in  particular  cases  from 
the  courts  of  the  Germanic  states. 

AUR  AY  (N.W.  France).  Here,  on  Sept.  29,  1364,  the  English,  under  John  Chandos, 
totally  defeated  the  French  and  captured  their  heroic  leader  Du  Guesclin.  Charles  of  Blois, 
made  duke  of  Brittany  by  the  king  of  France,  was  slain,  and  a  peace  was  made  in 
April,  1365. 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION.  The  confession  of  sin  at  the  ear  (Latin  auris)  of  the 
priest  must  have  been  an  early  practice,  since  it  is  said  to  have  been  forbidden  iu  the  4th 
century  by  Nectarius,  archbishop  of  Constantinople.  It  was  enjoined  by  the  council  of 
Lateran,  in  1215,  and  by  the  council  of  Trent  in  1551.  It  was  one  of  the  six  articles  of 
faith  enacted  by  our  Henry  VIII.  in  1539,  but  was  abolished  in  England  at  the  Reformation. 
Its  revival  here  has  been  attempted  by  the  church  party  called  Puseyites  or  Tractarians  ;  but 
without  much  success.* 

AURIFLAMMA,  on  ORIFLAMME,  the  national  golden  banner  mentioned  in  French 
history,  belonging  to  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and  suspended  over  the  tomb  of  that  saint, 
1 140.  Louis  le  Gros  was  the  first  king  who  took  this  standard  from  the  abbey  to  battle, 
1124.  Henault,  It  appeared  for  the  last  time  at  Agincourt,  1415.  Fillet. 

AURORA  FRIGATE,  sailed  from  Britain  in  1771,  to  the  East  Indies,  and  was  never 
again  heard  of. 

*  The  rev.  Alfred  Poole,  one  of  the  curates  of  St.  Barnabas,  Knightsbridge,  was  suspended  from  his 
office  for  practising  auricular  confession  in  June,  1858,  by  the  bishop  of  London.  On  appeal,  the  suspen- 
sion was  confirmed  in  January,  1859.  Much  excitement  was  created  by  a  similar  attempt  by  the  rev. 
Temple  West  at  Boyne  Hill,  in  September,  1858. 


AUR  64  AUS 

AURORA  BOREALES  AND  AUSTRALES  (Northern  and  Southern  Polar  Lights),  though 
rarely  seen  in  central  Europe,  are  frequent  in  the  arctic  and  antarctic  regions.  In  March, 
1716,  an  aurora  borealis  extended  from  the  west  of  Ireland  to  the  confines  of  Russia.  The 
whole  horizon  in  the  lat.  of  57°  N.  overspread  with  continuous  haze  of  a  dismal  red  during 
the  whole  night,  by  which  many  people  were  much  terrified,  Nov.  1765. — Mr.  Foster,  the 
companion  of  captain  Cook,  saw  the  aurora  in  lat.  58°  S.  Its  appearance  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  had  been  previously  doubted.* 

AUSCULTATION. 


AUSTERLITZ  (Moravia),  where  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  French  and  the  allied 
Austrian  and  Russian  armies,  Dec.  2,  1805.  Three  emperors  commanded  :  Alexander  of 
Russia,  Francis  of  Austria,  and  Napoleon  of  France.  The  killed  and  wounded  exceeded 
30,000  on  the  side  of  the  allies,  who  lost  forty  standards,  150  pieces  of  cannon,  and  thousands 
of  prisoners.  The  decisive  victory  of  the  French  led  to  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  signed  Dec.- 
26,  1805.  See  Presburg. 

AUSTIN  FRIARS. 


AUSTRALASIA,  the  fifth  great  division  of  the  world.  This  name,  originally  given  it 
by  De  Brosses,  includes  Australia,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  New 
Caledonia,  &c. ,  mostly  discovered  within  two  centuries.  Accidental  discoveries  were  made 
by  the  Spaniards  as  early  as  1526  ;  but  the  first  accurate  knowledge  of  these  southern  lands 
is  due  to  the  Dutch,  who  in  1605  explored  a  part  of  the  coast  of  New  Guinea.  Torres,  a 
Spaniard,  passed  through  the  straits  which  now  bear  his  name,  between  that  island  and 
Australia,  and  gave  the  first  correct  report  of  the  latter,  1606.  The  Dutch  continued  their 
discoveries.  Between  1642  and  1644,  Tasman  completed  a  discovery  of  a  great  part  of  the 
Australian  coast,  together  with  the  island  of  Yan  Diemen's  Land  (also  called  Tasmania). 
Wm.  Dampier,  an  Englishman,  between  1684  and  1690,  explored  a  part  of  the  W.  and  N. 
W.  coasts.  Between  1763  and  1766,  Wallis  and  Carteret  followed  in  the  track  of  Dampier, 
and  added  to  his  discoveries;  and  in  1770,  Cook  first  made  known  the  East  coast  of 
Australia.  Furneaux,  in  1773,  Bligh  in  1789,  Edwards  in  1791,  Bligh  (a  second  time)  in 
1792,  Portlock  same  year,  Brampton  and  Alt  in  1793,  an(i  Bass  and  Flinders  explored  the 
coasts  and  islands  in  1798-9  and  discovered  Bass's  Straits.  Grant  in  1800,  and  Flinders 
again  (1801-5)  completed  the  survey.  M'CullocJi. 

AUSTRALIA  (formerly  New  Holland),  the  largest  island  and  smallest  continent ;  with 
an  estimated  area  of  about  three  million  square  miles,  including  five  provinces — New  South 
"Wales,  Victoria  (formerly  Port  Phillip),  South  Australia,  West  Australia  (or  Swan  River), 
and  Queensland  (which-  see).  Population,  with  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand,  in  1863,  about 
1,366,956. 

Australia  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  For-  Great  distress  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  the 

tuguese  before 1550        ship  "  Guardian,"  captain  Riou      .        .        .  1790 

Alleged    discovery    by    Manoel    Godinho    de  First  church  erected       ....       Aug.   1793 

Heredia,  a  Portuguese 1601     Government  gazette  first  printed       .         .         .1795 

Torres  passes  through  the  straits  named  after              Bass's  Straits  discovered  by  Bass  and  Flinders  1798 
him 1606    First  brick  church  built 1802 

The  Dutch  also  discover  Australia  .         March,     ,,     ,  Colony  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  (now  Tasmania) 

The  coast    surveyed    by    Dutch    navigators :  i      established 1803 

north,   by  Zeachen,    1618  ;   west,  by  Edels,  I  Flinders  surveys  the  coasts  of  Australia       .     1801-5 

1619;   south,    by    Nuyts,    1627;    north,   by  Insurrection  of  Irish  convicts  quelled        .        .   1804 

Carpenter  .  1627  !  Governor  Bligh  for  his  tyranny  deposed  by  an 

Wm.  Dampier  explores  the  W.  and  N.W.  coasts,  insurrection 1808 

1684-90  !  Superseded  by  governor  Macquarie   .        .        .  1809 

Tasman  coasts  S.  Australia         .        .         .        .1642    Expeditions  into  the  interior  by  Wentworth, 


Terra  Australis  (Western  Australia)  named  New 
Holland  by  order  of  the  States-General  .  .  1665 

William  Dampier  lands  in  Australia  .         .        .  1686 

Capt.  Cook,  sir  Joseph  Banks,  and  others,  land 
at  Botany  Bay,  and  name  the  country  ' '  New 
South  Wales" April  28,  1770 

Governor  Phillip  founds  the  city  of  Sydney 
near  Port  Jackson,  with  1030  persons, 

Jan.  26,  1788 

[The  seventy-first  anniversary  of  this  event  was 
kept  with  much  festivity,  Jan.  26,  1859.] 


Lawson,  Bloxland.  Oxley,  &c.  .  1813,  1817,  1823 
Population,  29,783  (three-fourths  convicts)  .  .1821 
West  Australia  formed  into  a  province  .  ..  1829 
Legislative  council  established  .  .  ,, 

Sturt's  expeditions  into  South  Australia  1828-1831 
South  Australia  erected  into  a  province  .  Aug.  1834 
Sir  T.  Mitchell's  expeditions  into  E.  Australia  1831-6 
First  Rom.  Cath.  Bishop  (Folding)  arrives,  Sept.  1835 
Port  Phillip  (now  Victoria)  colonised  .  Nov.  ,, 
First  Church  of  England  bishop  of  Australia 

(Broughton)  arrives      ....   June,  1836 


*  The  aurora  is  now  attributed  by  many  philosophers  to  the  passage  of  electric  light  through  the 
rarefied  air  of  the  polar  regions.  In  August  and  September,  1859,  when  brilliant  aurorfe  were  very 
frequent,  the  electric  telegraph  wires  were  seriously  affected,  and  communications  interrupted.  Aurora 
were  seen  at  Rome  and  Basel,  and  also  in  Australia. 


AITS 


65 


AUS 


Remains  of  Burke  and  Wills  recovered  ;  public 
funeral  ......  Jan.  21,  1863 

Strong  and  general  resistance  throughout  Aus- 
tralia to  the  reception  of  British  convicts  in 
West  Australia  .  .  .  .  about  June,  1864 

Cessation  of  transportation  to  Australia  in 
three  years  announced  amid  much  rejoicing, 

Jan.  26,  1863 

Morgan,  a  desperate  bushranger  and  murderer, 
surrounded  and  shot  ....  April, 

Boundary  disputes  between  New  South  Wales 
and  Victoria,  in  summer  of  1864  ;  settled 
amicably  ......  April  19,  ,, 

GOVERNORS. 

Captain  Arthur  Phillip        .....  1788 

Captain  Hunter       .......  1795 

Captain  Philip  G.  King       .....  1800 

Captain  William  Bligh 

Colonel  Lachlan  Macquarie  (able  and  successful 
administration)         ......  1809 

General  sir  Thomas  Brisbane          .        .        .     .  1821 

Sir  Richard  Bourke     ......  1831 

Sir  George  Gipps     .......  1838 

Sir  Charles  Fitzroy,  governor-general  of  all  the 
Australian  colonies,  with  a  certain  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  lieutenant-governors  of  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  Victoria,  and  South  and 
Western  Australia 
Sir  William  T.  Denison 

Sir  John  Young,  governor  of  New  South  Wales 
only 


1806 


1846 
1854 


1860 


AUSTRALIA,  continued. 

Colony  of  South  Australia,  founded      .          Dec.  1836 
's  expedition  overland  from  Adelaide  to 

King  George's  Sound 1836-7 

Melbourne  founded Nov.  1837 

Suspension  of  transportation 1839 

Strzelecki  explores  the  Australian  Alps  .  .  1840 
Great  exertions  of  Mrs.  Chisholm;  establish- 
ment of  "  Home  for  Female  Emigrants"  1841-6 
Census— 87,200  males ;  43,700  females  .  .  .  1841 
Very  numerous  insolvencies  .  .  .  1841-2 
Incorporation  of  city  of  Sydney  .  .  .  .  1842 
Leichhardt's  expedition  (never  returned)  .  1844-5 
Sturt  proceeds  from  South  Australia  to  the 

middle  of  the  continent 1845 

Census  (including  Port  Phillip) — 114,700  males  ; 

74,800  females 1846 

Great  agitation  against  transportation,  which 

had  been  revived  by  earl  Grey         .        .         .  1849 
Port  Phillip  erected  into  a  separate  province  as 

Victoria 1850 

Gold  discovered  by  Mr.  Hargraves,  &c.*    .         .  1851 
Census — males,  106,000;  females,  81,000  (exclu- 
sive of  Victoria,  80,000) ,, 

Mints  established         ....      March,  1853 

Transportation  ceased ,, 

Gregory's  explorations  of  interior       .        .        .  1856 
Death  of  archdeacon  Cowper  (aged  80),  after 

about  fifty  years'  residence  .        .     July,  1858 

Queensland  made  a  province        .        .       Dec.  4,  1859 

Stuart's  expeditions 1858-60 

Expedition  into  the  interior  under  Mr.  Lan- 

dells  organised Aug.  1860 

Robert  O'Hara  Burke,  Wm.  John  Wills,  and 

others,  start  from  Melbourne  '.        .  Aug.  20,     ,, 
J.  M'Douall  Stuart's  expeditions     .        .         .  1860-1 
Burke,  Wills,  and  two  others,  cross  Australian 

continent  to  the  gulf  of    Carpentaria ;    all 

perish  on  their  return,  except  John  King, 

who  arrives  at  Melbourne        .        .        .  Nov.  1861 
Stuart,  M'Kinlay,   and    Landsborough    cross 

Australia  from  sea  to  sea     ....     1861-2 

AUSTRASIA,  (Estcrreich  (Eastern  Kingdom),  also  called  Metz,  a  French,  kingdom  which 
lasted  from  the  6th  to  the  8th  century.  It  began  with  the  division  of  the  territories  of  Clovis 
by  his  sons,  511,  and  ended  by  Carloman  becoming  a  monk  and  surrendering  his  power  to  his 
brother  Pepiu,  who  thus  became  sole  king  of  ^France,  747. 

AUSTRIA,  a  Hamburg  company's  steamship,  sailed  from  Southampton  for  New  York 
Sept.  4,  1858,  with  538  persons  on  board.  On  Sept.  13,  in  lat.  45°  K,  long.  41°  30'  "W.,  it 
caught  fire  through  the  carelessness  of  some  one  in  burning  some  tar  to  fumigate  the  steerage. 
Only  67  persons  were  saved — upwards  of  60  by  the  Maurice,  a  French  barque  ;  the  rest  by 
a  Norwegian  .barque.  A  heartrending  account  was  given  in  the  Times,  Oct.  II,  1858,  by 
Mr.  Charles  Brews,  an  English  survivor. 

AUSTRIA,  (Estcrreich  (Eastern  Kingdom),  anciently  Noricum  and  part  of  Parmonia, 
was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire  about  33  ;  was  overrun  by  the  Huns,  Avars,  &c.,  during 
the  5th  and  6th  centuries,  and  taken  from  them  by  Charlemagne,  791-796.  He  divided  the 
government  of  the  country,  establishing  margraves  of  Eastern  Bavaria  and  Aiistria.  Louis 

*  GOLD  DISCOVERY. — Mr.  Edward  Hargraves  went  to  California  in  search  of  gold,  and  was  struck  with 
the  similarity  between  the  rocks  and  strata  of  California  and  those  of  his  own  district  of  Conobolas,  some 
thirty  miles  west  of  Bathurst.  On  his  return  home,  he  examined  the  soil,  and  after  one  or  two  months' 
digging,  found  a  quantity  of  gold,  Feb.  12,  1851.  He  applied  to  the  colonial  government  for  a  reward, 
which  he  readily  obtained,  with  an  appointment  as  commissioner  of  crown  lands.  The  excitement  became 
intense  throughout  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales,  rapidly  spread  to  that  of  Victoria  and  other  places  ; 
and  in  the  first  week  of  July,  1851,  an  aboriginal  inhabitant,  formerly  attached  to  the  Wellington  mission, 
and  then  in  the  service  of  Dr.  Kerr,  of  Wallawa,  discovered,  while  tending  his  sheep,  a  mass  of  gold  among 
a  heap  of  quartz.  Three  blocks  of  quartz  (from  two  to  three  hundred  weight),  found  in  the  Murroo  Creek, 
fifty  miles  to  the  north  of  Bathurst,  contained  ii2lb.  of  puie  gold,  valued  at  4000?.  The  "  Victoria  nugget," 
a  magnificent  mass  of  virgin  gold,  weighing  340  ounces,  was  brought  to  England  from  the  Bendigo 
diggings  ;  and  a  piece  of  pure  gold  of  106  Ib.  weight  was  also  found.  From  the  gold  fields  of  Mount 
Alexander  and  Ballaarat,  in  the  district  of  Victoria,  up  to  Oct.  1852,  there  wore  found  2,532,422  ounces,  or 
"105  tons  10  cwt.  of  gold  ;  and  the  gold  exported  up  to  the  same  date  represented  8,863,477?.  sterling.  In 
Nov.  1856,  the  "James  Baines"  and  "Lightning"  brought  gold  from  Melbourne  valued  at  1,200,000?.  The 
"  Welcome  nugget"  weighed  2019^  ounces  ;  value,  8376?.  io£.  zod. ;  found  at  Baker's  Hill,  Ballaarat,  June  : 

to  the      ~ 


Acts  for  the  government  of  Australia,  10  George 
IV.,  cap.  22,  May  14  (1829),  6  &  7  William  IV., 
cap.  68,  Aug.  13  (1836),  13  &  14  Victoria, 
cap.  59,  Aug.  5  (1850).  Act  for  regulating  the 
sale  of  waste  lands  in  the  Australian  colonies, 
5  &  6  Victoria,  cap.  36,  June  22  (1842). 


1858.     Between  May  1851,  and  May  1861,  gold 
from  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria. 


ie  value  of  96.000,000?.  had  been  brought  to  England 


AUS 


AUS 


the  German,  son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  about  817,  subjugated  Radbod,  margrave  ol 
Austria  ;  but  in  883  the  descendants  of  the  latter  raised  a  civil  war  in  Bavaria  against  the 
emperor  Charles  the  Fat,  and  eventually  the  margraves  of  Austria  were  declared  immediate 
princes  of  the  empire.  In  1156  the  margraviate  was  made  a  hereditary  duchy  by  the 
emperor  Frederic  I.  ;  and  in  1453  it  was  raised  to  an  archduchy  by  the  emperor  Frederic  III. 
Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg,  elected  emperor  of  Germany  in  1273,*  acquired  Austria  in  1278  ; 
and  from  1493  to  1804  his  descendants  were  emperors  of  Germany.  On  Aug.  n,  1804,  the 
emperor  Francis  II.  renounced  the  title  of  emperor  of  Germany,  and  became  hereditary 
emperor  of  Austria.  The  condition  of  Austria  is  now  greatly  improving  under  the  enlightened 
rule  of  the  present  emperor.  The  political  constitution  of  the  empire  is  based  upon — i.  The 
pragmatic  sanction  of  Charles  VI.,  1734,  which  declares  the  indivisibility  of  the  empire  and 
rules  the  order  of  succession.  2.  The  pragmatic  sanction  of  Francis  II.,  Aug.  I,  1804,  when 
he  became  emperor  of  Austria  only.  3.  The  diploma  of  Francis- Joseph,  Oct.  20,  1860, 
whereby  he  imparted  legislative  power  to  the  provincial  states  and  the  council  of  the  empire 
(Reichsratb).  4.  The  law  of  Feb.  26,  1861,  on  the  national  representation.  Population  of 
the  empire  in  Oct.  1857,  35,018,988. 

rederic  II.,  the   last  male  of  the  house  of 

Bamberg,  killed  in  battle  with  the  Hunga- 
rians         June  15,  1246 

Disputed  succession :  the  emperor  Frederic  II. 

sequestered  the  provinces,  appointing  Otto, 

count  of  Eberstein,  governor  in  the  name  of 

the  emperor  ;  they  are  seized  by  Ladislaus, 

margrave  of  Moravia,  in  right  of  his  wife, 

Frederic's  niece,  Gertrude  :  he  died  childless  1247 
Herman,   margrave    of    Baden,   marries  Ger- 
trude, and  holds  the  provinces  till  his  death  1250 
Ottocar  (or  Premislas),  of  Bohemia,  acquires  the 

provinces 1254 

Compelled    to    cede    Styria   to  Hungary,   he 

makes  war  and  recovers  it,  in  consequence 

of  a  great  victory 1260  ' 

He  inherits  Carinthia,  1263  ;  refuses  to  become 

emperor  of  Germany,   1272,   and  to  render 

homage  to  Rodolph  of    Hapsburg,   elected 

emperor 1273  ; 

War  against  Ottocar  as  a  rebel :  he  is  compelled 

to  cede  Austria,  Caftnthia,    and  Styria   to 

Rodolph 1274 

The  war  renewed :    Ottocar    perishes    in  the 

battle  of  Marchfeld      .        .        .        Aug.  26,   1278, 
Albert    I.    assassinated    by  his    nephew  and 

others,    while    attempting   to    enslave   the 

Swiss May  i,  1308  j 

Successful  revolt  of  the  Swiss          .        .        .  1307-9 
They  totally  defeat  the  Austrians  under  duke 

Leopold,  at  Morgarten      .        .         .  Nov.  16,  1315 
The  duke  Leopold  imposes  a  toll  on  the  Swiss  ; 

which  they  resist  with  violence  :  he  makes 

war  on  them,  and  is  defeated  and  slain  at 

Sempach July,  1386 

Duke  Albert  V.  obtains  Bohemia  and  Hungary, 

and  is  elected  emperor  of  Germany    .        .    .  1437 
The   emperor  Frederic    III.,   as  head  of    the 

house  of  Hapsburg,  creates  the  archduchy 

of  Austria  with  sovereign  power       .     Jan.  6,  1453 
Austria  divided  between  him  and  his  relatives, 

1457  ;  war  ensues  between  them  till  .        .     .  1463 
Burgundy  accrues  to  Austria  by  the  marriage 

of  Maximilian  with  the  heiress  of  that  pro- 
vince  i477 

Also  Spain,  by  the  marriage  of  Philip  I.  of  Aus- 
tria, with  the  heiress  of  Arragon  and  Castile  1496 
Bohemia  and  Hungary  united  to  Austria  under 

Ferdinand  I. 1526 

Austria  harassed  by  Turkish  invasions       .      1529-45 
Charles  V.,   reigning  over  Germany,  Austria, 

Bohemia,  Hungary,  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  j  Convention  of  Olmutz       .         .        .       Nov.  29^  1850 

and  their  dependencies,  abdicates  (see  Spain)  15^6    The    emperor    revokes    the    constitution    of 
Mantua  ceded  to  the  emperor      .        .    Jan.  3,  1708        March  4,  1849        ....        060.31,1851 
By  treaty  of  Utrecht    he  obtains  part  of  the  j  Trial  by  jury  abolished  in  the  empire    Jan.  is,  1852 

duchy  of  Milan        ....    April  n,   1713: 
By  treaty  of  Rastadt  he  acquires  the  Nether- 
lands       1714  I 

The  Netherlands,   Naples,   Milan,   &c.,   added  Libenyi,  Feb.  18  ;  who  was  executed*  Feb.  28,  1853 

to  Austrian  dominions    .        .        .     Nov.  15,  1715 


es  Venice 
.  Jan.  i, 
Jan.  12, 

May  13, 
Oct.  24, 


Further  additions  on  the  east  (Temeswar,  &c.) 

by  the  peace  of  Passarowitz  .... 
Naples  and  Sicily  given  up  to  Spain  .  .  . 
Death  of  Charles  VI.,  the  last  sovereign  of  the 

male  line  of  the  house   of  Hapsburg  ;  his 

daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  becomes  queen  of 

Hungary 

She  is  attacked  by  Prussia,  France,  Bavaria, 

and  Saxony  ;  but  supported  by  Great  Britain 
Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine,  who  had  married 

Maria  Theresa  in  1736,  elected  emperor . 
By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the  emperor 

gives  up  Lombardy  (which  see)  and  obtains 

Venice Oct  15, 

Francis  II.,  emperor  of    Germany,  becomes 

Francis  1.  of  Austria  .  .  .  Aug.  n, 
His  declaration  against  France  .  .  Aug.  5, 
War :  Napoleon  successful,  enters  Vienna, 

Nov.  14, 

Austrians  and  Russians  defeated  at  Austerlitz, 

Dec.  2, 
By  treaty  of  Presburg,  Austria 

and  the  Tyrol 

Vienna  evacuated  by  the  French 
The  French  again  take  Vienna 
But  restore  it  at  the  peace 
Napoleon    marries    the    archduchess     Maria 

Louisa,  the  daughter  of  the  emperor,  April  i, 
Congress  at  Vienna  ....  Oct.  2, 
Treaty  of  Vienna  ....  Feb.  25, 
[Italian  provinces  restored  with  additions — 

Lombardo-Venetian    kingdom     established, 

April  7.] 

Death  of  Francis  I.,  and  accession  of  Ferdinand, 

March  2, 

New  treaty  of  commerce  with  England,  July  3, 
Ferdinand  I.  is  crowned  at  Milan  .  Sept.  6, 
Insurrection  at  Vienna  :  flight  of  Metternich, 

March  13, 
Insurrections  in  Italy.     See  Milan,  Venice,  and 

Sardinia March  18, 

Another  insurrection  at  Vienna  :  the  emperor 

flies  to  Inspruck  ....  May  15-17, 
Archduke  John  appointed  vicar-general  of  the 

empire May  29, 

A  constituent  assembly  meet  at  Vienna,  July  22, 
Insurrection  at  Vienna :  murder  of  Count 

Latour Oct.  6, 

Revolution  in  Hungary  and  war.  See  Hungary. 
The  emperor  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  nephew, 

Francis- Jose)  >h Dec.  2, 

Convention  of  Olmutz  .  .  .  Nov.  29, 
The  emperor  revokes  the  constitution  of 

March  4,  1849        .         .        .        .        Dec.  31, 
Trial  by  jury  abolished  in  the  empire    Jan.  15, 
Death  of  prince  Schwartzenberg,  prime  minis- 
ter   April  4, 

Attempted  assassination  of    the  emperor  by 

Libenyi,  Feb.  18  ;  who  was  executed,  Feb.  28, 
Commercial  treaty  with  Prussia  .  Feb.  19, 


1718 
1735 


1740 
1741 
1745 

1797 

1804 
1805 


1806 
1809 


ISIO 

1814 

1815 


1835 
1838 


1848 


AUS 


67 


AUS 


AUSTRIA,  continued. 

Austrians  enter  Danubian  Principalities    Aug.  1854 

Alliance  with  England  and  France  relative  to 
eastern  question Dec.  2  , , 

Great  reduction  of  the  army    .         .      June  24,  1855 

Degrading  concordat  with  Rome        .  Aug. 

Amnesty    for   political    offenders    of    1 

July  12,  1856 

Austrians    quit   the  Danubian  Principalities, 

March,  1857 

Austria  remonstrates  against  the  attacks  of  the 
free  Sardinian  press  .  .  .  Feb.  10,  ,, 

Firm  reply  of  count  Cavour     .        .       Feb.  20,     ,, 

Diplomatic  relations  between  Austria  and  Sar- 
dinia broken  off  in  consequence,  March  23-30,  ,, 

Emperor  and  empress  visit  Hungary  May,     ,. 

Death  of  marshal  Radetzky  (aged  92)       Jan.  5,  1858 

Excitement  throughout  Europe,  caused  by  the  . 
address  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.  to  the 
Austrian  ambassador  : — "  I  regret  that  our 
relations  with  your  government  are  not  as 
good  as  formerly,  but  I  beg  of  you  to  tell  the 
emperor  that  my  personal  sentiments  for 
him  have  not  changed]"  .  .  .  Jan.  i,  1859 

The  emperor  of  Austria  replied  in  almost  the 
same  words  on  ....  Jan.  4,  , , 

Prince  Napoleon  Bonaparte  marries  princess 
Clotilde  of  Sardinia  .  .  .  .Jan.  30,  ,, 

Austria  prepares  for  war  ;  enlarges  her  armies 
in  Italy  ;  and  strongly  fortifies  the  banks  of 
the  Ticino,  the  boundary  of  her  Italian  pro- 
vinces and  Sardinia  .  .  Feb.  &  March,  ,, 

Lord  Cowley  at  Vienna  on  a  "  mission  of  peace," 

Feb.  27,     „ 

Intervention  of  Russia — proposal  for  a  con- 
gress ;  disputes  respecting  the  admission  of 
Sardinia — Sardinia  and  France  prepare  for 
war March  &  April,  ,, 

Austria  demands  the  disarmament  of  Sardinia 
and  the  dismissal  of  the  volunteers  from  other 
states  within  three  days  .  .  April  23,  ,, 

This  demand  rejected     .        .        .        April  26,     ,, 

The  Austrians  cross  the  Ticino  .        .     April  26,     , , 

The  French  troops  enter  Piedmont       April  27,     ,, 

The  French  emperor  declares  war  (to  expel  the 
Austrians  from  Italy)  .  .  .  May  3,  ,, 

Resignation  of  count  Buol,  foreign  minister ; 
appointment  of  count  Rechberg,  May  13-18,  ,,  ' 

The  Austrians  defeated  at  Montebello,  May  20  ; 
at  Palestro,  May  30-31  ;  at  Magenta,  June  4 ; 
at  Malegnano  (Marignano)  .  .  June  8,  , , 

Prince  Metternich  dies,  aged  86  (he  had  been 
actively  engaged  in  the  wars  and  negotia- 
tions of  Napoleon  I.)  .  .  .  June  ii,  ., 

Austrians  defeated  at  Solferinp  (near  the 
Mincio) ;  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  France 
and  king  of  Sardinia  present .  .  June  24,  ,, 

Armistice  agreed  upon,  July  6  ;  the  emperors 
meet,  July  n  ;  the  preliminaries  of  peace 
signed  at  Villa  Franca  [Lombardy  given  up 
to  Sardinia,  and  an  Italian  confederation 
proposed  to  be  formed]  .  .  .  July  12,  ,, 

Manifesto  justifying  the  peace  issued  to  the 
army,  July  12  ;  to  the  people  .  July  15,  ,, 

Patent  issued,  granting  greatly  increased  privi- 
leges to  the  Protestants, — announced  Sept.  ,, 

Conference  between  the  envoys  of  Austria  and 
France  at  Zurich  .  .  Aug.  8  to  Sept.  ,, 

Many  national  reforms  proposed    .        .     Sept.     ,, 

Treaty  of  Zurich,  confirming  the  preliminaries 
of  Villa  Franca,  signed  .  .  .  Nov.  n,  ,, 

Decrees  removing  Jewish  disabilities, 

Jan  6,  10,  Feb.  18,  1860 

Patent  issued  for  the  summoning  the  great 
imperial  council  (Reichsrath),  composed  of 
representatives  elected  by  the  provincial 
diets March  5,  ,, 

Discovery  of  great  corruption  in  the  army 
financial  arrangements,  a  deficiency  of  about 
1,700,000?.  discovered  ;  general  Eynatten 
commits  suicide  ;  82  persons  arrested,  March,  ,, 


Austria  protests  against  the  annexation  of  Tus- 
cany, <fec.,  by  the  king  of  Sardinia  .  April,  1860 

Baron  Briick,  suspected  of  complicity  in  the 
army  frauds,  dismissed  April  20;  commits 
suicide April  23,  ,, 

The  Reichsrath  assembles,  May  31 ;  addressea 
by  the  emperor June  i, 

Liberty  of  the  press  further  restrained    .  July,     , 

Unsettled  state  of  Hungary  (ichich  see)  July-Oct. 

Friendly  meeting  of  the  emperor  and  the  regent 
of  Prussia  at  Toplitz  .  .  .  July  26,  , , 

Free  debates  in  the  Reichsrath  ;  strictures  on 
the  concordat,  the  finances,  &c.  ;  proposals 
for  separate  constitutions  for  the  provinces, 

Aug.  &  Sept.     ,, 

The  Reichsrath  adjourned.        .         .     Sept.  29,     ,, 

Diploma  conferring  on  the  Reichsrath  legis- 
lative powers,  the  control  of  the  finances,  <fec., 
a  manifesto  issued  to  the  populations  of  the 

.     empire  (not  well  received)       .        .     Oct.  20,     ,, 

Meeting  of  the  emperor  with  the  emperor  of 
Russia  and  prince  regent  of  Prussia  at 
Warsaw  :  no  important  result  .  Oct.  20-26,  ,, 

The  government  professes  non-intervention  in 
Italy,  but  increases  the  army  in  Venetia, 

Oct.  &  Nov.     ,, 

The  empress  goes  to  Madeira  for  health      Nov.     ,, 

Sale  of  Venetia,  publicly  spoken  of,  is  re- 
pudiated in Dec.  , , 

Ministerial  crisis :  M.  Schmerling  becomes 
minister — more  political  concessions,  Dec.  13,  ,, 

The  proscribed  Hungarian,  count  Teleki,  at 
Dresden,  is  given  up  to  Austria,  which  causes 
general  indignation,  about  Dec.  20;  he  is 
released  on  parole  ....  Dec.  31,  ,, 

Amnesty  for  political  offences  in  Hungary, 
Croatia,  <fec.,  published  .  .  .  Jan.  7,  1861 

Reactionary  policy  of  the  court  leads  to  in- 
creased disaffection  throughout  the  empire, 

Jan.  &  Feb.     ,, 

The  statutes  of  the  new  constitution  for  the 
Austrian  monarchy  published  .  .  Feb.  6,  ,, 

Civil  and  political  rights  granted  to  Protestants, 
throughout  the  empire,  except  in  Hungary 
and  Venice  .....  April  8,  ,, 

Meeting  of  Reichsrath — no  deputies  present 
from  Hungary,  Croatia,  Transylvania,  Venetia, 
or  Istria April  29,  ,, 

Ministry  of  Marine  created         .        .        .  Jan.   1862 

Inundation  of  the  Danube,  causing  great 
distress Feb.  4,  ,, 

Increased  taxation  proposed     .        .        March,     ,, 

At  an  imperial  council,  the  emperor  present, 
the  principle  of  ministerial  responsibility  is 
resolved  on April  26,  ,, 

Deficiency  of  1,400,000?.  in  financial  statement 
— indignation  of  the  Reichsrath  .  .  June,  ,, 

Amnesty  to  condemned  political  offenders  in 
Hungary  proclaimed  .  .  .  Nov.  18,  ,, 

Reduction  in  the  army  assented  to  ;  and  a  per- 
sonal liberty  law  (resembling  our  habeas 
corpus  act)  passed  ....  Dec.  ,, 

Polish  insurrection        ....         Jan.  1863 

Meeting  of  the  German  sovereigns(except  kings 
of  Prussia,  Holland,  and  Denmark)  with  the 
emperor  of  Austria,  at  Frankfort,  by  his 
invitation  :  the  draft  of  a  reform  of  the  fede- 
rate constitution  agreed  to  .  Aug.  16-31,  ,, 

The  Transylvanian  deputies  accept  the  con- 
stitution, and  take  their  seats  in  the 
Reichsrath Oct.  20,  ,, 

Gallicia  and  Cracow  declared  to  be  in  a  state  of 
siege Feb.  29,  1864 

(For  events  of  the  war  with  Denmark,  see 
Denmark.) 

Tho  emperor  and  the  king  of  Prussia  meet  at 

Carlsbad June  22, 

Proposed  reduction  of  the  army,  about    Oct.  9 
Resignation  of  count  Rechberg,  foreign  minis-    ' 

F   2 


AUSTRIA,  continued. 

ter,  succeeded  by  count  Mensdorff-Pouilly, 
about Oct.  27,  1864 

Emperor  opens  Reichsrath,  Nov.  14 ;  great 
freedom  of  debate ;  the  state  of  siege  in 
Gallicia  censured Dec.  , , 

Austria  supports  the  Confederation  in  the  dis- 
pute respecting  the  duchies  .  .  Dec.  ,, 

Apparent  reunion  between  Austria  and  Prussia, 

Jan.  1865 

Great  financial  difficulty ;  proposed  reduction 
in  the  army  by  the  chambers  .  .  Jan.  ,, 

Contest  between  the  government  and  the 
chambers  respecting  reduction  in  army,  &c. , 

April,     ,, 

Reported  failure  of  Mr.  Hutt's  mission  to 
Vienna,  to  promote  free  trade  .  .  June,  ,, 

New  ministry  formed,  including  count  Mens- 
dorff  as  nominal  premier,  and  counts  Bel- 
credi  and  Esterhazy  as  ministers  :  concilia- 
tory measures  towards  Hungary,  and  other 
provinces,  proposed;  centralisation  of  the 
government  to  be  given  up,  and  free  trade  in 

prospect July,     »> 

(See  Germany,  Hungary,  Vienna,  &c.) 

MARGRAVES. 

Leopold  I.,  928;  Albert  I.,  1018 ;  Ernest,  1056; 
Leopold  II.,  1075  ;  Leopold  III.,  1096;  Albert  II., 
1136;  Leopold  IV.,  1136;  Henry  II.,  1142  (made  a 
duke  1156). 

DUKES. 

1 1 56.  Henry  II. 

1177.  Leopold  V.  He  made  prisoner  Richard  I.  of 
England  when  returning  incognito  from  the 
crusade,  and  sold  him  to  the  emperor 
Henry  VI. 

1194.  Frederic  I.,  the  catholic. 
1198.  Leopold  VI.,  the  glorious.    KiUed  in  battle. 


1230.  Frederic  II.,  the  warlike.  Killed  in  a  battle 
with  the  Hungarians,  June  15,  1246. 

INTERREGNUM. 

1282.  Albert  I.  and  his  brother  Rodolph.  Albert 
becomes  emperor  of  Germany,  1298. 

1308.  Frederic  I. 

1330.  Albert  II.  and  Otto,  his  brother. 

1358.  Rodolph. 

1365.  Albert  III.  and  Leopold  II.  or  III.  (killed  at 
Sempach). 

1395.  William,  and  other  brothers,  and  their  cousin 
Albert  IV. 

1411.  The  same.  The  provinces  divided  into  the 
duchies  of  Austria  and  Carinthia,  and  the 
county  of  Tyrol. 

1411.  Albert  V.,  duke  of  Austria  ;  obtains  Bohe- 
mia and  Moravia ;  elected  king  of  Hun- 
gary and  emperor,  1437  ;  dies,  1439 ;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  posthumous  son. 

1439.  Ladislaus,  who  dies  childless,  1457. 

1457.  The  emperor  Frederic  III.  and  Albert  VI. 

1493.  Maximilian  I.,  son  of  Frederic  III.  (archduke), 
emperor.  (See  Germany.) 

EMPERORS  OF  AUSTRIA. 

1804.  Francis  I.  (late  Francis  II.  of  Germany), 
emperor  of  Austria  only,  Aug.  n,  1804 ;  died 
March  2,  1835. 

1835.  Ferdinand,  his  son,  March  2  ;  abdicated  in 
favour  of  his  nephew,  his  brother  Francis- 
Charles  having  renounced  his  rights. 

1848.  Francis-Joseph,  Dec.  2,  1848,  emperor  of 
Austria,  son  of  Francis-Charles  [born  Aug. 
18,  1830 ;  married  April  24,  1854,  to  Eliza- 
beth of  BavariaJ. 

[Heir;  their  son,  the  archduke  Rodolph,  born 
Aug.  21,  1858.] 


AUTHORS.     For  the  law  securing  copyright,  see  Copyrights.  0 

AUTO  DA  FE  (Act  of  faith),  the  term  given  to  the  punishment  of  a  heretic,  generally 
burning  alive,  inflicted  by  the  Inquisition  (which  see).  Since  1203,  more  than  100,000 
victims  have  been  sacrificed  by  the  sentence  of  the  inquisitions  of  Roman  Catholic  countries. 
One  of  the  last  executions  of  this  kind  was  at  Goa,  where  twenty  sufferers  perished  in  the 
flames,  1717.  An  auto  da  /etook  place  at  Lisbon,  in  1761,  when  Malagrida,  a  Jesuit,  was 
strangled  and  burnt  for  heresy. 

AUTOMATON"  FIGURES  (OR  AXDROIDES),  made  to  imitate  living  actions,  are  of  early 
invention.  Archytas'  flying  dove  was  formed  about  400  B.  c.  Friar  Bacon  is  said  to  have 
made  a  brazen  head  which  spoke,  A.D.  1264.  Albertus  Magnus  spent  thirty  years  in  making 
another.  A  coach  and  two  horses,  with  a  footman,  a  page,  a  lady  inside,  were  made  by 
Camus  for  Louis  XIV.  when  a  child  ;  the  horses  and  figures  moved  naturally,  variously, 
and  perfectly,  1649.  Vaucanson,  in  1738,  made  an  artificial  duck,  which  performed  every 
function  of  a  real  one,  even  an  imperfect  digestion — eating,  drinking,  and  quacking.  He 
also  made  a  flute-player.  The  writing  automaton,  exhibited  in  1769,  was  a  pentagraph 
worked  by  a  confederate  out  of  sight.  The  automaton  chess-player,  exhibited  the  same 
year,  was  also  worked  by  a  hidden  person,  and  so  was  "the  invisible  girl,"  1800.  Maelzel 
made  a  trumpeter  about  1809.  Early  in  this  century,  an  automaton  was  exhibited  in  London 
which  pronounced  several  sentences  with  tolerable  distinctness..  In  July,  1864,  the  "anthro- 
poglosson,"  exhibited  in  St.  James's-hall,  London,  seemed  to  utter  songs. 

AUTOTYPOGRAPHY,  a  process  of  producing  a  metal  plate  from  drawings,  made  known 
by  Mr.  Wallis,  in  April,  1863  ;  it  resembled  Nature- Printing  (which  see). 

AVA  in  1822  became  the  capital  of  the  Burmese  empire,  it  is  said,  for  the  third  time.  A 
British  embassy  was  received  here  in  Sept.  1855. 

AVARS,  barbarians  who  ravaged  Pannonia,  and  annoyed  the  eastern  empire  in  the  6th 
and  7th  centuries,  subdued  by  Charlemagne  about  799,  after  an  eight  years'  war. 

AVEBURY,  on  ABURY  (Wiltshire).  Here  are  the  remains  of  the  largest  Celtic  or 
Druidical  work  in  this  country.  They  have  been  surveyed  by  Aubrey,  1648  ;  Dr.  Stukely, 


AVE  69  AZO 

1720;  and  sir  R.  C.  Hoare,  in  1812,  and  others.  Much  information  may  be  obtained  from 
Stukely's  "  Abury"  (1743),  and  Hoare's  "Ancient  Wiltshire"  (1812-21).  Many  theories 
have  been  put  forth,  but  the  object  of  these  remains  is  still  unknown.  They  are  considered 
to  have  been  set  np  during  the  "  stone  age,"  i.e.,  when  the  weapons  and  implements  were 
mainly  formed  of  that  material. 

A  VEIN,  on  AVAINE  (Luxemburg,  Belgium).  Here  the  French  and  Dutch  defeated  the 
Spaniards,  May  20,  1635. 

"AVE  MARIA  !  "  the  salutation  of  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  (Luke  i.  28),  was 
made  a  formula  of  devotion  by  pope  John  XXL  about  1326.  In  the  beginning  of  the  i$th 
century  Vincentius  Ferrarius  used  it  before  his  discourses.  Bingham. 

AVIGNON,  a  city,  S.  E.  France,  ceded  by  Philip  III.  to  the  "pope  in  1273.  The  papal 
scat  was  removed  by  Clement  V.  to  Avignon,  in  1309.  In  1348  Clement  VI.  purchased  the 
city  from  Jane,  countess  of  Provence  and  queen  of  Naples.  In  1408,  the  French,  wearied 
of  the  schism,  expelled  Benedict  XIII.,  and  Avignon  ceased  to  be  the  seat  of  the  papacy. 
Here  were  held  nine  councils  (1080—1457).  It  was  seized  and  restored  several  times  by  the 
French  kings  ;  the  last  time  restored  on  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  1773.  It  was  claimed 
by  the  national  assembly,  1791,  and  was  confirmed  to  France  by  the  congress  of  sovereigns 
in  1815.  In  Oct.  1791,  horrible  massacres  took  place  here. 

AXE,  WEDGE,  WIMBLE,  LEVER,  and  various  tools  in  common  use,  are  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Daedalus,  an  artificer  of  Athens,  to  whom  also  is  ascribed  the  invention  of 
masts  and  sails  for  ships,  1240  B.C.  Many  tools  are  represented  on  the  Egyptian 
monuments. 

AYACUCHO  (Peru).  Here  the  Peruvians  finally  achieved  their  independence  by 
defeating  the  Spaniards,  Dec.  9,  1824. 

AYDE,  OR  AIDE,  the  tax  paid  by  the  vassal  to  the  chief  lord  upon  urgent  occasions.  In 
France  and  England  an  aide  was  due  for  knighting  the  king's  eldest  son.  One  was  demanded 
by  Philip  the  Fair,  1313.  The  aide  due  upon  the  birth  of  a  prince,  ordained  by  the  statute 
of  Westminster  (Edward  I.)  1285,  for  the  ease  of  the  subject,  was  not  to  be  levied  until  he 
was  fifteen  years  of  age.  The  aide  for  the  marriage  of  the  king's  eldest  daughter  could  not 
be  demanded  in  this  country  until  her  seventh  year.  In  feudal  tenures  there  was  an  aide 
for  ransoming  the  chief  lord  ;  so  when  our  Richard  I.  was  kept  a  prisoner  by  the  emperor  of 
Germany,  an  aide  of  205.,  to  redeem  him,  was  enforced  upon  every  knight's  fee. 

AYLESBURY,  Buckinghamshire,  was  reduced  by  the  West  Saxons  in  571.  St.  O'Syth, 
beheaded  by  the  pagans  in  Essex,  was  burkd  there,  600.  William  the  Conqueror  invested 
his  favourites  with  some  of  its  lands,  under  the  tenure  of  providing  ' '  straw  for  his  bed- 
chambers ;  three  eels  for  his  use  in  winter  ;  and  in  summer,  straw,  rushes,  and  two  green 
geese  thrice  every  year."  Incorporated  by  charter  in  1554. 

AYLESFORD  (Kent).  Here,  it  is  said,  the  Britons  were  victorious  over  the  Saxon 
invaders,  455. 

AZINCOUR.     See  Agincourt. 

AZOFF,  SEA  OF,  the  Palus  Meeotis  of  the  ancients,  communicates  by  the  strait  of 
Yenikald  (the  Bosphorus  Cimmerius)  with  the  Black  Sea,  and  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
Russian  territory  ;  Taganrog  and  Kertch  being  the  principal  places.  An  expedition  com- 
posed of  British,  French,  and  Turkish  troops,  commanded  by  sir  G.  Brown,  arrived  at 
Kertch,  May  24,  1855,  when  the  Russians  retired,  after  blowing  up  the  fortifications.  On 
the  25th  the  allies  inarched  upon  Yenikale,  which  also  offered  no  resistance.  On  the  same 
evening  the  allied  fleet  entered  the  sea  of  Azoff,  and  in  a  few  days  completed  their  occupa- 
tion of  it,  after  capturing  a  large  number  of  merchant  vessels,  &c.  An  immense  amount  of 
stores  was  destroyed  by  the  Russians  to  prevent  them  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  allies. 

AZORES,  OR  WESTERN  ISLES  (N.  Atlantic),  belonging  to  Portugal,  the  supposed  site  of 
the  ancient  Atlantis,  are  said  to  have  been  discovered  in  the  I5th  century  by  a  Dutchman 
who  was  driven  on  their  coasts  by  the  weather.  Cabral,  sent  by  the  Portuguese  court,  fell  in 
with  St.  Mary's  in  1432,  and  in  1457  they  were  all  discovered.  Martin  Behem  found  one  of 
them  covered  with  beech  trees,  and  he  called  it  therefore  Fayal;  another  abounding  in  sweet 
flowers,  he  called  it  Flores;  and  all,  being  full  of  hawks,  were  therefore  named  Azores.  They 
were  colonised  about  1450.  A  violent  concussion  of  the  earth  took  place  here  for  twelve 
days  in  1591.  A  devastating  earthquake  in  1757.  Here  are  fountains  of  boiling  water.  A 
volcano  at  St.  George's  destroyed  the  town  of  Ursulina,  May,  1808  ;  and  in  1811  a  volcano 


AZO  70  BAB 

appeared  near  St.  Michael's,  in  the  sea,  where  the  water  was  eighty  fathoms  deep.  An  island 
called  Sabrina  gradually  disappeared,  Dec.  1812. 

AZOTE,  the  name  given  by  French  chemists  to  nitrogen  (which  see}. 

AZTECS,  the  ruling  tribe  in  Mexico  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion  (1519)-  In 
1853  some  pretended  Aztec  children  were  exhibited  in  London.  They  were  considered  to  be 
mere  dwarfs. 

B. 

BAAL  (Lord),  the  male  deity  of  the  Phoenician  nations,  frequently  made  the  object  of 
worship  by  the  Israelites  ;  and  established  as  such  by  Ahab,  918  B.C.  His  worshippers 
were  massacred  by  Jehu  and  his  temple  denied,  884  B.  c. 

BAALBEO,  HELIOPOLIS  (both  meaning  "City  of  the  Sun"),  an  ancient  city  of  Syria, 
of  which  magnificent  ruins  remain,  described  by  Wood  (in  1757),  and  others.  Its  origin 
(referred  to  Solomon)  is  lost  in  antiquity.  Here  Septimus  Severus  built  a  temple  to  the  sun, 
200.  The  city  was  sacked  by  the  Moslems,  748,  and  by  Timour  Bey,  1400. 

BABEL,  TOWER  OF,  built  by  Noah's  posterity,  2247  B.C.  (Genesis,  ch.  xi.)  The  mag- 
nificent temple  of  Belus,  asserted  to  have  been  originally  this  tower,  is  said  to  have  had  lofty 
spires,  and  many  statues  of  gold,  one  of  them  forty  feet  high.  In  the  upper  part  of  this 
temple  was  the  tomb  of  the  founder,  Belus  (the  Nimrod  of  the  sacred  scriptures),  who  was 
deified  after  death.  Blair.  The  Birs  Nimroud,  examined  by  Rich,  Layard,  and  others,  is 
considered  by  some  persons  to  be  the  remains  of  the  tower  of  Babel. 

BABINGTON'S  CONSPIRACY,  to  assassinate  queen  Elizabeth,  and  make  Mary  of 
Scotland  queen,  was  devised  by  John  Savage,  a  soldier  of  Philip  of  Spain,  and  approved  by 
Wm.  Gifford  and  John  Ballard,  catholic  priests.  Anthony  Babington  and  other  gentlemen 
were  induced  to  join  in  the  scheme.  They  were  betrayed  by  Pooley  Aspy,  and  fourteen  were 
executed,  Sept.  20,  21,  1586.  Babington  was  deluded  by  a  romantic  hope  that  Mary,  in 
gratitude,  would  accept  him  as  a  husband. 

BABCEUF'S  CONSPIRACY.     See  Agrarian  Law. 

BABYLON,*  an  Asiatic  empire  (see  Assyria],  founded  by  Belus,  supposed  to  be  the 
Nimrod  of  holy  writ,  the  son  of  Chus,  and  grandson  of  Ham,  2245  B.C.  Lenglet.  Ninus 
of  Assyria  seized  on  Babylon,  and  established  what  was  properly  the  Assyrian  empire,  by 
uniting  the  two  sovereignties,  2059  B.C.  2233  01.  The  second  empire  of  Babylon  com- 
menced about  725  B.C. 


Earliest  astronomical  observations,  at  Babylon, 

B.C.  2234  [2230,  H.  2233,  Cl.] 

Nabonassar  governs 747 

Nabopolasser,  the  Assyrian  governor,  revolts, 
and  makes  himself  king  of  Babylon  .  .  725 

Nebuchadnezzar  invades  Syria,  606 ;  Judea, 
605  ;  defeats  Pharaoh  Necho,  and  annihilates 
the  Egyptian  power  in  Asia  .  .  .  .  604 

He  returns  to  Babylon  with  the  spoils  of  Jeru- 
salem. Blair ;  Lenglet ,, 

Daniel  interprets  the  king's  dream  of  the  gol- 
den-headed imnge.  Daniel  ii 602 

Nebuchadnezzar  goes  a  third  time  against  Jeru- 
salem, takes  it  and  destroys  the  temple. 
Blair ;  Usher 589  to  587 

The  golden  image  set  up,  and  Shadrach, 
Meshach,  and  Abed-nego  thrown  into  the 


furnace  for  refusing  to  worship  it.     Daniel 

iii B.C.  570 

Daniel  interprets  the  king's  second  dream,  and 

Nebuchadnezzar  is  driven  from  among  men. 

Daniel  iv 569 

The  king  recovers  his  reason  and  his  throne, 

562;  dies 561 

Evil  Merodach  (Neriglassar),  king  .  .  .  559 
Labynetus  (Nabonadius  or  Belshazzar?)  king  .  555 
Babylon  taken  by  the  Medes  and  Persians, 

under  Cyrus,  and  Belshazzar  slain  .  .  .  538 
Daniel  thrown  into  the  lions'  den.  Daniel  vi.  .  537 
Babylon  revolts,  and  is  taken  by  Darius  .  .518 
Taken  by  Alexander,  331  ;  he  dies  here  .  .  323 
Seleucus  Nicator,  who  died  B.C.  280,  transfers 

the    seat    of   government    to    Seleucia,  and 

Babylon  is  deserted. 


*  The  city  of  Babylon  was  at  one  time  the  most  magnificent  in  the  world.  The  Hanging  Gardens  are 
described  as  having  been  of  a  square  form,  and  in  terraces  one  above  another  until  they  rose  as 
high  as  the  walls  of  the  city,  the  ascent  being  from  terrace  to  terrace  by  steps.  The  whole  pile  was 
sustained  by  vast  arches  raised  on  other  arches  ;  and  on  the  top  were  flat  stones  closely  cemented 
together  with  plaster  of  bitumen,  and  that  covered  with  sheets  of  lead,  upon  which  lay  the  mould  of 
the  garden,  where  there  were  large  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  with  various  sorts  of  vegetables.  There 
were  five  of  these  gardens,  each  containing  about  four  English  acres,  and  disposed  in  the  form  of  an 
amphitheatre.  Strabo;  Diodorus.  Pliny  said  that  in  his  time  it  was  but  a  desolate  wilderness.  Mr.  Rich 
visited  the  ruins  in  1811,  and  sir  R.  Kerr  Porter  in  1818.  The  laborious  researches  of  Mr.  Layard,  sir  H. 
Rawlinson,  M.  Botta,  and  others,  and  the  interesting  relics  excavated  and  brought  to  this  country  between 
the  years  1849  and  1855,  have  caused  very  much  attention  to  be  given  to  the  history  of  Babylon.  Many  of 
the  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  or  wedge-like  character  have  been  translated,  principally  by  col.  (now 
sir  Henry)  Rawlinson,  and  published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  In  the  spring  of  1855,  he 
returned  to  England,  bringing  with  him  many  valuable  relics,  drawings,  &c. ,  which  are  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  He  gave  discourses  on  the  subject  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  in  1851,  1855,  and  1865. 


BAG 


71 


BAG 


BACCHANALIA  (games  celebrated  in  honour  of  Bacchus)  arose  in  Egypt,  and  were 
brought  into  Greece  by  Melampos,  and  were  there  called  Dionysia,tsibou.t  1415  B.C.  Diodorus. 
In  Rome  the  Bacchanalia  were  suppressed,  186  B.C.  The  priests  of  Bacchus  were  called 
Bacchanals. 

BACHELORS.  The  Roman  censors  frequently  imposed  fines  on  unmarried  men  ;  and 
men  of  full  age  were  obliged  to  marry.  The  Spartan  women  at  certain  games  laid  hold  of  old 
bachelors,  dragged  them  round  their  altars,  and  inflicted  on  them  various  marks  of  infamy 
and  disgrace.  Vossius.  A  tax  was  laid  upon  bachelors  in  England,  twenty-five  years  of 
age,  I2/.  i  os.  for  a  duke,  and  for  a  common  person  one  shilling,  7  Will.  III.,  1695. 
Bachelors  were  subjected  to  an  extra  tax  on  their  male  and  female  servants,  in  1785. 

BACKGAMMON".  Palamedes  of  Greece  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  this  game,  about 
1224  B.C.  It  is  stated  by  some  to  have  been  invented  in  Wales  in  the  period  preceding  the 
conquest.  Henry. 

BACTRIANA,  a  province  in  Asia,  was  subjugated  by  Cyrus  and  formed  part  of  the 
Persian  empire,  when  conquered  by  Alexander,  330  B.C.  About  254  B.C.,  Theodotus  or 
Diodotus,  a  Greek,  threw  off  the  yoke  of  the  Seleucidse,  and  became  king.  Eucratides 
reigned  prosperously  about  181  B.C.,  and  Menander  about  126  B.C.  The  Greek  kingdom 
appears  to  have  been  broken  up  by  the  irruption  of  the  Scythians  shortly  after. 

BADAJOZ  (S.  W.  Spain).  An  important  barrier  fortress,  surrendered  to  the  French, 
under  Soult,  March  n,  1811  ;  was  invested  by  the  British,  under  lord  Wellington,  on  March 
1 6,  1812,  and  stormed  and  taken  on  April  6  following.  The  French  retreated  in  haste. 

BADDESDOWN  HILL,  or  Mount  Badon,  near  Bath,  where  Bede  says  the  Britons 
defeated  the  Saxons  in  493  ;  others  say  in  511  or  520. 

BADEN  (S.  W.  Germany).  The  house  of  Baden  is  descended  from  Herman,  regarded 
as  the  first  margrave  (1052),  son  of  Berthold  I.,  duke  of  Zahringen.  From  Christopher,  who 
united  the  branches  of  Hochberg  and  Baden,  and  died  in  1527,  proceed  the  branches  of  Baden- 
Baden  and  Baden-Dourlach.  By  the  treaty  of  Baden,  between  France  and  the  emperor,  when 
Landau  was  ceded  to  the  former,  Sept.  7,  1714,  Baden  was  elected  into  a  grand  duchy,  as  a 
member  of  the  Rhenish  confederation,  Aug.  13,  1806.  Its  territorial  acquisitions  by  its 
alliances  with  France  were  guaranteed  by  the  congress  at  Vienna,  in  1815.  In  May,  1849, 
the  grand-duke  was  expelled  by  his  subjects,  but  was  restored  in  June.  In  July,  1857,  an 
amnesty  was  decreed  for  political  offences.  A  concordat  made  with  the  pope,  June  28,  1859, 
having  greatly  displeased  the  representative  assembly,  was  set  aside  by  the  grand-duke, 
April  8,  1860.  On  June  16,  1860,  the  emperor  of  the  French  met  the  regent  of  Prussia,  the 
kings  of  Hanover,  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Saxony,  and  the  German  princes  at  Baden- 
Baden.  The  population  of  Baden,  Dec.  1861,  was  1,369,291. 


Louis  William,  margrave  of  Baden-Baden,  a  great 
general,  born  1665  ;  sallied  out  from  Vienna  and 
defeated  the  Turks,  1683 ;  died  1707. 

Charles  William,  margrave  of  Baden-Dourlach,  born 
1679,  died  1746 ;  succeeded  by  his  son, 

Charles  Frederic,  margrave,  afterwards  grand-duke 
of  Baden-Dourlach,  born  1728,  who  joined  to  his 
dominions  Baden-Baden  in  1771,  which  were  also 
increased  by  the  favour  of  Napoleon. 


GRAND-DUKES. 

1806.  Charles  Frederic ;  diesiSn;  succeeded  by  his 

grandson, 
1811.  Charles  Louis  Frederic,  who  died  without  issue 

in  1818  ;  succeeded  by  his  uncle, 
1818.  Louis  William,  died   without  issue  in  1830  ; 

succeeded  by  his  brother, 
1830.  Leopold,  died  in  1852  ;  succeeded  by  his  second 

son  (the  first  being  imbecile), 
1852.  Frederic  (born  Sept.  9,  1826),  regent  April  24, 

1852;  declared  grand-duke,  Sept.  5,  1856. 
[Heir  :  his  son  Frederic  William,  bom  July  9,  1857.] 


BAFFIN'S-BAY  (N.  America),  discovered  by  William  Baffin,  an  Englishman,  in  1616. 
The  extent  of  this  discovery  was  much  doubted,  until  the  expeditions  of  Ross  and  Parry 
proved  that  Baffin  was  substantially  accurate  in  his  statement.  Parry  entered  Lancaster 
Sound,  and  discovered  the  islands  known  by  his  name,  in  1818.  See  North- West  Passage. 

BAGDAD,  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  built  by  Al  Mansour,  and  made  the  seat  of  the  Saracen 
empire,  about  762. — Taken  by  the  Tartars,  and  a  period  put  to  the  Saracen  rule,  1258. 
Often  taken  by  the  Persians,  and  retaken  by  the  Turks,  with  great  slaughter :  the  latter 
took  it  in  1638,  and  have  held  it  since. 

BAGPIPE,  an  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  instrument.  On  a  piece  of  ancient  Grecian 
sculpture,  now  in  Rome,  a  bagpiper  is  represented  dressed  like  a  modern  highlander.  Nero 
is  said  to  have  played  upon  a  bagpipe,  51.  Our  highland  regiments  retain  their  pipers. 


BAH  72  BAL 

BAHAMA  ISLES  (N.  America)  were  the  first  points  of  discovery  by  Columbus.  San 
Salvador  was  seen  by  him  on  the  night  of  the  nth  of  October,  1492.  New  Providence  was 
settled  by  the  English  in  1629.  They  were  expelled  by  the  Spaniards,  1641  ;  returned,  1666  ; 
again  expelled  in  1703.  The  isles  were  formally  ceded  to  the  English  in  1783.  Population 
in  1861,  35,287. 

BAHAR  (N.  India),  a  province  (conquered  by  Baber  in  1530),  with  Bengal  and  Orissa,  a 
princely  dominion,  became  subject  to  the  English  East  India  company  in  1765  by  the  treaty 
of  Allahabad  for  a  quit-rent  of  about  300,000?. 

BAIL.  By  ancient  common  law,  before  and  since  the  conquest,  all  felonies  were  bailable, 
till  murder  was  excepted  by  statute  ;  and  by  the  3  Edward  I.  (1274)  the  power  of  bailing  in 
treason,  and  in  divers  instances  of  felony,  was  taken  away.  Bail  was  further  regulated  in 
later  reigns.  Bail  is  now  accepted  in  all  cases,  felony  excepted  ;  and  where  a  magistrate 
refuses  bail,  it  may  be  granted  by  a  judge. 

BAILIFFS,  on  SHERIFFS.  Said  to  be  of  Saxon  origin.  London  had  its  shire-reve  prior 
to  the  conquest,  and  this  officer  was  generally  appointed  for  counties  in  England  in  1079. 
Hen.  Cornehill  and  Rich.  Reynere  were  appointed  bailiffs  or  sheriffs  in  London  in  1189. 
Stow.  Sheriffs  were  appointed  in  Dublin  under  the  name  of  bailiffs,  in  1308  ;  and  the  name 
was  changed  to  sheriff  in  1548.  There  are  still  some  places  where  the  chief  magistrate  is 
called  bailiff,  as  the  high  bailiff  of  Westminster.  Bum-bailiff  is  a  corruption  of  bound- 
bailiff,  every  bailiff  being  obliged  to  enter  into  bonds  of  security  for  his  good  behaviour. 
BlacJcstone. 

BAIRAM,  Mahometan  festivals.  In  1865  the  Little  Bairam,  following  the  fast  of 
Ramadan  (which  see),  fell  on  Feb.  28,  March  I  and  2.  The  Great  Bairam  began  on  May  10. 

BAIZE,  a  species  of  coarse  woollen  manufacture,  was  brought  into  England  by  some 
Flemish  or  Dutch  emigrants  who  settled  at  Colchester,  in  Essex,  and  had  privileges  granted 
them  by  parliament  in  1660.  The  trade  is  under  the  control  of  a  corporation  called  the 
governors  of  the  Dutch  baize-hall,  who  examine  the  cloth  previous  to  sale.  Anderson. 

BAKER.     See  Bread. 

BAKERIAN"  LECTURES,  Royal  Society,  originated  in  a  bequest  of  lOoZ.  by  Henry 
Baker,  F.R.S.,  the  interest  of  which  was  to  be  given  to  one  of  the  fellows,  for  a  scientific 
discourse  to  be  delivered  annually.  Peter  Woulfe  gave  the  first  lecture  in  1765.  Latterly 
it  has  been  the  custom  to  nominate  as  the  lecture  a  paper  written  by  one  of  the  fellows. 
Davy,  Faraday,  Tyndall,  and  other  eminent  men  have  given  the  lecture. 

BALAKLAYA,  a  small  town  in  the  Crimea,  with  a  fine  harbour,  10  miles  S.E.  from 
Sebastopol.  After  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  the  allies  advanced  upon  this  place,  Sept.  26, 
1854.  On  Oct.  25  following,  about  12,000  Russians,  commanded  by  gen.  Liprandi, 
attacked  and  took  some  redoubts  in  the  vicinity,  which  had  been  entrusted  to  about  250 
Turks.  They  next  assaulted  the  English,  by  whom  they  were  compelled  to  retire,  mainly 
through  the  charge  of  the  heavy  cavalry,  led  by  brigadier  Scarlett,  under  the  orders  of  lord 
Lucan.  After  this,  from  an  unfortunate  misconception  of  lord  Raglan's  order,  lord  Lucan 
ordered  lord  Cardigan  with  the  light  cavalry,  to  charge  the  Russian  army,  which  had  re- 
formed on  its  own  ground  with  its  artillery  in  front.  This  order  was  most  gallantly  obeyed. 
Great  havoc  was  made  on  the  enemy  ;  but  of  607  British  horsemen,  only  198  returned.  The 
British  had  altogether  9  officers  killed,  21  wounded,  and  620  men  put  hors  de  combat.  The 
Russians  had  550  men  killed,  and  6  officers  (among  whom  was  one  general),  and  190  men 
wounded. — A  sortie  from  the  garrison  of  Sebastopol  on  the  night  of  March  22,  1855,  led  to  a 
desperate  engagement  here,  in  which  the  Russians  were  vigorously  repulsed,  with  the  loss  of 
2000  men  killed  and  wounded,  the  allies  losing  about  600. — The  electric  telegraph  between 
London  and  Balaklava  was  completed  in  April,  1855,  and  communications  were  then  received 
by  the  British  government. — A  railway  between  Balaklava  and  the  trenches  was  completed 
in  June,  1855.  See  Russo-  Turkish  War. 

BALANCE  OF  POWER,  to  assure  the  independency  and  integrity  of  states,  and  control 
the  ambition  of  sovereigns  ;  the  principle  is  said  to  have  been  first  laid  down  by  the  Italian 
politicians  of  the  I5th  century,  on  the  invasion  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France.  Robertson. 
It  was  first  recognised  by  the  treaty  of  Munster,  Oct.  24,  1648.  The  arrangements  for  the 
balance  of  power  in  Europe  made  in  1815,  without  the  consent  of  the  people  of  the  countries 
concerned,  have  been  greatly  set  aside  since  1830. 


BALEARIC  ISLANDS,  in  the  Mediterranean,  called  by  the  Greeks  Balearides,  and  by 
the  Romans  Baleares,  from  the  dexterity  of  the  inhabitants  at  slinging  :  they  include  Majorca 
and  Minorca,  with  the  small  isle  of  Cabrera.  These  islands  were  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
123  B.C.  ;  by  the  Vandals,  about  426  B.C.,  and  formed  part  of  Charlemagne's  empire  in  A.D. 
799.  They  have  belonged  to  Spain  since  1232.  See  Minorca. 

BALIZE.    See  Honduras. 

BALKAN,  the  ancient  Hjemus,  a  range  of  mountains  extending  from  the  Adriatic  to 
the  Etixine.  The  passage,  deemed  impracticable,  was  completed  by  the  Russians  under 
Diebitsch,  during  the  Russian  and  Turkish  war,  July  26,  1829.  An  armistice  was  the 
consequence  ;  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Adrianople,  Sept.  14  following. 

BALLADS  may  be  traced  in  the  British  history  to  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Turner.  Adhelme, 
who  died  709,  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who  introduced  ballads  into  England.  "The 
harp  was  sent  round,  and  those  might  sing  who  could."  JBede.  Alfred  sung  ballads. 
Malmesbury.  Canute  composed  one.  Turner.  Minstrels  were  protected  by  a  charter  of 
Edward  IV.  ;  but  by  a  statute  of  Elizabeth  they  were  made  punishable  among  rogues, 
vagabonds,  and  sturdy  beggars.  Viner.  "Give  me  the  writing  of  the  ballads,  and  you  may 
make  the  laws."  Fletcher  of  SaUoun.  The  sea-ballads  of  Dibdin  were  very  popular  in  the 
French  war  ;  he  died  Jan.  20,  1833. 

BALLETS  began  through  the  meretricious  taste  of  the  Italian  courts.  One  performed  at 
the  interview  between  our  Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  the  field  of  the  Cloth  of 
Gold,  at  Ardres,  1520.  Guicciardini.  They  became  very  popular  in  France  ;  their  zealous 
patron,  Louis  XIV.,  bore  a  part  in  one,  1664.  They  were  gradually  introduced  with  operas 
into  England  in  the  i8th  century. 

BALLINAMUCK,  Longford.  Here,  on  Sept.  8,  1798,  the  Irish  rebels  and  their  French 
auxiliaries  were  defeated  and  captured. 

BALLOONS.*  A  just  idea  of  the  principle  of  the  construction  of  balloons  was  formed 
by  Albert  of  Saxony,  an  Augustin  monk  in  the  I4th  century,  and  adopted  by  a 
Portuguese  Jesuit,  Francesco  Mendoza,  who  died  at  Lyons  in  1626.  The  idea  is  also 
attributed  to  Bartolomeo  de  Guzmao,  who  died  in  1724.  The  theory  of  aeronautics  includes  : — 
i,  the  power  of  a  balloon  to  rise  in  the  air ;  2,  the  velocity  of  its  ascent  ;  and  3,  the 
stability  of  its  suspension  at  any  given  height.  The  application  of  sails  and  rudders  has 
been  duly  considered,  and  judged  to  be  futile.  Fatal  accidents  to  the  voyagers  have  been 
estimated  at  2  or  3  per  cent. 


Francis  Lana,  a  Jesuit,  proposed  to  navigate  - 
the  air  by  means  of  a  boat  raised  by  four  thin 
balls  made  of  thin  copper,  from  which  the  air 
had  been  exhausted 1670 

Joseph  Galien  suggested  the  filling  a  bag  with 
the  fine  diffuse  air  of  the  upper  regions  of  the 
atmosphere 1755 

Henry  Cavendish  discovered  that  hydrogen  gas 
is  io'8  times  lighter  than  common  air  .  .  1766 

And  soon  after  Black  of  Edinburgh  filled  a  bag 
with  hydrogen,  which  rose  to  the  ceiling  of 
the  room 1767 

Cavallo  filled  soap  bubbles  with  hydrogen        .  1782 

Joseph  Montgolfier  caused  a  silken  bag  to 
ascend  with  heated  air  (the  first  fire-balloon) 

Nov.      ,, 

Joseph  and  Stephen  Montgolfier  ascend  and 
descend  safely  by  means  of  a  fire-balloon  at 
Annonay,  for  which  they  received  many 
honours June  5,  1783 

First  ascent  in  a  balloon  filled  with  hydrogen,  at 
Paris,  by  MM.  Robert  and  Charles,  Aug.  27,  ,, 

Joseph  Montgolfier  ascends  in  a  balloon  inflated 
with  the  smoke  of  burnt  straw  and  wool, 

Sept.  19,      ,, 

First  aerial  voyage  in  a  fire-balloon — Pilatre  de 
Rozier  and  the  marquis  d'Arlandes  Nov.  21,  „ 

Second  ascent  of  Charles  in  a  hydrogen  balloon 
to  the  height  of  9770  feet  .  .  Dec.  i,  ,, 

Ascents  become  numerous  :  Andreani,  Feb. 
25;  Blanchard,  March  2;  Guyton-Morveau, 


the  chemist,  April  25  and  June  12 ;  Fleurant 
and  Madame  Thible  (the  first  female  ae'ra- 
naut),  June  28  ;  the  duke  of  Chartres  (Philip 
Egalite") Sept.  19,  1784 

The  first  ascent  in  England,  made  by  Lunardi 
at  Moorfields,  London  .  .  Sept.  15,  ,, 

Blanchard  and  Jeffries  ascend  at  Dover  and 
cross  the  Channel,  alighting  near  Calais, 

Jan.  7,  1785 

The  first  ascent  in  Ireland,  from  Ranelagh 
gardens,  Dublin Jan  19,  ,, 

Rozier  and  Romain  killed  in  their  descent  near 
Boulogne  ;  the  balloon  took  fire  .  June  15,  ,, 

Parachutes  constructed  and  used  by  Blanchard, 

Aug.  ,, 

Garnerin's  narrow  escape  when  descending  in 
one,  in  London Sept.  2,  1802 

Sadler,  who  made  many  previous  expeditions 
in  England,  fell  into  the  sea,  near  Holyhead, 
but  was  taken  up  .  .  .  .  Oct.  9,  1812 

Madame  Blanchard  ascended  from  Tivoli  at 
night  :  the  balloon,  being  surrounded  by  fire- 
works, took  fire,  and  she  was  precipitated  to 
the  ground  and  killed  .  .  July  6,  i8ig 

Mr.  Charles  Green's  first  ascent      .         July  19,  1821 

Lieut.  Harris  killed  descending  in  a  balloon, 

May  25,  1824 

Sadler,  jun.,  killed,  falling  from  a  balloon,  in     .  1825 

The  great  Nassa.u  balloon,  which  had  for  some 
time  previously  been  exhibited  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  London  in  repeated  ascents  from 


in  1865. 


Astra  C.xstra  ;  Experiments  and  Adventures  in  the  Atmosphere  :  by  Hatton  Turner,"  appeared 


BAL 


BAL 


BALLOONS,  continued. 

Vauxhall  gardens,  started  from  that  place  on 
an  experimental  voyage,  having  three  indi- 
viduals in  the  car,  and  after  having  been 
eighteen  hours  in  the  air  descended  at  Weil- 
burg,  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau  .  Nov.  7,  1836 

Mr.  Cocking  ascended  from  Vauxhall  in  order 
to  try  his  parachute,  in  which  he  had  great 
faith  ;  in  its  descent  from  the  balloon  it 
collapsed,  and  he  was  thrown  out  and  killed, 

July  24,  1837 

An  Italian  aeronaut  ascended  from  Copenhagen, 
in  Denmark  ;  his  corpse  was  subsequently 
found  on  the  sea-shore  in  a  contiguous  island, 
dashed  to  pieces  ....  Sept.  14,  1851 

Mr.  Wise  and  three  others  ascended  from  St. 
Louis  (after  travelling  1150  miles  they  de- 
scended in  Jefferson  county,  New  York, 
nearly  dead)  ....  June  23,  1859 

Nadar's  great  balloon  (largest  ever  made)  when 
fully  inflated  contained  215,363  cubic  feet  of 
gas ;  the  car,  a  cottage  in  wicker  work, 
raised  35  soldiers  at  Paris  ;  Nadar  hoped  by 
means  of  screw  to  steer  a  balloon  in  the 
heavens. 

Nadar's  first  ascent,  with  14  others,  successful, 

Oct.  4,  1863 

Second  ascent,  nearly  all  voyagers  injured; 
saved  by  presence  of  mind  of  M.  Jules 
Godard ;  descend  at  Nieuburg,  Hanover, 

Oct.  12,  ,, 

Nadar  and  his  balloon  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
Sydenham Nov.  ,, 

Society  for  promoting  aerial  navigation  formed 
at  M.  Nadar's  at  Paris  ;  president,  M.  Barral, 

Jan.  15,  1864 

Godard's  great  Montgolfier  or  fire-balloon  as- 
cends .  .  .  July  28  and  Aug.  3,  ,, 

Ascent  of  Nadar  and  others  in  his  great  balloon 
at  Brussels Sept.  26,  „ 

Mr.  Coxwell  ascends  from  Belfast  in  a  new 
balloon  ;  several  persons  are  injured  by  the 
balloon  becoming  uncontrollable ;  it  escapes, 

July  3,  1865 

MILITARY  APPLICATIONS. 

Guyton-Morveau  ascended  twice  during  the 
battle,  and  gave  important  information  to 
Jourdaiii June  17,  1794 

Balloons  were  \ised  during  the  battle  of 
Solferino,  June  24,  1859;  and  by  the  Federal 
army  near  Washington,  in  .  .  July,  186: 

EQUESTRIAN  ASCENTS. 

Mr.  Green  affirms  that  he  ascended  from 
London,  on  a  horse  attached  to  a  balloon, 
though  few  persons  seem  to  be  aware  that 
the  experiment  was  made  .  .  .  May,  1828 


He  did  so  from  Vauxhall  gardens  with  a  very 
diminutive  pony  ....  July,  1850 

Lieut.  Gale,  an  Englishman,  made  an  ascent 
with  a  horse  from  the  Hippodrome  of  Vin- 
cennes,  near  Bordeaux.  On  descending,  and 
detaching  the  animal  from  the  balloon,  the 
people  who  held  its  ropes,  from  some  miscon- 
ception, prematurely  let  them  go,  and  the 
unfortunate  aeronaut  was  rapidly  borne  in 
the  air  before  he  was  quite  ready  to  resume 
his  voyage.  (He  was  discovered  next  morning 
dashed  to  pieces  in  a  field  a  mile  from  where 
the  balloou  was  found.)  .  .  Sept.  8,  ,, 

The  ascent  of  Madame  Poitevin  from  Cremorne 
gardens,  near  London,  as  "  Europa  on  a 
bull"  (a  feat  she  had  often  performed  in 
France),  and  several  ascents  on  horses, 
brought  the  parties  concerned  before  the 
police-courts  on  a  charge  of  cruelty  to  animals, 
and  put  an  end  to  experiments  that  outraged 
public  feeling Aug.  1852 

M.  Poitevin  ascended  on  a  horse,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Paris,  about  the  time  just  mentioned  ;  was 
nearly  drowned  in  the  sea,  near  Malaga, 
while  descending  from  his  balloon  in  1858, 
and  died  soon  after. 

SCIENTIFIC  ASCENTS. 

Gay-Lussac  and  Biot  at  Paris,  Aug.  23 ;  Gay- 
Lussac  (to  the  height  of  22,977  feet)  Sept.  15,  1804 

Bixio  and  Barral  at  Paris  (to  the  height  of 
19,000  feet.  They  passed  through  a  cloud 
9000  feet  thick) 1850 

Mr.  Welsh    ascends,  Aug.  17,  26;  Oct.  21  and 

Nov.  10,  1852 

Scientific  balloon  ascents  having  been  recom- 
mended by  the  British  Association  and  funds 
provided,  Mr.  James  Glaisher  commenced 
his  series  of  ascents,  provided  with  suitable 
apparatus,  in  Mr.  Cox  well's  great  balloon,  at 
Wolverhampton :  he  reached  the  height  of 
Smiles  .  .  . "  .  .  .  July  17,  1862 

He  ascended  to  the  height  of  about  7  miles  at 
Wolverhampton ;  at  5^  miles  high  he  became 
insensible;  Mr.  Coxwell  lost  the  use  of  his 
hands,  but  was  able  to  open  the  valve  with  his 
teeth;  they  thus  descended  in  safety,  Sept.  5,  ,, 

He  ascended  at  Newcastle  during  the  meeting 
of  the  British  Association  .  .  Aug.  31,  1863 

His  i6th  ascent  ;  surveys  London  .         Oct.    9,      ,, 

His  1 7th  ascent  at  Woolwich  ;  descends  at  Mr. 
Brandon's,  Suffolk  (ist  winter  ascent  this 
century) Jan.  12,  1864 

He  ascends  from  Woolwich  (24^1  time)  Dec.  30,     ,, 

His  25th  ascent Feb.  27,  1865 

(Mr.    Glaisher  has  laid   the    result  of    his 
observations  before  the  scientific  world.) 


BALLOT  (French  lallottc,  a  little  ball).  Secret  voting  was  practised  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  the  modern  Venetians,  and  is  now  employed  in  Trance  and  in  the  'United  States 
of  North  America. 


The  ballot-box  used  in  a  political  club  at  Miles'a 
coffee-house,  Westminster  ....  1659 

A  tract  entitled  "  The  Benefit  of  the  Ballot," 
said  to  have  been  written  by  Andrew  Marvell, 
was  published  in  the  "  State  Tracts  "  .  .  1693 

Proposed  to  be  used  in  the  election  of  members 
of  Parliament  in  a  pamphlet  .  .  .  .1705 

A  bill  authorising  vote  by  ballot  passed  the 
commons,  but  rejected  by  the  lords  .  .  .1710 

The  ballot  has  been  an  open  question  in  whig 
governments  since 1835 


The  Ballot  Society  is  very  energetic.  The  ballot 
was  adopted  in  Victoria,  Australia,  in  .  .  1856 

Secret  voting  existed  in  the  chamber  of  deputies 
in  France  fron  1840  to  1845.  It  has  been 
employed  since  the  coup  d'etat  in  .  Dec.  1851 

The  house  of  commons  rejected  the  ballot— 257 
being  against,  and  189  for  it  .  June  30,  1851 

For  several  years  it  has  been  annually  proposed 
and  rejected. 


BALL'S  BLUFF,  on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac,  on  the  Virginia  side,  North.  America. 
On  October  21,  1861,  by  direction  of  the  Federal  general  C.  P.  Stone  the  heroic  col.  Baker 
crossed  the  river  to  reconnoitre.  He  attacked  the  Confederate  camp  at  Leesburg,  and  was 


;  visited  by  her  majesty  in  1848,  1849, 
rince  Albert  in  1852.  In  1853  the  new 
ced,  from  designs  by  Mr.  W.  Smith  of 


BAL  75  BAN 

thoroughly  defeated  with  great  loss.     The  disaster  was  attributed  to  great  mismanagement, 
and  in  Feb.  1862,  general  Stone  was  arrested  on  suspicion  of  treason. 

BALLYNAHINCH  (Ireland),  where  a  sanguinary  engagement  took  place  between  a  large 
body  of  the  insurgent  Irish  and  the  British  troops,  under  gen.  Nugent,  June  13,  1798.  A 
large  part  of  the  town  was  destroyed,  and  the  royal  army  suffered  very  severely. 

BALMORAL  CASTLE,  Deeside,  Aberdeenshire  ;  visited 
1850.     The  estate  was  purchased  for  32,000^.   by  prince 

building,  in  the  Scotch  baronial  style,  was  commenced,  from  designs  by  Mr.  W.  Smith  of 
Aberdeen. 

BALTIC  EXPEDITIONS  AGAINST  DENMARK.  In  the  first  expedition  under  lord 
Nelson  and  admiral  Parker,  Copenhagen  was  bombarded,  and  twenty-eight  sail  of  the  Danish 
fleet  were  taken  or  destroyed,  April  2,  1801.  See  Armed  Neutrality.  In  the  second  expe- 
dition under  admiral  Gambicr  and  lord  Cathcart,  eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  and 
thirty-one  brigs  and  gun-boats  surrendered  to  ^he  British,  July  26,  1807. 

BALTIC  EXPEDITION  AGAINST  RUSSIA.  The  British  fleet  sailed  from  Spithead  in 
presence  of  the  queen,  who  led  it  out  to  sea  in  her  yacht,  the  Fairy,  March  n,  1854.  It 
consisted  of  a  crowd  of  steam-ships  of  the  line,  of  which,  five  were  each  of  120  guns  and 
upwards  :  the  whole  under  the  command  of  vice-admiral  sir  Charles  Napier,  whose  flag 
floated  on  board  the  Duke  of  "Wellington,  of  131  guns.  The  fleet  arrived  in  Wingo  Sound, 
March  15,  and  in  the  Baltic,  March  20,  following.  The  gulf  of  Finland  was  blockaded, 
April  12.  10,000  French  troops  embarked  at  Calais  for  the  Baltic  in  English  ships  of  war, 
in  presence  of  the  emperor,  July  15.  The  capture  of  Bornarsund,  one  of  the  Aland  islands, 
and  surrender  of  the  garrison,  took  place,  Aug.  16.  See  Bomarsund.  The  English  and 
French  fleets,  the  latter  having  joined  June  14,  commenced  their  return  homeward  to 
winter,  Oct.  15,  1854.  —  The  SECOND  expedition  (of  which  the  advanced  or  flying  squadron 
sailed  March  20)  left  the  Downs,  April  4,  1855.  In  July  it  consisted  of  85  Englisli  ships 
(2098  guns),  commanded  by  admiral  R.  S.  Dundas,  and  16  French  ships  (408  guns),  under 
admiral  Pernand.  On  July  21,  three  vessels  silenced  the  Russian  batteries  at  Hogland 
island.  The  fleet  proceeded  towards  Cronstadt.  Many  infernal  machines  *  were  discovered. 
Sveaborg  was  attacked  Aug.  9.  See  Sveaborg.  Shortly  after,  the  fleet  returned  to 
England. 

BALTIMORE,  a  maritime  city  in  Maryland,  United  States,  founded  in  1729.  On  Sept 
12,  1814,  the  British  army  under  col.  Ross  advanced  against  this  place.  He  was  killed  in  a 
skirmish  ;  and  the  command  was  assumed  by  col.  Brooke,  who  attacked  and  routed  the 
American  army,  which  lost  600  killed  andovounded  and  300  prisoners.  The  projected  attack 
on  the  town  was  however  abandoned.  Alison,  See  United  States,  1861. 

BAMBERG  (Bavaria),  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Saxons,  in  804,  and  endowed  with  a 
church  by  Charlemagne.  It  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1 107,  and  the  bishop  was  a  prince  of 
the  empire  till  the  treaty  of  Luneville,  1801,  when  Bamberg  was  secularized.  It  was 
incorporated  with  Bavaria  in  1803.  The  noble  cathedral,  rebuilt  in  mo,  has  been  recently 
repaired.  Bamberg  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  the  Russians  in  1759. 

BAMBOROUGH,  or  Bamburg,  Northumberland,  according  to  the  "Saxon  Chronicle," 
was  built  by  king  Ida  about  547,  and  named  Bebbanbtirgh.  The  castle  and  estate,  the 
property  of  the  Forsters,  and  forfeited  to  the  crown,  through  their  taking  part  in  the 
rebellion  in  1715,  were  purchased  by  Nathaniel  lord  Crewe,  bishop  of  Durham,  and 
bequeathed  by  him  for  various  charitable  purposes.  The  valuable  library  was  founded  by 
the  trustees  in  1778.  The  books  are  lent  to  persons  residing  within  20  miles  of  the  castle. 

BAMPTON  LECTURES  (Theological),  delivered  at  Oxford  annually,  began  in  1780,  with 
a  lecture  by  James  Bandinel,  D.D.  The  lecturer  is  paid  out  of  the  proceeds  of  an  estate 
bequeathed  for  the  purpose  by  the  rev.  John  Bampton,  and  the  lectures  are  published. 
Among  the  more  remarkable  lectures  were  those  by  White  (1784),  Heber  (1815),  Whately 
(1822),  Milman  (1827),  Hampden  (1832),  and  Mansel  (1858). 

BAN  BURY,  Oxfordshire,  a  Saxon  town.  Tha  castle,  erected  by  Alexander  de  Blois, 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  1125,  has  been  frequently  besieged.  In  1646  it  was  taken  by  the  parlia- 
mentarians and  demolished.  At  Danesmore,  near  Banbury,  Edward  IV.  defeated  the 
Lancastrians  under  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  July  26,  1469,  and  their  leader  and  his  brother 

*  These  were  cones  of  galvanised  iron,  16  inches  in  diameter,  and  20  inches  long.  Each  contained 
o  or  10  Ib.  of  powder,  with  apparatus  for  firing  by  sulphuric  acid.  Little  damage  was  done  by  them. 
They  were  said  to  be  the  invention  of  the  philosopher  Jacobi. 


BAN 


76 


BAN 


were  soon  after  taken  prisoners  and  executed.     Banbury  cakes  were  renowned  in  the  time  of 
Ben  Jonson,  and  Banbury  Cross  was  destroyed  by  the  Puritans. 

BAND  OF  GENTLEMEN  PENSIONERS.     See  Gentlemen-at-Arms. 

BAND  A  ISLES  (ten),  Eastern  Archipelago,  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  1511,  who  settled 
on  them,. 1521,  but  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch  about  1600.  Rohun  island  was  ceded  to  the 
English  in  1616.  The  Bandas  were  taken  by  the  latter  in  1796  ;  restored  in  1801  ;  retaken 
in  1811  ;  and  restored  in  Aug.  1814. 

BANGALORE  (S.  India)  was  besieged  by  the  British  under  lord  Cornwallis,  March  6,  and 
taken  by  storm,  March  21,  1791.  Bangalore  was  restored  to  Tippoo  in  1792,  when  he 
destroyed  the  strong  fort,  deemed  the  bulwark  of  Mysore. 

BANGOR  (Banchor  Iskoed,  or  Monachorum),  Flintshire,  the  site  of  an  ancient  monastery, 
very  populous  if  it  be  true  that  1200  monks  were  slain  by  Ethelfrid,  king  of  the  Angles,  for 
praying  for  the  Welsh  in  their  conflict  with  him  in  707.  Tangier. 

BANGOR  (N.  Caernarvonshire),  Its  bishopric  is  of  great  antiquity,  but  its  founder  is 
unknown.  The  church  is  dedicated  to  St.  Daniel,  who  was  a  bishop,  516.  Owen  Glendower 
greatly  defaced  the  cathedral  ;  but  a  more  cruel  ravager  than  he,  the  bishop  Bulkeley, 
alienated  many  of  the  lands,  and  even  sold  the  bells  of  the  church,  1553.  The  see  is  valued 
in  the  king's  books  at  13 1 1.  i6s.  ^d.  An  order  in  council  directing  that  the  sees  of  Bangor 
and  St.  Asaph  be  united  on  the  next  vacancy  in  either,  was  issued  in  1838  ;  but  rescinded  by 
the  10  &  ii  Viet.  c.  108  (1846).  Present  income,  4200^. 

RECENT  BISHOPS   OF   BANGOR. 


1800.  Win.  Cleaver,  translated  to  St.  Asaph,  1806. 
1806.  John  Randolph,  translated  to  London,  1809. 
1809.  Henry  "William  Majendie,  died  July  9,  1830. 


1830.  Christopher  Bethell,  died  April  19,  1859. 
1859.  James  Colquhoun  Campbell  (the  PRESENT 
bishop,  1865). 


BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY  was  occasioned  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Hoadly,  bishop  of 
Bangor,  preaching  a  sermon  before  George  I.,  March  31,  1717,  upon  the  text,  "  My  kingdom 
is  not  of  this  world  "  (John  xviii.  36),  in  which  he  demonstrated  the  spiritual  nature  of  the 
kingdom  of  Christ.  He  thereby  drew  upon  himself  the  indignation  of  almost  all  the  clergy, 
who  published  hundreds  of  pamphlets. 

BANISHMENT,  an  ancient  punishment.  By  39  Eliz.  c.  4  (1597)  dangerous  rogues 
were  to  be  banished  out  of  the  realm,  and  to  be  liable  to  death  if  they  returned.  See 
Transportation. 

BANK.  The  name  is  derived  from  banco,  a  bench,  erected  in  the  market-place  for  the 
exchange  of  money.  The  first  was  established  in  Italy  808,  by  the  Lombard  Jews,  of 
whom  some  settled  in  Lombard-street,  London,  where  many  bankers  still  reside.  The  Mint 
in  the  Tower  of  London  was  anciently  the  depository  for  merchants'  cash,  until  Charles  I. 
laid  his  hands  upon  the  money  and  destroyed  the  credit  of  the  Mint  in  1640.  The  traders 
were  thus  driven  to  some  other  place  of  security  for  their  gold,  which,  when  kept  at  home, 
their  apprentices  frequently  absconded  with  to  the  army.  In  1645,  therefore,  they  consented 
to  lodge  it  with  the  goldsmiths  in  Lombard-street,  who  were  provided  with  strong  chests 
for  their  own  valuable  wares  ;  this  became  the  origin  of  banking  in  England.  See  Savings 
Banks. 

Rowland  Stephenson,  M.P.,  banker  and  trea- 
surer of  St.  Bartholomew's  hospital,  absconds ; 
defaulter  to  the  amount  of  200,000^.  ;  70,000^. 
in  exchequer  bills ;  (caused  a  great  depression 

among  bankers) Dec.  27,  1828 

Establishment  of  joint-stock  banks  (see  p.  78)  .  1834 
Failure  of  Strahan,  Paul,  and  Bates  (securities 
unlawfully   used);  private    banking    much 
injured June  u,  1855 


Samuel  Lamb,  a  London  banker,  recommended 
the  Protector  Cromwell  to  establish  a  public 

bank 1656  and  1658 

Francis  Child,  a  goldsmith,  established  a  bank 

about  1663  ;  he  died        .        .        .         Oct.  4,  1713 
Run  on  the  London  bankers  (said  to  be  the  first)  1667 
Charles  II.  arbitrarily  suspends  all  payments 
to  bankers  out  of  the  exchequer  of  monies 
deposited  there  by  them ;  they  lost  ultimately 

3,321,313^ Jan  2,  1672 

Hoare's  bank  began  about  ....  1680 
Bank  of  England  established  (see  next  article)  .  1694 
Wood's  bank  at  Gloucester,  the  oldest  county 

bank,  established 1716 

A  list  of  bankers  given  in  the  "  Royal  Kalendar  "  1765 
Forgeries  of  Henry  Fauntleroy,  banker ;  exe- 
cuted           Nov.  30,  1824 

Act  passed  permitting  establishment  of  joint- 
stock  banks,  which  see 1826 

Rogers's  bank  robbed  of  nearly  50,000?.  (bank 
notes  afterwards  returned)  .        .        Nov.  24,  1844 


Banks  in  1855.  Notes  allowed  to  be  issued. 

Bank  of  England  .  i     14,000,000 

English  private  banks  .        .        .     .    196      4,999,444 
English  joint-stock  banks  (which  see)      67      3,418,277 


Banks  in  Scotland 
Banks  in  Ireland 


264  22,417,721 

,   18  3,087,209 

8  6,354,494 

290  31,859,424 


BAN- 

77 

BANK,  continued. 

Bank  of 
Venice  formed 
Geneva       
Barcelona        .... 
Genoa         
Amsterdam     .... 
TTamburer    . 

"57 
1345 
1401 
1407 
1607 
l6iq 

Bank  of 
Rotterdam 
Stockholm. 
England  .... 
Scotland     .        .        .        . 
Copenhagen    . 
Berlin  . 

1635 

1688 
1694 
1695 
1736 
1765 


BAN 


Bank  of 

Caisse  d'Escompte,  France 
Ireland        .... 
St.  Petersburg 
In  the  East  Indies 
In  North  America  . 
France* 


•  1776 

•  1783 
.  1786 

•  1787 

•  J79* 

•  1803 


BANK  OF  ENGLAND  was  projected  by  William  Paterson,  a  Scotch  merchant  (see 
Darien),  to  meet  the  difficulty  experienced  by  William  III.  in  raising  the  supplies  for  the 
war  against  France.  By  the  influence  of  Paterson  and  Michael  Godfrey,  40  merchants  sub- 
scribed 500,000?.  towards  the  sum  of  1,200,000?.  to  be  lent  to  the  government  at  8  per  cent., 
in  consideration  of  the  subscribers  being  incorporated  as  a  bank.  The  scheme  was  violently 
opposed  in  parliament,  but  the  bill  obtained  the  royal  assent  April  25,  1694,  and  the  charter 
was  granted  July  27  following,  appointing  sir  John  Houblon  the  first  governor,  and  Michael 
Godfrey  the  first  deputy  governor.  The  bank  commenced  active  operations  on  Jan.  i,  1695, 
at  Grocers'  hall,  Poultry,  +  issuing  notes  for  20?.  and  upwards,  and  discounting  bills  for  44 
to  6  per  cent.  The  charter  was  renewed  in  1697,  1708,  1713,  1716,  1721,  1742,  1746,  1749, 
1764,  1781,  1800,  1808,  1816,  1833,  1844.  Lawson. 


1797 


Bun  on  the  bank  :  its  notes  at  20  per  cent,  dis- 
count; capital  increased  to  2,201, 171?.  IDS., 

Nov.  1696 

The  bank  monopoly  established  by  the  prohibi- 
tion of  any  company  exceeding  six  persons 
acting  as  bankers  (Scotland  not  included  in 
the  act) 1708 

Capital  raised  to  5,559,995?.  IDS.      .        .        .         1710 

Bank  post  bills  issued  (ist  record)    .      Dec.  14,  1738 

Run  for  gold  through  rebellion  in  the  North  ; 
bank  bills  paid  in  silver ;  the  city  support 
the  bank Sept.  1745 

Richard  Vaughan  hanged  for  forging  bank-notes, 

May  i,  1758 

10?.  notes  issued 1759 

Gordon  riots  ;  since,  the  bank  has  been  pro- 
tected by  the  military  1780 

5?.  notes  issued 1793 

Cash  payments  suspended,  in  conformity  with 
an  order  in  council  .  .  .  Feb.  26, 

iZ.  and  2.1.  notes  issued        .        .         .       March,    ••; 

Bank  restriction  act  passed  (continued  by  other 
acts) May  3,  „ 

Voluntary  contribution  of  200,000!!  to  the  go- 
vernment   1798 

Loss  by  Aslett's  frauds  (see  Exchequer)  342, 697?.  1803 

Resignation  of  Abraham  Newland,  50  years 
cashier Sept.  18,  1807 

The  bank  issues  silver  tokens  for  35.  and  is.  6d., 

July  9,  1811 

Peel's  act  for  the  gradual  resumption  of  casn 
payments July,  1819 

Cash  payments  for  notes  to  be  in  bullion  at  the 
mint  price,  May  i,  1821 ;  in  the  current  coin 
of  the  realm May  i,  1823 

Great  commercial  panic— many  iZ.  notes  (acci- 
dentally found  in  a  box)  issued  with  most 
beneficial  effects Dec.  1825 

The  act  for  the  establishment  of  joint-stock 
banks  breaks  vip  the  monopoly  .  .  .  1826 

By  the  advice  of  the  government,  branch  banks 
opened  at  Gloucester,  July  19 ;  Manchester, 
Sept.  21 ;  Swansea,  Oct.  23  .  .  .  .  ,, 

And  at  Birmingham,  Jan.   i  ;  Liverpool,  July 


2  ;  Bristol,  July  12  ;  Leeds,  Aug.  23  ;  Exeter, 
Dec.  17  .  ...... 

The  bank  loses  360,000?.  by  Faun  tleroy's  forgeries 

Statements  of  the  bank  affairs  published 
quarterly  ........ 

Peel's  bank  charter  act  :  renews  charter  till 
Aug.  i,  1855,  and  longer,  if  the  debt  due  from 
the  public  to  the  bank  (11,015,100?.),  with  in- 
terest, <fec.,  be  not  paid  after  due  notice  ; 
established  the  issue  department;  requires 
weekly  returns  to  be  published  ;  limited  the 
issue  of  notes  to  14,000,000?.,  &c.  '.  July  19, 

Commercial  panic  :  lord  John  Russell  autho- 
rises relaxation  of  restriction  of  issuing 
notes  (not  acted  on);  bank  discount  8  per 
cent  .......  Oct.  25, 

Bank  clerks  establish  a  library  and  fidelity 
guarantee  fund  ....  March, 

Gold  bullion  in  the  bank  (consequent  on  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  Australia),  21,845,390?. 

July  10, 

Branch  bank,  Burlington-gardens,  London,  W., 
opened  ......  Oct.  i, 

Committee  on  the  bank  acts  appointed      July, 

Bank  discount  o  per  cent.  ;  lord  Palmerston 
authorises  addition  to  issue  of  notes  [to  the 
amount  of  2.000,000?.  were  issued]  Nov.  12, 

Committee  on  the  bank  acts  appointed  in  Dec. 
i,  1857  ;  report  recommending  continuance 
of  present  state  of  things  .  .  July  i, 

Bank  discount,  3  per  cent.  Feb.  1858  ;  6  per 
cent,  (demand  for  gold  in  France),  Nov.  15, 
1860  ;  7  per  cent.  Jan.  7  ;  8  percent,  (demand 
for  money  in  France,  India,  and  United  States, 
&c.),  Feb.  14;  3  per  cent.  Nov.  7,  1861  ;  2^  per 
cent.  Jan.  ;  3  per  cent.  April  ;  2^  per  cent. 
July  ;  2  per  cent.  July  24  ;  3  per  cent.  Oct.— 
Dec  .......... 

Much  alarm  through  the  announcement  of  the 
bank  solicitor  that  a  quantity  of  bank  paper 
had  been  stolen  from  the  makers  (forged 
notes  soon  appeared)  .  .  Aug.  16, 

The  culprits,  soon  detected,  were  tried  and  con- 
victed (see  Trials).  .  .  .  Jan.  7  —  12, 


1830 


1844 

1847 
1850 

1852 

1856 
1857 


1862 


*  Instituted  by  laws  passed  April  14,  1803,  and  April  22,  1806.  The  statutes  were  approved  Jan.  16 
1808.  In  1810,  Napoleon  said  that  its  duty  was  to  provide  money  at  all  times  at  4  per  cent,  interest. 

t  The  foundation  of  the  bank  in  Threadneedle-street  was  laid,  Aug.  i,  1732,  by  sir  Edward  Bellamy, 
governor ;  it  was  erected  by  G.  Sampson,  architect.  Great  additions  have  been  made  from  time  to  time 
by  successive  architects :  sir  Robert  Taylor,  sir  John  Soane,  and  Mr.  C.  R.  Cockerell.  It  now  occupies 
the  site  of  the  church,  and  nearly  all  the  parish  of  St.  Christopher-le-£tocks.  The  churchyard  is  now 
termed  "the  garden." 


BAN 


78 


BAN- 


,  continued. 

Bank  discount,  1863,  raised  to  4  per  cent.,  Jan. 
16 ;  to  5,  Jan.  28 ;  reduced  to  4,  Feb.  ;  to  3^  and 
3,  April ;  raised  to  4,  May ;  raised  to  5,  6,  iu 
Nov.  ;  to  7  and  8,  and  reduced  to  7,  in  Dec. 

Bank  discount,  1864,  raised  to  8,  Jan.  20;  reduced 
'to  7,  Feb.  12;  to  6,  Feb.  25;  renaftZ  to  7,  April 
16 ;  to  8,  May  2 ;  to  8,  May  5  ;  reduced  to  8,  May  19 ; 


to  7,  May  26 ;  to  6,  June  16 ;  raised  to  7,  July  25  ; 
to  8,  Aug.  4;  to  9,  Sept.  5 ;  reduced  to  8,  Nov.  10; 
to  7,  Nov.  24, 

Bank  discount,  1865,  reduced  to  5^,  Jan.  12  ;  to  5, 
Jan.  20  ;  raised  to  5^,  March  2  ;  reduced  to  4,  March. 
30 ;  raised  to  4^,  May  4;  reduced  to  3^,  June  i  ;  to 
3,  June  15;  raised  to  3^,  July  27 ;  to  4,  Aug.  3. 


AVERAGE   AMOUNT   OF   BANK    OF   ENGLAND    NOTES   IN   CIRCULATION. 


1718  . 
1778 
1790. 
1800 


.  £1,829,930 
.  7,030,680 
.  10,217,000 
.  15,450,000 


1810. 

1815 

1820. 


.  £23,904,000 
26,803,520 

.  27,174,000 
20,620,000 


1835- 

1840 

1845. 


£18,215,220  I  1855 

17,231,000  I  1857 

.  19,262,327  1859 

19,776.814 ! 


£19,616,627 
21,036,430 
22,705,780 


DEC.  27,  1856. 


Assets — Securities 
Bullion    . 
Liabilities  . 


36,329,000 


Balance   £3,260,000 


Nov.  ii,  1857.    (Time  of  Panic.) 
Assets— Securities     .        .    £35,480,281)     «      ,.       „ 

Bullion    .        .     .        7,170,508}   £42-650,789 
Liabilities 39,286,433 

Balance  £3,364,356 


Sept.  14, 1859.  Assets.— Securities,  30,099,179?.  Bullion,  17,120,822?.  Liabilities,  43,503.214?.  Balance,  3,716,787?. 
Feb.   14,  1861.     ,,  '     ,,  29,095,172?.         ,,         11,571,332?.  ,,          37>l67,336?.         ,,         3,499,168?. 

Aug.  30,  1862.     ,,  „  30,106,295?.        ,,        17,678,698?.          ,,         44,453,778?.         ,,        3,331, 215?. 

Aug.    9.  1865.     ,,  „  31,823,066!.         „         14,223,390?.  ,,          42,528,577?.         „         3>5i7>879?- 


PUBLIC   DEBT   TO   THE   BANK   OF   ENGLAND. 


1694 
1708 
1716 


£1,200,000 
2,175,027 
4,175,027 


1721 
1742 
1746 


.  £9,100,000 
.  10,700,000 
.  11,686,000 


1816 
1844 


.  £14,686,000 
.     11,015,100 


BANK  OF  IRELAND.  On  Dec.  9,  1721,  the  Irish  house  of  commons  rejected  a  bill  for 
establishing  a  national  bank.  Important  failures  in  Irish  banks  occurred  in  1727,  1733,  and 
1758  :  this  le"d  gradually  to  the  establishment  of  the  bank  of  Ireland  at  St.  Mary's-abbey, 
Dublin,  June  I,  1783.  The  business  was  removed  to  the  late  houses  of  parliament,  in 
College-green,  in  May,  1808.  Branch  banks  of  this  establishment  have  been  formed  in  most 
of  the  provincial  towns  in  Ireland,  all  since  1828.  Irish  banking  act  passed,  July  21,  1845. 

BANKS  OF  SCOTLAND.  The  old  bank  of  Scotland  was  set  up  in  1695,  at  Edinburgh,  and 
began  Nov.  I,  the  second  institution  of  the  kind  in  these  kingdoms  :  lending  money  to  the 
crown  was  prohibited.  The  Royal  bank  was  chartered  July  8,  1727;  the  British  Linen 
Company's  bank,  1746  ;  the  Commercial  bank,  1810  ;  National  bank,  1825  ;  Union  bank, 
1830.  The  first  stone  of  the  present  bank  of  Scotland  was  laid  June  3,  1801.  The  Western 
bank  of  Scotland  and  the  Glasgow  bank  stopped  in  Nov.  1857,  causing  much  distress. 
Scotch  banking  act  passed,  July  21,  1845. 

BANK  OF  SAVINGS.     See  Savings'  Banks. 

BANKS,  JOINT  STOCK.  Since  the  act  of  1826,  a  number  of  these  banks  have  been  esta- 
blished. In  1840,  the  amount  of  paper  currency  issued  by  joint-stock  banks  amounted  to 
4, 138,618?.  ;  the  amount  in  circulation  by  private  banks,  same  year,  was  6,973,613?. — the 
total  amount  exceeding  eleven  millions.*  In  Ireland  similar  banks  have  been  instituted, 
the  first  being  the  Hibernian  bank,  in  1825.  The  note- circulation  of  joint-stock  banks,  on 


*  THE  ROYAL  BRITISH  BANK  was  established  in  1849,  by  Mr.  John  McGregor,  M.P.,  and  others,  under 
sir  R.  Peel's  joint-stock  banking  act,  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  113(1844);  as  an  attempt  to  introduce  the  Scotch 
banking  system  of  cash  credits  into  England.  On  Sept,  3,  1856,  it  stopped  payment,  occasioning  much 
distress  and  ruin  to  many  small  tradesmen  and  others.  In  consequence  of  strong  evidence  of  the  existence 
of  fraud  in  the  management  of  the  bank,  elicited  during  the  examination  before  the  court  of  bankruptcy, 
the  government  instructed  the  attorney-general  to  file  ex-officio  informations  against  the  manager,  Mr.  H. 
Innes  Cameron,  and  several  of  the  directors.  They  were  convicted  Feb.  27,  1858,  after  13  days'  trial,  and 
sentenced  to  various  degrees  of  imprisonment.  Attempts  to  mitigate  the  punishment  failed  (May,  1858) ; 
but  all  were  released  except  Cameron  and  Esdaile,  in  July,  1858.  In  April,  1860,  dividends  had  been  paid 
to  the  amount  of  155.  in  the  pound.  The  attorney-general  brought  in  a  bill  called  the  Fraudulent  Trustees' 
Act,  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  54,  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such  transactions. — On  April  19,  1860,  a  deficiency  of 
263,000?.  was  discovered  in  the  Union  Bank  of  London.  Mr.  George  Pullinger,  a  cashier,  confessed  himself 
guilty  of  forgery  and  fraud,  and  was  sentenced  to  20  years'  imprisonment.— 1»  Feb.  18,  1861,  it  was  dis- 
covered that  John  Durden,  a  clerk  of  the  Commercial  Bank  of  London,  had  robbed  his  employers  of  67,000?., 
of  which  46,000?.  might  be  recovered.— In  Dec.  1864,  J.  W.  Terry  and  Thomas  Burch,  manager  and  secre- 
tary of  the  Unity  Bank,  were  committed  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  for  fabricating  accounts ;  but  acquitted 
pn  their  trial. 


BAN 


79 


BAN 


Oct.  i,  1855,  was,  in  England,  3,990,800?.  ;  in  Scotland,  4,280,000?.  ;  and  in  Ireland, 
6, 785,000?.  ;  total,  with  English  private  banks,  about  19,000,000?.  :  and  with  the  bank  of 
England,  above  39,000,000?. 


Chief  London  Banks.  .  Founded 

London  and  Westminster 1834 

London  Joint-Stock  1836 

Union  Bank  of  London 1839 

Commercial  Bank  of  London    .        .        .  „ 

Joint-Stock  Hanks,  Jan.  1860  : — 
England  and  Wales  (including  London)  .        .     .     94 
Scotland 15 


Chief  London  Sank?. 
London'  and  Count}' 
City  Bank   . 
Bank  of  London     . 


Foundtd. 

.     .     1839 

•     1855 


Ireland 

British  and  foreign  colonial  banks  with  offices 
in  London   . 


BANKRUPT  (signifying  either  bank  or  bench  broken1),  a  trader  declared  to  be  unable 
to  pay  his  just  debts.  The  laws  on  the  subject  (1543,  1571  ct  seq.)  were  consolidated  and 
amended  in  1825,  184^,  1852,  1854,  and  1861. 


Lord  chancellor  Thurlow.  refused  a  bankrupt 
his  certificate,  because  he  had  lost  five  pounds 
at  one  time  in  gaming  .  .  July  17.  1788 

Enacted  that  members  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons becoming  bankrupt,  and  not  paying 
their  debts  in  full,  should  vacate  their  seats  1812 

Present  Bankruptcy  Court  was  erected  by  2 
Will.  IV.  cap.  56,  1831 ;  bills  for  reforming 
bankruptcy  law  were  in  vain  brought  before 
parliament,  1859,  1860;  at  length  in  1861  was 
passed  the  bill  brought  in  by  the  lord  chan- 
cellor (formerly  sir  R.  Bcthell),  24  &  25  Viet. 


.  134  (1861),  by  which  great  changes  were 
ade  ;  the  court  for  relief  of  insolvent  debtors 


was  abolished,  and  increased  powers  given  to 
the  commissioners  in  bankruptcy,  &c. ;  the 
new  orders  were  issued        .        .        Oct.  12,  1861 
[This  act  has  not  produced  public  satisfac- 
tion (1865).] 
The  Irish   bankruptcy   laws    consolidated   in 

1836,  and  further  amended  in         ...     1857 
The  Scotch  bankruptcy  laws  consolidated  in 
1856,  and  further  amended  in    .        .        .  ,, 


1700 
1725 
1750 
1775 


NUMBER   OF    BANKRUPTS   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN 

1830  . 


AT   DIFFERENT   PERIODS. 


3? 
416 
432 

520 


1800  . 
1810 
1820  . 
1825* 


•  1339 

.  2OOO 

•  1358 
.  2683 


1845  England  . 
1850     ditto 


1467 
1308 
1028 
1298 


1857  England 

1859  ditto  . 

1860  ditto 
1863      ditto  . 


.  1488 

•  959 
.  1268 
.  8470 


In  1857  there  were  in  Scotland,  453  ;  Ireland,  73  ;  in  the  United  Kingdom,  2014. 
1860  ,,  445          ,,        113  ,,  1826. 

BANNATYNE  CLUB,  named  after  George  Baunatyne  (the  publisher),  was  established 
in  1823  by  sir  "Walter  Scott  and  others,  for  printing  works  illustrative  of  the  history, 
antiquities,  and  literature  of  Scotland,  of  which  about  113  volumes  were  issued. 

BANNERET,  a  personal  dignity  between  baron  and  knight,  anciently  conferred  by  the 
king  under  the  royal  standard.  Its  origin  is  of  uncertain  date  :  Edmondson  says  736;  but 
it  was  probably  created  by  Edward  I.  John  Chandos  is  said  to  have  been  made  a  banneret 
by  the  Black  Prince  and  the  king  of  Castile  atNajara,  April  3,  1367.  The  dignity  was  con- 
ferred on  John  Smith,  who  rescued  the  royal  standard  at  Edgehill  fight,  Oct.  23,  1642. 
It  fell  into  disuse,  but  was  revived  by  Geo.  III.  in  the  person  of  sir  William  Erskiue,  in 
1764. 

BANNERS  were  common  to  all  nations.  The  Jewish  tribes  had  standards  or  banners  — 
Num.  ii.  (1491  B.C.)  The  standard  of  Constantino  bore  the  inscription,  In  hoc  signo  vinces — 
"  By  this  sign  thou.  shalt  conquer,"  under  the  figure  of  the  cross.  See  Cross.  The  magical 
banner  of  the  Danes  (said  to  have  been  a  black  raven  on  a  red  ground)  was  taken  by  Alfred 
when  he  defeated  Hubba,  878.  St.  Martin's  cap,  and  afterwards  the  celebrated  auriflamma, 
or  oriflammc,  were  the  standards  of  France  about  noo.  See  Anrifiamma,  Standards,  &c. 

BANNOCKBURN  (Stirlingshire),  the  site  of  the  battle  between  Robert  Bruce  of  Scotland 
and  Edward  II.  of  England,  June  24,  1314.  The  army  of  Bruce  consisted  of  30,000  ;  that 
of  Edward  of  100,000  men,  of  whom  52,000  were  archers.  The  English  crossed  a  rivulet  to 
the  attack,  and  Bruce  having  dug  and  covered  pits,  they  fell  into  them,  and  were  thrown 
into  confusion.  The  rout  was  complete  :  the  English  king  narrowly  escaped,  and  50,000 
were  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  At  Sauchieburn,  near  here,  James  II.  was  defeated  and 
slain  on  June  u,  1488,  by  his  rebellious  nobles. — A  national  monument  was  founded  here, 
June  24,  1 86 1. 

*  According  to  a  return  to  parliament  made  at  the  close  of  February,  1826,  there  had  become  bankrupt 
in  the  four  months  preceding,  59  banking-houses,  comprising  144  partners  ;  and  20  other  banking  establish- 
ments had  been  declared  insolvent.  Every  succeeding  week  continued  to  add  from  seventy  to  a  hundred 
merchants,  traders,  and  manufacturers  to  the  bankrupt  list.  This  was,  however,  the  period  of  bubble 
speculation,  and  of  unprecedented  commercial  embarrassment  and  ruin. 


BAN  80  BAR 

BANNS,  in  the  feudal  law,  were  a  solemn  proclamation  of  any  kind  :  hence  arose  the 
present  custom  of  asking  banns,  or  giving  notice  before  marriage  ;  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  church  about  1200. 

BANQUETING-HOUSE,  Whitehall,  London,  built  by  Inigo  Jones,  about  1607. 

BANTAM  (Java),  where  a  rich  British  factory  was  established  by  captain  Lancaster,  in 
1603.  The  English  and  Danes  were  driven  from  their  factories  by  the  Dutch  in  1683. 
Bantam  surrendered  to  the  British  in  1811,  but  was  restored  to  the  Dutch  at  the  peace  in 
1814.  It  was  not  worth  retaining,  the  harbour  being  choked  up  and  inaccessible. 

BAN.TINGISM.     See  Corpulence. 

BANTRY  BAY  (S.  Ireland),  where  a  French  fleet,  bringing  succour  to  the  adherents  of 
James  II.,  attacked  the  English  under  admiral  Herbert,  May  I,  1689  :  the  latter  retired  to 
form  in  line  and  were  not  pursued.  A  French  squadron  of  seven  sail  of  the  line  and  two 
frigates,  armed  en  flute,  and  seventeen  transports,  anchored  here  for*  a  few  days,  without 
effect,  Dec.  1796.  MUTINY  of  the  Bantry  Bay  squadron  under  admiral  Mitchell  was  in 
Dec.  1801.  In  Jan.  1802,  twenty-two  of  the  mutineers  were  tried  on  board  the  Gladiator,  at 
Portsmouth,  when  seventeen  were  condemned  to  death,  of  whom  eleven  were  executed  ;  the 
others  were  sentenced  to  receive  each  200  lashes.  The  executions  took  place  on  board  the 
Majestic,  Centaur,  Formidable,  Temeraire,  and  L'Achille,  Jan.  8  to  18,  1802. 

BAPTISM,  the  ordinance  of  admission  into  the  Christian  church,  practised  by  all  sects 
professing  Christianity,  except  Quakers.  John  the  Baptist  baptized  Christ,  30.  (Matt,  iii.) 
Infant  baptism  is  mentioned  by  Irenseus  about  97.  In  the  reign  of  Constantine,  319, 
baptisteries  were  built  and  baptism  was  performed  by  dipping  the  person  all  over.  In  the 


west  sprinkling  was  adopted.  Much  controversy  has  arisen  since  1831  (particularly  in  1849 
and  1850),  in  the  church  of  England,  respecting  the  doctrine  of  baptismal  regeneration, 
which  the  Arches'  Court  of  Canterbury  decided  to  be  a  doctrine  of  the  church  of  England. 


BAPTISTS  (see  Anabaptists).  A  sect  distinguished  by  their  opinions  respecting  (i)  the 
proper  subjects,  and  (2)  the  proper  mode  of  baptism  :  the  former  they  affirm  to  be  those  who 
are  able  to  make  a  profession  of  faith  ;  the  latter  to  be  total  immersion.  There  are  seven 
sections  of  Baptists — Arminian,  Calvinistic  (or  Particular),  &c.  The  first  Baptist  church 
formed  in  London  was  in  1608.  They  published  a  confession  of  faith  in  1689.  In  1851 
they  had  130  chapels  in  London  and  2789  (with  sittings  for  752,353  persons)  in  England  and 
Wales.  Rhode  Island,  America,  was  settled  by  Baptists  in  1635. 

BARBADOES,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  was  the  first  English  settlement  in  the  West 
Indies.  About  1605  it  gave  rise  to  the  sugar  trade  in  England  ;  and  was,  with  other 
Caribbee  islands,  settled  by  charter  granted  to  James,  earl  of  Marlborough,  2  Charles  I., 
1627.  Barbadoes  has  suffered  severely  from  elemental  visitations  ;  in  a  dreadful  hurricane, 
Oct.  10,  1780,  more  than  4000  of  the  inhabitants  lost  their  lives.  A  large  plantation  with 
all  its  buildings  was  destroyed,  by  the  land  removing  from  its  original  site  to  another, 
and  covering  everything  in  its  peregrination,  Oct.  1784.  An  inundation,  Nov.  1795;  and 
two  great  fires,  May  and  Dec.  1796.  Bishopric  established,  1824.  Awful  devastation,  with 
the  loss  of  thousands  of  lives,  and  of  immense  property,  by  a  hurricane,  Aug.  10,  1831. 
Nearly  17,000  persons  died  of  cholera  here  in  1854.  On  Feb.  14,  1860,  property  to  the 
amount  of  about  300,000^.  was  destroyed  by  a  fire  at  Bridgetown,  the  capital. 

BARBARY,  in  N.  Africa,  considered  to  comprise  Algeria,  Morocco,  Fez,  Tunis,  and 
Tripoli,  with  their  dependencies.  Piratical  states  (nominally  subject  to  Turkey)  were 
founded  on  the  coast  by  Barbarossa,  about  1518. 

BARBERS  existed  at  Rome  in  the  3rd  century  B.C.  In  England,  formerly,  the  business 
of  a  surgeon  was  united  to  the  barber's,  and  he  was  denominated  a  BARBER-SURGEON.  A 
London  company  was  formed  in  1308,  and  incorporated,  1461.  This  union  was  partially 
dissolved  in  1540,  and  wholly  so  in  1745.  ''No  person  using  any  shaving  or  barbery  in 
London  shall  occupy  any  surgery,  letting  of  blood,  or  other  matter,  except  only  drawing  of 
teeth."  32  Henry  VIII.  1540. 

BARCA  (N.  Africa),  the  Greek  Barce,  a  colony  of  Gyrene.  It  was  successively  subju- 
gated by  the  Persians,  Egyptians,  and  Saracens.  In  1550  the  sultan  Solyman  combined 
Barca  with  the  newly  conquered  pashalik  of  Tripoli. 


Yalentinus,  after  refuting  them,  and  added  the  denial  of  the  incarnation,  the  resurrection, 


BAR  81  BAR 

BARCELONA,  an  ancient  maritime  city,  (1ST.  E.  Spain),  said  to  have  been  rebuilt  by 
Hamilcar  Barca,  father  of  the  great  Hannibal,  about  233  B.C.  With  the  surrounding 
country,  it  was  held  by  the  Romans,  Goths,  Moors,  and  Franks,  and,  with  the  province  of 
which  it  is  the  capital,  was  made  an  independent  county  about  A.D.  864,  and  incorporated 
into  Aragon  in  1164,  the  last  count  becoming  king.  The  city  has  suffered  much  by  war.  The 
siege  by  the  French,  in  1694,  was  relieved  by  the  approach  of  the  English  fleet,  commanded 
by  admiral  Russell;  but  the  city  was  taken  by  the  earl  of  Peterborough  in  1706.  It  was 
bombarded  and  taken  by  the  duke  of  Berwick  and  the  French  in  1714,  and  was  taken  by 
Napoleon  in  1808,  and  retained  till  1814.  It  revolted  against  the  queen  in  1841,  and  was 
bombarded  and  taken  in  Dec.  1842,  by  Espartero. 

BARCLAY,  CAPTAIN.     See  Pedeatrimism. 

BARDESANISTS,  followers  of  Bardesanes,  of  Mesopotamia,  who  embraced  the  errors  of 
iiitinus,  aft< 
about  175. 

BARDS.  Demodocus  is  mentioned  as  a  bard  by  Homer  ;  and  we  find  bards,  according 
to  Strabo,  among  the  Romans  before  the  age  of  Augustus.  The  Welsh  bards  formed  an 
hereditary  order,  regulated,  it  is  said,  by  laws,  enacted  about  940  and  1078.  They  lost  their 
privileges  at  the  conquest  by  Edward  I.  in  1284.  The  institution  was  "revived  by  the  Tudor 
sovereigns ;  and  their  Eisteddfodds  (or  meetings)  have  been  and  are  frequently  held  ;  at 
Swansea,  Aug.  1863  ;  at  Llandudno,  Aug.  1864;  and  in  the  vale  of  Conway,  Aug.  7,  1865. 
The  Gwyneddigion  Society  of  Bards  was  founded  in  1770.  Turlogh  O'Carolan,  the  last  of 
the  Irish  bards,  died  in  1737.  Chambers. 

BAREBONES'  PARLIAMENT.  Cromwell,  supreme  in  the  three  kingdoms,  summoned 
122  persons,  such  as  he  thought  he  could  manage,  who  with  six  from  Scotland,  and  five  from 
Ireland,  met,  and  assumed  the  name  of  parliament,  July  4,  1653.  It  obtained  its  appellation 
from  a  nickname  given  to  one  of  its  members,  a  leather- seller,  named  "Praise-God  Barbon," 
a  great  haranguer  and  frequent  in  prayer.  Although  violent  and  absurd  propositions  were 
made  by  some  of  the  members,  the  majority  evinced  much  sense  and  spirit,  proposing  to 
reform  abuses,  improve  the  administration  of  the  law,  &c.  The  parliament  was  suddenly 
dissolved,  Dec.  13,  1653,  at  the  instance  of  Sydenham,  an  independent,  and  Cromwell  was 
invested  with  the  dignity  of  Lord  Protector. 

BAREILLY,  province  of  Delhi  (N.  W.  India),  ceded  to  the  East  India  company  by  the 
ruler  of  Oude  in  1801.  A  mutiny  at  Bareilly,  the  capital,  was  suppressed  in  April,  1816. 
On  May  7,  1858,  it  was  taken  from  th.e  sepoy  rebels,  who  had  here  committed  many 
enormities. 

BARFLEUR  (N.  France),  where  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  equipped  the  fleet  by 
which  he  conquered  England,  1066.  Near  it,  prince  William,  son  of  Henry  I.,  in  his 
passage  from  Normandy,  was  shipwrecked,  Nov.  25,  1120.*  Barfleur  was  destroyed  by 
the  English  in  the  campaign  in  which  they  won  the  battle  of  Crecy,  1346.  The  French 
navy  was  destroyed  near  the  cape  by  admiral  Russell,  after  the  victory  of  La  Hogue,  in  1692. 

BAR!  (S.  Italy),  the  Barium  of  Horace,  was,  in  the  9th  century,  a  stronghold  of  the 
Saracens,  and  was  captured  by  the  emperor  Louis  II.,  a  descendant  of  Charlemagne,  in  871. 
In  the  loth  century  it  became  subject  to  the  eastern  empire,  and  remained  so  till  it  was 
taken  by  Robert  Guiscard,  the  Norman,  about  1060.  A  great  ecclesiastical  council  was  held 
here  on  Oct.  i,  1098,  when  the  filioqiie  article  of  the  creed  and  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  were  the  subjects  of  discussion. 

BARING  ISLAND,  Arctic  Sea,  discovered  by  captain  Penny  in  1850-1,  and  so  named  by 
him  after  sir  Francis  Baring,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1849. 

BARIUM  (Greek,  barys,  heavy),  a  metal  found  abundantly  as  carbonate  and  sulphate. 
The  oxide  baryta  was  first  recognised  as  an  earth  distinct  from  lime  by  Scheele,  in  1774;  and 
the  metal  was  first  obtained  by  Humphrey  Davy,  in  1808.  Watts. 

BARK.    See  Jesuits'  Baric. 

*  In  this  shipwreck  perished  his  legitimate  son,  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  and  his  newly  married 
bride,  Matilda,  daughter  of  Fulke,  earl  of  Anjou  ;  the  king's  natural  son,  Richard;  his  niece,  Lucia; 
the  earl  of  Chester,  and  the  flower  of  the  nobility,  with  140  officers  and  soldiers,  and  50  sailors,  most 
i'f  the  latter  being  intoxicated,  which  was  the  cause  of  their  running  upon  the  rocks  near  Barfleur. 
This  lamentable  catastrophe  had  such  an  effect  upon  Henry  that  he  was  never  afterwards  seen  to  smile. 
Hcnault ;  Hume. 


BAR  82  BAR 

BARMECIDES,  a  powerful  Persian  family,  celebrated  for  virtue  and  courage,  were 
massacred  through  the  jealousy  of  the  caliph  Haroun-al-Raschid,  about  802.  His  visir  Giafar 
was  a  Barmecide.  The  phrase  Barmecide  (or  imaginary)  feast  originated  in  the  story  of  the 
barber's  sixth  brother,  in  the  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments. 

BARNAB1TES,  an  order  of  monks,  established  in  Milan  about  1530,  were  much  engaged 
in  instructing  youth,  relieving  the  sick  and  aged,  and  converting  heretics. 

BARNARD'S,  Sm  JOHN,  ACT  (7  Geo.  II.,  cap.  8),  entitled,  "an  act  to  prevent  the 
infamous  practice  of  stock-jobbing,"  was  passed  in  1734,  and  repealed  in  1860.  Sir  John 
Barnard  (born  1685,  died  1764)  was  an  eminent  and  patriotic  lord  mayor  of  London. 

BARNET,  Hertfordshire.  Here  Edward  IV.  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Lancas- 
trians, on  Easter-day,  April  14,  1471,  when  the  earl  of  Warwick  and  his  brother  the  marquis 
of  Montacute,  or  Montague,  and  10,000  men  were  slain.  A  column  commemorative  of  this 
battle  has  been  erected  at  the  meeting  of  the  St.  Alban's  and  Hatfield  roads. 

BAROMETERS.  Torricelli,  a  Florentine,  having  discovered  that  no  principle  of  suction 
existed,  and  that  water  did  not  rise  in  a  pump  through  nature's  abhorrence  of  a  vacuum, 
imitated  the  action  of  a  pump  with  mercury,  and  made  the  first  barometer,  about  1643. 
Pascal's  experiments  (1646)  enhanced  the  value  of  the  discovery  by  applying  it  to  the  measure- 
ment of  heights.  Wheel  barometers  were  contrived  in  1668  ;  pendent  barometers  in  1695 ; 
marine  in  1700,  and  many  improvements  have  been  since  made.  In.  the  Aneroid  barometer 
(from  a,  no,  and  neros,  watery)  no  liquid  is  employed  ;  the  atmospheric  pressure  being 
exerted  on  a  metallic  spring.  Its  invention  (attributed  to  Conte",  in  1798,  and  to  Yidi,  about 
1844)  excited  much  attention  in  1848-9.  Barometers  were  placed  at  N.E.  coast  stations  in 
1860,  by  the  duke  of  Northumberland  and  others. 

BARON,  now  the  lowest  title  in  our  peerage,  is  extremely  ancient.  Its  original  name  in 
England,  Vavasour,  was  changed  by  the  Saxons  into  Thane,  and  by  the  Normans  into  Baron. 
Many  of  this  rank  are  named  in  the  history  of  England,  and  undoubtedly  had  assisted  in,  or 
had  been  summoned  to  parliament  (in  1205)  ;  but  the  first  precept  found  is  of  no  higher  date 
than  the  49  Henry  III.  1265.  The  first  raised  to  this  dignity  by  patent  was  John  de  Beau- 
chainp,  created  baron  of  Kidderminster,  by  Richard  II.,  1387.  The  barons  took  arms  against 
king  John,  and  compelled  him  to  sign  the  great  charter  of  our  liberties,  and  the  charter  of 
our  forests,  at  Runnymede,  near  Windsor,  June,  1215.  Charles  II.  granted  a  coronet  to 
barons  on  his  restoration. 

BARONETS,  the  first  in  rank  among  the  gentry,  and  the  only  knighthood  that  is  here- 
ditary, were  instituted  by  James  I.  1611.  The  rebellion  in  Ulster  seems  to  have  given  rise 
to  this  order,  it  having  been  required  of  a  baronet,  on  his  creation,  to  pay  into  the  exchequer 
as  much  as  would  maintain  "thirty  soldiers  three  years  at  eightpence  a  day  in  the  province 
of  Ulster  in  Ireland."  It  was  further  required  that  a  baronet  should  be  a  gentleman  bom, 
and  have  a  clear  estate  of  loool.  per  annum.  The  first  baronet  was  sir  Nicholas  Bacon  (whose 
successor  is  therefore  styled  Primus  Baronettorum  Anglicc),  May  22,  1611.  The  baronets  of 
Ireland  were  created  in  1619  ;  the  first  being  sir  Francis  Blundell. — Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia 
were  created,  1625  ;  sir  Robert  Gordon  the  first  baronet. — All  baronets  created  since  the  Irish 
union  in  1801  are  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

BARONS'  WAR,  arose  in  consequence  of  the  faithlessness  of  king  Henry  III.  and  the 
oppression  of  his  favourites.  The  barons,  headed  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester, 
and  Gilbert  de  Clare,  earl  of  Gloucester,  met  at  Oxford  in  1262,  and  enacted  statutes  to 
which  the  king  objected.  In  1263  their  disputes  were  in  vain  referred  to  the  decision  of 
Louis  IX.  of  France.  War  broke  out,  and  on  May  14,  1264,  the  king's  party  were  totally 
defeated  at  Lewes  :  and  De  Montfort  become  the  virtual  ruler  of  the  kingdom.  Through 
treachery  the  war  was  renewed  ;  and  at  the  battle  of  Evesham,  Aug.  4,  1265,  De  Montfort 
was  slain,  and  the  barons  were  defeated.  They,  however,  did  not  render  their  final  sub- 
mission till  1268.  A  history  of  this  war  was  published  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Blaauw  in  1844. 

BARRACKS  (from  "  Baroque— JIutte  que  font  les  soldats  en  campagne  pour  se  mettre  a 
convert")  were  not  numerous  in  these  countries  until  about  1789.  A  superintendent-general 
was  appointed  in  1793,  since  when  commodious  barracks  have  been  built  in  the  various 
garrison  towns  and  central  points  of  the  empire. — A  report,  censuring  the  condition  of  many 
barracks,  was  presented  to  parliament  in  1858  ;  and  great  improvements  were  effected  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Sydney  Herbert.  See  Aldershot. 

BARRICADES,  mounds  formed  of  trees  and  earth,  and  for  military  defence.  During 
the  wars  of  the  League  in  France,  in  1588,  the  people  made  barricades  by  means  of  chains, 


BAR  83  BAR 

casks,  &c.,  and  compelled  the  royal  troops  to  retire.  Barricades  composed  of  overturned 
vdi ides,  &c.,  were  erected  in  Paris  in  the  insurrections  of  July,  27-30,  1830,  and  June  23, 
1848. 

BARRIER  TREATY,  by  which  the  Low  Countries  were  ceded  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI., 
was  signed  by  the  British,  Imperial,  and  Dutch  ministers,  Nov.  5,  1715. 

BARRISTERS  are  said  to  have  been  first  appointed  by  Edward  L,  about  1291,  but  there 
is  earlier  mention  of  professional  advocates  in  England.  They  are  of  various  rank,  as 
King's  or  Queen's  Counsel,  Serjeants,  &c.,  which  see.  Students  for  the  bar  must  keep  a 
certain  number  of  terms  at  the  Inns  of  Court,  previously  to  being  called  ;  and  by  the 
regulations  of  1853  must  pass  a  public  examination.  Irish  students  must  keep  eight  terms 
in  England. 

BARROSA,  OR  BAROSSA  (S.  Spain),  where  a  battle  was  fought  on  March  5,  1811,  between 
the  British  army,  commanded  by  major-general  sir  Thomas  Graham,  afterwards  lord 
Lynedoch,  and  the  French  under  marshal  Victor.  After  a  long  conflict,  the  British  achieved 
one  of  the  most  glorious  triumphs  of  the  Peninsular  war.  Although  they  fought  at  great 
disadvantage,  the  British  compelled  the  French  to  retreat,  leaving  nearly  3000  dead,  six 
pieces  of  cannon,  and  an  eagle,  the  first  that  the  British  had  taken  ;  the  loss  of  the  British 
was  1169  men  killed  and  wounded. 

BARROW  ISLAND  (N.  Arctic  Sea),  discovered  by  captain  Penny  in  1850-51,  and  named 
by  him  in  honour  of  John  Barrow,  Esq.,  son  of  sir  John. 

BARROW'S  STRAITS  (N.  Arctic  Sea),  explored  by  Edwd.  Parry,  as  far  as  Melville 
Island,  lat.  74°  26'  N.,  and  long.  113°  47'  W.  The  strait,  named  after  sir  John  Barrow,  was 
entered  on  Aug.  2,  1819.  The  thermometer  was  55°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit. 

BARROWISTS,  a  name  given  to  the  Brownists,  which  sec. 

BARROWS,  circular  mounds  found  in  Britain  and  other  countries,  were  ancient 
sepulchres.  Sir  Richard  Hoare  caused  several  barrows  near  Stonehenge  to  be  opened ;  in 
them  were  found  a  number  of  curious  remains  of  Celtic  ornaments,  such  as  beads,  buckles, 
and  brooches,  in  amber,  wood,  and  gold  :  Nov.  1808. 

BARS  in  music  appear  in  the  madrigals  of  Bonini,  1607.  Their  common  use  in  this 
country  is  attributed  to  Henry  Lawes,  about  1653.  Eng.  Cyc. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  ST.,  martyred,  71.  The  festival  (on  Aug.  24,  O.S.,  Sept.  3,  N.S.) 
is  said  to  have  been  instituted  in  1130.  *  ^  The  monastery  and  hospital  of  St.  Bartholomew 
(Austin  Friars),  founded  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. ,  by  Rahere,  about  1 100.  On  the  dissolution 
the  HOSPITAL  was  re-founded,  1539,  and  was  incorporated  in  1546-7.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
subscription  in  1729.  In  1861  it  contained  580  beds,  and  relieved  about  70,000  patients  : 
it  has  since  been  considerably  enlarged.  The  MASSACRE  commenced  at  Paris  on  the  night  of 
the  festival  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Aug.  24,  1572.  According  to  Sully,  70,000  Huguenots,  or 
French  Protestants,  including  women  and  children,  were  murdered  throughout  the  kingdom 
by  secret  orders  from  Charles  IX.,  at  the  instigation  of  his  mother,  the  queen  dowager, 
Catherine  de  Medicis.f 

BARTHOLOMEW,  ST.,  a  West  Indian  island,  held  by  Sweden.  It  was  colonised  by 
the  French  in  1648  ;  and  has  been  several  times  taken  and  restored  by  the  British.  It  was 
ceded  to  Sweden  by  France  in  1785. 

BARTHOLOMITES,  a  religious  order  of  Armenia,  settled  1307,  at  Genoa,  where  is  pre- 
served in  the  Bartholomite  church  the  image  which  Christ  is  said  to  have  sent  to  king 
Abgarus.  The  order  was  suppressed  by  pope  Innocent  X.  1650. 

BARTON  AQUEDUCT  (near  Manchester)  was  constructed  by  James  Brindley,  to  carry 
the  Bridgewafer  canal  over  the  Irwell,  which  was  done  at  a  height  of  39  feet  above  the  river. 
It  is  said  to  be  in  as  good  a  state  now  as  it  was  on  the  day  it  was  completed,  in  1761. 

*  The  charter  of  the  FAIR  was  granted  by  Henry  II.,  and  was  held  011  the  ground  which  has  been  the 
former  scene  of  toTirnaments  and  martyrdoms.  The  shows  at  the  fair  were  discontinued  in  1850,  and 
the  fair  was  proclaimed  for  the  last  time  in  1855.  In  1858  Mr.  H.  Morley  published  his  "  History  of  Bar- 
tholomew Fair,"  with  many  illustrations.  See  Smitlifield. 

The  number  of  the  victims  is  differently  stated  by  various  authors.     La  Popetionere  calculates  the 

)le  at  20,000 ;  Adriani,  De  Serrcs,  and  De  Thou  say  30,000  ;  Davila  states  them  at  40,000 ;  and  Pe're'fixe 
makes  the  number  100,000.  Above  500  persons  of  rank,  and  10,000  of  inferior  condition,  perished  in  Paris 
alone,  besides  those  slaughtered  in  the  provinces.  The  pope,  Gregory  XIII.,  ordered  a  TeDeum  to  be  per- 
iormcd  on  the  occasion,  with  other  rejoicings. 

G   2 


BAS  84  BAT 

BASLE,  a  rich  city  in  Switzerland.  The  i8th  general  council  sat  here  from  1431  to 
1443.  Many  important  reforms  in  the  church  were  proposed,  but  not  carried  into  effect  : 
among  others  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches.  The  university  was  founded  in 
1460.  Treaties  of  peace  between  France,  Spain,  and  Prussia  were  concluded  here  in  1795. 

BASHI-BAZOUKS,  irregular  Turkish  troops,  partially  employed  by  the  British  in  the 
Crimean  war,  1854-6. 

BASIENTELLO  (S.  Naples).  Here  the  army  of  the  emperor  Otho  II.  fell  into  an 
ambuscade,  and  was  nearly  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Greeks  and  Saracens  on  July  13,  982  ;  the 
emperor  himself  barely  escaped. 

BASILIANS,  an  order  of  monks,  which  obtained  its  name  from  St.  Basil,  who  died  380. 
The  order  was  reformed  by  pope  Gregory,  in  1569. — A  sect,  founded  by  Basil,  a  physician 
of  Bulgaria,  held  most  extravagant  notions  ;  they  rejected  the  books  of  Moses,  the  eucharist, 
and  baptism,  and  are  said  to  have  had  everything,  even  their  wives,  in  common,  mo.  Basil 
was  burnt  alive  in  1118. 

BASILIKON  DORON  (Royal  Gift),  precepts  on  the  art  of  government,  composed  by 
James  I.  of  England  for  his  son,  and  first  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1599.  The  collected 
works  of  this  monarch  were  published  at  London,  1616-20,  in  one  vol.  fol. 

BASQUE  PROVINCES  (N.  W.  Spain,  Biscay,  Guipuscoa,  and  Alava).  The  Basques, 
considered  to  be  descendants  of  the  ancient  Iberi,  were  termed  Vascones  by  the  Romans, 
whom  they  successfully  resisted.  They  were  subdued  with  great  difficulty  by  the  Goths 
about  580  ;  and  were  united  to  Castile  in  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries.  Their  language, 
distinct  from  all  others,  is  conjectured  to  be  of  Tartar  origin. 

BASQUE  "ROADS.  Four  French  ships  of  the  line,  riding  at  anchor  here,  were  attacked 
by  lords  Gambier  and  Cochrane  (the  latter  commanding  the  fireships),  and  all,  with  a  great 
number  of  merchant  and  other  vessels,  were  destroyed,  April  12,  1809.  Cochrane  accused 
Gambier  of  neglecting  to  support  him,  and  thereby  allowing  the  French  to  escape.  At  a 
court-martial  (July  26 — Aug.  4),  lord  Gambier  was  acquitted. 

BASSORAH,  BASRAH,  OR  BUSSORAH  (Asia  Minor),  a  Turkish  city,  founded  by  the  caliph 
Omar,  about  635.  It  has  been  several  times  taken  and  retaken  by  the  Persians  and  Turks. 

'BASS  ROCK,  an  isle  in  the  Firth  of  Forth  (S.  Scotland),  was  granted  to  the  Landers, 
1316;  purchased  for  a  state-prison,  1671  j  taken  by  the  Jacobites,  1690;  surrendered,  1694; 
granted  to  the  Dalrymples,  1 706. 

B ASS'S  STRAIT,  AUSTRALIA.  Mr.  Bass,  surgeon  of  the  Reliance,  in  an  open  boat  from 
Port  Jackson,  in  1797,  penetrated  as  far  as  "Western  Port,  and  affirmed  that  a  strait  existed 
between  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Lieutenant  Flinders  circumnavigated 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  named  the  strait  after  Mr.  Bass,  1799. 

BASSET,  OR  BASSETTE,  or  Pour  et  Contre,  a  game  at  cards,  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  a  noble  Venetian,  in  the  I5th  century  ;  introduced  into  France,  1674. 

BASTARD,  a  child  not  born  in  lawful  wedlock.  An  attempt  was  made  in  England,  in 
1236,  to  mako  bastard  children  legitimate  by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  the  parents,  but  it 
failed,  and  led  to  the  memorable  answer  to  the  barons  assembled  in  the  parliament  of 
Merton  :  Nolumus  leges  Anglice  mutari— "  We  will  not  have  the  laws  of  England  changed." 
Women  concealing  their  children's  birth  deemed  guilty  of  murder,  21  James  I.,  1624. 
Viners  Statutes.  In  Scotland  bastard  children  had  not  the  power  of  disposing  of  their 
moveable  estates  by  will,  until  6  Will.  IV.  1836.  A  new  act,  facilitating  the  claims  of 
mothers,  and  making  several  provisions  for  proceeding  in  bastardy  cases,  was  passed  8  Viet. 
cap.  10(1845). 

BASTILLE,  PARIS,  a  castle  built  by  Charles  V.,  king  of  France,  in  1369,  for  the  defence 
of  Paris  against  the  English  ;  completed  in  1383.  It  was  afterwards  used  as  a  state  prison, 
and  became  the  scene  of  much  suffering.  Henry  IV.  and  his  veteran  army  assailed  it  in 
vain  in  the  siege  of  Paris,  during  the  Avar  that  desolated  France  between  1587  and  1594. 
On  July  14,- 1 5,  1789,  it  was  pulled  down  by  the  infuriated  populace  ;  the  governor  and 
other  officers  were  seized,  conducted  to  the  Place  de  Greve,  and  had  their  hands  and  heads 
cutoff.  The  heads  fixed  on  spikes  were  carried  in  triumph  through  the  streets. — "The 
man  with  the  iron  mask,"  the  most  mysterious  prisoner  ever  known,  died  here,  Nov.  19, 
1703.  See  Iron  Mask. 

BATAVIA  AND  BATAVIAN  REPUBLIC.     See  Holland. 


BAT 


BATAVIA,  the  capital  of  Java,  and  of  all  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the  East  Indies,  built 
by  that  people  about  1619.  Taken  by  the  English,  Jan.  1782.  Again,  by  the  British,  under 
general  sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,  Aug.  26,  1811  ;  restored  in  1814. 

BATH  (Somerset),  a  favourite  station  of  the  Eomans.  About  44  B.C.  was  remarkable 
then  for  its  hot  springs  .  Coel,  a  British  king,  is  said  to  have  given  this  city  a  charter,  an  cl 
the  Saxon  king  Edgar  was  crowned  here,  A.D.  973. 


Bath  plundered  and  burnt  in  the  reign  of  Wil-  I  Theatre,  Beaufort-square,  opened  . 

liam  Rufus,  and  again  in         ....  1137  J  Bath  philosophical  society  formed 

The  abbey  church  commenced  in  1405  ;  finished  1606 
Assembly-rooms  built     ......  1771 

Pump  room  erected     ......  1797 


.    .  180; 
•      .  1817 

Victoria  park  opened  by  princess  Victoria    .     .1830 
British  association  met  here  .        .        Sept.  14,  1864 


1802.  Richard  Beadon,  died 
1824.  George  Henry  Law,  died 


BATH  AND  "WELLS,  BISHOPRIC  OF.  The  see  of  Wells,  whose  cathedral  church  was 
built  by  Ina,  king  of  the  "West  Saxons,  in  704,  was  established  in  909.  The  see  of  Bath  was 
established' in  1078.  John  de  Villula,  the  sixteenth  bishop,  having  purchased  the  city  of 
Bath  for  500  marks  of  Henry  I.,  transferred  his  seat  from  Wells  to  Bath  in  1088.  Disputes 
arose  between  the  monks  of  Bath  and  the  canons  of  Wells  about  the  election  of  a  bishop, 
which  were  compromised  in  1135.  Henceforward  the  bishop  was  to  be  styled  from  both 
places  ;  the  precedency  to  be  given  to  Bath.  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at 
531^.  15.  3d.  per  annum.  'Present  income,  5000?. 

RECENT  BISHOPS   OF  BATH  AND  WELLS. 

.     April  21,  1824  I  1845.  Richard  Bagot,  died  .        .        .    May  15,  1854 
.    Sept.  22,  1845  |  1854.  Robert  John,  baron  Auckland  (PRESENT  bishop). 

BATH  ADMINISTRATION.  Mr.  Pelham  and  his  friends  having  tendered  their  resigna- 
tion to  the  king  (George  II.),  Eeb.  10,  1746,  the  formation  of  a  new'ministry  was  undertaken 
by  William  Pulteney,  earl  of  Bath  ;  but  it  expired  on  Feb.  12,  while  yet  incomplete,  and 
received  the  name  of  the  "Short-lived"  administration.  The  members  of  it  actually 
appointed  were  :  the  earl  of  Bath,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  ;  lord  Carlisle,  lord  privy  seal ; 
lord  Winchilsea,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  ;  and  lord  Granville,  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state, 
with  the  seals  of  the  other  in  his  pocket,  "to  be  given  to  whom  he  might  choose."  Mr. 
Pelham  and  his  colleagues  returned  to  power.  Cox's  Life  of  Pelham. 

BATH,  ORDER  OF  THE,  said  to  be  of  early  origin,  but  formally  constituted  Oct.  n, 
1399,  by  Henry  IV.,  two  days  previous  to  his  coronation  in  the  Tower  ;  he  conferred  the 
order  upon  forty-six  esquires,  who  had  watched  the  night  before,  and  had  bathed.  After 
the  coronation,  of  Charles  II.  the  order  was  neglected  until  May  18,  1725,  when  it  was 
revived  by  George  I.,  who  fixed  the  number  of  knights  at  37.  On  Jan.  2,  1815,  the  prince 
regent  enlarged  the  order,  forming  classes  of  knights  grand  crosses  (72),  and  knights,  com- 
manders (180),  with  an  unlimited  number  of  companions.  By  an  order  published  May  25, 
1847,  all  the  existing  statutes  of  this  order  were  annulled  ;  and  by  the  new  statutes,  the 
order,  hitherto  exclusively  military,  was  opened  to  civilians.  In  1851,  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair, 
and  other  promoters  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  that  year,  received  this  honour. 


CONSTITUTION: — ist  Class. 
2nd  Class. 
3rd  Class. 


Knights  grand  cross, 
Knights  commanders, 
Companions, 


50  military, 
100      „ 
525      „ 


25  civil. 


BATHS  were  long  used  in  Greece,  and  introduced  by  Agrippa  into  Rome.  The  thermse 
of  the  Romans  and  gymnasia  of  the  Greeks  (of  which  baths  formed  merely  an  appendage) 
were  sumptuous.  The  marble  group  of  Laocoon  was  found  in  1506  in  the  baths  of  Titus, 
erected  about  80,  and  the  Farnese  Hercules  in  those  of  Caracalla,  erected,  211.  See  Batli. 


BATHS   IN  LONDON. 

In  London,  St.  Agnes  Le  Celre,  in  Old-street- 
road,  was  a  spring  of  great  antiquity ;  baths 
said  to  have  been  formed  in  1502. 

St.  Chad's-well,  Grey's-inn-road,  derives  its  name 

from  St.  Chad,  the  fifth  bishop  of  Lichfield .  667 

Old  Bath-house,  Coldbath-square,  in  use    .        .  1697 

A  bath  opened  in  Bagnio-court,  now  Bath-street, 
Newgate-street,  London,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  bath  in  England  for  hot  bathing  .  1679 

Peerless  (Perilous)  Pool,  Baldwin- street,  City- 
road,  mentioned  by  Stow  (died  1605) ;  en- 
closed as  a  bathing  place 1743 

Turkish  sweating-baths  very  popular  in    .         .  1 860 

The  Oriental  baths  in  Victoria- street,  West- 
minster, were  completed  in  .  .  .  .  1862 


PUBLIC  BATHS  AND  WASH-HOUSES. 

The  first  established  by  Mr.  Bowie  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  London  docks  .  .  . 

Acts  were  passed  to  encourage  the  establishment 
of  public  baths  and  wash-houses,  "for  the 
health,  comfort,  and  welfare  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  populous  towns  and  districts,"  in 
England  and  Ireland  .  .  .  .  . 

In  the  quarter  ending  Sept.  1854,  537,345 
bathers  availed  themselves  of  the  baths  in 
London,  and  in  this  period  there  were  85,260 
washers. 

Public  baths  and  wash-houses  have  since  been 
established  throughout  the  empire. 


1844 


BAT 


BAT 


BATON",  a  truncheon  borne  by  generals  in  the  French  army,  and  afterwards  by  the 
marshals  of  other  nations.  Henry  III.  of  France,  before  he  ascended  the  throne,  was  made 
generalissimo  of  the  army  of  his  brother  Charles  IX.,  and  received  the  baton  as  the  mark  of 
the  high  command,  1569.  Renault. 

BATTERIES  along  the  coasts  were  constructed  by  Henry  VIII.  (who  reigned  1509-47). 
The  famous  floating  batteries  with  which  Gibraltar  was  attacked,  in  the  memorable  siege  of 
that  fortress,  were  the  scheme  of  D' Arcon,  a  French  engineer.  There  were  ten  of  them,  and 
they  resisted  the  heaviest  shells  and  32-pound  shot,  but  ultimately  yielded  to  red-hot  shot, 
Sept.  13.  1782.  See  Gibraltar. 

BATTERING-HAM,  Testudo  Arietaria,  with  other  military  implements,  some  of  which 
are  still  in  use,  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Artemon,  a  Lacedaemonian,  and  employed 
by  Pericles,  about  441  B.C.  These  ponderous  engines  (from  86  to  120  feet  long)  by  their 
own  weight  exceeded  the  utmost  effects  of  the  battering  cannon  of  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century.  Desaguliers.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  employed  a  battering-ram  in  demolishing  the 
old  walls  of  St.  Paul's  church,  previously  to  rebuilding  the  edifice  in  1675. 

BATTERSEA  PARK  originated  in  an  act  of  parliament  passed  in  1846,  which 
empowered  Her  Majesty's  commissioners  of  woods  to  form  a  royal  park  in  Battersea- 
fields.  Acts  to  enlarge  the  powers  of  the  commissioners  were  passed  in  1848,  1851,  and 
1853.  The  park  and  the  new  bridge  connecting  it  with  Chelsea  were  opened  in  April,  1858. 

BATTLE-ABBEY,  Sussex,  founded  by  William  I.,  1067,  on  the  plain  where  the  battle 
of  Hastings  was  fought,  Oct.  14,  1066.  It  was  dedicated  to  St.  Martin,  and  was  given  to 
Benedictine  monks,  who  were  to  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  slain.  The  original  name  of  the 
plain  was  Hetheland.  See  Hastings.  After  the  battle  of  Hastings,  a  list  was  taken  of 
William's  chiefs,  amounting  to  629,  and  called  tlie  BATTEL-ROLL  ;  and  amongst  these  chiefs 
the  lands  and  distinctions  of  the  followers  of  the  defeated  Harold  were  distributed. 

BATTLE,  WAGER  OF,  a  trial  by  combat  formerly  allowed  by  our  laws,  where  the  defen- 
dant in  an  appeal  of  murder  might  fight  with  the  appellant,  and  make  proof  thereby  of  his 
guilt  or  innocence.  See  Appeal. 

BATTLE-AXE,  a  weapon  of  the  Celtse.  The  Irish  were  constantly  armed  with  an  axe. 
Burns.  At  the  battle  of  Bannockburn  king  Robert  Bruce  clove  an  English  champion  down 
to  the  chine  at  one  blow  with  a  battle-axe,  1314.  Hume.  The  battle-axe  guards,  or  beau- 
fetiers,  who  are  vulgarly  called  beef-eaters,  and  whose  arms  are  a  sword  and  lance,  were  first 
raised  by  Henry  VII.  in  1485.  They  were  originally  attendants  upon  the  king's  buffet.  See 
Yeoman  of  the  Guard. 

BATTLEFIELD,  BATTLE  OF.     See  Shrewsbury. 

BATTLES.  Palamedes  of  Argos  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  ranged  an  army  in  a 
regular  line  of  battle,  placed  sentinels  round  a  camp,  and  excited  the  soldier's  vigilance  by 
giving  him  a  watchword.  Lenglet.  See  Naval  Battles,  British.  The  following  are  the  most 
memorable  battles,  arranged  in  chronological  order.  The  fifteen  battles  marked  by  a  f  are 
termed  "  decisive  "  by  Professor  Creasy  ;  n.  signifies  naval. 


BEFORE  CHRIST. 

Abraham  defeats  kings  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xiv.)  .  1913 

Joshua  subdues  five  kings  of  Canaan  (Josh.  x.).  451 

Gideon  defeats  the  Midianites  (Judges  vii.)  245 

Trojan  war  commenced         ....  193 

Troy  taken  and  destroyed         ...  184 

Jephthah  defeats  Ammonites      .         .         .  143 

Ethiopians  defeated  by  Asa  (2  Chron.  xiv.)  941 

*Horatii  vanquish  Curiatii     ....  669 

*Halys  (Medes  and  Lydians,  stopped  by  eclipse)  585 

t*Marathon  (Greeks  defeat  Persians)       Sept.  28  490 

*Thermopylai  (heroism  of  Leonidas)       Aug.  7-9  480 

*Salamis,  n.  (Greeks  defeat  Persians)  .     Oct.  20  ,, 

*Mycale  (ditto)         ....        Sept.  22  479 

*Plateea  (ditto :  Pausanias)        .        .     Sept.  22  ,, 

*Eurymedon  n.  (ditto :  Cimon)  .        .        .  466 

*Coronea  (Bceotians  defeat  Athenians')     .        .  447 

Romans  totally  defeat  Veientes        .        .  437 

Torone  (Clean  killed :  Athenians  defeat  Spartans)  422 

*Mantinea  (Spartans  defeat  Athenians)  .        .     .  418 
t  Athenians  defeated  before  Syracuse         .        .413 

*Cyzicus  ?i.  ( A Icibiades  defeats  Spartans)        .     .  410 


*Arginusse  (Conon  defeats  Spartans)    .        .B.C. 
*^Egospotamos  n.  (Athenian  fleet  destroyed) 


406 
405 


. 

*Cunaxa(Cfyrws  defeated  and  killed  by  Artaxerxes)  401 

Cnidus,  n.  (Conon  defeats  Spartans)  .        .        .  394 

*Coronea  (Argesilaus  defeats  Athenians  and  allies)  ,, 

*A\li&(Brennus  and  the  Gauls  defeat  Romans)    .  390 

Volsci  defeated  by  Camillus  .        .        ...  381 

Volsci  defeat  the  Romans  .....  379 

Naxus  (Chabrias  defeats  Lacedcemonians)     376  or  377 

*Leuctra  (Ihebans  defeat  Spartans)     .        .        .  371 

Camillus  defeats  the  Gauls  .....  367 

*Cynocephalpe  (Thebans  defeat  Thessalians)         .  364 

*Mantinea  (Ihebans  victors:  Epaminondas  slain)  362 

*Crimesus  (Timoleon  defeats  Carthaginians)        .  339 

*Chajronea  (Philip  defeats  Athenians,  <fcc.)      .     .  338 
Thebes  destroyed  by  Alexander       .         .        -335 

*Granicus  (Alexander  defeats  Darius)     May  22,  334 

*lss\is  (ditto)     ......       Oct.  333 

*Pandosia  (Alexander  of  Epirus  dftd.  and  slain)  332 


i*Arbela  (Alexander  defeats  Darius) 
*Cranon  (Antipater  defeats  Greeks)  .        . 
•fCaudine  Forks  (Roman  army  captured) 


Oct.  i, 


331 
322 
321 


[The  battles  which  are  thus  marked  *  are  more  fully  described  in  their  alphabetical  order.] 


BAT 


87 


BAT 


BATTLES,  continued. 


fGaza  (Ptolemy  defeats  Demetrius)  .        .        B.C.  312 

Fabius  defeats  the  Tuscans       .        .        .        .  310 

llimera  (Gelon  defeats  Agathocles)          .         .     .  „ 

Ipsus  (Seleucus  defeats  Antigonus,  who  is  slain) .  301 

!um  (Romans  defeat  Samnites)  .        .        .  295 

Asculum  (Pyrrhus  defeats  Romans)       .        .     .  279 

•.\mtum  (Romans  defeat  Pyrrhus)       .        .  275 

I'unic  Wars  begin 264 

Myl;e,  n.  (Romans  defeat  Carthaginians)  .        .  260 

Xautippus  defeats  llegulus 255 

•Paiiormus  (Asdrubal  defeated  by  Metellus)         .  250 

f  Drepanum  n.  (Carthaginians  defeat  Romans)    .  249 

V%: ties  n.  (Romans  defeat  Carthaginians).        .  241 

Olusium  (Gauls  defeated)       .                 ...  225 

Sellasia  (Macedonians  defeat  Spartans)     .        .  222 

Caphyas  (Achceans  defeat  JEtolians)  .  .  .  220 
Saguutum  taken  by  Hannibal .  .  .  .219 
•2nd  Punic  War. — Ticinus  (Hannibal  defeats 

Romans) 218 

'Trebia  (ditto) ,, 

Thrasymenes  (ditto) 217 

liaphia  (Antiochus  defeated  by  Ptol.  Pldlopater)  „ 

'  Canute  (Victory  of  Hannibal)  .         .        Aug.  2,  216 

Scipio  defeats  Hasdrubal  in  Spain       .        .     .  215 

Marcellus  and  Hannibal  (former  killed)    .        .  209 

t  "Mutaurus  (Nero  defeats  Asdrubal,  who  is  killed)  207 

'Zaiua  (Scipio  defeats  Hannibal)  .        .        ,        .  202 

Abydos  (siege  of) 200 

*Cynocephalse  (Romans  defeat  Macedonians)      .  197 

Magnesia  (Scipio  defeats  Antiochus)      .        .     .  190 

Pydna  (Romans  defeat  Perseiw)  .        .     June  22,  168 

-;  Punic  War  (the  Third) 149 

Carthage  taken  by  Publius  Scipio    .        .         .  146 

Mummius  takes  Corinth       .        ,        .        .     .  ,, 

*  .Metellus  defeats  Jugurtha          .... 
Aqua1  Sextise  (Aix  ;  Marius  defeats  the  Teutones) 

•Ciinbri  and  Romans  (defeated  by  Marius)  . 

*Chseronea  (Sylla  defeats  Mithridates'  army)  .     . 


Marius  defeated  by  Sylla 

Tigranocerta  (Lucullus  defeats  Tigranes)       .     . 

Pistoria  (Catiline  defeated) 

Csesar  defeats  Cassiyelaunus          .        .        .     . 

Can-has    (Crassus    defeated    by   the   Parthians) 

June  9, 

*Pharsalia  (Ccvsar  defeats  Pompey)  .        .  Aug.  9, 
*Zela  (Ccesar  defeats  Pharnaces ;  ivrites,  "Veni, 
vidi,  vici ") - 

Thapsus  (<7ces«r  defeats  Pompey' s  friends)       .    . 

Munda,    in    Spain   (Pompey's    sons    subdued) 

Mar.  17, 
*Philippi  (Brutus  and  Cassius  defeated)  '.        .    . 

Agrippa  defeats  Pompey  the  Younger 
*Actium,  n.  (Octavius  defeats  Antony)    .  Sept.  2, 

tVarus  defeated  by  Herman  (or  Armmius)  .     . 

*Drusus  defeats  Germans 

*Shropshire  (Caractacus  taken)       .        .        .     . 

Sunbury  (Romans  defeat  Boadicea)    . 
*  Jerusalem  taken 

Agricola  conquers  Mona 

He  defeats  Galgacus  and  Caledonians  .        .     . 

Dacians  defeated  and  Decebalus  slain 

Issus  (Niger  slain) 

Lyons  (Severus  defeats  Albinus) 

Naissus  (Claudius  defeats  Goths,  300,000  sluLi)  . 

Verona  (emperor  Philip  defeated)  .        .     . 

Decius  defeated  and  slain  by  Goths 

Valerian  defeated  and  captured  by  Sapor    .     . 

Chalons  (Aurelian  victor  over  rivals)  . 

Alectus  defeated  in  Britain  .         .        .     . 

Constantmedef.  Maxentius  (see  Cross),  Oct.  27, 
*Adrianople  (Constantine  defeats  Licinius)  . 
*Aquileia  (Constantine  II.  slain)      .        .        .     . 
*Argentaria  (Gratian  defeats  Gauls)     . 

*Aquileia  (Maximus  slain) 

*Aq\iileia  (Eugenius  slain) 

Pollentia  (Stilicho  defeats  Alaric)       .    Mar.  29, 

Rome  taken  by  Alaric  .        .        ,        Aug.  24, 


45 
42 
36 
3r 
A.D. 

9 

,  *9 
So 
61 
70 
78 
84 
106 
194 
197 
269 
249 
251 
260 
274 
296 
312 
323 


388 
394 
403 
410 


Ravenna  taken  by  Aspar         .        .       .    A.D 

*Franks  defeated  by  Ae'tius    .... 
Genseric  takes  Carthage 

t*Chaions-sur-Marne  (Atilla  defeated  by  Aetius) 
Aylesford  (Britons  defeat  Saxons)  .        .     , 

Crayford,  Kent  (Hengist  defeats  Britons)    . 

*Soissons  (Clovis  defeats  Syagrius)  .        .        ., 

*Tolbiach  or  Zulpich  (Clovis  defeats  Alemanni)  , 

Saxons  defeat  Britons  

Victories  of  Belisarius 533-4 

Narses  defeats  Totila 552 

Heraclius  defeats  the  Persians  (Ckosroes)  .  622 
Beder  ( first  victory  of  Mahommed)  .  .  .  623 
Muta  (Mahometans  defeat  Romans)  .  .  .  629 
Hatfield  (Heathfield  ;  Penda  defeats  Edwin)  .  633 

Saracens  subdue  Syria 636-8 

Kadseah  (Arabs  defeat  Persians)  .  .  .  638 
Saracens  take  Alexandria " 

*Near  Oswestry  (Penda  defeats  Oswald  of  North- 
umberland)          

*Leeds  (Oswy  defeats  Penda,  who  is  slain)        .     . 

*Saracens  defeated  by  Wambp,  in  Spain    . 

*Xeres  (Saracens  defeat  Roderic)      .        .        .     . 

t  "Tours  (Chas.  Martel  defeats  the  Saracens) 
Victories  of  Charlemagne 

*Roncesvalle  (death  of  Roland) 
Clavijo  (Moors  defeated) 
Albaida  (Musa  and  Moors  defeated) 


425 
428 
439 
45i 
455 
457 
486 
496 
508 


640 


642 
•  655 
.  675 
.  711 
.  732 
775-800 
.  778 
.  844 
.  852 


DANISH  INVASION,   ETC. 


Hengestdown  (Danes  defeated  by  Egbert)   .        .  835 

Charmouth  (Etltelwolf  defeated  by  the  Dan" s)    .  840 

Danes  defeat  King  Edmund  of  East  Anglia      .  870 

Assendon  or  Ashdown  (Danes  defeated)        .     .  871 

Morton  (Danes  victorious) ,, 

Wilton  (Danes  victorious  over  Alfred)     .        ,     .  872 

fAndernach  (diaries  the  Bald  defeated)      Oct.  8,  876 

Ethandun  (Alfred  defeats  Danes)  .  .     .  878 

Farnham  (Danes  defeated)    ....  894 

Bury  (Edward  defeats  Ethelwald  and  Danes)      .  905 

*Soissons  (king  Robert  victor,  killed)  .  .  .923 
*Semincas  (Spaniards  defeat  Moors  ?)  .  934  or  938 

Nicephorus  Phocas  defeats  Saracens         .        .    962 

Basientello  (Otho  II.   defeated  by  Greeks,  <fcc.) 

July  13,     982 

[The  Saxons  and  Danes  fought  with  different 
success  from  638  to  1016.] 

Assingdon,  Ashdon  (Canute  defeats  Edmund)  .  1016 
*Clontarf  (Danes  defeated) 1014 

Civitella  (Normans  defeat  Leo  IX)  .  .  .  1053 
*Dunsinane  (Macbeth  defeated)  ....  1056 

Stanford  Bridge  (Harold  defeats  Tostig)  Sept.  25,  1066 
t  "Hastings  (IFittiaw/.  defeats  Harold)  Oct.  14,  ,, 

Fladenheim  (emperor  Henry  defeated)  .  .  .  1080 
*Alnwick  (Scots  defeated,  Malcolm  slain)  .  .  1093 

*Crusades  commence 1096 

*Ascalon  (Crusaders  victorious)  .  .  Aug.  12,  1099 
*Tinchebray  (Robert  of  Normandy  defeated)  .  1 106 

Brenneville,  Normandy  (Henry  I.  victorious)  .  1119 
*Northallerton,  or  Battle  of  the  Standard, 

(David  I.  and  Scots  defeated)       .         Aug.  22,  1138 
*0urique  (Alfonso  of  Portugal  defeats  Moors,) 

July  25,  1139 

*Lincoln  (Stephen  defeated)  .  .  Feb.  2,  1141 
*Alnwick  (William  the  Lion  defeated)  .  July  13,  1174 
*Legnano  (Italians  defeated  Frd.  Barbarossa), 

May  29,  1176 

Ascoli  (Tancred  defeats  emperor  Henry  VI.) '.  .  1190 
*Ascaloii  surrenders  (Richard  I.)  .  Sept.  7,  1191 

Arcadiopolis  (Bulga.rians  defeat  Emp.  Isaac)      .  1194 

Alarcos  (Moors  defeat  Spaniards)  .  .  July  19,  1195 
*Gisors  (Richard  I.  defeats  French)  .  Oct.  10,  1198 
*Arsoul  (Richard  I.  defeats  Saracens)  Sept.  7,  1199 

Tolosa  (Moors  defeated) 1212 

*Bouvines  (French  defeat  Germans)  .  .  .  1214 
*Lincoln  (French  defeated)  .  .  May  19,  1217 
*Mansourah  (Louis  IX.  and  Crusaders  dcftated) ,  1250 


[The  battles  which  arc  thus  marked  *  are  more  fully  described  in  their  alphabetical  order.] 


BAT 


BAT 


BATTLES,  continued. 

*Lewes  (English  barons  victorious)  .  May  14,  1264 
*Evesham  (Barons  defeated)  .  .  Aug.  4,  1265 
*Benevento  (Chas.  of  Anjou  defeats  Manfred) 

Feb.  26,  1266 

*Tagliacozzo  (Charles  defeats  Conradin)  Aug.  23,  1268 
~yr'&a,rcYifel.(\.(Austrians  defeat  Bohemians)  Aug.  26,  1278 

Llandewyer  (Llewellyn  of  Wales  defeated)  .        .1282 

Dunbar  (King  of  Scots  taken)      .        .  April  27,  1296 

Cambuskenneth  (Wallace  defeats  English)  .  1297 
*Falkirk  (Wallace  defeated)  .  .  July  22,  1298 
*Courtray  (Flemings  deft.  Count  of  Artois)  July  n,  1302 

Roslin,  Scotland  ....  Feb.  24,  1303 
tCephisus  (Duke  of  Athens  defeated)  .  .  .1311 
*Bannockburn  (Bruce  defeats  English)  June  24,  1314 
*Morgarten  (Swiss  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  .  ,, 
*Foughard  or  Dundalk  (Ed.  Bruce  defd.)  Oct.  5,  1318 
*Boroughbridge  (Edward  II.  defeats  Barons)  .  1322 
*Muhldorf  (Bavarians  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  ,, 

Duplin  (Edward  Baliol  defeats  Mar)  Aug.  n,  1332 
*Halidon  Hill  (Edward  III.  defs.  Scots)  July  19,-  1333 

Auberoche  (earl  of  Derby  defeats  French)  .  .  1345 
*Cressy  (English  defeat  French)  .  Aug.  26,  1346 
*Durham,  Nevil's  Cross  (Scots  defeated)  Oct.  17,  „ 

La  Roche  Darien  (Charles  of  Blois  defeat(d)  .  1347 
*Poitiers  (English  defeat  French)  .  Sept.  19,  1356 

Cocherel  (Du  Guesctin  defeats  Navarre)  May  16,  1364 
*Auray  (Du  Guesclin  defeated)         .        Sept.  29,     ,, 
*Najara  (Black  Prince  defts.  Henry  of  Trastamare) 

April  3,  1367 

*Montiel  (Peter  of  Castile  defeated)  March  14,  1369 
*Rosbecque  (French  defeat  Flemings)  .  Nov.  17,  1382 
*Sempacn  (Swiss  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  July  9,  1386 
*Otterburn  (Chevy  Chase  ;  Scots  victors)  Aug.  10,  1388 
*Nicopolis  (Turks  defeat  Christians)  .  Sept.  28,  1396 
*Ancyra  (Timour  defeats  Bajazet)  .  .  July  28,  1402 
"Homeldon  Hill  (English  defeat  Scots)  Sept.  14,  „ 
*Shrewsbviry  (Percies,  &c.,  defeated)  .  July  23,  1403 

Monmouth  (Glendower  defeated)  .  .  May  n,  1405 
*Harlaw  (Lord  of  the  Isles  defeated)  .  July  24,  1411 
*Agincourt  (English  defeat  French)  .  Oct.  25,  1415 
*Anjou,  Beauge  (English  deft,  by  Scots)  March  22,  1421 

Crevant  (Snfflith  deft.  French  and  Scots),  June  1  1  ,  1423 
•-Verneuil  (ditto)  ....  Axig.  27,  1424 
*Herrings  (English  defeat  French)  .  Feb.  12,  1429 
t*Patay  (English  defeated,  Joan  of  Arc),  June  18, 

Kunobitza  (Huniades  defeats  the  Turks),  Dec.  24,  1443 
*Brechin,  Scotland  (Huntly  defeats  Crawford)  .  1452 
*Castillon,  Chatillon  (French  defeat  Talbot) 

July  23,  1453 

WAR  OF  THE  ROSES—  YORKISTS  AND  LANCASTRIANS. 

*St.  Alban's  (Yorkists  victorious)  .  May  22  or  23,  1455 
*Belgrade  (Mahomet  II.  repulsed)  .  Sept.  10,  1456 
*Bloreheath(ror£iste  victors)  .  .  Sept.  '23,  1459 
*Northampton  (ditto  Henry  VI.  taken)  July  10,  1460 
*Wakefield  (Lancastrians  victors)  .  Dec.  31, 

Mortimer's  Cross  (Yorkists  victorious)  Feb.  2,  1461 
*St.  Alban's  (Lancastrians  victors)  .  Feb.  17, 
*Towton  (Yorkists  victorious)  .  .  March  29, 
*Hexham  (Yorkists  victors)  .  .  May  15,  1464 
*Banbury  (ditto)  ....  July  26,  1469 

Stamford  (Lancastrians  defeated)  March  13,  1470 
*Barnet  (ditto)  .....  April  14,  1471 
*Tewkesbury  (ditto)  ....  May  4, 

*Granson  (Swiss  defeat  Charles  the  Bold)  April  5,  1476 


Morat  (ditto)  .....  June  22, 
*Nancy  (Charles  the  Bold  killed)  .  .  Jan.  4, 
*Bosworth  (Richard  III.  defeated)  .  Aug.  22, 

Stoke  (Lambert  Simnel  taken)      .... 

St.  Aubin  (Bretons  defeated)  ..... 
*Blackheath  (Cornish  rebels  defeated) 
*Cerigno\a  (Cordova  defeats  French)         Ap 
*Agnadello  (French  defeat  Venetians)        M 


June  22, 
April  28, 
ay  14 


*  Ravenna  (Gaston  deFoix,  victor,  killed)  April  n, 
*Novara  (Papal  Swiss  defeat  French)  June  i, 
*Guinegate  (Spurs)  (  Fren  ch  defeated)  Aug.  16, 
*Flodden  (English  defeat  Scots)  .  Sept.  9, 


*477 
1485 
1487 
1488 
1497 
1503 
1509 
1512 

1513 

1515 


*Marignano  (French  defeat  Swiss)       Sept.  13-15,   1515 

Bicocca,  near  Milan  (Lautrec  defeated)         .        .1522 

Pavia  (Francis  I.  defeated)      .        .        Feb.  24,  1525 

*Mohatz  (Turks  defeat  Hungarians)         Aug.  29,  1526 

*Cappel  (Zwinglius  slain)     .         .         .      Oct.  n,  1531 

Assens  (Christian  III.  defeats  Danish  rebels)      .  1535 

Solway  Moss  (English  defeat  Scots)         Nov.  25,  1542 

fCeresuola  (French  defeat  Imperialists)  April  14,  1544 

*Stuhlberg  (Chas.  V.  defts.  Protestants)  April  24,  1547 

Pinkey  (English  defeat  Scots)      .        .     Sept.  10,     ,, 

Ket's  rebellion  suppressed  by  Warwick,    Aug.  1549 
*St.  Quintin  (Spanish  and  English  defeat  French), 

Aug.  10,  1557 

Calais  (taken) Jan.  7,  1558 

Gravelines  (Spanish  and  English  defeat  French), 

July  13,     ,, 

Dreux,  in  France  (Huguenots  defeated),  Dec.  19,  1562 
St.  Denis  (ditto)  .  .  .  .  Nov.  10,  1567 
Langside  (  Mary  of  Scotland  defeated)  May  13,  1568 
Jarnac  (Huguenots  defeated)  .  .  March  13,  1569 
Moncontour  (Coligny  defeated)  .  Oct.  3,  ,, 
Lepanto  n.  (Don  John  defeats  Turks)  Oct.  7,  1571 
*  Alcazar  (Moors  defeat  Portuguese)  Aug.  4,  1578 

"Zutphen  (Dutch  and  English  defeat  Spaniards) 

Sept.  22,  1586 

Coutras  (Henry  IV.  defeats  League)         Oct.  20,  1587 

t  "Spanish  Armada  defeated,  n.      .        .      Aug.  1588 

*Arques  (Henry  IV.  defeats  League)    .     Sept.  21,  1589 

*Ivry  (Henry  IV.  defeats  League)    .      March  14,  1590 

Blackwater  (Tyrone  defeats  Bagnal)          .        .  1598 

Nieuport  (Maurice  defeats  Austrians)    .        .    .  1600 

Kinsale  (Tyrone  reduced  by  Mountjoy)        .        .  1601 

Kirchholm  (Poles  defeat  Swedes)    .        .        .     .  1605 

Gibraltar  (Dutch  defeat  Spaniards)        .        .     .  1607 

"Prague  (king  of  Bohemia  defeated)      .      Nov.  8,  1620 

*Rochelle  (taken) 1628 

*Leipsic  (Gustavus  defeats  Tilly)        .        Sept.  7,  1631 
*Lech  (Imperialists  defeated;  Tilly  killed)  April  5,  1632 
*Lippstadt,  Lutzingen,  or  Lutzen  (Swedes  vic- 
torious ;  Gustavus  slain)      .        .          Nov.  16,     ,, 
*Nordlingen  (Swedes  defeated)  .        .      Aug.  27,  1634 
Arras  (taken  by  the  French)         ....  1640 

CIVIL  WAR  IN  ENGLAND  COMMENCES  .  .  .    1642 

Worcester  (prince  Rupert  victor)  .  Sept.  23, 
*Edgehill  fight  (issue  doubtful)  .  Oct.  23, 
*Leipsic  or  Breitenf  eld  (Swedes  victors),  Oct.  13, 
*Chalgrove  (Hampden  killed)  .  .  June  18, 

Bramham  Moor  (Fairfax  defeated)  .  March  29, 
*Stratton  (Royalists  victorious)  .  .  May  16, 
*Rocroy  (French  defeat  Spaniards)  .  May  19, 
*Lansdown  (Royalists  victorious)  .  July  5, 

Round-away-down  (ditto)  .  .  July  13, 
*Newbury  (Royalists  defeated)  .  .  Sept.  20, 

Cheriton  or  Alresford  (ditto)  .        .     March  29, 

¥ri$d.buYg  (Turenne  victor)         .... 

Cropredy  Bridge  (Charles  I.  victor)  June  29, 
*Marston  Moor  (Rupert  defeated)  .  July  2, 
*Newbury  (indecisive)  ....  Oct.  27, 
*Naseby  (king  totally  defeated)  .  June  14, 
*Alford  (Montrose  defeats  Covenanters)  July  2, 

Kilsyth  (ditto) Aug.  15, 

Nordlingen  (Turenne  defeats  Austrians)  . 
*Benburb  (O'Neill  defeats  English)  .  June  5, 
*Dungan-hill  (Irish  defeated)  .  .  July  10, 
*Preston  (Cromwell  victor)  .  .  .  Aug.  17, 
*Rathmines  (Irish  Royalists  defeated)  Aug.  2, 
*Drogheda  (taken  by  storm)  . '  .  Sept.  12, 
*Corbiesdale  (Montrose  defeated)  .  April  27, 

*  Dunbar  (Cromwell  defeats  Scots)    .          Sept.  3, 

*  Worcester  (Cromwell  defeats  Charles  II.),  Sept.  3, 

[End  of  the  civil  war  in  England.  ] 

Galway  (surrendered) 

Arras,  France  (Turenne  defeats  Condi)  .        .     . 

"Dunkirk  (ditto) June  14, 

Estremoz  (Don  John  defeated  by  Schomberg), 

June  8, 
Candia  (taken  by  Turks)  .        .        .        Sept.  6, 


1643 


1644 


1645 


1646 
1647 
1648 
1649 

1650 
1651 

1652 
1654 

1658 

1663 
1669 


[The  battles  which  are  thus  marked  *  arc  more  fully  described  in  their  alphabetical  order.] 


BAT 


BAT 


JATTLES,  continued. 

Clioczim  (Sobieski  defeats  Turks  and  Condf)        .  1673 
Seneffe  (indecisive)       ....     Aug.  i,  1674 
Mulhausen(Tttm»ifi  defeats  Allies)         Dec.  31,     ,, 
Sa.ltzba.ch  (Turenne  killed)        .        .      July  27,  1675 
*Drumclog    (Covenanters     defeat    Claverhouse), 

June  i,  1679 
*Bothwell  Brigg  (Monmouth  defeats  Covenanters), 

June  22,     ,, 

*  Vienna  (Turks  defeated  by  Sobieski)  Sept.  12,  1683 
*Sedgemoor  (Monmouth  defeated)  .  July  6,  1685 
*Mohatz  (Turks  defeated)  .  .  .  Aug.  12,  1687 
*KIlliecrankie  (Highlanders  defeat  Mackay), 

July  27,  1689 
*Newton-butler  (James  Il.'s  adherents  defeated) 

July  30,    ,, 

*Boyne  (  William  III,  defeats  James  II.),  July  i,  1690 
*Pleurus  (Charleroi,  Luxembourg  victor),  July  i,     „ 
*Aughrim  (James  II.  's  cause  ruined)    .   Jxily  12,  1691 
*Salenckernen  (Louis  of  Baden  defeats  Turks), 

Aug.  1 8,     „ 
*Enghein   (Steenkirk,    William   IIL  defeated), 

July  24,  1692 

*Landen(JFi«iar/i  ///.  defeated)        .      July  19,  1693 
Marsaglia  (Pignerol)  (French  victors)        Oct.  i,     „ 
fZeata,  (prince  £ugene  defeats  Turks)    .  Sept.  n,  1697 
*Narva  (Charles  XII.  defeats  Russians)    Nov.  30,  1700 
Carpi,  Modena  (Allies  defeat  French)       July  9,  1701 
Chiari  (Austrians  defeat  French)      .         Sept.  i,     ,, 
Santa  Vittoria  (French  victors)    .        .  July  26,  1702 
'"•Pultusk  (Swedes  defeat  Poles)          .  May  i,  1703 

*Hochstadt  (French  defeat  Austrian  s)     Scj^t.  20,     ,, 
Schellenberg  (Marlborough  victor)        .  July  2,  1704 
^Gibraltar  taken  by  Rooke        .        .      July  24,    ,, 
f  "Blenheim  (Marlborough  defeats  French),  Aug. 

13,  N.  s.     „ 

Mittau  (taken  by  Russians)       .        .    Sept.  14,  1705 
Cassino  (prince  Eugene ;  indecisive)       Aug.  16,     ,, 
Tirlemont  (Marlborough  successful)        July  18,     ,, 
*Ramilies  (Marlborough  defeats  French)  May  23,  1706 
Turin  (French  defeated)         .  '      .        .  Sept.  7,     ,, 
*Almanza  (French  defeat  Allies)    April  14  or  25,  1707 
*0udenarde  (Marlborough  defeats  French),  July 

ii,  1708 

Liesna,  Lenzo  (Russians  defeat  Swedes)  autumn,     ,, 
Lisle  (taken  by  the  Allies)       .        .         .        Dec.     „ 
t*Pultowa  (Peter  defeats  Charles  XII.)       July  8^1709 
Dobro  (Russians  defeat  Swedes)          .     Sept.  20,     : 
*Malplaquet  (Marlborough  defeats  French),  Sept. 

ii,     , 

*Almenara  (Austrians  defeat  French)      July  28,  1710 
Saragossa  (ditto)        ....      Aug.  20, 
Villa  Viciosa  (Austrians  defeated)       .    Dec.  20,     „ 
Aiieux     (Marlborough     forces    French     lines), 

Aug.  5,  1711 

Bouchain  (taken  "by  Marlborough)      .   Sept.  13,    ,, 
*Denain  (Villars  defeats  Allies)        .        July  24,  1712 
Friburg  (taken  by  French)  .        .    Nov.  26,  1713 

*Preston  (rebels  defeated)  .  .  Nov.  12,  13,  1715 
*Dumblane;  Sheriff-Muir  (indecisive)  Nov.  13,  ,, 
"Peterwardein  (Eugene  defeats  Turks)  Aug.  5,  1716 
*Belgrade  (taken  by  Eugene)  .  .  Aug.  22,  1717 
*Bitonto  (Spaniards  defeat  Germans)  May  26,  1734 
*Parma  (Austrians  and  French,  indecisive),  June 

29,     ,, 

G^mstnlln  (Austrians  defeated)  .  .  Sept.  19,  ,, 
Erivan  (Nadir  Shah  defeats  Turks)  .  June,  1735 
jKrotzka(7T«r*s  defeat  Austrians)  .'  July  22,  1739 
*Molwitz  (Prussians  defeat  Austrians)  April  10,  1741 
•-Dettingen  (George  II.  defeats  French)  June  16,  1743 
*Fontenoy  (Saxe  defeats  Cumberland)  April  30,  1745 
Friedberg  (Prussians  defeat  Austrians),  June  4,  „ 

SCOTS'  REBELLION.— GEORGE  II. 

*Prcston  Pans  (rebels  defeat  Cope)        .    Sept.  21,  1745 
Clifton  Moor  (rebels  defeated)         .        Dec.   18,     ,, 
*Falkirk  (rebeli  defeat  Hawley)      .  Jan.  17,  1746 

*Culloden  (Cumberland  defeats  rebels)      April  1 6,     ,, 


St.  Lazzaro  (Sardinians  def.  Austrians)  June  4,  1746 

Rocoux  (Saxe  defeats  Allies)        .        .      Oct.  i,  „ 

<Bergen-op-Zoon  (taken)  .        .        .      Sept.  16,  1747 

Laffeldt  (Saxe  defeats  Cumberland)     .   June  20,  ,, 

EKilles  (Sardinians  defeat  French)  July  8,  „ 

Fort  du  Quesne  (Braddock  killed)      .      July  9.  1755 

*Calcutta  (taken)      ....        June  18,  1756 

SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR,  1756-63. 

Prague  (Frederick  defeats  Allies)        .        May  6,  1757 
*KoIlin  (Frederick-  defeated)  .        .        .  June  18, 
*Plassey  (dive's  victory)    .        .        .       June  23, 

Norkitten  (Russians  defeated)  .  .  Aug.  13, 
*Rosbach  (Frederick  defeats  French)  .  Nov.  5, 
*Breslau  (Austrians  victors)  .  .  .  Nov.  22, 
*Lissa  (Frederick  defeats  Austrians)  .  Dec.  5, 

*Creveldt  (Ferdinand  defeats  French)    .  June  23,  1758 

Zorndorff  (Frederick  defeats  Russians)  Aug.  25,  ,, 

*Hochk.irchen  (Austrians  def.  Prussians)  Oct.  14,  ,, 

*Bergen  (French  defeat  A  Hies) .        .        April  13,  1759 

*  Niagara  (English  take  Fort)  .        .        .  July  24,  „ 
*Minden  (Ferdinand  defeats  French).        Aug.  i,     ,, 
*Cunnersdorf  (Russians  def.  Prussians)  Aug.  12,  ,, 
*Quebec(JFbZ/e,  victor,  killed)     .        .     Sept.  13,     „ 

Wandewash  (Coote  defeats  Lally)    .         Jan.  22,  1760 

Landshut,  Silesia  (Prussians  defeated)  June  23,  ,, 
Warburg  (Ferdinand  defeats  French)      July  31,     ,, 

*Pfaffendorf  (Frederick  def.  Austrians)  Aug.  15,  „ 

Campen  (French  defeat  Russians)       .     Oct.  15,  ,, 

*Torgau  (Frederick  defeats  Danes)  .        .  Nov.  3,     ,, 

Johannisberg  (French  defeat  Prussians)  Aug.  30,  1762 

*Buxar  (Munro  defeats  army  of  Oude)  .    Oct.  23,  1764 

Choczim  (Russians  defeat  Turks)    .        .         ,    .  1769 

Silistria  (taken) 1774 

AMERICAN  WAR. 

^Lexington  (Gage  victor,  with  gr>at  loss)  April  19,  1775 
*Bunker's  Hill  (Americans  repulsed)        June  17,     ,, 

*Long  Island  (Americans  defeated)      .     Aug.  27,  1776 

*  White  Plains  (Ho  we  def  eats  Americans)  Oct.  28,     ,, 
*Rhode  Island  (taken  by  Royalists)      .       Dec.  8,     ,, 
"Brandy  wine  (Howe  defeats  Washington)Sept.  ii,  1777 
*Germanstown  (Surgoyne's  victory)    .    Oct.  3,  4,     ,, 
+*Saratoga  (he  is  compelled  to  surrender)  Oct.  17,  ,, 
*Briar's  Creek  (Americans  defeated)       March  16,  1779 
"Camden  (Cornwallis  defeats  Gates)    .     Aug.  16,  1780 
*Guildford  (ditto)     .  •       .        .        .      March  16,  1781 

Eutaw  Springs  (Arnold  def.  Americans)  Sept.  8,     ,, 
*York  Town  (Cornwallis  surrenders)    .    Oct.  19,     ,, 

[Many  inferior  actions  with  various  success.] 
Hyder  Ali  defeated  by  Coote.      .        .    July  i,     ,, 

Bednore  (taken  by  Tippoo  Saib)     .       April  30,  1783 

*Martinesti  (Austrians  deft.  Turks)      .  Sept.  22,  1789 

Ismael  (taken  by  storm  by  Suwarrow)      Dec.  22,  1790 


*Seringapatam  (Tippoo  defeated)  May  15,  1790, 


b.  6,  1792 

FRENCH  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR  BEGINS. 

Quievrain  (French  repulsed)      .        .     April  28,  1792 

Meiiin  (French  defeat  Austrians)  .  June  20,  ,, 
t*Valmy  (French  defeat  Prussians)  .  Sept.  20,  ,, 
*Jemappes  ( French  victorious)  .  .  Nov.  6, 

Neerwinden  (French  beaten)    .        .     March  1 8,  1793 

St.  Amand  (French  defeated)  .  . .  May  8, 
^Valenciennes  (ditto)  .  .  May  23,  July  26, 
*Lincelles  (Lake  defeats  French)  .  Aug.  18, 
*Dunkirk  (Duke  of  York  defeated)  Sept.  7,  8, 
*Quesnoy  (reduced  by  Austrians)  .  Sept.  ii, 

Wattiguies  (French  defeat  Coburg)  .  Oct  16,  ,, 
*Toulon  (evacuated  by  British)  .  .  Dec.  17,  ,, 

*Cambray  (French  defeated)         .        .    April  24,  1794 

Troisville,  Landrecy  (taken  by  Allies)  April  30,  „ 
*Tourcoing  (Moreau  defeats  Allies)  May,  18-22,  ,, 
*Espierres  (taken  by  Allies).  .  .  May  22,  ,, 

Howe's  naval  victory.  .  .  .  June  i,  ,, 
*  Charleroi,  Fleurus  (Fre  nch  defeat  A  Hies)  June  26,  , , 


[The  battles  which  ai*e  thus  mai-kcd  ••  ai'e  more  fully  described  in  their  alphabetical  order.] 


BAT 


90 


BAT 


BATTLES,  continued. 

xBois-le-Duc  (duke  of  York  defeated)      Sept.  14,  1794 

*Boxtel  (ditto)  .         .        .        .        .        Sept.  17,  ,, 

*Warsaw  or  Maciejowice  (Poles  defeated)  Oct.  4,  ,, 

*Nimeguen    .        .        .        Oct.  28,  and  May  4,  ,, 

*  Warsaw  (taken  by  Suwarrow)     .        .      Nov.  4,  ,, 

Bridport's  victory  of  I/Orient,  n.         June  22,  1795 

*Quiberon  (Emigrants  defeated)  ,    Jvily  21,  ,, 

*Manuheim  (taken)         .        .        .        Sept.  20,  „ 

Laono  (French  defeat  Austrians)          .   Nov.  23,  ,, 

*Montenotte  (Bonaparte  victorious)  .     April  12,  1796 

*Moiidovi  (ditto)    ....          April  22,  ,, 

*Lodi  (ditto)        .        .        .        .        .       May  10,  ,, 

Altenkirchen  (Austrians  defeated)       .    June  4, 

and  Sept.  16,  ,, 

Bassano  (French  defeat  Austrians)  .        Sept.  8,  ,, 

*Biberach  (ditto) Oct.  10,  „ 

*Castiglione  and  Lonato    .        .        .     Aug.  3-5,  ,, 

*Neresheim  (Moreau  def.  Archd.  Charles)  Aug.  10,  ,, 

*Arcola  (Bonaparte  victorious)        .     Nov.  15-17,  ,, 

Rivoli  (ditto) Jan.  14,  15,  1797 

*Cape  St.  Vincent,  n.  (French  defeated)  Feb.  14,  ,, 
"Tagliamento    (Bonaparte     defeats    Austrians) 

March  16,  ,, 

"Camperdown  n.  (Duncan  defeats  Dutch)  Oct.  u,  „ 


IRISH  REBELLION  BEGINS 

-Kilcullen  (Rebels  successful) 
*Naas  (Rebels  defeated)  . 
*Tara  (ditto) 

*Oulart  (Rebels  successful) 
*Gorey,  *Ross  (ditto) 
tArklow  (Rebels  beaten) 


May,  1798 

May  23,  1798 
May  24,  ,, 
May  26,  „ 
May  27,  „ 
June  4,  ,, 
June  10, 


*Ballynahinch  (Nugent  defeats  Rebels)  June  13, 

*  Vinegar  Hill  (Lake  defeats'  Rebels)    .      June  21, 

fNile  (Nelson  defeats  French  fleet)     '    .     Aug.  i, 

*Castlebar  (French  auxiliaries  defeated)  Aug.  28, 

Ballinamuck    (French    and    Rebels    defeated) 

Sept.  8, 

*Pyramids  (Bonaparte  defeats  Mamelukes)  July 

21, 

*  Jaffa  (Stormed  by  French)      .        .        March  7, 
Stokach  (Austrians  def  eat  French)       March  27, 
Verona  (Austrians  defeat  French)    March  28-30, 
Nagnano  (Kray  defeats  French)    .        .  April  5, 
Mount  Thabor  . 


1799 


*Cassano  (Suwarrow  defeats  Moreau) 
xSeringapatam(Tippoo  killed) 


April  1 6, 
April  27, 
.  May  4, 
May  20, 
,  May  27, 
June  5, 


*Acre  (relieved  :  Sir  Sydney 

Adda  (Suwarrow  defeats  French) . 
*Zurich  (French  defeated)  . 

^Trebia  (Suwarrow  defeats  French")  June  18,  19, 
*Alessandria  (taken  by  French)  .  .  July  2, 
*Aboukir  (Turks  defeated  by  Bonaparte)  July  25, 
*Novi  (Suwarrow  defeats  French)  .  Aug.  15, 
*Bergen  and  Alkmaer  (A  Hies  defeated)  Sept.  19, 

Oct.  26, 
•"Zurich  (Massena  defeats  Russians)    .    Sept.  25, 

'Engen  (Moreau  defeats  Austrians)        .     Mays, 

Moeskirch  (ditto) May  5, 

*Biberach  (ditto) May  9, 

*Montebello  (Austrians  defeated)  .  .  June  9, 
•-Marengo  (Bonaparte  defeats  Austrians)  June  14, 
*Hochstadt  (Moreau  defeats  Austrians)  June  19, 
*Hohenlinden  (ditto)  .  .  .  .  Dec.  3, 

Mincio  (French  defeat  Austrians)  .  Dec.  26, 
'"Alexandria  (Abercrombie's  victory)  March  21, 
{Copenhagen  (bombarded  by  Nelson)  April  2, 

Ahmednuggur.(JFetoZe?/  victorious)  Aug.  12, 
*Assaye  (ditto,  his  first  great  victory)  .  Sept.  23, 
*AYgzMm(Wellesley  victor)  .  .  .  Nov.  29, 

Furruckabad  (Lake  defeats  Holkar)  .  Nov.  17, 
*Bhurtpore  (taken  by  Lake)  .  .  April  2, 
*Ulm  surrend.  (Ney  defeats  Austrians)  Oct.  17-20, 
^Trafalgar  (Nelson  destroys  French  fleet,  killed) 

Oct.  21, 


1800 


1801 
1803 


1804 
1805 


•;;'Austerlitz  (Napoleon  defeats  Austrians)  Dec.  2,  1805 

*Buenos  Ayres  (taken  by  Popham)        .  June  28,  1806 

•  Maida  (Stuart  defeats  French)         .        .  July  4,  ,> 

*JcnaStadt  j    (^'ench  defeat  Prussians)  Oct.  14,  „ 

*Pultusk  (French  and  Allies,  indecisive)  Dec   26,  ,, 
Mohrungen      (French     defeat     Russians    and 

Prussians) Jan.  25,  1807 

*Eylau  (indecisive)        ....  Feb.  7,  8,  ,, 

*Friedland  (French  defeat  Russians)        June  14,  ,, 

*  Buenos  Ayres  ( W/iilelock  defeated)    .       July  7,  ,, 
Copenhagen  (bombarded  by  Cathcart)  Sept.  6-8,  ., 
*Baylen  (Spaniards  defeat  French)  .         July  20,  1808 

PENINSULAR  CAMPAIGN   BEGINS. 

*Vimiera  ( WelUsley  defeats  Junot)      .    Aug.  21,  1808 

Tudela  (French  defeat  Spaniards)         .  Nov.  23,  ,, 

*Corunna  (Moore  defeats  French)       .      Jan.  16,  1809 

Landshut  (Austrians  defeated)       .        April  21,  ,, 

*Eckmuhl  (Davoust  defeats  Austrians)   April  22,  ,, 

Oporto  (taken)  .        .        .      March  29,  May  12,  „ 

*Es?ling      ]  (NaP°leon  Weated)  .  May  21,  22,  „ 

*Wagram  (Austrians  defeated)  .        .     July  5,  6,  ,, 

*T&\aversi  (Wellesley  defeats  Victor)    July  27,  28,  ,, 

Silistria  (Turks  defeat  Russians)          .  Sept.  26,  ,, 

Ocana  (Mortier  defeats  Spaniards)  .        Nov.  19,  ,, 

*Busaco  (  Wellington  repulses  Massena)   Sept.  27,  1810 

*Barrosa  (Graham  defeats  Victor)         .  March  5,  1811 

*Badajos  (taken  by  the  French)          .     March  n,  ,, 

*Fuentes  d'Onore  (  Wellingt.  def.  Massena)  May  5,  ,, 

*Albuera  (Beresford  defeats  Soult)        .     May  16,  ,, 

*Ciudad  Rodrigo  (stormed  by  English)  .   Jan.  19,  1812 

*Badajos  (taken  by  Wellington)          .        April  6,  ,, 

*Salamanca  ( ll'ellington  defts.  Marmont)  July  22,  , , 

*Mohilow  (French  defeat  Russians)   .        July  23,  ,, 

*Polotzk  (French  and  Russians)  .        July  30,31,  ,, 

*Smolensko  (French  defeat  Russians)  Aug.  17-19,  ,, 

:£££>  }  O*")     -...    Sept.  ,,  „ 

*Queenstown  (Americans  defeated).         Oct.  13,  ,, 

*Moscow  (burnt  by  Russians)        .        .  Sept.  14,  ,, 

*Polotzk  (retaken  by  Russians)        .          Oct.  20,  ,, 

Malo-Jaroslawatz,  or  Winkowa         .     Oct.  24,  ,, 

*Witepsk  (French  defeated)      .        .        Nov.  14,  ,, 

*Krasnoi  (ditto)    ....        Nov.  16-18,  „ 

*Beresina  (ditto)       ....   Nov.  25-29,  ,, 

"-French  Town  (taken  by  Americans)    .    Jan.  22,  1813 

*Kalitsch  (Saxons  defeated)     .        .         Feb.  13,  ,, 

Castella  (SirJ.  Murray  defeats  Suchet)  April  13,  ,, 

*Lutzen  (Napoleon  checks  Allies)     .        .  May  2,  ,, 

*Bautzen  (Nap.  and  Allies;  indecisive)    May  20,  ,, 

*Wurtzchen  (ditto)  ....          May  21,  ,, 

*Vittoria  (  Welling,  defeats  king  Joseph)   June  21,  ,, 

*Pyreiiees  (Wellington  defeats  Soult)  .    July  28,  ,, 

Katzbach  (Blucher  defeats  Ney)    .         Aug.  26,  ,, 

^Dresden  (Napoleon  checks  Allies)     Aug.  25,27, 

St.  Sebastian  (stormed,  by  Graham)    .    Aug.  31, 

*Dennewitz  (Ney  defeated)     .        .          Sept.  6, 

*Mockern  (indecisive)  ....      Oct.  14, 

*Leipzic  (Napoleon  defeated)  .        .      Oct.  16-18, 

*Hanau  (Napoleon  defeats  Bavarians)      Oct.  30, 

*St.  Jean  de  Luz  (Welling,  defeats  Soult)  Nov.  10, 

[Passage  of  the  Neve ;    several  engagements 

between  the  Allies  and  French,  Dec.  10  to  13, 

1813] 

*St.  Dizier,  France  (French  defeated)  .    Jan.  27,  1814 

*Brienne  (ditto) Jan.  29,  ,, 

*La  Rothiere   (Napoleon  defeats  Allies)      Feb.  i, 

Bar-sur-Aube  (Allies  victors) .        .        .  Feb.  7, 

Mincio  (pr.  Eugene  defeats  Austrians)      Feb.  8, 

Champ  Aubert  (French  defeat  Allies)  Feb.  10-12, 

Montmirail  (ditto)      ....     Feb.  n, 

Vauchamps  (ditto)         .         .        .         Feb.  14, 

*Fontainebleau  (ditto)         .        .        .     Feb.  17, 

*Montereau  (ditto)  ....         Feb.  18, 

*0rthez  (Wellington  defeats  Soult)      .     Feb.  27, 

*Bergen-op-Zoom  (Graham  defeated)     March  8, 


[The  battles  which  are  thus  marked  *  are  more  fully  described  in  their  alphabetical  order.] 


BAT 


91 


BAT 


BATTLES,  continued. 

*Laon  (French  defeated)  .        .        .  March  9-10, 

Rheims  (Napoleon  defeats  St.  Priest)  March  13, 

'Tarbes  (  Wellington  defeats  Soult)    .      March  20, 

'  Fere  Champenoise  (French  defeated)  March  25, 

Paris,  Montmartre,  Rornainville  (ditto)  Mar.  30, 

Battle  of  the   Barriers — Marmont    evacuates 

Paris,  and  the  allied  armies  enter  that  capital, 

March  31, 

'Toulouse  ( Wellington  defeats  Soult)    .  April  10, 

AMERICAN  AVAR. 

Fort  George  (token  by  Americans)  .         May  27, 
•Burlington  Heights  (Americans  routed)  June  6, 


1814 


Chrystler's  Point,  Canada 

Black-rock,  America 
"Craonne  (Blucher  dffeated) . 
*Phirmnw.i     \(Britigh  defeated)       . 

Mnppawa     \( Americans  defeated) 
*Fort  Erie  (British  repulsed)    . 
*Bladensburg  (Americans  defeated)     , 
•Bellair  (ditto)  .... 

"Baltimore    (British   defeated,    and 

'New  Orleans  (BritisJi  repulsed)  Jan. 


Nov.  ii, 
Dec.  26. 
March  7, 


July  25, 
Aug.  15, 
Aug.  14, 
Aug.  30, 

victorious) 
Sept.  ii, 

5, 12,  &  13, 


"Tolentino  (Murat  defeated)        .        .  May  3, 

*Ligny  (Blucher  repulsed)        .        .  June  16, 

"Quati-e  Bras  (Ney  repulsed)        .        .  June  16, 

apoleon  finally  beaten)  June  18, 


*Algiers  (bombarded  ly  ExmoutJi)  .     . 
Kirkee  (Hastings  defeats  Pindarrees) 
Maheidpore  (Hislop  defeats  Holkar)    . 
Dragaschan  (Ipsilanti  defeated)  . 
Valtezza  (Turks  defeated) 


Aug.  27, 
Nov.  5, 
Dec.  21, 

June  19, 

May  27, 
Oct.  5, 
July  13, 
Sept.  16, 


Tripolitza  (stormed  by  Greeks)     . 

Thermopylae  (Greeks  defeat  Turks) 

Corinth  (taken)       .... 
*Ayacucho  (Peruvians  defeat  Spaniards)  Dec. 
*Bhurtpore  (taken  by  Combermere)       .   Jan. 

Athens  (taken)          .... 
*Navarino  (Allies  destroy  Turkish  fleet) 

Brahilow  (Russians  and  Turks)  . 

Akhalzikh  (ditto)            .        .'      .     . 
*Varna  (surrenders  to  Russians)  . 
*Silistria  (ditto) 

Kainly  (Russians  defeat  Turks)  . 
*Balkan  (passed  by  Russians)  . 
*Adrianople  (Russians  enter) 
*  Algiers  (conquered  by  French) 
*Paris  (Days  of  July) 
*Grochow  (Poles  defeat  Russians) . 

Praga  (Poles  and  Russians)       . 
*Wawz  (Skrzynecki  defeats  Russians) 
*Seidlice  (Poles  defeat  Russians)    . 
"Ostrolenka  (ditto)     .        .        ... 

Wilna  (Poles  and  Russians) 
*Warsaw  (taken  by  Russians)    . 

Beylau  (Ibrahim  defeats  Turks)  , 
"Antwerp  (taken  by  Allies) 
*Konieh  (Egyptians  defeat  Turks) 

Hernani  (Carlists  defeated) 
*St.  Sebastian  (ditto)    . 
*Bilboa  (siege  raised  ;  British  Legion) 

Hernani         .        .        .        .        . 
*Inm  (British  Legion  defeats  Carlists) 

Valentia  (Carlists  attacked) 
*Herera  (Don  Carlos  defeats  Buereno) 
*Constantina  (Algiers  ;  taken  by  French)  Oct.  13 
*St.  Eustace  (Canadian  rebels  defeated)  Dec.  14, 

Penneccrrada  (Carlixts  defeated)        .     June  22, 
*Prescott  (Canadian  rebels  defeated)        Nov.  17, 
*Ghiznee  (taken  by  Keane)      . 
*Sidon  (taken  by  Stopford) 
*Beyrout  (Allies  defeat  Egyptians) 

Afghan  War.     See  India. 
*Acre  (stormed  by  Allies)    .  .        Nov.  3, 

Kotriah  (Scinde  :  English  victors)  .        .  Dec.  i, 


May  17, 

Oct.   20, 

June  1 8, 
.     .   Aug.  27, 
.     Oct.  ii, 
.    .   June  30,^ 
July  i,  • 
July  26, 
.  Aug.  20, 
July  5, 

July  27,  28,  29, 
.  Feb.  20, 
Feb.  25, 
March  31, 
April  10, 
May  26, 
,  June  1 8, 
Sept.  7, 
,    July  29, 
Dec.  23, 
,    Dec.  21, 
May  5, 
Oct.  i. 
Dec.  24, 
March  15, 
May  17, 
July  15, 
Aug.  24, 


July  23, 
Sept.  26, 
Oct.  10, 


1815 


1816 
1817 

1821 


1822 

1824 
1826 
1827 

1828 


1829 

1830 
1831 


1832 
1836 
1837 


1839 
1840 


Chuen-pe  (English  victors)       .        .       Jan.  7, 
Canton  (English  take  Bogv.e  forts)         .  Feb.  26, 

Amoy  (taken) Aug.  27, 

Chin-hae  (taken) Oct.  10, 

Candahar  (Afghans  defeated)  .  .  March  10, 
Ningpo  (Chinese  defeated)  .  .  March  10, 
*Jellalabad  (Khyber  Pass  forced)  .  April  5,  6, 
Chin-keang  (taken)  ....  July  21, 
*Ghiznee  (Afghans  defeated)  .  .  Sept.  6, 
*Meeanee  (Napier  defeats  Ameers)  .  Feb.  17, 
*Maharajpoor((?ow#/i  defeats  Mahrattas),  Dec.  29, 


Isly  (French  defeat  Moors) 
*Moodkee  (Hardinge  defeats  Sikhs) 
*Ferozeshah  (ditto) 
*Aliwal  (Smith  defeats  Sikhs)    . 
*Sobraon  (Gough  defeats  Sikhs)    . 
*Montery    (Mexicans    defeated    b 


Aug.  14,  1844 

.  Dec.  18,  1845 

Dec.  21,  22,  ,, 

Jan.  28,  1846 

.     Feb.  10,  ,, 
Americans) 

Sept.  21-23,  „ 

Palo  Alto  (Taylor  defeats  Mexicans)     May  8,  9,  „ 
Bueno  Vista  (Americans  deft.  Mexicans),  Feb.  22, 
St.  Ubes  (Portugal)            .        .        .        May  9, 
Ozontero  (Americans def.  Mexicans),  Aug.  19,  20, 
*Curtalone  (Austrians  defeat  Italians)     May  29, 
Custoza  (ditto)         .        .       . .       . .        July  23, 

Velencze  (Croats  and  Hungarians)     .  Sept.  29,  ,. 

*Mooltan  (Sikhs  repulsed)  .       .         .          Nov.  7,  „ 

*Chilianwallah  (Gough  defeats  Sikhs)       Jan.  13,  1849 

*Goojerat(ttf«o) Feb.  21,  ,, 

*~i$ovar&(Radf.tzky  defeats  Sardinians)  March  23,  ,, 

Pered  (Russians  defeat  Hungarians)      June  21,  „ 

Acs  (Hungarians  repulsed)  .        .        .  July  10,  „ 

Waitzen  (taken  by  Russians)            .        July  17,  ,, 

Schassberg  (Russians  def  eat  Bern)        .  July  31,  ,, 

*Temeswar(-Hay?iau  defeats  Hungarians)  Aug.  10,  , , 

Idstedt  (Danes  defeat  Holsteiners)    .      July  25,  1850 

RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR. 

*01tenitza  (Turks  repulse  Russians)        .   Nov.  4,  1853 

*Citate  (Turks  defeat  Russians)          .    .    Jan.  6,  1854 
'x  Silistria  (ditto)      .        .        .        .      June  13-15, 

Giurgevo  (ditto)        ....        July  8,  „ 

Bayazid  (Russians  defeat  Turks) .        .  July  30,  ,, 

*Kuruk-Derek  (ditto)       .        .        .          Aug.  5,  ,, 

*Alma  (Allies  defeat  Russians)      .           Sept.  20,  ,, 

*Balaklava  (ditto)     ....         Oct.  25,  ,, 

*Inkermann  (ditto)       .        .        .              Nov.  5,  ,, 

Eupatoria  (Turks  defeat  Russians)          Feb.  17,  1855 
*Malakoff  Tower  (Allies  and  Russians) 

May  22,  23,  24,  ,, 

Capture  of  the  Mamelon,  <fcc.        .         June  7,  ,, 
Unsuccessful  attempt  on  Malakoff  tower,  and 

Redan  (Allies  oMd  Russians)  .        .  June  18,  ,, 
*Tchernaya  or  Bridge  of  Traktir  (A  Hies  defeat 

Russians) Aug.  16,  ,, 

*Malakoff  taken  by  the  French      .         Sept.  8, 

*l-ngo\ir  (Turks  defeat  Russians)  .        .      Nov.  6,  ,, 

Ba'idar  (French  defeat  Russians)     .        .  Dec.  8,  „ 

PERSIAN  WAR. 

*Bushire  (English  defeat  Persians)      .     Dec.  10, '  1856 

Kooshab  (ditto)       .        .        .        .        .  Feb.  8,  1857 

Mohammerah  (ditto)  .        .        .         March  26,  ,, 

INDIAN  MUTINY.    (See  India.) 

^Conflicts  before  Delhi.  May  30,  31 ;  June  8  ; 

July  4,  9,  !8,  23,  1857 
Victories  of  General  Havelock,  near  Futteh- 

•    pore  July  1 1,  Cawnpore,  &c.  July  12  to  Aug  16,  „ 

Pandoo  Nuddee  (victory  of  Neill)    .      Aug.  15,  „ 
Nujuffghur(dea</t  of  Nicholson,  victor)  Aug.  25, 

Assault  and  capture  of  Delhi     .     Sept.  16-20,  ,, 
Conflicts    before  •  Lucknow,    Sept.    25,     26 ; 
Nov.  18,  25, 
Victories  of  Col.  Greathed,  Sept  27 ;   Oct.  I0, 

*Cawnpore  (victory  of  Campbell)        .       Dec.  6,  '„' 

Futteghur  (ditto) Jan.  2,  1858 

Calpi:(«ncton/  of  Inglis)     .        .        .        Feb.  4 

*Alumbagh  (v  ictory  of  Outram)     .        .Feb.  21'  " 


[The  battles  which  are  thus  marked  *  arc  more  fully  described  in  their  alphabetical  order.] 


BAT 


92 


BAV 


BATTLES,  continued. 

Conflicts  at  Lucknow  (taken)  .      March  14-19,  1858 

Jhansi(.R0se  victorious)         .        .        .  April  4,  ,, 

Kooneh  (ditto)  .        .         .        .        .      May  n,  ,, 

Gwalior  (ditto)       ....         June  17,  ,, 

Rajghur  (Mitchell  defeats  Tantia  Topee), Sept.  15,  ,, 

Dhoodea  Khera  (Clyde  def.  Beni  Mahdo)  Nov.  24,  , , 
Gen.  Horsford  defeats  the  Begum  of  Oude, 

Feb.  10,  1859 

ITALIAN  WAR.    (See  Italy.) 

Austrians  cross  the  Ticino         .        .  April  27,  1859 

French  troops  enter  Piedmont      .        .     May,  „ 

*Montebello  (Allies  victorious)     .        .     May  20,  ,, 

Palestro  (ditto)        ....  May  30,  31,  ,, 

-Magenta  (ditto) June  4,  ,, 

*Malegnano  (ditto)     ....        June  8,  ,, 

*Solferino  (ditto) June  24,  ,, 

(Armistice  agreed  to,  July  6,  1859.) 

*Taku, 'at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  or  Tien- 
Tsin-ho  (English  attack  on  the  Chinese  Forts 

defeated) June  25,  „ 

*Castillejo  (Spaniards  defeat  Moors)  .  '     Jan  i,  1860 

*Tetuan  (<Htlo)       ...        .        .        .  Feb.  4,  ,, 

*Guad-el-Ras  (ditto)    ....  March  23,  ,, 

Calatifimi  (Garibaldi  defs.  Neapolitans)  May  15,  ,, 

*Melazzo  (Garibaldi  defeats  Neapolitans)  July  21,  „ 

Taku  forts  taken  (see  China)        .        .  Aug.  21,  ,, 
"Castel  Fidardo  (Sardinians  defeat  Papal  troops) 

Sept.  1 8,  ,. 

Insurrection    in    New  Zealand;    English   re- 
pulsed, March  14,  28  ;  June  27 ;  Sept.  10,  19  ; 

Oct.  9,  12,  ,, 

Maohetia  (Maoris  defeated)        .        .        Nov.  6,  ,, 
Chang-kia  wan, .  Sept    18;     and    Pa-li-chiau 

(Chinese  defeated)    ....        Sept.  21,  ,, 

"Volturno  (Garibaldi  defeats  Neapolitans)  Oct.  i,  ,, 

Isernia  (Sardinians  defeat  Neapolitans)  Oct.  17,  ,, 

*Garigliano  (ditto)         .         .        .        .       Nov.  3,  „ 

Sardinians    defeat    Neapolitan    re-actionists, 

Jan.  22,  1861 

*Gaeta  taken  by  the  Sardinians      .        Feb.  13,  ,, 

CIVIL  WAR   IN  tJNITED  STATES  BEGUN,  f 

*Big  Bethell  (Federals  repulsed)    ,        .  June  10,  ,, 

*Carthage  (Federal  victory)        .        .        July  10,  „ 

Rich  Mountain  (ditto)         .        .        .     July  u,  ,, 
*Bull  Run  or  Manassas  (Federal  defeat  and  panic) 

July  21,  ,, 
Wilson's  Creek  (Federals,  victors,  lose  Gen.  Lyon) 

Aug.  10,  „ 

Carnifex  ferry  (Rosencrans  defeats  Floyd,  Con- 
federate)     .        .        .        .        .        .  Sept.  10,  ,, 

Lexington  (taken  by  Confederates)      .  Sept.  20,    „ 
Pavon,  South  America  (Mitra  defeats  Urquiza) 

Sept.  17,  „ 


Turks  defeat  Montenegrins  .  Oct.  19,  Nov.  21,  1861     j 
'Ball's  Bluff  (Federals  defeated)        .        Oct.  21,     „ 
Mill  Springs,  Kentucky  (Confederates  defeated 

and  their  general  Zollicofff.r  killed)        Jan   19,  1862     j 
Roanoke  island,  N.C.  (Federals  victors)  Feb. 

7>  8, 

Sugar  Creek,  Arkansas  (Confederates  defeated) 

Feb.  8, 

Fort  Donnelson  (taken  by  Federals)  ,  Feb.  16, 
Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas  (Federals  met. )  March  6,  7, 
Hampton  roads  (Merrimac  and  Monitor  used) 

March  9, 

Tittsburg  landing,  or  Shiloh  (indecisive)  April 

6,  7, 

Williamsburg  (Federals  repulsed)     .        May  5, 
Puebla  (Mexicans  defeat  French)         .      May  5, 
Successful  sortie  of  Confederates  from  Rich- 
mond  May  14, 

Orizaba  (Mexicans  defeat  French)  .  May  18, 
Winchester  (Federals  repulsed)  .  May  25, 
Near  Orizaba  (French  defeat  Mexicans)  June  13, 
•Fairoaks  (before  Richmond,  indecisive)  May  31, 

June  i, 

^Severe  conflicts  between  Federals  and  Con- 
federates before  Richmond— the  former  re- 
treat       ....     June  26  to  July  i, 
Cedar  Mountain  (favourable    to    Confederates) 

Aug.  9, 

Severe     conflicts     on     the     Rappahannock 
Aug.  23-29, 

:C'Bull  Run  (defeat  of  Federals)      .        .  Aug.  29, 
Aspromonte  (Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers  cap- 
tured by  Royal  Italian  Troops)        ,    Aug.  29, 
*Antietam  (severe;  Confederates  retreat)  Sept.  17, 
Perryville  (Confederates  worsted)    .        .  Oct.  8, 
*Fredericksburgh    (Federals    defeated    by   Lee) 

Dec.  13, 

*Murfreesburg  (indecisive)  .        .        Dec.  29-31, 
Nashville  (Confederates  defeated)    .     .     Jan.  2,  1863 
•<Chancellorsvirie  (Confederates  victors)    May  2-4,      ,, 
Winchester  (Ewell  defeats  Confederates)  June  13,     ,, 
^Gettysburg  (severe  but  indecisive)     .       July  1-3     ,, 
"ChicamMigo.  (Confederates  victorious)Sept.  19-20, 
Campbell's    Station,  &c.    (Longstreet    defeats 

Burnside) Nov.  14-17,     ,, 

Spottsylvania,  <tc.,  in   the  Wilderness,  near 

Chancellorsville  (indecisive)        .    May  10-12,  1864 
Petersburg,'  near  Richmond    (indecisive,    but 

Grant  advances)        .        .        .      June  15-18,     ,, 
Petersburg  (Lee  defeated  ;  Richmond  evacuated) 

March  31;  April  2,  1863 
~Fa.rj3a.viUe  (Lee  finally  defeated)    .        .  April  6,     ,, 

Oeversee  (Danes  and  Allies)  .  .  Feb.  6,  ,, 
Diippel  (taken  by  the  Prussians)  .  .  April  18,  ,, 
Alsen  (ditto)  .  •  .  .  .  June  29,  ,, 


[The  battles  which  are  thus  marked  *  are  more  fully  described  in  their  alphabetical  order.] 

BAUG&  •  See  Anjou. 

BAUTZEN  and  WURTZCHEN  (in  North  Germany),  the  sites  of  battles  fought  May  20, 
and  21,  1813,  between  the  French  commanded  by  Napoleon,  and  the  allies  under  the 
emperor  of  Russia  and  the  king  of  Prussia.  The  struggle  commenced  on  the  iQth  with  a 
contest  on  the  ontposts,  which  cost  each  army  a  loss  of  above  2000  men.  On  the  2oth  (at 
BAUTZEN)  the  French  were  more  successful  ;  and  on  the  2ist  (at  WUETZCHEN)  the  Allies 
were  compelled  to  retire  ;  but  Napoleon  obtained  no  permanent  advantage  from  these  san- 
guinary engagements.  Duroc  was  among  the  killed  at  Bautzen,  to  the  great  sorrow  of  the 
emperor  and  the  French  army. 


BAVARIA  (part  of  ancient  Noricum  and  Vindelicia), 
conquered  from  the  Celtic  Gauls  (Boii)  by  the  Franks  between  630  and  660. 


a  kingdom  in  South  Germany, 
The  country 

was  afterwards  governed  by  dukes  subject  to   the  French  monarchs.      Tassillon  II.  was 
deposed  by  Charlemagne,  who  established  margraves  in  788.  •  The  first  duke  was  Leopold  I. 


t  We  have  no  space  for  the  numerous  smaller  conflicts,  of  which  the  accounts  arc  very  uncertain. 


BAY 


93 


BAY 


895.  Guelf  of  the  house  of  Este  was  made  duke  by  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  in  1071.  His 
descendant  Henry  the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Brunswick  (ancestor  of  the 
present  Brunswick  family,  see  Brunswick),  was  dispossessed  in  1180  by  the  emperor  Frede- 
rick Barbarossa  (who  had  been  previously  his  friend  and  benefactor).  Otho  of  Wittelsbach 
became  duke,  whose  descendants  reigned  till  1777,  when  the  elector  palatine  acquired 
Bavaria,  which  was  made  an  electorate  1623.  In  Dec.  1805,  Bavaria  was  erected  into  a 
kingdom  by  Bonaparte,  and  obtained  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg  the  incorporation  of  the 
whole  of  the  Italian  and  German  Tyrol,  the  bishopric  of  Anspach,  and  lordships  in  Germany. 
Bavaria  suffered  much  by  its  alliances  with  France  against  Austria  in  1726  and  1805.  The 
king  joined  the  Allies  in  Oct.  1813.  Population,  Dec.  1861,  4,689,837. 

1596.  Maximilian  the  Great ;  the  first  ELECTOR  ot 
Bavaria,  1623;  the  palatinate  restored,  1648. 

1651.  Ferdinand  and  Mary. 

1679.  Maximilian  Ernamiel  ;  allies  with  France, 
1702 ;  defeated  at  Blenheim,  1704 ;  restored 
to  his  dominions,  1714. 

1726.  Charles  Albert ;  elected  emperor  of  Germany 
in  1742  ;  defeated,  1744. 

1745.  Maximilian- Joseph  I.,  as  elector.  The  house 
of  Wittelsbach  extinct  at  his  death,  1778. 

1778.  Charles  Theodore  (the  elector  palatine  of  the 
Rhine  since  1743).  The  French  take  Munich  ; 
treats  with  them,  1796. 

1799.  Maximilian- Joseph  II.,  as  elector;  territories 
changed  by  treaty  of  Luneville,  1801 ;  made 
king,  by  treaty  of  Presburg,  Dec.,  1805. 


"53- 
1294. 

1347- 


1579- 


CUKES. 

Guelf  I. ,  an  illustrious  warrior. 

Guelf  II. 

Henry  the  Black. 

Henry  the  Proud.  He  competed  with  Conrad 
of  Hohenstaufen  for  the  empire  and  failed, 
and  was  deprived  of  Bavaria. 

Leopold  of  Austria. 

Henry  of  Austria. 

Henry  the  Lion  (son  of  Henry  the  Proud), 
restored  by  the  emperor  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa, but  afterwards  expelled  by  him ;  and 

Otho,  count  of  Wittelsbach,  made  duke. 

Louis  of  Wittelsbach. 

Otho  II.,  the  Illustrious:  his  son  Louis  was 
raised  to  the  electoral  dignity. 

Henry  and  Louis  the  Severe. 

Louis  III.  (the  palatinate  separated). 

Stephen  I. 

John. 

Ernest. 

Albert  I. 

John  II.  and  Sigismund. 

Albert  II. 

William  I. 

Albert  IIL 

William  II. 


KINGS  OF   BAVARIA. 

1805.  Maximilian-Joseph  I.  deserts  Napoleon,  and 
has  his  enlarged  territories  confirmed  to  him, 
Oct.  1813  ;  grants  a  constitutional  chai'ter, 
1818. 

1825.  Louis-Charles, Oct.  13;  abdicated  March  20.* 

1848.  Maximilian-Joseph  II.  (son)  born  Nov.  28, 
1811  ;  dies  March  10,  1864. 

1864.  Louis  II.  (son)  March  10;  born,  Aug.  25,  1845  : 
Heir :  his  brother  Otho,  born  April  27,  1848. 


BAYEUX  TAPESTKY,  said  to  have  been  wrought  by  Matilda,  queen  of  William  I.  It 
is  19  inches  wide,  214  feet  long,  and  is  divided  into  compartments  showing  the  events,  from 
the  visit  of  Harold  to  the  Norman  court,  to  his  death  at  Hastings  ;  it  is  now  preserved  in 
the  town  house  at  Rouen.  A  qppy,  drawn  by  C.  Stothard,  and  coloured  after  the  original, 
was  published  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  1821-3. 

BAY  ISLANDS  (the  chief,  Kuatan),  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  Central  America,  belonged 
to  Spain  till  1821,  then  to  Great  Britain,  which  formed  them  into  a  colony  in  1852,  but 
ceded  them  to  Honduras,  Nov.  28,  1859.  See  Honduras. 

BAYLEN  (S.  Spain),  where  on  July  20,  1808,  the  French,  consisting  of  14,000  men 
commanded  by  generals  Dupont  and  "Wedel,  were  defeated  by  the  Spaniards  under  Reding;, 
Coupigny,  and  other  generals,  whose  force  amounted  to  25,000.  .The  French  had  nearly 
3000  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  division  of  Dupont  (about  8000  men)  was  made  pri- 
Koners. 

BAYONET,  the  short  dagger  fixed  at  the  end  of  fire-arms,  said  to  have  been  invented  at 
Bayonne,  in  France,  about  1647,  1670,  or  1690.  It  was  used  at  Killiecrankie  in  1689,  and 
at  Marsaglia  by  the  French,  in  1693,  "with  great  success,  against  the  enemy  unprepared  for 
the  encounter  with  so  formidable  a  novelty."  The  ring  bayonet  was  adopted  by  the  British, 
Sept.  24,  1693.  Aspin. 

BAYONNE  (S.  France),  an  ancient  city.  It  was  held  by  the  English  from  1265  till  it 
was  taken  by  Charles  VII.  The  queens  of  Spain  and  France  met  here  in  1565  the  cruel 
duke  of  Alva,  it  is  supposed  to  arrange  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  Charles  IV.  of 
Spain  abdicated  here  in  favour  of  "his  friend  and  ally"  the  emperor  Napoleon  ;  and  Ferdi- 
nand, prince  of  Asturias,  and  Don  Carlos  and  Don  Antonio  renounced  their  rights  to  the 
Spanish  throne,  May  5,  1808.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Bayonne  was  much  desperate 
fighting  between  the  French  and  British  armies,  Dec.  10,  u,  and  13,  1813.  Bayonne  was 

*  The  abdication  of  Charles-Louis  was  mainly  caused  by  his  attachment  to  an  intriguing  woman, 
known  throughout  Europe  by  the  assumed  name  of  Lola  Montes,  who,  in  the  end,  was  expelled  the  king- 
dom for  her  interference  in  state  affairs,  and  afterwards  led  a  wandering  life.  She  delivered  lectures  in 
London,  in  1859,  and  thence  proceeded  to  the  United  States.  She  died  at  New  York,  Jan.  17,  1861. 


BAY  94  BE  A 

invested  by  the  British,  Jan.  14,  1814  ;  on  April  14  the  French  made  a  sally,  and  attacked 
the  English  with  success,  but  were  at  length  driven  back.  The  loss  of  the  British  was  con- 
siderable, and  lieut.-gen.  sir  John  Hope  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. — A  Franco-Spanish 
industrial  and  fine-arts  exhibition  was  opened  at  Bayonne  in  July,  1864. 

BAYREUTH  (N.  Germany),  a  margraviate,  held  formerly  by  a  branch  of  the  Branden- 
burg family,  was  with  that  of  Anspach  abdicated  by  the  reigning  prince  in  favour  of  the 
king  of  Prussia,  1790.  The  archives  were  brought  (in  1783)  from  Plasseiiburg  to  the  city  of 
Bayreuth,  Avhich  was  incorporated  with  Bavaria  by  Napoleon  in  1806. 

BAZAAR,  or  Covered  Market,  a  word  of  Arabic  origin.  The  bazaar  of  Ispahan  is  magni- 
ficent, yet  it  is  excelled  by  that  of  Tauris,  which  has  several  times  held  30,000  men  in  order 
of  battle.  In  London,  the  Soho-square  bazaar  was  opened  by  Mr.  Trotter  in  1816  to  relieve 
the  relatives  of  persons  killed  in  the  war.  The  Queen's  bazaar,  Oxford-street,  a  very  exten- 
sive one,  was  (with  the  Diorama)  burnt  down,  and  the  loss  estimated  at  50,000?.,  May  27, 
1829.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  converted  into  the  Princess's  Theatre,  opened  Sept.  30,  1841. 
The  St.  James's  bazaar  was  built  by  Mr.  Crockford  in  1832.  There  are  also  the  Pantheon, 
the  "Western  Exchange,  &c.  The  most  imposing  sale  termed  a  bazaar  was  opened  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League,  in  Cogent-garden  theatre,  May  5,  1845  ;  in  six  weeks 
25,000^.  was  obtained,  mostly  by  admission  money. 

BEACH Y  HEAD,  a  promontory  on  the  S.E.  coast  of  Sussex,  where  the  British  and 
Dutch  combined  fleet,  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Torrington,  was  defeated  by  a  superior 
French  force,  under  admiral  Tourville,  June  30,  1690  ;  the  allies  suffered  very  severely. 
The  Dutch  lost  two  admirals,  500  men,  and  several  ships — sunk  to  prevent  them  from 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy ;  the  English  lost  two  ships  and  400  men.  The 
admirals  on  both  sides  were  blamed  ;  ours,  for  not  fighting  ;  the  French,  for  not  pursuing 
the  victory. 

BEACONS.     See  Lighthouses. 

BEADS  were  early  used  in  the  East  for  reckoning  prayers.  St.  Augustin  mentions  them, 
366.  About  1090,  Peter  the  Hermit  is  said  to  have  made  a  series  of  55  beads.  To  Dominic 
de  Guzman  is  ascribed  the  invention  of  the  Rosary  (a  series  of  15  large  and  150  small  beads), 
in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  about  1202.  Beads  soon  after  Were  in  general  use.  The 
Bead-roll  was  a  list  of  deceased  persons,  for  the  repose  of  wkose  souls  a  certain  number  of 
prayers  was  recited,  which  the  devout  counted  by  a  string  of  beads.  Beads  appear  to  have 
been  used  by  the  Druids,  being  found  in  British  barrows.  f 

BEAM  AND  SCALES.  The  apparatus  for  weighing  goods  was  so  called,  "as  it  weighs  so 
much  at  the  king's  beam."  A  public  beam  Avas  set  up  in  London,  and  all  commodities 
ordered  to  be  weighed  by  the  city  officer,  called  the  weigh-master,  who  was  to  do  justice 
between  buyer  and  seller,  statute  3  Edw.  II.  1309.  Stow.  Beams  and  scales,  with  weights 
and  measures,  were  ordered  to  be  examined  by  the  justices  at  quarter  sessions,  35  Geo.  III. 
1794.  See  Weights  and  Measures. 

BEANS,  BLACK  AND  WHITE,  were  used  by  the  ancients  in  gathering  the  votes  of  the 
people  for  the  election  of  magistrates.  •  A  white  bean  signified  absolution,  and  a  black  one 
condemnation.  The  precept  of  Pythagoras  to  abstain  from  beans,  abstinc  a  fabis,  has  been 
variously  interpreted.  "Beans  do  not  favour  mental  tranquillity."  Cicero.  The  finer 
kinds  of  beans  were  brought  to  these  countries  at  the  period  of  the  introduction  of  most 
other  vegetables,  in  Henry  VIII. 's  reign. 

BEAR-BAITING,  an  ancient  popular  English  sport,  prohibited  by  act  of  parliament  in 
1835. 

BEARDS.*  The  Egyptians  did  not  wear  beards  ;  the  Assyrians  did.  They  have  been 
worn  for  centuries  by  the  Jews,  who  were  forbidden  to  mar  their  beards,  B.C.  1490.  Lev. 
xix.  27.  The  Tartars  waged  a  long  war  with  the  Persians,  declaring  them  infidels,  because 
they  would  not  cut  their  beards,  after  the  custom  of  Tartary.  The  Greeks  wore  their  beards 

*  A  bearded  woman  was  taken  by  the  Russians  at  the  battle  of  Pultowa,  and  presented  to  the  czar, 
Peter  I.,  1724:  her  beard  measured  i|  yard.  A  woman  is  said  to  have  been  seen  at  Paris  with  a  bushy 
beard,  and  her  whole  body  covered  with  hair.  Did.  de  Trevoux,  The  great  Margaret,  governess  of  the 
Netherlands,  had  a  very  long  stiff  beard.  In  Bavaria,  in  the  time  of  Wolfius,  a  virgin  had  a  long  black 
beard.  Mdlle.  Bois  de  Chene,  borne  at  Geneva  (it  was  said)  in  1834,  was  exhibited  in  London,  in  1852-3, 
when,  consequently,  eighteen  years  of  age  :  she  had  a  profuse  head  of  hair,  a  strong  black  beard,  large 
whiskers,  and  thick  hair  on  her  arms  and  down  from  her  neck  on  her  back,  and  masculine  features. 


BEA  95  BEE 

till  the  time  of  Alexander,  who  ordered  the  Macedonians  to  be  shaved,  lest  the  beard  should 
give  a  handle  to  their  enemies,  330  B.C.  Beards  were  worn  by  the  Romans,  297  B.C.  The 
emperor  Julian  wrote  a  diatribe  (entitled  "  Misopogon")  against  wearing  beards,  A.D.  362. — 
In  England,  they  were  not  fashionable  after  the  Conquest,  1066,  until  the  I3th  century,  and 
were  discontinued  at  the  Restoration.  Peter  the  Great  enjoined  the  Russians,  even  of  rank, 
to  shave,  but  was  obliged  to  keep  officers  on  foot  to  cut  off  the  beard  by  force.  Since  1851 
the  custom  of  wearing  the  beard  has  gradually  increased. 

BEAUGE".     See  Anjou. 

BEAULIEU,  ABBEY  OF,  founded  by  king  John,  in  the  New  Forest,  Hampshire,  in  1204. 
It  was  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  had  the  privilege  of  sanctuary,  and  was  devoted  to 
monks  of  the  reformed  Benedictine  order.  It  afforded  an  asylum  to  Margaret,  queen  of 
Henry  VI.,  after  the  defeat  of  the  earl  of  "Warwick  at  Barnet,  April  14,  1471.  Here,  too, 
Perkm  Warbeck  obtained  refuge  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  in  1497. 

BEAUVAIS  (K  France),  the  ancient  Bellovaci,  and  formerly  capital  of  Picardy.  On  the 
town  being  besieged  by  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  at  the  head  of  80,000  men,  the 
women  under  the  conduct  of  Jeanne  Fourquet,  or  Laine',  also  De  la  Hachette,  from  her  using 
that  weapon,  particularly  distinguished  themselves,  and  the  duke  was  obliged  to  raise  the 
siege,  July  10,  1472.  In  memory  of  this,  the  women  of  Beauvais  walk  first  in  the  procession 
on  the  anniversary  of  their  deliverance.  Henault. 

BECKET'S  MURDER.*  Thomas  Becket,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  murdered  at 
the  altar,  Dec.  29,  1170.  The  king  was  absolved  of  guilty  knowledge  of  the  crime  in  1172, 
and  did  penance  at  the  tomb  in  1 1 74.  The  bones  of  Becket  were  enshrined  in  gold  and 
jewels  in  1220  ;  but  were  burned  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  1539. 

BED.  The  ancients  slept  on  skins.  Beds  were  afterwards  made  of  loose  rushes,  heather, 
or  straw.  The  Romans  are  said  to  have  first  used  feathers.  Feather-beds  were  in  use  in 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  bedsteads  of  the  Egyptians  and  later  Greeks,  like 
modern  couches,  became  common  among  the  Roman  upper  classes.  The  ancient  great  bed 
at  Ware,  Herts,  capable  of  holding  twelve  persons,  was  sold,  it  is  said,  to  Charles  Dickens, 
Sept.  6, 1864.  A  bedstead  of  gold  was  presented  to  the  queen  on  Nov.  2,  1859,  by  the 
Maharajah  of  Cashmere.  Air-beds  and  water-beds  have  been  made  since  the  manufacture  of 
india-rubber  cloth  by  Clark  in  1813  ;  and  by  Macintosh  in  1823.  Dr.  Aruott's  hydrostatic 
bed  was  invented  in  1830. 

BED  OF  JUSTICE,  a  French  court  presided  over  by  the  king,  whose  seat  was  termed 
a  "  bed."  It  controlled  the  ordinances  of  the  parliament.  The  last  was  held  by  Louis  XVI. 
at  Versailles  in  1787. 

BEDER  (Arabia).  Here  Mahomet  gained  his  first  victory  (over  the  Koreish  of 
Mecca),  623.  It  was  considered  to  be  miraculous. 

BEDFORD,  a  town,  N.N.W.  London,  renowned  for  its  many  free  educational  establish- 
ments endowed  in  1561  by  sir  Win.  Harpur,  a  London  alderman.  Here  John  Bunyan 
preached,  wrote  "  The  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  and  died  (in  1688). 

BEDFORD  LEVEL,  a  portion  of  the  great  fen  districts  in  the  eastern  counties,  drained 
in  the  early  part  of  the  I7th  century  by  the  earl  of  Bedford,  aided  by  the  celebrated  Dutch 
engineer,  sir  Cornelius  Vermuyden,  amid  great  opposition.  See  Levels. 

BEDLAM.     See  Bethlehem. 

BEDOUINS,  wandering  tribes  of  Arabs,  living  on  the  plunder  of  travellers,  &c.  They 
profess  a  form  of  Mahomedanism,  and  are  governed  by  sheikhs.  They  are  said  to  be  descen- 
dants of  Ishmael,  and  appear  to  fulfil  the  prophecy  respecting  him,  Gen.  xvi.  12,  1911  B.C. 
They  are  the  scourge  of  Arabia  and  Egypt. 

BEEF-EATERS.     See  Battle-axe. 

*  Thomas  Becket  was  born  in  1119.  His  father  Gilbert  was  a  London  trader,  and  his  mother  is  stated 
to  have  been  a  convert  from  Mabomedanism.  He  was  educate4  at  Oxford,  and  made  archdeacon  by  Theo- 
bald, archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  introduced  him  to  the  king  Henry  II.  He  became  chancellor  in  1155, 
but  on  being  elected  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1162,  he  resigned  the  chancellorship,  to  the  great  offence 
>f  the  king.  He  opposed  strenuously  the  constitutions  of  Clarendon  in  1164,  and  fled  the  country  ;  and, 
m  1 1 66,  excommunicated  all  the  clergy  who  agreed  to  abide  by  them.  He  and  the  king  met  at  Fretville, 
in  Touraine,  on  July  22,  1170,  and  were  formally  reconciled.  On  his  return  he  re-commenced  his  struggle 
with  the  king,  which  led  to  his  tragical  death.  The  Merchant- Adventurers  were  at  one  time  termed  "the 
Brotherhood  of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket." 


BEE  96  BEL 

BEEF-STEAK  SOCIETY,  the  members  of  which  dine  together  in  a  room  behind  the 
Lyceum  theatre,  was  founded  in  1735  by  John  Kich,  patentee  of  Covent-garden  theatre,  and 
George  Lambert,  the  scene-painter,  in  whose  work-room  the  society  originated.  Beef-steak 
clubs  existed  in  1709  and  1733. 

BEER,     See  Ale,  Porter,  Victuallers. 

BEES.  Mount  Hybla,  on  account  of  its  odoriferous  flowers,  thyme,  and  abundance  of 
honey,  has  been  poetically  called  the  "empire  of  bees."  Hymettus,  in  Attica,  was  also 
famous  for  its  bees  and  honey.  The  economy  of  bees  was  admired  in  the  earliest  ages  ;  and 
Eumelus,  of  Corinth,  wrote  a  poem  on  bees,  741  B.C.  There  are  292  species  of  the  bee  or 
apis  genus,  and  1 1 1  in  England.  Bees  were  first  introduced  into  Boston,  New  England,  by 
the  English  in  1670,  and  have  since  spread  over  the  whole  continent.  Mandeville's  satirical 
"  Fable  of  the  Bees"  appeared  in  1723.  Huber  published  his  observations  on  bees  in  1792. 
The  Apiarian  Society  had  an  establishment  at  Muswell  Hill,  near  London  (1860-2).  The 
Liguiian  variety  of  the  honey-bee  was  successfully  introduced  into  England  in  1860. 

BEET-EOOT  is  of  recent  cultivation  in  England.  Beta  vulgaris,  red  beet,  is  used  for 
the  table  as  a  salad.  Margraff  first  produced  sugar  from  the  white  beet-root  in  1747.  M. 
Achard  produced  excellent  sugar  from  it  in  1799  ;  and  the  chemists  of  France,  at  the 
instance  of  Bonaparte,  largely  extracted  sugar  from  the  beet-root  in  1800.  60,000  tons  of 
sugar,  about  half  the  consumption,  are  now  manufactured  in  France  from  beet.  It  is  also, 
largely  manufactured  in  other  countries.  A  refinery  of  sugar  from  beet-root  has  been  erected 
at  the  Thames-bank,  Chelsea. 

BEGGAES  were  tolerated  in  ancient  times,  being  often  musicians  and  ballad- singers.  In 
modern  times  severe  laws  have  been  passed  against  them.  In  1572,  by  14  Eliz.  c.  5,  sturdy 
beggars  were  ordered  to  be  "grievously  whipped  and  burnt  through  the  right  ear."  By  the 
Vagrant  Act  (1824),  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  83,  all  public  beggars  are  liable  to  a  month's  imprisonment. 
See  Poor  Laws  and  Mendicity  Society.  The  "BEGGAR'S  OPERA,"  by  John  Gay,  a  satire 
against  the  government  of  sir  Eobert  "Walpole,  was  produced  at  the  Lincoln's-inn-fields 
theatre,  1727,  and  had  a  run  of  63  nights. 

BEGUINES,  a  congregation  of  nuns,  first  established  at  Liege,  and  afterwards  at  Nivelle, 
in  1207,  some  say  1226.  The  "Grand  Beguinage"  of  Bruges  was  the  most  extensive.  Some 
of  these  nuns  imagined  that  they  could  in  this  life  arrive  at  impeccability.  The  council  of 
Vienne  condemned  this  error,  and  abolished  a  branch  of -the  order  in  1311.  They  still  exist 
in  Germany  and  Belgium,  acting  as  nurses  to  the  sick  and  wounded,  &c. 

BEHEADING,  the  Dccollatio  of  the  Romans,  introduced  into  England  from  Normandy 
(as  a  less  ignominious  mode  of  putting  high  criminals  to  death)  by  William  the  Conqueror, 
1076,  when  Waltheoff,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  Northampton,  and  Northumberland,  was  first  so 
executed.  Since  then  this  mode  of  execution  became  frequent,  particularly  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  Mary,  when  even  women  of  the  noblest  blood  thus  perished.* 

BEHISTUN,  in  Persia.  At  this  place  is  a  rock  containing  important  inscriptions  in 
three  languages,  in  cuneiform  (or  wedge-shaped)  characters,  which  were  deciphered  and 
translated  by  sir  H.  Eawlinson  in  1844-6  and  published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Asiatic 
Society.  Each  paragraph  commences  with  "  I  am  Darius  the  Great  King." 

BEHEING'S  STEAIT,  discovered  by  captain  Vitus  Behring,  a  Danish  navigator  in  the 
service  of  Eussia.  He  thus  proved  that  the  continents  of  Asia  and  America  are  not  united, 
but  are  distinct  from  each  other  about  thirty-nine  miles,  1728.  He  died  at  Behring's  island 
in  1741.  The  current  from  the  west  between  the  shores  is  very  inconsiderable,  the  depth 
not  being  more  than  from  twelve  to  thirty  fathoms.  In  1788  captain  James  Cook  accurately 
surveyed  the  coast  of  both  continents. 

BELFAST,  capital  of  Ulster,  Ireland,  First  mentioned  about  1315  ;  its  castle,  supposed 
to  have  been  built  by  John  de  Courcy,  was  then  destroyed  by  the  Scots  under  Edward  Bruce. 
See  Orange. 

*  Among  other  instances  (besides  queens  of  En  gland)  may  be  mentioned  the  lady  Jane  Grey,  beheaded 
Feb.  12,  1554 ;  and  the  venerable  cxmntess  of  Salisbury, — the  latter  remarkable  for  her  resistance  of  the 
executioner.  When  he  directed  her  to  lay  her  head  on  the  block,  she  refused  to  do  it  :  telling  him  that 
she  knew  of  no  guilt,  and  would  not  submit  to  die  like  a  criminal.  He  pursued  her  round  and  round  the 
scaffold,  aiming  at  her  hoary  head,  and  at  length  took  it  off,  after  mangling  the  neck  and  shoulders  of  the 
illustrious  victim  in  a  horrifying  manner.  She  was  daughter  of  George,  duke  of  Clarence,  and  last  of  the 
royal  line  of  Plantagenet.  May  27,  1541.  Hume. 


BEL 


97 


BEL 


BELFAST,  continued. 

•Belfast  granted  by  James  I.    to  sir   Arthur 
Chichester,    then    lord    deputy,    1612 ;     and 
erected  into  a  corporation         ....   1613 
The  long  bridge  with  21  arches,  2562  feet  long, 

built 1682-6 

The  first  edition  of  the  Bible  published  in  Ire- 
land, printed  here 1704 

The  castle  burnt April,  1708 

The  bank  built 1787 

The  mechanics'  institute  established  .         .        .  1825 
The  Queen's  bridge  (5  arches)  built  on  site  of 

the  long  bridge 1841 

•Of  three  colleges  established  in  Ireland  under 
the  act  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  60,  passed  in  1845,  one 


was  inaugurated  in  Belfast      .        .        .  Oct.  1849 

(See  Colleges  in  Ireland.) 

Much  rioting  at  Belfast  through  Mr.  llanna 
persisting  in  open-air  preaching,  July,  Aug., 

and  Sept 1857 

Victoria  chambers  were  bumt  down ;  the  loss 

was  estimated  at  ioo,ooof.      .        .        July  2,  1859 
Exciting  religious  revivals  .        .        .        Sept.      ,, 
Fierce  conflicts  between  Roman  Catholics  and 
Protestants  on  account  of  the  foundation  of 
the  O'Connell  monument  at- Dublin — 9  lives 
lost  and  150  persons  injured  .     Aug.  10 — 27,  1864 

Rioting  again April  30,  1865 

Election  riots July,      „ 


BELGIUM,  late  the  southern  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  anciently 
the  territory  of  the  Belgse,  who  were  finally  conquered  by  Julius  Csesar,  51  B.C.  Its  size  is 
about  one-eighth  of  Great  Britain.  The  population,  December  31,  1862,  was  4,836,566.  Its 
government  is  a  liberal  constitutional  monarchy,  founded  in  1831.  For  previous  history, 
see  Flanders,  Netherlands,  and  Holland. 


The  revolution  commences  at  Brussels,  Aug.  25,  1830 
The  Provisional  Government  declares  Belgium 

independent Oct.  4,     ,, 

Antwerp  taken  ....      Dec.  23,    ,, 

Belgian    independence    acknowledged  by  the 

allied  powers Dec.  26,     „ 

Duke  de  Nemours  elected  king  (his  father,  the 

French  king,  refused  his  consent)    .     Feb.  3,  1831 
Surlet  de  Chokier  is  elected  regent        Feb.  24,     „ 
Leopold,  prince  of  Coburg,  elected  king,  July  12, 

enters  Brussels          ....    July  19,    ,, 
The  king  of  the  Netherlands  commences  war 

Aug.  3,     „ 
Conference  of  ministers  of  the  five  great  powers 

held  in  London  :  acceptance  of  24  articles  of 

pacification Nov.  15,     ,, 

France  sends  50,000  troops  to  assist  Belgium, 

and  an  armistice  ensues        .        .        .     Aug.  1832 
Antwerp  besieged,  Nov.  30 ;  and  taken  by  the 

French Dec.  23,     ,, 

The  French  army  returns  to  France       Dec.  27,     ,, 
Riot  at  Brussels  (see  Jirussds)  .         .        April  6,  1834 
Treaty*  between  Holland  and  Belgium  signed 

in  London April  19,  *839 

Queen  of  England  visits  Belgium  .        .     Aug.  1852 


The  king  and  his  son  visit  England    .          Oct.  1852 
Increase  of  army  to  100,000  men  voted  May  10,  1853 
Opposition  to  religious  charities'  bill  t       June,  1857 
A  new  ministry  under  M.  Charles  Rogier  Nov.  9,     ,, 
The  chambers  dissolved  ;  re-assembled  Dec.  10,     ,, 
The    king  proclaims  Belgium  neutral  in  the 

Italian  war May,  1859 

Death  of  M.  Potter        ....  July  2*2,    ,, 
The  king  visits  England     .        .        .         June,  1860 
Vague  rumours  of  annexation  to  France  produce 

warm  loyal  addresses  to  the  king    .  June  13,     ,, 
The  octrois  abolished         .        .        .      July  21,    ,, 
Successful  military  volunteer  movement    Aug.     , , 
Commercial  treaty  with  France  signed    May  i,  1861 
Continued  illness  of  the  king ;  with  occasional 

amendment     ....        May,  June,  1862 
Commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain  adopted 

by  the  chamber         ....  Aug.  22,    „ 
Great  distress  through  decay  of  trade         Aug.     „ 
Fierce  dissensions  between  Roman  Catholics, 
Jan.  ;    the   ministry    resigns,    but    resumes 
office,   Feb.   4 ;  dissolution  of  the  chambers, 
July  17  ;    the  Protestants  superior  in    the 
election Aug.  1864 


KING   OF   THE    BELGIANS. 


1831.  Leopold, t  first  king  of  the  Belgians  ;  born 
Dec.  16,  1790  ;  inaugurated  July  21,  1831,  at 
Brussels ;  married  Aug.  9,  1832,  Louise, 
eldest  daughter  of  Louis  Philippe,  king  of 


the  French;  she  died  Oct.    n,  1850.     The 
PRESENT  king,  1865.  < 

Heir :  his  son  Leopold,  duke  of  Brabant ;  born 
April  9,  1835 ;  married  archduchess  Maria 
of  Austria,  Aug.  22,  1853. 


BELGRADE,  an  ancient  city  in  Servia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube.  It  was  taken 
from  the  Greek  emperor  by  Solomon,  king  of  Hungary,  in  1086  ;  gallantly  defended  by 
John  Huniades  against  the  Turks,  under  Mahomed  II.,  July  to  Sept.  1486,  when  the  latter 
was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  40,000  men.  Belgrade  was  taken  by  sultan  Solyman,  1522,  and 
retaken  by  the  Imperialists  in  1688,  from  whom  it  again  reverted  to  the  Turks  in  1690.  It 
was  besieged  in  May,  1717,  by  prince  Eugene.  On  Aug.  5  of  that  year,  the  Turkish  army, 
200,000  strong,  approached  to  relieve  it,  and  a  sanguinary  battle  was  fought  at  Peter- 
waradein,  on  August  22,  in  which  the  Turks  lost  20,000  men  ;  after  this  battle  Belgrade 
surrendered.  In  1739  it  was  ceded  to  the  Turks,  after  its  fine  fortifications  had  been 
demolished.  It  was  again  taken  in  1789,  and  restored  at  the  peace  of  Reichenbach,  in 
1790.  The  Servian  insurgents  had  possession  of  it  in  1806.  In  1815  it  was  placed  under 

*  This  treaty  arose  out  of  the  conference  held  in  London  on  the  Belgian  question ;  by  the  decision 
of  which,  the  treaty  of  Nov.  15,  1831,  was  maintained,  and  the  pecuniary  compensation  of  sixty  millions  of 
francs  offered  by  Belgium  for  the  territories  adjudged  to  Holland,  was  declared  inadmissible. 

_  t  At  the  revolution  in  1830,  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  lost  the  administration  of  the  public  charities, 
which  they  have  struggled  to  recover  ever  since.  In  April,  1857,  M.  Decker,  the  head  of  the  ministry, 
brought  in  a  bill  for  this  purpose  ;  the  principle  of  which  was  carried.  This  led,  however,  to  so  much 
agitation  that  the  ministry  were  compelled  to  withdraw  the  bill,  and  eventually  to  resign. 

t  Leopold  married,  in  May,  1816,  the  princess  Charlotte  of  Wales,  daughter  of  the  prince  regent, 
afterwards  George  IV.  of  England;  she  died  in  childbed,  Nov.  6,  1817. 


BEL 


98 


BEL 


prince  Milosch,  subject  to  Turkey.  The  fortifications  were  restored  in  1820.  On  June  19, 
1862,  the  Turkish  pacha  was  dismissed  for  firing  on  the  town  during  a  riot.  University 
established  by  private  munificence,  1863.  See  Servia. 

BELL,  BOOK,  AND  CANDLE  :  in  the  Romish  ceremony  of  Excommunication  (which  see), 
the  bell  is  rung,  the  book  is  closed,  and  candle  extinguished  ;  the  effect  being  to  exclude  the- 
excommunicated  from  the  society  of  the  faithful,  divine  service,  and  the  sacraments.  Its 
origin  is  ascribed  to  the  8th  century. 

BELL-ROCK  LIGHTHOUSE,  nearly  in  front  of  the  Frith  of  Tay,  one  of  the  finest  in 
Great  Britain  ;  it  is  115  feet  high,  is  built  upon  a  rock  that  measures  427  feet  in  length 
and  200  feet  in  breadth,  and  is  about  12  feet  under  water.*  It  was  erected  in  1 806-10  ;  it  is. 
provided  with  two  bells  for  hazy  weather. 

BELLAIR,  in  North  America.  The  town  was  attacked  by  the  British  forces  under  sir 
Peter  Parker,  who,  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  were  repulsed  with  considerable  loss  ;. 
their  gallant  commander  was  killed,  Aug.  30,  1814. 

BELLEISLE,  an  isle  on  the  south  coast  of  Brittany,  France,  was  erected  into  a  duchy  in 
favour  of  marshal  Beileisle,  in  1742,  in  reward  of  his  brilliant  military  and  diplomatic 
services,  by  Louis  XV.  Beileisle  was  taken  by  the  British  forces  under  commodore  Keppel 
and  general  Hodgson,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  June  7,  1761,  but  was  restored  to  France 
in  1763. 

BELLES-LETTRES,  OR  POLITE  LEARNING.     See  Academics  and  Literature. 

BELLMEN,  appointed  in  London  to  proclaim  the  hour  of  the  night  before  public 
clocks  became  general,  were  numerous  about  1556.  They  were  to  ring  a  bell  at  night  and 
cry  "  Take  care  of  your  fire  and  candle,  be  charitable  to  the  poor,  and  pray  for  the  dead.': 

BELLOWS.  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  them,  about 
569  B.C.  ;  to  him  is  also  ascribed  the  invention  of  tinder,  the  potter's  wheel,  anchors  for 
ships,  &c.  Bellows  were  not  used  in  the  furnaces  of  the  Romans.  The  production  of  the 
great  leviathan  bellows  of  our  foundries  (suggested  by  the  diminutive  domestic  bellows)  must 
have  been  early,  but  we  cannot  trace  the  time.  See  Blowing-Machines. 

BELLS  were  used  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  The  responses  of  the  Dodonsean 
oracle  were  in  part  c.onveyed.by  bells.     Strabo.     The  monument  of  Porsenna  was  decorated 
by  pinnacles,  each  surmounted  by  bells.     Pliny.     Introduced  by  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola, 
in  Campagna,  about  400.   First  known  in  France  in  550.   The  army  of  Clothaire  II.,  king  of 
France,  was  frightened  from  the  siege  of  Sens  by  the  ringing  of  the  bells  of  St.  Stephen'.' 
church.     The  second  excerption  of  our  king  Egbert  commands  every  priest,  at  the  propel 
hours,  to  sound  the  bells  of  his  church.     Bells  were  used  in  churches  by  order  of  pope  John 
IX.,  about  900,  as  a  defence,  by  ringing  them,  against  thunder  and  lightning.     First  cast  in 
England  by  Turketel,  chancellor  of  England,  under  Edmund  I.     His  successor  improved  th 
invention,  and  caused  the  first  tuneable  set  to  be  put  up  at  Croyland  abbey,  960.     Stow 
The  celebrated  "Song  of  the  Bell,"  by  Schiller  (died  1805),  has  been  frequently  translated 
The  following  list  is  that  given  by  Mr.  E.  Beckett  Denison  in  his  discourse  on  bells  at  th 
Royal  Institution,  March  6,  1857. 


Weight— Tons  Cwt. 
Moscow,  i7s6;f    broken, 

1737 250    ? 

Another,  1817   .        .         .  110    ? 


Three  others 
Novgorod  . 
Olmtitz. 


Weight— Tons  Cwt. 
16  to  31 

.     31    o 
.    .     17  18 


— Tons  Cwt 
Vienna,  1711      .        .        .     17  14 
"Westminster,  1856,  t  "Big 
Ben"         .        ...     15 


*  Upon  this  rock,  tradition  says,  the  abbots  of  the  ancient  monastery  of  Aberbrothock  succeeded  ii 
fixing  a.  bell  in  such  a  manner  that  it  was  rung  by  the  impulse  of  the  sea,  thus  warning  mariners  of  thei 
impending  danger.  Tradition  also  tells  us  that  this  apparatus  was  carried  away  by  a  Dutchman,  who  wa 
afterwards  lost  upon  the  rock,  with  his  ship  and  crew. 

t  The  metal  has  been  valued,  at  the  lowest  estimate,  at  66,565?.  Gold  and  silver  are  said  to  have  beei 
thrown  in  as  votive  offerings, 

I  The  largest  bell  in  England  (named  Big  Ben,  after  sir  Benjamin  Hall,  the  then  chief  commissione 
of  works),  cast  at  Houghton-le-Spring,  Durham,  by  Messrs.  Warner,  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  E 
Becket  Denison  and  the  rev.  W.  Taylor,  at  an  expense  of  3343?.  14.?.  gd.  The  composition  was  22  part 
copper  and  7  tin.  The  diameter  was  9  ft.  5^  in. ;  the  height  7  ft.  io£  in.  The  clapper  weighed  12  cwl 
Rtv.  W.  Taylor. 


BEL 


BEN 


BELLS, 

continued. 

Weight—  Tons  Cwt. 

Wehjht—  Tons  Cwt. 

Weight—  Tons  Cwt. 

Erfurt,  1497  . 

JO          1C 

York,  1845 

.        10 

15 

Lincoln,  1834 

•    «; 

8 

Westminster,  1858,*  "  St 
Stephen"  . 

13  io| 

Bruges,  1680 
St.  Peter's,  Rome      . 

10 

8 

5 
o 

St.  Paul's,  1716  f       . 
Ghent    . 

5 
4 

4 
18 

Sens 

jo        9 

Oxford,  1680  . 

12 

Boulogne  new 

18 

Paris,  1680    . 

* 
2    l6 

Lucerne,  1636 

7 

Exeter,  1675      '  . 

4 
4 

10  'i 

Montreal,  1847 

. 

-    *5 

Halberstadt,  1457. 

7 

10 

Old  Lincoln,  1610      . 

A 

a 

Cologne,  1448 
Breslau,  1507 

• 

1     3 

I       0 

Antwerp    . 

Brussels 

7 
7 

h 

Fourth  quarter-bell,  West 

minster,  1857       -        ..40 

Gorlitz  . 

o  17 

Dantzic,  1453 

. 

6 

i 

RINGING  OF  BELLS,  in  changes  of  regular  peals, 
is  almost  peculiar  to  the  English,  who  boast  of 
having  brought  the  practice  to  an  art.  There 
were  formerly  societies  of  ringers  in  London. 
Holden.  A  sixth  bell  was  added  to  the  peal  of 
five,  in  the  church  of  St.  Michael,  1430.  Stow. 
Nell  Gwynne  left  the  ringers  of  the  bells  of  St. 
Martin's-in-the-fields  money  for  a  weekly  entertain- 
ment, 1687,  and  many  others  have  done  the  same. 


BAPTISM  OF  BELLS. — They  were  anointed  and 
baptized  in  churches  it  is  said  from  the  loth  century. 
Du  Fresnoy.  The  bells  of  the  priory  of  Little  Dun- 
rnow,  in  Essex,  were  baptized  by  the  names  of  St. 
Michael,  St.  John,  Virgin  Mary,  Holy  Trinity,  &c., 
in  1501.  Weever.  The  great  bell  of  Notre  Dame,  in 
Paris,  was  baptized  by  the  name  of  Duke  of  Angou- 
le"me,  1816.  On  the  continent,  in  Roman  Catholic 
states,  they  baptize  bells  as  we  do  ships,  but  with 
religious  solemnity.  Ashe. 

BELOOCHISTAN,  the  ancient  Gedrosia  (S.  Asia).  The  capital  was  taken  by  the  British 
in  the  Afghan  war,  in  1839  ;  abandoned  in  1840  ;  taken  and  held  for  a  short  time  in  1841. 

BELVIDERE  EXPLOSION.     See  Gunpowder  (note). 

BENARES,  in  India,  a  holy  city  of  the  Hindoos,  abounding  in  temples.  It  was  ceded 
by  the  nabob  of  Oude,  Asoph-ud-Dowlah,  to  the  English  in  1775.  An  insurrection  took 
place  here,  which  had  nearly  proved  fatal  to  the  British  interests  in  Hindostan,  1781.  The 
rajah,  Cheyt  Sing,  was  deposed  in  consequence  of  it,  in  1783.  Mr.  Cherry,  capt.  Conway, 
and  others,  were  assassinated  at  Benares,  by  vizier  Aly,  Jan.  14,  1799.  In  June,  1857,  col. 
Neil  succeeded  in  suppressing  attempts  to  join  the  Sepoy  mutiny.  See  India. 

BENBURB,  near  Armagh  (N.  Ireland).  Here  O'Neill  totally  defeated  the  English  under 
Monroe,  June  5,  1646.  Moore  says  that  it  was  "the  only  great  victory  since  the  days  of 
Brian  Boru,  achieved  by  an  Irish  chieftain  in  the  cause  of  Ireland." 

BENCOOLEN  (Sumatra).  The  English  East  India  Company  made  a  settlement  here 
which  preserved  to  them  the  pepper  trade  after  the  Dutch  had  dispossessed  them  of  Bantam, 
1682.  Anderson.  York  Fort  was  erected  by  the  East  India  Company,  1690.  In  1693  a 
dreadful  mortality  raged  here,  occasioned  by  the  town  being  built  on  a  pestilent  morass  : 
among  others  the  governor  and  council^perished.  The  French,  under  count  D'Estaign, 
destroyed  the  English  settlement,  1760.  Bencoolen  was  reduced  to  a  residency  under  the 
government  of  Bengal,  in  1801,  and  was  ceded  to  the  Dutch  in  1825,  in  exchange  for  their 
possessions  in  Malacca.  See  India. 

BENDER  (Bessarabia,  European  Russia)  is  memorable  as  the  asylum  of  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden,  after  his  defeat  at  Pultowa  by  the  czar  Peter  the  Great,  July  8,  1 709.  The  peace  of 
Bender  was  concluded  in  1711.  Bender  was  taken  by  storm,  by  the  Russians,  in  Sept. 
1770  ;  was  again  taken  by  Potemkin  in  1789,  and  again  stormed  in  1809.  It  was  restored 
at  the  peace  of  Jassy,  but  retained  at  the  peace  of  1812. 

BENEDICTINES,  an  order  of  monks  founded  by  St.  Benedict  "(lived  480— 543 \  who 
introduced  the  monastic  life  into  western  Europe,  in  529,  when  he  founded  the  monastery 
on  Monte  Cassino  in  Campania,  and  eleven  others  afterwards.  His  Eegula  Monachorum  (rule 
of  the  monks)  soon  became  the  common  rule  of  western  monachism.  No  religious  order  has 
been  so  remarkable  for  extent,  wealth,  and  men  of  note  and  learning,  as  the  Benedictine. 
Among  its  branches  the  chief  were  the  Cistercians,  founded  in  1098,  and  reformed  by  St. 
Bernard,  abbot  of  Clairvaux,  in  1116  ;  and  the  Carthusians,  from  the  Chartreux  (hence 
Charter-house),  founded  by  Bruno  about  1084.  The  Benedictine  order  was  introduced  into 
England  by  Augustin,  in  596  ;  and  William  I.  built  an  abbey  for  it  on  the  plain  where  the 

*  The  bell  "Big  Ben,"  having  been  found  to  be  cracked  on  Oct.  24,  1857,  it  was  broken  up  and  another 
bell  cast  with  the  same  metal,  in  May,  1858,  by  Messrs.  Mears,  Whitechapel.  It  is  rather  different  in  shape 
to  its  predecessor,  "Big  Ben,"  and  about  2  tons  lighter.  Its  diameter  is  9  ft,  6  in.  ;  the  height  7  ft.  10  in. 
It  was  struck  for  the  first  time,  Nov.  18,  1858.  The  clapper  weighs  6  cwt. — half  that  of  the  fonner  bell. 
The  note  of  the  bell  is  E  natural ;  the  quarter-bells  being  G,  B,  E,  F.  On  Oct.  i,  1859,  this  bell  was  also 
found  to  be  cracked.  It  remains  in  this  state  (Sept.  1865). 

t  The  clapper  of  St.  Paul's  bell  weighs  180  Ibs.  ;  the  diameter  of  the  bell  is  10  feet,  and  its  thickness  10 
inches.  The  hour  strikes  upon  this  bell,  the  quarters  upon  two  smaller  ones.  See  Clocks. 

H  2 


BEN  100  BEO 

battle  of  Hastings  was  fought,  1066.  See  Battle- Abbey.  "William  de  "Warrenne,  earl  of 
Warrenne,  built  a  convent  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  in  1077.  "  At  Hammersmith  is  a  nunnery, 
whose  inmates  are  denominated  Benedictine  dames."  Leigh.  Of  this  order  it  is  reckoned 
that  there  have  been  40  popes,  200  cardinals,  50  patriarchs,  116  archbishops,  4600  bishops, 
4  emperors,  12  empresses,  46  kings,  41  queens,  and  3600  saints.  Their  founder  was 
canonised.  Baronius.  The  Benedictines  have  taken  little  part  in  politics,  but  have 
produced  many  valuable  works  :  especially  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur,  who  published  the 
celebrated  I" Art  de  Verifier  les  Dates,  in  1750,  and  edited  many  ancient  authors. 

BENEFICE  (literally  a  good  deed  or  favour),  on  FIEF.  Clerical  benefices  originated  in 
the  1 2th  century,  when  the  priesthood  began  to  [imitate  the  feudal  lay  system  of  holding 
lands  for  performing  certain  duties  :  till  then  the  priests  were  supported  by  alms  and  oblations 
at  mass.  Vicarages,  rectories,  perpetual  curacies,  and  chaplaincies,  are  termed  benefices,  in 
contradistinction  to  dignities,  bishoprics,  &c.  A  rector  is  entitled  to  all  the  tithes  ;  a  vicar, 
to  a  small  part  or  to  none.— All  benefices  that  should  become  vacant  in  the  space  of  six 
months,  were  given  by  pope  Clement  YII.  to  his  nephew,  in  1534.  Notitia  Monastica.  An 
act  for  the  augmentation  of  poor  benefices,  by  the  sale  of  some  of  those  in  the  presentation 
of  the  lord  chancellor,  was  passed  in  1863. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.     See  Clergy. 
BENEFIT  SOCIETIES.     See  Friendly  Societies. 

BENEVENTUM  (now  Benevento),  an  ancient  city  in  South  Italy,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Diomedes  the  Greek,  after  the  fall  of  Troy.  Pyrrhus  of  Macedon,  during  his 
invasion  of  Italy,  was  totally  defeated  near  Beneventum,  275  B.C.  Near  it  was  erected 
the  triumphal  arch  of  Trajan,  A.D.  114.  Benevento  was  formed  into  a  duchy  by  the 
Lombards,  571.  A.t  a  battle  fought  here,  Feb.  26,  1266,  Manfred,  king  of  Sicily,  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  thus  became  virtually  master  of  Italy.  The 
castle  was  built  1323  ;  the  town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  1688,  when  the 
archbishop,  afterwards  pope  Benedict  XIII.,  was  dug  out  of  the  ruins  alive,  and  contributed 
to  its  subsequent  rebuilding  again,  1703.  It  was  seized  by  the  king  of  Naples,  but  restored 
to  the  pope  on  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  1773.  Talleyrand  de  Perigord,  Bonaparte's 
arch-chancellor,  had  the  title  of  prince  of  Benevento  conferred  upon  him.  Benevento  was 
restored  to  the  pope  in  1814. 

BENEVOLENCES  (Aids,  Free  Gifts,  actually  Forced  Loans)  appear  to  have  been  claimed 
by  our  Anglo-Saxon  sovereigns.  Special  ones  were  levied  by  Edward  IV.  1473,  by  Richard 
III.  1485  (although  a  statute  forbidding  them  was  enacted  in  1484),  by  Henry  VII.  1492; 
and  by  James  I.  in  1613,  on  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  the  princess  Elizabeth  with  the  king 
of  Bohemia.  In  1615  Oliver  St.  John,  M.P.,  was  fined  5000?.,  and  chief  justice  Coke 
disgraced,  for  severely  censuring  such  modes  of  raising  money.  Benevolences  were  declared 
illegal  by  the  bill  of  rights,  Feb.  1689. 

BENGAL,  the  chief  presidency  of  British  India,  containing  Calcutta,  the  capital.  It 
was  ruled  by  governors  delegated  by  the  sovereigns  of  Delhi,  till  1340,  when  it  became 
independent.  It  was  added  to  the  Mogul  empire  by  Baber,  about  1529.  See  India  and 

Calcutta. 

The  English  first  permitted  to  trade  to  Bengal  1534  '  India  Bill;  Bengal  made  the  chief  presidency  ; 
'  They  establish  a  settlement  at  Hooghly  about  1652  supreme  court  of  judicature  established 
Factories  of  the  French  and  Danes  set  up .  .  1664  June  16,  1773 

Bengal  made  a  distinct  agency      .         .         .     .  1680  •  Bishop  of  Calcutta  appointed        .        .  July  21,  1813 

The  English  settlement  removed  to  Hooghly    .   1698  |  Railway  opened Aug.  15,  1854 

Imperial  grant  vesting  the  revenues  of  Bengal 

in  the    company,   by  which  it    gained  the  See  India. 

sovereignty  of  the  country     .         .     Aug.  12,  1765 

BENZOLE,  a  compound  of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  discovered  by  Faraday  in  oils  (1825), 
&nd  by  C.  B.  Mansfield  in  coal  tar  (1849),  the  latter  of  whom  unfortunately  died  in  con- 
sequence of  being  severely  burnt  while  experimenting  on  it  (Feb.  25,  1855).  Benzole  has 
become  useful  in  the  arts.  Chemical  research  has  produced  from  it  aniline  (which  see],  the 
source  of  the  celebrated  modern  dyes,  mauve,  magenta,  &c. 

BEOWULF,  an  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  epic  poem,  describing  events  which  probably 
occurred  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  century,  and  supposed  to  have  been  written  subsequent 
to  597.  An  edition  by  Kemble  was  published  in  1833.  It  has  been  translated  by  Kenible, 
Thorpe,  and  Wackerbath. 


BER  101 


BERBICE  (British  Guiana,  S.  America),  settled  by  the  Dutch,  who  surrendered  it  to  the 
British,  April  23,  1796,  and  again  Sept.  22,  1803.  It  was  finally  ceded  to  England  in 
1814. 

BERENGARIANS,  followers  of  Berenger,  or  Berengavius,  archdeacon  of  Angers,  a 
learned  man,  who  about  1049  uttered  opinions  opposed  to  the  Romish  doctrine  of  trausub- 
stantiation  or  the  real  presence  in  the  Lord's  supper.  Several  councils  of  the  church  were 
held  condemning  his  doctrine.  After  much  controversy  he  recanted  about  1058.  He 
died  grieved  and  wearied  in  1088. 

BERESINA,  a  river  in  Russia,  crossed  by  the  French  main  army  after  its  defeat  by  the 
Russians,  Nov.  25-29,  1812.  The  French  lost  upwards  of  20,000  men,  and  their  retreat  was 
attended  by  great  calamity  and  suffering. 

BERG  (W.  Germany),  on  the  extinction  of  the  line  of  its  counts,  in  1348,  was  incorporated 
with  Juliers.  Napoleon  I.  made  Murat  grand-duke  in  1806.  The  principal  part  is  now  held 
by  Prussia. 

BERGEN  (in  Germany),  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French  and  allies,  the  latter  defeated, 
April  13,  1759. — (In  HOLLAND)  The  allies  under  the  duke  of  York  were  defeated  by  the 
French,  under  gen.  Brune,  with  great  loss,  Sept.  19,  1799.  In  another  battle,  fought  Oct. 
2,  same  year,  the  duke  gained  the  victory  over  Brune ;  but  on  the  6th,  the  duke  was 
defeated  before  Alkmaer,  and  on  the  2Oth  entered  into  a  convention,  by  which  he  exchanged 
his  army  for  6000  French  and  Dutch  prisoners  in  England. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,  in  Holland.  This  place,  whose  works  were  deemed  impregnable, 
was  taken  by  the  French,  Sept.  16,  1747,  and  again  in  1794.  An  attempt  made  by  the 
British  under  general  sir  T.  Graham  (afterwards  lord  Lynedoch),  to  carry  the  fortress  by 
storm,  was  defeated ;  after  forcing  an  entrance,  their  retreat  was  cut  off,  and  a  dreadful 
slaughter  ensued  ;  nearly  all  were  cut  to  pieces  or  made  prisoners,  March  8,  1814. 

BERKELEY  CASTLE,  Gloucestershire,  was  begun  by  Henry  I.  in  1108,  and  finished  in 
the  next  reign.  Here  Edward  II.  was  cruelly  murdered  by  the  contrivance  of  his  queen 
Isabella  (a  princess  of  France),  and  her  paramour,  Mortimer,  earl  of  March,  Sept.  21,  1327. 
Mortimer  was  hanged  at  the  Elms,  near  London,  Nov.  29,  1330  ;  and  Edward  III.  confined 
his  mother  in  her  own  house  at  Castle  Rising,  near  Lynn,  in  Norfolk,  till  her  death. 

BERLIN  (capital  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg),  was  founded  by  the  mar- 
grave Albert,  surnained  the  Bear,  about  1163.  Its  five  districts  were  united  under  one 
magistracy,  in  1714  ;  and  it  was  subsequently  made  the  capital  of  Prussia.  It  was  taken  by 
an  army  of  Russians,  Austrians,  and  Saxons,  in  1760  ;  but  they  were  obliged  to  retire  in  a 
few  days.  On  Oct.  27,  1806,  after  the  battle  of  Jena  (Oct.  14),  the  French  entered  Berlin  ; 
and  from  this  place  Napoleon  issued  the  famous  Berlin  decree  or  interdict  against  the  com- 
merce of  England,  Nov.  20.  It  declared  the  British  islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade, 
and  ordered  all  Englishmen  found  in  countries  occupied  by  French  troops  to  be  treated  as 
prisoners  of  war.  On  Nov.  5,  1808,  Napoleon  entered  into  a  convention  with  Prussia,  by 
which  he  remitted  to  Russia  the  sum  due  on  the  war-debt,  and  withdrew  many  of  his  troops 
to  reinforce  his  armies  in  Spain.  An  insurrection  commenced  here  in  March  1848.  Berlin 
was  declared  in  a  state  of  siege,  Nov.  1848.  The  continuation  of  this  state  of  siege  was 
declared  to  be  illegal  without  its  concurrence  by  the  lower  chamber,  April  25,  1849.  The 
railway  to  Magdeburg  was  opened,  Sept.  10,  1841.  The  first  constituent  assembly  was  held 
here  on  June  21,  1842. 

BERMUDAS,  OR  SOMERS'  ISLES,  a  group  in  the  North  Atlantic  ocean,  discovered  by 
Joao  Bermudas,  a  Spaniard,  in  1522  or  1527,  but  not  inhabited  until  1609,  when  sir  George 
Somers  was  cast  away  upon  them.  They  were  settled  by  a  statute  9  James  I.  1612.  Among 
the  exiles  from  England  during  the  civil  war,  was  Waller,  the  poet,  who  wrote,  while  resi- 
dent here,  a  poetical  description  of  the  islands.  There  was  an  awful  hurricane  here,  Oct.  31, 
1780,  and  another,  by  which  a  third  of  the  houses  was  destroyed,  and  all  the  shipping  driven 
ashore,  July  20,  1813. 

BERNAL  COLLECTION  of  articles  of  taste  and  virtu,  formed  by  Ralph  Bernal,  Esq., 
many  years  chairman  of  committees  of  ways  and  means  in  the  house  of  commons.  He  died 
Aug.  26,  1854.  The  sale  in  March,  1856,  lasted  31  days,  and  enormous  prices  were  given. 
The  total  sum  realised  was  62,680?.  65.  Sd. 

BERNARD,  MOUNT  ST.,  so  called  from  a  monastery  founded  on  it  by  Bernardine 
Menthon  in  962.  Yelan,  its  highest  peak,  is  about  8000  feet  high,  covered  with  perpetual 
snow.  Hannibal,  it  is  said,  conducted  the  Carthaginian  army  by  this  pass  into  Italy 


/\   i:  ;  BER  102  BHO 

(218  B.C.);  and  it  was  by  the  same  route,  in  May,  1800,  that  Bonaparte  led  his  troops  to 
the  plains  of  Lombardy,  before  the  battle  of  Marengo,  fought  June  14,  1800.  On  the 
summit  of  Great  St.  Bernard  is  a  large  community  of  monks,  who  entertain  travellers  in 
their  convent. 

BERNARDINES,  a  strict  order  of  Cistercian  monks,  established  by  St.  Bernard,  of 
Clairvaux,  about  1115.  He  founded  seventy- two  monasteries. 

BERNE,  the  sovereign  canton  of  Switzerland,  joined  the  Swiss  League  1352  ;  the  town 
Berne  surrendered  to  the  French  under  general  Brune,  April  12,  1798.  The  town  has  bears 
for  its  arms,  and  some  of  these  animals  are  still  maintained  on  funds  specially  provided  for 
the  purpose. 

BERRY,  an  ancient  province  (Biturigum  regis],  central  France,  held  by  the  Romans 
since  the  conquest  of  Gaul  by  Csesar  (58—50  B.C.)  till  it  was  subdued  by  the  Visigoths; 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  Clovis  in  507.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  by  John  in  1360, 
and  was  not  incorporated  into  the  royal  domains  till  1601  ;  since  then  the  title  of  duke  has 
been  merely  nominal. 

BERSAGLIERI,  the  sharpshooters  of  the  Sardinian  army,  first  employed  about  1848. 

BERWICK-ON-TWEED,  a  fortified  town  on  the  north-east  extremity  of  England.  It 
has  been  the  theatre  of  many  bloody  contests  between  the  English  and  Scots  ;  and  while 
England  and  Scotland  remained  two  kingdoms,  wras  always  claimed  by  the  Scots  as  belonging 
to  them,  because  it  stood  on  their  side  of  the  river.  It  was  taken  from  the  Scots,  and  annexed 
to  England  in  1333  ;  and  after  having  been  taken  and  retaken  many  times,  was  finally  ceded 
to  England  in  1482.  In  1551  it  was  made  independent  of  both  kingdoms.  The  town, 
surrendered  to  Cromwell  in  1648,  and  afterwards  to  general  Monk  in  1659.  Since  the  union 
of  the  crowns  (James  I.  1603),  the  fortifications,  which  were  formerly  very  strong,  have  been 
much  neglected. 

BESSARABIA,  a  frontier  province  of  European  Russia,  part  of  the  ancient  Dacia.  After 
being  possessed  by  the  Goths,  Huns,  &c.,  it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1474,  and  ceded 
to  Russia  in  1812. 

BETHLEHEM  (Syria)  now  contains  a  large  convent,  enclosing,  as  is  said,  the  very  birth- 
place of  Christ ;  a  church  erected  by  the  empress  Helena,  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  about 
325  ;  a  chapel,  called  the  Chapel  of  the  Nativity,  where  they  pretend  to  show  the  manger  in 
which  Christ  was  laid  ;  another,  called  the  Chapel  of  Joseph  ;  and  a  third,  of  the  Holy 
Innocents.  Bethlehem  is  much  visited  by  pilgrims. — The  Bethlehemite  monks  existed  in 
England  in  1257. 

BETHLEHEM  HOSPITAL  (so  called  from  having  been  originally  the  hospital  of  St. 
Mary  of  Bethlehem),  a  royal  foundation  for  the  reception  of  lunatics,  incorporated  by  Henry 
VIII.  in  1546.  The  old  Bethlehem  Hospital,  Moorfields,  erected  in  1675,  pulled  down  in  1814, 
was  built  in  imitation  of  the  Tuileries  at  Paris.  The  present  hospital  in  St.  George' s-fields 
was  begun  April,  1812,  and  opened  in  1815.  In  1856  extensive  improvements  were 
completed  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Sydney  Smirk,  costing  between  nine  and  ten 
thousand  pounds. 

BETTING-HOUSES,  affording  much  temptation  to  gaming,  and  consequent  dis- 
honesty, in  the  lower  classes,  were  suppressed  by  an  act  passed  in  1853  (16  &  17  Viet.  c.  119), 
a  penalty  of  lool.  being  enforced  on  the  owners  or  occupiers. 

BEYROUT  (the  ancient  Berytus),  a  seaport  of  Syria,  colonised  from  Sidon.  It  was 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  566  ;  was  rebuilt,  and  was  alternately  possessed  by  the 
Christians  and  Saracens  ;  and  after  a  frequent  change  of  masters,  fell  into  the  power  of 
Amurath  IV.,  since  when  it  remained  with  the  Ottoman  empire  up  to  the  revolt  of  Ibrahim, 
Pacha,  in  1832.  The  total  defeat  of  the  Egyptian  army  by  the  allied  British,  Turkish,  and 
Austrian  forces,  and  evacuation  of  Beyrout  (the  Egyptians  losing  7000  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  prisoners,  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon),  took  place  Oct.  10,  1840.  Sir  C.  Napier  was 
the  English  admiral  engaged.  Beyrout  suffered  greatly  in  consequence  of  the  massacres  in 
Syria  in  May  1860.  In  Nov.  1860  above  2 7,000  persons  were  said  to  be  in  danger  of  starving. 
See  Syria. 

BHOOTAN,  a  country  north  of  Lower  Bengal,  with  whom  a  treaty  was  made  April  25, 
1774.  After  fruitless  negotiations,  Bhootan  was  invaded  by  the  British  in  Dec.  1864,  in 
consequence  of  injurious  treatment  of  an  envoy.  See  India,  1864-5. 


BHU 


103 


BIB 


BHURTPORE  (India),  capital  of  Bhurtpore,  was  besieged  by  the  British,  Jan.  3,  1805, 
and  attacked  five  times  up  to  March  21,  without  success.  The  fortress  was  taken  by  general 
Lake,  after  a  desperate  engagement  with  Holkar,  the  Mahratta  chief,  April  2,  1805.  The 
defeat  of  Holkar  led  to  a  treaty,  by  which  the  rajah  of  Bhurtpore  agreed  to  pay  twenty  lacs 
of  rupees,  and  ceded  the  territories  that  had  been  granted  to  him  by  a  former  treaty, 
delivering  up  his  son  as  hostage,  April  17,  1805.  On  the  rajah's  death,  during  a  revolt 
against  his  son,  Bhurtpore  was  taken  by  storm,  by  lord  Combermere,  Jan.  18,  1826.  See 
India. 

BIANCHI  (Whites),  a  political  party  at  Florence,  in  1300,  in  favour  of  the  Ghibelines 
or  imperial  party,  headed  by  Vieri  de'  Cerchi,  opposed  the  Neri  (or  Blacks),  headed  by 
Corso  de'  Donati.  The  latter  expelled  their  opponents,  among  whom  was  the  poet  Dante, 
in  1301. 

BIARCHY.  When  Aristodemus,  king  of  Sparta,  died,  ho  left  two  sons,  twins,  Eury- 
stheues  and  Procles  ;  and  the  people  not  knowing  to  whom  precedence  should  be  given, 
placed  both  upon  the  throne,  and  thus  established  the  first  biarchy,  1102  B.C.  The  descen- 
dants of  each  reigned  alternately  for  800  years.  Herodotus. 

BIARRITZ,  a  bathing-place,  near  Bayonne.  Here  resided  the  comtesse  de  Montijo  and 
her  daughter  Eugenie,  now  empress  of  the  French,  till  her  marriage  Jan.  29,  1853  ;  since 
when  it  has  been  annually  visited  by  the  emperor  and  empress. 

BIBERACH  (Wurtemberg).  Here  Moreau  twice  defeated  the  Austrians, — under  Latour, 
Oct.  2,  1796,  and  under  Kray,  May  9,  1800. 

BIBLE  (from  the  Greek  biblos,  a  book),  the  name  especially  given  to  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
The  Old  Testament  is  said  to  have  been  collected  and  arranged  by  Ezra  between  458  and 
450  B.C.  The  Apocrypha  are  considered  as  inspired  writings  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  but 
not  by  the  Jews  and  Protestants.*  See  Apocrypha. 


OLD  TESTAMENT,  f 

Genesis   contains   the  history 

of  the  world  from  B.C.  4004 — 1635 
Exodus        .        .        .     1635 — 1490 
Leviticus         .         .     .     1490 
Numbers      .        .        .     1490 — 1451 
Deuteronomy.-        .     .     1451 
Job       >        .          about  1520 
Joshua      .        .      from  1451—1420 
Judges  ....  1425 — 1120 
Ruth         .        .        .     .   1322 — 1312 
ist  and  2nd  Samuel     .  1171 — 1017 
ist  and  and  Kings   .     .   1015 —  562 
ist  and  2nd  Chronicles  1004 —  536 
Book  of  Psalms  (princi- 
pally by  David)     .     .   1063 — 1015 
Proverbs  written  about  1000 —  700 
Song  of  Solomon  about  1014 
Ecclesiastcs        .  about    977 
Jonah.        .        .  about    862 
Joel        .        .    .  about    800 


Hosea    . 

Amos 

Isaiah    . 

Micah 

Nahum  . 

Zephaniah 

Jeremiah 

Lamentations 

Habakkuk    . 

Daniel 

Ezekiel 

Obadiah   .f 

Ezra 

Esther       . 

Haggai    . 

Zechariah 

Nehemiah 

Malachi 


about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
from 

about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
about 


785—725 

787 

760—698 

750—710 

630 


626 

607— 534 
595—574 

536—456 

521—495 

520 

520 — 518 

446—434 

397 


NEW   TESTAMENT. 

GOSPELS  by  Matthew,  Mark, 


Luke,  and  John.  B.C.  5 — A.D.  33 

Acts  of  the  Apostles  .  A,D.  33 — 65 

EPISTLES — ist  and  2nd  to  Thes- 

salonians        .        .       about    54 

Galatians       .        .        .     .     58 

ist  Corinthians  .  .     59 

snd  Corinthians    .        .     .    60 

Romans      ....     60 

Of  James 60 

ist  of  Peter   ....     60 
To  Ephesians,   Philippians, 
Colossians,    Hebrews, 
Philemon    .        .        .64 
Titus  and  ist  to  Timothy    65 
and  to  Timothy     .        .     .     66 
2nd  of  Peter  .        .        .        .66 
OfJude     .        .        .        :    .    66 
ist,  2nd,  and  3rd  of  John 

after    90 
Revelation        •       .       •       .    96 


he  most  ancient  copy  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
existed  at  Toledo,  called  the  Codex  of  Hillel  ;  it 
was  of  very  early  date,  probably  of  the  4th  century 
after  Christ,  some  say  about  60  years  before  Christ. 
The  copy  of  Ben  Asher,  of  Jerusalem,  was  made 
about  1 1  oo. 

he  oldest  copy  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  in 
Grctk,  is  that  in  the  Vatican,  which  was  written 
in  the  4th  or  sth  century,  and  published  in  1586. 
The  next  in  age  is  the  Alexandrian  Codex  (referred 
to  the  sth  century)  in  the  British  Museum,  pre- 
sented by  the  Greek  patriarch  to  Charles  I.  in 


1628.  It  has  been  printed  in  England,  edited  by 
"Woide  and  Baber,  1786 — 1821. — Codex  Ephraerni, 
or  Codex  Regius,  ascribed  to  the  sth  century,  in 
the  Royal  Library,  Paris :  published  by  Tischen- 
dorf  in  1843. 

The  Hebrew  Psalter  was  printed  at  Bologna  in  1477. 
The  complete  Hebrew  Bible  was  first  printed  by 
Soncino  in  Italy  in  1488,  and  the  Greek  Testament 
(edited  by  Erasmus)  at  Rotterdam,  in  1516.  Aldus's 
edition  was  printed  in  1518;  Stephens'  in  1546; 
and  the  textus  receptus.  (or  received  text)  by  the 
Elzevirs  in  1624. 


*  In  April,  1865,  was  published  a  proposal  for  raising  a  fund  for  exploring  Palestine  in  order  to 
illustrate  the  Bible  by  antiquarian  and  scientific  investigation.  The  first  meeting  was  held  June  22,  1865, 
the  archbishop  of  York  in  the  chair. 

t  The  division  of  the  Bible  into  chapters  has  been  ascribed  to  archbishop  Lanfranc  in  the  nth  and  to 
archbishop  Langton  in  the  1 3th  century ;  but  T.  Hartwell  Home  considers  the  real  author  to  have  been 
cardinal  Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro,  about  the  middle  of  the  i3th  century.  The  division  into  sections  was 
commenced  lay  Rabbi  Nathan  (author  of  a  Concordance),  about  1445,  and  completed  by  Athras,  a  Jew,  in 
1661.  The  present  division  into  verses  was  introduced  by  the  celebrated  printer,  Robert  Stephens,  in  his 
Greek  Testament  (1551)  and  in  his  Latin  Bible  (1556-7). 


BIB 


104 


BIB 


BIBLE,  continued. 

TRANSLATIONS.  I 

The  Old  Testament,  in  Greek,  termed  the  Septuagint  \ 
(which  see),  generally  considered  to  have  been  made  I 
by  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt,  I 
about  286  or  285  B.C.  ;  of  this  many  fabulous  ac- 
counts are  given. 

Origen,  after  spending  twenty-eight  years  in  col- 
lating MSS.,  commenced  his  polyglot  Bible  at 
Cassarea  in  A.D.  231 ;  it  contained  the  Greek  ver- 
sions of  Aquila,  Bymmachus,  and  Theodotion,  all 
made  in  or  about  the  2iid  century  after  Christ. 

The  following  are  ancient  versions  : — Syriac,  ist  or 
and  century ;  the  old  Latin  version,  early  in 
the  2nd  century,  revised  by  Jerome,  in  384 ;  who, 
however,  completed  a  new  version  in  405,  now 
called  the  VULGATE,  which  see;  the  first  edition 
was  printed  in  1462  ; — Coptic,  2nd  or  3rd  century  ; 
Ethiopia  ;  Armenian,  4th  or  sth  century  ;  Sclavonic, 
gth  century  ;  and  the  Mceso-Gothic,  by  Ulfilas, 
about  370,  a  manuscript  copy  of  which,  called  the 
Codex  Argenteus,  is  at  Upsal.  The  Psalms  were 
translated  into  Saxon  by  bishop  Aldhelm,  about 
706;  and  the  Gospels  by  bishop  Egbert,  about 
721  ;  the  whole  Bible  by  Bede,  in  the  loth 
century. 

ENGLISH  VERSIONS   AND   EDITIONS.* 

MS.    paraphrase   of   the   whole   Bible   at    the 
Bodleian  Library,  Oxford,  dated  by  Usher    .  1290 


Versions  (from  the  Vulgate)  by  Wickliffe  and 
bis  followers  about 1380- 

[Part  published  by  Lewis,  1731 ;  by  Baber,  1810 ; 
the  whole  by  Madden  and  Forshall,  1850.] 

William  Tyndale's  version  of  Matthew  and  Mark 
from  the  Greek,  1524 ;  of  the  whole  New  Testa- 
ment    1525  or  1526 

Miles  Coverdale's  version  of  the  whole  Bible     .   1535 

[Ordered  by  Henry  VIII.  to  be  laid  in  the  choir 
of  every  church,  ' '  for  every  man  that  would 
to  look  and  read  therein."] 

T.  Matthews'  (fictitious  name  for  John  Rogers) 
version  (partly  by  Tyndale  f  and  Coverdale)  .  1537 

Cranmer's  Great  Bible  (Matthews'  revised)        .  1539 

Geneva  version  (the  first  with  figured  verses) 

1540—1557 

Archbishop  Parker's,  called  "The  Bishop's 
Bible "  (eight  of  the  fourteen  persons  em- 
ployed being  bishops) 1 568 

King  James'  Bible, }  the  present  authorised  ver- 
sion— Translation  began  1604  ;  published  .  i6it 

Roman  Catholic  authorised  version  :  New  Tes- 
tament, at  Rheims,  1582  ;  Old  Testament,  at 
Douay 1609-10 

Dr.  Benjamin  Blayney's  revised  edition     .         .  1769 

Authorised  Jewish  English  version  .        .     .    1851-61 


N.  TEST. 

Flemish  .        .        .        .A 

BIBLE. 
D.    1477 

N.  TEST. 

Italian    . 

BIBLE.  , 
I47I 

N.  TEST. 

Irish       .         .               1602 

BIBLK 
1686 

Spanish  (Valencian) 
German  .         .               1522 

1478 
1530 

Spanish      , 
Russian  (parts) 

1543 
1519 

1569 
1822 

Georgian    . 
Portuguese     . 

1712 

1743 
I748 

English 

1526 

*53S 

Welsh 

1567 

1588 

Manks 

1748 

1767 

French   . 

1512 

1530 

Hungarian     . 

*574 

1589! 

Turkish  . 

1666 

1814 

Swedish     . 

1526 

I54I 

Bohemian  . 

1488  ; 

Sanscrit 

1808 

1822 

Danish    . 

1524 

Polish     . 

IS5I 

1561  i 

Modern  Greek 

1638 

1821 

Dutch 

1560 

Virginian  Indians 

1661 

1663  | 

Chinese     . 

.     1814 

1823 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  continue  to  make  and  print  translations  of  the  Bible 
in  all  the  dialects  of  the  world.     See  Polyglot. 

BIBLE  DICTIONARIES.  The  most  remarkable  are  Calmet's  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible," 
1722-8  ;  Kitto's  "Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical  Literature,"  1843  ;  and  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible/'  1860.  See  Concordances.^ 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.  Among  the  principal  and  oldest  societies  which  have  made  the 
dissemination  of  the  Scriptures  a  collateral  or  an  exclusive  object,  are  the  following  : — The 
Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  was  formed  1698  ;  Society  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  1701  ;  Society  in  Scotland,  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge, 
1 709  ;  Society  for  Promoting  Religious  Knowledge  among  the  Poor,  1 750  ;  Naval  and 
Military  Bible  Society,  1780;  Sunday  School  Society,  1785;  French  Bible  Society,  1792; 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  1804  ;§  Hibernian  Bible  Society,  1806  ;  City  of  London 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society,  1812.  A  bull  from  the  Pope  against  Bible  Societies  appeared  in  1817. 

BIB  LI  A  PAUPERUM  (the  Bible  for  the  Poor),  consisting  of  engravings  illustrating 
scripture  history,  with  texts,  carved  in  wood,  a  "block  book,"  printed  early  in  the  I5th 
century,  was  compiled  by  Bonaventura,  general  of  the  Franciscans,  about  1260.  A  fac- 
simile was  published  by  J.  Russell  Smith,  in  1859. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY,  the  Science  of  Books.  Gesner's  "  Bibliotheca  Universale  "  appeared 
in  1545  :  and  De  Bure's  "Bibliographic  Instructive"  in  1763.  The  following  works  on  this 
subject  are  highly  esteemed  :  Peignot,  Manuel,  1823  ;  Home,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 

*  "  The  Bible  of  Every  Land,"  ed.  1860,  published  by  Messrs.  Bagsters,  London,  is  full  of  information 
respecting  ancient  and  modern  versions  of  the  Bible. 

t  He  was  strangled  at  Antwerp  in  1536,  at  the  instigation  of  Henry  VIII.  and  his  council.  His  last 
words  were,  "Lord,  open  the  king  of  England's  eyes!"  14  editions  of  his  Testament  had  then  been 
published. 

J  An  "  Index  to  the  Persons,  Places,  and  Subjects  occurring  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  by  B.  Vincent, 
editor  of  the  present  work,  is  sold  by  the  Queen's  printers. 

§  At  the  end  of  1850  this  society  had  issued  24,247,667  copies  of  the  Bible  or  parts  of  it ;  in  May,  1863, 
the  number  had  risen  to  43,044,334.  In  1857  they  published  a  catalogue  of  their  library,  which  contains  a 
large  number  of  remarkable  editions  of  the  Bible. 


BIB  105  BIL 


Bibliography,  1814  ;  Scriptural,  Orme,  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  1824 ;  Darling,  Cyclopaedia 
Bibliographica,  1854-8  ;  Classical,  the  works  of  Fabricius,  Clarke,  and  Dibdin  ;  English, 
Watts'  Bibliotlieea  Britanniea,  1824  ;  Lowndes,  Manual,  1834  (new  edition  by  Bohn, 
1857-64)  ;  French,  Querard,  1828-64  5  Brunet's  Manuel  du  Libraire  (first  published  in  1810) 
is  exceedingly  valuable  :  the  5th  edition,  1862-5  ;  British  Catalogues,  by  Sampson  Low, 
1835-62.. 

BIBLIOMANIA  (or  book-madness)  very  much  prevailed  in  1811,  when  Dr.  Dibdin's 
work  with  this  title  was  published.  See  Boccaccio. 

BIDASSOA.  The  allied  army  under  lord  "Wellington,  having  driven  the  French  from 
Spain,  effected  the  passage  of  this  river,  Oct.  8,  1813,  and  entered  France. 

BIDDENDEN  MAIDS.  A  distribution  of  bread,  and  cheese  to  the  poor  takes  place  at 
Biddenden,  Kent,  on  Easter  Sundays,  the  expense  being  defrayed  from  the  rental  of  twenty 
acres  of  land,  the  reputed  bequest  of  the  Biddenden  maids,  two  sisters  named  Chalkhurst, 
who,  tradition  states,  were  born  joined  together  by  the  hips,  and  shoulders,  in  iioo,  and 
having  lived  in  that  state  to  the  age  of  thirty-four,  died  within  six  hours  of  each  other. 
Cakes,  bearing  a  corresponding  impression  of  the  figures  of  two  females,  are  given  on  Easter 
day  to  all  who  ask  for  them.  Hasted  deems  this  tale  fabulous,  and  states  that  the  print  on 
the  cakes  is  of  modern  origin,  and  that  the  land  was  given  by  two  maiden  ladies  named 
Preston.  See  Siamese  Twins. 

BIGAMY.  The  Romans  branded  the  guilty  party  with  an  infamous  mark ;  with  us 
the  punishment  of  this  offence,  formerly,  was  death.  The  first  act  respecting  it  was  passed 
5  Edw.  I.  1276.  Viner's  Statutes.  Declared  to  be  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy,  i  James 
I.  1603.  Subjected  to  the  same  punishments  as  grand  or  petit  larceny,  35  Geo.  III.  1794. 
Now  punished,  according  to  circumstances,  by  imprisonment  or  transportation. 

BIG  BETHEL  (Virginia,  U.S.).  On  June  10,  1861,  the  Federals  were  defeated  in  an 
attack  on  some  Confederate  batteries  at  this  place. 

BILBOA  (N.E.  Spain),  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1795.  This  place,  which  had 
been  invested  by  the  Carlists  under  Villareal,  and  was  in  considerable  danger,  was  delivered 
by  the  defeat  of  the  besiegers  by  Espartero,  assisted  by  British  naval  co-operation,  Dec.  24, 
1836.  Espartero  entered  Bilboa  in  triumph  next  day." 

BILL  OF  EXCEPTION'S.  The  right  of  tendering  to  a  judge  upon  a  trial  between  parties 
a  bill  of  exceptions  to  his  charge,  his  definition  of  the  law,  or  to  remedy  other  errors  of  the 
court,  was  provided  by  the  2nd  statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edw.  I.  1284.  Such  bills  are 
tendered  to  this  day. 

BILL  OF  PAINS,  &c.   See  Queen  Caroline's  Trial.     BILL  OF  RIGHTS,  &c.     See  Rights. 

BILLIARDS.  The  French  ascribe  their  invention  to  Henrique  Devigne,  an  artist  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  about  1571.  Slate  billiard  tables  were  introduced  in  England 
in  1827. 

BILLINGSGATE,  the  celebrated  market-place  for  fish  in  London,  is  said  to  have  derived 
its  name  from  Belinus  Magnus,  a  British  prince,  the  father  of  king  Lud,  400  B.C.,  but  Stow 
thinks  from  a  former  owner.  Mortimer.  It  was  the  old  port  of  London,  and  the  customs 
were  paid  here  under  Ethelred  II.,  A.D.  979.  Stow.  Billingsgate  was  made  a  perfect  free  market, 
1669.  Chamberlain.  Fish  by  land- carriage,  as  well  as  seaborne,  now  arrives  daily  here. 
In  1849,  the  market  was  very  greatly  extended  and  improved,  and  is  now  well  cleaned, 
lighted,  and  ventilated. 

BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE  were  invented  by  the  Jews  as  a  means  of  removing  their 
property  from  nations  where  they  were  persecuted,  1160.  Anderson.  Bills  are  said  to  have 
been  used  in  England,  1307.  The  only  legal  mode  of  sending  money  from  England,  4 
Richard  II.  1381.  Regulated,  1698  ;  first  stamped,  1782  ;  duty  advanced,  1797  ;  again, 
June,  1801  ;  and  since.  It  was  made  capital  to  counterfeit  bills  of  exchange  in  1734.  In 
1825,  the  year  of  disastrous  speculations  in  bubbles,  it  was  computed  that  there  were 
400  millions  of  pounds  sterling  represented  by  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notes.  The 
present  amount  ^s  npt  supposed  to  exceed  50  millions.  The  many  statutes  regarding  bills  of 
exchange  were  consolidated  by  act  9  Geo.  IV.  1828.  Airact  regulating  bills  of  exchange 
passed  3  Viet.  July,  1839.  Great  alterations  were  made  in  the  law  on  the  subject  by  17  & 
18  Viet.  c.  83  (1854),  and  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  67  (1855). 

BILLS  OF  MORTALITY  FOR  LONDON.  These  bills  were  first  compiled  by  order  of 
Cromwell,  about  1538,  30  Hen.  VIII.,  but  in  a  more  formal  and  recognised  manner  in 


BIN 


106 


BIR 


1603,  after  the  great  plague  of  that  year.  No  complete  series  of  them  has  been  preserved. 
They  are  now  superseded  by  the  weekly  returns  of  the  registrar-general.  The  following 
show  the  numbers  at  decennial  periods  : — 


1780 
1790. 
1800 


1845 
i849 
1853 


Christenings.  Burials. 

.   16,634    •  •   20.507 

.     .  18,980  .     .    18,038 

..  19,176    .  .   23,068 


Births. 
502,303 
543>52i 
578,159 
612,391 


Deaths. 
356,634 
349,366 
440,839 
421,097 


Births. 
84,684 
86,833 


Christenings.       Burials. 

1810.        .     .  19,930  .     .  19,892     1840 
1820      .        .  26,158    .        .  19,348     1850, 

1830.        .    .  27,028  .     .  23,524 

IN   ENGLAND   AND    WALES. 

Births.  Deaths.  I 

1856    .        .  657,453  .        .  390,506  I  1861 

1858  .    .  655,481      .    .  449,656    1862 

1859  .        .  689,881  .        .  441,790    1863 

1860  '     .     .  684,048      .    .  422,721     1864 

IN   LONDON  AND   SUBURBS. 

Deaths.  Births. 


Christenings.       Burials. 
.  30,387    .        .  26,774 
•     •  39,973        •    •  36,947 


1858  (Females,  43,400).   88,620  (Females,  31,319)  63,* 


Births.  Deaths. 

.  696,406  .  .  436,114 

.712,684  .    .  436,573 

.  729,399  .  .  475,582 

•  739,763  •    •  495,520 

Deaths. 

1859  (Females,  45,367).  92,556  (Females,  30,166)  61,617 
1862  ....  97,114  .  .  .  66,950 
1864  ....  102,187  •  •  •  77,723 


BINARY  ARITHMETIC,  that  which  counts  by  twos,  for  expeditiously  ascertaining  the 
property  of  numbers,  and  constructing  tables,  was  invented  by  Baron  Leibnitz  of  Leipsic, 
the  celebrated  statesman,  philosopher,  and  poet,  1694.  MorerL 

BINOMIAL  ROOT,  in  Algebra,  composed  of  only  two  parts  connected  with  the  signs 
plus  or  minus  ;  a  term  first  used  by  Recorda,  about  1550,  when  he  published  his  Algebra. 
The  celebrated  binomial  theorem  of  Newton  was  first  mentioned  in  1688.  Hutton. 

BIOGRAPHY  (from  the  Greek  bios,  life,  and  grapho,  I  write),  defined  as  history  teaching 
by  example.  The  book  of  Genesis  contains  the  biography  of  the  patriarchs  ;  and  the  Gospels 
that  of  Christ.  Plutarch  wrote  the  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men  ;  Cornelius  Nepos,  Lives  of 
Military  Commanders ;  and  Suetonius,  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars  (all  three  in  the  first 
century  after  Christ);  Diogenes  Laertius,  Lives  of  the  Philosophers  (about  205). — Boswell's 
Life  of  Johnson  (published  in  1 790)  is  the  most  remarkable  English  biography. 

BIOLOGY,  a  name  given  to  the  science  of  life  and  living  things,  by  Treviramis,  of 
Bremen,  in  his  work  on  Physiology,  published  1802-22.  Biology  includes  zoology,  anthro- 
pology, and  ethnology,  which  see. 


BIRCH  TREE. 


The 


The  black  (Betula  nigra),  brought  from  North  America,  1736. 
birch  tree  known  as  the  Betula  pumila,  introduced  into  Kew-gardens,  England,  by  Mr. 
James  Gordon,  from  North  America,  1762.  The  tree  known  as  the  Birch  is  noAV  largely 
cultivated  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  Hardy's  Annals. 

BIRDS  were  divided  by  Linnaeus  into  six  orders  (1735)  ;  by  Blumenbach,  into  eight 
(1805)  ;  and  by  Cuvier,  into  six  (1817).  The  most  remarkable  works  on  birds  are  those 
published  by  John  Gould,  F.R.S.  ;  they  are  to  consist  of  about  31  folio  volumes  of  coloured 
plates,  &c.  Each  set  bound  will  cost  about  500^. 

BIRKENHEAD  (Cheshire),  a  prosperous  modern  town  on  the  Mersey,  immediately 
opposite  to  Liverpool.  The  great  dock  here  was  projected  by  Mr.  John  Laird,  constructed 
by  Mr.  Rendell,  and  opened  in  Aug.  1847  by  lord  Morpeth.  In  1861  Birkenhead  was  made 
a  parliamentary  borough,  and  Mr.  Laird  was  elected  first  representative.  Population  in  1831, 
200;  in  1861,  51,649.  See  Wrecks,  1852. 

BIRMAN  EMPIRE,  on  EMPIRE  OF  AVA.     See  Burmese  Empire  and  India. 

BIRMINGHAM,  formerly  Bromwicham  and  Brummegem  (Warwickshire),  existed  in  the 
reign  of  Alfred,  872  ;  and  belonged  to  the  Bermengehams,  at  Domesday  survey,  1086. 
There  were  "many  smythes  "  here  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  (Leland),  but  its  great 
importance  commenced  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  It  has  been  styled  "the  toyshop  of 
Europe." 

Grammar  school  founded 1552 

Besieged  and  taken  by  prince  Rupert  .  .  .  1643 
Button  manufactures  established  .  .  .  1689 
Soho  works  established  by  Matthew  Boulton 

about  1764 ;  and  steam  engine  works  about .  1774 
Birmingham  canal  was  originated . 


Riots    against    persons 
French  revolution   . 


.  1768 

commemorating   the 
.        .        .     July  14,  1791 


Theatre  destroyed  by  fire       .       .        Aug.  17,  1792 

More  commotions Nov.  1800 

Theatre  burnt Jan.  7,  1820 

Political  Union,  headed  by  T.  Attwood,  formed, 

Feb.  1831 
Birmingham  made  a  borough  by  Reform  Act   .  1832 

Town-hall  built 1833 

Political  Union  dissolved  itself  .        .    May  10,  1834 


BIR 


107 


BIS 


BIRMINGHAM,  continued. 

Birmingham  and  Liverpool  railway  opened  as 

the  Grand  Junction        .         .         .       July  4,  1837 
London  and  Birmingham  railway  opened  its 

entire  length        ....        Sept.  17,  1838 
Great  Chartist  riot ;  houses  bm-nt      .    July  15,  1839 
Town  incorporated,  and  Police  Act  passed        .     ,, 
Meeting  of  British  Association        .       Aug.  29,     ,, 

Queen's  College  incorporated 1843 

Corn  Exchange  opened       .        .        .      Oct.  27,  1847 
Meeting    of    British    Association   (and   time) 

Sept.  12,  1849 

Queen's  Cojlege  organised      .        .        .       Jan.  1853 
Public  park  opened  (ground  virtually  given  by 

Mr.  Adderley) Aug.  3,  1856 

New  music-hall  opened  ....  Sept.  3,    ,, 
Another  park  opened  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge, 


100,000   persons  present  (ground   given  by 
lord  Calthorpe)         .        .        .*      .      June  i,  1857 
Death  of  G.  F.  Muntz,  M  P.  .        .          July  30,     „ 
J.  Bright  elected  M.P.,  Aug.  10,  1857,  <fc  April,  1859 
The  Queen  and  Princo  Consort  visit  Birming- 
ham, Warwick,  &c.,  for  the  first  time,  and 
open  Aston  park         .        .        .    June  14-16,  1858 
The  Free  Library  opened  .        .        .       April  4,  1861 
Dreadful  factory  explosion  ;  9  killed  and  many 

injured         ....        .         June  23,  1862 
The  people's  park  purchased  by  the  corpora- 
tion     Sept.  1864 

New  Exchange  solemnly  opened    .        .  Jan.  2,  1865 
The  bank  of  Attwoods  and  Spooner  stop  pay- 
ment and  cause  much  distress       -.  March  10,    ,, 
Meeting    of    British   Association    (yrd    time) 

Sept.  6,    „ 


BIRTHS.  The  births  of  children  were  taxed  in  England,  viz.,  birth  of  a  duke  30?.,  of  a 
common  person  2s.,  7  "Will.  III.  1695.  Taxed  again,  1783.  The  instances  of  four  children 
at  a  birth  are  numerous  ;  but  it  is  recorded  that  a  woman  of  Konigsberg  had  five  children  at 
a  birth,  Sept.  3,  1784,  and  that  the  wife  of  Nelson,  a  journeyman  tailor,  of  Oxford-Market, 
London,  had  also  five  children  at  a  birth,  in  Oct.  1800.  See  Bills  of  Mortality  and  Registers. 
The  Queen  iisually  presents  a  small  sum  of  money  to  a  poor  woman  giving  birth  to  three  or 
more  children  at  one  time. 

BISHOP  (Greek  episcopos,  overseer),  a  name  given  by  the  Athenians  to  those  who  had 
the  inspection  of  the  city.  The  Jews  and  Romans  had  also  like  officers.  The  bishop  has 
the  government  of  church  affairs  in  a  certain  district.  St,  Peter,  styled  the  first  bishop  of 
Rome,  was  martyred  65.  The  episcopate  became  an  object  of  contention  about  144.  The 
title  of  pope  was  anciently  assumed  by  all  bishops,  and  was  exclusively  claimed  by  Gregory 
VII.  (1073-85). 

BISHOPS  IN  ENGLAND*  were  coeval  with  tho  introduction  of  Christianity.  The  see  of 
London  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Lucius,  king  of  Britain,  179. 


Bishops  made  barons 1072 

The  Congt!  d'Elire  of  the  king  to  choose  a  bishop 

originated  in  an  arrangement  of  king  J  ohn. 
Bishops    were    elected    by   the    king's    Congd 

d'Elire,  25  Hen.  VIII.  t      ....        'J534 
Bishops  to  rank  as  barons  by  stat.  31   Hen. 

VIII 1540 

Seven  were  deprived  for  being  married      .        .  1554 
Several  suffered  martyrdom  under  queen  Mary, 

See  Cranmer.  *555-6 

Bishops  excluded  from  voting  in  the  house  of 

peers  on  temporal  concerns,  16  Charles  I.       .  1640 
Several  committed  for  protesting  against  the 

legality  of  all  acts  of  parliament  passed  while 


they  remained  deprived  of  their  votes,  Dec.  28,  1641 
The  order  of  archbishops  and  bishops  abolished 

by  the  parliament      ....     Oct.  9,  1646 
Bishops  regain  their  seats        .        .        .     Nov.  1661 
Seven  sent  to  the  tower  for  not  reading  the 
king's  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience 
(intended  to  bring  the  Roman  Catholics  into 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  power),  June  8,  and 
tried  and  acquitted         .        .        June  29-30,  1688 
The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Dr.  Sancroft) 
and  five  bishops  (Bath  and  Wells,  Ely,  Glou- 
cester,   Norwich,     and    Peterborough)    sus- 
pended for  refusing  to  take  the    oaths  to 
William  and  Mary,  1689 ;  deprived         .        .  1690 


ENGLISH   BISHOPRICS. 


Sees.               Founded. 
London  (abpc.)    .  (?)     179 
York(a6pc.)      .  4th  cent. 
Sodor  and  Man  .  4th  cent. 
Llandaff    .        .  sth  cent. 
St.  David's  .    .  sth  cent. 
BangorJ  .         .  about  516 
St.  Asaph    .     .  about  560 
Canterbury      .        .     598 
London  (see  above)   .    609 
Rochester         .      •  .    604 

Sees.               Founded. 
East    Anglia    (after- 
wds.  Norwich,  1091)    630 
Lindisfarne,  or  Holy 
Island  (afterwards 
Durham,  995)  .     .    634 
West  Saxons  (after- 
wards Winchester, 
705)       .        .        .635 
Mercia     (afterwards 
Lichfield,  669)  .    .    656 

Sees.               Founded 
Hereford  .        .        .    676 
Worcester    .        .     .    680 
Lindisse  (afterwards 
Lincoln,  1067)  .     .      „ 
Sherborne  (afterwards 
Salisbury,  1042)    .     705 
Cornwall  (afterwards 
Devonshire,  after- 
wrds.  Exeter,  1050)    909 
Wells                         .      „ 

Sees. 
Bath     . 
Ely    . 
Carlisle 
Peterborough 
Gloucester  § 
Bristol!   . 
Chester 
Oxford      . 
Ripon  . 
Manchester 

*  Bishops  have  the  titles  of  Lord  and  Right  Rev.  Father  in  God.  The  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and 
York,  taking  place  of  all  dukes,  have  the  title  of  Grace.  The  bishops  of  London,  Durham,  and  Winchester 
have  precedence  of  all  bishops  ;  the  others  rank  according  to  seniority  of  consecration. 

t  Retirement  of  Bishops.  In  1856  the  bishops  of  London  and  Durham  retired  on  annuities.  The  new 
bishops  held  their  sees  subject  to  future  provision.  In  1857  tne  bishop  of  Norwich  also  resigned. 

t  An  order  in  council,  Oct.  1838,  directed  the  sees  of  Bangor  and  St.  Asaph  to  be  united  on  the  next 
vacancy  in  either,  and  Manchester,  a  new  see,  to  be  created  thereupon :  this  order,  as  regarded  the  union 
of  the  sees,  was  rescinded  1846. 

§  The  sees  of  Bristol  and  Gloucester  were  united,  1856. 


BIS 


108 


BIS 


BISHOPS  IN  IRELAND  are  said  to  have  been  consecrated  in  the  2nd  century. 


Prelacies  were  constituted,  and  divisions  of  the 
bishoprics  in  Ireland  made,  by  cardinal  Pa- 
paro,  legate  from  pope  Eugene  III.          .        .  1151 
Several  prelates  deprived  by  queen  Mary      .     .  1554 
Bp.  Atherton  suffered  death  igiiominiously        .  1640 
Two  bishops  deprived  for  not  taking  the  oaths 

to  William  and  Mary 1691 

Church  Temporalities  Act,  for  reducing  the 
number  of  bishops  in  Ireland,  3  &  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  37,  passed Aug.  14..  1833 


[By  this  statute,  of  the  four  archbishoprics  of 
Armagh,  Dublin,  Tuam,  and  Cashel,  the  last 
two  were  to  be  abolished  on  the  decease  of  the 
then  archprelates  which  has  since  occurred  ;  and 
it  was  enacted  that  eight  of  the  then  eighteen, 
bishoprics  should,  as  they  became  void,  be 
henceforth  united  to  other  sees,  which  wr,s  ac- 
complished in  1850 :  so  that  the  Irish  Church 
establishment  at  present  consists  of  two  arch- 
bishops and  ten  bishops.] 


1EISII   BISHOPRICS. 


Ossory      .        .        .     402 

Connor 

about    500 

Ferns       .     .    about    598 

Cashel,  before  901  ; 

Killala          .    about    434 

Tuam,    about    501  ; 

Cloyne       .      before    604 

abpc.         .        .     .  1152 

Trim         .        .         .     432 

abpc. 

.  1152 

Cork     .        .    about    606 

Killaloe,  abpc.  .        .  1019 

Armagh,  445  ;  abpc.  1152 
Emly   .        .    about    448 

Drornore 
Kildare     . 

about    510 
before     519 

Glandalagh  .   before    612 
Derry       .       before    618 

Waterford    .        .     .  1096 
Limerick  .       before  1106 

Elphin      .        .        .     450 

Meath  . 

.    .     520 

Kilmacduach,  about    620 

Kilmore       .        .     .1136 

Ardagh        .        .     .     454 
Clogher    .       before    493 

Achonry  . 
Louth  . 

•     530 
•     •     534 

Lismore       .    about    631 
Leighlin  .        .        .    632 

Dublin,  aJjpc.    .        .1152 
Kilfenora  .       before  1254 

Down  .        .    about    499 

Clonmacnois 

.        .     548 

Mayo    .        .    about    665 

(For  the  new  combina- 

Ardfert and  Aghadoe 

Clonfert 

•     .     558 

Raphoe     .       before    885 

tions,  see  the  sepa- 

before   500    Ross     . 

about    570 

rate  articles.) 

BISHOPS  IN  SCOTLAND  were  constituted  in  the  4th  century.  Episcopacy  was  abolished 
in  1638  ;  but  restored  by  Charles  II.  1661,  which  caused  an  insurrection.  Episcopacy  was 
again  abolished  in  Scotland  in  1689.* 


SCOTCH    BISHOPRICS. 


Orkney  .  Uncertain. 
Isles  .  .  .  360 
Galloway  .  before  500 
St.  Andrew's,  800 ; 

abpc.  .  .  .  1470 
Glasgow,  about  560 ; 

abpc.  .  .  .1488 
Caithness  .  about  1066 


Brechin    . 
Moray  . 
Ross  . 
Aberdeen     . 
Dunkeld  . 
Dunblane    . 
Argyll       . 
Edinburgh  . 

before  1155 
1115 
1124 
1125 
1130 
befor    1153 

1200 

1633 

POST-RE  VOL  UT1ON 
BISHOPS. 

Edinburgh       .         .  1720 
Aberdeen    and    the 

Isles          .         .     .  1721 

Moray  .(and  Ross)    .  1727 


Brechin       .        .    .1731 

Glasgow  (and  Gallo- 
way)    .  .     „ 

St.  Andrew's  (Dun- 
keld,  Dunblane, 
&e.)  .        .        .     .  1733 

Argyll  and  the  Isles  1847 


BISHOPS,  COLONIAL.  The  first  was  Samuel  Seabury,  consecrated  bishop  of  Connecticut 
by  four  nonjuring  prelates,  at  Aberdeen,  in  Scotland,  Nov.  14,  1784.  The  bishops  of  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  were  consecrated  in  London,  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Feb. 
4,  1 787,  and  the  bishop  of  Virginia  in  1 790.  The  first  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  the  United 
States  was  Dr.  Carroll  of  Maryland,  in  1789.  By  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  52,  and  16  &  17  Viet, 
c.  49,  the  colonial  bishops  may  perform  all  episcopal  functions  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
but  have  no  jurisdiction. 

COLONIAL  BISHOPRICS. 


Nova  Scotia 
Quebec 
Calcutta   . 
Barbadoes   . 
Jamaica   . 
Madras 
Australia 
Montreal     . 
Bombay  . 

1787 
1793 
1814 
1824 

1835 
1836 

1837 

New  Zealand  . 
Antigua 
Guiana      . 
Huron  . 
Tasmania 
Columbo 
Fredericton 
Adelaide 
Cape  Town 
Melbourne        . 

1841 
1842 

M 

1845 
1847 

Australia)     . 
Rupert's  Land    . 
Victoria    . 
Sierra  Leone 
Graham's-town 
Natal  . 
Mauritius 
Labuan 
Christchurch   . 
Perth  . 

1847 
1849 

1852 
1853 

1854 
1855 
1856 

Brisbane  . 
British  Columbia 
Goulburn 
St.  Helena  . 
Waiapu    . 
Melanesian  Islands 
Kingston,  Canada 
Ontario,  Canada 
Nassau,  Bahamas 
Central  Africa     . 

1859 

1860 
1861 

1863 

Toronto  ,  . 
Gibraltar   .. 

I8V 

Newcastle    . 
Sydney   (formerly 

» 

Wellington      . 
Nelson 

1858 

Grafton,  Australia 
Niger  territory 

IWJ 

1864 

BISMUTH  was  recognised  as  a  distinct  metal  by  Agricola,  in  1529. 
and  brittle,  and  of  a  yellowish  white  colour. 

BISSEXTILE.     See  Calendar  and  Leap  Year. 


It  is  very  fusible 


*  Bishop  Rose  connected  the  established  episcopal  church  of  Scotland  with  that  form  of  it  which  is  now 
merely  tolerated,  he  having  been  bishop  of  Edinburgh  from  1687  till  1720,  when,  on  his  death,  Dr.  Fullarton 
became  the  first  post-revolution  bishop  of  that  see.  Fife  (now  St.  Andrew's,  so  called  in  1844) now  unites 
the  bishopric  of  Dunkeld  (re-instituted  in  1727)  and  that  of  Dunblane  (re-instituted  in  1731).  Ross  (of 
uncertain  date)  was  united  to  Moray  (re -instituted  in  1727)  in  1838.  Argyll  and  the  Isles  never  existed 
independently  until  1847,  having  been  conjoined  to  Moray  and  Ross,  or  to  Ross  alone,  previously  to  that 
year.  Galloway  has  been  added  to  the  see  of  Glasgow. 


- 


BIT 


109 


BLA 


BITHYNIA,  a  province  in  Asia  Minor,  previously  called  Bebricia,  is  said  to  have  been 
invaded  by  the  Thracians  under  Bithynus,  son  of  Jupiter,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Bithynia. 
It  was  subject  successively  to  the  Assyrians,  Lydians,  Persians,  and  Macedonians.  Most  of 
the  cities  were  built  by  Grecian  colonists. 


Dydalsus  revolted  and  reigned  about  .  B.  c.  430 — 440 

Botyras,  his  son,  succeeds 378 

Bas,  or  Bias,  son  of  Botyras,  376  ;  repulses  the 

Greeks 328 

.Zipcetas,  son  of  Bias,  resists  Lysimaehus  .        .  326 
He  dies,  leaving  four  sons,  of  whom  the  eldest, 
Nicomedes  I.,  succeeds  (he  invites  the  Gauls 

into  Asia) 278 

He  rebuilds  Astacus,  and  names  it  Nicomedia  .  264 


Xielas,  son  of  Nicomedes,  reigns 

Intending  to  massacre  the  chiefs  of  the  Gauls 
at  a  feast,  Zielas  is  detected  in  his  design, 
and  is  himself  put  to  death,  and  his  son 
Prusias  I.  made  king,  about  ....  228 

Prusias  defeats  the  Gauls,  and  takes  cities    .     .     223 

Prusias  allies  with  Philip  of  Macedon,  and 
marries  Apamea,  his  daughter  .  .  .  208 


He    receives    and  employs  Hannibal,  then  a 
fugitive  ....... 

Who  poisons  himself  to  escape  betrayal  to  the 

Romans 

Prusias  II.  succeeds     ..... 
Nicomedes    II.   kills    his  father    Prusias  anc 

reigns 

Nicomedes  III.,  surnamed  Philopator        . 
Deposed  by  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus 
Restored  by  the  Romans     .... 
Bequeaths  his  kingdom  to  the  Romans         . 
Pliny  the  younger,  pro-consul    .        .        .  A.D 
The  Oghusian  Tartars  settle  in  Bithynia 
The  Othman  Turks  take  Prusa,  the  capital  (and 

make  it  the  seat  of  their  empire  till  they 

possess  Constantinople)  ..... 


84 

74 

103 

1231 


1327 


BITONTO  (Naples).  Here  Montemar  and  the  Spaniards  defeated  the  Germans,  on  May 
26,  1730,  and  eventually  acquired  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  for  Don  Carlos. 

BLACK  ASSIZES.     See  under  Oxford. 

BLACK  BOOK*  (Liber  Niger),  a  book  kept  in  the  exchequer,  which  received  the  orders 
of  that  court.  It  was  published  by  Hearn  in  1728. 

BLACKBURN,  Lancashire,  so  called  in  Domesday-book.  The  manufacture  of  a  cloth 
called  Blackburn  cheque,  carried  on  in  1650,  was  superseded  by  Blackburn  greys.  In  1767, 
James  Hargreaves,  of  this  town,  invented  the  spinning-jenny,  for  which  he  was  eventually 
expelled  from  the  county.  About  1810  or  1812,  the  townspeople  availed  themselves  of  his 
discoveries,  and  engaged  largely  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  now  their  staple  trade. 


BLACK  DEATH. 
BLACK  FRIARS. 


See  Plagues,  1340. 
See  Dominican. 


BLACKFRIARS  BRIDGE,  London.  The  first  stone  was  laid  Oct.  31,  1760,  and  it  was 
completed  by  Mylne,  in  1770.  It  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind  executed  in  England,  in 
which  arches,  approaching  to  the  form  oLan  ellipsis,  were  substituted  for  semicircles.  It  was 
repaired  in  1834,  and  in  1837-1840.  Since  1850  the  bridge  gradually  sank.  The  old  bridge 
was  pulled  down  :  and  a  new  temporary  one  opened  for  use  in  1864.  The  foundation  stone 
of  the  new  bridge  (to  be  erected  according  to  a  design  by  Mr.  J.  Cubitt)  was  laid  by  the  lord 
mayor,  Hale,  July  20,  1865.  The  first  railway  train  (London,  Chatham,  and  Dover)  entered 
the  city  of  London  over  the  new  railway  bridge,  Blackfriars,  Oct.  6,  1864. 

BLACKHEATH,  near  London.  Here  "Wat  Tyler  and  his  followers  assembled  June, 
1381 ;  and  here  also  Jack  Cade  and  his  20,000  Kentish  men  encamped,  June  i,  1450.  See 
Tyler  and  Cade.  Battle  of  Blackheath,  in  which  the  Cornish  rebels  were  defeated  and 
Flannock's  insurrection  quelled,  June  22,  1497.  The  cavern,  on  the  ascent  to  Blackheath, 
the  retreat  of  Cade,  and  the  haunt  of  banditti  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  was  re-discovered 
in  1780. 

BLACK-HOLE.     See  Calcutta. 
BLACK  LEAD.     See  Graphite. 

BLACK  LETTER,  employed  in  the  first  printed  books  in  the  middle  of  the  I5th 
century.  The  first  printing  types  were  Gothic  ;  but  they  were  modified  into  the  present 
Roman  type  about  1469  ;  Pliny's  Natural  History  being  then  printed  in  the  new  characters. 

BLACK-MAIL,  a  compulsory  payment  made  in  parts  of  Scotland  by  the  lowlanders 
to  the  highlanders,  for  the  protection  of  their  cattle,  existed  till  within  a  few  months 
of  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion,  1745.  It  rendered  agricultural  improvement  almost 
impossible. 

*  A  book  was  kept  in  the  English  monasteries,  wherein  details  of  the  scandalous  enormities  practised 
in  religious  houses  were  entered  for  the  inspection  of  visitors,  under  Henry  VIII.  1535,  in  order  to  blacken 
them  and  hasten  their  dissolution  :  hence  possibly  the  phrase,  "  I'll  set  you  down  in  the  black  book." 


BLA  110  BLE 

BLACK  MONDAY,  Easter  Monday,  April  6,  1351,  "when  the  hailstones  are  said  to 
have  killed  both  men  and  horses,  in  the  army  of  our  king  Edward  III.  in  France."  Bailey. 
"This  was  a  memorable  Easter  Monday,  which  in  the  34th  of  Edward  III.  happened  to  be 
full  dark  of  mist  and  hail,  and  so  cold  that  many  men  died  on  their  horses'  backs  with  the 
cold,"  1351.  Stow.  In  Ireland,  Black  Monday  was  the  day  on  which  a  number  of.  the 
English  were  slaughtered  at  a  village  near  Dublin,  in  1209. 

BLACK  ROD  has  a  gold  lion  at  the  top,  and  is  carried  by  the  usher  of  the  Order  of  the 
Knights  of  the  Garter  (instituted  1349),  instead  of  the  mace.  He  also  keeps  the  door  when 
a  chapter  of  the  order  is  sitting,  and  during  the  sessions  of  parliament  attends  the  house  of 
lords  and  acts  as  their  messenger  to  the  commons. 

BLACK  SEA,  THE  EITXINE  (Pontus  Euxinus  of  the  Ancients),  a  large  internal  sea 
between  the  S.  W.  provinces  of  Russia  and  Asia  Minor,  connected  with  the  sea  of  Azoff  by 
the  straits  of  Yenikale,  and  with  the  sea  of  Marmora  by  the  channel  of  Constantinople. 
This  sea  was  much  frequented  by  the  Greeks  and  Italians,  till  it  was  closed  to  all  nations  by 
the  Turks  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453.  The  Russians  obtained  admission  by  the 
treaty  of  Kainardji,  in  1774.  In  1779  it  was  partially  opened  to  British  and  other  traders, 
since  which  time  the  Russians  gradually  obtained  the  preponderance.  It  was  entered  by  the 
British  and  French  fleets,  Jan.  3,  1854,  at  the  requisition  of  the  Porte,  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope  by  the  Russians,  Nov.  30,  1853.  A  dreadful  storm  in  this 
sea  raged  from  Nov.  13  to  16,  1854,  and  caused  great  loss  of  life  and  shipping,  and  valuable 
stores  for  the  allied  armies.  See  Russo- Turkish  War.  By  the  treaty  of  1856  the  Black  Sea 
was  opened  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations. 

BLACKWALL  (London).  The  site  of  fine  commercial  docks  and  warehouses.  See 
Docks.  The  Blackwall  railway  was  opened  to  the  public,  July  4,  1840  ;  the  eastern  terminus 
being  at  Blackwall  wharf,  and  the  western  in  Fenchurch- street. 

BLACK  "WATCH,  armed  companies  of  the  loyal  clans  (Campbells,  Monros,  &c.) 
employed  to  watch  the  Highlands  from  about  1725  to  1739,  when  they  were  formed  into  the 
celebrated  42nd  regiment,  which  was  formally  enrolled  "  The  Royal  Highland  Black  "Watch, " 
in  1 86 1.  Their  removal  probably  facilitated  the  outbreak  in  1745.  They  wore  dark  tartans, 
and  hence  were  called  Slack  Watch. 

BLACKWATER,  BATTLE  OF,  in  Ireland,  Aug.  14,  1598,  when  the  Irish  chief  O'Neal 
defeated  the  English  under  Sir  Henry  Bagnall.  Pope  Clement  VIII.  sent  O'Neal  a  conse- 
crated plume,  and  granted  to  his  followers  the  same  indulgence  as  to  crusaders. 

BLADENSBURG.     See  Washington,  1814. 

BLANK  TERSE.     See  Verse. 

BLANKETEERS.  A  number  of  operatives  who  on  March  30,  1817,  met  in  St.  Peter's 
field,  near  Manchester,  many  of  them  having  blankets,  rugs,  or  great  coats  rolled  up  and 
fastened  to  their  backs.  This  was  termed  the  Blanket  meeting.  They  proceeded  to  march 
towards  London,  but  were  dispersed  by  the  magistracy.  It  is  stated  that  their  object  was 
to  commence  a  general  insurrection.  See  Derby.  Eventually  the  ringleaders  had  an  inter- 
view with  the  cabinet  ministers,  and  a  better  understanding  between  the  working  classes  and 
the  government  ensued. 

BLANKETS  are  said  to  have  been  first  made  at  Bristol  by  T.  Blanket,  about  1705. 

BLASPHEMY  was  punished  with  death  by  the  la\v  of  Moses  (Lev.  xxiv.  1491  B.C.)  ; 
and  by  the  code  of  Justinian,  A.D.  529.  It  is  punishable  by  the  civil  and  canon  law  of 
England,  regulated  by  60  Geo.  III.  c.  8  (1819).  In  Scotland  the  blasphemer's  tongue  was 
cut  out  ;  he  was  punished  with  fine  and  imprisonment  by  law,  1696-7.  Daniel  Isaac  Eaton 
was  tried  and  convicted  in  London  of  blasphemy,  March  6,  1812.  Robert  Taylor,  a  protestant 
clergyman,  was  tried  twice  for  the  same  crime.  He  was  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprison- 
ment, and  largely  fined,  July,  1831.  In  Dec.  1840,  two  publishers  of  blasphemous  writings 
were  convicted. 

BLAZONRY.  Bearing  coats-of-arms  was  introduced  and  became  hereditary  in  France 
and  England  about  1192,  owing  to  the  knights  painting  their  banners  with  different  figures, 
thereby  to  distinguish  them  in  the  crusades.  Dugdale. 

BLEACHING  was  known  in  Egypt,  Syria,  India,  and  Gaul.  Pliny.  An  improved 
chemical  system  was  adopted  by  the  Dutch,  who  introduced  it  into  England  and  Scotland  in 
1768.  There  are  large  bleach-fields  in  Lancashire,  Fife,  Forfar,  and  Renfrew,  and  in  the 
vale  of  the  Leven,  in  Dumbarton.  The  application  of  the  gas  chlorine  to  bleaching  is  dtie 
to  Berthollet  about  1785.  Its  combination  Avith  lime  (as  chloride  of  lime)  was  devised  by 


BLE 


111 


BLO 


Mr.  Tennant,  of  Glasgow,  who  took  out  a  patent  for  the  process  hi  1798,  and  by  his  firm  it 
is  still  extensively  manufactured.  In  1822  Dr.  Ure  published  an  elaborate  series  of  experi- 
ments on  this  substance.  In  1860  bleaching  and  dyeing  works  were  placed  under  the  regu- 
lations of  the  Factories'  Act. 

BLENHEIM,  or  Blindheim,  in  Bavaria,  the  site  of  a  battle  fought  Aug.  2  (new  style,  13)' 
1704,  between  the  English  and  confederates,  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Maryborough,  and 
the  French  and  Bavarians,  under  marshal  Tallard  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  The  latter 
were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  27,000  killed,  and  13,000  prisoners  (including  Tallard). 
Bavaria  became  the  prize  of  the  conquerors.  The  British  nation  gave  Marlborough  the 
honour  of  Woodstock  and  hundred  of  Wotton,  and  erected  for  him  the  house  of  Blenheim.* 

BLIND.  The  first  public  school  for  the  blind  was  established  by  Valentine  Haiiy,  at 
Paris,  in  1784.  The  first  in  England  was  at  Liverpool,  in  1791  ;  in  Scotland,  in  Edinburgh, 
in  1 792  ;  and  the  first  in  London  in  1 799.  Printing  in  raised  or  embossed  characters  for  the 
use  of  the  blind  was  begun  at  Paris  by  Haiiy  in  1786.  The  whole  Bible  was  printed  at 
Glasgow  in  raised  Roman  characters  about  1848.  A  sixpenny  magazine  for  the  blind,  edited 
by  the  rev.  W.  Taylor,  F.R.S.,  so  eminent  for  his  exertions  on  behalf  of  these  sufferers,  was 
published  in  1855-6.  There  is  hardly  any  department  of  human  knowledge  in  which  blind 
persons  have  not  obtained  distinction,  f  Laura  Bridgman,  born  in  1829,  became  dumb  and 
blind  two  years  after  :  she  was  so  well  taught  by  Dr.  Howe,  of  Boston,  II.  S.,  as  to  become 
an  able  instructor  of  blind  and  dumb  persons.  By  the  census  of  1851,  there  were  in  Great 
Britain,  21,487  blind  persons,  11,273  males  ;  10,214  females  :  about  one  blind  in  975. 

BLINDING,  by  consuming  the  eyeballs  with  lime  or  scalding  vinegar,  was  a  punishment 
inflicted  anciently  on  adulterers,  perjurers,  and  thieves.  In  the  middle  ages  the  penalty 
was  frequently  changed  from  total  blindness  to  a  diminution  of  sight.  A  whole  army  was 
deprived  of  their  eyes,  by  Basil,  in  the  nth  century.  See  Bulgarians.  Several  of  the 
eastern  emperors  had  their  eyes  torn  from  their  heads. 

BLISTERS,  used  by  Hippocrates  (460-357  B.C.),  made,  it  is  said,  of  cantharides,  which  see. 

BLOCK  BOOKS.     See  Printing. 

BLOCKADE  is  the  closing  an  enemy's  ports  to  all  commerce  ;  a  practice  introduced  by 
the  Dutch  about  1584.  The  principle  recognised  by  the  European  powers  is  that  every 
blockade,  in  order  to  be  binding,  must  be  effective.  The  Elbe  was  blockaded  by  Great 
Britain,  1803  ;  the  Baltic,  by  Denmark,  1848-49  and  1864  ;  the  gulf  of  Finland,  by  the 
Allies,  1854  ;  and  the  ports  of  the  Southern  States  of  North  America  by  president  Lincoln, 
April  19,  1 86 1.  See  Orders  in  Council,  and  Berlin. 

BLOCKS  employed  in  the  rigging  of  ships  were  much  improved  in  their  construction  by 
"Walter  Taylor,  about  1781.  In  1801,  Mark  I.  Brunei  invented  a  mode  of  making  blocks 
which  was  put  into  operation  in  1808,  and  in  1815  was  said  to  have  saved  the  country 
20,000?.  a  year. 

BLOOD.  The  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  lungs  was  'known  to  Michael 
Servetus,  a  Spanish  physician,  in  1553.  Ca3salpinus  published  an  account  of  the  general 
circulation,  of  which  he  had  some  confused  ideas,  improved  afterwards  by  experiments,  1569. 
Paul  of  Venice,  or  Father  Paolo  (real  name  Peter  Sarpi),  discovered  the  valves  which  serve  for 
the  circulation  ;  but  the  honour  of  the  positive  discovery  of  the  circulation  belongs  to 
"William  Harvey,  between  1619  and  1628.  Freind. 

EATING  BLOOD  was  prohibited  to  Noah,  Gen.  ix.,  to 

the  Jews,  Lev.  xvii.,  &c.,  and  to  the  Gentile  con- 
verts by  the  apostles  at  an  assembly  at  Jerusalem, 

A.D.  52,  Acts  xv. 
BLOOD- DRINKING  was  anciently  tried  to  give  vigour 

to  the  system.     Louis  XI. ,  in  his  last  illness,  drank 

the  warm  blood  of  infants,  in  the  vain  hope  of 

restoring  his  decayed  strength,  1483.     Henaull. 
In  the  i  sth  century  an  opinion  prevailed  that  the 

declining  vigour  of  the  aged  might  be  repaired  by 


TRANSFUSING  into  their  veins  THE  BLOOD  of  young 
persons.  It  was  countenanced  in  France  by  the 
physicians  about  1668,  and  prevailed  for  many 
years,  till  the  most  fatal  effects  having  ensued,  it 
was  suppressed  by  an  edict.  It  was  attempted 
again  in  France  in  1797,  and  more  recently  there, 
in  a  few  cases,  with  success  ;  and  in  England  (but 
the  instances  are  rare)  since  1823.  Med.  Journ. 
"An  English  phj^sician  (Louver,  or  Lower)  prac- 
tised in  this  way ;  he  died  in  1691."  Freind. 


*  On  Feb.  5,  1861,  a  fire  broke  out  at  this  place,  which  destroyed  the  "Titian  Gallery"  and  the 
pictures ;  the  latter,  a  present  from  Victor  Amadous,  king  of  Sardinia,  to  John,  the  great  duke  of 
Marlboroupfh. 

t  James  Holman,  the  "blind  traveller  "  (born  1786,  died  1857),  visited  almost  every  place  of  note  in  the 
world.  His  travels  were  published  in  1825.  In  April,  1858,  a  blind  clergyman,  rev.  J.  Sparrow,  was 
elected  chaplain  to  the  Mercers'  Company,  London,  and  read  the  service,  &c.,  from  embossed  books. 
Viscount  Cvanbourne  (blind)  was  the  author  of  many  interesting  historical  essays.  He  died  in  June, 


1865.    On  July  13,  1865,  Henry  Fawcett,  the  blind  professor  of  political  economy  at  Cambridge,  was  elected 
Brighton. 


M.P.  for  Bi 


BLO  112  BOD 

BLOOD'S  CONSPIRACY.  Blood,  a  discarded  officer  of  Oliver  Cromwell's  household, 
with  his  confederates,  seized  the  duke  of  Ormond  in  his  coach,  and  had  got  him  to  Tyburn, 
intending  to  hang  him,  when  he  was  rescued  by  his  friends,  Dec.  4,  1670.  Blood  afterwards, 
in  the  disguise  of  a  clergyman,  attempted  to  steal  the  regal  crown  from  the  Jewel-office  in 
the  Tower,  May  9,  1671  ;  yet,  notwithstanding  these  and  other  offences,  he  was  not  only 
pardoned,  but  had  a  pension  of  500^.  per  annum  settled  on  him  by  Charles  II.,  1671.  He 
died  in  1680,  in  prison,  for  a  libel  on  the  duke  of  Buckingham. 

"  BLOODY  ASSIZES,"  held  by  Jeffreys  in  the  west  of  England,  in  Aug.  1685,  after  the 
defeat  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  in  the  battle  of  Sedgmore.  Upward  of  300  persons  were 
executed  after  short  trials  ;  very  many  were  whipped,  imprisoned,  and  fined  ;  and  nearly 
1000  were  sent  as  slaves  to  the  American  plantations. 

BLOOMER  COSTUME.     See  a  note  to  article  Dress. 

BLOOMSBURY  GANG,  a  cant  term  applied  to  an^  influential  political  party  in  the 
reign  of  George  III.,  in  consequence  of  the  then  duke  of  Bedford,  the  chief,  being  the 
owner  of  Bloomsbury  square,  &c.  The  marquess  of  Stafford,  the  last  survivor,  died  Oct. 
26,  1803. 

BLOREHEATH  (Staffordshire),  BATTLE  OF,  September  23,  1459,  in  which  the  earl  of 
Salisbury  and  the  Yorkists  defeated  the  Lancastrians,  whose  leader,  lord  Audley,  was  slain 
with  many  Cheshire  gentlemen.  A  cross  commemorates  this  conflict. 

BLOWING-MACHINES,  the  large  cylinders,  used  in  blowing-machines,  were  erected 
by  Mr.  Smeaton  at  the  Carron  iron  works,  1760.  One  equal  to  the  supply  of  air  for  forty 
forge  fires  was  erected  at  the  king's  dock-yard,  Woolwich.  The  hot-air  blast,  a  most 
important  improvement,  was  invented  by  Mr.  James  B.  Neilson,  of  Glasgow,  and  patented 
in  1828.  He  died  Jan.  18,  1865.  It  causes  great  economy  of  fuel. 

BLOW- PIPE.  The  origin  is  unknown.  An  Egyptian  using  a  blow-pipe  is  among  the 
paintings  on  the  tombs  at  Thebes.  It  was  employed  in  mineralogy,  by  Andrew  Yon  Swab,  a 
Swede,  about  1733,  and  improved  by  Wollaston  and  others.  In  1802,  professor  Robert  Hare, 
of  Philadelphia,  increased  the  action  of  the  blow-pipe  by  the  application  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen.  By  the  agency  of  Newman's  improved  blow-pipes,  in  1816,  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke 
fused  the  earths,  alkalies,  metals,  &c.  The  best  work  on  the  blow-pipe  is  by  Plattner  and 
Muspratt,  1854. 

BLUE  was  the  favourite  colour  of  the  Scotch  covenanters  in  the  i6th  century.  Blue 
and  orange  or  yellow,  became  the  whig  colours  after  the  revolution  in  1688  ;  and  were 
adopted  on  the  cover  of  the  whig  periodical,  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  first  published  in 
1802.  The  Prussian  blue  dye  was  discovered  by  Diesbach,  at  Berlin,  in  1710.  Fine  blues 
are  now  obtained  from,  coal-tar,  1864.  See  Aniline.  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOLS,  so  called  in 
reference  to  the  costume  of  the  children.  The  Blue-coat  school  in  Newgate-street,  London, 
was  instituted  by  Edward  YI.  in  1552.  See  Christ's  Hospital.  BLUE-STOCKING,  a  term 
applied  to  literary  ladies,  was  originally  conferred  on  a  society  comprising  both  sexes 
(1760,  et  seq.).  Benjamin  Stillingfleet,  the  naturalist,  an  active  member,  wore  blue  worsted 
stockings ;  hence  the  name.  The  beautiful  Mrs.  Jerningham  is  said  to  have  worn  blue 
stockings  at  the  conversaziones  of  lady  Montagu. 

BOARD  OF  ADMIRALTY,  CONTROL,  GREEN-CLOTH,  HEALTH,  TRADE,  &c.  See 
under  Admiralty,  &c. 

BOATS.  Flat-bottomed  boats,  made  in  England  in  the  reign  of  William  I.  ;  again 
brought  into  use  by  Barker,  a  Dutchman,  about  1690.  See  Life- Boat.  A  mode  of 
building  boats  by  the  help  of  the  steam-engine  was  invented  by  Mr.  Nathan  Thompson 
^>f  New  York  in  1860,  and  premises  were  erected  for  its  application  at  Bow,  near  London, 
in  1861. 

BOCCACCIO'S  DECAMERONE,  a  collection  of  a  hundred  stories  or  novels  (many 
very  immoral),  severely  satirising  the  clergy,  feigned  to  have  been  related  in  ten  days,  during 
the  plague  of  Florence  in  1348.  Boccaccio  lived  1313 — 75.  A  copy  of  the  first  edition 
(that  of  Yaldarfer,  in  1471)  was  knocked  down  at  the  duke  of  Roxburgh's  sale,  to  the  duke 
of  Marlborough,  for  22601. ,  June  17,  1812.  This  identical  copy  was  afterwards  sold  by 
public  auction,  for  875  guineas,  June  5,  1819. 

BODLEIAN  LIBRARY,  Oxford,  founded  in  1598,  and  opened  in  1602,  by  sir  Thos. 
Bodley  (died,  1612).  It  is  open  to  the  public,  and  claims  a  copy  of  all  works  published  in 
this  country.  For  rare  works  and  MSS.  it  is  said  to  be  second  only  to  the  Yatican. 


B(E 


113 


BOH 


BCEOTIA,  a  division  of  Greece,  north  of  Attica,  known  successively  as  Aonia,  Messapia, 
Hyantis,  Ogygia,  Catlmeis,  and  Boeotia.  Thebes,  the  capital,  was  celebrated  for  its  exploits 
and  misfortunes  of  its  kings  and  heroes.  The  term  Boeotian  was  used  by  the  Athenians  as  a 
synonym  for  dulness  ;  but  unjustly, — since  Pindar,  Hesiod,  Plutarch,  Democritus,  Epami- 
nondas,  and  Corinna,  were  Boeotians.  The  early  dates  are  doubtful.  See  Thebes. 


Arrival  of  Cadmus,  founder  of  Cadmea  (Hales, 
1494  ;  Clinton,  1313)          ....   B.C.  1493 

Reign  of  Polydore 1459 

Landachus  ascends  the  throne  ....   1430 
Amphion  and  Zethus  besiege  Thebes,  and  de- 
throne La'ius 1388 

CEdipus,  not  knowing  his  father  La'ius,  kills 
him  in  an  affray,  confirming  the  oracle  fore- 
telling his  death  by  the  hands  of  his  son       .     276 
CEdipus  resolves  the  Sphinx's  enigmas         .     .     266 
War  of  the  Seven  Captains          ....     225 

Thebes  besieged  and  taken 213 

Thersander  reigns  1198  ;  slain    ....     193 
The  Thebans  abolish  royalty  (ages  of  obscurity 

follow) about  1 120 

The  Thebans  fight  with  the  Persians  against 
the  Greeks  at  Plataea 479 


Battle  of  Coronea,  in  which  the  Thebans  defeat 
the  Athenians B.C.  447 

The  Thebans,  under  Epaminondas  and  Pelopi- 
das,  enrol  their  Sacred  Band,  and  join  Athens 
against  Sparta 377 

Epaminondas  defeats  the  Lacedaemonians  at 
Leuctra,  and  restores  Thebes  to  independence  371 

I^lopidas  killed  at  the  battle  of  Cynoscephalae  .     364 

Epamiuondas  gains  the  victory  of  Mantiiiea, 
but  is  slain 362 

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  defeats  the  Thebans 

and  Athenians  near  Chaeronea  .  .  .  338 

Alexander  destroys  Thebes,  but  spares  the 
house  of  Pindar 335 

Bceotia  henceforth  partook  of  the  fortunes  of 
Greece  ;  and  was  conquered  by  the  Turks 
under  Mahomet  II.  ....  A.D.  1456 


BOGS,  probably  the  remains  of  forests,  covered  with  peat  and  loose  soil.  An  act  for 
the  drainage  of  Irish  bogs,  passed  March,  1830.  The  bog-land  of  Ireland  has  been  estimated 
at  3,000,000  acres  ;  that  of  Scotland  at  upwards  of  2,000,000  ;  and  that  of  England  at  near 
1,000,000  of  acres.  In  Jan.  1849,  Mr.  Eees  Eeece  took  out  a  patent  for  certain  valuable 
products  from  Irish  peat.  Candles  and  various  other  articles  produced  from  peat  have  been 
since  sold  in  London. 

BOHEMIA,  formerly  the  Hercynian  Forest  (Boiemum,  Tacitus},  derives  its  name  from 
the  Boii,  a  Celtic  tribe.  It  was  governed  by  dukes,  till  Ottocar  assumed  the  title  of  king, 
1198.  The  kings  at  first  held  their  territory  from  the  empire,  but  at  length  threw  off 
the  yoke  :  and  the  crown  was  elective  till  it  came  to  the  house  of  Austria,  in  which  it  is 
now  hereditary.  Prague,  the  capital,  is  famous  for  sieges  and  battles.  Population  in  1857, 
4,705,525.  See  Prague. 


The  Slavonians  seize  Bohemia  about         .        .     550 

City  of  Prague  founded 795 

Introduction  of  Christianity      ....     894 
Bohemia  conquered  by  the  emperor    Henry  -_ 
III.,  who   spreads  devastation  through  the 

country 1041 

Ottocar  (or  Premislas)  I.,  first  king  of  Bohemia  1198 
Ottooar  II.,   rules  over   Austria,   and  obtains 

Styria,  &c.,  1253;  refuses  the  imperial  crown  1272 
Ottocar  vanquished  by  the  emperor  Rudolph, 
and    deprived   of    Austria,  Styria,   and  Car- 
niola,  1277;  killed  at  March! eld         .         .     .  1278 
King  John  (blind),  slain  at  the  battle  of  Crecy  1346 
John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  two  of  the 
first  Reformers,  are  burnt  for  heresy,  which 
occasions  an  insurrection        .        .          1415,  1416 
Ziska,  leader  of  the  Hussites,  takes  Prague, 

1419;  dies  of  the  plague  .....  1424 
Albeit,  duke  of  Austria,  marries  the  daughter 
of  the  late  emperor  and  king,  and  receives 
the  crowns  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary    .         .  1437 
The  succession  -infringed  by  Ladislas,  son  of 


the  king  of  Poland,  and  George  Podiebrad,  a 

Protestant  chief 1440-1458 

Ladislas,  kin?  of  Poland,  elected   king  of  Bo- 
hemia, on  the  death  of  Podiebrad  .        .         .  1471 
The  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  marries  Anne,  sister 

of  Louis  the  late  king,  and  obtains  the  crown  15:27 
The   emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  oppressing  the 
Protestants,  is  deposed,  and  Frederic  the 
elector-palatine,  elected  king        .      Sept.  5,  1619 
Frederic,  totally  defeated  at  Prague,  flies  to 

Holland Nov.  9,  1620 

Bohemia  secured  to  Austria  by  treaty  .  .  1648 
Silesia  and  Glatz  ceded  to  Prussia  .  .  .  1742 
Prague  taken  by  the  Prussians  .  .  .  .  1744 
The  Prussians  defeat  the  Austrians  at  Prague 

May  6,  1757 

Revolt  of  the  peasantry 1775 

Edict  of  Toleration  promulgated       .        .        .1781 

The  French  occupy  Prague 1806 

Insurrection  at  Prague,  June  12  ;  submission, 
state  of  siege  raised .        .        .        .    July  20,  1848 


KINGS. 


1198.  Premislas  I.,  or  Ottocar  I. 

1230.  Wenceslas  III. 

1253.  Premislas  II.,  or  Ottocar  II. 

1278.  Wenceslas  IV.,  king  of  Poland. 

1305.  Wenceslas  V. 

1306.  Rudolph  of  Austria. 

1307.  Henry  of  Carinthia. 

1310.  John  of  Luxemburg  (killed  at  Crecy). 

1346.  Charles  I.,  emperor  (1347). 


1378.  Wenceslas  VI.,  emperor. 

1419.  Sigismund  I.,  emperor. 

1437.  Albert  of  Austria,  emperor. 

1440.  Ladislas  V. 

1458.  George  von  Podiebrad. 

1471.  Ladislas  VI.,  king  of  Hungary  (in  1490). 

1516.  Louis  king  of  Hungary  (killed  at  Mohatz). 

1 526.  Bohemia  united  to  Austria  under  Ferdinand  I. 
elected  king. 


BOHEMIAN"  BBETHKEN,  a  body  of  Christians  in  Bohemia,  appear  to  have  separated 
from  the  Calixtines  (which  see),  a  branch  of  the  Hussites  in  1467.     Dupin  says  "They 


BOI 


114 


BOM 


rejected  the  sacrament  of  the  church,  were  governed  by  simple  laics,  and  held  the  scriptures 
for  their  only  rule  of  faith.  They  presented  a  confession  of  faith  to  king  Ladislas  in  1504  to 
justify  themselves  from  errors  laid  to  their  charge."  They  appear  to  have  had  communica- 
tion with  the  Waldenses,  but  were  distinct  from  them.  Luther,  in  1533,  testifies  to  their 
purity  of  doctrine,  and  Melanchthon  commends  their  severe  discipline.  They  were  doubt- 
less dispersed  during  the  religious  wars  of  Germany  in  the  lyth  century. 

BOII,  a  Celtic  people  of  1ST.  Italy,  who  emigrated  into  Italy,  and  were  defeated  at  the 
Yadimonian  lake,  283  B.C.  They  Avere  finally  subdued  by  Scipio  Nasica,  191  B.C. 

BOILING-  OF  LIQUIDS.  Dr.  Hooke,  about  1683,  ascertained  that  liquids  were  not 
increased  in  heat  after  they  had  once  begun  to  boil,  and  that  a  fierce  fire  only  made  them 
boil  more  rapidly.  The  following  boiling  points  have  been  stated  :  — 


Ether  . 
Alcohol 
Water  . 


94°  Fahr. 

i73 
212       ,, 


Nitric  acid 
Sulphuric  acid 
Phosphorus 


187°  Fahr. 
600       ,, 
554       » 


Oil  of  turpentine  .        .312°  Fahr. 
Sulphur    .        .        .     .  822        ,, 
Mercury        .        .        .  662       „ 


BOILING  TO  DEATH,  made  a  capital  punishment  in  England,  by  statute  22  Henry  VIII. ,. 
1531.  This  act  was  occasioned  by  seventeen  persons  having  been  poisoned  by  John  Roose, 
the  bishop  of  Rochester's  cook,  two  of  whom  died.  Margaret  Davie,  a  young  woman,  suffered 
in  the  same  manner  for  a  similar  crime,  in  1542. 

BOIS-LE-DUC,  Dutch  Brabant,  the  site  of  a  battle  between  the  British  and  the  French 
republican  army,  in  which  the  British  were  defeated,  and  forced  to  abandon  their  position 
and  retreat  to  Schyndel,  Sept.  14,  1794.  This  place  was  captured  by  the  French,  Oct.  10 
following  ;  it  surrendered  to  the  Prussian  army,  under  Bulow,  in  Jan.  1814. 

BOKHARA,  the  ancient  Sogdiana,  after  successively  'forming  part  of  the  empires  of 
Persia,  of  Alexander,  and  of  Bactriana,  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  the  6th  century,  by 
the  Chinese  in  the  7th,  and  by  the  Arabs  about  705.  After  various  changes  of  masters  it 
was  subdued  by  the  Uzbek  Tartars,  its  present  possessors,  in  1505.  The  British  Envoys, 
colonel  Stoddart  and  captain  Conolly,  were  murdered  at  Bokhara,  the  capital,  by  the  khan,, 
in  1843. 


BOLIVIA,  a  republic  in  South  America,  formerly  part  of  Peru. 
1,987,352. 


Population  in   1858, 


The  insurrection  of  the  ill-used  Indians,  headed 

by  Tupac  Amaru  Andres,  took  place  here,  1780-2 
The  country  declared  its  independence,  Aug.  6,  1824 
Took  the  name  of  Bolivia,  in  honour  of  general 

Bolivar Aug.  n,  1825 

First  congress  met  ....  May  25,  1826 
Slavery  abolished  .  .  .  '  ,  .  .  .  1836 
General  Sucre  governed  ably  .  .  .  1826-8 

BOLLAKDISTS.     See  Acta  Sanctorum. 


Santa  Cruz  ruled     ......  1828-34 

Free -trade  proclaimed 1853 

General  Cordova,  president    ....    1855-7 
Succeeded  by  the  dictator  Josd  Maria  Linares, 

March  31,  1859 

George  Cordova,  constitutional  president     .     .  1860 
Succeeded  by  Jose"  M.  de  Acha.        .         May,  1861 


BOLOGNA,  central  Italy,  the  ancient  Bononia,  a  city  distinguished  for  its  architecture. 

after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  1800 ;  and  re- 
stored to  the  pope  in 1815 

A  revolt  suppressed  by  Austrian  interference  .  i83r 

The  Austrians  evacuate  Bologna  :  and  cardinal 
Ferretti  departs  :  the  citizens  rise  and  form 
a  provisional  government  .  .  June  12,  1859 

Which  decrees  that  all  public  acts  shall  be 
headed  "Under  the  reign  of  king  Victor 
Emmanuel,"  &c Oct.  i,  1860 

He  enters  Bologna  as  Sovereign       .         May  2,    ,. 


University  founded  by  Theodosius  .  .  .  433 
Bologna  joins  the  Lombard  league  .  .  .  1167 
Pope  Julius  II.  takes  Bologna ;  enters  in 

triumph Nov.  n,  1506 

It  becomes  part  of  the  States  of  the  Church  .  1515 
In  the  church  of  St.  Petronius,  remarkable  for 

its  pavement,  Cassini  drew  his  meridian  line 

(over  one  drawn  by  Father  Ignatius  Dante 

in  i575) 1653 

Bologna  was  taken  by  the  French,  1796;  by. 

the  Austrians,  1799;  again  by  the  French, 

BOMARSUND,  a  strong  fortress  on  one  of  the  Aland  isles  in  the  Baltic  sea,  taken  by 
sir  Charles  Napier,  commander  of  the  Baltic  expedition,  aided  by  the  French  military  con- 
tingent under  general  Baraguay  d'Hilliers,  Aug.  16,  1854.  The  governor  Bodisco,  and  the 
garrison,  about  2000  men,  became  prisoners.  The  fortifications  were  destroyed. 

BOMBAY,  the  most  westerly  and  smallest  of  our  Indian  presidencies,  was  visited  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1509,  and  acquired  by  them  in  about  1530.  It  was  given  (with  Tangier  in 
Africa,  and  300,000?.  in  money)  to  Charles  II.  as  the  marriage  portion  of  the  infanta, 
Catherine  of  Portugal,  1661.  In  1668,  it  was  granted  to  the  East  India  Company,  \vho  had 


BOM 


115 


BOO 


long  desired  it,  "in  free  and  common  socage,"  as  of  the  manor  of  East  Greenwich,  at  an 
annual  rent  of  lol.  Confirmed  by  William  III.  1689.  The  two  principal  castes  at  Bombay 
are  the  Parsees  (descendants  of  the  ancient  Persian  fire -worshippers)  and  the  Borahs  (sprung 
from  early  converts  to  Islamism).  They  are  both  remarkable  for  commercial  activity. 


First  British  factory  established  at  Ahmed- 

nuggur 1612 

Mi .  Gyfford,  deputy-governor,  100  soldiers,  and 
other  English,  perish  through  the  climate, 

Oct.  1675— Feb.  1676 

Captain  Keigwin  usurps  the  government     .  1681-84 
Bombay  made  chief  over  the  company's  settle- 
ments       ........  1687 

The  whole  island,  except  the  fort,  seized  and 

held  for  a  time  by  the  mogul's  admiral  .        .  1690 
Bombay  becomes  a  distinct  presidency         .     .  1708 
Additions  to  the  Bombay  territory  : — Bancoot 
river,  1756  ;  island  of  Salsette         .        .        .  1775 

Bishopric  established 1833 

Population  of  the  presidency,  12,034,483    .        .1858 


The  benevolent  sir  Jamsetjee  Jejeebhoy,  a 
Parsee  (who  erected  several  hospitals,  &c.) 
dies April  15,  1859 

His  son,  sir  Cursetjee,  visits  England        .        .  1860 

Rioting  against  the  income-tax  suppressed 

Nov.  &  Dec.  ,, 

Sir  Henry  Bartle  Frero  appointed  governor 

March,  1862 

Greatly  increased  prosperity  through  the  cot- 
ton trade,  leads  to  immense  speculation,  Nov.  1864 

Reported  failure  of  Mr.  Byramjee  Cama,  a  Par- 
see,  for  3,300,000?.  ;  other  failures,  and  great 
depression  ;  the  projected  international  ex- 
hibition in  1867  abandoned  .  .  .  May,  1865 

Recovering  from  commercial  crisis      .       Aug.     ,, 


BOMBS  (iron  shells  filled  with,  gunpowder),  said  to  have  been  invented  at  Yenlo,  in 
1495,  and  used  by  the  Turks  at  the  siege  of  Rhodes  in  1522.  They  came  into  general  use 
in  1634,  having  been  previously  used  only  by  the  Dutch  and  Spaniards.  Bomb- vessels  were 
invented  in  France  in  1681.  Voltaire.  The  shrapnel  shell  is  a  bomb  filled  with  balls,  and 
a  lighted  fuse  to  make  it  explode  before  it  reaches  the  enemy  ;  a  thirteen-inch  bomb-shell 
weighs  198  Ibs. 

BONAPARTE  FAMILY,  &c.     See  France,  1793,  and  note. 

BONDAGE,  or  YILLANAGE.     See  Villanage. 

BONE-SETTING  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  practised  scientifically  until  1620.     Bell. 

BONES.  The  art  of  softening  bones  was  discovered  about  1688,  and  they  were  used  in 
the  cutlery  manufacture,  &c.,  immediately  afterwards.  The  declared  value  of  the  bones  of 
cattle  and  of  other  animals,  and  of  fish  (exclusive  of  whale-fins)  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom  from  Russia,  Prussia,  Holland,  Denmark,  &c.,  amounts  annually  to  more  than 
300,000^.  (in  1851  about  32,000  tons).  Bone-dust  has  been  extensively  employed  in  manure 
since  the  publication  of  Liebig's  researches  in  1840. 

BONHOMMES,  hermits  of  simple  and  gentle  lives,  appeared  in  France  about  1257  ;  in 
England  about  1283.  The  prior  of  the  ortler  was  called  le  bon  homme,  by  Louis  YI. 

BONN,  a  town  on  the  Rhine  (the  Roman  Bonna),  was  in  the  electorate  of  Cologne.  It 
Las  been  frequently  besieged,  and  was  assigned  to  Prussia  in  1814.  The  Prince  Consort  of 
England  was  a  student  at  the  university,  founded  in  1818. 

BOOK  OF  SPORTS.     See  Sports. 

BOOKS  (Anglo-Saxon,  boc;  German,  buck).  Books  were  originally  made  of  boards,  or 
the  inner  bark  of  trees  :  afterwards  of  skins  and  parchment.  Papyrus,  an  indigenous  plant, 
was  adopted  in  Egypt.  Books  with  leaves  of  vellum  were  invented  by  Attains,  king  of 
Pergamus,  about  198  B.C.,  at  which  time  books  were  in  volumes  or  rolls.  The  MSS.  in 
Herculaneum  consist  of  Papyrus,  rolled  and  charred  and  matted  together  by  the  fire,  and 
are  about  nine  inches  long,  and  one,  two,  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  each  being  a  separate 
treatise.  The  most  ancient  books  are  the  Pentateuch  of  Moses  and  the  poems  of  Homer  and 
Hesiod.  The  first  PRINTED  BOOKS  (see  Printing)  were  printed  on  one  side  only,  the  leaves 
being  pasted  back  to  back. 


Books  of  astronomy  and  geometry  were  or- 
dered to  be  destroyed  in  England  as  being 
infected  with  magic,  6  Edw.  VI.  Stow  .  .1552 

2032  volumes  of  new  works,  and  773  of  new 
editions,  were  published  in  London  in  .  1839 

3359  new  works,  and  1159  new  editions,  exclu 
sive  of  908  pamphlets,  were  published  in  1852 

3553  volumes  were  published  in  .        .        .          1864 
In  Paris,  6445  volumes  were  published  in  1842 
and  7350  in  1851.    See  Bibliography. 


PRICES  OF  BOOKS.— Jerome  (who  died  420)  states 
that  he  had  ruined  himself  by  buying  a  copy  of  the 
works  of  Origen.  A  large  estate  was  given  by 
Alfred  for  one  on  cosmography,  about  872.  The 
Roman  de  la  Rose  was  sold  for  about  3o/.  ;  and  a 
homily  was  exchanged  for  200  sheep  and  five  quar- 
ters of  wheat.  Books  frequently  fetched  double  or 
treble  their  weight  in  gold.  They  sold  at  prices 
varying  from  lol.  to  40^.  each  in  1400.  A  copy  of 
Macklin's  Bible,  ornamented  by  Mr.  Tomkins,  was 
declared  worth  500  guineas.  Butler.  A  yet  more 
superb  copy  was  insured  in  a  London  office  for  3000 1. 
See  Boccaccio. 

I   2 


BOO 


116 


BOH 


BOOKS  (continued). 

BOOK-BINDING.— The  book  of  St.  Cuthbert,  the 
earliest  ornamental  book,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  bound  about  ...... 

A  Latin  Psalter,  in  oak  boards,  was  bound  in 
the  gth  century. 

A  MS.  copy  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  the  book 
on  which  our  kings  from  Henry  I.  to  Edward 
VI.  took  their  coronation  oath,  was  bound  in 
oaken  boards,  nearly  an  inch  thick 

Velvet  was  the  covering  in  the  i4th  century  ; 
and  silk  soon  after.  Vellum  was  introduced 
early  in  the  isth  century ;  it  was  stamped 
and  ornamented  about 

Leather  came  into  use  about  the  same  time. 


650 


The  rolling  machine,  invented  by  Mr.  Wm. 
Burr,  was  substituted  for  the  beating-ham- 
mer, and  gas-stoves  began  to  take  the  place 
of  the  charcoal  fires  used  to  heat  the  gilder's 
finishing  tools about  1830 

Cloth  binding  superseded  the  common  boards 
generally  about 1831 

Caoutchouc,  or  India-rubber,  backs  to  account- 
books  and  large  volumes,  were  introduced  in  1841 


BOOK-HAWKING  SOCIETIES  (already  in  Scotland) 
began  in  England  in  1851  by  archdeacon 
Wigram  (since  bishop  of  Rochester).  The 
hawkers  vend  moral  and  religious  books  in 
a  similar  manner  to  the  French  colporteurs. 

BOOK-KEEPING.  The  system  by  double-entry,  called  originally  Italian  book-keeping, 
was  taken  from  the  course  of  Algebra  published  by  Burgo,  in  the  I5th  century,  at  Venice. 
John  Gowghe,  a  printer,  published  a  treatise  ' '  on  the  kepyng  of  the  famouse  reconynge 
.  .  .  Debitor  and  Creditor,"  London,  1543.  This  is  our  earliest  work  on  book-keeping. 
James  Peele  published  his  Book-keeping  in  1569.  John  Mellis  published  "ABriefe  Instruc- 
tion and  Manner  how  to  Keepe  Bookes  of  Accompts,"  in  1588.  Improved  systems  were  pub- 
lished by  Benjamin  Booth  in  1789  and  by  Edw.  Thos.  Jones  in  1821  and  1831. 

BOOKSELLERS,  at  first  migratory  like  hawkers,  became  known  as  stationarii,  from 
their  practice  of  having  booths  or  stalls  at  the  corners  of  streets  and  in  markets.  They 
were  long  subject  to  vexatious  restrictions,  from  which  they  were  freed  in  1758.* 

BOOTHIA  FELIX,  a  large  peninsula,  the  N.W.  point  of  America,  discovered  by  sir 
John  Ross  in  1831,  and  named  after  sir  Felix  Booth,  who  had  presented  him  with  20,000?. 
to  fit  out  his  Polar  expedition.  Sir  Felix  died  at  Brighton  in  Feb.  1850. 

BOOTS,  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  the  Carians,  were  made  of  iron,  brass,  or 
leather.  Leather  boots  were  mentioned  by  Homer  907  B.C.,  and  frequently  by  the  Roman 
historians.  A  variety  of  forms  may  be  seen  in  Fairholt's  "Costume  in  England."  An 
instrument  of  torture  termed  "  the  boot"  was  used  in  Scotland  so  late  as  1690. 

BORAX  (Boron),  known  to  the  ancients,  is  used  in  soldering,  brazing,  and  casting  gold 
and  other  metals,  and  was  called  chrysocolla.  Borax  is  produced  naturally  in  the  mountains 
of  Thibet,  and  was  brought  to  Europe  from  India  about  1713.  Homberg  in  1702  discovered 
in  borax  boracic  acid,  which  latter  in  1808  was  decomposed  by  Gay-Lussac,  Thenard,  and  H. 
Davy,  into  oxygen,  and  the  previously  unknown  element,  boron.  Borax  has  lately  been 
found  in  Saxony ;  and  is  now  largely  manufactured  from  the  boracic  acid  found  by  Hoefer  to 
exist  in  the  gas  arising  from  certain  lagoons  in  Tuscany  ;  an  immense  fortune  has  been  made 
by  their  owner  M.  Lardarel  since  1818. 

BORDEAUX.     See  Bourdeaux. 


BORNEO,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
-discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about  1520. 

'The  Dutch  trade  here  in  1604,  and  establish 
factories  in 1776 

The  pirates  of  Borneo  chastised  by  the  British 
in  1813,  and  by  captain  Keppel  in  March,  1843 

By  a  treaty  with  the  sultan,  the  island  of  La- 
booan,  or  Labuan  (N.W.  of  Borneo),  and  its 
dependencies,  incorporated  with  the  British 
empire,  and  formally  taken  possession  of  in 
presence  of  the  Bornean  chiefs  .  Dec.  2,  1846 

James  Brooke,  rajah  of  Sarawak,  by  whose 
exertions  this  island  was  annexed  to  the 
British  crown,  governor  of  Labuan  and 
consul-general  of  Borneo,  visits  England  and 
receives  many  honours  .  .  .  Oct.  1847 

He  destroys  many  of  the  Bornean  pirates         .  1849 

Labuaa  made  a  bishopric  ;  the  bishop  was  con- 


the  largest  in  the  world  except  Australia,  was 


secrated  at  Calcutta,  the  first  English  bishop 
consecrated  out  of  England  .  .  Oct.  18,  1855 

The  Chinese  in  Sarawak  rise  in  insurrection, 
and  massacre  a  number  of  Europeans  ;  sir  J. 
Brooke  escapes  by  swimming  across  a  creek  ; 
he  speedily  returns  with  a  force  of  Malays, 
&c.,  and  chastises  the  insurgents,  of  whom 
2000  were  killed  ....  Feb.  17,  18,  1857 

He  comes  to  England  to  seek  help  from  the 
government,  without  success  ....  1858 

His  health  being  broken  up,  an  appeal  for  a 
subscription  for  him  made ,, 

Deputation  of  merchants  waits  on  the  earl  of 
Derby,  recommending  the  purchase  of  Sara- 
wak, which  is  declined  .  .  .  Nov.  30,  „ 

Sir  J.  Brooke  returns  to  Borneo   .     .     Nov.  20.  1860 


*  BOOKSELLERS'  ASSOCIATION.  In  1829  a  number  of  eminent  publishers  in  London  formed  themselves 
into  an  association  for  the  regulation  of  the  trade,  and  fixed  the  amount  of  discount  to  be  allowed,  Dec. 
29,  1829,  and  for  some  years  restricted  the  retail  booksellers  from  selling  copies  of  works  under  the  full 
publishing  price.  A  dispute  afterwards  arose  as  to  the  right,  maintained  by  the  latter,  to  dispose  of 
books  (when  they  had  once  become  theirs  by  purchase)  at  such  less  profit  as  they  might  deem  sufficiently 
remunerative.  The  dispute  was  refeired  to  lord  chief  justice  Campbell,  before  whom  the  parties  argued 
their  respective  cases,  at  Stratheden  House,  April  14,  1852.  His  lordship  gave  judgment  in  effect  against 
the  association  ;  this  led  to  its  immediate  dissolution,  May  19  following. 


>RNOU,  an  extensive  kingdom  in  central  Africa,  explored  by  Denliam  and  Clapperton, 
were  sent  out  by  the  British  government  in  1822.     The  population  is  estimated  by 
Denham  at  5,000,000,  by  Barth  at  9,000,000. 

BORODINO,  a  Russian  village  on  the  river  Moskwa,  near  which  a  sanguinary  battle  Avas 
fought,  Sept.  7,  1812,  between  the  French  under  Napoleon,  and  the  Russians  under  Kutusoff; 
240,000  men  being  engaged.  Each  party  claimed  the  victory,  but  it  was  rather  in  favour  of 
Napoleon  ;  for  the  Russians  retreated,  leaving  Moscow,  which  the  French  entered,  Sept.  14. 
See  Moscow. 

BORON.     See  Borax. 

BOROUGH,  or  BURGH,  anciently  a  company  of  ten  families  lining  together,  now  such 
towns  as  send  members  to  Parliament,  since  the  election  of  burgesses  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.  1265.  Charters  were  granted  to  towns  by  Henry  I.,  1132  ;  which  were  remodelled  by 
Charles  II.  in  1682-4,  but  restored  in  1688.  22  new  English  boroughs  were  created  in  1553. 
Burgesses  were  first  admitted  into  the  Scottish  parliament  by  Robert  Bruce,  1326  ;  and 
into  the  Irish,  13^65.  The  "Act  to  amend  the  Representation  of  the  People  in  England  and 
Wales"  was  passed  June  7,  1832  ;  and  the  Act  for  the  Regulation  of  Municipal  Corporations, 
Sept.  9,  1835.  See  Constituency. 

BOROUGH-BRIDGE  (W.  R.  of  York),  the  site  of  a  battle  between  the  earls  of  Hereford 
and  Lancaster  and  Edward  II.,  March  16,  1322.  The  latter,  at  the  head  of  30,000  men, 
pressed  Lancaster  so  closely,  that  he  had  not  time  to  collect  his  troops  together  in  sufficient 
force,  and  being  defeated  and  made  prisoner,  was  led,  mounted  on  a  lean  horse,  to  an 
eminence  near  Pontefract,  or  Pomfret,  and  beheaded  by  a  Londoner. 

BOROUGH-ENGLISH,  an  ancient  tenure  by  which  the  younger  son  inherits,  is  men- 
tioned as  occurring  834.  It  was  abolished  in  Scotland  by  Malcolm  III.  in  1062. 

BOSCOBEL,  near  Donington,  Shropshire,  where  Charles  II.  concealed  himself  after  his 
defeat  at  Worcester  (ivhich  see),  Sept.  3rd,  1651.*  The  "  Boscobel  Tracts  "  were  first  pub- 
lished in  1660.  In  1 86 1  Mr.  F.  Manning  published  "Views,"  illustrating  these  tracts. 

BOSNIA,  a  province  in  Turkey,  formerly  a  dependent  upon  Servia,  w.as  conquered  by 
the  Turks  about  1526,  who  still  retain  it  after  losing  it  several  times. 

BOSPHORUS,  THRACIAN  (now  channel  of  Constantinople).  Darius  Hystaspes  threw  a 
bridge  of  boats  over  this  strait  when  about  to  invade  Greece,  493  B.  c.  See  Constantinople. 

BOSPORUS  (improperly  BOSPHORTJS),  now  called  Circassia,  near  the  Bosphorus 
Cimmerms,  now  the  straits  of  Kertch  or  Yenikale.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  is  involved 
in  obscurity,  though  it  continued  for  3^0  years.  It  was  named  Cimmerian,  from  the 
Cimmeri,  who  dwelt  011  its  borders,  about  750  B.C. 

Battle  of  Zela,  gained  by  Julius  Czesar  over 
Pharnaces  II.  (Csesar  writes  home,  Veni,  vidi, 
vici,  "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered  ")  .  B.C.  47 

Asander  usurps  the  crown 

Caesar  makes  Mithridates  of  Pergamus  king 


ergamus 
Polemon  conquers  Bosporus,  and,  favoured  by 

Agrippa,  reigns 

Polemon  killed  by  barbarians  of   the    Palus 

Mteotis A.D. 

Polemon  II.  reigns,  33 ;  Mithridates  II.  reigns 
Mithridates  conducted  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  by 

order  of  Claudius,  and  hia  kingdom  made  a 

province  of  the  empire. 


33 
4i 


The  Arcbsonactidse  from  Mitylene  rule,  B.C.  502-480 

They  are  dispossessed  by  Spartacus  I.          .  480-438 

Seleucus,  431 ;  Satyrus  1 407 

Leucon,  393;  Spartacus  II.,  353 ;  Parysades     .     348 

Eumelus,  aiming  to  dethrone  his  brother  Saty- 
rus II.,  is  defeated ;  but  Satyrus  is  killed  .  310 

Prytanis,  his  next  brother,  ascends  the  thi-one, 
but  is  murdered  by  Eumelus  .  .  .  310-9 

Eumelus  puts  to  death  all  his  relations,  309 ; 
and  is  killed '1304 

The  Scythians  conquer  Bosporus  .        .        .     .     285 

Mithridates  VI.,  of  Pontus,  conquers  Bosporus      80 

He  poisons  himself ;  and  the  Romans  make  his 
son,  Pharnaces,  king  .  .  .  -63 

BOSTON,  a  city  in  the  United  States,  built  about  1627.  Here  originated  that  resistance 
to  the  British  authorities  which  led  to  American  independence.  The  act  of  parliament  laying 
duties  on  tea,  papers,  colours,  &c.  (passed  June,  1 767),  so  excited  the  indignation  of  the 
citizens  of  Boston,  that  they  destroyed  several  hundreds  of  chests  of  tea,  Nov.  1773.  Boston 
seaport  was  shut  by  the  English  parliament,  until  restitution  should  be  made  to  the  East 
India  Company  for  the  tea  lost,  March  25,  1774.  The  town  was  besieged  by  the  British 
next  year,  and  400  houses  were  destroyed.  A  battle  between  the  royalists  and  independent 
troops,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  took  place  on  June  17,  1775.  The  city  was 
evacuated  by  the  king's  troops,  April,  1776.  The  inhabitants  were  very  zealous  against 
slavery.  An  industrial  exhibition  was  opened  here  in  Oct.  1856,  and  lasted  two  weeks. 

*  The  king,  disguised  in  the  clothes  of  the  Pendrills,  remained  from  Sept.  4-6,  at  White  Ladies  •  on 
Sept.  7  and  8  he  lay  at  Boscobel  house,  near  which  exists  an  oak,  said  to  be  the  scion  of  the  Royal  Oak  in 
•which  the  king  was  part  of  the  time  hidden  with  col.  Careless.  Sharps. 


BOS 


113 


BO  IT 


BOSWORTH  FIELD,  Leicestershire,  the  site  of  the  thirteenth  and  last  battle  between 
the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  Aug.  22,  1485  ;  Richard  III.  was  defeated  by  the  earl 
of  Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII.,  and  slain.  Sir  Wm.  Stanley  at  a  critical  moment 
changed  sides,  and  thus  caused  the  loss  of  the  battle.  It  is  said  that  Henry  was  crowned  on 
the  spot  with  the  crown  of  Richard  found  in  a  hawthorn  bush,  near  the  field. 

BOTANY.  Aristotle  is  considered  the  founder  of  the  science  of  botany  (about  347  B.C.). 
Historic*,  Plantarum  of  Theophrastus  was  written  about  320  B.C.  Authors  on  botany 
"became  numerous  at  the  close  of  the  I5th  century.  Fuchsius,  Bock,  Bauhin,  Cresalpiiius, 
and  others,  wrote  between  1535  and  1600.  The  system  and  arrangement  of  the  great 
Linnteus  was  made  known  about  1750  ;  and  Jussieu's  system,  founded  on  Tournefort's,  and 
called  ''the  natural  system,"  in  1758.  At  Linnseus's  death,  1778,  the  species  of  plants 
actually  described  amounted  in  number  to  11,800.  The  number  of  species  now  recorded 
cannot  fall  short  of  100,000.*  J.  C.  London's  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Plants,"  a  most  compre- 
hensive work,  first  appeared  in  1829.  De  Candolle's  "Proclromus  Systematis  Naturalis 
Kegni  Vegetabilis"  (of  which  Vol.  I.  appeared  in  1818),  is  nearly  completed  (1865). 


BOTANIC    GARDENS. 


Established 
Padua 
Leyden 
Leipsic     . 
Paris  (Jardin  des 
Plantes)  , 
Jena 
Oxford 

about 
1545 
1577 
1580 

1624 
1629 
1632 

Established 
Upsal 
Chelsea 
Edinburgh 
Vienna 
Madrid     . 
Kew  (greatly  im- 
proved, 1841-65) 

about 

1657 
1673 
1680 
1753 

1760 

Established 
Cambridge       . 
Coimbra 
St.  Petersburg 
Calcutta       . 
Dublin      . 
Horticultural  Soci- 
ety's, Chiswick 

about 
1763 
*773 
1785 
1793 
1800 

1821 

Established 


Royal  Botanic  So- 
ciety's, Regent's 

1785  ]      Park         .        .     . 

1793  Royal  Horticultural 
Society's,  S.  Ken- 
sington . 


1839 


1860 


BOTANY  BAY,  Australia,  was  discovered  by  captain  Cook,  April  28,  1770,  and  took  its 
name  from  the  great  variety  of  plants  which  abounded  on  the  shore.  It  was  fixed  on  for  a 
colony  of  convicts  from  Great  Britain.  The  first  governor,  capt.  Arthur  Phillip,  who  sailed 
from  England  in  May,  1787,  arrived  at  the  settlement  in  Jan.  1788.  The  colony  was 
eventually  established  at  Port  Jackson,  about  thirteen  miles  to  the  north  of  the  bay.  See 
New  South  Wal'es  and  Transportation. 

BOTHWELL  BRIDGE,  Lanarkshire.  The  Scotch  covenanters  took  up  arms  against 
the  intolerant  government  of  Charles  II.  in  1679,  and  defeated  the  celebrated  Claverhouse 
at  Drumclog.  They  were  however  totally  routed  by  the  earl  of  Monmouth  at  Bothwell 
Bridge,  June  22,  1679,  and  many  of  the  prisoners  were  cruelly  tortured  and  afterwards 
executed. 

BOTTLE-CONJUROR.  On  Jan.  16,  1748,  a  charlatan  at  the  old  Haymarket  theatre 
had  announced  that  he  would  jump  into  a  quart  bottle.  The  theatre  was  besieged  by 
thousands  anxious  to  gain  admittance  and  witness  the  feat.  The  duped  crowd  nearly  pulled 
down  the  edifice. 

BOTTLES  in  ancient  times  were  made  of  leather.  Bottles  of  glass  were  first  made  in 
England  about  1558.  See  Glass.  The  art  of  making  glass  bottles  and  drinking-glasses  was 
known  to  the  Romans  at  least  before  79  ;  for  these  articles  and  other  vessels  have  been  found 
in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii.  A  bottle  which  contained  two  hogsheads  was  blown,  we  are  told, 
.at  Leith,  in  Scotland,  in  Jan.  1747-8. 

BOULOGNE,  a  seaport  in  Picardy,  N.  France,  was  taken  by  the  British  under  Henry 
VIII.  on  Sept.  14,  1544,  but  restored  at  the  peace,  1550.  Lord  Nelson  attacked  Boulogne, 
disabling  ten  vessels  and  sinking  five,  Aug.  3,  1801.  In  another  attempt  he  was  repulsed 
with  great  loss,  and  captain  Parker  of  the  Medusa  and  two-thirds  of  his  crew  were 'killed, 
Aug.  1 8  following.  In  1804  Bonaparte  assembled  160,000  men  and  10,000  horses,  and  a 
flotilla  of  1300  vessels  and  17,000  sailors  to  invade  England.  The  coasts  of  Kent  and 
Sussex  were  covered  with  martello  towers  and  lines  of  defence  ;  and  nearly  half  the  adult 
population  of  Britain  was  formed  into  volunteer  corps.  It  is  supposed  that  this  French 
armament  served  merely  for  a  demonstration,  and  that  Bonaparte  never  seriously  intended 
the  invasion.  Sir  Sidney  Smith  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  burn  the  flotilla  with  fire- 
machines  called  catamarans,  Oct.  2,  1804.  Congreve-rockets  were  used  in  another  attack, 
and  they  set  the  town  on  fire,  Oct.  8,  1806.  The  army  was  removed  on  the  breaking  out  of 
war  with  Austria  in  1805.  Louis  Napoleon  (now  emperor)  made  a  descent  here  with  about 


.*  Robert  Brown,  who  accompanied  Flinders  in  his  survey  of  New  Holland  in  1803,  died  June  10,  185! 
aged  85.     He  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  chief  of  the  botanists  of  his  day  (facile  princeps). 


BOU  119  BOW 

50  followers,  Aug.  6,  1840,  without  success.  On  July  10,  1854,  he  reviewed  the  French 
troops  destined  for  the  Baltic,  and  on  Sept.  2,  following,  he  entertained  prince  Albert  and 
the  king  of  the  Belgians.  See  France. 

BOUNTIES,  premiums  granted  to  the  producer,  exporter,  or  importer  of  certain  articles ; 
a  principle  introduced  into  commerce  by  the  British  parliament.  The  first  granted  on  corn 
in  1688,  were  repealed  in  1815.  They  were  first  legally  granted  in  England  for  raising  naval 
stores  in  America,  1703,  and  have  been  granted  on  sail-cloth,  linen  and  other  goods. 

BOUNTY  MUTINY,  took  place  on  board  the  Bounty,  an  armed  ship  which  quitted 
Otaheite,  with  bread-fruit  trees,  April  7,  1789.  The  mutineers  put  their  captain,  Bligh,  and 
nineteen  men  into  an  open  boat,  near  Annamooka,  one  of  the  Friendly  Isles,  April  28,  1789  ; 
these  reached  the  island  of  Timor,  south  of  the  Moluccas,  in  June,  after  a  perilous  voyage 
of  nearly  4000  miles ;  their  preservation  was  next  to  miraculous.  Some  of  the  mutineers  were 
tried,  Sept.  15,  1792;  six  were  condemned  and  three  executed.  For  the  fate  of  the  others, 
see  Pitcairn's  Island. 

BOURBON,  HOUSE  OF  (from  which  come  the  royal  houses  of  France,  Spain,  and  Naples), 
derives  its  origin  from  the  Archambauds,  lords  of  Bourbon  in  Berry.  Robert,  count  of 
€lermont,  son  of  Louis  IX.  of  France,  married  the  heiress  Beatrice  in  1272  :  their  son 
Louis  1.  was  created  duke  of  Bourbon  and  peer  of  France  by  Charles  IV.  in  1327.  The  last 
of  the  descendants  of  their  elder  son  Peter  I.  was  Susanna,  wife  of  Charles,  duke  of  Mont- 
pensier,  called  constable  of  Bourbon,  who,  offended  by  his  sovereign  Francis  I.,  entered  into 
the  service  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Rome,  May  6,  I527- 
From  James,  the  younger  son  of  Louis  I.,  was  descended  Antony,  duke  of  Vendonie,  who 
married  (1548)  Jean  d'Albret,  daughter  of  Henry,  king  of  Navarre.  Their  son  the  great 
Henry  IV.  was  born  at  Pan,  Dec.  23,  1553,  and  became  king  of  France,  July  31,  1589. — 
The  crown  of  Spain  was  settled  on  a  younger  branch  of  this  family,  1700,  and  guaranteed  by 
the  peace  of  Utrecht,  1713.  Rapin.  The  Bourbon  FAMILY  COMPACT  (which  see)  was  made 
1761.  The  Bourbons  were  expelled  France,  1791  ;  restored,  1814  ;  again  expelled  on  the 
return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  and  again  restored  after  the  battle  of  "Waterloo,  1815.  The 
elder  branch  was  expelled  once  more,  in  the  person  of  Charles  X.  and  his  family,  in  1830,  in 
•consequence  of  the  revolution  of  the  memorable  days  of  July  in  that  year.  The  Orleans 


kingdom.     See  France,  Spain,  Naples,  Orleans,  Parma,  C'onde,  and  Legitimists. 


BOURBON,  ISLE  OF  (in  the  Indian  Ocean),  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about  1545. 
The  French  are  said  to  have  first  settled  here  in  1642.  It  surrendered  to  the  British, 
under  admiral  Rowley,  Sept.  21,  1809,  and  was  restored  to  France  in  1815.  Alison.  An 
awful  hurricane  in  Feb.  1829  did  much  mischief.  See  Mauritius. 

BOURDEAUX,  OR  BORDEAUX  ("W.  France),  was  united  to  the  dominions  of  Henry  II. 
of  England  by  his  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine.  Edward  the  Black  Prince  brought 
his  royal  captive,  John,  king  of  France,  to  this  city  after  the  battle  of  Poictiers  in  135$,  and 
here  held  his  court  during  eleven  years  :  his  son,  our  Richard  II.,  was  born  at  Bourdeaux, 
1366.  Bourdeaux  finally  surrendered  to  Charles  VII.  of  France  in  1453.  The  fine  eques- 
trian statue  of  Louis  XV.  was  erected  in  1743.  Bourdeaux  was  entered  by  the  victorious 
British  army  after  the  battle  of  Orthes,  fought  Feb.  27,  1814. 

BOURIGXONISTS,  a  sect  founded  by  Antoinette  Bourignon,  who,  in  1658,  took  the 
Augustine  habit  and  travelled  in  France,  Holland,  England,  and  Scotland  ;  in  the  last  she 
made  many  converts  about  1670.  She  maintained  that  Christianity  does  not  consist  in  faith 
and  practice,  but  in  inward  feeling  and  supernatural  impulse.  A  disciple  named  Court  left 
her  a  good  estate.  She  died  in  1680,  and  her  works,  in  21  volumes  8vo,  were  published 
in  1686. 

BOURNOUS,  the  Arabic  name  of  a  hooded  garment  worn  in  Algeria,  which  has  been 
introduced  in  a  modified  form  into  England  and  France  since  1847. 

BOUVINES  (N.  France),  the  site  of  a  desperate  battle,  July  27,  1214,  in  which.  Philip 
Augustus  of  France  obtained  a  complete  victory  over  the  emperor  Otho  and  his  allies, 
consisting  of  more  than  150,000  men.  The  earls  of  Flanders  and  Boulogne  were  taken 
prisoners. 

BOWLS,  on  BOWLING,  an  English  game  as  early  as  the  I3th  century.  Charles  I.  played 
at  it,  and  also  Charles  II.  at  Tunbridge.  Grammont. 


EOW  120  BRA 

BOW-STREET.     See  Magistrates. 
BOWS  AND  ARROWS.     See  Archery. 

BOXING,  OR  PRIZE- FIGHTING,  the  pugilatus  of  the  Romans,  once  a  favourite  sport  with 
the  British,  who  possess  an  extraordinary  strength  in  the  arm,  an  advantage  which  gives  the 
British  soldier  great  superiority  in  battles  decided  by  the  bayonet.  A  century  ago  boxing 
formed  a  regular  exhibition,  and  a  theatre  was  erected  for  it  in  Tottenham-court. —Brough- 
ton's  amphitheatre,  behind  Oxford-road,  was  built  1742.  Schools  were  opened  in  England 
to  teach  boxing  as  a  science  in  1790.  Mendoza  opened  the  Lyceum  in  the  Strand  in  1791. 
Boxing  was  much  patronised  from  about  1820  to  1830,  but  is  now  out  of  favour.*  John 
Gully,  originally  a  butcher,  afterwards  a  prize-fighter,  acquired  wealth  and  became  M.P.  for 
Pontefract  in  1835.  He  died  March  9,  1863. 

BOXTEL  (in  Dutch  Brabant),  where  the  British  and  allied  army,  commanded  by  the 
duke  of  York,  was  defeated  by  the  French  republicans,  who  took  2000  prisoners  and  eight 
pieces  of  cannon,  Sept.  1 7,  1 794. 

BOX-TREE,  indigenous  to  this  country,  and  exceedingly  valuable  to  wood-engravers. 
In  1815  a  large  box- tree  at  Box-hill,  Surrey,  was  cut  down,  and  realised  a  large  sum. 
Macculloch  says,  that  "the  trees  were  cut  down  in  1815,  and  produced  upwards  of  10,000?." 
About  1820  the  cutting  of  all  the  trees  on  the  hill  produced  about  6oool. 

BOYDELL'S  LOTTERY  for  a  gallery  of  paintings  was  got  up  in  1791  at  a  vast  expense 
by  alderman  Boydell,  lord  mayor  of  London,  a  gr,eat  encourager  of  the  arts.  The  collection 
was  called  the  Shakspeare  gallery,  and  every  ticket  was  sold  at  the  time  the  alderman  died, 
Dec.  12,  1804,  before  the  decision  of  the  wheel. 

BOYLE  LECTURES,  instituted  in  1691  by  Robert  Boyle  (sou  of  the  great  earl  of 
Cork),  a  philosopher,  distinguished  by  his  genius,  virtues,  and  benevolence.  Eight  lectures 
(in  vindication  of  the  Christian  religion)  are  delivered  at  St.  Mary-le-bow  church,  London, 
on  the  first  Monday  in  each  month,  from  January  to  May  and  September  to  November. 

BOYNE  (a  river  in  Kildare,  Ireland),  near  which  William  III.  defeated  his  father-in- 
law,  James  II.,  July  i,  1690.  The  latter  lost  1500  (out  of  30,000)  men  ;  the  Protestant  army 
lost  about  a  third  of  that  number  (out  of  30,000).  James  fled  to  Dublin,  thence  to  Water- 
ford,  and  escaped  to  France.  The  duke  of  Schomberg  was  killed  in  the  battle,  having  been 
shot  by  mistake  by  his  own  soldiers  as  he  was  crossing  the  river.  Here  also  was  killed  the 
rev.  George  Walker,  who  defended  Londonderry  in  1689.  Near  Drogheda  is  a  splendid 
obelisk,  150  feet  in  height,  erected  in  1736  by  the  Protestants  of  the  empire  in  commemora- 
tion of  this  victory. 

BOYNE,  man-of-war  of  98  guns,  destroyed  by  fire  at  Portsmouth,  May  4,  1795,  by  the 
explosion  of  the  magazine  ;  numbers  perished.  Portions  were  recovered  June,  1840. 

BRABANT  (now  part  of  the  kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium),  an  ancient  duchy,  part 
of  Charlemagne's  empire,  fell  to  the  share  of  his  son  Lothaire.  It  became  a  separate  duchy 
(called  at  first  Lower  Lorraine)  in  959.  It  descended  to  Philip  II.  of  Burgundy,  and  in 
regular  succession  to  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  In  the  1 7th  century  it  was  held  by  Holland 
and  Austria,  as  Dutch  Brabant  and  the  Walloon  provinces,  and  underwent  many  changes 
through  the  wars  of  Europe.  The  Austrian  division  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1 746  and 
1794.  It  was  united  to  the  Netherlands  in  1814,  but  has  formed  part  of  Belgium,  under 
Leopold,  since  1830.  His  heir  is  styled  duke  of  Brabant.  See  Belgium. 

BRACELETS  wrere  worn  by  the  ancients,  and  armillce  were  Roman  military  rewards. 
Those  of  pearls  and  gold  were  worn  by  the  Roman  ladies. 

BRADFIELD  RESERYOIR.     See  Sheffield,  1864. 
BRADFORD.     See  Poison. 

BRADSHAW'S  RAILWAY  GUIDE  was  first  published  by  Mr.  G.  Bradshaw  in  Dec. 
1841.  He  had  previously  published  occasionally  a  Railway  Companion. 

*  On  April  17,  1860,  a  large  number  of  persons  of  all  classes  assembled  at  Farnborough  to  witness  a 
desperate  conflict  between  Thomas  Sayers,  the  (rnampion  of  England,  a  light  Sussex  man,  about  5  feet 
8  inches  high,  and  John  Heenan,  the  "  Benccia  B->y,"  a  huge  American,  in  height  6  feet  i  inch.  Strength, 
however,  was  matched  by  skill ;  and  eventually  the  fight  was  interrupted.  Both  men  received  a  silver 
belt  on  May  31  following.  Tom  King  beat  Mace,  and  obtained  the  champion's  belt,  &c.,  Nov.  26,  1862  ; 
he  beat  Goss,  Sept.  i,  1863,  and  Heenan  (nearly  to  death)  Dec.  10,  1863.  A  trial,  in  consequence  of  the 
last  fight  ensued  :  the  culprits  were  discharged,  on  promising  not  to  offend  again,  April  5,  1864.  On  Jan. 
4,  1865,  Wormald  obtained  the  championship  after  a  contest  with  Marsden. 


BRA  121  BRA 

BKAGANZA,  a  city  in  Portugal,  gave  title  to  Alfonso,  natural  .son  of  Pedro  I.  of  Portugal 
tin  1422),  founder  of  the  house  of  Braganza.  When  the  nation,  in  a  bloodless  revolution  in 
1640,  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  John,  duke  of  Braganza,  as  John  IV.,  was  called  to  the 
throne ;  his  family  continues  to  reign.  See  Portugal  and  Brazil. 

BRAHMINS,  the  highest  of  the  four  castes  of  the  Hindoos.  Pythagoras  is  thought  to 
have  learned  from  them  his  doctrine  of  the  Metempsychosis  ;  and  it  is  affirmed  that  some  of 
the  Greek  philosophers  went  to  India  on  purpose  to  converse  with  them.  The  modern 
Brahmins  derive  their  name  from  Brahmah,  one  of  the  three  beings  whom  God,  according 
to  their  theology,  created,  and  with  whose  assistance  he  formed  the  world.  The  modern 
Indian  priests  are  still  the  depositaries  of  the  sacred  learning  of  India.  See  Vedas. 

BRAINTREE  CASE  (in  Essex),  which  was  decided  in  1842  by  Dr.  Lushington,  who 
determined  that  a  minority  in  a  parish  vestry  cannot  levy  a  church  rate. 

BRAMHAM  (W.  R.  York)  :  near  here  the  earl  of  Northumberland  and  lord  Bardolf  were 
defeated  and  slain  by  sir  Thomas  Rokeby,  the  general  of  Henry  IV.,  Feb.  19,  1408;  and 
Fairfax  was  defeated'by  the  royalists  under  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  March  29,  1643. 

BRANDENBURG,  a  city  in  Prussia,  founded  by  the  Slavonians,  who  gave  it  the  name 
of  Banber,  which  signified  Guard  of  the  Forest,  according  to  some  ;  others  say,  Burg,  or 
city  of  the  Brenns.  Henr}'  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  after  defeating  the  Slavonians,  fortified 
Brandenburg,  926,  as  a  rampart  against  the  Huns,  and  bestowed  the  government  on  Sigefroi, 
ymnt  of  Ringelheim,  with  the  title  of  Margrave,  or  protector  of  the  marches  or  frontiers. 
The  emperor  Sigismund  gave  perpetual  investiture  to  Frederick  IV.  of  Nuremburg,  ancestor 
)f  the  Royal  family  of  Prussia,  who  was  made  elector  in  1417.  For  a  list  of  the  Margraves 
since  1134,  see  Prussia. 

BRANDENBURG  HOUSE,  Hammersmith.     See  Queen  Caroline. 

BRANDY  (German  Branntwein,  burnt  wine),  the  spirit  distilled  from  wine.  It  appears 
:o  have  been  known  to  Raymond  Lully  in  the  I3th  century,  and  to  have  been  manufactured 
in  France  early  in  the  I4th.  It  was  at  first  used  medicinally,  and  miraculous  cures  were 
ascribed  to  its  influence.  In  1851,  938,280  gallons  were  imported  with  a  duty  of  15*.  per 
gallon.  It  is  now  manufactured  in  Britain. 

BRAND  YWINE,  a  river  in  N.  America,  near  which  a  battle  took  place  between  the 
British  and  the  revolted  Americans,  in  which  the  latter  (after  a  day's  light)  were  defeated 
with  great  loss,  and  Philadelphia  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  victors,  Sept.  n,  1777. 

BRASS  was  known  among  all  the  early  nations.  Usher.  The  British  from  the  remotest 
period  were  acquainted  with  its  use.  Wftitaker.  When  Lucius  Mummius  burnt  Corinth 
to  the  ground,  14613.0.,  he  found  immense  riches,  and  during  the  conflagration,  it  is  said, 
all  the  metals  in  the  city  melted,  and  running  together,  formed  the  valuable  composition 
described  as  Corinthian  Brass.  This,  however,  may  Well  be  doubted,  for  the  Corinthian 
artists  had  long  before  obtained  great  credit  for  their  method  of  combining  gold  and  silver 
with  copper  ;  and  the  Syriac  translation  of  the  Bible  says,  that  Hiram  made  the  vessels  for 
Solomon's  temple  of  Corinthian  brass.  Dit  Fresnoy.  Some  of  the  English  sepulchral 
engraved  brasses  are  said  to  be  as  old  as  1277. 

BRAURONIA,  festivals  in  Attica,  at  Brauron,  where  Diana  had  a  temple.  The  most 
remarkable  that  attended  these  festivals  were  young  virgins  in  yellow  gowns,  dedicated  to 
Diana.  They  were  about  ten  years  of  age,  and  not  under  five  ;  and  therefore  their  consecra- 
tion was  called  "  dekateuein,"  from  deka,  ten  ;  600  B.C. 

BRAY,  THE  VICAR  OF.  Bray,  in  Berks,  is  famous  in  national  song  for  its  vicar,  the 
rev.  Symon  Symonds,  who  is  said  to  have  been  twice  a  papist  and  twice  a  Protestant — in 
four  successive  reigns — those  of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  between 
the  years  1533  and  1558.  Upon  being  called  a  turn-coat,  he  said  he  kept  to  his  principle, 
that  of  "  living  and  dying  the  vicar  of  Bray."  Fuller's  Church  History. 

BRAZEN  BULL,  contrived  by  Perillus,  a  brass-founder  at  Athens,  for  Phalaris,  tyrant  of 
Agrigentum,  570  B.C.  He  cast  a  brazen  bull,  larger  than  life,  with  an  opening  in  the. side 
to  admit  the  victims.  A  fire  was  kindled  underneath  to  roast  them  to  death  ;  and  the  throat 
was  so  contrived  that  their  dying  groans  resembled  the  roaring  of  a  bull.  Phalaris  admired 
the  invention  and  workmanship,  but  said  it  was  reasonable  the  artist  should  make  the  first 
experiment,  and  ordered  his  execution.  Ovid  mentions  that  the  Agrigentes,  maddened  by 
the  tyrant's  cruelties,  revolted,  seized  him,  cut  his  tongue  out  and  roasted  him  in  the  brazen 
bull,  549  B.C. 


BRA 


BEE 


BRAZIL,  an  empire  in  South  America,  was  discovered  by  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  a  Portu- 
guese, who  was  driven  upon  its  coasts  by  a  tempest,  Jan.  26,  150x3.  He  called  it  the  land  of 
the  Holy  Cross  ;  but  it  was  subsequently  called  Brazil,  on  account  of  its  red  wood.  The 


French  having  seized  on  Portugal  in  1807"  the  royal  family  and  nobles  embarked  for  Brazil, 
and  landed  March  7,    1808.     The  dominant  religion  is  Roman  Cath< " 
tolerated.     Population  in  1856,  7,677,800.     See  Portugal. 


Catholic  ;   but  others  are 


Pedro  Alvarez  Cabal  discovers  Espirito  Santo, 

coast  of  Brazil,  and  lands  .  .  .  May  3  1500 
Brazil  explored  by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  about  .  1504 
Divided  into  captaincies  by  the  king  of  Portugal  1 530 
Martin  Le  Souza  founds  the  first  European 

colony  at  San  Vincente 1531 

Jews  banished  from  Portugal  to  Brazil  .  .  1548 
San  Salvador  (Bahia)  founded  by  Thome  de 

Souza 1549 

French  Protestants  occupy  bay  of  Rio  Janeiro  .  1555 

Expelled 1567 

Sebastian  founded ,, 

Brazil,  with  Portugal,  becomes  subject  to  Spain  1 580 
James  Lancaster  captures  Pernambuco  .  .  1593 
The  French  establish  a  colony  at  Maranham  .  1594 

Belem  founded  by  Caldeira 1615 

The  French  expelled „ 

The  Dutch  seize  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  hold 
Pernambuco  .......  1630 

Defeated  at  Guararapes 1646 

Give  up  Brazil 1661 

Gold  mining  commences 1693 

Destruction  of  Palmares 1697 

The  French  assault  and  capture  Rio  Janeiro  1710-11 
Diamond"  mines  discovered  in  Sezzo  Frio  .  .1729 

Jesuits  expelled 1758-60 

Capital  transferred  from  Bahia  to  Rio  Janeiro  1763 
Royal  f amily  of  Portugal  arrive  at  Brazil,  Mar.  7,  1 808 
First  printing-press  established  .  .  .  . 
Brazil  becomes  a  kingdom.  .... 
King  John  VI.  returns  to  Portugal,  and  Dom 

Pedro  becomes  regent 1821 

Brazil  declares  its  independence  .          Sept.  7,  1822 
Pedro  I.  crowned  emperor          .        .       Dec.  i,     ,, 
New  constitution  ratified      .         .       March  25,  1824 
Independence  recognised  by  Portugal,  Aug.  29,  1825 
Abdication  of  Dom  Pedro  I.       .        .      April  7,  1831 

Reform  of  the  constitution 1834 

Accession  of  Pedro  II. 1840 

Steam- ship  line  to  Europe  commenced         .     .  1850 
Suppression  of  the  slave-trade ;   railways  com- 
menced          1852 

Rio  Janeiro  lit  with  gas 1854 

The  British  ship  "Prince  of  Wales"  wrecked 
at  Albardas,  on  coast  of  Brazil,  is  plundered 
by  some  of  the  natives,  and  some  of  the  crew 

killed,  about June  7,  1861 

Reparation  long  refused  ;  reprisals  made ;  five 
Brazilian  merchant  ships  being  seized  by  the 


1815 


1862 
1863 


1864 


British Dec.  31, 

The  Brazilian  minister  at  London  pays  3,200^. 
as  an  indemnity,  under  protest  .  Feb.  26, 

The  Brazilian  government  request  the  British 
to  express  regret  for  reprisals ;  declined ; 
diplomatic  intercourse  between  the  two 
countries  suspended  .  .  May  5-28, 

Dispute  between  the  British  and  Brazilian 
governments  respecting  the  arrest  of  some 
British  officers  at  Rio  Janeiro  (June  17,  1862) 
is  referred  to  the  arbitration  of  the  king  of 
Belgium,  who  decides  in  favour  of  the  latter 
June  18, 

New  ministry  formed ;  F.  J.  Furtado,  presi- 
dent— prospect  of  reconciliation  with  Great 
Britain Aug.  30, 

U.  S.  war-steamer  "Wachusett"  seizes  the 
Confederate  steamer  "  Florida,"  in  the  port 
of  Bahia,  while  under  protection  of  Brazil, 
Oct.  7 ;  after  remonstrance,  Mr.  Seward, 
U.  S.  foreign  minister,  apologises.  [The 
"  Florida"  had  been  (inadvertently?)  sunk.] 
Dec.  26, 

The  Comte  d'Eu  and  the  Princess  Isabella  (on 
their  marriage  tour)  land  at  Southampton 

Feb.  7, 

War  with  Uruguay — the  Brazilians  take  Pay- 
sandu,  and  march  upon  Monte  Video,  Feb.  2, 

Lopez,   president  of  Paraguay,   declares  war 

against  the  Argentine  Republic,  which  unites 

with    Brazil  —  New    combinations    forming 

April,  May, 

Amicable  relations  with  England  restored 

Aug. 

The  emperor  joins  the  army  marching  against 
Lopez Aug. 


EMPERORS    OF   BRAZIL. 

1825.  Dom  Pedro  (of  Portugal)  first  emperor,  Oct. 
12,  abdicated  the  throne  of  Brazil  in  favour  of  his 
infant  son,  April  7,  1831  ;  died  Sept.  24,  1834. 

1831.  Dom  Pedro  II.  (born  Dec.  2,  1825)  succeeded 
on  his  father's  abdication  :  assumed  the  govern- 
ment July  23,  1840  ;  crowned  July  18,  1841  ;  mar- 
ried Sept.  4,  1843,  Princess  Theresa  of  Naples  ;  the 
PRESENT  emperor  (1865). 

Heiress :  Isabella,  born  July  29,  1846 ;  married  to 
Louis  comte  d'Eu,  son  of  the  Due  de  Nemours, 
Oct.  15,  1864. 


iS65 


BREAD.  Ching-Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first  who 
taught  men  (the  Chinese)  the  art  of  husbandry  and  the  method  of  making  bread  from  wheat, 
and  wine  from  rice,  1998  B.C.  Univ.  Hist.  Baking  of  bread  was  known  in  the  patriarchal 
ages;  see  Exodus  xii.  15.  It  became  a  profession  at  Rome,  170  B.C.  After  the  conquest  of 
Macedon,  148  B.C.,  numbers  of  Greek  bakers  came  to  Rome,  obtained  special  privileges,  and 
soon  obtained  the  monopoly  of  the  baking  trade.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  by  Henry  IV., 
owing  to  the  famine  which  then  raged,  bread,  which  had  been  sold  whilst  any  remained  for 
a  crown  a  pound,  was  at  last  made  from  the  bones  of  the  charnel-house  of  the  Holy 
Innocents,  A.D.  1594.  Henault.  In  the  time  of  James  L,  barley  bread  was  used  by  the 
poor  ;  and  now  in  Iceland,  cod-fish,  beaten  to  powder,  is  made  into  bread  ;  potato-bread  is 
used  in  Ireland.  'The  London  Bakers'  Company  was  incorporated  in  1307.  Bread-street 
was  once  the  London  market  for  bread.  Until  1302,  the  London  bakers  were  not  allowed 
to  sell  any  in  their  own  shops.  Stow.  Bread  was  made  with  yeast  by  the  English  bakers  in ; 
1634.  In  1856  and  1857  Dr.  Dauglish  patented  a  mode  of  making  "aerated  bread,"  in; 
which  carbonic  acid  gas  is  combined  with  water  and  mixed  with  the  flour,  which  is  said  to  •; 
possess  the  advantages  of  cleanliness,  rapidity,  and  uniformity.  In  1862  a  company  was  : 


\\  aa 


BRE 


123 


BRE 


formed  to  encourage  Stevens'  bread-making  machinery.* 
was  passed  in  July,  1863. 


An  act  for  regulating  bakehouses 


rtern  Loaf  (4*6 

.  sioz.) 

r 

5 

I805      .      . 

1810  . 
1812  (Aug.)  . 
1814  . 

i2jd. 

31 

I2i 

1835  .    .    .  .  7d. 
1840    .    .    »9 

June.  Dec. 

1858  . 
1859 
1860  . 

3  [For  4  weeks, 

6J 

6± 

I2i 

r?i 

22i(/.] 

Four-pound  loaf 
1822 
1825  . 
1830 

best), 
lod. 
ii 
io4 

1850    .  •  7     6i 
1854  .    .10    ii 
1855    .  .  ii    io£ 
1856  .    .11    ioi 
1857    .  •  92-    84 

1862  . 
1863 
1864  . 

1865 

PRICES   OF    BREAD    IN  VARIOUS  YEARS. 

June.  Dec. 

8d.  7d. 

8  7^ 
84  0 

9  9 
9  8 
8  7 
7  7 

Sept. 

7  74 

BREAD-FRUIT  TREE,  mentioned  by  Dampier,  Anson,  Wallis,  and  other  voyagers. 
A  vessel  under  captain  Bligh  was  fitted  out  to  convey  these  trees  to  various  British  colonies 
in  1789  (see  Bounty},  and  again  in  1791.  The  number  taken  on  board  at  Otaheite  was  1151. 
Some  were  left  at  St.  Helena,  352  at  Jamaica,  and  five  were  reserved  for  Kew  Gardens,  1793. 
The  tree  was  successfully  cultivated  in  French  Guiana,  1802. 

BREAKWATERS.  The  first  stone  of  the  Plymouth  breakwater  was  lowered  August  12, 
1812.  It  was  designed  to  break  the  swell,  and  stretches  5280  feet  across  the  sound  ;  it  is 
360  feet  in  breadth  at  the  bottom  and  more  than  thirty  at  the  top,  and  consumed  3,666,000 
tons  of  granite  blocks,  from  one  to  five  tons  each,  up  to  April,  1841,  and  cost  a  million  and 
o  half  sterling.  The  architects  were  Mr.  John  Rennie  and  his  son  sir  John.  The  first  stone 
of  the  lighthouse  on  its  western  extremity  was  laid  Feb.  i,  1841.  Breakwaters  are  now  in 
course  of  construction  at  Holyhead,  Portland,  Dover,  &c.  (1865). 

BREAST-PLATE.  One  was -worn  by  the  Jewish  high  priest,  1491  B.C.  (Exod.  xxxix.). 
Goliath  "was  armed  with  a  coat  of  mail,"  1063  B.C.  (i  Sam.  xvii.)  Breast-plates  dwindled 
to  the  diminutive  gorgets.  Ancient  breast-plates  are  mentioned  as  made  of  gold  and  silver. 

BRECHIN,  Scotland  ;  sustained  a  siege  against  the  army  of  Edward  III.,  1333.  The 
battle  of  Brechiu  was  fought  between  the  forces  of  the  earls  of  Huntly  and  Crawfurd  ;  the 
latter  defeated,  1452.  The  see  of  Brechin  was  founded  by  David  I.  in  1150.  One  of  its 
bishops,  Alexander  Campbell,  was  made  prelate  when  but  a  boy,  1556.  The  bishopric,  dis- 
continued soon  after  the  revolution  in  1688,  was  revived  in  1731. 

BREDA,  Holland,  was  taken  by  prince  Maurice,  of  Nassau,  in  1590;  by  the  Spaniards, 
under  Spinola,  in  1625  ;  and  by  the  Dutch,  in  1637.  Our  Charles  II.  resided  here  at  the 
time  of  the  restoration,  1660.  See  Restoration.  Breda  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1793. 
The  French  garrison  was  expelled  by  the  burgesses  in  1813.  The  "  Compromise  of  Breda" 
was  a  proposal  to  Philip  II.,  deprecating  his  harsh  measures  in  the  Netherlands,  presented 
and  refused  in  1566. 

BREECHES.  Among  the  Greeks,  this  garment  indicated  slavery.  It  was  worn  by  the 
Dacians,  Parthians,  and  other  northern  nations  ;  and  in  Italy,  it  is  said,  was  worn  in  the 
time  of  Augustus  Caesar.  In  the  reign  of  Honorius,  about  394,  the  braccarii,  or  breeches- 
makers,  were  expelled  from  Rome  ;  but  soon  afterwards  the  use  of  breeches  was  adopted  in 
other  countries,  and  at  length  became  general. 

BREHONS,  ancient  judges  in  Ireland,  are  said  to  have  administered  justice  with  religious 
impartiality,  but  in  later  times  with  a  tendency  to  love  of  country.  It  was  enacted  by  the 
statute  of  Kilkenny,  that  no  English  subject  should  submit  to  the  Brehonlaws,  40  Edw.  III., 
1365.  These  laws,  however,  were  recognised  by  the  native  Irish  till  about  1650.  A  trans- 
lation of  them  was  proposed  in  1852,  the  publication  of  which  may  be  expected. 

BREITENFELD,  BATTLE  OF.     See  Leipsic. 

BREMEN  (N.  Germany),  said  to  have  been  founded  in  788,  and  long  an  archbishopric 
and  one  of  the  leading  towns  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  was  allowed  a  seat  and  a  vote  in  the 
college  of  imperial  cities  in  1640.  In  1648  it  was  secularised  and  erected  into  a  duchy  and 


*  ASSIZE  OF  BREAD.  The  first  statute  for  the  regulation  of  the  sale  of  bread  was  3  John,  1203.  The 
chief  justiciary,  and  a  baker  commissioned  by  the  king,  had  the  inspection  of  the  assize.  Mattheic  Paris. 
The  assize  was  further  regulated  by  statute  in  51  Henry  III.  1266,  and  8  Anne,  1710.  Bread  Act,  Ireland, 
placing  its  sale  on  the  same  footing  as  in  England,  i  Viet.  1838.  Bread  was  directed  to  be  sold  by  weight 
in  London  in  1822  ;  the  statute  "  Assessa  Panis  "  was  repealed  in  1824;  and  the  sale  of  bread  throughout 
the  country  was  regulated  in  1836. 


BRE  124  BRI 

held  by  Sweden  till  1712,  when  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  Denmark  in  1731,  by  Avhora 
it  was  ceded  to  Hanover.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1757,  who  were  expelled  by  the 
Hanoverians  in  1758.  Bremen  was  annexed  by  Napoleon  to  the  French  empire  in  1810; 
but  its  independence  was  restored  in  1813,  and  all  its  old  franchises  in  1815.  Population  of 
the  province  in  1862,  about  90,000.  See  Hanse  Toums. 

BRESCIA,  N.  Italy  (the  ancient  Brixia),  became  important  under  the  Lombards,  and 
suffered  by  the  wars  of  the  Italian  Republics.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  under  Gaston  de 
Foix  in  1512,  when  it  is  said  40,000  of  the  inhabitants  were  massacred.  It  surrendered  to 
the  Austrian  general  Haynau,  March  30,  1849,  on  severe  terms. 

BRESLAU,  in  Silesia,  was  burnt  by  the  Mongols  in  1241,  and  conquered  by  Frederick 
II.  of  Prussia,  in  Jan.  1741.  A  fierce  battle  took  place  here  between  the  Austrians  and 
Prussians,  the  latter  under  prince  Bevern,  who  was  defeated  Nov.  22,  1757.  Breslau  was 
taken  :  but  was  regained,  Dec.  21,  the  same  year.  It  was  besieged  by  the  French,  and  sur- 
rendered to  them  Jan.  1807,  and  again  in  1813. 

BREST,  a  sea-port,  N.W.  France,  was  besieged  by  Julius  Csesar,  54  B.C. — possessed  by 
the  English,  A.D.  1378 — given  up  to  the  duke  of  Brittany,  1390.  Lord  Berkeley  and  a 
British  fleet  and  army  were  repulsed  here  with  dreadful  loss  in  1694.  The  magazine  burnt, 
to  the  value  of  some  millions  of  pounds  sterling,  1744.  The  marine  hospitals,  with  fifty 
galley  slaves,  burnt,  1766.  The  magazine  again  destroyed  by  fire,  July  10,  1784.  From 
this  great  depot  of  the  French  navy,  numerous  squadrons  were  equipped  against  England 
during  the  late  war,  among  them  the  fleet  which  lord  Howe  defeated  on  the  1st  of  June, 
1794.  England  maintained  a  large  blockading  squadron  off  the  harbour  from  1793  to  1815  ; 
but  with  little  injury  to  France.  It  is  now  a  chief  naval  station  of  that  country,  and  from 
the  fortifications  and  other  vast  works  of  late  construction  it  is  considered  impregnable.  The 
British  fleet  visited  Brest,  Aug.  1865. 

BRETAGNE.     See  Brittany.     BRETHREN.     See  Bohemian  and  Plymouth  Brethren. 

BRETIGNY,  PEACE  OF,  concluded  with  France,  May  8,  1360,  by  which  England  retained 
Gascony  and  Guienne,  and  acquired  other  provinces  ;  renounced  her  pretensions  to  Maine, 
Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Normandy  ;  was  to  receive  3, 000,000  crowns,  and  to  release  king  John, 
long  a  prisoner.  The  treaty  not  being  earned  out,  the  king  remained  and  died  in  London. 

BRETON.     See  Cape  Breton. 

BRETWALDA  (wide-ruling  chief),  one  of  the  kings  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy,  chosen  by 
the  others  as  a  leader  in  war  against  their  common  enemies.  The  following  are  mentioned 
by  Bede  (500  to  642),  Ella,  king  of  Sussex ;  Ceawlin  of  Wessex  ;  Ethelbert  of  Kent ; 
Redwald  of  East  Anglia  ;  Edwin,  Oswald,  and  Oswy  of  Northumberland.  The  title  (then 
become  obsolete)  was  bestowed  upon  Egbert,  828. 

BREVIARY  (so  called  as  being  an  abridgment  of  the  books  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Service),  contains  the  seven  canonical  hours,  viz.  :  matins  or  lauds,  primes,  tierce,  sexte, 
nones,  vespers,  and  complines.  Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  pope  Gelasius  I.  about  492.  It  was 
first  called  the  custos,  and  afterwards  the  breviary  ;  and  both  the  clergy  and  laity  use  it 
publicly  and  at  home.  It  was  in  use  among  the  ecclesiastical  orders  about  1080  ;  and  was 
reformed  by  the  councils  of  Trent  and  Cologne,  and  by  Pius  V.,  Urban  VIII. ,  and  other  popes. 
The  quality  of  type  in  which  the  breviary  was  first  printed  gave  the  name  to  the  type 
called  brevier  (in  which  this  page  is  printed). 

BREWERS  are  traced  to  Egypt.  Brewing  was  known  to  our  Anglo-Saxon  ancestors. 
Tindal.  "One  William  Murle,  a  rich  maltman  or  brucr,  of  Dunstable,  had  two  horses  all 
trapped  with  gold,  1414."  Stow.  In  Oct.  1851,  there  were  2305  licensed  brewers  in  England, 
146  in  Scotland,  and  97  in  Ireland  ;  total  2548  :  these  are  exclusive  of  retail  and  inter- 
mediate brewers.  There  were  40,418  licensed  brewers  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1858  ;  the 
revenue  from  whom  to  the  state  was  in  that  year  81,030?.  In  1858  in  England  there  were 
205  great  brewers.  See  Ale,  Porter. 

BRIAR'S  CREEK  (N.  America),  near  which  the  Americans,  2000  strong,  under  general 
Ashe,  were  totally  defeated  by  the  English  under  general  Prevost,  March  16,  1779. 

BRIBERY  forbidden,  Deut.  xvi.  19.  Samuel's  sons  were  guilty  of  it,  B.C.  1112.  (i  Sam. 
viii.  3.)  Thomas  de  Weyland,  a  judge,  was  banished  for  bribery  in  1288  ;  he  was  chief 
justice  of  the  common  pleas.  William  de  Thorpe,  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  was 
hanged  for  bribery  in  1351.  Another  judge  was  fined  20,000?.  for  the  like  offence,  1616. 
Mr.  Walpole,  secretary-at-war,  was  sent  to  the  Tower  for  bribery,  in  1712.  Lord  Strangford 
was  suspended  from  voting  in  the  Irish  house  of  lords,  for  soliciting  a  bribe,  January, 


BRI 


125 


BRI 


Messrs.  Sykes  and  Rumbold  fined  and  im- 
prisoned for  bribery  .  .  .  March  14,  1776 

Messrs.  Davidson,  Parsons,  and  Hopping,  im- 
prisoned for  bribery  at  Ilehester  .  April  28,  1804 

Mr.  Swan,  M.P.  for  Penryn,  fined  and  im- 
prisoned, and  sir  Manasseh  Lopez  sentenced 
to  a  fine  of  io,oool.  and  to  two  years'  im- 
prisonment for  bribery  at  Grampound,  Oct.  1819 

The  members  for  Liverpool  and  Dublin  un- 
seated in t  1831 


BRIBERY  AT  ELECTIONS.     In  1854  an  important  act  was  passed  consolidating  and 
ending  previous  acts  relating  to  this  offence,  from  7  Will.  III.  (1695)  to  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  184.* 

The  friends  of  Mr.  Knight,  candidate  for  Cam- 
bridge, convicted  of  bribery   .        .     Feb.  20,  1835 
Elections  for  Ludlow  and  Cambridge  made  void  1840 
Sudbury  disfranchised,  1848  ;  St.  Alban's  also  .   1852 
Elections  at  Derby  and  other  places  declared 

void  for  bribery,  in I853 

Gross  bribery  practised  at  Gloucester,  Wake- 
field,  and  Berwick,  in ^59 

Mr.  Edward  Leatham  convicted  of  bribery  at 
Wakefield July  19,  ^60 

BRICKS  were  used  in  Babylon,  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome  ;  in  England  by  the  Romans 
r.boiit  A.D.  44.  Made  under  the  direction  of  Alfred  the  Great,  about  886.  Saxon  Chron. 
The  size  regulated  by  order  of  Charles  I.,  1625.  Taxed  1784.  The  number  of  bricks 
which  paid  duty  in  England  in  1820  was  949,000,000;  in  1830,  above  1,100,000,000;  in 
1840,  1,400,000,000  ;  and  in  1850,  1,700,000,000.  The  duties  and  drawbacks  of  excise  on 
1  nicks  were  repealed  in  1850.  In  1839  Messrs.  Cooke  and  Cunningham  brought  out  their 
machinery  by  which,  it  is  said,  18,000,  bricks  may  be  made  in  ten  hours.  Messrs.  Dixon 
ml  Corbett,  near  Newcastle,  in  1861,  were  making  bricks  by  steam  at  the  rate  of  1500  per 
hour.  The  machinery  is  the  invention  of  Clayton  &  Co.,  London. 

BRIDEWELL,  originally  a  palace  of  king  John,  near  Fleet-ditch,  London,  Avas  rebuilt 
by  Henry  VIII.,  1522,  and  given  to  the  city  for  a  Avorkhouse  by  Edward  VI.,  1553.  The 
Xew  BrideAvell  prison,  erected  in  1829,  Avas  pulled  doAvn  in  1864  ;  that  of  Tothill-fields  was 
rebuilt  in  1831. 

BRIDGES  were  first  of  Avood.  The  ancient  stone  bridges  in  China  are  of  great  magni- 
tude. Abydos  is  famous  for  the  bridge  of  boats  Avhich  Xerxes  built  across  the  Hellespont, 
480  B.C.  Trajan's  magnificent  stone  bridge  over  the  Danube,  4770  feet  in  length,  Avas  built 
in  A.D.  105.  Brotherhoods  for  building  bridges  existed  in  S.  France  about  nSo.f 

The  fine  chain  suspension  bridge  at  the  Menai 
Strait I825 

Westminster,  1750;  Blackfriars,  1769  ;  Water- 
loo, 1817;  Southwark,  1819;  Hungerford, 
1845  ;  Chelsea,  1858 ;  Vauxhall,  1816. 

A  railway  bridge  2^  miles  long  is  projected 
over  the  Firth  of  Forth  .  .  .  Dec.  1864 

Probably  the  widest  bridge  in  the  world  at  pre- 
sent is  the  Victoria  bridge  over  the  Thames 
(by  which  the  London,  Chatham,  and  Dover 
railway  will  enter  the  Victoria  station,  Pim- 
lico) ;  founded  by  Lord  Harris  .  Feb.  22,  1865 

For  details  see  separate  articles,  and  also  Tubu- 
lar bridge,  Victoria  bridge,  &c. 

BRIDGEWATER,  Somersetshire,  Avas  incorporated  by  king  John,  in  1200.  In  the  Avar 
between  Charles  I.  and  the  parliament,  the  forces  of  the  latter  reduced  part  of  the  town 
to  ashes,  1643.  Here  stood  an  ancient  castle  in  Avhich  the  ill-advised  duke  of  Monmouth 
lodged  Avhen  he  Avas  proclaimed  king  in  1685. 

BRIDGEWATER  CANAL,  the  first  great  work  of  the  kind  in  England,  Avas  begun  by 
the  duke  of  BridgeAvater,  styled  the  father  of  canal  navigation  in  this  country,  in  1759,  and 
opened  1761.  Mr.  Brindley  Avas  the  engineer.  It  commences  at  Worsley,  seven  miles  from 
Mam/hester  ;  and  at  Barton  Bridge  is  an  aqueduct  Avhich,  for  upwards  of  200  yards,  conveys 
the  canal  across  the  river  Invell.  The  length  of  the  canal  is  about  tAventy-niue  miles. 

BRIDGEWATER  TREATISES.  The  rev.  Francis,  earl  of  Bridgewater,  died  in  April, 
1829,  leaving  by  will  Soool.  to  be  given  to  eight  persons,  appointed  by  the  president  of  the 


Triangular  bridge  at  Croyland  Abbey  referred 
to  in  a  charter  dated        ...  .     943 

First  stone  bridge  erected  at  Bow,  near  Strat- 
ford, by  queen  Matilda        .        .         about  1 100-18 

Bishop's  bridge,  Norwich 1295 

London  Bridge  :    one  existed  about  978  ;   one 
built  of  wood  1014;   one  by  Peter  of  Cole- 
church    1176-1209  ;     new     London    Bridge „ 
finished ^831 

The  first  large  iron  bridge  erected  over  the 
Severn,  Shropshire 1777 

Bunderland  bridge  by  Wilson,  100  feet  high,  an 
arch,  with  a  span  of  236  feet      .        ...  1796 


*  On  April  17,  1858,  in  the  case  of  Cooper  v.  Slade,  it  waj  ruled  that  the  payment  of  travelling  expenses 
was  bribery  ;  and  in  the  same  year  an  act  was  passed  which  permits  candidates  to  provide  conveyances 
fur  voters,  but  forbids  payment  of  travelling  expenses. 

t  The  Devil's  bridge,  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  so  called  from  its  frightful  situation,  was  built  on  two  high 
ricks,  so  that  it  could  scarcely  be  conceived  how  it  was  erected,  and  many  fabulous  stories  were  invented 
to  account  for  it.  At  Schaffhausen  an  extraordinary  bridge  was  built  over  the  Rhine,  which  is  there  400 
feet  wide  :  there  was  a  pier  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  bridge  rested  upon 
it  :  a  man  of  the  lightest  weight  felt  the  bridge  totter  under  him,  yet  waggons  heavily  laden  passed  over 
vdthout  danger.  The  bridge  was  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1799. 


BRI 


126 


BRI 


Royal  Society,  who  should  write  an  essay  "on  the  Power,  Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God, 
as  manifested  in  the  Creation."  The  essays  (by  sir  Charles  Bell,  Drs.  T.  Chalmers,  John 
Kidd,  William  Buckland,  William  Front,  Peter  M.  Roget,  and  the  revs.  William  Whewell 
and  A\rilliam  Kirby)  were  published  1833 — 5. 

BRIEF,  a  written  instrument  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  of  early  but  uncertain  date. 
Briefs  are  the  letters  of  the  pope  despatched  to  princes  and  others  on  public  affairs,  and  are 
usually  written  short,  hence  the  name,  and  without  preface  or  preamble,  and  on  paper  ;  in 
which  particulars  they  are  distinguished  from  bulls.  The  latter  are  ample  and  are  always 
written  on  parchment.  Briefs  are  sealed  with  red  wax  and  the  seal  of  the  fisherman,  or  St. 
Peter  in  a  boat,  and  always  in  the  presence  of  the  pope.  The  Queen's  letter  authorising 
collections  in  churches  for  charitable  purposes  are  called  "briefs." 

BRIENNE  (N.E.  France).  Here  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  Prussia  were  defeated 
by  the  French,  Feb.  I  and  2,  1814. 

BRIGHTON,  or  BRIGHTHELMSTONE,  in  Sussex,  formerly  inhabited  chiefly  by  fishermen, 
now  a  place  of  fashionable  resort.  The  length  of  the  esplanade  here  from  the  Steyne  is 
about  1250  feet. 

The  Block-house  swept  away  .  .  March  26,  1786 
Part  of  the  cliff  fell ;  great  damage  Nov.  16,  1807 
Chain-pier,  1,134  feet  long,  J3  wide,  completed  1823 
Brighton  made  a  parliamentary  borough  .  1832 
The  i-ailway  to  London  opened  .  Sept.  21,  1841 
Collision  of  trains  in  Clayton  tunnel,  23  per- 
sons killed  and  many  wounded  .  Aug.  25,  1861 


Here  Charles  II.  embarked  for  France  after  the 
battle  of  Worcester 1651 

The  Prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  George  IV.) 
founded  the  Pavilion,  1784;  greatly  enlarged 
and  made  to  resemble  the  Kremlin  at  Mos- 
cow, 1784-1823  ;  it  was  sold  to  the  town  for 


53,0001. 


BRILL  (or  Briel),  Holland.  A  seaport,  seized  by  the  expelled  Dutch  confederates, 
became  the  first  seat  of  their  independence.  Brill  was  given  up  to  the  English  in  1585  as 
security  for  advances  made  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  the  states  of  Holland.  It  was  restored  in 
1616. 

BRISTOL  (W.  England),  built  by  Brennus,  a  British  prince,  380  B.C.,  is  mentioned  in 
A.  r>.  430  as  a  fortified  city.  It  was  called  Caer  Oder,  a  city  in  the  valley  of  Bath  ;  and 
sometimes  Caer  Brito,  the  British  city,  and  by  the  Saxons  Brightstowe,  pleasant  place. 
Gildas  and  Nennius  speak  of  Bristol  in  the  5th  and  7th  centuries. 


Taken  by  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  in  his  defence 
of  his  sister  Maud,  the  empress,  against  king 

Stephen 1138* 

Eleanor  of  Brittany  (daughter  of  Geoffrey,  son 
of  Henry  I.)  dies  in  the  castle  after  39  years' 

imprisonment 1241 

St.  Mary's  church  built 1292 

Bristol  made  a  distinct  county  by  Edward  III.  1373 
Bishopric  founded  by  Henry  VIII.        .        .     .  1542 

A  new  charter  obtained 1581 

Taken  by  prince  Rupert,   July  26,   1643  ;    by 

Cromwell Sept.  1645 

Edwd.  Colston's  hospital,  a  free  school,   and 
other    charities    established    [his   birthday, 

Nov.  14,  kept  annually] 1708 

Act  passed  for  new  exchange,  1723 ;  erected    .  1741 

Bread  riots 1753 

Bridge  built May,  1760 

Attempt  to  set  the  shipping  on  fire    .  Jan.  22,  1777 


Riot  on  account  of  a  toll ;  the  troops  fire  on  the 
populace,  and  many  are  wounded  .    Oct.  25,  1793 

Docks  built 1804-9 

Riot  on  the  entrance  of  sir  Charles  Wetherell, 
the  recorder,  into  the  city.  He  was  opposed 
to  the  reform  bill,  and  thus  obnoxious  to 
the  lower  classes.  The  mansion  house,  the 
bishop's  palace,  several  merchants'  stores, 
some  of  the  prisons  (the  inmates  liberated), 
and  nearly  100  houses  had  been  burned  and 
many  lives  lost  .  .  .  Oct.  29-31,  1831 
Trial  of  rioters,  Jan.  2  (four  executed  and 
twenty-two  transported).  Suicide  of  Col. 
Brereton,  during  his  trial  by  court-martial 

Jan.  9,  1832 

Meeting  of  British  Association  .  .  .  Aug.  1836 
Railway  to  London  completed  .  June  30,  1841 
Clifton  Suspension-bridge  opened  .  Dec.  8,  1864 
Industrial  Exhibition  about  be  to  opened  .  Oct.  1865 


BRISTOL,  SEE  or,  one  of  the  six  bishoprics  erected  by  Hemy  VIII.  out  of  the  spoils 
of  the  monasteries  and  religious  houses  Avhich  that  monarch  had  dissolved,  1542.  The 
cathedral  was  the  church  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Austin,  founded  here  by  Robert  Fitz-Harding, 
son  to  a  king  of  Denmark,  and  a  citizen  of  Bristol,  1148.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books 
at  338?.  85.  ^d.  Paul  Bushe,  provincial  of  the  Bons-hommes  was  the  first  bishop,  in  1542 — 
deprived  for  being  married,  1554.  The  see  of  Bristol  was  united  by  an  order  in  council 
with  that  of  Gloucester,  in  1836,  and  they  now  form  one  see  under  the  name  of  Gloucester 
and  Bristol.  The  cathedral  (under  repair  "since  1844)  was  reopened  in  1861. 


*  From  the  period  of  Henry  II.  in  the  i2th  to  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century,  Bristol  ranked  next  to 
London,  as  the  most  populous,  commercial,  and  flourishing  place  in  the  kingdom ;  but  since  the  latter 
time  it  has  declined,  and  been  exceeded  in  these  respects  by  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Leeds,  Birmingham, 
and  Glasgow. 


BRI 


127 


BRI 


BRISTOL,  continued. 


RECENT   BISHOPS    OF   BRISTOL. 


Hon.  G.  Pelham,  translated  to  Exeter  .  1807 
John  Luxmoore,  translated  to  Hereford  1808 
Win.  Lort  Mansell,  died  .  June  27,  1820 
John  Kaye,  translated  to  Lincoln  .  .  1827 


1827.  Robert  Gray  died    .        .         .      Sept.  28,  1834 
1834.  Joseph  Allen,  the  last  bishop,  translated 
to  Ely  in  June,   1836.     (In   October  the 
diocese  was  united  with  Gloucester.) 


BRITAIN  (called  by  the  Romans  Britannia,*  from  its  Celtic  name  Prydhain,  Camdcn}. 

'The  earliest  records  of  the  history  of  this  island  are  the  manuscripts  and  poetry  of  the  Cam- 

1 1  iaiis.     The  Celts,  the  ancestors  of  the  Britons  and  modern  Welsh,  were  the  first  inhabi- 

<>f  Britain.     It  is  referred  to  as  the  Cassiterides  or  tin-islands  by  Herodotus,  450  B.C.  ; 

'ion  or  I  erne  by  Aristotle,  350  B.C.  ;  Polybius,  260  B.C.     Britain,  including  England, 

nul,  and  Wales,  was  anciently  called  Albion,  the  name  of  Britain  being  applied  to  all 

the  islands  collectively — Albion  to  only  one.      Pliny.     See  Albion.      It  was  invaded  by 

Julius  Cfesar,   55  B.C.  ;  subdued  by  Agricola,  A.D.   84;  left  by  the  Romans,    about  426'; 

i  ivaded  by  the  Saxons,  429  ;  the  southern  part  became  one  kingdom  under   Egbert,  828  ; 

.subdued  by  William  I.,  1066.     See  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 

Severus  keeps  his  court  at  York,  then  called 
Eboracum,  208 ;  finishes  his  wall,  and  dies 

at  York 211 

Carausius  usurps  the  throne  of  Britain  " .  .  286 
He  is  killed  by  Alectus,  another  usurper  .  294 
Constantius  recovers  Britain  from  Alectus  .  .  296- 
St.  Alban  and  17,000  Christians  martyred  (Bede)  304 
Constantius,  emperor  of  Rome,  dies  at  York  .  306 
British  bishops  at  the  council  of  Aries  .  .  314 
Scots  and  Picts  invade  Britain,  360 ;  routed  by 

Theodosius 36S 

Romans  gradually  withdraw  from  Britain  .  402-418 
The  Saxons  and  Angles  are  called  in  to  aid  the 

natives  against  the  Picts  and  Scots  .  429  or  449 
Having  expelled  these,  the  Anglo-Saxons  attack 

the  Britons,  driving  them  into  Wales  .  .  455 
Many  Britons  settled  in  Armorica  (Brittany)  388-457 
The  Saxon  Heptarchy ;  Britain  divided  into 

seven  or  more  kingdoms  .  .  .  .457 
Supposed  reigns  of  Vortigern,  446  ;  Vortimer, 


Divitiacus,  king  of  the  Suessones,  in  Gaul, 
said  to  have  supremacy  over  part  of  Britain 

B.C.       57 

First  invasion  of  Britain  by  the  Romans,  under 
Julius  Caesar 55-54 

He  defeats  Cassivelaunus,  general  of  the 
Britons 54 

Cvmbeline  (Cunobelin)  king  of  Britain      .        .        4 

Aulus  Plautus  defeats  the  Britons,  A.D.  43  ;  he 
and  Vespasian  reduce  S.  Britain  ...  47 

Caractacus  defeated  by  Ostorius,  50 ;  carried 
in  chains  to  Rome 51 

Romans  defeated  by  Boadicea  ;  70,000  slain, 
and  London  burnt :  she  is  defeated  by  Sue- 
tonius ;  80,000  slain 61 

Agrie.ola  conquers  Anglesea,  and  overruns 
Britain  in  seven  campaigns,  and  reforms 
the  government 78-84 

He  defeats  the  Caledonians  under  Galgacus ; 
surrenders  the  islands 

The  emperor  Adrian  visits  Britain,  120  ;  and 
builds  a  wall  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway  .  121 

Lucius,  king  of  the  Britons,  said  to  have  sent 
an  embassy  on  religious  affairs  to  pope 
Eleutherius,  about 181 

The  ]>ritons  (allies   of  Albums)  defeated    at    ___ 
I.y  >ns  by  Severus 


84 


them  Britain  subdued  and  divided  by  the 
nans  into  two  provinces        . 


197 
204 


464 ;  Vortigern  again,  471 ;  Aurelius  Ambro- 
sius,  481  ;  and  Arthur  Peiidragon           .         .  500 
The  renowned  king  Arthur  said  to  reign      .  506-542 
Arrival  of  St.  Augustin  (or  Austin),   and  re- 
establishment  of  Christianity    .         .        .     .  597 
Cadwallader,  last  king  of  the  Britons,  reigns   .  678 
Landisf  arne  church  destroyed  by  the  Northmen  794 
The  Saxon  Heptarchy  ends,  and  Egbert,  king 
of  Wessex,  becomes  KING  OF  ENGLAND         .  828- 


KINGS  OF  THE  HEPTARCHY,  t    See  Bretwalda. 


KENT.  [The  shire  of  Kent.] 
Hengist.  [473,  Saxon  Chronicle.] 
yEsc,  Esca,  or  Escus,  son  of  Hengist;  iri  honour 

of  whom  the  kings  of  Kent  were  for  some  time 

called  JEscings. 
Octa,  son  of  JEsc. 

Hermenric,  or  Ermenric,  son  of  Octa. 
St.  Ethelbert ;  first  Christian  king  (styled  Rex 

Angloruni). 

Eadbald,  son  of  Ethelbert. 
Ercenbert,  or  Ercombert,  son  of  Eadbald. 
Ecbert,  or  Egbert,  son  of  Ercenbert. 
Lother,  or  Lothair,  brother  of  Ecbert. 
Edric  ;  slain  in  687.     [The  kingdom  now  subject 

to  various  leaders.] 
Wihtred,  or  Wihgtred. 

IthSrt  II.,      I so 

Edbert,  or  Ethelbert  Pryn  ;  deposed. 


796.  Cuthred,  or  Guthred. 

805.  Baldred;  who  in  823  lost  his  life  and  kingdom 
to  EGBERT,  king  of  Wessex. 

SOUTH  SAXONS.     [Sussex  and  Surrey.  ] 
490.  Ella,  a  warlike  prince,  succeeded  by 
514.  Cissa,  his  son,  whose  reign  was  long  and  peace- 
ful, exceeding  70  years. 
[The  South  Saxons  then  fell  into  an  almost  total 

dependence  on  the  kingdom  of  Wessex.] 
648.  Edilwald,  Edilwach,  Adelwach,  or  Ethelwach. 
686.  Authun  and  Berthun,  brothers ;  reigned  jointly ; 
vanquished  by  Ina,  king  of  Wessex,  689 ;  king- 
dom conquered  in  725. 

WEST  SAXONS.     [Berks,  Southampton,  Wilts,  Somerset, 

Dorset,  Devon,  and  part  of  CornwalL] 
519.  Cerdicus. 

534.  Cynric,  or  Kenrick,  son  of  Cerdic. 
560.   Ceawlin,  son  of  Cynric ;  banished  ;  dies  in  593. 


*  The  Romans  eventually  divided  Britain  into  Britannia  Prima  (the  country  south  of  the  Thames  and 
•n);  Britannia  Secunda  (Wales);  Flavia  Cwsariensis  (between  the  Thames,  Severn,  and  Humber); 
ma  Ctesariensis  (between  the  Humber  and  the  Tyne);  and  Fa lentia  (between  the  Tyiic  and  the  Firth 

of  Forth). 

t  The  term,  "  Octarchy "  is  sometimes  used ;  Northumbria  being  divided  into  Bernicia  and  Deira, 

ruled  by  separate  kings. 


59*- 
597- 
6n. 
614. 
643- 
672. 

674- 

676. 

685. 


728. 
740. 
754- 


755- 

784. 
800. 


BRITAIN,  continued. 

Ceolric,  nephew  to  Ceawlin. 

Ceolwulf. 

|  Cynegils,  and  in 

)  Cwiclieim,  his  son  reigned  jointly. 

Cenwal,  Cenwalh,  or  Cenwald. 

Sexburga,  his  queen,  sister  to  Penda,  king  o 

Mercia  ;  of  great  qualities  ;  probably  deposed 
Escwine  ;   in  conjunction  with  Centwine ;  on 

the  death  of  Escwine. 
Centwine  rules  alone. 
Caidwallo  :  went  to  Rome,  to  expiate  his  deeds 

of  blood,  and  died  there. 
Ina  or  Inas,  a  brave  and  wise  ruler ;  journeyed 

to  Rome  ;  left  an  excellent  code  of  laws. 
Ethelheard,  or  Ethelard,  related  to  Ina. 
Cuthred,  brother  to  Ethelheard. 
Sigebright,  or  Sigebert,   having   murdered  his 

friend  Cunibran,  governor  of  Hampshire,  was 

compelled  to  fly.     He  was  slain  by  one  of  his 

victim's  retainers. 
Cynewulf,   or  Kenwulf,    or  Cermlpe,   a  noble 

youth  of  the  line  of  Cerdic ;  murdered  by  a 

banished  subject. 
Bertric,  or  Beorhtric  :  poisoned  by  drinking  ol 

a  cup  his  queen  had  pi-epared  for  another. 
EGBERT,  afterwards  sole  monarch  of  England, 

and  Bretwalda. 


EAST  SAXONS.     [Essex,  Middlesex,  and  part  of  Herts.] 
526,  527,  or  530,  Erchenwin,  or  Erchwine. 

587.  Sled  da  ;  his  son. 

597.  St.  Sebert,  or  Saberfc  ;  son  of  the  preceding : 
first  Christian  king. 

614.  Saxred  or  Sexted,  or  Serred,  jointly  with  Sige- 
bert and  Seward  ;  all  slain. 

623.  Sigebert  II.  surnamed  the  little  :  son  of  Seward. 

655.  Sigebert  III.  surnamed  the  good  ;  brother  of 
Sebert :  put  to  death. 

661.  Swithelm  (or  Suidhelm),  son  of  Sexbatd. 

663.  Sigher,  or  Sigeric,  jointly  with  Sebbi,  or  Sebba, 
who  became  a  monk. 

693.  Sigenai'd,  or  Sigehard,  and  Suenfrid. 

700.  Offa  ;  left  his  queen  and  kingdom,  and  became 
a  monk  at  Rome. 

709.  Suebricht,  or  Selred. 

738.  Swithred,  or  Swithed  ;  a  long  reign. 

792.  Sigeric  ;  died  iu  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 

799.  Sigered. 

323.  Kingdom  seized  by  EGBERT  of  Wessex. 

NORTHUMBRIA.     [Lancaster,  York,  Cumberland,  West- 
morland, Durham,  and  Northumberland.] 
*¥r*  Northumbria  was  at  first  divided  into  two  sepa- 
rate governments,  Bernicia  and  Deira  ;  the  for- 
mer stretching  from  the  river  Tweed  to  the 
Tyne,   and  the  latter  from  the   Tyne  to  the 
Humber. 

547.  Ida  ;  a  valiant  Saxon. 
560.  Adda,  his  eldest  son  ;  king  of  Bernicia. 
„    Ella,  king  of  Deira ;  afterwards  the  sole  king  of 

Northumbria  (to  587). 
567.  Glappa,  Clappa,  or  Elapea  :  Bernicia. 

572.  Heodwulf;  Bernicia. 

573.  Freodwulf  ;  Bernicia. 
580.  Theodoric  ;  Bernicia. 

588.  Ethelric  ;  Bernicia. 

593.  Ethelfrith,  surnamed  the  Fierce. 

617.  Edwin,  son  of  Ella,  king  of  Deira  in  590.     The 

greatest  prince  of  the  heptarchy  in  that  age. 

flume.     Slain  in  battle  with  Penda,  of  Mercia. 

634.  The  kingdom  divided  ;   Eanfrid  rules  in  Ber- 

nicia, and  Osric  in  Deira ;    both  put  to  death. 

635.  Oswald  slain  in  battle. 

642.  Osweo,  or  Oswy  ;  a  reign  of  great  renown. 
670.  Ecfrid,  or  Egfrid,  king  of  Northumbria. 
685.  Alcfrid,  or  Ealdferth. 
705.  Osred,  son  of  Ealdferth. 


716.  Cenric  ;  sprung  from  Ida. 

718.  Osric,  son  of  Alcfrid. 

729.  Ceolwulf  ;  died  a  monk. 

737.  Eadbert,  or  Egbert ;  retired  to  a  monaster 

757.  Oswulf,  or  Osulf  ;  slain  in  a  sedition. 

759.  Edilwald,  or  Mollo  ;  slain  by  Aired. 

765.  Aired,  Ailred,  or  Alured  ;  deposed. 

774.  Ethelred,  son  of  Mollo  ;  expelled. 

778.  Elwald,  or  Celwold  ;  deposed  and  slain. 

789.  Osred,  son  of  Aired  ;  fled. 

790.  Ethelred  restored  ;  afterwards  slain. 
794.  Erdulf,  or  Ardulf ;  deposed. 

806.  Alfwold. 

808.  Erdulf  restored. 

809.  Eanred. 

841.  Kingdom  annexed  by  EGBERT. 

EAST  ANGLES.      [Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Cambridge, 
571  or  575.  Uffa  ;  a  noble  German. 
578.  Titilus  or  Titulus  ;  son  of  Uffa. 
599.  Redwald,  son  of  Titilus;  the  greatest  pi 

of  the  East  Angles. 
624.  Erpwald,  Eorpwald,  or  Eordwald. 
627.  Richbert. 

629.  Sigebert,  half-brother  to  Erpwald. 
632.  Egfrid,  or  Egric  ;  cousin  to  Sigebert. 
635.  Anna,  or  Annas  ;  a  just  ruler  ;  killed. 

654.  Ethelric,  or  Ethelhere ;   slain  in  battle. 

655.  Ethelwald  ;  his  brother. 
664.  Aldulf,  or  Aldwulf. 

713.  Selred,  or  Ethelred. 

746.  Alphwuld. 

749.  Beorna  and  Ethelred,  jointly. 

758.  Beorna  alone. 

761.  Ethelred. 

790.  Ethelbert,  or  Ethelbryht ;  treacherously  put 
to  death  in  Mercia  in  792,  when  Offa,  king 
of  Mercia,  overran  the  country,  which  was 
finally  subdued  by  EGBERT. 

VIERCIA.  [Gloucester,  Hereford,  Chester,  Stafford, 
Worcester,  Oxford,  Salop,  Warwick,  JJerb;/, 
Leicester,  Bucks,  Northampton,  Notls,  Lincoln, 
Bedford,  Rutland,  Huntingdon,  and  part  oj 
Herts.] 

586.  Crida,  or  Cridda,  a  noble  chieftain. 


593.  [Interregnum — Ceolric  ] 
597.  Wibba,  a  valiant  princ 


.ce,  his  son. 

15.  Ceorl,  or  Cheorl ;  nephew  of  Wibba. 

626.  Penda ;  fierce  and  cruel ;  killed  in  battlfe. 

55.  Peada,  son  of  Penda  ;  killed  to  make  way  for 

56.  Wulfhere  (brother) ;  he  slew  his  two  sous  with 

his  own  hand. 

675.  Ethelred  ;  became  a  monk. 
704.  Cenred,  Cendred,  or  Kendred  ;  became  a  monk 

at  Rome. 
709.  Ceolred,  Celred,  or  Chelred  ;  son  of  Ethelred. 

16.  Ethelbald  ;  slain  in  a  mutiny  by  one  of  his  own 

chieftains,    his   successor,    after   a   defeat  in 
battle. 
755.  Beornred,  or  Bernred  ;  himself  slain. 

Offa  ;  he  formed  the  great  dyke  on  the  borders 
of  Wales  known  by  his  name. 
794.  Egfrid  or  Egferth,  son  of  Offa  ;  died  sudd« 
,      Cenulph,  Cenwulph,  or  Kenulph ;  slain. 
9.  Kenelm,    or  Cenelm,  a   minor ;    reigned 

months  ;  killed  by  his  sister  Quendreda,  from 
the  hope  of  reigning.     Hume. 
,,      Ceolwulf,  uncle  to  Kenelm  ;  expelled. 
32i.  Beornulf  ;  killed  by  his  own  subjects. 
323.  Ludecan ;  a  valiant  ruler  ;  sfein. 
525.  Withlafe,  or  Wiglaf. 
$38.  Berthulf,  or  Bertulf. 
352.  Burhred,  or  Burdred. 
874.  Ceolwulph  ;  deposed  by  the  Danes  877. 

[The  kingdom  merged  into  that  of  England. 


orders 

- 

I  five 


BRITANNIA  TUBULAR  BRIDGE.     See  Tubular  Bria 


BRI 


129 


BRI 


BRITANNY.     See  Brittany. 

BRITISH  AMERICA  comprises  Lower  and  Upper  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Bruns- 
wick, Newfoundland  and  Prince  Edward's  Island,  Labrador,  British  Columbia  and  Van 
couver's  Island.  Population  about  3,334,000.  Delegates  from  the  first  six  provinces 
met  at  Quebec  on  Oct.  10,  1864,  and  on  Oct.  20,  agreed  to  the  basis  of  a  Federal  union, 
with  the  Queen  as  the  executive  (represented  by  the  governor-general),  a  legislative  council 
of  96  members  for  life,  and  a  house  of  commons  of  194  members.  The  project  has  1><  ><  1  1 
transmitted  to  lay  before  parliament,  and  the  secretary  for  the  colonies,  Mr.  Cardwell, 
expressed  his  approval  of  the  plan,  Dec.  3,  1864.  The  plan  was  opposed  by  New  Brunswick,' 
March  7,  1865.  Messrs.  Cartier  and  Gait  came  to  England,  in  April,  1865,  to  advocate  the 
project,  and  were  well  received. 

BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  was  established  by  sir 
David  Brewster,  sir  R.  I.  Murchison,  &c.  in  1831.  Professor  John  Phillips  was  secretary  till 
1863.  It  holds  annual  meetings  ;  the  first  of  which  was  held  at  York  on  Sept.  27,  1831. 
One  of  its  main  objects  is  "to  promote  the  intercourse  of  those  who  cultivate  science  with 
each  other."  It  appoints  commissions  and  makes  pecuniary  grants  for  scientific  research  ; 
and  publishes  annually  a  volume  containing  Reports  of  the  proceedings.  Kew  observatory 
was  presented  to  the  association  by  the  Queen  in  1842. 


1.  York  Meeting 

2.  Oxford  . 

3.  Cambridge 

4.  Edinburgh    . 

5.  Dublin 

6.  Bristol  . 

7.  Liverpool   . 

8.  Newcastle      . 

9.  Birmingham 


1831 
1832 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1836 
1837 
1838 
1839 


10.  Glasgow    .  .  1840 
u.  Plymouth.    .  1841 

12.  Manchester  .  .  1842 

13.  Cork  .    .    .  1843 

14.  York  (2nd  time)  1844 

15.  Cambridge  (2nd)  1845 
1  6.  Southampton    .  1846 

17.  Oxford  (and)      .   1847 

18.  Swansea     .         .  1848 


19.  Birmingham(2d)  1849 

20.  Edinburgh  (and)  1850 


21.  Ipswich 

22.  Belfast  .        .  . 

23.  Hull  .         .  . 

24.  Liverpool  (2nd). 

25.  Glasgow  (and)  . 

26.  Cheltenham  . 

27.  Dublin  (2nd)  . 


1851 
1852 
1853 
1854 
1855 
1856 
1857 


28.  Leeds         .        .1858 

29.  Aberdeen      .     .  1859 

30.  Oxford  (srd)      .  !86o 

31.  Manchester  (2d)  1861 

32.  Cambridge  (^rd)  1862 

33.  Newcastle  (and)  1863 

34.  Bath  .        .         .1864 

35.  Birminghamfed)  1865 

36.  Nottingham  for  1866 


BRITISH  BANK.     See  Banks,  Joint  Stock. 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA  (N.  America).  In  June,  1858,  news  came  to  California  that  in 
April  gold  had  been  found  in  abundance  on  the  mainland  of  North  America,  a  little  to  the 
north  and  east  of  Vancouver's  Island.  A  great  influx  of  gold-diggers  (in  a  few  weeks  above 
50,000)  from  all  parts  was  the  consequence.  Mr.  Douglas,  governor  of  Vancouver's  Island, 
evinced  much  ability  in  preserving  order.  The  territory  with  adjacent  islands  was  made  a 
British  colony  with  the  above  title,  and  placed  under  Mr.  Douglas.  The  colony  was 
nominated  and  the  government  settled  by  21  &  22  Vic.  c.  99  (Aug.  1858),  and  a  bishop 
nominated  in  1859.  —  For  a  dispute  in  July,  1859,  see  United  States.  The  colony  is  said  to 
be  flourishing. 

BRITISH  GUIANA,  &c.    See  Guiana.         BRITISH  HONDURAS.    See  Honduras. 

BRITISH  INSTITUTION  (for  the  encouragement  of  British  artists,  Pall  Mall,  founded 
in  1805)  opened  Jan.  18,  1806,  on  a  plan  formed  by  sir  Thomas  Bernard.  In  the  gallery 
(erected  by  alderman  Boydell,  to  exhibit  the  paintings  executed  for  his  edition  of  Shaks*- 
peare),  are  exhibited  pictures  by  the  old  masters  and  deceased  British  artists. 

BRITISH  LEGION,  raised  by  lord  John  Hay,  col.  De  Lacy  Evans,  and  others,  to 
assist  queen  Isabella  of  Spain  against  the  Carlists  in  1835,  defeated  them  at  Hernani,  May 
5,  1836,  and  at  St.  Sebastian's,  Oct.  I. 

BRITISH  MUSEUM,  originated  with  the  grant  by  parliament  (April  5,  1753)  of  20,000?. 
to  the  daughters  of  sir  Hans  Sloane,  in  payment  for  his  fine  library,  and  vast  collection  of 
the  productions  of  nature  and  art,  which  had  cost  him  50,000^.  The  library  contained  50,000 
volumes  and  valuable  MSS.,  and  69,352  articles  of  virtu  enumerated  in  the  catalogue. 
Montagu-house  was  obtained  by  government  as  a  place  for  their  reception.  The  museum 
was  opened  in  1759,  and  has  since  been  enormously  increased  by  gifts,  bequests,  and  pur- 
chases ;  by  the  Cottonian,  Harleian,  and  other  libraries  ;  by  the  Townley  marbles  (in  1812)  ; 
by  the  Elgin  marbles  (1816)  ;  by  the  Lycian  marbles  obtained  by  sir  C.  Fellows  (1842-6)  ; 
by  the  Assyrian  antiquities  collected  by  Mr.  Austin  Layard  between  1847  and  1850  ;  by  the 
antiquities  brought  from  Halicarnassus  (now  Budrum),  including  remains  of  the  celebrated 
tomb  of  Mausolus,  by  Mr.  C.  T.  Newton  (Nov.  1858)  ;  and  by  antiquities  from  Carthage  (1860), 
Cyrene,  Rhodes,  and  the  Farnese  palace  (1864).  George  II.  presented  the  royal  library  in 
1757;  and  in  1823,  George  IV.  presented  the  library  collected  at  Buckingham-house  by 


BRI 


130 


BRO 


George  III.,  consisting  of  65,250  volumes,  and  about  19,000 pamphlets.  In  1846  the  right  hon. 
Thos.  Grenville  bequeathed  to  the  museum  his  library,  consisting  of  20,240  volumes.  Great 
additions  to,  and  improvements  in,  the  buildings  have  since  been  made,  independently 
of  the  annual  grant.*  The  fine  iron  railing  enclosing  the  frontage,  was  completed  in 
1852.  The  magnificent  reading-room,  erected  by  Mr.  Sydney  Smirke,  according  to  apian 
by  Mr.  Antonio  Panizzi,  the  librarian,  at  a  cost  of  about  150,000?.,  was  opened  to  the 
public,  May  18,  1857.  The  height  of  the  dome  is  106  feet,  and  the  diameter  140  feet.  The 
room  contains  about  80,000  volumes,  and  accommodates  300  readers. — The  daily  increasing 
library  contained  in  1860  above  562,000  volumes,  exclusive  of  tracts,  MSS.,  &c.  In  1861 
the  incorporation  of  the  four  library  catalogues  into  one  alphabet  began — three  copies  being 
made.  The  proposed  separation  of  the  antiquarian,  literary,  and  scientific  collections,  was 
disapproved  by  a  commission  in  1860  ;  and  a  bill  to  remove  the  natural  history  collections 
to  South  Kensington  was  rejected  by  the  commons  on  May  19,  1862.  A  refreshment  room 
for  readers  was  opened  Nov.  21,  1864.  Mr.  Panizzi  resigned  his  office  in  1865. 

BRITISH  PORTRAIT  GALLERY.     See  National,  Ac. 

BRITTANY,  OR  BRETAGNE  (N.  W.   France),  the  ancient  Armorica,  which  see.      It 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 


Nomenoi  revolts  and  becomes  the  first  count    .     841 
Geoffrey  I.,  the  first  duke  ....     992 

Alan  V.,  1008;  Conan  II 1040 

HoelV.,  1066;  Alan  VI 1084 

Conan  III 1112 

Hoel  VI.  expelled ;    Geoffrey  of  Anjou  elected 

duke 1155 

Conan  IV.  duke,  1156;    on  the  death  of  Geof- 
froy,  cedes  Brittany  to  Henry  II.  of  England, 
and  betroths  his  daughter,   Constance,    to 
Henry's  son,  Geoffrey  (both  infants)          .     .  1159 
Geotfroy  succeeds,  1171  ;  killed  at  a  tournament  1185 
His  son,  Arthur,  murdered  by  his  uncle,  John 
of  England  ;    his  daughter,    Eleanor,  impri- 
soned at  Bristol  (for  39  years)    .        .         .     .   1202 
Alice,  daughter  of  Constance,  and  her  second 
husband,  Guy  de  Thours,  proclaimed  duchess, 
1203  ;  marries  Peter  of  Dreux,  made  duke    .  1213 
John  I.,  duke,  1237;  John  II.    ....  1286 
John  HI.,  1312  ;  dies  without  issue       .        .     .  1341 


The  succession  disputed  between  John  of 
Montfort  (John  IV.)  supported  by  Edward 
of  England,  and  Charles  of  Blois,  made  duke 
by  Philip  VI.  of  France.  John  is  made  pri- 
soner ;  his  -wife,  Jane,  besieged  at  Henne- 
bonne,  holds  out,  and  is  relieved  by  the 
English,  1343  ;  Jolm  of  Montfort  dies  .  1345 

Charles  of  Blois  defeated  and  slain  at  Auray 
Sept.  29  :  John  V.,  son  of  Montfort,  duke  1364 

John  VI.,  duke,  1399;  Francis  I.  .        .        1442 

Peter  II.,  1450;  Arthur  III.       .         .         .  1457 

Francis  II.,  1458  ;  takes  part  with  the  Orlean- 
ists  in  France  ;  defeated  at  St.  Aubin,  July 
28,  1488  ;  he  dies  in  1488  ;  his  heiress,  Anne, 
compelled  to  marry  Charles  VIII.,  who 
annexes  Brittany  to  France  .  .  .  .  i 

Brittany  held  by  the  Spaniards,  1591 ;  re- 
covered by  Henry  IV. i 

The  Bretons  take  part  in  the  Vendean  insur- 
rection (see  La  Vendee)  in i 


BROAD  ARROW,  a  mark  for  goods  belonging  to  the  royal  dockyards  or  navy  is  said 
have  been  ordered  to  be  used  in  1698,  in  consequence  of  robberies. 

"BROAD  BOTTOM"  ADMINISTRATION.     The  Pelham  administration  (which 
was  so  called  because  it  formed  a  coalition  of  parties,  Nov.  1 744. 

BROCADE,  a  silken  stuff,  variegated  with  gold  or  silver,  and  enriched  with  flowers  ai 
figures,  originally  made  by  the  Chinese ;  the  manufacture  was  established  at  Lyons  in  1757. 

BROCOLI  was  brought  to  England  from  Italy  in  the  I7th  century. 

BROKERS,  both  of  money  and  merchandise,    were  known  early  in   England. 
Appraisers.     They  are  licensed,  and  their  dealings  regulated  by  law  in  1695-6,  1816,  ai 
1826.     The  dealings  of  stock -brokers,  were  regulated  in  1719,  1733,  and  1736,  and  sul 
quently.     See  Pawnbroker  and  Barnard's  Act. 

BROMINE  (from  the  Greek  Irdmos,  a  stink),  a  poisonous  volatile  liquid  element  di 
covered  in  salt  water  by  M.  Balard  in  1826.     It  is  found  in  combination  with  metals 
mineral  waters,  but  not  as  yet  in  the  free  state. 

BRONZE  was  known  to  the  ancients,  some  of  whose  bronze  statues,  vessels,  &c.  are 
the  British  Museum.  The  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XIV.,  1699,  in  the  Place 
Vendome  at  Paris  (demolished  Aug.  loth,  1792),  the  most  colossal  ever  made  ;  it  contained 
60,000  Ibs.  Bronze  is  composed  of  copper  and  tin,  with  sometimes  a  little  zinc  and  lead. 
Ure.  The  present  bronze  coinage,  penny,  halfpenny  and  farthing  (composed  of  95  parts  of 
copper,  4  tin,  i  zinc),  came  into  circulation  Dec.  1860. 


*  The  total  expenditure  by  the  government  en  the  British  Museum  for  the  year  .ending  March  31, 
i?6o,  was  78,445?.;  1861,  92,776?.  ;  1864,  95,500?.  :  the  numler  of  visitors  to  the  general  collection  in  1851 
(exhibition  year),  2,524,754;  in  1859,  517,895  ;  in  1862  (exhibition  year),  895,007  ;  in  1863,  440,801. 


BRO 


131 


BRU 


BROWNIAN  MOTION.  So  called  from  Robert  Brown,  the  celebrated  botanist,  who, 
in  1827,  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  observed  in  drops  of  dew  a  motion  of  minute  particles 
which  at  first  was  attributed  to  rudimentary  life,  but  was  afterwards  decided  to  be  due  to 
currents  occasioned  by  inequalities  of  temperature  and  evaporation. 

BROWNISTS  (afterwards  called  Barrowists),  the  first  Independents  (which  see},  began 
with  Robert  Brown,  a  schoolmaster  in  Southwark,  about  1580.  In  1592  there  were  said  to 
be  20,000  Brownists.  Henry  'Penry,  Henry  Barrow,  and  other  Brownists,  were  cruelly 
executed  for  alleged  sedition,  May  29,  1593. 

BRUCE' S  TRAVELS.  James  Bruce,  the  "Abyssinian  Traveller,"  set  out  in  June,  1768, 
to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile.  Proceeding  first  to  Cairo,  he  navigated  the  Nile  to  Syene, 
thence  crossed  the  desert  to  the  Red  Sea,  and,  arriving  at  Jedda,  passed  some  months  in 
Arabia  Felix,  and  after  various  detentions  reached  Gondar,  the  capital  of  Abyssinia,  in  Feb. 
1770.  On  Nov.  I4th,  1770,  he  obtained  a  sight  of  the  sources  of  the  Blue  Nile.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1773,  and  died  in  1794. 

BRUGES,  Belgium,  in  the  7th  century  was  capital  of  Flanders,  and  in  the  I3th  and  I4th 
centuries  had  become  almost  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  world.  It  suffered  much 
through  an  insurrection  in  1488,  and  the  consequent  repression.  It  was  incorporated  with 
France  in  1794,  with  the  Netherlands  in  1814,  and  with  Belgium  in  1830. 

BRUNSWICK  CLUBS,  established  to  maintain  the  house  of  Hanover  and  the  Protestant 
ascendancy  in  church  and  state,  began  in  England  at  Maidstone,  Sept.  18,  1828  ;  in  Ireland 
at  the  Rotunda  in  Dublin,  Nov.  4,  same  year.  Other  cities  formed  similar  clubs. 

BRUNSWICK,  HOUSE  OF.  The  duchy  of  Brunswick,  in  Lower  Saxony,  was  conquered 
by  Charlemagne,  and  governed  afterwards  by  counts  and  dukes.  Albert- Azzo,  marquis  of 
Italy  and  lord  of  Este,  died  in  1055,  and  left  by  his  wife  Cunegonde  (the  heiress  of  Guelph, 
duke  of  Carinthia  in  Bavaria),  a  son,  Guelph,  who  was  invited  into  Germany  by  Imitza,  his 
mother-in-law,  and  invested  with  all  the  possessions  of  his  wife's  step-father,  Guelph  of 
Bavaria.  (See  Bavaria.)  His  descendant,  Henry  the  Lion,  married  Maud,  daughter  of  Henry 
II.  of  England,  and  is  always  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  the  Brunswick  family.  His 
dominions  were  very  extensive ;  but  having  refused  to  assist  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa 
in  a  war  against  pope  Alexander  III.,  through  the  emperor's  resentment  he  was  proscribed  at 
the  diet  at  Wurtzburg,  in  1180.  The  duchy  of  Bavaria  was  given  to  Otho,  from  whom  is 
descended  the  family  of  Bavaria  ;  the  duchy  of  Saxony  to  Bernard  Ascanius,  founder  of  the 
house  of  Anhalt  ;  and  his  other  territories  to  different  persons.  On  this,  he  retired  to 
England  ;  but  at  the  intercession  of  our  Henry  II.  Brunswick  and  Lunenburg  were  restored 
to  him.  The  house  of  Brunswick  in  1409  divided  into  several  branches.  Brunswick  was 
included  by  Napoleon  in  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  in  1806,  but  was  restored  to  the  duke  in 
1815.— Population  of  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  1858,  273,400  ;  1862,  282,400. 

Lewis-Rodolph,  and  succeeded  him. 

1735.  Charles  (son). 

1780.  Charles- William-Ferdinand  (son)  :  a  great 
general  (served  under  his  uncle  Ferdinand 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  1756-1763)  ;  married 
princess  Augusta  of  England  :  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Auerstadt,  Oct.  14,  1806  ;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  fourth  son  (his  elder  sons  being 
blind,  abdicated). 

1806.  William-Frederick,  whose  reign  may  be  dated 
from  the  battle  of  Leipsic  in  Oct.,  1813 ;  fell 
at  Quatre-Bras,  commanding  the  avantgarde 
under  the  duke  of  Wellington,  June  16,  1815 ; 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son, 

1815.  Charles-Frederick-William;  assumed  govern- 
ment Oct.  30,  1823.  [Revolution  at  Bruns- 
wick ;  the  duke  retires  to  England,  Sept.  7, 
1830.] 

1830.  William- Augustus- Louis,  brother  ;  bom  April 


DUKES   OF   BRUNSWICK. 

1139.  Henry  the  Lion,  succeeded  by 

1195.  Henry  the  Long  and  William  (sons). 

1213.  Otho  I.  (son  of  William). 

1252.  Albert  I.  (son  of  preceding). 

1278.  Albert  II.  (son). 

1318.  Otho,  Magnus  I.,  and  Ernest  (sons). 

1368.  Magnus  II.  (Torquatus)  (son  of  Magnus  I.) 

DUKES   OF   BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL. 

First  Branch. 

1409.  Henry  I.  (son  of  Magnus  II.) 
1416.  William  I.  and  Henry  II.  (sons). 
1482.  Frederic  and  William  II.  )  f  w-iv       T 

495.  Henry  III.  and  Eric.          }  sons  of  Wllham  L 
1514.  Henry  IV.  (son  of  Henry  II.) 
1568.  Julius  (son  of  preceding). 
1589.  Henry  Julius  (son). 
1613.  Frederic- Ulric  (son)  died  without  issue. 

Second  Branch. 
1634.  Augustus  (son  of  Henry  of  Luneburg). 
1666.  Rodolph-Axigustus  ;   who  associated  his  next 

brother,  Anthony-Ulric,   in  the  government, 

from  1685  ;  died,  1704. 
1704.  Anthony  Ulric  now  ruled  alone;    became  a 

Roman  Catholic  in  1710  ;  died  in  1714. 
1714.  Augustus-William  (son). 
1731.  Lewis-Rodolph  (brother). 
1735.  Ferdinand- Albert,  dxike  of  Brunswick-Bevern, 

married    Antoinette-Amelia,     daughter    of 


25,  1806;  succeeded  provisionally,  Sept.  7, 
1830;  and,  on  the  demand  of  the  Germanic 
diet,  definitively,  April  25,  1831  ;  the  PRE- 
SENT duke ;  unmarried.  (His  magnificent 
palace  was  destroyed  by  fire,  Feb.  24,  1865.) 

DUKES   OF  BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG. 

1409.  Bernard  (son  of  Magnus  II.,  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick.    S*e  above). 

1434.  Otho  and  Frederic  (his  sons). 
1478.  Henry  (son  of  Otho). 


BRU 


132 


BUG 


BRUNSWICK,  continued. 

1532.  Ernest  T.  (son  of  Otho).     His  sons  were 

1546.  Henry  (founder  of  second  branch  of  Brunswick- 
Wolf  enbuttel)  and  William,  whose  seven  sons 
cast  lots  to  determine  who  should  marry. 
The  lot  fell  on  GEORGE,  sixth  son.  Four  of 
the  brothers  reigned,  viz.  : — 

1592.  Ernest  II.       ^ 

1611.  Christian. 

1633.  Augustus. 

1636.  Frederic  II 


J 


>no  issue. 


1648.  Christian-Lewis  (son  of  the  George  above-men- 
tioned). 

1665.  George-William  (brother  of  Christian-Lewis), 
dies  in  1705 ;  leaving  as  heiress  SOPHIA- 
DOROTHEA,  his  daughter,  who  married  in 
1682  her  cousin,  prince  GEORGE-LEWIS  of 
Hanover,  afterwards  George  I.  of  England 
(son  of  Ernest  of  Hanover,  youngest  son  of 
the  abone-mentioned  George. 

(See  Hanover  and  England.) 


BRUNSWICK  THEATRE,  Well-street,  East  London,  was  built  to  replace  the  Royalty, 
burnt  down  April  11,  1826.  It  was  opened  Feb.  25,  1828.  On  the  2gih  the  building  was 
destroyed  by  the  falling  in  of  the  walls,  due  to  too  much  weight  being  attached  tp  the  heavy 
iron  roof.  Fortunately,  the  catastrophe  happened  in  the  day  time  (during  a  rehearsal  of  Guy 
Mannering),  and  only  twelve  persons  perished. 

BRUSSELS,  once  capital  of  Austrian  Brabant,  now  of  Belgium  (since  1831),  was 
founded  by  St.  Gery,  of  Cambray,  in  the  7th  century.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  lace, 
camlets,  and  tapestry.  The  Hotel  de  Ville  has  a  turret  364  feet  in  height ;  and  on  its  top  is 
a  copper  figure  of  St.  Michael,  17  feet  high,  which  turns  with  the  wind.  See  Belgium. 


Bombarded  by  marshal  Villeroi,  14  churches 

and  4000  houses  destroyed        .        .        Aug.  1695 
Taken  by  the  French,  1746  ;  and  by  Dumouriez,  1792 
The  revolution  commences    .         .        Aug.  25,  1830 
The  costly  furniture  of  16  houses  demolished 
iu  consequence  of  a  display  of  attachment  to 
the  house  of  Orange        .        .        .     April  5,  1834 


Maritime  conference  to  obtain  uniform  me- 
teorological observations  held  here  .  .  1853 

International  philanthropic  congress  meet 

Sept.  1856 

International  "association  for  social  science 
meet Sept.  22-5,  1862 


BRUTTIUM  (now  Calabria  Oltra),  S.  Italy.  The  Bruttians  and  Lucanians  defeated  and 
slew  Alexander  of  Epirus  at  Pandosia,  332  B.C.  They  were  conquered  by  Rome,  277  B.C. 

BUBBLE  COMPANIES.     See  Companies,  Law's  Bubble,  and  South-sea  Bubble. 

BUCCANEERS,*  piratical  adventurers,  chiefly  French,  English,  and  Dutch,  who  com- 
menced their  depredations  on  the  Spaniards  of  America  soon  after  the  latter  had  taken 
possession  of  that  continent  and  the  West  Indies.  Their  numbers  were  much  increased  by  a 
twelve  years'  truce  between  the  Spaniards  and  Dutch  in  1609,  when  many  of  the  discharged 
sailors  joined  the  Buccaneers,  and  extended  the  range  of  their  ravages.  The  first  levy  of 
ship-money  in  England  in  1635  was  to  defray  the  expense  of  chastising  these  pirates.  The 
principal  commanders  of  the  first  Buccaneers  were  Montbar,  Lolonois,  Basco,  and  Morgan, 
said  to  have  murdered  thousands  and  plundered  millions.  The  expedition  of  Van  Horn,  of 
Ostend,  was  undertaken  in  1603  ;  that  of  Gram  out  in  1685  ;  and  that  of  Pointis  in  1697. 

BUCENTAUR,  the  vessel  in  which  the  doge  of  Yenice  used  to  proceed  to  wed  the 
Adriatic,  from  the  twelfth  to  the  eighteenth  century. 

BUCHANITES  (in  Scotland)  :  followers  of  Mrs.  Buchan,  who  about  1779  promised  to 
conduct  them  to  the  new  Jerusalem,  prophesied  the  end  of  the  world,  &c.  She  died  in  1791, 
when  her  followers  dispersed. 

BUCHAREST  (in  Wallachia).  Preliminaries  of  peace  were  ratified  at  this  place  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  it  being  stipulated  that  the  Pruth  should  be  the  frontier  of  the  two 
empires  ;  signed  May  28,  1812.  The  subsequent  war  between  these  powers  altered  many  of 
the  provisions  of  this  treaty.  Bucharest  was  occupied  by  the  Russians,  Turks,  and  Austrians 
successively  in  the  Crimean  war.  The  last  quitted  it  in  1856. 

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE,  the  London  residence  of  the  sovereign.  Old  Buckingham- 
house  was  built  on  the  "Mulberry-gardens,"  by  John  Sheffield,  duke  of  Buckingham,  in 
1703.  In  1761  it  was  bought  by  George  III.,  who  in  1775  settled  it  on  his  queen,  Charlotte. 
She  made  it  her  town  residence  ;  and  here  all  her  children,  except  the  eldest,  were  born. 
Here  were  married  the  duke  of  York  and  princess  Frederica  of  Prussia,  in  1791  ;  the  duke 
of  Gloucester  and  princess  Mary,  1816  ;  the  prince  of  Hesse-Homburg  and  princess  Elizabeth, 
1818  ;  and  the  duke  of  Cambridge  and  princess  of  Hesse  the  same  year.  The  house  was  pulled 
down  in  1825,  and  the  present  palace  commenced  on  its  site.  After  an  expenditure  of 

*  Rayual  asserts  that  the  na  me  is  derived  from  a  Caribbee  word  boucan,  signifying  the  place  where 
the  native  savages  dried  their  fo  od  by  smoke ;  a  custom  necessarily  adopted  by  the  pirates  from  their 
mode  of  life. 


BUC 


BUI 


fellfi 


irly  a  million  sterling  it  was  completed,  and  occupied  by  queen  Victoria,  July  13,  1837. 
irther  improvements  were  made  in  1853.     The  marble  arch,  taken  down  from  the  exterior 
this  palace  was  re-erected  at  Cumberland-gate,  Hyde-park,  March  29,  1851. 

BUCKLERS,  used  in  single  combat,  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Proetus  and 
Acrisius  of  Argos,  about  1370  B.C.  When  Lucius  Papirius  defeated  the  Samnites,  he  took 
from  them  bucklers  of  gold  and  silver,  309  B.C.  The  light  cuirass  of  the  horse-soldiers  called 
cuirassiers  is  something  akin  to  the  ancient  buckler. 

BUCKLES  were  first  worn  instead  of  shoe-strings  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and  soon 
me  fashionable  and  expensive  from  the  richness  of  their  material ;  about  1791  they  had 
fallen  out  of  use.    Buckles  continue  to  be  used  in  court  dress  and  by  persons  of  rank  in" most 
countries  of  Europe. 

BUDA,  on  the  Danube,  once  called  the  Key  of  Christendom,  is,  in  conjunction  with  Pesth, 
the  capital  of  Hungary.  It  was  taken  by  Charlemagne  in  799  ;  and  sacked  by  Solyman  II. 
after  the  battle  of  Mohatz,  when  the  Hungarian  king,  Louis,  was  killed,  and  200,000  of  his 
subjects  carried  away  captives,  1526.  Buda  was  sacked  a  second  time,  when  the  inhabitants 
were  put  to  the  sword,  and  Hungary  was  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  1541.  Retaken 
by  the  Imperialists,  under  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  and  the  Mahometans  delivered  up  to  the 
of  the  soldiers,  1686.  It  suffered  much  in  1848-9.  See  Hungary. 

BUDE  LIGHT  (so  named  from  Bude  in  Cornwall,  the  residence  of  Mr.  Goldsworthy 
rurney,  its  inventor),  consists  of  two  or  more  concentric  argand  gas-burners,  one  rising  above 
another,  which  produce  a  most  brilliant  flame,  like  the  petals  of  a  rose.     The  illuminating 
powers  were  increased  by  subjecting  to  the  action  of  the  flame  manganese,  &c.,  in  order  to 
produce  ojygen  and  hydrogen  gas.     The  patent  was  issued  in  1841. 

BUDDHISM,  the  religion  (formerly  of  India,  and  now  of  a  large  part  of  Asia  beyond  the 
Ganges  and  Japan)  from  which  Brahminism  is  said  to  be  derived.  Buddha  (also  Bud,  Bot, 
and  Foot),  or  the  Wise,  flourished  about  1000  or  800  B.  c.  The  Buddhists  believe  that  the 
soul  is  an  emanation  from  God,  and  that  if  it  continue  virtuous,  it  will  return  to  him  on  the 
death  of  the  body  ;  but  if  not  so,  that  it  will  undergo  various  degrees  and  changes  of  abode. 
Buddhism  was  expelled  from  India  about  A.D.  956. 

BUDGET  (from  the  French  bougette,  a  small  bag),  a  term  applied  to  the  English  chan- 
cellor of  exchequer's  statement  of  the  finances  of  the  country.  The  budgets  of  Sir  R.  Peel 
in  1842  (including  the  income-tax)  and  1846  (free  trade),  and  of  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1860  (in 
connection  with  the  treaty  with  France^  are  the  most  important  in  recent  times. 

BUENOS  AYRES,  a  republic  of  S.  America.  The  country  was  explored  by  Sebastian 
Cabot  in  1526,  and  the  capital  founded  by  Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza  in  1535.  In  1585  the 
city  was  rebuilt  and  recolonised,  after  several  abandonments.  Population  in  1859  about 
350,000. 


A  British  fleet  and  army,  under  sir  Home  Pop- 
ham  and  general  Beresford,  take  the  city 
with  slight  resistance,  June  27 ;  it  is  re- 
taken Aug.  12 1806 

Monte  Video  taken  by  storm  by  sir  Samuel 
Auchmuty,  Feb.  3  ;  evacuated  July  7  .  .  1807 

General  Whitelock  and  8000  British  enter 
Buenos  Ayres  ;  severely  repulsed  .  July  5,  1807 

Independence  of  the  province  declared,  July  19,  1816 

Recognised  as  forming  part  of  the  Argentine 
confederation Feb.  1822 

[A  prey  to  civil  war  through  the  violent  in- 
trigues of  Rosas,  Oribe,  Urquiza,  and  others, 
for  many  years.] 

Oribe  defeated  by  general  Urquiza,  to  whom 
Buenos  Ayres  capitulates  .  .  Feb.  3,  1852 

Rosas  flees,  arrives  at  Plymouth      .     April  25,    ,, 


Urquiza  deposed,  Sept.  10  ;  invests  the  city ; 
after  some  successes  he  retires  .  .  Dec.  1852 

Buenos  Ayres  secedes  from  the  Argentine  con- 
federation, and  is  recognised  as  an  inde- 
pendent state ;  the  first  governor,  Dr.  D. 
Pastor  Obligado,  elected  .  .  Oct.  12,  1853 

Dr.  Valentin  Alsina  elected  governor    .     May,   1857 

War  breaks  out ;  Urquiza,  general  of  the  forces 
of  the  Argentine  confederation,  has  an  inde- 
cisive conflict  with  the  Buenos  Ayres  genex-al 
Mitre Oct.  23,  1859 

A  treaty  signed,  by  which  Buenos  Ayres  is  re- 
united with  the  Argentine  confederation 

Nov.  n,  1859 

Fresh  contests  :  Mitre  defeats  Urquiza  in  an 
almost  bloodless  contest  at  Pa  von  ;  Urquiza 
retires Sept.  17,  1861 


BUFFOONS  were  originally  mountebanks  in  the  Roman  theatres.  Their  shows  Avere 
discouraged  by  Domitian,  and  abolished  by  Trajan,  98.  See  Jesters. 

BUILDING.  In  early  times  men  dwelt  in  caves  ;  wood  and  clay  were  the  first  building 
materials.  Building  with  stone  was  early  among  the  Tyriaus  ;  in  England  it  may  be  referred 
to  Benedict  the  monk,  about  670.  In  Ireland  a  castle  was  built  of  stone  at  Tuam  by  the 
king  of  Connaught,  in  1161  ;  and  it  was  "so  new  and  uncommon  as  to  be  called  the 


BUI  134  BUL 


rovinces. 


Wonderful  Castle.'"   Building  with  brick  was  introduced  by  the  Romans  into  their  provinc 
Alfred  encouraged  it  in  England  in  886.     It  was  adopted  by  the  earl  of  Arundel,  about  1598, 
London  being  then  almost  wholly  built  of  wood.     See  Architecture. 

BUILDING  ACTS  were  passed  by  Elizabeth  in  1562,  1580,  and  1592  ;  and  by  Charles  II. 
in  1667.  Recent  acts  are  very  numerous ;  and  building  is  now  regulated  by  stringent  pro- 
visions enforced  by  law.  The  Building  Act  for  the  Metropolis  is  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  84  (1844), 
amended  in  1855  and  1860. 

BUILDING  SOCIETIES,  formed  to  enable  a  person  to  purchase  a  house  by  paying 
money  periodically  to  a  society  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  instead  of  paying  rent  to  a 
landlord,  began  about  1836,  when  an  act  was  passed  for  their  regulation. 

BULGAEIA,  anciently  Moesia,  now  part  of  European  Turkey.  The  Bulgarians  were  a 
Slavonian  tribe,  who  harassed  the  Eastern  empire  and  Italy  from  499  to  678,  when  they 
established  a  kingdom.  They  defeated  Justinian  II.,  687;  but  were  subdued,  after  several 
conflicts,  by  the  emperor  Basil,  in  1018,  who  in  1014,  having  taken  15,000  Bulgarian 
prisoners,  caused  their  eyes  to  be  put  out,  leaving  one  eye  only  to  every  hundredth  man,  to 
enable  him  to  conduct  his  countrymen  home.  The  kingdom  was  re-established  in  1096  ;  but 
after  many  changes,  it  was  conquered  and  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  about  1391.  In 
Jan.  1 86 1,  it  was  stated  that  the  Bulgarians  had  seceded  from  the  Greek  to  the  Roman 
church. 

BULL,  OR  EDICT  OF  THE  POPE.  The  bulla  is  properly  the  seal,  either  of  gold,  silver, 
lead,  or  wax.  On  one  side  are  the  heads  of  Peter  and  Paul ;  and  on  the  other  the  name 
of  the  pope,  and  year  of  his  pontificate.  A  bull  against  heresy  was  issued  by  Gregory  IX. 
in  1231.  Pius  V.  published  a  bull  against  Elizabeth,  April  25,  1570  ;  in  1571  bulls  were 
forbidden  to  be  promulgated  in  England.  The  bull  Unigenitus  against  the  Ja»senites  was 
issued  by  Clement  XI. 'in  1713.  The  Golden  Bull  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV..  so  called 
from  its  golden  seal,  was  made  the  fundamental  law  of  the  German  empire,  at  the  diet  of 
Nuremberg,  1356.  See  Brazen  Bull. 

BULL-BAITING,  OB,  BULL  FIGHTING,  a  sport  somewhat  equivalent  to  the  fights  of  the 
gladiators  among  the  Romans,  still  exists  in  Spain,  where  the  ladies  are  among  the  spectators. 
It  is  recorded  as  being  an  amusement  at  Stamford  so  early  as  the  reign  of  John,  1209.  Bull- 
running  was  a  sport  at  Tutbury  in  1374.  In  the  Sports  of  England,  we  read  of  the  "Easter 
fierce  hunts,  when  foaming  boars  fought  for  their  heads,  and  lusty  bulls  and  huge  bears  were 
baited  with  dogs  ;"  and  near  the  Clink,  London,  was  the  Paris,  or  Bear  Garden,  so  celebrated 
in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  for  the  exhibition  of  bear-baiting,  then  a  fashionable  amusement. 
A  bill  to  abolish  bull-baiting  was  thrown  out  in  the  commons,  chiefly  through  the  influence 
of  the  late  Mr.  Windham,  who  made  a  singular  speech  in  favour  of  the  custom,  May  24, 
1802.  It  was  made  illegal  in  1835.  See  Cruelty  to  Animals.  Bull-fights  were  introduced 
into  Spain  about  1260  :  abolished  there,  "except  for  pious  and  patriotic  purposes,"  in  1784. 
In  June,  1833,  ninety-nine  bulls  were  killed  at  bull-fights  at  Madrid.  There  was  a  bull- 
fight at  Lisbon,  at  Campo  de  Santa  Anna,  attended  by  10,000  spectators,  on  Sunday, 
June  14,  1840. 

BULLETS  of  stone  were  in  use,  1514.  Iron  ones  are  mentioned  in  the  Fcedera,  1550. 
Leaden  bullets  were  made  before  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  cannon-ball  in 
some  eastern  countries  was  long  of  stone.  Aslie.  The  conoidal  cup  rifle-ball  was  invented 
by  capt.  Minis',  about  1833  ;  a  modification  of  this  (conoidal  but  without  cup),  by  Mr. 
Pritchett  (1853),  is  used  with  the  Enfield  rifle.  Other  bullets  have  been  since  devised. 

BULLION,  uncoined  gold  and  silver.  The  "Bullion  Report"  of  a  parliamentary  com- 
mittee in  1810,  principally  guided  by  Mr.  Horner  and  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  R.)  Peel,  established 
the  conclusion,  that  paper  money  is  always  liable  to  be  over-issued  and  consequently  depre- 
ciated, unless  it  be  at  all  times  immediately  convertible  into  gold.  This  principle  has  been 
adopted  in  British  monetary  arrangements. 

BULL  RUN  BATTLES.     See  Manassas. 

BULAVER-CLAYTON  TREATY,  ratified  July  4,  1850,  by  which  sir  Henry  Lytton 
Bulwer  on  behalf  of  the  British,  and  Mr.  Clayton  on  behalf  of  the  American  government, 
declared  that  neither  would  obtain  exclusive  control  over  the  proposed  ship  canal  through 
Central  America,  or  erect  any  fortification  on  any  part  of  the  country.  Disputes  afterwards 
arose  with  respect  to  this  treaty  and  the  connection  of  Great  Britain  with  the  Mosquito 
territory  (which  see),  which  were  settled  in  1857. 


BUNKER'S  HILL  (near  Boston,  U.S.),  the  site  of  a  severe  contest  on  June  17,  1775, 
between  the  British  (nearly  3000)  and  the  revolted  Americans  (about  2000) ;  the  latter  wero 
ultimately  compelled  to  retreat.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  actions  in  the  war,  and  the 
Americans  refer  to  it  with  national  pride,  on  account  of  their  heroic  resistance.  Ralph 
Farnham,  who  was  present  at  the  battle,  died  on  Dec.  28,  1860,  aged  104^  years.  He  was 
introduced  to  the  prince  of  Wales  when  in  America. 

BUONAPARTE.     See  France. 

BURFORD  CLUB,  the  appellation  given  (according  to  Mr.  Layer,  the  barrister,  a  con- 
spirator, see  Layer)  by  the  Pretender  and  his  agents  to  a  club  of  Tory  lords  and  others,  of 
which  lord  Orrery  was  chairman,  and  lord  Strafford,  sir  Henry  Goring,  lord  Cowper,  Mr. 
Hutcheson,  the  bishop  of  Rochester,  sir  Constantine  Phipps,  general  Webb,  lord  Bingley, 
lord  Craven,  Mr.  Dawkins,  lord  Scarsdale,  lord  Bathurst,  Mr.  Shippen,  and  lord  Gower, 
were  members.  This  club  was  said  to  meet  at  the  members'  houses,  to  form  designs  against 
the  government.  This  story  was  set  aside  by  the  solemn  declarations  of  lord  Cowper  and  lord 
Stratford,  that  they  did  not  know  of  its  existence.  The  list  of  this  pretended  club  was 
published  in  the  Weekly  Journal,  printed  in  Whitefriars  ;  but  when  Read,  the  printer  of  the 
paper,  was  ordered  to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the  house,  he  absconded.  March,  1 722.  Salmon. 

BURGESSES,  from  the  French  Bourgeois,  a  distinction  coeval  in  England  with  its  corpo- 
rations. They  were  called  to  parliament  in  England,  1265  ;  in  Scotland  in  1326  ;  and  in 
Ireland  about,  1365.  Burgesses  to  be  resident  in  the  places  they  represented  in  parliament, 
I  Hen.  V.  (1413).  See  Borough. 

BURGHER  SECEDERS,  a  small  number  of  dissenters  from  the  church  of  Scotland, 
from  a  difference  regarding  the  lawfulness  of  taking  the  burgess  oath,  1 739. 

BURGLARY  was  a  capital  offence  till  1829.  Formerly,  he  who  convicted  a  burglar  was 
exempted  from  parish  offices,  1699  ;  Statute  of  Rewards,  5  Anne,  1706  ;  and  6  Geo.  1.  1720. 
Receivers  of  stolen  plate  and  other  goods  to  be  transported,  10  Geo.  III.  1770.  Persons 
having  upon  them  picklock-keys,  &c.,  to  be  deemed  rogues  and  vagabonds,  13  Geo.  III. 
1772-3.  The  laws  with  respect  to  burglary  were  amended  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Robert) 
Peel's  acts  between  1823  and  1829. 

BURGOS  (Spain),  the  burial  place  of  the  Cid,  1099.  Lord  Wellington  entered  Burgos 
on  Sept.  19,  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca  (fought  July  22,  1812).  The  castle  was  besieged 
by  the  British  and  allied  army,  but  the  siege  was  abandoned  Oct.  21,  same  year.  The  forti- 
fications were  blown  up  by  the  French,  June  12,  1813. 

BURGUNDY,  a  large  province  in  France,  derives  its  name  from  the  Burgundians,  a 
Gothic  tribe  who  overran  Gaul  in  275,  but  were  driven  out  by  the  emperor  Probus  :  they 
returned  in  287,  and  were  defeated  by  Maximin.  In  413  they  established  a  KINGDOM, 
comprising  the  present  Burgundy,  large  parts  of  Switzerland,  with  Alsace,  Savoy,  Provence, 
&c.  Gondicar,  their  leader,  was  the  first  king. — The  second  kingdom,  consisting  of  a  part  of 
the  first,  began  with  Gontran,  son  of  Clotaire  I.  of  France,  in  561.  The  kingdom  of  Aries, 
Provence,  and  Transjurane  Burgundy,  were  formed  out  of  the  old  kingdom. — In  877  Charles 
the  Bald  made  his  brother-in-law  Richard  the  first  DUKE  of  Burgundy.  In  938,  Hugh  the 
Great,  count  of  Paris,  founder  of  the  house  of  Capet,  obtained  the  duchy.  His  descendant, 
Henry,  on  becoming  king  of  Franco,  conferred  it  on  his  brother  Robert,  in  whose  family  it 
remained  till  the  death  of  Philippe  de  Rouvre,  without  issue,  in  1361.  In  1363,  king  John 
of  France,  made  his  fourth  son,  Philip,  duke,  who  greatly  -enlarged  his  dominons  by  marrying 
the  heiress  of  Louis,  count  of  Flanders,  Artois,  &c.  (See  Austria,  and  Germany.) 


1363.  Philip  the  Bold. 

1404.  John  the  Fearless  (son),  joined  English  in- 
vading France  ;  supposed  to  have  been  privy 
to  the  assassination  of  the  duke  of  Orleans 
in  1407  ;  was  himself  assassinated  at  Mon- 
tereau,  in  the  presence  of  the  dauphiu,  Sept., 
1419. 

1419.  Philip  the  Good  (son),  the  most  powerful  duke 


in  the  world ;  married  to  Margaret  of  York, 

sister  to  Edward  IV. 
1467.  Charles  the  Bold :   killed  in  an  engagement 

with  the  Swiss,  before  Nancy,  Jan.  4,  1477. 
1477.  Mary  (daughter);     married   Aug.,    1477,    to 

Maximilian  of  Austria  ;  died  March  27,  1482. 
1479.  Louis  XI.  annexed  Burgundy  to  France.     The 

other  dominions  fell  to  Austria. 


BURIALS.  Abraham  buried  Sarah  at  Machpelah,  1860  B.C.,  Gen.  xxiii.  Places  of 
burial  were  consecrated  under  pope  Calixtus  I.  in  A.D.  210.  Eusebius.  The  Greeks  had 
their  burial-places  at  a  distance  from  their  towns  ;  the  Romans  near  the  highways  ;  hence 
the  necessity  for  inscriptions.  The  first  Christian  burial-place,  it  is  said,  was  instituted  in 
596  ;  burial  in  cities,  742  ;  in  consecrated  places,  750  ;  in  churchyards,  758.  Many  of  the 
early  Christians  are  buried  in  the  catacombs  at  Rome.  See  Catacombs.  Vaults  were 


BUR 


136 


BUR 


erected  in  chancels  first  at  Canterbury,  1075.  Woollen  shrouds  were  used  in  England,  1666. 
Linen  scarfs  were  introduced  at  funerals  in  Ireland,  1729  ;  and  woollen  shrouds  used,  1733. 
Burials  wrere  taxed,  1695 — again,  1783.  The  acts  relating  to  metropolitan  burials  were 
passed  1853,  1854,  1855,  and  1857.  See  Cemeteries.  Parochial  registers  of  burials,  births, 
and  marriages,  were  instituted  in  England  by  Cromwell,  lord  Essex,  about  1538.  Stow. 
A  tax  was  enacted  on  burials  in  England — for  the  burial  of  a  duke  50^.,  and  for  that  of  a 
common  person  45. — under  Will.  III.  1695,  and  Geo.  III.  1783.  See  Bills  of  Mortality. 

BURKING,  a  new  species  of  murder,  committed  in  Britain,  thus  named  from  Burke,  the 
first  known  criminal  by  whom  it  was  perpetrated.  His  victims  were  killed  by  pressure  or 
other  modes  of  suffocation,  and  the  bodies,  which  exhibited  no  marks  of  violence,  were  sold 
to  the  surgeons  for  dissection.  He  was  executed  at  Edinburgh,  Jan.  28,  1829.  A  monster 
named  Bishop  was  apprehended  in  Nov.  1831,  and  executed  in  London,  Dec.  5,  with 
Williams,  one  of  his  accomplices,  for  the  murder  of  a  poor  friendless  Italian  boy  named 
Carlo  Ferrari.  They  confessed  to  this  and  other  similar  murders. 

BURLINGTON  HEIGHTS.  Here  a  fierce  contest  took  place  between  the  British  and 
the  United  States  American  forces,  June  6,  1813.  The  British  carried  the  heights. 

BURMESE,  OR  BIRMAN,  EMPIRE,  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  cencury  by 
Alompra,  the  first  sovereign  of  the  present  dynasty.  Our  first  dispute  with  this  formidable 
power  in  1795,  was  amicably  adjusted  by  general  Erskine.  Hostilities  were  commenced  by 
the  British  in  1824,  and  they  took  Rangoon  on  May  n.  The  fort  and  pagoda  of  Syriam 
were  taken  in  1825.  After  a  short  armistice,  hostilities  were  renewed,  Dec.  I,  same  year, 
and  pursued  until  the  successive  victories  of  the  British  led  to  the  cession  of  Arracan,  and  to 
the  signature  of  peace,  Feb.  24,  1826.  For  the  events  of  this  war,  and  of  the  war  in  1851, 
see  India.  Pegu  was  annexed  to  our  Indian  empire,  Dec.  20,  1852.  The  war  ended  June 
20,  1853. 

BURNING  ALIVE  was  inflicted  among  the  Romans,  Jews,  and  other  nations,  on  the 
betrayers  of  counsels,  incendiaries,  and  for  incest.  The  Britons  punished  heinous  crimes  by 
burning  alive  in  wicker-baskets.  See  Stonehenge. — This  punishment  was  countenanced  by 
bulls  of  the  pope ;  and  witches  suffered  in  this  manner.  See  Witches.  Many  persons  have 
been  burned  alive  on  account  of  religious  principles.  The  first  sufferer  was  sir  William 
Sawtre,  parish  priest  of  St.  Osyth,  London,  3  Hen.  IV.,  Feb.  9,  1401.  In  the  reign  of 
Mary,  numbers  were  burned ;  among  others,  Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  Latimer,  bishop  of 
Rochester,  and  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  at  Oxford  in  1555  and  1556.* 
Bartholomew  Leggatt  and  Edward  Wightman  were  burned  for  heresy  in  1612,  by  warrant 
of  James  I. 

BURNING  THE  DEAD  was  practised  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  poet 
Homer  gives  descriptions  of  it.  It  was  veiy  general  about  1225  B.C.,  and  was  revived  by 
Sylla  about  78  B.  c.  It  is  still  practised  in  parts  of  the  East  Indies.  See  Suttees,  Barrows. 

BURNING-GLASS  AND  CONCAVE  MIRRORS.  Their  power  was  known  to  Archimedes, 
and  it  is  even  asserted  that  by  their  aid  he  burnt  a  fleet  in  the  harbour  of  Syracuse,  214  B.C.  ; 
their  powers  were  increased  by  Settalla  ;  Tschirnhausen,  1680  ;  BufFon,  1747  ;  and  Parker 
and  others  more  recently.  The  following  experiments  were  made  about  1800,  with  Mr. 
Parker's  lens  or  burning  mirror,  which  cost  700?.,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  largest  ev~~ 
made.  It  was  sold  to  capt.  Mackenzie,  who  took  it  to  China,  and  left  it  at  Pekin. 

Substances  fused.  Weight. 

A  crystal  pebble   .        .         •     •     7  grains  6 

Flint 10      ,,     30 

Cornelian 10      ,,     75 

Pumice  stone    .        .        .        .  10      ,,     24       ,, 
Green  wood  takes  fire  instantaneously  ;  water  boils 
immediately  ;  bones  are  calcined ;  and  things  not  - 
capable  of  melting  at  once  become  red-hot,  like 
iron. 

BURWELL  FIRE.  A  number  of  persons  assembled  to  see  a  puppet-show  in  a  barn  at 
Burwell  near  Newmarket,  Sept.  8,  1727.  A  candle  having  set  fire  to  a  heap  of  straw, 
seventy-six  individuals  perished,  and  others  died  of  their  wounds. 

*  It  is  computed,  that  during  the  three  years  of  Mary's  reign,  there  were  277  persons  brought  to  the 
stake  ;  besides  those  who  were  punished  by  imprisonment,  fines,  and  confiscations.  Among  those  who 
suffered  by  fire  were  5  bishops,  21  clergymen,  8  lay  gentlemen,  84  tradesmen,  100  husbandmen,  servants, 
and  labourers,  55  women,  and  4  children.  The  principal  agents  of  the  queen  were  the  bishops  Gardiner 
and  Bonner.  The  latter  is  said  to  have  derived  a  savage  pleasure  from  witnessing  the  torture  of  the 
sufferers. 


Substances  fused. 
Pure  gold 
Silver 
Copper  . 

Wtig 

.      .    20  gK 
.    2O 

ht.         Time. 
tins  4  seconds. 

20 

3 

12 

45 

25         » 

Platina 
Cast  iron  (a  cube) 
Steel          . 
A  topaz 
An  emerald 

•  33 

.    10 

.    10 

•            .    IO 

•     •     3 

2 

BUR  137  BUT 

BURY  ST.  EDMUND'S,  Suffolk,  named  from  St.  Edmund,  king  of  East  Anglia,  who 
was  murdered  by  the  Danes  in  870,  and  buried  here,  and  to  whom  its  magnificent  abbey  was 
i  founded.  It  shares  with  Runnymede  the  honour  of  producing  Magna  Charta  in  1215  ;  it 
having  been  prepared  here  by  the  barons  in  1214.  Henry  VI.  summoned  a  parliament  in 
1447,  when  Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester,  was  imprisoned,  and  died  here,  it  is  supposed  by 
poison.  It  was  almost  consumed  by  fire  in  1608  ;  and  was  desolated  by  plague  in  1636. 

BURYING  ALIVE.  A  mode  of  death  adopted  in  Boeotia,  where  Creon  ordered  Antigone, 
the  sister  of  Polynices,  to  be  buried  alive,  1225  B.C.  The  Roman  vestals  were  subjected  to 
it  for  any  levity  that  excited  suspicion  of  their  chastity.  The  vestals  buried  alive  on  a  charge 
of  incontinence,  were  Minutia,  3376.0.  ;  Sextilla,  2746.0.  ;  Cornelia,  A. D.  92.  Lord  Bacon 
gives  instances  of  the  resurrection  of  persons  who  had  been  buried  alive  ;  the  famous  Duns 
Scotus  is  of  the  number.  The  two  assassins  of  Capo  d'Istria,  president  of  Greece,  were 
sentenced  to  be  immured  in  brick  walls  built  around  them  up  to  their  chins,  and  to  be 
supplied  with  food  in  this  species  of  torture  until  they  died,  Oct.  1831. 

BUSACO,  or  BUZACO  (Portugal).  Here  the  British,  under  lord  Wellington,  repulsed 
the  French  army,  commanded  by  Massena,  Sept.  27,  1810.  The  latter  losing  one  general 
and  1000  men  killed,  two  generals  and  about  3000  men  wounded,  and  several  hundred 
prisoners  ;  the  loss  of  the  allies  did  not  exceed  1300  ;  the  British  retreated  to  the  lines  of 
Torres  Vedras,  which  were  too  strong  for  Massena  to  force,  and  the  two  armies  remained  in 
sight  of  each  other  to  the  end  of  the  year. 

BUSHEL.  This  measure  was  ordered  to  contain  eight  gallons  of  wheat,  12  Henry  VIII. 
1520  ;  the  legal  Winchester  bushel  was  regulated  9  Will.  III.  1697  ;  the  imperial  corn 
bushel  of  2218-192  cubic  inches  is  to  the  Winchester  of  2150*42,  as  32  to  31.  Regulated  by 
act  5  Geo.  IV.  June,  1824,  which  act  came  into  operation  Jan.  I,  1826. 

BUSHIRE  (on  the  Persian  Gulf),  attacked  by  sea  by  sir  H.  Leeke  and  by  land  by 
general  Stalker,  was  taken  Dec.  10,  1856.  The  place  proved  stronger  than  was  expected, 
and  was  bravely  defended.  Brigadier  Stopford  and  col.  Malet  were  killed  in  a  previous 
attack  on  the  fort  at  Reshire,  Dec.  9.  The  loss  of  the  British  was  four  officers  killed,  and 
one  wounded  ;  five  men  killed  and  thirty-five  wounded. 

BUSSORAH.     See  Bassorali. 

BUSTS.  This  mode  of  preserving  the  remembrance  of  the  human  features  is  the  same 
with  the  hermce  of  the  Greeks.  Lysistratus,  the  statuary,  was  the  inventor  of  moulds,  from 
which  he  cast  wax  figures,  328  B.C.  Pliwj.  Busts  from  the  face  in  plaster  of  Paris  were 
first  taken  by  Andrea  Verrochi,  about  A.D.  1466.  Smaller  busts  and  statuettes  are  now 
accurately  produced  from  larger  ones  by  machinery. 

BUTCHERS.  Among  the  Romans  there  were  three  classes  :  the  Suarii  provided  hogs, 
the  Boarii  oxen,  which  the  Lanii  killed.  The  butchers'  company  in  London  is  ancient > 
although  not  incorporated  till  1604. 

BUTE  ADMINISTRATION.  John  earl  of  Bute,  tutor  of  prince  George  (afterwards 
George  III.),  obtained  great  influence  over  him.  His  administration  formed  in  May,  1762, 
resigned  April,  1763.  It  was  severely  attacked  by  Junius  and  John  Wilkes. 

John,  earl  of  Bute,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  Lord  Ligonier,  ordnance. 


Henry  Fox,  afterwards  lord  Holland,  paymaster  of 
the  forces. 


Sir  Francis  Dash  wood,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Lord  Grenville,  president  of  the  council. 

Duke  of  Bedford,  privy  seal.                                             \  Viscount  Barrington,  treasurer  of  the  navy. 

Earl  of  Halifax,  admiralty.                                                '  Lord  Sandys,  first  lord  of  trade. 

Earl  of  Egremont  and  George  Grenville,  secretaries  \  Duke  of  Marlborough,  earl  Talbot,  lord  Huntingdon , 

of  state.  lord  North,  &c. 

BUTTER.     It  was  late  before  the  Greeks  had  any  notion  of  butter,  and  by  the  early 

Romans  it  was  used  only  as  a  medicine — never  as  food.     The  Christians  of  Egypt  burnt 

butter  in  their  lamps  instead  of  oil,  in  the  3rd  century.     Butter  forming  an  important  article 

I  of  commerce  as  well  as  food  in  these  countries,  various  statutes  have  passed  respecting  its 

i  package,  weight,  and  sale  ;  the  principal  of  which  are  the  36th  &  38th  Geo.  III.  and  10  Geo. 

IV.  1829.     In  Africa,  vegetable  butter  is  made  from  the  fruit  of  the  shea  tree,  and  is  of 

|  richer  taste,  at  Kebba,  than  any  butter  made  from  cow's  milk.     Mungo  Park.     The  import 

i  duty  of  55.  per  cwt.  on  foreign  butter  (producing  in  1859,  104,587?.  on  421,354  cwts.)  was 

repealed  in  1860. 


BUT  138  CAB 

BUTTONS,  an  early  manufacture  in  England  ;  those  covered  with  cloth  were  prohibited  j 
by  a  statute,  thereby  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  metal  buttons,  8  Geo.  I.  1721.     They 
are  now  made  of  glass,  porcelain,  £c. 

BUXAR,  a  town  in  Bengal,  near  to  which,  on  Oct.  23,  1764,  sir  Hector  Monro  (with] 
857  Europeans  and  6215  sepoys)  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  troops  of  the  nabob  of  Oude,  i 
&c.,  50,000  in  number ;  6000  of  these  were  killed,  and  130  pieces  of  cannon  were  taken. 
The  loss  of  the  English  was  trifling. 

BY-LAWS,  OR  BYE-LAWS  (from  Danish,  l>ye),  a  town,  private  ordinances  made  by  sub- 1 
ordinate  communities,  such  as  corporations.     These  laws  must  not  militate  against  the  law 
of  the  land.     By  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  1834,  those  made  by  corporate  bodies  become  valid,  if  not 
disallowed  by  the  king's  council  within  forty  days  after  their  enactment. 

BYNG,  HON.  ADMIRAL  JOHN,  was  charged  with  neglect  of  duty  in  an  engagement  with 
the  enemy  off  Minorca,  May  20,  1756,  condemned  for  an  error  of  judgment,  and  shot  on 
board  the  Monarch  at  Spithead,  March  14,  1757. 

BYRON'S  VOYAGE.  Commodore  Byron  left  England  on  his  voyage  round  the  globe 
June  21,  1764,  and  returned  May  9,  1766.  He  discovered  the  populous  island  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  which  bears  his  name,  Aug.  16,  1765.  Though  brave  and  intrepid,  such  was  his 
general  ill-fortune  at  sea,  that  he  was  called  by  the  sailors  of  the  fleet  "  Foulweather  Jack." 

BYZANTIUM,  now  Constantinople,  founded  by  a  colony  of  Megarians,  under  Byzas, 
667  B.C.  ;  but  various  dates  and  persons  are  given.  It  was  taken  successively  by  the  Medes, 
Athenians,  and  Spartans.  In  340  B.C.,  in  alliance  with  the  Athenians,  the  Byzantines 
defeated  the  fleet  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  During  the  wars  with  Macedon,  Syria,  &c.,  it 
became  an  ally  of  the  Eomans,  by  whom  it  was  taken,  A.D.  73.  Rebelling,  it  was  taken 
after  two  years'  siege  and  laid  in  ruins  by  Severus  in  196.  Byzantium  was  re-founded  by 
Constantine  in  324,  and  dedicated  in  May  22,  330,  all  the  heathen  temples  being  destroyed  ; 
from  him  it  received  the  name  of  Constantinople.  See  Constantinople.  BYZANTINE  ART 
flourished  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to  about  1204.  The  Byzantine  or  Eastern  empire 
really  commenced  in  A.D.  395,  when  Theodosius  divided  the  Roman  empire.  See  East. 


C. 

CABAL  (from  Italian  and  Spanish,  cabala,  secret  knowledge).  In  English  history,  the  I 
term  was  applied  to  the  cabinet  of  Charles  II.  in  1670  ;  the  word  Cabal  being  formed  from  the  I 
initials  of  their  names  :  sir  Thomas,  afterwards  lord  Clifford  (C)  ;  the  lord  Ashley  (A),  \ 
(afterwards  earl  of  Shaftesbury) ;  George  Villiers,  duke  of  Buckingham  (B)  j  Henry,  lord  : 
Arlington  (A) ;  and  John,  duke  of  Lauderdale  (L). 

CABBAGE.      Varieties  were  brought  to  these  realms  from  Holland  about  1510.     To  sir  j 
Arthur  Ashley  of  Dorset  the  first  planting  in  England  is  ascribed.     It  was  introduced  into 
Scotland  by  the  soldiers  of  Cromwell's  army.     See  Gardening. 

CABBALA,  a  Hebrew  word,  signifying  recension  or  tradition,  applied  to  a  mystical  mode  i 
of  interpreting  the  Scriptures  as  well  as  natural  things,  said  to  have  been  given  to  Adam  by 
angels,  and  transmitted  from  father  to  son  by  his  descendants.     It  is  said  to  have  been  lost 
at  the  Babylonian  captivity  (587  B.C.),  but  to  have  been  revealed  again  to  Ezra.      The  i 
Cabbalists  were  opposed  by  the  philosophers  and  by  Talmudists,  which  see. 

CABINET  COUNCIL.  There  were  councils  in  England  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Ina, 
king  of  the  West  Saxons,  690  ;  Offa,  king  of  the  Mercians,  758  ;  and  in  other  reigns  of  the 
Heptarchy.  State  councils  are  referred  to  Alfred  the  Great.  Spelman.  See  Adminis- 
trations, p.  8. 

CABLES.  A  machine  was  invented  in  1792,  for  making  the  largest,  by  which  human 
labour  was  reduced  nine-tenths.  Chain  cables  were  introduced  into  the  British  navy 
about  1812. 

CABRIOLETS  (vulgo  Cabs),  one-horsed  vehicles,  were  introduced  into  the  streets  of 
London  in  1823,  when  the  number  plying  was  twelve.  In  1831  they  had  increased  to  165, 
and  then  the  licences  were  thrown  open.  The  number  in  1862  running  in  the  metropolis 
exceeded  6000  (of  which  about  1800  only  plied  on  Sunday).  Previous  to  throwing  open  the 
trade,  the  number  of  hackney  carnages  was  limited  to  1200,  when  there  were  few  omnibuses, 
which  see. 


CAB 


139 


CABRIOLETS,  continued. 

'aZ>  Strike.—  On  June  28,  1853,  an  act  (called 
Mr.  FitzRoy's  act)  was  passed  for  "the  bet- 
ter regulation  of  metropolitan  stage  and 
hackney  carriages,  and  for  prohibiting  the 
use  of  advertising  vehicles,"  by  which  the 
cab  fares  were  reduced  to  6d.  a  mile.  It  came 
into  operation  July  n,  and  on  the  2jth  a 
general  strike  of  the  London  cabmen  took 
place.  Much  inconvenience  was  felt,  and 
every  kind  of  vehicle  was  employed  to  sup- 
ply the  'deficiency.  Some  alterations  (pre- 
viously agreed  on)  having  been  made  in  the 
act,  the  cabs  re-appeared  on  the  stands  on 
the  soth. 


Cabmen's  clubs  began  at  Paddington  in  .  Feb.  1859 

A  London  General  Cab  Company  published  its 
prospectus,  professing  a  reformed  system, 

July,  1862 

Cab  Tragedy.— S.  H.  Hunt,  a  servant  of  Butler 
and  MacCulloch's,  seedsmen,  Covent-garden, 
London,  poisoned  his  wife  and  children  in  a 
cab,  on  Nov.  7,  1863  ;  and  himself  on  Nov.  9, 
at  his  own  house,  just  before  his  apprehen- 
sion. 

The  cabmen  in  Paris  strike  against  a  company  ; 
above  3000  vehicles  stopped,  June  16  ;  fierce 
attack  on  men  who  give  in ;  strike  subsides, 

June  23,  1865 


CABUL,  OR  CABOOL,  a  city  of  Afghanistan,  taken  977  by  Subuctajeen,  grandfather  of 
[ahomed,  founder  of  the  Gaznevide  dynasty.  It  was  taken  by  Nadir  Shah  in  1738.  It  was 
capital  of  the  Durani  empire  at  the  end  of  the  last  century.  In  1809  the  sovereign  Shah 
oojah  was  expelled,  and  eventually  Cabul  came  into  the  hands  of  Dost  Mahomed,  a  clever  and 
mbitious  chieftain.  In  1839  the  British  restored  Shah  Soojah  ;  but  in  1842  a  dreadful  out- 
reak  took  place.  The  chief  British  civil  officer,  sir  Wm.  M  'Naghten,  was  massacred,  and 
lie  British  commenced  a  most  disastrous  retreat.  Of  3849  soldiers,  and  about  12,000  camp 
blowers,  only  one  European,  Dr.  Dryden,  and  four  or  five  natives  escaped.  In  the  same 
ear  (Sept.  16)  general  afterwards  sir  George  Pollock  retook  the  town,  and  rescued  lady  Sale 
nd  many  of  the  prisoners.  After  destroying  many  public  buildings,  he  left  Cabul  to  its 
ate,  Oct.  12,  1842. 

CADDEE,  OR  LEAGUE  OF  GOD'S  HOUSE,  the  celebrated  league  of  independence  in  Swit- 
erland,  formed  by  the  Grisons  to  resist  domestic  tyranny,  1400  to  1419.  A  second  league 
f  the  Grisons  was  called  the  Grise  or  Gray  League,  aboiit  1424.  A  third  league,  called  the 
*eague  of  Ten  Jurisdictions,  was  formed  in  1436. 

CADE'S  INSURRECTION".  Jack  Cade,  an  Irishman,  a  fugitive  on  account  of  his 
rimes,  assumed  the  name  of  Mortimer,  and  headed  about  20,000  Kentish  men,  who  armed 
to  punish  evil  ministers,  and  procure  a  redress  of  grievances."  He  defeated  and  slew  sir 
lumphrey  Stafford,  at  Sevenoaks,  June  27,  1450  ;  entered  London  in  triumph,  and  beheaded 
lie  lord  treasurer,  lord  Saye,  and  several  other  persons  of  consequence,  July  3.  The  insur- 
gents at  length  losing  ground,  a  general  pardon  was  proclaimed  ;  and  Cade,  deserted  by  his 
bllowers,  fled.  A  reward  was  offered  for  his  apprehension  :  he  was  discovered,  and  refusing 
o  surrender,  was  slain  by  Alexander  Iden,  sheriff  of  Kent,  July  n. 

CADIZ  (W.  Spain),  anciently  Gadiz,  the  Roman  Gades ;  said  to  have  been  built  by  the 
'hcenicians. 


One  hundred  vessels  of  the    Spanish  armada 

destroyed  in  the  port  by  sir  Francis  Drake  .  1587 
Cadiz  was  taken  by  the  English,  under  the  earl 
of  Essex,  and  plundered  .  .  Sept.  15,  1596 
Mainly  attacked  by  sir  George  Rooke  ..  .  1702 
bombarded  by  the  British  in  .  .  .  .  1797 
blockaded  by  lord  St.  Vincent  for  two  years  1797-9 
\gain  bombarded  by  the  British  .  .  Oct.  1800 
k.  French  squadron  of  five  ships  of  the  line  and 


a  frigate    surrender  to  the  Spaniards  and 

British June  14,  1808 

Besieged  by  the  French,  but  the  siege  was 

raised  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca  .  July,  1812 
Massacre  of  a  thousand  inhabitants  by  the 

soldiery Mar^h  10,  1820 

Taken  by  the  French  in  1823,  and  held  till  .  1828 
Declared  a  free  port 1829 


CADMIUM,  a  metal,  discovered  by  Stromeyer  in  1818. 

CAEN  (N.  France),  a  place  of  importance  before  912,  when  it  became  the  capital  of  the 
possessions  of  the  Normans,  under  whom  it  flourished.  It  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1346 
ind  1417  ;  but  was  finally  recovered  by  the  French  in  1450. 

CAERNARVON  (N.  Wales).  In  the  castle  (founded  in  1283  or  1284)  Edward  II.  was 
oorn,  April  25,  1284;  and  the  town  was  chartered  by  Edward  I.  in  the  same  year.  The 
;own  suffered  by  the  civil  war  of  Charles,  but  was  finally  retained  for  the  parliament. 

CJ1SAREAN  SECTION,  which,  it  is  said,  first  gave  the  name  of  Caesar  to  the  Roman 
'amity,  is  performed  by  cutting  the  child  out  of  the  womb,  when  it  cannot  otherwise  be 
delivered.  The  case  of. Alice  O'Neal,  an  Irishwoman,  who  survived  the  section,  which  was 
ined  by  a  female,  is  authenticated  by  Dr.  Gabriel  King,  of  Armagh,  and  surgeon  Duncan 
Stewart,  of  Dungannon.  In  Jan.  1847,  the  operation  was  performed  in  St.  Bartholomew's 
lospital,  London,  on  a  young  woman  of  diminutive  stature,  under  the  influence  of  ether  : 


but  she  died  the  next  day.     On  Dec.  9,  1860,  a  similar  operation 

by  Dr.  James  Edmunds  at  Bethnal  Green.  On  the  continent  the  operation  is  said  to 
been  more  frequent  and  more  successful.  Cooper's  Surgical  Dictionary  (ed.  1861)  contair; 
a  table,  which,  out  of  2009  cases,  gives  a  mortality  of  55 '4  per  cent,  of  the  mothers  ant 
29-45  Per  cent-  of  the  children. 

CJESARS.  See  Rome :  Emperors.  The  Era  of  the  Caesars  or  Spanish  Era,  is  reckoner 
from  the  1st  of  Jan.  38  B.C.,  being  the  year  following  the  conquest  of  Spain  by  Augustus; 
It  was  much  used  in  Africa,  Spain,  and  the  south  of  France  ;  but  by  a  synod  held  in  1181 
its  use  was  abolished  in  all  the  churches  dependent  on  Barcelona.  Pedro  IV.  of  Arrago' 
abolished  the  use  of  it  in  his  dominions  in  1350.  John  of  Castile  did  the  same  in  1383.  I 
was  used  in  Portugal  till  1415,  if  not  till  1422.  The  months  and  days  of  this  era  arl 
identical  with  the  Julian  calendar  ;  and  to  turn  the  time  into  that  of  our  era,  subtract  thirtji 
eight  from  the  year ;  but  if  before  the  Christian  era,  subtract  thirty-nine. 

CAESIUM  (Latin,  bluish),  a  rare  alkaline  metal,  found  in  some  mineral  waters  by  Bimse 
in  1861,  by  means  of  the  "Spectrum  analysis,"  which  see. 

CAFFRARIA,  AND  CAFFEE  WAR.    See  Kaffraria. 
CAGLIARI.     See  Naples,  note. 

CA  IRA  !  the  burden  of  a  popular  song,  during  the  French  revolution,  1791  : 
"  Ah  !  ca  ira,  ca  ira,  ca  ira  !  Les  Aristocrates  a  la  lanterne !"    ("  It  will  proceed  !  &c.    Hang  the  aristocrats.' 

CAI-FONG  (China),  was  besieged  by  100,000  rebels,  in  1642.  The  commander  of  thi 
relieving  forces,  in  order  to  drown  the  enemy,  broke  doAvn  its  embankments.  All  thj 
besiegers  perished  ;  but  300,000  of  the  citizens  also. 

CAIRO,  OR  GRAND  CAIRO,  the  modern  capital  of  Egypt,  remarkable  for  the  minarets  ( 
its  mosques,  and  the  sepulchres  of  its  caliphs,  in  what  is  called  the  "  city  of  the  dead." 


It  was  built  by  the  Saracens       ....     969 

Burnt  to  prevent  its  occupation  by  the  Cru- 
saders       .        •  >    •        •        •        •        •        •  1 220 

Taken  by  the  Turks  from  the  Egyptian  sultans  1517 
Ruined  by  an  earthquake  and  a  great  fire, 


when  40,000  persons  perished    .        .     June,  175! 

Taken  by  the  French  under  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte ;  they  enter  the  city  .  .  July  23,  179 

Taken  by  the  British  and  Turks,  when  6000 
French  capitulated  .  .  .  June  27,  i8c 


CALABRIA  (the  ancient  Messapia,  S.E.  Italy),  was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  266  B.C 
It  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths  under  Theodoric,  A.D.  493  ;  was  re-con 
quered  (for  the  Eastern  empire)  by  Belisarius,  536  ;  subdued  by  the  Lombards  and  joine« 
to  the  duchy  of  Benevento,  572-  After  various  changes,  it  was  conquered  by  Rober 
Guiscard,  the  Norman,  1058,  who  obtained  the  title  of  duke  of  Calabria,  and  eventual! 
that  of  king  of  Naples.  See  Naples. 

CALAIS  (N.  W.  France),  taken  by  Edward  III.  after  a  year's  siege,  Aug.  4,  1347,  an* 
held  by  England  210  years.  It  was  retaken  by  the  duke  of  Guise,  in  the  reign  of  Mary 
Jan.  7,  1558,  and  its  loss  so  deeply  touched  the  queen's  heart,  as  to  cause  some  to  say  i 
occasioned  her  death,  which  occurred  soon  afterwards,  Nov.  17,  same  year.  ""When  I  an 
dead,"  said  the  queen,  "Calais  will  be  found  written  on  my  heart."  It  was  held  by  th 
Spaniards,  1594-6  ;  and  was  bombarded  by  the  English,  1694.  Here  Louis  XVIII.  lande< 
after  his  long  exile  from  France,  April  1814. 

CALATRAVA.     See  Knighthood. 

CALCIUM,  the  metallic  base  of  lime,  was  discovered  at  the  Royal  Institution,  Loi 
by  Humphrey  Davy  in  1808. 

CALCULATING  MACHINES.  With  the  utmost  care,  errors  in  computation  anc 
printing  will  always  occur  in  logarithms  and  tables  of  figures.  To  avoid  them,  machines  t 
calculate  and  print  have  been  devised.  Pascal,  when  nineteen  years  of  age,  invented  on 
about  1650.  The  construction  of  Mr.  C.  Babbage's  machine  was  commenced  at  the  expens 
of  government,  in  1821,  and  continued  till  1833,  when  the  work  was  suspended  after  a; 
expenditure  of  above  15,000?.  The  portion  completed  is  in  the  library  of  King's  College 
London.  In  1857,  Messrs.  E.  and  G.  Scheutz,  two  Swedish  engineers,  published  in  Londo. 
specimen  tables,  calculated  and  printed  by  machinery  constructed  between  1837  and  1843 
after  a  study  of  the  account  of  Mr.  Babbage's  machine.  Messrs.  Scheutz  brought  thei 
machine  to  England  in  1854.  It  was  bought  for  lOOoZ.  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Rathbone,  an  America: 
merchant,  to  be  presented  to  Dudley  observatory  in  his  own  town,  Albanv.  In  1857,  Messrs 


CAL 


141 


CAL 


heutz  were  engaged  to  make  one  for  the  British  government,  which  is  now  completed. 
r.  Wiberg's  machine,  exhibited  at  Paris,  Feb.  1863,  was  much  commended. 


CALCUTTA,  capital  of  Bengal  and  British  India. 
:e  was  made  in  1689. 


The  first  settlement  of  the  English 


as  purchased  as  a  zemindary,  and  Fort  Wil- 
am  built,  in        .......   1698 

e  the  head  of  a  separate  presidency    .         .   1707 
fort  attacked  and  taken  by  an  army  of 
,000  horse  and  foot,  and  400  elephants  (146 
the  British  crammed  into  the  "Black-hole 
ison,"  a  dungeon,   about   18  feet  square, 
om  whence  23  only  came  forth  the   next 
orning  alive)          ....     June  18, 

utta  retaken  by  Clive,  and  the  Soubah  put 
death        ......      Jan.  2,  1757 


756 


1773 
1801 


Supreme  court  of  judicature  established 
College  founded       ..... 
Bishopric  of  Calcutta  instituted  by  act  .   July,  1813 
An  industrial  exhibition  held  in        .        .  Jan.   1855 
Great  cyclone,  followed  by  a  "  bore  "  or  spring 
tide  in  the  Hooghly ;  water  rises  30  feet  high  ; 
immense    damage     done    to    shipping    and 
houses  ;  43  lives  lost  in  Calcutta  (see  Cyclone) 

Oct.  5,  1864 
Population  in  1850,  413,582. 

See  Bengal  and  India. 

CALEDONIA  (now  Scotland).     The  name  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived  from  Gael, 
'i-men,  or  Gadel-doine, corrupted  by  the  Romans.     Tacitus,  who  died  99,  distinguishes 
portion  of   Britain  by  the  appellation  of    Caledonia.      Yenerable  Bede  says  that  it 
.•rained  this  name  until  258,  when  it  was  invaded  by  a  tribe  from  Ireland,  and  called  Scotia. 
Hie  ancient  inhabitants  appear  to  have  been  the  Caledonians  and  Picts,  tribes  of  the  Celts, 
passed  over  from  the   opposite  coast  of  Gaul.     About  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
iry  of  the  Christian  era  they  were  invaded  (as  stated  by  some  authorities)  by  the 
M  uyths  or  Scythins  (since  called  Scots),  who,  having  driven  the  Picts  into  the  north,  settled 
11  the  Lowlands,  and  gave  their  name  to    the  whole  country.      Hence   the  remarkable 
li.,ti action   of  language,  habits,  customs,  and  persons  between  the  Highlanders  and  the 
•  oMthern  inhabitants.    See  Scotland. 


'aledonian    monarchy,     said    to    have    been 
i  founded  by  Fergus  I. ,  about          .         .     B.C. 
'he  Picts  from  England  settle  in  the  south 
Agricola  carries  the  Roman  arms   into   Cale- 
;  donia,  in  the  reign  of  Galdus  (Corbred  II.) 

A.D. 
le  defeats  Galgacus,  and  builds  a  wall  between 

the  Frith  and  Clyde 

!  Vail  of  Antoninus  built 

Jlpius  Marcellus  repels  their  incursions  . 
Ihristianity  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Donald  I. 


79 

84 
140 
184 
20 1 


The  Caledonians*  invade  South  Britain,  207  ; 
repelled  by  the  emperor  Severus,  who  ad- 
vances to  the  Moray  Frith  ....  209 

Caledonia  invaded  by  the  Souths,  or  Scotti, 
from  Ireland,  about 306 

Caledonian  monarchy  revived  by  Fergus  II.     .     404 

After  many  wars,  Kenneth  II.,**king  of  the 
Scotti,  subdues  the  Caledonians  and  Picts, 
and  unites  the  country  under  one  monarchy, 
then  named  Scotland  .  .  .  838  to  843 


CALEDONIAN  CANAL,  from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  act  for  its 
Construction  received  the  royal  assent  July  27,  1803  ;  and  the  works  were  commenced  same 
•ear.  The  nautical  intercourse  between  the  western  ports  of  Great  Britain  and  those  also  of 
reland  to  the  North  Sea  and  Baltic,  is  shortened  in  some  instances  800,  and  in  others  1000 
niles.  A  sum  exceeding  a  million  sterling  was  granted  by  parliament  from  time  to  time  ; 
md  the  safe  navigation  for  ships  of  nearly  every  tonnage  was  opened  Nov.  i,  1822.  It  has 
lot  paid.  Annual  income  from  tonnage,  May  i,  1859,  5080?.  ;  expenditure,  695 il. 

CALENDAR.  The  Roman  Calendar,  which  has  in  great  part  been  adopted  by  almost  all 
mtions,  was  introduced  by  Romulus,  who  divided  the  year  into  ten  months,  comprising  304 
'lays,  738  B.C.  This  year  was  of  fifty  days'  less  duration  than  the  lunar  year,  and  of  sixty  - 
>ne  less  than  the  solar  year,  and  its  commencement  did  not  of  course  correspond  with  any 
ixcd  season.  Numa  Pompilius,  713  B.C.,  corrected  this  calendar,  by  adding  two  months'; 
.ud  Julius  Caesar,  45  B.C.,  desirous  to  make  it  more  correct,  fixed  the  solar  year  at  365  days 
nd  6  hours,  every  fourth  year  being  bissextile  or  leap  year.  See  Leap  Year.  This  almost 
•erfect  arrangement  was  denominated  the  Julian  style,  and  prevailed  generally  throughout 
jhe  Christian  world  till  the  time  of  pope  Gregory  XIII.  The  calendar  of  Julius  Ctesar  was 
lefective  in  this  particular,  that  the  solar  year  consisted  of  365  days,  5  hours,  and  49 
uimites;  and  not  of  365  days  6  hours.  This  difference,  then,  amounted  to  10  entire  days, 
he  vernal  equinox  falling  on  the  nth  instead  of  the  2ist  of  March.  To  obviate  this  error, 
Jregory  ordained,  in  1582,  that  that  year  should  consist  of  356  days  only  (Oct.  5  became 
)ct.  15)  ;  and  to  prevent  further  irregularity,  it  was  determined  that  a  year  beginning  a 
•entury  should  not  be  bissextile,  with  the  exception  of  that  beginning  each  fourth  century  ; 
hns,  1700  and  1800  have  not  been  bissextile,  nor  will  1900  be  so  :  but  the  year  2000  will  be 
leap  year.  In  this  manner  three  days  are  retrenched  in  400  years,  because  the  lapse  of 
leven  minutes  makes  three  days  in  about  that  period.  The  year  of  the  calendar  is  thus 
nade  as  nearly  as  possible  to  correspond  with  the  true  solar  year,  and  future  errors  of 
hronology  are  avoided.  See  New  Style  and  French  Revolutionary  Calendar. 


CAL 


142 


CAL 


CALENDAR,  continued. 


CORRESPONDENCE    OF    CALENDARS   WITH   A.D.    1865. 


Year  of  the  world  (Jewish) 
Julian  period  . 
Hegira,  1282  (began  May  27, 
15,  1866). 


;   ends,  May 


5625 
6578 


Foundation  of  Rome  (Varro) 
United  States'  Independence 
Year  of  Queen  Victoria 
Year  of  Napoleon  III.     . 


.   89-90 

•  29-3o 

14 


CALENDER,  a  machine  used  in  glazing  various  kinds  of  cloth,  was  introduced  into; 
England  by  the  Huguenots,  who  were  driven  by  persecution  from  France,  Holland,  and  the 
Netherlands  to  these  countries,  about  1685.  Anderson. 

CALENDS  were  the  first  day  of  the  Roman  months.  The  Nones  of  March,  May,  July, 
and  October,  fell  on  the  yth  ;  and  their  Ides  on  the  I5th.  The  other  months  had  the  Nones 
on  the  5th  and  the  Ides  on  the  I3th.  As  the  Greeks  had  no  Calends,  ad  Grcccas  Calendas, 
"on  the  Greek  Calends,"  meant  never. 

CALICO,  the  well-known  cotton  cloth,  is  named  from  Calicut,  a  city  of  India,  which 
was  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  1498.  Calico  was  first  brought  to  England  by  the  East 
India  Company  in  1631.  Calico-printing  and  the  Dutch  loom  engine  were  first  used  in 
1676,  when  a  Frenchman  established  a  factory  at  Richmond,  near  London.  Anderson. 
Calicoes  were  prohibited  to  be  printed  or  worn  in  1700  ;  and  again  in  1721,  a  penalty  of  5^. 
was  laid  on  the  wearer,  and  20?.  on  the  seller  of  calico.  In  1831,  by  the  exertions  of  Mr.' 
Poulett  Thompson,  afterwards  lord  Sydenham,  and  others,  the  consolidated  duty  of  ^\d.  on 
the  square  of  printed  calico  was  taken  off.  Since  1834,  the  manufacture  has  been  greatly 
increased  by  the  applications  of  science.  Cylinders  for  printing  are  now  engraved  by 
galvanism,  and  new  dyes  have  been  introduced  by  the  discoveries  of  Liebig,  Hoffmann, 
Perkin,  &c.  See  Cotton  and  Dyeing. 

CALIFORNIA  (from  the  Spanish,  Caliente  Fornalla,  hot  furnace,  in  allusion  to  the 
climate)  was  discovered  by  Cortez  in  1537  ;  others  say  by  Cabrillo  in  1542  ;  and  visited  by 
sir  Francis  Drake,  who  named  it  New  Albion,  in  1579.  California  was  admitted  into  the 
United  States  in  1850.  It  is  advancing  rapidly  in  wealth  and  importance,  but  society  is  still 
in  a  very  disorganised  state.  The  population  in  1856  was  506,067  ;  in  1860,  700,000. 


The  Spanish  establish  missionary  and  military 
stations  .  1698 

California  becomes  subject  to  Mexico   .        .     .  1823 

After  a  bloodless  revolution,  it  becomes  virtu- 
ally independent 1 836 

Occupied  by  the  army  of  the  United  States      .  1846 


Ceded  to  the  United  States  .  .  .  .1846 
Gold  discovered  in  great  abundance  by  Capt. 

Sutter  and  Mr.  Marshall  .  .  .  Sept.  1847 

Made  a  sovereign  state 1850 

Numerous  murders  in  San  Francisco— Lynch 

law  prevails 1853-60 


CALIPER  COMPASS,  whereby  founders  and  gunners  measure  the  bore  or  diameter  oi 
cannon,  small  arms,  &c.  :  shot  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  an  artificer  of  Nuremberg 
in  1540. 

CALIPH  (Arabic),  Vicar,  or  Apostle,  the  title  assumed  by  the  sophi  of  Persia,  as  suc- 
cessor of  Ali,  and,  since  1517,  by  the  sultan  of  Turkey,  as  successor  of  Mahomet.  The 
caliphat  began  with  Abubeker,  the  father  of  the  prophet's  second  wife. 


CALIPHS  OF  ARABIA. 
632.    Abubeker. 
634.     Omar  I. 
644.     Othman. 


655.  Ali. 

661.  Hassan. 

The  OMMIADES  ruled  661 — 750. 

The  ABBASICES  ruled  750 — 1258. 


In  775  they  were  styled  caliphs  of 

Bagdad. 
Haroun-al-Raschid  ruled  786 — 809. 

See  Ommiades  and  Abba&ides. 


CALIPPIC  PERIOD,  invented  by  Calippus,  to  correct  the  Metonic  cycle,  consists  ol 
four  cycles,  or  of  seventy-six  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which  he  imagined  the  new  and  ful] 
moons  returned  to  the  same  day  of  the  solar  year  ;  which  is  incorrect.  This  period  began 
about  the  end  of  June,  in  the  third  year  of  the  H2th  Olympiad,  in  the  year  of  Rome  424, 
and  330  B.C. 

CALIXTINS,  a  sect  derived  from  the  Hussites,  about  1451,  demanded  the  cup  (Greek, 
Kalix)  in  the  Lord's  supper.  Also  the  followers  of  George  Calixtus,  a  Lutheran,  who  died  in 
1656.  He  wrote  against  the  celibacy  of  the  priesthood,  and  proposed  a  re-union  of  Catholics 
and  Protestants  based  on  the  Apostles'  creed. 

CALI  YUGA,  the  Hindoo  era  of  the  Deluge,  dates  from  3101  B.C.  (according  to  some, 
3102),  and  begins  with  the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  the  Hindoo  sign  Aswin,  now  on  April 
n,  N.S.  In  1600  the  year  began  on  April  7,  N.S.,  from  whjch  it  has  now  advanced  four 
days,  and  from  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  is  still  advancing  at  the  rate  of  a  day  in  sixty 
years.  The  number  produced  by  subtracting  3102  from  any  given  year  of  the  Cali  Yuga  era 
will  be  the  Christian  year  in  which  the  given  year  begins. 


CAL  143  CAM 

CALLAO  (Peru).  Here,  after  an  earthquake,  the  sea  retired  from  the  shore,  and  returned 
i:i  mountainous  waves,  which  destroyed  the  city  in  1687,  and  on  Oct.  28,  1746. 

CALLIGRAPHY  (beautiful  writing).  Calibrates  is  said  to  have  written  an  elegant 
(.iistich  on  a  sesamum  seed,  472  B.C.  In  the  i6th  century  Peter  Bales  wrote  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  Creed,  and  Decalogue,  two  short  Latin  prayers,  his  own  name,  motto,  day  of  the 
Mouth,  yearof  our  Lord,  and  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  (to  whom  he  presented  them 
at  Hampton-court),  all  within  the  circle  of  a  silver  penny,  enchased  in  a  ring  and  border  of 
gold,  and  covered  with  crystal,  so  accurately  done,  as  to  be  plainly  legible.  Holinshed. 

CALMAR,  UNION  OF.  The  treaty,  whereby  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  were  united 
under  one  sovereign  ;  Margaret  of  Waldemar,  "the  Semiramis  of  the  North,"  being  the  first, 
,  June,  1397.  The  deputies  of  the  three  kingdoms  assembled  at  Calmar  for  the  election  of  a 
lung  ;  and  Margaret,  having  defeated  Albert  of  Sweden  (whose  tyranny  had  caused  a  revolt 
of  his  subjects)  in  1393,  was  made  choice  of  to  rule  over  Denmark,  as  well  as  Sweden  and 
Xonvay,  of  which  she  was  then  queen.  This  union  was  dissolved  by  Gustavus  Vasa  in  1523. 

CALMUCKS.     See  Tartary. 

CALOMEL  (''beautiful  black"),  a  compound  of  mercury,  sulphuric  acid,  and  chloride  of 
sxlium,  first  mentioned  by  Crollius  early  in  the  I7th  century.  The  first  directions  given  for 
r;s  preparation  were  by  Beguin  in  1608. 

CALORESCENCE.     In  Jan.  1865  Professor  Tyndall  rendered  the  ultra-red  rays  of  the 
j  spectrum  of  the  electric  light  visible  by  causing  them  to  impinge  on  a  plate  of  platinum 
r'dsi'd  to  a  white  heat.     He  termed  the  phenomenon  Calorescence.     See  Fluorescence. 
CALORIC.     See  Heat. 

CALOTYPE  PROCESS  (from  the  Greek  Jcalos,  beautiful),  by  which  negative  photographs 
are  produced  on  paper,  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Henry  Fox  Talbot,  about  1840. 

CALOYERS  (meaning  good  old  men).  The  monks  of  the  Greek  church,  of  the  order 
cr  St.  Basil.  Their  most  celebrated  monastery  in  Asia  is  at  Mount  Sinai,  endowed  by 
Justinian  (died  565) ;  the  European  one  is  at  Mount  Athos. 

CALVARY,  MOUNT,  the  place  where  the  Redeemer  suffered  death,  April  5,  A.D.  30; 
(Hales,  31  ;  Clinton,  29,  others,  30).  See  Luke  xxiii.  33.  Adrian,  at  the  time  of  his  per- 
secution of  the  Christians,  erected  a  temple  of  Jupiter  on  Mount  Calvary,  and  a  temple  of 
Adonis  on  the  manger  at  Bethlehem,  142.  The  empress  Helena  built  a  church  here  about 
326.  See  Holy  Places. 

CALVES'  HEAD  CLUB,  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  who  exposed  raw  calves'  heads  at 
.the  windows  of  a  tavern,  Jan.  30,  1735,  tne  anniversary  of  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  An 
i  incensed  mob  was  dispersed  by  soldiers,  and  the  club  was  suppressed. 

CALVI  (Corsica).  The  British  forces  besieged  the  fortress  of  Calvi,  June  12,  1794. 
After  fifty-nine  days  it  surrendered  on  Aug^io.  It  surrendered  to  the  French  in  1796. 

CALVINISTS,  named  after  John  Calvin  (or  Chauvin),  who  was  born  at  Noyon,  in 
Pioardy,  July  10,  1509.  Adopting  the  reformed  doctrines,  he  fled  to  Angouleme,  where  he 
(•.'imposed  his  Insiitutio  Christiance  Religionis  in  1533;  published  in  1536.  He  retired  to 
,Basle,  and  settled  in  Geneva,  where  he  died,  May  27,  1564.  He  was  instrumental  in  burn- 
ing Servetus  for  denying  the  Trinity  in  1553.  A  formal  separation  between  the  Calvinists 
and  Lutherans  first  took  place  after  the  conference  of  Poissy  in  1561,  where  the  former 
jexpressly  rejected  the  tenth  and  other  articles  of  the  confession  of  Augsburg,  and  took  the 
jnatne  of  Calvinists.  In  France  (see  Huguenots)  they  took  up  arms  against  their  persecutors. 
Honry  IV.,  originally  a  Calvinist,  011  becoming  king,  secured  their  liberty  by  the  Edict  of 
Nant'.'sin  1598  (which  see).  Calvinistic  doctrines  appear  in  the  Articles 'of  the  Church  of 
.'England  and  in  the  Confession  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  are  held  by  many  Protestant 
'sects. 

CAMBIUM  REGIS.     See  Royal  Exchange. 

CAMBRAY  (K  France),  an  independent  archbishopric  in  1007,  and  lordship  in  1076, 
[*ives  name  to  cambric.  It  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  by  surprise  in  1595  ;  and  has  been 
itaken  and  retaken  several  times.  Fenelon  was  archbishop  in  1695. 


It  was  invested  by  the  Austrians,  Aug.  8,  when 
the  republican  general,  Declay,  replied  to  the 
imperial  summons  to  surrender,  that  "he 
knew  not  how  to  do  that,  but  his  soldiers 

:     knew  how  to  fight."    It  was,  however,  taken 


by  Clairfait,  the  Austrian  general,  on 

Sept.  10,  1 70*1 

The  French  were  defeated  at  Caesar's  camp,  in 
the  neighbourhood,  by  the  allied  army  under 
the  duke  of  York  ....  April  24,  i794 


CAMBRAY,  continued. 

Cambray  seized  by  the  British,  under  sir 
Charles  Colville  ....  June  24,  1815 

League  of  Cambray  against  the  republic  of 
Venice,  comprising  pope  Julian  II.,  the  em- 
peror Maximilian,  and  Louis  XII.  of  France, 
and  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  entered  into  Dec.  10,  1508 

Treaty   between    Francis    I.   of    France    and 


Charles  V.  of  Germany  (called  Paiz  des 
Dames,  because  negotiated  by  Louisa  of 
Savoy,  mother  of  the  French  king,  and  Mar- 
garet of  Austria,  aunt  of  the  emperor)  . 
Treaty  between  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  and 
Philip  V.  of  Spain 1724- 


Jesus  College,  by  John  Alcock,  bishop  of  Ely  .  1496 
St.  John's  College,  endowed  by  Margaret, 

countess  of  Richmond 1511 

Magdalen  College,  by  Thomas,  baron  Audley  .  1510 

Trinity  College,  by  Henry  VIII.  .  .  .  I546 

Emmanuel  College,  by  sir  Walter  Mildmay  .  1584 
Sidney-Sussex  College,  founded  by  Frances 

Sidney,  countess  of  Sussex  .  .  .  .  1598 
Downing  College,  by  sir  George  Downing,  by 

will,  in  1717  ;  its  charter         ....  i8co  ! 

THREE   HALLS. 

Clare  Hall,  or  College,  first  by  Dr.   Richard 
Baden,  in  1326 ;  destroyed  by  fire  and  re- 
established by  Elizabeth  de  Burg,  sister  to 
Gilbert,  earl  of  Clare  ....     about  1342  ' 
Trinity  Hall,  by  Wm.  Bateman,  bp.  of  Norwich  1350 
St.  Catherine's  College  or  Hall,  founded        .     .  1473  | 
[Cambridge  University  Calendar}. 


•  1748 


CAMBRIA,  ancient  name  of  Wales  (which  see). 

CAMBRICS  were  first  worn  in  England,  and  accounted  a  great  luxury,  1580.  Stow. 
Their  importation  was  restricted  in  1745  ;  and  prohibited  in  1758  ;  re-admitted  in  1786. 

CAMBRIDGE,  the  Roman  Camboricum  and  the  Saxon  Granta,  frequently  mentioned  hy 
the  earliest  British  historians,  was  burnt  by  the  Danes  in  870  and  1010.  Roger  de  Mont- 
gomery destroyed  it  with  fire  and  sword  to  be  revenged  of  king  William  Rufus. 

The  university,  said  to  have  been  commenced 
by  Sigebert,  king  of  the  East  Angles,  about 
A.D.  630;  lay  neglected  during  the  Danish 
invasions,  from  which  it  suffered  much  ;  was 
restored  by  Edward  the  Elder  in  915 ;  and 
began  to  revive  about mo 

Henry  I.  bestows  many  privileges        .         .     .     ,, 

Henry  III.  granted  a  charter  to  the  university, 

1230  or  1231 

Incorporated  by  Elizabeth  in         .         .        .     .  1571 

In  Wat  Tyler's  and  Jack  Straw's  rebellion,  the 
rebels  entered  the  town,  seize  the  university 
records  and  burn  them  in  the  market-place  .  1381 

University  press  was  set  up        .        .        .        .   1534 
'   Letters  patent  granted  by  Hemy  VIII.         .     .     „ 

The  university  refuses  the  degree  of  M.A.  to 
father  Francis,  a  Benedictine  monk,  recom- 
mended by  the  king ;  and  the  presidency  of 
Magdalen  college  to  Farmer,  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic, notwithstanding  the  king's  mandate  .  1687 

Cambridge  Philosophical  Society  established 
in  1819,  and  chartered  in  ....  1832 

Railway  to  London  opened    .        .         .    June,  1845 

Commissioners  were  appointed  for  the  govern- 
ment and  extension  of  this  university  and 
Eton  college,  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  88  .  .  1856 

New  statutes  confirmed  by  the  Queen  .        .     .  1858 

British  Association  met  here,  1833,  1845,  1862. 

Fitzwilliam  museum,  endowed  1816;  founded 
1837  ;  completed 1847 

FOURTEEN   COLLEGES. 

Peterhouse   College,   by  Hugo    de    Balsham, 

bishop  of  Ely,  founded 1257 

Pembroke  College,  founded  by  the  countess  of 

Pembroke 1347 

Gonville  and  Caius,  by  Edmund  Gonville  .  .  1348 
Enlarged  by  Dr.  John  Caius  in  .  .  .  .  1558 

Corpus  Christi,  or  Benet 1352 

King's  College,  by  Henry  VI 1441 

Christ's  College,  founded  1442;  endowed  by 

Margaret,  countess  of  Richmond,  mother  of 

Henry  VII 1505 

Queen's  College,  by  Margaret  of  Anjou  .  .1448 

CAMBUSKENNETH  (Central  Scotland).     Here  Wallace  defeated  the  English  in  1297. 

CAMDEN  (N.  America).  A  battle  was  fought  here  Aug.  16,  1780,  between  general 
Gates  and  lord  Cornwallis,  the  former  commanding  the  revolted  Americans,  who  were 
defeated.  At  a  second  battle,  between  general  Greene  and  lord  Rawdon,  the  Americans 
were  again  defeated,  April  25,  1781.  Camden  was  evacuated  and  burnt  by  the  British,  May 
13,  1781. 

CAMERA  LUCID  A,  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke  about  1674  ;  another  by  Dr.  Wollaston  in 
1807.  CAMERA  OBSCURA,  or  dark  chamber,  constructed,  it  is  said,  by  Roger  Bacon  in 
1297  ;  and  improved  by  Baptista  Porta,  about  1500  ;  and  remodelled  by  sir  -Isaac  Newton. 
By  the  invention  of  M.  Daguerre,  in  1839,  the  pictures  of  the  camera  are  fixed.  See 

Photography. 


CHANCELLORS. 

Charles,  duke  of  Somerset,  elected  . 
Thomas,  duke  of  Newcastle  . 
Augustus  Henry,  duke  of  Graf  ton  . 
H.R.H.  William  Frederick,  duke  of  Gloucester  1811 
John,  marquess  Camden  .  .  ...  1834 
Hugh,  duke  of  Northumberland  .  .  .  1840 
The  Prince  Consort  [died  Dec.  14,  1861.]  Feb.  28,  1847 
Duke  of  Devonshire  ....  Dec.  31,  1861 


PROFESSORSHIPS   FOUNDED. 

Divinity  .        .        .        .        ..... 

Laws,  Hebrew  and  Greek  ..... 

Arabic      ......... 

Mathematics        ....... 

Music       ......... 

Chemistry    ........ 

Astronomy      ......       1704, 

Anatomy      ........ 

Modern  History,  Botany         ..... 

Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy 
Mineralogy      ........ 

Political  Economy       .....        . 


1502 
1540 
1632 
1663 
1684 
1702 

1749 
1707 
1724 


1863 


CAM 


145 


CAN 


CAMERONIANS,  a  name  frequently  given  to  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland,  the  descendants  of  the  covenanters  of  the  iyth  century,  the  established 
church,  1638-50.*  Charles  II.  signed  the  League  and  Covenant  in  1650,  in  hopes  of 
recovering  his  kingdoms,  but  renounced  it  in  1661,  and  revived  episcopacy.  A  revolt 
ensued  in  1666,  when  many  covenanters  were  slain  in  battle  (in  the  Pentland  hills,  &c.), 
and  many  refusing  to  take  the  oaths  required,  and  declining  to  accept  the  king's  indulgence, 
died  on  the  scaffold,  after  undergoing  cruel  tortures.  The  name  Cameronian  is  derived  from 
Richard  Cameron,  one  of  their  ministers,  who  was  killed  in  a  skirmish,  in  1680.  In  1689 
they  raised  a  body  of  soldiers  to  support  William  III.,  who  enrolled  them  under  the 
Command  of  lord  Angus,  as  the  26th  regiment,  since  so  famous.  In  1712  they  renewed  the 
public  covenants,  and  are  described  in  one  of  their  tracts  as  "the  suffering  anti-popish,  and 
anti-prelatical,  anti-erastian,  true  presbyterian  church  of  Scotland."  They  have  now  bet\y<-n 
thirty  and  forty  congregations  in  Scotland. — The  79th  regiment  (Cameron  Highlanders] , 
raised  in  1793  by  Allan  Cameron,  has  no  connection  with  the  Cameronians. 

CAMISARDS  (from  chemise,  a  shirt,  which  they  frequently  wore  over  their  dress  in  night 
attacks),  a  name  given  to  the  more  warlike  French  Protestants  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
CYvennes  (mountain  chains  in  S.  France),  who  defended  themselves  and  attacked  their 
enemies  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  in  1685.  They  were  suppressed  in  1704. 
Their  leader,  Cavalier,  is  said  to  have  been  made  governor  of  Jersey  by  William  III. 

CAMLET,  formerly  made  of  silk  and  camel's  hair,  but  now  of  wool,  hair,  and  silk. 
Oriental  camlet  first  came  here  from  Portuguese  India,  in  1660.  Anderson. 

CAMP.  The  Hebrew  encampment  was  first  laid  out  by  divine  direction,  1490  B.C. 
(Numbers  ii.)  The  Romans  and  Gauls  had  intrenched  camps  in  open  plains;  and  vestiges 
of  such  exist  to  this  day  in  England  and  Scotland.  A  camp  was  formed  at  Hyde  Park  in 
1745  and  1814.  See  CkoWiam  and  Aldcrshott. 

CAMPANIA  (S.  Italy),  was  occupied  by  Hannibal  and  declared  in  his  favour  216  B.C., 
but  regained  by  the  Romans,  213.  Its  capital  was  Capua  (which  see). 

CAMPBELL'S  ACT,  introduced  by  lord  Campbell,  in  order  to  compel  railway  companies 
to  grant  compensation  for  accidents,  was  passed  in  1846  ;  amended  in  1864.  In  accordance 
with  it  the  family  of  a  gentleman  killed  through  the  breaking  of  a  rail,  obtained  a  verdict 
for  13,000^.  from  the  Great  Northern  Railway  Company.  On  appeal  the  sum  was  reduced. 

CAMPEACHY-BAY  (Yucatan,  Central  America),  discovered  about  1520,  and  settled  in 
1540;  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1659  ;  by  the  buccaneers,  in  1678  ;  and  by  the  free- 
booters of  St.  Domingo,  in  1685.  These  last  burnt  the  town  and  blew  up  the  citadel.  The 
English  logwood-cutters  made  their  settlement  here  about  1662. 

CAMPERDOWN  :  south  of  the  Texel,  Holland,  near  which  admiral  Duncan  defeated 
the  Dutch  fleet,  commanded  by  admiral  De  Winter  ;  the  latter  losing  fifteen  ships,  either 
taken  or  destroyed,  Oct.  n,  1797.  The  British  admiral  obtained  a  peerage.  He  died  sud- 
denly on  his  way  to  Edinburgh,  Aug.  4,  0.804. 

CAMPO  FORMIO  (N.  Italy).  Here  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  France  and 
Austria  ;  the  latter  yielding  the  Low  Countries  and  the  Ionian  Islands  to  France,  and  Milan, 
Mantua,  and  Modena  to  the  Cisalpine  republic,  Oct.  17,  .1797.  By  a  secret  article  the 
emperor  gained  the  Venetian  dominions. 

CAMPO  SANTO  (Holy  Field),  a  burial-place  at  Pisa,  surrounded  by  an  arcade  erected 
by  archbishop  Ubaldo,  abo\it  1300,  which  is  celebrated  for  the  frescoes  painted  on  the  walls 
by  Giotto,  Memmi,  and  others. 

CANAAN  (Palestine),  is  considered  to  have  been  settled  by  the  Canaanites,  1965  B.C. 
(Clinton,  2088).  The  land  was  divided  among  the  Israelites  by  Joshua,  1445  (Hales,  1602). 

CANADA  (N.  America),  was  discovered  by  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot,  in  June,  1497  ; 
in  1535  Jacques  Cartier  (a  Breton  mariner),  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  as  far  as  where 
Montreal  now  stands.  See  Montreal  and  Quebec. 


Quebec  fcmnded 1608 

Canada  taken  by  the  English  1628  ;  restored     .  1632 
War  begins  in  1756  ;  Canada  conquered  by  the 
English  1759  (see  Quebec\  confirmed  to  them 


by  the  peace 

Legislative  council  established ;  the  French 
IHWS  confirmed,  and  religions  liberty  given  to 
Roman  Catholics 1774 


*  They  were  frequently  called  hill-men  or  mountain-men,  and  wiety  people  (from  the  places  and  modes  of 
)rsbip  to  which  they  were  frequently  reduced),  and  McMillanites,  from  John  McMillan,  their  first 
mis'er,  after  their  secession  from  the*cburch  of  Scotland  on  account  of  its  subserviency  to  the  English 
vernmcnt,  and  its  declining  from  its  original  rigid  principles. 

L 


CAN 


146 


CAN 


CANADA,  continued. 

The    Americans    under    Montgomery   invade 
Canada,  and  surprise  Montreal,  Nov.  1775  ; 
expelled  by  Carleton         •        .        .       March  1776 
Canada  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower      .         .  1791 
The  "  clergy  reserves  "  established  by  parlia- 
ment— one  seventh  of  the  waste  lands  of  the 
colony  appropriated  for  the  maintenance  of 

the  Protestant  clergy ,, 

During  the  debates  on  this  bill  the  quarrel 
between  Mr.  Burke  and  Mr.  Fox  arose.  Mr. 
Fox  seemed  anxious  for  a  reconciliation,  but 
Mr.  Burke  rejected  it  with  disdain  .  .  „ 

Canada  made  a  bishopric 1793 

The   Americans  invade    Canada    at    different 
points,  with  30,000  men,  but  are  forced  to 
retire  after  several  sanguinary  battles    .        .  1812 
Beginning  of  opposition  to  the  clergy  reserves 

1817-30 

First  railway  in  Canada  opened      .        .   July,  1836 
The  Papineau  rebellion  commences  at  Montreal 

by  a  body  called  Fils  de  la  Liberte   .        .        -1837 
The  rebels  defeated  at  St.  Eustace    .     Dec.  14,      „ 
Repulsed  at  Toronto,  by  sir  F.  Head  .     Jan.  5.  1838 
Earl  of  Durham  appointed  gov.-gen.  .  Jan.  16,     „ 
Lount  and  Mathews  (rebels)  hanged  April  12,     „ 
Lord  Durham  resigns  his  government  .  Oct.  9,     „ 
Rebellion  appears  in  Beauharnais  Nov.  3 ;  the 
insurgents  at  Napierville,  under  Nelson,  are 
routed  with  great  loss  Nov.  6 ;  the  rebellion 

suppressed Nov.  17,     ,, 

Acts  relating  to  government  of  Lower  Canada, 

passed  in  Feb.  1838,  and       .        .        .     Aug.   1839 
Upper  and  Lower  Canada  reunited     .  July  23,  1840 
Lord  Sydenham  appointed  governor  .  Feb.  10,  1841 
The  Canada  clergy  reserves,  after  much  discus- 
sion, abolished  by  the  British  parliament 

May  9,  1853 
Lord  Elgin  gov.-general  (1846-54)  concluded  an 

important  treaty  with  United  States  June  7,  1854 
The  grand  trunk  railroad  of  Canada,  850  miles 

long,  from  Quebec  to  Toronto,  opened  Nov.  12,  1856 
On  reference  having  been  made  to  the  queen, 
Ottawa,    formerly  Bytown,    appointed    the 
capital ;    this    decision    was    unpopular  ;    a 
federal  union   of  the  N.  American  colonies 
has  been  since  proposed        .         .       August,  1858 
Canada  raises  a  regiment  of  soldiers  (made  one 

of  the  line,  and  called  the  looth)    .  .     ,, 

The  prince  of  Wales  presents  the  colours  at 

Shorncliff        .         .     •  .        .        .      Jan.  10,  1859 
The  prince  of  Wales,  the  duke  of  Newcastle, &c., 
arrived  at  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  July  24 ; 


visit  Halifax  July  30 ;  Quebec  Aug.  18 ; 
Montreal  AVL%.  25 ;  Ottawa  Sept.  i ;  leave 
Canada  Sept.  20  ;  after  visiting  the  United 
States,  embark  at  Portland  Oct.  20 ;  and 
ai-rive  at  Plymouth  .  .  •.  Nov.  15,  1860 

Lord  Monck  assumes  office  as  gov.-gen.  ,Nov.  28,  1861 

In  consequence  of  the  ' '  Trent "  affair  (see 
Umted  States,  1861),  3000  British  troops  were 
sent  to  Canada;  aud  warlike  preparations 
were  made Dec.  „ 

Brit.N.  American  Assoc. founded  in  London  Jan.  1862 

Cartier's  ministry  defeated  on  Militia  bill ;  Mr. 
J.  Sandfield  Macdonald  becomes  premier 

May  20-23,     „ 

The  assembly  vote  only  5000  militia  and  5000  re- 
serve towards  the  defence  of  the  country ; 
this  causes  discontent  in  England  .  July,  ,, 

Political  changes  :  Mr.  J.  Macdouald  again  pre- 
mier   May  20,  1863 

New  Militia  bill  passed          .        .        .      Sept.      ,, 

Military  measures  in  progress        .        .     Sept.  1864. 

Meeting  of  about  20,000  volunteers  ;  delegates 
from  N.  American  colonies  at  Quebec,  to  de- 
liberate on  the  formation  of  a  confederation, 
Oct.  10  ;  agree  on  the  bases  .  .  Oct.  20,  5> 

Between  20  and  30  armed  confederates  quit 
Canada  and  enter  the  little  town  of  St.  Al- 
ban's,  Vermont ;  rob  the  banks,  steal  horses 
and  stores,  fire,  and  kill  one  man,  and  wound 
others,  and  return  to  Canada,  Oct.  19  ;  13  are 
arrested,  Oct.  21  ;  but  are  discharged,  on 
account  of  some  legal  difficulty  by  Judge 
Coursol Dec.  14,  ,,. 

Great  excitement  in  the  United  States,  general 
Dix  proclaims  reprisals  ;  volunteers  called 
out  in  Canada  to  defend  the  frontiers  ;  presi- 
dent Lincoln  rescinds  Dix's  proclamation 

Dec.     „ 

Lord  Monck  opens  the  last  Canadian  parlia- 
ment   Jan.  19,  1865 

The  confederation  scheme  rejected  by  New 
Brunswick March  7,  ,, 

The  British  parliament  grant  50,000?.  for  de- 
fence of  Canada  ....  March  23,  ,, 

The  St.  Alban's  raiders  discharged  by  justice 
Smith March  30,  „ 

Mr.  Seward  gives  up  claim  for  their  extradi- 
tion   April  „ 

Messrs.  Gait  and  Cartier  visit  England  to  advo- 
cate confederation  ....  April,  ,, 

Population  in  1857:  Lower  Canada,  1,220,514 ; 
Upper  Canada,  1,350,923. 


CANALS  (artificial  watercourses).     A  canal  in  China,  commenced  in  the  loth  century, 
is  said  to  pass  over  2000  miles,  and  to  41  cities. 


The  canal  of  Languedoc,  which  joins  the  Medi- 
terranean with  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  was  com- 
pleted in 1681 

That  of  Orleans  from  the  Loire  to  the  Seine, 
commenced  in 1675 

That  between  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea,  at 
Kiel,  opened 1785 

That  of  Bourbon,  between  the  Seine  and  Oise, 
commenced 1790 

That  from  the  Cattegat  to  the  Baltic        .     1794-1800 

The  great  American  Erie  canal,  363  miles  in 
length,  was  commenced  in  ....  1817 

That  of  Amsterdam  to  the  sea    .         .         .       1819-25 
(See  Ganges  Canal,  the  most  stupendous  mo- 
dern one.) 


BRITISH   CANALS. 

The  first  was  by  Henry  I.,  when  the  Trent  was  joined 
to  the  Witham,  1134. 

Francis  Mathew  in  1656,  and  Andrew  Yarranton  in 
1677,  in  vain  strongly  urged  improvement  in  in- 
ternal navigation. 

In  England  there  are  2800  miles  of  canals,  and  2500 
miles  of  rivers,  taking  the  length  of  those  only 
that  are  navigable— total,  5300  miles.  (Mr.  Porter,' 
in  1851.  says  4000  miles.) 

In  Ireland  there  are  300  miles  of  canals  ;  150  of  navi- 
gable rivers  ;  and  60  miles  of  the  Shannon,  navi- 
gable below  Limerick  ;  in  all,  510 miles.  Williams. 

The  prosperity  of  canals,  for  a  time  largely  checked 
by  the  formation  of  railways,  is  now  greatly  re- 
vived. 


New  river  canal,  commenced  1608 


Brought  to  London 


1614 


Thames  made  navigable    to 
Oxford         ....  1624 


REMARKABLE  CANALS/ 
Kennet  navigable  to  Reading  1715 


Lagan  navigation  commence 
Caermarthen shire  canal 
Droitwich  to  the  Severn 


.•1756 


Duke  of  Bridgewater's  navi- 
gation (first  great  canal), 
commenced  (see  Bridge- 
water)  1759 


CAN                                147                                      CAN 

CANALS,  continued. 

Northampton  navigation       .  1761 
imbliii  to  the  Shannon  (the 

Runcorn  to  Manchester         .   1776  !  Thames  to  Fenny  Stratford  .  1800 
Trent  and  Mersey,  opened    .   1777    Buckingham  canal         .        .   1801 

Grand)         .        .        .   1765-1788 
:  il  and  Worcester,  com- 

Chesterfield to  the  Trent       .     „    . 
Belfast  to  Lough  Xcagh         .  1783 

Grand  Surrey,  Act  passed     .      ,, 
Brecknock  canal    .        .         .   1802 

menced        .        .        .        .     ,, 
Cn-md  Trunk  commenced  by 
Brindley          .         ...  1766 
Forth  to  Clyde,  commenced  .  1768 

Severn  to  the  Thames,  com- 
pleted    1789 
Forth  and  Clyde,  completed  .  1790 
Bradford  completed       .        .     „ 

Caledonian  canal  begun    .     .   1803 
Ellesmere  aqueduct       .         .   1805 
Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  opened  .   1805 
Aberdeen,  completed    .         .1807 

Birmingham  to  Bilston         .     ,, 

Grand  Junction  canal        .     .      „ 

Glasgow      and      Ardrossan, 

Oxford    to    Coventry,    com- 

Birmingham and  Coventry  .      „ 

opened         ....   1811 

menced        ....   1769 
lade    navigable    from 

Monastereven  to  Athy      .     .1791 
Worcester  and  Birmingham  .     „ 

Leeds  and  Liverpool,  opened  1816 
Wye  and  Avon  .         .        .     .      ,, 

Jl  err  ford  to  Ware,  1739  ;  to 

Manchester,      Bolton,      and 

Edinburgh  andGlasgowUnion  i8rS 

l."n  Ion        ....  1770 

Bury    „ 

Sheffield,  completed  .        .     .1819 

•  Liverpool    .        .     .     ,, 

Warwick  and  Birmingham  .  1793 

Regent's  canal        .        .        .  1820 

Mv'iikland   (Scotland),    com- 

Barnsley, cut          .        .        .   1794 

Caledonian  canal,  completed 

menced  ,, 

Rochdale,  Act  passed         .     .     ,  , 

Oct.  30,  1822 

Ellcsmere  and  Chester  .         .  1772 

Huddersfield,  Act  passed      .     „ 

Birmingham  and  Liverpool, 

lasingstoke  canal  begun      .     ,, 

Derby,  completed      .         .     .     ,, 

begun  1826 

Liverpool  to  Wigan  .         .     .  1774 

Hereford  and  Gloucester       .  1796 

Gloucester  andBerkeley,ship- 

tooud  to  the  Severn     .        .  1775    Paddington  canal  begun        .1798 

canal,  completed   .         .     .1827 

ishire  canal,  begun     .  1776    Kennet  and  Avon,  opened    .   1799 

Norwich  and  Lowestoft  navi- 

Stourbridge canal,  completed     „     |  Peak-forest  canal,  completed  1800 

gation  opened         .        .     .1831 

CANARY  ISLANDS  (N.  "W.  Africa),  known  to  the  ancients  as  the  Fortunate  Isles. 
The  first  meridian  was  referred  to  the  Canary  Isles  by  Hipparchus,  about  1403.0.  They 
wen-  re-discovered  by  a  Norman  named  Bethencourt,  about  1400  ;  his  descendants  sold  them 
to  the  Spaniards,  who  became  masters,  1483.  The  canary-bird,  a  native  of  these  isles, 
brought  to  England  about  1500.  Teneriffe  is  the  largest  island. 

CANCER  HOSPITAL,  West  Brompton,  near  London,  was  founded  by  Miss  Burdett 
Coutts,  May  30,  1859.  A  temporary  hospital  began  in  1851. 

^  CANDIA,  the  ancient  Crete,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  celebrated  for  its  100 
cities,  its  centre  Mount  Ida  ;  and  the  laws  of  its  king  Minos,  and  its  labyrinth  to  secure  the 
Minotaur  (about  1300  B.C.).  It  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  68  B.C.  It  was  seized  by  the 
Saracens  A.D.  823,  when  they  changed  its  name  ;  taken  by  the  Greeks  in  960  ;  sold  to  the 
Venetians,  1204,  and  held  by  them  until  the  Turks  obtained  it,  after  a  twenty-four  years' 
siege,  during  which  more  than  200,000  men  perished,  1669.  It  was  ceded  to  the  Egyptian 
p;idia  in  1830,  but  was  restored  to  Turkey  in  1840.  An  insurrection,  which  broke  out  here  in 
May,  1858,  when  a  reduction  of  taxation  was  demanded,  soon  subsided  on  the  adoption  of 
conciliatory  measures.  A  persecution  of  the  Christians  took  place,  July  31,  1859. 

CANDLEMAS  DAY,  Feb.  2,  is  kept  in  the  church  in  memory  of  the  purification  of  the 
Virgin,  who  presented  the  infant  Jesus  in  the  Temple.  From  the  number  of  candles  lit  (it 
is  said  in  memory  of  Simeon's  song,  Luke  ii.  32,  "a  Light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles,"  &c.), 
this  festival  was  called  Candlemas,  as  weU  as  the  Purification.  Its  origin  is  ascribed  by  Bede 
to  pope  Gelasius  in  the  5th  century.  The~"practice  of  lighting  the  churches  was  forbidden  by 
order  of  council,  2  Edw.  VI.  1548  ;  but  it  is  still  continued  in  the  church  of  Rome. 

CANDLES.*  The  Roman  candles  were  composed  of  string  surrounded  by  wax,  or  dipped 
in  pitch.  Splinters  of  wood  fatted  were  used  for  light  among  the  lower  classes  in  England, 
about  1300.  At  this  time  wax  candles  were  little  used,  and  esteemed  a  luxury  ;  dipped 
caudles  were  usually  burnt.  The  "Wax-Chandlers'  company  was  incorporated  1484.  Mould 
caudles  are  said  to  be  the  invention  of  the  sieur  Le  Brez,  of  Paris.  Spermaceti  candles  are 
of  modern  manufacture.  The  Chinese  make  candles  from  wax  obtained  from  the  berries  of 
a  tree,  winch  wax  is  fragrant,  and  yields  a  bright  light,  f  The  duty  upon  candles  made  in 
England,  imposed  in  1709,  amounted  to  about  500,000?.  annually,  when  it  was  repealed  in 
1831.  Very  great  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  candles  are  due  to  the  researches  on 
oils  and  fats,  carried  on  by  "the  father  of  the  fatty  acids,"  Chevreul,  since  1811,  and 
published  in  1823.  At  Price's  manufactory  at  Lambeth,  the  principles  involved  in  many 
patents  are  carried  into  execution  ;  including  those  of  Gwynne  (1840),  Jones  and  Price  (1842), 

*  The  custom  of  selling  at  public  auctions  by  inch  of  candle  is  said  to  have  been  borrowed  from  tho 
church  of  Rome,  where  there  is  an  excommunication  by  inch  of  candle,  and  the  sinner  is  allowed  to 
come  to  repentance  before  final  excommunication,  while  yet  the  candle  burns. 

t  The  candlebury  myrtle  (Myrica,  cerifer<i),  at  Nankin,  in  China,  nourishes  with  beautiful  blossoms  and 
fruit.  The  latter,  when  ripe,  is  gathered  and  thrown  into  boiling  water  ;  the  white  unctuous  substance 
which  covers  the  kernels  is  thereby  detached,  and  swims  at  the  top  ;  it  is  skimmed  off  and  purified  by  a 
second  boiling,  when  it  becomes  transparent,  of  a  consistence  between  tallow  and  wax,  and  is  converted 
into  randUs.  It  is  said  that  specimens  of  this  tree  were  brought  to  England  from  America  in  1699.  Its 
cultivation  in  America  in  a  commercial  point  of  view  has  been  recommended. 

L   2 


;md  Wilson  in  1844,  for  candles  which  require  no  snuffing  (termed  composite).  Palm  ai 
cocoa-nut  oils  are  now  extensively  used.  In  1860,  at  the  Belmont  works  900  persons  were 
employed,  and  in  winter  100  tons  (7000?.  worth)  of  candles  are  manufactured  weekly. 
Candles  are  manufactured  at  Belmont  from  the  mineral  oil  or  tar  brought  from  Kangoon  in 
the  Burmese  empire  and  from  Trinidad. 

CANDLESTICKS  (or  lamp-stands)  with  seven  branches  were  regarded  as  emblematical 
of  the  priest's  office,  and  were  engraven  on  their  seals,  cups,  and  tombs.  Bezaleel  made 
"  a  candlestick  of  pure  gold  "  for  the  tabernacle,  B.C.  1491  (Exod  xxvii.  17).  Candlesticks 
were  used  in  Britain  in  the  days  of  king  Edgar,  959,  ("  silver  candelabra  and  gilt  candelabra 
well  and  honourably  made  ;")  but  in  1388  they  were  not  common. 

CANDY  (Ceylon),  was  taken  by  a  British  detachment,  Feb.  20,  1803,  who  capitulated 
June  23  following,  anxious  to  evacuate  the  place  on  account  of  its  unhealthiness  :  on  the 
third  day  many  were  treacherously  massacred  at  Columbo.  The  war  was  renewed  in  October, 
1814  ;  the  king  was  made  prisoner  by  general  Brownrigg,  Feb.  19,  1815;  and  the  sovereignty 
vested  in  Great  Britain,  March  2,  1815. 

CANNJS  (Apulia).  Here  on  Aug.  2,  216  B.C.,  Hannibal  with  50,000  Africans,  Gauls, 
and  Spaniards,  defeated  Paulus  ^Emilius  and  Terentius  Varro,  with  88,000  Romans,  of  whom 
40,000  were  slain.  The  victor  sent  to  Carthage  three  bushels  of  rings,  taken  from  the 
Roman  knights.  The  place  is  now  denominated  by  some  "the  field  of  blood." 

CANNIBALISM.     See  Anthropophagi. 

CANNING  ADMINISTRATION.*  The  illness  of  lord  Liverpool,  led  to  the  formation 
of  this  Administration,  April  24—30,  1827.  See  Goderich. 


George  Canning,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  choM- 

cellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Lord  Harrowby,  president  of  the  council. 
Duke  of  Portland,  lord  privy  seal. 
Lord  Dudley,  viscount  Goderich,  and  Mr.  Sturges 

Bourne,  secretaries  of  state. 
W .  W.  Wynn,  president  of  the  India  board. 
Win.  Huskisson,  board  oftra.de. 


Lord  Palmerston,  secretary  ot  war. 

Lord  Bexley,  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster. 

Duke  of  Clarence,  lord  l<igh  admiral. 

Lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor,  &c. 

Marquess  of  Lansdowne,  without  office ;  afterwards 
home  secretary. 

On  Mr.  Canning's  death  (Aug.  8)  the  cabinet  was  re- 
constructed. 


CANNON.  See  Artillery.  Gibbon  described  a  cannon  employed  by  Mahomet  II.  at  the 
siege  of  Adrianople,  in  1453  ;  the  bore  was  12  palms  wide,  and  the  stone  balls  weighed  each 
600  Ib. 


At  Ehrenbreitstein  castle,  one  of  the  strongest 
forts  in  Germany,  opposite  Coblentz  on  the 
Rhine,  is  a  prodigious  cannon,  eighteen  feet 
and  a  half  long,  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter 
in  the  bore,  and  three  feet  four  inches  in  the 
breech.  The  ball  made  for  it  weighs  180  Ib., 
and  its  charge  of  powder  94  Ib.  The  in- 
scription on  it  shows  that  it  was  made  by 
one  Simon 1529 

In  Dover  castle  is  a  brass  gun  called  queen 
Elizabeth's  pocket  pistol,  which  was  pre- 
sented to  her  by  the  states  of  Holland  ;  this 
piece  is  24  feet  long,  nnd  is  beautifully  orna- 
mented, having  on  it  the  arms  of  the  states, 
and  a  motto  in  Dutch,  importing  thus — 
"  Charge  me  well,  and  sponge  me  clean — I'll 
throw  a  ball  to  Calais  green." 

Some  fine  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
Tower. 

A  leathern  cannon  was  fired  three  times  in  the 
King's  park,  Edinburgh— Phillips  .  Oct.  23,  1788 

The  Turkish  piece  now  in  St.  James's  park, 
was  taken  by  the  French  at  Alexandria ;  but 
was  retaken,  and  placed  in  the  park  March,  1803 

Messrs.  Horsfall's  monster  wrought-iron  gun 
was  completed  in  May,  1856,  at  Liveipool. 
Its  length  is  15  feet  10  inches,  and  its  weight 


21  tons  17  cwt.  i  qr.  14  Ib.  Its  cost  was 
3,  Soot.  With  a  charge  of  25  Ib.  it  struck  a 
target  2000  yards'  distance.  It  has  been 
since  presented  to  government. 

Of  late  years  very  great  improvements  have 
been  made  in  the  construction  of  cannon,  by 
Messrs.  Whitworth,  Mal'et,  Aimstrorg.  and 
others.  Mr.  Wm.  G.  Armstrong  knighted 

Feb.  18,  1859 

He  bad  been  working  for  four  years  on  gun- 
making,  and  had  succeeded  in  producing  "  a 
breech-loading  rifled  wrought-iron  gun  of 
great  durability  and  of'extreme  lightness, 
combining  a  great  extent  of  range  and  ex- 
traordinary accuracy."  The  range  of  a  32-lb. 
gun,  charged  with  5  Ib.  of  powder,  was  a 
little  more  than  5  miles.  The  accuracy  of 
the  Armstrong  gun  is  said  at  equal  distances 
to  be  fifty-seven  times  more  than  that  of  our 
common  artillery,  which  it  greatly  exceeded 
also  in  destructive  effects.  The  government 
engaged  the  services  of  sir  W.  Armstrong 
for  ten  years  (commencing  with  1855)  for 
2o,ooof.,  as  consulting  engineer  of  rifled  ord- 
nance  Feb.  22,  „ 

A  parliamentary  committee  on  ordnance  was 
appointed  Feb  20,  and  reported  on  July  23,  1860 


*  George  Canning  was  born  April  n,  1770  ;  became  foreign  secretary  in  the  Pitt  administration,  1807; 
fought  a  duel  with  Castlereagh  and  resigned  in  1809  ;  president  of  the  council  in  1820 ;  disapproved  of  the 
queen's  trial  and  resigned  in  1821 ;  appointed  governor-general  of  India  in  1822,  but  became  soon  after 
foreign  secretary,  and  remained  such  till  1827,  when  he  became  premier.  He  died  Aug.  8,  same  year. 


CAN 


119 


CAN 


CANNON,  continued. 

Sir  W.Armstrong  resigned  the  appointmt.  Feb.  5,  1863 

The  Armstrong  gun  was  said  to  be  very  effec- 
tive in  the  attack  oil  the  Chinese  forts  at 
Taku Aug.  21,  1860 

Mr.  Whitworth'sguns  and  rifles  have  also  been 
greatly  commended. 

An  American  cannon,  weighing  35  tons,  stated 
to  be  the  largest  in  the  world,  cast  in  .  .  ,, 

Great  endeavours  made  to  improve  the  con- 
struction of  cannon,  to  counterbalance  the 
strength  given  to  ships  of  war  by  iron  plates, 
and  trials  at  Shoeburyness,  Essex  .  .  .  1862 

Targets  of  the  thickness  of  the  iron  sides  of 
the  Warrior,  three  s-inch  plates  of  wrought 
iron  bolted  together,  were  pierced  three  times 
by  156  Ib.  shot  from  an  Armstrong  gun 
smooth  bore,  3oo-lb.,  muzzle-loaded  with 
charges  of  40  Ib.  of  powder,  twice,  and  once 
of  50  Ib. April  8,  ,, 

The  Horsfall  gun  mentioned  above,  with  a 
charge  of  75  Ib.  of  powder  and  a  shot  of  270 
Ib.  totally  smashed  a  Warrior  target 

Sept.  16,    „ 

Mr.  Whitworth's  shells  were  sent  through  54 

CANON  or  SCRIPTURE.     See  Bible. 


inch  iron  plates  and  the  wood-work  behind 
it Nov.  12, 

Armstrong's  gun  "Big  Will"  was  tried  and 
pronounced  to  be  a  perfect  specimen  of  work- 
manship. It  weighed  22  tons  ;  its  length, 
15  feet;  range  with  shot  weighing  510  Ib., 
748  to  4187  yards  .  .  .  Nov.  19, 

Clark's  target  was  destroyed      .        .      July  7, 

Reed's  target  was  tried  successfully    .     Dec.  8, 

The  competitive  trial  between  the  Armstrong 
and  Whitworth  guns  began  .  .  April  i, 

The  Iron-plate  commission  experiments  closed 
on Aug.  4, 

Capt.  Palliser,  by  experiment,  has  shown  that 
iron  shot  cast  in  cold  iron  moulds  instead  of 
hot  sand,  is  much  harder  and  equals  steel ; 
he  also  suggested  the  lining  cast  iron  guns 
with  wrought  iron  exits,  which  is  stated  to 
be  successful. 

The  competitive  trials  of  Armstrong's  and 
Whitworth's  cannon  upon  the  Alfred  target- 
ship  at  Portsmouth  closed  .  .  Nov.  15, 

"Hercules  target,"  4ft.  2  in.  thick,  ni  inches 
of  iron,  resist-?  300  pounders  .  .  June, 


1862 

1863 
1864 


CANONISATION,  of  pious  men  and  martyrs  as  saints,  was  instituted  by  pope  Leo  III., 
800.  Tallent.  Every  day  in  the  calendar  is  now  a  saint's  day.  The  first  canonisation  was 
of  St.  Udalricus,  in  993.  Henault.  On  June  8,  1862,  the  pope  canonised  27  Japanese,  who 
had  been  put  to  death  on  Feb.  5,  1597,  near  Nagasaki. 

CANONS,  APOSTOLICAL,  ascribed  by  Bellarmm  and  Baronius  to  the  Apostles  ;  by  others 
to  St.  Clement,  are  certainly  a  forgery  of  much  later  date  (since  325).  The  Greek  church 
allows  85,  the  Latin  50  of  them.  The  first  Ecclesiastical  Canon  was  promulgated  380. 
Usher.  Canon  law  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  Gratiaii,  the  canon  law  author,  about 
1140,  and  into  England  in  1154.  Stow.  See  Decretals.  The  present  Canons  and  Consti- 
tutions of  the  Church  of  England,  collected  from  former  ordinances,  were  established  in  1603 
by  the  clergy  in  convocation,  and  ratified  by  king  James  I.  An  intermediate  class  of  reli- 
gious, between  priests  and  monks,  in  the  8th  century,  were  termed  canons,  as  living  by  a  rule. 

CANOSSA,  a  castle  in  Modena,  celebrated  on  account  of  the  degrading  penance  submitted 
to  by  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,  in  deference  to  his  greatest  enemy,  pope  Gregory 
VII.  (Hildebrand),  then  living  at  the  castle,  the  residence  of  the  great  countess  Matilda. 
Henry  was  exposed  for  several  days  to  the  inclemency  of  winter,  Jan.  1077,  till  it  pleased 
the  pope  to  admit  him.  Matilda  greatly  increased  the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy  by 
bequeathing  to  it  her  large  estates,  to  %he  injury  of  her  sscond  husband,  Guelph,  duke  of 
Bavaria. 

CANTERBURY  (Kent),  the  Durovernum  of  the  Romans,  and  capital  of  Ethelbert,  king 
of  Kent,  who  reigned  560 — 616.  He  was  converted  to  Christianity  by  Augustin,  596,  upon 
whom  he  bestowed  many  favours,  giving  him  land  for  an  abbey  and  cathedral,  which  was 
dedicated  to  Christ,  602.*  St.  Martin's  church  was  the  first  Saxon  Christian  church  in 
Britain.  The  riot  at  Boughton,  near  Canterbury,  produced  by  a  fanatic  called  Tom  or  Thorn, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  sir  William  Courtenay,  occurred  May  31,  1838.  See  Tfiomites. 
The  railway  to  London  was  completed  in  1846. — The  ARCHBISHOP  is  primate  and  metropo- 
litan of  all  England,  and  the  first  peer  in  the  realm,  having  precedency  of  all  officers  of  state, 
and  of  all  dukes  not  of  the  blood  royal.  Canterbury  had  formerly  jurisdiction  over  Ireland, 
and  the  archbishop  was  styled  a  patriarch.  This  see  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome  18 
saints  and  9  cardinals  ;  and  to  the  civil  state  of  England,  12  lord  chancellors  and  4  lord 
treasurers.  The  see  was  made  superior  to  York,  1073.  See  York.  The  revenue  is  valued 
in  the  king's  books  at  2816^.  75.  yd.  Bcatson.  Present  income,  15,000^. 

*  Tb.3  cathedral  was  sacked  by  the  Danes,  ion,  and  burnt  down  1067  ;  rebuilt  by  Lanfranc  and  Anselm, 
and  the  choir  completed  by  the  prior  Conrad  in  1130,  and  in  which  Becket  was  murdered,  1170,  was  burnt 
1174.  It  was  rebuilt  by  William  of  Sens  (1174-78)  and  by  "  English  William,"  1178-84.  A  new  nave  was 
built  and  other  parts,  1378-1410.  The  givat  central  tower  was  erected  by  prior  Goldstone  about  1495.  The 
gorgeous  shrine  of  Becket  was  stripped  at  the  reformation,  and  his  bones  burnt.  Here  were  interred 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  Henry  IV.,  cardinal  Pole,  and  other  distinguished  persons.  During  the  civil 
war,  Cromwell's  dragoons  used  the  cathedral  as  a  stable. 


CANTERBURY,  continued. 


A.D. 
602-605. 

605-619. 
619-624. 
624-630. 
63I-653- 
655-664. 
668-690. 

693-731- 
731-734- 

735-741- 
74!-758. 
759-762. 
763-790. 
790-803. 
803-829. 
829. 

830-870. 
870-889. 
891-923. 
923  (?) 
928-941. 
941-958. 
959-988. 
988-989. 
990-995. 
995-1006. 
1006-1011. 

1013-1020. 
1020-1038. 
1038-1050. 
1050-1052. 
1052-1070. 
1070-1089. 
1093-1109. 

1114-1122. 
1123-1136. 
1139-1161. 


St    Augustine,  or  Aus- 

tin, died  May  26. 
St.  Lawrence. 
St.  Mellitus. 
Justus. 
St.  Honorius. 
JDeusdedit  (Adeodatus). 
Theodore  of  Tarsus. 
Berhtuald. 
Taetwine. 
Nothelm. 
Cuthbert. 
Breogwine. 

Jaenbehrt,  or  Lambert. 
.ZEthelheard. 
Wulfred. 
Fleogild. 
Ceolnoth. 
jEthelred. 
Plegemund. 
JEthelm. 
Wulfelm. 
Odo. 

St.  Dunstan.  d.  May  19. 
^Ethelgar. 
Sigeric. 
.Elfric. 

St.  ^Elphage,  murdered 
by  the  Danes,  April  19. 
Lyfing,  or  ^Elfstun. 
^Ethelnoth. 


St.  Eadsi 

Robert  of  Jumie'ges. 


sge. 

of  J 

Stigand  :  deprived. 
St.  Lanfranc,  d.  May  24. 
Anselm. 

[See  vacant  5  years.] 
Radulphus  de  Turbine. 
William  de  Curballio. 
Theobald. 


ARCHBISHOPS   OF   CANTERBURY 
A.D. 

1162-1170.  Thomas  Becket :   mur- 
dered Dec   29. 
[See  vacant.  J 

1174-1184.  Richard. 

1184-1190.  Baldwin. 

1191.     '      Reginald  Fitz-Joceline, 
died  Dec.  26. 
[See  vacant.] 

1193-1205.  Hubert  Walter.  [Regi- 
nald the  sub-prior,  and 
John  Grey,  bishop  of 
Norwich,  were  succes- 
sively chosen,  but  set 
aside.] 

1206-1228. 'Stephen  Langton,  died 
"  July  6. 

1229-1231.  Richard  Weathershed. 

1233-1240.  Edmund  de  Abingdon. 

1240-1270.  Boniface  of  Savoy. 

1272-1278.  Robert  Kilwarby  (re- 
signed). 

1279-1292.  John  .Peckham. 

1293-1313.  Robert  Winchelsey. 

1313-1327.  Walter  Reynolds. 

1327-1333.  Simon  de  Mepham. 

1333-1348.  John  Stratford. 

1348-1349.  John  de  Ufford. 

1349.  Thomas  Bradwardin. 

1349-1366.  Simon  Islip. 

1366-1368.  Simon  Langham  (re- 
signed). 

1368-1374.  Wm.  Whittlesey. 

1375-1381.  Simon  Sudbury,  be- 
headed by  the  rebels, 
June  14. 

1381-1396.  William  Courtenay. 

1397-1398.  Thos.  Fitzalan  or  Arun- 
del  (attainted). 

1398.  Roger      Walden      (ex- 

pelled). 


A.D. 

1399-1414.  Tho.  Arundel  (restd) 
.1414-1443.  Henry  Chicheley. 
1443-1452.  John  Stafford. 
1452-1454.  John  Kemp. 
1454-1486.  Thomas  Bouchier. 
1486-1500.  John  Morton. 
1501-1503.  Henry  Deane  or  Dem 
1503-1532.  Wm.  Warham. 
1533-1556.  Thos.  Cranmer  (bur 

March  21). 
1556-1558.  ReginaldPole,d.Nov.i3 
1559-1575.  Matt.  Parker, d.  May: 
1576-1583.  Edm.Grindal,d.  July  6. 
1583-1604.  JohnWhitgift,d.Feb.29. 
1604-1610.  Rd.  Bancroft,  d.  Nov.  2. 
1611-1633.  Geo.  Abbot,  d.  Aug.  4. 
1633-1645.  Wm.  Laud  (beheaded, 

Jan.  10). 

[See  vacant  16  years.] 
1660-1663.  Wm.  Juxon,  d.  June  4. 
1663-1677.  Gilb.  Sheldon,  d.  Nov.g. 
1678-1691.  Win.  Bancroft  (deprived 

Feb.  i),  d.Nov.  24,1693. 
1691-1694.  JohnTillotson,d.Nov.22 
1695-1715.  Thos.Tenison,  d.Dec.i4- 
1715-1737.  Wm.  Wake,  d.  Jan.  24. 
1737-1747.  John  Potter,  d.  Oct.  10. 
1747-1757.  Thos.Herring,d.  Mar.  13. 
1757-1758.  Matt.Hutton,  d. Mai-.  19. 
1758-1768.  Thos.  Seeker,  d.  Aug.  3. 
1768-1783.  Fred.  Cornwallis,  died 

Mar.  19. 

1783-1805.  John  Moore,  d.  Jan.  18. 
1805-1828.  Chas.  Manners  Sutton, 

died  July  21. 

1828-1848.  Wm.Howley,  d.  Feb.n. 
1848-1862.  J ohn  Bird  Sumner, died 

Sept.  6. 
1862.  Chas.  Thos.  Longley,  PRESENT 

abp. 


CANTERBURY  TALES,   by  Geoffrey  Chaucer,  were  written  about   1364 ;    and  first 
printed  about  1475  or  1476  (by  Caxton). 

CANTHARIDES,  venomous  green  beetles  (called  Spanish  flies),  are  used  to  raise  bliste 
This  use  is  ascribed  to  Aretseus  of  Cappadocia,  about  50  B.C. 

CANTON",  the  only  city  in  China  with  which  Europeans  were  allowed  to  trade,  till 
treaty  of  Aug.  29,  1842.     Nearly  every  nation  has  a  factory  at  Canton,  but  that  of  Englai 
surpasses  all  others  in  elegance  and- extent.    Merchants  arrived  here  in  1517.    Afire  desti 
ing  15,000,  houses,    1822.     An  inundation  swept  away   10,000  houses  and   1000  persoi 
Oct.   1833.     Canton  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1857  ;  restored,  1861.     See  China  183^ 
1839,  1856,  1 86 1.     Population  estimated  at  1,000,000. 

CANULEIAN  LAW,  permitting  the  patricians  and  plebeians  to  intermarry,  was  pas 
at  Rome  445  B.C. 

CAOUTCHOUC,    OR   INDIA  RUBBER,  an   elastic   resinous   substance   that    exudes 
incisions  from  several  trees  that  grow  in  Cayenne,  Quito,  and  the  Brazils,  the  Hcevia 
chouc  and  Siphonia  elastica  (vulgarly  called  syringe  trees).     It  was  first  brought  to  Eui 
from  South  America,  about  1730. 


In  1770,  Dr.  Priestley  said  that  he  had  seen  "a 
substance  excellently  adapted  to  the  purpose 
of  wiping  from  paper  the  marks  of  a  black 
lead  pencil."  It  was  sold  at  the  rate  of  38. 
the  cubic  half -inch. 

India  rubber  cloth  was  made  by  Samuel  Peal 
and  patented 

Vulcanised  rubber  formed  by  combining  India 
rubber  with  sulphur,  which  process  removes 
the  susceptibility  of  the  rubber  to  change 
xinder  atmospheric  temperatures,  was  pa- 
tented in  America,  by  Mr.  C.  Goodyear 


1791 


Invented  also  by  Mr.  T.  Hancock  (of  the  firm 


•   1839 


of  Mackintosh  and  Co.),  and  patented  . 

Mr.  Goodyear  invented  the  hard  rubber 
(termed  Ebonite)  as  a  substitute  for  horn 
and  tortoise-shell,  for  combs,  paper-knives, 
veneer,  walking-sticks,  <fec 

A  mode  of  retaining  India  rubber  in  its  natu- 
ral fluid  state  (by  applying  to  it  liquid  am- 
monia) was  patented  in  England,  on  behalf 
of  the  inventor,  Mr.  Henry  Lee  Norris,  of 
New  York 

Caoutchouc  imported  in  1850,  7617  cwts.  ;  in 
1856,  28,765  cwts.  ;  in  1864,  71,027  cwts. 


CAP 


151 


CAP 


CAP.     The  general  use  of  caps  and  hats  is  referred  to  1449.     See  Caps  and  Hats. 

CAPE  BRETON,  a  large  island,  W.  coast  of  N.  America,  said  to  have  been  discovered 

by  the  English  in  1584  ;  taken  by  the  French  in  1632,  but  was  afterwards  restored  ;  and 

s  taken  in  1745,  and  re-taken  in  1748.     It  was  finally  captured  by  the  English  in  1758, 

when  the  garrison  of  5600  men  were  made  prisoners,  and  eleven  French  ships  were  captured 

or  destroyed.     Ceded  to  England  in  1763. 

CAPE-COAST  CASTLE  (S.  W.  Africa).  Settled  by  the  Portuguese  in  1610 ;  but  it 
soon  fell  to  the  Dutch.  It  was  demolished  by  admiral  Holmes  in  1661.  All  the  British 
factories  and  shipping  along  the  coast  were  destroyed  by  the  Dutch  admiral,  De  Ruyter,  in 
1665.  It  was  confirmed  to  the  English  by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  in  1667.  See  Ashantees. 

CAPE  DE  VERDE  ISLANDS  (N.  Atlantic  Ocean),  were  known  to  the  ancients  as  Gor 
gades  ;  but  not  to  the  moderns  till  discovered  by  Antonio  de  Noli,  a  Genoese  navigator  in  the 
service  of  Portugal,  1446,  1450,  or  1460.     The  Portuguese  possess  them  still. 

CAPEL  COURT.     See  under  STOCKS. 

CAPE  LA  HOGUE.     See  La  Hague. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE,  a  promontory  on  the  S.W.  point  of  Africa,  called  "Cabo 
Tormentoso  "  (the  stormy  cape),  the  "  Lion  of  the  Sea,"  and  the  "  Head  of  Africa,"  dis- 
covered by  Bartholomew  de  Diaz  in  1486.  Its  present  name  was  given  by  John  11.  of 
Portugal,  who  augured  favourably  of  future  discoveries  from  Diaz  having  reached  the 
extremity  of  Africa,  Population  in  1856,  267,096. 

The  cape  was  doubled,  and  the  passage  to 
India  discovered  by  Vasco  de  Gama,  Nov.  20,  1497 

CAPE  TOWN,  the  capital,  planted  by  the  Dutch  1651 

Colony  taken  by  the  English,  under  admiral 
Elphinstone  and  general  Clarke  .  Sept.  1795 

Restored  at  the  peace  in 1802 

Taken  by  sir  D.  Baird  and  sir  H.  Popham,  Jan. 8,  1806 

Finally  ceded  to  England  in 1814 

British  emigi-ants  arrive  in        .        .       March,  1820 

The  Kaffres  make  irruptions  on  the  British  set- 
tlements; and  ravage  Grahamstown.  (See 
Kajfraria) Oct.  1834 

Bishopric  of  Cape  Town  founded        .        .         .  1847 

The  inhabitants  successfully  resist  the  attempt 
to  make  the  cape  a  penal  colony  .  May  19,  1849 


The  constitution  granted  to  the  colony  promul- 
gated and  joyfully  received  on  .  July  i,  1853 

General  Pratorius,  the  chief  of  the  Trans- Vaal 
republic,  died  in  .  ,  .  .  Aug.  ,, 

The  British  having  given  up  its  jurisdiction 
over  the  Orange  river  territory,  a  free  state 
was  formed  (Bee  Orange  river)  .  Mai-ch  29,  1854 

The  first  parliament  meets  at  Cape-Town  July  i,  ,, 

The  Kaffres  were  much  excited  by  a  prophet 
named  Umhla-kaza.  By  the  exertions  of  sir 
George  Grey,  the  governor,  tranquillity  was 
maintained Aug.  1856 

The  cape  visited  by  prince  Alfred  in  .        July,  1860 

The  first  railway  from  Cape  Town,  about  58 
miles  long,  opened  .  .  about  Dec.  „ 


CAPE  ST.  VINCENT  (S.  "W.  Portugal).  Sir  George  Rooke,  with  twenty-three  ships  of 
war,  and  the  Turkey  fleet,  was  attacked  by  Tourville,  with  160  ships  off  Cape  St.  Vincent, 
when  twelve  English  and  Dutch  men  of  war,  and  eighty  merchantmen,  were  captured  or 
destroyed  by  the  French,  June  16,  1693. — Sir  John  Jervis,  with  the  Mediterranean  fleet  of 
fifteen  sail,  defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  of  twenty- seven  ships  of  the  line  off  this  cape,  taking 
four  ships  and  destroying  others,  Feb.  nj^.  1797.  For  this  victory  sir  John  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  earl  St.  Vincent.  Nelson  was  engaged  in  this  battle. 

CAPET  (or  Capevigians),  the  third  race  of  the  kings  of  France,  named  from  Hugo  Capet, 
count  of  Paris  and  Orleans,  who  seized  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  called  the  Indo- 
lent, 987.  Henault.  The  first  line  of  the  house  of  Capet  expired  with  Charles  IV.,  in  1328, 
when  Philip  VI.  of  Valois  ascended  the  throne.  See  France. 

CAPILLARITY  (the  rising  of  liquids  in  small  tubes,  and  the  ascent  of  the  sap  in  plants) 
is  said  to  have  been  first  observed  by  Niccolo  Aggiunti  of  Pisa,  1600—35.  T^e  theory  has 
been  examined  by  Newton,  La  Place,  and  others.  Dr.  T.  Young's  theory  was  put  forth  in 
1805,  and  Mr.  "VVertheim's  researches  in  1857. 

CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.     See  Death. 

CAPITATION  TAX.     See  Poll-tax. 

CAPITOL,  so  called  from  a  human  head  (caput)  being  found  when  digging  the  founda- 
tions of  the  principal  fortress  of  Rome,  on  Mons  Tarpeius,  on  which  a  temple  was  built  to 
Jupiter,  thence  called  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  The  foundation  was  laid  by  Tarquinius  Priscus, 
6i6B.c.  The  building  was  continued  by  Servius  Tullius,  and  completed  by  Tarquinius 
Superbus,  but  was  not  dedicated  till  507  B.  c.  by  the  consul  Horatius.  It  was  burnt  during 
the  civil  wars,  83  B.C.,  rebuilt  by  Sylla,  and  dedicated  again  by  Lutatius  Catulus,  69  B.C. 
The  Roman  consuls  made  large  donations  to  this  temple,  and  the  emperor  Augustus  bestowed 
on  it  2000  pounds  weight  of  gold,  of  which  metal  the  roof  was  composed  :  its  thresholds  were 
of  brass,  and  its  interior  was  decorated  with  shields  of  solid  silver.  It  was  destroyed  by 


152 


CAR 


lightning  188  B.C.  ;  by  fire,  A.D.  70,  and  rebuilt  by  Domitian.  The  Capiloline  gajncs,  insti- 
tuted 387  B.C.,  were  revived  by  Domitian,  A.D.  86.  The  Campidoglio  contains  palaces  of  the 
senators,  erected  on  the  site  of  the  Capitol  by  Michael  Angelo  soon  after  1 546. 

CAPITULARIES,  the  laws  of  the  Prankish  kings,  commencing  with  Charlemagne  (801 ). 
Collections  have  been  published  by  Baluze  (1677)  and  others. 

CAPPADOCIA,  Asia  Minor.     Its  early  history  is  involved  in  obscurity. 


Pharnaces  said  to  have  founded  the  kingdom  . 

Cappadocia  conquered  by  Perdiccas,  regent  of 
Mac«don  ;  the  king,  Ariarathes  I.,  aged  82, 
crucified  ........ 

Recovers  its  independence  .        .         .     . 

Conquered  by  Mithridates  of  Pontus 

Held  by  Seleucus  Nicator 

Ariarathes  V. ,  Philopator,  reigns,  162;  dethroned 
by  Holophernes,  130,  but  restored  by  the 
Romans,  158  ;  killed  with  Crassus  in  the  war 
against  Aristonicus 

His  queen,  Laodice,  poisons  five  of  her  sons  ; 
the  sixth  (Ariarathes  VI.)  is  saved ;  she  is 
put  to  death 

Ariarathes  VI.  murdered,  by  Mithridates  Eu- 
pator ;  who  sets  up  various  pretenders.  The 


B.C. 
744 


291 

280 


130 


Roman  senate  declares  the  country  free,  and 
appoints  Ariobarzaues  I.  king  .  .  B.C. 

He  is  several  times  expelled  by  Mithridates, 
&c. ,  but  restored  by  the  Romans  ;  dies 

Ariobarzanes  II.  supports  Pompey,and  is  slain 
by  Crassus 

Ariarathes  VII.  deposed  by  Antony 

Archelaus  is  favoured  by  Augustus,  20  B.  c.  ; 
but  accused  by  Tiberius,  he  comes  to  Home 
and  dies  there,  oppressed  with  age  and  infir- 
mities   A.D. 

Cappadocia  becomes  a  Roman  province 

Invaded  by  the  Huns  .        ... 

And  by  the  Saracens       .... 

Recovered  by  the  emperor  Basil  I. 

Conquered  by  Soliman 1074 

Annexed  to  Turkish  Empire       ....   1360 


CAPPEL  (Switzerland).  Here  the  reformer  Zwinglius  was  slain  in  a  conflict  between 
the  catholics  and  the  men  of  Zurich,- Oct.  n,  1531. 

CAPRI  (Caprese),  an  island  near  Naples,  the  sumptuous  residence  of  Augustus,  and  par- 
ticularly of  Tiberius,  memorable  for  the  debaucheries  he  committed  during  the  seven  last 
years  of  his  life,  27.  Capri  was  taken  by  sir  Sidney  Smith,  April  22,  1806. 

CAPS  AND  HATS.*  About  1750  Sweden  was  much  distracted  by  two  factions  thus 
named,  the  former  in  the  interest  of  the  Russians,  and  the  latter  in  that  of  the  French. 
They  were  broken  up  and  the  names  prohibited  by  Gustavus  III.  in  1771,  who  desired  to 
exclude  foreign  influence.  His  assassination  by  Ankarstrom,  March  16,  1792,  set  aside  all 
his  plans  for  the  improvement  of  Sweden. 

CAPUA  (Naples),  capital  of  Campania,  took  the  part  of  Hannibal  when  his  army 
wintered  here  after  the  battle  of  Cannse,  216  B.C.,  and  it  is  said  became  enervated  through 
luxury.  In  211,  when  the  Romans  retook  the  city,  they  scourged  and  beheaded  all  the 
surviving  senators  ;  the  others  had  poisoned  themselves  after  a  banquet  previous  to  the 
surrender  of  the  city.  Only  two  persons  escaped  degradation,  a  woman  who  had  prayed  for 
the  success  of  the  Romans,  and  another  who  succoured  some  prisoners.  During  the  middle 
ages  Capua  was  in  turn  subjugated  by  the  Greeks,  Saracens,  and  Normans,  and  Germans. 
It  was  restored  to  Naples  in  A.D.  1424,  and  was  taken  Nov.  2,  1860,  by  Garibaldi. 

CAPUCHIN  FRIARS,  Franciscans,  so  named  from  wearing  a  Capuchon,  or  cowl  hang- 
ing down  upon  their  backs.  The  Capuchins  were  founded  by  Matthew  Baschi,  about  1525. 

CAR.  The  invention  is  ascribed  to  Erichthonius  of  Athens,  about  1486  B.C.  Covered 
cars  (currus  arcuati)  were  used  by  the  Romans.  The  lectica  (a  soft  cushioned  car),  next 
invented,  gave  place  to  the  carpentum,  a  two-wheeled  car,  with  an  arched  covering,  hung 
with  costly  cloth.  Still  later  were  the  carrucce,  in  which  the  officers  of  state  rode.  Tri- 
umphal cars,  introduced  by  Tarquin  the  Elder,  were  formed  like  a  throne. 

CARACAS  (S.  America),  part  of  Venezuela,  discovered  by  Columbus  1498.  It  was 
reduced  by  arms,  and  assigned  as  property  to  the  Welsers,  German  merchants,  by  Charles 
V.  ;  but  from  their  tyranny,  they  were  dispossessed  in  1550,  and  a  crown  governor  appointed. 
The  province  declared  its  independence  of  Spain,  May  9,  1810.  The  city  Leon  de  Caracas, 
on  March  26,  1812,  was  visited  by  a  violent  earthquake,  and  nearly  12,000  persons  perishe  " 
See  Venezuela. 

CARBERRY  HILL  (S.  Scotland).     Here  on  June  15,  1567,  lord  Hume  and  the 

*  None  allowed  to  sell  any  hat  for  above  zod.  nor  cap  for  above  23.  8d.  5  Henry  VII.  1489.     It 
enacted  in  1571  that  every  person  above  seven  years  of  age  should  wear  on  Sundays  and  holidays,  a  cap  L 
wool,  knit,  made,  thickened,  and  dressed  in  England  by  some  of  the  trade  of  cappers,  under  the  forfeiture 
of  three  farthings  for  every  day's  neglect,  1571.     Excepted  :  maids,  ladies,  and  gentlewomen,  and  every 
lord,  knight,  and  gentleman,  of  twenty  marks  of  land,  and  their  heirs,  and  such  as  had  borne  office  of 
worship,  in  any  city,  town,  or  place,  and  the  wardens  of  London  companies. 


CAR  153  CAR 

federate  barons  dispersed  the  royal  army  under  Bothwell,  and  took  Mary  queen  of  Scots 
prisoner.     Bothwell  fled. 

CARBOLIC  ACID  (or  phonic  acid),  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  pit-coal,  is  a  powerful 
antiseptic.  It  is  largely  manufactured  for  medical  purposes,  and  has  been  advantageously 
used  at  Carlisle  and  Exeter  in  the  deodorisatioiv of  sewage  (1860-1). 

CARBON  was  shown  to  be  a  distinct  element  by  Lavoisier  in  1788.  He  proved  the 
diamond  to  be  its  purest  form,  and  converted  it  into  carbonic  acid  gas  by  combustion. 
Gmelin. 

CARBONARI  (colliers,  or  charcoal-burners),  a  powerful  secret  society  in  Italy,  whicE 
derived  its  origin,  according  to  some,  from  the  Waldenses,  and  which  became  prominent 
early  in  the  present  century.  It  aimed  at  the  expulsion  of  foreigners  from  Italy,  and  the 
establishment  of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  In  March,  1820,  it  is  said  that  650,000  joined 
the  society,  and  an  insurrection  soon  after  broke  out  in  Naples,  general  Peps  taking  the  com- 
mand. The  king  Ferdinand  made  political  concessions,  but  the  allied  sovereigns  at  Laybach 
assisted  Ferdinand  to  suppress  the  liberal  party.  The  Carbonari  were  henceforth  denounced 
as  traitors.  The  society  since  1818  spread  in  France,  and  doubtless  hastened  the  fall  of  the 
Bourbons  in  1830  and  1848.  It  has  been  frequently  but  incorrectly  confounded  with  free- 
masonry. 

CARBONIC  ACID  GAS,  a  compound  of  carbon  and  oxygen,  which  occurs  in  the  air, 
and  is  a  product  of  combustion,  respiration,  and  fermentation.  The  Grotto  del  Cane  yields 
2OO,ooolbs.  per  annum.  No  animal  can  breathe  this  gas.  The  briskness  of  champagne, 
Deer,  &c.,  is  due  to  its  presence.  It  was  liquefied  by  atmospheric  pressure  by  Faraday  in 
1823.  On  exposing  the  liquid  to  the  air  for  a  short  time  it  becomes  solid,  in  the  form  o'f 
snow. 

CARDIFF  CASTLE  (S.  Wales).  Here  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  eldest  son  of  William 
I.,  was  imprisoned  from  1106  till  his  death,  1135. 

CARDINALS,  ecclesiastical  princes  in  the  church  of  Rome,  the  council  of  the  pope,  and 
the  conclave  or  sacred  college,  at  first  were  the  principal  priests  or  incumbents  of  the 
parishes  in  Rome,  and  were  called  cardinales  in  853.  They  began  to  assume  the  exclusive 
power  of  electing  the  popes  in  1181.  They  first  wore  the  red  hat  to  remind  them  that 
they  ought  to  shed  their  blood  for  religion,  if  required,  and  were  declared  princes  of  the 
church  by  Innocent  IV.,  1243  or  1245.  In  1586  Sixtus  V.  fixed  their  number  at  70;  but 
there  are  generally  vacancies.  In  1860  there  were  69  cardinals,  in  1861,  63,  in  1864,  59. 
Paul  II.  gave  the  scarlet  habit,  1464  ;  and  Urban  VIII.  the  title  of  Eminence  in  1623  or 
1630.  Ducange. 

CARDROSS  CASE.     See  Trials,  1861. 

CARDS  (referred  to  the  Chinese,  Hindoos,  and  Romans),  are  said  to  have  been  invented 
in  France  in  1391,  to  amuse  Charles  IV.  during  the  intervals  of  a  melancholy  disorder. 
Piquet  and  all  the  early  names  are  French. — Cards  first  taxed  in  England  1710.  428,000 
packs  were  stamped  in  1775,  and  986,000  in  1800.  In  1825,  the  duty  being  then  2s,  6d. 
per  pack,  less  than  150,000  packs  were  stamped  ;  but  in  1827  the  stamp  duty  was  reduced 
to  is.,  and  310,854  packs  paid  duty  in  1830.  Duty  was  paid  on  239,200  packs  in  the  year 
ending  5th  Jan.  1840  ;  and  on  near  300,000,  year  ending  5th  Jan.  1850.  By  an  act  passed 
in  1862  the  duty  on  cards  was  reduced  to  ^d.  per  pack,  and  the  sellers  were  required  to  take 
out  a  licence. 

CARIA,  Asia  Minor,  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  546  B.C.  ;  by  Dercyllidas,  a  Lacedae- 
monian, 397;  his  successor  Hecatomnus  became  king,  385  B.C.;  for  his  son  Mausolus  the 
Mausoleum  was  erected  (which  see).  Caria  was  absorbed  into  the  Turkish  empire . 

CARICATURES.  Bufalmaco,  an  Italian  painter,  about  1330,  drew  caricatures  and  put 
labels  to  the  mouths  of  his  figures  with  sentences.  The  modern  caricatures  of  Gilray,  Row- 
landson,  H.  B.  (John  Doyle  J£  =  EB),  Richard  Doyle,  John  Leech,  and  John  Tenniel  are 
justly  celebrated.  The  well-known  "  Punch  "  was  first  published  in  1841.  The  most  eminent 
writers  of  fiction  of  the  day  and  others,  (Douglas  Jerrold,  Thackeray,  A'  Becket,  Professor  E. 
Forbes,  &c.)  have  contributed  to  this  amusing  periodical. 

CARINTHIA,  a  Bavarian  duchy,  was  annexed  to  Austria,  1363. 


CAR 


154 


: 


CARISBROOKE  CASTLE  (Isle  of  Wight),  said  to  have  been  a  British  and  Roman 
fortress,  was  taken  530,  by  Cerdic,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons.  Its 
Norman  character  has  been  ascribed  to  William  Fitz-Osboriie,  earl  of  Hereford  in  William 
I.  'a  time.  Here  Charles  I.  was  imprisoned  in  1647.  Here  died  his  daughter  Elizabeth, 
aged  fifteen,  too  probably  of  a  broken  heart,  Sept.  8,  1650. 

CARLAVEROCK  CASTLE  (S.  Scotland),  taken  by  Edward  I.  July,  1300,  the  subject  of 
a  contemporary  poem  published,  with  illustrations,  by  sir  Harris  Nicolas  in  1828. 

CARLISLE  (Cumberland),  a  frontier  town  of  England,  wherein  for  many  ages  a  strong 
garrison  was  kept.  Just  below  this  town  the  famous  Picts'  wall  began,  which  crossed  the 
whole  island  to  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  and  here  also  ended  the  great  Roman  highway.  The 
great  church,  called  St.  Mary's,  is  a  venerable  old  pile  ;  a  great  part  of  it  was  built  by  St. 
David,  king  of  Scotland,  who  held  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  Northumberland,  in 
vassalage  from  the  crown  of  England.  The  castle,  restored  in  1092  by  William  II.,  was  the 
prison  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots  in  1568.— Taken  by  the  parliamentary  forces  in  1645,  and  by 
the  young  Pretender,  Nov.  15,  1745  :  retaken  by  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  Dec.  30,  same 
year.  The  see  was  erected  by  Henry  I.  in  1132,  and  made  suffragan  to  York.  The  cathe- 
dral had  been  founded  a  short  time  previously,  by  Walter,  deputy  in  these  parts  for  William 
Rufus.  It  was  almost  ruined  by  Cromwell,  and  has  never  recovered  its  former  great  beauty, 
although  repaired  after  the  Restoration.  It  has  been  lately  renovated  at  a  cost  of  15,000?. 
and  was  reopened  in  1856..  The  see  has  given  to  the  civil  state  one  lord  chancellor  and  two 
lord  treasurers;  it  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  530?.  45.  lid.  per  aimum.  Present 
income  4500?. 

RECENT   BISHOPS   OF    CARLISLE. 


V91-  Edward  Venables  Vernon,  trans,  to  York,  1807. 
1808.  Samuel  Goodenough,  died  Aug.  12,  1827. 
1827.  Hugh  Percy,  died  Feb.  1856. 


1856.  Hon.  H.  Montagu  Villiers,  trans,  to  Durham 

May,  1860. 
1860.  Hon.  Samuel  Waldegrave  (PRESENT  bishop). 


CARLISLE  ADMINISTRATION.     See  Halifax. 

CARLOVINGIANS,  the  second  dynasty  of  the  French  kings.     See  France. 

CARLOW  (S.  E.  Ireland).  The  castle,  erected  by  king  John,  surrendered  after  a 
desperate  siege  to  Rory  Oge  0' Moore,  in  1577  ;•  again  to  the  parliamentary  forces,  in  1650. 
Here  the  royal  troops  routed  the  insurgents,  May,  1 798. 

CARLSBAD  (or  Charles's  Bath),  in  Bohemia,  the  celebrated  springs,  discovered  by  the 
emperor  Charles  IV.  in  1358. — On  Aug.  I,  1819,  a  congress  was  held  here,  when  the  great 
powers  decreed  measures  to  repress  the  liberal  press,  &c. 

CARMAGNOLE,  a  Piedmontese  song  and  dance,  popular  in  France  during  the  reign  of 
terror,  1793-4.  The  chorus  was  "  Dansons  la  Carmagnole  :  vive  le  son  du  canon  !  " 

CARMATHIANS,  a  Mahometan  sect.  Carmath,  a  Shiite,  about  890,  assumed  the  title 
of  "the  guide,  the  director,"  &c.,  including  that  of  the  representative  of  Mahomet, 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  the  angel  Gabriel.  His  followers  subdued  Bahrein  in  900,  and 
overran  the  east.  Dissensions  arose  amongst  themselves,  and  their  power  soon  passed  away. 

CARMELITES,  or  WHITE  FRIARS,  of  Mount  Carmel,  one  of  the  four  orders  of  mendi- 
cants with  austere  rules,  founded  by  Berthold  about  1156,  and  settled  in  France  in  1252. 
Henautt.  These  rules  were  moderated  about  1540.  They  claimed  descent  from  Elijah. 
They  had  numerous  monasteries  in  England,  and  a  precinct  in  London  without  the  Temple, 
west  of  Blackfriars,  is  called  Whitefriars  to  this  day,  after  a  community  of  their  order, 
founded  there  in  1245. 

CARNATIC,  a  district  of  Southern  Hindustan,  extending  along  the  whole  coast  of  Coro- 
mandel.  Hyder  Ali  entered  the  Carnatic  with  80,000  troops,  in  1780,  and  was  defeated  by 
the  British  under  sir  Eyre  Coote,  July  i,  and  Aug.  27,  1781  ;  and  decisively  overthrown, 
June  2,  1782.  The  Carnatic  was  overrun  by  Tippoo  in  1790.  The  British  have  possessed 
entire  authority  over  the  Carnatic  since  1801.  See  India. 

CARNATION,  so  called  from  the  original  species  being  of  a  flesh  colour  (carnis,  of 
flesh).  Several  varieties  were  first  planted  in  England  by  the  Flemings,  about  1567.  Stow. 

CARNEIAN  GAMES,  observed  in  many  Grecian  cities,  particularly  at  Sparta  (instituted 
about  675  B.C.  in  honour  of  Apollo,  surnamed  Carneus),  lasted  nine  days. 

CARNIVAL  (Carni  vale,  Italian,  i.e.  Flesh,  farewell /),  a  festival  time  in  Italy,  parti- 
cularly at  Venice,  about  Shrove-tide,  or  beginning  of  Lent. 


CAR 


155 


CAR 


CAROLINA  (N.  America).     Said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1498, 
orbyDe  Leon  in  1512.     A  body  of  English,  about  850  persons,  landed  and  settled  lure 
about  1660  ;  and  Carolina  was  granted  to  lord  Berkeley  and  others  a  few  years  afterwards. 
The  cultivation  of  rice  was  introduced  by  governor  Smith  in  1695,  and  subsequently  cotton. 
The  province  was  divided  into  North  and  South  in  1719.     See  America.     The  Carolinas 
slave  states.     Great  excitement  prevailed  in  them  in  Nov.  1860,  on  account  of  Mr. 
.Abraham   Lincoln's  election   to   the  presidency  of  the  United  States,   he   being   strongly 
posed  to  slavery.     South  Carolina  began  the  secession  from  the  United  States,  Dec.  20, 
160:  North  Carolina  followed,  May  21,  1861.     See  United  States,  1861-5. 

CAROLINE  ISLANDS  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  1686. 

CARP,  a  fresh-water  or  pond  fish,  was,  it  is  said,  first  brought  to  these  countries  about 
1525.  Walton.  It  is  mentioned  by  Lady  Juliana  Berners  in  1496. 

CARPETS  are  of  ancient  use  in  the  East.  The  manufacture  of  woollen  carpets  was 
introduced  into  France  from  Persia,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  between  1589  and  1610. 
Some  artizans  who  had  quitted  France  in  disgust  established  the  English  carpet  manufac- 
ture, about  1750.  A  cork-carpet  company  was  formed  in  1862. 

C ARRACK,  or  Karrack  (Italian,  Caracca),  a  large  ship  in  the  middle  ages.  The  Santa 
Anna,  the  property  of  the  knights  of  St.  John,  of  about  1700  tons,  sheathed  with  lead,  was 
built  at  Nice  about  1530.  It  was  literally  a  floating  fortress,  and  aided  Charles  V.  in  taking 
Tunis  in  1535.  It  contained  a  crew  of  300  men  and  50  pieces  of  artillery. 

CARRIAGES.  Erichthonius  of  Athens  is  said  to  have  produced  the  first  chariot  about 
1486  B.C.  Rude  carriages  were  known  in  France  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  A.D.  1547  ;  in 
England  in  1555  ;  Henry  IV.  of  France  had  one  without  straps  or  springs.  They  were  made 
in  England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  then  called  whirlicotes.  The  duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, in  1619,  drove  six  horses  ;  and  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  in  rivalry,  drove  eight. 
Carriages  were  let  for  hire  in  Paris,  in  1650,  at  the  Hotel  Fiacre  ;  hence  the  name,  fiacre. 
See  Car,  Cabriolets,  and  Coaches. 

CARRICKFERGUS  (Antrim,  Ireland).  Its  castle  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  by 
Hugh  de  Lacy,  in  1178.  The  town  surrendered  to  the  duke  of  Schomberg,  Aug.  28,  1689. 
The  castle  surrendered  to  the  French  admiral  Tlmrot,  1760.  See  Thurot. 

CARRON  IRON-WORKS,  on  the  banks  of  the  Carron,  in  Stirlingshire,  established  in 
1760.  The  works  in  1852  employed  about  1600  men.  Here  since  1776  have  been  made  the 
pieces  of  ordnance  called  carronades. 

CARROTS  and  other  edible  roots  were  imported  from  Holland  and  Flanders,  about  1540. 

CARTESIAN  DOCTRINES,  promulgated  by  Rene  Des  Cartes,  the  French  philosopher, 
in  1637.  His  metaphysical  principle  is,  "I  think,  therefore  I  am  ;"  his  physical  principle, 
"Nothing  exists  but  substance."  He  accmmts  for  all  physical  phenomena  on  his  theory  of 
vortices,  motions  excited  by  God,  the  source  of  all  motion.  He  was  born  1596;  and  died  at 
Stockholm,  the  guest  of  queen  Christina,  in  1650. 

CARTES  DE  YISITE.  The  small  photograph  portraits  thus  termed  are  said  to  have 
been  first  taken  at  Nice,  by  M.  Ferrier  in  1857.  The  duke  of  Parma  had  his  portrait  placed 
upon  his  visiting  cards,  and  his  example  was  soon  followed  in  Paris  and  London. 

CARTHAGE  (N.  coast  of  Africa,  near  Tunis),  founded  by  Dido  or  Elissa,  sister  of 
Pygmalion,  king  of  Tyre,  B.C.  878  (869,  Blair;  826,  Niebuhr).  She  fled  from  that  tyrant, 
who  had  killed  her  husband,  and  took  refuge  in  Africa.  Carthage  became  a  great  com- 
mercial and  warlike  republic,  and  disputed  the  empire  of  the  world  with  Rome,  which 
occasioned  the  Punic  wars.  The  Carthaginians  bore  the  character  of  a  faithless  people, 
hence  the  term  Punic  faith.  Cato  the  censor  (about  146  B.C.)  ended  his  speeches  in  the 
senate  with  Carthago  delenda!  "Carthage  must  be  destroyed  !  " 

Defeated  by  Agathocles,  they  immolate  their  B.C. 
children  on  the  altar  to  Satum         .         .         .  310 
The  first  Punic  war  begins  (lasts  23  years)     .     .  264 
The  Carthaginians  defeated  by  the  Roman  con- 
sul Duilius  in  a  naval  engagement  .        .        .  260 

Xantippus  defeats  Regulus 255 

Hasdrubal  defeated  by  Metellus  at   Panormus  251 

Regulus  put  to  death 250 

Romans  defeated  before  Lilybamm     .        .         .  250 
The  great  Hannibal  born 247 


B.C. 

First  alliance  of  Carthaginians  and  Romans         .  509 
The  Carthaginians  in  Sicily  defeated  at  Himera 

by  Gelo  ;  the  elder  Hamilcar  perishes  .  .  480 
They  enlarge  their  territories  ....  410 
They  send  300,000  men  into  Sicily  .  .  .  .  407 
Take  Agrigentum  ......  406 

The  siege  of  Syracuse 396 

The  Carthaginians  land  in  Italy  .        .         .         -379 
Their  defeat  by  Timoleon 339 


CAR 


156 


CAS 


CARTHAGE,  continued. 

B.C. 

End  of  first  Punic  war ;  Sicily  lost  by  Carthage  241 
War  between  the  Carthaginians  and  African 

mercenaries 241 

Hamilcar  Barcas  is  sent  into  Spain  :  he  takes 
with  him  his  son,  the  famous   Hannibal,  at 
the  age  of  nine  years,  having  first  made  him 
swear  an  eternal  enmity  to  the  Romans  .        .  237 
Hasdrubal  founds  New  Carthage  (Carthagena)  .  229 

Hasdrubal  is  assassinated 220 

Hannibal  subjects  Spain,  as  far  as  the  Iberus  .  219 
The  second  Punic  war  begins  (lasts  17  years)  .  218 
Hannibal  crosses  the  Alps,  and  enters  Italy  with 

100,000  men 218 

He  defeats  the  Roman  consuls  at  the  Ticinus  and 
Trebia,  218  ;  at  the  lake  Thrasy menus,  217, 
and  at  Cannae  (which  see)      .         .        .  Aug.  2,  216 
Publius  Scipio  carries  war  into  Spain  and  takes 

New  Carthage 210 

Hasdrubal,   brother  of  Hannibal,  arrives  with 
an  army,   and  is  defeated  and  slain  at  the 


B.C.  207 
206 


203 
202 

201 
I49 


Metaurus 

The  Carth-iglnians  expelled  Spain 
Hcipio  arrives  in  Africa,  and  lays  siege  to  Utica  .  204 
Hannibal  recalled  from  Italy        .... 
Hannibal  totally  defeated  at  Zama  (which  see)    . 

End  of  the  second  Punic  war 

The  third  Punic  war  :  Scipio  invades  Africa 
Carthage  taken  and  burned,  by  order  of  the 

senate i46    ; 

Colony  settled  at  Carthage  by  C.  Gracchus         .122 
Its  rebuilding  planned  by  Julius  Csesar         .     .     46 

And  executed  by  his  successors. 
It   becomes    an    important    Christian    bishop- 
ric         A.D.  215 

And  Cyprian  holds  a  council  here        .        .        .252 
Taken  by  Genseric  the  Vandal         .  .     .  439 

Retaken  by  Belisarius 53- 

Taken  and  -destroyed  by  Hassan  the  Saracenic 

governor  of  Egypt 69? 

Carthaginian  antiquities  brought  to  the  British 
Museum    . 


CARTHAGENA,  OR  NEW  CARTHAGE  (S.  E.  Spain),  built  by  Hasdrubal,  the  Carthaginian 
general  229  B.C.  ;  was  taken  by  Scipio,  210.  The  modern  Carthagena  was  taken  by  a  British 
force  under  sir  John  Leake  in  1706,  but  was  retaken  by  the  duke  of  Berwick,  1707.— 
CARTHAGENA,  in  Columbia,  South  America,  was  taken  by  sir  Francis  Drake  in  1585  ;  was 
pillaged  by  the  French  of  1,200,000?.  in  1697  ;  and  was  bombarded  by  admiral  Vernon 
in  1740-1. 

CARTHUSIANS,  a  religious  order  (springing  from  the  Benedictines)  founded  by  Bruno 
of  Cologne,  who  retired  with  six  companions  from  the  converse  of  the  world  about  1080,  to 
Chartreuse  (which  see),  in  the  mountains  of  Dauphine".  Their  austere  rules  were  formed  by 
Basil  VII.,  general  of  the  order.  They  appeared  in  England  about  1180,  and  a  Carthusian 
monastery,  founded  by  sir  William  Manny,  1371,  was  the  site  of  the  present  Charter-house, 
London.  See  Charter-house.  The  Carthusian  powder,  of  father  Simon,  at  Chartreuse,  was 
first  compounded  about  1715. 

CARTOONS.  Those  of  RAPHAEL  (twenty-five  in  number)  were  designed  (for  tapestries) 
in  the  chambers  of  the  Vatican  under  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.  about  1510  to  1516.  The  seven 
preserved  were  purchased  in  Flanders  by  Rubens  for  Charles  I.  of  England,  for  Hampton 
court  palace  in  1629.  They  represent — I,  the  Miraculous  draught  of  Fishes  ;  2,  the  Charge 
to  Peter  ;  3,  Peter  and  John  healing  the  Lame  at  the  Gate  of  the  Temple  ;  4,  the  Death  of 
Ananias  ;  5,  Elymas  the  Sorcerer  struck  with  blindness  ;  6,  the  Sacrifice  to  Paul  and 
Barnabas,  at  Lystra  ;  7,  Paul  preaching  at  Athens. — The  cartoons  were  removed,  to 
South  Kensington,  April  28,  1865. — The  tapestries  executed  at  Arras  from  these  designs  are 
at  Rome.  They  were  twice  carried  away  by  invaders,  in  1526  and  1798,  and  were  restored 
in  1815. — The  Cartoons  for  the  British  Houses  of  Parliament  were  exhibited  in  1843. 

CARVING.     See  Sculptures.  CASH-PAYMENTS.     See  Bank  of  England. 

CASHEL  (Tipperary,  Ireland).  Cormack  Cuillinan,  king  and  bishop  of  Cashel,  was  the 
reputed  founder  or  restorer  of  the  cathedral,  901.  In  1152,  bishop  Donat  O'Danergan  was 
invested  with  the  pall.  See  Pallium.  Cashel  was  valued  in  the  king's  books,  29  Henry 
VIII.,  at  661.  135.  4d.  Irish  money.  By  the  Church  Temporalities  act,  1833,  it  ceased  to  be 
archiepiscopal,  and  was  joined  to  Waterford  and  Lisinore. 

CASHMERE,  in  the  Himalayas  ;  was  subdued  by  the  Mahometans  in  the  i6th  century  ; 
by  the  Affghans  in  1754  ;  by  the  Sikhs  in  1819  ;  and  was  ceded  to  the  British  in  1846 ;  who 
gave  it  to  the  Maharajah  Gholab  Singh,  with  a  nominal  sovereignty.  The  true  Cashmere 
shawls  were  first  brought  to  England  in  1666  ;  but  are  well  imitated  at  Bradford  and 
Huddersfield.  Shawls  of  Thibetian  wool,  for  the  omrahs,  cost  150  rupees  each,  about  1650. 
Bernier. 

CASSATION,  COURT  OF,  the  highest  court  of  appeal  in  France,  was  established  in  1790 
by  the  national  assembly. 

CASSITERIDES.     See  Stilly  Isles. 

CASTEL  FIDARDO,  near  Ancona,  Central  Italy.  Near  here  general  Lamoriciere  and 
the  papal  army  of  11,000  men  were  totally  defeated  by  the  Sardinian  general,  Cialdini,  Sept. 
1 8,  1860.  Lamoriciere  writh  a  few  horsemen  fled  to  Ancona,  then  besieged.  On  Sept.  29, 
he  and  the  garrison  surrendered,  but  were  shortly  after  set  at  liberty. 


CAS  157  CAT 

CASTES,  a  distinct  section  of  society  in  India.  In  the  laws  of  Menu  (see  Menu},  the- 
Hindus  are  divided  into  the  Brahmans,  or  sacerdotal  class  ;  the  Kshatrya  or  Chuttree, 
•military  class  ;  the  Vaisya,  or  commercial  class  ;  and  the  Sudras,  or  sooders,  servile  class. 

CASTIGLIONE  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  French  under  Augereau  defeated  the  Austrians, 
commanded  by  Wurmser,  Avith  great  loss,  Aug.  3 — 5,  1796. 

CASTILE  (Central  Spain).  A  powerful  Gothic  government  was  established  here  about 
800. — Ferdinand,  count  of  Castile,  became  king,  1035.  Ferdinand  of  Arragon  married 
Isabella  of  Castile  in  1474,  and  formed  one  monarchy,  1479.  See  Spain. 

CASTILLEJOS  (N.  Africa).  Here  on  Jan.  i,  1860,  was  fought  the  first  decisive  action 
in  the  war  between  Spain  and  Morocco.  General  Prim,  after  a  vigorous  resistance,  repulsed 
the  Moors  under  Muley  Abbas,  and  advanced  towards  Tetuau. 

CASTILLON,  in  Guienne.  Here  the  army  of  Henry  VI.  of  England  was  defeated  by 
that  of  Charles  VII.  of  France.  An  end  was  put  to  the  English  dominion  in  France,  Calais 
alone  remaining,  July  23,  1453.  Talbot,  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  was  killed. 

CASTLEBAR  (Ireland).  French  troops,  under  Humbert,  landed  at  Killala,  and  assisted 
by  Irish  insurgents  here,  compelled  the  king's  troops  to  retreat,  Aug.  28,  1798. 

CASTLEPOLLARD  (Ireland).     Fatal  affray  at  a  fair  here  between  some  peasantry  and  a 
i<>dy  of  police,  when  thirteen  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  more  than  twice  that  number  were 
\vounded,  May  23,  1831.     The  chief  constable,  Blake,  and  his  men,  escaped  punishment. 

CASTLES.  The  castle  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  was  a  tower  keep,  either  round  or  square, 
and  ascended  by  a  flight  of  steps  in  front.  William  I.  erected  48  strong  castles.  Several 
hundreds,  built  by  permission  of  Stephen,  between  1135  and  1154,  Avere  demolished  by 
Henry  II.,  1154.  Many  were  dismantled  in  the  civil  wars. 

CATACOMBS.  The  early  depositories  of  the  dead.  The  first  Christians  at  Rome  met 
for  worship  in  the  catacombs  ;  and  here  are  said  to  have  been  the  tombs  of  the  apostles 
Peter  and  Paul.  Belzoni  in  1815  and  1818  explored  many  Egyptian  catacombs,  built  3000 
years  ago.  He  brought  to  England  the  sarcophagus  of  Psammetichus,  formed  of  oriental 
alabaster,  exquisitely  sculptured.  In  the  Parisian  catacombs  (formerly  stone  quarries), 
human  remains  from  the  cemetery  of  the  Innocents  were  deposited  in  1785  ;  and  many  of 
the  victims  of  the  revolution  in  1792-4,  are  interred  in  them. 

CATALONIA  (W.  Spain),  was  settled  by  the  Goths  and  Alani,  about  409  ;  conquered  by 
the  Saracens,  712  ;  recovered  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne.  It  formed  part  of  the  Spanish 
marches  and  the  territory  of  the  count  of  Barcelona  (which  see).  The  natives  were  able 
seamen  :  being  frequently  unruly,  their  peculiar  privileges  were  abolished  in  1714. 

CATALYTIC  FORCE.  The  discovery  in  1819  by  Thenard  of  the  decomposition  of 
peroxide  of  hydrogen  by  platinum,  and  by  Dobereiner  in  1825  of  its  property  to  ignite  a 
mixture  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  formed  the  groundwork  of  the  doctrine  of  Catalytic  Force, 
also  termed  "action  of  contact  or  presence,"  put  forth  by  Berzelius  and  Mitscherlich. 
Their  view  has  not  been  adopted  by  Liebig  and  other  chemists. 

CATAMARANS  (or  carcases),  fire-machines  for  destroying  ships  ;  tried  in  vain  by  sir 
Sidney  Smith,  Oct.  2,  1804,  on  the  Boulogne  flotilla  destined  by  Bonaparte  to  invade  England. 

CATANIA,  a  town  near  Etna,  Sicily,  was  founded  by  a  colony  from  Chalcis,  about  753 
B.C.  Ceres  had  a  temple  here,  open  to  none  but  women.  Catania  was  almost  totally  over- 
thrown by  an  eruption  of  Etna  in  1669,  and  in  1693  was  nearly  swallowed  up  by  an  earth- 
quake :  in  a  moment  more  than  18,000  of  its  inhabitants  were  buried  in  the  ruins.  An  earth- 
quake did  great  damage,  Feb.  22,  1817.  In  Aug.  1862,  the  town  was  held  by  Garibaldi  and 
his  volunteers,  in  opposition  to  the  Italian  government.  He  was  captured  on  Aug.  29. 

CATAPHRYGIANS,  heretics  in  the  2nd  century,  who  followed  the  errors  of  Mon- 
tanus.  They  are  said  to  have  baptized  their  dead,  forbidden  marriage,  and  mingled  the 
bread  and  wine  in  the  Lord's  supper,  with  the  blood  of  young  children. 

CATAPULTS,  military  engines  of  the  cross-bow  kind,  for  throwing  huge  stones  as  well 
as  darts  and  arrows  ;  invented  by  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  399  B.C.  Josephus. 

GATEAU  CAMBRESIS  (N.  France),  where,  on  April  2,  3,  1559,  peace  was  concluded 
between  Henry  II.  of  France,  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  Elizabeth  of  England.  France  ceded 
to  Philip  Savoy,  Corsica,  and  nearly  200  forts  in  Italy  and  the  Low  Countries. 

CATECHISMS.     The  catechism  of  the  church  of  England  in  the  second  book  of  Edward 


CAT  15S  CAT! 

VI.,  1552,  contained  merely  the  baptismal  vow,  the  creed,  the  ten  commandments,  and  the 
Lord's  prayer,  with  an  explanation  :  but  James  I.  ordered  the  bishops  to  enlarge  it  by  adding 
an  explication  of  the  sacraments,  1612.  It  was  increased  subsequently  by  the  doctrinal 
points  of  the  established  religion.  The  catechism  of  the  council  of  Trent  was  published  in 
1566  ;  that  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster  in  1648. 

CATHARI  (from  the  Greek  katharos,  pure),  a  name  given  to  the  Novatians  (about  251), 
Montanists,  and  other  early  Christian  sects. 

CATHERINE.     The  order  of  knights'of  St.  Catherine  was  instituted  in  Palestine,  1063. 
The  ordqr  of  nuns  called  Catherines  was  founded  in  1373.     An  order  of  ladies  of  the  hi 
rank  in  Russia  was  founded  by  Catherine,  empress  of  Peter  the  Great,  1714.     They  were  to 
be  distinguished,  as  the  name  implied  (from  katharos,  pure),  for  purity  of  life  and  manners. 

CATHOLIC  MAJESTY.  This  title  was  first  given  by  pope  Gregory  III.  to  Alplionsus  I. 
of  Spain,  739.  Licenciado.  The  title  was  also  given  to  Ferdinand  V.  and  his  queen  in  1474 
by  Innocent  VIII.  on  account  of  their  zeal  for  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and  their 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain. 

CAT  ISLE.     See  Salvador.  CATHOLICS.     See  Roman  Catholics. 

CATILINE'S  CONSPIRACY.  L.  Sergius  Catiline,  a  Roman  of  noble  family,  having 
squandered  away  his  fortune  by  debaucheries  and  extravagance,  and  having  been  refused  the 
consulship  (B.  c.  65),  meditated  the  ruin  of  his  country,  and  conspired  with  many  of  the 
dissolute  aristocracy  to  extirpate  the  senate,  plunder  the  treasury,  and  set  Rome  on  fire. 
This  conspiracy  was  timely  discovered  and  frustrated.  A  second  plot  (in  63),  was  detected 
by  the  consul  Cicero,  whom  he  had  resolved  to  murder.  Catiline's  daring  appearance  in  the 
senate-house,  after  his  guilt  was  known,  drew  forth  Cicero's  celebrated  invective,  "Quousque  I 
tandem,  Catilina  !"  on  Nov.  8.  On  seeing  five  of  his  accomplices  arrested,  Catiline  retired 
to  Gaul  where  his  partisans  were  assembling  an  army.  Cicero  punished  the  conspirators  ;it 
home,  and  Petreius  routed  Catiline's  ill-disciplined  forces  ;  the  conspirator  being  killed  in  j 
the  engagement,  December,  62  B.C. 

CATO,  SUICIDE  OF,  termed  the  "era  destructive  of  the  liberties  of  Rome."   This  Roman  j 
philosopher,  considering  freedom  as  that  which  alone  "sustains  the  name  and  dignity  of  man,' 
and  unable  to  survive  the  independence  of  his  country,  stabbed  himself  at  Utica,  46  B.C. 

CATO-STREET  CONSPIRACY,  a  gang  of  desperate  politicians,  formed  by  Arthur 
Thistlewood,  which  assembled  in  Cato-street,  Edgware-road,  proposed  the  assassination  of 
the  ministers  of  the  crown,  at  a  cabinet  dinner,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  government.  They 
were  betrayed  by  one  of  their  number,  and  arrested  Feb.  23,  1820,  and  the  principals, 
Thistlewood,  Brunt,  Davidson,  Ings,  and  Tidd,  were  executed  with  the  horrors  adjudged  to 
the  punishment  of  traitors,  on  May  I,  following. 

CATTLE.  The  importation  of  horned  cattle  from  Ireland  and  Scotland  into  England 
was  prohibited  by  a  law,  1663  ;  but  the  export  of  cattle  from  Ireland  became  very  extensive. 
In  1842  the  importation  of  cattle  into  England  from  foreign  countries  was  subjected  to  a 
moderate  duty,  and  in  1846  they  were  made  duty  free. — In  1850,  were  imported  of  all  sorts 
of  cattle,  217,247  ;  in  1854,  397,430  ;  in  1859,  347,341  ;  in  1864,  727,977.  In  1849,  53,480 
horned  cattle  were  imported;  in  1863,  150,898;  in  1864,  496,243  from  all  countries.  In 
April,  1857,  great  disease  arose  among  cattle  abroad,  but  by  great  care  it  was  almost  excluded 
from  this  country.  The  cattle-plague  now  raging  in  England  (Sept.,  1865)  appeared  in 
June.  The  nature  and  origin  of  the  disease  caused  much  dispute.  It  is  generally  considered 
to  be  a  typhoid  fever,  and  of  foreign  origin.  Active  preventive  and  remedial  measures  have 
been  adopted,  under  the  authority  of  the  privy  council.  The  importation  of  cattle  from 
England  into  Ireland  was  prohibited  Aug.  25,  1865.  See  Metropolitan  Cattle-market  and 
Smithfeld. 

CAUCASUS,  a  lofty  mountain,  a  continuation  of  the  ridge  of  Mount  Taurus,  between  the 
Euxine  and  Caspian  seas.  Prometheus  was  said  to  have  been  tied  on  the  top  of  Caucasus  by 
Jupiter  and  continually  devoured  by  vultures,  (according  to  ancient  authors,  15486.0.).  The 
passes  near  the  mountain  were  called  Caucasian  Portce,  and  it  is  supposed  that  through  them 
the  Sarmatians  or  Huns  invaded  the  provinces  of  Rome,  A.D.  447.  See  Circassia. 

CAUDINE  FORKS,  according  to  Livy,  the  Furculce  Caudince  (in  Samnium,  S.  Italy), 
were  two  narrow  denies  or  gorges,  united  by  a  range  of  mountains  on  each  side.  The 
Romans  went  through  the  first  pass,  but  found  the  second  blocked  up  ;  on  returning  they 
found  the  first  similarly  obstructed.  Being  thus  hemmed  in  by  the  Samnites,  under  the 
command  of  C.  Pontius,  they  surrendered  at  discretion,  321  B.C.  (after  a  fruitless  contest, 
according  to  Cicero).  The  Roman  senate  broke  the  treaty. 


CAU  159  CEL 

CAULIFLOWER,  said  to  have  been  first  planted  in  England  about  1603  ;  it  came  from 


mis. 


CAUSTIC  IN  PAINTING,  a  method  of  burning  colours  into  wood  or  ivory,  invented  by 
ausias  of  Sicyon.  He  painted  his  mistress  Glycere  sitting  on  the  ground  making  garlands 
itli  flowers  ;  the  picture  was  hence  named  Steplianoplocon.  It  was  bought  by  Lucullus  for 
vo  talents,  335  B.C.  Pliny. 

CAUTIONARY  TOWNS  (Holland),  (the  Briel,  Flushing,  Rammekins,  and  Walcheren), 
ere  given  to  queen  Elizabeth  in  1585  as  security  for  their  repaying  her  for  assistance  in 
icir  struggle  with  Spain.  They  were  restored  to  the  Dutch  republic  by  James  I.  in  1616. 

CAVALIER.  The  appellation  given  to  the  supporters  of  the  king  during  the  civil  war 
om  a  number  of  gentlemen  forming  themselves  into  a  body-guard  for  the  king  in  1641! 
hey  were  opposed  to  the  Roundheads,  or  friends  of  the  parliament.  Hume. 

CAVALRY.  The  Romans  were  celebrated  for  the  discipline  and  efficiency  of  their 
ivalry.  Attached  to  each  Roman  legion  was  a  body  of  300  horse,  in  ten  turnife ;  the  com- 
Ender  always  a  veteran.  The  Persians  had  10,000  horse  at  Marathon,  4903.0.  ;  and  10,000 
ersiaii  horse  were  slain  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  333  B.C.  Plutarch.  In  the  wars  with 
apoleon  I.  the  British  cavalry  reached  to  31,000  men.  Our  cavalry  force,  in  1840,  was, 
i  household  troops,  1209  ;  dragoons,  hussars  and  lancers,  9524;  total,  10,733.  ^n  1856 
ie  total  was  stated  to  be  21,651  ;  in  1861,  23,210.  See  Horse  Guards,  &c. 

CAVENDISH  EXPERIMENT.  In  1798  the  hon.  Henry  Cavendish  described  his 
:periment  for  determining  the  mean  density  of  the  earth,  by  comparing  the  force  of  terres- 
ial  attraction  with  that  of  the  attraction  of  leaden  spheres  of  known  magnitude  and 
msity,  by  means  of  the  torsion  balance.  Brande. 

CAWNPORE,   a  town  in  India,  on  the  Doab,  a  peninsula  between  the  Gauges  and 

imna.     During  the  mutiny  in  1857  it  was  garrisoned  by  native  troops  under  si?  Huo-h 

Tieeler.     These  broke  out  into  revolt.     An  adopted  son  of  the  old  Peishwa  Bajee  Rao 

ana  Sahib,  who  had  long  lived  on  friendly  terms  with  the  British,  came  apparently  to  their 

assistance,  but  joined  the  rebels.     He  took  the  place  after  three  weeks'  siege,  June  26  ;  and 

in  spite  of  a  treaty  massacred  great  numbers  of  the  British,  without  respect  to  age  or  sex,  in 

the  most  cruel  manner.     General  Havelock  defeated  Nana  Sahib,  July  16,  at  Futtehpo're, 

md  retook  Cawnpore,  July  17.     A  column  was  erected  here,  in  memory  of  the  sufferers,  by 

their  relatives  of  the  32nd  regiment.     In  Dec.  1860,  Nana  was  said  to'be  living  at  Thibet ; 

and  in  Dec.  1861  was  incorrectly  said  to  have  been  captured  at  Kurrachee.     See  India,  1857.' 

CAYENNE,  French  Guiana  (S.  America),  settled  by  the  French  1604-35.  It  afterwards 
3ame  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  English  (1654),  French,  and  Dutch.  The  last  were 
expelled  by  the  French  in  1677.  Cayenne  was  taken  by  the  British,  Jan.  12,  1809,  but  was 
restored  to  the  French  in  1814.  Here  is  produced  the  capsicum,  baccatum,  or  cayenne  pepper. 
Many  French  political  prisoners  have  been  sent  here  since  1848. 

CECILIAN  SOCIETY.     See  under  Music. 

CEDAR  TREE.  The  red  cedar  (Juniperu?  Virginiana}  came  from  North  America 
before  1664  ;  the  Bermudas  cedar  from  Bermudas  before  1683  ;  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  (Pinus 
Vc.drus)  from  the  Levant  before  1683.  In  1850  a  grove  of  venerable  cedars,  about  40  feet 
high,  remained  on  Lebanon.  The  cedar  of  Goa  (Cupressus  Lusitanica)  was  brought  to 
Europe  by  the  Portuguese  about  1683.  See  Cypress. 

CELERY  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  England  by  the  French  marshal,  Tallard, 
luring  his  captivity  in  England,  after  his  defeat  at  Blenheim  by  Marlborough  in  1704. 

CELESTIAL  GLOBE.     See  Globes. 

CELIBACY  (from  ccelels,  unmarried),  was  preached  by  St.  Anthony  in  Egypt  about 
505.  His  early  converts  lived  in  caves,  &c.,  till  monasteries  were  founded.  The  doctrine 
ivas  rejected  in  the  council  of  Nice,  325.  Celibacy  was  enjoined  tQ  bishops  only  in  692. 
The  Romish  clergy  generally  were  compelled  to  a  vow  of  celibacy  by  pope  Gregory  VII.  in 
1073-85.  The  decree  was  opposed  in  England,  958-978.  Its  observance  was  finally  estab- 
ished  by  the  council  of  Placentia,  held  in  1095.  The  privilege  of  marriage  was  restored  to 
1m  English  clergy  in  1547.  The  marriage  of  the  clergy  was  proposed,  but  negatived  at  the 
Council  of  Trent  (1563). 


GEL  160  CER 


CELL  THEORY  (propounded  by  Schwann  in  1839)  supposes  that  the  ultimate  particles 
of  all  animal  and  vegetable  tissues  are  small  cells.  Some  of  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life  are  said  to  be  composed  of  merely  a  single  cell,  as  the  germinal  vesicle  in 
the  egg  and  the  red-snow  plant. 

CELTIBERI.    See  Numantine  War.     CELTS,  a  group  of  the  Aryan  family.    See  Gauls.  \ 

CEMETERIES.     The  burying-places  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  at  a  distance  from  [ 
their  towns ;  and  the  Jews  had  their  sepulchres  in  gardens  and  in  fields.     (John  xix.  41  ; 
Matthew  xxvii.  60. )     Public  cemeteries  planted  after  the  manner  of  the  great  cemetery  at 
Paris,  named  Pere  La  Chaise*  have  been  opened  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.    See  Catacombs,  \ 

Kensal-green  cemetery,  53  acres ;  consecrated            i  Nunhead   cemetery,  about    50  acres ;    conse- 

Nov.  2,  1832  j  crated   .....".        July  29,  1840 

Soiith  Metropolitan  and  Norwood  cemetery ;  40            j  City  of  London  and  Tower  Hamlets  cemetery, 

acres;  consecrated         .        .         .        Dec.  6,  1837  30  acres ;  consecrated          .         .        .        .     .   1841 

Highgate and  Kentish-town  cemetery,22  acres;            \  London  Necropolis  and  National  Mausoleum, 

opened  and  consecrated         .        .       May  20,  1839  j  at  Woking,  Surrey,  2000  acres  ;  the  company 

Abney  Park  cemetery,   Stoke  Newington,   30  incorporated  in  July  1852  ;  opened    .      Jan.  1855 

acres;  opened  by  the  lord  mayor    .  May  20,  1840  j  City  of  London  cemetery,  llford;  opened 

Westminster,  or  "West  London  cemetery,  Ken-  June  24,  i 

sington-road ;  consecrated     .        .    June  15,  1840  I 

CENIS,  MOUNT.     See  under  Alps. 

CENSORS,  Roman  magistrates,  whose  duty  was  to  survey,  rate,  and  correct  the  manners 
of  the  people.  The  two  first  censors  were  appointed  443  B.  c.  Plebeian  censors  were  first 
appointed  131  B.C.  The  office,  abolished  by  the  emperors,  was  revived  by  Decius,  251  A.D. 
See  Press. 

CENSUS.  The  Israelites  were  numbered  by  Moses,  14906.0.  ;  and  by  David,  1017  B.C.  ; 
and  Demetrius  Thalereus  is  said  to  have  taken  a  census  of  Attica,  317  B.C.  In  the  Roman 
polity,  a  general  estimate  of  every  man's  estate  and  personal  effects,  delivered  to  the  govern- 
ment upon  oath  every  five  years  ;  established  by  Servius  Tullius,  566  B.C.  In  England  the 
census,  formerly  not  periodical,  is  now  taken  at  decennial  periods,  of  which  the  latest  were 
in  1801,  1811,  1821,  1831,  1841,  1851  and  1861  (April  7).  For  the  latest  census  taken  in 
other  countries,  see  Table,  p.  viii.,  after  the  preface. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA.  See  America.  A  large  American  steamer  of  this  name  was 
wrecked  during  a  gale  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  Sept.  12,  1857.  Of  about  550  persons  only 
152  were  saved  :  several  of  these  after  drifting  on  rafts  above  600  miles.  The  loss  of  about 
24  million  dollars  in  specie  aggravated  the  commercial  panic  at  New  York  shortly  after. 
The  captain  and  crew  behaved  heroically. 

CENTRAL  CRIMINAL  COURT,  established  in  1834.  Commissions  are  issued  to  the 
fifteen  judges  of  England  (of  whom  three  attend  in  rotation  at  the  Old  Bailey)  for  the 
periodical  delivery  of  the  gaol  of  Newgate,  and  the  trial  of  offences  of  greater  degree, 
committed  in  Middlesex  and  parts  of  Essex,  Kent,  and  Surrey  ;  the  new  district  is  considered 
as  one  county. 

CENTURION,  the  captain,  head,  or  commander  of  a  subdivision  of  a  Roman  legion  j 
which  consisted  of  100  men,  and  was  called  a  ccnturia.  By  the  Roman  census  each  hundred  \ 
of  the  people  was  called  a  centuria,  556  B.C. 

CENTURY.  The  Greeks  computed  time  by  the  Olympiads,  beginning  776  B.C.,  and  the  j 
Roman  church,  by  Indictions,  the  first  of  which  began  Sept.  24,  A.D.  312.  The  method  o!  i 
computing  time  by  centuries  commenced  from  the  incarnation  of  Christ,  and  was  adopted  ir  ! 
chronological  history  first  in  France.  Dupin. 

CEPHALONIA,  one  of  the  Ionian  islands,  was  taken  from  the  ^Etolians  by  the  Romans.  \ 
189  B.C.,  and  given  to  the  Athenians  by  Hadrian,  A.D.  135.  See  Ionian  Isles. 

CEPHESUS,  a  river  in  Attica,  near  which  Walter  de  Brienne,  duke  of  Athens,  wai 
defeated  and  slain  by  the  Catalans,  1311. 

CERBERE,  French  brig,  mounted  nine  large  guns,  had  a  crew  of  eighty-seven  men,  am 
was  lying  at  Port  Louis.  The  harbour  was  entered  in  a  ten-oared  cutter  manned  with  onl" 
eighteen  men,  commanded  by  lieut.  Paddon,  who  cut  out  and  made  good  their  prize,  Jur' 
29,  1800. 

*  Pfere  La  Chaise  was  the  favourite  and  confessor"  of  Louis  XIV.  who  made  him  superior  of  a  gre; 
establishment  of  the  Jesuits  on  this  spot,  then  named  Mcnt  Louis.  The  house  and  grounds  were  lougl 
for  a  national  cemetery,  which  WHS  laid  out  by  M.  Brongniart,  and  first  used  on  May  21  1804. 


CER  161  CHA 

CEREMONIES,  MASTER  OF  THE,  an  office  instituted  for  the  more  honourable  reception 
of  ambassadors  and  persons  of  quality  at  court,  I  James  I.  1603.  Tne  or(ier  maintained 
by  the  master  of  the  ceremonies  at  Bath,  "Beau  Nash,"  the  "  King  of  Bath,"  led  to  the 
.adoption  of  the  office  in  ordinary  assemblies  :  he  died  in  his  88th  year,  1761.  Ashe. 

CERES,  a  planet,  160  miles  in  diameter,  was  discovered  by  M.  Piazzi,  at  Palermo,  Jan.  I, 
i  So i ;  he  named  it  after  the  goddess  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancient  Sicilians. 

CERES  [TOLA  (N.  Italy).  Here  Francis  de  Bourbon,  count  d'Enghien,  defeated  the 
imperialists  under  the  marquis  de  Guasto,  April  14,  1544. 

CERIGNOLA  (S.  Italy).  Here  the  great  captain  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  and  the  Spaniards 
defeated  the  due  de  Nemours  and  the  French,  April  28,  1503. 

CERINTHIANS,  followers  of  Cerinthus,  a  Jew,  who  lived  about  80,  are  said  to  have 
combined  Judaism  with  pagan  philosophy. 

CERIUM,  a  very  rare  metal,  discovered  by  Klaproth  and  others  in  1803. 

CEUTA  (the  ancient  Septa),  a  town  on  N.  coast  of  Africa,  stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Abyla,  the  southern  pillar  of  Hercules.  It  was  taken  from  the  Vandals  by  Belisarius  for 
Justinian  534;  by  the  Goths  618;  by  the  Moors  (about  709),  from  whom  it  was  taken  by 
the  Portuguese  1415.  With  Portugal,  it  was  annexed  in  1580  to  Spain,  which  power  still 
retains  it. 

CEYLON  (the  ancient  Taprobane),  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  called  by  the  natives 
the  seat  of  paradise.  It  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  Almeyda,  1505  ;  but  it  was  known 
to  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Claudius,  41.  The  Dutch  landed  in  Ceylon  in  1602  ;  they 
captured  the  capital,  Colombo,  in  1603.  Frequent  conflicts  ensued  between  the  Caudians 
and  the  Europeans,  and  peaceful  commercial  relations  were  established  only  in  1664.  Inter- 
course with  the  British  began  in  1713.  A  large  portion  of  the  country  was  taken  by  them 
in  1782,  but  was  restored  in  1783.  The  Dutch  settlements  were  seized  by  the  British; 
Trincomalee,  Aug.  26,  1795,  and  Jeffnapatam,  in  Sept.  same  year.  Ceylon  was  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802.  The  British  troops  were  treacherously 
massacred  or  imprisoned  by  the  Adigar  of  Candy,  at  Colombo,  June  26,  1803.  The  com- 
plete sovereignty  of  the  island  was  assumed  by  England  in  1815.  The  governor,  lord  Tor- 
rington,  was  absolved  from  a  charge  of  undue  severity  in  suppressing  a  rebellion,  May  1851. 
The  prosperity  of  Ceylon  greatly  increased  under  the  administration  of  sir  H.  Ward, 
1855-60.  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent's  work,  "Ceylon,"  appeared  in  1859. 

CH^RONEA  (Bceotia).  Here  Greece  lost  its  liberty  to  Philip  ;  32,000  Macedonians 
defeating  30, ooo  Thebans,  Athenians,  &c.,  Aug.  6  or  7,  338  B.C.  Here  Archelaus,  lieutenant 
of  Mithridates,  was  defeated  by  Sylla,  and  110,000  Cappadocians  were  slain,  86  B.C.  See 
Coronea. 

CHAIN-BRIDGES.  The  largest  and^ldest  chain-bridge  in  the  world  is  said  to  be  that 
at  Kingtung,  in  China,  where  it  forms  a  perfect  road  from  the  top  of  one  mountain  to  the 
top  of  another.  Mr.  Telford  constructed  the  first  chain-bridge  on  a  grand  scale  in  England, 
over  the  strait  between  Anglesey  and  the  coast  of  Wales,  1818-25.  See  Menai  Straits. 

CHAIN-CABLES,  PUMPS,  AND  SHOT.  Iron  chain-cables  were  in  use  by  the  Veneti,  a 
people  intimately  connected  with  the  Belgae  of  Britain  in  the  time  of  Csesar,  55  B.C.  These 
cables  came  into  modern  use,  and  generally  in  the  royal  navy  of  England,  in  1812.  An  Act 
for  the  proving  and  sale  of  chain-cables  and  anchors  was  passed  in  1864. — CHAIN-SHOT,  to 
destroy  the  rigging  of  an  enemy's  ship,  were  invented  by  the  Dutch  admiral,  De  Witt,  iu 
1666. — CHAIN-PUMPS  were  first  used  on  board  the  Flora,  British  frigate,  in  1787. 

CHAINS,  HANGING  IN.  By  the  25th  Geo.  II.  1752,  it  was  enacted  that  the  judge  should 
direct  the  bodies  of  pirates  and  murderers  to  be  dissected  and  anatomised,  or  hung  in  chains. 
The  custom  of  hanging  iu  chains  was  abolished  in  1834. 

CHALCEDON,  Asia  Minor,  opposite  Byzantium,  colonised  by  Megarians,  about  684  B.C. 
It  was  taken  by  Darius,  B.C.  505  ;  by  the  Romans,  74  ;  plundered  by  the  Goths,  A.D.  259  ; 
taken  by  Chosroes,  the  Persian,  609  ;  by  Orchan,  the  Turk,  1338.  Here  was  held  the 
"  Synod  of  the  Oak,"  403  ;  and  the  fourth  general  council,  which  annulled  the  act  of  the 
"  Robber  Synod,"  Oct.  8,  451. 

CHALCIS.     See  Euboea. 


CHA 


162 


CHA 


CHALD  JL4,  the  ancient  name  of  Babylonia,  but  afterwards  restricted  to  the  S.  W.  portion. 
The  Chaldeans  were  devoted  to  astronomy  and  astrology.  See  Dan.  ii.  &c.  —  The  CHALDEAN: 
REGISTERS  of  celestial  observations  were  commenced  2234  B.C.,  and  were  brought  down  to  the: 
taking  of  Babylon  by  Alexander,  331  B.C.  (a  period  of  1903  years).  These  registers  were!) 
sent  by  Callisthenes  to  Aristotle.  —  CHALDEAN  CHARACTERS  :  the  Bible  was  transcribed  from' 
the  original  Hebrew  into  these  characters,  now  called  Hebrew,  by  Ezra,  about  445  B.C. 


CHALGROVE  (Oxfordshire).     At  a  skirmish  here  with  prince  Rupert,  June  18, 
John  Hampden,  of  the  parliament  party,  was  mortally  wounded.     A  column  was  erected  to' 
his  memory  June  18,  1843. 

CHALONS-SUR-MARNE  (N.  E.  France).  Here  the  emperor  Aurelian  defeated  Tetricus, 
the  last  of  the  pretenders  to  the  throne,  termed  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  274;  and  here  in  451 
Aetius  defeated  Attila  the  Hun,  compelling  him  to  retire  into  Pannonia. 

CHAMBERLAIN",  early  a  high  court  officer  in  France,  Germany,  and  England.  The  office 
of  chamberlain  of  the  exchequer  was  discontinued  in  1834.  The  chamberlain  is  also  a  civic 
officer,  as  in  London,  of  ancient  origin. 


_  LORD  GREAT  CHAMBERLAIN  OF  ENGLAND. — The 
sixth  great  officer  of  state,  whose  duties,  among 
others,  relate  to  coronations  and  public  solemnities. 
The  rank  long  appertained  to  the  family  of  De  Vere, 
earls  of  Oxford,  granted  to  it  by  Henry  I.  in  noi. 
On  the  death  of  John  De  Vere,  the  sixteenth  earl, 
Mary,  his  sole  daughter,  marrying  lord  Willoughby 
d'Eresby,  the  right  was  established  in  that  noble- 
man's family  by  a  judgment  of  the  house  of  peers, 
2  Charles  I.  1625.  On  the  death  of  his  descendant, 
unmarried,  in  July  1779,  the  house  of  lords  and 
twelve  judges  concurred  that  the  office  devolved  to 
lady  Willoughby  d'Eresby,  and  her  sister  the  lady 
Georgina  Charlotta  Bertie,  as  heirs  to  their  brother 
Robert,  duke  of  Ancaster,  deceased  ;  and  that  they 
had  powers  to  appoint  a  deputy  to  act  for  them,  not 


under  the  degree  of  a  knight,  who,  if  his  majesty 
approved  of  him,  might  officiate  accordingly.  Beat- 
son.  The  office  is  now  held  by  the  present  lord  Wil- 
loughby d'Eresby  (1865). 

LORD  CHAMBERLAIN  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. — An 
ancient  office.  The  title  is  from  the  French  Cham- 
bellan,  in  Latin  Camerarius.  He  has  the  oversight 
of  the  king's  chaplains,  the  officers  of  the  standing 
and  removing  wardrobes,  beds,  tents,  revels,  music, 
hunting,  and  of  all  the  physicians,  surgeons,  apo- 
thecaries, messengers,  tradesmen,  and  artisans  re- 
tained in  his  majesty's  service.  Sir  William  Stanley, 
knt.,  afterwards  beheaded,  was  lord  chamberlain, 
i  Henry  VII.  1485.  A  vice-chamberlain  acts  in  the 
absence  of  the  chief ;  the  offices  are  co-existent. 
Beatson. 


CHAMBERS.     See  Commerce,  Agriculture. 

CHAMBERS'  JOURNAL  was  first  published  in  Feb.,  1832. 

CHAMBRE  ARDENTE  (fiery  chamber),  an  extraordinary  French  tribunal  so  named 
from  the  punishment  frequently  awarded  by  it.  Francis  I.  in  1535  and  Henry  II.  in  1549 
employed  it  for  the  extirpation  of  heresy,  which  led  to  the  civil  war  with  the  Huguenots  in 
1560 ;  and  in  1679  Louis  XIV.  appointed  one  to  investigate  the  poisoning  cases  which  arose 
after  the  execution  of  the  marchioness  Brinvilliers. 

CHAMP  DE  MARS,*  an  open  square  in  front  of  the  Military  School  at  Paris,  with 
artificial  embankments  on  each  side,  extending  nearly  to  the  river  Seine.     Here  was  held, 
July  14,  1790,  the   "federation,"  or  solemnity  of  swearing  fidelity  to  the  "patriot  king" 
and  new  constitution  :  great  rejoicings  followed,  public  balls  were  given  by  the  municipality 
in  the  Champs  Elysfas,  and  Paris  was  illuminated.    On  July  14,  1791,  a  second  great  meeting 
was  held  here,  directed  by  the  Jacobin  clubs,  to  sign  petitions  on  the  "  altar  of  the  country,"  I 
praying  for  the  abdication  of  Louis  XVI.     A  commemoration  meeting  took  place  July  14,  I 
1792.     Another  constitution  was  sworn  to  here,  under  the  eye  of  Napoleon  I.,  May  I,  1815,  j 
at  a  ceremony  called  the  Champ  do  Mai.     The  prince  president  (now  Napoleon  111.)  had  a  I 
grand  review  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  and  distributed  eagles  to  the  army,  May  10,  1852. 

CHAMPAGNE,  an  ancient  province,  N".E.   France,   formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  j 
Burgundy,  and  was  governed  by  counts  from  the  loth  century  till  it  was  united  to  Navarre, 
count  Thibaut  becoming  king,  in  1234.     The  countess  Joanna  married  Philip  V.  of  France  I 
in  1284  ;  and  in  1361  Champagne  was  annexed  by  their  descendant  king  John. 

CHAMPION  OF  THE  KING  OF  ENGLAND,  an  ancient  office,  which  since  1377  has  been 
attached  to  the  manor  of  Scrivelsby,  held  by  the  Marmion  family.  Their  descendant,  sir 
Henry  Dymoke,  the  seventeenth  of  his  family  who  has  held  the  office,  died  Apr.  28,  1865, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John.  At  the  coronation  of  the  English  kings,  the 
champion  used  to  challenge  any  one  that  should  deny  their  title. 

CHAMPLAIN.     See  Lake  Champlain. 


*  The  ancient  assemblies  of  the  Frankish  people,  the  germ  of  parliaments,  held  annually  in  March, 
received  this  name.    In  747,  Pepin  changed  the  month  to  May.   ' 


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163 


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CHANCELLOR  OF  ENGLAND,  LORD  HIGH,  ranks  after  the  princes  of  the  blood  royal 
the  first  lay  subject.  Anciently  the  office  was  conferred  upon  some  dignified  ecclesiastic 
[-nu.nl  <'ii,nccllariu$,  or  doorkeeper,  who  admitted  suitors  to  the  sovereign's  presence.  Arfastns 
Here-fast,  chaplain  to  the  king  (William  the  Conqueror)  and  bishop  of  Elmham,  was  lord 
ancellor  in  1067.  Hardy.  Thomas  h,  Becket  was  made  chancellor  in  1154.  The  first 
rson  qxialified  by  education,  to  decide  causes  upon  his  own  judgment,  was  sir  Thomas 
ore,  appointed  in  1529,  before  which  time  the  office  was  more  that  of  a  high  state  func- 
>nary  than  the  president  of  a  court  of  justice.  Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  appointed  lord 
ancellor  in  1587,  was  very  ignorant,  on  which  account  the  first  reference  was  made  to  a 
aster  in  1588.  In  England,  the  great  seal  has  been  frequently  put  in  commission;  in 
113  the  office  of  Vice- Chancellor  was  established.*  See  Keeper,  and  Vice- Chancellor. 


LORD   HIGH   CHANCELLORS 
John  Moreton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
William  Warham,  aft.  archbshp.  of  Canterbury. 
Thomas  Wolsey,  cardinal  and  abp.  of  York.  1713. 

Sir  Thomas  More.  1714- 

Sir  Thomas  Audley,  keeper. 
Sir  Thomas  Audley,  chancellor,  aft.  Id.  Audley. 
Thomas,  lord  Wriothesley. 

William,  lord  St.  John,  keeper.  1725. 

Richard,  lord  Rich,  lord  chancellor. 
Thomas  Goodrich,  bishop  of  Ely,  keeper.  1733. 

The  same  ;  now  lord  chancellor.  *737- 

Stephen  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester.  1756. 

Nicholas  Heath,  archbisbop  of  York.  1757- 

Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  keeper. 

Sir  Thomas  Bromley,  lord  chancellor.  1761. 

Sir  Christopher  Hatton. 

The  great  seal  in  commission.  1766. 

Sir  John  Puckering,  lord  keeper.  1770. 

Sir  Thomas  Egerton,  lord  keeper. 
Sir  Thomas  Egerton,  now  lord  Ellesmere,  lord 
chancellor. 

Sir  Francis  Bacon,  lord  keeper.  1770. 

Sir  FrancisBacoii,  cr .  lord  Verulam,  Id.  chancellor.      1771, 
The  great  seal  in  commission. 
John,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  lord  keeper. 


,  ,  . 

Sir  Thomas  Coventry,  afterwards  lord  Coven- 
try, lord  keeper. 

Sir  "John  Finch,  afterwards  lord  Finch. 

Sir  Edward  Lyttelton,  afterwards  lord  Lyttel- 
ton,  lord  keeper. 

The  great  seal  in  the  hands  of  commissioners. 

Sir  Richard  Lane,  royal  keeper. 

In  the  hands  of  commissioners. 

In  commission  for  the  commonwealth. 

Sir  Edward  Herbert,  king's  lord  keeper. 

In  commission  during  the  remainder  of  the 
commonwealth. 

Sir  Edward  Hyde,  lord  chancellor,  afterwards 
created  lord  Hyde,  and  earl  of  Clarendon. 

Sir  Orlando  Bridgmaii,  lord  keeper. 

Anthony  Ashley,  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  lord 
chancellor. 

Sir  Heneage  Finch,  lord  keeper. 

Heneage,  now  lord  Finch,  lord  chancellor, 
afterwards  earl  of  Nottingham. 

Sir  Francis  North,  cr.  lord  Guilford,  Id.  keeper. 

Francis,  lord  Guilford ;  succeeded  by 

George,  lord  Jeffreys,  lord  chancellor. 

In  commission. 

Sir  John  Trevor,  knt.,  sir  William  Rawlinson, 
knt. ,  and  sir  George  Hutchins,  knt. ,  commis- 
sioners or  keepers. 

Sir  John  Somers,  lord  keeper. 

Sir  John  Somers,  cr.  lord  Somers,  chancellor. 

Lord  chief  justice  Holt,  sir  George  Treby,  chief 
justice  C.  P.,  and  chief  baron  sir  Edward 
Ward,  lord  keepers. 

Sir  Nathan  Wright,  lord  keeper. 

Right  hon.  William  Cowper,  lord  keeper,  after- 
wards lord  Cowper. 

William,  lord  Cowper,  lord  chancellor. 


1778. 
1783- 


1792. 
1793- 


1806. 
1807. 
1827. 
1830. 
1834- 
1835. 


1836. 

1841. 
1846. 


1850. 


1852. 

1858. 
1859. 


1865. 


OF   ENGLAND. 
In  commission. 

Sir  Simon  Harcourt,  cr.  lord  Harcourt,  keeper. 
Simon,  lord  Harcourt,  lord  chancellor. 
William,  lord  Cowper,  lord  chancellor. 
In  commission. 

Thomas,  lord  Parker,  lord  chancellor;  after- 
wards earl  of  Macclesfield. 
In  commission. 

Sir  Peter  King,  cr.  lord  King,  chancellor. 
Charles  Talbot,  created  lord  Talbot,  chancellor. 
Philip  Yorke,  lord  Hardwicke,  lord  chancellor. 
In  commission. 
Sir  Robert  Henley,  afterwards  lord  Henley, 

last  lord  keeper. 
Lord  Henley,  lord  chancellor,  afterwards  earl 

of  Northington. 

Charles,  lord  Camden,  lord  chancellor. 
Hon.  Charles  Yorke,  lord  chancellor. 
[Created  lord  Mordan  ;  died  within  three  days, 
and  before  the  seals  were  put  to  his  patent  of 
peerage.] 
In  commission. 
Hon.  Henry  Bathurst,  lord  Apsley  ;  succeeded 

as  earl  Bathurst. 

Edward  Thurlow,  created  lord  Thurlow. 
Alexander,  lord  Loughborough,  and  others, 

commissioners. 
Edward,  lord  Thurlow,  again. 
In  commission. 
Alexander  Wedderburne,  lord  Loughborough, 

lord  chancellor. 
John  Scott,  lord  Eldon. 
Hon.  Thomas  Erskine,  created  lord  Erskine. 
John,  lord  Eldon,  again. 

John  Singleton  Copley,  created  lord  Lyndhurst. 
Henry  Brougham,  created  lord  Brougham. 
Lord  Lyndhurst,  again. 
Sir  Charles  Christopher  Pepys,  master  of  the 

rolls,    vice-chancellor    Shadwell,    and    Mr. 

justice  Bosanquet,  C.  P.,  commissioners. 
Sir  Charles   Christopher  Pepys,  created  lord 

Cottenham,  lord  chancellor.     Jan.  16. 
Lord  Lyndhurst,  a  third  time.     Sept.  3. 
Lord  Cottenham,  again  lord  chancellor.  July  6. 
[His  lordship  on  signifying  his  intention  to 
retire,  June   19,  1850,  was  created  earl  of 
Cottenham.  ] 
Lord  Langdale,  master  of  the  rolls,  Sir  Laun- 

celot  Shadwell,  vice-chancellor  of  England, 

and  sir  Robert  Monsey  Rolfe,  B.E.,  commis- 
sioners of  the  great  seal.     June  19. 
Sir  Thomas  Wilde,  lord  Truro.     July  15. 
Sir  Edward  Sugden,  lord  St.  Leonards.  Feb.  27. 
Robt.  Monsey  Rolfe,  lord  Cran worth.     Dec.  28. 
Sir  Frederic  Thesiger,lord  Chelmsford.  Feb.  26. 
John,  lord  Campbell,  June  18  ;  died  June  23, 

1861. 
Richard    Bethell,  lord  Westbury,    June    26. 

Resigned  July  4,  1865. 
Thomas,  lord  Cranworth,  again.     July  6. 


*  In  1863  was  passed  the  Lord  Chancellor's  Augmentation  Act. 
certain  livings  in  his  gift  for  the  augmentation  of  poor  benefices. 


ntation  Act.     It  enabled  him  to  sell  the  advowson 


M   2 


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164 


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CHANCELLOR  OF  IRELAND,  LORD  HIGH.  The  earliest  nomination  was  by  Richard  I., 
1 1 89,  when  Stephen  Ridel  was  elevated  to  this  rank.  The  office  of  vice-chancellor  was 
known  in  Ireland  in  1232,  Geoffrey  Turvillo,  archdeacon  of  Dublin,  being  so  named. 

LORD    HIGH   CHANCELLORS   OF   IRELAND. 
From  the  Revolution. 


Patent. 

1690.  Dec.  29.     Sir  Charles  Porter. 
1697.  Jan.  12.     Sir  John  Jeffreyson,  Thomas  Coote, 

and  Nehemiah  Donellan,  lords  keepers. 
,,      March  n.     J.  Methuen. 

„  Dec.  21.  Edward,  earl  of  Meath,  Francis,  earl 
of  Longford,  and  Murrough,  viscount  Bles- 
singtou,  lord  keepers. 

1702.  Aug.  26.     Lord  Methuen,  lord  chancellor. 
1705.  Aug.  6.  Sir  Richd.  Cox,bart.  ;  resigned  in  1707. 
1707.  June.     Richard  Freeman. 

1710.  Nov.  28.     Robert,  earl  of  Kildare,  archbishop 

(Hoadley)  of  Dublin,  and  Thomas  Keightley, 
commissioners. 

1711.  Jan.  22.     Sir  Constantine  Phipps;   resigned 

Sept.  1714. 

1714.  Oct.  ii.  Alan  Brodrick,  afterwards  viscount 
Middleton  ;  resigned  May,  1725. 

1725.  June. "  Richard  West. 

1726.  Dec.  21.    Thomas  Wyndham,  afterwards  lord 

Wyndham  of  Finglas. 

1739.  Sept.  7.  Robert  Jocelyn,  afterwards  lord  New- 
port and  visct.  Jocelyn  ;  died  Oct.  25,  1756. 

1757.  March  22.  John  Bowes,  afterwards  lord  Bowes 
of  Clonlyon  ;  died  1767. 

1763.  Jan  9.  James  Hewitt,  afterwards  viscount 
Lifford  ;  died  April  28,  1789. 


Patent. 
1789.  June  20.     John,  baron  Fitzgibbon,  afterwards 

earl  of  Clare  ;  died  Jan.  28,  1802. 
1802.  March  15.      John,  baron  Redesdale  ;  resigned1 

Feb.  1806. 

1806.  Mar.  25.  George  Ponsonby  ;  resigned  Ap.  1807. 

1807.  May.     Thomas,  lord  Manners,  previously  an 

English  baron  of  the  exchequer ;  resigned  i 

Nov.  1827. 
1827.  Nov.  5.     Sir  Anthony  Hart,  previously  vice-: 

chancellor  of  England  ;  resigned  Nov.  1830.   j 
1830.  Dec.  23.     Wilh'am,  baron  Plunket ;   resigned  j 

Nov.  1834. 
1835.  Jan.  13.      Sir  Edward  Burtenshaw  Sugden, 

resigned  April  1835. 
,,      April  30.     William,  baron  Plunket,  a  second' 

time  ;  resigned  June,  1841. 
1841.  June.     John,  baron  Campbell ;  resigned  Sept. , 

1841. 
„       Oct.     Sir  Edward  Sugden,  afterwards  lord  St.  1 

Leonards,  a  second  time;  resigned  July,  1846. 
1846.  July  16.     Maziere  Brady  ;  resigned  Feb.  1852. ' 

1852.  March.     Francis  Blackburn  ;  resigned  Dec. 

1853.  Jan.     Maziere  Brady,  again. 

1858.  Feb.     Joseph  Napier. 

1859.  June.     Maziere  Brady,  again.     The  PRESEKT 

lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  (1865). 


CHANCELLOR  OF  SCOTLAND,  LORD.  In  the  laws  of  Malcolm  II.,  who  reigned! 
1004,  this  officer  is  thus  mentioned  : — "The  chancellar  sail  at  al  tymes  assist  the  king  in  | 
giving  him  counsall  mair  secretly  nor  the  rest  of  the  nobility.  .  .  The  chancellar  sail  be  : 
ludgit  neir  unto  the  kingis  Grace,  for  keiping  of  Ids  bodie,  and  the  seill,  and  that  he  may  be  i 
readie,  baith  day  and  nicht,  at  the  kingis  command."  Sir  James  Balfour.  Evan  was  lord  j 
chancellor  to  Malcolm  III.,  surnamed  Canmore,  in  1057  ;  and  James,  earl  of  Seafield,  after- 1 
wards  Findlater,  was  the  last  lord  chancellor  of  Scotland,  the  office  having  been  abolished  in 
1708,  after  the  union.  See  Keeper,  Lord. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER.     See  Exchequer. 

CHANCELLORSVILLE,   Virginia,    U.  S.,  a  large  brick  hotel,  once  kept  by  a  Mr. 
Chancellor,  was  the  site  of  severe  sanguinary  conflicts,  on  May  2,  3,  and  4,  1863,  between  i 
the  American  federal  army  of  the  Potomac  under  general  Hooker,  and  the  confederates  i 
under  general  Lee.     On  Apr.  28,  the  federal  army  crossed  the  Rappahannock  ;  on  May  2,  j 
general    "Stonewall"    Jackson   furiously  attacked  and   routed  the   right  wing,    but   was 
unfortunately  mortally  wounded  by  his  own  party  firing  on  him  by  mistake.     Gen.  Stuart 
took  his  command,  and  after  a  severe  conflict  on  May  3  and  4,  with  great  loss  to  both 
parties,  the  federals  were  compelled  once  more  to  retreat  across  the  Rappahannock.     The  i 
struggle  has  been  compared  to  that  at  Hougomont  during  the  battle  of  Waterloo.     Jackson  j 
died  May  9. 

CHANCERY,  COURT  OF.  According  to  some,  instituted  as  early  as  605,  to  others,  by 
Alfred,  in  887  ;  settled  upon  a  better  footing  by  William  I.,  in  1067  (Stow)  or  1070.  This 
court  had  its  origin  in  the  desire  to  render  justice  complete,  and  to  moderate  the  rigour  of  ' 
other  courts  that  are  bound  to  the  strict  letter  of  the  law.  It  gives  relief  to  or  against 
infants,  notwithstanding  their  minority  :  and  to  or  against  married  women,  notwithstanding 
their  coverture  ;  and  all  frauds,  deceits,  breaches  of  trust  and  confidence,  for  which  there  is 
no  redress  at  common  law,  are  relievable  here.  Blackstone.  See  Chancellors  of  England. 
The  delays  in  chancery  proceedings  having  long  given  dissatisfaction,  the  subject  was  brought 
before  parliament  in  1825,  and  frequently  since  ;  which  led  to  the  passing  of  important  acts 
in  1852,  1853,  and  1855,  to  amend  the  practice  in  the  court  of  chancery.  See  County  Courts. 

CHANDOS  CLAUSE.     See  Counties. 

CHANTING  the  psalms  was  adopted  by  Ambrose  from  the  pagan  ceremonies  of  the 
Romans,  about  350.  Lenglet.  About  602,  Gregory  the  Great  added  tones  to  the  Ambrosian 
chant,  and  established  singing  schools.  Chanting  was  adopted  by  some  dissenters  about  1859. 


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165 


CIIA 


CHANTRY,  a  chapel  endowed  with  revenue  for  priests  to  sing  mass  for  the  souls  of  the 
j  donors.  See  Chanting.  Chantries  were  abolished  in  England  in  1545. 

CHAPEL.  _  There  are  free  chapels,  chapels  of  ease,  the  chapel  royal,  &c.  Cowel.  The 
men  pensioners  (formerly  poor  knights  of  Windsor,  who  were  instituted  by  the  direc- 
jtion  of  Henry  VIII.  in  his  testament,  1546-7)  were  called  knights  of  the  chapel.  See  Poor 
Knights  of  Windsor. — The  place  of  conference  among  printers,  and  the  conference  itself,  are 
by  them  called  a  cliapel,  it  is  said  because  the  first  work  printed  in  England  by  Caxton  was 
j  executed  in  a  ruined  chapel  in  "Westminster- abbey. 

CHAPLAIN,  a  clergyman  who  performs  divine  service  in  a  chapel,  or  who  is  retained  by 
la  prince  or  nobleman.  About  seventy  chaplains  are  attached  to  the  chapel  royal.  The  chief 
personages  invested  with  the  privilege  of  retaining  chaplains  are  the  following,  with  the 
[Dumber  that  was  originally  allotted  to  each  rank,  by  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13  (1529)  : — 


i  Archbishop 
Iliuke 

Bishop  . 

Marquess  . 


Earl       . 
Viscount  . 
Baron    . 
Chancellor 


Knight  of  the  Garter  .  3 
Duchess  .  .  .2 
Marchioness  .  .  .  2 
Countess  .  2 


Baroness       .        .  .2 

Master  of  the  Rolls  .  2 

Almoner  .        .  .  2 

Chief  Justice        .  .  i 


CHAPLETS,  the  string  of  beads  used  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  reciting  the  Lord's 
prayer,  Ave  Maria,  &c.  See  Beads. 

CHAPTER.  Anciently  the  bishop  and  clergy  lived  in  the  cathedral,  the  latter  to  assist 
;tlie  former  in  performing  holy  offices  and  governing  the  church,  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
The  chapter  is  now  an  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  a  collegiate  church  or  cathedral.  * Cowel. 
|rhe  chapter-house  of  Westminster-abbey  was  built  in  1250.  By  consent  of  the  abbot,  the 

•oiamoners  of  England  held  their  parliaments  there  from  1377  until  1547,  when  Edward  VI. 

granted  them  the  chapel  of  St.  Stephen. 

CHARCOAL  AIR-FILTERS  were  devised  by  Dr.  John  Stenhouse,  F.R.S.,  in  1853. 
About  the  end  of  the  last  century  Lb'witz,  a  German  chemist,  discovered  that  charcoal 
((carbon)  possessed  the  property  of  deodorising  putrid  substances,  by  absorbing  effluvia  and 
:use*.  Air-filters,  based  on  this  property,  have  been  successfully  applied  to  public  build- 
ings, &c.  Dr.  Stenhouse  also  invented  charcoal  respirators. 

CHARING  CROSS,  so  called  from  one  of  the  crosses  which  Edward  I.  erected  to  the 
memory  of  his  queen  Eleanor,  who  died  1291  ;  Charing  being  the  name  of  the  village  in  which 
Lt  was  built.  Some  contend  that  it  derived  its  name  from  being  the  resting-place  of  the  ch&re 
\reyne,  dear  queen.  It  was  yet  a  small  village  in  1353,  and  the  cross  remained  till  the  civil 
jwars  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  when  it  was  destroyed  as  a  monument  of  popish  superstition. 
'A.  new  cross  was  erected  by  the  South  Eastern  Railway  Company  in  1865. — Charing-cross 
•»vas  built  about  1678,  nearly  as  it  appeared  before  the  new  buildings  were  commenced  in 
1829.  The  first  stone  of  Charing-cross  hospital  was  laid  by  the  duke  of  Sussex,  Sept.  15, 
1831.  Hungerford-bridge  (or  Charing-cross  bridge)  was  opened  May  I,  1845;  taken  down 
|hily,  1862,  and  the  materials  employed  m  erecting  Clifton  suspension  bridge,  beginning 
'March,  1863.  See  Clifton.  The  CHARING-CROSS  RAILWAY.  The  first  train  passed  over  it 
Ore.  2,  1863,  and  it  was  opened  to  the  public  on  Jan.  u,  1864.  The  new  Hungerford  rail- 
way bridge  is  built  of  iron  with  brick  piers.  It  was  constructed  by  Mr.  Hawkshaw. 

CHARIOTS.  Chariot  racing  was  one  of  the  exercises  of  Greece.  The  chariot  of  the 
| Ethiopian  officer  (Acts  viii.  27),  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  form  of  our  chaise  with  four 
.vlict'ls.  Csesar  relates  that  Cassibelaunus,  after  dismissing  all  his  other  forces,  retained  no 
fewer  than  4000  war-chariots  about  his  person.  See  Carriages,  Coaches,  &c. 

CHARITABLE  BEQUESTS,  &o.  Boards  for  their  recovery  were  constituted  in  1764 
land  1800,  and  a  board  for  Ireland  (chiefly  prelates  of  the  established  church),  in  1825.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Charitable  Bequests  act  passed  in  1844,  and  an  act  for  the  better  adminis- 
tration of  Charitable  Trusts  in  1853,  when  commissioners  were  appointed,  who  have  from 
time  to  time  published  voluminous  reports.  The  law  relating  to  the  conveyance  of  land  for 
[Charitable  Uses  was  amended  in  1861. 

CHARITABLE  BRETHREN,  an  order  founded  by  St.  John  of  God,  and  approved  by 
pope  Pius  V.  1572  ;  introduced  into  France,  1601  ;  settled  at  Paris,  1602.  Uenault. 

CHARITIES  AND  CHARITY  SCHOOLS  are  very  numerous  in  this  country.  The  Charity 
Commission  reported  to  parliament  that  the  endowed  charities  alone  of  Great  Britain 
amounted  to  1,500,000?.  annually,  in  1840.  Parl.  Rep.  Charity  schools  were  instituted  in 
London  to  prevent  the  seduction  of  the  infant  poor  into  Roman  Catholic  seminaries,  3  James 


CHA  166  CHA 

II.,   1687.     Rapin.     See  Education.     Mr.  Low's  "  Charities  of  London "  (2nd  edition)  was 
published  1862. 

CHARLEROI,  in  Belgium.     Great  battles  have  been  fought  near  this  town  in  several  \ 
Avars  ;  the  principal  in  1690  and  1794.     See  Fleurus.     Charleroi  was  besieged  by  the  prince 
of  Orange  in  1672,  and  was  again  invested  by  the  same  prince  with  60,000  men,  in  1677;; 
but  he  was  soon  obliged  to  retire.     Near  here,  at  Ligny,  Napoleon  attacked  the  Prussian . 
line,  making  it  fall  back  upon  Wavres,  June  16,  1815. 

CHARLES-ET-GEORGES.  Two  French  vessels  of  this  name,  professedly  conveying  free  \ 
African  emigrants  (but  really  slaves),  were  seized  by  the  Portuguese,  in  Conducia  Bay, : 
Nov.  29,  1857,  sent  to  Lisbon,  and  condemned  as  slavers.  They  were  demanded  haughtily 
by  the  French  government,  who,  on  the  hesitation  of  the  Portuguese,  sent  two  ships  of  wart 
to  the  Tagus.  The  captured  vessels  were  then  surrendered  under  protest.  The  conduct  of 
the  British  government  (that  of  Lord  Derby),  to  whom  the  Portuguese  had  referred  the  dis- 
pute, was  considered  more  prudent  than  dignified.  The  emperor  of  France,  however,  gavel 
up  the  free  emigration  scheme. 

CHARLESTOWN  (Massachusetts)  was  burnt  by  the  British  forces  under  general  Gage, 
June  17,  1775.  Charleston  taken  by  the  British,  May  7,  1779. 

CHARLESTON  (South  Carolina).  The  English  fleet  here  was  repulsed  with  great  loss,  j 
June  28,  1776.  It  was  besieged  by  the  British  troops  at  the  latter  end  of  March,  1780,  and! 
surrendered  May  13  following,  with  6000  prisoners  ;  it  was  evacuated  April  14,  1783.  Great 
commotion  arose  here  on  Nov.  1860,  through  the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln  for  the  presidency,  j 
he  being  opposed  to  slavery.  On  April  12,  1861,  the  war  began,  by  the  confederates  capturing' 
Fort  Sivmter,  See  United  States,  1863.  In  Dec.  1861,  the  federals  sank  a  number  of  vessels 
laden  with  stone  in  order  to  choke  up  the  entrance  to  Charleston  harbour.  On  Feb.  17,  1865,  < 
the  confederates  were  compelled  to  retire  from  Charleston,  and  the  federals  replaced  their! 
standard  on  Fort  Sumter,  April  14,  the  day  on  which  president  Lincoln  was  assassinated. 

"  CHARTE,"  the  French  political  constitution  acknowledged  by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1814. 
The  infraction  of  this  constitution  led  to  the  revolution  of  1830.     The  "  Charte  "  was; 
sworn  to  by  Louis- Philippe,  Aug.  29,  1830  ;  but  set  aside  by  the  revolution  of  1848. 

CHARTER-HOUSE  (a  corruption  of  Chartreuse,  which  see),  London,  formerly  a  Carthu- 
sian monastery,  founded  in  1371  by  sir  Walter  de  Manny,  one  of  the  knights  of  Edward  III., 
now  an  extensive  charitable  establishment.  The  last  prior,  John  Houghtou,  was  executed 
as  a  traitor,  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy,  in  1535.  After  the  dissolution  of  monasteries 
in  1539,  it  passed  through  various  hands  till  Nov.  I,  1611,  when  it  was  sold  by  the  earl  of; 
Suffolk  to  Mr.  Thomas  Sutton  for  13,000?.,  who  obtained  letters  patent  directing  that  it 
should  be  called  "the  hospital  of  king  James,  founded  in  the  Charter-house,"  and  that 
"there  should  be  for  ever  16  governors,"  &c.  Oil  the  foundation  are  80  poor  brothers,  and, 
44  poor  scholars.  Sutton  died  Dec.  12,  1611.  The  expenditure  for  1853-4  was  22,396^.; 
the  receipts  28,908^. 

_  CHARTER-PARTY,  a  covenant  between  merchants  and  masters  of  ships  relating  to  the! 
ship  and  cargo,  is  said  to  have  been  first  used  in  England  about  1243. 

CHARTERS  granted  to  corporate  towns  to  protect  their  manufactures  by  Henry  II.  ini 
1132  ;  called  in  and  modified  by  Charles  II.  in  1682  ;  the  ancient  charters  restored  in  1698. 
Alterations  were  made  by  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  in  1835.  See  Magna  Charta  and 
Boroughs. 

CHARTISTS,  the  name  assumed  by  large  bodies  of  the  working  people,  shortly  after  thei 
passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  in  1832,  from  their  demanding  the  people's  Charter,  the  six 
points  of  which  were  Universal  Suffrage,  Vote  by  Ballot,  -Annual  Parliaments,  Payment  of 
the,  Members,  the  Abolition  of  the  Property  Qualification  (which  was  enacted,  June,  1858),;'! 
and  Equal  Electoral  Districts.     In   1838  the  Chartists  assembled  in  various  parts  of  thejl 
country,  armed  with  guns,  pikes,  and  other  weapons,  and  carrying  torches  and  flags.     They 
conducted  themselves  so  tumultuously,  that  a  proclamation  was  issued  against  them,  Dec.  12, 
Their  petition  (agreed  to  at  Birmingham,  Aug.  6,  1838)  was  presented  by  Mr.  T.  Attwood,' 
June  14,    1839.     They  committed  great  outrages  at  Birmingham,  July  15,    1839,  and  at 
Newport  (which  see),  Nov.  4,  1839.     They  held  for  some  time  a  sort  of  parliament  called 
the  "  National  Convention,"  the  leading  men  being  Feergus  O'Connor,  Henry  Vincent,  Mr. 
Stephens,  &c.     On  April  10,    1848,  they  proposed  to  hold  a  meeting  of  200,000  men  on 
Kennington  Common,  London,  to  march  thence  in  procession  to  Westminster,  and  present 
a  petition  to  parliament ;  but  only  about  20,000  came.     The  bank  and  other  establishments 


CHA 


167 


CHA 


were  fortified  by  military  ;  and  the  preventive  measures  adopted  by  the  government  proved 
so  completely  successful,  that  the  rioters  dispersed  after  some  slight  encounters  with  the 
police.  The  monster  petition,  in  detached  rolls,  was  sent  in  cabs  to  the  house  of  commons, 
and  not  less  than  150.000  persons  of  all  ranks  (including  Louis  Napoleon,  now  emperor) 
were  voluntarily  sworn  to  act  as  special  constables.  From  this  time  the  proceedings  of  the 
Chartists  became  insignificant. 

CHARTREUSE,  LA  GRANDE,  famous  as  the  chief  of  the  monasteries  of  the  Carthusian 
order,  is  situated  among  the  rugged  mountains  near  Grenoble,  in  France.  It  was  founded  by 
Bruno  of  Cologne  about  1084.  At  the  revolution  in  1792,  the  monks  were  expelled  and 
their  valuable  library  destroyed.  They  returned  to  the  monastery  after  the  restoration  in 
1814. 

CHARTS  AND  MAPS.  Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor  of  geographical  and 
celestial  charts,  about  570  B.C.  Modern  sea-charts  were  brought  to  England  by  Bartholomew 
Columbus  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a  western  continent,  1489.  The  first 
tolerably  accurate  map  of  England  was  drawn  by  George  Lilly,  who  died  in  1559.  Gerard 
Mercator  published  an  atlas  of  maps  in  1595.  See  Mercator. 

CHASTITY.  The  Roman  laws  justified  homicide  in  defence  of  one's  self  or  relatives  ; 
and  our  laws  justify  a  woman  for  killing  a  man  in  defence  of  her  chastity  ;  and  a  husband  or 
a  father  in  taking  the  life  of  him  who  attempts  to  violate  his  wife  or  daughter.  In.  1000 
years  from  the  time  of  Numa,  710  B.C.,  to  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  A.D.  394,  only 
eighteen  Roman  vestals  had  been  condemned  for  incontinence.  See  Vestals,  Acre,  and 
Coldingham. 

CHATHAM  (Kent),  a  principal  station  of  the  royal  navy.  Its  dockyard,  commenced  by 
queen  Elizabeth,  contains  immense  naval  magazines.  The  Chatham  Chest,  for  the  relief  of 
wounded  and  decayed  seamen,  originally  established  here  by  the  queen  and  admirals  Drake 
and  Hawkins,  in  1588,  was  removed  to  Greenwich  in  1803.  In.  1667,  on  the  loth  June,  the 
Dutch  fleet,  under  admiral  De  Ruyter,  sailed  up  to  this  town  and  burnt  several  men-of-war  ; 
but  the  entrance  into  the  Medway  is  now  defended  by  Sheerness  and  other  forts,  and 
additional  fortifications  were  made  at  Chatham.  On  Feb.  8,  1861,  a  violent  outbreak  of  the 
convicts  was  suppressed  by  the  military,  and  many  of  the  rioters  severely  flogged.  About 
1000?.  worth  of  property  was  destroyed,  and  many  persons  were  seriously  hurt. 

CHATHAM  ADMINISTRATION.*     Formed  Aug.  1766;  terminated  Dec.  1767. 


Earl  of  Chatham,  first  minister  and  lord  privy  seal. 
Duke  of  Grafton,  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 
Lord  Camden,  lord  chancellor. 
Charles  Townshend,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Earl  of  Northing  ton,  lord  president. 
Earl  of  Shelburne  and  general  Conway,  secretaries  of 
state. 


Sir  Charles    Saundei's    (succeeded  by  sir  Edward 

Hawke),  admiralty. 
Marquess  of  Granby,  ordnance. 
Lord  Hillsborough,  first  lord  of  trade. 
Lord  Barrington,  secretary  at  war. 
Lord  North  and  Sir  George  Cooke,  joint  paymasters. 
Viscount  Howe,  treasurer  of  the  navy. 
Duke  of  Ancaster,  lord  le  Despenser,  &c. 

CHATILLON  (on  the  Seine,  France).  Here  a  congress  was  held  by  the  four  great 
powers  allied  against  France,  at  which  Caulaincourt  attended  for  Napoleon,  Feb.  5,  1814  ; 
the  negotiations  for  peace  were  broken  off  on  March  19,  following. 

CHAT  MOSS  (Lancashire),  a  peat  bog  twelve  miles  square,  in  most  places  so  soft  as  to 

be  incapable  of  supporting  a  man  or  horse,  over  which  George  Stephenson,  the  railway 

engineer,  carried  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway,  after  overcoming  difficulties  con- 

(1  invincible.     The  road  (literally  a  floating  one)  was  completed  by  Jan.  i,  1830,  when 

the  first  experimental  train,"  drawn  by  the. Rocket  locomotive,  passed  over  it. 

CHATTANOOGA  (Tennessee).  Near  here  the  federal  generals,  Sherman  and  Thomas, 
defeated  the  confederate  general  Bragg,  after  storming  the  entrenchments,  Nov.  25,  1863. 
The  result  was  very  injurious  to  the  confederates.  Bragg  retreated  into  Georgia,  and  Long- 
street  into  Virginia. 

CHAUMONT  (on  the  Maine,  France),  TREATY  OF,  entered  into  between  Great  Britain, 
Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  and  signed  by  these  powers  respectively,  March  i,  1814.  This 

*  William  Pitt,  earl  of  Chatham/called  the  great  commoner),  was  born  Nov.  15, 1708,  entered  parliament 
in  1735  ;  became  secretary  of  state"  (but  virtually  the  premier)  in  the  Devonshire  administration,  Nov. 
1756,  and  secretary  in  the  Newcastle  administration,  Jan.  1757.  In  1766  he  became  premier,  lord  privy 
seal,  and  earl  of  Chatham,  which  lord  Chesterfield  called  a  fall  upstairs.  He  opposed  the  taxation  of  the 
American  colonies,  but  protested  against  the  recognition  of  their  independence,  April  7,  1778,  and  died 
May  1 1  following. 


CHE  168  CHE 

treaty  was  succeeded  by  the   celebrated   treaty  of  Paris,    April    II    following,   by  which 
Napoleon  renounced  his  sovereignty  over  France.     See  Paris. 

CHEATS  are  punishable  by  pillory  (since  abolished),  imprisonment,  and  fine,  I  Hawk* 
L.C.  1 88.  A  rigorous  statute  was  enacted  against  them  in  1542.  Persons  cheating  at  play, 
or  winning  at  any  time  more  than  lol.  or  any  valuable  thing,  were  deemed  infamous,  and 
were  to  suffer  punishment  as  in  cases  of  perjury,  9  Anne,  1711.  Blackstone. 

CHEESE.  It  is  supposed  by  Camden  and  others  that  the  English  learned  cheese- 
making  from  the  Romans  about  the  Christian  era.  Wilts,  Gloucester,  and  Cheshire  make 
vast  quantities  ;  the  last  alone,  annually,  about  31,000  tons.  In  1840  we  imported  from 
abroad  about  10,000  tons;  and  in  1864,  41,742  tons.  The  duty  on  foreign  cheese,  pro- 
ducing annually  about  50,000?.,  was  taken  off  in  1860. 

CHELSEA.  On  the  site  of  a  college  founded  by  James  I.  in  1609  for  theological  dispu- 
tations against  popery,  but  converted  by  Charles  II.  in  1682  to  its  present  purpose,  stands 
CJielsea  college,  an  asylum  for  wounded  and  superannuated  soldiers. — The  erection  was 
carried  on  by  James  II.,  and  completed  by  William  III.  in  1690.  The  real  projector  was  sir 
Stephen  Fox,  grandfather  of  the  orator  C.  J.  Fox.  The  architect  was  sir  Christopher  Wren, 
and  the  cost  150,000^.  In  1850  there  were  70,000  out-  and  539  in-pensioners. — The  body  of 
the  duke  of  Wellington  lay  here  in  state,  Nov.  10 — 17,  1852. — The  physic  garden  of  sir 
Hans  Sloane,  at  Chelsea,  was  given  to  the  Apothecaries'  company  in  1721.  The  Chelsea 
waterworks  were  incorporated  1722.  The  first  stone  of  the  Military  Asylum,  Chelsea,  was 
laid  by  Frederick,  duke  of  York,  June  19,  1801. — The  bridge,  constructed  by  Mr.  T.  Page 
to  connect  Chelsea  with  Battersea-park,  was  opened  in  the  spring  of  1858. 

CHELTENHAM  (Gloucestershire).  Its  celebrated  mineral  spring  was  discovered  in 
1718.  The  king's- well  was  sunk  in  1778  ;  and  other  wells  by  Mr.  Thompson  in  1806. 
Magnesian.  salt  was  first  found  in  the  waters  in  1811.  The  theatre  was  erected  in  1804. 

CHEMICAL  SOCIETIES.  One.  formed  in  London  in  1780,  did  not  long  continue. 
The  present  chemical  society  was  established  in  1841.  The  Chemical  Society  at  Paris  was 
established  in  1857. 

CHEMISTRY  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Spanish  Moors,  about  1150  ;  they  had 
learned  it  from  the  African  Moors,  and  these  from  the  Egyptians.     In  Egypt  they  had,  in 
very  early  ages,  extracted  salts  from  their  bases,  separated  oils,  and  prepared  vinegar  and  wine ; 
and  embalming  was  a  kind  of  chemical  process.     The  Chinese  also  claim  an  early  acquaint- 
ance with  chemistry.     The  first  chemical  students  in  Europe  were  the  Alchemists   (see 
Alchemy)-,  but  chemistry  could  not  be  said  to  exist  as  a  science  till  the  I7th  century; 
during  which  its  study  was  promoted  by  the  writings  of  Bacon  and  the  researches  of  Hooke, 
Mayow,  and  Boyle.     In  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century,   Dr.  Stephen  Hales  laid  the 
foundation  of  Pneumatic  Chemistry,  and  his  contemporary  Boerhaave  combined  the  study  of 
chemistry  with  medicine.     These  were  succeeded  by  Black,  Bergman,  Stahl,  &c.     In  1772, 
Priestley  published  his  researches  on  air,  having  discovered  the  gases  oxygen,  ammonia,  &c. ; 
and  thus  commenced  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  chemistry.     He  was  ably  seconded  by 
Lavoisier,  Cavendish,  Scheele,  Chaptal,  &c.     The  igth  century  opened  with  the  brill iai 
discoveries  of  Davy,  continued  by  Dalton,  Faraday,  Thomson,  &c.      Organic  Chemistry  ' 
been  very  greatly  advanced  by  the  labours  of  Berzelius,  Liebig,  Dumas,  Laurent,  Hofmam 
Cahours,  Frankland,*  &c.,  since  1830.     See  Pharmacy,  Electricity,   Galvanism.     For  tl 
analytical  processes  termed  "Spectrum  analysis,"  invented  by  Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen  (1861^ 
and  "Dialysis"  (1861),    and  "  Atmolysis"  (1863),  invented  by  Mr.  T.  Graham,  see  thos 
articles.     The  Royal  College  of  Chemistry,  Oxford  Street,  London,  was  established  in  1845 
The  publication  of  Watt's  great  "  Dictionary  of  Chemistry"  began  in  April,  1863. 

CHEQUES.     See  Drafts. 

CHERBOURG,  the  great  naval  fortress  and  arsenal  of  France  on  the  coast  of  Brittair 
about  60  or  70  miles  equi-distant  from  Portsmoiith  and  Plymouth.  It  was  captured  by  o\ 
Henry  V.  in  1418,  and  lost  in  1450.  Under  the  direction  of  Louis  XIV.,  some  works  w« 
erected  here  by  the  great  Vauban,  which  with  some  shipping,  &c.,  were  destroyed  by 
British,  Aug.  6,  7,  1758.  The  works  were  resumed  on  a  stupendous  scale  by  Louis  XVI, 

*  In  1828  "Wohler  succeeded  in  producing  artificially  urea,  a  body  hitherto  known  only  as  a  product  < 
the  animal  organism.     Since  then,  acetic  acid,  alcohol,  grape  sugar,  various  essential  oils,  similar  to  those 
of  the  pine  apple,  pear,  garlic,  &c.,  have  been  formed  by  combinations  of  the  gases,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and 
carbonic  acid.    The  barrier  formed  by  chemists  between  organic  and  inorganic  bodies  is  thus  broken  down, 
though  the  names  are  still  retained. 


CHE  169  CHI 

but  their  progress  was  interrupted  by  the  revolution.  The  breakwater,  commenced  in 
resumed  by  Napoleon  I.  about  1803,  and  finally  completed  in  1813,  is  a  magnificent  woi 
forming  a  secure  harbour,  capable  of  affording  anchorage  for  nearly  the  whole  navy  of 
France,  and  protected  by  strong  fortifications,  increased  by  the  present  emperor.  On  Aug. 
4,  5,  1858,  the  railway  and  the  Grand  Napoleon  docks  were  opened,  the  latter  in  the 
presence  of  the  queen  of  England  and  court.  The  British  fleet  visited  Cherbourg,  Aug. 
15-17,  1865,  and  the  officers  and  men  were  treated  with  much  hospitality. 

CHERITON  DOWN  (Hants).  Here  sir  Win.  Waller  defeated  the  royalists  under  lord 
Hopton,  May  29,  1644. 

CHEERY,  the  Prunus  Cerasus  (so  called  from  Cerasus,  a  city  of  Pontus,  whence  the 
tree  was  brought  by  Lucullus  to  Rome,  about  70  B.  c. ),  was  first  planted  in  Britain,  it  is  said, 
about  100.  Fine  kinds  were  brought  from  Flanders,  in  1540,  and  planted  in  Kent,  with, 
much  success. 

CHERSON.     See  Kherson.  CHERSONESUS.     See  Crimea. 

CHESAPEAKE.  At  the  mouth  of  this  river  a  contest  took  place  between  the  British 
admiral  Greaves  and  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse,  in  the  interest  of  the  revolted  states  of 
America  ;  the  former  was  obliged  to  retire,  1781.  The  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  were 
blockaded  by  the  British  fleet  in  the  American  war  of  1812,  and  the  bay  was,  at  that 
period,  the  scene  of  great  hostilities  of  various  results. — The  Chesapeake  American  frigate, 
commanded  by  capt.  Lawrence  (50  guns,  376  men),  struck  to  the  Shannon  British  frigate 
(49  guns,  330  men),  commanded  by  capt.  Philip  Vere  Broke,  after  a  severe  action  of  eleven 
minutes,  June  i,  1813.  Capt.  Lawrence,  who  had  invited  the  contest,  died  of  his  wounds. 

CHESS,  a  game  invented,  according  to  some  authorities,  by  Palamedes,  680  B.C.  ;  and 
according  to  others,  in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  The  learned  Hyde  and  sir  William  Jones 
concur  in  stating  that  the  origin  of  chess  is  to  be  traced  to  India.  The  automaton  chess- 
player (a  piece  of  machinery)  was  exhibited  in  England  in  1769.*  A  chess  congress  was 
held  at  New  York  in  1857,  and  an  international  one  in  London  in  June  and  July,  1862. 

CHESTER  (England,  N.  W.),  the  British  Caerleon  and  the  Roman  Deva,  the  station  of 
the  twentieth  legion,  Valeria  Victrix,  quitted  by  them  about  476.  The  city  wall  was 
first  built  by  Edelfleda,  908  ;  and  Hugh  Lupus,  the  earl,  nephew  of  William  I.,  rebuilt  the 
Saxon  castle  in  1084,  and  the  abbey  of  St.  Werburgh.  Chester  was  incorporated  by 
Henry  III.  and  made  a  distinct  county.  It  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes,  980  ;  and  nearly 
destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire  in  1471.  A  fatal  gunpowder  explosion  occurred  Nov.  5, 
1772.  The  exchange  and  town  hall  were  burnt  Dec.  30,  1862.— The  SEE  was  anciently  part 
of  Lichfield,  one  of  whose  bishops,  Peter,  removing  the  seat  hither  in  1075,  occasioned  his 
successors  to  be  styled  bishops  of  Chester  ;  but  it  was  not  erected  into  a  distinct  bishopric 
until  the  dissolution  of  monasteries.  Henry  VIII.  in  1542  raised  it  to  this  dignity,  and 
allotted  the  church  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Werburgh  for  the  cathedral.  This  see  is  valued  in 
the  king's  books  at  420^.  is.  8d.  per  annnm.  Present  income  4500?. 

"RECENT   BISHOPS   OF   CHESTER. 


1800.  Henry  Wm.  Majeiidie,  trans,  to  Bangor,  1809. 
1810.  Bowyer  Edward  Sparkle,  trans,  to  Ely,  1812. 
1812.  George  Henry  Law,  translated  to  Bath,  1824. 


1828.  John  Bird  Sumner,  trans,  to  Canterbury,  1848. 
1848.  John  Graham,  died  June  15,  1865. 
1865.  William  Jacobson  (PRESENT  bishop). 


1824.  Chas.  J.  Blomfield,  trans,  to  London,  Aug.  1828. 

CHEVALIER  D'EON.     See  D'Eon.  CHEVY  CHASE.     See  Otterlurne. 

CHICAMAUGA  ("the  stream  of  death"),  near  the  Chattanooga,  Tennessee,  North 
America.  Near  here  the  confederates  under  general  Bragg,  aided  by  Longstreet,  totally 
defeated  the  federals  under  Rosencrans,  Sept.  19,  20,  1863.  The  loss  was  severe  on  both 
sides.  The  credit  of  the  victory  is  attributed  to  Longstreet ;  its  fruitlessness  is  assigned  to 


CHICHESTER  (Sussex),  built  by  Cissa,  about  540.  The  cathedral  was  completed 
about  1088,  burnt  with  the  city  in  1114,  and  rebuilt  by  bishop  Seftrid  about  1187.  The 
present  cathedral  was  erected  during  the  I3th  century.  The  spire  fell  Feb.  2O>,  1861,  and  the 
foundation  of  a  new  one  was  laid  May  2,  1865.  The  bishopric  originated  thus  :  Wilfrida, 
archbishop  of  York,  compelled  to  flee  by  Egfrid,  king  of  Northumberland,  preached  the 
gospel  in  this  country,  and  built  a  church  in  the  Isle  of  Selsey,  about  673.  In  68 1  Selsey 

*  A  chess-club  was  formed  at  Slaughter's  coffee-house,  St.  Martin's  lane,  in  1747.  M.  F.  A.  Danican, 
known  as  Phillidor,  played  three  matches  blindfold  at  the  Salopian ;  he  died  in  1795.  The  London  Chess- 
club  was  founded  in  1807,  and  St.  George's  in  1833.  In  Dec.  1861  Herr  Paulsen  played  ten  games  at  once, 
of  which  he  won  five,  and  lost  one  ;  three  were  drawn,  and  one  not  played  out. 


CHI 


170 


CHI 


became  a  bishopric,  and  so  continued  until  it  was  removed  to  Chichester,  then  called  Cis 
Caester,  from  its  builder,  Cissa,  by  Stigand,  1070.  This  see  has  yielded  to  the  church  twc 
saints,  and  to  the  nation  three  lord  chancellors.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at 
677?.  15.  -$d.  per  annum.  Present  income,  4200?. 

RECENT   BISHOPS   OF   CHICHESTER. 


1798.    John  Buckner,  died  May  2,  1824. 

1824.    Robert  J.  Carr,  trans,  to  Worcester,  Sept.  1831. 

1831.    Edward  Maltby,  translated  to  Durham,  1836. 


1836.  Charles  Otter,  died  Aug.  20,  1840. 

1840.  Philip  Nicholas  Shuttleworth,  died  Jan.  7,1842. 

1842.  Ashurst  Turner  Gilbert  (PRESENT  bishop). 


CHICKAHOMINY  BATTLES.     See  Fairoaks. 

CHICORY,  the  wild  endive,  or  Cichorium  Intybus  of  Linnseus,  grows  wild  in  calcareous 
soils.  It  has  been  raised  to  some  extent  in  England  as  herbage,  its  excellence  in  this  respect 
having  been  much  insisted  upon  by  Arthur  Young.* 

CHILDERMAS  DAY,  Dec.  28,  observed  by  the  Roman  church,  in  memory  of  the 
slaughter  of  the  Holy  Innocents.  (Matt,  ii.) 

CHILDREN.  Many  ancient  nations  exposed  their  infants, — the  Egyptians  on  the  banks 
of  rivers,  and  the  Greeks  on  highways, — when  they  could  not  support  or  educate  them  ;  in 
such  cases,  they  were  taken  care  of,  and  humanely  protected  by  the  state.  The  custom, 
which  long  previously  existed,  of  English  parents  selling  their  children  to  the  Irish  for 
slaves,  was  prohibited  in  the  reign  of  Canute,  about  1017.  Mat.  Paris.  See  Foundling. 

CHILI  (S.  America),  discovered  by  Diego  de  Almagro,  one  of  the  conquerors  of  Peru, 
1535.  When  Almagro  crossed  the  Cordilleras,  the  natives,  regarding  the  Spaniards  on 
their  first  visit  as  allied  to  the  Divinity,  collected  for  them  gold  and  silver  amounting  to 
290,000  ducats,  a  present  which  led  to  the  subsequent  cruelties  and  rapacity  of  the  invaders. 
Chili  was  subdued,  but  not  wholly,  in  1546.  Population  in  1857,  1,558,319. 

The  Chilians  declare   their  independence  of 

Spain Sept.  18,  1810 

2rht  wi 


Fight  with  varying  success  ;  decisive  victory 
gained  by  San  Martin  over  the  royal  forces, 
Feb.  12  ;  the  pi-ovince  was  declared  inde- 
pendent   1817 

Present  constitution  established  in  .        1833 

Manuel  Montt  elected  president  .          Oct.  18,  1856 


Insurrection  headed  by  Pedro  Gallo,  Dec, 
1858,  suppressed  ....  April,  1859 

Jose"  Perez,  president         .        .        .    Sept.  18,  1861 

Conflagration  of  the  Jesuits'  church  at  San- 
tiago (see  Santiago),  more  than  2000  persons 
perished Dec.  8,  1863 

Rupture  between  Chili  and  Bolivia  respecting 
the  "  Guano  "  isles  .  .  .  March  i,  1864 


CHILLIANWALLAH,  BATTLE  OF,  India,  between  the  Sikh  forces  in  considerable 
strength,  and  the  British  commanded  by  lord  (afterwards  viscount)  Gough,  fought  Jan.  13, 
1849.  The  Sikhs  were  completely  routed,  but  the  loss  of  the  British  was  very  severe  :  26 
officers  were  killed  and  66  wounded,  and  731  rank  and  file  killed,  and  1446  wounded.  The 
Sikh  loss  was  3000  killed  and  4000  wounded. f  On  Feb.  21,  lord  Gough  attacked  the  Sikh 
army,  under  Shere  Singh,  in  its  position  at  Goojerat,  with  complete  success  ;  and  the  whole 
of  the  enemy's  camp  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS  (viz.  Burnham,  Desborough,  and  Stoke),  an  estate  of 
crown  on  the  chain  of  chalk  hills  that  pass  from  east  to  west  through  the  middle 
Buckinghamshire,  the  stewardship  whereof  is  a  nominal  office,  with  a  salary  of  2os.,  confer 
on  members  of  parliament  when  they  wish  to  vacate  their  seats,  as,  by  accepting  an  of 
under  the  crown,  a  member  becomes  disqualified,  unless  he  be  again  returned  by  his  c( 
stituents.  The  strict  legality  of  the  practice  is  questioned. 

CHIMNEY- TAX.     See  Hearth. 

CHIMNEYS.  Chafing-dishes  were  in  use  previous  to  the  invention  of  chimneys,  whic 
were  first  introduced  into  these  countries,  in  1200,  when  they  were  confined  to  the  kitche 
and  large  hall.  The  family  sat  round  a  stove,  the  funnel  of  which  passed  through  the 

*  Chicory  had  been  for  many  years  so  largely  mixed  with  coffee  in  England,  that  it  became  a  matter 
of  serious  complaint,  the  loss  of  revenue  being  estimated  at  ioo,oooL  a-year.  An  excise  order  was  issued, 
Aug.  3,  1852,  interdicting  the  mixture  of  chicory  with  coffee.  The  admixture,  however,  has  since  been 
permitted,  provided  the  word  "  chicory  "  be  plainly  printed  on  each  parcel  sold.  In  1860  a  duty  of  35.  per 
cwt.  was  put  upon  English-grown  chicory  until  April  1861  ;  after  that  date  to  be  55.  6d.  per  cwt. 

t  The  duke  of  Wellington  (commander  in  chief)  did  not  think  the  victory  complete.  Gough  was 
superseded,  and  sir  C.  Napier  sent  out  (March  1849),  who  did  not  arrive  in  India  till  Gough  had  redeemed 
his  reputation. 


CHI 


171 


CHI 


ceiling,  in  1300.  Chimneys  were  general  in  domestic  architecture  in  1310.  Act  to  regulate 
chimney-sweeping,  28  Geo.  III.  1789.  The  chimney-sweeping  machine  was  invented 
by  Smart  in  1805.  A  statute  regulating  the  trade,  the  apprenticeship  of  children,  the 
construction  of  flues,  preventing  calling  "sweep"  in  the  streets,  &c.,  passed  1834.  By 
5  Viet.  1840,  it  is  not  lawful  for  master  sweeps  to  take  apprentices  under  sixteen  years 
of  age  :  and  since  July  I,  1842,  no  individual  under  twenty-one  may  ascend  a  chimney.  In 
1864,  the  enforcement  of  this  law  was  made  more  stringent,  it  having  been  neglected.  At 
the  chemical  works,  Glasgow,  is  a  chimney  (there  termed  a  stalk)  420  feet  in  height ;  the 
height  of  the  Monument  in  London  being  202  feet ;  of  St.  Paul's,  404  feet. 

CHINA,  the  "Celestial  Empire,"  in  Eastern  Asia,  for  which  the  Chinese  annals  claim  an 
antiquity  of  from  80,000  to  100,000  years  B.C.,  is  allowed  to  have  commenced  about  2500  u.  < i.  ; 
by  others  to  have  been  founded  by  Fohi,  supposed  to  be  the  Noah  of  the  Bible,  2240  B.C.* 
We  are  told  that  the  Chinese  were  acute  astronomers  in  the  reign  of  Yao,  2357  B.C. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  yth  century  B.C.,  the  history  of  China  becomes  more  distinct. 
Twenty-two  dynasties  have  reigned,  including  the  present.  In  the  battle  between  Phraates 
and  the  Scythians,  129  B.C.,  the  Chinese  aided  the  latter,  and  afterwards  ravaged  the  coasts 
of  the  Caspian,  which  is  their  first  appearance  in  history.  Lenglet.  The  population  of 
China  was  estimated  at  190,348,228  in  1757  ;  and  at  414,607,000  in  1860. 


The  Chinese  state  their  first  cycle  to  have  com- 
menced     B.C.  2700 

The  first  dates  fixed  to  his  history,  by  Se-ma- 

tsien,  begin 651 

Supposed  age  of  Confucius  (Kungfutze),  the 

Chinese  philosopher  .....  550 
Stupendous  wall  of  China  completed  298  or  211 
The  dynasty  of  Han  ....  202  or  206 
Literature  and  the  art  of  printing  encouraged(?)  202 
Religion  of  Tao-tse  commenced  .  .  .15 
Religion  of  Fo  commenced  .  .  about  A.D.  60 
Pretended  embassy  from  Rome  .  .  .  166 

Nankin  becomes  the  capital 420 

The  atheistical  philosopher,  San-Shin,  flourishes  449 
The  Ncstorian  Christians  permitted  to  preach    635 
They  are  proscribed  and  extirpated  .         .        .     845 
China  ravaged  by  Tartars,  gthto  nth  centuries 
Seat  of  government  transferred  to  Pekin     .     .   1260 
Marco  Polo  introduces  missionaries  .        .         .1275 
Canal,  called  the  Yu  Ho,  completed     .     about  1400, 
Europeans  first  arrive  at  Canton  .        .        .     .  1517 
Macao  is  granted  to  the  Portuguese  .        .        .  1536 
Jesuit  missionaries  are  sent  from  Rome       .     .  1575 
The  country  is  conquered  by  the  eastern  or 
Mantchou  Tartars,  who  establish  the  present 

reigning  house 1616-47 

Tea  brought  to  England 1660 

An  earthquake  throughout  China,buries  300,000 

persons  at  Pekin  alone  ....  1*1662 
Commerce  with  East  India  Company  begins  .  1680 

Jesuit  missionaries  preach 1692 

Commercial  relations  with  Russia    .        .         1719-27 

The  Jesuits  expelled 1724-32 

Another  general  earthquake  destroys   100,000 

persons  at  Pekin,  and  80,000  in  a  suburb       .   1731 
In  a  salute  by  one  of  our  India  ships  in  China, 
a  loaded  gun  was  inadvertently  fired,  which 
killed  a  native ;  the  government  demanded 
the  gunner  to  be  given  up  ;   he  was  soon 
strangled. — Sir  George  Staunton       .     July  2,  1785 
Earl  Macartney's  embassy*  arrives  at  Pekin  ; 

his  reception  by  the  emperor    .        Sept.  14,  1793 
He  is  ordered  to  depart        .        .        .      Oct.  7,    ,, 
And  arrives  in  England   .         .        .        Sept.  6,  1794 
The  affair  of  the  Company's  ship  Neptune,  when 

a  Chinese  was  killed 1807 

Edict  against  Christianity 1812 

Lord  Amherst's  embassy;  f  he  leaves  England 

Feb.  8,  1816 


Exclusive  rights  of  the  E.  I.  Co.  cease  April  22, 

Opium  dispute  begins 

Free-trade  ships  sail  for  England  .        April  25, 
Lord  Napier  arrives  at  Macao,  to  superintend 
British  commerce    ....    July  15, 
Affair  between  the  natives  and   two    British 
ships  of  war;  several  Chinese  killed,  Sept.  5, 
Lord  Napier   dies,   and   is  succeeded  by  Mr. 
(afterwards  sir  John)  Davis     .        .     Oct.  n, 
Opium  trade  interdicted  by  the  Chinese, Nov.  7, 
Chinese  seize  the  Argyle  and  crew    .     Jan.  31, 
Opium  burnt  at  Canton  by  the  Chinese,  Feb.  23, 
Captain  Elliot  becomes  chief  British  commis- 
sioner         Dec.  14, 

Admiral  Maitland  arrives  at  Macao    .   July  ra, 
Commissioner  Lin  orders  seizure  of   opium, 
March  18  ;    British  and  other  residents  for- 
bidden to  leave  Canton,  March  19  ;  the  f  ac  - 
tories  surrounded,  and  outrages  committed, 
March  24  ;  captain  Elliot  requires  of  British 
subjects  their  surrender  to  him  of  all  opium, 
promising  them  on  the  part  of  government 
the  full  value  of  it,  March  27  ;  half  of  it  is 
given  up  as  contraband  to  the  Chinese,  April 
20 ;  the  remainder  (20,283  chests) surrendered, 
May  21 ;  captain  Elliot  and  the  British  mer- 
chants leave   Canton,    May  24 ;   the   opium 
destroyed  by  the  Chinese     .         .        June  3, 
Affair  between  the  British  and  American  sea- 
men and  the  Chinese  ;  a  native  killed,  July  7, 
Hong-Kong  taken        ....  Aug  23 
The  British  boat  Black  Joke  attacked,  and  the 
crew  murdered,  Aug.  24  ;  the  British  mer- 
chants retire  from  Macao    .         .       Aug.  26, 
Affair  at  Kow-luhg  between  British  boats  and 

Chinese  junks Sept.  4, 

Attack    by   28  armed    junks  on   the  British 
frigates  Volage  and  Hyacinth :  several  junks 

blown  up Nov.  3, 

The  British  trade  with  China  ceases,  by  an 

edict  of  the  emperor,  and  the  last  servant  of 

the  company  leaves  this  day    .        .    Dec.  6, 

Edict  of  the  emperor  interdicting  all  trade  and 

intercourse  with  England  for  ever    .  Jan.  5, 

The  Hellas  ship  attacked  by  armed  junks,  May 

22  ;  blockade  of  Canton  by  a  British  fleet, 

by  orders   from  sir  Gordon  Bremer,   June 

28 ;  the  Blonde  with  a  flag  of  truce  fired  on 

at  Amoy,  July  2 ;  Ting-hai,  in  Chusan,  sur- 


1834 


1835 
1836 


1839 


_*  This  embassy  threw  some  lighten  the  political  circumstances  of  the  empire;  it  appeared  to  be 
divided  into  1 5  provinces,  containing  4402  walled  cities  ;  the  population  of  the  whole  was  given  at  333,000,000  : 
its  annual  revenues  at  66,ooo,oooZ.  :  and  the  army,  including  the  Tartars,  1,000,000  of  infantry,  and  800,000 
cavalry ;  the  religion  Pagan,  and  the  government  absolute.  Learning,  and  the  arts  and  sciences,  were 
encouraged,  and  ethics  studied. 

t  His  lordship  failed  in  the  objects  of  his  mission,  having  refused  to  make  the  prostration  of  the 
kou-tou,  lest  he  should  thereby  compromise  the  majesty  of  England. 


CHI 


172 


CHI 


CHINA,  continued. 

renders,  July  5  ;  blockade  established  along 
the  Chinese  coast,  July  10 ;    Mr.  Staunton 
carried  off  to  Canton  ....  Aug.  6, 
Captain  Elliot,  on  board  a  British  steam-ship, 
enters  the  Peiho  river,  nearPekin,  Aug.    n, 
The  ship  Kite  lost  on  a  sand-bank,  and  the  cap- 
tain's wife  and  a  part  of  the  crew  are  captured 
by  the  natives,  and  confined  in  cages  Sept.  15, 
Lin  finally  degraded ;    Keshin  appointed  im- 
perial commissioner,  Sept.  16 ;  capt.  Elliot's 

truce  with  him Nov.  6, 

British    plenipotentiaries    arrive    off  Macao, 

Nov.  20, 

Admiral  Elliot's  resignation  announced,  Nov.  29, 
Mr.  Staunton  released        .        .        .     Dec.  12, 
Negotiations  cease,  owing  to  breaches  of  faith 
on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  emperor  .  Jan.  6, 
Chuen-pe  and  Tae-coc-tow,  and  173  guns  (some 
sent  to  England),  captured        .         .  Jan.  7, 
Hong-Kong  ceded  by  Keshin  to  Great  Britain, 
and  6,000,000  dollars  agreed  to  be  paid  within 
ten  days  to  the  British  authorities  .  Jan.  20, 
Hong-Kong  taken  possession  of       .       Jan.  26, 
The  emperor  rejects  Keshin's  treaty,  Feb.  u  ; 
hostilities  resumed,  Feb.  23  ;  Chusan  evacu- 
ated, Feb.  24 ;  rewards  proclaimed  at  Canton 
for  the  bodies  of  Englishmen,  dead  or  alive  ; 
50,000  dollars  to  be  given  for  ringleaders  and 

chiefs Feb.  25, 

Bogue  forts  taken  by  sir  G.  Bremer ;  admiral 

Kwan  killed  ;  459  guns  captured    .  Feb.  26, 

The    British    squadron    proceeds    to    Canton 

March  i  ;  sir  H.  Gough  takes  command  of  the 

army,  March  2  ;  hostilities  again  suspended, 

March  3  ;    and  again   resumed,    March  6 ; 

Keshin  degraded  by  the  emperor    March  12, 

Flotilla  of  boats  destroyed,  Canton  threatened, 

the  foreign  factories  seized,  and   461  guns 

taken  by  the  British  forces       .        March  18, 

New    commissioners    from    Pekin    arrive    at 

Canton April  14, 

Hong  Kong  Gazette  first  published       .      May  i, 

Capt.  Elliot  prepares  to  attack  Canton  May  17, 

Heights  behind  Canton  taken        .         May  25, 

The    city    ransomed     for    6,000,000    dollars ; 

5,000,000  paid  down  ;  hostilities  cease  May  3 1, 

British  forces  withdrawn,  June  i  ;  and  British 

trade  re-opened        ....     July  16, 

Arrival  at  Macao  of  sir  Henry  Pottmger,  who, 

as  plenipotentiary,  proclaims  the  objects  of 

his  mission  ;  capt.  Elliot  superseded  Aug.  10, 

Amoy  taken,  and  296  guns  destroyed  .  Aug.  27, 

The  Bogue  forts  destroyed        .        .     Sept.  14, 

Ting-hae  taken,  136  guns  captured,  and  Chusan 

re-occupied  by  the  British,  Oct.  i  ;  they  take 

Chin-hae,  Oct.  10;  Ning-po,Oct.  13  ;  Yu-yaou, 

Tsze-kee,  and  Foong-hua        .        .     Dec.  28, 


1840 


1841 


Chinese  attack  Ning-po  and  Chin-hae,  and  are 
repulsed  with  great  loss,  March  10 ;  8000 
Chinese  are  routed  near  Tsze-kee  March  15,  184 

Cha-pou  attacked ;  its  defences  destroyed, 

May  18, 

The  British  squadron  enters  the  river  Kiang, 
June  13  ;  capture  of  Woosung,  and  of  230 
guns  and  stores,  June  16  ;  Shang-hae  taken, 
June  19  ;  the  British  armament  anchors  near 
the  "  Golden  Isle,"  July  20  ;  Chin-Keang 
taken ;  the  Tartar  general  and  many  of  the 
garrison  commit  suicide,  July  21  ;  the  ad- 
vanced ships  reach  Nankin,  Aug.  4  ;  the  whole 
fleet  arrives,  and  the  disembarkation  com- 
mences, Aug.  9  ;  Keying  arrives  at  Nankin,  „ 
with  full  powers  to  treat  for  peace  .  Aug.  12.  „ 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  before  Nankin,  on  board 
the  Cornwallis  by  sir  Henry  Pottinger  for 
England,  and  Keying  Elepoo*  and  Neu-Kien 
on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  emperor — [Con- 
ditions :  lasting  peace  and  friendship  between 
the  two  empires;  China  to  pay  21,000,000  of 
dollars  ;  Canton,  Amoy,  Foochoofoo,  Ning- 
po,  and  Shang-hae  to  be  thrown  open  to  the 
British,  and  consuls  to  reside  at  these  cities  ; 
Hong- Kong  to  be  ceded  in  perpetuity  to  Eng- 
land, <fcc.  ;  Chusan  and  Ku-lang-su  to  be  held 
by  the  British  until  the  provisions  are  ful- 
filled] t  Aug.  29,  ,, 

The  ratifications  signed  by  queen  Victoria  and 
the  emperor  formally  exchanged,  July  22  ; 
Canton  opened  to  the  British  by  an  imperial 
edict July  27,  1843 

Appointment  of  Mr.  Davis  in  the  room  of  sir 
Henry  Pottinger  ....  Feb.  16,  1844 

Bogue  forts  captured  by  the  British    .  April  5,  1847 

Hong-Kong  and  the  neighbourhood  visited  by 
a  violent  typhoon  ;  immense  damage  done  to 
the  shipping  ;  upwards  of  1000  boat-dwellers 
on  the  Canton  river  drowned  .  .  Oct.  1848 

H.M.  steam-ship  Medea  destroys  13  pirate 
junks  in  the  Chinese  seas  .  .  March  4,  1850 

Rebellion  breaks  out  in  Quang-si   .        .     Aug.     ,, 

Appearance  of  the  pretender  Tien-teh,}   March  1851 

Defeat  of  Leu,  the  imperial  commissioner,  and 
destruction  of  half  the  army  .  June  19,  1852 

Successful  progress  of  the  rebels  ;  the  emperor 
applies  to  the  Europeans  for  help,  without 
success  ....  March  and  April,  1853 

The  rebels  take  Nankin,  March  19,  20  ;  Amoy, 
May  19;  Shang-hae  .  .  .  Sept.  7,  ,, 

And  besiege  Canton  without  success  Aug.-Nov.  185 

The  scanty  accounts  are  unfavourable  to  the 
rebels,  the  imperialists  having  retaken  Shang- 
hae,  Amoy,  and  many  important  places  .  .  185 

Outrage  on  the  British  lorcha  Arrow,  in  Canton 
river  § Oct.  8,  i8« 


*  He  took  part  (it  was  said  without  authority)  in  arranging  the  treaty  of  Tien-sin  in  June,  1858. 
was  in  consequence  condemned  to  death — by  suicide. 

t  The  non-fulfilment  of  this  treaty  led  gradually  to  the  war  of  1856-7. 

j  The  emperor  Taou-Kwang,  who  died  Feb.  25,  1850,  during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  became  liber 
in  his  views,  and  favoured  the  introduction  of  European  arts  ;  but  his  son,  the  late  emperor,  a  rash  a 
narrow-minded  prince,  quickly  departed  from  his  father's  wise  policy,  and  adopted  reactionary  measur 
particularly  against  English  influence.     An  insurrection  broke  out  in  consequence,  Aug.  1850,  and  quickl 
became  of  alarming  importance.^  The  insurgents  at  first  proposed  only  to  expel  the  Tartars  ;  but  in  Marcl 
1851 
war 

obtained  some  literary  knowledge  at  Canton  about  1835,  and  also  to  have  become  acquainted  at  that  tir 
with  the  principles  of  Christianity  from  a  Chinese  Christian,  named  Leang-afa,  and  also  from  the  mi 
sionary  Roberts  in  1844.     He  announced  himself  as  the  restorer  of  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  Shang-t 
but  has  derived  many  of  his  dogmas  from  the  Bible.     He  declared  himself  to  be  the  monarch  of  all  beneat- 
the  sky,  the  true  lord  of  China  (and  thus  of  all  the  world),  the  brother  of  Jesus,  and  the  second  son  of  God, 
and  demanded  universal  submission.     He  made  overtures  for  alliance  to  lord  Elgin,  in  November,  1860. 
His  followerg  are  termed  Taepings,  "  princes  of  peace,"  a  title  utterly  belied  by  their  atrocious  deeds. 
The  rebellion  was  virtually  terminated  July  18,  1864,  by  the  capture  of  Nankin,  the  suicide  of 
Tien-wang,  and  the  execution  of  the  military  leaders. 

§  It  was  boarded  by  the  Chinese  officers,  12  men  out  of  the  crew  of  14  being  carried  off,  and  the  national 
ensign  taken  down.     Sir  J.  Bowring,  governor  of  Hong-Kong,  being  compelled  to  resort  to  hostilities, 


CHI 


173 


cm 


CHINA,  continued. 

After  vain  negotiations  with  commissioner  Yeh, 
Canton  forts  attacked  and  taken  .  Oct.  23,  1856 

A  Chinese  fleet  destroyed  and  Canton  bom- 
barded, by  sir  M.  Seymour  .  Nov.  3,  4,  „ 

Imperialists  defeated,  quit  Shang-hae    Nov.  6,     ,, 

The  Americans  revenge  an  attack  by  capturing 
three  forts  ....  Nov.  21 — 23,  ,, 

Rebels  take  Kuriking      .        .         .       Nov.  25,     ,, 

Other  forts  taken  by  the  British        .        .  Dec.     ,, 

The  Chinese  burn  European  factories    Dec.  14,     ,, 

And  murder  the  crew  of  the  Thistle  .    Dec.  30,     ,, 

A- him,  a  Chinese  baker,  acquitted  of  charge  of 
poisoning  the  bread  ....  Feb.  2,  1857 

Troops  arrive  from  Madras,  and  England  ;  and 
lord  Elgin  appointed  envoy  .  .  March,  ,, 

No  change  on  either  side  :  Yeh  said  to  be 
straitened  for  money  ;  the  imperialists  seem 
to  be  gaining  ground  upon  the  rebels  May,  ,, 

Total  destniction  of  the  Chinese  fleet  by  com- 
modore Elliot,  May  25,  27  ;  and  sir  M.  Sey- 
mour and  commodore  Keppel  .  .  June  i,  ,, 

Blockade  of  Canton      ....        Aug.     , , 

Stagnation  in  the  war — lord  Elgin  departs  to 
Calcutta,  with  assistance  to  the  English 
against  the  Sepoys,  July  16 ;  returns  to  Hong- 
Kong  Sept.  25,  ,, 

Gen.  Ashburnham  departs  for  India,  and  gen. 
Straubenzee  assumes  the  command  Oct.  19,  ,, 

Canton  bombarded  and  taken  by  English  and 
French,  Dec.  28,  29, 1857  ;  who  enter  it  Jan.  5,  1858 

Yeh*  sent  a  prisoner  to  Calcutta       .         .   Jan.     ,, 

The  allies  proceed  towards  Pekin,  and  take  the 
Pei-ho  forts  ,  May  20.  ,, 

The  expedition  arrives  at  Tien-Sin    .     May  20,     ,, 

Negotiations  commence  June  5  ;  treaty  of  peace 
signed  at  Tien-sin  by  lord  Elgin,  baron  Gros, 
and  Keying  (who  signed  the  treaty  of  1842) — • 
[Ambassadors  to  be  at  both  courts  ;  freedom 
of  trade  ;  toleration  of  Christianity ;  expenses 
of  war  to  be  paid  by  China ;  a  revised  tariff ; 
term  I  (barbarian)  to  be  no  longer  applied  to 
Europeans]  ....  June  26,  28,  29,  „ 

Lord  Elgin  visits  Japan,  and  concludes  an  im- 
portant treaty  with  the  emperor  .  Aug.  28,  ,, 

The  British  destroy  about  130  piratical  junks 
in  the  Chinese  seas  .  .  Aug.  and  Sept.  ,, 

Lord  Elgin  proceeds  up  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  to 
Nankin,  Jan.  ;  returns  to  England  .  May,  1859 

Mr.  Bruce,  the  British  envoy,  on  his  way  to 
Pekin,  is  stopped  in  the  river  Pei-ho  (or  Tien- 
sin);  admiral  Hope  attempting  to  force  a 
passage,  is  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  81  killed,, 
and  about  390  wounded .  .  .  June  25,  ,, 

The  American  envoy  Ward  arrives  at  Pekin, 
and  refusing  to  submit  to  degrading  cere- 
monies, does  not  see  the  emperor,  July  29  ; 
the  commercial  treaty  with  America  is  con- 
cluded   Nov.  24,  „ 

The  English  and  French  prepare  an  expedition 
against  China Oct.  „ 

Lord  Elgin  and  baron  Gros  sail  for  China,  April 
26;  wrecked  near  point  de  Galle,  Ceylon, 
May  23  ;  arrive  at  Shang-hae  .  June  29,  1860 

The  war  begins  :  the  British  commanded  by  sir 
Hope  Grant,  the  French  by  general  Montau- 
ban.  The  Chinese  defeated  in  a  skirmish 
near  the  Pei-ho  .  .  .  .  Aug.  12,  „ 

The  allies  repulse  the  Tae-ping  rebels  attacking 
Shang-hae,  Aug.  18-20 ;  and  take  the  Taku- 
forts,  losing  500  killed  and  wounded ;  the  Tar- 
tar general  San-ko-lin-sin  retreats  Aug.  21,  „ 

After  vain  negotiations,  the  allies  advance  to- 
wards Pekin  ;  they  defeat  the  Chinese  at 
Chang -kia-wan  and  Pa-li-chiau  Sept.  18  &  21,  ,, 

Consul  Parkes,   captains  Anderson  and  Bra- 


bazon,  Mr.  De  Norman,  Mr.  Bowlby  (the 
Times'  correspondent),  and  14  others  (Euro- 
peans and  Sikhs),  advance  to  Tung-chow,  to 
arrange  conditions  for  a  meeting  of  the  minis- 
ters, and  are  captured  by  San-ko-lin-sin ; 
capt.  Brabazon  and  abbe"  de  Luc  beheaded, 
and  said  to  be  thrown  into  the  canal ;  others 
carried  into  Pekin  .  .  .  Sept.  21, 

The  allies  march  towards  Pekin  ;  the  French 
ravage  the  emperor's  summer  palace,  Oct.  6  ; 
Mr.  Parkes,  Mr.  Loch,  and  others,  restored 
alive,  Oct.  8  ;  capt.  Anderson,  Mr.  De  Norman, 

-    and  others  die  of  ill-usage        .         Oct.  8-n, 

Pekin  invested  ;  surrenders,  Oct.  12 ;  severe 
proclamation  of  sir  Hope  Grant  .  Oct.  15, 

The  bodies  of  Mr.  De  Norman  and  Mr.  Bowlby 
buried  with  great  solemnity  in  the  Russian 
cemetery  in  Pekin,  Oct.  17 ;  the  summer 
palace  (Yuen-ming-yuen)  burnt  by  the 
British,  in  memory  of  the  outraged  prisoners 

Oct.  18, 

Convention  signed  in  Pekin  by  lord  Elgin  and 
the  prince  of  Kung,  by  which  the  treaty  of 
Tien-sin  is  ratified  ;  apology  made  for  the 
attack  at  Pei-ho  (June  25,  1859)  ;  a  large  in- 
demnity to  be  paid  immediately,  and  com- 
pensation in  money  given  to  the  families  of 
the  murdered  prisoners.&c.  ;  Kow-loon  ceded 
in  exchange  for  Chusan,  and  the  treaty  and 
convention  to  be  proclaimed  throughout  the 
empire Oct.  24, 

Allies  quit  Pekin        ....       Nov.  5; 

Treaty  between  Russia  and  China— the  former 
obtaining  free  trade,  territories,  &c.  Nov.  14, 

Mr.  Loch  arrives  in  England  with  the  treaty 

Dec.  27, 

First  instalment  of  indemnity  paid  .   Nov.  30, 

Part  of  the  allied  troops  comfortably  settled  at 
Tien-sin Jan.  5, 

Adm.  Hope  examines  Yang-tse-Kiang,  <fec.  Feb. 

English  and  French  embassies  established  at 
Pekin March, 

The  emperor  Hienfung  dies      .        .     Aug.  24, 

Canton  restored  to  the  Chinese        .       Oct.  21, 

Ministerial  crisis ;  several  ministers  put  to 
death  ;  Kung  appointed  regent  .  Dec.  13, 

Advance  of  the  rebels ;  they  seize  and  desolate 
Ning-po  and  Hang-chow  .  .  .  Dec. 

They  advance  on  Shang-hae,  which  is  placed 
under  protection  of  the  English  and  French, 
and  fortified Jan. 

Rebels  defeated  in  two  engagements    .    April, 

English  and  French  assist  the  government 
against  the  rebels— Ning-po  retaken  May  10, 

French  admiral  Protet  killed  in  an  attack  on 
rebels May  17, 

Captain  Sherard  Osborne  permitted  by  the 
British  government  to  organise  a  small  fleet 
of  gun-boats  to  aid  the  imperialists  to 
establish  order July, 

Imperialists  gaining  ground,  take  Kan-sing,  &c 

Oct. 

Commercial  treaty  with  Prussia  ratified  Jan.  14, 

The  imperialists  under  Gordon,  defeat  the 
Taepings  under  Burgevine,  &c.  .  Oct. 

Gordon,  commanding  the  imperialists,  captures 
Sow-chow  (after  a  severe  attack  on  Nov.  27, 
28)  ;  the  rebel  chiefs  treacherously  butchered 
by  the  Chinese  ....  Dec.  4,  5, 

Capt.  Osborne  came  to  China ;  but  retired  in 
consequence  of  the  Chinese  government  de- 
parting from  its  engagements  .  Dec.  31, 

Gordon's  successes  continue     .     Jan.  to  April, 

After  a  severe  repulse  he  takes  Chang-chow -foo, 

Mar.  23, 


1860 


1862 


1864 


applied  to  India  and  Ceylon  for  troops.  On  March  3,  1857,  the  house  of  commons,  by  a  majority  of  19, 
censured  sir  John  for  the  "  violent  measures  "  he  had  pursued.  The  ministry  (who  took  his  part)  dissolved 
tho  parliament ;  but  obtained  a  large  majority  in  the  new  one. 

*  He  died  peacefully  at  Calcutta,  April  9,  1859.     He  is  said  to  have  beheaded  above  100,000  rebels. 


CHI 


174 


CHO 


CHINA,  continued. 

He  takes  Nankin  (a  heap  of  ruins)  ;  the  Tien- 
wang,  the  rebel  emperor,  commits  suicide 
by  eating  gold  leaf.  Chang- wang  and  Kan- 
wang,  the  rebel  generals,  are  "  cut  into  a 
thousand  pieces ;"  .  .  .  .  July  18,  1864 

The  Taepings  hold  Ming-chow ;  the  Mahome- 
tan rebellion  progressing  in  Honan  March,  1865 

Taepings  evacuate  Ming-chow     .        .     May  23     ,, 

A  rebellion  in  the  north,  headed  by  Nien-fei ; 
Pekin  in  danger  ....  July  „ 

The  Chinese  general  San-ko-lin-sin  defeated 
and  slain  ;  his  son  more  successful  .  July  „ 


CHINESE    EMPERORS. 

1627.  Chwang-lei. 

1644.  Shun-che  (first  of  the  Tsing  dynasty). 

1669.  Kang-he. 

1693.  Yung-ching. 

1735.  Keen-lung. 

1795.  Kea-king. 

1820.  Taou-Kwang. 

1850.  Hieng-fimg,  Feb.  25. 

1861.  Ki-tsiang,  Aug.  22  ;  born  April  5,  1855. 


CHINA  PORCELAIN  introduced  into  England  about  1531.     See  Pottery. 

CHINA  ROSE,  &c.  The  Rosa  indica  was  brought  from  China,  and  successfully  planted 
in  England,  1 786  ;  the  Chinese  apple-tree,  or  Pyrus  spectabilis,  about  1 780. 

CHIOS  (now  Scio),  an  isle  in  the  Greek  Archipelago,  revolted  against  Athens,  412  B.C. 
It  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  the  Greeks,  being  conquered  by  the  Venetians,  A.D.  1124;  by 
the  Crusaders,  1204  ;  by  the  Greek  emperor  and  Romans,  1329  ;  by  the  Genoese,  1329,  and 
by  the  Turks  in  1459.  A  dreadful  massacre  of  the  inhabitants  by  the  Turks  took  place  April 
n,  1822,  during  the  Greek  insurrection.* 

CHIPPAWA  (N.  America).  Here  the  British  under  Riall  were  defeated  by  the 
Americans  under  Browne,  July  5,  1814.  The  Americans  were  defeated  by  the  British, 
under  generals  Drummond  and  Riall,  July  25  following,  but  the  latter  was  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner. 

CHIYALRY  arose  out  of  the  feudal  system  in  the  latter  part  of  the  8th  century 
(chevalier,  or  knight,  being  derived  from  the  caballarius,  the  equipped  feudal  tenant  on 
horseback).  From  the  I2th  to  the  I5th  century  it  tended  to  refine  manners.  The  knight 
swore  to  accomplish  the  duties  of  his  profession,  as  the  champion  of  God  and  the  ladies  ; 
to  speak  the  truth,  to  maintain  the  right,  to  protect  the  distressed,  to  practise  courtesy,  to 
fulfil  obligations,  and  to  vindicate  in  every  perilous  adventure  his  honour  and  character. 
Chivalry,  which  owed  its  origin  to  the  feudal  system,  expired  with  it.  See  Tournaments. 
By  letters  patent  of  James  I.  the  earl-marshal  of  England  had  "the  like  jurisdiction  in  the 
courts  of  chivalry,  when  the  office  of  lord  high  constable  was  vacant,  as  this  latter  and  the 
marshal  did  jointly  exercise,"  1623.  See  Kniglitlwod. 

CHLORINE  (Greek  cliloros,  pale  green),  a  gas  first  obtained  by  Scheele  in   1774, 
treating  manganese  with  muriatic  (hydrochloric)  acid.     Sir  H.  Davy,  in  1810,  proved 
gas  to  be  an  element,  and  named  it  chlorine.     Combined  with  sodium  it  forms  comm( 
salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  and  combined  with  lime,  the  bleaching  powder  and  disinfectant 
chloride  of  lime.    The  bleaching  powers  of  chlorine  were  made  known  by  Berthollet  in  178' 
In  1823  chlorine  was  condensed  into  a  liquid  by  Faraday. 

CHLOROFORM  (the  ter-chloride  of  the  hypothetical  radical  formyl)  is  a  compound 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  chlorine,  and  was  made  from  alcohol,  water,  and  bleaching  pow< 
It  was  discovered  by  Soubeiran  in  1831,  and  its  composition  was  determined  by  Dumas 
1834.     The  term  "  chloric  ether"  was  applied  in  1820  to  a  mixture  of  chlorine  and  olefk 
gas.     Chloroform  was  first  applied  as  an  anaesthetic  by  Dr.  Simpson  of  Edinburgh  ;  it 
first  administered  in  England  on  Dec.  14,  1848,  by  Mr.  James  Robinson,  surgeon-dentist.- 

CHOBHAM  COMMON,  in  Surrey.     A  military  camp  was  formed  here  on  June  14,  i8< 
by  a  force  between  8000  and  10,000  strong.     The  last  field-day  took  place  Aug.  17,  i 
Only  one  serious  case  of  misconduct  was  reported  during  all  the  time. 

CHOCOLATE,  made  of  the  cocoa  berry,  introduced  into  Europe  (from  Mexico  and 
Brazils)  about  1520,  was  sold  in  the  London  coffee-houses  soon  after  their  establishment,  1 


*  The  slaughter  lasted  10  days  :  40,000  of  both  sexes  falling  victims  to  the  sword,  or  to  the  fire,  wl 
raged  until  every  house,  save  those  of  the  foreign  consuls,  was  burned  to  the  groiind.  7000  Greeks, 
had  fled  to  the  mountains,  were  induced  to  surrender  by  a  promise  of  amnesty,  guaranteed  by  the  con 
of  England,  France,  and  Austria  :  yet  even  they  were  all  butchered  !  The  only  exception  made  during  the 
massacre  was  in  favour  of  the  young  and  more  beautiful  women  and  boys,  30,000  of  whom  were  reserved 
for  the  mai-kets. 

t  A  committee  of  the  Eoyal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society  in  July,  1864,  after  examining  statistics, 
reported  that  the  use  of  anaesthetics  had  in  no  degree  increased  the  rate  of  mortality. 


CHO 


175 


CHR 


CHOIR.  This  was  separated  from  the  nave  of  the  church  in  the  time  of  Constantino. 
The  choral  service  was  first  used  in  England  at  Canterbury,  677.  See  Chanting. 

CHOLERA  MORBUS,  known  in  its  more  malignant  form  as  the  Indian  cholera,  made 
ccrcat  ravages  in  the  north,  east,  and  south  of  Europe,  and  in  Asia,  where  alone  it  carried  oil' 
more  than  900,000  persons,  in  1829-30.  In  England  and  Wales  in  1848-9,  53,293  persons 
died  of  cholera,  and  in  1854,  20,097. 


Cholera  appears  at  Sunderland  .        .     Oct.  26,  1831 

And  at  Edinburgh  ....      Feb.  6,  1832 

First  observed  at  Rotherhithe  and  Limehouse, 
London,  Feb.  13  ;  and  in  Dublin  .  March  3  ,, 

The  mortality  very  great,  but  more  so  on  the 
Continent  ;  18,000  deaths  at  Paris,  between 

March  and  August,  1832 

Cholera  rages  in  Rome,  the  Two  Sicilies,  Genoa, 
Berlin,  <fec.,  in  .  .  July  and  August,  1837 

Another  visitation  of  cholera  in  England  :  the 
number  of  deaths  in  London,  for  the  week 
ending  Sept.  15,  1849,  was  3183  ;  the  ordinary 
average  1008  ;  and  the  number  of  deaths 
by  cholera  from  June  17  to  Oct.  2,  in  London 
alone,  13,161.  The  mortality  lessened  and 
the  distemper  disappeared  .  .  Oct.  13,  1849 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne,   Hexham,  Tynemouth, 


and  other  northern  towns,  suffer  much  from 
cholera Sept.  1853 

It  rages  in  Italy  and  Sicily  ;  above  10,000  are 
said  to  have  died  at  Naples  ;  it  was  also  very 
fatal  to  the  allied  troops  at  Varna,  autumn,  1854 

Cholera  very  severe  for  a  short  time  in  the 
southern  parts  of  London,  and  in  Soho  and 
St.  James's,  Westminster  .  Aug.  and  Sept.  ,, 

Raging  in  Alexandria,  June  ;  abated    .    July,  1865 

Prevailing  in  Ancona  (843  deaths)  Aug.,  sub- 
siding   Sept,  ,, 

Very  severe  in  Constantinople,  nearly  50,000 
deaths,  Aug. ;  subsides  after  the  great  fire, 

Sept.  6  „ 

Cases  at  Marseilles,  Toulon,  and  Southampton, 
end  of Sept.  ,, 


CHORAGUS,  a  Greek  officer  who  regulated  the  chorus  in  the  public  feasts,  worship, 
&c.  Stesichorus  (or  Tysias)  received  this  name,  he  having  first  taught  the  chorus  to  dance 
to  the  lyre,  556  B.C.  Quintil. 


CHORUS-SINGING  was  early  practised  at  Athens. 
off  the  prize  for  the  best  voice,  508  B.C.     Parian  marbles. 


Hypodicus,  of  Chalcides,  carried 
See  Music. 


CHOTJANS,  a  name  given  to  the  Bretons  during  the  war  of  La  Vendee  in  1792,  from 
their  chief  Jean  Cottereau,  using  the  cry  of  the  Cliat-haunt,  or  screech-owl,  as  a  signal.  He 
was  killed  in  1794.  Georges  Cadoudal,  their  last  chief,  was  connected  with  Pichegru  in  a 
conspiracy  against  Napoleon  when  first  consul,  and  was  executed  in  1804. 

CHRISM,  consecrated  oil,  was  used  early  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  Roman  and  Greek 
churches.  Musk,  saffron,  cinnamon,  roses,  and  frankincense,  are  mentioned  as  used  with  the 
oil,  in  1541.  It  was  ordained  that  chrism  should  consist  of  oil  and  balsam  only  ;  the  one 
representing  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  and  the  other  his  divine  nature,  1596. 

CHRIST.  See  Jesus  Christ.  CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL  (the  Blue-Coat  school)  was  established 
by  Edward  VI.  1553,  on  the  site  of  the  Grey  Friars  monastery.  A  mathematical  ward  was 
founded  by  Charles  II.,  1672,  and  the  city  of  London  and  the  community  of  England  have 
contributed  to  render  it  a  richly  endowed  charity.  The  Times  ward  was  founded  in  1841. 
Large  portions  of  the  edifice  having  fallen^  into  decay,  it  was  rebuilt  :  in  1822  a  new  infirmary 
was  completed,  and  in  1825  (April  25)  the  duke  of  York  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  magnificent 
new  hall.  —  On  Sept.  24,  1854,  the  master,  Dr.  Jacob,  in  a  sermon,  in  the  church  of  the 
hospital,  censured  the  system  of  education  and  the  general  administration  of  the  establish- 
ment, and  many  improvements  have  since  been  made.  The  subordinate  school  at  Hertford, 
for  416  younger  boys  and  80  girls,  was  founded  in  1683.  CHRIST'S-THORN,  conjectured  to 
be  the  plant  of  which  our  Saviour's  crown  of  thorns  was  composed,  came  hither  from  the 
south  of  Europe  before  1596. 

CHRISTIAN"  ERA.  See  Anno  Domini.  CHRISTIAN  KNOWLEDGE  SOCIETY  was  founded 
in  1698  to  promote  charity  schools,  and  to  disperse  bibles  and  religious  tracts.  It  has  an 
annual  revenue  of  about  ioo,oooZ.  MOST  CHRISTIAN  KING;  Christianissimus  Rex,  a  title 
conferred  by  pope  Paul  II.  in  1469  on  the  crafty  Louis  XL  of  France. 

CHRISTIANIA,  the  capital  of  Norway,  built  in  1624,  by  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  to 
replace  Opslo  (the  ancient  capital  founded  by  Harold  Haardrade,  1058),  which  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  On  April  13,  1858,  Christiania  suffered  by  fire,  the  loss  being  about  250,000?. 
The  university  was  established  in  1811.  New  Storthing  (parliament  house)  built  1861-2. 

CHRISTIANITY.  The  name  Christian  was  first  given  to  the  believers  and  followers  of 
Christ's  doctrines  at  Antioch,  in  Syria,  43  (Acts  xi.  26,  i  Peter  iv.  6).  The  first  Christians 
were  divided  into  episcopal  (bishops  or  overseers),  presbyteroi  (elders),  diaconoi  (ministers  or 
deacons),  and  pistoi  (believers)  ;  afterwards  were  added  catechumens,  or  learners,  and  ener- 
gumcns,  who  were  to  be  exorcised.  See  Persecutions. 


CHRISTIANITY,  continued. 

Christianity  said  to  be  taught  in  Britain,  about 

64  ;  and  propagated  with  some  success  (Bede) 
Christianity  said  to  be  introduced  into  Scotland 

in  the  reign  of  Donald  I.,  about         .        .     . 
Constantino  the  Great  professes  the  Christian 

religion 

Fruruentius  preaches  in  Abyssinia  .  about 
Introduced  among  the  Goths  by  Ulfilas  .  . 
Into  Ireland  in  the  second  century,  but  with 

more  success  after  the  arrival  of  St.  Patrick  in 
Christianity  established  in  France  by  Clovis  . 
Conversion  of  the  Saxons*  by  Augustin  .  . 
Introduced  into  Helvetia,  by  Irish  missionaries 
Into  Flanders  in  the  7th  century. 
Into  Saxony,  by  Charlemagne  .... 
Into  Denmark,  under  Harold  .  .  . 

Into  Bohemia,  under  Borzivoi 


156 


Into  Russia,  by  Swiatoslaf      .         .        .     about 
Into  Poland,  under  Meicislaiis  I.        ... 

Into  Hungary,  under  Geisa 

Into  Norway  and  Iceland,  under  Olaf  I.    . 
Into  Sweden,  between  ioth  and  nth  centuries. 
Into  Prussia,  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  when 

they  were  returning  from  the  holy  wars 
Into  Lithuania ;  paganism  was  abolished  about 
Into  Guinea,  Angola,   and  Congo,  in  the  isth 

century. 
Into  China,  where  it  made  some  progress  (but 

was  afterwards  extirpated,  and  thousands  of 

Chinese  Christians  were  put  to  death)  . 
Into  India  and  America,  in  the  i6th  century. 
Into  Japan,  by  Xavier  and  the  Jesuits,  1549; 

but  the  Christians  were  exterminated  in 
Christianity  re-established  in  Greece    .        .     . 


940 
992 
994 
998  . 


1227 

1386 


1575 


1638 
1628 


CHRISTMAS-DAY,  Dec.  25  (from  Christ  and  the  Saxon  mcesse,  signifying  the  mass 
and  a  feast),  a  festival  in  commemoration  of  the  nativity  of  our  Saviour,  said  to  have  been 
first  kept  98 ;  and  ordered  to  be  held  as  a  solemn  feast,  by  pope  Telesphorus,  about  137-f 
In  the  eastern  church,  Christmas  and  the  Epiphany  (which  see)  are  deemed  but  one  and  the 
same  feast.  The  holly  and  mistletoe  used  at  Christmas  are  said  to  be  the  remains  of  the 
religious  observances  of  the  Druids.  See  Anno  Domini. 

CHRISTMAS  ISLAND,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  so  named  by  captain  Cook,  who  landed 
here  on  Christmas-day,  1777.  He  had  passed  Christmas-day  at  Christmas-sound,  1774.  On 
the  shore  of  Christmas  GEIarbour,  visited  by  him  in  1776,  one  of  his  men  found  a  piece  of 
parchment  with  this  inscription  :  "  Ludovico  XV.  Galliarum  rege,  et  d.  Boynesregi  a  sccretis 
ad  res  maritimas,,amlis  1772  et  1773."  On  the  other  side  of  it  captain  Cook  wrote  : 
"Naves  Resolution  et  Discovery  de  rege  Magnets  Britannice,  Dec.  1776,"  and  placed  it  in  a 
bottle  safely. 

CHRISTOPHER'S,  St.  (or  St.  Kitt's),  a  West  India  island,  discovered  in  1493,  by 
Columbus,  who  gave  it  his  own  name.  Settled  by  the  English  and  French  1623  or  1626. 
Ceded  to  England  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  1713.  Taken  by  the  French  in  1782,  but 
restored  the  next  year.  The  town  of  Basseterre  suffered  from  a  fire,  Sept.  3,  1776. 

CHROMIUM  (Greek,  chrome  colour),  a  rare  metal,  discovered  by  Yauquelin  in  1797.  It 
is  found  combined  with  iron  and  lead,  and  forms  the  colouring  matter  of  the  emerald. 

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY.     See  Printing  in  Colours. 

CHRONICLES.  The  earliest  are  those  of  the  Jews,  Chinese,  and  Hindoos.  In  Scrip- 
ture there  are  two  "Books  of  Chronicles."  Collections  of  the  British  chroniclers  have  been 
published  by  Camden,  Gale,  &c.,  since  1602  ;  in  the  present  century  by  the  English  Historical 
Society,  &c.  In  1858,  the  publication  of  "  Chronicles  and  Memorials  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  during  the  Middle  Ages,"  commenced  under  the  direction  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls. 
Macray's  "  Manual  of  British  Historians"  was  published  1845. 

CHRONOLOGY  (the  science  of  time)  has  for  its  object  the  arrangement  and  exhibit 
of  the  various  events  of  the  history  of  the  world  in  the  order  of  their  succession,  and 
ascertaining  the  intervals  between  them.  See  Eras  and  Epochs.  Valuable  works  on  the 
subject  are  V  Art  de  Verifier  les  Dates,  compiled  by  the  Benedictines  (1783 — 1820).  Play- 
fair's  Chronology,  1784;  Blair's  Chronology,  1753  (new  editions  by  sir  H.  Ellis,  in  1844, 
and  by  Mr.  Rosse,  in  1856).  The  Oxford  Chronological  Tables,  1838.  Sir  Harris  Nicolas' 
Chronology  of  History,  1833  ;  new  edition,  1852.  Hales'  Chronology,  2nd  edition,  1830  ; 
Mr.  H.  Fynes-Clinton's  Fasti  Hellenici  and  Fasti  Romani  (1824-50). 

CHRONOMETER.     See  Clocks  and  Harrison. 


*  It  is,  traditionally,  said  that  Gregory  the  Great,  shortly  before  his  elevation  to  the  papal  chair, 
chanced  one  day  to  pass  through  the  slave-market  at  Rome,  and  perceiving  some  children  of  great  beauty 
who  were  set  up  for  sale,  he  inquired1  -' 
to  have  cried  out  in  the  Latin  langut 

-would  not  be  English,  but  angels,  if  ._-„    

desire  to  convert  that  unenlightened  nation,  and  ordered  a  monk  named  Austin,  or  Augustin,  and  others 
of  the  same  fraternity,  to  undertake  the  mission  to  Britain  in  the  year  596. 

t  Diocletian,  the  Roman  emperor,  keeping  his  court  at  Nicomedia,  being  informed  that  the  Christians 
were  assembled  on  this  day  in  great  multitudes  to  celebrate  Christ's  nativity,  ordered  the  doors  to  be  shut, 
and  the  church  to  be  set  on  fire,  and  600  perished  in  the  burning  pile.  This  was  the  commencement  of  the 
tenth  persecution,  which  lasted  ten  years,  303. 


.. 


CHR 


177 


CHU 


CHRONOSCOPE,  an  apparatus  invented  by  professor  Wlieatstone  in  1840,  to  measure' 
small  intervals  of  time.  It  has  been  applied  to  the  velocity  of  projectiles,  and  of  the  electric 
current.  Chronoscopes  were  invented  by  Pouillet,  and  others  in  1844. 

CHUNAR,  TREATY  OF,  concluded  between  the  nabob  of  Oude  and  governor  Hastings, 
by  which  the  nabob  was  relieved  of  all  his  debts  to  the  East  India  Company,  on  condition  of 
his  seizing  the  property  of  the  begums,  his  mother  and  grandmother,  and  delivering  it  up  to 
the  English,  Sep.  19,  1781.  This  treaty  enabled  the  nabob  to  take  the  lands  of  Fyzoola 
Khan,  a  Rohilla  chief,  who  had  settled  at  Eampoor,  under  guarantee  of  the  English.  The 
nabob  presented  to  Mr.  Hastings  ioo,oooZ. 

CHURCH  (probably  derived  from  the  Greek  Tcyrioikos,  pertaining  to  the  Lord,  Kyrios], 
signifies  a  collective  body  of  Christians,  and  also  the  place  where  they  meet.  In  the  New 
Testament,  it  signifies  "congregation,"  in  the  original  ekklesia.  Christian  architecture 
commenced  with  Constantino,  who,  after  he  was  settled  in  his  government,  erected,  at  Rome, 
churches  (called  basilicas,  from  the  Greek  basileiis,  a  king)  ;  St.  Peter's  being  erected  about 
330.  His  successors  erected  others  ;  and  adopted  the  heathen  temples  as  places  of  worship. 
Several  very  ancient  churches  exist  in  Britain  and  Ireland.  See  Architecture  ;  Choir  and 
Chanting  ;  Rome,  Modern :  and  Popes. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.*  The  following  are  important  facts  in  her  history  :  for  details, 
refer  to  separate  articles. — See  Clergy. 


Britain  converted  to  Christianity  ("  Christo 
subdita, "  Tertullian)  .  .  .  and  century 

Invasion  of  the  Saxons,  477 ;  converted  by 
Augustin  and  his  companions 


Dunstaii  establishes  the  supremacy  of  the  mo- 


596 
960 


nastic  orders,  about 

The  aggrandising  policy  of  the  Church,  fostered 
by  Edward  the  Confessor,  was  checked  by 
William  I.  and  his  successors  .  .  1066  et  seq. 

Contest  between  Henry  II.  and  Becket  re- 
specting the  "  Constitutions  of  Clarendon," 

1164-1170 

John  surrenders  his  crown  to  the  papal  legate  1213 

Rise  of  the  Lollards— Wickliffe  publishes  tracts 
against  the  errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
1356  ;  and  a  version  of  the  Bible,  about  .  1383 

The  clergy  regulated  by  parliament,  1529 ;  they 
lose  the  first  fruits 

The  royal  supremacy  imposed  on  the  clergy  by 
Henry  VIII.,  1531 ;  many  suffer  death  for  re 
fusing  to  acknowledge  it 

Coverdale's  translation  of  the  Bible  commanded 
to  bo  read  in  churches 

"  Six  Articles  of  Religion  "  promulgated 

First  book  of  Common  Prayer  issued    . 

The  clergy  permitted  to  marry 

"  Forty-two  Articles  of  Religion  "  issued 

Restoration  of  the  Roman  forms,  and  fierce 
persecution  of  the  Protestants  by  Mary  .  1553-8 

The  Protestant  forms  restored  by  Elizabeth  ; 
the  Puritan  dissensions  begin  .  .  1558-1603 

"  Thirty  nine  "  Articles  published         .        .     .   1563 

Hampton  Court  conference  with  the  Puritans  1604 

New  translation  of  the  Bible  published         .     .   1611 

Book  of  Common  Prayer  suppressed  and  Direc- 
tory established  by  parliament  .  .  .  1644 

Presbyterians  established  by  the  Common- 
wealth    .  .  !649 

Act  of  Uniformity  (14  Chas,  II.  c.  4)  passed — 
2000  nonconforming  ministers  resign  their 
livings X662 

Attempts  of  James  II.  to  revive  Romanism ; 


•  1534 


1535 


•  1539 

•  1548 
^549 

1552 


"  Declaration  of  Indulgence  "  published        .  1687 
Acquittal  of  the  seven  bishops  on  a  charge  of 

" seditious  libel" i6S8 

The  Non-juring  bishops  and  others  deprived ; 

(they  formed  a  separate  communion)  Feb.  i,  1691 
"  Queen  Anne's  Bounty,"  for  the  augmentation 

of  poor  livings 1704 

Act  for  building  50  new  churches  passed  .  .  1710 
Fierce  disputes  between  the  low  church  and 

high  church ;  trial  of  Sacheverell       .        .     .     ,, 
The  Bangorian  con troversy  begins     .        .         -1717 
John  Wesley  and  George  Whitefield  commence 

preaching 1738 

Rise  of  the  Evangelical  party  in  the  church, 

under  Newton,  Romaine,  and  others,  in  the 

latter  part  of  the  i8th  century. 
Church  of  England  united  with  that  of  Ireland 

at  the  Union 1800 

Clergy  Incapacitation  Act  passed  .        .     .  1801 

Acts  for  building  and  enlarging  churches  1828,  1838 
200  new  churches  erected  in  the  diocese  of 

London  during  the  episcopate  of  C.  J.  Blom- 

field 1828-56 

"Tracts  for  the  Times"  (No.   1-90)  published 

(much  controversy  ensued)       .  .     1833-41 

Ecclesiastical  Commission  established  .  .  1834 
New  Church  Discipline  Act  (3  &  4  Viet.  c.  86)  .  1841 
"  Essays  and  Reviews  "  published,  1860  ;  nume-' 

rous  Replies  issued  (see  Essays  and  Reviews)  1861-2 

[The  Church  of  England  is  now  said  to  be 
divided  into  High,  Low  (or  Evangelical),  and 
Broad  Church:  the  last  including  persons 
who  hold  the  opinions  of  the  late  Dr.  Arnold, 
the  Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice,  and  others.] 

Dr.  Colenso,  bishop  of  Natal,  publishes  his  work 
on  "The  Pentateuch,"  about  Oct.,  1862; 
great  cry  against  it ;  the  bishops,  in  convo- 
cation, declare  that  it  contains  "errors  of 
the  gravest  and  most  dangerous  character," 

May  20,  1863 

A  Church  Congress  at  Manchester,  Oct.  13, 14, 15,     ,, 


*  The  church  of  England  consists  of  three  orders  of  clergy — bishops,  priests,  and  deacons;  viz.,  two 
archbishops  and  twenty-five  bishops,  exclusive  of  the  see  of  Sodor  and  Man.  The  other  dignities  are 
chancellors,  deans  (of  cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches),  archdeacons,  prebendaries,  canons,  minor  canons, 
and  priest-vicars  :  these  and  the  incumbents  of  rectories,  vicarages,  and  chapelries,  make  the  number 
of  preferments  of  the  established  church,  according  to  official  returns,  12,327.  The  number  of  be»ejices  in 
England  and  Wales,  according  to  parliamentary  returns,  in  1844,  was  11,127,  an(i  *ne  number  of  glebe- 
houses  5527.  The  number  of  parishes  is  11,077,  and  of  churches  and  chapels  about  14,100.  The  number  of 
benefices  in  Ireland  was  1495,  to  which  there  were  not  more  than  about  900  glebe-houses  attached,  the  rest 
having  no  glebe-houses.  An  act  was  passed  in  1860  for  the  union  of  contiguous  benefices.  See  ChurCh,  of 
England. 


CHU  178                                 CIL 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND,  continued. 

Bishop  Colenso  deposed  by  his  metropolitan,  are  said  to  have  signed  ;  it  was  presented  to 

Dr.  Gray,  bishop  of  Capetown        .    April  16,  1864        the  archbishop  of  Canterbury         .     May  12,   1864 

Bishop  Colenso's  appeal  came  before  the  privy  i  "  Bishop  of  London's  Fund,"  for  remedying 

council,   which  declared  bishop  Gray's  pro-  spiritual  destitution  in  London,  established  ; 

ceedings  null  and  void     (since    a    colonial  the  Queen  engages  to  give  (in  three  years) 

bishop  can  have  no  authority  except  what  3000?.,  and  prince  of  Wales  loooL    .    March  7,     „ 

is  granted  by  parliament  or  by  the  colonial  i  100,456?.  received;  72,003?.  promised,  Dec.  31,     „ 

legislature)         ....        March  21,  1865  :  The  Queen  engages  to  give  15,000?.  in  10  years, 

Church  congress  at  Bristol       .        .        .     Oct.  1864  !                                                                            April,  1865 

"  Oxford  Declaration"  (authorship  ascribed  to  New  form  of  clerical  subscription  proposed  by- 


archdeacon  Denison  and  Dr.  Pusey),  respect- 
ing belief  in  eternal  punishment,  drawn  up 


a  commission  in  1864  ;  adopted  by  parliament, 


July, 

and  signed  on  Feb.  25,  and  sent  by  post  to  Church  congress  met  at  Norwich   .        Oct.  3-7 

the  clergy  at  large  for  signature  :  about  3000  •  Congress  to  be  at  York  in  .         .        .        .1866 

CHURCH  OF  IRELAND  is  now  in  connection  with,  that  of  England — the  United 
Church  of  England  and  Ireland.  Previously  to  the  Church  Temporalities  Act  of  Will.  IV. 
in  1833,  there  were  four  archbishoprics  and  eighteen  bishoprics  in  Ireland,  of  which  two 
archbishoprics  and  eight  bishoprics  have  ceased  ;  that  act  providing  for  the  union  or  abolition 
of  certain  sees,  according  as  the  possessors  of  them  died.  See  Bishops. 

CHURCH  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.  The  Episcopal  church  was  established  in  Nov.  1784, 
when  bishop  Seabury,  chosen  by  the  churches  in  Connecticut,  was  consecrated  in  Scotland. 
The  first  convention  was  held  at  Philadelphia  in  1785.  On  Feb.  4,  1787,  two  more  American 
bishops  were  consecrated  at  Lambeth.  In  1851  there  were  37  bishops. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.  See  .Bishops  in  Scotland.  On  the  abolition  of  Episcopacy  in 
Scotland  in  1638,  Presbyterianism  became  the  established  religion.  Its  distinguishing  tenets 
were  first  embodied  in  the  formulary  of  faith,  said  to  have  been  compiled  by  John  Knox,  in 
1560,  which  was  approved  by  the  parliament  and  ratified  in  1567,  finally  settled  by  an  act  of 
the  Scottish  senate  in  1696,  and  secured  by  the  treaty  of  union  with  England  in  1707.  The 
church  of  Scotland  is  regulated  by  four  courts — the  general  assembly,  *  the  synod,  the  presby- 
tery, and  kirk  sessions.  See  Presbyterians.  A  large  body  seceded  from  this  church  in 
1843,  and  took  the  name  of  the  "Free  Church  of  Scotland,"  which  sec. 

CHURCH-RATES.  The  maintaining  the  church  (i.  e.  the  [building)  in  repair  belongs 
to  the  parishioners,  who  have  the  sole  power  of  taxing  themselves  for  the  expense  when 
assembled  in  vestry.  The  enforcement  of  payment,  which  is  continually  disputed  by  dis- 
senters and  others,  belongs  to  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
abolish  church-rates.  A  bill  for  this  purpose  has  passed  the  commons  only  several  times 
since  1855  ;  one  was  thrown  out  in  May,  1861.  See  Braintree. 

CHURCH-SERVICES  were  ordered  by  pope  Vitellianus  to  be  read  in  Latin  663  ;  by 
queen  Elizabeth  in  1558  to  be  read  in  English. 

CHURCH-WARDENS,  officers  of  the  church,  appointed  by  the  first  canon  of  the  synod 
of  London  in  1127.  Overseers  in  every  parish  were  also  appointed  by  the  same  body,  and 
they  continue  now  nearly  as  then  constituted.  Johnson's  Canons. 

CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN  is  the  act  of  returning  thanks  in  the  church  by  women  after 
child-birth.  It  began  about  214.  Wheatley.  See  Purification. 

CHUSAN,  a  Chinese  isle.     See  China,  1840,  1841,  1860. 

CIDER  (Zidcr,  German),  when  first  made  in  England,  was  called  wine,  about  1284.  The 
earl  of  Manchester,  when  ambassador  in  France,  is  said  to  have  frequently  passed  off  cider 
for  a  delicious  wine.  It  was  subjected  to  the  excise  in  1763  et  seq.  A  powerful  spirit  is 
drawn  from  cider  by  distillation.  —Many  orchards  were  planted  in  Herefordshire  by  lord 
Scudamore,  ambassador  from  Charles  I.  to  France.  John  Philips  published  his  poem 
"Cider"  in  1706. 

CILICIA,  in  Asia  Minor,  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  that  country.  It  became  a  Roman 
province  67  B.C.,  and  was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  A.D.  1387. 

*  The  first  general  assembly  of  the  church  was  held  Dec.  20,  1560.  The  general  assembly  constitutes 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  in  the  kingdom  ;  it  meets  annually  in  Edinburgh  in  May,  and  sits  about 
ten  days.  It  consists  of  a  grand  commissioner,  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  and  delegates  from  presbyteries, 
royal  boroughs,  and  universities,  some  being  laymen.  To  this  court  all  appeals  from  the  inferior  ecclesias- 
tical courts  lie,  and  its  decision  is  final. 


CIM  179  CIR 

CIMBRI,  a  Teutonic  race,  who  came  from  Jutland,  and  invaded  the  Roman  empire  about 
1 20  B.C.  They  defeated  the  Romans,  under  Cn.  Paperius  Carbo,  113  B.C.  ;  under  the  consul, 
Marcus  Silanus,  109  B.C.,  and  under  Maulius,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  where  80,000 
Romans  were  slain,  105  B.C.  Their  allies,  the  Teutones,  were  defeated  by  Marius  in  two 
battles  at  Aqua?  Sextise  (Aix)  in  Gaul ;  200,000  were  killed,  and  70,000  made  prisoners, 
102  B.  c,  The  Cimbri  were  defeated  by  Marius  and  Catulus,  as  they  were  again  endeavouring 
to  enter  Italy  ;  120,000  were  killed,  and  60,000  taken  prisoners,  101  B.C.  They  were 
afterwards  absorbed  into  the  Teutones  or  Saxons. 

CIMENTO  (Italian,  experiment}.  The  "  Accademia  del  Cimento,"  at  Florence,  held  its 
first  meeting  for  making  scientific  experiments,  June  18,  1657.  It  was  patronised  by 
Ferdinand,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany.  Its  establishment  was  followed  by  the  foundation  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1660,  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris  in  1666. 

CINCINNATI.  A  society  established  in  the  American  army  soon  after  the  peace  of 
1783,  "to  perpetuate  friendship,"  and  to  raise  a  fund  for  relieving  the  widows  and  orphans 
of  those  who  had  fallen  during  the  war."  On  the  badge  was  a  figure  of  Cincinnatus.  The 
people  dreading  military  influence,  the  officers  gave  up  the  society. 

CINNAMON,  a  species  of  laurel  in  Ceylon,  is  mentioned  among  the  perfumes  of  the 
sanctuary,  Exodus  xxx.  23.  It  was  found  in  the  American  forests,  by  Don  Ulloa,  in  1736, 
and  was  cultivated  in  Jamaica  and  Dominica  in  1788. 

CINQUE-CENTO  (five  hundred)  ;  ter-cento,  &c.,  see  note  to  article  Italy. 

CINQUE  PORTS,  on  the  south  coast  of  England,  were  originally  five  (hence  the  name) 
— Dover,  Hastings,  Hythe,  Romney,  and  Sandwich  :  Winchelsea  and  Rye  were  afterwards 
added.  JeaJce.  Their  jurisdiction  was  vested  in  barons,  called  wardens,  for  the  better  security 
of  the  coast,  these  ports  being  nearest  to  France,  and  considered  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  ; 
instituted  by  William  I.  in  1078.  Rapin.  The  latest  lord-wardens  were  the  duke  of 
Wellington,  1828-52  j  the  marquess  of  Dalhousie,  1852-60 ;  lord  Palmerstoii,  appointed 
March,  1861. 

CINTRA  (Portugal).  The  convention  of  Cintra  was  concluded  between  the  British  army 
under  sir  Hew  Dalrymple,  and  the  French  under  marshal  Junot.  By  this  compact,  on  Aug. 
30,  1808,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Vimeira  (Aug.  22),  the  defeated  French  army  was  allowed 
to  evacuate  Portugal  in  British  ships,  carrying  with  them  all  their  spoil.  The  convention 
was  publicly  condemned,  and  in  consequence  a  court  of  inquiry  was  held  at  Chelsea,  which 
exonerated  the  British  commanders,  who,  however,  were  never  again  employed.  Wellington 
and  Napoleon  both  justified  sir  Hew  Dalrymple. 

CIRCASSIA  (Asia,  on  N.  side  of  the  Caucasus).  The  Circassians  are  said  to  be  descended 
from  the  Albanians.  They  were  unsubdued,  even  by  Timour.  In.  the  i6th  century  the 
greater  part  of  them  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  czar,  Ivan  II.  of  Russia,  and  about 
1745,  the  princes  of  Kabarda  took  oaths"bf  fealty.  Many  Circassians  became  Mahometans  in 
the  1 8th  century. 

Circassia  surrendered  to  Russia  by  Turkey  by  I      tinople,  and  suffer  much  distress,   and  are 

~.e  (but  the  Circassians,  relieved .         .   1 860 


the  treaty  of  Adrianople  (but  tl 

under  Schamyl,  long  resisted) 
Victories  of  Orbelliani  over  them 

June,  Nov.,  Dec.,  1857 
He  subdues  much  of  the  country,   and  expels 

the  inhabitants        ....         April,  1858 
Schamyl,  their    great    leader,  captured,    and 

treated  with  much  respect        .        .  Sept.  7,  1859 
About  20,000  Circassians  emigrate  to  Constan- 


Tho  last  of  the  Circassian  strongholds  cap- 
tured, and  the  grand  duke  Michael  declares 
the  war  at  an  end  .  .  .  June  8,  1864 

Above  a  million  Circassians  emigrate  into 
Turkey,  and  suffer  many  privations,  par- 
tially relieved  by  the  sultan's  government, 

June,  et  seq.  ,, 


CIRCENSIAN  GAMES  were  combats  in  the  Roman  circus  (at  first  in  honour  of  Census, 
the  god  of  councils,  but  afterwards  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Juno,  and  Minerva),  instituted  by 
Evander,  and  established  at  Rome  732  B.C.  by  Romulus,  at  the  time  of  the  rape  of  the 
Sabines.  They  were  an  imitation  of  the  Olympian  games  among  the  Greeks,  and,  by  way 
of  eminence,  were  called  the  Great  games,  but  Tarquin  named  them  Circensian  ;  their 
celebration  continued  from  Sept.  4  to  12. 

CIRCLE.  The  quadrature,  or  ratio  of  the  diameter  of  the  circle  to  its  circumference, 
has  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  mathematicians  of  all  ages.  Archimedes,  about  221  B.C., 
gave  it  as  7  to  22  ;  Abraham  Sharp  (1717)  as  I  to  3  and  72  decimals,  and  Lagny  (1719)  as 
i  to  3  and  122  decimals. 

x  2 


CIRCLES  OF  GERMANY  (formed  about  1500,  to  distinguish  the  members  of  the  diet  of 
the  empire)  were,  in  1512,  Franconia,  Bavaria,  Upper  and  Lower  Rhine,  Westphalia,  and 
Saxony  ;  in  1789,  Austria,  Burgundy,  Westphalia,  Palatinate,  Upper  Rhine,  Suabia,  Bavaria, 
Franconia,  and  Upper  and  Lower  Saxony.  In  1804  these  divisons  were  annulled  by  the 
establishment  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  in  1806  (which  see). 

CIRCUITS  IN  ENGLAND  were  divided  into  three,  and  three  justices  were  appointed  to 
each,  1176.  They  were  afterwards  divided  into  four,  with  five  justices  to  each  division, 
1  1  80.  Rapin.  They  have  been  frequently  altered.  England  and  Wales  are  at  present 
divided  into  eight  —  each  travelled  in  spring  and  summer  for  the  trial  of  civil  and  criminal 
cases  ;  the  larger  towns  are  visited  in  winter  for  trials  of  criminals  only  :  this  is  called 
"going  the  circuit."  There  are  monthly  sessions  for  the  city  of  London  and  county  of 
Middlesex. 

CIRCULATING  LIBRARY.  Stationers  lent  books  on  hire  in  the  middle  ages.  The 
public  circulating  library  in  England,  opened  by  Samuel  Fancourt,  a  dissenting  minister 
of  Salisbury,  about  1  740,  failed  ;  but  similar  institutions  at  Bath  and  in  London  succeeded, 
and  others  were  established  throughout  the  kingdom.  There  was  a  circulating  library  at 
Crane-court,  London,  in  1748,  of  which  a  catalogue  in  two  vols.  was  published.  —  No  books 
can  be  taken  from  the  British  Museum  except  for  judicial  purposes,  but  the  libraries  of  the 
Royal  Society  and  the  principal  scientific  societies,  except  that  of  the  Royal  Institution, 
London,  are  circulating.  —  The  London  Library  (circulating)  was  founded  in  1841,  under  the 
highest  auspices,  and  is  of  great  value  to  literary  men.  —  Of  the  subscription  libraries 
belonging  to  individuals,  that  of  Mr.  C.  E.  Mudie,  in  New  Oxford  -street,  is  the  most 
remarkable  for  the  large  quantity  and  good  quality  of  the  books  :  several  hundreds,  some- 
times thousands,  of  copies  of  a  new  work  being  in  circulation.  It  was  founded  in  1842,  and 
grew  into  celebrity  in  Dec.  1848,  when  the  first  two  volumes  of  Macaulay's  History  of 
England  were  published,  for  which  there  was  an  unprecedented  demand,  which  this  library 
supplied.  The  hall,  having  the  walls  covered  with  shelves  filled  with  new  books,  svas 
opened  in  Dec.  1860.  The  "Circulating  Library  Company"  was  founded  in  Jan.  1862. 

CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.     See  Blood. 

CIRCUMCISION  (instituted  1897  B.C.)  was  the  seal  of  the  covenant  made  by  God  with 
Abraham.  It  was  practised  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  is  still  by  the  Copts  and  some 
oriental  nations.  The  Festival  of  the  Circumcision  (of  Christ),  originally  "the  Octave  of 
Christmas,"  is  mentioned  about  487.  It  was  introduced  into  the  Liturgy  in  1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.  Among  the  most  daring  human  enterprises  at  the  period 
when  it  was  first  attempted,  was  the  circumnavigation  of  the  earth  in  1519.* 


Magellan    first    entered    the 

Pacific  Ocean  .  .  .1519! 
Groalva,  Spaniard  .  .  .  1537 
Avalradi,  Spaniard  .  .  ,,  j 
Mendana,  Spaniard1  .  .  .  1567  I 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  first  Eng- 
lish   1577  ; 

Cavendish,  first  voyage  .  .  1586 
Le  Maire,  Dutch  .  .  .1615 
Quiros,  Spaniard  .  .  .  1625 


Tasman,  Dutch 
Cowley,  British 
Dampier,  English  . 
Cooke,  English  . 
Clipperton,  British 
Roggewein,  Dutch     . 
Anson  (afterwards  lord) 
Byron,  English  . 
Wallis,  British 
Carteret,  English 


1642 

1683 


1719 
1721 
1740 
1764 
1766 


James  Cook    ....  1768 
On  his  death  the  voyage  was 

continued  by  King         .     .  177 
Bougainville,  French     .        .17 
Portlocke,  British      .        . 
King  and  Fitzroy,  British    1826- 
Belcher,  British        .        .    1836- 
Wilkes,  American        .     .1 
See  North-  West  Passage. 


CIRCUS.  There  were  eight  (some  say  ten)  buildings  of  this  kind  at  Rome  ;  the  la 
the  Circus  Maximus,  was  built  by  the  elder  Tarquin,  605  B.C.  It  was  an  oval  figure  ;  l 
three  stadia  and  a  half,  or  more  than  three  English  furlongs  ;  breadth  960  Roman  feet. 
was  enlarged  by  Julius  Caesar  so  as  to  seat  150,0x30  persons,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Augustus. 
Julius  Caesar  introduced  in  it  large  canals  of  water,  which  could  be  quickly  covered  with 
vessels,  and  represent  a  sea  fight.  .  Pliny.  See  Amphitheatres.  In  the  5th  and  6th  centuries 
after  Christ,  Constantinople  was  greatly  disturbed  by  the  white,  red,  green,  and  blue  factions 
of  the  circus.  In  501,  about  3000  persons  were  killed.  In  Jan.  532  a  fierce  conflict  between 
the  blue  and  green  factions  lasted  five  days,  and  was  only  suppressed  by  the  efforts  of 
Belisarius  after  a  frightful  slaughter.  The  watchword  was  "*Nika  !  "  (conquer). 

CIRRHA,  a  town  of  Phocis  (N.  Greece),  razed  to  the  ground  in  the  Sacred  War,  586  B.C., 
for  sacrilege. 


*  The  first  ship  that  sailed  round  the  earth,  and  hence  determined  its  being  globular,  was  Magellan*! 
or  Magelliaen's  ;  he  was  a  native  of  Portugal,  in  the  service  of  Spain,  and  by  keeping  a  westerly  course  ' 
returned  to  the  same  place  he  had  set  out  from  in  1519.  The  voyage  was  completed  in  3  years  and  29  (" 
but  Magellan  was  killed  on  his  homeward  passage,  at  the  Philippines,  iu  1521. 


CIS  181  CIV 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC  (N.  Italy)  was  formed  by  the  French  in  May,  1797,  out  of  the 
Cispadane  and  Transpadane  republics,  acknowledged  by  the  emperor  of  Germany  to  be 
independent,  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  (which  see),  Oct.  17  following.  It  received 
a  new  constitution  in  Sept.  1798  ;  but  merged  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  March,  1805. 
See  Italy. 

CISTERCIANS,  an  order  of  monks  founded  by  Robert,  a  Benedictine,  abbot  of  Citeaux 
(the  order  of  Citeaux),  in  France,  near  the  end  of  the  nth  century.  For  a  time  it  governed 
almost  all  Europe.  The  monks  observed  silence,  abstained  from  flesh,  lay  on  straw,  and 
wore  neither  shoes  nor  shirts.  De  Vitri.  They  were  reformed  by  St.  Bernard.  See 
Bernardincs. 

CITATE.  The  Russian  general  Gortschakoff,  intending  to  storm  Kalafat,  threw  up 
redoubts  at  Citate,  close  to  the  Danube,  which  were  stormed  by  the  Turks  under  Omer 
Pacha,  Jan.  6,  1854.  The  fighting  continued  on  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th,  when  the  Russians 
were  compelled  to  retire  to  their  former  position  at  Krajowa,  having  lost  1 500  killed  and 
2000  wounded.  The  loss  of  the  Turks  was  estimated  at  338  killed  and  700  wounded. 

CITY.  (French  cit&,  Italian  citta,  Latin  civitas, )  The  word  has  been  used  in  England 
only  since  the  conquest,  when  London  was  called  Londonburgh.  Cities  were  first  incorporated 
1079.  A  town  corporate  is  called  a  city  when  made  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  having  a 
cathedral  church.  Camden. 

CITIZEN.  It  is  not  lawful  to  scourge  a  citizen  of  Rome.  Livy.  In  England  a  citizen 
is  a  person  who  is  free  of  a  city,  or  who  doth  carry  on  a  trade  therein.  Camden.  Various 
privileges  have  been  conferred  on  citizens  as  freemen  in  several  reigns. — The  wives  of  citizens 
of  London  (not  being  aldermen's  wives,  nor  gentlewomen  by  descent)  were  obliged  to  wear 
minever  caps,  being  white  woollen  knit  three-cornered,  with  the  peaks  projecting  three  or 
four  inches  beyond  their  foreheads  ;  aldermen's  wives  made  them  of  velvet,  I  Eliz.  1558. 
Stoiv.  On  Oct.  10,  1792,  the  convention  decreed  that  "citoyen"and  "citoyemie"  should 
be  the  only  titles  in  France. 

CIUDAD  RODRIGO,  a  strong  fortress  of  Spain,  invested  by  the  French,  June  11,  1810, 
and  siirrendered  to  them  July  10.  It  remained  in  their  possession  until  it  was  stormed  by 
the  British,  under  Wellington,  Jan.  19,  1812. 

CIVIL  ENGINEERS.     See  Engineers. 

CIVIL  LAW.  A  body  of  Roman  laws,  founded  upon  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nations, 
was  first  collected  by  Alfrenus  Varus,  the  civilian,  who  flourished  about  66  B.  c.  ;  and  a 
digest  of  them  was  made  by  Servius  Sulpicius,  the  civilian,  53  B.C.  The  Gregorian  code 
was  issued  A.D.  290  ;  the  Theodosian  in  438.  Many  of  the  former  laws  having  grown  out  of 
use,  the  emperor  Justinian  ordered  a  revision  of  them  (in  529-534),  which  was  called  the 
Justinian  code,  and  constitutes  a  large  jjart  of  the  present  civil  law.  Civil  law  was  restored 
in  Italy,  Germany,  £c.  1127.  Blair.  It  was  introduced  into  England  by  Theobald,  a 
Norman  abbot,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1138.  It  is  now  used  in  the  spiritual 
courts  only,  and  in  maritime  affairs.  See  Doctors'  Commons,  and  Laws. 

CIVIL  LIST.  This  now  comprehends  ths  revenue  awarded  to  the  kings  of  England  in 
lieu  of  their  ancient  hereditary  income.  The  entire  revenue  of  Elizabeth  was  not  more  than 
600,000?.,  and  that  of  Charles  I.  was  about  800,000?.  After  the  revolution  a  civil  .list 
revenue  was  settled  on  the  new  king  and  queen  of  700,000?.,  the  parliament  taking  into  its 
own  hands  the  support  of  the  forces  both  maritime  and  military.  The  civil  list  of  George  II. 
Avas  increased  to  800,000?.  ;  and  that  of  George  III.  in  the  55th  year  of  his  reign,  was 
1,030,000?. 

In  1831,  the  civil  list  of  the  sovereign  was  fixed 


at5io,ooo£.,  and  in  Dec.,  1837,  the  civil  list 
of  the  queen  was  fixed  at  385,0001. 
Prince  Albert  obtained  an  exclusive  sum  from 
parliament  of  30,000?.  per  an.  on        .  Feb.  7,  1840 


Sir  H.  Parnell's  motion  for  inquiry  into  the 
civil  list  led  to  the  resignation  of  the  Wel- 
lington administration  .  .  Nov.  15,  1830 

A  select  committee  was  appointed  by  the  house 
of  commons  for  the  purpose  .  Feb.  2,  1860 


CIVIL  SERVICE.  Nearly  17,000  persons  are  employed  in  this  service  under  the 
direction  of  the  treasury,  and  the  home,  foreign,  colonial,  post,  and  revenue  offices,  &c.  In 
1855  a  commission  reported  most  unfavourably  on  the  existing  system  of  appointments, 
and  on  May  21  commissioners  were  appointed  to  examine  into  the  qualifications  of  the 
candidates,  who  report  annually.  The  civil  service  superannuation  act  passed  in  April, 
1859.  Civil  service  for  the  year  (ending  March  31)  1855,  cost  7,735,515?.;  1865,  10,205,413?. 


CIV 


182 


CLA 


CIVIL  WARS.     See  England,  France,  &c. 

CLANSHIPS  -were  tribes  of  the  same  race,  and  commonly  of  the  same  name,  and 
originated  in  feudal  times.  See  Feudal  Laws.  They  are  said  to  have  arisen  in  Scotland,  in 
the  reign  of  Malcolm  II.,  about  1008.  The  legal  power  of  the  chiefs  of  clans  and  other 
remains  of  heritable  jurisdiction  were  abolished  in  Scotland,  and  the  liberty  of  the  English 
was  granted  to  clansmen  in  1747,  in  consequence  of  the  rebellion  of  1745-  1'ne  following 
is  a  list  of  all  the  known  clans  of  Scotland,  with  the  badge  of  distinction  anciently  worn  by 
each.  The  chief  of  each  respective  clan  was,  and  is,  entitled  to  wear  two  eagle's  feathers  in 
his  bonnet,  in  addition  to  the  distinguishing  badge  of  his  clan.  Chambers.  A  history  of  the 
clans  by  "Win.  Buchanan  was  published  in  1775. 


Name.                Badrje. 
Buchanan    .  Birch, 
Cameron      .  Oak. 
Campbell     .  Myrtle. 
Chisholm     .  Alder. 
Colquhoun  .  Hazel. 
Gumming     .  Common  sallow. 
Drummond  .  Holly. 
Farqnharson  Purple  foxglove. 
Ferguson     .  Poplar. 
Forbes     .     .  Broom. 
Frazer  .        .  Tew. 
Gordon    .     .  Ivy. 
Graham        .  Laurel. 
Grant       .     .  Cranberry  heath. 
Gun      .        .  Rose  wort. 

Name.                Badge. 
Lament   .     .  Crab-apple  tree. 
M'Alister      .  Five-leaved  heath. 
M'Domld     .  Bell-heath. 
M'Donnell    .  Mountain  heath. 
M'Dougall    .  Cypress. 
M'Farlane    .  Cloud-berry  bush. 
M'Gregor      .  Pine. 
M'Intosh      .  Box-wood. 
M'Kay     .     .  Bull-rush. 
M'Kenzie      .  Deer-grass. 
M'Kinnon    .  St.  John's  wort. 
M'Lachlan   .  Mountain-  ash. 
M'Lean    .    .  Blackberry  heath. 
M'Leod         .  Red  whortle-berries. 
M'Nab      .     .  Rose  blackberries. 

Name.               Badge. 
M'Neil  .            Sea-ware. 
M'Pherson      Variegated  box-wd. 
M'Quarrie        Blackthorn. 
M'Rae      .        Fir-club  moss. 
Menzies           Ash. 
Munro      .        Eagle's  feathers. 
Murray            Juniper. 
Ogilvie     .        Hawthorn. 
Oliphant          Great  maple. 
Robertson       Fern,  orbrechans. 
Rose         .        Briar-rose. 
Ross      .            Bear-berries. 
Sinclair   .        Clover. 
Stewart            Thistle. 
Sutheiiand      Cat's-tail  grass. 

CLARE  AND  CLATIENCE  (Suffolk).  Richard  de  Clare,  earl  of  Gloucester,  is  said- to  have 
seated  here  a  monastery  of  the  order  of  Friars  Eremites,  the  first  of  this  kind  of  mendicants 
who  came  to  England,  1248.  Tanner.  Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  III.  becoming  possessed 
of  the  honour  of  Clare,  by  marriage,  was  created  duke  of  Clarence.  The  title  has  ever  since 
belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  royal  family.* — CLARE  was  the  first  place  in  Ireland  for  140 
years  that  elected  a  Roman  Catholic  member  of  parliament.  See  Roman  Catholics.  At  the 
election,  held  at  Ennis,  the  county  town,  Mr.  Daniel  O'Connell  was  returned,  July  5,  1828. 
He  did  not  sit  till  after  the  passing  of  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act,  in  1829,  beinj 
elected  July  30,  1829. 

CLARE,  NUNS  OF  ST.,  a  sisterhood,  called  Minoresses,  founded  in  Italy  about  121: 
This  order  settled  in  England,   in   the  Minories  without  Aldgate,   London,  about   120 
by  Blanche,  queen  of  Navarre,  wife  of  Edmund,  earl  of  Lancaster,  brother  of  Edward 
At  the  suppression,  the  site  was  granted  to  the  bishopric  of  Bath  and  "Wells,  1539.    Tann 

CLAREMONT  (Surrey),  the  residence  of  the  princess  Charlotte  (daughter  of  the  princ 
regent,  afterwards  George  IV.),  and  the  scene  of  her  death,  Nov.  6,  1817.     The  house  w 
originally  built  by  sir  John  Vanbrugh,  and  was  the  seat  successively  of  the  earl  of  Clare, 
afterwards  duke  of  Newcastle,  of  lord  Clive,  lord  Galloway,  and  the  earl  of  Tyrconnel. 
wTas  purchased  of  Mr.  Ellis  by  government  for  65,000?.  for  the  prince  and  princess  of  Sa: 
Coburg  ;  and  the  former,  now  king  of  Belgium,  assigned  it  to  prince  Albert  in  1840,     T 
exited  royal  family  of  France  took  up  their  residence  at  Claremont,  March  4,  1848  ;  and 
king,  Louis- Philippe,  died  there,  Aug.  29,  1850. 

CLARENCIEUX,  the  second  king-at-arms,  formerly  subject  to  the  duke  of  Clarein 
his  duty  was  to  arrange  the  funerals  of  all  the  lower  nobility,  as  baronets,  knights,  esqu 
and  gentlemen,  011  the  south  side  of  the  Trent,  from  whence  he  is  also  called  sur-roy 
south-roy. 

CLARENDON,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF,  were  enacted  at  a  council  held  Jan.  25,  1164, 
Clarendon,  in  Wiltshire,  the  object  of  which  was  to  retrench  the  then  enormous  power  of 
clergy.     They  were  the  ground  of  Becket's  quarrel  with  Henry  II.,  and  were  at  first  cc 
demned  by  the  pope,  but  afterwards  agreed  to  in  1173. 


*  DUKES  OF  CLARENCE:  1362,  Lionel,  born  1338,  died  1369.     See  York,  dukes  of. — 1411,  Thomas (s 
son  of  Henry  IV.),  born  1389,  killed  at  BaugS  1421.— 1461,  George  (brother  of  Edward  IV.),  murdered  147 
—1789,  William  (third  son  of  George  III.),  afterwards  William  IV. 


CLA 


183 


OLE 


CLARENDON,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF,  continued. 


I.  All  suits  concerning  advowsons  to  be    deter- 
mined in  civil  courts. 

II.  The  clergy  accused  of  any  crime  to  be  tried  by 
Civil  judges. 

III.  No  person  of  any  rank  whatever  to  be  per- 
mitted to  leave  the  realm  without  the  royal  licence. 

IV.  Laics  not  to  be  accused   in  spiritual  courts, 
except  by  legal  and  reputable  promoters  and  wit- 


V.  No  chief  tenant  of  the  crown  to  be  excommu- 
nicated, or  his  lands  put  under  interdict. 

VI.  Revenues  of  vacant  sees  to  belong  to  the  king. 

VII.  Goods  forfeited  to  the  crown  not  to  be  pro- 
tected in  churches. 

VIII.  Sons  of  villains  not  to  bo   ordained  clerks 
without  the  consent  of  their  lord. 

IX.  Bishops  to  be  regarded  as  barons,  and  be  sub- 


jected to  the  burthens  belonging  to  that  rank. 

X.  Churches  belonging  to  the  king's  see  not  to  be 
granted  in  perpetuity  against  his  will. 

XI.  Excommunicated  persons  not  to  be  bound  to 
give  security  for  continuing  in  their  abode. 

XII.  No  inhabitant  in  demesne  to  be  excommuni- 
cated for  non-appearance  in  a  spiritual  court. 

XIII.  If  any  tenant  in  capite  should  refuse  sub- 
mission to  spiritual  courts,  the  case  to  be  referred 
to  the  king. 

XIV.  The  clergy  no  longer  to  pretend  to  the  right 
of  enforcing  debts  contracted  by  oath  or  promise. 

XV.  Cause's  between  laymen  and  ecclesiastics  to 
be  determined  by  a  jury. 

XVI.  Appeals  to  be  ultimately  carried  to  the  king, 
and  110  further  without  his  consent. 


CLARENDON  PRINTING-OFFICE,  OXFOED,  erected  by  sir  John  Vanbrugh,  in  1711-13, 
the  expense  being  defrayed  out  of  the  profits  of  lord  Clarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion, 
the  copyright  of  which  was  given  by  his  son  to  the  university.  The  original  building  has 
been  converted  into  a  museum,  lecture-rooms,  &c.,  and  a  new  printing-office  erected  by 
Blore  and  Robertson,  1826-9.  Sharp. 

CLARION,  it  is  said  by  Spanish  writers,  invented  by  the  Moors  in  Spain,  about  800,  was 
at  first  a  trumpet,  serving  as  a  treble  to  trumpets  sounding  tenor  and  bass.  A  she.  Its  tube 
is  narrower  and  its  tone  shriller  than  the  common  trumpet.  Pardon. 

CLARIONET,  a  wind  instrument  of  the  reed  kind,  invented  by  Joseph  Denner,  in 
Nuremberg,  about  1690. 

CLASSIS.  The  name  was  first  used  by  Tullius  Servius  (the  sixth  king  of  ancient  Rome), 
in  making  divisions  of  the  Roman  people,  573  B.C.  The  first  of  the  six  classes  were  called 
classici,  by  way  of  eminence,  and  hence  authors  of  the  first  rank  (especially  Greek  and  Latin) 
came  to  be  called  classics. 

CLAVICHORD,  a  musical  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  spinnet  (called  also  a  manichord) ; 
much  in  use  in  France,  Spain,  and  Germany,  in  the  1 7th  century. 

CLEARING-HOUSE.  In  1775,  a  building  in  Lombard-street  was  set  apart  for  the  use 
of  bankers,  in  which  they  might  exchange  cheques,  bills,  and  securities,  and  thereby  save 
labour  and  curtail  the  amount  of  floating  cash  requisite  to  meet  the  settlement  of  the  different 
houses,  if  effected  singly.  By  means  of  transfer  tickets,  transactions  to  the  amount  of 
millions  daily  are  settled  without  the  intervention  of  a  bank  note.  In  1861,  the  clearing- 
house was  used  by  117  companies,  and  e*i  May,  1864,  it  was  joined  by  the  Bank  of  England. 
The  railway  clearing-house  in  Seymour-street,  near  Euston-square,  is  regulated  by  an  act 
passed  in  1850. 

CLEMENTINES,  apocryphal  pieces,  attributed  to  Clemens  Romanus,  a  contemporary  of 
St.  Paul,  and  said  to  have  succeeded  St.  Peter  as  bishop  of  Rome.  He  died  102.  Niceron. 
Also  the  decretals  of  pope  Clement  V.  who  died  1314,  published  by  his  successor.  Bowyer. 
Also  Augustine  monks,  each  of  whom  having  been  a  superior  nine  years,  then  merged  into 
a  common  monk.  CLEMENTINES  were  the  adherents  of  Robert,  son  of  the  count  of  Geneva, 
who  took  the  title  of  Clement  VII.  on  the  death  of  Gregory  XL,  1378,  and  URBANISTS, 
those  of  pope  Urban  VI.  All  Christendom  was  divided  by  the  claims  of  these  two  pontiffs  : 
France,  Castile,  Scotland,  &c.,  adhering  to  Clement  ;  Rome,  Italy,  and  England,  declaring 
for  Urban.  The  schism  ended  in  1409,  when  Alexander  V.  was  elected  pope,  and  his  rivals 
resigned.  See  Anti-Popes. 

CLEPSYDRA,  a  water-clock.     See  Clocks. 

CLERGY  (from  the  Greek  Meros,  a  lot  or  inheritance)  in  the  first  century  were  termed 
presbyters,  elders,  or  bishops,  and  deacons.  The  bishops  (episcopoi  or  overseers),  elected  from 
the  presbyters,  in  the  second  century  assumed  higher  functions  (about  330),  and,  under 
Constantino,  obtained  the  recognition  and  protection  of  the  secular  power.  Under  the  Lombard 
and  Norman  kings  in  the  7th  and  8th  centuries,  the  clergy  began  to  possess  temporal  power, 
as  owners  of  lands  ;  and  after  the  establishment  of  monachism,  a  distinction  was  made 


CLE  184  CLI 

between  the  regular  clergy,  who  lived  apart  from  the  world,  in  accordance  with  a  regula  or 
rule,  and  the  secular  (worldly)  or  beneficed  clergy.     See  Church  of  England.  * 

CLERGY  CHARITIES.  The  Clergymen's  Widows'  and  Orphans'  Corporation  was 
established  in  England,  1670,  and  incorporated  1678.  William  Assheton,  an  eminent  theo- 
logical writer,  was  the  first  proposer  of  a  plan  to  provide  for  the  families  of  deceased  clergy. 
Watts 's  Life  of  Assheton.  The  festival  of  the  "Sons  of  the  Clergy,"  held  annually  at  St. 
Paul's  cathedral,  was  instituted  aboiit  1655  ;  the  charity  called  the  "Sons  of  the  Clergy" 
was  incorporated  July  i,  1678.  There  are  several  other  charities  for  the  relatives  of  the 
clergy. 

CLERICAL  SUBSCRIPTION^  ACT,  passed  July,  1865. 
CLERK.     See  Clergy. 

CLERKENWELL,  a  parish  near  London,  so  called  from  a  well  (fons  dericorum)  in  Ray- 
street,  where  the  parish-clerks  occasionally  acted  mystery-plays  ;  once  before  Richard  II.  in 
1390.  Hunt's  political  meetings  in  1817  were  held  in  Spa-fields  in  this  parish.  In  St. 
John's  parish  are  the  remains  of  the  priory  of  the  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 
Clerkenwell  prison  was  built  in  1615,  in  lieu  of  the  noted  prison  called  the  Cage,  which  was 
taken  down  in  1614  ;  the  then  Bridewell  having  been  found  insufficient.  The  prison  called 
the  House  of  Detention,  erected  in  1775,  was  rebuilt  in  1818  ;  again  1844.  At  Clerkenwell- 
close  formerly  stood  the  house  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  where  some  suppose  the  death-warrant  of 
Charles  I.  was  signed,  Jan.  1649. 

CLERMONT  (France).  Here  was  held  the  council  under  pope  Urban  II.  in  1095,  in 
which  the  first  crusade  against  the  infidels  was  determined  upon,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
appointed  to  command  it.  In  this  council  the  name  of  pope  was  first  given  to  the  head  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  exclusively  of  the  bishops  who  used  previously  to  assume  the 
title.  Philip  I.  of  France  was  (a  second  time)  excommunicated  by  this  assembly.  Renault. 

CLEVES  (N.E.  Germany).  Rutger,  count  of  Cleves,  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  nth 
century.  Adolphus,  count  of  Mark,  was  made  duke  of  Cleves  by  the  emperor  Sigismund, 
1417.  John  William,  duke  of  Cleves,  Berg,  Juliers,  &c.,  died  without  issue,  March  25,  1609, 
which  led  to  a  war  of  succession.  Eventually  Cleves  was  assigned  to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg 
in  1666  ;  seized  by  the  French  in  1757 ;  restored  at  the  peace  in  1763,  and  now  forms  part  of 
the  Prussian  dominions. 

CLIFTON  SUSPENSION-BRIDGE,  over  the  Avon,  connecting  Gloucestershire  and 
Somersetshire,  constructed  of  the  removed  Hungerford-bridge,  was  completed  in  Oct.  1864  ; 
opened  Dec.  8,  1864.  It  is  said  to  have  the  largest  span  (702  feet)  of  any  chain  bridge  in 
the  world.  In  1753  alderman  Vick  of  Bristol,  bequeathed  lOooZ.  to  accumulate  for  the 
erection  of  a  bridge  over  the  Avon.  In  1831  Brunei  began  one  which  was  abandoned,  after 
the  expenditure  of  45,000^. 

CLIMACTERIC,  the  term  applied  to  certain  periods  of  time  in  a  man's  life  (multiples  of 
7  or  9),  in  which  it  is  affirmed  notable  alterations  in  the  health  and  constitution  of  a  person 
happen,  and  expose  him  to  imminent  dangers.  Cotgrave  says,  "Every  7th  or  gth  or  63rd 
year  of  a  man's  life,  all  very  dangerous,  but  the  last  most."  The  grand  climacteric  is  63. 
Hippocrates  is  said  to  have  referred  to  these  periods  in  383  B.C.  Much  misemployed 
erudition  has  been  expended  on  this  subject. 

*  The  clergy  were  first  styled  clerks,  owing  to  the  judges  being  chosen  after  the  Xorman  custom  fr 
the  sacred  order,  and  the  officers  being  clergy  :  this  gave  them  that  denomination,  which  they  keep  tot 
day.  Blackstone's  Comm.  "  As  the  Druids,"  says  Pasquier,  "  kept  the  keys  of  their  religion  and  of  lett 
so  did  the  priests  keep  both  these  to  themselves  ;  they  alone  made  profession  of  letters,  and  a  man  of  let 
was  called  a  clerk,  and  hence  learning  went  by  the  name  of  clerkship."  The  English  clergy  add  "  clerk"  1 
their  name  in  legal  documents.— In  992,  the  distinction  began  in  France.  Henault.—  The  BENEFIT  OF  CLERGI 
Privilegium  Clericale,  arose  in  the  regard  paid  by  Christian  princes  to  the  church,  and  consisted  of:  ist,  a 
exemption  of  places  consecrated  to  religious  duties  from  criminal  arrests,  which  was  the  foundation 
sanctuaries  ;  2nd,  exemption  of  the  persons  of  clergymen  from  criminal  process  before  the  secular  judg 
in  particular  cases,  which  was  the  original  meaning  of  the  privilegium  cUricale.  In  the  course  of  time,  ho\ 
ever,  the  benefit  of  clergy  extended  to  every  one  who  could  read,  which  was  thought  a  great  proof  of  lean 
ing  ;  and  it  was  enacted,  that  there  should  be  a  prerogative  allowed  to  the  clergy,  that  if  any  man  wl 
could  read  were  to  be  condemned  to  death,  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  might,  if  he  would,  claim  him  as 
clerk,  and  dispose  of  him  in  some  places  of  the  clergy  as  he  might  deem  meet.  The  ordinary  gave  ti 
prisoner  at  the  bar  a  Latin  book,  in  a  black  Gothic  character,  from  which  to  read  a  verse  or  two ;  and  if  tl 
ordinary  said,  "  Legit  ut  Clericus  "  ("  He  reads  like  a  clerk  "),  the  offender  was  only  burnt  in  the  ha~J 
otherwise  he  suffered  death,  3  Edw.  I.  (1274).  This  privilege  was  restricted  by  Henry  VII.  in  1489, 
abolished,  with  respect  to  murderers  and  other  great  criminals,  by  Henry  VIII.,  1512.  Stow.  The  readi 
was  discontinued  by  5  Anne,  c.  6  (1706).  Benefit  of  clergy  was  wholly  repealed  by  statute  7  &  8  Geo. 
c.  28  (1827). 


CLI  185  CLO 

CLIO.  The  initials  C.  L.  I.  0.,  forming  the  name  of  the  muse  of  history,  were  rendered 
famous  from  the  most  admired  papers  of  Addison,  in  the  Spectator,  having  been  marked  by 
one  or  other  of  them,  signed  consecutively,  in  1713.  Gibber. 

CLOACA  MAXIMA,  the  chief  of  the  celebrated  sewers  at  Rome,  the  construction  of 
which  is  attributed  to  king  Tarquinius  Priscus  (588  B.C.)  and  his  successors. 

CLOCK.  The  clepsydra,  or  water-clock,  was  introduced  at  Rome  about  158  B.C.  by 
Scipio  Nasica.  Toothed  wheels  were  applied  to  them  by  Ctesibius,  about  140  B.C.  Said  to 
have  been  found  by  Csesar  on  invading  Britain,  55  B.C.  The  only  clock  supposed  to  be  then 
in  the  world  was  sent  by  pope  Paul  I.  to  Pepin,  king  of  France  A.D.  760.  Pacificus,  arch- 
deacon of  Genoa,  invented  one  in  the  gth  century.  Originally  the  wheels  were  three  feet  in 
diameter.  The  earliest  complete  clock  of  which  there  is  any  certain  record  was  made  by 
a  Saracen  mechanic  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Alfred  is  said  to  have  measured  time  by  wax 
tapers,  and  to  have  invented  lanterns  to  defend  them  from  the  wind  about  887. 

The  scapement  ascribed  to  Gerbert    .        .         .  1000  '       lum,  about  1659 

A  great  clock  put  up  at  Canterbury  cathedral,  j  Repeating  clocks  and  watches   invented    by 

cost  30^ 1292         Barlow,  about 1676 

A  clock  constructed  by  Richard,  abbot  of  St.  The  dead  beat,  and  horizontal  escapements,  by 


Alban's,  about 1326 

John  Visconte  sets  up  a  clock  at  Genoa  .  .  1353 
A  striking  clock  in  Westminster  .  .  .  1368 
A  perfect  one  made  at  Paris,  by  Vick  .  .  .  1370 
The  first  portable  one  made  .  .  .  .  1 530 
In  England  no  clock  went  accurately  befor* 
that  set  up  at  Hampton-court  (maker's 

initials,  N.O.) 1540 

Richard  Harris  (who  erected  a  clock  at  St. 
Paul's,  Covent-garden)  and  the  younger 
Galileo  constructed  the  pendulum  .  .  1641 
Christian  Huygens  contested  this  discovery, 
and  made  his  pendulum  clock  some  time  pre- 
viously to 1658 

Fromantil,  a  Dutchman,  improved  the  pendu- 


Graham,  about 1700 

The  spiral  balance  spring  suggested,  and  the 

duplex  scapement,  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke  ; 

pivot  holes  jewelled  by  Facio ;   the  detached 

scapement,  invented  by  Mudge,  and  improved 

by  Berthould,  Arnold,  Earnshaw,  and  others 

in  the  i8th  century. 

Harrison's  time-piece  (which  see)  constructed  .  1735 
Clocks  and  watches  taxed,  1797  ;  tax  repealed  1798 
The  Horological  Institute  established  .  .  1858 
The  great  Westminster  clock  set  up  .  May  30,  1859 
266,750  clocks  and  88,621  watches  imported  into 

the  United  Kingdom  in  1857  ;  the  duty  came 


off  in  1861. 


(See  Electric  Clock,  under  Electricity.) 


CLOGHER  (Ireland).  St.  Macartin,  a  disciple  of  St.  Patrick,  fixed  a  bishopric  at 
Clogher,  where  he  also  built  an  abbey  "in  the  street  before  the  royal  seat  of  the  kings  of 
Ergal."  He  died  in  506.  Clogher  takes  its  name  from  a  golden  stone,  from  which,  in  times 
of  paganism,  the  devil  used  to  pronounce  juggling  answers,  like  the  oracles  of  Apollo  PytMus. 
Sir  James  Ware.  In  1041  the  cathedral  was  built  anew  and  dedicated  to  its  founder. 
Clogher  merged,  on  the  death  of  its  last  prelate  (Dr.  Tottenham),  into  the  archiepiscopal  see 
of  Armagh,  by  the  act  of  1834. 

CLONFERT  (Ireland).  St.  Brendan  founded  an  abbey  at  Clonfert  in  558  :  his  life  is 
extant  in  jingling  monkish  metre  in  the  Cottonian  library  at  Westminster.  In  his  time  the 
cathedral,  famous  in  ancient  days  for  its_  seven  altars,  was  erected  ;  and  Colgan  makes  St. 
Brendan  its  founder  and  the  first  bishop  ;  but  it  is  said  in  the  Ulster  Annals,  under  the 
year  571,  "  Mcena,  bishop  of  Clonfert- Brenain,  went  to  rest."  Clonfert,  in  Irish,  signifies  a 
wonderful  den  or  retirement.  In  1839  the  see  merged  into  that  of  Killaloe.  See  Bishops. 

CLONTARF  (near  Dublin),  the  site  of  a  battle  fought  on  Good  Friday,  April  23,  1014, 
between  the  Irish  and  Danes,  the  former  headed  by  Bryan  Boroimhe,  monarch  of  Ireland, 
who  signally  defeated  the  invaders,  after  a  long  and  bloody  engagement,  but  was  wounded, 
and  soon  afterwards  died.  His  son  Murchard  also  fell  with  many  of  the  nobility  ;  1 1,000  of 
the  Danes  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the  battle. 

CLOSTERSEVEN  (Hanover),  CONVENTION  OF,  was  entered  into  Sept.  8,  1757,  between 
the  duke  of  Cumberland,  third  son  of  George  II.,  and  the  duke  of  Richelieu,  commander  of 
the  French  armies.  By  its  humiliating  stipulations,  38,000  Hanoverians  laid  down  their 
arms,  and  were  dispersed.  The  duke  immediately  afterwards  resigned  all  his  military 
commands.  The  convention  was  soon  broken  by  both  parties. 

CLOTH.     See  Woollen  Cloth  and  Calico. 

CLOUD,  St. ,  a  palace,  near  Paris,  named  from  prince  Clodoald  or  Cloud,  who  became  a 
monk  there  in  533,  after  the  murder  of  his  brothers,  and  died  in  560.  The  palace  was  built 
in  the  i6th  century,  and  in  it  Henry  II.  was  assassinated  by  Clement  in  1589. 

CLOUDS  consist  of  minute  particles  of  water,  often  in  a  frozen  state,  floating  in  the  air. 
In  1803  Mr.  Luke  Howard  published  his  classification  of  clouds,  now  generally  adopted, 
consisting  of  three  primary  forms— cirrus,  cumulus,  and  stratus  ;  three  compounds  of  these 


CLO 


186 


COA 


1837 
1838 

1839 
1840 


forms  ;    and  the   nimbus  or  black  rain-clouds   (cumulo- cirro-stratus).      A  new  edition  of 
Howard's  Essay  on  the  Clouds  appeared  in  1865. 

CLOVESHOO  (now  Cliff),  Kent.  Here  was  held  an  important  council  of  nobility  and 
clergy  concerning  the  government  and  discipline  of  the  church,  Sept.  747  ;  and  others  were 
held  here  800,  803,  822,  824. 

CLOYNE  (S.  Ireland),  a  bishopric,  founded  in  the  6th  century  by  St.  Coleman,  in 
1431  united  to  that  of  Cork,  and  so  continued  for  200  years.  It  was  united  with  that  of 
Cork  and  Ross,  1834.  See  Bishops. 

CLUBMEN",  associations  formed  in  the  southern  and  western  counties  of  England,  to 
restrain  the  excesses  of  the  armies  during  the  civil  wars,  1642-9.  They  professed  neutrality, 
but  inclined  towards  the  king,  and  were  considered  enemies  by  his  opponents. 

CLUBS,  originally  consisted  of  a  small  number  of  persons  of  kindred  tastes  and  pursuits, 
who  met  together  at  stated  times  for  social  intercourse.  The  club  at  the  Mermaid  tavern, 
established  about  the  end  of  the  i6th  century,  consisted  of  Raleigh,  Shakspeare,  and 
others.  Ben  Jonson  set  up  a  club  at  the  Devil  tavern.  Addison,  Steele,  and  others,  fre- 
quently met  at  Button's  coffee-house,  as  described  in  the  Spectator.  The  present  London 
clubs,  some  comprising  300,  others  about  1500  members,  possess  luxuriously  furnished 
edifices,  several  of  great  architectural  pretensions,  in  or  near  Pall  Mall.  The  members 
obtain  the  choicest  viands  and  wines  at  very  moderate  charges.  Many  of  the  clubs  possess 
excellent  libraries,  particularly  the  Athenseum  (which  see).  The  annual  payment  varies  from 
61.  to  nl.  us.  -,  the  entrance  fee  from  gl.  95.  to  31 A  us.  The  following  are  the  principal 
chibs  : — 

Kit-Cat  (which  sei) .         .  1703    United  Service        .        .  1815    Abbotsford,  Edinburgh  .  1835 

Beef-Steak  (which  see) 
White's  (Tory),  established 
Boodle's      .... 
Literary    Club   (vMch   see), 

termed  also  "  The' Club,' 

and  Johnson's  Club    . 
Brooke's  (Whig) 
Alfred      .... 
Guards'       .        .        .  May  i 
Arthur's  .... 
Roxburghe,  London  . 

CLUBS,  FRENCH.  The  first  of  these  arose  about  1782.  They  were  essentially  political, 
and  were  greatly  concerned  in  the  revolution.  The  Club  Breton  became  the  celebrated  Club 
des  Jacobins,  and  the  Club  des  Cordeliers  comprised  among  its  members  Dantou  and  Camiile 
Desmoulins.  From  these  two  clubs  came  the  Mountain  party  which  overthrew  the  Giron- 
dists in  1793,  and  fell  in  its  turn  in  1794.  The  clubs  disappeared  with  the  Directory  in 
1799.  .  They  were  .revived  in  1848  in  considerable  numbers,  but  did  not  attain  to  their 
former  eminence,  and  were  suppressed  by  decrees,  in  June  22,  1849,  and  June  6,  1850. 
Bouillet. 

CLUB-FOOT,  a  deformity  produced  by  the  shortening  of  one  or  more  of  the  muscles, 
although  attempted  to  be  cured  by  Lorenz  in  1784,  by  cutting  the  tendo  Achillis,  was  not 
effectually  cured  till  1831,  when  Stromeyer  of  Erlangen  cured  Dr.  Little  by  dividing  the 
tendons  of  the  contracted  muscles  with  a  very  thin  knife.  Judicious  after-treatment  is 
required. 

CLUGNY,  OE  CLUNY,  ABBEY  OF,  in  France,  formerly  most  magnificent,  founded  by 
Benedictines,  under  the  abbot  Bern,  about  910,  and  sustained  afterwards  by  "William,  duke 
of  Berry  and  Aquitaine.  English  foundations  for  Cluniac  monks  were  instituted  soon  after. 

CLYDE  AND  FORTH  WALL  was  built  by  Agricola  84.     The  Forth  and  Clyde  CAN 
was  commenced  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  July  10,  1768,  and  was  opened  July  28,  1790.     It  for 
communication  between  the  seas  on  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  Scotland. 

CNIDUS,  in  Caria,  Asia  Minor  ;  near  here  Conon  the  Athenian  defeated  the  Lacede- 
monian fleet,  under  Peisander,  394  B.  c. 

COACH  (from  coiicher,  to  lie).  Beckniaim  states  that  Charles  of  Anjou's  queen  entered 
Naples  in  a  caretta  (about  1282).  Under  Francis  I.  there  were  but  two  in  Paris,  one 
belonging  to  the  queen,  the  other  to  Diana,  the  natural  daughter  of  Henry  II.  There  were 
"but  three  in  Paris  in  1550;  and  Henry  IV.  had  one  without  straps  or  springs.  John  de 
Laval  de  Bois-Dauphin  set  up  a  coach  on  account  of  his  enormous  bulk.  The  first  coach 
seen  in  England  was  about  1553.  Coaches  were  introduced  by  Fitz- Allen,  earl  of  Anmdel, 


1703 

1735 

1736 

United  Service 
Travellers'  .        .        . 
Union      .... 

1815 
1819 
1821 

1762 

1763 
1764 
1808 

1810 
1811 

1812 

United  University 
Bannatyne,  Edinburgh  . 
Aihensewm.  (which  see)    . 
Oriental      .... 
United  Service  (Junior) 
Wyndham. 
Maitland,  Glcisgoto  . 
Oxford  and  Cambridge 
Carlton  (Conservative)     . 

1822 
1823 
1824 

1827 
1828 

1829 
1832 

Abbotsford,  Edinburgh  . 
Reform  (Liberal) 
Parthenon 
Army  and  Navy 
Etching,  London    . 
Spalding,  Aberdeen     . 
Conservative  . 
Whittington     (founded 
Douglas  Jerrold  and  others)  1846 

See  Working  Men's  Clubs. 


" 


COA 


187 


COA 


580.  Stow.  A  bill  was  brought  into  parliament  to  prevent  the  effeminacy  of  men 
riding  in  coaches,  43  Eliz.  1601.*  Carte,  liepealed  1625.  The  coach-tax  commenced  in 
1747.  Horace  Walpole  says  that  the  present  royal  state  coach  (first  used  Nov.  16,  1762) 
cost  75  28^.  See  Car,  Carriages,  Chariots,  Hackney  Coaches,  Mail  Coaches,  &c. 

COAL.f  It  is  contended,  with  much  seeming  truth,  that  coal,  although  not  mentioned 
by  the  Komans  in  their  notices  of  Britain,  was  yet  in  use  by  the  ancient  Britons.  Brandt. 
Henry  III.  is  said  to  have  granted  a  licence  to  dig  coals  near  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1234; 
some  say  earlier,  and  others  in  1239.  Sea-coal  was  prohibited  from  being  used  in  and  near 
London,  as  being  "prejudicial  to  human  health  ;"  and  even  smiths  were  obliged  to  burn 
wood,  1273.  Stow.  In  1306  the  gentry  petitioned  against  its  use.  Coal  Avas  first  made  an 
article  of  trade  from  Newcastle  to  London,  4  Rich.  II.  1381.  Rymcr's  Fcedera.  Notwith- 
standing the  many  previous  complaints  against  coal  as  a  public  nuisance,  it  was  at  length 
generally  burned  in  London  in  1400  ;  but  it  was  not  in  common  use  in  England  until  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  1625. 


1700 
1750 
1800 


COAL  CONSUMED   IN  LONDON  IN  THE  FOLLOWING  YEA11S. 

.  .  .  317,000  chald.  1810  .  .  .  980,372  chald.  1835  .  .  .  2,299,816  tons. 
.  510,000  ditto.  1820.  .  .  .  1,171,178  ditto.  1840  .  .  .  .  2,638,256  ditto. 
.  814,000  ditto.  1830  .  .  .  1,588,360  ditto.  1850  .  .  .  3,638,883  ditto. 

c86o.— Coal  brought  to  London,  3,573,377  tons  coast  ways ;  1,499,899  tons  by  railways  and  canals. 
[861. —    „  „  ,,          5,232,082  tons;  in  1862,  4,973,823  tons. 

An  act  for  the  regulation  and  inspection  of 
mines  was  passed  in  .  .  .  -.  .  .  X86o 

Coal-pitmen's  strikes  frequently  occur  ;  a  long 
and  severe  one  arose  in  Staffordshire  in  .  1 864 

ACCIDENTS. — About  1000  lives  are  lost  annually  by 
accidents  in  coal-mines. 

In  1858,  by  explosions  in  coal-mines,  52  persons 
perished  at  Bardsley  ;  20  at  Duffryn,  near  Newport ; 
52  at  Tyldesley,  near  Leeds ;  and  about  36  in  different 
parts  of  the  country. 

On  Aprils,  1859,  26  lives  were  lost  at  the  chain 
colliery,  near  Neath,  through  the  irruption  of  water. 

In  1860,  76  lives  were  lost  on  March  2,  at  Burra- 
don,  near  Killingworth  ;  145  at  the  Riscamine,  near 
Newport,  Dec.  i ;  aud  22  at  the  Hettoii  mine,  North- 
umberland, Dec.  20. 

On  June  n,  1861,  21  lives  were  lost  through  an 
inundation  in  the  Claycross  mines,  Derbyshire. 

In  1862,  47  lives  were  lost  at  Cethiii  mine,  Merthyr 
Tydvill,  S.  Wales,  Feb.  19;  at  Walker,  near  New- 
castle-on-Tyne,  15  lives  lost,  Nov.  22  ;  Edmund's 
Main,  near  Barnsley,  60  lives  lost,  Dec.  8. 

In  1863,  13  lives  lost  atCoxbridge,  near  Newcastle, 
March  6 ;  39  lives  lost  at  Margam,  S.  Wales,  Oct.  17 ; 
14  lives  lost  at  Moestig,  S.  Wales,  Dec.  26. 

In  1865,  6  lives  lost  at  Claycross,  May  3  ;  24  at 
New  Bedwelty  pit,  near  Tredegar,  June  16. 

(For  still  more  fatal  accidents,  see  Lundhill  and 
Hartley.) 

85  lives  were  lost  at  Lalle  coal-mine,  in  France,  in 
Oct.  1861. 

COAL  EXCHANGE,  London,  established  by  47 
Geo.  III.  c.  68(1807).  '1'he  present  building 
(a  most  interesting  structure)  was  erected  by 
Mr.  J.  B.  Banning,  and  opened  by  prince 
Albert Oct.  30,  1849 

COAL-WHIPPERS*  BOARD,  to  protect  the  men 
employed  in  unloading  coal-vessels  from  pub- 
licans, formed  by  an  act  of  parliament  in 
1843,  lasted  till  1856,  when  the  coal-owners 
themselves  established  a  whipping-office. 


The  coal-fields  of  Great  Britain  are  estimated  at 
5400  square  miles  ;  of  Durham  and  Northum- 
berland, 723  square  miles.  Bakewdl.  In 
1857  about  6si  millions  of  tons  were  ex- 
tracted (value  about  16,348,6761!.)  from  2095 
collieries  ;  about  25  millions  are  consumed 
annually  in  Great  Britain. 

Coal  obtained  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  :— 
In  1861,  86,417,941  tons;  in  1862,  81,638,338 
tons  ;  in  1863,  86,292,215  tons  (valued  at 
51,000,000^);  in  1864  (from  3268  collieries), 
92,787,873  tons. 

Mr.  Sopwith,  in  1855,  computed  the  annual 
product  of  the  coal-mines  of  Durham  and 
Northumberland  at  14  million  tons  : — 6  mil- 
lions for  London,  2^  millions  exported,  2^ 
millions  for  coke,  i  million  for  colliery  en- 
gines, &c.,  and  2  millions  for  local  consump- 
tion. 

By  a  stipulation  in  the  commercial  treaty  ot 
1860,  in  consequence  of  the  French  govern- 
ment greatly  reducing  the  duty  on  imported 
coal,  the  British  government  (it  is  thought 
by  many  imprudently)  engaged  to  lay  no 
duty  on  exported  coal  for  ten  years.  In  1859* 
abovit  7,000,000  tons  of  British  coals  were 
exported,  of  which  1,391,009  tons  went  to 
France. 

The  first  ship  laden  with  Irish  coal  arrived  in 
Dublin  from  Ne wry 1742 

Sale  of  Coal  Regulation  Act 1831 

The  duties  on  the  exportation  of  British  coal, 
which  had  existed  since  the  i6th  century, 
were  practically  repealed 1834 

Sir  R.  Peel  imposed  a  duty  of  45.  a  ton  in  1842  ; 
caused  much  dissatisfaction  ;  repealed  .  .  1845 

Women  were  prohibited  from  working  in  Eng- 
lish collieries  in 1842 

The  consumption  of  coal  in  France,  in  1780  only 
400,000  tons,  rises  to  6,000,000  tons  in  1845. 
The  United  States  produced  between  8  and  9 
millions  of  tons  ;   Belgium,   5,000,000 ;    and 
France,  4,500,000,  in        .  1855 


*  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1619,  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  had  been  imprisoned  ever  since 
the  gunpowder  plot,  obtained  his  liberation.     Hearing  that  Buckingham  was  drawn  about  with  six  horses 
;   in  his  coach  (being  the  first  that  was  so),  the  earl  put  oil  eight  to  his,  and  in  that  manner  passed  from  the 
\   Tower  through  the  city.     Rapin. 

t  There  are  five  kinds  of  fossil  fuel :  anthracite,  coal,  lignite,  bituminous  shale,  and  bitumen.  Nosatis- 
,  factory  definition  of  coal  has  yet been  given.  The  composition  oiwood  is  49' i  carbon,  6'3  hydrogen,  44-6 
i  oxygen  ;  of  coal  82-6  carbon,  5-6  hydrogen,  n'8  oxygen. 


COA 


188 


COG 


COALITIONS  AGAINST  FRANCE  generally  arose  through  England  subsidising  the  great 
powers  of  the  continent.     They  were  entered  into  as  follows  :  — 


Austria,  Prussia,  and  Great  Britain  .        .        .  1793 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  Russia,  Naples,  Por- 
•- tugal,  and  Turkey,  signed      .        .     June  22,  1799 
Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Naples, 

Aug.  5,  1805 


Great  Britain,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Saxony, 

Oct.  6,  1806 

England  and  Austria  .        .        .     April  6,  1809 

Russia  and    Prussia;    the  treaty    ratified   at 

Kalisch March  17,  1813 

See  Treaties. 


COALITION  MINISTRY.     See  Portland. 

COAST  GUARD.  In  1856,  the  raising  and  governing  this  body  was  transferred  to  the 
admiralty.  A  coast  brigade  of  artillery  was  established  in  Nov.  1859. 

COAST  VOLUNTEERS.     See  under  Navy  of  England. 

COBALT,  a  rare  mineral  found  among  the  veins  of  ores,  or  in  the  fissures  of  stone,  at  an 
early  date,  in  the  mines  of  Cornwall,  where  the  workmen  call  it  mundic.  Hill.  It  was 
distinguished  as  a  metal  by  Brandt,  in  1733. 

COBURG.     See  Saxe-Coburg. 

COCCEIANS,  a  small  sect  founded  by  John  Cocceius,  of  Bremen,  about  1665,  who  held, 
amongst  other  opinions,  that  of  a  visible  reign  of  Christ  in  this  world,  after  a  general 
conversion  of  the  Jews  and  all  other  people  to  the  Christian  faith. 

COCHIN  (India),  held  by  the  Portuguese,  1503;  by  the  Dutch,  1663  ;  taken  by  the 
British,  1735  ;  ceded  to  them  1814. 

COCHIN  CHINA  OR  ANAM,  which  see. 

COCHINEAL  INSECT  (Coccus  cacti),  derives  its  colour  from  feeding  on  the  cactus,  and 
became  known  to  the  Spaniards  soon  after  their  conquest  of  Mexico  in  1518.  Cochineal 
was  brought  to  Europe  about  1523,  but  was  not  known  in  Italy  in  1548,  although  the  art  of 
dyeing  then  flourished  there.  In  1858  it  was  cultivated  successfully  in  Teneriffe,  the 
vines  having  failed  through  disease.  260,000  Ibs.  of  cochineal  were  imported  into  England 
in  1830  ;  1,081,776  Ibs.  in  1845  ;  2,360,000  Ibs.  in  1850  ;  and  3,034,976  libs,  in  1859.  Duty 
repealed  1845. 

COCKER'S  ARITHMETIC.     The  work  edited  by  John  Hawkins,  first  appeared  in  1677. 

COCK-FIGHTING,  practised  by  the  Greeks.  It  was  introduced  at  Rome  after  a  victory 
over  the  Persians,  476  B.C.  ;  and  was  brought  by  the  Romans  into  England.  William  Fitz- 
Stephen,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  describes  cock-fighting  as  the  sport  of  school-boys  on 
Shrove-Tuesday.  It  was  prohibited  by  Edward  III.  1365  ;  by  Henry  VIII. ;  and  by 
Cromwell,  1653.  Part  of  the  site  of  Drury-lane  theatre  was  a  cock-pit  in  the  reign  of  James 
I.  ;  and  the  cock-pit  at  Whitehall  was  erected  by  Charles  II.  Till  within  these  few  years 
there  was  a  Cock-pit  Royal  in  St.  James's  Park ;  but  the  governors  of  Christ's  Hospital  would 
not  renew  the  lease  for  a  building  devoted  to  cruelty.*  Cock-fighting  is  now  forbidden 
by  law. 

COCK-LANE  GHOST,  an  imposition  practised  by  William  Parsons,  his  wife,  and 
daughter,  by  means  of  a  female  ventriloquist,  during  1760  and  1761,  carried  on  at  No. 
33,  Cock-lane,  London,  was  at  length  detected,  and  the  parents  were  condemned  to  the 
pillory  and  imprisonment,  July  10,  1762. 

COCOA,  OR  CACAO,  the  kernel  or  seed  of  the  tree  TJieobroma  cacao  (Linn.),  was  introduced 
into  this  country  shortly  after  the  discovery  of  Mexico,  where  it  forms  an  important  article 
of  diet.  From  cocoa  is  produced  chocolate.  The  cocoa  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom, 
chiefly  from  the  British  West  Indies  and  Guiana,  was  in  1849,  1,989,477^8.;  in  1851, 
4,349,0s*  ft>s. ;  in  1855,  7,343,458  Ibs.;  in  1859,  6,006,759  Ibs; ;  in  1861,  9,080,288  Ibs.; 
in  1864,  7,920,912  Ibs.,  about  half  for  home  consumption.  - 


*  Mr.  Ardesoif ,  a  gentleman  of  large  fortune  and  great  hospitality,  who  was  almost  unrivalled  in  the 
splendour  of  his  equipages,  had  a  favourite  cock,  upon  which  he  had  won  many  profitable  matches.  The 
last  wager  he  laid  upon  this  cock  he  lost,  which  so  enraged  him,  that  in  a  fit  of  passion  he  thrust  the  bird 
into  the  fire.  A  delirious  fever,  the  result  of  his  rage  and  inebriety,  in  three  days  put  an  end  to  his  life. 
He  died  at  Tottenham,  near  London,  April  4,  1788. — On  April  22,  1865,  34  persons  were  fined  at  Marl- 
borough-street  police-office,  for  being  present  at  a  cock-fight. 


COG 


189 


COH 


COCOA-NUT  TREE  (Cocos  nucifera,  Linn.),  suppli 
need,  as   bread,  water,  wine,  vinegar,    brandy,  milk,  oil, 


the  Indians  with  almost  all  they 
honey,  sugar,  needles,  clothes, 


thread,  cups,  spoons,  basins,  baskets,  paper,  masts  for  ships,  sails,  cordage,  nailsj  covering 
for  their  houses,  &c.  Ray.  In  Sept.  1829,  Mr.  Soames  patented  his  mode  of  procuring 
stearine  and  elaine  from  cocoa-nut  oil.  It  is  said  that  32  tons  of  candles  have  been  made  in 
a  month  from  these  materials  at  the  Belmont  works,  Lambeth. 

CODES,  see  Laws.  Alfrenus  Varus,  the  civilian,  first  collected  the  Roman  laws  about 
66  B.C.  ;  and  Servius  Sulpicius,  the  civilian,  embodied  them  about  53  B.C.  The  Gregorian 
and  Hermoginian  codes  were  published  A.D.  290  ;  the  Theodosian  code  ^438  ;  the  celebrated 
code  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  in  529— a  digest  from  this  last  was  made  in  533.  Alfred's 
code  of  laws  is  the  foundation  of  the  common  law  of  England,  887.  The  CODE  NAPOLEON, 
the  civil  code  of  France,  was  promulgated  from  1803  to  1810.  The  emperor  considered  it 
his  most  enduring  monument.  It  was  prepared  under  his  supervision  by  the  most  eminent 
jurists,  from  the  400  systems  previously  existing.  It  has  been  adopted  by  other  countries. 

CODFISH.     See  Holland.,  1347. 

COD-LIVER  OIL  was  recommended  as  a  remedy  for  chronic  rheumatism  by  Dr.  Percival 
in  1782,  and  for  diseases  of  the  lungs  about  1838.  *De  Jongh's  treatise  on  cod- liver  oil  was 
published  in  Latin  in  1844  ;  in  English  in  1849. 

COEUR  DE  LION,  on  THE  LION-HEARTED,  a  surname  given  to  Richard  I.  of  England, 
on  account  of  his  courage  about  1192  ;  and  also  to  Louis  VIII.  of  France,  who  signalised 
himself  in  the  crusades,  and  in  his  wars  against  England,  about  1223. 

COFFEE.  The  tree  was  conveyed  from  Mocha  in  Arabia  to  Holland  about  1616  ;  and 
carried  to  the  "West  Indies  in  1726.  First  cultivated  at  Surinam  by  the  Dutch,  1718.  The 
culture  was  encouraged  in  the  plantations  about  1732,  and  the  British  and  French  colonies 
now  grow  the  coffee-tree  abundantly.  Its  use  as  a  beverage  is  traced  to  the  Persians.  It 
came  into  great  repute  in  Arabia  Felix,  about  1454  ;  and  passed  thence  into  Egypt  and  Syria, 
and  thence  (in  1511)  to  Constantinople,  where  a  coffee-house  was  opened  in  1551.  M. 
Thevenot,  the  traveller,  was  the  first  who  brought  it  into  France,  to  which  country  he  returned 
after  an  absence  of  seven  years,  in  1662.  Chambers. 


Coffee  was  brought  into  England  by  Mr.  Natha- 
niel Caiiopus,  a  Cretan,  who  made  it  his 
common  beverage  at  Balliol  college,  Oxford, 
in  1641.  Anderson. 

The  quantity  of  coffee  imported  into  these 
realms  and  entered  for  home  consumption  in 
1843  was  29,979,404^)8.;  in  1850,  31,166,358 
tts.  ;  in  1857,  34,367,484  fts.  ;  in  1859, 
34,492,947  Ibs.  ;  in  1860,  35,674,381  Ibs.  (duty 
3d.  per  lt>.  raw  coffee;  40*.  roasted.)  Totat" 
imported  in  1861,  83,532,525  Ibs.  ;  in  1863, 
117,334,217  Ibs.  ;  in  1864,  109,370,213  Ibs. 

The  first  coffee-house  in  England  was  kept  by 
a  Jew,  named  Jacobs,  in  Oxford  .  .  .  1650 


Mr.  Edwards,  an  English  Turkey  merchant, 
brought  home  with  hitn  a  Greek  servant, 
named  Pasquet,  who  opened  the  first  coffee- 
house in  London,  in  George-yard,  Lombard- 
street  1652 

Pasquet  afterwards  went  to  Holland,  and  opened 
the  first  house  in  that  country.  Anderson. 

The  Rainbow  coffee-house,  near  Temple-bar, was 
represented  as  a  nuisance  to  the  neighbour- 
hood   1657 

Coffee-houses  were  suppressed  by  proclamation 
in  1675  ;  but  the  order  was  revoked  in  1676, 
on  the  petition  of  the  traders  in  tea  and 
coffee. 


COFFERER  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD,  formerly  an  officer  of  state,  and  a  member  of  the 
privy  council,  who  had  special  charge  of  the  other  officers  of  the  household.  Sir  Henry 
Cocks  was  cofferer  to  queen  Elizabeth.  Some  of  the  highest  statesmen  filled  the  office  up  to 
1782,  when  it  was  suppressed  by  act  of  parliament,  and  the  duties  of  it  ordered  to  be  dis- 
charged by  the  lord  steward  and  the  paymaster  of  the  household.  £eatson. 

COFFINS.  Athenian  heroes  were  buried  in  coffins  of  cedar  ;  owing  to  its  aromatic  and 
incorruptible  qualities.  Tlmcydides.  Coffins  of  marble  and  stone  were  used  by  the  Romans. 
Alexander  is  said  to  have  been  buried  in  one  of  gold  ;  and  glass  coffins  have  been  found  in 
England.  Gough.  The  earliest  record  of  wooden  coffins  amongst  us  is  that  of  the  burial  of 
king  Arthur  in  an  entire  trunk  of  oak  hollowed,  A.D.  542.  Asser.  Patent  coffins  were 
invented  in  1796.  Air-tight  metallic  coffins  were  advertised  at  Birmingham  in  1861. 

COHORT.  A  division  of  the  Roman  army  consisting  of  about  600  men.  It  was  the 
sixth  part  of  a  legion,  and  its  number,  consequently,  was  under  the  same  fluctuation  as  that 
of  the  legions,  being  sometimes  more  and  sometimes  less.  The  cohort  was  divided  into 
centuries.  In  the  time  of  the  empire  the  cohort  often  amounted  to  a  thousand  men. 


COI 


190 


COI 


COIF.  The  Serjeant's  coif  was  originally  an  iron  skull-cap,  worn  by  knights  under  their 
helmets.  The  coif  was  introduced  before  1259,  and  was  used  to  hide  the  tonsure  of  such 
renegade  clergymen  as  chose  to  remain  advocates  in  the  secular  courts,  notwithstanding 
their  prohibition  by  canon.  BlacTcstone.  The  coif  was  at  first  a  thin  linen  cover  gathered 
together  in  the  form  of  a  skull  or  helmet,  the  material  being  afterwards  changed  into  white 
silk,  and  the  form  eventually  into  the  black  patch  at  the  top  of  the  forensic  wig,  which  is 
now  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  degree  of  serjeant-at-law.  Foss's  Lives  of  the  Judges. 

C01MBEA  was  made  the  capital  of  Portugal  by  Alfonso,  the  first  king,  1139.  The  only 
Portuguese  university  was  transferred  from  Lisbon  to  Coimbra  in  1308 ;  but  only  and  finally 
settled  in  1527.  In  a  convent  here,  Alfonso  IV.  caused  Inez  de  Castro,  at  first  mistress  and 
afterwards  wife  of  his  son  Pedro,  to  be  cruelly  murdered  in  1355. 

COIN.  Homer  speaks  of  brass  money  as  existing  1184  B.C.  The  invention  of  coin  is 
ascribed  to  the  Lydians,  who  cherished  commerce,  and  whose  money  was  of  gold  and  silver. 
Both  were  coined  by  Pheidon,  tyrant  of  Argos,  862  B.C.  Money  was  coined  at  Rome  under 
Servius  Tullius,  about  573  B.C.  The  most  ancient  known  coins  are  Macedonian  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.  ;  but  others  are  believed  to  be  more  ancient.  Brass  money  only  was  in  use  at 
Borne  previously  to  269  B.C.  (when  Fabius  Pictor  coined  silver),  a  proof  that  little  correspon- 
dence was  then  held  with  the  east,  where  gold  and  silver  were  in  use  long  before.  Gold  was 
coined  206  B.C.  Iron  money  was  used  in  Sparta,  and  iron  and  tin  in  Britain.  Dufrcsnoy. 
Julius  Csesar  was  the  first  who  obtained  the  express  permission  of  the  senate  to  place  his 
portrait  on  the  coins,  and  the  example  was  soon  followed.  In  the  earlier  days  of  Rome  the 
heads  were  those  of  deities,  or  of  those  who  had  received  divine  honours.  The  gold  and 
silver  coinage  in  the  world  is  about  250,000,000?.  silver,  and  150,000,000?.  gold.  Twies, 
June  25,  1852.  See  Gold,  Silver,  and  Copper. 


COIN  OF  ENGLAND. 


The  first  coinage  in  England  was  under  the 
Romans  at  Camalodunum.  or  Colchester. 
English  coin  was  of  different  shapes,  as 
square,  oblong,  and  round,  until  the  middle 
ages,  when  ro\md  coin  only  was  used. 

Coin  was  made  sterling  in  1216,  before  which 
time  rents  were  mostly  paid  in  kind,  and 
money  was  found  only  in  the  coffers  of  the 
barons.  Stow. 

Queen  Elizabeth  caused  the  base  coin  to  be  re- 
called and  genuine  issued  in  1560.  During 
the  reigns  of  the  Stuarts  the  coinage  was- 
greatly  debased  by  clipping,  &c. 

A  commission  (lord  Somers,  sir  Isaac  Newton, 
and  John  Locke)  was  appointed  by  William 
III.  to  reform  the  coinage,  an  act  was 
passed,  withdrawing  the  debased  coin  from 
circ\ilation,  and  i, 200,000!!.  was  raised  by  a 
house  duty  to  defray  the  expense  .  .  1696 

English  and  Irish  money  were  assimilated 

Jan.   i,  1826 

The  coin  of  the  realm  was  valued  at  about 
12,000,000?.  in  1711.  Duvenant.  At  16,000,000?. 
in  1762.  Anderson.  It  was  20,000,000?..  in 
1786.  Chalmers.  37,000,000?.  in  1800.  Phil- 
lips. The  gold  is  28,000,000?,,  and  the  rest 
of  the  metallic  currenpy  is  13,000,000?.,  while 
paper  largely  supplies  the  place  of  coin. 
Duke  of  Wellington,  1830.  The  metallic  cur- 
rency calculated  as  reaching  45,000,000?., 
1840;  and  was  estimated  as  approaching 
in  gold  and  silver  60,000,000? 1853 

Napier's  coin-weighing  machine  at  the  bank  of 
England  was  constructed  in  .  .  .  .  1844 

The  law  respecting  coinage  offences  was  con- 
solidated in 1861 


The  first  gold  coins  on  certain  record,  struck 
42  Hen.  Ill 

Gold  florin  first  struck,  Edw.  III.  (Camden)      . 

He  introduced  gold  6s.  pieces,  and  nobles  of 
6s.  8d.  (hence  the  lawyer's  fee),  afterwards 
half  and  quarter  nobles. 

Old  sovereigns  first  minted         .... 

Shillings  first  coined  (Dr.  Kelly)     .        ... 

Edw.  IV.  coined  angels  with  a  figure  of  Michael 
and  the  dragon,  the  original  of  George  and 
the  dragon. 

Hen.  VIII.  coined  sovereigns  and  half-sove- 
reigns of  the  modern  value. 

Crowns  and  half-crowns  coined 

Irish  shilling  struck        .        .        .        .        .     . 

Milled  shilling  of  Elizabeth         . 

First  large  copper  coinage,  putting  an  end  to 
the  circulation  of  private  leaden  pieces,  &c.  . 

Modern  milling  introduced 

Halfpence  and  farthings  coined 

By  the  government,  23  Car.  II 

Guineas  first  coined,  25  Car.  II. 

Double  guineas 

Five  guineas 

Half-guineas 

Quarter-guineas  coined,  3  Geo.  I.       ... 

Seven-shilling  pieces  coined  .        .  .     . 

Two-penny  copper  pieces 

Gold  78-pieces  authorised       .        .        Nov.  29, 

Sovereigns,  new  coinage 

Half-farthings 

Silver  florin 

Bronze  coinage  issued    ....  Dec.  i, 


1257 
*337 


1494 
1503 


1553 
1560 
1562 

1620 
1631 
1665 
1672 
1673 


1716 
1797 


1817 
1843 


Elizabeth 
James  I.  . 
Charles  I. 
Cromwell 


AMOUNT    OF    MONEY   COINED    IN  THE   FOLLOWING   REIGNS  : — 


£5,832,000 
2,500,000 

10,500,000 
1,000,000 


Charles  II.   . 
James  II. 
William  III. 
Anne 


£7,524,100 
3,740,000 

10,511,900 
2,691,626 

George  I. 
George  II. 
George  III. 
George  IV. 

£8,725,920 
11,966,576 
74,  SGI,  586 
41,782,815 


001  191  COL 


COIN,  continued. 

William  IV.        .         .     £10,827,603 
Victoria,  from  1837  to  1848,  gold, 
29,886,457?.  ;   silver,  2,440,614?.  ; 
copper,  43,743*-     1848-1852,  gold, 
silver,  and  copper,  19,838,377?. 
Coined    in    1859,    1,547,603    sove- 
reigns, and  2,203,813  half  sove- 


reigns. 

Value  of  ten  'years  (1849-59)  gold 
coinage  .  .  .  54,490,265?. 

Coined  from  July  i,  1854,  to  Dec. 
31,  1860,  gold,  27,632,039?.  ;  sil- 
ver, 2,432,116?. 

Coined  in  1861 :  gold,  8,053,069?.  ; 


silver,  209,484?. ;  bronze,  273,578?. 
135.  ^d.  (No  crowns,  half-crowns, 
or  four-penny  pieces  coined.) 
Coined    in     1862 :     gold    pieces, 
,836,413;  silver  pieces,  4,035,412; 


7^2 
bro 


nze  pieces,  4,125,977,600. 


COINING.  Originally  performed  by  the  metal  being  placed  between  two  steel  dies, 
struck  by  a  hammer.  In  1553,  a  mill,  invented  by  Antonie  Bracher,  was  introduced  into 
England,  1562.  An  engine  was  invented  by  Balancier,  1617.  Great  improvements  were 
effected  by  Boulton  and  Watt,  at  Soho,  1788.  The  erection  of  the  Mint  machinery,  London, 
began  1811. 

COLCHESTER  (Essex),  Camalodunum,  a  Roman  station,  supposed  to  be  the  birthplace 
of  Constantino  the  Great;  obtained  its  first  charter  from  Richard  I.  in  1189.  Its  sixteen 
churches  and  all  its  buildings  sustained  great  damage  at  the  ten  weeks'  siege,  1648.  Two  of 
its  defenders,  sir  George  Lisle  and  sir  Charles  Lisle,  were  tried  and  shot  after  surrendering. 
The  baize  manufacture  was  established  here,  1660.  Anderson.  The  railway  to  London  was 
opened  in  1843. 

COLD.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  found  to  produce  the  same  perceptions  on  the 
skin,  and  when  mercury  is  frozen  at  forty  degrees  below  zero,  the  sensation  is  the  same  as 
touching  red-hot  iron.  During  the  hard  frost  in  1 740,  a  palace  of  ice  was  built  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. Greig.  Quicksilver  was  frozen  hard  at  Moscow,  Jan.  13,  1810.  Perhaps  the  coldest 
day  ever  known  in  London  was  Dec.  25,  1796,  when  the  thermometer  was  1 6°  below  zero. 
On  Jan.  3,  1854,  the  thermometer  marked  4°  below  zero  ;  and  on  Dec.  25,  1860,  it  fell  in 
some  places  to  18°  and  in  others  to  15°  below  zero;  at  Torquay,  Devon,  20°  below  zero. 
From  Dec.  23  to  30  the  cold  was  excessive.  See  Frosts,  Ice,  Congelation,  and  Regelation. 

COLDINGHAM,  near  Berwick,  is  celebrated  for  the  heroism  of  its  nuns,  who,  on  the 
attack  of  the  Danes,  in  order  to  preserve  their  chastity,  cut  off  their  noses  and  lips.  The 
Danes  burnt  the  whole  sisterhood,  with  the  abbess  Ebba,  in  their  monastery,  875. 

COLDSTREAM  GUARDS.  General  Monk,  before  marching  from  Scotland  into  England 
to  restore  Charles  II.,  raised  this  regiment  in  the  town  of  Coldstream,  1660.  The  town  is 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Leet  with  the  Tweed. 

COLENSO  CONTROVERSY.     See  Church  of  England,  1862. 
COLIN.     See  Kolin. 

COLISEUM,  OR  COLOSSEUM,  at  Rome,  an  elliptical  amphitheatre,  of  which  the  external 
diameter  is  1641  Italian  feet,  is  supposed  to  have  been  able  to  contain  80,000  spectators  of 
the  fights  with  wild  beasts,  and  other  sports  in  the  arena.  It  was  erected  between  75  (some 
say  77)  and  80,  by  the  emperors  Vespasian  and  Titus,  at  an  expense  sufficient  to  have  built 
a  metropolis.  Its  remains  are  still  very  imposing. 

COLLAR,  generally  a  gold  enamelled  chain  with  ciphers  and  other  devices,  having  the 
badge  of  some  order  suspended  at  the  bottom.  The  collar  of  the  order  of  the  Garter  consists 
of  SS.,  with  roses  enamelled  red,  within  a  garter  enamelled  blue,  1349-50.  The  fashion  of 
wearing  the  collar  of  SS.,  in  honour  of  St.  Simplicius,  began  about  1407.  One  was  given  to 
the  mayor  of  Dublin,  Robert  Deey,  by  Charles  II.,  1660.  A  second  was  presented  as  a  royal 
donation  to  the  chief  magistrate  of  Dublin,  the  former  one  having  been  lost. 

COLLECTS  are  short  prayers  introduced  into  the  Roman  mass  by  pope  Gelasius,  about 
493,  and  into  the  English  Liturgy  in  1548.  The  king  of  England  coming  into  Normandy, 
appointed  a  collect  for  the  relief  of  the  Holy  Laud,  1166.  Rapin. 

COLLEGES.  University  education  preceded  the  erection  of  colleges,  which  were  muni- 
ficent foundations  to  relieve  the  students  from  the  expense  of  living  at  lodging-houses  and 
at  inns.  Collegiate  or  academic  degrees  are  said  to  have  been  first  conferred  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Paris,  1140  ;  but  some  authorities  say  not  before  1215.  In  England,  it  is  contended 
that  the  date  is  much  higher,  and  some  hold  that  Bede  obtained  a  decree  formerly  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  John  de  Beverley  at  Oxford,  that  they  were  the  first  doctors  of  these  universities. 
See  Cambridge,  Oxford,  Aberdeen,  Queen's  Colleges,  Working  Men's  Colleges,  &c. 


COL 


192 


COL 


COLLEGES,  continued. 

FOUNDED  A.D. 

Addiscombe  Military  College  1809 
Birmingham,  Queen's  College  1853 
Cheshunt  College  .  .  .  1792 
Doctors'  Commons,  civil  law  1670 
Dulwich  College  .  .  1619 
Durham  University  .  1837 

Edinburgh  University  .  1580 
Eton  College  .  .  .  1441 

Glasgow  University  .  .  1451 
Gresham  College  .  .  1581 


Harrow 1585 

Haleybury,   or    East    India 

College        .     1806;  closed,  1858 
Highbury  College      .        .        1826 


1564 
1829 


Highgate 

King's  College,  London     . 

Maynooth  College  . 

Military  College,  Sandhurst 

Naval  College,  Portsmouth   .  1722 

New  College,  St.  John's  Wood  1850 

Physicians,  London       .        .  1523 


1799 


Physicians,  Dublin    . 
Physicians,  Edinburgh  . 
St.  Andrew's,  Scotland 
Sion  College,  incorporated 
Surgeons,  London  . 
Surgeons,  re-incorporated 
Surgeons,  Dublin   . 
Surgeons,  Edinburgh  (new) 
Trinity  College,  Dublin     . 
University,  London 
Winchester  College    . 


1667 
1681 
1410 
1630 

i74S 
1800 
1786 
1803 
1591 
1826 
1387 


COLLIERY  ACCIDENTS.     See  under  Coal. 


COLLODION,  a  film  obtained  from  the  solution  of  gun-cotton  in  ether.  The  iodised 
collodion  extensively  employed  in  photography,  was  discovered  by  Mr.  F.  Scott  Archer,  and 
announced  in  the  "  Chemist,"  in  March,  1851.  On  the  premature  death  of  himself  and  wife, 
a  pension  of  50^.  per  annum  was  granted  by  government  to  his  three  orphan  children. 

COLOGNE  (Colonia  Agrippina}),  on  the  Rhine,  the  site  of  a  colony  founded  by  the 
empress  Agrippina,  about  50  ;  became  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  1260.  The  Jews 
were  expelled  from  it  in  1485,  and  the  Protestants  in  1618,  and  it  then  fell  into  decay. 
Cologne  was  taken  by  the  French,  under  Jourdan,  Oct.  6,  1794.  In  the  cathedral  are  shown 
the  heads  of  the  three  Magi ;  and  in  the  church  of  St.  Ursula  is  the  tomb  of  that  saint,  and 
bones  said  to  be  those  of  11,000  virgins  put  to  death  with  her.  The  archbishopric  was 
secularised  in  1801,  and  Cologne  was  made  over  to  Prussia  in  1814.  The  building  of  the 
cathedral,  begun  in  1248,  and  suspended  in  consequence  of  the  Reformation,  was  vigorously 
continued  by  king  Frederick  William  IV.  since  1842.  An  international  industrial  exhibi- 
tion was  opened  at  Cologne  by  the  crown  prince,  June  2,  1865. 

COLOMBIA,  a  republic  of  S.  America,  formed  of  states  which  declared  their  independence 
of  the  crown  of  Spain,  Dec.  1819,  but  its  several  chiefs  afterwards  contending  against  each 
other,  the  states  became  a  prey  to  civil  war,  and  the  union  was  dissolved. 


Union  of  New  Grenada  and  Venezuela,  Dec.  17,  1819 
The  Royalists  defeated  at  Carabobo  .  June  24,  1821 
.Bolivar  named  dictator  .  .  .  Feb.  10,  1824 
Alliance  between  Colombia  and  Mexico 

June  30,     ,, 

Alliance  with  Guatemala  .  .  March,  1825 
Congress  at  Lima  names  Bolivar  president  of 

the  republic Aug.  1826 

Bolivar's  return  to  Bogota  .        .     .    Nov.     „ 


Nov.  23,  1826 


April  9,  1828 
Life  of 


He  assumes  the  dictatorship  . 

Padilla's  insurrection 

Conspiracy  of  Santander   against  the  1 

Bolivar Sept.  25,     ,, 

Venezuela  separates  from  Grenada        .       Nov.  1829 
Bolivar  resigns  the  office  of  president,  April  4 ; 

and  dies Dec.  17,  1830 

Santandtr  dies May  26,  1840 

(See  New  Grenada  and  Venezuela. ) 


COLOMBO  (Ceylon)  was  built  in  1638,  by  the  Portuguese,  who  were  expelled  by  the 
Dutch  in  1666  ;  the  latter  surrendered  it  to  the  British,  Feb.  15,  1796.  The  British  troops 
were  murdered  here  in  cold  blood  by  the  adigar  of  Candy,  June  6,  1803.  See  Ceylon. 

COLON  (:),  a  point  known  to  the  ancients,  but  not  expressed.  The  colon  and  period 
were  adopted  and  explained  by  Thrasymachus  about  373  B.C.  Suidas.  It  was  known  to 
Aristotle.  The  colon  and  semicolon  (;)  were  both  first  used  in  British  literature  in  the  i6th 
century. 

COLONEL  (from  Italian,  colonna,  a  column),  the  highest  regimental  military  officer. 
The  term  had  become  common  in  England  in  the  i6th  century. 

COLONIAL  NAVAL  DEFENCE.  Act  to  enable  the  colonies  to  take  effectual  measures 
for  their  defence  against  attacks  by  sea  was  passed  in  1865. 

COLONIES.  The  Phoenician  and  Greek  colonies  being  frequently  founded  by  political 
exiles,  soon  became  independent  of  the  mother  country.  The  Roman  colonies  on  the  contrary 
continued  in  close  connection  with  Rome  itself ;  being  governed  almost  entirely  by  military 
law.— The  COLONIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  partake  of  both  these  characters.  The  N.  American 
colonies  revolted  in  consequence  of  the  attempt  at  taxation  without  their  consent  in  1764. 
The  loyal  condition  of  the  present  colonies  now  is  due  to  the  gradual  relaxation  of  the 
pressure  of  the  home  government.  The  population  of  the  British  colonies  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  was  estimated,  in  1861,  at  142,952,243  (of  which  135,442,911  belong  to  the  East 
Indies).  The  revenue  of  the  colonies  was  estimated  in  1865  to  be  51, 492,000^,  the 
expenditure,  59,353>ooo?-  The  fict  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  British  colonies,  and 


COL 


193 


COL 


for  compensation  to  the  owners  of  slaves  (20,000,000?.  sterling),  was  passed  in  1833.  All 
the  slaves  throughout  the  British  colonies  were  emancipated  on  Aug.  i,  1834.  See  Separate. 
Articles. 


Colony,  or  Possession. 

Date  of  Settlement,  &c. 

Colony,  or  Possession. 

Date  of  Settlement,  etc. 

AfHfiTi  Forts 

about  1618 

Madras    .... 

.  See  Indict. 

Anguilla. 

.  Settlement      .        .  1666 

Malacca  (under  Bengal). 

Antigua 

.  Settlement         .     .  1632 

Malta  .... 

.  Capitulation,  Sept. 

1800 

Australia,  South     . 

.  Settlement      .        .   1834 

Mauritius 

.  Capitulation,    Dec. 

1  8  10. 

Australia,  West  . 

.  Settlement         .     .  1829 

Montserrat 

.  Settlement,  in 

1632 

Bahama  Island 

.  Settlement  1629,  et  seq. 

Natal       .... 

.  Settlement         .     . 

1823 

r%       -i       j        ^ 

Settlement         .     .  1605 

Nevis 

Settlement  in 

1628 

Bengal    .... 

.  See  India. 

New  Brunswick     . 

.  Settlement,  in    .     . 

1622 

Berbice 

.  Capitulation,  Sept.  1803 

British  Columbia 

.  Settlement 

1858 

Bermudas 

.  Settlements  1609,  et  seq. 

Newfoundland 

.  Settlement,  about  . 

1500 

Bombay 

.  See  India. 

New  South  Wales 

.  Settlement,  in    .     . 

1787 

British  Burmah     . 

.  See  Pegu.        .        .1862 

Nova  Scotia    . 

.  Settlement,  in 

1622 

Canada,  Lower  . 

.  Capitulation,  Sept.  1759 

New  Zealand 

.  Settlement         .     . 

1840 

Canada,  Upper 

.  Capitulation,  Sept.  1760 

Pegu       .... 

.  Conquered 

1852 

Cape  Breton 

.  Settlement,  in   .     .   1584 

Port  Phillip         .  '     . 

.  See  Victoria. 

Cape  Coast  Castle'  . 

.  By  cession      .        .  1672 

Prince  Edward's  Island 

.  Capitulated,  in  .     . 

1745 

Cape  of  Good  Hope    . 

.  Capitulation,    Jan.  1806 

Prince  of  Wales'  Island 

.  Settlement,  in 

1786 

Ceylon    .... 

.  Capitulation,   Sept.   1795 

Queensland,  N.  8.  Wales 

.  Settlement,  in   .     . 

1860 

Demerara  and  Essequibo 

.  Capitulation,   Sept.  1803 

Sierra  Leone 

.  Settlement,  in 

1787 

Dominica 

.  Ceded  by  France    .  1763 

Singapore 

.  Purchased,  in    .     . 

1819 

Falkland  Islands 

.  See  Falkland  Islands  1833 

St.  Christopher's 

.  Settlement,  in 

1623; 

Gambia   . 

.  Settlement  in    .     .  1631 

St.  Helena 

.  Capitulated,  in  .     . 

1600 

Gibraltar     . 

.  Capitulation,  Aug.   1704 

St.  Lucia     . 

.  Capitulation,  June, 

1803 

Gold  Coast      . 

.  Settlement         .     .  *    * 

St.  Vincent     . 

.  Ceded  by  France    . 

1763 

Goza     .... 

.  Capitulation,   Sept.  1800 

Swan  River 

.  See  West  Australia. 

Grenada  .... 

.  Ceded  by  France    .  1763 

Tobago    .... 

.  Ceded  by  France    . 

1763 

Guiana,  British  . 

.  Capitulation   .        .  1803 

Tortola 

.  Settlement  in    .     . 

1666 

Heligoland      . 

.  Capitulation       .     .  1807 

Trinidad 

.  Capitulation,    Feb. 

1797 

Honduras    . 

.  By  treaty,  in  .         .  1670 

Van  Diemen's  Land    . 

.  Settlement,  in  .     . 

1803 

Hong  Kong  (Victoria)    . 

.  Ceded  in     .         .     .  1841 

Vancouver's  Island 

.  Settlement,  in 

1848 

Ionian  Islands  (under  Bri 

ish  Protection)     .        .1815 

Victoria  (Port  Phillip) 

.  Settlement,  in    .     . 

1850 

Jamaica 

.  Capitulation       .     .  1665 

Victoria  .         . 

.  See  Hong  Kong. 

Lagos      .... 
Labuan 

.  Ceded      .        .        .  1861 
.  See  Borneo         .     .  1846 

Virgin  Isles 

. 

1666 

COLORADO,  a  territory  of  the  United  States  of  North  America,  was  organised  March  2, 
1 86 1.  Capital,  Golden  City. 

COLOSSEUM,  see  Coliseum.  The  building  in  Regent's  Park,  London,  was  planned  by 
Mr.  Hornor,  a  land  surveyor,  and  commenced  in  1824,  by  Peto  and  Grissell,  from  designs  by 
Decimus  Burton,  The  chief  portion  is  a  polygon  of  16  faces,  126  feet  in  diameter  externally : 
the  walls  are  three  feet  thick  at  the  ground  :  the  height  to  the  glazed  dome  112  feet.  On 
the  canvas  walls  of  the  dome  is  painted  the  panoramic  view  of  London,  completed  in  1829 
from  sketches  by  Mr.  Hornor  taken  from  the  summit  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral  in  1821-2. 
The  picture  covers  above  46,000  square  Jeet,  more  than  an  acre  of  canvas.  The  different 
parts  were  combined  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Parris,  who  in  1845  repainted  the  whole.  In  1848  a 
panorama  of  Paris  was  exhibited  ;  succeeded,  in  1850,  by  the  lake  of  Thorn  in  Switzerland  ; 
in  1851  the  panorama  of  London  was  reproduced.  In  i848  the  theatre  with  the  panorama 
of  Lisbon  was  added.  In  1831,  when  Mr.  Hornor  failed,  the  establishment  was  sold  for 
40,000^.  to  Messrs.  Braham  and  Yates.  In  1843  it  was  bought  by  Mr.  D.  Montague  for  23,000 
guineas.  Timbs.  After  having  been  closed  for  some  time,  the  building  was  opened  to  the 
public  at  Christmas,  1856,  all  the  several  charges  being  reduced  to  one  shilling.  Under  the 
superintendence  of  Dr.  Bachhoffner  it  continued  open  till  the  spring  of  1864,  when  it  was 
again  closed. 

COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES,  a  brass  statue  of  Apollo,  seventy  cubits  high,  esteemed  one  of 
the  wonders  of  the  world,  was  erected  at  the  port  of  Rhodes  in  honour  of  the  sun,  by  Chares 
of  Lindus,  disciple  of  Lysippus,  290  or  288  B.  c.  It  was  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake 
about  224  B.C.  The  figure  is  said  to  have  stood  upon  two  moles,  a  leg  being  extended  on 
each  side  of  the  harbour,  so  that  a  vessel  in  full  sail  could  enter  between.  A  winding 
staircase  led  to  the  top,  from  which  could  be  discerned  the  shores  of  Syria,  and  the  ships  that 
sailed  on  the  coast  of  Egypt.  The  statue  was  in  ruins  for  nearly  nine  centuries,  aim  had 
never  been  repaired  ;  when  the  Saracens  taking  Rhodes,  pulled  it  to  pieces,  and  sold  the. 
metal,  weighing  720,900  Ibs.,  to  a  Jew,  who  is  said  to  have  loaded  900  camels  in  transporting 
it  to  Alexandria  about  653.  Dufresnoy. 

COLOUR  is  to  light  what  pitch  is  to  sound,  according  to  the  undulatory  theory  of 


Huyghens  (about  1678)  established  by  Dr.  T.  Young,  and  others. 


The  shade  varies  according 
o 


COL 


194 


COM 


to  the  number  of  vibrations.     The  number  of  millions  of  millions  of  vibrations  in  a  second 
attributed  to  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  is  458  ;  to  the  violet,  727.     See  Spectrum.* 

COLUMBIA,  a  federal  district  round  the  city  of  Washington  in  Maryland  :  established 
1800.  In  1862,  slavery  was  abolished  therein.  It  has  no  political  rights.  See  British 
Columbia. 

COMBAT,  SINGLE.  Trial  by  this  commenced  by  the  Lombards,  659.  Baronius.  It 
was  introduced  into  England  for  accusations  of  treason,  if  neither  the  accuser  nor  the  accused 
could  produce  good  evidence,  9  Will.  II.  1096.  The  first  battle  by  single  combat  was  that 
fought  before  the  king  and  the  peers  between  Geoffrey  Baynard  and  William  earl  of  Eu,  who 
was  accused  by  Baynard  of  high  treason  ;  and  Baynard  having  conquered,  Eu  was  deemed 
convicted.  The  last  combat  proposed  was  between  lord  Eeay  and  David  Ramsay,  in  1631, 
but  the  king  prevented  it.  See  High  Constable  and  Appeal  of  Battle.  The  same  method  of 
trial  had  also  existed  in  Ireland.  A  trial  was  appointed  between  the  prior  of  Kilmainham 
and  the  earl  of  Ormond,  the  former  having  impeached  the  latter  of  high  treason  ;  but  the 
quarrel  having  been  taken  up  by  the  king,  was  decided  without  fighting,  1446.  Remarkable 
combat  in  Dublin  castle,  before  the  lords  justices  and  council,  between  Connor  MacCormack 
O'Connor  and  Teig  Mac-Gilpatrick  O'Connor,  in  which  the  former  had  his  head  cut  off,  and 
presented  to  the  lords  justices,  1553. 

COMBINATION".  Laws  were  enacted  from  the  time  of  Edward  I.  downwards,  regu- 
lating the  price  of  labour  and  the  relations  between  masters  and  workmen,  and  prohibiting 
the  latter  from  combining  for  their  own  protection.  All  these  laws  were  repealed  in  1825, 
due  protection  being  given  to  both  parties.  The  act  was  amended  in  1859,  when  the  subject 
was  much  discussed,  in  consequence  of  the  strike  in  the  building  trades. 

COMEDY.  Thalia  is  the  muse  of  comedy  and  lyric  poetry.  Susarion  and  Dolon,  the- 
inventors  of  theatrical  exhibitions,  562  B.C.,  performed  the  first  comedy  at  Athens,  on  a 
waggon  or  moveable  stage,  on  four  wheels,  for  which  they  were  rewarded  with  a  basket  of 
figs  and  a  cask  of  wine.  Arundelian  Marbles.  Aristophanes  was  called  the  prince  of  ancient 
comedy,  434  B.C.,  and  Menander  that  of  the  new,  320  B.C.  Of  Plautus,  20  comedies  are- 
extant  ;  he  flourished  220  B.C.  Statins  Csecilius  wrote  upwards  of  30  comedies  ;  he 
flourished  at  Rome  180  B.C.  The  comedies  of  Lselius  and  Terence  were  first  acted  154  B.C. 
The  first  regular  comedy  was  performed  in  England,  about  A.D.  1551.  It  was  said  of 
Sheridan  that  he  wrote  the  best  comedy  (the  School  for  Scandal],  the  best  opera  (the  Duenna)  f 
and  the  best  afterpiece  (the'CWtfc;,  in  the  English  language  (1775-1779).  See  Drama. 

COMETS  (Greek  come,  a  hair).  It  is  recorded  that  more  than  600  have  been  seen.  Mr. 
Hind,  in  his  little  work  on  comets,  gives  a  chronological  list  of  comets.  The  first  discovered 
and  described  accurately  was  by  Nicephorus.  At  the  birth  of  the  great  Mithridates  two 
large  comets  appeared,  which  were  seen  for  seventy-two  days  together,  whose  splendour 
eclipsed  that  of  the  mid-day  sun,  and  occupied  the  fourth  part  of  the  heavens,  about 
135  B.C.  Justin.  A  grand  comet  was  seen  in  1264.  Its  tail  is  said  to  have  extended  100°. 
It  is  considered  to  have  re-appeared  in  1556,  with  diminished  splendour  ;  and  was  expected" 
to  appear  again  about  Aug.  1858  or  Aug.  1860.  Hind.  A  remarkable  one  was  seen  in. 
England,  June  1337.  Stoiv.  Comets  were  first  rationally  explained  by  Tycho  Brahe,  who, 
about  1577,  demonstrated  that  comets  are  extraneous  to  our  atmosphere.  A  comet,  which 
terrified  the  people  from  its  near  approach,  to  the  earth,  was  visible  from  Nov.  3,  1679,  to- 
March  9,  1680.  The  orbits  of  comets  were  proved  to  be  ellipses  by  Newton,  1704".  A  most 
brilliant  comet  appeared  in  1769,  which  passed  within  two  millions  of  miles  of  the  earth. t 
One  still  more  brilliant  appeared  in  Sept.  Oct.  and  Nov.  1811,  visible  all  the  autumn  to  the 
naked  eye.  Another  in  1823. 


HALLEY'S  COMET,  1682.  Named  after  one  of  the 
greatest  astronomers  of  England.  He  first  proved 
that  many  of  the  appearances  of  comets  were  but 
the  periodical  returns  of  the  same  bodies,  and  he 


demonstrated  that  the  comet  of  1682  was  the  same 
with  the  comet  of  1456,  1531,  and  1607,  deducing 
this  fact  from  a  minute  observation  of  the  first- 
mentioned  comet,  and  being  struck  by  its  won- 


*  S9me  persons  (about  65  out  of  1154^  cannot  distinguish  between  colours,  and  are  termed  Colourblind. 
In  1859,  professor  J.  Clerk  Maxwell  invented  spectacles  to  remedy  this  defect,  which  is  also  called  "  Dalton- 
ism," after  John  Dalton,  the  chemist,  to  whon:  scarlet  appeared  drab-coloured. 

t  This  beautiful  comet,  moving  with  iimnense  swiftness,  was  seen  in  London;  its  tail  stretched  across 
the  heavens,  like  a  prodigious  luminous  arch,  36,000,000  miles  in  length.  The  computed  length  of  that 
•which  appeared  in  1811,  and  which  was  so  remarkably  conspicuous,  was,  on  October  15,  according  to  the 
late  Dr.  Herschel,  upwards  of  100,000,000  miles,  and  its  apparent  greatest  breadth,  at  the  same  time, 
15,000,000  miles.  Philos.  Trans.  Royal.  Soc.  for  1812. 


COM 


195 


COM 


COMETS,  continued. 

jrful  resemblance  to  the  comets  described  as 
wing  appeared  in  those  yeara :  Halley,  there- 
re,  first  fixed  the  identity  of  comets,  and  pre- 
3d  their  periodical  returns.  Vince's  Astronomy. 
revolution  of  Halley 's  comet  is  performed  in 
about  75  years;  it  appeared  in  1759,  and  came  to 
its  perihelion  on  March  13 ;  its  last  appearance 
was  1835. 

ENCKE'S  COMET.  First  discovered  by  M.  Pons,  Nov. 
26,  1818,  but  justly  named  by  astronomers  after 

•  professor  Encke,  for  his  success  in  detecting  its 
orbit,  motions,  and  perturbations  ;  it  is,  like  the 
preceding,  one  of  the  three  comets  which  have 
appeared  according  to  prediction,  and  its  revolu- 
tions are  made  in  3  years  and  15  weeks. 

BIELA'S  COMET  has  been  an  object  of  fear  to  many 
on  account  of  the  nearness  with  which  it  has  ap- 
proached, not  the  earth,  but  a  point  of  the  earth's 
path ;  it  was  first  discovered  by  M.  Biela,  an 
Austrian  officer,  Feb.  28,  1826.  It  is  one  of  the 
three  comets  whose  re-appearance  was  predicted, 
its  revolution  being  performed  in  6  years  and  38 
weeks.  Its  second  appearance  was  in  1832,  when 
the  time  of  its  perihelion  passage  was  Nov.  27  ;  its 
third  was  in  1839;  its  fourth  in  1845 ;  and  its  fifth 
in  1852. 

DONATI'S  COMET,  so  called  from  its  having  been  first 
observed  by  Dr.  Donati,  of  Florence,  June-  2,  1858, 


being  then  calculated  to  be  228,000,000  miles  from 
our  earth.  It  was  very  brilliant  in  England  in  the 
end  of  September  and  October  following,  when 
the  tail  was  said  to  be  40,000,000  miles  long.  On 
the  roth  of  October  it  was  nearest  to  the  earth  ;  on 
the  i8th  it  was  near  coming  into  collision  with 
Venus.  Opinions  varied  as  to  this  comet's  bril- 
liancy compared  with  that  of  1811. 

The  GREAT  COMET  of  1861  was  first  seen  by  Mr. 
Tebbutt,  at  Sydney,  in  Australia,  May  13  ;  by  M. 
Goldschmidt  and  others  in  France  and  England 
on  June  29,  30.  The  nucleus  was  about  400  miles 
in  diameter,  with  a  long  bush-like  tail,  travelling 
at  the  rate  of  10,000,000  miles  in  24  hours.  On 
June  30  it  was  suggested  that  we  were  in  the 
tail, — there  being  "a  phosphorescent  auroral 
glare."  * 

A  tailless  comet  was  discovered  in  the  constellation 
Cassiopeia,  by  M.  Seeling,  at  Athens,  on  July  2, 
and  by  M.  Tempel,  at  Marseilles,  July  2  &  3,  1862. 

M.  Rosa  (at  Rome)  discovered  a  comet  on  July  25, 
1862.  It  was  visible  by  the  naked  eye  in  August 
and  September. 

Six  telescopic  comets  were  observed  in  1863,  and 
several  in  1864. 

A  fine  comet  appeared  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
and  was  visible  in  South  America  and  Australia, 
in  Jan.,  Feb.,  1865. 


COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF.  This  office  in  the  British  army  has  been  very  frequently 
vacant,  and  sometimes  for  several  years  consecutively.  When  the  duke  of  Wellington 
resigned  the  office,  on  becoming  minister,  in  1828,  his  grace's  successor,  lord  Hill,  assumed 
the  rank  of  commander  of  the  forces,  or  general  commanding  in  chief. 

Lord  Ligonier          .......  1757 

Marquess  of  Granby 1766 

Lord  Amherst,  general  on  the  staff       .        .     .1778 
Gen.  Seymour  Conway  .  1782 

Lord  Amherst,  again 1793 

Frederick,  duke  of  York 1795 

Sir  David  Dundas  ....  March  25,  1809 
Frederick,  duke  of  York,  again  .  May  29,  1811 
Duke  of  Wellington  .  .  .  Jan.  22,  1827 
Lord  Hill,  general  commanding  in  chief,  Feb.  25,  1828 
Duke  of  Wellington,  again  .  .  Dec.  28,  1842 
Viscount  Hardinge  (died  Sept.  24,  1856),  gene- 
ral commanding  in  chief  .  .  Sept.  28,  1852 
Duke  of  Cambridge,  commander-in-chief  (the 

PRESENT,  1865)    .  .  ,          .  .    July  15,    1856 


CAPTAINS-GENERAL. 

Duke  of  Albemarle 1660 

Duke  of  Monmouth 1678 

Duke  of  Marlborough 1 702 

DukeofOrmond 1711 

Duke  of  Marlboroiigh,  again       ....  1714 

Duke  of  Cumberland 1744 

Duke  of  York ,  1799 


COMMANDERS-IN  CHIEF. 

Duke  of  Monmouth 

Duke  of  Marlborough 

Duke  of  Schomberg 

Duke  of  Ormond          .... 

Earl  of  Stair 


.  1674 

.  1690 

.  1691 

.  1711 

.  1744 

Field-Marshal  Wade 1745 


COMMENDAM.  By  6  &  7  Will.  IY.  c.  77  (1836),  future  bishops  were  prohibited  from 
holding  in  commendam  the  livings,  &c.  they  held  when  consecrated. 

COMMERCE  flourished  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  among  the  Phoenicians  in  the  earliest  ages. 
In  later  times  it  was  spread  over  Europe  by  a  confederacy  of  maritime  cities,  1241.  See 
Hanse  Towns.  The  discoveries  of  Columbus,  and  the  enterprises  of  the  Dutch  and  Por- 
tuguese, enlarged  the  sphere  of  commerce,  and  led  other  nations,  particularly  England,  to 
engage  extensively  in  its  pursuit,  t  See  the  various  articles  connected  with  this  subject  through 
the  volume. 


The  first  treaty  of  commerce  made  by  England 
with  any  foreign  nation  was  entered  into  with 
the  Flemings,  i  Edw.  I.  1272.  The  second 
was  with  Portugal  and  Spain,  2.  Edw.  II. 
1308.  Anderson.  See  Treaties.  Hertslett's 


Collection,  in  10  vols.  8vo.,  published  1827-59, 
has  a  copious  index. 

An    important    commercial  treaty   was    con- 
cluded with  France  in, 1860 


*  M.  Babinet,  on  May  4,  1857,  considered  that  comets  had  so  little  density  that  the  earth  might  pass 
through  the  tail  of  one  without  pur  being  aware  of  it. 

t  Chambers  of  Commerce  originated  at  Marseilles  in  the  i4th  century,  and  similar  chambers  were  insti- 
nted  in  all  the  chief  cities  in  France  about  1700.  These  chambers  were  suppressed  in  1791,  but  afterwards 
restored,  and  their  great  utility  was  recognised  by  a  decree  of  Sept.  3,  1851.  The  chamber  of  commerce  at 
Glasgow  was  established  1783  ;  at  Edinburgh,  1785  ;  Manchester,  1820 ;  Hull,  1837 ;  and  at  other  important 
places.  On  Feb.  21,  1865,  27  of  these  chambers  of  commerce  (not  including  Liverpool,  Manchester  and 
Glasgow)  met  at  Westminster  for  interchange  of  opinions  on  various  questions. 

o  2 


COM 


196 


COM 


COMMISSION.     See  High  Court  of  Commission. 

COMMISSIONAIKES.  The  street  messengers  thus  named  (pensioners  wounded  either  in 
the  Crimea  or  India)  were  first  employed  in  the  west-end  of  London.  They  were  appointed 
"by  a  society,  founded  in  Feb.  1859  by  capt.  Edward  Walter,  which  is  now  under  the 
patronage  of  the  queen  and  the  commander-in-chief.  The  charges  are  regulated  by  a  tariff. 
In  Jan.  1 86 1  the  society  commenced  the  gratuitous  issue  of  a  Monthly  Advertising  Circular. 
In  March,  1864,  there  were  250  commissionaires  in  London.  In  June  17,  1865,  capt. 
Walter  resigned  the  superintendence,  and  a  permanent  system  of  administration  was  formed. 
In  1865  commissionaires  began  to  be  employed  in  London  as  private  night  watchmen.  Com- 
missionaires have  long  existed  in  France. 

COMMON  COUNCIL  OF  LONDON.  Its  organisation  began  about  1208.  The  charter 
of  Henry  I.  mentions  the  folk-mote,  this  being  a  Saxon  appellation,  and  which  may  fairly  be 
rendered  the  court  or  assembly  of  the  people.  The  general  place  of  meeting  of  the  folk-mote 
was  in  the  open  air  at  St.  Paul's  Cross,  St.  Paul's  churchyard.  It  was  not  discontinued  till 
after  Henry  II I. 's  reign  ;  when  certain  representatives  were  chosen  out  of  each  ward,  who, 
being  added  to  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen,  constituted  the  court  of  common  council.  At 
first  only  two  were  returned  for  each  ward  ;  but  the  number  was  enlarged  in  1347,  and 
since.  This  council  became  the  parent  of  similar  institutions  throughout  the  realm.  It  is 
elected  annually  on  Dec.  21,  St.  Thomas's  day.  A  Common  Hall  is  held  occasionally.  The 
common  council  supported  the  prince  of  Orange  in  1688  ;  and  queen  Caroline  in  1820. 

COMMON"  LAW  OF  ENGLAND,  an  ancient  collection  of  unwritten  maxims  and  customs 
(Leges  non  scriptce),  of  British,  Saxon,  and  Danish  origin,  which  has  subsisted  immemorially 
in  this  'kingdom ;  and  although  somewhat  impaired  by  the  rude  shock  of  the  Norman  con- 
quest, has  weathered  the  violence  of  the  times.  This  endeared  it  to  the  people  in  general, 
as  well  because  its  decisions  were  universally  known,  as'  because  it  was  found  to  be  excel- 
lently adapted  to  the  genius  of  the  English  nation  ;  and  accordingly,  at  the  famous  parlia- 
ment of  Mertpnj  1236,  "all  the  earls  and  barons,"  says  the  parliament  roll,  "with  one  voice 
answered,  that  they  would  not  change  the  laws  of  England,  which  have  hitherto  been  used 
and  approved  ;"  eminently  the  law  of  the  land.  See  Bastard.  The  process,  practice,  and 
mode  of  pleading  ,in  the  superior  courts  of  common  law,  were  amended  in  1852  and  1854. 

COMMON  PLEAS,  COURT  OF,  IN  ENGLAND.  This  court  in  ancient  times  followed  the 
king's  person,  and  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  King's  Bench  ;  but  on  the  confirmation  of 
Magna  Charta  by  king  John,  in  1215,  it  was  fixed  at  Westminster,  where  it  still  continues. 
In  1833  the  mode  of  procedure  in  all  the  superior  courts  -  was  made  uniform.  In  England, 
no  barrister  under  the  degree  of  a  serjeant  could  'plead  in  the  court  of  common  pleas  ; 
but  in  1846  the  privilege' was  extended  to  barristers  'practising  in  the  superior  courts  at 
Westminster. 

CHIEF  JUSTICES  OF  THE  COMMON  PLEAS  OF  ENGLAND  (from  the  reign  of  Elizabeth). 


1558.  £ir  Anthony  Browne. 

J559-  Sir  James  Dyer. 

1582.  Sir  Edmund  Anderson. 

1605.  Sir  Francis  Gawdy. 

1606.  Sir  Edward  Coke. 
1613.  Sir  Henry  Hobart. 
1626.  Sir  Thomas  Richardson. 
1631.  Sir  Robert  Heath. 
1634.'  Sir  John  Finch. 

1639.  Sir  Edward  Lyttleton. 

j64o.  Sir  John  Bankes, 

1648.  Oliver  St.  J  ohn. 

1660.  Sir  Orlando  Bridgman,  after- 
icards  lord  keeper. 

i653.  Sir  John  Vaughan. 

1675.  Sir    Francis    North,     after- 
wards lord  keeper  Guilford 

1683.  Sir  Francis  Pemberton. 
, ,      Hir  Thomas  Jour  s. 

1686.  Sir  Henry  Be^ingfield. 

1687.  Sir  Robert  Wright. 

,      Sir  Edward  Herbert. 


1689.  Sir  Henry  Pollexfen. 

1692.  Sir  George  Treby. 

1701.  Sir  Thomas  Trevor,  after- 
wards lord  Trevor. 

1714.  Sir  Peter  King,  aftertcards 
lord  chancellor  King. 

1725.  Sir  Robert  Evre. 

1736.  Sir  Thomas  Reeve. 

1737.  S.r  Jo»m  Willes. 

1761.  Sir  Charles  Pratt,  afterwards 
lord  chancellor  CamdeH. 

1766.  Sir  John  Eardley  Wilmot. 

1771.  Sir  WiUltm  de  Grey,  after- 
wards lord  Walsingham. 

1780.  Alexander    Wedderburne, 

afterwords  lord  chancellor 
Loughborough. 

1793.  Sir  James  Eyre. 

1799.  Sir  John  Scott,  oftenvards 
lord  chancellor  Eldon. 

1801.  Sir  Richard  Pepper  Arden 
(lord  Alvanley),  May  22. 


1804.  Sir  James  Mansfield,  Apr.  21. 

1814.  Sir  Vicary  Gibbs,  Feb.  24. 

1818.  Sir  Robert  Dallas,  Nov.  5. 

1824.  Sir  Robert  Gifford,  Jan.  9 
(lord  Gifford) ;  aft.  master 
of  the  Rolls. 

, ,      Sir  William  Draper  Best,  < . 
lord  Wynford,  April  15. 

1829.  Sir     Nicolas,   C.     Tindr 
June  9  ;  died  July  184 

1846.  Sir  Thomas  Wilde,  July 
aft.  L  >rd  chancellor  Tri 

1850.  Sir   John  Jervis,   July 
died  November  i,  1856. 

1856.  Sir     Alexander    Cockbm 

Nov.  15  ;  made  chief  jus- 
tice of  the  Queen's  Bench, 
June,  1859. 

1859.  Sir  William  Erie,  June.  The 
PRESENT  (1865)  chief  jus- 
tice. 


COMMON   PLEAS,  continued. 

CHIEF   JUSTICES    OF   THE   COMMON   PLEAS    IX   IRELAND    (si'HC-C   the   Revolution). 


1691.  Richard  Pyne,  Jan.  5. 
1695.  Sir  John  Hely,  May  10. 
1701.  Sir  Richard  Cox,  May  4. 
1703.  Robert  Doyne,  Dec.  27. 
1714.  John  Forster,  Sept.  30. 
1720.  Sir  Richard  Levinge,  Oct.  13. 
1724.  Thomas  Wyndham,  Oct.  27. 
1726.  William  Whitshed,  Jan.  23. 


1727.  James  Reynolds,  Nov.  8. 
1740.  Henry  Singleton,  May  n. 
1754.  Sir  William  Yorke,  Sept.  4. 
1761.  William  Aston,  May  5. 
1765.  Richard  Clayton,  Feb.  21. 
1770.  Marcus  Patterson,  June  18. 
1787.  Hugh  Carle  ton,  aft.  viscount 
Carleton,  April  30. 


1800.  John  Toler,  afterwards  lord 
Norbury,  Oct.  22. 

1827.  Lord  Plunket,  June  18. 

1830.  John  Doherty,  Dec.  23. 

1850.  James  Henry  Monahan, 
Sept.  23.  ThepRESicxr 
(1865)  chief  justice. 


COMMON  PRAYER,  BOOK  OF,  was  ordered  by  parliament  to  be  printed  in  the  English 
language  in  April  I,  1548.  It  was  voted  out  of  doors  by  parliament,  and  the  Directory 
(which  see)  set  up  in  its  room  in  1644,  and  a  proclamation  was  issued  against  it  in  1647'. 
With  a  few  changes  the  English  Common  Prayer-book  is  used  by  the  episcopal  churches  in 
Scotland  and  North  America. 


The  king's  primer  published  .         .        .     .   1 545 

First  book  of  Edward  VI.  printed      .         .         .   1549 

Second  book  of  Edward  VI 1552 

First  book  of  Elizabeth        .....  1559 

King  James's  book 1604 

Scotch  book  of  Charlea  I.     .         .        .         .         .  1637 

Charles  II.  's  book  (Savoy  Conference)  •.        .     .1662 
(The  one,  with  alterations,  now  in  use.) 


The  State  services  (which  had  never -formed  part  of 
the  Prayer-book,  but  were  annexed  to  it  at  the  be- 
ginning of  every  reign)  for  November  5  (Gunpowder 
treason),  January  30  (Charles  I.'s  execution),  and 
May  29  (Charles  I  I.'s  restoration),  were  ordered  to 
be  discontinued  on  January  17,  1859. 


COMMONS,  HOUSE  OF,  the  great  representative  assembly  of  the  people  of  Great  Britain, 
originated  with  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  who  by  the  Provisions  of  Oxford 
ordered  returns  to  be  made  of  two  knights  from  every  shire,  and  deputies  from  certain 
boroughs  to  meet  such  of  the  barons  and  clergy  as  were  his  friends,  with  a  view  thereby  to 
strengthen  his  own  power  in  opposition  to  that  of  his  sovereign  Henry  III.,  1258.  Stou\ 
See  Parliament.  The  following  is  the  constitution  of  the  house  of  commons  since  the 
passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  in  1832  : — 


ENGLISH.— County  members 

Universities 

Cities  and  boroughs 
WELSH. — County  members 

Cities  and  boroughs 

English  and  Welsh 


144 

4 
325—473 

15 
M—  29 

502 


English  and  Welsh 
SCOTCH.' — County  members 

Cities  and  boroughs 
IRISH.— -County  members  . 

University 

Cities  and  boroughs 

Total  (see  Parliament) 


502 
30 

23—  53 
64 

2 
39—105 

660* 


CONSTITUENCY   OF   THE  UNITED   KINGDOM   IN    1851, 
[Population,  27,452,252.] 

Electors. 
ENGLAND. — County  ....  461,463 

Borough 378,384-839,847 

WALES.— County       ....     36,984 

Borough iij035 —  48,019 


England  and  Wales 


887,866 


England  and  Wales 
SCOTLAND.— County     . 

Borough 
IRELAND.— County 

Borough     . 


Constituency 


Electors. 

887,866 
48,456 

41,849—  90,305 
31,832 
40,234—  72,066 


1,050.237 


In  1859,  Mr.  Nowmarch  estimated  the  constituency  of  England  and  Wales  at  934,000 


COMMONWEALTH  OF  ENGLAND.  The  term  is  applied  to  the  interregnum  between 
the  death  of  Charles  1.  and  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  The  form  of  the  government  was 
changed  to  a  repiiblic  on  the  execution  of  Charles  I.,  Jan  30,  1649, — a  new  oath  called  the 
"Engagement"  was  framed,  which  the  people  were  obliged  to  take.t  Salmon.  Oliver 
Cromwell  was  made  Protector,  Dec.  16,  1653.  Richard  Cromwell  was  made  Protector,  Sept. 


*  In  1848  Sudbury,  and  in  1852  St.  Alban's  were  disfranchised  for  bribery  and  corruption  ;  each  having 
previously  returned  tw  o  members  ;  the  aggregate  number  of  the  house  then  became  656.  In  1861,  the 
forfeited  seats  were  thus  distributed  by  act  of  parliament — two  additional  to  the  west  riding  of  York,  one 
additional  to  south  Lancashire,  and  one  to  a  newly-created  borough,  Birkenhead. 

t  By  this  oath  they  swore  to  be  true  and  faithful  to  the  commonwealth,  without  king  or  house  of 
lords.  The  statues  of  Charles  were  next  day  demolished,  particularly  that  at  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  one 
at  the  west  end  of  St.  Paul's  ;  and  in  their  room  the  following  inscription  was  conspicuously  set  tip  : — 
"  Exit  Tyrannus  Regum  ultiiiiv.s,  Anno  libertatis  Anglice  Restitute  Primo,  Anno  Dom.  1648,  Jan.  30." 


COM 


193 


COM 


3,  1658.     Monarchy  was  restored  in  the  person  of  Charles  II.,  who  entered  London,  May 
29,  1660.     See  Rome. 

COMMUNION",  one  of  the  names  given  to  the  ordinance  of  the  Lord's  supper,  in  the 
primitive  church.  Communicating  under  the  form  of  bread  alone  is  said  to  have  had  its 
rise  in  the  West,  under  pope  Urban  II.,  1096.  The  fourth  Lateran  council,  1215,  decreed 
that  every  believer  should  receive  the  communion  at  least  at  Easter.  The  cup  was  first 
denied  to  the  laity  by  the  council  of  Constance,  1414-18.  The  communion  service,  as  now 
performed  in  the  church  of  England,  was  instituted  in  1548. 

COMMUNISTS.    See  Socialists.  COMORN.    See  Komorn. 

COMPANIES.*  Among  the  earliest  commercial  companies  in  England  may  be  named 
the  Steel-yard  Society,  established  1232.  The  second  company  was  the  merchants  of  St. 
Thomas  a  Becket,  in  1248.  Stow.  The  third  was  the  Merchant  Adventurers,  incorporated 
by  Elizabeth,  1564.  The  following  are  the  city  companies  of  London,  in  the  order  of  pre- 
cedence ;  the  first  twelve  are  the  chief,  and  are  styled  "the  Honourable."  Several  com- 
panies are  virtually  extinct,  and  many  of  the  dates  are  doubtful. 


i.  Mercers     .        .  1393 

25.  Saddlers    . 

1280 

49.  Upholders     .    .  1627 

73.  Wheelwrights  .  1670 

2.  Grocers.        .     ,1345 

26.  Carpenters    .     . 

I344 

50.  Musicians  .        .  1604 

74.  Distillers   .        .  *    * 

3.  Drapers     .         .   1439 

27.  Cordwainers 

1410 

51.  Turners          .    .   1604 

75.  Hatband-makrs.  1638 

4.  Fishmongers     .  1284 

28.  Paper-stainers 

1580 

52.  Basket-makers.  *    * 

76.  Pattern-makers   1670 

5.  Goldsmiths  .     .  1327 

29.  Curriers     . 

1605 

53.   Glaziers         .     .   1637 

77.  Glass-sellers      .  1664 

6.   Skinners    .         .    ,, 

30.  Masons. 

1677 

54.  Homers     .        .  1638 

78.  Tobacco-pipe 

7.  MerchantTaylors  1416 

31.  Plumbers  . 

1611 

55.  Farriers         .    .   1673 

makers  .         .   1663 

8.  Haberdashers    .  1447 

32.  Inn-holders  . 

ISI5 

56.  Paviors      .        .  *    * 

79.  Coach  and  Har- 

9. Salters       .        .1558 

33.  Founders  . 

1614 

57.  Lorimers    .        .1488 

ness  makers  .   1677 

10.  Ironmongers     .  1464 
ii.  Vintners    .         .  1437 

34.  Poulterers     . 
35.  Cooks 

*5°3 
1481 

58.  Apothecaries     .  1617 
59.  Shipwrights  .     .  1610 

80.  Gunmakers       .  1638 
81.  Gold  and  silver 

12.  Clothworkers    .  1482 

36.  Coopers 

1501 

60.  Spectacle-makrs.  1630 

wire-drawers    1623 

13.  Dyers    .        .     .  1469 

37.  Tilers  and  Brick 

61.  Clock-makers    .  1632 

82.  Bowstring- 

14.  Brewers     .        .1438 

layers     . 

1568 

62.  Glovers      .         .  1556 

makers     .    .  '-•    * 

15.  Leather-sellers  .•  1442 

38.  Bowyers 

1620 

63.  Comb-makers    .  1650 

83.  Card-makers     .    1629 

1  6.  Pewterers.        .   1474 

39.  Fletchers  . 

iS36 

64.  Felt-makei-s      .   1604 

84.  Fan-makers  .    .  1709 

17.  Barber  Surgeons  1308 

40.  Blacksmiths. 

65.  Framework-knit- 

85. Wood-mongers  .  *    * 

1  8.  Cutlers.         .     .1417 

41.  Joiners 

XS64 

ters    .        .     .  1664 

86.  Starch-makers  .   1632 

19.  Bakers        .         .1307 

42.  Weavers 

1164 

66.  Silk-throwsters    1629 

87.  Fishermen    .     .  1687 

20.  Wax  -chandlers  .  1484 

43.  Woolmen  . 

*    * 

67.  Silk-men   .        .  1608 

88.  Parish  clerks    .  1232 

21.  Tallow-chandlers  1463 

44.  Scriveners     . 

1616 

68.  Pin-makers  .     .  1636 

89.  Carmen      .        .  *     * 

22.  Armourers    and 

45.  Fruiterers. 

1604 

69.  Needle-makei's  .  1656 

90.   Porters.        .     .  * 

Braziers    .    .  1463 

46.  Plasterers     . 

1500 

70.  Gardeners      .    .1616 

91.  Watermen.        .  1556 

23.  Girdlers     .        .  1448 

47.  Stationers. 

1556 

71.  Soap-makers     .  1638 

24.  Butchers       .    .  1604 

48.  Embroiderers 

1591 

72.  Tinplate-workrs.  1670 

COMPASS,  MARINER'S,  is  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  Chinese,  1115  B.C.  ;  and 
is  ascribed  to  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian,  A.D.  1260  ;  and  to  Flavio  Gioja,  of  Amalfi,  a  navi- 
gator of  Naples,  t  Until  this  time  the  needle  was  laid  upon  a  couple  of  pieces  of  straw,  or 
small  split  sticks,  in  a  vessel  of  water  ;  Gioja  introduced  the  suspension  of  the  needle, 
1302.  It  is  also  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  Swedes  in  the  time  of  king  Jarl  Birger, 
1250.  Its  variation  was  discovered  first  by  Columbus,  1492  ;  afterwards  by  Sebastian 
Cabot,  1540*  The  compass-box  and  hanging  compass  used  by  navigators  were  invented  by 
William  Barlowe,  an  English  divine  and  natural  philosopher,  in  1608.  See  Magnetism.  The 
measuring  compass  was  invented  by  Jost  Bing,  of  Hesse,  in  1602. 

COMPIEGNE,  a  French  city  north  of  Paris,  the  residence  of  the  Carlovingian  kings. 
During  the  siege,  Joan  of  Arc  was  captured  by  the  English,  May  24,  1430.  The  emperor 
Napoleon  III.  and  the  king  of  Prussia  met  here  on  Oct.  6,  1861. 

COMPLUTENSIAN  BIBLE.     See  Polyglot. 

COMPOSITE  ORDER,  principally  a  mixture  of  the  Corinthian  and  Ionic,  and  .also  call* 
the  Roman  order,  is  of  uncertain  date. 

COMTE  PHILOSOPHY.     See  Positive  Philosophy. 

*  Bubble  companies  have  been  formed,  commonly  by  designing  persons.  Law's  bubble,  in  1720-1,  was 
perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  of  its  kind,  and  the  South  Sea  Bubble,  in  the  same  year,  was  scarcely  less 
memorable  for  its  ruin  of  thousands  of  families.  Many  companies  were  established  in  these  countries  in 
1824  and  1825,  and  turned  out  to  be  bubbles.  Immense  losses  were  incurred  by  individuals,  and  the  families 
of  thousands  of  speculators  were  totally  ruined.  Many  railway  enterprises  (1844-5)  may  De  termed 
bubbles.  See  Law's  Bubble  ;  South  Sea;  Railways;  Joint-Stock  Companies. 

t  The  statement  that  the  fleur-de-lis  was  made  the  ornament  of  the  northern  point  of  the  compass  in 
compliment  to  Charles,  the  king  of  Naples,  at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  has  been  contradicted. 


CON  199  CON 

CONCEPTION,  IMMACULATE.  A  festival  (on  Dec.  8)  appointed  in  1389,  is  observed 
with  great  devotion  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary's  having 
been  conceived  and  born  immaculate,  or  without  original  sin.  Pope  Paul  V.  in  1617  forbade 
any  one  to  stand  up  against  the  opinion  of  the  immaculate  conception  ;  this  order  was 
confirmed  by  Gregory  XV.  and  by  Alexander  VII.  Henault.  On  December  8,  1854,  the 
pope,  Pius  IX.,  promulgated  a  bull  with  great  solemnity,  declaring  this  dogma  to  be  an 
article  of  faith,  and  charging  with  heresy  those  who  should  doubt  it  or  speak  against  it. — 
The  COXCEPTIONISTS  were  an  order  of  nuns  in  Italy,  established  in  1488.  See  Santiago. 

CONCERTINA,  a  musical  instrument  invented  by  prof.  Wheatstone,  about  1825,  and 
improved  by  Mr.  G.  Case.  The  sounds  are  produced  by  free  vibrating  metal  springs. 

CONCERTS.  The  Filarmonia  gave  concerts  at  Vicenza  in  the  i6th  century.  The  first 
public  subscription  concert  was  performed  at  Oxford  in  1665.  The  first  concert  in  London 
is  said  to  have  been  in  1672.  The  Academy  of  Ancient  Music  began  in  1710  ;  the  Concerts 
of  Ancient  Music  in  1776;  and  the  present  Philharmonic  Society  in  1813.  See  Music; 
Crystal  Palace  and  Handel. 

CONCHOLOGY,  the  science  of  shells,  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle  and  Pliny.  It  was  first 
reduced  to  a  system  by  John  Daniel  Major,  of  Kiel,  who  published  his  classification  of  the 
Testacea  in  1675.  Lister's  system  was  published  in  1685  ;  and  that  of  Largius  in  1722. 
Johnston's  Introduction  (1850)  and  Sowerby's  Manual  of  Conchology  (1842),  are  useful. 
Forbes  and  Hanley's  "British  Mollusca  and  their  Shells"  (1848-53)  is  a  magnificent  work. 

CONCLAVE.  This  term  is  derived  from  the  conclave,  a  range  of  small  cells  in  the  hall 
of  the  Vatican,  or  palace  of  the  pope  of  Rome,  where  the  cardinals  usually  meet  to  elect  a 
pope,  and  is  also  used  for  the  assembly  of  the  cardinals  shut  up  for  the  purpose.  The 
conclave  had  its  rise  in  1271.  Clement  IV.  having  died  at  Viterbo  in  1268,  the  cardinals 
were  nearly  three  years  unable  to  agree  in  the  choice  of  a  successor,  and  were  on  the  point 
of  breaking  up,  when  the  magistrates,  by  the  advice  of  St.  Bonaventure,  then  at  Viterbo, 
shut  the  gates  of  their  city,  and  locked  up  the  cardinals  in  the  pontifical  palace  till  they 
agreed.  Hence  the  custom  of  shutting  up  the  cardinals  while  they  elect  a  pope. 

CONCORDANCE.  An  index  or  alphabetical  catalogue  of  all  the  words  and  also  a  chrono- 
logical account  of  all  the  transactions  in  the  Bible.  The  first  concordance  was  made  under  the 
direction  of  Hugo  de  St.  Charo,  who  employed  as  many  as  500  monks  upon  it,  1247.  Abbe 
Lcnglet.  Cruden's  well-known  Concordance  was  published  in  London  in  1737.  The  Index 
to  the  Bible,  published  by  the  Queen's  printers,  was  prepared  by  B.  Vincent,  editor  of  this 
volume,  and  completed  in  May,  1848.*  J 

CONCORDAT.  The  name  is  given  to  an  instrument  of  agreement  between  a  prince  and 
the  pope,  usually  concerning  benefices.  The  concordat  between  the  emperor  Henry  V.  of 
Germany  and  pope  Calixtus  II.,  in  1122,  has  been  regarded  as  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
church  in  Germany.  The  concordat  between  Napoleon  Bonaparte  and  Pius  VII.,  signed 
at  Paris,  July  15,  1801,  re-established  the  Catholic  church  and  the  papal  authority  in 
France.  Napoleon  was  made  in  effect  the  head  of  the  Gallican  church,  as  bishops  were  to 
have  their  appointments  from  him  and  their  investiture  from  the  pope.  Another  concordat 
between  the  same  persons  was  signed  at  Fontainebleau,  Jan.  25,  1813.  These  were  almost 
nullified  in  1817  and  1819.  A  concordat,  signed  Aug.  18,  1855,  between  Austria  and  Rome, 
by  which  a  great  deal  of  the  liberty  of  the  Austrian  church  was  given  up  to  the  Papacy, 
caused  much  dissatisfaction. 

CONCUBINES  were  tolerated  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  but  strictly 
forbidden  by  Christ  (Mark  x.  I  Cor.  vii.  2).  They  are  mentioned  as  having  been  allowed 
to  the  priests,  1132.  See  Morganitic  Marriage. 

"  CONDOTTIERI,  conductors  or  leaders  of  mercenaries  and  their  bands,  became  so 
troublesome  in  Italy  in  the  middle  ages,  that  the  various  cities  formed  a  league  to  suppress 
them  in  1342. 

CONDUITS.  Two  remarkable  conduits,  among  a  number  of  others  in  London,  existed 
early  in  Cheapside.  The  Great  Conduit  was  the  first  cistern  of  lead  erected  in  the  city,  and 
was  built  in  1285.  At  the  procession  of  Anna  Boleyn,  on  the  occasion  of  her  marriage,  it 
ran  with  white  and  claret  wine  all  the  afternoon,  June  I,  1533.  Stow. 

*  Verbal  indexes  accompany  good  editions  of  the  ancient  classics.  An  index  to  Shal-speare,  by 
Ayscough,  appeared  in  1790;  another  by  Twiss  in  1805;  and  Mrs.  Cowden  Clarke's  (late  Mary  Novello) 
complete  concordance  to  Shakspeare  (on  which  she  spoilt  16  years'  labour)  iu  1847.  Todd's  verbal  index  to 
Miiton  was  published  in  1800. 


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CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  The  efforts  of  the  Southern  States  for  the 
extension  of  slavery,  and  the  zeal  of  the  Northern  States  for  its  abolition,  with  the  conse- 
quent political  dissensions,  led  to  the  great  secession  of  1860-1.  On  Nov.  4,  i86o,itAbrahara 
Lincoln,  the  Republican  or  Abolitionist  candidate,  was  elected  president  of  the  United  States. 
Hitherto,  a  president  in  the  interest  of  the  South  had  been  elected.  On  Dec.  20,  South 
Carolina  seceded  from  the  Union  ;  and  Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  Louisiana, 
Texas,  Virginia  (except  West  Virginia),  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina  also 
seceded  early  in  1861.  Jefferson  Davis  was  inaugurated  president  of  the  Southern  Con- 
federacy at  Montgomery  in  Alabama,  Feb.  18,  1861.  For  the  events  of  the  war  which 
ensued,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Southern  States  to  the  Union,  see  United  States,  1861-5. 

CONFEDERATION  AT  PARIS,  July  14,  1790.     See  Champs  de  Mars,  and  Bastile. 

CONFEDERATION  OF  THE  RHINE.  The  League  of  the  Germanic  States,  formed  by 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  July  12,  1806,  when  he  abolished  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  and  the 
emperor  of  Germany  became  emperor  of  Austria.  It  consisted  of  the  kingdoms  of  Bavaria, 
"VVurtemberg,  Saxony,  and  Westphalia ;  seven  grand  duchies  ;  six  duchies  ;  and  twenty 
principalities.  The  German  princes  collectively  engaged  to  raise  258,000  troops  to  serve  in 
case  of  war,  and  established  a  diet  at  Frankfort,  July  12,  1806.  This  league  terminated 
with  the  career  of  Bonaparte  in  1814,  and  was  replaced  by  the  Germanic  Confederation 
(which  see). 

CONFERENCES.  One  was  held  at  Hampton  Court  Palace,  between  the  prelates  of  the 
church  of  England  and  the  dissenting  ministers,  in  order  to  effect  a  general  union,  at  the 
instance  of  the  king,  James  I.  Jan.  14-16,  1604.  It  led  to  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible, 
that  now  in  general  use  in  England  ;  executed  in  1607-11.  Some  alterations  in  the  church 
liturgy  were  agreed  upon  ;  but  these  not  satisfying  the  dissenters,  nothing  more  was  done. — 
Another  conference  of  the  bishops  and  presbyterian  ministers,  with  the  same  view,  was  held 
in  the  Savoy,  April  25  to  July  25,  1661.  The  dissenters'  objections  were  generally  disallowed, 
but  some  alterations  were  recommended  in  the  Prayer-book.  See  Wesley ans. 

CONFESSIONAL.     See  Auricular  Confession. 

CONFESSIONS  OF  FAITH,  or  CREEDS.  See  fpostles\  Nicene  (325),  and  Athanasian 
(about  434)  Creeds. 


The  confession  of  faith  of  the  Greek  church  was 
presented  to  Mahommed  II.  in  1453.  This 
gave  way  in  1643  to  one  composed  by  Mogila, 
metropolitan  of  Kiev,  which  is  the  present 
standard  of  the  Russo-Greek  church. 

The  creed  of  Pius  VI.,  composed  of  the  Nicene 
creed,  with  additional  articles  which  embody 
all  the  peculiar  dogmas  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic church,  published  by  the  council  of  Trent  1564 

The  church  of  England  retains  the  Apostles', 
Nicene,  and  Athanasian  creeds,  with  Ar- 


ticles : — 42  in  1552  ;  reduced  to  39  .     . 

The  confession  of  Augsburg  (that  of  the 
Lutherans)  was  drawn*  up  principally  by 
Melanchthon,  in  1530,  and  has  since  under- 
gone modifications,  the  last  of  which  is  called 
the  "  Form  of  Concord"  .  .  .  .  15; 

The  Westminster  confession  was  agreed  to  in 
1643  ;  and  adopted  by  the  presbyterian 
church  of  Scotland.  See  Westminster  . 

The  congregational  dissenters  published  a  de- 
claration of  faith  . 


CONFIRMATION,  on  LAYING  ON  HANDS,  was  practised  by  the  apostles  in  34  and  56 
(Acts  viii.  17;  xix.  6),  and  was  general,  according  to  some  church  authorities,  in  190.  In 
the  church  of  England  it  is  the  public  profession  of  the  Christian  religion  by  an  adult  person, 
who  has  been  baptized  in  infancy.  It  is  made  a  sacrament  by  the  church  of  Rome. 

CONFLANS  (near  Paris),  TREATY  OF,  between  Louis  XI.  of  France  and  the  dukes  of 
Bourbon,  Brittany,  and  Burgundy,  1465.  By  its  provisions  Normandy  was  ceded  to  the  duke 
of  Berry,  and  an  end  was  put  to  the  "  War  of  the  Public  Good."  It  was  confirmed  by  tl 
of  Peronne  in  1468. 

CONGlS  D'^LIRE  (permission  to  elect),  the  licence  of  the  sovereign  as  head  of  tl 
church,  to  chapters  and  other  bodies,  to  elect  dignitaries,  particularly  bishops,  asserted  I 
Henry  VIII.  1535.  After  the  interdict  of  the  pope  upon  England  had  been  removed  in  121* 
king  John  made  an  arrangement  with  the  clergy  for  the  election  of  bishops. 

CONGELATION,  the  act  of  freezing.  Ice  was  produced  in  summer  by  means  of  chemu 
mixtures,  by  Mr.  Walker,  in  1783.     The  congelation  of  quicksilver  was  effected  withoi 
snow  or  ice,  in  1787.     In   1810  Leslie  froze  water  in  an  air-pump  by  placing  a  vessel 
sulphuric  acid  under  it.     Numerous  freezing  mixtures  have  been  discovered  since.     Intern 
cold  is  produced  by  the  aerification  of  liquefied  carbonic  acid  gas.     In  1857  Mr.  Harrison 
patented  a  machine  for  manufacturing  ice  for  commercial  purposes,  by  means  of  ether  and 


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salt  water,  and  made  large  blocks.  In  1860,  M.  Carr£  devised  a  method  of  freezing  to  60° 
below  zero  by  making  water  in  a  close  vessel  absorb  and  give  off  the  gas  ammonia.  Siebe's 
ice-making  machine,  exhibited  at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862,  excited  much 
admiration. 

CONGREGATION  OF  THE  LORD.  A  name  taken  by  the  Scotch  Reformers,  headed  by 
John  Knox,  about  1546.  Their  leaders  (the  duke  of  Argyle,  &c.)  were  called  Lords  of  the 
Congregation  about  1557. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS.     See  Independents. 

CONGRESS.  An  assembly  of  princes  or  ministers  for  the  settlement  of  the  affairs  of 
nations  or  of  a  people.*  The  following  are  the  most  remarkable  congresses  of  Europe  : — 


Munster 1648 

Nimeguen 1678 

Ryswick 1697 

Utrecht 1713 

Soissons 1728 

Antwerp      .        .        April  8,  1793 


Rastadt    . 
Chatillon     . 
Vienna 

Aix-la-Chapolle 
Carlsbad  . 
Troppau 


Dec.  9,  1797 

Feb.  5,  1814 

Nov.  3,  ,, 

Oct.  9,  1818 

Aug.  i,  1819 

Oct.  20,  1820 


Lay  bach  .  .  .  May  6,  1821 
Verona  .  .  .  Aug.  25,  1822 
Paris  .  Jan  16 — April  22,  1856 
Frankfort  (see  Germany) 

Aug.  16-31,  1863 
See  Alliances,  Conventions,  &c. 


The  first  general  CONGRESS  of  the  UNITED  STATES 
of  AMERICA,  preparatory  to  their  declaration 
of  independence,  when  strong  resolutions 
were  passed,  also  a  petition  to  the  king,  and 
an  address  to  the  people  of  England,  was  held 
Sept.  5,  1774.  The  second  was  held  May  10, 
1775  ;  the  third,  when  the  independence  was 
declared July  4,  1776 

The  first  federal  American  congress,  under  the 


constitution,  was  held  at  New  York  ;  George 
Washington,  president  .  .  .  March,  1789 
The  first  congress  of  the  seceding  southern 
states  was  held  at  Montgomery,  Alabama, 
Feb.  4 ;  it  elected  Jefferson  Davis  president 
of  the  confederate  states  on  Feb.  9.  For 
political  reasons  it  adjourned  on  May  24,  to 
meet  at  Richmond,  in  Virginia,  on  .  July  20,  1861 


'^CONGREVE  ROCKETS.  Invented  by  general  sir  "William  Congreve,  in  1803.  They 
were  used  with  great  effect  in  the  attack  upon  Boulogne,  Oct.  8,  1806,  when  they  set  a  part 
of  the  town  on  fire,  which  burned  for  two  days  :  they  were  employed  in  various  operations 
in  the  French  war  with  much  success,  by  a  corps  called  rocket-men. 

CONIC  SECTIONS.  Their  more  Remarkable  properties  were  probably  known  to  the 
Greeks,  four  or  five  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  The  study  of  them  was  cultivated  in 
the  time  of  Plato,  390  B.  c.  The  earliest  treatise  on  them  was  written  by  Aristseus,  about 
330  B.C.  Apollonius's  eight  books  were  written  about  240  B.C.  The  parabola  was  applied 
to  projectiles  by  Galileo,  who  died  1608 ;  the  ellipse  to  the  orbit  of  planets  by  Kepler, 
about  1609. 

CONJURATION.     See  Witchcraft. 

CONNECTICUT  granted  to  lords  Say  and  Brooke,  1631.  See  America,  and  United  States. 

CONNOR,  BISHOPRIC  OF,  in  Ireland.  The  see  was  united  to  that  of  Down,  1442.  The 
first  prelate  was  ^Engus  Macnisius,  who  died  507.  The  united  sees  were  added  to  Droinore  on 
the  death  of  the  last  bishop  of  the  lafter,  1842,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
Irish  Church  Temporalities'  Act,  passed  1833. 

CONQUEST.  The  memorable  era  in  British  history,  when  William  duke  of  Normandy 
overcame  Harold  II.  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  Oct.  14,  1066,  and  obtained  the  crown  which 
had  been  most  unfairly  bequeathed  to  him  by  Edward  the  confessor  (for  Edgar  was  the 
rightful  heir).  William  has  been  erroneously  styled  the  Conqueror,  for  he  succeeded  to  the 
crown  of  England  by  compact.  He  defeated  Harold,  who  was  himself  a  usurper,  but  a  large 
portion  of  the  kingdom  afterwards  held  out  against  him  ;  and  he,  unlike  a  conqueror,  took 
an  oath  to  observe  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  realm,  in  order  to  induce  the  submission  of 
the  people.  Formerly  our  judges  were  accustomed  to  reprehend  any  gentleman  at  trie  bar 
who  said  casually  William  the  conqueror  instead  of  William  I.  Selden.  Maclise  exhibited 
forty-two  drawings  on  the  events  of  the  Norman  conquest,  in  May,  1857. 

CONSCIENCE,  COURTS  OF,  OR  REQUESTS,  first  constituted  by  a  statute  of  Henry  VII. 
1493,  and  re-organised  by  statute  9  Hen.  VIII.  1517.  These  courts  were  improved  and 
amended  by  various  acts  ;  their  jurisdiction  in  London  reached  to  5?.  and  (until  superseded 
by  county-courts)  to  405.  in  other  towns.  The  practice  was  by  summons,  and  if  the  party 
did  not  appear,  the  commissioners  had  power  to  apprehend  and  commit.  See  County  Courts. 
—James  II.  proclaimed  Liberty  of  Conscience  in  1687.  Conscience  Clause,  see  Education. 


*  In  1863,  the  emperor  Napoleon  invited  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  to  a  congress  ;   which  was  decline! 
by  England  Nov.  25,  and  only  conditionally  acceded  to  by  other,  powers. 


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CONSCRIPT  FATHERS  (patres  conscripti)  was  the  honourable  designation  given  to  the 
Roman  senators,  because  their  names  were  written  in  the  registers  of  the  senate. 

CONSCRIPTION,  a  mode  (derived  from  the  Romans)  adopted  for  recruiting  the  French 
and  other  armies.  On  Sept.  5,  1798,  a  military  conscription  was  ordained  in  France,  com- 
prehending all  the  young  men  from  20  to  25  years  of  age  :  from  these  selections  were 
made.  The  present  law  of  1818  (modified  in  1824  and  1832)  requires  a  certain  annual 
contingent  from  each  department, — for  all  the  country,  80,000  men,— which  may  be 
increased.  The  duration  of  service  is  seven  years.  Substitutes  and  exemptions  are  permitted. 
A  conscription  for  350,000  men  took  place  in  Jan.  1813,  after  the  disastrous  Russian 
campaign,  and  in  Dec.  same  year,  another  for  300,000  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic. 

CONSECRATION.  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  consecrated  priests,  1490  B.C.  (Lev.  viii.). 
The  Jewish  Tabernacle  was  dedicated  1490  "B.C.,  and  Solomon's  Temple,  1004  B.C. 
(i  Kings,  viii.).  The  consecration  of  churches  was  instituted  in  the  2nd  century,  the  temple 
of  worship  being  dedicated  with  pious  solemnity  to  God  and  a  patron  saint.  Anciently  the 
consecration  of  popes  was  deferred  until  the  emperor  had  given  his  assent  to  their  election. 
Gregory  IV.  desired  to  have  his  election  confirmed  by  the  emperor  Louis,  in  828.  Henault. 
The  consecration  of  churches,  places  of  burial,  &c.,  is  admitted  in  the  reformed  religion. 
The  consecration  of  bishops  was  ordained  in  the  church  of  England  in.  1549.  Stow. 

CONSERVATION  OF  FORCE.  The  philosophical  doctrine  that  no  physical  force 
can  be  created  or  destroyed,  but  may  be  transferred,  is  maintained  by  Grove,  Faraday, 
Helmholtz,  Tyndall,  and  other  philosophers.  See  Correlation. 

CONSERVATIVES,  a  name  of  modern  date,  is  given  to,  and  accepted  by  a  political 
party,  whose  leading  principle  is  the  conservation  of  our  ancient  national  institutions.  It 
sprung  up  in  England  at  the  time  when  the  Orange  Societies  and  lodges  were  discouraged, 
1836,  and  was  substituted  for  Orangemen  as  a  less  obnoxious  term,  and  as  indicative  of 
milder,  but  equally  constitutional  opinions.  Conservative  has,  however,  in  some  measure, 
changed  its  signification,  and  in  popular  parlance  is  now  opposed  to  Liberal.  Sir  Robert 
Peel  acknowledged  himself  a  conservative  when  reproached  by  the  Irish  party  in  parliament 
with  being  an  Orangeman  ;  but  the  party  that  afterwards  separated  from  him  called  their 
principles  conservative  in  contradistinction  to  his, — his  policy  and  measures  being  changed. 
— The  Conservative  Club  was  founded  in  1840.  See  Protectionists. 

CONSERVATOIRES,  a  name  given  to  schools  for  the  cultivation  of  music  on  the 
continent.  The  celebrated  Conservatoire  de  Musique  at  Paris  began  in  1793. 

CONSERVATORS  OF  THE  PUBLIC  LIBERTIES.  Officers  chosen  in  England  to  inspect 
the" treasury  and  correct  abuses  in  administration,  28  Hen.  III.  1244.  Rapin.  Conservators 
were  appointed  to  see  the  king's  peace  kept.  Pardon.  Conservators  were  formally 
appointed  in  every  sea-port  to  take  cognizance  of  all  offences  committed  against  the  peace 
upon  the  main  sea  out  of  the  liberty  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  Bailey. 

CONSISTORIES  for  regulating  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  divine  worship  in  the 
Lutheran  church  in  Germany,  were  established  at  the  reformation — the  first  at  Wittenberg 
in  1542  ;  other  consistories  were  established  after  the  peace  of  Augsburg  in  1555. 

CONSISTORY  COURT,  anciently  joined  with  the  hundred  court ;  and  its  original,  as 
divided  therefrom,  is  found  in  a  law  of  William  I.,  1079,  quoted  by  lord  Coke.     The  chiei 
and  most  ancient  consistory  court  of  the  kingdom  belongs  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and 
called  the  Court  of  Arches  (ivliich  see). 

CONSOLIDATED  FUND  was  formed  of  the  other  funds  in  1786.    On  Jan.  5,  1816, 
exchequers  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  previously  separate,  were  amalgamated. 

CONSOLS.     See  Stocks. 

CONSPIRACIES  AND  INSURRECTIONS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN.    Among  the  recorded 
spiracies,  real  or  supposed,  the  following  are  the  most  remarkable  :— 


Of  the  Norman  barons  and  Waltheof  against 

William  I.  the  Conqueror  ...  .  1074 
Bishop  Odo,  &c.,  against  William  II.  .  .  .1088 
Against  Henry  II.  by  his  queen  and  children  .  1173 
The  barons  against  Henry  III.  (See  Barons' 

War) 1258 

Of  barons  against  Henry  IV 1400 

Of  the  earl  of  Cambridge  and  others  against 
Henry  V 1415 


Of  Lambert  Simnel  (1487)  and  Perkin  Wai-beck 
against  Henry  VII. 

Insurrection  of  the  London  apprentices.  (See 
Evil  May-day) 1317 

Of  Anthony  Babington  and  others  against  Eliza- 
beth. (See  Babington) 1586 

Of  Lopez,  a  Jew,  and  others          .        .        .     .  1594 

Of  Patrick  York,  an  Irish  fencing-master,  hired 
by  the  Spaniards  to  kill  the  queen  .  .  „ 


CON 


203 


CON 


CONSPIRACIES,  continued. 


Of  lord  Preston,  the  bishop  of  Ely,  and  others 

to  restore  James  II. 1691 

Of  Granville,    a  French  chevalier,   to  murder 

king  William  in  Flanders 1692 

The  assassination  plot  (which  see)        .        .        .  1696 
Of  Simon   Eraser,   lord  Lovat,   against  queen 

Anne.     (See  Rebellions) Tj0^ 

Of  the  marquess  Guiscard I7IO 

Of  James  Sheppard,  an  enthusiast,  to  assassi- 
nate George  I i7I8 

Of  counsellor  Layer  and  others,  to  bring  in  the 

Pretender 1722 

Of  the  Corresponding  Society,  &c.  (which  see)  1796-8 

Of  colonel  Despard £802 

Of  Robert  Emmett,  in  Dublin,  when  lord  Kil- 

warden  was  killed        .        .        .        July  23,  1803 
Of  Thistlewood  and  others,  to  assassinate  the 

king's  ministers.     (See  Cato-strtet)  .        .  1820 

Of  the  Sepoys  in  India.    (See  India)  .  May  10,  1857 
See  Rebellions,  Chartists,  &c. 


Of  Walpole,  a  Jesuit,  and  squire    .        .        .     .  1598 
Tyrone's  insurrection  in  Ireland         .        .        .     ,, 
The  Gunpowder  Plot  (which  see)     .        ...  1605 
Tyrone's  conspiracy  to  surprise  the  castle  of 

Dublin 1607 

Of  Sindercomb  and  others  to  assassinate  Oliver 

Cromwell 1656 

Insurrection  of  the  Puritans      .        .        .        .1657 
Insurrection  of  the  Fifth-monarchy  men  against 

Charles  II.  1661 

Of  Blood  and  his  associates,  who  seized  the  duke 

of  Ormond,  wounded  him,  and  would  have 

hanged  him ;  and  who  afterwards  attempted 

to  steal  the  regalia 1671 

The    pretended    conspiracy    of    the    French, 

Spanish,  and  English  Jesuits  to  assassinate 

Charles  II.,  revealed  by  the  infamous  Titus 

Gates,  Dr.  Tongue,  and  others  .  .  .  1678 
The  Meal-tub  plot  (which  see)  .  .  .  .  1679 
The  Rye-house  plot  to  assassinate  the  king  on 

his  way  to'Newmarket.    (See  Rye-house  Plot)  1683 

CONSTABLE  OF  ENGLAND,  LORD  HIGH.  The  seventh  great  officer  of  the  crown,  and, 
with  the  earl  marshal,  formerly  a  judge  of  the  court  of  chivalry,  called,  in  the  time  of 
Henry  IV.,  curia  milUaris,  and  subsequently  the  court  of  honour.  The  power  of  this  officer 
was  so  great,  that  in  1389  a  statute  was  passed  for  abridging  it,  and  also  the  power  of  the 
earl  marshal  (which  see).  The  office  existed  before  the  conquest,  after  which  it  went  by 
inheritance  to  the  earls  of  Hereford  and  Essex,  and  next  in  the  line  of  Stafford.  In  1521  it 
became  forfeited  to  the  king  in  the  person  of  Edward  Stafford,  duke  of  Buckingham,  that 
year  attainted'  for  high  treason,  and  has  never  since  been  granted  to  any  person,  otherwise 
than  pro  hoc  vice  (for  this  occasion),  and  that  to  attend  at  a  coronation  or  trial  by  combat. 
The  only  instance  of  a  trial  by  combat  being  ordered  since  this  office  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  crown,  was  that  commanded  between  lord  Eeay  and  sir  David  Ramsay,  in  Nov.  1631  ; 
but  the  king  prevented  it.* 

CONSTABLE  OF  SCOTLAND,  LOUD  HIGH.  The  office  was  instituted  by  David  I.  about 
1147.  The  holder  had  the  keeping  of  the  king's  sword,  which  the  king,  at  his  promotion 
delivered  to  him  naked  (and  hence  the  badge  of  the  lord  high  constable  is  a  naked  sword)  ; 
and  the  absolute  command  of  the  king's  armies  while  in  the  field,  in  the  absence  of  the  king. 
The  jurisdiction  of  this  office  .came  at  last  to  be  exercised  only  in  dealing  with  crimes  during 
the  time  of  parliament,  which  some  extended  likewise  to  all  general  conventions.  The 
office  was  conferred  heritably  in  1321  on  sir  Gilbert  Hay,  created  earl  of  Erroll,  by  Robert 
Bruce,  and  with  his  descendants  it  still  remains,  being  expressly  reserved  by  the  treaty  of 
union  in  1707.  The  present  earl  of  Erroll  is  the  twenty-second  lord  high  constable  (1865). 

CONSTABLES  of  Hundreds  and  Franchises,  instituted  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  1285, 
are  now  called  high  constables.  There"are  three  kinds  of  constables,  high,  petty,  and  special; 
the  high  constable's  jurisdiction  extends  to  the  whole  hundred  ;  the  petty  constable's  to  the 
parish  or  liberty  for  which  he  is  chosen  ;  and  the  special  constable  is  appointed  for  particular 
occasions  and  emergencies  (as  in  April,  1848,  on  account  of  the  Chartists). 

CONSTABULARY  FORCE.  For  that  of  London,  see  Police.  The  Constabulary  of 
Ireland  act  passed  in  1823,  when  this  species  of  force  was  embodied  throughout  the  country. 
Several  subsequent  acts  were  consolidated  in  1836. 

CONSTANCE,  a  city  in  Baden  (S.  Germany).  Here  was  held  the  seventeenth  general 
council,  1414,  which  condemned  John  Huss ;  and  here  he  was  burnt,  July  6,  1415.  See 
Hussites. 

CONSTANTINA,  the  ancient  capital  of  Nurnidia,  was  taken  by  the  French,   Oct.   13, 

1837.  During  the  assault  on  Oct.  12,  the  French  general  Damremont  was  killed.     Achmet 
Bey  retired  with  12,000  men,  as  the  victors  entered  Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  formerly  Byzantium  (which  see),  derives  its  name  from  Constantino 
the  Great,  who  removed  the  seat  of  the  Eastern  Empire  here  in  330.  It  was  continually 

*  The  lord  high  constable  at  the  coronations  respectively  of— queen  Anne,  Wriothesley,  duke  of  Bed- 
ford, 1702; — of  George  I.,  John,  duke  of  Montagu,  1714;-— of  George  II.,  Chaz-les,  duke  of  Richmond, 
1727  ;— of  George  III.,  John,  duke  of  Bedford,  1761  ;— of  George  IV.,  1821,  William  IV..  1831.  and  Victoria, 

1838,  Arthur,  duke  of  Wellington. 


CON  201  CON 

convulsed  by  factions  and  religious  dissensions.  General  Ecclesiastical  councils  were  held 
here  in  381,  553,  680,  and  869.  See  Eastern  Empire,  and  Turkey. — The  ERA  of  Constan- 
tinople has  the  creation  placed  5508  years  B.C.  It  was  .used  by  the  Russians  until  the  time 
of  Peter  the  Great,  and  is  still  used  in  the  Greek  church.  The  civil  year  begins  Sept.  i, 
and  the  ecclesiastical  year  towards  the  end  of  March  ;  the  day  is  not  exactly  determined.  To 
reduce  it  to  our^era  subtract  5508  years  from  January  to  August,  and  5509  from  Sept.  to  the 
end.  Nicolas. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  Ardurus,  Orion,  the  Pleiades,  and  MazzarotJi,  are  mentioned  hi 
the  book  of  Job,  ix.  9,  and  xxxviii.  31,  about  1520  B.C.  Homer  and  Hesiod  notice  constel- 
lations ;  but  though  some  mode  of  grouping  the  visible  stars  had  obtained  in  very  early  ages, 
our  first  direct  knowledge  was  derived  from  Claudius  Ptolemceus,  about  A.  D.  140.  Hipparclms 
(about  147  B.C.)  made  a  catalogue  of  forty-eight  constellations.  Others  were  added  by  Tycho 
Brahe,  Hevelius,  Halley,  and  others.  The  number  at  present  acknowledged  is  29  northern, 
45  southern,  and  12  zodiacal. 

CONSTITUENCIES.     See  Commons. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  ENGLAND.  It  comprehends  the  whole  body  of  laws  by  which  the 
British  people  are  governed,  and  to  which  it  is  presumptively  held  that  every  individual  has 
assented.  Lord  Somers.  This  assemblage  of  laws  is  distinguished  from  the  term  government 
in  this  respect — that  the  constitution  is  the  rule  by  which  the  sovereign  ought  to  govern  at 
all  times  ;  and  government  is  that  by  which  he  does  govern  at  any  particular  time.  Lord 
Bolingbroke.  The  king  of  England  is  not  seated  on  a  solitary  eminence  of  power  ;  on  the 
contrary,  he  sees  his  equals  in  the  co-existing  branches  of  the  legislature,  and  he  recognises 
his  superior  in  the  law.  Slicridan.  Hallam's  "Constitutional  History  of  England"  was 
first  published  in  1827. 

CONSULS.  These  officers  were  appointed  at  Rome,  509  B.C.,  when  the  Tarquins  were 
expelled.  They  possessed  regal  authority  for  the  space  of  a  year ;  Lucius  Junius  Brutus, 
and  Lucius  Tarquinius  Collatinus,  the  latter  the  injured  husband  of  Lucretia,  were  the  first 
consuls.  A  consular  government  was  established  in  France  in  1799,  when  the  directory  was 
abolished  :  on  Nov.  10,  Bonaparte,  Sieyes,  and  Roger  Ducos  were  made  provisional  consular 
commissioners ;  and  on  Dec.  13,  Bonaparte,  Cambaceres,  and  Lebrun  were  made  consuls. 
Bonaparte  was  made  first  consul  for  life,  May  6,  1802.  Commercial  agents  were  first  dis^ 
tinguished  by  the  name  of  consuls  in  Italy  in  1485,  being  appointed  by  Richard  III.  A 
British  consul  was  first  appointed  in  Portugal  in  1633. 

CONTINENTAL  SYSTEM,  the  name  given  to  Napoleon's  plan  to  exclude  the  British 
merchandise  from  the  entire  continent.  It  began  with  his  Berlin  decree  in  1806,  and 
occasioned  by  the  Orders  in  Council  (which  see). 

CONTRABAND  OF  WAR,  a  term  said  to  have  been  first  employed  in  the  treaty  of 
Southampton  between  England  and  Spain  in  1625.  During  the  struggle  between  Spain  and 
Holland  both  powers  acted  with  much  rigour  towards  ships  of  neutrals  conveying  goods  to 
the  belligerents.  This  provoked  the  resistance  of  England.  A  milder  policy  was  adopted  by 
the  treaty  of  Pyrenees,  1650  ;  and  by  the  declaration  of  Paris,  April  26,  1856.  The  subject 
has  been  much  discussed  during  the  North  American  conflict,  1861-4. 

CONTRACTORS  WITH  GOVERNMENT,  disqualified  from  sitting  in  parliament,  1 782. 

CONTRIBUTIONS,  VOLUNTARY,  to  a  vast  amount  have  been  several  times  made  by 
the  British  people  in  aid  of  the  government.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  in  1798,  to 
support  the  war  against  France,  amounted  to  two  millions  and  a  half  sterling.  Several  men 
of  wealth,  among  others  Sir  Robert  Peel,  of  Bury,  Lancashire,  subscribed  each  io,ooo/.  ; 
and  200, ooo?.  were  transmitted  from  India  in  1799.  See  Patriotic  Fund. 

CONTROL,  BOARD  OF.    Mr.  Pitt's  bill,  establishing  this  board  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  i 
and  controlling  the  executive  government  of  India,  and  of  superintending  the  territorial 
concerns  of  the  company,  was  passed  May  18,  1784.  Act  amended  and  the  board  remodelled,   i 
1793.     The  president  of  the  board  was  a  chief  minister  of  the  crown,  and  necessarily  one 
of  the  members  of  the  cabinet.     This  board  was  abolished  in  1858,  when  the  government  of 
India  was  transferred  from  the  company  to  the  crown.     See  India  Bills,  and  India. 

CONVENTICLES,  private  assemblies  for  religious  worship,  held  by  dissenters  from  the 
established  church  ;  but  first  applied  to  the  schools  of  Wickliff.  They  were  strictly  forbidden 
by  Elizabeth  in  1593,  and  by  Charles  II.,  1664 ;  and  persons  attending  them  were  liable  to 
severe  punishment.  The  statutes  were  repealed  by  William  III.  in  1689. 


CON  205  COO 

CONVENTION  PARLIAMENTS.  Two  memorable  parliaments  (especially  distinguished 
by  this  term),  assembled  without  the  king's  writ  upon  extraordinary  occasions.  The  first 
Jii-ld  on  April  25,  1660,  voted  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  ;  the  second,  held  Jan.  1689,  by 
a  majority  of  two  voices,  declared  for  a  new  sovereign  William  III.  (and  Mary),  in  preference 
to  a  regent,  which  had  been  proposed.  See  National  Convention. 

CONVENTIONS.  The  following  are  the  principal  conventions  between  Great  Britain 
and  foreign  powers,  and  by  foreign  powers  with  each  other.  They  are  more  fully  described 
in  their  respective  places  through  the  volume  : — 

f  Closterseven Sept.  8,  1757  i  Of  England  and  United  States  .    Nov.  26,  1826 

f  Armed  Neutrality        .        .        .         July  9,  1780  j  Of  bpain,  for  satisfying  the  claims  of_  British 


f  Pilnitz July  20,  1791 

f  Paris  (French  National)  instituted  Sept.  17, 


Ciutra Aug.  30,  1808 

t  Berlin Nov.  5,  „ 

f  Peterswaldeu July  8,  1813 

f  Paris April  23,  1814 

f  the  Dutch  with  England         .        .  Aug.  13,  ,, 
f  Vienna  ;    Saxony  placed  under  the  control 

>f  Prussia Sept. 


merchants June  26, 

Of  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt  and  sir  E.  Codrington, 

for  restoring  Greek  captives,  &c.  .  Aug.  6,  ,, 
Of  France  with  Brazil  .  .  .  Aug.  14,  ,, 
Convention  between  Holland  and  Belgium, 

signed  in  London       .         .        .          April  19,  1839 
Of  England  with  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  and 

Turkey,   for  the  settlement  of  the  Eastern 

question July  15,  1810 


Zurich,  signed          .        .        .     .       May  20,  1815    Of  France  and  England,  respecting  the  slave 
Capua,  with  Murat       .  .        May  20,     ,,      I      trade          .         .  .  May  29,  1845 


if  St.  Cloud,  between  Davoust,  and  Wellington, 

and  Blucher July  5,     ,, 

'f  Paris,  with  the  allies  .        .        .       April  25,  1818 
if  Aix-la-chapelle         ....      Oct.  9,     ,, 
if  Austria,  with  England  :  the  latter  agrees  to 
accept  2, 500,000^.  as  a  composition  for  claims 
on  Austria,  amounting  to  30, ooo,oooL  sterling  1824 
f  England  with  Russia         .        .        Feb.  28,  1825 


Of  England  with  the  Argentine  Republic 

Oct.  24,  1849 
Of  France  and  Italy,  respecting  the  occupation 

of  Rome        .....         Sept.  15,  1864 
Of  Austria  and  Prussia,  respecting  Holstein, 

Schleswig,    and     Lauenburg     (see    Gastein) 


See  Treaties. 


Aug.  14,  1865 


CONVENTS  were  first  founded,  according  to  some  authorities,  270.  The  first  in 
England  was  erected  at  Folkstone,  by  Eadbald,  in  630.  Camden.  The  first  in  Scotland 
was  at  Coldingham,  where  Ethelreda  took  the  veil  in  670.  They  were  founded  earlier  than 
this  last  date  in  Ireland.  They  were  suppressed  in  England  in  various  reigns,  particularly 
in  that  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  few  existed  in  Great  Britain  till  lately.*  A  very  great 
number  have  been  suppressed  in  Europe  in  the  present  century.  The  emperor  of  Russia 
abolished  187  convents  of  monks  by  an  ukase  dated  July  31,  1832.  The  king  of  Prussia 
followed  his  example,  and  secularised  all  the  convents  in  the  duchy  of  Posen.  Don  Pedro 
put  down  300  convents  in  Portugal  in  1834  ;  and  Spain  has  abolished  1800  convents.  Many 
were  abolished  in  Italy  and  Sicily  in  1860  and  1861  ;  and  in  Russia  in  Nov.  1864. 

CONVICTS.     See  Transportation. 

CONVOCATION.  A  general  assembly  of  the  clergy  in  the  nation,  convened  by  the 
sovereign's  writ,  to  consult  on  the  affairs  of  the  church,  and  directed  to  the  archbishop  of 
each  province,  requiring  him  to  summon  all  the  bishops,  deacons,  archdeacons,  &c.  The 
convocation  is  divided  into  two  houses,  called  the  upper,  consisting  of  the  bishops  ;  and 
lower,  consisting  of  the  deans,  prebendaries,  archdeacons,  and  members  elected  from  the 
lower  clergy.  The  clergy  were  summoned  to  meet  the  king  by  writ,  23  Edw.  I.  1 295.  The 
power  of  the  convocation  was  limited  by  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  whose  reign  the 
convocation  was  reorganised.  The  two  houses  of  convocation  were  deprived  of  various 
privileges  in  1716.  Formal  meetings  of  the  clergy  have  been  held  annually  since  1854,  and 
attempts  have  been  made  to  obtain  the  power  of  dealing  summarily ^with  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
but  without  effect. 

CONVOLVULUS.     The  Canary  Convolvulus  (Convolvulus  Canariensis)  came  to  England 
from  the  Canary  Isles,  1690.     The  many-flowered  convolvulus  in  1779. 

COOKERY,  an  art  connected  with  civilised  life.  Animals  were  granted  as  food  to  Noah, 
2348,  B.C.,  the  eating  blood  being  expressly  forbidden  (Gen.  ix.  3,  4).  In  1898  B.C.  a  calf  was 
cooked  by  Abraham  to  entertain  his  guests  (Gen.  xviii.  7,  8).  "  The  Forme  of  Cury  "  (i.e. 
cookery)  is  dated  1390.  An  English  cookery-book  was  printed  1498.  t  See  Cottager's  Stove. 

*  In  1597,  lady  Mary  Percy  founded  a  convent  at  Brussels,  which  flourished  there  till  1794,  when  the 
nuns  were  compelled  to  remove  to  England.  They  were  received  by  bishop  Milner,  and  placed  at  Winches- 
ter, at  which  place  they  remained  till  their  removal  to  East  Bergholt,  in  Suffolk,  June,  1857.  This  was 
the  first  English  conventual  establishment  founded  on  the  continent  after  the  Reformation.— It  is  stated 
that  there  were  16  convents  in  England  in  1841,  53  in  1861,  and  189  in  1865. 

j  Military  Cookery.—  Capt.  Grant  devised  a  system  of  cooking  for  the  camp  at  Aldershot,  which  has 
continued  in  successful  operation  for  the  service  of  between  12,000  and  14,000  men.  From  April  to  August, 
in  1857,  the  plan  was  subjected  to  the  severe  test  of  cookins?  for  92.000  men,  who  marched  in  and  out  of  the 
encampment  during  that  period.  The  consumption  of  fuel  requisite  for  this  system  of  cooking  is  one  half- 


COO  206  COP 

COOK'S  VOYAGES.  James  Cook,  accompanied  by  sir  Joseph  Banks,  sailed  from 
England  in  the  Endeavour  on  his  first  voyage,  July  30,  1 768  ;  *  and  returned  home  after 
having  circumnavigated  the  globe,  arriving  at  Spithead  July  13,  1771.  Captain  Cook  sailed 
to  explore  the  southern  hemisphere,  July,  1772,  and  returned  in  July,  1775.  In  his  third 
expedition  he  was  killed  by  the  savages  of  Owhyhee,  Feb.  14,  1779.  His  ships,  the  Reso~ 
lution  and  Discovery,  arrived  home  at  Sheerness,  Sept.  22,  1780. 

COOPERAGE,  an  ancient  art,  probably  suggested  for  preserving  wine.  The  coopers  of 
London  were  incorporated  in  1501. 

CO-OPERATIVE  SOCIETIES  are  composed  of  working  men,  having  for  their  object 
the  sale  cf  articles  of  daily  consumption  to  the  members  at  low  prices.  The  Rochdale 
Equitable  Pioneers  Society  began  in  1844,  with  a  capital  of  28^.  In  1860,  the  business  done 
amounted  to  152,063?.,  the  profits  being  15,906^.  These  societies  (in  1862,  332)  are  registered 
pursuant  to  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  115  (1849). 

COORG,  a  province  (S.  India).  "War  broke  out  between  the  rajah  and  the  East  India 
Company,  1832,  which  ended  by  col.  Lindsay  defeating  and  deposing  the  rajah,  April  10, 
1834  ;  his  territories  were  soon  after  annexed  to  the  British  possessions.  In  1853  the  rajah 
brought  his  daughter  to  be  educated  in  England,  where  she  was  baptized. 

COPENHAGEN  (Denmark),  built  by  Waldemar  I.,  1157,  and  made  the  capital  1443  ; 
university  founded  1479.  In  1728,  more  than  seventy  of  its  streets  and  3785  houses  were 
burnt.  Its  palace,  valued  at  four  millions  sterling,  was  wholly  burnt,  Feb.  1794,  when  100 
persons  lost  their  lives.  In  a  fire  which  lasted  forty-eight  hours,  the  arsenal,  admiralty,  and 
fifty  streets  were  destroyed,  1795.  Copenhagen  was  bombarded  by  the  English  under  lord 
Nelson  and  admiral  Parker  ;  and  in  their  engagement  with  the  Danish  fleet  of  twenty-three 
ships  of  the  line,  eighteen  were  taken  or  destroyed  by  the  British,  April  2,  1801.  Again, 
after  a  bombardment  of  three  days,  the  city  and  Danish  fleet  surrendered  to  admiral  Gambier 
and  lord  Cathcart,  Sept.  7,  1807.  The  capture  consisted  of  eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  fifteen 
frigates,  six  brigs,  and  twenty-five  gun-boats,  and  immense  naval  stores.  See  Denmark. 

COPENHAGEN  FIELDS  (N._  London).  Here  the  Corresponding  Society  met  on 
Oct.  26,  1796  ;  and  the  Trades'  Union,  April  21,  1834.  The  fields  are  now  occupied  by  the 
Metropolitan  Cattle -market,  opened  June  13,  1855. 

COPERNICAN  SYSTEM,  so  called  from  its  author  Nicolas  Copernicus,  born  at  Thorn, 
Feb.  19,  1473,  died  May  2,  1543.  A  few  days  before  his  death,  the  printing  of  his  book  on 
the  "Revolution  of  the  Celestial  Bodies"  was  completed.  The  system,  which  resembles  that 
attributed  to  Pythagoras,  was  condemned  by  a  decree  of  pope  Paul  V.  in  1616,  which  was 
not  revoked  till  1821  by  Pius  VII.  The  sun  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  centre  and  immoveable, 
and  the  earth  and  the  rest  of  the  planets  to  move  round  it  in  elliptical  orbits.  The  heavens 
and  stars  are  imagined  to  be  at  rest,  and  the  diurnal  motion  which  they  seem  to  have  from 
east  to  west,  is  imputed  to  the  earth's  motion  from  west  to  east. 

COPLEY  MEDAL.     See  Royal  Society. 

COPPER.  One  of  the  six  primitive  metals,  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  in  Cyprus. 
Pliny.  We  read  in  the  Scriptures  of  two  vessels  of  fine  copper  (or  brass),  "precious  as 
gold,"  457  B.C.  (Ezra  viii.  27).  The  mines  of  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  are  the  most  surprising 
artificial  excavations  in  the  world.  In  England,  copper-mines  were  discovered  in  1561,  and 
copper  now  forms  an  immense  branch  of  trade  :  there  are  upwards  of  fifty  mines  in  Cornwall, 
where  mining  has  been  increasing  since  the  reign  of  William  III.  In  1857,  75,832  tons  of 
copper  ore  were  imported,  and  25,241  tons  extracted.  The  Burra-Burra  copper-mines,  in 
S.  Australia,  were  discovered  in  1842.  They  have  brought  great  prosperity  to  that  colony.  The 

pound  of  coal  per  man  per  day,  and  the  official  report  states  the  cost  to  be  one  halfpenny  per  man  per 
week  for  the  three  daily  meals.— Self-supporting  Cooking  Depots  for  the  working  classes  were  set  up  at 
Glasgow  (by  Mr.  Thomas  Corbett),  Sept.  21,  1860;  and  proved  successful  in  Manchester,  London,  and  other 
places  soon  after. 

*  A  memorial  was  presented  to  the  king  by  the  Royal  Society  in  1768,  setting  forth  the  advantages 
•which  would  be  derived  to  science  if  an  accurate  observation  of  the  then  approaching  transit  of  Venus  over 
the  sun  were  taken  in  the  South  Sea.  The  ship  Endeavour  was,  in  consequence,  prepared  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  the  command  of  her  given  to  lieutenant  James  Cook.  He  sailed  in  July,  1768,  touched  at  Madeira 
and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  doubled  Cape  Horn,  and  after  a  prosperous  voyage  reached  Otaheite,  the  place  of  desti- 
nation, in  April,  1769.  By  a  comparison  of  the  observations  made  on  this  transit  (June  3,  1769)  from  the 
various  parts  of  the  globe  on  which  it  was  viewed  by  men  of  science,  the  system  of  the  universe  has,  in  some 
particulars,  been  better  understood ;  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth,  as  calculated  by  this  and 
the  transit  in  1761,  was  settled  at  108,000,000  miles,  instead  of  the  commonly  received  computation  of 
95,000,000.  Butler.  Jt  is  now  computed  to  be  95,298,260  miles  (1865). 


COP 


207 


COP 


first  ship  to  which  a  sheathing  of  copper  was  applied  was  his  majesty's  ship  Alarm,  at  Woolwich, 
in  1761,  "to  preserve  her  from  worms  in  southern  climates:"  it  gave  great  satisfaction,  and 
in  1 780  all  ships  in  the  British  navy  were  copper-bottomed. — About  1850  the  electro-type 
process  was  first  employed  to  face  with  copper  printing  types  and  casts  from  woodcuts. 


COPPER  MONEY.  The  Romans,  prior  to  the  reign  of 
Servius  Tullius,  used  rude  pieces  of  copper  for 
money.  See  Coin.  In  England,  copper  money 
was  made  at  the  instance  of  sir  Robert  Cotton, 
in  1609 ;  but  was  first  really  coined  (when  Miss 
Stewart  sat  for  the  figure  of  Britannia)  .  .  1665 

Its  regular  coinage  began  in  1672,  and  it  was 
largely  issued  in 1689 

In  Ireland,  copper  was  coined  as  early  as  1339 ; 
in  Scotland,  in  1406 ;  in  France,  in  .  .  .  1580 

Wood's  coinage  (which  see)  in  Ireland  com- 
menced in 1723 

The  copper  coinage  was  largely  manufactured 
at  Birmingham,  by  Boulton  and  Watt,  in  .  1792 


Penny  and  two-penny  pieces  were  extensively 
issued,  1797.  The  half- farthing  was  coined 
in,  but  disused  (see  Farthing)  .  ...  1843 

io,oooi.   voted    towards  replacing  the  copper 

coinage July,  1855 

See  Bronze. 

COPPER-PLATE  PRINTING  was  first  invented  in 
Germany,  about  1450;  and  rolling-presses  for 
working  the  plates  about  ....  1545 

Messrs.  Perkins,  of  Philadelphia,  invented  a 
mode  of  engraving  on  soft  steel,  which,  when 
hardened,  will  multiply  copper-plates  and 
fine  impressions  indefinitely  (see  Engraving)  1819 


COPPERAS,  a  mineral  composed  of  copper  or  iron  combined  with  sulphuric  acid  (vitriol), 
found  in  copper-mines,  commonly  of  a  green  or  blue  colour  j  first  produced  in  England  by 
Cornelius  de  Vos,  a  merchant,  in  1587. 

COPPERHEADS,  a  name  given  about  1863  to  such  members  of  the  Democrat  party  in 
the  United  States  as  were  in  favour  of  peace  with  the  South,  on  any  terms. 

COPTS,  in  Egypt,  the  supposed  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  mingled  with 
Greeks  and  Persians.  Their  religion  is  a  form  of  Christianity  derived  from  the  Eutychians. 

COPYHOLDERS,  who  hold  an  estate  by  a  copy  of  the  rolls  of  a  manor  made  by  a 
steward  of  the  lord's  court.  They  were  enfranchised  by  5  Viet.  c.  35,  1841.  By  the  Reform 
Act  in  1832,  copyholders  to  the  amount  of  lol.  became  entitled  to  a  vote  for  the  county.  The 
copyhold  acts  were  amended  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  94  (1858). 

COPYRIGHT.  Decree  of  the  Star-chamber  regarding  it,  1556.  Every  book  and  publi- 
cation ordered  to  be  licensed,  1585. 


I  Ordinance  forbidding  the  printing  of  any  work 

without  the  consent  of  the  owner  .        .   1649 

The  first  copyright  act  (for  14  years,  and  for  the 
author's  life  if  then  living)  was  that  of  8 
Anne *i709 

Protection  of  copyright  in  prints  and  engrav- 
ings, 17  Geo.  Ill i777 

Copyright  protection  act  (for  28  years,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  author's  life  if  then  living), 
54  Geo.  Ill ,814 

JPramatic  authors'  protection  act,  3  Will.  IV. 
c.  15 1833 

Act  for  preventing  the  publication  of  lectures 
without  consent,  6  Will.  IV.  c.  65  .  ,-  .  1835 

International  copyright  bill,  i  Viet.  .        .1838 

5  &  6  Viet.  o.   45  (Talfourd's  or  lord  Mahon's 

1842 
95 


.     . 

act),t  to  amend  the  copyright  act  passed 
The  colonies'  copyright  act,  10  &  n  Viet.,  c. 


passed 


{1847 


COPYRIGHT  FOR  DESIGNS. 

Protection  granting  security  for  two  months  to 
new  designs  applied  by  printing  to  linens, 
calicoes,  and  muslins  .....  1787 

Extended  to  three  months     .....  1794 

A  copyright  of  14  years  conferred  on  sculpture  1798 

and  1814 

The  designs  act  of  Geo.  III.  made  to  embrace 
printed  designs  on  wool,  silk,  and  hair  ;  and 


1842 


12  months'  copyright  granted  to  designs  ap- 
plied to  all  tissues  except  lace  and  those 
already  provided  for ;  for  the  modelling,  em- 
bossing, and  engraving  of  any  manufacture 
not  being  a  tissue ;  and  for  the  shape  or  con- 
figuration of  any  article  ....  1839 

By  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  100,  the  existing  designs  acts 
all  repealed  (except  that  for  sculpture),  and 
provision  made  for  including  all  onjamental 
designs  under  13  classes,  and  conferring  upon 
•them  terms  of  protection,  varying  from  nine 
months  to  three  years 

[Fees  on  registration  vary  from  is.  to 

The  "non-ornamental  designs  act,"  securing 
the  configuration  of  articles  of  utility  (fee 
io£.)>  passed  in 1843 

By  the  '•  designs  act,"  the  Board  of  Trade  is 
empowered  to  extend  tbe  copyright  for  an 
additional  term  of  three  years  .  .  .  1850 

Copyright  of  photographs  secured  by  the  act, 
protecting  works  of  art,  passed  in  .  July,  1863 

INTERNATIONAL  COPYRIGHT. 

In  1838  and  1852  acts  were  passed  to  secure  to 
authors,  in  certain  cases,  the  benefits  of  inter- 
national copyright  (i  &  2  Viet.  c.  59,  and  15 
Viet.  c.  12),  and  conventions  have,  in  conse- 
quence, been  entered  into  with  France,  Prus- 
sia, &c. 


*  This  act  was  confirmed  by  a  memorable  decision  at  the  bar  of  the  house  of  lords,  and  the  claim  of 
perpetual  copyright  was  overruled,  Feb.  22,  1774.  The  statute  declared  the  author  to  have  an  exclusive 
right  for  14  years,  and  if  at  the  end  of  that  term  he  were  living,  the  right  to  return  to  him  again  for  the 
same  term  of  years.  Later  acts  extended  the  author's  right  to  28  years,  and  if  living  at  the  end  of  that 
time,  then  to  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

t  By  this  act,  the  right  is  to  endure  for  the  life  of  the  author,  and  for  seven  years  after  his  death  ;  but 
:  that  time  expire  earlier  than  42  years,  the  right  is  still  to  endure  for  42  years,  for  which  term  also  any 
•work  published  after  the  author's  death  is  to  continue  the  property  of  the  owners  of  the  manuscript. 

t  The  important  question  of  a  foreigner  possessing  a  copyright  in  this  country  was  finally  decided  in 
the  negative  by  the  house  of  lords,  in  August,  1854,  which  reversed  the  decision  of  the  court  of  exchequer 


COR 


208 


COR 


CORBIESDALE,  Caithness  (N.  Scotland).  Here,  on  April  27,  1650,  the  gallant  mar- 
quess of  Montrose  was  defeated  by  the  Covenanters.  He  was  taken  soon  after,  treated  with 
great  contumely,  and  hanged  at  Edinburgh,  on  May  21. 

CORCYRA  (now  Corfu,  chief  of  the  Ionian  Isles),  a  colony  founded  by  the  Corin- 
thians about  734  B.C.  It  had  frequent  wars  with  the  mother  country,  one  about  the 
possession  of  Epidamnus  (431  B.C.)  led  to  the  Peloponnesian  war.  It  was  subdued  by  the 
Spartans  in  373,  and  by  the  Romans,  230.  At  the  decline  of  the  eastern  empire  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  thB  Venetians  about  A.D.  1149.  The  Turks  attacked  Corfu  in  1716,  but  were 
gallantly  repulsed.  It  was  subdued  by  the  Russian  and  Turkish  fleets  in  1799,  and  formed 
(with  the  other  isles)  into  the  Ionian  republic.  See  Ionian  Isles. 

CORDELIERS,  friars  of  the  order  of  St.  Francis  d'Assisi  (the  Minorites)  instituted  about 
1223.  They  are  clothed  in  coarse  grey  cloth,  with  a  small  cowl  and  cloak  of  the  same 
material,  having  a  girdle  of  cord  or  rope,  tied  with  three  knots,  and  hence  the  name,  which 
was  first  given  to  them  by  St.  Louis  of  France,  about  1227.  Several  members  of  the  French 
revolutionary  party,  termed  "Cordeliers,"  established  at  Paris  in  1790,  Hebert  Cloots,  &c., 
were  executed  March  24,  1794. 

CORDOVA,  the  ancient  Corduba,  a  Roman  city  in  Spain,  taken  by  the  Goths  in  572, 
and  made  the  capital  of  an  Arab  kingdom  by  Abderahman  in  757-  It  became  eminent 
for  its  learned  men,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Seneca  and  Lucan  under  the  Romans,  and  of 
the  great  Arabian  physician  Averrhoes.  It  was  rescued  from  the  Arabs  by  Ferdinand  III., 
of  Castile,  in  1236,  and  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1809  ;  but  abandoned  by  them  in  1813. 

CORFU.     See  Corcijra. 

CORINTH  (Greece),  a  city,  said  to  have  been  built,  1520  B.C.,  on  the  ruins  of  Ephyra. 
It  was  defended  by  an  elevated  fortress  called  Acrocorinth,  surrounded  with  strong  walls. 
Its  situation  was  so  advantageous,  that  Cicero  named  it  the  Eye  of  Greece,  and  declared,  that 
of  all  the  cities  known  to  the  Romans,  Corinth  alone  wras  worthy  of  being  the  seat  of  a  great 
empire. — For  Corinth,  in  North  America,  see  United  States,  1862,  1863. 


The  Isthmian  games  instituted,  it  is  stated,  by 

f   Sisyphus,  who  founded  a  kingdom       .     B.C.  1326 

Return  of  the  Heraclidse 1107 

Their  dynasty  established  by  Aletes          .         .   1074 
The   Corinthians  invent  ships  called  triremes, 

with  three  benches  of  oars          .        .       786  or  758 
Reign  of  Bacchis,  925 ;  oligarchy  of  the  Bacchidse 

747-657 
Thelestes  deposed,  and  the  government  of  the 

Prytanes  instituted  :    Automenes  is  the  first 

on  whom  tbis  dignity  is  conferred,  about       .     745 
A  colony  goes  to  Sicily,  and  founds  the  colonies 

of  Syracuse  and  Corcyra,  about          .        .     .    734 
Revolt  of  the    Corcyreans :    they  defeat  the 

Corinthians  at  sea 664 

Cypselus,  a  despot,  sets  aside  the  Prytanes       .    655 
His  son  Periander  rules,    and  favours  genius 

and  learning 627-585 

Psammetichus  deposed,  and  a  republic  formed    580 


480 
435 
395" 

243 


The  Corinthians  engaged  in  the  Persian  war  B.  c. 

War  with  the  Corcyreans 

The  Corinthian  war  (ichich  see)   .... 
Acrocorinth  (citadel)  taken  by  Aratus,  and  an- 
nexed to  the  Achaean  League     .         .        .     . 
The  Roman  ambassadors  first  appear  at  Corinth 
Corinth  destroyed  by  Lucius  Mummius,  who 
sends  to  Italy  the  first  fine  paintings  there 
seen,  they  being  part  of  the  spoil  (Livy)         .     146 

Rebuilt  by  Julius  C'sesar 46 

Visited  by  St.  Paul  (^rt*  xviii.)        .        .A.D.      54 
His  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians      .  59,  60 

Ravaged  by  Alaric 396 

Plundered  by  Normans  from  Sicily    .        .        .1146 
Taken  by  Turks,  1446  ;  by  Venetians,  1687  ;  by 
Turks,  1715  ;  from  whom  it  was  finally  taken 
by  the  Greeks  in          .        .        .        ...  1823 


eb.  21,  1858 


Coriuth  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 


CORINTHIAN  ORDER,  the  richest  of  the  orders  of  ancient  architecture,  called  by 
Scamozzi,  the  virginal  order,  is  attributed  to  Callimachus,  540  B.C.  See  Abacus. 

CORINTHIAN  WAR,  which  began  395  B.C.,  received  this  name,  because  the  battles 
were  mostly  fought  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Corinth,  by  a  confederacy  of  the  Athenians, 
Thebans,  Corinthians,  and  Argives,  against  the  Lacedemonians.  It  was  closed  by  the 
peace  of  Antalcidas,  387  B.C.  The  most  famous  battles  were  at  Coronea  and  Leuctra 
(which  see). 

CORK,  S.  Ireland,  built  in  the  6th  century.      The  principality  of  the  M'Cartys  was  ' 
converted  into  a  shire  by  king  John,   as  lord  of  Ireland.     The  foundation  of  the  SEE  is 
ascribed  to  St.  Barr,  or  Finbarr,  early  in  the  7th  century.     About  1431,  this  see  and  that  of 
Cloyne  were  canonically  united ;  but  on  the  death  of  bishop  Synge,  in  1678,  they  were  separated, 
the  see  of  Ross  having  been  added  to  Cork  about  a  century  before,  1582.     No  valuation  is  ', 
returned  of  this  see  in  the  king's  books  ;  but  in  a  manuscript  in  Marsh's  library,  it  is  taxed  31 

on  an  appeal  by  the  defendant  in  the  case  of  Boosey  v.  Jeffrey.  (In  1831,  Mr.  Boosey  purchased  the  copy- 
right of  Bellini's  opera,  La  Sonnambula,  from  which  Mr.  Jeffrey  published  a  cavatina.  Six  of  the  judges 
were  for  protecting  foreign  copyrights,  and  seven  of  a  contrary  opinion.) 


COR 


209 


COR 


Eliz.  at  40^.,  sterling  ;  and  in  a  MS.  in  the  college  library  at  2$l.  The  sees  of  Cork  and 
Cloyne  were  again  united  in  1833.  A  chapter  was  granted  to  the  city  by  Henry  III.  in 
1242  ;  its  great  charter  was  granted  by  Charles  I. 


A  large  part  of  the  town  was  consumed  by  an 
awful  fire  in 1621 

Taken  by  Cromwell  in 1649 

The  earl  of  Maryborough  besieged  and  took 
Cork  from  king  James's  army,  when  the 
duke  of  Graf  ton,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.. 
was  slain 1690 

The  cathedral  was  rebuilt  by  the  produce  of  a 
coal  duty,  between  the  years  .  .  1725  &  1735 


Explosion  of  gunpowder  here        .         Nov.  10,  1810 
One  of  the  three  colleges,  endowed  by  govern- 
ment pursuant  to  act  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  66,  passed 
July  31,  1845,  was  inaugurated  in  this  city. 
See  Queen's  Colleges.           .        .        .      Nov.  7,  1849 
Railway  to  Dublin  finished  in        .        .        .     .  1850 
Cork  industrial  exhibition  opened,  June  10, 
and  closed Sept.  n,  1852 


CORK-TREE,  Quercus  suber,  a  species  of  the  oak  ;  part  of  its  bark  is  the  cork  used  for 
stopping  bottles.  The  Egyptians  made  coffins  of  cork.  The  tree  grows  in  great  abundance 
on  the  Pyrenean  mountains,  and  in  other  parts  of  Spain,  in  France,  and  in  the  north 
of  New  England.  It  was  brought  to  England  about  1690.  A  cork  carpet  company  was 
formed  in  1862. 

CORN.  The  origin  of  its  cultivation  is  attributed  to  Ceres,  who,  having  taught  the  art 
to  the  Egyptians,  was  deified  by  them,  2409  B.C.  Arundelian  Marbles.  The  art  of 
husbandry,  and  the  method  of  making  bread  from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rice,  is  attributed 
by  the  Chinese  to  Ching  Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  and  second  monarch  of  China,  1998 
B.C.  Univ.  Hist.  Corn  provided  a  common  article  of  food  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the 
world,  and  baking  bread  was  known  in  the  patriarchal  ages.  See  Exodus  xii.  15.  Wheat 
was  introduced  into  Britain  in  the  6th  century  by  Coll  ap  Coll  Frewi.  Roberts^  s  Hist.  Anc. 
Britons.  The  first  importation  of  corn,  of  which  we  have  a  note,  was  in  1347.  A  law 
restricting  it  was  made  in  1361.  Bounties  were  granted  on  its  importation  into  England  in. 
1686. — The  new  LONDON  CORN  EXCHANGE,  Mark-lane,  London,  erected  at  an  expense  of 
90,000^.,  replacing  one  established  in  1747,  was  opened  June  24,  1828. 


CORN-LAWS. 

The  restrictions  on  the  importation  of  corn  are 
felt,  in  consequence  of  the  increase  of  manu- 
factures, about  1770  ;  they  were  relaxed  in  . 

Mr.  Robinson's  act  passed,  permitting  its  im- 
portation when  wheat  should  be  8os.  per 
quarter 

During  the  discussions  on  this  bill,  mobs  as- 
sembled in  London,  and  many  of  the  houses 
of  its  supporters  were  damaged,  Jan.  28  ;  and 
a  riot  in  Westminster  continued  several  days 
and  occasioned  much  mischief,  March  21,  et 
seg 

The  corn  bill,  after  passing  in  the  commons,  is 


1773 


1815 


defeated  in  the  house  of  lords  by  a  clause, 
proposed  by  the  duke  of  Wellington,  which  is 
carried  by  a  majority  of  4  .  June  i, 

The  act  (called  the  sliding  scale)  whereby  whe 
11 


1827 


was  allowed  to  be  imported  on  payment  of  a 
duty  of  il.  55.  8d.  per  quarter,  whenever  the 
average  price  of  all  England  was  under  62.?.  ; 
from  628.  to  635.,  il.  4.?.  8d.  ;  and  so  gradually 
reduced  to  is. ,  when  the  average  price  was 
73.?.  and  upwards,  passed  .  .  July  15,  1828 
The  act  5  Viet.  c.  14,  passed  2gth  April,  1842, 
the  second  "  sliding  scale  act,"  regulated  the 
duty  on  wheat  as  follows,  with  sliding  duties, 
also,  on  other  articles  of  corn  : — 


Average  per  quarter. 
Shillings.               ^    Shillings. 

•A* 

I       0 

o  19 

o  18 
o  17 
o  16 

0    15 

o  14 

Bill  (introd 
ict.  c.  22  (by 
Luced  to  45. 
.,  until  ist 
duty  becar 

Average  per  qu 
Shillings. 
55  and  \rnde 
60  and  unde 
61  and  undc 
62  and  unde 
63  and  undc 
64  and  unde 
65  and  unde 

iced  by  sir 
which  the 
when  im- 
Feb.  1849  ; 
ae   is.   per 

irter. 
Shillings. 
r6o 
r  61 
r62 
r63 
r64 
r6s 
*66 

quar 
intol 
ceive 

Duty. 

£   ».   d. 
o  13    o 

O    12      O 

0    II      0 
0    10      0 

090 

080 
070 

;er  only,  on 
,he  United  K 
d  the  royal  a 
See^r 

Average  per  quarter. 
Shillings.                 Shillings 
66  and  under  69 
69  and  under  70 
70  and  under  71 
71  and  under  72 
72  and  under  73 
73  and  upwards 

all  kinds  of  grain  impc 
ingdom,  at  any  prices} 
ssent        .        .        Jun 
iti-Com-Law  League. 

D 
£ 
O 
0. 

o 

0 
0 
0 

rted 
,  re- 

8  26, 

I*-. 
6    o 

5    o 
4    o 
3     o 

2      0 
I      O 

1846 

51  and  under  52 
52  and  under  55 
55  and  under  56 
56  and  under  57 
57  and  under  58 
58  and  under  59 

The  CORN  IMPORTATION 
Robert  Peel),  9  &  10  V 
duty  on  wheat  was  rec 
ported  at  or  above  535 
after  which  day  the 

CORNWALL,  S.W.  extremity  of  England,  originally  called  Kernou,  a  term  connected 
with  the  Latin  cornu,  a  horn,  in  allusion  to  its  numerous* promontories  or  projecting  points. 
On  the  retreat  of  the  ancient  Britons,  Cornwall  is  said  to  have  been  formed  into  a  kingdom, 
and  to  have  existed  many  years  under  different  princes,  among  whom  were  Ambrosius 
Aurelius,  and  the  celebrated  Arthur.  It  was  erected  into  a  dukedom  by  Edward  III.  March 
J7i  I337>  a"d  the  heir  to  the  crown  of  England,  if  a  prince,  is  born  duke  of  Cornwall,  but  is 
immediately  afterwards  created  prince  of  Wales.  The  Cornish  insurgents,  under  Thomas 
Hammock,  were  defeated  at  Blackheath,  June  22,  1497.  A  powerful  insurrection  on  account 
of  the  establishing  the  Protestant  liturgy  in  place  of  the  mass,  began  in  Cornwall  and  Devon 
in  June,  and  was  suppressed,  after  much  bloodshed,  in  December,  1549.  The  last  person 

p 


COR 


210 


COR 


who  spoke  the  Cornish  dialect  is  said  to  have  been  Dolly  Pentreath,  who  died  aged  102  at 
Penzance  in  1778.  The  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  visited  Cornwall  in  July,  1865.  See 
Stannary  Courts. 

CORONATION.  The  first  coronation  by  a  bishop  was  that  of  Majocianus,  at  Constan- 
tinople, 457.  Charlemagne  was  crowned  emperor  of  the  west  by  the  pope,  Leo  III.,  Dec. 
25,  800,  The  ceremony  of  anointing  at  coronations  was  introdiiced  in  England  in  872,  and 
into  Scotland  in  1097.  The  coronation  of  Henry  III.  took  place,  in  the  first  instance, 
without  a  crown,  at  Gloucester,.  Oct.  28,  1216.  A  plain  circle  was  used  on  this  occasion  in 
lieu  of  the  crown,  which  had  been  lost  with  the  other  jewels  and  baggage  of  king  John,  in 
passing  the  marshes  of  Lynn,  'or  the  "Wash,  near  Wisbeach.  At  the  coronation  of  William 
and  Mary,  the  bishop  of  London  put  the  crown  on  the  king's  head,  as  Dr.  Sancroft,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  would  not  take  the  oaths  to  their  majesties.  George  IV.  was  crowned 
July  19,  1821.  William  IV.  crowned,  with  his  queen,  Sept.  8,  1831  ;  and  Victoria,  June 
28,  1838. 


Scone  ;  and  in  1296,  it  was  removed  by  Edward  I. 
from  Scone  to  Westminster. 

The  CORONATION  OATH  was  first  administered  to  the 
kings  of  England  by  Dunstan  (archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury), to  Ethel  red  II.,  in  978.  An  oath,  nearly 
coirespoiiding  with  that  now  in  use,  was  adminis- 
tered in  1377,  and  was  altered  in  1689. 


CORONATION  CHAIR.  In  the  cathedral  of  Cashel, 
formerly  the  metropolis  of  the  kings  of  Munster, 
was  deposited  the  Lia,  Fail,  or  Fatal  Stone,  on 
which  they  were  crowned.  In  513,  Fergus,  a 
prince  of  the  royal  line,  having  obtained  the  Scot- 
tish throne,  procured  the  use  of  this  stone  for  his 
coronation  at  Dunstaffnage,  where  it  continued 
until  the  time  of  Kenneth  II.,  who  removed  it  to 

CORONEA,  BATTLES  OF.  i.  (or  Chaeronea).  The  Athenians  were  defeated  and  their 
general  Tolmides  slain  in  a  battle  with  the  Boeotians  at  Coronea  near  Chseronea,  447  B.C. 
2.  The  Athenians,  Thebans,  Argives,  and  Corinthians  having  entered  into  a  league,  offensive 
and  defensive,  against  Sparta,  Agesilaus,  after  diffusing  the  terror  of  his  arms,  from  his  many 
victories,  even  into  Upper  Asia,  engaged  the  allies  at  Coronea,  a  town  of  Bceotia,  and 
achieved  a  great  victory  over  them,  394  B.C. 

CORONERS,  officers  of  the  realm  in  925.  Coroners  for  eveiy  county  in  England  were 
first  appointed  by  statute  of  Westminster,  4  Edw.  I.  1276.  Stow.  They  are  chosen  for  life 
by  the  freeholders,  and  their  duty  is  to  inquire  into  the  cause  of  violent  or  unnatural  death, 
upon  view  of  the  body.  Coroners  were  instituted  in  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  II., 
about  1004.  By  an  act  passed  in  1843,  coroners  are  enabled  to  appoint  deputies  to  act 
for  them  in  case  of  illness. — 20,531  coroners'  inquests  were  held  in  England  and  Wales- 
in  1859  ;  21,178  in  1860  ;  21,038  in  1861  ;  50,591  in  1862  ;  22,757  in  1863  ;  and  24,787 
in  1864. 

CORONETS,  caps  or  inferior  crowns,  of  various  forms,  that  distinguish  the  rank  of  the 
nobility.  The  coronets  for  earls  were  first  allowed  by  Henry  III. ;  for  viscounts  by  Henry 
VIII. ;  and  for  barons  by  Charles  II.  Baker.  But  authorities  conflict.  Sir  Robert  Cecil, 
earl  of  Salisbury,  was  the  first  of  the  degree  of  earl  who  wore  a  coronet,  1604.  It  is  uncer- 
tain when  the  coronets  of  dukes  and  marquesses  were  settled.  Beatson. 

CORPORATIONS  are  stated  by  Livy  to  have  been  of  very  high  antiquity  among  the 
Romans,  by  whom  they  were  introduced  into  other  countries.  They  were  lirst  planned  by 
Numa,  in  order  to  break  the  force  of  the  two  rival  factions  of  Sabines  and  Romans,  by  insti- 
tuting separate  societies  of  every  manual  trade  and  profession.  Plutarch. 

CORPORATIONS,  MUNICIPAL,  IN  ENGLAND.  Bodies  politic,  authorised  by  the  king's 
charter  to  have  a  common  seal,  one  head  officer,  or  more,  and  members,  who  are  able,  by 
their  common  consent,  to  grant  or  receive  in  law  any  matter  within  the  compass  of  their 
charter.  Cowel.  Corporations  were  formed  by  charters  of  rights  granted  by  the  kings  of 
England  to  various  towns,  first  by  Edward  the  Confessor.  Henry  I.  granted  charters,  noo  : 
and  succeeding  monarchs  gave  corporate  powers,  and  extended  them  to  numerous  large 
communities  throughout  the  realm,  subject  to  tests,  oaths,  and  conditions.  Blackstmie.  The 
Corporation  and  Test  act,  passed  in  1661,  was  repealed  in  May,  1828.  The  Corporation 
Reform  act,  for  the  regulation  of  municipal  corporations  in  England  and  Wales,  5  &  6  Will. 
IV.  c.  76  (1835).  The  Irish  Municipal  Corporation  act,  4  Viet.  c.  108,  passed  in  1840,  was 
amended  in  1861. 

CORPULENCE.  In  Germany  some  fat  monks  have  weighed  eighteen  stone.  Render. 
Of  modern  instances  known  in  this  country  was  Mr.  Bright,  a  tallow-chandler  and  grocer, 
of  Maiden,  in  Essex,  who  died  in  the  29th  year  of  his  age.  Seven  persons  of  the  common 
size  were  with  ease  enclosed  in  his  waistcoat.  He  was  buried  at  All  JSaints,  Maldon,  Nov. 
12,  175°'  Daniel  Lambert,  supposed  to  have  been  the  heaviest  man  that  ever  lived,  died 


COR  211  COR 

in  his  4oth  year,  at  Stamford,  in  Lincolnshire,  weighing  ten  stone  more  than  Mr.  Bright, 
June  21,  1809.  He  is  said  to  have  weighed  52  stone,  n  pounds.  James  Mansfield  died  at 
Debden,  Nov.  9,  1856,  aged  82,  weighing  34  stone.* 

CORPUS  CHRISTI,  a  festival  in  the  Roman  catholic  church,  in  honour  of  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation,  kept  on  the  Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday.  It  was  instituted  by 
pope  Urban  IV.  between  1262  and  1264,  and  confirmed  by' the  council  of  Vienne  in  1311. 

" CORRELATION  OF  THE  PHYSICAL  FORCES"  is  the  title  of  a  book  by  Mr.  W.  R. 
Grove,  F.R.S.,  Avho  in  1842  enunciated  the  theory  of  the  correlation  or  mutual  dependence 
and  convertibility  into  each  other  of  all  the  forces  of  nature  (viz.  heat,  light,  electricity, 
magnetism,  chemical  affinity,  and  motion). 

CORRESPONDING  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON,  was  formed  about  1791  to  spread  liberal 
opinions  and  check  the  tyranny  of  the  British  government,  then  much  alarmed  by  the 
French  revolution.  Home  Tooke  and  other  members  were  tried  and  acquitted,  Oct.  1794. 
See  Trials,  1794.  The  meetings  of  the  society  at  Copenhagen-fields  and  elsewhere,  in  Oct. 
and  Nov.  1796,  were  termed  treasonable. — On  April  21,  1798,  Messrs.  O'Connor,  O'Coigley, 
and  others,  were  tried  for  corresponding  with  the  French  directory ;  and  James  O'Coigley 
was  executed  as  a  traitor  (protesting  his  innocence)  on  June  7th. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE.     See  Mercury. 

CORRUPT  PRACTICES  ACT,  respecting  elections  for  members  of  parliament,  was 
passed  in  1854,  and  continued  in  1861. 

CORSICA,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  called  by  the  Greeks  Cyrnos.  The 
ancient  inhabitants  were  savage,  and  bore  the  character  of  robbers,  liars,  and  atheists, 
according  to  Seneca  when  he  lived  among  them.  Corsica  was  colonised  by  Phocseans  564 
B.C.,  and  afterwards  held  by  the  Carthaginians,  from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Romans, 
231  B.C.  In  modern  times,  it  was  nominally  dependent  upon  Genoa,  until  1768,  when  it 
was  ceded  to  France.  During  a  revolt  it  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  under  Theodore,  its 
first  and  only  king,  in  1736.1*  The  celebrated  Pascal  Paoli  was  chosen  for  their  general  by 
the  Corsicans,  in  1753.  He  was  defeated  by  the  count  de  Vaux,  and  fled  to  England,  1769. 
The  people  acknowledged  Geo.  III.  of  England  for  their  king,  June  17,  1794,  when  sir 
Gilbert  Elliott  was  made  viceroy,  who  opened  a  parliament  in  1795.  A  revolt  was  sup- 
pressed in  June,  1796  ;  and  the  island  was  relinquished  by  the  British,  Oct.  22,  same  year, 
when  the  people  declared  for  the  French,  who  still  retain  it.  Napoleon  I.  was  born  at 
Ajaccio  in  Corsica  on  Aug.  15,  1769.  A  statue  to  his  memory  was  inaugurated  by  prince 
Napoleon  Jerome,  May  15,  1865. 

CORTES,  the  Spanish  parliament,  originating  in  the  old  Gothic  councils.  The  cortes 
were  assembled  after  a  long  interval  of  years,  Sept.  24,  1810  ;  and  settled  the  new  constitu- 
tion, March  16,  1812.  This  constitution  was  set  aside  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  who  banished 
many  members  of  the  assembly  in  May,  1814.  The  cortes  were  opened  by  him  in  1820,  and 
dissolved  in  1823  ;  again  assembled  in  1834,  and  have  since  been  regularly  convened.  The 
cortes  of  Portugal  assembled  by  virtue  of  don  Pedro's  charter,  Oct.  30,  "1826  ;  they  were 
suppressed  by  don  Miguel  in  1828,  and  restored  in  1833. 

CORUNNA  (N.W.  Spain).  The  British  army,  about  15,000  men,  tinder  the  command 
of  sir  John  Moore,  had  just  accomplished  a  safe  retreat  when  they  were  attacked  by  the 
French,  whose  force  exceeded  20,000  :  the  enemy  were  completely  repulsed,  but  the  loss  of 
the  British  in  the  battle  was  immense,  Jan.  16,  1809.  Sir  John  was  struck  by  a  cannon- 
ball,  which  carried  away  his  left  shoulder  and  part  of  the  collar-bone,  leaving  the  arm  hang- 
ing by  the  flesh  ;  he  died  universally  lamented.  The  remains  of  the  army  hastily  embarked 
at  Corunna,  Jan.  17,  under  sir  David  Baird. 

*  In  1863,  Mr.  Wm.  Banting  published  a  letter  on  corpulence,  recommending,  from  his  own  experience, 
as  a  remedy,  great  moderation  in  the  use  of  sugar  and  starch  in  diet.  50,000  copies  of  this  letter  were 
speedily  sold  or  given  away. 

t  He  came  to  England",  where  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  King's  Bench  prison  for  debt,  and  for  many 
years  subsisted  on  the  benevolence  of  private  friends.  Having  been  released  by  an  act  of  insolvency,  in 
1756,  he  gave  in  his  schedule  the  kingdom  of  Corsica  as  an  estate  to  his  creditors,  and  died  the  same  year 
at  his  lodgings  in  Soho.  The  earl  of  Oxford  wrote  the  following  epitaph,  on  a  tablet  near  his  grave  in  St. 
Anne's  church,  Dean-street  :— 

"  The  grave,  great  teacher  !  to  a  level  brings 
Heroes  and  beggars,  galley-si  ives  and  kings. 
But  Theodore  this  moral  loarn'd  ere  dead; 
Fate  pour'd  its  lesson  on  his  living  head, 
Bestow'd  a  kingdom  and  denied  him  bread." 

P  2 


COR 


212 


COT 


CORUS  (or  Corupedion),  a  plain  in  Phrygia,  Asia  Minor,  where  the  aged  Lysimachus 
was  defeated  by  Seleucus,  and  slain,  281  B.C.  These  two  were  the  only  survivors  of  the 
warlike  companions  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

CORYPHAEUS,  the  principal  person  of  the  chorus  in  the  ancient  tragedy.  The  name 
was  given  to  Tysias,  afterwards  named  Stesichorus,  who  first  instructed  the  chorus  to  dance 
to  the  lyre,  556  B.C. 

COSMOGRAPHY.     See  Astronomy  and  Geography. 

COSSACKS,  the  warlike  people  inhabiting  the  confines  of  Poland,  Russia,  Tartary,  and 
Turkey.  They  at  first  lived  by  plundering  the  Turkish  galleys  and  the  people  of  Natolia : 
but  were  formed  into  a  regular  army  by  Stephen  Bathori,  in  1576,  to  defend  the  frontiers  of 
Russia  from  the  incursions  of  the  Tartars.  They  joined  the  Russians  in  1654,  and  in  the 
great  war  of  Europe  against  France  (1813-15),  they  formed  a  valuable  portion  of  the  Russian 
army. 

COSTA  RICA,  a  republic  in  Central  America,  established  in  1848.  It  has  been  much 
disturbed  by  the  American  filibusters.  See  Nicaragua  and  America,  Central.  On  Aug.  14, 
1859,  the  president  Juan  Mora  was  suddenly  deposed,  and  Dr.  Jose  Montealegre  made 
president.  Population  in  1 86 1,  131, ooo. 

COSTERMONGERS,  itinerant  dealers  in  fruit,  vegetables,  fish,  &c.,  deriving  their  name, 
it  is  said,  from  costard,  a  favourite  apple.  The  London  costermongers  are  useful  frequently 
in  relieving  the  markets  when  glutted;  and  it  was  said,  in  1860,  that  3,000,000?.  passed 
through  their  hands  annually.  Previous  to  fasting  and  thanksgiving  days,  they  sell  the 
appointed  forms  of  prayers  in  great  numbers.  On  Nov.  22,  1860,  they  held  a  meeting  in 
order  to  represent  to  the  city  authorities  the  hardships  they  felt  by  the  police  restricting 
their  means  of  livelihood. 

COSTUME.     See  2>ress. 

COTTAGE.  The  term  was  originally  applied  to  a  small  house  without  land,  4  Edw.  I. 
1275.  "No  man  may  build  a  cottage,  except  in  towns,  unless  he  lay  four  acres  of  laud 
thereto,"  &c.,  31  Eliz.  1589.  This  statute  was  repealed,  15  Geo.  III.  1775.  By  returns  to 
the  tax  office,  in  1786,  the  number  of  cottages  was  284,459.  The  number  in  1800  was 
428,214  ;  the  number  in  1840  was  about  770,000.  In  1860  the  public  attention  was  much 
drawn  to  the  deplorable  state  of  cottages  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  law  of 
•settlement  was  altered  in  1865.* 

COTTON,  a  vegetable  wool,  the  produce  of  the  Gossypium,  a  shrub  indigenous  in  the 
tropical  regions  of  India  and  America.  Indian  cotton  cloth  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  was 
known  in  Arabia  in  the  time  of  Mahomet,  627,  and  was  brought  into  Europe  by  his  followers. 
It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  in  use  among  the  Chinese  till  the  I3th  century ;  to  them  we 
are  indebted  for  the  cotton  fabric  termed  nankeen.  Cotton  was  the  material  of  the  principal 
articles  of  clothing  among  the  Americans  when  visited  by  Columbus.  It  was  grown  and 
manufactured  in  Spain  in  the  loth  century  ;  and  in  the  I4th  century  was  introduced  into 
Italy.  Indian  muslins,  chintzes,  and  cottons  were  so  largely  imported  into  England  in  the 
1 7th  century,  that  in  1700  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed,  prohibiting  their  introduction. 
Cotton  became  the  staple  commodity  of  England  in  the  present  century.  About  1841  the 
"cotton"  or  "Manchester"  interest  began  to  obtain  political  influence,  which  led  to  the 
-repeal  of  the  corn  laws  in  1846.  See  Calico,  Mmlin,  &c, 

PROGRESS   OF    THE   COTTON   MANUFACTURE   IN   ENGLAND. 


Fustian  and  Velveteen  made  of  cotton,  about  1641. 

Calico,  Sheeting,  <kc.  The  fly-shuttle  was  invented  by 
John  Kay,  of  Bury,  1738 ;  the  drop  box  by  Robert 
Kay,  1760  ;  spinning  by  rollers  (also  attributed  to 
JohnWyatt)  patented  by  Louis  Paul,  1738;  the 
spinning-jenny,  by  Hargreaves,  1767  ;  the  water- 
frame,  by  Arkwright,  1769  ;  the  power- loom,  by 
Rev.  Dr.  Edmund  Cartwright,  1785  ;  the  dressing 
machine,  by  Johnson  and  Radcliffe,  1802-4;  another 
power-loom,  by  Horrocks,  1803-13.  A  combing  ma- 
chine was  patented  by  Joshua  Heilmann,  in  1845. 


British  Muslin  (totally  superseding  that  of  India)  is 
due  mainly  to  the  invention  of  the  MULE  (which 
see)  by  Samuel  Crompton,  1774-9  J  and  to  tne  self- 
acting  mule  of  Mr.  Roberts,  1825. 

Calico  Printing  commenced  1764. 

The  Steam- Engine  first  applied  to  the  cotton  manu- 
facture (by  Boulton  and  Watt)  1785. 

Bleaching  by  means  of  chloride  of  lime  introduced  by 
Mr.  Tennant,  of  Glasgow,  1798. 

Stockings.  The  stocking-frame  was  invented  by 
William  Lee,  in  1589.  Cotton  Stockings  were  first 


*  The  Cottager's  Stove  was  designed  by  captain  John  Grant,  registered  Dec.,  1849,  and  presented  by  him 
to  the  metropolitan  association  for  improving  the  dwellings  of  the  industrious  classes.  It  requires  no 
fixing,  is  extremely  simple  in  its  construction,  and  all  the  operations  of  cooking  may  be  carried  on  with 
any  description  of  fuel.  100  Ib.  of  meat  and  115  Ib.  of  vegetables  have  been  cooked  in  one  of  these  stoves 
with  less  than  20  Ib  of  coal.  See  Cookery. 


COT 


213 


COU 


COTTON,  continued. 

made  by  hand  about  1730;  Jedidiah  Strutt  ob- 
tained a  patent  for  Derby  ribbed  stockings  in 
1759 ;  and  Horton  patented  his  knotter  frame  in 
1776  ;  Crompton's  mule  was  employed  in  making 
thread  for  the  stocking  manufacture  about  1770. 


Cotton  Lace — Bobbin-net.  The  stocking- frame  of  Lee 
was  applied  to  lace-making  by  Hammond,  about 
1768 ;  the  process  perfected  by  John  Heathcoat, 
1809. 


COTTON   FIBRE   IMPORTED   INTO   THE   UNITED    KINGDOM. 


Ib. 

Ib. 

1697.         .         .  1,976,359 

1782 

11,828,039 

1820 

1710      .         .     .      715,008 

1790. 

.     .     31,500,000 

1830 

1730.         .         .   1,545,472 
1764      .         .     .  3,870,392 

1800 
1810  . 

56,000,000 
.     .  132,500,000 

1840 
1860 

American  Cotton.    Previous  to  1795, 

our  cotton  fibre    Aus 

came  from  the  East  and  West  Inc 

ies,  the  Levant, 

tu 

Ib. 

151,500,000 

264,000,000 

592,500,000 

1,390,938,752 


1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 


Ib. 

1,256,984,736 


669,583,264 
893,304,720 


and  a  little  from  the  United  States.  About  1786, 
the  growth  of  cotton  began  in  Georgia.  In  1793, 
Eli  Whitney,  an  American,  invented  the  saw-gin, 
a  machine  by  which  cotton  wool  is  separated  from 
the  pod  and  cleaned  with  great  ease  and  expedi- 
tion. This  led  to  such  increased  cultivation  that 
the  United  States  soon  exported  i,  500,000  R).  of  cot- 
ton ;  in  1795,  5, 250,000  Ib. ;  in  1820,  89,999,174  Ib.  ; 
in  1830,  210,885,358  Ib.  ;  in  1840,  487,856,50416.; 
in  1847,  364,599,29111).;  in  1859,  961,707,264  ft.  ; 
in  1860,  i,ii5,89o,6o8ft.  ;  in  1861,  819,500,528  Ib. 
Cotton  imported  from  other  countries :  In  1847, 
110,208,324  Ib. ;  in  1859,  264,281,808  ft. ;  in  1860, 
215,048,144ft.  ;  in  1861,  437,481,208  ft. 


Australian  Cotton  is  said  by  Manchester  manufac- 
turers to  be  superior  to  the  best  American  cotton, 
Jan. ,  1861.  A  company  was  formed  at  Manchester 
in  Sept.,  1860,  to  endeavour  to  obtain  cotton  from 
India,  Africa,  and  other  places.  It  arose  out  of  the 
Cotton  Supply  Association,  formed  in  1857.  Since 

1861,  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in  India,  Egypt, 
Italy,  &c. ,  has  greatly  increased. 

Cotton  Factories  were  regulated  by  acts  of  parliament 
passed  in  1825,  1831,  1833,  and  1844.  The  hours  of 
labour  were  limited,  and  the  employment  of  chil- 
dren under  nine  years  of  age  prohibited.  In  1846, 
1724  cotton  mills  employed  197,500  persons.  In 

1862,  the  persons   employed  were  stated  to  be 
451,000  :  315,000  in  Lancashire. 


EXPORTS  OF   COTTON   GOODS,  YARN,  &C.    FROM  UNITED   KINGDOM. 


1697 
1701    . 
I75i 
1780  . 
1790 


Official  Value. 


23,253 

45,986 

355,000 

1,662,369 


1800 
1820 
1847 
1859 
i86oj 


Official  Value. 
'.  £5,406,501 
.  20,509,926 
•  23,333,225 
.  48,202,225 
.  52,012,430 


1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 


Official  Value. 
.  £46,872,489 
•  36,750,971 
.  47,587,188 
.  54,856,289 


In  1860,  12,419,096  cwt.  of  raw  cotton  was  imported, 
of  which  9,963,309  cwt.  came  from  the  United 
States,  and!  1,822,689  cwk  from  India. 

The  supply  of  cotton  from  North  America  has  nearly 
ceased,  iu  consequence  of  the  secession  of  the 
southern  states  from  the  union  in  1 860-61.  In 
1852,  Mr.  T.  Bazley  warned  the  country  on  the 
danger  of  trusting  to  this  source.  In  May,  1862, 
he  stated  that  through  its  failure  the  loss  of  the 
labouring  classes  was  i2,ooo,oooi.  sterling  a  year, 
and  that  the  loss,  including  the  employing  classes, 
might  be  estimated  at  nearly  40,000,000^.  a  year. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  noblemen  and  gentlemen  con- 
nected with  the  cotton  manufacturing  districts  at 
Bridgewater-house,  St.  James's,  on  July  19,  1862, 
the  earl  of  Derby  in  the  chair,  io,ooo£.  were  sub- 
scribed to  the  Cotton  District  Relief  fund.  The 
viceroy  of  Egypt,  in  London  at  the  time,  gave 
loooZ.  and  the  queen  gave  zoool.  on  July  24.  Libe- 
ral subscriptions  flowed  in  from  all  parts.  On  Aug. 
28,  the  lord  mayor  had  received  41,902?. 

In  the  Lancashire  district  (population  about  4,000,000) 


there  were  receiving  parish  relief,  Sept.  1861, 
43,500  persons;  in  Sept.,  1862,  163,498.  Earl  of 
Derby,  Dec.  2,  1862. 

In  July,  1863,  about  the  value  of  700,000?.  remained 
of  the  donations  which  had  been  received  in  money 
and  goods,  amounting  to  about  i,goo,oooi. 

On  Feb.  9,  1863,  the  "George  Griswold"  arrived, 
containing  contributions  of  provisions,  &c.,  from 
North  America,  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers  in 
Lancashire. 

The  Union  Relief  Act  (passed  in  1862,  and  continued 
in  1863)  gave  much  relief  by  enabling  overseers  to 
borrow  money  to  be  expended  in  public  works  to 
be  executed  by  the  unemployed  workmen. 

In  Oct.  1864,  much  distress  still  existed,  and  fears 
were  entertained  for  the  approaching  winter- 
go,  ooo  more  paupers  than  ordinary  in  cotton  dis- 
tricts. Times,  Jan.  18,  1865. 

In  June,  1865,  Mr.  Farnall,  the  special  commissioner, 
was  recalled  by  the  poor-law  board,  and  the  famine 
was  declared  to  be  ended.  i,ooo,oooZ.  had  been 
expended  in  two  years. 


COTTONIAN  LIBRARY,  formed  with  great  labour  and  judgment  by  sir  Robert  Cotton, 
1600,  et  seq.  It  was  with  difficulty  rescued  from  the  fury  of  the  republicans  during  the  pro- 
tectorate, and  was  secured  to  the  public  by  a  statute  iu  170x3.  It  was  removed  to  Essex- 
house  in  1712;  and  in  1730  to  Dean's-yard,  Westminster,  where  on  Oct.  23,  I731*  a  Par* 
of  the  books  sustained  damage  by  fire.  The  library  was  removed  to  the  British  Museum 
in  1757. 

COUNCILS.  King  Alfred,  in  about  886,  is  said  to  have  so  arranged  the  business  of  the 
nation,  that  all  resolutions  passed  through  three  councils.  The  first  was  a  select  council,  to 
which  those  only  high  in  the  king's  confidence  were  admitted  ;  here  were  debated  all  affairs 
that  were  to  be  laid  before  the  second  council,  —bishops  and  nobles  appointed  by  the  king 
like  the  present  privy  council.  The  third  was  a  general  assembly  of  the  nation,  called,  in 
Saxon,  Wittenagemot,  to  which  quality  and  offices  gave  a  right  to  sit,  independent  of  the 
king.  In  these  three  councils  we  behold  the  origin  of  the  cabinet  and  privy  councils  and 
the  antiquity  of  parliaments.  See  Cabinet,  Common  and  Privy  Councils,  &c. 


cou 


214 


COU 


COUNCILS  OF  THE  CHURCH.  The  following  are  among  the  most  memorable.  Those 
numbered  are  the  General  Councils.  Sir  Harris  Nicolas  in  his  "  Chronology  of  History" 
enumerates  1604  councils,  and  gives  an  alphabetical  list. 


Of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.)  .        .     .      50 
Of  the  western  bishops  at  Aries,  in  France,  to 
suppress  the  Donatists ;  three  fathers  of  the 
English  church  attended          .        .        .        .     314 

I.  First  (Ecumenical  or  General,  at  Nice  (Con- 
stantine  the  Great  presided),  decreed  the  con- 
substantiality  of  the  Son  of  God,  condemned 
Arianism,  and  composed  the  Nicene  creed    .     325 

At  Tyre,  against  Athanasius  .        .        .    .     335 

The  first  at  Constantinople,  when  the  Arian 

heresy  gained  ground 337 

At  Rome,  in  favour  of  Athanasius          .        .     .     342 
At  Sardis  :   370  bishops  attended ;   Arians  con- 
demned      347 

At  Rimini  :  400  bishops  attended  ;  Constantino 
obliged  them  to  sign  a  new  confession       .     .     359 

II.  Constantinople  :   350  bishops  attended,  and 
pope  Damasus  presided        .        May  to  July,     381 

III.  Ephesus,  when  pope  Celestine  presided  ; 
Pelagius  censured        .      June  22  to  July  31,    431 

IV.  Chalcedon :    Marcian  and  his  empress  at- 
tended ;  Eutychianism  censured      .     Oct.  8,    451 

V.  Constantinople  :     pope  Vigilius  presided  ; 
against  errors  of  Origen    .    May  4  to  June  2,     553 

VI.  Constantinople,    when  pope  Agatho  pre- 
sided ;  against  Monothelites, 

Nov.  7,  680,  to  Sept.  16,     681 
Authority  of  the  six  general  councils  re-estab- 
lished by  Theodosius 715 

VII.  Second  Nicene  council;    350  bishops  at- 
tended ;   against  Iconoclasts, 

Sept  24  to  Oct.  23,     787 

VIII.  Constantinople  :   the  emperor  Basil   at- 
tended ;    against    Iconoclasts    and    various 
heresies          .        .        Oct.  5,  869,  to  Feb.  28,     870 

At  Clermont,  convened  by  Urban  II.  to  autho- 
rise the  crusades  :  310  bishops  attended        .  1095 

IX.  First  Lateran :  right  of  investiture  settled 


by  treaty  between  pope  Calixtus  II.  and  the 
emperor  Henry  V.        .    March  18  to  April  5,  1123 

X.  Second  Lateran  :     Innocent  II.    presided  ; 
preservation  of  temporalities  of  ecclesiastics, 
the  principal  subject  ;     1000  fathers   of   the 
church  attended          .        .         .        April  20,  1139 

XI.  Third  Lateran,  against  schismatics, 

March  5  to  19,  1179 

XII.  Fourth  Lateran  :    400  bishops   and   1000 
abbots   attended  ;    Innocent  III.    presided  ; 
against  Albigenses,  &c.         .       Nov.  n  to  30,  1215 

XIII.  Lyons  ;   under  pope  Innocent  IV. :   em- 
peror Frederick  II.  deposed, 

June  28  to  July  17,  1245 

XIV.  Lyons  ;    under  Gregory  X.  :    temporary 
union  of  Greek  and  Latin  churches, 

May  7  to  June  17,  1274 

XV.  Vienne  in  Dauphine" :    Clement  V.  pre- 
sided, and  the  kings  of  France  and  Aragou 
attended ;  the  order  of  the^  Knights  Tem- 
plars suppressed, 

Oct.  16,  1311  ;  April  3  and  May  6,  1312 

XVI.  Pisa :   Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  XIII. 
deposed,  and  Alexander  elected, 

March  5  to  Aug.  7,  1409 

XVII.  Constance  :  Martin  V.  is  elected  pope  ; 
and  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  con- 
demned to  be  burnt          ....  1414-1418 

XVIII.  Basil 1431-1443 

XIX.  Fifth  Lateran  :  begun  by  Julius  II.         .  1512 
Continued  under  Leo  X.  for  the  suppression  of 

the  pragmatic  sanction  of  France,  against  the 
council  of  Pisa,  &c.,  till  .         .         .        .         .  1517 

XX.  Trent :   the  last  styled  (Ecumenical ;  was 
held  to   condemn  the   doctrines  of  the  re- 
formers, Luther,  Zuinglius,  and  Calvin.  (See 
Trent.)         .        .        Dec.  13,  1545,  to  Dec.  3,  1563 


COUNCILS,  FRENCH  REPUBLICAN.  The  council  of  ANCIENTS  was  an  assembly  of 
revolutionary  France,  consisting  of  250  members,  instituted  at  Paris,  Nov.  I,  1795,  together 
with  the  council  of  FIVE  HUNDRED  :  the  executive  was  a  Directory  of  FIVE.  Bonaparte 
dispersed  the  council  of  Five  hundred  at  St.  Cloud,  Nov.  9,  1799,  declaring  himself,  Roger 
Ducos,  and  Sieves,  consuls  provisoires.  See  France. 

COUNSEL  are  supposed  to  be  coeval  with  the  curia  regis.  Advocates'are  referred  to  the 
time  of  Edward  I.,  but  earlier  mention  is  made  of  them.  Counsel  who  were  guilty  of  deceit 
or  collusion  were  punishable  by  the  statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edw.  I.  1284.  Counsel  were 
allowed  to  persons  charged  with  treason  by  act  8  "Will.  III.  1696,,  The  act  to  enable  persons 
indicted  for  felony  to  make  their  defence  by  counsel,  passed  Aug.  1836.  See  Barristers  and 
King's  Counsel. 

COUNT,  from  the  Latin  comes,  a  companion,  and  French  comte ;  somewhat  equivalent 
to  the  English  earl,  whose  wife  is  still  termed  a  countess.  Count  corresponds  to  the  German 
graf.  See  Champagne  and  Toulouse. 

COUNTERPOINT  (in  music),  writing  the  chords  to  a  melody.  The  earliest  specimen  of 
contrapuntal  writing  extant  is  by  Adam  de  la  Halle  in  the  I2th  century. 

COUNTIES  on  SHIRES.  The  division  of  this  kingdom  into  counties  began,  it  is  said, 
with  king  Alfred  ;  but  some  counties  bore  their  present  names  above  a  century  before.  The 
division  of  Ireland  into  counties  took  place  in  1562.  Lord-lieutenants  were  appointed  in 
1549  in  England  and  in  1831  in  Ireland.  Counties  first  sent  members  to  parliament,  before 
which  period  knights  met  in  their  own  counties,  1285.  CHANDOS  CLAUSE,  Sect.  20  of  the 
Reform  act,  2  Will.  IV.  c.  45  (1832),  inserted  by  the  motion  of  the  marquis  of  Chandos. 
By  it  occupiers  as  tenants  of  laud  paying  an  annual  rent  of  50^.  became  entitled  to  a  vote  for 
the  knight  of  the  shire.  It  had  the  effect  of  increasing  the  number  of  tory  voters,  and 
in  consequence  several  vain  attempts  have  been  made  to  repeal  the  clause. 

COUNTRY  PARTY.     See  Court  Party. 


coir  215  coir 

COUNT Y-COURTS*  for  the  recovery  of  debts  under  20?.,  superseding  courts  of  requests, 
were  instituted  in  1846  by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  95.  The  counties  of  England  and  "Wales  are 
divided  into  sixty  districts,  each  district  having  a  county-court,  and  a  barrister  as  judge, 
and  juries  sworn  when  necessary.  These  courts  having  been  found  to  work  well,  their 
jurisdiction  was  extended  by  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  61  (1850),  to  sums  not  exceeding  50?.,  au«l 
their  proceedings  were  facilitated  in  1852  and  1854.  There  are  now  (1865)  59  county- 
courts  in  England  and  Wales.  In  1850  the  number  of  plaints  entered  at  the  courts  of  the 
sixty  circuits  was  306,793  for  1,265, 115?.  5  *n  l857>  744>652  plaints  for  1,937,745?.  ;  of  the 
217,173  causes  tried,  4297  were  for  sums  between  20?.  and  50^.  Official  Returns.  From. 
1847  to  1858  judgment  was  obtained  in  these  courts  for  8,309,236?.  An  act  passed  in  1865 
conferred  on  these  courts  equity  powers,  like  those  of  the  court  of  chancery,  in  cases  relating 
to  sums  under  500?.,  to  begin  on  Oct.  i,  1865. 

COURIERS.  Xenophon  attributes  the  first  couriers  to  Cyrus  ;  and  Herodotus  says  that 
they  were  common  among  the  Persians.  The  Greeks  or  Romans  had  no  regular  couriers  till 
the  time  of  Augustus,  when  they  travelled  in  cars,  about  24  B.C.  Couriers  or  posts  are  said 
to  have  been  instituted  in  France  by  Charlemagne  about  A.D.  800.  The  couriers  for  letters 
were  employed  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XL  of  France,  owing  to  this  monarch's 
extraordinary  eagerness  for  news.  They  were  the  first  institution  of  the  kind  in  Europe, 
1463.  Henault.  See  Post-office. 

COURLAND,  a  duchy  of  Livonia,  subjected  to  Poland  in  1582,  conquered  by  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden  in  1701  ;  afterwards  restored  to  Sweeden,  but  annexed  to  Russia  in  1795. 

COURT  PARTY— COUNTRY  PARTY,  classes  of  politicians  of  fluctuating  numbers  and 
varying  power  in  the  parliaments  of  England,  beginning  about  1620.  At  the  end  of  the  I7th 
century  the  latter  embodied  toryism  and  high  church  principles  with  a  strenuous  mainten- 
ance of  the  assumed  rights  of  ' '  the  land, "  as  opposed  to  the  innovations  of  whiggism  and 
the  corruptions  of  the  trading  interests.  Its  most  distinguished  statesman  was  sir  Thomas 
Hanmer  (the  Montalto  of  Pope's  Satires),  who  died  in  1746.  Ashe. 

COURTRAI  (Belgium).  Here  Robert,  count  of  Artois,  who  had  defeated  the  Flemings 
in  1297,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  them,  July  n,  1302.  The  conflict  was  named  the 
*' Battle  of  Spurs,"  from  the  number  of  gilt  spurs  collected. 

COURT  BARON,  an  ancient  court  which  every  lord  of  a  manor  may  hold  by  prescrip- 
tion in  some  part  of  the  manor.  It  is  supposed  to  have  originated  with  the  nobility.  In  it 
duties,  heriots,  and  customs  are  received,  and  estates  and  surrenders  are  passed.  Its 
jurisdiction  was  restricted  in  1747  and  1833. 

COURT  LEET,  an  ancient  court  of  record,  belonging  to  a  hundred,  instituted  for 
punishing  encroachments,  nuisances,  and  fraudulent  weights  and  measures,  and  also  offences 
against  the  crown.  The  steward  is  the  judge,  and  all  persons  residing  within  the  hundred 
(peers,  clergymen,  &c.,  excepted)  are  obliged  to  do  suit  within  this  court. 

COURT  OF  HONOUR.  In  England  the  court  of  chivalry,  of  which  the  lord  high 
constable  was  a  judge,  was  called  Curia  Militaris,  in  the  time  of  Henry  IV.,  and  subse- 
quently the  Court  of  Honour.  In  Bavaria,  to  prevent  duelling,  a  court  of  honour  was 
instituted  in  April,  1819.  Mr.  Joseph  Hamilton  for  many  years  ardently  laboured  to 
establish  a  similar  institution  in  Britain. 

COURT  OF  SESSION,  the  highest  civil  tribunal  in  Scotland,  was  instituted  by 
James  V.  by  statute,  May  17,  1532.  It  consisted  originally  of  14  judges  and  a  president, 
and  replaced  a  committee  of  parliament,  In  1830  the  number  of  judges  was  reduced  ;  and 
the  court  now  consists  of  the  lord  president,  the  lord  justice  clerk,  and  n  ordinary 
judges  (1865). 

COURT  OF  REQUESTS  (also  called  a  Court  of  Conscience)  was  first  instituted  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  1493,  and  was  remodelled  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1517.  Stow.f  Established 
for  the  summary  recovery  of  small  debts  under  forty  shillings  ;  but  in  the  city  of  London 
the  jurisdiction  extends  to  debts  of  five  pounds.  Ashe.  The  courts  of  requests  in  the 
principal  towns  of  the  kingdom  were  superseded  in  1847  (those  of  the  city  of  London  only 
excepted)  by  the  County- Courts  (which  see). 

*  COUNTY-COURTS,  or  schyremotes,  are  of  such  remote  antiquity  that  their  origin  is  lost.  In  the  time 
of  the  Saxons  they  were  the  most  important  tribunals  in  this  country.  Alfred  is  said  to  have  divided  Eng- 
land  into  counties,  and  counties  into  hundreds  ;  but  the  county-courts,  the  creation  of  which  is  generally 
attributed  to  him,  in  896,  seem  to  have  existed  at  a  period  long  anterior  to  his  reign,  and  to  have  been  an. 
essential  part  of  the  Saxon  judicial  system. 


COU  216  CRA 

COURTS  OF  JUSTICE  were  instituted  at  Athens,  1507  B.C.  (see  Areiopagus)  ;  by 
Moses,  1491  B.C.  (Exod.  xviii.  25).  They  existed  under  various  denominations  in  Rome. 
For  these  realms,  see  Chancery,  Common  Pleas,  Exchequer,  King's  Bench,  &c.  The  citizens 
of  London  were  privileged  to  plead  their  own  cause  in  the  courts  of  judicature,  without 
employing  lawyers,  except  in  pleas  of  the  crown,  41  Hen.  III.  1257.  Stow.  The  rights  of 
the  Irish  courts  were  established  by  the  British  parliament  in  April,  1783. 

COURTS  MARTIAL  are  regulated  by  the  Mutiny  act,  first  passed  in  1690. 

COUTRAS  (S.W.  France).  Here  Henry  of  Navarre  totally  defeated  the  due  de  Joyeuse 
and  the  royalists,  Oct.  20,  1587. 

COVENANTERS,  a  name  particularly  applied  to  those  persons  who  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.  took  the  solemn  league  and  covenant,  thereby  mutually  engaging  to  stand  by  each 
other  in  opposition  to  the  projects  of  the  king  ;  it  was  entered  into  in  1638.  The  COVENANT 
or  league  between  England  and  Scotland  (the  preceding  one  modified)  was  adopted  and 
solemnly  received  by  the  parliament,  Sept.  25,  1643  ;*  and  was  accepted  by  Charles  II. 
Aug.  1 6,  1650,  but  repudiated  by  him  on  his  restoration  in  1661,  when  it  was  declared  to 
be  illegal  by  parliament,  and  copies  of  it  ordered  to  be  burnt  all  over  England.  See 
Cameronians. 

COVENT  GARDEN"  (London),  so  called  from  having  been  the  garden  of  St.  Peter's 
convent.  The  square  was  built  about  1633,  and  the  piazza  on  the  north  side  and  the 
church  were  designed  by  Inigo  Jones.  The  fruit  and  vegetable  markets  were  rebuilt  in 
1829-30,  from  designs  by  Mr.  Fowler  (on  about  three  acres  of  ground  belonging  to  the  duke 
of  Bedford). 

COVENT  GARDEN  THEATRE  sprang  out  of  one  in  Lincoln's-inn- fields,  through  a 
patent  granted  14  Chas.  II.  1662,  to  sir  William  Davenant,  whose  company  was  denominated 
the  "duke's  servants,"  as  a  compliment  to  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.  See 
under  Theatres. — The  present  theatre  by  Barry  was  opened  May  15,  1858.  The  Floral  Hall 
adjoining  it  was  opened  in  March  17,  1860,  with  the  volunteers'  ball. 

COVENTRY  ACT.  Sir  John  Coventry,  K.B.,  M.P.,  was  maimed  and  had  his  nose  slit 
in  the  streets  of  London,  by  sir  Thomas  Sandys  and  others,  the  adherents  of  the  duke  of 
Monmouth,  Dec.  21,  1670.  This  outrage  caused  the  Coventry  act  to  be  passed,  to  prevent 
malicious  maiming  and  wounding,  March  6,  1671  :  repealed  in  1828. 

COVENTRY  (Warwickshire).  Leofric,  earl  of  Mercia,  lord  of  Coventry,  is  said  to  have, 
relieved  it  from  heavy  taxes,  at  the  intercession  of  his  wife  Godiva,  on  condition  of  her 
riding  naked  througli  the  streets,  about  1057.  Processions  in  her  memory  took  place  in 
1851,  and  on  June  23,  1862.  A  parliament  was  held  here  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  called 
parliamentum  indoctum,  or  the  unlearned  parliament,  because  lawyers  were  excluded  ;  and 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  another  met  here  afterwards  called  parliavientum  diabolicum, 
from  the  acts  of  attainder  passed  against  the  duke  of  York  and  others.  The  town  was 
surrounded  with  strong  walls,  three  miles  in  circumference,  and  twenty-six  towers,  whicli 
were  demolished  by  order  of  Charles  II.  in  1662.  The  ribbon-makers  here  suffered  much 
from  want  of  work  in  the  winter  of  1860-1. — The  BISHOPRIC  was  founded  by  Oswy,  king  of 
Mercia,  656,  and  had  the  double  name  of  Coventry  and  Lichfield,  which  was  reversed  by 
later  bishops.  It  was  so  wealthy,  that  king  Offa,  by  the  favour  of  pope  Adrian,  made  it 
archiepiscopal  ;  but  this  title  was  laid  aside  on  the  death  of  that  king.  In  1075  the  see  was 
removed  to  Chester  ;  in  1102  to  Coventry  ;  and  afterwards  to  its  original  foundation,  Lich- 
field, but  with  great  opposition  from  the  monks  of  Coventry.  Coventry  has  lately  merged 
into  the  bishopric  of  Lichfield.  Beatson.  See  Lichfield. 

COW-POCK  INOCULATION.     See  Small  Pox,  and  Vaccination. 

CRACOW  (a  city  in  Austrian  Poland).  The  Poles  elected  Cracus  for  their  duke,  who 
built  Cracow  with  the  spoils  taken  from  the  Franks,  700  et  seq.  Cracow  was  taken  by 
Charles  XII.  in  1702.  Taken  and  retaken  several  times  by  the  Russians  and  other  confede- 
rates. The  sovereign  was  crowned  at  Cracow  until  1764.  Kosciusko  expelled  the  Russians 
from  the  city,  March  24,  1794 ;  but  it  surrendered  to  the  Prussians,  June  15,  same  year, 

*  It  consisted  of  six  articles :  i,  the  preservation  of  the  reformed  church  in  Scotland,  and  the  reforma- 
tion of  religion  in  England  and  Ireland ;  2,  the  extirpation  of  popery,  prelacy,  schism,  &c.  ;  3,  the  preser- 
vation of  the  liberties  of  parliament  and  the  king's  person  and  authority  ;  4,  the  discovery  and  punishment 
of  all  malignants,  <fcc.  ;  5,  the  preservation  of  "a  blessed  peace  between  these  kingdoms ;"  6,  the  assisting 
all  who  enter  into  the  covenant :  "  This  will  we  do  as  in  the  sight  of  God." 


CRA  21 


and]  in  1795  was  awarded  to  Austria.  Cracow  was  formed  into  a  republic  in  1815. 
Occupied  by  10,000  Russians,  who  followed  here  the  defeated  Poles,  Sept.  1831.  Its  inde- 
pendence was  extinguished  :  and  it  was  seized  by  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  incorporated 
with  his  empire,  Nov.  16,  1846,  which  was  protested  against  by  England,  France,  Sweden, 
and  Turkey.  See  Poland.  A.  dreadful  fire  laid  the  greater  part  of  the  city  in  ashes,  July 
1  8,  1850. 

CRANES  are  of  very  early  date,  for  the  engines  of  Archimedes  may  be  so  called.  In 
1857  a  crane  had  been  erected  at  Glasgow  capable  of  lifting  50  tons. 

CRANIOLOGY  (or  PHRENOLOGY),  names  given  to  the  study  of  the  external  form  of  the 
human  skull,  as  indicative  of  mental  powers  and  moral  qualities.  Dr.  Gall,  the  first  pro- 
pounder,  was  a  German  physician,  born  March,  1758.  His  first  observations  were  among 
his  schoolfellows.  Afterwards  he  studied  the  heads  of  criminals  and  others,  and  eventually 
reduced  his  ideas  to  a  system,  marking  out  the  skull  like  a  map.  His  first  lecture  was 
given  at  Vienna  in  1796  ;  but  in  1802  the  Austrian  government  prohibited  his  teaching.  In 
1800  he  was  joined  by  Dr.  Spurzheim  ;  and  in  1810-12  they  published  at  Paris  their  great 
work  on  the  "Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Nervous  System,  and  of  the  Brain  in  par- 
ticular." Gall  died  in  1828.  Whatever  opinion  may  be  entertained  of  phrenology,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  researches  of  Gall  and  Spurzheim  have  contributed  greatly  to  physiological 
science,  animal  and  mental.  Combe's  "  Phrenology,"  first  published  in  1819,  is  the  popular 
English  work  on  this  subject.  Phrenological  societies  were  formed  early  in  London  and 
Edinburgh. 

CRANMER,  LATIMER,  AND  RIDLEY,  Martyrdom  of,  see  Persecutions,  note. 

CRANON,  Thessaly,  N.  Greece.  The  Macedonians  under  Antipater  and  Craterus 
defeated  the  confederated  Greeks,  twice  by  sea,  and  once  by  land,  near  Cranon.  The 
Athenians  demanded  peace,  and  Antipater  put  their  orators  to  death,  among  whom  was 
Hyperides,  who,  that  he  might  not  betray  the  secrets  of  his  country  when  under  torture, 
cut  out  his  tongue,  322  B.C.  Demosthenes  is  said  to  have  taken  poison  shortly  after. 
Dufresnoy. 

CRAONNE,  (N.  France).  Here  Victor  and  Ney  defeated  the  Prussians  under  Blucher, 
after  a  severe  contest,  March  7,  1814. 

CRAPE,  a  light  kind  of  stuff  like  gauze,  made  of  raw  silk  gummed  and  twisted  on  the 
mill.  Its  manufacture  is  of  very  early  date,  and  it  is  said  some  crape  was  made  by  St. 
Badour,  when  queen  of  France,  about  680.  It  was  first  made  at  Bologna. 

CRAYFORD  (Kent).     Hengist  the  Saxon  is  said  to  have  defeated  the  Britons  here,  457. 

CRAYONS,  coloured  substances  made  into  paste,  and  dried  into  pencils,  were  known  in 
France  about  1422  ;  and  were  improved  by  L'Oriot,  1748. 

CREASOTE,  or  KREASOTE  (discovered  by  Reichenbach  about  1833),  a  powerful  anti- 
septic and  coagulator  of  albuminous,  tissue,  is  obtained  from  the  destructive  distillation  of 
wood  and  other  organic  matters.  It  is  successfully  applied  to  the  preservation  of  meat, 
timber,  &c. 

CREATINE  (from  the  Greek  krcas,  flesh),  the  chemical  principle  of  flesh,  was  discovered 
in  1835  by  E.  Chevreul,  and  has  been  fully  investigated  by  Liebig  and  Gregory. 

CREATION  OF  THE  WORLD.  The  date  given  by  the  English  bible,  and  by  Usher,  Blair, 
and  others,  is  4004  B.C.  There  are  about  140  different  dates  assigned  to  the  Creation,  vary- 
ing from  3616  years  to  6984.  Dr.  Hales  fixes  it  at  5411. 

CRECY,  or  CRESSY  (N.  France),  where  Edward  III.  and  his  son,  Edward  the  Black 
Prince,  and  an  army  of  about  36,000,  obtained  a  great  victory  over  Philip,  king  of  France, 
with  about  130,000,  Aug.  26,  1346.  John,  king  of  Bohemia  (nearly  blind)  ;  James,  king 
of  Majorca  ;  Ralph,  duke  of  Lorraine  (sovereign  princes)  ;  and  a  number  of  French  nobles, 
together  with  30,000  private  men,  were  slain,  while  the  loss  of  the  English  was  very  small. 
The  crest  of  the  king  of  Bohemia  (three  ostrich  feathers,  with  the  motto  Ich  Dien  —  in  Eng- 
lish, "  I  serve,")  has  since  been  adopted  by  princes  of  Wales. 

CREDIT  FONCIER.  A  plan  of  providing  loans  to  landowners  was  introduced  by 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  in  1763,  in  some  of  the  Prussian  provinces,  as  the  best 
method  of  alleviating  the  distresses  of  the  landed  interest  caused  by  his  wars.  The  system 
consists  of  lending  money  to  landowners  on  the  security  of  their  estates,  and  providing  the 
loan  capital  by  the  issue  of  debentures  charged  upon  the  aggregate  mortgaged  estates. 


CUE  218  CRI 

There  are  two  modes  of  carrying  out  this  scheme  :  (i)  by  means  of  an  association  of  land- 
owners ;  (2)  by  means  of  a  proprietary  public  company.  The  former  obtains  in  Eastern 
Prussia,  but  the  latter  is  exclusively  found  in  Western  Europe.  Credit  Fonder  companies 
have  been  founded  in  Hamburg  (1782),  Western  Prussia  (1787),  Belgium  (1841),  France 
(1852),  England  (1863).  Similar  companies  are  now  formed,  or  in  course  of  formation,  in  all 
the  states  of  Europe,  in  India,  and  in  our  colonies  and  dependencies.  Henriques. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER  :  a  joint-stock  company  with  this  name  was  established  at  Paris, 
Nov.  1 8,  1852,  by  Isaac  and  Emile  Pereire,  and  others.  It  takes  up  or  originates  trading 
enterprises  of  all  kinds,  applying  to  them  the  principle  of  commandite,  or  limited  liabilities  ; 
and  is  authorised  to  supersede  or  buy  in  any  other  companies  (replacing  their  shares  or 
bonds  in  its  own  scrip),  and  also  to  carry  on  the  ordinary  business  of  banking.  The  funds 
were  to  be  obtained  by  a  paid-up  capital  of  2§  millions  sterling,  the  issue  of  obligations  at 
not  less  than  45  days'  date  or  sight,  and  the  receipt  of  money  on  deposit  or  current  account. 
The  society  apparently  prospered ;  but  is,  nevertheless,  considered  by  experienced  persons 
as  a  near  approach  to  Law's  bank  of  1716.  In  Sept.  1857,  several  of  the  directors  failed  ; 
and  in  May,  1858,  no  dividend  was  paid.  The  system  still  exists,  and  many  companies 
based  on  its  principles  were  established  in  London  in  1863. 

CREEDS.     See  Confessions  of  Faith. 
CEEMERA,  BATTLE  or.     See  Fabii. 

CREMONA  (N.  Italy),  a  city  founded  by  the  Romans,  221  B.C.  It  became  an  inde- 
pendent republic  in  1 107,  but  was  frequently  subjugated  by  its  neighbours,  Milan  and 
Venice,  and  partook  of  their  fortunes.  In  1859  it  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

CRESCENT,  a  symbol  of  sovereignty  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  device  of 
Byzantium,  now  Constantinople,  whence  the  Turks  adopted  it.  The  crescent  has  given 
name  to  three  orders  of  knighthood ;  founded  by  Charles  I.  of  Naples,  1268  ;  by  Re'ne  of 
Anjou,  in  1448  ;  by  the  sultan  Selim,  in  1801  ;  the  last  is  still  in  existence. 

CRESTS  are  ascribed  to  the  Carians.  There  are  several  representations  of  Richard  I. 
(1189),  with  a  crest  on  the  helmet  resembling  a  plume  of  feathers.  The  English  kings  had 
generally  crowns  above  their  helmets  ;  that  of  Richard  II.  1377,  was  surmounted  by  a  lioa 
on  a  cap  of  dignity.  See  Crecy.  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  1249,  had  a  plume  of  feathers  ; 
and  the  helmet  of  Robert  I.  was  surmounted  by  a  crown,  1306  ;  and  that  of  James  I.  by  a 
lion,  1424.  In  the  I5th  and  i6th  centuries,  the  crest  was  described  to  be  a  figure  placed 
upon  a  wreath,  coronet,  or  cap  of  maintenance.  Gwillim. 

CRETE,  now  CANDIA  (which  see). 

CREVANT-SUR-YONNE  (N.  France).  John  Stuart,  earl  of  Buchan,  with  a  French 
army,  was  besieging  this  place  in  July,  1423,  when  it  was  relieved  by  the  earl  of  Salisbury 
with  an  army  of  English  and  Burgundians  ;  after  a  severe  contest,  the  French  were  totally 
defeated. 

CREYELDT,  near  Cleves  (W.  Prussia).  Here,  on  June  23,  1758,  prince  Frederick  of 
Brunswick  defeated  the  French  under  the  count  of  Clermont. 

CRICKET,  an  ancient  English  national  game,  said  to  be  identical  with  "club  ball" 
played  in  the  I4th  century.  The  present  rules  of  the  game  were  laid  down  in  1774  by  a 
committee  of  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  including  the  duke  of  Dorset  and  sir  Horace  Mann. 
In  1 86 1  the  All  England  Eleven  gained  and  lost  games  in  Australia. 

CRIME.  About  1856  it  was  computed  that  a  fifteenth  part  of  the  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom  lived  by  crime.  The  increase  in  education  and  manufactures  is  gradually 
reducing  this  proportion.  From  1848  to  1865  there  has  been  no  commitment  for  political 
offences,  such  as  treason  or  sedition.  See  Executions  and  Trials. 


CONVICTIONS  (BY  TRIAL)  IN  ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 


!847 

1849 
1850 

1851 

1852 

1853 


Persons.     Capital  Offences. 


21,001  66 

20,537  49 

21,579  70 

21,304  61 

20,756  55 


Persons.     Capital  Offences. 

1854  .  .  23,047  49 

1855  .    .  19,971  50 

1856  .  .  14,734  69 

1857  .     .  i5,307  54 

1858  .  .  13,246  53 

1859  .     .  12,470  52 


Persons.     Capital  Offences. 

1860  .   .  12.068     48 

1861  .  .  13,879      50 

1862  .    .  15,312      29 

1863  .  .  15,799      29 

1864  .    .  14,726      32 


Convictions,  in  1847 :  Scotland,  3558 ;  Ireland,  15,233.    In  1861 :  Scotland,  2428  ;  Ireland,  3271. 


CRI  219  OKI 

CRIME,  continued. 

The  Criminal  Justice  act  of  1855  authorises  justices,  with  the  consent  of  the  prisoners,  to  pass  sen- 
tence for  short  periods,  instead  of  committing  them  to  trial. 

In  1856,  the  expenses  for  criminal  prosecutions  were  194,912?.  4.9.  8d.  16  persons  were  executed  for 
murder  in  1856  (four  foreigners),  14  in  1857,  n  in  1858  (four  foreigners),  and  q  (four  for  wife-murder)  in  1859. 
2,666  persons  were  liberated  on  tickets-of- leave  in  1856.  On  Feb.  17,  1857,  of  126  persons  thus  liberated,  58 
were  believed  to  be  living  honestly.  But  in  1861,  1862,  and  1863,  the  system  was  considered  to  have  failed 
through  the  numerous  crimes  committed  by  ticket-of-leavers  ;  it  was  modified  by  the  Penal  Servitude  act, 
in  1864. 

' '  Judicial  Statistics  "  of  crime,  police,  and  law,  with  a  report,  were  first  published  by  government, 
in  1857. 

CRIMEA,  or  CRIM  TARTARY,  a  peninsula  in  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea,  the  ancient 
Taurica  Chersoncsus,  colonised  by  the  Greeks  about  550  B.C.  The  Milesians  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Bosporus,  now  Kertch,  which  about  108  B.C.  formed  part  of  the  dominions  of 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  whose  descendants  continued  to  rule  the  country  under  Roman 
protection  till  the  irruption  of  the  Goths,  Huns,  &c.,  about  A.D.  258.  About  1237,  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Mongols  under  Genghis  Khan  ;  soon  after  the  Venetians  established 
commercial  stations,  with  a  lucrative  trade,  but  were  supplanted  by  the  Genoese,  who  were 
permitted  to  rebuild  and  fortify  Kaffa,  about  1261.  In  1475  Mahomet  II.  expelled  the 
Genoese,  and  subjected  the  peninsula  to  the  Ottoman  yoke  ;  permitting  the  government  to 
remain  in  the  hands  of  the  native  khans,  but  closing  the  Black  sea  to  Western  Europe.  In 
1774,  by  the  intervention  of  the  empress  Catherine  II.,  the  Crimea  recovered  its  inde- 
pendence :  but  on  the  abdication  of  the  khan  in  1783,  the  Russians  took  possession  of  the 
country,  after  a  war  with  Turkey,  and  retained  it  by  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1792.  The  Crimea 
(now  Taurida),  was  divided  into  eight  governments  in  1802.  War  having  been  declared 
against  Russia  by  England  and  France,  March  28,  1854,  large  masses  of  troops  were  sent  to 
the  East,  which,  after  remaining  some  time  at  Gallipoli,  and  other  places,  sailed  for  Varna, 
where  they  disembarked  May  29th.  An  expedition  against  the  Crimea  having  been  deter- 
mined on,  the  allied  British,  French,  and  Turkish  forces,  amounting  to  58,000  men  (25,000 
British),  commanded  by  lord  Raglan  and  marshal  St.  Aruaud,  sailed  fron  Varna,  Sept.  3rd, 
and  landed  on  the  I4th,  I5th,  and  i6th,  without  opposition,  at  Old  Fort,  near  Eupatoria, 
about  30  miles  from  Sebastopol.  On  the  2Oth  they  attacked  the  Russians,  between  40,000 
and  50,000  strong  (under  prince  Menschikoff),  entrenched  on  the  heights  of  Alma,  supposed 
to  be  unassailable.  After  a  sharp  contest  the  Russians  were  totally  routed.  See  Alma  and 
Russo- Turkish  War.  Peace  was  proclaimed  in  April,  1856,  and  the  allies  quitted  the 
Crimea  July  12  following. 

CRIMESUS,  a  river  in  Sicily,  near  which  Timoleon  defeated  the  Carthaginians,  339  B.C. 

CRIMINAL  LAWS  OF  ENGLAND.  Their  great  severity,  pointed  out  by  sir  Samuel 
Romilly,  sir  James  Mackintosh,  and  others,  about  1818,  was  considerably  mitigated  by  sir 
R.  Peel's  acts,  passed  1826-8.  The  criminal  law  was  consolidated  in  six  acts  passed  in  1861. 

CRIMPING-HOUSES  were  used  to  entrap  persons  into  the  army ;  hence  the  name  of 
"  crimp  sergeant."  In  a  riot  in  London,  some  of  these  receptacles  were  destroyed  by  the 
populace,  in  consequence  of  a  young  man  who  had  been  enticed  into  one  being  killed  in 
endeavouring  to  escape,  Sept.  16,  1794. 

CRINOLINE  (a  French  word,  meaning  stuff  made  of  crin,  hair)  is  the  modern  name  of 
the  4 '  fardingale  "  of  the  time  of  queen  Elizabeth,  hoop-like  petticoats  made  of  whalebone, 
&c.,  revived  in  France  and  England  since  1855.  They  have  frequently  occasioned  loss  of 
life,  by  coming  in  contact  with  fire  and  machinery.  In  No.  116  of  the  Tatler,  published 
Jan.  5,  1710,  is  an  amusing  trial  of  the  hoop-petticoat  then  in  fashion. 

CRIPPLEGATE  (London),  was  so-called  from  the  lame  beggars  who  sat  there,  so  early 
as  the  year  1010.  The  gate  was  new  built  by  the  brewers  of  London,  in  1244 ;  and  was 
pulled  down  and  sold  for  91?.  in  July,  1760.  The  poet  Milton  was  buried  in  the  church 
near  it,  Nov.  12,  1674.  See  London  Gates. 

CRISPIN  and  CRISPIANUS  are  said  to  have  been  two  saints,  born  at  Rome,  from  whence 
they  travelled  to  Soissons,  in  France,  to  propagate  the  Christian  religion.  Not  to  be  charge- 
able to  others,  they  worked  as  shoemakers  ;  but  the  governor  of  the  town  discovering  them 
to  be  Christians,  ordered  them  to  be  beheaded,  about  288.  On  this  account,  the  shoemakers 
chose  them  for  their  tutelar  saints.  Their  day  is  Oct.  25. 

CRITICS.     The  first  society  of  them  was  formed  276  B.C.     Blair.     Of  this  class  were 


CRO 


220 


CRO 


Varro,  Cicero,  Apollonius,  and  many  distinguished  men.  In  modern  times,  the  Journal  des 
Sf  avails  was  the  earliest  work  of  the  system  of  periodical  criticism,  as  it  is  now  known.  It 
was  originated  by  Denis  de  Sallo,  ecclesiastical  counsellor  in  the  parliament  of  France,  and 
was  first  published  at  Paris,  May  30,  1655,  and  is  still  continued.  The  first  work  of  this 
kind  in  England  was  the  Review  of  Daniel  Defoe  (the  term  being  invented  by  himself), 
published  in  Feb.  1703.  The  Waies  of  Literature  was  commenced  in  1714,  and  was  dis- 
continued in  1722.  See  Reviews.* 

CROATIA  was  conquered  by  Coloman,  king  of  Hungary,  in  1102,  and  was  with  that 
country  united  to  Austria  in  1526.  The  Croatian  diet  was  abolished  in  Nov.  1861. 

CROCKERY- WARE.     See  Earthenware. 

CROCODILES  were  fed  well  and  reverenced  as  divinities  by  the  Egyptians.  The 
emperor  Augustus  is  said  to  have  collected  twenty-five  at  one  time  in  his  amphitheatre, 
where  they  were  killed  by  gladiators.  A  fossil  crocodile  was  found  at  Doddridge,  Gloucester- 
shire, in  1806. 

CROIX,  ST.,  a  W.  India  Island,  purchased  from  the  French  by  Christian  VI.,  king  of 
Denmark,  in  1733  ;  taken  by  sir  Alexander  Cochrane,  Dec.  22,  1807  ;  restored  in  1814. 

CROPREDY-BRIDGE,  near  Banbury,  Oxfordshire.  Here  the  royalists  defeated  sir 
William  Waller  and  the  army  of  the  parliament,  June  29,  1644. 

CROSIER,  a  staff  surmounted  by  a  cross,  borne  before  an  archbishop.  The  pastoral  staff 
or  bishop's  staff,  with  which  it  is  often  confounded,  was  in  the  form  of  a  shepherd's  crook, 
intended  to  admonish  the  prelate  to  be  a  true  spiritual  shepherd.  The  bearing  a  crosier 
before  ecclesiastics  is  mentioned  in  the  life  of  St.  Csesarea  of  Aries,  about  500. 

CROSS.  That  on  which  the  Redeemer  suffered  on  Mount  Calvary,  was  said  to  have 
been  found  at  Jerusalem,  deep  in  the  ground  with  two  others,  by  St.  Helena,  May  3,  328  ; 
Christ's  being  distinguished  from  those  of  the  thieves  by  a  sick  woman  being  cured  by 
touching  it.  It  was  carried  away  by  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  on  the  plundering  of  Jeru- 
salem ;  but  was  recovered  by  the  emperor  Heraclius  (who  defeated  him  in  battle)  Sept.  14, 
615,  and  that  day  has  since  been  commemorated  as  "the  festival  of  the  Exaltation  of  the 
Cross,"  established  in  642. — It  is  asserted  by  church  writers  that  a  shining  cross,  two  miles 
in  length,  was  seen  in  the  heavens  by  Constantine,  and  that  it  led  him  to  adopt  it  on  his 
standards,  with  the  inscription  "  In  hoc  signo  vinces ;"  "in  this  sign  thou  shalt  conquer." 
With  these  he  advanced  to  Rome,  where  he  vanquished  Maxentius,  Oct.  27,  312.  Lenglet.  , 


Signing  with  the  Cross  was  first  practised  by 
Christians  to  distinguish  themselves  from 
the  Pagans,  about  no ;  and  in  the  time  of 
Tertullian,  260,  it  was  deemed  efficacious 
against  poison,  witchcraft,  &c. 

Crosses  in  churches  and  chambers  were  intro- 
duced about  431 ;  and  set  up  on  steeples  about  568 

Maids  of  the  Cross  were  a  community  of  young 
women  who  made  vows  of  poverty,  chastity, 
and  obedience,  instituted  in  .  .  .  1265 


Crosses  in  honour  of  queen  Eleanor  were  set  up 
in  the  places  where  her  hearse  rested,  be- 
tween 1296  (when  she  died)  and  .  .  .  1307 

Crosses  and  idolatrous  pictures  were  removed 
from  churches,  and  crosses  in  the  streets  de- 
molished by  order  of  parliament  .  .  .  1641 

The  order  of  Ladies  of  the  Star  of  the  Cross  was 
instituted  by  the  empress  Eleonora  de  Gon- 
zaga,  queen  of  Leopold  I.,  in  ....  1668 


CROSSED  CHEQUES.     See  Drafts. 

CROTONA  (S.  Italy),  a  city  founded  by  the  Achaean  Greeks  about  710  B.C.  Here  Pytha- 
goras taught  about  520  B.C. 

CROWS.  An  act  passed  for  their  destruction  in  England  (which  breeds  more  of  them, 
it  is  said,  than  any  other  country  in  Europe),  24  Hen.  VIII.  1532.  Crows  were  anciently 
employed  as  letter-bearers,  as  carrier-pigeons  are  now. 

CROWK  An  Amalekite  brought  Saul's  crown  to  David,  1056  B.C.  (2Sam.  i.)  The  first 
Roman  who  wore  a  crown  was  Tarquin  the  Elder,  616  B.C.  The  crown  was  first  a  fillet  tied 
round  the  head ;  afterwards  it  was  formed  of  leaves  and  flowers,  and  also  of  stuffs  adorned 
with  jewels.  See  Tiara. 


*  The  legality  of  fair  criticism  was  established  in  the  English  courts,  in  Feb.,  1794,  when  an  action  that 
excited  great  attention,  brought  by  an  author  against  a  reviewer  for  a  severe  critique  upon  his  work,  was 
determined  in  favour  of  the  defendant,  on  the  principle  that  criticism  is  allowable,  however  sharp,  if  j  ust, 
and  not  malicious. 


CRO 


221 


CRY 


CROWN,  continued. 

The  crown  of  Alfred  bad  two  little  bells  attached 
(872)  ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  long  preserved  at 
Westminster,  and  may  have  been  that  described 
in  the  parliamentary  inventory  taken  in  1649. 

Athelstan's  crown  resembled  an  earl's  coronet,  929. 

William  I.  wore  his  crown  on  a  cap,  adorned  with 
points,  1066. 

Richard  III.  introduced  the  crosses,  1483. 

Henry  VII.  introduced  the  arches,  1485. 

The  crown  of  Charles  II. ,  made  in  1660,  is  the  oldest 
existing  in  our  day.  See  Blood's  Conspiracy. 


The  crown  and  regalia  of  England  were  pledged  to 
the  city  of  London  by  Richard  II.  for  2000 1.  in 
1386.  See  the  king's  receipt  on  redeeming  them. 
Ryfner. 

The  Imperial  State  Crown  of  England  was  made  by 
Rundell  and  Bridges,  in  1838,  principally  with, 
jewels  taken  from  old  crowns.  It  contains  i  large 
ruby,  i  large  sapphire,  1 6  sapphires,  n  emeralds, 
4  rubies,  1363  brilliants,  1273  rose  diamonds,  147 
table  diamonds,  4  drop-shaped  pearls,  and  273 
pearls.  Professor  Ttnnant. 


CROWN  LANDS.  The  revenue  arising  from  those  in  England  is  now  nearly  all  subject 
to  parliament,  which  annually  provides  for  the  support  of  the  sovereign  and  government. 
The  annual  revenue  now  arising  from  crown  lands  is  about  284,500^.  The  revenues  of 
the  duchies  of  Cornwall  and  Lancaster  belong  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  accumulate 
during  his  minority.  Henry  VII.  (1485)  resumed  those  which  had  been  given  to  their 
followers  by  the  sovereigns  of  the  house  of  York.  The  hereditary  estates  of  the  crown  were 
largely  bestowed  on  their  courtiers  by  the  sovereigns— especially  by  the  Stuarts. 

CROWNS  AND  HALF-CROWNS  were  coined  in  England  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553.  None 
were  coined  in  1861,  and  they  will  gradually  be  withdrawn  from  circulation. 

CRUCIFIXION.  A  mode  of  execution  common  among  the  Syrians,  Egyptians,  Persians, 
Carthaginians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  esteemed  the  most  dreadful  on  account  of  the  shame 
attached  to  it ;  it  was  usually  accompanied  by  other  tortures.  Ariarathes  of  Cappadocia, 
aged  80,  when  vanquished  by  Perdiccas,  was  discovered  among  the  prisoners,  and  by  the 
conqueror's  orders  was  flayed  alive,  and  nailed  to  a  cross,  with  his  principal  officers,  322  B.  c. 
Jesus  Christ  was  crucified  April  3,  A.D.  33  Bible.  (April  15,  A.D.  29,  Clinton;  March  28, 
A.D.  31.  Hales}.  Crucifixion  was  ordered  to  be  discontinued  by  Constantino,  330.  Lenglet. 
See  Death,  Punishment  of. 

CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS,  ROYAL  SOCIETY  FOR  THE  PREVENTION  OF,  was  instituted  in 
1824.  Through  its  exertion  hundreds  of  cases  of  cruelty  are  annually  prosecuted.  Acts  for 
the  protection  of  animals  were  passed  in  1835  and  1839.  A  similar  society  exists  in  Paris. 
In  1860  both  societies  endeavoured  to  repress  vivisection  (physiological  experiments  on 
living  animals). 

CRUSADES  (French  Croisades),  wars  undertaken  by  the  Christian  powers  to  drive  the 
infidels  from  Jerusalem  and  the  adjacent  countries,  called  the  Holy  Land.  They  were 
projected  by  Peter  Gautier,  or  Peter  the  Hermit,  an  enthusiastic  French  officer  of  Amiens, 
who  turned  pilgrim.  Having  travelled  in  the  Holy  Land,  on  his  return,  he  deplored  to  pope 
Urban  II.  that  infidels  should  be  in  possession  of  the  city  where  Christ  had  taught.  Urban 
convened  a  council  of  310  bishops  at  Clermont  in  France,  at  which  the  ambassadors  of  the 
chief  Christian  potentates  assisted,  and  gave  Peter  the  fatal  commission  to  excite  all  Europe 
to  a  general  war,  1094.  The  first  crusade  was  published  ;  an  army  of  300,000  men  was  raised, 
Peter  had  the  direction  of  it,  and  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  the  command,  1095.  Voltaire.  The 
warriors  wore  a  red  cross  upon  the  right  shoulder,  with  the  name  of  Croises,  Crossed,  or 
Crusaders;  their  motto  was  Volonte  de  Dieu,  "  God's  will." — The  French  government  are 
publishing  the  Western  Historians  of  the  Crusades  in  a  magnificent  form  (1844-60). 

I.  Crusade  (1096)  ended  by  Jerusalem  being  taken  by 
assault,  July  15,  1099,   an(i  m    establishing  God- 
frey de  Bouillon  as  king. 

II.  Preached  by  St.   Bernard  in  1146,    headed  by 
emperor  Conrad  II.,  and  Louis  VII.  of  France. 
Crusaders  defeated;  Jerusalem  lost  in  1187. 

III.  Emperor  Frederick  Bnrbarossa,  &c.,   in    1188, 
joined  by  Philip  II.  of  France  and  Richard  I.  of 
England,  in  1190.     Glorious,  but  fruitless. 

IV.  1195,  by  emperor  Henry  VI. ;  successful  till  his 
death  in  1 197. 

V.  Proclaimed  by   Innocent  III.,    1198.     Baldwin, 
count  of  Flanders,  attacked  the  Greeks,  and  took 
Constantinople  in  1202.  His  companions  returned. 

CRYOPHORUS,  an  instrument  (invented  by  Dr.  Wollaston  about  1812)  to  demonstrate 
the  relation  between  evaporation  at  low  temperatures  and  the  production  of  cold. 


VI.  In  1228,  by  emperor  Frederick  II.,  who  obtained 
possession  of  Jerusalem  on  a  truce  for  ten  years. 
In  1240,    Richard,   earl  of  Cornwall,   arrived  at 
Palestine,  but  soon  departed. 

VII.  By  Louis  IX.  (St.  Louis),  who  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  at  Mansourah,  Aprils,  1250;    re- 
leased by  ransom  ;  truce  of  ten  years. 

VIII.  And  last,  in  1270,  by  the  same  prince,  who  died 
on  his  way  of  a  contagious  disease,  at  Carthage,  in 
Africa.    Other  princes  followed  him,  among  others 
prince  Edward,  afterwards  our  Edward  I.    In  1291, 
the  soldan  took  Acre,  and    the  Christians  were 
driven  out  of  Syria. 


CRY 


222 


cue 


CRYPTOGRAPHIC  MACHINE,  for  carrying  on  secret  correspondence,  patented  1860. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY  is  the  science  relating  to  the  symmetrical  forms  assumed  by 
substances  passing  from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state.  Rome  de  Lisle  published  his  "Essai 
de  Cristallographie,"  in  1772  ;  but  Rene-Just  Hauy  is  justly  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
modern  school  of  crystallography  (1801).  Whewell.  Dana,  Dufresnoy,  and  Miller,  are 
eminent  modern  writers  on  this  subject. 

CRYSTAL  PALACE,  HYDE  PARK,  LONDOK.     See  Exhibition,  of  1851. 

CRYSTAL  PALACE,  SYDENHAM.  The  Exhibition  building  of  1851  having  been 
surrendered  to  Messrs.  Fox  &  Henderson  on  Dec.  I,  1851  ;  the  materials  were  sold  for 
70,000?.  to  a  company  (formed  by  Mr.  Leach),  who  soon  after  commenced  erecting  the  present 
Crystal  Palace  on  its  present  site,  near  Sydenham  in  Kent  (300  acres  having  been  purchased 
for  the  purpose)  under  the  direction  of  sir  Joseph  Paxton,  Messrs.  Owen  Jones,  Digby  Wyatt, 
and  other  gentlemen  engaged  in  the  erection  of  the  preceding  structure.  The  proposed 
capital  of  500,000?.  (in  100,000  shares  of  5?.  each)  was  increased  in  Jan.  1853  to  a  million 
pounds.  In  addition  to  the  permanent  exhibition,  there  are  extensive  gardens,  with 
magnificent  fountains,  &c.,  illustrations  of  zoology,  geology,  botany,  ethnology,  &c. 


Firs  t  column  raised  by  S.  Laing,  M.P.,  Aug.  5,  1852 

During  the  progress  of  the  works  as  many  as 
6400  men  were  engaged  at  one  time.  By  the 
fall  of  scaffolding,  12  men  killed  .  Aug.  15,  1.853 

Dinner  given  to  professor  Owen  and  a  party  of 
savans  in  the  interior  of  the  model  of  the 
iguanodon,  constructed  by  Mr.  Wateihouse 
Hawkins Dec.  31,  ,, 

The  palace  opened  by  the  queen        .    June  10,  1854 

Grand  musical  fete  on  behalf  of  the  Patriotic 
Fund Oct.  28,  ,, 

The  palace  visited  by  the  emperor  and  empress 
of  the  French,  &c.  .  .  .  April  20,  1855 

First  grand  display  of  the  great  fountains,  in 
presence  of  the  queen  and  20,000  spectators, 

June  1 8,  1856 

The  receipts  were  115,627?.  ;  the  expenditure, 
87,872^. ;  not  including  payments  for  pre- 
ference shares,  &c.,  in  the  year  ending 

April  30,  1857 

The  preliminary  Handel  festivals,  June  15,  17, 
19,  1857  ;  and  July  2,  1858  (see  Handel);  the 
Handel  festival  itself  took  pla.ce  on 

June  20,  22,  and  24,  1859 

On  the  Fast  day  (for  the  Indian  mutiny)  rev. 
C.  Spurgeon  preached  here  to  23,000  persons; 


476?.  were  collected,  to  which  the  C.  P.  com- 
pany added  2ool Oct.  7,  1857 

Centenary  of  the  birth  of  Robert  Burns  cele- 
brated :  the  directors  awarded  50^  to  a  prize 
poem  on  the  subject,  which  was  obtained  by 
Miss  Isa  Craig  ....  Jan.  25,  1859 

Festival  kept  in  honour  of  Schiller,  Nov.  10, 
1859;  of  Mendelssohn  .  .  .  May  4,  1860 

London  charity  children  sing  here  .       June  6,    ,, 

3000  Orpheonistes  (French  musical  amateurs) 
perform  choral  music,  June  25  ;  the  imperial 
band  of  Guides  perform,  June  26 ;  both  dine 
in  the  palace  ....  June  30,  „ 

About  zoo  English  brass  bands  perform,  July  10,     , , 

North  wing  injured  by  a  gale  of  wind,  Feb.  21,  1861 

Haydn's  "Creation"  performed  (Costa,  con- 
ductor)   May  i,  „ 

Blondin's  performances  on  an  elevated  rope 
begin  here  (he  plays  on  violin,  cooks,  simu- 
lates falling,  &c.)  ....  June  i,  ,, 

Another  successful  Handel  festival  :  a  new 
arched  roof  constructed  for  the  orchestra ; 
about  4000  vocal  and  instrumental  performers, 

June  23,  25,  27,  1862 

Successful  Handel  festival      .    June  26,  28,  30,  1865 


CUBA,  an  island  (W.  Indies)  discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage,  Oct.  28,  1492, 
conquered  by  Velasquez,  1511,  and  settled  by  the  Spaniards. 

The  buccaneer  Morgan  took  the  Havannah.  See 

Buccaneers 1669 

The  fort  of  Havannah  erected  by  admiral  Ver- 

non 1741 

The  Havannah  taken  by  admiral  Pococke  and 

lord  Albemarle,  in  1762 ;  but  restored  at  the 

peace         .        . 1763 

"  Lone  Star  "  society  (which  see),  for  the  acqui- 
sition of  Cuba,  &c. ,  formed         ....  1848 
Expedition,   under  general  Lopez  and  a  large 

body  of  Americans,  with  the  view  of  wresting 

this  island   from  the    dominion    of    Spain, 

landed  at  Cuba  (defeated)        .        .     May  17,  1850 
The  president  of  the  United  States  (Taylor)  had 

previously  published  a  strong  proclamation, 

denouncing  the  object  of  the  invaders, 

Aug.  ii,  1849 

CUBIT,  a  measure  of  the  ancients,  by  which  the  ark  of  Noah  was  measured  (B.C.  2448). 
Holden.  The  Hebrew  sacred  cubit  was  two  English  feet,  and  the  great  cubit  eleven  English 
feet.  Originally,  it  was  the  distance  from  the  elbow,  bending  inwards,  to  the  extremity  of 
the  middle  finger.  Calmei. 

CUCUMBERS,  noticed  by  Virgil  and  other  ancient  poets,  were  brought  to  England 
from  the  Netherlands  about  1538. 


Cuba  again  invaded  by  Lopez  and  his  followers, 

Aug.  13,  1851 

They  were  defeated  and  taken  ;  50  were  shot, 
and  Lopez  garrotted  at  Havannah.  See  Lone 
Star Sept.  i,  „ 

The  president  of  the  United  States  again  issued 
a  proclamation  against  an  intended  expedi- 
tion against  Cuba  .  .  .  May  31,  1854 

Messrs.  Buchanan,  Mason,  and  Soule1,  United 
States  envoys,  met  at  Ostend  and  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  reported,  recommending  the 
purchase  of  Cuba  .  .  .  Oct.  ,, 

The  Spanish  minister  in  cortes  declared  that 
the  sale  of  Cuba  would  be  "  the  sale  of  Spanish 
honour  itself  "  ....  Dec.  19,  ,, 


CUD  223  CUN 

CUDDALORE  (India),  on  the  coast  of  the  Carnatic,  was  acquired  by  the  English  in 
1681.  It  was  reduced  by  the  French  in  1758,  but  was  recaptured  in  1760  by  sir  Eyre 
Coote.  Again  lost  in  1781,  it  underwent  a  destructive  siege  by  the  British  under  general 
Stuart,  in  1783,  which  was  continued  until  peace  was  signed,  when  it  reverted  to  them,  1784. 

CUIRASS,  a  part  of  armour  much  in  use  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Tacitus.  The 
skins  of  beasts,  and  afterwards  tanned  leather,  formed  the  cuirass  of  the  Britons  until  the 
Anglo-Saxon  era.  It  was  afterwards  made  of  iron  and  brass,  and  covered  the  warrior  from 
neck  to  waist  before  and  behind.  The  cuirass  was  worn  by  the  heavy  cavalry  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  1216  et  seq*  Napoleon  had  several  regiments  of  cavalry  wearing  cuirasses. 

CULDEES  (said  to  derive  their  name  from  cultores  Dei,  worshippers  of  God,)  monks  of 
simple  and  peaceful  lives  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  in  early  times.  They  had  their  principal 
seat  at  St.  Andrew's  ;  and  it  is  said  that  in  1185  at  Tipperary  there  was  a  Culdean  abbey 
whose  monks  were  "attached  to  simple  truth  and  pure  Christian  worship,' and  had  not  yet 
conformed  to  the  reigning  superstition."  They  were  eventually  subjected  to  the  papal  yoke. 

CULLER'S- WOOD  (Ireland)  :  a  horrible  slaughter  of  the  English  by  the  Irish  took  place 
at  a  village  near  Dublin,  on  Easter  or  Black  Monday,  so  called  from  this  massacre,  March  30, 
1209.  The  English  were  a  colony  from  Bristol  inhabiting  Dublin,  whence  they  went  to 
divert  themselves  at  Cullen's-wood,  when  the  O'Byrnes  and  O'Tooles  fell  upon  them,  and 
destroyed  500  men,  besides  women  and  children. 

CULLODEN,  near  Inverness,  where  the  English,  under  "William,  duke  of  Cumberland, 
defeated  the  Scottish  rebels  headed  by  the  young  Pretender,  the  last  of  the  Stuarts,  April  16, 
1746.  The  Scots  lost  2500  men  in  killed  upon  the  field,  or  in  the  slaughter  which  occurred 
in  the  pursuit,  while  the  loss  of  the  English  did  not  far  exceed  200.  After  the  battle,  the 
duke's  army  practised  great  cruelties  upon  the  vanquished  and  the  defenceless  country 
people.  Smollett.  Prince  Charles  fled,  and  wandered  among  the  wilds  of  Scotland  for  six 
months,  while  30, oool.  were  offered  for  taking  him,  and  the  troops  of  the  ^  conqueror  were 
constantly  in  search.  He  at  length  escaped  from  Uist  to  Morlaix,  and  died  at  Rome  in 
1788. 

CULVERINS,  ordnance  so  called  from  the  French  coulevrine,  introduced  into  England 
from  a  French  model  in  1534.  It  was  originally  five  inches  and  a  quarter  diameter  in  the 
bore,  and  carried  a  ball  of  eighteen  pounds.  Bailey. 

CUMBERLAND,  a  N.W.  county  of  England,  was  granted  to  Malcolm  I.  of  Scotland  in 
945,  by  king  Edmund,  "  on  condition  that  he  should  be  his  fellow- worker."  It  was  seized 
by  William  I.,  but  restored  to  Malcolm  III.,  "who  became  his  man,"  1072.  _  William  the 
Lion,  after  his  defeat  at  Alnwick,  resigned  Cumberland  to  Henry  II.,  and  it  was  finally 
annexed  to  England  in  1237. 

DUKES   OF   CUMBEELAND. 


1726.  William  Augustus,  second  son  of  George  II., 

died  Oct.  13,  1765. 
1766.  Henry  Frederic,    son  of  Frederic,    prince  of 

Wales,  died  Sept.  18,  1790. 


1799.  Ernest  Augustus  ;  became  king  of  Hanover 
June  20,  1837  ;  died  Nov.  18,  1851. 

1 8 -i.  George  V.,  the  PRESENT  king  of  Hanover 
(1865). 


CUMJ5  (S.  Italy),  an  old  Greek  colony,  1050  B.C.,  said  to  have  been  the  residence  of 
the  ancient  Sibyl,  was  taken  by  the  Samnites  420  B.C.,  and  annexed  and  enfranchised  by  the 
Romans,  338  B.C. 

CUMBERLAND,  THE.     See  Naval  Battles,  1811. 

CUNAXA,  in  Mesopotamia,  near  the  Euphrates,  where  Cyrus  the  younger  was  defeated 
and  slain  by  his  brother  Artaxerxes  II.,  against  whom  he  had  conspired  (B.C.  401),  narrated 
in  Xenophon's  Anabasis.  His  Greek  auxiliaries  in  the  battle  were  successful.  See  Retreat 
of  the  Greeks. 

CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS  (from  cuncus,  Latin  for  a  wedge),  in  characters  resem- 
bling arrow-heads,  found  at  Babylon,  Behistun,  &c.,  have  lately  been  deciphered  by  English 
and  foreign  scholars,  who  date  some  of  them  as  far  back  as  2000  B.C.  This  is  impugned  by 
other  scholars.  See  Assyria,  Babylon,  Behistun. 

*  The  use  of. cuirasses  and  helmets,  as  well  as  the  use  of  bows  and  arrows,  which  had  been  hardly 
known  under  the  first  race  of  the  kings  of  France,  became  ?  military  law  under  the  second  race,  (Capit.  of 
Charl-.m.)  Chivalry  at  this  time  beg;.n  to  be  introduced  ;  the  knight,  who  was  called  Miles,  held  a  rank  in 
the  army,  independently  of  his  military  rank.  Reign  of  Louis  V.,  year  987.  Htnault. 


CUN  224  CUS 

CUNNERSDORF  (in  Prussia),  BATTLE  OF.  The  king  of  Prussia,  with  50,000  men, 
attacked  the  Austrian  and  Russian  army  of  90,000  in  their  camp,  and  at  first  gained  con- 
siderable advantages ;  but  pursuing  them  too  far,  the  Austrians  and  Russians  rallied,  and 
gained  a  complete  victory.  The  Prussians  lost  200  pieces  of  cannon  and  20,000  men  in 
killed  and  wounded,  Aug.  12,  1759. 

CUPOLA  SHIPS.     See  Navy  of  England. 

CUPPING,  a  mode  of  blood-letting.  The  skin  is  scarified  by  lancets,  and  a  glass  cup  in 
which  the  air  has  been  rarified  by  flame,  is  immediately  applied  to  it,  when  the  blood  usually 
flows  into  the  cup.  This  operation  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  described  by 
Hippocrates  (B.C.  413)  and  Celsus  (B.C.  20),  who  highly  commend  it.  It  was  common  in 
England  about  1820,  but  is  not  much  employed  in  the  present  day. 

CURACOA,  an  island  in  the  Caribbean  sea,  settled  by  the  Spaniards  about  1527,  was 
seized  by  Holland  in  1634.  In  1800,  the  French  having  settled  on  part  of  this  island, 
quarrelled  with  the  Dutch,  who  surrendered  it  to  a  single  British  frigate.  It  was  restored 
to  the  Dutch  in  1802  ;  taken  from  them  by  the  British  in  1807,  and  again  restored  in 
1814. 

CURATES  were  of  early  appointment  as  coadjutors  in  the  Romish  church,  and  are  men- 
tioned in  England  in  the  7th  century.  Among  the  acts  passed  for  the  relief  of  this  laborious 
class  of  the  clergy,  are  the  I2th  Anne,  1713,  and  36th,  53rd,  and  58th  Geo.  III.,  and 
especially  the  beneficent  act  2  "Will.  IV.  Oct.  1831.  It  appeared  by  parliamentary  reports 
on  ecclesiastical  revenues,  that  there  were  in  1831,  5230  curates  in  England  and  Wales, 
whose  stipends  amounted  to  424, 695 1.  The  greatest  number  of  curates  in  one  diocese  was 
Lincoln,  629  ;  and  the  smallest  that  of  St.  Asaph,  43. 

CURFEW  BELL  (from  the  French  couvrefeu),  was  introduced  into  England  by  Will.  I. 
1068.  On  the  ringing  of  the  curfew  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  all  fires  and  candles 
were  to  be  extinguished  under  a  severe  penalty.  Rapin.  The  curfew  was  abolished  I  Hen. 
I.  uoo.  A  curfew  bell  was  rung  at  West  Ham  so  lately  as  Nov.  1859. 

CURRANTS,  from  Corinth,  whence,  probably,  the  tree  was  first  brought  to  us  about 
1533.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a  small  kind  of  dried  grape,  brought  from  the  Levant  and 
Zante.  The  duty  on  these  currants  (445.  4^.  per  cwt.  in  1834)  has  been  reduced  to  75.  The 
hawthorn  currant  (Ribes  Oxyacantlwides)  came  from  Canada  in  1705. 

CURRENCY  ACTS.     Those  of  sir  Robert  Peel  were  passed  in  1819  and  in  1844. 

CURT  ATONE,  near  Mantua,  N.  Italy.  Here  the  Austrians,  under  Radetzky,  crossed  the 
Mincio,  May  28,  1848,  and  defeated  the  Italians  after  a  severe  conflict. 

CUSHEE  PIECES,  invented  by  Richard  Leake,  the  master-gunner  of  the  Royal  Prince 
man-of-war,  renowned  for  bravery  shown  in  the  engagement  with  the  Dutch  admiral  Van 
Tromp,  in  1673. 

CUSTOM  is  a  law,  not  written  (lex  non  scripta),  established  by  long  usage  and  consent, 
and  it  is  distinguished  from  lex  scripta,  or  the  written  law.  It  is  the  rule  of  law  when  it  is 
derived  from  1189  downwards.  Sixty  years' custom  is  binding  in  the  civil  law,  and  forty 
years'  in  ecclesiastical  cases. 

CUSTOMS  were  collected  upon  merchandise  in  England,  under  Ethelred  II.  in  979. 
The  king's  claim  to  them  by  grant  of  parliament  was  established  3  Edw.  I.  1274.  The 
customs  were  farmed  to  sir  Thomas  Smith  for  annual  sums  varying  from  14,000^  to  50,000^. 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Stow.  .  They  were  farmed  by  Charles  II.  for  390,0007.  in  1666. 
Davenant.  In  1671  commissioners  were  appointed.  The  customs  were  consolidated  by  Mr. 
Pitt  in  1787.  Between  1820  and  1830  so  many  reductions  and  consolidations  were  made  in 
the  customs  department,  that  above  a  quarter  of  a  million  was  saved  in  salaries,  though  the 
work  has  enormously  increased. — Acts  consolidating  the  customs  duties  were  passed  in  1853, 
1854,  and  1860,  whereby  the  number  of  articles  in  the  tariff"  and  the  amount  of  the  customs 
were  greatly  reduced.  See  Revenue.  Custom-house  officers  and  officers  of  excise  were  dis- 
qualified from  voting  for  the  election  of  members  of  parliament,  in  1782. 


Customs  in 


1580 
1592 
1614 
1622 
1642 


£14,000 
50,000 
148,000 
168,000 
500,000 


Customs  in 

1684    .        .    .  £530,000 

1720         .        .  1,555,600 

1748       .             .        .  2,000,000 

1808        .        .  9,973,240 

1823    .        .    .  11,498,762 


Customs  in 
1830       .       .  £17,540,32: 


1835  .  .     .  18,612, c 

1840  .        .  19,915,296 

1845  .  .     .  20,196,856 

1850  .        .  20,442,170 


Customs  in 

1855  .  .  .  £21,630,081 
1858  .  .  23,109,105 
1860  .  .  .  24,460,901 
1862  .  .  23,674,000 
1864  .  .  .  23,232,000 


cus 


225 


CYP 


The  custom-house  once  more  burnt  down,  and 
immense  property  and  valuable  records  des- 
troyed   Feb.  12,  1814 

The  present  edifice  opened      .        .        May  12,  1817 

|  Dublin  custom-house  commenced  in  1781  ; 
opened  in  1791.  The  eastern  wing  of  its 
warehouse  was  destroyed  by  fire,  with  pro- 
perty to  the  amount  of  400,000^.  .  Aug.  9,  1833 


CUSTOMS,  continued. 

The  customs  in  Ireland,  in  1224,  a  sack  of  wool, 

3<£.  ;  a  last  of  hides,  6d.  ;  a  barrel  of  wine,  zd. 
The  customs  business  of  Ireland  was  transferred 

to  the  London  board        .        .        .      Jan.  6,  1830 

Custom-house.     A  custom-house  was  erected  in 

London  on  a  large  scale,   1304;    and  a   yet 

larger  in  1559.     The  last  was  burnt  down  in  .   1666 
A  new  one,  built  by  Charles  II.,   was  burnt 

down  in  1718,  and  again  rebuilt. 

CUTLERY.     See  Steel. 

CUTTING-OUT  MACHINES.  Wearing  apparel  was  first  cut  out  by  machinery  in 
England  in  the  factory  of  Messrs.  Hyams  in  1853.  The  machine,  invented  by  Mr.  Fre- 
derick Osbourn,  consists  of  a  reciprocating  vertical  knife  working  through  a  slot  in  the 
table  that  supports  the  pile  of  cloth  to  be  cut.  The  cloth  being  pressed  up  to  the  edge  of 
the  knife  by  the  attendant,  the  knife  will  sever  it  in  the  direction  of  the  lines  marked  on 
the  upper  layer.  This  system  of  cutting  out  is  now  generally  adopted  in  the  slop-work 
trade,  and,  with  the  aid  of  the  sewing-machine  {which  see),  has  tended  greatly  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  persons  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  wearing  apparel  for  the  home 
and  foreign  markets. 

CYANOGEN,  a  colourless  gas  (composed  of  nitrogen  and  carbon),  irritating  to  the  nose 
and  eyes,  derived  from  Prussian  blue,  was  discovered  by  Gay  Lussac  in  1814. 

CYCLE  of  the  sun  is  the  twenty-eight  years  before  the  days  of  the  week  return  to  the 
same  days  of  the  month.  That  of  the  moon  is  nineteen  lunar  years  and  seven  intercalary 
months,"  or  nineteen  solar  years.  The  cycle  of  Jupiter  is  sixty  years,  or  sexagenary.  The 
Paschal  cycle,  or  the  time  of  keeping  Easter,  was  first  calculated  for  the  period  of  532  years 
by  Victorius,  463.  Blair.  See  Metonic  Cycle,  Calippic  Period. 

CYCLONES,  circular  whirlwinds,  or  hurricanes,  common  in  the  East  and  West  Indian 
and  Chinese  seas,  varying  from  200  to  500  miles  in  diameter.  Many  details  respecting  them 
will  be  found  in  Reid's  "  Law  of  Storms,"  first  published  in  1838.  By  the  great  cyclone  of 
Oct.  5,  1864,  immense  damage  was  done  on  sea  and  land.  About  100  ships  are  said  to  have 
been  lost,  and  about  60,000  persons  perished,  and  whole  towns  were  nearly  destroyed.  See 
Calcutta.  Captain  Watson,  of  the  "Clarence,"  observing  the  barometer  falling,  and  fore- 
telling the  approach  of  the  cyclone,  saved  his  ship  by  steering  out  of  its  range. 

CYCLOPAEDIA.    See  Encyclopaedia. 

CYCLOPEAN  MASONRY,  a  term  given  to  very  ancient  buildings  in  Greece,  Italy,  and 
Asia  Minor,  probably  the  work  of  the  Pelasgi,  more  than  1000  B.C. 

CYMBAL,  the  oldest  known  musical  instrument,  was  made  of  brass,  like  a  kettle-drum. 
Xenophon  mentions  the  cymbal  as  invented  by  Cybele,  who,  we  are  told,  used  it  in  her 
feasts,  about  1580  B.C. 

CYMRI  or  KYMRT  (hence  Cambria),  the  name  of  the  ancient  Britons  who  belonged  to  the 
great  Celtic  family,  which  came  from  Asia  and  occupied  a  large  part  of  Europe  about  1500 
B.C.  About  A.D.  640  Dyvnwal  Moelmud  reigned  "  King  of  the  Cymry."  See  Wales. 

CYNICS,  a  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by  Antisthenes  (about  396  B.C.,  Diog.  Lacrt., 
Clinton),  who  professed  to  contemn  all  worldly  things,  even  all  sciences,  except  morality  ; 
were  very  free  in  reprehending  vice  ;  lived  in  public,  and  practised  great  obscenities  without 
blushing.  Diogenes  was  one  (died  323  B.C.). 

CYNOSCEPHAL^E  (dogs?  heads,  so  named  from  the  shape  of  the  heights),  in  Tliessaly, 
where  Pelopidas  and  the  Thebans  defeated  Alexander  tyrant  of  Pherse  and  the  Thessalians, 
364  B.C.  (Pelopidas  being  slain)  ;  and  where  the  consul  Flaminius  totally  defeated  Philip  V. 
of  Macedon,  197  B.C.,  and  ended  the  war. 

CYPRESS,  Cupressus  Sempervirens,  a  tree  originally  found  in  the  isle  of  C}'prus.  The 
Athenians  buried  their  heroes  in  coffins  made  of  this  wood,  of  which  many  of  the  Egyptian 
mummy-chests  were  also  fabricated.  The  ancients  planted  it  in  cemeteries.  The  cypress 
was  brought  to  England  about  1441.  The  deciduous  cypress,  or  Cupressus  disticha,  came 
from  North  America  before  the  year  1640. 

Q 


GYP  226  DAH 

CYPEUS,  in  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  was  divided  among  several  petty  kings  till  the 
time  of  Cyrus  of  Persia,  who  subdued  them.  It  was  taken  by  the  Greeks  477  B.C.,  and 
ranked  among  the  proconsular  provinces  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  Conquered  by  the  Sara- 
cens, A.D.  648  ;  but  recovered  by  the  Greeks,  in  957.  Cyprus  was  reduced  by  Richard  I.  of 
England,  in  1191.  He  gave  it  to  Guy  de  Lusignan,  who  became  king  in  1192,  and  whose 
descendants  reigned  till  the  last,  Catherine  de  Cornano,  sold  it  to  the  Venetians,  1489,  from 
whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  1571.  They  still  retain  it. 

CYR,  ST.,  near  Versailles,  where  a  conventual  college  for  ladies  was  founded  by  Madame 
De  Maintenon,  in  1686.  It  is  now  a  military  college. 

CYREISrAIC  SECT,  founded  by  Aristippus  the. Elder,  365  B.C.  They  maintained  the 
doctrine  that  the  supreme  good  of  man  in  this  life  is  pleasure,  particularly  that  of  the 
senses  ;  and  said  that  even  virtue  ought  to  be  commended  only  because  it  gave  pleasure. 

CYRE1STE  (N.W.  Africa),  a  Greek  colony,  founded  by  Battus  about  630  B.C.  AristaBus, 
who  was  chief  of  the  colonists  here,  gave  the  city  his  mother's  name.  It  was  also  called 
Pentapolis,  on  account  of  its  five  towns  ;  namely,  Cyrene,  Ptolemais,  Berenice,  Apollonia, 
and  Arsinoe.  It  was  conquered  by  Ptolemy  Soter  I.,  who  placed  many  Jews  here  (286  B.C.). 
Cyrene^was  left  by  Ptolemy  Apion  to  the  Romans,  97  B.C.  It  is  now  a  desert.  Some 
Cyrenaic  sculptures  were  placed  in  the  British  Museum  in  July,  1861. 

CYZICUS  (Asia  Minor).  In  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  Lacedemonian  fleet  under  the 
command  of  Mindarus,  assisted  by  Pharnabazus,  the  Persian,  was  encountered  by  the 
Athenians  under  Alcibiades,  and  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  near  Cyzicus.  Mindarus 
was  slain  410  B.C.  Plutarch.  408  B.C.  Lenglet. 

CZAR.  Ivan  Basilowitz,  having  severely  defeated  the  Tartars,  took  the  title  of  Tzar  or 
Czar  about  1482.  The  eldest  son  is  called  Czarowitz,  and  the  empress  Czarina. 


D. 

DACIA,  a  Roman  province,  part  of  Hungar)',  and  the  adjoining  provinces,  after  many 
contests  finally  subdued  by  Trajan,  106,  when  Decebalus,  the  [Dacian  leader,  was  killed. 
Dacia  was  abandoned  to  the  Goths  by  Aurelian,  in  270 ;  subdued  by  the  Huns,  376  ;  by 
Scythians,  566  ;  by  Charlemagne,  and  by  the  Magyars,  in  the  9th  century. 

DAGHISTAN  (S.W.  Asia),  was  conquered  by  the  czar  Peter,  1723  ;  restored  to  Persia, 
1735  ;  but  re-annexed  to  Russia  by  Alexander  I.,  1813. 

DAGUERREOTYPE  PROCESS,  invented  by  Daguerre,  1838.     See  Photography. 

DAHLIA.  This  beautiful  flower  was  brought  from  Mexico,  of  which  it  is  a  native,  in  the 
present  century.  It  was  first  cultivated  by  the  Swedish  botanist,  professor  Dahl,  and  soon 
became  a  favourite  in  England.  In  1815,  about  two  months  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  it 
was  introduced  into  France,  and  the  celebrated  florist  Andre  Thouine  suggested  various 
practical  improvements  in  its  management.  The  botanist  Georgi  shortly  before  introduced 
it  at  St.  Petersburg ;  hence  the  dahlia  is  known  in  Germany  as  the  Georgina. 

DAHOMEY,  a  negro  kingdom,  West  Africa,  became  known  to  Europeans  early  in  the 
last  century,  when  Trudo  Andati  or  Guadjor  Trudo,  a  man  of  energy  and  talent,  was  king. 
He  died  in  1732,  and  was  succeeded  by  a  series  of  cruel  tyrants  :  a  large  part  of  whose 
revenue  was  derived  from  the  slave  trade.  Abbeokuta,  which  was  a  robber's  cave  in  1825,  is- 
now  a  strong-walled  populous  town,  inhabited  by  free  blacks  ;  and  is  consequently  opposed 
by  the  king  of  Dahomey.  His  army  has  been  severely  defeated  in  its  attacks  on  this  place, 
and  in  one  on  March  16,  1864,  a  great  number  of  his  Amazons  were  slain.  During  the  last 
few  years  this  kingdom  has  been  visited  by  Captain  Burton  and  other  travellers,  who  have 
described  the  sanguinary  customs  of  the  royal  court. 

DAHRA  (Algeria).  On  June  18,  1845,  above  500  Kabyles  at  war  with  the  French  were 
suffocated  in  a  cave  by  smoke,  the  fire  having  been  kindled  by  order  of  general  Pelissier, 
afterwards  duke  of  Malakoff.  They  had  fired  on  the  messenger  bearing  an  offer  of  a  truce. 
The  massacre  was  condemned  by  marshal  Soult,  the  minister  of  war,  but  justified  by  marshal 
Bugeaud. 


DAK 


227 


DAK 


Taken  by  David  (1040  B.C.),  but  retaken  shortly 
after,  and  made  the  capital  of  Syria  under 
Benhadad  and  his  successors  .  .B.C. 

Taken  by  Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of  Assyria 

From  the  Assyrians  it  passed  to  the  Persians, 
and  from  them  to  the  Greeks,  under  Alex- 
ander ;  and  afterwards  to  the  Romans,  about 

Paul,  converted,  preaches  here  (Acts  ix.)     A.D. 

Taken  by  the  Saracens,  633  ;  by  the  Turks  in 
1075  ;  destroyed  by  Tamerlane  .  .  .  . 

Taken  by  Ibrahim  Pacha  in        .... 

The  disappearance  of  a  Greek  priest,  named 
father  Tommaso,  from  here,  Feb.  i,  1840,  led 
to  the  torture  of  a  number  of  Jews,  suspected 
of  his  murder,  and  to  a  cruel  persecution,  of 


740 


1400 
1832 


DAKOTA  (North  America)  was  organised  as  a  territory  of  the  United  States  on  March  2, 
1861. 

DALECARLIANS  (Sweden),  revolted  against  Christian  of  Denmark,  1521,  and  placed 
Gustavus  Vasa  on  the  throne  of  Sweden. 

DALMATIA,  an  Austrian  province,  N.E.  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  was  finally  conquered  by 
the  Romans,  346.0.  The  emperor  Diocletian  erected  his  palace  at  Spalatro,  and  retired 
there,  A.D.  305.  Dalmatia  was  held  in  turns  by  the  Goths,  Hungarians,  and  Turks,  till  its 
cession  to  Venice  in  1699.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  in  1797  it  was  given  to  Austria. 
In  1805  it  was  incorporated  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  gave  the  title  of  duke  to  marshal 
Soult,  but  in  1814  it  reverted  to  Austria. 

DALTONISM.     See  Colour,  note. 

DAMASCUS  (Syria),  a  city  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  1913  B.C.  (Gen.  xiv.),  consequently 
one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  world,  now  the  capital  of  a  Turkish  pachalic. 

that  people,  which  caused  remonstrances  from 
many  states  of  Europe. 

Damascus  was  restored  to  Turkey  .  .  .  1841 
In  consequence  of  a  dispute  between  the  Druses 
and  Maronites,  the  Mahommedans  massacred 
above  3000  Christians  and  destroyed  the 
houses,  rendering  vast  numbers  of  persons 
homeless  and  destitute ;  a  large  number 
were  rescued  by  Abd-el-Kader,*  who  held 
the  citadel  ....  July  9,  10,  n,  1860 
Summary  justice  executed  for  these  crimes  by 
Fuad  Pacha  :  160  persons  of  all  classes  exe- 
cuted, including  the  Turkish  governor  ;  and 
11,000  persons  made  soldiers  by  conscription, 

Aug.  Sept.     ,, 

DAMASK  LINENS  AND  SILKS,  first  manufactured  at  Damascus,  have  been  beauti- 
fully imitated  by  the  Dutch  and  Flemish.  The  manufacture  was  brought  to  England  by 
artisans  who  fled  from  the  persecutions  of  the  duke  of  Alva,  1571-3.  The  Damask  Rose  was 
brought  here  from  the  south  of  Europe  by  Dr.  Linacre,  physician  to  Henry  VIII.,  about 
1540. 

D  AMIENS'  ATTEMPT.  Louis  XV.  of  France  was  stabbed  with  a  knife  in  the  right 
side  by  Damiens,  a  native  of  Arras,  Jan.  5,  1757.  The  culprit  endured  the  most  excruciating 
tortures,  and  was  then  broken  on  the  wheel,  March  28. 

DAMIETTA  (Lower  Egypt),  was  built  about  1250.  Here,  it  is  said,  was  first  manufac- 
tured the  cloth  termed  dimity. 

DAMON  AND  PYTHIAS  (or  Phintias),  Pythagorean  philosophers.  When  Damon  was 
condemned  to  death  by  the  tyrant  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  about  387  B.C.,  he  obtained  leave 
to  go  and  settle  some  domestic  affair,  on  the  promise  of  returning  at  the  appointed  time  of 
execution,  and  Pythias  became  surety  for  the  performance  of  his  engagement.  When  the 
fatal  hour  approached,  Damon  did  not  appear,  and  Pythias  surrendered  himself,  and  was  led 
away  to  execution ;  but  at  this  critical  moment  Damon  returned  to  redeem  his  pledge. 
Dionysius  was  so  struck  with  their  fidelity  that  he  remitted  the  sentence  and  entreated  them 
to  permit  him  to  share  their  friendship. 

DANAI  :  an  ancient  name  of  the  Greeks  derived  from  Danaus  king  of  Argos,  1474  B.  c. 

DANCE  OF  DEATH.  The  triumph  of  death  over  all  ranks  of  men  was  a  favourite 
subject  with  the  artists  of  the  middle  ages,  and  appears  in  rude  carvings  and  pictures  in 
various  countries.  The  Chorea  Machabceorum  or  Danse  Macabre  was  the  first  printed  repre- 
sentation, published  by  Guyot  Marchand,  a  bookseller  of  Paris,  in  1485.  Holbein's  cele- 
brated Dance  of  Death  (concerning  the  authorship  of  which  there  has  been  much  contro- 
versy), was  printed  at  Lyons  in  1538,  and  at  Basil,  1594.  Since  then  many  editions  have 
appeared  ;  one  with  an  introduction  and  notes  was  published  by  Mr.  Russell  Smith  in 
1849. — The  term  Dance  of  Death  was  also  applied  to  the  frenzied  movements  of  the  Flagel- 
lants, who  had  sometimes  skeletons  depicted  on  their  clothing,  about  the  end  of  the  I4th 
century  ,f 

*  Abd-el-Kader  visited  England  in  August,  1865. 

t  The  Dancing  Mania,  accompanied  by  aberration  of  mind  and  distortions  of  the  body,  was  very  preva- 
lent in  Germany  in  1374,  and  in  the  i6th  century  in  Italy,  where  it  was  termed  Tarantism,  and  erroneously 
supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  bite  of  the  Tarantula  spider.  The  music  and  songs  employed  for  its  cure  are 
still  preserved. 

Q  2 


DAN 


223 


DAN 


DANCING  to  the  measure  of  time  was  invented  by  the  Curetes,  15346.0.  Eusclius. 
The  Greeks  were  the  first  who  united  the  dance  to  their  tragedies  and  comedies.  Pantomimic 
dances  were  first  introduced  on  the  Roman  stage,  22  B.C.  Usher.  Dancing  by  cinque  paces 
was  introduced  into  England  from  Italy,  A.D.  1541.  In  modern  times  the  French  were  the 
first  who  introduced  ballets  analogues  in  their  musical  dramas.  The  country  dance  (cmitre- 
danse)  is  of  French  origin,  but  its  date  is  not  precisely  known.  Spelman.  The  waltz  and 
quadrille  were  introduced  into  England  about  1813.  See  Morice  Dances. 

DANE-GELD,  or  DANEGELT,  a  tribute  paid  to  the  Danes  to  stop  their  ravages  in  this 
kingdom  ;  first  raised  by  Ethelred  II.  in  991,  and  again  in  1003  ;  and  levied  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  Danes  to  pay  fleets  for  clearing  the  seas  of  them.  The  tax  was  suppressed 
by  Edward  the  Confessor  in  1051  ;  revived  by  William  the  Conqueror,  1068;  and  formed 
part  of  the  revenue  of  the  crown,  until  abolished  by  Stephen,  1136.  Every  hide  of  land, 
i.e.  as  much  as  one  plough  could  plough,  or  as  Bede  says,  maintain  a  family,  was  taxed  at 
first  15.,  afterwards  as  much  as  75.  Camden  says  that  once  24,360?.  was  raised. 

DANES.  See  Denmark.  During  their  attacks  upon  Briton  and  Ireland  they  made  a 
descent  on  France,  where,  in  895,  under  Rollo,  they  received  presents  under  the  walls  of 
Paris.  They  returned  and  ravaged  the  French  territories  as  far  as  Ostend  in  896.  They 
attacked  Italy  in  903.  Neustria  was  granted  by  Hie  king  of  France  to  Rollo  and  his 
Normans  (North-men),  hence  Normandy,  in  911.  The  invasions  of  England  and  Ireland 
were  as  follows  : — 


First  hostile  appearance  of  the  Danes  .  .  .  783 
They  land  near  Ptirbeck,  Dorset  .  .  .  787 
Descend  in  Northumberland  :  destroy  the 

church  at    Lindisfarne ;    are  repelled,   and 

perish  by  shipwreck 794 

They  invade  Scotland  and  Ireland  .  .  795,  796 
They  enter  Dublin  with  a  fleet  of  60  sail,  and 

possess  themselves  of  Dublin,    Fingal,  and 

other  places 798 

They  take  the  Isle  of  Sheppey  ....  832 
Defeated  at  Hengeston,  in  Cornwall,  by  Egbert  835 
They  land  in  Kent  from  350  vessels,  and  take 

Canterbury  and  London 851 

They  descend  on  Northumberland,  and  take 

York 867 

They  defeat  the  Saxons  at  Merton  .  .  .  871 
They  take  Wareham  and  Exeter  .  .  .  876 
They  take  Chippenham  :  but  120  of  their  ships 

are  wrecked 877 

Defeated :  Guthrum,  their  leader,  becomes 

Christian,  and  many  settle  in  England  .  878 

Alfred  enters  into  a  treaty  with  them  .  .  .  882 
Their  fleet  totally  destroyed  by  Alfred  at  Apple- 

dore 894 

Defeated  near  Isle  of  Wight 897 

They  invade  and  waste  Wales  .  .  .  •  .  900 
Defeated  by  Edward  the  Elder  .  .  .  922 

They  defeat  the  people  of  Leinster.  whose  king 

is  killed 956 


Ravage  Cornwall,  Devon,  and  Dorset  .  .  .  982 
And  ravage  Essex  and  Suffolk  ....  990 
Said  to  assume  the  title  lord  dune  about  .  .  991 
Their  fleet  defeated  after  a  breach  of  treaty, 

purchased  by  money 992 

They  land  in  Essex,  and  in  the  west,  and  are 

paid  a  sum  of  money  (i6,oooL)  to  quit  the 

kingdom 994 

A  general  massacre  of  the  Danes,  by  order  of 

Ethelred  II Nov.  13,  1002 

Swein  revenges  the  death  of  his  countrymen,   • 

and  receives   36,000?.    (which  he  afterwards 

demands  as  an  annual  tribute)  to  depart  .  1003 
Their  fleet  anchors  at  Isle  of  Wight  .  .  .  1006 
They  make  fresh  inroads,  and  defeat  the  Saxons 

in  Suffolk ioio 

They  sack  Canterbury,  imprison  the  archbishop, 

and  kill  the  inhabitants ion 

They  receive  48,000?.  as  tribute,  and  murder 

Alphege,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  .  .10x2 
Vanquished  at  Clontarf,  Ireland  (see  Clontarf).  1014 
Their  conquest  of  England  completed ;  Canute 

king 1017 

They  settle  in  Scotland 1020  , 

They  land  again   at    Sandwich,    carrying    off 

much  plunder  to  Flanders  .         .        .     .  1047 

They  bum  York,  and  kill  3000  Normans  .  .  1069 
Once  more  invade  England,  to  aid  a  conspiracy  ; 


but  compelled  to  depart 


1074 


DANGEROUS  ASSOCIATIONS  (IRELAND)  BILL.     See  Roman  Catholic  Association. 

D  ANNEWERKE,  or  Dannawirke,  a  series  of  earthworks,  considered  almost  impregnable, 
stretching  across  the  long  narrow  peninsula  of  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Jutland — said  to 
have  been  constructed  during  the  "stone  age,"  long  before  the  art  of  metal-working.  It  was 
rebuilt  in  937  by  Thyra,  queen  of  Gormo  the  old,  for  which  she  was  named  "  Dannabod," 
the  pride  of  the  Danes.  It  was  repaired  by  Olaf  Tryggveson  between  995  and  1000.  The 
retreat  of  the  Danes  from  it  Feb.  5,  1864,  occasioned  much  dissatisfaction  in  Copenhagen. 

DANTE'S  DIVINA  COMMEDIA  was  first  printed  in  1472.  He  was  born  May  14, 
1265,  and  died  at  Ravenna,  Sept.  14,  1321.  A  festival  in  his  honour,  at  Florence,  was 
opened  by  the  king,  May  14,  1865,  when  a  large  statue  of  Dante  by  Pazzi  of  Ravenna  was 
.uncovered. 

DANTZIC  (N.  Germany),  a  commercial  city  in  997  ;  but  according  to  other  authorities, 
built  by  Waldemar  I.  in  1165.  Poland  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  it  in  1454.  It  was 
seized  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  annexed  in  1793.  It  surrendered  to  the  French,  May, 
1807  ;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  was  restored  to  independence,  under  the  protection  of 
Prussia  and  Saxony.  Dantzic  was  besieged  by  the  allies  in  1812  ;  and  surrendered  to  them, 


DAN 


229 


DAR 


Jan.  I,  1814.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris  it  again  reverted  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  By  an  inunda- 
tion here,  owing  to  the  Vistula  breaking  through  its  dykes,  10,000  head  of  cattle  and  4000 
houses  were  destroyed,  and  a  vast  number  of  lives  lost,  April  9,  1829. 

DANUBE  (German,  Donau  ;  anciently  Ister,  in  its  lower  part).  Except  the  "Wolga,  the 
river  in  Europe,  rising  in  the  Black  Forest  and  falling  into  the  Black  Sea.  Its 
navigation  has  been  considered  an  object  of  great  importance,  from  the  time  of  Trajan  to  the 
present  time.  Part  of  Trajan's  bridge  at  Gladova  still  remains.  It  was  destroyed  by  Adrian, 
to  prevent  the  barbarians  entering  Dacia.  Steam  navigation  was  projected  on  this  river  by 
count  Szenechyi  in  1830,  and  in  that  year  the  first  steam-boat  was  launched  at  Vienna,  and 
the  Austrian  company  was  formed  shortly  after.  The  Bavarian  company  was  formed  in 
1836.  Charlemagne,  in  the  8th  century,  contemplated  uniting  the  Danube  and  Rhine  by  a 
canal.  At  the  peace  of  1856  the  free  navigation  of  the  Danube  was  secured. 

DANUBIAN  PRINCIPALITIES  ;  WALLACHIA  and  MOLDAVIA  ;  capitals,  Bucharest 
and  Jassy.  United,  as  ROUMANIA,  under  the  government  of  prince  Alexander  Cousa  in  1859. 
Population  of  the  two  1860,  4,200,000.  These  provinces  formed  part  of  the  ancient  Dacia, 
which  was  conquered  by  Trajan  about  106,  and  abandoned  by  Aurelian  about  270.  For  some 
time  after  they  were  alternately  in  the  possession  of  the  barbarians  and  the  Greek  emperors  ; 
and  afterwards  of  the  Hungarians.  In  the  i3th  century  they  were  subdued  by  the  Turks, 
but  permited  to  retain  their  religious  customs,  &c. 


Part  of  Moldavia  ceded  to  Russia          .        .     .1812 

The  provinces  having  participated  in  the  Greek 
insurrection  in  1821,  were  severely  treated  by 
the  Turks  ;  but  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople 
were  placed  under  the  protection  of  Russia  .  1829 

The  Porte  appointed  as  hospodars  prince  Stir- 
bey  for  Wallachia,  and  prince  Ghika  for  Mol- 
davia ......  June,  1849 

They  retire  from  their  governments  when  the 
Russians  enter  Moldavia.  See  Russv- Turkish. 
War  ....  ...  July  2,  1853 

The  Russians  quit  the  provinces  and  the  Aus- 
trians  enter Sept.  1854 

The  Austrians  retire    ....     March,  1857 

The  government  of  the  principalities  finally 
settled  at  the  Paris  conference  (there  were  to 
be  two  hospodars,  elected  by  elective  assem- 
blages, and  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey  was  to 


be  preserved)        ....        Aug.  19,  1858 

Alexander  Cousa  was  elected  hospodar  of  Mol- 
davia, Jan.  17  ;  of  Wallachia  .  Feb.  5,  1859. 

The  election  acknowledged  by  the  allies  as  an 
exceptional  case  ....  Sept.  6,  „ 

The  definitive  union  of  the  provinces  (under 
the  name  of  Roumania)  acknowledged  by  the 
Porte Dec.  1861 

M.  Catargi,  the  president  of  the  council  of 
ministers,  assassinated  as  he  was  leaving  the 
chamber  of  deputies  .  .  .  June  20,  1862 

The  united  chambers  of  the  two  principalities 
meet  at  Bucharest  .  .  .  Feb.  5,  „ 

Coup  d'etat  of  prince  Cousa  against  the  aristo- 
crats :  a  plebiscite  for  a  new  constitution, 
May  2  ;  which  is  adopted  .  .  May  28,  1864 

A  law  passed  enabling  the  peasants  to  hold  land , 


DARDANELLES,  THE,  are  two  castles  (Sestos,  in  Romania,  and  Abydos,  in  Natolia), 
commanding  the  entrance  of  the  strait  of  Gallipoli,  built  by  the  sultan  Mahomet  IV.  in  1659, 
and  named  Dardanelles  from  the  contiguous  town  Dardanus. — The  passage  of  the  Dardanelles 
was  achieved  by  the  British  squadron  under  sir  John  Duckworth,  Feb.  19,  1807  ;  but  the 
admiral  was  obliged  to  repass  theni^  which  he  did  with  great  loss,  March  2,  following,  the 
castles  of  Sestos  and  Abydos  hurling  down  stones  of  many  tons  weight,  upon  the  British 
ships.  The  allied  English  and  French  fleets  passed  the  Dardanelles  at  the  sultan's  request, 
Oct.  1853.  See  Hellespont. 

DARIC,  a  Persian  gold  coin,  issued  by  Darius,  hence  its  name,  about  538  B.C.  About 
556  cents.  Knowles.  It  weighed  two  grains  more  than  the  English  guinea.  Dr.  Bernard. 

DARIEN,  ISTHMUS  OF,  central  America,  discovered  by  Columbus,  1494.  About  1694, 
"William  Paterson,  founder  of  the  Bank  of  England,  published  his  plan  for  colonising  Darien. 
In  consequence  a  company  was  formed  in  1695  and  three  ill-fated  expeditions  sailed  there  in 
1698  and  1699,  from  Scotland,  where  400,  oool.  had  been  raised.  The  first  consisted  of  1200 
young  men  of  all  classes,  besides  women  and  children.  The  enterprise  not  having  been 
recognised  by  the  English  government,  the  settlements  were  threatened  by  the  Spaniards,  to 
whom  they  were  finally  surrendered,  March  30,  1 700.  Paterson  and  a  few  survivors  from 
famine  and  disease,  had  set  off  shortly  before  the  arrival  of  the  second  expedition.  Several 
years  after,  a  sum  of  398, 085  £.  was  voted  by  parliament  to  the  survivors  as  "Equivalent 
money."  A  sum  of  money  was  also  voted  to  Paterson;  but  the  bill  was  rejected  in  the 
house  of  lords.  See  Panama. 

DARK  AGES,  a  term  applied  to  the  period  of  time  called  the  Middle  Ages  ;  according 
to  Hallam,  comprising  about  1000  years — from  the  invasion  of  France  by  Clovis,  486,  to 
that  of  Naples  by  Charles  VIII.  1495.  During  this  time  learning  was  at  a  low  ebb. 

DARMSTADT.     See  Hesse  Darmstadt. 


DAR  230  DAY 

DARTFORD  (Kent).  Here  commenced  the  insurrection  of  Wat  Tyler,  1381.  A  con- 
vent of  nuns,  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustin,  endowed  here  by  Edward  III.,  1355,  was  converted 
by  Henry  VIII.  into  a  royal  palace.  The  first  paper-mill  in  England  was  erected  at  Dartford 
by  sir  John  Spielman,  a  German,  in  1590  (Stow),  and  about  the  same  period  was  erected  here 
the  first  mill  for  splitting  iron  bars.  The  powder-mills  here  were  blown  up  four  times 
between  1730  and  1738.  Various  explosions  have  since  occurred,  in  some  cases  with  loss  of 
life  to  many  persons  :  Oct.  12,  1790  ;  Jan.  I,  1795  ;  and  more  recently. 

DARTMOUTH  (Devon).  Burnt  by  the  French  in  the  reigns  of  Richard  I.  and  Henry 
IV.  In  a  third  attempt  (1404),  the  invaders  were  defeated  by  the  inhabitants,  assisted  by 
the  valour  of  the  women.  The  French  commander,  Du  Chastel,  three  lords,  and  thirty-two 
knights  were  made  prisoners.  In  the  war  of  the  parliament,  Dartmouth  was  taken  after  a 
siege  of  four  weeks,  by  prince  Maurice,  who  garrisoned  the  place  for  the  king  (1643) ;  but 
it  was  retaken  by  general  Fairfax  by  storm  in  1646. 

DATES  were  affixed  to  grants  and  assignments  18  Edw.  I.  1290.  Before  this  time  it 
was  usual  at  least  to  pass  lands  without  dating  the  deed  of  conveyance.  Lewis.  Numerous 
instruments  of  assignment  enrolled  among  our  early  records  establish  this  fact.  The  date  is 
determined  by  the  names  of  the  parties,  particularly  that  of  the  grantor  :  the  possession  of 
land  was  proof  of  the  title  to  it.  ffardie.  A  useful^  glossary  of  the  dates  given  in  old 
charters  and  chronicles  will  be  found  in  Nicolas' s  "  Chronology  of  History." 

DAUPHIN.  It  is  a  vulgar  error  to  suppose  that,  by  the  treaty  of  1343,  which  gave  the 
full  sovereignty  of  Dauphiny  to  the  kings  of  France,  it  was  stipulated  that  the  eldest  son  of 
the  king  should  bear  the  title  of  dauphin.  So  far  from  it,  the  first  dauphin  named  in  that 
treaty  was  Philip,  second  son  of  Philip  of  Valois.  Henault.  The  late  duke  of  Orleans, 
eldest  son  of  Louis-Philippe,  was  not  called  the  dauphin. 

DAVID'S,  ST.  (S.W.  Wales),  the  ancient  Menapia,  now  a  poor  decayed  place,  but  once 
the  metropolitan  see  of  Wales,  and  archiepiscopal.  When  Christianity  was  planted  in 
Britain,  there  were  three  archbishops'  seats  appointed,  viz.  London,  York,  and  Caerleon  upon 
Usk,  in  Monmouthshire.  That  at  Caerleon  being  too  near  the  dominions  of  the  Saxons,  was 
removed  to  Menew,  and  called  St.  David's,  in  honour  of  the  archbishop  who  removed  it,  519. 
St.  Sampson  was  the  last  archbishop  of  the  Welsh  ;  for  he,  withdrawing  himself  on  account 
•of  a  pestilence  to  Dole,  in  Brittany,  carried  the  pall  with  him  ;  but  his  successors  pre- 
served the  archiepiscopal  power,  although  they  lost  the  name.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 
these  prelates  were  forced  to  submit  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  Beatson.  Present  income 
4500^. 

RECEXT  BISHOPS  OF  ST.    DAVID'S. 


1800.  Lord  George  Murray,  died  June  3,  1803. 
1803.  Thomas  Burgess,  translated  to  Salisbury,  June 
1825. 


1825.  John  Banks  Jenkinsou,  died  July  7,  1840. 
1840.  Connop  Thirlwall  (PRESENT  bishop,  1865.) 


DAVID'S  DAY,  ST.,  March  I,  is  annually  commemorated  by  the  Welsh,  in  honour  of 
St.  David.  Tradition  states  that  on  St.  David's  birthday,  540,  a  great  victory  was  obtained 
by  the  Welsh  over  their  Saxon  invaders  ;  that  the  Welsh  soldiers  were  distinguished  by  order 
•of  St.  David  by  a  leek  in  their  cap. 

^DAVIS'S  STRAIT  (N.  America),  discovere4  by  the  English  navigator,? John  Davis,  on 
his  voyage  to  find  a  N.  W.  passage,  between  1585  and  1587.  He  made  two  more  voyages 
for  the  same  purpose,  and  afterwards  performed  five  voyages  to  the  East  Indies.  In  the 
last  he  was  killed  by  Japanese  pirates,  in  the  Indian  seas,  on  the  coast  of  Malacca,  Dec. 
27,  1605. 

DAVY  LAMP.     See  Safety  Lamp. 

DAY.  Day  began  at  sunrise  among  most  of  the  northern  nations,  and  at  sunset  among 
the  Athenians  and  Jews.  Among  the  Romans,  day  commenced  at  midnight,  as  it  now  does 
among  us.  The  Italians  in  many  places,  at  the  present  time,  reckon  the  day  from  sunset  to 
sunset,  making  their  clocks  strike  twenty-four  hours  round,  instead  of  dividing  the  day,  as 
is  done  in  all  other  countries,  into  equal  portions  of  twelve  hours.  This  mode  is  but  partially 
used  in  the  larger  towns  of  Italy  ;  most  public  clocks  in  Florence,  Rome,  and  Milan,  being 
set  to  the  hour  designated  on  French  or  English  clocks.  The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into 
twelve  parts  of  two  hours  each.  Our  civil  day  is  distinguished  from  the  astronomical  day, 
which  begins  at  noon,  is  divided  into  twenty-four  hours  (instead  of  two  parts  of  twelve 


DEA  231  DEB 

hours),  and  is  the  mode  of  reckoning  used  in  the  Nautical  Almanack.  At  Rome,  day  and 
night  were  first  divided  in  time  by  means  of  water-clocks,  the  invention  of  Scipio  Nasica, 
158  B.C. 

DEACONS  (literally  servants],  an  order  of  the  Christian  priesthood,  which  took  its  rise 
from  the  institution  of  seven  deacons  by  the  Apostles,  which  number  was  retained  a  long 
period  in  many  churches,  about  53.  (Acts  vi.)  The  original  deacons  were  Stephen,  Philip, 
Prochorus,  Nicanor,  Timon,  Parmenas,  and  Nicolas.  The  qualifications  of  a  deacon  are 
mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (65),  ist  Timothy  iii.  8—14. 

DEACONESSES,  or  ministering  widows,  are  mentioned  in  early  Christian  history.  Their 
qualifications  are  given  in  I  Tim,  v.  9,  10  (65).  Their  duties  were  to  visit  the  poor  and  sick, 
assist  at  the  agapee  or  love  feasts,  admonish  the  young  women,  &c.  The  office  was  discon- 
tinued in  the  Western  church  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries,  and  in  the  Greek  church  about 
the  1 2th,  but  has  been  recently  revived  in  Germany. 

DEAD,  PRAYERS  FOR,  began  about  190.     Eusebius.     See  Prayer. 

DEAD  "WEIGHT  LOAN  acquired  its  name  from  its  locking  up  the  capital  of  the  Bank 
of  England,  which  in  1823  advanced  11,000,000?.  to  the  government  (to  construct  new 
ordnance,  &c.).  The  latter  engaged  to  give  an  annuity  of  585, 740^.  for  44  years  ;  which, 
ceases  in  1867. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB.  The  first  systematic  attempt  to  instruct  the  deaf  and  dumb  was 
made  by  Pedro  de  Ponce,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Spain,  about  1570.  Bonet,  also  a  monk, 
published  a  system  at  Madrid  in  1620.  Dr.  Wallis  published  a  work  in  England  on  the 
subject  in  1650.  The  first  regular  academy  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Britain  was  opened  in 
Edinburgh  in  1773.  In  modern  times  the  abbe  de  1'Epee  (1712-89),  and  his  friend  and  pupil 
the  abbe  Sicard  of  Paris  (1742 — 1822)  ;  the  rev.  Mr.  Townsend  and  Mr.  Baker,  of  London  ; 
Mr.  Braidwood  of  Edinburgh ;  and  surgeon  Orpen,  of  Dublin,  have  laboured  with  muck 
success  in  promoting  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  The  asylum  for  deaf  and 
dumb  children  was  opened  in  London  through  the  exertions  of  Mr.  Townsend,  in  1792  ;  one 
in  Edinburgh  by  Mr.  J.  Braidwood,  in  1810  ;  and  one  in  Birmingham  by  Mr.  T.  Braidwood, 
in  1815.  The  asylum  at  Claremont,  Dublin,  was  opened  in  1816.  In  1851,  there  were  in 
Great  Britain,  12,553  deaf  and  dumb  out  of  a  population  of  20,959,477. 

DEAN,  FOREST  OF,  Gloucestershire.  Anciently  it  was  wooded  quite  through,  and  of 
great  extent ;  and  in  the  last  century,  though  much  curtailed,  was  twenty  miles  in  length 
and  ten  in  breadth.  It  was  famous  for  its  oaks,  of  which  most  of  our  former  ships  of  war 
were  made.  The  memorable  riots  in  this  district,  when  more  than  3000  persons  assembled 
in  the  forest,  and  demolished  upwards  of  fifty  miles  of  wall  and  fence,  throwing  open  10,000 
acres  of  plantation,  took  place  on  June  8,  1831. 

DEATH,  PUNISHMENT  OF.  The  ancients  inflicted  death  by  crucifixion,  and  even  women, 
suffered  on  the  cross.  Mithridates,  a  Persian  soldier,  who  boasted  that  he  had  killed  Cyrus 
the  Younger,  at  the  battle  of  Cunstxa,  was  by  order  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  eighteen  days  in 
a  state  of  torture  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun.  Drowning  in  a  quagmire  was  a 
punishment  among  the  Britons,  about  450  B.C.  Stow.  Maurice,  the  son  of  a  nobleman, 
was  hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered  for  piracy,  the  first  execution  in  that  manner  in  England, 
25  Hen.  III.  1241.  The  punishment  of  death  was  abolished  in  a  great  number  of  cases  by 
sir  R.  Peel's  acts,  4  to  10  Geo.  IV.  1824-9  5  and  by  the  criminal  law  consolidation  acts  of 
1 86 1,  was  confined  to  treason  and  wilful  murder.  See  Ravaillac,  Boiling,  Burning, 
Hanging,  Forgery,  and  Execution.  A  parliamentary  commission  respecting  capital  punish- 
ment was  appointed  early  in  1864.  Capital  punishment  was  restricted  in  Italy  in. 
April,  1865. 

DEATHS,  REGISTERS  OF.     See  Bills  of  Mortality  and  Registers. 

DEBT.  See  National  Debt,  Bankrupts  and  Insolvents.  Debtors  have  been  subjected  to 
imprisonment  in  almost  all  countries  and  times  ;  and  until  the  passing  of  the  later  bankrupt 
laws  and  insolvent  acts,  the  prisons  of  these  countries  were  crowded  with  debtors  to  an  extent 
that  is  now  scarcely  credible.  It  appears  by  parliamentary  returns  that  fti  the  eighteen 
months,  subsequent  to  the  panic  of  Dec.  1825,  as  many  as  101,000  writs  for  debts  were  issued 
from  the  courts  in  England.  In  the  year  ending  5th  Jan.  1830,  there  were  7 114  persons 
sent  to  the  several  prisons  of  London  ;  and  on  that  day,  1547  of  the  number  were  yet 
confined.  On  the  ist  of  Jan.  1840,  the  number  of  prisoners  for  debt  in  England  and  Wales 
was  1732  ;  inlreland  the  number  was  under  1000  ;  and  in  Scotland  under  100.  The  operation, 
of  statutes  of  relief,  and  other  causes,  considerably  reduced  the  number  of  imprisoned 


DEB  232  DEE 

debtors.  When  the  new  Bankruptcy  Act  (abolishing  imprisonment  for  debt  except  when 
fraudulently  contracted)  came  into  operation,  in  Nov.  1861,  a  number  of  debtors  who  had  been 
confined,  were  released.*  Arrest  of  Absconding  Debtors  bill,  14  &  15  Yict.  c.  52,  1852. 
See  Arrest  and  King's  Bench. 

DEBUSCOPE,  an  instrument  of  French  origin,  somewhat  similar  to  the  kaleidoscope, 
said  to  be  useful  for  devising  patterns  for  calico-printers,  &c.,  made  its  appearance  in  1860. 

DECAMERONE  (10  days).     See  Boccaccio. 
DECAPITATION.     See  Beheading. 

DECEMBER  (from  decem,  ten),  the  tenth  month  of  the  year  of  Romulus,  commencing 
in  March.  In  713  B.C.  Numa  introduced  January  and  February  before  March,  and  thence- 
forward December  became  the  twelfth  of  the  year.  In  the  reign  of  Cornmodus,  A.D.  181 — 
192,  December  was  called  by  the  way  of  flattery,  Amazonius,  in  honour  of  a  courtesan  whom 
that  prince  had  loved,  and  had  painted  like  an  Amazon.  The  English  commenced  their 
year  on  the  25th  December,  until  the  reign  of  William  the  Conqueror.  See  Year. 

DECEMVIRI,  or  Ten  Men,  who  were  appointed  to  draw  up  a  code  of  laws,  and  to  whom 
for  a  time  the  whole  government  of  Rome  was  committed,  451  B.C.  The  laws  they  drew 
up  were  approved  by  the  senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  people,  written  on  ten  metallic 
tables,  and  setup  in  the  place  where  the  people  met  (comitium),  450  B.C.  The  Decemviri 
at  first  ruled  well,  but  the  tyranny  of  Appius  Claudius  towards  Virginia  occasioning  an 
insurrection,  they  were  forced  to  resign  ;  and  consuls  were  again  appointed,  449  B.C. 

DECENNALIA,  festivals  instituted  by  Augustus,  17  B.C.,  celebrated  by  the  Roman 
emperors  every  tenth  year  of  their  reign,  with  sacrifices,  games,  and  largesses.  Livy.  And 
celebrated  by  Antoninus  Pius,  A.D.  148.  They  do  not  appear  to  have  been  continued  after 
the  reigns  of  the  Csesars. 

DECIMAL  SYSTEM  OF  COINAGE,  WEIGHTS,  &c.     See  Metric  System. 
DECLARATION  OF  RIGHTS.     See  Eights. 

DECORATIVE  ART.  The  true  principles  of  decoration  enunciated  by  A.  W.  Pugin, 
in  his  "Designs,"  published  in  1835,  have  since  been  greatly  advanced  by  Owen  Jones, 
Redgrave,  and  others.  Owen  Jones's  elaborate  "Grammar  of  Ornament"  was  published  in 
1856.  A  Decorative  Art  society,  founded  in  1844,  existed  for  a  short  time  only. 

DE  COURCY'S  PRIVILEGE,  that  of  standing  covered  before  the  king,  granted  by  king 
John,  to  John  de  Cotircy,  baron  of  Kingsale,  and  his  successors,  in  1203.  He  was  the  first 
nobleman  created  by  an  English  sovereign,  27  Hen.  II.  1181  ;  and  was  entrusted  with  the 
government  of  Ireland,  1185.  The  privilege  has  been  exercised  in  most  reigns,  and  was 
allowed  to  the  baron  of  Kingsale  by  Will.  III.,  Geo.  III.,  and  by  Geo.  IV.  at  his  court  held 
in  Dublin,  in  Aug.  1821.  The  present  baron  is  the  29th  in  succession. 

DECRETALS.  The  decretals  formed  the  second  part  of  the  canon  law,  or  collection  of 
the  pope's  edicts  and  decrees  and  the  decrees  of  councils.  The  first  of  these  acknowledged 
to  be  genuine  is  a  letter  of  Siricius  to  Himerus,  the  bishop  of  Spain,  written  in  the  first 
year  of  his  pontificate,  385.  Howel.  Certain  false  decretals  were  used  by  Gregory  IV.  in 
837.  The  decretals  of  Gratian,  a  Benedictine  (a  collection  of  canons),  were  compiled  in 
1 150.  Henault.  Five  books  were  collected  by  Gregory  IX.  1227  ;  a  sixth  by  Boniface  VIII. 
in  1297  ;  the  Clementines  by  Clement  V.  in  1313  ;  employed  by  John  XXII.  in  1317  ;  the 
Extravagantes  range  from  1422  to  1483. 

DEDICATION  of  the  Jewish  tabernacle  took  place  1490  B.C.  ;  of  the  temple,  1004  B.C.  ; 
of  the  second  temple,  515  B.C.  The  Christians  under  Constantine  built  new  churches  and 
dedicated  them  with  great  solemnity,  in  A.D.  331,  et  seq.  The  dedication  of  BOOKS  (by 
authors  to  solicit  patronage  or  testify  respect)  began  in  the  time  of  Maecenas,  17  B.C.  He 
was  the  friend  and  counsellor  of  Augustus  Caesar,  and  a  patron  of  genius  and  learning ; 
hence  it  is  customary  to  style  any  nobleman,  imitating  his  example,  a  Majcenas. 

DEED,  a  written  contract  or  agreement.  The  formula,  "  I  deliver  this  as  my  act  and 
deed,"  occurs  in  a  charter  of  933.  Fosbrooke.  Deeds  in  England  were  formerly  written  in 
the  Latin  and  French  languages  :  the  earliest  known  instance  of  the  English  tongue  having 
been  used  is  the  indenture  between  the  abbot  of  Whitby  and  Robert  Bustard,  dated  at  York 
in  1343.  See  English. 

*  Imprisonment  for  debt  still  continues.  In  1863  nearly  18,000  persons  were  imprisoned  by  order  of 
the  county  courts :  average  time,  15  days,  amount  of  debt,  3?.  ios. 


DEF  233  DEL 

DEFAMATION.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  on  this  subject  was 
abolished  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  41  (1855). 

DEFENCE  OF  THE  REALM  ACT  was  passed  in  Aug.  1860,  in  consequence  of  the 
unsettled  state  of  Europe,  aggravated  by  the  doubtful  policy  of  the  emperor  Napoleon.  See 
Fortification. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH  (Fidei  .Defensor),  a  title  of  the  British  sovereign,  conferred 
by  Leo  X.  on  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  for  his  tract  on  behalf  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  then 
accounted  Domic ilium  fidei  Catholicce,  against  Luther,  in  Oct.  n,  1521. 

DEFENDERS,  a  faction  in  Ireland,  which  arose  out  of  a  quarrel  between  two  residents  of 
Market-hill,  July  4,  1784.  Each  was  soon  aided  by  a  large  body  of  friends,  and  many  battles 
ensued.  On  Whit-Monday,  1785,  an  armed  assemblage  of  one  of  the  parties  (700  men), 
called  the  Nappagh  Fleet,  prepared  to  encounter  the  JBawn  Fleet,  but  the  engagement  was 
prevented.  They  subsequently  became  religious  parties,  Catholic  and  Presbyterian,  distin- 
guished as  Defenders  and  Peep-o' -day-boys :  the  latter  were  so  named  because  they  usually 
visited  the  dwellings  of  the  Defenders  at  daybreak  in  search  of  arms.  Sir  Richard  Musgrave. 

DEGREES.  Eratosthenes  attempted  to  determine  the  length  of  a  geographical  degree 
about  250  B.C.  Sncllius.  See  Latitude  and  Longitude.  Collegiate  degrees  are  coeval  with 
universities.  Those  in  medicine  are  traced  up  to  A.D.  1384  :  in  music  to  1463.  In  Oct. 
1863,  women  were  permitted  to  compete  for  degrees. 

DEI  GRATIA.     See  Grace  of  God. 

DEIRA,  a  part  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdom  of  Northumbria.     See  Britain. 

DEISM  OK  THEISM  (Greek,  theos,  Latin,  deus,  God),  the  belief  in  a  God.  About  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century  some  gentlemen  of  France  and  Italy  termed  themselves 
deists,  to  disguise  their  opposition  to  Christianity  by  a  more  honourable  appellation  than  that 
of  Atheism  (which  see).  Deists  reject  revelation,  and  profess  to  go  by  the  light  of  nature, 
believing  that  there  is  a  God,  a  providence,  vice,  and  virtue,  and  an  after-stafe  of  punishments 
and  rewards  :  they  are  sometimes  called  free-thinkers.  The  most  distinguished  deists  were 
Herbert,  baron  of  Cherbury,  in  1624 ;  Hobbes,  Tindal,  Morgan,  lord  Bolingbroke,  Gibbon, 
Hume,  Holcroft,  Paine  and  Godwin. 

DELAWARE,  one  of  the  United  States  of  North  America,  named  after  lord  de  la  Warre, 
governor  of  Virginia,  who  entered  the  bay  1610.  It  was  settled  by  Swedes,  sent  there  by 
Gustavus  in  1627. 

DELEGATES,  COURT  OF.  Appeals  to  the  pope  in  ecclesiastical  causes  having  been 
forbidden  (see  Appeals),  those  causes  were  for  the  future  to  be  heard  in  this  court,  established 
by  stat.  24  Henry  VIII.  1533  ;  soon  afterwards  the  pope's  authority  was  susperseded 
altogether  in  England.  Stow.  This  court  was  abolished  ;  and  appeals  now  lie  to  the  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  as  fixed  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  41  (1833).  See  Arches. 

DELFT  (S.  Holland),  a  town  founded  by  Godfrey  le  Bossu,  about  1074 ;  famous  for 
the  earthenware  known  by  its  name  ;  first  manufactured  here  about  1310.  The  sale  of 
Dutch  delft  greatly  declined  after  the  introduction  of  potteries  into  Germany  and  England. 
Delft  was  an  important  place  during  the  struggle  against  Spain.  The  renowned  Grotius  was 
born  here,  April  10,  1583  ;  and  here  the  great  William  prince  of  Orange  was  assassinated, 
July  10,  1584,  by  Gerard. 

DELHI,  the  once  great  capital  of  the  Mogul  empire,  ^and  chief  seat  of  the  Mahomedan 
power  in  India  ;  it  was  taken  by  Timour  in  1398.  I.t  is  now  in  decay,  but  contained  a 
million  of  inhabitants  in  1700-.  In  1739,  when  Nadir  Shah  invaded  Hindostan,  he  entered 
Delhi ;  100,000  of  the  inhabitants  perished  by  the  sword,  and  plunder  to  the  amount  of 
62,000,000?.  sterling  is  said  to  have  been  collected.  The  same  calamities  were  endured  in 
1761,  on  the  invasion  of  Abdalla  king  of  Candahar.  In  1803,  the  Mahrattas,  aided  by 
the  French,  took  Delhi  ;  but  were  afterwards  defeated  by  general  Lake,  and  the  aged  Shah 
Aulum,  emperor  of  Hindostan,  was  restored  to  his  throne  with  a  pension.  See  India,  1803. 
On  May  10,  1857,  a  mutiny  arose  in  the  sepoy  regiments  at  Meerut.  It  was  soon  checked  ; 
but  the  fugitives  fled  to  Delhi,  and  combined  with  other  troops  there,  seized  on  the  city  ; 
proclaimed  a  descendant  of  the  Mogul  as  king,  and  committed  the  most  frightful  atrocities. 
The  rebels  were  anxious  to  possess  the  chief  magazine,  but  after  a  gallant  defence  it  was 
exploded  by  order  of  lieutenant  Willoughby,  who  died  of  his  wounds  shortly  after.  The 
other  heroes  in  this  exploit  were  lieutenants  Forrest  and  Rayner,  and  the  gunners  Buckley 
and  Scully.  Delhi  was  shortly  after  besieged  by  the  British,  but  was  not  taken  till  Sept.  20, 


DEL 


234 


DEL 


following.  The  final  struggle  began  on  the  i6th  ;  brigadier  (since  sir  Archdale)  Wilson  being 
the  commander.  Much  heroism  was  shown  ;  the  gallant  deaths  of  Salkeld  and  Home  at  the 
explosion  of  the  Cashmere  gate  created  much  enthusiasm.  The  old  king  and  his  sons  were 
captured  soon  after :  the  latter  were  shot,  and  the  former  after  a  trial  was  sent  for  life  to 
Rangoon.  See  India,  1857. 

"  DELICATE  INVESTIGATION,"  THE,  into  the  conduct  of  the  princess  of  Wales 
(afterwards  queen  of  England,  as  consort  of  George  IV.),  was  commenced  by  a  committee  of 
the  privy  council,  under  a  warrant  of  inquiry,  dated  May  29,  1806.  The  members  were  lord 
Orenville,  lord  Erskine,  earl  Spencer  and  lord  Ellenborough.  The  inquir}",  of  which  the 
countess  of  Jersey,  sir  J.  and  lady  Douglas,  and  other  persons  of  rank  were  the  prompters, 
and  in  which  they  conspicuously  figured,  led  to  the  publication  called  "The  Book;" 
afterwards  suppressed.  The  charges  against  the  princess  were  disproved  in  1807,  and  again 
in  1813  ;  but  not  being  permitted  to  appear  at  court,  she  went  on  the  continent  in  1814. 

DELIUM,  Boeotia,  N.  Greece,  the  site  of  a  celebrated  temple  of  Apollo.  Here,  in  a 
conflict  between  the  Athenians  and  the  Boeotians,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated, 
Socrates  the  philosopher  is  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  his  pupil  Xenophon,  424  B.C. 

DELL  A  CEUSCA  ACADEMY  of  Florence  merged  into  the  Florentine  in  1582.— The 
DELLA  CUUSCA  SCHOOL,  a  term  applied  to  some  English  persons  residing  at  Florence,  who 
wrote  and  printed  a  quantity  of  inferior  sentimental  poetry  and  prose  in  1785.  They  came 
to  England  where  their  works  were  popular  for  a  short  time,  but  were  severely  satirised  by 
Gifford  in  his  "Baviad  and  Mteviad"  (1794-5). 

DELOS,  a  Greek  isle  in  the  ^Egean  sea.  Here  the  Greeks,  during  the  Persian  war, 
477  B.C.,  established  their  common  treasury,  which  was  removed  to  Athens,  461. 

DELPHI  (N.  Greece),  celebrated  for  its  enigmatical  oracles  delivered  by  the  Pythia,  in  the 
temple  of  Apollo,  which  was  built,  some  say,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  1263  B.C. 
The  priestess  delivered  the  answer  of  the  god  to  such  as  came  to  consult  the  oracle,  and  was 
supposed  to  be  suddenly  inspired.  The  temple  was  burnt  by  the  Pisistratidse,  548  B.C.  A 
new  temple  was  raised  by  the  Alcmseonidee.  The  Persians  (480  B.C.)  and  the  Gauls  (279  B.C.) 
were  deterred  from  plundering  the  temple  by  awful  portents.  It  was,  however,  robbed  and 
seized  by  the  Phocians,  357  B.C.,  which  led  to  the  sacred  war,  and  Nero  carried  from  it  500 
costly  statues,  A.D.  67.  The  Pythian  games  were  first  celebrated  586  B.C.  The  oracle  was 
consulted  by  Julian,  but  silenced  by  Theodosius. 

DELPHIN  CLASSICS,  a  collection  of  thirty-nine  of  the  Latin  authors  in  sixty  volumes, 
made  for  the  use  of  the  dauphin  (in  usum  Delphini)  son  of  Louis  XIV. ,  and  published  in 
1674-91.  Ausonius  was  added  in  1730.  The  due  de  Montausier,  the  young  prince's  governor, 
proposed  the  plan  to  Huet,  bishop  of  Avranches,  the  dauphin's  preceptor ;  and  he,  with 
other  learned  persons,  including  Madame  Dacier,*  edited  all  the  Latin  classics  except  Lucan. 
Each  author  is  illustrated  by  notes  and  an  index  of  words.  An  edition  of  the  Delphin 
Classics,  with  additional  notes,  &c .,  was  published  by  Mr.  Valpy  of  London,  early  in  the 
present  century. 

DELUGE.  The  deluge  was  threatened  in  the  year  of  the  world  1536  ;  and  began  Dec.  7, 
1656,  and  continued  377  days.  Genesis  vi.  vii.  viii.  The  ark  rested  on  Mount  Ararat,  May 
6,  1657  ;  and  Noah  left  the  ark  Dec.  18  following.  The  year  corresponds  with  that  of 
2348  B.  c.  Blair.  The  following  are  the  epochs  of  the  deluge,  according  to  Dr.  Hales  : — 


Septuagint 
Jackson 
Hales        . 
Josephus 


3246 
3*7° 
3*55 


Persian    . 
Hindoo 
Samaritan 
Howard 


3.C.  3103 

,  .  3102 

.  2998 


Clinton  .  .B.C.  2482 
Playfair  .  .  .  2352 
Usher  &  Eng.  Bible  2348 
Marsham  .  .  .  2344 


Petavius . 
Strauchius 
Hebrew  . 
Vulgar  Jewish 


B.C.  2329 
.  .  2293 


2104 


In  the  reign  of  Ogyges,  king  of  Attica,  17646.0.,  a 
deluge  so  inundated  Attica,  that  it  lay  waste  for 
nearly  200  years.  Blair.  Buffon  thinks  that  the 
Hebrew  and  Grecian  deluges  were  the  same,  and 
arose  from  the  Atlantic  and  Bosphorus  bursting 
into  the  valley  of  the  Mediterranean,  f 

The  deluge  of  Deucalion,  in  Thessaly,  is  placed  1503 
B.C.  according  to  Eustbius.  It  was  often  coil- 
founded  by  the  ancients  with  the  general  flood  ; 


but  considered  to  be  merely  a  local  inundation, 
occasioned  by  the  overflowing  of  the  river  Pineus, 
whose  course  was  stopped  by  an  earthquake  be- 
tween the  mounts  Olympus  and  Ossa.  Deucalion, 
who  then  reigned  in  Thessaly,  with  his  wife 
Pyrrha,  and  some  of  their  subjects,  are  stated  to 
have  saved  themselves  by  climbing  up  mount 
Parnassus. 


*  This  beautiful  and  gifted  woman  translated  Callimachus  at  the  age  of  23  ;  and  also  Anacreon,  Sappho, 
Plautus,  Terence,  and  Homer.  She  died  in  1720. 

t  A  general  deluge  was  predicted  to  occur  in  1524,  and  arks  were  built ;  but  the  season  happened  to 
bo  a  fine  and  dry  one. 


DEM. 


235 


DEN 


DEMERARA  AND  ESSEQUIBO,  colonies  in  Guiana,  South  America,  founded  by  the 
Dutch,  1580,  were  taken  by  the  British,  under  major-general  "VVhyte,  April  22,  1796,  but 
were  restored  at  the  peace  of  1802.  They  again  surrendered  to  the  British  under  general 
Grinfield  and  Commodore  Hood,  Sept.  1803,  and  became  English  colonies  in  1814. 

DEMOCRATS,  advocates  for  government  by  the  people  themselves  (demos,  people,  and 
Jcratein,  to  govern),  a  term  adopted  by  the  French  republicans  in  1790  (who  termed  their 
opponents  aristocrats,  from  aristos,  bravest  or  best).  The  name  Democrats  was  adopted  by 
the  pro -slavery  party  in  N.  America  (the  southern  states),  and  the  abolitionists  were  called 
Republicans.  Into  these  two  great  parties  a  number  of  smaller  ones  were  absorbed  at 
the  presidential  election  in  1856.  In  1860,  the  Republicans  formed  "Wide-awake"  clubs 
for  electioneering  purposes,  and  succeeded  in  getting  their  candidate,  Abraham  Lincoln, 
elected  president,  Nov.  4.  See  United  States,  1860. 

DENAIN  (N.  France).  Here  marshal  Yillars,  by  his  skill,  defeated  the  Imperialist  army, 
July  12,  1712. 

DENARIUS,  the  chief  silver  coin  among  the  Romans,  weighing  the  seventh  part  of  a 
Roman  ounce,  and  value  7fd.  sterling,  first  coined  about  269  B.C.,  when  it  exchanged  for  ten 
ases  (see  As).  In  216  B.C.  it  exchanged  for  sixteen  ases.  A  pound  weight  of  silver  was 
coined  into  100  denarii.  Digby.  A  pound  weight  of  gold  was  coined  into  twenty  denarii 
aurei  in  206  B.C.  ;  and  in  Nero's  time  into  forty-five  denarii  aurei.  Lempriere. 

DENIS,  ST.,  an  ancient  town  of  France,  near  Paris,  famous  for  its  abbey  and  church, 
the  former  abolished  at  the  revolution  :  the  latter  the  place  of  sepulture  of  the  French  kings, 
from  its  foundation,  by  Dagobert,  in  613;  is  a  small  beautiful  Gothic  edifice.  On  the  I2th 
October,  1 793,  the  republicans  demolished  most  of  the  royal  tombs,  and  emptied  the  leaden 
coffins  into  the  dunghills,  melting  the  lead  for  their  own  use.  By  a  decree  of  Bonaparte, 
dated  Feb.  20,  1806,  the  church  (which  had  been  turned  meanwhile  into  a  cattle-market !) 
was  ordered  to  be  cleansed  out  and  redecorated  as  "  the  future  burial  place  of  the  emperors 
of  France."  On  the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  more  restorations  were  effected,  and  when  the 
due  de  Berri  and  Louis  XVIII.  died,  both  were  buried  there. 

DENMARK  (N.  Europe).  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  were  Cimbri  and  Teutones, 
who  were  driven  out  by  the  Jutes  or  Goths.  The  Teutones  settled  in  Germany  and  Gaul  ; 
the  Cimbrians  invaded  Italy,  where  they  were  defeated  by  Marius.  The  peninsula  of  Jtitland 
obtains  its  name  from  the  Jutes  ;  and  the  name  of  Denmark  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
Dan,  the  founder  of  the  Danish  monarchy,  and  mark,  a  German  word  signifying  country. 
For  their  numerous  invasions  of  Britain,  &c. ,  see  Danes.  Population  of  the  kingdom  of  Den- 
mark in  1860,  1,600,551 ;  of  the  duchies  of  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg,  1,004,473  ; 
of  the  colonies,  120,283.  By  the  treaty  of  peace,  signed  Oct  30,  1864,  the  duchies  were 
taken  from  Denmark.  Schleswig  and  Holsteiu  were  to  be  made  independent,  and  Lauenburg 
was  to  be  incorporated,  by  its  desire,  with  Prussia.  For  the  result,  see  Gastein. 


Reign  of  Seiold,  first  king         .        .        .    B.C.      60 

The  Danish  chronicles  mention  18  king*  to  the 
time  of  Ragnor  Lodbrog,  A.D.  750,  killed  in 
an  attempt  to  invade  England  .  .  .  794 

Canute  the  Great  conquers  Norway        .          1016-28 

Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden  are  united  into 
one  kingdom  under  Margaret  .  .  .  1397 

Copenhagen  made  the  capital         .        .        .     .  1440 

Accession  of  Christian  I.  (of  Oldenburg),  from 
whom  the  late  royal  family  sprang  .  .1448 

Christian  II.  is  deposed;  independence  of 
Sweden  acknowledged  under  Gustavus  Vasa  1523 

Lutheranism  introduced  in  1527  ;  established 
by  Christian  III 1536 

Danish  East  India  Company  established  by 
Christian  IV 1612 

Christian  IV.  chosen  head  of  the   Protestant 

league  against  the  emperor        .        .        .     .  1629 
Charles    Gustavus    of   Sweden    invades  Den- 
mark,   besieges     Copenhagen,    and    makes 
conquests 1658 

The  crown  made  hereditary  and  absolute     .     .  1665 

Frederick  IV.  takes  Holstein,  Schleswig,  Ton- 
ningen,  and  Stralsund ;  reduces  Weismar, 
and  drives  the  Swedes  from  Norway  1716  et  seq. 

Copenhagen  nearly  destroyed  by  a  fire,  which 
consumes  1650  houses,  3  churches,  the  uni- 
versity, and  4  colleges  1728 

The  peaceful  reign  of  Christian  VI.     .        .  1730-46 
Plot  of  the  queen  dowager  against  the  ministers 


and  Matilda  (sister  of  otir  George  III.  and 
queen  of  Christian  VII.,  a  weak  monarch). 
Matilda,    entrapped    into    a    confession    of 
criminality  to  save  the  life  of  her  supposed 
lover  Struenzee,   condemned    to    imprison- 
ment for  life  in  the  castle  of  Zeli    .  Jan.  18,  1772 
Count  Struenzee  and  Brandt  beheaded,  Apr.  28,    , , 
Queen  Matilda  dies,  aged  24       ....  1775 
Christian  VII.  becomes  deranged,  and  prince 

Frederick  is  appointed  regent         .        .        .  1784 
One-fourth  of  Copenhagen  burnt    .        June  9,  1795 
Admirals  Nelson  and  Parker  bombard  Copen- 
hagen, and  engage  the  Danish  fleet,  taking  or 
destroying  18  ships  of  the  line,  of  whose  crews 
1800  are  killed.     (Confederacy  of  the  North, 
see  Armed  Neutrality,  dissolved.)     .     April  2,  1801 
Admiral  Gambier  and  Lord  Cathcart  bombard 
Copenhagen,  Aug.  23 ;   the  Danish  fleet  of  18 
ships  of  the  line,   15  frigates,  and  37  brigs, 
&c.,  surrender          .  Sept.  8,  1807 

Peace    of    Kiel :    Pomerania   and  Rugen  are 
annexed  to  Denmark  in  exchange  for  Norway 

Jan.  14,  1814 

Commercial  treaty  with  England  .  .  .1824 
Frederick  VI.  grants  a  new  constitution  .  .  1831 
Christian  VIII.  declares  the  right  of  the  crown 

to  Schleswig,  Holstein,  <fec.      .        .    July  n,  1846 
Accession  of  Frederick  VII.  Jan.  20 ;  he  pro- 
claims  a    new    constitution,    uniting    the 
duchies  more  closely  with  Denmark,  Jan.  28,  1848 


DEN 


236 


DEN 


DENMARK,  continued. 

Insurrection  in  the  duchies  :  a  provisional 
government  formed  .  .  .  March  23,  1848 

The  rebels  seize  the  strong  fortress  of  Rends- 
burg March  24, 

They  are  defeated  near  Flensburg     .     April  9, 

The  Danes  defeated  by  the  Russians  (helping 
the  duchies)  at  Schleswig  .  .  April  23, 

The  North  sea  blockaded  by  Denmark   Aug.  i, 

Hostilities  suspended :  the  European  powers 
recommend  peace  .  .  .  Aug.  26, 

Hostilities  re-commence    .        .  March  25,  1849 

Victory  of  the  Danes  over  the  Holsteiners  and 
Germans April  10,  1849 

Several  conflicts  with  varying  success,  .   June,    . 

Armistice  signed  at  Malmo        .        .      July  10    ,, , 

Separate  peace  with  Prussia         .        .     July  2,  1850 

Integrity  of  Denmark  guaranteed  by  England, 
France,  Prussia,  and  Sweden  .  July  4,  „ 

Battle  of  Idstedt,  and  defeat  of  the  Schleswig- 
Holsteiuers  by  the  Danes  .  .  July  25,  ,, 

Protocol  signed  in  London  by  the  ministers  of 
all  the  great  powers  .  .  .  Aug.  23,  „ 

Bombardment  of  Friedrichstadt  by  the  Hol- 
steiners, and  the  town  almost  destroyed,  but 
not  taken  •  .  .  Sept.  29  to  Oct.  6,  ,, 

Proclamation  of  the  stadtholders  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  placing  the  rights  of  the  country 
under  the  protection  of  the  Germanic  con- 
federation   Jan.  10,  1851 

The  integrity  of  the  Danish  monarchy  and  the 
independence  of  Schleswig  and  its  old  union 
with  Holstein  guaranteed  by  treaty,  Feb.  18,  1852 

Austrians  evacuate  Holstein,  &c.      .     March  2,     „ 

Treaty  of  European  powers  settling  the  suc- 
cession of  the  Danish  crown  .  May  8,  ,, 

[The  line  of  Augustenburg  is  put  aside ;  the 
succession  in  the  line  of  Sonderburg-Gliicks- 
burg  settled,  and  the  integrity  of  the  Danish 
kingdom  guaranteed.  ] 

The  king  promulgates  a  new  constitution,  July 
29,  1854 ;  adopted  ....  Oct.  i,  1855 

The  sound  dues  abolished  for  a  compensation 
(see  Sound)  ....  March  14,  1857 

Fortification  of  Copenhagen  decreed  March  27,  1858 

Dissension  between  the  government  and  the 
duchies Oct.  1857-1862 

New  ministry  appointed  Dec.  3,  1859 ;  resigns, 
Feb.  9 ;  Bp.  Monrad  forms  a  ministry,  Feb.  24,  1860 

The  assembly  of  Schleswig  complain  that  the 
promise  of  equality  of  national  rights  in  1852 
has  not  been  kept,  Feb.  u  ;  protest  against 
the  annexation  to  Denmark  .  March  i,  „ 

The  Prussian  chamber  of  deputies  receive  a 
petition  from  Schleswig,  and  declare  that 
they  will  aid  the  duchies,  May  4 ;  at  which 
the  Danish  government  protests  .  May  16,  ,, 

Correspondence  ensues  between  the  Prussian, 
Danish,  and  British  governments ;  the  Danish 
government  declare  for  war,  if  the  forces 
of  the  Germanic  confederation  enter  the 
duchies Jan.  1861 

Energetic  wai'like  preparations  in  Denmark, 

Feb.     „ 

Decimal  coinage  adopted         .        .        .  June,    „ 
Agitation  in  favour  of  union  of  Denmark  with 
Sweden,  June  ;    the   king  of  Sweden  visits 
Denmark,  and  is  warmly  received  .  July  17,  1862 

Earl  Russell  recommends  the  government  to 

§lve  to  Holstein  and  Lauenburg  all  that  the 
ermanic  confederation  desire  for  them,  and 
to  give  self-government  to  Schleswig,  Sept.  24,     „ 
M.  Hall,  the  Danish  minister,  declines  to  ac- 
cede ;  stating  that  to  do  so  would  imperil  the 
existence  of  the  monarchy  itself    .    Nov.  20,     ,, 
Princess  Alexandra  of  Denmark  married  to  the 

Prince  of  Wales  at  Windsor        .      March  10,  1863 
The  king  grants,  by  patent,  independent  rights 

to  Holstein,  but  annexes  Schleswig,  March  30,    ,, 
Austria  and  Prussia  protest  against  this  decree, 

April  17,    ,, 


Further  diplomatic  correspondence     .      May,  1863 
The  king  accepts  the  crown  of  Greece  for  his 
relative,  prince  William-George,    and  gives 
him  sound  political  advice        .        .    June  6,     „ 
Death  of  the  crown  prince  Frederick-Ferdi- 
nand, the  king's  uncle         .        .        June  29,     „ 
The  German  diet  demands  annulment  of  the 
patent  of  March  30,  and  that  Holstein  and 
Schleswig  should  be  united  with  the  same 
rights ;    and   threatens    an   army  of   occu- 
pation        July  9,    „ 

The  king  replies  that  he  will  consider  occupa- 
tion to  be  an  act  of  war        .        .        Aug.  27, 
Vain  efforts  for  a  defensive  alliance  with  Sweden 

Aug.     „ 

Extraordinary  levy  to  strengthen  the  army  de- 
creed   Aug.  i,  „ 

New  constitution  (uniting  Schleswig  with  Den- 
mark) proposed  in  the  Rigsraad   .     Sept.  29,     „ 
Death    of    Frederick  VII.    and   accession    of 

Christian  IX Nov.  15,     „ 

Prince  Frederick  of  Augustenburg  claims  the 

duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein     Nov.  16,     ,, 
Great  excitement  in  Holstein  ;  many  officials 

refuse  to  take  oath  to  Christian,  Nov.  21  et  seq.    ,, 
Saxony,  Bavaria,  Hesse,    and  other  German 
powers   resolve    to    support   the    prince  of 
Augustenburg  ....  Nov.  26  et  seq.     ,, 

New  constitution   affirmed   by  the  Rigsraad, 
Nov.  13';  signed  by  king,  Nov.  18;  published, 

Dec.  i,  2,    ,, 

The  Austrian  and  Prussian  ministers  say  that 

they  will  quit  Copenhagen  if  the  constitution 

of  Nov.  1 8  is  not  annulled          .        .        Dec.     ,, 

Great  excitement  in  Norway:    proposals   to 

support  Denmark       ....         Dec. 

Prince  Frederick's  letter  to  the  emperor  Napo- 
leon, Dec.  2,    obtains  an  ambiguous  reply, 

Dec.  10,     „ 
Denmark  protests  against  federal  occupation, 

Dec.  19,     „ 

900  representatives  of  different  German  states 
meet  at  Frankfort,   and  resolve  to  support 
Prince  Frederick  as  duke  of  Schleswig  and 
Holstein,  and  the  inseparable  union  of  those 
duchies          .        .        ...        .        Dec.  21,    ,, 

The  federal  execution  takes  place;  a  Saxon 
regiment  enters  Altona,  Dec.  24;  and  the 
federal  commissioners  assi'me  administrative 

powers Dec.  25,     ,, 

Hall's  ministry  resign,  but  soon  after  reassume 

office Dec.  28,    ,, 

The  Danes  retire  from  Holstein,  to  avoid  col- 
lision with  federal  troops      .       Dec.  24  et  seq.    „ 
Prince   Frederick    enters    Kiel,     and    is    pro- 
claimed   duke  of  Schleswig  and    Holstein, 

The  Danes  evacuate  Rendsburg       .      Dec.  31,     ,', 
Ministerial  crisis :     Hall  retires,    and  bishop 

Monrad  forms  a  cabinet        .        .       Dec.  31,    ,, 
Dissension  among  the  Germans ;   the  Austro- 

Prussian  proposition  rejected  by  the  diet ; 

the  former  declare  that  they  will  settle  the 

question  if  the  diet  exceeds  its  powers, 

Jan.  14,  1864 
Austria  and  Prussia  demand  the  abrogation  of 

the  constitution  (of  Nov.  18)  within  2  days, 

Jan.  16 ;  the  Danes  require  6  weeks'  time, 

Jan.  1 8,    ,, 
The  German  troops,  under  marshal  Wrangel, 

enter  Holstein        ....       Jan.  21,    ,, 
The  Prussians  enter  Schleswig,  and  take  Ecken- 

forde Feb.  i,     ,, 

They  bombard  Missunde,  Feb.   2;    which    is 

burnt Feb.  3,     „ 

The  Danes  defeated  by  Wrangel,  at  Over-selk, 

Feb.  3,     „ 
The  Danes  abandon  the  Dannewerke  to  save 

their  army,  Feb.  5  ;  great  discontent  in  Copen- 

Feb.  6,    „ 


DENMARK,  continued. 

Schleswig  taken ;  prince  Frederick  proclaimed, 

Feb.  6, 

The  allies  occupy  Flensburg,  Feb.  7;  com- 
mence their  attack  on  Diippel  .  Feb.  13, 

The  federal  commissioners  protest  against  the 
Prussian  occupation  of  Altona  .  .  Feb.  13, 

The  Prussians  enter  Jutland,  and  take  Kol- 
ding,  Feb.  18;  the  Danes  fortify  Alsen, 

Feb.  1 8  etseq. 

A  conference  on  Danish  affairs  proposed  by 
England  ;  agreed  to  by  allies  .  Feb.  23, 

A  subscription  for  the  wounded  Danes  begun 
in  London Feb.  24, 

The  Rigsraad  vote  a  firm  address  to  the  king, 
Feb.  26  ;  adjourned  .  .  .  March  22, 

The  Prussians  bombard  and  take  the  village  of 
Diippel,  or  Dybbol,  March  16,  17  ;  and  bom- 
bard Fredericia,  March  20 ;  repulsed  in  an 
attack  on  the  fortress,  March  28 ;  bombard 
Sonderberg  :  much  slaughter,  April  23;  which 
causes  bishop  Monrad  to  appeal  to  European 
powers  .......  April  9, 

The  opening  of  the  conference  adjourned  from 
April  12  to  20, 

The  Prussians  take  the  fortress  of  Diippel, 

April  1 8, 

Meetings  of  the  confei'ence  at  London;  result 
unfavourable  to  Denmark  .  April  25  et  seq. 

The  Danes  retreat  to  Alsen  ;  and  evacuate 
Fredericia  and  the  fortresses  of  Jutland, 

April  29, 


Agreement  for  an  armistice  for  one  month  from 
May  12  ......  May  9,  1864 

Jutland  subjected  to  pillage  for  not  paying  a 
war  contribution  to  Prussians,  May  6  et  seg.  „ 

The  Danes  defeat  the  allies  in  a  naval  battle  off 
Heligoland  .....  May  9, 

The  armistice  prolonged  for  a  fortnight,  from 

June  9,    ,, 

The  conference  ends      .        .        .         June  22,     ,, 

Hostilities  resumed,  June  26 ;  the  Prussians 
bombard  Alsen ;  take  the  batteries  and  2400 
prisoners June  29,  ,, 

The  Monrad  ministry  resigns  ;  count  Moltki 
forms  an  administration  .  .  July  8-10,  „ 

Alsen  taken ; — Jutland  placed  under  Prussian 
administration  ; — Prince  John  of  Denmark 
sent  to  negotiate  at  Berlin  .  .  July  9,  ,, 

Formation  of  the  Bluhme  administration, 

July  ii,     ,, 

Armistice  agreed  to         ...        July  18,     ,, 

Beginning  of  conference  for  peace  at  Vienna, 

July  26,     ,, 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Vienna  ; — the  king  of 
Denmai-k  resigns  the  duchies  to  the  disposal 
of  the  allies,  and  agrees  to  a  rectification  of 
his  frontier,  and  to  pay  a  large  sum  of  money 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  war  .  Oct.  30.  ,, 

Proclamation  of  the  king  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  duchies,  releasing  them  from  their  alle- 
giance   Nov.  16,  ,, 

Proj  ect  of  a  new  constitution  published,  Dec.  30,     , , 


SOVEREIGNS  OF   DENMARK. 


803. 

824. 

855- 

936. 

985- 
1014. 
1016. 

1035- 
1042. 
1047. 
1073. 
1076. 
1080. 
1086. 
1095. 
1103. 
1105. 
"35- 
"37- 
1147. 

"57- 
1182. 

1202. 

1241. 
1250. 

1252. 

1259. 
1286. 
1320. 
1334 
1340. 

*375- 
1376. 
1387- 


J397- 
1412. 

1438. 
1440. 


Sigurd  Snogoje. 

Hardicanute  I. 

Gormo,  the  Old ;  reigned  53  years. 

Harold  II.,  surnamed  Blue  Tooth. 

Suenon,  or  Sweyn,  the  Forked-beard. 

Harold  III. 

Canute  II.  the  Great,   king  of  Denmark  and 

England. 

Canute  III.'s  son,  Hardicanute  of  England. 
Magnus,  surnamed  the  Good,  of  Norway. 
Suenon  or  Swej'n  II. 
[Interregnum.] 
Harold,  called  the  Simple. 
Canute  IV. 

Olaus  IV.  the  Hungry. 
Eric  I.  styled  the  Good. 
[Interregnum.]  "•" 

Nicholas  I.  killed  at  Sleswick. 
Eric  II.  surnamed  Harefoot. 
Eric  III.  the  Lamb. 

<  Suenon,  or  Sweyn  III :  beheaded. 

(  Canute  V.  until  1157. 
Waldemar,  styled  the  Great. 
Canute  VI.  surnamed  the  Pious. 
Waldemar  II.  the  Victorious. 
Eric  IV. 
Abel :    assassinated  his  elder  brother    Eric  ; 

killed  in  an  expedition  against  the  Frisons. 
Christopher  I.  :  poisoned. 
Eric  V. 
Eric  VI. 
Christopher  II. 
[Interregnum  of  seven  years.] 
Waldemar  III. 
[Interregnum.  ] 
Olaus  V. 
Ma?-garet,    styled    the    "  Semiramis    of    the 

North,"  queen  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Den- 
mark. 

Margaret  and  Eric  VII.  (Eric  XIII.  of  Sweden.) 
Eric  VII.  reigns  alone ;  obliged  to  resign  both 

crowns. 

[Interregnum.] 
Christopher  III.  king  of  Sweden. 


1448.  Christian  I.  count  of  Oldenburg  ;  elected  king 
of  Denmark,  1448;  of  Sweden,  1457  ;  succeeded 
by  his  son, 

1481.  John ;  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1513.  Christian  II.  called  the  Cruel,  and  the  "Nero 
of  the  North  ;"  among  other  enormous  crimes 
he  caused  all  the  Swedish  nobility  to  be  mas- 
sacred :  dethroned  for  his  tyranny  in  1523  ; 
died  in  a  dungeon  in  1559. 

[In  this  reign  Sweden  succeeded  in  separating 
itself  from  the  crown  of  Denmark.] 

1523,  Frederick  I.  duke  of  Holstein,  son  of  Christian 
I.  ;  a  liberal  ruler ;  king  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 


1534- 


way. 


Christian  III.  son  of  Frederick;  established 
the  Lutheran  religion;  esteemed  the  ''Father 
of  his  People." 

1559.  Frederick  II.  son  of  Christian  III. 

1588.  Christian  IV.  son. 

1648.  Frederick  III.  :  changed  the  constitution  from 
an  elective  to  an  HEREDITARY  MONARCHY, 
vested  in  his  own  family,  1665. 

1670.  Christian  V.  son  of  Frederick  III.  ;  succeeded 
by  his  son, 

1699.  Frederick  IV.  ;  leagued  with  the  czar  Peter 
and  the  king  of  Poland  against  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden. 

1730.  Christian  VI.  his  son. 

1746.  Frederick  V.  his  son  :  married  the  princess 
Louisa  of  England,  daughter  of  George  II. 

1766.  Christian  VII.  his  son.     See  p.  235. 

1784.  Prince  Frederick  declared  regent,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  mental  derangement  of  his 
father. 

1808.  Frederick  VI.  previously  regent,  now  king. 

1839.  Christian  VIII.  (son  of  Frederick,  brother  of 
Christian  VII.)  king  of  Denmark  only. 

!848.  Frederick  VII.  son  of  Christian  VIII.  ;  Jan.  20  ; 
born  Oct.  6,  1808  ;  separated  from  his  first 
wife,  Sept.  1837  ;  from  his  second  wife,  Sept. 
1846  ;  married  morganatically  Louisa,  coun- 
tess of  Danner,  Aug.  7,  1850 ;  died  Nov.  15, 
1863. 


DEN 


238 


DER 


DENMARK,  continued. 

1863.  Christian  IX.  son  of  William,  duke  of  Sleswig-  I  April  8,  1818 ;    married  princess  Louisa   of 

Holstein-Sonderburg-Gllicksburg  ;    Nov.    15!  Hesse-Cassel,  May  26,  1842.   [He  is  descended 

(succeeded  by  virtue  of  the  protocol  of  Lon-  from  Christian  III.  and  she  from  Frederick 

don,  May  8,  1852,  and  of  the  law  of  the  Danish  V.  ;  both  from  George  II.  of  England.] 
succession,  July  31,    1853).      He  was  born 

DENNEWITZ  (Prussia),  where  a  remarkable  victory  was  obtained  by  marshal  Bernaclotte 
(afterwards  Charles  XIV.,  king  of  Sweden),  over  marshal  Ney,  Sept.  6,  1813.  The  loss  of 
the  French  exceeded  13,000  men,  several  eagles,  and  much  cannon,  &c.  ;  of  the  allies,  6000. 
The  defeat  of  Napoleon  at  Leipsic,  on  the  i8th  of  October  following,  closed  his  disastrous 
campaign. 

DENOMINATIONS,  THE  THUEE  (presbyterians,  congregationalists  or  independents, 
and  baptists),  were  organised  in  1727  as  an  association,  with  the  privilege  of  direct  appeal  to 
the  reigning  sovereign  of  Great  Britain. 

DEODAND  (Latin,  "to  be  given  to  God  ")  :  formerly,  anything  (such  as  a  horse,  carriage, 
&c. ),  which  had  caused  the  death  of  a  human  being  became  forfeit  to  the  sovereign  or  lord 
of  the  manor,  and  was  to  be  sold  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor.  The  forfeiture  was  abolished 
by  9  &  10  Yict.  c.  62  (1846). 

D'EON,  CHEVALIER,  who  had'  acted  in  a  diplomatic  capacity  in  several  countries,  and 
been  minister  plenipotentiary  from  France  in  London,  was  affirmed  to  be  &  female,  at  a  trial 
at  the  King's  Bench  in  1771,  in  an  action  to  recover  wagers  as  to  his  sex.  He  subsequently 
wore  female  attire  :  but  at  his  death  it  was  fully  manifested  that  he  was  of  the  male  sex. 

DEPARTMENTS.     See  France. 

DEPTFORD  (near  London).  The  hospital  here  was  incorporated  by  Henry  VIII.,  and 
called  the  Trinity-house  of  Deptford  Strond  ;  the  brethren  of  Trinity-house  hold  their 
corporate  rights  by  this  hospital.  Queen  Elizabeth  dined  at  Deptford  on  board  the  Pelican, 
the  ship  in  which  Drake  had  made  his  first  voyage  round  the  globe,  April  4,  1581.  The 
Deptford  victualling- office  was  burnt  Jan.  16,  1748-9  ;  the  store-house,  Sept.  2,  1758  ;  the 
red-house,  Feb.  26,  1761  ;  and  the  king's-mill,  Dec.  I,  1755.  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia 
lived  at  Evelyn's-house,  Say's-court,  while  learning  ship-building,  &c.  in  1698. 

DEPUTIES,  CHAMBER  OF,  the  title  given  to  the  French  legislative  assembly,  from  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1814  till  1852;  when  it  took  the  name  of  Corps  Legislatif. 

DERBY  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by  Egbert  (about  828).  Alfred  expelled  the  Danes 
from  it  and  planted  a  colony  in  880.  His  heroic  daughter,  Ethelfleda,  again  expelled  the 
Danes  in  918.  "William  I.  gave  Derby  to  his  illegitimate  son  William  Peveril.  Lombe's 
silk-throwing  machine  was  set  up  in  1718  ;  and  in  1756,  Jedediah  Strutt  invented  the  Derby 
ribbed  stocking-frame.  The  young  Pretender  reached  Derby  Dec.  3,  1745,  and  retreated 
thence  soon  after.* — The  Derby  day  (see  Races)  is  the  second  day  (Wednesday)  of  the  Grand 
Spring  Meeting  at  Epsom  in  the  week  preceding  Whitsunday. 

DERBY  ADMINISTRATIONS  :  the  first  formed  after  the  resignation  of  lord  John 
Russell,  Feb.  21,  1852  :  the  second  after  that  of  lord  Palinerston,  Feb.  19,  1858. 


FIRST   ADMINISTRATION,    Feb.  27,    1852. 

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  earl  of  Derby,  f 

Lord  chancellor,  lord  St.   Leonards  (previously  sir 

Edward  Sugden). 

President  of  the  council,  earl  of  Lpnsdale. 
Lord  privy  seal,  marquess  of  Salisbury. 
Home,  foreign,  and  colonial  si  creta^ries,  Mr.  Spencer 

Horatio  Walpole,  earl  of  Malmesbury,  and  sir  John 

Pakington. 


Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Benjamin  Disraeli. 

Board  of  control,  John  Charles  Herries. 

Board  of  trade,  Joseph  Warner  Henley. 

Postmaster-general,  earl  of  Hardwicke. 

Secretary-at-war,  William  Beresford. 

First  commissioner  of  works  and  public  buildings,  lord 

John  Manners. 
Kobert  Adam  Christopher,  lord  Colchester,  &c. 


*  DERBY  TRIALS.  Brandreth,  Turner,  Ludlam  senior,  Ludlam  junior,  Weightman,  and  others,  con- 
victed jit  this  memorable  commission  of  high  treason,  Oct.  15,  1817  ;  and  Brandreth,  Turner,  and  the  elder 
Ludlam  executed,  Nov.  7,  following.  23  were  tried,  and  12  not  tried.  Phillips.  21  prisoners  were  indicted 
at  Derby  for  the  murder  of  several  miners  in  the  Red-soil  mine ;  but  were  acquitted  on  the  ground  that 
the  mischief  was  not  wilful,  March  23,  1834. 

t  Born  1799;  M.P.  for  Stock  bridge  (as  hon.  E.  G.  8.  Stanley)  in  1820;  chief  secretary  for  Ireland 
1830-33  ;  secretary  for  the  colonies,  1833-4,  a*"*  1841-5. 


DER 


239 


DIA 


DERBY  ADMINISTRATIONS,  continued. 

SECOND  ADMINISTRATION,    Feb.  25,    1858. 

first  lord  of  the  treasury,  earl  of  Derby. 

Lord  chancellor,  lord  Chelmsford  (previously  sir  F. 
Thesiger). 

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  B.  Disraeli. 

Secretaries— foreign,  earl  of  Malmesbury ;  home, 
Spencer  H.  Walpole  (resigned  March,  1859),  T. 
Sotheron  Estcourt ;  colonies,  lord  Stanley— in 
June,  1858,  sir  E.  Bulwer  Lytton  ;  war,  col.  Jona- 
than Peel. 

Presidents— of  the  council,  marquess  of  Salisbury;  of 
board  of  control  (India),  i,  earl  of  Ellenborough 
(who  resigned  in  May,  1858  ;  he  had  sent  a  letter, 
on  his  own  authority,  censuring  the  proclamation 


of  lord  Canning  to  the  Oude  insurgents  ;  the 
government  hardly  escaped  a  vote  of  censure)  ;  2, 
in  June,  1858,  lord  Stanley ;— board  of  trade,  Mr. 
Joseph  W.  Henley  (resigned  in  March,  1859)  ;  earl 
of  Donoughmore  ;— board  of  works,  lord  John 
Manners. 

Lord  privy  seal,  earl  of  Hardwicke. 

First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  sir  John  S.  Pakington. 

Postmaster,  lord  Colchester. 

Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  duke  of  Montrose. 

[This  ministry  resigned  in  consequence  of  a  vote  of 
want  of  confidence,  June  u,  1859  >  it  was  succeeded 
by  the  Palmerston-Russell  cabinet  (which  see)]. 


DERRICKS  are  lofty,  portable,  crane-like  structures,  used  on  land  and  water  for  lifting 
enormous  loads,  and  in  some  cases  depositing  them  at  an  elevation.  They  are  extensively 
used  in  the  United  States,  and  were  introduced  into  England  as  floating  derricks  for  raising 
sunken  vessels,  by  their  inventor,  A.  D.  Bishop,  in  1857. 

DERRY  (N.  Ireland),  a  bishopric  first  planted  at  Ardfrath ;  thence  translated  to 
Maghera  ;  and  in  1158  to  Deny.  The  cathedral,  built  in  1164,  becoming  ruinous,  was 
rebuilt  by  a  colony  of  Londoners,  who  settled  here  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  The  see  is 
valued  in  the  king's  books  at  250?.  sterling  ;  but  it  has  been  one  of  the  richest  sees  in 
Ireland.  Beatson.  The  see  of  Raphoe  was  united  to  Derry,  1834.  See  Bishops; 
Londonderry. 

DESIGN,  SCHOOLS  OF,  established  by  government,  began  at  Somerset-house,  London, 
in  1837. 

DESPARD'S  CONSPIRACY.  Colonel  Edward  Marcus  Despard,  a  native  of  Ireland, 
and  Broughton,  Francis,  Graham,  Macnamara,  Wood,  and  Wrattan,  conspired  to  seize  the 
king's  person  on  the  day  of  his  meeting  parliament,  Jan.  16,  1803,  to  destroy  him  and 
overturn  the  government.  A  special  commission  was  issued  on  Feb.  7,  and  they  suffered 
death  on  the  top  of  Horsemonger-lane  gaol,  Southwark,  Feb.  21,  1803.  Between  thirty  and 
forty  persons  of  inferior  order  (some  soldiers  in  the  foot-guards)  were  taken  into  custody  on 
Nov.  16,  1802,  for  this  conspiracy,  which  caused  great  consternation  at  the  time. 

DETROIT  (N.  America),  the  oldest  city  in  the  west,  was  built  by  the  French  about  1670. 

DETTINGEN  (Bavaria),  BATTLE  OF,  June  16,  1743,  between  the  British,  Hanoverian, 
and  Hessian  army  (52,000),  commanded  by  king  George  II.  of  England  and  the  earl  of  Stair, 
and  the  French  army  (60,000),  under  marshal  Noailles  and  the  due  de  Grammont.  The 
French  passed  a  defile,  which  they  should  have  merely  guarded.  The  due  de  Grammont 
with  his  cavalry  charged  the  British  foot  with  great  fury,  but  was  received  with  such  intre- 
pidity, that  he  was  obliged  to  give  way,  and  to  repass  the  Maine,  losing  5000  men. 

DEVONPORT.     See  Dockyards  and  Plymouth. 

DEVONSHIRE  AND  PITT  ADMINISTRATION,  formed  Nov.  16,  1756,  and  resigned 
April  5,  1757. 

Secretaries  of  state,  earl  of  Holdernesse  and  Wm.  PITT 

(afterwards  earl  of  Chatham,  the  virtual  premier). 

George  Grenville,  earl  of  Halifax,  dukes  of  Rutland 


First  lord  of  the  treasury,  William,  duke  of  Devon- 
shire. 

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  hon.  Henry  Bilson  Legge. 
Lord  president,  earl  Granville. 
Privy  seal,  earl  Gower. 


and  Grafton,  earl  of  Rochfort,  viscount  Barrington 
&c.     The  great  seal  in  commission. 


DEW,  the  modern  theory  respecting  its  formation  was  put  forth  by  Dr.  Wells  in  his 
itise  published  in  1814. 

DIADEM,  the  band  or  fillet  worn  by  the  ancients  instead  of  the  crown,  and  consecrated 
to  the  gods.  At  first  it  was  made  of  silk  or  wool,  set  with  precious  stones,  and  was  tied 
round  the  temples  and  forehead,  the  two  ends  being  knotted  behind,  and  let  fall  on  the  neck. 
Aurelian  was  the  first  Roman  emperor  who  wore  a  diadem,  272.  Tillcmont. 

DIALS.  Invented  by  Anaximander,  550  B.C.  Pliny.  The  first  dial  of  the  sun  seen  at 
Rome  was  placed  on  the  temple  of  Quirinus  by  L.  Papirius  Cursor,  when  time  was  divided 
into  hours,  293  B.  c.  Blair.  In  the  times  of  the  emperors  almost  every  palace  and  public 
building  had  a  sun-dial.  They  were  first  set  up  in  churches  in  A.D.  613.  Lenglet.  Dial  of 
Ahaz,  Isaiah  xxxviii.  8. 


DIA 


240 


DIG 


DIALYSIS,  an  important  method  of  chemical  analysis,  depending  on  the  different 
degrees  of  diffusibility  of  substances  in  liquids,  was  made  known  in  1861,  by  its  discoverer, 
professor  Thomas  Graham,  the  Master  of  the  Mint. 

DIA-MAGNETISM,  the  property  possessed  by  certain  bodies  of  behaving  differently  to 
iron,  when  placed  between  two  magnets.  The  phenomena,  previously  little  known,  were 
reduced  to  a  law  by  Faraday  in  1845. 

DIAMONDS  were  first  brought  to  Europe  from  the  East,  where  the  mine  of  Sumbulpoor 
was  the  first  known,  and  where  the  mines  of  Golconda  were  discovered  in  1534.  This 
district  may  be  termed  the  realm  of  diamonds.  The  mines  of  Brazil  were  discovered  in  1 728. 
From  these  last  a  diamond,  weighing  1680  carats,  or  fourteen  ounces,  was  sent  to  the  court 
of  Portugal,  and  was  valued  by  Mr.  Romeo  de  1'Isle  at  the  extravagant  sum  of  224  millions  ; 
by  others  it  was  valued  at  56  millions  ;  its  value  was  next  stated  to  be  3^  millions,  but  its 
true  value  (it  not  being  brilliant)  was  400,  oool. 


The  great  RUSSIAN  diamond  weighs  193  carats,  or 
i  oz.  12  dwts.  4gr.  troy.  The  empress  Catherine  II. 
offered  for  it  104, 1 661.  13.?.  ^d.  besides  an  annuity 
for  life  to  the  owner  of  1041?.  135.  4^.  which  was 
refused ;  bvit  it  was  afterwards  sold  to  Catherine's 
favourite,  count  Orloff,  for  the  first-mentioned  sum, 
without  the  annuity,  and  was  by  him  presented  to 
the  empress  on  her  birthday,  1772  ;  it  is  now  in 
the  sceptre  of  Russia. 

The  PITT  diamond  weighed  136  carats,  and  after 
cutting  1 06  carats :  it  was  sold  to  the  king  of  France 
for  125,000?.  in  1720. 

The  PIGOTT  diamond  was  sold  for  9500  guineas,  May 
10,  1802. 

The  diamond  called  the  MOUNTAIN  OF  LIGHT,  or 
KOHINOOR,  was  found  in  the  mines  of  Golcouda,  in 
1550,  and  is  said  to  have  belonged  in  turn  to  Shah 
Jehan,  Aurungzebe,  Nadir  Shah,  the  Afghan  rulers, 
and  afterwards  to  the  Sikh  chief  Runjeet  Singh. 
Upon  the  abdication  of  Dhuleep  Singh,  the  last 
ruler  of  the  Punjab,  and  the  annexation  of  his 
dominions  to  the  British  empire,  in  1849,  the 
Kohiuoor  was  surrendered  to  the  queen.  It  was 
accordingly  brought  over  and  presented  to  her, 
July  3,  1850.  It  was  shown  in  the  Great  Exhibi- 
tion, 1851.  Its  original  weight  was  nearly  800 
carats,  but  it  was  reduced  by  the  unskilfulness  of 
the  artist,  Hortensio  Borghese,  a  Venetian,  to  279 
carats.  A  general  idea  may  be  formed  of  its  shape 
and  size  by  conceiving  it  as  the  pointed  half  (rose 
cut)  of  a  small  hen's  egg.  The  value  is  scarcely 
computable,  though  two  millions  sterling  have 
been  mentioned  as  a  justifiable  price,  if  calculated 
by  the  scale  employed  in  the  trade.  This  diamond 
was  re-cut  in  London  in  1852,  and  now  weighs 
iO2i  carats. 

The  SA.NCI  diamond,  which  belonged  to  Charles  the 
Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  bought  by  sir  C. 
Jejeebhoy  from  the  Demidoff  family  for  20,000?.  in 
Feb.  1865. 

A  diamond,  termed  the  STAR  OF  THE  SOUTH,  was 
brought  from  Brazil  in  1855,  weighing  254^  carats, 
half  of  which  was  lost  by  cutting. 


INFLAMMABILITY  OF  DIAMONDS. 

Boetius  de  Boot  conjectured  that  the  diamond  was 
inflammable,  1609.  Boyle. 

Discovered  that  when  exposed  to  a  high  temperature 
it  gave  an  acrid  vapour,  in  which  a  part  of  it  was 
dissipated,  1673.  Boyle. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  concluded  from  its  great  refracting 
power,  that  it  must  be  combustible,  1675. 

Averani  demonstrated,  by  concentrating  the  rays  of 
the  sun  upon  it,  that  the  diamond  was  exhaled  in 
vapour,  and  entirely  disappeared,  while  other 
precious  stones  merely  grow  softer,  1695. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  Guyton,  Davy,  and  others, 
that  although  diamonds  are  the  hardest  of  all 
known  bodies,  they  yet  contain  nothing  more  than 
pure  charcoal,  or  carbon.  Diamonds  were  charred 
by  the  intense  heat  of  the  voltaic  battery— by  M. 
Dumas,  in  Paris,  and  by  Professor  Faraday,  in 
London,  in  1848. 

DIAMOND  NECKLACE  AFFAIR. — In  1785,  Boehmer,  the 
court  jeweller  of  France,  offered  the  queen,  Marie 
Antoinette,  a  diamond  necklace,  for  64,000?.  The 
queen  desired  the  necklace,  but  feared  the  ex- 
pense. The  countess  de  la  Motte  (of  the  ancient 
house  of  Valois)  forged  the  queen's  signature,  and 
by  pretending  that  the  queen  had  an  attachment 
for  him,  persuaded  the  cardinal  de  Rohan,  the 
queen's  almoner,  to  conclude  a  bargain  with  the 
jeweller  for  the  necklace  for  56,000?.  De  la  Motte 
thus  obtained  the  necklace  and  made  away  with 
it.  For  this  she  was  tried  in  1786,  and  sentenced 
to  be  branded  on  the  shoulders  and  imprisoned 
for  life.  She  accused  in  vain  the  celebrated  Italian 
adventurer,  Cagliostro,  of  complicity  in  the  affair, 
he  being  then  intimate  with  the  cardinal.  She 
made  her  escape  and  came  to  London,  where  she 
was  killed  by  falling  from  a  window-sill,  in  at- 
tempting to  escape  an  arrest  for  debt. — De  Ro- 
han was  tried  and  acquitted,  April  14,  1786.  The 
public  in  France  at  that  time  suspected  the  queen 
of  being  a  party  to  the  fraud.  Talleyrand  wrote 
at  the  time,  "  I  shall  not  be  surprised  if  this  miser- 
able affair  overturn  the  throne. " 


DIANA,  TEMPLE  OF  (at  Ephesus),  long  accounted  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world,  was  built  at  the  common  charge  of  all  the  Asiatic  states,  552  B.C.  The  chief  archi- 
tect was  Ctesiphon  ;  and  Pliny  says  that  220  years  were  employed  in  completing  this  rich 
temple.  It  was  425  feet  long,  225  broad,  and  was  supported  by  127  columns  (60  feet  high, 
each  weighing  150  tons  of  Parian  marble),  furnished  by  so  many  kings.  It  was  set  on 
fire,  on  the  night  of  Alexander's  nativity,  by  an  obscure  individual  named  Eratostratus, 
who  confessed  on  the  rack,  that  the  sole  motive  which  had  prompted  him  to  destroy  so 
magnificent  an  edifice  was  the  desire  of  transmitting  his  name  to  future  ages,  356  B.  c.  The 
temple  was  rebuilt,  but  again  burnt  by  the  Goths,  in  their  naval  invasion,  A.D.  256  or  262. 
Univ.  Hist. 

DICE.  The  invention  of  dice  is  ascribed  to  Palamedes,  of  Greece,  about  1244  B.C.  The 
game  of  Tali  and  Tessera  among  the  Piomaus  was  played  with  dice.  Stow  mentions  two 


DIG 


241 


DIE 


itertainments  given  by  the  city  of  London,  at  which  dice  were  played.*    Act  to  regulate 
licences  of  makers,  and  the  sale  of  dice,  9  Geo.  IV.  1828. 

DICHROOSCOPE,  an  optical  apparatus,  described  by  the  inventor,  professor  Dove*  of 
Berlin,  in  1860,  who  intended  it  to  represent  interferences,  spectra  in  different  coloured 
lights,  polarisation  of  light,  &c. 

DICTATORS  were  supreme  and  absolute  magistrates  of  Rome,  appointed  to  act  in 
critical  times.  Titus  Lartius  Flavus,  the  first  dictator,  was  appointed,  501  B.C.  This  office 
became  odious  by  the  usurpations  of  Sylla  and  Julius  Coesar  ;  and  after  the  death  of  the 
latter,  the  Roman  senate,  on  the  motion  of  the  consul  Antony,  passed  a  decree,  which  for 
ever  forbad  a  dictator  to  exist  in  Rome,  44  B.C.,  but  Augustus  became  perpetual  dictator,  27 
B.C.,  as  Imperator. 

DICTIONARY.  A  standard  dictionary  of  the  Chinese  language,  containing  about  40,000 
characters,  most  of  them  hieroglyphic,  or  rude  representations,  somewhat  like  our  signs  of 
the  zodiac,  was  perfected  by  Pa-out-she,  who  lived  about  noo  B.C.  Morrison. 


The  oldest  Greek  dictionary  is  the  Onomastikon 
of  Julius  Pollux,  written  about  120  B.C.  ;  a 
Latin  one  was  compiled  by  Varro,  born  B.C.  116 

The  first  noted  polyglot  dictionary,  perhaps  the 
first,  is  by  Ambrose  Calepini,  a  Venetian  friar, 
in  Latin ;  he  wrote  one  in  eight  languages. 
Niceron.  about  A.D.  1500 

John  E.  Avenar's  Dictionarium  Hebraicum  was 
published  at  Wittenberg  in  1589.  Buxtorf  s 
great  work,  Lexicon  Hebraicum,  &c.,  appeared  1621 

The  Lexicon  Heptaglotton  was  published  by  Ed- 
mund Castell,  in 1659 

The  great  dictionary  of  the  English  language, 
by  Samuel  Johnson,  the  "  Leviathan  of  Lite- 
rature,"  appeared  in  1755 

Francis  Grose's  Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue 
was  compiled  in 1768 

The  following  academies  have  published  large 

dictionaries  of  their  respective  languages : 

the  French  academy,  first  in  1694  ;   the  Spa- 

•     rush,  1726 ;  the  Italian  academy  (della  Crusca), 

1729;  and  the  Russian        ....  1789-94 


Schwan's  great  German- French  dictionary  ap- 
peared in 1782 

Richardson's  English  dictionary  appeared  in     .  1836 

Lempriere's  Classical  dictionary,  which  first 
appeared  in  1788,  is  now  superseded  by  Dr. 
W.  Smith's  classical  series  .  .  .  .  1842-57 

The  Philological  Society  of  London  issued 
"proposals  for  a  new  English  dictionary"  .  1859 

The  great  German  dictionary,  by  Jacob  and 
Wilhelm  Grimm  .  .  .  .  1854  et  seq. 

Mr.  Hensleigh  Wedgwood's  Dictionary  of 
English  Etymology  ....  1859-62 

Smith's  Dictionai-y  of  the  Bible  was  published  1860-3 

The  earliest  known  English- Latin  dictionary  is 
the  Promptorium  Parvulorum,  compiled  by 
Galfridus  Grammaticus,  a  preaching  friar  of 
Norfolk,  in  1440  ;  and  printed  by  Pynson,  as 
Promptorius  Puerorum,  in  1499.  A  new 
edition,  carefully  edited  by  Mr.  Albert  Way, 
from  MSS.  was  published  by  the  Camden  So- 
ciety   1843-65 

See  Encyclopedia. 


DIDYMIUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  by  Mosander  in  1841. 
associated  with  lanthanum  and  cerium. 


It  appears  to  be  always 


DIEPPE  (N.  France).  This  town  was  bombarded  by  an  English  fleet,  under  admiral 
Russell,  and  laid  in  ashes,  July  1694.  It  was  again  bombarded  in  1794  ;  and  again,  together 
with  the  town  of  Granville,  by  the  British,  Sept.  14,  1803. 

"DIES  IR^E"  ("  Day  of  Wrath  "),  a  Latin  mediaeval  hymn  on  the  day  of  judgment,  is 
ascribed  to  various  authors,  amongst  others  to  pope  Gregory  the  Great  (died  about  604)  ;  St. 
Bernard  (died  1153);  but  is  generally  considered  to  have  been  composed  by  Thomas  of 
Celano  (died  1255),  and  to  have  been  used  in  the  Roman  service  of  the  mass  before  1385. 

DIET  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE  (in  which  the  supreme  court  of  authority  of  the  empire 
may  be  said  to  have  existed)  was  composed  of  three  colleges  :  one  of  electors,  one  of  princes, 
and  one  of  imperial  towns,  and  commenced  with  the  edict  of  Charles  IV.  1356.  See  Golden 
Bull.  Diets  otherwise  constituted  had  long  previously  been  held  on  important  occasions. 
The  diet  of  Wurtzburg,  which  proscribed  Henry  the  Lion,  was  held  in  1 180  ;  that  of  "Worms, 
at  which  Luther  was  present,  in  1521  ;  that  of  Spires,  to  condemn  the  Reformers,  in  1529  ; 
and  the  famous  diet  of  Augsburg,  in  1530.  TRe  league  of  the  German  princes,  called  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  fixed  the  diet  at  Frankfort,  July  12,  1806.  Germany  was 
governed  by  a  diet  of  38  members,  having  votes  varying  from  four  to  one  each,  till  1864, 
when  Schleswig  and  Holstein  were  included.  Diets  were  held  in  1848  and  1850,  at  Frank- 
fort (which  see). 


*  In  1357,  the  kings  of  Scotland  and  France,  being  prisoners,  and  the  king  of  Cyprus  on  a  visit  to 
Edward  III.,  a  great  tournament  was  held  in  Smithfield,  and  afterwards  Henry  Picard,  mayor  of  London, 
"  kept  his  hall  against  all  comers  that  were  willing  to  play  at  dice  and  hazard.  The  lady  Margaret,  his 
wife,  did  keepe  her  chamber  to  the  same  intent. "  The  mayor  restored  to  the  king  of  Cyprus  50  marks 
which  he  had  won  from  him,  saying,  "My  lord  and  king,  be  not  aggrieved ;  for  I  covet  not  your  gold  ;  but 
your  play,"  &c.  Stow. 

R 


DIE  242  DIP 

"  DIEU-DONNE"  the  name  given  in  his  infancy  to  Louis  le  Grand,  king  of  France, 
because  the  French  considered  him  as  the  gift  of  Heaven  ;  the  queen,  his  mother,  having 
been  barren  for  23  years  previously,  1638.  Voltaire.  One  of  the  popes  of  Rome,  who 
obtained  the  tiara  in  672,  was  named  Adeodatus  or  God's  gift,  and  had  the  character  of  a 

pLouy^f%^  &  *-*"0 

DIEU  ET  MON  DROIT  ("God  and  my  right"),  the  royal  motto  of  England,  was  the 
parole  of  the  day,  given  by  Richard  I.  of  England  to  his  army  at  the  battle  of  Gisors,  in 
France,  Sept.  20,  1198,  when  the  French  army  was  signally  defeated.  "  Dieu  et  mon  droit>> 
appears  to  have  been  first  assumed  as  a  motto  by  Henry  VI.  (1422—1461). 

DIFFERENTIAL  ENGINE.     See  Calculating  Machine. 

DIFFUSION  OF  GASES.  For  our  present  knowledge  of  the  laws  regulating  this  pheno- 
menon, which  performs  so  important  a  part  in  respiration  and  other  natural  processes,  we 
are  greatly  indebted  to  the  researches  of  professor  T.  Graham,  published  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  for  1850. 

DIFFUSION  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  SOCIETY,  which  published  a  number  of  book* 
relating  to  history,  science,  and  literature,  and  a  useful  atlas,  ridiculed  as  the  "  Sixpenny 
Sciences,"  in  a  cheap  form,  was  established  in  1827,  by  Lord  Brougham,  Mr.  William 
Tooke,  Mr.  Charles  Knight,  and  others.  It  patronised  the  publication  of  the  Penny  Magazine 
and  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia.  The  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain  was  established  in 
1800,  for  "the  Promotion,  Diffusion,  and  Extension  of  Science  and  Useful  Knowledge." 

DIGEST.  The  first  collection  of  Roman  laws  under  this  title  was  prepared  by  Alfrenua 
Varus,  the  civilian,  of  Cremona,  66  B.C.  Quintil.  The  Digest,  so  called  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, was  the  collection  made  by  order  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  529  :  it  made  the  first 
part  of  the  Roman  law  and  the  first  volume  of  the  civil  law.  Quotations  from  it  are  marked 
with  a  ff.  Pardon.  A  digest  of  the  statute  law  of  England  is  now  strongly  recommended 
(1865). 

DIGITS.  Any  whole  number  under  10  :  I,  2,  &c.,  are  the  nine  digits.  Arithmetical 
figures  were  known  to  the  Arabian  Moors  about  A.D.  900  ;  and  were  introduced  by  them 
into  Spain  in  1050,  and  thence  into  England  about  1253.  In  astronomy,  the  digit  is  a 
measure  used  in  the  calculation  of  eclipses,  and  is  the  twelfth  part  of  the  luminary  eclipsed. 
See  Figures. 

DILETTANTI,  SOCIETY  OF,  was  established  in  1734 by  several  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
(viscount  Harcourt,  lord  Middlesex,  duke  of  Dorset,  &c.),  who  had  travelled  and  who  were 
desirous  of  encouraging  a  taste  for  the  fine  arts  in  Great  Britain.  The  society  published,  or 
aided  in  publishing,  Stuart's  Athens  (1762 — 1816),  Chandler's  Travels  (1775-6),  and  several 
other  finely  illustrated  works,  having  aided  the  aiithors  in  their  investigations.  The  members 
dine  together  from  time  to  time  at  the  Thatched-house  tavern,  St.  James's. 

DIMITY.     See  Vamietta. 

DIOCESE.  The  first  division  of  the  Roman  empire  into  dioceses,  at  that  period  civil 
governments,  is  ascribed  to  Constantino,  323  ;  but  Strabo  remarks  that  the  Romans  had  the 
departments  called  dioceses  long  before.  In  England  the  principal  dioceses  are  coeval  with 
the  establishment  of  Christianity  ;  of  28  dioceses,  20  are  suffragan  to  the  diocese  of  Canter- 
bury, and  six  to  that  of  York.  See  Bislwps,  and  the  sees  severally. 

DIOCLETIAN  ERA  (called  also  the  era  of  Martyrs,  on  account  of  the  persecution  in  his 
reign)  was  used  by  Christian  writers  until  the  introduction  of  the  Christian  era  in  the  6th 
century,  and  is  still  employed  by  the  Abyssinians  and  Copts.  It  dates  from  the  day  on 
which  Diocletian  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Chalcedon,  Aug.  29,  284. 

DIOPTRIC  SYSTEM.     See  Lighthouses. 

DIORAMA.  This  species  of  exhibition,  which  had  long  been  admired  at  Paris,  was 
first  opened  in  London  by  MM.  Bouton  and  Daguerre,  Sept.  29,  1823.  The  diorama  differs 
from  the  panorama  in  this  respect,  that,  instead  of  a  circular  view  of  the  objects  repre- 
sented, it  exhibits  the  whole  picture  at  once  in  perspective.  It  was  not  successful  com- 
mercially, and  was  sold  in  1848.  The  building  in  Regent's  Park  was  purchased  by  sir  S. 
M.  Peto,  in  1855,  to  be  used  as  a  Baptist  chapel.  It  is  the  handsomest  dissenters'  chapel 
in  London. 

DIPHTHERIA  (from  the  Greek  diphthera,  a  membrane),  a  disease  which  has  the 
essential  character  of  developing  a  false  membrane  on  any  integument,  particularly  on  the 


3ous  membrane  of  the  throat.  It  was  so  named  by  Bretonneau  of  Tours  in  1820.  From 
its  prevalence  in  Boulogne,  it  has  been  termed  the  Boulogne  sore-throat ;  many  persons 
were  affected  with  it  in  England  at  the  beginning  of  1858. 

DIPLOMACY,  the  art  of  managing  the  relations  of  foreign  states  by  means  of  ambas- 
lors,  envoys,  consuls,  &c.     See  Ambassadors.     New  regulations  for  the  British  diplomatic 
dee  were  issued  Sept.  5,  1862. 

DIPLOMATICS,  the  foreign  term  for  the  science  of  Palaeography  or  ancient  writings. 
Valuable  works  on  this  subject  have  been  compiled  by  Mabillon  (1681),  De  Vaines  (1774), 
Astle  (1781),  De  Wailly  (1838),  and  other  antiquaries. 

"DIRECTORY  FOR  THE  PUBLIC  "WORSHIP  OF  GOD  "  was  drawn  up  at  the  instance  of 
the  parliament  by  an  assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster  in  1644,  after  the  suppression  of 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  The  general  hints  given  were  to  be  managed  with  discretion  ; 
for  the  Directory  prescribed  no  form  of  prayer  or  manner  of  external  worship,  and  enjoined 
the  people  to  make  no  responses  except  Amen.  It  was  adopted  by  the  parliament  of  Scotland 
in  1645,  and  many  of  its  regulations  are  still  observed. 

DIRECTORY,  THE  FRENCH,  established  by  the  constitution  of  Aug.  22,  1795,  and 
nominated  Nov.  i,  was  composed  of  five  members  (MM.  Lipeaux,  Letourneur,  Rewbel, 
Barras,  and  Carnot).  It  ruled  in  conjunction  with  two  chambers,  the  Council  of  Ancients 
and  Council  of  Five  Hundred  (which  see).  It  was  deposed  by  Bonaparte,  who,  with 
Cambace'res  and  Sieyes,  assumed  the  government  as  three  consuls,  the  first  as  chief,  Nov.  10, 
1 799.  See  Consuls. 

DIRECTORY,  the  first  LONDON,  is  said  to  have  been  printed  in  1677.  The  "  Post-office 
Directory"  first  appeared  in  1800. 

DISCIPLINE,  ECCLESIASTICAL,  originally  conducted  according  to  the  divine  commands 
in  Matt,  xviii.  15,  I  Cor.  v.,  2  Thess.  iii.  6,  and  other  scripture  texts,  was  gradually 
changed  to  a  temporal  character,  as  it  now  appears  in  the  Roman  and  Greek  churches.  The 
"  First  Book  of  Discipline"  of  the  presbyterian  church  of  Scotland  was  drawn  up  by  John 
Knox  and  four  ministers  in  Jan.  1560-1.  The  more  important  "Second  Book"  was  prepared 
with  great  care  in  1578  by  Andrew  Melville  and  a  committee  of  the  leading  members  of  the 
general  assembly.  It  lays  down  a  thoroughly  presbyterian  form  of  government,  defines  the 
position  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  powers,  &c. 

DISCOUNT.     See  Bank  of  England. 

DISPENSARIES,  to  supply  the  poor  with  medical  advice  and  medicines,  began  in  London 
with  the  Royal  General  Dispensary,  established  in  St.  Bartholomew's  Close,  in  1770.  It 
relieved  about  20,000  persons  in  1861.  Low's  Charities. 

DISPENSATIONS,  ECCLESIASTICAL,  were  first  granted  by  pope  Innocent  III.  in  1200. 
These  exemptions  from  the  discipline  of  the  church,  with  indulgences,  absolutions,  &c.,  led 
eventually  to  the  Reformation  in  Germany  in  1517,  and  in  England  in  1534,  et  seq. 

DISPENSING  POWER  OF  THE  CROWN  (for  setting  aside  laws),  asserted  by  some  of  our 
sovereigns,  especially  by  James  II.  in  1686,  was  abolished  by  the  bill  of  rights,  1689, 
However  it  has  been  on  certain  occasions  exercised,  as  in  the  case  of  embargoes  upon  ships, 
the  Bank  Charter  act,  &c.  See  Indemnity. 

DISSECTION.     See  Anatomy. 

DISSENTERS,  the  modern  name  of  the  Puritans  and  Nonconformists  (which  see).  In 
1851,  in  London  alone,  the  number  of  chapels,  meeting-houses,  &c.,  for  all  classes  of 
dissenters  amounted  to  more  than  554.  (The  Church  of  England  had  458  ;  Roman 
Catholics,  35.)  The  great  act  (9  Geo.  IV.  c.  17)  for  the  relief  of  dissenters  from  civil  and 
religious  disabilities  was  passed  May  9,  1828.  By  this  act,  called  the  Corporation  and  Test 
Repeal  act,  so  much  of  the  several  acts  of  preceding  reigns  as  imposed  the  necessity  of 
receiving  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  qualification  for  certain  offices,  &c.,  was 
repealed.  By  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  85  (1836),  dissenters  acquired  the  right  of  solemnising 
marriages  at  their  own  chapels  or  at  a  registry  office.  See  Worship. 

DISTAFF,  the  staff  to  which  hemp,  flax,  wool,  or  other  substances  to  be  spun  is 
fastened.  The  art  of  spinning  with  it  at  the  small  wheel,  first  taught  to  English  women  by 
Anthony  Bonavisa,  an  Italian.  Stow.  The  distaff  is  used  as  an  emblem  of  the  female  sex. 

E  2 


DIS  244  DOG 

DISTILLATION,  and  the  various  chemical  processes  dependent  on  the  art,  are  generally 
believed  to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  about  1 1 50  ;  their  brethren  of 
Africa  had  them  from  the  Egyptians.  See  Alcohol,  Brandy.  The  distillation  of  spirituous 
liquors  was  in  practice  in  Great  Britain  in  the  i6th  century.  Burns.  The  processes  were 
improved  by  Adam  of  Montpellier  in  1801.  M.  Payen's  work  ( 1 86 1)  contains  the  most  recent 
improvements.  118  licencesto  distillers  were  granted  in  the  year  ending  March  31,  1858,  for 
the  United  Kingdom. 

DIVINATION.  In  the  Scriptures  and  ancient  authors  different  kinds  of  divination  are 
mentioned.  See  Augury,  Delphi,  Magi,  Witchcraft,  &c. 

DIVINE  RIGHT  OF  KINGS,  the  absolute  and  unqualified  claim  of  sovereigns  to  the 
obedience  of  their  subjects,  a  doctrine  which  is  totally  foreign  to  the  genius  of  the  English 
constitution,  was  defended  by  many  persons  of  otherwise  opposite  opinions,  e.g.,  by  Hobbes 
the  free-thinker  (1642),  by  Salmasius  (1640),  by  sir  Robert  Filmer,  in  his  Patriarcha  in 
1680,  and  by  the  High  Church  party  generally  about  1714  ;  but  opposed  by  Milton  (1651), 
Algernon  Sydney,  and  others. 

DIVING-BELL  (first  mentioned,  though  obscurely,  by  Aristotle,  about  325  B.C.)  was 
used  in  Europe  about  A.D.  1509.  It  is  said  to  have  been  used  on  the  coast  of  Mull,  in 
searching  for  the  wreck  of  part  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  before  1662.  Halley  (about  1721) 
greatly  improved  this  machine,  and  was,  it  is  said,  the  first  who,  by  means  of  a  diving-bell, 
set  his  foot  on  the  ground  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Smeaton  made  use  of  the  diving-bell  in 
improving  Ramsgate  harbour,  1779-88.  Mr.  Spalding  and  his  assistants  going  down  in  a 
diving-bell  in  Ireland  were  drowned,  June  I,  1783.  The  Royal  George  man-of-war,  which 
was  sunk  off  Portsmouth  in  1782,  was  first  surveyed  by  means  of  a  diving-bell  in  May,  1817. 
Latterly  it  has  been  employed  in  submarine  surveys.  The  first  diving- belle  was  the  wife  of 
captain  Morris,  at  Plymouth,  who  descended  in  one  a  few  years  ago. 

DIVINING  ROD  (virgula  divina,  baculatorius),  formed  of  wood  or  metal,  was  formerly 
believed,  even  by  educated  persons,  to  have  the  property  of  indicating  the  position  of 
minerals  and  springs  of  water.  Instances  were  alleged  in  1851  by  Dr.  H.  Mays,  in  his 
work  on  "Popular  Superstitions." 

DIVINITY.     See  TJieology. 

DIVORCE  FOR  ADULTERY  (of  early  institution).  It  was  permitted  by  the  law  of  Moses 
(Deut.  xxiv.  i),  1451  B.C.,  but  was  forbidden  by  Christ  except  for  adultery  (Matt.  v.  31). 
It  was  put  in  practice  by  Spurius  Carvilius  Ruga  at  Rome,  234  B.C.  At  this  time  morals  were 
so  debased  that  3000  prosecutions  for  adultery  were  enrolled.  Divorces  are  of  two  kinds  ; 
•  one,  a  vinculo  matrimdnii  (total  divorce)  ;  the  other,  a  mensd  el  thoro  (from  board  and  bed). 
Divorces  were  attempted  to  be  made  of  more  easy  obtainment  in  England  in  1539.  The  bill 
to  prevent  women  marrying  their  seducers  was  brought  into  parliament  in  1801.  In  April, 
1853,  the  commissioners  on  the  law  of  divorce  issued  their  first  report.*  By  20  &  21  Viet. 
c.  85  (1857),  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  respecting  divorce,  &c.,  was  abolished, 
and  the  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Causes  court  was  instituted,  to  consist  of  three  judges,  the 
judge  of  the  Probate  court  to  be  one  (if  possible).  On  May  10,  1858,  a  full  court  sat,  viz. 
lord  Campbell,  chief  baron  Pollock,  and  sir  Cresswell  Cresswell,  judge  of  the  Probate  court, 
when  five  marriages  were  dissolved.  The  above-mentioned  act  was  amended  by  acts  passed  in 
1858-60,  in  consequence  of  the  increase  of  the  business  of  the  court.  See  Marriage.  An 
act  respecting  divorces  in  Scotland  was  passed  in  1861.  Sir  Cresswell  Cresswell  died  in 
July,  1863,  and  sir  James  P.  Wilde  was  appointed  his  successor  in  Sept.  following. 

DIZIER,  ST.  (N.E.  France).  Here  a  siege  was  sustained  for  six  weeks  against  the  army 
-,of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  1544.  The  allies  here  defeated  the  French  under  Napoleon,  Jan. 
.27  and  March  26,  1814. 

DOBRUDSCHA,  the  N.E.  corner  of  Bulgaria;  in  1854,  the  scene  of  the  earlier  incidents 
of  the  Russo-Turkish  war  (which  see}. 

DOCET^E,  a  sect  of  the  ist  century,  said  to  have  held  that  Jesus  Christ  was  god,  but 
that  his  body  was  an  appearance,  not  a  reality. 

*  In  1857,  there  had  been  in  England,  since  the  Reformation,  317  divorces  by  act  of  parliament ;  in 
Scotland,  by  the  law,  174  divorces  since  1846.  From  the  establishment  of  the  divorce  court,  to  March, 
1859,  37  divorces  had  been  granted  out  of  288  petitions  ;  from  Nov.  1860  to  July,  1861,  164.  They  are  now 
very  frequent. 


DOCKS  OF  ENGLAND.     They  are  said  to  be  the  most  extensive  and  finest  in  the  world, 
following  are  the  principal  commercial  docks  : — 


imercial  Docks,   Rotherhithe,   originated  about 
1660. 

India  Docks  were  commenced,  Feb.  3,  1800; 
and  were  opened  Aug.  27,  1802,  when  the  "  Henry 
Addington,"  West  Indiaman,  first  entered  them, 
decorated  with  the  colours  of  the  different  nations 
of  Europe. 

London  Docks  were  commenced  June  26,  1802,  and 
opened  Jan.  20,  1805. 


East  India  Docks   were  commenced  in    1803 ;   and 

opened  Aug.  4,  1806. 
St.  Katherine's  Docks  began  May  3,  1827  ;  and  2500 

men  were  daily  employed  on  them  until  they  were 

opened,  Oct.  25,  1828. 
Victoria  Docks  (in  Plaistow  marshes)  were  completed 

in  1855. 
Magnificent  docks   at   Liverpool   and    Birkenhead 

erected,  1810-57. 


DOCK-YARDS,  ROYAL.     There  are  seven  chief  dock-yards  in  England  and  Wales,  a?xl 
others  in  various  of  our  colonies. 


Woolwich  was  an  extensive  one  in  1509, 
Deptford  dock-yard  founded  about  1513. 
Chatham  dock-yard  was  founded  by  queen  Elizabeth. 
Portsmouth  dock-yard  established  by  Henry  VIII. 
Plymouth  dock,  now  Devonport,*  about  1689. 
Sheerness  dock-yard  was  built  by  Charles  II.  after 
the  insult  of  the  Dutch,  who  burnt  our  men-of-war 


at  Chatham  in  1667.  A  fire  occurred  at  Sheer- 
ness  dock-yard,  on  board  the  Camperdown,  Oct.  9, 
1840. 

Milford-Haven  dock-yard,  1790  ;  removed  to  Pem- 
broke in  1814. 

The  Dock-yard  battalions  have  been  named  since  1847. 


DOCTOR.  Doctor  of  the  Church  was  a  title  given  to  Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory, 
Nazianzen,  and  Chrysostom  in  the  Greek  church  ;  and  to  Jerome,  Augustin,  Ambrose,  and 
Gregory  the  Great,  in  the  Romish  church,  373,  et  seq.  In  later  times  the  title  has  been 
conferred  on  certain  persons  with  distinguishing  epithets  :  viz.  Thomas  Aquinas  (Angelicus), 
Bonaventura  (Seraphicus),  Alexander  de  Hales  (Irrefragabilis),  Duns  Scotus  (Subtilis),  Roger- 
Bacon  (Mirabilis),  William  Occam  (Singularis),  Joseph  Gerson  (Christianissimus),  Thomas 
Bradwardine  (Profundus),  and  so  on.  Doctor  of  the  law,  was  a  title  of  honour  among  the 
Jews.  The  degree  of  doctor  was  conferred  in  England,  8  John,  1207.  Spelman.  Some  give 
it  an  earlier  date,  referring  it  to  the  time  of  the  Venerable  Bede  and  John  de  Beverley,  the 
former  of  whom,  it  is  said,  was  the  first  that  obtained  the  degree  at  Cambridge  about  725. 

DOCTORS'  COMMONS,  the  college  for  the  professors  of  civil  and  canon  law  residing  in 
London  ;  the  name  of  commons  is  given  to  it  from  the  civilians  commoning  together,  as  in 
other  colleges.  It  was  founded  by  Dr.  Henry  Hervie  in  1568  ;  but  the  original  college  was 
destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1666  ;"  in  1672  it  was  rebuilt  on  the  old  site.f  After  the 
great  fire,  and  until  1672,  the  society  held  its  courts  at  Exeter  house  in  the  Strand.  It  was 
incorporated  by  charter  in  June,  1768.  Coote.  Till  1857  the  causes  taken  cognizance  of 
here  were  blasphemy,  divorces,  bastardy,  adultery,  penance,  tithes,  mortuaries,  probate  of 
wills,  &c.  See  Ecclesiastical  Courts,  Civil  Law,  &c. 

DOCTRINAIRES,  a  name  given  since  1814  to  a  class  of  politicians  in  France  (Guizot, 
due  de  Broglie  and  others),  who  upheld  the  constitutional  principles,  as  opposed  to  arbitrary 
monarchical  power.  The  party  ctfine  into  office  in  1830  under  Louis  Philippe,  and  fell  with 
him  in  1848.  The  term  has  been  applied  in  this  country  to  the  writers  in  the  "  Westminster 
Review"  (1824,  ct  seq.},  Bentham,  Molesworth  and  others. 

DODONA,  EPIRUS.  The  temple  of  Jupiter  here,  renowned  for  its  oracle,  was  destroyed 
by  the  JEtolians,  219  B.C. 

DODSON'S  ACT  (brought  forward  by  Mr.  John  G.  Dodson,  and  passed  Aug.  i,  1861) 
provides  that  votes  for  electing  members  of  parliament  for  the  universities  may  be  recorded 
by  means  of  polling  papers. 

DOG.  Buffon  considers  the  shepherd's  dog  as  "the  root  of  the  tree,"  assigning  as  his 
reason  that  it  possesses  from  nature  the  greatest  share  of  instinct.  The  Irish  wolf-dog  is 

*  Great  fire  in  the  dock-yard  at  Devonport,  by  which  the  Talavera,  of  74  guns,  the  Imogene  frigate,  of 
28  guns,  and  immense  stores,  were  destroyed  ;  the  relics  and  figure  heads  of  the  favourite  ships  of  £5os- 
cawen,  Rodney,  Duncan,  and  other  naval  heroes,  which  were  preserved  in  a  naval  museum,  were  also 
burnt,  Sept.  27,  1840  ;  the  loss  was  estimated  at  200,000^. 

t  In  February,  1568,  Dr.  Henry  Hervie,  dean  of  the  arches  and  master  of  Trinity-hall  (a  seminary 
founded  at  Cambridge  chiefly  for  the  study  of  the  civil  and  canon  laws)  procured  from  the  dean  and  chapter 
of  the  diocese  of  London  a  lease  of  Montjoy-house  and  other  buildings  in  the  parish  of  St.  Bene'fc,  Paul's 
wharf,  for  the  accommodation  of  the  society.  The  courts  over  which  he  presided,  the  prerogative  court  of 
Canterbury,  that  of  the  bishop  of  London,  and  also  the  court  of  admiralty  (except  for  criminal  cases),  were 
thenceforward  holden  in  the  buildings  thus  assigned,  and  the  whole  place,  for  an  obvious  reason,  received 
the  appellation  of  "  DOCTORS'  COMMONS."  Coote's  English  Civilians. 


DOG  246  DOM 

supposed  to  be  the  earliest  dog  known  in  Europe,  if  Irish  writers  be  correct.  Dr.  Gall 
mentions  that  a  dog  was  taken  from  Vienna  to  England  ;  that  it  escaped  to  Dover,  got  on 
board  a  vessel,  landed  at  Calais,  and,  after  accompanying  a  gentleman  to  Mentz,  returned  to 
Vienna.  Statute  against  dog  stealing,  10  Geo.  III.  1770.  Dog-tax  imposed,  1796,  and 
again  in  1808  ;  now  (1865)  i2s.  a  year.  The  employment  of  dogs  in  drawing  carts,  &c.,  in 
London  was  abolished,  1839  ;  in  the  United  Kingdom,  1854.  Dog  shows  have  been  held  in 
London  in  1861,  1862,  1863,  1864,  and  1865,  latterly  at  the  Agricultural  Hall,  Islington. 

DOG-DAYS.  The  canicular  or  dog-days,  commence  on  the  3rd  of  July  and  end  on  the 
nth  of  August.  The  rising  and  setting  of  Sirius  or  the  dog- star  *  with  the  sun  has  been 
erroneously  regarded  as  the  cause  of  excessive  heat  and  of  consequent  calamities. 

DOGE,  the  title  of  the  duke  of  Venice,  which  state  was  first  governed  by  a  prince  so 
named,  Anafesto  Paululio,  or  Paoluccio,  697.  See  Venice.  The  Genoese  chose  their  first 
doge,  Simone  Boccanegra,  in  1339.  Muratori. 

DOGGERBANK  (German  Ocean).  Here  a  gallant  but  indecisive  battle  was  fought 
between  the  British,  under  admiral  sir  Hyde  Parker,  and  the  Dutch,  Aug.  5,  1781. 

DOGGET'S  COAT  AND  BADGE.  The  annual  rowing  match  upon  the  Thames,  thus 
called,  originated  in  this  way  :  Mr.  Thomas  Dogget,  an  eminent  actor  of  Drury-lane,  on  the 
first  anniversary  of  the  accession  to  the  throne  of  George  I.,  Aug.  i,  1715,  gave" a  waterman's 
coat  and  silver  badge  to  be  rowed  for  by  six  young  watermen  in  honour  of  the  day,  and 
bequeathed  at  his  death  a  sum  of  money,  the  interest  whereof  was  to  be  appropriated 
annually,  for  ever,  to  the  same  purpose.  The  candidates  start,  at  a  signal  given,  at  that 
time  of  the  tide  when  the  current  is  strongest  against  them,  and  row  from  the  Old  Swan, 
London  Bridge,  to  the  White  Swan  at  Chelsea. 

DOIT.  A  silver  Scottish  penny,  of  which  twelve  were  equal  to  a  penny  sterling.  ISome 
of  those  struck  by  Charles  I.  and  II.  are  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious.  The  circulation  of 
"  doydekyns"  (small  Dutch  coins)  was  prohibited  by  statute  in  1415. 

DOLLAR,  the  German  thaler  (the  h  not  sounded).  Stamped  Spanish  dollars  were  issued 
from  the  Mint  in  March,  1797,  but  called  in  Oct.  following.  The  dollar  is  the  principal 
silver  coin  in  the  United  States  of  North  America. 

DOM-BOG  or  DOOM-BOOK  (Liber  Judiciales),  the  code  of  law  compiled  by  king  Alfred 
from  the  "West-Saxon  collection  of  Ina  and  other  sources.  Alfred  reigned  from  871  to  901. 

DOME'S-DAY  BOOK  or  DOOM'S-DAY  (Liber  Censualis  Anglice),  a  book  of  the 
general  survey  of  England,  commenced  in  the  reign  of  William  I.  1080  (some  say  1085),  and 
completed  in  1086.  It  was  intended  to  be  a  register  whereby  to  determine  the  right  in  the 
tenure  of  estates  ;  and  from  it  the  question  whether  lands  be  ancient  demesne  or  not,  is  some- 
times still  decided.  The  book  is  still  preserved  in  the  Chapter-house,  Westminster-abbey, 
fair  and  legible,  consisting  of  two  volumes,  a  greater  and  lesser,  wherein  all  the  counties  of 
England,  except  Northumberland,  Durham,  Westmoreland,  and  Cumberland,  are  surveyed. 
"  This  Dome's-day  book  was  the  tax-book  of  Kinge  William."  Camden.  It  was  printed  in 
four  vols.  folio,  with  introductions,  &c.,  1783 — 1816.  The  taxes  were  levied  according  to 
this  survey  till  13  Hen.  VIII.,  1522,  when  a  more  accurate  survey  was  taken,  called  by  the 
people  the  New  Doom's-Day  Book.  Photographic  copies  of  various  counties  have  been 
^published  since  1861. 

DOMINGO,  ST.,  a  city  in  Hayti,  the  seat' of  the  Dominican  republic,  independent  from 
1844-61.  It  has  been  much  troubled  by  the  emperors  of  Hayti,  especially  by  Faustin  I., 
dethroned  in  1858.  Its  last  president,  General  Jose'  Valverde,  was  elected  in  1858.  Popu- 
lation 200,000.  See  Hayti.  In  March,  1861,  a  number  of  Spanish  emigrants  landed  in  St. 
Domingo  ;  a  cry  for  its  annexation  to  Spain  was  raised,  and  St.  Domingo  was  incorporated 
with  that  monarchy,  May  20,  1861.  An  insurrection  against  the  Spaniards  broke  out  on 
Aug.  18,  1863,  and  the  rebels  had  gained  nearly  all  the  island  in  Nov.  when  the  Spanish 
government  proclaimed  it  in  a  state  of  blockade.  A  Spanish  force  was  sent  and  several 
conflicts  ensued,  in  which  the  insurgents  were  generally  worsted.  In  Dec.  :864J;he  British 
government  recognised  the  Haytians  as  belligerents  ;  and  in  1865  the  Spanish  government 
retired  from  the  contest. 

*  Mathematicians  assert  that  Sirius,  or  the  dog-star,  is  the  nearest  to  us  of  all  the  fixed  stars  ;  and 
they  compute  its  distance  from  pur  earth  at  2, 200,000  millions  of  miles.  They  maintain  that  a  sound  would 
not  reach  our  earth  from  Sirius  in  50,000  years ;  and  that  a  cannon-ball,  flying  with  its  usual  velocity  of 
480  miles  an  hour,  would  consume  523,211  years  in  its  passage  thence  to  our  globe. 


DOMINICA  (W.    Indies),   discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  on  Sunday, 
-    3,  1493.     It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1761,  and  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the 
of  1763.     The  French  took  Dominica  in  1778,  but  restored  it  at  the  subsequent  peace 
1783.     It  suffered  great  damage  by  a  tremendous  hurricane  in  1806. 

DOMINICAL  LETTER,  noting  the  Lord's  day,  or  Sunday.  The  seven  days  of  the 
week,  reckoned  as  beginning  on  the  1st  of  Jan.  are  designated  by  the  first  seven  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G  ;  and  the  one  of  these  which  denotes  Sunday  is  the  Dominical 
letter.  If  the  year  begin  on  Sunday,  A  is  the  Dominical  letter  ;  if  on  Monday,  G ;  on 
Tuesday,  F ;  and  so  on.  Generally  to  find  the  Dominical  letter  call  New  Year's  day  A,  the 
next  B,  and  go  on  thus  until  you  come  to  the  first  Sunday,  and  the  letter  that  answers  to  it  is 
the  Dominical  letter  ;  in  leap  years  count  two  letters.  The  letter  for  1865  is  A,  for  1866,  G. 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC.     See  Domingo. 

DOMINICANS,  formerly  a  powerful  religious  order  (called  in  France,  Jacobins,  and  in 
England  Black  friars),  founded  in  order  to  put  down  the  Albigenses  and  other  heretics  by 
St.  Dominic,  approved  by  Innocent  III.  in  1215,  and  confirmed  by  Honorius  III.  in  1216, 
under  St.  Austin's  rules  and  the  founder's  particular  constitution.  In  1276  the  corporation 
of  London  gave  the  Dominicans  two  whole  streets  near  the  Thames,  where  they  erected  a 
large  convent,  whence  that  part  is  still  called  Blackfriars. 

DONATISTS,  an  ancient  puritanical  sect,  formed  about  313—318,  by  an  African  bishop, 
Donatus,  who  was  jealous  of  Csecilian,  bishop  of  Carthage  :  it  became  extinct  in  the  7th 
century.  The  Donatists  held  that  the  Father  was  above  the  Son,  and  the  Son  above  the 
Holy  Ghost ;  and  that  there  was  no  virtue  in  the  form  of  the  Church.  Their  discipline  was 
severe,  and  those  who  joined  their  sect  were  re-baptized. 

DONKEY  SHOW.  An  exhibition  of  donkeys  and  mules  belonging  to  the  upper  and 
lower  classes  took  place  at  the  Agricultural  Hall,  Islington,  in  Aug.  1864. 

DON  QUIXOTE,  by  Saavedra  Miguel  de  Cervantes  (born  1547  ;  died  1616).  The  first 
part  of  this  work  appeared  in  1605,  and  the  second  part  in  1608.  It  is  said  that  upwards 
of  12,000  copies  of  the  first  part  were  circulated  before  the  second  could  be  made  ready  for 
the  press.  Watts. 

DOOM'S-DAY  BOOK.     See  Doings-day  Book. 
DORADO.     See  El  Dorado. 

DORCHESTER  (now  a  village  near  Oxford)  was  once  a  bishopric,  said  to  have  been, 
founded  about  636.  The  first  Bishop,  Birinus,  was  called  the  apostle  of  the  West  Saxons. 
In  1070,  Remigius,  its  last  prelate,  transferred  it  to  •  Lincoln  (which  see). — Much  .excitement 
was  caused  by  six  labourers  of  Dorchester  (in  Dorsetshire)  being  sentenced  to  transportation, 
March  17,  1834,  for  administering  illegal  oaths. 

DORIANS,  a  people  of  Greece,  claimed  their  descent  from  Dorus,  son  of  Hellen.  See 
Greece.  Their  return  to  the  Peloponnesus  took  place  1104  B.C.  They  sent  out  many 
colonies.  To  them  we  owe  the  Doric  architecture,  the  second  of  the  five  orders.  It  is  lighter 
than  the  Tuscan. 

DORT,  or  DORDRECHT,  an  ancient  town  in  Holland,  where  the  independence  of  the 
thirteen  provinces  was  declared  in  1572,  when  William  prince  of  Orange  was  made  stadt- 
holder.  Here  happened  an  awful  inundation  of  the  Mouse  in  1421,  through  the  breaking 
down  the  dykes.  In  the  territory  of  Dordrecht  10,000  persons  perished  ;  and  more  than 
100,000  round  Dullart,  in  Friesland,  and  in  Zealand.  In  the  last  two  provinces  upwards  of 
300  villages  were  overflowed,  and  the  tops  of  their  towers  were  long  after  seen  rising  out 
of  the  water.  A  Protestant  synod  was  held  at  Dort  in  1618  and  1619;  to  which  deputies 
were  sent  from  England,  and  the  reformed  churches  in  Europe,  to  settle  the  difference  between 
the  doctrines  of  Luther,  Calvin,  and  Arminius,  principally  upon  points  of  justification  and 
grace.  This  synod  condemned  the  tenets  of  Arminius. 

DOUAY  (N.  France),  the  Roman  Duacum,  was  taken  from  the  Flemings  by  Philip  the 
Fair  in  1297  ;  restored  by  Charles  V.  in  1368.  It  reverted  to  Spain,  from  whom  it  was 
taken  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1667.  It  was  captured  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  in  1710  ;  and 
retaken  by  the  French  next  year.  This  town  gives  its  name  to  the  Roman  Catholic  edition 
of  the  Bible  in  use,  by  the  consent  of  the  popes,  as  the  only  authorised  English  version  ; 


DOU 


248 


DRA 


its  text  is  explained  by  the  notes  of  Roman  Catholic  divines-  The  Old  Testament  was  first 
published  by  the  English  college  at  Douay  in  1609  ;  the  New  had  been  published  at  Rheims 
in  1582.  The  English  college  for  Roman  Catholics  was  founded  in  1568  by  William  Allen, 
afterwards  cardinal.  Dodd. 

DOURO,  a  river  (separating  Spain  and  Portugal),  which,  after  a  desperate  struggle 
between  Wellington's  advanced  guard  under  Hill,  and  the  French  under  Soult,  was  success- 
fully crossed  by  the  former  on  May  12,  1809.  So  sudden  was  the  movement,  that  Wellington 
at  4  o'clock  sat  down  to  the  dinner  prepared  for  the  French  general.  A  lison. 

DOVER  (Kent),  the  Roman  Dubris.  Near  here  Julius  Caesar  made  his  first  landing  in 
England,  Aug.  26,  55  B.C.  Its  original  castle  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  him  soon  after  ;  but 
this  is  disputed.  The  works  were  strengthened  by  Alfred  and  succeeding  kings,  and  rebuilt 
by  Henry  II.  The  earliest  named  constable  is  Leopoldus  de  Bertie,  in  the  reign  of 
Ethelred  II.,  followed  by  earl  Godwin,  Odo  the  brother  of  William  I.,  &c.  In  modern 
times,  this  office,  and  that  of  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  has  been  frequently  conferred 
on  the  prime  minister  for  the  time  being, — e.g.,  lord  North,  Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Liverpool,  and 
the  duke  of  Wellington  :  the  earl  of  Dalhousie,  late  governor-general  for  India,  "was 
appointed  in  Jan.  1853,  rand  died  Dec.  19,  1860.  Lord  Palmerston,  appointed  constable 
March,  1861,  died  Oct.  18,  1865. 


The  priory  was  commenced  by  archbishop  Cor- 

boj'l,  or  Corbois,  about 1130 

At  Dover,  king  John  resigned  his  kingdom  to 

Pandolf,  the  pope's  legate        .        .     May  13,  1213 
The  pier  was  projected  by  Henry  VIII.  in         .  1533 
Charles  II.  landed  here  from  his  exile,  May  25,  1660 
The  foot  barracks  were  burnt  down  by  an  acci- 
dental fire July  30,  1800 


A  large  part  of  the  cliff  fell,  Nov.  27,  1810 ;  and 

Jan.  13,  1853 

Railway  to  London  opened        .        .        May  6,  1854 
A  telegraph   wire   laid   down   experimentally 
between   Dover   and   Calais  (see   Submarine 
Telegraph),  Aug.  28,  1850 ;   telegraph  opened, 

Nov.  13,  1851 


DOWER,  the  gifts  of  a  husband  for  a  wife  before  marriage  (Genesis  xxxiv.  12).  The 
portion  of  a  man's  lands  or  tenements  which  his  wife  enjoys  for  life  after  her  husband's 
death.  By  the  law  of  king  Edmund,  a  widow  was  entitled  to 'a  moiety  of  her  husband's  lands 
or  tenements  for  her  life,  941.  The  widows  of  traitors,  but  not  those  of  felons,  are  debarred 
their  dower  by  statute  5  Edw.  VI.  1551.  The  last  dower  act  passed  in  1833. 

DOWN  (N.E.  Ireland),  BISHOPEIC  OF.  An  ancient  see,  whose  first  bishop  was  St. 
Cailan,  in  499.  At  the  instance  of  John  de  Courcy,  the  conqueror  of  Ulster,  the  cathedral, 
although  previously  consecrated  to  the  Trinity,  was  dedicated  to  St.  Patrick  about  1183. 
The  sepulchre  of  St.  Patrick  (who  was  buried  here  in  493,  in  the  abbey  of  Saul,  founded  by 
himself)  brought  this  place  into  great  repute.  The  see  was  united  with  that  of  Connor  in 
1441  (see  Connor)  ;  and  the  see  of  Dromore  was  united  to  both  by  the  provisions  of  the  Irish 
Church  Temporalities  act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  Aug.  14,  1833.  The  cathedral  of  Down- 
patrick  was  destroyed  by  lord  Grey,  lord  deputy  of  Ireland  ;  for  this  and  other  crimes  he 
was  impeached  and  beheaded  in  1541.  Beatson. 

DRACO'S  LAWS  (enacted  by  him  when  archon  of  Athens,  621  B.C.),  on  account  of 
their  severity,  were  said  to  be  written  in  blood.  Idleness  was  punished  with  as  much 
severity  as  murder.  This  code  was  set  aside  by  Solon's,  594  B.  c. 

DRAFTS  (or  cheques).  In  1856,  drafts  crossed  with  a  banker's  name  were  made 
payable  only  to  or  through  the  same  banker.  This  act  was  passed  in  consequence  of  a 
decision  to  the  contrary  in  the  case  of  Carlon  v.  Ireland,  Dec.  12,  1855.  In  1858  the 
crossing  was  made  a  material  part  of  a  cheque,  but  bankers  are  not  held  responsible  when 
the  crossing  does  not  plainly  appear,*  and  a  penny  stamp  was  ordered  to  be  affixed  to  drafts 
on  bankers,  commencing  May  25. 

DRAGOONS.  The  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  dragon,  "because 
mounted  on  horseback  with  lighted  match  he  seemeth  like  a  fiery  dragon. "  MeyricTc.  The 
DEACONARII  were  horse-soldiers,  who  bore  dragons  for  ensigns.  The  first  regiment  of 
dragoons  was  raised  in  England,  it  is  believed,  in  1681.  "  King  Charles  II.  at  the  Restora- 
tion established  a  regiment  of  Life  Guards,  to  which  he  added  a  regiment  of  Horse  Guards, 
and  two  regiments  of  Foot  Guards ;  and  a  third  regiment  of  Foot  Guards  was  raised  at 
Coldstream,  on  the  borders  of  Scotland."  Captain  Curling. 

*  In  the  case  of  Simmonds  v.  Taylor,  May,  1858,  it  was  decided,  on  appeal  to  the  court  of  exchequer, 
that  the  crossing  formed  no  part  of  the  draft.  The  crossing  had  been  erased,  and  the  money  paid  to  the 
holder  of  the  draft  who  had  stolen  it. 


DRAINAGE  OF  LAND,  in  England,  is  of  early  date— remains  of  British  works  being  still 
extant  in  the  Fens  district.  The  truly  national  works  began  in  1621,  when  Cornelius 
Vermuyden,  the  Dutch  engineer,  was  invited  to  England.  Amidst  much  opposition,  he 
and  his  successors  drained  the  districts  termed  the  Great  Levels.  See  Levels,  In  the 
present  century  great  progress  has  been  made  in  drainage.  In  1861  was  passed  "an  act 
to  amend  the  laws  relative  to  the  drainage  of  land  for  agricultural  purposes."  See  Sewers. 

DRAKE'S  CIRCUMNAVIGATION.  Sir  Francis  Drake  sailed  from  Falmouth  Dec.  13, 
1577,  and  sailing  round  the  globe,  returned  to  England,  after  many  perilous  adventures, 
Nov.  3,  1580.  He  was  vice-admiral  under  lord  Howard,  high  admiral  of  England,  in  the 
conflict  with  the  Spanish  Armada,  July  19,  1588. 

DRAMA,  ANCIENT.     Both  tragedy  and  comedy  began  with  the  Greeks. 


The  first  comedy  performed  at  Athens,  by  Susa- 
rion  and  Dolon,  on  a  movable  scaffold  .  B.C. 

The  chorus  introduced 

Tragedy  first  represented  at  Athens  by  Thespis, 
on  a  waggon  (Arund.  Marb.)  .... 

Thespis  of  Icaria,  the  inventor  of  tragedy,  per- 
formed at  Athens  "Alcestis,"  and  was  re- 
warded with  a  goat  (Pliny)  .  ... 

.ffischylus  introduced  suitable  dresses   and  a 


The  drama  was  first  introduced  into  Rotiu  on 
occasion  of  a  plague  which  raged  during  the 
consulate  of  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus  and  C. 
Licinius  Stolo  :  the  magistrates,  to  appease 
the  incensed  deities,  instituted  the  games 
called  the ' '  Scenici, "  which  were  amusements 
entirely  new  ;  actors  from  Etruria  danced, 
after  the  Tuscan  manner,  to  the  flute  .  . 


486 


364 


Anaxandrides  was  the  first  dramatic  poet  who 
introduced  intrigues  upon  the  stage  ;  he  com- 
posed about  loo  plays,  of  which  10  obtained 
the  prize;  he  died B.C.  340 

Subsequently  came  satires,  accompanied  with 
music  set  to  the  flute  ;  and  afterwards  plays 
were  represented  by  Livius  Andronicus,  who, 
abandoning  satires,  wrote  plays  with  a  regular 
and  connected  plot.  He  first  gave  singing  and 
dancing  to  different  performers  ;  he  danced 
himself,  and  gave  the  singing  to  a  younger 
exhibitor 240 

The  greatest  ancient  dramatic  writers  were — 
Greek,  Jfechylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides  (tra- 
gedy), and  Aristophanes  (comedy),  525 — 427  ; 
Latin,  Plautus  and  Terence  (comedy),  184 — 
160;  Seneca  (tragedy)  .  .  7  B.C.—  A.D.  65 


DRAMA,  MODERN,  arose  early  in  the  rude  attempts  of  minstrels  and  buffoons  at  fairs  in 
France,  Italy,  and  England.  Stories  from  the  Bible  were  represented  by  the  priests,  and 
were  the  origin  of  sacred  comedy.  Warton. 


Gregory  Nazianzen,  an  early  father  of  the 
Church,  is  said  to  have  constructed  a  drama 
on  the  Passion  of  Christ,  to  counteract  the 
profanities  of  the  heathen  stage,  about  .  .  364 

Fitzstephen,  in  his  "  Life  of  Thomas  a  Becket," 
asserts  that — "  London  had  for  its  theatrical 
exhibitions  holy  plays,  and  the  representa- 
tion of  miracles,  wrought  by  holy  confessors ;" 
he  died  about 1190 

The  Chester  Mysteries*  were  performed  about  1270 

Plays  were  performed  at  Clerkenwell  by  the 
parish  clerks,  and  ' '  miracles  "  wgre  repre- 
sented in  the  fields,  in 1397 

Allegorical  characters  were  introduced  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI. 

Individual  characters  were  introduced  in  Henry 
VII. 's  reign. 

Skelton  and  others  wrote  "Moralities"  about  1500 

The  first  regular  drama  acted  in  Europe  was  the 
"  Sophonisba"  of  Trissino,  at  Rome,  in  the 
presence  of  pope  Leo  X.  (Voltaire)  .  .1515 

The  first  royal  licence  for  the  drama  in  England  I 

was  to  master  Burbage,  and  four  others,  ser- 
vants to  the  earl  of  Leicester,  to  act  plays  at 
the  Globe,  Bankside 1574 

Shakespeare  began  to  write  about     .        .        .1590 


A  licence  granted  to  Shakespeare  and  his  asso- 
ciates in  1603 

Plays  were  opposed  by  the  Puritans  in  1633, 
and  were  afterwards  suspended  until  the 
Restoration,  in 1660 

Two  companies  of  regular  performers  were 
licensed  by  Charles  II.,  Killigrew's  and  sir 
William  Davenant's.  The  first  was  at  the 
Bull,  Vere-street,  Clare-market,  which  was 
immediately  afterwards  removed  to  Drury- 
lane  ;  the  other  in  Dorset-gardens,  1662.  Till 
this  time,  boys  performed  women's  parts ;  but 
Mrs.  Coleman  (the  first  female  on  the  stage) 
had  performed  lanthe,  in  Davenant's  "  Siege 
of  Rhodes,"  in 1656 

Sir  William  Davenant  introduced  operas,  and 
both  companies  united,  1684,  and  continued 
together  till  1694,  when  a  schism  under  Bet- 
terton  led  to  the  opening  of  a  theatre  in 
Lincoln's-inn-fields,  the  parent  of  Covent- 
garden 1695 

Act  for  the  revision  of  plays  and  for  licensing 
them  previously  to  being  performed  .  .  1737 

Author's  Dramatic  Copyright  Protection  act,  3 
Will.  IV.  c.  15 June,  1833 

See  Theatres,  Covent-garden,  Drury-lane,  and  Co± 


DRAMATIC  COLLEGE,  for  the  benefit  of  distressed  actors  and  their  children,  was 
proposed  July  21,  1858,  at  the  Princess's  theatre,  by  Messrs.  C.  Dickens,  Thackeray,  C. 
Kean,  B.  Webster,  and  others.  Mr.  Henry  Dodd's  offer  of  land  and  money,  with  certain 
stipulations,  was  declined.  The  Queen  is  the  patron.  The  first  stone  of  the  building  was 
laid  by  the  Prince  Consort,  June  i,  1860;  and  on  Sept.  29,  1862,  seven  annuitants  were 
installed.  The  central  hall  was  opened  by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  June  5,  1865. 


*  The  Coventry,  Chester,  Townley,  and  other  mysteries  have  been  printed  during  the  present  century. 


DRA    .  250  DRI 

DRAPIER'S  LETTERS,  by  dean  Swift,  published  in  1724,  against  Wood's  Halfpence 
(which  see). 

DREAMS  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  e.g.,  Joseph's  and  Pharaoh's,  1715  B.C.  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  and  xli.),  and  Nebuchadnezzar's,  603  and  570  B.C.  (Daniel  ii.  and  iv.).  The  first 
attempt  to  interpret  dreams  and  omens  is  ascribed  to  Amphictyon  of  Athens,  1497  B.C.  A 
remarkable  modern  instance  is  attested  in  the  life  of  Thomas,  lord  Lyttelton.* 

DRED  SCOTT  CASE.    See  United  States,  1857. 

DREPANUM  (Sicily).  Near  this  place  the  Carthaginian  admiral  Adherbal  totally 
defeated  the  Roman  fleet  under  P.  Claudius,  249  B.  c. 

DRESDEN",  termed  the  German  Florence,  became  the  capital  of  Saxony  in  1548.  Peace 
of  Dresden,  between  Saxony,  Prussia,  and  the  queen  of  Hungary,  confirming  the  treaties  of 
Berlin  and  Breslau,  signed  Dec.  25,  1745.  Dresden  was  taken  by  Frederick  of  Prussia  in 
X756  ;  by  the  Austriansin  1759  ;  and  bombarded  in  vain  by  Frederick,  in  July,  1760.  Here 
severe  contests  took  place  between  the  allied  army  under  the  prince  of  Schwarzenberg,  and 
the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon,  Aug.  26  and  27,  1813.  The  allies,  200,000 
strong,  attacked  Napoleon  in  his  position  at  Dresden,  and  the  event  had  nearly  proved  fatal 
to  them,  but  for  an  error  in  the  conduct  of  general  Yandamme.  They  were  defeated  with 
dreadful  loss,  and  were  obliged  to  retreat  into  Bohemia  ;  but  Yandamme  pursuing  them  too 
far,  his  division  was  cut  to  pieces,  and  himself  and  all  his  staff  made  prisoners.  In  this 
battle,  general  Moreau  received  his  mortal  wound,  while  in  conversation  with  the  emperor 
of  Russia.  Marshal  St.  Cyr,  and  25,000  French  troops,  surrendered  Dresden  to  the  allies, 
Nov.  n,  1813.  During  a  political  commotion,  the  king  of  Saxony  resigned  the  royal 
authority,  and  prince  Frederick,  his  nephew,  was  declared  regent,  Sept.  9,  et  seq.  1830.  See 
Saxony.  An  insurrection  here  on  May  3,  1849,  was  repressed  on  the  6th.  *h 

DRESS.  The  attire  of  the  Hebrew  worn  en  is  censured  in  Isaiah  iii. ,  about  760  B.C.  Excess 
in  dress  among  the  early  Romans  was  restrained  by  sumptuary  laws  ;  and  also  in  England  by 
numerous  statutes,  in  1363,  1465,  1570,  &c.  (see  Cap)  ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
1574.  J  Stow.  Fairholt's  "  Costume  in  England  "  contains  a  history  of  dress  with  numerous 
illustrations  derived  from  MSS.,  the  works  of  Strutt,  &c.  A  "Dress-making  Company" 
was  established  in  London,  Feb.  6,  1865,  with  the  view  of  improving  the  condition  of  the 
workwomen. 

DREUX  (N.W.  France).  Here  Montmorenci  defeated  the  Huguenots  under  Condd, 
Dec.  19,  1562. 

DRINKING-FOUNTAINS.  Many  were  erected  in  Liverpool  in  1857.  An  association 
for  their  erection  in  London  was  formed  in  April,  1859,  by  lord  John  Russell,  the  earl  of 
Carlisle,  Mr.  S.  Gurney,  and  others.  The  first  of  the  numerous  fountains  since  erected  is 
that  near  St.  Sepulchre's  church,  Skinner- street,  on  April  21,  1859.  The  magnificent  foun- 
tain in  Yictoria-park,  London,  was  inaugurated  by  the  donor,  Miss  Burdett  Coutts, 
June  8,  1862. 

DRILLING-MACHINES,  in  agriculture.  One  was  invented  by  Jethro  Tull,  early  in  the 
last  century. 

*  Lord  Lyttelton  dreamt  that  a  young  female,  dressed  in  white,  solemnly  warned  him  of  his  dissolu- 
tion in  three  days  from  that  time.  On  the  third  day  his  lordship  had  a  party  to  spend  the  evening  with 
him,  and  about  the  time  predicted,  he  observed  to  the  company  present,  that  "  he  believed  he  should 
jockey  the  ghost;"  but  in  a  few  minutes  afterwards  he  was  seized  with  a  sudden  faintness,  carried  to 
bed,  and  rose  no  more.  He  died  in  1779,  aged  35.  Some  assert  that  he  committed  suicide. 

t  The  fine  porcelain  ware  known  as  Dresden  china  was  invented  by  M.  Boeticher,  at  the  time  an 
apothecary's  boy,  about  1700.  Hard  porcelain  was  made  there  in  1709.  Services  of  this  ware  have  cost 


the  body  a  brown  doublet  finely  flowered,  and  embroidered  with  pearls,  and  in  the  feather  of  his  hat  a  large 
ruby  and  pearl  drop  at  the  bottom  of  the  sprig  in  place  of  a  button.  His  breeches,  with  his  stockings  and 
ribbon  garters,  fringed  at  the  end,  all  white  ;  and  buff  shoes,  which,  on  great  court  days,  were  so  gorgeously 
covered  with  precious  stones  as  to  have  exceeded  the  value  of  66ool.  ;  and  he  had  a  suit  of  armour  of  solid 
silver,  with  sword  and  belt  blazing  with  diamonds,  rubies,  and  pearls.  King  James's  favourite,  the  duke 
of  Buckingham,  could  afford  to  have  his  diamonds  tacked  so  loosely  on,  that  when  he  chose  to  shake  a  few 
off  on  the  ground,  he  obtained  all  the  fame  he  desired  from  the  pickers-up,  who  were  generally  les  .Dames 
<le  la  Cour.  We  may  here  mention  a  novel  dress,  the  BLOOMER  COSFUME,  introduced  into  America  in  1849, 
by  Mrs.  Ann  Bloomer,  and  worn  there  by  many  of  the  women.  It  resembled  male  attire,  being  an  open- 
fronted  jacket  and  loose  trousers,  the  latter  wide  like  those  of  the  Turk,  but  gathered  in  at  the  ankles.  The 
Bloomer  dress  was  first  adopted  by  a  few  females  in  the  western  parts  of  London,  in  August,  1851 ;  but 
though  it  was  recommended  by  some  Americau  ladies  in  popular  lectures,  it  was  soon  afterwards  to""11 
discontinued. 


DEO  251  DEU 

DROGHEDA  (Central  Ireland,  E.),  formerly  Tredagh,  a  place  of  great  importance, 
having  the  privilege  of  coining  money.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  an  act,  yet  imrepealed, 
was  passed  for  the  foundation  of  a  university  here.  The  town  was  besieged  several  times  in 
the  contests  between  1641  and  1691.  Cromwell  took  it  by  storm,  and  put  the  governor,  sir 
A.  Aston,  and  the  whole  of  the  garrison,  to  the  sword,  Sept.  n,  1649.  More  than  3000 
men,  most  of  them  English,  perished.  It  surrendered  to  William  III.  in  1690. 

DEC-MORE,  BISHOPRIC  OF  (N.E.  Ireland),  founded  by  St.  Coleman,  first  bishop,  about 
556.  By  an  extent  returned  15  James  I.,  this  see  was  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  50^. 
Jeremy  Taylor  was  bishop  of  Down  and  Connor  in  1660,  and  of  this  see  in  1661.  Dromore 
has  been  united  to  Down  through  the  Irish  Church  Temporalities  act,  1833. 

DROWNING,  as  a  punishment,  is  very  ancient.  The  Britons  inflicted  death  by  drown- 
ing in  a  quagmire,  before  4508.0.  Stow.  It  is  said  to  have  been  inflicted  on  eighty  intrac- 
table bishops  near  Nicomedia,  A.D.  370;  and  to  have  been  adopted  as  a  punishment  in  France 
by  Louis  XL  The  wholesale  dro wirings  of  the  royalists  in  the  Loire  at  Nantes,  by  command 
of  the  brutal  Carrier,  Nov.  1793,  were  termed  Noyades.  He  was  condemned  to  death  in 
Dec.  1794.  Societies  for  the  recovery  of  drowning  persons  were  first  instituted  in  Holland, 
in  1767.  The  second  society  is  said  to  have  been  formed  at  Milan,  in  1768  ;  the  third  in 
Hamburg,  in  1771  ;  the  fourth  at  Paris,  in  1772  ;  and  the  fifth  in  London,  in  1774.  The 
motto  of  the  Royal  Humane  Society  in  England  is  :  Lateat  scintillula  forsan — "A  small 
spark  may  perhaps  lie  hid." 

DRUIDS.    Priests,  among  the  ancient  Germans,  Gauls,  and  Britons,  so  named  from  their 
leration  for  the  oak  (Brit.  derw).     They  administered  sacred  things,  were  the  interpreters 
the  gods,  and  supreme  judges.  They  headed  the  Britons  who  opposed  Caesar's  first  landing, 
55  B.C.,  and  were  exterminated  by  the  Roman  governor,  Suetonius  Paulinus,  A.D.  61. 

DRUM:  the  invention  is  ascribed  to  Bacchus,  who,  according  to  Polysenus,  "gave  his 
signals  of  battle  with  cymbals  and  drums."  It  was  brought  by  the  Moors  into  Spain,  713. 
Le  Clerc.  The  drum,  or  drum-capstan,  for  weighing  anchors,  was  invented  by  sir  S.  Morland, 
in  1685.  Anderson. 

DRUMMOND  LIGHT.     See  Lime-light. 

DRUMCLOG  (W.  Scotland).  Here  the  Covenanters  defeated  Graham  of  Claverhouse, 
on  June  i,  1679.  An  account  of  the  conflict  is  given  by  Walter  Scott,  in  "  Old  Mortality." 

DRUNKARDS  were  to  be  excommunicated  in  the  early  church,  59  (i  Cor.  vii.)  In 
England,  a  canon  law  forbade  drunkenness  in  the  clergy,  747.  Constantino,  king  of  Scots, 
punished  it  with  death,  870.  By  21  James  I.,  c.  7,  1623,  a  drunkard  was  liable  to  a  penalty 
of  five  shillings,  or  six  hours  in  the  stocks. 

DRURY-LANE  THEATEE  derives  its  origin  from  a  cock-pit,  which  was  converted  into 
a  theatre  in  the  reign  of  James  L  It  was  rebuilt,  and  called  the  Phoenix  ;  and  Charles  II. 
granted  an  exclusive  patent  to  Thomas  Killigrew,  April  25,  1662.  The  actors  were,  called 
the  king's  servants,  and  ten  of  them,  who  were  called  gentlemen  of  the  great  chamber,  had 
an  annual  allowance  of  ten  yards  of  scarlet  cloth,  with  a  suitable  quantity  of  lace.  The 
theatre,  with  sixty  adjoining  houses,  was  burnt  down  in  1672  ;  and  a  new  edifice  was  built 
in  its  room  by  sir  Christopher  Wren,  in  1674.  The  interior  was  rebuilt  by  Mr.  Adams,  and 
was  re-opened  Sept.  23,  1775.  The  Drury-lane  Theatrical  Fund  was  originated  by  David 
Garrick  in  1777.  In  1791,  the  theatre  was  pulled  down  ;  it  was  rebuilt  and  opened  March 
12,  1794.  It  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire,  Feb.  24,  1809  ;  and  was  rebuilt  and  opened 
Oct.  10,  1812.  See  Theatres  and  Drama. 

DRUSES,  a  warlike  people  dwelling  among  the  mountains  of  Lebanon,  derive  their 
origin  from  a  fanatical  Mahometan  sect  which  arose  in  Egypt  about  996,  and  fled  to  Palestine, 
to  avoid  persecution.  They  now  retain  hardly  any  of  the  religion  of  their  ancestors  :  they 
do  not  practise  circumcision,  pray,  or  fast,  but  eat  pork  and  drink  wine.  In  the  middle  of 
1860,  in  consequence  of  disputes  (in  which  doubtless  both  parties  were  to  blame),  the  Druses 
attacked  their  neighbours  the  Maronites  (which  see),  whom  they  massacred,  it  was  _  said, 
without  regard  to  age  or  sex.  Peace  was  made  in  July  ;  but  in  the  meantime  a  religious 
fury  seized  the  Mahometan  population  of  the  neighbouring  cities,  and  a  general  massacre  of 
Christians  ensued.  See  Damascus  and  Syria.  Fuad  Pacha  with  Turkish  troops  ;  and 
general  Hautpoul  with  French  auxiliaries,  invaded  Lebanon  in  Aug.  and  Sept.  The  Druses 
surrendered,  giving  up  their  chiefs,  several  of  whom  were  tried  and  condemned  to  die,  in 
Jan.  1 86 1. 


DUB 


252 


DUB 


DUBLIN,  capital  of  Ireland,  anciently  called  Ashcled,  said  to  have  been  built  140.  It 
obtained  its  present  name  from  Alpinus,  a  lord  or  chief  among  the  Irish,  whose  daughter, 
Auliana,  having  been  drowned  at  the  ford  where  now  Whitworth-bridge  is  built,  he  changed 
the  name  to  Auliaua,  by  Ptolemy  called  Eblana  (afterwards  corrupted  into  Dublaua),  that 
she  might  be  had  in  remembrance.  Alpinus  is  said  to  have  made  this  place  his  residence, 
about  155,  when  he  brought  "the  then  rude  hill  into  the  form  of  a  town."  See  Ireland. 


Christianity  established  here  on  the  arrival  of 

St.  Patrick,  about        ......     432 

[St.   Patrick's  cathedral    founded   about   this 

time.] 

Dublin  environed  with  walls  by  the  Danes        .     798 
Named  by   king  Edgar   in  the  preface  to  his 

charter  "  Jfoblissima  Civitas  "  .  .  .  964 
Battle  of  Clontarf  (which  see)  .  April  23,  1014 

Dublin  taken  by  Raymond  le  Gros,  for  Henry 

II.  who  soon  after  arrives  .....  1171 
Charter  granted  by  this  king  .  .  .  .  1173 
Christ  church  built,  1038  ;  rebuilt  .  .  .  1190 
Slaughter  of  500  British  by  the  Irish  citizens 

near  Dublin  (see  Cullen's  Wood)  .  .  .  1209 
Assemblage  of  Irish  princes,  who  swear  alle- 

giance to  king  John     ......  1  2  10 

Foundation  of  Dublin  castle  laid  by  Henry  de 

Loundres,  1205  ;  finished  ....  1213 
John  le  Decer  first  provost  ;  Richard  de  St. 

Olave  and  John  Stakebold  first  bailiffs  (see 

Mayor)  .........   1308 

Thomas  Cusack,  first  mayor  (idem)    .        .        .  1409 
Besieged  by  the  son  of  the  earl  of  Kildare,  lord 


deputy 
Christ  church  made  a  deanery  and  chapter  by 


1500 
1541 


Henry  VIII.  (see  Christ  Church) 
Name  of  bailiff  changed  ;  John  Ryan  and  Thomas 

Comyn,  first  sheriffs    ......   1548 

Trinity  college  founded       .....  1591 

Charter  granted  by  James  I.  .        .        .     .  1609 

Convocation  which  established  the  Thirty-nine 

articles  of  religion    ......   1614 

Besieged  by  the  marquis  of  Ormond,  and  battle 

of  Rathmines  (which  see)  .....  1649 
Cromwell  arrives  in  Dublin  with  9000  foot  and 

400  horse         ......    Aug.     ,, 

Chief  magistrate  honoured  with  the  title  of  lord 

while  holding  office  .....  1665 

Blue  coat  hospital  incorporated  .  .  .  .  1670 
Essex  bridge  built  by  sir  H.  Jervis  .  .  .  1676 
Royal  hospital,  Kilmainham,  founded  .  .  .  1683 
James  11.  arrives  in  Dublin  .  .  .  .1688 
Great  gunpowder  explosion  .....  1693 
Lamps  first  erected  in  the  city  ....  1698 
Infirmary,  Jervis-street,  founded  .  .  .  .  1728 
Parliament-house  began  .....  1729 
Foundling  hospital  incorporated  .  .  .  .  1739 
St.  Patrick's  spire  erected  (see  St.  Patrick)  .  1749 
Royal  Dublin  Society  originated,  1731  ;  incor- 

porated        ........     „ 

Lock  hospital  opened  ......  1758 

Hibernian  society    .......  1765 

Marine  society     .......  1766 

Queen's  bridge  first  erected,  1684  ;    destroyed 

by  a  flood,  1763;  rebuilt      .....  1768 

Act  for  a  general  pavement  of  the  city       .        .1773 
Royal  exchange  begun,  1769  ;  opened  .        .    .  1779 
Order  of  St.  Patrick  instituted  .        .        .        .1783 

Bank  of  Ireland  instituted  (see  Bank)  .        .     .     ,, 
Police  established  by  statute      .        .        .        .1786 

Royal  academy  incorporated  .....    ,, 

Custom  house  begun,  1781  ;  opened  .        .        .  1791 
Dubin  library  instituted         .....     „ 

Fire  at  the  parliament  house      ....   1792 

Carlisle  bridge  erected    ......  1794 

City  armed  association        .....  1796 

New  law  courts  opened  ......     ,  , 

The  rebellion  ;  arrest  of  lord  Edward  Fitzgerald, 

in  Thomas-street  ....  May  19,  1798 
Union  with  England  (see  Union)  .  Jan.  i,  1801 
Emmett's  insurrection  .  .  .  July  23,  1803 
Hibernian  Bible  society  .....  1806 


Bank  transferred  to  College-green     .        .        .  1808 

Dublin  institution  founded i8ir 

Riot  at  the  theatre       ....     Dec.  16,  1814 

Visit  of  George  IV.  ...        Aug.  12,  1821 

The  "  Bottle  conspiracy  "  .        .        .     Dec.  14,  1822 
Hibernian  academy         .        .        .        Aug.  16,  1823 
Dublin  lighted  with  gas       .        .        .      Oct.  5,   1825 
Rd.  Whately  made  archbishop  (very  active  in 
education)          .        .         .        .        .        .        .1831 

Great  custom-house  fire          .        .         Aug.  9,  1833 
Railroad  to  Kingstown        .        .        .  Aug.  17,  1834 
British  Association  meet  here         .         Aug.  6,  1835 
Dublin  new  police  act         .        .         .      July  4,  1836 
Cemetery, 'Mount  Jerome,  consecrated,  Sept.  19,    ,, 
Royal  arcade  burnt          .        .        .        April  25,  1837 
Poor-law  bill  passed    ....     July  31,  1838 

Awful  storm  raged          ....  Jan.  6,  1839 

O'Connell's  arrest  (see  Trials)    .        .      Oct.  14,  1843 
He  is  found  guilty  .         .        .         Feb.  12,  1844 

His  death  at  Genoa     ....     May  15,  1847 

Arrest  of  Mitchell,  of  the  United  Irishman  news- 
paper         May  13,  1848 

State  trial  of  Wm.  Smith  O'Brien  and  Meagher 

in  Dublin May  15,     ,, 

[These  persons  were  afterwards  tried  at  Clon- 

mel,  and  found  guilty.'} 

Trial  of  Mitchell ;  guilty    .        .        .       May  26,     „ 
Irish  Felon  newspaper  first  published      July  i,     ,, 
Nation  and  Irish  Felon  suppressed    .    July  29,     ,, 
Conviction  of  O'Doherty        .        .        .  Nov.  i,     ,, 
The  queen  visits  Dublin    .        .        .       Aug.  6,   1849 
Royal  exchange  opened  as  a  city  hall,  Sept.  30,  1852 
Dublin  industrial  exhibition,   which  owed  its 
existence    to    Mr.    Dargan,    who    advanced 
8o,oooL  for  the  purpose,  was  erected  by  Mr. 
(afterwards  sir)  John  Benson,  in  the  Dublin 
society's  grounds,  near  Merrion-square.     It 
consisted  of  one  large  and  two  smaller  halls, 
lighted  from  above.     It  was  opened  by  earl 
St.  Germains,  the  lord-lieutenant,  May  12 ; 
was  visited  by  the  queen  and  prince  Albert, 
Aug.  30  ;  and  closed  on          .         .        Nov.  i,  1853 
Acts  passed  to   establish  a  national  gallery, 

museum,  &c.     .     Aug.  10,  1854  ;  and  July  2,  1855 
Arrival  of  lord  Eglinton — disgraceful  contest 
between  the  Trinity  college  students  and  the 
police  ;  the  latter  severely  blamed,  March  12,  1858 
Demonstration  at  the    funeral    of   the   rebel 

M'Manus Nov.  10-12,  1861 

Fine  art  exhibition  proposed,  July  20,  1860; 
opened  by  the  lord-lieutenant,  the  earl  of 
Carlisle,  May  24,  1861  ;  visited  by  the  prince 
of  Wales,  July  i;  and  by  the  queen  and 
prince  consort  ....  Aug.  22,  ., 
National  association  for  social  science  met, 

Aug.  14-22,    „ 

Lord  Rosse  installed  as  chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity         Feb.  17,  1863 

Abp.  Whately  dies,  Oct.  8  ;   succeeded  by  Rd. 

Chenevix  Trench         ....      Nov.     ,, 
Statue  of  Oliver  Goldsmith  inaugurated  by  the 
lord-lieutenant,    Jan.    5  ;     who    opens    the 
national  gallery  of  Ireland        .        .  Jan.  30,  1864 
New    Richmond   hospital,    to    be    called    the 
"Carmichael  School  of  Medicine,"   founded 
(Mr.   Carmichael,  the  surgeon,    bequeathed 
io,oooZ.  for  the  purpose)        .        .    March  29,     ,, 
Industrial  exhibition  opened  by  the  lord  chan- 
cellor          May  25,    „ 

The  O'Cpnnell  monument  founded     .     Aug.  8,  1864 
St.  Patrick's  cathedral  restored  by  Mr.  Guin- 
ness ;  re-opened         ....  Feb.  24,  1865 


DUB 


253 


DUE 


DUBLIN,  continued. 

The  international  exhibition  opened  by   the 

prince  of  Wales     ....          May  9,  1865 
The  newspaper  The  Irish  People  seized,  and 


several    Fenians    taken    in    custody.     (See 
Fenians,  and  Ireland.)     .         .        .  Sept.  15,  1865 
International  exhibition  to  be  closed  on  Nov.  9,      ,, 


DUBLIN",  ARCHBISHOPRIC  or.  It  was  united  to  Glendalagh  in  1214.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  bishopric  of  Dublin  was  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  01448.  Gregory,  bishop  in  1121, 
became  archbishop  in  1152.  George  Browne,  an  Augustine  friar  of  London  (deprived  by 
queen  Mary  in  1554),  was  the  first  Protestant  archprelate  of  this  see.  Dublin  has  two 
cathedrals,  Christ  Church,  and  St.  Patrick's.  The  revenue  was  valued,  in  the  king's  books, 
30  Hen.  VIII.  at  534^.  155.  2d.  Irish.  Kildare,  on  its  last  avoidance,  was  annexed  to 
Dublin,  1846.  See  Bishops. 

DUCAT,  a  coin  so  called  because  struck  by  dukes.  Johnson.  First  coined  by  Longiims, 
governor  of  Italy.  Procopius.  First  struck  in  the  duchy  of  Apulia,  1140.  Du  Cangc. 
Coined  by  Robert,  king  of  Sicily,  in  1240. 

DUELLING  took  its  rise  from  the  judicial  combats  of  the  Celtic  nations.  The  first  duel 
in  England,  "William  count  of  Eu  and  Godfrey  Baynard,  took  place  1096.  Duelling  in  civil 
matters  was  forbidden  in  France,  1305.  The  present  practice  of  duelling  arose  in  the  chal- 
lenge of  Francis  I.  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  1528.  The  fight  with  small  swords  was  intro- 
duced into  England,  29  Eliz.  1587.  Proclamation  that  no  person  should  be  pardoned  who 
killed  another  in  a  duel,  30  Charles  II.  1679.*  Duelling  was  checked  in  the  army,  1792  ; 
and  has  been  almost  abolished  in  England,  by  the  influence  of  public  opinion  aided  by  the 
prince  consort.  A  society  "  for  the  discouraging  of  duelling"  was  established  in  1845.  See 
Battel,  Wager  of,  and  Combat. 


MEMORABLE   DUELS. 

Between   the    duke    of    Hamilton    and    lord 

Mohun,  fought         ....     Nov.  15, 
[This  duel  was  fought  with  small  swords,   in 

Hyde-park.      Lord  Mohun  was  killed  upon 

the  spot,  and  the  duke  expired  of  his  wounds 

as  he  was  being  carried  to  his  coach.  ] 
Capt.  Peppard  and  Mr.  Hayes  ;  latter  killed 
Messrs.  Hamilton  and  Morgan  ;  former  kille 
Mr.  S.  Martin  and  Mr.  Wilkes,  M.P.  . 

Lord   Townshend   and   lord  Bellamont  ;    lord 

Bellamont  wounded        .        .        .        Feb.  i 
The  count  d'Artois  and  the  duke  of  Bourbon 

March  21 
Mr.  Donovan  and    capt.  Hanson;    the  latter 

killed         ......    Nov.  13, 

Charles  James  Fox  and  Mr.  Adam  ;   Mr.  Fox 

wounded      .....          Nov.  30, 
Colonel  Fullerton  and  lord   Shelburne  :    the 

latter  wounded  .        .         .        March  22, 

Eev.  Mr.  Allen  and  Lloyd  Dulany  ;  .the  latter 

killed        .......  Tune  18, 

Colonel  Thomas,    of  the  Guards,   and  colonel 

Gordon  ;  colonel  Thomas  killed      .      Sept.  4, 
Lord  Macartney  and  major-gen.  Stuart  ;    the 

former  wounded          ....  June  8, 
Mr.  Barrington  and  Mr.  M'Keiizie  ;  the  former 

killed  on  the  ground  by  general  Gillespie,  the 

second  of  the  latter  ...... 

Mr.  M'Keon  and  George  Nugent  Reynolds  ;  the 

latter  murdered  by  the  former    .        Jan.  31, 
Mr.  Purefoy  and  col.  Roper  ;  the  latter  killed, 

Dec.  17, 
Duke  of  York  and  col.  Lenox,  afterwards  duke 

of  Richmond  (for  an  insignificant  cause), 

May  27, 
Sir  George  Ramsay  and  captain  Macrea  ;    sir 

George  killed        ....... 

Mr.  Curran  and  major  Hobart   .        .     April  i, 
Mr.  Macduff  and  Mr.  Prince;  latter  killed, 

June  4, 


1728 
1748 
1763 

1773 
1778 
1779 
,, 

1780 
1782 
1783 
1786 

1788 


1789 
1790 


Mr.  Harvey  Aston  and  lieut.  Fitzgerald  ;    the 

former  severely  wounded        .        .    June  25,  1790 
Mr.  Stevens  and  Mr.  Anderson  ;    the  former 

killed Sept.  20,    ,, 

Mr.  Graham  and  Mr.  Julius  ;  the  former  killed, 

July  19,  1791 
Mr.  John  Kemble  and  Mr.  Aiken ;  no  fatality, 

March  i,  1792 
Earl  of  Lonsdale  and    captain  Cuthbert  ;    no 

fatality June  9,     ,, 

M.  de  Chauvigny  and  Mr.  Lameth  ;   the  latter 

wounded Nov.  8,    „ 

Mr.  Carpenter  and  Mr.  Pride  ;  the  former  killed, 

Aug.  20,  1796 
Lord  Norbury  and  Mr.  Napper  Tandy ;  an  affair, 

no  meeting Aug.  21, 

Lord  Valentia    and    Mr.  Gawler  ;   the  former 

wounded June  28,  1798 

Wm.  Pitt  and  George  Tierney    .        .     May  27,    ,, 
Isaac  Corry  and  Henry  Grattan     .        Jan.  15,  1800 
Lieut.  Willis  and  major  Impey  ;    the  major 

killed Aug.  26,  1801 

Rt.  hon.  George  Ogle   and  Bernard  Coyle,    8 

shots ;  no  fatality 1802 

Sir  Richard  Musgrave  and  Mr.  Todd  Jones ;  sir 

Richard  wounded     ....    June  8,    „ 
Colonel  Montgomery  and  captain  Mac  Namara ; 

the  former  killed         ....  April  6,  1803 
General  Hamilton  and  colonel   Aaron  Burr  ; 

the    general   killed,    greatly    lamented    (in 

America) 1804 

Lord  Camelford  and  captain  Best ;  lord  Camel- 
ford  killed          ....         March  10,     „ 
Surgeon  Fisher  and  lieut.  Torrens  ;  the  latter 

killed March  22,  1806 

Baron   Hompesch  and   Mr.    Richardson  ;    the 

latter  severely  wounded          .        .    Sept.  21,    ,, 
Sir  Francis  Burdett  and  Mr.  Paull ;  the  former 

wounded May  5,  1807 

Mr.  Alcock  and  Mr.  Colclough ;  the  latter  killed ; 

the  survivor  lost  his  reason          .        June  8,     ,, 


'As 


many  as  227  official  and  memorable  duels  were  fought  during  my  grand  climacteric. "  Sir  J. 
Barrington.  A  single  writer  enumerates  172  duels,  in  which  63  individuals  were  killed  and  96  wounded  ; 
in  three  of  these  cases  both  the  combatants  were  killed,  and  18  of  the  survivors  suffered  the  sentence  of 
the  law.  Hamilton. 


DUE 


254 


BUM 


DUELLING,  continued. 

M.  de  Granpree  and  M.  Le  Pique,  in  balloons, 
near  Paris,  and  the  latter  killed  .  May  3,  1808 

Major  Campbell  and  captain  Boyd  ;  latter 
murdered  (former  hanged,  Oct.  2,  1808), 

June  23,     ,, 

Lord  Paget  and  captain  Cadogan  ;  neither 
wounded May  30,  1809 

Lord  Castlereagh  and  Mr.  George  Canning  ;  the 
latter  wounded  ....  Sept.  22,  ,, 

Mr.  George  Payne  and  Mr.  Clarke  ;  the  former 
killed Sept.  6,  1810 

Captain  Boardman  and  ensign  de  Balton ;  the 
former  killed  ....  March  4,  1811 

Lieut.  Stewart  and  lieut.  Bagnal ;  the  latter 
mortally  wounded  ....  Oct.  7,  1812 

Mr.  Edward  Maguire  and  lieut.  Blundell ;  the 
latter  killed July  9,  1813 

Mr.  Hatchell  and  Mr  Morley    .        .     Feb.  12,  1814 

Captain  Stackpole  (of  "Statira"  frigate)  and 
lieut.  Cecil ;  the  captain  killed  (arose  on  ac- 
count of  words  spoken  four  years  previously), ' 

April,     „ 

Mr.  D.  O'Connell  and  Mr.  D'Esterre ;  Mr.  D'Es- 
terre  killed Feb.  i,  1815 

Colonel  Quentin  and  colonel  Palmer        Feb.  7,     ,, 

Mr.  O'Connell  and  Mr.  Peel ;  an  affair,  no  meet- 
ing   Aug.  31,  „ 

Major  Greene  and  Mr.  Price,  in  America  ;  the 
latter  killed,  greatly  lamented  .  .  .  1816 

Captain  Fottrell  and  colonel  Ross  ;  5  shots  each, 
but  no  fatality  ....  Dec.  1817 

Lieut.  Hindes  and  lieut.  Gilbert  Conroy  ;  the 
former  killed March  6,  ,, 

Mr.  John  Button  and  major  Lockyer  ;  the 
former  killed  ....  Dec.  10,  „ 

Mr.  O'Callaghan  and  lieut.  Bayley ;  the  latter 
killed Jan.  12,  1818 

Mr.  Grattan  and  the  earl  of  Clare         .  June  7,  1820 

Mr.  Heushaw  and  Mr.  Hartinger ;  both  despe- 
rately wounded  ....  Sept.  18,  „ 

Mr.  Scott  and  Mr.  Christie  ;  the  former  killed, 

Feb.  16,  1821 

M.  Manuel  and  Mr.  Beaumont      .       .  April  9,    ,, 

Sir  Alexander  Boswell  and  Mr.  James  Stuart  ; 
the  former  killed  .  .  .  March  26,  1822 

The  duke  of  Buckingham  and  the  duke  of 
Bedford  ;  no  fatality  .  .  .  May  2,  „ 

General  Pe"pe"  and  general  Carascosa  ;  the  latter 
wounded Feb.  28,  1823 


Mr.  Westall  and  captain  Gourlay  ;  the  latter 
killed !824 

Mr.  Beamont  and  Mr.  Lambton        .        July  i,  1826 

Mr.  Brie,  barrister,  and  Mr.  Hayes  ;  the  former 
killed Dec.  26,  „ 

Rev.  Mr.  Hodson  and  Mr.  Grady;  the  latter 
wounded Aug.  1827 

Major  Edgeworth  and  Mr.  Henry  Grattan  ;  an 
affair,  and  no  meeting  ....  Sept.  ,, 

Mr.  Long  Wellesley  and  Mr.  Crespigny ;  neither 
wounded 1828 

Duke  of  Wellington  and  the  earl  of  Winchilsea ; 
no  injury March  21,  1829 

Lieut.  Crowther  and  captain  Helsham  ;  the 
former  killed April  i,  „ 

Mr.  William  Lambrecht  and  Mr.  Oliver  Clayton ; 
the  latter  killed  ....  Jan.  8,  1830 

Captain  Smith  and  Mr.  O'Grady  ;  the  latter 
killed March  18,  „ 

Mr.  Storey  and  Mr.  Mathias ;  the  latter  wounded 

Jan.  22,  1833 

Mr.  Maher  and  Mr.  Colles        .        .        Jan.  22,    ,, 

Sir  John  W.  Jeffcott  and  Dr.  Hennis  ;  the  latter 
mortally  wounded,  and  died  on  the  i8th, 

May  10,    „ 

Charles  Wellesley  Ashe  and  sir  Charles  Hamp- 
ton   Sept.  ii,  1834 

Lord  Alvanley  and  Mr.  Morgan  O'Connell ;  2 
shots  each May  4,  1835 

Sir  Colquhoun  Grant  and  lord  Seymour  ;  no 
fatality May  29,  ,, 

Mr.  Roebuck,  M.P.,  and  Mr.  Black,  editor  of 
the  Morning  Chronicle  ;  2  shots  each  Nov.  19,  ,, 

Mr.  Ruthven  and  Mr.  Scott ;  and  Mr.  Ruthven 
and  Mr.  Close  (Mr.  Scott's  second) ;  the  latter 
wounded May  23,  1836 

The  earl  of  Cardigan  and  captain  Tuckett,  nth 
regt.  ;  2  shots  each  ;  the  latter  wounded  (for 
this  the  earl  was  tried  in  the  house  of  lords 
and  acquitted,  Feb.  16,  1841)  .  Sept.  12,  1840 

Captain  Boldero  and  hon.  Craven  Berkeley ;  no 
fatality July  15,  1842 

Colonel  Fawcett  and  captain  Muuroe  ;  former 
killed July  i,  1843 

Lieut.  Seton  and  lieut.  Hawkey :  the  former 
killed May  20,  1845 

Due  de  Grammont  Caderousse  kills  Mr.  Dil- 
lon at  Paris,  for  a  newspaper  attack  .  Oct.  1862 


DUKE,  Latin  dux,  a  title  first  given  to  generals  of  armies.  In  England,  during  Saxon 
times,  the  commanders  of  armies  were  called  dukes,  duces.  Camden.  In  Genesis  xxxvi. 
some  of  Esau's  descendants  are  termed  dukes.  Duke-duke  was  a  title  given  to  the  house  of 
Sylvia,  in  Spain,  on  account  of  its  possessing  many  duchies. 


Edward  the  Black  Prince  made  duke  of  Corn- 
wall   1337 

Robert  de  Vere  was  created  marquess  of  Dub- 
lin and  duke  of  Ireland,  9  Rich.  II.  .  .  .  1385 

Robert  III.  created  David,  prince  of  Scotland, 


duke  of  Rothesay,  a  title  which  afterwards 
belonged  to  the  king's  eldest  son,  1398,  and 
is  now  borne  by  the  prince  of  Wales. 
Cosmo  de  Medici  created  grand-duke  of  Tus- 
cany, the  first  of  the  rank,  by  pope  Pius  Y.  .  1569 


DULWICH  COLLEGE  (Surrey),  called  God's-gift  College,  founded  by  Edward  Alleyn, 
an  eminent  comedian,  was  completed  and  solemnly  opened  Sept.  13,  1619.  Alleyn  was  its 
first  master,  and  died  in  1626.  A  fine  gallery  to  contain  the  Bourgeois  collection  of  pictures, 
"bequeathed  by  sir  Francis  Bourgeois,  was  annexed  in  1813.  In  1857,  an  act  was  passed  by 
which  the  college  was  reconstituted.  Two  schools  were  established  ;  and  the  number  of 
the  almspeople  increased.  In  1860  the  annual  income  was  11,482?. 

DUMB.     See  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

DUMBLANE  OR  DUNBLANE  (Perth),  near  which  took  place  a  conflict  called  the  battle 
of  Sheriffmuir,  between  the  royalist  army  and  the  Scots  rebels,  the  former  commanded  by 
the  duke  of  Argyle,  and  the  latter  by  the  earl  of  Mar,  Nov.  13,  1715.  Both  sides  claimed 
the  victory. 


DUN  255  DUE 

DUNBAR  (Haddington).  Here  the  Scottish  army  and  John  Baliol  were  defeated  by  the 
earl  of  Warren  ne,  and  Scotland  was  subdued,  April  27,  1296.  Here  also  Cromwell  obtained 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Scots,  in  arms  for  Charles  II.,  Sept.  3,  1650. 

DUNCIAD,  the  celebrated  satirical  poem  by  Alexander  Pope,  was  published  in  1728. 

DUNDALK  (Louth,  Ireland).  In  1318,  at  Foughard  near  this  place,  was  defeated  and 
slain  Edward  Bruce,  who  had  invaded  Ireland  in  1315.  The  walls  and  fortifications  of 
Dundalk  were  destroyed  in  1641.  It  was  taken  by  Cromwell  in  1649.  The  first  cambric 
manufacture  in  Ireland  was  established  in  this  town  by  artisans  from  France  in  1727. 

DUNDEE  (E.  Scotland),  on  the  Tay.  The  site  was  given  by  William  the  Lion  (reigned 
1165 — 1214),  to  his  brother  David,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  who  built  or  strengthened  the 
castle,  and  erected  a  large  church,  the  tower  of  which,  156  feet  high,  still  remains.  The 
town  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1385  ;  pillaged  by  Montrose,  1645  5  stormed  by  Monk  in 
1651  ;  and  was  visited  by  queen  Victoria  in  1844.  It  has  thriven  since  1815,  through  its 
extensive  linen  manufactories  ;  at  one  of  these  (Edwards's)  a  steam  explosion  took  place  on 
April  15,  1859,  when  twenty  persons  were  killed.  Claverhouse,  viscount  Dundee  (killed 
1689),  had  a  house  here.  The  Baxter  park,  the  gift  of  sir  David  Baxter,  was  opened  by 
earl  Russell,  Sept.  9,  1863.  Population  in  1861,  90,425. 

DUNGAN-HILL  (Ireland).  iHere  the  English  army,  commanded  by  colonel  Jones, 
signally  defeated  the  Irish,  of  whom  6000  are  said  to  have  been  slain,  while  the  loss  on  the 
side  of  the  English  was  inconsiderable,  July  10,  1647. 

DUNKELD  (Perthshire)  was  made  a  bishopric  by  David  I.  in  1127  ;  the  ancient  Culdee 
church,  founded  by  king  Constantino  III.,  becoming  the  cathedral.  The  beautiful  bridge 
over  the  Tay,  erected  by  Thos.  Telford,  was  opened  in  1809. 

DUNKIRK  (N.  France),  founded  in  the  7th  century,  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by 
the  English  and  French,  and  put  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  June  1658.  It  was  sold  by 
Charles  II.  for  500,000^.  to  Louis  XIV.,  Oct.  17,  1662.  Dunkirk  was  one  of  the  best 
fortified  ports  in  the  kingdom  ;  but  all  the  works  were  demolished  in  conformity  with  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  The  French  resumed -the  works,  but  they  were  ordered  to  be 
demolished  at  the  peace  of  1763  ;  in  1783  they  were  again  resumed.  The  English  attempted 
to  besiege  this  place  ;  but  the  duke  of  York,  who  commanded,  was  defeated  by  Hoche,  and 
forced  to  retire  with  loss,  Sept.  7,  1793.  It  was  made  a  free  port  in  1816. 

DUNMOW  (Essex),  famous  for  the  tenure  of  the  manor  (made  by  Robert  Fitz-Walter, 
1244),  "that  whatever  married  couple  will  go  to  the  priory,  and  kneeling  on  two  sharp- 
pointed  stones,  will  swear  that  they  have  not  quarrelled  nor  repented  of  their  marriage 
within  a  year  and  a  day  after  its  celebration,  shall  receive  a  flitch  of  bacon."  * 

DUNSINANE  (Perthshire).  On  the  hill  was  fought  the  battle  between  Macbeth  the 
thane  of  Glammis,  and  Siward,  earl  of  Northumberland,  1054.  Edward  the  Confessor  had 
sent  Siward  on  behalf  of  Malcolm  III.,  whose  father  Duncan,  the  thane  and  usurper  had 
murdered.  Macbeth  Avas  defeated,  and  it  was  said  was  pursued  to  Lumphanau,  in  Aberdeen- 
shire,  and  there  slain,  1056. 

DUPPEL  or  DYBBOL.     See  under  Denmark,  1864. 

DUPPLIN  (Perthshire).  Here  Edward  Baliol  and  his  English  allies  totally  defeated  the 
Scots  under  the  earl  of  Mar,  Aug.  11/1332,  and  obtained  the  crown  for  three  months. 

DURBAR,  an  East  Indian  term  for  an  audience-chamber  or  reception.  On  Oct.  18, 
1864,  a  most  remarkable  durbar  was  held  at  Lahore  by  the  viceroy  of  India,  sir  John  Law- 
rence, at  which  604  of  the  most  illustrious  princes  and  chieftains  of  the  north-west  province, 
were  present,  magnificently  clothed. 

DURHAM,  an  ancient  city,  the  Duriholme  of  the  Saxons,  and  Dureme  of  the  Normans. 
The  BISHOPRIC  was  removed  to  Durham  from  Chester-le-street  in  995  ;  whither  it  had  been 
transferred  from  Lindisfarne  or  Holy  Island,  on  the  coast  of  Northumberland,  in  634,  in 

*  The  earliest  recorded  claim  for  the  bacon  -was  in  1445,  since  •when  to  1855  it  had  only  been  demanded 
five  times.  The  last  claimants  previous  to  1855  were  John  Shakeshanks  and  his  wife,  who  established  their 
right  to  it,  June  20,  1751  ;  they  made  a  large  sum  by  selling  slices  of  the  flitch  to  those  who  were  witnesses 
of  the  ceremony,  there  being  5000  persons  present.  The  claim  was  revived  on  July  19,  1855,  when  flitches 
were  awarded  to  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Barlow,  of  Chipping- Ongar,  and  the  Chevalier  Chatelaine  and  his  lady.  The 
lord  of  the  manor  opposed  the  revival,  but  Mr.  W.  Harrison  Ainsworth,  the  novelist,  and  some  friends, 
defrayed  the  expense,  and  superintended  the  ceremonials.  Endeavours  have  been  made  to  perpetuate  the 
custom.  A  flitch  was  awarded  in  1860. 


DUR 


256 


DYE 


consequence  of  the  invasion  of  the  Danes.  The  bones  of  St.  Cuthbert,  the  sixth  bishop, 
were  brought  from  Lindisfarne,  and  interred  in  Durham  cathedral.  The  palatine  privileges, 
granted  to  the  bishop  by  the  Danish  Northumbrian  prince  Guthrum,  were  taken  by  the 
crown  in  June  1836.  Durham  was  ravaged  by  Malcolm  of  Scotland  in  1070,  and  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Northumbrian  rebels  in  1569;  and  by  the  Scots  in  1640.  In  1650  Cromwell 
quartered  his  Scotch  prisoners  in  the  cathedral.  Near  Durham  on  Oct.  17,  1346,  was 
fought  the  decisive  battle  of  Neville's  cross  (which  see).  This  see,  deemed  the  richest  in 
England,  was  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  282 iL  Present  income,  8000?.  The  college, 
founded  in  1290,  was  abolished  at  the  Reformation.  In  1657  Cromwell  established  a  college, 
which  was  suppressed  at  the  Restoration.  The  present  University  was  established  in  1831, 
opened  in  1833,  and  chartered  in  1837.  Certain  reformed  ordinances,  recommended  by  a 
commission,  were  set  aside  in  1863. 

RECENT  BISHOPS   OF   DURHAM. 


1791.  Hon.  Shute  Barrington,  died  in  1826. 

1826.  Wm.  Van  Mildert  (the  last  prince-bishop),  died 

Feb.  21,  1836. 
1836.  Edward  Maltby,  resigned  in  1856;  died  July  3, 

1859,  aged  90. 


1856.  Charles  Thomas  Longley,  became  abp.  of  York, 
May,  1860. 

1860.  Hon.  H.  Montagu  ViUiers  (trans,  from  Carlisle), 

died  Aug.  10,  1861. 

1861.  Charles  Baring  (PRESENT  bishop). 


DURHAM  LETTER.     See  Papal  Aggression. 
DUTCH  REPUBLIC.    See  Holland. 

DUUMVIRI,  two  Roman  patricians  appointed  by  Tarquiu  the  Proud  520  B.C.  to  take 
care  of  the  books  of  the  Sibyls,  which  were  supposed  to  contain  the  fate  of  the  Roman  empire. 
The  books  were  placed  in  the  Capitol,  and  secured  in  a  chest  under  the  ground.  The  number 
of  keepers  was  increased  to  ten  (the  Decemviri)  365  B.C.,  afterwards  to  fifteen  ;  the  added 
five  called  quinque  viri. 

DWARFS  :  ANCIENT.  Philetas  of  Cos,  distinguished  about  330  B.C.,  as  a  poet  and 
grammarian,  was  so  diminutive  that  he  always  carried  leaden  weights  in  his  pockets,  to 
prevent  his  being  blown  away  by  the  wind.  He  was  preceptor  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
JSlian.  Julia,  niece  of  Augustus,  had  a  dwarf  named  Coropas,  two  feet  and  a  hand's  breadth 
high  ;  and  Andromeda,  a  freed-maid  of  Julia's,  was  of  the  same  height.  Pliny.  Aug. 
Caesar  exhibited  in  his  plays  a  man  not  two  feet  in  stature.  Sueton.  Alypius  of  Alexandria, 
a  logician  and  philosopher,  was  but  one  foot  five  inches  and  a  half  high  ;  "he  seemed  to  be 
consumed  into  a  kind  of  divine  nature."  Vos.  Instil. 


MODERN  DWARFS. — John  d'Estrix,  of  Mechlin,  was 
brought  to  the  duke  of  Parma,  in  1592,  when  he 
was  35  years  of  age,  having  a  long  beard.  He  was 
skilled  in  languages,  and  not  more  than  three  feet 
high. 

Jeffrey  Hudson,  an  English  dwarf,  when  a  youth  of 
1 8  inches  high,  was  served  up  to  table  in  a  cold 
pie,  before  the  king  and  queen,  by  the  duchess  of 
Buckingham,  in  1626.  He  challenged  Mr.  Crofts, 
who  had  offended  him,  to  fight  a  duel,  but  the 
latter  came  to  the  ground  armed  only  with  a  squirt , 
This  led  to  another  meeting,  when  the  dwarf  ehot 
his  antagonist  dead,  1653. 

Count  Borowlaski,  a  Polish  gentleman,  of  great  ac- 
complishments and  elegant  manners,  well  known 


in  England,  where  he  resided  many  years,  was 
born  in  Nov.  1739.     His  growth  was  at  one  year 


14  inches  ;  at  six,  17  inches  ;  at  twenty,  33 
inches  ;  and  at  thirty,  39.  He  ha'd  a  sister,  named 
Anastasia,  seven  years  younger  than  himself,  and 
so  much  shorter  that  she  could  stand  under  his 
arm.  He  visited  many  of  the  courts  of  Europe, 
and  died  in  England,  at  the  great  age  of  98,  in  1837. 
Charles  Stratton  (termed  general  Tom  Thumb),  an 
American,  was  exhibited  in  England,  1846.  In 
Feb.  1863,  in  New  York,  when  25  years  old  and  31 
inches  high,  he  married  Lavinia  Warren,  aged  21, 
32  inches  high.  He,  his  wife,  and  child,  and  com- 
modore Nutt,  another  dwarf,  came  to  England  in 
Dec.  1864,  and  remained  there  some  time. 


DYEING  is  attributed  to  the  Tyrians,  about  1500  B.C.  The  English  sent  their  goods  to 
be  dyed  in  Holland,  till  the  art  was  brought  to  them  in  1608.  "  Two  dyers  of  Exeter  were 
flogged  for  teaching  their  art  in  the  north  "  (of  England),  1628.  A  statute  against  abuses  in 
dyeing  passed  in  1783.  The  art  has  been  greatly  improved  by  chemical  research.  A  dis- 
covery of  Dr.  Stenhouse  in  1848,  led  to  M.  Marnas  procuring  mauve  from  lichens  ;  and  Dr. 
Hofmann's  production  of  aniline  from  coal-tar,  has  led  to  the  invention  of  a  number  of 
beautiful  dyes  (mauve,  magenta  red,  &c.).  See  Aniline. 


EAG 


257 


EAR 


E. 

EAGLE,  an  ancient  coin  of  Ireland,  made  of  a  base  metal,  and  current  in  the  first  years 
of  Edward  L  about  1272  ;  was  so  named  from  the  figure  impressed  upon  it.  The  American 
gold  coinage  of  eagles,  half  eagles,  and  quarter  eagles,  began  Dec.  6,  1792  ;  an  eagle  is  of  the 
value  of  10  dollars,  or  about  two  guineas. — The  standard  of  the  eagle  was  borne  by  the  Per- 
sians, at  Cunaxa,  401  B.C.  The  Romans  carried  gold  and  silver  eagles  as  ensigns,  and  some- 
times represented  them  with  a  thunderbolt  in  their  talons,  on  the  point  of  a  spear,  102 
'B.C.  Charlemagne  added  the  second  head  to  the  eagle  for  his  arms,  to  denote  that  the 
empires  of  Rome  and  Germany  were  united  in  him,  A.D.  802.  The  eagle  was  the  standard 
of  Napoleon  I.,  and  is  that  of  Napoleon  III.  ;  as  well  as  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia. — 
The  WHITE  EAGLE,  an  order  of  knighthood,  was  instituted  in  1325,  by  Uladislaus,  king  of 
Poland ;  that  of  the  BLACK  EAGLE  in  1701,  by  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick  L,  on 
his  being  crowned  king  of  Prussia  ;  and  that  of  the  RED  EAGLE  in  1705  and  1712  by  George, 
prince  of  Brandenburg- Anspach. 

EARL,  or  comes,  introduced  at  the  conquest,  superseded  the  Saxon  earldorman,  and  con- 
tinued the  highest  rank  in  England,  until  Edward  III.  created  dukes  in  1337  and  1351,  and 
Richard  II.  created  marquesses  (1385),  both  above  earls.  Alfred  used  the  title  of  earl  as  a 
substitute  for  king.  William  Fitz-Osborn  was  made  earl  of  Hereford  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  1066.  Gilchrist  was  created  earl  of  Angus,  in  Scotland,  by  king  Malcolm  III. 
in  1037.  Sir  John  de  Courcy  created  baron  of  Kinsale  and  earl  of  Ulster  in  Ireland,  by 
Henry  II.  1181. 


EARL  MARSHAL  of  England,  the  eighth  great  officer 
of  state.  This  office,  until  it  was  made  hereditary, 
always  passed  by  grant  from  the  king.  Gilbert  de 
Clare  was  created  lord  marshal  by  king  Stephen, 
1135.  The  last  lord  marshal  was  John  Fitz-Allan, 
lord  Maltravers.  Camden.  Richard  II.  in  1397 
granted  letters  patent  to  the  earl  of  Nottingham 
by  the  style  of  earl  marshal.  In  1672,  Charles  II. 
granted  to  Henry  lord  Howard  the  dignity  of 
hereditary  earl  marshal.  The  earl  marshal's  court 
was  abolished  in  1641.  (See  Howard.) 


EARL  MARISCHAL  of  Scotland  was  an  officer  who 
commanded  the  cavalry,  whereas  the  constable 
commanded  the  whole  army ;  but  they  seem  to 
have  had  a  joint  command,  as  all  orders  were  ad- 
dressed to  "our  constable  and  marischal. "  The 
office  was  never  out  of  the  Keith  family.  It  was 
reserved  at  the  Union,  and  when  the  heritable 
jurisdictions  were  bought,  it  reverted  to  the 
crown,  being  forfeited  by  the  rebellion  of  George 
Keith,  earl  marischal,  in  1715. 


EARRINGS  were  worn  by  Jacob's  children,  1732  B.C.  (Gen.  xxxv.  4). 
EARTH.     See  Globe.  EARTHEN  WAKE,     See  Pottery. 

EARTHQUAKES.  Anaxagoras  supposed  that  earthquakes  were  produced  by  subter- 
raneous clouds  bursting  out  into  lightning,  which  shook  the  vaults  that  confined  them,  435 
B.C.  Diog.  Laert.  Kirch er,£)es  Cartes,  and  others,  supposed  that  there  were  many  vast 
cavities  under  ground  which  have  a  communication  with  each  other,  some  of  which  abound 
with  waters,  others  with  exhalations,  arising  from  inflammable  substances,  as  nitre,  bitumen, 
sulphur,  &c.  Dr.  Stukeley  and  Dr.  Priestley  attributed  earthquakes  to  electricity.  It 
appears  probable  that  steam  generated  by  subterraneous  heat  contributes  to  occasion  them. 
An  elaborate  Catalogue  of  Earthquakes,  with  commentaries  on  the  phenomena,  by  R.  and  J. 
W.  Mallet,  was  published  by  the  British  Association  in  1858-9.  In  1860  the  velocity  of 
their  propagation  was  estimated  by  Mr.  J.  Brown  at  between  470  and  530  feet  per  second. 
The  following  are  quoted  from  the  best  sources  :* 

One  which  made  Euboea  an  island    .        .    B.C.     425 

Ellice  and  Bula  in  Peloponnesus  swallowed  up     372 

One  at  Rome,  when,  in  obedience  to  an  oracle, 
M.  Curtius.  armed  and  mounted  on  a  stately 
horse,  leaped  into  the  dreadful  chasm  it  oc- 
casioned (Livy) 358 

Duras,  in  Greece,  buried,  with  all  its  inhabi- 
tants ;  and  12  cities  in  Campania  also  buried  345 


Lysimachia  and  its  inhabitants  totally  buried  6.0.283 
Ephesus  and  other  cities  overturned        .     A.D.       17 
One  accompanied  by  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius ; 
the    cities    of    Pompeii    and    Herculaneum 

buried 79 

Four  cities  in  Asia,  two  in  Greece,  and  two  in 

Galatia  overturned       .         .                 ...     107 
Antioch  destroyed 115 


*  Mrs.  Somerville  states  that  about  255  earthquakes  have  occurred  in  the  British  isles ;  all  slight.     To 
avoid  the  effects  of  a  shock  predicted  by  a  madman,  for  the  8th  of  April,   1750,  thousands  of  persons, 


particularly  those  of  rank 
Hyde-park. 


ind  fortune,    passed  the  night  on  the  7th  in  their  carriages  and  in  tents  in 


EAR 


258 


EAR 


EARTHQUAKES,  continued. 

Nicomedia,  Csesarea,  and  Nicea  overturned  A.D.   126 
In  Asia,  Pontus,  and  Macedonia,  150  cities  and 

towns  damaged 357 

Nicomedia  again  demolished,  and  its  inhabi- 
tants buried  in  its  ruins 358 

One  felt  by  nearly  the  whole  world    .        .         .     543 
At  Constantinople  ;  its  edifices  destroyed,  and 

thousands  perished 557 

In  Africa  ;  many  cities  overturned    .        .         .     560 
Awful  one  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Asia  ;   more 
than  500  towns  were  destroyed,  and  the  loss 
of  life  surpassed  all  calculation  .        .        .     .     742 
In  France,  Germany,  and  Italy  ....     801 
Constantinople  overturned  ;   all  Greece  shaken    936 
One  felt  throughout  England         .        .        .     .   1089 
One  at  Antioch  ;  many  towns  destroyed,  among 

them  Mariseum  and  Mamistria       .        .         .1114 
Catania,  in  Sicily,  overturned,   and  15,000  per- 
sons buried  in  the  ruins       1137 

One  severely  felt  at  Lincoln        ....   1142 
At  Calabria  ;  one  of  its  cities  and  all  its  inhabi- 
tants overwhelmed  in  the  Adriatic  sea      .     .1186 
One  again  felt  throughout  England ;    Glaston- 

bury  destroyed         . 1274 

In    England ;     the    greatest     known     there, 

Nov.  14,  1318 

At  Naples  ;  40,000  persons  perished      .        .     .  1456 
At  Lisbon  ;    1500  houses   and   30,000  persons 
buried  in  the  ruins ;    several  neighbouring 
towns  engulfed  with  their  inhabitants    Feb.  1531 
One  felt  in  London ;  part  of  St.  Paul's  and  the  ' 

Temple  churches  fell 1580 

In  Japan  ;  several  cities  made  ruins,  and  thou- 
sands perish 1596 

Awful  one  at  Calabria 1638 

One  in  China,  when  300,000  persons  were  buried 

in  Pekin  alone 1662 

One  severely  felt  in  Ireland        ....   1690 
One  at  Jamaica,  which  totally  destroyed  Port 
Koyal,  whose  houses  were  engulfed  40  fathoms 
deep,  and  300  persons  perished  .         .         .     .   1692 
One  in  Sicily,  which  overturned  54  cities  and 
towns,  and  300  villages.     Of  Catania  and  its 
18,000   inhabitants,   not  a  trace  remained  ; 
more  than  100,000  lives  were  lost          .  Sept.   1693 
Palermo  nearly  destroyed  ;  6000  lives  lost         .   1726 
Again  in  China ;   and  100,000  people  swallowed 

up  at  Pekin 1731 

In  Hungary  ;  a  mountain  turned  round    .        .  1736 
One  at  Palermo,  which  swallowed  up  a  con- 
vent ;  but  the  monks  escaped    .        .        .     .  1740 
Lima  and  Callao  demolished  ;    18,000  persons 

buried  in  the  ruins        .         .        .        Oct.  28,  1746 
In  London,  a  slight  shock,  Feb.  8  ;  but  severer 

shock March  8,  1750 

Adriaiiople  nearly  overwhelmed    .         .         .     .1752 
At  Grand  Cairo  ;  half  of  the  houses  and  40,000 

persons  swallowed  up 1754 

Quito  destroyed April,  1755 

Great  earthquake  at  LISBON.  In  about  light 
minutes  most  of  the  houses  and  upwards  of 
50,000  inhabitants  were  swallowed  up,  and 
whole  streets  buried.  The  cities  of  Coimbra, 
Oporto,  and  Braga,  suffered  dreadfully,  and 
St.  Ubes  was  wholly  overturned.  In  Spain, 
a  large  part  of  Malaga  became  ruins.  One 
half  of  Fez,  in  Morocco,  was  destroyed,  and 
more  than  12,000  Arabs  perished  there. 
Above  half  of  the  island  of  Madeira  became 
waste  ;  and  2000  houses  in  the  island  of  Mete- 
line,  in  the  Archipelago,  were  overthrown. 
This  awful  earthquake  extended  5000  miles ; 
even  to  Scotland  '.  .  .  .  Nov.  i,  „ 
In  Syria,  extended  over  10,000  square  miles ; 

Balbee  destroyed 1759 

At  Martinico ;  1600  persons  lost  their  lives, 

Aug.  1767 
At  Guatemala,  which,  with  8000  inhabitants, 

was  swallowed  up     .        .         .        .      July  7,  1773 
A  destructive  one  at  Smyrna         .        .        .     .  1778 


At  Tauris  ;  15,000  houses  thrown  down,  and 
multitudes  buried  .  .  .  .  A.D.  1780- 

Messina  and  other  towns  in  Italy  and  Sicily 
overthrown  ;  40,000  persons  perished  Feb.  5,  1783 

Archiudschan  wholly  destroyed,  and  12,000  per- 
sons buried  in  its  ruins  1784 

At  Borgo  di  San  Sepolcro ;  many  houses  and 
1000  persons  swallowed  up  .  .  Sept.  30,  1789. 

Another  fatal  one  in  Sicily      .         .        .        .     .   1791 

Jn  Naples  ;  Vesuvius  overwhelmed  the  city  of 
Torre  del  Greco  ....  June,  1794 

In  Turkey,  where,  in  three  towns,  10,000  per- 
sons lost  their  lives „ 

The  whole  country  between  Santa  Fe  and 
Panama  destroyed,  including  Cusco  and 
Quito  ;  40,000  people  buried  in  one  second, 

Feb.  4  to  20,  1797 

At  Constantinople,  which  destroyed  the  royal 
palace  and  an  immensity  of  buildings,  and 
extended  into  Romania  and  Wallachia, 

Sept.  26,  1 800 

A  violent  one  felt  in  Holland         .        .     .Jan.  1804 

At  Frosoloiie,  Naples  ;  6000  lives  lost     July  26,  1805 

At  the  Azores  ;  a  village  of  St.  Michael's  sunk, 
and  a  lake  of  boiling  water  appeared  in  its 
place Aug.  n,  1810 

Awful  one  at  Caracas  (which  see)  .        March  26,  1812 

Several  throughout  India  ;  district  of  Kutch 
sunk  ;  2000  persons  buried  .  .  June,  1819 

Genoa,  Palermo,  Rome,  and  many  other  towns 
greatly  damaged  ;  thousands  perish 

One  in  Calabria  and  Sicily  .         .         .         .Oct.  1826 

In  Spain ;  Mercia  and  numerous  villages  devas- 
tated ;  6000  persons  perish  .  March  21,  1829 

In  the  duchy  of  Parma  ;  no  less  than  40  shocks 
were  experienced  at  Borgotaro ;  and  at 
Pontremoli  many  houses  were  thrown  down, 
and  not  a  chimney  was  left  standing, 

Feb.  14,  1834 

In  Calabria,  Cosenza  and  villages  destroyed ; 
1000  persons  buried  .  .  .  April  29,  1835 

In  Calabria ;  1000  buried  at  Rossano,  &c. ,  Oct.  1 2,  1 836 

In  many  cities  of  Southern  Syria,  by  which 
hundreds  of  houses  were  thrown  down,  and 
thousands  of  lives  lost  ....  Dec.  „ 

At  Martinique  ;  nearly  half  of  Port  Royal  de- 
stroyed ;  nearly  700  persons  killed,  and  the 
whole  island  damaged  .  .  Jan.  u,  1839 

At  Ternate ;  the  island  made  a  waste,  and 
thousands  of  lives  lost  .  .  .  Feb.  14,  1840- 

Awful  and  destructive  earthquake  at  mount 
Ararat,  in  one  of  the  districts  of  Armenia  ; 
3137  houses  were  overthrown,  and  several 
hundred  persons  perished  .  .  July  2,  ,, 

Great  earthquake  at  Zante,  where  many  per- 
sons perished  ....  Oct.  30,  ,, 

At  Cape  Haytien,  St.  Domingo,  which  destroyed 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  town  ;  between  4000 
and  5000  lives  were  lost  .  .  .  May  jy  1842 

At  Point  a  Pitre,  Guadaloupe,  which  was  en- 
tirely destroyed  ....  Feb.  8,  1843 

At  Rhodes  and  Macri,  when  a  mountain  fell  in 
at  the  latter  place,  crushing  a  village,  and 
destroying  600  persons  .  .  .  March,  1851 

At  Valparaiso,  where  more  than  400  houses 
were  destroyed  ....  April  2,  „ 

In  South  Italy;  Mem  almost  laid  in  ruins; 
14,000  lives  lost  ....  Aug.  14,  ,, 

At  Philippine  isles  ;   Manilla  nearly  destroyed, 

Sept.  and  Oct.  1852 

In  N.W.  of  England,  slight        .        .       Nov.  9,     „ 

Thebes,  in  Greece,  nearly  destroyed     .      Sept.  1853 

St.  Salvador,  S.  America,  destroyed      April  16,  1854 

Anasaca,  in  Japan,  and  Simoda,  in  Niphon, 
destroyed  ;  Jeddo  much  injured  .  Dec.  23,  ,, 

Broussa,  in  Turkey,  nearly  destroyed    Feb.  28,  1855 

Several  villages  in  Central  Europe  destroyed, 

July  25,  26,     ,, 

Jeddo  nearly  destroyed        .        .        .  Nov.  n,    ,, 

At   the   island  of    Great  Sanger,  one  of  the 


EAR 


259 


EAS 


EARTHQUAKES,  continued. 

Moluccas,  volcanic  eruption  and  earthquake ; 

nearly  3000  lives  lost  .  .  .  March  12,  1856 
In  the  Mediterranean  :  at  Candia,  500  lives  lost ; 

Rhodes,  100  ;  and  other  islands,  150    Oct.  12,     ,, 
In  Calabria,*   Montemurro    and    many    other 

towns  destroyed,  and  about  22,000  lives  lost 

in  a  few  seconds  ....  Dec.  16,  1857 
Corinth  nearly  destroyed  .  .  .  Feb.  21,  1858 
At  Quito ;  about  5000  persons  killed,  and  an 

immense  amount  of  property  destroyed, 

March  21,  1859 
At  Erzeroum,  Asia  Minor ;    above  1000  persons 

said  to  have  perished        .         .        .     June  2,     ,, 
At  Sail  Salvador ;   many  buildings  destroyed, 

no  lives  lost Dec.  8,     ,, 

In  Cornwall,  slight,     .     Oct.  21,  1859 ;  Jan.  13,  1860 
At  Perugia,  Italy ;  several  lives  lost   .     May  8,  1861 


•  At  Mendoza,  South  America  :  about  two-thirds 
j      of  the  city  and  7000  lives  lost      .      March  20,  1861 
In  Greece;  N.  Morea,  Corinth,  and  other  places 

injured Dec.  26,     „ 

Guatemala  ;   150  buildings  and  14  churches  de- 
stroyed     Dec.  19,  1862 

Rhodes  ;    13  villages  destroyed,  about  300  per- 
sons perished,  and  much  cattle  and  property 

lost April  22,  1863 

Manilla,  Philippine  isles  ;   immense  destruction 
of  property  ;  about  10,000  persons  perish, 

June  3,    ,, 
Central,  west,  and  north-west  of  England,  at 

3  h.  22  m.  A.M.  Oct.  6,     ,, 

At     Macchia,     Bendinefla,    &c.,    Sicily;     200 
houses  destroyed,  64  persons  killed    July  18,  1865 


EAST  ANGLES.  This  kingdom  (the  sixth  of  the  Heptarchy)  was  commenced  by  Uffa, 
575,  and  ended  with  Ethelbert  in  792.  See  Britain.  The  ancient  see  founded  by  St.  Felix, 
vho  converted  the  East  Angles  in  630,  was  removed  to  Norwich  (which  see). 


EAST  INDIES,  &c.     See  India. 


EAST  SAXONS.     See  Britain. 


EASTER,  the  festival  observed  by  the  church  in  commemoration  of  Our  Saviour's  resur- 
3tion,  so  called  in  England  from  the  Saxon  goddess  Eostre.  It  was  instituted  about  68, 
id  the  day  for  its  observance  in  England  was  fixed  by  St.  Austin,  in  597.  After  much 
mtention  between  the  eastern  and  western  churches  it  was  ordained  by  the  council  of  Nice, 
55,  to  be  observed  on  the  same  day  throughout  the  whole  Christian  world.  "  Easter-day 
the  Sunday  following  that  fourteenth  day  of  the  calendar  moon  which  happens  upon  or 
3xt  after  the  2ist  March  :  so  that,  if  the  said  fourteenth  day  be  a  Sunday,  Easter-day  is 
)t  that  Sunday  but  the  next."  Easter-day  may  be  any  day  of  the  five  weeks  which  com- 
lence  with  March  22  and  end  with  April  25.  The  dispute  between  the  old  British  church 
id  the  new  Anglo-Saxon  church  respecting  Easter  was  settled  about  664. — Easter  Sunday, 
1866,  April  i  ;  in  1867,  April  21  ;  in  1868,  April  12. 

EASTER  ISLAND,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was  discovered  by  Davis  in  1686  ;  it  was  visited 
Roggewein,  in  1 722,  and  from  him  obtained  the  name  it  now  bears  ;  it  was  visited  by 

captain  Cook,  in  1774.     At  the  south-east  extremity  is  the  crater  of  an  extinguished  volcano, 

about  two  miles  in  circuit  and  800  feet  deep. 

EASTERN  (or  GREEK)  CHURCH.     See  Greek  ChurcJi. 

EASTERN  EMPIRE.  After  the  death  of  the  emperor  Jovian,  in  Feb.  364,  the  generals 
at  Nice  elected  Valentinian  as  his  successor  :  in  June,  he  made  his  brother  Valens  emperor 
of  the  West.  The  eastern  enrpire  ended  Avith  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  and  death  of 
Constantine  XIII.,  May  29,  1453.  See  Turkey. 

Theodosius  X.  the  Great,  succours  Valentinian 
II.,  the  western  emperor,  and  defeats  the  ty- 
rant Maximus,  at  Aquileia 388 

Valentinian  II.  slain  by  Arbogastes  the  Frank, 
who  makes  Eugenius  emperor  .  .  .  392 

Eugenius  defeated  and  slain  by  Theodosius, 
who  re-unites  the  two  empires  .  Sept.  6,  394 

Death  of  Theodosius  ;  the  empire  finally  divided 
between  his  sons — Arcadius  receives  the  east, 
Honorius  the  west  .  .  .  Jan.  17,  395 

Alaric  the  Goth  begins  to  ravage  the  empire    .      „ 

Violent  religious  dissensions  ;  Theodosius  II. 
establishes  schools,  and  endeavours  to  revive 
learning 425 

The  Theodosian  code  promulgated      .        .        .     438 

The  councils  of  Ephesus,  431,  449 ;  of  Chalcedon,    451 

Frequent  sanguinary  conflicts  between  the 
Blues  and  Greens,  circus  factions,  at  Constan- 
tinople   498-520 

The  Justinian  code  published         .        .         '    .     529 

War  with  Persia ;    beginning  of  the  victorious 


career  of  Belisarius,  the  imperial  general  .  529-531 
He  suppresses  the  "  Nika  "  ("  conquer")  insur- 

rection of  the  circus  factions  ;    30,000  Greens 

slain  .........     532 

His  victories  in  Africa,  Italy,  and  the  East  .  533-541 
Recalled  through    Justinian's    jealousy,   542; 

again,  548  ;  again,  549  :  disgraced       .        .     . 
Beginning  of  the  Turkish  power  in  Asia    . 


562 
545 


552 
565 


The  Slavonians  ravage  Illyria 
Narses  defeats  Totila  and  the  Goths  near  Rome 
Death  of  Belisarius,  aged  84  ;  of  Justinian,  aged 
83  ........  •       .    . 

Victories  of  Maurice  and  Narses  in  the  East, 

579  et  seq. 
Disaffection  of  Narses      ......     591 

Severe  contests  with  the  Avars         .        .         594-620 
N;irses  burnt  at  Constantinople      .        .         .     .     606 

The  flight  (Hejra)  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to 
Medina,  where  he  establishes  himself  as  a 
prophet  and  prince         .        .        .      July  16,    622 
Victorious  career  of  Heraclius  II.         .        622  et  seq. 


*  In  the  course  of  75  years,  from  1783  to  1857,  the  kingdom  of  Naples  lost,  at  least,  m, coo  inhabitants 
by  the  effects  of  earthquakes,  or  more  than  1500  per  year,  out  of  an  average  population  of  6,000,000 1 

S  2 


EAS 


260 


EAS 


EASTERN  EMPIRE,  continued. 

lie  recovers  his  lost  territories  .        .        .    627 

The  Saracens  invade  the  empire,  632  ;    defeat 
Heraclius  at  Aiznadin,  633  ;  take  Alexandria, 
640 ;  and  the  Greek  provinces  in  Africa,  648  ; 
Constans  purchases  peace  with  them         .     .    660 
They  besiege  Constantinople  seven  times  .      672-677 
The  Bulgarians  establish  a  kingdom  in  Mcesia 
(now  Bulgaria),  678 ;  they  ravage  the  country 

up  to  Constantinople 711 

The  Saracens  vainly  invest  Constantinople,  716, 

718  ;  defeated 720 

Leo  III.  the  Isaurian,  forbids  the  worship  of 
images  :   (this  leads  to  the  Iconoclast  contro- 
versy, and  eventually  to  the  separation  of  the 
eastern  and  western  churcTies)   .        .        .     .     726 
A  great  invading  Arab  force  (90,000)  defeated 

by  Acronius 739 

The  monasteries  dissolved 770 

Destruction  of  images  throughout  the  empire 
decreed,  754 ;  image-worship  restored  by  the 
empress  Irene  (for  which  she  was  canonized)    787 
The  empire  loses  the  exarchate  of  Italy,  752  ; 

Dalmatia,  825  ;  Sicily  and  Crete       .        .        .     827 
Image-worship  persecuted,  830  ;  restored,  842  ; 
forbidden  at  Constantinople  by  one  council, 

869  ;  restored  by  another 879 

South  Italy  annexed  to  the  empire  .  .  .  890 
Five  emperors  reigning  at  one  time  .  .  .  942 
Naples  added  to  the  empire  .  .  .  ,, 

Basil  subdues  the  Bulgarians  .  .  .  987,  1014 
Bulgaria  annexed  to  the  empire  .  .  .  1018 
The  Turks  invade  Asia  Minor  .  .  .  1068 

The  Normans  conquer  South  Italy  .  .  .  1080 
The  first  crusade ;  Alexis  I.  recovers  Asia 

Minor 1097 

The  Venetians  victorious  over  the  Greeks  .  1125 
The  Hungarians  repelled,  1152;  peace  made 

with  the  Normans  in  Sicily         .        .  .  1156 

Wars  with  the  Turks  and  the  Venetians    .        .1172 

Cyprus  lost  to  the  empire 1190 

The  fourth  crusade  begins 1202 

Kevolt  of  Alexis  against  his  brother  Isaac  ;  the 


crusaders  take  Constantinople,   and  restore 
Isaac  and  his  son  Alexis  IV 1203 

Alexis  Ducas  murders  Alexis  IV.  and  usurps  the 
throne  ;  the  crusaders  take  Constantinople, 
kill  Alexis,  and  establish  the  Latin  empire, 
under  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders  .  .  1204 

Kingdom  of  Epirus  and  ^tolia  established     .  1208 

The  Greek  empire  re  established  by  Michael 
Palajologus 1261 

Establishment  of  the  Turkish  empire  in  Asia, 
under  Othman  1 1299 

The  Genoese  trade  in  the  Black  sea       .         .     .  1303 

The  Turks  ravage  Mysia,  &c.,  1340  and  1345; 
and  settle  in  the  coast  of  Thrace  .  .  .  135-^ 

The  sultan  Amurath  takes  Adriaiiople,  and 
makes  it  his  capital,  1362  ;  and,  by  treaty, 
greatly  reduces  the  emperor's  territories  .  1373 

All  the  Greek  possessions  in  Asia  lost  .        .     .   1390 

The  sultan  Bajazet  defeats  the  Christian  army, 
under  Sigismund  of  Hungary,  at  Nicopolis, 

Sept.  28,  1396 

The  emperor  Manuel  vainly  solicits  help  from 
the  western  sovereigns 1400 

A  Turkish  pacha  established  at  Athens     .         .1401 

The  Greek  empire  made  tributary  to  Timour, 
1402  ;  who  subjugates  the  Turkish  sultan, 
and  dismembers  his  empire,  1403;  death  of 
Timour,  on  his  way  to  China  ....  1405 

Dissension  amongst  the  Turks  defers  the  fall 
of  Constantinople,  1403-12  ;  Mahomet  I.  aided 
by  the  emperor  Manuel,  becomes  sultan  .  1413 

Amurath  II.  in  vain  besieges  Constantinople, 
1422  ;  peace  made 1425 

John  Palseologus  visits  Rome  and  other  places, 
soliciting  help  in  vain  .  .  .  1437-40 

Accession  of  Constantino  XIII.  the  last  em- 
peror   1448 

Accession  of  Mahomet  II.  1451  ;  he  begins  the 
siege  of  Constantinople,  April  6,  and  takes  it, 

May  29,  1453 

(He  granted  to  the  Christians  personal  security 
and  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.)  See 
Turkey. 


EMPERORS    OF    THE    EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


364- 
379- 
395- 
408. 
450- 
457- 
474- 

491. 
518. 
527- 
565- 
578. 
582- 

602. 


610. 
641. 


668. 
685. 

695- 

698. 
7°5- 

711. 


Valene. 

Theodosius  I.  the  Great. 

Arcadius,  the  son  of  Theodosius. 

Theodosius  II.  succeeded  his  father. 

Marcian,  a  Thracian  of  obscure  family. 

Leo  I.  the  Thracian. 

Leo  the  Younger,  died  the  same  year. 

Zeno,  called  the  Isaurian. 

Anastasius  I.  an  Illyrian,  of  mean  birth. 

Justin  I.  originally  a  private  soldier. 

Justinian,  founder  of  the  Digest. 

Justin  II.  nephew  of  Justinian. 

Tiberius  II.  renowned  for  his  virtues. 

Maurice,  the  Cappadocian  :  murdered  with  all 

his  children,  by  his  successor, 
Phooas,    the     Usurper,    a   centurion,    whose 

crimes  and  craelties  led  to  his  own  assas- 
sination in  610. 

Heraclius,  by  whom  Phocas  was  dethroned. 
Heracleonas-Constantine,     reigned      a      few 

months  ;     poisoned    by    his    step-mother 

Martina. 

Constans  II.  ;  assassinated  in  a  bath. 
Constantino  III.  Pogonatus. 
Justinian  II.  son  of  the  preceding ;  abhorred  for 

his  exactions,  debaucheries,  and  cruelties  : 

dethroned  and  mutilated  by  his  successor, 
Leontius :  dethroned  and  mutilated  by  Tiberius 

Aspimar. 

Tiberius  III.  Aspimar. 
Justinian  II.  restored.    Leontius  and  Tiberius 

degraded  in  the  Hippodrome,   and  put  to 

death.     Justinian  slain  in  711. 
Philippicus-Bardanes :  assassiiia'ed. 


713.  Anastasius  II.  :  fled  on  the  election  of  Theo- 
dosius in  716 ;  afterwards  delivered  up  to 
Leo  III.  and  put  to  death. 

716.  Theodosius  III. 

718.  Leo  III.  the  Isaurian. 

[In  this  reign  (726)  commences  the  great 
Iconoclastic  controversy  ;  the  alternate  pro- 
hibition and  restoration  of  images  involves 
the  peace  of  several  reigns.] 

741.  Constaiitine  IV.  Copronymus,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding ;  succeeded  by  his  son, 

775.  Leo  IV. 

780.  Constantino  V.  and  his  mother  Irene. 

790.  Constantino,  alone,  by  the  desire  of  the  people, 
Irene  having  become  unpopular. 

792.  Irene  again,  jointly  with  her  son,  and  after- 
wards alone,  797  ;  deposed  for  her  cruelties 
and  murders,  and  exiled. 

802.  Nicephorus  I.  surnamed  Logothetes  :  slain. 

811.  Staurachius  :  reigns  a  few  days  only. 
„     Michael  I.  :  defeated  in  battle,  abdicates  the 
throne,  and  retires  to  a  monastery. 

813.  Leo  V.  the  Armenian  :  killed  in  the  temple  at 
Constantinople  on  Christmas-day,  820,  by 
conspirators  in  the  interest  of  his  successor, 

820.  Michael  II.  the  Stammerer. 

829.  Theophilus,  son  of  Michael. 

842.  Michael  III.  surnamed  Porphyrogenitus,  and 
the  Sot,  son  of  the  preceding ;  murdered  by 
his  successor, 

867.  Basilius  I.  the  Macedonian. 

886.  Leo  VI.  styled  the  Philosopher. 

911.  Alexander  and  Constaiitine  VI.  Porphyroge- 
nitus, brother  and  son  of  Leo,  the  latter 


EAS 


261 


ECC 


EASTERN  EMPIRE,  continued. 

only  six  years  of  age  ;  the  former  dying  in 
912,  Zoe,  mother  of  Constantino,  assumes 
the  regency. 

919.  Romanus    Lecapenus    usurps    the    imperial 

power,  and  associates  with  him  his  sons  : 

920.  Christopher,  and 

928.  Stephen  and  Coustantine  Vil. 

[Five  emperors  now  reign  :  of  these,  Chris- 
topher dies  in  931  ;  Romanus  is  exiled  by  his 
sons,  Constantino  and  Stephen,  who  are 
themselves  banished  the  next  year.] 

945.  Constantino  VII.  now  reigns  alone  :  poisoned 
by  his  daughter-in-law,  Theophania,  959. 

959.  Romanus  II.  son  of  the  preceding  :  this  mon- 
ster, who  had  contrived  his  father's  death, 
banishes  his  mother,  Helena. 

963.  Nicephorus  II.  Phocas  :  marries  Theophania, 
his  predecessor's  consort,  who  has  him  as- 
sassinated. 

969.  John  I.  Zemisces,  celebrated  general ;  takes 
Basilius  II.  and  Constantino  VIII.  sons  of 
Romanus  II.  as  colleagues  ;  John  dies,  sup- 
posed by  poison,  and 

976.  Basilius  II.  and  Constantino  VIII.  reign  alone : 

the  former  dies  in  1025  ;  the  latter  in  1028. 
1028.  Romanus  III.   Argyropulus ;  poisoned  by  his 

profligate  consort  Zoe,  who  raises 
1034.  Michael  IV.  the  Paphlagonian,  to  the  throne  : 
on  his  death  Zoe  places 

1041.  Michael  V.  surnamed  Calaphates,  as  his  suc- 

cessor :  Zoe  dethrones  him,  has  his  eyes  put 
out,  and  marries 

1042.  Constantine  IX.   Monomachus ;    he    and  Zoe 

reign  jointly  :  Zoe  dies  in  1050. 
1054.  Theodora,  widow  of  Constantine. 

1056.  Michael  VI.  Stratiotes,  or  Strato  :  deposed. 

1057.  Isaac  I.  Comnenus :  abdicates. 
1059.  Constantine  X.  surnamed  Ducas. 

1067.  Eudocia,  consoi-t  of  the  preceding,  and  Ro- 
manus IV.  surnamed  Diogenes,  whom  she 
marries,  reign  to  the  prejudice  of  Michael, 
Constantino's  son. 

1071.  Michael  VII.  Parapinaces,  recovers  his  throne, 
and  reigns  jointly  with  Constantino  XI. 

1078.  Nicephorus  III.  ;  dethroned  by 

1081.  Alexis  or  Alexius  I.  Comnenus,  succeeded  by 

1118.  John  Comnenus,  his  son,  surnamed  Kalos : 
died  of  a  wound  from  a  poisoned  arrow. 

1143.  Manuel  I.  Comnenus,  son  of  John. 

1 1 80.  Alexis  II.  Comnenus,  son  of  the  preceding, 
under  the  regency  of  the  empress  Maria,  his 
mother.  -~ 

1183.  Andronicus  I.  "Comnenus,  causes   Alexis    to 


be  strangled,  and  seizes  the  throne  :  put  to 

death  by 
1185.  Isaac  II.  Angelus-Comnenus,  who  is  deposed, 

imprisoned,  and  deprived  of  his  eyes  by  his 

brother, 
1195.  Alexis  III.  Angelus,  called  the  Tyrant:  this 

last  deposed  .in  his  turn,  and  his  eyes  put 

out ;  died  in  a  monastery. 

1203.  Isaac  II.  again,  associated  with  his  son,  Alexis 

IV. :  deprived. 

LATIN   EMPERORS. 

1204.  Baldwin  I.  carl  of  Flanders,  on  the  capture  of 

Constantinople  by  the  Latins,  elected  em- 
peror :  made  a  prisoner  by  the  king  of 
Bulgaria,  and  never  heard  of  afterwards. 

1206.  Hemy  I.  his  brother  :  dies  in  1217. 

1216.  Peter  do  Courtenay,  his  broth er-iii-law. 

1 22 1.  Robert  de  Courtenay,  his  son. 

1228.  Baldwin  II.  his  brother,  a  minor,  and  John  de 
Brienne,  of  Jerusalem,  regent  and  associate 
emperor. 

1261.  [Constantinople  recovered,  and  the  empire  of 
the  Franks  or  Latins  terminates.] 

CHEEK   EMPERORS   AT   NICE. 

1204.  Theodore  Lascaris. 

1222.  John  Ducas,  Vataces. 

1255.  Theodore  Lascaris  II.,  his  son, 

1259.  John  Lascaris,  and 

1260.  Michael  VIII.  Palseologus.    • 

EMPERORS   AT   CONSTANTINOPLE. 

1261.  Michael  VIII.  now  at  Constantinople :  he  puts 

out  the  eyes  of  John,  and  reigns  alone. 
1282.  Andronicus  II.  Palseologus  the  Elder,  son  of 

the  preceding  :  deposed  by 
1328.  Andronicus  the  Younger,  his  grandson. 
1332.  Andronicus  III.  the  Younger. 
1341.  John  PaLeologus,  under  the  guardianship  of 

John  Cantacuzenus  :   the  latter  proclaimed 

emperor  at  Adrianople. 
1347.  John  Cantacuzenus  abdicates. 
1355.  John  Palseologus,  restored. 
1391.  Manuel  Palseologus,  his  son  :  succeeded  by  his 

son  and  colleague, 
1425.  John  Pala3ologus  II.     The  throne  claimed  by 

his  three  brothers. 
1448.  Constantine  Palseologus  XII.  (XIII.    or  XIV 

some  of  the   other  emperors  being  called 

Constantine  by  some  writers)  killed,  when 

Constantinople  is  taken,  May  29,  1453. 


EBIONITES,  heretics,  in  the  2nd  century,  who  seem  to  have  been  a  branch  of  the 
Nazarenes,  were  of  two  kinds  :  one  believed  that  our  Saviour  was  born  of  a  virgin,  observed 
all  the  precepts  of  the  Christian  religion,  but  added  the  ceremonies  of  the  Jews  ;  the  other 
believed  that  Christ  was  born  after  the  manner  of  all  mankind,  and  denied  his  divinity. 
Pardon.  Photinus  revived  the  sect  in  342. 

EBONITE  (vulcanised  india-rubber).     See  Caoutchouc. 

EBRO,  a  river  in  Spain — the  scene  of  a  signal  defeat  of  the  Spaniards  by  the  French, 
under  Lannes,  near  Tudela,  Nov.  23,  1808  ;  and  also  of  several  important  movements  of  the 
allied  British  and  Spanish  armies  during  the  Peninsular  war  (1809  and  1813). 

ECCLESIASTICAL  COMMISSIONS.  One  was  appointed  by  queen  Elizabeth,  1584 ; 
by  James  I.  in  Scotland,  1617  ;  by  the  English  parliament  in  1641  ;  and  by  James  II.  to 
coerce  the  universities  in  1687.  The  present  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  (bishops,  deans, 
and  laymen)  were  appointed  in  1835,  and  incorporated  in  1836. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  COURTS.  There  existed  no  distinction  between  lay  and  ecclesias- 
tical courts  in  England  until  after  the  Norman  conquest,  1066.  See  Arches  and  Consistory 
Courts.  Till  the  establishment  of  the  Divorce  and  Probate  courts  (which  sec]  in  1857,  the 
following  were  the  causes  cognisable  in  ecclesiastical  courts  :  blasphemy,  apostasy  from 


ECC  262  EDD 

Christianity,  heresy,  schism,  ordinations,   institutions  to   benefices,  matrimony,  divorces, 
bastardy,  tithes,  incests,  fornication,  adultery,  probate  of  wills,  administrations,  &c. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  STATE,  or  STATES  OF  THE  CHURCH.     See  Rome,  Modern. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  TITLES  BILL.     See  Papal  Aggression. 

ECHOES.  The  time  which  elapses  between  the  utterance  of  a  sound  and  its  return  must 
be  more  than  one-twelfth  of  a  second,  to  form  an  echo.  The  whispering  gallery  of  St.  Paul's 
is  a  well-known  example. 

ECKMUHL  (Bavaria),  the  site  of  a  battle  between  the  main  armies  of  France  (75,000) 
and  Austria  (40,000)  ;  Napoleon  and  marshal  Davoust  (hence  prince  d'Eckmiihl)  defeated 
the  archduke  Charles,  April  22,  1809. 

ECLECTICS  (from  Greek,  eklego,  I  choose),  ancient  philosophers  (called  Analogelici, 
and  also  Philalethes,  or  the  lovers  of  truth),  who,  without  attaching  themselves  to  any  sect, 
chose  what  they  judged  good  from  each  :  of  them  was  Potamon  of  Alexandria,  about 
A.D.  i.  Dry  den.  Also  a  Christian  sect,  who  considered  the  doctrine  of  Plato  conformable  to 
the  spirit  of  Christianity. 

ECLIPSE  (the  race-horse).     See  Races. 

ECLIPSES.     Their  revolution  was  first  calculated  by  Calippus,  the  Athenian,  336  B.C. 

The  Egyptians  said  they  had  accurately  observed  373  eclipses  of  the  sun,  and  832  of  the 
moon,  in  the  period  from  Vulcan  to  Alexander,  who  died  323  B.C.  The  theory  of  eclipses 
is  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  Chinese  before  120  B.C.  The  first  eclipse  recorded  hap- 
pened March  19,  721  B.C.,  at  8/1.  40?^.  P.M.,  according  to  Ptolemy  ;  it  was  lunar,  and  was 
observed  with  .accuracy  at  Babylon.  A  list  of  eclipses  to  the  year  A.D.  2000  is  given  in 

"L'Artdt  Verifier  les  Dates." 


REMARKABLE   ECLIPSES  : — 


OF  THE   SUN. 


That  predicted  by  Thales.*    See  Hab/s  (Pliny,    B.C. 

lib.  ii.  9),  believed  to  have  occurred  May  28,  585 
One  at  Athens  (Thucydides,  lib.  iv.)  .  .  .  424 
Total  one  :  three  days'  supplication  decreed  at 

Borne  (Livy) 188 

One  general  at    the    death  of  Jesus  Christ   A.D. 

(Josephus) 33 

One  observed  at  Constantinople    .        .        .     .    968 
In  France,  when  it  was  dark  at  noon-day  (Du 

Fresnoy) June  29,  1033 

In  England;  a  total  darkness  ( 17m.   Malmsb.) 

March  20,  1140 
Again ;  the  stars  visible  at  ten  in  the  morning 

(Camden) June  23,  1191 

The  true  sun,  and  the  appearance  of  another, 

so  that  astronomers  alone  could  distinguish 

the  difference  by  their  glasses         .        .        .     ,, 
Again ;  total  darkness  ensued       .        .        .     .  1331 
A  total  one ;  the  darkness  so  great  that  the 

stars  shone,  and  the    birds  went  to  roost 

at    noon    (Oldmixon's  Annals   of   George  I.) 

April  22,  1715 


Remarkable  one,  central  and  annular  in  the  A.D. 
interior  of  Europe    ....     Sept.  7,   1802 

Total  eclipses  of  the  sun — July  17,  1833  ; 
July  8,  1842  ;  July  28,  1851. 

An  annular  eclipse ;  it  was  seen  and  photo- 
graphed at  Oundle;  but  not  seen  well  at 
other  places  ....  March  15,  1858 

Total  eclipse  of  the  sun  ;  well  seen  by  Mr.  G.  B. 
Airy,  astronomer  royal,  and  others  in  Spain  ; 
Mr.  Warren  de  la  Rue  took  photographs, 

July  1 8,  1860 

[The  same  eclipses  (about  70)  recur  in  a  pe- 
riod of  18  years  io4  days.] 

OF  THE  MOOX. 
The  first,  observed  by  the  Chaldeans  at  Babylon  "B.C. 

(Ptolemy  iv.) 721 

A  total  one  observed  at  Sardis  (Thucydides  vii.)  413 
Again,  in  Asia  Minor  (Polybius)  .  .  .  .  219 
One  at  Rome,  predicted  by  Q.  Sulpitius  Gallus 

(Livy  xliv.) 168 

One  terrified  the  Roman  troops  and  quelled  A.D. 

their  revolt  (  Tacit  us) 14 


ECONOMIC  MUSEUM  (or  Museum  of  Domestic  and  Sanitary  Economy),  at  Twicken- 
ham, open  free,  was  established  chiefly  by  the  agency  of  Mr.  Thos.  Twining,  in  1860.  It 
originated  from  the  Paris  exhibition  of  1855. 

ECUADOE.     See  Equator. 

EDDAS,  two  books  containing  the  Scandinavian  mythology  (or  history  of  Odin,  Thor, 
Frea,  &c.),  written  about  the  nth  and  1 2th  centuries.  "Translations  have  been  made  into 
French,  English,  &c.  MSS.  of  the  Eddas  exist  at  Copenhagen  and  Upsal. 

EDDYSTONE  LIGHT-HOUSE,  off  the  port  of  Plymouth,  erected  by  the  Trinity-house 
to  enable  ships  to  avoid  the  Eddystone  rock.  It  was  commenced  under  Mr.  Winstanley,  in 
1696  ;  was  finished  in  1699  ;  and  was  destroyed  in  the  dreadful  tempest  of  Nov.  27,  1703, 
when  Mr.  Winstanley  and  others  perished.  It  was  rebuilt  by  act  of  parliament,  4  Anne, 
1706,  and  all  ships  were  ordered  to  pay  one  penny  per  ton  inwards  and  outwards  towards 

*  Mr.  Airy  thinks  the  dat«  should  be  610;  others  say  603  or  584,  B.C.  It  is  the  one  recorded  by 
Herodotus  as  interrupting  a  battle  between  the  Medes  and  Lydians. 


EDE 


263 


EDI 


supporting  it.  This  light-house  was  burnt  in  1755  ;  and  one  on  a  better  plan,  erected  by 
Mr.  S meaton,  was  finished  Oct.  9,  1759.  The  woodwork  of  this,  burnt  in  1770,  was  replaced 
by  stone. 

EDESSA  (now  (Mat),  a  town  in  Mesopotamia,  said  by  some  to  have  been  built  by 
Nimrod  ;  by  Appian,  to  have  been  built  by  Seleucus.  It  became  famous  for  its  schools  of 
theology  in  the  5th  century,  and  in  1184,  when  it  Avas  taken  by  the  Saracens,  it  contained 
fifteen  large  churches.  Its  kings  or  rulers  were  named  Abgarus  and  Mannus. 

EDGEHILL  FIGHT  (Oct.  23,  1642),  Warwickshire,  between  the  royalists  and  the 
parliament  army,  was  the  first  engagement  of  importance  in  the  civil  war.  Charles  I.  was 
present.  Prince  Rupert  commanded  the  royalists,  and  the  earl  of  Essex  the  parliamentarians. 
The  earl  of  Lindsay,  who  headed  the  royal  foot,  was  mortally  wounded,  and  taken  prisoner. 
The  king  lost  5000  dead.  Owing  to  the  great  loss  on  both  sides  the  action  proved  indecisive, 
though  the  parliament  claimed  the  victory. 

EDICTS,  public  ordinances  and  decrees,  usually  set  forth  by  sovereigns  ;  the  name  origi- 
nated with  the  Romans.  The  PERPETUAL  EDICT  :  Salvius  Julianus,  of  Milan,  a  civilian  at 
Rome  (the  author  of  several  treatises  on  public  right),  was  employed  by  the  emperor  Adrian 
to  draw  up  this  body  of  laws  for  the  Prsetors,  promulgated  132'. 

EDICT  OF  NANTES,  by  which  Henry  IV.  of  France  granted  toleration  to  his  Protestant 
subjects,  April  13,  1598,  was  confirmed  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1610,  and  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1652.  It  was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  Oct  22,  1685.  This  unjust  and  impolitic  act  cost 
France  50,000  Protestant  families,  and  gave  to  England  and  Germany  thousands  of  indus- 
trious artisans  who  carried  with  them  the  art  of  manufacturing  silks,  settled  in  Spitalfields, 
where  their  descendants  yet  remain  ;  others  planted  themselves  in  Soho  and  St.  Giles's  and 
pursued  the  art  of  making  crystal  glasses  and  various  fine  works  in  which  they  excelled  ; 
among  these,  jewellery,  then  little  understood  in  England. 

EDINBURGH,  the  metropolis  of  Scotland,  derives  its  name — in  ancient  records  Dun 
Edin,  "the  hill  of  Edin" — from  its  castle,  founded  or  rebuilt  by  Edwin,  king  of  Northum- 
bria,  who  having  greatly  extended  his  dominions,  erected  it  for  the  protection  of  his  newly 
acquired  territories  from  the  incursions  of  the  Scots  and  Picts,  626.  But  it  is  said  the  castle 
was  first  built  by  Camelon,  king  of  the  Picts,  330  B.C.  It  makes  a  conspicuous  appearance, 
standing  at  the  west  end  of  the  town,  on  a  rock  300  feet  high,  and,  before  the  use  of  great 
guns,  was  a  fortification  of  considerable  strength. 


•Christianity  introduced  (reign  of  Donald  I.)  201 

Edinburgh  taken  by  the  Anglo-Saxons          .  482 

Retaken  by  the  Picts 695 

City  fortified,   and  castle  rebuilt  by  Malcolm 

Canmore 1074 

Besieged  by  Donald  Bain    ....  1093 

Holyrood abbey  founded  by  David  I.     .         .  1128 

Edinburgh  constituted  a  burgh  •»      .         .  * 

Castle  surrendered  to  Henry  II.  of  England  1174 

A  parliament  held  here  under  Alexander  II.  1215 

City  taken  by  the  English  ....  1296 

Grant  of  the  town  of  Leith  to  Edinburgh      .  1329 

Surrenders  to  Edward  III. .        •.         .         .  1356 

St.  Giles's  cathedral  built      ....  1359 

Burnt  by  Richard  II 1385 

And  \>y  Henry  IV 1401 

James  II.  first  king  crowned  here      .         .  1437 
Execution  of  the  earl  of  Athol        .        .        .          , , 

Annual  fair  granted  by  James  1 1.       .         .  1447 

City  strengthened  by  a  wall  .         .        .        .  1450 

Charter  of  James  III.  .         .        .  .  1477 

Edinburgh  made  the  metropolis  by  James  III  1482 

Royal  College  of  Surgeons  incorporated        .  1505 

Charter  of  James  IV 1508 

[The  palace  of  Holyrood  is  built  in  the  reign 
of  James  IV.] 

High  school  founded 1518 

A  British  force,  landing  from  a  fleet  of  200 

ships,  burns  both  Edinburgh  and  Leith,  May  1544 

Leith  is  again  burnt,  but  Edinburgh  is  spared  1547 

Tolbooth  built 1561 

Marriage  of  queen  Mary  and  lord  Darnley  1565 

David  Rizzio  murdered 1566 

Lord  Darnley  blown  up  in  a  private  house  by 

gunpowder Feb.  10,  1567 


Mary  marries  James,  earl  of  Bothwell,  May  15,  1567 
Civil  war  on  account  of  Mary's  forced  resigna- 
tion      .........  1570 

Death  of  John  Knox 1572 

University  chartered.  See  Edinburgh  University 

April  24,  1582 

Both  well's  attempt  on  Holyrood-house  Dec.  27,  1591 
Riot  in  the  city  ;  the  mob  attacks  the  king  .  1596 
James  VI.  leaves  Edinburgh  as  king  of  England, 

April  5,  1603  ;  he  revisits  it  .  May  16,  1617 
George  Heriot's  Hospital  founded  by  his  will  .  1624 
Charles  I.  visits  Edinburgh  ....  1633 
Parliament  house  finished  .....  1640 
Charles  again  visits  the  city  ....  1641 
The  castle  is  surrendered  to  Cromwell  by 

Dundas 1650 

Coffee-houses  fh-st  opened 1677 

Merchants'  Company  incorporated        .        .     .  1681 
College  of  Physicians  incorporated     .        .         .     ,, 
Earl  of  Argyll  beheaded    .        .        .     June  30,  1685 
African  and  East  India  Company  incorporated    1695 

Bank  of  Scotland  founded ,, 

Union  of  the  kingdoms 1707 

Royal  bank  founded       ......  1727 

Board  of  trustees  of  trade  and  manufactures 

appointed ,, 

Royal  Infirmary  incorporated  .  .  .  .  1736 
Affair  of  captain  Porteous  (see  Porteous)  Sept.  7,  , , 

Medical  Society  instituted I?37 

The  young  Pretender  occupies  Holyrood  .  .  1745 
Modem  improvements  commenced  .  .  .  1753 
Magistrates  assigned  gold  chains  .  .  .  .  1754 
Royal  Exchange  completed  ....  1761 
Foundation  of  the  North  Bridge  .  Oct.  21,  1763 
Theatre  Royal  erected 1763 


EDI 


EDINBURGH,  continued. 

Great  fire  in  the  Lawn-market  .  .  .  .  1771 
Register-office,  Princes-street,  commenced  .  1774 
Calton-hlll  observatory  founded  .  July  25,  1776 
Great  commotion  against  popery  .  .  .  1779 

Society  of  Antiquaries 1780 

Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  instituted      .        .  1783 

South  Bridge  commenced 1785 

Royal  College  of  Surgeons  incorporated  .  .  1788 
First  stone  of  the  presentj  university  laid, 

Nov.  16,  1789 

Robertson,  the  historian,  dies  here  .  June  n,  1793 
Bridewell,  Calton-hill,  erected  .  .  .  .  1796 
Holy  rood,  an  asylum  to  Louis  XVIII.  and  his 

brother,  afterwards  Charles  X.  .  .  1795  to  1799 
New  Bank  commenced  .  .  .  June  3,  1801 
Edinburgh  Review  (by  Francis  Jeffrey,  Rev. 

Sidney  Smith.  Henry  Brougham,  and  others) 

Oct  10, 


1802 
1805 


published 

New  system  of  police  established 
Alarming  riots  here  ....  Dec.  31,  181 
Nelson's  monument  completed  .  .  .  .  1815 
Gas  company  incorporated  .  .  .  .1818 
Water  company  incorporated  .  .  .  .  1819 
Professor  Play  fair  dies  .  .  .  July  20,  ,, 

Society  of  Arts  instituted 1821 

Union  Canal  completed 1822 

George  IV.'s  visit;  foundation  of  the  national 
monument        ....   Aug.  14-29,     ,, 

Royal  Institution  erected 1823 

Destructive  fires  .  .  .  June  and  Nov.  1824 
Scottish  Academy  founded  ....  1826 
Lord  Melville's  monument  erected  .  .  .  1828 
Edinburgh  and  Dalkeith  Railway  opened,  July,  1831 
Statue  of  George  IV.  erected  .  .  .  .  1832 
Death  of  sir  Walter  Scott  .  .  .  Sept.  21,  „ 
Chambers's  Edinburgh  Joxtrnal  published  .  „ 

Association  of  the  Fine  Arts 1833 

The  British  Association  meets  here  .     Sept.  8,  1834 
Edinburgh,  Leith,  and  Granton  Railway  com- 
menced      1836 

Art-union  of  Scotland 1837 

Monument  to  sir  Walter  Scott  commenced  .  1840 
Society  of  Arts,  founded  1821  ;  incorporated  .'  1842 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway  opened, 

Feb.  21,    „ 


EDU 


Queen  Victoria  visits  Edinburgh,  &c.  Aug.  31- 

Sept.  15, 

Secession,  and  formation  of  the  Free  Church, 

May  1  8, 

New  College  instituted  ..... 
North  British  Railway  commenced  .  .  . 
The  monument  to  the  political  martyrs  of 

1793-4,  laid  by  Mr.  Hume  .  .  Aug.  21, 
Walter  Scott's  monument  completed  .  . 
British  Association  meets  again  .  July  31, 
The  Queen  again  visits  Edinburgh  (one  of  her 

many  visits  to  Scotland),  and  holds  her  court 

at  the  ancient  Holyrood-house  .  Aug.  30, 
Prince  Albert  lays  the  foundation-stone  of  the 

Scotch  national  gallery  .  .  .  Aug.  31, 
Meeting  for  vindication  of  Scottish  rights,  &c. 

Nov.  2, 

Old  buildings  in  Lawn-market  burnt  .  Aug.  5, 
Act  passed  for  building  new  Post-office  July, 
National  Gallery  opened  .  .  March  21, 
Agitation  against  Ministers'  Annuity  tax  Sept. 
Lord  Brougham  elected  chancellor  of  the  uni- 

versity, Edinburgh  .  .  .  Nov.  i, 
Ministers'  tax  abolished,  and  other  arrange- 

ments made  which  did  not  give  satisfaction  : 

riots  were  renewed  ....  Nov. 
20.000  Volunteers  reviewed  by  the  Queen  in 

Queen's  Park  ....  Aug.  7, 
Industrial  Museum  Act  passed  .  .  Aug.  28, 
Edinburgh  visited  by  empress  Eugdnie  Nov.  20, 
The  Prince  Consort  lays  the  foundation  of  the 

new  Post  Office  and  the  Industrial  Museum, 

Oct.  23, 

Fall  of  a  house  in  High-street,  35  persons  killed 

Nov.  24, 
Accident  on  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway  — 

17  killed  ;  above  100  wounded  .  Oct.  13, 
Lord  Palmerston's  visit  .  March  3i-April  4, 
Theatre  Royal  burnt  :  George  Lorimer,  dean  of 

guild,  and  seven  other  persons,  killed  by  fall 

of    wall,  while    endeavouring   to    extricate 

others        ......     Jan.  13, 

Statues  of  Allan  Ramsay  and  John  Wilson  in- 

augurated   .....      March  25, 


1842- 

1843 
„ 
1844 


1845 
1850 


1853 
1857 
1858 
1859 


1860 


1861 


1862 
1864 


1865 


EDINBURGH,  BISHOPRIC  OF,  was  created  by  Charles  I.  wlien  that  monarch  was  in 
Scotland  in  1633  ;  and  William  Forbes,  one  of  the' ministers  of  Edinburgh,  was  made  first 
bishop.  The  king  allotted  the  parishes  of  the  shires  of  Edinburgh,  Linlithgow,  Haddington, 
and  a  part  of  Berwick  and  of  Stirlingshire,  to  compose  the  see.  The  sixth  and  last  prelate 
was  Alexander  Ross,  who  was  ejected  on  the  abolition  of  episcopacy,  at  the  period  of  the 
revolution,  in  1689.  Edinburgh  became  a  post-revolution  bishopric  in  1720.  See  Bislwps. 

EDINBURGH  UNIVERSITY.  A  college  was  commenced  by  the  town  council  of 
Edinburgh,  in  1581,  for  which  queen  Mary  had  given  the  site  of  ancient  religious  houses, 
and  Robert  Reid,  bishop  of  Orkney,  the  funds  in  1558.  In  1582  the  university  was  chartered 
by  James  VI.  afterwards  James  I.  of  England.  The  first  principal  was  appointed  in  1585. 
The  foundation-stone  of  the  new  buildings  was  laid  by  Francis,  lord  Napier,  grand-master 
of  the  masons  of  Scotland,  Nov.  16,  1789.  In  1845,  the  library  contained  upwards  of  80,000 
volumes,  besides  numerous  curious  and  rare  MSS.  and  documents. 

EDOM.     See  Idumcea. 

EDUCATION,  the  art  of  developing  the  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  faculties  of 
man,  has  occupied  the  greatest  minds  in  all  ages,  such  as  Plato,  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Quintilian, 
Bacon,  Milton,  Locke,  Rousseau,  &c.  In  England  the  earliest  schools  for  the  lower  classes 
were  those  attached  to  the  monasteries  ;  for  the  higher  classes  halls  and  colleges  were 
gradually  founded  (see  Oxford  and  Cambridge). 


William  of  Wykeham  planted  the  School  at 
Winchester,  whence  arose  his  colleges  at  that 
place  and  Oxford 

Eton  College  was  founded  by  Henry  VI.       .     . 

In  the  thirty  years  following  the  reformation 


1373 
1440 


education  was  greatly  prom  oted,  and  many     . 
grammar  school  s  were  erecte  d  and  endowed 
by  Edward  VI.  and  Elizabeth    .         .        .     1535-65 
Westminster  school  founded  by  Elizabeth         .   1560 
Foundation   of   Rugby    school    by  Lawrence 


EDU 


265 


EGY 


EDUCATION",  continued. 

Sheriff,  1567 ;  of  Harrow  school,  by  John 
Lyon 1571 

Queen  Anne  was  the  zealous  friend  of  educa- 
tion. While  princess,  she  founded  the  Grey- 
coat school,  Westminster,  in  1698,  and  cor- 
dially supported  the  setting  up  parochial 
charity  schools  (one  of  which  had  been  esta- 
blished in  1688  at  St.  Margaret's,  West- 
minster). 

Nearly  2000  of  these  schools  were  established 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  principally  by 
the  instrumentality  of  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge  .  -1741 

Mr.  Robert  Eaikes  originated  Sunday  Schools 

about  1781 

In  1833  there  were  16,828  of  these  schools,  with 
1,548,890  scholars. 

Sunday  School  Union  was  formed  in  .        .         .  1802 

Joseph  Lancaster,  a  young  Quaker,  began  to 
instruct  the  children  of  the  poor  .  .  .  1796 

He  had  90  pupils,  before  he  was  1 8  years  old, 
and  1000  pupils  in  -. 1798 

To  provide  teachers  he  invented  the  monitorial 
S3'stem.  In  consequence  of  his  exertions  the 
present  British  and  Foreign  School  Society 
was  founded  with  the  name  of  the  "  Royal 
Laiicasterian  Institution,"  &c.  .  .  .  1805 

This  being  unexclusive,  was  followed  by  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Church  of  England  ' '  National 
Society  for  Educating  the  Poor,"  on  Dr.  Bell's 
system 1811 

Lt f ant  Schools  began     ....        about  1815 

The  Charity  Commission,  appointed  at  the 
instance  of  Mr.  (now  lord)  Brougham,  pub- 
lished their  reports  on  Education,  in  37 
volumes  folio 1819-40 

Irish  National  School  System  (to  accommodate 
both  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants)  or- 
ganised mainly  by  archbishop  Whately  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  Murray  .  1831 

In  1834,  the  government  began  annual  grants 
(the  first  2o,oooL.),  which  continued  till  1839, 
when  the  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  on 
Education  was  constituted  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  money.  The  grant  for  Public 
Education  in  Great  Britain,  in  1852,  was 
150,000?. ;  1856-7,  451,213?. ;  1860,  798,951?. ; 
1861,  803,794?.  ;  1864,  705,404?.  For  Ireland, 
1860,  270,722?.;  1861,  285,377?.;  1863,  316,770?. 
From  1839  to  1860,  3,655,067?.  were  granted 


for    education.      The   grant    for  education, 
science,  and  art,  in  1861,  was  1,358,996?. 
In  1836,  the  Home  and  Colonial  School  Society 
was  instituted,  and  about  1843  were  formed 
the  Voluntary  School  Society  and  the  Con- 
gregational Board  of  Education.      In   1851, 
out  of  a  population  of  17,927,609,  there  were 
2,466,481  day  scholars.     Primary  schools  in 
Great  Britain,  1854,  3825  ;  1863,  7739. 
Ragged  School  Union  established      .        .        .   1844 
A  great  educational  conference  took  place  at 
Willis's  Rooms,   the  Prince  Consort  in  the 
chair         .         .        .        .        .        June  22-24,  ^57 
The  Industrial  Schools  act  passed  in .         .        .     ,, 
Middle  Class  Examinations  from  the  University 
of  Oxford  began,  June,  1858.   The  examiners 
granted  the  d  egree  of  A.  A.  to  many  persons 
at  Liverpool,  Leeds,  &c.  ;  similar  examina- 
tions   from  Cambridge    took  place    in  the 
autumn,  and  are  to  be  continued   .        .        .  1858 
Report  of  commissioners  on  popular  education 
(appointed  1858),  published  March  18,  1861, 
led  to  the  Minute  of  the  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council  on   Education,  establishing  a 
Revised  Code  of  Regulations,  adopted  July  21, 

1861,  to  come  into  operation,  after  March  31, 

1862.  It  decreed  regular  examinations  of  the 
pupils,  payment  by  results,  evening  schools 
for  adults,  and  other  changes,  which  raised 
a  storm  of  opposition  from  the  clergy  and 
schoolmasters.    The  subject  was  much  agi- 
tated in  parliament  (March  25,  28,  1862)  ;  but 
eventually  a  compromise  was  effected  Mays,  1862 

Official  instructions  for  the  administration  of 
the  Revised  Code  issued  .  .  .  Sept.  ,, 

College  and  Public  School  Commission  Report, 
signed  .' Feb.  16,  1864 

Royal  Commission  appointed,  to  inquire  into 
the  state  of  Education  in  Scotland.  First 
meeting  at  Edinburgh  .  .  .  Nov.  14,  ,, 

"  Conscience-claufe,"  introduced  by  Committee 
of  Council  on  Education,  freeing  children  of 
Dissenters  from  being  taught  Church  Cate- 
chism, or  being  sent  to  church,  early  in  „ 

Miss  Burdett  Coutts  proposes  the  establish- 
ment of  small  village  schools,  to  be  taught 
by  "  ambulatory  "  teachers  .  .  Jan  1865 

Parliamentary  Committee  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  best  mode  of  benefiting  schools  un- 
assisted by  the  state  .  .  .  Feb.  28,  ,, 


EGALITE"  (Equality).     Se£  Orleans. 

EGGS.     The  duty  on  imported  eggs  was  repealed  in  1860,  whereby  the  revenue  lost  about 


20,oool.  a  year. 

EGLINTOUN  TOURNAMENT. 


See  Tournament. 


EGYPT.*  The  early  seat  of  political  civilisation.  First  epoch ;  the  dynasty  of  its 
Pharaohs,  or  "great  kings,"  commenced  with  Mizraim,  the  son  of  Ham,  second  son  of  Noah, 
2188  B.C.  to  the  conquest  by  Cambyses,  525  B.C.  2nd  epoch,  to  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  establishment  of  the  Ptolemies,  323  B.C.  3rd  epoch,  to  the  death  of  Cleopatra, 
and  the  subjugation  of  the  Romans,  30  B.  c. 

Dynasty  of  Menes  (conjectural)       B.C.  2717  or  2412  1  Busiris  builds  Thebes  (Uaher)      .        .        .   B.C.  2111 
Mizraim  builds  Memphis  (Blair)    .        .        .     .2188    Osymandyas,  the  first  warlike  king,  passes  into 
Egypt  made  four  kingdoms,  viz. ,  Upper  Egypt,  |      Asia,  conquers  Bactria,  and  causes  his  exploits 


Lower    Egypt,    This,    and    Memphis   (Abbe 

Lenglet,  Blair) 2126 

Athotes  invents  hieroglyphics       .        .        .    .  2122 


to  be  represented  in  sculpture  and  painting 

(Usher,  Lenglet) 2100 

The  Phoenicians  invade  Lower  Egypt,  and  hold 


-  Three  most  magnificent  works  on  Egypt  have  been  published  :  in  France  (commenced  by  Napoleon, 
and  the  savans  who  accompanied  him  to  Egypt),  Description  de  I'Egypte,  1809-22  ;  in  Italy,  Rosellini's 
Monumenta  dell'  Egitto,  1832-44  ;  and  in  Prussia,  Lepsius'  Denkmiiler  aus  JEgypten,  1848-56.  All  these  are  in 
the  Library  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  London. 


E;;Y 


266 


EGY 


EGYPT,  continued. 

it  260  years  (  Ushw)  ;  the  dynasty  of  Shepherd 

kings  begins B.  c.  2080 

The  Lake  of  Mceris  constructed  by  him        .     .  1938 
The  patriarch  Abraham  visits  Egypt         .        .  1920 
Syphoas  introduces  the  use  of  the  common  let- 
ters (Ufher) 1891 

Memnon  invents  the  Egyptian  letters  (Blair, 
Lenglet)      ........   1822 

Amenophis  I.  is  acknowledged  the  king  of  all 

Egypt  (Lenglet) 1821 

Joseph  is  sold  into  Egypt  as  a  slave      .        .     .  1728 
He  interprets  the  king's  dreams        .        .        .1715 
His  father  and  brethren  settle  here       .        .     .   1706 
Rameses  III.,  or  Sesostris,  reigns  :  he  extends 
his  dominion  by  conquest  over  Arabia,  Per- 
sia, India,  and  Asia  Minor  (Lenglet)  *       .        .1618 
Settlement  of  the  Ethiopians  (Blair)    .        .     .  1615 
Rarneses,   who  imposed  on  his  subjects  the 
building  of  walls  and  pyramids,  and  other 

labours,  dies  (Lenglet) 1492 

Amenophis  II.  is  overwhelmed  in  the  Red  Sea, 

with  all  his  army  (Lenglet,  Blair)        .        .     .     ,, 
Reign  of  jEgyptus,  from  whom  the  country, 
hitherto  called  Mizraim,  is  now  called  Egypt 

(Blair) 1485 

Reign  of  Thuoris  (the  Proteus  of  the  Greeks), 
who  had  the  faculty  of  assuming  whatever 
form  he  pleased,  as  of  a  lion,  a  dragon,  a  tree, 
water,  fire 1189 

[These  fictions  were  probably  intended  to  mark 
the  profound  policy  of  this  king,  who  was 
eminent  for  his  wisdom,  by  which  his  do- 
minion flourished.  Blair.] 

Pseusennes  (Shishak)  enters  Palestine,  ravages 
Judea,  and  carries  off  the  sacred  vessels  of 
the  temple 971 

The  dynasty  of  kings  called  Tanites  begins  with 
Petubastes  (Blair) 825 

The  dynasty  of  Saites  (Blair) 781 

Sebacon  (the  Ethiopian)  invades  Egypt,  sub- 
dues the  king,  Bocchoris,  whom  he  orders 
to  be  roasted  alive  (Usher) 737 

The  Dodekarchy  (12  rulers)  expelled  by  Psam- 
metichus  the  Powerful  .  ...  650 

He  invests  Azoth,  which  holds  out  for  19  years, 
the  longest  siege  in  the  annals  of  antiquity 
(Usher) 647 

Necho  begins  the  famous  canal  between  the 
Arabic  gulf  and  the  Mediterranean  sea  (Blair)  610 

This  canal  abandoned,  after  costing  the  lives  of 
120,000  men  (Herodotus)  .....  609 

Nebuchadnezzar  of  Babylon  deposes  Apries      .     581 

Apries  taken  prisoner  and  strangled  in  his 
palace  (Diod.  Siculus) 571 

The  philosopher  Pythagoras  comes  from  Samos 
into  Egypt,  and  is  instructed  in  the  mysteries 
of  Egyptian  theology  ( Usher)  ....  535 

The  line  of  the  Pharaohs  ends  in  the  murder 
of  Psammenitus  by  Cambyses  (Blair)  .  .  526 

Dreadful  excesses  of  Cambyses  ;  he  puts  the 
children  of  the  grandees,  male  and  female, 
to  death,  and  makes  the  country  a  waste 
(Herodotus) 524 

He  sends  an  army  of  50,000  men  across  the 
desert  to  destroy  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Ammon,  but  they  all  perished  in  the  burning 
sands  (Justin) ,, 

Egypt  revolts  from  the  Persians  ;  again  sub- 
dued by  Xerxes  (Blair) 487 

A  revolt  under  Inarus  (Blair)     ....     463 

Successful  revolt  under  Amyrtseus,  who  is  pro- 
claimed king  (Lenglet) 41 4 


Egypt  again  reduced  by  Ochus,  king  of  Persia, 

and  its  temples  pillaged  (Usher)      .        .    B.C.     350 
Alexander  the  Great  enters  Egypt,  wrests  it 
from  the  Persians,   and  builds  Alexandria 

(Blair) 332 

Ptolemy  I.  Lagxis,  or  Soter 323 

Philadelphus,  Ptolemy  II.  reigns  (under  whom 
Egypt  nourishes)  :  he  completes  the  Pharos 

of  Alexandria  (Blair) „ 

The  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament 

made  about  this  time „ 

The  famous  library  of  Alexandria  also  dates 

about  this  period  (Blair) 283 

Ambassadors  first  sent  to  Rome    .        .        .     .     269 

Ptolemy  III.  Euergetes,   reigns,  247  ;  overruns 

Syria,  and  returns  laden  with  rich  spoils  and 

2500  statues  and  vessels  of  gold  and  silver, 

which  Cambyses  had  taken  from  the  Egyptian 

temples  (Blair) 246 

Ptolemy  IV.  Philopator 222 

Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes 205 

Ptolemy  VI.  Philometor 181 

At  the  death  of  Philometor,  his  brother  Phys- 
con  (Ptolemy  VII.)  marries  his  queen,  and  on 
the  day  of  bis  nuptials  murders  the  infant 
son  of  Philometor  in  its  mother's  arms  .         .     146 
He    repudiates    his    wife,    and    marries    her 
daughter  by  his  brother  (Blair) .        .        .     .     130 

His    subjects,    wearied    by  his  cruelties  and 
crimes,  demolish  his  statues,  set  fire  to  his 
palace,  and  he  flies  from  their  fury  (Blair)    .     129 
He  murders  his  son  by  his  new  queen  ;  also  his 
son  by  her  mother,  sending  the  head  and 
limbs  of  the  latter  as  a  present  to  the  parents 
on  a  feast-day  .        .         .        .        .        .        .      ,,  . 

Yet,  defeating  the  Egyptian  army,  he  recovers 

his  throne;  and  dies 128 

Pestilence  from  the  putrefaction  of  vast  swarms 
of  locusts  ;  800,000  perish  in  Egypt         .        .      ,, 

Ptolemy  VIII.  Soter  II 117 

Alexander  I. 107 

Ptolemy  VIII.  restored 89 

Revolt  in  Upper    Egypt ;    Thebes   destroyed 
after  a  siege  of  three  years  (Diod.  Siculus)     .      82 

Alexander  II.  and  Cleopatra  1 81 

Ptolemy  IX.  Auletes 80 

Berenice  and  Tryphsena 58 

Auletes  restored,  55  :   leaves  his  kingdom  to 

Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra  (Blair)         ...       51 
During  a  civil  war  between  Ptolemy  and  Cleo- 
patra II.,  Alexandria  is  besieged  by  Cajsar, 
and  the  library  nearly  destroyed    by   fire 

(Blair) 47 

Caesar  defeats  the  king,  who,  in  crossing  the 
Nile,  is  drowned  ;  and  the  younger  Ptolemy 

and  Cleopatra  reign 46 

Cleopatra  poisons  her  brother,  and  reigns  alone      43 
She    appears    before  Marc  Antony,  to  answer 
for  this  crime.     Fascinated  by  her  beauty, 

he  follows  her  into  Egypt 40 

Antony  defeated    by  Octavius  Csesar  at  the 

battle  of  Actium  (Blair) 31 

Octavius  enters  Egypt ;  Antony  and  Cleopatra 
kill  themselves  ;  and  the  kingdom  becomes 

a  Roman  province      ; 30 

Egypt  wrested  from  the  eastern  emperor  Hera-  A.  D. 
clius,  by  Omar,  caliph  of  the  Saracens   .        .     639 
Saladin  establishes  the  dominion  of  the  Mame- 
lukes      1171 

Selim  I.  emperor  of  the  Turks,  takes  Egypt      .  1517 
It  is  governed  by  beys  till  a  great  part  of  the 
country  is  conquered  by  the  French,  under 
Bonaparte 1799 


*  The  epoch  of  the  reign  of  Sesostris  is  very  uncertain  :  Blair  makes  it  fall  133  years  later.  As  to  the 
achievements  of  this  monarch,  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  labours  of  several_kings  attributed  by 
the  Egyptian  priests  to  Sesostris  alone,  whose  very  existence,  indeed,  is  doubted. 


EGY 


267 


ELE 


EGYPT,  continued. 

The  invaders  dispossessed  by  the  British,  and 
the  Turkish  government  restored  .  .  .  1801 

Mehemet  Ali  massacres  the  Mamelukes,  and 
obtains  the  supreme  power  .  .  March,  1811 

Arrival  of  Belzoni,  1815  ;  he  removes  young 
Memnon,  1816 ;  explores  the  ancient  temples, 
&c 1817 

Formation  of  the  Mahmoud  canal,  connecting 
Alexandria  with  the  Nile  ....  1820 

Mehemet  Pacha  revolts  and  invades  Syria    .     .1831 

His  son  Ibrahim  takes  Acre,  May  27  ;  over-runs 
Syria,  and  defeats  the  Turks  at  Konieh, 

Dec.  21,  1832 

He  advances,  on  Constantinople,  which  is  en- 
tered by  Russian  auxiliaries,  April  3 ;  the 
war  ends  with  the  convention  of  Kutayah, 

May  4,  1833 

Mehemet  again  revolts,  claiming  hereditary 
power ;  Ibrahim  defeats  the  Turks  at  Nezib, 

June  24,  1839 

England,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia  under- 
take to  expel  Ibrahim  from  Sjrria ;  Napier 
bombards  Beyrout,  Sept.  10 ;  Acre  taken  by 
the  British  and  Austrian  fleets,  under  sir  R. 


Stopford,  Nov.  3  ;  the  Egyptians  quit  Syria, 

Nov.  21  et  seq.  1840 

Peace  restored  by  treaty;   Mehemet  is  made 
hereditary  viceroy  of  Egypt,  but  is  deprived 

of  Syria July  15,  1841 

Ibrahim  Pacha  dies  (see  Suez)         .        Nov.  10,  1848 

The  Suez  canal  begun 1858 

Malta  and  Alexandria  telegraph'bpened  Nov.  i,  1861 
The  viceroy  Sa'id  visits  Italy,  France,  and  Eng- 
land, May  to  Sept.  ;  returns  to  Alexandria, 

Oct.  i,  1862 

Sultan  of  Turkey  visits  Egypt        .     April  7-17,  1863 
Greatly  increased  cultivation  of  cotton  in  Egypt , 

1863-64 

At  the  demand  of  the  sultan,  the  viceroy  sends 
troops  to  repress  the  insurgents  in  Arabia, 

May,  1864 

HEREDITARY  VICEROYS  (nearly  independent). 
1806.  Mehemet  Ali  Pacha ;  abdicated  Sept.  1848 ;  dies 

Aug.  2,  1849 
1848.  Ibrahim  (adopted  son),  Sept. ;  dies  Nov.  10, 1848. 

,,      Abbas  (his  son),  Nov.  10  ;  dies  July  14,  1854. 
1854.  Said  (brother),  July  14  ;  dies  Jan.  18,  1863. 
1863.  Ismail  (brother),  Jan.  18. 


EGYPTIAN  ERA.  The  old  Egyptian  year  was  identical  with  the  era  of  Nabonassar, 
beginning  Feb.  26,  747  B.C.,  and  consisted  of  365  days  only.  It  was  reformed  30  B.C.,  at 
which  period  the  commencement  of  the  year  had  arrived,  by  continually  receding  to  the 
2Qth  of  Aug.,  which  was  determined  to  be  in  future  the  first  day  of  the  year.  To  reduce  to 
the  Christian  era,  subtract  746  years  125  days. 

EHRENBREITSTEIN  (Honour's  broadstone),  a  strong  Prussian  fortress  on  the  Rhine, 
formerly  belonged  to  the  electors  of  Treves.  It  was  often  besieged.  It  surrendered  to  the 
French  general  Jourdain,  Jan.  24,  1799.  The  fortifications  were  destroyed  on  its  evacuation, 
Feb.  9,  1801,  at  the  peace  of  Luneville.  The  works  have  been  restored  since  1814. 

EIDER,  a  river,  separating  Schleswig  from  Holstein,  was  passed  by  the  Austriaus  and 
Prussians,  Feb.  4,  1864. 

E1KON    BASILIKE  ("the  Portraiture  of   His  Sacred  Majesty  in  his  Solitudes  an 
Sufferings"),  a  book  of  devotion  formerly  attributed  to  king  Charles  I.,  but  now  generally 
believed  to  have  been  written  partially,  if  not  wholly,  by  bishop  Gauden,   and  possibly 
approved  by  the  king  :  it  was  published  in  1648,  and  sold  with  great  rapidity. 

EISENACH  DECLARATION.     See  Germany,  1859.        EISTEDDFODD.     See  Bards. 

ELBA,  ISLE  OF  (on  the  coast  of  Tuscany),  taken  by  lord  Nelson  in  1796  ;  but  abandoned 
1797.  Elba  was  conferred  tipon  Napoleon  (with  the  title  of  emperor)  on  his  relinquishing 
the  throne  of  France,  April  5,  1814.  He  secretly  embarked  hence  with  about  1200  men  in 
hired  feluccas,  on  the  night  of  Feb.  25,  1815,  and  landed  in  Provence,  March  i,  to  recover 
the  Imperial  crown.  See  France,  1815.  Elba  was  resumed  by  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany, 
July,  1815. 

ELDERS  (in  Greek,  presbuteroi),  in  the  early  church  equivalent  with  episcopoi,  or 
bishops  (see  i  Tim.  iii.  and  Titus  i.),  who  afterwards  became  a  distinct  and  superior  order. 
Elders  in  the  Presbyterian  churches  are  laymen. 

ELDORADO  (the  "Gilded  Man").  When  the  Spaniards  had  conquered  Mexico  and 
Peru,  they  began  to  look  for  new  sources  of  wealth,  and  having  heard  of  a  golden  city  ruled 
by  a  king  or  priest,  smeared  in  oil  and  rolled  in  gold  dust  (which  report  was  founded  on  a 
merely  annual  custom  of  the  Indians),  they  organised  various  expeditions  into  the  interior 
of  South  America,  which  were  accompanied  with  disasters  and  crimes,  about  1560.  Raleigh's 
expeditions  in  search  of  gold  in  1596  and  1617  led  to  his  fall. 

ELEATIC  SECT,  founded  at  Elea  in  Sicily,  by  Xenophanes,  of  Colophon,  about  535  B.C. 
He  had  been  banished  to  Sicily  on  account  of  his  wild  theory  of  God  and  nature.  He 
supposed  that  the  stars  were  extinguished  every  morning  and  rekindled  at  night ;  that 
eclipses  were  occasioned  by  a  partial  extinction  of  the  sun  ;  that  there  were  several  suns  and 
moons  for  the  convenience  of  the  different  climates  of  the  earth,  &c.  Strabo.  Zeno  (about 
364)  was  an  Eleatic. 

ELECTOR  PALATINE.     See  Palatinate. 


ELE 


268 


ELE 


ELECTORS  for  members  of  parliament  for  counties  were  obliged  to  have  forty  shillings 
a-year  in  land,  8  Hen.  VI.  1429.  Among  the  acts  relating  to  electors  are  the  following  ; 
Act  depriving  excise  and  custom-house  officers  and  contractors  with  government  of  their 
votes,  1782.  Act  to  regulate  polling,  1828.  Reform  in  parliament  act  (see  Reform  Bill), 
1832.  County  elections  act,  1836.  See  Bribery.  The  forty  shilling  freeholders  in  Ireland 
lost  their  privilege  in  1829.  By  Dodson's  act,  passed  in  1861,  university  electors  are  per- 
mitted to  vote  by  sending  balloting  papers. 

ELECTORS  OF  GERMANY.  The  empire  became  electoral  about  619.  In  the  I3th 
century  seven  princes  (the  archbishops  of  Mentz,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  the  king  of  Bohemia, 
the  electors  of  Brandenburg  and  Saxony,  and  the  elector  Palatine),  who  possessed  the  greatest 
power,  assumed  the  exclusive  privilege  of  nominating  the  emperor.  Robertson.  An  eighth 
elector  (Bavaria)  was  made  in  1648;  and  a  ninth  (Hanover)  in  1692.  The  number  was 
reduced  to  eight  in  1777  ;  and  was  increased  to  ten  at  the  peace  of  Luneville,  in  1801.  On 
the  dissolution  of  the  German  empire,  the  crown  of  Austria  was  made  hereditary,  1804- 
1806.  See  Germany. 

ELECTRICITY,— from  the  Greek  thktron,  electrum,  amber.  The  electrical  properties 
of  rubbed  amber  are  said  to  have  been  known  to  Thales,  600  B.C.  See  Magnetism. 


FRICTIONAL   OR   STATIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Gilbert  records  that  other  bodies  besides  amber 
generate  electricity  when  rubbed,  and  that 
all  substances  may  be  attracted  .  .  .  1600 

Otto  von  Gnericke  constructs  the  first  electric 
machine  (a  globe  of  sulphur),  about  .  .  1647 

Boyle  publishes  his  electrical  experiments  .     .  1676 

Stephen  Grey,  aided  by  Wheeler,  discovered 
that  the  human  body  conducts  electricity, 
that  electricity  acts  at  a  distance  (motion  in 
light  bodies  being  produced  by  frictional  elec- 
tricity at  a  distance  of  666  feet),  the  fact  of 
electric  induction,  and  other  remarkable  phe- 
nomena   1720-36 

Dufay  originates  his  dual  theory  of  two  electric 
fluids:  one  vitreous,  from  rubbed  glass,  <fcc., 
the  other  resinous,  from  rubbed  amber,  resin, 
&c.  ;  and  showed  that  two  bodies  similarly 
electrified  repel  each  other,  and  attract  bodies 
oppositely  electrified,  about  .  .  .  .  1733 

The  Leyden  jar  (vial  or  bottle)  discovered  by 
Kleist,  1745,  and  by  Cunseus  and  Muschen- 
broek,  of  Leyden  ;  Winckler  constructed  the 
Leyden  battery 1746 

Desaguliers  classifies  bodies  as  electrics  and 
non-electrics 1742 

Important  researches  of  Watson,  Canton,  Bec- 
caria,  and  Nollet 1740-7 

Franklin  announces  his  theory  of  a  single  fluid, 
terming  the  vitreous  electricity  positive,  and 
the  resinous  negative,  1747  ;  and  demonstrates 
the  identity  of  the  electric  spark  and  light- 
ning, drawing  down  electricity  from  a  cloud 
by  means  of  a  kite*  ....  June,  1752 

Professor  Richmann  killed  at  St.  Petersburg, 
while  repeating  Franklin's  experiments  Aug.  1753 

Beccaria  publishes  •  his  researches  on  atmo- 
spheric electricity,  1758  ;  and  ^Jpinus  his 
mathematical  theory 1759 

Electricity  developed  by  fishes  investigated  by 
Ingenhousz,  Cavendish,  and  others,  about  .  1773 

Lichtenberg  produces  his  electrical  figures       .  1777 

Electro-statics  :  Coulomb  applies  the  torsion 
balance  to  the  measurement  of  electric  force  1785 

Electro-chemistry— water  decomposed  by  Caven- 
dish, Fourcroy,  and  others  .  .  .  1787-90 

Discoveries  of  Galvani  and  Volta  (see  Voltaic 
Electricity,  below) I791'3 

(Ersted,  of  Copenhagen,  discovers  electro-mag- 
netic action  (see  Electro-Magnetism,  below)  .  1819 

Thermo- Electricity  (currents  produced  by  heat) 
discovered  by  Seebeck  :  it  was  produced  by 


heating  pieces  of  copper  and  bismuth  soldered 
together,  1823  ;  the  thermo-electrometer  in- 
vented by  Snow  Harris,  1827  ;  the  thermo- 
multiplier  constructed  by  Melloni  and  Nobili, 
1831.  [Marcus  consti-ucted  a  powerful  ther- 
mo-electric battery  in  1865.] 

Faraday  produces  a  spark  by  the  sudden  sepa- 
ration of  a  coiled  keeper  from  a  permanent 
magnet  (see  Magneto-Electricity,  below)  .  .  1831 

Wheatstone  calculates  the  velocity  of  electricity, 
on  the  double  fluid  theory,  to  be  288,000  miles 
a  second ;  on  the  single  fluid  theory,  576,000 
miles  a  second  .......  1834 

Armstrong  discovers,  and  Faraday  explains, 
the  electricity  of  high  pressure  steam,  which 
produces  the  hydro-electric  machine  .  .  1840 

ELECTRIC  MACHINES.  Otto  von  Guericke  ob- 
tained sparks  by  rubbing  a  globe  of  sulphur, 
about  1647 ;  Newton,  Boyle,  and  others  used 
glass,  about  1675  ;  Hawksbee  improved  the 
machine,  about  1709  ;  Bose  introduced  a 
metallic  conductor,  1733;  Winckler  contrived 
the  cushion  for  the  rubber,  1741 ;  Gordon 
employed  a  glass  cylinder,  1742  ;  for  which  a 
plate  was  substituted  about  1770  ;  Canton 
introduced  amalgam  for  the  rubber,  1751  ; 
Van  Marum  constructed  an  electric  machine 
at  Haarlem,  said  to  have  been  the  most 
powerful  ever  made.  1785  ;  Dr.  H.  M.  Noad 
set  up  at  the  Panopticon,  Leicester-square, 
London,  a  very  powerful  electric  machine 
and  Leyden  battery  [in  possession  of  Mr. 
Edwin  Clark,  1862] 1855 

The  Hydro-Electric  machine,  by  Armstrong,  was 
constructed 1840 

The  ELECTROPHORUS,  a  useful  apparatus  for 
obtaining  frictional  electricity,  was  invented 
by  Volta  in  1775,  and  improved  by  him  in  .  1782 

ELECTROMETER  and  ELECTROSCOPE,  as  the  terms 
signify,  are  apparatus  for  ascertaining  the 
presence  and  quantity  of  electrical  excita- 
tion. Pith-balls  were  employed  in  various 
ways  as  electroscopes  by  Gilbert,  Canton,  and 
others.  Dr.  Milner  invented  an  electrometer 
similar  to  Peltier's,  1783.  The  gold  leaf  elec- 
trometer was  invented  by  rev.  A.  Bennet, 
1789,  and  improved  by  Singer,  about  1810 ; 
Lane's  discharging  electrometer  is  dated 
1767  ;  Henley's,  1772;  Bohnenberger's  electro- 
scope, 1820;  Peltier's  induction  electrometer, 

about  1848 


*  In  17 . 

before  a  fire  kin 


ic-nic,  he  "killed  a  turkey  by  the  electric  spark,  and  roasted  it  by  an  electric  jack 
by  the  electric  bottle."— Penny  Cyclopaedia. 


ELE 


269 


ELE 


ELECTRICITY,  continued. 

GALVANISM,    OR  VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY,    AND 
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 

Sulzer  noticed  a  peculiar  sensation  in  the 
tongue  when  silver  and  lead  were  brought 
into  contact  with  it  and  each  other  .  .  .  1762 

Madame  Galvani  observed  the  convulsion  in 
the  muscles  of  frogs  when  brought  into  con- 
tact with  two  metals,  in  1789  ;  and  M  Gal- 
vani, after  studying  the  phenomena,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  galvanic  battery  .  .  1791 

Volta  announced  bis  discovery  of  the  "  Voltaic 
pile,"  composed  of  discs  of  zinc  and  silver, 
and  moistened  card 1800 

By  the  voltaic  pile,  Nicholson  and  Carlisle  de- 
compose water,  and  Dr.  Henry  decomposes 
nitric  acid,  ammonia,  &c.  .  .  .  ,, 

Behrens  forms  a  dry  pile  of  80  pairs  of  zinc, 
copper,  and  erilt  paper 1805 

By  means  of  "the  large  voltaic  battery  of  the 
Royal  Institution,  London,  Davy  decom- 
poses the  alkali  potash,  and  evolves  the  metal 
potassium Oct.  6,  1807 

Zamboni  constructs  a  dry  pile  of  paper  discs, 
coated  with  tin  on  one  side  and  peroxide  of 
manganese  on  the  other 1809 

Children's  battery  fuses  platinum,  &c.          .     .     ,, 

Davy  exhibits  the  voltaic  arc      ....   1813 

Wollaston's  thimble  battery  ignites  platinum 
wire 1815 

Galvanometers  invented  by  Ampere  and  by 
Schweigger,  1820  :  by  Gumming,  1821 ;  De  la 
Rive,  1824;  Ritchie  (torsion),  1830;  Joule 
(magnetic),  1843. 

Ohm  enunciates  his  formulae  relating  to  the 
galvanic  current 1827 

Improvement  in  constmcting  the  voltaic  bat- 
tery made  by  Wollaston,  1815  ;  Becquerel, 
1829;  Sturgeon,  1830;  J.  F.  Daniell,  1836; 
Grove  (nitric  acid,  &c.),  1839;  Jacobi,  1840; 
Smee,  1840;  Bunsen  (carbon,  &e.)>  1842; 
Grove  (gas  battery),  1842. 

Faraday  demonstrates  the  nature  of  electro- 
chemical decomposition,  and  the  principle 
that  the  quantity  and  intensity  of  electric 
action,  of  a  galvanic  battery  depends  on  the 
size  and  number  of  plates  employed  .  .  1834 

Wheatstone  invents  his  electro-magnetic  chro- 
noscope 1840 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM  begins  with^Ersted's  dis- 
covery of  the  action  of  the  electric  current 
on  the  magnetic  needle,  1819  ;  proved  by 
Ampere,  who  exhibits  the  action  of  the  vol- 
taic pile  upon  the  magnetic  needle,  and  of 
terrestrial  magnetism  upon  the  voltaic  cur- 
rent ;  he  also  arranges  the  conducting  wire 
in  the  form  of  a  helix  or  spiral,  invents  a  gal- 
vanometer, and  imitates  the  magnet  by  a 
spiral  galvanic  wire 1820 

Arago  magnetised  a  needle  by  the  electric  cur- 
rent, and  attracted  iron  filings  by  the  con- 
necting wire  of  a  galvanic  battery  .  .  .  ,, 

Induction  of  electric  currents  discovered  by 
Faraday  and  announced 1831 

Faraday  discovers  the  electro-magnetic  rotative 
force  developed  in  a  magnet  by  voltaic  elec- 
tricity, 1831  ;  experiments  on  the  induction 
of  a  voltaic  current 1834 

Sturgeon  makes  a  bar  of  soft  iron  magnetic  by 
surrounding  it  with  coils  of  wire,  and  send- 
ing an  electric  current  through  the  wire  .  1837 


Becquerel  invents  an  electro-magnetic  balance  1837 

Breguet  uses  electro-magnetic  force  to  manu- 
facture mathematical  instruments,  about  .  1854 

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY  (the  con  verse  of  CErsted's 
discovery  of  electro-magnetism),  discovered 
by  Faraday,  who  produced  an  electric  spark 
by  suddenly  separating  a  coiled  keeper  from 
a  permanent  magnet ;  and  found  that  an  elec- 
tric current  existed  in  a  copper  disc  rotated 
between  the  poles  of  a  magnet  .  .  .  1831 

The  Magneto-Electric  machine  arose  out  of  Fara- 
day's discovery,  and  was  first  made  at  Paris 
by  Pixii,  1832  ;  and  in  London  by  Saxton  .  1833 

Ruhmkorff's  magneto-electric  induction  coil 
constructed,  about 1850 

ELECTRIC   TELEGRAPH.* 

The  transmission  of  electricity  by  an  insulated 
wire  was  shown  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  by  Watson  and  others. 

Telegraphic  arrangements  were  devised  by  Le- 
sarge,  1744  ;  Betancourt,  1787  ;  Cavallo,  1795  • 
Salva,  1796;  Scemmering,  exhibited,  Aug.  29, 
1809;  Ronalds 1816 

Ampere  invents  his  telegraphic  arrangement, 
employing  the  magnetic  needle  and  coil,  and 
the  galvanic  battery 1820 

F.  Ronalds  publishes  an  account  of  his  electric 
telegraph 1823 

Professor  Wheatstone  constructs  an  electro- 
magnetic apparatus,  by  which  30  signals  are 
conveyed  through  nearly  four  miles  of  wire, 

June,  1836 

Telegraphs  invented  by  Schilling,  Gauss,  and 
Weber  (magneto-electric),  1833  ;  by  Steinheil  '• 
and  by  Masson,  1837  ;  by  Morse  .  .  .  1837 

The  magnetic  needle  telegraph  patented  by  W. 
F.  Cooke  and  C.  Wheatstone  .  June  12,  ,, 

Mr.  Cooke  set  up  the  telegraph  line  on  the 
Great  Western  Railway,  from  Paddington  to 
West  Drayton,  1838-9  ;  on  the  Blackwall  line, 
1840  ;  and  in  Glasgow 1841 

Professor  Wheatstone's  alphabetical  printing 
telegraph  patented ,, 

The  first  telegraph  line  in  America  set  up  from 
Washington  to  Baltimore 1844 

The  murderer  Tawell  apprehended  by  means  of 
the  telegraph 1845 

The  electric  telegraph  company  established 
(having  purchased  Cooke  and  Wheatstone's 
telegraphic  inventions) 1846 

Gutta-percha  suggested  as  an  insulator  by 
Faraday 1847 

Over-house  electric  telegraphs  (first  erected  at 
Paris)  set  up  between  their  premises  in  the 
City  and  West-end  by  Messrs.  Waterlow,  in 
1857  ;  extended  throughout  London  .  .  1859-62 

House's  printing  telegraph,  1846 ;  Bain's  electro- 
chemical telegraph,  1846 ;  Hughes's  system, 
1855  ;  the  American  combination  system  (of 
the  preceding),  which  can  convey  2000  words 
an  hour,  adopted  by  the  American  telegraph 
company Jan. 


Wheatstone's  automatic  printing  telegraph 
patented 

Professor  Charles  Wheatstone,  in  1840,  drew 
plans  of  a  projected  submarine  telegraph  be- 
tween Dover  and  Calais.  In  1847,  Mr.  John 
Watkins  Brett  submitted  a  similar  plan  to 
Louis  Philippe  without  success  ;  but  in  1850, 
he  obtained  permission  from  Louis  Napoleon 


1859 
1860 


*  The  Electric  Telegraph  may  be  said  to  have  run  a  race  with  Time,  £nd  beaten  him.  New  Orleans  is 
westward  of  New  York,  and  the  clocks  are  thus  later  in  the  former  city  than  in  the  latter,  in  proportion  to 
the  difference  of  longitude.  When  the  Atlantic  made  her  first  return  voyage  from  Liverpool,  a  brief  abstract 
of  her  news  was  telegraphed  to  New  Orleans  at  a  few  minutes  after  noon  (New  York  time) ;  it  reached  its 
destination  at  a  few  minutes  before  noon  (New  Orleans  time),  and  was  published  in  the  New  Orleans  papers 
on  the  evening  of  the  very  day  when  the  ship  arrived  at  New  York :  the  evening  papers  of  New  York  and 
New  Orleans  gave  the  same  news  at  the  same  hour  (April,  1850). 


ELE 


270 


ELE 


ELECTRICITY,  continued. 

to  make  a  trial.  This  took  place  on  Aug.  28, 
1850.  The  connecting  wires  (27  miles  long) 
were  placed  on  the  government  pier  in  Dover 
harbour,  and  in  the  Goliath  steamer  were 
coiled  about  30  miles  in  length  of  telegraphic 
wire,  enclosed  in  a  covering  of  gutta-percha, 
half  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  Goliath  started 
from  Dover,  unrolling  the  telegraphic  wire  as 
it  proceeded,  and  allowing  it  to  drop  to  the 
bed  of  the  sea.  In.  the  evening  the  steamer 
arrived  on  the  French  coast,  and  the  wire  was 
run  up  the  cliff  at  cape  Grisnez  to  its  terminal 
station,  and  messages  were  sent  to  and  fro 
between  England  and  the  French  coast.  But 
the  wire,  in  settling  into  its  place  in  the  sea- 
bottom,  crossed  a  rocky  ridge,  and  snapped  . 
in  two,  and  thus  the  enterprise  for  that  time 
failed.  New  arrangements  were  soon  made, 
and  on  a  scale  of  greater  magnitude  ;  and 
the  telegraph  was  opened,  Nov.  13,  1851.  On 
that  day  the  opening  and  closing  prices  of  the 
funds  in  Paris  were  known  on  the  London 
stock  exchange  within  business  hours,  and 
guns  were  fired  at  Dover  by  communication 
from  Calais. 

Communicationswere  complete  between  Dover 
and  Ostend,  and  between  Portpatrick  and 
Donaghadee,  in  May,  1853 ;  Holyhead  and 
Howth,  June,  1854 ;  Paris  and  Bastia,  Nov. 
18154  ;  London  and  Constantinople,  May,  1858; 
Cromer  and  Emden,  1858;  Aden  and  Suez, 
May,  1859  I  Malta  and  Alexandria,  Sept.  28, 
1861 ;  England  and  Bombay,  opened  March 
i,  1865  (engineer,  sir  C.  T.  Bright) ;  Marsala, 
Sicily,  and  La  Calle,  Algeria  .  .  June  21,  1865 

ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH.  A  plan  to  unite  Europe 
and  America  by  telegraph  was  entered  at  the 
government  registration  office  in  June,  1845, 
by  Mr.  J.  Watkins  Brett,  who  made  proposals 
to  the  government,  which  were  not  accepted. 
This  plan  was  attempted  to  be  carried  out  by 
a  company  in  1857  and  1858,  with  the  con- 
currence of  the  British  and  American  govern- 
ments. 2500  miles  of  wire  were  manufactured, 
and  tested  in  March,  1857.  The  laying  it 
down  commenced  at  Valentia,  in  Ireland,  on 
August  5.  The  vessels  employed  were  the 
Niagara  and  Susquehanna  (American  vessels), 
and  the  Leopard  and  Agamemnon  (British 
vessels).  After  sailing  a  few  miles  the  cable 
snapped.  This  was  soon  repaired  ;  but  on 
Aug.  ii,  after  300  miles  of  wire  had  been 
paid  out,  it  snapped  again,  and  the  vessels 
returned  to  Plymouth.  In  1858,  a  second 
attempt  to  lay  the  cable  failed  through  a  vio- 
lent storm,  on  June  20-21  ;  but  the  third 
voyage  was  successful.  On  Aug.  5,  the  junc- 
tion between  the  two  continents  was  com- 
pleted by  the  laying  down  of  2050  miles  of 
wire  from  Valentia,  in  Ireland,  to  Newfound- 
land. The  first  two  messages,  on  Aug.  5, 
were  from  the  queen  of  England  to  the 
president  of  the  United  States,  and  his  reply. 
This  event  caused  great  rejoicing  in  both 
countries  ;  but,  unfortunately,  the  insulation 
of  the  wire  gradually  became  more  faulty, 
and  on  Sept.  4  the  power  of  transmitting  in- 
telligence utterly  ceased.  A  new  company 
was  formed,  1860.  The  Great  Eastern  steamer, 
engaged  to  lay  down  2300  miles  of  wire,  with 
25,000  tons  burden,  sailed  for  Valentia,  Ireland, 
from  the  Thames,  July  15,  1865;  commanded 
by  capt.  Anderson,  accompanied  by  professor 
Wm.  Thomson  and  Mr.  Cromwell  F.  Varley, 
to  superintend  the  paying  out  the  cable. 
After  connecting  the  wire  with  the  land,  the 
Great  Eastern  sailed  from  Valentia,  July  23. 
Telegraphic  communication  with  the  vessel 
(interrupted  by  two  faults,  due  to  defective 
insulation,  caused  by  pieces  of  metal  pressed 


into  the  gutta  percha  coating,  which  were 
immediately  repaired)  finally  ceased  on 
Aug.  2.  The  apparatus  for  raising  the  wire 
proving  insufficient,  the  vessel  returned,  and 
arrived  at  the  Medway  .  .  .  Aug.  19, 

It  was  stated  that  there  are  in  work  15,000  miles 
of  electric  telegraph  wire  in  Great  Britain  ; 
80,000  on  the  continent  of  Europe ;  and 
48,000  in  America  ;  and  altogether  about 
150,000  miles  laid  down  in  the  world  .  July,  1862 

Bonelli's  typo-electric  telegraph,  made  known 
and  company  established,  1860  ;  and  adopted 
between  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  1863  ; 
promised  revival  ....  June,  1864 

An  ' '  electric  telegraph  "  conference,  at  which 
16  states  (not  Great  Britain)  were  represented, 
met  first  at  Paris  ....  March,  1865 

ELECTRIC  CLOCK,  &c.  Professor  Wheatstone 
invented  an  electro-magnetic  telegraph  clock 
in  1840.  Clocks  worked  by  electricity,  in- 
vented by  Mr.  Alexander  Bain,  Mr.  Shepherd, 
and  others,  appeared  in  the  exhibition  of 
1851.  An  electric  clock,  with  four  dials,  illu- 
minated at  night,  was  set  up  in  front  of  the 
office  of  the  electric  telegraph  company,  in 
the  Strand,  London,  July,  1852.  A  time  ball 
was  set  up  by  Mr.  French,  in  Cornhill,  in  1856. 
In  1860,  Mr.  C.  V.  Walker  so  connected  the 
clock  of  the  Greenwich  observatory  with  that 
of  the  South-eastern  station,  London,  that 
they  could  be  controlled  by  electricity. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT.  Apparatus  for  regulating  the 
electric  light  were  devised  in  1846,  and  shown 
by  Staite  and  Petrie  in  1848  ;  by  Foucault 
soon  after.  Jules  Duboscq's  Electric  Lamp 
(the  most  perfect  of  the  kind)  appeared  at 
the  Paris  exhibition  in  1855;  and  was  first 
employed  by  professor  Tyndall,  at  the  Royal 
Institution,  London,  for  illustrating  lectures 
on  light  and  coloxirs,  in  1856.  The  works  of 
new  Westminster  bridge  were  illuminated 
by  Watson's  electric  light,  in  1858.  M.  Serrin, 
of  Paris,  exhibited  his  improved  electric 
lamp,  in  1862.  The  Magneto- Electric  light 
(the  most  brilliant  artificial  light  yet  pro- 
duced), by  means  of  apparatus  devised  by 
professor  Holmes,  was  successfully  tried  in 
1858  and  1859,  at  tne  South  Foreland  light- 
house, Dover.  In  April,  1861,  the  French 
government  ordered  eight  lighthouses  on 
their  coast  to  be  illuminated  by  electric  light. 
MM.  Dumas  and  Benoit  constructed  an  elec- 
tric safety  lamp  in 1862 

ELECTRIC  LOOM.  M.  Bonelli,  of  Turin,  in  1854, 
devised  a  plan  of  employing  magnets  and 
electro-magnets  in  weaving,  thereby  super- 
seding the  tedious  and  costly  Jacquard 
system  of  cards.  His  loom  was  set  up  in 
London  in  1859,  and  lectured  upon  at  the 
Royal  Institution  by  professor  Faraday,  on 

June  8,  1860 

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY  was  not  much  cultivated 
after  the  discoveries  of  Galvani  in  1790,  till 
abotit  1830,  when  the  researches  of  Matteucci 
commenced ;  all  the  phenomena  of  electro- 
physiology  or  animal  electricity  being  con- 
sidered by  Volta  as  dxie  to  an  ordinary  electric 
current.  Fowler  experimented  on  animals 
with  galvanism,  1793  ;  and  Aldini,  1796,  who 
produced  muscular  contractions  in  a  criminal 
recently  executed,  1803  ;  tire  did  the  same, 
1818  ;  Du  Bois  Reymond  lectured  on  animal 
electricity  at  the  Royal  Institution,  and 
showed  the  existence  of  an  electric  cur- 
rent, developed  by  action  of  the  human 
muscles  .  in  1855 

ELECTRO-TINT.  Mr.  Palmer,  of  Newgate-street, 
London,  patented  inventions  by  which  en- 
gravings may  not  only  be  copied  from  other 
engraved  plates,  but  the  engraving  itself 


ELE  271  ELP 


ELECTEICITY,  continued. 

actually  produced,  by  electrical  agency,  and 
one  process  he  termed  glyphography  .  1841-2 
ELECTRO-TYPE  or  DEPOSIT.  Mr.  Spencer,  in 
England,  and  professor  Jacobi,  in  Russia, 
made  the  first  successful  experiments  in  this 
art  in  1837  and  1838.  Since  then,  Mr.  A.  Since 
and  others  have  perfected  the  processes.  In 
1840,  Mr.  Rob.  Murray  applied  black-lead  to 
non-metallic  bodies  as  a  conducting  surface. 
In  1840,  Mr.  Ruolz  and  Mr.  Elkington  applied 
it  to  gilding  and  silver  plating.  Since  1850, 
printing- types  and  woodcuts,  and  casts  from 


iting-i 
m,  ha 


them,  have  been  electrotyped  with  copper, 


and  the  process   is  now  largely  adopted  in 
the  arts. 

Messrs.  C.  Wheatstone  and  F.  A.  Abel  experi- 
ment on  the  application  of  electricity  to  mili- 
tary purposes  in 1861 

The  Electro-block  company  established,  1860  ; 
by  their  processes  the  enlargement  and  reduc- 
tion of  engravings,  obtained  by  india-rubber, 
can  be  immediately  transferred  to  a  litho- 
graphic stone,  and  multiplied  at  pleasure. 
Leech's  engravings,  so  enlarged,  were  coloured 
by  himself,  and  exhibited  in  .  .  .  .  1862 


ELEGY.  Elegiac  verse  was  the  first  variation  from  the  hexameter  or  epic  measure,  as 
used  for  various  subjects  by  Tyrtseus  and  other  early  poets.  The  elegies  of  Ovid  and 
Catullus  are  celebrated.  Gray's  "  Elegy,  written  in  a  country  churchyard, "  was  published 
in  1749. 

ELEMENTS  were  formerly  reckoned  as  four  :  earth,  air,  fire,  and  water.  The  chemical 
elements  now  are  about  51  (1865). 

ELEPHANT,  in  the  earliest  times  trained  to  war.  The  history  of  the  Maccabees  informs 
us,  that  "to  every  elephant  they  appointed  1000  men  armed  with  coats  of  mail,  and  500 
horse  :  and  upon  the  elephants  were  strong  towers  of  wood,  &c."  The  elephants  in  the  army 
of  Antiochus  were  provoked  to  fight  by  showing  them  the  "blood  of  grapes  and  mulberries.'* 
The  first  elephant  said  to  have  been  seen  in  England  was  one  of  enormous  size,  presented  by 
the  king  of  France  to  our  Hen.  III.,  in  1238.  taker's  Chron.  But  Polysenus  states  that  Csesar 
brought  one  to  Britain  54  B.C.,  which  terrified  the  inhabitants  greatly. 

ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES.  The  institution  of  these  celebrated  religious  ceremonies 
at  Athens,  are  generally  attributed  to  Eumolpus,  1356  B.C.  If  any  one  revealed  them,  it 
was  supposed  that  he  had  called  divine  vengeance  upon  him,  and  he  was*  put  to  death. 
They  were  introduced  from  Eleusis  into  Rome,  and  lasted  about  1800  years,  and  were  at  last 
abolished  by  Theodosius  the  Great,  A.D.  389.  The  laws  were — I.  To  honour  parents  ;  2. 
To  honour  the  gods  with  the  fruits  of  the  earth  ;  3.  Not  to  treat  brutes  with  cruelty. 
Cicero  makes  the  civilisation  of  mankind  one  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries. 

ELGIN  MARBLES  were  derived  chiefly  from  the  Parthenon,  a  temple  of  Minerva,  on 
the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  of  which  they  formed  part  of  the  frieze  and  pediment,  the  work  of 
Phidias  under  the  government  of  Pericles,  about  500  B.C.  Thomas  lord  Elgin  began  the 
collection  of  these  marbles  during  his  mission  to  the  Ottoman  Porte,  in  1802  ;  they  were 
purchased  of  him  by  the  British  government  for  35,000?.  and  placed  in  the  British  Museum, 
in  1816.* 

ELIS,  a  Greek  state  termed  the  "Holy  Land,"  in  the  Peloponnesus,  founded  by  the 
Heraclidse,  1103  B.C.  Here  Iphitus  revived  the  Olympic  games,  884,  which  were  regularly 
celebrated  after  Coroebus  gained  the  prize  in  776.  The  city  of  Elis  was  surrendered  to  the 
Spartans  in  a  war,  399.  Elis  joined  the  Achaean  league,  274 ;  and  with  the  rest  of  Geeece 
was  subjugated  by  the  Romans  in  146  B.C. 

ELL  (so  named  from  ulna,  the  arm)  was  fixed  at  45  inches,  by  king  Henry  I.  in  noi. 
The  old  French  ell,  or  aime,  was  46790  inches. 

ELLISON  GALLERY.  In  April,  1860,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Ellison  presented  to  the  South 
Kensington  Museum  a  series  of  50  original  water-colour  drawings,  by  the  first  masters. 

ELOPEMENT.  A  wife  who  departs  from  her  husband,  loses  her  dower  "by  the  statute 
of  "VVestm.  1285 — unless  her  husband,  without  coercion  of  the  church,  be  reconciled  to  her. 
Earlier  laws  punished  elopement  with  death  when  adultery  followed. 

ELPHIN  (Ireland).  St.  Patrick  founded  a  cathedral  near  Elphin,  "by  a  river  issuing  from 
two  fountains,"  in  the  5th  century,  and  placed  over  it  St.  Asicus,  whom  he  created  bishop,  and 
who  soon  after  filled  it  with  monks.  After  many  centuries,  Roscommon,  Ardcarn,  Drumclive, 
and  others  of  less  note,  were  also  annexed  to  Elphin,  which  became  one  of  the  richest  sees  in 

ship  conveying  them  was  wrecked  near  Cerigo.     Mr.  "W.  R.  Hamilton,  who  was  on  board,  re- 
eral  months  at  Cerigo,  and  succeeded  in  recovering  them  from  the  sea. 


ELY  272  EME 

Ireland.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  book,  by  an  extent  returned  28  Eliz.,  at  103?.  i8s. 
sterling.  The  see  was  united  to  Kilmore  in  1841,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Church 
Temporalities  act,  passed  Aug.  1833. 

ELY,  an  island  in  Cambridgeshire,  on  which  a  church  was  built  about  673,  by  Etheldreda, 
queen  of  Egfrid,  king  of  Northumberland  ;  she  also  founded  a  religious  house,  filled  it  with 
virgins,  and  became  herself  first  abbess.  The  Danes  ruined  the  convent  about  870  ;  but  a 
monastery  was  built  in  879,  and  filled  with  monks,  on  whom  king  Edgar  and  succeeding 
monarchs  bestowed  great  privileges  and  grants  of  land  ;  whereby  the  abbey  of  Ely  became 
the  richest  in  England.  Richard,  the  eleventh  abbot,  wishing  to  free  himself  from  the  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  made  great  interest  with  Henry  I.  to  get  Ely  erected  into  a  bishopric,  1108.  His 
successor  Herveeus  was  the  first  prelate,  1109.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at 
2134^.  1 8s.  50?.,  present  stated  income,  5500^. 

EECENT   BISHOPS   OF    ELY. 


1781.  James  York,  died  Aug.  26,  1808. 
1808.  Thomas  Dampier,  died  May  13,  1812. 
1812.  BowyerEdw.  Sparke,  died"  April  4,  1836. 


1836.  Joseph  Allen,  died  March  20,  1845. 
1845.  Thomas  Turton,  died  Jan.  7,  1864. 
1864.  Edward  Harold  Browne  (PRESENT  bishop). 


ELZEVIRS,  a  celebrated  family  of  printers,  in  Holland,  whose  reputation  is  based  on 
fine  pocket  editions  of  the  classics.  Their  first  book  is  dated  1683. 

EMANCIPATION.     See  Roman  Catholics  and  Slavery. 

EMBALMING.  The  ancient  Egyptians  believing  that  their  souls,  after  many  thousand 
years,  would  reinhabit  their  bodies,  if  these  were  preserved  entire,  embalmed  the  dead. 
Some  of  the  bodies,  called  mummies,  buried  3000  years  ago,  are  perfect  to  this  day. 
"The  physicians  embalmed  Israel,"  1689  B.C.  Gen.  1.  2.  See  Mummies.* 

EMBANKMENTS  of  earth  were  erected  by  the  ancients,  for  preservation  from  their 
enemies  and  the  inundations  of  the  tide.  Those  of  the  Egyptians  are  described  by  Hero- 
dotus and  Strajpo.  To  the  Romans  are  attributed  the  first  dykes  of  Holland,  and  the 
embankments  of  Romney  Marsh,  considered  to  be  the  oldest  in  Britain.  In  1250 
Henry  III.  issued  a  writ  enforcing  the  support  of  these  valuable  works  ;  and  his  succes- 
sors followed  his  example.  James  I.  greatly  encouraged  the  embankment  of  the  Thames. 
Sir  "W.  Dugdale's  "History  of  Embanking"  first  appeared  in  1662.  See  Drainage  and 
Levels.  Since  1830,  many  millions  of  pounds  have  been  expended  in  embankments  for 
railways. 

EMBARGO,  from  the  Spanish  embargar,  to  detain,  applied  to  the  restraining  ships  from 
sailing.  This  power  is  vested  in  the  crown,  but  is  rarely  exercised  except  in  extreme  cases, 
and  sometimes  as  a  prelude  to  war.  The  most  memorable  instances  of  embargo  were  those 
for  the  prevention  of  corn  going  out  of  the  kingdom  in  1766  ;  and  for  the  detention  of  all 
Russian,  Danish,  and  Swedish  ships  in  the  several  ports  of  the  kingdom,  owing  to  the 
armed  neutrality,  Jan.  14,  1801.  See  Armed  Neutrality. 

EMBER  WEEKS,  ordained  in  the  Christian  church  in  the  3rd  century,  to  implore  the 
blessing  of  God  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  by  prayer  and  fasting,  in  which  penitents  used 
to  sprinkle  the  ashes  (embers)  of  humiliation  on  their  heads.  In  the  English  church  the 
Ember  days  are  the  Wednesday,  Friday,  and  Saturday,  after — the  first  Sunday  in  Lent, 
Whit-sunday,  Sept.  14  (Holy  Cross),  and  Dec.  13  (St  Lucia). 

EMBROIDERY  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  Phrygians ;  but  we  learn  from  Homer,  and 
other  ancient  authors,  that  the  Sidonians  particularly  excelled  in  this  species  of  needlework. 
Mention  is  made  of  this  art  in  1491  B.C.  Exodus  xxxv.  35,  and  xxxviii.  23.  See  Bayeux 
Tapestry.  Embroidery  is  now  done  by  machinery.  The  first  embroidery  machine  is  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  John  Duncan  of  Glasgow  in  1804.  Heilman's  machine  was 
exhibited  in  Paris  in  1834. 

EMERALD,  a  precious  stone,  of  a  green  colour,  found  in  the  East  and  in  Peru.  It  has 
been  erroneously  alleged  that  there  were  no  true  emeralds  in  Europe  before  the  conquest  of 
Peru  ;  but  there  is  one  in  the  Paris  Museum,  taken  from  the  mitre  of  pope  Julius  II.  who 
died  in  1513,  and  Peru  was  not  conquered  till  1545. 

*  The  most  perfect  specimens  of  modern  embalming  are  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  royal  college  of 
surgeons,  one  being  the  body  of  the  wife  of  Van  Butch  ell,  preserved  by  John  Hunter  by  injecting  campho- 
rated spirits  of  wine,  «frc.,  into  the  arteries  and  veins  ;  and  the  other,  the  body  of  a  young  woman,  who  died 
about  1780  of  consumption,  in  the  Lock  hospital.  The  method  of  embalming  royal  personages  in  modern 
times  is  fully  described  in  "  Hunter's  Posthumous  Works."  He  died  in  1793. — During  the  American  war 
(1861-5)  many  soldiers'  bodies  were  embalmed  and  sent  home. 


EMI 


273 


ENA 


EMIGRANTS.  The  French  aristocracy  and  clergy  began  to  leave  their  country  in  July, 
1789,  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  :  their  estates  were  confiscated  in  Dec.  A  large 
number  returned  in  1802,  after  the  peace  of  Amiens.  Many  were  indemnified  after  the 
restoration  in  1815. 

EMIGRATION.  Phoenician  and  Greek  emigrants  colonised  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Black  Sea  (see  Magna  Grcecia,  Marseilles,  &c.).  The  discovery  of  America 
opened  a  vast  field  for  emigration,  which  was  restrained  by  Charles  I.  in  1637.  It  has  been 
greatly  encouraged  since  1819.  Regulations  for  emigration  were  made  in  1831,  and  in  Jan. 
1840,  the  Colonial  Land  and  Emigration  Board  was  established. 


Emigration  from  the  United  Kingdom,  in  1815,  2081 ; 

in  1820,  25,729;    in  1830,  56,907  j   in  1840,  90,743; 

in  1850,  280,843. 
Emigrations    to    North    American    colonies,     West 


Indies,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  New  South  "Wale;-, 
Swan  River,  Van  piemen's  Land,  <kc.,  in  1820-30, 
according  to  official  returns,  154,291 ;  in  1830-40, 
277.695- 


In 

1846, 

From  England 

.     87,611 

From  Ireland  . 

.  38,813 

From  Scotland         3,427 

Total, 

129,851 

In 

1847, 

Ditto    . 

g 

.  153,898 

Ditto    . 

•  95,756 

Ditto    . 

8,616 

Total, 

258,270 

In 

1848, 

Ditto 

.   176,883 

Ditto 

•  59,  7°  i 

Ditto 

I1,5°5 

Total, 

248,089 

In 

1849, 

Ditto    . 

.  212,124 

Ditto    . 

.   70,247 

Ditto    . 

17,127 

Total, 

299,  498 

In 

1850, 

Ditto 

.  214,612 

Ditto 

•   51,083 

Ditto 

i5,i54 

Total, 

280,849 

In 

1851, 

Ditto    . 

. 

•  254,970 

Ditto    . 

•   62,350 

Ditto    . 

18,646 

Total, 

335,966 

In  1852 
In  1854  . 


368,764    In  1855 
323,429    In  1857  . 


From  the  United  Kingdom. 

.  176,807 
.  212,875 


In  1859 
In  1861 


120,432  I  In  1862 
91,770  I  In  1863  . 


121,214 
223,758 


In  1864  .    .  208,900 


T-o  North  American  Colonies,  in  1842,  54,123  ;  in  1847, 
109,680  ;  in  1856,  16,378  ;  in  1857,  21,001  ;  in  1861, 
12,707;  in  1863,  18,083;  in  1864,  12,721. 

United  States,  in  1842,  63,852  ;  in  1847,  142,154  ;  in 
1857,  126,905;  in  1861,  49,764;  in  1862,  58,706;  in 
1863,  146,813  ;  in  1864,  147,042. 


To  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  in  1842,  8534 ;  in 
1845,  830 ;  in  1850,  16,037 !  in  J852  (gold  discovery), 
87,881;  in  1853,  61,401  ;  in  J8S4,  83,237;  in  1855, 
52,309;  in  1856,  44,584;  in  1857,  61,248; 
23,738 ;  in  1863,  53,054;  in  1864,  40,942. 


in 


EMILY  ST.  PIERRE.     See  United  States,  1862. 


lore 
Ishe. 


EMINENCE,  a  title  conferred  upon  cardinals  by  pope  Urban  VIII.  Jan.  10,  1631,  as 
re  honourable  than   "Excellency."     Previously  cardinals  had  the  title  of  Illustrissimi. 


Excellency."     Previously  card 
The  grand-master  of  Malta  also  obtained  this  title. 


Pardon. 


EMIR,  a  title  of  the  caliphs  among  the  Turks  and  Persians,  first  awarded  to  the  descend- 
its  of  Mahomet's  daughter  Fatima,  about  650.    Ricaut.    To  such  only  was  originally  given 
privilege  of  wearing  the  green  turban. 

EMLY,  an  Irish  see,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Patrick.     Emly  was  called  Imelaca- 
lir  :  St.  Ailbe  was  the  first  bishop  in  448.     It  is  now  an  inconsiderable  village.     In  1568, 
see  was  united  to  Cashel.     See  Cashel. 

EMPALEMENT.  This*  mode  of  executing  criminals,  mentioned  by  Juvenal,  and  often 
inflicted  in  Rome,  is  still  used  in  Turkey  and  Arabia.  In  England  the  dead  bodies  of  mur- 
derers were  sometimes  staked  in  this  manner,  previously  to  being  buried. 

EMPEROR,  from  Imperator  (ruler),  a  title  conferred  on  victorious  Roman  generals,  and 
taken  by  Julius  Caesar  as  perpetual  dictator,  B.  c.  46. 


Augustus  Caesar  the  first  Roman  emperor  B.C.  27 
Valentinian  I.  first  emperor  of  the  west,  and  A.D. 

Valens  first  emperor  of  the  east .  .  .  .  364 
Charlemagne  first  emperor  of  Germany,  crowned 

by  Leo  III 800 

Othman  I.  founder  of  the  Turkish  empire,  the 

first  emperor  of  Turkey 1296 


The  Czar  the  first  emperor  of  Russia  .  .  1722 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  first  emperor  of  the  French  1804 
Don  Pedro  IV.  of  Portugal  the  first  emperor  of 

Brazil 1825 

Faustin  I.  the  first  emperor  of  Hayti,  in  1849  ; 

deposed 1859 

Maximilian  I.  first  emperor  of  Mexico,  April  10,  1864 


EMPIRICS,  a  sect  of  physicians,  formed  in  the  3rd  century  before  Christ,  who  contended 
that  all  reasoning  respecting  the  animal  economy  was  useless,  and  that  experience  and 
observation  alone  were  the  foundation  of  medicine.  The  sect  adopted  the  principles  of 
Acron  of  Agrigentum,  who  flourished  about  430  B.  c. 

ENAMELLING  was  practised  by  the  Egyptians,  Chinese,  and  other  nations,  and  was 
known  in  England  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons.  At  Oxford  is  an  enamelled  jewel,  which 
belonged  to  Alfred,  and  which,  as  appears  by  the  inscription,  was  made  by  his  order,  in  his 
reign,  about  887.  Limoges  enamelled  ware  was  popular  in  the  i6th  century.  On  June  19, 
1862,  Madame  Rachel  sued  captain  Carnegie  for  928^.  for  enamelling  his  wife's  face ;  and 
was  non-suited.  See  Mosaic. 


ENC 


274 


ENG 


ENCJSNIA,  Greek  festivals  kept  on  days  on  which  cities  were  built  and  temples  con- 
secrated ;  and  in  later  times,  as  at  Oxford,  at  the  celebrations  of  founders  and  benefactors. 
Oldisworth.  They  were  the  origin  of  church-wakes  in  England,  about  600.  They  were  also 
feasts  celebrated  by  the  Jews  on  the  25th  of  the  ninth  month,  in  commemoration  of  the 
Maccabees  cleansing  the- temple  which  had  been  polluted  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  131  B.C. 

^  ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING,  the  art  of  enamelling  or  painting  by  fire.  Bailey.  Painting 
with  burnt  wax  is  said  to  have  been  known  to  Praxiteles  about  360  B.C.  This  art,  after 
having  been  lost,  was  revived  by  M.  Bachelier,  1749,  by  count  Caylus,  1765,  and  by  Miss 
Greenland,  1785  and  1792. 

ENCRATITES,  followers  of  Tatian,  about  170,  denounced  marriage,  and  abstained  from 
flesh,  and  from  wine  even  at  the  Lord's  supper. 

ENCUMBERED  ESTATES  ACT,  passed  in  July  1849,  to  enable  owners  of  land,  or  of 
a  h^ase  of  laud,  subject  to  encumbrance,  to  apply  to  commissioners  appointed  under  it  to 
direct  a  sale  of  such  property.  These  commissioners  held  their  first  court  in  Dublin, 
Oct.  24,  1849,  and  their  last  July  28,  1858.  A  new  court  was  established  under  the 
Landed  Estates  act  (1858).  The  munber  of  estates  sold  np  to  1858  was  2380,  producing 
twenty-two  millions  of  pounds.  In  1854  a  similar  act  was  passed  for  the  West  Indies. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA,  or  CYCLOPAEDIA,  a  general  dictionary  of  art,  science,  and  literature. 
This  namf  has  been  given  to  a  work  by  Abulpharagius  in  the  I3th  century.  Alsted's 
Encyclopaedia  appeared  in  1620,  Hof mantis  Lexicon  Universale  in  1677,  and  Bayle's 
Dictionnaire  in  1696.  The  earliest  English  encyclopaedia  is  the  Lexicon  Technician  of  John 
Harris,  1704;  supplements,  1710,  1741. 


Louis  Moreri's  Dictionnaire  Historique         .     .1673 
Corneille's  Dictionnaire  des'Arts        .        .        .  1694 
Ephraim  Chambers'  Cyclopaedia    ....  1728 
Zedler's  Universal  Lexicon          .         .        .       1732-50 
Encyclopedic  (by  Diderot  and  U'Alembert)      1751-80 
[The  contributors  were  termed  EXCYCI.OPEDISTES, 
and  their  bold  writings  are  believed  to  have 
hastened  the  outbreak  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion in  1789.] 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  ist  edition  (by  "Wm. 


Srnellie) 
[The  8th  completed,  1861.] 


1778 


Encyclopedic  Methodique  (by  Pancouck)  1782-1832 
Chambers'  Cyclopaedia  (edited  by  Rees)  .  .  1786 
Rees'  Cyclopaedia  .  .  .  .  .  1802-19 
Brockhaus's  Conversations-Lexicon,  ist  edition  1818 

[New  editions  frequent.] 

Encyclopaedia  Metropolitans  .  .  .  1829-45 
Cabinet  Cyclopaedia  (a  collection  of  treatises)  1829-46 

Penny  Cyclopaedia 1833-46 

Knight's  English  Cyclopaedia  (4  divisions)  .    1853-61 
Chambers'  Cyclopaedia  (now  publishing)  began  1859 
Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encyclopadie, 
began  1818;  125  vols.  published         .        .     .  1861 


ENDERBY  LAND.     See  Southern  Continent. 

ENDOSMOSIS.  M.  Dutrochet,  about  1826,  found  that  if  two  fluids,  gases  or  vapours, 
of  unequal  density,  are  separated  by  an  animal  or  vegetable  membrane,  the  denser  wijl 
attract  the  less  dense  through  the  medium.  This  property  he  called  endosmose,  when  the 
attraction  is  from  the  outside  to  the  inside,  and  exosmose,  Avhen  it  operates  from  the  inside 
to  the  outside.  By  this  discovery  many  natural  phenomena  are  more  clearly  understood. 
Erande. 

ENFIELD  MUSKET.     See  Fire  arms. 

ENGEN,  Baden.     Here  Moreau  defeated  the  Austrian  s,  May  3,  1800. 

ENGHIEN,  or  STEENKIRK  (S.W.  Belgium).  Here  the  British  under  William  III.  were 
defeated  by  the  French  under  marshal  Luxemburg,  July  24,  1692.— A  victory  obtained  here 
by  the  great  Conde  first  gave  the  ducal  title  to  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Bourbon  Conde. 
Their  descendant,  the  due  d'Enghien,  was  seized  in  Baden  by  order  of  Bonaparte,  conveyed 
to  Vincennes,  and,  after  a  hasty  trial,  shot  by  torch-light,  immediately  after  condemnation, 
March  20,  1804.  The  body  was  exhumed,  March  20,  1816. 

ENGINEERS.  This  name  is  of  modern  date,  as  engineers  were  formerly  called  Trench- 
masters.  Sir  "William  Pelham  officiated  as  Trench-master  in  1622.  The  chief  engineer  was 
called  camp-master  general  in  1634.  Captain  Thomas  Rudd  had  the  rank  of  chief  engineer 
to  the  king  about  1650.  The  corps  of  engineers  was  formerly  a  civil  corps,  but  was  made  a 
military  force,  and  directed  to  rank  with  the  artillery,  April  25,.  1787.  It  has  a  colonel-in- 
chief,  16  colonels-commandant,  and  16  colonels.  Civil  Engineering  began  to  be  eminent  in 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  when  Smeaton  began  the  Eddystone  lighthouse,  and  Brindley 
the  Bridgewater  canal.  Since  then  the  Rennies,  Telford,  the  Stephensons  and  Brunels', 
Locke,  and  others  have  constructed  the  breakwaters,  docks,  bridges,  railways,  tunnels,  &c., 
which  are  the  marvel  of  our  age. 


ENG 


ENGINEERS,  continued. 

The  first  society  of  Civil  Engineers  formed  by 
Smcaton  and  others,  afterwards  termed  the 
s.'iKatonian  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  .  .  1793 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  established  in 
1818 ;  obtained  a  charter  in  .  .  .  1828 

Institution    of    Mechanical    Engineers,  which 


has  its  head-quarters  in  Birmingham,  estab- 
lished         jS,^ 

Isambard  Kiugdon  Brunei,  projector  of  the 
Great  Eastern,  aged  53,  died  Sept.  15  ;  Robert 
Stephenson,  railway  engineer,  aged  59,  died 

Oct.  12,  1859 


ENGLAND,  so  named  by  order  of  Egbert,  first  king  of  England,  in  a  general  council 
held  at  Winchester,  829.  This  appellative  had  been  used  as  far  back  as  688,  but  had  never 
been,  until  then,  ratified  by  any  assembly  of  the  nation.  It  came  from  Angle?,  a  tribe  of 
Saxons,  and  land,  the  Saxon  for  country.  See  Anglo-Saxons.  England  and  Wales  v/ere 
united  1283  :  Scotland  was  united  under  the  same  sovereign  in  1603,  and  the  same  legis- 
lation in  1707,  when  the  three  were  styled  Great  Britain.  Ireland  was  incorporated  with 
them,  by  the  act  of  legislative  union,  Jan.  I,  1801,  and  the  whole  was  called  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  For  previous  history  see  Britain,  and  for  fmrther 
details,  population,  revenue,  &c.,  see  separate  articles.  Histories  of  England,  by  Eapin  (in 
English),  1725-31;  Thomas  Carte,.  1747-55  ;  David  Hume,  1755-62;  Tobias  Smollett, 
1757-65  ;  John  Lingard,  1819-30  ;  Charles  Knight,  1856-62. 


Egbert,  "king  of  the  English,"  827;  defeats  the 

Welsh,  Danes,  &c. ,  at  Hengestdown           .     .     835 
Alfred,  king,  871 ;  after  man y  vicissitudes,  van- 
quishes the  .Danes 871-896 

lie  frames  a  code  of  laws,  890  ;   forms  a  militia 
and  navy,  surveys  and  subdivides  the  coun- 
try, and  promotes  education    ....     896 
Athelstan's  great  victory  over  the  Danes,  Scots, 

<fec 937 

Predominance  of  Dunstan  ;  he  promotes  mona- 

ehisni  and  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  about  .  952 
Efchelred  compounds  with  the  Danes  for  peace  991 
And  treacherously  causes  their  general  massacre 

Nov.  13,  1002 
Which  is  avenged  by  Sweyn,  king  of  Denmark  ; 

Ethelred  flees  to  Normandy  ....  1003 
Sweyn  dies,  and  Ethelred  returns,  1014 ;  dies  .  1016 
Canute  the  Dane  sole  monarch  .  .  .  .  1017 
Edward  the  Confessor  king ;  Saxon  dynasty 

restored 1042 

Harold  II.  ci-owned,  Jan.  6  ;    defeats  the  Nor- 
wegians, Sept.  25  ;  defeated  and  slain  at  Has- 
tings by  William  of  Normandy         .  Oct.  14,  1066 
WILLIAM  I.  crowned         .        .        .        Dec.  25,     ,, 
The  northern  counties  rebel ;  ravaged  from  the 

Humber  to  the  Tyne  ....  1069-70 
Introduction  of  the  feudal  system,  about  .  1070 
Justices  of  peace  appointed  ..»  .  .  .  .  1076 
Domesday  book  compiled  ....  1085-6 
WILLIAM  II.  crowned  .  .  .  Sept.  26,  1087 

The  crusades  begin 1096 

HENRY  I.  crowned ;  grants  a  charter  restoring^-— — 
Saxon  laws,  &c.    .        .        .        .          Aug.  5,  uoo 
Defeats  "his   brother  Robert,    and  gains  Nor- 
mandy        1106 

STEPHEN  crowned    ....        Dec.  26,  1135" 
Civil  war  between  the  empress  Maud,  Henry's 
daughter,   and  Stephen ;    her   friends    the 
Scots  defeated  at  the  battle  of  the  Standard, 
Aug.  22,  1138;  she  lands  in  England,  and  is 
successful,    1139;    crowned   at  Winchester, 
March  3,  1141 ;  is  defeated  ;  retires  to  France, 
1147;  concludes  a  peace  with  Stephen  .         .  1153 
HENRY  II.  crowned          .        .        .        Dec.  19,  1154 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon  enacted      .        Jan.   1164 
Arrogance  of  Becket ;  murdered    .       Dec.  29,  1170 

Conquest  of  Ireland 1172 

England  divided  into  six  circuits  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice 1176 

English  laws  digested  by  Glanville,  about         .  1181 
RICHARD  I.  crowned   ....      Sept.  3,  1189 
He  joins  the  crusades,  1191  ;  defeats  Saladin, 
1192 ;   made  prisoner  by  Henry  VI.   of  Ger- 
many, Dec.   1192;    is  ransomed  by  his  sub- 
jects for  400,000^.  .      , 1194 

JOHN  crowned May  27,  1199 

Normandy  lost  to  England 1204 

England  put  under  an  interdict          .        .        .  1208 


Magna  Charta  signed 
HENRY  III.  crowned 


June  15,  1215 
.  Oct.  28,  1216 
Gold  first  coined  in  England  .  •  •  •  •  I257 
The  Barons'  war  (which  see)  .  .  .  1262-8 

The  first  regular,  parliament 1265 

EDWARD  I.  crowned    ....     Nov.  20,  1272 

Wales  united  to  England 1283 

Death  of  Roger  Bacon 1292 

Scotland  subdued,  1296  ;  revolts   . 

EDWARD  II.  crowned  ....      July  8,' 

Defeated  by  Robert  Bruce  at  Bannockburn, 

June  24,  1314 
Insurrection  of  the  barons  against  his  favourites 

1308,  1315,  1325 

EDWARD  III.  crowned  .  .  .  Jan.  25,  1327 
Defeats  the  Scots  at  Hall  idown -hill  .  .  .1333 
Invades  France  ;  victorious  at  Crecy  Aug.  26,  1346  - 

Takes  Calais i347 

Order  of  the  Garter  instituted  .  .  .  .1350 
Victory  at  Poictiers  .  .  .  Sept.  19,  1356 

Law  pleadings  in  English 1362 

RICHARD  II.  crowned  .  .  .  June  22,  1377 
Insurrection  of  Wat  Tyler  suppressed  .  .  1381 

Death  of  Wickliffe  ' I385 

HENRY  IV.  crowned    ....  Sept.  30,  1399 
Order  of  the  Bath  instituted  by  Henry  IV.        .     „ 
Insurrection  of  the  Percies  and  the  Welsh    .     1403^* 
HENRY  V.  crowned         .        .        .      March  21,  1413" 
France  invaded  by  Henry  V.  who  gains  the 

battle  of  Agincourt  •        .        .        .      Oct.  25,  1415 
Treaty  of  Troyes ;  the  French  crown  gained  by 

Henry I420 

HENRY  VI.  crowned  at  Paris  .  .  .  Dec.  1430 
Appearance  of  the  maid  of  Orleans ;  the  French 

conquests  lost,  except  Calais  .  .  .  1429-31 
EDWARD  IV.  deposes  Henry  VI.  .  March  4,  i46i 
War  of  the  Roses.  (See  Roses  and  Battles)  .  1455-71' 
Printing  introduced  by  Caxton  .  .  .  .1471 
EDWARD  V.  accession  .  .  .  April  9,  1483. 
1  RICHARD  III.  deposes  Edward  V.  .  June  25,  „ 
HENRY  VII.  accession ;  Richard  defeated  and  • 

slain  at  Bosworth  field  .  .  Aug.  22,  1485 
Henry  marries  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edw.  IV.  1486 
Insurrection  of  Lambert  Simnel  quelled  .  1486-7 
Court  of  Star  Chamber  instituted  .  .  -14871 
Yeomen  of  the  guard,  the  first  appearance  of  a  ^' 

standing  army  in  England,  instituted       .     .1488^ 
Henry  sells  the  sovereignty  of  H'rance        .         .   1492 
Insurrection  of  Perkin  Warbeck  quelled       .     1492-8 
Gardening  introduced  into  England,  principally 

from  the  Netherlands       .        .        .        about  1502^ 
Death  of  prince  Arthur  .        .          April  2, 

HENRY  VIII.  accession        .        .        .  April  22,  1509 

Rise  of  Wolscy i5I4 

Henry  VIII. 's  interview  with    Francis  I.    at 

Ardres.     (See  "  field  of  the  Cloth,  of  Gold.") 

June  4-25,  1520 
First  map  of  England  drawn  by  G.  Lilly,  about  i-,:o 

T  2 


ENG 


276 


ENG 


ENGLAND,  continued. 

Henry  VIII.  becomes  "Defender  of  the  Faitli "  1521 

Fall  of  Wolsey  :  he  dies        .         .        .Nov.  29,  1530 
Henry  VIII.  marries  Anne  Boleyn  ;   divorces 

Catherine May  23,  1533 

Henry  VIII.  is  style  "Head  of  the  Church"     .  1534 

The  pope's  authority  in  England  is  abolished    .  , , 

Sir  Thomas  More  beheaded          .         .     July  6,  1535 

Queen  Anne  Boleyn  beheaded        .        May  19,  1536 

Queen  Jane  Seymour  dies   .        .        .     Oct.  24,  1537 

Monasteries  suppressed 1538 

Statute  of  Six  Articles  passed     .        .         .         .  1 539 

Abbots  of  Glastonbury,  Reading,  <tc. ,  executed  ,, 
The  first  authorised  edition  of  the  Bible  (Cran- 

mer's)  printed ,, 

Cromwell,  lord  Essex,  beheaded         .        .        .  1540 

Anne  of  Cleves  divorced         .        .        .  July  9,  ,, 

Queen  Catherine  Howard  beheaded   .        .        .  1542 
The  title  of  "  king  of  Ireland  "  confirmed  to  the 

English  sovereigns 1543 

Henry  marries  Catherine  Parr  .        .     July  12,  ,, 
EDWARD  VI.  accession,  Jan.  28  ;  promotes  the 

Reformation  (Somerset,  protector)     .        .     .  1547 

Somerset  deprived  of  power,  1549;  beheaded  .  1552 

Book  of  Common  Prayer  established         .        .  , , 

MARY,  accession  July  6 ;  i-estores  popery     .    .  1553^ 

Execution  of  lady  Jane  Grey  and  her  friends    .  1554 
Mary  marries  Philip  of  Spain  ;   persecutes  the 

Protestants „ 

Ridley,  Latimer,  and  Cranmer  burnt        1555  &  1556 

Calais  retaken  by  the  French      .        .        .        .  1558 
ELIZABETH,  accession  Nov.  17 ;   the  church  of 

England  re-established ,, 

Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  lands  in  England,  1568  ; 

executed Feb.  8,  1587 

The  Spanish  armada 1588 

Devereux,  earl  of  Essex,  beheaded    .        .         .  1601 
JAMES  I.  accession ;  union  of  the  two  crowns, 

March  24,  1603 
Assumes  the  style  of  "king  of  Great  Britain," 

Oct.  24,  1604 

The  Gunpowder  plot 1605 

The  present  translation  of  the  Bible  completed .  1611 

Baronets  first  created          .        .        .          May,  ,, 

'The  Overbury  murder     .        .         .        Sept.  15,  1613 

Shakspeare  dies  .  '      .        .         .    April  23,  1616 

Raleigh  beheaded 1618 

Book  of  Sports  published  .         .        .      May  24,  ,, 
CHARLES  I.  accession       .        .        .      March  27,  1625 
Death  of  lord  Bacon  ....       April  9,  1626 
Duke  of  Buckingham  assassinated         Aug.  23,  1628 
Hampdeii's  trial  respecting  "  ship  money  "       .  1637' 
Contest  between  the  king  and  parliament ;  im- 
peachment and  execution  of  lord  Strafford    .  1641 
"Arrest  of  the  five  members,"  Jan.  4  ;  the  civil 
war  begins  :  battle  of  Edgehill  (see  Battles), 

Oct.  23,  1642 

Archbishop  Laud  beheaded        .         .      Jan.  10,  1645 

Charles  defeated  at  Naseby    .         .        June  14,  ,, 
He  flees  to  the  Scotch,  May  5  ;  who  give  him  up 

Sept.  21,  1646 

Execution  of  Charles  I.      ...      Jan.  30,  1649 
Cromwell  s  victory  at  Worcester           .  Sept.  3,  1651 
OLIVER  CROMWELL  made  protector  of  the  Com- 
monwealth           1653 

RICHARD  CROMWELL,  protector       .         Sept.  3,  1658 

5lLch  ird  resigns May  25,  1659 

CHARLES  II.  :  monarchy  re-established,  May  29,  1660 
Act  of  uniformity  passed ;   church  of  England 

restored 1662 


The  great  plague 1665 

The  great  fire  of  London          .        .     Sept.  2,  3,  1666 

Disgr  .ce  of  lord  Clarendon          ....  1667 

Death  of  Milton        ....          Nov.  8,   1674  |  Death  of  Edmund  Burke 

Oates's  "Popish  plot"  creates  a  panic,  Aug.  13,  1678    Battle  of  the  Nile 

Sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey  found  murdered, 

Oct.  17,  „ 

Many  Roman  Catholics  executed  .         .     1678-9 

The  habeas  corpus  act,  for  protecting  English 
subjects  against  false  arrest  and  imprison- 
ment, passed 1679 


"  Rye-house  plot ;"  lord  Russell  (July  21)  and 

Algernon  Sydney  (Nov.  21)  executed          .     .  1683 
JAMES  II.  accession        ....    Feb.  6,  1685 

Duke  of  Monmouth's  rebellion  defeated  at  Sedg- 

moor,  July  6  ;  he  is  beheaded      .    -    July  15,     ,, 
Acquittal  of  the  seven  bishops    .        .   June  30,  1688 
Abdication  of  James  II.  .         .         .        Dec.  n,     ,, 

WILLIAM  III.  and  MARY  proclaimed  by  the  con- 
vention parliament       .        .         .        Feb.  13,  1689 
National  debt  begins    ......  1692 

Bank  of  England  incorporated        .      April  25,  1694 
Death  of  the  queen  regnant,  Maiy    .     Dec.  28,     ,, 

Peace  of  Ryswick 1697 

Death  of  James  II.  in  exile        .        .     Sept.  16,  1701 
ANNE,  accession      ....        March  8,  1702 
Victory  of  Marlborough  at  Blenheim    .         .     .   1704 
Union  of  the  two  kingdoms  under  the  title  of 
Great  Britain          ....          May  i,  1707 

Sacheverell  riots 1710 

Treaty    of    Utrecht,     advantageous   to    Great 

Britain April  n,  1713 

GEORGE  I.  ;  accession  of  the  house  of  Hanover, 

Aug.  i,  1714 
The  Scots'  rebellion  quelled        .        .        .        .1715 

South  sea  bubble 1720 

Death  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough     .        .        .   1722 
Order  of  the  Bath  revived  (which  see)      .        .     .  1725 
GE6RGE  II.  accession          .        .        .    June  n,  1727 
Death  of  Newton    ....       March  20,     ,, 
George  II.  present  at  the  victory  of  Dettingen, 

June  1 6,  1743 

Second  Scots'  rebellion  :  prince  Charles-Edward 
gains  Edinburgh,  Sept.  17  ;  victor  at  Preston- 
pans,  Sept.  21,  1745  ;  at  Falkirk,  Jan.  18  ;  de- 
'  feated  totally  at  Culloden        .        .   April  16,  1746 
Death  of  prince  Frederick  Louis,  son  of  George 

II.  and  father  of  George  III 1751 

New  style  introduced  into  England, 

Sept.  3  (made  14)  1752 

Seven  years'  war  begins 1756 

Conquest  of  India  begins,  under  colonel  (after- 
wards lord)  Clive.     (See  India)  .        . 
Death  of  general  Wolfe.    (See  Quebec) 
GEORGE  III.  accession        .        .        .      Oct.  25, 
His  nuptials  with  Charlotte  Sophia,   of  Meck- 
lenburg Strelitz,  Sept.  8 ;   crowned,  Sept.  22, 

Peace  of  Paris .' 

Isle  of  Man  annexed  to  Great  Britain 
Death  of  the  Old  Pretender,  the  "  chevalier  de 
St.  George "     .        .        .        .        .      Dec.  30, 

Royal  marriage  act  passed 

Commencement  of  American  war 

Death  of  earl  of  Chatham        .  '       .         May  u, 

"  No  Popery  "  riots June  2-7, 

Separation  of  America  from  England    Nov.  30, 
Margaret   Nicholson's  attempt   on   the  life  of 

George  III Aug.  2, 

Trial  of  Warren  Hastings  begins        .     Feb.  13, 
Death  of  the  Young  Pretender,  at  Rome, 

March  3, 

The  king's  illness  made  known  .  .  Oct.  12, 
He  recovers,  and  goes  to  St.  Paul's  to  make 
thanksgiving  ....  April  23, 
First  coalition  against  France  .  .  June  26, 
Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended  .  May  23, 

Howe's  victory June  i, 

Marriage  of  the  prince  of  Wales  with  the  prin- 
cess Caroline  of  Brunswick        .        .  April  8, 
Warren  Hastings'  trial  ends  ;  acquitted, 

April  17, 

Princess  Charlotte  born  . 
Cash  payments  suspended 


1757 
1759 
1760 

1761 
1763 


1772 
*773 
1778 
1780 
1782 

1786 


1789 
1792 
1794 


Habeas  Corpus  act  again  suspended 
Hatfield's  attempt  on  thev  king's  life 
Union  of  Great  Britain  with  Ireland 
Nelson's  victory  at  Copenhagen 
Habeas  Corpus  act  again  suspended 
Peace  of  Amiens 


Jan.  7, 
Feb.  25, 
July  8, 
Aug.  i, 
Aug. 
May  ir, 
.    Jan.  i, 
April  2, 
April  19, 
Oct.  i, 


1796 
1797 

1798 

1800 
1801 


277 


ENGLAND,  continued. 

War  against  Bonaparte        .        .        .     May  18,  1803 
Nelson's  victory  and  death  at  Trafalgar    Oct.  21,   1805 
Death  of  Mr.  Pitt    ....         Jan.  23,  1806 
-'  Delicate  investigation "    .        .        .     May  22,    ,, 
Lord  Melville  impeached,  April  29  :  acquitted, 

June  12,     „ 
ith  of  Charles  James  Fox  .        .        Sept.  13,    ,, 

)rders  in  council  against  the  Berlin  decree, 

Jan.  7,  1807 

Abolition  of  the  slave  trade        .          March  25,     ,, 
Death  of  sir  J.  Moore.     (See  Corunna)   Jan.  16,  1809 
Duke  of  York  impeached  by  col.  Wardle     Jan.     ,, 
Jubilee  celebrating  king's  accession  .     Oct.  25,     „ 
Unfortunate  Walcheren  expedition    Aug. -Nov.     ,, 
Sir  Francis  Burdett's  arrest,  and  riots   April  6,  1810 
Death  of  princess  Amelia;  king's  malady  returns 

Nov.  2.     „ 

Great  commercial  embarrassment        .         Dec.     ,, 
IEGENCY. — The  prince  of  Wales  PRINCE  REGENT, 

Feb.  5,  1811 

Luddite  riots Nov.     ,, 

Assassination  of  Mr.  Perceval,  premier,  May  n,  1812 
Earl  of  Liverpool  premier      .         .         .  June  9,     ,, 
War  with  America  commenced        .       June  18,    ,, 
Peace  with  France,  &c.         .         .        .  April  14,  1814 
Visit  of  the  emperor  of  Russia  and  king  of 

Prussia  to  England  .  .  .  June  7,  „ 
Centenary  of  the  house  of  Hanover  .  Aug.  i,  ,, 

War  with  America Aug.     ,, 

Peace  with  America  (treaty  of  Ghent)    Dec.  24,     ,, 
Battle  of  Waterloo  (close  of  French  war),  June  18,  1815 
Princess  Charlotte  marries  prince  Leopold,  of""" 

Saxe-Coburg May  2,  1816 

Death  of  R.  B.  Sheridan         .        .        .  July  9,   '„ 
Spa-fields  meeting  (which  see)    .        .       Dec.  2,    ,, 
Green-bag  inquiry  (which  see)         .        .  Feb.  2,  1817 
Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended         .        Feb.  21,    „ 
Cash  payments  resumed    .        .        .    Sept.  22,    „ 
Princess  Charlotte  dies  in  childbirth    .  Nov.  6,    ,, 
Queen  Charlotte  dies  at  Kew    .         .     Nov.  17,  1818 
Queen  Victoria  born        .        .        .          May  24.  1819 
Manchester  reform  meeting      .         .     Aug.  16,     ,, 
Duke  of  Kent  dies         ....  Jan.  23,  1820 
GEORGE  IV.  accession        .        .        .       Jan.  29,    ,, 
Cato-street  conspirators  arrested         .  Feb.  23,     ,, 
Trial  of  queen  Caroline     .     Aug.  19  to  Nov.  10,     ,, 
Coronation  of  George  IV.         .        .        July  19,  1821 
Queen  Caroline  dies  at  Hammersmith    Aug.  7,     ,, 
Lord  Byron  dies         .        .  _     .        .     April  19,  1824 
Commercial  panic  *«•  .        .       1825-6 

Duke  of  York  dies     ....      Jan.  22,  1827 
Mr.  Canning,  first  minister,  April  30 ;  dies, 

Aug.  8,     ,, 

Battle  of  Navarino    ....        Oct.  20,     ,, 
Roman  Catholic  Relief  bill  passed    .    April  13,  1829 
Political  panic  in  London ;  riots     .          Nov.  9,     , , 
WILLIAM  IV.  accession        .        .        .     June  26,  1830 
Mr.  Huskisson  killed  at  the  opening  of  the 

Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway    Sept.  15,     „ 
Grey  administration  formed     .        .        .  Nov.     ,, 
King  opens  new  London  bridge    .        .      Aug.  183! 
The  cholera  morbus  in  England        ,       Oct.  26,     „ 
Reform  bill  rejected  by  the  lords,  Oct.  7  ;  fatal 

Bristol  riots Oct.  29,     ,, 

Reform  act  passed      ....       June  7,  1832 ' 
Sir  Walter  Scott  dies      .        .         .         Sept.  21,     „ 
Assault  on  William  IV.  by  a  discharged  pen- 
sioner at  Ascot        ....      June  19,     ,, 
S.  T.  Coleridge  dies        ....  July  25,  1834 
Slavery  ceases  in  the  colonies  .        .        Aug.  i,    , , 
Corporation  reform  act  passed      .        .   Sept.  9,  1835 
QUEEN  VICTORIA,  accession;  Hanover  separated 

from  Great  Britain  .  .  .  June  20,  1837 
Coronation  of  Victoria  .  .  .  June  28,  1838 
Beginning  of  war  with  China  .  .  March,  1839 
Penny  postage  begins  .  .  .  Jan.  10,  1840 

Marriage  of  the  queen  with  prince  Albert  of 

Saxe-Coburg  (see  p.  281)  .  .  Feb.  10,  „ 
Oxford's  assault  on  the  queen,  .  .  June  10,  ,, 
Prince  of  Wales  born  .  .  .  Nov.  9,  1841 


King  of  Prussia  visits  England        .        Jan.  24,  1842 
John  Francis  fires  at  the  queen  .        .    May  30,     ,, 
Bean  presents  a  pistol  at  her  .        .          July  3,     ,, 
Income  tax  act  passed         .        .        .          Aug.     ,, 
Queen  embarks  for  Scotland  (ist  visit)  Aug.  29,     ,, 
Peace  of  Nankin  (with  China)         .         .      Dec.     ,, 
Death  of  duke  of  Sussex      .        .        .   April  21,  1843 
Queen's  visit  to  the  Orleans  family  at  chateau 

d'Eu Sept.  2,     ,, 

Emperor  of  Russia  visits  England        .   June  i,  1844 
King  Louis  Philippe's  visit        .         .        Oct.  7,     ,, 
Tractarian  or  Puseyite  controversy      .        .       18445 
Anti-corn-law  agitation     ....  .   1845 

Queen's  visit  to  Germany    .        .        .     Aug.  9, 


Peel's  new  tariff,  1845 ;   railway  mania,  Nov. 

1845  ;  panic March,  1846 

Corn  laws  repealed   ....       June  26,     ,, 
Chartist  demonstration  in  London    .  April  10,  1848 
Cholera  re-appears  in  England  in    .       1848  and  1849 
Queen  embarks  on  her  visit  to  Ireland,  Aug.  i,     „ 
Adelaide,  queen  dowager,  dies        .          Dec.  2,     , , 
"  Exhibition  of  1851 "  announced        .      Jan.  3,  1850 
Death  of  Wordsworth  (aged  80)      .       April  23,     „ 
Pate's  assault  on  the  queen         .        .  June  27,    ,, 
Death  of  sir  Robert  Peel  (aged  62) .          July  2,    ,, 
Duke  of  Cambridge  dies     .        .        .      July  8,     „ 
Queen's  visit  to  Belgium         .         .        Aug.  21,     ,, 
Great  excitement-'  occasioned  by   the    pope's 
establishment  of  a  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy 

in  England Nov.     ,, 

Census  of  United  Kingdom.    (See  Population) 

March  30,  1851 

The  first  "Great  Exhibition "  opened  May  i,  ,, 
Australian  gold  arrives  .  .  .  Dec.  ,, 
Death  of  the  poet  Thomas  Moore  .  Feb.  26,  1852 , 


Slight  earthquake  at  Liverpool,  &c.         Nov.  9, 
Death  of  Wellington  (aged  83),  Sept.  14  ;  funeral, 


Camp  at  Chobham 


Nov.  1  8, 


.  June  14  —  Aug.  19, 
Death    of   sir    Charles  Napier,    conqueror  of 


1853 


Scinde  ......  ug.  29,  ,, 

English  and  French  fleets  enter  Bosphorus, 

Oct.  22,  „ 
Protocol    signed    between    England,    France, 

Austria,  and  Prussia,  for  re-establishment  of 

peace  between  Russia  and  Turkey        Dec.  5,  ,, 
Many  meetings  on  eastern  question,  favourable 

to  Turkey        ....      Sept.  to  Dec.  „ 
Great  strike  at  Preston  ;    14,972  hands  unem- 

ployed at  one  time      Oct.  15,  1853,  to  MaY  x>  l854 

Queen  reviews  Baltic  fleet        .        .    March  n,  „ 
Treaty  of  alliance  between  England,    France, 

and  Turkey  signed  .         .        .         March  12,  „ 
War  declared    against    Russia.      (See    Russo- 

Turkish  War)        ....      March  28,  „ 

Fast  day  on  account  of  the  war         .    April  26,  ,, 

Marquis  of  Anglesey  dies       .        .          May  28,  ,, 

King  of  Portugal  visits  England        .          June,  ,, 

Crystal  Palace  opened  by  the  queen      June  10,  ,, 
Cholera  prevails  in  the    south  and    west   of 

London        ....       Aug.  and  Sept.  ,  , 

Thanksgiving  for  abundant  harvest     .     Oct.  i,  „ 
Great  explosion  and  fire  at    Gateshead   and 

Newcastle        .....        Oct.  6,  ,, 

Meeting  of  Parliament  .        .        .          Dec.  12,  ,, 

Resignation  of  Aberdeen  ministry    .      Jan.  29,  1855 

Formation  of  Palmerston  ministry        .       Feb.  „ 

Death  of  Joseph  Hume  (aged  78)      .      Feb.  20,  „ 
Sebastopol  Inquiry  Committee  nominated, 

Feb.  23,  „ 
Visit  of  emperor  and  empress  of  French, 

April  16  to  21,  „ 

Loan  of  1  6  millions  agreed  to        .        .     April,  ,, 

Distribution  of  Crimean  medals        .      May  18,  ,, 

Metropolitan  cattle  market  opened       June  13,  „ 
Agitation    and    rioting    concerning     Sunday 

trading  bill,  which  is  withdrawn    .     July  2,  ,, 

The  queen  and  prince  visit  Paris   .        Aug.  18,  ,, 
Peace  with  Russia  proclaimed,  April  19;  thanks- 

giving day,  May  4  ;  illuminations,  &c.  May  29,  1856 


ENG 


278 


ENGLAND,  continued. 

War  with  China  (which  see)  .  .  .  Oct.  1856  '  Charter  granted  for  Exhibition  of  1862,  Feb.  14, 
War  with  Persia  (n-hich  see)  .  .  .  Nov.  ,,  j  Death  of  duchess  of  Kent  (aged  75),  March  16, 
Dissolution  of  parliament,  March  21;  new  I  Excitement  about  ''Essays  and  Reviews" 

parliament  meets         .        .        .        April  30,  1857  !  Seventh  census  taken        .         .         .       April 
Death  of  duchess  of  Gloucester  (aged  81),  the 
.     April  30, 
(Sec  India) 

March, 
London,    prince 


1861 


last  of  George  III.'s  children 
Mutiny  of  Indian  army  begins. 


Educational    conference     in 
Albert  in  the  chair         .        .        .       June  22, 

Victoria  crosses  (which  see)  distributed  by  the 
queen  in  Hyde-park  .  .  .  June  26,  „ 

Meetings  for  relief  of  sufferers  by  the  mutiny 
in  India  [by  Nov.  15,  260,000?.  raised]  Aug.  25,  ,, 

Gi-eat  commercial  panic ;  relieved  by  suspension 
of  Bank  Charter  Act  of  1844  •  Nov.  12,  ,, 

Parliament  meets        .        .         .        .'     Dec.  3,     ,, 

Marriage  of  princess  royal  to  prince  Frederick- 
William  of  Prussia  .  .  .  Jan.  25,  1858 

Excitement  respecting  attempted  assassination 
of  Louis  Napoleon,  Jan.  14 ;  indiscreet  ad- 
dresses of  French  colonels,  published,  Jan.  27,  ,, 

"Conspiracy  to  Murder"  bill  (introduced  by 
lord  Palmorston,  Feb.  8)  rejected,  Feb.  19; 
Palmerston  ministry  resigns  .  Feb.  22,  , , 

Derby-Disraeli  administration  formed,  Feb.  26,     „ 

Dr.  Simon  Bernard  acquitted  of  conspiracy 
against  the  life  of  Louis  Napoleon  April  17,  ,, 

The  Jewish  Disabilities  bill  passed    .     July  12,     ,, 

The  India  bill  passed       .         .        .        July  23,     „ 

The  queen  visits  Birmingham,  June  15  ;  Cher- 
bourg, Aug.  4,  5  ;  the  princess  royal  (at  Pots- 
dam), Aug.  12,  &c.  ;  and  Leeds  .  Sept.  i,  ,, 

Excitement  about  the  confessional  ;  public 
meetings  held  against  it,  July  12  &  Sept.  18,  ,, 

The  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Social 
Science  meet  at  Liverpool  .  .  Oct.  12,  „ 

Excitement  respecting  the  Italian  war  ;  pro- 
clamation for  manning  the  navy  .  Api-il3o,  1859 

Declai-ation  of  neutrality  of  England      May  12,     ,, 

Proclamation  for  the  organisation  of  volunteer 
rifle  corps  :  many  formed  .  May — Oct.  ,, 

The  Derby  ministry  defeated  on  the  Reform 
bill ;  dissolve  parliament,  April  23  ;  again 
defeated,  they  resign,  June  n  ;  and  the 
Palmerston-Russell  administration  is  formed 

June  1 8,     ,, 

The  Handel  commemoration  .  June  20,  22,  24,     „ 

The  income-tax  increased  to  provide  for  the 
defences  of  the  country  .  .  .  July,  ,, 

Lord  Macaulay  dies  (aged  59)      .        .     Dec.  28,     ,, 

Commercial  treaty  with  France,  signed  Jan.  23; 
approved  by  parliament  .  .  .  March,  1860 

Sir  Charles  Barry  dies  (aged  65)        .       May  12,     ,, 

The  queen  reviews  18,000  volunteers  in  Hyde- 
Park  June  23,  ,, 

Great  failures  in  the  leather  trade    .    July,  &c.     „ 

National  rifle  shooting  match  at  Wimbledon, 

July  2-7,     „ 

The  earl  of  Derby  reviews  about  11,000  Lanca- 
shire volunteers  at  Knowsley  .  Sept.  i,  ,, 

The  queen  and  prince  visit  their  daughter  in 
Prussia  .  .  •  .  •  .  .  Sept.  ,, 

Peace  with  China  signed  .         .        .        Oct.  24,     , , 
Thos.  Cochrane,  earl  of  Dundonald,  dies  (aged  82) 

Oct.  31,    „ 

Prince  of  Wales  visits  Canada  and  United 
States,  July  24 — Oct.  20  ;  returns  to  England 

Nov.  15,     ,, 
Severe  cold.    (See  Cold)    .   Dec.  1860,  and  Jan.  1861 


Api 

Gre;it  excitement  through  capt.  Wilkea(of  U.  S. 
navy)  forcibly  taking  Messrs.  Slidell  and 
Mason  from  the  Royal  British  muil  steamer 
Trent.  (See  United  State)  .  .  Nov.  8, 

King  of  Sweden  and  his  son  visit  London   Aug. 

Death  of  the  prince  consort  of  "  typhoid  fever, 
duration  21  days,"  Dec.  14  ;  buried  (see  Albert 
Memorial)  .  .  ,  .  .  Dec.  23, 

The  United  States'  government  release  Messrs. 
Slidell  and  Mason  .  .  .  Dec.  28, 

International  Exhibition  opened  by  the  duke 
of  Cambridge May  i, 

Prince  Alfred  declared  king  of  Greece  at  Athens 
(declined) Oct.  23, 

Final  closing  of  international  exhibition, Nov.  15, 

Remains  of  the  prince  consort  transferred  to 
the  mausoleum  at  Frogmore  .  Dec.  18, 

Great  distress  in  the  cotton  manufacture  dis- 
tricts begins,  April :  contributions  received, 
central  relief  fund,  407, 830?.  ;  Mansion-house 
fund,  236,926? Dec.  20, 

Princess  Alexandra  of  Denmark  enters  London, 
March  7  ;  married  to  the  prince  of  Wales, 

March  10, 

The  British,  French,  and  Austrian  governments 
remonstrate  with  Russia  on  cruelt  ies  in  Poland 

April  7, 

Inauguration  of  the  Great  Exhibition  memorial 
to  the  prince  consort  in  the  Horticultural 
gardens,  London  .  .  .  June  n, 

Arrival  of  captains  Grant  and  Speko  from  ex- 
ploring the  source  of  the  Nile  .  June, 

Great  decrease  of  distress  in  cotton  districts,  Oct. 

Earthquake  in  central  &  N.W.  England   Oct.  6, 

The  government  declines  the  French  emperor's 
proposal  for  a  congress  of  sovereigns  Nov. 

Death  of  William  Thackeray  (aged  52)  Dec.  24, 

Birth  of  prince  Albert-Victor  of  Wales     Jan.  8, 
!  Final  judgment  of  the  judicial  committee  of 
the  privy  council  that  the  government  had 
no  authority  to  seize  the  A  lexandra  (Confede- 
rate) steamer Feb.  8, 

Garibaldi's  visit  to  England  causes  great  enthu- 
siasm   April  3-27, 

The  Ionian  isles  made  over  to  Greece     June  i, 

European  conference  at  London  on  the  Schles- 
wig-Holstein  question  .  April  24 — June  25, 

Great  excitement  through  the  murder  of  Mr. 
Briggs  in  a  first-class  carriage  on  the  North- 
London  railway  ....  July  9, 

Great  explosion  of  gunpowder  at  the  Belvedere 
magazine,  near  Woolwich  .  .  Oct.  i, 

Death  of  John  Leech  (aged  47)        .          Oct.  29, 

Death  of  Richard  Cobden  (aged  61)    .     April  2, 

Prince  George  of  Wales  born  .          June  3, 

General  election  ;  majority  for  Palmei'ston.  ad- 
ministration ....  July  jo,  <fec. 

Visit  of  Abd-el-Kader  ;  departs        .         Aug.  6, 

Prevalence    of    a    cattle    plague,   June — Oct. 
Royal  commission  appointed,  met  Oct.  TO, 

English  fleet  visits  Cherbourg,  Aug.  15;  French 
fleet  visits  Portsmouth  .  .  Aug  30, 

Fine  Art  and  Industrial  exhibitions  opened  in 

London  and  the  provinces        .      July — Sept. 

Death  of  Lord  Palmerston       .        .          Oct.  18, 

His  public  funeral        ....     Oct.  27, 


1862 


1864 


1865 


KINGS   AND    QUEENS   OF    ENGLAND. 


BEFORE    THE  CONQUEST. 

827.  Egbert,  styled  "  king  of  England  "  in  828. 

837.  Ethelwolf  ;  his  son. 

857.  Ethelbald  ;  his  son. 

860.  Ethelbert;  brother. 


866.   Ethelred ;  brother. 

871.   Alfred  the  Great;  brother;  died  2ist  or  28th 

Oct.  901. 

901.   Edward  the  Elder;  son;  died  925. 
925.   Athelstan  ;  eldest  son  ;  died  Oct.  17,  9^0. 


ENG 


ENG 


ENGLAND,  continued. 

940.   Edmund  I.,  fifth  son  of  Edward  the  Elder;! 

bled  to  death  from  a  wound  received  in  an  '. 

affray,  May  26,  946. 
946.   Edred  ;  brother  ;  died  955. 


955.  Edwy,  eldest  son  of  Edmund  ;  died  of  grief  in 
958.  In  this  reign  Dunstan,  a  turbulent 
and  ambitious  priest,  ruled  the  king,  who 
afterwards  banished  him. 

958.   Edgar  the  Peaceable;  brother;  died  July  i, 


975 


EdT" 


ward  the  Martyr,  his  son,  stabbed  at  Corfe 
Castle,  at  the  instance  of  his  mother-in-law 
Elfrida,  March  18,  979. 
Ethelred  II.  ;  half-brother  ;  retired. 

13.  Sweyn,  proclaimed  king ;  died  Feb.  3,  1014. 

14.  Canute  the  Great ;  his  son. 

Ethelred  restored  in  Canute's  absence ;  died 
April  24,  1016. 

16.  Edmund  Ironside,  his  son,  divided  the  kingdom 

with  Canute  ;  murdered  at  Oxford,  Nov.  30, 
1016 ;  reigned  seven  months. 

17,  Canute  sole  king ;  married  Emma,  widow  of 

Ethelred;  died,  Nov.  12,  1035. 
135.   Harold  I.  ;  natural  son  ;  died  April  14,  1039. 
39.   Hardicanute,  son  of  Canute  and  Emma ;  died 
of  repletion  at  a  marriage  feast,  June  8,  1042. 
Edward  the   Confessor,  son  of  Ethelred  and 
Emma ;  died  Jan.  5,  1066,  naming  William 
of  Normandy  his  successor. 

Harold  II.,  son  of  earl  Godwin  ;  reigned  nine  j 
months  ;  killed  near  Hastings,  Oct.  14,  1066. 

THE   NORMANS.* 

3.  William  the  Conqueror ;  crowned  Dec.  25  ; 
died  at  Rouen,  Sept.  9,  1087. 

Queen,  Matilda,  daughter  of  Baldwin,  carl  of 
Flanders  ;  married  in  1054 ;  died  in  1083. 

William  II.  Rums ;  reign  began,  Sept.  26; 
killed  by  an  arrow,  Aug.  2,  noo. 

Henry  I.  Beauclerc,  his  brother  ;  reign  began 
Aug.  5  ;  died  of  a  surfeit,  Dec.  i,  1135. 

Queens,  Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm  III.  king 
of  Scotland;  married  Nov.  u,  noo;  died 
May  i,  1119.  2.  Adelais,  daughter  of  Godf re y, 
earl  of  Louvaine  ;  married  Jan.  29,  1129; 
survived  the  king. 

Stephen,  earl  of  Blois,  nephew  of  Henry ; 
reign  began  Dec.  26;  died  Oct.  25,  1154. 

Queen.,  Matilda,  daughter  of  Eustace,  count  of 
Boulogne;  married  in  1128;  died  May  3, 1151. 

[Maude,  daughter  of  "Henry  I.  and  right- 
ful heir  to  the  throne;  born  noi ;  be- 
trothed, in  1109,  at  eight  years  of  age,  to 
Henry  V.  emperor  of  Germany,  who  died 
1125.  She  married,  secondly,  Geoffrey  Plan- 
tagenet,  earl  of  Anjou,  1130.  Was  set  aside 
from  the  English  succession  by  Stephen, 
1135 ;  landed  in  England  and  claimed  the 
crown,  1139.  Crowned,  but  soon  after  de- 


feated  at  Winchester,  1141  ;  concluded  a 
peace  with  Stephen,  which  secured  the 
succesion  to  her  son  Henry,"n53 ;  died  1165.] 

THE   FLANTAQEXETS. 

1154.  Henry  II.  Plantar/en et,  grandson  of  Henry  I. 
and  son  of  Maud  ;  reign  began  Dec.  19  ; 
died  July  6,  1189. 

Queen,  Eleanor,  the  repudiated  queen  of  Louis 
VII.  king  of  France,  and  heiress  of  Guienne 
and  Poitou  ;  married  to  Henry  1151  ;  died 
1204.  See  Rosamond. 

1189.    Richard  I.  Caiur  de  Lion,  his  son  ;  reign  began 

Sept.  3  ;  died  of  a  wound,  April  6,  1199. 
Queen,  Berengaria,   daughter  of  the  king   of 
Navarre  ;  married  May  12,   1191  ;   survived 
the  king. 

1199.   John,  the  brother  of  Richard;    reign  began 

May  27  ;  died  Oct.  19,  1216. 
Queens,  Avisa,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Glouces- 
ter ;  married  in  1189;  divorced.  2.  Isabella, 
daughter  of  the  count  of  Angouldme  :  she 
was  the  young  and  virgin  wife  of  the  count 
de  la  Marche ;  married  to  John  in  1200. 
Survived  the  king,  on  whose  death  she  was 
re-married  to  the  count  de  la  Marche. 

1216.    Henry  III.  son  of  John  ;  reign  began  Oct.  28  ; 

died  Nov.  16,  1272. 

Queen,  Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  count  de 
Provence  ;  married  Jan.  14,  1236 ;  survived 
the  king  ;  and  died  in  1291,  in  a  monastery. 

1272.    Edward  1.  son  of  Henry,  surnamed  Longshanks  : 

reign  began  Nov.  20 ;  died  July  7,  1307. 
Queens,- ;  Eleanor  of  Castile  ;  married  in  1253  ; 
died  of  a  fever,  on  her  joiirney  to  Scotland, 
at  Graiitharn,  in  Lincolnshire,  1290.  2.  Mar- 
garet, sister  of  the  king  of  France ;  married 
Sept.  12,  1299;  survived  the  king,  dying  in 
1317. 

1307.  Edward  II.  son  of  Edward  I.  ;  reign  began 
July  8  ;  dethroned  Jan.  20,  1327  ;  murdered 
at  Berkeley  castle,  Sept,  21  following. 
Queen,  Isabella,  daughter  of  the  king  of  France ; 
married  in  1308.  On  the  death,  by  the 
gibbet,  of  her  favourite  Mortimer,  she  was 
confined  for  the  rest  of  her  life  in  her  own 
house  at  Risings,  near  London,  and  died  in 

1357- 

1327.   Edward  III.  his  son;   reign  began  Jan.  25; 

died  June  21,  1377. 

Queen,  Philippa,  daughter  of  the  count  of 
Hainault ;  married  in  1326  ;  died  Aug.  15, 
1369. 

1377.  Richard  II.  son  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 
and  grandson  of  Edward  III. ;  reign  began 
June  22  ;  dethroned  Sept.  29,  1399 ;  mur- 
dered at  Pomfret  castle,  Feb.  10,  following. 
Queens,  Anne  of  Bohemia,  sister  of  the  emperor 
Wenceslaus  of  Germany ;  married  in  Jan. 


'•  The  REGNAL-DATES  are  those  given  by  sir  H.  Nicolas.  The  early  Norman  and  Plantagenet  kings  reckoned 
their  reigns  from  the  day  of  their  coronation ;  the  later  Plantagenets  from  the  day  after  the  death  of  their 
predecessor.  With  Edward  VI.  began  the  present  custom  of  beginning  the  reign  on  the  death  of  the 
preceding  sovereign. 

ROYAL   ARMS  OF    ENGLAND. 


William  I.  William  II.  and  .Henry  I. — two  lions  or 
leopards  passant :  Stephen'— Sagittarius,  the  archer 
of  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac  (Traditional). 

Henry  II.  to  Edward  II.     Three  lions  passant. 

Edward  III.  and  his  successors  quai-tered  the  pre- 
ceding with  fleurs  de  lys,  the  anns  of  France. 

Henry  V.  used  only  3  fleurs  de  lys. 

Mary  I.  quartered  the  preceding  with  the  arms  of 
her  husband  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 

UNITED    KINODOM. 

James  I.  and  his  successors  combined  the  arms  of 


England  and  France  (ist  and  4th  quarter);  2nd, 

the  lion  rampant  of  Scotland ;    4th,  the  harp  of 

Ireland. 
George  I.  Geoi-ge  II.  and  George  III.  introduced  the 

arms  of  Brunswick. 
In  1801  the  arms  of  France  were  omitted.     In  1816 

the  arms  were  modified  through  Hanover  being 

made  a  kingdom. 
Victoria.     In  1837  the  arms  of  Hanover  were  omitted. 

and  the   arms  are  now  :    ist  and  4th  quarters,  3 

lions  passant  for  England  ;  2nd,  lion  rampant  for 

Scotland ;  3rd,  harp  for  Ireland. 


ENG 


280 


ENG 


ENGLAND,  continued 

1382;  died  Aug.  3, 1394.  2.  Isabella,  daughter 
of  Charles  V.  of  France ;  married  when  only 
seven  years  old,  Nov.  i,  1396.  On  the 
murder  of  her  husband  she  returned  to  her 
father. 

HOUSE    OF   LANCASTER. 

1399.    Henry  IV.  cousin  of  Richard  II.  ;  reign  began 

Sept.  30  ;  died  March  20,  1413. 
Queens,  Mary,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Hereford 
she  died,  before  Henry  obtained  the  crown, 
in   1394.     2.  Joan  of  Navarre,  widow  of  the 
duke  of  Bretagne ;  married  1403 ;  survived 
the  king  ;  died  1437. 

1413.   Henry  V.  his  son  ;    reign  began  March  21 ; 

died  Aug.  31,  1422. 

Queen,  Catherine,  daughter  of  the  king  of 
France ;  married  May  30,  1420.  She  outlived 
Henry,  and  was  married  to  Owen  Tudor, 
grandfather  of  Henry  VII.,  in  1423  ;  died 
1437. 

1422.  Henry  VI.  his  son ;  reign  began  Sept.  i ; 
deposed  March  4,  1461 ;  murdered  by  Richard, 
duke  of  Gloucester,  in  the  Tower,  June  20, 
1471. 

Queen,  Margaret,  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
Anjou ;  married  April  22,  1445 ;  survived 
the  king  ;  died  Aug.  25,  1481. 

HOUSE  OF  YORK. 

1461.    Edward  IV.  ;  died  April  9,  1483. 

Queen,  Lady  Elizabeth  Grey,  daughter  of  sir 
Richard  Woodville,  and  widow  of  sir  John 
Grey,  of  Groby  ;  married  March  i,  1463,  or 
1464.  Suspected  of  favouring  the  insurrec- 
tion of  Lambert  Simnel ;  and  closed  her  life 
in  confinement  June  8,  1492. 

1483.  Edward  V.  his  son;  deposed  June  25,  1483, 
and  murdered  in  the  Tower  by  Gloucester  j 
reigned  two  months  and  thirteen  days. 
„  Richard  III.  brother  of  Edward  IV.  ;  began  to 
reign  June  26 ;  slain  at  Bosworth,  Aug.  22, 
1485. 

Queen,  Anne,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  "Warwick, 
and  widow  of  Edward,  prince  of  Wales, 
whom  Richard  had  murdered,  1471.  She  is 
supposed  to  have  been  poisoned  by  Richard 
(having  died  suddenly,  March  16,  1485),  to 
make  way  for  his  intended  marriage  with 
princess  Elizabeth  of  York. 

HOUSE  OF  TUDOR. 

1485.  Henry  VII.;  began  to  reign  Aug.  22;  died 
April  21,  1509. 

Queen,  Elizabeth  of  York,  princess  of  England, 
daughter  of  Edward  IV.  ;  married  Jan.  18, 
1486;  died  Feb.  u,  1503. 

1509.  Henry  VIII.  his  son  ;  began  to  reign,  April  22  ; 
died  Jan.  28,  1547. 

Queens,  Catherine  of  Aragon,  widow  of  Henry's 
elder  brother,  Arthur,  prince  of  Wales  ;  mar- 
ried June  3,  1509;  was  the  mother  of  queen 
Mary  ;  was  repudiated,  and  afterwards  for- 
mally divorced,  May  23,  1533;  died  Jan.  7, 
1536.  2.  Anne.Boleyii,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas 
Boleyn,  and  maid  of  honour  to  Catherine  ; 
was  privately  married,  before  Catherine  was 
divorced,  Nov.  14,  1532  ;  was  the  mother  of 
queen  Elizabeth ;  was  beheaded  at  the  Tower, 
May  IQ,  1536.  3.  Jane  Seymour,  daughter  of 
sir  John  Seymour,  and  maid  of  honour  to 
Anne  Boleyn  ;  was  married  May  20,  1536, 
the  day  after  Anne's  execution  ;  was  the 
mother  of  Edward  VI.  of  whom  she  died  in 
childbirth,  Oct.  24,  1537.  4.  Anne  of  Cleves, 
sister  of  William,  dxike  of  Cleves  ;  married 
Jan.  6,  1540  ;  divorced  July  10,  1540  ;  died 
1557.  5.  Catherine  Howard,  niece  of  the  duke 
of  Norfolk  ;  married  July  9.8,  1540  ;  be- 
headed on  Tower-hill,  Feb.  12, 1542.  6.  Cathe- 


rine Parr,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas  Parr,  and 
widow  of  Nevill,  lord  Latimer  ;  married  July 
12,  1543  ;  survived  the  king,  after  whose 
death  she  married  sir  Thomas  Seymour, 
created  lord  Sudley  ;  died  Sept.  5,  1548. 

1547.  Edward  VI.  son  of  Henry  VIII.  (by  Jane  Sey- 
mour; ;  died  July  6,  1553. 

1553.  Jane,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and 
wife  of  lord  Guildford  Dudley  ;  proclaimed 
queen  on  the  death  of  Edward ;  ten  days 
afterwards  returned  to  private  life  ;  was 
tried  Nov.  13,  1553  ;  beheaded  Feb.  12,  1554, 
when  but  17  years  of  age. 

,,  Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  (by  Catherine  of 
Aragon)  ;  married  Philip  of  Spain,  July  25, 
1554;  died  Nov.  17,  1558. 

1558.  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry  (by  Anne 
Boleyn),  died  March  24,  1603. 


HOUSE  OF  STUART. 

1603.   James  I.  of  England  and  VI.  of  Scotland,  son 

of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots ;  died  March  27,  1625. 
Queen,  Anne,  princess  of  Denmark,  daughter  of 

Frederick  II.  ;  married  Aug.  20,  1590  ;   died 

March,  1619. 
1625.   Charles  I.  his  son;     beheaded    at  Whitehall, 

Jan.  30,  1649. 
Queen,  Henrietta- Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV. 

king  of  France ;    married  June   13,    1625  ; 

survived  the  king ;  died  in  France,  Aug.  10, 

1669. 

1649.  COMMONWEALTH.  Oliver  Cromwell  made  pro- 
tector, Dec.  12,  1653 ;  died  Sept.  3,  1658. 

1658.  Richard  Cromwell,  his  son,  made  protector, 
Sept.  4  ;  resigned  April  22,  1659. 

1660..  Charles  II.  son  of  Charles  I. ;  died  Feb.  6,  1685. 
Queen,  Catherine  of  Braganza,  infanta  of  Por- 
tugal, daughter  of  John  IV.  and  sister  of 
Alfonso  VI.  ;  married  May  21,  1662  ;  sur- 
vived the  king  ;  returned  to  Portugal ;  died 
Dec.  21,  1705. 

1685.  James  II.   his  brother  ;     abdicated  by  flight, 

Dec.  ii,  1688 ;  died  in  exile,  Aug.  6,  1701. 
Queen.   [Ann  Hyde,  daughter  of  Edward  Hyde, 
earl  of  Clarendon  ;  married  Sept.  1660  ;  died 
before   James  ascended  the  throne,  1671 
mother  of  queens  Mary  and  Anne.  ]    Mary 
Beatrice,   princess  of  Modena,  daughter  of 
Alphonzo  d'Este,   duke ;   married  Nov.  21, 
1673  ;  at  the  revolution  in  1688,  she  retired 
with  James  to  France ;  died  at  St.  Germains, 
1718. 

1689.  William  III.  prince  of  Orange,  king,  and  Mary, 
queen,  daughter  of  James  ;  married  Nov.  4, 
1677  ;  began  their  reign,  Feb.  13, 1689;  Mary 
died  Dec.  28,  1694 ;  William  died  of  a  fall 
from  his  horse,  March  8,  1702. 

1702.  Anne,  daughter  of  James  II.  ;  married  George, 
prince  of  Denmark,  July  28,  1683  ;  succeeded 
to  the  throne,  March  8,  1702  ;  had  thirteen 
children,  all  of  whom  died  young  ;  lost  her 
husband,  Oct.  28,  1708  ;  died  Aug.  i,  1714. 

HOUSE  OF  HANOVER.     (See  Brunswick  and  Butt.) 
1714.    George  I.    elector   of   Hanover   and  duke  of 
Brunswick-Luneburg ;   son  of  Sophia,  who 
was  daughter  of  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of 
James  I  ;  died  June  n,  1727. 
Queen,  Sophia-Dorothea,  daughter  of  the  duke 

of  Zell ;  she  died  in  prison,  Nov.  2,  1726. 
1727.    George  II.  his  son  ;  died  Oct.  25,  1760. 

Queen,  Wilhelmina  Caroline  Dorothea,  of  Bran- 
denburg-Anspach  ;  married  1705;  died  Nov. 
20,  1737. 
1760.   George  III.  grandson  of  George  II ;   died  Jan. 

29,  1820. 
Qv.ee,i,  Charlotte  Sophin,  daughter  of  the  duke 


ENG 


281 


ENG 


ENGLAND,  continued. 

of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz ;    man-led    Sept.  8, 

1761  ;  died  Nov.  17,  1818. 
George  IV.  his  son  ;  died  June  26,  1830. 
Queen,   Caroline  Amelia  Augusta,  daughter  of 

the  duke  of  Brunswick;    manled,  April  8, 

1795,  died,  Aug.  7,  1821.    (See  article  Queen 

Caroline.) 


1830.   William  IV.  brother  of  George  IV. ;  died  June 

20,  1837. 

Queen,  Adelaide  Amelia  Louisa  Theresa  Caroline, 
sister  of  the  duke  of  Saxe-Meiningen  ;  mar- 
ried July  it,  1818  ;  died  Dec.  2,  1849. 

1837.   Victoria,  the  reigning  queen,  WHOM  GOD  PRE- 
SERVE. 


THE    PRESENT   ROYAL    FAMILY   OF    GREAT    BRITAIN. 

X,*  Alexandrina  VICTORIA,  only  daughter  of  Edward,  duke  of  Kent  ;t  born  May  24,  1819;    suc- 

We 


ceeded  to  the  throne  on  the  decease  of  her  uncle,  William  IV.  June  20,  1837  ;  crowned  at 
June  28,  1838  ;  married  (Feb.  10,  1840)  to  her  cousin, 
Francis-  ALBERT-  Augustus  Charles-Emmanuel,  duke  of  Saxe,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha  ;  born  Aug. 
26,  1819  (ordered  June  20,  1857,  to  be  styled  Prince  Consort);  elected  chancellor  of  the  university  of 
Cambridge,  Feb.  28,  1847  ;  died  Dec.  14,  1861. 

3.  Alice-Maud-Mary,  born  April  25,  1843  ;  married 
prince  Louis  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  July  i,  1862 
(dowry  30,000?.,  annuity  6000?.).  Issue:  Victoria, 


Victoria-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa,  princess  royal, 
boni  Nov.  21,  1840;  married  to  prince  Frederick- 
William  of  Prussia,  Jan.  25,  1858  (dowry  40,000?. 
and  annuity  of  8000?.).  Issue  :  Frederick-William, 
born  Jan.  27,  1859 ;  Charlotte,  July  24,  1860 ; 
Henry,  Aug.  14,  1862;  Sigismond,  Sept.  15,  1864. 

Albert-Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  duke  of  Saxony, 
duke  of  Cornwall  and  Rothsay,  earl  of  Chester 
and  Carrick,  baron  of  Renfrew,  and  lord  of  the 
Isles,  born  Nov.  9,  1841 ;  married  princess  Alex- 
andra of  Denmark,  March  10,  1863.  Issue:  Al- 
bert Victor,  born  Jan.  8, 1864 ;  George  Frederick, 
June  3,  1865.  (See  Wales.) 


(dowry  30,000?.,  annuity 6000?.).   Issue: 
April  5,  1863  ;  a  princess,  Nov.  i,  1864. 

4.  Alfred- Ernest,  born  Aug.  6,  1844;     entered  the 

Euryalus  as  midshipman,  Aug.  31,  1858. 

5.  Helena- Augusta- Victoria,  born  May  25,  1846. 

6.  Louisa- Carolina- Alberta,  born  March  18,  1848. 

7.  Arthur- Patrick- Albert,  born  May  i,  1850. 

8.  Leopold-George-Duncan-Albert,    born    April    7, 

1853- 

9.  Beatrice-Mary- Victoria- Feodore,    born   April    14, 

1857- 


QUEEN'S  AUNT  and  COUSINS,  Augusta,  duchess  (widow  of  the  late  duke)  of  Cambridge,  bom  July  25, 
1797.  Her  son,  George,  duke  of  Cambridge,  commander-in-chief,  born  March  26,  1819  ;  and  her 
daughters,  Augusta,  grand  duchess  of  Meckleuburg-Strelitz,  born  July  19,  1822  ;  and  the  princess  Mary 
of  Cambridge,  bom  Nov.  27,  1833. 

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  is  traced  from  the  Frisian  variety  of  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic 
inch  of  the  great  Indo-European  family. 


Itic  prevailed  in  England        .        .        .  A.D.        i 

Latin  introduced 1-450 

Saxon  prevails  (Beowulf,  Csedmon,  Alfred)  450-1066 
Latin  re-introduced  by  missionaries  .  .  .  596 
Norman  French  combining  with  English  J  (Orm, 

Robert  of  Gloucester,  Layamon,  Havelok)  1066-1350 
English  in  course  of  formation  .        .        .   1209-1500 

English  formed        , 1550 

Law  pleadings  were  made  in  English  by  order 
of  Edward  III.  instead  of  the  French  lan- 
guage   1362 

The  English  tongue  and  English  apparel  were 


ordered  to  be  used  in  Ireland,  28  Hen.  VIII.    .  15  36 
The  English  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  all  law- 
suits, and  the  Latin  disused        .        .     May,  1731 
Per-centage    of    ANGLO-SAXON    words    in  the 
English  Bible,   97  ;    Swift,    89 ;    Shakspeare 
and  Thomson,  85  ;  Addison,  83  ;  Spenser  and 
Milton,  8 1 ;  Locke,  80  ;  Young,  79 ;  Pope,  76  ; 
Johnson,   75  ;    Robertson,   68  ;    Hume,  65  ; 
Gibbon,  58.     Marsh. 

Of  100,000  English  words,  60,000  are  of  Teutonic 
origin;  30,000  Greek  and  Latin;  and  10,000 
from  other  sources. 


PRINCIPAL  BRITISH   AND  AMERICAN  AUTHORS. 


Bom. 

Died. 

Born. 

Died. 

Born. 

Died. 

John  Gower  .  about  1320 

1402 

Walter  Raleigh    .        1552 

1618 

John  Locke       .           1632 

1704 

Geoffrey  Chaucer      .  1328 

1400 

Francis  Bacon  . 

1561 

1626 

Joseph  Addisou 

1672 

1719 

Paston  Letters     .     .  1460 

1482 

George  Herbert  . 

*593 

1635 

Matthew  Prior     . 

1664 

1721 

Wm.  Caxton      .            1421 

1491 

Ben  Jonson 

'574 

1637 

Richard  Steele  . 

1671, 

1729 

Sir  Thomas  More 

1482 

1535 

Philip  Massinger 

1584 

1640 

Daniel  De  Foe 

1663 

1731 

Sir  Philip  Sidney 

1586 

Jeremy  Taylor  . 

1613 

1667 

John  Gay  . 

1688 

1732 

Holinshed's  Chronic 

es,  1586 

John  Milton 

1608 

1674 

Alexander  Pope 

1688 

1744 

John  Fox      . 

1517 

1587 

Isaac  Barrow  . 

1630 

1677 

Jonathan  Swift    . 

1667 

Edmund  Spenser 

1553 

Samuel  Butler     . 

1612 

1680 

James  Thomson 

1700 

1748 

Richard  Hooker   . 

1553 

1600 

John  Bunyan  . 

1628 

1688 

Henry  Fielding    . 

1707 

Wm.  Shakspeare 

1564 

1616 

John  -Dryden 

1631 

1700 

Samuel  Richardson 

1689 

1761 

*  On  Nov.  i,  1858,  the  queen  was  proclaimed  throughout  India  as  "  Victoria,  by  the  grace  of  God,  of 
the  united  kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  of  the  colonies  and  dependencies  thereof,  in  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  Australasia,  QUEEN,  defender  of  the  faith,"  <fec. 

t  He  was  born  Nov.  2,  1767  ;  and  died  Jan.  23,  1820  ;  he  married  Victoria-Maria-Louisa  (widow  of  the 
prince  of  Leiningeii,  sister  of  Leopold,  king  of  the  Belgians,  and  aunt  to  the  prince  consort),  May  29,  1818. 
She  was  bom  Aug.  17,  1786  ;  and  died  March  16,  1861. 

t  William  I.  and  his  successors  used  English  in  their  laws,  <fec.  ;  it  was  superseded  by  Latin  in  tLe 
reign  of  Henry  II.  Norman  French  was  not  used  in  law-deeds  till  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 


ENG 


232 


ENT 


ENGLISH   LANGUAGE,  continued. 


Born. 

Died. 

Sam. 

Edward  Young  . 

1681 

1765 

George  lord  Byron    . 

1788 

Laurence  Sterne  .     . 

1713 

1768 

Walter  Scott 

1771 

Mark  Akenside 

1721 

1770 

Samuel  T.  Coleridge  . 

1772 

Thomas  Gray        .     . 

1716 

1771 

Charles  Lamb  '  . 

1775 

Tobias  Smollett 

1720 

1771 

William  Cobbett  .    . 

1762 

Oliver  Goldsmith  .     . 

1728 

J774 

Robert  Southey 

1774 

David  Hume 
Samuel  Johnson  .     . 

1711 
1709 

1776 
1784 

Thomas  Campbell     . 
Sidney  Smith        .  *. 

1777 
1771 

Benjamin  Franklin  . 

1706 

1790 

William  Wordsworth 

1770 

William  Robertson    . 
Edward  Gibbon    .     . 

1721 
1737 

1793    J.  Fenimore  Cooper  . 
1794    Joanna  Baillie  . 

1798 
1763 

Robert  Burns    . 

1759 

/!7*r 

1796 

William  Prescott  .     . 

1796 

William  Cowper    .     . 

1731 

l8oo 

Thomas  Mooi-e  . 

1780 

Tercy  B.  Shelley 

1792 

IS22 

John  Wilson  .        .    . 

1785 

Died. 
1824 
1832 
1834 
1834 
1835 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1850 
1851 
1851 
1859 
1852 

1854 


Born. 
1763 
1778 


1783 
1800 


Samuel  Rogers 
Henry  Hallam  . 
Thomas  De  Quincey 
Washington  Irving 
T.  B.  Macaulay. 
Abp.  Richd.  Whately  1787 
Wm.  M.  Thackeray  .  1811 
Thomas  Carlyle  .  1795 
George  Bancroft  .  .  1800 
Edwd.  Bulwer  Lytton  1805 
Benjamin  Disraeli  .  1805 
Alfred  Tennyson  .  .  1809 
Charles  Dickens  .1812 
John  Ruskin  .  .  1819 


Died. 

1855 
1859 
1859 
1859 
1859 
1863 
1863 


ENGRAVING  on  signets  is  mentioned  Exod.  xxviii.  n.,  B.C.  1491.  Engraving  on  plates 
and  wood  began  about  the  middle  of  the  I5th  century.  Engraving  on  glass  was  perfected  by 
Bourdier,  of  Paris,  1799.  The  copyright  to  engravings  has  been  protected  by  several  statutes; 
among  the  principal  are  the  acts  16  &  18  Geo.  III.  1775  and  1777  ;  and  the  acts  7  &  8  Viet. 
Aug.  6,  1844,  and  15  Viet.  May  28,  1852.  A  process  of  enlarging  and  reducing  engravings 
by  means  of  sheets  of  vulcanised  india-rubber,  was  shown  by  the  electro -printing  block 
company  in  1860.  See  Lithography  and  Photo-Galvanography.* 


ENGRAVING  ON  COPPER.  Prints  from  engraved 
copper-plates  made  their  appearance  about  1450, 
and  were  first  produced  in  Germany.  Masso,  sur- 
named  Flniguerra,  is  considered  to  have  been  the 
first  Italian  engraver,  about  1440.  The  earliest  date 
known  of  a  copper-plate  engraving  is  1461.  Roll- 
ing-presses for  working  the  plates  were  invented 
in  1545.  Of  the  art  of  etching  on  copper  by  means 
of  aqua-fortis,  Francis  Mazzuoli,  or  Parmegiano,  is 
the  reputed  inventor,  about  1532.  De  Piles.  Etching 
was  practised  by  Albert  Durer.  The  etching 
club  was  established  in  1838. 

ENGRAVING  ON  WOOD,  long  known  in  China,  began 
in  Europe  with  the  brief  mahlers,  or  manufacturers 
of  playing  cards,  about  1400.  (See  Printing.)  The 
art  is  referred  by  some  to  a  Florentine,  and  by 
others  to  Reuss,  a  German  ;  it  was  greatly  im- 
proved by  Durer  (1471-1528)  and  Lucas  Van  Leyden 
(1497).  It  was  much  improved  in  England  by 
Bewick  and  his  brother,  and  pupils,  Nesbett,  An- 
derson, &c.,  1789,  et  seq.  The  earliest  wood  engrav- 


ing which  has  reached  our  times  is  one  represent- 
ing St.  Christopher  carrying  the  infant  Jesus  over 
the  sea  ;  it  bears  date  1423. 

ENGRAVING  ON  SOFT  STEEL,  to  be  hardened  after- 
wards, was  introduced  into  England  by  Messrs. 
Perkins  and  Heath,  of  Philadelphia,  1819. 

MEZZOTINTO  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  col. 
de  Siegen,  who  engraved  a  portrait  of  princess 
Amelia  of  Hesse  in  mezzotinto  in  1643  ;  it  was  im- 
proved by  prince  Rupert  in  1648 ;  sir  Christopher 
Wren  further  improved  it  in  1662. 

Aquatinta,  by  which  a  soft  and  beautiful  effect  is 
produced,  was  invented  by  the  celebrated  French 
artist,  St.  Non,  about  1662  ;  he  communicated  his 
invention  to  Le  Prince.  Barabbe  of  Paris  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  improvements  in  this  kind,  of 
engraving,  1763.  Chiar'-oscuro  engraving  origi- 
nated with  the  Germans,  and  was  first  practised 
by  Hair,  one  of  whose  prints  bears  date  1491.  (See 
Zinc,  &c.) 


ENLISTMENT.  No  persons  enlisting  as  soldiers  or  sailors  are  to  be  sworn  in  before  a 
magistrate  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours  after,  and  then  they  are  are  at  liberty  to  withdraw 
upon  their  returning  the  enlistment  or  bounty  money,  and  2  is.  costs.  Enlistment  is  now 
entirely  voluntary.  In  1847  the  term  of  enlistment  was  limited  to  ten  years  for  the  infantry, 
ami  twelve  years  for  the  cavalry,  artillery,  and  royal  marines. 

ENNISKILLEN  (N.  W.  Ireland).  This  town  made  an  obstinate  defence  against  the  army 
of  Elizabeth,  1595,  and  against  James  II.,  1689.  1500  Enniskilleners  met  general  McCarthy 
with  6000  men  (of  whom  3000  were  slain,  and  nearly  all  the  rest  made  prisoners),  they 
losing  but  twenty  men,  July  30,  1689.  The  dragoon  regiment,  the  "  Inniskillingers,"  is 
recruited  here. 

ENOCH,  BOOK  OF,  an  apocryphal  work,  quoted  by  the  fathers,  disappeared  about  the 
8th  century.  A  MS.  Ethiopic  version  was  found  in  Abyssinia  by  Bruce,  and  brought  to 
England  in  1773.  Of  this  archbishop  Lawrence  published  an  English  translation  in  1821, 
and  the  Ethiopic  text  in  1838. 

ENTAIL  of  estates  began  with  the  statute  of  Westminster,  1285.  Subsequent  legislation 
broke  the  entail  in  cases  of  treason  (1534),  when  the  estate  is  to  revert  to  the  crown,  and  of 
bankruptcy  (1833  and  1849),  when  it  is  to  be  sold. 

ENTOMOLOGY,  the  science  of  insects,  mainly  based  upon  the  arrangement  of  Linnaeus, 
1739.  Ray's  "Method  of  Insects"  was  published  in  1705.  The  Entomological  Society  of 
London  was  instituted  in  1833. 


*  In  "Lyra  Germanica,"  published  in  i86r,  are  illustrations  engraved  upon  blocks  photographed  from 
negatives  taken  by  John  Leighton,  F.S.A.       


1 XV ELOPES  for  letters  came  into  general  use  shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the 
penny  postal  system  in  1840.  Machinery  for  their  manufacture  was  patented  by  Mr.  George 
Wilson  in  1844  ;  and  by  Messrs.  E.  Itill  and  Warren  de  la  Rue  in  1845. 

ENVOYS  AT  COURTS,  in  dignity  below  ambassadors,  enjoy  the  protection,  but  not  the 
ceremonies  of  ambassadors.  Envoys  Extraordinary  are  of  modern  date.  Wicqucfort.  The 
court  of  France  denied  to  them  the  ceremony  of  being  conducted  to  court  in  the  royal 
carriages,  1639. 

EPACT  (Greek,  added)  is  the  excess  of  the  solar  month  above  the  lunar  synodical  month, 
i  day,  ii  hours,  15  minutes,  57  seconds,  the  lunar  month  being  only  29  days,  12  hours, 
44  minutes,  3  seconds  ;  and  the  excess  of  the  solar  year  above  the  lunar  synodical  year 
(nearly  1 1  days),  the  lunar  year  being  354  days.  The  number  of  the  Gregorian  epact  for 
1865, 'is  3  ;  for  1866,  14  ;  for  1867,  25. 

EPHESUS  (in  Asia  Minor),  a  city  founded  by  the  lonians  about  1043  B.C.  It  was 
subdued  by  Cyrus  in  544  B.C.  ;  it  revolted  from  the  Persians  501  B.C.  and  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  in  A.D.  17.  Paul  preached  here  A.D.  55,  56  (Acts  xviii.  xix.).  His  epistle  to 
the  Ephesians  is  dated  A.D.  64.  See  Diana,  Temple  of,  and  Seven  Churches.  The  third 
general  council  was  held  here  in  431. 

EPHORI,  powerful  magistrates  of  Sparta,  five  in  number,  said  to  have  been  first  created 
by  Theopompus  to  control  the  royal  power,  about  757  B.C. 

PIC1  POEMS  (from  Greek  epos,  a  song),  narratives  in  verse.     Eminent  examples  :  — 


EI 

Homer's  "Iliad"  and  "Odyssey"  (Greek),  be- 
tween 8th  and  loth  century  B.C.  (See  Homer) 

Virgil's  "  ^Eneid "  (Latin),  about       .        .      B.C. 

Ovid's  "  Metamorphoses  "  (LaJiri),  about    .  A.D. 

Dante  (died  1321),  "  Divina  Commedia  "  (Italian) 
published  .  .  .  .  •  . 

Ariosto,  "  Orlando  Furioso "  (Italian)    .        .    . 


1472 
1516 


Camoens'  "  Lusiad  "  (Portuguese)  .  .  .  1569 
Tasso,  "  Jerusalem  Delivered  "  (Italian)  .  .  1581 
Spenser's  "  Faery  Queen  "  ....  15906 

Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost  " 1667 

Voltaire,  "  Henriade  "  (French)  ....  1728 
Walter  Scott,  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  &c.  1805 


EPICUREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Epicurus  of  Gargettus,  near  Athens,  about  300  B.C., 
taught  that  the  greatest. good  consists  in  peace  of  mind  springing  from  virtue,  as  tending  to 
prevent  disquiet  ;  but  the  name  epicurean  is  given  to  those  who  derive  happiness  from  sensual 
pleasure. 

EPIGRAMS  derive  their  origin  from  the  inscriptions  placed  by  the  ancients  on  their 
tombs.  Marcus  Valerius  Martialis,  the  celebrated  Latin  epigrammatist,  who  flourished  about 
A.  i).  83,  is  allowed  to  have  excelled  all  others  ancient  or  modern.  The  following  Latin 
epigram  on  the  miracle  of  Our  Savour,  in  turning  water  into  wine  atCana  (John  iii.)  is  given 
as  an  example  : — 

"  Viditeterubuitlymphapudica'beum."  "  The  modest  water  saw  its  God,  aiidblushed."    Crashaie,  d.  1650. 

EPIPHANY  (appearance),  a  feast  (Jan.  6),  vulgarly  called  Twelfth  Day,  celebrates  the 
manifestation  of  the  Saviour,  by  the  appearance  of  the  star  which  conducted  the  Magi  to 
the  place  where  he  was  to  be  found  ;  instituted  813.  Wheatly. 

EPIRUS  (Northern  Greece).     Its  early  history  is  very  obscure. 

The  first  Pyrrhus  (Neoptolemus)  settled  in 
Kpirus,  after  the  Trojan  war,  11708.0.,  and 
was  killed  in  the  temple  of  Delphi,  about  B.C.  1165 

Pyrrhus  the  Great  reigns,  295  ;  he  takes  Mace- 
don  from  Demetrius,  290  ;  compelled  to  yield 
it  to  Lysimachus 287 

He  invades  Italy :  defeats  the  Romans,  280 ; 
again,  279 ;  subdues  Sicily  ....  278 

He  invades  Italy  again,  and  is  totally  defeated 
by  Curius  Dentatus 274 


He  takes  Macedon  from  Antigonus  .        .B.C.     273 
He    unsuccessfully   invades    Sparta  ;     enters 
Argos,  and  is  killed  by  a  tile,  thrown  by  a 
woman  .........     272 

Philip  unites  Epirus  to  Macedon        .        .        .    220 

Its  conquest  by  the  Romans  .        .  .     167 

****** 

Epirus  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empi7-e       A.D.  1466 
An  insurrection  put  down 1834 


EPISCOPACY.     See  Bishops. 

EPITAPHS  were  inscribed  on  tombs  by  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Mr.  T.  J. 
Pettigrew  published  a  collection  entitled  "Chronicles  of  the  Tombs,"  in  1857. 

EPITHALAMIUM,  a  nuptial  song  at  marriage.  Tisias,  the  lyric  poet,  is  said  to  have 
boon  the  first  writer  of  one.  He  received  the  name  of  Stesichorus,  from  the  alterations 
made  by  him  in  music  and  dancing.  536  B.C.  Bossuct. 


EPO  284  ESC 

EPOCHA,  a  point  of  time  made  remarkable  by  some  event,  from  which  subsequent  ye 
are  reckoned  by  historians  and  chronologers.     See  Eras. 


Creation B.C.  4004 

Deluge 2348 

ist  Olympiad 776 


Building  of  Rome B  c. 

The  birth  of  Christ  .        .         .  A.D. 

The  Hegira  (or  flight  of  Mahomet)      .        .        .     622 


EPSOM  (Surrey).  The  mineral  springs  were  discovered  in  1618."  The  races  began  about 
1711,  and  have  been  held  annually  since  1730. 

EQUATOR  (or  ECUADOR),  a  South  American  republic,  founded  in  1831,  when  the  Colum- 
bian republic  was  divided  into  three  ;  the  other  two  being  Venezuela  and  New  Granada. 
The  population  of  Equator  is  about  1,040,400,  of  which  76,000  are  in  Quito,  the  capital. 
General  Franco,  president,  Aug.  21,  1859  ;  defeated  in  battle  by  general  Flores,  Aug.  1860. 
President  (elected  in  1861)  G.  G.  Moreno. 

EQUINOX.  "When  the  sun  in  his  progress  passes  through  the  equator  in  one  of  the 
equinoctial  points,  the  day  and  night  are  equal  all  over  the  globe.  This  occurs  twice  in  the 
year  ;  about  March  21,  the  vernal  equinox,  and  Sept.  22,  the  autumnal  equinox.  The 
equinoctial  points  move  backwards  about  50  seconds  yearly,  requiring  25,000  years  to 
accomplish  a  complete  revolution.  This  is  called  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  observed  by  the  ancient  astronomers. 

EQUITY,  COURTS  OF,  are  those  of  the  lord  chancellor,  the  vice-chancellors,  and  the 
master  of  the  rolls,  their  office  being  to  correct  the  operations  of  the  literal  text  of  the  law, 
and  supply  its  defects  by  reasonable  construction  not  admissible  in  a  court  of  law.  The 
supreme  court  of  session  in  Scotland  combines  the  functions  of  law  and  equity.  In  1865 
equity  powers  were  conferred  on  the  count}7  courts  for  cases  respecting  sums  under  500^. 

ERAS.  Notices  of  the  principal  eras  will  be  found  in  their  alphabetical  order ;  a  few 
only  need  be  mentioned  here. 

Hra,  of  Nabonassar,  after  which  the  astronomical  The  Romans  reckoned   from  the  building  of 

observations  made  at  Babylon  were  reckoned,  their  city,    753  B.C.;    and  afterwards  from 

began  Feb.  26,  B.C.  747  '      the  i6th  year  of  the  emperor  Augustus  (see 

Era  of  the  Seleucida  (used  by  the  Maccabees),  Ccesars),  which  reckoning  was  long  used  by 

commenced  312        the  Spaniards. 

The  Olympiads  belong  to  the  Grecians,  and  date  The   Mahometans   began   their  era   from  the 

from  the  year  7766.0.;  they  subsequently  Hegira,  or  flight  of  their  prophet  from  Mecca, 

reckoned  by  indictions,  the  first  beginning  A.D.     622 

A.D.  313  ;  these,  among  chronologers,  are  still  See  Calendar,  Creation,  Anno  Domini. 
used.    (See  Indictions) 

ERASTIANISM,  the  opinions  of  Thomas  Lieber  (latinised  Erastus),  a  German  physician 
(1523-84),  who  taught  that  the  church  had  no  right  to  exclude  any  person  from  church 
ordinances,  or  to  inflict  excommunication,  &c.  Persons  who  acknowledge  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  civil  power  in  spiritual  matters  and  the  law  of  patronage,  are  now  termed  Erastians. 

ERASURES.  By  order  of  sir  John  Romilly,  master  of  the  rolls,  in  1855,  no  document 
corrected  by  erasure  with  the  knife  is  to  be  henceforth  received  in  the  court  of  chancery. 
The  errors  must  be  corrected  with  the  pen. 

ERFURT  (Central  Germany),  was  founded  in  476 ;  and  its  university  established  about 
1390.  Erfurt  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1802.  It  capitulated  to  Murat,  when  14,000  Prussian 
troops  surrendered,  Oct.  16,  1806.  In  this  city  Napoleon  and  Alexander  met,  and  offered 
peace  to  England,  Sept.  27,  1808.  The  French  retreated  to  Erfurt  from  Leipsic,  Oct.  18, 
1813.  A  German  parliament  met  here  in  March  and  April,  1850. 

ERICSSON'S  CALORIC  ENGINE.     See  Heat,  note. 

ESCHEATS.  Land  or  other  property  that  falls  to  a  lord  within  his  manor  by  forfeiture 
or  death.  The  escheator  observes  the  rights  of  the  king  in  the  county  whereof  he  is  escheator. 
Cowel.  In  London  a  court  of  escheats  was  held  before  the  lord  mayor  to  recover  the  property 
of  a  bastard  who  died  intestate,  for  the  king  ;  such  a  court  had  not  been  held  in  the  city  for 
150  years  before — July  16,  1771.  Phillips. 

ESCURIAL  (or  Escorial,  25  miles  N.W.  of  Madrid),  the  magnificent  palace  of  the 
sovereigns  of  Spain,  was  commenced  by  Philip  II.  in  1563  and  completed  in  1586,  at  a  cost 
of  6,000,000  of  ducats.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  gridiron  in  honour  of  St.  Lawrence,  on 
whose  day  (Aug.  10,  1557)  the  Spaniards  gained  the  victory  of  St.  Quentin.  According  to 
Francisco  de  los  Santos,  the  total  length  of  all  its  rooms  and  apartments,  is  above  120  English 
miles.  Alvarez  de  Colmenar  asserts  that  there  are  14,000  doors,  and  11,000  windows. 


ESP 


285 


ETH 


ESPARTO,  a  Spanish  grass,  a  species  of  stipa,  now  largely  employed  in  paper-making, 
was  first  imported  into  this  country,  as  we  are  informed,  in  1857. 

ESPIERRES  (or  Point-a-Chin,  Flanders).  The  French,  under  Pichegru,  here  attacked  the 
allied  English  and  Austrian  army  (100,000  men)  commanded  by  the  duke  of  York,  and  were 
repulsed  after  a  long  and  desperate  engagement,  losing  many  killed  and  wounded,  and 
prisoners,  and  several  pieces  of  cannon,  May  22,  1794. 

ESPRIT,  SAINT  (or  Holy  Ghost),  the  title  of  an  order  of  knighthood,  founded  by 
Henry  III.  of  France  in  1578  ;  and  abolished  in  1791. 

ESQUIRES,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  were  armour-bearers  to,  or  attendants  on,  a 
knight.  Blount.  In  England,  the  king  created  esquires  by  putting  about  their  necks  the 
collar  of  SS,  and  bestowing  upon  them  a  pair  of  silver  spurs.  The  distinction  of  esquire 
was  first  given  to  persons  of  fortune,  not  attendant  upon  knights,  1345.  Stow. 

"  ESSAYS  AND  REVIEWS,"  by  six  clergymen  and  one  layman  of  the  church  of  England 
(the  Revs.  Drs.  Fred.  Temple  and  Rowland  Williams,  professor  Baden  Powell,  H.  B.  Wilson, 
Mark  Pattison,  and  professor  B.  Jowett,  and  Mr.  C.  W.  Goodwin)  were  published  in  an  8vo 
vol.  in  March,  1860.* 

ESSENES,  an  ascetic  Jewish  sect  at  the  time  of  Christ. 

ESSEX,  KINGDOM  OF.     See  Britain.        ESSLING,  BATTLE  OF.     See  Asperne. 

ESTE,  HOUSE  OF.  Boniface,  count  of  Lucca  and  duke  of  Tuscany,  about  811,  is  said  to 
have  descended  from  Odoacer,  king  of  Italy.  From  Boniface  sprang  Albert  Azzo  II., 
marquess  of  Italy  and  lord  of  Este,  born  about  996,  who  married  first  Cunegonda  of  the  house 
of  Guelf,  by  whom  he  had  Guelf,  duke  of  Bavaria,  the  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Brunswick 
(see  Bavaria  and  Brunswick]  ;  and  secondly  Gersonda,  by  whom  he  had  Fulk,  the  ancestor 
of  the  Estes,  dukes  of  Ferrara  and  Modena. 

ETCHING.     See  Engraving. 

ETHER  was  known  to  the  earliest  chemists.  Nitric  ether  was  first  discovered  by  Kunkel, 
in  1681  ;  and  muriatic  ether,  from  the  chloride  of  tin,  by  Courtanvaux,  in  1759.  Acetic 
ether  was  discovered  by  count  Lauraguais,  same  year  ;  and  hydriotic  ether  was  first  prepared 
by  Gay-Lussac.  The  phosphoric  ether  was  obtained  by  M.  Boullay.  The  discovery  that  by 
inhaling  ether  the  patient  is  rendered  unconscious  of  pain,  is  due  to  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson, 
of  Boston,  U.  S.  Mr.  Thomas  Morton,  of  the  same  place,  first  introduced  it  into  surgical 
practice,  under  Dr.  Jackson's  directions  (1846).  See  Chloroform  and  Amylene.  The  term 
"  ether  "  was  applied  to  the  transparent  celestial  space  by  the  German  astronomer  Encke, 
about  1829,  when  studying  the  elements  of  Pons'  comet,  discovered  in  1818. 

ETHICS  (Greek  term  for  Morals).  The'works  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Coufucius  contain 
ancient  systems.  The  New  Testament  is  the  code  of  Christian  ethics.  Paley's  Moral  Philo- 
sophy appeared  in  1785,  andWhewell's  Elements  of  Morality  in  1845. 

ETHIOPIA.  The  name  was  applied  anciently  rather  vaguely  to  countries  the  inhabitants 
of  which  had  sun-burnt  complexions,  in  Asia  and  Africa  ;  but  it  is  now  considered  to  apply 
properly  to  the  modern  Nubia,  Sennaar,  and  northern  Abyssinia.  Many  pyramids  exist  at 
Napata,  the  capital  of  Meroe,  the  civilised  part  of  ancient  Ethiopia. 

Ethiopia  unsuccessfully  invaded  by  Cambyses, 

B.C.  525-522 

Ptolemy  Euergetes  extended  his  conquests  in 
Ethiopia 225 

Candace,  queen  of  Meroe,  advancing  against 
the  Roman  settlements  at  Elephantine,  de- 
feated and  subdued  by  Petronius  .  A.D.  22-23 

ETHNOLOGY,  a  branch  of  anthropology,  is  defined  as  the  science  "which  determines 
the  distinctive  characters  of  the  persistent  modifications  of  mankind;  their  distribution,  and 
the  causes  of  the  modifications  and  distribution."  The  study  of  the  relations  of  the  different 
divisions  of  mankind  to  each  other  is  of  recent  origin.  Balbi's  Ethnographic  Atlas  was 

*  The  book  did  not  excite  much  attention  at  first,  but  having  been  severely  censured  for  heterodox 
views  by  nearly  all  the  bishops  and  many  of  the  clergy,  it  created  much  excitement  in  1861,  and  was  con- 
demned by  convocation  June  24,  1864.  The  ecclesiastical  court  sentenced  the  Revs.  R.  Williams  and  H.  B. 
Wilson  to  suspension  for  one  year,  and  costs,  Dec.  15,  1862  ;  but  on  appeal  the  sentence  was  reversed  by 
•the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council,  Feb.  8,  1864.  The  most  remarkable  amongst  the  works  put 
forth  in  opposition  (in  1862)  are  the  "  Aids  to  Faith,"  edited  by  the  bishop  of  Gloucester  (W.  Thomson,  now 
abp.  of  York),  and  "  Replies  to  Essays  and  Reviews,"  edited  by  the  bishop  of  Oxford  (8.  Wilberforce). 


The  Ethiopians  settle  near  Egypt 
Zerah,  the  Ethiopian,  defeated  by 


B.C.    1615 

i,  the' Ethiopian,  defeated  by  Asa      .         .     941 
A   dynasty  of  Ethiopian  kings  reigned   over 

Egypt  from 765  to  715 

Tirhakah,    king  of  Ethiopia,  marches  against 
Sennacherib 710 


ETH 


286 


EUP 


published  in  1826,  and  Dr.  Richard's  great  work,  Researches  on  the  Physical  History 
Mankind,  1841-7.  The  Ethnological  Society,  established  in  1843,  publishes  its  transactioi 
Dr.  R.  G.  Latham's  works,  on  the  Ethnology  of  the  British  Empire,  appeared  in  1851-2. 

ETHYL,  a  colourless  gas,  with  a  slightly  ethereal  odour,  a  compound  of  carbon  auc 
hydrogen,  first  obtained  in  the  free  state  by  professor  Edw.  Frankland  in  1849.  It  is  one 
of  the  compound  radicles.  Many  of  its  compounds  take  fire  on  exposure  to  the  air. 

ETNA,  MOUNT  (Sicily).  Here  were  the  fabled  forges  of  the  Cyclops  :  and  it  is  called  by 
Pindar  the  pillar  of  heaven.  Eruptions  are  mentioned  by  Diodorus  Siculus  as  happening 
1693  B-c->  an(l  Thucydides  speaks  of  three  eruptions  as  occurring  734,  477,  and  425  B.C. 
There  were  eruptions,  125,  121,  and  43  B.C.  Livy. 


Eruptions,  A.D.  40,  254,  and  420.     Carrera. 

One  in  1012.     Geoffrey  de  Viterbo. 

One  overwhelmed  Catania,  when  15,000  inhabit- 
ants perished  in  the  burning  ruins 

Eruptions,  1329,  1408,  1444,  1536,  1537,  1564, 
and  in  1669,  when  tens  of  thousands  of  per- 
sons perished  in  the  streams  of  lava  which 
rolled  over  the  whole  country  for  forty  days. 


1169 


Eruptions  in  1766,  1787,  1809,  1811,  and  in 
May,  1830,  when  several  villages  were  de- 
stroyed, and  showers  of  lava  reached  near  to 
Rome. 

The  town  of  Bronte  was  destroyed  .  Nov.  18,  1832 
Violent  eruption  occurred  in  .  Aug.  &  Sept.  1852 
The  last  eruption  began  on  Feb.  i,  and  ceased  in 

July,  1865 


ETON  COLLEGE  (Buckinghamshire),  founded  by  Henry  VI.  in  1440,  and  designed  as 
a  nursery  to  King's  College,  Cambridge.  John  Stanberry,  confessor  to  Henry  VI.  (bishop  of 
Bangor,  in  1448),  was  the  first  provost.  Besides  about  three  hundred  noblemen's  ami 
gentlemen's  sons,  there  were  seventy  king's  scholars  on  the  foundation,  who,  when  properly 
qualified,  are  elected,  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  August,  to  King's  college,  Cambridge,  and  are 
removed  there  when  there  are  vacancies,  according  to  seniority.  In  Dec.  1860  there  were  in 
all  820  scholars.  See  Cambridge.  The  establishment  of  the  Montem  is  nearly  coeval  with  the 
college.  It  consisted  in  the  procession  of  the  scholars,  arrayed  in  fancy  dresses,  to  Salt-hill 
once  in  three  years ;  the  donations  collected  on  the  road  (sometimes  as  much  as  8oo/. )  were 
given  to  the  senior  or  best  scholar,  their  captain,  for  his  support  while  studying  at  Cambridge. 
The  montem  was  discontinued  in  1847.  The  regatta  has  taken  its  place. 

ETRURIA  (or  TTJSCIA,  hence  the  modern  name  Tuscany),  an  ancient  province  of  Italy, 
whence  the  Romans,  in  a  great  measure,  derived  their  laws,  customs,  and  superstitions. 
Herodotus  asserts  that  the  country  was  conquered  by  a  colony  of  Lydians.  The  subjugation 
of  this  country  forms  an  important  part  of  early  Roman  history.  It  was  most  powerful 
under  Porsena  of  Clusium,  who  attempted  to  reinstate  the  Tarquins,  506  B.C.  Veii  was 
taken  by  Camillus,  396  B.  c.  A  truce  between  the  Romans  and  Etrurians  for  forty  years  was 
concluded  351  B.C.  The  latter  and  their  allies  were  defeated  at  the  Vadimonian  lake  283,  B.C., 
and  totally  lost  their  independence  about  265  B.C.  The  vases  and  other  works  of  the 
Etruscans  still  remaining,  show  the  degree  of  civilisation  to  which  they  had  attained.  See 
Tuscany. — Etruria,  the  site  of  Mr.  Wedgwood's  porcelain  works,  &c.,  was  founded  in  1771. 

EUBCEA,  the  largest  island  in  the  jEgean  sea.  Two  of  its  cities,  Chalcis  and  Eretria, 
were  very  important,  till  the  former  was  subdued  by  Athens,  506  B.C.  and  the  latter  by  the 
Persians,  490.  After  the  Persian  war,  Euboea  became  wholly  subject  to  Athens,  being  its 
most  valuable  foreign  possession.  It  revolted  in  445,  but  was  soon  subdued  by  Pericles. 
After  the  battle  of  Chseronea,  338,  it  became  subject  to  Macedon.  It  was  made  independent 
by  the  Romans  in  194  ;  but  was  afterwards  incorporated  in  the  province  of  Achaia.  It  now 
forms  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 

EUCLID,  ELEMENTS  OF.  Euclid  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  and  nourished  there  about 
300  B.C.  The  Elements  are  not  wholly  his  ;  for  many  of  the  invaluable  truths  and  demon- 
strations they  contain  were  derived  from  Thales,  Pythagoras,  Eudoxus,  and  others.  Euclid 
was  the  first  to  reduce  them  to  regular  order,  and  probably  interwove  many  theorems  of  his 
own.  The  Elements  were  first  printed  at  Basil  by  Simon  Gryna3us,  in  1533. 

EUDIOMETER,  an  apparatus  to  ascertain  the  purity  of  atmospheric  air,  or  the  quantity 
of  oxygen  gas  or  vital  air  contained  in  it,  was  invented  by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1772. 

EUNUCHS  are  first  mentioned  among  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  nations.  The  first 
princess  who  employed  them  was  Semiramis,  queen  of  Assyria,  about  2007  B.C.  Eunuchs 
fequently  attained  to  political  power  in  the  late  Eastern  Empire. 

EUPATORIA  (KOSLEFF),  a  sea-port  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Crimea.  After  the  allied 
French,  English,  and  Turkish  armies  landed  in  the  Crimea,  Sept.  14,  1854,  a  detachment 
under  captain  Brock  occupied  this  place,  which  was  afterwards  reinforced  by  the  Turks.  It 


EUP  287  EXC 

attacked  Feb.  17,  1855,  by  40,000  Russians  under  Liprandi.     The  latter  were  repulsed 
ith  the  loss  of  500  men  by  the  Turks,  whose  loss  was  only  50,  among  which,  however,  was 
Selim  Pasha,  the  commander  of  the  Egyptian  contingent. 

EUPHUISM,  an  affected  style  of  language,  prevalent  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  arose  from 
iphties  ;  the  Anatomy  of  Wit,"  by  John  Lyly,  published  in  1581. 

EUROPE,  the  smallest  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  old  continent ;  area,  nearly  3,800,000 
square  miles  ;  population,  270,000,000  (1861).  For  the  history,  see  Greece,  Rome,  and  the 
modern  kingdoms. 

EURYMEDON,  a  river  in  Pamphylia,  near  which  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  destroyed 
the  fleet  of  the  Persians  at  Cyprus,  aud  defeated  their  land  forces,  466  B.C. 

EUSTACE,  ST.  (Lower  Canada).  The  rebels  were  defeated  here,  Dec.  19,  1837,  and 
compelled  to  surrender  their  arms.  Their  chiefs  fled. 

EUSTATIA,  ST.,  a  "Wfest  India  island,  settled  by  the  Dutch,  1632  ;  taken  by  the 
French  in  1689  ;  by  the  English  in  1690  ;  again  by  the  British  forces  under  Rodney  and 
Vanghan,  Feb.  3,  1781.  It  was  recovered  by  the  French  under  the  marquis  de  Bouille, 
Nov.  26,  same  year  ;  captured  by  the  British,  1801,  1810;  restored  to  the  Dutch,  1814. 

EUTYCHIANS,  so  called  from  Eutyches,  an  abbot  of  Constantinople,  who  asserted  in 
446  that  there  was  but  one  nature  in  Christ,  the  human  having  been  absorbed  in  the  divine. 
This  doctrine  was  condemned  by  councils — at  Constantinople  in  448,  and  at  Chalcedon  in  451. 
It  has  been  also  called  Monophysite  (of  one  nature),  and  Jacobite,  from  Jacobus  Baradeeus, 
its  zealous  defender  in  the  6th  century.  It  is  the  form  of  Christianity  now  existing  among 
the  Copts  and  Armenians. 

EUXINE.     See  Black  Sea. 

EVANGELICAL,  a  term  applied  to  a  portion  of  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of  England  (also 
called  the  low  church),  who  profess  to  preach  the  gospel  more  purely  than  their  brethren, 
termed  the  high  church  party.  See  Church  of  England. 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE,  founded  by  sir  Culling  Eardley  Smith  and  others  at 
Liverpool  in  1845,  with  the  view  of  promoting  unity  among  all  denominations  of  protestant 
Christians  against  Romanism  and  infidelity.  It  holds  annual  meetings.  It  met  in  Sept. 
1857,  at  Berlin,  where  it  was  well  received  by  the  king.  The  iQth  meeting  was  held  at  Hull, 
Oct.  3,  1865. 

EVANGELISTS,  preachers  of  the  "  gospel,"  or  good  news.     See  Gospels. 

EVENING  SCHOOLS  for  adults  of  the  lower  classes  were  strongly  recommended  by 
bishop  Hinds  in  1839,  and  by  the  committee  of  the  Privy  Council  on  Education  in  1861. 
One  was  set  up  at  Bala  in  Wales  by  the  Rev.  T.  Charles  in  1811. 

EVESHAM  (Worcestershire),  where  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  defeated  the 
barons  headed  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  Aug.  4,  1265,  when  the  earl,  his  son 
Henry,  and  most  of  his  adherents  were  slain.  Henry  III.  at  one  period  of  the  battle  was  on 
the  point  of  being  cut  down  by  a  soldier  who  did  not  know  his  rank,  but  was  saved  by  his 
timely  exclamation,  "Do  not  kill  me,  soldier;  I  am  Henry  of  Winchester,  thy  king  !" 
This  victory  broke  up  the  combination  of  the  barons. 

EVIL  MAY-DAY  (May  I,  1517),  thus  called  on  account  of  the  violence  of  the  apprentices 
and  populace,  directed  against  foreigners,  particularly  the  French.  "  The  rioters  were  headed 
by  one  Lincoln,  who,  with  15  others,  was  hanged  ;  and  400  more  in  their  shirts,  and  bound 
with  ropes,  and  halters  about  their  necks,  were  carried  to  Westminster,  but  they  crying 
'  mercy,  mercy  ! '  were  all  pardoned  by  the  king  (Henry  VIII.),  which  clemency  gained  him 
much  love."  Delaune. 

EXAMINATIONS  of  persons  preliminary  to  their  employment  in  the  civil  service  lias 
been  enforced  since  1855.  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1862  said  that  the  present  might  be  termed  the 
"age  of  examinations." 

EXARCHS,  appointed  by  the  Byzantine  emperors  of  the  East,  to  govern  central  Italy 
after  its  conquest  by  Belisarius  and  Narses,  548. — They  ruled  from  568  to  752,  when 
Eutychus,  the  last,  was  overcome  by  Astolphus  the  Lombard. 

EXCHANGE.  One  called  Collegium  Mercatorum,  existed  at  Rome,  493  B.C.  The 
Exchange  at  Amsterdam  was  reckoned  the  finest  structure  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  Many 
edifices  of  this  name  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  magnificent.  See  Royal  Exchange  and 
Bills  of  Exchange. 


EXC 


288 


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EXCHEQUER,  an  institution  of  great  antiquity,  consisting  of  officers  whose  functions 
«re  financial  and  judicial  :  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  the  financial  officer,  formerly 
sat  in  the  court  of  exchequer  above  the  barons.  The  first  chancellor  was  Eustace  de  Fau- 
conbridge,  bishop  of  London,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  about  1221.  Sir  Robert  ."Walpole 
was  the  last  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  who  acted  judicially  (in  1735).  The  exchequer 
stopped  payment  from  Jan.  to  May  24th,  Charles  II.  1673.  Stow.  The  English  and  Irish 
exchequers  were  consolidated  in  1816.  See  Chancellors  of  the  Exchequers,  and  Tally 


UJ/ice. 

EXCHEQUER  BILLS.  The  government  securities,  so 
called,  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Montague, 
afterwards  earl  of  Halifax,  were  first  issued  in 
1697,  and  first  circulated  by  the  bank  in  1796. 
These  bills,  of  which  more  than  twenty  millions 
sterling  are  often  in  circulation,  are  in  effect  ac- 
commodation notes  of  government,  that  are  issued 
in  anticipation  of  taxes,  at  daily  interest ;  and, 
being  received  for  taxes,  and  paid  by  the  bank  in 
lieu  of  taxes,  in  its  dealings  with  the  exchequer, 
they  usually  bear  a  premium.*  The  highest 
amount  in  circulation  was  56,974, 780^.  in  1817  ;  the 
lowest,  16,008,700?.  in  1854. 

EXCHEQUER  BONDS,  a  species  of  public  securities, 
introduced  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone,  in  1853,  have 
not  been  well  received. 

TELLERS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER.  Besides  chamberlains 
of  the  exchequer,  clerks  of  the  pells,  and  auditoi: 
of  the  exchequer  (offices  which  have  all  been  dis- 
continued since  their  last  avoidance  in  Oct.  1826, 
or  by  surrender  or  abolition,  in  Oct.  1834),  there 


were  the  four  lucrative  offices  of  tellers  of  the  ex- 
chequer, also  abolished,  Oct.  10,  1834.  t 

COMPTROLLER-GENERAL  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER.  This 
office  was  created  on  the  abolition  of  the  offices  of 
the  auditor  and  the  four  tellers  of  the  exchequer, 
and  the  clerk  of  the  pells,  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph.  The  first  comptroller-general 
was  sir  John  Newport,  appointed  Oct.  n,  1834. — 
34,438^.  per  annum  have  been  saved  to  the  state 
by  the  retrenchments  in  this  department  of  the 
government. 

COURT  OF  EXCHEQUER  CHAMBER.  Erected  by  Ed- 
wai-d  III.  in  1357.  It  was  remodelled  by  Eliza- 
beth, in  1584,  and  then  made  to  comprise  the 
judges  of  all  the  courts.  This  court  is  for  error 
from  the  judgments  of  the  courts  of  queen's  bench, 
common  pleas,  and  exchequer  of  pleas  in  actions 
commenced  therein.  Re-modelled  by  act  n  Geo. 
IV.  &  i  Will.  IV.  c.  70  ( July  23,  1830). 

The  Exchequer  office,  Westminster,  was  instituted 
by  Henry  IV.  in  1399. 


CHANCELLOES   OF   THE   EXCHEQUER   SINCE    l8oO. 


Viscoxmt  Althorpe  (aft.  earl  Spencer), 
Sir  Robert  Peel  (premier) 
Thos.  Spring  Rice  (aft.  Id.  Monteagle), 
Francis  T.  Baring  (afterwards  baronet), 
Henry  Goulburn         .... 
Charles  Wood  (afterwards  baronet) 
Benjamin  Disraeli      .... 
William  E.  Gladstone     . 
Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis 
Benjamin  Disraeli 
William  E.  Gladstone 


Nov!  22,  1830 
Dec.  10,  1834 
April  1 8,  1835 
Aug.  26,  1839 
Sept.  3,  1841 
.  July  6,  1846 
Feb.  21,  1852 
Dec.  28,  „ 
March,  1855 
Feb.  27,  1858 
June  13,  1859 


Henry  Addington(c'/t.  Id.  Sidmouth),  March  21,  1801 
Win.  Pitt  (premier)  ....  May  16,  1804 
Lord  Henry  Petty  (afterward*  marquess  of 

Lansdowne) Feb.  10,  1806 

Spencer  Perceval       ....    March  31,  1807 

And  premier  Dec.  6,  1809  (assassinated  May  n,  1812) 
Nicholas  Vansittart  (ojtds.  Id.  Bexley),  June  9,     ,, 
Fred.  J.  Robinson  (oftenrards  lord   Goderich 

and  earl  of  Ripon)         .        .        .        Jan.  31,  1823 
George  Canning  (premier)   .        .        .  April  24,  1827 
John  C.  Herries       ....        Aug.  17,     ,, 
Henry  Goulburn          ....     Jan.  26,  1828 

EXCHEQUER,  COURT  OF.  Instituted  by  William  I.  on  the  model  of  the  Transmarine 
Exchequer  of  Normandy,  in  1079  ;  according  to  some  authorities,  by  Henry  1.  It  included 
the  common  pleas  until  they  were  separated,  1 6  John,  1215.  Coke's  Reports.  The  exchequer 
is  so  named  from  a  chequered  cloth  which  anciently  covered  the  table  where  the  judges  and 
chief  officers  sat.  I  Here  are  tried  all  causes  relating  to  the  king's  revenue  ;  such  as  are  con- 
cerning accounts,  disbursements,  customs,  and  fines  imposed,  as  well  as  all  matters  at  common 
law  between  subject  and  subject.  The  judges  are  styled  barons.  JBeatson.  There  are  a 
chief  and  four  puisne  barons  :  the  fifth  judge  having  been  added  July  23,  1830.  The  office 
of  Cursitor  Baron  was  abolished  in  1856,  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  86. 


CHIEF  BARONS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER. 


1689.  Sir  Robert  Atkins.  April  10. 

1695.  Sir  Edward  Ward.  June  10. 

1714.  Sir  Samuel  Dodd.  Nov.  22. 

1716.  Sir  Thomas  Bury.  June  n. 


1722.  Sir  James  Montagu.     May  9. 

1723.  Sir  Robert  Eyre.     Dec.  5. 
I72S-  Sir  Geoffrey  Gilbert.     June  i. 
1726.  Sir  Thomas  Pengelly.     Oct.  29. 


*  Robert  Aslett,  a  cashier  of  the  bank  of  England,  was  tried  in  1803  at  the  Old  Bailey  for  embezzling 
excheauer  bills,  and  found  not  guilty,  on  account  of  the  invalidity  of  the  bills,  though  the  actual  loss  to 
the  bank  amounted  to  342, 697?.  Mr.  Beaumont  Smith  was  tried  for  forging  exchequer  bills  to  the  amount 
•of  350,000?.  ;  pleaded  guilty,  and  was  sentenced  to  transportation,  Dec.  4,  1841. 

t  John  Jeffreys  Pratt,  earl  and  marquess  Camden,  was  appointed  a  teller  of  the  exchequer,  when  a 
•commoner,  in  1780,  and  held  the  appointment  until  his  death,  in  1840.  During  nearly  half  of  this  long 
term  he  relinquished  the  income  arising  from  the  office,  amounting  iu  the  whole  to  upwards  of  a  quarter 
of  a  million  sterling,  and  placed  it  at  the  service  of  the  state,  as  it  annually  accrued. 

t  In  process  of  time  the  court  of  exchequer  became  gradually  enlarged  in  its  jurisdiction,  until  at 
length  it  was  not  merely  a  revenue  court  and  one  at  comm-'n  law  between  subject  and  subject,  but  one 
in  which  suits  in  equity  were  also  instituted.  In  fact,  until  the  act  5  Viet.  c.  5  (1841),  the  court  of  ex- 
chequer possessed  a.  triple  jurisdiction  ;  but  by  this  statute  its  equity  business  was  transferred  to  the 
court  of  chancery. 


EXC 


289 


EXE 


EXCHEQUER,  COUET  OF,  continued. 

1730.  Sir  James  Reynolds.     April  30. 

1738.  Sir  John  Comyn.    July  7. 

1740.  Sir  Edmund  Probyn.     Nov.  24. 

1742.  Sir  Thomas  Parker.     Nov.  29. 

1772.  Sir  Sydney  Stafford  Smythe.     Oct.  29. ' 

1777.  Sir  John  Skynner.     Dec.  17. 

1787.  Sir  James  Eyre.    Jan.  26. 

1793.  Sir  Archibald  Macdonald.     Feb.  12.    • 

1813.  Sir  Vicary  Gibbs.    Nov.  8. 


1814.  Sir  Alexander  Thompson.     Feb.  24. 

1817.  Sir  Richard  Richards.     April  22. 

1824.  Sir  William  Alexander.     Jan.  9. 

1831.  John,  lord  Lyndhurst.     Jan.   18.     Previously 

lord  chancellor;  again  lord  chancellor,  1834. 
1834.  Sir  James  Scarlett.      Dec.  24.     Created  lord 

Abinger,  Jan.  1835. 
1844.  Sir  Frederick  Pollock,  April  15. 


CHIEF   BARONS   OF    THE   EXCHEQUER   IN   IRELAND. 


1690.  John  Hely.     Dec.  5. 

1695.  Robert  Doyne.     May  10. 

1703.  Nehemiah  Donnellan.     Dec.  27. 

1706.  Richard  Freeman.     June  25. 

1707.  Robert  Rochfort.     June  12. 

1714.  Joseph  Deane.     Oct.  14. 

1715.  Jeffrey  Gilbert.     June  16. 
1722.  Bernard  Hale.     June  9. 
1725.  Thomas  Dalton.     Sept.  2. 
1730.  Thomas  Marlay.     Sept.  29. 
1741,  John  Bowes.     Dec.  21. 
1757.  Edward  Willis.     March  n. 


1766.  Anthony  Foster.     Sept.  5. 

1777.  James  Dennis  (affds.  baron  Tracton).    July  3. 

1782.  Walter  Hussey  Burgh.    July  2. 

1783.  Barry  Yelverton  (afterwards  viscount  Avon- 

more).     Nov.  29. 
1805.  Standish  O'Grady  (afterwards  viscount  Guilla- 

niore).     Oct.  5. 
1831.  Henry  Joy.     Jan.  6. 
1838.  Stephen  Woulfe.     July  20. 
1840.  Maziere  Brady.     Feb.  n. 
1846.  David  Richard  Pigott.     Sept.  i. 


EXCISE.  The  system  was  established  in  England  by  the  Long  Parliament  in  1643, 
duties  being  levied  on  wines,  beer,  &c.,  and  tobacco,  to  support  the  parliamentary  forces 
against  Charles  I.  It  was  continued  under  Charles  II.  The  present  system  was  settled 
about  1733.  The  duty  was  arbitrarily  levied  upon  liquors  and  provisions.  The  old  excise 
office  was  built  on  the  site  of  Gresham  college  in  1774 ;  the  present  is  at  Somerset-house. 
The  officers  ol  excise  and  customs  were  deprived  of  their  votes  for  returning  members  to 
parliament  in  1782.  In  1849  the  board  of  excise  was  incorporated  with  that  of  stamps  and 
taxes,  under  the  name  of  "the  Inland  Revenue  office."  Notwithstanding  the  abolition  of  the 
excise  duty  upon  numerous  articles,  and  the  reduction  of  duty  upon  various  others,  of  late 
years,  the  total  excise  revenue,  so  far  from  having  decreased,  has  progressively  advanced 
(1847  and  1 86 1  excepted)  in  its  aggregate  annual  amount.  Additional  excise  duties  were 
charged  by  17  &  18  Vic.  c.  27,  July  3,  1854.  The  excise  duties  were  further  modified  in 
1860.  See  Revenue. 


AMOUNT  OF  THE  EXCISE   REVENUE  OF   GREAT   BRITAIN. 


(Great  Britain) 

•     •    £3, 754,072 
.       5,540,114 
.     .     19,867,914 
1820  .         .     26,364,702 

1827  (United  Kingdom)    20,995,324 


J744 

1786 


1830  (United  Kingdom)  £18,644,385 
1834  ....  16,877,292 
1837  .  .  .  14,518,142 

1840  ....  12,607,766 
1845  ....  13,585,583 
1847  ....  12,883,678 


1848  (United  Kingdom)  £13,919,652 
1850  ....  15,278,208 
1858  (to  March  31)  .  .  17,825,000 
1860  ....  20,361,000 
1865  .  .  .  .  19,558,000 


EXCLUSION"  BILL  (to  exclude  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  from  the 
throne),  was  passed  by  the  commons,  but  rejected  by  the  lords  in  1679.  The  revival  of  the 
question  led  to  the  dissolution  of  parliament  in  1681. 

"  EXCOMMUNICATION,  or  separation  from  Christian  communion,  founded  on  Matt,  xviii. 
17  ;  i  Cor.  v.,  &c.,  was  originally  instituted  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  church.  The 
Roman  church  excommunicated  by  Bell,  Boole,  and  Candle  (which  see).  See  Interdict. 


Gregory  VII.  excommunicated  the  emperor 
Henry  IV.,  and  absolved  his  subjects  from 
their  allegiance 1077 

Innocent  III.  excommunicated  John  of  England, 
placing  the  country  under  an  interdict  1208-14 

Gregory  IX.  excommunicated  the  emperor 
Frederic  II.  four  times  between  .  .  1228-45 

Louis  XII.  of  France  was  excommunicated  by 
Julius  II.  1510;  Francis  I.  by  Leo  X.  1521; 


Henry  VIII.  of  England  by  Clement  VII.  in 
1527,  and  by  Paul  III.  in  1535  ;  and  Elizabeth 

by  Paul  IV 1558 

The  emperor  of  France,  the  king  of  Sardinia, 
and  others,  were  virtually  excommunicated 
(but  not  by  name)  on  account  of  the  an- 
nexation of  the  Romagna  by  Sardinia, 

March  29,  1860 


EXECUTIONS.  See  Crime.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (38  years)  it  is  shown  that 
no  less  a  number  than  72,000  criminals  were  executed.  Stow.  In  the  ten  years  between 
1820  and  1830,  there  were  executed  in  England  alone  797  criminals  ;  but  as  our  laws  became 
less  severe,  the  number  of  executions  decreased.  In  the  three  years  ending  1820,  the  execu- 
tions in  England  and  Wales  amounted  to  312  ;  in  the  three  years  ending  1830,  they  were 
178  ;  in  the  three  years  ending  1840,  they  were  62.  The  place  of  execution  in  London 

u 


EXE 


290 


EXE 


(formerly  generally  at  Tyburn)  lias  been  in  front  of  Newgate  since  1783. 
the  bodies  of  executed  persons  was  abolished  in  1832. 


The  dissection  of 


3820 
1825 
2830 
1835 
1836 


EXECUTIONS   IN   LONDON. 


18-^8 

1844 

'  .  '  '  '  .  '  :  6 

2 

1845   . 

1840 

1846 

1842 

.   2 

l847   . 

IN   ENGLAND,    MIDDLESEX,    AND    SURREY, 


1847 
1848     . 
1849 
1850     . 
1851 
1852     . 
1853 
1854     . 
1855 


England.       Middlesex.        Svirrey. 


1856 
1857 
1858 

1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 


England. 
•       15    • 

•  13 
ii     . 

•  9 


Middlesex.        Surrey. 
o 


8(6foreignrs)o 


EXECUTIONS  OF   REMARKABLE   CRIMINALS. 


Jack  Sheppard,  highwayman  ;  Tyburn,  Nov  16,  1724 

Lord  Balmerino  and  others,  rebellion ;  Tower- 
hill  Aug.  18,  1746 

Lord  Lo vat,  rebellion ;  Tower-hill .      March  30,  1747 

Eugene  Aram,  murder;  York        .         .  Aug.  6,  1759 

Theodore  GardeUe,  murder;  Haymarket, 

April  4,  1760 

Earl  Ferrers,  murder  of  his  steward  ;  Tyburn, 

Mays,  „ 

John  Perrott,  fraudulent  bankrupt ;  Smithfield, 

Nov.  ii,  1761 

John  M'Xaughten,  esq.,  murder  of  Miss  Knox  ; 
Strabane Dec.  13,  „ 

Elizabeth  Brownrigg,  murder  of  her  apprentice ; 
Tyburn Sept.  14,  1766 

Daniel  and  Robert  Perreau,  wine  merchants, 
forgery  ;  Tyburn  ....  Jan.  17,  1776 

Hev.  Dr.  Dodd,  found  guilty  of  forging  a  bond, 
in  the  name  of  Lord  Chesterfield,  for  4200?.  : 
the  highest  influence  was  exerted  to  save 
him,  but  when  the  case  came  before  the 
council,  the  minister  of  the  day  said  to 
George  III.,  "If  your  majesty  pardon  Dr. 
Dodd,  you  will  have  murdered  the  Perreaus  ;" 
Tyburn June  27,  1777 

Rev.  Henry  Hackman,  murder  of  Miss  Reay, 
mistress  of  earl  of  Sandwich  ;  Tyburn,  April  19,  1779 

Capt.  John  Donellan,  murder  of  sir  Theodosius 
Boughton ;  Warwick  .  .  .  April  2,  1781 

Mrs.  Phepoe,  celebrated  murderess ;  Old  Bailey, 

Dec.  ii,  1797 

Sir  Edward  Crosbie,  high  treason;  Ireland, 

June  4,  1798 

Messrs.  Sheares,  high  treason  ;  Dublin,  July  12,  1799 

Galloping  Dick,  highway  robbery ;  Aylesbury, 

April  4,  1800 

Governor  Wall,  murder  of  Serjeant  Armstrong; 
Old  Bailey Jan.  28,  1802 

Jlr  Crawley,  murder  of  two  females ;  Dublin, 

March  16,  „ 

George  Foster,  murder  of  his  wife  and  child ; 
Old  Bailey Jan.  18,  1803 

Colonel  Despard,  high  treason ;  Horsemonger- 
lane Feb.  21,  „ 

John  Hatfield  (a  rank  impostor,  who  married, 
by  means  of  the  most  odious  deceit,  the  cele- 
brated "Beauty  of  Buttermere "),  forgery; 
Carlisle  .  .  .  .  .  .  Sept.  3.  „ 

Robert  Emmett,  high  treason  ;  Dublin,  Sept.  20,     „ 

Richard  Patch,  murder  of  Mr.  Bligh  ;  Horse- 
monger-lnne April  8,  1806 

John  Holloway,  Owen  Haggerty  ;  murder  of  Mr. 
Steele  ;  Old  Bailey  (thirty  of  the  spectators  of 


this  execution  were  troden  to  death,  and 
numbers  were  pressed,  maimed  and  wounded) 

Feb.  22,  1807 

T.  Simmons,  the  man  of  blood,  murder ;  Hert- 
ford   March  7,  1808" 

Major  Campbell,  murder  of  capt.  Boyd  in  a 
duel ;  Armagh Oct.  2, 

Capt.  Sutherland,  murder;  Execution  dock, 

June  29,  1809- 

Richard  Armitage,  forgery ;  Old  Bailey,  June  24,  i8n 

John  Bellingham,  murder  of  Mr.  Perceval ;  Old 
Bailey May  18,  1812 

Philip  Nicholson,  murder  of  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Bonar  ;  Pennend  en-heath  .  .  .  Aug.  23,  1813 

Francis  Tuite,  murder  of  Mr.  Goulding ;  Dublin, 

Oct.  9,  „ 

Charles  Callaghan,  murder  of  Mr.  Merry ;  Horse- 
monger-lane  April  2,  1814 

William  Sawyer,  murder  of  Jack  Hacket ;  Old 
Bailey May  15,  „ 

Eliza  Penning,  administering  poison;  Old 
Bailey •  .  July  26,  1815 

[Immediately  after  her  execution,  great  sensa- 
tion was  caused  by  its  being  universally 
believed  that  this  young  creature  suffered 
innocently.  She  denied  her  guilt  on  the 
scaffold,  and  thousands  believing  her,  accom- 
panied her  funeral.  In  the  "  Annual  Regis- 
ter "  for  1857,  p.  143,  it  is  stated  on  the  autho- 
rity of  Mr.  Gurney,  that  she  confessed  the 
crime  to  Mr.  James  Upton,  a  baptist  minister, 
shortly  before  her  execution.] 

Captain    Grant,   Irish    robber;    Maryborough, 

Aug.  16,  1816 
John  Cashman,  Spa-fields  riots ;  Skinner-street, 

March,  12,  1817 
Murderers  of  the    Lynch   family,    Wild-goose 

lodge  affair ;  Ireland        .        .        .    July  19,     •„ 
The  three  Ashcrofts,  father  and  sons,  murder  ; 

Lancaster Sept.  8, 

Brandreth  and  others,  high  treason  ;  Derby, 

Nov.  7,     „ 
Charles  Hussey,  murder  of  Mr.  Bird  and  his 

housekeeper  ;  Pennend  en-heath          Aug.  3,  i8iS 
John  Scanlan,  esq.,  murder  of  Ellen  Hanley  ; 

Limerick March  16,  1820 

Arthur  Thistlewood,  John  Brunt,  James  Ings, 

John  Davidson,  Richard  Tidd  (see  Cato-ttreet)  ; 

Old  Bailey May  i,     „ 

John  Channell,  Thomas  Calcraft,  murder  of  Mr. 

Channel!,  senr.  ;  Godalming        .         Aug.  17,     „ 
Murderers  of  Miss  Thompson;  Dublin    May  3,  1821 


EXE 


291 


EXE 


EXECUTIONS,  continued. 

David  Haggart,  famous  robber  ;  Edinburgh, 

June  it, 

Josiali  Cadman,  forgery  ;  Old  Bailey  Nov.  21, 
Samuel  Greenwood,  highway  robbery  ;  Old 

Bailey        ......    Dec.  27, 

John  Thurtell,  murder  of  Mr.  Weare  ;  Hertford, 

Jan.  9, 

John  Wayte.  forgery  ;  Old  Bailey  .  Feb.  24, 
lieu.  Fauntleroy,  esq.,  banker,  forgery;  Old 

Bailey  ......  Nov.  30 

Probert  (an  accomplice   of   Thurtell's   in  the 

murder  of  Mr.  Weare  ;  he  became  approver), 

horse  -stealing  ;  Old  Bailey    .        .      June  20, 
Spitalfieldsgang,  highway  robbery  ;  Old  Bailey, 

Nov.  29, 

Chas.  Thos.  "White,  arson  ;  Old  Bailey  Jan.  2, 
*Ed  ward  Lowe,  coming  ;  Old  Bailey  Nov.  22, 
Catherine  Walsh,  murder  of  her  child*  Old 

Bailey        ......  April  14, 

t  William  Rea,  highway  robbery  ;   Old  Biiley, 


1821 


122 
1824 


1825 

1826 
1827 


William  Corder,  murder  of  Maria  Marten  ;  Bury 

St.  Edmund's  ....  Aug.  8, 
Joseph  Hunton,  quaker,  forgery  ;  Old  Bailey, 

Dec.  8, 

Burke,  the  murderer  (see  Burking)  ;  Edinburgh, 

Feb.  16, 
Anne  Chapman,    murder  of  her  child  ;     Old 

Bailey        ......   June  30, 

Stewart  and  wife,  noted  murderers  ;  Glasgow, 

July  24, 
Thomas  Maynard,  the  last  executed  for  forgery  ; 

Old  Bailey  .....  Dec.  31, 
Mr.  Comyn,  burning  his  own  house  ;  Ennis, 

March  18, 
John  Bishop,  Thomas  Williams,   murder  of  a 

poor  Italian  boy  (see  Burking)  ;  Old  Bailey, 

Dec.  5, 
Elizabeth  Cooke,  burking  of  Cath.  Walsh  ;  Old 

Bailey        ......      Jan.  9, 

John  Smith,    James  Pratt,   unnatural  crime  ; 

Old  Bailey  .....  April  8, 
Maryanne  Burdock,  remarkable  case  of  poison- 

ing ;  Bristol  .....  April  15, 
John  Pegsworth,  murder  ;  Old  Bailey,  March  7, 
James  Greeiiacre,  murder  of  Hannah  Brown  ; 

Old  Bailey    ......  May  2, 

William  Lees,  murder  of  his  wife  ;  Old  Bailey, 

Dec.  16, 
Francois  Benj.  Courvoisier,  mxrder  of  lord  W. 

Russell  ;  Old  Bailey  .  .  .  July  6, 
Josiah  Misters,  wounding  Mr.  Mackreth  ; 

Shrewsbury  .....  April  2. 
Robert  Blakesley,  murder  of  Mr.  Burden  ;  Old 

Bailey    ......        Nov.  15, 

John  Delahunt,  mvirder  of  Thomas  Maguire; 

Dublin        ......     Feb.  5, 

Daniel  Good,  murder  of  Jane  Jones  ;  Old  Bailey, 

May  23, 

William  Crouch,  murder  of  his  wife  ;  Old  Bailey, 

May  27, 
James  Tapping,  murder  of  Emma  Whiter  ;  Old 

Bailey  .....  March  24, 
John  Tawell,  murder  of  Sarah  Hart  ;  Aylesbury, 

March  28, 
Thomas  Henry  Hocker,  murder  of  Mr.  Delarue  ; 

Old  Bailey  .....  April  28, 
Joseph  Connor,  murder  of  Mary  Brothers  ;  Old 

Bailey        ......     June  2, 

John  Platts,  murder  of  Collis  ;   Derby,  April  i, 
Catherine  Foster,    murder  of    her  husband  ; 

Bury  St.  Edmund's     .        .        .        April  17, 


1829 


1830 

1831 
1832 
1835 

,, 
1837 

,, 

1839 
1840 
1841 


1842 
„ 

1844 
1845 


1847 


James  Bloomfield  Rush,  murder  of  Messrs. 
Jermy,  sen.  and  juu.  ;  Norwich  April  21,  1849 

Fred.  George  Manning,  and  his  wife,  Maria 
Manning,  murder  of  O'Connor;  Horsernonger- 
lane Nov.  13,  ,, 

James  Barbour,  murder  of  Robinson ;  York, 

Jan.  15,  1853 

Henry  Horler,  murder  of  his  wife  ;  Old  Bailey, 

Jan.  15,     ,, 

Grant,  Quin,  and  Coomey,  murder  of  Thomas 
Bateson  ;  Monaghan  .  .  .  April  TO,  1854 

Emanuel  Barthelemy,  murder  of  Mr.  Moore 
and  C.  Collard  ;  Old  Bailey  .  Jan.  22,  1855 

William  Bousfield,  murder  of  his  wife  and  three 
children ;  Old  Bailey  .  .  March  30,  1856 

William  Palmer  (of  Rugeley),  murder  of  J.  P. 
Cook  by  poison ;  Stafford  .  .  June  14,  ,, 

William  Dove,  murder  of  his  wife  by  poison  ; 
York  ....  .  .  Aug.  „ 

Joseph  Jenkins,  alias  Robert  Marley,  murder 
of  Cope,  a  shopman,  in  Westminster;  Old 
Bailey Dec.  15,  ,, 

William  Jackson,  murder  of  two  children ; 
Chester Dec.  20,  ,, 

Lagava,  Bartelano,  and  Pettrick,  murder  of  two 
officers  and  piracy  ;  Winchester  .  Dec.  23,  ,, 

Dedea  Redaines,  murder  of  two  girls  at  Dover  ; 
Maidstone Jan.  i,  1857 

Thomas  Mansell  (after  seven  months'  respite), 
murder  of  a  soldier  :  Maidstone  .  July  6,  ,, 

Capt.  H.  Rogers,  murder  of  A.  Rose,  a  black, 
with  great  cruelty ;  Liverpool  .  Sept.  12,  ,, 

Thomas  Davis,  murder  of  wife  ;   Old  Bailey, 

Nov.  1 6,    „ 

John  Wm.  Beale,  murder  of  Charlotte  Pugsley, 
his  sweetheart ;  Taunton  .  .  Jan.  12,  1858 

James  Thomson,  alias  Peter  Walker,  murder  of 
Agnes  Montgomery  by  poison — discovered  by 
a  child;  Paisley  ....  Jan.  14,  ,, 

Christian  Sattler,  a  German,  murder  of  inspec- 
tor Thairi ;  Old  Bailey  .  .  Feb.  10,  ,, 

Giovanni  Lani,  murder  of  Helo'ise  Thaubin  ;  Old 
Bailey April  26,  ,, 

John  B.  Bicknell,  murder  of  his  grandfather 
and  grandmother ;  Taunton  .  .  Aug.  24,  „ 

Hen.  Reid,  murder  of  wife ;   Kirkdale,  Jan.  i,  1859 

Wm.  Burgess,  murder  of  his  daughter ;  Taunton, 

Jan.  4,     ,, 

Joseph 'Castle,  murder  of  his  wife  ;  Bedford, 

March  31,  1860 

Willam  Youngman,  murder  of  his  sweetheart, 
Mary  Streeter,  and  of  his  mother  and  two 
brothers,  on  Aug.  16  ;  Horsemonger-lane, 

Sept.  4,     „ 

James  Mullins,  murder  of  Mrs.  Emsley,  at 
Stepney  ;  Old  Bailey  .  .  .  Nov.  19,  ,, 

James  Johnson,  murder  of  two  non-commis- 
sioned officers  ;  Winchester  .  .  Jan.  i,  1861 

Matthew  and  Charles  Wedmore,  murder  of 
their  aunt;  Taunton  .  .  .  Aprils,  » 

Wm.  Cogan,  murder  of  his  wife  ;  Old  Bailey, 

Oct.  14,     ,, 

Thomas  Jackson,  a  soldier,  murder  of  sergeant 
John  Dickson  ;  Winchpster  .  Dec.  27,  ,, 

Wm.  Charlton,  engine-driver,  murdered  Jane 
Emmerson,  to  obtain  the  money  she  had 
saved  for  her  funeral ;  Carlisle  March  15,  1862 

G.  J.  Gilbert,  brutal  murder  of  Miss  M.  S.  Hall, 
on  her  way  to  church  ;  Winchester  Aug.  4,  ,, 

William  Taylor,  murder  of  Mr.  Meller  from 
revenge  ;  he  previously  killed  his  own  child- 
ren ;  Kirkdale  ....  Sept.  13,  ,, 


*  He  was  the  last  coiner  drawn  on  a  sledge  to  the  scaffold. 

t  Captain  Charles  Montgomery  was  ordered  for  execution  this  c'ay  for  forgery  ;  but  he  took  a  dose  (an 
ounce  and  a  half;  of  prussic  acid,  to  save  himself  from  the  ignominy  of  the  gf  llows,  and  was  found  dead  in 
his  cell. 

U   2 


EXE 


292 


EXE 


EXECUTIONS,  continued. 

Catherine  Wilson,  murder  of  Mrs.  Soames  by 
poison  [and  of  several  other  pejsons];  Old 
Bailey Oct.  20, 

William  Ockold  (aged  70),  murder  of  his  wife, 
after  50  years'  marriage  ;  Worcester,  Jan.  2, 

Noah  Austen,  murder  of  Mr.  Allen ;  Oxford, 

March  24, 

Robert  A.  Burton,  murder  of  a  boy  ;  Maids-tone, 

April  ii, 

Edward  Cooper,  murder  of  his  deformed  son  ; 
Shrewsbury  ....  April  n, 

Dennis  Delane,  hired  Beckham  and  Walsh  to 
murder  his  landlord,  F.  Fitzgerald,  April  13, 

J.  Ducker,  murder  of  Tye,  a  policeman  ;  Ips- 
wich   April  14, 

Wm.  Hope,  violation  and  murder  of  Mary 
Corbett ;  Hereford  .  .  .  April  15, 

D.  MacPhail  snd  G.  Woods,  murder  of  Mrs. 
Walne  ;  Kirkdale  ....  April  25, 

J.  Brookes,  murder  of  Davey,  a  policeman ;  Old 
Bailey April  27, 


Joseph  Kelly,  murder  of  Fitzhenry,  a  school- 
master; Wexford         .         .        .        Aug.  n, 

1862  I  Thomas,  Alvarez,  Hughes,  and  O'Brien,  fero- 

cious murderers  ;  Kirkdale    .        .    Sept.  12, 

1863  i  Alice  Holt,  murder  of  her  mother ;  Chester, 

Dec.  23, 
,,     I  Samuel  Wright,  murder  of  his  paramour, 

Jan.  12, 

,,     i  John    Lyon    and     four    others    (foreigners); 
murder  and  piracy  ;  Old  Bailey     .     Feb.  22, 
Charles  Bricknell,  murder  of  his  sweetheart, 

Aug.  i, 

Franz  Muller,  murder  of  Mr.  Briggs  in  a  rail- 
way carriage     (see     Trials);     Old     Bailey, 

Nov.  14, 
Ferdinand    Kohl,    murder    of    M.    Fuhrkop ; 

Chelmsford Jan.  26, 

Edw.  William  Pritchard,  M.D.,  murder  of  wife 
and  her  mother  ;  Glasgow  .        .        July  28, 
John  Currie ;  murder  of  major  De  Vere  ;  Maid- 
stone        Oct.  12, 


1864 


EXETER  (Devonshire),  said  to  have  been  early  honoured  with  the  name  of  Augusta  from 
having  been  occupied  by  the  second  Augustan  legion  commanded  by  Vespasian  :  its  present 
name  is  derived  from  Excestre,  "the  castellated  city  of  the  Exe."  It  was  for  a  considerable 
time  the  capital  of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom.  The  BISHOPRIC  anciently  constituted  two 
sees,  Devonshire  (founded  about  909)  and  Cornwall.  The  church  of  the  former  was  at 
Crediton,  of  the  latter  at  Bodmin.  In  1046  the  sees  were  united.  St.  Petroc  was  the  first 
bishop  of  Cornwall,  before  goo ;  CEdulphus,  the  first  bishop  of  Devonshire,  905 ;  and  Leofric, 
the  first  bishop  of  Exeter,  in  1049.  The  cathedral  originally  belonged  to  a  monastery 
founded  by  Athelstan  :  Edward  the  Confessor  removed  the  monks  to  his  new  abbey  of 
Westminster,  and  gave  their  church  for  a  cathedral  to  the  united  see  1049  ;  valued  in  the 
king's  books  at  500^.  per  annum.  Present  stated  income  2700?. 


Alfred  invested  the  city,  held  by  the  Danes,  and 
compelled  them  to  capitulate      .        .      877  &  894 

Exeter  sacked  by  Sweyn 1003 

Besieged  by  William  the  Conqueror  .  .  .  1067 
The  castle  surrendered  to  king  Stephen  .  .1136 
The  city  first  governed  by  a  mayor  .  .  .  1200 
The  celebrated  nunnery  founded  .  .  .  1236 

The  ancient  bridge  built 1250 

Edward  I.  holds  a  parliament  here    .        .         .  1286 
The  Black  Prince  visits  Exeter      .        .         .     .   1371 
The  duchess  of  Clarence  takes  refuge  in  the  city  1469 
Besieged  by  sir  William  Courtenay    .        .        .     ,, 
City  assaulted  by  Perkin  Warbeck         .        .     .  1497 
Exeter  constitutt  d  a  county  of  itself          .        .  1536 
Welsh,  the  vicar  of  St.  Thomas's,  hanged  on  the 
tower  of  his  church,  as  a  leader  in  the  Cornish 

rebellion July  2,  1549 

Annual  festival  established          .        .     Aug.  6,     ,, 

The  guildhall  built 1593 

Prince  Maurice  takes  Exeter  for  king  Charles  I. 

Sept.  4,  1643 


April,  1646 


It  surrenders  to  the  parliamentarians, 

The  canal  to  Topsham  cut  . 

A  mint  established  by  James  II.    . 

Water-works  erected   .... 

The  sessions  house  built 

The  new  biidge  built  .... 

The  theatre  erected 

Lunatic  asylum  founded     . 

County  gaol  built    .... 

Subscription  library  founded 

Devon  and  Exeter  institution  for  the  promotion 

of  science  established  .... 
New  city  prison  built .... 
The  last  of  the  ancient  gates  removed  . 
The  subscription  rooms  opened  . 
The  public  baths  erected 
Mechanics'  institution  opened    . 
New  cemetery  commenced    . 
Railway  to  Bristol  opened  . 
Great  fire,  20  houses  burnt     . 
Another  great  fire 


May  i, 

.  Aug.  2, 
April  26, 


1694 
1773 
1778 
1783 
*795 
1796 
1807 

.  1817 


1820 
1821 
1825 

1837 
1844 


EECENT   BISHOPS   OF   EXETER. 


1803.  John  Fisher,  translated  to  Salisbury  in  1807. 
1807.  Hon.  George  Pelham,  translated  to  Lincoln, 
Sept.  1820. 


1820.  William  Carey,    translated    to     St.    Asaph, 

March,  1830. 

1830.  Christopher  Bethell,  translated  to  Bangor,  1830 
1830.  Henry  Philpotts  (PRESENT  bishop). 


EXETER  CHANGE  (London),  was  built  by  Walter  Stapleton,  bishop  of  Exeter  and 
lord  treasurer  in  1319,  beheaded  by  order  of  the  queen-regent,  Isabella,  in  1326.  It  was 
entirely  demolished  at  the  period  of  the  Strand  improvements,  in  1829.  The  new  Exeter 
Change,  built  by  the  marquis  of  Exeter  near  its  site,  and  running  from  Wellington-street  to 
Catherine-street,  with  a  passage,  on  each  side  of  which  are  shops  for  fancy  articles,  was 
opened  in  1845.  It  was  pulled  down  in  1863,  and  the  ground  now  forms  part  of  the  site  of 
the  Strand  Music-hall. 

EXETER  COLLEGE  (Oxford)  was  founded  by  Walter  Stapleton,  bishop  of  Exeter,  in 
1314.  The  college  buildings  consist  of  a  handsome  quadrangle  in  the  later  Gothic  style. 


EXE 


293 


EXH 


EXETER  HALL  (Strand,  London),  erected  in  1830-1  for  the  meetings  of  religious, 
scientific,  and  other  institutions,  concerts,  oratorios,  and  musical  societies,  a  large  and  mag- 
nilicent  apartment  with  a  splendid  orchestra  and  organ,  and  having  rooms  attached  for 
. •Mimnittees,  &c.  See  under  Music.  Religious  services  were  held  here  in  1856  by  the 
Rev.  C.  Spurgeon,  and  in  1857  by  ministers  of  the  Church  of  England,  on  Sundays. 

EXHIBITION  OF  1851.  The  original  idea  of  a  National  Exhibition*  is  attributed  to 
Mr.  F.  Whishaw,  secretary  of  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1844.  It  was  not  taken  up  till  1849, 
when  prince  Albert,  president  of  the  society,  said,  "  Now  is  the  time  to  prepare  for  a  Great 
Exhibition,  an  exhibition  worthy  of  the  greatness  of  this  country  ;  not  merely  national  in 
its  scope  and  benefits,  but  comprehensive  of  the  whole  world  ;  and  I  offer  myself  to  the 
public  as  their  leader,  if  they  are  willing  to  assist  in  the  undertaking."  See  Crystal  Palace. 

Royal  commission  appointed        .        .     Jan.  3,  1850 

A  subscription  list  opened,  headed  by  the  queen 
for  loool. 

Civic  banquets  in  support  of  the  plan,  at  Lon- 
don, March  21,  22  ;  and  at  York  .  Oct.  25,  ,, 

The  buildingf  commenced    .         .          Sept.  .26,     ,, 

Many  persons  admitted  to  it  in  Jan.  ;  it  is 
virtually  transferred  to  the  royal  commis- 
sioners by  the  contractors,  Messrs.  Fox  and 
Henderson Feb.  1851 

Reception  of  goods  began  Feb.  12,  and  the  sale 
of  season  tickets  ....  Feb.  25,  „ 

The  Exhibition  opened  by  her  majesty,  May  i,     ,, 

The  number  of  exhibitors  exceeded  17,000,  of 
whom  2918  received  prize  medals  and  170 
council  medals.  The  articles  exhibited  in 
arts,  manufactures,  and  the  various  produce 
of  countries,  defy  calculation. 

The  palace  continued  open  above  23  weeks, 
altogether  144  days  (May  i  to  Oct.  15),  within 
which  time  it  was  visited  by  6, 170,000  per- 
sons, averaging  43,536  a  day,  whose  admis- 


sion at  the  respective  prices  of  one  pound, 
half-a-crown,  and  one  shilling,  amounted  to 
505,107?.  including  season  tickets,  leaving  a 
surplus,  after  payment  of  expenses,  of  about 
150,000?. 

The  greatest  number- of  visitors  in  one  day  was 
109, 760  (Oct.  8);  and  at  one  time  (2  o'clock, 
Oct.  7)  were  93,000  ;  these  persons  wjre  assem- 
bled at  one  time,  not  in  an  open  arsa,  like  a 
Roman  amphitheatre,  but  (it  should  be  recol- 
lected) within  a  windowe  \  and  floored  and 
roofed  building.  There  is  no  like  vast  assem- 
blage recorded  in  either  ancient  or  modern 
annals,  as  having  been  gathered  together,  it 
may  be  said  in  one  room. 

The  Exhibition  was  closed  to  the  public, 

Oct.  ii,  1851 

A  memorial  statue  of  the  prince  consort,  by 
Joseph  Durham,  placed  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Royal  Horticultural  Society,  uncovered  in 
the  presence  of  the  prince  and  princess  of 

June  10,  1863 


EXHIBITION  OF  1862.  A  proposal  in  1858  for  another  Great  Exhibition,  to  be  held 
in  1 86 1,  was  withdrawn  in  consequence  of  the  war  in  Italy  in  1859,  &c.  The  scheme  was 
revived  in  April  1860,  when  the  prince-consort  engaged  to  guarantee  io,oooZ.  if  240,000^. 
should  be  subscribed  for  by  other  persons. 


A  charter  granted  to  the  following  commis- 
sioners :  Earl  Granville,  the  marquis  of 
Chandos,  C.  W.  Dilke,  jun.,  and  Thomas 
Fairbairn Feb.  22,  1861 

The  guarantee  fund  amounted  to  349,000?.  in 
Nov.  1860,  and  to  452, 300 1.  on  .  .  Aug.  22,  1862 

The  building,!  erected  at  Soutjj  Kensington, 
by  Messrs.  Kelk  and  Lucas,  according  to  a 
design  by  capt.  Fowke,  made  over  to  the 
commissioners  on  .  .  .  .  Feb.  12,  ,, 

The  Exhibition  was  opened  by  the  duke  of 
Cambridge  and  a  distinguished  company  on 

The  fine  arts  department  included  a  noble  col- 
lection of  paintings  and  sculptures. 


The  jurors'  awards  of  medals  were  announced 
in  the  building  on  ...  July  n,  i8Cz 

The  Exhibition  was  closed  on  Nov.  i,  when  the 
total  number  of  visitors  (exclusive  of  attend- 
ants) had  been  6,117,450. 

The  Exhibition  re-opened  on  Nov.  3  for  the 
sale  of  goods  exhibited  ;  was  finally  closed  on 

Nov.  15,  ,, 

The  success  of  the  Exhibition  was  much  im- 
paired by  the  decease  of  the  prince  consort, 
Dec.  14,  1861,  and  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
The  foreign  exhibitors  in  1851  were  6566 ;  in 
1862,  16,456. 


*  Industrial  exhibitions  began  with  the  French ;  Expositions  having  been  organised  and  opened  at  Paris 
in  1798,  1801,  1802,  1806,  1819,  1823,  1827,  1834,  1839,  1844,  and  J849>  the  last,  being  the  eleventh,  exceeding- 
all  the  preceding  in  extent  and  brilliancy.  The  first  exhibition  of  the  kind  in  this  country  was  the  National 
Repository,  opened  under  royal  patronage  in  1828,  near  Charing-cross.  It  was  not  successful.  Other  ex- 
hibitions were  opened  at  Manchester  in  1837,  at  Leeds  in  1839,  and  at  Birmingham  in  1849.  Exhibitions 
have  since  been  held  at  Cork,  Dublin,  Manchester,  New  York,  Paris,  Montreal,  Florence,  Constantinople, 
Bayonne,  «fec.  (which  see). 

t  The  palace,  with  the  exception  of  the  flooring  and  joists,  was  entirely  of  glass  and  iron.  It  was  de- 
signed by  Mr.  (since  sir  Joseph)  Paxton  (who  died  June  8,  1865),  and  the  contractors  were  Messrs.  Fox  and 
Henderson,  to  whom  it  was  agreed  to  pay  79,800?.,  or  150,000?.  if  the  building  were  permanently  retained. 
It  cost  176,030?.  13.?.  8c?.  Its  length  was  1851  feet,  corresponding  with  the  year  ;  the  width  408  feet,  with  an 
additional  projection  on  the  north  side,  936  feet  long,  by  48  wide.  The  central  portion  was  120  feet  wide 
and  64  feet  high,  and  the  great  avenues  ran  east  and  west  through  the  building  ;  the  transept  near  the 
centre  was  72  feet  wide  and  108  feet  high.  The  entire  area  was  772,784  square  feet,  or  about  19  acres.  Four 
galleries  ran  lengthways,  and  others  round  the  transept.  The  ground-floor  and  galleries  contained  1,000,000 
square  feet  of  flooring.  There  were  altogether  4000  tqns  of  iron  in  the  structure,  and  17  acres  of  glass  in 
the  roof,  besides  about  1500  vertical  glazed  sashes. 

J  The  main  building  occupied  about  16  acres  of  ground,  and  the  annexes  7  acres.  The  south  front  was 
1150  feet  long  and  55  feet  high,  and  over  the  east  and  west  fronts  rose  the  two  domes  260  feet  high.  The 


EXO 


294 


FAB 


EXODUS  (Greek,  way  out),  a  term  applied  to  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from.  Egypt 
1491  B.C.;  and  described  in  the  book  of  Exodus.  Chronologers  vary  in  the  date  of  this 
event:  the  LXX.  give  1614;  Hales,  1648;  Wilkinson,  1495  ;  Bunsen,  132001-  1314. 

EX  OFFICIO  INFORMATIONS  are  those  filed  by  the  attorney-general,  by  virtue  of 
Ms  office,  without  applying  to  the  court  where  they  are  filed  for  leave,  or  giving  the  defendant 
an  opportunity  of  showing  cause  why  they  should  not  be  filed.  Cabinet  Lawyer.  They 
were  used  by  the  Liverpool  administration  about  1817 — 19.  "William  Hone  was  tried  on 
criminal  information,  Dec.  18-20,  1817,  and  acquitted.  The  British  bank  directors  were 
thus  tried,  1857. 

EXPEDITIONS,  BEITISH.     Many  are  described  under  their  respective  heads  :  e.g.  : — 


France,  near  Port  1'Orient         .        .        Oct.  i,  1746 

Cherbourg Aug.  7,  1758 

St.  Malo ;  4000  men  lost  ....  Sept.  1758 
Quiberon  Bay  (French  emigrants)  .  .  .1796 
Ostend  (alt  made  prisoners)  .  .  ,  May,  1798 
Helder  Point  and  Zuyder  Zee  .  .  Sept.  1799 


Ferrol,  in  Spain 
Egypt  (Abercrombie)    . 
Copenhagen 
Walcheren  (unfortunate) 
Bergen-op-Zoom 
Crimea 


.  Aug.  1800 
March,  1801 

.  Sept.  1807 
July,  1809 

March  8,  1814 
.  Sept.  1854 


EXPENDITURE.     See  under  Revenue. 

EXPORTS.  Edward  III.  by  his  encouragement  of  trade  turned  the  scale  so  much  in 
favour  of  English  merchandise,  that  by  a  balance  taken  in  his  time,  the  exported  commo- 
dities amounted  to  294,000?.  and  the  imported  to  only  38,000?.  See  Revenue.  The  declared 
value  is  of  much  less  amount  than  the  official. 

OFFICIAL  VALUE  OF   EXPORTS  FROM  GREAT  BRITAIN  TO   ALL   PARTS   OF   THE   WORLD,  VIZ.  : — 


1700 
1750  • 
1775 
1800  . 


1851 
1853  - 
1855 


.  £6,097,1: 


16,326,363 


1810 
1820 
1830 


38,120,120  1835 


.  £45,869,839 

•  51,733,113 

•  66,735,445 

•  78,376,732 


1845 
1850 
1851 


.  £97,402,726 

•   1 3  J>  564,5°3 
.   175,126,706 


TOTAL   DECLARED   VALUE   OF    BRITISH   AND    IRISH    PRODUCE   EXPORTED. 


.  £74,448,722 
•  98,933,781 
.  95,688,085 


i8f.6 
1857 
1859 


£115,826,948 
122,155,237 
130,440,427 


1861 
1862 


.  £135,891,227 

125,102,814 

.   123,992,264 


1864 


.  £146,602,342 
.  160,436,302 


EXTREME  UNCTION.     See  Anointing. 

EYLAU  (Prussia),  where  011  Feb.  7,  8,  1807,  the  French  defeated  the  Russians,  in  one 
of  the  most  bloody  contests  of  the  war.  Napoleon  commanded  in  person.  Both  armies  by 
this  and  other  battles  were  so  much  reduced,  that  the  French  retired  to  the  Vistula,  and  the 
Russians  on  the  Pregel.  The  victor  lost  15,000  men  ;  the  Russian  loss  in  slain  alone  was 
20,000. 

EYRE  (old  French  for  ire,  to  go).  The  itinerant  court  of  justices,  the  justices  in  eyre, 
was  instituted  by  Henry  II.  1176  ;  and  when  the  forest  laws  were  in  force,  its  chief  justice 
had  great  dignity.  These  justices  were  to  go  their  circuit  every  third  year,  and  punish  all 
abuses  committed  in  the  king's  forests.  The  last  instance  of  a  court  being  held  in  any  of 
.the  forests  is  believed  to  have  been  in  1671.  Beatson. 


F. 


FABII.  A  noble  and  powerful  family  at  Rome,  who  derived  their  name  from  faba,  a 
bean,  because  some  of  their  ancestors  cultivated  this  pulse  ;  they  were  said  to  be  descended 
from  Fabius,  a  supposed  son  of  Hercules,  and  were  once  so  numerous  that  they  took  upon 
themselves  to  wage  war  against  the  Veientes.  They  came  to  a  general  engagement  near  the 
Cremera,  in  which  all  the  family,  consisting  of  306  men,  were  slain  in  a  sudden  attack, 
477  B.C.  There  only  remained  one,  whose  tender  age  had  detained  him  at  Rome,  and  from 
him  arose  the  noble  Fabii  in  the  following  ages.  Fabius  Cunctator  (the  delayer)  kept 
Hannibal  in  check  for  some  time  without  coming  to  an  engagement,  217,  216  B.C. 

interior  was  decorated  by  Mr.  John  G,  Grace.  The  building  was  given  up  to  Messrs.  Kelk  and  Lucas  on 
Dec.  31,  1862,  the  house  of  commons  having  refused  to  purchase  it  for  8o,oooJ.  July  2,  1863  ;  and  the  pull- 
in?  down  commenced  on  July  6.  The  domes  and  other  parts  of  the  structure  were  purchased  for  erection, 
in  Alexandra-park,  Muswell-hill,  near  London  (north). 


FABLES.  "  Jotham's  fable  of  the  trees  (Judges  ix.,  about  1209  B.C.)  is  the  oldest  extant, 
and  as  beautiful  as  any  made  since."  Addison,  Nathan's  fable  of  the  poor  man  (2  Sam,  xii., 
about  1034  B.C.)  is  next  in  antiquity.  The  earliest  collection  of  fables  extant  is  of  eastern 
origin,  and  preserved  in  the  Sanscrit.  The  fables  of  VLshnoo  Sarma,  called  Pilpay,  are  the 
most  beautiful,  if  not  the  most  ancient  in  the  world.  Sir  William  Jones.  The  well-known 
JEsop's  fables  (which  see),  supposed  to  have  been  written  about  565  or  620  B.C.,  were  versified 
by  Babrius,  a  Greek  poet,  about  130  B.C.  (Ooray),  and  turned  into  prose  by  Maximus 
Plamides,  a  Greek  monk,  about  1320,  who  added  other  fables  and  appended  a  worthless  life 
of  J£sop.  The  fables  of  Lafontaiue  (1700)  and  Gay  (1727)  are  justly  celebrated. 

FACTIONS,  among  the  Romans,  were  parties  that  fought  on  chariots  in  the  circus,  mid 
who  were  distinguished  by  their  colours,  as  green,  blue,  red,  and  white  ;  to  which  Domitian 
added  two  others,  gold  and  scarlet,  about  90.  At  Constantinople,  the  higher  ranks  took 
part  in  the  games,  and  the  emperors  and  people  generally  favoured  one  colour.  * 

FACTORIES,  supplied  with  machinery  for  producing  manufactures,  have  immensely 
increased  in  this  country  since  1815.  The  Factory  act,  regulating  the  hours  of  labour,  &c., 
was  passed  in  1833.  No  child  is  to  be  employed  under  nine  years  of  age,  except  in  silk 
factories.  Similar  acts  have  been  passed  since, 

FAIRLOP  OAK,  with  a  trunk  48  feet  in  circumference,  the  growth  of  five  centuries,  in 
the  forest  of  Hainault,  Essex,  was  blown  down  in  Feb.,  1820.  Beneath  its  branches  a  fail- 
was  annually  held  on  the  first  Friday  in  July,  which  originated  with  the  eccentric  Mr.  Day, 
a  pump  and  block  maker  of  "Wapping,  who,  having  a  small  estate  in  the  vicinity,  annually 
repaired  here  with  a  party  of  friends,  to  dine  on  beans  arid  bacon. 

FAIROAKS,  near  the  Chickahominy,  Virginia,  the  site  of  two  sanguinary  indecisive 
battles  between  the  Confederates,  under  general  Joseph  Johnson,  and  the  Federal  army  of 
the  Potomac,  under  general  M'Clellan,  May  31,  and  June  I,  1862. 

FAIRS  AND  WAKES,  of  Saxon  origin,  were  instituted  in  England  by  Alfred,  886. 
Spelman.  "Wakes  were  established  by  order  of  Gregory  VII.  in  1078,  and  termed  Ferice,  at 
which  the  monks  celebrated  the  festival  of  their  patron  saint  :  the  vast  resort  of  people 
occasioned  a  great  demand  for  goods,  wares,  &c.  Fairs  were  established  in  France  about  800 
"by  Charlemagne,  and  encouraged  in  England  about  1071  by  William  the  Conqueror. 

FALCONRY  in  England  cannot  be  traced  with  certainty  until  the  reign  of  king  Ethel- 
bert,  the  Saxon  monarch,  850.  Pennant.  The  grand  seignior  at  one  time  kept  six  thousand 
falconers  in  his  service.  Recents  attempts  have  been  made  to  revive  falconry. 

FALCZI,  PEACE  OF,  concluded  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  July  2,  1711,  the  Russians 
giving  up  Azoph  and  all  their  possessions  on  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Turks.  The  Russians 
were  saved  from  imminent  destruction  by  the  address  of  Catherine  the  empress.  In  1712  the 
war  was  renewed,  and  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Constantinople,  April  16,  1712. 

FALERNIAN  WINE,  celebrated  by  Virgil  and  Horace,  was  the  produce  of  Falernus,  or, 
as  called  by  Martial,  Mons  Massicns,  in  Campania.  Horace  in  his  Odes  boasts  of  having 
drunk  Falernian  wine  that  had  been,  as  it  were,  born  with  him,  or  which  reckoned  its  age 
from  the  same  consuls,  14  B.C.  The  Opimian  wine  is  said  to  have  been  kept  for  200  years. 

FALKIRK  (Stirlingshire,  Scotland),  the  site  of  a  victory  by  the  English  under  Edward  I. 
over  the  Scots,  commanded  by  Wallace,  part  of  whose  forces  deserted  him.  It  is  said  from 
20,000  to  40,000  of  the  latter  were  slain,  July  22,  1298.  A  battle  was  fought  here  between 
the  royal  forces  and  prince  Charles  Stuart,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated,  Jan.  1 7,  1 746. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the  South  Atlantic,  belonging  to  Great  Britain. 
Seen  by  Americus  Vespucius  ;  and  visited  by  Davis,  1592.  Taken  possession  of  by  France, 
1764.  The  French  were  expelled  by  the  Spaniards  ;  and  in  1771,  Spain  gave  up  the  sove- 
reignty to  England.  Not  having  been  colonised  by  us,  the  republic  of  Buenos  Ayres  assumed 
a  right  to  these  islands,  and  a  colony  from  that  country  settled  at  Port  Louis  ;  but  owing  to 
a  dispute  with  America,  the  settlement  was  destroyed  by  the  latter  in  1831.  In  1833  the 
British  nag  was  hoisted  at  Port  Louis,  and  a  British  officer  has  since  resided  there. 
M'Cullocli. 

*  In  Jan.  532,  a  conflict  took  place,  when  about  30,000  lives  were  last,  and  Justinian  was  mainly  in- 
debted for  his  life  and  throne  to  the  heroism  of  his  empress  Theodora,  formerly  a  courtesan.  The  blues 
and  greens  united  for  a  day  or  two  against  the  emperor,  taking  Nika  !  (overcome)  for  a  watchword,  from 
which  the  sedition  has  been  named.  The  blues  soon  repented,  and  massacred  nearly  all  the  greens.  The 
games  were  suppressed  for  a  time. 


FAM  296  FAS 

FAMILY  COMPACT.     See  Bourbon. 

FAMILY  OF  LOVE,  a  society,  called  also  Fhiladelphians,  from  tlie  love  they  professed 
to  bear  to  all  men,  even  the  most  wicked.  They  assembled  at  Brew-house  yard,  Nottingham. 
Their  founder  was  named  David  George,  an  Anabaptist,  of  Holland,  who  propagated  his  doc- 
trine in  Switzerland,  where  he  died  in  1556.  After  this  event  the  tenets  of  the  society  were 
declared  to  be  impious,  and  George's  body  and  books  were  ordered  to  be  burned  by  the  hang- 
man. See  also  Agapemonians. 

FAMINES.     The  famine  of  the  seveu  years  in  Egypt  began  1708  B.C.     Usher  ;  Blair. 

Famine  at  Rome,  when  thousands  of  people  ,  One  in  England  and  France  (Rapin)          .        .  1353 

threw  themselves  into  the  Tiber   .        .B.C.     436     Again,  one  so  great,  that  bread  was  made  from 


Awful  famine  in  Egypt          .        .        .        A.D.       42 


At  Rome,  attended  by  Plague        .        .        .     .     262 
In  Britain,  so  grievous  that  people  ate  the  bark 
of  trees 272 


fern-roots  (Stow)  .  ....  1438 


One  throughout  these  islands  ....  1565 
Awful  one  in  France  (  Voltaire)  .  ...  1693 
One  general  in  these  realms  ....  1748 

Jn  Scotland,  and  thousands  die      .        ...     306  :  One  which  devastates  Bengal         .        .         .     .   1771 
In  England,  where  40,000  perish        .        .        .     310  !  At  Cape  de  Verde  ;  16,000  persons  perish  .  1775 

Awful  one  in  Phrygia 370     One  grievously  felt  in  France         .        .        .     .  1789 

In  Italy,  when  parents  ate  their  children  (Du-  One  severely  felt  in  England      ....  1795 

fresnoy) 450    Again,  throughout  the  kingdom    .        .        .     .  1801 

In  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland          .        .     .     739    At  Drontheim,  owing  to  Sweden  intercepting 

Again,  when  thousands  starve   ....     823  \      the  supplies 1813 

Again,  which  lasts  four  years         .        .        .     .     954    Scarcity  of  food  severely  felt  by  the  Irish  poor, 
Awful  one  throughout  Europe    ....  1016  ;      1814,  1816.  1822,  1831,  1846,  in  consequence  of 

In  England,  21  William  1 1087 

In  England  and  France  :  this  famine  leads  to  a 


pestilential  fever,  which  lasts  from        1193  to  1195 
Another  famine  in  England         ....  1251 


1814,  isio,  1022,  1031,  1046,  in  consequence 
the  failure  of  the  potato  crop.  Grants  by  pa 
liament,  to  relieve  the  suffering  of  the  people, 
were  made  in  the  session  of  1847,  the  whole 
amounting  to  ten  millions  sterling. 


Again,  so  dreadful  that  the  people  devoured  the  In  N.  W.  provinces  of  India,  thousands  starving. 

flesh  of  horses,  dogs,  cats,  and  vermin  .         .1315        (See  India.)        ....  Jan.— March,  1861 
One  occasioned  by  long  rains         .        ...  1335  | 

FAN.  The  use  of  the  fan  was  known  to  the  ancients  ;  Cape  hoc  fiabellum,  et  ventulum 
huic  sic  facito.  "  Take  this  fan,  and  give  her  thus  a  little  air."  Terence,  Eunuchus,  B.C. 
1 66. — Fans,  together  with  muffs,  masks,  and  false  hair,  were  first  devised  by  the  harlots  in 
Italy,  and  were  brought  to  England  from  France.  Stow.  The  fan  was  used  by  females  to 
hide  their  faces  at  church.  Pardon.  In  the  British  Museum  are  fan-handles  and  other 
articles  of  Egyptian  manufacture,  used  anciently  by  women. 

FARCE,  a  short  comic  drama,  usually  of  one  or  two  acts.  One  by  Otway  is  dated  1677. 
The  best  English  farces  (by  Foote,  Garrick,  Bickerstaff,  &c.)  appeared  from  about  1740  to 
1780.  These  species  of  dramatic  entertainment  originated  in  the  droll  shows  which  were 
exhibited  by  charlatans  and  their  buffoons  in  the  open  street.  See  Drama. 

FAENESE  FAMILY  became  important  through  the  elevation  of  Alexander  Farnese 
to  the  papacy  as  Paul  III.  He  gave  his  natural  son  Peter  the  duchy  of  Parma,  and  his 
descendants  ruled  there  till  the  death  of  Antony  without  issue  in  1731.  Alexander  prince  of 
Parma  was  governor  of  the  Netherlands  in  1579. 

FARRINGDON- MARKET,  erected  by  the  corporation  of  London,  near  the  old  Fleet- 
market,  was  opened  Nov.  20,  1829. 

FARTHING,  an  early  English  coin.  Farthings  in  silver  were  coined  by  king  John  ;  the 
Irish  farthing  of  his  reign  is  of  the  date  of  1210,  and  is  valuable  and  rare.  Farthings  were 
coined  in  England  in  silver  by  Henry  VIII.  First  coined  in  copper  by  Charles  II.  1665  ; 
and  again  in  1672,  when  there  was  a  large  coinage  of  copper  money.  Half- farthings  were 
first  coined  in  the  reign  of  Victoria,  1843.  See  Queen  Anne's  Farthings. 

FASTS,  observed  by  most  nations  from  the  remotest  antiquity  ;  by  the  Jews  (2  Ckron. 
xx.  3)  ;  by  the  Ninevites  (Jonah  Hi.).  A  fast  was  observed  by  the  Jews  on  the  great  day  of 
atonement,  Lev.  xxiii.  1490  B.C.  The  first  Christian  ministers  were  ordained  with  fasting 
(45),  Acts  xiii.  2.  .Annual  fasts,  as  that  of  Lent,  and  at  other  stated  times,  and  on  par- 
ticular occasions  to  appease  the  anger  of  God,  began  in  the  Christian  church,  in  the  second 
century,  138.  The  Mahometan  fast  is  termed  Ramadan  (which  see}.  Fast  days  are 
appointed  by  the  Reformed  churches  in  times  of  wTar  and  pestilence  (as  March  21,  1855), 
for  the  Russian  war,  and  Oct.  7,  1857,  for  the  Indian  mutiny).  See  Abstinence. 


FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH.     The  following  are  the  principal  : 


SECOND  CENTURY.     Greek. 
Justin  Martyr,  d.  abt.  166 
Irenseus    .     .   d.  abt.  200 
Athenagoras. 

THIRD  CENTURY.  .  Greek. 
Clements  .     .    d.  abt.  217 
Origen  .        .   d.  abt.  253 

Latin. 
Tertullian     .    d.  abfc.  220 
Minutius  Felix,./?,  abt.  230 
Cyprian    .     .   d.  abt.  258 

FOURTH   AND   FIFTH   CEN- 
TURIES.     Greek. 
Eusebius       .  d.  abt.  340 

Athanasius,  d.  .        .  373 
Ephrem  Syrus,  <Z.abt.  378 
Basil          .         .         d    379 
Cy  ril  of  Jerusalem,  d.  386 
Gregory  Nazianzeri,d  389 
GregoryNyssen,d.abt.  394 
Epiphanixis      .        d.  402 
Chrysostom  .      .     d.  407 

Cyril  of  Alexandria,  d.  444 

Latin. 
Arnobius  .       .        fi.  303 
Lactantius  .     d.  abt.  330 
Ambrose      .        .     d.  397 
Jerome  .          .         d.  420 
Augustine   .        .     d.  430 

FATIMITES.     See  All  and  MaJwmetanism. 


„„; 


;"FATS  are  oils  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures.     The  researches  of  Chevreul  since  1811  on 
r  chemical  nature  are  very  important.     See  Candles. 
FAUSTUS,  a  professor  of  magic,  renowned  in  cheap-books,  flourished  about  the  end  of 
the  i5th  century.     Goethe's  poem,  "Faust,"  appeared  in  1790. 

FEASTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  The  "Feasts  of  the  Lord,"  viz.,  those  of  the  Passover, 
Pentecost,  Trumpets,  and  Tabernacles  were  instituted  1490  B.C.  (Leviticus,  ch.  xxiii.). 
The  Feast  of  the  Tabernacles  was  celebrated  with  the  greatest  magnificence  for  fourteen 
days,  upon  the  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Solomon,  1004  B.C.  Hezekiah  (726  B.C.)  and 
Josiah  (623)  kept  the  feast  of  Passover  in  a  most  solemn  manner.  In  the  Christian  Church 
the  feasts  of  Christmas,  Easter,  Ascension,  and  the  Pentecost  or  Whitsuntide,  are  said  to 
have  been  ordered  to  be  observed  by  all  Christians,  in  the  ist  century.  Rogation  days  were 
appointed  in  469.  Jubilees  in  the  Romish  Church  were  instituted  by  Boniface  VIII.  in 
1300.  See  Jubilees.  For  fixed  festivals  observed  in  the  Church  of  England,  as  settled  at 
the  Reformation,  et  seq.,  see  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  For  Feasts  of  Charity,  see  Agapce. 

FEBURARY  (from  Februus,  an  Italian  divinity),  the  second  month  of  the  year,  in  which 
were  celebrated  Februa,  feasts  on  behalf  of  the  manes  of  deceased  persons.  This  month, 
with  January,  was  added  to  the  year  by  Numa,  713  B.C. 

FECIALES,  or  FETIALES,  heralds  of  Rome,  twenty  in  number,  to  denounce  war  or  pro- 
claim peace,  appointed  by  Numa,  about  712  B.C. 

FEDERAL  STATES  are  those  united  by  treaty  as  one  state,  without  giving  up  self- 
government — as  in  Switzerland.  The  term  Federal  was  given  to  the  Northern  of  the  United 
States  of  America  during  the  great  conflict  in  1861-5. 

FEEJEE  ISLANDS,  or  FIJI,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  about  1500  miles  from  Sydney. 
There  are  80  islands,  the  largest  about  360  miles  in  circumference,  with  20,000  inhabitants. 
The  islands  were  offered  by  the  chiefs  to  the  British  government,  July,  1859  ;  but  not 
accepted.  In  1860  the  house  of  commons  granted  1680?.  for  expenditure  in  them. 

FELONY,  in  English  law  (says  Blackstone,  in  1765)  comprises  every  species  of  crime 
which  occasions  the  forfeiture  of  land  and  goods. 

FENCIBLE  LIGHT  DRAGOONS,  a  body  of  cavalry  raised  voluntarily  in  various 
counties  of  England  and  Scotland  in  1 794,  to  serve  during  the  war  in  any  part  of  Great 
Britain.  This  force  (between  14,000  and  15,000),  which  did  its  duty  with  much  judgment 
during  a  period  of  intense  popular  excitement,  was  disbanded  in  1800. 

FENCING  was  introduced  into  England  from  France.  Fencing-schools  having  led  to 
duelling  in  England,  were  prohibited  in  London  by  statute  13  Edw.  I.  1285.  In  1859  there 
were  eight  teachers  of  fencing  in  London. 

FENIANS,  a  secret  society  in  the  United  States  of  America,  which  became  known  early 
in  1863,  formed  with  the  professed  object  of  invading  Ireland  and  establishing  a  republic. 
Attempts  to  enlist  supporters  in  Dublin  in  Jan.  1864,  were  discountenanced  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  clergy,  but  secret  drilling  went  on  till  Sept.  1865.  John  O'Mahony,  termed  the 
' '  head-centre, "  resides  at  New  York.  The  principal  agent  in  Ireland  is  Stephens,  who  was 
concerned  in  the  movement  in  1848.  See  Ireland. 


Riot  between  the  Fenians  and  their  oppone: 
at  the  Rotondo,  Dublin        .        .         Feb. 


lents 
22,  1864 

25  persons  arrested  in  Dublin,  and  the  news- 
paper the  Irish  People  (established  Sept.  1863) 
seized Sept.  15,  1865 

Other  persons,  principally  of  the  lower  classes 
of  society,  arrested  .  .  .  Sept.  17-30  ,, 

The  Fenians  in  America  published  an  address, 
stating  that  officers  were  going  to  Ireland  to 
organise  an  army  of  200,000  men  .  Sept.  „ 

Fenians  arrested  at  Manchester        .     Sept.  21,     ,, 


A  ship  laden  with  gunpowder  seized  at  Liver- 
pool   Sept.  1865 

Allocution  of  the  pope,  condemning  secret 
societies Sept.  30  ,, 

Evidence  adduced  that  5000 1.  and  2000  pike- 
heads  had  been  received  from  America  in 
Sept. 

O'Donovan  and  5  others  committed  for  high 
treason Oct.  2,  ,, 

33  Fenians  committed  for  trial,  up  to     Oct.  14,     ,, 

Many  arriving  from  America  are  arrested  Oct.     ,, 


FER  298  FET 

FERE-CHAMPENOISE  (France).  Here  the  French  army  under  Marmont,  Mortier, 
and  Arrighi,  were  surprised  and  defeated  by  the  Austrians  under  the  prince  of  Schwartzen- 
berg,  March  25,  1814,  after  a  heroic  resistance.  Paris  surrendered  to  the  allies  six  days 
after. 

FERLE  LATINS  were  solemn  festivals  at  Rome,  instituted  by  Tarquin  the  Proud, 
about  534  B.C.  The  principal  magistrates  of  forty-seven  towns  of  Latium  assembled  on  a 
mount  near  Rome,  where  they  and  the  Roman  authorities  offered  a  bull  to  Jupiter  Latialis. 

FERMENTATION,  by  Gay-Lussac,  termed  one  of  the  most  mysterious  processes  in 
nature  :  he  showed  that  in  the  process,  45  Ibs.  of  sugar  are  resolved  into  23  of  alcohol  and  22 
of  carbonic  acid.  His  memoir  appeared  in  1810.  In  1861  Pasteur  brought  forward 
evidence  to  show  that  fermentation  depends  on  the  presence  of  minute  organisms  in  the 
fermenting  fluid,  and  that  the  source  of  all  such  organisms  is  the  atmosphere. 

FERNS  (Ireland),  an  ancient  bishopric,  once  archiepiscopal.  St.  Edsen  was  seated  here 
in  598.  Leighlin  and  Ferns  were  united  in  1600  ;  and  by  the  Church  Temporalities'  act, 
passed  Aug.  1833,  both  were  united  to  the  bishopric  of  Ossory.  See  Ossory. — FERNS,  an 
order  of  cryptogamous  plants,  now  much  cultivated  inJWardian  cases,  which  see,  and  also 
Nature- Printing. 

FEROZESHAH  (India).  The  British,  commanded  by  sir  Hugh  Gough,  attacked  the 
entrenchments  of  the  Sikhs,  and  carried  by  storm  their  first  line  of  works,  Dec.  21,  1845  ; 
but  night  coming  on,  the  operations  were  suspended  till  daybreak  next  day,  when  their 
second  line  was  stormed  by  general  Gilbert,  and  74  guns  captured.  The  Sikhs  advanced 
to  retake  their  guns,,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  loss,  and  retreated  towards  the  Sutlej, 
Dec.  22  ;  and  recrossed  that  river  unmolested,  Dec.  27.  The  British  loss  was  reckoned 
at  2415. 

FERRARA,  a  city  in  the  Papal  States,  formerly  part  of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  under 
the  emperors  of  the  East.  It  was  subdued  by  the  Lombards  in  the  8th  century,  and  taken 
from  them  about  752  by  Pepin,  who  gave  it  to  pope  Stephen  II.  About  1208  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  house  of  Este  (which  see),  and  became  the  principal  seat  of  the  literature  and 
fine  arts  in1  Italy.  Pope  Clement  VIII.  obtained  the  long-claimed  sovereignty  in  1598,  on 
the  death  of  the  duke  Alphonso  II.,  the  last  legitimate  male  of  the  Este  family.  His 
illegitimate  nephew,  Csesar,  became  duke  of  Modena.  The  French  under  Massena  took 
Ferrara  in  1796  ;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  pope  in  1814.  An  Austrian  garrison  held  it  from 
1849  ;  it  retired  in  June,  1859,  and  the  people  rose  and  declared  for  annexation  to  Sardinia, 
which  was  accomplished  in  March,  1860. 

FERRARS'  ARREST.  In  March,  1542,  Mr.  George  Ferrars,  a  member  of  parliament, 
being  in  attendance  on  the  house,  was  taken  in  execution  by  a  sheriffs  officer  for  debt,  and 
committed  to  the  Compter  prison.  The  house  despatched  their  serjeant  to  require  his 
release,  which  was  resisted,  and  an  affray  taking  place,  his  mace  was  broken.  The  house  in 
a  body  repaired  to  the  lords  to  complain,  when  the  contempt  Avas  adjudged  to  be  very 
great,  and  the  punishment  of  the  offenders  was  referred  to  the  lower  house.  On  another 
messenger  being  sent  to  the  sheriffs  by  the  commons,  they  delivered  up  the  senator,  and  the 
civil  magistrates  and  the  creditor  were  committed  to  the  Tower,  the  inferior  officers  to 
Newgate,  and  an  act  was  passed  releasing  Mr.  Ferrars  from  liability  for  the  debt.  The  king, 
Henry  VIII.,  highly  approved  of  all  these  proceedings,  and  the  transaction  became  the  basis 
of  that  rule  of  parliament  which  exempts  members  from  arrest.  Holinshed. 

FERRO,  the  most  western  of  the  Canary  isles,  from  whose  west  point  some  geographers 
have  taken  their  first  meridian,  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  was  re-discovered  in  1402. 

FERROL  (N.W.  Spain).  Upwards  of  10,000  British  landed  near  Ferrol  under  the 
command  of  sir  James  Pulteney,  in  Aug.  1800.  They  gained  possession  of  the  heights  ; 
notwithstanding  which  the  British  general,  despairing  of  success,  on  account  of  the  strength 
of  the  works,  re-embarked  his  troops.  His  conduct,  which  was  in  opposition  to  the  opinion 
of  his  officers,  was  very  much  condemned  in  England.  The  French  took  seven  sail  of  the 
line  here,  Jan.  27,  1809. 

FESCENNINE  VERSES  were  rude  extemporary  dialogues,  frequently  licentious,  in 
favour  among  the  ancient  Etruscans,  and  still  popular  in  Italy. 

FESTIVALS.     See  Feasts. 

FETE  DE  DIEU,  a  feast  of  the  Roman  church  in  honour  of  the  real  presence  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  kept  on  the  Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday.  See  Corpus  Christi.  Berengarius, 


: 


hu 
rei 

s*t~\i 


FET  299 

jhbishop  of  Angers,  was  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  when  it  was 
propagated,  and  to  atone  for  his  crime  a  yearly  procession  was  made  at  Angers,  which  was 
called  laftte,  de  Dieu,  1019. 

FETE  DE  VERTU,  an  annual  assemblage,  chiefly  of  young  persons,  to  whom  were 
adjudged  rewards  for  industry  and  virtue.  These  fetes,  held  at  Nuneham,  in  Oxfordshire, 
begun  by  lady  Harcourt  in  1 789,  continued  till  her  death. 

FEUDAL  LAWS.  The  tenure  of  land  by  suit  and  service  to  the  lord  or  owner  was 
introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons,  about  600.  This  slavery  was  increased  in  1068. 
The  kingdom  was  divided  into  baronies,  which  were  given  on  condition  of  the  holders 
furnishing  the  king  with  men  and  money.  The  vassalage,  restored,  but  limited  by  Henry  YIT  . " 
1495,  was  abolished  by  statute  1660.  The  feudal  system  was  introduced  into  Scotland  by 
Malcolm  II.  in  1008,  and  the  hereditary  jurisdictions  were  finally  abolished  in  that  kingdom, 
-7.  The  feudal  laws,  established  in  France  by  Clovis  I.  about  486,  were  discountenanced 

Louis  XI.  in  1470. 

FEUILLANTS,  a  religious  order  founded  by  Jean  de  la  Barriere  in  1577  at  the  abbey  of 
illant,  near  Toulouse,  and  settled  in  Paris  in  1587.     The  Feuillant  club,  formed  in  Paris 
La  Fayette  and  others  in  1789,   to  counteract  the  intrigues  of  the  Jacobins,   was  so 
named  from  the  convent,  where  they  met.     A  body  of  Jacobins  burst  into  their  hall  and 
'  iged  them  to  separate,  Dec.  25,  1791  ;  and  the  club  was  broken  up  in  1792. 

FEZ  (in  the  ancient  Mauritania,  Africa),  founded  by  Edris,  a  descendant  of  Mahomet, 
>ut  787,  was  long  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Fez.     After  long-continued  struggles,  it  was 
annexed  to  Morocco  about  1550.     Leo  Africanus  describes  it  as  containing  more  than  seven 
"  undred  temples,  mosques,  and  other  public  edifices,  in  the  I2th  century. 

FICTIONS.     See  Romances. — FICTIONS  IN  LAW  were  invented  by  the  lawyers  in  the 
ign  of  Edward  I.  as  a  means  of  carrying  cases  from  one  court  to  another,  whereby  the 
courts  became  checks  to  each  other.      Hume.      Lord  Mansfield,  in   the  court  of   King's 
Bench,  emphatically  declared,  that  "  NO  FICTION  OF  LAW  SHALL  EVER  so  FAR  PREVAIL 

AGAINST  THE  REAL  TRUTH,  AS  TO  PREVENT  THE  EXECUTION  OF  JUSTICE,"  May  31,  1784. 

FIEF.     See  Feudal  Laws. 

FIELD  OF  MARCH  AND  MAY.  See  Champ.  FIELD  OF  THE  CLOTH  OF  GOLD,  a  plain 
near  Ardres,  near  Calais,  in  France,  on  which  Henry  VIII.  met  Francis  I.  of  France,  June, 
7-25,  1520.  The  nobility  of  both  kingdoms  displayed  their  magnificence,  and  many 
involved  themselves  in  debt.  Paintings  of  the  embarkation  and  interview  are  at  Windsor 
castle. 

FIERY  CHAMBER.     See  Chambre  Ardente. 

FIESCHI'S  ATTEMPT  ON  LOUIS-PHILIPPE.     See  France,  1835. 

FIFTH-MONARCH  Y"MEN  about  1645  supposed  the  period  of  the  Millennium  to  be 
just  at  hand,  when  Jesus  should  descend  from  heaven,  and  erect  the  fifth  universal  monarchy. 
They  proceeded  so  far  as  to  elect  Jesus  Christ  king  at  London.  Cromwell  dispersed  them, 
1653.  Kearsley.  Another  rising  with  loss  of  life  was  suppressed  in  Jan.  1661. 

FIG-TREE  (Ficus  Carica).  Brought  from  the  south  of  Europe,  before  1548.  The 
Botany-Bay  Fig,  Ficus  Australis,  brought  from  N.S.  Wales  in  1789. 

FIGURES.     See  Arithmetic,  and  Digits. 

FILES  are  mentioned  (i  Sam.  xiii.  21)  B.C.  1093.  The  manufacture  of  them  has 
attained  to  great  perfection,  by  means  of  file-cutting  machinery.  That  set  up  by  Mr.  T. 
Greenwood  of  Leeds,  in  1859,  was  invented  by  M.  Bernot  of  Paris.  It  is  said  that  the  price 
of  files  made  by  it  are  reduced  from  32^.  to  4^.  per  dozen. 

FILIBUSTERS,  a  name  given  to  the  freebooters  who  plundered  the  coasts  of  America 
in  the  I7th  century.  See  Buccaneers  and  Nicaragua. 

FILTERERS.     A  plan  for  purifying  corrupted  water  was  patented  by  Wm.  Wollcott  in 
1675.     Other  modes  followed.     James  Peacock's  method  of  filtration  was  patented  in  I791- 
FINE  ARTS.     See  Arts,  Paintings,  Sculpture,  Engraving,  &c. 

FINES  AND  RECOVERIES,  conferring  the  power  of  breaking  ancient  entails  and 
alienating  estates,  began  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  but  was  not,  properly  speaking,  law, 
till  Henry  VII.,  by  correcting  some  abuses  that  attended  the  practice,  gave  indirectly  a 
sanction  to  it,  1487.  Fines  and  recoveries  were  abolished  in  1833. 


FIN  300  FIR 

FINLAND,  a  Russian  grand-duchy,  in  the  middle  of  the  I2th  century  was  conquered 
by  the  Swedes,  who  introduced  Christianity.  It  was  several  times  conquered  by  the  Russians 
(1714,  1742,  and  1808),  and  restored  (1721  and  1743)  ;  but  in  1809  they  retained  it  by  treaty. 
See  Abo.  Its  political  constitution  was  confirmed  by  the  czar  in  1809,  1825,  and  1855. 
Population  in  1862,  1,746,229. 

FINNIAN.     See  Fenians. 

FIRE  is  said  to  have  been  first  produced  by  striking  flints  together.  The  poets  supposed 
that  fire  was  stolen  from  heaven  by  Prometheus.  Heraclitus  about  5963.0.  maintained  that 
the  world  was  created  from  fire,  and  deemed  to  be  a  god  omnipotent. 

FIRE-ANNIHILATOR,  an  apparatus  invented  by  Mr.  T.  Phillips,  and  made  known  by 
him  in  1849.  When  put  in  action,  steam  and  carbonic  acid  are  formed,  which  extinguish 
flame.  It  was  not  successful  in  practice. 

FIRE-ARMS.  (See  Artillery  and  Cannon.}  The  first  small  fire-arms  were  a  species  of 
cannon,  borne  by  two  men.  See  Revolver. 

Fire-arms  made  at  Perugia,  in  Italy  .        .        .  1364  ]  Alt  these  were  of  very  rude  construction,  being 
Employed  by  the  Burgundians  in  the  defence  j      first  discharged  by  a  lighted  match,   after- 

of  Arras 1414  |      wards,  about  1517,  by  a  wheel-lock,  then  by 

Edward  IV.,  when  he  landed  at  Ravenspur,  is  the  flint, 

said   to    have    been    accompanied    by    300  i  The  match-lock  and  wheel-lock  superseded  by 

Flemings,  armed  with  hand-guns  .         .        .  1471  i      the  flint-lock,  about 1692 

At  the  battle  of  Morat,  the  Swiss  are  said  to  The  rev.  Mr.  Forsythe  patented  the  percussion 

have  had  10,000  men  armed  with  fire-arms    .  1476        principle  of  igniting  gunpowder  in  muskets 
Fire-arms  were  used  at  the  siege  of  Berwick    .  1521         by  means  of  detonating  powder .         .        .     .  1807 
The  petronel  (from  poitrine,  the  chest)  or  ar-  Percussion  caps  came  into  use  between    1820  &  1830 

quebus  came  into  use,  1480  ;  and  the  musket  The  old  musket  (Brown  Bess)  was  superseded  by 

employed    in   the    armies    of   the  emperor  the  Enfield  rifle,  which  is  likely  to  give  way 

Charles  V.  about „     j      to  Lancaster's  smooth-bored  rifle    .        .        .  1858 

SMALL  ARMS   OP  THE  BRITISH  SERVICE,   1854. 


Percussion  musket ;  pattern,  1842. 
Victoria  carbine  (for  cavalry). 
Regulation  rifle  musket';  pattern,  1851. 


Enfield  rifle  musket,  adopted  for  the  service  in  1853, 
after  experiments  at  the  royal  manufactory.  En- 
field  Lock. 

Artillery  carbine ;  pattern,  1842. 


FIRE-BRIGADE  was  established  in  London  in  1832  by  Mr.  R.  Bell  Ford,  director  of  the 
Sun  fire-office.  It  then  had  80  men  and  19  stations.  In  1863  it  had  130  men  and  20 
stations.  In  May,  1862,  a  commission  recommended  the  establishment  of  a  Police  fire- 
brigade,  which  was  effected  by  an  act  of  parliament  in  1865.  It  was  to  be  supported  by  a 
\d.  rate  and  by  contributions  from  government  and  from  the  insurance  offices. 

FIRE-DAMP  INDICATOR,  is  a  small  apparatus,  abont  the  size  of  a  chronometer, 
invented  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Ansell,  and  patented  by  him  in  1865,  by  which  the  presence  of  very 
small  quantities  of  fire-damp  or  light  carburetted  hydrogen  gas  may  be  detected  in  mines. 
It  is  an  application  of  the  law  of  the  diffusion  of  gases. 

FIRE-ENGINES  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Ctesibius  250  B.C.  They  are 
mentioned  by  Pliny,  A.D.  70.  A  "Water-bow"  was  patented  by  Thos.  Grent  in  1632,  one 
was  constructed  by  John  Vander  Heyden,  about  1663.  Bramah's  engine  was  patented  in 
1793,  an(l  many  others  since.  Mr.  John  Braithwaite  constructed  a  steam  fire-engine  in 
1830.  A  trial  of  steam  fire-engines  took  place  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham,  on  July, 
i,  2,  3,  1863  ;  when  prizes  were  awarded  to  a  large  one  by  Merryweather  and  a  small  one  by 
Shand  and  Mason. 

FIRE-ESCAPES  have  been  patented  by  David  Marie  (1766),  Joachim  Smith  (1773),  and 
by  many  other  persons.  The  Royal  Society  for  the  Protection  of  Life  from  Fire  was  first 
established  in  1836 ;  it  object  was  not  fully  attained  till  1843,  when  it  was  re-organised, 
beginning  with  six  escape  stations  in  London  ;  in  March,  1859,  it  possessed  67.  In  1861  it 
was  stated  that  84  lives  had  been  saved  by  the  conductors.  In  1858,  504  fires  had  been 
attended,  and  57  persons  rescued.  Yersmann's  composition  for  rendering  washing  dresses 
fire-proof  was  published  about  1860. 

FIRE  INSURANCE.     See  Insurance. 

FIRE-SHIPS  were  first  used  in  the  I3th  century.  Among  the  most  formidable  con- 
trivances of  this  kind  ever  used,  was  an  explosion  vessel  to  destroy  a  bridge  of  boats  at 
the  siege  of  Antwerp,  in  1585.  The  first  use  of  them  in  the  British  navy  was  by  Charles, 
lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  in  the  engagement  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  July,  1588.  Rapin. 


FIR 


301 


FIR 


FIRE-WATCH,  or  Fire-Guard  of  London,  was  instituted  Nov.  1791. 

FIRE- WORKS*  are  said  to  have  been  familiar  to  the  Chinese  in  remote  ages.     They  were 
ivented  in  Europe  at  Florence  about  1360  ;  and  were  exhibited  as  a  spectacle  in  1588. 


jlay  states  that  the  fire-works  let  off  in  Eng- 
land at  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  in  1697,  cost  12,000?. 
'  ry  grand  fire- works  were  let  off  from  a  magnificent 
milding  erected  in  the  Green-park,  London,  at  the 
.peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  signed  April  30,  1748. 
.t  an  exhibition  of  fire- works  in  Paris,  May  31,  1770, 
in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  the  dauphin,  after- 
wards Louis  XVI.,  nearly  1000  persons  perished 
by  pressure  and  drowning,  through  a  panic. 


The  display  of  fireworks,  under  the  direction  of  sir 
Win.  Congreve,  on  the  celebration  of  the  general 
peace,  and  to  commemorate  the  centenary  acces- 
sion of  the  family  of  Brunswick  to  the  British 
throne,  surpassed  all  previous  exhibitions,  Aug.  i, 
1814. 

A  grand  display  of  this  kind  (at  a  cost  of  10,000?.)  to 
celebrate  the  peace  with  Russia,  May  29,  1856. 


FIRES  IN  LONDON.     The  conflagration  of  a  city,  with  all  its  tumult  of  concomitant 
tress,  is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  spectacles  which  this  world  can  offer  to  human  eyes. 
Johnson.     See  Santiago,  Liverpool,  &c.  (1862). 

REMARKABLE  FIRES   IN   OR  NEAR  LONDON. 


L  great  part  of  the  city  destroyed,  including  St. 
Paul's  cathedral         ....        962  &  1087 

at  London-bridge,  began  on  the  Southwark 
side,  and  was  communicated  to  the  other  side, 
and  hemmed  in  a  numerous  crowd.  Of  those 
who  threw  themselves  into  boats  and  barges, 
about  3000  were  drowned.  A  great  part  of 
the  city,  north  and  south,  was  burned,  14 

John 1212 

The  Great  Fire,  whose  ruins  covered  436  acres, 
extended  from  the  Tower  to  the  Temple- 
church,  and  from  the  north-east  gate  to 
Holborn-bridge.  It  began  at  a  baker's  house 
in  Pudding- lane,  behind  Monument-yard,  and 
destroyed,  in  the  space  of  four  days,  89 
churches  (including  St.  Paul's),  the  city  gates, 
the  Royal  Exchange,  the  Custom-house, 
Guildhall,  Sion  college,  and  many  other 
public  buildings,  besides  13,200  houses,  lay- 
ing waste  400  streets.  About  200,000  persons 
encamped  in  Islington  and  Highgate  fields. 
(See  Monument.)  .  .  .  Sept.  2-6,  1666 
In  Southwark,  60  houses  burnt  .  .  .  1676 
In  Wapping,  150  houses  burnt,  50  lives  lost  .  1715 

Customs-house  burnt 1718 

At  Shadwell,  50  houses  burnt        .        Sept.  10,  1736 
In  CornhlU  ward,   200  houses  burnt ;    this  fire 
began  in  Change-alley,    and  was  the   most 
terrible  since  the  great  fire  *f  1666,  March  25,  1748 
At  Covent-garden,  50  houses  .        .        .     .  1759 

In  Smithfield,  28  houses  burnt   ....  1761 
At  Shadwell,  30  houses  burnt         .        .        .     .     „ 
In  Throgmorton-street,  20  houses      .        .        .   1774 

At  Wapping,  20  houses 1775 

At  Hermitage-stairs,  31  houses  .  .  .  -1779 
At  Horselydown,  30  houses,  besides  many 

warehouses  and  ships         .        .        April  30,  1780 
Newgate,  <fcc.,  by  the  Gordon  mob        .     June,    „ 

In  the  Strand,  40  houses 1781 

In  Aldersgate  street,  40  houses;  the  loss  exceed- 
ing 100,000?. Nov.  5,  1783 

The  Opera-house  ....  June  17,  1789 
At  Rotherhithe,  20  houses  .  .  .  Oct.  12,  1790 
Again,  when  many  ships  and  60  houses  were 

consumed Sept.  14,  1791 

Pantheon,  Oxford-street        .        .         June  14,  1792 
At  Wapping,    630  houses,  and  an  East  India 
warehouse,  in  which  35,000  bags  of  saltpetre 
were  stored  :  the  loss  1,000,000?.          July  21,  1794 
Astley's  amphitheatre        .        .        .     Sept.  17,     „ 
St.  Paul's  church,  Covent-garden          Sept.  n,  1795 


At  Shad  well,  20  houses  burnt 
In  the  Minories,  30  houses 


Nov.  i,  1796 
March  23,  1797 

In  the  King's  Bench,  50  residences         July  14,  1799 
Near  the  Customs,    three    West  India  ware- 
houses ;  loss  300,000?.        .        .        .  Feb.  n,  1800 
At  Wapping,  30  houses     .        .        .         Oct.  6,     „ 
In  Store-street,  Tottenham-court-road,  immense 

property  destroyed  ....  Sept.  27,  1802 
The  great  tower  over  the  choir  of  Westminster 

abbey  burnt July  9,  1803 

Astley's  again,  and  40  houses    .        .      Sept.  i,     ,, 
Frith-street,  Soho,  lasted  several  days,  many 
houses  destroyed        ....    Dec.  2,    ,, 

Surrey  theatre Aug.  12,  1805 

Covent-garden  theatre  .        .         Sept.  20,  1808 

Drury-lane  theatre   ....        Feb.  24,  1809 
In  Conduit-street ;  Mr.  Windham,  in  aiding  to 
save  Mr.  North's  library,  received  an  injury 
which  caused  his  death    .        .        .      July  9,    ,, 
In  Biuy-street,  St.  Mary-axe,  half  the  street 

made  ruins June  12,  1811 

Custom  house,  warehouses,  and  public  records 

destroyed Feb.  12,  1814 

At  Rotherhithe,  60  houses  and  several  ships 


destroyed ;  loss  80,000?. 
At  Mile-end  ;  loss  200,000?. 
In  Smithfield ;  loss  100,000?. 
Royalty  theatre  destroyed 
In  Red  Lion-street,  15  houses 
Argyle  rooms  destrpyed    . 
English  opera-house,  &c.,  burnt 
Houses  of  parliament  consumed 
Fenning's-wharf,    London-bridge, 

250,000?.    ..... 

The  Royal  Exchange  destroyed     . 

At  Wapping,  12  houses 

Camberwell  church 

Astley's  theatre  again  . 

At  the  Tower  ;   the  armoury  and  280,000  stand 

of  arms,  &c.  destroyed  .         .        .       Oct.  30,  1841 
Raggett's  hotel,  Dover-street,  Piccadilly;  several 

eminent  persons  perished          .        .  May  27,  1845 
Several  houses  in  New-square,  Lincoln's  inn, 

Jan.  14,  1849 

Olympic  theatre        ....     March  29,     „ 
One  in  St.  Martin's-lane  (at  a  publican's  named 

Ben  Caunt),  three  lives  lost    .        .     Jan.  15,  1851 
Fire  at  Duke-street,  London-bridge  ;   property 

lost  estimated  at  60,000?.     .         .         Feb.  19,     ,, 
At  the  Rose  and  Crown,  Love-lane,  City,  four 

lives  lost May  18,    „ 


March  16,  1820 
Jan.  22,  1821 
.  Aug.  14,  1822 
.     April  ii,  1826 
.    June  6,  1828 
Feb.  5,  1830 
.    Feb.  16,    „ 

Oct.  16,  1834 
&c.  ;     loss 
.    Aug.  30,  1836 
Jan.  10,  1838 
.    June  16,  1840 
.  Feb.  7,  1841 
June  8, 


*  In  consequence  of  explosions  frequently  occurring  at  fire- work  makers  (particularly  one  on  July  12, 
1858,  at  Mr.  Bennett's,  in  the  Westminster- road,  Lambeth,  when  five  lives  were  lost,  and  about  300  persons 
seriously  injured,  and  much  property  destroyed),  it  was  determined  to  enforce  9  &  10  Will.  III.  c.  7  (1697), 
an  act  to  prevent  the  throwing  and  forming  of  squibs,  serpents,  and  other  fire-works.  An  act  regulating 
the  making  of  fire- works  was  passed  in  1860. 


FIR 


302 


FIS 


FIRES,  continued. 

Foot  of  London-bridge,  four  large  hop  ware- 
houses burnt ;  loss  150,000?.  .  .  June  23,  1851 

Collard  and  Co.,  pianoforte  makers,  Camden- 
town ;  loss  60,000?.  .  .  .  Dec.  19,  „ 

The  warehouses  of  Messrs.  Pawson,  St.  Paul's - 
churchyard,  burnt  .  .  .  Feb.  24,  1853 

Works  of  Gutta  Percha  Company,  near  City- 
road  ;  loss  100,000?.  .  .  .  Junes,  » 

Kirkman's  pianoforte  manufactory    .  Aug.  10,    ,, 

Messrs.  Scott  Russell  and  Co.  's  works,  Millwall ; 
loss  100,000?.  .  .  .  Sept.  10,  ,, 

Premises  of  Messrs.  Savill  and  Edwards, 
printers,  Chandos-street,  destroyed,  Sept.  30,  „ 

Premises  of  Townend  and  Co.,  Bread-street, 
destroyed  ;  loss  about  100,000?.  .  Dec.  31,  ,, 

Messrs.  Cubitt's  premises,  Pimlico        Aug.  17,  1854 

Whittington  club-house          .        .        .  Dec.  3,     ,, 

Premises  of  Messrs.  Routledge,  Messrs.  Rennie, 
&c.,  Blackfriars-road ;  loss,  one  life  and 
150,000? Feb.  16,  1855 

Of  Etna  steam  battery  at  Messrs.  Scott  Russell's 
works  ;  loss  about  120,000?.  .  .  May  3,  ,, 

Pavilion  theatre        ....        Feb.  13,  1856 

Covent-garden  theatre         .         .         .  March  5,     ,, 

Messrs.  Scott  Russell's  (third  fire),  much  valu- 
able machinery  destroyed  .  March  12,  ,, 

Messrs.  Dobbs' premises,  Fleet-street,  April  i,    ,, 

Shad  Thames  flour  mill ;  loss  about  100,000?. 

July  17,     ,, 

Messrs.  Broadwood's,  pianoforte  makers,  West- 
minster .....  Aug.  12,  ,, 

Premises  of  Messrs.  Almond's,  army  accoutre- 
ment makers,  and  others,  in  St.  Martin' s- 
lane  ;  estimated  loss  20,000?.  .  Nov.  9,  ,, 

Messrs.  Pickford's  premises,  at  Chalk  Farm 
station June  9,  1857 

Gilbert-street,  Bloomsbury;  15  lives  lost, 

March  28,  1858 

Limehouse  ;  Messrs.  Forest,  Dixon's,  &c. ,  pre- 
mises destroyed,  and  Blackwall  i-ailway 
arches;  insured  .  .  .  July  19-20,  ,, 

Fresh  wharf;  25,000?.  worth  of  silk       June  21,     ,, 

London  docks  ;  great  explosion  ;  man  killed  by 
fright ;  loss  about  150,000?.  .  June  29,  „ 

Great  James-street,  Marylcbone  ;  six  lives  lost, 

Feb.  26,  1859 

Messrs.  Hubbuck  and  Co.,  Lime-street;  one 
life  and  a  large  amount  of  property.  May  20,  „ 

West  Kent  wharf  and  New  Hibernia  wharf; 
destroyed  property  valued  at  200.000?.  ;  fire 
lasted  nearly  a  month  ;  commenced  Aug.  17,  1860 

St.  Martin's-hall,  built  for  Mr.  Hullah,  and 
other  premises,  destroyed  .  .  Aug.  26,  ,, 

Thames  iron- works,  Blackwall       .        Aug.  31,     ,, 

Kilburn  church,  Maida-hill,  destroyed,  Nov.  29,     ,, 

Surrey  music-hall  destroyed        .         .  June  n,  1861 

Cotton's  wharf  and  dep6t  and  other  wharves 
near  Tooley-street,  containing  oil  and  other 


combustible  substances,  took  fire  about  half- 

rt  4  P.M.,  June  22,  and  continued  burning 
a  month.      Several  persons  were  killed, 
including  James  Braidwood,  the  able  super- 
intendant  of  the  London  fire-brigade ;    the 
loss  of  property  was  estimated  at  2,000,000?.  1861 

Davis's  wharf,  Horselydown,  burnt ;  loss  about 
15,000? Aug.  i,  ,, 

Near  Paternoster-row ;  Messrs.  Longman's, 
booksellers,  Messrs.  Knight's,  tallow-melters, 
and  others  ;  loss  above  50,000?.  .  Sept.  4,  ,, 

Mr.  Price's,  Fountain-court,  Strand,  three 
lives  lost Jan.  3,  1862 

At  Campden-house,  Kensington,  pictures  and 
other  valuable  property  of  Mr.  Woolley  de- 
stroyed   March  23,  ,, 

Mr.  Dean's,  Berkeley-street,  Clerkenwell,  three 
lives  lost May  5,  ,, 

Mr.  Joel's,  Fore-street,  City,  four  lives  lost, 

May  21,     ,, 

Mr.  Boor's,  druggist,  Bishopsgate-street ;  ex- 
plosion ;  two  lives  lost  .  .  .  June  7,  , , 

Great  Cumberland-street,  Hyde-park ;  Mr.  S. 
Barrett  and  two  daughters  burnt  Aug.  15,  ,, 

Messrs.  Price's  oil-mills,  Blackfriars,  burnt 
down ;  great  loss  of  property,  but  no  lives 
lost  .  - Nov.  20.  ,, 

The  ancient  Austin-friars  church,  City,  partially 
destroyed Nov.  22,  ,, 

Mr.  Chard's,  Portland-street,  Soho,  six  lives 
lost Dec.  26,  ,, 

Messrs.  Capel's,  Seetbing-lane,  City;  great  de- 

.  struction  of  property      .        .         .     April  1 8,  1863 

Warehouses  of  Messrs.  Grant  and  others  be- 
tween Wood-street  and  Milk-street ;  property 
worth  about  100,000?.  destroyed  .  Dec.  19,  ., 

Meriton's  wharf,  Dockhead;  immense  loss  of 
property June  7,  1864. 

Royal  Savoy  chapel,  Strand,  destroyed    July  7,     „ 

Haberdashers'  hall  and  Messrs.  Tapling  and 
others'  warehouses  .  .  .  Sept.  19,  ,, 

Messrs.  Barry,  Sufferance  wharves,  Dockhead  ; 
great  loss  ....  Nov.  25,  26,  ,, 

Surrey  theatre  destroyed      .         ,      Jan.  30,  31,  1865 

Saville  house  (where  George  III.  was  born), 
Leicester-square  ....  Feb.  28,  ,, 

Poulterers'  arms,  Leadenho.ll  market ;  two 
lives  lost June  13,  ,, 

Messrs.  Meeking's  and  Co. ,  Holborn  ;  damage 
30,000? June  24,  ,, 

Messrs.  Sotheby  and  Co.  auctioneers ;  valuable 
library  destroyed  ....  June  29,  ,, 

There  were  953  fires  in  1854 ;  1113  in  1857  ;  1114 
in  1858  (38  lives  lost);  1183  in  1861.  1303  fires 
in  1862  ;  1404  in  1863;  and  1715  in  1864.  In 
but  few  cases  were  the  premises  totally 
destroyed.  Several  fires  were  occasioned 
by  careless  use  of  coal  oils  in  1861-2. 


FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. 


Parsees. 


FIRST-FRUITS  were  offerings  which  made  a  large  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  Hebrew 
priesthood.  First-fruits  (called  ABATES,  from  annus,  a  year),  in  the  Roman  church, 
originally  the  profits  of  one  year  of  every  vacant  bishopric,  afterwards  of  every  benefice, 
were  first  claimed  by  pope  Clement  V.  in  1306,  and  were  collected  in  England  in  1316  : 
but  chronologers  differ  on  this  point.  The  exaction  was  submitted  to  till  the  26th  of 
Hen.  VIII.  1534,  when  the  first-fruits  were  assigned,  by  act  of  parliament,  to  the  king  and 
his  successors.  Mary  gave  up  the  Annates  once  more  to  the  popes  (1555) ;  but  Elizabeth 
resumed  them  (1559).  They  were  granted,  together  with  the  tenths,  to  increase  the  incomes 
of  the  poor  clergy,  by  queen  Anne,  in  1703.  The  offices  of  First-fruits,  Tenths,  and  queen. 
Anne's  Bounty  were  consolidated  by  I  Viet.  c.  20,  1838.  See  Augmentation  of  Poor 
Livings.  Annates  were  long  resisted  in  France,  but  not  totally  suppressed  till  1789. 

FISHERIES.  Laws  for  their  protection  were  enacted  by  Edward  I.  in  1284,  and  by 
his  successors.  The  rights  of  the  English  and  French  fishermen  were  defined  by  treaty 
in  1839.  See  Herring,  Whale,  and  Newfoundland  Fisheries. 


FISHERIES,  continued. 

Fishmongers'  company  of  London  incorporated  1384 
Fishing  towns  regulated  by  an  act  passed  in  .  1542 
Fishing  on  our  coast  forbidden  by  statute  to 

strangers 1609 

The  Dutch  paid  30,000?.  for  permission  to  fish 

on  the  coasts  of  Britain 1636 

Corporation  of  Free  British  Fisheries  instituted  1750 
Fish-inachines,  for  conveying  fish  by  lund  to 

London,  set  up  in  1761  ;   and  supported  by 

parliament 1764 

The  British  Society  of  Fisheries  established  in 

London  in 1786 

The  Irish  Fishery  Company  formed  in      .  Dec.   1818 
1849,  two  peasants,   Remy  and  Gehin,  ob- 
ined  medals  for  their  exertions  in  culti- 
ig  fish  in  France,  and  the  government 


set  up  an  establishment  for  this  purpose  at 
Huningue,  under  M.  Coumes. 

In  1860  great  progress  had  been  made  by  M. 
Coste  and  others. 

Commissions  to  examine  into  British  fisheries 
were  appointed  in  1860,  and  acts  to  amend 
the  law  relating  to  fisheries  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  were  passed  in  ...  1861-2-3 

The  subject  has  excited  since  much  attention 
in  Britain. 

In  April,  1863,  Mr.  Ponders  placed  in  the 
Thames  76,000  young  fish  (salmon,  trout, 
char,  and  grayling) ;  and  on  April  17,  Mr. 
Frank  Buckland  demonstrated  the  import- 
ance of  fish  culture  before  the  members  of 
the  Royal  Institution,  London. 

FISHGUARD  (Pembroke).     On  Feb.  22,  1797,  1400  Frenchmen  landed  near  this  place. 
Feb.  24,  they  surrendered  to  lord  Cawdor,  and  some  countrymen,  armed  with  scythes 
d  pitchforks. 

FITZWILLIAM  MUSEUM  (Cambridge),  founded  by  Richard  viscount  Fitzwilliam,  who 
died  in  1816,  and  bequeathed  his  collection  of  books,  pictures,  &c.,  to  the  university,  with 
100,000?.  to  erect  a  building  to  contain  them.     This  was  begun  by  G.  Basevi  in  1837,  and 
ed  by  Cockerell  some  years  after. 

FIVE  HUNDRED,  COUNCIL  OF,  established  by  the  new  French  constitution,  Aug.  22, 
5,  was  unceremoniously  dissolved  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Nov.  10,  1799. 

FIVE-MILE  ACT,  an  oppressive  statute  passed  in  the  I7th  year  of  Chas.  II.,  Oct. 
1665.  It  obliged  non-conformist  teachers,  who  refused  to  take  the  non-resistance  oath,  not 
to  come  within  five  miles  of  any  corporation  where  they  had  preached  since  the  act  of 
oblivion  (unless  they  were  travelling),  under  the  penalty  of  $oL  They  were  relieved  bv 
Will.  III.  in  1689. 

FLAG.  The  flag  acquired  its  present  form  in  the  6th  century,  in  Spain  ;  it  was  pre- 
viously small  and  square.  Ashe.  It  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  there  by  the  Saracens, 
before  whose  time  the  ensigns  of  war  were  extended  on  cross  pieces  of  wood.  Pardon.  The 
flag  at  sea  denotes  to  what  country  a  ship  belongs,  and  the  rank  of  its  commander.  The 
honour-of-the-flag  salute  at  sea  was  exacted  by  England  from  very  early  times  ;  but  it 
was  formerly  yielded  by  the  Dutch  in  1673,  at  which  period  they  had  been  defeated  in  many 
actions.  Louis  XIV.  obliged  the  Spaniards  to  lower  their  flag  to  the  French,  1680. 
Henault.  After  an  engagement  of  three  hours  between  Tourville  and  the  Spanish  admiral 
Papachin,  the  latter  yieMed  by  firing  a  salute  of  nine  guns  to  the  French  flag,  June  2,  1688. 
Idem.  See  Salute  at  Sea  and  Union  Jack. 

FLAGELLANTS.  A  fatal  plague  gave  raise  to  this  fanatic  sect.  Henault.  They 
established  themselves  at  Perouse,  about  1268.  They  maintained  that  there  was  no  remission 
of  sins  without  flagellation,  and  publicly  lashed  themselves.  Clement  VI.  declared  them 
heretics  in  1349  ;  and  90  of  them  and  their  leader,  Conrad  Schmidt,  were  burnt,  1414.  In 
1574,  Henry  III.  of  France  became  a  flagellant  for  a  short  time. 

FLAGEOLET.    See  Flute. 
FLAMBEAUX,  FEAST  OF.     See  Argos. 
FLAMMOCK'S  BEBELLION.     See  Rebellions,  1497. 

FLANDERS,  the  principal  part  of  the  ancient  Belgium,  which  was  conquered  by  Julius 
Caesar,  51  B.C.  It  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  France  in  843,  and  was  governed  by 
counts  subject  to  the  king,  from  862  till  1369,  the  first  being  Baldwin,  Bras  de  Fer,  who  is 
said  to  have  introduced  the  cloth  manufacture.  In  1204,  Baldwin  IV.  became  emperor  at 
Constantinople.  In  1369,  Philip  duke  of  Burgundy  married  Margaret,  the  heiress  of  count 
Louis  II.  After  this,  Flanders  was  subjected  alternately  to  Burgundy  (1384),  Austria  (1477), 
and  Spain  (1555).  In  1580  it  declared  its  independence,  but  afterwards  returned  to  its 
allegiance  to  the  house  of  Austria.  In  1713  it  was  included  in  the  empire  of  Germany. 
France  obtained  a  part  of  Flanders  by  treaty  in  1659  and  1679.  See  Burgundy,  Netherlands, 
and  Belgium. 

FLAT-BUSH,  BATTLE  OF.     See  Long  Island. 


FLA  30  i  FLO 

FLATTERY  CAPE  (W.  coast  of  North  America),  so  named  by  captain  Cook,  because  at 
a  distance  it  had  the  deceptive  appearance  of  a  harbour,  1778. 

FLAVIAN  CJSSARS  were  the  Roman  emperors  Vespasian,  Titus,  and  Domitian,  who 
reigned  69 — 96. 

FLAX  was  brought  from  Egypt  to  Gaul  about  i  B.  c.  ;  and  was  ordered  to  be  grown  in 
England,  by  statute  24  Hen.  VIII.,  1533.  For  many  ages  the  core  was  separated  from  the 
flax,  the  bark  of  the  plant,  by  the  hand.  A  mallet  was  next  used  ;  but  the  old  methods 
of  breaking  and  scutching  the  flax  yielded  to  a  water-mill  which  was  invented  in  Scotland 
about  1750.  See  Hemp.  In  1851,  chevalier  Claussen  patented  a  method  of  "  cottoning"  flax. 

FLEECE.     See  Golden  Fleece. 

FLEET-PRISON  MARKET,  &c.  (London),  were  built  over  the  small  river  Fleta,  now 
used  as  a  common  sewer.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  this  river  was  navigable  to  Holborn- 
bridge ;  and  the  obelisk  in  Fleet-street  denotes  the  extent  of  it  in  1775.  The  prison  was 
founded  in  the  first  year  of  Richard  I.,  and  was  allotted  for  debtors,  1640,  and  persons  were 
committed  here  who  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Star  Chamber,  and  for  contempt  of 
the  court  of  Chancery.  It  was  burnt  by  the  prisoners,  June  7,  1780.*  It  was  pulled 
down  in  1845  (and  the  debtors  removed  to  the  Queen's  Bench  prison).  The  site  was 
sold  to  the  London,  Dover,  and  Chatham  railway  company  for  6o,oooZ.  on  June  2,  1864. 
Fleet-market,  originally  formed  in  1737,  was  removed,  and  the  site  named  Farringdon-street 
in  1829.  A  new  (Farringdon)  market  was  opened  Nov.  20,  1829.  The  granite  obelisk  in 
Fleet-street,  to  the  memory  of  alderman  Waithman,  was  erected  June  25,  1833. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS,  the  emblem  of  France,  said  to  have  been  brought  from  heaven  by  an 
angel  to  Clovis,  he  having  made  a  vow  that  if  he  proved  victorious  in  a  pending  battle  with 
the  Alemanni  near  Cologne,  he  would  embrace  Christianity,  496.  It  was  the  national  emblem 
till  the  revolution  in  1 789,  when  the  tricolor  (white,  red,  and  blue)  was  adopted. 

FLEURUS  (Belgium),  the  site  of  several  battles  :  (i.)  On  Aug.  30,  1622,  between  the 
Catholic  league  under  Gonzales  de  Cordova,  and  the  Protestant  union  (indecisive).  (2.) 
When  the  prince  of  Waldeck  was  defeated  by  Luxembourg,  July  i,  1690.  (3.)  Between  the 
allies  under  the  prince  of  Coburg,  and  the  French  revolutionary  army  commanded  by 
Jourdan.  The  allies,  with  an  army  of  100,000  men,  had  for  their  object  the  relief  of 
Charleroi,  when  they  were  met  on  the  plains  of  Fleurus,  and  signally  defeated.  Between 
8000  and  10,000  were  killed,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoners  ;  and  Jourdan  wTas  enabled  to 
form  a  junction  with  the  French  armies  of  the  Moselle,  the  Ardennes,  and  the  north.  In 
this  memorable  battle  the  French  made  use  of  a  balloon  to  reconnoitre  the  enemy's  army,  an 
experiment  which  it  is  said  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  day,  June  26,  1794.  (4.) 
The  battle  of  Ligny  (which  see)  is  also  called  the  battle  of  Fleurus. 

FLIES.  There  was  an  extraordinary  fall  of  these  insects  in  London,  covering  the  clothes 
of  passengers  in  the  streets,  1707.  Chamberlain.  In  the  United  States  of  America  the 
Hessian  fly,  from  the  notion  of  its  having  been  brought  there  by  the  Hessian  troops  in  the 
service  of  England  in  the  war  of  independence  ;  ravaged  the  wheat  in  1777.  Before  and 
during  the  severe  attack  of  cholera  at  Newcastle  in  Sept.  1853,  the  air  was  infested  with 
small  flies. 

FLINTS,  in  form  like  arrow-heads,  and  considered  by  him  to  have  been  shaped  by  human 
hands,  were  found  in  1847,  near  Amiens,  by  M.  Boucher  de  Perth es.  His  theory,  which 
gives  a  much  higher  antiquity  to  man  than  is  usually  received,  was  much  opposed  ;  but 
latterly  has  been  received  by  some  eminent  geologists.  Many  have  been  since  discovered  in 
other  countries  ;  in  Java,  in  1865. 

FLOATING  BATTERIES.     See  Batteries,  and  Gibraltar,  Siege  of,  1781. 

FLODDEN  FIELD  (Northumberland).  The  site  of  a  battle  on  Sept.  9,  1513,  between 
the  English  and  Scots  ;  in  consequence  of  James  IV.  of  Scotland  having  taken  part  with 
Louis  XII.  of  France  against  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  James,  many  of  his  nobles,  and 

*  FLEET  MARRIAGES.  Illicit  marriages  were  celebrated  here  to  an  amazing1  extent.  Between  the  igth 
of  October,  1704,  and  Feb.  12,  1705,  there  were  celebrated  2954  marriages  in  the  Fleet,  without  licence  or 
certificate  of  banns.  20  or  30  couple  were  sometimes  joined  in  one  day,  and  their  names  concealed  by  pri- 
vate marks,  if  they  chose  to  pay  an  extra  fee.  Pennant,  at  a  later  period,  describes  the  daring  manner  in 
which  this  nefarious  traffic  was  carried  on.  He  says,  that  in  walking  by  the  prison  in  his  youth,  he  has 
been  often  accosted  with,  "Sir,  will  you  please  to  walk  in  and  be  married?"  And  he  states  that  painted 
signs,  of  a  male  and  female  hand  conjoined,  with  the  inscription,  "Marriages  performed  within,"  were 
common  along  the  building.  This  glaring  abuse  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  marriage  act  in  1753. 


FLO  305  FLO 

upwards  of  10,000  of  his  army  were  slain;  while  the  English,  who  were  commanded  by  the 
earl  of  Surrey,  lost  only  persons  of  small  note. 

FLOGGING.  Wm.  Cobbett  in  1810,  and  John  Drakard  in  1811,  were  punished  for 
publishing  censures  on  flogging  in  the  army.  By  orders  issued  Nov.  9,  1859,  this  mode  of 
punishment  was  very  much  diminished  in  the  army  (see  Army} ;  and  on  Dec.  following  it 
was  ordered  that  first-class  seamen  should  not  be  flogged,  except  after  a  trial.  In  1863, 
flogging  was  made  a  punishment  for  attempts  at  garrotting. 

FLOODS.     See  Inundations. 

FLORAL  HALL,  adjoining  Covent-garden  theatre,  is  a  large  conservatory,  220  feet  long, 
feet  wide,  and  55  feet  high,  erected  from  designs  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Barry,  and  was  openeS 
th  the  volunteers'  ball,  March  7,  1860.     It  was  opened  as  a  flower-market,  May  22,  1861. 

FLORALIA,  annual  games  at  Rome  in  honour  of  Flora,  instituted  about  752,  but  not 
lebrated  with  regularity  till  about  1 74  B.  c. 

FLORENCE  (Florentia),  capital  of  Tuscany  (which  see).     It  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
the  soldiers  of  Sylla  (80  B.C.),  and  enlarged  by  the  Roman  Triumviri.     This  city  is  truly 
e  seat  of  the  arts.     In  its  palaces,  universities,  academies,  churches,  and  libraries,  are  to 
found  the  rarest  works  of  sculpture  and  painting  in  the  world.     The  Florentine  academy 
d  Accademia  della  Crusca  (established   1582)  were  instituted  to   enrich  literature  and 
i prove  the  language  of  Tuscany  ;  the  latter  was  so  named,  because  it  rejects  like  Iran  all 
not  purely  Tuscan  :  both  are  now  united  under  the  former  name. 


royed  by  Totila,  about          ....     541 

built  by  Charlemagne 781 

s  an  independent  republic,  about 


Annexation  to  Sardinia  voted  by  the  people, 
March  n,  12  ;  the  king  enters  Florence, 


April  7,  1860 

±e  born  here"       .        .  "     .              May  14,  1265  j  The  king  opens  the  exhibition  of  the  industrial 
Savonarola  burnt 1498  !      products  of  Italy        ....  Sept.  15,  1861 


The  power  of  the  Medici  begins,  about  1420 ; 
the  liberty  of  Florence  was  lost  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  Alexander  de'  Medici  as  per- 
petual governor 1530 

Cosmo  de'  Medici  created  grand-duke  of  Tus- 
cany   1569 

Revolution  at  Florence  .*       .        .        April  27,  1859 


Florence  decreed  to  be  the  capital  of  Italy, 

Dec.  ii,  1864 

The  king  and  court  remove  there      .     May  13,  1865 
The  Dante  festival  (the  6ooth  anniversary  of 

his  birth)  opened  by  the  king      .        May  14,     ,, 
Inauguration  of  a  national  rifle  meeting ;  the 

king  fires  the  first  shot    .        .        .  June  18,    ,, 


FLORES,  or  Isle  of  Flowers  (one  of  the  Azores,  which  see),  discovered  by  Vanderberg 
in  1439  ;  and  settled  by  the  Portuguese  in  1448. 

FLORIDA,  a  peninsula,  one  of  the  southern  states  of  North  America,  first  discovered  by 
Sebastian  Cabot  in  1497.  It  was  visited  by  Ponce  de  Leon,- the  Spanish  navigator,  April  2, 
1512,  in  a  voyage  he  had  absurdly  undertaken  to  discover  a  fountain  whose  waters  had  the 
property  of  restoring  youth  to  the  aged  who  tasted  them  !  Florida  was  conquered  by  the 
Spaniards  under  Ferdfhand  de  Soto  in  1539  ;  but  the  settlement  was  not  fully  established 
until  1565.  It  was  plundered  by  sir  Francis  Drake  in  1585  ;  and  by  Davis,  a  buccaneer,  in 
1665.  It  was  invaded  by  the  British  in  1702;  and  again  by  general  Oglethorpe  in  1740; 
ceded  to  the  British  crown  in  1763  ;  taken  by  the  Spaniai'dsin  1781  ;  and  guaranteed  to  them 
in  1783.  Revolution  in  1810,  when  the  American  government  took  means  for  occupying  the 
country  ;  and  after  a  tedious  negotiation  it  was  finally  ceded*  by  Spain  to  the  United  States 
in  1820-21  ;  and  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1845,  from  which  it  seceded  in  Dec.  1860. 
Reunited  in  1865.  See  United  States. 

FLORIN,  a  coin  first  made  by  the  Florentines.  A  florin  was  issued  by  Edward  III. 
which  was  current  in  England  at  the  value  of  6s.  in  1337.  Camden.  This  English  coin 
was  called  floren  after  the  Florentine  coin,  because  the  latter  was  of  the  best  gold.  Aslic. 
The  florin  of  Germany  is  in  value  2s.  ^d.  ;  that  of  Spain,  45.  4^.  ;  that  of  Palermo  and 
Sicily,  2s.  6d.  ;  that  of  Holland,  2s.  Ayliffe.  A  silver  coinage  of  florins  (value  2s.)  was 
issued  by  proclamation  of  cpueen  Victoria,  August,  1849. 

FLOWERS.  Our  present  common  flowers  were  for  the  most  part  introduced  into  England 
from  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  to  that  of  Elizabeth  (1485 — 1603).  The  art  of  preserving 
flowers  in  sand  was  discovered  in  1633.  A  mode  of  preserving  them  from  the  effects  of  frost 
in  winter,  and  hastening  their  vegetation  in  summer,  was  invented  in  America,  by  Geo.  Moms, 

*  In  1801,  the  American  government  purchased  Louisiana  from  the  French,  of  which  they  contended 
West  Florida  formed  a  part.  On  the  revolution,  and  in  consequence  of  this  purchase,  Spain,  unable  to 
defend  the  country,  ceded  the  whole  of  Florida  to  the  United  States,  to  which  it  was  finally  annexed  after 
the  negotiation  above  mentioned. 


FLU 


306 


FLY 


in   1792.     A  very  great  number  have  been  introduced  from  America,  Australia,  the  Cape, 
&c.,  during  the  present  century. 


Acacia,  N.  America,  before  .  1640 
Allspice  shrub,  Carolina  .  1726 
Aniseed  tree,  Florida,  about.  1766 
Arbor  Vitse,  Canada,  before  .  1596 
Arctopus,  Cape  of  Good  Hope  1774 
Auricula,  Switzerland  .  .  1567 
Azarole,  S.  Europe,  before  .  1640 
Bay,  royal,  Madeira  .  .  .  1665 
Bay,  sweet,  Italy,  before  .  1548 
Camellia,  China  .  .  .  1811 
Canary  bell-flower,  Canaries  .  1696 
Canary  Convolvuhis,  Cauaries  1690 
Carnation,  Flanders  .  .  1567 
Ceanothus,  blue,  New  Spain  .  1818 
Chaste  tree,  Sicily,  before  .  1570 
Christ's  thorn,  Africa,  before  1596 
Convolvulus,  many-flowered.  1779 
Coral  tree,  Cape  .  .  .1816 
Coral  tree,  bell-flowered,  Cape  1791 
Coral  tree,  tremulous,  Cape  .  1789 
Creeper,  Virginian,N.  America  1603 
Dahlia,  China.  .  .  .1803 
Dryandria,  New  Holland  .  .  1803 
Evergreen,  thorn,  Italy .  .  1629 
Everlasting,  great-flowered, 

Cape 1781 

Everlasting,  giant,  Cape  .  1793 
Fernbush,  sweet,  N.  America  1714 
Fox-glove,  Canaries  .  .  1698 
Fuchsiafulgens,Mexico,about  1835 
Geranium,  Flanders  .  .  1534 
Gillyflower,  Flanders  .  .  1567 
Gold -plant,  Japan  .  .  .1783 
Golden-bell-flower,  Madeira  .  1777 
Hawthorn,  American,  before  1683 
Heaths,  Cape  .  .  1774-1803 
Honeyflower,  great,  Cape  .  1688 
Honeysuckle,  Chinese,  China  1806 
Honeysuckle,  fly,  Cape .  .  1752 
Honeysuckle,  trumpet,  N. 

America       ....   1656 
Hyssop,  south  of  Europe,  be- 
fore  1548 

Jasmine,  Circassia,  before     .  1548 


Jasmine,  Catalonia,  E.Indies  1629! 
Judas  tree,  south  of  Europe, 

before 1596 

Laburnum,  Hungary         .     .  1576 
Laurel,  Alexandrian,  Portu- 
gal, before    ....  1713' 
Laurustine,  south  of  Europe, 

before 1596  j 

Lavender,   south  nf  Europe, 

before 1568 

Lily,  Italy,  before      .        .     .  1460 1 
Lily,  gigantic,  N.  South  Wales  1800 
Lily,  red-coloured,  S.  America  1623 
Loblolly  bay,  N.  America,  be- 
fore        1739 

Lupine  tree,  Cape,  about  .     .  1793 
Magnolia  (see  Magnolia),  N. 

America 1688 

Magnolia,  dwarf,  China         .  1786 
Magnolia,    laurel-leaved,   N. 

America  .  .  .  .  .  1734 
Maiden-hair,  Japan  .  .1714 
Mignonette,  Italy  .  .  .1528 
Milk-wort,  great-flowered, 

Cape 1713 

Milk-wort,  showy,  Cape        .  1814 
Mock  orange,  south  of  Eu- 
rope, before.         .        .        .  1596 
Mountain  tea,    N.   America, 

before 1758  j 

Myrtle,    candleberry,    North 

America  ....  1699 
Myrtle,  woolly-leaved,  China  1776 
Nettle  tree,  south  of  Europe, 

before 15961 

Oleander,  red,  south  of  Eu- 
rope    .                 ...  1596! 
Olive,  Cape,  Cape  .     .        .    .  17301 
Olive,  sweet-scented,  China  .  1771 
Paraguay  tea,  Carolina,before  1724, 
Passion-flower,  Brazil    .         .  1692  j 
Passion-flower,  orange,  Caro- 
lina   1792; 


Pigeon- berry,  N.  America  .  1736 
Pink,  from  Italy  .  .  .  1567 
Ranunculus,  Alps  .  .  .  1528 
Roses,  Netherlands  .  .  .  1522 
Rose,  the  China,  China .  .  1789 
Rose,  the  damask,  south  of 

Europe,  about  .  .  .1543 
Rose,  the  Japan,  China .  .  1793 
Rose,  the  moss,  before  .  .  1724 
Rose,  the  musk,  Italy  .  .  1522 
Rose,  the  Provence,  Flanders  1567 
Rose,  sweet-scented  guelder, 

from  China  .  .  .  .1821 
Rose,  tube,  from  Java  and 

Ceylon  ....  1629 
Rose  without  thorns,  North 

America,  before  .  .  .  1726 
Rosemary,  south  of  Europe  .  1548 
Sage,  African,  Cape  .  .  .  1731 
Sage,  Mexican,  Mexico  .  .  1724 
St.  Peter's  wort,  N.  America  1730 
Sassafras  tree,  N.  America, 

before 1663 

Savin,  S.  of  Europe,  before  .  1584 
Snowdrop,  Carolina  .  .  1756 
Sorrel-tree,  N.  America, before  1752 
Sweet-bay,  south  of  Europe, 

before 1548 

Tamarisk  plant,  Germany  .  1560 
Tea  tree,  China,  about  .  .1768 
Tooth-ache  tree,  from  Caro- 
lina, before.  .  .  .  1739 
Trumpet-flower,  N.  America  1640 
Trumpet-flower,  Cape  .  .  1823 
Tulip,  Vienna.  .  .  .1578 
Virginia  creeper,  N.  America, 

before 1629 

Virgin's  bower,  Japan  .  .  1776 
Wax  tree,  China  .  .  .  1794 
Weeping  willow,  Levant,  be- 
fore .  .  .  .  .  1692 
Winter-berry,  Virginia  .  .  1736 
Youlan,  China  .  .  .  .  1789 


FLUORESCENCE.  When  the  invisible  chemical  rays  of  the  blue  end  of  the  solar 
spectrum  are  sent  through  uranium  glass,  or  solutions  of  quinine,  horse-chestnut  bark,  or 
stramonium  datura,  they  become  luminous.  This  phenomenon  was  termed  "fluorescence" 
by  its  discoverer,  professor  Stokes,  in  1852.  See  Calorescence. 

FLUORINE,  a 'gaseous  element,  obtained  from  fluor  spar;  first  collected  over  mercury 
by  Priestley.  Its  property  of  corroding  all  vessels  is  so  great  that  it  is  separated  with  great 
difficulty.  It  was  named  by  Ampere  in  1810.  Its  chemical  history  was  further  elucidated 
by  Davy '(1809),  Berzelius  (1824),  and  succeeding  chemists.  The  corroding  property  of 
fluoric  acid  was  employed  in  the  arts  in  1760,  by  Schwankhard  of  Nuremberg.  Gmelin. 

FLUSHING,  SIEGE  OF.     See  Walcheren  Expedition. 

FLUTE,  a  most  ancient  instrument,  known  to  the  Greeks.  It  has  been  improved  by 
Bbhm  in  Germany,  and  in  London  by  Richard  Potter,  1785  ;  Rudall  and  Rose  1832,  and 
others.  The  English  flute  or  flageolet  was  patented  by  Win.  Bainbridge  in  1803,  with 
improvements  in  1810  and  1819. 

FLUXIONS,  a  branch  of  the  higher  mathematics,  invented  by  Newton,  1665,  similar  to 
the  differential  calculus  described  by  Leibnitz,  1684.  The  finest  applications  of  the  calculus 
are  by  Newton,  Euler,  La  Grange,  and  La  Place.  The  first  elementary  work  on  fluxions  in 
England  is  a  tract  of  twenty- two  pages  in  A  New  Short  Treatise  of  Algebra,  together  with  a 
Specimen  of  the  Nature  and  J.  Igorithm  of  Fluxions,  by  John  Harris,  M.  A.  London,  1 702. 

FLYING,  ARTIFICIAL,  has  been  attempted  in  all  ages.  *    Friar  Bacon  maintained  the 

*  In  Greek  mythology,  it  is  said  that  Dredalus  attached  wings  of  wax  to  the  body  of  his  son  Icarus, 
•who,  neglecting  the  advice  of  his  father,  flew  so  high  that  the  sun  melted  his  wings,  and  he  fell  into  the  sea 


FOG 


307 


FOR 


possibility  of  the  art  of  flying,  and  predicted  it  would  be  a  general  practice,  1273.  Bishop 
Wilkins  says  (1651),  it  will  yet  be  as  usual  to  hear  a  man  call  for  his  wings  when  he  is  going 
on  a  journey,  as  it  is  now  to  hear  him  call  for  his  boots !  Borelli  (about  1670)  showed  the 
futility  of  these  speculations.  About  1800,  sir  George  Cayley  experimented  on  the  subject, 
and  in  1843  Mr.  Henson  invented  a  flying  machine  ;  but  nothing  has  been  devised  capable  of 
rving  a  practical  purpose. 

FOG  SIGNALS.  In  1862,  much  attention  was  paid  to  the  subject  by  the  Royal  Coin- 
ssion  on  Light-houses,  &c.  The  use  of  bells,  steam-trumpets,  a  battery  of  whistles  blown 
steam,  the  transmission  of  sound  through  water,  the  sirene,  &c.,  were  considered. 

FONTAINEBLEAU,  near  the  Seine,  France.  The  royal  palace,  founded  by  Robert 
Pieux  about  999,  enlarged  and  adorned  by  successive  kings,  was  completed  by  Louis 
lilippe,  1837-40.  Fontainebleau  was  entered  by  the  Austrians  Feb.  17,  1814.  Here 
ipoleon  resigned  his  dignity,  April  4,  and  bade  farewell  to  his  army,  April  5,  1814. 


ice  between  France,  Denmark,  &c.        .        .  1679 
between  Germany  and  Holland,  Nov.  8,  1785 


Treaty  between  Napoleon  and  Spain  .    Oct.  27,  1807 
Concordat  between  Napoleon  and  pope  Pivis  VII. 

Jan.  25,  1813 


FONTENOY,  near  Tournay,  in  Belgium,  the  site  of  a  battle  on  April  30  (May  u,  N.S.), 
between  the  French,  commanded  by  marshal  Saxe,   and  the  English,  Hanoverians, 
itch,  and  Austrians,  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Cumberland.*     The  battle  was  fought 
rith  great  obstinacy,  and  the  carnage  on  both  sides  was  considerable,  the  allies  losing  12,000 
3n,  and  the  French  nearly  an  equal  number  of  lives  ;  but  the  allies  were  compelled  to 
3tire.     Marshal  Saxe  (ill  of  the  disorder  of  which  he  afterwards  died)  was  carried  about  to 
the  posts  in  a  litter,  assuring  his  troops  that  the  day  would  be  their  own. 

FONTHILL  ABBEY,  Wiltshire,  founded  in  1796,  the  mansion  of  Win.  Beckford, 
author  of  "  Vathek,"  and  son  of  alderman  Beckford.  He  died  in  1844.  Within  this  edifice 
(which  alone  cost  273,000^.)  were  collected  most  costly  articles  of  vertu,  the  rarest  works  of 
the  old  masters,  and  the  finest  specimens  of  the  arts.  The  sale  of  the  abbey  and  its 
contents  to  Mr.  Farquhar  took  place  in  1819  ;  7200  catalogues  at  a  guinea  each  were  sold  in 
a  few  days.  On  Dec.  21,  1825,  the  lofty  tower  fell,  and  in  consequence  the  remaining 
buildings  were  sold. 

FONTS.  Formerly  the  baptistery  was  a  small  place  partitioned  off  in  a  church,  within 
which  a  large  font  was  placed,  where  the  persons  to  be  baptized  (frequently  adults)  were 
submerged.  Previously,  lakes  and  rivers  were  resorted  to  for  immersion.  Fonts  are  said  to 
have  been  set  up  about  167. 

FOOLS,  FESTIVALS  OF,  were  held  at  Paris  on  the  ist  of  January,  where  we  are  told 
all  sorts  of  absurdities'and  indecencies  were  committed,  from  1198  to  1438.  Fools  or  licensed 
jesters  were  kept  at  court  in  England  (and  at  other  courts  in  Europe),  and  were  tolerated  up 
to  the  time  of  Charles  I.  1625. 

FORBES  MACKENZIE'S  ACT  (16  &  17  Viet.  c.  67)  "for  the  better  regulation  of 
public-houses  in  Scotland,"  was  passed  in  1853,  and  is  said  to  be  much  evaded.  It  permits 
grocers  to  sell  spirits,  &c.,  as  usual,  but  forbids  drinking  on  the  premises,  which  is  to  be 
confined  to  places  duly  licensed.  Much  dram-drinking  previously  took  place  in  grocers' 


FORCE.     See  Conservation  and  Correlation. 
FOREIGNERS.     See  Alien. 

FOREIGN  ENLISTMENT  ACT,  59  Geo.  III.  c.  69  (1819),  forbids  British  subjects  to 
enter  the  service  of  a  foreign  state,  without  licence  from  the  king  or  privy  council,  and  also 
the  fitting  out  or  equipping  ships  for  any  foreign  power  to  be  employed  against  any  power 
with  which  our  government  is  at  peace.  (See  Trials,  1862,  1863.)  In  1606,  Englishmen 
were  forbidden  to  enter  foreign  service,  without  taking  an  oath  not  to  be  reconciled  to 
the  pope.  The  act  was  suspended  in  1835  on  behalf  of  the  British  Legion  (which  see). 


which  has  received  his  name.     (Ovid,  Met.  viii.  195.)    Archytas  is  said  to  have  made  an  artificial  flying 
dove,  about  400  B.C. 

*  The  king  Louis  XV.  and  the  dauphin  were  present  at  this  great  battle.  The  success  of  the  British 
at  the  commencement  of  it  is  still  quoted  by  military  men  as  the  best  illustration  of  the  extraordinary 
power  of  a  column.  The  advance  of  the  Austrians  during  several  hours  at  the  battle  of  Marengo  (fought' 
June  14,  1800)  was  compared  to  it  by  Bonaparte. 

x  2 


FOR  308  FOR 

FOREIGN  LEGION.  Foreigners  have  frequently  been  employed  as  auxiliaries  in  the 
pay  of  the  British  government.  (See  Hessians.}  An  act  (18  &  19  Yict.  c.  2)  for  the  formation 
of  a  Foreign  Legion  as  a  contingent  in  the  Russian  war  (1855),  was  passed  Dec.  23,  1854.* 
The  queen  and  prince  Albert  reviewed  3500  soldiers,  principally  Swiss  and  Germans,  at 
Shorncliife,  Aug.  9,  1855.  On  the  peace  in  1856,  many  were  sent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ; 
but  not  prospering,  returned. 

FOREIGN  OFFICE  was  established  at  the  re -arrangement  of  the  duties  of  secretaries  of 
state  in  1782.  It  has  the  exclusive  charge  of  British  interests  and  subjects  in  foreign 
countries.  '1  he  secretary  for  foreign  affairs  negotiates  treaties,  selects  ambassadors,  consuls, 
&c.,  for  foreign  countries,  and  grants  passports.  The  new  foreign  office,  building  in  the 
Italian  style  (designed  by  Gilbert  Scott),  was  begun  in  1864. 

FOREIGN  ORDERS.  No  British  subject  is  permitted  to  accept  a  foreign  order  from 
the  sovereign  of  any  foreign  country,  or  wear  the  insignia  thereof,  without  her  Majesty's 
consent, — Regulations  published  in  London  Gazette,  May  10,  1855. 

FORESTALLING  was  forbidden  by  statutes  (in  1350,  1552,    &c.),  all  repealed  in  1844. 

FORESTS.  There  were  in  England,  even  in  the  last  century,  as  many  as  68  forests,  18 
chases,  and  upwards  of  780  parks.  The  New  Forest  in  Hampshire  was  made  by  William  I., 
who  for  that  purpose  destroyed  36  parishes,  pulled  down  36  churches,  and  dispeopled  the 
country  for  30  miles  round,  1079-85.  Stow.^ 

FORESTS,  CHARTER  or  THE,  Charta  de  Forcsta,  granted  by  Henry  III.  in  1217,  was 
founded  on  Magna  Charta,  granted  by  king  John,  June  15,  1215. 

FORFARSHIRE  STEAMER,  on  its  passage  from  Hull  to  Dundee,  on  Sept.  6,  1838,  was 
wrecked  in  a  violent  gale,  and  thirty-eight  persons  out  of  fifty-three  perished.  The  Outer- 
Fern  Lighthouse  keeper,  James  Darling,  and  his  heroic  daughter  Grace,  ventured  out  in  a 
tremendous  sea  in  a  coble,  and  rescued  several  of  the  passengers. 

FORGERY.  The  forging  deeds,  or  giving  forged  deeds  in  evidence,  was  made  punishable 
by  fine,  by  standing  in  the  pillory,  having  both  ears  cut  off,  the  nostrils  slit  up  and  seared, 
the  forfeiture  of  land,  and  perpetual  imprisonment,  5  Eliz.  1562.  Since  the  establishment  of 
paper  credit,  a  multitude  of  statutes  have  been  enacted.  J 

Forgery  first  punched  by  death         .        .        .   1634  |  Statutes  reducing  into  cne  act  all  such  forgeries 
Forging  letters  of  attorney  made  capital       .     .  1722  •      as  shall  henceforth  be  punished  with  death  .  1830 


Mr.  Ward,  M.P.,  a  man  of  wealth,  expelled  the 

house  of  commons  for  forgery,  May  16,  1726  ; 

and  consigned  to  the  pillory        .     March  17,  1727 
Value  of  forged  notes  presented  to  the  bank 

1 801- 10  nominally  101,661?. 
The  bank  prosecuted  142  persons  for  forgery  or 

the  uttering  of  forged  notes        .        .        .     .   1817 
Tl  os.  Maynard  was  the  last  person  executed 
for  forgery Dec.  31,  1829 


The  punishment  of  forgery  with  death  ceases, 
except  in  cases  of  forging  or  altering  wills  or 
powers  of  attorney  to  transfer  stock  .  .  .  1832 

These  cases  also  reduced  to  transportable 
offences 1837 

A  barrister,  Jem  Saward,  and  others,  tried  for 
forging  numerous  drafts  on  bankers,  March  5,  1857 

The  law  respecting  forgery  amended  in        .     .  1861 
[See  Executions  (for  forgery),  1776,  1777  et  seq.} 


FORKS  were  in  use  on  the  continent  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
Voltaire.  This  is  reasonably  disputed.  In  Fynes  Moryson's  Itinerary,  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
he  says,  "  At  Venice  each  person  was  served  (besides  his  knife  and  spoon)  with  a  fork  to  hold 
the  meat  while  he  cuts  it,  for  there  they  deem  it  ill  manners  that  one  should  touch  it  with 
his  hand."  Thomas  Cory  ate  describes,  with  much  solemnity,  the  manner  of  using  forks  in 

*  The  endeavour  to  enlist  for  this  legion,  in  1854,  in  the  United  States,  gave  great  offence  to  the  Ameri- 
can government.  Mr.  Crampton,  our  envoy,  was  dismissed  May  28,  1856,  in  spite  of  all  the  judicious  pacific 
efforts  of  lord  Clarendon.  Lord  Napier  was  sent  out  as  our  representative  in  1857. 

t  The  commissioners  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  woods  and  forests,  between  1787  and 
1793,  reported  the  following  as  belonging  to  the  crown,  viz.  : — In  Berkshire,  Windsor  Forest  and  Windsor 
Great  and  Little  Park.  In  Dorset,  Crauburn  Chase.  In  Essex,  Waltham  or  Epping  and  Hainault  Forest. 
In  Gloucestershire,  Dean  Forest.  In  Hampshire,  the  New  Forest,  Alice  Holt,  Woolmer  Forest,  and  Bere 
Forest.  In  Kent,  Greenwich  Park.  In  Middlesex,  St.  James's,  Hyde,  Bushy,  and  Hampton  court  Parks. 
In  Northamptonshire,  the  forests  of  Whittlebury,  Salcey,  and  Rockingham.  In  Nottingham,  Sherwood 
Forest.  In  Oxford,  Whichwood  Forest.  In  Surrey,  Richmond  Park.  Several  of  these  have  been  disforested 
since  1851,  viz.,  Hainault,  Whichwood,  and  "Whittlebury. 

J  It  appears,  from  official  returns,  that  the  first  forger  on  the  bank  of  England  was  Richard  William 
Vaughan,  a  linen-draper  of  Stafford,  in  1758,  before  which  time,  from  the  establishment  of  the  bank,  a 
period  of  sixty-six  years,  no  attempt  at  this  species  of  forgery  had  been  made.  Vaughan  employed  a 
number  of  artists  on  different  parts  of  the  notes  fabricated,  which  had  all  the  appearance  of  being  genuine. 
The  criminal  had  filled  up  twenty  of  the  notes,  and  had  deposited  them  in  the  hands  of  a  young  lady  of 
high  respectability,  whom  he  was  on  the  point  of  marrying,  as  a  proof  of  his  being  a  man  of  substance. 
Bank-notes  having  been  in  circulation  so  long  previously,  and  none  having  been  before  counterfeited,  no 
suspicion  of  these  notes  was  entertained.  One  of  the  artists  was  the  informer  and  accuser. 


and  adds,   "I  myself  have  thought  it  good  to  imitate  the  Italian  fashion  since  I  0:1111  <• 
me  to  England,"   1608.     Two-pronged  forks  at  Sheffield  were  made  soon  after.     Three - 
pronged  forks  are  much  more  recent.     Silver  forks  came  into  use  in  England  about  1814. 

FORMA  PAUPERIS.     A  person  having  a  just  cause  of  suit,  certified  as  such,  yet  so 
r  that  he  cannot  meet  the  cost  of  maintaining  it,  has  an  attorney  and  counsel  assigned 
im  on  his  swearing  that  he  is  not  worth  5?.,  by  stat.  n   Henry  VII.  1495. — This  act  has 
n  remodelled,  and  now  persons  may  plead  in  form-l  pauper-is  in  the  courts  of  law. 

FORMIC  ACID.     Its  artificial  production  by  Pelouze  in  1831  is  considered  an  event  in 
progress  of  organic  chemistry. 

FORT  ERIE  (Upper  Canada).  This  fortress  was  taken  by  the  American  general  Browne, 
June  3,  1814.  After  several  conflicts  it  was  evacuated  by  the  Americans,  Nov.  5,  1814. 

FORTH  AND  CLYDE  CANAL  was  commenced  July  10,  1768,  under  the  direction  of 
r.  Smeaton,  and  opened  July  28,  1790.  A  communication  is  formed  between  the  eastern 
1  western  seas  on  the  coast  of  Scotland. 

FORTIFICATION.  The  Phoenicians  were  the  first  people  to  fortify  cities.  Apollodorus 
,ys  that  Perseus  fortified  Mycenae,  where  statues  were  afterwards  erected  to  him.  The 
modern  system  was  introduced  about  1500.  Albert  Durer  first  wrote  on  the  science  of 
fortification  in  1527  ;  and  great  improvements  were  made  by  Vauban  (1707)  and  others. 
The  fortifications  of  Paris,  the  most  recent  work  claiming  notice,  were  completed  in  1846. 
See  Paris.  In  Aug.  1860,  the  British  parliament  passed  an  act  for  the  expenditure  of 

;>oo,oooZ.  in  one  year  upon  the  fortifications  of  Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  Pembroke,  and 
rtland,  the  Thames,  Medway,  and  Sheerness,  Chatham,  Dover,  and  Cork,  and  on  the. 
rchase  of  a  central  arsenal  establishment  ;  the  estimated  expense  being  9, 500,000?. 
FORTUNE-TELLING  is  traced  to  the  early  astrologers,  by  whom  the  planets  Jupiter 
1  Venus  were  supposed  to  betoken  happiness.  The  Sibyllas  were  women  who  flourished 
in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  who  were  said  to  have  been  inspired  by  Heaven.  See 
Sibyls  and  Gipsies.  In  England  the  laws  against  fortune-telling  were  at  one  time  very 
severe.  A  declaration  was  published  in  France,  Jan.  u,  1680,  of  exceeding  severity  against 
fortune-tellers  and  poisoners,  under  which  several  persons  suffered  death.  Henault.  Fortune- 
tellers, although  liable  by  the  act  of  1824  to  be  imprisoned  as  rogues  and  vagabonds,  still 
flourish  in  England. 

FORTY-SHILLING  FREEHOLDERS.     See  Freeholders. 

FOTHERINGAY  CASTLE  (Northamptonshire),  built  about  1400.     Here  Richard  III.. 
of  England  was  born  in  1450;  and  here  Mary  queen  of  Scots  was  tried,  Oct  11-14,  1586, 
and  beheaded,  Feb.  8,  1587.     It  was  demolished  by  her  son,  James  I.  of  England,  in  1604. 

FOUGHARD,  near  Armagh,  N.  Ireland.  Here  Edward,  brother  of  Robert  Bruce,  after 
invading  Ireland  in  1515,  was  defeated  by  sir  John  Berniingham  in  1318.  Bruce  was  killed 
by  Roger  de  Maupis,  a  burgess  of  Dundalk. 

FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS.  A  species  of  foundling  hospital  was  set  up  at  Milan  in 
787,  and  in  the  middle  ages  most  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  continent  possessed  one.. 
The  French  government  in  1790  declared  foundlings  to  be  the  "children  of  the  state." 


Foundling  hospital  at  Moscow,  founded  by 
Catherine  II.  in  1763  ;  about  12,000  children 
are  received  annually, 

Foundling  hospitals  are  recent  in  England  ; 
none  existed  when  Addison  wrote  in 


.   1713 

London  foundling  hospital,  projected  by 
Thomas  Coram,  a  sea-captain,  incorpo- 
rated by  charter  in  Oct.  1739;  opened, 

June  2,  1756 
It  succours  about  500  infant  children  ;  Coram's 

statue  was  put  up  in        .....   1856 
Foundling  hospital  in  Dublin  instituted  in  1704. 


In  this  charity  there  had  been  received,  ac- 
cording to  parliamentary  returns,  in  the 
thirty  years  preceding  Jan.  1825,  as  many  as 
52,150  infants:  of  these,  14,613  had  died  in- 
fants— 25,859  were  returned  as  dead  from  the 
country,  where  they  were  out  nursing — 730 
died  in  the  infirmary  after  returning — 322 
died  grown  children— total  deaths,  41,524; 
so  that  10,626  only  escaped  this  fate.  Owing 
to  this  mortality,  and  from  certain  moral 
considerations,  the  internal  department  was 
closed  by  order  of  government  .  March  31,  1835 


FOUNTAINS  are  apparatus,  natural  or  artificial,  by  which  water  is  made  to  spring 
upwards.  The  fountain  of  Hero  of  Alexandria  was  invented  about  150  B.C.  Among  the 
remarkable  fountains  at  Rome  are  the  Fontana  di  Trevi,  constructed  for  pope  Clement  XII. 
in  *735  >  the  Fontana  Paolina,  erected  for  pope  Paul  V.  in  1612  ;  and  Fontana  dell'  Acqua 
Felice,  called  also  the  Fountain  of  Moses.  The  fountains  in  the  palace  gardens  at  Versailles, 
made  for  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  Grand  Jet  d'Eau,  at  St.  Cloud,  are  exceedingly  beautiful. 


FOU 


310 


1<R  A 


There  are  above  100  public  fountains  in  Paris,  the  most  striking  being  the  Chateau  d'Eau  on 
the  Boulevard  St.  Martin  (by  Girard,  1811),  and  that  at  the  Palais  Royal.  London  is  not 
remarkable  for  fountains  ;  the  largest  are  those  in  Trafalgar-square,  which  were  constructed 
in  1845,  after  designs  by  sir  Charles  Barry.  There  are  beautiful  fountains  at  Chatsworth, 
in  Derbyshire,  the  seat  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire.  The  magnificent  fountains  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  Sydenham,  were  first  publicly  exhibited  on  June  18,  1856,  in  the  presence  of  the 
queen  and  20,000  spectators. 

FOURIERISM,  a  social  system  devised  by  M.  Charles  Fourier  (who  died  in  1837).  The 
Phalanstery  (or  association  of  400  persons  living  in  one  edifice)  was  to  be  so  arranged  as  to 
give  the  highest  amount  of  happiness  at  the  lowest  cost.  All  attempts  to  realise  the  system 
have  failed  ;  caused,  it  is  said,  by  the  smallness  of  the  scale  on  which  they  were  tried. 

FOX  AND  GRENVILLE  ADMINISTRATION.     See  Grenvitte  Administration. 

FOX-GLOVE.  The  canary  fox-glove  (Digitalis  Canaricnsis),  from  the  Canary  islands, 
1698.  The  Madeira  fox-glove  came  here  in  1777.  The  fox-grape  shrub  (Vitis  Vulpina), 
from  Virginia,  before  1656. 

FRANCE  was  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  name  of  Gaul  (which  see).  In  the  decline  of 
their  power  it  was  conquered  by  the  Franks,  a  people  of  Germany,  then  inhabiting  Franconia, 
where  they  became  known  about  240.  These  invaders  gave  the  name  to  the  kingdom 
(Franken-ric,  Franks'  kingdom)  ;  but  the  Gauls,  being  by  far  the  most  numerous,  are  the 
real  ancestors  of  the  modern  French.  The  present  constitution  is  chiefly  based  upon  the 
plebiscitums  of  Dec.  21,  22,  1851  ;  and  Nov.  21,  22,  1852.  For  the  dynastic  changes,  see  list 
of  sovereigns,  p.  316.  Previous  to  the  revolution,  France  was  divided  into  40  governments. 
In  1790  it  was  divided  into  83,  and  subsequently  into  130  departments,  including  Corsica, 
Geneva,  Savoy,  and  other  places,  chiefly  conquests.  In  1815  the  departments  were  reduced 
to  86  ;  in  1860  they  were  raised  to  89  by  the  acquisition  of  Savoy  and  Nice.*  For  details 
of  important  events,  see  separate  articles. 


The  Franks  settle  in  that  part  of  Gaul,  till  late 
called  Flanders,  about 418 

Clovis,  481  ;  defeats  Syagrius  and  the  Gauls  at 
Soissons,  486 ;  and  the  Alemanni  at  Tolbiac, 
near  Cologne  ;  and  embraces  Christianity  .  496 

He  kills  Alaric  the  Goth,  in  battle  near  Poic- 
tiers,  unites  his  conquests  from  the  Loire  to 
the  Pyrenees,,  and  makes  Paris  his  capital  .  507 

He  proclaims  the  Salique  law  ;  and  dies,  leaving 
four  sons  (see  p.  316) 511 

The  mayors  of  the  palace  now  assume  almost 
sovereign  authority 584 

Charles  Martel  becomes  mayor  of  the  palace, 
and  rules  with  despotic  sway  .  .  .  .  714 

Invasion  of  the  Saracens,  720;  defeated  by 
Charles  Martel,  near  Tours  .  .  Oct.  10,  732 

Reign  of  Pepin  the  Short 752 

Charlemagne  king,  768  ;  conquers  Saxony  and 
Lombardy,  773 ;  crowned  emperor  of  the 
West Dec.  25,  800 

The  Normans  invade   Neustria,   876;   part  of,r" 
which  is  granted  Eollo,   as  Normandy,  by 
Charles  the  Simple 911 

Reign  of  Hugh  Capet        .  .        .        .     .     987 

Paris  made  capital  of  all  France         .        .        .    996 

Letters  of  franchise  granted  to  cities  and  tow> 
by  Louis  VI. T"  .  rye 

Louis  VII.  joins  in  the  crusades         .        .        .  1146 

Philip  Augustus  defeats  the  Germans  at  Bou- 
vines 1214 

Louis  VIII.,  Cceur  de  Lion,  frees  his  serfs  .        .  1224 

Louis  IX.,   called  St.   Louis,  defeats  John  of 
England ;  conducts  an  army  into  Palestine  ;  ' 
takes  Damietta ;  and  dies  before  Tunis     .  1250-70 

Charles  of  Aujoii  conquers  Naples  and  Sicily    .  1266 

His  tyranny  leads  to  the  massacre  called  the 
Sicilian  Vespers  (which  see)  .  .  .  1282 


Philip  the  Fair's  quarrels  with  the  pope        .    1301-2' 
Knights  Templars  suppressed          .        .         .    1307-8 

Union  of  France  and  Navarre      ....  1314  • 
English  invasion — Philip  VI.  defeated  at  Cressy, 

Aug.  26,  1346 

Calais  taken  by  Edward  III.  .          Ang.  3,  1347 

Dauphiny  annexed  to  France     ....  1349 
Battle  of  Poictiers  (which  fee)  ;  king  John  taken 

and  brought  prisoner  to  England        .        .     .  1356 

France  laid  under  an  interdict  by  the  pope       .  1407 

Battle  of  Agincourt  (ichich  see)    .        .     Oct.  25,  1415 
Henry  V.  of  England  acknowledged  heir  to  the 

kingdom 1420 

Henry  VI.    crowned    at    Paris;    the  duke  of 

Bedford's  regency 1422 

Siege  of  Orleans,  May  8  ;  battle  of  Patay  ;  the 

English  defeated  by  Joan  of  Arc    .     June  18,  1429  - 

Joan  of  Arc  burnt  at  Rouen        .        .     May  30,  1431 
England  lost  all  her  possessions  (but  Calais)  in 

France,  between  .        .         .        .         1434  and  1450 
League  of  the  public  good  formed  against  Louis 

XI.  by  the  nobles      ....          Dec.  1464 

Edward  IV.  of  England  invades  France         .     .  1475 

Charles  VIII.  conquers  Naples,  1494;  loses  it   .  1496,. — 
League  of  Cambray  against  Venice     .         .        .1508 
Pope  Julius  II.  forms  the  Huly  League  against 

France 1511 

English  invasion — battle  of  Spurs      .     Aug.  16,  1513 
Interview  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  between  Francis 

I.  and  Henry  VIII.  of  England       .        .        .  1520 
Francis  I.  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia, 

.  •        Feb.  24,  1525 

Peace  of  Cambray    ....         Aug.  5,  1529 

Persecution  of  protestants  begins  .        .        .     .  1530 

Royal  printing  press  established  1531 ;  Robert  ^ 

Stephens  prints  his  Latin  Bible      .         .        .  1532 


tiuique,  Guadaloupe,  &c.  ;    Oceania,  the  Marquesas,  <fec.),  in  1858,  3,641,226. 
asserted  the  effective  army  to  be  447,000,  with  a  reserve  of  170,000. 


In  May,  1862,  the  Moniteur 


= 


FRA 


311 


FRA 


FRANCE,  continued. 


League  of  England  with  the  emperor  Charles 

V.  ;  Henry  VIII.  invades  France  .  .  1544! 
Successful  defence  of  Metz  by  the  duke  of  Guise  1552 
lie  takes  Calais  (which  see)  ....  1558 

Religious   wars ;    massacre    of    protestants    at 

Vassy March  i,  1562 

Guise  defeats  the  Huguenots  at  Ureux    Dec.  19,     ,, 
Guise  killed  at  siege  of  Orleans,  Feb.  18 ;  tem- 
porary peace       ....        March  19,  1563 
Huguenots  defeated  at  St. 'Denis,  Nov.  10,  1567; 

and  at  Jarnac,  March   13  ;    at  Moncontour, 

Oct.  3,  1569 

Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  .  .  Aug.  24,  1572 
The  "Holy  Catholic  League  "  established  .  .  1576 
Duke  of  Guise  assassinated  by  command  of  the 

king,  Dec.  23  ;  and  his  brother,  the  cardinal, 

Dec.  24,  1588 
Henry  III.   murdered  by  Jacques  Clement,  a 

friar  Aug.  i,  1589 

Heny  IV.  becomes  a  Roman  Catholic  July  25,  1593 
The  league  leaders  submit  to  him  .  Jan.  1596 
He  promulgates  the  edict  of  Nantes  April  13,  1598 
Silk  and  other  manufactures  introduced  by  him 

and  Sully 1606-1610 

Quebec  in  North  America  settled  .  .  .  1608 
Murder  of  Henry  IV.  by  Ravaillac  May  14,  1610 
Regency  of  Mary  de'  Medici  .  .  .  1610-14 
The  states  general  meet  and  complain  of  the 

management  of  the  finances         .        Oct.  27,  1614 
Rise  of  the  Concinis,  1610;  and  their  fall  .         .  1617 
Navarre  annexed  to  France    ...        .        .     .   1620 

Vigorous    and    successful-   administration     of 

Richeliexi,  begins  with  finance  .  .  .  .  1624 
Rochelle  taken  after  a  long  siege  .  .  .  1628 
Richelieu  organises  the  Acade,nie  de  France  .  1634 
His  death  (aged  58)  ....  Dec.  4,  1642 
Accession  of  Louis  XIV.,  aged  four  years  (Anne 

of  Austria  regent)  ....  May  14,  1643 
Administration  of  Mazarine ;  victories  of 

Turenne  .  1643-6 

Civil  wars  of  the  Fronde  .         .        .   1648,  <fcc. 

Colbert  becomes  financial  minister        .        .    .1661 

War  with  Holland,  &c 1671 

Canal  of  Languedoc  constructed    .        .  1664-81 

Edict  of  Nantes  revoked  .  .  .  Oct  -22,  1685 
Louis  marries  Madame  de  Maintenon  .  .  .  1686 
War  with  William  III.  of  England  .  .  1689,  &c. 
Peace  of  Ryswick  ....  Sept.  20,  1697 
War  of  the  Spanish  succession  ....  1701 
French  defeated  at^  Blenheim  .  Aug.  13,  1704 
At  Ramillies  .  .  *  .  .  .  May  23,  1706 

Peace  of  Utrecht  (which  see) 1713 

Accession  of  Louis  XV.  ;  stormy  regency  of  the 

duke  of  Orleans  .  .  .  Sept.  i,  1715,  &c. 
Law's  bubble  in  France.  (See  Law)  .  .  .  1716 
French  defeated  at  Dettingen .  .  June  1 6,  1743 
Successful  campaign  of  marshal  Saxe  .  .  1746 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  .  .  .  Oct.  1748 

Seven  years'  war  begun 1756 

Damiens'  attempt    on  the  life   of    Louis  XV. 

Jan.  5,  1757 

Canada  lost — battle  of  Quebec  .  .  Sept.  13,  1759 
The  Jesuits  banished  from '  France,  and  their 

effects  confiscated 1762 

Peace  of  Paris ';  Canada  ceded  to  England  .  1763 
Louis  XV.  enslaved  by  Madame  du  Barry  .  .  1769 

Death  of  Louis  XV May  10,  1774 

Louis  XVI.  assists  America  to  throw  off  its 

dependence  on  England,  at  first  secretly  .  .  1778 
Torture  abolished  in  French  judicature  .  .  1780 
Peace  with  England .  .  .  .  Sept.  3,  1783 
The  diamond-necklace  affair  .  .  "  .  .  1785 


Meeting  of  the  assembly  of  notables,  Feb.  22, 
1787  ;  again Nov.  g, 

Opening  of  the  states  general  (308  ecclesiastics, 
285  nobles,  and  621  deputies,  tiers  e"tat) 

May  5, 

The  tiers  6tat  constitute  themselves  the  National 
Assembly June  17, 

The  French  revolution  commences  with  the  de- 
struction of  the  Bastille  (which  see)  July  14, 

The  National  Assembly  decrees  that  the  title  of 
the  "king  of  France"  shall  be  changed  to 
that  of  the  "  king  of  the  French  "  Oct.  16. 

The  plate  and  other  property  of  the  clergy  is 
confiscated  ...  .  .  Nov.  6, 

Confederation  of  the  Champ  de  Mars  ;  France  is 
declared  a  limited  monarchy ;  Louis  XVI. 
takes  the  oath  to  maintain  the  constitution, 

July  14, 

The  silver  plate  used  in  the  churches  trans- 
ferred to  the  mint  and  coined  .  March  3, 

Death  of  Mirabeau      ....      April  2, 

The  king,  queen,  and  royal  family  arrested 
at  Varennes,  in  their  flight  from  Paris, 

June  21, 

Louis  (now  a  prisoner)  sanctions  the  National 
Constitution  ....  Sept.  15, 

The  Jacobin  club  declare  their  sittings  perma- 
nent  June  18, 

The  multitude,  bearing  the  red  bonnet  of 
liberty,  march  to  the  Tuileries  to  make 
demands  on  the  king  .  .  .  June  20, 

First  coalition  against  France  :  commencement 
of  the  great  French  war    .        .        .      June, 
[See  Battles,  1792  to  1815.] 

The  royal  Swiss  guards  cut  to  pieces ;  massacre 
of  5000  persons  ....  Aug.  10, 

Decree  of  the  National  Assembly  against  the 
priests  ;  40,000  exiled  .  .  .  Aug.  26, 

Dreadful  massacre  in  Paris  ;  the  prisons  broken 

open,   and  1200  persons  (100  priests)  slain, 

Sept.  2-5, 

Murder  of  the  princess  de  Lamballe*      Sept.  3, 

The  National  Convention  opened  .         Sept.  17, 

The  Convention  abolishes  royalty  and  esta- 
blishes a  republic  .  .  .  Sept.  20-22, 

The  French  people  declare  their  fraternity  with 
all  nations  who  desire  to  be  free,  and  offer 
help Nov.  19, 

Decree  for  the  perpetual  banishment  of  the 
Bourbon  family,  those  confined  in  the  Temple 
excepted Dec.  20, 

Louis  imprisoned  in  the  Temple  distinct  from 
the  queen,  and  brought  to  trial,  Jan.  19  ;  con- 
demned to  death,  Jan.  20  ;  beheaded  in  the 
Place  de  Louis  Quinze  .  .  .  Jan.  21, 

War  with  England  declared    .        .        .  Feb.  i, 

Insurrection  in  La  Vendee        .        .        March, 

Reign  of  terror— proscription  of  the  Girondists, 

May  31 ;   establishment  of  the   convention, 

June  23, 

Marat  stabbed  by  Charlotte  Corday    .  July  13, 

The  queen  beheaded         .        .        .        Oct.  16, 

Philip  Egalite,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  who  had 
voted  for  the  king's  death,  is  himself  guillo- 
tined at  Paris  (see  Orleans),  Nov.  6;  and 
madame  Roland  ....  Nov.  8, 

Execution  of  Danton  and  others,  April  5  ;  of 
madame  Elizabeth  .  .  .  March  10, 

Robespierre  and  71  others  guillotined    July  28, 

Louis  XVII,  dies  in  prison    .        .        .  June  8, 

French  directory  chosen  .        .        .        Nov.  i, 

Bonaparte's  successful  campaigns  in  Italy,  1796, 


1788 
1789 


1790 
1791 


1792 


1793 


1794 
» 
r795 

&c. 


*  The  multitude  hurried  to  the  Temple  bearing  the  mutilated  body  of  Madame  de  Lamballe,  in  order 
to  exhibit  the  "  impious  head"  of  their  relative  to  the  royal  family  :  the  queen  and  the  princess  Elizabeth 
manifested  the  deepest  emotion  and  sensibility  ;  but  the  king  said  with  assumed  apathy  (while  shrinking 
at  the  sight)  to  the  person  by  whom  it  was  shown  to  him,  "  Vow  avez  raison,  Monsieur."  "  You  are  right, 
Sir ! "  These  assassins  were  termed  the  Septembrisers  (which  sec). 


FRA 


312 


FEA 


FRANCE,  continued. 

Babeuf  s  conspiracy  suppressed  .  .  May  12, 
Pichegru's  conspiracy  fails  .  .  .  May, 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  deposed  by  Bonaparte, 

who  is  declared  First  Consul  .  .  Nov.  10, 
He  defeats  the  Austrians  at  Marengo  June  14, 
His  life  attempted  by  the  infernal  machine, 

Dec.  24, 
Peace  of  Amiens  (with  England,    Spain,  and 

Holland)  signed  ....  March  27, 
Amnesty  to  the  emigrants  .  .  .  April, 
Legion  of  Honour  instituted  .  .  May  19, 
Bonaparte  made  consul  for  life  .  .  Aug.  2, 
The  bank  of  France  established  .  April  14, 
Declaration  of  war  against  England  May  22, 
Conspiracy  of  Moreau  and  Pichegru  against 

Bonaparte,   Feb.    15 ;   the  latter  was  found 

strangled  in  prison.  (See  Georges)  April  6, 
Duke  d'Enghien  shot  .  .  .  March  20, 
France  formed  into  an  empire  ;  Napoleon  pro- 
claimed ernperor  ....  May  18, 
He  is  crowned  king  of  Italy  .  .  May  26, 
He  defeats  the  allies  at  Austerlitz  .  .  Dec.  2, 
And  the  Prussians  at  Jena  .  .  .  Oct.  14, 
New  nobility  of  France  created  .  March  i, 
Divorce  of  the  emperor  and  empress  Josephine 

decreed  by  the  senate  .  .  .  Dec.  16, 
Holland  united  to  France  .  .  .  July  9, 
War  with  Russia  declared .  .  .  June  22, 
Victory  at  Borodino  ....  Sept.  7, 

Disastrous  retreat Oct. 

Triple  alliance  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia, 

against  France Sept.  9, 

The  British  pass  the  Bidassoa,  and  enter  France, 

Oct.  7, 
Surrender  of  Paris  (see  battles)  to  the  allied 

armies March  31, 

The  constitutional  charter  established  June  4-10, 
Abdication  of  Napoleon  .  .  .  April  5, 
Bourbon  dynasty  restored,  and  Louis  XVIII. 

arrives  in  Paris May  3, 

Napoleon  arrives  at  Elba  .  .  .  May  3, 
Quits  Elba,  and  lands  at  Cannes  .  March  i, 
Arrives  at  Fountainebleau  .  .  March  20, 
Joined  by  all  the  army  .  .  March  22, 
The  allies  sign  a  treaty  for  his  subjugation, 

March  25, 

He  abolishes  the  slave-trade  .  .  March  29, 
Leaves  Paris  for  the  army  .  .  .  June  12, 
Is  defeated  at  Waterloo  .  .  .  June  18, 
Returns  to  Paris,  June  20;  and  abdicates  in 

favour  of  his  infant  son  .  .  .  June  22, 
Intending  to  embark  for  America,  he  arrives  at 

Rochefort July  3, 

Louis  XVIII.  enters  Paris  .  .  .  July  3, 
Napoleon  surrenders  to  capt.  Maitland,  of  the 

Belleropkon July  15, 

Transferred  at  Torbay  to  the  Northumberland, 

and  with  admiral  sir  George  Cockburn  sails 

for  St.  Helena Aug.  8, 

Arrives  at  St.  Helena  to  remain  for  life,  Oct.  15, 
Execution  of  marshal  Ney  .  .  .  Dec.  7, 
The  family  of  Bonaparte  excluded  for  ever  from 

France  by  the  law  of  amnesty         .     Jan.  12, 
Duke  of  Berry  murdered    .        .        .     Feb.  13, 
Death  of  Napoleon  I.     (See  Wills)  . 
Louis    XVIII.     dies;     Charles    X. 


1796 
1797 


1802 
1803 

1804 
>» 

1805 
1806 


1809 
1810 
1812 


1813 
1814 


Seventy-six  new  peers  created        .         Nov.  5, 

The  Villele  ministry  replaced  by  the  Martignac, 

Jan.  4, 

Be'ranger  condemed  and  imprisoned  for  his 
songs Dec.  10, 

Polignac  administration  formed  .        .     Aug.  8, 

Chamber  of  Deputies  dissolved        .        May  16, 

Algiers  taken July  5, 

The  constitutional  charter  of  July  published 

Aug  14, 

The  obnoxious  ordinances  regarding  the  press, 
and  reconstruction  of  the  chamber  of 
depxities July  26, 

Revolution  commencing  with  barricades,  July  27, 

Conflicts  in  Paris  between  the  populace  (ulti- 
mately aided  by  the  National  Guard)  and  the 
army July  28-30, 

Charles  X.  retires  to  Rambouillet ;  flight  of  the 
ministry,  July  31 ;  Charles  X.  abdicated 

Aug.  2, 

The  -duke  of  Orleans  accepts  the  crown  as 
Louis-Philippe  I Aug.  7, 

Charles  X.  retires  to  England        .          Aug.  17, 

Polignac  and  other  ministers  tried  and  sentenced 
to  perpetual  imprisonment  .  .  Dec.  21, 

The  abolition  of  the  hereditary  peerage  decreed 
by  both  chambers  ;  the  peers  (36  new  peers 
being  created)  concurring  by  a  majority  of 
103  to  70 Dec.  27, 

The  A.  B.  C.  (abaissds)  insurrection  in  Paris  sup- 
pressed   June  5,  6, 

Charles  X.  leaves  Holyrood-house  for  the  Con- 
tinent   Sept.  1 8, 

Ministry  of  marshal  Soult,  duke  of  Dalmatia, 

Oct.  ii, 

Bergeron  and  Benoit  tried  for  an  attempt  on 
the  life  of  Louis-Philippe  ;  acquitted  March  18, 

The  duchess  of  Berry,  who  has  been  delivered 
of  a  female  child,  and  asserts  her  secret 
marriage  with  an  Italian  nobleman,  is  sent 


1827 
1828 


1029 
1830 


.  June  9, 
May  20, 
July  15, 
Feb.  8, 
Feb. 
July  28, 
Feb.  6, 


•  May  5, 
succeeds, 
Sept.  16, 
April  30, 


National  Guard  disbanded      . 
War  with  Algiers;  the  dey's  fleet    defeated^ 

Nov.  4, 

Election    riots  at  Paris ;  barricades ;    several 
persons  killed    ....     Nov.  19,  20, 


1820 
1821 

1824 
1827 


off  to  Palermo 
Death  of  La  Fayette  . 
|  Marshal  Gerard  takes  office  . 
I  M.  Dupuytren  dies    . 
I  Due  de  Broglie,  minister 
I  Fieschi  attempts  the  king's* 
He  is  executed  . 
Louis  Alibaud  fires  at  the^king  on  his  way  from 

the  Tuileries,  June  25;  guillotined  July  n, 
Ministry  of  count  Mole",  in  room  of  M.  Thiers, 

Sept.  6, 

Death  of  Charles  X Nov.  6, 

Attempted  insurrection  at  Strasburg  by  Louis 

Napoleon  (now  emperor),  Oct.  30  ;  he  is  sent 

to  America Nov.  13, 

Prince  Polignac  and  others  set  at  liberty  from 

Ham,  and  sent  out  of  France      .        Nov.  23, 
I  Meunier  fires  at  the  king  on  his  way  to  open 

the  French  Chambers   .        .         .        Dec.  27, 
Amnesty  for  political  offences    .        .     May  8, 
"  Ide"es  Napoldennes,"  by  the  present  emperor, 

were  published 

Talleyrand  dies May  17, 

Marshal  Soult  at  the  coronation  of  the  queen 

of  England June  28, 

Birth  of  the  count  of  Paris    .        .        Aug.  24, 
Death  of  the  duchess  of iWurtemberg  (daughter 

of  Louis-Philippe),  a  good  sculptor  .  Jan.  2, 
M.  Thiers,  minister  of  foreign  affairs  March  i, 
The  chambers  decree  the  removal  of  Napoleon's 

remains  from  St.  Helena  to  France  f  May  12, 
Descent  of  prince  Louis  Napoleon,  general 


1831 
1832 


1833 

1834 
1835 

1836 


1837 
1838 


1839 
1840 


*  He  fired  an  infernal  machine  as  the  king  rode  along  the  lines  of  the  National  Guard,  on  the  Boulevard 
du  Temple,  accompanied  by  his  three  sons  and  suite.  The  machine  consisted  of  twenty-five  barrels,  charge  d 
with  various  species  of  missiles,  and  lighted  simultaneously  by  a  train  of  gunpowder.  The  king  and  his 
sons  escaped:  but  marshal  Mortier,  duke  of  Treviso,  was  shot  dead,  many  officers  were  dangerously 
wounded,  and  upwards  of  forty  persons  killed  or  injured. 

t  By  the  permission  of  the  British  government,  these  were  taken  from  the  tomb  at  St.  Helena,  and 


FEA 


313 


FRA 


FRANCE,  continued. 

Montholon,  and  50  followers,  at  Vimeroux, 
near  Boulogne,  Aug.  6  ;  the  prince  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  life  .  .  Oct.  6, 

Darmes  fires  at  the  king        .        .        .  Oct.  15, 

M.  Guizot,  minister  of  foreign  affairs     Oct.  29, 

Project  of  law  for  an  extraordinary  credit  of 
140,000,000  of  francs,  for  erecting  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Paris  ....  Dec.  15, 

The  duration  of  copyright  to  30  years  after  the 
author's  death,  fixed  .  .  .  March  30, 

Bronze  statue  of  Napoleon  placed  on  the  column 

of  the  grande  amide,  Boulogne        .  Aug.  15, 

Attempt  to  assassinate  the  duke  of  Aumale 

(son  of  the  king)  on  his  return  from  Africa, 

Sept.  13, 

IB  duke  of  Orleans,  heir  to  the  throne,  killed 
by  a  fall  from  his  carriage  .  .  July  13, 

The  queen  of  England  visits  the  royal  family  at 
Chateau  d'Eu  ....  Sept.  2  to  7, 

Attempt  of  Lecompte  to  assassinate  the  king 
at  Foutainebleau  ....  April  16, 

Louis  Napoleon  escapes  from  Ham    .     May  25, 

The  seventh  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  king  : 
by  Joseph  Henri  ....  July  29, 

Marriage  of  the  due  de  Montpensier  with  the 
infanta  of  Spain  ....  Oct.  10, 

Disastrous  inundations  in  the  south       Oct.  18, 

The  Praslin  murder  (see  Praslin)    .        Aug.  18, 

Death  of  marshal  Oudinot  (duke  of  Eeggio)  at 
Paris,  in  his  gist  year,  Sept.  13 ;  Soult  made 
general  of  France,  in  his  room  .  Sept.  26, 

Jerome  Bonaparte  returns  to  France  after  an 
exile  of  32  years  ....  Oct.  10, 

Death  of  the  ex-empress,  Maria  Louisa,  Dec  17  ; 
and  of  madame  Adelaide  .  .  .  Dec.  30, 

The  proposed  grand  reform  banquet  at  Paris, 
suppressed Feb.  21, 

Violent  revolutionary  tumult  in  consequence  ; 
impeachment  and  resignation  of  Guizot, 
Feb.  22  ;  barricades  thrown  up,  the  Tuileries 
ransacked,  the  prisons  opened,  and  fright- 
ful disorders  committed  by  the  populace, 
Feb.  23,  24, 

Louis-Philippe  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  infant 
grandson,  the  comte  de  Paris,  who  is  not 
accepted ;  the  royal  family  and  ministers 
escape Feb.  24, 

A  republic  proclaimed  from  the  steps  of  the 
Hotel  de  Ville  ....  Feb.  26, 

The  ex-king  and  queen  arrive  at  Newhaven  in 
England  .  .  ..'*'.  .  .  March  3, 

Grand  funeral  procession  in  honour  of  the 
victims  of  the  revolution  .  .  March  4, 

The  provisional  government,  which  had 'been 
formed  in  the  great  public  commotion, 
resigns  to  an  executive  commission,  elected 
by  the  National  Assembly  of  the  French 
Republic May  7, 

[The  members  of  this  new  government  were  : 
MM.  Dupont  de  1'Eure,  Arago,  Gamier- 
Pages,  Marie,  Lamartine,  Ledru-Rollin,  and 
Cremieux.  The  secretaries :  Louis  Blanc, 
Albert  Flocon,  and  Marrast.] 

Perpetual  banishment  of  Louis-Philippe  and 
his  family  decreed  ....  May  26, 

Election  of  Louis  Napoleon  for  the  department 
of  the  Seine  and  three  other  departments  to 
the  National  Assembly  .  .  .  June  13, 

Rise  of  the  red  republicans;  war  against  the 
troops  and  national  guard ;  more  than  300 


1840 


1841 


1842 
1843 
1846 


1847 


1848 


barricades  thrown  up,  and  firing  continues 

in  all  parts  of  Paris  during  the  night  June  23,  1848 

The  troops  under  generals  Cavaignac  and  La- 
moriciere succeed,  with  immense  loss,  in 
driving  the  insurgents  from  the  left  bank  of 
the  Seine June  24,  ,, 

Paris  declared  in  a  state  of  siege     .        June  25,    ,, 

The  Faubourg  du  Temple  carried  with  cannon, 
and  the  insurgents  surrender  .  .  June  26,  ,, 

[The  national  losses  caused  by  this  dreadful 
outbreak  were  estimated  at  30,000,000  francs  ; 
16,000  persons  killed  and  wounded,  and  8000 
prisoners  were  taken.  The  archbishop  of 
Paris  was  killed.] 

Gen.  Cavaignac  made  president  of  the  council, 

June  28,  ,, 

Louis  Napoleon  takes  his  seat  in  the  National 
Assembly Sept  26,  ,, 

Paris  relieved  from  a  state  of  siege,  which  had 
continued  four  months  .  .  .  Oct.  20,  ,, 

Solemn  promulgation  of  the  constitution  of 
Nov.  4,  in  front  of  the  Tuileries  .  Nov.  12,  „ 

Louis  Napoleon  elected  president  of  the  French 
republic,  Dec.  n  ;  proclaimed  Dec.  20,  ,, 

[He  had  6,048,872  votes;  Cavaignac,  1,479,121; 
Ledru-Rollin,  Raspail,  and  Lamartine  had 
but  few.]. 

Military  demonstration  to  stifle  an  anticipated 
insurrection Jan.  29,  1849 

Death  of  king  Louis-Philippe,  at  Claremont,  in 
England Aug.  26,  1850 

Liberty  of  the  press  restricted        .       Sept.  26,     ,, 

Gen.  Changarnier  deprived  of  the  command  of 
the  national  guard  .  .  .  Jan.  10,  1851 

Death  of  the  duchess  of  Angouleme,  daughter 
of  Louis  XVI.,  at  Frohsdorf  .  .  Oct.  19,  ,, 

Death  of  marshal  Soult    .         .        .        Oct.  26,     „ 

Electric  telegraph  between  England  and  France 
opened Nov.  13,  ,, 

Coup  d'etat ;  the  legislative  assembly  dissolved  ; 
universal  suffrage  established,  and  Paris 
declared  in  a  state  of  siege  :  the  election  of  a 
president  for  ten  years  proposed,  and  a  second 
chamber  or  senate .  .  .  .  Dec.  2,  ,, 

MM.  Thiers,  Changarnier,  Cavaignac,  Bedeau, 
Lamoriciere,  and  Charres  arrested,  and  sent 
to  the  castle  of  Vincennes  .  .  Dec,  2,  „ 

About  1 80  members  of  the  assembly,  with  M. 
Berryer  at  their  head,  attempting  to  meet 
are  arrested,  and  Paris  is  occupied  by  troops, 

Dec.  2,  „ 

Sanguinary  conflicts  in  Paris ;  the  troops 
victorious Dec.  3,  4,  ,, 

Consultative  commission  founded     .     Dec.  12,     ,, 

Voting,  throughout  France  for  the  election  of 
a  president  of  the  republic  for  ten  years  ; 
affirmative  votes  7,481,231,  negative  votes 
640,737 Dec.  21,  22,  ,, 

Installation  of  the  prince-president  in  the 
cathedral  of  Notre-Dame  :  the  day  observed 
as  a  national  holiday  at  Paris,  and  Louis 
Napoleon  takes  up  his  residence  at  the 
Tuileries Jan.  i,  1852 

Gens.  Changarnier,  Lamoriciere,  and  others, 
conducted  to  the  Belgian  frontier  .  Jan.  9,  „ 

83  members  of  the  legislative  assembly 
banished ;  575  persons  arrested  for  resistance 
to  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  and  conveyed  to 
Havre  for  transportation  to  Cayenne,  Jan.  10,  ,, 

[The inscription  "Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity," 


embarked  on  the  i6th  of  October,  1840,  on  board  the  Belle  Poule  French  frigate,  under  the  command  of  the 
prince  de  Joinville  ;  the  vessel  reached  Cherbourg  on  November  3oth  ;  and  on  December  isth  the  body 
was  deposited  in  the  H6tel  des  Invalides.  The  ceremony  was  witnessed  by  1,000,000  of  persons  ;  150,000 
soldiers  assisted  in  the  obsequies  :  and  the  royal  family  and  all  the  high  personages  of  the  realm  were 
present ;  but  it  was  remarkable  that  all  the  relatives  of  the  emperor  were  absent,  being  proscribed,  and  in 
exile  or  in  prison.  The  body  was  finally  placed  in  its  crypt  on  March  31,  1861. 


FllA 


314 


FRA 


FRANCE,  continued. 

ordered  to  be  forthwith  erased  throughout 
France,  and  the  old  names  of  streets,  public 
buildings,  and  places  of  resort  to  be  restored. 
The  trees  of  liberty  are  everywhere  hewn 
down  and  burnt.] 

The  national  guard  disbanded,  and  i-eorganised 
anew,  and  placed  under  the  control  of  the 
executive,  the  president  appointing  the 
officers Jan.  10,  1852 

A  new  constitution  published    .         .      Jan  14,     „ 

Decree  obliging  the  Orleans  family  to  sell  all 
their  real  and  personal  property  in  France 
within  a  year Jan.  22,  ,, 

Second  decree,  annulling  the  settlement  made 
by  Louis-Philippe  upon  his  family  previous 
to  his  accession  in  1830,  and  annexing  the 
property  to  the  domain  of  the  state,  Jan.  22,  ,, 

The  birthday  of  Napoleon  I.  (Aug.  15)  to  be  the 
only  national  holiday  .  .  .  Feb.  17,  ,, 

The  departments  of  France  released  from  a 
state  of  siege  ....  March  27,  ,, 

Installation  of  the  legislative  chambers, 

March  29,    „ 

A  permanent  crystal  palace  authorised  to  be 
erected  in  the  Champs  Elysees  at  Paris, 

March  30,     „ 

Plot  to  assassinate  the  prince-president  dis- 
covered at  Paris  ....  July  i,  „ 

President's  visit  to  Strasburg         .         July  19,     ,, 

M.  Thiers  and  other  exiles  permitted  to  return 
to  France Aug.  8,  ,, 

The  French  senate  prays  "there-establishment 
of  the  hereditary  sovereign  power  in  the 
Bonaparte  family "...  Sept.  13,  „ 

Enthusiastic  reception  of  the  prince-president 
at  Lyons Sept.  19,  ,, 

Infernal  machine,  intended  to  destroy  the 
prince-president,  seized  at  Marseilles, 

Sept.  23,     ,, 

Prince-president  visits  Toulon,  Sept.  27;  and 
Bordeaux,  where  he  says  ' '  the  empire  is 
peace  "  (L' Empire  c'est  la  paix)  .  Oct.  7,  ,, 

He  releases  Abd-el-Kader  (see  A  Igiers),  Oct.  16,     „ 

He  convokes  the  senate  for  November  to  deli- 
berate on  a  change  of  government,  when  a 

'•  senatus  consultum  will  be  proposed  for  the 
ratification  of  the  French  people  .  Oct.  19,  ,, 

Protest  of  comte  de  Chambord        .        Oct.  25,     „ 

In  his  message  to  the  senate,  the  prince- presi- 
dent announces  the  contemplated  restoration 
of  the  empire,  and  orders  the  people  to  be 
consulted  upon  this  change  .  .  Nov.  4,  , , 

Votes  for  the  empire,  7,839,552  ;  noes,  254,501  ; 
null,  63,699 Nov.  21,  ,, 

The  prince-president  declared  emperor;  as- 
sumes the  title  of  Napoleon  III.  .  Dec.  2,  ,, 

Marriage  of  the  emperor  with  Eugenie,  countess 
of  Teba,  at  Notre-Dame  .  .  Jan.  29,  1853 

4312  political  offenders  pardoned         .     Feb.  2,     ,, 

Bread  riots Sept.     ,, 

Military  camp  at  Satory,  near  Paris   .        Sept.     ,, 

Emperor  and  empress  visit  the  provinces 
(many  political  prisoners  discharged)  .  Oct.  , , 

Francis  Arago,  astronomer,  &c.,  died      Oct.  2,     „ 

Attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor ;  ten 
persons  condemned  to  transportation  for  life, 

Nov.     „ 


Reconciliation  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Bour- 
bons at  Forhsdorf  .  .  .  Nov.  20, 

Marshal  Ney's  statue  inaugurated  exactly  38 
years  after  his  death  on  the  spot  where  it  oc- 
curred   Dec.  7, 

War  declared  against  Russia  (see  Russo-Turkish 
War) March  27, 

Visit  of  prince  Albert  at  Boulogne      .     Sept.  5, 

Death  of  marshal  St.  Arnaud        .         Sept.  29, 

The  emperor  and  empress  visit  London, 

April  16-21, 

Industrial  exhibition  at  Paris  opened     May  15, 

Attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor  by 
Pianori,  April  28  ;  by  Bellemarre  .  Sept.  8, 

Queen  Victoria  and  prince  Albert  visit  France, 
Aug.  18-27, 

Death  of  count  Mole"    ....     Nov.  24, 

Birth  of  the  imperial  prince ;  amnesty  granted 
to  1000  political  prisoners  .  .  March  16, 

Peace  with  Russia  signed    .        .         March  30) 

Awful  inundation  in  the  south*      .        .  June, 

Distress  in  money  market   .        .        .     Oct.  6, 

Sibour,  archbishop  of  Paris,  assassinated  'by 
Verger,  a  priest Jan.  3> 

Elections (3, 000,000  voters  to  elect  257  deputies); 
gen.  Cavaignac  elected  deputy,  but  declines 
to  take  the  oath  .  .  .  June  21,  22, 

Conspiracy  to  assassinate  the  emperor  in  Paris 
detected July  n, 

Death  of  BeYanger      ....     July  16, 

Longwood,  the  residence  of  Napoleon  I.  at  St! 
Helena,  bought  for  180,000  francs  . 

The  conspirators  Grilli,  Bartolotti,  and  Tibaldi, 
tried,  convicted,  and  sentenced  to  transporta- 
tion, &c Aug.  6,  7, 

The  emperor  and  empress  visit  England, 

Aug.  6-10, 

The  empei-or  meets  the  emperor  of  Russia  at 
Stutgardt Sept.  25, 

Death  of  Eugene  Cavaignac  (aged  55)     Oct  28 

Death  of  Mdlle.  Rachel  (aged  38)        .      Jan.  4, 

Attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor  by 
Orsini,  f  Fieri,  Rudio,  Gomez,  &c.,  by  the  ex- 
plosion of  three  shells  (two  persons  killed, 
many  wounded)  ....  Jan.  14, 

Public  safety  bill  passed — bold  protest  against 
it  by  Ollivier  ....  Feb.  18, 

France  divided  into  five  military  departments ; 
general  Espinasse  becomes  minister  of  the 
interior Feb. 

"  Napoleon  III.  et  I'Angleterre  "  published, 

March  n, 

Intemperate  speeches  in  France  against  Eng- 
land— misconceptions  between  the  two  coun- 
tries removed  in  ....  March, 

A  republican  outbreak  at  Chalons  suppressed, 

March  9, 

Orsini  and  Fieri  executed        .        .    March  13, 

Simon  Bernard  tried  in  London  as  their  accom- 
plice, and  acquitted  .  .  April  12-17, 

Marshal  Pelissier  sent  as  ambassador  tojLondon, 

April  15, 

Espinasse  retires  from  ministry  of  the  interior 
[he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Magenta,  June 
4.  1859] :  June, 

Queen  of  England  meets  the  emperor ;  visits 
Cherbourg Aug.  4,  5 


1853 

» 

1854 

1855 

1856 
1857 


*  The  subscriptions  in  London  to  relieve  the  sufferers  amounted  to  43,000?.     Sir  Jamsetjee  Jejeebhoy, 
of  Bombay,  gave  500^.  for  the  same  purpose. 

t  Felix  Orsini,  a  man  of  talent  and  energy,  intensely  devoted  to  endeavouring  to  obtain  Italian  inde- 
pendence, was  born  Dec.  1819;  studied  at  Bologna  in  1837  ;  joined  a  secret  society  in  1843;  was  arrested 
and  condemned  to  the  galleys  for  life  in  1844 ;  was  released  in  1846  ;  took  part  in  the  Roman  revolution  in 
1848,  when  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  assembly ;  and  on  the  fall  of  the  republic,  fled  to  Genoa  in  1849, 
and  came  to  England  in  1853.  Entering 
and  sent  to  Mantua ;  he  escaped  thence 


Mazzini,  &c. ;  delivered  lectures,  emu  v»i 
acknowledged  the  justice  of  his  sentence. 


\ 

Es 
a. 


FRANCE,  continued. 

Conference  at  Paris  respecting  the  Danubian 

principalities  closes          .        .        .    Aug.  19,   1858 
Dispute  with  Portugal  respecting  the  Charles  et 

yea  (which  tee)  settled  .  .  Oct.  23,  ,, 
Trial  of  comte  de  Montalembert*  .  Nov.  25,  ,, 
Kmperor's  address  to  the  Austrian  ambassador 

(see  Austria) Jan.  i,  1859 

Marriage  of  prince  Napoleon  to  princess  Clo- 

tilcle  of  Savoy          .        .         .         .       Jan.  30,     ,, 
Publication  of  "  Napoleon  III.  et  I'ltalie,"  Feb.     ,, 
On  the  Austrians   invading   Sardinia,  France 
declares  war,  and  the  French  enter  Sardinia  ; 
the  empress  appointed  regent ;   the  emperor 
arrives  at  Genoa        ....     May  12,     ,, 
Loan  of  20,000,000  francs  raised      .        May  21,     ,, 
Victories  of  the  allies  (French  and  Sardinians) 
at  Muntebello,  May  20 ;  Palestro,  May  30,  31 ; 
Magenta,  June  4 ;    Melegnano  (Marignano), 
June  8  ;  Napoleon  enters  Milan,  June  8  ;  vic- 
tory of  allies  at  Solferino         .        .     June  24,     ,, 
Armistice  agreed  on  .        .  July  6,     ,, 

Meeting  of  emperors  of  France  and  Austria  at 

Villa  Franca July  n,    ,, 

ace  agreed  on July  12,     „ 

uis  Napoleon  returns  to  Paris       .      July  17,     ,, 
e  emperor  addresses  the  senate,  July  19; 
and  the  diplomatic  body  .         .         .  July  21,     ,, 
Reduction  of  the  army  and  navy  ordered,  Aug.     , , 
Conference  of  Austrian  and  French  envoys  at 

:  Zurich  (see  Zurich)        .        .      Aug.  8 — Nov.     ,, 
mnesty  to  political  offenders    .     Aug.  17,  18,     „ 
iolent  attacks  of  the  French  press  on  Eng- 
land repressed Nov.     ,, 

" Le  Pape  et  le  Congres"  published;  50,000  sold 
in  a  few  days Dec.  , , 

Count  Walewski,  the  foreign  minister,  resigns ; 
M.  Thouvenel  succeeds  him  .  .  .  Jan.  1860 

The  emperor  announces  a  free-trade  policy; 
Mr.  Cobden  at  Paris  ....  Jan.  5,  „ 

Commercial  treaty  with  England  signed,  Jan.  23,     ,, 

L'Univers  suppressed  for  publishing  the  pope's 
letter  to  the  emperor  .  .  .  Jan.  29,  „ 

Treaty  for  the  annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice 
signed March  24,  „ 

The  press  censured  for  attacking  England 

April  7,     ,, 

The  emperor  meets  the  German  sovereigns  at 
Baden June  15-17,  ,, 

Jerome  Bonaparte,  the  emperor's  uncle,  dies 
(aged  76)  .  .  ^  .  .  June  24,  ,, 

The  emperor,  in  a  letter  to  count  Persigny,  "dis- 
claims hostility  to  England  .  .  July  25,  „ 

The  emperor  and  empress  visit  Savoy,  Corsica, 
and  Algiers Sept.  1-17,  „ 

New  tariff  comes  into  operation         .      Oct.  i,    ,, 

Public  levying  of  Peter's  pence  forbidden,  and 
free  issue  of  pastoral  letters  checked  .  Nov.  ,, 

The  empress  visits  London,  Edinburgh,  Glas- 
gow, &c Nov. — Dec.  ,, 

Important  ministerial  changes  ;  greater  liberty 
of  speech  granted  to  the  chambers  ;  two  sets 
of  ministers  appointed — speakers  and  admi- 
nistrators ;  Pelissier  made  governor  of  Algeria; 
Persigny,  minister  of  the  interior  ;  Flahault, 
English  ambassador  .  .  Nov.  and  Dec.  „ 

Passports  for  Englishmen  to  cease  after  Jan.  i, 
1861 Dec.  16,  „ 


Six  bishoprics  vacant        ....     Dec.   1860 

Persigny  relaxes  the  bondage  of  the  press,  Dec. 
ii  ;  [but  for  a  short  time]  .  .  Dec.  20,  ,, 

The  emperor  advises  the  pope  to  surrender  his 
revolted  provinces  .  .  .  Deo.  31,  ,, 

" Rome  et  les  Eveqv.es  "  published          .      Jan.  6,  1861 

Jerome  (son  of  Jerome  Bonaparte  and  Eliza- 
beth Paterson,  an  American  ladyf)  claims  his 
legitimate  rights  ;  non-suited  after  a  trial 

Jan.  2.5 — Feb.  15,    ,, 

Purchase  of  the  principality  of  Monaco  for 
4,000,000  francs,  Feb.  2  :  announced,  Feb.  5,  ,, 

Meeting  of  French  chambers,  Feb.  4  ;  stormy 
debates  in  the  chambers  .  Feb.  and  March,  ,, 

"  La  France,  Rome,  el  I'ltalie"  published,  Feb.  15,     ,, 

Angry  reply  to  it  by  the  bishop  of  Poitiers,  who 
compares  the  emperor  to  Pilate  .  Feb.  27,  ,, 

Failure  of  Mires,  a  railway  banker  and  loan 
contractor,  <fcc.  ;  he  is  arrested  .  Feb.  17,  ,, 

Many  influential  persons  suspected  of  partici- 
pating in  his  frauds ;  the  government  promise 
a  searching  inquiry  and  strict  justice 

Feb.  and  March,     „ 

Eugene  Scribe,  dramatist,  dies  (aged  80)  Feb.  20,    ,, 

Eloquent  speech  of  prince  Napoleon  in  favour 
of  Italian  unity,  the  English  alliance,  and 
against  the  temporal  government  of  the  pope, 

March  i,     „ 

Sti'ong  advocacy  of  the  temporal  government 
of  the  pope  in  the  chambers ;  the  French 
army  stated  to  consist  of  687,000  men,  March,  ,, 

Circular  forbidding  the  priests  to  meddle  with 
politics April  n,  ,, 

Liberal  commercial  treaty  with  Belgium  signed 

May  i,     „ 

Publication  in  Paris  of  the  due  d'Aumale's 
severe  letter  to  prince  Napoleon,  April  13 ; 
printer  and  publisher  fined  and  imprisoned, 

May,     ,, 

Declaration  of  neutrality  in  the  American  con- 
flict   June  ii,  „ 

Official  recognition  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy 

June  24,    ,, 

Visit  of  king  of  Sweden        .        .         .     Aug.  6,     „ 

Conflict  between  French  and  Swiss  soldiers  at 
Ville-la-Grande  ....  Aug.  18,  ,, 

Mires,  the  speculator,  sentenced  to  five  years' 
imprisonment  ....  Aug.  29,  ,, 

Pamphlet  "  La  France,  Rome,  et  V Italic  "  appears 

Sept.     „ 

Commercial  treaty  between  France,  Great 
Britain,  and  Belgium  comes  into  operation 

Oct.  i,     „ 

Meeting  of  the  emperor  and  king  of  Prussia  at 
Compie'gne,  Oct.  6 ;  and  king  of  Holland, 

Oct.  12,    ,, 

French  troops  enter  the  valley  of  Dappes  (Swit- 
zerland) to  prevent  an  arrest  .  Oct.  27,  ,, 

Convention  between  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
Spain,  respecting  intervention  in  Mexico, 
signed  (see  Mexico)  ....  Oct.  31,  ,, 

Embarrassment  in  the  government  finances ; 
Achille  Fould  becomes  finance  minister,  Nov. 
14 ;  with  enlarged  powers  .  .  Dec.  12,  „ 

The  emperor  reminds  the  clergy  of  their  duty 
"towards  Cajsar"  ....  Jan.  i,  1862 

French  army  lands  at  Vera  Cruz       .       J  an.  7,    „ 


*  In  Oct.  1858,  the  cornte  pxiblished  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Un  Ddbat  sur  I'Lide"  in  which  he  eulogised 
English  institutions  and  depreciated  those  of  France.  He  was  condemned  and  sentenced  to  six  months' 
imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  3000  francs,  but  was  pardoned  by  the  emperor,  Dec.  2.  The  comte  appealed 
against  the  sentence  of  the  "court,  and  was  again  condemned ;  but  acquitted  of  a  part  of  the  charge.  The 
sentence  was  once  more  remitted  by  the  emperor  (Dec.  21).  In  Oct.  1859,  the  comte  published  a  pamphlet 
entitled  "Pie  IX.  et  la  France  en  1849  et  1859,"  in  which  England  is  severely  censured  for  opposition  to 
popery. 

t  The  marriage  took  place  in  America,  on  Dec.  24,  1803  ;  but  was  annulled,  and  Jerome  married  the 
princess  Catherine  of  Wurtemberg,  Aug.  12,  1807  ;  their  children  are  the  prince  Napoleon  and  the  princess 
Mathilde  (see  p.  318). 


FKA 


316 


FRA 


FRANCE,  continued. 

The  French  masters  of  the  province  of  Bien- 
hoa,  in  Annam Jan.  20,  1862 

Fruitless  meeting  of  French  and  Swiss  com- 
missioners respecting  the  Ville-la-Grande 
conflict Feb.  3,  ,, 

Fould  announces  his  finance  scheme,  includes 
reduction  of  4^  per  cent,  stock  to  3  per  cent., 
and  additional  taxes  and  stamp  duties, 

Feb.  24,     „ 

Fierce  debate  in  the  legislative  chamber,  in 
which  prince  Napoleon  takes  part  Feb.  27,  ,, 

French  victories  in  Cochin-China  (6  provinces 
ceded  to  France)  .  .  .  March  28,  ,, 

The  Spanish  and  British  plenipotentiaries  de- 
cide to  quit  Mexico  ;  the  French  declare  war 
against  the  Mexican  government  (for  the 
events,  see  Mexico)  .  .  .  April  16,  „ 

Sentence  against  Mires  examined  and  reversed 
at  Douai ;  he  is  released  .  .  April  21,  ,, 

Treaty  of  peace  between  France  and  Annam 
signed June  3,  ,, 

Duke  Pasquier  dies  (aged  96)          .         .  July  5,     „ 

New  commercial  treaty  with  Prussia  signed 

Aug.  2,     „ 

Newspaper  La  France,  opposed  to  Italian  unity, 
set  up  by  Lagueronniere  .  .  .  Aug.  ,, 

Ship  Prince  Jerome,  containing  reinforcements 
for  Mexico,  burnt  near  Gibraltar  ;  crew  saved 

Aug.     ,, 

Camp  at  Chalons  formed  on  account  of  Gari- 
baldi's movements  in  Sicily  ;  broken,  when 
he  is  taken  prisoner  .  .  .  Aug.  29,  ,, 

Great  sympathy  for  him  in  France      .      Sept.     , , 

Treaty  of  commerce  with  Madagascar    Sept.  12,     „ 

Drouyn  de  Lhuys  made  foreign  minister  in 
room  of  Thouvenel  .  .  .  Oct.  15,  ,, 

Baron  Gros  becomes  ambassador  at  London  in 
the  room  of  the  comte  de  Flahault,  resigned 

Nov.  1 8,     „ 

Serjeant  Glover  brings  an  action  in  the  court  of 
queen's  bench  against  the  comte  de  Persigny 
and  M.  Billault,  claiming  14,000?.  for  subsi- 
dising the  Morning  Chronicle  and  other  news- 
papers   Nov.  22,  ,, 

The  emperor  inaugurates  Boulevard  Prince 
Eugene,  Paris  ....  Dec.  7,  ,, 

Great  distress  in  the  manufacturing  districts 
through  the  cotton  famine  and  the  civil  war 
in  America Dec.  ,, 

Treaty  of  commerce  with  Italy  signed,  Jan.  17,   1863 

Revolt  in  Annam  suppressed         .          Feb.  26,     „ 

Convention  regulating  the  French  and  Spanish 
frontiers  concluded  ....  Feb.  27,  ,, 

Resignation  of  M.  Magne,  the  ' '  speaking  minis- 
ter "  in  the  assembly  .  .  .  April  i,  „ 

Dissolution  of  the  Chambers        .        .     May  8,     ,, 

Persigny  issues  arbitrary  injunctions  to  electors 

May,     „ 

Thiers,  Ollivier,  Favre,  and  other  opposition 
candidates  elected  in  Paris,  May  31 — June  15,  „ 

Changes  in  the  ministry — resignation  of  Per- 
signy, Walewski,  and  Rouland  .  June  23,  „ 

The  empress  visits  queen  of  Spain  at  Madrid,  Ot.     ,, 

Baron  Gros  resigns,  and  the  prince  Tour 
d'Auvergne  becomes  ambassador  at  London 

Oct.  I4,    „ 


Death  of  M.  Billault  (born  1805),  the  "speaking 
minister"  in  the  legislative  assembly,  Oct. 
13  ;  succeeded  by  M.  Rouher  .  Oct.  18, 

The  emperor  proposes  the  convocation  of  a 
Europsan  congress,  and  invites  the  sovereigns 
or  their  deputies  by  letter  .  .  Nov.  4, 

Thiers  and  his  friends  form  the  centre  of  a  new 
opposition Nov.  9, 

The  invitation  to  the  congress  declined  by  Eng- 
land   Nov.  25, 

Thiers  speaks  in  the  chamber  .         .      Dec.  24, 

Arrest  of  Grego  and  other  conspirators  against 
the  emperor's  life,  Jan.  3  ;  tried  and  sen- 
tenced to  transportation  and  imprisonment 

Feb.  27, 

Convention  between  France,  Brazil,  Italy,  Por- 
tugal, and  Hayti  for  establishing  a  tele- 
graphic line  between  Europe  and  America 

May  1 6, 

Death  of  marshal  Pelissier,  duke  of  Malakhoff, 
governor  of  Algeria  (born  1794)  .  May  22, 

Convention  between  France  and  Japan  signed 
by  Japanese  ambassadors  at  Paris  June  20, 

Convention  of  commerce,  &c. ,  between  France 
and  Switzerland  signed  .  .  June  30, 

Prince  Napoleon  Victor,  son  of  prince  Napoleon 
Jerome  and  princess  Clotilde,  born  July  16, 

Gamier- Pages  and  12  others  who  had  met  at 
his  house  for  election  purposes,  convicted  as 
members  of  a  society  "  of  more  than  20  mem- 
bers"   Dec.  7, 

Death  of  the  emperor's  private  secretary  and 
old  friend,  Mocquard  .  .  .  Dec.  n, 

Death  of  Proudhon  (born  1809),  who  said 
"  Proprie"te  c'est  vol "  .  .  .  Jan.  19, 

The  clergy  prohibited  from  reading  the  pope's 
encyclical  letter  of  Dec.  8  in  churches  ;  creates 
much  excitement,  and  the  archbishop  of 
Besancon  and  other  prelates  disobey  .  Jan. 

The  prince  Napoleon  Jerome  appointed  vice- 
president  of  the  privy  council  .  .  Jan. 

Decree  for  an  international  exhibition  of  the 
products  of  agriculture  and  industry,  and  of 
the  fine  arts,  at  Paris,  on  May,  i,  1867,  Feb.  i, 

Treaty  with  Sweden  signed  .        .          Feb.  15, 

The  minister  Duruy's  plan  of  compulsory  edu- 
cation rejected  by  the  assembly  .  March  8, 

Death  of  the  due  de  Morny,  said  to  be  half- 
brother  of  the  emperor  .  • .  March  10, 

Loi  des  suspects  (or  of  public  safety)  suffered 
to  expire March  31, 

A  secretary  at  the  Russian  embassy  assassinated 

April  24, 

The  emperor  visits  Algeria        .        .    May  3-27, 

Inauguration  of  the  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  at 
Ajaccio,  with  an  imprudent  speech  by  prince 
Napoleon  Jerome,  May  15 ;  censured  by 
the  emperor ;  the  prince  resigns  his  offices 

June  9, 

The  English  fleet  entei-tained  at  Cherbourg  and 
Brest Aug.  isetseq. 

The  French  fleet  entertainod  at  Portsmouth 

Aug.  29— Sept.  i, 

Death  of  general  Lamoriciere        .         Sept.  ir, 

The  queen  of  Spain  visits  the  emperor  at 
Biarritz Sept.  n, 


1863 


1864 


KINGS   OF   FHANCE. 


MEROVINGIAN  RACE. 

Pharamond  (his  existence  doubtful). 
428.   Clodion  the  Hairy  ;    his  supposed  son  :   king 

of  the  Salic  Franks. 

447.   Merovseus,  or  Me'rove'e ;  son-in-law  of  Clodion. 
458.   Childeric ;  son  of  Me'rove'e. 
481.  Clovis  the  Great,  his  son,  and  the  real  founder 
of  the  monarchy.     He  left  four  sons,  who 
divided  the  empire : 
511.   Childebert;  Paris. 


511.   Clodomir;  Orleans. 
„      Thierry  ;  Metz  ;  and 
,,      Clotaire ;  Soissons. 
534.    Theodebert ;  Metz. 
548.   Theodebald,  succeeded  in  Metz. 
558.   Clotaire  ;  now  sole  ruler  of  France.     Upon  his 
death  the  kingdom  was  again  divided   be- 
tween his  four  sons  :  viz., 
561.    Charibert,  ruled  at  Paris. 
,,      Gontram,  in  Orleans  and  Burgundy. 


FRA 


317 


FRA 


FRANCE,  continued.' 


719. 


Clulper:   . 

Childebert  II. 

Clotaire  II.  ;  Soissons. 

Thierry  II.,  son  of  Childebert ;  in  Orleans. 

Theodebert  II.  :  Metz. 

Clotaire  II.J;  became  sole  king. 

Dagobert  the  Great,  son  of  Clotaire  II.  ;  he 
divided  the  kingdom,  of  which  he  had  be- 
come sole  monarch,  between  his  two  sons  : 

Clovis  II.  has  Burgundy  and  Neustria, 

Sigebert  II.  has  Austrasia. 

Clotaire  III.,  son  of  Clovis  II. 

Childeric  II. ;  he  became  king  of  the  whole 
realm  of  France ;  assassinated,  with  his 

£ueen  and  his  son  Dagobert,  in  the  forest  of 
ivri.  HinauU} 

[At  this  time  Thierry  III.  rules  in  Burgundy 
and  Neustria,  and  Dagobert  II.,  son  of  Sige- 
bert,  in  Austrasia.  Dagobert  is  assassinated, 
and  Thierry  reigns  alone.  He'nault. 

Clovis  III.  Pepin,  mayor  of  the  palace,  rules 
the  kingdom  in  the  name  of  this  sovereign, 
who  is  succeeded  by  his  brother, 

Childebert  III.,  surnamed  the  Just;  in  this 
reign  Pepin  also  exercises  the  royal  power. 

Dagobert  III.,  son  of  Childebert. 

Chilperic  II.  (Daniel) ;  he  is  governed,  and  at 
length  deposed,  by  Charles  Martel,  mayor 
of  the  palace,  whose  sway  is  now  unbounded. 

Clotaire  IV. ,  of  obscure  origin,  raised  by  Charles 
Martel  to  the  throne  ;  dies  soon  after,  and 
Chilperic  is  recalled  from  Aquitaine,  whither 
be  had  fled  for  refuge.  He'nault. 

Chilperic  II.  restored  ;  he  shortly  afterwards 
dies  at  Noyon,  and  is  succeded  by 

Thierry  IV.,  son  of  Dagobert  III.,  surnamed 
de  Chelles  ;  died  in  737.  •  Charles  Martel  now 
reigns  under  the  new  title  of  "  duke  of  the 
French."  Henault. 

Interregnum,  till  the  death  of  Charles  Martel, 
in  741 ;  and  until 

Childeric  III.,  son  of  Chilperic  II.,  surnamed 
the  Stupid.  Carloman  and  Pepin,  the  sons 
of  Charles  Martel,  share  the  government  of 
the  kingdom  in  this  reign. 


THE   CARLOVINGIANS. 

752.   Pepin  the  Short,  son.  of  Charles  Martel;  he  is 

succeeded  by  his  two  sons, 
768.    *Charlernagne  and  Carloman  ;  the  former,  sur- 

named the  Great,  crowned  EMPEROR  OF  THE 

WEST,  by  Leo.  III.  in  800.     Carloman  reigned 

but  three  years. 
814.   Louis  I.  le  Dt'iionnaire,  EMPEROR  ;   dethroned, 

but  restored  to  his  dominions. 
840.   Charles,  surnamed  the  Bald,  KING  ;   EMPEROR 

in  875  ;   poisoned  by  Zedechias,  a  Jewish 

physician. 
877.   Louis  II.,  the  Stammerer,  son  of  Charles  the 

Bald,  KING. 
879.  Louis  III.  and  Carloman  II.  ;  the  former  died 

in  882,  and  Carloman  reigned  alone. 
884.    Charles  III.  le  Gros;  a  usurper,  in  prejudice  to 

Charles  the  Simple. 
887.   Eudes,  or  Hugh,  count  of  Paris. 
898.   Charles  III.    (or  IV.),  the  Simple  ;   deposed, 

and  died  in  prison  in  929  ;   he  had  married 

Edgiva,   daughter  of  Edward  the  Elder,  of 


922. 


923. 


737- 
742. 


England,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  who  was 
afterwards  king 

Robert,  brother  of  Eudes  ;  crowned  at  Rheims ; 
but  Charles  marched  an  army  against  him, 
and  killed  him  in  battle.  Jh'nauit. 

Rudolf,  duke  of  Burgundy  ;  elected  king,  but 
he  was  never  acknowledged  by  the  southern 
provinces.  Henault. 

936.  Louis  IV.  d'Outremer,  or  Transmarine  (from 
having  been  conveyed  by  his  mother  into 
England),  son  of  Charles  III.  (or  IV.)  and 
Edgiva  ;  died  by  a  fall  from  his  horse. 
954.  Lothaire,  his  son  ;  he  had  reigned  jointly  with 
his  father  from  952,  and  succeeds  him,  at  15 
years  of  age,  under  the  protection  of  Hugh 
the  Great ;  poisoned. 

986.  Louis  V. ,  the  Indolent,  son  of  Lothaire  ;  also 

poisoned,  it  is  supposed  by  his  queen, 
Blanche.  In  this  prince  ended  the  race  of 
Charlemagne. 

THE  CAPETS. 

987.  Hugh  Capet,  the  Great,  count  of  Paris,  <tc., 

eldest  son  of  Hugh  the  Abbot,  July  3  ;  he 
seizes  the  crown,  in  prejudice  to  Charles  of 
Lorraine,  uncle  of  Louis  Transmarine.  From 
him  this  race  of  kings  is  called  Capevingians 
and  Capetians.  He  dies  Oct.  24, 
996.  Robert  II. ,  surnamed  the  Sage ;  son ;  died 
lamented  July  20, 

1031.    Henry  I.,  son  ;  dies  Aug.  29, 

1060.  Philip  I.  the  Fair,  and  VAmoureux  ;  succeeded 
at  8  years  of  age,  and  ruled  at  14  ;  son ;  dies 

i loS.'Tjouis  VI. ,  surnamed  the  Lusty,  or  le  Gros ; 

son  ;  dies  Aug.  i, 

1137.  Louis  VII.  ;  son  ;  surnamed  the  Young,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  his  father,  with  whom  he 

was  for  some  years  associated  on  the  throne  ; 

dies  Sept.  18, 
1180.   Philip  II.  (Augustus) ;  son  ;   succeeds  at   15; 

crowned  at  Rheims  in  his  father's  lifetime  ; 

dies  July  14, 

1223.   Louis  VIII.,  Cceur  de  Lion  ;  son  ;  dies  Nov.  8,' 
1226.   Louis  IX.  ;  son  ;   called  St.  Louis ;   ascended 

the  throne  at  15,  under  the  guardianship  of 

his  mother,  who  was  also  regent ;  died  in 

his  camp  before  Tunis,  Aug.  25, 
1270.    Philip  III.,  the  Hardy  ;  son ;   died  at  Perpig- 

nan,  Oct.  6, 
1285.   Philip  IV. ,  the  Fair ;  son  ;  ascended  the  throne 

in  his  i7th  year ;  dies  Nov.  29, 
1314.    Louis  X.  ;  son  ;  surnamed  Hutin,  an  old  French 

word,  signifying  headstrong,  or  mutinous  ; 

died  June  5 , 
1316.   John,  a  posthumous  son  of  Louis  X.  ;  born 

Nov.  15  ;  died  Nov.  19, 
1316.   Philip  V.  the  Long  (on  account  of  his  stature) ; 

brother  of  Louis  ;  died  Jan.  •*, 
1322.    Charles  IV.,  the   Handsome;   brother;   died 

Jan.  31,  1328. 

HOUSE  OF  VALOIS. 

1328.  Philip  VI.,  de  Valois,  grandson  of  Philip  the 
Hardy  ^(called  the  Fortunate) ;  died  Aug. 
23> 

1350.  John  II.,  the  Good:  son;  died  suddenly  in 
the  Savoy  in  London,  April  8, 


*  This  great  prince  vore  only  a  plain  doublet  in  winter,  made  of  an  otter's  skin,  a  woollen  tunic,  fringed 
with  silk,  and  a  blue  coat  or  cassock;  Ms  hose  consisted  of  transverse  bands  or  fillets  of  different  colours.  He 
would  march  with  the  greatest  rapidity  from  the  Pyrenean  mountains  into  Germany,  and  from  Germany 
into  Italy.  The  whole  world  echoed  his  name.  He  was  the  tallest  and  the  strongest  man  of  his  time.  In 
this  respect  he  resembled  the  heroes  of  fabulous  story ;  but  he  differed  from  them,  as  he  thought  that 
force  was  of  use  alone  to  conquer,  and  that  laws  were  necessary  to  govern.  Accordingly,  he  enacted  several 
laws  after  the  form  observed  in  those  days,  that  is,  in  mixed  assemblies,  composed  of  a  number  of  bishops 
and  the  principal  lords  of  the  nation.  Eginhart. 


FRA 


318 


FRA 


FRANCE,  continued. 

1364,   Charles  V.,  surnamed  the   Wise;   son;   died 

Sept.  16, 

1380.    Charles  VI.,  the  Beloved;  son  ;  died  Oct.  21, 
1422.    Charles  VII.,  the  Victorious;  son;  died  July 

22, 

1461.  Louis  XI.  ;  son  ;  able  but  cruel  ;  died  Aug.  30, 
1483.  Charles  VIII.,  the  Affable  ;  son;  died  April  7, 
1498.  Louis  XII.  ,  Duke  of  Orleans  ;  the  Father  of  his 

People  ;  great-grandson  of  Charles  V.  ;  died 

Jan.  i, 
1515.    Francis  I.  of  Angouleme  ;  called  the  Father  of 

Letters;     great-great-grandson  of    Charles 

V.  ;  died  March  31, 
1547.   Henry  II.  ;  son  ;  died  of  a  wound  received  at 

a  tournament,  when  celebrating  the  nuptials 

of  his  sister  with  the  duke  of  Savoy,  acci- 

dentally inflicted  by  the  comte  de  Montmo- 

rency,  July  10, 

1559.  Francis    II.  ;     son  ;    married    Mary    Stuart, 

afterwards  queen  of  Scots  ;  died  Dec.  5, 

1560.  Charles  IX.  ;  brother  ;  Catherine  of  Medicis, 

his    mother,   obtained   the  regency  ;    died 
May  30, 

1574.  Henry  III.  ;  brother  ;  elected  king  of  Poland  ; 
last  of  the  house  of  Valois,  murdered  by 
Jacques  Clement,  a  Dominican  friar,  Aug. 


HOUSE   OF  BOURBON. 

1589.   Henry  IV.,   the  Great,  of  Bourbon,  king  of 
Navarre  ;  son-in-law  of  Henry  II.  ;  murdered 
by  Francis  Ravaillac,  May  14, 
'1610.    Louis  XIII.,  the  Just  ;  son  ;  died  May  14, 

1643.  Louis  XIV.,  the  Great,  styled  Dieudonne; 
son  ;  died  Sept.  i, 

1715.  Louis  XV.,  the  Well-beloved  ;  great-grandson  : 
died  May  20, 

1774.  Louis  XVI.  ,  his  grandson  ;  ascended  the  throne 
in  his  2oth  year  ;  married  the  archduchess 
Marie-Antoinette,  of  Austria,  in  May,  1770  ; 


dethroned,  July  14,  1789 ;  guillotined,  Jan. 
21,  1793,*  and  his  queen,  Oct.  16  following. 
1793.  Louis  XVII.,  son  of  Louis  XVI.  Though  num- 
bered with  the  kings,  this  prince  never 
reigned  ;  he  died  in  prison,  supposed  by 
poison,  June  8, 1795,  aged  10  years  2  months. 

THE   REPUBLIC. 

1792.  The  NATIONAL  CONVENTION  (750  members), 
first  sitting,  Sept.  21. 

1795.  The^DiRECTORY  (Lareveillere  Le"paux,  Letour- 
neur,  Eewbell,  Barras,  and  Carnot)  nomi- 
nated Nov.  i  ;  abolished,  and  Bonaparte, 
Ducos,  and  Sieyes  appointed  an  executive 
commission,  Nov.  1799. 

1799.  The  CONSULATE.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Cam- 
baceres,  and  Lebrun  appointed  consuls,  Dec. 
24.  Napoleon  appointed  consul  for  10  years, 
May  6,  1802 ;  for  life,  Aug.  2,  1802. 

FRENCH   EMPIRE,  f 

[Established  by  the  senate  May  18,  1804.] 
1804.  Napoleon  (Bonaparte)  I.  ;  born  Aug.  15,  1769. 
He  married,  first,  Josephine,  widow  of 
Alexis,  vicomte  de  Beauharnais,  March  8, 
1796  (who  was  divorced  Dec.  16,  1809,  and 
died  May  29,  1814) ;  2nd,  Maria-Louisa  of 
Austria,  April  2,  1810  (she  died  Dec.  17, 
1847).  He  renounced  the  thrones  of  France 
and  Italy,  and  accepted  the  isle  of  Elba  for 
his  retreat,  April  5,  1814 ;  again  appeared 
in  France,  March  i,  1815 ;  was  defeated  at 
Waterloo  ;  finally  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
infant  son,  June  22,  1815  ;  banished  to  St. 
Helena,  where  he  dies,  May  5,  1821.  (See 
note,  p.  312). 

BOURBONS   RESTORED. 

1814.  Louis  XVIII.  (comte  de  Provence),  brother  of 
Louis  XVI.;  born  Nov.  17,  1755;  married 


*  On  Monday,  the  2ist  of  January,  1793,  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning,  this  unfortunate  monarch 
was  summoned  to  his  fate.  He  ascended  the  scaffold  with  a  firm  air  and  step  ;  and  raising  his  voice,  he 
said,  "  Frenchmen,  I  die  innocent  of  the  offences  imputed  to  me.  I  pardon  all  my  enemies,  and  I  implore 

of  Heaven  that  my  beloved  France ;"    At  this  instant  the  inhuman  Santerre  ordered  the  drums  to 

beat,  and  the  executioners  to  perform  their  office.  When  the  guillotine  descended,  the  priest  exclaimed, 
"  Son  of  St  Louis  !  ascend  to  heaven."  The  bleeding  head  was  then  held  up,  and  a  few  of  the  populace 
shouted  "  Vive  la  Rdpublique  !  "  The  body  was  interred  in  a  grave  that  was  immediately  afterwards  filled 
up  with  quick  lime,  and  a  strong  guard  was  placed  around  until  it  should  be  consumed.  Hist.  French 
Revolution. 


f    THE   BONAPARTE   FAMILY. 

[The  name  appears  at  Florence  and  Genoa  in  the  i3th 
century  :  in  the  i  sth  a  branch  settles  in  Corsica.  ] 

CHARLES  BONAPARTE,  born  March  29,  1746,  died  Feb. 
24,  1785.  He  married  in  1767,  Letitia  Ramolina 
(born  Aug.  24,  1750,  died  Feb.  1836);  ISSUE, 

JOSEPH,  born  Jan.  7,  1768,  made  king  of  Two  Sicilies, 
1805;  of  Naples  alone,  1806;  of  Spain,  1808  ;  re- 
sides in  United  States,  1815  ;  comes  to  England, 
1832  ;  settles  in  Italy,  1841 ;  dies  at  Florence,  July 
28,  1844. 

NAPOLEON  I.,  emperor,  born  Aug.  15,  1769  (see 
above). 

LUCIEN,  prince  of  Canino,  born  1775  :  at  first  aided 
his  brother  Napoleon,  but  opposed  his  progress 
towards  universal  monarchy.  He  was  taken  by 
the  English  on  his  way  to  America,  and  resided  in 
England  till  1814.  He  died  at  Vitei-bo,  June  30, 
1840.  His  son  Charles  (born  1803,  died  1857)  was 
an  eminent  naturalist. 

Louis,  born  Sept.  2,  1778;  made  king  of  Holland, 
1806;  died  July  15,  1846.  By  his  marriage  with 
Hortense  Beauharnais  (daughter  of  the  empress 
Josephine),  in  1802,  he  had  three  sons  :  Napoleon 
Louis  (born  1803,  died  1807) ;  Louis  Napoleon  (born 
1804,  died  1831);  and 


CHARLES-LOUIS-NAPOLEON,  born  April  20,  1808; 
educated  under  the  care  of  his  mother  at 
Aremberg,  Switzerland,  and  at  Thun,  under 
general  Dufour  ;  took  part  in  the  Carbonari 
insurrection  in  the  Papal  States  in  March, 
1831 ;  attempted  a  revolt  at  Strasburg,  Oct.  30, 
1836;  sent  to  America,  Nov.  13,  1836;  repairs 
to  London,  Oct.  14,  1838;  lands  at  Boulogne 
with  fifty  followers,  Aug.  6,  1840  ;  condemned 
to  imprisonment  for  life,  Oct.  6,  1840  ;  escapes 
from  Ham,  May  25,  1846  ;  arrives  at  Boulogne, 
March  2,  1848 ;  elected  deputy,  June  8  ;  and 
takes  his  seat,  Aug.  27  ;  his  coup  d'etat,  Dec. 
2,  1851 ;  elected  president  of  the  republic, 
Dec.  10 ;  for  10  years,  Dec.  21,  22,  1851 ; 
elected  emperor,  Nov.  21,  1852 ;  declared 
emperor,  as  Napoleon  III.,  Dec.  2,  1852. 
JEROME,  born  Nov.  15,  1784;  king  of  Westphalia, 
Dec.  i,  1807 — 1814;  made  governor  of  the  In- 
valides,  1848:  and  marshal,  1850;  died  June  24, 
1860  :  his  children  are 

Napoleon,  born  Sept.  9,  1822;  married  princess 
Clotilde  of  Savoy,  Jan.  30,  1859  :  issue, 
Napoleon-Victor-Jerome,  born  July  18,  1862 ; 
Napoleon-Louis-Joseph,  born  July  16,  1864. 
Mathilde,  born  May  27,  1820;  married  to  prince 
A.  Deinidoff  in  1841. 


FRA 


319 


FRA 


FRANCE,  continued. 

Marie-Josephine-Louise  of  Savoy;  entered 
Paris,  and  took  possession  of  the  throne, 
May  3, 1814  ;  obliged  to  flee,  March  20,  1815 ; 
returned  July  8,  sojne  year;  died  without 
issue,  Sept.  16. 

Charles  X.  (comte  d'Artois),  his  brother  ;  born 

Oct.    9,     1757  ;    married    Mai-ie-The'rese    of 

Savoy ;  deposed  July  30,  1830.     He  resided 

in  Britain  till   1832,  and  died  at  Gratz,  in 

.     Hungary,  Nov.  6,  1836. 

[Htir :  Henry,  due  de  Bordeaux,  called  comte 
de  Chambord,  son  of  the  due  de  Berry ;  born 
Sept.  29,  1820.] 

HOUSE  OF  ORLEANS.  (See  Orleans.) 
Louis-Philippe,  son  of  Louis-Philippe,  duke  of 
Orleans,  called  Egalitc,  descended  from 
Philippe,  duke  of  Orleans,  son  of  Louis 
XIII.  ;  born  Oct.  6,  1773 ;  married  Nov.  25, 
1809,  Mai-ia- Amelia,  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
I.  (IV.)  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Raised  to 
the  throne  as  king  of  the  French,  Aug.  9, 
1830 :  abdicated  Feb.  24,  1848.  Died  in 
exile,  in  England,  Aug.  26,  1850. 

NEW  EEPUBLIC,    1848. 

i  revolution  commenced  in  a  popular  insurrection 
Paris,  Feb.  22,  1848.     The  royal  family  escaped 


by  flight  to  England,  a  provisional  government 
was  established,  monarchy  abolished,  and  France 
declared  a  republic. 

Charles-Louis-Napoleon  Bonaparte,  declared  by  the 
National  Assembly  (Dec.  19)  PRKSIDENT  of  the 
republic  of  France;  and  proclained  next  day, 
Dec.  20  ;  elected  for  ten  years,  Jan.  15,  1852. 

FRENCH   EMPIRE   REVIVED. 

[1821.  Napoleon  II.  *  (Napoleon- Joseph),  son  of  Napo- 
leon I.  and  Maria  Louisa,  archduchess  of 
Austria;  bom  March  20,  iSn  ;  created  king- 
of  Rome.  On  the  abdication  of  his  father 
he  was  made  duke  of  Reichstadt,  in  Austria ; 
and  died  at  the  palace  of  Schoenbrunn, 
July  22,  1832.  aged  21.] 

1852.  Napoleon  (Charles-Louis)  III.,  Dec.  2  (formerly 
president),  the  PRESENT  (1865)  emperor  of 
the  French.  (See  note,  p.  318.) 

Empress  :  Eugenie-Marie  (a  Spaniard,  formerly 
countess  of  Teba),  born  May  5,  1826  ;  married 
Jan.  29,  1853. 

Heir  :  Napoleon  -Eugene  -  Louis  -  Jean- Joseph, 
born  March  16,  1856. 

[On  Dec.  18,  1852,  the  succession,  in  default 
of  issue  from  the  emperor,  was  determined 
in  favour  of  prince  Jerome-Napoleon  and 
his  heirs  male.] 


FRANCE,  ISLE  OF.     See  Mauritius. 

FRANCHE  COMT^,  successively  part  of  the  kingdom  and  duchy  of  Burgundy  and  the 
kingdom  of  France,  was  given  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain  as  the  dowry  of  Isabella  of  France, 
whom  he  married  in  1559.  It  was  conquered  and  retained  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1674. 

FRANCHISE.  A  privilege  or  exemption  from  ordinary  jurisdiction  ;  and  anciently  an 
asylum  or  sanctuary  where  the  person  was  secure.  In  Spain,  churches  and  monasteries  were, 
until  lately,  franchises  for  criminals,  as  they  were  formerly  in  England.  See  Sanctuaries. 
In  1429  the  ELECTIVE  FRANCHISE  for  counties  was  restricted  to  persons  having  at  least  405. 
a  year  in  land,  and  resident.  See  Reform.  , 

FRANCIS'  ASSAULT  ON  THE  QUEEN.  John  Francis,  a  youth,  fired  a  pistol  at  queen 
Victoria,  as  she  was  riding  down  Constitution-hill,  in  an  open  barouche,  accompanied  by 
prince  Albert,  May  30,  1842.  The  queen  was  uninjured.  Previous  intimation  having 
reached  the  palace  of  the  intention  of  the  criminal,  her  majesty  had  commanded  that  none 
of  the  ladies  of  her  court  should  attend  her.  Francis  was  condemned  to  death,  June  17 
following,  but  was  afterwards  transported  for  life. 

FRANCISCANS,  Roman  Catholic  friars,  called  also  Grey  friars,  founded  by  Francis  de 
Assisi,  about  1209,  or  1220.  Their  rules  were  chastity,  poverty,  obedience,  and  very  austere 
regimen.  In  1226  they  appeared  in  England,  where,  at  the  time  of  the  dissolution  of 
monasteries  by  Henry  VIII.  ,  they  had  fifty-five  abbeys  or  other  houses,  1536-38. 

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAiN  (Central  Germany),  many  ages  a  free  city  ;  was  taken  and 
retaken  several  times  during  the  French  wars,  and  held  by  Bonaparte  from  1803  to  1813, 
when  its  independence  was  guaranteed  by  the  allied  sovereigns. 


The  diet  of  the  princes  of  Germany  established 
here  by  the  Rhenish  confederation  .  .  .  1806 

Appointed  capital  of  the  Germanic  confede- 
ration   1815 

The  Frankfort  diet  publish  a  federative  consti- 
tution   March  30,  1848 

The  plenipotentiaries  of  Austria,  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  Hanover,  Wurtemberg,  Mecklen- 


burg,   &c.,   here  constitute   themselves  the 
council  of  the  Germanic  diet        .         Sept.  i,  1850 

The  German  sovereigns  (excepting  the  king  of 
Prussia)  met  at  Frankport  (at  the  invitation 
of  the  emperor  of  Austria),  to  consider  a  plan 
of  federal  reform,  Aug.  17  ;  the  plan  was  not  ***** 
accepted  by  Prussia        .        .        .     Sept.  22,  1863 

Population  in  1859,  67>975-     See  Germany. 


FRANKFORT-ON-TUE-0-DER  (N.  Germany)  ;  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  suffered 
much  from  marauders  in  the  middle  ages,  and  in  the  thirty  years'  war.  The  university 
was  founded  in  1506,  and  incorporated  with  the  Breslau  in  1811.  Near  Frankfort,  on 
Aug.  12,  1759,  Frederick  of  Prussia  was  defeated  by  the  Russians  and  Austrians.  See 
Cunnersdorf. 

*  Decreed  to  be  so  termed  by  the  present  emperor  on  his  accession. 


FRA 


320 


FRA 


FRANKING  LETTERS,  passing  letters  free  of  postage,  was  claimed  by  parliament 
about  1660.  The  privilege  was  restricted  in  1837,  and  abolished  on  the  introduction  of 
the  uniform  penny  postage,  Jan.  10,  1840.  The  queen  was  among  the  first  to  relinquish 
her  privilege. 


FRANKLIN",  the  English  freeholder  in  the  middle  ages, 
in  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales  (written  about  1364). 


See  "the  Franklin's  Tale," 


FRANKLIN'S  ARCTIC  EXPEDITION.  Sir  John  Franklin,  with  captains  Crozier  and 
Fitzjarnes,  in  H.M.  ships  Erebus  and  Terror  (carrying  in  all  138  persons),  sailed  on  an  arctic 
expedition  of  discovery  and  survey,  from  Greenhithe,  on  May  24,  1845.  Their  last  despatches 
were  from  the  Whalefish  islands,  dated  July  12,  1845.  Their  protracted  absence  caused 
intense  anxiety  throughout  Europe,  and  numerous  expeditions  were  sent  from  England  and 
elsewhere  in  search  of  them  to  various  parts  of  the  polar  regions.  Quantities  of  coals,  pro- 
visions, clothing,  and  other  necessaries,  were  deposited  in  such  places  in  the  Arctic  seas  as  the 
crews  of  the  Erelnis  and  Terror  discovery  ships  might  visit,  so  as  to  afford  them  immediate 
relief,  by  our  own  and  by  the  American  government,  by  lady  Franklin,  and  numerous  private 
persons.  The  Truelove,  captain  Parker,  which  arrived  at  Hull,  Oct.  4,  1849,  from  Davis's 
Straits,  brought  intelligence  (not  afterwards  confirmed)  that  the  natives  had  seen  sir  John 
Franklin's  ships  as  late  as  the  previous  March,  beset  or  frozen  up  by  the  ice  in  Prince 
Regent's  inlet.  Other  accounts  were  equally  illusory.  Her  Majesty's  government,  on 
March  7,  1850,  offered  a  reward  of  20,000!.  to  any  party  of  any  country,  that  should  render 
efficient  assistance  to  the  crews  of  the  missing  ships.  Sir  John's  first  winter  quarters  were 
found  at  Beechy  island  by  captains  Ommanney  and  Penny. 


1.  H.M.S.  Plover,  capt.  Moore  (afterwards  under 
capt.    Maguire),    sailed    from    Sheerness   to 
Behring's  Straits,  in  search        .        .   Jan.  i,  1848 

2.  Land  expedition  under  sir  John  Richardson 
and  Dr.  Rae,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
left  England          ....      March  25,     ,, 

[Sir  John  Richardson  returned  to  England 
in  1849,  and  Dr  Rae  continued  his  search 
till  1851.] 

3.  Sir  James  Ross,  with  the  Enterprise  and  In- 
vestigator (June  12,  1848),  having  also  sailed 
in  search   to   Barrow's  Straits,    returned  to 
England  (Scarborough)  .         .        .        Nov.  3,  1849 

4.  The  Enterprise,  capt.  Collinson,  and  Investi- 
gator, commander  M'Clure,  sailed  from  Ply- 
mouth for  Behring's  Straits    .        .     Jan.  20,  1850 

[Both  of  these  ships  proceeded  through  to 
the  eastward.] 

5.  Capt.   Austin's    expedition,  viz.  :    Resolute, 
capt.  Austin,  C.B.  ;  Assistance,  capt.  Omman- 
ney ;  Intrepid,  lieut.  Bertie  Cator;  and  Pioneer, 
lieut.  Sherard  Osboru,  sailed  from  England 
for  Barrow's  Straits        .        .         .     April  25,     ,, 

[Returned  Sept.  1851.] 

6.  The  Lady  Franklin,  capt.  Penny  ;  and  Sophia, 
capt.  Stewart,  sailed  from  Aberdeen  for  Bar- 
row's Straits        ....         April  13,     ,, 

[Returned  home  Sept.  1851.] 

7.  The  AMERICAN  expedition  in  the  Advance 
and  Rescue,  under  lieut.  De  Haven  and  Dr. 
Kane  (son  of  the  judge),  towards  which  Mr. 
Grinnell  subscribed  30,000  dollars,  sailed  for 
Lancaster  Sound  and  Barrow's  Straits  ;  after 
drifting  in  the  pack  down  Baffin's  Bay,  the 
ships  were  released  in  1851  uninjured,  May  25,     , , 

8.  The  Felix,  sir  John  Ross,  fitted  out  chiefly  by 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  sailed  to  the  same 
locality        ...  .  May  22,     ,, 

[Returned  in  1851.] 

g.  H.M.S.  North  Star,  commander  Sauuders, 
which  had  sailed  from  England  in  1849,  win- 
tered in  "Wolstenholme  Sound,  and  returned 
to  Spithead Sept.  28,  ,, 

10.  H.MS.  Herald,  capt.  Kellett,  C.B.,  which 
had  sailed  in  1848,  made  three  voyages  to 
Behring's  Straits,  and  returned  in  .  -  .1851 

Lieut.  Pirn  went  to  St.  Petersburg  with  the 
intention  of  travelling  through  Siberia  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Kolyma ;  but  was  dis- 


suaded   from    proceeding   by   the    Russian 

government Nov.  18,  1851 

[The  Enterprise  and  Investigator  (see  No.  4 

above)  not  having  been  heard  of  for  two 

years,] 

11.  Sir  Edward  Belcher's  expedition,  consisting 
of— Assistance,    sir    Edward    Belcher,    C.B.; 
Resolute,  capt.  Kellett,  C.B.;  North  Star,  capt. 
Pullen  ;    Intrepid,    capt.    M'Clintock  ;    and 
Pioneer,  capt.  Sherard  OsLorn,    sailed  from 
Woolwich April  15,  1852 

[This  expedition  had  arrived  at  Beechy 
Island  Aug.  14,1852.  The  Assistance  and 
Pioneer  proceeded  through  Wellington 
Channel,  and  the  Resolute  and  Intrepid  to 
Melville  Island  ;  the  North  Star  remaining 
at  Beechy  Island.] 

LADY  FRANKLIN'S  EQUIPMENTS. 

Lady  Franklin,  from  her  own  resources,  aided 
by  a  few  friends  (and  by  the  "Tasmanian 
Tribute  "  of  1500?.),  equipped  four  separate 
private  expeditions : 

12.  The  Prince  Albert,  capt.  Forsyth,  sailed  from 
Aberdeen  to  Barrow's  Straits        .        June  5,  1850 

[Returned  Oct.  i,  1850.] 

13.  The  Prince  Albert,  Mr.  Kennedy,  accompa- 
nied by  lieut.  Bellot,  of  the  French  navy,  and 
John  Hepburn,   sailed   from   Stromness    to 
Prince  Regent's  Inlet        .        .        .    June  4,  1851 

[Returned  Oct.  1852.] 

14.  The  Isabel,  commander  Inglefield,  sailed  for 
the  head  of  Baffin's  Bay,  Jones's  Sound,  and 
the  Wellington  Channel,  July  6 ;  and  returned 

Nov.   1852 

15.  Mr.  Kennedy  sailed  again  in  the  Isabel,  on 

a  renewed  search  to  Behring's  Straits       .     .1853 

16.  H.M.S.    Rattlesnake,   commander  Trollope, 
despatched  to  assist  the  Plover,  capt.  Maguire 
(who  succeeded  capt.  Moore),  at  Point  Barrow 

in  April ;  met  with  it        ...        Aug.     „ 

17.  The  second  AMERICAN  expedition,  the  Ad- 
vance, under  Dr.  Kane,  early  in  .        .  June,     „ 

1 8.  The  Phoenix  (with  the  Breadalbane  traiis- 
>rtj,    commander  Inglefield,    accompanied 

•y  lieut.  Bellot,  sailed  in  May  :  he  returned, 
bringing  despatches  from  sir  E.  Belcher,  <fcc. 

Oct. 


por 
by 


FRA 


321 


FRA 


FRANKLIN'S  EXPEDITION,  continued. 

Investigator  and  sir  E.  Belcher's  squadron 
were  safe ;  but  no  traces  of  Franklin's  party 
had  been  met  with.  Lieut.  Bellot*  was  unfor- 
tunately drowned  in  August  while  voluntarily 
conveying  despatches  to  sir  E.  Belcher.  Capt. 
M'Clure  had  left  the  Herald  (10)  at  Cape 
Lisburne,  July  31,  1850.  On  Oct.  8,  the  ship 
was  frozen  in,  and  so  continued  for  nine 
months.  On  Oct.  26,  1850,  while  on  an  ex- 
cursion party,  the  captain  discovered  an 
entrance  into  Barrow's  Straits,  and  thus 
established  the  existence  of  a  N.E— N.W. 
passage.  In  Sept.  1851,  the  ship  was  again 
fixed  in  ice,  and  so  remained  till  lieut.  Pirn 
and  a  party  from  capt.  Kellett's  ship,  the 
Resolute  (n),  fell  in  with  them  in  April,  1853. 
The  position  of  the  Enterprise  (4),was  still  un- 
known. 

r.  Rae,  in  the  spring  of  1853,  again  proceeded 
towards  the  magnetic  pole  ;  and  in  July,  1854, 
he  reported  to  the  Admiralty  that  he  had 
purchased  from  a  party  of  Esquimaux  a  num- 
ber of  articles  which  had  belonged  to  sir  J. 
Franklin  and  his  party — namely,  sir  John's 
star  or  order,  part  of  a  watch,  .silver  spoons, 
and  forks  with  crests,  &c.  He  also  reported 
the  statement  of  the  natives,  that  they  had 
met  with  a  party  of  white  men  about  four 
winters  previous,  and  had  sold  them  a  seal ; 
and  that  four  months  later,  in  the  same 
season,  they  had  found  the  bodies  of  thirty 
men  (some  buried),  who  had  evidently 
perished  by  starvation ;  the  place  appears, 
from  the  description,  to  have  been  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Great  Fish  river  of 
Back.  Dr.  Rae  arrived  in  England  on  Oct. 
22,  1854,  with  the  melancholy  relics,  which 
have  since  been  deposited  in  Greenwich  hos- 
_  ital.  He  and  his  companions  were  awarded 
10,000?.  for  their  discovery. 

The  Phoenix,  North  Star,  and  Talbot,  under 
the  command  of  capt.  Inglefield,  sailed  in 
May,  and  returned  in  ...  Oct.  1854 

Sir  E.  Belcher  (No.  n).  after  mature  delibera- 
tion, in  April,  1854,  determined  to  abandon 
his  ships,  and  gave  orders  to  that  effect  to  all 
the  captains  under  his  command  ;  and  capt. 
Kellett  gave  similar  orders  to  capt.  M'Clure, 
of  the  Investigator.  The  vessels  had  been 
abandoned  in  Junef  when  the  crews  of  the 
Phoenix  and  Talbot  (under  capt.  Inglefield) 
arrived  (19).  On  their  return  to  England  the 
captains  were  all  tried  by  court-martial  and 
honourably  acquitted  .  .  Oct.  17-19,  ,, 

Capt.  Collinson's  fate  was  long  uncertain,  and 
another  expedition  was  in  contemplation, 
when  intelligence  came,  in  Feb.  1855,  that 
he  had  met  the  Rattlesnake  (16)  at  Fort 


Clarence  in  Aug.  21,  1854,  and  had  sailed 
immediately,  in  hopes  of  getting  up  with 
capt.  Maguire  in  the  Plover  (i),  which  had 
sailed  two  days  previously.  Capt.  Collinson 
having  failed  in  getting  through  the  ice  in  1850 
with  capt.  M'Clure,  returned  to  Hong-Kong  to 
winter.  In  1851  he  passed  through  Prince  of 
Wales's  Straits,  and  remained  in  the  Arctic 
regions  without  obtaining  any  intelligence  of 
Franklin  till  July,  1854,  when,  being  once 
more  released  from  the  ice,  he  sailed  for  Fort 
Clarence,  where  he  arrived  as  above  men- 
tioned. Captains  Collinson  and  Maguire 
arrived  in  England  in  .  .  .  .  May,  1855 

20.  The  third  AMERICAN  expedition  in  search  of 
Dr.  Kane,  in  the  Advance,  consisted  of  the 
Release  and  the  steamer  Arctic,  the  barque 
Eringo,  and  another  vessel  under  the  com- 
mand of  lieut.  H.  J.  Hartstene,  accompanied 
by  a  brother  of  Dr.  Kane  as  surgeon,  May  31,     „ 

[On  May  17,  1855,  Dr.  Kane  and  his  party 
quitted  the  Advance,  and  journeyed  over  the 
ice,  1300  miles,  to  the  Danish  settlement  ;  on 
their  way  home  in  a  Danish  vessel,  they  fell 
in  with  lieut.  Hartstene,  Sept.  18;  and 
arrived  with  him  at  New  York,  Oct.  n,  1855. 
Dr.  Kane  visited  England  in  1856  ;  he  died  in 
1857.] 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  under  advice  of 
Dr.  Rae  and  sir  G.  Back,  sent  out  an  overland 
expedition,  June,  1855,  which  returned  Sept. 
following.  Some  more  remains  of  Franklin's 
party  were  discovered. 

21.  The  1 8th  British  expedition  (equipped  by 
lady  Franklin  and  her  friends,  the  govern- 
ment having  declined  to  fit  out  another) — 
the  Fox,  screw  steamer,  under  capt.  (since 
sir)    F.   L.   M'Clintock,   R.N.   (see  No.  n)— 
sailed  from  Aberdeen  July  i,  1857  ;  returned 

Sept.  22,  1859 

On  May  6,  1859,  lieut.  Hobson  found  at  Point 
Victory,  near  Cape  Victoria,  besides  a  cairn, 
a  tin  case,  containing  a  paper,  signed  April 
25,  1848,  by  captain  Fitzjames,  which  certi- 
fied that  the  ships  Erebus  and  Terror,  on  Sept. 
12,  1846,  were  beset  in  lat.  7o°o5'N.,  and 
long.  98°  23'  W.  ;  that  sir  John  Franklin  died 
June  ii,  1847;  and  that  the  ships  were  de- 
serted April  22,  1848.  Captain  M'Clintock 
continued  the  search,  and  discovered  skele- 
tons and  other  relics.  His  journal  was  pub- 
lished in  Dec.  1859;  and  on  MaY  28»  l86o» 
gold  medals  were  given  to  him  and  to  lady 
Franklin  by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 
Mr.  Hall,  the  arctic  explorer,  reported,  in  Aug. 
1865,  circumstances  that  led  him  to  hope 
that  capt.  Crozier  and  others  were  surviving. 


FRANKS  (or  freemen),  a  name  given  to  a  combination  of  the  North-western  German 
tribes  about  240,  which  invaded  Gaul  and  other  parts  of  the  empire  soon  after  with  various 
success.  See  Gaul  and  France. 

FRATBICELLI  (Little  Brethren),  a  sect  of  the  middle  ages,  originally  Franciscan  monks 
of  the  stricter  sort.  Their  numbers  increased,  and  they  were  condemned  by  a  papal  bull  in 
1317  ;  and  suffered  persecution  ;  but  were  not  extinct  till  the  i6th  century.  They  resembled 
the  "  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit." 


*  A  monument  to  his  memory  was  erected  at  Greenwich.     His  "  Journal "  was  published  in  1854. 

+  Capt.  Kellett's  ship,  the  Resolute,  was  found  adrift  1000  miles  distant  from  where  she  was  left  by  a 
Mr.  George  Henry,  commanding  an  American  whaler,  who  brought  her  to  New  York.  The  British 
government  having  abandoned  their  claim  on  the  vessel,  it  was  bought  by  order  of  the  American  congress, 
thoroughly  repaired  and  equipped,  and  entrusted  to  capt.  H.  J.  Hartstene,  to  be  presented  to  queen 
Victoria.  It  arrived  at  Southampton  Dec.  12,  1856;  was  visited  by  her  Majesty  on  the  i6th  ;  and  formally 
surrendered  on  the  3oth. 


FRA  322  FEE 

FRAUDULENT  TRUSTEES  ACT,  20  &  21  Yict.  c.  54,  was  passed  in  1857,  in  conse- 
quence _of  the  delinquencies  of  sir  John  D.  Paul,  the  British  Bank  frauds,  &c.  It  was  brought 
in  by  sir  R.  Bethell,  then  attorney-general,  and  is  very  stringent. 

FRAUNHOFER'S  LINES.     See  Spectrum. 

FREDERICKSBURG  (Virginia,  N.  America).  On  Dec,  10,  1862,  general  Burnside 
and  the  federal  army  of  the  Potomac  crossed  the  small  deep  river  Rappahannock.  On  Dec. 
II,  Fredericksburg  was  bombarded  by  the  federals  and  destroyed.  On  the  I3th  com- 
menced a  series  of  most  desperate  yet  unsuccessful  attacks  on  the  confederate  works, 
defended  by  generals  Lee,  Jackson,  Lougstreet,  and  others.  General  Hooker  crossed  the 
river  with  the  reserves,  and  joined  in  the  conflict,  in  vain.  On  Dec.  15  and  16  the  federal 
army  recrossed  the  Rappahannock.  The  battle  was  one  of  the  most  severe  in  the  war. 

FREDERICKSHALD  (Norway),  memorable  by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  being  killed  by 
a  cannon-shot  before  its  walls,  while  examining  the  works.  He  was  found  with  his  hand 
upon  his  sword,  and  a  prayer-book  in  his  pocket,  Dec.  n,  1718. 

FREE  CHURCH  (of  Scotland*)  was  formed  by  an  act  of  secession  of  nearly  half  the 
"body  from  the  national  church  of  Scotland,  May  18,  1843.  The  difference  arose  on  the 
question  of  the  right  of  patrons  to  nominate  to  livings.  The  Free  Church  claims  for  the 
parishioners  the  right  of  a  veto.  Much  distress  was  endured  the  first  year  by  the  ministers 
of  the  new  church,  although  366,719^.  145.  3^.  had  been  subscribed.  In  1853  there  were 
850  congregations.  A  large  college  was  founded  in  1846.  In  1856  the  sustentation  fund 
amounted  to  108,6387.,  from  which  was  paid  the  sum  of  138?.  each  to  700  ministers. 

FREEHOLDERS.  Those  under  forty  shillings  per  annum  were  not  qualified  to  vote  for 
members  of  parliament  by  8  Hen.  VI.  c.  7,  1429.  Various  acts  have  been  passed  for  the 
regulation  of  the  franchise  at  different  periods.  The  more  recent  were,  the  act  to  regulate 
polling,  gGeo.  IV.  1828  ;  act  for  the  disqualification  of  freeholders  in  Ireland,  which  deprived 
those  of  forty  shillings  of  this  privilege  passed  April  13,  1829  ;  Reform  Bill,  2  &  3  Will.  IV. 
1832.  County  elections  act,  7  Will.  IV.  1836.  See  Chandos  Clause. 

FREE  TRADE  principles,  advocatedjby  Adam  Smith  in  his  "Wealth  of  Nations  "  (1776), 
triumphed  in  England  when  the  corn  laws  were  abolished  in  1846,  and  the  commercial 
treaty  with  France  was  adopted  in  1860.  Mr.  Richard  Cobden,  who  was  very  instrumental 
in  passing  these  measures,  has  been  termed  "  The  Apostle  of  Free  Trade."  Since  1830  the 
exports  have  been  tripled. 

FREEMASONRY.  Writers  on  masonry,  themselves  masons,  affirm  that  it  has  had  a 
being  "  ever  since  symmetry  began,  and  harmony  displayed  her  charms."  It  is  traced  by 
some  to  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple  ;  and  it  is  said  the  architects  from  the  African 
coast,  Mahometans,  brought  it  into  Spain,  about  the  6th  century.  Its  introduction  into- 
Britain  has  been  fixed  at  674  ;  many  of  our  Gothic  cathedrals  are  attributed  to  freemasons. 
The  grand  lodge  at  York  was  founded  926.  Freemasonry  was  interdicted  in  England, 
1424.  In  1717,  the  grand  lodge  of  England  was  established  ;  that  of  Ireland  in  1730  ;  and 
that  of  Scotland  in  1736.  Freemasons  were  excommunicated  by  the  pope  in  1738;  again 
condemned,  Sept.  30,  1865.  The  Freemasons'  hall,  London,  was  built  1775  ;  the  charity 
was  instituted  1788. 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE  is  mainly  based  on  the  rude  Latin  which  prevailed  in  the  nations 
subjugated  by  the  Romans.  German  was  introduced  by  the  Franks  in  the  8th  century. 
In  the  9th  the  Gallo-Romanic  dialect  became  divided  into  the  Langue  d'oc  of  the  south  and 
the  Langue  tfoil  of  the  north.  The  French  language  as  written  by  Froissart  assimilates 
more  to  the  modern  French,  and  its  development  was  almost  completed  when  the  Academic 
Frangaise,  established  by  Richelieu  in  1634,  published  a  dictionary  of  the  language  in  1674. 
The  French  language,  laws,  and  customs  were  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.  1066. 
Law  pleadings  were  changed  from  French  to  English  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  1362. 
Stow. 

PRINCIPAL   FRENCH   AUTHORS. 


Born        Lied  I  Born        Died 

Joinville,  thirteenth  century.  |  Marot    .        .        .     .  1465        1544 

Froissart  .        .         .    1337 — 1400?     Rabelais    .        .        .  1483        1553 


Born        Died 

Des  Cartes    .        .     .  1596        1650 
Pascal        .        .        .  1623        1662 


Monstrelet    .        .     .  1453     Montaigne    .        .     .  1553        1592  I  Moliere.        .        .     .  1622        1673 

Comines    .         .        .  1509  |  Malherbe  .        .        .  1556        1628  |  Rochefoucault  .        .   1613        1680 


*  The  rev.  H.  Hampton,  one  of  the  curates  of  Islington,  having  been  dismissed,  a  part  of  his  congre- 
gation erected  a  temporary  church.  The  bishop  of  London,  after  inquiry,  refused  to  license  it.  On  this 
the  congregation  declared  itself  to  be  the  JFrte  Church  of  England.  Eventually,  he  left  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  re-entered  the  establishment. 


FEE 


323 


FRI 


FRENCH  LANGUAGE,  continued. 

Earn        Died  Born        Died 

jrneille 

Fontaine 
La  Bruyero  . 
Racine 
Bossuet 
Bayle 
Boilcau 
Pension     . 
Rollin    . 
Le  Sage 
Montesquieu 
Voltaire     . 

FRENCH  REVOLUTIONARY  CALENDAR,  In  1792,  the  French  nation  adopted  a 
new  calendar  professedly  founded  on  philosophical  principles.  The  first  year  of  the  era  of 
the  republic  began  at  midnight,  between  Sept.  21  and  22,  1792  ;  but  its  establishment  was 
not  decreed  until  the  4th  Frimaire  of  the  year  II.,  Nov.  24,  1793.  The  calendar  existed 
until  the  loth  Nivose  year  of  the  republic  XIV.,  Dec.  31,  1805,  when  the  Gregorian  mode 
of  calculation  was  restored  by  Napoleon. 


Born 

Died 

Horn 

Died 

Born 

1606 

1684 

J.  J.  Rousseau 

1712 

1778 

A.  G.  De  Baranto 

.  1782 

1621 

l695 

D'Alembert 

1717 

1783 

F.  Guizot     . 

•  1787 

1644 

i6g(r 

Buffon  . 

1707 

1788 

A.  F.  Villemain 

•  1790 

1639 

1699 

Marmontel 

1723 

1799' 

A.  De  la  Martino 

•   J79° 

1627 

1704 

De  Stael 

1766 

1817 

Victor  Cousin     . 

.  1792 

1647 

1706 

De  Genlis  . 

1746 

1830 

Ame'de'e  Thierry 

•  1797 

1636 

1711 

Sismondi 

J773 

1842 

L.  A.  Thiers 

•   I797 

1651 

I7I5 

Chateaubriand  . 

1769 

1848 

Jules  Michelet 

•   I79% 

.   1661 

1741 

Augustin  Thierry 

r795 

1856 

Victor  Hugo 

.   1802 

.  1668- 

1747 

Beranger 

1780 

1857 

P.  Merim<Se      . 

.   1803 

1689 

1755 

Eugene  Sue,  aged  53 

1857 

Louis  Blanc 

.   1813 

.  1694 

1778 

Eugene  Scribe,  aged 

80 

1861 

AUTUMN. 

Vendemiaire     .  Vintage  month,  Sept.  22  to  Oct.  21. 
Brumaire      .     .  Fog  month  .     .  Oct.  22  to  Nov.  20. 
.  Sleet  month.     .  Nov.  21  to  Dec.  20. 


WINTER. 

.  Snow  month  .  Dec.  21  to  Jan.  19. 
.  Rain  month  .  Jan.  20  to  Feb.  18. 
.  Wind  month  .  Feb.  19  to  Mar.  20. 


SPRING. 

Germinal  .  .  Sprouts' month,  Mar.  21  to  April  19. 
Flor£al  .  .  Flowers'  month,  April  20  to  May  19. 
Prairial  .  .  Pasture  month,  May  20  to  June  18. 


SUMMER. 

Harvest  mouth,  June  19  to  July  18. 


Messidor  . 
Fervidor,   or 

Thermidor    .  Hot  month  .     .  July  ic 
Fructidor          .  Fruit  month    .  Aug.  ii 


SANSCULOTIDES,   OR   FEASTS   DEDICATED   TO 


The  Virtues 
Genius 
Labour    . 


Sept.  17. 
Sept.  1 8. 
Sept.  19. 


L'Opinion . 


Opinion 
Rewards. 


to  Aug.  17. 
to  Sept.  16. 


."    Sept.  20. 
.    Sept.  21. 


FRENCH  TREATY,  the  term  given  to  the  treaty  of  commerce  between  Great  Britain 
and  France,  signed  Jan.  23,  1860,  at  Paris  by  lord  Cowley  and  Mr.  Richard  Cobden  and  by 
the  ministers  MM.  Baroche  and  Rouher.  The  beneficial  results  of  this  treaty  compensated  for 
the  depression  of  trade  occasioned  by  the  civil  war  in  North  America  (1861-5). 

FRENCHTOWN  (Canada),  was  taken  from  the  British  by  the  American  general 
Winchester,  Jan.  22,  1813,  during  the  second  war  with  the  United  States  of  America.  It 
was  retaken  by  the  British  forces  under  general  Proctor,  Jan.  24,  and  the  American  com- 
mander and  troops  wer^.  made  prisoners. 

FRESCO  PAINTINGS  are  executed  on  plaster  while  fresh.  Very  ancient  ones  exist  in 
Egypt  and  Italy,  and  modern  ones  in  the  British  houses  of  parliament,  at  Berlin,  and  other 
places.  The  fresco  paintings  by  Giotto  and  others  at  the  Campo  Santo,  a  cemetery  at  Pisa, 
executed  in  the  I3th  century  are  justly  celebrated.  See  Stereochromy. 

FRIDAY,  the  sixth  day  of  the  week  ;  so  called  from  Friga,  the  Scandinavian  Venus. 
She  was  the  wife  of  Thor,  and  goddess  of  peace,  fertility,  and  riches  ;  and  with  Thor  and 
Odin  composed  the  supreme  council  of  the  Gods.  See  Good  Friday. 

FRIEDLAND  (Prussia).  Here  the  allied  Russians  and  Prussians  were  beaten  by  the 
French,  commanded  by  Napoleon,  on  June  14,  1807.  The  allies  lost  eighty  pieces  of 
cannon  and  about  18,000  men  ;  the  French  about  10,000  men.  The  peace  of  Tilsit  followed, 
by  which  Prussia  was  obliged  to  surrender  nearly  half  her  dominions. 

FRIENDLY  ISLES,  in  the  Southern  Pacific,  consist  of  a  group  of  more  than  150 
islands,  forming  an  archipelago  of  very  considerable  extent.  These  islands  were  discovered 
by  Tasman,  in  1642  ;  and  visited  by  Wallis,  who  called  them  Keppel  Isles,  1767  ;  and  by 
captain  Cook,  who  gave  them  their  present  name  on  account  of  the  friendly  disposition  of 
the  natives,  1773.  Subsequent  voyagers  describe  them  as  very  ferocious. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES  originated  in  the  clubs  of  the  industrious  classes,  about  1793, 
and  have  been  regulated  by  various  legislative  enactments.  In  1850,  preceding  acts  were 
consolidated,  and  other  acts  have  since  passed. 

FRIENDS.     See  Quakers. 

Y  -2 


FRI 


324 


FRO 


FRIENDS  OF  THE  PEOPLE  associated  to  obtain  parliamentary  reform,  1792. 

FRIESLAND  :  EAST  (N.  Germany),  formerly  governed  by  its  own  counts.  On  the  death 
of  its  prince  Charles  Edward,  in  1744,  it  became  subject  to  the  king  of  Prussia  ;  Hanover 
disputed  its  possession,  but  Prussia  prevailed.  It  was  annexed  to  Holland  by  Bonaparte,  in 
1806,  and  afterwards  to  the  French  empire  ;  but  was  awarded  to  Hanover  in  1814.  The 
English  language  is  said  to  be  mainly  derived  from  the  old  Frisian  dialect. — FRIESLAXD,. 
WEST,  in  Holland,  was  part  of  Charlemagne's  empire  in  800.  It  passed  under  the  counts  of 
Holland  about  936,  and  was  one  of  the  seven  provinces  which  renounced  the  Spanish  yoke  in 
1580.  The  term  Chcvaux  de  Frise  (sometimes,  though  rarely,  written  Cheval  de  Frise,  a 
Friesland  Horse)  is  derived  from  Friesland,  where  it  was  invented. 

FROBISHER'S  STRAITS,  discovered  by  sir  Martin  Frobisher,  who  tried  to  find  a  north- 
west passage  to  China,  and  after  exploring  the  coast  of  New  Greenland,  entered  this  strait, 
Aug.  u,  1576.  He  returned  to  England,  bringing  with  him  a  quantity  of  black  ore, 
supposed  to  contain  gold,  which  induced  queen  Elizabeth  to  patronise  a  second  voyage. 
The  delusion  led  to  a  third  fruitless  expedition.  He  was  killed  at  the  taking  of  Brest 
in  1594. 

FRONDE,  CIVIL  WARS  OF  THE,  in  France,  in  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  (1648-53), 
during  the  government  of  the  queen  Anne  of  Austria  and  cardinal  Mazarine,  between  the 
followers  of  the  court  and  the  nobility,  and  the  parliament  and  the  citizens.  The  latter  were 
called  Frondeurs  (slingers),  it  is  said,  from  an  incident  in  a  street  quarrel.  In  a  riot  on 
Aug.  27,  1648,  barricades  were  erected  in  Paris. 

FROSTS.     The  following  are  some  of  the  most  remarkable  : — 


The  Euxine  Sea  frozen  over  for  20  days         .     . 
A  frost  at  Constantinople,  when  the  two  seas 

there  were  frozen  a  hundred  miles  from  the 

shore Oct.  763— Feb. 

A  frost  in  England  on  Midsummer-day  is  said 

to  have  destroyed  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
Thames  frozen  for  14  weeks        .... 
Dreadful  frosts  in  England  from  Nov.  to  April,  1076 

The  Categat  entirely  frozen 1294 

Baltic  passable  to  travellers  for  six  weeks  .  1323 
The  Baltic  frozen  from  Pomerania  to  Denmark,  1402 
In  England,  when  all  the  small  birds  perished,  1407 
The  ice  bore  riding  upon  it  from  Lubeck  to 

Prussia 

Severe  frost,  when  the  large  fowl  of  the  air 

sought  shelter  in  the  towns  of  Germany 
The    river    frozen     below     London-bridge    to 

Gravesend,  from  Nov.  24  to  Feb.  10    .        .     . 
The  Baltic  frozen,  and  horse  passengers  crossed 

from  Denmark  to  Sweden  ....  1460 
The  winter  so  severe  in  Flanders  that  the  wine 

distributed  was  cut  by  hatchets.        .         .    .   1468 
Carriages  passed  over  from  Lambeth  to  West- 
minster       i5!5 

Wine  in  Flanders  frozen  into  solid  lumps  .  .  1544 
Sledges  drawn  by  oxen  .travelled  on  the  sea 

from  Rostock  to  Denmark  .  .  .  .1548 
Diversions  on  the  Thames  .  .  Dec.  21,  &c.  1564 
The  Scheldt  frozen  no  hard  as  to  sustain  loaded 

waggons I565 

The  Rhine,  Scheldt,  and  Venice  frozen  .  .1594 
Fires  and  diversions  on  the  Thames  .  .  .  1607 
The  rivers  of  Europe  and  the  Zuyder  Zee  frozen ; 

ice  covers  the  Hellespont  ....  1622 
Charles  X.  of  Sweden  crossed  the  Little-Belt 

over  the  ice  from  Holstein  to  Denmark,  with 


4oi 


764 


1035 
1063 


1426 


1434 


his  whole  army,  horse  and  foot,  with  large 
trains  of  artillery  and  baggage    .         .         .     .  1658 

The  furest  trees,  and  even  the  oaks  in  England, 
split  by  the  frost ;  most  of  the  hollies  were 
killed ;  the  Thames  was  covered  with  ice 
eleven  inches  thick  ;  and  nearly  all  the  birds 
perished* 1684 

The  wolves,  driven  by  the  cold,  entered  Vienna, 
and  attacked  the  cattle,  and  even  men  .  .  1691 

Three  months'  frost,  with  heavy  snow,  from 
Dec.  to  March,  8  Anne 1709 

A  fair  held  on  the  Thames,  and  oxen  roasted ; 
this  frost  continued  Irom  Nov.  24  to  Feb.  9  .  1716 

One  which  lasted  9  weeks,  when  coaches  plied 
upon  the  Thames,  and  festivities  and  diver- 
sions of  all  kinds  were  enjoyed  upon  the  ice. 
This  season  was  called  the  "hai'd  winter  "  .  1740 

From  Dec.  25  to  Jan.  16,  and  from  Jan.  18  to 
22  ;  most  terrible  in  its  effect ....  1766 

One  general  throughout  Europe.  The  Thames 
was  passable  opposite  the  Custom  House,  from 
Nov.  to  Jan.  .......  1789 

One  from  Dec.  24,  1794,  to  Feb.  14,  1795,  with 
the  intermission  of  one  day's  thaw  Jan.  23,  1795 

Intense  frosts  all  Dec. 1796 

Severe  frost  in  Russia  t 1812 

Booths  erected  on  the  Thames ;  the  winter  very 
severe  in  Ireland Jan.  1814 

The  frost  so  intense  in  parts  of  Norway,  that 
quicksilver' freezes,  and  persons  exposed  to 
the  atmosphere  lose  their  breath  .  Jan.  2,  1849 

Very  severe  frost  in  London,  Jan.  14  to  Feb.  24 ; 
and  very  cold  weather  up  to  June  26$  .  .  1855 

Very  severe  frost  from  Dec.  20,  1860,  to  Jan.  5, 
i86i.{  See  Cold. 


*  "  The  frost  this  year  was  terrible.  It  began  in  the  beginning  of  Dec.  1683.  The  people  kept  trades 
on  the  Thames  as  in  a  fair,  till  Feb.  4,  1684.  About  forty  coaches  daily  plied  on  the  Thames  as  on  drye 
land.  Bought  this  book  at  a  shop  upon  the  i«e  in  the  middle  of  the  Thames." — Entry  in  the  memoranda  of 
a  Citizen. 

f  The  frost  in  Russia  in  1812  surpassed  in  intenseness  that  of  any  winter  in  that  country  for  many 
preceding  years,  and  was  very  destructive  to  the  French  army  in  its  retreat  from  Moscow,  at  the  close  of 
that  memorable  year.  Napoleon  commenced  his  retreat  on  the  gth  Nov.  when  the  frost  covered  the 
ground,  and  the  men  perished  in  battalions,  and  the  horses  fell  by  hundreds  on  the  roads.  What  with  the 
loss  in  battle,  and  the  effects  of  this  awful  and  calamitous  frost,  France  lost  in  the  campaign  of  this  year 
more  than  400,000  men. 

t  On  Feb.  22,  fires  were  made  on  the  Serpentine,  Hyde  Park.  A  traffic  on  the  ice  of  35  miles  long, 
was  established  in  Lincolns-hire.— During  the  frost  of  1860-1,  bonfires  were  lit  on  the  Serpentine,  dancing 
took  place,  fireworks  were  let  off,  &c. 


FRO 


325 


FUN 


FROST'S  INSURRECTION.     See  Newport. 

FRUITS.  Several  varieties  of  fruit  are  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Italy,  70  B.C. 
d  scq.  Exotic  fruits  and  flowers  of  various  kinds,  previously  unknown  in  England,  were 
brought  thither  between  the  years  1500 and  1578.  See  Gardening  and  Flowers. 


Almond-tree,  Barbary,  about  1548 
Apples,  Syria.  .  .  .  1522 
Apple,  custard,  N.  America  .  1736 
Apple,  osage,  ditto  .  .  1818 
Apricots,  Epirus  .  .  .  1540 
Cherry-trees,  Pontus  .  .  100 
Cherries,  Flanders  .  .  .  1540 
Cornelian  cherry,  Austria  .  1596 
Currant,  the  ha wthn.,  Canada  1705 
Fig-tree,  S.  Europe,  before  .  1548 
Gooseberries,  Flanders,  be- 
fore  1540 

Grapes,  Portugal    .        .        .1528 
Lemons,  Spain  .        .        .     .  1554 


Limes,  Portugal  .  .  .  1554 
Lime,  American,  before  .  .  1752 
Melons,  before  .  .  .  1540 
Mulberry,  Italy.  .  .  .  1520 
Mulberry,  white,  China,  abt.  1596 
Mulberry,  the  red,  N.  Ame- 
rica, before  ....  1629 
Mulberry,  the  paper,  Japan, 

before 1754 

Nectarine,  Persia       .        .    .  1562 

Olive,  Cape     ....  1730 

Olive,  the  sweet  scntd.  China  1771 

Oranges 1595 

Peaches,  Persia  .        .        .    .  1562 


Pears,  uncertain    .         .        .  *    * 
Pine-apple,  Brazils         .  1568 

Pippins,  Netherlands  .  1525 
Plums,  Italy  .  .  .  1522 

Pomegranate,  Spain,  before  1548 
Quince,  Austria.  .  .  1573. 
Quince,  Japan  .  .  1796 

Raspberry,  the  Virginian,  be 

fore 1696 

Strawberry,  Flanders        .     .  1530 
Strawberry,  the  Oriental,  Le- 
vant      1724 

Walnut,  the  black,  N.  Ame- 
rica, before  ....  1629 


FUCHSIA,  an  American  plant  named  after  the  German  botanist  Leonard  Fuchs,  about 
1542.  The  fuchsia  fulgens,  the  most  beautiful  variety,  was  introduced  from  Mexico,  about  1830. 

FUENTES  D'ONORE  (Central  Spain).  On  May  2,  1811,  Massena  crossed  the  Agueda, 
with  40,  ooo  infantry,  5000  horse,  and  about  30  pieces  of  artillery,  to  relieve  Almeida.  He 
expected  every  day  to  be  superseded  in  his  command,  and  wished  to  make  a  last  effort  for 
his  own  military  character.  Wellington  could  muster  no  more  than  32,000  men,  of  which 
only  1 200  were  cavalry.  He  however  determined  to  fight  rather  than  give  up  the  blockade 
of  Almeida.  After  much  fighting,  night  came  on  and  put  an  end  to  the  battle.  Next  day, 
Massena  was  joined  by  Bessieres  with  a  body  of  the  Imperial  guard ;  and  on  May  5,  the 
enemy  made  his  grand  attack.  In  all  the  war  there  was  not  a  more  dangerous  hour  for 
England.  The  fight  lasted. until  evening,  when  the  lower  part  of  the  town  was  abandoned 
by  both  parties— the  British  maintaining  the  chapel  and  crags,  and  the  French  retiring  a 
cannon-shot  from  the  stream.  Napier. 

FUGGER,  a  illustrious  German  family  (the  present  head  being  prince  Leopold  Fugger 
Babcnhauser),  derives  its  origin  from  John  Fugger,  a  master  weaver  in  Augsburg  in  1370  ; 
and  its  wealth  by  trade,  and  by  money-lending  to  monarchs,  especially  the  emperors. 

FUGITIVE  SLAVE  BILL,  passed  by  the  American  legislature  in  1850.  It  imposed  a 
fine  of  looo  dollars  and  six  months'  imprisonment  on  any  person  harbouring  fugitive  slaves 
or  aiding  in  their  escape.  This  law  was  declared  to  be  unconstitutional  by  the  judges  of  the 
superior  court  on  Feb.  3,  1855.  It  was  carried  into  effect  with  great  difficulty,  and  was  not 
received  by  Massachusetts.  It  was  repealed  June  13,  1864.  See  Slavery  in  America. 

FULDA  (W.  Germany),  the  seat  of  an  abbey,  founded  by  St.  Boniface,  the  apos.tle  of 
Germany,  in  744.  It  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1752,  and  a  principality  in  1803.  Napoleon 
incorporated  it  with  Frankfort  in  1810  ;  but  in  1815  it  was  ceded  to  Hesse-Cassel. 

FUMIGATION.  Acron,  a  physician  of  Agrigentum,  is  said  to  have  first  caused  great 
fires  to  be  lighted  and  aromatics  to  be  thrown  into  them  to  purify  the  air  ;  and  thus  to  have 
stopped  the  plague  at  Athens  and  other  places  in  Greece,  about  473  B.  c. 

FUNDS.     See  Stocks  and  Sinking  Fund. 

FUNERALS.  A  tax  was  laid  on  funerals  in  England,  1793.  The  Romans  pronounced, 
harangues  over  their  dead,  when  eminent  for  rank,  great  deeds,  and  virtues.  Theopompus 
obtained  a  prize  for  the  best  Funeral  Oration  in  praise  of  Mausolus,  353  B.C.  Popilia  was 
the  first  Roman  lady  who  had  an  oration  pronounced  at  her  funeral,  which  was  done  by  her 
son,  Crassus  ;  and  it  is  observed  by  Cicero  that  Julius  Csesar  did  the  like  for  his  aunt  Julia 
and  his  wife  Cornelia.  In  Greece,  Solon  was  the  first  who  pronounced  a  funeral  oration, 
according  to  Herodotus,  580  B.C.  David  lamented  over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  105680.,  and 
over  Abner,  1048  B.C.  2  Sam.  i.  and  iii. — Funeral  Games,  among  the  Greeks,  were  chiefly 
horse-races  ;  and  among  the  Romans,  processions,  and  mortal  combats  of  gladiators  around 
the  funeral  pile.  These  games  were  abolished  by  the  emperor  Claudius,  A.  D.  47. 

PUBLIC  FUNERALS  voted  by  parliament : —  I  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan  .        .        .  July  13,  1816 

Duke  of  Rutland,  in  Ireland        .        .  Nov.  17,  1787    George  Canning        ....        Aug.  16,  1827 

Lord  Nelson  (see  kelson)  .        .        .         Jan.  9,  1806    Duke  of  Wellington      ....  Nov.  18,  1852 

Win.  Pitt Feb.  22,  ,,       Viscount   Palmerston  (at    Her  majesty's    re- 

Chas.  Jas.  Fox Oct.  10,     „  quest; Oct.  27,  1865 


FUR  326  GAL 

FURRUCKABAD  (N.  India),  a  province  acquired  by  the  East  India  Company,  in  June, 
1802.  Near  the  capital  of  the  same  name,  011  Nov.  17,  1804,  lord  Lake  totally  defeated 
the  Mahratta  chief  Holkar,  and  about  60,000  cavalry,  himself  losing  2  killed  and  about  20 
wounded. 

FURS  were  worn  by  Henry  I. ,  about  1125.  Edward  III.  enacted  that  all  persons  who 
could  not  spend  lool.  a  year,  should  be  prohibited  this  species  of  finery.  March  28,  1336-7. 

G. 

GA  BELLE  (from  Gabe,  a  gift),  a  term  applied  to  various  taxes,  but  afterwards  restricted 
to  the  old  duty  upon  salt,  first  imposed  by  Philip  the  Fair  on  the  French  in  1286.  Duruy. 
Our  Edward  III.,  termed  Philip  of  Valois,  who  first  levied  the  tax,  the  author  of  the  Salic 
law  (from  sal,  salt).  The  assessments  were  unequal,  being  very  heavy  in  some  provinces  and 
light  in  others  ;  owing  to  privileges  and  exemptions  purchased  from  the  sovereigns  in  early 
periods.  The  tax  produced  38  millions  of  francs  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XYI.  It  was  a 
grievous  burden,  and  tended  to  hasten  the  revolution  ;  during  which  it  was  abolished  (1790). 

GAELIC  is  the  northern  branch  of  the  Celtic  languages,  Irish,  Erse,  or  Highland  Scottish, 
and  Manx.  The  "Dean  of  Lismore's  book"  (written  1511-51)  contains  Gaelic  poetry;  speci- 
mens were  published  with  translations  in  1862,  by  rev.  T.  M'Lachlan. 

GAETA  (the  ancient  Cajeta),  a  strongly  fortified  Neapolitan  seaport,  has  undergone 
several  remarkable  sieges.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1799  and  1806,  and  by  the 
Austriansin  1815  and  1821.  Here  the  pope,  Pius  IX.,  took  refuge  in  1848,  and  resided  more 
than  a  year.  Here  also  Francis  II.  of  Naples,  with  his  queen  and  court,  fled,  when  Garibaldi 
entered  Naples,  Sept.  7,  1860  ;  and  here  he  remained  till  the  city  was  taken  by  the  Sardinian 
general  Cialdini,  Feb.  13,  1861,  after  a  severe  siege,  uselessly  prolonged  by  a  French  fleet 
remaining  in  the  harbour.  Cialdini  was  created  duke  of  Gaeta. 

•  GAGGING  BILL,  properly  so  called,  meant  to  protect  the  king  and  government  from 
the  harangues  of  seditious  meetings,  was  enacted  in  1795,  when  the  popular  mind  was  much 
excited.  In  Dec.  1819,  soon  after  the  Manchester  afl'ray,  a  bill  for  restraining  public 
meetings  and  cheap  periodical  publications  was  popularly  called  "a  gagging  bill."  Statutes 
coercing  popular  assemblies,  particularly  in  Ireland,  have  been  also  so  designated. 

GALAPAGOS,  islands  ceded  to  the  "United  States  by  Ecuador,  Nov.  3,  1854,  the  British, 
French,  and  other  powers  protesting  against  it. 

GALATIA,  an  ancient  province  of  Asia  Minor.  In  the  3rd  century  B.C.  the  Gauls  under 
Brennus  invaded  Greece,  crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  conquered  the  Troas  278;  were  checked 
by  Attains  in  a  battle  about  239  ;  and  then  settled  in  what  was  called  afterwards  Gallogrcecia 
and  Galatia.  The  country  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire  B.C.  25,  on  the  death  of  the 
king  Amyntas.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  probably  written  A.D.  58. 

GALICIA,  a  province,  N.W.  SPAIN,  was  conquered  by  D.  Junius  Brutus,  136  B.C.,  and 
by  the  Vandals,  A.D.  419  ;  and  was  frequently  subdued  by  successive  invaders.  In  1065,  on 
the  death  of  Ferdinand  I.  king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  when  his  dominions  were  divided,  his 
son  Garcia  became  king  of  Galicia.  Ruling  tyrannically,  he  was  expelled  by  his  brother 
Sancho  ;  returned  at  his  death  in  1072  ;  was  again  expelled  by  his  brother  Alfonso,  1073  ; 
and  died  in  prison  in  1091.  Alfonso,  son  of  "Urraca,  queen  of  Castile,  was  made  king  of 
Galicia  by  her  in  1 109.  He  defended  his  mother,  a  dissolute  woman,  against  her  husband, 
Alfonso  VII.,  and  at  her  death  in  1126,  acquired  Castile,  and  once  more  re-united  the 
kingdoms. — GALICIA  IN  POLAND.  East  Galicia  was  acquired  by  the  emperor  of  Germany  at 
the  partition  in  1772  ;  and  West  Galicia  at  that  of  1795.  The  latter  was  ceded  to  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Warsaw  in  1809  ;  but  recovered  by  Austria  in  1815.  See  Poland,  note. 

GALLERIES.     See  National,  Louvre,  and  Versailles. 

GALL,  ST.  (in  Switzerland).  The  abbey  was  founded  in  the  7th  century,  and  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  town  in  the  loth.  St.  Gall  became  a  canton  of  the  Swiss  confederation 
in  1815. 

GALLEYS  with  three  rows  of  rowers,  tri-remcs,  were  invented  by  the  Corinthians,  786 
B.C.  Blair.  The  terms  "galley  slave,"  and  "condemned  to  the  galleys,"  arose  from  these 
sea  vessels  having  from  25  to  30  benches  on  each  side,  manned  by  four  or  five  slaves  to  each 
bench.  In  France  they  had  a  general  of  galleys,  of  whom  the  baron  de  la  Garde  was  the 
iirst,  1544.  Renault. 


GAL 


327 


GAO 


GALLIPOLI,  a  sea-port  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  128  miles  west  of  Constantinople.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Turks  in  1357,  and  fortified  by  Bajazet  I.  The  first  division  of  the  French 
and  English  armies  proceeding  against  the  Russians  landed  here  in  March  and  April,  1854. 

GALOCHES,  French  for  overshoes,  formerly  of  leather  ;  but  since  1843  made  of  vulcanised 
India  rubber.  The  importation  of  Galoches  was  prohibited  by  3  Edw.  IV.  c.  4  (1463). 

GALVANISM  AND  GALVANO-PLASTICS.     See  under  Electricity. 

GALWAY  (W.  Ireland).  The  ancient  settlers  here  were  divided  into  thirteen  tribes,  a 
distinction  not  yet  forgotten.  It  was  taken  by  Richard  de  Burgo  in  1232.  In  1690  Gahvay 
declared  for  king  James,  but  it  was  invested  and  taken  by  general  Ginckel  immediately  after, 
the  decisive  battle  of  Aughrim,  July  12,  1691.  Here  is  one  of  the  new  colleges,  endowed  by 
government  for  the  advancement  of  learning. in  Ireland,  pursuant  to  act  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  66 
(1845),  inaugurated  Oct.  30,  1849.  See  Colleges.* 

GAMBOGE,  a  medicine  and  pigment,  brought  from  India  by  the  Dutch,  about  1600. 
Hermann  in  1677  announced  that  it  was  derived  from  two  trees  of  Ceylon,  since  ascertained 
to  belong  to  the  order  Guttiferae. 

GAME  LAWS  are  a  remnant  of  the  forest  laws  imposed  by  William  the  Conqueror,  who, 
to  preserve  his  game,  made  it  forfeiture  of  property  to  disable  a  wild  beast ;  and  loss  of  eyes, 
for  a  stag,  buck,  or  boar.  The  clergy  protested  against  ameliorations  of  these  laws,  under 
Henry  III.  The  first  Game  act  passed  in  1496.  Game  certificates  were  first  granted  with  a 
duty  in  1784.  Several  statutes  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  game  have  been,  passed.  The 
Game  act  (i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  32)  greatly  modifying  all  previous  laws,  was  passed  in  1831. 
By  it  the  sale  of  game  is  legalised  at  certain  seasons.  By  the  Game  Poaching  Preventive 
act,  passed  in  1862,  greatly  increased  powers  were  given  to  the  county  police. 

GAMES.  The  candidates  for  athletic  games  in  Greece  were  dieted  on  new  cheese,  dried 
figs,  and  boiled  grain,  with  warm  water,  and  no  meat.  The  games  were  leaping,  foot-races, 
darting,  quoits,  wrestling,  and  boxing.  See  Capitoline,  Isthmian,  Olympic,  Pythian,  Secular 
games,  £c. 

Three  ladies  of  quality  convicted  in  penalties  of 
5oL  each  for  playing  at  Faro  .  March  n,  1797 

Gaming  houses  were  licensed  in  Paris  until      .  1836 

Any  person  losing,  by  betting  or  playing,  more 
than  iooZ.  at  any  one  time,  is  not  compellable 
to  pay  the  same,  16  Chas.  II 1663 

Bonds  or  other  securities  given  for  money  won 
at  play  not  recoverable  ;  and  any  person 
losing  more  than  iol.  may  sue  the  winner  to 
recover  it  back,  9  Anne 1710 

Amended  laws  respecting  games  and  wagers, 
8  <fc  9  Viet.  c.  109  (1845) ;  by  3  Geo.  IV.  c.  114, 
a  gaming-house  keeper  is  to  be  imprisoned 
with  hard  labour ;  and  by  2  &  3  Viet,  gaming- 
houses may  be  entered  by  the  police,  and  all 
persons  present  taken  into  custody. 

Betting-houses  suppressed  ....  1853 

Public  gaming-tables  suppressed  at  Wiesbaden 
and  other  places  in  Germany  .  .  .  1861-2 


Gaming  was  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Saxons  ;  the  loser  was  often  made  a  slave  to 
the  winner,  and  sold  in  traffic  like  other  mer- 
chandise. Camden. 

Act  prohibiting  gaming  to  all  gentlemen  (and 
interdicting  tennis,  cards,  dice,  bowls,  &c.,  to 
inferior  people,  except  at  Christmas  time), 
33  Hen.  VIII 1541 

Gaming-houses  licensed  in  London        .        .     .  1620 

Act  to  prevent  excessive  and  fraudulent  gaming, 
when  all  private  lotteries  and  the  games  of 
Faro,  Basset,  and  Hazard  were  suppressed, 
13  Geo.  II 1739 

The  profits  of  a  well-known  gaming-house  in 
London  for  one  season  have  been  estimated 
at  150,000?.  In  one  night  a  million  of  money 
is  said  to  have  changed  hands  at  this  place. 
Leigh.  The  lord  chancellor  refused  a  bank- 
rupt his  certificate  because  he  had  lost  $1.  at 
one  time  in  gaming  .  .  .  July  17,  1788 


GAMUT.  The  invention  of  the  scale  of  musical  intervals  (commonly  termed  do  or  ut, 
re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  to  which  si  was  added  afterwards),  for  which  the  first  seven  letters  of  the 
alphabet  are  now  employed,  is  mentioned  by  Guido  Aretino,  a  Tuscan  monk,  about  1025. 

GANGES  CANAL,  for  irrigating  the  country  between  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna.  The 
main  line  (525  miles  long)  was  opened  April  8,  1854.  When  completed,  it  will  be  900  miles 
in  length,  and  will  irrigate  not  less  than  1,470,000  acres.  It  is  the  greatest  work  of  the 
kind  in  the  world.  Its  estimated  cost  is  1,555,548^.  The  immense  difficulties  in  its  execution 
were  overcome  by  the  skill  and  perseverance  of  its  engineer,  sir  Proby  Cautley.  In  Oct.  1864, 
sir  Arthur  Cotton  asserted  that  the  work  was  badly  done,  and  the  investment  only  paid 
3  per  cent. 

GAOL  DISTEMPER.     See  Old  Bailey. 

*  In  1858  the  sailing  of  mail  steam  packets  from  Galway  to  America  begun  ;  but  the  subsidy  ceased  in 
May,  1861,  through  the  company's  breach  of  contract,  which  occasioned  much  discussion  in  parliament.  In. 
July,  1863,  the  contract  for  the  conveyance  of  mails  from  Galway  to  America  was  renewed,  75,000^.  having 
been  voted  for  the  purpose.  The  scheme  was  not  successful.  On  Nov.  9  the  steamer  Anylia  struck  on 
the  Black  rock,  and  the  mails  were  taken  to  Dublin.  The  last  packet  sailed  in  Feb.  1864. 


GAR  328  GAS 

GARDENING.  The  first  garden,  Eden,  was  planted  by  God.  See  Gen.  ii.  Gardening 
was  one  of  the  first  arts  that  succeeded  the  art  of  building  houses.  Walpolc.  Gardens 
were  highly  valued  by  the  ancients.  The  Scriptures  abound  with  allusions  to  them,  particu- 
larly the  Song  of  Solomon  and  the  Prophets  ;  and  Christ's  agony  took  place  in  a  garden. 
Xenophon  describes  the  gardens  at  Sardis  ;  and  Epicurus  and  Plato  taught  in  gardens. 
Theophrastus's  History  of  Plants  was  written  about  322  B.C.  Horace,  Virgil,  and  Ovid 
derive  many  images  from  the  garden  (50  B.  c.  to  A.D.  50) ;  and  Pliny's  Tusculan  villa  is  circum- 
stantially described  (about  A.D.  100).  The  Romans  doubtless  introduced  gardening  into 
Britain  (about  A.D.  100),  and  it  was  kept  up  afterwards  by  the  various  religious  orders.  Its 
cultivation  as  an  art  in  England  is  dated  from  the  commencement  of  the  i6th  century,  when 
many  Flemings  came  to  England  in  consequence  of  the  persecutions  of  Philip  II.  Miller's 
valuable  dictionary  was  published  in  1724  ;  the  Horticultural  Society  (which  see)  was  estab- 
lished in  1804  :  London's  valuable  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening  was  first  published  in  1822, 
and  his  Encyclopaedia  of  Plants  in  1829.  See  Botany,  Flowers,  Fruits.  An  act  for  the 
protection  of  gardens,  and  ornamental  grounds  in  cities  was  passed  in  1863. 

GAROTTE,  a  machine  for  strangling  criminals,  used  in  Spain.  The  term  "garotters" 
was  applied  to  the  attempts  to  strangle  made  by  thieves,  very  prevalent  in  the  winter  of 
1862-63.  An  act  was  passed  in  1863  to  punish  these  acts  by  flogging. 

GARTER,  ORDER  OF  THE,  owes  its  origin  to  Edward  III.,  who,  with  a  view  of  recovering 
France,  was  eager  to  draw  the  best  soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest,  and  thereupon, 
projecting  the  revival  of  king  Arthur's  round  table,  he  proclaimed  a  solemn  tilting,  to  invite 
foreigners  and  'others  of  quality  and  courage  to  the  exercise.  The  king,  upon  New  Year's 
day,  1344,  published  royal  letters  of  protection  for  the  safe  coming  and  returning  of  such 
foreign  knights  as  had  a  mind  to  venture  their  reputation  at  the  joust  and  tournaments 
about  to  be  held.  A  table  was  erected  in  Windsor  castle  of  200  feet  diameter,  and  the 
knights  were  entertained  at  the  king's  expense.  In  1346  Edward  gave  his  garter  for  the 
signal  of  a  battle  that  had  been  crowned  with  success  (supposed  to  be  Cressy),  and  being 
victorious  on  sea  and  land,  and  having  David,  king  of  Scotland,  a  prisoner,  he,  in  memory  of 
these  exploits,  is  said  to  have  instituted  this  order,  April  23,  1349.  The  following  were  the 


ORIGINAL  KNIGHTS,    1350. 

Edward,    prince    of    Wales 
(called  the  Black  Prince). 
Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster. 
Thomas,  earl  of  Warwick. 
Piers,  captal  de  Buch. 
Ralph,  earl  of  Stafford. 
William,  earl  of  Salisbury. 
Roger,  earl  of  Mortimer. 

Sir  John  Lisle. 
Barth,  lord  Burghersh. 
John,  lord  Beauchamp. 
John,  lord  Mohun,  of  Dunstar. 
Hugh,  lord  Courtenay. 
Thomas,  lord  Holland. 
Lord  Grey,  of  Codnore. 
Sir  Richard  Fitz-Simori. 
Sir  Miles  Stapleton. 

Sir  Thomas  Wale. 
Sir  Hugh  Wrottesley. 
Sir  Nele  Lorin. 
John,  Lord  Chandos. 
Sir  James  Audley. 
Sir  Otho  Holland. 
Sir  Henry  Earn. 
Sir  San  Daubrichcourt. 
Sir  Walter  Paveley. 

Edward  gave  the  garter  pre-eminence  among  the  ensigns  of  the  order  ;  it  is  of  blue  velvet 
borderecfwith  gold,  with  the  inscription  in  old  French—  "  Honi  soit  qui  mal  ypense," — Evil 
be  to  him  who  evil  thinks.  The  knights  are  installed  at  Windsor  ;  and  were  styled  Equites 
aurece  Periscelidis,  knights  of  the  golden  garter.  Beatson.  The  honour  was  conferred  on  the 
sultan  of  Turkey  in  1856.  The  office  of  GARTER  KING  AT  ARMS  was  instituted  by  Henry  V. 
in  1420,  and  is  one  of  considerable  honour  ;  he  carries  the  rod  and  sceptre  at  every  feast  of 
St  George.*  Spelman.  The  order  of  the  garter  in  Ireland  was  instituted  in  imitation  of  that 
of  England,  by  Edward  IV.  in  1466  ;  but  was  abolished  by  an  act  of  parliament,  10  Hen.  VII. 
1494.  Ashmole's  Instil.  The  number  of  knights  was  increased  in  1786.  Many  knights 
were  admitted  in  1814. 

GASCONY  (S.W.  France)  a  duchy,  part  of  Aquitaine  (which  see}. 

GAS-LIGHTS  :  the  inflammable  aeriform  fluid,  carburetted  hydrogen,  evolved  by  the 
combustion  of  coal,  was  described  by  Dr.  Clayton  in  1739.     Phil.  'Trans. 

Application  of  coal  gas  to  the  purposes  of  illu: 
nation  tried  by  Mr.  Murdoch,  in  Cornwall 


mi- 


Gaslight    introduced  at    Boulton    and  Watt's 


1792 


1807 ;    Pall  Mall,   1809 ;    generally    through 

London 1814 

Mr.   David  Pollock,  father  of  the  chief  baron, 


foundry  in  Birmingham  in  ....  1798  was  governor  of  the  first  "chartered"  gas 

Permanently  used  at  the  cotton-mills  of  Phillips  company. 1812 

and  Lee,  Manchester  (1000  burners  lighted)  1805  Lyceum  Theatre  lit  with  gas  as  an  experiment 

Introduced  in  London,  at  Golden-lane,  Aug.  16,  by  Mr.  Winsor,  1803 ;  the  Haymarket  not  till  1853 


•*  The  patron  saint  of  England.  The  order,  until  king  Edward  VI. 's  time,  was  called  the  order  of  St. 
George.  His  figure  on  horseback,  presented  as  holding  a  spear,  and  killing  the  dragon,  was  first  worn  by 
the  knights  of  the  institution.  It  is  suspended  by  a  blue  ribbon  across  the  body  from  the  shoulder. — St. 
George  was  a  tribune  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian  ;  and  being  a  man  of  great  courage,  was  a  favourite  ;  but 
complaining  to  the  emperor  of  his  severities  towards  the  Christians,  and  arguing  in  their  defence,  he  was 
put  in  prison,  and  beheaded,  April  23,  290.— On  that  day,  in  1192,  Richard  I.  defeated  Saladin. 


GAS 


GAU 


GAS-LIGHTS,  continued 

Gas  first  used  in  Dublin,  1818  ;  the  streets  gene- 
rally lighted Oct.  1825 

Gas-lighting  introduced  in  Paris,  1819  ;  ten  gas 
companies  in  Paris  ....  July  1865 

Sydney,  in  Australia,  was  lit  with  gas  May  25,  1841 

The  gas-pipes  in  and  round  London  extend  up- 
wards of  2000  miles,  and  are  daily  increasing. 
It  was  said  in  1860,  that  of  the  gas  supply  of 
London  a  leakage  of  9  per  cent,  took  place 
ugh  the  faulty  joints  of  the  pipes. — The 
of  gas  is  regulated  by  acts  passed  in  .  1860 


Processes  to  obtain  illuminating  gas  from  water 
have  been  patented  by  Cruickshanks  (1839), 
White  (1849),  and  others. 

Gas-meters  patented  by  John  Malam  (1820),  sir 
W.  Congreve  (1824),  Samuel  Clegg  (1830),  Na- 
than'Defries  (1838),  and  others. 

Explosion  of  a  large  gasometer  at  the  London 
Gas-light  Company's  works  at  Nine-elms  :  10 
persons  killed,  and  many  injured  (first  acci- 
dent of  the  kind)  .  .  .  .  Oct.  31,  1865 


Lon< 

r 

GASES,  in  chemistry,  permanently  elastic  aeriform  fluids.  See  Oxygen,  Hydrogen,  and 
Nitrogen.  Prof.  Thos.  Graham's  paper  on  the  law  of  the  diffusion  of  gases  appeared  in  1834. 
Furnaces  in  which  gases  are  used  as  fuel  were  devised  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Siemens,  and  employed 
in  glass  works,  &c.,  in  1861.  Lenoir's  gas-engine,  in  which  the  motive  power  is  obtained  by 
the  ignition  of  combined  gases  by  electricity,  was  patented  by  him  in  1861.  In  Dec.  1864, 
143  of  these  engines  were  working  in  Paris.  They  were  introduced  into  England  in  1864. 

GASTEIN  (Salzburg,  Austria).  The  long  discussion  between  Austria  and  Prussia 
respecting  the  disposal  of  the  duchies  conquered  from  Denmark,  was  closed  by  a  provisional 
~  vention  signed  here  by  their  ministers  (Blum  for  Austria  and  Bismarck  for  Prussia), 

~   14,  1865.*    This  convention  was  severely  censured  by  the  other  powers. 

GATESHEAD,  a  borough  in  Durham,  on  the  Tyne,  opposite  Newcastle.  At  Gateshead? 
fell,  William  I.  defeated  Edgar  Atheling  in  1068.  It  was  made  a  parliamentary  borough  by 
the  reform  bill  in  1832.  Between  twelve  and  one  o'clock,  Oct.  6,  1854,  a  fire  broke  out  in 
a  worsted  manufactory  here,  which  shortly  after  set  fire  to  a  bond  warehouse  containing  a 
great  quantity  of  nitre,  sulphur,  &c. ,  causing  a  terrific  explosion,  felt  at  nearly  twenty  miles' 
distance,  and  totally  destroying  many  buildings,  and  burying  many  persons  in  the  ruins. 
At  the  moment  of  the  explosion,  large  masses  of  blazing  materials  flew  over  the  Tyne  and 
set  fire  to  many  warehouses  in  Newcastle.  About  fifty  lives  were  lost,  and  very  many  persons 
were  seriously  wounded.  The  damage  was  estimated  at  about  a  million  pounds. 

GAUGES  (in  railways).  Much  discussion  (termed  "the  battle  of  the  gauges")  began 
among  engineers  about  1833.  Mr.  I.  M.  Brunei  approved  of  the  broad,  adopted  on  the 
Great  Western  railway ;  and  Mr.  R.  Stephenson,  Joseph  Locke,  and  others,  of  the  narrow, 
that  now  almost  universally  adopted,  even  by  the  Great  "Western. 

GAUGING,  measuring  the  contents  of  any  vessel  of  capacity,  with  respect  to  wine  and 
other  liquids,  was  established  by  a  law  27  Edw.  III.  1352. 

GAUL,  Gallia,  the  ancient  name  of  France  and  Belgium.  The  natives,  termed  by  the 
Greeks  Galatse,  by  the  Romans  Galli  or  Celtse,  came  originally  from  Asia,  and  invading 
Eastern  Europe,  were  driven  westward,  and  settled  in  Spain  (in  Gallicia),  North  Italy  (Gallia 
Cisalpina),  France  and  Belgium  (Gallia  Transalpiua),  and  the  British  isles  (the  lands  of  the 
Cymry  or  Gaels). 

AndbyProbus A.  ».  275,  277 

Who  introduces  the  culture  of  the  vine  .  .  280 
Maximian  defeats  the  Franks  .  .  .  281 
Constantino  proclaimed  emperor  in  Gaul . 
Julian  arrives  to  relieve  Gaul,  desolated  by  bar- 
barians ;  defeats  the  Alemanni  at  Strasburg . 
Julian  proclaimed  emperor  at  Paris,  360;  dies  363 
Gaul  harassed  by  the  Alemanni  .  .  .  365-377 
Invasion  and  settlement  of  the  Bui-gundians, 

Franks,  Visigoths,  &c 378-450 

Clodion,  chief  of  the  Salian  Franks,  invades 

Gaul ;  is  defeated  by  Aetius        .        . 
The  Huns  under  Attila  defeated  by  Aetius  near 

Chalons 

^Egidius,  the  Roman  commander,  murdered    . 
Childeric  the  Frank  takes  Paris     .         ... 

All  Gaul,  west  of  the  Ehone,  ceded  to  the 
Visigoths   ........ 

End  of  the  Roman  empire  of  the  West,  and 
establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks 
(See  France.) 


600 


39° 


277 


The  Phocaeans  found  Massilia,  now  Marseilles 

B.C. 

The  Gauls  under  Brennus  defeat  the  Romans 
at  the  river  Allia,  and  sack  Rome  ;  are  de- 
feated and  expelled  by  Camillus,  July  13,  B.C. 
The  Gauls  overrun  Northern  Greece,  280  B.C.  ; 
are  beaten  at  Delphi,  279 ;  and  by  Sosthenes, 

king  of  Macedon 

They  assist  Hannibal 218,  &c. 

The  Romans  conquer  Gallia  Cisalpina,  220  ;  in- 
vade Gallia  Transalpina,  with  various  success, 

121-58 

They  colonise  Aix  (123  B.C.)  ;  and  Narbonne  .  118 
Julius  Caesar  subdues  Gaul  in  8  campaigns  .  .  58-50 

Lyons  founded 41 

Druids'  religion  proscribed  by  Claudius  A.D.  43 
Adrian  visits  and  favours  Gaul,  hence  called 

Restorer  of  the  Gauls 120 

Introduction  of  Christianity  .  .  .  .  160 
Christians  persecuted .  .  177,202,257,286,288 
The  Franks  and  others  defeated  by  Aurelian  .  241 


306 
357 


447 


475 
476 


*  Austria  was  to  have  the  temporary  government  of  Holstein,  and  Prussia  that  of  Sleswig  ;  the 
establishment  of  a  German  fleet  was  proposed,  with  Kiel  as  a  federal  harbour,  held  by  Prussia ;  Lauen- 
burp  was  absolutely  ceded  to  Prussia,  and  the  king  was  to  pay  Austria  as  a  compensation  2  <;oo  ooo 
Danish  dollars. 


GAU 


330 


GEN 


GAUNTLET,  an  iron  glove,  first  introduced  in  the  I3th  century,  perhaps  about  1225. 
It  was  a  part  of  the  full  suit  of  armour,  being  the  armour  for  the  hand.  It  was  commonly 
thrown  down  as  a  challenge  to  an  adversary. 

GAUZE,  a  fabric  much  prized  amorg  the  Roman  people.  "  Brocades  and  damasks 
and  tabbies  and  gauzes,  have  been  lately  brought  over"  (to  Ireland).  Dean  Swift,  in  1698. 
The  manufacture  of  gauze  and  articles  of  a  like  fabric  at  Paisley,  in  Scotland,  was  commenced 
about  1759. 

GAVEL-KIND.  The  custom  of  dividing  paternal  estates  in  land  equally  among  male 
children,  without  any  distinction,  is  derived  from  the  Saxons  about  550.  This  usage  is 
almost  universal  in  Kent,  where  it  was  first  practised.  By  the  Irish  law  of  gavel-kind,  even 
bastards  inherited.  Davies.  Not  only  the  lands  of  the  father  were  equally  divided  among 
all  his  sons,  but  the  lands  of  the  brother  also  among  all  his  brethren,  if  he  had  no  issue  of 
his  own.  Law  Diet. 

GAZETTES.     See  Newspapers. 

GAZA,  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  of  which  Samson  'carried  off  the  gates  about  1120  B.C. 
(Judges  xvi.)  It  was  taken  by  Alexander  after  a  long  siege,  332  ;  and  near  to  it  Ptolemy 
defeated  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  312  B.C.  It  was  taken  by  Saladin  A,D.  1170;  and  by 
Bonaparte,  March  1799. 

GEMS.  The  ancient  Greeks  excelled  in  cutting  precious  stones,  of  which  many  speci- 
mens are  extant.  The  art  was  successfully  revived  in  Italy  in  the  I5th  century.  In  Feb. 
1860,  Herz's  collection  of  gems  was  sold  for  io,ooo/.  The  rev.  C.  King  published  his 
"Antique  Gems  "in  1860,  and  the  "Natural  History  of  Precious  Stones  and  Gems  "in 
1865.  Artificial  gems  have  been  recently  produced  by  chemists  (Ebelmen,  Deville,  Wohler, 
and  others),  1858-65. 

GENEALOGY  (from  the  Greek  genea,  birth,  descent),  the  art  of  tracing  pedigrees,  &c. 
The  earliest  pedigrees  are  those  contained  in  the  5th,  loth,  and  nth  chapters  of  Genesis. 
The  first  book  of  Chronicles  contains  many  genealogies.  The  pedigree  of -Christ  is  given 
in  Matt.  i.  and  Luke  iii.  Many  books  on  the  subject  have  been  published  in  all  European 
countries  ;  one  at  Magdeburg,  Theatrum  Genealogicum,  by  Heuninges,  in  1598.  Anderson, 
Royal  Genealogies,  London,  1732. — Sims'  Manual  for  the  Genealogist,  &c.,  1856,  will  be 
found  a  useful  guide.  The  works  of  Collins  (1756  et  seq.),  Edmondson  (1764-84),  and  Nicolas 
(1825  and  1857),  on  the  British  peerage,  are  highly  esteemed.  The  Genealogical  society, 
London,  was  established  in  1853. 

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY.     See  Church  of  Scotland. 
GENERAL  COUNCILS.     See  Councils. 
GENERAL  WARRANTS.     See  Warrants. 

GENERALS.  Matthew  de  Montmorency  was  the  first  officer  honoured  with  the  title  of 
general  of  the  French  armies,  1203.  Renault.  It  is  observed  by  M.  Balzac  that  cardinal 
Richelieu  first  coined  the  word  Generalissimo,  upon  his  taking  the  supreme  command  of  the 
French  armies  in  Italy,  in  1629.  See  Commanders-in-  Chief. 

GENEVA,  a  town  of  the  Allobroges,  a  Gallic  tribe,  58  B.C.  ;  became  part  of  the  empire 
of  Charlemagne,  about  A.D.  800 ;  and  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  426. 


The  Republic  founded  in 

Emancipated  from  Savoy 

Allied  to  the  Swiss  Cantons  in    . 

Calvin  settling  here,  and  obtaining  much  in- 
fluence, Geneva  was  termed  the  ' '  Rome  of 
Calvinism  " about 

Through  him  Servetus  burnt  for  heresy    . 

Insurrection,  Feb.  1781  :  about  1000  Genevese, 
in  consequence,  applied,  in  1782,  to  earl 
Temple,  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  for  per- 
mission to  settle  in  that  country  :  the  Irish 
parliament  voted  50,000^.  to  defray  the  ex- 
pense of  their  journey,  and  to  purchase  them 
lands  near  Waterford.  Many  of  the  fugitives 


1512 
1526 
1584 


1533 
1553 


came  to  Ireland  in  July,  1783,  but  they  soon 
after  abandoned  it ;  many  Genevese  settled 

in  England 1:784 

Another  revolution      ....         July,  1794 
Geneva  incorporated  with  Prance  .        April  26,  1798 
Admitted  into  the  Swiss  Confederation,  Dec.  30,  1813 
Revolution,  through  an  endeavour  of  the  Catho- 
lic cantons  to  introduce  J  esuits  as  teachers  ; 
a  provisional  government  set  up      .      Oct.  7,  1848 

[The  scheme  was  withdrawn.] 
Election  riots,   with  loss  of  life,  through  the 

indiscretion  of  M.  Fazy        .         .        Aug.  22,  1864 
4gth  annual  meeting  of  the  Helvetic  Society  of 
Natural  Sciences  held      .        .       Aug.  21-23,  ^^5 


GENOA  (N.  Italy).     Its  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Ligures,  who  submitted  to  the 
Romans  115  B.C.     It  underwent  the  revolutions  of  the  Roman  empire  till  A.D.  950. 


GENOA,  continued. 

becomes  a  free  commercial  state,  about .  1000 

nth  Pisa 1119-1284 

jderic  II.   captures  22  galleys,   and  vainly 

besieges  Genoa 1241 

The  families  of  Doria  and  Spinola  obtain  as- 
cendency           about  1270 

The  Genoese  destroy  the  naval  power  of  Pisa  at 

Melora Aug.  13,  1284 

War  with  Venice 1293-99 

Kafaele  Doria  and  Galeotto  Spinola,  appointed 

captains 1335 

Simon  Boccanegra  made  the  first  doge,  1339  ; 

set  aside  by  the  nobles,  1344;  re-appointed  .  1356 
Great  discord  ;  many  doges  appointed  .  .  .  1394 
Genoa  successively  under  the  protection  of 

France,  1396  ;  of  Naples,  1410  ;  of  Milan,  1419  ; 

it  loses  and  regains  its  freedom  frequently, 

1421-1512 
Taken  and  sacked  by  the  Spaniards  and  Italians 

under  Prosper  Colonna 1522 

Andrew  Doria,  with  the  fleet,  restores  the  inde- 


pendence of  his  country 1628 

Genoa  bombarded  by  the  French,  1684  ;  by  the 
British,  1745;  taken  by  the  imperialists,  who 
are  soon  after  expelled,  Nov.  9,  1746  ;  another 

siege  raised June  10,  1747 

The  celebrated  bank  failed 1750 

Genoa  made  the  Ligurian  republic     .        .         .1796 
The  city,  blockaded  by  a  British  fleet  and  Aus- 
trian army,  until  literally  starved,  was  evacu- 
ated by  capitulation,  May  and  June  ;  but  it 
was  surrendered  to  the   French  soon  aft 
their  victory  at  Marengo     .        .        June  14,  1800 
Genoa  annexed  to  the  French  empire,  June, 
1805  ;  surrenders  to  the  English  and  Sicilians 

April  18.  1814 

United  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia    .         .  Dec.     ,, 

The  city  seized  by  insurgents,   who,   after  a 

murderous  struggle,  drove  out  the  garrison 

and  proclaimed  the  Ligurian  republic,  April 

3,  but  surrendered  to  general  La  Marmora, 

April  ii,  1849 


GENS-D'ARMES  were  anciently  the  king's  horse-guards  only,  but  afterwards  the  king's 
gardes-du-corps  ;  the  rausqueteers  and  light-horse  were  reckoned  among  them.  There  was 
also  a  company  of  gentlemen  (whose  number  was  about  250)  bearing  this  name.  Scots 
guards  were  about  the  person  of  the  kings  of  France  from  the  time  of  St.  Louis,  who 
reigned  in  1226.  They  were  organised  as  a  royal  corps  by  Charles  VII.  about  1441.  The 
younger  sons  of  Scottish  nobles  were  usually  the  captains  of  this  guard.  The  name  gens- 
d'armes  was  afterwards  given  to  the  police  ;  but  becoming  obnoxious  was  changed  to 
"municipal  guard  "  in  1830. 

GENTLEMAN  (from  gentiles,  of  a  gens,  a  race  or  clan).  The  Gauls  observing  that  during 
the  empire  of  the  Romans  the  Scutarii  and  Gentiles  had  the  best  appointments  of  all  the 
soldiers,  applied  to  them  the  terms  ecuyers  and  gcntilshommes.  This  distinction  of  gentlemen 
was  much  in  use  in  England,  and  was  given  to  the  well  descended  about  1430.  Sidney. 
Gentlemen  by  blood  were  those  who  could  show  four  descents  from  a  gentleman  who  had  been 
created  by  the  king  by  letters  patent. 

GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS  (formerly  styled  the  Band  of  Gentlemen  Pensioners)  is  the 
oldest  corps  in  England,  with  the  exception  of  the  Yeoman  of  the  Guard.  The  band  was 
instituted  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1509,  and  was  originally  composed  entirely  of  gentlemen  of  noble 
blood,  whom  he  named  his  pensioners  or  spears.  William  IV.  commanded  that  it  should  be 
called  his  Majesty's  Honourable  Corps  of  Gentlemen-at-Arms,  March  7,  1834.  Curling. 

GEOGRAPHY.  The  first  records  we  have  of  geographical  knowledge  are  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  in  the  book"of  Joshua.  Homer  describes  the  shield  of  Achilles  as  representing 
the  earth  surrounded  by  the  sea,  and  also  the  countries  of  Greece,  islands  of  the  Archipelago, 
and  site  of  Troy.  Iliad.  The  priests  taught  that  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphos  was  the 
centre  of  the  world.  Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor  of  geographical  maps,  about 
568  B.C.  Hipparchus  attempted  to  reduce  geography  to  a  mathematical  basis,  about  135  B.C. 
It  was  first  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary  and  Spain,  about  A.D.  1201.  Lenglet. 
The  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass  is  the  important  connecting  link  between  ancient 
and  modern  geography.  The  modern  maps  and  charts  were  introduced  into  England  by 
Bartholomew  Columbus  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a  western  continent, 
A.D.  1489.  Geography  is  now  divided  into  mathematical,  physical,  and  political.  The  study 
has  been  greatly  promoted  during  the  present  century  by  expeditions  at  the  expense  of  various 
governments  and  societies.  The  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London  was  established  in 
1830  ;  that  of  Paris  in  1821. 

GEOLOGY,  the  science  of  the  earth,  has  been  the  subject  of  philosophical  speculations 
from  the  time  of  Homer  ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  been  cultivated  in  China  many  years  before 
the  Christian  era.  It  occupied  the  attention  of  Pliny,  Avicenna,  and  the  Arabian  writers. 


In  1574  Mercati  wrote  concerning  the  fossils  in  the 
pope's  museum  :  Cesalpino,  Majoli,  and  others 
(1597),  Steno  (1669),  Scilla  (1670),  Quirini  (1676), 
Plot  and  Lister  (1678),  Leibnitz  (1680)  recorded 
observations,  and  put  forth  theories  on  the  various 
changes  in  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

Ilooke  (1668),  in  his  work  on  Earthquakes,  said  that 
fossils,  "as  monuments  of  nature,  were  more 


certain  tokens  of  antiquity  than  coins  or  medals, 

and,  though  difficult,  it  wotild  not  be  impossible 

to  raise  a  chronolotjy  out  ofttiem." 
Burnet's  "Theory  of  the  Earth,"  appeared  in  1690, 

Whiston's  in  1696. 
Buffon's  geological  views  (1749)  were  censured  by 

the  Sorbonnein.  1751,  and  recanted  in  consequence. 

The  principle  he  renounced  was  that  the  present 


GEO 


332 


GEO 


GEOLOGY,  continued. 

condition  of  the  eai-th  is  due  to  secondary  causes, 
and  that  these  same  causes  will  produce  further 


establishing  a  school  of  mines  there  in  1804-7, 
declined. 


changes.     His  more  eminent  fellow-labourers  and    In  1807  the  Geological  Society  of  London  was  estab- 
successors    were    Gesner    (1758),    Michell    (1760),        lished,  which  by  collecting 


Raspe  (1762-73),  Pallas  and  Saussure  (1793-1800). 

Werner  (1775)  ascribed  all  rocks  to  an  aqueous  origin, 
and  even  denied  the  existence  of  volcanoes  in 
primitive  geological  times,  and  had  many  followers, 
Kii-wan,  De  Luc,  &c. — Hutton  (1788)  supported 
by  Playfair  (1801 ),  warmly  opposed  Werner's  views, 
and  asserted  that  the  principal  changes  in  the 
earth's  crust  are  due  to  the  energy  of  fire.  The 
rival  parties  were  hence  termed  Neptunists  and 
Vulcanists. 

William  Smith,  the  father  of  British  geology  (who 
had  walked  over  a  large  part  of  England)  drew  up 
a  Tabular  View  of  British  Strata,  in  1799,  and  pub- 
lished it  and  his  Geological  Map  of  England  and 
Wales,  1812-15. 

In  1803  the  Royal  Institution  possessed  the  best 
geological  collection  in  London,  collected  by  H. 
Davy,  C.  Hatchett,  and  others  ;  the  proposal  of 
sir  John  St.  Aubyn,  sir  Abraham  Hume,  and  the 
right  hon.  C.  F.  Greville,  to  aid  the  government  in 


a  great  mass  of  new 

data  greatly  teiided  to  check  the  disposition  to 
theorise,  and  led  to  the  introduction  of  views 
midway  between  those  of  Werner  and  Hutton. 

In  1835  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Henry)  Da  la  Beche 
suggested  the  establishment  of  the  present  Museum 
of  Geology,  which  began  at  Craig's  Court,  and 
which  was  removed  to  its  present  position  in 
Jermyn-street.  To  him  is  also  due  the  valuable 
geological  mips  formed  on  the  ordnance  survey. 
The  building  was  erected  by  Mr.  Pennethorne,  and 
opened  in  1851.  Attache  1  to  the  museum  are  the 
Mining  Records  office,  a  lecture  theatre,  labora- 
tories, &c.  Sir  H.  De  la  Beche,  the  first  director, 
died  April  13,  1855,  and  was  succeeded  by  sir  R. 
I.  Murchison.  A  similar  institution  was  estab- 
lished at  Calcutta,  in  1840,  by  the  E.  I.  Company. 

The  English  standard  works  on  Geology  at  the 
present  time  are  ;those  of  Lyell,  Phillips,  De  la 
Beche,  Murchison,  Mantell,  and  Ansted  (1865). 


The  strata  composing  the  earth's  crust  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes :  ist,  those  generally 
attributed  to  the  agency  of  water;  2nd,  to  the  action  of  fire,  which  may  be  subdivided  as  follows  : 

Aqueous  formation,  stratified,  rarely  crystalline 
Igneous  formations,  unstratified,  crystalline 
Fossiliferous,  or  Sedimentary,  rocks  are  divided  into  three  great  series  : — 


Sedementary  or  Fossiliferous  rocks. 
Metamorphic  or  Unf ossiliferous. 
Volcanic,  as  Basalt,  &c. 
Plutonic,  as  Granite,  &c. 


The  Palaeozoic  (most  ancient  forms  of  life),  or 

Primary. 
The  Mesozoic  (middle  life  period),  or  Secondary. 


The  Neozoic  or  Cainozoic  (more  recent  forms  of  life), 
or  Tertiary. 


NEOZOIC  ; 
I.  POST  TERTIARY  : 
A.      Post-Pliocene  : 

1.  Recent:     Marine  strata;    with    human 

remains;  Danish  peat;  kitchen-mid- 
dens ;  bron/e  and  stone  implements ; 
Swiss  lake-dwellings  ;  temple  of  Serapis 
at  Puzzuoli. 

2.  Post-Pliocene:   Brixham   cave,  with  flint 

knives,  and  bones  of  living  and  extinct 
quadrupeds ;  ancient  valley  gravels ; 
glacial  drift;  ancient  Nile  mud;  post 
glacial  N.  American  deposits  ;  remains 
of  mastodon;  Australian  breccias. 

II.  TERTIARY  OR  CAINOZOIC  SERIES: 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  FOSSILIFEROUS  STRATA. 

rag;     Weald 


B.  Pliocene  : 

3.  Newer  Pliocene(or  Pleistocene)  Mammalian 
beds,  Norwich  Crag.  [Marine  shells.'] 

4  Older  Pliocene :  Red  and  Coralline  Crag 
(Suffolk,  Antwerp). 

C .  5,6,  Miocene :  Upper  and  Lower ;  Bordeaux ; 

Virginia  sands  and  Zouraine  beds ; 
Pikerme"  deposits  near  Athens ;  vol- 
canic tuff  and  limestone  of  the  Azores, 
&c.  ;  brown  coal  of  Germany,  &c. 
[Mastodon,  Gigantic  Elk,  Salaman- 
der, &c.]  i  I. 

D.  7,  8,  9.  Eocene  :  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower ;  | 

Freshwater  and  Marine  beds  ;   Barton  : 
Clays;      Bracklesham     Sands;      Paris 
Gyp->um ;   London  Plastic,  and  Thanet  '  K 
Clays.     [Palms,  Birds,  &c.] 

III.  SECONDARY  OR  MESOZOIC  SERIES: 

E.  10.  Cetaceous:      Upper;     British 


Clay ;     Hastings    Sand. 
[Iguanodon,  Hylceosaurus,  &c.] 

F.  12.  Oolite:  Upper;    Purbeck  beds,   Portland 

Stone  and  Sand,  Kimmeridge  Clay ; 
Lithographic  Stone  of  Solenhofen  with 
Archceopteryx.  [Fish.] 

13.  Middle:     Calcareous    Grit,     Coral    Rag, 

Oxford  Clay,  Kelloway  Rock.  \Belem- 
nites  and  Ammonites.] 

14.  Lower:    Cornbrash,  Forest  Marble,  Brad- 

ford Clay,  Great  Oolite,  Stonesfield  Slate, 
Fuller's  Earth,  Inferior  Oolite.  [Ichthyo- 
saurus, Plesiosaurus,  Pterodactyl.] 

G.  15.  Lias:  Lias  Clay  and  Marl  Stone.  [Ammo- 

nites, Equisetum,  Amphibia,  Laby- 

rinthodon.] 
H.  16.  Trias  :  Upper ;    White  Lias,   Red  Clay, 

with  Salt  in  Cheshire,   Coal  Fields  in 

Virginia, N.  A    [Fish,  Dromatherium.} 
17.  Middle    or    Muschelkalk    (wanting    in 

England).        [Encrinus;      Placodus 

t 
18. 


Chalk ; 

Maestricht  bedsT— Chalk  with  and  with- 
out Flint?,  Chalk    Marl,   Upper  Green 
Sand,  Gault,  L'jwer  Green  Sand.  [Meso- 
saurus  :  Fish,  Mollusks,  &c.] 
ii.  Lower  (or  Neocomian  or  Wea'den) ;  Kentish 


New  Red  Sandstone  of  ^Lanca- 
shire  and  Cheshire.  [Labyrinthodon; 
Footprints  of  Birds  and  Reptiles.] 

IV.  PRIMARY  OR  PALEOZOIC  SERIES  : 

19.  Permian  :    Magnesian    Limestone,    Marl 

Slates,  Red  Sandstone  and  Shale,  Dolo- 
mite ;  kupferschief er.  [Firs,  Fishe s, 
Amphibia.] 

20,  21.  Carboniferous,    Upper    and    Lower : 

Coal  Measures,  Millstone  Grit,  Mountain 
.  Limestone.  [Ferns,  Calamites,  Coal.] 

22,  23,  24.  Devonian,  Upper,  Middle,  and 
Lower :  Tilestones,  Cornstones,  and 
Marls,  Quartzose  Conglomerates. 
[Shells,  Fish,  Trilobites.] 

25,  26,  27.  Silurian,  Upper,  Middle  and 
Lower :  Ludlow  Shales,  Aymestry 
Limestone,  Wenlock  Limestone,  Wen- 


M. 


GEOLOGY,  continued. 

lock  Shale,  Caradoc  Sandstone,  Llan- 
deilo  Flags ;  Niagara  Limestone. 
[Sponges,  Corals,  Trilobites, 
Shells.} 

28,  29.  Cambrian,  Upper  and  Lower :  Bala 
Limestone,  Festiniog  Slates,  Bangor 
Slates  and  Grits,  Wicklow  Rock, 
Hasleets  Grits,  Huronian  Series  of 
Canada.  [Zoophytes,  Lingu  la,  Ferns, 
Sigillaria,  Stigmariay  Calamites, 


and  Cryptogamia.] 
Lauren/ium,    Upper  Gneiss  of  the  Heb- 
rides (?) :  Labradorite  Series,  N.  of  the 
St.   Lawrence:  Adirondack  Mountains. 
New  York. 

.  Lower :  Gneiss  and  Quartzites,  with 
Interstratified  Limestones,  in  one  of 
which,  1000  feet  thick,  occurs  a  fora- 
minifer,  Eozoon  Canadense,  the 
oldest  known  fossil. 


GEOMETRY,  so  termed  from  its  original  application  to  measuring  the  earth.  Its  origin 
ascribed  to  the  Egyptians  ;  the  annual  inundations  of  the  Nile  having  given  lise  to  it 
•  carrying  away  the  landmarks  and  the  boundaries  of  farms.  Thales  introduced  geometry 
ito  Greece,  about  600  B.C.  Euclid's  Elements  were  compiled  about  300  B.C.  The  doctrine 
curves  originally  attracted  the  attention  of  geometricians  from  the  conic  sections,  which 
;  introduced  by  Plato  about  390  B.C.  The  conchoid  curve  was  invented  by  Nicomedes, 
B.t1.  The  science  of  geometry  was  taught  in  Europe  in  the  I3th  century.  Books  on 
jometry  and  astronomy  were  destroyed  in  England  as  infected  with  magic,  7  Edw.  VI. 
52.  Stow.  Simson's  celebrated  edition  of  Euclid  first  appeared  in  1756. 

GEORGE.     A  gold  coin  current  at  6s.  8e£.  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.     LeaJce. 

GEORGE,  ST.  The  tutelary  saint  of  England,  and  adopted  as  patron  of  the  order  of 
ic  garter  by  Edward  III.  His  day  is  April  23.  See  Knighthood. 

GEORGES'  CONSPIRACY,  in  France.  General  Moreau,  general  Pichegru,  Georges 
?adoudal,  who  was  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Georges,  and  others,  were  arrested  at 
5aris,  charged  writh  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  Bonaparte,  and  for  the  restoration  of 
XVI II.,  Feb.  1804.  Pichegru  was  found  strangled  in  prison,  April  6.  The  conspirators 
rere  tried,  June  9,  wrhen  seventeen  were  sentenced  to  death,  and  many  to  imprisonment, 
[oreau  was  suffered  to  leave  France,  and  was  escorted  from  the  Temple  to  embark  for 
imerica,  June  22.  In  1813  he  was  killed  before  Dresden  (which  see). 

GEORGIA,  the  ancient  Iberia,  now  a  province  of  S.  Russia,  near  the  Caucasus,  submitted 
Alexander,  323  B.C.,  but  threw  off  the  yoke  of  his  successors.  It  was  subjugated  to  Rome 
Pompey,  65  B.  c. ,  but  retained  its  own  sovereigns.  Christianity  was  introduced  into  it  in 
ie  3rd  century.  In  the  8th  century,  after  a  severe  struggle,  Georgia  was  subdued  by  the 
Lrab  caliphs  ;  by  the  Turkish  sultan  Alp-Arslan,  1068  ;  and  by  the  Tartar  hordes,  1235. 
m  the  I4th  to  the  i8th  centuries,  Georgia  was  successively  held  by  the  Persian  and 
kish  monarchs.  In  1740  Nadir  Shah  established  part  of  Georgia  as  a  principality,  of 
which  the  last  ruler,  Heraclius,  surrendered  his  territories  to  the  czar  in  1799  ;  and  in  1802 
Georgia  was  declared  tc^be  a  Russian  province.— GEORGIA,  IN  NORTH  AMERICA,  was  settled 
by  gen.  Oglethorpe,  in**! 732.  Separating  from  the  congress  of  America,  it  surrendered  to 
the  British,  Dec.  ti  778  ;  and  its  possession  was  of  vast  importance  to  the  royalists  in  the  then 
war.  Count  d'Estaing  joined  the  American  general  Lincoln,  and  made  a  desperate  attack  on 
Georgia,  which  failed,  and  the  French  fleet  returned  home  ;  the  colony  was  given  up  to  the 
Union  by  the  British  in  1783.  It  seceded  from  the  Union,  by  ordinance,  Jan.  18,  1861,  and 
was  overrun  by  Sherman  in  1864-5.  See  United  States.— GEORGIA,  in  the  Pacific,  was  visited 
by  captain  Cook  in  1775. 

GEORGIUM  S1DUS,  the  first  name  of  the  planet  Uranus  (which  see). 

GERMAINS,  ST.  near  Paris,  where  James  II.  of  England  resided  in  state  after  his  abdi- 
cation, in  1689,  and  where  he  died,  Sept.  16,  1701. 

GERMANIC   CONFEDERATION,  constituted  by  the  Allies,    1815,  in   place  of  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  (which  see),  now  consists  of—- 


The empire  of  Austria  ;  the  kingdoms  of  Prussia, 
Hanover,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wurtemberg ;  7 
grand-duchies  (Baden,  Hesse,  &c.);  8  duchies 
(Brunswick,  &c.)  ;  12  principalities  and  i  lordship ; 
4  free  cities  (Frankfort,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and 


Liibeck) ;  the  late  Danish  duchies  (Schleswig  and 
Holstein) ;  the  duchies  of  Luxemburg  and  Lem- 
burg  belonging  to  Holland.  Population  of  the 
whole,  in  1853,  about  43i  millions. — Baron  Kubeck, 
President  since  May  29,  1859. 


GERMANY  (Germania  Alemania),  anciently,  as  now,, divided  into  several  independent 
states.  The  Germans  long  withstood  the  attempts  of  the  Romans  to  subdue  them  ;  and 
although  that  people  conquered  some  parts  of  the  country,  they  were  expelled  before  the  close 
of  the  3rd  century.  In  the  5th  century  the  arms  of  the  Huns  and  othej-  tribes  prevailed 
over  the  greater  portion  of  Germany.  These  were  subjugated  by  Charlemagne  in  the  latter 


GER 


334 


GER 


part  of  the  8th  century.  He  took  the  title  of  emperor,  entailing  the  dignity  upon  his  family  ; 
but  after  his  race  became  extinct  in  911,  the  rank  was  made  elective.  A  member  of  the 
house  of  Austria  was  elected  (almost  uninterruptedly)  from  1437  until  1804.  Germany  was 
divided  into  circles  in  1512  ;  formed  into  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  in  1804,  and  into 
the  Germanic  Confederation  in  1815.  See  both  articles,  Austria,  &c. 


The  Teutones  united  with  the  Cymry,  defeat 
the  Romans  in  Illyria       .        .         .        .   B.C.     113 

After  varying  success  are  defeated  by  Marius    .     102 
Hermann    or    Armiuius,    the    German    hero, 

destroys  the  Roman  legion  under  Varus  A.D.        9 
Great  irruption  of  Germanic  tribes  into  Gaul  450,  &c. 
.     Charlemagne  after  a  long  contest  subdues  the 
\         Saxons,  who  become  Christians  .        .  772^785 

is  crowned  emperor  of  the  West  at  Rome    .     800 
He  adds  a  second  head  to  the  eagle  to  denote 
that  the  empires  of  Rome  and  Germany  are 
united  in  him       .......     802 

Louis  (le  Ddbonnaire)  separates  Germany  from 

France 839-840 

The  German  princes  assert  their  independence, 

and  Conrad  I.  of  Franconia  reigns  .  ..911 
[The  electoral  character  assumed  about  this 

time.     See  Hectors.]    ~ 

Reign  of  Henry  I.  [king],  surnamed  the  Fow- 
ler ;  he  vanquishes  the  Huns,  Danes,  Vandals, 

and  Bohemians 918-934 

Otho  I.  extends  his  dominions,  and  is  crowned 

emperor  by  the  pope 962 

Henry  III.  conquers  Bohemia  ....  1042 
Contest  between  Henry  IV.  and  Gregory  VII.  .  1075 
Henry's  humiliation  at  Canossa  (ichich  see)  .  .  1077 
He  takes  Rome,  1804;  and  Gregory  dies  in 

exile  at  Salerno 1085 

Disputes  relating  to  ecclesiastical  investitures 

with  the  pope 1073-1123 

The  Guelph  and  the  Ghibeline  feuds  begin  .  1140 
Conrad  III.  leads  an  army  to  the  holy  wars  ; 

it  was  destroyed  by  Greek  treachery  .  .  1147 
Frederick  Barbarossa's  wars  with  the  Italian 

republics "54-77 

He  destroys  Milan 1162 

He  ruins  Henry  the  Lion  (see  Bavaria)  .  .  1180 
He  is  drowned  during  the  crusade  in  Syria  .  .  1190 
Teutonic  order  of  Knighthood  .  .  .  .  ,, 

Hanseatic  league  established 1245 

Reign  of  Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg,  chosen 

by  the  electors 1273 

The  famous  edict,  called  the  Golden  Bull,  by  ,  — - 

Charles  IV 1356 

Sigismund,  king  of  Bohemia,  elected  emperor. 
He  betrays  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague, 
who  are  burned  alive  (see  JJohemia)          .       1414-16 
Sigismund  being  driven  from  the  throne,  Albert 

II.,  duke  of  Austria,  succeeds  .  .  .  .  1437 
Era  of  the  Reformation,  (see  Luther)  .  .  .1517 
German  bible  and  liturgy  published  by  Luther  1522-46 
Luther  excommunicated  by  the  diet  at  Worms, 

April  17,  1521 
War  with  the  pope — the  Germans  storm  Rome    1527 

Diet  at  Spires 1529 

Confession  of  Augsburg  published      .     Jan.  25,  1530 
Protestant  League  of  Smalcalde  ....  1531 
The  anabaptists  seize  Munster,  1534 ;   but  are 
suppressed,  and  John  of  Leyden  slain        .        1536 

Death  of  Luther 1546 

War  with  protestants 1546-52 

Who  are  helped  by  Henry  II.  of  France — Peace 

of  Religion  at  Passau         .        .         .  July  31,  1552 
Abdication  of  Charles  V.          .        .        Aug.  27,  1556 
The    thirty  years'  war   begins    between    the 
Evangelic  union  under  elector  palatine,  and 
the  Catholic  league  under  the  duke  of  Bavaria  1618 
Battle  of    Prague,   which   ruined  the  elector 
palatine    ...          ...      Nov.  8,  1620 

Gustavus-Adolphus  of  Sweden  invades  Germany 

June,  1630 
Death  of  Gustavus-Adolphus,  victor  at  Lutzen 

Nov.  16,  1632 

End  of  the  thirty  years'  war  :  treaty  of  Westpha- 
lia, establishing  religious  toleration    Oct.  24.   1648 


John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  after  defeating 
the  Turks  obliges  them  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Vienna Sept.  12,  1683 

The  peace  of  Carlowitz  (with  the  Turks)  Jan.  26,  1699 

War  with  France,  &c. ;  Marlborough's  victory 
at  Blenheim Aug.  13,  1704 

Peace  of  Utrecht          .        .        .        .  April  n,  1713 

The  Pragmatic  Sanction  (which  see)         .        .     .  1722 

Francis  I.,  duke  of  Lorraine,  marries  the 
heiress  of  Austria,  Maria-Theresa,  queen  of 
Hungary  (1736,).  She  succeeds  her  father, 
and  becomes  queen  of  Hungary  .  .  Oct.  20,  1740 

The  elector  of  Bavaria  elected  emperor  as 
Charles  VII.  Jan.  22,  1742  ;  he  dies,  Jan.  20; 
Francis  I.  duke  of  Lorraine,  elected  emperor 

Sept.  15,  1745 

The  seven  years'  war  between  Austria  and 
Prussia  and  their  respective  allies  begins,  Aug. 
1756 ;  ends  with  the  peace  of  Hubertsburg 

Feb.  15,  1763 

Joseph  II.  extends  his  dominions  by  the  dis- 
memberment of  Poland,  1772;  many  civil 
reforms  and  liberal  changes  ....  1782 

Trancis  I.  joins  in  the  second  partition  of  Poland  1^95 

[In  the  ruinous  wars  between  Germany  and 

.  France,  the  emperor  loses  the  Netherlands, 
all  his  territories  west  of  the  Rhine,  and  his 
states  in  Italy,  1793,  et  seq.] 

Francis  II.  assumes  the  title  of  emperor  of 
Austria Aug.  n,  1804 

Napoleon  establishes  the  kingdoms  of  Bavaria 
and  Wurtemberg,  1805 ;   and  of  Westphalia, 
1807  ;    dissolution  of    the    German   empire  ;         1 
formation  of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine 

July  12,  1806 

Commencement  of  the  war  of  independence 

March,  1813 

Congress  of  Vienna    .     .  Nov.  i,  1814— May  25,  1815 

The  Germanic  confederation  (which  see)  formed 

June  8,  1815 

The  Zollverein  (which  see)  formed         .        .        .1818 

Insurrection  at  Vienna  and  throughout  Ger- 
many (see  Austria,  Hungary,  &c.)  .  .  .  1848 

The  king  of  Prussia  takes  the  lead  as  an  agitator, 
to  promote  the  reconsolidation  of  the  German 
empire,  by  a  proclamation  .  March  27,  „ 

German  ^national  assembly  meet  at  Frankfort, 

May  1 8,    „ 

Revolt  in  Schleswig  and  Holstein  (see  Denmark) 

March,     „ 

German  national  assembly  elects  the  king  of 
Prussia  emperor  of  Germany  .  -March  28,  1849 

He  declines  the  honour        .        .         .    April  3,     ,, 

He  recalls  the  Prussian  members  of  the  assem- 
bly  May  14,  „ 

The  Frankfort  assembly  transfers  its  sittings 
toStutgardt  .  May  30,  „ 

Treaty  of  Vienna  between  Austria  and  Prussia 
for  the  formation  of  a  new  central  power  for 
a  limited  time ;  appeal  to  be  made  to  the 
governments  of  Germany  .  .  Sept.  30,  ,, 

Protest  of  Austria  against  the  alliance  of  Prus- 
sia with  some  of  the  smaller  German  states 

Nov.  12,     „ 

Treaty  of  Munich  between  Bavaria,  Saxony, 
and  Wurtemberg,  for  a  revision  of  the  Ger- 
man union Feb.  27,  1850 

Parliament  meets  at  Erfurt  .        .        .  March,    ,, 

The  king  of  Wurtemberg  denounces  the  insi- 
dious ambition  of  Prussia  .  March  15,  ,, 

German  diet  meets  at  Frankfort    .         May  10,     ,, 

Hesse-Cassel  refuses  to  send  a  representative  to 
Erfurt June  7  „. 

Hesse-Darmstadt  withdraws  from  the  Prussian 
league June  20,  ,, 


sp 

I-i 
J 


GERMANY,  continued. 

stria  calls  an  assembly  of  the  German  con- 

eration  at  Frankfort  .         .        .     July  19,  1850 
ch  meets  at  Frankfort      .        .          Sept.  2,     ,, 
trian,  Bavarian,  and  Prussian  forces  enter 
esse-Cassel.     See  Hesse-Cassel       .     Nov.  12,     „ 
erences  on  German  affairs  at  Dresden 

Dec.  23,  1850,  to  May  15,  1851 
'erence  of  the  diet  of  Nuremberg  relative  to 
a  general  code  of  commerce  for  Germany 

Jan.  15,  1857 

Great  excitement  in  Germany  at  the  French 
successes  in  Lombardy ;  warlike  preparations 
iu  Bavaria,  <fcc.  .  .  .  May  and  June,  1859 
Meeting  of  new  liberal  party  in  Eisenach,  in 
Saxe- Weimar.  Seven  resolutions  put  forth 
recommending  that  the  imperfect  federal 
constitution  be  changed  ;  that  the  German 
diet  be  replaced  by  a  strong  central  govern- 
ent  ;  that  a  national  assembly  be  sum- 
ied  ;  and  that  Prussia  be  invited  to  take 

initiative Aug.  14,     „ 

is  proposal  not  accepted  by  Prussia,   and 
armly  opposed  by  Hanover   .         .        Sept.     ,, 
Austrian  minister,  Rechberg,  severely  cen- 
suring the  duke  of  Saxe  Gotha,  for  a  liberal 
speech,  Sept.  4 ;    and  accusing  the  Prussian 
government  of  favouring  the  liberals,  meets 
1th  cutting  retorts      ....     Sept.     ,, 

Federal  diet  maintain  the  Hesse-Cassel  con- 
itution  of  1852  against  Prussia  .    March  24,'  1860 
ting  of  the  French  emperor  and  the  Ger- 
man sovereigns  at  Baden,  June  16,  17;  and 
of  the  czar  and  the  emperor  of  Austria  and 
the  regent  of  Prussia  at  Toplitz    July  26,  &c.     ,, 
Meeting  at  Coburg  in  favour  of  German  unity 

against  French  aggression        .        .     Sept.  5,     ,, 
Dispute  with  Denmark  respecting  the  rights  of 

Holstein  and  Schleswig        .         .         .     Nov.     ,, 
First  meeting  of  a  German  national  shooting 
match  at  Gotha        ....  July  8-n,  1861 

Meeting  of  the  German  National  Association  at 
Heidelberg;    it  decides  to  form  a  German 
fleet ...  ...     Aug.  23,    „ 

Subscriptions  received  for  the  fleet 

Sept.  and  Oct.     ,, 


The  National  Association  meet  at  Berlin  ;  they 
recommend  the  formation  of  a  united  Federal 
government,  with  a  central  executive,  under 
the  leadership  of  Prussia  .  .  March  13,  1862 

Meetings  of  plenipotentiaries  from  German 
states  respecting  Federal  reform 

July  8— Aug.  10,     ,, 

Deputies  from  the  German  states  meet  at 
Weimar,  and  declare  that  the  greatest  want 
of  Germany  is  its  formation  into  one  Federal 
state Sept.  28,  ?q,  ,, 

Congress  of  deputies  from  German  states  on 
national  reform  ....  Aug.  22,  1863 

The  emperor  of  Austria  invites  the  German 
sovereigns  to  a  congress  at  Frankfort,  July 
31  ;  king  of  Prussia  declines,  Aug.  4 ;  nearly 
all  the  sovereigns  meet,  Aug.  16,  17  ;  they 
definitively  approve  the  Austrian  plan  of 
Federal  reform,  Sept.  i  ;  which  is  rejected  by 
Prussia  ' Sept.  22,  ,, 

The  diet  determine  to  have  recourse  to  federal 
execution  in  Holstein  if  Denmark  does  not 
fulfil  her  obligations  .  .  .  Oct.  i,  „ 

5oth  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Leipzig  cele- 
brated   Oct.  18,  ,, 

Death  of  Frederick  VII.  king  of  Denmark 

Nov.  15,    „ 

German  troops  enter  Holstem  as  "  Federal  exe- 
cution." (See  Denmark  for  following  events.) 

Dec.  23,     ,, 

Death  of  Maximilian  II.  king  of  Bavaria 

March  10,  1864 

Prussia  retains  the  duchies ;    discussion   be- 
tween Austria  and  Prussia ;   the  diet  adopt 
the  resolution  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony  request- 
ing Austria  and  Prussia  to  give  up  Holstein    , 
to  the  duke  of  Augustenburg ;  rejected, 

April  6,  1865 

The  Gastein  convention  (which  see)  signed, 

Aug.  14,    „  • 

Severely  censured  by  the  diet  at  Frankfort, 

Sept.      „ 

See  Austria,  Denmark,  Prussia,  &c. 


KINGS  AND   EMPERORS   OF   GERMANY. 


CARLOVINGIAN     RACE. 

800.    Charlemagne. 

814.   Louis  le  Ddbonnaire,  king  of  France. 

840.    Lothaire,  or  Lother,  son  of  Louis ;   died  in  a 

monastery  at  Treves. 
855.   Louis  II.,  son  of  Lothaire. 
875.    Charles  II,  called  the  Bald,  king  of  France; 

poisoned   by  his    physician,    Zedechias,    a 

Jew.     Henault. 
877.    [Interregnum.] 
880.   Charles  III.   le  Gros,  crowned  king  of  Italy ; 

deposed ;  succeeded  by 
887.   Arnulf,  or  Arnoul ;  crowned  emperor  at  Rome 

in  896. 
899.  Louis  III.  called  IV.  ;  the  last  of  the  Carlo- 

vingian  race  in  Germany. 

SAXON   DYNASTY. 

911.   Otho,  duke  of  Saxony  ;  refuses  the  dignity  on 

account  of  his  age. 
,,      Conrad  I.  duke  of  Franconia. 
918.   Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  son  of  Otho, 

duke  of  Saxony  ;  king. 
936.    Otho  I.,  styled  the  Great,  son  of  Henry.  Many 

writers  withhold  the   imperial   title  from 

him  until  crowned  by  pope  John  XII.  in  962. 
973.    Otho  II.,  the  Bloody,    so  stigmatised  for  his 

cruelties  ;  massacred  his  chief  nobility  at  an 

entertainment  to  which  he  had  invited  them; 

wounded  by  a  poisoned  arrow. 
983.    Otho  III.,  surnamed  the  Red,  his  son,  yet  in 

his  minority ;  poisoned. 


1002.  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Bavaria,  surnamed  the 
Holy  and  the  Lame. 

1024.   Conrad  II.,  surnamed  the  Salique. 

1039.    Henry  III.,  the  Black,  son  of  Conrad  II. 

1056.  Henry  IV. ,  son  of  the  preceding  ;  a  minor, 
under  the  regency  of  his  mother  Agnes  ;  de- 
posed by  his  son  and  successor.  (Several 
emperors  nominated  by  the  pope.) 

1106.  Henry  V.  ;  married  Maud  or  Matilda,  daughter 
of  Henry  I.  of  England. 

1125.   Lothaire  II.,  surnamed  the  Saxon. 

1138.    [Interregnum.] 

HOUSE   OF  HOHENSTAUFEN,   OR  OF  SUABIA. 

,,      Conrad  III.,  duke  of  Franconia. 

1152.  Frederick  I.  Barbarossa ;  one  of  the  most  splen- 
did reigns  in  the  German  annals  ;  drowned 
by  his  horse  throwing  him  into  the  river 
Saleph. 

1190.  Henry  VI.,  his  son,  surnamed  Asper,  or  the 
Sharp;  it  was  this  emperor  that  detained 
Richard  I.  of  England  a  prisoner  in  his 
dominions  ;  died  1197.  Interregnum  and 
contest  for  the  throne  between  Philip  of 
Suabia  and  Otho  of  Brunswick. 

1198.  Philip,  brother  to  Henry;  assassinated  at 
Bamberg  by  Otto  of  Wittelsbach. 

1208.  Otho  IV.,  surnamed  the  Superb,  recognised  as 
king  of  Germany,  and  crowned  as  emperor 
the  next  year;  excommunicated  and  de- 
posed. 

1215.    Frederick  II.,  king  of  Sicily,  the  son  of  Henry 


GEE 


336 


GET 


GERMANY,  continued. 

VI.  ;  deposed  by  his  subjects,  who  elected 
Henry,  landgrave  of  Thuringia.  Frederick 
died  in  1250,  naming  his  son  Conrad  his 
successor,  but  the  pope  gave  the  imperial 
title  to  William,  earl  of  Holland. 
1250.  Conrad  IV.*  son  of  Frederick. 

1256.  [Interregnum.] 

1257.  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  and  Alphonso,  of 

Castile,  nominated  emperors. 

HOUSES   OF  HAPSBURG,    LUXEMBURG,   AND  BAVARIA. 

1273.    Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg. 

1291.  [Interregnum.] 

1292.  Adolphus,  count  of  Nassau,  to  the  exclusion 

of  Albert,  son  of  Rodolph ;  deposed  ;  slain 

at  the  battle  of  Spires. 
1298.   Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  Rodolph's  son  ;  killed 

by  his  nephew  at  Rheinfels,  May  i,  1308. 
1308.   Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg. 

1313.  [Interregnum.] 

1314.  Louis  IV.  (III.)  of  Bavaria,  and  Frederick  III. 

of  Austria,  son  of  Albert,  rival   emperors ; 
Frederick  died  in  1330. 

1330.    Louis  reigns  alone. 

1347.  Charles  IV.  of  Luxemburg.  In  this  reign  was 
given  at  Nuremberg,  in  1356,  the  famous 
Golden  Bull,  which  became  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  German  empire.  _ 

1378.  Wenceslas,  king  of  Bohemia,  son  of  Charles  ; 
twice  imprisoned,  and  at  length  forced  to 
resign  ;  but  continued  to  reign  in  Bohemia. 

1400.   Frederick  III.  duke  of  Brunswick ;    assassi- 
nated immediately  after   his  election,  and 
seldom  placed  in  the  list  of  emperors. 
,,      Rupert,  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine  ;  crowned 
at  Cologne  ;  died  in  1410. 

1410.   Jossus,  marquess  of   Moravia  ;    chosen  by  a 

party  uf  the  electors  ;  died  the  next  year. 
,,      Sigismund,    king  of  Hungary  ;     elected   by 
another  party.     On  the  death  of  Jossus  he  is 
recognised  by  all  parties  ;    king  of  Bohemia 
in  1419. 

HOUSE  OF  AUSTRIA. 

1438.  Albert  II.,  surnamed  the  Great,  duke  of 
Austria,  and  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  ; 
died  Oct.  27,  1439. 


1439.  [Interregnum.] 

1440.  Frederick  IV.  (or  III.)  surnamed  the  Pacific; 

elected  emperor  Feb.  2,  but  not  crowned 

until  June,  1442. 
1493.   Maximilian  I.  son  of  Frederick  ;   died  i?i  1519. 

In  1477  he  married   Mary  of   Bui-gundy. — 

Francis  I.  of  France  and  Charles  I.  of  Spain 

became  competitors  for  the  empire. 
1519.    Charles  V.  (I.  of  Spain)  son  of  Joan  of  Castile 

and  Philip  of  Austria,  elected ;  resigned  both 

crowns,  1556 ;   and  retired  to  a  monasterj*, 

where  he  died  soon  after. 
1 556.   Ferdinand  I.  brother  to  Charles ;    succeeded 

by  his  son, 
1564.   Maximilian  II.  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia ; 

succeeded  by  his  son, 
1576.    Rodolph  II. 
1612.   Matthias,  brother  of  Rodolph. 
1619.   Ferdinand  II.  his  cousin,  son  of  the  archduke 

Charles  ;  king  of  Hungary. 
1637.   Ferdinand  III.  son  of  the  preceding  emperor  ; 

succeeded  by  his  son, 
1658.   Leopold  I. 

1705.  Joseph  I.  son  of  the  emperor  Leopold. 
1711.   Charles  VI.  brother  to  Joseph ;   succeeded  by 

his  daughter, 

1740.  Maria- Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohe- 
mia, whose  right  to  the  empire  was  sustained 

by  England. 
1742.    Charles  VII.  elector  of  Bavaria,  whose  claim 

was  supported  by  France  ;    rival  emperor, 

and  contested  succession. 

[This  competition  for  the  throne  of  Germany 
gave  rise  to  an  almost  general  war.  Charles 
died  in  Jan.  1 745.  ] 

1745.  Francis  I.  of  Lorraine,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany, 
consort  of  Maria- Theresa. 

1765.  Joseph  II.  son  of  the  emperor  Francis  and  of 
Maria-Theresa. 

1790.  Leopold  II.  brother  to  Joseph ;  succeeded  by 
his  son, 

1792.  Francis  II.  In  1804  this  prince  became  empe- 
ror of  Austria  only,  as  Francis  I. 

See  Austria. 


PKINCIPAL   GERMAN   ATJTHOES. 


Born 
Ulfilas  (Gothic  bible) 
about  A.D.  360. 
Martin  Luther  (Germ, 
bible,  &c.  1522-34).  1483 
Hans  Sachs       .        .  1494 
Godf.  Leibnitz      .     .1646 
G.  F.  Gellert     .        .  1715 
G.  E.  Lessing        .    .  1729 
G.  A.  Burger     .        .1748 

Died 

1546 
1578 
1716 
1769 
1781 
J794 

Born 
J.  G.  von  Herder      .  1744 
Fred.  T.Klopstock       1724 
Im.  Kant  .        .           1724 
J.C.Fred,  von  Schiller  1759 
Ch.  M.  Wieland    .        1733 
C.  T.  Kcirner      .            1791 
Jean  Paul  Richter        1763 
J.  H.  Voss  .        .           1751 
F.  Schlegel  .        .        1772 

Died 
1803 
1803 
1804 
1805 
1813 
1813 
1825 
1826 
1829 

Born 

B.  G.  Niebuhr  .  .  1776 
J.  W.  von  Goethe  .  1749 
Wm.  von  Humboldt  1767 
A.  Wm.  Schlegel .  .1767 
L.  Tieck  .  .  .  1773 
H.  Heine  .  .  .  1797 
Alex,  von  Humboldt  1 769 
Chr.  Carl  J.  Bunsen  1791 
F.  C.  Schlosser.  .  1776 


Died 
1831 
1832 
1835 
1845 
1853 
1856 

1859 
1860 
1861 


GERONA  (N.E.  Spain),  an  ancient  city,  frequently  besieged  and  taken.  In  June,  1808, 
it  successfully  resisted  the  French,  but  after  suffering  much  by  famine,  surrendered 
Dec.  12,  1809. 

GETTYSBURG  (Philadelphia).  Here  three  days'  severe  fighting  took  place  on  July  1—3, 
1863,  between  the  invading  confederate  army  under  generals  Lee,  Longstreet,  and  Ewell, 
and  the  federals  under  general  G.  Meade.  The  confederates  were  long  successful,  but 
eventually  were  compelled  to  retire  from  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  The  killed  and 
wounded  on  each  side  were  estimated  at  about  15,000. 


*  His  son  Conradin  was  proclaimed  king  of  Sicily,  which  was,  however,  surrendered  to  his  uncle 
Manfred,  1254  ;  on  whose  death  it  was  given  by  the  pope  to  Charles  of  Anjou  in  1263.  Conradin,  on  the 
invitation  of  the  Ghibeline  party,  entered  Italy  with  a  large  army,  and  was  defeated  at  Tagliacozzo,  Aug. 
23,  1268,  and  beheaded  at  Naples  Oct.  29,  thus  ending  the  Hohenstaufen  family. 


GHE 


GIB 


GHENT,  an  ancient  city  in  Belgium,  built  about  the  yth  century.  During  the  middle 
ages  it  became  very  rich.  John,  third  son  of  Edward  III.  of  England,  was  born  here  in  1340 
(hence  named  John  of  Gaunt),  during  the  revolt  under  Van  Artevelde,  a  brewer,  against  the 
earl  Louis,  1379-83.  Ghent  rebelled  against  the  emperor,  Charles  V.,  1539,  for  which  it  was 
severely  punished  in  1540.  The  "Pacification  ol  Ghent"  (when  the  north  and  south 
provinces  of  the  Netherlands  united  against  Spain)  was  proclaimed,  Nov.  8,  1576,  and  broken 
up  in  1579.  Ghent  was  taken  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  March  9,  1678,  and  by  the  duke  of 
Marlborough  in  1706,  and  afterwards  several  times  taken  and  retaken.  The  PEACE  OF  GHENT, 
between  Great  Britain  and  America,  was  signed  Dec,  24,  1814. 

GHIBELINES.     See  Guelphs. 

GHIZNEE,  or  GHUZNEE  (East  Persia),  the  seat  of  the  Gaznevides,  who  founded  the 
city,  969.  They  were  expelled  by  the  Seljuk  Tartars  in  1038.  The  British  under  sir  J. 
Keane,  attacked  the  citadel  of  Ghiznee,  at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  July  23,  1839  ;  it  was 
one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Asia,  and  was  commanded  by  a  son  of  the  ex-king  of  Cabul. 
At  three  o'clock  the  gates  were  blown  in  by  the  artillery,  and  under  cover  of  a  heavy  fire, 
the  infantry  forced  their  way  into  the  place  and  succeeded  at  five  o'clock  in  fixing  the  British 
colours  on  its  towers. — It  capitulated  to  the  Afghans,  March  I,  1842,  who  were  defeated 
Sept.  6,  1842,  and  general  Nott  re-entered  Ghiznee  next  day. 

GHOSTS  are  now  produced  by  optical  science.  Mr.  Dircks  described  his  method  at  the 
British  Association  meeting  in  1858.  Dr.  John  Taylor  exhibited  scientific  ghosts  in  March, 
1863.  Mr.  Pepper  exhibited  the  ghost  illusion  at  the  Royal  Polytechnic  institution, 
July,  1863.  See  Cock-lane  Ghost. 

GIANTS.  Giants'  bones,  17,  18,  20,  and  30  feet  high  were  once  reported  to  have  been 
found  ;  but  geologists  now  prove  them  to  be  the  remains  of  colossal  animals. — The  battle  of 
Mariguano  (1515)  has  been  termed  the  "battle  of  the  Giants." 


Og,  king  of  Bashan,  of  the  remnant  of  the  giants  : 

his  bedstead  was  9  cubits  long  (about  i6£  feet). 

B.C.  1451.   (Deut.  iii.  n.) 
Goliath  of  Oath's  "height  was  6  cubits  and  a  span." 

about  1063  B.C.   (i  Sam.  xvii.  4.) 
The  emperor   Maximin  (A.D.   235)  was   8^   feet  in 

height,  and  of  great  bulk.     Some  say  between  7 

and  8  feet ;  others  above  8. 
"  The  tallest  man  that  hath  been  seen  in  our  age  was 

one  named  Gabara,  who,  in  the  days  of  Claudius, 

the  late  emperor,  was  brought  out  of  Arabia.     He 

was  9  feet  9  inches  high."    Pliny. 
John  Middleton,   of  Hale,   in   Lancashire,   born  in 

1578,  was  9  feet  3  inches  high.* 
Patrick  (Jotter,   the  celebrated  Irish  giant,  born  in  ; 

1761,  was  8  feet  7  inches  in  height ;  his  hand,  from 

the  commencement  of  the  palm  to  the  extremity  of  j 


the  middle  finger,  measured  12  inches,  and  his 
shoe  was  17  inches  long  ;  he  died  in  Sept.  1806,  iu 
his  46th  year. 

Big  Sam,  the  porter  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  at  Carl- 
ton-palace,  was  near  8  feet  high,  and  performed  as 
a  giant  in  the  romance  of  "  Cymon,"  at  the  Opera- 
house,  while  the  Drury-lane  company  had  the  m>e 
of  that  theatre  until  their  own  was  rebuilt  in  1809. 

M.  Brice,  a  native  of  the  Vosges,  in  London  in  Sept. 
1862,  7  feet  6  inches  high. 

Robert  Hales,  the  Norfolk  giant,  died  at  Great  Yar- 
mouth Nov.  22,  1863  (aged  43).  He  was  7  feet  6 
inches  high,  and  weighed  452  lb. 

Chang- Woo- Go w,  a  Chinese,  aged  19,  7  feet  8  inches 
high,  exhibited  himself  in  London  in  Sept.  &c.  1865. 

A  giant  styled  "Anak"  was  exhibited  in  London, 
Nov.  1865. 


GIAOUR,  Turkish  for  infidel,  a  term  applied  to  all  who  do  not  believe  inMahomedanism. 
— Byron's  poem,  "  The  Giaour,"  was  published  in  1813. 

GIBRALTAR.  The  ancient  Calpe  (which,  with  Abyla,  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Africa, 
obtained  the  name  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules),  a  town  on  a  rock  in  South  Spain,  on  which  is 
placed  a  British  fortress,  considered  impregnable.  The  height  of  the  rock,  according  to 
Cuvier,  is  1437  English  feet.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  under  Tarik,  whence  its  present 
name  (derived  from  Gibel-el- Tarik,  Mountain  of  Tarik),  in  711. 


It  was  taken  from  the  Moors  in  1309  ;  retaken  by 
them,  1333  ;  and  finally  taken  from  them  by 
Henry  IV!  of  Castile,  in 


1462 


Gibraltar  attacked  by  the  British  under  sir 
George  Rooke,  the  prince  of  Hesse-  Darm- 
stadt, sir  John  Leake,  and  admiral  Byng, 
July  2ist,  and  taken  on  the  24th  .  .  .  1704 


Besieged  by  the  Spanish  and  French  ;  they  lose 
10,000  men,  and  the  victorious  English  but  400 

Oct.  ii,  1704 
Ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 

April  ii,  1713 

The  Spaniards  again  attack  Gibraltar,  and  are 
repulsed  with  great  loss 1720 


*  It  is  reported  that  one  of  the  Irelands  took  him  to  London,  and  introduced  him,  dressed  up  in  a 
very  fantastic  style,  to  king  James  the  First.  On  his  return  from  London,  a  portrait  was  taken  of  him, 
which  is  preserved  in  the  library  of  Brazenose  college,  at  Oxford  ;  and  Dr.  Plot  gives  the  following 
account  of  him  : — "  John  Middleton,  commonly  called  the  child  of  Hale,  whose  hand,  from  the  carpus  to 
the  end  of  his  middle  finger,  was  17  inches  long  ;  his  palm  8£  inches  broad  ;  and  his  whole  height  9  feet 
3  inches,  wanting  but  6  inches  of  the  size  of  Goliath." — Nat.  Hist,  of  Staffordshire,  p.  295. 


GIB 


338 


GLA 


GIBRALTAR,  continued. 

They  again  attack  it  with,  a  force  of  20,000  men, 
and  lose  5000,  while  the  loss  of  the  English  is 
only  300 Feb.  22,  1727 

Memorable  siege  by  the  Spaniards  and  French., 
whose  prodigious  armaments*  (the  greatest 
ever  brought  against  a  fortress)  were  wholly 
overthrown  .  July  16,  1779,  to  Feb.  5,  1783 

Royal  battery  destroyed  by  fire        .        .    Nov.   1800 

Engagement  between  the  French,  and  English, 
fleets  in  the  bay  ;  H.M.S.  Hannibal,  74  guns, 
lost July  6,  1801 

The  Royal  Carlos  and  St.  Hertneniffildo  Spanish. 


ships,  each  of  112  guns,  blew  up,  with  their 
crews,  at  night-time,  in  the  straits  here,  and 
all  on  board  perished        .         .         .    July  12,  1801 
A  malignant  disease  caused  a  great  mortality 

here  in 1804 

A  dreadful  plague  raged 1 805 

A  malignant  fever  raged         .         .        .      Aug.   1814 
Again,  when  a  proclamation  issued  for  closing 
the  courts  of  justice   and  places  of  public 

worship Sept.  5,  1828 

The  fatal  epidemic  ceased      .        .          Jan.  12,  1829 


GILDING  was  practised  at  Rome,  about  145  B.C.  The  capitol  was  tlie  first  building  on 
which  this  enrichment  was  bestowed.  Pliny.  Of  gold  leaf  for  gilding  the  Romans  made  but 
750  leaves,  four  fingers  square,  out  of  a  whole  ounce.  Pliny.  It  consequently  was  more 
like  our  plating.  Trusler.  A  single  grain  of  gold  may  now  be  stretched  out  under  the 
hammer  into  a  leaf  that  will  cover  a  house.  Dr.  Halley.  Gilding  with  leaf  gold  on  bole 
ammoniac  was  first  introduced  by  Margaritone  in  1273.  Gilding  on  wood  formed  part  of  the 
decorations  of  the  Jewish  tabernacle  (Exod.  xxv.  n.)>  an(i  ^as  improved  in  1680.  See 
Electrotype. 

GIN",  ardent  spirit,  flavoured  with  the  essential  oil  of  the  juniper  berry.  The  "gin  act," 
laying  an  excise  of  55.  per  gallon  upon  it,  passed  July  14,  1736,  when  it  had  been  found,  in 
the  preceding  year,  that  in  London  alone  7044  houses  sold  gin  by  retail  ;  and  it  was  so  cheap 
that  the  poor  could  intoxicate  themselves  for  one  penny.  Salmon.  About  1700  gin-shops 
were  suppressed  in  London  in  1750.  Clarice. 

GIPSIES.     See  Gypsies. 

GIRAFFE,  or  CAMELOPARD,  a  native  of  the  interior  of  Africa,  was  well  known  to  'the 
ancients.  In  1827  one  was  brought  to  England  for  the  first  time  as  a  present  to  George  IV. 
It  died  in  1829.  On  May  25,  1835,  four  giraffes,  obtained  by  M.  Thibaut,  were  introduced 
into  the  Zoological  gardens,  Regent's  park,  where  a  young  one  was  born  in  1839. 

GIRONDISTS,  an  important  party  during  the  French  revolution,  principally  composed  of 
deputies  from  the  Gironde.  At  first  they  were  ardent  republicans,  but  after  the  cruelties  of 
Aug.  and  Sept.  1 792,  they  laboured  to  restrain  the  cruelties  of  the  Mountain  party,  to  which 
they  succumbed.  Their  leaders,  Brissot,  Vergniaud,  and  many  others,  were  guillotined 
Oct.  31,  1793,  a^  the  instigation  of  Robespierre.  Lamartine's  "Histoire  des  Girondins," 
published  in  1847,  tended  to  hasten  the  revolution  in  1848. 

GISORS,  BATTLE  or  (France),  on  Sept.  20,  28,  or  Oct.  10,  1198,  between  the  armies  of 
France  and  England.  The  former  was  signally  defeated  by  Richard  I.,  who  commanded 
the  English,  and  his  parole  for  the  day,  "  Dieu  et  mon  droit" — "God  and  my  right,"  after- 
wards became  the  motto  to  the  arms  of  England. 

GLADIATORS  were  originally  malefactors,  who  fought  for  their  lives,  or  captives  who 
fought  for  freedom.  They  were  exhibited  at  the  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  Romans,  263  B.C., 
probably  following  the  Greek  custom  of  sacrificing  to  the  manes  of  deceased  warriors,  the 
prisoners  taken  in  battle.  Gladiator  fights  afterwards  exhibited  at  festivals,  about  215  B.C. 
When  Dacia  was  reduced  by  Trajan,  1000  gladiators  fought  at  Rome  in  celebration  of  his 
triumph,  for  123  days,  A.D.  103.  These  combats  were  suppressed  in  the  East  by  Constantino 
the  Great,  A.D.  325,  and  in  the  West  by  Theodoric  in  500.  Leiujlet. 

GLANDELAGH,  BISHOPRIC  OF  (Ireland),  has  been  united  to  the  arch-prelacy  of  Dublin 
since  the  year  1214.  St.  Keiven  seems  to  have  been  the  founder  of  this  see  ;  he  resigned  in 
612.  Glendalagh  is  now  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the  Seven  Churches,  from  the 
remains  of  so  many  buildings  contiguous  to  the  cathedral. 

*  In  one  night  their  floating  batteries  were  destroyed  with  red-hot  balls,  and  their  whole  line  of  works 
annihilated  by  a  sortie  from  the  garrison,  commanded  by  general  Elliot,  Nov.  27,^1781.  The  enemy's  loss 
in  munitions  of  war,  on  this  night  alone,  was  estimated  at  upwards  of  2,000,000^.  sterling.  The  army 
amounted  to  40,000  men.  But  their  grand  defeat  by  a  garrison  of  only  7000  British  occurred  Sept.  13, 
1782.  The  duke  of  Crillon  commanded  12,000  of  the  best  troops  of  France.  1000  pieces  of  artillery  were 
brought  to  bear  against  the  fortress,  besides  which  there  were  47  sail  of  the  line,  all  three-deckers  ;  10  great 
floating  batteries,  esteemed  invincible,  carrying  212  guns  ;  innumerable  frigates,  xebeques,  bomb-ketches, 
cutters,  and  gun  and  mortar  boats  ;  while  small  craft  for  disembarking  the  forces  covered  the  bay.  For 
weeks  together  6000  shells  were  daily  thrown  into  the  town ;  and  on  a  single  occasion  8000  barrels  of 
gunpowder  were  expended  by  the  enemy. 


GLA 


339 


GLA 


GLASGOW  (Lanarkshire),  the  largest  city  in  Scotland.     Its  prosperity  was  immensely 
icreased  after  the  union  in  1707,  in  consequence  of  its  obtaining  some  of  the  American 
trade.     Population  in  1707  about  12,000  ;  in  1861,  394,857. 


*SS 

nfliit 


cathedral  or  high  church,   dedicated  to  St. 
tigern  or  Mungo,  was  built  in  the   nth 

century. 

Erected  into  a  burgh 1180 

Charter  was  obtained  from  James  II.     .         .     .  1451 

University  founded  by  bishop  Turnbull  about  1454 

Made  a  royal  burgh  by  James  VI.      .        .        .  1611 

Town  wasted  by  a  great  fire 1652 

Charter  of  William  and  Mary      ....  1690 

Glasgow  Courant  published 1715 

First  vessel  sailed  to  America  for  its  still  great 

import,  tobacco 1718 

Great  Shaw  field  riot 1725 

Calico  printing  begun 1742 

Plundered  by  rebels 1745 

Theatre  opened 1764 

Power- loom  introduced 1773 

Theatre  burnt 1782 

Chamber  of  commerce  formed        .        ...  1783 

Trades'  hall  built 1791 

Spinning  machinery  by  steam  introduced         .  1795 

Anderson's  university  founded       .        .        .     .  1796 

New  college  buildings  erected    ....  1811 
Great  popular  commotion      .        .        .     April,     ,, 
Trials  for  treason  followed.        .        .          July,     ,, 

Theatre  again  burnt        ....       Jan.  1829 
The  royal  exchange,  a  most  sumptuous  edifice, 

opened Sept.  3,  ,, 


Great  fh-e,  loss  150,000?.  .  .  Jan.  14,  1833 
The  Glasgow  lotteries,  the  last  drawn  in  Britain, 
were  granted  by  licence  of  parliament  to  the 
commissioners  for  the  improvement  of  Glas- 
gow. The  third  and  final  Glasgow  lottery 
was  drawn  in  London,  at  Coopers'  Hall,  Aug. 
28,  1834.  Their  repetition  was  forbidden  by 

4  Will.  IV.  c.  37 *S34 

British  Association  meet  here  .  .  .  .  1840 
Wellington's  statue  erected  .  .  Oct.  8,  1844 
False  alarm  of  fire  at  the  theatre,  when  70 

persons  are  crushed  to  death  .  Feb.  17,  1849 
Failure  of  Western  Bank  of  Scotland,  and  City 

of  Glasgow  banks,  and  other  firms  .  Nov.  1857 
In  which  great  frauds  were  discovered  Oct.  1858 
New  water-works  at  Loch  Katrine  opened  by 

the  queen Oct,  14,  1859 

[To  supply  50,000,000  gallons  daily  :   engineer, 
J.  F.  Bateman ;   cost  about  i,ooo,ooo(.  inde- 
pendent of  the  price  paid  for  old  works.  ] 
First  self-supporting   cooking   establishments 
for  working  classes  begun  by  Mr.  Thos.  Cor- 

bett Sept.  21,  1860 

Glasgow  visited  by  the  empress  of  the  French 

Nov.  27,    ,, 

Theatre  bxirnt  again  ....  Jan.  31,  1863 
Visited  by  lord  Palmerston  .  .  March,  ,, 


GLASGOW,  BISHOPRIC  OF.  Kennet,  in  his  Antiquities,  says  it  was  founded  by  St. 
Kentigern,  alias  Mungo,  in  560  ;  while  others  affirm  that  Mungo  was  a  holy  man  who  had  a 
cell  here,  whose  sanctity  was  held  in  such  veneration  that  the  church  \vas  dedicated  to  him. 
Dr.  Heylin,  speaking  of  the  see  of  St.  Asaph,  in  Wales,  says  that  that  see  was  founded  by 
St.  Kentigern,  a  Scot,  then  bishop  of  Glasgow  in  583.  This  prelacy  became  archiepiscopal 
in  1491,  and  ceased  at  the  Revolution.  Glasgow  is  now  a  post-revolution  bishopric.  The 
cathedral  was  commenced  in  1121,  and  has  been  beautified  and  improved  at  various  periods 
since.  It  has  a  noble  crypt.  See  Bishops. 

GLASITES  (in  Scotland)  and  SANDEMANIANS  (in  England),  names  given  to  a  small  body 
of  Christians,  whose  tenets  (professedly  derived  from  the  Holy  Scriptures  alone)  are  set  forth 
in  the  "Testimony  of  the  King  of  Martyrs"  published  by  John  Glas,  a  minister  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1727,  and  in  his  son-in-law,  Robert  Sandeman's  "  Letters  on  Theron 
and  Aspasio  "  (1755).  ^Churches  were  first  formed  by  them  on  what  were  considered  the 
primitive  models,  in  Scotland,  about  1728,  and  in  England  about  1755,  some  of  which  still 
exist.  They  hold  that  true  faith  is  the  gift  of  God,  and  not  to  be  taught  or  acquired  by  man  ; 
and  that  it  produces  love  to  God  and  good  works.  They  partake  weekly  of  the  Lord's 
supper  and  love-feasts  (see  Agapce),  avoid  eating  blood,  and  maintain  the  primitive  disci- 
pline. They  erected  a  new  meeting-house  at  Barnsbury,  London,  N.,  in  1862. 

GLASS.  The  Egyptians  are  said  to  have  been  taught  the  art  of  making  glass  by  Hermes. 
The  discovery  of  glass  took  place  in  Syria.  Pliny.  Glass-houses  were  erected  in  Tyre, 
'where  glass  was  a  staple  manufacture  for  many  ages.  This  article  is  mentioned  among  the 
Romans  in  the  time  of  Tiberius  ;  and  we  know  from  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  that  windows 
were  formed  of  glass  before  79.  Italy  had  the  first  glass  windows ;  next  France,  whence 
they  came  to  England. 


Glass  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to  England 
by  Benedict  Biscop,  abbot  of  WTearmouth,  in  676 

The  manufacture  established  in  England  at 
Crutched-friars,  and  in  Savoy  in  (Stow)  .  .  1557 

Great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
manufacture,  through  the  immense  increase 
of  chemical  knowledge  in  the  present  cen- 
tury. Professor  Faraday  published  his  re- 
searches on  the  manufacture  of  glass  for 
optical  purposes  in 1830 

The  duties  on  glass,  first  imposed  1695,  were 
finally  remitted 1845 


PAINTING  ON  GLASS,  a  very  early  art,  was  prac- 
tised at  Marseilles  in  a  beautiful  style,  about  1500 

It  reached  to  a  state  of  great  perfection  about  1530 

GLASS-PLATE,  for  coach-windows,  mirrors,  &c., 
made  at  Lambeth  by  Venetian  artists,  under 
the  patronage  of  Villiers  duke  of  Buckingham  1673 

The  manufacture  was  improved  by  the  French, 
who  made  very  large  plates  ;  and  further 
improvements  in  it  were  made  in  Lancashire 
in  1773,  when  the  British  Plate  Glass  Com- 
pany was  established. 

Manufacture  of  British  sheet  glass  introduced 
by  Messrs.  Chance,  of  Birmingham,  about  .  1832 

z  2 


GLA  340  GLO 

GLASTONBURY,  said  to  have  been  the  residence  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  and  the  site 
of  the  first  Christian  church  in  Britain,  about  60.  A  church  was  built  here  by  Ina  aboutfyiS. 
The  town  and  abbey  were  burnt,  1184.  An  earthquake  did  great  damage  in  1276.  Richard 
Whiting,  the  last  abbot,  who  had  100  monks  and  400  domestics,  was  hanged  on  Tor-hill  in 
his  pontificals,  with  the  abbots  of  Reading  and  Colchester,  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
supremacy  to  Henry  VIII.,  Nov.  1539. 

GLENCOE  MASSACRE  of  the  unsuspecting  inhabitants,  the  Macdonalds,  merely  for 
not  surrendering  before  the  time  stated  in  King  William's  proclamation,  Dec.  31,  1691. 
Sir  John  Dalrymple  the  master,  afterwards  earl  of  Stair,  their  inveterate  enemy,  obtained  a 
decree  "to  extirpate  that  set  of  thieves,"  which  the  king  is  said  to  have  signed  without 
perusing.  Every  man  under  70  was  to  be  slain.  This  mandate  Avas  executed  with  the 
blackest  treachery.  The  120  soldiers  were  hospitably  received  by  the  Highlanders.  On 
Feb.  13,  1692,  the  massacre  began.  About  60  men  were  brutally  slain  ;  and  many  women 
and  children,  their  wives  and  offspring,  were  turned  out  naked  in  a  dark  and  freezing  night, 
and  perished  by  cold  and  hunger.  This  black  deed  was  perpetrated  by  a  part  of  the  earl  of 
Argyle's  regiment.  It  excited  great  indignation  in  England  ;  and  an  inquiry  was  set  on 
foot  in  1695,  but  no  capital  punishment  followed. 

GLOBE.  The  globular  form  of  the  earth,  the  five  zones,  some  of  the  principal  circles  of 
the  sphere,  the  opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the  true  causes  of  lunar  eclipses,  were  taught,  and 
an  eclipse  predicted,  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  about  640  B.C.  Pythagoras  demonstrated,  from 
the  varying  altitudes  of  the  stars  by  change  of  place,  that  the  earth  must  be  round  ;  that 
there  might  be  antipodes  on  the  opposite  part  of  the  globe  ;  that  Venus  was  the  morning  and 
evening  star  ;  that  the  universe  consisted  of  twelve  spheres—  the  sphere  of  the  earth,  the 
sphere  of  the  water,  the  sphere  of  the  air,  the  sphere  of  fire,  the  spheres  of  the  moon,  the 
sun  ;  Venus,  Mercury,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  the  sphere  of  the  stars;  about  506  B.C. — 
Aristarchus,  of  Samos,  maintained  that  the  earth  turned  on  its  own  axis,  and  revolved  about 
the  sun  ;  which  doctrine  was  held  by  his  contemporaries  as  so  absurd,  that  the  philosopher 
nearly  lost  his  life  by  his  theory,  280  B.C.  To  determine  the  figure  of  the  earth,  a 
degree  of  latitude  has  been  measured  in  different  parts  of  the  world  by  eminent  philosophers ; 
for  this  purpose  Bouguer  and  La  Condamine  were  sent  to  Peru,  and  Maupertuis  and  others 
to  Lapland,  in  1735.  France  and  Spain  were  measured  by  Mechain,  Delambre,  Biot,  and 
Arago,  between  1792  and  1821.  Measurements  were  made  in  India  by  col.  (now  sir  George) 
Everest,  and  published  in  1830.  Experiments  have  been  made  by  pendulums  to  demonstrate 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  by  Foucault  in  1851  ;  and  to  determine  its  density  by  Maskelyne, 
Bailly,  and  others  ;  and  in  1826,  1828,  and  1854,  by  Mr.  G.  B.  Airy,  the  astronomer  Royal. 
See  Circumnavigators. 


ARTIFICIAL  GLOBES.  It  is  said  that  a  celestial 
globe  was  brought  to  Greece  from  Egypt,  368  B.C., 
and  that  Archimedes  constructed  a  planetarium 
about  212  B.C. 

The  globe  of  Gottorp  is  a  concave  sphere,  eleven  feet 
in  diameter,  containing  a  table  and  seats  for 
twelve  persons,  and  the  inside  representing  the 
visible  surface  of  the  heavens,  the  stars  and  con- 
stellations all  distinguished  according  to  their  res- 
pective magnitudes,  and  being  turned  by  means  of 
curious  mechanism,  their  true  position,  rising, 
and  setting,  are  shown.  The  outside  is  a  terrestrial 
globe.  This  machine  is  called  the  globe  of  Gottorp, 
from  the  original  one  of  that  name,  which,  at  the 


Olearius,  and  was  planned  after  a  design  found 
among  the  papers  of  the  celebrated  Tycho  Brahe. 
Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  presented  it  to  Peter 
the  Great  in  1713.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1757 ;  but  it  was  afterwards  reconstructed. 
Coxe. 

The  globe  at  Pembroke-hall  was  erected  by  Dr. 
Long ;  it  far  surpasses  the  other,  being  eighteen 
feet  in  diameter,  and  thirty  persons  can  sit  con- 
veniently within  it  while  it  is  in  motion. 

In  1851  Mr.  Abrahams  erected  in  Leicester-square, 
for  Mr.  Wyld,  a  globe  60  feet  4  inches  in  diameter, 
lit  from  the  centre  by  day,  and  by  gas  at  night.  It 
was  closed  in  July,  1861  ;  the  models  were  sold, 


expense  of  Frederick  II.  duke  of  Holstein,  was  I      and  the  building  eventually  taken  down, 
erected  at  Gottorp,  under  the  direction  of  Adam  i 

GLOBE  THEATRE,  BANKSIDE  (London).     See  Shakespeare's  TJicatre. 
GLOIRE,  French  steam  frigate.     See  Navy,  French. 

GLORY,  the  nimbus  drawn  by  painters  round  the  heads  of  saints,  angels,  and  holy  men, 
and  the  circle  of  rays  on  images,  adopted  from  the  Caesars  and  their  flatterers,  were  used 
in  the  ist  century.  The  doxology  of  the  prayer  Gloria  Patri  was  ordained  in  the  church 
of  Rome,  and  was  called  doxology  because  it  began  with  doxa,  glory,  382. 

GLOUCESTER,  a  Roman  colony  (Glevum),  built  by  Arviragus,  47,  in  honour  of  Claudius 
Caesar,  whose  daughter  he  had  married.  In  1278-9  the  statutes  of  Gloucester  were  passed  at 
a  parliament  held  by  Edward  I.  This  city  was  incorporated  by  Henry  III. ;  it  was  fortified 
by  a  strong  wall,  which  was  demolished  after  the  Restoration,  in  1660,  by  order  of 
Charles  II.,  as  a  punishment  for  the  obstinate  resistance  of  the  city  to  Charles  I.,  in  1643,, 


GLO   '  341  GOD 

col.  Massey.     The  Gloucester  and   Berkeley  canal  was  completed  in  April,    1827. 
bribery  took  place  here  at  the  election  for  the  parliament  in  1859.  — It  was  one  of 
bishoprics  erected  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1541,  and  was  formerly  part  of  "Worcester.     It 
united  to  that  of  Bristol  in  1836.     The  church,  which  belonged  to  the  abbey,  and  its 
•venues,  were  appropriated  to  the  maintenance  of  the  see.     The  abbey,  which  was  founded 
king  Wulphere  about  700,  was  burnt  in  1102,  and  again  in  1122.     In  it  are  the  tombs 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  and  Edward  II.   In  the  king's  books,  this  bishopric  is  valued 
175.  2d.  per  annum.     Present  income,  $oool. 

EECENT   BISHOPS    OF   GLOUCESTER. 


George  Isaac  Huntingford,  translated  to  Here- 
ford, June,  1815. 
15.    Hon.  Hen.  Ryder,  translated  to  Lichfield,  1824. 
4.   Christopher  Bethell,  translated  to  Exeter,  1 830. 
James  Henry  Monk,  died. 


1856.   Charles  Baring,  translated  to  Durham,  Sept. 

1861. 

1861.    Win.  Thomson,  translated  to  York,  1862. 
1863.   Charles  J.  Ellicott  (PRESENT  bishop,  1865). 


GLOVES.     In  the  middle  ages,  the  giving  a  glove  was  a  ceremony  of  investiture  in 
stowing  lands  and  dignities  ;  and  two  bishops  were  put  in  possession  of  their  sees  by  each 
receiving  a  glove,  1002.     In  England,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  the  deprivation  of  gloves 
was  a  ceremony  of  degradation.     The  Glovers'  company  of  London  was  incorporated  in 

E.     Embroidered  gloves  were  introduced  into  England  in  1580,  and  are  still  presented  to 
3S  at  maiden  assizes. 
LUCINUM  (from  glufcus,  sweet).     In  1798  Vauquelin  discovered  the  earth  ghwina  (so 
ed  from  the  sweet  taste  of  its  salts).     It  is  found  in  the  beryl  and  other  crystals.    From 
na  Wohler  and  Bussy  obtained  the  rare  metal  glucinuni  in  1828.     Gmelin. 

GLUCOSE.     See  Sugar. 

GLUTEN,  an  important  ingredient  of  grain,  particularly  wheat,  containing  nitrogen, 
and  termed  the  vegeto-animal  principle.  Its  discovery  is  attributed  to  Beccaria  in  the 

1 8th  century. 

GLYCERINE,  discovered  by  Scheele,  about  1779,  and  termed  by  him  the  "  sweet  principle 
of  fats,"  and  further  studied  by  Chevreul,  termed  the  "father  of  the  fatty  acids."  It  is 
obtained  pure  by  saponifying  olive  oil  or  animal  fat  with  oxide  of  lead,  or  litharge.  Glycerine 
is  now  much  employed  in  medicine  and  the  arts. 

GNOSTICS  (from  the  Greek  gnosis,  knowledge),  a  sect  who  soon  after  the  preaching  of 
Christianity,  endeavoured  to  combine  its  principles  with  the  Greek  philosophies.  Among 
their  teachers  were  Saturnius,  in  ;  Basilides,  134;  and  Valentine,  140.  Priscillian,  a 
Spaniard,  was  burnt  at  Thebes  as  a  heretic,  in  384,  for  endeavouring  to  revive  Gnosticism. 

GO  A  (S.W.  Hindosian),  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese  under  Albuquerque  in  1510,  and 
made  their  Indian  capital. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRY,  so  called  from  a  house  at  Paris,  formerly  possessed  by  wool- 
dyers,  whereof  the  chief  (Giles  Gobelin)  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I. ,  is  said  to  have  found  the 
secret  of  dyeing  scarlet.  This  house  was  purchased  by  Louis  XIV.  for  a  manufactory  of 
works  for  adorning  palaces,  under  the  direction  of  Colbert,  especially  tapestry,  designs  for 
which  were  drawn  by  Le  Brun,  about  1666. 

"GOD  BLESS  YOU!"  We  are  told  that  in  the  time  of  pope  Pelagius  II.  a  plague 
raged  at  Rome  of  so  fatal  a  nature,  that  persons  seized  with  it  died  sneezing  and  gaping  ; 
whence  came  the  custom  of  saying  "  God  bless  youf'  when  a  person  sneezes,  and  of  Roman 
Catholics  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  upon  the  mouth  when  any  one  gapes ;  582. 
j\'otiv.  Diet. 

"  GOD  SAVE  THE  KING."  This  melody  is  said  to  have  been  composed  by  John  Bull, 
Mus.  D.,  in  1606,  for  a  dinner  given  to  James  I.  at  Merchant  Taylors'  Hall ;  others  ascribe  it 
to  Henry  Carey,  about  1743.  It  has  been  claimed  by  the  French.  The  controversy  on  the 
subject  is  summed  up  in  Chappell's  "  Popular  Music  of  the  Olden  Times  "  (1859). 

GODERICH  ADMINISTRATION.  Viscount  Goderich*  (afterwards  earl  of  Ripon) 
became  first  minister  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Canning,  Aug.  8,  1827  ;  resigned  Jan.  8,  1828. 

*  Born  1782  ;  held  various  inferior  appointments  from  1809  to  1818,  when  he  became  president  of  the 
board  of  trade;  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from  1818  to  April,  1827,  when  he  became  colonial 
secretary,  which  office  he  held  in  the  Grey  cabinet,  Nov.  1830  ;  created  earl  of  Eipou,  1833  ;  died  1859. 


GOD 


342 


COL 


GODERICH  ADMINISTRATION,  continued. 


Viscount  Goderich,  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Duke  of  Portland,  president  of  the  council. 

Lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor. 

Earl  of  Carlisle,  lord  privy  seal. 

Viscount  Dudley,  Mr.  Huskisson,  and  the  marquess 
of  Lansdowne,  foreign,  colonial,  and  home  secre- 
taries. 


Lord  Palmerston,  secretary-at-war. 

Mr.  Wynn,  president  of  the  India  board. 

Mr.  Charles  Grant  (afterwards,  lord  Glenelg),  board 

of  trade. 

Mr.  Herries,  cliancellor  of  the  ei chequer. 
Mr.  Tierney,  master  of  the  mint,  &c. 


GODFATHERS  AND  GODMOTHERS.  The  Jews  are  said  to  have  had  godfathers  in  the 
circumcision  of  their  sons  ;  but  there  is  no  mention  of  them  in  scripture.  The  custom 
was  first  ordained,  according  to  some  by  pope  Alexander  ;  according  to  others  by  Sixtus  ; 
others  refer  it  to  Telesphorus,  about  130,  and  others  to  Hyginus  about  140.  In  Roman 
Catholic  countries  bells  have  godfathers  and  godmothers  at  their  baptism. 

GODOLPHIN  ADMINISTRATIONS,  1684  and  1690.  The  earl  of  Godolphin  became 
prime  minister  to  queen  Anne,  May  8,  1702  ;  received  the  treasurer's  staff  two  days  after- 
wards ;  resigned  Aug.  8,  1710  ;  and  died  1712.  See  Administrations. 


Sidney,  lord  (afterwards  earl)  Godolphin,  treasury. 
Thomas,   earl  of  Pembroke  and  Montgomery,  lord 

president. 
John  Sheffield,  marquess  of  Normanby  (afterwards 

duke  of  Normanby  and  Buckingham),  privy  seal. 


Hon.  Henry  Boyle,  chancellor  of  the  erchequer. 

Sir  Charles  Hedges  and  the  earl  of  Nottingham  (the 
latter  succeeded  by  the  right  hon.  Robert  Harley, 
created  earl  of  Oxford  in  1704),  secretaries  of  state, 

&G. 


GODWIN'S  OATH.  ''Take  care  you  are  not  swearing  Godwin's  oath."  This  caution, 
to  a  person  taking  a  voluntary  and  intemperate  oath,  or  making  violent  protestations,  had 
its  rise  in  the  following  circumstance  related  by  the  monks  :  Godwin,  earl  of  Kent,  was  tried 
for  the  murder  of  prince  Alfred,  brother  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  pardoned,  but  died  at 
the  king's  table  while  protesting  with  oaths  his  innocence  of  the  murder  ;  supposed  by  the 
historians  of  those  times  to  have  been  choked  with  a  piece  of  bread,  as  a  judgment  from 
Heaven,  having  prayed  it  might  stick  in  his  throat  if  he  were  guilty  of  the  murder  ;  1053. 

GODWIN  SANDS,  sand-banks  off  the  east  coast  of  Kent,  occupy  land  which  belonged 
to  Godwin,  earl  of  Kent,  the  father  of  king  Harold  II.  This  ground  was  afterwards  given  to 
the  monastery  of  St.  Augustin  at  Canterbury  ;  but  the  abbot  neglecting  to  keep  in  repair 
the  wall  that  defended  it  from  the  sea,  the  tract  was  submerged  in  1 100,  leaving  these  sands, 
upon  which  many  ships  have  been  wrecked.  Salmon. 

GOLD.*  The  purest  and  most  ductile  of  all  the  metals,  for  which  reason  it  has,  from 
the  earliest  ages,  been  considered  by  almost  all  nations  as  the  most  valuable.  It  is  too  soft 
to  be  used  pure,  and  to  harden  it  it  is  alloyed  with  copper  or  silver  :  our  coin  consists  of 
twenty-two  carats  of  pure  gold,  and  two  of  copper.  In  the  early  ages  no  metals  were  used 
but  those  found  pure,  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  By  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  96  (1854),  gold 
wares  are  allowed  to  be  manufactured  at  a  lower  standard  than  formerly  ;  wedding  rings 
excepted,  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  60  (1855).  The  present  stated  price  is  3^.  175.  io\d.  per  oz. 
See  Coin  of  England  and  Guineas. 


GOLD   COIN. 

First  certain  record  of  gold  coined  in  England,  1257 

First  regular  gold  pieces  struck  ....  1344 

The  florin  struck,  and  the  method  of  assaying 
gold  established,  1354;  the  standard  altered,  1527 

All  the  gold  money  called  in,  and  re-coined,  and 
the  first  window-tax  imposed  to  defray  the 
expense  and  deficiency  in  the  re-coinage, 
7  Will.  Ill 1695 

Guineas  first  coined  in  1673 ;  reduced  in  cur- 
rency value  from  228.  to  2is.  in  ...  1717 

Broad-pieces  called  in,  and  re-coined  into 
guineas 1732 

The  gold  coin  brought  into  the  Mint  by  pro- 
clamation in  1773-6,  amounted  to  about 
15,563,593?. ;  the  expense  of  collecting,  melt- 
ing, and  re-coining  it,  was  754,019?. 


Act  for  weighing  gold  coin  pass 
Proclamation  for  issuing  gold  7.! 


;d  .     .  June  13,  1774 
pieces  Nov.  20,  1797 


"The  quantity  of  gold  that  passed  through  the 
Mint,  since  the  accession  of  queen  Elizabeth  to  the 
throne,  in  1558,  to  the  beginning  of  1840,18  3,353,561 
pounds  weight,  troy.  Of  this,  nearly  one-half  was 
coined  in  the  reign  of  George  III.,  namely,  1,593,078 
pounds  weight,  troy.  The  value  of  the  gold  coined 
in  the  reign  of  that  sovereign  was  74,501, 586?." 
Professor  Faraday. 

The  weight  of  gold  coined  in  Victoria's  reign,  from 
June,  1837  to  Jan.  1848,  was  746,452  Ib.  ;  the  value 
of  this  amount  coined  was  29,886,457?.  Gold 
corned  in  1853  (when  Australian  gold  came  in), 
12,664,125?.;  in  1854,  4,354,2oi?.;  in  1855, 
9,245,264?.  ;  in  1856,  6,476,060?. 


*  The  amalgamation  of  gold  is  described  by  Pliny  (about  77)  and  Vitruvius  (about  B.C.  27).  The 
alchemist  Basil  Valentine  (in  the  isth  century)  was  acquainted  with  the  solution  of  the  chloride  of  gold  and 
fulminating  gold.  Andreas  Cassius  in  1685,  described  the  preparation  of  gold  purple,  which  was  then 
adapted  by  Kunkel  to  make  red  glass,  and  to  other  purposes.  Gmelin.  Gold  has  been  subjected  to  the 
researches  of  eminent  chemists,  such  as  Berzelius  and  Faraday,  up  to  the  present  day. 


GOL 


343 


GOO 


Afr 
gol< 


ij 

Anc 
golc 

S 

1 
du 

we 


GOLD,  continued. 


7: 
; 


MINES.      Gold  was  found  most  abundantljT  in  i 
frica,  Japan,  and  South  America,  in  which  last  j 
gold  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1492,  from  , 
which  time  to  1731   they  imported  into   Europe 
6000  millions  of  pieces  of  eight,  in  register  gold 
and  silver,  exclusively  of  what  were  unregistered. 
A  piece  of  gold  weighing  ninety  marks,  equal 
to    sixty  pounds    troy    (the    mark    being  eight 
ounces;,  was  found  near  La  Paz,  a  town  of  Peru, 

1 7  so- 
Gold  was  discovered  in  Malacca  in  1731  ;  in  New 
Andalusia  in  1785  ;  in  Ceylon,  1800 ;   2887  oz.  of 
>ld,  value  9991^.,  obtained  from  mines  in  Britain 
Ireland  in  1864  ;  has  been  found  in  Cornwall, 
and  in  the  county  of  Wicklow  in  Ireland. 

The  Ural  or  Oural  mountains  of  Russia  long  pro- 
duced gold  in  large  quantity. 
Gold  discovered  in  California,  1847  ;  and  in  Aus- 
•alia,  1851.  On  April  28,  1858,  a  nugget,  said  to 
igh  146  pounds,  was  shown  to  the  queen.  It  is 
estimated  that  between  1851  and  1859  gold  to 
the  value  of  88, 889, 43  si.  was  exported  from 
Victoria  alone.  See  California,  and  Australia 
verally. 

Gold  discovered   in   what   is  now  termed  New 
luinbia  in  1856;  much  emigration  there  iu  1858. 


Gold  discovered  in  New  Zealand,  and  in.Novo 
Scotia  in  1 86 1. 

GOLD  WIRE  was  first  made  in  Italy  about  1350.  An 
ounce  of  gold  is  sufficient  to  gild  a  silver  wire 
above  1300  miles  in  length  ;  and  such  is  its  tenacity 
that  a  wire  the  one-eighteenth  part  of  an  inch 
will  bear  the  weight  of  500  Ib.  without  breaking. 
Fourcroy. 

A  single  grain  of  gold  may  be  extended  into  a 
leaf  of  fifty-six  square  inches,  and  gold  leaf  can 
be  reduced  to  the  300,000  part  of  an  inch,  and 
gilding  to  the  ten-millionth  part.  Kelly's  Cambist. 

GOLD  ROBBERY.  Three  boxes,  hooped  and  sealed, 
containing  gold  in  bars  and  coin  to  the  value  of 
between  18,000^.  and  20,0001!.  were  sent  from  Lon- 
don, May  15,  1855.  On  their  arrival  in  Paris,  it- 
was  found  that  ingots  to  the  value  of  12,000?.  had 
been  abstracted,  and  shot  substituted,  although 
the  boxes  bore  no  marks  of  violence.  Many  per- 
sons were  apprehended  on  suspicion ;  but  the 
police  obtained  no  trace  till  Nov.  1856.  Three  men 
named  Pierce,  Burgess,  and  Tester,  were  tried  and 
convicted  Jan.  13-15,  1857,  on  ^ne  evidence  of 
Edward  Agar,  an  accomplice.  They  had  been  pre- 
paring for  the  robbery  for  eighteen  months  pre- 
vious to  its  perpetration. 


GOLD  FISH.     Brought  to  England  from  China  in  1691  ;  but  not  common  till  1723. 
GOLDEN  BULL.     See  Bulls. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE  (see  Argonauts).  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1429, 
instituted  the  military  order  of  "  Toison  d'or "  or  "golden  fleece."  The  number  of  knights 
was  thirty-one.  The  king  of  Spain  afterwards  became  grand  master  of  the  order,  as  duke  of 
Burgundy.  It  was  said  to  have  been  instituted  on  account  of  the  immense  profit  the  duke 
made  by  wool.  The  first  solemnities  were  performed  at  Burgos,  at  this  duke's  marriage 
with  Isabel  of  Portugal.  The  knights  wore  a  scarlet  cloak  lined  with  ermine,  with  a  collar 
opened,  and  the  duke's  cipher,  in  the  form  of  a  B,  to  signify  Burgundy,  together  with  flints 
striking  fire,  with  the  motto  "Anteferit,  quam  flamma  micaf."  At  the  end  of  the  collar 
hung  a  golden-fleece,  with  this  device,  "  Pretium,  non  vile  laborum."  The  order  afterwards 
became  common  to  all  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Austria,  as  being  descended  from  Mary, 
daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold,  last  duke  of  Burgundy.  The  order  now  belongs  to  both 
Austria  and  Spain,  in  conformity  with  a  treaty  made  in  1 725. 

GOLDEN  HOEDE,  a  name  given  to  the  Mongolian  Tartars  who  established  an  empire 
in  Kaptchak  (or  Kibzafc),  now  S.E.  Kussia,  about  1224,  their  ruler  being  Batou,  grandson 
of  Gengis  Khan.  They  invaded  Russia,  and  made  Alexander  Newski  grand-duke,  1252. 
At  the  battle  of  Bielawisch,  in  1481,  they  were  crushed  by  Ivan  III.  and  his  allies  the  Nogai 
Tartars. 

GOLDEN  NUMBER,,  the  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  or  the  number  which  shows  the  years 
of  the  moon's  cycle  ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Meton,  of  Athens,  about  432  B.C.  Pliny. 
To  find  the  golden  number  or  year  of  the  lunar  cycle,  add  one  to  the  date  and  divide  by 
nineteen,  then  the  quotient  is  the  number  of  cycles  since  Christ,  and  the  remainder  is  the 
golden  number.  The  golden  number  for  1865,  is  4  ;  for  1866,  5  ;  for  1867,  6  ;  for  1868,  7. 

GOLDSMITHS'  COMPANY  (London)  began  about  1327,  and  incorporated  16  Rich.  II. 
1392.  The  mark  or  date  of  the  Goldsmiths'  company  wherewith  to  stamp  standard  silver 
and  gold  wares  is  made  by  letters  from  A  to  U,  changed  every  year,  commenced  in  1 796. 
The  old  hall  was  taken  down  in  1829,  and  the  present  magnificent  edifice  was  opened  in 
1835.  See  Assay,  and  Standard,  The  first  bankers  were  goldsmiths. 

GOOD  FRIDAY  (probably  God's  Friday).  From  early  time  this  has  been  held  as  a 
solemn  fast,  in  remembrance  of  the  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour  on  Friday,  April  3,  33,  or 
April  15,  29.  Its  appellation  of  good  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  the  church  of  England  ;  our 
Saxon  forefathers  denominated  it  Long  Friday,  on  account  of  the  great  length  of  the  offices 
observed  and  fastings  enjoined  on  this  day.  Good  Friday,  1866,  March  30  ;  1867,  April  19  ; 
1868,  April  10. 

GOODWIN.     See  Godwin. 


GOO  344  GOT 

GOOJERAT  (1ST.  India).  Near  this  place,  on  Feb.  21,  1849,  lord  Gough  totally  defeated 
the  Sikhs  after  a  very  severe  conflict.  Some  of  the  enemy's  guns,  and  the  whole  of  their 
ammunition  and  camp  equipage,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  Shere-Singh  escaped 
with  only  8000  men.  Goojerat  was  taken. 

GOOSE.     See  Michaelmas. 

GORDIAN  KNOT.  The  knot  is  said  to  have  been  made  of  the  thongs  that  served  as 
harness  to  the  waggon  of  Gordius,  a  husbandman,  afterwards  king  of  Phrygia.  Whosoever 
loosed  this  knot,  the  ends  of  which  were  not  discoverable,  the  oracle  declared  should  be  ruler 
of  Persia.  Alexander  the  Great  cut  away  the  knot  with  his  sword  until  he  found  the  ends  of 
it,  and  thus,  in  a  military  sense  at  least,  interpreted  the  oracle,  330  B.C. 

GORDON'S  "NO  POPERY"  RIOTS,  occasioned  by  the  zeal  of  lord  George  Gordon, 
June  2—5,  1780.* 

GOREE,  a  station  near  Cape  Verd,  W.  coast  of  Africa,  planted  by  the  Dutch,  1617.  It 
was  taken  by  the  English  admiral  Holmes  in  1663  ;  and  was  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty 
of  Nimeguen  in  1678.  Goree  was  again  taken  by  the  British  in  1758,  1779,  1800,  and 
1804.  Governor  Wall,  formerly  governor  of  this  island,  was  hanged  in  London,  Jan.  28, 
1802,  for  the  murder  of  sergeant  Armstrong,  committed  while  at  Goree  in  1782. 

GOREY  (S.  E.  Ireland).  Near  here  the  king's  troops  under  colonel  Walpole  were 
defeated,  and  their  leader  slain,  by  the  Irish  rebels,  June  4,  1798. 

GORGET,  the  ancient  breast-plate,  was  very  large,  varying  in  size  and  weight.  The 
present  diminutive  breast-plate  came  into  use  about  1660.  See  Armour. 

GORILLA,  a  powerful  ape  of  West  Africa,  from  about  five  feet  six,  seven,  or  eight 
inches  high.  It  is  a  match  for  the  lion,  and  attacks  the  elephant  with  a  club.  It  is  con- 
sidered to  be  identical  with  the  hahy  people  called  Gorullai  by  the  navigator  Hanno,  in  his 
Periplus,  about  400  or  500  B.C.  In  1847  a  sketch  of  a  gorilla's  cranium  was  sent  to  Professor 
Owen  by  Dr.  Savage,  then  at  the  Gaboon  river.  Preserved  specimens  have  been  recently 
brought  to  Europe,  and  a  living  one  died  on  its  voyage  to  France.  In  1859  Professor  Owen 
gave  an  able  summary  of  our  knowledge  of  this  creature  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London  ; 
and  in  1861  several  skins  and  skulls  were  there  exhibited  by  M.  Du  Chaillu,  who  stated  that 
he  killed  21  of  them  in  his  travels  in  Central  Africa.  The  gorilla  was  not  known  to  Cuvier. 

GOSPELLERS,  the  name  given  to  the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  who  first  attacked  the 
errors  of  popery,  about  1377.  Wickliffe  opposed  the  authority  of  the  pope,  the  temporal 
jurisdiction  of  bishops,  &c.,  and  is  called  the  father  of  the  Reformation. 

GOSPELS  (Saxon  god-spell,  good  story).  Matthew's  and  Mark's  are  conjectured  to  have 
been  written  between  A.D.  38  and  65  ;  Luke's,  55  and  65  ;  John's,  about  97.  Dr.  Robert 
Bray  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign 
Countries,  incorporated  in  1701.  A  body  termed  "Bray's  Associates"  still  exists;  its 
object  being  to  assist  in  forming  and  supporting  clerical  parochial  libraries.  Irenseus  in  the 
2nd  century  refers  to  each  of  the  gospels  by  name. 

GOSPORT  (Hampshire),  contains  the  Royal  Clarence  victualling  yard,  the  bakery  in 
which  can  turn  out  ten  tons  of  biscuit  in  an  hour.  The  great  Haslar  hospital,  near  Gosport, 
was  built  in  1 762. 

GOTHA,  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe  Coburg-Gotha.  Here  is  published  the  celebrated 
A  Imanach  de  Gotha,  which  first  appeared  in  1 764,  in  German. 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  began  about  the  9th  century  after  Christ,  and  spread  over 
Europe.  Its  great  feature  is  the  pointed  arch  ;  hence  it  has  been  suggested  to  call  it  the 
pointed  style.  ' '  Gothic "  was  originally  a  term  of  reproach  given  to  this  style  by  the 

*  On  Jan.  4,  1780,  lie  tendered  the  petition  of  the  Protestant  Association  to  lord  North,  and  on  June 
2,  headed  the  mob  of  40,000  persons  who  assembled  in  St.  George's  Fields,  under  the  name  of  the  Pro- 
testant Association,  to  carry  up  a  petition  to  parliament  for  the  repeal  of  the  act  which  granted  certain 
indulgences  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  The  mob  once  raised  could  not  be  dispersed,  but  proceeded  to  the 
most  daring  outrage,  pillaging,  burning,  and  pulling  down  the  chapels  and  houses  of  the  Roman  Catholics 
first,  but  afterwards  of  several  other  persons  ;  breaking  open  prisons  and  setting  the  persons  free  ;  even 
attempting  the  Bank  of  England  ;  and  in  a  word  totally  overcoming  the  civil  power  for  nearly  six  days. 
On  June  3rd,  the  Roman  Catholic  chapels  and  numerous  mansions  were  destroyed,  the  Bank  attempted, 
the  gaols  opened,— among  these  were  the  King's  Bench,  Newgate,  Fleet,  and  Bridewell  prisons  ;  on  the 
5th,  thirty-six  fires  were  seen  blazing  at  one  time.  At  length  by  the  aid  of  armed  associations  of  the 
citizens,  the  horse  and  foot  guards,  and  the  militia  of  several  counties,  then  embodied  and  marched  to 
London,  the  riot  was  quelled.  In  the  end,  210  of  the  rioters  were  killed,  and  248  wounded,  of  whom  75 
.  died  afterwards  in  the  hospitals.  Many  were  tried,  convicted,  and  executed.  Lord  George  was  tried  for 
high  treason,  Feb.  5,  1781,  but  was  acquitted.  He  died  a.prisoner  for  libel,  Nov.  i,  1793. 


GOT  345  GRA 

renaissance  architects  of  the  i6th  century.  Its  invention  has  been  claimed  for  several 
nations,  particularly  for  the  Saracens.  The  following  list  is  from  Godwin's  Chronological 
Table  of  English  Architecture  :— 


ANGLO-ROMAN — B.C.  55  to  about  A.D.  250 — St.  Mar- 
tin's church,  Canterbury. 

ANGLO-SAXON — A.D.  800  to  1066  -Earl's  Barton 
church  ;  St.  Peter's,  Lincolnshire. 

GOTHIC  ANGLO-ROMAN— A.D.  1066  to  1135 — Roches- 
ter cathedral  nave  ;  St.  Bartholomew's,  Smithfield  ; 
St.  Cross,  Hants,  &c. 

EARLY  ENGLISH,  OR  POINTED — A.D.  1135  to  1272 — 

"  nchester, 


IARLY   ENGLISH,  OR  POINTED — A.D.  1135  to 
Temple   church,   London ;    parts  of   Wim 


FLORID  POINTED— A.D.  1377  to  1509—  Westminster 
Hall;  King's  College,  Cambridge;  St.  George's 
chapel,  Windsor ;  Henry  VII. 's  chapel,  Westmin- 
ster. 

ELIZABETHAN — A.D.  1509  to  1625 — Northumberland 
House,  Strand;  Windsor  Castle,  Hatfield  House, 
schools  at  Oxford. 

Revival  of  Grecian  architecture  about  1625,  Ban- 
queting House,  Whitehall,  &c. 

The  revival  of  Gothic  architecture  commenced  about 
1825,  mainly  through  the  exertions  of  A.  W. 
Pugin.  The  controversy  as  to  its  expediency  was 
rife  in  1860-1. 


Wells,   Salisbury,   and    Durham    cathedrals,  aud 
Westminster  Abbey. 

POINTED,  called  Pure  Gothic  —  A.D.  1272  to  1377  — 
Exeter  cathedral,  Waltham  Cross,  &c.,  St.  Ste- 
phen's, Westminster. 

GOTHLAND,  an  isle  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  was  conquered  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  1397-8  : 
given  up  to  the  Danes,  1524  ;  to  Sweden,  1645  ;  conquered  by  the  Danes,  1677,  and  restored 
to  Sweden,  1679. 

GOTHS,  a  warlike  nation  that  inhabited  the  country  between  the  Caspian,  Pontus, 
Euxine,  and  Baltic  seas.  They  entered  Moesia,  took  Philippopolis,  massacring  thousands  of 
its  inhabitants  ;  defeated  and  killed  the  emperor  Decius,  251  ;  but  were  defeated  by 
Claudius,  320,000  being  slain,  269.  Aurelian  ceded  Dacia  to  them  in  272  ;  but  they  long 
troubled  the  empire.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  Heruli,  the 
Ostrogoths^  under  Theodoric,  became  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  where  they  retained 
their  dominion  till  553,  when  they  were  finally  conquered  by  Narses,  Justinian's  general. 
The  Visigoths  settled  in  Spain,  and  founded  a  kingdom,  which  continued  until  the  country 
was  subdued  by  the  Saracens. 

GOVERNESSES'  BENEVOLENT  INSTITUTION,  was  established  in  1843,  and  incor- 
porated in  1848.  It  affords  to  aged  governesses  annuities  and  an  asylum  ;  and  to  governesses 
in  distress  a  temporary  home  and  assistance. 

GOVERNMENT  ANNUITIES  ACT.  See  Annuities.  The  building  of  the  new  GOVERN- 
MENT OFFICES  began  in  1861. 

GOWRIE  CONSPIRACY.  A  young  Scotch  nobleman,  John,  earl  of  Gowrie,  in  1600, 
reckoning  on  the  support  of  the  burghs  and  the  kirk,  conspired  to  dethrone  James  VI.  and 
seize  the  government.  For  this  purpose  he  decoyed  the  king  into  Gowrie  house,  in  Perth, 
on  Aug.  6,  1600.  The  plot  was  frustrated,  and  the  earl  and  his  brother,  Alexander  Ruthven, 
were  slain  on  the  spot.  At  the  time,  many  persons  believed  that  the  young  men  were  rather 
the  victims  than  the  authors  of  a  plot.  Their  father,  William,  was  treacherously  executed 
in  1584  for  his  share  in  the  Raid  of  Ruthven,  in  1582  ;  and  he  and  his  father,  Patrick,  were 
among  the  assassins  of  Rizzio  in  1566. 

GRACE  AT  MEAT.  The  ancient  Greeks  would  not  partake  of  any  meat  until  they  had 
first  offered  part  of  it,  as  the  first  fruits,  to  their  gods.  The  short  prayer  said  before,  and  by 
some  persons  after  meat,  in  all  Christian  countries,  from  the  earliest  times,  is  in  conformity 
with  Christ's  example,  John  vi.  n,  &c. 

GRACE,  a  title  assumed  by  Henry  IV.  of  England,  on  his  accession,  in  1399.  Excellent 
Grace  was  assumed  by  Henry  VI.  about  1425.  Till  the  time  of  James  I.  1603,  the  king  was 
addressed  by  that  title,  but  afterwards  by  the  title  of  Majesty  only.  "  Your  Grace  "  is  the 
manner  of  addressing  an  archbishop  and  a  duke  in  this  realm.  —  The  term  "  Grace  of  God  "  is 
said  to  have  been  taken  by  bishops  at  Ephesus,  431  (probably  from  I  Cor.  xv.  10),  by  the 
Carlovingian  princes  in  the  9th  century,  by  popes  in  the  I3th  century  ;  and  about  1440  it 
was  assumed  by  kings  as  signifying  their  divine  right.  It  was  taken  by  the  king  of  Prussia 
in  Oct.  1  86  1,  and  created  much  adverse  comment. 

GR^ECIA,  MAGNA,  colonies  planted  by  the  Greeks,  974  —  748  B.C.     See  Italy. 

GRAFTON'S,  DUKE  OF,  ADMINISTRATION,  succeeded  that  of  lord  Chatham,  Dec.  1767. 
Terminated  by  lord  North  becoming  prime  minister  in  1770.  See  North's  Administration. 

Augustus  Henry,  duke  of  Graf  ton,  first  lord  of  the  '  Sir  Edward  Hawke,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 


treasury  [born,  1 
rederick,  lord  N 


735  ;  died,  1811]. 


Frederick,  lord  North,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Earl  Gower,  lord  'president. 

Earl  of  Chatham,  lord  privy  seal. 

Earl  of  Shelburne  and  viscount  Weymouth,  secreta- 


Marquess  of  Graiiby,  master-gtneral  of  the  ordnance. 

Lords  Sandwich  and  Le  Despencer  joint  postmasters- 
general. 

Lords  Hertford,  duke  of  Ancaster,  Thomas  Town- 
shend,  &c. 


ries  of  state.  Lord  Camden,  lord  chancellor. 


GRA  346  GRA 

GRAFFITI,  a  terra  given  to  the  scribblings  found  on  the  walls  of  Pompeii  and  other 
Roman  ruins  :  selections  were  published  by  Wordsworth  in  1837,  and  by  Garrucci  in  1856. 

GRAHAM'S  DIKE  (Scotland).  A  wall  built  in  209  by  Severus  Septimus,  the  Roman 
emperor,  or,  as  others  say,  by  Antoninus  Pius.  It  reached  from  the  Frith  of  Forth  to  the 
Clyde.  The  eminent  historian  Buchanan  relates  that  there  were  considerable  remains  of  this 
wall  in  his  time  ;  and  some  vestiges  of  it  are  to  be  seen  even  to  this  day. 

GRAIN.  Henry  III.  is  said  to  have  ordered  a  grain  of  wheat  gathered  from  the  middle 
of  the  ear  to  be  the  original  standard  of  weight :  12  grains  to  be  a  pennyweight ;  12  penny- 
weights one  ounce,  and  12  ounces  a  pound  Troy.  Lawson. 

GRAMMARIANS.  Anciently,  the  most  eminent  men  in  literature  were  denominated 
grammarians.  A  society  of  grammarians  was  formed  at  Rome  so  early  as  276  B.C.  Blair. 
Apollodorus  of  Athens,  Varro,  Cicero,  Messala,  Julius  Caesar,  Nicias,  JElius  Donatus,  Rem- 
mius,  Palemon,  Tyrannion  of  Pontus,  Athenseus,  and  other  distinguished  men,  were  of  this 
class.  A  Greek  grammar  was  printed  at  Milan  in  1476  ;  Lily's  Latin  grammar  (Brevis 
Institutio),  1513  ;  Liiidley  Murray's  English  grammar,  1795  ;  Cobbett's  English  grammar, 
1818. — Harris's  Hermes  was  published  in  1750,  Home  Tooke's  Epea  Pteroenta,  or  the 
"Diversions  of  Purley,"  in  1786,  both  excellent  treatises  on  the  plilosophy  of  language  and 
grammar.  Cobbett  declared  Mr.  Canning  to  have  been  the  only  purely  grammatical  orator 
of  his  time  ;  and  Dr.  Parr,  speaking  of  a  speech  of  Mr.  Pitt's,  said,  "  We  threw  our  whole 
grammatical  mind  upon  it,  and  could  not  discover  one  error." 

GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS.     See  Education. 
GRAMME.     See  Metrical  System. 

GRAMPIAN  HILLS  (central  Scotland).  At  Ardoch,  near  the  Mons  Grampius  of 
Tacitus,  the  Scots  and  Picts  under  Galgacus  were  defeated  by  the  Romans  under  Agri- 
cola,  84. 

GRAMPOUND  (Cornwall).  For  bribery  and  corrupt  practices  in  this  borough,  in  1819, 
several  persons  were  convicted,  among  them  sir  Manasseh  Lopez,  who  was  sentenced  by  the 
court  of  king's  bench  to  a  fine  of  io,ooo£.  and  two  years'  imprisonment.  Grampound  was 
disfranchised  in  1821. 

GRANADA,  a  city,  S.  Spain,  was  founded  by  the  Moors  in  the  8th  century,  and  formed 
at  first  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Cordova.  In.  1236,  Mohammed-al-Hamar  made  it  the  capital 
of  his  new  kingdom  of  Granada,  which  was  highly  prosperous  till  its  subjugation  by  the 
"great  captain,"  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  in  1492.  In  1609  and  1610,  the  industrious  Moors 
were  expelled  from  Spain,  by  the  bigoted  Philip  III.,  to  the  lasting  injury  of  his  country. 
Granada  was  taken  by  marshal  Soult  in  1810,  and  held  till  1812.  See  New  Granada. 

GRANARIES  were  formed  by  Joseph  in  Egypt,  1715  B.C.  (Genesis  xli.  48.)  There  were 
three  hundred  and  twenty-seven  granaries  in  Rome.  Univ.  Hist.  Twelve  new  granaries 
were  built  at  Bridewell  to  hold  6000  quarters  of  corn,  and  two  storehouses  for  seacoal  to  hold 
4000  loads,  thereby  to  prevent  the  sudden  dearness  of  these  articles  by  great  increase  of 
inhabitants,  7  James  I.  1610.  Stow. 

GRAND  ALLIANCE  between  England,  the  emperor,  and  the  States-General  (principally 
to  prevent  the  union  of  the  French  and  Spanish  monarchies  in  one  person),  signed  at  Vienna, 
May  12,  1689,  to  which  Spain  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  afterwards  acceded. 

GRANDEES.     See  Spanish  Grandees. 
GRAND-DUKE.     See  Duke. 

GRAND  JUNCTION  CANAL  (central  England),  joins  several  others,  and  forms  a 
water  communication  between  London,  Liverpool,  Bristol,  and  Hull.  The  canal  commences 
at  Braunston,  on  the  west  borders  of  Northamptonshire,  and  enters  the  Thames  near  London. 
Executed  1793-1801. 

GRAND  PENSIONARY,  a  chief  state  functionary  in  Holland,  in  the  i6th  century. 
In  the  constitution  given  by  France  to  the  Batavian  republic,  previously  to  the  erection  of  tne 
kingdom  of  Holland,  the  title  was  revived  and  given  to  the  head  of  the  government,  April 
29,  1805,  Rutger  Jan  Schimmelpenninck  being  made  the  Grand  Pensionary.  See  Holland. 

GRAND  REMONSTRANCE.     See  Remonstrance. 

GRANICUS  (a  river,  N.W.  Asia  Minor),  near  which  on  May  22,  334  B.C.,  Alexander  the 
Great  signally  defeated  the  Persians.  The  Macedonian  troops  (30,000  foot  and  5000  horse), 


— 


GRA  347  GRE 


crossed  the  Granicus  in  the  face  of  the  Persian  army  (600,000  foot  and  20,000  horse).  Justin. 
The  victors  lost  fifty-five  foot  soldiers  and  sixty  horse.  Sardis  capitulated,  Miletus  and 
Halicarnassus  were  taken  by  storm,  and  other  great  towns  submitted  to  the  conqueror. 

GRANSON,  near  the  lake  of  Neufehatel,  Switzerland,  where  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of 
Burgundy,  was  defeated  by  the  Swiss,  April  5,  1476. 

GRAPES.  Previously  to  the  reign  of  Edward  YI.  grapes  were  brought  to  England  in 
large  quantities  from  Flanders,  where  they  were  first  cultivated  about  1276.  The  vine  was 
introduced  into  England  in  1552  ;  being  first  planted  at  Bloxhall,  in  Suffolk.  In  the  gardens 
of  Hampton-court  palace  is  a  vine,  stated  to  surpass  any  in  Europe  ;  it  is  72  feet  by  20,  and 
has  in  one  season  produced  2272  bunches  of  grapes,  weighing  18  cwt.  ;  the  stem  is  13  inches 
in  girth  ;  it  was  planted  in  1769.  Leigh. 

GRAPHITE  (from  the  Greek  graphein,  to  write),  a  peculiar  form  of  mineral  carbon,  with 
a  trace  of  iron,  improperly  termed  black  lead  and  plumbago.  In  1809  sir  Humphry  Davy 
investigated  into  the  relations  of  three  forms  of  carbon,  the  diamond,  graphite,  and  charcoal. 
A  rude  kind  of  black  lead  pencil  is  mentioned  by  Gesner  in  1565.  Interesting  results  of  sir 
B.  C.  Brodie's  researches  on  graphite  appeared  in  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862. 

GRATES.  There  were  arched  hearths  among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  chafing-dishes  were 
most  in  use  until  the  general  introduction  of  chimneys  about  1200.  See  Chimneys  and 
Stoves. 

GRAYELINES  (N.  France).  Here  the  Spaniards,  aided  by  an  English  fleet,  defeated  the 
French  on  July  13,  1558. 

GRAVITATION",  as  a  supposed  innate  power,  was  noticed  by  the  Greeks,  and  also  by 
Seneca,  who  speaks  of  the  moon  attracting  the  waters,  about  38.  Kepler  investigated  the 
subject  about  1615  ;  and  Hooke  devised  a  system  of  gravitation  about  1674.  The  principles 
of  gravity  were  demonstrated  by  Galileo  at  Florence,  about  1633  ;  but  the  great  law  on  this 
subject  was  laid  down  by  Newton  in  his  "  Principia,"  in  1687. 

GREAT  BETHEL.     See  Big  Bethel 

GREAT  BRITAIN,  the  name  given  in  1604  to  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland  (which  see}.— 
The  stupendous  iron  steam  vessel,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  commanded  by  captain  Hosken,  formerly 
a  naval  officer,  sailed  from  the  Mersey,  Liverpool,  July  26,  1845,  and  arrived  at  New  York, 
Aug.  10.  She  sailed  to  the  same  place  in  the  forenoon  of  Sept.  22,  1846,  with  a  large  cargo 
of  goods  and  185  passengers,  the  greatest  number  that  had  ever  sailed  to  America  by  steam. 
The  same  evening  the  passengers  were  suddenly  alarmed  by  a  concussion,  as  if  the  vessel  had 
struck  upon  a  rock,  and  soon  discovered  that  she  was  aground  in  Dundrum  bay,  in  Ireland. 
They  were  landed  in  safety,  but  all  attempts  to  get  the  vessel  off  were  ineffectual,  and  she 
lay  stranded  until  Aug.  27,  1847,  when  Messrs.  I.  Brunei,  jun.,  and  Bremner,  the  engineers, 
succeeded  in  getting  her  oS,  she  having  sustained  little  damage  from  the  shock,  or  from  the 
waves  rolling  over  her  for  nearly  a  year. 

GREAT  EASTERN,  &c.  See  under  Steam.  The  Eastern  Counties  Railway  assumed  the 
name  of  GREAT  EASTERN  in  1862.  The  GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY  Company  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1846.  Their  station  at  King's-cross,  London,  was  opened  in  Oct.  1852.  The  GREAT 
\YESTERN  RAILWAY,  between  London  and  Bristol,  was  opened  June  30,  1841. 

GREAT  SEAL  OF  ENGLAND.  The  first  seal  used  by  Edward  the  Confessor  was  called 
the  broad  seal,  and  affixed  to  grants  of  the  crown,  1048.  Baker's  Chron.  The  most  ancient 
seal  with  arms  on  it  is  that  of  Richard  I.  James  II.,  when  fleeing  from  London  in  1688, 
dropped  the  great  seal  in  the  Thames.  The  great  seal  of  England  was  stolen  from  the 
house  of  lord  chancellor  Thurlow,  in  Great  Ormond-street,  into  which  some  thieves  broke, 
and  canned  it  away,  with  other  property,  March  24,  1784,  a  day  before  the  dissolution  of 
parliament  ;  it  was  never  recovered.  It  was  replaced  on  the  next  day.  A  new  seal  was  brought 
into  use  on  the  union  with  Ireland,  Jan.  i,  1801.  Anew  seal  for  Ireland  was  brought  into 
use  and  the  old  one  defaced,  Jan.  21,  1832. 

GREECE,  anciently  termed  Hellas.  The  Greeks  are  said  to  have  been  the  progeny  of 
Javau,  fourth  son  of  Japheth.  Greece  was  so  called  from  a  very  ancient  king  named  Grsecus  ; 
and  from  another  king,  Hellen,  the  son  of  Deucalion,  the  people  were  called  Hellenes.  From 
Hellen's  sons,  Dorus  and  J^olus,  came  the  Dorians  and  ./Eolians  ;  another  son  Xuthus  was 
father  of  Achaeus  and  Ion,  the  progenitors  of  the  Achseans  and  lonians.  Homer  calls  the 
inhabitants  indifferently  Myrmidons,  Hellenes,  and  Achaians.  They  were  termed  Danai, 
from  Danaus,  king  of  Argos,  1474  B.C.  Greece  anciently  consisted  of  the  peninsula  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  Greece  outside  of  the  Peloponnesus,  Thessaly,  and  the  islands.  The  principal 


ORE 


348 


GRE 


states  of  Greece  were  Athens,  Sparta,  Corinth,  Thebes,  Arcadia,  and  afterwards  Macedon 
\all  which  see).  The  limits  of  modern  Greece  are  much  more  confined.  Greece  became 
subject  to  the  Turkish  empire  in  the  I5th  century.  The  population  of  the  kingdom, 
established  in  1829,  96,810  ;  in  1861,  with  the  Ionian  isles  (added  in  1864),  1,326,000. 


Sicyon  founded  (Eusebius)  .  .  .  .B.C.  2089 
Uranus  arrives  in  Greece  (Lenglet)  .  .  .  2042 
Revolt  of  the  Titans;  War  of  the  Giants  .  .  *  * 
Inachus  king  of  the  Argives  ....  1910 
Kingdom  of  Argos  begun  (Eusebius)  .  .  .  1856 
Reign  of  Ogyges  in  Boeotia  (Eusebius)  .  .  1796 
Sacrifices  to  the  gods  first  introduced  in  Greece 

by  Phoroneus 1773 

The  Pelasgi  hold  the  Peloponnesus  1700-1550; 

succeeded  by  the  Hellenes  .  .  .  1550-1300 
According  to  some  authors,  Sicyon  was  now 

begun  (Lenglet) 1773 

Deluge  of  Ogyges  (which  see)        ....  1764 
A  colony  of  Arcadians  emigrate  to  Italy  under 
(Enotrus  :  the  country  first  called  (Etiotria, 
afterwards  Magna  Grcecia  (Eusebius)    .        .     .  1710 
Chronology  of  the  Arundelian   marbles  com- 
mences (Eusebius) 1582 

Cecrops  arrives  from  Egypt  .  .  .  about  1550 
Deluge  of  Deucalion  (Eusebius)  ....  1503 
Panathenasan  games  instituted  .  .  .  .  1495 
Cadmus  with  the  Phoenician  letters  settles  in 

Boeolia,  and  founds  Thebes  .  .  about  1493 
Lelex,  first  king  of  Laconia,  afterwards  called 

Sparta 1490 

Dauaus  said  to  have  brought  the  first  ship  into 
Greece,  and  to  have  introduced  pumps  (see 

Argos)    .        .        . 1485 

Reign  of  Hellen  (Eusebius) 1459 

First  Olympic  games  celebrated  at  Elis,  by  the 
Idcei  Dactyli,  1453  :  who  are  said  to  have  dis-  ' 

covered  iron 1406 

Corinth  re-built  and  so  named  ....  1384 
EJeusiniaii  mysteries  instituted  by  Eumolpus 

(1356)  and  Isthmian  games  .  .  .  .  1326 
Kingdom  of  Mycenpe  created  out  of  Argos .  .  1313 
Pelops,  from  Lydia,  settles  in  south  Greece, 

about  1283 

Argonautic  expedition  (which  see)  ....  1263 
The  Pythian  games  begun  by  Adrastus      .        .     „ 
War  of  the  seven  Greek  captains  against  Thebes  1225 

The  Amazonian  war 1213 

Rape  of  Helen  by  Theseus „ 

Rape  of  Helen  by  Paris 1198 

Commencement  of  the  Trojan  war      .        .         .   1193 
Troy  taken  and  destroyed  on  the  night  of  the 
7th  of  the  month  Thargelion  (27th  of  May,  or 

nth  June) 1184 

JEnen8  said  to  arrive  in  Italy  .  .  about  1182 
Migration  of  ^Eolians  who  build  Smyrna,  &c.  .  1123 
Retxirn  of  the  Heraclidae  .  .  .  about  1103 
Settlement  of  the  lonians  in  Asia  Minor  .  .  1044 
The  Rhodians  begin  navigation  laws  .  .  916 

Eycurgus  nourishes 924-840 

Olympic  games  revived  at  Ellis,  884  ;    the  first 

Olympiad 776 

The  Messehian  wars 743-669 

Sea-fight,  the  first  on  record,  between  the  Corin- 
thians and  the  inhabitants  of  Corcyra    .        .     664 

Byzantine  built 657 

Seven 'sages  of  Greece  (Solon,  Periander,  Pit- 
tacus,  Chilo,   Thales,  Cleobulus,   and    Bias) 

flourish 593 

Persian  conquests  in  Ionia 544 

Sybaris  in  Magna  Grajcia  destroyed  :    100,000 

Crotonians  UK der  Milo  defeat  300,000  Sybarites    508 
Sardis  burnt  by  the  Greeks,  which  occasions 
the  Persian  invasion,  504  ;  Thrace  and  Mace- 
donia conquered 496 

Athens  and  Sparta  resist  the  demands  of  the 

king  of  Persia 491 

The  Persians  defeated  at  Marathon  (ichich  see), 

Sept.  28,     490 

Xerxes    invades    Greece,  but    is    checked  at 
Thermopylae  by  Leonidas .        .        .        Aug.     480 


Battle  of  Salamis  (which  see)      .        Oct.  20,  B.C.     48o 
Mardoriius  defeated  and  slain  at  Platrea  ;  Per- 
sian fleet  destroyed  at  Mycale  .        .  Sept.  22,     479 
Battle  of  Eurymedon  (end  of  Persian  war;    .     .     466 
Athens  begins  to  tyrannise  over  Greece     .        .     459 

The  first  sacred  war  begun 448 

War  between  Corinth  and  its  colony  Corcyra  .  435 
Leads  to  the  Peloponnesian  war  .  .  431-404 
Disastrous  Athenian  expedition  to  Syracuse  415-413 
Retreat  of  the  10,000  under  Xeuophon  .  .  400 

Death  of  Socrates 399 

The  sea-fight  at  Cnidus 394 

The  peace  of  Antalcidas 387 

R*se  and  fall  of  the  Theban  power  in  Greece  370-360 
Battle  of  Mantinea  ;  death  of  Epaminondas  .  362 
Ambitious  designs  of  Philip  of  Macedon  .  .  353 
Sacred  war  ended  by  Philip,  who  takes  all  the 

cities  of  the  Fhoceans 348 

Battle  of  Chreronea  (which  see)     ....     338 
Philip  assassinated  by  Pausanias   .        .         .     .     335 
Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  enters  Greece  ; 
subdues  the  Athenians,  and  destroys  the  city 

of  Thebes ,, 

Alexander  conquers  the  Persian  empire    .       334-331 
Greece  harassed  by  his  successors ;  the  .^Etolian 

and  Achaian  leagues  revived       .     -   .         .  284-280 
Greece  invaded  by  the  Gauls,  280 ;    they  are 

defeated  at  Delphi,  279 ;  and  expelled    ,        .     277 
Dissensions  lead    to  the  intervention   of   the 
Romans          ........    200 

Greece  conquered  by  Mummius  and  made  a 
Roman  province        .        .        .  .       147-146 


Greece    visited    and   favoured    by    Augustus, 
B.C.  21 ;  and  Hadrian  ....  A.D.  122-133- 

Invaded  by  Alaric 396 

Plundered  by  the  Normans  of  Sicily      .         .     .  1146 
Conquered  by  the  Latins,  and  subdivided  into 

small  governments 1204 

The  Turks  under  Mahomet  II.  conquer  Athens 

and  part  of  Greece 1456 

The  Venetians  hold  Athens  and  the  Morea         .  1466 
All  Greece  subject  to  the  Turks      .        .        .     .  1540 
Great  struggle  for  independence  with  Russian 
help ;  fruitless  insurrection  of  the  Suliotes    . 

1770-1803 

Secret  Society,  the  Hetairia,  established   .         .  1815 
Insurrection  in   Moldavia    and    Wallachia,   in 

which  the  Greeks  join,  suppressed     •.        .     .  1821 
Proclamation  of  prince  Alexander  to  shake  off 
the  Turkish  yoke,  March,  1821  ;  he  raised  the 
standard  of  the  cross  against  the  crescent 
and  the  war  of  independence  began  April  6,     ,, 
The  Greek  patriarch  put  to  death  at  Constanti- 
nople       April  23,     ,, 

Independence  of  Greece  proclaimed  .     Jan.  27,  1822 
Siege  of  Corinth  by  the  Turks  .        .        .     Jan.     „ 
Bombardment   of    Scio;    its    capture;    most 
horrible  massacre  recorded  in  modern  history 

(see  Chios) April,     ,, 

The  Greeks  victors  at  Thermopyla?,  &c.      July,     ,, 

Massacre  at  Cyprus July,     , , 

National  congress  at  Argos  .        .        .  April  10,  1823 
Victories  of  Marco  Botzaris     .        .        .    June,     ,, 
Lord  Byron  lands  in  Greece  to  devote  himself 

to  its  cause Aug.     , , 

First  Greek  loan Feb.   1824 

Death  of  lord  Byron  at  Missolcnghi  .  April  19,  ,, 
Defeat  of  the  Capitan  Pacha,  at  Samos,  Aug.  16,  „ 
Provisional  government  of  Greece  set  up,  Oct.  12,  „ 
Ibrahim  Pacha  lands,  Feb.  25  ;  takes  Navarin 

and  ravages  Greece    ....        May,  1825 
The  Greek  fleet  defeats  the  Capitau  Pacha, 

June,     „ 


GRE 


349 


GRE 


GREECE,  continued. 

The  provisional  government  invite  the  protec- 
tion of  England July,  1825 

Ibrahim  Pacha  takes  Missolonghi  by  assault, 

after  a  long  heroic  defence .        .        April  23,  1826 
70,000^  raised  in  Europe  for  the  Greeks    .        .     ,, 
Reschid  Pacha  takes  Athens      .         .      June  2,   1827 
Treaty  of  London,  between  Great  Bi-i  tain, Russia, 

and  France,  on  behalf  of  Grejce,  signed  Juiy6,     ,, 
Turkish  fleet  destroyed  at  Navarino  (which  see), 

Oct.  20,     „ 

Count  Capo  d'Istria  president  of  Greece,  Jan.  18,  1828 
The  I'aiihellenion  or  Grand   Council  of  State 

established Feb.  2,     ,, 

National  bank  founded       .         .        .      Feb.  14,     ,, 
Convention  of  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  with  sir 
Edward  Codrington,  for  the   evacuation   of 
the  Morea,  and  delivery  of  captives  .  Aug.  6,     ,, 
Patras,  Navarino,  and  Modon  surrender  to  the 

French Oct.  6,     ,, 

The  Turks  evacuate  the  Morea        .        .       Oct.     ,, 
Missolonghi  surrenders       .         .         .      May  16,  1829 
Greek  National  Assembly  commences  its  sit- 
tings at  Argos        ....        July  23,     ,, 
The  Porte  acknowledges  the  independence  of 

Greece  in  the  treaty  of  Adrianople     Sept.  14,     „ 
Prince  Leopold  declines  the  sovereignty  May  21,  1830 
Count  Capo  de'Istria,  president  of  Greece,  assas- 
sinated by  the  brother  and  son  of  Mavromi- 
chaelis,  a  Mainote  chief  whom  he  had  im- 
prisoned*     Oct.  Q,  1831 

Otho  of  Bavaria  elected  king  of  Greece   May  7,  1832 
Colocotroni's  conspiracy        .        .        .       Sept.     ,, 
Otho  I.  assumes  the  government.     .        .          .   1835 
University  at  Athens  established,  1837  ;  build- 
ing commenced         ..*...  1839 
A  bloodless  revolution  at  Athens  is  consum- 
mated, establishing  a  new  constitution,  en- 
forcing   ministei-ial    responsibility  and   na- 
tional representation  .         .         .        Sept.  14,  1843 
The  king  accepts  the  new  constitution   March,  1844 
Admiral  Parker,   in  command  of   the  British 
Mediterranean  fleet,  blockades  the  harbour 
of  the  Piraeus,  the  Greek  government  having 
refused  the  payment  of  monies  due  to  British 
subjects,   and  to    surrender    the  islands   of 
Sapienza  and  Caprera       .         .        .    Jan.  18,  1850 
France   interposes    her  good   offices,  and  the 

blockade  is  discontinued      .         .       March  i,     ,, 
Negotiations  terminate,   and  the  blockade  of 

Athens  is  renewed      .        .         .          April  25,     ,, 
Dispute  with  France  accommodated     June  21,     ,, 
Insurrections  against  Turkey  in  Thessaly  and 
Epirns,  favoured  by  the    Greek   court  Jan. 
and  Feb.  ;  lead  to  a  rupture  between  Greece 

and  Turkey March  28,  1854 

After  many  remonstrances,  the  English  and 
French  governments  send  troops  which 
arrive  at  the  Piraeus ;  change  of  ministry 
ensues,  and  the  king  promises  to  observe  a 
strict  neutrality  .  .  .  May  25,  26,  ,, 
A  newspaper  in  the  modern  Greek  language 

printed  in  London,  beginning    .        .  July  9,  1860 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia  remonstrate 
with  the   Greek  government  respecting  its 

debts Oct.  18,     „ 

Agitation  in  the  Ionian  isles  for  annexation  to 

Greece  ;  the  parliament  prorogued  .  March,  1861 
The  king  retires  to  Bavaria  .  .  .  July,  „ 
Attempted  assassination  of  the  queen  by  Darios,  , , 
an  insane  student  ....  Sept.  18,  „ 
Great  earthquake  in  the  Peloponnesus,  Dec  26,  ,, 
Leopold  of  Bavaria  proposed  as  heir  to  the 

throne Jan.  1862 

Military  revolt  begins  at  Nauplia        .     Feb.  13,     ,, 


Blockado  of  the  coast  decreed        .        March  9,  1862 

The  insurgents  demand  reforms  and  a  new 
succession  to  the  throne  .  .  .  April,  ,, 

The  royal  troops  enter  the  citadel  of  Nauplia  ; 
insurgents  transported  to  other  stations, 

April  25    ,, 

Change  of  ministry :  Colocotroni  becomes 
premier June  7,  „ 

Insurrection  begins  at  Patras  and  Missolonghi, 
Oct.  17  ;  a  provisional  government,  established 
at  Athens,  deposes  the  king,  Oct  22  ;  he  and 
the  queen  fly ;  arrive  at  Corfu,  Oct.  27  ;  the 
great  European  powers  neutral ;  general  sub- 
mission to  the  provisional  government, 

Oct.  31' 

Great  demonstrations  in  favour  of  prince 
Alfred,  who  is  proclaimed  king  at  Lamia  in 
Phthiotis,  Nov.  22  ;  great  excitement  in  his 
favour  at  Athens  ....  Nov.  23, 

The  provisional  government  establish  universal 
suffrage Dec.  4, 

The  national  assembly  meets  at  Athens  Dec.  22, 

The  national  assembly  elects  M.  Balbis  presi- 
dent, Jan.  29 ;  and  declares  prince  Alfred  of 
England  elected  king  of  Greece  by  230,016 
out  of  241,202  votes  ....  Feb.  3,  1863 

Military  revolt  of  lieut.  Canaris  against  Bul- 
garis  and  others,  who  resign,  Feb.  20 ;  the  as- 
sembly appoint  a  new  ministry  under  Balbis, 

Feb.  23,     ,, 

The  assembly  decides  to  offer  the  crown  to 
prince  William  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  March 
1 8,  and  proclaim  him  as  king  George  I. 

March  30,     „ 

Protocol  between  the  three  protecting  powers, 
France,  England,  and  Russia,  signed  at 
London,  consenting  to  the  offer  of  the  crown 
on  condition  of  the  annexation  of  the  Ionian 
isles  to  Greece  ....  June  5,  „ 

The  king  of  Denmark  accepts  from  the  aged 
admiral  Canaris  the  Greek  crown  for  prince 
William,  and  advises  him  to  adhere  to  the 
constitution  and  endeavour  to  gain  and  pre- 
serve the  love  of  his  people  .  .  June  6, 

Military  revolt  at  Athens,  suppressed  June  30, 

July  9, 

The  king  arrives  at  Athens,  Oct.  30 ;  takes  the 
oath  to  the  constitution  .  .  .  Oct.  31, 

The  Balbis  ministry  formed       .        .        April,  1864 

Protocol  annexing  the  Ionian  isles  to  Greece', 
signed  by  M.  Zaimis  and  sir  H.  Storks,  May 
28  ;  the  Greek  troops  occupy  Corfu,  June  2 : 
the  king  arrives  there  .  .  .  June  6, 

New  ministry  under  Canaris  formed     .  Aug.  7'     ' 

The  assembly  recognises  the  debt  of  1824,  5  Sept. 

After  much  delay,  and  a  remonstrance  from  the     " 
king,  Oct.  19,  a  new  constitution  (with  no 
upper  house)  is  passed  by  the  assembly,  Nov. 
i  ;  and  accepted  by  the  king  .         .  Nov.  28 

New  ministry  formed  under  Coumoundouros    " 

March  29,  1865 

The  anniversary  of  the  beginning  of  the  war  of 
independence  (April  6,  1821)  kept  with  enthu- 
siasm   April  6,  „ 

The  king  visits  the  eastern  provinces ;  general 
tranquillity April  20, 

The  king   opens   the    chamber  of  deputies 

June  9, 

Death  of  Alexander  Mavrocordato,  one  of  the 
early  patriots  ...  .  .  .  Aug.  18,  „ 

The  king  gives  up  one-third  of  his  civil  list  to 
relieve  the  treasury  .  .  .  Sept.  25, 

An  economical  financial  policy  proposed  ;  a 
new  ministry  formed  .  .  .Nov. 


*  The  wretched  assassins  (Oct.  2 
to  their  chins,  and  supplied  with  foe 


11871)  were  immured  within  close  brick  walls,  built  around  them  up 
in  this  lingering  torture  until  they  died. 


GRE 


350 


GRE 


GREECE,  continued. 


KINGS   OF    GREECE. 


1832.  Otho  I.,  prince  of  Bavaria,  born  June  i,  1815  ; 
elected  king,  May  7,  1832  ;  under  a  regency 
till  June  i,  1835 ;  married  Nov.  22,  1836, 
to  Maria  Frederica,  daughter  of  the  grand- 


duke  of  Oldenburg  :  deposed,  Oct.  23,  1862. 
1863.    George  I.,  king  of  the  Hellenes,  born  Dec.  24, 
1845  ;    accepted  the   crown  June  6,    1863 ; 
declared  of  age,  June  27. 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE.     See  Architecture. 

GREEK  CHURCH,  or  Eastern  church,  claims  priority,  as  using  the  language  in  which 
the  Gospel  was  first  promulgated.  Some  of  its  forms  and  ceremonies  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  Roman  church  ;  but  it  disowns  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  and  is  strongly  opposed  to 
many  of  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  its  rival.  It  is  the  established  religion  of  Russia. 
The  Greek  orthodox  confession  of  faith  appeared  in  1643.  See  Fathers  of  the  Church. 


Catechetical    school    at    Alexandria   (Origen, 

Clemens,  &c.) 180-254 

Rise  of  Monachism about    300 

Foundation  of  the  churches  of  Armenia,  about 

300 ;  of  Georgia  or  Iberia  .  .  .  .318 
First  council  of  Nice  (See  Councils)  .  .  .  325 
Ulphilas  preaches  to  the  Goths  .  .  about  376 
Nestorius  condemned  at  the  council  of  Ephesus  431 
•  Monophysite  controversy  ;  churches  of  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  Armenia,  separate  from  the  church 

of  Constantinople 461 

Close  of  the  school  of  Athens ;  extinction  of 

the  Platonic  theology 529 

The    Jacobite    sect   established    in   Syria   by 

Jacobus  Baradfeus 541 

The  struggle  with  the  Mahometans  begins        .     634 
The  Maronite  sect  begins  to  prevail       .     about    676 


690 
726 


•  729 


The  Paulicians  severely  persecuted  . 

Iconoclastic  controversy  begins      .        .     about 

Pope  Gregory  II.  excommunicates  the  emperor 
Leo,  which  leads  to  the  separation  of  the 
Eastern  (Greek)  and  Western  (Roman) 
churches 

Foundation  of  the  church  in  Russia :  conver- 
sion of  princess  Olga,  955  ;  of  Vladimir  .  .  988 

The  Maronites  join  the  Roman  church  .        .     .   1182 

Re-union  of  the  churches  at  the  council  of 
Lyons,  1274  ;  again  separated  .  .  .  1277 

The  patriarchate  of  Moscow  established,  1582  ; 
suppressed  in 1 762 

The  archimandrite  Nilos,  representing  Constan- 
tinople and  4  patriarchates,  visits  London  on 
behalf  of  the  Greek  clergy  in  the  Danubian 
principalities,  in 1863 


GREEK  FIRE,  a  combustible  composition  (now  unknown,  but  thought  to  have  been 
principally  naphtha),  thrown  from  engines,  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Callinicus,  an 
ingenious  engineer  of  Heliopolis,  in  Syria,  in  the  7th  century,  in  order  to  destroy  the 
Saracens'  ships,  which  was  effected  by  the  general  of  the  fleet  of  Constantine  Pogonatus,  and 
30,000  men  were  killed.  A  so-called  "  Greek  Fire,"  probably  a  solution  of  phosphorus  in 
bi-sulphide  of  carbon,  was  employed  at  the  siege  of  Charleston,  U.S.,  *in  Sept.,  1863. 

GREEK  LANGUAGE.  It  was  first  studied  in  Europe  about  1450  ;  in  France,  1473  J 
William  Grocyn,  or  Grokeyn,  a  learned  English  professor  of  this  language,  travelled  to 
acquire  its  true  pronunciation,  and  introduced  it  at  Oxford,  about  1491,  where  he  had  the 
honour  to  teach  Erasmus,  who  himself  taught  it  at  Cambridge  in  1510.  Wood's  Athen.  Oxon. 
England  has  produced  many  eminent  Greek  scholars,  of  whom  may  be  mentioned  Richard 
Bentley,  died  1742  ;  professor  Person,  who  died  in  1808  ;  Dr.  Parr,  who  died  in  1825  ;  and 
Dr.  C.  Buriiey,  who  died  in  1817. 

EMINENT  GREEK  AUTHORS.     (See  also  Fathers  and  Philosophy.) 

Strabo     .        .        .        .  A.D.      10 
Dionysius  Halicarnassus,  abt.       30 
Plutarch     .        .        .     about 
Epictetus         .        .        about 
Appian       .        .        .    about 
Arrian    .        .         about  A.D. 
Athenams   .        .     about 
Lucian    .        .          about      120-200 
Herodian     .         .    about  204 

Longinus         .     .      dies  273 

Julian,  emperor      .        .      331-363 
(See  Fathers  of  the  Churck.) 

GREENBACKS,  a  name* given,  from  the  colour  of  some,  to  the  paper  currency  first 
by  the  United  States  government,  in  1862.     They  represented  sums  as  low  as  i^d., 
2^d.,  and  $d.,  &c. — the  precious  metals  being  exceedingly  scarce. 

GREEN-BAG  INQUIRY  took  its  name  from  a  Green  Bag,  full  of  documents  of  alleged 
seditions,  laid  before  parliament  by  lord  Sidmouth,  Feb.  1817.  Secret  committees  presented 
their  reports,  Feb.  19  ;  and  bills  were  brought  in  on  the  2ist  to  suspend  the  Habeas  Corpus 
act,  and  prohibit  seditious  meetings  then  frequent. 


Homer  nourished  abt.  B.C. 

962-927    Plato 

B.C.   429-347 

Hesiod 

about 

850 

Isocratcs     . 

•  436-338 

./Esop      . 

. 

572 

Aristotle 

.    .  384-322 

Anacreon   . 

about 

559 

Demosthenes 

.  382-322 

Jischylus 

. 

525-456 

Menander 

.    about         321 

Herodotus  . 

about 

443 

Jfechines    . 

.  389-314 

Pindar    . 

.        . 

522-439 

Theocritus 

.    about         272 

Aristophanes 

427 

Epicurus 

.  342-270 

Euripides 

. 

480-406 

Theophrastus 

.     .         287 

Sophocles    . 

. 

495-405 

Archimedes 

.  287-212 

Thucydides    . 

. 

470-404    Polybms 

.  207-122 

Xenophon  . 

443-359  1  Diodorus    . 

.  B.C.  SO-A.D.       13 

118 
*47 
148 

194 


SrEEEN-CLOTH,  BOARD  OF,  in  the  department  of  the  lord-st  ;ward  of  the  household, 
included  an  ancient  court  (abolished  in  1849),  which  hid  jurisdiction  of  all  offences  com- 
mitted in  the  verge  of  the  court. 

GEEENLAND  (an  extensive  Danish  colony  in  North  America)  was  discovered  by  some 
Icelanders,  under  Eric  Eaude,  aboui  980,  and  so  named  from  its  verdure,  superior  to  that 
of  Iceland.  It  was  visited  by  Frobisher  in  1576.  The  first  ship  from  England  to  Greenland 
was  sent  for  the  whale-fishery  by  the  Muscovy  company,  2  James  I.  1604.  In  a  voyage 
performed  in  1630,  eight  men  were  left  behind  by  accident,  who  suffered  incredible  hardships' 
till  the  followi.ig  year,  when  the  company's  ships  brought  them  home.  Tindal.  The  Green- 
laud  Fishing  company  was  incorporated  in  1693. — Hans  Egede,  a  Danish  missionary, 
founded  a  new  colony,  called  Godhaab,  or  Good  Hope,  in  1720-3  ;  and  other  missionary 
stations  have  been  since  established.  Scoresby  surveyed  Greenland  in  1821 ;  and  capt.  Graah, 
by  order  of  the  king  of  Denmark,  in  1829-30. 

GEEENOCK  (W.  Scotland).  Charters  were  granted  in  1635  and  1670  to  John  Shaw,  of 
the  barony  of  Greenock.  Prior  to  1697,  it  was  an  inconsiderable  fishing  station ;  but  during 
that  year  the  Scottish  Indian  and  African  company  resolved  to  erect  salt-works  in  the  Firth, 
and  thus  drew  the  attention  of  sir  John  Shaw,  its  superior,  to  the  maritime  advantages  of 
its  situation.  It  was  made  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1757,  and  a  parliamentary  burgh  in  1832. 
The  erection  of  the  new  quay  was  entrusted,  about  1773,  to  James  Watt,  who  was  born  here 
in  1736.  The  East  India  harbour  was  built  1805-19,  and  Victoria  harbour  1840-50. 

GEEEN"  PAEK  (near  Buckingham  palace,  London),  forms  a  part  of  the  ground  enclosed 
by  Henry  VIII.  in  1530,  and  is  united  to  St.  James's  and  Hyde  parks  by  the  road  named 
Constitution-hill.  Over  the  arch  at  the  entrance,  the  "Wellington  statue  was  placed  in 
1846.-  On  the  north  side  was  a  reservoir  of  the  Chelsea  water- works,  which  was  filled  up  in 
1856. 

GEEENWICH  HOSPITAL  stands  on  the  site  of  a  royal  residence  in  the  time  of 
Edward  I.  (1300)  much  enlarged  by  his  successors.  Here  were  born  Henry  VIII.  and  his 
daughters  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  and  here  his  son  Edward  VI.  died.  The  palace  was  the 
favourite  summer  residence  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and  Charles  II.  intended  to  •  build  a  new 
palace  here  on  a  very  grand  scale,  and  accordingly  erected  one  wing  of  this  grand  edifice, 
but  died  before  any  other  part  of  the  design  was  finished.  In  this  state  it  remained  till 
Mary  and  William  III.  formed  the  plan  of  making  the  palace  useful  to  the  kingdom,  as  an 
hospital,  which  was  instituted  in  1694.  100  disabled  seamen  were  admitted  in  1705.  The 
forfeited  estate  of  the  attainted  earl  of  Derwent water  (beheaded  in  1716)  was  bestowed  upon 
it.  Sixpence  per  month  was  to  be  contributed  by  every  seaman,  and  the  payment  was 
advanced  to  one  shilling,  from  June,  1797.  The  payment  was  abolished  in  1829,  and  that  of 
"the  Merchant  seamen's"  sixpence  also  in  1834.  This  hospital  lodged  2710  in  1853,  and 
possessed  a  revenue  of  about  150,000^.  per  annum.*  A  charter  was  granted  to  it  in 
Dec.  1775.  The  chapel, -the  great  dining-hall,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  buildings  appro- 
priated to  the  pensioners,  were  destroyed  by  fire,  Jan.  2,  1779.  The  chapel  was  rebuilt  in 
1789. — Greenwich  fair  was  discontinued,  April  1857. 

GEEENWICH  OBSEEVATOEY  was  built  at  the  solicitation  of  sir  Jonas  Moore  and 
sir  Christopher  Wren,  by  Charles  II.,  on  the  summit  of  Flamsteed-hill,  so  called  from  the 
,  great  astronomer  of  that  name,  the  first  astronomer-royal  here.  The  English  began  to 
compute  the  longitude  from  the  meridian  of  this  place,  1675  ;  some  make  the  date  1679. 
This  observatory  contains  among  other  instruments  a  transept  circle  by  Troughton  ;  a  transit 
instrument  of  eight  feet  by  Bird  ;  two  mural  quadrants  of  eight  feet,  and  Bradley's  zenith 
sector.  The  telescopes  are  forty  and  sixty  inch  achromatics,  and  a  six-feet  reflector.  In 
1852,  an  electric  telegraph  signal  ball  in  the  Strand  was  completed,  and  put  in  connection 
with  Greenwich  observatory. 


ASTRONOMERS-ROYAL. 


John  Flamsteed  . 

Dr.  Ilalley 

Dr.  Bradley  . 

Dr.  N.  Bliss      . 

Dr.  Novil  Maskelyne 


1675 
1719 
1742 
1762 
1764 


John  Pond 1811 

George  Biddell  Airy 1835 

(The  PRESENT  Astronomer  Royal,  under 
whose  able  superintendence  the  apparatus  have 
been  greatly  increased  and  improved.) 


*  Important  changes  were  made  in  October,  1865,  in  consequence  of  an  act  of  parliament  passed  in 
that  year,  based  upon  the  report  of  a  commission.  About  900  of  the  iii-door  pensioners  received  additions 
to  their  pay,  and  were  permitted  to  reside  wherever  they  pleased  outside  the  hospital,  which,  in  future, 
will  be  rather  an  infirmary  than  a  residence. 


ORE  352  GKE 

GREGORIAN  CALENDAR  (see  Calendar,  and  New  Style.} 

GREGORIAN  CHANT  received  its  name  from  pope  Gregory  I.,   who  improved 
Ambrosian  chant,  about  590. 

GRENADA.     See  Granada  and  New  Granada. 

GRENADES,  a  powerful  missile  of  war,  so  named  from  Granada,  Spanish,  invented  in 
1594.  It  is  a  small  hollow  globe,  or  ball,  of  iron,  about  two  inches  in  diameter,  which  being 
filled  with  fine  powder  and  set  on  fire  by  a  fusee  at  a  touchhole,  the  case  flies  into  shatters, 
to  the  damage  of  all  who  stand  near. 

GRENADIERS.  The  Grenadier  corps  was  a  company  armed  with  a  pouch  of  hand- 
grenades,  established  in  France  in  1667  ;  and  in  England  in  1685.  Brown. 

GRENVILLE  ADMINISTRATIONS.  The  first  succeeded  the  Bute  administration,  in 
April,  1763  ;  and  resigned  in  July,  1765. 


George  Grenville  (born  1712,  died  1770),  first  lord  of 
the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Earl  Granville  (succeeded  by  tbe  duke  of  Bedford), 
lord  president. 

Duke  of  Marlborough,  privy  seal. 

Earls  of  Halifax  and  Sandwich,  secretaries  of  state. 

Earl  Gower,  lord  chamberlain. 

Lord  Egmoiit,  admiralty. 


Marquess  of  Granby,  ordnance. 

Lord  Holland  (late  Mr.  Fox),  paymaster. 

Welbore  Ellis,  secretary-at-war. 

Viscount  Barrington,  treasurer  of  Ike  navy. 

Lord  Hillsborough,  first  lord  of  trade. 

Lord  Henley  (afterwards  earl  of  Northingtort),  lord 

chancellor. 
Duke  of  Rutland,  lords  North,  Trevor,  Hyde,  &c. 


The  Second  Grenville  administration  was  formed  after  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt,  on  Jan.  23, 
1806.  From  the  ability  of  many  of  its  members,  their  friends  said  it  contained  "All  the 
Talents,"  a  term  which  was  afterwards  applied  to  it  derisively  by  its  opponents.  The  death 
of  Mr.  Fox,  Sept.  13,  1806,  led  to  changes,  and  eventually  the  cabinet  resigned,  March  25, 
1806. 

Lord  Grenville,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  Sir  Charles  Grey  (afterwards  viscount  Howick  and 

Lord  Hemy  Petty  (afterwards  marquess  of   Lans-        earl  Grey),  admiralty. 


down),  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Earl  Fitzwilliam,  lord  president. 
Viscount  Sidmouth  (late  Mr.  Addington),  privy  seal. 
Charles  James  Fox.,fortiyn  secretary. 
Earl  Spencer,  home  secretary. 
William  Wiudham,  colonial  secretary. 
Lord  Erskine,  lord  chancellor. 


Lord  Minto,  board  of  control. 
Lord  Auckland,  board  of  trade. 
Lord  Moira,  master-general  of  the  ordnance. 
R.  B.  Sheridan,  treasurer  of  the  navy. 
Richard  Fitzpatriek,  &c. 

Lord  Ellenborough  (lord  chief  justice),  had  a  seat  in 
the  cabinet. 


GRESHAM  COLLEGE  (London),  founded  by  sir  Thomas  Gresham,  in  1575.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  left  a  portion  of  his  property  in  trust  to  the  City 
and  the  Mercers'  Company  to  endow  this  college  for,  among  other  uses,  lectures  in  divinity, 
astronomy,  music,  and  geometry,  and  readers  in  civil  law,  physic,  and  rhetoric,  and  to 
promote  general  instruction  ;  he  died  1579.  The  lectures,  commenced  in  Gresham's  house, 
near  Broad-street,  June  1597  (where  the  Royal  Society  first  met  in  1645),  and  continued, 
with  interrupt' on,  till  1710.  The  buildings  were  pulled  down  in  1768,  and  the  Excise-office 
erected  on  its  site.  The  lectures  were  then  read  in  a  room  over  the  Royal  Exchange  for 
many  years  :  on  the  rebuilding  of  the  present  exchange,  the  Gresham  committee  erected  the 
present  building  in  Basinghall-street,  which  was  designed  by  G.  Smith,  and  opened  for 
lectures,  Nov.  2,  1843.  It  cost  above  joool. 

GRETNA-GREEN  MARRIAGES.  Gretna  is  the  nearest  and  most  accessible  point  in 
Scotland  from  the  sister  kingdom  ;  and  in  its  neighbourhood  fugitive  marriages  were  long 
contracted.  The  practice  was  begun  by  a  tobacconist  named  John  Paisley,  who  lived  to  a 
great  age,  and  died  in  1814.  His  first  residence  was  at  Megg's  Hill,  on  the  common  or  green 
betwixt  Gretna  and  Springfield,  to  the  last  of  which  villages  he  removed  in  1782.  A  man 
named  Elliot  was  lately  the  principal  officiating  person.  The  General  Assembly,  in  1826, 
vainly  attempted  to  suppress  this  system,  but  an  act,  passed  in  1856,  made  these  marriages 
illegal  after  that  year,  unless  one  of  the  persons  married  had  lived  in  Scotland  21  days. 

GREY  ADMINISTRATION  succeeded  the  Wellington  administration,  in  Nov.  1830. 
It  carried  the  Reform  bill  (which  see),  and  terminated  July,  1834. 


GRE 


GUE 


GREY  ADMINISTRATION,  continued. 

lavl  Grey,*  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 
,ord  Brougham,  lord  chancellor. 
'iscount  Althorpe,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
[arquess  of  Lansdowne,  president  of  the  council. 
larl  of  Durham,  pi-ivy  seal. 

'iscounts  Melbourne,   Palmerston,    and  Goderich, 
fwrne,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries. 


Sir  James  Graham,  admiralty. 

Lord  Auckland  and  Mr.  Charles  Grant  (afterwards, 

1830,  lord  Glenelg),  board  of  trade  and  control. 
Lord  Holland,  duchy  of  Lancaster. 
Lord  John  Russell,  paymaster  of  the  forces. 
Duke  of  Richmond,  earl  of  Carlisle,  'Mr.  Wynne,  &c. 


GREYTOWN.     See  Mosquito  Coast. 

GROAT,  from  the  Dutch  groat,  value  of  fourpence,  was  the  largest  silver  coin  in  England 
until  after  1351.  Fourpenny  pieces  were  coined  in  1836  to  the  value  of  70,884?.  ;  in  1837, 
16,038^.  None  have  been  coined  since  1861. 

GROCERS  anciently  meant  "ingrossers  or  monopolisers,"  as  appears  by  a  statute 
37  Edw.  III.  1363:  "Les  Marchauntz  nomez  engrossent  totes  maners  de  merchandises 
vendables."  The  Grocers'  company,  one  of  the  twelve  chief  companies  of  London,  was 
established  in  1345,  and  incorporated  in  1429. 

GROCHOW,  BATTLE  OF,  near  Praga,  a  suburb  of  "Warsaw,  between  the  Poles  and 
Russians,  Feb.  25,  1831.  After  an  obstinate  contest,  continuing  the  whole  of  one  day  and 
great  part  of  the  next,  the  Poles  remained  masters  of  the  field  of  battle.  The  Russians 
shortly  after  retreated,  having  been  foiled  in  their  attempt  to  take  Warsaw.  They  are  said 
to  have  lost  7000  men,  and  the  Poles  2000.  See  Poland,  1861. 

GROG,  sea-term  for  rum  and  water,  derived  its  name  from  admiral  Edward  Yernon,  who 
wore  grogram  breeches,  and  was  hence  called  ''Old  Grog."  About  1745,  he  ordered  his 
sailors  to  dilute  their  rum  with  water,  t 

GUADALOUPE,  a  West  India  island,  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493.  The  French 
took  possession  of  it  in  1635,  and  colonised  it  in  1664.  Taken  by  the  English  in  1759,  and 
restored  in  1763.  Again  taken  by  the  English  in  1779,  1794,  and  1810.  The  allies,  in 
order  to  allure  the  Swedes  into  the  late  coalition  against  France,  gave  them  this  island.  It 
was,  however,  by  the  consent  of  Sweden,  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  in  1814. 

GUAD-EL-RAS  (N.W.  Africa).  Here  the  Spaniards  signally  defeated  the  Moors, 
March  23,  1860,  after  a  severe  conflict  :  general  Prim  manifested  great  bravery,  for  which  he 
was  ennobled.  The  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  on  the  25th. 

GUANO,  or  HUANO  (the  Peruvian  term  for  manure),  the  excrement  of  sea-birds  that 
swarm  along  the  coasts  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  also  of  Africa  and  Australia.  Humboldt 
was  one  of  the  first  by  whom  it  was  brought  to  Europe,  in  order  to  ascertain  its  value  in 
agriculture.  The  importation  of  guano  into  the  United  Kingdom  appears  to  have  com- 
menced in  1839.  283,000  tons  were  imported  in  1845  (of  which  207,679  tons  came  from  the 
western  coast  of  Africa^;  243,016  tons  in  1851  (of  which  6522  tons  came  from  Western 
Australia),  and  131,358  tons  in  1864. 

GUARDS.  The  custom  of  having  guards  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Saul, 
1093  B.C. 

guards  were  the  beginning  of  our  standing  army. 

The  Horse  Grenadier  guards  first  troop,  raised  in 
1693,  was  commanded  by  general  Cholmondely  ; 
the  second  troop  was  raised  in  1702,  and  was  com- 
manded by  lord  Forbes ;  this  corps  was  reduced  in 
1783,  the  officers  retiring  on  full  pay. 

See  Horse  Guards,  Yeoman,  National,  and  Imperial 
Guards. 


Body  guards  were  appointed  to  attend  the  kings  of 
England,  2  Hen.  VII.  1485. 

Horse  Guards  were  raised  4  Edw.  VI.  1550. 

The  three  regiments,  ist,  2nd,  and  3rd  Foot  Guards 
were  raised  in  1660,  and  the  command  of  them 
given  to  colonel  Russell,  general  Monk,  and  lord 
Linlithgow.  The  2nd  regiment,  or  Coldstream, 
was  the  first  raised.  See  Coldstream.  These 


GUATEMALA.  A  republic  in  Central  America,  declared  independent  March  21,  1847. 
President  (1862),  general  Raphael  Carrera,  elected  1851  ;  appointed  for  life  (1854).  A  war 
between  Guatemala  and  San  Salvador  broke  out  in  Jan.  1863  ;  and  on  June  16  the  troops  of 
the  latter  were  totally  defeated.  Population,  about  850,000. 

GUEBRES.     See  Parsees. 


*  Born  March  13,  1764;  M.P.,  as  Charles  Grey,  in  1786;  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  and  afterwards 
foreign  secretary  in  1806 ;  resigned  in  1806011  account  of  his  favouring  Roman  Catholic  emancipation; 
died  July  17,  1845. 

t  He  did  great  service  in  the  West  Indies,  by  taking  Porto  Bello,  Chagre,  &c. ;  but  by  his  disagreement 
with  the  commander  of  the  land  forces,  the  expedition  against  Carthagena  in  1741,  is  said  to  have  failed. 
He  was  dismissed  the  service  for  writing  two  pamphlets  attacking  the  admiralty  ;  he  died  Oct.  30,  1757. 

A  A 


GUE  354  GUI 

GUELPHIC  ORDER  of  knighthood  was  instituted  for  Hanover  by  the  prince  regent, 
afterwards  George  IV.,  Aug.  12,  1815.  The  king  of  Hanover  is  grand  master. 

GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELINES,  names  given  to  the  papal  and  imperial  factions  whose 
conflicts  destroyed  the  peace  of  Italy  from  the  I2th  to  the  end  of  the  I5th  century  (the 
invasion  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France  in  1495).  The  origin  of  the  names  is  uncertain  ;  but  it 
is  ascribed  to  the  contest  for  the  imperial  crown  between  Conrad  of  Hohenstaufen,  duke  of 
Swabia,  lord  of  Wiblingen  (hence  Ghibelin),  and  Henry  nephew  of  "Welf,  or  Guelf,  duke  of 
Bavaria,  in  1138.  The  former  was  successful ;  but  the  popes  and  many  of  the  Italian  cities 
took  the  side  of  his  rival.  Hie  Guelf  and  Hie  Gibelin  are  said  to  have  been  used  as  war-cries 
in  1139.  The  Ghibelines  were  almost  totally  expelled  from  Italy  in  1267,  when  Conradin, 
the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens,  was  beheaded  by  Charles  of  Anjou.  Guelph  is  the  name  of 
the  present  royal  family  of  England.  See  Brunswick. 

GUERNSEY.     See  Jersey. 

GUEUX  (beggars),  a  name  given  by  the  comte  de  Barlaimont  to  the  300  Protestant 
deputies  from  the  Low  Countries,  headed  by  Henri  of  Brederode  and  Louis  of  Nassau,  who 
petitioned  Margaret,  governess  of  the  Low  Countries,  to  abolish  the  inquisition,  April  5,  1566. 
The  deputies  at  once  assumed  the  name  as  honourable,  and  immediately  organised  an  armed 
resistance  to  the  government.  See  Holland. 

GUIANA  (N.E.  coast  of  South  America),  was  visited  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  i6th 
century;  explored  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1596  and  1617.  The  French  settlements  here 
were  formed  in  1626-43 ;  and  the  Dutch,  1627-67.  Demerara  and  Essequibo  were  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  in  1814.  See  Demerara. 

GUIENNE,  a  French  province,  was  part  of  the  dominions  of  Henry  II.  after  his  wife 
Eleanor,  1152.  Philip  of  France  seized  it  in  1293,  which  led  to  war.  It  was  alternately 
held  by  England  and  France  till  1453,  when  John  Talbot,  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  in  vain 
attempted  to  retake  it  from  the  latter. 

GUILDHALL  (London),  was  built  in  1411.  When  it  was  rebuilt  (in  1669),  after  the 
great  fire  of  1666,  no  part  of  the  ancient  building  remained,  except  the  interior  of  the  porch 
and  the  walls  of  the  hall.  The  front  was  not  erected  until  1789  :  a  new  roof  was  built  in 
1864-5.  Beneath  the  west  window  are  the  colossal  figures  of  Gog  and  Magog,  said  to 
represent  a  Saxon  and  an  ancient  Briton.  The  hall  can  contain  7000  persons,  and  is  used 
for  city  feasts.  Here  were  entertained  the  allied  sovereigns  in  1814,  and  Napoleon  III., 
April  19,  1855. 

GUILDS  (of  Saxon  origin),  associations  of  inhabitants  of  towns  for  mutual  benefit, 
resembling  our  friendly  societies,  chartered  by  the  sovereign  since  the  time  of  Henry  II. 
The  '"Guild  of  Literature  and  Art"  (including  sir  E.  B.  Lytton,  C.  Dickens,  and  others) 
founded  an  institution  (on  ground  given  by  sir  E.  B.  Lytton,  at  Stevenage),  consisting  of 
thirteen  dwellings,  retreats  for  an  artist,  scholar,  and  man  of  letters,  which  were  completed 
in  July,  1865. 

GUILLOTINE  invented  (about  1785)  by  Joseph  Ignatius  Guillotin  (an  eminent  physician 
and  senator,  esteemed  for  his  humanity),  designed  to  render  capital  punishment  less  painful 
by  decapitation.  During  the  revolution  he  ran  some  hazard  of  being  subjected  to  its  deadly 
operation  ;  but  (contrary  to  a  prevailing  opinion)  escaped,  and  lived  to  become  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine  at  Paris,  and  died  in  1814,  greatly  respected. — A 
somewhat  similar  instrument  may  be  seen  in  an  engraving  accompanying  the  Symbolicce 
Qw.stiones  (called  the  Mannaia}.  It  is  said  to  have  been  used  in  Italy,  at  Halifax  in  England 
(see  Halifax},  and  in  Scotland,  there  called  the  Maiden  and  the  Widow. 

GUINEA  (W.  coast  of  Africa)  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about  1460.  From  their 
trade  with  the  Moors  originated  the  slave  trade.  Sir  John  Hawkins  was  the  first  Englishman 
who  made  a  merchandise  of  the  human  species.  Bell.  He  was  assisted  in  his  enterprise  by 
a  number  of  English  gentlemen,  who  subscribed  money  for  the  purpose.  He  sailed  from 
England  in  Oct.  1562,  with  three  ships,  proceeded  to  "the  coast  of  Guinea,  purchased  or 
forcibly  seized  300  negroes,  sold  them  profitably  at  Hispaniola,  and  returned  home  richly 
laden  with  hides,  sugar,  ginger,  and  other  merchandise,  in  Sept.  1563.  This  voyage  led  to 
similar  enterprises.  Hdkluyt.  See  Slave  Trade. 

GUINEAS,  English  gold  coin,  so  named  from  having  been  first  coined  of  gold  brought 
by  the  African  company  from  the  coast  of  Guinea  in  1663,  valued  then  at  205.  ;  but  worth 
30.5.  in  1695.  Reduced  at  various  times  ;  in  1717  to  2is.  In  1810  guineas  were  sold  for 
225.  6d.;  in  1816,  for  275.  In  1811  an  act  was  passed  forbidding  their  exportation,  and  their 


GUI 


355 


GUT 


sale  at  a  price  above  the  current  value,   215.     The  first  guineas  bore  the  impression  of  an 


elephant ;  having  been  coined  of  this  African  gold. 
1817,  guineas  have  not  been  coined. 

GUINEGATE,  BATTLE  OP.     See 
GUISE,  a  French  ducal  family:— 

Claude  of  Lorraine,  first  duke,  a  brave  warrior, 
favoured  by  Francis  I. ;  died  .  .  April,  1550 

Francis,  the  great  general,  born,  1519;  assas- 
sinated   Feb.  24,  1563 

Henry,  head  of  the  Catholic  league  ;  born  1550; 


Since  the  issue  of  sovereigns  in  July  i, 


revenged  his  father's  death ;  assassinated  by 
Henry  III Dec.  23,  1588 

Charles,  first  opposed,  and  then  isubmitted  to, 
Henry  IV.  ;  died 1640 

Henry,  died  without  issue 1664 


GUN-COTTON,  a  highly  explosive  substance,  invented  by  professor  Schonbein,  of  Basel, 
and  made  known  in  1846.  It  is  purified  cotton,  steeped  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  nitric 
acid  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  afterwards  dried,  retaining  the  appearance  of  cotton  wool.  Dr. 
Boettger  and  others  also  claim  the  discovery.*  See  Collodion. 

GUNPOWDER.  The  invention  of  gunpowder  is  generally  ascribed  to  Bertholdus  or 
Michael  Schwartz,  a  Cordelier  monk  of  Goslar,  south  of  Brunswick,  in  Germany,  about 
1320.  But  many  writers  maintain  that  it  was  known  much  earlier  in  various  parts  of  the 
world. f  Some  say  that  the  Chinese  possessed  it  a  number  of  centuries  before.  Its  com- 
position, moreover,  is  expressly  mentioned  by  Roger  Bacon,  in  his  treatise  De  Nullitate 
Magice.  He  died  in  1292  or  1294. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT.  The  memorable  conspiracy  known  by  this  name,  for  springing 
a  mine  under  the  houses  of  parliament,  and  destroying  the  three  estates  of  the  realm — king, 
lords,  and  commons — there  assembled,  was  discovered  on  Nov.  4,  1605.  It  was  projected  by 
Robert  Catesby,  and  several  Roman  Catholic  persons  of  rank  were  leagued  in  the  enterprise. 
Guy  Faux  was  detected  in  the  vaults  under  the  house  of  lords  preparing  the  train  for  being 
fired  on  the  next  day.  Catesby  and  Percy  (of  the  family  of  Northumberland)  were  killed  ; 
Guy  Faux,  sir  Everard  Digby,  Rock  wood,  Winter,  and  others,  died  by  the  hands  of  the 
executioner,  Jan.  30,  31,  1606.  Henry  Garnet,  a  Jesuit,  was  executed  as  an  accomplice, 
May  3,  following.  An  anonymous  letter  sent  to  lord  Monteagle  led  to  the  discovery.  It 
contained  the  following  words,  "  Though  there  be  no  appearance  of  any  stir,  yet  I  say  the}T 
shall  receive  a  terrible  blow  this  parliament,  and  yet  they  shall  not  see  who  hurts  them. " 
The  vault  called  Guy  Faux  cellar,  in  which  the  conspirators  lodged  the  barrels  of 
gunpowder,  remained  in  the  late  houses  of  parliament  till  1825,  when  it  was  converted 
into  offices. 

GUNS.     See  Artillery. 

GUNTER'S  CHAIN,  used  in  measuring  land,  invented  by  Edmund  Guiiter,  in  1606. 

GUTTA  PERCHA.~  This  highly  useful  substance  is  procured  from  the  sap  of  the 
Isonandra  Gutta,  a  large  forest  tree,  growing  in  the  Malayan  peninsula  and  on  the  islands 
near  it.  It  was  made  known  in  England  by  Drs.  D.  Almeida  and  Montgomery,  at  the 


*  The  diet  of  Frankfort  voted,  Oct.  3,  1846,  a  recompense  of  100,000  florins  to  professor  Schonbein  and 
Dr.  Boettger,  as  the  inventors  of  the  cotton  powder,  provided  the  authorities  of  Mayence,  after  seeing  it 
tried,  pronounced  it  superior  to  gunpowder  as  an  explosive  ;  but  its  use,  as  a  substitute  for  gunpowder,  in 
gunnery,  is  still  a  matter  of  uncertainty,  as  the  ignition  of  the  cotton  is  not  under  the  same  control.  Of  its 
utility,  however,  in  blasting  and  mining  operations,  not  the  slightest  doubt  can  exist.  Improvements  were 
made  in  the  manufacture  of  gun-cotton  by  an  Austrian  officer,  Baron  Von  Lenk,  about  1852,  and  it  was 
tried  by  a  part  of  (he  Austrian  army  in  1855,  but  did  not  obtain  favour.  In  1862  details  of  the  manufacture 
were  communicated  by  the  Austrian  government  to  our  own  government,  and  Mr.  Abel,  our  war-office 
chemist,  was  directed  to  experiment  on  the  constitution  and  desirability  of  gun-cotton.  The  British 
Association  also  appointed  a  scientific  committee  to  consider  its  merits.  A  complete  decision  has  not  been 
arrived  at.  The  first  trial  of  English-made  gun-cotton  was  made  in  the  spring  of  1864,  at  the  manufactory 
at  Stowmarket,  Suffolk,  by  Messrs.  Prentice. 

t  A  scientific  inquirer,  W.  Hunter,  after  a  careful  examination  of  the  question,  in  1847,  thus  states  the 
result: — "July  and  August,  1346,  may  therefore  be  safely  assumed  to  be  the  time  when  the  explosive 
force  of  gunpowder  was  first  brought  to  bear  on  the  military  operations  of  the  English  nation."  On  Jan. 
16,  1864,  above  n  tons  of  gunpowder  on  board  the  Lottie  Sleigh,  in  the  Mersey,  exploded  ;  much  damage 
was  done  in  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead,  but  no  lives  were  lost.  On  Oct.  i,  1864,  about  104,000  Ibs.  of 
gunpowder  exploded  at  the  Belvedere  powder  magazines  of  Messrs.  Hall  &  Co.,  at  Plumstead,  near 
Woolwich;  13  persons  perished,  and  the  shock  was  felt  at  50  miles'  distance.  Searching  inquiries  were 
made  into  the  circumstances,  and  new  regulations  for  the  keeping  and  transmission  of  powder  issued  in 
November.  See  Hartford.  Mr.  Gale,  a  blind  geutlemrn  of  Plymouth,  on  June  22,  1865,  patented  his 
method  of  rendering  gunpowder  uninflammable  by  combining  with  it  finely  powdered  glass  which  can  be 
readily  separated  by  a  sieve  when  the  powder  is  required  for  use.  Successful  public  experiments  were 
made,  and  Gale's  Protected  Gunpowder  Company  was  formed  (Oct.  1865).  Mr.  Gale  exhibited  his  process 
before  the  Queen  at  Windsor,  Nov.  10,  1865.  The  attainment  of  perfect  security  is  still  doubted. 

A    A   2 


GUZ  356  HAB 

Society  of  Arts,  in  1843.     As  a  non-conductor  of  electricity  it  has  become  an  invaluable  aid 
in  constructing  the  submarine  telegraph. 

GUZERAT,  a  state  in  India,  founded  by  Mahmoud  the  Gaznevide,  about  1020,  was  con- 
quered by  Akbar  in  1572  ;  and  became  subject  to  the  Mahrattas  1732  or  1752. 

GUY'S  HOSPITAL,  London.  Thomas  Guy,  a  wealthy  bookseller,  after  bestowing 
large  sums  on  St.  Thomas's,  determined  to  be  the  sole  founder  of  another  hospital.  At  the 
age  of  seventy-six,  in  1721,  he  commenced  the  erection  of  the  present  building,  and  lived  to 
see  it  nearly  completed,  it  costing  him  18,793?.  ^n  addition,  he  endowed  it  with  219,499?. 
In  1829,  196,115?.  were  bequeathed  to  this  hospital  by  Mr.  Hunt,  to  provide  accommodation 
for  100  additional  patients. 

GWALIOR,  a  state  in  Central  India  ;  since  1803,  under  British  protection.  The  maha- 
rajah  remained  faithful  during  the  revolt  of  1857. 

GYMNASIUM,  a  place  where  the  Greeks  performed  public  exercises,  and  where  also 
philosophers,  poets,  and  rhetoricians  repeated  their  compositions.  In  wrestling  and  boxing 
the  athletes  were  often  naked  (gymnos),  whence  the  name.  A  London  gymnastic  society, 
formed  1826,  did  not  flourish.  In  1862,  M.  Ravenstein  setup  another  gymnastic  association. 
The  German  Gymnastic  Institution,  in  St.  Pancras-road,  London,  was  opened  on  Jan.  29,  1865, 
and  a  large  and  perfect  gymnasium  at  Liverpool  was  inaugurated  by  lord  Stanley, 
Nov.  6,  1865. 

GYMNOSOPHISTJ5,  a  sect  of  philosophers  in  India,  who  lived  naked,  as  their  name 
implies.  Alexander  (about  324  B.C.)  was  astonished  at  the  sight  of  men  who  seemed  to 
despise  bodily  pain,  and  who  inured  themselves  to  the  greatest  tortures  without  uttering  a 
groan  or  expressing  any  fear.  Pliny. 

GYPSIES,  or  EGYPTIANS  (French,  Schemes  ;  Italian,  Zinqari;  Spanish,  Gitanos;  German, 
Zigeuner]  ;  vagrants,  supposed  to  be  descendants  of  Hindoos  expelled  by  Timour,  about 
1399.  They  appeared  in  Germany  and  Italy  early  in  the  I5th  century.  In  England  an  act 
was  made  against  their  itinerancy,  in  1530  ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  thirteen  persons 
were  executed  at  one  assizes  for  having  associated  with  gypsies  for  about  a  month,  contrary 
to  the  statute.  The  gypsy  settlement  at  Norwood  was  broken  up,  and  they  were  treated  as 
vagrants,  May,  1797-  There  were  in  Spain  alone,  previously  to  1800,  more  than  120,000 
gypsies,  and  many  communities  of  them  yet  exist  in  England.  Notwithstanding  their  inter- 
course with  other  nations,  they  are  still,  like  the  Jews,  in  their  manners,  customs,  visage, 
and  appearance,  almost  wholly  unchanged,  and  their  pretended  knowledge  of  futurity  still 
gives  them  power  over  the  superstitious.  Esther  Faa  was  crowned  queen  of  the  gypsies  at 
Blyth,  on  Nov.  18,  1860.  The  Bible  has  been  translated  into  gypsy  dialects. 

GYROSCOPE  (from  gyrere,  to  revolve),  the  name  of  a  rotatory  apparatus  popular  in 
1859,  invented  by  Fessel  of  Cologne  (1852),  and  improved  by  professor  Wheatstone  and 
M.  Foucault  of  Paris.  It  is  similar  in  principle  to  the  rotatory  apparatus  of  Bohnenberger 
of  Tubingen  (born  1765,  died  1831).  —  The  gyroscope  exhibits  the  combined  effects  of  the 
centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces,  and  the  remarkable  results  of  the  cessation  of  either,  and 
thus  illustrates  the  great  law  of  gravitation. 


HAARLEM,  an  ancient  town,  once  the  residence  of  the  counts  of  Holland,  was  taken  by 
the  duke  of  Alva,  in  July,  1573,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months.  He  violated  the  capitulation 
by  butchering  half  the  inhabitants.  The  lake  was  drained  in  1849-51. 

HABEAS  CORPUS.  The  subjects'  Writ  of  Right,  passed  "for  the  better  securing  the 
liberty  of  the  subject,"  31  Charles  II.  c.  2,  May  27,  1679.*  This  act  (founded  on  the  old 
common  law)  is  next  in  importance  to  Magna  Charta,  for  so  long  as  the  statute  remains  in 
force  no  subject  of  England  can  be  detained  in  prison,  except  in  cases  wherein  the  detention 

*  By  this  act,  if  any  person  be  imprisoned  by  the  order  of  any  court,  or  of  the  queen  herself,  he  may 
have  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  to  bring  him  before  the  court  of  queen's  bench  or  common  pleas,  which  shall 
determine  whether  his  committal  be  just.  The  constitution  of  the  United  States  provides  that  "the 
privilege  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public 
safety  may  require  it  ;"  but  does  not  specify  the  department  of  the  government  having  the  power  of 
suspension.  A  series  of  contests  on  this  subject  between  the  legal  and  military  authorities  began  in  Mary- 
land, May,  1861.  In  consequence  of  the  affair  of  John  Anderson  (see  Slavery  in  England,  note),  an  act  was 
passed  in  1862,  enacting  that  no  writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  should  issue  out  of  England  into  any  colony,  &c., 
having  a  court  with  authority  to  grant  such  writ. 


HAG 


357 


HAL 


is  shown  to  be  justified  by  the  law.  The  Habeas  Corpus  act  can  alone  be  suspended  by  the 
authority  of  parliament,  and  then  for  a  short  time  only,  and  when  the  emergency  is  extreme. 
In  such  a  case  the  nation  parts  with  a  portion  of  its  liberty  to  secure  its  own  permanent 
welfare,  and  suspected  persons  may  then  be  arrested  without  cause  or  purpose  being 
assigned.  Blackstone. 


Act  suspended  for  a  short  time  in 
Suspended  for  Scots'  rebellion 
Suspended  for  twelve  months    . 
Suspended  for  Scots'  rebellion  in  . 
Suspended  for  American  war 


1689,  1696,  1708 
.     1715-6 
.  1722 
1744-5 
1777-9 


Again  by  Mr.  Pitt,  owing  to  French  revolution  1794 
Suspended  in  Ireland,  on  account  of  the  great 
rebellion 1798 


Suspended  in  England,  Aug.   28,    1799 ;    and 

April  14,  1801 

Attain,  on  account  of  Irish  insurrection      .        .  1803 
Again,  owing  to  alleged  secret  meetings  (see 

Green  Bag) Feb.  21,  1817 

Bill  to  restore  the  Habeas  Corpus  brought  into 

parliament Jan.  28,  1818 

Suspended  in  Ireland  (insurrection)       July  24,  1848 
Restored  there March  i,  1849 


HACKNEY  COACHES  (probably  from  the  French  coche-a-haquenie,  a  vehicle  with  a 
hired  horse,  haquenee.  Their  supposed  origin  in  Hackney,  near  London,  is  a  vulgar  error. 
See  Cabriolets  and  Omnibuses. 


Four  were  set  up  in  London  by  a  capt.  Bailey 
in  1625  :  their  number  soon  increased. 

They  were  limited  by  the  star-chamber  in  1635 ; 
restricted  to  200  in  1637  and  in  ...  1652 

The  number  was  raised  to  400,  in  1662  ;  to  700, 
in  1694 ;  to  800,  in  1715  ;  to  1000,  in  1771 ;  to 
noo,  in  1814;  and  finally,  to  1300,  in  .  .  1815 

One-horse  backney  carriages  (afterwards  cab- 
riolets) permitted  to  be  licensed  .  .  .  ,, 

All  restriction  as  to  number  ceased,  by  2  Will. 
IV.,  1831.  (The  original  fare  was  is.  a  mile).  1833 

HADRIANOPLE.     See  Adrianople. 

HAGUE,  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Holland,  once  called  the  finest  village  in  Europe  ; 
the  place  of  meeting  of  the  States- General,  and  residence  of  the  former  earls  of  Holland 
since  1250,  when  William  II.  built  the  palace  here. 


Two  hundred  Hackney  Chairs  were  licensed  .     .  1711 
Office  removed  to  Somerset-house      .        .        .  1782 
Coach-makers  made  subject  to  a  license        .     .  1785 
Lost  and  Found  Office  for  the  recovery  of  pro- 
perty left  in  hackney  coaches,  established  by 

act  55  Geo.  Ill 1815 

All  public  vehicles  to  be  regulated  by  the  act 
16  &  17  Viet.  cc.  33,  127,  by  which  they  are 
placed  under  the  control  of  the  commissioners 
of  police  ....  June  and  Aug.  1853 


Here  the  states  abrogated  the  authority  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  1580,  and  held  a  confer- 
ence upon  the  five  articles  of  the  remon- 
strants, which  occasioned  the  synod  of  Dort .  1610 

Treaty  of  the  Hague  (to  preserve  the  equilibrium 
of  the  Northj,  signed  by  England,  France  and 


Holland 
Witt  torn  in  pieces  here 


May  21,  1659 
Aug.  20,  1762 


The  French  took  possession  of  the  Hague,  Jan. 
1795  ;  favoured  by  a  hard  frost,  they  marched 
into  Holland,   where    the    inhabitants  and 
troops  declared    in  their  favour,   a  general 
revolution  ensued,  and  the  stadtholder  and 
his    family   were    compelled    to    leave    the 
country  and  escape  to  England  .        .        .     .  1795 
The  Hague  evacuated  in    .        .        .        .  Nov.  1813 
The  stadtholder  returned  here       .        .        Dec.     , 


HAINAULT,  a  province  in  Belgium,  anciently  governed  by  counts  hereditary,  after 
Kegnier  I.,  who  died  hi  916.  The  count  John  d'Aresnes  became  count  of  Holland  in  1299. 
Hainault  henceforth  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  Flanders. 

HAINAULT  FOREST  (Essex),  a  celebrated  forest,  in  which  stood  the  ancient  Fairlop 
oak  (which  see)  ;  was  disafforested  in  1851. 

HAIR.  In  Gaul,  hair  was  much  esteemed,  and  hence  the  appellation  Gallia  comedo, ;  and 
cutting  off  the  hair  was  inflicted  as  a  punishment  among  the  Gauls.  The  royal  family  of 
France  held  it  as  a  particular  mark  and  privilege  of  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  blood  to  wear 
longhair  artfully  dressed  and  curled.  "The  clerical  tonsure  is  of  apostolic  institution  !" 
Isidorus  Hispalensis.  Pope  Anicetus  forbade  the  clergy  to  wear  long  hair,  155.  Long  hair 
was  out  of  fashion  during  the  protectorate  of  Cromwell,  and  hence  the  term  Round-heads ; 
in  1795  ;  and  also  1801.  Hair-powder  came  into  use  in  1590  ;  and  in  1795  a  tax  was  laid  upon 
persons  using  it,  which  yielded  at  one  time  2O,ooo£.  per  annum.  The  tax  is  now  il.  35.  6d. 
for  each  person  annually.  See  Beard. 

HAITI.     See  Hayti. 

HALEYBURY  COLLEGE  (Herts),  wherein  students  were  prepared  for  service  in  India  ; 
it  was  founded  by  the  East  India  Company  in  1806,  and  was  closed  in  1858. 

HALICARNASSUS,  Caria  (Asia  Minor)  ;  reputed  birth-place  of  Herodotus,  484  B.C.  ; 
the  site  of  the  tomb  of  Mausolus,  erected  353  ;  taken  by  Alexander,  334.  See  Mausoleum. 


HAL 


353 


HAN 


HALIDON  HILL,  near  Berwick,  where,  on  July  19-20,  1333,  the  English  defeated 
Scots,  the  latter  losing  upwards  of  14,000  slain;  among  whom  were  the  regent  Douglas  ai 
a  large  number  of  the  nobility,  while  a  comparatively  small  number  of  the  English  suffere 
Edward  III.  placed  Edward  Balliol  on  the  throne  of  Scotland. 

HALIFAX  (Yorkshire).  The  woollen  manufactory  was  established  here  in  the 
century,  prodigious  quantities  of  cloth,  &c,,  being  on  the  tenters.  The  town,  at  its  incoi 
poration,  was  empowered  to  punish  capitally  (by  a  peculiar  engine,  which  beheaded  the 
offender  in  a  moment)  any  criminal  convicted  of  stealing  to  the  value  of  upwards  of  thirteen 
pence  halfpenny.  King  James  I.  in  1620  took  this  power  away.  See  Guillotine.  In  1857, 
Mr.  J.  Crossley  announced  his  intention  of  founding  a  college  here,  and  Mr.  F.  Crossley  pre- 
sented the  town  with  a  beautiful  park. 

HALIFAX  ADMINISTRATION".     The  earl  of  Halifax  became  minister,  Oct.  1714,  and 
died  in  1715.     This  ministry  was  succeeded  by  Robert  Walpole's. 


Charles,  earl  of  Halifax,  first  lord  of  the  treasury 
(succeeded  on  his  death  by  the  earl  of  Carlisle). 

"William,  lord  Cowper,  afterwards  earl  Cowper,  lord 
chancellor. 

Daniel,  earl  of  Nottingham,  lord  president. 

Thomas,  marquesa  of  Wharton,  privy  seal. 


Edward,  earl  of  Oxford,  admiralty. 

James    Stanhope,    afterwards  earl    Stanhope,   and 

Charles,  Viscount  Townshend,  secretaries  of  state. 
Sir  .Richard  Onslow,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Dukes  of  Montrose  and  Marlborough,  lord.  Berkeley, 

Robt.  Walpole,  Mr.  Pulteney,  &c. 


Westminster  and  Eltham  halls  are 


HALL,  principal  apartment  in  mediaeval  mansions, 
fine  examples.     See  Westminster  Hall. 

HALL  MARK.     See  Goldsmiths,  and  Standard. 

HALLELUJAH  AND  AMEN  (Praise  the  Lord,  and  So  be  it),  expressions  used  in  the 
Hebrew  hymns  ;  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Haggai,  the  prophet,  about  520  B.C.  Their 
introduction  into  the  Christian  church  is  ascribed  to  St.  Jerome,  about  A.D.  390. 

HALTS,  a  river  (Asia  Minor),  near  which  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  Lydians  and 
Medes.  It  was  interrupted  by  an  almost  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  occasioned  a 
conclusion  of  the  war  between  the  two  kingdoms,  May  28,  585  B.C.  (the  fourth  year  of  the 
48th  Olympiad).  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  ii.  Others  give  the  date  584,  603,  and  610  B.C. 
This  eclipse  is  said  to  have  been  predicted  many  years  before  by  Thales  of  Miletus. 
Herodotus  i.  75. 

HAMBURG,  a  free  city,  N.W.  Germany,  founded  by  Charlemagne,  about  809.  It 
joined  the  Hanseatic  League  in  the  I3th  century,  and  became  a  flourishing  commercial  city. 
Population  in  1860,  229,941. 


It  obtained  the  title  of  a  free  imperial  city  by 
permission  of  the  dukes  of  Holstein,  1296; 
was  subject  to  them  till  1618  ;  purchased  its 
total  exemption  from  their  claims  .  .  .  1768 

France  declared  war  upon  Hamburg  for  its 
treachery  in  giving  up  Napper  Tandy  (see 
Tandy) Oct.  1799 


Russians  into  Germany 1813 

Restored  to  independence  by  the  allied  sove- 
reigns         May,  1814 

Awful  fire  here,   which   destroyed  numerous 
churches   and    public    buildings,   atid   2000 
houses  ;  it  continued  for  three  days   .  May  4,  1842 
Half  the  city  inundated  by  the  Elbe     .  Jan.  i,  1855 


British  property  sequestrated        .        .  March,  1801  I  A  new  constitution  demanded  by  the  citizens, 
Hamburg  taken  by  the  French  after  the  battle  I      and  granted  by  the  senate    .        .        .  July,  1860 

of  Jena,  in 1806  |  The  new  assembly  (of  191  members)  first  met, 

Incorporated  with  France 1810  Dec.  6,     ,, 

Evacuated  by  the  French  on  the  advance  of  the  I  The  constitution  began         .        .        .    Jan.  i,  1861 

HAMPTON-COURT  PALACE  (Middlesex),  built  by  cardinal  Wolsey  on  the  site  of  the 
manor-house  of  the  knights-hospitallers,  and  in  1525  presented  to  Henry  VIII.;  perhaps  the 
most  splendid  offering  ever  made  by  a  subject  to  a  sovereign.  Here  Edward  VI.  was  born, 
Oct.  12,  1537;  here  his  mother,  Jane  Seymour,  died,  Oct.  24,  following;  and  here  Mary, 
Elizabeth,  Charles,  and  others  of  our  sovereigns,  resided.  Much  was  pulled  down,  and  the 
grand  inner  court  built  by  William.  III.  in  1694,  when  the  gardens,  occupying  40  acres,  were 
laid  out.  Here  was  held,  Jan.  14-16,  1604,  the  conference  between  the  Puritans  and  the 
clergy  of  the  Established  church,  which  led  to  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible.  See 
Conference. 

HANAPER  OFFICE  (of  the  court  of  Chancery),  where  writs  relating  to  the  business 
of  the  subject,  and  their  returns,  were  anciently  kept  in  hanaperio  (in  a  wicker  hamper)  ; 
and  those  relating  to  the  crown,  in  parva  laga  (a  little  bag).  Hence  the  names  Hanaper 
and  Petty  Bag  Office,  The  office  was  abolished  in  1842. 


HAN 


359 


HAN 


HANAU  (Hesse-Cassel),  where  a  division  of  the  combined  armies  of  Austria  and  Bavaria, 
of  30,000  men,  under  general  Wrede,  encountered  the  French,  70,000  strong,  under 
Napoleon  I.,  on  their  retreat  from  Leipsic,  Oct.  30,  1813.  The  French  suffered  very  severely, 
though  the  allies  were  compelled  to  retire. 

HANDEL'S  COMMEMORATIONS.  The  first  was  held  in  Westminster  abbey,  May  26, 
1784;  king  George  III.  and  queen  Charlotte,  and  above  3000  persons  being  present.  The 
band  contained  268  vocal,  and  245  instrumental  performers,  and  the  receipts  of  three 
successive  days  were  12,746^.  These  concerts  were  repeated  in  1785,  1786,  1790,  and  1791. 


Second  great  commemoration,  in  the  presence  of 
king  William  IV.  and  queen  Adelaide,  when 
there  were  644  performers,  June  24,  26,  and  28, 
1834.  This  commemoration  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  at  Exeter  Hall. 

This  society,  in  conjunction  with  the  Crystal  Palace 
Company,  projected  the  Festival  of  1859. 

Grand  Rehearsal  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  June  15,  17, 
19,  1857,  and  on  July  2,  1858. 

Great  Handel  festival  (at  the  Crystal  Palace) 
011  the  centenary  of  his  death.  Performances  : 
Messiah,  June  20  ;  Selections,  22  ;  Israel  in  Egypt, 
24,  1859,  when  the  prince  consort,  the  king  of  the 
Belgians,  and  26,827  persons  were  present.  There 


were  2765  vocal  and  393  instrumental  performers 
and  the  performance  was  highly  successful.  Tho 
receipts  amounted  to  about  33,000^.,  from  which 
there  were  deducted  i8,oooL  for  expenses  ;  of  the 
residue  (15,000?),  two  parts  accrued  to  the  Crystal 
Palace  Company,  and  one  part  to  the  Sacred  Har- 
monic Society.  Handel's  harpsichord,  original 
scores  of  his  oratorios,  and  other  interesting 
relics,  were  exhibited. 

Handel  festival  (at  the  Crystal  Palace):  4000  per- 
formers ;  highly  successful ;  June  23,  25,  27, 
1862. 

Handel  festival  (at  the  Crystal  Palace) :  very  suc- 
cessful :  June  26,  28,  30,  1865. 


HANDKERCHIEFS,  wrought  and  edged  with  gold,  used  to  be  worn  in  England  by 
gentlemen  in  their  hats,  as  favours  from  young  ladies,  the  value  of  them  being  from  five  to 
twelve  pence  for  each  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1558.  Stow's  C/iron.  Paisley  handkerchiefs 
were  first  made  in  1743. 

HAND'S,  imposition  of,  was  performed  by  Moses  in  setting  apart  his  successor  Joshua 
(Num.  xxvii.  23),  arid  in  Christian  ordination  by  the  apostles  (I  Tim.  iv.  14). 

HANGING,  DRAWING,  AND  QUARTERING,  said  to  have  been  first  inflicted  upon  William 
Marise,  a  pirate,  a  nobleman's  son,  25  Hen.  III.,  1241.  Five  gentlemen  attached  to  the 
duke  of  Gloucester  were  arraigned  and  condemned  for  treason,  and  at  the  place  of  execution 
were  hanged,  cut  down  alive  instantly,  stripped  naked,  and  their  bodies  marked  for  quar- 
tering, and  then  pardoned,  25  Hen.  VI.  1447.  Stow.  The  last  execution  in  this.manner  in 
England  was  that  of  the  Cato-street  conspirators  (which  see),  May  I,  1820.  Hanging  in 
chains  was  abolished  in  1834.  See  Death. 

HANGO  BAY  (Finland).  On  June  5,  1855,  a  boat  commanded  by  lieut.  Geneste  left 
the  British  steamer  Cossack,  with  a  flag  of  truce  to  land  some  Russian  prisoners.  They  were 
fired  on  by  a  body  of  riflemen,  and  five  were  killed,  several  wounded,  and  the  rest  made 
prisoners.  The  Russian  account,  asserting  the  irregularity  to  have  been  on  the  side  of  the 
English,  has  not  been  substantiated. 

HANOVER,  a  kingdom,  formerly  an  electorate,  N.  W.  Germany.  Hanover  is  composed 
of  territories  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  dukes  of  Brunswick  (which  see).  Population  in 
1859,  1,850,000;  in  1861,  1,888,070. 


Hanover  became  the  ninth  electorate  .  A.D.  1692 
Suffered  much  during  the  seven  years'  war,  1756-63 
Seized  by  Prussia  ....  April  3,  1801 
Occupied  by  the  French  .  .  June  5  1803 
Delivered  to  Prussia  in  ....  1805 

Part  of  it  annexed  to  Westphalia  .        .         .        1810 
Regained  for  England  by  Bernadotte,  Nov.  6    1813 
Erected  into  a  kingdom          .        .        .  Oct.  12    1814 
The  duke  of  Cambridge  appointed  lieutenant- 
governor,  and  a  representative  government 
established     .  .     Nov.  1816 


Visited  by  George  IV.  ...          Oct.  1821 

Ernest,  duke  of  Cumberland,  king  .     June  20,  1837 
He  granted  a  constitution  with  electoral  lights, 
1848  ;  which  was  annulled  in  obedience   to 
the  decree  of  the  Federal  diet        .     A-pril  12,  1855 
The  king  claims  from  England  crown  jewels, 
which  belonged  to  George  III.  (value  about 
120,000^.)    ........  1857 

Arbitration  :  the  jewels  given  up   .         .      Jan    1858 
The   Stade  dues   given  up  for  compensation, 

June  12,  1861 


ELECTORS   AND   KINGS   OF   HANOVER. 


1692.  Ernest-Augustus,  youngest  son  of  George, 
that  son  of  William,  duke  of  Brunswick- 
Luneburg,  who  obtained  by  lot  the  right  to 
marry  (see  Bruns'wick).  He  became  bishop  of 
Osnaburg  in  1662,  and  in  1679  inherited  the 
possessions  of  his  uncle  John,  duke  of  Calen- 
berg  ;  created  ELECTOR  of  Hanover  in  1692. 
[He  married,  in  1659,  the  princess  Sophia, 
daughter  of  Frederick,  elector  palatine,  and 
of  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James  I.  of 
England.  In  1701,  Sophia  was  declared  next 


heir  to  the  British  crown,  after  William  III., 

Anne  and  their  descendants.] 
1698.    George-Lewis,  son  of  the  preceding  ;  married 

his  cousin  Sophia,  the  heiress  of  the  duke 

of  Brunswick- Zell.     Became  king  of  Great 

Britain,  Aug.  i,  1714,  as  GEORGE  I. 
1727.   George-Augustus,    his     son   (GEORGE    II.    of 

England^,  June  n. 
1760.   George,- William  -  Frederick,     his      grandson 

(GEORGE  III.  of  England),  Oct.  25. 


HAN  360  HAR 

HANOVER,  continued. 


KINGS  OF  HANOVER.     See  Accession. 

1814.    George- William-Frederick  (the  preceding  so- 
vereign), first  king  of  Hanover,  Oct.  12. 

1820.   George-Augustus-Frederick,  his  son  (GEORGE 
IV.  of  England),  Jan.  29. 

1830.   William-Henry,  his  brother  (WILLIAM  IV.   of 

England),  June  26. 

[Hanover  separated  from  the  crown  of  Great 
Britain.] 


1837.  Ernest- Augustus,  duke  of  Cumberland,  brother 
to  William  IV.  of  England,  on  whose  demise 
he  succeeded  (as  a  distinct  inheritance)  to 
the  throne  of  Hanover,  June  20. 

1851.  George  V.  (born  May  27,  1819),  son  of  Ernest : 
ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  Nov.  18.  The  PRESENT  (1865)  king  of 
Hanover. 

Heir :  Prince  Ernest- Augustus,  born  Sept.  21, 
1845. 


HANSE  TOWNS.  The  Hanseatic  League  (from  Jiansa,  association),  formed  by  a  number 
of  port  towns  in  Germany,  against  the  piracies  of  the  Swedes  and  Danes  :  began  about 
1140  ;  the  league  was  signed  1241.  At  first  it  consisted  only  of  towns  situate  on  the  coasts 
of  the  Baltic  sea,  but  in  1370  it  was  composed  of  sixty-six  cities  and  forty-four  confederates. 
They  proclaimed  war  against  Waldemar,  king  of  Denmark,  about  the  year  1348,  and  against 
Eric  in  1428,  with  forty  ships  and  12,000  regular  troops,  besides  seamen.  This  gave  umbrage 
to  several  princes,  who  ordered  the  merchants  of  their  respective  kingdoms  to  withdraw  their 
effects.  The  Thirty  years'  war  in  Germany  (1618-48)  broke  up  the  strength  of  the  association. 
In  1630  the  only  towns  of  note  of  this  once  powerful  league,  retaining  the  name,  were  Liibeck, 
Hamburg,  and  Bremen.  The  league  suffered  also  by  the  rise  of  the  commerce  of  the  Low 
Countries  in  the  I5th  century.  The  many  privileges  they  enjoyed  by  treaty  in  England  were 
abolished  by  Elizabeth  in  1578. 

HAPSBURG  (or  HABSBURG),  HOUSE  OF,  the  family  from  which  the  imperial  house  of 
Austria  sprang  in  the  7th  century.  Hapsburg  was  an  ancient  castle  of  Switzerland,  on  a 
lofty  eminence  near  Schintznach.  Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg,  became  archduke  of  Austria, 
and  emperor  of  Germany,  1273.  See  Austria  and  Germany. 

HARBOURS.  England  has  many  fine  natural  harbours  ;  the  Thames  (harbour,  dock, 
and  depot),  Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  &c.  Acts  for  the  improvement  of  harbours,  &c.,  were 
passed  in  1847,  1861,  and  1862. 

HARFLEUR  (seaport,  N.  W.  France,  was  besieged  by  Henry  V.,  and  taken  Sept. 
22,  1415. 

HARLAW  (Aberdeenshire),  the  site  of  a  desperate  indecisive  battle  between  the  earl  of 
Mar,  with  the  royal  army,  and  Donald,  the  lord  of  the  Isles,  July  24,  1411.  This  conflict 
was  very  disastrous  to  the  nobility,  some  houses  losing  all  their  males. 

HARLEIAN  LIBRARY,  containing  7000  manuscripts,  bought  by  secretary  Harley,  after- 
wards earl  of  Oxford  and  Mortimer,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. .  A  large  portion  of  his 
life  and  wealth  was  spent  on  the  collection.  He  died  May- 21,  1724.  The  Harleian 
Miscellany,  a  selection  from  the  MSS.  and  Tracts  of  his  library,  was  published  in  1744 
and  1808. 

HARMONIC  STRINGS,  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Pythagoras  through  hearing  four 
blacksmiths  working  with  hammers,  in  harmony,  whose  weights  he  found  to  be  six,  eight, 
nine,  and  twelve ;  or  rather  by  squares,  as  thirty-six,  sixty-four,  eighty-one,  and  one  hundred 
and  forty-four. — The  HARMONICA,  or  musical  glasses,  were  first  "arranged"  by  an  Irish 
gentleman  named  Puckeridge,  and  improved  by  Dr.  Franklin  in  1760. 

HARMONISTS,  a  sect,  founded  in  Wiirtemburg  by  Rapp,  about  1780.  Not  much  is 
known  of  their  tenets,  but  they  held  their  property  in  common,  and  considered  marriage  a 
civil  contract.  Not  finding  toleration,  they  emigrated  to  America,  and  built  New  Harmony 
in  Indiana  in  1815.  Robert  Owen  purchased  this  town  about  1823  ;  but  failed  in  his  scheme 
of  a  "social "  community,  and  returned  to  England.  See  Socialists.  The  Harmonists  removed 
to  Pittsburg  in  Pennsylvania  in  1822. 

HARMONIUM,  a  keyed  wind  instrument,  resembling  the  accordion  in  the  tones  being 
generated  by  the  action  of  wind  upon  metallic  reeds.  The  Chinese  were  well  acquainted 
with  the  effects  produced  by  vibrating  tongues  of  metal.  M.  Biot  stated,  in  1810,  that  they 
were  used  musically  by  M.  Grenie' ;  and  in  1827-29,  free  reed  stops  were  employed  in  organs 
at  Beauvais  and  Paris.  The  harmoniums  best  known  in  England  are  those  of  Alexandre  and 
Debain,  the  latter  claiming  to  be  the  original  maker  of  the  French  instrument.  In  1841, 
however,  Mr.  W.  E.  Evans,  of  Cheltenham,  produced  his  English  harmonium,  then  termed 
the  Organ-Harmonica.  By  a  succession  of  improvements  he  has  produced  a  fine  instrument, 
with  diapason  quality,  and  great  rapidity,  of  speech,  without  loss  of  power.  English 
Cyclopaedia. 


HAR  361  HAS 

HARNESS,  the  leathern  dressings  used  for  horses  to  draw  chariots,  and  also  chariots, 
are  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  Erich thonius  of  Athens,  who  was  made  a  constellation 
after  his  death,  under  the  name  of  Bootes,  about  1487  B.C. 

HARO,  CRY  OF  (Clameur  de  ffaro),  derived  from  Raou],  or  Rollo,  ancestor  of  our  Norman 
princes  of  England.  Rollo  had  administered  justice  with  such  exactness,  that  those  who  had 
injury  done  them  used  to  call  out  A  Raoul!  This  obliged  the  person  who  met  an  adverse  party 
in  the  streets  to  go  before  the  judge,  who  decided  their  differences,  at  least  provisionally. 
Henault. 

HARP.  Invented  by  Jubal,  3875  B.C.  (Oen.  iv.  21).  David  played  the  harp  before  Saul, 
1063  B.  c.  i  Sam.  xvi.  23.  The  Cimbri,  or  English  Saxons,  had  this  instrument.  The  cele- 
brated Welsh  harp  was  strung  with  gut ;  and  the  Irish  harp,  like  the  more  ancient  harps, 
with  wire.*  Braid's  improved  harps  were  first  patented  in  1795. 

HARPER'S  FERRY  (Yirginia).     See  United  States,  1859-62. 

HARRISON'S  TIME-PIECE.  Mr.  John  Harrison,  of  Foulby,  near  Pontefract,  was  the 
inventor.  In  1714,  the  government  offered  rewards  for  methods  of  determining  the 
longitude  at  sea  ;  Harrison  came  to  London,  and  produced  his  first  time-piece  in  1735  ;  his 
second  in  1739  ;  his  third  in  1749  ;  and  his  fourth,  which  procured  him  the  re  ward  of  20,000^. 
offered  by  the  Board  of  Longitude,  a  few  years  after.  He  obtained  io,ooo£.  of  his  reward  in 
1764,  and  other  sums,  more  than  24,000^.  in  all,  for  further  improvements  in  following  years. 

H ARROGATE  (Yorkshire).  The  first  or  old  spa  in  Knaresborough  forest  was  discovered 
by  capt.  Slingsby  in  1571  :  a  dome  was  erected  over  the  well  at  the  expense  of  lord  Rosslyn 
in  1786.  There  are  two  other  chalybeate  springs,  called  the  Alum  well  and  the  Towit  spa. 
The  noted  sulphureous  well  wTas  discovered  in  1783.  The  theatre  was  erected  in  1788.  The 
Bath  hospital  was  erected  by  subscription  in  1825. 

HARROW-ON-THE-H1LL  SCHOOL  (Middlesext),  founded  and  endowed  by  John  Lyon 
in  1571.  To  encourage  archery,  the  founder  instituted  a  prize  of  a  silver  arrow  to  be  shot 
for  annually  on  the  4th  of  August ;  but  the  custom  has  been  abolished.  Lord  Palmerston, 
sir  R.  Peel,  the  statesman,  and  lord  Byron,  the  poet,  were  educated  here. 

HARTLEY  COAL  MINE  (Northumberland).  On  Jan.  16,  1862,  one  of  the  beams  at 
the  mouth  of  the  ventilating  shaft  broke,  and  a  mass  of  iron  weighing  about  12  tons  fell 
down  the  shaft,  destroyed  the  brattice,  divided  the  shaft,  and  carried  down  sufficient  timber 
to  kill  two  men  who  were  ascending  the  shaft,  and  buried  alive  202  persons,  men  and 
boys.  Several  days  elapsed  before  the  bodies  could  be  removed.  Much  sympathy  was  shown 
by  the  public,  from  the  queen  to  the  humblest  classes  ;  and  about  50,000^.  were  collected  on 
behalf  of  the  bereaved  families.  The  coroner's  verdict  expressed  the  necessity  of  there  being 
two  shafts  to  coal  mines,  and  recommended  that  the  beams  of  colliery  engines  should  be  of 
malleable  instead  of  cast-iron. 

HARTWELL  (Buckinghamshire),  the  retreat  of  Louis  XYIIL,  king  of  France,  1807-14. 
He  landed  in  England  at  Yarmouth,  Oct.  6,  1807,  took  up  his  residence  at  Gosfield  hall, 
in  Essex,  and  afterwards  came  to  Hartwell,  as  the  count  de  Lille.  His  consort  died  here  in 
1810.  On  his  restoration,  he  embarked  at  Dover  for  France,  April  24,  1814.  See  France. 

HARUSPICES,  priests  or  soothsayers,  of  Etruscan  origin,  who  foretold  events  from 
observing  entrails  of  animals.  They  were  introduced  to  Rome  by  Romulus  (about  750  B.C.), 
and  abolished  by  Constantino,  A.D.  337,  at  which  time  they  were  seventy  in  number. 

HARVARD  COLLEGE  (Massachusetts,  North  America)  was  founded  by  the  general 
court  at  Boston,  on  Oct.  28,  1636.  It  derived  its  name  from  John  Harvard,  who  bequeathed 
to  it  a  library  and  a  sum  of  money  in  1638. 

HASTINGS  (Sussex).  At  Battle,  near  this  place,  more  than  30,000  were  slain  in  the 
conflict  between  Harold  II.  of  England  and  William  duke  of  Normandy,  the  former  losing 
his  life  and  kingdom,  Oct.  14,  1066.  The  day  of  this  battle  was  also  the  anniversary  of 
Harold's  birth.  He  and  his  two  brothers  were  interred  at  Waltham  abbey,  Essex. 

*  One  of  the  most  ancient  harps  existing  is  that  of  Bryan  Boiroimhe,  monarch  of  Ireland  :  it  was 
given  by  his  son  Donagh  to  Pope  John  XVIII.,  together  with  the  crown  and  other  regalia  of  his  father,  in 
order  to  obtain  absolution  for  the  murder  of  his  brother  Teig.  Adrian  IV.  alleged  this  as  being  one  of  bis 
principal  titles  to  the  kingdom  of  Ireland  in  his  bull  transferring  it  to  Henry  II.  This  harp  was  given 
by  Leo  X.  to  Henry  VIII.,  who  presented  it  to  the  first  earl  of  Clanricarde  :  it  then  came  into  possession 
of  the  family  of  De  Burgh  ;  next  into  that  of  MacMahon  of  Clenagh,  county  of  Clare;  afterwards  into  that 
of  MacNamara  of  Limerick  ;  and  was  at  length  deposited  by  the  right  hon.  William  Conyngham  in  the 
College  Museum,  Dublin,  in  1782. 

t  Charles  II.  cut  short  some  theological  discussion  relative  to  the  claims  for  the  title  of  the  visible 
church,  by  declaring  that  it  "  was  the  parish  church  of  Harrow,  which  could  be  seen  everywhere." 


HAS 


362 


HAY 


HASTINGS'  TRIAL.  Warren  Hastings,*  governor-general  of  India,  was  tried  by  the 
peers  of  Great  Britain  for  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors.  Among  other  charges  was  his 
acceptance  of  a  present  of  ioo,oooZ.  from  the  nabob  of  Oude  (see  Cliunar,  Treaty  of).  The 
trial  lasted  seven  years  and  three  months  ;  commencing  Feb.  13,  1788,  terminating  in  his 
acquittal,  April  25,  1795.  Mr.  Sheridan's  speech  on  the  impeachment  excited  great 
admiration. 

HATFIELD'S  ATTEMPT  ON  THE  LIFE  OF  GEORGE  III.  On  May  11,  1800,  during  a 
review  in  Hyde-park,  a  shot  from  an  undiscovered  hand  was  fired,  which  wounded  a  young 
gentleman  who  stood  near  the  king.  In  the  evening,  when  his  majesty  was  at  Drury-lane 
theatre,  Hatfield  fired  a  pistol  at  him  ;  upon  his  trial  he  was  sentenced  to  be  confined  as  a 
lunatic  during  his  life.  He  died  Jan.  23,  1841,  aged  69  years. 

HATS.  See  Caps.  First  made  by  a  Swiss  at  Paris,  1404.  "When  Charles  VII.  made 
his  triumphal  entry  into  Rouen,  in  1449,  he  wore  a  hat  lined  with  red  velvet,  and  surmounted 
with  a  rich  plume  of  feathers.  Henceforward,  hats  and  caps,  at  least  in  France,  began  to 
take  place  of  chaperons  and  hoods.  Henault.  Hats  were  first  manufactured  in  England  by 
Spaniards  in  1510.  Stow.  Very  high-crowned  hats  were  worn  by  queen  Elizabeth's 
courtiers;  and  high  crowns  were  again  introduced  in  1783.  A  stamp-duty  laid  upon  hats 
in  1784,  and  in  1796,  wras  repealed  in  1811.  Silk  hats  began  to  supersede  beaver 
about  1820. 

HATTERAS  EXPEDITION.     See  United  States,  1861. 
HAU-HAU  FANATICS.     See  New  Zealand,  1865. 

HAVANNAH  (capital  of  Cuba,  West  Indies).  Founded  by  Velasquez,  1511  ;  was  taken 
by  lord  Albemarle,  Aug.  14,  1762  ;  restored,  1763  ;  the  remains  of  Columbus  were  brought 
from  St.  Domingo  and  deposited  in  the  cathedral  here,  1795. 

HAVRE-DE-GRACE  (N.W.  France)  was  defended  for  the  Huguenots  by  the  English  in 
1562  ;  who,  however,  were  expelled  in  1563.  It  was  bombarded  by  Rodney,  July  6  to  9, 
J759  >  t>y  sir  Richard  Strachan,  May  25,  1798  ;  and  blockaded,  Sept.  6,  1803.  The  attempts 
of  the  British  to  burn  the  shipping  here  failed,  Aug.  7,  1804. 

HAWAII.     See  Owhyhee. 

HAWKERS  and  PEDLARS  were  first  licensed  in  1697.  Licensing  commissioners  were 
appointed  in  1810.  The  expense  of  licensing  was  reduced  in  1862. 

HAYMARKET  (Westminster),  opened  in  1664,  was  removed  to  Cumberland-market, 
Jan.  i,  1831.  The  Hay  market  theatre  was  opened  in  1702.  See  Theatres. 

HAYTI,  OR  HAITF,  Indian  name  of  St.  Domingo,  a  West  Indian  island,  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  Dec.  1492,  and  named  Hispaniola.  Before  the  Spaniards  fully  conquered  it, 
they  are  said  to  have  destroyed,  in  battle  or  cold  blood,  3,000,000  of  its  inhabitants,  including 
women  and  children.  General  Fabre  Geffrard  became  president  of  the  republic  of  Hayti, 
Jan.  15,  1859.  Population  in  1859,  about  572,000. 


Hayti  seized    by  the  filibusters  and  French 

buccaneers 1630 

The  French  government  took  possession  of  the 

whole  colony 1677 

The  negroes  revolt  against  France  .  Aug.  23,  1791 
And  massacre  nearly  all  the  whites  .  .  .  1793 
The  French  directory  recognise  Toussaint  1'Ou- 

verture  as  general  in-chief 1794 

The  eastern  part  of  the  island  ceded  to  France 

by  Spain        ........  1795 

Toussaint  establishes  an  independent  republic 

in  St.  Domingo  ....  May  9,  1801 
He  surrenders  to  the  French  .  .  May  7,  1802 
And  is  conducted  to  France,  where  he  dies  .  1803 
A  new  insurrection,  under  the  command  of 

Dessalines  ;  the  French  quit  the  island,  Nov.  1803 
Dessalines  proclaims  the  massacre  of  all  the 

whites,     March    29 ;     crowned  emperor  as 

Jacques  I.          .        .        .        .        .       Oct.  8,  1804 


He  is  assassinated,  and  the  isle  is  divided, 

Oct.  17,  1806 

Henry  Christophe,  a  man  of  colour,  president 
in  Feb.  1807  ;  crowned  emperor  by  the  title 
of  Henry  I.,  while  Pethion  rules  as  president 
at  Port-au-Prince  ....  March,  1811 

Numerous  black  nobility  and  prelates  created  .     „ 

Pethion  dies,  and  Boyer  is  elected  president, 

May,  18x8 

Christophe  commits  suicide,  Oct.  1820  ;  the 
two  states  united  under  Boyer  as  regent  for 
life,  Nov.  1820  ;  who  is  recognised  by  France 
in 

Revolution  :  Boyer  deposed   . 

St.  Domingo  declares  itself  an  independent 
republic,  Feb.  1844;  recognised  by  France  . 

Hayti  proclaimed  an  empire  under  its  late 
president  Solouque,  who  takes  the  title  of 
Faustin  I.,  Aug.  26,  1849;  crowned,  April  18,  1852 


1825 
1843 

1848 


*  He  was  born  in  1732  ;    went  to  India  as  a  writer  in  1750;  became  governor-general  of  Bengal  in 

•  ;  of  India,  1773  ;  governed  ably,  but,  it  is  said,  unscrupulously  and  tyrannically,  till  he  resigned  in 
;.    The  expenses  of  his  trial  (70,000^.)  were  paid  by  the  East  Jndia  Company.     He  died  a  privy-coun- 


HAY  363  HEG 

HAYTI,  continued. 

Faustin  attacking  the  republic  of  St.  Domingo           1  Sixteen    persons    executed    for    a    conspiracy 
repulsed Feb.  i,  1856        against  Geffrard Oct.   1859 

Revolution  in   Hayti  :    general   Geffrard  pro-           j  Great  fire  at  Port-au-Prince ;  600  houses   de- 
claimed president  of  the  republic  of  Hayti,  stroyed Feb.  23,  1865 

Dec.  22,  1858    President  Geffrard  compelled  to  resign,  Sept.  2,     ,, 

Faustin  abdicates Jan.  1859  I  See  Domingo. 

HEAD  ACT.     See  note  to  article  Ireland,  1465. 

HEALTH,  GENERAL  BOARD  OF,  was  appointed  by  the  act  for  the  promotion  of  the 
iblic  health,  passed  in  1848.  See  Sanitary  Legislation.  This  board  was  reconstructed  in 
Lug.  1854,  and  sir  B.  Hall  was  placed  at  its  head,  with  a  salary  of  2Oool.  ;  succeeded  by 
F.  Cowper,  Aug.  1855,  and  by  Ch.  B.  Adderley  in  1858.  the  expenses  for  the  year 
$56-7  were  12,325^.  In  1858  this  board  was  incorporated  into  the  privy  council  establish- 
it  ;  Dr.  Sinion  being  retained  as  medical  officer. 

HEARTH,  OR  CHIMNEY,  TAX,  on  every  fire-place  or  hearth  in  England  was  imposed 
Charles  II.  in  1662,  when  it  produced  about  200,000^.  a  year.   It  was  abolished  by  William 
id  Mary  at  the  Revolution  in  1689  ;  but  was  imposed  again,  and  again  abolished. 

HEAT  (called  by  French  chemists  Caloric).  Little  progress  had  been  made  in  the  study 
the  phenomena  of  heat  till  about  1757,  when  Joseph  Black  put  forth  his  theory  of  latent 
iat  (which  heat  he  said  was  absorbed  by  melting  ice),  and  of  specific  heat.  Cavendish, 
ivoisier,  and  others,  continued  Black's  researches.  Sir  John  Leslie  put  forth  his  views  on 
liant  heat  in  1804.  Count  Rumford  espoused  the  theory  that  heat  consists  in  motion 
long  the  particles  of  matter,  which  view  he  supported  by  experiments  on  friction  (recorded 
in  1802).  This  theory  (now  called  the  dynamical  or  mechanical  theory  of  heat,  and  used 
to  explain  all  the  phenomena  of  physics  and  chemistry)  has  been  further  substantiated  by 
the  independent  researches  of  Dr.  J.  Mayer  of  Heilbronn  and  of  Mr.  Joule  of  Manchester 
(about  1840),  who  assert  that  heat  is  the  equivalent  of  work  done.  In  .1854,  professor  Wm. 
Thomson,  of  Glasgow,  published  bis  researches  on  the  dynamical  power  of  the  sun's  rays. 
The  minds  of  philosophers  are  still  engaged  on  this  subject.*  See  Calorescence.  Thermo- 
electricity, produced  by  heating  pieces  of  copper  and  bismuth  soldered  together,  was  dis- 
covered by  Seebeck  in  1823.  A  powerful  thermo-electric  battery  was  constructed  by  Marcus 
of  Vienna,  in  1865. 

HEBREWS.     See  Jews. 

HEBRIDES  (the  Ebudes  of  Ptolemy  and  the  Hebudes  of  Pliny),  Western  isles  of  Scotland, 
long  subject  to  Norway  ;  ceded  to  Scotland  in  1264 ;  and  annexed  to  the  Scottish  crown  in 
1540  by  James  V. 

HEBRON  (in  Palestine).  Here  Abraham  resided,  1860  B.C.  ;  and  here  David  was  made 
king  of  Judah,  1048  B.C.  On  April  7,  1862,  the  prince  of  Wales  visited  the  repiited  cave  of 
Machpelah,  near  Hebron,  said  to  contain  the  remains  of  Abraham  arid  his  descendants. 

HECATOMB,  an  ancient  sacrifice  of  a  hundred  oxen,  particularly  observed  by  the  Lace- 
demonians when  they  possessed  a  hundred  cities.  The  sacrifice  was  subsequently  reduced 
to  twenty-three  oxen,  and  goats  and  lambs  were  substituted. 

HECLA,  MOUNT.  Its  first  eruption  is  recorded  as  having  occurred  1004.  About 
twenty-two  eruptions  have  taken  place,  according  to  Olasson  and  Paulson.  The  most 
dreadful  and  multiplied  convulsions  of  this  great  volcanic  mountain  occurred  in  1766,  since 
when  a  visit  to  the  top  in  summer  is  not  attended  with  great  difficulty.  For  particulars  of 
an  eruption  in  1784-5,  see  Iceland.  The  mount  was  in  a  state  of  violent  eruption  from. 
Sept.  2,  1845,  to  April,  1846.  Three  new  craters  were  formed,  from  which  pillars  of  fire  rose 
to  the  height  of  14,000  English  feet.  The  lava  formed  several  hills,  and  pieces  of  pumice 
stone  and  scoriae  of  2  cwt.  were  thrown  to  a  distance  of  a  league  and  a  half  ;  the  ice  and 
snow  which  had  covered  the  mountain  for  centuries  melted  into  prodigious  floods. 

HEGIRA,  ERA  OF  THE,  dates  from  the  flight  (Arabic  hejra)  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to 
Medina,  on  the  night  of  Thursday,  the  I5th  July,  622.  The  era  commences  on  the  i6th. 
Some  compute  this  era  from  the  I5th,  but  Cantemir  proves  that  the  i6th  was  the  first  day. 
33  of  its  lunar  years  were  equal  to  32  of  those  of  the  vulgar  era. 

*  Captain  Ericson  constructed  a  ship,  in  which  caloric,  or  heat,  was  the  motive-power.  On  Jan.  4, 
1853,  it  sailed  down  the  bay  of  New  York,  at  the  rate  of  14  miles  an  hour,  it  is  said  at  a  cost  of  80  per  cent, 
less  than  steam.  Although  caloric  engines  were  not  successful,  captain  Ericson  continued  his  experi- 
ments, and  patented  an  improved  engine  in  1856. 


HEI  364  HEL 

HEIDELBERG  (Germany)  was  capital  of  the  Palatinate,  1362-1719.  The  protestant 
electoral  house  becoming  extinct  in  1693,  a  war  ensued,  in  which  the  castle  was  ruined,  and 
the  elector  removed  his  residence  of  Manheim.  It  was  annexed  to  Baden  in  1802.  Here 
was  the  celebrated  tun,  constructed  in  1343,  when  it  contained  twenty-one  pipes  of  wine. 
Another  was  made  in  1664  which  held  600  hogsheads.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  French  in 
1688  ;  but  a  larger  one,  fabricated  in  1690,  which  held  800  hogsheads,  and  was  formerly  kept 
full  of  the  best  Rhenish  wine,  is  now  mouldering  in  a  damp  vault,  quite  empty. 

HELDER  POINT  (Holland).  The  fort  and  the  Dutch  fleet  lying  in  the  Texel  surrendered 
to  the  British  under  the  duke  of  York  and  sir  Ralph  Abercrornbie,  for  the  prince  of  Orange  ; 
540  British  were  killed,  Aug.  30,  1799.  The  place  was  left  in  Oct.  See  Bergen. 

HELEN,  a  Grecian  princess,  according  to  mythology,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Leda,  and 
sister  of  Castor  and  Pollux.  She  was  demanded  in  marriage  by  several  Greek  princes.  She 
chose  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta  ;  but  eloped  from  him  with  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of 
Troy.  This  led  to  the  Trojan  war,  which  lasted  1193  to  1183  B.C. 

HELENA,  St.  (an  island  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean),  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese 
under  Juan  de  Nova  Castilla,  on  the  festival  of  St.  Helena,  May  21,  1502.  The  Dutch 
afterwards  held  it  until  1600,  when  they  were  expelled  by  the  English.  The  British  East 
India  Company  settled  here  in  1651 ;  and  the  island  was  alternately  possessed  by  the  English 
and  Dutch  until  1673,  when  Charles  II.,  on  Dec.  12,  assigned  it  to  the  company  once  more. 
St.  Helena  was  made  the  place  of  Napoleon's  captivity,  Oct.  16,  1815  ;  and  of  his  death, 
May  5,  1821.  His  remains  were  removed  in  1840,  and  interred  at  the  Hotel  des  Invalides, 
Paris.  See  France,  1840.  The  house  and  tomb  have  been  purchased  by  the  French 
government. 

HELIGOLAND,  an  island  in  'the  North  Sea,  taken  from  the  Danes  by  the  British, 
Sept.  5,  1807  ;  made  a  depot  for  British  merchandise  ;  confirmed  to  England  by  the  treaty 
of  Kiel,  Jan.  14,  1814.  Though  a  mere  rock,  it  is  an  important  possession. 

HELIOGRAPHY  (from  helios,  the  sun).     See  Photography. 

HELIOMETER,  &c.,  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  diameters  of  the  sun,  moon, 
planets,  and  stars,  invented  by  Savary,  in  1743  ;  applied  by  M.  Bouguer,  in  1747. 

HELIOSCOPE  (a  peculiar  sort  of  telescope,  prepared  for  observing  the  sun  so  as  not  to 
affect  the  eye),  was  invented  by  Christopher  Scheiner  in  1625. 

HELIOSTAT,  an  instrument  invented  to  make  a  sunbeam  stationaiy,  or  apparently 
stationary,  invented  by  Gravesande  about  1719,  and  greatly  improved  by  Malus  and  others. 
One  constructed  by  MM.  Foucault  and  Duboscq,  was  exhibited  at  Paris  in  October,  1862. 

HELLAS,  in  Thessaly,  the  home  of  the  Hellenes  and  the  Greek  race,  which  supplanted  the 
Pelasgians  from  the  I5th  to  the  nth  century  B.C.,  derived  their  name  from  Helen,  king  of 
Phthiotis,  about  1600  B.C.  They  separated  into  the  Dorians,  ^Eolians,  lonians,  and  Achaians. 
The  present  king  of  Greece  is  called  ' '  king  of  the  Hellenes. "  See  Greece. 

HELLESPONT,  a  narrow  arm  of  the  sea  betwixt  Europe  on  the  west,  Asia  on  the  east, 
the  Propontis,  or  Sea  of  Marmora,  northward,  and  the  ^gean  Sea,  now  the  Archipelago, 
southward.  The  present  name  is  the  Strait  of  the  Dardanelles.  The  Hellespont  took  its 
original  name  from  Helle,  daughter  of  Athamas,  king  of  Thebes,  who  was  drowned  here.  It 
is  celebrated  for  the  loves  of  Hero  of  Sestus,  and  Leander  of  Abydos  :  Leander  was 
drowned  in  a  tempestuous  night  as  he  attempted  to  swim  across  the  Hellespont,  and  Hero, 
in  despair,  threw  herself  into  the  sea,  627  B.C.  See  Xerxes. 

HELL-FIRE  CLUBS.  Three  of  these  associations  which  existed  for  some  time,  were 
suppressed  by  an  order  in  council,  1721.  They  met  at  Somerset-house,  and  at  houses  in 
Westminster,  and  in  Conduit-street. 

HELMETS,  among  the  Romans,  were  provided  with  a  vizor  of  grated  bars,  to  raise  above 
the  eyes,  and  beaver  to  lower  for  eating  ;  the  helmet  of  the  Greeks  was  round,  that  of  the 
Romans  square.  Richard  I.  of  England  wore  a  plain  round  helmet ;  but  most  of  the  English 
kings  had  crowns  above  their  helmets.  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  1249,  had  aflat  helmet, 
with  a  square  grated  vizor,  and  the  helmet  of  Robert  I.  was  surmounted  by  a  crown,  1306. 
Gwillim. 

HELOTS,  captives,  derived  by  some  from  the  Greek  helein,  to  take  ;  by  others  from 
Helos,  a  city  which  the  Spartans  hated  for  refusing  to  pay  tribute,  883  B.C.  The  Spartans, 
it  is  said,  ruined  the  city,  and  reduced  the  Helots  to  slavery  ;  and  called  all  their  slaves  and 


HEL 


365 


HER 


the  prisoners  of  war,  Helotce.  The  number  of  the  Helots  was  much  enlarged  by  the  conquest 
of  Messenia,  668  B.C.,  and  is  considered  to  have  been  four-fifths  ot  the  inhabitants  of  Sparta. 
In  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  Helots  behaved  with  uncommon  bravery,  and  were  rewarded 
with  their  liberty,  431  B.C.  ;  but  the  sudden  disappearance  of  2000  manumitted  slaves  was 
attributed  to  the  Lacedemonian  treachery.  Herodotus. 

HELVETIAN  REPUBLIC.  Switzerland  having  been  conquered  by  the  French  in  1797, 
a  republic  was  established  in  1798  with  this  title.  See  Switzerland. 

HELVETII,  a  Celto-Germanic  people,  who  inhabited  what  is  now  called  Switzerland. 
Invading  Gaul,  61  B.C.,  they  were  opposed  and  beaten  by  Julius  Csesar,  58  B.C.,  near  Geneva. 

HEMP  AND  FLAX.  Flax  was  first  planted  in  England,  when  it  was  directed  to  be  sown 
for  fishing-nets,  1533.  "Bounties  were  paid  to  encourage  its  cultivation  in  1783  ;  and  every 
exertion  should  be  made  by  the  government  and  legislature  to  accomplish  such  a  national 
good.  In  1785  there  were  imported  from  Russia,  in  British  ships,  17,695  tons  of  hemp  and 
flax."  Sir  John  Sinclair.  The  annual  importation  of  these  articles  now  amounts  to  about 
100,000  tons.  The  cultivation  of  flax  was  revived  at  the  dearth  of  cotton  during  the 
American  civil  war,  1861-4.  More  than  180,000  Ibs.  of  rough  hemp  were  used  in  the  cordage 
of  a  first-rate  man-of-war,  including  rigging  and  sails. 

t  HEPTARCHY  *  (or  government  of  seven  kings)  in  England  was  gradually  formed  from 
,  when  Hengist  became  the  king  of  Kent.  It  terminated  in  828,  when  Egbert  became 
j  monarch  of  England.  See  Britain  and  Octarchy. 

HERACLID^E,  descendants  of  Hercules,  who  were  expelled  from  the  Peloponnesus  about 
1200  B.C.,  but  reconquered  it  in  1103-4  or  1109  B.C.,  a  noted  epoch  in  chronology,  all  the 
histoiy  preceding  being  accounted  fabulous. 

HERALDRY.  Marks  of  honour  were  used  in  the  first  ages.  Nisbet.  The  Phrygians 
had  a  sow  ;  the  Thracians,  Mars  ;  the  Romans,  an  eagle  ;  the  Goths,  a  bear ;  the  Flemings,  a 
bull ;  the  Saxons,  a  horse  ;  and  the  ancient  French,  a  lion,  and  afterwards  the  fleur-de-lis 
(which  see).  Heraldry,  as  an  art,  is  ascribed  first  to  Charlemagne,  about  800  ;  and  next  to 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  about  1152  ;  it  began  and  grew  with  the  feudal  law.  Mackenzie,  The 
great  English  works  on  heraldry  are  those  of  Barcham  or  Barkham,  published  by  Gwillim 
;i6io),  and  Edmondson  (1780). 

HERALDS'  COLLEGE. 


Edward  III.  appointed  two  heraldic  kings-at- 
arms  for  the  south  and  north  (Surrey,  Norroy)  1340 

Richard  III.  incorporated  and  endowed  the 
college  .  .  .  1484 

Philip  and  Mary  enlarged -*ts  privileges,  and 
confirmed  them  by  letters  patent  .  July  15,  1554 

Formerly,  in  many  ceremonies,  the  herald  re- 
presented the  king's  person,  and  therefore 
•wore  a  crown,  and  was  always  a  knight. 


This  college  has  an  earl  marshal,  3  kings  of 
arms  (Garter,  Clarencieux,  and  Norroy), 
6  heralds  (Richmond,  Lancaster,  Chester, 
Windsor,  Somerset,  and  York),  4  pursuivants, 
and  2  extra  heralds.  See  Earl  Marshal,  and 
Kings-at-Anns. 

The  building  in  Doctors'  Commons,  London, 
was  erected  by  sir  Christopher  Wren,  after 
the  great  fire  in  1666 1683 


HERAT,  on  the  confines  of  Khorasan,  a  strong  city  called  the  key  of  Afghanistan, 
capital  of  a  state  formed  by  Shah  Mahmoud,  in  181$.  Population  in  1830,  100,000.  The 
Persians  were  baffled  in  an  attempt  to  take  it  in  1838  ;  but  took  it  Oct.  25,  1856,  in  violation 
of  a  treaty  made  in  1853.  In  consequence,  war  ensued  between  Great  Britain  and  Persia. 
Peace  was  made  in  April,  1857  (see  Persia}.  Herat  was  restored  July  27  following.  See 
Afghanistan. 

HERCULANEUM,  an  ancient  city  of  Campania,  overwhelmed,  together  with  Pompeii, 
by  an  eruption  of  lava  from  Vesuvius,  Aug.  23  or  24,  79.  Successive  eruptions  laid  them 
still  deeper  under  the  surface,  and  all  traces  of  them  were  lost  until  excavations  began  in 
1711;  in  1713  many  antiquities  were  found.  In  1738  excavations  were  resumed,  and 
works  of  art  and  monuments  and  memorials  of  civilised  life,  were  discovered.  150  volumes 
of  MSS.  were  found  in  a  chest,  in  1754  ;  and  many  antiquities  were  purchased  by  sir 
William  Hamilton,  and  sold  to  the  British  Museum,  where  they  are  deposited  ;  but  the 
principal  relics  are  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Portici.  The  "Antichita  di  Ercolano," 
8  vols.  folio,  were  published  by  the  Neapolitan  government,  1757-92. 


*  There  were  at  first  nine  or  ten  Saxon  kingdoms,  but  Middlesex  soon  ceased  to  exist,  and  Bernicia 
and  Deii-a  were  generally  governed  by  one  ruler,  as  Northumberland. 


HER  366  HER 

HEREFORD  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  about  676,  Putta  being  first  bishop. 
The  cathedral  was  founded  by  a  nobleman  named  Milfride,  in  honour  of  Ethelbert,  king  of 
the  East  Saxons,  who  was  treacherously  slain  by  his  intended  mother-in-law,  the  queen  of 
Mercia.  The  tower  fell  in  1786,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Mr.  Wyatt.  The  cathedral  was 
reopened  after  very  extensive  repairs,  on  June  30,  1862.  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's 
books  at  768^.  per  annum.  Present  income,  4200^. 

RECENT   BISHOPS    OF    HEREFORD. 


1803.  Folliott  H.  W.   Cornwall,  translated  to  Wor- 
cester, 1808. 

1808.  John  Luxmoore,  translated  to  St.  Asaph,  1815. 
1815.  George  Isaac  Huutingford,  died  April  29,  1832. 


1832.  Hon.  Edward  Grey,  died  June  24,  1837. 

1837.  Thomas  Musgrave,   translated  to  York,   Dec. 

1847 
1847.  Renn  D.  Hampden  (the  PRESENT  bishop,  1865). 


HERERA  (Arragon).  Here  don  Carlos,  of  Spain,  in  his  struggle  for  his  hereditary  right 
to  the  throne  of  that  kingdom,  at  the  head  of  12,000  men,  encountered  and  defeated  general 
Buerens,  who  had  not  much  above  half  that  number  of  the  queen  of  Spain's  troops.  Buerens 
lost  about  1000  in  killed  and  wounded,  Aug.  24,  1837. 

HERETICS  (from  the  Greek  hairesis,  choice).  Paul  says,  "After  the  way  they  call 
heresy,  so  worship  I  the  God  of  my  fathers, "60  (Acts  xxiv.  14).  Heresy  was  unknown  to 
the  Greek  and  Roman  religions.  Simon  Magus  is  said  to  have  broached  the  Gnostic  heresy 
about  41.  This  was  followed  by  the  Manichees,  Nestorians,  Arians,  &c.  Formerly  the  term 
heresy  denoted  a  particular  sect ;  now,  heretics  are  those  who  propagate  their  private  opinions 
in  opposition  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Burnet.  See  Inquisition. 

Thirty  heretics  came  from  Germany  to  England  Certain  laws  against  heretics  were  repealed, 


to  propagate  their  opinions,  and  were  branded 
in  the  forehead,  whipped,  and  thrust  naked 
into  the  streets  in  the  depth  of  winter,  where, 
none  daring  to  relieve  them,  they  died  of 
hunger  and  cold  (Speed) 1160 


25  Hen.  VIII 1534-5 

The  last  person  executed  for  heresy  in  Britain 

was  Thomas  Aikenhead,  at  Edinburgh  .  .  1696 
[The  orthodox  Mahommedans  are  Sonnites ;  the 

heretics  are  Shiites,  Druses,  &c.  ] 


HERITABLE  JURISDICTIONS  (i.e.,  feudal  rights)  in  Scotland,  valued  at  164, 232^.,  were 
bought  up  in  1747  (20  Geo.  II.  c.  43)  and  restored  to  the  crown. — Heritable  and  Movable 
Rights,  in  the  Scottish  law,  denote  what  in  England  is  meant  by  real  and  personal  property; 
real  property  in  England  answering  nearly  to  the  heritable  rights  in  Scotland,  and  personal 
property  to  the  movable  rights. 

HERMANDAD  (Spanish  for  brotherhood),  associations  of  the  chief  cities  of  Castile  and 
Arragon  for  the  defence  of  their  liberties  in  times  of  trouble  ;  began  about  the  middle  of  the 
1 3th  century.  The  brotherhood  was  disorganised  in  1498,  public  order  having  been  firmly 
established. 

HERMAS,  author  of  "the  Shepherd,"  a  Christian  apocryphal  book,  supposed  to  have 
been  written  about  131.  Some  believe  Hernias  to  be  mentioned  in  Romans  xvi.  14. 

HERMITS.     See  MonacJiism.        HERO,  BRITISH  MAN-OF-WAR.     See  Wrecks,  1811. 

HERRING-FISHERY  was  largely  encouraged  by  the  English  and  Scotch  so  early  as  the 
8th  century.  The  herring  statute  was  passed  in  1357.  The  mode  of  preserving  herrings  by 
pickling  was  discovered  about  1397.  Anderson.  The  British  Herring-Fishery  company 
was  instituted  Sept.  2,  1750.  A  scientific  commission  in  relation  to  the  fishery  was  appointed 
in  1862 

HERRINGS,  BATTLE  OF  THE,  fought  Feb.  12,  1429,  when  the  English  were  besieging 
Orleans,  obtained  its  name  from  the  due  de  Bourbon  attempting  to  intercept  a  convoy  of  salt 
fish,  on  the  road  to  the  English  camp  before  Orleans  ;  he  was  beaten. 

HERSCHEL  TELESCOPE.  Sir  Wm.  Herschel's  seven,  ten,  and  twenty-feet  reflectors 
were  made  about  1799.  He  discovered  the  planet  Uranus  (which  see],  March  21,  1781,  and 
a  volcanic  mountain  in  the  moon,  in  1783  ;  and  about  this  time  laid  the  plan  of  his  great 
forty-feet  telescope,  which  he  completed  in  1789,  when  he  discovered  two  other  volcanic 
mountains.  In  1802,  by  means  of  his  telescopes,  he  was  enabled  to  lay  before  the  Royal 
Society  a  catalogue  of  5000  nebulse  and  clusters  of  stars.  The  great  telescope  was  taken 
down  in  1822,  and  one  of  20  feet  focal  length  erected  by  sir  John  Herschel,  who  afterwards 
took  it  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  with  it  made  his  observations. 

HERULI,  a  German  tribe,  which  ravaged  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  in  the  3rd  century  after 
Christ.  Odoacer,  their  leader,  overwhelmed  the  western  empire  and  became  king  of  Italy, 
476.  He  was  defeated  and  put  to  death  by  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth,  491-3. 


HER 


367 


HIB 


HERZEGOVINA,  a  province  of  European  Turkey,  N.  of  Mon;enegro.  In  Dec.  1861, 
an  insurrection  against  the  Turks  broke  out,  fostered  by  the  prince  of  Montenegro.  It  was 
subdued  ;  and  on  Sept.  23,  1862,  Vucalovitch,  chief  of  the  insurgents,  surrendered  on  behalf 
of  his  countrymen  to  Kurschid  Pasha,  and  an  amnesty  was  granted. 

HESSE  ("W.  Germany),  the  seat  of  the  Catti,  formed  part  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  ; 
from  the  rulers  of  it  in  his  time,  the  present  are  descended.  It  was  joined  to  Thuringia  till 
about  1263,  when  Henry  I.  (son  of  a  duke  of  Brabant  and  Sophia,  daughter  of  the  landgrave 
of  Thuringia)  beca.ue  landgrave  of  Hesse.  The  most  remarkable  of  his  successors  was 
Philip  the  Magnanimous  (1509),  an  eminent  warrior  and  energetic  supporter  of  the  Refor- 
mation, who  signed  the  Augsburg  Confession  in  1530  and  the  League  of  Smalcald  in  1531. 
At  las  death,  in  1567,  Hesse  was  divided  into  HESSE-CASSEL  and  HESSE-DARMSTADT,  iinder 
his  sons  William  and  George.  Their  descendants  played  an  eminent  part  in  the  convulsions 
of  Germany  during  the  I7th  and  i8th  century.*  In  1803,  He.sse-Cassel  became  an  electorate, 
and  in  1806  Hesse-Darmstadt  a  grand  duchy  ;  which  titles  were  retained  in  1814.  In  1806 
Hesse-Cassel  was  incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  but  in  1814  the  electorate 
was  re-established. 


HESSE-CASSEL.  (Population,  Dec.  1861,  738,476.) 
1847.   The    elector    Frederic- William    i.,t    Nov.    20 

(born  Aug.  20,  1802). 
Heir :  his  son,  Augustus,  born  Sept.  21,  1859. 


HESSE-DARMSTADT.   (Population,  Dec.  1861,  856,007). 
1848.    The  grand-duke   Louis    III.,  June   16   (born 

June  9,  1806). 

Heir :  his  brother  Charles  (born  April  23,  1809), 
whose  son  Louis  married  the  princess  Alice, 
of  England,  July  i,  1862. 

Issue  :  Victoria- Alberta,  born  April  5,  1863  ; 
and  another  princess,  Nov.  i,  1864. 


HESSE-HOMBURG,  a  landgraviate,  established  in  the  person  of  Frederic,  son  of  George 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  in  1596.  His  descendant,  Augustus  Frederic,  married  May  7,  1818, 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  George  III.  of  England,  who  had,  no  issue.  The  landgraviate  was 
absorbed  into  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse  in  1806,  but  re-established  in  1815  with  additional 
territories.  The  landgrave  Ferdinand  (born  April  26,  1783)  succeeded  his  brother,  Sept.  8, 
1848.  Population  (Dec.  1861),  26,817. 

HETEROGENY.     See  Spontaneous  Generation. 
HEWLEY'S  CHARITY.     See  Unitarians. 

HEXAMETER,  six  measures  or  feet,  each  containing  two  long  syllables  (a  spondee),  or  a 
long  one  and  two  short  (a  dactyl),  the  form  of  verse  in  which  Homer  wrote  his  Iliad  and 
Odyssey. 

HEXHAM  (Northumberland).  The  see  of  Hexham  was  founded  in  the  infancy  of  the 
Saxon  church  ;  it  had  ten  bishops  successively,  but  by  reason  of  the  spoil  and  rapine  of  the 
Danes,  it  was  discontinued  ;  the  last  prelate,  appointed  810.  The  BATTLE  OF  HEXHAM,  in 
which  the  Yorkist  army  of  Edward  IV.  obtained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Lancastrian 
army  of  Henry  VI.  was  fought  May  15,  1464. 

HIBERNIA,  Ibernia,  Ivernia,  and  lerne,  a  name  given  to  Ireland  by  classical  writers 
(Aristotle,  Ptolemy,  &c.).  See  ^Ireland.  The  ship  Hibernia,  captain  Brenn,  bound  from. 

*  Six  thousand  Hessian  troops~arrived  in  England,  in  consequence  of  an  invasion  being  expected  in 
1756.  The  sum  of  471,000?.  three  per  cent,  stock  was  transferred  to  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  for  Hessian 
auxiliaries  lost  in  the  American  war,  at  30^  per  man,  Nov.  1786.  The  Hessian  soldiers  were  again  brought 
to  this  realm  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  served  in  Ireland  during  the  rebellion  in  1798. 

The  elector  of  Hesse  had,  in  1850,  remodelled  the  constitution  given  to  his  people  in  1831  (by  which 
the  chamber  had  the  exclusive  right  of  voting  the  taxes),  and  did  not  convene  the  chamber  until  the 
usual  time  for  closing  the  session  had  arrived,  when  his  demand  for  money  for  the  ensuing  year,  1851,  was 
laid  before  it.  The  chamber  called,  unanimously,  for  a  regular  budget,  that  it  might  examine  into,  and 
discuss,  its  items.  The  elector  dissolved  the  chamber,  and  declared  the  whole  of  his  dominions  in  a  state 
of  siege  and  subject  to  martial  law,  Sept.  7,  1850.  In  the  end  he  was  obliged  to  flee  to  Hanover,  and  subse- 
quently to  Frankfort;  and  on  Oct.  14,  he  formally  applied  to  the  Frankfort  diet  for  assistance  to  re-establish" 
his  authority  in  Hesse.  On  Nov.  6  following,  an  Austro- Bavarian  force  of  10,000  men,  with  20  pieces  of 
artillery,  entered  Hesse-Cassel,  under  the  command  of  prince  Thurn-und-Taxis,  who  fixed  his  head- 
quarters in  Hanau  ;  and  on  the  next  day  a.  Prussian  force  entered  Cassel.  The  elector  returned  to  his 
capital,  Dec.  27,  1850,  the  taxes  having  been  previously  collected  under  threats  of  imprisonment.  The 
Austro-Bavarian  and  Prussian  troops  afterwards  evacuated  the  electorate.  In  1852,  the  constitution  of  1831 
was  abolished,  and  a  new  one  established. — The  elector  and  his  chamber  are  still  in  a  state  of  disagree- 
ment. Although  the  German  federal  diet  affirmed  the  constitution  of  1852,  on  March  14,  1860,  the  elector 
granted  a  new  one  on  May  30.'  This,  however,  did  not  give  satisfaction.  Further  contests  ensued.  In 
May,  1862,  there  was  danger  of  an  armed  Prussian  intervention,  the  king  having  been  insulted  by  the 
esse  ministry.  In  June  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  and  the  legislative  chambers  assembled  on  Out  -.7.. 


HIE  368  HIP 

Liverpool  to  New  South  Wales,  with  232  persons  on  board,  of  whom  208  were  passengers 
going  out  as  settlers,  was  destroyed  at  sea  by  fire,  kindled  through  the  negligence  of  the 
second  mate, — in  W.  long.  22°  and  S.  lat.  4°.  150  lives  were  lost  through  the  insufficiency 
of  the  boats  to  contain  more  than  a  third  of  the  people  on  board  :  Feb.  15,  1833. 

HIEROGLYPHICS  (sacred  engravings),  picture-writing,  the  expression  of  ideas  by 
representation  of  visible  objects,  used  chiefly  by  the  Egyptians  ;  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Athotes,  2112  B.C.  Usher.  Young,  Champollion,  Rosellini,  and  others  (in  the  present 
century),  have  done  much  to  elucidate  Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  See  Roselta  Stone. 

HIGH  AND  LOW  CHURCH.  These  sections  in  the  Church  of  England  began  in  the 
reign  of  Anne,  and  still  continue.  Dr.  Sacheverel,  preacher  at  St.  Saviour's,  South wark, 
was  prosecuted  for  two  seditious  sermons  (preached  Aug.  14,  and  Nov.  9,  1709),  to  rouse 
the  apprehensions  of  the  people  for  the  safety  of  the  church,  and  to  excite  hostility  against 
the  dissenters.  His  friends  were  called  High  Church  and  his  opponents  Low  Church,  or 
moderate  men,  1720.  The  queen,  who  favoured  Sacheverel,  presented  him  with  the  valuable 
rectory  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holborn.  He  died  in  1724. 

HIGH  COMMISSION,  COURT  OF,  an  ecclesiastical  court,  erected  by  I  Eliz.  c.  i.,  1559, 
by  which  all  spiritual  jurisdiction  was  vested  in  the  crown.  It  originally  had  no  power  to  fine 
or  imprison  ;  but  under  Charles  I.  and  archbishop  Laud  it  assumed  illegal  powers,  was 
complained  of  by  the  parliament,  and  was  abolished  in  1641. 

HIGHLANDS  (of  Scotland),  long  held  by  semi-barbarous  clans,  were  greatly  improved 
by  the  construction  of  military  roads  by  general  Wade,  about  1725-6  ;  and  by  the  abolition 
of  heritable  jurisdiction  of  feudal  rights  in  1748,  and  by  the  establishment  of  the  Highland 
and  Agricultural  Society  in  1784.  See  Regiments. 

HIGHNESS.  The  title  of  Highness  was  given  to  Henry  VII.;  and  this,  and  sometimes 
Your  Grace  was  the  manner  of  addressing  Henry  VIII.  ;  but  about  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
the  latter-mentioned  king,  the  title  of  "  Highness  "  and  "Your  Grace  "  were  absorbed  in 
that  of  "Majesty."  Louis  XIII.  of  France  gave  the  title  of  Highness  to  the  prince  of 
Orange,  in  1644  ;  this  prince  had  previously  only  the  distinction  of  Excellency.  Henaidt. 
Louis  XIV.  gave  the  princes  of  Orange  the  title  of  High  and  Mighty  Lords,  1644.  Idem. 

HIGH  PRIEST.     See  Priest. 

HIGH  TREASON.  In  regulating  the  trials  for  this  was  enacted  the  statute,  so  favourabl 
to  liberty,  the  25th  of  Edward  III.,  1352,  by  which  two  living  witnesses  are  required  : 
arose  in  the  refusal  of  parliament  to  sanction  the  sentence  of  death  against  the  duke 
Somerset.  By  the  4Oth  Geo.  III.,  1800,  it  was  enacted  that  where  therswas  a  trial  for  higl 
treason  in  which  the  overt  act  was  a  direct  attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  sovereign,  such  trig 
should  be  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  an  indictment  for  murder.* 

HIGHWAYS.     See  Roads. 

HIMERA  (Sicily).  Here  (in  480  B.C.)  Theron  and  Gelon  of  Agrigentum  defeated  the 
Carthaginians  ;  and  here  the  latter  defeated  Agathocles  of  Syracuse,  310  B.C. 

HINDOO  ERA  (see  Cali-yuga)  began  3101  B.C.,  or  756  before  the  Deluge,  in  23-: 
The  Hindoos  count  their  months  by  the  progress  of  the  sun  through  the  zodiac.  The  Same 
era  begins  56  B.C.  ;  the  Saca  era  A.D.  79. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS  (Greek,  river-horse},  a  native  of  Africa,  known  to,  but ^ incorrectly 
described  by  ancient  writers.  Hippopotami  were  exhibited  at  Rome  by  Antoninus  Corn- 
modus  and  others,  about  138,  180,  and  218.  The  first  brought  to  England  arrived  May  2< 
1850,  and  is  now  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's-park,  London  ;  another,  a  female,  foui 
months  old,  was  placed  there  in  1854.  Two  young  ones  born  at  Paris  in  M.a,y,  1858,  and 
June,  1859,  were  killed  by  their  mother.  One  born  at  Amsterdam,  July  29,  1865,  was  living 
in  September. 

*  The  last  two  cases  of  persons  executed  for  high  treason  were,  ist.  William  Cundell,  alias  Connell, 
and  John  Smith.  They  were  tried  on  a  special  commission,  Feb.  6,  1812,  being  two  of  fourteen  British 
subjects  taken  in  the  enemy's  service  in  the  Isles  of  France  and  Bourbon.  Mr.  Abbot,  afterwards  lord 
Tenterden  and  chief  justice,  and  sir  Vicary  Gibbs,  attorney-general,  conducted  the  prosecution,  and  Mr. 
Brougham,  now  lord  Brougham,  defended  the  prisoners.  The  defence  was,  that  they  (the  prisoners)  had 
assumed  the  French  uniform  for  th e  purpose  of  aiding  their  escape  to  England.  The  two  above-men- 
tioned were  hanged  and  beheaded  on  the  lodge  of  Horsemonger-lane  gaol  on  March  16,  1812.  All  the 
other  convicts  were  pardoned  upon  condition  of  serving  in  colonies  beyond  the  seas.  2iid,  the  Cato  Street 
Conspirators  (which  see),  May  i,  1820. 


HIP 


369 


HOL 


HIPPODROME,  a  circus  for  horse-riding.  One  opened  by  Mr.  John  Whyte,  near 
Jotting-hill,  London,  on  May  29,  1837,  was  closed  in  1841  by  the  Kensington  vestry. 

HISPANI A,  Latin  name  of  Spain.  HISPANIOLA.     See  Hayti. 

HISTOLOGY  (from  kistos,  a  web),  the  science  which  treats  of  the  tissues  which  enter 
into  the  formation  of  animals  and  vegetables ;  mainly  prosecuted  by  the  aid  of  the  micro- 
scope. Schwann,  Valentin,  Kolliker,  and  Robin  are  celebrated  for  their  researches.  Professor 
Quekett's  Lectures  on  Histology  were  published  in  1852  and  1854. 

HISTORY.  The  Bible,  the  Parian  Chronicle,  the  histories  of  Herodotus  and  Ctesias, 
and  the  poems  of  Homer,  are  the  foundations  of  early  ancient  history.  Later  ancient  history 
is  considered  as  ending  with  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire  in  Italy,  476;  and 
modern  history  dates  from  the  age  of  Charlemagne,  about  800.  There  was  not  a  professor- 
ship of  modern  history  in  either  of  our  universities  until  the  years  1724  and  1736,  when 
Regius  professorships  were  established  by  George  I.  and  George  II. 

HOBART  TOWN",  OR  HOBARTON,  a  sea-port  and  capital  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  was 
founded  in  1804  by  col.  Collins,  the  first  lieutenant-governor,  who  died  here  in  1810. 

HOCHKlRCHElSr  (Saxony),  where,  on  Oct.  14,  1758,  the  Prussian  army,  commanded  by 
Frederick  II.,  was  surprised  and  defeated  by  the  Austrians  commanded  by  count  Daun. 
Marshal  Keith,  a  Scotsman,  in  the  Prussian  service,  was  killed.  The  Austrian  generals  shed 
tears,  and  ordered  his  interment  with  military  honours. 

HOCHSTADT,  a  city  on  the  Danube,  in  Bavaria,  near  which  several  important  battles 
have  been  fought  :  (i.)  Sept.  20,  1703,  when  the  Imperialists  were  defeated  by  the  French 
and  Bavarians,  under  marshal  Villars  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  (2.)  Aug.  13,  1704,  called 
the  battle  of  Blenheim  (which  see).  (3.)  June  19,  1800,  when  Moreau  totally  defeated  the 
Austrians,  and  avenged  the  defeat  of  the  French  at  Blenheim. 

'  HOGUE.     See  La  Hogue. 

HOHENLINDEX  (Bavaria),  BATTLE  OF,  Dec.  3,  1800,  between  the  Austrians  com- 
manded by  archduke  John,  and  the  French  commanded  by  general  Moreau.  The 
Imperialists  were  defeated  with  great  loss  in  this  hard-fought  battle,  their  killed  and  wounded 
amounting  to  10,000  men,  and  their  loss  in  prisoners  to  10,000  more.  The  forces  opposed 
were  nearly  equal  in  numbers.  The  peace  of  Luneville  followed. 

HOHENSTAUFEN.     See  Germany  and  Guelfs.     HOHENZOLLERN.     See  Prussia. 

HOLLAND  (Hollow  land,  or,  some  say,  Wooded  land),  a  kingdom,  N.W.  Europe,  the 
chief  part  of  the  northern  Netherlands,  is  composed  of  land  rescued  ^from  the  sea,  and 
defended  by  immense  dykes.  It  was  inhabited  by  the  Batavi  in  the  time  of  Caesar,  who 
made  a  league  with  them.  It  became  part  of  Gallia  Belgica,  and  afterwards  of  the  kingdom 
of  Austrasia.  From  the  roth  to  the  I5th  century  it  was  governed  by  counts  under  the 
German  emperors.  In  1861,  the  population  of  the  kingdom  in  Europe  was  3,521,416;  of 
the  colonies,  18,175,910;  of  both  in  1863,  21,805,607. 


Thierry  (or  Dieterich)  I. ,  first  count  .         .        .     936 

The  parties  termed  Hooks,  (followers  of  Margaret 
countess  of  Holland,)  and  Cod-fish,  (supporters 
of  her  son  William,  who  endeavoured  to 
supplant  her,)  create  a  civil  war,  which  lasts 
many  years .  .  1347 

Holland  united  to  Hainault,  1299  ;  and  Brabant, 
1416  ;  annexed  to  Burgundy  by  duke  Philip, 
who  wrests  it  from  his  niece  Jaqueline,  of 
Holland,  daughter  of  the  last  count,  1436 ; 
annexed  to  Austria  through  the  marriage  of 
Mary  of  Burgundy  with  the  archduke  Maxi- 
milian    .  .  1477 

Government  of  Philip  cf  Austria,  1495 ;  of 
Margaret  of  Austria  and  Charles  V.,  1506  ; 
of  Philip  II '.  .  1555 

Philip  II.  establishes  the  Inquisition  ;  the  Hol- 
landers having  zealously  embraced  the  re- 
formed doctrines  :  the  Confederacy  of  Gueux 
(Beggars)  formed  by  the  nobles  against  it  .  1566 

Commencement  of  the  revolt  under  William, 
prince  of  Orange 1572 

The  pacification  of  Ghent — union  of  the  north 
and  south  provinces 1576 


The    seven  northern   provinces    contract  the 

league  of  Utrecht  .        .  ....  1579 

And  declare  their  independence  .  Sept.  29,  1580 
Assassination  of  William  of  Orange  .  July  10 

(June  30),  1584 
The  ten  southern  provinces  conquered  by  the 

prince  of  Parma 1585 

The  provinces  solicit   help  from  England  and 

France  ;  expedition  of  the  earl  of  Leicester  ; 

English  and  Dutch  disagree          .        .         .  1585-7 
Battle  of  Zutphen— sir  Philip   Sidney  killed, 

Sept.  22,  1586 

Prince  Maurice  appointed  stadtholder  .  .  .  1587 
Death  of  Philip  II.  His  son  Philip  III.  cedes 

the  Netherlands  to   Albert  of   Austria,   and 

the  infanta  Isabella 1598 

Campaigns  of  Maurice  and  Spinola  .  1599-1604 
Maurice  defeats  the  archduke  at  Nieuport  July  2,  1600 
The  independence  of  the  United  Provinces 

recognised;  truce  for  twelve  years  April  9 

(March  30),  1609 

Batavia  ill  Java  built 1610 

Fierce  religious  dissensions  between  the  Armi- 

nians  and  Gornarista 1610-19 

B    B 


HOL 


370 


HOL 


HOLLAND,  continued. 

Maurice  favours   the  latter  and  intrigues  for 

royal  power 1616 

Synod  of  Dort ;  persecution  of  the  Arminians,  1618-19 
Execution  of  the  illustrious  Barneveldt,  May  13,  1619 
Renewal  of  the  war  ;  Maurice  saves  Bergeii-op- 

Zoom 1622 

His  tyrannical  government ;  plot  against  him  ; 

sixteen  persons  executed         ....  1623 
His  death  ;  his  brother  Frederick  succeeds  him 

and  annuls  the  persecution         .        .        .     .  1625 
Manhattan,   now  New  York.  North  America, 
founded  ;  massacre  of  English  at  Amboyna, 

East  Indies 1624 

Victories  of  Van  Tromp,  who  takes  two  Spanish 

fleets  off  the  Downs      .  Sept.  16  and  Oct.  21,  1639 
Peace  of   Westphalia,  the  republic  recognised 

by  Europe 1648 

War  with  England— naval  actions— Blake  de- 
feats De  Ruyter,  Oct.  22 ;  but  is  surprised  by 
Van  Tromp,  who  takes  some  English  ships 
and  sails  thrcmgh  the  channel  with  a  broom 
at  his  mast-head  ....  Nov.  29,  1652 
Indecisive  sea-fights,  June  12-14  J  death  of  Van 

Tromp,  July  21 ;  peace  follows  .        .        .     .  1653 
Victorious  war  with  Sweden       ....  1659 

Another  war  with  England 1665 

Indecisive  sea-fights,  June  1-4 ;  victory  of  Monk 

over  De  Ruyter        ....    July  25,  1666 
Triple    alliance    of    England,     Holland,     and 

Sweden  against  France 1668 

Charles  II.  basely  deserts  Holland,  and  unites 

with  France 1670 

The  French  overrun  Holland 1671 

Desperate  condition  of  the  States — the  popu- 
lace  massacre   the    De   Witts— William  III. 

made  stadtholder 1672 

The  French  repelled  by  the  sluices  being  opened     , , 

Indecisive  campaigns 1673-7 

William  marries  princess  Mary  of  England  .  1677 
Peace  with  France  (Nimeguen)  ....  1678 
William  becomes  king  of  England .  .  .  .  1689 
Sanguinary  war  with  France  .  .  .  1689-96 
Peace  of  Ryswick  signed  .  .  Sept.  n,  1697 

Death  of  Willinm March  8,  1702 

No  stadtholder  appointed — administration  of 

Heinsius 1702 

War  against  France  and  Spain ;  campaigns  of 

Marlborough 1702-13 

Peace  of  Utrecht     ....      March  30,  1714 
Holland  supports  the  empress  Maria-Theresa  1743-8 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle      ....  Oct.  1748 
War  with  England  for  naval  supremacy — Hol- 
land loses  colonies 1781-4 

Civil  wars  in  the  Low  Countries.        .        .         1787-9 
The  French  republican  army  march  into  Hol- 
land ;  the  people  declare  in  their  favour    .     .  1793 


Unsuccessful  campaign  of  the  duke  of  York.  .  1794 
The  Batavian  republic  established  in  alliance 

with  France 1795 

Battle  of  Camperdown,  Duncan  signally  defeats 

the  Dutch Oct.  n,  1797 

The  Texel  fleet,  of   twelve  ships  of  the  line, 

with  thirteen    Indiamen,  surrenders  to  the 

British  admiral,  Duncan,  without  firing  a  gun, 

Aug.  28,  1799, 
A  new  constitution  is  given  to  the  Batavian 

republic ;  the  chief  officer  (R.  J.  Schimmel- 

penninck)    takes    the    title    of   Grand  Pen- 
sionary          April  26,  1805 

Holland  erected   into   a   kingdom,  and  Louis 

Bonaparte  declai-ed  king.        .        .     Junes,  I8o& 
The  ill-fated  Walchereii  expedition        .         .     .  1809 
Louis  abdicates         ....         July  i,  1810 
Holland  united  to  France    .        .        .     July  9,     , , 
Restored  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and  Belgium 

annexed  to  its  dominions    .        .        Nov.  17,  1813 
The    prince   of   Orange   pi'oclaimed  sovereign 

prince  of  the  united  Netherlands      .     Dec.  6,     „ 
Religious   discord  between   Holland   and  the 

southern  provinces 1817,  &c. 

The  revolution  in  Belgium      .        .        Aug.  25,  1830 
Belgium  separated  from  Holland        .    July  12,  1831 
Holland  makes  war  against  Belgium      Aug.  3,     ,, 
Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium,  signed 

in  London April  19,  1839, 

Abdication  of  William  I.  .  .  .  Oct.  7-10,  1840 
Death  of  the  ex-king  William  I.  .  000.12,1844 
Louis  Bonaparte,  count  de  St.  Leu,  ex-king  of 

Holland,  dies  of  apoplexy  at  Leghorn,  July  25,  1846- 
The  king  agrees  to  political  reform,  March  ;  a 

new  constitution  granted       .        .     April  17,  1848 
Death  of  William  II.      .        .         .       March  17,  1849 
Re-establishment   of  a  Roman  Catholic  hier- 
archy announced   ....    March  12,  1853. 
Great  inundntions :     40,000  acres    submerged 

and  nearly  30,000  villagers  made  destitute, 

Jan.  and  Feb.  1861 
Great   fire  at   Endschede,  the   Manchester  of 

Holland,  loss  about  a  million  pounds,  May  7,  it 
The  states-general  pass  a  law  for  the  abolition 

of  slavery  in  the  Dutch  West  Indies,  Aug.  6, 

[To  commence  July  i,  1863.] 
Treaty  for  capitalising  the  Scheldt  dues  signed, 

May  12, 

Slavery  ceases  in  the  Dutch  West  Indies  July  i, 
5oth  anniversary  of  the  deliverance  from  the 

French  kept Nov.  17, 

Commencement  of  canal  to  connect  Amsterdam 

with  the  North  sea     .         .         .  March  8, 

The  government  undertake  a  canal  to  connect 

Rotterdam  with  the  sea  .        .        .        March 


FRINGES   OF   ORANGE    (see    Orange)    STAPTHOLDERS. 


1502. 
1530- 
1544- 


1584. 


1618. 


1625. 
1647. 


Philibert  de  Chalons. 

Re*ne"  de  Nassau,  his  nephew. 

William  of  Nassau,  styled  the  Great,  cousin  to 
Rene",  recovers  the  principality  of  Orange  in 
1559.  Nominated  STADTHOLDER  in  1579; 
killed  by  an  assassin  hired  by  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  July  10,  1584. 

Philip-William,  his  son ;  stolen  away  from  the 
university  of  Louvain  ;  the  Dutch  would 
never  suffer  him  to  reside  in  their  provinces : 
died  in  1618. 

Maurice,  the  renowned  general;  became 
STADTHOLDER  in  1587  ;  he  was  a  younger  son 
of  William  by  a  second  marriage. 

Frederick-Henry  (brother)  STADTHOLDER. 

William  II.,  STADTHOLDER  :  married  Mary, 
daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  by  whom 
he  had  a  son,  who  succeeded  in  1672. 


[1650-72.  The  States  govern  without  a  stadtholder.] 

1660.  William-Henry  :  STADTHOLDER  in  1672 ;  nis 
ried  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of  James  II. 
England,  1677. 

1702-47.  No  stadtholder. 

1702.   John-William,  nephew  of  William  HI.,  lo« 

the  principality  of  Orange,  which  is  annexed 
to  France. 

1747.  William-Henry  becomes  HEREDITARY  STADT- 
HOLDER. He  married  princess  Anne  of 
England  :  succeeded  by  his  son. 

1751.  William  IV.  ;  retired  on  the  invasion  of  the 
French  in  1795  ;  died  in  1806. 

1795.  [Holland  and  Belgium  united  to  the  French 
republic.  ] 

1806.  William-Frederick  succeeded  his  father. 


HOL 


371 


HOL 


HOLLAND,  continued. 

KINGS    OF   HOLLAND   AND   THE   NETHERLANDS. 


[806.  Louis  Bonaparte,  made  king  of  HOLLAND  by  his 
brother  Xapoleon,  June  5,  1806;  abdicated, 
July  i,  1810. 

1810.    [Holland  again  united  to  France  ] 

[813.   House  of  Orange  restored.  William-Frederick, 

prince   of   Orangf ,   born    1772 ;   proclaimed 

Dec.  6,  1813 ;   took  the  oath  of   fidelity  as 

sovereign  prince,  March  30,  1814 ;  assumed 


the  style  of  king  of  the  NETHERLANDS, 
March  16, 1815  ;  formally  abdicated  in  favour 
of  his  son,  Oct.  7,  1840;  died  Dec.  12,  1843. 

1840.   William  II.  ;  born  Dec.  6,  1792  ;  succeeded  on 
his  father's  abdication  ;  died  March  17,  1849. 

1849.   William   III.,   son    of    the    preceding ;    born 

Feb.  19,  1817.     The  PRESENT  (1865)  king. 
Heir:  Prince  William,  born  Sept.  4,  1840. 


HOLLAND,  NEW.     See  Australia  and  Australasia. 

HOLMFIRTH  FLOOD.  On  Feb.  5,  1852,  the  Bilbury  reservoir  above  Holmfirtli,  near 
Huddcrsfield,  in  Yorkshire,  burst  its  banks,  and  levelled  four  mills  and  many  ranges  of  other 
buildings,  destroying  the  lives  of  more  than  90  persons,  and  devastating,  property  estimated 
at  from  half  a  million  to  800,000?. 

HOLSTEIN  AND  SCHLESWIG  (N.W.  Germany),  duchies  once  belonging  to  Denmark. 
The  country,  inhabited  by  Saxons,  was  subdued  by  Charlemagne  in  the  beginning  of  the  gih 
century,  and  afterwards  formed  part  of  the  duchy  of  Saxony.  In  1 106  or  1 1 10,  Adolphus 
of  Schauenberg  became  count  of  Holstein  :  his  descendants  ruled  till  1459,  when  Adol- 
phus VII.  died  without  issue,  and  the  states  of  Holstein  and  Schleswig  elected  Christian 
king  of  Denmark,  his  nephew,  as  their  duke,  through  fear  of  his  arms.  In  1544,  his 
grandson,  Christian  II.,  divided  his  states  amongst  his  brothers,  with  the  condition  that  the 
duchies  should  remain  subject  to  Denmark.  The  eldest  branch  of  the  family  reigned  in 
Denmark  till  the  decease  of  Frederick  VII.,  Nov.  15,  1863.  From  a  younger 'branch  (the 
dukes  of  Holstein-Gottorp)  descended,  through  marriage,  the  kings  of  Sweden  from  1751 — 
1818,  and  the  reigning  family  in  Russia  since  1762,  when  the  duke,  as  the  husband  of 
Anne,  became  czar.  In  1773,  Catherine  II.  of  Russia  ceded  Holstein-Gottorp  to  Denmark 
in  exchange  for  Oldenburg,  &c.  The  duchies  were  occupied  by  the  Swedes  in  1813,  but 
restored  to  Denmark  in  1814,  and  on  May  28,  1831,  constituent  assemblies  were  granted 
to  them.  Since  1844  disputes  have  been  rife  between  the  duchies  and  Denmark,  and  in 
1848  the  states-general  of  the  duchies  voted  their  annexation  to  the  German  confederacy,  in 
which  they  were  supported  by  Prussia  :  war  ensued,  which  lasted  till  1850.  See  Denmark. 
The  agitation  in  the  duchies,  encouraged  by  Prussia,  revived  in  1857.  The  Germans  in 
Schleswig  desired  it  to  be  made  a  member  of  the  German  confederation,  like  Holstein ;  and 
both  duchies  demanded  a  local  government  more  independent  of  Denmark,  which  changes 
were  resisted  by  that  power.  For  the  events  of  the  war  of  1864,  see  Denmark.  By  the 
convention  signed  at  Gastein,  Aug.  14,  1865,  the  government  of  Holstein  was  left  with 
Austria,  and  that  of  St-hleswig  with  Prussia.  See  Gastein.  Population  in  1860,  1,004,473. 

HOLY  ALLIANCE,  was  ratified  at  Paris,  Sept.  26,  1815,  between  the  emperors  of 
Russia  (its  originator)  and  Austria,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  by  which  they  ostensibly  bound 
themselves,  among  other  things,  to  be  governed  by  Christian  principles  in  all  their  political 
transactions,  with  a  view  to  perpetuating  the  peace  they  had  achieved.  The  compact  was 
severely  censured  in  this  country  as  opposed  to  rational" liberty. 

HOLY  GHOST.     See  Esprit.  HOLY  ISLAND.     See  Lindisfarne. 

HOLY  LEAGUE.     See  Leagues. 

HOLY  MAID  OF  KENT, — Elizabeth  Barton  was  incited  by  the  Eoman  Catholic  party 
to  hinder  the  Reformation,  by  pretending  to  inspirations  from  heaven.  She  foretold  that 
Henry  VIII.  would  die  a  speedy  and  violent  death  if  he  divorced  Catherine  of  Spain  and 
married  Anne  Boleyn,  and  direful  calamities  to  the  nation.  She  and  her  confederates  were 
hanged  at  Tyburn,  April  20,  1534.  Rapin. 

HOLY  PLACES  IN  PALESTINE.  The  possession  of  these  places  has  been  a  source  of 
contention  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  for  several  centuries.  In  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.  they  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Latin  monks,  under  the  protection  of  the 
French  government,  by  a  treaty  with  the  then  sultan  ;  but  the  Greeks  from  time  to  time 
obtained  firmans  from  the  Porte  invalidating  the  rights  of  the  Latins,  who  were  at  last  (in 
1757)  expelled  from  some  of  the  sacred  buildings,  which  were  committed  to  the  care  of  the 
Greeks  by  a  hatti-scheriff,  or  imperial  ordinance. 

B  E  2 


HOL 


HCLM 


HOLY  PLACES,  continued. 

The  holy  sepulchre  partially  destroyed  by  fire, 
and  rebuilt  by  the  Greeks,  who  claim  addi- 
tional privileges,  and  cause  fresh  dissensions  1808 

The  Eussian  and  French  governments  inter- 
fered, and  sent  envoys  (M.  Dashkoff  and  M. 
Marcellus)  to  adjust  the  dispute;  but  an 
arrangement  was  prevented  by  the  Greek 
revolution  in 1821 

The  subject  again  agitated,  and  the  Porte  pro- 

Ethat  a  mixed  commission  should  ad- 
3_ate  on  the  rival  claims.     M.  Titoff,  the 
n'an  envoy,  acting  on  behalf  of  the  Greeks, 
and  M.  Lavalette,  the  French  envoy,  on  that 
of  the  Latins,   took  up  the  question  very 

warmly 1850 

A  firman  issued  by  the  Porte,  confirming  and 
consolidating  the  rights  previously  granted 
to  the  Greek  Christians,  and  declaring  that 
the  Latins  had  no  right  to  claim  exclusive 
possession  of  certain  holy  places  specified,  but 
permitting  them  to  possess  a  key  of  the 


church  at  Bethlehem,  &c.,  as  in  former 
times March  9, 

The  French  government  acquiesced,  with  much 
dissatisfaction ;  but  the  Russian  envoy  still 
desired  the  key  to  be  withheld  from  the  Latin 
monks.  M.  D'Ozeroff  made  a  formal  declara- 
tion of  the  right  of  Russia  to  protect  the 
orthodox  in  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  Kainardji 
in  1774,  and  demanded  that  the  firman  of 
March  9,  1852,  should  be  read  at  Jerusalem, 
although  it  militated  against  his  pretensions, 
which  was  accordingly  done.  The  dispute 
still  continued,  the  Porte  being  exposed  to 
the  attacks  of  both  the  Russian  and  French 
governments March,  1853 

Prince  Menschikoff  arrives  at  Constantinople  as 
envoy  extraordinary,  and  in  addition  to  the 
claims  respecting  the  holy  places,  makes 
those  demands  respecting  the  protection  of 
the  Greek  Christians  in  Turkey  which  led  to 
the  war  of  1854-6.  (See  Russo-  Turkish  War) 

Feb.  28,  „ 


HOLY  ROOD  on  CEOSS.  A  festival  was  instituted  on  account  of  the  recovery  of  a 
large  piece  of  the  cross  by  the  emperor  Heraclius,  after  it  had  been  taken  away,  on  the  plun- 
dering of  Jerusalem,  about  615.  The  feast  of  the  finding  (or  invention)  of  the  Cross  is  on 
May  3  ;  that  of  the  exaltation  of  the  Cross,  Sept.  14.  At  Boxley  abbey,  in  Essex,  was  a 
crucifix,  called  the  Rood  of  Grace  ;  at  the  dissolution  it  was  broken  in  pieces  as  an  imposture 
by  Hilsey,  bishop  of  Rochester,  at  St.  Paul's  cross,  London. 

HOLYROOD  PALACE  (Edinburgh),  formerly  an  abbey,  was  for  several  centimes  the 
residence  of  the  monarchs  of  Scotland.  The  abbejr,  of  which  some  vestiges  remain,  was 
founded  by  David  I.  in  1128,  and  in  the  burial-place  within  its  walls  are  interred  several  of 
his  successors.  The  palace  is  a  large  quadrangular  edifice  of  hewn  stone,  with  a  court  within 
surrounded  by  piazzas.  In  the  north-west  tower  is  the  bed-chamber  which  was  occupied  by 
queen  Mary  ;  and  from  an  adjoining  cabinet  to  it  David  Rizzio,  her  favourite,  was  dragged 
forth  and  murdered,  March  9,  1566.  The  north-west  towers  were  built  by  James  V.,  and 
the  remaining  part  of  the  palace  was  added  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  Great  improve- 
ments were  made  in  1857.  The  Queen  held  her  court  here,  Aug.  30,  1850. 

HOLY  SEPULCHRE,  a  Byzantine  church  in  modern  Jerusalem.  Fergusson,  Robinson, 
and  others,  consider  the  true  site  of  the  holy  sepulchre  to  be  the  mosque  of  Omar,  termed 
the  "  dome  of  the  Rock."  The  question,  is  still  undecided,  and  investigations  are  going  on 
,at  the  expense  of  the  Russian  government.  See  Knights, 

HOLY  WARS.     See  Crusades. 

HOLY  "WATER  is  said  to  have  been  used  in  churches  as  early  as  120.     Ashe. 

HOLY  WEEK,  or,  the  "Week  of  Indulgences,"  is  the  week  before  Easter. 

HOMELDEN  (Northumberland),  where  the  Scot?,  headed  by  the  earl  of  Douglas,  were 
defeated  by  the  Percies  (among  them  Hotspur),  Sept.  14,  1402.  Douglas  and  the  earls  of 
Angus,  Murray,  Orkney,  and  the  earl  of  Fife,  son  of  the  duke  of  Albany,  and  nephew  of 
the  Scottish  king,  with  many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry,  were  taken  prisoners. 

HOMER'S  ILIAD  AND  ODYSSEY,  the  two  most  perfect  epic  poems  in  the  world, 
"written  by  the  greatest  poet  that  has  ever  lived.  The  first  begins  with  the  wrath  of  Achilles, 
and  ends  with  the  funeral  of  Hector  ;  the  second  recounts  the  voyages  and  adventures  of 
Ulysses,  after  the  destruction  of  Troy.  Various  dates  are  assigned  to  these  works,  from 
962  to  915  B.C.*  Among  the  thousands  of  volumes  burnt  at  Constantinople,  A.D.  477,  are 
said  to  have  been  the  works  of  Homer  written  in  golden  letters  on  the  great  gut  of  a 
dragon,  120  feet  long. 

HOMICIDE.  This  crime  was  tried  at  Athens  by  the  Areopagites,  1507  B.C.  He  that 
killed  another  at  any  public  exercise  of  skill,  or  who  killed  another  that  lay  hid  to  do  a 
person  mischief  of  a  grievous  nature,  was  not  deemed  guilty.  He  who  killed  a  man  taken 


*  The  first  English  version  of  the  Iliad,  by  Arthur  Hall,  appeared  in  1581.  The  most  celebrated  versions 
of  Homer's  works  are  Chapman's,  1616  :  Hobbes',  1675  ;  Pope's,  1715-25  ;  Cowper's,  1791.  The  translation 
of  the  Iliad  by  the  earl  of  Derby  (1864)  is  much  commended. 


.HOM  373  HOR 

with  another's  wife,  sister,  daughter,  or  concubine,  or  he  that  killed  a  man  who,  without 
just  grounds,  assaulted  another  violently,  was  not  deemed  a  homicide.  Among  the  Jews, 
wilful  murder  was  capital  ;  but  for  chance-medley  the  offender  was  to  fly  to  one  of  the  cities 
of  refuge,  and  there  continue  till  the  death  of  the  high-priest,  1451  B.C.  (Num.  xxxv.). 
9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31  (1828),  distinguishes  between  justifiable  homicide  and  homicide  in  its 
various  degrees  of  guilt,  and  circumstances  of  provocation  and  wilfulness.  See.  Murder. 

HOMILIES  (Greek)  in  early  Christian  times  were  discourses  delivered  by  the  bishop  or 
presbyter,  in  a  homely  manner,  for  the  common  people. — The  Book  of  Homilies  drawn  up 
by  abp.  Cranmer,  and  published  1547;  and  another  prepared  by  an  order  of  convocation, 
1563,  were  ordered  to  be  read  in  those  churches  that  had  not  a  minister  able  to  compose 
proper  discourses. — Stoio. 

HOMOEOPATHY,  a  hypothesis  promulgated  at  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century  by  Dr.  Samuel  Hahnemann,  of  Leipsic  (died  1843),  according  to  which  every 
medicine  has  a  specific  power  of  inducing  a  certain  diseased  state  of  the  system  (similia, 
similibus  curantur,  likes  are  cured  by  likes) ;  and  if  such  medicine  be  given  to  a  person  suffer- 
ing under  the  disease  which  it  has  a  tendency  to  induce,  such  disease  disappears,  because  two 
similar  diseased  actions  cannot  simultaneously  subsist  in  the  same  organ.  Brande.  Infini- 
tesimal doses  of  medicine,  such  as  the  millionth  of  a  grain  of  aloes,  have  been  employed,  it  is 
said,  with  efficacy.  The  real  merits  of  the  system  consist  in  its  inducing  the  patient  to 
regulate  his  diet  and  habits  according  to  the  dictates  of  common  sense.— The  Hahnemann 
hospital  was  opened  in  Bloomsbury-square,  Sept.  16,  1850. 

HOMOUSION  AND  HOMOIOUSION  (Greek,  same  essence,  and  similar  essence  or 
being),  terms  employed  with  respect  to  the  nature  of  the  Father  and  the  Son  in  the  Trinity. 
The  orthodox  party  adopted  the  former  term  as  a  party  cry  at  the  council  of  Nice,  325  ;  the 
Arians  adopted  the  latter  at  Seleucia,  359. 

HONDURAS,  one  of  the  republics  of  Central  America  (which  see).  Great  Britain  ceded 
the  Bay  Islands  to  Honduras,  Nov.  28,  1859.  Its  present  president,  general  J.  M.  Medina, 
was  elected  for  four  years,  Feb.  I,  1864.  Population,  about  350,000  (1860).  British 
Honduras,  Central  America,  was  settled  by  English  from  Jamaica  soon  after  a  treaty  with 
Spain  in  1667.  They  were  often  disturbed  by  the  Spaniards  and  sometimes  expelled,  till 
1783.  Balize  or  Belize,  the  capital,  is  a  great  seat  of  the  mahogany  trade.  In  1861,  the 
population  was  25,635,  and  the  revenue,  35,757^. 

HONEY-MOON.  Among  the  ancients  a  beverage  prepared  with  honey,  such  as  that 
known  as  mead,  and  as  metheglin,  in  England.  It  was  a  custom  to  drink  of  diluted  honey 
for  thirty  days,  or  a  moon's  age,  after  a  wedding-feast,  and  hence  arose  the  term,  honey-moon, 
of  Teutonic  origin.  Attila  the  Hun  drank,  it  is  said,  so  freely  of  hydromel  on  his  marriage- 
day,  that  he  died  of  suffocation,  453. 

HONG- KONG,  an  isTand  off  the  coast  of  China,  was  taken  by  capt.  Elliott,  Aug.  23,  1839, 
and  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  Jan.  20,  1841.  Its  chief  town  is  Victoria,  built  in  1842,  and 
erected  into  a  bishopric  in  1849.  Sir  John  Bo  wring,  governor  from  1854  to  1859,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  sir  Hercules  Robinson. 

HONI  SOIT  QUI  MAL  Y  PENSE,  " Evil  be  to  him  who  evil  thinks."  It  is  said  that 
the  countess  of  Salisbury,  at  a  ball  at  court,  happening  to  drop  her  garter,  the  king, 
Edward  III.,  took  it  up,  and  presented  it  to  her  with  these  words,  which  afterwards  became 
the  motto  of  the  order  of  the  garter  ;  but  this  statement  is  unsupported  by  sufficient 
authority. — The  order  is  said  to  have  been  instituted,  April  23,  1349. 

HONOUR.  Temples  were  erected  to  Honour  by  Scipio  Africanus,  about  197 B.C.  ;  and 
by  C.  Marius,  about  102  B.C. — The  Legion  of  Honour  was  created  by  Bonaparte  in  1802. 

HOOKS  AND  CODFISH.     Sec  Holland,  1347.  HOOPS.     See  Crinoline. 

HOPS.  Introduced  from  the  Netherlands,  into  England,  about  1524,  and  used  in 
brewing  ;  but  the  physicians  having  represented  that  they  were  unwholesome,  their  use  was 
prohibited  in  1528.  Anderson.  In  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1853,  there  were  46,157!  acres 
under  hops  in  England  and  Wales,  chiefly  in  Herefordshire,  Kent,  and  Worcestershire,  which 
paid  447, 144?.  duty;  the  quantity  yielded  was  51, 102,494  Ibs.,  whereof  955,855  Ibs.  were 
exported.  The  duty  on  hops  was  repealed  in  1862,  after  many  applications. 

HORATII  AND  CURIATII.  The  Romans  and  the  Albans,  contesting  for  superioritv, 
chose  three  champions  on  each  side  to  determine  it.  The  three  Horatii  (Roman  knights) 
overcame  the  Curiatii  (Albans),  and  thereby  united  Alba  to  Rome,  about  669  B.C. 


HOE  374  HOS 

HOR:XT  ;  HORNPIPE.     The  horn  is  thought  to  be,  next  to  the  reed,   the  earliest  wine 
instrument,  and  has  been  found  among  most  savage  nations.     It  was  first  made  of  horn, 
hence  the  name  ;  afterwards  of  brass,  with  keys,  for  the  semi-tones,  in  the  last  century. — 
The  dance  called  the  Hornpipe  is  supposed  to  be  so  named  from  its  having  been  performed 
to  the  Welsh  pib-corn,  that  is,  hornpipe,  about  1300.     Spencer. 


HOEK15  TOOKE,  &c.    The  trial  of  Messrs.  Hardy,  Tooke,  Joyce,  Thelwall,  and  others, 
on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  caused  a  great  sensation  in  England.     They  were   taken  into 

was  put  to  the  -bar,  Oct.  29,  same 
Diiourably  acquitted.  John  Home 
Mr.  Thelwall  also  was  acquitted, 
Acts  were  passed  to  prohibit  Mr. 


custody  on  May  20,  1794.     Mr.  Hardy  was  the  first  who  was  put  to  the  bar,  Oct.  29,  same 
year  ;  and,  after  a  trial  which  lasted  eight  days,  he  was  honourably  acquitted.     John  Home 


Tooke  was  next  tried,  and  was  acquitted  Nov.  20  ;  and  Mr.  Thelwall  also  was  acquitted, 
Dec.  5  ;  all  the  other  accused  persons  were  discharged.     Acts  were  passed  to  prohibit 
Thel  wall's  political  lectures  in  1795.     See  Gagging  Bills  and  Thelwall. 

HOROLOGY.     See  Clocks. 

HORSE.*  The  people  of  Thessaly  were  excellent  equestrians,  and  probably  were  the 
first,  among  the  Greeks  at  least,  who  rode  upon  horses,  and  broke  them  in  for  service  in 
war  ;  whence  arose  the  fable  that  Thessaly  was  originally  inhabited  by  centaurs.  "  Solomon 
had  40,000  stalls  of  horses  for  his  chariots,  and  12,000  horsemen,"  1014  B.C.  I  Kings  iv.  26. 
The  power  of  the  horse  is  equal  to  that  of  five  or  six  men.  Smeaton.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  had  some  covering  to  secure  their  horses'  hoofs  from  injury.  In  the  9th  century 
horses  were  only  shod  in  the  time  of  frost.  The  practice  of  shoeing  was  introduced  into 
England  by  William  I.,  1066.  In  England  there  are  2,000,000  draught  and  pleasure 
horses,  and  100,000  agricultural  horses,  which  consume  the  produce  of  7,000,000  acres. 
The  horse-tax  was  imposed  in  1784,  and  was  then  levied  on  all  saddle  and  coach  horses  in 
England.  Its  operation  was  extended,  and  its  amount  increased,  in  1796;  and  again  in 
1808.  The  existing  duty  upon  "horses  for  riding"  only,  in  England,  amounts  to  about 
350,000?.  per  year  (i862).f  See  Race- Horses. 

HORSE  GUARDS.  They  were  instituted  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  1550,  and  revived 
by  Charles  II.  1661.  The  first  troop  of  the  Horse  Grenadier  Guards  was  raised  in  1693,  and 
was  commanded  by  general  Cholmondeley  ;  and  the  second  troop,  commanded  by  lord  Forbes, 
was  raised  in  1702.  There  was  a  reduction  of  the  Horse  and  Grenadier  Guards,  and  Life 
Guards,  as  now  established,  were  raised  in  their  room,  May  26,  1788.  Philli2)s.  The  present 
edifice  called  the  Horse  Guards  was  erected  by  "Ware  about  1730.  In  the  front  are  two  small 
arches,  where  horse-soldiers,  in  full  uniform,  daily  mount  guard.  In  a  part  of  the  building 
is  the  office  of  the  commander-in-chief. 

HORSE-RACING.     See  Racing. 

HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETIES.     Horticulture,  the  art  of  cultivating  gardens,  is 
late  word  in  our  dictionaries  (from  hortus  and  cuttura),  and  was  first  used  by  Evelyn.     The 
(now  Royal)  Horticultural  society  of  London  was  founded  by  sir  Joseph  Banks  and  other 
in  1804,  and  was  incorporated  April  17,  1809  ;  the  Edinburgh  society  in  1809  ;  and  that 
Dublin  in  Jan.  1817.     The  transactions  of  the  London  society  (1812,   &c.)  have  attract 
great  attention.     In  1822  the  planting  of  the  society's  garden  at  Chiswick  was  begun.     The 
annual  exhibitions  there  date  from  1831.     The  society  not  having  been  prosperous,  in  i85< 
the  library  was  sold.     In  July  a  proposal  for  laying  out  a  garden  for  the  society,  on  the 
Brompton  estate  belonging  to  the  Crystal  Palace  commissioners,  received  the  support  of  tl 
queen,  nobility,  &c.,  and  Mr.  Nesfield's  design  was  adopted  in  May,  1860.    On  June  5,  1861, 
the  new  gardens  were  opened  by  the  prince  consort,  who  planted  a  Wellingtonia  gigantec 
(winch  see).     The  queen  also  planted  one  on  July  24  following.     On  June  10,  1863,  th 
Albert  memorial  was  uncovered  in  the  presence  of  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales. 

HOSIERY.     See  Stockings  and  Cotton.  HOSPITALLERS.     See  Malta. 

HOSPITALS,  originally  Hospitia  for  the  reception  of  travellers.  That  at  Jerusalem, 
built  "by  the  knights  of  St.  John  1112,  was  capable  of  receiving  2000  guests,  and  include  " 

*  In  March,  1858,  Mr.  J.  S.  Rarey,  an  American,  made  a  great  sensation  in  London  by  taming  vicious 
and.  wild  horses,  and  even  a  zebra  from  the  Zoological  Gardens.  His  system  is  founded  on  a  profoum" 
study  of  the  disposition  of  the  animal,  and  on  kindness.  He  initiated  many  illustrious  persons  in  hi 
method  (on  March  20,  1858,  lord  Palmerston  and  twenty  others),  binding  them  to  secrecy  ;  from  which 
they  were  released  in  June,  1858,  when  his  book  was  reprinted  in  England  without  his  consent.  In  July, 
1859,  he  was  engaged  to  instruct  cavalry  officers  and  riding-masters  of  the  army.  On  Jan.  12, 1860,  he  gave 
a  lecture  to  the  London  cabmen,  which  was  well  received  ;  and  in  May  same  year  he  received  a  present  of 
20  guineas  from  the  Society  for  tlie  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals.  * 

t  Great  horss- shows  were  held  at  the  Agricultural  Hall,  Islington,  in  July  1864,  and  July  1865. 


HOS 


375 


HUE 


m  infirmary  for  the  sick.  The  richly  endowed  "five  royal  hospitals"  under  "the  pious 
•are  of  the  lord-mayor  of  London,"  &c.,  are  St.  Bartholomew's,  St.  Thomas's,  Bridewell, 
Bethlehem,  and  Christ's.  See  Infirmaries.  The  Royal  Dispensary  in  Aldersgate-street  was 
the  first  established,  1770. 

Orthopaedic     ....  1838 
Samaritan  Free,  for  women. 


Bethlehem    (oldest     lunatic 
asylum  in  Europe  excep 
one  at  Granada)  founded 
Cancer,  Brompton     . 
Charing-cross  founded   1818 
new  hospital  built  . 
City  of  London  Lying-in 
Consumption,  Brompton  . 
Dreadnought  ship  . 
Fever  
Free,  Gray's  Inn-lane    . 
German,  Dalston 
Great  Northern 
Guy's  (see  Guy's) 

J547 
1851 

1831 
1750 
1841 
1821 
1802 
1828 
1845 
1856 
1721 
i8so 

Hospital  of  Surgery 
Idiots'         .        .        . 
Incurables 
Jews'  
King's  College 
Lock   
London    .... 

1827 

1847 
1850 
1747 
1839 
1746 
1740 
*749 
1760 
L  1765 
>  1752 
i  1824 
1745 
r  1804 
1843 

Lying  inn,  British     . 
,,         City-road 
,,         General,  Lambetl 
„          Queen  Charlotte's 
Queen  Adelaide's 
Middlesex 
Loud.  Ophthalmic,  Finsburj 
.     Grav'slnn-rd 

and  children 
Small  Pox 
St.  Bartholomew's  (see  Bar 

tholomew,  St.)       .        . 
St.  George's 
St.  Luke's  (lunatics) 
St.  Mary's,  Paddington 
St.  Thomas's  ("removed  1862) 
University  College . 
Westminster 
Women's,  Soho-square  . 


1847 
1746 

1546 

1733 
T75i 
1843 
1553 
1833 
1719 
1843 


HOST,  ELEVATION  OF  THE,  introduced  into  Roman  Catholic  worship,  and  prostration 
enjoined,'in  1201.  Pope  Gregory  IX.  was  the  first  pontiff  who  decreed  a  bell  to  be  rung  as 
a  signal  for  the  people  to  betake  themselves  to  the  adoration  of  the  host,  1228,  which  is 
done  to  this  day.  JRees.  The  supposed  miracle  of  the  consecrated  host  being  visibly  changed 
into  the  body  of  our  Lord,  is  referred  by  Henault  to  1290. 

HOT  BLAST.     See  Blowing  Machine. 

HOURS.  The  day  began  to  be  divided  into  hours  from  the  year  293  B.C.,  when  L.  Papi- 
rius  Cursor  erected  a  sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus  at  Rome.  Previously  to  the  invention 
of  water- clocks  (which  sec),  158  B.C.,  the  time  was  called  at  Rome  by  public  criers.  The 
Chinese  divide  the  day  into  twelve  parts  of  two  hours  each.  The  Italians  reckon  twenty- 
four  hours  round,  instead  of  two  divisions  of  twelve  hours.  In  England,  the  measurement 
of  time  was,  in  early  days,  uncertain  :  one  expedient  was  by  wax  caudles,  three  inches  burning 
an  hour,  and  six  wax  candles  burning  twenty-four  hours  :  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Alfred,  A.  D.  886.  For  Hours  of  Prayer,  see  Breviary. 

HOUSE  DUTY  was  imposed  in  1695.  Its  rate  was  frequently  changed  till  its  repeal  in 
1840  (3  &  4  Will.  4,  c.  39).  It  was  re^mposed  as  a  substitute  for  the  window  tax,  in  1851. 

HOUSELESS  POOR  ACT  (Metropolitan)  was  passed  in  1864,  and  made  perpetual  in  1865. 
See  Poor. 

HOUSE  OF  COMMONS,  LORDS,  &c.     See  Parliament,  Lords,  and  Commons. 

HOWARD  FAMILY.  John  Howard,  son  of  Margaret,  the  heiress  of  the  Mowbrays, 
was  created  earl  marshal  and  the  7th  duke  of  Norfolk  in  1483.  He  was  slain  with  his  master, 
Richard  III.,  at  Bosworth,  Aug.  22,  1485.  His  son  was  restored  to  the  earldom  of  Surrey  in 
1489,  in  reward  for  having  gained  the  victory  of  Flodden,  Sept.  9,  1513  ;  he  was  created  the 
8th  duke  of  Norfolk  in  1514.  Thomas,  the  loth  duke,  was  beheaded  for  conspiracy  against 
queen  Elizabeth  on  behalf  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  in  1572.  Henry  Fitzalan  Howard,  now 
the  2ist  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  the  1 8th  of  the  Howard  family,  premier  duke  and  earl  of 
England  and  hereditary  earl  marshal,  was  born  in  1847. 

HOWITZER,  a  German  piece  of  ordnance,  ranking  between  a  cannon  and  a  mortar, 
came  into  use  early  in  the  iStli  century. 

HUDSON'S  BAY,  discovered  by  captain  Henry  Hudson,  when  in  search  of  a  north- 
west passage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  1610  ;  had  been  discovered  by  Frobisher  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  although  Hudson  ventured  further  north.  The  latter,  passing  the  winter  in  this 
bay  on  his  fourth  voyage,  was,  with  four  others,  thrown  by  his  sailors  into  a  boat,  and  left 
to  perish.  The  Hudson' s-Bay  Company  obtained  a  charter  in  1670.  Their  licence  expired 
in  1859.  The  forts  were  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1686  and  1782.  In  July,  1863,  the 
formation  of  a  new  company  was  proposed. 

HUE  AND  CRY.  The  old  common-law  process  of  pursuing  "with  horn  and  with 
voice,"  from  hundred  to  hundred,  and  county  to  county,  all  robbers  and  felons.  Formerly, 
the  hundred  was  bound  to  make  good  all  loss  occasioned  by  the  robberies  therein  committed, 
unless  the  felon  were  taken  ;  but  by  subsequent  laws  it  is  made  answerable  only  for  damage 
committed  by  riotous  assemblies.  The  pursuit  of  a  felon  was  aided  by  a  description  of 
him  in  the  Hue  and  Cry,  a  gazette  established  for  advertising  felons  in  1710.  Ashe. 


HUG 


376 


HUN 


HUGUENOTS,  a  term  (derived  by  some  from  the  German  JSidgenossen,  confederates  ;  by 
others  from  Hugues,  a  Genevese  Calvinist)  applied  to  the  Eeformed  party  in  France,  followers 
of  Calvin.  They  took  up  arms  against  their  persecutors  in  1561.  After  a  delusive  edict  of 
toleration,  a  great  number  were  massacred  at  Vassy  in  1562  (March  i),  when  the  civil  wars 
began,  which  lasted  with  some  intermission  till  the'edict  of  Nantes  in  1598,  revoked  in  1685. 
The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  day,  Aug.  24,  1572,  occurred  daring  a  truce.  See 
Calvinists,  Bartholomew,  and  Edict. 

HULL  (E.  Yorkshire),  a  rising  commercial  place  in  1200,  was  named  Kingston-upon- 
Hull  in  1296  by  Edward  I.,  who  purchased  the  town,  formed  the  port,  and  granted  a 
charter.  Great  fire  ;  damage  about  100,000^.,  Aug.  15,  1864. 

HULSEAN  LECTURES  (on  Theology),  were  instituted  at  Cambridge  by  the  will  of  the 
rev.  John  Hulse,  who  died  in  1790.  They  began  in  1820,  when  twenty  lectures  were  given 
by  the  rev.  Christopher  Benson.  In  1830  the  number  was  reduced  to  eight. 

HUMANE  SOCIETY,  EOYAL  (London),  for  the  recovery  of  persons  apparently  drowned, 
was  founded  in  1774,  by  Drs.  Goldsmith,  Heberden,  Towers,  Lettsom,  Hawes,  and  Cogan, 
but  principally  by  the  last  three.  The  society  has  221  receiving-houses,  supplied  with  appa- 
ratus. The  principal  one  was  erected  in  1794,  on  a  spot  of  ground  given  by  George  III.  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Serpentine  river,  Hyde-park.  The  motto  of  this  society  is  appropriate 
— "Lateat  scintillula  forsan"" — "a  small  spark  may  perhaps  lie  concealed."  See  Drowning. 

HUMILIATI,  a  congregation  of  religious  of  the  church  of  Eome,  formed  by  some 
Milanese  who  had  been  imprisoned  by  Frederick  I.  1162.  The  order  had  more  than  ninety 
monasteries;  but  was  abolished  for  luxury  and  cruelty  by  pope  Pius  V.,  and  their  houses 
were  given  to  the  Dominicans,  Cordeliers,  and  other  communities,  in  1570. 

HUMMING-BIRDS.  Mr.  Gould's  beautiful  collection  of  the  skins  of  these  birds  was 
exhibited  at  the  Zoological  Gardens,  London,  in '1851.  His  elaborate  work  on  them  in  five 
folio  volumes,  with  richly  coloured  plates,  was  completed  in  1862. 

HUNDREDS,  a  Danish  institution  ;  a  hundred  being  a  part  or  division  of  a  shire,  so 
called,  as  is  supposed,  from  its  having  been  composed  of  a  hundred  families,  at  the  time  the 
counties  were  originally  divided  by  king  Alfred,  about  897.  The  hundred-court  is  a  court- 
baron  held  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  hundred  instead  of  a  manor.  Law  Dictionary. 

HUNGARY,  part  of  the  ancient  Pannonia  and  Dacia,  was  subjected  to  the  Romans 
about  106,  and  retained  by  them  till  the  3rd  century,  when  it  was  seized  by  the  Goths,  who 
were  expelled  about  376  by  the  Huns,  under  Attila.  See  Huns  and  Attila.  On  his  death, 
in  453,  the  Ostrogoths,  Gepidoe,  and  Lombards  at  times  held  the  country,  which  was  how- 
'  ever  acquired  by  the  Avars  about  568,  and  retained  by  them  till  their  destruction  by  Charle- 
magne in  799.  About  894  the  country  was  settled  by  a  Scythian  tribe,  named  Vingours  or 
Ungri  (whence  the  German  name  Vngarn),  and  the  Magyars  of  Finnish  origin.  The  chief  of 
the  latter,  Arpad,  was  the  ancestor  of  a  line  of  kings  (see  below).  The  progress  of  the  Magyars 
westward  was  checked  by  their  defeat  by  the  emperor  Henry  the  Fowler,  934.  The  line  of 
Arpad  became  extinct  in  1309,  when  Charles  Robert  of  Anjou  ascended  the  throne.  In  1526 
it  accrued  to  the  house  of  Austria,  in  which  it  was  made  hereditary  in  1687.  "War  with 
Turkey  was  frequent  from  the  I5th  to  the  i8th  century.  The  Magyars  have  of  late  much 
intermingled  with  the  German  and  Sclavonic  races.  Population  (without  the  army)  in  1857, 
9, 900, 785 .  See  A  ustria. 

Sanguinary  anarchy :  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Louis, 
is  drowned  ;  and  King*  Mary,  the  daughter, 
marries  Sigismond,  of  Brandenburg  .  .  .  1382 

They  govern  with  great  severity         .        .       1382-92 

Sigismond's  ati-ocious  cruelties  compel  his  sub- 
jects to  invite  the  assistance  of  the  Turks  .  1393 

Battle  of  Nicopolis  :  Bajazet  vanquishes  Sigis- 
mond and  a  large  army  .  .  Sept.  28,  1396 

Sigismond  obtains  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  and 
is  elected  emperor  of  Germany  .  .  .  1410 

Albert  of  Austria  succeeds  to  the  throne  of 
Hungary I437 

Victories  of  the  great  John  Hunniades  (illegiti- 
mate son  of  Sigismond)  over  the  Turks  .  1442-4 

Who  obtained  a  truce  for  10  years          .        .    .  1444 


Stephen,  founder  of  the  monarchy  of  Hungary, 
embraces  and  establishes  Christianity  and 
subdues  the  slaves,  &c.,  receives  the  title  of 
Apostolic  king  from  the  pope  ....  997 

The  Poles  overrun  Hungary 1061 

Dreadful  ravages  of  the  Tartars  under  the  sons 
of  Genghis  Khan,  throughout  Hungary, 
Bohemia,  and  Russia,  1241  et  seq. 

Bela  III.  introduces  the  Greek  civilisation  1174,  <tc. 

Golden  Bull  of  Andrew  II.  granting  personal 
rights 1222 

Victories  of  Louis  the  Great  in  Bulgaria,  Servia, 
and  Dalmatia 1344-82 

He  marches  into  Italy  and  avenges  the  murder 
of  his  brother,  Andrew  king  of  Naples  .  .  1348 


*  The  Hungarian  people  have  or  had  an  irreconcileable  aversion  to  the  name  of  queen  ;  and  conse- 
quently whenever  a  female  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  she  reigned  with  the  title  of  Iting.  Thus 
in  1382,  when  Mary  came  to  the  crown,  she  was  styled  Kiny  Mary.  Pray,  Hint.  Regv.m  Hungarian. 


HUN 


377 


HUN 


HUNGARY,  continued. 

Which  is  broken  by  Ladislas  king  of  Hungary 
(at  the  instigation  of  the  pope).  He  is  de- 
fcated  and  slain  with  a  great  part  of  his  army, 
and  the  papal  legate  at  Varna  .  .  Nov.  10,  1444 

John  Hunniades  escapes  and  becomes  regent 
(for  Ladislas  son  of  Albert)  .  .  .  1444-53 

lie  raises  the  siege  of  Belgrade,  July  14,  and 
dies  ....  .  Sept.  10,  1456 

The  Hungarians  insult  the  Turkish  ambas- 
sadors, and  war  ensues  :  Solymaii  II.  takes 
Buda 1526 

Disastrous  battle  of  Mohatz  (which  see)  Aug.  29,    ,, 

Hungary  becomes  subject  to  the  house  of 
Austria  (see  GermoMy) ,, 

Peace  of  Vienna,  granting  toleration  to  pro- 
testants 1606  • 

John  Scbieski  defeats  the  Turks  in  several 
battles,  and  raises  the  siege  of  Vienna  Oct.  1683 

Prince  Louis  of  Baden  defeats  the  Turks  at 
Salenckemen Aug.  19,  1691  ! 

Prince  Eugene  defeats  them  at  Zenta  Sept.  n,  1697 

The  duke  of  Lorraine  retakes  Buda  (which  see)  .  1686 

Peace  of  Carlowitz  1699 

Pragmatic  sanction,  authorising  female  succes- 
sion to  the  throne 1722-3 

Servia  and  Wallachia  ceded  to  Turkey  at  the 
peace  of  Belgrade 1739 

The  Hungarians  enthusiastically  support  Maria- 
Theresa  against  France  and  Bavaria  .  .  1740 

The  protestants  permitted  to  have  churches  in 
Hungary 1784 

Independence  of  Hungary  guai-anteed        .        .  1790 

Hungarian  academy  established    .        .         .     .   1825 

The  people,  some  time  discontented  with  their 
Austrian  rulers,  at  length  break  out  into  a 
formidable  rebellion 1848 

Murder  at  Pesth  of  the  recently  appointed  mili- 
tary governor,  count  Lam  berg,  by  a  mob ; 
the  Hungarian  diet  appoint  a  provisioiial 
government  under  Kossuth  and  Batthyany, 
Sept.  28  ;  the  Hungarians  defeat  the  Ban  of 
Croatia Sept.  29,  ,, 

The  diet  denounces  as  traitors  all  who  acknow- 
ledge the  emperor  of  Austria  as  king  of 
Hungary Dec.  8,  „ 

The  insurgents  defeated  by  the  Austrians  at 
Szaikszo Dec.  21,  ,, 

They  are  defeated  at  Mohr  by  the  ban  Jellachich, 

Dec.  29,  ,, 

Buda-Pesth  taken  by  Windjgehgratz   .     Jan.  5,  1849 

Bern  defeats  the  Austrians  at  Hermannstadt, 

Jan.  21  ,, 

Hungary  declares  itself  a  free  state ;  Kossuth 
supreme  governor  .  .  .  April,  14,  ,, 

The  Hungarians  defeat  the  Imperialists  before 
Gran April  18,  „ 

March  of  the  Russian  army  through  Gallicia  to 
assist  the  Austrians  ....  May  i,  ,, 

The  Austro-Russian  troops  defeat  the  Hunga- 
rians, who  retreat  across  the  Waag  .  June  21,  ,, 

Battle  of  Acs  between  the  Hungarians  and 
Austrians July  10,  „ 

Hungarians  defeat  Jellachich      .         .    July  14,    ,, 

The  Hungarians  defeated  by  the  Russians  ;  Gor- 
gey  retreats  after  three  days'  battle  July  15,  „ 

Battle  before  Komorn,  between  the  insurgents 
and  the  Austro-Russian  army  .  July  16,  „ 

The  insurgents  under  Bern  enter  Moldavia, 

July  23,  ,, 

Again  defeated  by  the  Russians        .     July  31,    ,, 

Litter  defeat  of  the  Hungarian  army  before 
Temeswar  by  gen.  Haynau  .  .  Aug.  10,  , , 


Gorgey  and  his  army  surrender  to  the  Russians, 

Aug.  1849 

Kossuth,  B3m,  &c.,  escape  to  the  Turkish  fron- 
tiers, and  are  placed  under  the  protection  of 
Turkey  at  New  Orsova  (see  Turkey)  Aug.  21,  „ 

Komorn  surrenders  to  the  Austrians  ;  close  of 
the  war Sept.  27, '  „ 

Batthyany  tried  at  Pesth,  and  shot ;  many  other 
insurgent  chiefs  put  to  death  .  .  Oct.  6, 

Amnesty  granted  to  the  Hungarian  insurgents, 
who  return  home  .  .  .  Oct.  16,  ,, 

Bern  dies  at  Aleppo     ....    Dec.  10,  18^0 

The  country  remains  in  an  unsettled  state  ; 
many  executions 1853-5 

Crown  of  St.  Stephen  and  royal  insignia  dis-     ' 
covered  and  sent  to  Vienna     .        .      Sept.  8,  1853 

Amnesty  for  political  offenders  of  1848-9  July  12,  1856 

During  the  Italian  war  in  1859,  an  insurrection 
in  Hungary  was  in  contemplation,  and  com- 
munications took  place  between  Louis  Napo- 
leon and  Kossuth;  which  circumstances  it 
is  said  led  the  emperor  of  Austria  to  accede 
to  the  pease  of  Villafranca  so  suddenly,  and 
shortly  afterwards  to  promise  many  reforms 
and  to  grant  more  liberty  to  the  protestants 
in  Hungary  ....  Aug. -Oct.  1859 

Recall  of  archduke  Albert,  general  Benedek 
appointed  governor  ....  April,  1860 

Demand  for  restoration  of  the  old  constitu- 
tion; re-union  of  the  Banat  and  Voivodina 
with  Hungary,  &c Oct. 

Charter  restoring  the  old  constitution  promised, 

Oct.  20,    ,, 

Schmerling  appointed  minister    .        .   Dec.  13    „ 

National  conference  at  Gran     .        .        .     Dec. 

Demand  for  the  constitution  of  1848  .        .  Jan.  1861 

The  emperor  promulgates  a  new  liberal  consti- 
tution for  the  empire  .  .  .  Feb.  26,  „ 

Which  does  not  satisfy  the  Hungarians,  March, 

Hungarian  diet  opened        .        .        .    April  6,    „ 

Meeting  of  the  Reichsrath  at  Vienna :  no  depu- 
ties present  from  Hungary  or  Croatia  April  29, 

Count  Teieki  (see  Austria,  1860)  found  dead  in 
his  bed  at  Pesth  :  intense  excitement  May  8,  „ 

The  diet  votes  an  address  to  the  emperor,  desir- 
ing restoration  of  the  old  constitution  July  5, 

The  military  begin  to  levy  the  taxes  .        July,    ,'. 

Imperial  rescript  i-efusing  the  entire  independ- 
ence of  Hungary,  July  21  ;  the  diet  protests, 
Aug.  20;  and  is  dissolved  .  .  Aug.  21, 

The  archbishop  of  Gran,  the  primate,  indig- 
nantly protests  against  the  act  of  the  imperial 
government Sept. -Oct.  „ 

He  is  summoned  to  Vienna,  but  stands  firm, 

Oct.  25,    „ 

The  magistrates  in  the  comitat  at  Pesth  resign ; 
military  government  established ;  passive 
resistance  of  the  nobility  .  .  .  Dec. 

Amnesty  declared  for  political  offences,  and  ces- 
sation of  prosecutions  .  .  .  Nov.  19,  1862 

Newspapers  confiscated  for  publishing  seditious 
speeches March  29,  1863 

The  emperor  visits  Buda-Pesth ;  well  received  ; 
inauguration  of  a  new  policy;  the  rights  of 
Hungary  to  be  restored  .  .  .  June  6-9,  1865 

Imperial  rescript,  abolishing  the  representa- 
tive constitution  of  the  empire,  with  the 
view  of  restoring  independence  of  Hungary, 
&c Sept.  21,  „ 

The   Deak  party  demand  restoration  of   the 
monarchy,  with   a  responsible  government, 
Nov.  IT,    . 


SOVEREIGNS   OF   HUNGARY. 


997.  St.  Stephen,  duke  of  Hungary  (son  of  Geisa)  ; 
he  establishes  the  Roman  Catholic  religion 
(1000),  and  receives  from  the  pope  the  title 
of  Apostolic  King,  still  borne  by  the  emperor 
of  Austria,  as  king  of  Hungary. 


1038.   Peter,  the  German  :  deposed. 

1041.   Aba  or^>wen. 

1044.   Peter,  again  :  again  deposed,  and  his  eyes  put 

out. 
1047.  Andrew  I.  :  deposed. 


HUN 


578 


HUS 


HUNGARY,  continued. 

1061.   Bela  I.  :  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  ruinous  tower. 

1064.   Salamon,  son  of  Andrew. 

1075.   Geisa  I.  son  of  Bcla. 

1077.   Ladislas  I.  surnarned  the  Pious. 

1095.   Coloman,  son  of  Geisa. 

1114.   Stephen  II.  surnamed  Thunder. 

1131.'  Bela  II.  :  had  his  eyes  put  out. 

1141.    Geisa  II.  :  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1161.   Stephen  III.  :  and  Stephen  IV.  (anarchy). 

1173.    Bela  III.  :  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1196.   Emeric  :  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1204.  Ladislas  II.  ;  reigned  six  months  only. 

1205.  Andrew  II.  son  of  Bela  III. 
1235.   Bela  IV. 

1270.   Stephen  IV.  (or  V.)  his  son. 

1272.    Ladislas  III.  :  killed. 

1290.  Andrew  III.  surnamed  the  Venetian,  son-in- 
law  of  Bodolph  of  Hapsburg,  emperor  of 
Germany. 

1301.  Charobert,  or  Charles-Robert  (of  Anjou) ;  (com- 
petitors— Wenceslas  of  Bohemia,  aiid  Otho 
of  Bavaria,  who  give  way  to  him,  1309). 

1342.  Louis  I.  the  Great ;  elected  king  of  Poland  in 

1370- 
1382.   Mary,  called  Kinj  Mary,  daughter  of  Louis  the 

Great. 
1387.   Mary  and  her  consort  Sigismond  :  the  latter 

became  king  of  Bohemia,  and  was  elected 

emperor  in  1410. 

1392.   Sigismond  alone  (on  the  death  of  Mary). 
1437.   Albert,  duke  of  Austria ;  married  Elizabeth, 

daughter    of    Sigismond,   and   obtains  the 

thrones  of  Hungary,  Bohemia,and  Germany ; 

dies  suddenly. 

1439.  Elizabeth  alone  :  she  marries 

1440.  Ladislas  IV.  king  of  Poland,  of  which  kingdom 

he  was  Ladislas  VI.  :  slain  at  Vama. 

1444.  [Interregnum.] 

1445.  John  Hunniades,  regent. 

1458.   Ladislas    V.     posthumous    son    of    Albert: 

poisoned. 

,,      Matthias- Corvinus,  son  of  Hunniades,  an  able 
sovereign. 


1490.  Ladislas  VI.  king  of  Bohemia:  the  emperor 
Maximilian  laid  claim  to  both  kingdoms. 

1516.  Louis  II.  of  Hungary  (I.  of  Bohemia):  loses 
his  life  at  the  battle  of  Mohatz. 

{John    Zapolski,    waivode  of    Transylvania, 
elected  by  the  Hungarians,  and  supported 
by  the  sultan  Solyman  ;  by  treaty  with 
Ferdinand,  he  founds  the  principality  of 
Transylvania,  1536. 
Ferdinand  I.  king  of  Bohemia,  brother  to  the 
^    emperor  Charles  V.  ;  rival  kings. 
1536.  Ferdinand  alone :  elected  emperor  of  Germany 

in  1558. 

1561.    Maximilian, son  of  Ferdinand  ;  emperor  in  1564. 
1573.    Rodolph,  son  of  Maximilian  ;  emperor  in  1576. 
1609.    Matthias  II.  his  brother ;  emperor  in  1612. 
1619.    Ferdinand  II.  his  cousin,  emperor. 
1625.   Ferdinand  III.  son  of  the  preceding  ;  emperor 

in  1637. 
1647.   Ferdinand  IV. ;  died  in  1654,  three  years  before 

his  father. 
1655.    Leopold  I.  son  of  Ferdinand  III.  ;  emperor  in 

1658. 

1687.   Joseph  I.  his  son  :  emperor  in  1705. 
1711.   Charles  VI.  (of  Germany),  brother  of  Joseph, 

and  nominal  king  of  Spain,  succeeded  by  his 

daughter, 
1740.   Maria-Theresa,  empress  ;  survived  her  consort, 

Francis  I.,  emperor,  from  1765  until  1780. 

See  Germany. 
1780.  Joseph  II.  her  son,  emperor  in  1765  :  succeeded 

to  Hungary  on  the  death  of  his  mother. 
1790.   Leopold  II.  brother  of  Joseph  II.,  emperor: 

succeeded  by  his  son, 

1792.  Francis  I.  (Francis  II.  as  emperor  of  Ger- 
many) :  in  1804  lie  became  emperor  of 

Austria  only. 
1835.   Ferdinand  V.  son  of  Francis  :  Ferdinand  I.  as 

emperor  of  Austria. 
1848.   Francis-Joseph,    nephew  of    the    preceding. 

succeeded  on  the  abdication  of  his  uncle, 

Dec.  2,  1848.  The  PRESENT  king  of  Hungary 

and  emperor  of  Austria. 


HUNGERFORD  BRIDGE,*  over  the  Thames  from  Hungerford-stairs  to  the  Belvedere- 
road,  Lambeth,  opened  May  i,  1845,  was  taken  down  in  July,  1862,  to  make  way  for  the 
Charing  Cross  railway-bridge,  and  transferred  to  Clifton  (which  see).  The  market  (opened 
in  July,  1833)  was  removed  at  the  same  time. 

HUNS,  a  race  of  warlike  Asiatics,. said  to  have  conquered  China,  about  210  B.C.,  and  to 
have  been  expelled  therefrom  about  A.D.  90.  They  invaded  Hungary  about  376,  and  drove 
out  the  Goths.  Marching  westward,  under  Attila,  they  were  thoroughly  beaten  at  Chalons 
by  the  consul  Aetius,  451.  See  Attila. 

HUNTING  :  an  ancient  pastime.  The  "Bokys  of  Hawking  and  Huntyng,"  by  Dame 
July  ana  Barnes,  was  printed  at  St.  Albans,  1486. 

HUSSARS,  light  cavalry  in  Poland  and  Hungary,  about  1600  :  and  as  they  were  more 
fitted  for  a  hasty  enterprise  than  a  set  battle,  they  are  supposed  to  have  taken  their  name 
from  the  huzzas  or  shout  they  made  at  their  first  onset.  They  were  generally  opposed  to  the 
Turkish  horse,  "and  were  oddly  clothed,  having  the  skins  of  tigers  and  other  wild  beasts 
hanging  on  their  backs  against  bad  weather,  and  wore  fur  caps,  with  a  cock's  feather." 
Pardon.  Hussars  became  the  name  of  a  British  force  in  the  last  century  (1759),  very 
differently  attired. 

HUSSITES.     After  the  death  of  Huss;t  many  of  his  followers  took  up  arms,  in  1419, 


*  It  was  14  feet  wide,  and  1342  feet  long  ;  the  length  of  the  central  span,  between  the  two  piers,  676 
feet ;  the  height  of  the  two  towers  55  feet  above  the  footway,  and  84  above  high  water ;  the  piers  were  in 
the  Italian  style,  with  the  chains  passing  through  the  attic  of  each.  The  cost  of  the  masonry  was  60,000?.  ; 
of  the  ironwork,  exceeding  700  tons  iff  weight,  17,000?.  ;  of  the  approaches,  13,000?. ;  total  102,245?.  Archi- 
tect, I.  K.  Brunei. 

t  The  clergy  having  instigated  the  pope  to  issue  a  bull  against  heretics,  John  Huss  (born  in  Bohemia 
in  1373),  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  Reformation,  was  cited  to  appear  before  a  council  of  divines  at  Constance, 


11  US 


379 


HYD 


and  formed  a  political  party  under  John  Ziska,  and  burnt  the  city  of  Tabor.  They  defeated 
the  emperor  Sigismund  several  times,  1420-22  :  but  after  being  worsted  in  1434,  at  Bomisch- 
brod,  they  entered  into  negotiations,  which  ended  in  the  Compact  of  Prague.  They  were 
ii^aiii  defeated  by  Albert  of  Austria  in  1438.  The  pacific  portion  of  the  Hussites  existed  in 
the  time  of  Luther,  and  were  called  "  Bohemian  Brethren." 

HUSTINGS  (said  to  be  derived  from  House  Court,  an  assembly  among  the  Anglo-Saxons), 
:tn  ancient  court  of  London,  being  its  supreme  court  of  judicature,  as  the  court  of  common 
-••ouncil  is  of  legislature.  The  court  of  Hustings  was  granted  to  the  city  of  London,  to  be 
liolden  and  kept  weekly,  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  1052.  Winchester,  Lincoln,  York,  &c., 
were  also  granted  Hustings  courts. 

HUTCHINSONIANS  included  many  eminent  clergy,  who  did  not  form  any  sect,  but 
held  the  opinions  of  John  Hutchinson,  of  Yorkshire  ;  they  rejected  the  Newtonian  system, 
and  contended  that  the  scriptures  contain  a  complete  system  of  natural  philosophy.  His 
work,  "Moses'  Principia,"  was  published  in  1724.  He  derived  all  things  from  the  air, 
whence  he  said  proceeded  fire,  light,  and  spirit, — typss  of  the  Trinity.  In  1712  he  invented 
a  time-piece  for  finding  the  longitude,  and  died  in  1737. 

HYDE  PARK,  W.  (London),  the  ancient  manor  of  Hyde,  belonging  to  the  abbey  of 
Westminster,  became  crown  property  at  the  dissolution,  1539.  It  was  sold  by  parliament 
in  1652  ;  but  was  resumed  by  the  king  at  the  restoration  in  1661.  It  comprises  about  394 
acres,  with  a  large  winding  sheet  of  water,  called  the  Serpentine.  There  are  eight  entrances. 


Colossal  statue  of  Achilles,  cast  from  cannon 
taken  in  the  battles  of  Salamanca,  Vittoria, 
Toulouse,  and  Waterloo,  and  inscribed  to 
"Arthur,  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  his  brave 
companions  in  arms,  by  their  countrywomen, " 

erected  on June  18,  1822 

tlyde  Park  Corner  Entrance  erected     .        .     .  1828 
Marble  Arch  from  Buckingham  Palace  set  up  at 

Cumberland  Gate       .        .         .     .  March  29,  1851 
Crystal   Palace  erected  for   the  exhibition  of  1851 
Dirturbances  in  consequence  of  a  Sunday  bill 
having  been  brought  before  parliament  by 


lord  Robert  Grosvenor,  which  was  eventually 

withdrawn  Sundays,  June  25,  and  July  i  &  8,  1855 
Riotous  meetings  held  here,  on  account  of  tae 

high  price  of  bread  Sundays,  Oct.  14,  21,  28,     ,, 
Democratic  meetings  on  the  Reform  question, 

March,  1859 

The  queen  reviewed  18,450  volunteers  June  23,  1860 
Great  meeting  of  admirers  of  Garibaldi,  Sept.  28  ; 

who  are  violently  attacked    by  the  Irish ; 

many  persons  wounded        .        .         .  Oct.  5,  1862 
Public  meetings  in  the  park  henceforth  pro-        * 

hibited Oct.  9,    ,, 


HYDRAULIC  PRESS.     See  under  Hydrostatics. 

HYDROGEN  (from  hydor,  water)  under  the  name  of  combustible  air  was  obtained  by 
Paracelsus  in  the  i6th  century.  In  1766  Cavendish  described  its  properties  ;  and,  in  1781, 
he  and  Watt  first  showed  that  in  the  combination  of  this  gas  with  oxygen,  which  takes  place 
when  it  is  burnt,  water  is  produced ;  subsequently  Lavoisier  decomposed  water  into  its 
elements.  One  volume  of  oxygen  combines  with  two  volumes  of  hydrogen,  and  forms  water. 
Hydrogen  is  never  found  in  the  free  state.  Gmelin. 

HYDROGRAPHY  is  the  description  of  the  surface  waters  of  the  earth.  The  first  sea- 
chart  is  attributed  to  Henry  the  Navigator,  in  the  i6th  century.  There  is  a  hydrographic 
department  in  the  British  Admiralty,  by  which  a  series  of  charts  has  been  issued. 

HYDROMETER,  the  instrument  by  which  is  measured  the  gravity,  density,  and  other 
properties  of  liquids.  The  oldest  mention  of  the  hydrometer  occurs  in  the  5th  century,  and 
may  be  found  in  the  letters  of  Synesius  to  Hypatia  ;  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  Archimedes 
was  the  inventor  of  it,  though  no  proofs  of  it  are  to  be  found.  Ecckmann.  Archimedes 
was  killed  in  212  B.C.,  and  Hypatia  was  torn  to  pieces,  A.D.  415. 

HYDROPATHY,  a  term  applied  to  the  treatment  of  diseases  by  cold  water,  practised  by 
Hippocrates  in  the  4th  century  B.C.,  by  the  Arabs  in  the  loth  century  A.D.,  and  revived  by 
Dr.  Currie  in  1797.  The  present  system  was  suggested  in  1825  by  Vincenz  Priessnitz,  of 
Grafenberg,  in  Austrian  Silesia  ;  and  though  he  is  considered  as  its  founder,  the  rational 
part  of  the  doctrine  was  understood  and  maintained  by  the  eminent  Dr.  Sydenham,  before 
1689.  Priessnitz  died  Nov.  26,  1851.  Brando. 


He  presented  himself  accordingly,  but  was  thrown 
into  prison,  and  after  some  months'  confinement  was  adjudged  to  be  burned  alive,  which  he  endured  with 


the  emperor  Sigismund  sending  him  a  safe-conduct. 


resignation,  July  6,  1415*.     Jerome  of  Prague,  his  intimate  friend,  who  came  to  this  council  to  support  and 
second  him,  also  suffered  death  by  fire,  May  30,  1416,  although  he  also  had  a  safe-conduct. 


HYD 


380 


ICH 


HYDROSTATICS  were  probably  first  studied  in  the  Alexandrian  school  about  300  B.C. 


Pressure  of  fluids  discovered  by  Archimedes, 

about  B.C.     250 
The  forcing  pump  and  air  fountain  invented  by 

Hero about    120 

Water-mills  were  known  .  .  about  A.  D.  i 
The  science  revived  by  Galileo  .  .  about  1600 
The  theory  of  rivers  scientifically  understood  in  1697 


The  correct  theory  of  fluids  and  oscillation  of 
waves,  explained  by  Newton  .  .  .  .  171 

A  scientific  form  was  given  to  hydro-dynamics, 
by  Bernoulli! 

Joseph  Bramah's  hydrostatic  or  hydraulic  press 
patented  first  in 178=: 


HYGROMETER,  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.     Th 
by  Saussure  (who  died  in  1799)  is  most  employed.     It  consists  of  a  human  hair  boiled  in 
caiistic  lye,  and  acts  on  the  principle  of  absorption.     Brande.     Daniell's  hygrometer  (1820) 
is  much  esteemed. 

HYMNS.  The  song  of  Moses  is  the  most  ancient,  1491  B.C.  (Exod.  xv.).  The  Psalms 
date  from  about  1060  B.C.  to  about  444  B.C.  (from  David  to  Ezra).  The  hymns  of  the  Jews 
were  frequently  accompanied  by  instrumental  music.  Paul  (A.D.  64)  speaks  of  Christians 
admonishing  one  another  "in  psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs  "  (Col.  iii.  16).  Hilary, 
the  bishop  of  Aries,  in  France,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  composed  hymns  to  be  sung 
in  Christian  churches,  about  431.  The  hymns  of  Dr.  Watts  (died  1748),  and  of  John  Wesley 
(died  1791),  and  his  brother  Charles,  are  much  used  by  English  dissenters. 

HYPNOTISM  (Greek  hypnos,  sleep)  or  nervous  sleep,  terms  given  by  Mr.  Braid  (in  1843) 
to  a  sleep-like  condition,  produced  in  a  person  by  steadily  fixing  his  mind  on  one  particular 
object.  Minor  surgical  operations  have,  it  is  said,  been  performed  without  pain  on  persons 
in  this  state. 


I. 

IAMBIC  VERSE.  lambe,  an  attendant  of  Metariira,  Avife  of  Celeus,  king  of  Sparta, 
when  trying  to  exhilarate  Ceres,  while  the  latter  was  travelling  over  Attica  in  quest  of  her 
daughter  Proserpine,  entertained  her  with  jokes,  stories,  and  poetical  effusions  ;  and  from 
her,  free  and  satirical  verses  have  been  called  Iambics.  Apollodorus.  Iambic  verses  were 
first  written  about  700  B.C.,  by  Archilochus,  who  had  courted  Neobule,  the  daughter  of 
Lycambes  ;  but  after  a  promise  of  marriage  the  father  preferred  another  suitor,  richer  than 
the  poet  ;  whereupon  Archilochus  wrote  so  bitter  a  satire  on  the  old  man's  avarice,  that  he 
hanged  himself.  Herodotus. 

IBERIA.     See  Georgia. 

ICE.  Galileo  was  the  first  to  observe  ice  to  be  lighter  than  the  water  which  composed 
it,  and  therefore  to  float :  about  1597.*  See  Congelation,  where  is  noticed  the  ice-making 
machines  of  Harrison  and  of  Siebe.  In  1841  there  were  sixteen  companies  in  Boston,  U.S., 
engaged  in  exporting  ice,  brought  from  Wenham,  Fresh,  and  Spy  Ponds,  about  18  miles 
from  that  city.  The  trade  was  begun  by  Mr.  Tudor  in  1806.  156,540  tons  were  sent  from 
Boston  alone  in  1854.  In  New  York,  in  1855,  305,000  tons  were  stored  up,  of  which  20,000 
were  for  exportation. 

ICELAND  (North  Sea),  discovered  by  Norwegian  chiefs,  about  86 1  ;  according  to  some 
accounts,  it  had  been  previously  visited  by  a  Scandinavian  pirate.  It  was  peopled  by  the 
Norwegians  in  874,  and  has  belonged  to  Denmark  since  1397.  Christianity  was  introduced 
about  996  ;  and  protestantism  about  I55i.t 

"ICH  DIEN,"  I  serve,  the  motto  under  the  plume  of  ostrich  feathers  found  in  the 
helmet  of  the  king  of  Bohemia  after  he  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  at  which  he  served 
as  a  volunteer  in  the  French  army,  Aug.  26,  1346.  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  in  veneration 
of  his  father,  Edward  III.,  who  commanded  that  day,  though  the  prince  won  the  battle, 
adopted  this  motto,  which  has  ever  since  been  borne  with  the  feathers,  by  the  heirs  to  the 
crown  of  England ;  but  not  as  prince  of  Wales,  which  many  have  erroneously  maintained. 


are  still  the  subject  of  inves- 
'orbes,  and  Wm.  Thomson, 
olcanic  eruption  on  record  ;  it  was  accompanied 


*  Revelation  and  other  properties,  exhibited  by  professor  Faraday,  in  1850, 
tigation  by  eminent  physicists  of  the  present  day,  especially  Tyiidall,  J.  D.  F< 

t  In  1784-5,  there  occurred  here  the  most  tremendous  volcanic  eruption  on 

by  violent  wind  and  rain,  and  a  darkness  of  the  heavens  ;  and  it  was  feared  that  the  island  would  fall  to 
pieces.  Three  fire-spouts  broke  out  on  Mount  Skapta,  which,  after  rising  to  a  considerable  height  in  the 
air,  formed  a  torrent  of  red-hot  lava  that  flowed  for  six  weeks,  and  ran  a  distance  of  60  miles  to  the  sea,  in 
a  broken  breadth  of  nearly  12  miles  ;  12  rivers  were  dried  up ;  21  villages  totally  overwhelmed  by  fire  or 
water  ;  and  34  others  were" materially  injured.  See  Heda. 


ICH 


381 


ILL 


ICHNOLOGY,  the  science  of  footprints,  treats  of  the  impressions  made  in  mud  or  sand 
by  th^  animals  of  former  ages.  Dr.  Duncan  first  discovered  the  footprints  of  a  tortoise  in 
the  sandstone  of  Annandale,  in  1828  ;  since  then  numerous  discoveries  have  been  made  by 
Owen,  Lyell,  Huxley,  and  others. 

ICHTHYOLOGY,  the  science  of  fish.  Eminent  writers  are  Willoughby,  Kay,  Valen- 
ciennes, Cuvier,  Owen,  Agassiz,  &c.  Yarrell's  "British  Fishes"  (1836-59)  is  a  classical 
work.  See  Fish. 

ICONIUM  (Syria).  Here  Paul  and  Barnabas  preached,  38.  Solirnan  the  Seljuk  founded 
a  kingdom  here  in  1074,  which  lasted  till  1307,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks.  It  had 
been  subdued  by  the  Crusaders  in  1097  and  1190.  See  Konieh. 

ICONOCLASTS  (image-breakers).  The  controversy  respecting  images  (which  had  been 
introduced  into  churches  for  popular  instruction  about  300)  was  begun  about  726,  and  occa- 
sioned many  insurrections  in  the  Eastern  Empire.  Leo  Isauricus  published  two  edicts  for 
demolishing  images  in  churches  in  that  year,  and  enforced  them  with  great  rigour  in  736. 
The  defenders  of  images  were  again  persecuted  in  752  and  761,  when  Constantino  forbade 
his  subjects  becoming  monks.  The  worship  of  images  was  restored  by  Irene  in  780.  This 
schism  was  the  occasion  of  the  second  council  of  Nice,  787.  Theophilus  banished  all  the 
painters  and  statuaries  from  the  Eastern  Empire,  832.  The  Iconoclasts  were  finally  excom- 
municated in  869.  This  controversy  led  to  the  separation  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches. 
In  the  contests  between  the  Iconoclasts  and  their  opponents  thousands  perished. — Many 
images  in  churches  were  destroyed  in  England  and  Scotland  during  the  Keformation  and  the 
Civil  war,  1641-8. 

IDAHO,  a  northern  "territory"  of  the  United  States  of  North  America,  was  organised 
as  such  on  March  3,  1863. 

IDES,  in  the  Roman  calendar,  the  thirteenth  day  of  each  month,  except  in  March,  May, 
July,  and  October,  in  which  it  was  the  fifteenth  day  ;  in  these  four  it  was  six  days  before 
the  nones,  and  in  the  other  months  four  days.  The  Ides  of  March  was  the  day  on  which 
Julius  Csesar  was  assassinated  in  the  senate  house  by  Brutus,  Cassius,  Casca,  and  other 
conspirators,  44  B.C. 

IDIOTS.  About  1855  there  were  in  England,  exclusively  of  lunatics,  pauper  idiots,  or 
idiots  protected  in  national  institutions,  males,  3372  ;  females,  3893  ;  total,  7265.  For 
laws  relating  to  idiots,  see  Lunacy.  The  Idiot  Asylum  at  Earlswood,  near  Reigate,  Surrey, 
began  in  1847. 

IDOLS.  The  public  worship  of  idols  was  introduced  by  Ninus,  king  of  Assyria,  2059  B.  c. 
Vossius.  Images  are  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxxi.  19,  30,  1739  B.C.  The  Jews  frequently  deserted 
the  worship  of  God  for  idols  till  their  captivity,  588  B.C.  Constantino,  emperor  of  Rome, 
ordered  all  the  heathen*  temples  to  be  destroyed,  and  all  sacrifices  to  cease,  A.D.  330. 
Dufresnoy.  The  Saxons  re-established  idolatry  in  473.  It  gave  way  in  Britain,  after  the 
coming  of  Augustin,  599.  See  Iconoclasts,  Week. 

IDSTEDT  (N.  Germany).  Here  the  insurgent  army  of  Holstein  and  Schleswig  was 
defeated  by  the  Danes,  July  25,  1850. 

IDUM^EA,  the  country  of  the  Edomites,  the  descendants  of  Esau,  the  brother  of  Jacob  : 
see  Gen.  xxxvi.,  Josh.  xxiv.  4. 


The  Edomites  prevent  the  Israelites  from  passing 

through  their  country      .        .        .        .B.C.   1453 
They  are  subjugated  by  David       .        .         .     .   1040 
They  revolt  against  Ahaziah,  892  ;  and  are  se- 
verely defeated  by  Amaziah    ....     827 


They  join  the  Chaldseans  against  Judah,  and 
are  anathematized  in  Psalm  cxxxvii.  about  570 

John  Hyrcanus,  the  Maccabee,  subjugates  and 
endeavours  to  incorporate  them  with  the  Jews  125 

Herod  the  Great,  son  of  Antipater  an  Indumtean, 
king  of  Judsea 40 


ILIUM  (Asia  Minor).  A  city  was  built  here  by  Dardanus,  and  called  Dardania,  1480  B.C. 
Troy  (which  sec\,  another  city,  was  founded  by  Troas,  about  1341  B.C.  ;  andllus,  his  successor, 
called  the  country  Ilium. 

ILLINOIS,  a  western  state  of  North  America,  was  settled  in  1749,  and  admitted  into  the 
Union  Dec.  3,  1818.  Capital,  Springfield. 


matical 


ILLUMINATED  BOOKS.     The  practice  of  adopting  ornaments,  drawings,  and  emble- 
;ical  figures,  and  even  portraits,  to  enrich  MSS.,  is  of  great  antiquity.     Yarro  wrote  the 


ILL 


382 


IMP 


lives  of  700  illustrious  Romans,  which  he  embellished  with  their  likenesses,  about  70  B.C. 
Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  Some  beautiful  missals  and  other  works  were  printed  in  the  I5th  and  i6th 
centuries,  ct  scq.  ;  and  fine  imitations  have  lately  appeared. 

ILLUM1N  ATI,  heretics  who  sprang  up  in  Spain,  where  they  were  called  Alumbrados-, 
about  1575.  After  their  suppression  in  Spain,  they  appeared  in  France.  One  of  their 
leaders  was  friar  Anthony  Buchet.  Their  chief  doctrine  was  that  they  obtained  grace  and 
perfection  by  their  sublime  manner  of  prayer.  A  secret  society  bearing  this  name,  opposed 
to  tyranny  and  priestcraft,  was  founded  at  Ingoldstadt,  Bavaria,  by  Dr.  Adam  Weishaupt, 
in  May,  1776,  and  was  suppressed  in  1784-5. 

ILLUSTRATED  LONDON  NEWS,  the  earliest  publication  of  the  kind,  established  by 
Mr.  Herbert  Ingram,  M.P.,  first  appeared  on  May  14,  1842.  Mr.  Ingram  was  drowned  in 
Lake  Michigan  Sept.  8,  1860. 

ILLYRIA  (now  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and  Bosnia),  after  several  wars  (from  230  B.C.)  was 
made  a  Roman  province,  167  B.C.  In  1809  Napoleon  I.  gave  the  name  of  Illyrian  provinces 
to  Carniola,  Dalmatia,  and  other  provinces,  then  part  of  the  French  empire,  now  Carinthia, 
Carniola,  &c. 

IMAGE  WORSHIP.     See  Iconoclasts. 
IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION.     See  Conception. 

IMMORTALS  (Greek,  athanatoi),  the  flower  of  the  Persian  army,  limited  to  10,000  in 
number,  and  recruited  from  the  nobility  alone,  about  500  B.C.  The  name  was  also  given  to 
the  body-guard  of  the  emperors  at  Constantinople  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries. 

IMPEACHMENT.  The  first  impeachment  by  the  commons  house  of  parliament,  and 
the  first  of  a  lord  chancellor,  Michael  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Suffolk,  was  in  1386.  By  statute 
12  &  13  Will.  &  Mary  it  was  enacted  that  no  pardon  under  the  great  seal  shall  be  pleaded  to 
an  impeachment  by  the  commons  in  parliament,  1700. 


Trial  of  Caroline,  queen  of  George  IV.,  by  bill  of 
pains  and  penalties,  before  the  house  of  lords, 
commenced  Aug.  16  ;  Mr.  Brougham  entered  on 
her  majesty's  defence,  Oct.  3  ;  and  the  last  debate 
on  the  bill  took  place  Nov.  10,  1820.  See  Queen 
Caroline. 


Impeachment  of  "Warren  Hastings,  Feb.  13,  1788,  to 

April  25,  1795  :  an  acquittal. 
Impeachment  of  lord  Melville,  April  29  ;  acquittal, 

June  12,  1806. 
Inquiry  into  the  charges  preferred  by  colonel  Wardle 

against  the  duke  of  York,  Jan.  27  to  March  20, 

1809 :  acquittal. 

IMPERIAL  GUARD  of  France,  was  created  by  Napoleon  from  the  Guard  of  the  Con- 
vention, the  Directory,  and  the  Consulate,  when  he  became  emperor  in  1804.  It  consisted 
at  first  of  9775  men,  but  was  afterwards  enlarged.  It  was  subdivided  in  1809  into  the  old 
and  young  guard.  In  Jan.  1814,  it  numbered  102,706.  It  was  dissolved  by  Louis  XVIII. 
in  1815,  but  revived  by  Napoleon  III.  in  1854.  It  took  part  in  the  Crimean  war  in  1855. 

IMPERIAL  PARLIAMENT.     See  Commons,  Lords,  Parliament,  and  Reform. 

IMPORTS  OF  MERCHANDISE.  The  vast  progressive  increase  of  our  commercial  inter- 
course with  other  countries  : — • 


VALUE  OF   IMPORTS   INTO    GREAT  BRITAIN,    FROM  ALL   PARTS   OF  THE  WORLD. 


In 


J775   • 
1800 
1810  . 


•  ^4,753,777 
.  .  7,289,582 

In  1820 

rR-JD 

.  14,815,855 
.  .  30,570,605 
.  41,136,135 

1  O  IT)  O  H 
1  00  OO  00  00 

£36,514,564 
46,245,241 
62,004,000 
85,281,958 
95,252,084 

I03>579,582 


In  1856 
1857 
1859 
1861 
1864 


£172,544,154 
187,844,441 
179,182,355 
217,485,024 
274,863,924 


IMPOSTORS.  The  names  and  pretensions  of  religious,  political,  and  other  impostors 
would  fill  a  volume  ;  they  have  been  of  every  country,  of  every  age.  The  following  are 
among  the  most  extraordinary  : — 


Aldebert,  a  Gaul,  who,  in  743,  pretended  he  had  a 
letter  from  the  Redeemer,  which  fell  from  heaven 
at  Jerusalem  ;  he  seduced  multitudes  to  follow 
him  into  woods  and  forests,  and  to  live  in  imita- 
tion of  John  the  Baptist.  He  was  condemned  by 
a  council  at  Home  in  745. 

Mahomet  promulgated  his  creed,  604.  See  Mahome- 
tanism. 

Gonzalvo  Martin,  a  Spaniard,  pretended  to  be  the 
angel  Michael  in  1359 ;  he  was  burnt  by  the  in- 
quisition in  Spain  in  1360. 


George  David,  son  of  a  waterman  at  Ghent,  styled 
himself  the  son  of  God,  sent  into  the  world  to 
adopt  children  worthy  of  heaven  :  he  denied  the 
resurrection,  preached  against  marriage,  in  favour 
of  a  community  of  women,  and  taught  that  the 
body  only  could  be  denied  by  sin  ;  he  had  many 
followers  ;  died  at  Basle,  1556,  promising  to  rise 
again  in  three  years. 

Otrefief,  a  monk,  pretended  to  be  Demetrius  the  son 
of  Ivan,  czar  of  Muscovy,  whom  the  usurper  Boris 
had  put  to  death;  he  maintained  that  another 


IMP 


383 


IXC 


IMPOSTORS,  continued. 

child  had  been  substituted  in  his  place  :  he  was 
supported  by  the  arms  of  Poland ;  his  success 
astonished  the  Russians,  who  invited  him  to  the 
throne,  and  delivered  into  his  hands,  Feodor.  the 
reigning  czar,  and  all  his  family  :  his  imposition 
being  discovered,  he  was  assassinated  in  his  palace, 
1606. 

Babbata  Levi,  a  Jew  of  Smyrna,  amused  the  Turks 
and  Jews  a  long  time  at  Constantinople  and  other 
places,  by  personating  our  Saviour,  1666. 

IMPOSTORS   EXTRAORDINARY   IN   BRITISH   HISTORY. 

A  man  pretending  to  be  the  Messiah,  and  a  woman 
assuming  to  be  the  Virgin  Mary,  were  burnt,  1222. 

In  1487,  Lambert  Simnel,  tutored  by  Richard  Simon, 
a  priest,  supported  by  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
personated  the  earl  of  Warwick.  Simnel's  army 
was  defeated  by  Henry  VII.,  and  he  was  made  a 
scullion  in  the  king's  kitchen. 

For  Perkin  Warbeck's  imposture  in  1492,  see  War- 
beck. 

Elizabeth  Barton,  styled  the  Holy  Maid  of  Kent, 
spirited  up  to  hinder  the  Reformation,  by  pretend- 
ing to  inspirations  from  heaven,  foretelling  that 
the  king  would  have  an  early  and  violent  death  if 
he  divorced  Catherine  of  Spain,  and  married  Anne 
Boleyn.  She  and  her/confederates  were  hanged  at 
Tyburn,  1534. 

In  1553  (first  year  of  Mary's  reign,  after  her  marriage 
with  Philip  of  Spain),  Elizabeth  Croft,  a  girl  18 
years  of  age,  was  secreted  in  a  wall,  and  with  a 
whistle,  made  for  the  purpose,  uttered  many 


seditious  speeches  against  the  queen  and  the 
prince,  and  also  against  the  mass  and  confession, 
for  which  she  did  penance. 

William  Hacket,  a  fanatic,  personated  our  Saviour, 
and  was  executed  for  blasphemy,  1591. 

Valentine  Greatrix,  an  Irish  impostor,  whopretended 
to  cure  all  diseases  by  stroking  the  patient :  his 
imposture  deceived  the  credulous,  and  occasioned 
very  warm  disputes  in  Ireland  and  England  about 
1666.  605  le  and  Flamsteed  believed  in  him. 

Dr.  Titus  Gates.     See  Gates. 

Robert  Young,  a  prisoner  in  Newgate,  forgnd  the 
hands  of  the  eai  Is  of  Marlborough,  Salisbury,  and 
other  nobility,  to  a  pretended  association  for  re- 
storing king  James  :  the  lords  were  imprisoned, 
but  the  imposture  being  detected,  Young  was  fined 
1000?. ,  and  put  in  the  pillory,  1692.  He  was  after- 
wards hanged  for  coining. 

Three  French  refugees  pretend  to  be  prophets,  and 
raise  tumults  ;  convicted  as  impostors,  Nov.  1707. 

Mary  Tofts  of  Godalming,  by  pretending  she  bred 
rabbits  within  her,  so  imposed  upon  many  persons 
(among  others,  Mr.  St.  Andre,  surgeon  to  the 
king),  tha^  they  espoused  her  cause,  1726. 

The  Cock -lane  ghost  imposture  by  William  Parsons, 
his  wife,  and  daughter,  1762.  See  Cock-lane  Ghost, 

Johanna  Southcote,  who  proclaimed  her  conception 
of  the  Messiah,  and  had  a  multitude  of  followers  ; 
she  died,  Dec.  27,  1814. 

W.  Thorn.     See  Thomites. 

Joseph  Smith.     See  Mormoniles. 


IMPRESSMENT  OF  SEAMEN,  affirmed  by  sir  M.  Foster  to  be  of  ancient  practice.  The 
statute  2  Rich.  II.  speaks  of  impressment  as  a  matter  well  known,  1378.  The  first  com- 
mission for  it  was  issued  29  Edw.  III.  1355.  Pressing,  either  for  the  sea  or  land  service, 
declared  to  be  illegal  by  the  British  parliament,  Dec.  1641.  Impressment  was  not  resorted 
to  in  the  Russian  war,  1854-5. 

IMPRISONMENT  FOII  DEBT.     See  Arrests,  Debtors,  and  Ferrari?  Arrest. 

IMPROPRIATION  (applying  ecclesiastical  property  to  lay  purposes).  On  the  suppression 
of  abbeys  in  1539,  their  incomes  from  the  great  tithes  were  distributed  among  his  courtiers 
by  Henry  VIII.  ;  and  their  successors  constitute  7597  lay  impropriators. 

INCENDIARIES.  The  punishment  for  arson  was  death  by  the  Saxon  laws  and  Gothic 
constitutions.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  incendiaries  were  burnt  to  death.  This  crime  was 
made  high  treason  by  statute  8  Hen.  VI.  1429  ;  and  it  was  denied  benefit  of  clergy,  21 
Hen.  VIII.  1528.  Great  incendiary  fires  commenced  in  and  about  Kent,  in  August,  1830  ; 
and  in  Suffolk  and  other  counties  since.  The  punishment  of  death  was  remitted,  except  in 
special  cases,  in  1827.  The  acts  relating  to  arson  were  amended  in  1837  and  1844. 

INCH.  See  Standard.  The  length  was  defined  in  1824  by  the  declaration  by  act  of 
parliament,  that  39  '13929  inches  is  the  length  of  a  seconds  pendulum  in  the  latitude  of 
London,  vibrating  in  vacuo  at  the  sea  level,  at  the  temperature  of  62°  Fahrenheit. 

INCOME  TAX.  In  1512,  parliament  granted  a  subsidy  of  two-fifteenths  from  the 
commons,  and  two-tenths  from  the  clergy,  to  enable  the  king  to  enter  on  a  war  with  France. 
Rapin.  In  1798,  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  and  carried,  amid  great  opposition,  increased  taxes 
"as  an  aid  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war"  with  France.  On  Jan.  9,  1799,  this  act  Avas 
repealed,  and  graduated  duties  on  income  imposed,  beginning  with  6o7.  per  annum.  On 
Aug.  u,  1803,  was  passed  the  "property  tax,"  which  levied  a  rate  of  5  Fei>  cent.  on 
all  incomes  above  150^.  and  lower  rates  on  smaller  incomes.  In  1805,  it  was  increased  to  6^ 
per  cent.  ;  and  in  1806,  was  raised  to  10  per  cent.,  embracing  the  dividends  at  the  bank.  It 
produced — 


In  1800 
In  1804 


£5,716,572    In  1805 
4,650,000    In  1806 


.  £16,548,985 


The  tax  produced  from  lands,  houses,  rcntagcs,  &c., 
8*65  7,937?.  ;  from  funded  and  stock  properties, 
2,885, 5°5/. ;  the  profits  and  gains  of  trade, 


£5,937,500    In  1808 
11,500,000    In  1815 


3,831,088?.  ;  and  salaries  and  pensions,  1,174,456?. 
Repealed  March,  1816. 
Sir  Robert  Peel's  bill  imposing  the  present  tax  at  a 


INC 


3S4 


IND 


INCOME  TAX,  continued. 

rate  of  jd.  in  the  pound  (2?.  i8s.  4<l.  per  cent.)  per 

onn.  to  subsist  for  three  years,  passed  June  22, 

1842. 
It  produced  about  5,350,000^.  a-j-ear ;  and  enabled  sir 

Robert  Peel  to  repeal  about  1 2,000, oooL  of  indirect 

taxes. 
Renewed  for  three  years  in  March,  1845  :  and  March, 

1848.* 

Continued  for  one  year  in  1851  and  1852. 
The  tax  of  -jd.  limited  to  seven  years  (till  1860) ;  to 

be  gradually  reduced  in  amount ;  but  all  incomes 

from  lool.  to  150^.  made  liable  to  5^.  in  the  pound 

for  all  that  period :    the  tax   also    extended  to 

Ireland,  June,  1853. 
In  consequence  of  the  Crimean  •war,  the  rate  was 

doubled,  1854,  14^. 
zd.  more  added  to  the  tax  on  incomes  above  150^, 

and  i^d.  on  those  between  iooZ.  and   150^  ;  the 

former  being  is.  4t?.,  the  latter  n^d.  in  the  pound, 

1855- 
The  former  assessment  reduced  to  -jd.,  the  latter  to 

5rf-  1857. 

Both  become  sc?.,  1858. 
The  former  raised  to  gd. ,  the  latter  to  6^d.  ;  and  the 


tax  on  incomes,  derived  from,  lands,  tenements, 

&c.,  raised    from  ^d.  to  ^d.  for  England,   and 

from  2$d.  to  yl.  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  July, 

1859. 
The  assessment  on  incomes  raised — to  those  above 

looZ.  to  jd.  ;  to  those  above  150^.  to  lod. 
[The  object  of  the  increase   was  to  provide  for  a 

deficiency  occasioned  by  extra  expenditure  fur  de- 
fending the  country,  April,  1860.] 
A  committee  to  inquire  into  the  working  of  the 

income  tax  appointed,  Feb.  14,  1861. 
Reduction  of  the  last  assessment  from  jd.  to  6d., 

and  from  iod.   to  gd.   for  three-quarters  of  the 

financial  year  1861-2. 

The  rates  of  6d.  and  gd.  to  continue,  April  1862. 
The  rate  of  -jd.  on  all  chargeable  incomes  ;  ^d.  on 

farms,  &c.,  in  England  ;  and  2^d.  in  Scotland  and 

Ireland.     Incomes  under,,  iool.  a-year  exempted  ; 

those  above  iool.   and    under  2ooi.  allowed   an 

abatement  011  6ol.,  June  8,  1863. 
The  rate  of  6d.  on  chargeable  incomes,  with  some 

exemptions  and  abatement,  May  13,  1864. 
The  rate  of  ^d.  on  chargeable  incomes,  with  same 

exemptions  and  abatement,  May,  1865. 


PRODUCE   OF   THE   INCOME   TAX. 

1842        ....  £571,055  1856  (March  31) .        .  £15,070,958  I  1861  (March  31)  .  £10,923,186 

1844  .        .        ...  5,191,597  1857         ,,        ...     16,089,933  I  1862          ,,        .  .          10,365,000 

1846        ....  5,395,391  1858          „           .        .     11,586,115    1863          „            .  10,567,000 

1852  .        .        .        .     .  5,509,637  1859         ,,        ...       6,683,587    1864         ,,        .  .            9,084,000 

1855  (March  31)    .        .  10,642,621  1860          „            .        .       9,596,106    1865          ,,            .  7>958,ooo 

INCUMBERED  ESTATES.     See  Encumbered  Estates. 

INCURABLES.  The  Royal  Hospital  for  incurables,  founded  by  Dr.  Andrew  Reed,  at 
Carslialton  in  Surrey,  in  1850,  lias  since  been  removed  to  Putney. 

INDEMNITY  BILL,  by  which  the  minister  of  the  crown  or  the  government  generally, 
is  relieved  from  the  responsibility  of  measures  adopted  in  extreme  and  urgent  cases,  without 
the  previous  sanction  of  parliament.  One  was  passed  April  19,  1801  ;  another  to  indemnify 
ministers  against  their  acts  during  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  act,  was  carried  in 
the  commons  (principal  divisions,  190  to  64)  ;  and  in  the  lords  (93  to  27)  ;  March  10,  1818. 
In  1848  and  1857,  bills  of  indemnity  AY  ere  passed  for  the  suspension  of  the  Bank  Charter 
act  by  the  ministry.  See  Oblivion.  An  indemnity  bill  is  passed  at  the  end  of  every  session 
of  parliament  for  persons  who  transgress  through  ignorance  of  the  law.  The  practice  began 
in  1715. 

INDEPENDENTS,  or  CONGREGATIONALISTS,  hold  that  each  church  or  congregation  is 
independent  of  all  others,  and  may  govern  itself  in  religious  matters.  They  say  there  is  no 
absolute  occasion  for  synods  or  councils,  whose  resolutions  may  be  taken  to  be  wise  and 
prudent  advice,  but  not  as  decisions  to  be  peremptorily  obeyed  ;  they  affirm  that  one  church 
may  advise  or  reprove  another,  but  has  no  authority  to  excommunicate  or  censure.  Robert 
Brown  preached  these  views  in  1585,  but,  after  32  imprisonments,  he  eventually  conformed 
to  the  Established  Church.  A  church  was  formed  in  London  in  1593,  when  there  were 
20,000  Independents.  They  were  driven  by  persecution  to  Holland,  where  they  formed 
several  churches ;  that  at  Leyden  was  under  Mr.  Robinson,  often  regarded  as  the  author 
of  Independency.  In  1616  Henry  Jacobs  returned  to  England  and  founded  a  meeting-house. 
Cromwell,  who  was  himself  of  their  views,  obtained  them  toleration,  in  opposition  to  the 
Presbyterians.  The  Independents  published  an  epitome  of  their  faith,  drawn  tip  at  a  con- 
ference at  the  Savoy,  in  1658  ;  and  the  Congregational  Union  of  England  and  "Wales,  formed 
in  1831,  published  their  "Declaration  of  Faith,  Order,  and  Discipline,"  in  1833.  In  1851, 
they  had  3244  chapels  for  1,067,760  persons  in  England  and  Wales.  See  Worship.  The 
first  Independents  in  Scotland  were  the  Glasites,  which  sec.  The  first  Independent  church 
in  America  was  founded  by  John  Robinson,  at  Plymouth,  New  England,  in  1620. 

INDEX  EXPURGATORIUS,  a  catalogue  of  the  books  prohibited  by  the  church  of 
Rome,  first  made  by  the  inquisitors,  and  approved  by  the  council  of  Trent,  1559.  The  Index 


*  Large  meetings  assembled  in  Trafalgar-square,  London,  March  6,  7,  1848  (for  the  ostensible  purpose 
of  opposing  the  Income  Tax) ;  rioting  ensued,  which  was  soon  quelled. 


IND 


385 


IND 


of  heretical  books,  by  which  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  was  forbidden  (with  certain 
exceptions)  to  the  laity,  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  pope  Clement  VIII.  in  1595.  Most  of 
the  celebrated  works  of  France,  Spain,  Germany,  and  England,  are  prohibited.  On 
June  25,  1864,  Hugo's  "Les  Mise rabies  "  and  many  other  books  were  added  to  the  number. 

INDIA  or  HINDOSTAK  The  Hindoo  histories  ascribe  their  origin  to  a  period  ages 
before  the  ordinary  chronologies.  A  race  of  kings  is  mentioned  as  reigning  2300  B.C.,  and 
Buddhism  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  956  B.C.  Many  ancient  nations,  particularly  the 
Tyrians  and  Egyptians,  carried  on  much  commerce  with  India.  It  was  conquered  by  Darius 
Hystaspes,  who  formed  an  Indian  satrapy,  in  512  B.C.,  and  by  Alexander,  327  B.C.,  and  sub- 
sequently the  intercourse  between  India  and  the  Roman  empire  was  much  increased.  The 
authentic  history  of  Hiudostan  is  reckoned  to  commence  with  the  conquests  of  Mahmud 
Ghazni,  A.D.  1004.  Rennell.  See  Bengal,  Bombay,  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Oude,  for  further 
details.*  For  the  new  route  to  India,  see  Waghorn. 


Irruption  of  the  Mahometans,  under  Mahmud 

Ghazni about  1004 

Extinction  of  the  house  of  Ghazni,  1186;  rule 
of  the  slave-kings  of  Delhi,  1206-1288  ;  of  the 
Khilgis  and  house  of  Toghlak,  1288-1412  ;  of 
the  Syuds,  1412-50  ;  of  the  house  of  Lodi,  1450-1526 
Patna,  or  Afghan  empire,  founded    .        .        .  1205 
Invasion  of  Genghis   Khan,   one  of  the  most 
bloody  conquerors  of  the  world;   14,000,000 
of  the  human  race  perish  by  his  sword  under 
the  pretence  of  establishing  the  worship  of 

one  god,  1222  :  he  died 1237 

The  Mogul  Tartars,  under  the  conduct  of  the 
celebrated  Timour,  or  Tamerlane,  invade 
Hindostan,  and  take  Delhi ;  defeat  the  Indian 
army,  1397  ;  conquer  Hindostan,  and  butcher 

r  100,000  of  its  people 1398-9 

The  pasage  to  India  discovered  by  Vasco  de 

Gama 1497 

The   first    European    settlement   (Portuguese ) 

established  by  him  at  Cochin  (S.  coast)  .  .  1502 
Conquest  of  the  country  completed  by  the 

-sultan  Baber,  founder  of  the  Mogul  empire  .  1525 
Reign  of  his  son  Humayun  ....  1530-56 
Ileign  of  the  illustrious  Akbar,  the  greatest 

prince  of  Hindostan  ....  1556-1605 
Arrival  of  the  English  in  India  .  .  .  -1589 

Reign  of  Jehanghir 1605-27 

Reign  of  Shah  Jehan 1627-58 

Sevajee  establishes  the  Mahratta  power        .   1660-80 
Aurungzebe  dethrones  his  father :  his  dominions 
extend  from  10  to  35  degrees  in  latitude,  and 


nearly  as  much  in  longitude,  and  his  revenue 

terling .         .        1658-170 
xh  Alum  succeeds  Aurungzebe,  1707  ;  killed,  171 


amounts  to  32,000,000^.  sterling  . 


Jehaunder  Shah  dethroned  and  killed 

Feruk  Shere  assassinated 1717 

Invasion  of  the  Persian  Nadir  Shah  or  Kouli 
Khan  :  at  Delhi  he  orders  a  general  massacre, 
and  150,000  persons  perish ;  carries  away 
treasure  amounting  to  125,000,000?.  sterling,  1739 

Mahomed  !^hah  dies 1747 

Defeat  of  the  last  imperial  army  by  the  Rohillas,  1749 
[The  Mogul  empire  now  became  merely  nominal, 
distinct  and  independent  sovereignties  being 
formed  by  numerous  petty  princes.  The  em- 
perors were  of  no  political  consequence  from 
this  period.  In  1761,  Shah  Alum  II.  attacking 
the  English  was  defeated  at  Patna.  In  1764, 
after  the  battle  of  Buxar,  he  was  thrown  upon 
the  protection  of  the  English,  who  established 
Mm  at  Allahabad.  After  the  victory  at  Delhi 
in  1803,  gen.  Lake  restored  the  aged  monarch 
to  a  nominal  sovereignty,  which  descended  at 
Ms  death  to  his  son,  Akbar  Shah.  Akbar 


1589 
1591 

1600 
1612 

1615 
1652 
1662 
1664 
1668 
168 


died  in  1837,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  last 
king  of  Delhi  (his  son),  who  received  a  pen- 
sion of  about  125,000?.  per  annum.  He  joined 
the  mutiny  in  1857  ;  was  tried  in  1858,  and 
transported  to  Rangoon  ;  died  there,  Nov.  i  r, 
1862.] 

BRITISH    POWER   IN   INDIA. 

Attempt  made  to  reach  India  by  the  north-east 

and  north-west  passages 1528 

Sir  Francis  Drake's  expedition       .        .        .     .  1579 
Levant  company  make   a  land  expedition  to 

India 

First  adventure  from  England 
First  charter  to  the  London  company  of  mer- 
chants.    (See  India  Company.) 
Factories  established  at  Surat 
Sir   Thomas    Roe,   first    English    ambassador, 

arrives 

Madras  made  a  presidency 
Bombay  becomes  an  English  possession 
French  company  estabh'shed  . 
They  settle  at  Pondicherry 
Calcutta  purchased          .... 
War  between  the  English  and  French  in  India  1746-9 
English  besiege  Potidicherry,   the  seat  of  the 
French  Government,  without  success     .        .  1748 

Clive  takes  Arcot 1751 

Peace  made 1754 

Severndroog  and  other  strongholds  of  the  pirate 

Angria  taken  ....  Feb.  n,  1756 
Capture  of  Calcutta  by  Surajah  Dowla.  (See 

Calcutta  and  Blackhole)     .        .        .        June,     ,, 
Calcutta  retaken    by  Clive ;    he    defeats   the 

Soubah  at  Plassey         .        .        .       June  20,  1757 
[Colonel  Clive's  force  was  but  3000  men,  and 
the  Soubah's  50,000-     By  this  victory  he  ae^ 
quired  all  Bengal,  and  numerous  conquests 
followed.] 
Fort  William,  the  strongest  fort  in  India,  built,    „ 

French  successful  under  Lally  .  .  .  1758 
But  lose  nearly  all  their  power  .  .  .  .  1759 
The  French  under  Lally  defeated  by  sir  Eyre 

Coote  near  Wandewash    .        .        .      July  2,  1760 
Hyder  Ali  acquires  the  sovereignty  of  Mysore  .  1761 
Conquest  of  Patna    ....         Nov.  6,  1763 
Battle  of  Buxar  (which  see)    .        .        .  Oct.  23,  1764 
The  nabob  becomes  subject  to  the  English        .  1765 
Lord  Clive  obtains  the  Dewanny  by  an  imperial 
grant,  which    constitutes   the   company  the 
receivers  of  the  revenue  of  Bengal,  Bahar, 
and  Orissa,  and  gives  the  British  the  virtual 
sovereignty  of  these  countries    .        Aug.  12,     ,, 
Treaty  with  Nizam  Ali  :  the  English  obtain  the 

Northern  Circars  .  .  .  Nov.  12,  1766 
Hyder  Ah'  ravages  the  Carnatic  .  .  Jan.  1769 


*  British  India  extends  from  8"  to  34°  N.  lat.  and  from  70°  to  90°  E.  long,  (exclusive  of  the  Burmese 
additions).  The  population  is  about  50  millions  ;  that  of  the  whole  peninsula  about  176  millions.  Cotton 
was  planted  in  1839,  and  the  tea-plant  in  1834.  Railways  and  the  electric  telegraph  are  being  rapidly 
constructed,  and  canals  for  irrigation.  See  Ganges  Canal.  The  Indian  revenue  in  the  year  1854-5  was 
20,371,450?.  The  expenditure,  22,915,160?.  In  1858-9,  the  revenue  was  36,060, 788?.  ;  expenditure,  49, 642,3 $gl, 

C   C 


IND 


386 


IND 


INDIA,  continued. 

Frightful  famine  in  Bengal    *        ....  1770 
Warren  Hastings  governor  of  Bengal,  April  13,  1772 

Treaty  with  Bhootaii 1774 

India  Bill :   supreme   court  established.     (See 
India  Bills)  .......   1773 

Accusations    commence  against  Warren  Has- 
tings ;  he  is  accused  of  taking  a  bribe  from  a 
concubine  of  Meer  Jaffier.      (See  Hastings  ) 

May  30,  1775 

Nuncomer,   a   Brahmin,  accuses  Warren  Has- 
tings of  receiving  bribes   .        .        March  ii,  1776 
Is  hanged  for  forgery        .        .        .        Aug.  5,     , , 
Pondicherry  taken        ....    Oct.  IT,  1778 

The  strong  fortress  of  Gwalior  taken  by  Major 

Popham Aug.  4,     ,, 

Hyder  Ali  overrun  the  Carnatic,  and   defeats 

the  British Sept.  10,  1780 

He  takes  Arcot Oct.  31,     „ 

Hyder  Ali  defeated  by  sir  Eyre  Coote,  July  i,  1781 
Warren  Hastings  accused  of  taking  more  bribes. 

(See  Cliunar)        ....          Sept.  19,     ,, 
Bussy  lands  with  a  French  detachment,  March,     1782 
War  with  Hyder  Ali  aided  by  the  French      .     .     „ 
Hyder  Ali  overthrown  by  Coote   .        .  June  2,     ,, 
Death  of    Hyder,   and    accession  of   his   son, 

Tippoo  Saib Dec.  11,    ,, 

Tippoo,  who  had  taken  Cuddalore,  now  takes 

i   Bednore April  30,  1783 

Pondicherry  restored  to  the  French,  and  Trin- 

comalee  to  the  Dutch ,, 

Peace  with  Tippoo       .        .        .         March  n,  1784 

War  with  Tippoo  renewed 1790 

Coniwallis  defeats  him  at  Arikera  .        May  15,  1791 
Bangalore  taken.     (See  Bangalore)      March  21,     ,, 
Definitive  treaty  with   Tippoo ;    his  two  sons 

hostages        .        .        .        .       '.      March  19,  1792 
Civil  and  criminal  courts  erected       .        .        .  1793 

Pondicherry  again  taken ,, 

Tippoo's  sons  restored          .        .         March  29,  1794 
First  dispute  with  the  Burmese  ;  adjusted  by 

general  Erskine 1795 

Government  of   lord   Mornington,  afterwards 

marquess  Wellesley       .         .        .       May  17,  1798 
Seringapatam    stormed    by    general     Baird ; 
Tippoo  Saib  killed      ....    May  4,  1799 

Mysore  divided June  22,    „ 

Victories  of   the    British  ;    the   Carnatic  con- 
quered        1800 

The  nabob  of  Furruckabad  cedes  his  territories 

to  the  English  for  a  pension          .        June  4,  1802 
Mahrattaicar.  Victories  of  sir  Arthur  Wellesley 

and  general  Lake 1803 

Wellesley's    first    great    victory,    at    Assaye, 

Sept.  23,     ,, 
Pondicheny  (restored  1801)  retaken      .      Dec.     ,, 

War  with  Holkar 1804-5 

Capture  of  Bhurtpore,  and  complete  defeat  of 

Holkar April  2,  1805 

The  marquess  dies        ....      Oct.  5,     ,, 
The  Mahratta  chief,  Scindiah,  defeated  by  the 

British  ;  treaty  of  peace        .        .       Nov.  23,     ,, 
Treaty  with  Holkar       .        .        .        .  Dec.  24,     „ 
Sepoy  mutiny  at  Vellore  ;  800  executed,    July,  1806 
Cumoona  surrenders          .        .        .     Nov.  21,  1807 
Mutiny  at  Seringapatam  quelled          .  Aug  23,  1809 
Act  opening  the  trade  to  India          .        .  July,  1813 

War  with  Nepaul 1814-15 

Holkar  defeated  by  sir  T.  Hislop  .  Dec.  21,  1817 
Pindaree  icar.  English  successful  .  .  1817-18 
Peace  with  Holkar  ....  Jan.  6,  1818 
£un)iese  war.  The  British  take  Rangoon,  May  5,  1824 
Lord  Combermere  commands  in  India  .  .  .  ,, 
Malacca  ceded,  and  Sincapore  purchased  .  .  ,, 


Mutiny  at  Barrackpore,   many  sepoys  killed, 

Nov.  1824 
General  Campbell  defeats   the   Burmese   near 

Proome        ......  Dec.  25,  1825 

Bhurtpore  stormed  by  Combermere,  Jan.   18,  1826 
Peace  with  the  Burmese    .        .        .      Feb.  24,     ,, 
[They  pay  i,ooo,ooo/.  sterling,  and  cede  a  great 

extent  of  territory.] 
Abolition  of  suttees,  or  the  burning  of  widows. 

(See  Suttees)          .....   Dec.  7,  1829 
Act  opening  the  trade  to  India,  and  tea  trade, 

<fcc.,  to  China,  forming  a  new  era  in  British 

commerce         .....     Aug.  28,  1833 
Rajah    of    Coorg    deposed  ;     Coorg    annexed, 

April  10,  1834. 
The  natives  first  admitted  to  the  magistracy, 

May  i,     ,, 
The  Nawab  Shunsoodden  put  to  death  for  the 

murder  of  Mr.  Frazer,  British  resident,  Oct.  8,  1835 


1838" 

1839 


1839 
1840 

,v 

1841 
„ 

1842 


AFGHAN   WAR. 

Proclamation  against  Dost  Mahomed    .  Oct.  i, 

The  British  occupy  Candahar        .         April  21, 

Battle  of  Ghiznee  ;  victory  of  sir  John  (now 

lord)Keane.     (See  Ghiznee)        .        .  July  23, 

Wade  forces  the  Khyber  pass  .        .        July  26, 

Shah  Soujah  restored  to  his  sovereignty,  and 

he  and  the  British  army  enter  Cabul,  Aug.  7, 

English  defeat  Dost  Mahomed         .        Oct.  18, 

Kurrock  Singh,  king  of  Lahore,   dies  ;  at  his 

funeral  his   successor  is  killed  by  accident, 

and  Dost  Mahomed,  next  heir,  surrenders  to 

England  ......        Nov.  5, 

General  rising    against  the  British  at  Cabul  ; 
sir  Alexander  Burnes  and  other  officers  mur- 
dered .......    Nov.  2, 

Sir  William  Macnaghten  treacherously  assassi 
nated       ......       Dec.  25, 

The  British  under  a  convention  evacuate  Cabul, 
placing   lady  Sale,  <kc.,  as  hostages   in  the 
hands  of  Akbar  Khan  ;  a  dreadful  massacre 
ensues  of   about   26,000   men,  women,  and 
children     .....         Jan.  6-13, 

The  British  evacuate  Ghiznee  .        .      March  6, 

Sortie  from  Jellalabad  ;  general  Pollock  forces 

the  Khyber  pass        ....    April  5, 

Ghiznee  retaken  by  general  Nott    .        Sept.  6, 

General  Pollock  re-enters  Cabul         .   Sept.  16, 

Lady  Sale,  &c.  ,   are  rescued  by  sir  R.   Shak- 

speare   and  arrive  at  general  Pollock's  camp, 

Sept.  21, 

Cabul  evacuated  after  destroying  the  fortifica- 
tions   .        .        .....  Oct.  12, 


SCINDE  WAR. 

Ameers  defeated  by  sir  Charles  Napier  at 
Meanee  ......  Feb.  17,  1843 

Scinde  annexed  to  the  British  empire  ;  sir 
Charles  Napier  governor  .  .  .  June,  ,, 

GWALIOR  WAR. 

Battles  of  Maharajpoor  and  Punniar  :  the 
strong  fort  of  Gwalior,  the  "  Gibraltar  of  the 
East,"  taken  .....  Dec.  29,  ,, 

Danish  possessions  in  India  purchased      .        .  1845 

SIKH  WAR.* 

The  Sikhs  cross  the  Sutlej  river,  and  attack  the 
British  at  Ferozepore  .  .  .  Dec.  14,  ,, 

Sir  H.  Hardinpe,  after  a  long  rapid  march, 
reaches  Moodkee  ;  the  Sikhs  (26,000)  make 
an  attack  ;  after  a  hard  contest  they  retire, 
abandoning  their  guns  (see  Moodkee),  Dec.  18,  „ 


*  Runjeet  Singh,  long  the  ruler  of  the  Sikhs  and  the  Punjab,  lived  in  amity  with  the  British.  After 
his  death,  June  27,  1839,  several  of  his  successors  (children  and  grandchildren)  were  in  turn  assassinated. 
During  the  minority  of  his  grandson  Dhuleep  Singh,  the  favourite  of  the  Maha  Ranee,  Lall  Singh,  ruled  ; 
and  finding  the  army  ungovernable,  sanctioned  the  unprovoked  attack  on  the  British,  as  given  above. 


IND 


387 


IND 


INDIA,  continued. 

Battle  of  Ferozeshah  (which  s<-e)    .     Dec.  21,  22,   1845 

Battle  of  Aliwal ;  the  Sikhs  defeated  (see 
Aliwal  and  SuW-j)  ....  J«n.  28,  1846 

Great  battle  of  Sobraon ;  the  enemy  defeated 
with  immense  loss  (see  Sobraon)  .  Feb.  10,  „ 

Citadel  of  Lahore  occupied  by  sir  Hugh  Gough, 
and  the  war  terminates  .  .  .  Feb.  20,  ,, 

Sir  .11.  Sale  dies  of  his  wounds  received  at 
Mooclkee  (Dec.  18,  1845)  .  .  .  Feb.  23,  ,, 

The  governor-general  and  sir  Hugh  Gough  are 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  viscount  Hardinge 
and  baron  Gough,  and  receive  the  thanks  of 
parliament  and  of  the  East  India  company, 

March  2,  6,     „ 

Treaty  of  Lahore  signed         .        .        March  9,     ,. 

Vizier  Lall  Singh  deposed  .         .         .     Jan.   13,  1847 

Mr.  Vans  Agnew  and  lieut.  Anderson  killed 
by  the  troops  of  the  dewan  Moolraj,  April  21,  1848 

Lieut.  Edwardes  joins  general  Courtland,  and 
most  gallantly  engages  the  army  of  Moolraj, 
which  he  defeats  after  a  sanguinary  battle  of 
nine  hours,  at  Kennyree  .  .  .  June  18,  ,, 

General  Whish  raises  the  siege  of  Mooltan 
through  the  desertion  of  Shere  Singh,  Sept.  22,  ,, 

Shore  Singh,  entrenched  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Cbenab,  with  40,000  men  and  28  pieces  of     • 
artillery,  major-general  Thackwell  crosses  the 
river  with  13  infantry  regiments,  with  cavalry 
and  cannon,  and  operates  on  his  left  flank, 

Nov.  20,     ,, 

Lord  Gough,  meantime,  attacks  the  enemy's 
advanced  position  ;  the  British  suffered  great 
slaughter,  but  finally  defeated  Shere  Singh, 
who  is  driven  out  of  Ramnugger  .  Nov.  22,  „ 

Victory  of  Chillianwallah  (which  see)    .   Jan.  13,  1849 

Unconditional  surrender  of  the  citadel  of  Mool- 
tan by  Moolraj  (see  Mooltan)  .  .  Jan.  22,  ,, 

Victory  of  Goojerat  (which  see)         .        Feb.  21,     ,, 

Sir  Charles  Napier  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  . March  7,  ,, 

The    Sikh   army    surrenders    unconditionally, 

March  14,     „ 

Formal  annexation  of  the  Punjab  to  the 
British  dominions  ;  Dhuleep  Singh  obtains  a 
pension  of  40,000?.  .  .  .  .  March  29.  ,, 

Moolraj  sentenced  to  death  for  the  murder  of 
Mr.  Agnew  and  lieut.  Anderson,  Aug.  ;  com- 
muted to  transportation  for  life  .  Sept.  ,, 

Sir  Charles  Napier  disbands  the  66th  Bengal 
native  infantry,  for  mutiny  .  .  Feb.  27,  1850 

Dr.  Healy,  of  the  Bengal  -Army,  and  his  at- 
tendants, murdered  by  the  Aff redis,  March  20,  , , 

Embassy  from  the  king  of  Nepaul  to  the  queen 
of  Great  Britain  arrives  in  England  (see 
Nepaul)  .  .  .  .  .  .  May  25,  ,, 

Resignation  of  his  command  in  India  by  sir 
Charles  Napier July  2,  „ 

His  farewell  address  to  the  Indian  army,  Dec.  1 5,     „ 

BURMESE   WAE. 

Death  of  Bajee  Rao,  ex-peishwa  of  the  Mah- 
rattas.  [His  nephew,  Nana  Sahib's  claim 
for  continuance  of  the  pension  (80,000?.) 
refused.] Jan.  28,  1851 


A  British  naval  force,  arrives  before  Rangoon, 
in  the  Burman  empire,  and  commodore 
Lambert  allows  the  viceroy  thirty-five  days 
to  obtain  instructions  from  Ava  .  .  Oct.  29, 
The  viceroy  of  Rangoon  interdicts  communica- 
tion between  the  shore  and  the  British  ships 
of  war  ;  and  erects  batteries  to  prevent  their 

departure Jan.  4, 

[Commodore  Lambert  blockades  the  Irawaddy  ; 
the  Fox,  Hermes,  &c. ,  attacked  by  the  bat- 
teries, destroy  the  fortifications,  and  kill 
nearly  300  of  the  enemy.] 

Martaban  (April  5),    Rangoon  (April   14),  and 
Bassein,  stormed  by  the  British      .     May  19, 
j  Pegu  captured,  afterwards  abandoned,  June  4, 
!  Prome  captured  by  capt.  Tarleton      .      July  9, 
!  Pegu  recaptured  by  general  Godwin   .  Nov.  21, 
Pegu  annexed   to  our  Indian  empire  by  pro- 
clamation of  the  governor-general   .  Dec.  20, 
Revolution  at  Ava :  the  king  of  Ava  deposed 
by  his  younger  brother         .        .        .      Jan. 
|  Rangoon  devastated  by  fire         .         .    Feb.  14, 
Capt.  Lock  and  many  officers  and  men  killed 
in  an  attack  on  the  stronghold  of  a  robber- 
chief,  Feb.  3,  which  is  taken  by  sir  J.  Cheape, 
March  19, 
First  Indian  railway  opened  (from  Bombay  to 

Tannah) April  16, 

Termination  of  the  war  ....  June, 
New  India  bill  passed  .  .  .  Aug.  20, 
Death  of  general  Godwin  .  .  Oct.  26, 
Assassination  of  captain  Latter  .  .  Dec.  8, 
Rajah  of  Nagpoor  dies,  and  his  territories  fall  to 
the  E.  I.  Company  ....  Dec.  n, 

Opening  of  Ganges  Canal 

Opening  of  the  Calcutta  railway  .  Feb.  3, 
Treaty  with  Dost  Mahomed  of  Cabul,  March  31, 
Insurrection  of  the  Sonthals  (which  see),  July, 
Which  is  only  finally  suppressed  .  .  May, 
Oude  annexed  (see  Oude)  .  .  .  Feb.  7, 

MUTINY   OF   THE   NATIVE   ARMY. 

Mutinies  in  the  Bengal  Army  :  at  Barrackpore, 
&c. ,  several  regiments  disbanded  .  March, 

"  India  is  quiet  throughout." — Bombay  Gazette. 

May  i, 

Mutiny  at  Meerut*  (near  Delhi).  The  mutineers 
seize  Delhi,  where  they  commit  dreadful  out- 
rages, and  proclaim  the  king  of  Delhi  emperor 
May  10,  &c., 

Three  native  regiments  disbanded  at  Lahore  by 
the  energy  of  Mr.  Montgomery  and  brigadier 
Corbett,  who  save  the  Punjab  .  May  12, 

Martial  law  proclaimed  by  the  British  lieut.  - 
governor,  J.  R.  Colvin  .  .  .  May, 

British  troops  under  general  An  son  advance  on 
Delhi ;  his  death  ....  May  27, 

The  mutineers  defeated  in  many  attacks 
May  30— June  23, 

Mutiny  at  Lucknow          .        .        .        May  30, 

Neill  suppresses  the  mutiny  at  Benares,  June  3 ; 
and  recovers  Allahabad  .  .  June  4, 

Mutiny  spreads  throughout  Bengal:  fearful 
atrocities  committed  f  .  .  .  June, 


1851 
1852 


1853 


1854 
1855 


1856 


1857 


*  On  the  introduction  of  the  improved  (Enfield)  musket  in  the  Indian  army,  greased  cartridges  had 
been  brought  from  England.  These  were  objected  to  by  the  native  soldiers,  and  the  issue  of  them  was 
immediately  discontinued  by  orders  in  Jan.  1857.  A  mutinous  spirit  however  gradually  arose  in  the 
Bengal  native  army.  In  March  several  regiments  were  disbanded,  followed  by  others,  till  in  June  the 
army  had  lost  by  disbandment  and  desertion,  about  30,000  men.  On  April  5,  a  sepoy,  and  on  April  20,  a 
jemadar,  or  native  lieutenant,  were  executed.  At  the  end  of  May  34  regiments  were  lost.  In  April,  85  of 
the  3rd  Bengal  native  cavalry  at  Meerut  refused  to  use  their  cartridges.  On  May  9,  they  were  committed 
to  gaol.  On  Sunday,  the  ioth,  a  mutiny  in  the  native  troops  broke  out ;  they  fired  on  their  officers, 
killing  col.  Finnis  and  others:  They  then  released  their  comrades,  massacred  many  Europeans,  and  fired 
the  public  buildings.  The  European  troops  rallied  and  drove  them  from  their  cantonments.  The  muti- 
neers then  fled  to  Delhi,  which  see. 

t  At  the  end  of  June  the  native  troops  at  the  following  places  were  in  open  mutiny  ;  Meerut,  Delhi, 
Ferozepore,  Allyghur,  Roorkee,  Murdaun,  Lucknow,  Cawnport,  Nusfeerabad,  Neemuch,Hansi,  Hissar,  Jhansi, 
Mehidpore,  Jullundur,  Azimghur,  Futtehghur,  Jaunpore,  Bareilly,  Sbahjehanpore,  Allahabad.  At  the 

C  C  2 


IND 


IND 


INDIA,  continued. 

Native  troops  disbanded  at  Mooltan,  which  is 

saved June  u,  1857 

Ex-kiug  of  Oude  arrested       .        .        June  14,     „ 
Siege  of    the    residency  at  Luckuow  by  the 

rebels,  commences  .        .        .       July  i,     ,, 

Sir  H.  Lawrence  dies  of  bis  wounds  at  Lucknow, 

July  4»     »» 

The  liberty  of  the  press  restricted       .     July  4,    ,, 
Sir  H.  Barnard  commanding  before  Delhi  dies 

of  cholera,  succeeded  by  general  Reed,  July  5,     „ 
General   Nicholson    destroys   a  large  body  of 

rebels  at  Sealcote      ....    July  12,    „ 
Cawnpore  surrenders  to  Nana  Sahib,  who  kills 
the  garrison,  &c.,  June  28  ;  he  is  defeated  by 
general  Havelock,  July  16 ;  who  re-captures 
Cawnpore  (See  Cawnpore)     .        .        July  17,     „ 
Mutinies  suppressed  at  Hyderabad,  July  18; 

and  at  Lahore  ....    July  20,    „ 

General  Reed  retires  and  Sir  Archdale  Wilson 

takes  the  command  before  Delhi         July  22,     ,, 
Revolt  at  Dinapore  :  the  British  repulsed  with 

severe  loss  at  Arrah      .        .        .        July  25,     ,, 
Heroic   exertions  and   numerous  victories   of 
general  Havelock  and  his   army,   although 
suffering  from  disease  .     July  29,  to  Aug.  16,     ,, 
Lord  Canning's  so-called  "clemency"  procla- 
mation        July  31,    ,, 

Victory  of  Neill  at  Pan doo  Nuddee     .     Aug.  15,     ,, 
General  Nicholson's  victory  at  Nujuffghur  [he 

dies  Sept.  23]        ....       Aug.  25,    ,, 
Assault  of  Delhi  took  place  Sept.  14 ;  the  city 
taken,  Sept.  20  ;  the  king  captured,  Sept.  21  ; 
his  son  and  grandson  slain  by  Colonel  Hodson 

Sept.  22,    „ 
Sir  James  Outram  joins  Havelock  and  serves 

under  him Sept.  16,     ,, 

Havelock  marches  to  Lucknow  and  relieves  the 
besieged  residency :  retires  and  leaves  Outram 
in  command  ;  Neill  killed     .        Sept.  25,  26,     ,, 
Colonel  Greathed  defeats  the  rebels  at  Bolund- 
shohur,  Sept.  27  ;  destroys  a  fort  at  Molaghur, 
Sept.  29  ;  takes  Allyghur,  Oct.  5  ;  and  defeats 
rebels  at  Agra        ....        Oct.  10,     ,, 
Sir  Colin  Campbell  (since  lord  Clyde)  appointed 
commander-in-chief,     July    n  ;    arrives    at 

Cawnpore Nov  3,    ,, 

Marches  to  Alumbagh,  near  Lucknow,  Nov.  9  ; 

and  takes  Secunderabagh      .        .       Nov.  16,     ,, 
Joined  by  Havelock,  he  attacks  the  rebels  and 
rescues  the  besieged  in  the  residency     . 

Nov.  18-25,     >j 
Havelock*  dies  of   dysentery  at   Alumbagh, 

Nov.  25,    ,, 

General  Windham  (at  Cawnpore)  repulsed  with 
loss  in  an  attack  on  the  rebellious  Gwalior 
contingent,  who  take  part  of  Cawnpore  .  . 

Nov.  27,     ,, 

Sir  C.  Campbell  arrives  at  Cawnpore,  which  he 
retakes,  Nov.  28;  and  defeats  the  Gwalior 

rebels Dec.  6,    „ 

The  rebels  defeated  by  Seaton,  Dec.  14,  17,  and 
27  ;  at  Goruckpore  by  Rowcroft,  Dec.  27  ;  and 
at  Futtehghur  by  Sir  C.  Campbell    .    Jan.  2,  1858 
Xucknow  strongly  fortified  by  the  rebels,  Jan.     ,,     I 
Generals  Rose,  Roberts,  Inglis,  and  Grant,  vic- 
torious in  many  encounters        Jan.  and  Feb.     , 
Trial  of  king  of  Delhi ;  sentenced  to  transpor- 
tation     ....     Jan.  27  to  March  9,     ,, 
Sir  C.  Campbell  marches  to  Lucknow,  Feb.  n  ; 


the  siege  commences,  March  8 ;    taken  by 
successive    assaults ;     the     enemy    retreat  : 
Hodson  killed    ....     March  14-19,  1858 
Severe    proclamation    of    governor-general   in 

Oude  t March  14,     „ 

General  Roberts  takes  Kotah        .        March  30,     „ 
Sir  Hugh  Rose  beats  the  enemy  severely,  and 

takes  Jhansi April  4,    , , 

General  Whitelock  takes  Budaon        .  April  19,     ,, 
Death  of  captain  sir  W.  Peel,  of  small-pox,  at 

Cawnpore April  27,     „ 

General  Penny  killed  in  Rohilcund  .        May  4,    ,, 
Bareilly  recaptured        ....     May  7,     „ 
Sir  Hugh  Rose  defeats  the  rebels  several  times 
— at  Kooneh,  May  1 1,  and  near  Calpee,  which 

he  retakes May  23,    ,, 

Victory  of  Sir  E.  Lugard  at  Jtigdespore,  May  29,     „ 
The  rebels  seize  Gwalior,  the  capital  of  Scindiah, 

who  escapes  to  Agra        .        .        .     June  13,     , , 
The  rebels  defeated  by  Sir  H.  Rose  (the  heroic 
Ranee  of  Jhansi  killed),  June  17;   Gwalior 
retaken  and  Scindiah  reinstated    .     June  19,     ,, 
Tantia  Topee  heads  a  division  of  the  rebels       .     ,, 
Rajahs  of  Jeypore,  &c.,  surrender  ;  Rohilcund 
and  other  provinces  tranquillised        .    July, 
General  Roberts  destroys  the  remains  of  the 

Gwalior  rebels Aug.  14,     ,. 

Many  Oude  chiefs  surrender .        .        .      Aug.     ,, 
An  attempt  of  disbanded  regiments  to  re-take 
their  arms  at  Mooltan,  suppressed  by  major 
Hamilton  (300  killed  on  the  spot,  and  800 
slain  or  captured  afterwards)  .        .   Aug.  31,    „ 

The  government  of  the  East  India  Company  ceases, 

Sept.  i,    ,, 

General  Mitchell  defeats  Tantia  Topee,  near 
Rajghur Sept.  15,  ,. 

The  queen  is  proclaimed  throughout  India — 
lord  Canning  to  be  the  first  viceroy  Nov.  i,  ,, 

Campaign  in  Oude  begins  ;  several  chiefs  sub- 
mit, others  subdued  .  .  Nov.  1-31,  ,, 

At  Dhooden  Khera  lord  Clyde  (formerly  sir  C. 
Campbell)  defeats  Beni  Mahdo  .  .  Nov.  24,  „ 

Flight  of  Tantia  Topee— he  is  beaten  in  Guzerat 
by  major  Sutherland  .  .  .  .  Nov.  25,  ,, 

The  ex-king  of  Delhi  sails  for  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Dec.  4-11 ;  the  colonists  refuse  to  re- 
ceive him  ;  he  is  sent  to  Rangoon  .  .  .  ,, 

Brigadier  John  Jacob  dies  at  Jacobabad  (greatly 
lamented) Dec.  6,  ,, 

Indecisive  skirmishes  with  Ferozeshah       Dec.     , , 

Who  joins  Tantia  Topee  ;  they  are  defeated  in 
several  small  engagements  .  .  .  .  Jan.  1859 

Enforcement  of  the  Disarming  Act  in  the 
north-west  provinces  ....  Jan.  . . 

The  Punjab  made  a  distinct  presidency,  Jan.  i, 

Rebels  completely  expelled  from  Oude ;  they 
enter  Nepaul  .....  Jan. 

Guerilla  warfare  continues  in  Rohilcund,    Feb. 

Tantia  Topee  hemmed  in;  deserted  by  his 
troops,  about  .....  Feb.  25, 

Defeat  of  the  Begum  of  Oude  and  Nana  Sahib 
by  general  Horsford  .  .  .  Feb.  10, 

The  new  Indian  tariff  creates  much  dissatisfac- 
tion   March, 

Maun  Singh  surrenders  .        .        .         April  2, 

Tantia  Topee  taken,  April  7;  hanged,  April  18, 

Thanksgiving  in  England  for  pacification  of 
India May  i, 


stations  printed  in  italics,  European  women  and  children  were  massacred. —The  Relief  Fund  for  the  suffe 
in  India  was  commenced  Aug.  25,  1857.  The  queen,  Louis  Napoleon,  and  the  sultan,  gave  each  ioooJ.  In 
Nov.  1857,  280,749?.  had  been  collected  ;  in  Nov.  1858,  433,620?.  In  Dec.  1861,  140,000?.  had  been  distributed 
to  sufferers  in  India ;  and  100,000?.  to  those  at  home ;  246,069?.  remained  for  the  benefit  of  widows  and 
orphans.  A  Fast  was  observed  on  Oct.  7. 

*  Born  April  5,  1795  ;  educated  at  the  Charterhouse,  London,  where  he  was  called  "old  PliLos;"  went 
to  India,  1823  ;  served  in  the  Burmese  war,  1824;  and  in  the  Sikh  war,  1845.  He  was  a  Baptist. 

t  Lord  Ellenborough,  the  minister  for  India,  sent,  unknown  to  his  colleagues,  a  despatch  severely 
censuring  this  proclamation.  This  despatch  became  public  and  led  to  his  resignation  and  very  nearly  to 
the  defeat  of  the  ministry,  a  vote  of  censure  being  moved  for  in  both  houses  of  parliament,  but  not  cs  ' 


zarried. 


IND 


389 


IND 


INDIA,  continued. 

Mutinous  conduct  of  British  troops  lately  in 
the  company's  service  at  Meerut  and  other 
places  ;  dissatisfied  on  account  of  their  trans- 
fer to  the  Queen's  service  without  bounty, 

May  5,  1859 

,Sir  Hope  Grant  defeats  Nana  Sahib  in  the 
Jorwah  pass May  23,  ,, 

A  court  of  inquiry  appointed         .         .     June,     „ 

Sir  Charles  Wood  becomes  secretary  for  India, 

June  22,  ,, 

Dissatisfaction  among  the  troops  at  their  trans- 
fer from  the  service  of  the  company  to  that 
of  the  crown,  without  a  bounty,  settled  by 
discharge  being  offered  to  them — which  about 
10,000  accept July,  ,, 

Thanksgiving  day  observed  in  India       July  28,    ,, 

An  income  tax  bill  (called  "  The  Trades'  and 
Professions'  Licensing  Bill ")  passes  the  legis- 
lative council ;  great  meetings  at  Calcutta 
and  Madras  protesting  against  it  .  Sept.  , , 

Rajah  Jey-loll  Singh  hanged      .        .        Oct.  i,     „ 

Xana  Sahib,  in  force,  in  Nepaul  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Oude Oct.  ,, 

Insurgents  in  Nepaul  dispersed        .      Dec.  24,     ,, 

Important  financial  changes  made  by  Mr. 
James  Wilson,  new  finance  secretary  .  Feb.  1860 

Company  formed  to  obtain  cotton,  flax,  &c., 
from  India March,  ,, 

Paper  currency  determined  on         .        March,     ,, 

Bahadoor  Khan,  ex-king  of  Bareilly,  hanged 
for  murders  caused  by  him  .  .  March  2,  „ 

Sir  Charles  Trevelyan  recalled  from  Madras,  for 
publishing  a  government  minute  against  Mr. 
Wilson's  commercial  scheme  .  .  May,  ,, 

Sir  Hugh  Rose  takes  command  of  the  Indian 
army,  which  is  amalgamated  with  the  British 
army July,  „ 

Lord  Clyde  quits  India,  and  arrives  in  London, 

July  1 8,  „ 

Lord  Canning's  recommendation  that  the 
adopted  successors  of  Indian  princes  should 
be  recognised  is  adopted  by  the  home  govern- 
ment   July  21,  „ 

Death  of  sir  H.  Ward,  the  new  governor  at 
Madras,  Aug.  3 ;  and  of  Mr.  James  Wilson, 

Aug.  ii,  ,, 

Nana  Sahib,  supposed  to  have  died  of  jungle 
fever  in  Aug.  1858 ;  is  said  to  be  living  in 
Tibet Dec.  „ 

Mutiny  of  sth  European  regiment  at  Dinapore, 
suppressed  ;  breaks  out  again,  Oct.  5  ;  is  again 
suppressed,  one  man  is  shot,  and  the  regiment 
disbanded Nov.  13,  ,, 

British  troops  repulsed  at  Sikkim        .        Nov.     „ 

Agitation  against  the  income  tax  suppressed  at 
Bombay  and  other  places  .  .  .  Dec.  „ 

Great  excitement  against  sir  Charles  Wood's 
grant  of  520,000?..  to  the  descendants  of  Tippoo 
Saib about  Dec.  22, 

Mr.  Samuel  Laing,  sviccessor  to  Mr.  James 
Wilson,  arrives  ....  Jan.  10,  1861 

Awful  famine  in  N.  W.  provinces  through 
failure  of  the  crops :  immense  exertions  of 
the  government  and  others  to  relieve  the 
sufferers Jan. — June,  „ 

Expedition  marches  against  Sikkim  :  natives 
retire Feb.  „ 

Disturbances  in  the  indigo  districts  continue, 

March,  „ 

Kootoob-ood-deen,  grandson  of  Tippoo  Saib, 
murdered  by  his  servants  .  March  31,  „ 

British  subscriptions  for  relief  of  the  famine 
commence  at  the  Mansion-house,  London, 
with  4000?.,  March  28  ;  52,000?.  subscribed 
April  20;  closes  with  114,807?.  .  .Nov.  ,, 

Order  of  the  "  Star  of  India "  (ickich  see)  con- 
stituted   June  25,  ,, 

Excitement  through  the  printing  and  circula- 
tion of  "Nil  Darpan,"  a  Hindu  drama  libelling 
the  indigo  planters  ....  June  ,, 


The  rev.  James  Long,  the  translator,  sentenced 
to  fine  and  imprisonment  .  .  .  Aug.  1861 

New  Indian  council  and  new  high  court  of  judi- 
cature established  ....  Aug.  , , 

Mr.  J.  P.  Grant,  lieut.  -governor  of  Bengal  (who 
had  authorised  the  translation  of  "  Nil  Dar- 
pan ")  and  Mr.  Seton  Kerr,  his  secretary  (who 
had,  without  authority,  distributed  copies)  are 
censured  and  resign  ....  Sept.  ,, 

Law  of  property  in  India  altered  ;  sale  of  waste 
lands  authorised Oct.  JJL_ 

Lords  Harris  and  Clyde,  sir  J.  Lawrence, 
Dhuleep  Singh,  and  others  invested  with  the 
insignia  of  the  Star  of  India  by  the  queen, 

Nov.  i,  „ 

Reported  prosperity  of  Indian  finances  :  licence 
tax  not  to  be  reimposed  .  .  .  Dec.  31,  ,, 

First  meeting  of  the  new  legislative  council 
of  India,  includes  several  Indian  princes, 

Jan. 18,  1862 

Lord  Elgin,  the  new  governor-general,  arrives 
at  Calcutta March  12,  ,, 

Lord  Canning  arrives  at  Southampton,  April  26 ; 
dies June  17,  „ 

Mr.  S.  Laing  returns  to  England  through  ill 
health ;  censured  by  sir  C.  Wood  ;  he  justifies 
himself  and  resigns  ....  July,  „, 

High  court  of  judicature  at  Bengal  inaugurated 

July  12,  „ 

Reported  suspension  of  the  sale  of  waste  lands, 

Aug.  ,, 

Rao  Sahib  hanged  for  murders  during  the  revolt 

Sept.  8,  „ 

Great  increase  in  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in 
India,  reported Oct.  ,r 

Sir  Charles  Trevelyan,  new  finance  minister, 
arrives Jan.  8,  1863 

First  agricultural  exhibition  at  Calcutta, 

Jan.  19-30,  ,, 

Rise  of  Ram  Singh,  a  fanatic,  inN.  W.  provinces, 

Oct.  „ 

War  with  warlike  hill-tribes  on  the  N.  W.  fron- 
tiers, Oct.  ;  severe  conflict,  Gen.  Chamber- 
lain wounded,  Nov.  20  ;  war  ended,  Dec.  29,  ,, 

The  Hindu  religion  deprived  of  government 
support Dec.  „ 

Death  of  Lord  Elgin,  Nov.  20 ;  sir  John  Law- 
rence appointed  his  successor  .  .  Dec.  „ 

He  assumes  office     ....        Jan.  12,  1864 

Excitement  amongst  the  Hindoos  on  account 
of  government  suppressing  funeral  rites  on 
sanitary  grounds  ....  March,  , , 

Prosperous  financial  statement  of  sir  Charles 
Trevelyan April,  „ 

Mr.  Ashley  Eden,  envoy  at  Bhootan,  seized  and 
compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  giving  xip  Assam, 

about  April,  ,, 

Gold  currency  (sovereign=io  rupees)  ordered 
to  be  introduced  at  Christmas  .  .  July,  „ 

Terrific  Cyclone— immense  loss  of  life,  property, 
and  ships  at  Calcutta  and  elsewhere,  Oct.  5,  „ 

Grand  durbar,  held  by  sir  John  Lawrence,  at 
Lahore:  attendance  of  604  native  princes, 

Oct.  18,  „ 

War  with  the  Bhootanese— fortress  of  Dhalim- 
cote  taken Dec.  12,  „ 

Much  commercial  speculation  at  Bombay,  Dec.     ,, 

The  Bhootanese  attack  on  Dewangiri  repulsed 
with  severe  loss  ....  Jan.  29,  1865 

Opening  of  the  Indo-European  telegraph — a 
telegram  from  Kurrachee  received,  March  i,  „ 

W.  Massey  succeeds  sir  C.  Trevelyan  as  finance 
minister;  he  arrives  at  Calcutta,  March  31,  ,, 

Sir  Charles  Trevelyan  declares  a  large  deficit  in 
the  revenue April  i,  ,, 

Dewangiri  (which  had  been  abandoned)  recap- 
tm-ed  by  gen.  Tombs  .  .  .  April  2,  ,, 

Sir  Hugh  Rose  retires  from  command  of  the 
army ;  which  is  assumed  by  sir  Wm.  Mans- 
field   April  23,  „ 


IND 


390 


]ND 


INDIA,  continued. 

Sir  Charles  Trevelyan's  plans  reversed  by  sir  C. 

Wood May,  1865 

Death  of  the  able  and  beneficent  hon.  Juggonath 

Sunkersett,  the  recognised  representative  of 

the  Hindoo  community  .  .  .  July  31,  ,, 
Negotiation  with  the  Bhootanese  .  .  July,  „ 
Shipwreck  of  the  Eagle  Speed  near  Calcutta  ; 

265    coolies  perish    through    cruel    neglect, 

Aug.  24,     ,, 
Peace  with  the  Bhootanese  signed  (telegram) 

Nov.  13,     „ 

GOVERNORS-GENERAL  OF  INDIA,  &C.* 

Warren  Hastings  assumes  the  government  in 

India April  13,  1772 

Sir  John  Macpherson  .  .  •  .  Feb.  i,  1785 
Lord  Cornwallis  ....  Sept.  12,  1786 
Sir  John  Shore  (afterwards  lord  Teignmouth) 

Oct.  28,  1793 
Lord  (afterwards  marquess)  Cornwallis  again  : 

he  relinquished  the  appointment. 
Sir  Alured  Clarke      ....        April  6,  1798 
Lord       Mornington      (afterwards      marquess 

Wellesley) May  17,     „ 

Marquess  Cornwallis  again        .        .      July  30,  1805 
Sir  George  Hilaro  Barlow      .        .        .   Oct.  10,     ,, 
Lord  Minto July  31,  1807 


Earl  of  Moira,  afterwards  marquess  of  Hastings, 

Oct.  4,  1813 

Hon.  John  Adam  ....  Jan.  13,  1823 
Rt.  hon.  George  Canning,  relinquished  the 

appointment 

William,  lord  (afterwards  earl)  Amherst,  Aug.  i,    , , 
Hon.  W.  Butterworth  Bayley       .        March  13,  1828 
Lord  Wm.  Cavendish  Bentinck         .        July  4,     „ 

[This  nobleman  became  the  first  governor- 

feneral  of  India,  under  the  act  3  &  4  Will. 
V.  c.  85  :  Aug.  28,  1833.] 
Sir  Charles  Theophilus  Metcalfe  (afterwards  lord 

Metcalfe) March  ^o,  1835 

William,  lord  Heytesbury.     Did  not  proceed. 
George,    lord    Auckland    (afterwards    earl    of 

Auckland) March  4,  1836 

Edward,  lord  Ellenborough  .  .  Feb.  28,  1842 
William  Wilberforce  Bird  .  .  .  June  15,  1844 
Sir  Henry  (afterwards  viscount)  Hardinge, 

July  23,     ,, 
James- Andrew,  earl  (afterwards  marquess)  of 

Dalhousie Jan.  12,  1848 

Charles    John,    viscount    Canning,   appointed 
July,   1855.     (Proclaimed  the    first  VICEROY 
throughout  India,  Nov.  i,  1808.) 
James,  earl  of  Elgin,  appointed,  Aug.  1861 ;  died 

Nov.  20,  1863 
Sir  John  Lawrence  appointed        .        .        Dec.     ,, 


INDIA  COMPANY.  The  first  commercial  intercourse  of  the  English  with  the  East 
Indies,  was  a  private  adventure  of  three  ships  fitted  out  in  1591.  Only  one  of  them  reached 
India  ;  and,  after  a  voyage  of  three  years,  the  commander,  captain  Lancaster,  was  brought 
home  in  another  ship,  the  sailors  having  seized  on  his  own  ;  but  his  information  gave  rise  to 
a  mercantile  voyage  and  the  company's  first  charter,  in  Dec.  1600,  which  was  renewed  in 
1609,  1657,  1661,  1693,  and  1744.  Its  stock  in  1600  consisted  of  72,000?.,  when  it  fitted 
out  four  ships  ;  meeting  with  success,  it  continued  to  trade.  India  stock  sold  at  500^.  for  a 
-share  of  lool.  in  1683. 

A  new  company  (the  "  English  ")  was  chartered 
in  1698,  and  the  old  (the  "London  ")  suspended 
from  trading  for  three  years  ;  the  two  were 
united  in 1702 

Privileges  of  the  company  continued  till  1783   .  1744 

Affairs  of  the  company  were  brought  before 
parliament,  and  a  committee  exposed  a  series 
of  intrigues  and  crimes  .  .  .  Aug.  1772 

As  remedial  measures,  two  acts  passed  (one 
authorised  a  loan  of  1,000,000?.  to  the  com- 
pany ;  the  other  (celebrated  as  the  India  bill) 
effected  most  important  changes  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  company  and  its  relations  to 
India.  A  governor-general  was  appointed  to 
reside  in  Bengal,  to  which  the  other  presi- 
dencies were  now  made  subordinate ;  a  su- 
preme court  of  judicature  was  instituted  at 
•Calcutta :  the  salary  of  the  governor  was 
fixed  at  25,000?.  per  year ;  that  of  the  council 
at  10,000?.  each ;  and  of  the  chief  judge  at 
8000^.  :  the  affairs  of  the  company  were  con- 
trolled ;  all  the  departments  were  re-organ- 
ised, and  all  the  territorial  correspondence 
was  henceforth  to  be  laid  before  the  British 
ministry) June,  1773 


Mr.  Pitt's  bill  appointing  the  Board  of  Control 
(which  see),  passed  .  .  .  May  18,  1784 

The  company's  charter  was  renewed  for  20  years 
in  1793  ;  and  in  (the  trade  with  India  thrown 
open)  ........ 

The  trade  to  China  opened  and  the  Charter  re- 
newed till  1854  ....... 

The  government  of  India  was  continued  in  the 
hands  of  the  company  till  parliament  should 
otherwise  provide  ...... 

In  consequence  of  the  mutiny  of  1857,  and  the 
disappearance  of  the  company's  army,  the 
government  of  India  was  transferred  to  the 
crown,  the  Board  of  Control  was  abolished, 
and  a  Council  of  State  for  India  instituted  by 
the  act  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  106,  which  received 
the  royal  assent  ....  Aug.  2,f 

The  company's  political  power  ceased  on  Sept. 
i  :  and  the  qiieen  was  proclaimed  as  Queen 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  Colonies,  &c.  ,  in  the 
principal  places  in  India,  amid  much  enthu- 
siasm ......  Nov.  i, 

The  EAST  INDIA-HOUSE  built  1726  ;  enlarged 
and  a  new  front  erected,  1799  ;  sold  with  the 
furniture.  1861  :  pulled  down  in  Sept.  and 
Oct.  ..... 


1813 
1833 


1853 


1858 


1858 


1862 

INDIA,  COUNCIL  or,  established  in  1858  in  the  place  of  the  board  of  control  (which  see). 
It  consists  of  15  members  (salary  12001.  a-year),  eight  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  queen, 

*  Several  of  these  appointments  are  those  of  governors-general  provisionally,  having  been  first  in  rank 
in  the  council,  and  holding  office  on  the  resignation  of  the  governors-general,  or  pending  their  arrival  and 
assumption  of  the  government :  as,  for  instance,  sir  Ahired  Clarke,  sir  George  Hilaro  Barlow,  hon.  William 
Butterworth  Bayley,  William  Wilberforce  Bird,  &c.  The  appointments  of  governors-general  were,  of  course, 
of  earlier  date  than  their  assumption  of  office. 

t  Lord  Palmerstou  brought  in  a  bill  for  the  purpose  on  Feb.  12,  which  was  accepted  by  the  house  on 
Feb.  18.  He  resigned  on  the  following  day,  and  the  bill  dropped.  A  similar  bill  was  introduced  by  Mr. 
Disraeli  on  March  12  ;  bnt  many  of  its  details  being  objected  to,  it  was  withdrawn.  On  lord  John  Russell's 
proposition,  the  house  proceeded  to  consider  the  matter  by  way  of  resolutions  ;  on  June  17,  lord  Stanley 
brought  in  the  above  mentioned  bill,  being  the  third  on  the  subject  introduced  during  the  session. 


IND  391  INF 

and  seven  elected  by  the  directors  of  the  East  India  company.  The  members  may  not  sit 
in  parliament.  The  council  met  first  on  Sept.  3,  1858,  when  lord  Stanley,  secretary  of  state 
for  India,  presided.  In  June,  1859,  he  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  sir  Charles  Wood. 
The  members  of  the  first  council  are  here  recorded  : — 


ELECTED. 


Charles  Mills. 
John  Shepherd. 
Sir  J.  Weir  Hogg. 
Elliot  Macnaghten. 
RossD.  Mangles. 


William  J.  Eastwick. 
Henry  T.  Prinsep. 

APPOINTED. 
Sir  Frederick  Curr'ie. 
Sir  Henry  Rawlinson. 


Sir  R.  Hussey  Vivian. 
J.  Pollard  Willoughby. 
Sir  John  Lawrence. 
Sir  Henry  Montgomery. 
Sir  Proby  Cautley,  and 
Wm.  Arbuthnot. 


INDIAN"  MUSEUM,  THE,  was  proposed  by  sir  C.  Wilkins  and  approved  by  the  East 
India  company  in  1798.  The  valuable  collections  were  removed  from  Leadenhall-street  to 
Fife  House,  behind  the  chapel  royal,  Whitehall,  and  opened  July  24,  1861. 

INDIANA,  a  western  state  of  North  America,  was  settled  in  1730,  and  admitted  into 
the  Union  Dec.  n,  1816. 

INDIANS  occupying  the  south-western  parts  of  the  United  States,  in  direct  connexion 
with  the  government  in  1861,  were  numbered  at  239,506.  The  larger  tribes  are  the 
Cherokees  (22,000),  the  Chocktaws  (18,000),  the  Creeks  (13,550),  and  the  Chickasaws  (5000), 
A  large  proportion  are  in  comfortable  circumstances,  and  have  schools  and  churches  ;  other 
tribes  are  the  Delawares,  Sacs,  Foxes,  Shawnees,  Sioux,  and  loways.  With  regard  to  the 
North  American  civil  war  in  1861,  the  Choctaws  joined  the  Confederates,  who  permitted  two 
Choctaw  delegates  to  sit  in  congress  ;  the  first  being  Sampson  Folsom  and  Eastman  Loman  ; 
but  the  principal  chief  of  the  Cherokees,  on  May  4,  1861,  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality, 
which  was  maintained  with  great  difficulty. 

INDIA  EUBBEE.     See  Caoutchouc. 

INDICTION,  a  cycle  of  tributes  orderly  disposed  for  fifteen  years,  not  known  before 
the  time  of  Constantino.  The  first  examples  in  the  Theodosian  code  are  of  the  reign  of 
Constantius,  who  died  361. — In  memory  of  the  great  victory  obtained  by  Constantine  over 
Mezentius,  8  Cal.  Oct.  312,  the  council  of  Nice  ordained  that  the  accounts  of  years  should 
be  no  longer  kept  by  the  Olympiads,  but  by  the  Indiction,  which  has  its  epocha  313,  Jan.  I. 
It  was  first  used  by  the  Latin  church  in  342. 

INDIGO.  Its  real  nature  was  so  little  known  in  Europe,  that  it  was  classed  among 
minerals,  as  appears  by  letters-patent  for  erecting  works  to  obtain  it  from  mines  in  the 
principality  of  Halberstadt,  dated  Dec.  23,  1705;  yet  what  Vitruvius  and  Pliny  called 
indicum  is  supposed  to  have  been  our  indigo.  Beckmann.  The  first  mention  of  indigo 
occurs  in  English  statutes  in  1581.  Its  cultivation  was  begun  in  Carolina  in  1747.  The 
quantity  imported  into  Great  Britain  in  1840  was  5,831,269^5.  ;  in  1845,  1 0,12 7, 4881bs.  ; 
in  1850,  70,482  cwt.  ;  in  1859,  63,237  cwt.  ;  in  1861,  83,109  cwt. ;  in  1864,  76,214  cwt. 
The  use  of  coal-tar  dyes^will  no  doubt  lessen  the  consumption  of  indigo.  See  Aniline. 

INDIUM,  a  metal  discovered  in  the  arsenical  pyrites  of  Freiberg  by  F.  Eeich  and 
T.  Eichter  in  1863.  Its  name  is  due  to  its  giving  an  indigo  blue  ray  in  its  spectrum. 

INDUCTION  of  Electric  currents,  discovered  by  Faraday,  and  announced  in  his 
"  Experimental  Eesearches,"  published  in  1831-2.  Euhmkorff's  magneto-electric  induction 
coil  was  constructed  in  1850. 

INDULGENCES  for  the  pardon  of  sin,  commenced  by  Leo  III.  about  800,  were  granted 
in  the  nth  century  by  Gregory  VII.,  and  by  Urban  II.,  and  others,  in  the  I2th  century  as 
rewards  to  the  crusaders.  Clement  V.  was  the  first  pope  who  made  public  sale  of  indul- 
gences, 1313.  In  1517,  Leo  X.  published  general  indulgences  throughout  Europe,  and  the 
resistance  to  them  led  to  the  Eeformation. 

INDUSTEIAL  SCHOOLS  ACT,  21  &  22  Yict.  c.  48  (1857)  was  enacted  to  make  better 
provision  for  the  care  and  education  of  vagrant,  destitute,  and  disorderly  children.  Another 
act  was  passed,  1861.  Forty-seven  of  these  schools  had  been  certified  under  these  acts,  up 
to  Sept.  29,  1864. 

INFANTICIDE,  FEMALE,  was  very  prevalent  in  barbarous  countries.  Lord  Macartnev 
stated  that  20,000  infants  were  killed  annually  ;  it  is  now  gradually  decreasing  in  India. 
On  Nov.  12,  1851,  Mr.  Eaikes  induced  the  Chohan  chiefs  to  agree  to  resolutions  against  it, 
and  a  great  meeting  in  the  Punjab  was  held  for  the  same  purpose,  Nov.  14,  1853. 

INFANTEY,  the  modern  term  for  foot  soldiers,  much  'improved  during  the  wars  of 


INF  392  1NO 

Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  in  the  i6th  century.  The  British  army  comprised  99  regiments 
of  regular  infantry  in  1858,  when  the  Canadians  raised  a  regiment  which  is  termed  the 
looth.  The  number,  now  109,  includes  the  Indian  army. 

INFANT  SCHOOLS  began  in  London  in  1818. 

INFEENAL  MACHINE.     See  France,  1800—1835  ;  and  Baltic,  note. 

INFIRMARIES.  Ancient  Rome  had  no  houses  for  the  cure  of  the  sick.  Diseased 
persons  were  carried  to  the  temple  of  ^Esculapius  for  cure,  as  Christians  were  taken  to 
churches.  Institutions  for  the  accommodation  of  travellers,  the  indigent,  and  sick,  and  the 
first  infirmaries  or  hospitals  were  built  close  to  cathedrals  and  monasteries.  The  emperor 
Louis  II.  caused  infirmaries  situated  on  mountains  to  be  visited,  855.  In  Jerusalem  the 
knights  and  brothers  attended  on  the  sick.  There  were  hospitals  for  the  sick  at  Con- 
stantinople, in  the  I  ith  century.  The  oldest  mention  of  physicians  and  surgeons  established 
in  infirmaries  occurs  in  1437.  Beckmann.  See  Hospitals. 

INFUSORIA.     See  Animalcules. 

INGOUR,  a  river  rising  in  the  Caucasus  and  falling  into  the  Black  Sea.  Omer  Pasha, 
marching  to  the  relief  of  Ears,  crossed  this  river  on  Nov.  6,  1855,  with  10,000  men,  and 
attacked  the  Russians  12,000  strong,  who,  after  a  struggle,  retreated  with  the  loss  of  400 
men.  The  Turks  had  68  killed  and  242  wounded.  Kars,  however,  was  not  saved. 

INK.  The  ancient  black  inks  were  composed  of  soot  and  ivory  black,  and  Vitruvius  and 
Pliny  mention  lamp-black ;  but  they  had  ink  of  various  colours,  as  red,  gold,  silver,  and 
purple.  Red  ink  was  made  of  vermilion  and  gum.  INDIAN  INK  was  brought  from  China, 
and  must  have  been  in  use  by  the  people  of  the  east  from  the  earliest  ages,  most  of  the 
artificial  Chinese  productions  being  of  very  great  antiquity.  It  is  usually  brought  to  Europe 
in  small  quadrangular  cakes,  and  is  composed  of  a  fine  black  and  animal  glue.  Beckmann. 
INVISIBLE  OR  SYMPATHETIC  INKS,  fluids  which,  when  written  with,  will  remain  invisible  until 
after  a  certain  operation,  were  known  at  early  periods.  Ovid  (A.D.  2)  teaches  young  women 
to  deceive  their  guardians  by  writing  to  their  lovers  with  new  milk,  and  afterwards  making 
the  writing  legible  with  ashes  or  soot.  Receipts  for  preparing  invisible  ink  were  given  by 
Peter  Borel,  in  1653,  and  by  Le  Mort,  in  1669.  Beckmann. 

INKERMANN  (Crimea).  The  Russian  army  (about  40,000)  having  received  reinforce- 
ments, and  being  encouraged  by  the  presence  of  the  granddukes  Michael  and  Nicholas, 
attacked  the  British  (8000)  near  the  old  fort  of  Inkermann,  before  daybreak,  Nov.  5,  1854. 
The  latter  kept  their  opponents  at  bay  for  six  hours  till  the  arrival  of  6000  French.  The 
Russians  were  then  driven  back,  leaving  behind  9000  killed  and  wounded.  The  loss  of 
the  allies  was  462  killed,  1952  wounded,  and  191  missing.  Sir  George  Cathcart,  and 
generals  Strangways,  Goldie  and  Torrens,  were  among  the  slain.  On  Nov.  15,  1855,  an 
explosion  of  about  100,000  Ibs.  of  gunpowder  occurred  near  Inkermann,  and  caused  great 
loss  of  \\fe.y 

INLAND  REVENUE  OFFICE  was  constituted  in  Feb.  1849.  It  comprises  the  excise, 
stamps,  and  taxes. 

INNS  OF  COURT,  London,  were  established  at  different  periods,  in  some  degree  as 
colleges  for  teaching  the  law.  The  Temple  was  founded,  and  the  church  built  by  the  Knights 
Templars,  32  Hen.  II.  1185.  The  Inner  and  Middle  Temple  were  made  inns  of  law  in  the 
reign  of  Edw.  III.  about  1340;  the  Outer  not  until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  about  1560. 
Stow's  Survey.  The  following  inns  were  founded,  viz. : — 


Barnard's  Inn,  an  inn  of  Chancery     .        .        .  1445 

Clement's  Inn,  18  Edw.  IV 1478 

Clifford's  Inn,  20  Edw.  Ill 1345 

Furnival's  Inn,  5  Eliz 1563 

Gray's  lun,  32  Edw.  Ill 1357 

Lincoln's  Inn,  4  Edw.  II.         ...  1310  or  1312 


Lyon's  Inn 1420 

New  Inn,  i  Hen.  VII 1485 

Serjeants'  Inn,  Fleet  street          ....  1429 

Serjeants'  Inn,  Chancery-lane         .        .        .     .  1666 

Staples  Inn,  4  Hen.  V.          .        .        .        .        .  1415 

Thavies'  Inn,  10  Hen.  VIII.    . 


INOCULATION.  See  Small  Pox.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu  introduced  inoc 
lation  from  small  pox  to  England  from  Turkey.  In  1718  she  had  her  own  son  inoculated  at 
Adrianople,  with  perfect  success  ;  and  she  was  allowed  to  have  it  tried,  for  the  first  time  in 
England,  on  seven  condemned  criminals,  7  Geo.  I.  1721.  In  1722  two  of  the  royal  family 
were  inoculated.  The  practice  was  preached  against  by  many  of  the  bishops  and  other 
clergy,  from  that  period  until  1 760.  Dr.  Mead  practised  inoculation  very  successfully  up  to 
1754,  and  Dr.  Dimsdale,  of  London,  inoculated  Catherine  II.,  empress  of  Russia,  in  1768. 
Of  5964  who  were  inoculated  in  1797-99,  only  three  died.  Inoculation  was  forbidden  by 


: 


INQ 


393 


INS 


law  in  1840.  Vaccine  inoculation  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Jenner,  Jan.  21,  1799  ;  lie  had 
discovered  its  virtue  in  1796,  and  had  been  making  experiments  during  the  intermediate 
three  years.  An  hospital  for  inoculation  was  erected  in  1746.  See  Sheep. 

INQUISITION",  OR  HOLY  OFFICE.  Previous  to  Constantine  (306),  heresy  and  spiritual 
offences  were  punished  by  excommunication  only  ;  but  shortly  after  his  death  capital 
punishments  were  added,  and  inquisitors  were  appointed  by  Theodosius,  382.  Priscillian 
was  put  to  death  about  385.  Justinian  decreed  the  doctrine  of  the  four  holy  synods  as  to 
the  holy  scriptures  and  their  canons  to  be  observed  as  laws,  529  ;  hence  the  penal  code 
against  heretics.  About  800  the  power  of  the  western  bishops  was  enlarged,  and  courts 
were  established  for  trying  and  punishing  spiritual  offenders,  even  with  death.  In  the  i2th 
;  ry  many  heresies  arose,  and  during  the  crusades  against  the  Albigenses,  Gregory  IX.  in 
1233  established  by  rales  the  inquisitorial  missions  sent  out  by  Innocent  III.  some  years 
previously,  and  committed  them  into  the  hands  of  the  Dominicans.  Pietro  da  Verona,  the 
first  inquisitor  who  burnt  heretics,  was  assassinated  by  an  accused  gonfalonier,  April  6,  1252, 
and  was  afterwards  canonized. 


The  Holy  Office  was  reinstituted  in  Spain  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella 1480 

Nearly  3000  persons  burnt  in  Andalusia,  and 
17,000  suffer  other  penalties  .  .  .  .  1481 

' '  Instructions  "  of  the  new  tribunal  promulgated 

Nov.  29,  1484 

New  articles  were  added      .         .         .       1488  &  1498 

The  establishment  of  the  Inquisition  was  re- 
sisted in  Naples,  and  only  introduced  into 
other  parts  of  Italy  with  jealous  limitations 
by  the  temporal  power  ....  1546-7 

New  ordinances  in  81  articles  compiled  by  the 
inquisitor-general,  Valdez 1561 

Carnesecehi  executed  at  Rome,  1567,  and  Galileo 
compelled  to  abjure  his  opinions  .  .  .  1634 

The  tribunal  abolished  in  Tuscany  and  Lom- 
bardy I?87 

INQUESTS.     See  Coroner. 


Never  firmly  established  in  France  ;    totally 
abolished  by  Henry  IV.  by  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
1598.     Louis  XIV.  revoked  the  edict,  but  re- 
fused to  introduce  the  Inquisition,  1685.  Sup- 
pressed in  Spain  by  Napoleon,  Dec.  4,  1808, 
and  by  the  Cortes          .         .         .        Feb.  12,  1813 
Restored  by  Ferdinand  VII.        .        .     July  21,  1814 
Finally  abolished  by  the  Cortes      .        .        .     .  1820 

[Lloreiite  states  that  in  236  years  the  total 
amount  in  Spain  of  persons  put  to  death  by 
the  Inquisition  .was  about  32,000  ',  291,000 
were  subjected  to  other  punishments.  The 
last  person  burnt  was  at  Seville,  Nov.  7,  1781, 
being  a  woman  accused  of  making  a  contract 
with  the  devil.] 


INSANITY,     See  Lunatics. 


INSOLVENCY.  The  first  insolvent  act  was  passed  in  1649,  but  it  was  of  limited 
operation  ;  a  number  of  acts  of  more  extensive  operation  were  passed  at  various  periods,  and 
particularly  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  The  benefit  of  the  act  known  as  the  Great 
Insolvent  Act,  was  taken  in  England  by  50, 733  insolvents  from  the  time  of  its  passing  in 
1814.  to  March,  1827,  a  period  of  thirteen  years.  Since  then  the  acts  relating  to  insolvency 
have  been  several  times  amended.  Persons  not  traders,  or  being  traders  whose  debts  are 
less  than  300?.,  might  petition  the  court  of  bankruptcy,  and  propose  compositions,  and  have 
pro  tern,  protection  from  all  process  against  their  persons  and  property,  by  6  Viet.  c.  116 
(1842).  In  1861,  by  the"  New  Bankruptcy  Act,  the  business  of  the  Insolvent  Debtors' 
court  was  transferred  to  the  court  of  bankruptcy ;  and  a  number  of  imprisoned  debtors 
were  released  in  Nov.  1861. 

INSTITUTE  OF  FRANCE.  On  Oct.  25,  1795,  all the  Royal  Academies,  viz.,  the  French 
academy,  the  academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres,  that  of  the  Mathematical  and 
Physical  Sciences,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  of  the  Moral  and  Political  Sciences,  were  combined 
in  one  body,  under  the  title  of  "  lustitut  National,"  afterwards  Royal,  and  now  Imperial. 

INSTITUTES.     See  Code. 

INSTITUTION.     See  Royal,  London,  and  Civil  Engineers. 

INSURANCE  ON  SHIPS  AND  MERCHANDISE.  Suetonius  conjectures  that  Claudius  was 
the  first  contriver  of  the  insurance  of  ships,  43. 


Insurance  was  in  general  use  in  Italy,   1194,  1  The  first  regular  office  set  up  in  London  was  the 

and  in  England 1560  !      Hand-in-Hand 1696 

Insurance  policies  first  used  in  Florence    .        .  1523  j  First  Life  Insurance  office  (the  Amicable),  estab- 

1601  |      lished 1706 

I  Sun  fire-office  established 1710 

The    first    Marine   insurance   was    the    Royal 
1667  I      Exchange   Insurance,   and  the  London    in- 

i      surance 172° 

'  Duty  first  laid  on  insurances  of  is.  6d.  per  100?. 
j      insured,  1782 ;  duty  increased    .        .         .     .  1797 
In  1857,  1,451,110!.  were  paid  as  duty  for  fire 


The  first  law  relating  to  insurance  was  enacted 

Insurance  of  houses  and  goods  against  FIRE,  in 

London,  began  the  year  following  the  Great 

Fire  of  London 

An  office  was  set  up  for  insuring  houses  and 
buildings,  principally  contrived  by  Dr.  Barton, 
one  of  the  first  and  most  considerable  builders 
of  the  city  of  London 


INS 


394 


INU 


INSURANCE,  continued, 

insurances     on     property,     amounting     to 

72,136,585?. 
There  were  33  London  fire  insurance  offices; 

25  country  offices ;  7  Scotch,  and  2  Irish.    .     .  1859 

165  such  offices  in  London ,, 

A    new    Commercial    Union    fire    insurance, 


founded    in    consequence    of    the    increased 
charges  of  the  companies     .        .        .     Sept.  1861 
Rate  of  tax  on  insurance,  reduced  from  35.  to 
is.  6d.  per  cent,  on  stock  in  trade,  from  May 
13,  1864  ;  on  household  goods  ....  1865 


1782 
1802 


£130,000,000  I  1822 
220,000,000  I  1842 


AMOUNT   INSURED. 

.       .  £399,000,000  I  1862 
652,000,000  | 


£l,007,000,000 


INSURRECTIONS.     See  Conspiracies,  Massacres,  Rebellions,  Riots,  &c. 

1NTENDMENT  OF  CRIMES.  In  cases  of  treason,  wounding,  burglary,  &c.,  where 
intention  proved,  was  made  as  punishable  as  crime  completed,  by  7  Geo.  II.,  1734.  The 
rigour  of  this  act  was  modified  by  sir  Robert  Peel's  revision  of  the  statutes  4 — 10  Geo.  IV. 
1823—29. 

INTERDICT,  on  ECCLESIASTICAL  CENSURE,  seldom  decreed  in  Europe  till  the  time 
of  Gregory  VII. ,  1073,  but  often  afterwards.  "When  a  prince  was  excommunicated,  all  his 
subjects  retaining  their  allegiance  were  excommunicated  also,  and  the  clergy  were  forbidden 
to  perform  any  part  of  divine  service,  or  any  clerical  duties,  save  the  baptism  of  infants, 
and  taking  the  confessions  of  dying  penitents.  In  1170,  pope  Alexander  put  all  England 
under  an  interdict ;  and  when  king  John  was  excommunicated  in  1208,  the  kingdom  lay 
under  a  papal  interdict  for  six  years.  England  was  put  under  an  interdict,  on  Henry  VIII. 
shaking  off  the  pope's  supremacy,  1535  ;  and  pope  Sixtus  V.  published  a  crusade  against 
queen  Elizabeth  of  England  in  1588.  See  Excommunication. 

INTEREST.  The  word  was  first  used  in  an  act  of  parliament  of  the  2ist  James  I.  1623, 
wherein  it  was  made  to  signify  a  lawful  increase  by  way  of  compensation  for  the  use  of  money 
lent.  The  rate  fixed  by  the  act  was  SI.  for  the  use  of  rooZ.  for  a  year  ;  in  place  of  usury  at 
loZ.  before  taken.  The  Commonwealth  lowered  the  rate  to  61.,  in  1650  ;  and  by  an  act  of 
the  1 3 th  of  queen  Anne,  1713,  it  was  reduced  to  5?.  The  restraint  being  found  prejudicial 
to  commerce,  it  was  totally  removed  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  90  (1854). 

INTERIM  OF  AUGSBURG,  a  decree  issued  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1548,  with  the 
view  of  attempting  to  reconcile  the  Catholics  and  Protestants,  in  which  it  entirely  failed. 
It  was  revoked  in  1552.  The  term  Interim  has  been  applied  to  other  decrees  and  treaties. 

INTERNATIONAL.     See  Copyright  and  Exhibition. 
INUNDATIONS.     The  following  are  among  the  most  remarkable  :— 


An  inundation  of  the  sea  in  Lincolnshire'laid  under 
water  many  thousand  acres,  A.  D.  245.  Camden. 

Another  in  Cheshire,  by  which  5000  persons  and  an 
innumerable  quantity  of  cattle  perished.  353. 

An  inundation  at  Glasgow,  which  drowned  more 
than  400  families,  758.  Fordun. 

The  Tweed  overflowed  its  banks,  and  laid  waste  the 
country  for  30  miles  round,  836. 

An  inundation  on  the  English  coasts,  demolished  a 
number  of  sea-port  towns,  1014. 

Earl  Godwin's  lands,  exceeding  4000  acres,  overflowed 
by  the  sea,  and  an  immense  sand-bank  formed  on 
the  coast  of  Kent,  now  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Godwin  sands,  1 1 oo.  Camden. 

Flanders  inundated  by  the  sea,  and  the  town  and 
harbour  of  Ostend  totally  immersed,  1 108. 

More  than  300  houses  overwhelmed  at  Winchelsea 
by  an  inundation  of  the  sea,  1280. 

At  the  Texel,  which  first  raised  the  commerce  of 
Amsterdam,  1400. 

The  sea  broke  in  at  Dort,  and  drowned  72  villages, 
and  100,000  people  (see  Port),  April  17,  1446. 

The  Severn  overflowed  during  ten  days,  and  carried 
away  men,  women,  and  children,  in  their  beds, 
and  covered  the  tops  of  many  mountains  ;  the 
waters  settled  upon  the  lands,  and  were  called  the 
Great  Waters  for  100  years  after,  i  Richard  III. 
1483.  Hollinshed.  Again  4  James  I.  1607,  the 
waters  rose  above  the  tops  of  the  houses,  and 
above  100  persons  perished  in  Somersetshire  and 
Gloucestershire.  Burns. 


A  general  inundation  by  the  failure  of  the  dikes  in 

Holland,  1530 ;   the  number  of  drowned  said  to 

have  been  400,000. 

At  Catalonia,  where  50,000  persons  perished,  1617. 
An  inundation  in  Yorkshire,  when  a  rock  opened, 

and  poured  out  water  to  the  height  of  a  church 

steeple,  1686.     Vide  Phil.  Trans. 
Part  of  Zealand  overflowed,  1300  inhabitants  were 

drowned,   and    incredible    damage  was  done    at 

Hamburg,  1717. 
At  Madrid,  several  of  the  Spanish  nobility  and  other 

persons  of  distinction  perished,  1723.     Du  Fresnoy. 
In  Yorkshire,  a  dreadful  inundation,  called  Kipon 

Flood,  1771. 
In  Navarre,  where  2000  persons  lost  their  lives  by 

the  torrents  from  the  mountains,  Sept.  1787. 
Inundation    of    the    Liffey,    which    did    immense 

damage  in  Dublin,  Nov.  12,  1787.     Again,  Dec.  2 

and  3,  1802. 
Lorca,  a  city  of  Mercia,  in  Spain,  destroyed  by  the 

bursting  of  a  reservoir,   which  inundated  more 

than  20  leagues,  and  killed  1000  persons,  besides 

cattle,  April  14,  1802. 
At    Pesth,    near    Presburg,    the    overflow    of    the 

Danube,  by  which  24  villages  and  their  inhabitants 

were  swept  away,  April,  1811. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Salop,  by  the  bursting  of  a  cloud 

during  a  storm,  many  persons  and  much  stock 

perished,  May,  1811. 
Dreadful    inundation     in    Hungary,    Austria,    and 

Poland,  in  the  summer  of  1813. 


INU 


395 


1NV 


INUNDATIONS,  continued. 

Overflow  of  the  Danube ;  a  Turkish  corps  of  2000 
men,  on  a  small  island  near  Widdin,  surprised, 
and  met  instant  death,  Sept.  14,  1813. 

In  Silesia,  6000  inhabitants  perished,  and  the  ruin 
of  the  French  army  under  Macdonald  was  accele- 
rated by  the  floods  ;  also  in  Poland  4000  lives  were 
supposed  to  have  been  lost,  same  year. 

At  Strabane,  Ireland,  by  the  melting  of  the  snow 
on  the  surrounding  mountains,  most  destructive 
floods  were  occasioned,  Jan.  2,  1816. 

In  Germany,  the  Vistula  overflowed  ;  many  villages 
were  laid  under  water,  and  great  loss  of  life  and 
property  was  sustained,  March  21,  1816. 

In  England  5000  acres  were  deluged  in  the  Fen 
countries,  in  June,  1819. 

Inundation  at  Daiitzic,  occasioned  by  the  Vistula 
breaking  through  some  of  its  dikes,  by  which 
10,000  head  of  cattle  and  4000  houses  were  de- 
stroyed, and  numerous  lives  lost,  April  9,  1829. 

The  "Moray  Floods,"  Aug.  9,  1829,  when  the  Spey 
and  Findhorn  rose  in  some  places  50  feet  above 
their  ordinary  level,  and  caused  great  destruction 
of  property.  Many  lives  wrere  lost,  and  whole 
families  who  took  refuge  on  elevated  places  were 
with  difficulty  rescued.  Sir  T.  D.  Lauder. 

At  Vienna,  the  dwellings  of  50,000  of  its  inhabitants 
laid  under  water,  Feb.  1830. 

10,000  houses  swept  away,  and  about  1000  persons 
perished,  at  Canton,  in  Cbina,  in  consequence  of 
an  inundation,  occasioned  by  incessant  rains. 
Equal  or  greater  calamity  was  produced  by  the 
same  cause  in  other  ports  of  China,  Oct.  1833. 

Awful  inundation  in  France  :  the  Saone  poured  its 
waters  into  the  Rhone,  broke  through  its  banks, 


and  covered  60,000  acres  ;  Lyons  was  inundated  ; 
in  Avignon  100  houses  were  swept  away  ;  218 
houses  were  carried  away  at  La  Guillotiere  ;  and 
upwards  of  300  at  Yaise,  Marseilles,  and  Nismes  ; 
the  Saone  had  not  attained  such  a  height  for  238 
years,  Oct.  31  to  Nov.  4,  1840. 

Lamentable  inundation  at  Brentford  and  the  sur- 
rounding country ;  several  lives  lost,  and  immense 
property  destroyed,  Jan.  16,  1841. 

Disastrous  inundation  in  the  centre,  west,  and 
south-west  of  France  ;  numerous  bridges,  with 
the  Orleans  and  Vierzon  viaduct,  swept  away  ;  tEe 
latter  had  cost  6,000,000  of  francs.  The  damage 
done  exceeded  4,000,000^.  sterling.  The  Loire  rose 
twenty  feet  in  one  night,  Oct.  22,  1846. 

Lamentable  catastrophe  at  Holmfirth.  See  Holmfirth 
Flood,  Feb.  4,  1852. 

Inundation  of  the  valleys  of  the  Severn  and  Teme 
after  a  violent  thunderstorm,  Sept.  5,  1852. 

Inundations  of  the  basins  of  the  Rhine  and  the 
Rhone,  overflowing  the  country  to  a  great  extent, 
Sept.  19,  1852. 

Hamburg  half-flooded  by  the  Elbe,  Jan.  i,  1855. 

Inundations  in  south  of  France,  with  immense 
damage  (see  France),  May  and  June,  1856. 

In  Holland,  nearly  40,000  acres  submerged,  Jan. 
1861. 

Great  inundation  through  the  bursting  of  the  out- 
fall sluice  at  St.  Germain's,  near  King's  Lynn  (see 
Levels),  May  4-15,  1862. 

Another  marshland  sluice  bursts  ;  many  acres  inun- 
dated, Oct.  4,  1862. 

Bursting  of  the  Bradfield  reservoir  (see  Sheffield); 
about  250  persons  drowned,  March  n,  1864. 


Duke  of  Lancaster  («.)   . 
The  French 

•  J399 
.     .   1416 

Ireland,  Spaniards    . 
Duke  of  Monmouth 

1601 
1685 

Queen  of  Henry  VI. 

.   1462 

William  of  Orange  (s.) 

1688 

Earl  of  Warwick  (s.)  . 

.     .   1470 

James  II.,  Ireland  . 

1689 

Edward  IV.  (s.)       . 

•   I47I 

Old  Pretender    . 

1708 

Queen  of  Henry  VI.  . 
Earl  of  Richmond  (s.)     . 

.     .    1471 
.   1485 

Pretender  again 
Young  Pretender 

1715 
1745 

Lambert  Simnel 

.     .   1487 

Ireland  (see  Tkurot) 

1760 

Perkin  Warbeck     . 

•   !495 

Wales,  the  French     . 

1797 

Spaniards  and  Italians, 

Ire- 

Ireland  ;  the  French  land  at 

^-1 

land 

.    .  1580 

Killala  (which  see) 

1798 

Spanish  Armada     . 

.  1588 

INVALIDES.  The  Hotel  des  Invalides  was  founded  in  1671  by  Louis  XIV.  Its  chapel 
contains  the  body  of  Napoleon  If,  deposited  there  Dec.  15,  1840. 

INVASIONS  OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  See  Britain  and  Danes.  From  the  death  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  only  the  following  invasions  (marked  s)  have  been  successful : — 

William    of    Normandy    (s.) 

Sept.  29,  1066 

The  Irish         ....   1069 
The   Scots,    1091 ;   king  Mal- 
colm killed      ....  1093 
Robert  of  Normandy      .        .  noi 

The  Scots ^136 

The  empress  Maud  .  .  1139 
Ireland,  by  Pita-Stephen  (s.)  1169 
Ireland,  by  Edward  Bruce  .  1315 
Isabel,  queen  of  Edward  !!.(«.)  1326 

INVERNESS  (N.  W.  Scotland),  a  city  of  the  Picts  up  to  843.  It  was  taken  by  Edward  I. ; 
retaken  by  Bruce,  1313  ;  burnt  by  the  lord  of  the  Isles,  1411  ;  taken  by  Cromwell,  1649  ; 
and  by  prince  Charles  Edward  in  1746.  He  was  defeated  at  Culloden,  about  live  miles  from 
Inverness,  April,  16,  1746. 

INVESTITURE,  OF  ECCLESIASTICS,  was  a  cause  of  discord  between  the  pope  and  temporal 
sovereigns  in  the  middle  ages  ;  and  led  to  actual  war  between  Gregory  VII.  and  the  emperor 
Henry  IV.  1075 — 1085.  The  pope  endeavoured  to  deprive  the  sovereign  of  the  right  of 
nominating  bishops  and  abbots,-  and  of  investing  them  with  the  cross  and  ring.  Henry  V. 
gave  up  the  right,  mi. 

INVINCIBLE  ARMADA,  OR  SPANISH  ARMADA.     See  Armada. 

INVOCATION  OF  THE  VIRGIN  AND  SAINTS.  The  practice  of  the  Romish  church  of 
invoking  the  intercession  of  saints  with  God,  particularly  the  prayers  to  the  Virgin,  has  been 
traced  to  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  593.  Ash",.  The  Eastern  church  began  (in  the  5th 
century)  by  calling  upon  the  dead,  and  demanding  their  suffrage  as  present  in  the  divine 
offices ;  and  the  Western  church  frequently  canonised  persons  the  wickedness  of  whose 
lives  gave  them  no  title  to  any  such  honour. 


IOD 


IRE 


IODINE  (from  the  Greek  iodts,  violet-like),  was  discovered  by  M.  De  Courtois,  a  manu- 
facturer of  saltpetre  at  Paris  in  1812,  and  investigated  by  M.  Clement,  1813.  On  the  appli- 
cation of  heat  it  rises  in  the  form  of  a  dense  violet-coloured  vapour,  easily  evaporates,  and 
melts  at  220  degrees  :  it  changes  vegetable  blues  to  yellow,  and  a  seven- thousandth  part 
converts  water  to  a  deep  yellow  colour,  and  starch  into  a  purple. 

IONA.  One  of  the  Hebrides.  In  563  St.  Columba  and  his  disciples  founded  a  monastery 
here,  which  nourished  till  the  8th  century,  when  it  was  ravaged  by  the  Norsemen.  Other 
religious  bodies  afterwards  were  formed,  and  the  isle  was  long  esteemed  exceedingly 
sacred. 

IONIA  (in  Asia  Minor).  About  1040  B.C.  the  lones,  a  Pelasgic  race,  emigrated  from 
Greece,  and  settled  here  and  on  the  adjoining  islands.  They  built  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  and  other 
noble  cities.  They  were  conquered  by  the  great  Cyrus  about  548  B.C.  ;  revolted  in  504,  but 
were  again  subdued.  After  the  victories  of  Cimon,  Ionia  became  independent  and  remained 
so  till  387,  when  it  was  once  more  subjected  to  Persia.  It  formed  part  of  the  dominions  of 
Alexander  and  his  successors  ;  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire,  and  conquered  by  the 
Turks. — Ionia  Avas  renowned  for  poets,  historians,  and  philosophers. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS  (on  W.  coast  of  Greece).  Corfu,  the  capital,  Cephalonia,  Zante, 
Ithaca,  Santa  Maura,  Cerigo,  and  Paxo.  They  were  colonised  by  the  lones,  and  partook  of 
the  fortunes  of  the  Greek  people  ;  were  subject  to  Naples  in  the  I3th  century,  and  in  the 
I4th  to  Venice.  Population  in  1862,  234,123. 


The  islands  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Formio  .  .  .  .  .  Oct.  17,  1797 

Formed  into  the  republic  of  the  seven  islands 
under  the  protection  of  Russia  and  Turkey, 

March  21,  1800 

Restored  to  the  French  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 

July  7,  1807 

Taken  by  the  English        .        .        .    Oct.  3-12,  1809 

Formed  into  an  independent  state  under  the 
protection  of  Great  Britain  (sir  Thos.  Mait- 
land,  lord  high  commissioner)  .  Nov.  5,  1815 

A  constitution  ratified        .        .        .    July  n,  1817 


A  university  established  at  Corfu  .         .         .     .  1823 
The  constitution  liberalised  during  the  govern- 
ment of  lord  Seaton 1848-9 

In  consequence  of  the  discontent  and  complaints 
of  the  islanders,  Mr.  W.   E.  Gladstone  went 
out  on  a  commission  of  inquiry,   &c.,  but 
nothing  important  ensued  .        .        .      Nov.   1858 
Sir  H.  Storks,  lord  high  commissioner,   Feb.  2,  1859 
The  parliament  declare  for  annexation  to  Greece, 

March,  1861,  and  April,  1862 
The  islands  annexed  to  Greece,  May  28 ;  king 
George  I.  arrives  at  Corfu  (see  Greece).  June  6,  1864 


IONIC  ORDER  OF  ARCHITECTURE,  an  improvement  on  the  Doric,  was  invented  by 
the  lonians  about  1350  B.C.  Vitruvius.  Its  distinguishing  characters  are  the  slenderness 
and  flirtings  of  its  columns,  and  the  volutes  of  rams'  horns  that  adorn  the  capital. 

IONIC  SECT  OF  PHILOSOPHERS,  founded  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  570  B.C.,  distinguished 
for  its  abstruse  speculations  under  his  successors  and  pupils,  Anaximander,  Anaximenes, 
Anaxagoras,  and  Archelaus,  the  master  of  Socrates.  They  held  that  water  was  the  origin  of 
all  things. 

IOWA,  a  western  state  of  North  America,  was  organised  as  a  territory,  June  12,  1838  ; 
and  admitted  into  the  Union,  Dec.  28,  1846.  Capital,  Des  Moines. 

IPSUS  (Phrygia^,  BATTLE  OF,  301  B.C.,  by  which  Seleucus  was  confirmed  in  his  kingdom 
by  the  defeat  and  death  of  Antigonus,  king  of  Asia.  The  latter  led  into  the  field  an  army 
of  about  70,000  foot,  and  10,000  horse,  with  75  elephants.  The  former  had  64,000  infantry, 
besides  10,500  horse,  400  elephants,  and  120  armed  chariots.  Plutarch. 

IPSWICH  (Suffolk),  the  Saxon  Gippcswic,  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes,  991.  Wolsey  was 
born  here,  1471  ;  founded  a  school  in  1525.  The  port  was  greatly  improved  by  the  erection 
of  wet  docks,  1837-42.  The  railway  to  London  was  opened  June  25,  1846. 

IRELAND  is  said  to  have  been  first  colonised  by  Phoenicians.  Some  assert  that  the 
Partholani  landed  in  Ireland  about  2048  B.  c.  ;  that  the  descent  of  the  Damuonii  was  made 
about  1463  B.  c. ;  and  that  this  was  followed  by  the  descent  of  Heber  and  Heremon,  Milesian 
princes,  from  Galicia,  in  Spain,  who  conquered  Ireland,  and  gave  to  its  throne  a  race  of  171 
kings.  Ireland  was  not  attacked  by  the  Romans  or  Saxons.  The  population,  by  the  census 
of  1 86 1,  was  5,764,543. 


Arrival  of  St.  Patrick,  about  .  .  .  A.D.  432 
Christianity  established,  about  .  .  .  .  448 
The  Danes  and  Normans,  known  by  the  name 

of  Easterlings,  or  Ostmen,  invade  Ireland  .  t  795 
They  build  Dublin  and  other  cities,  about  .  800 
Brian  Boroimhe  totally  defeats  the  Danes  at 

Clontarf;  and  is  killed    .        .        .  April  23,  1014 


[In  the  twelfth  century  Ireland  is  divided  into 
five  kingdoms,  viz.  :  Ulster,  Leinster,  Meath, 
Connaught,  and  Munster,  besides  a  number 
of  petty  principalities,  whose  sovereigns  con- 
tinually warred  with  each  other.] 

Adrian  IV.  permitted  Henry  II.  to  invade 
Ireland,  on  condition  that  he  compelled  every 


IRE 


397 


IRE 


IRELAND,  continued. 
Irish  family  to  pay  a  carolus  to  the  holy  see, 
and  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  Church  .        .        .1156 

Dermot  Mac  Murrough,  king  of  Leinster,  is 
driven  from  his  throne  for  his  oppression, 
and  takes  refuge  in  England,  where  he  takes 
an  oath  of  fidelity  to  Henry  II.  who  promises 
to  restore  him 1168 

Invasion  of  the  English  under  Fitz-Stephen     .  1169 

Landing  of  Strongbow  at  Waterford    .         .     .1170 

Henry  II.  lands  near  Waterford,  and  receives 
the  submission  of  the  princes  of  the  country, 
settles  the  government,  and  makes  his  son 
John  lord  of  Ireland 1171 

Ireland  wholly  subdued  and  English  laws  and 
customs  introduced  by  king  John  .  .  .1210 

Invasion  of  Edward  Bruce,  1315,  who  is  crowned 
king,  1316,  defeated  and  slain  at  Foughart, 
near  Dundalk 1318 

Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  third  son  of  Edward 
III.,  marries  Elizabeth  de  Burgh,  heiress  of 
Ulster,  which  had  not  hitherto  submitted  to 
the  English  authori  ty 1361 

Richard  II.  lands  at  Waterford  with  a  train  of 
nobles,  4000  men  at  arms,  and  30,000  archers, 
and  gains  the  affection  of  the  people  by  his 
munificence,  and  confers  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood on  their  chiefs 1394 

Richard  again  lands  in  Ireland       .         .        .     .  1399 

The  sanguinary  Head  Act  passed  at  Trim,*  by 
the  earl  of  Desmond,  deputy  ....  1465 

Apparel  and  surname  act  (the  Irish  to  dress  like 
the  English,  and  to  adopt  surnames).  .  .  „ 

Poynings'  law,  subjecting  the  Irish  parliament 
to  the  English  council 1494 

Great  rebellion  of  the  Fitzgeralds  subdued  .     .   1534 

Henry  VIII.  assumes  the  title  of  king,  instead 
of  lord  of  Ireland 1542 

The  reformed  religion  embraced  by  the  English 
settlers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  .  .  .  1547 

Ireland  finally  divided  into  shires      .        .        .  1569 

Printing  in  Irish  characters  introduced  by  N. 
Walsh,  chancellor  of  St.  Patrick's  .  .  .1571 

700  Italians,  headed  by  Fitzmaurice,  land  in 
Kerry ;  they  are  treacherously  butchered  by 
the  earl  of  Ormond 1580 

O'Neal    defeats    the    English    at    Blackwater 

Aug.  14,  1598 

The  insurrection  of  Tyrone,  who  invites  over 
the  Spaniards,  and  settles  them  in  Kinsale ; 
but  they  are  defeated  by  the  lord  deputy 
Mountjoy  .  .  .  ^  .  .  .  1601-2 

In  consequence  of  repeated  ^rebellions  and  for- 
feitures, 511,465  acres  of  land  in  the  province 
of  Ulster  became  vested  in  the  crown,  and 
James  I.  after  removing  the  Irish  from  their 
hills  and  fastnesses,  divides  the  land  among 
such  of  his  English  and  Scottish  protestant 
subjects  as  choose  to  settle  there  .  .  1609-12 

More  and  Maguire's  rebellion ;  the  catholics 
enter  into  a  conspiracy  to  expel  the  English, 
and  cruelly  massacre  the  protestant  settlers 
in  Ulster,  to  the  number  of  40,000  persons, 
commenced  on  St.  Ignatius'  day  [some  doubt 
the  massacre]  ....  Oct.  23,  1641 

O'Neill  defeats  the  English  under  Monroe  at 
Benburb June  5,  1646 

Cromwell  and  Ireton  reduce  the  whole  island 
to  obedience  between  .  .  .  1649  and  1656 


Massacre  and  capture  of  Drogheda        Sept.  n, 

Landing  of  James  II March  12, 

3000  protestants  attainted 

William  III.  lands  at  Carrickfergus    .  June  14, 
Battle  of  the  Boyne  ;  James  defeated    .  July  i, 
Treaty  of  Limerick.     See  Limerick    .        Oct.  3, 
Linen  manufacture  encouraged      .        .        . 
Thurot's  invasion.     See  Thurot  .... 
Indulgences  granted  to  the  catholics     .        .     . 
Ireland  admitted  to  a  free  trade 
Released  from  submission  to  an  English  council 
The  Genevese  refugees  are  received  in  Ireland, 
and  have  an  asylum  given  them  in  the  county 

of  Waterford 

Order  of  St.  Patrick  established. 

Orange  clubs,  &c.,  formed 

Memorable  Irish  rebellion  commenced,  May  4, 
1798,  and  not    finally  suppressed  until  "the 

next  year 

Legislative  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 

Jan.  i, 

Emmet's  insurrection 
English  and    Irish    exchequers 


1649 
1689 

1690 

1691 
1696 
1760 
1778 
1779 
1782 


July  23, 
"  ted, 


consolida 

Jan.  5, 

Visit  to  Ireland  of  George  IV.      .        .         Aug. 

The  currency  assimilated        .        .        .  Jan.  i, 

Roman  catholic  emancipation    .        .  April  13. 

Customs  consolidated      ....  Jan.  6, 

Dr.  Whately,  supporter  of  the  Irish  National 
School  system,  becomes  archbishop  of 
Dublin 

Poor  laws  introduced 

Great  Repeal  movement ;  meeting  at  Trim. 
(See  Repeal)  ....  March  19, 

O'Connell's  trial.     (See  Trials)        .        Jan.   15, 

Trial  of  0' Council  and  others  for  political  con- 
spiracy ;  found  guilty.  (See  Trials)  Feb.  12, 

Appointment  of  new  commissioners  of  charit- 
able bequests  (rank  of  the  R.  C.  bishops 
recognised) Dec.  18, 

Irish  National  Education  Society  incorporated, 

Sept.  23, 

Failure  of  the  potato  crop  throughout  Ireland, 

Committal  of  William  Smith  O'Brien  to  the 
custody  of  the  sergeant-at-arms,  for  contempt 
in  not  obeying  an  order  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons to  attend  a  committee  .  .  April  30, 

William  Smith  O'Brien  and  the  "  Young  Ire- 
land "  or  physical  force  party,  secede  from 
the  Repeal  Association  .  .  July  29 

O'Connell's    last    speech  in    the    commons,' 

Feb.  8. 

Grants  from  parliament,  amounting  to 
10,000,000?.  made  to  relieve  the  people  suf- 
fering from  famine  and  disease 

Death  of  O'Connell  at  Genoa,  on  his  way  to 
Rome,  in  his  73rd  year  ;  he  had  bequeathed 
his  heart  to  Rome  .  .  .  May  15, 

Deputation  from  the  Irish  people  (?) — Smith 
O'Brien,  Meagher,  O'Gorman,  <fcc.— to  Lamar- 
tine  and  others,  members  of  the  provisional 
government  at  Paris  .  .  .  April  3, 

Great  meeting  of  "  Young  Irelanders "  at 
Dublin April  4, 

Arrest  of  Mitchell,  editor  of  the  United  Irishman, 


1783 
1795 

1799 

1801 
1803 

1817 
1821 
1826 
1829 
1830 

•  1831 


1843 
1844 


'845 


1846 


1847 


1848 


State    trials    in    the    Irish 


May  13, 
queens     bench, 
May  15-27, 


*  This  act  ordained,  "  That  it  shall  be  lawful  to  all  manner  of  men  that  find  any  theeves  robbing  by 
day  or  night,  or  going  or  coming  to  rob  or  steal,  or  any  persons  going  or  coming,  having  no  faithful  man  of 
good  name  and  fame  in  their  company  in  English  apparell,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  to  take  and  kill  those, 
and  to  cut  off  their  heads,  without  any  impeachment  of  our  sovereign  lord  the  king.  And  of  any  head  so 
cut  off  in  the  county  of  Meath,  that  the  cutter  and  bis  ayders  there  to  him  cause  the  said  head  so  cut  off 
to  be  brought  to  the  portreffe  to  put  it  upon  a  stake  or  spear,  upon  the  castle  of  Trim  ;  and  that  the  said 
portreffe  shall  testify  the  bringing  of  the  same  to  him.  And  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  bringer  of 
the  said  head  to  distrain  and  levy  by  his  own  hand  (as  his  reward)  of  every  man  having  one  ploughland  in 
the  barony,  two-pence  ;  and  of  every  man  having  half  a  ploughland,  one  peny  ;  and  of  every  man  having 
one  house  and  goods,  value  forty  shillings,  one  peny ;  and  of  every  other  cottier  having  house  and  smoak, 
one  half -peny,"  &c.  Much  slaughter  is  said  to  have  ensued. 


IRE 


398 


IRE 


IRELAND,  continued. 

Mitchell  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to  trans- 
portation for  14  years         .        .        .  May  26,  1848 
Arrest    of    Gavan    Duffy,    Martin,    Meagher, 
Doheny,  &c.,  for  felonious  writings,  speeches, 

&c July  8,     ,, 

Confederate  clubs  prohibited        .        .  July  26,     ,, 
The  Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended      .     July  26,     ,, 
Arrest  of  Smith  O'Brien  at  Thurles  ;  he  is  con- 
veyed to  Kilmainham  gaol,  Dublin      Aug.  5,    , , 
Arrest  of  Meagher,  O'Donoglme,  &c.      Aug.  12,     „ 
Martin  sentenced  to  transportation    .  Aug.  14,     ,, 
Encumbered  estates  act  passed        .         .  Sept.     ,, 
Smith  O'Brien,  Meagher,  and  the  other  con- 
federates tried  and  sentenced  to  death,  Oct  g,     ,, 
The  Irish  court  of  queen's  bench  gives  jtidg- 
ment  on  writs  of  error  sued  out  by  the  pri- 
soners convicted  of  high  treason,  and  con- 
firms the  judgment  of  the  court  below  Jan.'i6,  1849 
O'Brien,*  Meagher,  McManus,  and  O'Donoghue 

transported July  9,    ,, 

Orange  and  catholic  affray  at  Dolly's  Brae  ; 

several  lives  lost  ....  July  12,  ,, 
Her  majesty  visits  Ireland,  and  holds  her  court 

at  Dublin  castle  ....  Aug.  5,  „ 
First  court  under  the  Encumbered  estates  act 

(which  see),  held  in  Dublin  .  .  Oct.  24,  ,, 
Queen's  University  in  Ireland  esablished, 

Aug.  15,  1850 
Roman    catholic    university    originated,    and 

large  sums  subscribed      .         .        .      May  5,  1851 
Death  of  R.  Lalor  Sheil,  at  Florence  .     May  25,     „ 
McManus    escapes    from    transportation,   and 

arrives  at  San  Francisco,  in  California,  June  5,  „ 
The  Irish  Tenant  League  hold  a  meeting  on  the 

site  of  the  battle  of  the  Boyne        .     June  14,     ,, 
First  meeting  of  the  "  Catholic  Defence  Asso- 
ciation"         Oct.  17,    ,, 

Meagher  escapes  from  Van  Diemen's  Land  and 

arrives  at  New  York        .        .        .      May  24,  1852 
Cork  National  Exhibition        .        .     .  June  10,     „ 
Irish  Industrial  Exhibition  set  on  foot;    Mr. 
Dargan,  a  railway  contractor,  contributes  to- 
wards it  26,000? Jime  24,     ,, 

"  Tenant  Right"  demonstration  at  Warrington 

dispersed  by  the  magistrates  .  July  3,  ,, 
Fierce  religious  riots  at  Belfast  .  .  July  14,  ,, 
Fatal  election  riot  at  Six-mile  Bridge,  July  22,  ,, 
Irish  members  of  parliament  found  a 

"  Religious  Equality  Association  "  .  Sept.  10,     ,, 
Cork  Industrial  Exhibition  closed         .  Sept.  2,     ,, 
Income  tax  extended  lo  Ireland         .          May,  1853 
Dublin  Exhibition  opens        .        .          May  12,     „ 
Queen  visits  Ireland  ....      Aug  29,     ,, 
Tenant  Right  League  conference.         .    Oct.  4,     ,, 
Dreadful  Railway  accident  near  Dublin   Oct.  5,     „ 
Exhibition  closed        ....       Nov.  i,     „ 
Train  wilfully  upset  after  an  Orange  demon- 
stration at  Londonderry,  one  person  killed 
and  many  hui-t     .         .        .        .        Sept.  15,  1854 
Religious  riots  at  Belfast  ....  Sept.  1857 
Progress  of  cardinal  Wiseman  in  Ireland    Sept.  1858 
A  packet  from  Galway  reaches  N.  America  in 
six  days Sept.     ,, 


Proclamation    against  secret    societies,   Nov., 

Arrests  of  members  of  Phoenix  Society    .  Dec. 

Proposed  demonstration  of  landlords  (headed 
by  marquess  of  Downshire)  given  up,  Jan.  27, 

National  Gallery  founded      .         .         .         Feb. 

Agitation  against  the  Irish  National  School 
system  . Sept. 

Religious  revival  movement  in  the  north,  par- 
ticularly at  Belfast Oct. 

Great  emigration  to  America  in  the  spring 

Many  Irishmen  enlist  in  the  service  of  the  pope, 
May,  June  ;  many  return  dissatisfied  July, 

The  remainder  taken  prisoners  by  the  Sar- 
dinians, are  released,  and  return  to  Dublin, 
where  they  receive  an  ovation  .  .  Nov. 

Attempted  revival  of  Repeal   agitation,   Dec. 

Agrarian  outrages;  alderman Sheehy murdered 

Oct.  23, 

Census  taken — population  5,764,543        April  8, 

Suspension  of  packet  service  between  Galway 
and  America  through  the  company's  breach 
of  contract May  23, 

Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  June  29 ;  and  the 
queen  and  prince  consort  .  .  Aug.  24-31, 

Irish  Law  Court  commission  appointed,  Dec.  13, 

Numerous  agrarian  murders  ;  Gustav  Thie- 
bault,  April  28  ;  Francis  Fitzgerald,  May  16  ; 
(and  others) ;  Michael  Hayes  shoots  Mr.  John 
Braddell July  30, 

The  primate,  J.  G.  Beresford,  abp.  of  Armagh, 
dies,  aged  89 July  19, 

An  Orange  demonstration  at  Belfast  leads  to 
destructive  riots  ....  Sept.  17, 

Building  for  the  Catholic  University  founded, 

July  20, 

Great  agricultural  distress  ;  many  murders  aud 
outrages,  end  of  1862,  beginning  of  . 

Galway  packet  service  restored  by  subsidy  of 
70,000?.  (See  Galway)  .  .  .  Aug. 

Insignificant  "  Nationalist  "  meeting    Aug.  15, 

Death  of  archbishop  Whately          .        .  Oct.  8, 

Great  emigration  of  able-bodied  labourers  in    . 

Appearance  of  the  Fenians  (ichich  see)       .  Jan. 

Death  of  Smith  O'Brien,  descendant  of  king 
Brian  Boroimhe  ....  June  18, 

Address  of  the  "National  Association"  to 
liberate  tenant  capital ;  recover  the  property 
of  the  Catholic  church,  <fec.  .  .  Jan.  12, 

Opening  of  the  International  Exhibition  at 
Dublin  by  the  prince  of  Wales  .  May  9, 

General  election  favourable  to  the  government 
and  liberal  party July 

Importation  of  cattle  from  England  prohibited 
on  account  of  the  plague  .  .  .  Aug.  25, 

Seizure  of  the  newspaper  "  Irish  People  "and 
30  Fenians.  (See  Fenians)  .  Sept.  15-17, 

More  arrests ;  33  committed  for  trial  up  to 

Oct.  14, 

International  Exhibition  closed  .        .     Nov.  9, 

James  Stephens,  the  "head  centre"  of  the 
Fenians  in  Ireland,  and  others,  captured, 

Nov.  n, 


1858 
1859 

1860 
i86t 


1863 


1864 


KINGS. 

979  or  980.  Maol  Ceachlin  II.  (Malachi)  deposed, 
looi  or  1002.     Brian   Baromy  or  Boroimhe  ;    slain 

after  totally  defeating  the  Danes  at  Clontarf , 

April  23,  1014. 


KINGS   AND   GOVERNORS   OF    IRELAND.  J 

1014.   Maol  Ceachlin  II.  restored  ;  dies  1022  or  ic 
[Disputed  succession.] 

1058. 
1072. 


Donough,  or  Denis,  O'Brian,  son. 
Tirloch,  or  Turlough,  nephew  ;  dies  1086. 


*  An  amnesty  was  granted  to  O'Brien,  May  3,  1856,  and  he  shortly  after  returned  to  Ireland. 
f  Paupers  in  Irish  workhouses  in  1849,        620,000;  in  1857,          65,000. 

Notes  in  circulation  „         £3,850,450          „        £7,150,000. 

Bullion  in  Irish  banks  ,,  1,625,000         ,,  2,492,000, 

J  The  list  of  Irish  sovereigns,  printed  in  previous  editions,  has  been  omitted  to  make  room  for 
authentic  matter.    The  Irish  writers  carry  their  succession  of  kings  very  high,  as  high  as  even  before  the 


IRE 


399 


IRE 


IRELAND,  continued. 

1132.  The  kingdom  divided;    fierce  contests 

for  it. 

132.   Tordel  Vach  ;  killed  in  battle. 
Roderic,  or  Roger,  O'Connor. 
72.   Henry  II.  king  of  England  ;    conquered  the 

country,  and  became  lord  of  Ireland. 
[The  English  monarchs  were  styled  "  Lords  of 
Ireland"   until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
who  first  styled  himsef  king.] 

GOVERNORS  OF  IRELAND  (with  various  titles).* 
.   Hugues  de  Lasci.   1173,  Richard  Fitz-Giklebert, 
earl  of  Pembroke.     1176,  Raymond  le  Gros. 
1177,  prince  John  (afterwards  king),  made 
lord  of  Ireland. 

et  seq.  Justiciars.  The  changes  were  so  frequent 
that  the  more  important  officers  only  are 
given. 
189,  1203,  1205.  Hugues  de  Lasci. 

j,  1204.  Meiller  Fitz-Henri  (son  of  Henry  II). 

1226.  Geoffrey  de  Marreis. 
-32-33.  Maurice  Fitzgerald. 
Piers  Gaveston,  earl  of  Cornwall.  1312, 
Edmund  leBotiller.  1316,  Roger  de  Mortimer. 
1320,  Thomas  Fitzgerald.  1321,  John  de 
Bermingham.  1327,  earl  of  Kildare.  1328 
and  1340,  Prior  Roger  Uttagh.  1332,  sir 
John  D'Arcy.  1337,  sir  John  de  Cherlton. 
1344,  sir  Rasul  d'Ufford.  1346,  sir  Roger 
d' Arcy  ;  sir  John  Moriz.  1 348,  Walter  de 
Bermingham.  1355,  Maurice,  earl  of  Des- 
mond. 1356,  Thomas  de  Rokeby.  1357, 
Almeric  de  St.  Amand.  1359,  James,  earl  of 
Ormond.  1361,  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence. 
1367,  Gerald,  earl  of  Desmond.  1369  and 
1374,  William  de  Windsor.  1376,  Maurice, 
earl  of  Kildare,  and  James,  earl  of  Ormond. 
1380,  Edmund  Mortimer,  earl  of  March. 
1385,  Robert  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford.  1389 
and  98,  sir  John  Stanley.  1391,  James,  earl 
of  Ormond.  1393,  Thomas,  duke  of  Glou- 
cester. 1395,  Roger  de  Mortimer,  earl  of 
March.  1398,  Reginald  Grey  and  Thomas 
de  Holland. 

and  1408,  Thomas,  earl  of  Lancaster.  1413,  sir 
John  Stanley  and  sir  John  Talbot.  1420, 
James,  earl  of  Ormond.  1423,  Edmund  de 
Mortimer,  earl  of  March.  1425,  sir  John 
Talbot.  1427,  sir  John  de  Grey.  1428,  sir 
John  Sutton,  lord  Dudley.  1431  and  1435, 
sir  Thomas  Stanle^.  1438,  Leon,  lord  de 
Welles.  1446,  John,  earl  of  Shrewsbury. 
1449,  Richard,  duke  of  York.  1461,  George, 
duke  of  Clarence.  1470,  earl  of  Worcester. 
1478,  John  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Suffolk.  1481, 
Richard,  earl  of  Kildare.  1483,  Gerald,  earl  of 
Kildare.  1484,  John  de  la  Pole,  earl  of 
Lincoln.  1485,  Jasper,  duke  of  Bedford, 
1494,  Henry,duke  of  York,  afterwards  Henry 
VIII.  (his  deputy,  sir  E.  Poynings).  1496, 
Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare,  and  in  1504.  1521, 
Thomas  Howard,  earl  of  Surrey.  1529, 
Henry,  duke  of  Richmond.  1560,  Thomas, 
earl  of  Sussex.  1599,  Robert,  earl  of  Essex. 
Sir  Charles  Blount,  lord  Mountjoy,  made  earl 
of  Devonshire.  1640,  Thos. ,  viscount  Went- 
worth,  earl  of  Strafford.  1643  and  1648, 
James,  marquess  of  Ormond.  1647,  Philip 


1603. 


1700. 


1767. 
1772. 
1777. 
1780. 
1782. 

1783- 
1784. 

1787. 

1790. 

1795- 

1798. 
1801. 
1806. 
1807. 
1813. 
1817. 
1821. 
1828. 
1829. 
1830. 
1833- 
1834. 
1835- 
1839. 
1841. 
1844. 
1846. 

1847. 

1852. 
1853- 
1855- 


1859. 
1864. 


de  Lisle.  1649,  Oliver  Cromwell.  1657, 
Henry  Cromwell.  1662,  James  Butler,  duke 
of  Ormond.  1669,  John  Roberts,  lord 
Roberts.  1670,  John,  lord  Berkeley.  1672, 
Arthur  Capel,  earl  of  Essex.  1677,  James 
Butler,  duke  of  Ormond.  1685,  Hen^ 
Hyde,  earl  of  Clarendon.  1687,  Richard 
Talbot,  earl  of  Tyrconnel.  1690,  Henry 
Sydney,  lord  Sydney.  1695,  Henry  Capel, 
lord  Capel. 

Laurence  Hyde,  earl  of  Rochester.  1703, 
James  Butler,  duke  of  Ormond.  1707, 
Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke.  1709,  Thomas, 
earl  of  Wharton.  1710,  James,  duke  of  Or- 
mond, again.  1713,  Charles,  duke  of  Shrews- 
bury. 1717,  Charles,  duke  of  Bolton.  1721, 
Charles,  duke  of  Graf  ton.  1724,  John,  lord 
Carteret.  1731,  Lionel,  duke  of  Dorset. 
1737,  William,  duke  of  Devonshire.  1745, 
Philip,  earl  of  Chesterfield.  1747,  William, 
earl  of  Hai-ringtoii.  1751,  Lionel,  duke  of 
Dorset,  again.  1755,  William,  duke  of 
Devonshire.  1757,  John,  duke  of  Bedford. 
1761,  George,  earl  of  Halifax.  1763,  Hugh, 
earl  of  Northumberland.  1765,  Francis,  earl 
of  Hertford. 

George,  viscount  Townshend,  Oct.  14. 

Simon,  earl  of  Harcourt,  Nov.  30. 

John,  earl  of  Buckinghamshire,  Jan.  25. 

Fred.,  earl  of  Carlisle,  Dec.  23. 

Wm.  Henry,  duke  of  Portland,  April  14. 

George,  earl  Temple,  Sept.  15. 

Robert,  earl  of  Northington,  June  3. 

Charles,  duke  of  Rutland,  Feb.  24  ;  died  Oct. 
24,  1787. 

George,  'marquess  of  Buckingham  (late   earl 


Temple),  again,  Dec.  16. 
ohn,  earl  of  W 


John,  earl  of  Westmorland,  Jan.  5. 

William,  earl  Fitzwilliam,  Jan.  4. 

John,  earl  Camden,  March  31. 

Charles,  marquess  Cornwallis,  June  20. 

Philip,  earl  of  Hardwicke,  May  25. 

John,  duke  of  Bedford,  March  18. 

Charles,  duke  of  Richmond,  April  19. 

Charles,  earl  Whitworth,  Aug.  26. 

Charles,  earl  Talbot,  Oct.  9. 

Richard,  marquess  Wellesley,  Dec.  29. 

Henry,  marquess  of  Anglesey,  March  i. 

Hugh,  duke  of  Northumberland,  March  6. 

Henry,  marquess  of  Anglesey,  again,  Dec.  23. 

Marquess  Wellesley,  again,  Sept.  26. 

Thomas,  earl  of  Haddington,  Dec.  29. 

Henry,  marquess  of  Normanby,  Apiil  23. 

Hugh,  earl  Fortescue,  April  3. 

Thomas  Philip,  earl  de  Grey,  Sept.  15. 

William,  lord  Heytesbury,  July  12. 

John  William,  earl  of  Besborough,  July  9 ; 

died  May  16,  1847. 
George  William  Frederick,  earl  of  Clarendon, 

May  26. 

Archibald  William,  earl  of  Eglinton,  Feb.  28. 
Edward  Granville,  earl  of  St.  Gormains,  Jan. 
George,  earl  of  Carlisle,  March. 
Archibald,   earl    of    Eglinton,    again,    Feb., 

resigned. 
George,  earl  of  Carlisle,  again,  June;    died 

Dec.  5,  1864. 
John,  lord  Wodehouse,  Nov.  r. 


Flood.  The  learned  antiquary,  Thomas  Innes,  of  the  Scots'  College  of  Paris,  expressed  his  wonder  that 
"  the  learned  men  of  the  Irish  nation  have  not,  like  those  of  other  nations,  yet  published  the  valuable 
remains  of  their  ancient  history  whole  and  entire,  with  just  translations,  in  order  to  separate  what  is 
fabulous  and  only  grounded  on  the  traditions  of  their  poets  and  bards,  from  what  is  certain  history." 
"  O'Flaherty,  Keating,  Toland,  Kennedy,  and  other  modern  Irish  historians,  have  rendered  all  uncertain, 
by  deducing  their  history  from  the  Deluge  with  as  much  assurance  as  they  deliver  the  transactions  of 
Ireland  from  St.  Patrick's  time. "— Anderson.  The  "  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters,"  edited  by  Dr.  Donovan, 
were  published  in  Irish  and  English  in  1848. 

*  Lord  justices  and  deputies,  and  latterly  LORDS  LIEUTENANT.    It  has  been  several  times  proposed 
to  abolish  the  viceroyalty  of  Ireland,  but  without  success.     The  last  time,  March  25,  1858. 


IEE 


400 


1RU 


IRELAND  FORGERIES.  In  1796  W.  H.  Ireland  made  public  the  Shakspeare  manu- 
scripts which  he  had  forged,  and  deceived  many  critics.  The  play,  Vortigern,  was  pel-formed 
at  Drury-lane  theatre  on  April  2,  1796.  He  shortly  after  acknowledged  the  forgery,  and 
published  his  "  Confessions"  in  1805.  He  died  in  1835. 

IRIDIUM  AND  OSMIUM.  In  1804  Tennant  discovered  these  two  rare  metals  in  the  ore 
of  platinum,  in  which,  in  1845,  Claus  discovered  a  third,  Ruthenium. 

IRON  was  found  on  Mount  Ida  by  the  Dactyles,  owing  to  the  forest  having  been  burnt  by 
lightning,  1432  B.C.  Arundclian  Marbles.  [1407,  II ales ;  1283,  Clinton.}  The  Greeks 
ascribed  the  discovery  of  iron  to  themselves,  and  referred  glass  to  the  Phoenicians.  Moses 
relates  that  iron  was  wrought  by  Tubal-Cain.  Iron  furnaces  among  the  Romans  were 
unprovided  with  bellows,  but  were  placed  on  eminences  with  the  grate  in  the  direction  of 
the  prevailing  winds.  Swedish  iron  is  very  celebrated,  and  Dannemora  is  the  greatest  mine 
of  Sweden. 


Belgium  was  an  early  seat  of  the  iron-manufac- 
ture ;  coal  said  to  have  been  employed  at  Marche- 
les-dames,  1340. 

British  iron  cast  by  Ralph  Page  and  Peter  Baude,  in 
Sussex,  1543.  Rymer's  Foedera. 

Iron-mills  used  for  slitting  iron  into  bars  for  smiths, 
by  Godfrey  Bochs,  1590. 

Tinning  of  iron  introduced  from  Bohemia,  1681. 
Till  about  1730  iron  ores  were  smelted  entirely 
with  wood  charcoal,  which  did  not  wholly  give 
way  to  coal  and  coke  till  1788. 


The  operation  termed  puddling,  and  other  very  great 
improvements  in  the  manufacture,  invented  by 
Mr.  Henry  Cort,  between  1781  and  1826,  who  did 
not  reap  the  due  reward  of  his  ingenuity. 

Mr.  Henry  Bessemer  made  known  his  method  of 
manufacturing  iron  and  steel,  which  is  considered 
to  possess  many  advantages,  1856. 

Strike  of  the  puddlers  and  lock-out  of  the  masters  in 
Staffordshire,  Northumberland,  &c.,  lasted  during 
March,  April,  and  May,  1865. 


IRON   PKODUCED    IN    GREAT   BRITAIN. 


1740 
1788 
1796 
1802 
1806 


.     59  furnaces    . 

•  77        >• 

.     121  ,, 

.  168        „ 

•  227 


17,350  tons. 

61,900  ,, 
124,789  „ 
227,  ooo  ,, 
250,000  ,, 


1820 
1825 
1840 

1848 

1852 


260  furnaces 

374  „ 

402 

623 

655 


400,000  tons. 

581,367  „ 
.  1,396,400  ,, 
.  1,998,558  „ 
.  2,701,000  ,, 


In  1855,  3,217,154  tons  of  pig  iron  were  produced  ;  in  1857,  3,659,447  tons  ;  in  1864,  4,767,951  tons. 

IRON  CROWN  (of  Italy)  is  of  gold,  having  inside  a  ring  of  iron,  said  to  have  been 
forged  from  the  nails  of  Christ's  cross,  and  was  made  by  order  of  Theudelinde  for  her 
husband,  Agilulf,  king  of  the  Longobards,  591.  She  presented  it  (to  be  kept)  to  the  church 
at  Monza.  Charlemagne 'was  crowned  with  this  crown,  and  after  him  all  the  emperors  who 
were  kings  of  Lombardy ;  Napoleon  I.  at  Milan,  on  May  26,  1805,  put  it  on  his  head,  saying 
"  Dieu  me  Va  donnee;  gare  a  qui  y  toucliera."  (God  has  given  it  to  me  ;  woe  to  him  who 
shall  touch  it.)  He  founded  the  order  of  the  Iron  Crown,  which  still  continues.  The  crown 
was  removed  from  Monza  to  Mantua  by  the  Austrians,  on  April  23,  1859. 

IRON-MASK,  THE  MAN  WITH  THE.*  A  mysterious  prisoner  in  France,  wearing  a  mask 
and  closely  confined,  under  M.  de  St.  Mars,  at  Pignerol,  Sainte  Marguerite,  and  afterwards 
at  the  Bastile.  He  was  of  noble  mien,  and  was  treated  with  profound  respect ;  but  his 
keepers  had  orders  to  despatch  him  if  he  uncovered.  M.  de  St.  Mars  himself  always  placed 
the  dishes  on  his  table,  and  stood  in  his  presence.  He  died  Nov.  19,  1703. 

IRON-PLATED  SHIPS.     See  under  Navy  of  England  and  United  States,  1862. 

IRUN  (a  frontier  village  of  Spain).  On  the  i6th  May,  1837,  the  British  auxiliary  legion 
under  general  Evans,  marched  from  St.  Sebastian  to  attack  Iran  (held  by  the  Carlists), 
which  after  a  desperate  resistance,  was  carried  by  assault,  May  17. 

*  Some  conjecture  this  person  to  have  been  an  Armenian  patriarch  forcibly  carried  from  Constanti- 
nople (who  died  ten  years  before  the  mask)  ;  others  that  he  was  the  count  de  Vermandois,  son  of  Louis  XIV. , 
although  he  was  reported  to  have  perished  in  the  camp  before  Dixmude.  More  believe  him  to  have  been 
the  celebrated  duke  of  Beaufort,  whose  head  is  recorded  to  have  been  taken  off  before  Candia  ;  while  still 
more  assert  that  he  was  the  unfortunate  James,  duke  of  Monmouth,  who — in  the  imagination  of  the 
Londoners  at  least — was  executed  on  Tower-hill.  There  are  two  better  conjectures  ;  he  was  said  to  have 
been  either  a  son  of  Anne  of  Austria,  queen  of  Louis  XIII.,  his  father  being  the  cardinal  Mazarine  (to  whom 
that  dowager-queen  was  privately  married),  or  the  duke  of  Buckingham  :  or  to  have  been  the  twin 
brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  whose  birth  was  concealed  to  prevent  the  civil  dissensions  in  France,  which  it 
might  one  day  have  caused.  The  last  conjecture  was  received  by  Voltaire  and  many  others.  It  has  been 
more  recently  conjectured  that  Fouquet,  an  eminent  statesman  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  the  Masque 
de  Per;  and  a  count  Matthioli,  secretary  of  state  to  Charles  III.,  duke  of  Mantua,  is  supposed  by  M.  Delort, 
in  a  later  publication,  to  have  been  the  victim.  The  right  hon.  Agar  Ellis  (afterwards  lord  Dover),  in  an 
interesting  narrative,  endeavours  to  prove  Mat.thioli  to  have  been  the  person.  The  mask,  it  seems,  was 
not  made  of  iron ;  but  of  black  velvet,  strengthened  with  whalebone,  and  fastened  behind  the  head  with 
a,  padlock. 


s& 

presc 


IRVINGITES,  or  the  followers  of  the  rev.  Edward  Irving,*  who  now  call  themselves  the 
"Holy  Catholic  Apostolic   Church."     They  use  a  liturgy  (framed  in   1842,  and  enlarged 
,  and  have  church  officers  named  apostles,   angels,   prophets,   &c.     In   1852  lighted 
dies  were  placed  on  the  magnificent  altar,  and  burning  of  incense  during  prayers  was 
scribed.     The  Gothic  church  in  Gordon-square  was  solemnly  opened  Jan.  I,  1854.     It  is 
said  that  all  who  join  the  church  offer  it  a  tenth  of  their  income.     They  had  30  chapels  in 
England  in  1851. 

ISAURIA  (a  province  in  Asia  Minor),  was  retaken  from  the  Saracens  by  the  emperor 
Leo  III.,  who  founded  the  Isaurian  dynasty,  which  ended  with  Constantino  VI.  in  797.  - 

ISERNIA,  S.  Italy.  Here  the  Sardinian  general,  Cialdini,  defeated  the  Neapolitans, 
Oct.  17,  1860. 

1  ISLAM,  or  ESLAM,  submission  to  God,  the  name  given  to  Mahometanism  (which  see). 
ISLE  OF  FRANCE.     See  Mauritius,  Man,  &c. 
ISLES,  BISHOPRIC  OF.     This  see  contained  not  only  the  Hebudes,  Hebrides,  or  Western 
es,  but  the  Isle  of  Man,  which  for  nearly  400  years  had  been  a  separate  bishopric.     The 
first  bishop  of  the  Isles  was  Amphibalus,  360.     The  Isle  of  Ily  was  in  former  ages  a  place 
famous  for  sanctity  and  learning,  and  early  the  seat  of   a  bishop  ;   it  was   denominated 
Icolumkill  from  St.  Columba,  the  companion  of  St.  Patrick,  founding  a  monastery  here  in 
the  6th  century,  which  was  the  parent  of  above  100  other  monasteries  in  England  and  Ireland. 
Since  the  revolution  (when  this  bishopric  was  discontinued)  the  Isles  have  been  joined  to 
Moray  and  Ross,  or  to  Ross  alone.     In  1847,  however,  Argyll  and  the  Isles  were  made  a 
seventh  post- re  volution  and  distinct  bishopric.     See  Bishops. 

ISMAIL  (Bessarabia).  After  a  long  siege  by  the  Russians,  who  lost  20,000  men  before 
the  place,  the  town  was  taken  by  storm,  Dec.  22,  1790  ;  when  Suwarrow,  the  most  merciless 
warrior  of  modern  times,  put  the  brave  Turkish  garrison  (30,000  men)  to  the  sword,  and 
delivered  up  Ismail  to  pillage,  and  ordered  the  massacre  of  6000  women.  By  the  treaty  of 
Paris  in  1856  Ismail  was  restored  to  Turkey.  It  was  ceded  to  Moldavia  in  1856. 

ISPAHAN  was  made  the  capital  of  Persia  by  Abbas  the  Great,  in  1590.  It  ceased  to  be 
so  in  1796,  when  Teheran  became  the  capital. 

ISRAEL,  KINGDOM  OF.     See  Jews. 

ISSUS  (Asia  Minor),  the  site  of  Alexander's  second  great  battle  with  Darius,  whose  queen 
and  family  were  captured,  Oct.  333  B.C.  The  Persian  army,  according  to  Justin,  consisted 
of  400,000  foot  and  100,000  horse  ;  61,000  of  the  former  and  10,000  of  the  latter  were  left 
dead  on  the  spot,  and  40,000  were  taken  prisoners. 

ISTHMIAN  GAMES  received  their  name  from  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  they  were 
observed:  instituted  bjt  Sisyphus,  about  1406  B.C.,  in  honour  of  Melicertes,  a  sea-god. 
Lenglet.  They  were  re-instituted  in  honour  of  Neptune  by  Theseus  about  1 239  B.  c.  ;  and 
their  celebration  was  held  so  sacred,  that  even  a  public  calamity  did  not  prevent  it.  The 
games  were  revived  by  Julian,  A.D.  362. 

ISTRIA  was  finally  subdued  by  the  Romans,  177  B.C.  After  various  changes  it  came 
under  the  rule  of  Venice  in  1378. 

ITALY  (either  from  I  talus,  an  early  king,  or  italus,  a  bull  calf)  is  called  the  garden  of 
Europe.  The  invading  Pelasgians  from  Greece,  and  the  Aborigines  (Umbrians,  Oscans,  and 
Etruscans),  combined,  form  the  renowned  Latin  race,  still  possessing  the  southern  part  of 
Europe.  The  history  of  Italy  is  soon  absorbed  into  that  of  Rome,  founded  753  B.C.  Previous 
to  the  1 5th  century  it  was  desolated  by  intestine  wars  and  the  interference  of  the  German 
emperors  ;  since  then,  Spain,  France,  and  Germany  have  struggled  for  the  possession  of  the 
country,  which  has  been  divided  among  them  several  times.  Spain  predominated  in  Italy 
during  the  i6th  and  I7th  centuries  :  but  was  compelled  to  yield  to  the  house  of  Austria  at 
the  beginning  of  the  i8th.  The  victories  of  Bonaparte  in  1797-8  changed  the  government 
of  Italy ;  but  the  Austrian  rule  was  re-established  at  the  peace  in  1814.  In  1848  the  Milanese 

*  Edward  Irving  was  born  Aug.  15,  1792,  and  was  engaged  as  assistant  to  Dr.  Chalmers,  at  Glasgow, 
in  1819.  In  1822  he  attracted  immense  crowds  of  most  distinguished  persons  to  his  sermons  at  the  Scotch 
church,  Hatton-garden.  A  new  church  was  built  for  him  in  Regent-square  in  1827.  Soon  after  he  pro- 
pounded new  doctrines  on  the  human  nature  of  Christ :  and  the  "  Utterances  of  Unknown  Tongues  "  which 
began  in  his  congregation  with  a  Miss  Hall  and  Mr.  Taplin,  Oct.  16,  1831,  were  countenanced  by  him,  as  of 
divine  inspiration.  He  was  expelled  from  the  Scotch  church,  March  is,  1833.  His  church,  "recon- 
stituted with  the  threefold  cord  of  a  sevenfold  ministry,"  was  removed  to  Newman-street.  He  died 
Dec.  8,  1834. 

D  D 


IT  A 


402 


ITA 


and  Venetians  revolted  and  joined  Piedmont,  but  were  subdued  by  Badetzky.  The  hostile 
feeling  between  Austria  and  Piedmont  gradually  increased  till  war  broke  out  in  April,  1859. 
The  Austrians  were  defeated,  and  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  comprising  Piedmont,  Sardinia, 
Lombardy,  Tuscany,  Modena,  Parma,  the  Romagna,  Naples,  and  Sicily  was  re-established, 
March  17,  1861,  by  the  Italian  parliament  (consisting  of  443  deputies  from  59  provinces). 
On  Oct.  29,  1 86 1,  the  internal  government  was  re-organized  ;  the  59  provinces  were  placed 
under  prefects,  subject  to  four  directors-general.  In  1861,  the  population  was  21,728,529. — 
Estimated  revenue,  25,000,000?.  ;  expenditure,  30,000,000?.  For  details  see  Rome  and 
the  various  Italian  cities  throughout  the  volume. 


Italy  (Saturnia)  fabled  to  have  been  ruled  by 

Saturn  during  the  golden  age. 
Arrival  of  (Enotrus  from  Aroadia,  1710  B.C.  ;  and 

of  Evander about  B.C.  1240 

JEneas  the  Trojan  lands  in  Italy,  defeats  and 
kills  Turmis,  marries  Lavinia,  daughter  of 
king  Latinus,  and  founds  Lavinium,  in  South 

Italy 1182  <fec. 

Greek  colonies  (see  Magna  Grcecia)  founded  974 — 443 

Komulus  builds  Rome 753 

[For  subsequent  history,  see  Rome.~\ 
Odoacer,  leader  of  the  Heruli,  establishes  the 

kingdom  of  Italy A.D.     476 

The  Ostrogoths  invade  Italy,  and  retain  it  till  .     491 
They  are  expelled  by  the   Imperial  generals 

Narses  and  Belisarius 552 

[See  KINGS  OF  ITALY,  p.  404,  and  Iron  CVoira.] 
Narses,  governor  of  Italy,  invites  the  Lombards 

from  Germany,  568  ;  who  overrun  Italy  .  596 
Venice  first  governed  by  a  doge  .  .  .  697 
Pepin  gives  Ravenna  to  the  pope  .  .  .  734 
Charlemagne  invades  Italy,  774  ;  crowned  em- 
peror of  the  west  at  Rome  by  pope  Leo  III.  .  800 
The  Saracens  invade_Italy  and  settle  at  Bari  .  842 

Genoa  becomes  important 1000 

The  Saracens  expelled  by  the  Normans         .  1016-17 
Pope  Gregory  VII.,  surnamed  Hildebrand,  pre- 
tends to  universal  sovereignty,  in  which  he 
is  assisted  by  Matilda,  countess  of  Tuscany, 
mistress  of  the  greater  part  of  Italy          .    ,  1073-85 
Disputes  between  the    popes    and    emperors, 
relative  to  ecclesiastical  investitures,  begin 
about  1073,  and  long  agitate  Italy  and  Ger- 
many. 
Rise  of  the  Lombard  cities      .        .        .    about  1120 

Who  war  with  each  other 1144 

The  Venetians  obtain  many  victories  over  the 

Eastern  emperors 1125 

"Wars  of  the  Guelfs  and  Ghibelines  (which  see) 

begin about  1161 

Frederic  I.  (Barbarossa)  interferes  :  his  wars  1154-75 

Lombard  league  formed 1167 

His  defeat  at  Leguano 1176 

Peace  of  Constance 1183 

Civil  wars  again 1199  <fec. 

Wars  of  Frederick  II 1236-50 

His  natural  son,  Manfred,  king  of  Sicily,  de- 
feated and  killed  at  the  battle  of  Benevento. 
by  Charles  of  Anjou  .  .  Feb.  26,  1266 

Who  also  defeats  Conradin,  at  Tagh'acozzo, 

Aug.  23,  1268 

The  Visconti  rule  at  Milan 1277 

The  Sicilian  vespers,  March  30 ;  the  French  ex- 
pelled from  Sicily 1282 

Clement  V.  (Pope,  1305),  fixes  his  residence  at 

Avignon  in  France 1308 

Louis  Gonzaga  makes  himself  master  of  Man- 
tua, with  the  title  of  imperial  vicar    .        .     .  1328 
First  doge  of  Genoa  appointed    ....  1339 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  invades  Italy,  and  con- 
quers Naples 1495 

But  loses  it  in 1496 

Louis  XII.  joins   Venice  and  conquers  Milan 

(soon  lost) 1499 

League    of     Cambray    (1508)    against    Venice, 

which  is  despoiled  of  its  Italian  possessions  .  1509 
Leo.  X.  pope,  patron  of  literature  and  art  .  1513-22 
Wars  of  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  .  .  1515-21 


The  latter  defeated  and  made  prisoner  at  Pavia  1525 

Parma  and  Placentia  made  a  duchy  for  his 

"  family  by  pope  Paul  III.  (Alexander  Farnese)  1545 

Peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis 1559 

War  of  the  Mantuan  succession  .  .  .  1627-31: 
Catinat  and  the  French  defeat  the  duke  of 

Savoy  at  Marsaglia    .        .        .        .       Oct.  4,  1693 
War  of  Spanis.li  succession  commences  in  Italy  1701 

Battle  of  Turin Sept.  7,  1706 

Division  of  Italy  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht  .  .  1713 
The  Diike  of  Savoy  becomes  king  of  Sardinia  .  1718 
Successful  French  campaign  in  Italy  .  .  .  1745 
Milan,  &c.,  obtained  by  the  house  of  Austria, 

1706  ;  confirmed  by  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  1748 
Division  of  the  Venetian  states  by  France  and 
Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  ;  Cis- 
alpine republic  founded    .....  1797 
Italy  overrun,   1796,  and  Pius  VI.  deposed  by 

Bonaparte 1798 

The    Russians,    under    Suwarrow,   defeat   the 

French  at  Trebia,  <fec 1799 

The  Italian  republic  (Bonaparte  president)        .   1802 
Napoleon  crowned  king  of  Italy  .         .  May  26,  1805 
Eugene  Beauharnois  made  viceroy  of  Italy        .     ,, 
Austria  loses  her   Italian  possessions  by  the 

treaty  of  Presburg  ;  ratified        .        .  Jan.  i,  1806 
The  kingdom  ceases  on  the  overthrow  of  Napo- 
leon, 1814;  the  Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom 
established  for  Austria     .         .        .     April  7,  1815 
Insurrection  in  Lombardy  and  Venice,  March  ; 
supported  by  the  king  of  Sardinia,   April; 

and  the  pope,  June 1848 

The  king  defeated  at  Novara,  March  23 ;  and 
Lombardy  reverts  to  Austria,  May  .        .        .   1 849 

[See  Sardinia  and  Austria,.] 

"Napoleon  III.  etl'Italie"  published  .  Feb.  1859 
The  Austrian  ultimatum  rejected  by  Sardinia, 

April  26,     „ 
The  Austrians  cross  the  Ticino,  April  27 ;  and 

the  French  enter  Genoa   .        .        .       May  3,     ,, 
Peaceful    revolutions    at    Florence,   April  27; 

Parma,  May  3;  Modena        .        .       June  15,     ,, 
The  Austrians  defeated  at  Montebello,  May  20 ; 
Palestro,    May    30-31 ;     Magenta,    June    4  ; 
Marignano,  June  8  ;  Solferino          .    June  24, 
Provisional    governments  established  at   Flo- 
rence, April  27  ;  Parma,  May ;  and  Modena, 
[The  sovereigns  retire.]  .         .         .     June  15, 
Insurrection    in  the  Papal    States ;    Bologna, 

Ferrara,  <fec June  13-15, 

Massacre  of  the  insurgents  at  Perugia  by  the 

Swiss  troops     .  ...     June  20, 

The  Allies  cross  the  Mincio    .        .        .  July  i, 

Armistice  between  Austria  and  France,  July  8, 

Preliminaries  of  peace  signed  at  Villafranca  ; 

Lombardy  surrendered  to  Sardinia,  July  n, 

Italy  dismayed  at  the  peace  ;  agitation  at  Milan, 

Florence,  Modena,   Parma,    &c.,  resignation 

of  count  Cavour  as  minister      .        .        July, 

The  pope  appeals  to  Europe  against  the  king  of 

Sardinia July  12, 

Garibaldi  exhorts  the  Italians  to  arm  .  July  19, 
Grand  duke  of  Tuscany  abdicates       .     July  21, 
Constitutional    assemblies    meet  at  Florence, 
Aug.  ii,  and  at  Modena     .        .      •  .  Aug.  16 
Tuscany,  Modena,  Parma,  and  the  Romagna 
enter  into  a  defensive  alliance,  Aug.  20  ;  de- 
clare for  annexation  to  Piedmont,  Aug  20— 


IT  A 


403 


1TA 


ITALY,  continued. 

Sept.    10 ;    fiscal   restrictions  between  them 
and  Piedmont  abolished  .        .         .     Oct.  10,  1859 

Assassination  of  col.  Anviti  at  Parma   .    Oct.  5,     „ 

Garibaldi  appeals  to  the  Neapolitans  ;  subscrip- 
tions in  Italy  and  elsewhere  to  supply  arms 
for  the  Italians Oct.  ,, 

Tuscany,  &c. ,  choose  the  prince  Exigene  of  Carig- 
nan-Savoy,  as  regent  of  central  Italy,  Nov.  5  ; 
the  king  of  Sardinia  refusing  bis  consent, 
the  prince  declines  the  office,  but  recom- 
mends the  chevalier  Buoncampagni,  Nov.  14,  ,, 

Garibaldi  retires  from  the   Sardinian   service, 

Nov.  1 8,     „ 

New      Sardinian      constitution       proclaimed, 

Dec.  7,     ;, 
e  pope  condemns  the  pamphlet ' '  Le  Pape  et  Le 

.  Dec.  31,     „ 

emperor  Napoleon  recommends  the  pope 
to  give  up  the  legations        .        .        Dec.  31,     „ 
e  pope  refuses,  and  denounces  the  emperor, 

Jan.  8,  1860 

int  Cavour  charged  with  the  formation  of  a 
ministry Jan.  16,     ,, 

Annexation  to  Sardinia  voted  for  (by  universal 
suffrage)  in  Parma,  Modena  and  the  Ro- 
magna,  March  13  ;  Tuscany,  March  16 ;  ac- 
cepted by  the  king  .  .  .  March  18-22,  ,, 

Treaty  ceding  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France  signed, 
March  24;  approved  by  the  Sardinian  par- 
liament   May  29,  ,, 

The  French  troops  retire  from  Italy    .        May,     , , 

Vain  insurrections  in  Sicily,   April  4 ;    May  2,     ,, 

Garibaldi  lands  at  Marsala  in  Sicily,  May  1 1 ; 
and  assumes  the  office  of  dictator,  May  14 ; 
he  defeats  the  Neapolitans  at  Calatifimi, 
May  15  ;  and  at  Melazzo,  July  20  ;  by  a  con- 
vention the  Neapolitans  agree  to  evacuate 
Sicily  (see  Sicily)  ....  July  30,  ,, 

Garibaldi  lands  at  Reggio  in  Calabria,  Aug.  18  ; 
enters  Naples  ;  the  king,  Francis  II.,  retires, 

Sept.  7,     „ 

Insurrection  in  the  Papal  States,  Sept.  8 ;  the 
Sardinians  enter  them,  Sept.  1 1 ;  defeat  the 
papal  troops  at  Castel-fidardo,  Sept.  18  ;  be- 
siege and  take  Ancona,  Sept.  17-29;  Victor- 
Emmanuel  takes  the  command  of  his  army, 

Oct.  4,     „ 

The  Sardinians  enter  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
Oct.  15 ;  defeat  the  Neapolitans  at  Isernia, 

Oct.  17,     „ 

Garibaldi  defeats  the  Neapolitans  at  the  Vol- 
tumo,  Oct.  i,  1860;  meets  Victor-Emmanuel, 
and  says,  "  King  of  Italy  ! "  the  latter  replies, 
"  I  thank  you  ! "  .  .  .  .  Oct.  26,  „ 

By  universal  suffrage,  Sicily  and  Naples  vote  for 
annexation  to  Sardinia  .  .  .  Oct.  21,  ,, 

Capua  bombarded  ;  the  Neapolitans  retire,  Nov. 
2  ;  and  are  defeated  at  the  Garigliano,  Nov.  3,  ,, 

Victor-Emmanuel  enters  Naples  as  king,  Nov. 
7  ;  Garibaldi  resigns  the  dictatorship  and  re- 
tires to  Caprera Nov.  9,  „ 

Victor-Emmanuel  receives  homage  from  the 
Neapolitan  clergy,  &c.  ;  gives  money  to  en- 
courage education ;  appoints  a  ministry, 
including  Poerio,  &c.  .  .  .  Nov.  ,, 

Siege  of  Gaeta  commences  ;  attack  by  sea  pre- 
vented by  the  presence  of  the  French  fleet, 

Nov.  3,  &c.    ,, 

Treaty  of  Zurich  signed  (see  Zurich)    Nov.  10,     ,, 

Decree  in  honour  of  Garibaldi's  army,  Nov.  16,     ,, 

Reactionary  movements  suppressed,  Nov. — Dec.     „ 

Prince  of  Carignan- Savoy  appointed  lieutenant 
of  Naples Jan.  1861 

The  French  fleet  retires  from  Gaeta,  Jan.  19 ; 

after    severe    bombardment   it    surrenders ; 

Francis  II.  retires  to  Rome        .         .  Feb.  13,     ,, 

Monastic  establishments  in  Naples  abolished, 

with  compensation  to  the  inmates;  schools 

established Feb.     „ 

Assembly  of  the  first  Italian  parliament,  Feb. 


1 8,  which  decrees  Victor-Emmanuel  king  of 
Italy Feb.  26,  1861 

Naples  unsettled  through  reactionary  intrigues 
of  the  papal  party  .  .  March  and  April,  ,, 

The  new  kingdom  recognised  by  Great  Britain, 

March  31,     ,, 

Order  for  the  levy  of  70,000  soldiers        .  April.     , , 

Cavour  forms  a  new  ministry,  including  mem- 
bers from  all  parts  of  Italy  .  .  April,  , , 

The    pope    protests    against    the     kingdom, 

April  15,     „ 

Altercation  in  Parliament  between  Cavour  and 
Garibaldi,  April  18  ;  reconciled  .  April  25,  ,, 

Bourbonist  bands  defeated        .        May  7,  <fcc.,     ,, 

Prince  of  Carignan  resigns  ;  San  Martino  ap- 
pointed lieutenant  ....  May  13,  ,, 

Death  of  count  Cavour,  aged  52 ;  intense  grief 
of  the  king  and  nation  .  .  .  June  6,  ,, 

Ricasoli  forms  a  ministry  to  continue  Cavour' s 
policy June  n,  „ 

The  kingdom  recognised  by  France    .  June  24,     , , 

San  Martino  resigns  the  government  of  Naples  ; 
active  measures  taken  against  the  insurgents 
and  brigands  by  Cialdini,  his  successor,  ap- 
pointed   July  1 6,  ,, 

The  king  opens  the  exhibition  of  Italian  in- 
dustry at  Florence  .  .  .  Sept.  14,  ,, 

The  kingdom  recognised  by  Portugal  and  Bel- 
gium, Oct.  i ;  divided  into  fifty-nine  pre- 
fectures, &c. Oct.  13,  ,, 

Severe  skirmishes  in  the  south  with  brigands 
and  foreign  emissaries  in  the  cause  of  Francis 
II Oct.  „ 

Cialdini  retires,  and  La  Marmora  becomes  lieu- 
tenant-general of  Naples .  .  .  Nov.  2,  , , 

Brigandage  still  prevailing  in  the  south,  aided 
by  the  king  of  Naples  ;  insurgents  def eatt  d ; 
and  many  killed  .  .  .  .  Nov.  19,  ,, 

Jose"  Borges,  a  Spaniard,  lands  in  Calabria,  Sept. 
15  ;  calls  on  the  people  to  rise  for  Francis  II., 
Sept.  ;  taken  and  shot  .  .  .  Dec.  8,  ,, 

The  reactionist  warfare  continues,  the  cruelties 
of  the  brigands  lead  to  severe  reprisals,  Dec.     ,, 
*  Jan.  and  Feb.  1862 

The  minister  Ricasoli  compelled  to  resign  by 
court  influence,  March  i ;  Rattazzi  forms  an 
administration  ....  March  3,  ,, 

The  kingdom  recognised  by  Prussia     March  i,     ,, 

Surrender  of  Civatella  del  Tronto,  the  last 
Bourbon  fortress  in  Sicily  .  .  March  14,  ,, 

Triumphant  progress  of  Garibaldi  through  Italy, 

.   establishing  rifle  clubs  .       March  and  April,     ,, 

Mr.  J.  F.  Bishop,  an  active  English  Bourbonist 
propagandist,  captured  .  .  .  April  2,  ,, 

Conspiracy  among  the  Neapolitan  soldiers  at 
Milan  suppressed  .  .  .  April  19,  ,, 

The  king  received  at  Naples  with  great  en- 
thusiasm   April  28,  ,, 

The  French  general  Guyon  aids  in  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Bourbonist  brigands  .  .  April  , , 

The  kingdom  recognised  by  Russia     .     July  3,     ,, 

Garibaldi  proceeds  to  Sicily;  at  Marsala  he 
calls  for  volunteers,  giving  as  his  watchword 
"  Rome  or  death  !"  .  .  .  July  19,  ,, 

Calls  on  the  Hungarians  to  rise  .        .  July  26,     ,, 

The  king  issues  a  proclamation  against  his  pro- 
ceedings, as  tending  to  rebellion  .  Aug.  3,  ,, 

Garibaldi  enters  Catania,  and  organises  a  pro- 
visional government  .  .  .  Aug.  19,  „ 

Sicily  proclaimed  to  be  in  a  state  of  siege,  Aug. 
21 ;  and  put  under  general  Cialdini,  Aug.  22,  „ 

Garibaldi  issues  his  last  proclamation ;  embarks 
at  Catania ;  lands  at  Melito,  in  Calabria,  and 
marches  towards  Reggio,  Aug.  25 ;  La 
Marmora  pi-oclaims  a  state  of  siege,  Aug. 
26  ;  Garibaldi  and  his  followers  fall  in  with 
the  royalists,  under  Pallavicini,  at  Aspro- 
monte,  where,  after  a  short  skirmish,  he  is 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  Aug.  29 ;  removed 
to  Varignano,  near  Spezzia  .  .  Sept.  i,  ,, 
D  D  2 


ITA 


404 


ITA 


ITALY,  continued. 

Mr.  J.  F.  Bishop  sentenced  to  ten  years'  im- 
prisonment   Sept.  6,  1862 

General  Durando  issues  a  diplomatic  circular 
condemning  Garibaldi's  proceedings,  yet  as- 
serting the  necessity  of  the  Italian  govern- 
ment possessing  Rome  .  .  Sept.  10,  ,, 

A  subscription  in  England  enables  professor 
Partridge,  of  King's  College,  London,  to  go  to 
Garibaldi Sept.  19,  ,, 

Princess  Maria  Pia  married  by  proxy  to  the 
king  of  Portugal  ....  Sept.  27,  „ 

Garibaldi  issues  a  rhetorical  appeal  to  the 
English  nation,  urging  its  intervention  for 
the  cause  of  liberty  .  .  .  Sept.  28,  ,, 

Inflammatory  manifesto  addressed  to  the 
people  of  Italy  by  Joseph  Mazzini  .  Sept.  „ 

Amnesty  granted  to  Garibaldi  and  his  fol- 
lowers  Oct.  5,  ,, 

Sharp  reply  of  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  to  Du- 
rando's  note  .....  Oct.  8,  ,, 

State  of  siege  in  Naples  and  Sicily  abolished, 

Oct.  17,     „ 

Disorderly  encounter  between  Italian  and 
Austrian  troops  on  the  banks  of  the  Po, 

Nov.  i,     „ 

Father  Passaglia  and  10,000  (out  of  80,000) 
Italian  priests  sign  a  declaration  against  the 
temporal  authority  of  the  pope  .  .  Nov.  ,, 

Garibaldi  removed  to  Pisa,  Nov.  9 ;  the  ball 
extracted  from  his  foot  by  Dr.  Zanetti, 

Nov.  23,    ,, 

Meeting  of  parliament :  determined  opposition 
to  Rattazzi's  ministry,  Nov.  18 ;  he  resigns, 

Nov.  30,     ,, 

New  ministry  formed,  with  Farina  as  president 
of  the  council Dec.  9,  ,, 

It  declines  further  negotiations  with  France  on 
the  Roman  question  .  .  .  Dec.  18,  „ 

Commercial  treaty  with  France  signed,  Jan.  17,  1863 

Farina  resigns  ;   Minghetti  succeeds,  March  24,     „ 

Grand  Cavour  canal  for  irrigation  of  Piedmont 
opened  ...'..  June  i,  ,, 

Income  tax  bill  passed      ....    July,     ,, 

Tristany  and  other  bandits  captured  .        July,     ,, 

Commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain  signed, 

Aug.  6,     „ 

Death  of  Farina         ....         Septs,     „ 

Several  bandits  captured  on  board  the  French 
ship  Aunis  ;  given  up  to  France,  July ;  re- 
stored to  Italy Sept.  12,  „ 

The  army  of  Piedmont  (50,000)  consolidated  by 
La  Marmora  and  expanded  into  the  "  army  of 
Italy "  (250,000) Oct.  ,, 

The  king  visits  Naples ;  reviews  National  Guard, 
&c.  ......  Nov.  11-17,  ,, 

General  election;  triumph  of  the  moderate 
party Jan.  1864 

Garibaldi's  visit  to  England  amidst  much  en- 
thusiasm   April,  „ 

Franco-Italian  convention  signed  (French  troops 
to  quit  Rome  in  two  years  [from  Feb.  6, 
1865],  Florence  to  be  the  capital  of  Italy,  &c.), 

Sept.  15,     „ 

Riots  at  Turin  in  consequence ;  many  persons 
killed  by  the  military  .  .  Sept.  21,  22,  ,, 

Minghetti  and  his  colleagues  much  blamed  ; 
resigns  :  a  ministry  formed  by  La  Marmora, 

Sept.  24,     „ 

The    convention     denounced    by     Garibaldi, 

Oct.  10,     ,, 

Desperate  state  of  the  finances  announced  by 
Sella,  the  minister;  he  proposes  stringent 
remedies Nov.  ,, 

Railway  direct  from  Turin  to  Florence  opened, 

Nov.  4,     „ 


The  convention  approved  by  the  chamber  of 

deputies,  Nov.  19 ;   by  the  senate  (after  an 

able  speech  by  Cialdini,  Dec.  6)    .        Dec.  9,  1864 
Decree  for   transfer   of   the  capital  published 

Dec.  ii.     ,, 

Prince  Humbert  resides  at  Naples .        .      Dec.     ,, 
Demonstration  against  the  king  at  Turin ;  he 

goes  to  Florence  ....  Feb.  3,  ,, 
Amnesty  for  political  offences  published ; 

brigandage  in  the    Neapolitan  and    Roman 

states  increasing  *  .  .  .  .  March,  , , 
Fruitless  negotiations  with  the  pope  respecting 

the  position  of  bishops  in  Italy,  April  to  July  „ 
The  king  and  court  proceed  to  Florence,  May 

13  ;   he  opens  the  Dante  festival,  the  6ooth 

anniversary  of  the  poet's  birth  .  May  14,  „ 
Mr.  Moens,  a  British  subject,  seized  and  re 

tained  by  brigands  .  .  .  .  May  15,  „ 
45  monks  and  others  arrested  at  Salerno  on 

charge  of  a  Bourbonist  conspiracy,  June  12,  ,, 
Inauguration  of  a  National  Rifle  Meeting  at 

Florence  ;  the  king  fires  the  first  shot  June  18,  ,, 
Numerous  atrocities  committed  by  brigands ; 

Giardullo  and  8  brigands  captured  June  19,  „ 
The  kingdom  recognised  by  Spain  .  .  July  „ 
Mr.  Moens  released  after  a  ransom  of  5000?.  had 

been  paid Aug.  26,     ,, 

Bank  of  Italy  established         .         .         Nov.  7,  1865 
French  troops  leaving  Italy  ;   general  election,   • 

the  moderate  party  predominate  .        Nov.     ,, 
The  new  parliament  meets  at  Florence,  Nov.  18,     , , 


476. 
493- 


526. 
534- 
536. 
540- 
S41- 


568. 


573- 
575- 
491. 
615. 
625. 
636. 

652. 
653- 
661. 
662. 
671. 
686. 
700. 
701. 
701. 
712. 
712. 

744- 
744- 


KINGS   OF   ITALY. 

Odoacer,  king  of  the  Henili,  invades  Italy,  and 
rules  it :  he  was  conquered  and  slain  by 

Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths;  an  able 
prince.  He  put  to  death  the  philosophers 
Boethius  and  Symmachus,  falsely  accused, 
about  525. 

Athalaric,  his  grandson  dies  of  the  plague. 

Theodatus  elected  ;  assassinated. 

Vitiges  elected. 

Theodebald  elected ;  assassinated. 

Totila,  or  Badiula,  a  great  prince ;  killed  in 
battle  against  the  imperial  army  under 
Narses. 

Theras  falls  in  battle.  Italy  subject  for  a  short 
time  to  the  eastern  empire. 

Alboin,  king  of  the  Lombards,  with  a  huce 
mixed  army,  conquers  Italy ;  poisoned  by 
his  wife  Rosamond,  for  compelling  her  to 
drink  wine  out  of  a  cup  formed  of  her  father's 
skull. 

Cleoph ;  assassinated. 

Autharis  ;  poisoned. 


Adaloald ;  poisoned. 

Arioald. 

Rotharis ;     married    the  widow    of    Arioald  ; 

published  a  code  of  laws. 
Rodoald  (son) ;  assassinated. 
Aribert  I.  (uncle). 

Bertharit  and  Godebert  (sons)  ;  dethroned  by 
Grimoald,  duke  of  Beiievento. 
Bertharit  re-established. 
Cunibert  (son). 
Luitbert ;  dethroned  by 
Ragimbert. 
Aribert  II.  (son). 
Ansprand  elected. 
Luitprand  (son),  a  great  prince,  and  a  favourite 

of  the  church. 

Hildebrand  (nephew) ;  deposed. 
Rachis,  duke  of  Friuli,  elected ;  became  a  monk. 


*  In  Dec.  1864,  it  was  stated  that  346  brigands  had  been  killed  in  action  ;  453  taken  in  action,  and  132 
surrendered.  About  300  remained  to  be  tracked.  Many  pretend  to  be  subjects  of  the  ex-king  Francis  II. 
of  Naples. 


ITI 


405 


JAF 


ITALY,  continued. 

Astolph  (brother). 

Desiderius  ;  quarrelled  with  the  pope  Adrian 
who  invited  Charlemagne  into  Italy ;  by 
whom  Desiderius  was  deposed,  and  an  end 
put  to  the  Lombard  kingdom. 

Pepin  (son  of  Charlemagne). 

Bernard. 

Lothaire  (son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire). 

EMPERORS. 

75.   Charles  the  Bald. 
77.   Carloman. 

Charles  the  Fat. 

Berenger  I. 

„          and  Guy. 


894.  Stronger  I.  and  Lambert. 
921.  ,,  and  Rudolph  of  Burgundy . 

926.  Hugh  of  Provence. 

945.  Lothaire  II. 

950.  Berenger  II.  ;  deposed  in 

961.  By  the  emperor  Otho  the  Great,  who  added 
Italy  to  the  German  empire. 

MODERN   KINGS   OF   ITALY. 

1805.   Napoleon  proclaimed  king  of  Italy,  March  18  ; 

crowned  at  Milan,  May  26  ;  abdicated,  1814. 
1861.   Victor-Emmanuel     II.     (of    Sardinia),     born 

March  14,  1820.     Heir :  Humbert,  prince  of 

Savoy,  bom  March  14,  1844. 


ate 

ran 
scaccio  . 


chia 


-veUi 
ni. 


Born 

•  1265 

•  X304 

•  1313 
.  1474 
.   1469 
.  1482 


Died 
1321 
1374 
J375 
1533 
1527 


PRINCIPAL   ITALIAN   AUTHORS/ 
Born        Died 


Tasso 
Galileo  . 
Metastasio 
Goldoni 
Parini 
Alfieri   . 


1564 


1707 
1729 


1642 
1782 
1795 
1799 
1803 


Volta . 

Leopardi 

Monti 

Gioberti 

Nicolini 

Manzoni 


Born  Died 

.  1745  1826 

.  1798  1837 

.  1754  1828 

.  1801  1852 

.  1782  1861 

.  1784 


ITINERARIES.  The  Roman  Itinerarium  was  a  table  of  the  stages  between  two  important 
ices.  The  "Itineraria  Antonini,"  embracing  the  whole  Roman  empire,  usually  ascribed 
the  emperor  Aurelius  Antoninus,  and  his  successors,  A.D.  138-80,  was  probably  based 

_  m  the  survey  made  by  order  of  Julius  Csesar,  44  B.C.     The  "  Itinerarium  Hierosolymi- 

mum  "  was  drawn  up  for  the  use  of  the  pilgrims  about  333. 

I VRY  (near  Evreux,  N.  "W.  France).  Here  Henry  IV.  totally  defeated  the  League  army, 
irch  14,  1590. 

IVORY  was  brought  to  Solomon  from  Tarshish,  about  992  B.C.  (i  Kings  x.  22).  The 
lossal  statues  of  Jupiter,  Minerva,  &c.,  by  Phidias,  were  formed  of  ivory  and  gold,  B.C.  444. 

J. 

J  was  distinguished  from  I  by  the  Dutch  scholars  of  the  i6th  century,  and  introduced 
ito  the  alphabet  by  Giles  Beys,  printer,  of  Paris,  1550.     Dufre-snoy. 

JACOBINS,  the  original  name  of  the  Dominicans  (which  see).     The  Jacobin  club  (first 

illed  "club  Breton  ")  consisted  of  about  forty  gentlemen  and  men  of  letters,  who  met  in 

the  hall  of  the  Jacobin  friars,  at  Paris,  in  Oct.  1789,  to  discuss  political  and  other  questions. 

Fraternal  societies  were*  instituted  in  all  the  principal  towns  of  the  kingdom.     Burke.     The 

club  was  closed  Nov.  u,  1794. 

JACOBITES,  a  Christian  sect,  so  called  from  Jacob  Baradaus,  a  Syrian,  about  541.  See 
Eutychians.  The  partisans  of  James  II.  (Latin,  Jacobus  II.)  were  so  named  after  his  expulsion 
from  England  in  1688. 

JACOBUS.  A  gold  coin,  so  called  from  king  James  I.  of  England,  in  whose  reign  it  was 
struck,  1603-25. 

JACQUARD  LOOM.     See  Loom. 

JACQUERIE,  a  term  applied  to  bands  of  revolted  peasants  :  first  given  to  a  body  of  them 
(headed  by  one  Caillot,  called  Jacques  Bonhomme)  which  ravaged  France  during  the  captivity 
of  king  John  in  1358. 

JAFFA,  a  seaport  of  Syria,  celebrated  in  scripture  as  Joppa,  whence  Jonah  embarked 
(about  862  B.C.),  and  where  Peter  raised  Tabitha  from  the  dead  (A.D.  38) ;  in  mythology  the 
place  whence  Perseus  delivered  Andromeda.  Jaffa,  was  taken  by  the  caliph  Omar,  A.D.  636  ; 

*  The  following  terms  are  often  used  with  reference  to  certain  periods  in  the  history  of  Italian  litera- 
ture and  art.  i.  Trecento  (three  hundred),  from  the  birth  of  Dante  (1265)  to  the  death  of  Boccaccio  (1375), 
which  two,  with  Petrarca,  are  styled  "  the  triumvirate  of  the  Trecento."  2.  Quattrocento  (four  hundred), 
from  1375  to  the  revival  of  Italian  literature  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  in  the  isth  century.  During  this  period 
Latin  was  revived,  to  the  prejudice  of  Italian.  3.  Cinqurcento  (five  hundred*,  from  about  1480  to  1590.  A 
sensuous  style  of  art,  founded  on  the  heathen  mythology,  began  to  prevail.  4.  Seicento  (six  hundred), 
from  1590  to  1700.  The  bad  taste  which  prevailed  during  this  period  is  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  the 
Spaniards  and  the  Jesuits  throughout  Italy.  Seicentisti  is  a  term  of  reproach.  The  Trecento  and  Cinquecento 
were  the  most  flourishing  periods. 


JAG 


406 


JAN 


by  the  Crusaders.  1090  ;  and  by  Bonaparte,  March  7-10,  1799  ;  the  French  were  driven  out 
by  the  British  in  June,  the  same  year.  Here,  according  to  sir  Robert  Wilson,  were  massacred 
3800  prisoners  by  Bonaparte  ;  but  this  is  doubted.  Jaffa  suffered  by  an  earthquake  in  Jan. 
1837,  when  it  is  said  that  13,000  persons  were  killed. 

JAGELLONS,  a  dynasty  which  at  times  reigned  over  Lithuania,  Poland,  Hungary,  and 
Bohemia,  beginning  with  Jagellon,  duke  of  Bohemia,  1381.  It  ended  with  John  II.  of 
Poland,  in  1668. 

JAMAICA,  a  W.  India  island,  discovered  by  Columbus,  May  3,  1494.  It  was  conquered 
from  the  Spaniards  by  admiral  Penn,  with  land  forces  commanded  by  Venables,  May  3, 1655. 
Population  in  1861,  13,816  whites  ;  81,074  coloured  ;  346,374  blacks. 


An  awful  earthquake  here  .        .        .     June  2,  1692 
The   Maroons  (runaway  slaves)  permitted    to 

settle  in  the  north  of  the  island  .  .  .  .  1738 
Desolating  hurricanes  in  1722,  1734,  and  .  .  1751 
In  June,  1795,  the  Maroons  rose  against  the 

English,  and  were  not  quelled  till   .     March,  1796 
Many  transported  to  Sierra  Leone         .         .     .  1800 
Slave-trade  abolished    ....     May  i,  1807 
Tremendous  hurricane,  by  which  the  whole 
island    was    deluged,    hundreds  of    houses 
washed  away,  vessels  wrecked,  and  a  thou- 
sand persons  drowned  ....     Oct.  1815 
Insurrection    of  the  negro   slaves  ;  numerous 
plantations  burnt;   the  governor,  lord  Bel- 
more,  declared  martial  law        .        .  Dec.  22,  1831 
Emancipation  of  the  slaves     .        .     .     Aug.  i,  1834 
About  50,000  die  of  cholera  in        .        ...  1850 


In  May,  1853,  the  dissension  between  the  colo- 
nial   legislature  and  sir  Charles   Grey,   the 
governor,  occasioned  his  recall ;  his  successor, 
sir  H.  Barkly,  arrived    ....     Oct.   1853 
Charles  Henry  Darling,  appointed  governor      .  1857 
Edward  John  Eyre  appointed  governor      .        .  1864 
Negro  insurrection  begins  at  Morant-bay,  by 
resisting  the  capture  of   a  negro   criminal, 
Oct.    7  ;    the    court  house  fired"   on ;     baron 
Ketelholdt,  rev.  V.  Herschell,  and  many  others 
cruelly  murdered  and  mutilated,  Oct.  n,  12,  1865 
Rebellion   spreads,  and    many    atrocities    are 
committed ;   it  is  suppressed  by  the  energy 
of    the    governor,  the    military   and    naval 
officers,  volunteers,   the    maroons,  and  the 
loyal  negroes  *      .        .        .        .  Oct.  13 — 24,     ,, 


JAMES'S  HALL,  ST.,  near  Piccadilly,  erected  for  public  meetings,  &c.,  was  opened 
on  March,  25,  1858,  with  a  concert  for  the  benefit  of  the  Middlesex  hospital.  Mr.  Owen 
Jones  was  the  architect. 

JAMES'S  PALACE,  ST.,  London,  was  built  by  Henry  VIII.  on  the  site  of  an  hospital 
of  the  same  name,  1530.  It  has  been  the  official  town-residence  of  the  English  court  since 
the  fire  at  Whitehall  in  1695.  The  PARK  was  a  marsh  till  Henry  VIII.  enclosed  and  laid  it 
out  in  walks,  1530. 


Much  improved  by  Charles  II.,  who  employed 
Le  Notre  to  plant  lime-trees,  and  to  lay  out 
' '  the  mall "  for  the  purpose  of  playing  a  game 
with  a  ball  called  a  mall  ....  1668 

William  III.  granted  a  passage  into  it  from 
Spring  gardens 1699 

A  grand  display  of  fireworks  took  place  here  at 
the  peace,  when  the  pagoda  bridge  erected 
here  by  sir  W.  Congreve  was  burnt  .  Aug.  i,  1814 


The  park  improved  by  George  IV.  1827,  et  seq. 

The  enclosure  first  opened  to  the  public  in  Jan. 
1829  ;  the  opening  by  Carlton-steps  in  .  .1831 

The  marble  arch  that  fronted  Buckingham 
palace  removed  to  Cumberland-gate,  Hyde- 
park  March  29,  1851 

An  iron  bridge  over  the  ornamental  water  con- 
structed   1857 


JANISSARIES  (Turkish  ieni  tckeri,  new  soldiers),  an  order  of  infantiy  in  the  Turkish 
army  :  originally,  young  prisoners  trained  to  arms ;  were  first  organised  by  Orcan,  about  1330, 
and  remodelled  by  his  son  Amurath  I.  about  1360  ;  their  numbers  were  increased  by  later 
sovereigns.  In  later  days  they  degenerated  from  their  strict  discipline,  and  several  times 
deposed  the  sultan.  Owing  to  an  insurrection  of  these  troops  on  June  14,  1826,  when  nearly 
3000  of  them  were  killed,  the  Ottoman  army  was  re-organised,  and  a  firman  was  issued  on 
June  17,  abolishing  the  Janissaries. 

JANSENISTS,  persons  who  embraced  the  doctrines  of  Cornelius  Jansen,  bishop  of  Ypres, 
who  died  in  1638.  He  was  a  prelate  of  piet}*-  and  morals,  but  his  "Augustinus,"  a  book  in 
which  he  maintained  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  free  grace,  kindled  a  fierce  controversy  on 
its  publication  in  1640.  and  was  condemned  by  a  bull  of  pope  Urban  VIII.  in  1642.  Through 
the  Jesuits,  its  vehement  opponents,  Jansenism,  was  condemned  by  Innocent  X.  in  1653,  and 
by  the  bull  Uriigenitus,  issued  by  Clem'ent  XI.  in  1713.  This  bull  the  French  church 
rejected.  Jansenism  still  exists  at  Utrecht  and  Haarlem.  See  Port  Royalists. 

JANUARY  derives  its  name  from  Janus,  an  early  Roman  divinity.  January  was  added 
to  the  Roman  calendar  by  Nunia,  713  B.C.  He  placed  it  about  the  winter  solstice,  and  made 

*  The  chief  instigators,  Geo.  Wm.  Gordon,  a  coloured  member  of  the  legislative  assembly,  and  Paul 
Bogle,  with  many  others,  were  tried  and  executed  in  a  summary  manner.  Above  200  rebels  were  shot  ; 
and  on  Oct.  24,  above  200  men  and  65  women  remained  to  be  tried.  These  proceedings  excited  severe  com- 
ment in  England. 


•JAN 


407 


JEA 


first  month,  because  Janus  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the  beginning  of  all  business. 
1751  the  legal  year  in  England  was  ordered  to  begin  on  Jan.  I,  instead  of  March  25. 

JANUS,  TEMPLE  OF,  at  Rome,  was  erected  by  Romulus,  and  kept  open  in  time  of  war, 
d  closed  in  time  of  peace.     During  above  700  years  it  was  shut — under  Numa  714  B.C.  ; 
the  close  of  the  first  Punic  war,  235  B.C.  ;  and  under  Augustus,  29,  and  25  B.C.  ;  during 
that  long  period  of  time,  the  Romans  were  continually  employed  in  war. 

JAPAN,  an  Asiatic  empire,  composed  of  five  large  and  many  small  islands  (Niplwn  the 
principal).     It  was  visited  by  Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian  traveller,  in  the  I3th  century  ;  and 
by  Mendez  Pinto,  a  Portuguese,  about  1535  or  1542 ;  whose  countrymen  shortly  after  obtained 
permission  to  found  a  settlement.    The  Jesuit  missionaries  who  followed  made  a  great  number 
converts,  who  sent  a  deputation  to  pope  Gregory  XIII.  in  1582  ;  but  a  fierce  persecution  of 
e  Christians  began  in  1590,  aggravated  it  is  said  by  the  indiscreet  zeal  and  arrogance  of 
e  Jesuits  :  thousands  of  the  converts  suffered  death ;    and  in  1639,   the  Portuguese  were 
terly  expelled  from  the  empire.     The  Dutch  trade  with  Japan  commenced  about  1600 
ider  severe  restrictions,  and  has  since  been  frequently  suspended.     The  learned  Engelbert 
xempfer  visited  Japan  in  1690,  and  published  an  account  of  it  with  plates. 


American    expedition,   under   commodore 
Parry,  reaches  Jeddo,  and  is  favourably  re- 
ceived ;  but  remains  only  a  few  days,  July  8,  1853 
treaty  of  commercial  alliance  concluded  be- 
tween the  two  countries   .        .         .     March,  1854 
similar  treaty  with  the  British    .         .      Oct.     ,, 
Nagasaki  and  Hakodadi  opened   to  European 
commerce          .......   1856 

imercial  treaty  with  Russia      .        Aug.  19,  1858 

Elgin  visits  Japan,  with  a  present  of  a 
steamer  for  the  emperor,  and  is  honourably 
received,  July  ;    obtains  the  treaty  of  Jeddo, 
opening  Japan  to  British  commerce,  Aug.. 26,    ,, 
The  secular  emperor  dies  (aged  36)    .    Sept.  16,     „ 
An  attempt  made  to  assassinate  the  regent, 

March,  1860 

A  Japanese  embassy  visits  Washington,  New 
York,  &c.,  in  the  United  States, 

May  14— June  30,     „ 

Received  by  Napoleon  III.  at  Paris,   April  13  ; 
in  London,  June  j  in  Holland,  Prussia,  <fcc. 

July— Sept.  1862 

Attack  on  the  British  embassy  at  Jeddo  ;  some 
persons  wounded    ....        July  5,  1861 

Japan  quiet Dec.     ,, 

Another  attack  on  the  English  charge  d'affaires 

frustrated        ....        June  26, 27,  1862 
Foreign  ministers  transfer  the  residence  from 

Jeddo  to  Yokohama  .         .        .          June  27,     ,, 
Mr.  Richardson  murdered"*and  his  companions 


cruelly  assailed  by  a  Japanese  noble  and  his 
suite Sept.  14,  1862 

The  batteries  and  vessels  of  the  prince  of 
Nagato  fire  on  an  English  and  a  French  vessel 
at  the  entrance  of  the  straits  of  Simonosaki, 

Nov.  15,  19,   1862 

Some  English,  French,  and  American  vessels 
bombard  his  forts  and  his  vessels,  July  15-19,  1863 

Reparation  demanded  ;  ioo,oooL  paid  by  the 
government ;  the  prince  of  Satsurna  resists 
payment  of  25,000?.,  his  portion;  admiral 
Kuper  enters  the  bay  of  Kagosima,  and  is 
fired  upon ;  whereupon  he  bombards  the 
town  and  burns  the  prince's  steamers, 

Aug.  15,     ,, 

He  pays  the  25,000?.        .        .         .         Dec.   14,     „ 

The  Japanese  minister  announces  that  the 
ports  opened  by  virtue  of  the  treaties  will  be 
closed June  24,  ,, 

The  Japanese  government  refuse  to  abide  by 
the  treaties  ;  a  combined  fleet  enters  the 
straits  of  Simonosaki,  Sept.  4  ;  and  attacks 
and  destroys  the  Japanese  batteries, 

Sept.  5,  6,  1864 

Major  Baldwin  and  lieut.  Bird  murdered,  Nov. 
20  ;  for  which  two  assassins  were  executed  in 

Dec.     „ 

The  Japanese  government  are  stated  to  be  en- 
deavouring to  reduce  the  power  of  the  nobles 

Aug.  1865 


JARNAC  (W.  France).  On  March  13,  1569,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  afterwards  Henry  III. 
of  France,  here  defeated  the  Huguenots  under  Louis,  prince  of  Conde,  who  was  killed  in 
cold  blood  by  Montesquieu.  The  victor  (seventeen  years  of  age),  on  account  of  his  success 
here  and  at  Moncontour,  was  chosen  king  of  Poland. 

JASMINE,  OR  JESSAMINE,  Jasminum  officinale,  a  native  of  Persia,  £c.,  was  brought 
hither  from  Circassia,  before  1548.  The  Catalonian  jasmine  came  from  the  East  Indies,  in 
1629,  and  the  yellow  Indian  jasmine  in  1656. 

JASSY,  the  capital  of  Moldavia,  frequently  occupied  by  the  Russians  ;  taken  by  them  in 
1739  and  1769.  A  treaty  between  them  and  the  Turks  was  signed  here  Jan.  9,  1792. 

JAVA,  a  large  island  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  is  said  to  have  been  reached  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1511,  and  by  the  Dutch  in  1595.  The  latter,  who  now  possess  it,  built 
Batavia,  the  capital,  about  1619.  See  Batavia.  The  atrocious  massacre  of  20,000  of  the 
unarmed  natives  by  the  Dutch,  sparing  neither  women  nor  children,  to  possess  their  effects, 
took  place  in  1740.  The  island  capitulated  to  the  British,  Sep.  18,  1811.  The  sultan  was 
dethroned  by  the  English,  and  the  hereditary  prince  raised  to  the  throne,  in  June,  1813. 
Java  was  restored  to  Holland  in  1814.  In  Aug.  1860,  the  Swiss  soldiers  aided  by  the 
natives  here  mutinied,  but  were  soon  reduced,  and  many  suffered  death. 

JEAN  DE  LUZ,  ST.  (S.  France,  near  the  Pyrenees).  Soult's  strong  position  here  was 
taken  by  general  Hill  and  marshal  Beresford,  Nov.  10,  1813. 


JED  408  JEll 

JEDDA,  the  port  of  Mecca,  Arabia.  On  June  15,  1858,  the  fanatic  Mahommedans  rose 
and  massacred  twenty-six  of  the  Christian  inhabitants,  among  them  the  English  and  French 
consuls  and  part  of  their  families  ;  but  many  fled  to  the  shipping.  On  the  delay  of  justice, 
commodore  Pullen  bombarded  the  town,  July  25  and  26.  On  Aug.  6,  eleven  of  the  assassins 
were  executed  ;  the  ringleaders  also  were  afterwards  executed. 

JEDDO,  OR  YEDDO,  the  capital  of  Japan,  on  the  island  of  Niphon,  contains  about 
2,000,000  inhabitants.  The  emperor's  palace  is  said  to  have  a  hall  of  audience  supported  by 
pillars  of  massive  gold,  and  three  towers,  each  nine  stories  high,  covered  with  gold  plates. 
On  Dec.  23,  1854,  and  Nov.  n,  1855,  severe  earthquakes  occurred  :  during  the  latter, 
57  temples,  100,000  houses,  and  about  30,000  persons  were  destroyed.  See  Japan. 

JE  MA  INTIENDUA  7,  "  I  will  maintain. "  The  motto  of  the  house  of  Nassau .  When 
"William  III.  came  to  the  throne  of  England,  he  continued  this,  but  added  "the  liberties  of 
England  and  the  Protestant  religion,"  at  the  same  time  ordering  that  the  old  motto  of  the 
royal  arms,  "Dieu  et  mon  droit,"  should  be  retained  on  the  great  seal,  1689. 

JEMAPPES  (N.W.  Belgium),  the  site  of  the  first  pitched  battle  gained  by  the  French 
republicans  (under  Dumouriez),  in  which  40,000  French  troops  forced  19,000  Austrians,  who 
were  entrenched  in  woods  and  mountains,  defended  by  redoubts  and  many  cannon,  Nov.  6, 
1792.  The  number  killed  on  each  side  was  reckoned  at  5000. 

JENA  AND  ATJERSTADT  (Central  Germany),  where  two  battles  were  fought,  Oct.  14,  1806, 
between  the  French  and  Prussians.  The  French  were  commanded  at  Jena  by  Napoleon,  and 
at  Auerstadt  by  Davoust :  the  Prussians  by  prince  Hohenlohe  at  the  former  place,  and  the 
king  of  Prussia  at  the  latter.  The  Prussians  were  defeated,  losing  nearly  20,000  killed  and 
wounded,  and  nearly  as  many  prisoners,  and  200  field-pieces  ;  the  French  lost  14,000  men. 
Napoleon  advanced  to  Berlin,  and  issued  the  Berlin  decree  (which  see). 

JENNEEIAN  INSTITUTION,  founded  1803.     See  Vaccination. 

JERSEY.  The  chief  island  of  the  channel  archipelago  (which  includes  Guernsey,  Sark, 
Alderney,  &c.),  formerly  held  by  the  Romans  in  the  3rd  and  4th  centuries  after  Christ — 
Jersey  being  termed  Csesarea.  The  isles  were  captured  by  Rollo,  and  thus  became  an 
appanage  of  the  duchy  of  Normandy,  and  were  united  to  the  crown  of  England  by  his 
descendant,  William  the  Conqueror.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Channel  Islands  preferred  to 
remain  subjects  of  king  John,  at  the  period  of  the  conquest  of  Normandy  by  Philip 
Augustus,  and  while  retaining  the  laws,  customs,  and  (until  lately)  the  language  of  their 
continental  ancestors,  have  always  reinained  firm  in  their  allegiance  to  England.  Almost  every 
war  with  France  has  been  characterised  by  an  attack  on  Jersey,  the  most  successful  of  which, 
under  the  baron  de  Rullecour,  was  defeated  by  the  English  garrison  and  Jersey  militia, 
commanded  by  major  Pierson,  Jan.  6,  1781.  Mr.  J.  Bertrand  Payne,  in  his  "Armorial 
of  Jersey"  and  his  "Gossiping  Guide"  has  exhaustively  treated  the  general  and  family 
history  of  the  island.  The  population  of  the  isles  in  1861,  was  91,147. 

JERUSALEM,  called  also  SALEM,  19138.0.  (Gen.  xiv.  18).  Its  king  was  slain  by  Joshua, 
145 1  B.C.  It  was  taken  by  David,  1048  B.C.,  who  dwelt  in  the  fort,  calling  it  the  city  of 
David.  See  Jews. 

The  first  temple  founded  by  Solomon,  1012  B.C.  ;  I  Jerusalem  taken  from  the  Christians  by  Saladin  1187 

and  solemnly  dedicated  on  Friday  .    Oct.  30,  1004  I  By  the  Turks,  who  drive  away  the  Saracens, 

Jerusalem  taken  and  razed  to  the  ground  by  1217  &  1239 

Titus  :     more    than    1,100,000   of   the  Jews  Surrendered  to  the  emperor  Frederic  II.  by 

perished         .        .        .         .        A.D.  Sept.  8,       70  j      treaty 1228 

A  city  (called  2Elia)  built  on  the  ruins  by  Julius  j  Taken  by  the  Turks 1517 

Severus,  in  the  time  of  Adrian        .        .         .  130    Held  by  the  French  under  Bonaparte          Feb.  1799 


The  walls  rebuilt  by  the  empress  Eudoxia        .     437 

Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Persians,  614  ;  by  the 

.Saracens,  637  ;  and  by  the  Crusaders,  when 

70,000  infidels  were  put  to  the  sword  ;   a  new 

kingdom  founded         .        .        .        July  15,  1099 


The  protestant  bishopric  of  Jerusalem  erected, 
under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain  and 
Prussia ;  S.  M.  S.  Alexander  consecrated 
bishop Nov.  7,  1841 

Jerusalem   and  the  neighbourhood  was    sur- 


The  "  assize  of  Jerusalem,"  a  code  of  laws,  e.s-  veyed  by  a  party  of  royal  engineers  between 

tablished  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon        .         .     .  uoo  j  Sept.  1864  &  June,  1865 


CHRISTIAN    KINGS    OF   JERUSALEM. 


G  odfrey  of  Bouillon 
Baldwin  I.    . 


099  Sibyl,  then  his  son  Baldwin  V 1185 

100  Guy  de  Lusignaii     .......  1186 

Baldwin  II 118  !  Henry  of  Champagne 1192 

131  '  Amauri  de  Lusignan 1197 

144    Jeanne  de  Brie nne 1210 


Fulk  of  Anjou 
Baldwin  III.     . 
Amauri  (or  Almeric) 
Baldwin  IV. 


162    Emperor  Frederic  II 1229-39 

'73 


JERUSALEM  DELIVERED,"  the  great  Italian  epic,  by  Tasso,  was  published  in  1580. 


JES 


409 


JEW 


JESTER  is  described  as  "a  witty  and  jocose  person,  kept  by  princes  to  inform  them  of 
>ir  faults,  and  those  of  other  men,  under  the  disguise  of  a  waggish  story."  Several  of  our 
igs,  particularly  the  Tudors,  kept  jesters.  Rayhere,  the  founder  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
iory,  West  Smithfield,  London,  1133,  is  said  to  have  been  a  court  jester  and  minstrel, 
ere  was  a  jester  at  court  in  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  but  we  hear  of  no 
snsed  jester  afterwards. 

JESUITS,  the  society  or  company  of  Jesus,  was  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  page  to 
^erdinand  V.  of  Spain,  subseqiiently  an  officer  in  his  army,  and  afterwards  canonised. 
1  [living  been  wounded  in  both  legs  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  in  1521,  he  devoted  himself 
to  theology,  and  renounced  the  military  for  the  ecclesiastical  profession.  He  dedicated  his 
life  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  her  knight  ;  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  on  his 
return  laid  the  foundation  of  his  society  at  Paris,  Aug.  16,  1534.  He  presented  its  insti- 
tutes, in  1539,  to  pope  Paul  III.,  who  made  many  objections  ;  but  Ignatius  adding  to  the 
vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  a  fourth  of  implicit  submission  to  the  holy  see, 
the  institution  was  confirmed  by  a  bull,  Sept.  27,  1540  ;  the  number  of  members  was  not  to 
exceed  sixty.  That  restriction  was  taken  off  by  another  bull,  March  14,  1543  ;  and  popes 
Julius  III.,  Pius  V.,  and  Gregory  XIII.  granted  great  privileges.  Francis  Xavier,  and  other 
missionaries,  the  first  brothers,  carried  the  order  to  the  extremities  of  the  habitable  globe, 
but  it  met  with  great  opposition  in  Europe,  particularly  in  Paris.  See  Paraguay  and 
Jansenists. 


i  society  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne,  Paris, 
1554 ;    expelled  from    France,    1594 ;    re-ad- 
litted,  1604 ;    but  after  saveral  decrees  is 
atally  suppressed  in    France  and  its  pro- 
perty confiscated 1764 

Ordered  by  parliament  to  be  expelled  from 
England,  1579,  1581,  1586,  1602  ;    and  finally 

by  the  Relief  Act  in 1829 

Expelled  from — Venice,  1607;  Holland,  1708; 
Portugal,  1759;  Spain 1767 


Abolished  by  Clement  XIV.  (at  the  meeting  of 
the  Bourbon  sovereigns)  .  .  July  21,  1773 

Restored  by  Pius  VI Aug.  7,  1814 

Expelled  from — Belgium,  1818;  Russia,  1820; 
Spain,  1820,  1835  ;  France,  1831,  1845  ;  Por- 
tugal, 1834 ;  Sardinia,  Austria,  and  other 
states,  1848  ;  Italy  and  Sicily  .  .  .  1860 

The  chief  of  the  order  appeals  to  the  king  of 
Sardinia  for  redress  of  grievances  .  Oct.  24,  „ 


JESUIT'S  BARK,  called  by  the  Spaniards  fever- wood  ;  discovered,  it  is  said,  by  a  Jesuit, 
about  1535  (and  used  by  the  order).  It  is  taken  from  the  cinchona  or  chinchona  tree.  Its 
virtues  were  not  generally  known  till  1633,  when  it  cured  of  fever  the  lady  of  the  viceroy 
at  Peru.  It  was  sold  at  one  period  for  its  weight  in  silver,  and  was  introduced  into  France 
in  1649  ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  cured  Louis  XIV.  of  fever  when  he  was  dauphin.  It  came 
into  general  use  in  1680,  and  sir  Hans  Sloane  introduced  it  here  about  1700.  The  cinchona 
plant  was  largely  planted  in  the  Neilgherry  hills,  India,  in  1861,  and  is  thriving  greatly. 
See  Quinine. 

JESUS  CHRIST,  the  SAVIOUR.  OF  THE  WORLD,  stated  to  have  been  born  on  Monday, 
Dec.  25,  A.M.,  4004,  in  the  year  of  Rome,  752  ;  but  this  event  should  be  dated  four  years 
before  the  commencement  of  the  common  era.  See  Nativity.  The  following  dates  are  given 
by  ecclesiastical  writers.  Christ's  baptism  by  John,  and  his  first  ministry,  JL.D.  30.  He 
celebrated  the  last  passoyer,  and  instituted  the  sacrament  on  Thursday,  April  2,  33  ;  was 
crucified  on  Friday,  April  3,  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  ;  arose  April  5  ;  ascended  to 
heaven  from  Mount  Olivet  on  Thursday,  May  14  ;  and  the  Holy  Spirit  descended  on  his 
disciples  on  Sunday,  the  day  of  Pentecost,  May  24.  The  divinity  of  Christ,  denied  by  the 
Arians,  was  affirmed  by  the  council  of  Nice,  325. 

JEWELLERY,  worn  by  most  of  the  early  nations.  Pliny  the  elder,  says  he  saw  Lollia 
Paulina  (the  most  beautiful  woman  of  her  time,  and  wife  of  Cains  Csesar,  and  afterwards  of 
Caligula)  wearing  ornaments  which  were  valued  at  322, 9 i6l.  sterling.  Jewels  were  worn  in 
France  by  Agnes  Sorel  in  1434,  and  extensively  encouraged  in  England  about  1685.  The 
standard  of  gold  for  jewellery  was  lowered  by  parliament  in  1854. 

JEWISH  ERA.  The  Jews  usually  employed  the  era  of  the  Seleucida  until  the  I5th 
century,  when  a  new  mode  of  computing  was  adopted.  They  date  from  the  creation,  which 
they  consider  to  have  been  3760  years  and  3  months  before  the  commencement  of  our  era. 
To  reduce  Jewish  time  to  ours,  subtract  3761  years. 

JEWS,  a  people  who  derive  their  origin  from  Abraham,  with  whom  God  made  a  covenant, 
1898,  B.C.  Gen.  xvii. 

CallofAbram B.C.  1921  I  The  male  children  of  the  Israelites  thrown  into 

Isaac  born  to  Abraham  ....  1896!      the  Nile ;  Moses  born       ....  B.C.  1571 

.     •  1837    " 
.   1822 


Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob 
Death  of  Abraham 
oseph  sold  into  Egypt  . 


1729 


The  Passover  instituted.     The  Israelites  go  out 

of  Egypt,  and  cross  the  Red  Sea         .        .     .  1491 
The  law  promulgated  from  Mount  Sinai    .        .    ,, 


JEW 


410 


JEW 


JEWS,  continued. 

The  tabernacle  set  up      .        .        .        .        B.C.  1490 
Joshua  leads  the  Israelites  into  Canaan     .        .1451 
The  first  bondage  (Othniel,  1405)   .        .        .     .  1413 
The  second  bondage  (Ehud,  1325)       .        .        .  1343 
The  third  bondage  (Deborah  and  Barak,  1285)  .  1305 
The  fourth  bondage  (Gideon,  1245)         .        .     .  1252 
The  fifth  bondage  (Jephthah,  1187)    .        .        .  1206 
The  sixth  bondage  1157 
Samson  slays  the  Philistines       .        .        .        .1136 
Samuel  governs  as  judge,  about    .        .        .     .  1120 
Samson  pulls  down  the  temple  of  Dagon  .         .  1117 

B.C.  Kings  of  Judah.       Kings  of  Israel.           Prophets. 
884.  Athaliah     .         .  Jehu, 
n  o    J  Joash  or  Je-  ) 
878-  {      hoahaz.       J       „ 
857.                ,,              .  Je  hoahaz. 
840.  Amaziah         .     .  Jehoash  (839) 
825.          „  .         .        .  Jeroboam  11.       .  Jonah. 
B        (  Uzziah         or  )                                    (  Hosea. 
8l°'l      Azariah.      $            „                     (     Amos. 
784.                „               .  Anarchy. 
773.                ,,               .  Zechariah.  .        .  Joel. 
(  Shallum 

David  slays  Goliath,  about  1063 
Death  of  Saul  ;  David  made  king  .        .         .     .  1055 
David  besieges  and  takes  Jerusalem,  and  makes 
it  his  capital      1048 

772>                "              '    tMenahem. 
761.                ,,              .  Pekahiah. 
759.                „               .  Pekah. 
758.  Jotham                                     .        .   S  Isaiah  and 

Solomon  la  ys  the  foundation  of  the  temple  .     .1012 

742    Ahaz.      .        .             , 

Death  of  Solomon  ;  the  kingdom  divided      .    .     975 

KINGDOM   OF   ISRAEL. 

Jeroboam  establishes  idolatry    ....     975 

730.      ,,                          Hoshea. 
726.  Hezekiah        .    .  {   ^Captivity,    |Nanum. 

698.  Manasseh. 
643    Amon         ...                .           Jeremiah 

ites  slain        957 
Israel  afflicted  with   the  famine  predicted  by 
Elijah         9°6 
The  Syrians  besiege  Samaria          .        .        .     .     901 
Elijah  translated  to  heaven         ....     896 
Miracles  of  Elisha  the  prophet       .        .        .     .     895 
The  Assyrian  invasion  under  Phul     .        .        .     771 
Pekah  besieges  Jerusalem       741 
Samaria  taken  by  the  king  of  Assyria  :  the  ten 
tribes  are  carried  into  captivity,  and  an  end 
is  put  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel       .        .        .721 

KINGDOM  OF  JUDAH. 

Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  takes  Jerusalem,  and 
pillages  the  temple       971 
Abijah  defeats  the  king  of  Israel  ;   50,000  men 
are  slain  in  battle      957 

641.  Josiah    .        .     .           .        .        .     .  Zephaniah. 
C  Jehoahaz         ") 
6io.'-|     (Shallum),    V      ....  Habakkuk. 
'  (     Jehoiakim.  } 
(Jehoakin         )                                     TKmVl 
599-  I      (Coniah),      [ 
(     Zedekiah    )                                   Ezekiel. 

BABYLONISH   CAPTIVITY. 

Daniel  prophesies  at  Babylon      .        .        .B.C.     603 
Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abed-nego,    refusing 
to  worship  the  golden  image,  are  cast  into  a 
fiery  furnace,  but  are  delivered  by  the  angel    587 
Obadiah  prophesies         ,, 
Daniel  declares  the  meaning  of  the  handwriting 
against  Belshazzar    538 
He  is  cast  into  the  lions'  den  ;  he  prophesies 

Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  lays  siege  to  Jerusalem  ; 
120,000  of  the  men  of  Judah  are  slain  in  one 
day                     .......     741 

the  Messiah  „ 

Sennacherib  invades  Judea,  but  the  destroying 
angel  enters  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians,  and 
in  one  night  destroys  185,000  of  them        .     .     710 
Holofernes  is  killed  at  the  siege  of  Bethulia  by 
Judith       656 
In  repairing  the  temple,  Hilkiah  discovers  the 
book  of  the,  law,  and  Josiah  keeps  a  solemn 
Passover        624 
Nebuchadnezzar  invades  Judea  ....     605 
He  besieges  Jerusalem    599 
He  again  invades  Judea,  and  takes  Jerusalem 
after  a  long  siege      588 
Jerusalem  fired,  the  temple  burnt,  the  walls 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  city  reduced  to 
ashes                             .        .        .        •        •     •     587 

RETURN   FROM   CAPTIVITY. 

Cyrus,  sovereign  of  all  Asia,  publishes  an  edict 
for  the  return  of  the  Jews  and  rebuilding 
of  the  temple    536 
Haggai  and  Zechariah  prophets      .        .        .     .     520 
The  second  temple  finished         .          March  10,     515 
The  Jews  delivered  from  Haman  by  Esther      .     510 
Ezra,  the  priest,  arrives  in  Jerusalem  to  reform 
abuses  .     458 
Here  begin  the  70  weeks  of  years  predicted  by 
Daniel,  being  490  years  before  the  crucifixion 
of  the  Redeemer       457 
The  walls  of  Jerusalem  built  445 
Malachi  the  prophet    415 
[The  Scripture  history  of  the  Jews  ends,  accord- 

KINGS.                                                                          PROPHETS. 

Saul  began  to  reign       .        .B.C.  1095  Samuel. 
David            „                .        .        .     .  1055  Nathan. 
Solomon       ,,           .        .        .        .1015 

B.C.  Kings  of  Judah.      Kings  of  Israel. 
075.  Rehoboam  .        .  Jeroboam  I.         .  Ahijah. 
058.  Abijah    ... 
055.  Asa      .        .        .  Nadab(954)    .        Azariah. 
.     .  Baasha    ,,    .           HananL 
930!     ,                            Elah       „       .       Jehu. 
029.     \             ...  Zimri  .        .              „ 
^25.               .        •        •  Omri        . 
9x8      ,             ...  Ahab   .        .           Elijah. 

!£  Jehosha^t    ;  Ah-aziah  •  .  '    EU&, 

ing  to  Eusebius,  in  442  B.C.  ;   and  from  this 
time  Josephusand  the  Roman  historians  give 
the  best  account  of  the  Jews.] 

THE   GRECIAN   EMPIRE. 

Alexander  the  Great  passes  out  of  Europe  into 
Asia  335 
He  marches  against  Jerusalem  to  besiege  it,  but 
it  is  said,  on  seeing  Jaddus,  the  high-priest, 
clad  in  his  robes,  he  declares  he  had   seen 
such  a  figure  in  a  vision  in  Macedonia,  invit- 
ing him  to  Asia,  and  promising  to  deliver  the 
Persian  empire  into  his  hands  ;   he  now  goes 
to  the  temple,  and  offers  sacrifices  to  the  God 
of  the  Jews  332 
Jerusalem  taken  by  Ptolemy  Soter    .        .        .320 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  said  to  employ  72  Jews 

396  {Jd3£Si.  ^Jahaziel. 
889.  Jehoram     .        .                ,, 
883.  Ahaziah.        .     .                „ 

to  translate  the  Scriptures  277 
Antiochus  takes  Jerusalem,  pillages  the  temple, 
and  slays  40,000  of  the  inhabitants         .        .170 
Government  of  the  Maccabees  begins    .        .     .    166 

JEW 


411 


JEW 


JEWS,  continued. 
Treaty  with  the  Romans  ;   the  first  on  record 

with  the  Jews B.C.     161 

Judas  Hyrcanus  assumes  the  title  of  "king  of 

the  Jews" 107 

Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Roman  legions  under 

Pompey 63 

ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Antipater  made  intendant  of  Judaea  by  Julius 

Ca>sar 49 

Herod,  son   of  Antipater,   marries  Miriamne, 

daughter  of  the  king 42 

Invasion  of  the  Parthians 40 

Herod  employs   the  aid  of  the  senate  ;    they 

decree  him  to  be  the  king  „ 

Jerusalem  taken  by  Herod,  and  by  the  Roman 

general  Sosius 37 

Herod  rebuilds  the  temple          .        .        .         .18 
JESUS  CHRIST,  the   long-expected  Messiah,  is 
said  to  be  born  on  Monday,  Dec.  25,  four  years 
before  the  common  era        .        .                A.D.        4 
Pontius  Pilate  is  made  procurator  of  Judea      .       26 
John  the  Baptist  begins  to  preach  „ 
John  the  Baptist  beheaded     ,        .        .  31 
Christ's  ministry  and  miracles    ....  31-33 
The  crucifixion  and  resurrection  of  the   Re- 
deemer   33 

The  Jews  persecuted  for  refusing  to  worship 

Caligula 38 

Receive  the  right  of  Roman  citizenship        .     .      41 
Claudius  banishes  Jews  from  Rome  ...       50 
Titus  takes  Jerusalem  ;  the  city  and  temple  are 
Backed  and  burnt,  and  1,100,000  of  the  Jews 
perish,  multitudes  destroying  themselves      .       70 
A-.lrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem    (calling   it    jElia 

Capitolina),  and  erects  a  temple  to  Jupiter   .     130 
Rebellion  of    Bar-cochba ;   final  desolation   of 

Judea 135-136 

More  than  580,000  of  the  Jews  are  slain  by  the 
Romans  in    .......   135-136 

[They  are  now  banished  from  Judea  by  an  edict 
of  the  emperor,  and  are  forbidden  to  return, 
or  even  to  look  back  upon  their  once  flourish- 
ing and  beloved  city,  on  pain  of  death.  From 
this  period,  the  Jews  have  been  scattered 
among  all  other  nations.] 

GENERAL  HISTORY. 

•Tews  first  arrive  in  England        ....  1078 

The  Rabbi  Maimonides  lives  about         .         .     .  • 

The  Jews  massacred  in  London,  on  the  corona- 
tion day  of  Richard  I.,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  priests  .  1189 

500  Jews  besieged  in  York  castle  by  the  mob, 
cut  each  other's  throats  to  avoid  their  fury  .  ngo 

Jews  of  both  sexes  imprisoned  ;  their  eyes  or 
teeth  plucked  out,  and  numbers  inhumanly 
butchered,  by  king  John 1204 

They  circumcise  and  attempt  to  crucify  a  child 
at  Norwich  ;  the  offenders  are  condemned  in 
a  fine  of  20,000  marks 1235 

They  crucify  a  child  at  Lincoln,  for  which 
18  are  hanged 1255 

700  Jews  are  slain  in  London,  a  Jew  having 
forced  a  Christian  to  pay  him  more  than  zs. 
per  week  as  interest  on  a  loan  of  20*.  Stow.  1262 

Statute  that  no  Jew  should  enjoy  a  freehold, 
passed 1269 

Every  Jew  lending  money  on  interest  com- 
pelled to  wear  a  plate  on  his  breast,  signi- 
fying that  he  was  a  usurer,  or  to  quit  the 
realm.  Stow 1274 

267  Jews  hanged  and  quartered  for  clipping 
coin 1278 

15,660  Jews  banished  from  England.     Rapin.    .  1290 

Much  pillaged  and  persecuted  in  France  during 
the  1 4th  and  isth  centuries. 


A  fatal  distemper  raging  in  Europe  ;  they  are 
suspected  of  having  poisoned  the  springs,  and 
numbers  are  massacred.  Lenglet,  .  .  A.D.  1348 
Jews  are  banished  from  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
France  (considered  by  them  as  great  a  cala- 
mity as  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem)  .  1492-94 

Edicts  against  Jews  rescinded  by  pope  Six- 
tus  V. .  .  1588 

Jews  favoured  in  Holland 1603 

After  having  been  banished  England  370  years, 
they  are  permitted  to  return  by  Cromwell, 
who  grants  a  pension  to  Manasseh  Ben  Israel  16-7 

Statute  to  compel  them  to  maintain  their  pro- 
testant  children  enacted  ....  1702 

Jews  acquire  right  to  possess  land  in  England  1723 

Bill  to  naturalise  the  professors  of  the  Jewish 
religion  in  Ireland  (where  200  Jews  then  re- 
sided) refused  the  royal  assent  .  .  .  .  1746 

Statute  to  naturalise  them  passed      .        .        .1753 

This  act  repealed  on  the  petition  of  all  the  cities 
in  England  ........  1754 

The  Jews  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Avignon  are 
declared  to  be  citizens  of  France  .  .  .  1790 

Sitting  of  the  great  Sanhedrim  of  Paris  con- 
vened by  the  emperor  Napoleon  Sept.  18,  1806 

London  society  for  promoting  Christianity 
among  the  Jews 1808 

Alexander  of  Russia  grants  land  on  the  sea  of 
Azoph  to  converted  Jews  .  .  Sept.  i,  1820 

Mr.  David  Salomons  elected  sheriff  of  London 
(the  first  Jewish  one)  ;  an  act  passed  to  enable 
him  to  act June  24,  1835 

Bill  for  Jewish  emancipation  in  England  lost 
on  the  second  reading  by  a  majority  in  the 
commons,  228  against  165  .  .  May  17,  1836 

Moses  Moutefiore,  esq.,  elected  sheriff  of  Lon- 
don, and  knighted  by  the  queen,  being  the 
first  Jew  on  whom  that  honour  has  been  con- 
ferred   Nov  9,  1837 

Ukase  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  permitting  the 
title  of  citizen  of  the  first  class  to  be  held  by 
any  Jew  who  renders  himself  worthy  of  it  .  1839 

Owing  to  the  disappearance  of  a  Greek  priest, 
a  persecution  of  the  Jews  began  at  Damascus. 
(See  Damascus) Feb.  i,  1840 

Act  to  relieve  Jews  elected  to  municipal  offices 
from  taking  oaths,  &c.,  9  Viet.  .  .  .  1846 

Baron  Lionel  de  Rothschild*  returned  to  par- 
liament for  the  city  of  London  by  a  majority 
of  6619  votes  ;  his  opponent,  lord  John  Man- 
ners, polling  only  3104  .  .  .  July  3,  1849 

Alderman  Salomons*  elected  me'mber  for 
Greenwich June  28,  1851 

The  Jews'  Oaths  of  Abjuration  bill  passed  the 
house  of  commons  ....  July  3,  ,, 

Baron  Rothschild  again  returned  for  the  city  of 
London  at  the  general  elections,  July,  1852  ; 
March,  1857  ;  July,  1857 ;  and  .  July,  1865 

Violent  outbreak  against  the  Jews  in  Stock- 
holm   Sept.  3,  1852 

The  Jewish  Oath  bill  passed  in  commons,  April 
15  ;  thrown  out  in  the  lords  .  .  April  29,  1853 

Alderman  Salomons  the  first  Jewish  lord  mayor 
of  London Nov.  9,  1855 

The  Jewish  Oath  bill  several  times  passed  in 
the  commons  and  thrown  out  in  the  lords  .  1854-7 

Edgar  Mortara,  a  Jewish  child,  forcibly  taken 
from  his  parents  by  order  of  the  archbishop 
of  Bologna,  on  the  plea  of  having  been  bap- 
tized when  an  infant  by  a  Roman  Catholic 
maid-servant  ....  June  24,  1858 

An  act  passed  enabling  Jews  to  sit  in  parlia- 
ment by  resolution  of  the  house  .  July,  ,, 

Baron  Lionel  de  Rothschild  takes  his  seat  as 
M.  P.  for  London  on  .  .  .  July  26,  ,,  f 

The  French  government  having  in  vain  urged 
Mortara's  restoration  to  his  parents,  sir  Moses 


*  Neither  were  permitted  to  sit. 

i  To  commemorate  this  event  the  baron  endowed  a  scholarship  in  the  City  of  London  School. 


JO  A  412  JUA 


JEWS,  continued. 

Montefiore  proceeds  to  Rome  (but  obtains  no 
redress) Dec.  22,  1858 

Alderman  Salomons  elected  M  P.  for  Greenwich, 
and  baron  Meyer  de  Rothschild  for  Hythe, 

Feb.  15,  1859 

Protest  respecting  the  seizure  of  the  boy  Mor- 
tara  signed  at  London  by  the  abp.  of  Canter- 
bury, and  bishops,  noblemen,  and  gentlemen, 
sent  to  the  French  ambassador,  Oct.  ;  and 
presented  to  lord  John  Russell  .  Nov.  „ 


Oppressive  laws  against  the  Jews  in  the  Austrian 
empire  annulled  .  .  .  Jan.  6,  10,  1860 

Act  passed  permitting  Jewish  M.P.'s  to  omit 
from  the  oath  the  words  "on  the  faith  of  a 
Christian  " Aug.  6,  „ 

Additional  political  privileges  granted  to  the 
Jews  in  Russia,  Jan.  26  ;  and  in  Poland,  June,  1862 

Jews  persecuted  at  Rome  ....  Dec.   1864 

Alderman  Benjamin  Samuel  Phillips,  second 
Jewish  lord  mayor  ....  Nov.  9,  1865 


JOAN  OF  ARC,  the  maid  of  Orleans,  was  born  at  Domremy.  The  English  under  the 
duke  of  Bedford  closely  besieging  Orleans,  Joan  of  Arc  pretended  that  she  had  a  divine 
commission  to  expel  them,  and  Charles  VII.  entrusted  her  with  the  command  of  the  French 
troops.  She  raised  the  siege  and  entered  Orleans  with  supplies,  April  29,  1429  ;  and  the 
English,  who  were  before  the  place  from  Oct.  12  preceding,  abandoned  the  enterprise  May  8 
following.  She  captured  several  towns  in  the  possession  of  the  English,  whom  she  defeated 
in  a  battle  near  Patay,  June  18,  1429.  In  her  various  achievements  no  unfeminine  cruelty 
ever  stained  her  conduct.  She  was  wounded  several  times  herself,  but  never  shed  any  blood 
with  her  own  hand.  She  was  taken  at  the  siege  of  Compiegne,  May  25,  1430  ;  and,  to  the 
great  disgrace  of  the  English,  after  a  trial,  was  burnt  for  a  witch  at  Rouen,  May  30,  1431. 
A  statue  of  Joan  of  Arc,  chiselled  by  the  late  princess  Marie  of  France,  was  inaugurated  at 
Orleans,  Sept.  13,  1851,  and  the  435th  anniversary  of  its  deliverance  was  celebrated  in  the 
same  city  on  May  14,  1865.  See  Patay,  Battle  of. 

JOCKEY  CLUB,  instituted  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  is  mentioned  in  Heber's 
"Racing  Calendar,"  1758. 

JOHN,  ST.,  KNIGHTS  OF.     See  Malta. 

JOHN'S,  ST.     See  Newfoundland,  Cambridge,  and  Oxford. 

JOHN'S  GATE,  ST.,  St.  JohnVsquare,  Clerkenwell,  London,  a  fine  vestige  of  monastic 
building,  was  the  gate  of  the  priory  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  (suppressed  in  1540),  and  was 
the  place  where  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  was  first  published,  March  6,  1731.  The  house 
was  often  visited  by  Dr.  Johnson,  Garrick,  and  their  friends. 

JOHN  DOE  AND  RICHARD  ROE,  names  well  known,  as  standing  pledges  for  the  prose- 
cution of  suits.  In  early  times  real  and  substantial  persons  were  required  to  pledge  them- 
selves to  answer  to  the  crown  for  an  amercement  or  fine  set  upon  the  plaintiff,  for  raising  a 
false  accusation,  if  he  brought  an  action  without  cause,  or  failed  in  it.  And  in  1285, 
13  Edw.  I.  sheriffs  and  bailiffs  were,  before  they  made  deliverance  of  the  distress,  to  receive 
pledges  for  the  pursuing  the  suit,  and  for  the  return  of  the  beasts,  if  return  were  awarded. 
But  this  becoming  a  matter  of  form,  the  fictitious  names  of  Doe  and  Roe  were  used  until  the 
form  was  declared  to  be  no  longer  necessary  by  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act,  1852. 

JOHN  0' GROAT'S  HOUSE,  an  ancient  house  formerly  situated  on  Duncan's  Bay 
Head,  the  most  northerly  point  in  Great  Britain,  deriving  its  name  from  John  of  Groat,  or 
Groot,  and  his  brothers,  originally  from  Holland,  said  to  have  settled  here  about  1489.* 

JOHNSON'S  CLUB.     See  Literary  Club. 

JOINT-STOCK  COMPANIES  (good  and  bad)  have  been  very  numerous  during  the 
present  century  (especially  in  1825  and  1846).  Many  acts  have  been  passed  for  their 
regulation  ;  the  most  important  in  1857  and  i858.t  See  Companies  and  Limited  Liability. 

JOURNALS.     See  Newspapers. 

JOURNALS,  THE,  of  the  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS,  commenced  in  1547,  first  ordered  to  be 
printed  in  1752,  when  5000?.  were  allowed  to  Mr.  Hardinge  for  the  execution  of  the  work. 
The  journals  of  the  HOUSE  OF  PEERS  (commencing  1509)  were  ordered  to  be  printed  in  1767. 

JUAN  FERNANDEZ,  an  island  in  the  Pacific,  named  from  its  discoverer  in  1567. 
Alexander  Selkirk,  a  native  of  Scotland,  was  left  on  shore  here  by  his  captain  for  mutiny  in 
1705.  He  lived  alone  more  than  four  years,  till  he  was  discovered  by  captain  Rogers  in  1709. 

*  This  house  was  of  an  octagon  shape,  being  one  room,  with  eight  windows  and  eight  doors,  to  admit 
eight  members  of  the  family,  the  heads  of  different  branches  of  it,  to  prevent  their  quarrels  for  precedence 
at  table,  which  on  a  previous  occasion  had  nigh  proved  fatal.  Each  came  in  by  this  contrivance  at  his  own 
door,  and  sat  at  an  octagon  table,  at  which,  of  course,  there  was  no  chief  place  or  head. 

j  An  important  act  for  the  incorporation,  regulation,  and  winding-up  of  trading  companies  and  other 
associations  was  passed  in  1862. 


JUB 


413 


JUL 


From  his  narrative   De   Foe  is  said  to  have  derived  his  Adventures  of  Robinson  Crusoe, 
published  in  1719. 

JUBILEES.  The  Jews  were  commanded  to  celebrate  a  jubilee  every  fifty  years, 
1491  B.C.  (Lev.  xxv.  8).  Among  the  Christians  a  jubilee  every  century  was  instituted  by 
pope  Boniface  VIII.  in  the  year  1300.  In  the  i6th  century  it  was  celebrated  every  fifty 
years  by  command  of  pope  Clement  VI.  ;  and  was  afterwards  reduced  by  Urban  VI.  to 
every  thirty- third  year  ;  and  by  Sixtus  V.  to  every  twenty-fifth  year. 


Shakspeare's  Jubilee,  projected  by  Davic 
rick,  was  celebrated  at   Shakspeare's 


David  Gar- 
birth- 
place, Stratford- on- Avon        .       Sept.  6,  7,  8,  1769 
Another  Shakspeare  festival  at  Stratford, 

April  23,  1836 
National  jubilee    in   England  on   account  of 


George  III.   entering  into  the   soth   year  of 

his  reign'.         .        .         .         .         .       Oct.  25,   1809 

Jubilee  in  celebration  of  the  general  peace,  and 
of  the  centenary  of  the  accession  of  the 
Brunswick  family  ....  Aug.  i,  1814 


JUDAH.     See  Jews. 

JUDGES  appointed  by  God,  when  the  Israelites  were  in  bondage,  ruled  from  1402  B.C. 
till  the  election  of  Saul  as  king,  1095.  See  Jews,  Justices,  Circuits,  Lords  Justices,  and  Vicc- 
Chancellors. 


Judges  punished  for  bribery,  and  Thomas  de 
Weyland  banished 1289 

William  de  Thorp  hanged  for  bribery         .         -1351 

John  de  Cavendish  beheaded  by  the  Kentish 
rebels 1382 

Tresylian,  chief  justice,  executed  for  favouring 
despotism,  and  other  judges  condemned  .  1388 

The  prince  of  Wales  said  to  have  been  com- 
mitted by  judge  Gascoigne  for  assaulting  him 
on  the  bench 1412 

Sir  Thomas  More,  lord  chancellor,  beheaded, 

July  6,   1535 

Judges  threatened  with  impeachment,  and 
Berkeley  taken  off  the  bench  and  committed 
by  the  commons,  on  a  charge  of  treason, 

Feb.  13,  1641 


Three  judges  impeached 1680 

Judge  Jeft'eries  committed  by  the  lord  mayor 
to  the  tower,  where  he  died  ....  1689 

The  judge's  office  made  tenable  for  life  (during 
good  behaviour)  instead  of  during  the  pleasure 
of  the  crown  (by  13  Will.  III.  c.  2)  .  .  1702 

Their  commissions  made  permanent,  notwith- 
standing the  demise  of  the  crown  (by  i  Geo. 
III.  c.  23) .  1761 

Three  additional  judges  appointed,  one  to  each 
law  court,  1784;  and  again  in  .  .  .  .  1850 

A  new  judge  took  his  seat  as  vice-chancellor, 

May  5,  1813 

Two  new  vice-chancellors  appointed  .        .        .  1841 

A  third  vice  chancellor  and  two  new  chancery 
judges  (styled  lords- justices)  appointed  .  1851 


JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  PRIVY  COUNCIL.     See  Privy  Council. 

JUDICIAL  SEPARATION  of  married  persons  may  now  be  decreed  by  the  Divorce 
court,  established  by  act  of  parliament  in  1857.  The  persons  separated  may  not 
marry  again. 

JUGGERNAUT,  or  "Lord  of  the  World,"  one  of  the  incarnations  of  Krishna,  is  an  idol 
formed  of  an  irregular  pyramidal  black  stone,  with  two  rich  diamonds  to  represent  eyes  ; 
the  nose  and  mouth  are  patuted  vermilion.  The  number  of  pilgrims  that  visit  the  god  is 
stated  at  1,200,000  annually  ;  some  are  crushed  by  the  wheels  of  the  car  (so  lately  as  Aug. 
1864) ;  a  great  many  never  return  ;  and,  to  the  distance  of  fifty  miles,  the  way  is  strewed 
with  human  bones.  The  temple  of  Juggernaut  has  existed  above  800  years.  The  state 
allowance  to  the  temple  was  suspended  by  the  Indian  government  in  June,  1851. 

JUGURTHINE  WAR.  Jugurtha  murdered  his  cousin  Hiempsal,  king  of  Numidia, 
aud  usurped  his  throne,  118  B.C.  He  gave  him  a  share  in  the  government,  but  killed  him 
in  112.  He  then  provoked  the  Romans  to  Avar.  Csecilius  Metellus  was  first  sent  against 
him,  and  defeated  him  in  two  battles  ;  and  Marius  brought  him  in  chains  to  Rome  to 
adorn  his  triumph,  106  B.C.,  where  he  was  put  to  death  in  104.  This  war  has  been 
immortalised  by  the  pen  of  Sallust. 

JULIAN"  PERIOD  (invented  by  Joseph  Scaliger,  about  1583),  a  term  of  years  produced 
by  the  multiplication  of  the  lunar  cycle  19,  solar  cycle  28,  and  Roman  indiction  15.  It 
consists  of  7980  years,  and  began  4713  years  before  our  era.  It  has  been  employed  in 
computing  time  to  avoid  the  puzzling  ambiguity  attendant  on  reckoning  any  period 
antecedent  to  our  era,  an  advantage  which  it  has  in  common  with  the  mundane  eras 
used  at  different  times.  By  subtracting  4713  from  the  Julian  period,  our  era  is  found; 
if  before  Christ,  subtract  the  Julian  period  from  4714.  For  Julian  era,  see  Calendar 
and  Year. 

JULIERS,  a  Prussian  province  ;  was  made  a  duchy  in  1356  ;  became  the  subject  of 
contention  on  the  extinction  of  the  ruling  family  in  1609  5  was  allotted  to  Neuburg  in 
1659  ;  seized  by  the  French  in  1794  ;  and  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815. 


JUL  414  JUS 

JULY,  the  seventh,  originally  fifth,  Roman  month,  named  "by  Marc  Antony  from  Julius, 
the  surname  of  Cresar,  the  dictator  of  Rome,  who  was  born  in  it. 

JUNE,  the  sixth  month,  owes  its  name  to  Junius,  which  some  derive  from  Juno,  and 
others  from  Juniores,  this  being  for  the  young,  as  the  month  of  May  was  for  aged  persons. 
Ovid,  in  his  Fasti,  introduces  Juno  as  claiming  this  month. 

JUNIUS'S  LETTERS  began  in  the  Public  Advertiser,  Jan.  21,  1769.* 

JUNKER  PARTY  (Junker,  German  for  young  noble),  a  term  applied  to  the  aristocratic 
party  in  Prussia,  now  in  power  under  Otho  von  Bismarck-Schonhausen,  appointed  prime 
minister  Oct.  9,  1862.  Their  political  organ  is  the  Kreuz-Zeitung. 

JUNO,  the  planet,  discovered  by  M.  Harding,  of  Lilienthal,  near  Bremen,  Sept.  I,  1804. 
Its  distance  from  the  sun  is  254  millions  of  miles,  and  it  accomplishes  its  revolutions  in  four, 
years  and  128  days,  at  the  rate  of  nearly  42,000  miles  an  hour.  Its  diameter  is  estimated 
by  German  astronomers  at  1424  English  miles. 

JUNONIA.     Festivals  in  honour  of  Juno,  celebrated  at  Rome,  and  instituted  431  B.C. 

JUPITER,  known  as  a  planet  to  the  Chaldeans,  it  is  said  3000  B.C.  The  discovery  of 
the  satellites  is  attributed  to  Simon  Mayr  (Harms)  in  1609,  but  more  generally  to 
Galileo  on  Jan,  8,  1610.  See  Planets.  JUPITER  AMMON'S  celebrated  temple  in  Libya 
was  visited  by  Alexander,  332  B.C.  Cambyses'  army  sent  against  this  temple  perished 
miserably,  525  B.C. 

JURIDICAL  SOCIETY  was  established  in  Feb.  1855,  and  opened  with  an  address  by 
sir  R.  Bethell  on  May  12  following. 

JURIES.  Trial  by  jury  was  introduced  into  England  during  the  Saxon  heptarchy, 
mention  being  made  of  six  "Welsh  and  six  Anglo-Saxon  freemen  appointed  to  try  causes 
between  the  English  and  "Welsh  men  of  property,  and  made  responsible,  with  their  whole 
estates  real  and  personal,  for  false  verdicts.  Lombard.  But  by  most  authorities  their 
institution  is  ascribed  to  Alfred  about  886.  In  Magnet,  Charta,  juries  are  insisted  on  as  the 
great  bulwark  of  the  people's  liberty.  When  either  party  is  an  alien  born,  the  jury  shall  be 
one  half  denizens,  and  the  other  half  aliens,  statute  28  Edvv.  III.  1353.  By  the  common 
law  a  prisoner  upon  indictment  or  appeal  might  challenge  peremptorily  thirty-five,  being 
under  three  juries  ;  but  a  lord  of  parliament,  and  a  peer  of  the  realm,  who  is  to  be  tried  by 
his  peers,  cannot  challenge  any  of  his  peers.  An  act  for  the  trial  by  jury  in  civil  cases  in 
Scotland  was  passed  in  1815.  An  act  to  consolidate  and  amend  the  laws  relating  to  juries 
in  Ireland  was  passed  4  Will.  IV.  1833.  The  constitution  of  1791  established  the  trial  by 
jury  in  France.  An  imperial  decree  abolished  trial  by  jury  throughout  the  Austrian 
empire,  Jan.  15,  i852.t 

"JUSTE  MILIEU,"  according  to   Louis- Philippe  (in  1830),  is  the   only  principle   of1 
government  which  can  secure  the  welfare  of  France. 

JUSTICES  OF  THE  PEACE  are  local  magistrates,  invested  with  extensive  powers  in 
minor  cases,  but  subject  to  supersession  and  punishment  by  the  King's  Bench  for  an  abuse  of 
their  authority.  They  were  first  nominated  by  William  I.  in  1076.  Stow.  Persons  termed 
conservators  of  the  peace  in  each  county  were  appointed  by  I  Edw.  III.  c.  2,  1327  ;  and  their 
duties  were  defined  in  1360.  The  form  of  a  commission  of  the  peace  settled  by  the  judges, 
23  Eliz.  1580.  Hawkins.  See  Eyre. 

JUSTICES,  LORDS,  were  appointed  by  English  sovereigns  to  govern  during  their 
absence.  Two  lords  justices  of  the  court  of  appeal  in  chancery  were  appointed  to  give  more 
efficiency  to  the  administration  of  justice  in  the  court  of  chancery,  having  rank  next  after 

*  They  have  been  ascribed  to  Mr.  Burke,  Mr.  William  Gerard  Hamilton,  commonly  called  Single-speech 
Hamilton,  John  Wilkes,  Mr.  Dunning  (afterwards  lord  Ashburton),  serjeant  Adair,  the  rev.  J.  Rosenhagen, 
John  Roberts,  Charles  Lloyd,  Samuel  Dyer,  general  Lee,  the  duke  of  Portland,  Hugh  Boyd,  lord  George 
Sackville,  and  sir  Philip  Francis.  The  last-named  is  generally  considered  to  have  been  the  author.  Junius 
said,  "  I  am  the  depositary  of  my  own  secret,  and  it  shall  perish  with  me." 

t  COERCION  OF  JURIES. — About  the  year  927,  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  used  to  feed  the  jury  em- 
panneled  in  their  action,  and  hence  arose  the  common  law  of  denying  sustenance  to  a  jury  after  the  hearing 
of  the  evidence.  A  jury  may  be  detained  during  the  pleasure  of  the  judge  if  they  cannot  agree  upon  a 
verdict ;  and  may  be  confined  without  meat,  drink,  or  fire,  candlelight  excepted,  till  they  are  unanimous. 
— Some  jurors  have  been  fined  for  having  fruit  in  their  pockets,  when  they  were  withdrawn  to  consider  of 
their  verdict,  though  they  did  not  eat  it.  Leon.  Dyer,  137.  A  jury  at  Sudbury  not  being  able  to  agree,  and 
having  been  some  time  under  duress,  forcibly  broke  from  the  court  where  they  were  locked  up,  and  went 
home,  Oct.  9,  1791.  Phillips.  In  Scotland,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  France,  juries  decide  by  a  majority ;  in 
France,  since  1831,  a  majority  of  two-thirds  Jis  required. 


JUS 


415 


KAL 


chief  baron  of  the  exchequer,  from  Oct.  i,  1851.  The  rt.  lion.  J.  L.  Knight- Bruce  and 
lord  Cranworth  (afterwards  lord  chancellor)  were  the  first  lords  justices ;  the  latter  was 
succeeded  by  sir  G.  J.  Turner  in  1853. 

J USTICI ARS.  In  ancient  times  the  kings  of  England  used  to  hear  and  determine  causes ; 
but  it  is  declared  by  law  that  if  the  king  cannot  determine  every  controversy,  he,  to  ease 
himself,  may  divide  the  labour  among  persons,  men  of  wisdom  and  fearing  God,  and  out  of 
such  to  appoint  judges.  The  Saxon  kings  of  England  appointed  a  judge  after  this  manner, 
who  was,  in  fact,  the  king's  deputy.  After  the  Norman  conquest,  the  person  invested  with 
that  power  had  the  style  of  Capitalis  Justicice,  or  Justiciarius  Anglice.  These  judges  con- 
tinued until  the  erection  of  the  courts  of  king's  bench  and  the  "common  pleas.  The  iirst 
justiciars  of  England  were  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  and  "William  Fitz-Osborn,  in  1067 ;  and 
the  last  was  Philip  Basset,  in  1261. 

JUSTINIAN  CODE  (compiled  ,under  the  direction  of  the  emperor  Justinian  L), 
wherein  was  written  what  may  be  termed  the  statute  law,  scattered  through  2000  volumes, 
reduced  to  fifty;  it  was  promulgated  in  528.  To  this  code  of  laws  Justinian  added  the 
Pandects,  the  Institutes,  and  Novels.  These  compilations  have  since  been  called,  collec- 
tively, the  body  of  civil  law  (Corpus  Juris  Cimlis).  A  digest  was  made  in  533.  Blair. 

JUTE,  the  fibres  of  two  plants,  the  chonch  and  isbund  (Corchorus  olitorius  and  corclwrus 
capsularisjy  since  1830  extensively  cultivated  in  Bengal  for  making  gunny  cloth,  &c.  Jute 
has  been  much  manufactured  at  Dundee  as  a  substitute  for  flax,  tow,  &c.,  and  in  July 
1862,  assertions  were  made  that  it  could  be  employed  as  a  substitute  for  cotton.  In  1853, 
275,578  cwts.,  and  in  1861,  904,092  cwts.  of  undressed  jute  were  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom. 

.  JUTLAND  (Denmark).     The  Jutes  settled  in  our  southern  counties.     South  Jutland 
was  taken  by  the  allies  in  1813,  and  restored  in  1814. 

JUVENILE  OFFENDERS.  In  1838,  an  act  was  passed  for  instituting  a  prison  for 
instructing  and  correcting  juvenile  offenders,  and  the  military  hospital  at  Parkhurst  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight  was  appropriated  for  this  purpose.  A  similar  act  was  passed  in  1854. 


K. 


KABYLES.     See  Algiers. 


KADSEAH.     See  Parsces. 


KAFFRARIA,  an  extensive  country  in  S.  Africa,  extending  from  the  north  of  Cape 
Colony  to  the  south  of  Guinea.  Our  war  with  the  natives  began  in  1798.  In  1819,  headed 
by  Mokanna,  a  prophet^  they  attacked  Grahamstown  and  were  repulsed  with  much 
slaughter. 


and  several  officers  and  men  of  the  74th  regi- 
ment were  killed  .  .  .  .  Nov.  6,  1851 

Wreck  of  the  Birkenhead  with  reinforcements 
from  England  (see  Bir/cenhead)  .  Feb.  26,  1852 

The  hostilities  of  the  Kaffirs  having  assumed 
all  the  features  of  regular  warfare,  the  go- 
vernor-general, Cathcart,  attacked  and  de- 
feated them Dec.  20,  „ 

The  conditions  offered  by  Cathcart  were  ac- 
cepted, and  peace  was  restored  .  March  9,  1853 


A  savage  invasion  of  the  Kaffirs  or  Caff  res,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Grahamstown,  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  was  eventually  suppressed  by  the 
colonial  authorities  ....  Oct.  1831 

Slighter  annoyances  to  the  colonists  occurring, 
sir  Harry  Smith,  the  then  governor,  pro- 
claimed martial  law,  and  ordered  the  inhabit- 
ants to  rise  en  masse  for  the  defence  of  the 
frontier Dec.  31,  1850 

Disastrous  operations  against  the  Kaffirs  in  the 
Waterkloeff  followed,  and  colonel  Fordyce 

KAGOSIMA.     See  Japan,  1863. 

KAINARDJI,  Bulgaria.  Here  a  treaty  was  signed,  1774,  between  the  Turks  and 
Russians,  which  opened  the  Black  Sea,  and  gave  the  Crimea  to  the  latter. 

KALAFAT,  on  the  Danube,  opposite  the  fortress  of  Widdin.  This  place  was  fortified 
by  the  Turks  under  Omer  Pacha  when  they  crossed  the  river,  Oct.  28,  1853.  In  December, 
prince  Gortschakoff,  with  the  Russian  army,  determined  to  storm  their  entrenchments.  The 
conflict  lasted  from  Dec.  31,  to  Jan.  9,  1854,  when  the  Russians  were  compelled  to  retire. 
Among  these  conflicts  one  occurred  at  Citato,  Jan.  6.  See  Citate.  Kalafat  was  invested 
Jan.  28,  and  general  Schilders  attacked  it  vigorously  on  April  19,  without  success,  and  the 
blockade  was  raised  April  21. 


KAL  416  KEN 

KALEIDOSCOPE,  an  optical  instrument,  which,  by  an  arrangement  of  mirrors,  produces 
a  symmetrical  reflection  of  beautiful  images,  was  invented  by  Dr.  (now  sir  David)  Brewster, 
of  Edinbiirgh  ;  it  was  suggested  in  1814,  and  perfected  in  I'SiJ.  See  Dcbuscope. 

KALITSCH  (Poland).  Here  the  Russians  defeated  the  Swedes,  Nov.  19,  1706,  and  here 
the  Saxons,  under  the  French  general  Reynier,  were  beaten  by  the  Russians  under  Winzin- 
gerode,  Feb.  13,  1813. 

KALMAR.     See  Calmar.  KALMUCK.     See  Tartar. 

KALUNGA  FORT  (E.  Indies^,  attacked  unsuccessfully  by  the  company's  forces,  and 
general  Gillespie  killed,  Oct.  31,  1814;  and  again  unsuccessfully,  Nov.  25.  It  was  evacuated 
by  the  Nepaulese,  Nov.  30,  same  year. 

KAMTSCHATKA,  a  peninsula,  E.  coast  of  Asia,  was  discovered  by  Morosco,  a  Cossack 
chief,  1690;  taken  possession  of  by  Russia,  in  1697;  and  proved  to  be  a  peninsula  by 
Behring,  in  1728.  Four  months,  commencing  at  our  midsummer,  may  be  considered  as  the 
spring,  summer,  and  autumn  here,  the  rest  of  the  year  being  dreary  winter.  The  amiable 
captain  Clarke,  a  companion  of  captain  Cook,  died  in  sight  of  Kamtschatka,  Aug.  22,  1779, 
and  was  buried  in  the  town  of  St.  Peter  and  Paul,  in  the  peninsula. 

KAMPTULICON,  a  substance  used  for  flooring,  patented  by  Elijah  Galloway  in  1843, 
and  manufactured  since  1851,  by  Messrs.  Tayler,  Harvey,  and  Co.  It  is  composed  of  India- 
rubber  and  cork,  combined  by  masticating  machines. 

KANGAROOS,  animals  indigenous  to  Australia  (first  seen  by  captain  Cook,  Jutie  22, 
1770),  were  bred  at  San  Donato,  the  estate  of  prince  Demidoff,  in  1853,  and  since. 

KANSAS,  a  western  state  in  N.  America,  was  organised  as  a  territory,  May  30,  1854  ; 
admitted  into  the  union,  Jan.  29,  1861  ;  and  was  left  open  to  slavery,  in  opposition  to  the 
Missouri  Compromise  (see  Slavery  in  America).  During  the  greater  part  of  1855  this  state 
was  a  scene  of  anarchy  and  bloodshed  through  the  efforts  of  the  slavery  party  to  make  it  a 
slave  state. 

KARRACK.     See  CarracJc. 

KARS,  a  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  renowned  for  its  defence  by  general  (now  sir  William) 
Fenwick  Williams,  with  15,000  men,  and  with  three  months'  provisions  and  three  days' 
ammunition,  against  the  Russian  general  Mouravieff,  with  an  army  of  40,000  infantry  and 
10,000  cavalry.  The  siege  lasted  from  June  18  to  Nov.  28,  1855.  The  sufferings  of  the 
garrison  were  very  great  from  cholera  and  want  of  food.  The  Russians  made  a  grand  assault 
on  Sept.  29,  but  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  above  6000  men,  and  the  garrison  were  over- 
come by  famine  alone.*  Sandwith.  Kars  was  restored  to  Turkey,  Aug.  1856. 

KEEPER  OF  THE  KING'S  CONSCIENCE.  The  early  chancellors  were  priests,  and  out  of 
their  moral  control  of  the  king's  mind  probably  grew  up  the  idea  of  an  equity  court  in 
contradistinction  to  the  law  courts.  A  bill  in  chancery  is  a  petition  through  the  lord  chan- 
cellor to  the  king's  conscience  for  remedy  in  matters  for  which  the  king's  common  law  courts 
afford  no  redress.  The  keeper  of  the  king's  conscience  therefore,  at  the  present  day,  is  the 
officer  who  presides  in  the  court  of  chancery.  See  Chancellor  and  Lord  Keeper. 

KEEPER  (LORD)  OF  THE  GREAT  SEAL  OF  ENGLAND  differed  only  from  the  lord 
chancellor  in  that  the  latter  had  letters  patent,  whereas  the  lord  keeper  had  none. 
Richard,  a  chaplain,  was  the  first  keeper  under  Ranulph,  in  1116.  The  two  offices  were 
made  one  by  5  Eliz.  1562.  Cowell.  See  Chancellor.  The  office  of  lord  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  of  SCOTLAND  was  established  in  1708,  after  the  union. 

KENILWORTH  CASTLE  (Warwickshire),  was  built  about  1120,  by  Geoffrey  de  Clinton, 
whose  grandson  sold  it  to  Henry  III.  It  was  enlarged  and  fortified  by  Simon  de  Montfort, 
to  whom  Henry  gave  it  as  a  marriage  portion  with  his  sister  Eleanor,  f  Queen  Elizabeth 

*  On  accepting  general  Williams'  proposal  for  surrendering,  general  Mouravieff  said:— "General 
Williams,  you  have  made  yourself  a  name  in  history  ;  and  posterity  will  stand  amazed  at  the  endurance, 
the  courage,  and  the  discipline  which  this  siege  has  called  forth  in  the  remains  of  an  army.  Let  us 
arrange  a  capitulation  that  will  satisfy  the  demands  of  war,  without  outraging  humanity."  In  1856  the 
general  was  made  a  baronet,  with  the  title  of  sir  William  Fenwick  Williams  of  Kars,  and  granted  a 
pension. 

t  After  the  battle  of  Evesham  and  defeat  and  death  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  by  prince  Edward  (after- 
wards Edward  I.)  1265,  Montfort's  younger  son,  Simon,  shut  himself  up  in  Kenil worth  castle,  which  sus- 
tained a  siege  for  six  months  against  the  royal  forces  of  Henry  III.,  to  whom  it  at  length  surrendered. 
Upon  this  occasion  was  issued  the  "Dictum  de.  Kenilworth,"  or  "  ban  of  Kenil  worth,"  enacting  that  all 
who  took  up  arms  against  the  king  should  pay  him  the  value  of  their  lands  for  five  years. 


KEN  417  KHE 

___iferred  it  on  her  favourite,  Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester.     His  entertainment  of  the  queen 
commenced  July  19,  1575,  and  cost  the  earl  daily  loool. 

KENNINGTON  COMMON"  (Surrey).     The  Chartist  demonstration,  April  10,  1848,  took 
"  on  the  common ;  which  was  directed  to  be  laid  out  as  a  public  pleasure  ground  in  1852. 


„,.: 


KENSINGTON"  PALACE  was  purchased  by  William  III.,  from  lord  chancellor  Finch, 
who  made  the  road  through  its  park.  The  gardens  were  improved  by  queens  Mary,  Anne, 
and  Caroline,  who  died  here.  Here  died  George,  prince  of  Denmark,  and  George  II.  ;  and 
here  queen  Victoria  was  born,  May  24,  1819.* 

KENT.  See  Britain  and  Holy  Maid.  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  brother  of  William  tho 
Conqueror,  was  made  earl  of  Kent,  1067  ;  and  Henry  Grey  was  made  duke  of  Kent  in  1710 ; 
he  died  without  male  heirs  in  1740.  Edward,  son  of  George  III.,  was  created  duke  o'f  Kent 
in  1799.  He  was  father  of  queen  Victoria,  and  died  in  1820.  See  England. 

KENT,  an  East  Indiaman,  of  1850  tons  burthen,  left  the  downs  Feb.  19,  1825,  bound 
for  Bombay.  In  the  Bay  of  Biscay  she  encountered  a  dreadful  storm,  by  which  she  was  very 
much  shattered,  Feb.  28.  On  the  next  day  she  accidentally  took  fire,  and  all  were  in 
expectation  of  perishing,  either  by  the  tempest  or  the  flames.  The  Cambria,  captain  Cook, 
bound  to  Vera  Cruz,  providentially  hove  in  sight,  and  nearly  all  on  board  were  saved.  The 
Kent  blew  up,  March  2. 

KENTISH  FIRE,  a  term  given  to  the  continued  cheering  common  at  the  Protestant 
meetings  held  in  Kent  about  1828  and  1829,  with  the  view  of  preventing  the  passing  of  the 
Catholic  Relief  bill. 

KENTUCKY,  a  western  state  of  N.  America,  admitted  1792.  It  declared  for  strict 
neutrality  in  the  conflict  between  the  North  and  South  in  April,  1861,  but  was  invaded  by 
the  southern  troops  in  August.  On  their  refusal  to  retire,  after  much  correspondence,  the 
legislature  of  Kentucky  gave  in  its  adhesion  to  the  Union,  Nov.  27,  1861.  In  the  campaign 
that  ensued  sharp  skirmishes  took  place,  and  on  Jan.  19,  1862,  the  confederates  under 
Zollicoffer  were  defeated  and  himself  killed  at  Mill  Spring,  and  in  March  no  confederate 
soldiers  remained  in  Kentucky.  See  United  States. 

KEROSELENE,  a  new  anaesthetic,  derived  from  the  distillation  of  coal-tar  by  Mr.  W.  B. 
Merrill,  of  Boston,  U.S.,  was  tried  and  made  known  early  in  1861. 

KERTCH,  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Bosporus,  late  a  flourishing  town  on  the 
straits  of  Yenikale,  sea  of  Azof.  It  was  entered  by  the  allies  (English  and  French)  May  24, 
1855  ;  the  Russians  retired  after  destroying  stores,  &c.  The  place  was  totally  dismantled  by 
the  allies,  and  the  inhabitants  removed. 

KET'S  REBELLION :  a  revolt  in  July,  1549,  instigated  by  William  Ket,  a  tanner,  of 
Norfolk.  He  demanded  the  abolition  of  inclosures  and  the  dismissal  of  evil  counsellors. 
The  insurgents  amounted*to  20,000  men,  but  were  quickly  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Warwick. 
More  than  2000  fell ;  Ket  was  tried,  and  hanged,  Aug.  27,  1549. 

KEW  (Surrey).  The  "palace  was  successively  occupied  by  the  Capel  family  and  Mr. 
Molyneux  ;  by  Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  1730,  and  George  III.  Queen  Charlotte  died 
here,  Nov.  4,  1818.  A  new  palace  erected  by  George  III.,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Wyatt, 
was  pulled  down  in  1827.  The  gardens  contain  a  very  fine  collection  of  plants,  and  are  decorated 
with  ornamental  buildings,  most  of  them  erected  by  sir  William  Chambers,  about  I76o.f 
The  meteorological  observatory  was  presented  to  the  British  Association  in  1842. 

KEYS.     The  invention  is  ascribed  to  Theodore  of  Samos,  by  Pliny,  about  730  B.C. 

KHERSON,  an  ancient  Dorian  colony  (deriving  its  name  from  Chersonesus,  a  peninsula), 
came  under  the  sway  of  the  great  Mithridates  about  120  B.C.,  and  afterwards  of  that  of  Rome, 
A.D.  30.  It  continued  important,  and  its  possession  was  long  disputed  by  the  Russians  and 

*  In  Aug.  1855,  by  permission  of  the  government,  a  military  band  played  in  Kensington  gardens  on 
Sundays,  in  presence  of  about  60,000  persons.  The  practice  was  discontinued  in  1856,  being  objected  to  by 
many  persons  ;  but  bands  were  ordered  to  play  in  other  parks  during  the  week. 

t  The  botanic  gardens  contain  many  magnificent  conservatories,  &c.  Mr.  Aiton  retired  from  his 
office  of  director  of  the  botanic  gardens  in  1841  after  fifty  years'  service.  He  was  succeeded  by  sir  William 
Hooker,  at  whose  recommendation  the  gardens  were  opened  to  the  public  daily.  In  1847  the  royal 
kitchen  and  forcing  gardens  were  incorporated  with  the  botanic  gardens.  The  collections  in  the  Museum 
of  Economic  Botany  began  with  the  private  collection  of  sir  William  Hooker  given  by  him  in  1847.  Under 
his  charge  the  gardens  were  greatly  improved.  He  died  Aug.  12,  1865.  and  was  succeeded  by  his  sou,  Dr 
Joseph  D.  Hooker. 


KHI  418  KIL 

Greeks.  It  was  taken  by  Vladimir,  grand-duke  of  Russia,  in  988,  when  he  and  his  army 
received  Christian  baptism,  and  he  married  the  emperor's  sister  Anne,  who  obtained  Kherson 
as  her  dowry.  The  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Lithuanians  ;  and  the  Turks  found  it  deserted 
when  they  took  possession  of  the  Crimea  in  1475.  What  ancient  remains  the  Turks  and 
Tartars  had  spared,  the  Russians  conveyed  away  for  the  construction  of  Sebastopol.  Since 
the  foundation  of  Odessa  in  1792,  Kherson  has  declined.  Potemkin,  the  favourite  of 
Catherine,  who  died  at  Jassy  in  1791,  is  buried  here,  and  John  Howard,  the  English  philan- 
thropist, who  died  here  Jan.*  20,  1790,  is  buried  about  three  miles  from  the  town,  where  an 
obelisk  has  been  erected  to  his  memory. 

KHIVA,  in  Turkistan,  Asia,  governed  by  a  khan.  An  expedition  sent  against  it  by  the 
emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  in  1839  perished  through  the  rigour  of  the  climate  in  1840. 

KHYBER  PASS,  Afghanistan.     See  India,  1839,  1842. 

KIDDERMINSTER  ("Worcestershire),  renowned  for  its  carpet  manufactures,  established 
about  1735. 

KIEL,  chief  town  of  Holstein,  a  seaport,  and  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league  in  1300. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1665.  By  a  treaty  between  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  signed  here  Jan.  14,  1814,  Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  Previously,  the  Norwe- 
gians had  been  deserted  by  the  king  of  Denmark,  and  had  sent  a  deputation  to  England,  to 
interest  that  country  in  their  favour.  On  the  contrary,  the  English  blockaded  the  ports  of 
Norway,  and  the  Swedes  entered  by  land.  The  Norwegians  fought  some  brave  actions,  but 
they  were  defeated.  The  prince  of  Denmark  quitted  Norway,  and  the  diet  elected  the  king 
of  Sweden  to  be  their  king.  An  extraordinary  assembly  of  the  revolted  provinces,  Schleswig 
and  Holstein,  met  here  Sept.  9,  1850.  By  a  convention  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  the 
former  is  to  govern  Holstein,  but  Kiel  is  to  be  held  by  Prussia  as  a  German  federal  port 
(Aug.  1865). 

KILCULLEN  (Kildare).  Here  a  large  body  of  the  insurgent  Irish  defeated  the  British 
forces  commanded  by  general  Dundas,  May  23,  1798.  The  general  in  a  subsequent  engage- 
ment overthrew  the  rebels  near  Kilcullen-bridge,  when  300  were  slam. 

KILDARE  (E.  Ireland).  The  Curragh  or  race-course  here  was  once  a  forest  of  oaks. 
Here  was  the  nunnery  of  St.  Bridget,  founded  by  her  in  the  5th  centuiy,  and  here  was  a 
building  called  the  fire-house,  where,  it  is  supposed,  the  nuns  kept  the  inextinguishable  fire 
which  existed  till  the  reformation.  The  see  was  one  of  the  earliest  episcopal  foundations  in 
Ireland;  St.  Conlseth,  who  died  519,  the  first  prelate.  The  first  Protestant  bishop  was 
Thomas  Lancaster,  in  1550.  The  see  is  valued,  by  an  extent  returned,  30  Hen.  VIII.,  at 
6gl.  us.  qd.  Irish  per  year.  Kildare  was  united  to  Dublin  in  1846.  See  Dublin.  The 
insurrection  in  Kildare,  which  swelled  into  the  rebellion,  commenced  in  Kildare,  May  23, 
1798.  On  that  night,  lieut.  GitFord  of  Dublin,  and  a  number  of  other  gentlemen,  Avere 
murdered  by  insurgents.  This  rebellion  was  quelled  in  1799. 

KILFENORA  (Clare),  a  bishopric,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Fachnan.  Cardinal 
Paparo,  in  1152,  rendered  it  a  suffragan  see  to  Cashel ;  but  in  1660  it  was  annexed  to  Tuam, 
and  afterwards  united  to  Killaloe. 

KILKENNY  (S.E.  Ireland),  an  English  settlement  about  1071.  The  Statutes  of  Kil- 
kenny enacted,  among  other  things,  "that  the  alliance  of  the  English  by  marriage  with  any 
Irish,  the  nurture  of  infantes,  and  gossipred  with  the  Irish,  be  deemed  high  treason."  And 
again,  "if  anie  man  of  English  race  use  an  Irish  name,  Irish  apparell,  or  anie  other  guize 
or  fashion  of  the  Irish,  his  lands  shall  be  seized,  and  his  body  imprisoned,  till  he  shall 
conform  to  English  modes  and  customs." 

KILLALA  (Mayo)  was  invaded  by  a  French  force  landing  from  three  frigates,  under 
general  Humbert,  Aug.  22,  1798.  The  invaders  were  joined  by  the  Irish  insurgents,  and 
the  battles-  of  Castlebar  and  Colooney  followed ;  and  the  French  were  defeated  at  Bally  - 
namuck,  Sept.  8,  same  year. 

KILLALA  (Sligo),  an  early  see.  The  author  of  the  tripartite  life  of  St.  Patrick,  says, 
"  that  in  434  he  came  to  a  pleasant  place  where  the  river  Muadas  (Moy)  empties  itself  into 
the  ocean  ;  and  on  the  south  banks  of  the  said  river  he  built  a  noble  church,  called  Kil- 
Aladh,  of  which  he  made  one  of  his  disciples,  Muredach,  the  first  bishop."  The  see  of 
Achonry  was  united  to  Killala  in  the  I7th  century;  and  both  became  united  to  Tuam  in 
1839.  See  Tuam  and  Bishops. 

KILLALOE  (Clare),  a  see  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Molua,  whose  disciple, 


KIL 


419 


KIN 


St.  Flannan,  son  to  king  Theodoric,  consecrated  at  Rome  by  pope  John  IV.  in  639,  was  also 
bishop.  At  the  close  of  the  I2th  century  the  see  of  Roscrea  was  annexed  to  Killaloe,  and 
that  of  Kilfenora  has  been  held  with  it.  Clonfert  and  Kilmacduach  were  united  to  them 
in  1836. 

KILLIECRANKIE  (a  defile  in  Perthshire).  Here  the  forces  of  William  III.  commanded 
by  general  Mackay  were  defeated  by  the  adherents  of  James  II.  under  Graham  of  Claver- 
house,  viscount  Dundee,  who  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory,  July  27,  1689. 

KILMACDUACH  (Gal way).  This  see  was  held  with  Clonfert,  from  1602.  St.  Coleman 
was  its  first  bishop,  in  the  yth  century.  It  was  valued,  29  Eliz.  1586,  at  13?.  65.  8fZ.  per 
annum.  It  is  now  united  to  Killaloe. 

KILMAINHAM  HOSPITAL  (Dublin),  the  noble  asylum  of  aged  and  disabled  soldiers 
in  Ireland,  built  by  Wren,  was  founded  by  Arthur,  earl  of  Granard,  marshal-general  of  the 
army  in  Ireland,  1675  ;  and  the  duke  of  Ormond  perfected  the  plan,  in  1679. 

KILMALLOCK  (Limerick).  An  abbey  was  founded  hero  by  St.  Mochoallog  or  Molach 
about  645,  and  an  abbey  of  Dominicans  was  built  in  the  i3th  century.  Ware.  A  charter 
was  granted  to  Kilmallock  by  Edward  VI.,  and  another  by  Elizabeth  in  1584.  The  town 
was  invested  by  the  Irish  forces  in  1598,  but  the  siege  was  raised  by  the  duke  of  Ormond. 
There  was  much  fighting  here  in  1641  and  1642. 

KILMOEE  (Armagh),  an  ancient  town,  whose  bishops  were  sometimes  called  Brefinienses, 
from  Brefney,  and  sometimes  Triburnenses,  from  Triburna,  a  village ;  but  in  1454,  the 
bishop  of  Triburna,  by  assent  of  pope  Nicholas  V.,  erected  the  parish  church  of  St. 
Fedlemid  into  a  cathedral.  Florence  O'Connacty,  the  first  bishop,  died  in  1231.  Valued, 
15  Jas.  I.  with  Ardagh,  at  lool.  per  annum.  The  joint  see  of  Elphin  and  Ardagh  was 
united  to  it  in  1841. 

KILSYTH  (Central  Scotland).  Here  Montrose  defeated  the  Covenanters,  Aug.  15,  1645, 
and  threatened  Glasgow. 

KINBURN,  a  fort,  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Bug  and  Dnieper,  taken  by  the  English 
and  French,  Oct.  17,  1855.  Three  floating  French  batteries,  said  to  be  the  invention  of  the 
emperor,  on  the  principle  of  horizontal  shell-firing,  were  very  effective.  On  the  i8th  the 
Russians  blew  up  Oczakoff,  a  fort  opposite. 

KINDRED,  TABLE  OF,  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  was  set  forth  in  1563. 

KINDER- GARTEN  (children's  garden),  a  system  of  education  devised  by  Froebel,  but 
practically  carried  out  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ronge,  in  Germany  in  1849,  and  in  England  in 
1851.  The  system,  founded  mainly  on  self- tuition,  and  enlivened  by  toys,  games,  and 
singing,  is  set  forth  in  Ronge 's  "Kinder-Garten,"  published  in  1858. 

KING:  German  Kdiwj,  Latin  Rex,  Scythian  Reis,  Spanish  Rey,  Italian  Re,  and  French 
Roy,  all  come  from  the  Hebrew  Rosch,  chief  or  head.  Nimrod  was  the  first  founder 
of  a  kingdom,  2245  B.  c.  Dufresnoy.  Misraim  built  cities  in  Egypt,  and  was  the  first  who 
assumed  the  title  of  king  in  that  division  of  the  earth,  2188  B.C.  The  "  manner  of  the  king" 
is  set  forth  in  I  Samuel  viii. ,  1112  B.C.  Saul  was  the  first  king  of  Israel,  1095  B.C.  Most 
of  the  Grecian  states  were  governed  by  kings  ;  and  kings  were  the  first  rulers  in  Rome. 


King  of  England. — The  style  was  first  used  by 
Egbert,  828 ;  but  the  title  Rex  gentis  An- 
g'orum,  king  of  the  English  nation,  existed 
during  the  Heptarchy.  See  Britain. 

The  plural  phraseology,  we,  us,  our,  was  first 
adopted  among  our  English  kings  by  king 
John  .........  1 199 

The  title  of  "  king  of  France  "  assumed,  and  the 
French  arms  quartered,  by  Edward  III.,  in 
right  of  his  mother 1340 

Pope  LeoX.  conferred  the  title  of  "defender 
of  the  Faith  "  on  Henry  VIII.  .  Oct.  u,  1521 

Henry  VIII.  changed  lord  of  Ireland  into  king,  1542 

The  style  "Great  Britain"  was  adopted  at  the 
union  of  England  and  Scotland,  6  Anne  .  1707 

That  of  the  "  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  "  at  the  union,  when  the  royal 
style  and  title  was  appointed  to  run  thus  : — 
"Georgius  Ttrtius,  Dei  Gratia,  Brilonniarum 
Rex  Fidei  D<,fcnsor,"  "George  the  Third,  by 
the  grace  of  God,  of  the  United  kingdom  of 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  king,  Defender  of 
the  Faith"  (France  being  omitted)  Jan,  i,  1801 

Hanover  was  omitted  in  the  queen's  style, 

June  21,  1837 

The  queen  was  proclaimed  in  all  the  important 
places  in  India,  as  "Victoria,  by  the  Grace  of 
God,  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  and  the  colonies  and  dependen- 
cies thereof  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America, 
and  Australia,  queen,"  &c.  .  .  Nov.  i,  1858 

The  National  Assembly  decreed  that  the  title 
of  "king  of  France,"  should  be  changed  in 
the  person  of  Louis  XVI.  to  that  of  "  king  of 
the  French" Oct.  16,  1789 

The  royal  title  abolished 1792 

Louis  XVIII.  styled  "  by  the  grace  of  God  king 
of  France  and  Navarre  " 1814 

Louis-Philippe  I.,  the  late  sovereign,  was  in- 
vited to  the  monarchy  under  the  style  of  the 
"  king  of  the  French  "  (see  France)  Aug.  9,  183 

E  E   2 


KIN 


420 


KIN 


KING,  continued. 

The  emperors  of  Germany,  in  order  that  their 
eldest  sons  might  be  chosen  their  successors, 
in  their  own  life-time  politically  obtained 
them  the  title  of  "  king  of  the  Romans."  The 
first  emperor  so  elected  was  Henry  IV.  .  .  1055 

Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III.  of  England, 
was  induced  to  go  to  Germany,  where  he 


clisbursed  vast  sums  under  the  promise  of 
being  elected  next  emperor  ;  he  was  elected 
"king  of  the  Romans"  (but  failed  in  suc- 
ceeding to  the  imperial  crown)  .  .  .  .  1256 
The  style  "king  of  Rome"  was  revived  by 
Napoleon  I.  who  conferred  it  on  his  son,  upon 
his  birth March  20,  1811 


KING-OF-ARMS  :  three  for  England, — Garter,  Clarencieux,  and  Norroy ;  Lyon  king-at- 
arms  for  Scotland,  and  Ulster  for  Ireland.  These  offices  are  very  ancient :  Clarencieux  is  so 
named  from  Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  III.,  the  sovereign  who  founded  the  order  of  the 
Garter.  See  Garter.  Lionel  having  by  his  wife  the  honour  of  Clare,  was  made  duke  of 
Clarence  ;  which  dukedom  afterwards  escheating  to  Edward  IV.,  he  revived  the  office  of 
Clarence  king-at-arms.  Ulster  was  substituted,  it  is  said,  in  lieu  of  Ireland  king-at-arms, 
by  Edward  VI.,  1552  ;  but  the  monarch  himself  named  it  as  a  new  institution. 

KING'S  BENCH,  or  QUEEN'S  BENCH,  COURT  OF,  obtained  its  name  from  the  king 
sometimes  sitting  here  on  a  high  bench,  and  the  jiidges,  to  whom  the  judicature  belongs  in 
his  absence,  on  a  low  bench  at  his  feet.  This  court  in  ancient  times  was  called  Curia, 
Eomini  Regis. 


CHIEF   JUSTICES   OF    THE   KING  S    OR   QUEENS   BENCH    IN   ENGLAND. 


1526.    John  Fitz  James. 

1659. 

1539.    Sir  Edward  Montagu. 

1660. 

1546.    Sir  Richard  Lyster. 

1663. 

1552.    Sir  Roger  Cholmely. 

1665. 

*553-    Sir  Thomas  Bromley. 

1671. 

1554.    Sir  William  Portman. 

1676. 

1556.    Sir  Edward  Saunders. 

1678. 

1559.    Sir  Robert  Catlyn. 

1681. 

1573.    Sir  Christopher  Wray. 
1591.    Sir  John  Popham. 

1683. 

1607.    Sir  Thomas  Fleming. 
1613.    Sir  Edward  Coke. 

1616.    Sir  Henry  Montagu. 

1685. 

1620.    Sir  James  I  ey. 

1687. 

1624.    Sir  Ranulph  Crewe. 

1689. 

1626.    Sir  Nicholas  Hyde. 

1709. 

1631.   Sir  Thomas  Richardson. 

1635.    Sir  John  Brampston. 

1643.    Sir  Robert  Heath. 

1648.   Henry  Rolle. 

1718. 

1655.   John  Glyn. 
1659.   Sir  Richard  Newdigate. 

1725- 

Robert  Nicholas. 

Sir  Robert  Foster. 

Sir  Robert  Hyde. 

Sir  John  Kelyng. 

Sir  Matthew  Hale. 

Sir  Richard  Raynsford. 

Sir  William  Scroggs. 

Sir  Francis  Pemberton. 

Sir  Edmund  Saunders. 

Sir  George  Jefferies,  after- 
wards lord  Jefferies  and 
lord  chancellor. 

Sir  Edward  Herbert. 

Sir  Robert  Wright. 

Sir  John  Holt. 

Sir  Thomas  Parker,  after- 
wards lord  Parker  and  earl 
of  Macclesfield  and  lord 
chancellor. 

Sir  John  Pratt.     • 

Sir  Robert  Raymond,  after- 
wards lord  Raymond. 


1733.  Sir  Philip  Yorke,  afterwards 
lord  Hardwicke  and  lord 
chancellor. 

1737.    Sir  William  Lee. 

1754.    Sir  Dudley  Ryder. 

1756.  William  Murray,  lord  Mans- 
field, afterwards  earl  of 
Mansfield. 

1788.  Lloyd,  lord  Kenyon,  June  9. 

1802.  Sir 'Edward  Law,  April  12  ; 
created  lord  Ellenborough. 

1818.  Sir  Charles  Abbott,  Nov.  4  ; 
aft  erwards  lord  Tenterden. 

1832.  Sir  Thomas  Denman,  Nov.  7 ; 
created  lord  Denman :  re- 
signed. 

1850.  John,  lord  Campbell,  March 
5  ;  afterwards  lord  chan- 
cellor. 

1859.  Sir  Alexander  Cockburn, 
June. 


CHIEF   JUSTICES   OF   THE   KING'S    OR   QUEEN'S    BENCH    IN    IRELAND. 


1690.  Sir  Richard  Reynell,  Dec.  6. 

1695.  Sir  Richard  Pyne,  June  7. 

1709.  Allan  Brodrick,  Dec.  24. 

1711.  Sir  Richard  Cox,  July  5. 

1714.  William  Whitshed,  Oct.  14. 

1727.  John  Rogerson,  April  3. 

1741.  Thomas  Marlay,  Dec.  29. 

1751.  St.  George  Caulfield,  Aug.  27. 

1760.  Warden  Flood,  July  31. 


1764.  John  Gore,  Aug.  24;  after- 
wards earl  Annaly. 

1784.  John  Scott,  April  29  ;  after- 
wards earl  of  Clonmel. 

1798.  Arthur  Wolfe,  June  13  ;  af- 
terwards lord  Kilwarden 
(killed  in  Emmett's  insur- 
rection, July  23,  1803). 


1803. 


William  Downes,  Sept.  12 ; 
afterwards  lord  Downes. 

1822.  Charles  Kendal  Bushe,  Feb- 
ruary 14. 

1841.  Edward  Pennefather,  No- 
vember 10. 

1846.    Francis  Blackburne,  Jan.  23. 

1852.   Thomas  Lefroy,  March. 


KING'S  BENCH  PRISON,  Southwark,  near  the  site  of  one  of  the  oldest  prisons  of 
London,  long  used  for  the  confinement  of  debtors.  Here,  it  is  said,  prince  Henry  (afterwards 
Henry  V.)  was  committed  by  justice  Gascoigne.  The  prison  was  burnt  down  by  the  London 
rioters,  June  3,  1780.  See  Gordon's  No-popery  Mob.  It  was  built  in  1781,  and  contained 
about  230  rooms.  Formerly,  the  debtors  were  allowed  to  purchase  the  liberties,  to  enable 
them  to  have  houses  or  lodgings  without  the  walls,  or  to  purchase  day-rules,  to  go  out  of  the 
prison  under  certain  regulations.  The  rules  included  St.  George's  Fields,  &c.  A  consequence 
of  the  Bankruptcy  Act,  1861,  was  the  release  of  many  insolvent  debtors;  and  an  act  was 
passed  in  1862  "for  discontinuing  the  Queen's  prison  and  removal  of  the  prisoners  to  "White- 
cross-street  prison." 

KING'S  COLLEGES.  See  Aberdeen  and  Cambridge.  King's  College,  London,  incor- 
porated Aug.  14,  1829,  and  opened  Oct.  8,  1831.  It  was  incorporated  with  the  university  of 
London  in  1837.  The  hospital  was  founded  in  1839. 


KIN  421  KNI 

KING'S  COUNSEL,  the  first  under  the  degree  of  serjeant  was  sir  Francis  Bacon  made 
so,  honoris  causa,  without  patent  or  fee,  in  1604,  by  James  I.  The  first  modern  kind's 
Counsel  was  sir  Francis  North,  afterwards  lord  keeper,  in  1663. 

KING'S  COUNTY,  Ireland,  so  named  from  Philip,  king  of  Spain,  the  husband  of  queen 
iry  of  England,  in  1556. 

KING'S  EVIL,   formerly  supposed  to  be  cured  by  the  king's  touch ;   the  first  being 
Iward  the  Confessor,  in  1058.     In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  92,107  persons  were  touched  ; 
and,  according  to  Wiseman,  the  king's  physician,  they  were  nearly  all  cured  !     Queen  Anne 
officially  announced  in  the  London  Gazette,  March  12,  1712,  her  intention  to  touch  publicly 
The  custom  was  dropped  by  George  I.,  1714. 

KING'S  SPEECH.     The  first  from  the  throne  is  said  to  have  been  by  Henry  I.,  1107. 

KINGSTON  TRIAL.  The  duchess  of  Kingston  was  arraigned  before  the  lords  in 
Westminster-hall,  on  a  charge  of  bigamy,  having  married  first  captain  Hervey,  afterwards 
earl  of  Bristol,  and  next  during  his  lifetime,  Evelyn  Pierrepoint,  duke  of  Kingston,  April 
15-22,  1776.  She  was  found  guilty,  but,  on  her  pleading  the  privilege  of  peerage,  the 
punishment  of  burning  in  the  hand  was  remitted,  and  she  was  discharged  on  paying  the  fees 
of  office. 

KINGSTON.     See  Hull. 

KINGSTON,  Jamaica,  was  founded  in  1693,  after  the  great  earthquake  in  1692  which 
destroyed  Port  Royal,  and  constituted  a  city,  1802.  An  awful  fire  here  ravaged  a  vast 
portion  of  the  town,  and  consumed  500,  oool.  of  property,  Feb.  8,  1782 ;  another  fire  in 
1843.  See  Jamaica. 

KINGSTOWN,  Dublin.  The  harbour  here  was  commenced  in  June,  1817.  The  name 
was  changed-  from  Dunleary  in  compliment  to  George  IV.,  who  here  embarked  for  England 
at  the  close  of  his  visit  to  Ireland,  Sept.  3,  1821.  The  Kingstown  railway  from  Dublin  was 
opened  Dec.  17,  1834. 

KISSING  the  hands  of  great  men  was  a  Grecian  custom.  Kissing  was  a  mode  of 
salutation  among  the  Jews,  i  Samuel  x.  i,  &c.  The  "kiss  of  charity,"  or  "holy  kiss," 
commanded  in  the  Scriptures  (Romans  xvi.  16,  &c.),  was  observed  by  the  early  Christians, 
and  is  still  recognised  by  the  Greek  church  and  some  others.  Kissing  the  pope's  foot  began 
with  Adrian  I.  or  Leo  III.  at  the  close  of  the  8th  century. 

KIT-CAT  CLUB,  of  about  thirty  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  instituted  in  1703,  to 
promote  the  Protestant  succession.  Addison,  Steele,  and  Dr.  Garth  were  members.  It 
took  its  name  from  Christopher  Kat,  a  pastry-cook  in  King's-street,  Westminster. 

KITTS.     See  Christopher's,  St. 

KNEELING.    The  knee  was  ordered  to  be  bent  at  the  time  of  Jesus  (see  Philippians  ii.  2) 
about  the  year  1275,  by  the  order  of  the  pope.     The  ceremony  of  a  vassal  kneeling  to  his 
lord  is  said  to  have  begun  in  the  8th  century. 

KNIGHTHOOD.  The  word  knight  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  Cniht, a  servant  (i.e., 
servant  to  the  king,  &c.).  The  institution  of  the  Roman  knights  (Equites  or  horsemen,  from 
cquus,  a  horse),  is  ascribed  to  Romulus,  about  750  B.C.  Knighthood  was  conferred  in 
England  by  the  priest  at  the  altar,  after  confession  and  consecration  of  the  sword,  during  the 
Saxon  Heptarchy.  The  first  knight  made  by  the  sovereign  with  the  sword  of  state  was 
Athelstane,  by  Alfred,  A.D.  900.  Spelman.  The  custom  of  ecclesiastics  conferring  the 
honour  of  knighthood  was  suppressed  in  a  synod  held  at  Westminster  in  1 100.  Ashmole's 
Institutes.  All  persons  having  ten  pounds  yearly  income  were  obliged  to  be  knighted,  or  pay 
a  fine,  38  Hen.  III.  1254.  Salmon.  On  the  decline  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  all 
Europe  being  reduced  to  a  state  of  anarchy,  the  proprietor  of  every  manor  became  a  petty 
sovereign  ;  his  mansion  was  fortified  by  a  moat,  and  defended  by  a  guard,  and  called  a 
castle.  Excursions  were  made  by  one  petty  lord  against  another,  and  the  women  and 
treasure  were  carried  off  by  the  conqueror.  At  length  the  owners  of  rich  fiefs  associated  to 
repress  these  marauders,  to  make  property  secure,  and  to  protect  the  ladies ;  binding  them- 
selves to  these  duties  by  a  solemn  vow,  and  the  sanction  of  a  religious  ceremony.  Cervantes' 
"Don  Quixote,"  a  satire  on  knight-errantry,  was  published  in  1605.  See  Chivalry,  Tour- 
naments. 


KNI 


KNIGHTHOOD,  continued. 

PRINCIPAL   MILITARY,    RELIGIOUS,    AND   HONORARY   ORDERS   OF    KNIGHTHOOD.* 


Alcantara,  instituted  about  . 
Amaranta,  Sweden  (female)  . 
Angelic  Knights,  Greece 
Annonciada,  Savoy,  about  . 
Annunciada,  Mantua  .  . 
Avis,  Portugal,  about  .  . 
Bannerets,  England,  1360. 

Renewed.  See  Bannerets  .  1485 
Bath,  England,  1399.  Re- 
newed. See  Bath  .  .  .  1725 
Bear,  Switzerland  .  .  .  1213 
Bee,  France  .  .  .  .  1703 
Belgic  Lion  ....  1815 
Black  Eagle,  Prussia,  insti- 
tuted by  Frederick  I.  .  .1701 
Blood  of  Christ,  Mantua  .  1608 
Broomflowers,  France  .  .  1234 
Brotherly  (or  Neighbourly) 

Love,  Austria  .  .  .  1708 
Calatrava,  Castile,  instituted 

by  Sancho  III.  .  .  .  1158 
Charles  III.  (or  the  Immacu- 
late Conception),  Spain  .  1771 
Charles  XIII.,  Sweden  .  .  1811 
Chase,  Wurtemberg  .  .  1702 
Christ,  Livonia  .  .  .  .  1203 
Christ,  Portugal  .  .  .  1317 
Christian  Charity,  France  .1558 
Cincinnati,  America  .  .  .1783 
•Conception  of  the  Virgin  .  1618 
Concord,  Prussia  .  .  .  1660 
Crescent,  Naples,  1268.  Re- 
vived   1464 

Crescent,  Turkey       .        .     .  1801 
Cross  of  Christ        .        .         .  1217 
Cross  of  the  South,  Brazil      .  1822 
Crown  Royal,  France  (Fries- 
land)        802 

Crown,  Wurtemberg      .         .  1818 
Danebrog,  Denmark,  institu- 
ted by  VValdemar  II.,  1219; 
revived  by  Christian  V.      .  1671 
Death's  Head  (female),  by  the 
widow  Louisa  Elizabeth  of 
Saxe  Masburg         .        .     .  1709 
Dog  and  Cock,  France  .        .     500 
Dove  of  Castile  .         .        .     .  1379 
Dragon,  Hungary  .        .         .1439 
Dragon  Overthrown,  German  1418 
Eagle    (see  Black,    Mexican, 

Red,  White). 
Ear    of    Corn    and    Ermine, 

Brittany,  about  .  .  .  1442 
Elephant,  Denmark,  about 

1190;  by  Christian  I.  .  .  1458 
Elizabeth  Theresa,  Austria 

(female)  ....  1750 
Fidelity,  Baden  .  .  .1715 
Fidelity,  Denmark  .  .1732 
Fools,  Cleves  .  .  .  .  1380 
Frederick,  Wurtemberg  .  1830 
Friesland  (or  Crown  Royal), 

France 802 

Garter  (ichich  aee).  England  .  1349 
Generosity,  Brandenburg  .  1685 
Genet,  France  .  .  .  726 
Golden  Angel  (afterwards  St. 

George),  about        .        .     .     312 
Golden  Fleece,  instituted  at 
Bruges  by  Philip,lsurnamed 
the  Good         .        .         .     .  1429 
Golden  Lion,  Hesse  Cassel    .  1770 


Golden   Shield  and    Thistle, 

France  ....  1370 
Golden  Spur,  by  Pins  IV.  .  .  1559 
Golden  Stole,  Venice,  before  737 
Guelphic,  Hanover  .  .1815 
Henry  the  Lion,  Brunswick  .  1834 
Holy  Ghost,  France  .  .  .  1579 
Holy  Vial  (St.  Remi),  France  499 
Hospitallers  (uhich  see),  1099 ; 

of  Rhodes,  1308  ;  of  Malta,  1521 
Iron  Crown,  Lombardy .        .  1816 
Iron  Helmet,  Hesse  Cassel    .   1814 
Jerusalem  (see  Malta)       .     .  1048 
Jesus    Christ,    Rome,    insti- 
tuted by  John  XXII.,  1320. 
Reformed,    as    Jesus   and 
Mary,  by  Paul  V.   .        .     .  1615 
Knot,  Naples  ....   1352 
La  Calza,  Venice,  about    .     .     737 
Lamb  of  God,  Sweden    .         .   1564 
Legion   of   Honour,    France, 
instituted  by  Napoleon  Bo- 
naparte       ....   1802 
Leopold,  Austria        .        .     .  1806 
Leopold,  Belgium  .        .        .  .1832 
Lily  of  Arragon .         .        .     .   1410 
Lily  of  Navarre       .        .        .   1043 
Lion  and  Sun,  Persia         .     .  1808 
Lion  of  Zahringen,  Baden      .  1812 
Lioness,  Naples,  about       .     .  1399 
Loretto,  Lady  of     .        .        .   1587 
Louis,  Bavaria    .        .         .     .  1827 
Louis,  Hesse  Darmstadt        .  1807 
Malta  (see  Hospitallers). 
Maria  Louisa  (female),  Spain.  1792 
Maria  Theresa,  Austria  .        .  1757 
Maximilian  Joseph,  Bavaria 
Martyrs,  Palestine . 
Merit,  Hesse  Cassel  . 
Merit,  Prussia 

Mexican  Eagle  .  .  .  .  1865 
Montjoie,  Jerusalem,  before  .  1180 
Noble  Passion,  Saxony  .  .  1704 
Oak  of  Navarre,  Spain  .  .  722 
Our  Lady  of  Montesat  .  .1317 
Our  Lady  of  the  Conception 
of  Villa  Vicosa  .  .  .  1818 


St.  Anne,.Holstein,  now  Rus- 


1738  or  1735 
St.  Anthony,  Hainault  .  .  1382 
St.  Anthony,  Bavaria  .  .  1382 
St.  Bento  d'Avis  (see  A  vis 

above). 
St.  Blaise,  Armenia,  i2thcen- 

St.  Bridget,  Sweden       .         .1366 
St.  Catherine,  Palestine    .     .  1063 
St.  Catherine,  Russia  (female)  1714 
St.  Charles,  Wurtemberg  .     .  17 -.9 
St.    Constantine,    Constanti- 
nople, about  313  ;   Parma, 
1699  ;    since     removed    to 
Naples. 

St.  Denis,  France  .  .  .  1267 
St.  Elizabeth,  Brazil  .  .  .  1801 
St.  Esprit,  France  .  .  .  1579 
St.  Ferdinand,  Naples  .  .  1800 
St.  Ferdinand,  Spain  .  .1811 
St.  George  and  the  Reunion, 

Naples 1819 

St.  George,  Angelic  Knights.  1191 
St.  George,  Austria     .     1470,  1494 
St.  George,  Defender  of    the 
Immaculate      Conception, 
Bavaria        ....  1729 
St.  George,  England  (see  Gar- 
ter) . 
St.  George,  Genoa  . 


St.  George,  Rome 
St.  George,  Russia. 
St.  George,  Spain 
St.  George,  Venice . 
St.  Gerion,  Germany 


1349 
1472 
1492 
1769 
13*7 

1200 

1190 


Our  Lady  of  the  Lily,  Navarre  1043 
Palatine  Lion     .         .         .     .  1768 
Palm  and  Alligator,   Africa, 
granted  to  Gov.  Campbell  in  1837 


1806  I  St.  Henry,  Saxony 
1014  |  St.  Hermenegild,  Spain     .     .   1814 
1769  I  St.  Hubert,  Germany,  by  the 
1740  I      duke  of  Juliers  and  Cleves  1444 
St.  Isabella,  Spain,  1815  ;  Por- 
tugal (female) .        .        .     .  1801 
St.  James,  Holland         .        .   1290 
St.  James,  Portugal  .        .     .   1310 
St.  James,  Spain,  about         .  1170 
St.  James  of  the  Sword,  Spain 
and  Portugal 


Passion     of    Jesus 

France . 
Peter  I.,  Brazil  . 


Christ, 


1384 
.   1826 


Peter,  Frederick  Lewis,  Old- 

enburgh  .  .  .  .  1838 
Pius,  founded  by  Pius  IV.  .  1559 
Polar  Star,  Sweden.  Revived  1748 
Porcupine,  France  .  .  1393 
Reale,  Naples,  about  .  .  1399 
Red  Eagle,  Prussia,  1734.  Re- 
vived   1792 

Redeemer  (or  Saviour),  Greece  1833 
Rosary,  Spain  .  .  .1212 
Rose,  Brazil  .  .  .  .  1829 
Round  Table,  England,  by 

Alfred  (see  Garter)    .    si6*or  528 
St.  Alexander  Nevskoi,  Rus- 
sia     1722 

St.  Andrew,  Russia 
St.    Andrew,    Scotland    (see 
Thistle)       .        .     809,  1540,  1687 


St.  Januarius,  Naples        .     . 
St.  Joachim,  Germany  . 
St.  John  of  Aeon,  after      .     . 
St.    John  of  Jerusalem  (see 

Hospitaller*) 

St.  John,  Prussia       .        .     . 
St.  Joseph,  Tuscany 


837 
1733 
1755 
1377 

1048 
1812 
1807 
1156 


St.  Julian  of  Alacantara    .     . 

St.  Lazarus,  France,  before 
1154;  united  with  that  of 
St.  Maurice,  Savoy  .  .  1572 

St.  Louis,  France   .        .        .  1693 

St.  Mark,  Venice,  about  828. 
Renewed  .... 

St.  Mary  de  Merced,  Spain    . 

St.  Maurice,  Savoy    .        .     . 

St.  Michael,  France 


ermany 


St.  Michael,  G 
St.  Nicholas,  Naples" 
St.  Patrick,  Ireland  . 
St.  Paul,  Rome 
St.  Peter,  Rome . 


1562 
1218 
J434 
1469 
1618 
1382 
1783 
J54° 
1520 


.  1698    St.  Remi  (or  Holy  Vial),  about    499 


St.  Rupert,  Germany 
St.  Sepulchre,  Palestine 


1701 
1099 


*  Enlarged  and  corrected  from  Edmondson  and  Carlisle 
were  instituted  after  the  settlement  of  Europe  in  1815. 


the  early  dates  are  doubtful.     Many  orders 


KNIGHTH 


KNI 


423 


KNIGHTHOOD,  continued. 


St.  Stanislas,  Poland  .  .1765 
St.  Stephen,  Hungary  .  .  1764 
St.  Stephen,  Tuscany  .  .  1561 
St.  Thomas  of  Aeon,  after  .  1377 
Saviour,  Aragon  .  .  .  1118 
Saviour,  Greece  .  .  .  1833 
Saviour  of  the  World,  Sweden  1561 
Scale,  Castile,  about  .  .  1316 
Scarf,  Castile,  1330.  Revived  1700 
Seraphim,  Sweden  .  .  1334 
Ship  and  Crescent,  France  .  1269 
Slaves  of  Virtue,  Germany 

(female)  ....  1662 
Star,  France  .  .  .  .  1351 
Star,  Sicily  ....  1351 


Star  of    the  Cross    (female), 

Austria  ....  1668 
Star  of  India  .  .  .  .  1861 
Swan,  Flanders  .  .  .  500 
Sword  (or  Silence),  Cyprus, 

about 1192 

Sword,    Sweden,    1525.     Re- 
vived         1748 

Templars  (see  Templars)        .  1119 
Teste  Morte  (Death's  Head), 

Wiirtemberg  .  .  .  1652 
Teutonic,  Prussia,  about  1190. 

Renewed         .        .        .     .  1522 
Thistle  of  Bourbon          .         .  1370 
Thistle,  Scotland,  809.      Re- 
vived        .        .        .     1540,  1687 


KON 


Tower  and  Sword,  Portugal, 
1459.  Revived  .  .  .  1808 

Tusin,  or  Hungarian  knights, 
about 

Vasa,  Sweden 

Virgin  Mary,  Italy    . 

Virgin  of  Mount  Carmel, 
France. 

White  Cross,  Tuscany 

White  Eagle,  Poland,  about 
1325.  Revived  .  .  .  1705 

White  Falcon,  Saxe  Weimar  1733 

Wilhelm,  Holland  .        .         .  1815 

Wing  of  St.  Michael,  Portu- 
gal   1172 

Wladimir,  Russia  .        .        .1782 


1562 
1772 
1233 

1607 
1814 


FEMALE  KNIGHTS.  It  is  said  that  the  first  were 
the  women  who  preserved  Tortosa  from  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  Moors  in  1149,  by  their  stout 
resistance.  Large  immunities  and  favours  were 
granted  to  the  women  and  their  descendants. 
Several  female  orders  appear  in  the  previous  list. 

KNIGHTS  OF  GLYN  AND  KERRY  IN  IRELAND.  The 
heads  of  two  branches  of  the  family  of  Fitzgerald, 


who  still  enjoy  the  distinctions  bestowed  on 
their  ancestors  by  the  ancient  sovereigns. 
KNIGHTS  OF  THE  SHIRE,  OR  OF  PARLIAMENT  ;  sum- 
moned by  the  king's  writ  and  chosen  by  the 
freeholders,  first  summoned  by  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  in  1254,  and  in  a  more  formal  manner,  Jan. 
20,  1265.  There  are  writs  extant  as  far  back  as  ir 
Edward  I.  1283.  The  knights  are  still  girded  with 
a  sword  when  elected,  as  the  writ  prescribes. 


KNIVES.  In  England,  Hallam. shire  has  been  renowned  for  its  cutlery  for  five  centuries ; 
Chaucer  speaks  of  the  "  Sheffield  thwyteL"  Stow  says  that  Richard  Mathews  on  the  Fleet- 
bridge  was  the  first  Englishman  who  made  fine  knives,  &c.  ;  and  that  he  obtained  a  prohi- 
bition of  foreign  ones,  1563.  Clasp  or  spring  knives  became  common  about  1650  ;  coming 
originally  from  Flanders.  Knife-cleaning  machines  were  patented  by  Mr.  George  Kent  in 
1844  and  1852;  others  have  been  invented,  by  Masters,  Price,  &c.  See  Forks. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS,  a  society  which  arose  in  1853,  in  the  United  States  of  N.  America. 
Their  principles  were  embodied  in  the  following  propositions  (at  New  York,  1855) : — They 
possessed  several  newspapers  and  had  much  political  influence. 


1.  The  Americans  shall  rule  America. 

2.  The  Union  of  these  States. 

3.  No  North,  no  South,  no  East,  no  West. 

4.  The  United  States  of  America — as  they  are — one 

and  insepai'able. 

5.  No  sectarian  interferences  in  our  legislation  or 

in  the  administration  of  American  law. 

6.  Hostility  to  the  assumptions  of  the  pope,  through 

the  bishops,  &c.,  in  a  republic  sanctified  by 
Protestant  blood. 


7.  Thorough  reform  in  the  naturalisation  laws. 

8.  Free  and  liberal  educational  institutions  for  all 

sects  and  classes,  with  the  Bible,  God's  holy 

word,  as  an  universal  text-book. 
A  society  was  formed  in  1855  in  opposition  to  the 
above,  called  Know  Somethings.  Both  bodies  were 
absorbed  into  the  two  parties,  Democrats  and 
Republicans,  at  the  presidential  election  in  Nov. 
1856. 


KOH-I-NOOE,  or  "  Mountain  of  Light."     The  East  India  Diamond.     See  Diamonds. 

KOLIN  or  KOLLIN  (Bohemia).  Here  the  Austrian  general  Daun  gained  a  signal 
victory  over  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  June  18,  1757.  In  commemoration,  the  military 
order  of  Maria  Theresa  was  instituted  by  the  empress-queen. 

KOMOEN  or  COMORN  (Hungary),  an  ancient  fortress  town,  often  taken  and  retaken 
during  the  wars  with  Turkey.  Near  it  the  Hungarians  defeated  the  Austrians,  July  u, 
1849,  but  surrendered  the  town,  Oct.  i,  1849. 

KONIEH  (formerly  Iconium).  Here  the  Turkish  army  was  defeated  by  the  pacha  of 
Egypt,  after  a  long  sanguinary  fight,  Dec.  21,  1832.  The  grand  vizier  was  taken  prisoner. 

KONIGSBERG,  the  capital  of  East  Prussia,  was  founded  by  the  Teutonic  knights  in 
1255,  and  became  the  residence  of  the  grand  master  in  1457.  It  joined  the  Hanseatic  league 
in  1365.  It  was  ceded  to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  in  1657,  and  here  Frederick  III.  was 
crowned  the  first  king  of  Prussia  in  1701.  It  was  held  by  the  Russians  1758-64,  and  by  the 
French  in  1807.  Here  the  present  king  and  queen  were  crowned,  Oct.  18,  1861. 

KONIGSTEIN  TUN  (Nassau,  Germany),  most  capacious,  was  built  by  Frederick 
Augustus,  king  of  Poland,  in  1725.  It  was  made  to  hold  233,667  gallons  of  wine  ;  and  on 
the  top,  which  was  railed  inr  was  accommodation  for  twenty  persons  to  regale  themselves. 
The  famous  tun  of  St.  Bernard's  holds  800  tuns.  See  Heidelberg  Tun. 


KOK  424  LAB 

KORAN  OR  ALCORAN  (AL-KuRAx),  the  sacred  book  of  the  Mahometans,  was  written 
about  610,  by  Mahomet,  who  asserted  that  it  had  been  revealed  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel 
in  twenty-three  years,  and  published  by  Abubeker  about  635.  Its  general  aim  was  to  unite 
the  professors  of  idolatry  and  the  Jews  and  Christians  in  the  worship  of  one  God  (whose 
unity  was  the  chief  point  inculcated),  under  certain  laws  and  ceremonies,  exacting  obedience 
to  Mahomet  as  the  prophet.  The  leading  article  of  faith  preached  is  compounded  of  an 
eternal  truth  and  a  necessary  fiction,  namely,  that  there  is  only  one  God,  and  that  Mahomet 
is  the  apostle  of  God.  Gibban.  The  Koran  was  translated  into  Latin  in  1143  ;  into  French 
1647  >  into  English,  by  Sale,  1734;  and  into  other  European  languages  1763  et  scq.  It  is  a 
rhapsody  of  6000  verses,  divided  into  114  sections.  See  Mahometanism,  &c. 

KOREISH,  an  Arab  tribe  which  opposed  the  pretensions  of  Mahomet,  and  was  defeated 
by  him  and  his  adherents,  630. 

KOSZTA  AFFAIR.  Martin  Koszta,  a  Hungarian  refugee,  when  in  the  United  States  in 
1850,  declared  his  intention  of  becoming  an  American  citizen,  and  went  through  the  pre- 
liminary forms.  In  1853  he  visited  Smyrna,  and  on  June  21  was  seized  by  a  boat's  crew 
from  the  Austrian  brig  Huzzar.  By  direction  of  the  American  minister  at  Constantinople, 
captain  Ingraham,  of  the  American  sloop  St.  Louis,  demanded  his  release ;  but  having  heard 
that  the  prisoner  was  to  be  clandestinely  transferred  to  Trieste,  he  demanded  his  surrender  by 
a  certain  time,  and  prepared  to  attack  the  Austrian  vessel  on  July  2  •  Koszta  was  then  given 
up.  On  August  I,  the  Austrian  government  protested  against  these  proceedings  in  a  circular 
addressed  to  the  European  courts,  but  eventually  a  compromise  was  effected,  and  Koszta 
returned  to  the  United  States. 

KRASNOI  (Central  Russia).  Here  the  French  army  under  Marshal  Davoust,  prince  of 
Eckmiihl,  was  totally  defeated  by  the  Russian  army  commanded  by  prince  Kutusoff  (who 
died  in  1813). 

KREASOTE.     See  Creasote. 

KREMLIN,  a  palace  at  Moscow,  built  by  Demetri,  grand-duke  of  Russia,  in  1376.  It 
was  burnt  down  in  1812,  and  re-built  in  1816. 

KUNNERSDORF,  BATTLE  OF.     See  Ctmnersdorf. 

KUNOB1TZA,  in  the  Balkan.  Here  John  Hunniades,  the  Hungarian,  defeated  the 
Turks,  Dec.  24,  1443. 

KURRACHEE,  a  flourishing  port  in  N.  W.  India,  was  taken  by  the  British,  Feb- 
3,  i839. 

KUSTRIN  OR  CUSTRIN  (Prussia),  a  fortified  town,  besieged  and  burnt  by  the  Russians, 
Aug.  22,  1758  ;  taken  by  the  French  in  1806  ;  given  up,  1814. 


LABORATORY.  The  Royal  Institution  laboratory,  the  first  of  any  importance  in 
London,  was  established  in  1800.  In  it  were  made  the  discoveries  of  Davy  and  Faraday. 
See  Royal  Institution. 

LABRADOR  (N.  America),  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  1497 ;  visited  by  Corte  Real 
in  1500  ;  made  a  Moravian  missionary  station  in  1771. 

LABUAN,  an  Asiatic  island  N.  "W.  Borneo  ;  occupied  by  the  British  in  1846,  and  given 
up  to  sir  James  Brook  in  1848.  See  Borneo. 

LABURNUM,  called  also  the  golden  chain  and  Cytisus  Laburnum,  was  brought  to  these 
countries  from  Hungary,  Austria,  &c.,  about  1576.  Ashe. 

LABYRINTH.  Four  are  mentioned :  the  first,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Daedalus,  in 
the  island  of  Crete,  to  secure  the  Minotaur,  about  1210  B.C.  ;  the  second  in  Egypt,  in  the 
isle  of  Moeris,  by  Psammeticus,  king  of  that  place,  about  683  B.C.  ;  the  other,  the  third,  at 
Lemnos,  remarkable  for  its  sumptuous  pillars,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  stalactite  grotto  ; 
and  the  fourth  at  Clusium,  in  Italy,  erected  by  Porsenna,  king  of  Etruria,  about  520  B.C. 
Pliny.  The  beauty  and  art  of  the  labyrinths  of  Mendes  were  almost  beyond  belief  ;  it  had 
12  halls  and  3000  chambers,  with  pillars,  was  encrusted  with  marble,  and  adorned  with 
sculpture.  Herodotus.  The  labyrinth  of  "Woodstock  is  connected  with  the  story  of  Fair 
Rosamond.  See  Rosamond.  The  Maze,  at  Hampton  Court,  was  formed  at  the  end  of  the 
1 6th  century. 


Tzak 
in  Li: 


LAC  425  LAM 

LACE  was  of  very  delicate  texture  in  France  and  Flanders  in  1320.  Its  importation 
into  England  was  prohibited  in  1483  ;  but  it  was  general  in  the  court  costume  of  Elizabeth's 
reign.  Dresden,  Valenciennes,  Mechlin,  and  Brussels,  have  long  been  famous  for  their  fine 
lace.  An  ounce  weight  of  Flanders  thread  has  been  frequently  sold  for  four  pounds  in 
London  ;  and  its  value,  when  manufactured  has  been  increased  to  forty  pounds,  ten  times 
the  price  of  standard  gold.  A  dissipated  framework  knitter  of  Nottingham,  named  Hammond, 
is  said  to  have  invented  a  mode  of  applying  his  stocking-frame  to  the  manufacture  of  lace 
from  studying  the  lace  on  his  wife's  cap,  about  1768.  Miiccidloch.  So  many  improvements 
have  been  made  in  this  manufacture,  particularly  by  Heathcote  (1809,  1817,  &c.),  Morley 
and  Leaver  (1811,  £c.),  that  a  piece  of  lace  which  about  1809  cost  ijL  may  now  be  had  for 
75.  (1853).  Ure.  The  process  of  "gassing,"  by  which  cotton  lace  is  said  to  be  made  equal 
to  line  linen  lace,  was  invented  by  Samuel  Hall  of  Basford,  near  Nottingham.  He  died  in 
Nov.  1862. 

LACED.EMON.     See  Sparta. 

LACONIA  (S.E.  Peloponnesus),  the  ancient  name  of  Sparta;  in  the  8th  century  called 

'••onia. 

LACTEAL  VESSELS  were  discovered  in  a  dog  by  Jasper  Asellius  of  Cremona,  1622,  and 
birds  and  other  animals,  by  Mr.  Hewson  of  London,  about  1770. 

LADY.  The  masters  and  mistresses  of  manor-houses,  in  former  times,  served  out  bread 
to  the  poor  weekly,  and  were  therefore  called  Lafords  and  Lef-days — signifying  bread-givers 
(from  hlaf,  a  loaf)  :  hence  Lords  and  Ladies.  Tooke  considers  Lord  to  signify  high-born. 
Ladies  first  came  into  court  in  France  in  1499. — LADY  DAY  (March  25),  a  festival  instituted 
about  350,  according  to  some  authorities,  and  not  before  the  7th  century  according  to  others. 
See  Annunciation.  The  year  was  ordered  to  begin  on  Jan.  ist,  in  France  in  1564;  and  in 
Scotland,  by  proclamation,  on  Dec.  17,  1599  ;  but  not  in  England  till  Sept.  3,  1752,  when 
the  style  was  altered. 

LADRONE  ISLES  (N.  Pacific),  belonging  to  Spain,  discovered  by  Magellan,  in  1520. 
He  first  touched  at  the  island  of  Guam.  The  natives  having  stolen  some  of  his  goods,  he 
named  the  islands  the  Ladroncs,  or  Thieves.  In  the  I7th  century  they  obtained  the  name 
of  Marianne's  islands  from  the  queen  of  Spain. 

LAGOS-BAY  (Portugal).  Here  was  fought  a  battle  between  admiral  Boscawen  and  the 
French  admiral  De  la  Clue,  who  lost  both  his  legs  in  the  engagement,  and  died  next  day, 
Aug.  17,  1 8,  1759.  The  Centaur  and  Modeste  were  taken,  and  the  Redoubtable  and  Ocean 
run  on  shore  and  burnt  :  the  scattered  remains  of  the  French  fleet  got  into  Cadiz. 

LAGOS,  in  the  Bight  of  Benin  (Africa),  was  assaulted  and  taken  by  the  boats  of  a 
British  squadron,  under  ^commodore  Bruce,  Dec.  26  and  27,  1851.  This  affair  arose  out 
of  breaches  of  a  treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade.  In  1862,  the  place  was  ceded 
to  the  British  government,  and  created  a  settlement  :  Henry  Stanhope  Freeman  to  be  the 
first  governor. 

LA  HOGUE  (N.W.  France),  BATTLE  OF,  May  19,  1692,  between  the  English  and  Dutch 
combined  fleets,  under  admirals  Russell  and  Eooke,  and  the  French  fleet  commanded  by 
admiral  Tourville.  The  English  attacked  the  French  near  La  Hogue,  gaining  a  splendid 
victory,  burning  thirteen  of  the  enemy's  ships,  destroying  eight  more,  forcing  the  rest  to  fly, 
and  thus  preventing  a  threatened  descent  upon  England. 

LAHORE  (N.W.  India),  was  taken  by  Baber  in  1524,  and  was  long  the  capital  of  the 
Mongol  empire.  It  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Sikhs  in  1798.  It  was  occupied  by  sir  Hugh 
Gough  Feb.  22,  1846,  who  in  March  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  them. 

LAKE  POETS,  a  term  applied  to  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and  Southey,  from  their  having 
resided  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lakes  of  Westmoreland. 

LAKE  REGILLUS  (Italy),  where  the  Romans  defeated  the  Latin  auxiliaries  of  the 
expelled  Tarquins,  499  B.C. 

LAKES  CHAMPLAIN,  ERIE,  AND  ONTARIO.  These  lakes  were  the  scenes  of  many 
actions  between  the  British  and  Americans  in  the  war  of  independence  (about  1776  and 
1777),  and  in  the  war  of  1813-14. 

LAMAISM,  the  religion  of  Mongolia  and  Thibet,  is  a  corrupt  form  of  Buddhism 
(which  see). 


LAM 


426 


LAN 


LAMBETH  PALACE.  A  considerable  portion  was  built  in  the  I2th  and  I3th  centuries, 
by  Hubert  Walter,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  chapel  was  erected  in  1196.  The  tower 
of  the  church  was  erected  about  1375  ;  and  other  parts  of  the  edifice  in  the  I5th  century. 
Simon  of  Sudbury,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  barbarously  put  to  death  here  by  the 
followers  of  Wat  Tyler,  who  attacked  the  palace,  burnt  all  the  furniture  and  books,  and 
destroyed  all  the  registers  and  public  papers,  June  14,  1381.  The  domestic  portion  of  the 
palace  was  greatly  enlarged  for  archbishop  Howley  (who  died  1848),  by  Mr.  Blore,  at  an 
expense  of  52,000?.  See  Canterbury  and  Articles. 

LAMIAN  WAE,  B.C.  323,  between  Athens  and  her  allies  (excited  by  Demosthenes,  the 
orator),  and  Antipater,  governor  of  Macedon.  Antipater  fled  to  Lamia,  in  Thessaly,  and  was 
there  besieged.  He  escaped  thence  and  defeated  his  adversaries  at  Cranon,  322  B.C. 

LAMMAS-DAY,  the  ist  of  August,  one  of  our  four  cross  quarter-days  of  the  year. 
Whitsuntide  was  formerly  the  first  of  these  quarters,  Lammas  the  second,  Martinmas  the 
third,  and  Candlemas  the  last ;  and  such  partition  of  the  year  was  once  equally  common 
with  the  present  divisions  of  Lady-day,  Midsummer,  Michaelmas,  and  Christmas.  Some 
rents  are  yet  payable  at  each  of  these  quarterly  days  in  England,  and  very  generally  in 
Scotland.  Lammas  comes  from  the  Saxon,  hlamnicesse,  loaf-mass,  because  formerly  upon 
that  day  our  ancestors  offered  bread  made  of  .new  wheat ;  anciently,  those  tenants  that 
held  lands  of  the  cathedral  church  of  York  were  by  tenure  to  bring  a  lamb  alive  into  church 
at  high  mass. 

LAMPETER  COLLEGE  (Cardiganshire),  was  founded  by  bishop  Burgess  in  1822,  and 
incorporated  1828. 

LAMPS.  The  earthen  lamp  of  Epictetus  the  philosopher  sold  after  his  death  for  3000 
drachmas,  161.  Lamps  with  horn  sides  were  the  invention  of  Alfred.  London  streets  were 
first  lighted  with  oil-lamps  in  1681,  and  with  gas-lamps  in  1814.  A  lamp  "constructed  to 
produce  neither  smoke  nor  smell,  and  to  give  considerably  more  light  than  any  lamp  hitherto 
known,"  was  patented  by  M.  Aime'  Argand  in  1784,  and  was  brought  into  general  use  in 
England  early  in  the  present  century.  On  his  principle  are  founded  the  lamp  invented  by 
Carcel  about  1803,  and  since  1825,^110  Moderateur  Lamps  of  Levavasseur,  Hadrot,  and 
Neuburger.  See  Safety  Lamp. 

LANARK  (W.  Scotland),  was  a  Roman  station,  and  made  a  royal  burgh  1103. 

LANCASHIRE  was  created  a  county  palatine  by  Edward  III.  for  his  son  John  of  Gaunt, 
who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Henry,  first  duke  of  Lancaster,  in  1359,  and  succeeded 
him  in  1361.  The  court  of  the  Duchy  Chamber  of  Lancaster  was  instituted  in  1376. 
On  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  in  1399  the  duchy  merged  into  the  crown.  See  under  article 
Cotton. 

LANCASTER,  supposed  to  have  been  the  Ad  Alaunam  of  the  Romans.  Lancaster  was 
granted  by  William  I.  or  II.  to  Roger  de  Poitou,  who  erected  a  castle  upon  its  hill.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Jacobites,  Nov.  1715  and  Nov.  1745. 

LANCASTERIAN  SCHOOLS,  on  a  system  of  education  by  means  of  mutual  instruction, 
devised  by  Joseph  Lancaster  about  1796,  but  were  not  much  patronised  till  about  1808. 
The  system  led  to  the  formation  of  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society,  in  1805,  whose 
schools  are  unsectarian,  and  use  the  Bible  as  the  only  means  of  religious  instruction.  Lancaster 
was  accidentally  killed  at  New  York  in  1838. 

LAND  was  let  generally  in  England  for  is.  per  acre,  36  Hen.  VIII.  1544-  The  whole 
rental  of  the  kingdom  was  about  6,000,000?.  in  1600  ;  about  14,000,000?.  in  1688  ;  in  1798 
Mr.  Pitt  proposed  his  Income  Tax  of  10  per  cent,  on  an  estimate  of  100  millions,  taking  the 
rent  of  land  at  50  millions,  that  of  houses  at  10  millions,  and  the  profits  of  trade  at  40  millions  ; 
but  in  his  estimate  were  exempted  much  land,  and  the  inferior  class  of  houses.  The  rental 
of  the  United  Kingdom  was  estimated  at  59,500,000?.  in  1851.*  An  act  for  rendering  more 
easy  the  transfer  of  land  was  passed  in  1862.  See  Agriculture. 


A  species  of  land-tax  was  exacted  in  England  in 
the  loth  century,  which  produced  82,000?. 
(see  Daneyelt)  in _  1018 

Land  Banks  were  proposed  by  Yarranton  in    .  1648 


The  land-tax  imposed  1699,  grew  out  of  a  subsidy 
scheme  of  45.  in  the  pound,  which  produced 
5oo,ooof.  in 1692 

A  Land  Credit  Company  for  Silesia  was  estab- 


*  The  allotment  of  land  to  cottagers  began  with  lord  Braybrooke's  successful  experiment  in  Essex,  of 
allotting  small  portions  of  land  to  poor  families,  to  assist  them  and  relieve  the  parish  poor-rates  in  1819.  The 
little  colony  was  first  called  Pauper  Gardens,  but  afterwards  New  Village,  and  it  is  calculated  that  zool  per 
annum  were  saved  to  the  parish. 


-."— - 


LAN 


427 


LAN 


LAND,    continued. 


lished  by  Frederick  the  Great  (see  Credits 
Fonricres) 

3Ir.  Pitt  made  the  tax  perpetual  at  45.  in  the 
pound,  but  introduced  his  plan  for  its  re- 
demption .  .  .  .  April  2,  1798 

Landed  Estates  Court,  established  to  "facili- 
tate the  sale  and  transfer  of  land  in  Ireland  " 
(see  Encumbered  Estates  Act)  .... 

The  Land  Registry  office  was  opened  in        .     . 

From  the  Revolution  to  the  year  1800,  the  land- 
tax  had  yielded  227,000,000?. 


1763 


1858 
1862 


Ministers  were  left  in  a  minority  in  the  House 
of  Commons  on  the  land-tax  bill  in  1767  ;  it 
being  the  first  instance  of  the  kind  on  a 
money  bill  since  the  Revolution.  Its  rate 
varied  in  different  years  from  is.  to  48.  in  the 
pound. 

The  tax  in  1810  produced  1,418,337?.  ;  in  1820, 
1,338,420?. ;  in  1830,  1,423,618?. ;  in  1840, 
1,298,622?.  ;  in  1852,  1,151,613?. 


ui 


LANDEN,  or  NEERWINBEN,  Belgium.  Near  here  the  French  under  marshal  Luxembourg 
defeated  the  allies,  commanded  by  William  III.  of  England,  chiefly  through  the  cowardice 
of  the  Dutch,  July  19  (N.S.  29),  1693.  The  duke  of  Berwick,  illegitimate  son  of  James  II., 
fighting  on  the  side  of  France,  was  taken  prisoner. 

LANDGRAVE  (from  land  and  grave,  a  count,)  a  German  title,  which  commenced  in 
1130  with  Louis  III.  of  Thuringia,  and  became  the  title  of  the  house  of  Hesse  about  1263. 

LANDLORD.     See  Rent. 

LANDSHUT  (Silesia),  where  the  Prussians  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians  under  marshal 
~ohn,  June  23,  1760. 

LANGSIDE  (S.  Scotland),  where  the  forces  of  the  regent  of  Scotland,  the  earl  of 
Murray,  defeated  the  army  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  May  13,  1568.  Mary  fled  to  England 
and  crossed  the  Sol  way  Firth,  landing  at  Workington,  in  Cumberland,  May  16.  Soon  after- 
wards she  was  imprisoned  by  Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE  must  either  have  been  revealed  originally  from  heaven,  or  the  fruit  of 
human  invention.  The  latter  opinion  is  embraced  by  Horace,  Lucretius,  Cicero,  and  most 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  ;  the  former  by  the  Jews  and  Christians,  and  many  profound 
modern  philosophers.  Some  suppose  Hebrew  to  have  been  the  language  spoken  by  Adam  ; 
others  say  that  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic  are  only  dialects  of  the,  original  tongue. 
"And  the  whole  earth  was  of  one  language  and  of  one  speech,"  Genesis  xi.  I.  The  original 
European  languages  were  thirteen,  viz. :  Greek,  Latin,  German,  Sclavonian,  spoken  in  the 
east  ;  Welsh  ;  Biscayan,  spoken  in  Spain  ;  Irish  ;  Albanian,  in  the  mountains  of  Epirus  ; 
Tartarian,  the  old  Illyrian  ;  the  Jazygian,  remaining  yet  in  Liburnia  ;  the  Chaucin,  in  the 
north  of  Hungary  ;  and  the  Finnic,  in  East  Friesland.  From  the  Latin  sprang  the  Italian, 
French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese.  The  Turkish  is  a  mixed  dialect  of  the  Tartarian.  From 
the  Teutonic  sprang  the  present  German,  Danish,  Swedish,  Norwegian,  English,  Scotch,  &c. 
There  are  3664  known  languages,  or  rather  dialects,  in  the  world.  Of  these,  937  are  Asiatic  ; 
587  European ;  276  African ;  and  1624  American  languages  and  dialects.  Adelung. 
George  I.  in  1724,  and  George  II.  in  1736,  appointed  regius  professors  of  modern  languages 
and  of  history  to  each  of  the  universities  of  England.  In  1861  and  1862  professor  Max  Miiller 
lectured  on  the  ''Science  of  Language"  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London.*  He  divides 
languages  into  three  families  : — 


I.  ARYAN  (in  Sanskrit,  noble). 

Southern  Division.     India  (Prakrit,  and  Pali  ;   Sans- 
krit ;  dialects  of  India  ;  Gipsy). 
Iranic  (Parsi ;  Armenian,  &c.). 

Northern  Division. 

Celtic  (Cymric  :  Cornish,  Welsh,  Manx,  Gaelic,  Bre- 
ton, &c.). 

Italic  (Oscan  ;  Latin  ;  Umbrian ;— Italian,  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  French,  &c.). 

Illyric  (Albanian). 

Hellenic  (Greek,  and  its  dialects). 

Windic  (Lettie :  Old  Prussian  ;  Salvonic  dialects, — 
Bohemian,  Russian,  Polish,  Lithuanian,  <fec.). 

Teutonic  (High  German :  Modern  German ;  Low 
German  :  Gothic  ;  Anglo-Saxon  ;  Dutch  ;  Frisian  ; 

LANGUE  D'OC.     See  Troubadours. 


English.    Scandinavian  :  Old  Norse,  Danish,  Swe- 
dish, Norwegian,  Icelandic). 

II,  SEMITIC:    Southern.     Arabic  (including  Ethiopia 
and  Amharic).     Middle.    Hebraic  (Hebrew,  Sama- 
ritan, Phoenician  inscriptions).  Northern.  Aramaic 
(Chaldee,  Syriac,  Cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Baby- 
lon and  Nineveh). 

III.  TURANIAN  (from  Tura,  swiftness). 

Northern  Division.  Tungusic  (Chinese,  &c.);  Mon- 
golic  ;  Turkic  ;  Samoyedic,  and  Finnic. 

Southern  Division.  Taic  (Siamese,  <fcc.)  ;  (Himalayas) ; 
Malayic  (Polynesia,  &c.);  Gangetic;  Lonitic 
(Burmese,  &c.)  ;  Munda;  Tamulic. 


*  Cardinal  Giuseppe  Mezzofanti  (1774-1848)  know  114  languages  or  dialects;  and  Niebuhr  knew  20 
languages  in  1807,  and  more  afterwards. 


LAN  428  LAT 

LANSDOWN  (Somersetshire).  The  parliamentary  army  under  sir  "Win.  "Waller  was  here 
defeated,  July  5,  1643. 

LANTERNS  of  scraped  horn  were  invented  in  England,  it  is  said,  by  Alfred  ;  and  it  is 
supposed  that  horn  was  used  for  window  lights  also,  as  glass  was  not  known  in  Alfred's 
reign,  872-901.  Stow.  London  was  lighted  by  suspended  lanterns  with  glass  sides,  1415. 

LANTHANUM,  a  rare  metal  discovered  in  the  oxide  of  cerium,  by  Mosander  in  1839. 

LAOCOON,  an  exquisite  Grecian  work  of  art,  executed  in  marble,  was  modelled  by 
Agesander,  Athenodorus,  and  Polydorus,  all  of  Rhodes,  and  about  80  eminent  statuaries  ;  it 
represents  the  death  of  the  Trojan  hero,  Laocoon,  priest  of  Neptune,  and  his  two  sons,  as 
described  by  Virgil,  ^Eneis  ii.  200,  It  was  discovered  in  1506  in  the  Sette  Salle  near  Rome, 
and  purchased  by  pope  Julius  II.  It  is  now  in  the  Vatican. 

LAODICEA.     See  Seven  Churches. 

LAON  (N.  France).  Here  a  succession  of  actions  between  the  allies  (chiefly  the 
Prussians)  and  the  French,  was  fought  under  the  walls  of  the  town,  which  ended  in  the 
defeat  of  the  latter  with  great  loss,  March  9,  10,  1814. 

_  LA  PEROUSE'S  VOYAGE.  In  1785  La  Perouse  sailed  from  France  for  the  Pacific, 
with  the  Boussole  and  Astrolabe  under  his  command,  and  was  last  heard  of  from  Botany  Bay, 
in  March,  1788.^  Several  expeditions  were  subsequently  dispatched  in  search  of  Perouse; 
but  no  certain  information  was  had  until  captain  Dillon,  of  the  East  India  ship  Research, 
ascertained  that  the  French  ships  had  been  cast  away  on  the  New  Hebrides,  authenticated 
by  articles  which  captain  Dillon  brought  to  Calcutta,  April  9,  1828. 

LAPLAND,  or  SAMELAKD,  N.  Europe,  nominally  subject  to  Norway  in  the  I3th 
century,  and  now  to  Sweden  and  Russia. 

LARCENY.     (French,  larcen;  Latin,  latrocinium.)     See  Theft. 

LA  ROTH  I  ERE  (France),  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French,  commanded  by  Napoleon, 
and  the  Prussian  and  Russian  armies,  which  were  defeated  with  great  loss  after  a  desperate 
engagement,  Feb.  I,  1814.  This  was  one  of  Napoleon's  last  victories. 

LARYNGOSCOPE,  an  instrument  consisting  of  a  concave  mirror,  by  which  light  is 
thrown  upon  a  small  plane  mirror  placed  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth. 
By  its  means  the  vocal  chords  of  the  interior  of  the  larynx,  &c.,  are  exhibited,  and  have 
been  photographed.  One  constructed  by  Dr.  Tiirck,  in  1857,  was  modified  by  Dr.  Czermak, 
who  exhibited  it  in  action  in  London  in  1862.  A  similar  apparatus  is  said  to  have  been 
constructed  by  Mr.  John  Avery,  a  surgeon  in  London,  in  1846,  and  used  by  M.  Garcia. 

LATER  AN,  a  church  at  Rome,  dedicated  to  St.  John,  was  originally  a  palace  of  the 
Laterani,  and  was  given  to  the  bishops  of  Rome  by  Constantino,  and  inhabited  by  them  till 
their  removal  to  the  Vatican  in  1377.  Eleven  councils  have  been  held  here. 

LATHAM-HOUSE,  Lancashire,  was  heroically  defended  for  three  months  ag  ainst  the 
parliamentarians,  by  Charlotte,  countess  of  Derby.  She  was  relieved  by  princ  e  Rupert, 
May,  1644.  The  house  was,  however,  surrendered  Doc.  4,  1645,  and  dismantled. 

LATHE.  The  invention  is  ascribed  to  Talus,  a  grandson  of  Daedalus,  about  1240  B.C. 
Pliny  ascribes  it  to  Theodore  of  Samos,  about  600  B.  c. 

LATIN  KINGDOM,  EMPIRE,  &c.     SeeLatium,  Eastern  Empire  1204,  and.  Jerusalem. 

LATIN  LANGUAGE  (founded  on  the  Oscan,  Etruscan,  and  Greek),  one  of  the  original 
languages  of  Europe,  and  from  which  sprang  the  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish.  See 
Latium.  A  large  portion  of  our  language  is  derived  from  the  Latin.  It  ceased  to  be  spoken 
in  Italy  about  581  ;  and  was  first  taught  in  England  by  Adelmus,  brother  of  Ina,  in  the  7th 
century.  The  use  of  Latin  in  law  deeds  in  England  gave  way  to  the  common  tongue  about 
looo  ;  was  revived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. ;  and  again  was  replaced  by  English  in  the  rei< 
of  Henry  III.  It  was  finally  discontinued  in  religious  worship  in  1558,  and  in  conveyancii 
and  in  courts  of  law  in  1731  (by  4  Geo.  II.  c.  25).  A  corrupt  Latin  is  still  spoken 
Roumelia. 

PRINCIPAL   LATIN"   WRITERS. 


Died 
Plautus      .        .        .         .  B.C.  184 

Ennius 169 

Terence      .        .        (flourishes)  166 
Cato  the  Elder  .  149 


Died 
Lucilius        .        .        .        B.C.  103 

Lucretius 52 

Julius  CiJesar        .        .         .     .     44 


Cicero 43    Propertius 


Died 
Catullus        .        .  B.C.     40 

Sallust 34 

Vitruvius      .        .    (flourisJies)    27 


LAT 


429 


LAY 


Virgil    .                                  B.C 
Tibullus    .... 
Horace  
Celsus       .         (flourishes)  A.  D 
Livy     
Ovid  
Paterculus    .... 
Persius      .... 
Lucan  . 

Died 

18 
8 
17 
18 
18 

31 
62 
6s 

Seneca 
Pliny  the  Elder   . 
Quintilian 
Valerius  Flaccus 
Pliny  the  Younger 
Statius 
Tacitus    . 
Silius  Italicus 
Martial 

Died 

.  A.D.      65 

•     •     79 
(flourishes)    80 
•     81 

,,           .     100 

.     (about)  100 
»                 ioo 

.    IOI 

(flourishes)  104 

LATIN  LANGUAGE,  continued. 

Died 
Suetonius  (about)  A.D.  120 

Juvenal 128 

Aulus  Gellius         .  (flourishes)  169 
Apuleius  .         .         ,,  174 

Ammiamis  Marcellinus       .     .  390 

Claudian 408 

Macrobius 415 

Boetliius 524 

(See  leathers  of  the  Church.)__ 

LATITAT,  an  ancient  writ  by  which  persons  were  usually  called  to  the  King's  Bench 
court,  had  its  name  from  its  being  supposed  that  the  defendant  was  linking,  or  lying  hid, 
and  could  not  be  found  in  the  county  to  be  taken  by  bill,  and  the  writ  is  directed  to  the 
sheriff  to  apprehend  him.  The  writ  was  abolished  by  the  Uniformity  of  Process  Act,  May 
23,  1832. 

LATITUDE.  First  determined  by  Hipparchus  of  Nice,  about  162  B.C.  It  is  the  extent 
of  the  earth,  or  of  the  heavens,  reckoned  from  the  equator  to  either  pole.  Maupertuis,  in 
1737,  in  latitude  66'20,  measured  a  degree  of  latitude,  and  made  it  69-493  miles.  Swan- 
berg,  in  1803,  made  it  69-292.  At  the  equator,  in  1744,  four  astronomers  made  it  68732  ; 
and  Lambton,  in  latitude  12,  made  it  61-743.  Mudge,  in  England,  made  it  69-148.  Cassini, 
in  France,  in  1718  and  1740,  made  it  69-12  ;  and  Biot,  68-769  ;  while  a  recent  measure  in 
Spain  makes  it  but  68-63— less  than  at  the  equator,  and  contradicts  all  others,  proving  the 
earth  to  be  a  prolate  spheroid  (which  was  the  opinion  of  Cassini,  Bernoulli,  Euler,  and 
others),  instead  of  an  oblate  spheroid. 

LATIUM,  now  CAMPANIA  (Italy),  the  country  of  Latinus,  king  of  Janiculum,  1240  B.C. 
Laurentum  was  the  capital  of  the  country  in  the  reign  of  Latinus,  Lavinium  under  JEneas, 
and  Alba  under  Ascanius.  See  Italy  and  Rome. 

LATTER-DAY  SAINTS.     See  Mormonites.  LA  TRAPPE.     See  Trappisls. 

LAUDANUM.     See  Opium. 

LAUENBURG,  a  duchy,  N.  Germany  ;  was  conquered  from  the  Wends  by  Henry  the 
Lion  of  Saxony,  about  1152;  ceded  to  Hanover,  1689  ;  incorporated  with  the  French  empire, 
1810  ;  ceded  to  Denmark,  1815  ;  annexed  by  Prussia,  Aug.  14,  1865  ;  possession  taken 
Sept.  15,  following.  See  Gastein.  Population  in  1855,  50,147. 

LAUREATE.     See  Poet  Laureate. 

LAUREL  was  sacred  to  Apollo,  god  of  poetry  ;  and  from  the  earliest  times  the  poets  and 
generals  of  armies,  when  victors,  were  crowned  with  laurel.  Petrarch  was  crowned  with 
laurel,  April  8,  1341. — The  Prunus  lauroccrasus  was  brought  to  Britain  from  the  Levant, 
before  1629  ;  the  Portugal  laurel,  Prunus  lusitanica,  before  1648  ;  the  royal  bay,  Laurus 
indica,  from  Madeira,  1665  ;  the  Alexandrian  laurel,  Ruscus  racemosus,  from  Spain,  before 
1713  ;  the  glaucous  laurel,  Laurus  aggregata,  from  China,  1806  or  1821. 

LAURENTALIA  were  festivals  celebrated  at  Rome  in  honour  of  Acca  Laurentia,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  either  the  nurse  of  Romulus  or  Remus,  or  a  rich  dissolute  woman,  who 
bequeathed  her  property  to  the  Roman  people.  They  commenced  about  621  B.C.,  and  were 
held  on  the  last  day  of  April  and  the  23rd  of  December. 

LAURUSTINE,  Viburnum  Tinus,  an  evergreen  shrub,  was  brought  to  England  from  the 
south  of  Europe,  before  1596. 

LA  YALETTA.     See  Malta. 

LAYALETTE'S  ESCAPE.  Count  Lavalette,  for  aiding  the  emperor  Napoleon  on  his 
return  in  1815,  was  condemned  to  death,  but  escaped  from  prison  in  the  clothes  of  his  wife, 
during  a  last  interview,  Dec.  20,  1815.  Sir  Robert  Wilson,  Michael  Bruce,  esq.,  and  captain 
J.  H.  Hutchinson,  were  convicted  of  aiding  the  escape,  and  sentenced  to  three  months' 
imprisonment  in  the  French  capital,  April  24,  1816.  Lavalette  was  permitted  to  return  to 
France  in  1820,  and  died  in  retirement  in  1830. 

LA  YENDEE  (W.  France).  The  French  Royalists  of  La  Yendee  took  to  arms  in  March, 
1793,  and  were  successful  in  a  number  of  hard-fought  battles  with  the  Republican  armies, 
between  July  12,  1793,  and  Jan.  I,  1794,  when  they  experienced  a  severe  reverse.  Their 
leader,  Henri,  conite  de  Larochejaquelein,  was  killed,  March  4,  1794.  The  war  was  termi- 
nated by  general  Hoche,  in  1796.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Lugon,  Jan.  17,  1800. 
See  Chouans. 


LAV 


430 


LAZ 


LAVENDER,  Lavandula  spica.     Brought  from  tlie  south  of  Europe,  before  1568. 

LAW'S  BUBBLE.  John  Law,  of  Edinburgh  (i 68 1),  became  comptroller-general  of  the 
finances  of  France,  upon  the  strength  of  a  scheme  for  establishing  a  bank,  and  an  East  India 
and  a  Mississippi  company,  by  the  profits  of  which  the  national  debt  of  France  was  to  be 
paid  off.  He  first  offered  his  plan  to  Victor  Amadeus,  king  of  Sardinia,  who  told  him  he  was 
not  powerful  enough  to  ruin  himself.  The  French  ministry  accepted  it;  and  in  1716,  he 
opened  a  bank  in  his  own  name,  under  the  protection  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  regent  of 
France  ;  and  the  deluded  rich  of  every  rank,  subscribed  for  shares  both  in  the  bank  and  the 
companies.  In  1718  Law's  was  declared  a  royal  bank,  and  the  shares  rose  to  upwards  of 
twenty-fold  the  original  value  ;  so  that,  in  1719,  they  were  worth  more  than  eighty  times 
the  amount  of  all  the  current  specie  in  France.  In  1720  this  fabric  of  false  credit  fell  to  the 
ground,  spreading  ruin  throughout  the  country.  Law  died  in  poverty  in  1729  at  Venice. 
— The  South  Sea  Bubble  in  England  occurred  in  the  fatal  year  1 720.  See  South,  Sea. 


LAWS.     See  Codes,  Canons,  and  Civil  Law. 
promulgated  by  Moses,  1491  B.C. 


The  Jewish  law  was  given  by  God,  and 


The  laws  of  Phoroneus,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Argos  (1807  B.C.)  were  the  first  Attic  laws; 
they  were  reduced  to  a  system  by  Draco,  for 
the  Athenians,  623  B.C.  ;  whose  code  was 
superseded  by  that  of  Solon,  594  B.C. 

The  Spartan  laws  of  Lycurgus  were  made  about 
844  B.C.  ;  they  remained  in  full  force  for  700 
years,  and  formed  a  race  totally  different 
from  all  others  living  in  civilised  society. 

The  Roman  Laws,  the  Twelve  Tables,  were 
published  449  B.  c. ,  and  remained  in  force  till 
Justinian,  nearly  a  thousand  years. 

BRITISH   LAWS. 

The  British  Laws  of  earliest  date  were  trans- 
lated into  the  Saxon  in  .         .        .        .A.  D.     590 
Saxon  laws  of  Ina  published  about        .         .     .     700 
Alfred's  code  of  laws,  the  foundation  of  the 
common  law  of  England,  is  said  to  have  been 
arranged  about  (see  Common  Law)  .        .        .     886 
Edward  the  Confessor  collected  the  laws  in      .  1065 
Stephen's  charter  of  general  liberties    .        .     .1136 
Henry  II. 's  confirmation  of  it      .         .  1154  and  I:t75 
The  maritime  laws  of  Richard  I.  (see  Oleron)    .  1194 
Magna  Charta,  by  king  John,  1215  ;  confirmed 
by  Henry  III.  1216  et  seq.  See  Magna  Charta, 
and  Forest's  Charter. 

Lord  Mansfield,  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's 
bench,  declared,  "That  no  fiction  of  law- 
shall  ever  so  far  prevail  against  the  real 
truth  of  the  fact,  as  to  prevent  the  execution 
of  justice  " May  21,  1784 

LAWYERS. 

Pleaders  of  the  bar,  or  banisters,  are  said  to 

have  been  first  appointed  by  Edward  I.        .     1291 
Serjeants,  the  highest  members  of    the  bar, 


were  alone  permitted  to  plead  in  the  court  of 
Common  Pleas.  The  first  king's  council 
under  the  degree  of  serjeaut  was  sir  Francis 

Bacon,  in 1604 

Law  Association  charity  founded  in  .  .  .  1817 
Incorporated  Law  Society  formed  in  1823  ;  plan 
enlarged,  1825 ;  a  charter  obtained,  1831  ; 
renewed,  1845.  The  building  in  Chancery- 
lane,  from  the  designs  of  Yulliamy,  was  com- 
menced in 1829 

Juridical  Society  established  in  .        .     .  1855 

See  Barristers,  Counsel. 

LAW  AMENDMENT  SOCIETY,  founded  in  1843.  It 
holds  meetings  during  the  session  of  parliament, 
and  publishes  a  journal  and  reports;  Its  first 
chairman  was  lord  Brougham,  who  introduced 
the  subject  of  Law  Reform  by  a  most  eloquent 
speech  in  the  house  of  commons,  on  Feb.  7,  1828. 
Many  acts  for  Law  Reform  have  been  passed 
since,  and  vigorous  measures  were  proposed  by 
the  late  lord  Chancellor  Westbury. 

LAW-COURTS. —  Commissioners  appointed  in  1859 
reported  in  favour  of  the  concentration  of  the 
law-courts  in  London,  on  a  site  near  Carey-street, 
Chancery-lane.  The  estimated  expense  was  about 
1,500,000?.,  which  it  was  recommended  to  take 
from  the  accumulated  Chancery  fund  termed 
"Suitors'  fund."  An  act  of  parliament  to  carry 
out  the  plan  was  passed  in  1865. 

LAW  REPORTERS,  a  new  and  more  economical  plan 
of  preparing  and  publishing  law  reports  was  finally 
adopted  by  a  committee  of  barristers  on  March  u, 
1865. 


LAYAMON'S  BRUT,  or  Chronicle  of  Britain,  a  poetical  semi-Saxon  paraphrase  of  the 
BrutofWace,  made  between  noo  and  1230,  was  published  with  a  literal  translation  by 
sir  Frederick  Madden,  in  1847. 

LAYBACH  (near  Trieste,  in  Illyria).  A  congress  met  here  in  Jan.  1821,  and  was 
attended  by  the  sovereigns  of  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Naples.  It  broke  up  in  May, 
after  having  issued  two  circulars,  stating  it  to  be  their  resolution  to  occupy  Naples  with 
Austrian  troops,  and  put  down  popular  insurrections. 

LAYER'S  CONSPIRACY.  Christopher  Layer,  a  barrister,  conspired  with  other  per- 
sons to  seize  George  I.,  the  prince  of  Wales,  lord  Cadogan,  and  the  principal  officers  of  state, 
to  take  the  Tower  by  surprise,  to  plunder  the  Bank,  and  finally  to  bring  in  the  Pretender. 
He  was  hanged,  May  17,  1723. 

LAZZARO,  ST.  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  king  of  Sardinia  and  the  Imperialists  defeated  the 
French  and  Spaniards  after  a  long  and  severe  conflict,  June  4,  1 746. 


LAZ 


431 


LEA 


LAZZARONI  (from  lazzdro,  Spanish  for  a  pauper  or  leper),  a  term  applied  by  the 
Spanish  viceroys  to  the  number  of  degraded  beings  in  Naples,  who  live  like  cattle,  half- 
clothed  and  houseless.  No  man  was  born  a  lazzaro  ;  and  he  who  turned  to  a  trade  ceased  to 
be  one.  The  viceroy  permitted  the  lazzaroni  to  elect  a  chief  with  whom  he  conferred 
respecting  the  imposts  on  the  goods  brought  to  the  markets.  In  1647,  Masaniello  held  the 
office.  See  Naples.  In  1793,  Ferdinand  IV.  enrolled  several  thousands  of  lazzaroni  as 
pikemen  (spontoneers),  who  generally  favoured  the  Court  party.  On  May  15,  1848,  they 
were  permitted,  on  the  king's  behalf,  to  commit  fearful  ravages  on  the  ill-fated  city. 
Cottetta. 

LEAD  is  found  in  various  countries,  and  is  abundant  in  various  parts  of  Britain,  and  iu 
some  places  richly  mixed  with  silver  ore.  Pattinson's  valuable  method  for  extracting  the 
silver  was  made  known  in  1829.  The  famous  Clydesdale  mines  were  discovered  in  1513. 
The  lead-mines  of  Cumberland  and  Derbyshire  yield  about  15,000  tons  per  annum.  British 
mines  produced  65,529  tons  of  lead  in  1855  ;  and  69,266  tons  in  1857.  Leaden  pipes  for  the 
conveyance  of  water  were  brought  into  use  in  1236.  In  1859,  23,690  tons  of  pig  and  sheet 
lead  were  imported,  and  18,414  tons  exported. 

LEAGUES.  Four  kings  combined  to  make  war  against  five,  about  1913  B.C.  (Gen.  xiv.) 
The  kings  of  Canaan  combined  against  the  invasion  of  the  Israelites,  1451  B.C.  The  more 
eminent  Greek  leagues  were  the  Jjltolian,  powerful  about  320  B.C.,  which  lasted  till  189  B.C., 
and  the  Achaean,  revived  280  B.  c. ,  which  was  broken  up  by  the  conquest  of  Greece  by  the 
Romans,  146  B.C.  The  fall  of  these  leagues  was  hastened  by  dissension. 


Lombard  leagues  against  emperors  (see  Lom- 
bards)   1176  and  1225 

League  of  the  Public  Good  was  between  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy,  Brittany,  and  Bourbon, 
and  otherprinces  against  LouisXI. ,  of  France, 

1465-72 

League  of  Cambray  against  Venice    .        .        .  1508 
Holy  League  (the  pope,  Venice,  &c.),  against 

Louis  XII 1510 

League  of  Smalcald 1529 

League  of  the  Beggars  (Gnev^c  ,-  the  Protestants 
so  called,  though  Roman  Catholics  joined  the 
league)  to  oppose  the  institution  of  the  In- 
quisition in  Flanders 1566 


The  HOLT  LEAGUE,  so  denominated  by  way  of 
eminence,  to  prevent  the  accession  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  who  was  then  of  the  reformed 
religion,  was  commenced  at  Peronne  in  1576 
and  lasted  till  1593,  when  Henry  embraced 
llomanism. 

League  of  Wurtzburg,  by  Catholics ;  of  Halle, 
by  Protestants 1610 

League  against  the  emperor 1626 

Solemn  League  and  Covenant  in  Scotland, 
against  the  episcopal  government  of  the 
Church,  and  the  regal  authority  (see  Covenant)  1638 

League  of  Augsburg,  against  France  .        .        .  1686 


LEAP-YEAR  on  BISSEXTILE,  originated  with  the  astronomers  of  Julius  Ctesar,  45  B.C. 
They  fixed  the  solar  years  at  365  days,  6  hours,  comprising,  as  they  thought,  the  period 
from  one  vernal  equinox  to  another  ;  the  six  hours  were  set  aside,  and  at  the  end  of  four 
years,  forming  a  day,  the  fourth  year  was  made  to  consist  of  366  days.  The  day  thus  added 
was  called  intercalary,  a*d  was  placed  a  day  before  the  24th  of  February,  the  sixth  of  the 
calends,  which  was  reckoned  twice,  hence  called  bissextile  or  twice  sixth.  This  added  day 
with  us  is  Feb.  29th.  See  Calendar.  This  arrangement  makes  the  year  nearly  three  minutes 
longer  than  the  astronomical  year  :  to  obviate  this,  1700  and  1800  were  not,  and  1900  will 
not  be  leap-year,  but  2000  will  be  one.  See  Julian  Year,  Gregorian  Calendar,  &c. 

LEARNING  AND  THE  ARTS  flourished  among  the  Greeks,  especially  under  Pisistratus, 
537  B.C.,  and  Pericles,  444  B.C.  ;  and  with  the  Romans  at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era,  under  Augustus.  The  Greek  refugees  caused  their  revival  in  Italy,  particularly  after 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  in  1453,  and  the  invention  of  printing  shortly 
before  the  period  of  the  Renaissance.  Leo  X.  and  his  family  (the  Medici)  greatly  promoted 
learning  in  Italy,  in  the  i6th  century  ;  when  literature  revived  in  France,  Germany,  and 
England.  See  Literature,  and  lists  of  authors  under  Greek,  Latin,  English,  and  other 
languages. 

LEASE  (from  the  French  laisser,  to  let),  a  kind  of  conveyance  invented  by  Serjeant 
Moore,  soon  after  the  Statute  of  Uses,  27  Henry  VIII.,  1535.  Acts  relating  to  leases  were 
passed  in  1856,  and  1858. 

LEATHER  was  very  early  known  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  the  thongs  of  manufactured 
hides  were  used  for  ropes,  harness,  &c.,  by  all  ancient  nations.  The  Gordian  knot  was  made 
of  leather  thongs,  330  B.  c.  A  leather  cannon  was  proved  at  Edinburgh,  fired  three  times, 
and  found  to  answer,  Oct.  23,  1778.  Phillips.  The  duty  on  leather  produced  annually  in 
England,  450,000^.,  and  in  Ireland  about  50,000?.  It  was  abolished,  May  29,  1830.  Many 
bankruptcies  \vere  declared  in  the  leather  trade,  in  the  autumn  of  1860  in  England.  In  the 


LEG 


432 


LEG 


case  of  Lawrence,  Mortimorc,  and  Co.,  enormous  fraudulent  dealings  in  bills  were  disclosed. 
A  plan  for  making  artificial  leather  out  of  cuttings,  &c.,  was  made  known  in  1860.  Leather- 
cloth  is  unbleached  cotton  coated  with  a  composition  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  turpentine, 
coloured  with  various  pigments,  invented  by  Messrs.  Crockell,  of  Newark,  U.S.,  and  patented 
in  1849. 

LECH,  a  river,  S.  Germany,  near  which  the  cruel  general  Tilly  was  defeated  by  the 
Swedes,  under  Gustavus  Adolphus,  April  30,  1632.  Tilly  died  of  his  wounds  soon  after. 

LECTUKES.  Those  on  physic  were  instituted  by  Dr.  Thomas  Linacre,  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  (founded  by  Henry  VIII.)  about  1502.  Clinical  lectures,  at  the  bed-side  of  the 
patient,  were  begun  by  sir  B.  C.  Brodie  (1813-17)  ;  Mr.  G.  Macilwain,  about  1824,  gave  sur- 
gical clinical  lectures  in  connection  with  a  dispensary.  See  Gresham  College,  Boyle's 
Lectures,  Royal  and  London  Institutions,  &c.  The  political  lectures  of  Thelwall,  commenced 
in  January,  1795,  were  interdicted  by  an  act  of  parliament.  In  the  autumn  of  1857  and 
since,  many  distinguished  noblemen  and  gentlemen  lectured  at  mechanics'  institutes.  An 
act  passed  in  1835  prohibited  the  publication  of  lectures  without  the  consent  of  the  lecturers. 

LEEDS  (Yorkshire),  the  Saxon  Loidis,  once  a  Roman  station,  received  a  charter  in  1627. 
Population  in  1861,  207,165. 

Magnificent  new  town-hall  opened  by  the  queen, 
and  the  mayor,  Peter    Fairbairn,   knighted 

Sept.  7,  1858 


Shenfield  grammar  school  founded        .        .     .  1552 

Coloured  Cloth  hall  built 1758 

Literary  and  Philosophical  society  established     1820 
Enfranchised  by  the  Reform  act    .  .    .  1832 

LEEK  is  the  Welsh  emblem,  in  consequence  of  a  command  from  Dewi,  or  David, 
afterwards  archbishop  of  St.  David's,  in  519.  On  the  day  that  king  Arthur  won  a  great 
victory  over  the  Saxons,  Dewi  is  said  to  have  ordered  the  soldiers  to  place  a  leek  in  their 
caps. 

LEESBURG  HEIGHTS.     See  Baits  Bluff. 

LEGACIES.  In  1780  receipts  for  legacies  were  subjected  to  a  stamp  duty,  and  in  1796 
the  legacy  duty  was  imposed.  The  impost  was  increased  several  times  subsequently,  par- 
ticularly in  1805,  1808,  and  1845.  The  revenue  derived  from  it  varies  considerably  in 
amount  in  consecutive  years  ;  but  it  may  be  said  to  average  about  one  and  a  half  to  two 
millions  annually.  In  1853,  the  legacy  duty  was  extended  to  landed  or  real  property.  See 
Succession  Duty  Act. 

LEGATES.  Ambassadors  from  the  pope  :  the  legate's  court  was  erected  in  1516  ,by 
cardinal  Wolsey,  to  prove  wills,  and  for  the  trial  of  offences  against  the  spiritual  laws.  Law 
Diet.  It  was  soon  discontinued. 

LEGATIONS  were  the  twenty  administrative  divisions  in  the  States  of  the  Church, 
governed  by  legates.  They  rebelled  in  1859-60,  and  are  nearly  all  included  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  See  Rome. 

LEGHORN,  Livorno,  in  Tuscany,  a  mere  village  in  the  I5th  century,  owes  its  prosperity 
to  the  Medici  family.  It  suffered  dreadfully  by  an  earthquake  in  1741  ;  was  entered  by  the 
French  army,  July  27,  1796,  but  the  British  property  had  been  removed.  It  was  evacuated 
by  the  French  in  1799,  and  retaken,  1800.  It  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  British 
and  Italian  forces  in  Dec.  1813.  The  Austrians  took  this  city  from  the  insurgents,  May  12 
and  13,  1849,  and  quelled  a  slight  insurrection,  July,  1857.  In  June,  1857,  above  60  persons 
were  killed  at  the  theatre,  through  an  alarm  of  fire. 

LEGION,  Legio,  a  corps  of  soldiers  in  the  Roman  armies,  first  formed  by  Romulus,  when 
it  consisted  of  3000  foot  and  300  horse,  about  750  B.C.  When  Hannibal  was  in  Italy, 
216  B.C.,  the  legion  consisted  of  5200  soldiers  ;  and  under  Marius,  in  88  B.C.,  it  was  6200 
soldiers,  besides  700  horse.  There  were  ten,  and  sometimes  as  many  as  eighteen,  legions 
kept  at  Rome.  Augustus  had  a  standing  army  of  45  legions,  together  with  25,000  horse  and 
37,000  light  armed  troops,  about  5  B.C.;  and  the  peace  establishment  of  Adrian  was  thirty 
of 'these  formidable  brigades.  The  peace  of  Britain  was  protected  by  three  legions.  A 
legion  was  divided  into  ten  cohorts,  and  eveiy  cohort  into  six  centuries,  with  a  vexillum,  or 
standard,  guarded  by  ten  men.  The  French  army  has  been  divided  into  legions  since 
Francis  I.  See  Thundering  Legion. 

LEGION  OF  HONOUR,  a  French  order  embracing  the  army,  civil  officers,  and  other 
individuals  distinguished  for  services  to  the  state  ;  instituted  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  when 


LEG  433  LEN 

First  Consul,  May  19,  1802.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  Louis  XVIII.  confirmed 
this  order  in  April,  1814.  The  honour  was  conferred  on  many  British  subjects  who  distin- 
guished themselves  in  the  Russian  war,  1854-6,  and  in  the  Paris  exhibition  of  1855. 

LEGITIMISTS,  a  term  (since  1814)  applied  to  those  who  support  the  claims  of  the  elder 
branch  of  the  Bourbon  family  to  the  throne  of  France  :  whose  representative  is  Henry,  due 
do  Bordeaux,  called  comte  de  Chambord,  bom  Sept.  29,  1820.  They  held  a  congress  at 
Lucerne  on  June  24-29,  1862  :  when  about  3850  persons  were  present,  including  the  duchess 
of  Parma.  They  agreed  to  continue  a  pacific  policy. 

LEGNANO  (in  Lombardy),  where  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  was  defeated  by  the 
Milanese  and  their  allies,  May  29,  1176,  which  victory  led  to  the  treaty  of  Constance  in 
1183. 

LEICESTER  (central  England)  returned  two  members  to  parliament  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.  Here  Richard  III.  was  buried,  Aug.  25,  1485  ;  and  here  cardinal  Wolsey  died, 
Nov.  29,  1530.  During  the  civil  war,  it  was  taken  by  Charles  I.,  May  31,  and  by  Fairfax, 
June  17,  1645.  The  stocking  manufacture  was  introduced  in  1680. 

LEIGHLIN  (W.  Carlow),  a  see  founded  by  St.  Laserian,  about  628.  Burchard,  the 
Norwegian,  the  son  of  Garmond,  founded  or  endowed  the  priory  of  St.  Stephen  of  Leighlin. 
Bishop  Doran,  a  worthy  prelate,  appointed  in  1523,  was  murdered  by  his  archdeacon,  Mau- 
rice Cavenagh,  who  was  hanged  for  the  crime  on  the  spot  where  he  had  committed  the 
murder.  Beaison.  In  1600  Leighlin  was  united  to  Ferns ;  the  combined  see  united  to 
Ossory,  in  1835.  See  Ferns  and  Bishops. 

LEINSTER,  a  kingdom  in  1167,  now  one  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland,  divided  into 
four  archbishoprics  by  pope  Eugenius  III.,  at  a  national  synod,  held  at  Kells,  March  9, 
1151-2,  and  in  which  his  holiness  was  represented  by  cardinal  Paparo.  The  abduction  of 
Devorgilla,  wife  of  O'Ruave,  a  lord  of  Connaught,  by  Dermot  king  of  Leinster  in  1152,  is 
asserted  to  have  led  to  the  landing  of  the  English  and  the  subsequent  conquest.  The  pro- 
vince of  Leinster  gave  the  title  of  duke  to  Schom  berg's  son,  in  1690.  The  title  became 
extinct  in  1719,  and  was  conferred  on  the  family  of  Fitzgerald  in  1766. 

LEIPSIC  (Saxony).  Famous  for  its  university  (founded  1409)  and  its  fair.  Here  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  defeated  the  Imperialists,  under  Tilly,  Sept.  7,  1631  ;  and 
here  the  Imperialists  were  again  defeated  by  the  Swedes,  under  Torstensen,  Oct.  13,  1642. 
Here  took  place,  on  Oct.  16,  18,  19,  1813,  "the  battle  of  the,  nations,"  between  the  French 
army  and  its  allies,  commanded  by  Napoleon  (160,000),  and  the  Austrian,  Russian,  and 
Prussian  armies  (240,000  strong).  The  French  were  beaten,  chiefly  owing  to  17  Saxon, 
battalions,  their  allies,  turning  upon  them  in  the  heat  of  the  engagement.  80,000  men 
perished  on  the  field,  of  whom  more  than  40,000  were  French,  who  also  lost  65  pieces  of 
artillery,  and  many  standards.  The  victory  was  followed  by  the  capture  of  Leipsic,  of  the 
rear-guard  of  the  French  a*my,  and  of  the  king  of  Saxony  and  his  family. 

LEITH.  The  port  of  Edinburgh  was  burnt  by  the  earl  of  Hertford,  in  1544.  It  was 
fortified  by  the  French  partisans  of  queen  Mary,  in  1560,  and  surrendered  to  the  English. 
The  "Agreement  of  Leith"  between  the  superintendents  and  ministers jwas  made,  Jan. 
1572.  The  docks  were  commenced  in  1720. 

LELEGES,  a  Pelasgic  tribe  which  inhabited  Laconia  about  1490  B.C.,  and  after  many 
contests  merged  into  the  Hellenes. 

LEMtTRES.  The  ancients  supposed  that  the  soul,  after  death,  wandered  over  the  world, 
and  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  living.  The  happy  spirits  were  called  Lares  familiar -es,  and 
the  unhappy  Lemur  es.  The  Roman  festival  called  Lemur  alia,  kept  on  May  9,  n,  13,  was 
instituted  by  Romulus  about  747  B.C.,  probably  to  propitiate  the  spirit  of  the  slaughtered 
Remus. 

LENT  (from  the  Saxon,  lenctcn,  spring).  The  forty  days'  fast  observed  in  the  Roman 
catholic  church  from  Ash-Wednesday  to  Easter-day,  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  pope 
Telesphorus,  130.— The  early  Christians  did  not  commence  their  Lent  until  the  Sunday 
which  is  now  called  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent  ;  and  the  four  days  beginning  with  Ash- Wed- 
nesday were  added  by  pope  Felix  III.,  in  the  year  487,  in  order  that  the  number  of  fasting 
days  should  amount  to  forty. — Lent  was  first  observed  in  England  by  command  of  Ercom- 
bert,  king  of  Kent,  in  640  or  641.  Baker's  Chron.  Flesh  was  prohibited  during  Lent ;  but 
Henry  VIII.  permitted  the  use  of  white  meats  by  a  proclamation  in  1543,  which  continued 
in  force  until,  by  proclamation  of  James  I.,  in  1619  and  1625,  and  by  Charles  I.,  in  1627  and 
1631,  flesh  was  again  Avholly  forbidden.  See  Quadragesima. 

F    F 


LEO  434  LEV 

LEON,  KINGDOM  OF.     See  Spain. 

LEONINES.  Hexameter  and  pentameter  verses,  rhyming  at  the  middle  and  the  end, 
are  said  to  have  been  first  made  by  Leoninus,  a  canon,  about  the  middle  of  the  I2th  cen- 
tury, or  by  pope  Leo  II.  about  682. 

LEPANTO  (near  Corinth),  BATTLE  OF,  Oct.  7,  1571  :  when  the  combined  fleets  of  Spain, 
Venice,  Genoa,  Malta,  and  Pius  V.,  commanded  by  don  John  of  Austria,  defeated  the  whole 
maritime  force  of  the  Turks,  and  checked  their  progress. 

LEPROSY,  a  skin1  disease  described  in" Leviticus  xiii.  (B.C.  1490),  which  prevailed  in 
ancient  times  throughout  Asia.  It  has  now  almost  disappeared  from  Europe,  except  in  the 
south  and  in  Norway.  It  chiefly  affected  the  lower  classes,  yet  occasionally  has_proved  fatal 
to  the  very  highest  personages.  Robert  Bruce  of  Scotland  died  of  leprosy  in  1329.  A 
hospital  for  lepers  were  founded  at  Granada,  by  queen  Isabella  of  Castile,  about  1504,  and  a 
large  number  of  leper  houses  were  founded  in  Britain.  Dr.  Edmondson  met  with  a  case  in 
Edinburgh  in  1809. 

LETTERS.     See  Alphabet,  Belles  Lettres,  Marque,  and  Privateers. 

LETTRES  DE  CACHET,  sealed  letters  issued  by  the  king  of  France,  beginning  about 
1670,  by  virtue  of  which  those  persons  against  whom  they  were  directed  were  thrown  into 
prison,  or  sent  into  exile.  The  National  Assembly  decreed' their  abolition,  Nov.  I,  1789. 

LETTUCE,  introduced  into  England  from  Flanders,  about  1520.  It  is  said  that  when 
queen  Catherine  wished  for  a  salad,  she  had  to  send  for  lettuce  to  Holland  or  Flanders. 

LEUCTRA,  in  Boeotia,  N.  Greece,  the  site  of  a  battle  when  the  Thebans,  under  Epami- 
nondas,  defeated  the  superior  force  of  Cleombrotus,  king  of  Sparta,  July  8,  371  B.C.  4000 
Spartans,  with  their  king,  were  slain.  The  Spartans  gradually  lost  their  preponderance  in 
Greece. 

LEUTHEN  (S.  Prussia).     See  Lissa. 

LEVANT  (the  East),  a  term  applied  to  Greece,  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  &c.  Levant 
companies,  in  London,  were  established  in  1581,  1593,  and  1605. 

LEVELLERS,  a  fanatical  party  in  Germany,  headed  by  Muncer  and  Storck  in  the  i6th 
century,  who  taught  that  all  distinctions  of  rank  were  usurpations  on  the  rights  of  mankind. 
At  the  head  of  40,000  men,  Muncer  commanded  the  sovereign  princes  of  Germany  and  the 
magistrates  of  cities  to  resign  their  authority  ;  and  on  his  march  his  followers  ravaged  the 
country.  The  landgrave  of  Hesse  at  length  defeated  him  ;  7000  of  the  enthusiasts  fell  in 
battle,  and  the  rest  fled;  their  leader  was  taken  and  beheaded  at  Mulhausen  in  1525. 
The  English  "Levellers,"  powerful  in  parliament  in  1647,  were  put  down  by  Cromwell 
in  1649,  and  their  leader  Lilburn  imprisoned.  At  the  period  of  the  French  Revolution  some 
knots  of  persons,  styled  Levellers,  appeared  in  England.  A  "Loyal  Association"  was 
formed  against  them  and  republicans,  by  Mr.  John  Reeves,  Nov.  1792. 

LEVELS.  The  Great  Level  of  the  Fens  is  a  low-lying  district  of  about  2000  square 
miles,  in  Lincolnshire,  Huntingdonshire,  Cambridgeshire,  and  Norfolk,  said  to  have  been 
overflown  by  the  sea  during  an  earthquake,  368.  It  was  long  afterwards  an  inland  sea  in 
winter,  and  a  noxious '  swamp  in  summer,  and  was  gradually  drained — by  the  Romans,  the 
Saxons,  and  especially  by  the  monks  during  the  reigns  of  the  Plan  tagenet  kings.  One  of 
the  first  works  on  a  large  scale  was  carried  out  by  Morton,  bishop  of  Ely,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.  A  general  drainage  act  was  passed  by  the  advice  of  lord  Burghley,  in  1601, 
but  little  work  was  done  till  the  reign  of  James  I.,  who,  in  1621,  invited  over  the  great 
Dutch  engineer,  Cornelius  Vermuyden,  to  assist  in  the  general  drainage  of  the  country. 
After  completing  several  great  works  Vermuyden  agreed  (in  1629)  to  drain  the  "Great 
Level."  He  was  at  first  prevented  from  proceeding  with  his  undertaking  through  a  popular 
outcry  against  foreigners ;  but  eventually,  aided  by  Francis,  earl  of  Bedford,  in  spite  of 
the  great  opposition  of  the  people,  for  whose  benefit  he  was  labouring,  he  declared  his 
great  work  complete  in  1652.  Much,  however,  still  remained  to  be  done  ;  and  the  drain- 
age of  the  Great  Level  employed  the  talents  of  Rennie  (about  1807),  and  of  Telford 
(1822),  and  of  other  eminent  engineers  since.  In  1844  the  Middle  Level  commission  cut 
through  certain  barrier  banks,  and  replaced  them  by  other  works.  These  latter  were  reported 
unsound  in  March,  1862;  and  on  May  4,  the  outfall  sluice  at  St.  Germain's,  near  King's 
Lynn,  gave  way.  High  tides  ensuing,  about  6000  acres  of  fertile  land  were  inundated, 
causing  a  loss  of  about  25,000?.  After  unwearied,  and,  for  awhile,  unsuccessful  efforts,  a 
new  coffer  dam  was  constructed  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Hawkshaw,  which  was 
reported  sound  in  July.  Another  inundation,  begun  through  the  bursting  of  a  marshland 


LEV  435  LIB 

sluice,  near  Lynn,  Oct.  4,  was  checked.     The  Levels  are  distinguished  as  the  Middle,  Bed- 
ford, South,  and  North  Levels. 

LEVER  I  AN  MUSEUM,  formed  by  sir  Ashton  Lever,  exhibited  to  the  public  at  Leicester- 
house,  London  ;  it  was  offered  to  the  public,  in  1785,  by  the  chance  of  a  guinea  lottery,  and 
won  by  Mr.  Parkinson,  in  1785,  who  sold  it  by  auction,  in  lots,  in  1806. 

LEVIATHAN.     See  Steam  Navigation. 

LEWES  (Sussex),  where  Henry  III.,  king  of  England,  was  defeated  by  Montfort,  earl  of 
Leicester,  and  the  barons,  May  14,  1264.  Blaauw.  The  king,  his  brother  Richard,  king  of 
the  Romans,  and  his  son  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  were  taken  prisoners.  One  division 
of  Montfort's  army,  a  body  of  Londoners,  gave  way  to  the  furious  attack  of  prince  Edward, 
who,  pursuing  the  fugitives  too  far,  caused  the  battle  to  be  lost.  See  Evesliam. 

LEXICON.     See  Dictionaries. 

LEXINGTON  (Massachusetts),  BATTLE  OF,  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
of  America,  in  the  war  of  independence.  The  British  obtained  the  advantage,  and  destroyed 
the  stores  of  the  revolted  colonists,  but  lost  in  the  battle  273  men,  killed  and  wounded, 
April  19,  1775. — The  hostilities  thus  commenced  continued  to  1783.— LEXINGTON,  a  town  in 
Missouri,  U.  S. ,  fortified  ~by  the  Federals,  was  attacked  by  the  confederate  general  Price,  on 
Aug.  29  ;  and  after  a  gallant  resistance  by  colonel  Mulligan,  surrendered  on  Sept.  21,  1861. 
See  United  States. 

LEYDEN  (Holland),  Lugdunum  Batavorum,  important  in  the  I3th  century.  From  Oct. 
3r>  I573>  to  Oct.  3,  1574,  when  it  was  relieved,  it  endured  a  siege  by  the  armies  of  Spain, 
during  which  6000  of  the  inhabitants  died  of  famine  and  pestilence.  In  commemoration  the 
university  was  founded,  1575.  In  1699  two -thirds  of  the  population  perished  by  a  fever, 
which,  it  is  said,  was  aggravated  by  the  improper  treatment  of  professor  De  la  Boe.  The 
university  was  almost  destroyed  by  a  vessel  laden  with  10,000  Ibs.  weight  of  gunpowder 
blowing  up,  and  demolishing  a  large  part  of  the  town,  and  killing  numbers  of  people,  Jan. 
12,  1807.  The  Leyden  jar  was  invented  about  1745,  by  Kleist,  Muschenbroek,  and  others. 
See  Electricity. 

LIBEL.  By  the  laws  of  Rome  (those  of  the  Twelve  Tables),  libels  which  affected  the 
reputation  of  another  were  made  capital  offences.  In  the  British  law,  whatever  renders  a 
man  ridiculous,  or  lowers  a  man  in  the  opinion  and  esteem  of  the  world,  is  deemed  a  libel. 
"The  greater  the  truth,  the  greater  the  libel,"  the  well-known  law  maxim  of  a  high  autho- 
rity, is  now  disputed.  Act  against  blasphemous  and  seditious  libels,  punishing  the  offender 
}y  banishment  for  the  second  offence,  60  Geo.  III.  1820.*  Lord  Campbell's  act,  6  &  7  Viet, 
c.  96  (1843),  greatly  softened  the  stringency  of  the  law  of  libel  respecting  newspapers.  See 
Trials,  1788,  1790,  1792,  1803,  1808,  et  seq.,  and  1863. 

LIBERIA,  the  negro  republic  on  the  coast  of  Upper  Guinea,  West  Africa,  was  founded 
by  the  American  Colonial  Society,  which  was  established  by  Henry  Clay  in  1816.  Liberia 
was  made  independent  in  1847  ;  recognised  in  1848  ;  and  was  flourishing  in  1863.  The 
president  visited  the  International  Exhibition  of  London  in  1862. 

LIBERTINES  (signifying  freedmen  and  their  sons),  was  a  sect  headed  by  Quintin  and 
1  .'orin,  about  1525,  who  held  various  monstrous  opinions. 

LIBRARIES.  The  first  public  library  of  which  we  have  any  certain  account  in  history 
was  founded  at  Athens  by  Pisistratus,  about  544  B.C.  The  second  of  note  was  founded  by 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  284  B.  c.  It  was  partially  destroyed  when  Julius  Csesar  set  fire  to 
Alexandria,  47  B.C.  400,000  valuable  books  in  MS.  are  said  to  have  been  lost  by  this  cata- 
>Trophe.  Blair.  According  to  Plutarch,  the  library  at  Pergamos  contained  200,000  books. 
It  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans  at  the  death  of  Attalus  III.  (133  B.C.),  who 
bequeathed  his  kingdom  and  wealth  to  the  Roman  people.  It  was  added  to  that  of  Alexan- 
dria by  Marc  Antony.  The  first  private  library  was  the  property  of  Aristotle,  334  B.C. 
Strabo.  The  first  library  at  Rome  was  instituted  167  B.C.;  it  was  brought  from  Macedonia. 
The  library  of  Appellicon  was  sent  to  Rome  by  Sylla,  from  Athens,  86  B.  c.  This  library 

*  An  action  for  libel  was  brotight  in  the  court  of  King's  Bench  by  a  bookseller  named  Stockdale, 
t   Messrs.  Hansard,  the   printers  to  the  house  of  commons.     This  action  related  to  an  opinion 
expressed  in  a  parliamentary  report  of  a  book  published  by  Stockdale.     Lord  Denman,  in  giving  judgment, 
said  he  was  not  aware  that  the  authority  of  the  house  of  commons  could  justify  the  publication  of  a 
libel, — an  opinion  which  led  to  some  proceedings  on  the  part  of  the  house,  and  to  other  actions  by  Stock- 
Hud  in  the   session  of  1840  (April  14)  a  law  was  passed  giving  summary  protection  to  persons 
employed  by  parliament  in  the  publication  of  its  reports  and  papers. 

F  F   2 


LIB 


436 


LIC 


was  enriched  by  the  original  manuscripts  of  Aristotle's  works.  A  library  was  founded  at 
Constantinople  by  Constantino  the  Great,  about  A.D.  335  ;  and  was  destroyed  477.  A 
second  library  was  formed  from  the  remains  of  the  first,  at  Alexandria  *  (which  see).  Pope 
Gregory  I.  ordered  that  the  library  of  the  Palatine  Apollo  should  be  committed  to  the  flames, 
tinder  the  notion  of  confining  the  attention  of  the  clergy  to  the  Scriptures.  The  early 
Chinese  literature  is  said  to  have  suffered  a  similar  misfortune  to  that  of  the  west  in  the 
destruction  of  the  Alexandrian  library  ;  their  emperor  Che-whang-tee,  ordered  all  writings 
to  be  destroyed,  that  everything  might  begin  anew  as  from  his  reign  ;  and  books  and  records 
were  afterwards  recovered  by  succeeding  emperors  with  great  difficulty. 


LIBRARIES   OF   EUROPE. 

The  first  public  library  in  Italy  was  founded  at 
Florence  by  Nicholas  Niccoli,  one  of  the  great 
restorers  of  learning.  At  his  death,  he  left 
his  library  to  the  public,  1436.  Cosmo  de' 
Medici  enriched  it  with  the  invaluable  Greek, 
Hebrew,  Arabic,  Chaldaic,  and  Indian  MSS. 

about  1560 

The  Vatican  Library  at  Home,  founded  by  pope 
Nicholas  V.  in  1446,  and  improved  by  Sixtus 
V.,  1588;  contains  about  150,000  volumes 
and  40,000  manuscripts. 

Imperial  Library  of  Vienna,  founded  by 
Frederick  III.  in  1440,  and  by  Maximilian  I.  1500 

Royal  (now  Imperial)  Library  of  Paris,  by  John 
(1350-1363),  and  by  Francis  I.  about  1520.  It 
was  said  to  contain  815,000  volumes,  and 
84,000  manuscripts  in  1860.  A  new  reading- 
room  has  been  built. 

Escurial  at  Madrid,  commenced  with  the 
foundation  of  that  sumptuous  palace,  by 
Philip  II 1557 

Library  of  ths  University  of  Munich  is  said  to 
contain  400,000  volumes  and  10,000  manu- 
scripts ;  and  that  of  Gottingen,  300,000 
volumes  and  6000  manuscripts. 

Imperial  Library  at  St.  Petersburg  (consisting 
principally  of  the  spoils  of  Poland)  was 
founded  in 1714 

LIBRARIES   IN  GREAT   BRITAIN. 

Richard  de  Bury,  chancellor  and  high  treasurer 
of  England,  so  early  as  1341,  raised  the  first 
private  library  in  Europe.  He  purchased 


thirty  or  forty  volumes  of  the  abbot  of  St. 
Albaii's  for  fifty  pounds'  weight  of  silver. 
Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  founded  40  Eliz. 
1598  ;  opened  in  1602  ;  contains  nearly  400,000 
volumes,  and  upwards  of  30  ooo  manuscripts. 
Cottonian     Library,    founded    by  sir    Robert 
Cotton,    about    1600;    appropriated   to    the 
public,  1701  ;  partly  destroyed  by  fire,  1731  ; 
removed  to  the  British  Museum      .        .        .  1753 

Sion  College 1623 

Royal  Society  in 1667 

Radcliffeian,  at  Oxford,  founded  by  the  will  of 
Dr.  Radcliffe,  who  left  40,000?.  to  the  uni- 
versity, 1714;  opened 1749 

University  Library,  Cambridge,  1720,  when 
George  I.  gave  5000?.  to  purchase  Dr.  Moore's 
collection. 

British  Museum  (which  see) 1753 

The  Libraries  of  the  Royal  Institution  (founded 
1803),  the  London  Institution  (1805),  and  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  (1786),  have  classi- 
fied catalogues. 

Library  of  the  University  of  Dublin  (1601),  and 
the  Advocates'  Library  in  Edinburgh  (1680), 
are  extensive  and  valuable,  t 

FREE  LIBRARIES  have  been  successfully  estab- 
lished since  1850  at  Manchester,  Liverpool, 
Salford,  &c.  Many  others  have  been  formed 
under  acts  passed  in  1845,  1850,  and  1856. 

On  Nov.  5,  1855,  a  proposal  to  establish  a  Free 
Library  in  the  city  of  London  was  negatived, 
and  1857  that  in  Marylebone  was  closed  for 
want  of  support. 

See  Circulating  Library. 


LIBYA  (Africa),  was  conquered  by  the  Persians,  524  B.C.,  and  by  Ptolemy  Soter,  320. 

LICENCES.     This  mode  of  levying  money  was  introduced  by  Richard  I.  about  n< 
b  ut  was  then  confined  to  such  of  the  nobility  as  desired  to   enter  the  lists  at  tournaments. 


Games  and  gaming-houses  licensed  in  London,  1620 
Licence  system  for  exciseable  articles  enforced 

in  various  reigns,  from  the  i2th  Charles  II.  1660 
Plays  ordered  to  be  licensed  in  .        .        .         .  1737 
Lottery  office-keepers  to  take  out  licences,  and 
ay  50^  for  each,  this   reduced  the  number 
m  400  to  51    .....        Aug.  1778 


pa 
fro 


General  licensing  act,  9  Gco.  IV.  c.  6r        .         .   18: 
Licences  for  public-houses  granted  in  1551,  and 
for  refreshment-houses,  with  wine  licences, 

in 

The  licensing  system  was  applied  to  India  as  a 
kind  of  income-tax,  1859  >  ceased  in  .     .  i! 


LICHFIELD  (Staffordshire).     The  see  of  Mercia,  afterwards  Lichfield,  was  founded  ii 
656.     In  1705  the  see  was  removed  to  Chester;  in  1102  it  was  removed  to  Coventry,  and 
afterwards  back  to  Lichfield,  but  with  much  opposition  from  the  monks  of  Coventry  (see 
Coventry).     Dr.  Samuel  Butler,  in  1837,  was  the  first  bishop  of  Lichfield  only.     This  see  li£ 
given  three  saints  to  the  Komish  church  ;    and  to  the  British  nation  one  lord  chancellor  ai 
three  lord  treasurers.     It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  559/.  iSs.  2d.     Lichfield  cathedi 
was  first  built  about  656.     The  present  structure  was  built  by  Roger  de  Clinton,  the  371 


*  This  statement  has  been  disputed.     Theophilus,  abp.  of  Alexandria,  is  said  to  have  destroyed 
books  when  he  demolished  the  temple  of  Serapis,  250  years  previously. 

t  In  1609  the  Stationers'  Company  agreed  to  give  a  copy  of  every  book  published  to  the  Bodk 
Library,  Oxford.  By  14  Charles  II.  c.  33  (1662),  three  copies  were  required  to  be  given  to  certain  pul 
libraries ;  by  8  Anne,  c.  19  (1709),  the  number  was  increased  to  nine  ;  by  41  Geo.  III.  c.  107,  to  ele-s 
which  number  was  reduced  to  five  by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  no  (1835) :  viz.,  the  British  Museum,  the  Bodl 
Oxford,  the  Public  Library,  Cambridge,  the  Advocates'  Library,  Edinburgh,  and  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 


in  1148.*  In  Liehneld  castle,  king  Richard  II.  kept  his  Christinas  festival,  1397, 
3ii  200  tons  of  wine  and  2000  oxen  were  consumed.  A  charter  was  granted  to  Lichfield, 
stituting  it  a  city,  by  Edward  VI.,  1549.  Present  income,  4500^. 

RECENT   BISHOPS   OF    LICHFIELD   AND    COVENTRY. 


James,  earl  of  Cornwallis,  died  1824. 
24.    Hon.  Henry  Ryder,  died  March  31,  1836. 
1836.   Samuel  Butler,  died  Dec.  4,  1839. 


1839.   James  Bowstead,  died  Oct.  n,  1843. 
1843.   John  Lonsdale,  PRESENT  bishop. 


LICINIAN  LAW,  Licinia  Lex  (375  B.C.),  forbade  any  person  to  possess  more  than  500 
acres  of  land,  or  more  than  100  head  of  large  cattle,  or  500  of  small,  in  the  Roman  states  ; 
another  law,  56  B.C.  of  this  name,  imposed  a  severe  penalty  on  party  clubs,  or  societies 
assembled  for  election  purposes;  and  another,  about  103  B.C.,  limited  the  expenses  of 
Jl.e  table. 


LIECHTENSTEIN,  a  constitutional  principality,  S.  Germany.     Population,  in  1858, 
150.     Prince  John,  born  Oct.  5,  1840,  succeeded  his  father  Alois-Joseph,  Nov.  12,  1858. 


(LIEGE  (Belgium),  a  bishopric,  under  the  German  empire,  from  the  8th  century  till  1795. 
ege  frequently  revolted  against  its  prince-bishops.  In  1467,  after  a  severe  contest,  the 
citizens  were  beaten  at  Brusthem,  and  their  city  taken  by  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of 
Burgundy,  who  treated  them  with  great  severity.  In  1482  Liege  fell  into  the  power  of  De 
la  Marck,  the  Boar  of  Ardennes,  Avho  killed  the  bishop,  Louis  of  Bourbon,  and  was  himself 
beheaded  two  years  after.  Liege  was  taken  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  Oct.  23,  1702; 
and  by  the  French  and  others,  at  various  times,  up  to  1796,  when  it  was  annexed  to  France. 
It  was  incorporated  with  the  Netherlands  in  1814,  and  with  Belgium  in  1830.  Iron-works 
were  established  at  Liege  in  the  i6th  century. 

LIEGNITZ.     See  Pfaffendorf. 

LIEUTENANTS,  LORD,  for  counties,  were  instituted  in  England,  3  Edw.  VI.,  1549, 
and  in  Ireland  in  1831.  For  the  lords  lieutenants  of  Ireland,  see  Ireland. 

LIFE-BOAT,  &c.+  It  was  stated,  in  Sept.  1865,  that  there  were  185  life-boats  on  the 
coasts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  3619  lives  were  saved  in  1864  by  means  of  rocket  apparatus, 
life-boats,  &c.  In  the  ten  years,  1855-64,  30,261  lives  were  saved.  See  Wrecks. 

of  105?.  for  a  life-boat  fulfilling  certain  con- 
ditions, 1850  ;  obtained  by  Mr.  James  Beech- 
ing,  of  Yarmouth  .  .  .  .  .  .  1851 

The  tubular  life-boat  of  Mr.  H.  Richardson,  the 
Challenger,  patented  iu  Jan.  :  a  cruise  was 
made  by  him  from  Liverpool  to  London  in  it  1852 

The  National  Life-boat  Institution  founded  in 
1824;  its  journal,  the  "Lifeboat,"  published 
1852.  In  1856  its  funds  were  enlarged  by  a 
bequest  of  io,ooo£.  from  Hamilton  Fitzgerald, 
esq. 


A  patent  was  granted  to 
boat  in  .  . 


Mr.  Lukin  for  a  life- 


A  reward  offered  by  a  committee  of  gentlemen 
in  South  Shields  fora  lifeboat,  1788,  obtained 
by  Mr.  Henry  Greathead,  of  that  town  . 

It  was  first  put  to  sea,  Jan.  30,  1790;  and  Mr. 
Greathead  received  1200?.  from  parliament 
for  this  great  means  of  saving  life  in  cases  of 
shipwreck. 

31  life-boats  were  built,  and^joo  lives  saved  up 
to 

The  duke  of  Northumberland  offered  a  reward 


•  1785 


.  1789 


LIFE-GUARDS.     See  Guards.  LIFE  INSURANCE.     See  Itisurance. 

LIGHT.  The  law  of  refraction  discovered  by  Snellius,  about  1624.  The  motion  and 
velocity  of  light  discovered  by  Reaumur,  and  after  him  by  Cassini,  and  calculated  by  Roemer 
(1676)  and  Bradley  (1720).  Its  velocity  ascertained  to  be  about  190,000,000  of  miles  in 
sixteen  minutes,  or  nearly  200,000  miles  in  a  second,  which  is  a  million  of  times  swifter  than 
the  velocity  of  a  cannon  ball,  about  1667.  The  light  of  the  sun  is  eight  minutes  and  eight 
seconds  in  its  transmission  through  the  space  from  that  orb  to  the  earth.  The  undulatory 


*  Walter  de  Langton  (bishop  in  1296)  built  the  chapel  of  St.  Mary,  now  taken  into  the  choir,  and 
under  bishop  Heyworth  (1420)  the  cathedral  was  perfected  The  building  was  despoiled  at  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  was  scandalously  injured  in  the  parliamentary  war  (when  its  monuments,  its  fine  sculptures, 
and  beautifully  painted  windows  were  demolished) ;  but  it  was  repaired  at  the  restoration,  and  again 
thoroughly  in  1788. 

t  LIFE-PRESERVER,  the  apparatus  of  captain  Manby  (brought  into  use  in  Feb.  1808),  effects  a  communi- 
cation with  the  distressed  vessel  by  a  rope,  thrown  by  a  shot  from  a  mortar,  with  a  line  attached  to  it.  For 
the  night,  a  night-ball  is  provided  with  a  hollow  case  of  thick  pasteboard,  and  a  fuzs  and  quick  match, 
and  charged  with  fifty  balls,  and  a  sufficiency  of  powder  to  inflame  them.  The  fuze  is  so  graduated  that 
the  shell  shall  explode  at  the  height  of  300  yards.  The  balls  spread  a  brilliant  light  for  nearly  a  minute, 
and  give  a  clear  view  of  every  surrounding  object.  In  20  years,  58  vessels  and  410  of  their  crews  and 
passengers  had  been  saved.  Capt.  Manby  died  Nov.  18,  1854,  aged  89. 

The  BOAT-LOWERING  APPARATUS,  invented  by  Mr.  Charles  Clifford,  of  London,  in  1856,  has  been  much 
approved  of,  and  is  generally  adopted  in  the  royal  navy. 


LIG  438  LIM 

theory  of  light,  its  polarisation,  and  its  chemical  action  have  all  been  made  known  in  the 
present  century  by  Drs.  Thos.  Young,  Fresnel,  Malus,  Arago,  Biot,  Brewster,  Wheatstone, 
Ritter,  Niepce,  Daguerre,  Talbot,  &c.  See  Optics,  Photography. 

LIGHTHOUSES,  anciently  called  Pharos  (and  now  phare,  French  ;  faro,  Italian),  from 
one  erected  at  Pharos,  near  Alexandria,  Egypt,  550  feet  high,  said  to  have  been  visible 
forty-two  miles,  about  285  B.C.  There  was  one  at  Messina,  at  Rhodes,  &c.  The  light  was 
obtained  by  fires.  The  first  true  lighthouse  erected  in  England  was  the  Eddystone  light- 
house in  1758-60. 

BRITISH  LIGHTHOUSES.  I  The  most  brilliant  artificial  light  ever  produced — 

By  the  report  of  the  Commissioners  on  Lights,  <foc.         derived  from   magneto- electricity  by  a  machine 


(1861),  we  learn  that  there  were  then  171  shore- 
lights  in  England,  113  in  Scotland,  and  73  in  Ire- 
land (total  357)  ;  and  47  floating-lights. 

The  French  have  224  lighthouses  on  shore. 

The  source  of  light  in  our  lighthouses  is  principally 
oil ;  but  in  harbour-lights  gas  has  been  successfully 
used.  Glass  reflectors  were  used  in  1780,  and 
copper  ones  in  1807.  A  common  coal  fire-light 
was  discontinued  at  St.  Bees  so  recently  as  1822. 
Fresnel's  Dioptric*  system  (devised  about  1819)  was 
adopted  for  the  first  time  in  England  by  Messrs. 
Wilkins,  at  the  direction  of  the  Trinity  board,  July 
i,  1836. 


devised  by  professor  Holmes — was  first  employed 
at  the  South  Foreland  lighthouse,  near  Dover,  on 
Dec.  8,  1858  ;  and  at  Dengeness  (or  Dungeness)  in 
1862.  Mr.  Holmes'  arrangement  and  a  similar  one 
constructed  by  M.  Serin,  were  shown  at  the  Inter- 
national exhibition,  London,  in  1862. 

Lime-light  (which  see)  employed  at  the  S.  Foreland 
lighthouse  in  1861. 

The  cost  of  erecting  the  three  great  British  light- 
houses— viz.,  the  Skerry- Vore  (west  coast),  158  feet 
high,  was  83,126?.  ;  the  Bishop  Rock,  Scilly  Isles, 
145  feet  high,  36,559?. ;  and  the  Bell  Rock,  Scotland, 
117  feet  high,  61,331*. 


LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS  were  first  set  up  for  the  protection  of  buildings  by 
Franklin  shortly  after  1752,  when  he  brought  down  electricity  from  a  thunder- cloud.  The 
first  in  England  was  set  up  at  Payne's  Hill,  by  Dr.  Watson.  In  1766  one  was  placed  on  the 
tower  of  St.  Mark,  at  Yenice,  which  has  since  escaped  injury,  although  frequently  consumed 
by  lightning  previously.  A  powder  magazine  at  Glogau,  in  Silesia,  was  saved  by  a  con- 
ductor in  1 782  ;  and,  from  the  want  of  one,  a  quantity  of  gunpowder  was  ignited  at  Brescia 
in  1767,  and  above  3000  persons  perished.  In  1762,  Dr.  Watson  recommended  conductors 
to  be  used  in  the  navy ;  and  they  were  employed  for  a  short  time,  but  soon  fell  into  disuse 
from  want  of  skill  and  attention.  Mr.  (since  sir  William)  Snow  Harris  devoted  his  attention 
to  the  subject  from  1820  to  1854,  and  published  a  work  in  1843,  detailing  his  experiments. 
In  1830,  above  thirty  ships  were  fitted  up  with  his  conductors,  and  in  1842  his  plans  were 
adopted,  and  his  conductors  are  now  manufactured  in  the  royal  dockyards.  In  1854 
parliament  granted  him  5000^. 

LIGNY  (Belgium),  where  a  battle  was  fought,  June  16,  1815,  just  previously  to  that  of 
Waterloo,  between  the  Prussian  army  under  Blucher,  and  the  French  army  commanded  by 
Napoleon,  in  which  the  former  was  defeated.  Blucher,  however,  arrived  on  the  field  of 
Waterloo  in  the  evening  at  a  most  critical  moment. 

LIGURIANS,  a  Celtic  tribe,  N.  Italy,  invaded  the  Roman  territory,  and  were  defeated 
238  B.C.  They  were  not  subjugated  till  172  B.C.  The  LIGUETAN  REPUBLIC,  founded  in  May, 
1797,  upon  the  ruins  of  the  republic  at  Genoa,  was  incorporated  with  France  in  1805,  and 
then  merged  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

LIGUORIANS,  on  REDEMPTORISTS,  a  Roman  catholic  order,  established  in  1732  by 
Alfonso  de  Liguori,  and  approved  by  pope  Benedict  XIY.  in  1759. 

LILAC  TREE.  Syringa.  The  Persian  lilac  from  Persia  was  cultivated  in  England 
about  1638  ;  the  common  lilac  by  Mr.  John  Gerard  about  1597. 

LILLE.     See  Lisle. 

LILY,  a  native  of  Persia,  Syria,  and  Italy,  was  brought  to  England  before  1460 ; 
the  Martagon  from  Germany,  1596. 

LILYBJ^UM,  a  strong  maritime  fortress  of  Sicily,  was  besieged  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of 
Epirus,  276  B.C.,  and  was  relieved  by  the  Carthaginians,  275  B.C.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Romans,  241  B.C.,  after  a  siege  of  nine  years,  which  led  to  the  end  of  the  second  Punic  war. 

LIMA  (Peru).  In  1534,  Pizarro,  marching  through  Peru,  was  struck  with  the  beauty  of 
the  valley  of  Rimac,  and  there  he  founded  this  city,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Ciudad  de  los 
Reyes,  or  city  of  the  kings,  1535.  Here  he  was  assassinated,  June  26,  1541.  Awful 
earthquakes  occurred  here,  1586,' 1630,  1687,  and  Oct.  28,  1746.  1111854-5  thousands 

*  From  the  Greek  dia,  through,  and  optomai,  I  see  ;  the  light  being  condensed  by  and  transmitted 
through  lenses.  The  system  is  an  adaptation  of  the  discoveries  of  Bufi'on,  Condorcet,  Brewster,  and  others. 


LIM  439  LIN 


:ished  by  yellow  fever.     Mr.  Sullivan,    the   British   consul,   was  assassinated  at  Lima, 
Lug.  n,  1857. 

LIME  or  LINDEN  TREE,  probably  introduced  in  the  i6th  century.  The  lime  trees  in 
St.  James's  park  arc  said  to  have  been  planted  at  the  suggestion  of  Evelyn,  who  recom- 
mended multiplying  odoriferous  trees,  in  his  work,  "  Fumifugium  "  (1661).  One  of  these 
trees  planted  in  Switzerland  in  1410,  existed  in  1720,  the  trunk  being  thirty-six  feet  in 
circumference. 

LIME-LIGHT,  produced  by  the  combustion  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  or  carburetted 
hydrogen  on  a  surface  of  lime.  This  light  evolves  little  heat  and  does  not  vitiate  the  air. 
It  is  also  called  Drummond  Light,  after  lieut.  Drummond,  who  successfully  produced  it-as  a 
first  class  light  abou-t  1826,  and  employed  it  on  the  ordnance  survey.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
seen  at  a  distance  of  112  miles.  It  was  tried  at  the  South  Foreland  lighthouse  in  1861. 

LIMERICK,  anciently  Lumneach  (S.  W.  Ireland).  About  550,  St.  Munchin  is  said  to 
have  founded  a  bishopric  and  built  a  church  here,  which  latter  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes 
in  853.  Donald  O'Brien,  king  of  Limerick,  founded  the  cathedral  about  1200.  Limerick 
obtained  its  charter  in  1195,  when  John  Stafford  was  made  first  provost ;  and  its  first  mayor 
was  Adam  Servant,  in  1198.  It  was  taken  by  Ireton  after  six  months'  siege  in  1655.  In 
Aug.  1691,  it  was  invested  by  the  English  and  Dutch,  and  surrendered  on  most  honourable 
terms,  Oct.  3,  same  year.*  An  awful  explosion  of  218  barrels  of  gunpowder  greatly  shattered 
the  town,  killing  100  persons,  Feb.  i,  1694.  Another  explosion  of  gunpowder  here  killed 
many  persons,  Jan.  2,  1837.  Awful  and  destructive  tempest,  Jan.  6-7,  1839. 

LIMITED  LIABILITY.  An  act  for  limiting  the  liability  of  joint  stock  companies, 
18  &  19  Viet.  c.  133  (passed  1855),  was  amended  1856-7-8.  On  May  31,  1864,^"  3830  joint- 
stock  companies  had  been  formed  and  registered  on  the  limited  liability  principle,  and  938 
had  ceased  to  exist." 

LINCELLES  (N.  France),  where  the  allied  English  and  Dutch  armies  defeated  the 
French,  Aug.  18,  1793.  General  Lake  commanded  three  battalions  of  brave  foot  guards. 

LINCOLN",  the  Roman  Lindum  Colonia,  and  at  the  period  of  the  [conquest  rich  and 
populous.  It  was  taken  several  times  by  Saxons  and  Danes.  The  castle  was  built  by 
William  I., in.  1086.  Without  Newport-gate  was  fought  upon  Lincoln  plain  the  battle 
between  the  partisans  of  the  empress  Maud,  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  and  the 
army  of  Stephen,  in  which  the  king  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  Feb.  2,  1141.  Louis, 
dauphin  of  France,  having  been  invited  over  by  the  discontented  barons  in  the  last  year  of 
king  John's  reign  was  acknowledged  by  them  as  king  of  England  here  ;  but  the  nobility, 
summoned  by  the  earl  of  Pembroke  to  Gloucester  to  crown  Henry  III.,  marched  against 
Louis  and  the*  barons,  and  defeated  them  in  a  most  sanguinary  fight  (called  the  Fair  of  Lincoln), 
May  20,  1217;  and  Louis  withdrew. 

LINCOLN,  BISHOPRIC  OF.  Sidnacester  or  Lindesse  and  Dorchester,  two  distinct  sees 
in  Mercia,  were  united  libout  1078,  and  the  see  was  removed  to  Lincoln  by  bishop  Remigius 
de  Feschamp,  who  built  a  cathedral  (1086),  afterwards  destroyed  by  fire,  but  rebuilt  by 
bishop  Alexander  (1127)  and  bishop  Hugh  of  Burgundy.  The  diocese  is  the  largest  in  the 
kingdom,  notwithstanding  that  the  dioceses  of  Ely,  Oxford,  and  Peterborough,  formerly 
parts  of  it,  and  now  distinct  sees,  were  further  enlarged  from  Lincoln  in  1837.  The  see 
was  valued  at  the  dissolution  of  monasteries  at  2065  Z.  per  annum;  and  after  many  of  its 
manors  had  been  seized  upon,  it  was  rated  in  the  king's  books  at  894?.  IDS.  id.  _  Present 
income,  5000?.  It  has  given  three  saints  to  the  church  of  Rome,  and  to  the  civil  state  of 
England  six  lord  chancellors.  The  great  bell  of  the  cathedral,  called  Great  Tom  of  Lincoln, 
weighs  four  tons  eight  pounds. 

RECENT   BISHOPS    OF   LINCOLN. 


1787.    George  Pretyman  (aftci-wards  Tomiine),  trans- 
lated to  Winchester,  1 820. 
1820.    Hon.  George  Pelham,  died  Feb.  i,  1827. 


1827.   John  Kaye,  died  Feb.  19,  1852. 

1852.   John  Jackson,  PRESENT  (1865)  bishop. 


LINCOLN'S-INN  (London),  derives  its  name"  from  Henry  de  Lacy,  earl  of  Lincoln,  who 
erected  a  mansion  on  this  spot  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I. ,  which  had  been  the  bishop  of 

*  By  tho  treaty  it  was  agreed  that  all  arms,  property,  and  estates  should  be  restored  ;  all  attainders 
annulled,  and  all  outlawries  reversed  ;  and  that  no  oath  but  that  of  allegiance  should  be  required  of  high 
or  low  ;  the  freedom  of  the  Catholic  religion  was  secured  ;  relief  from  pecuniary  claims  incurred  by  hos- 
tilities was  guaranteed  ;  permission  to  leave  the  kingdom  was  extended  to  all  who  desired  it ;  and  a  general 
pardon  proclaimed  to  all  then  in  arms.  Burns. 


LIN  440  LIS 

Chichester's  palace.  It  became  an  inn  of  court,  1310.  The  gardens  of  Lincoln's-inn-fields 
were  laid  out  by  Inigo  Jones,  about  1620,  and  erroneously  said  to  occupy  the  same  space  as 
the  largest  pyramid  of  Egypt,  which  is  764  feet  square  ;  Lincoln's-inn  square  being  821  feet 
by  625  feet  6  inches.  Lord  W.  Russell  was  beheaded  in  Lincoln's-inn  Fields,  July  21,  1683. 
The  square  (formed  in  1618)  was  inclosed  with  iron  railings  about  1737.  The  new  buildings 
were  opened,  Oct.  30,  1845,  and  the  square  planted.  The  theatre  in  Lincoln's-inn-fields 
was  built  in  1695  ;  rebuilt  in  1714  ;  made  a  barrack  in  1756,  and  pulled  down  in  1848. 

LINDISFARNE,  OE.  HOLY  ISLAND,  on  the  coast  of  Northumberland,  became  a  bishop's 
see,  635.  It  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes  under  Regnar  Lodbrok  in  793,  and  the  monastery 
was  destroyed  by  them  in  875  ;  the  see  was  removed  to  Chester-le-street  in  900,  and  finally 
to  Durham  in  995  (or  990). 

LINEN.     Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph  in  vestures  of  fine  linen,  1716  B.C.     (Gen.  xli.  42.) 

First  manufactured  in  England  by  Flemish  ;  Hemp,  flax,  linen,  thread,  and  yarn,  from  Ire- 

weavers,  under  the  protection  of  Henry  III.  1253  land,  permitted  to  be  exported  duty  free  .  1696 

A  company  of  linen-weavers  established  in  I  Irish  linen  board  established  in  1711 ;  the  Linen- 
London  1368  I  hall,  Dublin,  was  opened  1728 ;  the  board 

The  art  of  staining  linen  became  known  .         .  1579        abolished  in 1828 

A  colony  of  Scots  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and  i  A  board  of  trustees  to  superintend  the  Scotch 


other  Presbyterians  who  fled  from  persecu- 
tion in  succeeding  reigns,  planted  themselves 
in  the  north-east  part  of  Ireland,  and  there 
established  the  linen  manufacture,  which 


linen  manufacture  established  in    .        .        .   1727 
Dunfermline,  in  Fifeshire,  Dundee,  in  Angus- 
shire,  and  Barnsley,  in  Yorkshire,  are  chief 
seats  of  our  linen  manufacture. 


was  liberally  encouraged  by  the  lord  deputy  I  Duty  on  linen  was  taken  off  in  .        .     .   1860 

"VVentworth  in  1634  ;  by  William  III.  in          .  1698  i 

LINLITHGOW-BRIDGE  (near  Edinburgh),  near  which  the  forces  of  the  earl  of  Angus, 
who  held  James  V.  in  their  power,  defeated  the  forces  of  the  earl  of  Lennox,  who,  after 
receiving  promise  of  quarter,  was  killed  by  sir  James  Hamilton,  1526.  Mary,  queen  of 
Scots,  was  born  in  the  palace  of  Linlithgow,  James  V.,  her  father,  dying  of  a  broken  heart, 
the  same  year,  1542. 

LINN^IAN  SYSTEM  of  botany,  arranged  by  Linns'  or  Linnaeus,  a  Swede,  1725-30. 
He  classed  the  plants  according  to  the  number  and  situation  of  the  sexual  parts,  and  made 
the  flower  and  fruit  the  test  of  his  various  genera.  Linnseus  lived  from  1707  to  1778. 
His  library  and  herbarium  were  purchased  by  sir  James  E.  (then  Dr. )  Smith,  and 
given  to  the  Linncean  Society  in  London,  which  was  instituted  in  1 788,  and  incorporated 
March  26,  1802. 

LION  AND  UNICORN,  the  former  English,  the  latter  Scottish,  became  the  supporters 
of  the  royal  arms  on  the  accession  of  James  I.  in  1603. 

LIPPE,  a  constitutional  principality  (N.  W.  Germany).  Population,  Dec.  1861,  108,513. 
Reigning  prince,  Leopold,  born  Sept.  i,  1821  ;  succeeded  his  father,  Leopold,  Jan.  i,  1851. 

LIPPSTADT.     See  Lutzen. 

LISBON  (Olisippo,  and  Felicitas  Julia,  of  the  ancients)  was  taken  by  the  Arabs  in  716, 
and  became  important  under  the  Moorish  kings,  from  whom  it  was  captured  by  Alfonso  I.  of 
Portugal  in  1147.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  Portugal  by  Emanuel,  1506.  Lisbon  has 
suffered  much  by  earthquakes,  and  was  almost  destroyed  by  one,  Nov.  i,  1755.  See  Earth- 
quakes. The  court  fled  to  the  Brazils,  Nov.  10,  1807,  and  on  Nov.  30  the  French,  under 
Junot,  entered  Lisbon,  and  held  it  until  the  battle  of  Yimeira,  in  which  they  were  defeated 
by  the  British,  under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  Aug.  21,  1808.  A  military  insurrection  at 
Lisbon,  Aug.  21,  1831,  was  soon  suppressed,  and  many  soldiers  were  executed.  Massacre 
at  Lisbon,  June  9,  1834.  See  Portugal. 

LISLE  (now  Lille,  N.  France)  has  a  strong  citadel  by  Yauban.  It  was  besieged  by  the 
duke  of  Marlborough  and  the  allies  ;  and,  though  deemed  impregnable,  was  taken  after  a 
three  months'  siege  in  1708.  It  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  in  conside- 
ration of  the  demolition  of  the  fortifications  of  Dunkirk.  Lisle  sustained  a  severe  bombard- 
ment from  the  Austrians,  who  were  obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  Oct.  7,  1792. 

LISMORE  (S.  Ireland).  St.  Carthage,. first  bishop,  636,  says  :  "  Lismore  is  a  famous  and 
holy  city,  of  which  nearly  one  half  is  an  asylum  where  no  woman  dare  enter."  The 
castle  (built  by  king  John  when  earl  of  Moreton,  1185),  burnt  in  1645,  was  rebuilt  with 
great  magnificence  by  the  duke  of  Devonshire.  The  cathedral,  built  636,  was  repaired  by 
Cormac,  son  of  Muretus,  king  of  Munster,  about  1130  ;  and  the  bishopric  was  united  to  that 
of  Waterford,  about  1363  ;  and  both  to  Cashel  in  1839. 

LISSA  (or  Leuthen,   Silesia),   BATTLE   OF,   in  which  the  king  of  Prussia  vanquished 


LIT  441  LIT 

prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  ;   6000  Austrians  were  slain,  Dec.  5,  1757. — LISSA,  in  Poland, 
was  laid  in  ruins  by  the  Russian  army  in  the  campaign  of  1707. 

LITANIES  (Greek  litancia,  supplication),  were  first  used  in  processions,  it  is  said,  about 
469  ;  others  say  about  400.  Litanies  to  the  Virgin  Mary  were  first  introduced  by  pope 
Gregory  I.  about  595.  The  first  English  litany  was  commanded  to  be  used  in  the  Reformed 
churches  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1543. 

LITERARY  CLUB  (at  first  called  "The  Club"  and  " Johnson's  Club"),  began  in 
J763  by  Goldsmith,  Reynolds,  Burke,  Gibbon,  Jones,  Garrick,  Bennett,  Langton,  and 
Topham  Beauclerk,  with  Dr.  Johnson  for  president.  The  opinion  formed  of  a  new  work~bv- 
the  club  was  speedily  known  all  over  London,  and  had  great  influence.  The  club  still  exists. 
Hallam,  Macaulay,  the  marquess  of  Lansdowne,  and  bishop  Blomfield  were  members  ;  Dr. 
Milman,  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  was  in  the  chair  at  the  centenary  dinner  on  June  7,  1864. 

LITERARY  FUND,  ROYAL,  was  founded  in  1790,  to  relieve  literary  men  of  all  nations, 
by  David  Williams,*  the  friend  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  It  had  its  origin  in  this  way  : 
Floyer  Sydenhain,  an  eminent  Greek  scholar,  of  Wadham  college,  Oxford,  and  translator  of 
some  of  the  works  of  Plato,  having  110  patronage,  was  involved  in  embarrassment,  and 
arrested  and  thrown  into  prison  for  a  trifling  debt  due  for  his  frugal  meals,  and  there,  in 
1 788,  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  want  and  misery,  when  nearly  eighty  years  of  age.  The 
sympathy  excited  gave  rise  to  this  institution,  since  bountifully  supported.  It  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1818.  Since  1855  various  alterations  in  its  management  have  been  annually 
proposed  and  negatived. 

LITERARY  PROPERTY.     See  Copyright. 
LITERARY  SOCIETIES,  &c.     See  Societies. 

LITERATURE,  called  also  LETTERS  and  Belles  Lettres,  is  held  to  comprehend  Eloquence, 
Poetry,  History,  Language,  and  their  subordinates.  See  Bible,  and  also  Greek,  Latin, 
England,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany. 

LITHIUM,  a  metal,  the  lightest  substance  in  nature  except  the  gases  (its  specific  gravity 
being  0^59),  is  obtained  from  an  alkaline  substance  termed  lithia ,•  discovered  by  M. 
Arfwedson,  a  Swede,  in  1817. 

LITHOGRAPHY  (engraving  on  stone).  The  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  to  Alois 
Sennefelder,  whose  first  essays  were  executed  about  1796 ;  and  shortly  afterwards  the  art  was 
announced  in  Germany,  and  was  known  as  polyautography.  It  became  partially  known  in 
England  in  1801,  et  seq.,  but  its  general  introduction  may  be  referred  to  Mr.  Ackermann,  of 
London,  about  1817.  Sennefelder  died  in  1841.  Improvements  in  the  art  have  been  made 
by  Engelmann  and  many  others.  See  Printing  in  Colours. 

LITHOTOMY.  The  surgical  operation  of  cutting  for  the  stone  was  performed  by  the 
ancients.  The  "small  apparatus, "  so  called  from  the  few  instruments  used  in  the  operation, 
was  practised  by  Celsus,  about  17.  The  operation  called  the  "high  apparatus"  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  De  Franco,  and  it  is  thought  to  be  the  most  ancient.  The  "great 
apparatus"  was  invented  by  John  de  Romanis,  about  1500. 

LITHOTRITY  (or  bruising  the  stone).  Tiie  apparatus  produced  by  M.  Leroy  d'Etiolles 
in  1822  has  since  been  improved. 

LITHUANIA,  formerly  a  grand-duchy,  N.  E.  of  Prussia.  The  natives  (belonging  to  the 
Slavonic  race)  long  maintained  their  independence  against  the  Russians  and  Poles.  In  1386, 
their  grand-duke  Jagellon  became  king  of  Poland  and  was  baptized  :  Lithuania  was  not  incor- 
porated with  Poland  till  1501,  when  another  duke  Casimir  became  king  of  that  country.  The 
larger  part  of  Lithuania  now  belongs  to  Russia,  the  remainder  to  Prussia. 

LITURGIES  (from  the  Greek  litai,  prayers,  and  ergon,  work).  The  Greek  and  Roman 
liturgies  are  very  ancient,  having  been  committed  to  writing  about  the  4th  and  5th  centuries. 
The  Romish  church  recognises  four :  the  Roman  or  Georgian,  the  Ambrosian,  the  Gallican, 
and  the  Spanish  or  Mosarabic.  The  Greek  church  has  two  principal  liturgies  :  St.  Chry- 
sostom's  and  St.  Basil's,  and  several  smaller  ones.  Parts  of  these  liturgies  are  attributed  to 
the  Apostles,  to  St.  Ignatius,  250,  and  to  St.  Ambrose  (died  397),  and  to  St.  Jerome  (died 
420).  The  present  ENGLISH  LITURGY  was  first  composed,  and  was  approved  and  confirmed 

*  He  was  in  early  life  a  dissenting  minister,  and  wrote  on  education.  He  was  consulted  by  the  early 
revolutionary  party  in  France  as  to  the  form  of  a  constitution  for  that  country,  he,  Dr.  Priestley,  sir  James 
Mackintosh,  and  other  distinguished  Englishmen,  having  been  previously  declared  French  citizens.  He 
died  July  29,  1816. 


LIV 


442 


LIV 


Royal  Institution  founded 1814 

Wellington -rooms  built 1815 

Royal  Institution  opened  by  a  speech  from  Mr. 


Nov.  2,  i8iS 


Jul 


by  parliament,  in  1547-8.  Tlie  offices  for  morning  and  evening  prayer  were  then  put  into 
nearly  the  same  form  in  which  we  now  have  them.  At  the  solicitation  of  Calvin  and 
others,  the  liturgy  was  reviewed  and  altered  to  very  nearly  its  present  state,  1551.  It  was 
first  read  in  Ireland,  in  the  English  language,  in  1550,  and  in  Scotland,  where  it  occasioned 
a  tumult,  in  1637,  and  was  withdrawn,  1638:  The  Liturgy  was  revised  by  Whitehead, 
formerly  chaplain  to  Anna  Boleyn,  and  by  bishops  Parker,  Grindall,  Cox,  and  Pilkington, 
dean  May,  and  secretary  Smith.  See  Common  Prayer. 

LIVERIES.  The  term  is  derived  from  the  custom  of  the  retainers  of  the  lord  mayor  and 
sheriffs  of  London  bearing  habiliments  of  the  form  and  colour  displayed  by  those  function- 
aries. It  was  usual  for  the  wardens  of  companies  to  deliver  a  purse  containing  2os.  to  the 
lord  mayor  on  the  ist  of  Dec.  to  obtain  for  individuals,  so  desiring,  sufficient  cloth  to 
make  a  suit,  and  the  privilege  of  wearing  the  livery.  This  added  to  the  splendour  of  the 
mayor's  train  when  the  civic  court  went  forth.  Ashe.  Liveries  were  regulated  by  statute  in 
1392,  and  frequently  since. 

LIVERPOOL  ("W.  Lancashire),  is  supposed  to  be  noticed  in  Domesday-book  under  the 
name  Esmedunc,  or  Smcdwne.*  Soon  after  the  Conquest,  William  granted  that  part  of  the 
country  situated  between  the  rivers  Mersey  and  Ribble  to  Roger  of  Poitiers,  who,  according 
to  Camden,  built  a  castle  here,  about  the  year  1089.  To  this  circumstance  is  attributed  the 
origin  of  the  town.  It  afterwards  was  held  by  the  earls  of  Chester  and  dukes  of  Lancaster. 
Population  in  1851,  375,995  ;  in  1861,  443,874. 

Liverpool  made  a  free  burgh  by  king  Henry 

III 1229 

Made  an  independent  port 1335 

Liverpool  "  a  paved  town  "  (Leland)      .        .     .  1558 
"  The  people  of  her  majesty's  decayed  town  of 

Liverpool "  petition  Elizabeth  to  be  relieved 

from  a  subsidy 1571 

Separated  from  the  duchy  of  Lancaster         .     .  1628 
Town   rated  for   ship-money  in   only  261.   by 

Charles  I. 1630 

Besieged  by  prince  Rupert,  and  surrendered, 

June  26,  1644 

Made  a  separate  parish 1698 

The  old  dock,  the  first  in  England,  constructed 

and  opened 1699 

Blue  coat  hospital  founded 1709 

The  town  opposes  the  Young  Pretender,  and 

raises  several  regiments 1745 

Town-hall  commenced 1749 

Infirmary  established „ 

Seamen's  hospital  founded 1752 

A  most  destructive  fire 1762 

House  of  industry  founded 1770 

Theatre  licensed,  1771  ;  opened  ....  1772 
Liverpool  equips,  at  the  commencement  of  the 

war  against  France,   120  privateers,  carrying 

1986  guns,  and  8754  seamen        .        .        .     .  1778 

King's  dock  constructed 1785 

[The  Queen's  dock  was  also  constructed  about 

the  same  time.] 

Memorable  storm  raged 1789 

The  exchange  burnt 1795 

The  town-hall  (since  restored)  destroyed  by  fire    , , 
The  Athenaeum  opened  ....  Jan.  i,  1799 

Union  news-room  erected 1800 

The  Lyceum  erected 1802 

Awful  fire,  whose  ravages  exceeded  i, 000,000?. 

sterling Sept.  14,     ,, 

Corn  exchange  opened  ....  Aug.  4,  i  So8 
Royal  exchange  completed         .        .        .        .1809 
Statue  of  Geo.  III.  commenced      .          Oct.  25,     „ 
Fall  of  St.  Nicholas'  tower,   which  killed  20 

persons Feb.  n,  i8ic 


Roscoe  . 

American  seamen's  hospital 
Prince's  dock  opened 
St.  J  ohii's  market-place 

Royal  Institution  incorporated      .        .        .     . 
Marine  Humane  Society  formed 
New  house  of  industry  erected       .        .        .     . 

Liver  theatre  opened 

Old  dock  closed 

Foundation  of  new  custom-house  laid,  Aug.  12, 
Blackrock    lighthouse    built,    and    light   first 

shown March  i, 

Lunatic  asylum  founded,  1792  ;   new  buildings 

erected       .        .        .        

Clarence  dock  completed        .        .        .     Sept. 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway  openedf 

Sept.  15, 

Zoological  gardens  opened 

Great  fire;    property  valued  at  300,000?.   de- 
stroyed   Jan.  i, 

Lock  hospital  and  Waterloo  dock  opened  . 
Victoria  and  Trafalgar  docks  opened      Sept.  8, 

Mechanics'  institute  opened 

New  fish  market  opened    .        .        .      Feb.  8, 
Apothecaries'  company  formed      .        .        . 
Liverpool  and    Birmingham  railway  opened, 

its  entire  length,  as  the  Grand  Junction, 

July  4, 
Railway  to  London  (now  the  North-Western) 

was  opened  its  entire  length          .     Sept.  17, 

Statistical  society  founded 

The  Liverpool  steamer,  of  46i-horse  power,  sails 

for  New  York Oct.  28, 

Awful  storm  raged         ....    Jan.  6, 
Foundation  of  the  collegiate  institution  laid  by 

lord  Stanley 

Foundation  of  St.  George's  hall  and  courts  laid 
Immense  fire  ;  property  worth  more  than  half 

a  million  sterling  destroyed        .        Sept.  25, 
Mr.  Huskissoii's  statue  erected        .        .     Oct. 


.  1820 
1821 
1822 

1823 
1824 
1825 

1826 

1828 

1830 


1833 


1837 


1838 


1839 

1840 
1841 

1842 

1847 


*  In  other  ancient  records  its  appellations  are  Litkerpul  and  Lyrpul,  signifying  probably,  in  the  ancient 
dialect,  the  lower  pool ;  though  some  have  deduced  its  etymology  from  a  pool  frequented  by  an  aquatic 
fowl,  called  the  "Liver,"  or  from  a  sea-weed  of  that  name  ;  and  others,  from  its  having  belonged  to  a 
family  of  the  name  of  Lever,  whose  antiquity  is  not  sufficiently  established  to  justify  their  conclusion. 

t  The  first  grand  work  of  the  kind,  about  31  miles  long.  The  first  shaft  was  commenced  in  Oct.  1826, 
and  the  excavation  of  the  tunnel,  one  mile  and  a  quarter  long,  Jan.  1827  ;  the  tunnel  was  completed  in  Sept 
1828,  and  opened  July  30,  1829.  At  the  opening  of  the  railroad,  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  other  illus- 
trious persons  were  present ;  and  Mr.  Huskisson,  who  alighted  during  a  stoppage  of  the  engines,  was 
knocked  down  by  one  of  them,  which  went  over  his  thigh  and  caused  his  death,  Sept.  15,  1830. 


LIV 


LOA 


LIVERPOOL,  continued. 

Procession  of  Orangemen  at  Liverpool,  and  fatal 

riot July  14,  1851 

The  queen  visits  Liverpool        .        .        Oct.  9,     ,, 
St.  George's  hall  opened        .         .          Sept.  18,  1854 
Bread   riots   (150,000  persons  out  of   employ 

through  the  frost)  .         .        .         .      Feb.  19,  1855 
Gigantic  landing-stage  for  large  steamers  com- 
pleted         1857 

Many  commercial  failures      .        Sept.  to  Nov.     ,, 
Association  for  Social  Science  meets      .       Oct.   1858 
Free  library,  <fcc.,  founded  by  Mr.  (afterwards 
sir)  W.  Brown,   M.P.  for  S.  Lancashire,  April 
5,  1857  ;  opened    ....        Oct.  18,  1860 


Sailors'  home  (cost  30,000?.)  burnt  April  29,  1860 
The  free  museum  opened  .  .  .  Oct.  17,  1861 
Brownlow  Hill  church  and  workhouse- school 

burnt,  and  23  lives  lost  (20  children)    Sept.  8,  1862 
The  dock  space  in  1810  was  26  acres  for  ships, 

to  the  amount  of  704,000  tons ;   in  1857,  209 

acres,  tonnage  4,320,000. 
Explosion  of  n-J  tons  of  gunpowder  in  the  Lottie 

Sleigh,  in  the  Mersey,  causing  much  damage, 

Jan.  1 6,  1864 
Death  of  sir  Wm.  Brown,  a  great  benefactor  to 

Liverpool March  3,     ,, 


LIVERPOOL  ADMINISTRATION.  Shortly  after  the  assassination  of  Mr.  Perceval 
(May  n,  1812),  the  earl  of  Liverpool  became  first  minister  of  the  crown.*  His  administra- 
tion terminated  when  he  was  attacked  by  apoplexy,  Feb.  n,  1827,  and  Mr.  Canning  suc- 
ceeded as  prime  minister,  April.  In  fifteen  years  there  had  been  many  changes. 


Lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor. 

Earl  of  Harrow  by,  lord  president  of  the  council. 

Earl  of  Westmoreland,  lord  privy  seal. 

Mr.  Vansittart,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Earl  of  Mulgrave,  master  general  of  the  ordnance. 


|  Lord  Melville,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 
Viscount  Sidmouth,  viscount  Castlereagh,  and  earl 

Bathurst,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries. 
Lord  Palmerston,  marquess  of  Cam  den,  earl  of  Clan- 

carty,  earl  of  Buckinghamshire,  <fec. 


LIVONIA,  a  Russian  province  on  the  Baltic  sea,  first  visited  by  some  Bremen  merchants 
about  1158.  It  has  belonged  successively  to  Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Russia.  It 
was  finally  ceded  to  Peter  the  Great  in  1721. 

LLANDAFF  (Wales).  The  first  known  bishop  was  St.  Dubritius,  said  to  have  died 
in  612.  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  154?.  145.  id.  per  annum.  Present 
income,  4200?. 

RECENT   BISHOPS   OF    LLANDAFF. 


1782.    Richard  Watson  ;  died  July  4,  1816. 

1816.    Herbert  Marsh  ;  translated  to  Peterborough, 

1819. 
1819.   Wm.  Van  Mildert ;  translated  to  Durham,  1826. 


1826.  Charles  Richard  Sumner;  translated  to  Win- 

chester, 1827. 

1827.  Edward  Copleston ;  died  Oct.  14,  1849. 
1849.   Alfred  Ollivant,  PRESENT  bishop. 


LLOYD'S  (London).  The  coffee-house,  kept  by  Lloyd,  in  Abchurch-lane,  in  1710,  after- 
wards removed  ;  wras  established  finally  at  the  Royal  Exchange  in  1774,  and  remained  there 
till  the  fire  in  1838.  Here  resort  eminent  merchants,  underwriters,  &c. ;  and  here  are 
effected  insurances  on  ships  and  merchandise.  Lloyd's  is  supported  by  subscribers  who 
pay  annually  4?.  45.  The  books  kept  here  contain  an  account  of  the  arrival  and  sailing  of 
vessels,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  early  intelligence  of  maritime  affairs.  In  1803,  the 
subscribers  instituted  the  Patriotic  Fund,  which  see.t 

LOADSTONE.     See  Magnetism. 

LOANS  for  the  public  service  were  raised  by  "VVolsey  in  1522  and  1525.  In  1559 
Elizabeth  borrowed  200,000^.  of  the  city  of  Antwerp,  to  enable  her  to  reform  her  own  coin, 
and  sir  Thomas  Gresham  and  the  city  of  London  joined  in  the  security.  Rapin.  The 
amount  of  the  English  loans,  during  several  memorable  periods  was,  viz. : — 


Seven  years'  war  .  .  1755  to  1763  .  £52,100,000 
American  war  .  .  .  1776^)1784  .  75,500,000 
French  revolutionary  war  1793  to  1802  .  168,500,000 


War  against  Bonaparte  .  1803  to  1814  £206.300,000 
War  against  Russia  I  .  1855  to  1856  .  16,000,000 
For  deficiency  in  revenue}:  .  1856  .  10,000,000 


Besides  the  property- tax,  in  1813  were  raised  two  loans  of  twenty-one  millions  and  twenty- 
two  millions  ;  and  it  deserves  to  be  recorded,  that  a  subscription  loan  to  carry  on  the  war 
against  France  was  filled  up  in  London  in  15  hours  and  20  minutes,  to  the  amount  of  eighteen 


*  Robert  Jenkinson,  born  Jan.  7,  1770,  entered  the  house  of  commons  under  Mr.  Pitt ;  opposed  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade  in  1792  ;  in  1 796  became  lord  Hawkesbury;  became  foreign  minister  under 
Mr.  Addingtoii,  in  1801 ;  succeeded  his  father  as  earl  of  Liverpool  in  1808  ;  died  Dec.  4,  1828. 

t  The  Austrian  Lloyd's,  an  association  for  general,  commercial,  and  industrial  purposes  was  founded  at 
Trieste,  by  Baron  Bruck,  in  1833.  It  has  established  regular  communication  between  Trieste  and  the 
Levant,  by  means  of  a  fleet  of  steamers,  carrying  the  mails,  and  publishes  a  journal. 

i  Both  taken  by  the  Rothschilds  alone. 


LOG  444  LOG 

millions,  Dec.  5,  1796.     See  Loyalty  Loans.     In  1858,  the  East  India  company  raised  a  loan 
of  8,000,000?.* 

LOCAL  GOVERNMENT  ACT  passed  in  1858  was  amended  in  1861. 

LOCHLEVEN  CASTLE  (Kinross),  built  on  an  island  in  the  celebrated  lake  of  Loch 
Leven,  it  is  said  by  the  Picts,  was  a  royal  residence  when  Alexander  III.  and  his  queen 
were  forcibly  taken  from  it  to  Stirling.  It  was  besieged  by  the  English  in  1301,  and  again 
in  1334.  Patrick  Graham,  first  archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  was  imprisoned  for  attempting 
to  reform  the  church,  and  died  within  its  walls,  about  1478.  The  earl  of  Northumberland 
was  confined  in  it,  1569.  It  is,  however,  chiefly  remarkable  as  the  place  of  the  unfortunate 
queen  Mary's  imprisonment  in  1567,  and  of  her  escape,  on  Sunday,  May  2,  1568. 

LOCKS.  Those  of  'the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  were  clumsy  contrivances. 
Denon  has  engraved  an  Egyptian  lock  of  wood.  Du  Cange  mentions  locks  and  padlocks  as 
early  as  1381.  Bramah's  locks  were  patented  in  1784.  Mr.  Hobbs,  the  American,  exhibited 
his  own  locks  in  the  Crystal  palace,  in  1851,  and  showed  great  skill  in  picking  others. 

LOCOMOTIVES.  See  Railways.  The  use  of  steam  locomotives  on  ordinary  roads  is 
regulated  by  acts  passed  in  1861  and  1865. 

LOCRI,  a  people  of  Northern  Greece.  They  resisted  Philip  of  Macedon,  were  aided  by 
the  Athenians  and  Thebans,  and  defeated  by  him  at  Chaeronea,  Aug.  7,  338  B.C. 

LOCUSTS  formed  one  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt,  1491  B.C.  (Exod.  x.)  Owing  to  the  putrefac- 
tion of  vast  swarms  in  Egypt  and  Libya,  upwards  of  800,000  persons  are  said  to  have  perished, 
128  B.C.  Palestine  was  infested  with  such  swarms,  that  they  darkened  the  air  ;  and  after 
devouring  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  they  died,  and  their  intolerable  stench  caused  a  pestilential 
fever,  A.D.  406.  A  similar  catastrophe  occurred  in  France  in  837.  A  remarkable  swarm  of 
locusts  settled  upon  the  ground  about  London,  and  consumed  the  vegetables  ;  great  immbers 
fell  in  the  streets,  and  were  preserved  by  the  curious  ;  they  resembled  grasshoppers,  but  were 
three  times  the  size,  and  their  colours  more  variegated,  Aug.  4,  1748.  They  infested 
Germany  in  1749,  Poland  in  1750,  and  "Warsaw  in  June,  1816.  They  are  said  to  have  been 
seen  in  London  in  1857.  Russia  was  infested  by  them  in  July,  1860. 

LODGING-HOUSES.  An  act  placing  common  lodging-houses  under  the  watch  of  the 
police  was  passed  in  1851.  In  that  year  a  model  lodging-house,  erected  by  prince  Albert, 
appeared  at  the  Great  Exhibition.  Since  then,  blocks  of  lodging-houses  for  the  poor  have 
been  erected  by  Miss  Burdett  Coutts  and  others.  Mr.  Peabody's  donation  of  March  12,  1862, 
has  been  appropriated  for  a  similar  purpose.  On  Nov.  21,  1863,  the  city  of  London  voted 
2O,ooo£.  and  a  piece  of  land  in  Victoria-street  for  the  purpose. 

LODI  (N.  Italy).  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  commanding  the  French  army,  totally  defeated 
the  Austrian  s,  commanded  by  general  Beaulieu,  after  a  bloody  engagement  at  the  bridge  of 
Lodi,  May  10,  1796.  All  Lombardy  was  opened  to  his  army,  and  the  republican  flag  floated  in 
Milan  a  few  days  after. 

LOG-LINE,  used  in  navigation,  about  1570  ;  first  mentioned  by  Bourne  in  1577.  It  is 
divided  into  spaces  of  50  feet,  and  the  way  which  the  ship  makes  is  measured  by  a  half- 
minute  sand-glass,  which  bears  nearly  the  same  proportion  to  an  hour  that  50  feet  bear  to  a 
mile  :  the  line  used  in  the  royal  navy  is  48  feet. 

LOGARITHMS,  the  indexes  of  the  ratio  of  numbers  one  to  another,  were  invented  by 
baron  Napier  of  Merchiston,  who  published  his  work  in  1614.  The  invention  was  completed 
by  Mr.  Henry  Briggs,  at  Oxford,  who  published  tables,  1616-18.  The  method  of  computing 
by  means  of  marked  pieces  of  ivory  was  discovered  about  the  same  time,  and  hence  called 
Napier's  bones. 

LOGIC,  "the  science  of  reasoning."  Eminent  works  on  it  are  by  Aristotle;  Bacon, 
Novum  Organon;  Locke  on  the  Understanding;  and  the  modern  treatises  on  Logic,  by  arch- 
bishop Whately,  sir  William  Hamilton,  and  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill. 

*  French  Loan  on  July  9,  1855,  on  account  of  the  war  with  Kussia.  The  French  legislature  passed  a 
bill  for  raising  by  loan  750  million  francs  (30,000,000?.  sterling).  On  the  3oth  the  total  subscribed 
amounted  to  3,652,591,985  francs  (about  146,103,679?.),  nearly  five  times  the  amount  required.  About  600 
millions  came  from  foreign  countries;  2,533,888,450  from  Paris;  from  the  departments,  1,118,703,535. 
The  number  of  subscribers  was  316,864.  No  less  than  231,920,155  francs  was  made  up  by  subscription  of 
50  francs  and  under.  The  English  subscription  of  150,000,000  francs  was  returned,  as  double  the  amount 
required  had  been  proffered.  In  May,  1859,  the  French  government  raised  a  loan  of  20,000,000?.  for  the 
Italian  war  from  its  own  people  without  difficulty.  A  Turkish  loan  of  5,000,000?.,  on  the  security  of 
England  and  France,  was  taken  up  by  Rothschild  in  Aug.  1855,  and  was  well  received  ;  the  stock  rose  to  a 
small  premium. 


LOG  445  LON 


LOGIERIAN  SYSTEM  of  musical  education,  commenced  by  J.  B.  Logier,  in  Jan.  1815, 
and  introduced  into  the  chief  towns  of  the  United  Kingdom,  Prussia,  &c. 

LOGOGRAPHIC  PRINTING,  in  which  the  commoner  words  were  cast  in  one  mass,  was 
patented  by  Henry  Johnson  and  Mr.  Walter  of  the  Times  in  1783.  Anderson's  History  of 
Commerce,  vol.  iv.  was  printed  by  these  types  in  1789. 

LOI  DES  SUSPECTS,  enacted  by  the  French  convention,  Sept.  17,  1793,  during  the 
reign  of  terror,  filled  the  prisons  of  Paris.  The  Public  Safety  bill,  of  a  somewhat  similar 
character,  was  passed,  Feb.  18,  1858,  shortly  after  Orsini's  attempt  on  the  life  of  the 
emperor. 

LOLLARDS  (by  some  derived  from  the  German  lolkn,  to  sing  in  a  low  tone),  the  name 
given  to  the  first  reformers  of  the  Roman  catholic  religion  in  England,  and  a  reproachful 
appellation  of  the  followers  of  Wykliffe.  Chaucer.  The  original  sect  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  in  1315  by  Walter  Lollard,  who  was  burned  for  heresy  at  Cologne  in  1322.  The 
Lollards  are  said  to  have  devoted  themselves  to  acts  of  mercy.  The  first  Lollard  martyr 
in  England  was  William  Sawtree,  parish  priest  of  St.  Osith,  London,  Feb.  12,  1401,  when 
the  Lollards  were  proscribed  by  parliament,  and  numbers  of  them  were  burnt  alive.* 

LOMBARD  MERCHANTS,  in  England,  were  understood  to  be  composed  of  natives 
of  some  one  of  the  four  republics  of  Genoa,  Lucca,  Florence,  or  Venice.  Anderson.  Lom- 
bard usurers  were  sent  to  England  by  pope  Gregory  IX.  to  lend  money  to  convents,  com- 
munities, and  private  persons  who  were  not  able  to  pay  down  the  tenths  which  were  collected 
throughout  the  kingdom  with  great  rigour  that  year,  13  Hen.  III.  1229.  They  had  offices 
in  the  street  named  after  them  to  this  day.  Their  usurious  transactions  caused  their 
expulsion  from  the  kingdom  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

LOMBARDY  (N.  Italy)  derived  its  name  from  the  Langobardi,  a  German  tribe  from 
Brandenburg,  said  (doubtfully)  to  have  been  invited  into  Italy  by  Justinian  to  serve  against 
the  Goths.  Their  chief,  Alboin,  established  a  kingdom  which  lasted  from  568  to  774.  The  last 
king,  Desiderius,  was  dethroned  by  Charlemagne.  (For  a  list  of  the  Lombard  kings, 
see  Italy.)  About  the  end  of  the  9th  century  the  chief  towns  of  Lombardy  fortified 
themselves,  and  became  republics.  The  first  Lombard  league,  consisting  of  Milan,  Venice, 
Pavia,  Modena,  &c.,  was  formed  to  restrain  the  power  of  the  German  emperors,  in  1167. 
On  May  29,  1176,  they  defeated  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  at  Legnano,  and  even- 
tually compelled  him  to  sign  the  peace  of  Constance  in  1183.  In  1225  another  league  was 
formed  against  Frederick  II.,  which  was  also  successful.  After  this,  petty  tyrants  rose  in 
most  of  the  cities,  and  foreign  influence  quickly  followed.  The  Guelf  and  Ghibelline  factions 
greatly  distracted  Lombardy  ;  and  from  the  1 5th  century  to  the  present  time,  it  has  been 
contended  for  by  the  German  and  French  sovereigns.  The  house  of  Austria  obtained  it 
in  1748  and  held  it  till  1797,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  French,  who  incorporated  it  into 
the  Cisalpine  republic,  a»d  in  1805  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  On  the  breaking  up  of  the 
French  empire  in  1815,  the  LOMBARDO- VENETIAN  KINGDOM  was  established  by  the  allied 
sovereigns  and  given  to  Austria,  who  had  lost  her  Flemish  possessions.  In  March,  1848, 
Lombardy  and  Venice  revolted,  and  joined  the  king  of  Sardinia  :  they  did  not  support  him 
well  ;  and  after  his  defeat  at  Novara  (March  23,  1849),  were  again  subjected  to  Austria.  An 
amnesty  for  political  offences  was  granted  in  1856.  Great  jealousy  of  Sardinia  was  felt  by 
Austria  since  1849.  In  1857  diplomatic  relations  were  suspended  ;  and  in  April,  1859,  war 
broke  out ;  the  Austrians  crossing  the  Ticino  and  entering  Piedmont.  The  French  emperor 
declared  war  against  Austria,  and  immediately  sent  troops  into  Italy.  The  Austrians  were 
defeated  at  Montebello,  May  20  ;  Palestro,  May  30,  31  ;  Magenta,  June  4  ;  and  Solferino, 
June  24.  By  the  peace  of  Villafranca  (July  n),  the  largest  part  of  Lombardy  was  ceded  to 
Louis  Napoleon,  who  transferred  it  to  the  king  of  Sardinia.  It  now  forms  part  of  the  new 
kingdom  of  Italy. 

LONDON.  The  greatest  and  richest  city  in  the  world.  Some  assert,  that  a  city  existed 
on  the  spot  1107  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  354  years  before  the  foundation  of 
Rome,f  and  that  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Trinobantes,  54  B.C.,  and  long  previously  the 

*  Among  others,  sir  John  Oldcastle,  baron  Cobham,  was  cruelly  put  to  death  in  St.  Giles'-in-the-Fields. 
His  crime  was  the  adoption  of  the  tenets  of  the  great  reformer  Wykliffe.  He  was  misrepresented  to  our 
Henry  V.  by  the  bigoted  clergy,  as  a  heretic  and  traitor,  who  was  actually  at  the  head  of  30,000  Lollards  in 
these  fields.  About  100  inoffensive  people  were  found  there.  Cobham  escaped  :  but  was  taken  some  time 
after  in  Wales.  He  suffered  death,  being  hung  on  a  gallows,  by  a  chain  fastened  round  his  body,  and, 
thus  suspended,  burnt  alive,  in  Dec.  1418.  Pennant. 

t  The  fables  of  Geoffrey  of  M^iimouth,  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  London,  are  unworthy  cf  the  atten- 


LOST 


446 


LOX 


royal  seat  of  their  kings.  .  In  A.D.  61  it  was  known  to  the  Romans  as  Lundinium,  or  Colonia 
Augusta,  and  became  the  chief  residence  of  the  merchants  at  that  period.  It  is  said,  but 
not  truly,  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Lud,  an  old  British  king,  who  was  buried  near 
where  Ludgate  formerly  stood;  but  its  name  is  from  Llyn-Din,  the  "town  on  the 
lake."*  It  became  the  capital  of  the  Saxon  kingdom  of  Essex,  and  Avas  called  Lunden- 
ccaster.  In  1860,  London  and  the  suburbs  were  estimated  to  cover  I2i*square  miles,  n  miles 
each  way,  being  three  times  as  large  as  in  1800.  The  population  of  the  metropolitan  districts 
in  1851,  was  2,362,236  ;  in  1861,  was  2,803,034.  The  population  of  "the  city"  in  1851, 
was  127,869;  in  1861,  was  112,247.  Ee venue  of  the  corporation  in  1862,  437, 341^.  See 
Mayors,  Lord.  The  "port"  of  London  extends  from  London  Bridge  to  the  North  Fore- 
land. See  Docks,  f 


179 

306 

359 

604 

644 


Boadicea,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  reduces  London 
to  ashes,  and  puts  70,000  Romans  and  stran- 
gers to  the  sword 

She  is  defeated  by  Suetonius,  80,000    Britons 

are  massacred,  and  she  takes  poison 
Bishopric    said    to    have    been    founded    by 

Theanus        

London  rebuilt  and  walled  in  by  the  Romans  . 
800  vessels  said  to  be  employed  in  the  port  of 

London  for  the  export  of  corn 
Bishopric  revived  by  St.  Mellitus  :  St.  Paul's 
and  Westminster  abbey  built     .        .        .     . 

A  plague  ravages  London 

Great  fire  which  nearly  consumed  the  city 
London  pillaged  by  the  Danes  .  .  .  .  839 
Alfred  repairs  and  strengthens  London  .  .  884 
Easterlings  settle  in  London  before  .  .  .  978 
Another  great  fire  .  .  .  .  .  982 

Tower  built  by  William  1 1078 

First  charter  granted  to  the  city  by  the  same 

king.     See  London  Citizens 1079 

Another  great  fire,  St.  Paul's  burnt  .  .  .  1086 
606  houses  thrown  down  by  a  tempest .  .  .  1090 
Charter  granted  by  Henry  I.  .  •  .  .  1 100 
St.  Bartholomew's  priory  founded  by  Rahere, 

about  i  ioo 
London-bridge  built,  1014;  burnt       .         .         .  1136 

Old  London-bridge  begun 1176 

Henry  Fitz-Alwhyn,  the   first  mayor  (served 

twenty-four  years) 1189 

Massacre  of  Jews ,, 

Charter  granted  by  Henry  II 1154 

First  stone  bridge  finished 1209 

Charter  of   king  John  ;    mayor  and  common 

council  to  be  elected  annually  t  .         .     .1214 

Foreign  merchants  invited  to  settle,  and  do  so,. 

1199-1220 
Charter  of  Henry  II 1233 


Aldermen  appointed        ....    about  1242 

Watch  in  London,  38  Hen.  Ill 1253 

Privileges    granted  to  the    Hanse  merchants 

(which  see)      ........  1259 

Tax    called    murage,  to  keep  the  walls  and 

ditches  in  repair  ....  about  1282 
Water  brought  from  Tyburn  to  West  Cheap  .  1285 
Expulsion  of  the  Jews  (16,  511)  .  .  .  .  1290 
Livery  companies  incorporated  .  .  .  .  1327 

Charter  granted  by  Edward  III 1328 

Terrible  pestilence,  in  which  50,000  (?)  citizens 

perish§ 1348 

London  first  sends  members  to  parliament  .  1355 
William  of  Walworth  lord  mayor  .  .  .  .  1380 
Wat  Tyler's  rebellion.  See  Tyler  .  .  .  1381 

Aldermen  elected  for  life 1394 

Great  plague  30,000  (?)  died  ....  1406 
City  first  lighted  at  night  by  lanterns  .  .  .1415 
Guildhall  commenced  1411,  finished  .  .  .  1416 
Whittington  thrice  lord  mayor,  viz.  1397, 

1406,  1419 

Jack  Cade's  rebellion.  See  Cade  .  .  .  .  1450 
First  civic  procession  on  the  water  ;  sir  John 

Norman  lord  mayor 1453 

Falconbridge  attempts  the  city  .  .  .  .  1471 
Printing-press  set  up  by  Caxton  .  .  .  ,, 

Sweating  sickness  rages 1485 

Fleet  ditch  navigable 1502 

St.  Paul's  school  founded  by  dean  Colet  .  .  1509 
The  fatal,  sweat,  Sudor  Angiicus  .  .  .  -1517 

Evil  May-day  (which  see) „ 

Streets  first  paved '(Viner's  Slat.)  .  .  .  1553 
Russian  trading  company  established  .  .  1553 
"  Bills  of  Mortality  "  ordered  to  be  kept  .  .  1538 
Dissolution  of  religious  houses  ....  1539 
St.  Bartholomew's  monastery  changed  to  an 

hospital „ 

Forty  taverns  and  public  houses  allowed  in  the 


tion  of  the  antiquary.  That  London  was  founded  by  Brute,  a  descendant  of  the  Trojan  2Eneas,  and  called 
New  Troy,  or  Troy-novant,  until  the  time  of  Lud,  who  surrounded  it  with  walls,  and  gave  it  the  name  of 
Caer  Lud,  or  Lud's  town,  &c.,  may  be  considered  as  mere  romance.  Leigh. 

*  The  original  walls  of  London  were  the  work  of  the  Romans.  Theodosius,  governor  of  Britain,  is 
siid  to  have  raised  them,  379 ;  but  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  built  about  306.  There  were  originally 
four  principal  gates ;  but  the  number  increased ;  and  among  others  were  the  Praetorian  way,  Newgate, 
Dowgate,  Cripplegate,  Aldgate,  Aldersgate,  Ludgate,  Bridegate,  Moorgate,  Bishopgate,  the  Postern  ou 
Tower-hill,  and  the  only  one  of  the  city  boundaries  now  remaining,  is  Temple-bar,  rebuilt  1670-2. 

t  LONDON  CITIZENS.  To  them  many  privileges  and  immunities  have  been  granted  from  the  time  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  whose  first  charter,  granted  in  1079,  is  still  preserved  in  the  city  archives.  This 
charter  is  written  in  beautiful  Saxon  characters,  on  a  slip  of  parchment  six  inches  long,  and  one  broad, 
and  is  in  English  as  follows :—"  William  the  king  greeteth  William  the  bishop,  and  Godfrey  the  portrcve, 
and  all  the  burgesses  within  London  friendly.  And  I  acquaint  you,  that  I  will  that  ye  be  all  there  law- 
worthy  as  ye  were  in  king  Edward's  days.  And  I  will  that  every  child  be  his  father's  heir,  after  his 
father's  days.  And  I  will  not  suffer  that  any  man  do  you  any  wrong.  God  preserve  you." 

J  Stow  incorrectly  states  this  charter  to  have  been  given  in  1209,  but  it  bears  date  May  igth  in  the 
i6th  year  of  King  John's  reign,  which  began  in  1199.  This  charter  was  acted  on  at  that  period  in  various 
instances,  as  many  of  the  mayors  were  afterwards  continued  in  their  offices  for  several  years  together ;  and 
the  same  right  was  exerted  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Alderman  Wood,  who  filled  the  office  of  lord  mayor  during 
two  succeeding  years,  those  of  1816  and  1817.  Leigh. 

§  This  terrible  pestilence  broke  out  in  India,  and  spreading  itself  westward  through  every  country  on 
the  globe,  reached  England.  Its  ravages  in  London  were  so  great,  that  the  common  cemeteries  were  not 
sufficient  for  the  interment  of  the  dead  ;  and  various  pieces  of  ground  without  the  walls  were  assigned  for 
burial-places.  Amongst  these  was  the  waste  land  now  forming  the  precincts  of  the  Charter-house,  where 
upwards  of  50,000  bodies  were  then  deposited.  This  disorder  did  not  subside  till  1357.  Idem. 


LON 


447 


LOX 


,  continued. 

city,  and  three  in   Westminster,  act  7  Edw. 

VI.  (there  are  now  7000) 1553 

Christ's  hospital  founded  by  king  Edw.  VI.       .     ,, 

Coaches  introduced  about 1563 

Royal  exchange  built.  See  Exchange  .  .  .  1566 
New  buildings  in  London  forbidden  "  where  no 

former  hath  been  known  to  have  been,"  to 

prevent  the  increasing  size*    ....  1580 

Levant  company  established 1581 

Thames  water  conveyed  into  the  city  by  leaden 

pipes 1580-94 

Stow  publishes  his  survey 1598 

Nearly  all  London  yet  built  of  wood  .  .  .  1600 
East  India  company  incorporated  ,  .  .  ,, 
30,578  persons  said  to  perish  by  the  plague  .  1603 
Gunpowder  plot  (which  see)  .  .  .  .1605 
Virginia  company  established  .  .  .  .  1616 
Thomas  Sutton  founds  Charterhouse  school,  &c.  1611 
New  river  water  brought  to  London  .  .  .1613 

Principal  streets  paved 1616 

Hackney    coaches    first  plied.      See    Hackney 

Coaches       ........  1625 

Building  of  the  western  parishes,  St.  Giles's,  &c., 

begun 1640 

The  city  held  for  the  parliament        .        .        .  1642 

London  fortified 1643 

Jews  allowed  to  settle  in  London  by  Cromwell,  1650 

The  Jews  begin  to  return 1656 

Banking  begun  by  Francis  Child,  about  .  1660 
Royal  Society  of  London  chartered  .  .  .  1662 
68,596  persons  said  to  have  perished  by  the 

great  plague.     See  Plagues 1665 

"  Oxford  "  afterwards  "  London  Gazette  "  pub- 
lished          Nov.  7,     ,, 

Great  fire  of  London.  See  Fires  .  .  .  .  1666 
Act  for  a  "  new  model  of  building  "  in  the  city,  „ 
Hudson's-bay  company  chartered  .  .  .  1670 
Monument  erected.  See  Monument  .  .  1671-7 
Gates'  pretended  popish  plot  ....  1678 
A  London  directory  published  .  .  .  .  1679 

Charter  granted  by  Charles  II 1680 

Penny  post  established 1683 

Settlement  of  French  protestants  .  .  .  1685 
Charter  declared  forfeited  1682  ;  but  restored  .  1689 
Bank  of  England  established  ....  1694 
Awful  storm  ....  Nov.  26,  Dec.  i,  1703 
Sacheverel's  sermon  and  mob  ....  1710 
Act  for  the  erection  of  fifty  new  churches  ,  .1711 
South  Sea  bubble  commenced  1710,  exploded 

1720.     See  South  Sea  Company  .        .        .        .  1720 

Chelsea  water- works  formed 1722 

Bank  of  England  built  ....  1732-4 
Glass  lamps  in  the  street  .  between  1694  &  1736 
Fleet  ditch  covered,  and  Fleet  market  opened  .  1737 
"Great  Frost,"  Dec.  25,  1739,  to  Feb-  8  .  .  1740 
London  Hospital  instituted  .  .  .  .  „ 
New  Mansion  House  founded,  1739;  completed,  1753 

British  Museum  established ,, 

Society  of  Arts  established ,, 

Shop  signs  removed 1762 

Westminster  paving  act  passed  .         .        .        .     , , 
Blackfriars  bridge  opened      .         .         Nov.  19,  1769 
The  lord  mayor  (Brass  Crosby)  committed  to 

the  Tower  by  the  House  of   Commons  for  a 

breach  of  privilege     .        .         .        March  27,  1771 
Lord  George  Gordon's  Xo-popery  mob.      See 

Gordon's  Mob June,  1780 

Thanksgiving    of    George    III.    at    St.    Paul's 

cathedral April  23,  1789 

Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain  founded       .  1799 


|  London  docks  opened  ....    Jan.  20, 

London  Institution  founded  ..... 

Lord  Nelson's  funeral  ....      Jan.  9, 

1  Gas  first  exhibited  in  Pall  Mall  .     . 

Riots  011  the  committal  of  sir  F.  Burdett  to  the 

Tower    ......         April  6, 

The  Mint  finished        ...... 

Regent-street  begun        ...... 

Civic  banquet  to  the  allied  sovereigns  at  Guild- 

hall   .......   June  18, 

Custom-house  burnt        .        .        .        Feb.  12, 
Gaslight  becomes  general    ..... 

The  city  generally  lighted  with  gas       .        .     . 
Waterloo  bridge  opened      .         .        .     June  18, 
New  custom-house  opened     ..... 

Southwark  bridge  opened  .        .          March  24, 
The  great  increase  in  building  commences 
Bank  of  England  completed  by  sir  John  Soane, 
Tumults  at  queen  Caroline's  funeral     Aug.  14, 
Cabs  introduced   ....... 

London  Mechanics'  Institution  founded        .     . 
Bubble  companies'  panic     ..... 

London    University    chartered.      See    London, 

University  .....  Feb.  u, 
27  turnpikes  removed  by  act  of  parliament  .  . 
New  post-office  completed  ..... 
Farringdon  market  opened  ..... 
Omnibuses  introduced  ..... 
New  metropolitan  police  began  .  Sept.  29, 
Covent-garden  market  rebuilt 
Memorable  political  panic,  Nov.  5  ;  and  no  lord 

mayor's  show        ....         Nov.  9, 
New  London  bridge  opened 
General   fast  on    account    of    the 

England        ..... 
Hungerford  market  opened 
Houses  of  parliament  burnt   . 
City  of  London  School  founded  . 
Queen  dines  at  Guildhall 
Royal  Exchange  burnt 
Railway  opened  from  London  to  Birmingham. 

Sept.  17;  to  Greenwich        .        .        Dec.  28, 
Penny  postage  begun  ....    Jan.  10, 

Railway  to  Southampton  opened  .         May  n, 
Wood  pavement  tried  ;  fails        .... 

London  library  established     ..... 

Railway  to  Bristol  opened  .        .        .   June  30, 
Blackwall  tunnel  opened         .        .        Aug.    2, 
Railway  to  Brighton  opened        .        .  Sept.  21, 
Thames  Tunnel  opened  .        .        .      March  25, 
Royal  Exchange  opened     .        .        .      Oct.  28, 
Erection  of  baths  and  wash-houses  begins 
Fleet  prison  taken  down         ..... 

New  building  act  begun      .        .        .      Jan.  i, 
Penny  steamboats  begun        ..... 

Model  lodging  houses  built          .... 

Railway  mania        ....... 

Two-penny  omnibuses  begun     .... 

Great  Chartist  demonstration  in  London.    See 

Chartists  .....  April  10, 
Re-appearance  of  the  cholera  .  .  Sept. 
Coal  exchange  opened  .  .  .  Oct.  30, 
Lord  mayor's  great  banquet  (of  mayors),  see 

Lord  Mayors  ....  March  21, 
Attack  upon  general  Haynau  .  .  Sept.  4, 
Great  Exhibition  opened  May  i,  closed  Oct.  n, 
Duke  of  Wellington  dies  Sept.  14  ;  his  funeral 


1799 
1805 
1806 
1807 

1810 
1811 
1813 

1814 

» 


1817 


1819 
1820 
1821 

1823 
1825 

1826 
1827 
1829 


.  1830 


Aug.    . 

cholera  in 

.  Feb.  6, 


July 


Oct. 


.1: 


.  Nov.  9, 
Jan  10, 


1831 

1832 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1837 
1838 


1840 
1841 


at  St.  Paul's  (which  see) 
Cab-strike 
Visit  of  king  of  Portugal 


.  Nov. 
July  27-29, 
May  19, 


1843 
1844 


1845 


1846 

1848 
1849 


1850 
1851 

1852 
1853 
1854 


*  This  proclamation  or  decree  was  dated  from  Nonesuch,  7th  July,  1580,  and  it  was  forbidden  to  erect 
new  buildings  where  none  had  before  existed  in  the  memory  of  man.  The  extension  of  the  metropolis 
was  deemed  calculated  to  encourage  the  increase  of  the  plague  ;  create  a  trouble  in  governing  such  multi- 
tudes ;  a  dearth  of  victuals  ;  multiplying  of  beggars  and  inability  to  relieve  them  ;  an  increase  of  ai-tisaus 
more  than  could  live  together  ;  impoverishing  other  cities  for  lack  of  inhabitants.  The  decree  stated  that 
lack  of  air,  lack  of  room  to  walk  and  shoot,  &c.,  arose  out  of  too  crowded  a  city.  A  proclamation  to  the 
same  effect  was  also  issued  by  James  I. 


LON 


448 


LON 


LONDON,  continued. 

Attack  of  cholera        .        .          Aug.  and  Sept.  1854 
Meeting  for  Patriotic  fund     .        .         .  Nov.  2,     ,, 
Visit  of  empei-or  and  empress  of  the  French  to 

the  lord  mayor        ....     April  19,  1855 
The  queen  distributes  Crimean  medals,  May  18,     „ 
Failure  of  Paul,   Strahan,   &  Co.     See  Trials, 

June  5,     „ 
Metropolitan  Local  Management  Act    passed 

Aug.  14,     „ 

Visit  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  .        .        Nov.  30,     ,, 
Metropolitan  Board    of   works,   first  meeting, 

Dec.  22,     ,, 

Peace  proclaimed         ....   April  29,  1856 
Grand  display  of  illuminations  and  fireworks 

in  the  parks.  .  .  .  .  May  29,  „ 
The  Guards  re-enter  London  .  .  July  6,  „ 
Royal  British  Bank  stops  payment.  See  British 

Bank Sept.  4,     „ 

Meetings  of  unemployed  operatives  in  Smith- 
field Feb.  1857 

Many  commercial  failures  ;  Bank  charter  act 
suspended     .        ...        .        .        Nov.  12,     ,, 

James  Morrison  (originally  a  poor  boy),  who 
maiulyintroduced  the  system  of  quick  returns 
and  small  profits,  dies  exceedingly  rich 

Oct.  30,  1857 

Metropolis  divided  into  icpostal  districts,  Jan.  i,  1858 
Leviathan  launched  (began  Nov.  3)    .     Jan.  31,     „ 
Complaints  of  the  state  of  the  Thames  ;  act  for 

its  purification  passed      .        .        .      Aug.  2,     ,, 
Panic  on  stock  exchange  (40  or  50  failures)  at 
reported  French  and  Russian  alliance  against 

Austria April,  1859 

A  strike  among  the  building  trades,  and  a 
lock-out  by  the  masters,  Aug.  8  ;  the  latter 
require  the  men  to  sign  a  document,  de- 
claring that  they  will  not  belong  to  any 
society  which  interferes  with  the  freedom 
of  the  workman.  The  strike  was  dying 

out  in Nov.     „ 

Disgraceful  riots  at  the  church  of  St.  George's 
in  the  East,  through  the  indiscretion  of  the 
Tractai-ian  clergyman,  the  rev.  Bryan  King, 
Sept.  and  Oct.  The  church  (closed  for  a  time) 
re-opened  ;  fresh  disturbances  on  Nov.  6,  13, 
and  20  ;  the  agitation  continued  till  Mr.  King 
retired,  when  a  compromise  was  effected 

July  29,  1860 

Metropolitan  railway  (underground)  com- 
menced in  spring  of „ 

Great  distress  through  the  severe  winter; 
thousands  relieved  at  the  police  offices, 

Dec.  1860,  &  Jan.  i£6i 
A  nother  strike  in  the  building  trade  s  commences 

March  22,     ,, 
A  street  railway   in  the    metropolis    opened 

near  Bayswater     ....     March  23,     ,, 
Great  fire  near  Tooley  street  (see  Fires)  June  22, 
Sale  of  the  East  India  house        .         .  June  23,     „ 
Meeting  to  establish   the   "City   of   London 


College,"  the  bishop  of  London  in  the  chair 

Oct.  2, 
Mr.  George  Peabody,  the  American  merchant, 

gives  150,000?.  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of 

the  poor  and  needy  of  London  .  March  12, 
The  International  Exhibition  opens  .  May  i, 
Thames  embankment  bill  passed,  after  much 

discussion        ......  Aug. 

The  masons'  strike  not  over          .        .      June, 
Fights  in  Hyde-park  between  the  Garibaldians 

and  Irish  .  .  .  Sept.  28  &  Oct.  5, 
Public  meetings  there  prohibited  .  Oct.  9, 
The  Metropolitan  Railway  opened  .  Jan.  10, 
Pneumatic  despatch  company  begins  to  convey 

post-office  bags  ....  Feb.  21, 
Princess  Alexandra  of  Denmark  enters  London 

March  7, 
Prince  and  princess  of  Wales  present,  at  the 

city  ball  at  Guildhall  .  .  .  June  8, 
Appeal  of  the  bishop  of  London  on  account  of 

the  spiritual  destitution  of  the  metropolis, 


1861 
1862 


1863 


The  common  council  vote  20,000?.  and  a  site  in 
Victoria-street,  E.G.,  fora  lodging-house  for 
the  poor  ......  Nov.  19,  „ 

New  street  between  Blackfriars  and  London- 
bridge  opened  .....  Jan.  i,  1864 

Charing  Cross  railway  opened  .        .      Jan.  n,     „ 

Garibaldi  enters  London,  April  1  1  ;  receives  the 
freedom  of  the  city  .  .  .  April  21,  ,, 

Many  turnpikes  in  the  N.  suburbs  abolished, 

July  i,     ,, 

Great  excitement  through  the  murder  of  Mr. 
Briggs  in  a  carriage  of  the  North  London  rail- 
way ......  July  9,  „ 

The  first  railway  train  enters  the  city  of 
London  near  Blackfriars-bridge  .  Oct.  6,  ,  , 

North  London  industrial  exhibition,  Islington, 
opened  by  earl  Russell  .  .  .  Oct.  17.  „ 

Excitement  through  the  performance  of  the 
Davenport  brothers  .  .  Oct.  —  Dec.  ,, 

Great  bullion  robbery  in  Lombard-  street, 

Dec.  3  or  4,     ,, 

South  London  industrial  exhibition  opened, 

Feb.  i,  1865 

Many  burglaries  in  London  ;  great  robbery  at 
Walker's,  the  jewellers,  Cornhill  Feb.  4,  5,  ,, 

The  prince  of  Wales  present  at  the  opening  of 
the  main  drainage  works,  at  the  southern 
outfall,  near  Erith  .  .  .  April  4,  ,, 

Prince  of  Wales  opens  the  international  re- 
formatory exhibition  at  Islington  .  May  19,  ,, 

Investigation  into  the  state  of  the  workhouse 
infirmaries  through  several  paupers  dying 
through  neglect  .....  Aug.  ,, 

Many  turnpikes  in  the  S.  suburbs  abolished, 

Oct.  31, 

[See  England  ;  and  the  occurrences  not  noticed 
here,  under  their  respective  heads.] 


LONDON,  BISHOPRIC  OF,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  reign  of  Lucius,  al 
179,  Theanus  the  first  archbishop.  Augustin  made  Canterbury  the  metropolitan  see  of 
England.  London  became  a  bishopric  under  Mellitus  in  604,  and  has  yielded  to  the  church 
of  Home  five  saints,  and  to  the  realm  sixteen  lord  chancellors  and  lord  treasurers  ;  it  was 
valued  in  the  king's  books  at  1119^.  8s.  ^d.  per  annum.  Present  income,  io,oool. 


PECENT   BISHOPS   OF    LONDON. 


1787.   Beilby  Porteus,  died  May  14,  1809. 
1009.   John  Randolph,  died  July  28,  1813. 


1013. 


W.  Howley,  translated  to  Canterbury,  Aug. 


1828.   Charles  James  Blomfield;  resigned  Oct. 
(died  Aug.  5,  1857' 


1856.   Archibald  Campbell  Tait  (PRESENT  bishop). 


LONDON  BRIDGE.  One  is  said  to  have  existed,  978.  A  bridge  built  of  wood,  1014, 
was  partly  burned  in  1136.  The  late  old  bridge  was  commenced  about  1176,  by  Peter  of 
Colechurch,  and  completed  in  1209,  with  houses  on  each  side,  connected  together  by  large 


LON  449  LON 

arches  of  timber,  which  crossed  the  street.  In  July,  1212,  a  fire  at  the  Southwark  end 
brought  crowds  on  the  bridge  ;  the  houses  at  the  north  end  caught  fire  likewise,  and  pre- 
vented their  escape.  Thus,  it  is  said,  upwards  of  3000  persons  lost  their  lives,  being 
either  killed,  burned,  or  drowned.  The  bridge  was  restored  in  1300,  and  again  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1471,  Feb.  13,  1632,  and  Sept.  1725.  In  1756  all  the  houses  were  pulled  down. 
The  waterworks  were  begun  in  1582  ;  they  caught  fire  and  were  destroyed  in  1774.  The 
toll  was  discontinued,  March  27,  1782.  After  many  repairs,  in  1822  the  corporation  adver- 
tised for  designs  for  a  new  bridge  :  that  by  John  Rennie  was  approved,  and  the  works  were 
executed  by  his  sons  John  and  George.  The  first  pile  was  driven  200  feet  to  the  west  of 
the  old  bridge,  March  15,  1824  ;  and  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  lord  mayor,  alderman 
Garratt,  June  15,  1825.  The  bridge  was  opened  by  William  IV.  and  his  queen,  Aug.  i,  1831. 
The  cost  was  506,000^.  * 

LONDON"  INSTITUTION",  "for  the  advancement  of  literature  and  the  diffusion  of  useful 
knowledge,"  in  imitation  of  the  Royal  Institution,  was  founded  in  1805  by  sir  Francis 
Baring,  bart,  and  others,  at  8,  Old  Jewry,  Cheapside.  Prof.  Porson  was  the  first  librarian. 
The  present  building  in  Finsbury-circus  was  completed  in  1819,  and  opened  on  April  21  ; 
the  first  lecture  was  delivered  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Brande,  on  May  5,  following.  Mr.  W.  R.  Grove, 
Q.C.  (the  inventor  of  the  Voltaic  battery  which  bears  his  name),  was  the  first  professor  of 
experimental  philosophy,  1840  to  1846.  The  institution  possesses  an  excellent  library, 
lecture-room,  and  laboratory. 

LONDON  GAZETTE.     See  Ncivspapcrs. 

LONDON  STONE.  A  stone  said  to  have  been  placed  by  the  Romans  in  Cannon-street, 
then  the  centre  of  the  city,  15  B.C.  Cheapside  was  at  this  period  in  the  suburbs.  Burns. 
London  Stone  is  one  of  the  greatest  antiquities  of  the  city,  having  been  known  before  the 
time  of  William  I.  It  was  removed  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  way  in  1742.  It  was 
against  this  stone  that  Jack  Cade  struck  his  sword,  exclaiming,  "  Now  is  Mortimer  lord  of 
this  city  ! "  1450. 

LONDON  UNIVERSITY  was  founded  by  the  exertions  of  lord  Brougham,  Thomas 
Campbell,  and  others;  the  deed  of  settlement  dated  Feb.  n,  1826.  The  building  was 
commenced  April  30,  1827  (when  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  duke  of  Sussex) ;  and  was 
opened  by  an  inaugural  lecture  from  professor  Bell,  Oct.  I,  1828.  On  Nov.  28,  1836,  two 
charters  were  granted  :  by  one  the  London  university  was  changed  to  "  University  college," 
and  by  the  other  the  University  of  London  was  established,  with  a  chancellor  and  other 
officers.  New  charters  were  granted  to  the  latter  on  Dec.  5,  1837  and  April  21,  1858.  It 
has  offices  at  Burlington-house,  and  has  power  to  grant  degrees  to  students  of  the  universities 
of  the  united  kingdom,  and  many  collegiate  establishments.  —  University  Hall,  Gordon- 
square,  was  founded  in  1847. 


LONDONDERRY,  or  JDERRY  (N.  Ireland),  mentioned  546.  An  abbey  here  was  burned 
by  the  Danes  in  783.  A  charter  was  granted  to  the  London  companies  in  1615.  The  town 
was  surprised,  and  sir  George  Powlett,  the  governor,  and  the  entire  garrison  were  put  to  the 
sword  by  rebels,  in  1606.  It  was  besieged  by  O'Neal  in  1641.  A  grant  was  made  of  Derry, 
with  210,000  acres  of  land,  to  various  companies  in  London,  in  1619,  when  it  took  its 
present  name.  The  memorable  siege  of  Derry  by  the  army  of  James  II.  commenced  April  20, 
1689.  The  garrison  and  inhabitants  were  driven  to  the  extremity  of  famine  ;  but  under  the 
direction  of  the  rev.  George  Walker,  they  defended  it  until  the  siege  was  raised  by  gen. 
Kirke,  on  July  30.  James's  army,  under  the  French  general  Rosen,  retired  with  the  loss  of 
about  9000  men. 

LONE  STAR,  a  secret  society  formed  in  1848,  in  Alabama  and  other  southern  states  of 
the  North  American  union.  Its  object  was  declared  to  be  the  "extension  of  the  insti- 
tutions, the  power,  the  influence,  and  the  commerce  of  the  United  States  over  the  whole  of 
the  western  hemisphere,  and  the  islands  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans."  The  first 
acquisition  to  be  made  by  the  order  were  Cuba  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  knowledge 
of  the  existence  of  this  society  reached  England  in  August,  1852. 

LONG  ISLAND,  on  FLATBUSH  (N.  America),  BATTLE  OF,  Aug.  27,  1776,  between  the 
British  troops  under  sir  William  Howe,  and  the  revolted  Americans,  who  suffered  a  severe 
defeat,  after  a  well-fought  action,  losing  2000  men  killed  and  wounded,  and  1000  prisoners. 

*  On  March  17,  1859,  it  was  computed  that  there  parsed  over  London-bridge  20,498  vehicles  (of  whicli 
4483  •wore  cabs  and  4286  omnibuses),  and  167,910  persons  (107,074  on  foot,  and  60,836  in  vehicles). 

G    G 


LON 


450 


LOO 


LONGEVITY.  Methuselah  died,  aged  969,  2349  B.C.  (Gen.  v.  27).  In  these  countries 
the  instances  of  it  are  remarkable,  though  rare.  Colour  M 'Grain,  of  the  Isle  of  Jura,  one  of 
the  Hebrides,  is  said  to  have  kept  180  Christmases  in  his  own  house,  and  died  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.,  being  the  oldest  man  on  anything  approaching  to  authentic  records  for 
upwards  of  3003  years.  Greig.  "In  1014  died  Johannes  de  Temporibus  who  lived  361 
years  (!)"  Stow.  Thomas  Parr,  a  labouring  man  of  Shropshire,  was  brought  to  London  by 
the  earl  of  Arundel,  in  1635,  and  considered  the  wonder  of  his  time,  being  then  in  his 
1 53rd  year,  and  in  perfect  health;  but  the  journey  and  change  of  air  and  diet  killed  him, 
Nov.  15,  the  same  year.  Henry  Jenkins,  of  Yorkshire,  died  in  1670,  and  was  buried 
in  Bolton  churchyard,  Dec.  6,  in  that  year,  aged  169  years.  Most  cases  of  alleged  longevity 
are  very  doubtful. 


OTHER  EXTRAORDINARY    INSTANCES. 

1656.  James  Bowles,  Killing-worth  .  .  nged  152 
1691.  Lady  Eccleston,  Ireland  .  .  .  .  143 
1749.  A  man  named  Collier,  Dublin  .  .  .  137 
1757.  An  Englishman  named  Eccleson  .  .  .  144 
1759.  James  Sheil,  Irish  yeoman  .  .  .  136 
1766.  Colonel  Thomas  Winslow,  Ireland  .  .146 

,,  John  Mount,  Scotland  .  .  .  .136 
1768.  Francis  Conceist,  Burythorpe  .  .  .  150 

1772.   Mrs.  Clun,  Lichtield 138 

1774.   William   Beeby,    Dungarvon    (an  ensign 
who  served  at  the  battles  of  the  Boyne 

'  and  Aughrim) 130 

1775..  Peter  Gordon,  Auchterless          .         .        .  131 

„  Mary  Paton,  Lochwinnoch  .  .  .  .  138 
1776.  Mr.  Movet,  surgeon,  Dumfries  .  .  .  139 

,,  Sarah  Brookman,  Glastonbury  .  .  .  166 
1778.  Thomas  Cockey,  Blechingley  .  .  .  132 
1779*.  M.  Lawrence,  Orkney  .  .  ...  140 
1780.  Robert  Mac  Bride,  Herries  .  .  .  130 

„      Mr.  William  Ellis,  Liverpool .      •""/       ._  .  130 

,,      Louisa  Truxo,  a  negress,  was  living  in  this 

year,  at  Tucuman,  South  America  .        .  175 
1782.    Evan  Williams,  Carmarthen  .         .        .     .   145 

1786.  Cardinal  de  Solis no 

1787.  Mary  Brook,  of  Leek 148 

1792.    Mr.  Johnson,  of  Birmingham     .         .         .  120 

,,  Mrs.  Judith  Scott,  Islington  .  .  .  .  162 
1806.  Mr.  Creeke,  of  Thurlow  ....  125 
„  Mr.  J.  Tucker,  Ilching  ferry  .  .  .  .  131 
„  Catherine  Lopez,  of  Jamaica  .  .  .134 
„  Sarah  Anderson,  a  free  black  .  .  .  140 

1813.  Mrs.  Meighan,  Donoughmore     .        .        .  130 

1814.  Mary  Innes,  Isle  of  Skye        .         ...  137 
,,      Mrs.  Judith  Crawford,  Spanish-town        .  151 

1816.  Jane  I.ewson,  Coldbath-fields,  Clerkenwell  116 
1840.  Mrs.  Martha  Rorke,  of  Dromore,  county  of 

Kildare,  Aug.  27 133 


1853-  Mrs.  Mary  Power  (aunt  of  the  late  rt.  hoii. 
Rd.  Lalor  Shiel),  Ursuline  convent,  Cork, 
March  20 116 

1858.   James  Nolan,  Knockardrane,  Carlow    .     .116 

EXAMPLES   FURNISHED    BY   DR.    J.    WEBSTER,    F.R.S. 

Died, 
1566. 


1621. 
1652. 
1678. 
1688. 
1711. 

*723- 
1724. 
1726. 

1736. 
I739- 

1741. 

1757- 
J7S9- 
!763- 
1766. 

1771. 

1775- 
1780. 
1784. 
1791. 
1851. 


350 
,  200 
.  207 
.  ifo 
i48| 
•  125 

.  127 

'.   HI 


Buried  at 

Numas  de  Cugna,  Bengal  . 
Jane  Britten  Evercreech,  Somerset 
Thomas  Carn,  St.  Leonard,  Shoreditch 
J.  Torathe,  Glamorganshire  . 
Dr.  W.  Meade,  Ware,  Herts 
Juan  Burtamente,  Seville 
Elizabeth  Torathe,  Glamorgan.shirc  . 
Mrs.  Scrimshaw,  Rosemary-lane  . 
W.  Robertson,  Edinburgh  . 
Peter  Torten,  Temeswar,  Hungary 
Juan  de  Outeyri,  Villa   de   Fofiiiancs,  in 

Asturias 146 

John  Rousey,  Distrey,  Scotland    .         .     .  138 
Margaret  Patten,  Christchurch,  Westmin- 
ster    136 

J.  Rovin,  Temeswar,  Hungary      .        .     .   172 

Jane  Rovin,  ditto 164 

Alexander  M'Culloch,  Aberdeen  .  .  .  132 
Donald  Cameron,  Rannach,  Aberdeenshire  130 
Mrs.  Taylor,  Piccadilly  .  .  .  .  1^1 
John  Mount,  Langham,  Dumfries 
John  Hill,  Leadhills,  near  Edinburgh 
Mr.  Whalley,  Rotherhithe  . 
Widow  Jones,  Campbell  . 
Mr.  Evans,  Spitalfields  .... 
Mary  Cameron,  Braemar,  Aberdeen  . 
Archbd.  Cameron,  Keith,  Aberdeenshire 
Jean  Golembeski,  Hotel  des  luvalides, 
Paris  . 


136 
130 

121 
I25 

139 
I29 
122 


126 


LONGITUDE,  determined  by  Hipparchus,  at  Nice,  who  fixed  the  first  degree  in  the 
Canaries,  162  B.C.     Harrison  made  a  time-keeper,  in  A.D.  I759«^hich  in  two  voyages  was 
found  to  correct  the  longitude  within  the  limits  required  by  the  act  of  parliament,  I2th 
Anne,  1714;  and  obtained  the  reward.     See  Harrison's  Time-piece-.     Other  improvements' 
followed.      The  chronometers   of  Arnold,   Earnshaw,  and   Breguet,   are   highly   esteemed. 
Chronometers  are  now  received  on  trial  at  Greenwich  Observatory.     The  act  relating  to 
the  discovery  of  the  longitude  at  sea  was  repealed  in  1828.     The  Bureau  des  Longitudes  i 
at  Paris  was  established  in  1795. 

LONG    PARLIAMENT   met    Nov.    3,    1640;    was    forcibly    dissolved   by   Croim 
April  20,  1653. 

LONGWY  (N.E.  France),  a  frontier  town,  was  taken  by  the  allied  army,  Aug.  23,  i; 
the  beginning  of  the  great  war. 

LOOKING-GLASSES.     See  Mirrors. 

LOOM.  The  weaver's,  otherwise  called  the  Dutch  loom,  was  brought  into  use  in  Lond 
from  Holland,  about  1676.  There  were,  in  1825,  about  250,000  hand-looms  in  Great 
Britain,  and  75,000  power-looms,  each  being  equal  to  three  hand-looms,  making  twenty-two 
yards  each  per  day.  The  Jacquard  loom  was  invented  about  1800.  The  steam-loom  was 
introduced  in  1807.  See  Cotton,  Electric-loom,  and  Pneumatic-loom. 


LOli 


451 


LOR 


LORD.  See  Lady.  When  printed  in  the  English  Bible  thus  LORD  stands  for  Jehovah, 
tlio  self-existing  God,  the  name  first  revealed  to  Moses,  1491  B.C.  Exod.  vi.  3  ;  when  in 
ordinary  type,  for  Adonai,  a  lord  or  master. 

LORD  CHAMBERLAIN,  CHANCELLOR,  &c.     See  Chamberlain,  Chancellor,  &c. 
LORD'S  DAY  ACT,  29  Charles  II.  c.  7.     Sec  Sabbath. 

LORD'S  SUPPER,  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  xxvi.  17),  33.  See  Sacrament  and 
Transubstantiation. 

LORDS.*  The  nobility  of  England  date  their  creation  from  1066,  when  William  FiFz- 
Osborn,  the  first  peer,  is  said  to  have  been  made  by  William  I.  earl  of  Hereford  ;  and 
afterwards  Walter  d'Evreux,  earl  of  Salisbury  ;  Copsi,  earl  of  Northumberland  ;  Henry  de 
Ferrers,  earl  of  Derby  ;  and  Gerodus  (a  Fleming),  earl  of  Chester.  Twenty-two  other 
peers  were  made  in  this  sovereign's  reign.  The  first  peer  created  by  patent  was  lord 
Beauchamp  of  Holt  Castle,  by  Richard  II.  in  1387.  In  Scotland,  Gilchrist  was  created  earl 
of  Angus  by  Malcolm  III.  1037.  In  Ireland,  sir  John  de  Courcy  was  created  baron  of 
Kinsale,  &c.,  in  iiSi  ;  the  first  peer  after  the  obtaining  of  that  kingdom  by  Henry  II. 

LORDS,  HOUSE  OF.  The  peers  of  England  were  summoned,  ad  consulendum,  to  consult, 
in  early  reigns,  and  were  summoned  by  writ,  6  &  7  John,  1205,  but  the  earliest  writ  extant 
is  49  Hen.  III.  1265.  The  commons  did  not  form  a  part  of  the  great  council  of  the  nation 
until  some  ages  after  the  conquest.  See  Parliament.  The  house  of  lords  includes  the 
spiritual  as  well  as  temporal  peers  of  Great  Britain.  The  bishops  are  supposed  to  hold 
certain  ancient  baronies  Tinder  the  king,  in  right  whereof  they  have  seats  in  this  house. 
Some  of  the  temporal  lords  sit  by  descent,  some  by  creation,  and  others  by  election,  since 
the  union  with  Scotland  in  1707,  and  with  Ireland,  1801. — Scotland  elects  16  representative 
peers,  and  Ireland  4  spiritual  lords  by  rotation  of  sessions,  and  28  temporal  peers  for  life. 
The  house  of  lords  in  Nov.  1865  consisted  of  3  princes  of  the  blood,  3  archbishops,  20 
dukes,  21  marquesses,  129  earls,  27  viscounts,  221  barons,  and  28  bishops  ;  in  all,  452.  The 
house  of  lords — 


A  the  death  of  Charles  II. 
At  the  death  of  William  III. 
At  the  death  of  Anne 
At  the  death  of  George  I. 
At  the  death  of  George  IL 


176  peers. 

192 

209 

216 

229 


The  barons  enact  the  constitutions  of  Claren- 
don in 1164 

Obtain  Magna  Charta  in 1215 

Held  the  government           ....         1264-5 
House    of  lords  abolished   b^  tho   commons, 
Feb.  6,  1649;  restored 1660 


At  the  death  of  George  III -539  peers. 

At  the  death  of  George  IV.        ...  396 

At  the  death  of  William  IV 456 

In  the  1 8th  Victoria,  1855  .        .         .         .  448 
In  the  24th  Victoria,  1860      .         .        .     .  462 

Unite  with  the  commons  in  making  William 

and  Mary  king  and  queen        ....  1689 
Reject  thegreat  reform  bill,  Oct.  7,  1831 ;  pass  it, 

June  4,  1832 
Oppose  successfully  thecreation of  life-peerages,  f 

Feb.  7,  1856 


LORDS  JUSTICES.     See  Justices. 

LORETTO,  near  Ancona,  Italy.     Here  is  the  Casa  Santa,  or  Holy  House,  in  which  it  is 

Eretended  the  Virgin  Mary  lived  at  Nazareth,  and  which  was  carried  by  angels  into  Dalmatia 
•om  Galilee  in  1291,  and  brought  here  a  few  years  after.     The  lady  of   Loretto,  gaudily 
dressed,  stands  upon  an  altar  holding  the  infant  Jesus  in  her  arms,  surrounded  with  gold 
lamps.    Loretto  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1797,  and  the  holy  image,  which  had  been 
carried  to  France,  was  brought  back  with  pomp,  Jan.  5,  1803. 

L'ORIENT  (W.  France).  Lord  Bridport  off  this  port  defeated  the  French  fleet,  June  23, 
1795.  The  loss  of  the  French  was  severe  :  that  of  the  British  inconsiderable. — The  French 
flag-ship,  L' ORIENT,  blew  up  during  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  Aug.  i,  1798.  Admiral  Brueys 
and  about  900  men  perished. 


*  Peers  of  England  are  free  from  all  arrests  for  debts,  as  being  the  king's  hereditary  counsellors ; 
therefore  a  peer  cannot  be  outlawed  in  any  civil  action,  and  no  attachment  lies  against  his  person  ;  but 
execution  may  be  taken  upon  his  lands  and  goods.  For  the  same  reason,  they  are  free  from  all  attendance 
at  courts  leet  or  sheriffs'  txirns  ;  or,  in  case  of  a  riot,  from  attending  the  posse  comitatus.  He  can  act  as  a 
justice  of  the  peace  in  any  part  of  the  kingdom.  See  Boron,  Earl,  &c. 

t  Peerage  for  life  only,  with  the  title  of  lord  Wensleydale  of  Wensleydale,  was  granted  to  baron  sir 
James  Parke,  Jan.  10,  1856 ;  the  house  of  lords  opposed  his  sitting  and  voting  as  a  peer  for  life,  and  on  July 
25,  1856,  he  wus  created  a  peer  in  the  usual  way,  with  the  title  of  lord  Wensleydale  of  Walton. 

G    G   2 


LOR 


452 


LOW 


LORRAINE  (formerly  Lotharingia),  a  French  province,  became  a  kingdom  under 
Lothaire  (son  of  the  emperor  Lothaire  I.)  about  855;  it  svas  divided  on  his  death,  in  869, 
part  of  it  being  made  a  duchy.  The  first  hereditary  duke,  Gerard,  was  nominated  by  tho 
emperor  Henry  III.  in  1048.  From  Gerard  descended  the  illustrious  house  of  Lorraine, 
represented  now  by  the  emperor  of  Austria,  whose  ancestor,  the  empress  Maria  Theresa, 
married  in  1736  Francis,  formerly  duke  of  Lorraine,  then  of  Tuscany.  Lorraine  had  been 
given  to  the  dethroned  king  of  Poland,  Stanislaus  I.,  for  life  ;  at  his  death  in  1766,  it  was 
united  to  France. 

LOTS.  Casting  lots  was  sacred  among  the  Jews,  as  an  appeal  to  God,  Proverbs  xvi.  33. 
It  was  employed  in  the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  about  1444  B.C.,  by  Joshua  (xiv.), 
and  in  the  election  of  Matthias  the  apostle,  A.D.  33,  Acts  i. — Lots  for  life  or  death  have  been 
frequently  cast.  For  an  instance,  see  Wales,  1649,  note. 

LOTTERIES  are  said  to  have  originated  in  Florence  about  1530,  and  to  have  been 
legalised  in  France  in  1539.  The  first  mentioned  in  English  history  began  drawing  at  the 
western  door  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  Jan.  u,  1569,  and  continued  day  and  night  until 
May  6  following.  It  contained  40,000  "  lots'"  at  IDS.  each  lot.  The  profits  were  for  repairing 
the  harbours  on  the  coast  of  England,  and  the  prizes  were  pieces  of  plate. 


A  lottery,  granted  by  the  king,  in  special  favour 
for  the  colony  of  Virginia  (prizes,  pieces  of 
plate),  drawn  near  St.  Paul's, 

June  29 — July  20,  1612 

First  lottery  for  sums  of  money  took  place  in  .  1630 
Lotteries  established  (for  more  than  130  years 

yielded  a  large  annual  revenue  to  the  crown)  1693 
Lottery  for  the  British  Museum         .        .        .1753 
Cox's  museum,    containing  many  rare   speci- 
mens of  art  and  articles  of  virtu,  disposed  of 
by  lottery,  by  an  act  of  parliament    .         .    .  1773 
An  act  passed  for  the  sale  of  the  buildings  of 
the  Adelphi  by  lottery         .        .        June  16,     „ 

Irish  state  lottery  drawn 1780 

Lottery  for  the  Leverian  Museum         .         .     1784-5 


For  the   Pigott  diamond,    permitted,  Jan.  2, 
1801  ;    it  was  afterwards  sold  at  Christie's 
auction  for  9500  guineas  .        .        .      May  10,  1802 
For  the  collection  of  pictures  of  alderman  Boy- 
dell,  by  act  1804-5 

Lotteries  abolished  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  60         Oct.   1826 

The  last  drawn Oct.  18,     ,, 

Act  passed  declaring   that  the  then  pending 

Glasgow  lottery  should  be  the  last         .         .  1834 
An  act  passed   imposing  a  penalty  of  50?.  for 
advertising  lotteries  in  the    British  news- 
papers    1836 

Lotteries  suppressed  in  France  .        .    1793^1^1836 
Mr.    Dethiers'   twelfth -cake     lottery,    Argyll- 
rooms,  Hanover-square,  suppressed  Dec.  27,  1860 


LOUDON-HILL,  or  DRUMCLOG.     See  Drumclog. 

LOUIS-D'OR,  a  French  gold  coin  of  24  francs,  first  struck  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1640 ;  its 
value  fluctuated.  In  1810  it  was  superseded  by  the  Napoleon. 

LOUISIANA  (N.  America),  one  of  the  United  States  ;  discovered  by  Ferdinand  de  Soto 
in  1541  ;  traversed  by  M.  de  Salle  in  1682,  and  settled  by  Louis  XIV.  (from  whom  it  derived 
its  name)  in  1718.  It  formed  the  basis  of  Law's  Mississippi  scheme.  It  was  ceded  to  Spain 
at  the  peace  when  all  east  of  the  Mississippi  was  given  to  England,  1763.  Capital,  Baton 
Rouge. 


Piestored  to  France 


.   1801 


Sold  to  the  Americans,  1803  ;  and  made  a  state  181 
Gen.   Jackson   defeated  tbj 


Orleans 


British   at    New 

Jan.  8,  1815 


Seceded  from  the  Union  by  ordinance  Jan.  25,   1861 
Adm.  Farragut    takes  New    Orleans    for  the 

Federals April  28,  1862 

Louisiana  restored  to  the  Union         .        .        .  1865 


LOUVRE.  This  renowned  edifice  in  Paris  is  said  to  have  been  originally  a  royal 
residence  in  the  reign  of  Dagobert,  628.  It  was  a  prison-tower  constructed  by  Philippe 
Augustus  in  1204.  It  afterwards  became  a  library,  and  Charles  VI.  made  it  his  palace 
(about  1364).  Successive  kings  enlarged  and  adorned  it,  particularly  Louis  XIV. — 
Napoleon  I.  turned  it  into  a  museum,  and  deposited  here  the  finest  collection  of  paintings, 
statues,  and  treasures  of  art  known  in  the  world.  The  chief  of  those  brought  from  Italy  \ 
have  since  been  restored  to  the  rightful  possessors.  The  magnificent  buildings  of  the  new 
Louvre,  begun  by  Napoleon  I.  and  completed  by  Napoleon  III.,  were  inaugurated  by  the 
latter  in  great  state,  Aug.  14,  1857. 

LOVE  FEASTS.     See  Agapoe. 

LOWER  EMPIRE.     Some  historians  make  it  begin  with  the  reign  of  Valerian,  253  ;  I 
others  with  that  of  Constantino,  323. 

LOWERING  BOAT  APPARATUS.     See  Life-boats. 

LOW  SUNDAY,  the  first  Sunday  after  Easter,  said  to  derive  its  name  from  the  contrast 
between  its  solemnities  and  those  of  Easter  Sunday. 


LOYA 


LOY 


453 


LUN 


X)YALTY  LOANS  were  raised  during  the  revolutionary  wars.  The  term  "loyalty 
loan  "  was  applied  to  one  opened  in  London  on  the  5th  Dec.  1796,  and  in  fifteen  hours  and 
twenty  minutes  the  sum  of  eighteen  millions  sterling  was  subscribed.  See  National 
Association. 

LUBECK,  a  city  in  N.  Germany,  one  of  the  four  republics  of  the  German  confederation, 
was  built  in  the  I2th  century,  and  was  the  chief  founder  of  the  Hanseatic  league  about  1240, 
which  lasted  till  1630.  Liibeck  was  declared  a  free  imperial  city  about  1226  ;  but  was 
frequently  attacked  by  the  Danes.  The  French  took  it  by  assault,  Nov.  6,  1806,  and 
Napoleon  incorporated  it  into  his  empire  in  1810.  On  his  fall  in  1814  it  became  once 
more  a  free  imperial  city.  Population  in  1862,  50,614. 

LUCANIANS,  a  warlike  people  of  S.  Italy,  defeated  Alexander  of  Epirus  at  Pandosia, 
were  subdued  by  the  Romans  227 


332  B.C. 

reduced  by  Scipio,  201 


revolted  after  the  battle  of  Cannee,  216  ;  were 
again  revolted,  90 ;  admitted  as  Roman  citizens,  88. 


LUCCA  (central  Italy),  a  Roman  colony  177  B.C.,  a  Lombard  duchy  1327  A.JX,  became 
a  free  city  about  1370,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  civil  wars  of  the  Italian  republics.  It 
was  united  with  Tuscany,  and  given  in  1805  as  a  principality  to  Eliza  Bonaparte  by  her  brothel- 
Napoleon  I.  Lucca,  as  a  duchy,  was  given  to  Maria  Louisa,  widow  of  Louis,  king  of 
>]truria,  in  1814.  It  was  exchanged  by  her  son  Charles-Louis  for  Parma  and  Placentia  in  1847, 
was  annexed  to  Tuscany,  and  with  it  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1860. 

LUCIA,  ST.  (West  Indies),  settled  by  the  French  in  1650  ;  taken  by  the  British  several 
times  in  the  subsequent  wars.  Insurrection  of  the  French  negroes,  April  1795.  St.  Lucia 
was  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  1802  ;  but  was  seized  by  England,  1803,  and  confirmed 
to  her  in  1814.  Population  in  1861,  26,705. 

LUCIFER  MATCHES  came  into  use  about  1834.  In  March,  1842,  Mr.  Reuben  Par- 
tridge patented  machinery  for  manufacturing  the  splints.  In  1845,  Schrotter  of  Vienna 
discovered  his  amorphous  phosphorus,  by  the  use  of  which  lucifers  are  rendered  less  dangerous, 
and  the  manufacture  less  unhealthy. 

LUCKNOW,  the  capital  of  Oude.     See  India,  1857. 

LUDDITES.  Large  parties  of  men  under  this  designation  commenced  their  depredations 

Nottingham,  breaking  frames  and  machinery,  Nov.  1811.     Skirmish  with  the  military 

here,  Jan.  29,  1812.     Several  serious  riots  occurred  again  in  1814;  and  numerous  bodies  of 

liese  people,  chiefly  unemployed  artisans,  committed  great  excesses  in  1816  et  seq.     Several 

f  these  Luddites  were  tried  and  executed. 

LUGDUNUM.     See  Lcydtn  and  Lyons. 

LUNATICS.     An  eminejit  authority  has  traced  insanity,  in  a  thousand  male  patients,  t° 
tie  following  causes  : — 


runkenness    . 
onsequencas  of  disease 
^pilepsv    .         . 

.  no 

.        .     100 

78 

Old  age 
Chagrin     . 
Love 

mbition 
xcessive  labour 
lorn  idiots  . 
Lisfortunes 

•     •     73 
•     73 
•     •     7i 
.     69 

Accidents 
Religious  enthusiasm 
Unnatural  practices 
Political  events    . 

Poisonous  effluvia    .        .        .17 

Ill-usage 12 

Crimes,  remorse,  and  despair  .  9 
Malformation  of  the  skull  .  4 
Other  and  unknown  causes  .  88 

Pretended  insanity     .        .    .      5 


The  king  shall  have  the  custody  of  the  lands 
of  natural  fools,"  &c.,  17  Ed  w.  II.       .        .     .1324 
ferriages  with  lunatics  declared  void,  15  Geo. 

II.  c.  30 1742 

Vet  regarding  criminal  lunatics  passed       Aug.  1840 
The  numerous  laws  respecting  lunatics  were 
consolidated  and  amended  by  16  &  17  Viet. 

cc.  70,  96,  97 1853 

\.  new  lunacy  act  for  Scotland  passed        .        .  1858 
Ln  act  to  amend  the  law  relating  to  commis- 
sions of  lunacy  passed  (said  to  be  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Wyndham  case,  see  Trials,  1862)  1862 

TREATMENT  OF  THE   INSANE. 

'ill  the  end  of  the  last  century  lunatics  were 
treated  with  cruel  severity.  See  Conolly  "On 
the  Treatment  of  the  Insane,"  1856. 

Tie  insane  were  exhibited  at  Bethlem  as  a 
show,  for  id.  or  2ti.  till 1770 


Enlightened  principles  of  treatment  were  in- 
troduced by  \Vm.  Tuke,  at  the  Society  of 
Friends'  "Retreat,"  at  York,  and  by  Pinel, 
at  the  Bicetre,  Paris,  with  very  great  success  1792 

Esquirol  succeeds  Pinel,  and  strongly  recom- 
mends instruction  in  the  management  of 
mental  disorders 1810 

Exposure  of  enormous  cruelties  in  the  Bethlem 
hospital 1815 

This  led  to  gradual  improvements,  and  at  last 
to  the  total  abolition  of  mechanical  restraints 
at  Lincoln,  1837 ;  and  at  Hanwell  Asylum 
(under  the  superintendence  of  Dr.  John 
Conolly)  and  at  other  places  ....  1839 

Psychological  journal  first  published  by  Dr. 
Forbes  Winslow 1848 

Journal  of  Mental  Science,  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Buck- 
nill  ...-•  -  ...  1852 


LUN  454  LUX     . 

LUNATICS,  continued. 

LUNATICS    IN   CIIAEGE   IN   ENGLAND    AND    WALES,  JAN.    I,    1855. 

PRIVATE.  PAUPER. 

Male.      Female.  Male.     Female.  Total. 

County  asylums       .        .        .     .       132            123  6008          7316  13,579 

Hospitals 895             723                  91               94  1,803 

Licensed  houses       .        .         .     .     1448          1350              1034          1279  5,m 

2475  2196  7133  8689  20,493 

On  Jan.  i,  1858,  there  were  in  charge  in  England  and  Wales  22,310  lunatics  of  all  classes  ;  1859,  22,853  ; 

1860,  17,837;  1861,  23,721  ;  1862,  26,169;  1864,  28,285;  1865,  29,425. 

In  1851,  there  were  in  Ireland  nearly  15,000  lunatics  of  all  classes  ;  in  Scotland  in  1851,  3362  in  charge  ; 

in  1855,  7403  ;  of  which  only  3328  were  under  the  protection  of  the  law. 

LUND-HILL,  near  Barnslcy,  in  South  Yorkshire.  "While  the  miners  were  dining  in  the 
pit,  Feb.  19,  1857,  the  inflammable  gas  took  fire  and  exploded.  Above  180  miners  perished. 
In  April  and  May  bodies  were  still  being  extricated.  There  had  been  great  laxity  of  discipline 
in  the  pit.  joooL  were  subscribed  for  the  bereaved. 

LUNEBURG.     See  .BrunsivicJc. 

LUNEVILLE  (France),  PEACE  OF,  concluded  between  the  French  republic  and  the 
emperor  of  Germany,  confirmed  the  cessions  made  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formic, 
stipulated  that  the  Rhine,  to  the  Dutch  territories,  should  form  the  boundary  of  France,  and 
recognised  the  Batavian,  Helvetic,  Ligurian,  and  Cisalpine  republics,  Feb.  9,  1801. 

LUPERCALIA,  a  yearly  festival*  observed  at  Rome  on  Feb.  15,  in  honour  of  Pan, 
destroyer  of  wolves  (lupi),  instituted  by  the  Romans,  according  to  Plutarch  ;  but  according 
to  Livy,  brought  by  Evander  into  Italy.  These  feasts  are  said  to  have  been  abolished  in 
496,  by  pope  Gelasius,  on  account  of  their  great  disorders. 

LUSATIA,  a  marquisate  in  N.  Germany,  given  to  John  of  Bohemia,  1319  ;  obtained  by 
Matthias  of  Hungary,  1478  ;  and  ceded  to  Saxony  in  1635. 

LUSIAD.     See  Epic,  LUSITANIA.     See  Portugal. 

LUSTRUM,  an  expiatory  sacrifice  made  for  the  Roman  people,  at  the  end  of  every  five 
years,  after  the  census  had  been  taken,  472  B.C.  Every  fifth  year  was  called  a  lustrum;  and 
ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  years,  were  commonly  expressed  by  two,  three,  or  four  lustra.  The 
number  of  Roman  citizens  was— in  293  B.C.,  272,308  ;  179  B.C.,  273,294  ;  70  B.C.,  450,000; 
28  B.C.,  4,164,060  ;  A.D.  48,  5,984,072. 

LUTHERAN! SM,t  the  form  of  Christianity  professed  by  the  majority  of  the  people  of 
the  north  of  Germany,  Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  The  doctrines  are  mainly  embodied 
in  Luther's  catechisms,  in  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  in  the  Formula  Concordm  of  the 
Lutherans,  published  in  1580.  Their  first  university  was  founded  at  Marburg,  in  1527,  by 
Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse. 

LUTZEN,  or  LUTZENGEN  (N.  Germany).  Here  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden, 
defeated  the  Imperialists  under  Wallenstein,  Nov.  6,  1632,  but  was  himself  killed  ;  and  here 
the  French  army,  commanded  by  Napoleon,  defeated  the  combined  armies  of  Russia  and 
Prussia,  commanded  by  general  Wittgenstein,  May  2,  1813.  The  battles  of  Bautzen 
and  Wiirtzchen  immediately  followed  (May  19 — 21),  both  in  favour  of  Napoleon.  The  allies 
were  compelled  to  pass  the  Oder,  and  an  armistice  was  agreed  to,  and  afterwards  prolonged ; 
but,  unfortunately  for  the  French  emperor,  did  not  produce  peace. 

LUXEMBURG  (Holland),  capital  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg,  part  of  which  is 
subject  to  Holland  and  part  to  Belgium  since  1839.  Luxemburg,  once  considered  the 
strongest  fortress  in  the  world,  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  the  French  in  1542-3  ;  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1544  ;  by  the  French  in  1684  ;  restored  to  Spain  in  1697  ;  taken  by  the  French  in 
1701  ;  given  to  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town,  and  ceded  to  the  emperor  at  the  peace  in  1713. 

*  Naked  youths  ran  through  the  streets  with  whips,  lashing  all  whom  they  encountered,  even  women, 
who  received  the  stripes  with  inclination,  believing  that  they  removed  barrenness  and  eased  the  pains  of 
childbirth.  Augustus  forbade  all  persons  above  the  age  of  fourteen  to  appear  naked  during  this  festival. 
Cicero,  in  his  Philippics,  reproaches  Antony  for  having  disgraced  the  dignity  of  the  consulship  by  appearing 
naked  on  one  of  these  occasions.  Varro. 

t  Martin  Luther  was  born  at  Eisleben,  Nov.  10,  1483  ;  studied  at  Erfurt,  1501  ;  w-as  professor  of  philo- 
sophy at  Wittenberg,  1508  ;  resisted  the  sale  of  indulgences,  1517  ;  defended  himself  at  Augsburg,  1518  ;  at 
Worms,  1520  ;  was  excommunicated,  June  16,  1520 ;  began  his  German  bible,  1521 ;  married  Katherine  do 
Bora,  1525;  published  his  German  bible  complete,  1534;  died  Feb.  18,  1546. 


LUX 


45; 


LYO 


It  surrendered  to  the  French  after  a  long  and 


It  withstood  several  sieges  in  the  last  century, 
memorable  siege,  June  7,  1795. 

LUXOR.     See  Thebes. 

LUXURY.  Lucullus  (died  49  B.C.),  at  Rome,  was  distinguished  for  inordinate  luxury. 
See  Sumptuary  Laws. 

LYCEUM  (originally  a  temple  of  Apollo  Lyceus,  or  a  portico,  or  gallery,  built  by  Lyceus, 
son  of  Apollo)  was  a  spot  near  the  Ilissus,  in  Attica,  where  Aristotle  taught  philosophy  ; 
mid  as  he  generally  taught  as  he  walked,  his  pupils  were  called  peripatetics,  ivalkcrs-about, 
and  his  philosophy  that  of  the  Lyceum,  342  B.C.  Stanley.  See  Theatres. 

LYCIA  (Asia  Minor)  belonged  successively  to  Orcesus  (about  560  B.C.),  the  Persians 
(546  B.C.),  to  Alexander  the  Great  (333  B.C.),  and  to  his  successors  the  Seleucidrc.  The 
Romans  gave  Lycia  to  the  Rhodians  (188  B.C.).  It  became  nominally  free  under  the  Romans, 
and  was  annexed  to  the  empire  by  Claudius.  The  marbles,  brought  from  Lycia  by  sir  Charles 
Fellows,  were  deposited  in  the  British  Museum,  1840:6. 

LYDIA,  or  Maeonia,  an  ancient  kingdom  in  Asia  Minor,  under  a  long  dynasty  of  kings, 
the  last  being  Croesus,  "the  richest  of  mankind."  The  coinage  of  gold  and  silver  money, 
and  other  useful  inventions,  are  ascribed  to  the  Lydians.  J^sop,  the  Phrygian  fabulist, 
Alcman,  the  first  Greek  erotic  poet,  Thales  of  Miletus,  Anaximenes,  Xenophanes,  Anacreoii 
of  Teos,  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus,  &c.,  flourished  in  Lydia. 


Argon,  a  descendant  of  Hercules,    reigns   in 

Lydia.     Herod B.C.  1223 

The  kingdom  of  Lydia,  properly  so  called, 
begins  under  Ardysus  I.  Blair.  .  .  .  797 

Alyattes  I.  reigns 761 

Meles  commences  his  rule 747 

Reign  of  Candaules 735 

Gyges,  first  of  the  race  Mermnadaa,  kills  Can- 
'daules,  marries  his  queen,  usurps  the  throne, 
and  makes  great  conquests          .         .         .    .     718 
Ardysus  II.  reigns,  678;    the  Cimbri  besiege 

Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia      ....     635 
The  Milesian  war,  commenced  under  Gyges,  is 
continued  by  Sadyattes,  who  reigns  .        .     .     628 

Reign  of  Alyattes  II .617 

Battle  upon  the  river  Halys,  between  the 
Lydians  and  Medes,  interrupted  by  an 
almost  total  eclipse  of  the  sun.  This  eclipse 


had  been  predicted  many  years  before   by 
Thales  of  Miletus.     Blair.        .     B.C.  May  28,     585 
Croesus,    son    of    Alyattes,    succeeds    to     the 

throne,  and  conquers  Asia  Minor        .        .    560-50 
Croesus,  dreading  the  power  of  Cyrus,  whosa 
conquests  had  reached  to  the    borders    of 
Lydia,  crosses  the  Halys  to  attack  the  Medes, 
with  420,000  men  and  60,000  horse          .         .     543 
He  is  defeated,  pursued,  and  besieged  in  his 
capital   by   Cyrus,    who   orders   him  to   be 
burned   alive  ;    the  pile  is  already  on   fire, 
when  Croesus  calls  aloud,  Solon!  and  Cyrus 
hearing  him,  spares  his  life.     Lydia  made  a 
province  of  the  Persian  empire  .         .        .     .     546 
Sardis  burnt  by  the  lonians        .        .  .     499 

Lydia  conquered  by  Alexander  .  .  .  .  332 
Becomes  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus  .  283 
Conquered  by  the  Turks  .  .  .  A.D.  1326 


LYING-IN  HOSPITALS.  The  first,  established  in  Dublin  by  Dr.  Bartholomew  Mosse, 
a  physician,  amidst  strong  opposition,  was  opened  March,  1745.  ^ce  Hospitals. 

LYMPHATIC  VESSELS  (concerned  in  digestion),  were  discovered  by  Jasper  Asellius 
in  1622,  and  described  in  1627.  Discovered  in  oviparous  animals  by  Dr.  Hewson,  who 
disputed  the  honour  of  the  discovery  with  Dr.  Munro,  1762. 

LYNCPI  LAW,  punishment  inflicted  by  private  individuals,  independently  of  the  legal 
authorities,  said  to  derive  its  name  from  John  Lynch,  a  farmer,  who  exercised  it  upon  the 
fugitive  slaves  and  criminals  dwelling  in  the  "dismal  swamp,"  North  Carolina,  when  they 
committed  outrages  upon  persons  and  property  which  the  colonial  law  could  not  promptly 
repress.  This  mode  of  administering  justice  began  about  the  end  of  the  1 7th  century,  and 
still  exists  in  the  outlying  districts  of  the  United  States. 

LYONS  (S.  France),  the  Roman  Lugdunum,  founded  by  M.  Plancus,  43  B.C.  Tho 
city  was  reduced  to  ashes  in  a  single  night  by  lightning,  A.D.  59,  and  was  rebuilt  in  the 
reign  of  Nero.  It  was  a  free  city  till  its  union  with  France  in  1307. 

An  insurrection  among  the  artisans,  which  led 
to  great  popular    excesses;    quelled   by  an 
army        ....         Nov.  21 — Dec.  3,  1831 

Dreadful  riots,  put  down  by  military  April  15,  1834 
Railway  to  Paris  opened        .        .        .  April  7,  1839 
A  dreadful  inundation  at  Lyons.      See  Inunda- 
tions.         ....         .        .      Nov.  4,  1840 

Another  insurrection  quelled,  with  much  loss 
of  life June  15,  1849 


Clodius  Albinus  defeated  and  slain  by  Septimus 
Sevcrus,  near  Lyons          .        .        .    Feb.  19, 


1245, 


197 
1274 
1515 


Two  general  councils  held  here 

Silk  manufacture  commenced     .... 

Lyons  besieged  by  the  Convention  army — sur- 
rendered— and  awful  scenes  of  blood  and 
rapine  followed,  Oct.  7  ;  the  National  Con- 
vention decreed  the  demolition  of  the  city, 

Oct.  12,  1793 

Capitulated  to  the  Austrians,  March,  1814,  July,  1815 


LYll  456  MAC 

LYRE.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Grecian  Hermes,  the  Latin  Mercury,  \vhor 
according  to  Homer,  gave  it  to  Apollo,  the  first  that  played  upon  it  with  method,  and  accom- 
panied it  with  poetry.  The  invention  of  the  primitive  lyre,  with  three  strings,  is  ascribed  to 
the  first  Egyptian  Hermes.  Terpander  added  several  strings  to  the  lyre,  making  the  number 
.seven,  673  B.C.  Phrynis,  a  musician  of  Mitylene,  added  two  more,  making  nine,  438  B.C. 

M. 

MACADAMISING,  a  system  of  road-making  devised  by  Mr.  John  Macadam,  and  pub- 
lished by  him  in  an  essay,  in  1819,  having  practised  it  in  Ayrshire.  He  received  a  grant  of 
10,000?.  from  parliament;  was  appointed  surveyor-general  of  the  metropolitan  roads  in 
1827  ;  and  died  in  1836. 

MACAO  (N.  China)  was  given  to  the  Portuguese  as  a  commercial  station  in  1586,  in 
return  for  their  assistance  against  pirates. 

MACARONI.  This  name  was  given  to  a  poem  byTheop.  Folengo,  1509,  and  it  continues 
to  designate  trifling  performances,  as  buffoonery,  puns,  anagram's,  "  wit  without  wisdom,  and 
humour  without  sense."  His  poem  was  so  called  from  an  Italian  cake  of  the  same  name, 
pleasant  to  the  taste,  but  without  any  alimentary  virtue.  These  poems  became  the  reigning 
taste  in  Italy  and  France,  where  they  gave  birth  to  Macaroni  academies,  and  reaching 
England,  to  Macaroni  clubs  (about  1772),  till,  in  the  end,  everything  ridiculous  in  dress  and 
manners  was  called  "  Macaroni." 

MACCABEES,  a  family  of  patriotic  Jews,  who  commenced  their  career  during  the 
persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  167  B.C.,  when  Mattathias,  a  priest,  resisted  the 
tyranny  of  the  governor.  His  son,  Judas  Maccaboeus,  defeated  the  Syrians  in  three  battles, 
166,  165  B.C.  ;  but  fell  in  an  ambush,  161  B.C.  His  brother  Jonathan  made  a  league  with 
the  Romans  and  Lacedaemonians,  and  after  an  able  administration  was  treacherously  killed 
at  Ptolernais  by  Tryphon,  143  B.C.  His  brother  and  successor,  Simon,  was  also  murdered, 
135  B.C.  John  Hyrcanus,  son  of  Simon,  succeeded.  His  son  Judas,  called  also  Aristobulus, 
took  the  title  of  king,  107  B.C.  The  history  of  the  Maccabees  is  contained  in  five  books  of 
that  name,  two  of  which  are  included  in  our  Apocrypha.  Four  are  accounted  canonical  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  ;  none  by  Protestant  communions. 

MACDONALD  AFFAIR.     See  Prussia,  1861. 

MACE,  a  weapon  anciently  used  by  the  cavalry  of  most  nations,  was  originally  a  spiked 
club,  hung  at  the  saddle-bow,  and  usually  of  metal.  Maces  were  also  early  ensigns  of 
authority  borne  before  officers  of  state,  the  top  being  made  in  the  form  of  an  open  crown, 
and  commonly  of  silver  gilt.  The  lord  chancellor  and  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons 
have  maces  borne  before  them.  Edward  III.  granted  to  London  the  privilege  of  having 
gold  or  silver  maces  carried  before  the  lord  mayor,  sheriffs,  aldermen  and  corporation,  1354. 
It  was  with  the  mace  usually  carried  before  the  lord  mayor  on  state  occasions,  that  Walworth, 
lord  mayor  of  London,  knocked  the  rebel  "VVat  Tyler  off  his  horse,  a  courtier  afterwards 
despatching  him  with  his  dagger,  for  rudely  approaching  Richard  II.,  1381.  Cromwell, 
entering  the  house  of  commons  to  disperse  its  members  and  dissolve  the  parliament,  ordered 
one  of  his  soldiers  to  "take  away  that  fool's  bauble,  the  mace,"  which  was  done,  and  the 
doors  of  the  house  locked,  April  20,  1653. 

MACEDON  (N.  Greece).  The  first  kingdom  was  founded  by  Caranus,  about  814  B.C. 
It  was  an  inconsiderable  country,  sometimes  under  the  protection  of  Athens,  sometimes  of 
Thebes,  and  sometimes  of  Sparta,  until  the  reign  of  Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  by  his  wisdom  as  a  politician,  and  exploits  as  a  general,  made  it  a  poAverful 
kingdom,  and  paved  the  way  for  his  son's  greatness. 


Reigns  of  Caranus,  814  B.C.,  or  796,  or  748 


Perdiccas  I.,  729  ;  Argaeus  I.,  684  ;  Philip  I., 
640  or  609. 


796,  or  • 
4 ;  Phili] 


He  is  murdered  by  a  favourite,  to  whom  he 

promised  his  daughter  in  marriage         .    u  c.     399 
Pausanias  reigns 394 


JEropus  conquers  the  Illy rians   .        .  B.C.     602     Reign  of  Amyntas  II.,  393  ;  expelled         .         .  Jr 

Reign  of  Amyntas,  540 ;  of  Alexander  I.       .     .     500  [  Recovers  his  throne,  and  kills  Pausanias      .     .  397 

The  Illyrians  enter  Macedonia,  expel  Amyntas, 
and    make    Argaeus,  brother  of    Pausanias, 

king 392 

Amyntas  again  recovers  his  kingdom     .        .     .  390 


Macedon  conquered  by  the  Persians,  513;  de- 
livered by  the  victory  of  Platsea      .        .         .479 

Reign  of  Perdiccas  II 454 

Potidsea  taken  by  the  Athenians         .        .        .     431 
Archelaus,  natural  son  of  Perdiceas,  murders 
the  legitimate  heirs  of  his  father ;  seizes  the 
throne,  and  improves  the  country     .        .    .     413 


Macedonians,  a  semi-Arian  sect,  followers  of 
Macedonius,  about  341  ;  condemned  by  the 
council  of  Constantinople  .... 


MAC 


457 


MAD 


MACEDON,  continued. 

Reign  of  Alexander  II.,  369;  assassinated    B.C.  367 

Keign  of  Perdiccas  III.,  364;  killed  in  battle  .  360 
Reign  of  Philip  II.,  aud  institution  of  the 

Macedonian  phalanx 359 

He  defeats  the  Athenians  and  Illyrians  .  360,  359 
He  takes  Amphipolis.  See  Archery  .  .  -358 
He  conquers  Thrace,  Illyria,  and  Thessaly  356-352 

Birth  of  Alexander  the  Great         .        .         .     .  356 

Close  of  the  first  Sacred  war        ....  346 

Illyricum  overrun  by  the  army  of  Philip  .  .  344 
Thrace  made  tributary  to  Macedon  .  .  .343 

Aristotle  appointed  tutor  to  Alexander         .     .  „ 

War  against  the  Athenians 341 

Philip  besieges  Byzantium  unsuccessfully     .     .  340 

Battle  of  Chaeronea  ;  Philip  conquers  .  .  338 
Philip  is  assassinated  by  Pausaiiias  at  yEg;u 

during  the  celebration  of  games  in  honour 

of  his  daxighter's  nuptials 336 

Alexander  III.,  surnamed  the  Great,  succeeds  ,, 
The  Greeks  appoint  him  general  of  their  armies 

against  the  Persians  ......  335 

The  Thebans  revolt ;  he  levels  Thebes  to  the 

ground  ;  the  house  of  Pindar  alone  left      .     .  , , 
He  passes  into  Asia,  and  gains  his  first  battle 

over  Darius  at  the  Granicus     .        .     May  22,  334 
Sardis  surrenders,    Halicarnassus    taken,   and 

cities  in  Asia  Minor     .        .                 .        .     .  „ 
Memnon  ravages  the  Cyclades ;  Darius   takes 

the  field  with  460,000  infantry,  and  100,000 

cavalry 333 

Darius  defeated  at  Issus  (u-Jdch  see)  .  Nov.  ,, 
Alexander  on  his  way  to  Egypt,  lays  siege  to 

Tyre,  which  is  destroyed  after  seven  months  332 

Damascus  is  taken,  aud  the  vast  treasures        .  „ 

Gaza  surrenders ,, 

Alexander  enters  Jerusalem ;  and  Egypt  is  con- 
quered          ,, 

Alexandria  founded ,, 

The  Persians  totally  defeated  at  Arbela  Oct.  i,  331 

Alexander  master  of  Asia  ;  enters  Babylon        .  ,, 

Alexander  sits  on  the  throne  of  Darius  at  Susa  330 

Parthia,  Media,  &c.,  overrun  by  him          .        .  329 

Thalestris,  queen  of  the  Amazons,  visits  him  ,  " ,, 
He  puts  his  friend  Parmenio  to  death,  on  a 

charge  of  conspiracy  supposed  to  be  false      .  ,, 
His  expedition  to  India  ;  Porus,  king  of  India, 

is  defeated  and  taken :  and  the  country  as 

far  as  the  Ganges  is  overrun    ....  327 
Callisthenes  is  put  to  the  torture  for  refusing 

to  render  divine  homage  to  Alexander       .     .  328 
Voyage  of  his  admiral  NearchTTs  from  the  Indus 

to  the  Euphrates 328-325 


Returns  to  Babylon,  324  :  dies        .         .        B.C.     323 

Philip  Aridams  III.  king ,, 

Alexander's  conquests  are  divided  among  his 
generals,  323  ;  his  remains  are  ti-ansported  to 
Alexandria,  and  buried  by  Ptolemy  .  .  . 

The  Greeks  defeated  by  Antipater  and  the 
Macedonians,  near  Cranon  (u-hich  see) 

Cassander  reigns,  316;  rebuilds  Thebes 

Seleucus  recovers  Babylon  .... 

Cassander  kills  Roxana  and  her  son  (the  last  o  ' 
Alexander's  family),  and  usurps  the  throne 

Battle  of  Ipsus  (which see);  Antigonus  killed 

New  division  of  the  empire 

Death  of  Cassander 

Reign  of  Alexander  V.  and  Antipater,  his  sons 

Demetrius  I.,  Poliorcetes,  son  of  Antigonus, 
murders  Alexander,  and  seizes  the  crown  of 
Macedon 

Achaean  league  formed  against  Macedon        .  281-243 

Governments  ofPyrrhus,  287 ;  Lysimachus,  286 ; 
Ptolemy  Ceraunus 

Irruption  of  the  Gauls  ;  Ptolemy  killed        .     . 

Sosthenes  governs 

Reign  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  son  of  Demetrius 

Pyrrhus  invades  Macedon,  defeats  Antigonus, 
and  is  proclaimed  king 

Pyrrhus  slain ;  Antigonus  restored    . 

Antigonus  takes  Athens.  .        .        .     . 

The  Gauls  again  invade  Macedon 

Revolt  of  the  Parthians 

Reign  of  Demetrius  II 

Philip,  his  son,  232 ;  set  aside  by  Antigonus 
Doson 

Philip  V. ,  220 ;  wars  unsuccessfully  against  the 
Rhodians 

Philip  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Cynocephalse 

Reign  of  Perseus,  his  son 

Perseus  defeated  by  the  Romans 

The  consul  JSmilius  Paulus  enters  Macedon, 
and  pronounces  it  a  Roman  province  .  . 

Perseus  and  his  sons  made  prisoners,  walk  in 
chains  before  the  chariot  of  ^Emilius  in  his 
triumph  for  the  conquest  of  Macedon  . 

Macedonia  plundered  by  Theodoric  the  Ostro- 
goth   AD. 

Conquered  by  the  Bulgarians      .... 

Recovered  by  the  emperor  Basil    .        .        .     . 

Formed  into  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Thessa- 
lonica,  by  Boniface,  of  Montferrat  .  .  .  1204 

After  various  changes,  it  is  finally  conquered 
by  the  Turks  under  Amurath  II.,  and  an- 
nexed to  his  empire 1430 


322 


312 

3" 
301 

298 


294 


281 
279 
278 
277 

274 
272 
268 

250 

239 

229 

202 
I97 
I78 
171 

168 


167 

482 
978 
1001 


MACHIAVELLIAN  PRINCIPLES,  those  laid  down  by  Nicholas  Machiavelli  of  Florence 
(born  1469,  died  1527),  in  his  Practice  of  Politics  and  Tlie  Prince,  By  some  they  are  stigma- 
tised as  "the  most  pernicious  maxims  of  government,  founded  on  the  vilest  policy;"  aud  by 
others  as  "  sound  doctrines,  notwithstanding  the  prejudice  erroneously  raised  against 
them."  The  author  said  that  if  he  taught  princes  to  be  tyrants,  he  had  also  taught  the  people 
to  destroy  tyrants.  The  work  appeared  at  Rome  in  1532,  and  was  translated  into  English 
in  1761. 

MACIEJOVICE  (near  Warsaw,  Poland).  Here  the  Poles  were  totally  defeated  by  the 
Russians,  and  their  general,  Kosciusko,  taken  prisoner,  Oct.  4,  1794. 

MADAGASCAR  (S.  E.  coast  of  Africa),  a  large  populous  island,  said  to  hare  been  dis- 
covered by  Lorenzo  Almeida,  1506. 


The  French  attempted  to  settle  at  Antongel- 
bay  in 1774 

Their  establishment  at  Fort  Dauphin  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English  with  Bourbon  and 
Mauritius  in 1810-11 

The  settlements  ceded  to  king  Radama,  on  his 
giving  up  the  slave  trade  .  .  .  .1818 

Radama,  who  favoured  Europeans  and  encou- 
raged Christianity,  died 1828 


A  reactionary  policy  under  his  energetic  queen 
immediately  began  ;  the  English  missionaries 
who  came  in  1820  obliged  to  depart  .  .  1836 

The  application  of  the  native  laws  to  the  Euro- 
pean settlers  occasioned  an  unsuccessful 
attack  on  the  town  of  Tamatave,  by  a  united 
expedition  from  the  English  at  the  Mauritius, 
and  the  French  from  the  Isle  of  Bourbon, 

June,  1845 


MAD 


458 


MAE 


I  The  queen  dies  ;  succeeded  by  her  sou  Radama 

1 1.,  a  Christian Aug.  1861 

A  revolution  ;  the  king  and  his  ministers  assas- 
sinated ;  the  queen  proclaimed  the  sovereign, 

May,  1863 

Embassy  from  Madagascar  arrives  at  South- 
ampton         Feb.  1864 

i  Disputes  with  the  French  continue         .    Nov.  1865 


MADAGASCAR,  continued. 

All  amicable  intercourse  ceases  for  ten  years, 
during  which  the  native  Christians  suffer 

persecution 1846 

The  French  defeated  in  an  attack  on  the  island, 

Oct.  19,  1855 

The  rev.  W.  Ellis  published  an  interesting 
account  of  his  three  visits  to  the  island,  on 
behalf  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  in 

1854-5-6,  1858  ; 

MADEIRA,  an  island,  N.  W.  coast  of  Africa,  discovered,  it  is  said,  in  1344,  by  Mr. 
Machani,  an  English  gentleman,  or  mariner,  who  fled  from  France  for  an  illicit  amour.  He 
was  driven  here  by  a  storm,  and  his  mistress,  a  French  lady,  dying,  he  made  a  canoe,  and 
carried  the  news  of  his  discovery  to  Pedro,  king  of  Arragon,  which  occasioned  the  report 
that  the  island  was  discovered  by  a  Portuguese,  1345.  It  is  asserted  that  the  Portuguese 
did  not  visit  this  island  until  1419  or  1420,  nor  did  they  colonise  it  until  1431.  It  was 
taken  by  the  British  in  July,  1801 ;  and  again  by  admiral  Hood  and  general  Beresford, 
Dec.  24,  1807,  and  retained  in  trust  for  the  royal  family  of  Portugal,  which  had  emigrated 
to  the  Brazils.  It  was  restored  to  the  Portuguese  in  1814.  Since  1852  the  renowned 
vintages  here  have  been  totally  ruined  by  the  vine  disease. 

MADIAI  PERSECUTION.     See  Tuscany. 

MADRAS  (S.  E.  Hindostan),  called  by  the  natives  Chennapatam,  colonised  by  the 
English,  1620. 


Fort  St.  George  built,  1641  ;  made  a  presidency  1654 
Bengal  placed  under  Madras  ....  1658 
Calcutta,  hitherto  subordinate  to  Madras,  made 

a  presidency          ......  '  .   1701 

Madras  taken  by  the  French      .        .    Sept.  14,  1746 
Restored  to  the  English  ......   1749 

Vainly  besieged  by  the  French  under  Lally, 

Dec.  12,  1758 
Ilyder  inarches  to  Madras  and  obtains  a  favour- 

able treaty  .  .  .  .  .  April,  1769 
Sir  John  Lindsay  arrives  .  .  .  July,  1770 
fie  is  succeeded  by  sir  R.  Ilartland  .  Sept.  1771 
Lord  Pigot,  governor,  imprisoned  by  his  own 

council,  Aug.  24,  1776  ;  dies  in  confinement, 

April  17,   1777  ;   his  enemies  convicted  and 

fined  joooL  each        ....    Feb.  n,  1780 
Sir  Eyre  Coote  arrives      .        .        .         Nov.  5,     ,, 
lie  defeats  Hyder         ....     July  i,  1781 
Lord  Macartney  arrives  as  governor      June  22,     ,, 
The  Madras  government  arrests  gen.  Stuart  for 

disobedience,   and  sends   him    to    England, 

June,  1783 

Lord  Cornwallis  arrives  here  .  .  Dec.  12,  1790 
Sir  Charles  Oakley  succeeds  gen.  Meadows  as 

governor  .....  Aug.  i,  1792 
Lord  Mornington  (afterwards  the  marquess 


Wellesley)  visits  here 


General  Harris  with  the  Madras  army  enters 
Mysore,  March  5  ;   and   arrives   at   Seriiiga 


Dec.  1798 


patarn,  April  5,  which  is  stormed  by  the 
British  under  major-general  Baird,  and 
Tippoo  Saib  killed  ....  May  4,  1799 

Appointment  of  sir  Thomas  Strange,  first  judge 
of  Madras  under  the  charter  .  .  Dec.  26,  1800 

More  than  1000  houses  in  Madras  burnt       Feb.  1803 

The  Madras  army  under  general  Arthur  Welles- 
ley  (afterwards  duke  of  Wellington)  marches 
f  or  Poonah  (see  India)  ,  .  .  March,  ,, 

Mutiny  among  the  British  forces  at  Vellore      .   1806 


600  sepoys  killed  ;  200  executed 
Mutiny  of  the  sepoy  troops  at  Madras  . 


.   1803 


Arrival  of  lord  Minto  at  Madras,  who  publishes 
a  general  amnesty  ....  Sept.  29 

Awful  hurricane,  by  which  the  ships  at  anchor 
were  driven  into  the  town  and  seventy  sail 
sunk,  many  with  their  crews  .  .  May,  1811 


, 
Madras  attacked  by  the  Pindarees 


.1817 


Appointment  of  the  rev.  Dr.  Corrie,  first  Bishop 

of  Madras        .....       Feb.  14,  1835 
Sir  Charles  Trevelyan,*  governor,  Jan.    1859; 
recalled  for  publishing  a  minute  in  opposi- 
tion to  Mr.  Jas.  Wilson's  financial  schemes, 

May  10,  1860 
His  successor,   sir  H.   Wood,   dies  at  Madras, 

Aug.  2,     „ 

Sir  Wm.   Denison  appointed    governor,   Nov. 
1860  ;  arrives        ....         Feb.  18,  1861 
[For  other  events,  see  India.] 


MADRID  (New  Castile).     Mentioned  in  history  as  Majerit,  a  Moorish  castle. 


Sacked  by  the  Moors 

Made  the  seat  of  the  Spanish  court 

Taken  by  lord  Gal  way 

The  Escurial  was  built     ... 

The  old  palace  was  burnt  down  . 

Madrid  taken  by  the  French  . 


1109 
.  .  .  1516 

1706 

.  1563  et  seq. 
..  1734 
.  March,  1808 


The  citizens  rise  up  in  arms  to  expel  the  French, 
and  a  dreadful  conflict  takes  place        May  2,  1808 


Joseph  Bonaparte  enters  Madrid  as  king  of 
Spain,  but  soon  retires  .  .  .  July  20,  1808 

Madrid  retaken  by  the  French,  Dec.  2,  1808 ; 
and  retained  till  it  is  entered  by  Wellington 
and  his  army  ....  Aug.  12,  1812 

Ferdinand  VII.  restored    .        .         .      May  14,  1814 
Population,  in  1857,  483,795. 

See  Spain,  1840  et  seq. 


MAASTRICHT  (Holland).  It  revolted  from  Spain  1570,  and  was  taken  by  the  prince  of 
Parma  in  1579,  when  a  dreadful  massacre  took  place.  In  1632,  the  prince  of  Orange  reduced 
it  after  a  memorable  siege,  and  it  was  confirmed  to  the  Dutch  in  1648  ;  Louis  XIV.  took  it 
in  1673  ;  William,  prince  of  Orange,  invested  it  in  vain  in  1676  ;  but  in  1678  it  was  restored 
to  the  Dutch.  In  .1748  it  was  besieged  by  the  French,  who  were  permitted  to  take  possession 
of  the  city  on  condition  of  its  beiug  restored  at  the  peace  then  negotiating.  At  the  com- 

*  Appointed  financial  secretary  and  a  member  of  the  Indian  council  at  Calcutta,  Oct.  1862. 


MAG 


459 


MAG 


mencement  of  1793,  Maastricht  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  French,  but  they  became 
nlasters  of  it  towards  the  end  of  the  following  year.  In  1814,  it  was  made  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  ;  it  now  belongs  to  Holland. 

MAGAZINE,  at  first  a  miscellaneous  periodical  publication.  There  are  now  magazines 
devoted  to  nearly  every  department  of  knowledge.  The  following  are  the  dates  of  the  first 
publication  of  the  principal  magazines.  In  Jan.  1865,  544  magazines,  were  being  published 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  See  Reviews  and  Newspapers. 


London 

Scots 

Royal . 

Court 

Gospel 

Lady's 


m's  Magazine   . 

1731 
1732 
1739 
1759 
1760 
1768 

1772 

European  Magazine 
Methodist 
Evangelical 
Monthly  . 
Philosophical 
Blackwood's   . 
New  Monthly    . 

1782 

1784 

1792 
1796 

1798 

1817 

1814 


Eraser's  Magazine .        .        .18:0 
Metropolitan       .        .        .     .   rSii 

Penny 1832 

Tait's 1833 

Cornhill  .  1859 

Macmillan's        .         .         .     .     ,, 
Temple  Bar;  and  St.  James's  1860 


MAGDALENS  AND  MAGDALENETTES,  communities  of  nuns  and  women,  the  latter 
class  consisting  chiefly  of  penitent  courtesans.  The  order  of  penitents  of  St.  Magdalen  was 
founded  1272,  at  Marseilles.  The  convent  of  Naples  was  endowed  by  queen  Sancha,  1324. 
That  at  Metz  was  instituted  in  1452.  At  Paris,  1492.  The  Magdalen  at  Rome  was  endowed 
by  pope  Leo  X.,  in  1515,  and  favoured  by  Clement  VIII.,  in  1594.  The  Magdalen  Hospital, 
London,  was  founded  in  1758,  principally  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Dodd.  The  Asylum  in 
Dublin  was  opened  in  Jime,  1766. 

MAGDEBURG  (Prussia).  The  archbishopric  was  founded  about  967.  The  city  suffered 
much  during  the  religious  wars  in  Germany.  It  was  blockaded  for  seven  months  by  the 
Imperialists,  under  Wallenstein,  in  1629  ;  and  was  barbarously  sacked  by  Tilly  on  May  10, 
1631.  It  was  given  to  Brandenburg  in  1648  ;  was  taken  by  the  French  Nov.  8,  1806, 
and  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  ;  but  was  restored  to  Prussia  in  1813.* 

MAGELLAN,  STRAITS  OF  (connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans),  was  passed  by 
Fernando  de  Magelhaens  (Magellan),  a  Portuguese,  on  Nov.  27,  1520.  He  gave  the  latter 
ocean  its  name  on  account  of  its  calmness.  Magellan  completed  the  first  voyage  round  the 
world,  with  a  fleet  of  discovery  fitted  out  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  but  was  killed  in  1521. 
The  Spaniards  had  a  fort  here,  called  Cape  Famine,  because  the  garrison  perished  for  want. 

MAGENTA,  a  small  town  in  Lombardy,  memorable  for  the  victory  of  the  French  and 
Sardinian  army  over  the  Austrians,  June  4,  1859.  The  emperor  Louis  Napoleon  com- 
manded, and  he  and  the  king  of  Sardinia  were  in  the  thickest  of  the  fight.  It  is  said  that 
55,000  French  and  Sardinians,  and  75,000  Austrians  wrere  engaged.  The  former  are  asserted 
to  have  lost  4000  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  Austrians  10,000,  besides  7000  prisoners ; 
these  numbers  are  still  doubtful.  The  French  generals  Espinasse  and  Clerc  were  killed.  The 
arrival  of  general  M'Mahon  during  a  deadly  struggle  between  the  Austrians  and  the  French, 
greatly  contributed  to  the  victory.  The  contest  near  the  bridge  of  BufTalora  was  very  severe. 
The  Austrians  fought  well,  but  were  badly  commanded.  The  emperor  and  king  entered 
Milan  on  June  8  following  ;  M'Mahon  and  Regnault  d'Angely  were  created  marshals  of 
France. — The  red  dye,  rosaniline,  obtained  by  chemists  from  gas-tar,  is  termed  magenta. 
See  Aniline. 

MAGI,  on  WORSHIPPERS  OF  FIRE.  The  Persians  adored  the  invisible  and  incompre- 
hensible God  as  the  principle  of  all  good,  and  paid  homage  to  fire,  as  the  emblem  of  his  power 
and  purity.  They  built  no  altars  nor  temples  ;  their  sacred  fires  blazed  in  the  .open  air,  and 
their  offerings  were  made  upon  the  earth.  The  Magi,  their  priests,  are  said  to  have  had  skill 
in  astronomy,  &c. ;  hence  the  term  Magi  was  applied  to  all  learned  men,  till  they  were  finally 
confounded  with  the  magicians.  Zoroaster,  king  of  Bactria,  was  the  reformer  of  the  sect  of 
the  Magi ;  he  flourished  about  1080  B.C.  ;  others  say  550  B.C.  Their  religion  was  superseded 
in  Persia  by  Mahometanism,  A.D.  652.  The  Parsees  at  Bombay  are  descendants  of  the 
Guebres  or  fire- worshippers. 

MAGIC.  See  Alchemy,  Witchcraft,  &c.  The  invention  of  the  MAGIC  LANTEUX  is 
ascribed  to  Roger  Bacon,  about  1260,  but  more  correctly  to  Athanasius  Kircher,  who 
died  1680. 

*  The  Magdeburg  Experiment  is  shown  by  means  of  a  hollow  sphere,  composed  of  two  hemispheres, 
fitting  air-tight.  When  the  air  is  exhausted  by  the  air-pump,  the  hemispheres  are  held  together  by  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  require  great  force  to  separate  them.  The  apparatus  was  suggested  by 
Otto  von  Guerickc,  the  inventor  of  the  air -pump.  He  died  in  1686.  Jirande. 


MAG 


460 


MAG 


MAGISTRATES.     See  Justices.     The  present  arrangement  of  metropolitan  police  magis- 
trates   (the  chief  sitting  at  Bow-street)  was  made  by  act  of  parliament  in  1792.     Henry 


He  was 


By  Sir  William  Addington 
Sir  Richard  Ford 
Mr.  Read  . 


1827 

1839 
1864 


Fielding,  the  novelist,  was  acting  magistrate  for  Westminster  and  at  Bow-street, 
succeeded  by  his  half-brother,  sir  John  Fielding,  in  1761. 

1780    S  ir  Nathaniel  Conant         .     .1813    Sir  Frederick  Roe  . 
1800    Sir  Robert  Baker    .         .        .  1820    Mr.  T.  J.  Hall    . 
1806    Sir  Richard  Birnie      .        .     .  1821     Sir  Thomas  Henry 

Stipendiary  borough  magistrates  were  appointed  by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  76,  1835. 

MAGNA  CHARTA.  The  fundamental  parts  of  the  great  charter  of  English  liberty  were 
derived  from  Saxon  Charters,  continued  by  Henry  I.  and  his  successors.  It  was  signed  by 
John  at  Runnymede,  near  Windsor,  June  15,  1215,*  &c.  It  was  many  times  confirmed, 
and  frequently  violated,  by  Henry  III.  This  last  king's  grand  charter  was  granted  in  1224, 
and  was  assured  by  Edward  I.  See  Forests. 

MAGNA  GILECIA,  the  independent  states  founded  by  Greek  colonists  in  South  Italy, 
Sicily,  &c.,  beginning  in  9743.0.  Pandosia  and  Metapontum  were  built  in  774 B.C.  Cumre, 
in  Campania,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  1034 B.C.  These  states  were  ruined  through 
.siding  with  Hannibal  when  he  invaded  Italy,  216  B.C. 


Syracuse  founded    . 
Leontium  and  Cataiia 
Sybaris     . 


B.C.  734 

•     •  730 

.  721 


Crotona     . 
Tareiitum     . 
Locri  Epizephyrii 


B.C.  710 

.     .  708 

•  673 


Lipara  "    . 
Agrigentum 
Thurium . 


.  B.C.  627 

•     .  582 
•  432 


MAGNESIA  (Asia  Minor).  Here  Antiochus  the  great,  king  of  Syria,  was  defeated  by 
the  Scipios,  190  B.C. — Magnesia  alba,  the  white  alkaline  earth  used  in  medicine,  of  gently 
purgative  properties,  was  in  use  in  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century.  Its  properties  were 
developed  by  Dr.  Black  in  1755. 

MAGNESIUM,  a  metal  first  obtained  from  magnesia  by  sir  Humphrey  Davy,  about 
1807,  and  since  produced  in  larger  quantities  by  Bussy,  Deville,  and  especially  by  Mr.  E. 
Sonstadt,  in  1862-4.  Its  light  when  burnt  is  very  brilliant,  and  is  so  rich  in  chemical  ra}Ts 
that  it  may  be  used  in  photography.  Lamps  have  been  made  for  burning  magnesium  wire, 
which  is  so  employed  by  the  excavators  of  the  tunnel  through  Mount  Cenis.  By  its  light 
photographs  of  the  interior  of  the  Pyramids  were  taken  in  1865. 

MAGNETISM.  Magnes,  a  shepherd,  is  said  to  have  been  detained  on  Mount  Ida  by  the 
nails  in  his  boots.  The  attractive  power  of  the  loadstone  or  magnet  was  early  known,  and  is 
referred  to  by  Homer,  Aristotle,  and  Pliny  ;  it  was  also  known  to  the  Chinese  and  Arabians. 
The  Greeks  are  said  to  have  obtained  the  loadstone  from  Magnesia  in  Asia,  1000  B.C.  Roger 
Bacon  is  said  to  have  been  acquainted  with  its  property  of  pointing  to  the  north  (1294). 
The  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass  is  ascribed  to  Flavio  Gioia,  a  Neapolitan,  about  1320; 
but  it  was  known  in  Norway  previous  to  1266  ;  and  is  mentioned  in  a  French  poem,  1150. 
See  under  Electricity. 


Robert  Norman,  of  London,  discovered  the 
dip  of  the  needle  about 1576 

Gilbert's  treatise  "De  Magnete,"  published  .     .   1600 

Halley's  theory  published 1683 

Marcel  observed  that  a  bar  of  iron  becomes 
temporarily  magnetic  by  position  .  .  .  1722 

Artificial  magnets  made  by  Dr.  G.  Knight         .  1746 

The  variation  of  the  compass  was  observed  by 
Bond,  about  1668  ;  the  diurnal  variation  by 
Graham,  1722  ;  on  which  latter  Catiton  made 
4000  observations  previous  to  .  .  .  1 756  j 

Coulomb  constructed  a  torsion  balance  for  de- 
termining the  laws  of  attraction  and  repul- 
sion, 1786  ;  also  investigated  by  Michel,  Euler, 
Lambert,  Robison,  and  others  .  .  .1750-1800 

The  deflection  of  the  magnetic  needle  by  the 
voltaic  current  was  discovered  by  Oersted  .  1820 

Mr.  Abraham  invents  a  magnetic  guard  for 
persons  engaged  in  grinding  cutlery  .  .1821 

The  magnetic  effects  of  the  violet  rays  of  light 
exhibited  by  Morichini,  1814 ;  polarity  of  a 
sewing  needle  so  magnetized  shown  by  Mrs. 
Somerville 1825 


Mr.  Christie  proved  that  heat  diminishes 
magnetic  force  .....  about  1825 

Sir  W.  Snow  Harris  invents  various  forms  of 
the  compass 1831 

Electricity  produced  from  a  magnet  by  pro- 
fessor Faraday,  1831  :  his  reseai-ches  on  the 
action  of  the  magnet  on  light,  on  the  mag- 
netic properties  of  flame,  air,  and  gases 
(published  1845),  on  dia-magnetism  (1845), 
on  magne-crystallic  action  (1848),  on  atmo- 
spheric magnetism  (1850),  on  the  magnetic 
force 1851-2 

Magnetic  observations  established  in  the  British 
colonies  under  the  superintendence  of  col. 
Edward  Sabine  ....  1840  et  seq. 

Prof.  Tyndall  proves  the  existence  of  dia-mag- 
netic  polarity  .  1856- 

In  the  present  century  our  knowledge  of  the 
phenomena  of  magnetism  has  also  been 
greatly  increased  by  the  labours  of  Arago, 
Ampere,  Hansteen,  ~  Gauss,  Weber,  Poggen- 
dorff,  Sabine,  Lamont,  Du  Moncel,  &c.f  See 
Animal  Maanetism. 


*  On  Nov.  20,  1214,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  barons  met  at  St.  Edniondsbury.  On  Jan.  6. 
1215,  they  presented  their  demands  to  the  king,  who  deferred  his  answer.  On  May  19  they  were  censured 
by  the  pope.  On  May  24  they  marched  to  London,  and  the  king  was  compelled  to  yield. 

j  In  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  is  a  magnet  by  Logeman,  of  Haarlem,  constructed  on  the  prin- 


MAG 


461 


MAI 


MAGNETO  -  ELECTRICITY,  the  discovery  of  professor  Faraday.  See  Electricity. 
Magneto-electricity  has  been  recently  applied  to  telegraphic  and  to  lighthouse  purposes.* 

MAGNOLIA.  Magnolia  glaum  was  brought  here  from  N.  America,  1688.  The  laurel- 
leaved  Magnolia,  Magnolia  grandiftora,  from  N".  America  about  1734.  The  dwarf  Magnolia, 
Magnolia  pumila,  from  China  in  1789  ;  and  (also  from  China)  the  brown  stalked,  1789; 
the  purple,  1790;  and  the  slender,  1804. 

MAGYARS.     See  Hungary. 

MAHARAJPOOR  (India).  Here  sir  Hugh  Gough  severely  defeated  the  Mahratta  army 
of  Gwalior,  Dec.  29,  1843.  Lord  Ellenboroiigh  was  present. 

MAHOGANY  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to  England  by  Raleigh,  in  1595  ;  and  to 
have  come  into  general  use  about  1 720. 

MAHOMET ANISM  embodied  in  the  Koran,  includes — the  unity  of  God,  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  predestination,  a  last  judgment,  and  a  sensual  paradise.  Mahomet  asserted 
that  the  Koran  Avas  revealed  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel  during  a  period  of  twenty-three 
years.  He  enjoined  on  his  disciples  circumcision,  prayer,  alms,  frequent  ablution,  and 
fasting,  and  permitted  polygamy  and  concubinage. 


Mahomet,  or  Mohammed,  born  at  Mecca  . 

Announced  himself  as  a  prophet  about         .     . 

Fled  from  his  enemies  to  Medina  (his  flight  is 
called  the  Hegira) 

Overcomes  his  enemies,  the  Koreish,  the  Jews, 
&c 

Defeats  the  Christians  at  Muta   .... 

Is  acknowledged  as  a  sovereign      .        .         .     . 

Dies,  it  is  said,  of  slow  poison,  administered  by 
a  Jew  to  test  his  divine  character  .  June  7, 

The  Mahometans  are  divided  into  several  sects, 
the  two  chief  being  the  Sonnites,  or  the  Ortho- 
dox, who  recognised  as  caliph  Abubeker,  the 
father-in-law  of  Mahomet,  in  preference  to 
Omar  and  Ali ;  and  the  Shiites  (Sectaries),  or 
Fatimites,  the  followers  of  Ali,  who  married 
Fatima,  the  prophet's  daughter. 

The  Ottoman  empire  is  the  chief  seat  of  the 
Sonnites,  the  sultan  being  considered  the 
representative  of  the  caliphs  ;  while  Persia 
has  been  for  centuries  the  stronghold  of  the 
Shiites. 


569! 
611 

622 

623 
629 
630 

632 


The  Mahometans  conquered  Arabia,  North 
Africa,  and  part  of  Asia,  in  the  jth  century  ; 
in  the  8th  they  invaded  Europe,  conquering 
Spain,  where  they  founded  the  Califat  of 
Cordova,  which  lasted  from  756  to  1031,  when 
it  was  broken  up  into  smaller  governments, 
the  last  of  which,  the  kingdom  of  Grenada, 
endured  till  its  subjugation  by  Ferdinand  in 
1492  ;  but  the  Mahometans  were  not  finally  : 
expelled  from  Spain  till 1609 

Their  progress  in  France  was  stopped  by  their 
defeat  at  Tours  by  Charles  Martel,  in  .  .  732 

After  a  long  contest,  the  Turks  under  Maho- 
met II.  took  Constantinople;  he  made  it  his 
capital  and  the  chief  seat  of  his  religion .  .  1453 

Though  considered  to  be  declining,  Mahome- 
tanism  is  calculated  as  including  100  millions 
amongst  its  votaries. 

Coomrooden  Tyabjee,  a  Mahometan,  after  serv- 
ing his  articles,  was  duly  admitted  to  practise 
as  an  attorney,  having  taken  the  oaths  upon 
the  Koran.  Lord  chief-justice  Campbell 
wished  him  success  in  his  prof  ession  Nov.  1858 


MAHRATTAS,  a  people  of  Hindostan,  who  originally  dwelt  north -west  of  the  Deccan, 
which  they  overran  about  1676.  They  endeavoured  to  overcome  the  Mogul,  but  were 
restrained  by  the  Afghans.  They  entered  into  alliance  with  the  East  India  Company  in 
1767,  made  war  against  it  in  1774,  again  made  peace  in  1782,  and  were  finally  subdued  in 
1818.  Their  last  prince,  Sindiah,  is  now  a  pensioner  of  the  British  government. 

MAID.     See  Holy  Maid,  Elizabeth  Barton,  and  Joan  of  Arc,  Maid  of  Orleans. 

MAIDA  (Calabria),  where  the  French,  commanded  by  general  Regnier,  were  signally 
defeated  by  the  British  under  major-general  sir  John  Stuart,  July  4,  1806. 

MAIDEN.     See  Guillotine. 

MAIDS  OF  HONOUR.  Anne,  daughter  of  Francis  II.  duke  of  Brittany,  and  queen  of 
Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  of  France,  was  the  first  to  have  young  and  beautiful  ladies 
about  her  person,  called  maids  of  honour.  Phil,  de  Commines.  When  Charles  died  (1498), 
she  put  a  cordelier  (a  black  knotted  lace)  round  her  coat  of  arms,  as  a  token  of  mourning, 
which  introduced  the  custom.  The  queen  of  Edward  I.  of  England  is  said  to  have  had  four 
maids  of  honour  ;  queen  Victoria  has  eight. 

MAIL.     Coaches  for  the  conveyance  of  letters  were  first  set  up  at  Bristol  by  Mr.  John 


ciples  of  Dr.  Elias,  which  weighs  100  IDS.,  and  can  sustain  430  Ibs.  Hrecker,  of  Nuremberg,  constructed  a 
magnet  weighing  36  grains,  capable  of  sustaining  146  times  its  own  weight.  This  was  exhibited  in  1851, 
also  at  the  Royal  Institution.  ' 

*  The  South  Foreland  lighthouse,  near  Dover,  was  illuminated  by  the  magneto-electric  light  in  the 
winters  of  1858-9  and  1859  60,  and  at  Dungciicss  in  1861-2.  The  light  excels  all  other  artificial  lights  in 
brilliancy,  continuance,  &.c. 


MAI  462  MAL 

Palmer,  of  Bath,  Aug.  2,  1784.     They   were  employed  for  other  routes  in  1785,  and  soon 
became  general  in  England.     The  mails  were  first  sent  by  rail  in  1838. 

MAIMING  AND  WOUNDING.     See  Coventry  Act 

MAINE,  a  province,  N.W.  of  France,  was  seized  by  William  1.  of  England  in  1069. 
It  acknowledged  prince  Arthur,  1199;  and  was  taken  from  John  of  England  by  Philip  of 
France,  1204;  was  recovered  by  Edward  III.  in  1357  ;  but  given  up,  1360.  After  various 
changes  it  was  finally  united  to  France  by  Louis  XI.  in  1481. — MAINE  (N.  America),  was 
discovered  by  Cabot,  1497  ;  and  colonised  by  the  English  in  1638  ;  it  became  a  state  of  the 
union  in  1820.  The  boundary  line  between  the  British  and  the  United  States  territories  in 
Maine  was  settled  by  the  Ashburton  treaty,  concluded  Aug.  9,  1842.  The  Maine  liquor  law, 
prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  use  of  "intoxicating  drinks,  with  certain  exceptions,  was 
enacted  in  1851. 

MAJESTY.  Among  the  Romans,  the  emperor  and  imperial  family  were  thus  addressed, 
and  also  the  popes  and  the  emperors  of  Germany.  The  style  was  given  to  Louis  XL  of 
France  in  1461.  Voltaire.  Upon  Charles  V.  being  chosen  emperor  of  Germany  in  1519,  the 
kings  of  Spain  took  the  style.  Francis  I.  of  France,  at  the  interview  with  Henry  VIII.  -of 
England,  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  addressed  the  latter  as  Your  Majesty,  1520. 
James  I.  used  the  style  "Sacred,"  and  "Most  Excellent  Majesty." 

MAJORCA.  See  Balearic  Isles  and  Minorca.  Majorca  rebelled  against  Philip  V.  of 
Spain  in  1714  ;  but  submitted,  July  14,  1715. 

MALABAR  (W.  coast  of  Hindostan).  The  Portuguese  established  factories  here  in 
1505  ;  the  English  did  the  same  in  1601. 

MALACCA,  on  the  Malay  peninsula,  E.  Indies,  was  a  flourishing  Portuguese  settlement 
in  1511.  The  Dutch  factories  were  established  in  1640.  It  now  forms  part  of  the 
British  "Straits"  settlements,  the  Dutch  government  having  exchanged  it  for  Bencoolen 
in  Sumatra. 

MALAKHOFF,  a  hill  near  Sebastopol,  on  which  was  situated  an  old  tower,  which  the 
Russians  strongly  fortified  during  the  siege  of  1854-55.  The  allied  French  and  English 
attacked  it  on  June  17  and  18,  1855,  and  after  a  conflict  of  forty-eight  hours  were  repulsed 
with  severe  loss  ;  that  of  the  English  being  175  killed  and  1126  wounded  ;  that  of  the  French 
3338  killed  and  wounded.  On  Sept.  8,  the  French  again  attacked  the  Malakhoff ;  at  eight 
o'clock  the  first  mine  was  sprung,  and  at  noon  the  French  flag  floated  over  the  conquered 
redoubt.  See  Sebastopol.  In  the  Malakhoff  and  Redan  were  found  3000  pieces  of  cannon  of 
ever}^  calibre,  and  i2O,ooolbs.  of  gunpowder. 

MALDON  (Essex),  built  28  B.C.,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  Roman  coloii}^  in 
Britain.  It  was  burnt  by  queen  Boadicea,  and  rebuilt  by  the  Romans.  It  was  burnt  by 
the  Danes,  A.D.  991,  and  rebuilt  by  the  Saxons.  Maldon  was  incorporated  by  Philip  and 
Mary.  The  singular  custom  of  Borough-English  is  kept  up  here,  by  which  the  youngest 
son,  and  not  the  eldest,  succeeds  to  the  burgage  tenure  on  his  father's  death.— See 
Borough- English. 

MALEGNANO,  or  MELEGNANO,  modern  names  of  Marignano,  which  see. 

MALICIOUS  DAMAGES.  The  law  respecting  them  was  consolidated  and  amended  by 
24  &  25  Viet.  c.  97.  This  act  protects  works  of  art,  electric  telegraphs,  &c.,  1861. 

MALO,  ST.  (N.  W.  France).  This  port  sustained  a  tremendous  bombardment  by  the 
English  under  admiral  Benbow  in  1693,  and  under  lord  Berkeley  in  July,  1695.  In  1758 
the~British  landed  in  considerable  force  in  Cancalle  bay,  and  went  up  to  the  harbour,  where 
they  burnt  upwards  of  a  hundred  ships,  and  did  great  damage  to  the  town,  making  a 
number  of  prisoners.  It  is  now  defended  by  a  very  strong  castle,  and  the  harbour  is  most 
difficult  of  access. 

MALPLAQUET  (N.  France).  Here  the  allies  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  prince 
Eugene  defeated  the  French  commanded  by  marshal  Villars,  Sept.  u,  1709.  Each  army 
consisted  of  nearly  120,000  choice  soldiers.  There  was  great  slaughter  on  both  sides,  the 
allies  losing  18,000  men,  which  loss  was  but  ill  repaid  by  the  capture  of  Mons. 

MALT,  barley  prepared  for  brewing  and  distillation.  A  duty  was  laid  upon  malt  in  1667, 
1697,  et  seq.  Important  acts  for  the  regulation  of  malt  duties  were  passed  in  1830  and  1837. 
In  March,  1858,  there  were  6157  licensed  maltsters  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  duty  on 
malt  in  1863  amounted  to  6,273,727^.  An  act  was  passed  in  1865  allowing  the  excise  duty 
to  be  charged  according  to  the  weight  of  the  grain  used. 


MAL  463  MAN 

MALT,  continued. 

BUSHELS  OF  MALT  MADE  IN  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  IN  THE  FOLLOWING  YEAHS  :  — 

;.     England    .        .         .  Bushels  29, 572,742  1840.     England        .         .    Bushels  33,376,720 

Scotland         ....     3,925,847  Scotland  ....        4,374,328 

Ireland 2,706,862  Ireland        .         .        .     .        1,915,584 

36,205,451  39,666,632 

Made  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1835,  42,892,012  buslich :  in  1847,  35,307,815  ;  in  1850,  40,744,752  ; 
in  1857,  45,967,461 ;  in  1861,  47,914,614 

MALTA  (formerly  Melita),  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  held  successively  by~flie~ 
Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  and  Romans,  which  last  conquered  it,  259  B.C.  The  apostle 
Paul  was  wrecked  here,  A.D.  62  (Acts  xxvii.  xxviii.).  Malta  was  taken  by  the  Vandals,  534 ; 
by  the  Arabs,  870  ;  and  by  the  Normans  from  Sicily,  1090.  With  Sicily  it  became  succes- 
sively part  of  the  possessions  of  the  houses  of  Hohenstaufen,  Anjou  (1266),  and  Aragon 
(1260).  In  1530  Charles  V.  gave  it  to  the  Knights  Hospitallers,  who  defended  it  most 
courageously  and  successfully  against  the  Turks  in  1551  and  1565,  when  the  Turks  were 
obliged  to  abandon  the  enterprise  after  the  loss  of  30,000  men.  The  island  was  taken  by 
general  Bonaparte  in  the  outset  of  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  June  12,  1798.  He  found  in  it 
"1200  pieces  of  cannon,  2OO,ooolbs.  of  powder,  two  ships  of  the  line,  a  frigate,  four  galleys, 
and  40,000  muskets  ;  besides  an  immense  treasure  collected  by  superstition  ;  and  4500 
Turkish  prisoners,  whom  he  set  at  liberty.  Malta  was  surrendered  to  the  British  under 
Pigot,  Sept.  5,  1800.  At  the  peace  of  Amiens,  it  was  stipulated  that  it  should  be  restored 
to  the  knights.  The  British,  however,  retained  possession,  and  the  war  recommenced 
between  the  two  nations  :  but  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1814,  the  island  was  guaranteed  to 
Great  Britain.  La  Valetta,  the  capital,  was  founded  in  1557  by  the  grand  master  La  Valetta, 
and  completed  and  occupied  by  the  knights,  Aug.  18,  1571.  The  Protestant  College  was 
founded  in  1846. 

MALTA,  KNIGHTS  OF.  A  military-religious  order,  called  also  Hospitallers  of  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem,  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  Knights  of  Rhodes.  Some  merchants  of  Malfi, 
trading  to  the  Levant,  obtained  leave  of  the  caliph  of  Egypt  to  build  a  house  for  those  who 
came  on  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  whom  they  received  with  zeal  and  charit}7,  1048. 
They  afterwards  founded  a  hospital  for  the  reception  of  pilgrims,  from  whence  they  were  called 
Hospitallers  (Latin  hospes,  a  guest).  The  military  order  was  founded  about  1099  ;  confirmed 
by  the  pope  in  1 1 13.  In  1 1 19  the  knights  defeated  the  Turks  at  Antioch.  After  the  Chris- 
tians had  lost  their  interest  in  the  East,  and  Jerusalem  was  taken,  the  knights  retired  to 
Acre,  which  they  defended  valiantly  in  1290.  They  next  followed  John,  king  of  Cyprus, 
who  gave  them  Limisso  in  his  dominions,  where  they  stayed  till  1310,  in  which  year  they 
took  Rhodes,  under  their  grand  master  De  Vallaret,  and  the  next  year  defended  it  under  the 
duke  of  Savoy  against  an  army  of  Saracens  ;  since  when,  his  successors  have  used  F.  E.  R.  T. 
for  their  device,  that  is^Fortitudo  cjus  Rhodum  tenuit,  or,  His  valour  kept  Rhodes.  From 
this  they  were  called  knights  of  Rhodes^  but  Rhodes  being  taken  by  Solyman  in  1522,  they 
retired  into  Candia,  thence  into  Sicily.  Pope  Adrian  VI.  granted  them  the  city  of  Viterbo 
for  their  retreat  ;  and  in  1530  the  emperor  Charles  V.  gave  them  the  isle  of  Malta.  The 
order  was  suppressed  in  England  in  1540 ;  restored  in  1557  ;  and  again  suppressed  in  1559. 
St.  John's  Gate,  Clerkenwell,  a  relic  of  their  possessions,  still  exists.  The  emperor  Paul  of 
Russia  declared  himself  grand  master  of  the  order  in  June,  1799. 

MAMELUKES,  originally  Turkish  and  Circassian  slaves,  established  by  the  sultan  as  a 
body-guard,  1230.  They  advanced  one  of  their  own  corps  to  the  throne,  about  1250,  and 
continued  to  do  so  until  Egypt  became  a  Turkish  province,  in  1517,  when  the  beys 
took  them  into  pay,  and  filled  up  their  ranks  with  renegades  from  various  countries. 
On  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Bonaparte,  in  1798,  they  retreated  into  Nubia  ;  but, 
assisted  by  the  Arnauts,  they  once  more  wrested  Egypt  from  the  Turkish  government. 
On  March  I,  1811,  they  were  decoyed  into  the  power  of  the  Turkish  pacha,  Mehemet  Ali, 
and  slain  at  Cairo  to  the  number  of  1600.  In  1804,  Napoleon  embodied  some  of  them  in 
his  guard. 

MAMMOTH,  an  extinct  species  of  elephant.  An  entire  mammoth,  flesh  and  bones,  was 
discovered  in  Siberia,  in  1799.  Remains  of  this  animal  have  since  been  found  at  Harwich  in 
1803,  and  at  places  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America. 

MAN,  ANTIQUITY  OF.  In  1846,  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes  found  some  rude  flint  imple- 
ments, which  he  believed  to  be  of  human  manufacture,  mingled  with  bones  of  extinct 
animals,  in  the  old  alluvium  near  Abbeville  in  Picardy,  France.  Similar  flints  have  since 


MAN 


464 


MAN" 


been  found  in  Sicily  by  Dr.  Falconer,  at  Brixham  by  Mr.  Pengelly,  and  lately  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  Hence  many  geologists  infer  that  man  existed  on  the  earth  many  ages 
earlier  than  has  been  hitherto  believed.  Sir  Charles  Lyell's  "Antiquity  of  Man"  was  pub- 
lished in  1863,  and  sir  John  Lubbock's  "  Prehistoric  Times"  in  1865. 

MAN,  ISLE  or,  was  subdued  by  Edwin,  king  of  Northumberland,  621  ;  by  Magnus  of 
Norway,  1092;  ceded  to  the  Scots,  1266;  and  taken  from  them  in  1314,  by  Montacute, 
afterwards  earl  of  Salisbury,  to  whom  Edward  III.  gave  the  title  of  king  of  Man,  in  1343. 
It  was  afterwards  subjected  to  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  on  whose  attainder  Henry  IV. 
granted  it  in  fee  to  sir  John  Stanley,  1406  ;  it  was  taken  from  this  family  by  Elizabeth, 
but  was  restored  in  1608,  to  the  earl  of  Derby,  through  whom  it  fell  by  inheritance  to  the 
duke  of  Athol,  1735.  He  received  70,0001.  from  parliament  for  the  sovereignty  in  1765  ; 
and  the  nation  was  charged  with  the  further  sum  of  132,944?.  for  the  purchase  of  his  interest 
in  the  revenues  of  the  island  in  Jan.  1829.  The  countess  of  Derby  held  the  isle  against  the 
parliament  forces  in  1651.  The  bishopric  is  said  to  have  been  presided  over  by  Amphibalus 
about  360.  Some  assert  that  St.  Patrick  was  the  founder  of  the  see,  and  that  Germanus  was 
the  first  bishop,  about  447.  It  was  united  to  Sodor  in  1113.  The  bishop  has  no  seat  in  the 
house  of  lords  ;  but  lord  Auckland  (bishop,  1847-54),  sat  by  right  of  his  barony.  Present 
income,  2oool. 

RECENT   BISHOPS    OF   SODOR   AND   MAN. 

1784.   Claudius  Crigan;  died  in  1813.                                1841.  Thos.  Vowler  Short,  translated  to  St.  Asaph 

1813.   George   Murray,   translated  to   Rochester  in  \  in  1846. 

1827.                                                                         11846.  Walter  Augustus  Shirley  ;   died  in  1847. 

1828.   William  Ward ;  died  in  1838.                                  '1847.  John  Eden    (lord    Auckland),    translated   to 

1838.    James   Bowstead,   translated  to  Lichfield  in  |  Bath  in  1854. 

Dec.  1839.                                                             \  1854.  Hon.  Horatio  Powys  (PRESENT  bishop). 
1840.    Henry  Pepys,  translated  to  Worcester  in  1841.  ; 

MANASSAS  JUNCTION,  Virginia,  United  States,  an  important  military  position, 
where  the  Alexandria  and  Manassas  Gap  railways  meet,  near  a  creek  named  BULL  RUN.  It 
was  held  by  the  confederates  in  1861,  when  they  were  attacked  by  the  Federal  general  Irvin 
McDowell.  He  began  his  march  from  Washington  on  July  16,  and  gained  some  advantage 
on  the  1 8th  at  Centreville.  On  the  2ist  was  fought  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run.  The 
Federals,  who  began  the  fight,  had  the  advantage  till  about  three  o'clock,  P.M.,  when  the 
Confederate  general  Johnston  brought  up  reinforcements,  which  at  first  the  Federals  took  for 
their  own  troops.  After  a  brief  resistance,  the  latter  were  seized  with  sudden  panic,  and, 
in  spite  of  the  utmost  efforts  of  their  officers,  fled  in  disgraceful  rout,  abandoning  a  large 
quantity  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  baggage.  The  Confederate  generals  Johnston  and 
Beauregard  did  not  think  it  prudent  to  pursue  the  fugitives,  who  did  not  halt  till  they 
arrived  at  Washington.  The  Federal  army  is  said  to  have  had  481  killed,  ion  wounded, 
1216  missing.  The  loss  of  the  Confederates  was  stated  to  be  about  1500. — In  March,  1862, 
when  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  under  general  McClellan,  inarched  into  Virginia,  they  found 
that  the  Confederates  had  quietly  retreated  from  the  camp  at  Manassas.  On  Aug.  30,  1862, 
this  place  was  the  site  of  another  great  battle  between  the  northern  and  southern  armies. 
In  August,  general  "  Stonewall"  Jackson,  after  compelling  the  Federate  general  Pope  to 
retreat,  defeated  him  at  Cedar  mountain  on  the  9th,  turned  his  flank  on  the  22nd,  and 
arriving  at  Manassas  repulsed  his  attacks  on  the  29th.  On  the  3oth  general  R.  E.  Lee 
(who  had  defeated  general  McClellan  and  the  invading  northern  army  before  Richmond, 
June  26  to  July  i),  joined  Jackson  with  his  army,  and  Pope  received  reinforcements  from 
Washington.  A  desperate  conflict  ensued,  which  ended  in  the  Confederates  gaining  a 
decisive  victory,  compelling  the  Federals  to  a  hasty  retreat  to  Centreville,  where  they  were 
once  more  routed,  Sept.  I.  The  remains  of  their  army  took  refuge  behind  the  lines  of 
Washington  on  Sept.  2.  Pope  was  at  once  superseded,  and  M'Clellan  resumed  the  command 
to  march  against  the  Confederates,  who  had  crossed  the  Potomac  and  entered  Maryland.  See 
United  States. 

MANCHESTER  (Lancashire),  in  the  time  of  the  Druids,  was  one  of  their  principal 
stations,  and  had  the  privilege  of  sanctuary  attached  to  its  altar,  in  the  British  language 
Meyne,  a  stone.  It  was  one  of  the  seats  of  the  Brigantes,  who  had  a  castle,  or  stronghold, 
called  Mancenion,  or  the  place  of  tents,  near  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Medlock  and 
Irwcll,  the  site  of  which,  still  called  the  "  Castle  Field,"  was,  about  79,  selected  by  the 
Romans  as  the  station  of  the  Co/tors  Prima  Frisiorum,  and,  called  by  them  Mancunium  ; 
hence  its  Saxon  name  Manceastre,  from  which  its  modern  appellation  is  derived.  Lewis. 


Mancenion  taken  from  the  Britons  .  .  .  488 
Captured  by  Edwin  of  Northumbria  .  .  .  620 
The  inhabitants  become  Christians  about .  .  627 


The  town  taken  by  the  Danes,  877  ;  retaken      .     923 
The    charter  (Magna   Charta    of  Manchester), 

May  14,  1301 


MAN 


465 


MAN 


1352 
1421 
1510 
1541 
1565 

l643 
1652 

•  1653 
1715 

1745 
1753 
1755 


1760 
1761 
1765 
1767 

1768 

1775 
1777 
1779 
1780 
1781 
1785 
1789 
1790 


MANCHESTER,  continued. 

"  Manchester  cottons  "  introduced     . 

The  church  made  collegiate 

Free  Grammar-school  founded   .... 

Privilege  of  sanctuary  moved  to  Chester,  about 

An  aulnager  (measurer)  stationed  here         .     . 

Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  takes  the  town    . 

The  walls  and  fortifications  razed  .        .        .     . 

Cheetham  College,  or  Blue-coat  hospital, 
founded 

Tumult  raised  by  "  Syddall,  the  barber,"  who 
is  afterwards  hanged 

Prince  Charles  Edward,  the  Young  Pretender, 
makes  it  his  quarters  .  .  .  Nov.  28, 

Queen's  Theatre  first  built 

The  Infirmary  instituted,  1752  ;  built 

The  inhabitants  discharged  from  their  obliga- 
tion to  grind  their  corn  at  Irk  mill  .  .  . 

Cotton  goods  first  exported         .... 

Manchester  navigation  opened        .        .        .     . 

Lunatic  asylum  founded 

Agricultural  Society  instituted       ,        .         .    . 

Christian,  king  of  Denmark,  visits  Manchester, 
and  puts  up  at  the  Bull  Inn  .... 

The  Queen's  Theatre  rebuilt 

Subscription  concerts  established 

Riots  against  machinery         .         .        .  Oct.  9, 

Manufacture  of  muslin  attempted  here  about  . 

Philosophical  Society  established  .        . 

New  Bailey  Bridge  completed     .... 

Queen's  Theatre  burnt  down  .        .        June  19, 

And  re-erected 

New  Bailey  built 

Assembly  rooms,  Mosley-street,  built 

Philological  Society  instituted        .        .        .     . 

Fever  hospital  erected,  1805  ;  Theatre  Royal    . 

The  portico  erected 

The  weavers'  riot     ....          May  24, 

Exchange  and  Commercial-buildings  erected, 

Jan. 

Manchester  &  Salford  water- works  established 

Blanketeers'  meeting 

Lock  hospital  established 

Manchester  Reform  Meeting*    .        .    Aug.  16, 

New  Brunswick-bridge  built  .... 

Chamber  of  Commerce  established    . 

Law  Library  founded 

Natural  History  Society  projected 

New  Quay  Company  founded         .        ... 

Deaf  and  Dumb  School  instituted 

Royal  Institution  formed 

Floral  and  Horticultural  Society  established    . 

Mechanics'  Institution  founded  .... 

Musical  festival  first  held 

At  the  launch  of  a  vessel  which  keeled  and  up- 
set, upwards  of  200  persons  precipitated  into 
the  river  ;  51  perished  .  .  .  Feb.  29, 

MANCHESTER,  BISHOPRIC  OF.  An  order  in  council  in  Oct.  1838,  declared  that  the 
sees  of  St.  Asaph  and  Bangor  should  be  united  on  the  next  vacancy  in  either,  and  that  the 
"bishopric  of  Manchester  should  be  immediately  created  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  York  ;  the  county  of  Lancaster  for  that  purpose  to  be  detached  from 
Chester.  By  act  10  Viet.  (1847)  the  sees  of  St.  Asaph  and  Bangor  were  to  exist  undisturbed, 
and  that  of  Manchester  was  to  be  created.  The  rev.  Dr.  James  Prince  Lee  (the  present 
bishop)  was  appointed  in  1847,  and  consecrated  in  1848.  Income,  4200^. 


1803 
1806 


1808 


1817 
1819 


1820 


1821 
1822 
1823 


1824 
1828 


In  a  tumult  here,  a  factory  burnt,  and  much 

machinery  destroyed  .  .  .  May  3, 
New  concert-room  established  .  .  .  • 

The  races  established 

Manchester  and  Liverpool  railway  opened — Mr. 

Huskisson  killed— (see  Liverpool)  Sept.  15, 
Manchester  a  parliamentary  borough  June  7, 

Choral  Society  established 

I  Statistical  Society  formed,  the  first  in  England, 

Sept.  2, 

Church-rate  refused      ....     Sept.  3, 
Manchester  incorporated,  by  Municipal  Reform 

act 

Manchester  and  Leeds  railway  act  passed 
Geological  Society  instituted       . 
Charter  of  incorporation  .        .         .        Oct.  23, 
Manchester  police  act   ....  Aug.  26, 
Great  disorders  in  the  midland  counties  among 

artisans  :  they  extend  to  this  town  .  Aug. 
British  Association  meeting  here  .  June  23, 
Great  free-trade  meetings  held  here  (see  Corn 

Laws)        .        .        .        .        .        .      Nov.  14, 

Important  meeting  held  at  the  Athenaeum  (see 

Athenceum) Oct.  3, 

Great  Anti-corn  Law  meeting,  at  which  64,984?. 

were  subscribed  in  four  hours  .  Dec.  23, 
The  Queen's-park,  Peel-park,  and  Philip's-park, 

opened Aug. 

Manchester  made  a  bishopric  .        .      Aug.  10, 
Opening  of  Owens  Collegiate  Institution,   to 

which  foundation  the  late  Mr.  John  Owens 

bequeathed  100,000?.  .  .  .  March  10, 
The  queen's  visit  to  Manchester  .  .  Oct.  7, 
Great  meeting  in  the  Free-trade  hall  to  greet 

M.  Kossuth Nov.  n, 

The  Engineers'  strike  .  .  Jan.  3— April  26, 
The  Guild  of  Literature  entertained  at  a  ban- 
quet by  the  citizens  .  .  .  Aug.  31, 
Opening  of  the  Free  Library  .  .  Sept.  2, 
Great  Free-trade  banquet  .  .  Nov.  2, 
Manchester  declared  to  be  a  CITY,  and  formally 

so  gazetted April  16, 

Great  strike  of  minders  and  piecers         Nov.  7, 
EXHIBITION  OF  ART  TREASURES!  determined  on, 

May  20,  1856 ;  opened  by  prince  Albert,  May 

5  :  visited  by  the  queen,  June  29,  30  ;  closed, 

Oct.  17, 

Sir  John  Potter,  a  benefactor  to  the  town,  died, 

Oct.  25, 

British   Association    meet    here    (2nd   time), 

Sept.  4, 
Great  county  meeting  ;    130,000?.  subscribed  to 

the  Lancashire  Relief  fund  .  .  Dec.  2, 
Meeting  of  the  Church  Congress  Oct.  13-15, 


1829 


» 
1832 

1 833 


5 

1836 
1838 
183 


1843 

1844 

1845 

1846 
1847 

1851 
1852 


1853 
1855 


1857 
1858 
1861 

1862 

1863 


*  Called  Pcterl'io.  The  assembly  consisted  of  from  60,000  to  100,000  persons,  men,  women,  and 
children.  Mr.  Hunt,  who  took  the  chair,  had  spoken  a  few  words,  when  the  meeting  was  suddenly 
assailed  by  a  charge  of  the  Manchester  cavalry,  assisted  by  a  Cheshire  regiment  of  yeomanry,  and  a 
regiment  of  hussars,  the  outlets  being  occupied  by  other  military  detachments.  The  unarmed  multi- 
tude were  in  consequence  driven  one  upon  another,  by  which  many  were  killed,  ridden  oVer  by  the 
horses,  or  cut  down  by  their  riders.  The  deaths  were  n  men,  women,  and  children,  and  the  wounded 
about  600. 

t  The  temporary  building  consisted  of  a  hall  upwards  of  700  feet  long  and  100  feet  wide,  and,  including 
a  transept,  covered  an  area  of  80,000  square  feet.  It  cost  above  25,000?.  It  contained  the  most  extra- 
ordinary collection  of  works  of  art  (valued  at  6,000,000?.)  ever  brought  together  in  this  country.  The 
collection  of  national  portraits  was  very  remarkable.  There  were  1,300,000  visitors.  The  expenses  of  the 
undertaking  amounted  to  99,500?.  ;  the  receipts  to  98,500?. 

II    H 


MAN  466  MAN 


MANES,  the  name  applied  by  the  ancients  to  the  soul  when  separated  from  the  body. 
The  Manes  were  reckoned  among  the  infernal  deities,  and  were  generally  supposed  to 
preside  over  the  burial-places  and  monuments  of  the  dead.  They  were  solemnly  wor- 
shipped by  the  Romans,  and  invoked  by  the  augurs;  Yirgil  (22  B.C.)  introduces  his 
hero  as  sacrificing  to  the  Manes.  The  Romans  superscribed  their  epitaphs  with  D.  M., 
Diis  Manibus. 

MANGANESE.  Black  oxide  of  manganese,  long  used  to  decolorise  glass,  and  called 
Magnesia  nigra,  was  formerly  included  among  the  ores  of  iron.  Its  distinctive  character 
was  proved  by  the  researches  of  Pott  (1740),  Kaim  and  "Winter!  (1770),  and  Scheele  and 
Bergmann  (1774)  ;  it  was  first  eliminated  by  Gahn.  Manganese  combined  with  potassium 
is  called  mineral  chameleon,  from  its  rapid  change  of  colour  under  certain  circumstances. 
Eorchammer  employed  it  as  a  test  for  the  presence  of  organic  matter  in  water  ;  and  Dr. 
Angus  Smith  successfully  applied  this  test  to  air  in  1858. 

MANICHEANS,  a  sect  founded  by  Manes,  which  began  to  infest  the  East  about  261. 
It  spread  into  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Africa,  and  particularly  into  Persia.  A  rich  widow, 
whose  servant  Manes  had  been,  left  him  much  wealth,  after  which  he  assumed  the  title 
of  apostle,  or  envoy  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  announced  that  he  was  the  paraclete  or  comforter 
that  Christ  had  promised  to  send.  He  maintained  two  principles,  the  one  good  and  the 
other  bad  ;  the  first  he  called  light,  which  did  nothing  but  good,  and  the  second  he 
called  darkness,  which  did  nothing  but  evil.  He  rejected  the  Old  Testament,  and 
composed  a  system  of  doctrine  from  Christianity  and  the  dogmas  of  the  ancient  fire- 
worshippers.  He  obtained  many  followers.  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  believed  in  him  at 
one  time  ;  but  afterwards  banished  him.  He  was  burnt  alive  by  Bahram  or  Varanes,  king 
of  Persia,  274.  His  followers  spread  themselves  over  the  Roman  empire,  and  several  sects 
sprang  from  them. 

MANILLA  (built  about  1573),  capital  of  the  Philippine  Isles,  a  great  mart  of  Spanish 
commerce.  Manilla  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1757  ;  and  again  in  Oct.  1762,  by  storm. 
The  .archbishop  engaged  to  ransom  it  for  about  a  million  sterling  ;  never  wholly  paid. 
Manilla  has  suffered  greatly  by  earthquakes.  It  is  stated  that  nearly  3000  persons  perished 
by  one  in  1645.  On  Sept.  22,  1852,  the  city  was  nearly  destroyed,  and  on  June  3,  1863, 
several  thousand  lives  were  lost. 

MANNHEIM  (S.  Germany),  founded  in  1606,  became  the  court  residence  of  the 
Palatine  of  the  Rhine  in  1719  ;  but  his  becoming  elector  of  Bavaria  in  1777  caused  the 
removal  of  the  court  to  Munich.  Mannheim  surrendered  to  the  French,  under  command  of 
general  Pichegru,  Sept.  20,  1795.  On  Oct.  31,  the  Austrians  under  general  Wurmser 
defeated  the  French  near  the  city.  Several  battles  were  fought  with  various  success  in  the 
neighbourhood  during  the  late  wars.  Kotzebue,  the  popular  dramatist,  was  assassinated  at 
Mannheim,  by  a  student  of  Wurtzburg,  named  Sand,  April  2,  1819. 

MANORS  are  as  ancient  as  the  Saxon  constitution,  and  imply  a  territorial  district 
with  the  jurisdiction,  rights,  and  perquisites  belonging  to  it.  They  were  formerly  called 
baronies,  and  still  are  lordships.  Each  lord  was  empowered  to  hold  a  court  called  the 
court-baron  for  redressing  misdemeanors,  and  settling  disputes  between  the  tenants. 
Cabinet  Lawyer. 

MANSION-HOUSE,  LONDON.  The  residence  of  the  lord  mayor.  It  is  situate  at  the 
east  end  of  the  Poultry,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Stocks-Market.  It  was  built  of  Portland 
stone  by  Dance  the  elder,  1739-53.  See  Mayor. 

MANSOURAH  (Lower  Egypt).  Here  Louis  IX.  was  defeated  by  the  Saracens  and  taken 
prisoner,  April  5,  1250.  He  gave  Damietta  and  400,000  livres  for  his  ransom. 

MANTINEA  (Arcadia,  Greece),  BATTLES  here — (i)  Athenians  .and  Argives  defeated  by 
Agis  II.  of  Sparta,  418 B.C.     (2)  Between  Epaminondas  and  the  Thebans,  and  the  combined 
forces  of  Lacedsemon,  Achaia,  Elis,  Athens,  and  Arcadia,  362  B.  c.     The  Theban  general  w; 
victorious,  but  was  killed  in  the  engagement,   and  from  that  Thebes  lost  its  power    ant 
consequence  among  the  Grecian  states.     The  emperor  Adrian  built  a  temple  at  Mantinea  ii 
honour  of  his  favourite  Alcinoiis.     The  town  was  also  called  Antigonia.     Other  battles  wer 
fought  in  the  neighbourhood. 

MANTUA  (N.  Italy).  Virgil  was  born  at  a  village  near  this  city,  70  B.C.  Hence  he  is 
often  styled  the  Mantuan  bard.  Mantua  was  ruled  by  the  Gonzagas,  lords  of  Mantua,  from 
1328  to  1708,  when  it  was  seized  by  the  emperor  Joseph  I.  It  has  since  been  held  by  the 
Austrians.  Mantua  surrendered  to  the  French,  Feb.  2,  1/97,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months. 


MAN  467  MAR 

It  was  retaken  by  the  Austrian  and  Russian  army,  July  30,  1799,  after  a  short  siege.  In 
1800,  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  the  French  again  obtained  possession  of  it.  It  was 
included  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy  till  1814,  when  it  was  restored  to  the  Austrians. 

MANUFACTURES.     See  Silk,  Cotton,  &c.  MAORIS.     See  New  Zealand. 

MAPLE-TREE.  The  Acer  rubrum,  or  scarlet  maple,  was  brought  here  from  N.  America, 
before  1656.  The  Acer  Negundo,  or  ash-leaved  maple,  before  1688.  From,  the  Acer  saccha- 
rinum  (introduced  here  in  1735)  the  Americans  make  very  good  sugar. 

MAPS.     See  Charts  and  Mercator. 

MARATHON  (in  Attica).  Here,  on  Sept.  28  or  29,  490  B.C.,  the  Greeks,  only  10,000 
strong,  defeated  the  Persian  army  amounting  to  500,000,  who  had  200,000  killed.  The 
former  were  commanded  by  Miltiades,  Aristides,  and  Themistocles.  Among  the  slain  was 
Hippias,  the  instigator  of  the  war.  The  Persian  army  was  forced  to  retreat  to  Asia. 

MARBLE.  Dipceuus  and  Scyllis,  statuaries  of  Crete,  were  the  first  artists  who 
sculptured  marble,  and  polished  their  works  ;  all  statues  previously  being  of  wood,  568  B.C. 
Pliny.  The  edifices  or  monuments  of  Rome  were  constructed  of,  or  ornamented  with,  fine 
marble.  The  ruins  of  Palmyra  are  chiefly  of  white  marble.  The  marble  arch,  London, 
was  removed  from  Buckingham-palace  to  Hyde-park,  March,  1851. 

MARBURG  (W.  Germany).  The  cathedral  was  founded,  1231 ;  and  the  first  Protestant 
university  in  1527.  It  suffered  much  during  the  Seven  years'  war,  1753-60. 

MARCH,  the  first  month  of  the  year,  until  Numa  added  January  and  February,  713  B.C. 
Romulus,  who  divided  the  year  into  months,  gave  to  this  month  the  name  of  his'  supposed 
father,  Mars ;  though  Ovid  observes,  that  the  people  of  Italy  had  the  month  of  March  before 
the  time  of  Romulus,  but  that  they  placed  it  very  differently  in  the  Calendar.  The  year 
formerly  commenced  on  the  25th  day  of  this  month.  See  Year. 

MARCHFELD  (Austria).  Here  Ottocar  II.  of  Bohemia  was  defeated  and  slain  by  his 
rival,  the  emperor  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  Aug.  26,  1278.  See  Bohemia. 

MARCHES,  LORDS  OF,  noblemen  who  lived  on  boundaries  settled  between  England  and 
Wales,  and  England  and  Scotland,  and,  according  to  Camden,  had  their  laws,  and  power  of 
life,  death,  &c.,  like  petty  princes.  These  powers  were  abolished,  1535,  and  1547. 

MARCIONITES,  heretics,  followers  of  Marcion,  about  150,  who  preceded  the  Manichees, 
and  taught  similar  doctrines.  Care. 

MARCOMANNI,  a  people  of  Southern  Germany,  expelled  the  Boii  from  Bohemia,  and, 
united  with  other  tribes,  invaded  Italy  about  167,  but  were  repelled  by  the  emperors  Anto- 
ninus and  Verus  ;  defeated  by  the  Legion  called,  from  a  fabled  miracle,  the  Thundering: 
Legion,  179  ;  and  finally  driven  beyond  the  Danube  by  Aurelian,  271. 

MARENGO  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  French  army,  commanded  by  Bonaparte,  attacked  the- 
Austrians,  June  14,  1800;  his  army  was  retreating,  when  the  arrival  of  general  Dessaix 
turned  the  fortunes  of  the  day.  The  slaughter  on  both  sides  was  dreadful.  By  a  treaty 
between  the  Austrian  general  Melas  and  Bonaparte,  signed'June  15,  the  latter  obtained 
twelve  strong  fortresses,  and  became  master  of  Italy. 

MARESCHALS,  or  MARSHALS,  in  France,  were  the  esquires  of  the  king,  and  originally 
had  the  command  of  the  vanguard  to  observe  the  enemy  and  to  choose  proper  places  for  its 
encampment.  Till  the  time  of  Francis  I.,  in  1515,  there  were  but  two  marshals,  who  had 
500  livres  per  annum  in  war,  but  no  stipend  in  time  of  peace.  The  rank  afterwards  became 
of  the  highest  military  importance,  the  number  was  without  limit,  and  the  command 
supreme.  Napoleon's  marshals  were  renowned  for  skill  and  courage.  See  Marshal. 

MARIAN  PERSECUTION.     See  Protestants. 

MARIGNANO  (now  MA  LEGNANO),  N.  Italy,  near  Milan.  Three  battles  have  been  fought 
near  here — I.  Francis  I.  of  France  defeated  the  duke  of  Milan  and  the  Swiss,  Sept.  13,  14, 
1515  ;  above  20,000  men  were  slain.  This  conflict  has  been  called  the  Battle  of  the  Giants. — 
2.  Near  here  was  fought  the  battle  of  Pavia  (which  see). — 3.  After  the  battle  of  Magenta, 
June  4,  1859,  the  Austrians  entrenched  themselves  at  Malegnano.  The  emperor  sent 
marshal  Baraguay  d'Hilliers  with  16,000  men  to  dislodge  them,  which  he  did  with  a  loss  of 
about  850  killed  and  wounded,  on  June  8.  The  Austrians  are  said  to  have  lost  1400  killed 
and  wounded,  and  900  prisoners,  out  of  18,000  engaged. 

n  n  2 


MAR 


463 


MAR 


MARINER'S  COMPASS.     See  Compass  and  Magnetism. 

MARINES  were  first  established  with  the  object  of  forming  a  nursery  to  man  the  fleet. 
An  order  in  council,  dated  Oct.  16,  1664,  authorised  1200  soldiers  to  be  raised  and  formed 
into  one  regiment.  In  1684,  the  3rd  regiment  of  the  line  was  called  the  Marine  Regiment: 
but  the  system  of  having  soldiers  exclusively  for  sea-service  was  not  carried  into  effect. until 
1698,  when  two  marine  regiments  were  formed.  More  regiments  were  embodied  in  subse- 
quent years  ;  and  in  1741  the  corps  consisted  of  ten  regiments,  each  1000  strong.  In  1759 
they  numbered  18,000  men.  In  the  latter  years  of  the  French  war,  ending  in  1815,  they 
amounted  to  3 1,400,  but  there  were  frequently  more  than  3000  supernumeraries.  The  jollies, 
as  they  are  called,  frequently  distinguished  themselves.  The  "Royal  Marine  Forces"  now 
comprehend  artillery  and  light  infantry.  The  vote  for  1857  was  for  16,000  marines, 
inclusive  of  1500  artillery.  P.  H.  Nicolas. 

MARINO,  SAN,  a  republic  in  Central  Italy,  has  existed  since  the  6th  century.  Its 
independence  was  confirmed  by  pope  Pius  VII.  in  1817.  Population,  in  1858,  about  8000. 

MARK,  a  silver  coin  of  the  northern  nations,  and  the  name  mark-liibs  is  still  retained  in 
Denmark.  In  England,  the  mark  means  the  sum  of  135.  4^.,  and  here  the  name  is  also 
retained  in  law  courts. 

MARKET.     See.  Smithfield  and  Metropolitan  Cattle  Market. 

MARK'S,  ST.  (Venice).     The  church  was  erected  in  829  ;  the  piazza  in  1592. 

MARLBORO  UGH,  STATUTES  OF,  were  enacted  in  the  castle  of  Marlborough,  in  Wilt- 
shire, 1267.  —  MARLBOROUGH-HOUSE,  Pall  Mall,  London,  was  built  by  Wren  for  the  duke  of 
Maryborough,  1709-10  ;  was  bought  for  the  princess  Charlotte  and  prince  Leopold  in  1817  \ 
held  by  queen  Adelaide  till  1849,  and  became  the  residence  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  1863. 

MARONITES,  Christians  in  the  East,  followers  of  one  Maron  in  the  5th  century  ;  they 
are  said  to  have  embraced  the  errors  of  the  Jacobites,  Nestorians,  and  Monothelites  :  in  1180 
they  numbered  40,000  living  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Libanus,  and,  being  a  brave 
people,  they  were  of  great  service  to  the  Christian  kings  of  Jerusalem.  They  were  reconciled 
to  the  church  of  Rome  about  the  I2th  century.  For  an  account  of  the  massacres  of  the 
Maronites  in  1860,  see  Druses. 

MAROONS,  a  name  given  in  Jamaica  to  runaway  negroes.  When  the  island  was 
conquered  from  the  Spaniards,  a  number  of  their  negroes  fled  to  the  hills  and  became 
very  troublesome  to  the  colonists.  A  war  of  eight  years'  duration  ensued,  when  the 
Maroons  capitulated  on  being  permitted  to  retain  their  free  settlements,  about  1730. 
In  1795  the}7  again  took  arms,  but  were  speedily  put  down  and  many  were  transported  to 
other  colonies.  Brande. 

MAR-PRELATE  TRACTS,  virulently  attacking  episcopacy,  were  written,  it  is  believed, 
by  Henry  Penry,  Avho  was  cruelly  executed,  May  29,  1693,  for  having  written  seditious 
words  against  the  queen  (found  about  his  person  when  seized).  The  tracts  appeared  about 
,1586.  Some  had  very  singular  titles:  such  as  "An  Almand  for  a  Parrat,"  "Hay  any 
Worke  for  Cooper  ?"  &c.  They  were  collected  and  reprinted  in  1843. 

MARQUE,  LETTERS  OF.     See  Privateer. 

MARQUESAS  ISLANDS  (Polynesia)  were  discovered  in  1595  by  Mendana,  who  named 
them  after  the  viceroy  of  Peru,  Marquesa  de  Mendoga.  They  were  visited  by  Cook  in  1774, 
•and  were  taken  possession  of  by  the  French  admiral  Dupetit  Thouars,  May  i,  1842. 

MARQUESS,  a  dignity,  called  by  the  Saxons  Markin-Reve,  by  the  Germans  Markgrave, 
took  its  original  from  Mark  or  March,  a  limit  or  bound  (see  Marches} ;  the  office  being  to 
guard  or  govern  the  frontiers  of  a  province.  Marquess  is  the  next  place  of  honour  to  a  duke, 
and  was  introduced  several  years  after  that  title  had  been  established  in  England.  The 
first  on  whom  it  was  conferred  was  the  favourite  of  king  Richard  II.,  Robert  de  Vere,  earl  of 
Oxford,  created  marquess  of  Dublin,  and  placed  in  parliament  between  the  dukes  and  earls, 
1385.  James  Stewart,  second  son  of  James  III.  of  Scotland,  was  made  marquess  of  Ormond, 
in  1476,  without  territories  ;  afterwards  earl  of  Ross. 

MARRIAGE  was  instituted  by  God  (Gen.  ii.),  and  confirmed  by  Christ  (Mark  x.),  who 
performed  a  miracle  at  the  celebration  of  one  (John  ii. ).  Matrimonial  ceremonies  among  the 
Greeks  are  ascribed  to  Cecrops,  king  of  Athens,  1554 B.C. 


Law  favouring  marriage  passed  at  Rome  .  B.C.  18 
Priests  forbidden  to  marry  after  ordination .  A.D.  325 
Marriage  was  forbidden  in  Lent  .  .  .364 


It  was  forbidden  to  bishops  in  692,  and  to  priests 
in  1015 ;  and  these  latter  wore  obliged  to  take 
the  vow  of  celibacy  in 1073 


MAP, 


4(39 


MAR 


MARRIAGE,  continued. 

The  celebration  of  marriage  (as  a  sacrament)  in 
churches  was  ordained  by  popa  Innocent  III. 

about  1199 

Marriages  were  solemnised  by  justices  of  the 
peace  under  an  act  of  the  commons  in  Oliver 
Cromwell's  administration  .  .  .  1653 

A  tax  was  laid  on  marriages,  viz.  :  on  the  mar 
riage  of  a  duke,  50?.  ;  of  a  common  person 
•2S.  6d  .........  1695 

Irregular  marriages  prohibited  (see  Fled  Mar 


1753 
1784 
1823 


Marriages  were  again  taxed  in        .. 

New  marriage  act,  1822  ;  repealed      .         . 

Acts  prohibiting  marriages  by  Roman  Catholic 
priests  in  Scotland,  or  other  ministers  not 
belonging  to  the  Church  of  Scotland,  repealed  1834 

Act  to  render  the  children  of  certain  marriages 
within  forbidden  degrees  of  kindred  legiti- 
mate :  and  marriage  with  deceased  wife's 
sister  prohibited  .......  1835 

The  present  Marriage  act  for  England,  autho- 
rising marriages  with  religious  ceremony, 
by  registrar's  certificate,  or  in  a  dissenting 
chapel,  passed  1836  (amended  in  1837  and  1856] 

Marriage  Registration  act  .....  1837 


Amendment  acts  passed  in    .        .        1840  and  1856 

A  bill  to  suppress  irregular  marriages  in  Scot- 
land (see  Gretna)  passed  in  .  .  .  <, 

A  court  established  for  Divorce  and  Matrimonial 
Causes,  which  has  the  power  of  giving  sen- 
tence of  judicial  separation  for  adultery, 
cruelty,  or  desertion  without  cause  for  two 
years  and  upwards.  (See  Divorce)  .  .  1857 

It  has  frequently  been  attempted  to  legaMse  a 
marriage  with  a  dtceas-ed  wife's  &i*ler,  without 
success.  The  Marriage  Law  Reform  associa- 
tion was  instituted  1'or  this  exclusive  object, 
Jan  15,  1851.  A  bill  for  this  purpose  passed 
the  commons,  July  2  ;  was  rejected  by  the 
lords,  July  23,  1858  ;  and  again  rejected  in  .  1862 

In  the  case  of  Brook  v.  Brook,  it  was  decided 
that  such  a  marriage  celebrated  in  a  foreign 
country  was  not  valid  .  .  April  17,  1858 

This  decision  confirmed  oil  appeal  to  the  house 
of  lords,  on March  1 8,  1861 

A  commission  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
working  of  the  marriage  laws  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  in  consequence  of  the  Yelverton 
case.  (See  Trials,  1861) 1865 


NUMBER    OF   REGISTERED   MARRIAGES    IN   ENGLAND    AND  WALES. 


1800 
1810 
1815 
1820 
1825 


.  40,300 

.  73,228 

•  84,473 

•  9I.946 
.  96,883 
.  98,378 


1830 
1840 


1  850* 
1853 


.  102,437  I  1854   . 

.  121,083  j  1855  Crimean 

.  143,743  1856  . 


138,230 

152,744 

.  164,520 


•  159,727 
TLT  152,113 

•  I59>337 

•  159,097 


ROYAL  MARRIAGE  ACT  was  passed  in  1772,  in  conse-  I 

fc  quence  of  the  marriage  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  | 
the   king's  brother,  with   the  widow  of  the  earl  \ 
Waldegrave,  and  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland  with  j 
the  widow  of  colonel  Horton  and  daughter  of  lord 
Irnham.     [By  this  act,  none  of  the  descendants  of 
George  II.,  unless  of  foreign  birth,  can  marry  under 
the  age  of  25,  unless  with  the  consent  of  the  king  ; 
at  and  after  that  age,  the  consent   of  parliament 
is  necessary  to  render  the  marriage  valid.  ]    The 
marriage   of  the  duke  of  Sussex  with   the  lady 
Augusta   Murray,  solemnised   in   1793,  was   pro- 
nounced illegal,  and  the  claims  of  their  son,  sir 
Augustus  d'Este,  declared  invalid,  by  the  house  of 
lords,  July  9,  1844. 

HALF  MARRIAGE.  Semi-lfittrimonium.  Among  the 
Romans  concubinage  was  a  legitimato  union,  not 
merely  tolerated  but  authorised.  The  concubine 
had  the  name  of  temi-conjux.  Men  might  have 
either  a  wife  or  a  concubine,  provided  they  had 
not  both  together.  Constantino  the  Great  checked 
concubinage,  but  did  not  abolish  it.  This  ancient 
custom  of  the  Romans  was  preserved,  not  only 
among  the  Lombards,  but  by  the  French,  when 
they  held  dominion  in  that  country.  Cujas  assures 
us  that  the  Gascons  and  other  people  bordering  on 
the  Pyrenean  mountains  had  not  relinquished  this 
custom  in  his  time,  1590.  The  women  bore  the 
name  of  "wives  of  the  second  order."  Ilcnault. 
See  Morganatic  Marriages. 

DOUBLE  MARRIAGES.  "There  are  some  instances  of  a 
husband  and  two  wives  (but  they  are  very  rare)  in 


156,070 
167,723 


1860  .         .        .  170,156 

1861  (cotton  famine)  163,706 


1862 
1863 
1864 


164,030 

•     173, 5!0 

.    .  180,263 


1857 

1858 
1859 

countries  where  polygamy  was  interdicted  by  the 
state.  The  first  Lacedaemonian  who  had  two  wives 
was  Anaxandrides,  the  son  of  Leon,  about  510  B.C. 
Dionysius  of  Syracuse  married  two  wives,  viz.  : 
Doris,  the  daughter  of  Xenetus,  and  Aristomache, 
sister  of  Dion,  398  B.C.  It  is  said  that  the  count 
Gleicheii,  a  German  nobleman,  was  permitted, 
under  peculiar  circumstances,  by  Gregory  IX. ,  in 
A.D.  1237,  to  marry  and  live  with  two  wives.  The 
Mormonites  practise  and  encourage  polygamy. 

FORCED  MARRIAGES.  The  statute  3  Henry  VII.  (1487) 
made  the  principal  and  abettors  in  marriages  with 
heiresses,  <fcc.,  contrary  to  their  will,  equally  guilty 
as  felons.  By  39  Eliz.  (1596)  such  felons  were  denied 
the  benefit  of  clergy.  This  offence  was  made 
punishable  by  transportation,  i  Geo.  IV,  (1820). 
The  remarkable  case  of  Miss  Wharton,  heiress  of 
the  house  of  Wharton,  whom  captain  Campbell 
married  by  force,  occurred  in  William  II I. 's  reign. 
Sir  John  Johnston  was  hanged  for  seizing  the 
young  lady,  and  the  marriage  was  annulled  by 
parliament,  1690. — Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield  was 
tried  at  Lancaster,  and  found  guilty  of  the  felo- 
nious abduction  of  Miss  Turner,  March  24,  1827  ; 
and  his  marriage  with  her  was  immediately  dis- 
solved by  act  of  parliament. 

MARRIAGES  BY  SALE.  Among  the  Babylonians,  at  a 
certain  time  every  year,  the  marriageable  females 
were  assembled,  and  disposed  of  to  the  best  bidder. 
This  custom  is  said  to  have  originated  with 
Atossa,  daughter  of  Belochus,  about  1433  B.C. 

FLEET  MARRIAGES.     See  Fleet. 


MARSEILLAISE  HYMN".  Tho  word's  and  music  are  ascribed  to  Rouget  de  Lille,  a 
French  engineer  officer,  who  composed  it  at  the  request  of  marshal  Lucknow,  in  1791,  to 
cheer  the  conscripts  at  Strasburg.  It  derived  its  name  from  a  body  of  troops  from  Marseilles 
marching  into  Paris  in  1792  playing  the  tune,  it  being  then  not  much  known.  Brande. 

*  Of  these  marriages,  it  is  stated  in  the  registrars'  i-eturns  that  47,570  men  and  70,601  women  could 
not  write,  and  that  they  signed  the  marriage  register  with  their  marks. — In  France,  the  marriages  were 
208,893  m  l82o  ;  243  674  in  1825  ;  and  259,177  in  1830.  As  respects  Paris,  the  statistics  of  that  city,  which 
are  very  minute  and  curious,  furnish  the  following  classes  as  occurring  in  7754  marriages  : — Bachelors  and 
maids,  6456 ;  bachelors  and  widows,  368  ;  widowers  and  maids,  708  ;  wido'.vors  and  widows,  222. 


MAR 


470 


MAR 


MARSEILLES,  the  ancient  Massilia  (S.  France),  a  maritime  city,  founded  by  the 
Phocseans  about  600  B.C.  ;  was  an  ally  of  Rome,  218  B.C.  Cicero  styled  it  the  Athens  of 
Gaul,  on  account  of  its  excellent  schools. 

[It  carried  o«ff  50,000  of  the  inhabitants^  The 
bishop  Belsunce  devotedly  exerted  himself 
to  relieve  the  suiferers.] 

Revolutionary  commotions  hero         .  April  30,  1789 
Marseilles  opposes  the  revolutionary  govern- 
ment, and  is  reduced    ....    Aug.  1793 


Taken  by  Julius  Caesar  after  a  long  and  terrible 
siege,  45  B.C.  ;   and   by  Euric,  the  Visigoth, 

A.D  470;  sacked  by  the  Saracens        .       A.D.  839 

Marseilles  a  republic    ......  1214 

Subjected  to  the  counts  of  Provence      .        .     .  1251 

United  to  the  crown  of  France   ....  1482 

The  plague  rages     ....     1649  and  1720-1 


MARSHALS.  Two  were  appointed  in  London  to  clear  the  streets  of  vagrants,  and  to 
send  the  sick,  blind,  and  lame  to  asylums  and  hospitals  for  relief,  1567.  Northouck. 

MARSHALS,  BRITISH  FIELD-.  This  rank  was  first  conferred  upon  John,  duke  of 
Argyle,  and  George,  earl  of  Orkney,  by  George  II.  in  1736.  See  Mareschal. 

MARSHALS  OF  FRANCE,  &c.,  appointed  by  Napoleon  I.  during  his  wars,  1804-14. 


Arrighi,  duke  of  Padua. 

Augereau,  duke  of  Castiglione. 

Bernadotte,  prince  of  Poute  Corvo  ;  afterwards  king 
of  Sweden. 

Berthier,  prince  of  Neufchatel  and  "Wagram,  com- 
mitted suicide  at  Bamberg,  1815. 

Bessieres,  duke  of  Istria. 

Davoust,  prince  of  Eckmuhl  and  duke  of  Auerstadt. 

Jourdan,  peer  of  France. 

Junot,  duke  of  Abrantes,  suicide  1813. 

Kellerman,  duke  of  Valmy. 

Lannes,  duke  of  Montebello,  killed  at  Aspern,  1809. 

Lefebvre,  duke  of  Dantzic. 

Macdonald,  duke  of  Tarento. 

Marmont,  duke  of  Ragusa. 

Massena,  prince  of  Essling  and  duke  of  Rivoli. 

Moncey,  duke  of  Conegliano.  [1835. 

Mortier,  duke  of  Treviso,  killed  by  Fieschi,  July  28, 


Murat,  king  of  Naples,  executed  Oct.  13,  1815. 
Ney,  prince  of  Moskwa,  executed  Dec.  7,  1815. 
Oudinot,  duke  of  Reggio. 
Soult,  duke  of  Dalmatia. 
Suchet,  duke  of  Albuera. 
Victor,  duke  of  Belluuo. 

OFFICERS  OF  STATE. 

Cambaceres,  duke  of  Parma. 

Caulaincourt,  duke  of  Vicenza. 

Champagne,  duke  of  Cadore. 

Duroc,  duke  of  Friuli,  killed  at  Bautzen,  1813. 

Fouche,  duke  of  Otranto. 

Le  Brim,  duke  of  Piaceiiza. 

Mai-et,  duke  of  Bassano. 

Savary,  duke  of  Rovigo  :  and 

Talleyrand  de  Perigord,  prince  of  Beneveiito,  died 


MARSHALSEA  COURT  of  the  Queen's  house  was  very  ancient,  of  high  dignity,  and 
coeval  with  the  common  law.  Since  the  decision  of  the  case  of  the  Marshalsea  (see  Lord 
Coke's  10  Rep,  68)  no  business  had  been  done  in  this  court  ;  but  it  was  regularly  opened  and 
adjourned  at  the  same  time  with  the  Palace  court,  the  judges  and  other  officers  being  the 
same.  These  courts  were  abolished  by  parliament,  and  were  discontinued,  Dec.  31,  1849. 

MARSI,  a  brave  people  of  Southern  Italy,  who,  after  several  contests,  yielded  to  the 
Romans,  about  301  B.C.  During  the  civil  wars  they  and  their  allies  rebelled,  having 
demanded  and  been  refused  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship,  91  B.C.  After  many  successes 
and  reverses,  they  sued  for  and  obtained  peace  and  the  rights  they  required,  87  B.C.  The 
Marsi  being  Socii  of  the  Romans,  this  was  called  the  Social  -war. 

MARSTON  MOOR  (near  York).  The  Scots  and  parliamentary  army  were  besieging 
York,  when  prince  Rupert,  joined  by  the  marquess  of  Newcastle,  determined  to  raise  the 
siege.  Both  sides  drew  up  on  Marston-moor,  on  July  2,  1644,  and  the  contest  was  long 
undecided.  Rupert,  commanding  the  right  wing  of  the  royalists,  was  opposed  by  Oliver 
Cromwell,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops  disciplined  by  himself.  Cromwell  was  victorious  ; 
he  drove  his  opponents  off  the  field,  followed  the  vanquished,  returned  to  a  second  engagement 
and  a  second  victory.  The  prince's  artillery  was  taken,  and  the  royalists  never  recovered 
the  blow. 

MARTELLO  TOWERS  were  circular  buildings  of  masonry  erected  in  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  on  the  coast  of  England,  as  defences  against  invasion. 

MARTIAL  LAW.     See  Courts-Martial  and  Military  Law. 
MART1NESTI.     See  Rimnik. 

MARTINIQUE  (West  Indies),  settled  by  Franco,  1635.  This  and  the  adjacent  isles  of 
St.  Lucia  and  St.  Vincent,  and  the  Grenadines,  were  taken  by  the  British  from  the  French  in 
Feb.  1762.  They  were  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  the  following  year.  They  were 
again  taken,  March  16,  1794  ;  were  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802  ;  and  were  again 
captured,  Feb.  23,  1809.  A  revolution  took  place  in  this  island  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  but 
it  was  finally  suppressed  by  the  British,  June  I,  1815,  and  Martinique  reverted  to  its  FreiK 
masters.  Severe  earthquakes  occurred  here  in  1767  and  1839. 


MAR 


471 


MAS 


MARTINMAS,  Nov.  n,  the  feast  of  St.  Martin,  bishop  of  Tours,  iii  the  4th  century. 
In  parts  of  the  north  of  England  and  in  Scotland  it  is  quarter  day. 

MARTIN'S  HALL,  ST.,  Long  Acre,  London,  was  opened  as  a  concert-room  for  Mr, 
John  Hullah,  on  Feb.  n,  1850;  burnt  down,  Aug.  26,  1860;  and  rebuilt,  1861. 

MARTYRS.  Stephen,  the  first  Christian  martyr,  was  stoned,  37.  The  festivals  of  the 
martyrs,  of  very  ancient  date,  took  their  rise  about  the  time  of  Polycarp,  who  suffered 
martyrdom  about  166.  St.  Alban  is  the  English  protomartyr,  286.  See  Persecutions  and 
Protestants. 

MARYLAND,  one  of  the  first  thirteen  United  States  'of  North  America,  was  granted 
in  1632  to  lord  Baltimore,  and  settled  by  a  company  of  English  Romanists  in  1634.  It 
contains  the  district  of  Colombia,  in  which  Washington  is  situate.  It  continued  in  the 
Union  when  the  other  slave  states  seceded  in  1860  and  1861.  The  Confederate  army,  under 
general  Lee,  after  their  victory  at  Bull  Run,  Aug.  30,  1862,  crossed  the  Potomac  and  entered 
Maryland.  They  were  followed  by  the  Federal  army  under  McClellan.  Severe  conflicts 
ensued,  especially  on  Sept.  17,  at  Antietam  Creek,  \vith  great  loss  on  both  sides,  each 
claiming  the  victory.  The  Confederates  retired  into  Virginia  in  good  order,  and  it  is  said 
with  much  booty. 

MASKS.  Poppsea,  the  wife  of  Nero,  is  said  to  have  invented  the  mask  to  guard  her 
complexion  from  the  sun  ;  but  theatrical  masks  were  in  use  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Horace  attributes  them  to  ^Eschylus  ;  yet  Aristotle  says  the  inventor  and  time  of  their  intro- 
duction were  unknown.  —  Modern  masks,  and  muffs,  fans,  and  false  hair  for  the  women,  were 
devised  in  Italy,  and  brought  to  England  from  France  in  1572.  Stow. 

MASQUERADES  were  in  fashion  in  the  court  of  Edward  III.,  1340  ;  and  in  the  reign  of 
Charles,  1660,  masquerades  were  frequent  among  the  citizens.  The  bishops  preached  against 
them,  and  made  such  representations  as  occasioned  their  suppression,  9  Geo.  I.  1724.  [No 
less  than  six  masquerades  were  subscribed  for  in  a  month  at  this  time.]  They  were  revived, 
and  carried  to  shameful  excess  by  connivance  of  the  government,  and  in  direct  violation  of 
the  laws,  and  tickets  of  admission  to  a  masquerade  at  Ranelagh  were  on  some  occasions  sub- 
scribed for  at  twenty-five  guineas  each,  1776.  Mortimer.  At  the  close  of  a  bal  masque, 
March  5,  1856,  Covent-garden  theatre  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

MASS,  in  the  Roman  church,  is  the  office  or  prayers  used  at  the  celebration  of  the 
eucharist,  in  memory  of  the  passion  of  Christ,  and  to  this  every  part  of  the  service  alludes. 
The  general  division  consists  in  high  and  low  ;  the  first  is  that  sung  by  the  choristers,  and 
celebrated  with  the  assistance  of  a  deacon  and  sub-deacon  ;  low  masses  are  those  in  which 
the  prayers  are  badly  rehearsed  without  singing.  Mass  was  first  celebrated  in  Latin  about 
394  ;  it  was  introduced  into  England  in  the  7th  century.  Prostration  was  enjoined  at  the 
elevation  of  the  host 


MASSACHUSETTS  (New  England,  N.  America),  the  seat  of  the  first  English  settlements, 
1620.     It  joined  the  first  congress  of  the  States  in  1774.     See  United  States. 

MASSACRES.     The  following  are  among  the  most  remarkable  :  — 


BEFORE  CHRIST. 

Of  all  the  Cartliaginiaus  in  Sicily,  397. 

2000  Tyrians  crucified  and  8000  put  to  the  sword  for 

not  surrendering  Tyre  to  Alexander,  331. 
Of  2000  Capuans,  friends  of  Hannibal,  by  Gracchus, 

211. 

A  dreadful  slaughter  of  the  Teutones  and  Ambrones, 

near  Aix,  by  Marius,  the  Roman  general,  200,000 

being  left  dead  on  the  spot,  102. 
The  Romans  throughout  Asia,  women  and  children 

not  excepted,  massacred  in  one  day,  by  order  of 

Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  88. 
A  great  number  of  Roman  senators  massacred  by 

Cinna,  Marius,  and  Sertorius,  87. 
Again,  under  Sylla  and  Catiline,  his  minister  of 

vengeance,  82. 


At  Perusia,  Octavianus  Caesar  ordered  300  Roman 
senators  and  other  persons  of  distinction  to  be 
sacrificed  to  the  manes  of  Julius  Csesar,  40. 


AFTER  CHRIST. 

At  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  1,100,000  of  Jews 
are  said  to  have  been  put  to  the  sword,  70. 

The  Jews,  headed  by  one  Andrae,  put  to  death 
100,000  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  and  near  Gyrene, 


Cassiv 


ius,  a  Roman  general,  under  the  emperor  M. 
Aurelius,  put  to  death  300,000  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Seleucia,  165. 

At  Alexandria,  many  thoxisands  of    citizens  were 
massacred  by  order  of  Antoninus,  215. 


*  Dr.  Daniel  Rock,  in  his  work  entitled  "  The  Church  of  our  Fathers  "  (1849),  gives  a  full  account  of 
indent  MS.  of  "  The  Service  of  the  Mass,  called  the  Rite  of  Salisbury,"  compiled  for  that  cathedral,  by 
Osmund  and  others,  from  the  end  of  the  nth  to  the  end  of  the  i2th  century. 


MAS 


47: 


MAS 


MASSACRES,  continued. 

The  emperor  Probus  is  said  to  have  put  to  death 
400,000  of  the  barbarian  invaders  of  Gaul,  277. 

Of  the  Gothic  hostages  by  Valens,  378. 

Of  Thessalonica,  when  7000  persons  invited  into  the 
circus  were  put  to  the  sword,  by  order  of  Theo- 
dosius,  390. 

Of  the  circus  factions  at  Constantinople,  532. 

Massacre  of  the  Latins  at  Constantinople,  by  order 
of  Andronicus,  1184. 

Of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses,  commenced  at 
Toulouse,  1208.  Thousands  perished  by  the  sword 
and  gibbet  of  the  French  in  Sicily,  1282.  See 
Sicilian  Vespers. 

At  Paris,  of  the  Armagnacs,  at  the  instance  of  John, 
duke  of  Burgundy,  1418. 

Of  the  Swedish  nobility,  at  a  feast,  by  order  of 
Christian  II.,  1520. 

Of  Protestants  at  Vassy,  March  i,  1562. 

Of  70,000  Huguenots,  or  French  protestants,  in 
France  (see  St.  Bartholomew),  Aug.  24,  1572. 

Of  the  Christians  in  Croatia  by  the  Turks,  when 
65,000  were  slain,  1592. 

Of  the  pretender  Demetrius,  and  his  Polish  adhe- 
rents, May  27,  1606. 

Of  Protestants  at  Thorn,  put  to  death  under  a  pre- 
tended legal  sentence  of  the  chancellor  of  Poland, 
for  being  concerned  in  a  tumult  occasioned  by  a 
Roman  Catholic  procession,  1724.  All  the  Protes- 
tant powers  in  Europe  interceded  to  have  this  uii- 
just  sentence  revoked,  but  unavailingly. 

At  Batavia,  12,000  Chinese  were  massacred  by  the 
natives,  Oct.  1740,  under  the  pretext  of  an  in- 
tended insurrection. 

At  the  taking  of  Ismail  by  the  Russians,  30,000  old 
and  young  were  slain,  Dec.  1790.  See  Ismail. 

Of  French  Royalists  (see  Septembrizers),  Sept.  2, 1792. 

Of  Poles,  at  Praga,  1794. 

In  St.  Domingo,  where  Dessalines  made  proclama- 
tion for  the  massacre  of  all  the  whites,  March  29, 
1804,  and  many  thousands  perished. 

Insurrection  at  Madrid,  and  massacre  of  the  French, 
May  2,  1808. 

Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes,  in  the  citadel  of  Cairo, 
March  i,  1811. 

Massacre  of  Protestants  at  Nismes,  perpetrated  by 
the  Catholics,  May,  1815. 

Massacre  at  Scio,  April  22,  1822.     See  Chios. 

Destruction  of  the  Janissaries  at  Constantinople, 
June  14,  1826. 

600  Kabyles  suffocated  in  a  cave  in  Algeria,  June  18, 
1845.  See  Da/ira. 

Massacre  of  Christians  at  Aleppo,  Oct.  16,  1850. 


Of  Maronites,  by  the  Druses,  in  Lebanon,  June, 
1860 ;  and  of  Christians,  by  the  Mahometans,  at 
Damascus,  July  9-11,  1860.  See  Druses  and  Damas- 
cus. 

MASSACRES   IN  BRITISH   HISTORY. 

Of  300  English  nobles,  on  Salisbury  Plain,  by  Hen- 
gist,  about  450. 

Of  the  monks  of  Bangor,  to  the  number  of  1200,  by 
Ethelfrid,  king  of  Bernicia,  607  or  612. 

Of  the  Danes  in  the  southern  counties  of  England, 
in  the  night  of  Nov.  13,  1002,  and  the  231-0!  Ethel- 
red  II.  At  London  it  was  most  bloody,  the 
churches  being  no  sanctuary.  Amongst  the  rest 
was  Gunilda,  sister  of  Swein,  king  of  Denmark, 
left  in  hostage  for  the  performance  of  a  treaty  but 
newly  concluded.  Baker's  Chronicle. 

Of  the  Jews,  in  England.  Some  few  pressing  into 
Westminster  hall  at  Richard  I.  's  coronation,  were 
put  to  death  by  the  people  ;  and  a  false  alarm 
being  given  that  the  king  had  ordered  a  general 
massacre  of  them,  the  people  in  many  parts  of 
England  slew  all  they  met.  In  York  500,  who  had 
taken  shelter  in  the  castle,  killed  themselves, 
rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  multitude, 
1189. 

Of  the  Bristol  colonists,  at  Cullen's  Wood,  Ireland 
(see  Cullen's  Wood),  1209. 

Of  the  English  factory  at  Amboyna,  in  order  to  dis- 
possess its  members  of  the  Spice  Islands,  Feb.  1624. 

Massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  Ireland,  in  O'Neill's 
rebellion,  Oct.  23, 1641.  Upwards  of  30,000  British 
were  killed  in  the  commencement  of  this  rebellion. 
Sir  William  Petty.  In  the  first  three  or  four  days 
of  it,  forty  or  fifty  thousand  of  the  Protestants 
were  destroyed.  Lord  Clarendon.  Before  the  re- 
bellion was  entirely  suppressed,  154,000  Protestants 
were  massacred.  Sir  W.  Temple. 

Of  the  Macdonalds  of  Glencoe  (see  Glencoe),  Feb.  13, 
1692. 

Of  184  men,  women,  and  children,  chiefly  Protes- 
tants, burnt,  shot,  or  pierced  to  death  by  pikes; 
perpetrated  by  the  insurgent  Irish,  at  the  barn  of 
Scullabogue,  Ireland,  in  1798.  Musgrave. 

Of  Europeans  at  Meerut,  Delhi,  &c.,  by  mutineers 
of  the  native  Indian  army  (see  India),  May  and 
June,  1857. 

Of  Europeans  at  Kalangan,  on  the  south  coast  of 
Borneo,  May  i,  1859. 

Of  the  Europeans  at  Morant  bay,  Jamaica,  by  the 
infuriated  negroes,  Oct.  ir,  12,  1865. 


MASSAGET/E,  an  ancient  Scythian  people  (probably  the  ancestors  of  the  Goths),  who 
invaded  Asia  about  635.  In  a  conflict  with  them  Cyrus  the  Great  was  killed,  529  B.C. 

MASSANIELLO  REVOLUTION,  1647.     See  Naples,  note. 

MASSI  LI  A.     See  Marseilles. 

MASTER  OF  THE  CEREMONIES.     See  Ceremonies. 

MASTERS  IN  CHANCERY,  chosen  from  the  equity  bar,  were  first  appointed  it  is  said  to 
assist  the  extreme  ignorance  of  sir  Christopher  Hatton,  lord  chancellor  of  England,  in  1588. 
The  office  was  abolished  in  1852. 

MASTER  OF  THE  GREAT  WARDROBE,  an  officer  of  great  antiquity  and  dignity.  The. 
establishment  was  abolished  in  1782,  and  the  duties  transferred  to  the  lord  chamberlain. 

MASTER  OF  THE  ROLLS,  an  equity  judge,  derives  his  title  from  having  the  custody  of 
all  charters,  patents,  commissions,  deeds,  and  recognizances,  made  into  rolls  of  parchment ; 
his  decrees  are  appealable  to  the  court  of  chancery.  The  repository  of  public  papers,  called 
the  Rolls,  is  in  Chancery-lane.  They  were  formerly  kept  in  a  chapel  founded  for  the 
converted  Jews  ;  but  after  the  Jews  were  expelled  the  kingdom,  it  was  annexed  for  ever 
to  the  office  of  the  mastership  of  the  rolls.  Here  were  kept  all  the  records  since  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  king  Richard  III.,  1483  ;  all  prior  to  that  period  being  kept  in  the 


MAT  473  MAU 

Tower  of  London.  See  Records.  The  first  recorded  master  of  the  rolls  was  either  John  de 
Langton,  appointed  1286,  or  Adam  de  Osgodeb}',  appointed  Oct.  I,  1295  ;  but  it  is  clear 
that  the  office  was  in  existence  long  before.  Hardy.  The  duties  were  defined  in  1833,  and 
the  salary  regulated  in  1837. 

MASTERS    OF   THE   ROLLS. 


Sir  Wm.  Grant  appointed        .        .        May  27,  iSoi 

Sir  Thomas  Plumer      ....      Jan.  6,  1818 

Robert,  lord  Gifford  .        .         April  5,  1824 

Sir  J.  S.  Copley  (aft.  lord  Lynihurst)  Sept.  14,  1826 


Sir  John  Loach Slay  3,  1827 

Sir  C.  Pepys  (aft.  lord  Cottenham)  Sept.  29,  1834 
Henry  Biekcrsteth  (aft.  lord  Langdalo)  Jan.  19,  1836 
Sir  John  Roinilly(the  PRKSEXT,  1865)  Marjh  28,  1851 


MATHEMATICS  formerly  meant  all  kinds  of  learning ;  but  the  term  is  now  applied 
to  the  sciences  relating  to  numbers  and  quantity.  See  Arithmetic.  Among  the  most  eminent 
mathematicians  were  Euclid,  300  B.C.  ;  Archimedes,  287  B.C.  ;  Descartes,  died  1650  ;  Barrow, 
died  1677  ;  Leibnitz,  died  1716  ;  sir  Isaac  Newton,  died  1727;  Euler,  died  1783  ;  Lagrange, 
died  1813  ;  Laplace,  died  1827  ;  and  Dr.  Peacock,  died  1858.  Dr.  Whewell,  Mr.  G.  B.  Airy 
(astronomer  royal),  professor  de  Morgan,  I.  Todlmnter,  and  Mary  Somerville,  born  1790, 
author  of  the  "Mechanism  of  the  Heavens,"  are  eminent  living  mathematicians. 

MATINS.  The  service  or  prayers  first  performed  in  the  morning  or  beginning  of  the 
day  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  The  French,  Matins  imply  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  Aug.  24,  1572.  The  Matins  of  Moscow  were  the  massacre  of  prince 
Demetrius,  and  the  Poles  his  adherents,  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  May  27,  1606. 

MATTERHORN,  a  part  of  the  main  ridge  of  the  Alps,  about  14,836  feet  high,  S.  Swit- 
zerland. After  various  fruitless  attempts  by  professor  Tyndall,  Mr.  AVhymper,  and  other 
eminent  climbers,  in  1860,  the  summit  was  reached  on  July  14,  1865,  by  Mr.  Edward 
Whymper  and  others.  During  their  descent,  four  of  the  party  were  killed.  Mr.  Hadow 
fell  ;  the  connecting  rope  broke,  and  he  himself,  lord  Francis  Douglas,  the  rev.  Mr.  Hudson, 
and  Michael  Croz,  a  guide,  slipped  down,  and  fell  from  a  precipice  nearly  4000  feet  high. 

MAUNDAY-THURSDAY  (derived  by  Spelman  from  mande,  a  hand-basket,  in  which 
the  king  was  accustomed  to  give  alms  to  the  poor  ;  by  others  from  dies  mandati,  the  day 
on  which  Christ  gave  his  grand  mandate,  that  we  should  love  one  another),  the  Thursday 
before  Good  Friday.  Wheatlcy.  On  this  day  it  was  the  custom  of  our  kings  or  their 
almoners  to  give  alms,  food,  and  clothing  to  as  many  poor  men  as  they  were  years  old.  It 
Avas  begun  by  Edward  III.,  when  he  was  fifty  years  of  age,  1363,  and  is  still  continued  by  our 
sovereign. 

MAUR,  ST.     See  Benedictines. 

"MAURITANIA  (N.  Africa),  with  Numidia,  became  a  Roman  province,  45  B.C.,  with 
Sallust  for  pro-consul.  ^Augustus  created  (30  B.C.)  a  kingdom  formed  of  Mauritania  and 
part  of  Getulia,  for  Juba  II.,  a  descendant  of  the  ancient  African  princes.  Suetonius 
Paulinus  suppressed  a  revolt  here,  A.D.  42.  The  country  was  subjugated  by  the  Vandals 
and  Greeks,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  about  667.  See  Morocco  and  Moors. 

MAURITIUS,  or  ISLE  OF  FRANCE  (in  the  Indian  Ocean),  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese,  1505  ;  but  the  Dutch  were  the  first  settlers  in  1598.  They  called  it  after  prince 
Maurice,  their  stadtholder,  but  on  their  acquisition  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  they  deserted 
it  ;  and  it  continued  unsettled  until  the  French  landed,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  one  of  the 
finest  provinces  in  France,  1715.  This  island  was  taken  by  the  British,  Dec.  2,  1810,  and 
confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1814.  Sir  Henry  Barkly  became  governor  in 
1863.  Population  in  1861,  313,462. 

MAUSOLEUM.  Artemisia  married  her  own  brother,  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  Asia 
Minor,  377  B.C.  At  his  death  she  drank  in  liquor  his  ashes  after  his  body  had  been  burned, 
and  erected  to  his  memory  at  Halicarnassus  a  monument,  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world  (350  B.C.),  termed  Mausoleum.  She  invited  all  the  literary  men  of  her  age,  and 
proposed  rewards  to  him  who  composed  the  best  elegiac  panegyric  upon  her  husband.  The 
prize  was  adjudged  to  Theopornpus,  357  B.C.  She  died  352  B.C.  The  statue  of  Mausolus  is 
among  the  antiquities  brought  from  Halicarnassus  by  Mr.  C.  T.  Newton  in  1857,  and  placed 
in  the  British  Museum.  A  mausoleum  for  the  royal  family  of  England  was  founded  by  the 
queen  at  Frogmore,  March  15,  1862. 

MAUVE  (French  for  maha,  mallow),  a  dye  produced  by  Dr.  Stcnliouse  from  lichens  in 
1848  ;  now  produced  from  Aniline  (ichich  sec). 


MAY 


474 


MAY 


MAY,  the  fifth  month  of  the  year,  received  its  name,  some  say,  from  Romulus,  who  gave 
it  this  appellation  in  respect  to  the  senators  and  nobles  of  his  city,  who  were  denominated 
majores  ;  others  supposed  it  was  so  called  from  Maia,  the  mother  of  Mercury,  to  whom 
they  offered  sacrifices  on  the  first  day.  The  ancient  Romans  used  to  go  in  procession  to  the 
grotto  of  Egeria  on  May-day.  See  Evil  May-day* 

MAYNOOTH  COLLEGE  (Ireland),  founded  by  parliament,  1795,  and  endowed  by  a 
yearly  grant  voted  for  the  education  of  students  designed  for  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood 
in  Ireland.  An  act  for  its  government  was  passed  in  1800.  It  contains  about  500  students. 
Permanent  endowment  of  this  college  (30,000^.  for  the  enlargement  of  the  buildings  and 
26,000^.  annually)  Avas  granted  by  parliament,  June  1845.  This  occasioned  much  controversy 
in  England,  a  motion  being  made  for  its  abolition  almost  every  session.  The  college  was 
repaired  and  enlarged  in  1860. 

MAYORS  OF  THE  PALACE  were  high  officers  in  France,  and  had  great  influence  during 
the  later  Merovingian  kings.  They  were  Pepin  the  Old  (or  de  Landen),  622  et  seq.;  Pepiii 
Heristal,  687-714;  Charles  Martel,  714-741;  Pepin  le  Bref,  741-752,  who  shut  up 
Childeric  III.  in  a  monastery,  and  himself  took  the  kingdom.  In  this  quality  Charles 
Martel  ruled  with  despotic  sway,  735  et  seq. — MAYOES  OF  CORPORATIONS.  At  the  time  of 
the  Norrnan  conquest,  1066,  the  chief  officer  of  London  was  called  port-gram,  afterwards 
softened  into  port-reeve,  from  Saxon  words  signifying  chief  governor  of  a  harbour.  He 
was  afterwards  called  provost;  but  in  Henry  II. 's  reign  the  JSTorman  title  of  maire  (soon 
after  mayor)  was  brought  into  use.  At  first  the  mayor  was  chosen  for  life,  but  afterwards 
for  periods  of  irregular  duration  ;  now  he  is  chosen  annually,  but  is  eligible  for  re-election. 
He  must  be  an  alderman,  and  must  have  previously  filled  the  office  of  sheriff.  His  duties 
commence  on  Nov.  9.  The  prefix  LORD  is  peculiar  to  the  chief  civic  officer  of  London, 
Dublin,  Edinburgh,  and  also  York  (since  1389,  when  a  new  charter  was  granted). 


The  first  mayor  of  London,  Henry  Fitz-Alwhyn, 
appointed  in  1189  ;  held  office  for  24  years. 

First  presented  to  the  barons  of  the  exchequer  1251 

The  prefix  of  lord  granted  by  Edward  III.,  with 
the  style  of  right  honourable  .  .  .  -1354 

Sir  Henry  Pickard,  who  had  been  lord  mayor 
of  London  in  1357,  sumptuously  entertained 
in  one  day  four  monarchs  :  Edward,  king  of 
England  ;  John,  king  of  France  ;  the  king  of 
Cyprus  ;  and  David,  king  of  Scotland  ;  the 
Black  Prince  and  many  of  the  nobility  being 
present.  Stow. 1363 

Sir  John  Norman,  the  first  lord  mayor  who 
went  by  water  to  be  sworn  at  Westminster, 
and  lord  mayor's  show  instituted  .  .  .1453 


The  more  costly  pageants  and  triumphs  of  the 
show  laid  aside 1685 

The  lord  mayor  entertained  the  prince  regent 
of  England,  the  emperor  of  Russia,  king  of 
Prussia,  and  numerous  foreigners  of  high 
rank June  18,  1814 

The  lord  mayor,  Fariicombe,  gave  a  banquet  to 
prince  Albert  and  the  mayors  of  most  of  the 
boroughs  of  the  United  Kingdom,  in  further- 
ance of  the  project  of  the  great  International 
Industrial  Exhibition  to  be  held  in  1851, 

March  21,  1850 

The  lord  mayor,  sir  F.  Moon,  entertained  the 
emperor  and  empress  of  the  French  April  19,  1855 

The  "  Lord  Mayor's  court  "  is  very  ancient. 


LORD   MAYORS   OF   LONDON. 


1800-1.     Sir  William  Staines,'bart. 
1801-2.     Sir  John  Earner,  bart. 
1802-3.     Charles  Price. 
1803-4.     John  Perring. 
1804-5.     Peter  Perchard. 
1805-6.     Sir  James  Shaw. 
1806-7.     Sir  William  Leighton,  bt, 
1807-8.     John  Ainsley. 
1808-9.     Sir  Charles  Flower,  bart. 
1809-10.  Thomas  Smith. 
1810-11.  Joshua  Jonathan  Smith. 
1811-12.  SirClaudiusS.  Hunter, bt. 
1812-13.  George  Scholey. 
1813-14.  Sir  William  Domville,  bt. 
1814-15.  Samuel  Birch. 
1815-16.  Matthew  Wood. 


1816-17. 

Matthew  Wood  again. 

1832-3. 

1817-18. 

Christopher  Smith. 

1833-4- 

1818-19. 

John  Atkins. 

1834-5. 

1819-20. 

George  Brydges. 

1835-6. 

1820-1. 

John  T.  Thorpe. 

1836-7. 

1821-2. 

Christopher  Magnay. 

1837-8. 

1822-3. 

William  Heygate. 

1838-9. 

1823-4. 

Robert  Waithman. 

1839-40. 

1824-5. 

John  Garratt. 

1840-1. 

1825-6. 

William  Venables. 

1841-2. 

1826-7. 

Anthony  Browne. 

1242-3. 

1827-8. 

Matthias  Prime  Lucas. 

1843-4. 

1828-9. 
1829-30. 

William  Thompson. 
John  Crowder. 

1844-5. 
1845-6. 

1830-1. 

Sir  John  Key,  bart. 

1846-7. 

1831-2. 

Sir  John  Key,  bt.  again. 

1847  8. 

Sir  Peter  Laurie. 

Charles  Farebrother. 

Henry  Winchester. 

William  Taylor  Copeland. 

Thomas  Kelly. 

Sir  John  Cowan,  bart. 

Samuel  Wilson. 

Sir  Chapman  Marshall,  1 

Thomas  Johnson. 

John  Pirie. 

J.  Humphery. 

Sir  W.  Magnay,  bart. 

Michael  Gibbs. 

John  Johnson. 

Sir  George  Carroll. 

John  K.  Hooper. 


*  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Montague  (who  died  in  1800)  gave  for  many  years,  on  May-day,  an  entertainment 
lier  house  in  Portman-square,  to  the  chimney-sweepers  of  London.  They  were  regaled  with  roast  beef  and 
plum  pudding,  and  a  dance  succeeded.  Upon  their  departure,  each  guest  received  a  shilling  from  the 
mistress  of  the  feast.  It  is  said,  though  the  statement  is  much  doubted,  that  this  entertainment  was 
instituted  to  commemorate  the  circumstance  of  Mrs.  Montague's  having  once  found  a  boy  of  her  own,  or 
that  of  a  relation,  among  the  sooty  tribe.  In  allusion  to  this  incident,  perhaps,  a  story  resembling  the 
adventures  of  this  lost  child  is  pathetically  related  by  Montgomery,  in  "  The  Chimney-Sweeper's  Boy." 


MAY 


475 


MEG 


MAYORS,  continued. 

1848-9.     Sir  James  Duke,  bt. ,  M.  P. 
1849-50.  Thomas  Farnconibe. 
1850-1.     Sir  John  Musgrove. 
1851-2.     William  Hunter. 
1852-3.     Thomas  Challis,  M.P. 
1853-4.     Thomas  Sidney. 


1854-5.     SirFras.  G.  Moon,  bart. 
1855-6.     David  Salomons. 
1856-7.     Thomas  Quested  Fiiinis. 
1857-8.     Sir  Robt.  W.  Garden,  bt. 
1858-9.     David  W.  Wire. 
1859-60.  John  Carter. 

1860-1.     William  Cubitt,  M.P. 
1  861-2.     William  Cubitt,  again. 
1162-3.    W.  A  Rose. 
1863-4.     Wm.  Lawrence. 
1864-5.     Wan-en  S.  Hale. 
1865-6.    Benj.  Sam.  Phillips. 

LOUD   MAYORS   OF  DUBLIN. 


John  le  Docer  was  appointed  first  provost  in 
1308  ;  a  gilded  sword  was  granted  to  be  borne 
befors  tho  provost  by  Henry  IV.  .  .  .  1407 

Thomas  Cusack  appointed  first  mayor       .        .  1409 

The  collar  of  SS.  and  a  foot  company  granted 
by  Charles  II.  to  the  mayors  .  .  .  .  1660 

Sir  Daniel  Bellingharn,  the  first  mayor  honoured 


with  the  title  of  lord,  by  Charles  II.,  who 
granted  500^.  per  annum,  in  lieu  of  the  com- 
pany of  foot 1665 

A  new  collar  of  SS.  granted  by  William  III.  to 
the  mayor,  value  ioooL,  the  former  having 
been  lost  in  James  II.'s  time  .  ...  1697 


MEAL-TUB  PLOT,  against  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  contrived  by  one 
Dangerfield,  who  secreted  a  bundle  of  seditious  letters  in  the  lodgings  of  colonel  Maunsell, 
and  then  gave  in  formation  to  the  custom-house  officers  to  search  for  smuggled  goods.  Oct.  23, 
1679.  After  Dangerfield's  apprehension,  on  suspicion  of  forging  these  letters,  papers  Avere 
found  concealed  in  a  meal-tub  at  the  house  of  a  woman  with  whom  he  cohabited,  which 
contained  the  scheme  to  be  sworn  to,  accusing  the  most  eminent  persons  in  the  Protestant 
interest,  who  were  against  the  duke  of  York's  succession,  of  treason, — particularly  the 
earls  of  Shaftesbury,  Essex,  and  Halifax.  On  Dangerfield  being  whipped  the  last  time,  as 
part  of  his  punishment,  June  I,  1685,  one  of  his  eyes  was  struck  out  by  a  barrister  named 
Robert  Francis  :  this  caused  his  death,  for  which  his  assailant  was  hanged. 

MEASURES.     See  Weights. 

MEATH  (Ireland),  BISHOPRIC  OF.  Many  episcopal  sees  in  Heath  (as  Clonard,  Duleek, 
Kells,  Trim,  Ardbraccan,  Dunshaughlin,  and  Slane,  and  others  of  less  note)  were  fixed  at 
Clonard,  before  1151-2,  when  the  division  of  the  bishoprics  in  Ireland  was  made  by  John 
Paparo,  then  legate  from  pope  Eugene  III.  Meath  was  valued,  30  Henry  VI1L,  at  373^.  125. 
per  annum. 

MECCA  (in  Arabia),  the  birth-place  of  Mahomet,  569.  The  temple  is  a  gorgeous 
structure,  much  visited  by  pilgrims.  On  one  of  the  neighbouring  hills  is  a  cave,  where  it  is 
asserted  Mahomet  usually  retired  to  perform  his  devotions,  and  where  the  greatest  part  of 
the  Koran  was  brought  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  604.  Two  miles  from  the  town  is  the 
hill  where,  they  say,  Abraham  went  to  offer  up  Isaac,  1871  B.C.  Mecca  after  being  vainly 
besieged  by  Hosein  for  the  Caliph  Yezid,  A.D.  682,  was  taken  by  Abdelmelek,  692.  In  1803 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  "Wahabees,  a  Mahometan  sect.  It  is  said  that  160,000  pilgrims 
visited  Mecca  in  1858,  and  only  50,000  in  1859. 

MECHANICS.  The  simple  mechanical  powers  have  been  ascribed  to  heathen  deities  ; 
the  axe,  wedge,  wimble,  &c. ,  to  Deedalus.  See  Steam  Engine. 


Aristotle  writes  on  mechanics  about         .    B.  c.     320 

The  properties  of  the  lever,  &c.,  demonstrated 
by  Archimedes,  who  died  about  .  .  .  287 

[He  laid  the  foundations  of  nearly  all  those  in- 
ventions, the  further  prosecution  of  which  is 
the  boast  of  our  age.  \Vallis  (1695).] 

The  hail  1-mill,  or  quern,  was  very  early  in  use  ; 
the  Romans  found  one  in  Yorkshire  .  .  *  * 

Cattle  mills,  moUejumentarice,  were  also  in  use 
by  the  Romans *  * 

The  water-mill  was  probably  invented  in  Asia  ; 
the  first  that  was  described  was  near  one  of 
the  dwellings  of  Mithridates  ....  70 

A  water-mill  is  said  to  have  been  erected  on 
the  river  Tiber,  at  Rome 50 

Pappus  wrote  on  mechanics,  about   .        .  A.D.     350 

Floating-mills  on  the  Tiber 636 

Tide-mills  were,  many  of  them,  in  use  in  Venice 

about  1078 

Wind-mills  were  in  very  general  use  in  the  i2th 
century * 

Saw-mills  are  said  to  have  been  in  use  at  Augs- 
burg   1332 


Theory  of  the  inclined  plane  investigated  by 

Cardan,  about ^40 

Work  on  Statics,  by  Stevinus  .  ...  1586 
Theory  of  falling  bodies,  Galileo  .  .  .  1638 
Laws  of  collision,  Wallis,  Wren,  about  .  .  .  1668 
Theory  of  oscillation,  Huygens  ....  1670 
Epicycloidal  form  of  the  teeth  of  wheels, 

Roomer ^75 

Percussion  and  animal  mechanics,  Borelh* ;  he 

died !679 

Application  of  mechanics  to  astronomy,  paral- 
lelogism  of  forces,  laws  of  motion,  &c.,  New- 
ton, Hooke,  &c 

Problem  of  the  catenary  with  the  analysis,  Dr. 

Gregory j697 

Spirit  level  (and   many  other  inventions),    by 

Dr.  Rooke,  from  1660  to 1702 

D'Alembert's  researches  on  dynamics,  about  .  1743 
Borgnis'  Dictionnaire  de  Me"canique  appliquee 

aux  Ai'ts,  10  vols 1818-23 

[Among  the  best  modern  writers  on  the 
science  of  mechanics  are  Poncelet,  Whewell, 
Barlow,  Moseley,  Delaunay,  and  Bartholo- 
mew Price.] 


MEG 


476 


MED 


MECHANICS'  INSTITUTIONS.  One  was  founded  by  Dr.  Birkbeck  in  London,  and 
another  in  Glasgow,  in  1823  ;  and  soon  after  others  arose  in  different  parts  of  the  empire. 
They  have  revived  since  1857,  many  noblemen  and  gentlemen  giving  lectures  in  them. 

MECKLENBURG  (N.  Germany),  formerly  a  principality  in  Lower  Saxony,  now  inde- 
pendent as  the  twro  grand  duchies  of  Mecklenburg- Schwerin  (population  in  1863,  551,884), 
and  Mecklenburg- Strelitz  (population  in  1860,  99,060).  The  house  of  Mecklenburg  is  among 
the  most  ancient  in  Europe,  as  it  claims  to  be  descended  from  Genseric  the  Vandal,  who 
ravaged  the  western  empire  in  the  5th  century,  and  died  477.  During  the  thirty  years' 
war,  Mecklenburg  was  conquered  by  AVallenstein,  who  became  its  duke,  1628;  it  was  restored 
to  its  own  duke  in  1630.  After  several  changes,  the  government  was  settled  in  1701  as  it 
now  exists  in  the  two  branches  of  Schwerin  and  Strelitz.  In  1815,  the  dukes  of  Mecklenburg 
were  made  grand-dukes. — The  royal  family  of  England  for  a  century  has  been  intimately 
allied  with  the  house,  of  Mecklenburg- Strelitz.  King  George  III.  married  Charlotte,  a 
daughter  of  the  duke,  in  1761  ;  their  son,  the  duke  of  Cumberland  (afterwards  king  of 
Hanover)  married  princess  Frederica  Caroline,  a  daughter  of  the  duke,  in  1815  ;  and  princess 
Augusta  of  Cambridge  married  June  28,  1843,  Frederic,  the  present  grand-duke. 

GRAND-DUKES   OF   MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 

Heir:  his  son,  Frederic -Francis,  born  March 


1815.  Frederic -Francis  I. 

1842.   Frederic-Francis  II.,  March  7  ;    born  Feb.  28 
1823  (PRESENT  grand-duke). 


IQ,    1851. 


GRAND-DUKES    OF  MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 

Heir:  his  son,  Adolphus-Frcderic,  born  July  22, 
1848. 


1815.  Charles. 

1816.  George,  born  Aug.  12,  1779  ;  succeeded  Nov.  6. 
1860.   Frederic,    Sept.    6  ;    born   Oct.   17,  1819  (the 

PRESENT  grand-duke). 

MEDALS.  See  Numismatics.  There  is  hardly  any  record  of  medals  or  decorations  as 
rewards  in  the  army  or  navy  before  the  time  of  the  commonwealth.  The  house  of  commons 
resolved  to  grant  rewards  and  medals  to  the  fleet  whose  officers  (Blake,  Monk,  Penn,  and 
Lawson)  and  men  gained  a  glorious  victory  over  the  Dutch  fleet,  off  the  Texel,  in  1653. 
Blake's  medal  of  1653  was  bought  by  his  majesty  William  IV.  for  150  guineas.  In  1692  an 
act  was  passed  for  applying  the  tenth  part  of  the  proceeds  of  prizes  for  medals  and  other 
rewards  for  officers,  seamen,  and  marines.  Subsequent  to  lord  Howe's  victory,  June  I,  1794. 
it  was  thought  expedient  to  institute  a  naval  medal.  Medals  were  presented  by  the  queen  to 
persons  distinguished  in  the  war  in  the  Crimea,  May  18,  1855. 

MEDIA,  a  province  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  revolted  711  B.C. 


War  with  the  Lydians  (see  Halys)         .        B.C.  603 

Astyages  reigns 594 

Astyages  deposed  by  Cyrus,  550;    who  estab- 
lished the  empire  of  Persia  (which  see)        .     .  560 


Revolt  of  the  Medes  .  .  .  .  B.C.  711 
Deioces,  founder  of  Ecbatana,  reigns  .  .  709 
Phraortes,  or  Arphaxad,  reigns  ;  (he  conquers 

Persia,  Armenia,  and  other  countries)       .     .     656 
Warlike  reign  of  Cyaxares  ....      632-594 

MEDICAL  BENEVOLENT  COLLEGE  (Epsom,  Surrey),  opened  in  1855  by  the  prince 
consort.  It  provides  an  asylum  for  20  .pensioners  male  and  female  ;  and  40  foundation 
scholars  (sons  of  medical  men)  are  fed,  clothed,  and  educated. 

MEDICAL  COUNCIL.  In  1858  an  act  was  passed  "to  regulate  the  qualifications  of 
practitioners  in  medicine  and  surgery;"  amended  in  1860.  It  established  "the  General 
Council  of  Medical  Education  and  Registration  of  the  United  Kingdom."  The  first  meeting 
of  this  council  took  place  on  Nov.  23,  1858,  when  sir  B.  C.  Brodie  was  elected  first  president 
(who  on  Nov.  30  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society).  He  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  J. 
H.  Green  in  June,  1860  ;  by  Dr.  George  Burrows,  Jan.  1864.  The  first  Medical  Register  was 
issued  in  July,  1859.  In  1862  the  council  was  incorporated  by  parliament,  and  authorised 
to  prepare  and  sell  a  new  Pharmacopoeia,  which  was  published  as  the  "  British  Pharma- 
copoeia," in  1864. 

MEDICI  FAMILY,  illustrious  as  the  restorers  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts  in  Italy, 
were  chiefs  or  signori  of  the  republic  of  Florence  from  1434,  in  which  year  Cosmo  de'  Medici, 
who  had  been  banished  from  the  republic,  was  recalled  and  made  its  chief ;  he  presided  over 
it  for  thirty  years.  Lorenzo  de' Medici,  styled  "the  Magnificent,"  and  the  "Father  of 
Letters,"  ruled  Florence  from  1469  to  1492.  John  do'  Medici  (pope  Leo  X.)  was  the  son  of 
Lorenzo.  Roscoe.  From  1569  to  1737  the  Medici  family  were  hereditary  grand-dukes  of 
Tuscany  (which  sec}.  Catherine  de'  Medici  became  queen  of  France  in  1547,  and  regent  in 
1550.  She  plotted  with  the  duke  of  Alva  to  destroy  the  Protestants  in  1565. 


MED 


477 


MEL 


MEDICINE.     See  Physic. 

MEDINA  (Arabia  Deserta),  famous  for  the  tomb  of  Mahomet,  in  a  large  mosque,  lighted 
by  rich  lamps.  Medina  was  called  the  City  of  the  Prophet,  because  here  Mahomet  was 
protected  when  he  fled  from  Mecca,  July  15/622.  See  Hecjira.  Medina  was  taken  by  the 
\Vahabees  in  1804. 

MEEANEE.  The  Hyderabad  Ameers,  amounting  to  30,000  infantry,  with  15  guns  and 
5000  cavalry,  posted  in  a  formidable  position  at  Meeanee,  were  attacked  on  Feb.  17,  1843, 
by  lieut-gcn.  sir  Charles  Napier,  with  2600  men  of  all  arms.  This  insignificant  force  fell  so 
impetuously  upon  the  enemy,  that  after  a  severe  contest  the  Ameers  gave  way,  and  retreated 
in  tolerable  order.  Their  loss  was  enormous. 

MEGARA,  a  city  of  ancient  Greece,  was  subdued  by  the  Athenians  in  the  8th  century 
B.C.  Pericles  suppressed  a  revolt,  445  B.C.  The  Megarians founded  Byzantium  657  B.C.  and 
sent  a  second  colony  628  B.  c.  The  Megarian  (Eristic  or  disputatious)  school  of  philosophy 
was  founded  by  Euclid  and  Stilpo,  natives  of  Megara. 

MEISTERSINGERS.     See  Minnesingers. 

MELAZZO  (W.  Sicily).  Here  Garibaldi,  on  July  20  and  21,  1860,  defeated  the  Neapolitans 
under  general  Bosco,  who  lost  about  600  men  ;  Garibaldi's  loss  being  167.  The  latter  entered 
Messina  ;  and  on  July  30  a  convention  was  signed,  by  which  it  was  settled  that  the  Neapolitan 
troops  were  to  quit  Sicily.  They  held  the  citadel  of  Messina  till  March  13,  1861. 

MELBOURNE  (Australia),  capital  of  Victoria  (which  see).  It  was  laid  out  as  a  town  by 
orders  of  sir  R.  Bourke,  in  April,  1837.  The  first  land  sale  took  place  in  June,  and  specu- 
lation commenced  and  continued  till  it  caused  wide-spread  insolvenc}'-  in  1841-2. 


Made  a  municipal  corporation,  1842;  a  bishopric  1847  ' 
First  legislative  assembly  of  Victoria  meets       .  1852  j 
Gold  found  in  great  abundance  about  So  miles 
from  Melbourne  in  the  autumn  of  1851,  and 
immense  numbers  of  emigrants  flocked  there 
in  consequence,  causing  an  enormous  rise  in 
the  prices  of  provisions  and  clothing          .     .    ,, 
Population  23,000  in  1851 ;  about  100,000  at  the 

end  of ,, 

The  city  greatly  improved  with  public  buildings, 
handsome  shops,  &c.    .        .  .        .     .   1853 

The  Victoria  bank,  Ballarat,  broken  open,  and 
14,300?.  in  money  and  200  ounces  in  gold  dust 


carried  off  [one  of  the  robbers  was  taken  in 
England,  sent  back  to  Melbourne,  and  there 
tried  and  hanged]  ....  Oct.  8,  1854 

Monster  meeting  held  at  Ballarat  respecting 
the  collection  of  the  gold  licenses,  followed  by 
riots,  during  which  the  Southern  Cross  flag 
was  raised  ;  intervention  of  the  military  ;  26 
rioters  and  three  soldiers  killed,  and  many 
wounded Nov.  30,  ,, 

The  mayor  comes  to  London  to  congratulate 
the  queen  on  the  marriage  of  the  princess 

royal 1858 

See  Victoria. 


MELBOURNE  ADMINISTRATIONS.  On  the  retirement  of  earl  Grey,  July  9,  1834, 
viscount  Melbourne  became  first  minister  of  the  crown.  On  the  accession  of  viscount 
Althorpe  to  the  earldom  of  Spencer,  on  his  father's  decease,  Nov.  same  year,  lord  Melbourne 
waited  on  the  king  to  receive  his  majesty's  commands  as  to  the  appointment  of  a  new 
chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  when  his  majesty  said  he  considered  the  administration  at  an 
end.  Sir  Robert  Peel  succeeded,  but  was  compelled  to  resign  in  1835,  and  lord  Melbourne 
returned  to  office.  His  administration  finallv  terminated,  Aug.  30,  1841,  sir  Robert  Peel 
again  coming  into  power.  See  Administrations. 


FIRST   ADMINISTRATION,    July.   1834. 

Viscount  Melbourne,*  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Marquess  of  Lansdowne,  lord  president. 

Karl  Mulgrave,  privy  seal. 

Viscount  Althorpe,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Viscount  Duncannon,  viscount  Palmerston,  and  Mr. 

Spring  Rice   (afterwards   lord   Monteagle),  home, 

foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries. 
Lord  Auckland,  admiralty. 
Mr.  Charles  Grant  (afterwards  lord   Glenelg),   and 

Mr.  C.  P.  Thomson  (afterwards  lord  Sydenham), 

boards  of  contro!  and  tro.de. 
Lord  John  Russell,  paymaster  of  the  forces. 
Lord  Brougham,  lord  chancellor. 
Sir  John  Hobhouse,  Mr.  Elh'ce,  marquess  of  Conyng- 

ham,  Mr.  Littleton,  &c. 


SECOND   ADMINISTRATION,    April,  1835. 

Lord  Melbourne,  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Marquess  of  Lansdowne,  lord  president. 

Visct.  Duncannon,  privy  seal,  and  woods  and  forests. 

Mr.  Rice,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Lord  John  Russell,  viscount  Palmerston,  and  lord 

Gleiieler,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries. 
Earl  of  Minto,  admiralty. 
Sir  John  Hobhouse,    and   Mr.   Poulett  Thomson, 

boards  of  control  and  trade. 
Lord  Holland,  duchy  of  Lancaster. 
Viscount  Howick,  secretary-at-war. 
Mr.  Labouchere,  sir  Henry  Parnell,  lord  Morpeth,  <fec. 
The    chancellorship   in   commission ;    sir  C.  Pepys 

(afterwards  lord  Cottenham)  became  lord  chancellor, 

Jan.  1836. 


*  \Vm.  Lamb,  born  in  1779  ;  became  M.P.  for  Westminster,  1812  ; 
his  father  as  viscount  Melbourne,  1828;  died  Nov.  24,  1848. 


;  secretary  fjr  Ireland,  1827  ;  succeeded 


MEL  478  MER 

MELEGXAXO.     See  Marignano. 

MELODRAMA  originated  with  or  was  introduced  by  Mr.  Holcroft  in  1793. 

MEMEL,  an  important  commercial  port  in  Prussia,  built  about  1279.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Teutonic  knights,  about  1328.  It  has  suffered  much  by  fire,  and  was  almost  totally 
destroyed  October  4,  1854.  The  loss  was  estimated  at  1,100,000?. 

MEMORY.     Sec  Mnemonics. 

MEMPHIS,  an  ancient  city  of  Egypt  ("  of  which  the  very  ruins  are  stupendous"),  is  said 
to  have  been  built  by  Menes,  3890  B.C.;  or  by  Misraim,  2188  B.C.  It  was  restored  by 
Septimus  Severus,  A.D.  202.  In  the  yth  century,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Saracens,  it  fell 
into  decay.  The  invasion  of  Cambyses,  526  B.C.,  began  the  ruin  of  Memphis,  and  the 
founding  of  Alexandria,  332,  completed  it. 

MENAI  STRAIT  (between  the  "Welsh  coast  and  the  isle  of  Anglesey).  Suetonius 
Paulinus,  when  he  invaded  Anglesey,  transported  his  troops  across  this  strait  in  flat-bottomed 
boats,  while  the  cavalry  swam  over  on  horseback,  and  attacked  the  Druids  in  their  last 
retreat.  Their  horrid  practice  of  sacrificing  their  captives,  and  the  opposition  he  met  with, 
so  incensed  the  Roman  general,  that  he  gave  the  Britons  no  quarter,  throwing  all  that 
escaped  from  that  battle  into  fires  which  they  had  prepared  for  the  destruction  of  himself 
and  his  army,  A.D.  61. — In  crossing  this  strait,  a  ferry-boat  was  lost,  and  fifty  persons,  chiefly 
Irish,  Dec.  4,  1785.  The  road  from  London  to  Holyhead  has  long  been  regarded  as  the 
highway  from  the  British  metropolis  to  Dublin  ;  Mr.  Telford  was  applied  to  by  the  govern- 
ment to  perfect  this  route  by  the  London  and  Holyhead  mail-coach  road,  which  he  did  by 
erecting  beautiful  suspension  bridges  over  the  river  Conway  and  the  Menai  Strait,  commenced 
in  July,  1818,  and  finished  in  July,  1825.  The  Britannia  tubular  bridge  over  the  Menai  was 
constructed  by  Stephenson  and  Fairbairn  in  1849-50.  See  Tubular  Bridges. 

MENDICANT  FRIARS.  Several  religious  orders  commenced  alms-begging  in  the  I3th 
century,  in  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  III.  They  spread  over  Europe  and  embraced  many 
communities  ;  but  at  length  by  a  general  council,  held  by  Gregory  X.  at  Lyons,  in  1272, 
were  confined  to  four  orders — Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Augustines.  The 
Capuchins  and  others  branched  off.  See  Franciscans,  &c. 

MENDICITY  SOCIETY  (Red  Lion-square,  London),  was  established  in  1818  for  the 
suppression  of  public  begging,  and  other  impositions.  Tickets  received  from  the  society  are 
given  by  subscribers  to  beggars,  who  obtain  relief  at  the  society's  house,  if  deserving.  The 
society  has  caused  above  23.000  vagrants  to  be  convicted  as  impostors.  In  1857,  54,074 
meals,  in  1860,  42,912,  and  in  1864,  55,265  were  distributed.  In  1857,  3785,  and  in  1864, 
3680  begging  letters  were  investigated. 

MENSURATION.  The  various  properties  of  conic  sections  were  discovered  by  Archimedes, 
to  whom  the  chief  advancement  in  mensuration  may  be  attributed.  He  also  determined  the 
ratio  of  spheres,  spheroids,  &c.,  about  218  B.C.  See  Arithmetic. 

MENTZ  (S.W.  Germany),  the  Roman  Moguntiacum.  The  archbishopric  was  founded  by 
Boniface,  745.  Many  diets  have  been  held  here  ;  and  here  John  Faust  established  a  printing- 
press  in  1442.  A  festival  in  honour  of  John  Guttenburg  was  celebrated  here  in  1837. 

MENU,  INSTITUTES  OF,  the  very  ancient  code  of  India.  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  who  translated 
them  into  English  (1794),  considers  their  date  should  be  placed  between  Homer  (about 
962  B.C.)  and  the  Roman  Twelve  Tables  (about  449  B.C.). 

MERCANTILE  MARINE  ACT  was  passed  in  Aug.  1850,  and  amended  Aug.  1851. 

MERCATOR'S  CHARTS.  The  true  inventor  of  these  charts  is  said  to  have  been  a 
Mr.  Wright,  who  made  several  voyages  ;  in  his  absence  Gerard  Mercator  published  the 
charts  in  his  own  name,  1556.  They  are,  however,  now  confidently  ascribed  to  Mercator's 
own  ingenuity. 

MERCHANDISE  MARKS  ACT  was  passed  in  1862  to  punish  forgeries  of  tradesmen's 
marks,  whereby  much  injury  had  been  done. 

MERCHANT.  An  attempt  was  made  by  queen  Anne's  ministry  to  exclude  merchants 
from  sitting  in  the  house  of  commons  in  1711;  but  it  failed.  The  MERCHANT  ADVEN- 
TURERS' society  (see  Adventurers}  was  established  by  the  duke  of  Brabant  in  1296;  it 
extended  to  England  in  Edward  III.'s  reign  ;  and  was  formed  into  an  English  corporation  in 
1564.— The  MERCHANT-TAILORS,  a  rich  company  of  the  city  of  London,  of  which  many 


MER 


479 


MES 


kings  have  been  members,  were  so  called  after  the  admission  of  Henry  VII.  into  their  com- 
pany, 1501,  but  were  incorporated  in  1466.     Their  school,  was  founded  in  1561.     Stow. 

MERCIA.     See  under  Britain.  MERCURY.     See  Quicksilver  and  Calomel. 

MERCY,  ORDER  or  (in  France),  was  established  with  the  object  of  accomplishing  the 
redemption  of  Christian  captives,  by  John  do  Matha  in  1198.  HGnault.  Another  order  was 
formed  by  Pierre  Nolasque,  Spain,  1223. 

MERIDA  (Spain),  a  town  in  Estremadura  (built  by  the  Romans),  was  taken  by  the 
French,  Jan.  1811.  Near  this  town,  at  Arroyos  Molinos,  the  British_army  under  general 
(afterwards  lord)  Hill  defeated  the  French  under  general  Girard,  after  a  severe  engagement, 
Oct.  28,  1811.  The  British  took  Merida  from  the  French  in  January,  1812,  general  Hill 
leading  the  combined  forces  of  English  and  Spanish  troops. 

MEROE,  an  ancient  city  and  country  of  inner  Africa,  near  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  said 
ve  flourished  under  sacerdotal  government  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  about  450  B.C. 

EROVINGIANS,  the  first  race  of  French  kings,  418-752.     See  Mayors  and  France. 
ERRIMAC.     See  United  States,  1862. 

MERRY-ANDREW.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  first  given  to  Andrew  Borde,  a 
physician,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  who,  on  some  occasions,  on  account 
of  his  facetious  manners,  appeared  at  court,  1547. 

MERTHYR-TYDVIL  (Glamorganshire).  Riots  commenced  here  June  3,  1831,  and 
continued  for  several  days  ;  many  persons  were  killed  and  wounded. 

MERTON  (Surrey).  At  an  abbey  here,  the  barons  under  Henry  III.,  Jan.  23,  1236, 
held  a  parliament  which  enacted  the  statutes  called  the  Provisions  of  Merton,  the 
most  ancient  body  of  laws  next  after  Magna  Charta.  They  were  repealed  in  1863.  See 
Bastards. 

MESMERISM.  Frederick  Anthony  Mesmer,  a  German  physician,  of  Mersburg,  pub- 
lished his  doctrines  in  1766,  contending,  by  a  thesis  on  planetary  influence,  that  the  heavenly 
bodies  diffused  through  the  universe  a  subtle  fluid  which  acts  on  the  nervous  system  of 
animated  beings.  Quitting  Vienna  for  Paris,  in  1778,  he  gained  numerous  proselytes  to  his 
system  in  France,  where  he  received  a  subscription  of  340,000  livres.  The  government 
appointed  a  committee  of  physicians  and  members  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  to  investigate 
his  pretensions.  Among  these  were  Franklin  and  Bailly,  and  the  results  appeared  in  an 
admirable  paper  drawn  up  by  the  latter,  1784,  exposing  the  futility  of  animal  magnetism,  as 
the  delusion  was  then  termed.  Mesmerism  excited  attention  again  about  1848,  when  Miss 
Harriet  Martineau  and  others  announced  their  belief  in  it.  * 

MESSALIANS,  a  se»t  (about  310)  professing  to  adhere  to  the  very  letter  of  the 
Gospel.  They  refused  to  work,  quoting  this  passage,  "  Labour  not  for  the  food  that 
perisheth." 

MESSENTA  (now  Maura-Matra),  a  country  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  kingdom  com- 
menced by  Polycaon,  1499  B.C.  It  had  long  sanguinary  wars  against  Sparta  (see  next  article), 
and  once  contained  a  hundred  cities,  most  of  whose  names  even  are  now  unknown.  It  was 
at  first  governed  by  kings  ;  after  its  restoration  to  power  in  the  Peloponnesus,  it  formed  a 
republic,  under  the  protection  first  of  the  Thebans,  and  afterwards  of  the  Macedonians  ;  but 
it  never  rose  to  eminence. 


The  first  Mcssenian  war  began  743  B.C.  ;  was  occa- 
sioned by  violence  offered  to  some  Spartan 
women  in  a  temple  of  devotion  common  to 
both  nations  ;  the  king  of  Sparta  being  killed 
in  his  efforts  to  defend  the  females.  Eventu- 
ally, Ithome  was  taken,  and  the  Messenians 
became  slaves  to  the  conquerors  .  B.C.  723 


The  second  war  was  commenced  about  682  B.C., 
to  throw  off  the  galling  Spartan  yoke,  ending 
in  the  defeat  of  the  Messenians,  who  fled  to 
Sicily  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  B.C.  662 

The  third  war  took  place  490  B.C  ;  and  the 
fourth 465-455 


MESSINA  (Sicily),  so  named  by  the  Samians,  who  seized  this  city,  then  called  Zancle, 
671  B.C.  It  belonged  for  many  ages  to  the  Roman  empire,  but  fell  to  the  Saracens,  about 
A.D.  829.  Priestley.  In  the  nth  century  Roger  the  Norman  took  it  by  surprise,  and 
delivered  it  from  Mahometan  oppression.  See  Sicily. 


*  In  1859,  tnc  Mesmeric  Infirmary  issued  its  tenth  annual  report,  archbishop  Whately  being  president, 
and  the  earl  of  Carlisle  and  Mr.  Monckton  Mimes  (since  lord  Houghton)  among  the  vice-presidents. 


MES 


480 


MET 


MESSINA,  continued. 

Revolt  against  Charles  of  Anjou,  and  is  suc- 
coured by  Peter  of  Arragon  ....  1282 

Revolt  in  favour  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France,  who 
is  proclaimed  here,  1676 ;  the  Spaniards  punish 

'   it  severely 1678 

Almost  ruined  by  an  earthquake  and  eruption 
of  Etna 1693 

Nearly  depopulated  by  a  plague         .        .        .  1740 


Half  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  .        .        .     .1783 
Head-quarters  of  the  British  forces  in  Sicily, 

prior  to 1814 

An  insurrection  here,  subdued      .          Sept.  7,  1848 
Garibaldi  enters   Messina  after  his  victory  at 

Melazzo July  20-21,  1860 

The  citadel  surrenders  to  general  Cialdini, 

March  13,  1861 


METALS.  The  metals  and  metalloids  are  now  above  fifty  in  number.  Tubal-Cain  is 
mentioned  as  an  "instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  (Gen.  iv.)  Moses  and 
Homer  speak  of  the  seven  metals,  and  Virgil  of  the  melting  of  steel.  The  Phoenicians  had 
great  skill  in  working  metals.  See  Mines,  Iron,  and  the  other  metals.  Bunsen  and  Kirch- 
hoff's  method  of  chemical  analysis  by  means  of  the  spectrum  has  added  Caesium,  Rubidium, 
Thallium,  arid  Indium  to  the  known  metals. 

METAMORPHISTS  in  the  I5th  century  affirmed  that  Christ's  natural  body,  with  which 
he  ascended  into  heaven,  was  wholly  deified. 

METAPHYSICS,  the  science  of  abstract  reasoning,  or  that  which  contemplates  the 
existence  of  things  without  relation  to  matter.  The  term,  literally  denoting  "after  physics," 
originated  from  these  words  having  been  put  at  the  head  of  certain  essays  of  Aristotle,  which 
follow  his  treatise  on  Physics.  Mackintosh.  Modern  metaphysics  arose  in  the  i5th  century — 
the  period  when  an  extraordinary  impulse  was  given  to  the  human  mind  in  Europe,  com- 
monly called  the  "revival  of  learning."  Hobbes,  Cudworth,  S.  T.  Coleridge,  Dugald  Stewart, 
and  sir  W.  Hamilton,  were  eminent  British  metaphysicians,  and  Descartes,  Pascal,  Kant, 
and  Fichte,  foreign  ones.  See  Philosophy. 

METAURUS,  a  river  in  Central  Italy,  where  Hasdrubal,  the  brother  of  Hannibal,  was 
defeated  and  slain,  207 B.C.,  when  marching  with  abundant  reinforcements.  The  Romans 
were  led  by  Livius  and  Claudius  JSTero,  the  consuls.  The  latter  commanded  the  head  of 
Hasdrubal  to  be  thrown  into  his  brother's  camp.  This  victory  saved  Rome. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS,  a  doctrine  attributed  to  Pythagoras,  528  B.C.,  supposes  the  trans- 
migration of  the  soul  from  one  body  to  another.  It  is  also  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians,  who 
would  eat  no  animal  food  lest  they  should  devour  the  body  into  which  the  soul  of  a  deceased 
friend  had  passed.  They  had  also  an  idea  that  so  long  as  the  body  of  the  deceased  was  kept 
entire,  the  soul  would  not  transmigrate  ;  and  therefore  embalmed  the  dead. 

METEOROLOGY  (from  the  Greek  meteoros,  aerial),  the  science  which  treats  of  the  pheno- 
mena which  have  their  origin  in  the  air,  such  as  rain,  lightning,  meteors,  fogs,  &c.  Bacon, 
Boyle,  and  Franklin  wrote  on  the  subject. 


John  Dalton's  essay  on  meteorology  appeared  in  1793. 
Luke  Howard's  work  on  the  clouds  appeared  in 
1802,  and  his  "  Barometrographia  "  in  1848. 

Sir  \V.  Reid  published  his  work  on  the  "law  of 
storms"  in  1838.  The  works  of  Daniell  (1845), 
Ksemtz  (1845),  and  Muller(i847)  are  esteemed. 

Mr.  James  Glaisher,  the  energetic  secretary  of  the 
British  Meteorological  Society  (established  in  1850) 
is  the  most  eminent  meteorologist  of  the  day.  By 
his  exertions  the  apparatus  at  Greenwich  was 
erected ;  and  meteorology  has  appeared  in  the 
"  Greenwich  Observations  "  since  1848.  See  Sal- 
loon — Scientific  A  scents. 

Meteorological  observatories  have  been  erected  in  all 
parts  of  the  globe  within  the  last  20  years. 

The  meteorological  department  of  the  board  of  trade, 
established  in  1855,  under  admiral  FitzRoy,  com- 
menced the  publication  of  reports  in  1857.*  It 
has  issued  apparatus  and  instruction  books  to 

METHODISTS.    See  We. 


captains  of  ships,  and  established  observatories  in 
many  places  in  the  empire.  The  Kew  meteorolo- 
gical observatory  was  given  to  the  British  Asso- 
ciation in  April,  1860.  • 

At  the  recommendation  of  M.  Le  Yeirier  and  admi- 
ral FitzRoy,  meteorological  information,  obtained 
by  the  telegraph  from  the  principal  places  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  has  been  transmitted  daily  to 
Paris,  and  thence  to  other  parts  of  Europe  since 
Sept.  i,  1860. 

Meteorological  observations  appear  in  the  Times 
daily. 

Storm-warnings  first  sent  to  the  coast  by  the  Board 
of  Trade,  Feb.  6  ;  and  first  published,  July  31,  1861. 

Daily  international  bulletin  of  the  imperial  observa- 
tory at  Paris,  under  the  direction  of  M.  Le  Yerrier, 
first  published,  Nov.  1 862. 

See  Barometer,  Thermometer,  &c.; 


METHUEN  TREATY,  a  treaty  for  regulating  the  commerce  between  Great  Britain  ar 
Portugal,  made  in  1703,  concluded  by  Paul  Methuen,  our  ambassador  at  Lisbon.  It  w; 
abrogated  in  1834. 


*  The  admiral  published  his  "Weather-Book  "  in  1863.     His  exertions  are  said  to  have  overworked : 
brain  ;  and  on  April  30,  1865,  he  died  by  his  own  hand. 


MET 


481 


MET 


METHYL,  a  colourless  inodorous  gas,  a  compound  of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  was 
obtained  first  in  the  free  state  by  Frankland  and  by  Kolbe,  in  1849. 

METHYLATED  SPIRITS.  By  an  act  passed  in  1855  a  mixture  of  spirits  of  wine 
with  10  per  cent,  of  its  bulk  of  wood-naphtha,  or  methylic  alcohol,  is  allowed  to  be  made 
duty  free  for  use  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  not  less  than  450  gallons  being  made 
at  one  time.  In  1861  an  act  was  passed  permitting  the  methylated  spirits  to  be  retailed 
by  licence. 

METONIC  CYCLE,  a  period  of  19  years,  or  6940  days,  at  the  end  of  which  the  changes 
of  the  moon  fall  on  the  same  days.  See  Calippic  Period. 

METRIC  SYSTEM.  Before  the  Revolution  there  was  no  uniformity  in  French  weights 
measures.  On  May  8,  1790,  the  Constitutional  Assembly  charged  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  with  the  organisation  of  a  better  system.  The  committee  named  for  the  purpose  by 
the  Academy  included  the  illustrious  names  of  Berthollet,  Borda,  Delambre,  Lagrange, 
Laplace,  Me'chain,  and  Prony.  Delambre  and  Mechain  were  charged  with  the  measurement 
of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona,  and  from  their  calculations  the 
metre,  which  is  equal  to  a  ten-millionth  part  of  the  distance  between  the  poles  and  the 
equator  (3 '2808  English  feet)  was  made  the  unit  of  length  and  the  base  of  the  system  by 
law  on  April  7,  1795.  Tne  system  was  completed  in  1799,  and  made  by  law  the  only  legal 
one  on  Nov.  2,  1801.  A  decree  on  Feb.  12  accommodated  the  old  measures  to  the  new 
system  ;  but  on  July  4,  1837,  it  was  decreed  that  after  Jan.  I,  1840,  the  metric  and  decimal 
system  in  its  primitive  simplicity  should  be  used  in  all  business  transactions.  The  example 
of  France  has  been  followed  by  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and  will  probably  in  time  be 
adopted  in  the  British  empire. 

Unit  of  SURFACE,  centiare=a.  square  m£tre=i'i96o 

English  yard  (a  square  decametre    or    are=ioo 

square  metres). 

Unit  of  VOLUME  or  SOLIDITY,  stere=a  cubic  metre. 
Unit  of  CAPACITY,  litre=a  cubic  decimetre   (or  ioth 

of  a  metre)  =- 1 '76077  English  pint. 
Unit  of  WEIGHT,  gramme = weight  of  a  cubic  centi- 


metre (the  zooth  part  of  a  metre)  of  distilled  water 

=0-56438  English  dram. 
Unit  of  MONEY,  the  franc,  a  piece  of  silver  weighing 

5  grammes. 
The  multiples  of  these  units  are  expressed  by  Greek 

numerals  (deca-,    10 ;    hekato-,   100 ;     kilo-,    1000 ; 

myria-,    10,000.      The  divisors    are  expressed  by 

Latin  numerals  (deci-.  10 ;  centi-,  100 :  milli-,  1000). 


Sir  John  Wrottesley  brought  the  subject  before 
parliament Feb.  25,  1824 

A  commission  of  inquiry  appointed  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Mr. 
Spring  Rice  (since  lord  Monteagle)  .  May,  1838 

Another  commission  was  appointed  (both  con- 
sisted of  eminent  scientific  men,  and  reported 
strongly  in  favour  of  the  change)  .  June  20,  1843 

A  committee  of  the  house  of  commons  reported 
to  the  same  effect  ....  Aug.  i,  1853 

Mr.  Gladstone,  admitting  "^he  advantages  of 
the  system,  thought  its  introduction  pre- 
mature. 

The  Decimal  Association  was  formed  for  the 


purpose  of  obtaining  the  adoption  of  the  sys- 
tem         June,  1854 

Another  commission  for  inquiry  was  appointed, 
consisting  of  lords  Monteagle  and  Overstone, 
and  Mr.  J.  G.  Hubbard,  who  published  a  pre- 
liminary report  (with  evidence),  but  expressed 

no  opinion Nov.   1855 

An  International  Decimal  Association  formed  in    ,, 
The  decimal  currency  adopted  in  Canada,  Jan.  i,  1858 
The  new  weights  and  measures  bill  (an  ap- 
proximation to   the    decimal    system)   was 

passed  .        .        . 1862 

An  act  passed  ' '  to  render  permissive  the  use  of    ' 
the  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  " 

July  29,  1864 

METRONOME,  to  regulate  time  in  the  performance  of  music,  was  patented  in  England 
by  John  Malzel,  Dec.  5,  1815. 

METROPOLIS  ROADS  ACT  (passed  in  1863)  transferred  the  management  of  certain 
roads  north  of  the  Thames  from  the  commissioners  to  the  parishes,  and  abolished  certain 
turnpikes  and  tollbars. 

METROPOLITAN  (from  the  Greek  metropolis),  a  title  given  at  the  council  of  Nice,  325, 
to  certain  bishops  who  had  jurisdiction  over  others,  in  a  province.  The  dignity  is  said  to 
have  arisen  in  the  2nd  century,  through  the  dissentient  bishops  in  a  district  referring  to  one 
of  superior  intellect. 

METROPOLITAN  BOARD  or  WORKS,  was  established  by  i8&  19  Viet.  c.  120(1855), 
amended  in  1862.  It  held  its  first  meeting  and  elected  Mr.  (now  sir)  John  Thwaites  as 
chairman,  Dec.  22,  1855.  The  office  is  in  Spring-gardens.  In  1858,  its  powers  were 
extended  in  order  to  effect  the  purification  of  the  Thames  by  constructing  a  new  main 
drainage  for  the  metropolis.  The  Board  was  authorised  to  raise  a  loan  and  levy  $d.  in  the 
pound  on  the  property  in  the  metropolis.  The  works  are  now  in  progress  (1865).  It  is  also 
authorised  to  construct  the  Thames  Embankment.  In  1861  the  Board  received  nearly  a 
million  pounds,  and  expended  900,000?.  See  Sewage  and  Thames. 

i  i 


MET 


482 


MEX 


METROPOLITAN  CATTLE  MARKET,  inaugurated  by  the  lord  mayor  and  corporation 
on  Wednesday,  June  13,  1855,  in  presence  of  the  prince  consort.  It  is  situated  in  Copen- 
hagen-fields, an  elevated  site  north  of  London,  occupying  an  area  of  about  fifteen  acres, 
larger  by  nine  acres  than  Smithfield,  and  capable  of  containing  30,030  sheep,  6400  bullocks, 
1400  calves,  and  900  pigs.  In  the  centre  is  a  circular  building,  let  to  bankers  and  others 
having  business  connected  with  graziers  and  cattle-agents.  Within  and  around  the  market 
are  erected  several  large  taverns.  A  place  is  set  apart  for  slaughtering  animals,  with 
approved  appliances  for  purposes  of  health,  by  ventilation,  sewerage,  &c.  ;  there  is  also  a 
place  for  haystands.  Sales  commenced  on  Friday,  June  15,  1855. — An  act  for  establishing  a 
meat  and  poultry  market  in  Smithfield  (which  see)  was  passed  in  1860. 

METROPOLITAN  FIRE  BRIGADE,  and  HOUSELESS  POOR.  See  Fire  Brigade 
and  Houseless  Poor. 

METROPOLITAN  RAILWAY  (Underground),  between  Paddington  and  Victoria-street, 
near  Holborn.  The  act  for  it  passed  in  1853  ;  the  construction  began  in  the  spring  of  1860  ; 
and  it  was  opened  for  traffic,  Jan.  10,  1863.  Many  serious  difficulties  were  overcome  with 
great  skill  and  energy  by  the  contractors,  Jay,  Smith,  and  Knight.  In  the  first  six  months 
of  1865,  there  were  7,462,823  passengers. 

METTRAY.     See  Reformatory  Schools.  METZ.     See  Australia. 

MEXICO  (N.  America),  discovered  in  1517,  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  under  Fernando 
Cortez,  1521.  The  territory  was  named  New  Spain.  The  mint  of  Mexico  was  begun  in  1535. 
This  country  rebelled  in  war  against  the  viceroy  in  1816  ;  and  under  Iturbide  gained  its 
independence  in  1821.  Benito  Juarez  was  appointed  president,  Feb.  II,  1858 ;  made  absolute 
dictator,  June  30,  1861.  See  below.  Population,  in  1862,  about  7,500,000. 


Became  independent  by  the  treaty  of  Aqnala, 

Aug.  23,   1821 

Augustin  Iturbide,  president  of  a  provision*! 
junto  ;  Mexico  formed  into  an  empire :  the 
crown  declined  by  Spain ;  Iturbide  made 
emperor,  Feb.  1822  ;  compelled  to  abdicate, 

March  26,  1823 

Mexican  republic  proclaimed        .        .    Oct.  4,     ,, 
Iturbide  went  to  England ;    returns  and  en- 
deavours to  recover  his  dignity ;  shot, 

July  19,  1824  I 

Federal  constitution  established        .        .  Oct.    „ 
Treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain,  April,  1825  \ 
Expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  decreed      .  March,  1829 
Spanish  expedition  against  Mexico  surrendered 

Sept.  26,     „ 
Mexican  revolution  :    the   president  Guerrero 

deposed          .....         Dec.  23,     „ 
Independence  of  Mexico  recognised  by  Brazil, 

June,  1830 ;  by  Spain  .  .  .  Dec.  28,  1836 
Declaration  of  war  against  France  Nov.  30,  1838 
This  war  terminated  .  .  .  March  9,  1839 
War  with  the  United  States  ,  .  June  4,  1845 
The  Mexicans  defeated  at  Palo  Alto,  May  8  ; 

and  subsequently  at  Matamoras  .  .  .  1846 
Santa  F<§  captured,  Aug.  22  :  and  Monterey, 

Sept.  24,    „ 

Battle  of  Bueno  Vista  ;  the  Mexicans  defeated 
by  general  Taylor,  with  great  loss,  after  two 
days'  fighting        ....        Feb.  22,  1847 
The  Americans,  under  general  Scott,  defeat  the 

Mexicans,  making  6000  prisoners      April  18,     „ 
Various    actions    followed.      Treaty    between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States  ratified, 

May  19,  1848 

Political  convulsions     ....        Sept.  1852 
President  Arista  resigns,  Jan.  6  ;  and  St.  Anna 

is  invited  to  return        ....     Feb.  1853 
St.  Anna  Viecomes  dictator   .        .        March  17,     ,, 
He  abdicates  ;  Carera  elected  president    .  Jan.  1855 
Who  also  abdicates ;  succeeded  first  by  Alvarez, 

and  aftei  wards  by  general  Comonf ort      Dec.     „ 
Property  of  the  clergy  sequestrated    March  31,  1856 
New  constitution        ....        Feb.  5,  1857 
Coinonfort  chosen  president  .        .        .      July,     ,, 
Coup  d'e"tat  ;    Comonfort  compelled  to  retire, 
Jan.  ii ;  general  Zuloaga  takes  the  govern- 
ment         Jan.  21-26,  1858 


Benito  Juarez  declared  constitutional  president 
at  Vera  Cruz  ....  Feb.  n,  1858 

Civil  war  ;  several  engagements     Aug.  to  Nov.     „ 

General  Miguel  Miramon  nominated  president 
at  Mexico  by  the  Junto  .  .  Jan  6,  1859 

Zuloaga  abdicates .        .        .        .  Feb.  2,     „ 

In  consequence  of  injury  to  British  subjects, 
ships  of  war  sent  to  Mexico  .  .  .  Feb.  „ 

Miramon  forces  the  lines  of  the  liberal  generals, 
enters  the  capital,  assumes  his  functions  as 
governor,  and  governs  without  respect  to  the 
laws  of  life  and  property  .  .  April  to,  ,, 

Juarez  confiscates  the  church  property,  July  13,     ,y 

Miramon  and  the  clerical  party  defeat  the 
liberals  under  Colim  a  .  .  Dec.  21,  ,, 

He  besieges  Vera  Cruz,  March  5  :  bombards  it  ; 
compelled  to  raise  the  siege  .  .  March  21,  1860 

General  Zuloaga  deposes  Miramon,  and  assumes 
the  presidency May  i,  „ 

Miramon  arrests  Zuloaga,  May  9 ;  the  diplo- 
matic bodies  suspend  official  relation  with 
the  former May  10,  ,, 

Miramon  defeated  by  Degollado  .         .  Aug.  10,    ,, 

He  governs  Mexico  with  much  tyranny  ;  the 
foreign  ministers  quit  the  city  .  .  Oct.  „ 

He  is  compelled  to  retire ;  J  uarez  enters  Mexico, 
and  re-elected  president  .  .  Jan.  19,  i86t 

Juarez  made  dictator  by  the  congress,  June  30,     ,, 

The  Mexican  congress  decides  to  suspend  pay- 
ments to  foreigners  for  two  years  July  17,  ,, 

Which  leads  to  the  breaking  off  diplomatic  re- 
lations with  England  and  France  .  July  27,  ,, 

In  consequence  of  many  gross  outrages  on 
foreigners,  the  British,  French,  and  Spanish 
governments,  after  much  vain  negotiation, 
claiming  efficient  protection  of  foreigners,  and 
the  payment  of  arrears  due  to  fundholders, 
sign  a  convention  engaging  to  combined  hos- 
tile operations  against  Mexico  .  Oct.  31,  ,, 

The  Mexican  congress  dissolves,  after  con- 
ferring full  powers  on  the  president,  Deo.  15,  ,, 

Spanish  troops  land  at  Vera  Cruz,  Dec.  8;  it 
surrenders Dec.  17,  „ 

A  British  naval  and  French  military  expedition 
arrives Jan.  7,  8,  1862 

The  Mexicans  determine  on  resistance,  and 
invest  Vera  Cruz  ;  their  taxes  are  raised  2^ 
per  cent Jan.  „ 


MEZ 


483 


MIC 


' 


MEXICO,  continued. 

Miramon  arrives,  but  is  sent  back  to  Spain  by 

.  the  British  admiral      .        .        .  Feb.  1862 

'reject  of  establishing  a  Mexican  monarchy  for 

archduke  Maximilian  of  Austria,  disapproved 

of  by  the  British  and  Spanish  governments, 

Feb.     ,, 

Negotiation  ensues  between  the  Spanish  and 
Mexicans  ;  convention  between  the  commis- 
saries of  the  Allies  and  the  Mexican  general 
Dobladp,  at  Soledad  .  .  .  Feb.  19,  „ 

The  Mexican  general  Marquez  takes  up  arms 
against  Juarez  ;  and  general  Almonte  joins 
the  French  general  Lorencez ;  Juarez  demands 
a  compulsory  loan,  and  puts  Mexico  in  a  state 
of  siege March,  ,, 

Conference  between  plenipotentiaries  of  the 
Allies  at  Orizaba ;  the  English  and  Spanish 
declare  for  peace,  which  is  not  agreed  to  by 
the  French,  April  9  ;  who  declare  war  against 
Juarez  ...  .  .  April  16,  ,, 

The  Spanish  and  British  forces  retire  ;  the 
French  government  sends  reinforcements  to 
Lorencez May,  „ 

The  French,  induced  by  Marquez,  advance  into 
the  interior;  severely  repulsed  by  general 
Zaragoza,  at  Fort  Guadaloupe,  near  Puebla, 

The  French  defeat  the  Mexicans  at  Cerro  de 
Borgo,  near  Orizaba  .  .  .  June  13,  14,  ,, 

The  Mexican  liberals  said  to  be  desirous  of 
negotiation Aug.  „ 

Gen.  Forey  and  2500  French  soldiers  land, 

Aug.  28,     „ 

Letter  from  the  emperor  Napoleon  to  Lorencez 
disclaiming  any  intention  of  imposing  a 
government  on  Mexico  announced  .  Sept.  ,, 

Death  of  Zaragoza,  a  great  loss  to  the  Mexicans, 

Sept.  8,     „ 

Gen.  Forey  deprives  Almonte  of  the  presidency 
at  Vera  Cruz,  and  appropriates  the  civil  and 
military  power  to  hitnself  .  .  Oct.  ,, 

Ortega  takes  command  of  the  Mexican  army, 

Oct.  19,     ,, 

The  Mexican  congress  assembles,  and  protests 
against  the  French  invasion  .  Oct.  27,  ,, 

The  French  evacuate  Tampico    .        .    Jan.  13,  1863 

Forey  marches  towards  Mexico      .        Feb.  24,     ,, 

Siege  of  Puebla,  bravely  defended,  March  29; 
severe  assault,  March  31  to  April  3  ;  it  is  sur- 
rendered at  discretion  by  Ortega  .  May  18,  „ 

The  republican  government  remove  to  San  Luis 
de  Potosi  .  .  .  "*  .  .  May  31,  ,, 


Mexico  occupied  by  the  French,  under  Bazaine, 
June  5  ;  Forey  and  his  army  enter  June  10,  1863 

Assembly  of  notables  at  Mexico  decide  on 
the  establishment  of  a  limited  here-iitiry 
monarchy,  with  a  Roman  Catholic  prince 
as  emperor  ;  and  offer  the  crown  to  the  arch- 
duke Maximilian  of  Austria  ;  a  regency  esta- 
blished   July  10,  „ 

The  French  re-occupy  Tampico        .      Aug.  n,     ,, 

Marshal  Forey  resigns  his  command  to 
Bazaine,  and  returns  to  France  .  Oct.  r,  „ 

The  archduke  Maximilian  accepts  the  crown;-    — 
under  conditions      ....       Oct.  3,     ,, 

The  Mexican  general  Comonfort  surprised  and 
shot  by  partisans  .  .  .  Nov.  12,  ,, 

Successful  advance  of  the  imperialists ;  Juarez 
retires  from  San  Luis  de  Potosi,  Dec.  18  ;  it 
is  entered  by  the  imperialists  .  Dec.  24,  , , 

The  French  occupy  various  places,  Jan.  &  Feb.   1864 

The  ex-president,  general  Santa- Anna,  lands  at 
Vera  Cruz,  profes-sing  adhesion  to  the  empire, 
Feb.  27  ;  dismissed  by  Bazaine  .  March  12,  „ 

Juarez  enters  Monterey,  which  becomes  the 
seat  of  the  republican  government  April  3,  )r 

The  archduke  Maximilian  definitively  accepts 
the  crown  from  the  Mexican  deputation  at 
Miramar April  10,  ,, 

The  emperor  and  empress  land  at  Vera  Cruz, 
May  29 ;  enter  the  city  of  Mexico  .  June  12,  ,, 

The  emperor  visits  the  interior ;  grants  a  free 
press Aug.  ,, 

The  republicans  defeat  the  imperialists  at 
San  Pedro Dec.  27,  ,, 

Juarez,  at  Chihuahua,  exhorts  the  Mexicans  to 
maintain  their  independence  .  .  Jan.  r,  1865 

The  emperor  institutes  the  order  of  the  Mexican 
eagle Jan.  18,  ,, 

Surrender  of  Oaxaca  to  marshal  Bazaine  Feb.  9,     ,, 

A  temporary  constitution  promulgated  April  10,     , , 

Ortega,  at  New  York,  enlists  recruits  for  the 
republican  army,  May  ;  discountenanced  by 
the  U.  S.  government  .  .  .  June,  ,, 

The  emperor  proclaims  the  end  of  the  war,  and 
martial  law  against  all  armed  bauds  of  men, 

Oct.     „ 

EMPEROR. 

1864.  Maximilian  I.  (brother  to  the  emperor  of 
Austria),  born  July  6,  1832  ;  accepted  the 
crown  April  10,  1864  :  married  July  27,  1857, 
to  princess  Charlotte,  daughter  of  Leopold  I., 
king  of  the  Belgians ;  adopts  Augustus 
Iturbide  as  his  heir,  Sept.  1865. 


MEZZOTINTO.     See  Engraving. 

MHOW  COURT-MARTIAL.    See  Trials,  Nov.  1863. 

MICHAELMAS,  Sept.  29,  the  feast  of  St.  Michael,  the  reputed  guardian  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  under  the  title  of  "St.  Michael  and  All  Angels."  Instituted  according  to 
Butler,  487.* 

MICHIGAN,  a  north-west  state  of  N.  America,  settled  in  1670  ;  admitted  into  the  union, 
Jan.  26,  1837.  Capital,  Lansing. 

MICROMETER,  an  astronomical  instrument  used  to  discover  and  measure  any  small 
distance  and  the  minuter  objects  in  the  heavens,  such  as  the  apparent  diameters  of  the 
planets,  &c. ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  by  some  to  M.  Huygens,  1652  ;  but  our  countryman 
Gascoyne's  instrument  is  prior  to  that  time. 

MICROSCOPES,  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Fontana,  in  Italy,  and  by  Drebbel,  in 
Holland,  about  1621.  Those  with  double  glasses  were  made  at  the  period  when  the  law  of 
refraction  was  discovered,  about  1624.  Solar  microscopes  were  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke.  In 

*  The  custom  of  eating  goose  at  Michaelmas  has  been  erroneously  attributed  to  queen  Elizabeth's 
eating  of  the  bird  at  dinner  on  Sept.  29,  1588,  at  the  house  of  sir  Neville  Umfreyville,  at  the  time  she  heard 
of  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  The  custom  is  of  much  older  date,  and  is  observed  on  the  con- 
tinent.— Clavis  Calendaria.. 

I  i  2 


MID 


484 


MIL 


England  great  improvements  were  made  in  the  microscope  by  Benjamin  Martin  (who  invented 
and  sold  pocket  microscopes  about  1740),  by  Henry  Baker,  F.R.S.,  about  1763,  and  still 
greater  during  the  present  century  by  Wollaston,  Ross,  Jackson,  Varley,  Powell,  and  others. 
Diamond  microscopes  were  made  by  Andrew  Pritchard  in  1824;  and  the  properties  of  "test- 
objects"  to  prove  the  qualities  of  microscopes,  discovered  by  him  and  Goring  in  1824-40.  A 
binocular  microscope  (i.e.,  for  two  eyes),  was  constructed  by  professor  Biddel  in  1851.  Wen- 
ham's  improvements  were  made  known  in  1861.  Treatises  on  the  microscope  by  J.  Quekett 
(1848),  by  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter  (1856),  by  Dr.  Lionel  Beale  (1858-64),  and  Griffith  and 
Henfrey's  "  Micrographic  Dictionary  "  (1856)  are  valuable.  The  Microscopical  Society  of 
London  was  established  in  1839.  In  1865  Mr.  H.  Sorby  exhibited  his  spectrum-microscope 
by  which  the  millionth  of  a  grain  of  blood  was  detected. 

MIDDLE  AGES.     See  Dark  Ages.     Henry  Hallam's  "  Middle  Ages'1  appeared  in  1818. 
MIDDLE-CLASS  EXAMINATION.     See  Education  (1858). 
MIDDLE  LEVELS.     See  Levels. 

MIDIANITES,  an  eastern  people,  descendants  of  Midian,  a  son  of  Abraham. — Having 
enticed  the  Israelites  to  idolatry  they  were  severely  chastised,  14526.0.  They  invaded 
Canaan  about  1249  B.C.,  and  were  thoroughly  defeated  by  Gideon. 

MIDWIFERY.  Women  were  the  only  practitioners  of  this  art  among  the  Hebrews  and 
Egyptians.  Hippocrates,  who  practised  medicine  in  Greece,  460  B.C.,  is  styled  by  some  the 
father  of  midwifery,  as  well  as  of  physic.*  It  advanced  under  Celsus,  who  flourished 
A.D.  37,  and  of  Galen,  who  lived,  131.  In  England  midwifery  became  a  science  about  the 
period  of  the  institution  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  10  Hen.  VII.,  I5i8.f 

MILAN".  Mediolanum,  capital  of  the  ancient  Liguria,  now  Lombardy,  is  reputed  to 
.have  been  built  by  the  Gauls,  about  408  B.C. 


Conquered  by  the  Roman  consul  Marcellus  B.C.     222  j 
Seat  of  government  of  the  western  empire  A.D.     286  I 

Council  of  Milan 346  I 

St.  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan         .        .        .     .     375  ' 

Milan  plundered  by  Attila 452 

Included  in  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom,  489  ;  in 

the  Lombard  kingdom 569 

Becomes  an  independent  republic      .         .        .   1 101 
The  emperor  Frederic  I.  takes  Milan,  and  ap- 
points a  podesta  1158 

It  rebels  ;    and  is  taken  by  Frederic  and  de- 
stroyed       1162 

Rebuilt  and  fortified 1169 

The  Milanese  defeated  by  the  emp.  Frederic  II.  1237 
The  Visconti  become  paramount  in  Milan  .  1277 
John  Galeazzo  Visconti  takes  the  title  of  duke  1395 
Francesco  Sforza,  son-in-law  of  the  last  of  the 

Visconti,  subdues  Milan  and  becomes  duke  .  1450 
Milan  conquered  by  Louis  XII.  of  France  .  .  1499 
The  French  expelled  by  the  Spaniards  .  .1525 
Milan  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Spain  .  .  .  1540 

Oeded  to  Austria 1714 

Conquered  by  the  French  and  Spaniards      .     .   1743  ; 
Reverts  to  Austria,   upon   Naples  and   Sicily 
being  ceded  to  Spain 1748 


Seized  by  the  French      .         .        .        June  30,  1796 
Retaken  by  the  Austrians  .         ...        .         .  1 799 

Regained  by  the  French         .         .          May  31,  1800 
Made  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  crowned  with  the  iron 

crown  here May  26,  1805 

The  Milan  decree  of  Napoleon  against  all  con- 
tinental intercourse  with  England      Dec.  17,  1807 
Insurrection  against  the  Austrians ;    flight   of 

the  viceroy March  18,  1848 

Another  revolt  promptly  suppressed  and  rigor- 
ously punished        .        .         .     Feb.  6,  et .  seq.  1853 
Milan  visited  by  the  emperor  of  Austria     Nov.  1856 
Amnesty  for  political  offences  granted    .    Dec.  1857 
After  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  at  Magenta, 
June  4,  Louis  Napoleon  and  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia enter  Milan        ....  JuneS,  1859 
Peace  of  Villafranca ;  a  large  part  of  Lombardy 

transferred  to  Sardinia          .        .       July  12,     ,, 
Victor-Emmanuel  enters  Milan  as  king,  Aug.  8,  1860 
Reactionary  plots  of  Neapolitan  soldiery  sup- 
pressed         April  29,  30,  1861 

See  Italy. 


MILETUS,  a  Greek  city  of  Ionia,  Asia  Minor,  founded  about  1043  B.C.  During  the  war 
with  Persia  it  was  taken,  494,  but  restored,  449.  Here  Paul  delivered  his  celebrated  charge 
to  the  elders  of  the  church  of  Ephesus,  A.D.  60  (Acts  xx.). 

MILFORD   HAVEN   (Wales).      Here  the  earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII. 
landed  on  his  enterprise  against  Richard  III.  whom  he  defeated  at  Bosworth,  1485. 

*  Agnodice,  an  Athenian  virgin,  disguised  her  sex  to  learn  medicine.     She  was  taught  by  Hierophil 
her  father,  the  art  of  midwifery,  and,  when  employed,  always  discovered  her  sex  to  her  patients.     T 
•brought  her  into  so  much  practice,  that  the  males  of  her  profession,  who  were  now  out  of  employm 
accused  her,  before  the  Areopagus,  of  corruption.    She  confessed  her  sex  to  the  judges,  and  a  law  was  m 
to  empower  all  free-born  women  to  learn  midwifery.     The  whole  story  is  doubtful. 

t  The  celebrated  Dr.  Harvey  personally  engaged  in  the  practice  of  it,  about  1603  ;  and,  after  his  exam  pi 
the  calling  in  of  men  in  all  difficult  cases  followed.  Astruc  affirms  that  the  epoch  of  the  employment  o: 
men-midwives  goes  no  further  back  than  the  first  lying-in  of  madame  de  la  Valliere,  mistress  of  Louis.XI V. , 
1663.  She  sent  for  Julian  Clement,  an  eminent  surgeon,  who  was  conducted  with  great  secrecy  to  tbe 
house.  The  same  surgeon  was  employed  in  the  subsequent  labours  of  this  lady,  and  he  being  very  success- 
ful, men-nddwives  afterwards  came  into  repute,  the  name  of  accoucheur  being  given  to  them. 


ickets  from  this  port  to  Ireland,  sailing  to  Waterford,  were  established  in  1787.    The  dock- 
mi,  established  here  in  1790,  was  removed  to  Pembroke  in  1814. 

MILITARY  OR  MARTIAL   LAW  is  built  on  no   settled  principle,    but  is  entirely 
bitrary,  and,  in  truth,  no  law  ;  but  sometimes  indulged  rather  than  allowed,  as  law.     Sir 
ratthcw  Hale.     It  has  been  several  times  proclaimed  in  these  kingdoms,  and  in  1798  was 
almost  general  in  Ireland,  where  it  was  proclaimed  in  1803. 

MILITARY  ASYLUM,   ROYAL,   at  Chelsea,    "for  the  children  of  the  soldiers  of  the 
regular  army."     The  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  duke  of  York,  June  19,  1801. 

MILITARY  KNIGHTS  OF  WINDSOR.     See  Poor  Knights  of  Windsor. 

?iIILITIA,  the  standing  national  force  of  these  realms,  is  traced  to  king  Alfred,  who 
e  all  his  subjects  soldiers,  872  to  901. 


i 


commission  of  ai-ray  to  raise  a  militia      .  1122  i  General  militia  act  for  England  and  Scotland, 


vived  by  Henry  II 1176 


[  by  Henry  II. 
3vived 


Again  revived 1557 

Said  to  amount  to  160,000  men  .  .  .  .  1623 
The  present  militia  statutes  established,  1661  to  1663 
Supplemental  militia  act  passed  .  .  .  1797 
Irish  militia  offered  its  services  in  England, 


1802  ;  for  Ireland 
Enactment  authorising  courts-martial  to  inflict 

imprisonment  instead  of  flogging  passed  .  1814 
Acts  to  consolidate  the  militia  laws  .  1 8  52^-4 
Militia  embodied  on  account  of  the  Russian 

war,  1854  5    and  on  account   of  the  Indian 


March  28,  1804  |      mutiny 1857 

MILKY  WAY  (Galaxy)  in  the  heavens.  Juno  is  said  by  the  Greek  poets  to  have  spilt 
her  milk  in  the  heavens  after  suckling  Mercury  or  Hercules.  Democritus  (about  428  B.C.) 
taught  that  the  via  lactea  was  a  multitude  of  stars;  proved  by  Galileo  by  means  of  the 
jlescope. 

MILLENNARIANS  suppose  that  .the  world  will  end  at  the  expiration  of  the  seven- 
lousandth  year  from  the  creation  ;  and  that  during  a  thousand  years  (millennium)  Christ  and 
the  saints  will  reign  upon  the  earth.  See  Rev.  xx.  The  doctrine  was  very  generally  incul- 
cated as  early  as  the  2nd  and  3rd  centuries,  by  Papias,  Justin  Martyr,  and  others.  Burnett, 

MILLENNARY  PETITION,  presented  to  king  James  on  his  accession,  1603,  on  behalf 
of  a  thousand  Puritan  ministers  against  the  "human  rites  and  ceremonies"  of  the  church 
of  England. 

MILLS.  Moses  forbad  mill-stones  to  be  taken  in  pawn,  because  it  would  be  like  taking 
a  man's  life  to  pledge.  Deut.  xxiv.  6.  The  hand-mill  was  in  use  among  the  Britons  pre- 
viously to  the  conquest  by  the  Romans.  The  Romans  introduced  the  water-mill.  Cotton 
mills  moved  by  water  were  erected  by  sir  Richard  Arkwright,  at  Cromford,  Derbyshire.  He 
died  in  1792. 

MINCIO,  a  river  of  Lombard}-.  Here  the  Austrians  were  repulsed  by  the  French  under 
Brune,  Dec.  25-27,  1800;  and  by  Eugene  Beauharnais,  Feb.  8,  1814. 

MINDEN  (Prussia1) ,~  BATTLE  OF,  Aug.  i,  1759,  between  the  English,  Hessians,  and 
Hanoverians  (commanded  by  prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick),  and  the  French,  who  were 
beaten  and  driven  to  the  very  ramparts  of  Minden.  Lord  George  Sackville  (afterwards  lord 
George  Germaine)  who  commanded  the  British  and  Hanoverian  horse,  for  some  disobedience 
of  orders  was  tried  by  a  court-martial  on  his  return  to  England,  found  guilty,  and  dismissed 
the  service,  April  22,  1760.  He  was  afterwards  restored  to  court  favour,  and  became- 
secretary  of  state,  1776. 

MINES.  Strabo  and  Tacitus  enumerate  gold  and  silver  as  among  the  products  of 
England.  The  earliest  instance  of  a  claim  to  a  mine  royal  being  enforced  occurs  47  Hen.  III. 
1262.  It  related  to  mines  containing  gold,  together  with  copper,  in  Devonshire  ;  and  in 
Edward  I.'s  reign,  according  to  Mr.  Ending,  the  mines  in  Ireland,  which  produced  silver, 
were  supposed  to  be  so  rich  that  the  king  directed  a  writ  for  working  them  to  Robert  de 
Ufford,  lord  justice,  1276.  The  lead  mines  of  Cardiganshire,  from  which  silver  has  ever 
since  been  extracted,  were  discovered  by  sir  Hugh  Middleton  in  the  reign  of  James  I. 

A  British  Mineralogical  Society  established  in  1800  !  A  Minei-s'  Protection  Association  proposed  by 
Haiiy's  "  Traite  de  Mineralogie"  appeared  in    .  1801  '      Mr.  William  Gurney  and  others  in     .  March,  1862 
The  government  School  of  Mines,  &c.,Jermyn-              Value  of  the   mineral  produce  of  the  United 
street,  St.  James's,  opened  in        .         .  Nov.  1851        Kingdom  estimated  at  25,961,649^.  in  1857  ; 
An  act  for  the  regulation  of  mines  passed  in    .1860        and  at  39,979, 83 jl.  in 1864 

*  This  militia  act  was  consequent  upon  the  then  prevailing  opinion  of  the  necessity  of  strengthening 
our  national  defences  against  the  possibility  of  French  invasion.  The  act  empowered  her  majesty  to  raise 
a  force  not  exceeding  80,000  men,  of  which  number  50,000  were  to  be  raised  in  1852,  and  30,000  in  1855  ;  the 
quotas  for  e.xch  county  or  riding  to  be  fixed  by  an  order  in  council. 


MIN  486  MIS 

MINIE  RIFLE-,  invented  at  Vincennes,  about  1833,  by  M.  Minie  (born  about  1800). 
From  a  common  soldier  he  raised  himself  to  the  rank  of  chef  d'escadron.  His  rifle  is 
considered  to  surpass  all  made  previous  to  it,  for  accuracy  of  direction  and  extent  of  range. 
It  was  adopted  by  the  French,  and,  with  various  modifications,  by  the  British  army  in  1852. 

MINISTER  OF  WAR.     See  War  Minister. 
MINISTERS.     See  Administrations. 

MINNESINGERS,  lyric  German  poets,  of  the  I2th  and  i-jth  centuries,  who  wrote  to 
entertain  knights  and  barons  of  the  time.  The  Mcister-swgers  in  the  I4th  century  devoted 
themselves  to  citizens.  Some  of  their  songs  have  been  collected  and  published. 

MINNESOTA,  a  western  state  of  N.  America,  was  organised  as  a  territory,  March  3,  1849, 
and  admitted  into  the  union  in  1857.  On  Aug.  17,  1862,  the  Sioux  Indians  commenced  a 
series  of  outrages  at  Acton,  in  Messier  county,  desolating  the  country  and  massacring  above 
500  persons,  of  both  sexes,  and  of  all  ages.  General  Sibley  beat  the 'Indians  in  two  battles, 
and  rescued  many  captives.  Thirty-eight  Indians  were  executed  as  assassins. 

MINORCA  AND  MAJORCA,  the  Balearic  Isles  (which  see).  Minorca  was  captured  by 
lieutenant-general  Stanhope  and  sir  John  Leake  in  Aug.  1708,  and  was  ceded  to  the  British 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  It  was  retaken  by  the  Spanish  and  French  in  July,  1756. 
Admiral  Byng  fell  a  victim  to  public  indignation  for  riot  relieving  it.  See  Byng.  It  was 
restored  to  the  British  at  the  peace  in  1763  ;  besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  and  taken 
Feb.  5,  1782.  It  was  again  captured  by  the  British  under  general  Stuart,  without  the  loss 
of  a  man,  Nov.  15,  1798 ;  but  was  given  up  at  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802. 

MINSTRELS,  originally  pipers  appointed  by  lords  of  manors  to  divert  their  copyholders 
while  at  work,  owed  their  origin  to  the  glee-men  or  harpers  of  the  Saxons,  and  continued  till 
about  1560.  John  of  Gaunt  erected  a  court  of  minstrels  at  Tutbury  in  1380.  So  late  as  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  they  intruded  without  ceremony  into  all  companies,  even  at  the  houses 
of  the  nobility  ;  but  in  Elizabeth's  reign  they  sank  into  neglect,  and  were  adjudged  rogues 
and  vagabonds  (1597). 

MINT.  Athelstan  first  enacted  regulations  for  the  government  of  the  mint  about  928. 
There  were  several  provincial  mints  under  the  control  of  that  of  London.  Henry  II.  is  said 
to  have  instituted  a  mint  at  Winchester,  1125.  Stow  says  the  mint  was  kept  by  Italians, 
the  English  being  ignorant  of  the  art  of  coining,  7  Edw.  I.  1278.  The  operators  were 
formed  into  a  corporation  by  the  charter  of  king  Edward  III.,  in  which  condition  it  consisted 
of  the  warden,  master,  comptroller,  assay-master,  workers,  coiners,  and  subordinates.  The 
first  entry  of  gold  brought  to  the  mint  for  coinage  occurs  in  18  Edw.  III.  1343.  Tin  was 
coined  by  Charles  II.  1684  ;  and  gun-metal  and  pewter  by  his  successor  James.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  Avas  warden,  1699-1727,  during  which  time  the  debased  coin  was  called  in,  and  new 
issued  at  the  loss  of  the  government.  Between  1806  and  1810,  grants  amounting  to  262,000?. 
were  made  by  parliament  for  the  erection  of  the  present  mint,  which  was  completed  in  1813  ; 
it  was  injured  by  fire,  Oct.  31,  1815.  The  new  constitution  of  the  mint,  founded  on  the 
report  of  the  lion.  Wellesley  Pole,  took  effect  in  1817. 


1817.  Wellesley  Pole. 

1823.  Thomas  Wallace. 

1827.  George  Tierney. 

1828.  J.  C.  Herries. 
1830.  Lord  Auckland. 


MASTERS   OF   THE   MINT. 

1834.  James  Abercrombie. 

1835.  Alexander  Baring. 
,,      Henry  Labouchere. 

1841.  William  E.  Gladstone. 


1845.  Sir  George  Clerk. 

1846.  Richard  L.  Shi  el. 

1850.  Sir  John  F.  Herschel,  F.R.S. 
1855.  Thomas  Graham,  F.R.S. 


MINUS.     See  Plus. 

MIRRORS.  In  ancient  times  mirrors  were  made  of  metal ;  those  of  the  Jewish  women 
of  brass.  Mirrors  in  silver  were  introduced  by  Praxiteles,  328  B.C.  Mirrors  or  looking- 
glasses  were  made  at  Venice,  A.D.  1300  ;  and  in  England,  at  Lambeth,  near  London,  in 
1673.  The  improvements  in  manufacturing  plate-glass,  and  that  of  very  large  size,  has 
cheapened  looking-glasses  very  much.  Various  methods  of  coating  glass  by  a  solution  of 
silver,  thus  avoiding  the  use  of  mercury,  so  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  workmen,  have 
been  made  known  ;  by  M.  Petitjean  in  1851 ;  and  by  M.  Cimeg  in  1861. 


MISSIONS.     Among  the  Romanists,  the  religious  orders  of  St.  Dominic,  St.  Franci 
St.  Augustin,  &c.,  had  missions  to  the  Levant  and  to  America.     Marco  Polo  is  said  to  haA . 
introduced  missionaries  into  China,  1275.     The  Jesuits  had  missions  to  China  (which  see) 
and  to  most  other  parts  of  the  world.     Among  the  Protestants,  an  early  undertaking  of  this 


; 


MIS  487  MOD 

nd  was  a  Danish  mission,  planned  by  Frederick  IV.  in  1706.  But  the  Moravian  Brethren 
may  be  said  to  have  led  the  way  to  the  new  Christian  missions  about  1732.  The  London 
Missionary  Society  held  their  first  meeting,  Nov.  4,  1794.* 

MISSISSIPPI,  a  great  river,  N.  America.  The  Mississippi  trade  was  begun  in  England, 
Nov.  1716.  The  celebrated  Mississippi  scheme  or  bubble  in  France,  which  was  com- 
menced about  the  same  period,  exploded  in  1720;  at  which  time  the  nominal  capital  is  said 
to  have  amounted  to  100,000, oooZ.  The  ruin  of  thousands  of  families,  dupes  of  this  iniquitous 
scheme,  soon  followed  in  both  countries.  See  Law's  Bubble. — The  North  American  state, 
MISSISSIPPI,  was  settled  in  1716  ;  admitted  as  a  state  of  the  union,  1817  ;  and  seceded  from 
it  by  ordinance,  Jan.  8,  1861.  Capital,  Jackson. 

MISSOLONGHI,  a  town  in  Greece,  heroically  and  successfully  defended  against  the 
Turks  by  Marco  Botzaris  in  1822.  It  was  taken  in  1826  after  a  year's  siege. — Here  lord  Byron 
died  in  1824.  It  was  surrendered  to  the  Greeks  in  1829. 

MISSOURI,  a  south-western  state  in  N.  America,  was  settled  in  1763,  and  admitted  into 
the  union,  Aug.  10,  1821.  It  decided  on  neutrality  in  the  conflict  of  1861,  but  was  invaded 
by  both  the  confederate  and  federal  forces  in  June  of  that  year,  and  became  one  of  the  seats 
of  war.  Capital,  Jefferson  city.  See  United  States,  1861,  et  seq, — For  the  MISSOURI 
COMPROMISE,  see  Slavery  in  America. 

^]^ITHRIDATE,  a  physical  preparation  in  the  form  of  an  electuary,  supposed  to  be  an 
tidote  to  poison  and  the  oldest  compound  known,  is  said  to  have  been  indented  by 
thridates,  king  of  Pontus,  about  70  B.C. 

MITHRIDATIC  WAR,  caused  by  the  massacre  of  100,000  Romans,  by  Mithridates,  king 
of  Pontus,  88  B.C.,  and  remarkable  for  its  duration,  its  many  battles,  the  destruction  of 
human  life  it  occasioned,  and  the  cruelties  of  its  commanders.  Mithridates  having  taken 
the  consul  Aquilius,  made  him  ride  on  an  ass  through  a  great  part  of  Asia,  crying  out  as  he 
rode,  "  I  am  Aquilius,  consul  of  the  Romans."  He  ultimately  despatched  him  by  ordering 
melted  gold  to  be  poured  down  his  throat,  in  derision  of  his  avarice,  85  B.C.  Mithridates 
\vas  defeated  by  Pompey,  66  B.C. ;  and  committed  suicide,  63  B.C. 

MITRE.  The  cleft  cap  or  mitre  was  worn  by  the  Jewish  high-priest,  1491  B.C.  It  had 
on  it  a  golden  plate  inscribed  "HOLINESS  TO  THE  LORD."  Exodus  xxxix.  28.  The  most 
ancient  mitre  that  has  the  nearest  resemblance  to  the  present  one  is  that  upon  the  seal  of 
the  bishop  of  Laon,  in  the  loth  century.  FosbroJce.  Anciently  the  cardinals  wore  mitres, 
but  at  the  council  of  Lyons,  in  1245,  they  were  directed  to  wear  hats. 

MNEMONICS,  artificial  memory,  was  introduced  by  Simonides  the  younger,  477  B.C. 
Arund.  Marbles.  In  modern  times,  mnemonics  have  been  elaborately  treated ;  "Mnemonica" 
was  published  by  John  Willis  in  1618  ;  and  the  Memoria  Technica  of  Dr.  Grey  first  appeared 
in  1730.  A  system  of  mnemonics  was  announced  in  Germany,  in  1806-7. 

MOCKERN  (Prussil).  Here  the  French  army  under  Eugene  Beauharnois  defeated  the 
allied  Russian  and  Prussian  army  with  great  loss,  April,  1813  ;  and  here  Bliicher  defeated 
the  French,  Oct.  16,  1813. 

MODELS.  The  first  were  figures  of  living  persons,  and  Dibutades,  the  Corinthian,  is 
the  reputed  inventor  of  those  in  clay.  His  daughter,  known  by  the  appellation  of  the 
Corinthian  Maid,  being  about  to  be  separated  from  her  lover,  who  was  going  on  a  distant 
journey,  traced  his  profile  by  his  shadow  on  the  wall  ;  her  father  filled  up  the  outline  with 
clay,  which  he  afterwards  baked,  and  thus  produced  a  figure  of  the  object  of  her  affection, 
giving  rise  to  an  art  till  then  unknown,  about  985  B.c.f 

MODENA  (formerly  Mutina),  till  lately  capital  of  the  duchy  in  Central  Italy;  was 
governed  by  the  house  of  Este,  from  1288  till  1796,  when  the  last  male  of  that  house,  the 
reigning  duke  Hercules  III.,  was  expelled  by  the  French.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio, 

*  Our  missionaries  abroad  have  not  unfrequently  suffered  grievous  hardships  and  privations.  Com- 
mander Allan  Gardner,  R.N.,  who  left  England  in  the  Ocean  Queen  in  Sept.  1850,  on  the  Patagonian  mission, 
with  Mr.  Williams,  surgeon,  Mr.  Maidrnent,  catechist,  and  four  others,  died  on  Picton  Island,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Beagle  Channel,  to  the  south  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  having  been  starved  to  death,  all  his  companions 
having  previously  perished,  Sept.  6,  1851.— M.  Schoffler,  a  missionary  to  Cochin-China,  was  publicly 
executed  at  Son-Tay,  by  order  of  the  grand  mandarin,  for  preaching  Christianity,  such  preaching  being 
prohibited  by  the  law  of  that  country,  May  4,  1851. 

t  A  beautiful  model  of  the  new  town  of  Edinburgh,  before  the  building  began,  was  formed  in  wood. 
A  model  was  made  of  a  bridge  over  the  Neva,  of  uncommon  strength  as  well  as  elegance  ;  and  of  the 
mountains  of  Switzerland,  by  general  Pfiffer  (1766-85).  M.  Choffin's  model  of  Paris  also  was  remarkable 
for  its  precision. 


M(E  488  MON 


the  Modenese  possessions  were  incorporated  with  the  Cisalpine  republic,  1797.  The  arch- 
duke Francis  of  Este,  son  of  the  archduke  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and  of  Mary,  the  heires's 
of  the  last  duke,  was  restored  in  1814.  Modena,  in  accordance  with  the  voting  by  universal 
suffrage,  was  annexed  to  Sardinia  on  March  18,  1860.  Population,  in  1857,  604,512. 

RECENT   GRAND-DUKES    OF    MODEXA. 

1814.  Francis  IV.  An  invasion  of  his  states  by  to  Verona,  establishing  a  regency,  June  n  ; 

Murat  was  defeated,  April  n,  1815.  He  was  which  was  abolished  June  13  ;  Farini  was 

expelled  by  his  subjects  in  1831,  but  was  appointed  dictator,  July  27;  a  constituent 

restored  by  the  Austrians.  assembly  was  immediately  elected,  which 

1846.   Francis  V.  (born  June  i,  1819)  succeeds  Jan.  21.  offered  the  duchy  to  the  king  of  Sardinia, 


His  subjects  rose  against  him  soon  after  the 
Italian  war  broke  out,  in  April,  1859.  He  fled 


Sept.    15.       He    incorporated    it  with    his 
dominions,  March  18,  1860. 


MCESIA  (now  Bosnia,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria),  was  finally  subdued  by  Augustus.  It  was 
successfully  invaded  by  the  Goths,  253  B.C.,  who  eventually  settled  here.  See  Goths. 

MOGULS.     See  Tartary. 

MOHAMMERAH,  a  Persian  town  near  the  Euphrates,  captured,  after  two  hours' 
cannonading,  by  sir  James  Outram,  during  the  Persian  war,  March  26,  1857.  News  of  the 
peace  arrived  there  on  the  4th  of  April. 

MOHATZ  (Lower  Hungary).  Here,  Louis,  king  of  Hungary,  defeated  by  the  Ttirks 
under  Solyman  II.  with  the  loss  of  22,000  men,  was  suffocated  by  the  fall  of  his  horse  in  a 
muddy  brook,  Aug.  29,  1526.  Here  also  prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  defeated  the  Turks, 
Aug.  12,  1687. 

MOHILOW  (in  Russia).  Here  the  Russian  army,  under  prince  Bagration,  was  signally 
defeated  by  the  French  under  marshal  Davoust,  prince  of  Eckmiihl,  July  23,  1812. 

MOHOCKS,  ruffians,  who  went  about  London  at  night,  wounding  and  disfiguring  the 
men,  and  indecently  exposing  the  women.  One  hundred  pounds  were  offered  by  royal 
proclamation,  in  1712,  for  apprehending  any  one  of  them.  Northouck. 

MOLDAVIA.     See  Danubian  Principalities. 

MOLINISTS,  a  Roman  Catholic  sect,  followers  of  Louis  Molina,  a  Jesuit,  born  1535. 
He  maintained  the  reconcilability  of  the  doctrines  of  predestination  and  freewill. 

MOLUCCAS,  an  archipelago  in  the  Indian  Ocean  (the  chief  island,  Amboyna),  discovered 
by  the  Portuguese,  about  1511,  and  held  by  them  secretly  till  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards, 
who  claimed  them  till  1629,  when  Charles  V.  yielded  them  to  John  III.  for  a  large  sum  of 
money.  The  Dutch  conquered  them  in  1607,  and  have  held  them  ever  since, — except  from 
1810  to  1814,  when  they  were  subject  to  the  English. 

MOLWITZ  (in  Prussian  Silesia).  Here  the  Prussians,  commanded  by  Frederick  II., 
obtained  a  great  victory  over  the  Imperialists,  April  10  (0.  S.  March  30),  1741. 

MOLYBDENUM,  a  whitish,  brittle,  almost  infusible  metal.  Scheele,  in  1778,  dis- 
covered molybdic  acid  in  a  mineral  hitherto  confounded  with  graphite.  Hjelm,  in  1782, 
prepared  the  metal  from  molybdic  acid;  and  in  1825  Berzelius  described  most  of  its  chemical 
characters.  Gmelin. 

MONACHISM  (from  the  Greek  tiwnos,  alone).  Catholic  writers  refer  to  the  prophet 
Elijah,  and  the  Nazarenes  mentioned  in  Numbers,  ch.  vi.,  as  early  examples.  The  first 
Christian  ascetics  appear  to  be  derived  from  the  Jewish  sect  of  the  Essenes,  whose  life  was 
very  austere,  practising  celibacy,  &c.  About  the  time  of  Constantino  (306-22)  numbers  of 
these  ascetics  withdrew  into  the  deserts,  and  were  called  hermits,  monks,  and  anchorets;*  of 
whom  Paul,  Anthony,  and  Pachomius  were  most  celebrated.  Simeon,  the  founder  of  the 
Stylitre  (or  pillar  saints),  died  451.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  on  a  pillar  thirty  years.  St. 
Benedict,  the  great  reformer  of  western  monachism,  published  his  rules  and  established  his 
monastery  at  Monte  Casino,  about  529.  The  Carthusians,  Cistercians,  &c.,  are  varieties  of 
Benedictines.  In  964,  by  decree  of  king  Edgar,  all  married  priests  were  to  be  replaced  by 
monks.  See  Abbeys  and  Benedictines. 

MONACO,  a  principality,  N.  Italy,  held  by  the  Genoese  family  Grimaldi  since  968.  By 
treaty,  on  Feb.  2,  1861,  the  prince  ceded  the  communes  of  Roquebrune  and  Mentone, 

*  The  anchorites  of  the  isth,  isth,  and  i4th  centuries  must  not  be  confounded  wiih  the  anchorets,  or 
hermits.  The  former  were  confined  to  solitary  cells  ;  the  latter  permitted  to  go  where  they  pleased. 


MON  489  MON 

tlie  chief   part  of    his  dominions,  to  France,   for  4,000,000  francs.     The  present  prince, 
Charles  III.,  born  Dec.  8,  1818,  succeeded  June  20,  1856.     Population  about  1200. 

MONARCHY.  Historians  reckon  four  grand  monarchies  —  the  Assyrian,  Persian, 
Grecian,  and  Roman  (which  see). 

MONASTERIES.     See  A  bbeys.- 

MONDOVI  (Piedmont).  Here  the  Sardinian  army,  commanded  by  Colli,  was  defeated 
by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  April  22,  1796. 

MONEY  is  mentioned  as  a  medium  of  commerce  in  Genesis  xxiii.,  1860  B.C.,  when 
Abraham  purchased  a  field  as  a  sepulchre  for  Sarah.  The  coinage  of  money  is  ascribed  to 
the  Lydians.  Moneta  was  the  name  given  to  their  silver  by  the  Romans,  it  having  been 
coined  in  the  temple  of  Juno- Moneta.  269  B.C.  Money  was  made  of  different  metals,  and 
even  of  leather  and  other  articles,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  It  was  made  of  paste- 
board by  the  Hollanders  so  late  as  1574.  See  Coin;  Gold;  Silver;  Copper;  Mint-,  Banks,  &c. 
For  Money  Orders,  see  Post  Office. 

MONEYERS  are  mentioned  in  Alfred's  "  Domesday- Book."  They  travelled  with  our 
early  kings,  and  coined  money  as  required. 

MONGOLS.     See  Tartary.  MONK.     See  Monachism. 

MONMOUTH'S  REBELLION.  James,  duke  of  Monmouth  (born  at  Rotterdam,  April 
9,  1649),  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  by  Lucy  Waters,  was  banished  England  for  his  con- 
nexion with  the  Rye-house  plot,  in  1683.  He  invaded  England  at  Lyme,  June  n,  1685; 
was  proclaimed  king  at  Taunton,  June  20;  was  defeated  at  Sedgmoor,  near  Bridgewater, 
July  6  ;  and  beheaded  on  Tower-hill,  July  15. 

MONOLITH,  Greek  for  single  stone.     See  Obelisk. 
MONOPHYSITES.     See  Eutychians. 

MONOPOLIES,  reached  to  such  a  height  in  England,  that  parliament  petitioned  against 
them,  and  many  were  abolished,  about  1601-2.  They  were  further  suppressed  by  21  Jas.  I., 
1624.  In  1630,  Charles  I.  established  monopolies  of  soap,  salt,  leather,  and  other  common 
things,  to  supply  a  revenue  without  the  help  of  parliament.  It  was  decreed  that  none  should 
be  in  future  created  by  royal  patent,  16  Chas.  I.,  1640. 

MONOTHELITES,  heretics  who  affirmed  that  Jesus  Christ  had  but  one  will,  were 
favoured  by  the  emperor  Heraclius,  630  ;  they  merged  into  the  Eutychians  (which  see). 

MONROE  DOCTRINE,  a  term  applied  to  the  determination  expressed  by  James  Monroe, 
president  of  the  United  States,  1817-24,  not  to  permit  any  European  power  to  interfere  in 
restraining  the  progress  of  liberty  in  North  or  South  America.  This  doctrine  was  referred 
to  in  1859,  with  the  view  of  weakening  the  influence  of  Great  Britain  and  Spain  on  the 
American  continent,  and,  in  1865,  in  relation  to  the  new  Mexican  empire. 

MONSTER,  THE.  Renwick  Williams,  who  prowled  nightly  through  the  streets  of 
London,  secretly  armed  with  a  double-edged  knife,  with  which  he  shockingly  wounded  many 
females.  He  was  tried  and  convicted,  July  8,  1 790.  See  Mohocks. 

MONTALEMBERT'S  TRIAL.     See  France,  1858. 

MONTANISTS,  followers  of  Montanns,  of  Ardaba,  in  Mysia,  about  171  ;  who  was  reputed 
to  have  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  proclaimed  himself  the  Comforter  promised  by  Christ. 
He  condemned  second  marriages  as  fornication,  permitted  the  dissolution  of  marriage, 
forbade  the  avoiding  martyrdom,  and  ordered  a  severe  fast  of  three  lents  ;  he  hanged  himself 
with  Maximilla,  one  of  his  women-scholars,  before  the  close  of  the  2nd  century.  Cave.  The 
eloquent  father,  Tertullian,  joined  the  sect,  204. 

MONT  BLANC,  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Europe,  being  15,781 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  summit  was  first  reached  by  Saussure,  aided  by  a  guide 
named  Balma,  on  Aug.  2,  1787.  The  summit  was  attained  by  Dr.  Hamel  (when  three  of  his 
guides  perished)  in  1820,  and  by  many  other  persons  before  and  since.  Accounts  of  the 
ascents  of  Mr.  John  Aldjo,  Charles  Fellows  (1827),  and  of  professor  Tyndall  (1857-8)  have 
been  published.  See  Alps. 

MONTEBELLO,  a  village  in  Piedmont,  where  Lannes  defeated  the  Austrians,  June  9, 
1800,  and  acquired  his  title  of  duke  of  Montebello  ;  and  where  (May  20,  1859),  after  a 
contest  of  six  hours,  the  French  and  Sardinians  defeated  the  Austrians,  who  lost  about  1000 


MON 


490 


MON 


killed  and  wounded,  and  200  prisoners. 
Beuret. 


The  French  lost  about  670  men,  including  general 


MONTE  CASINO  (Central  Italy).     Here  Benedict  formed  his  first  monastery,  529. 
MONTEM.     See  Eton. 

MONTENEGRO,  an  independent  principality  in  European  Turkey,  was  conquered  by. 
Solyman  II.  in  1526.  It  rebelled  in  the  last  century,  and  established  an  hereditary 
hierarchical  government  in  the  family  of  Petrovitsch  Njegosch, — endured,  but  not  recognised 
by  the  Porte. 

The  nephew  and-  successor  of  the  "Vladika,  Peter 

II.,   declined  to    assume    the    ecclesiastical 

function,  and  declared  himself  a  temporal 

prince,  with  the  title  of  Daniel  I.,  1851 ;  and 

began  war  with  Turkey 1852 

Montenegro  put  in  a  state  of  blockade,  Dec.  14,     „ 
After  several  indecisive  encounters,  tranquillity 

restored  by  tbe  influence  of  the  arms  and 

negotiations  of  Omar  Pacha,  the  general  of 

the  Turkish  army ;  he  left  the  province, 

Feb.  25,  1853 

Blockade  raised        ....       April  10,     ,, 
War  again  broke  out;  the  Turks  defeated  at 

Grahovo June,  1858 


Peace  restored Nov.   1858 

The  country  much  disturbed  through  the 
tyrannical  conduct  of  prince  Daniel,  who 
was  assassinated  (aged  35)  .  .  Aug.  13,  1860 

He  is  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Nicolas  (mar- 
ried)   Nov.  8,  ,, 

An  insurrection  in  the  Herzegovina,  favoured 
by  the  Montenegrines  ;  the  blockade  of  Mon- 
tenegro   April  4,  1 86 1 

Omar  Pacha  invaded  the  province  with  an  army 
of  32,000  men  in Aug.  ,, 

Many  conflicts  with  various  success  ;  but  lat- 
terly in  favour  of  the  Turks  ;  peace  made      .  1862 
See  Herzegovina. 


MONTENOTTE,  a  village  in  Piedmont,  memorable  as  being  the  site  of  the  first  victory 
gained  over  the  Austrians  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  April  12,  1796. 

MONTEREAU  (near  Paris).  Here  the  allied  armies  were  defeated  by  the  French,  com- 
manded by  Napoleon,  with  great  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  ;  but  it  was  one  of  his  last 
triumphs,  Feb.  18,  1814. — On  the  bridge  of  Montereau,  at  his  meeting  with  the  dauphin, 
John  the  Fearless,  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  killed  by  Tanneguy  de  Chatel  in  1419.  This 
event  led  to  our  Henry  V.  subduing  France,  the  young  duke  Philip  joining  the  English. 

MONTEREY  (Mexico),  was  taken  by  general  Taylor  after  a  three  days'  conflict  with  the 
Mexicans,  Sept.  21-3,  1846. 

MONTE  VIDEO  (S.  America),  was  taken  by  storm  by  the  British  forces  under  sir  Samuel 
Auchmuty,  but  with  the  loss  of  nearly  one-third  of  our  brave  troops,  Feb.  3,  1807.  It  was 
evacuated  July  7,  the  same  year,  in  consequence  of  the  severe  repulse  the  British  met  with  at 
Buenos- Ayres.  See  Buenos- Ay  res.  Monte  Video,  a  subject  of  dispute  between  Brazil  and 
Buenos- Ayres,  was  given  up  to  Uruguay,  1828.  See  Brazil,  for  recent  war. 

MONTFERRAT  (Lombardy),  HOUSE  OF,  celebrated  in  the  history  of  the  Crusades, 
began  with  Alderan,  who  was  made  marquis  of  Montferrat,  by  Otho,  about  967.  Conrad 
of  Montferrat  became  lord  of  Tyre,  and  reigned  from  1 187  till  1 191,  when  he  was  assassinated. 
William  IV.  died  in  a  cage  at  Alexandria,  having  been  thus  imprisoned  nineteen  months, 
1292.  Violante,  daughter  of  John  II.,  married  Andronicus  Palseologus,  emperor  of  the  East. 
Their  descendants  ruled  in  Italy  amid  perpetual  contests  till  1533,  when  John  George 
Palseologus  died  without  issue.  His  estates  passed  after  much  contention  to  Frederic  II. 
Gonzaga,  marquis  of  Mantua,  in  1536. 

MONTGOMERY,  capital  of  Alabama,  United  States,  founded  1817.  Here  the  state 
convention  passed  the  ordinance  of  secession  from  the  union  on  Jan.  n,  1861  ;  here  the 
confederate  congress  met  on  Feb.  4,  and  elected  Jefferson  Davis  president,  and  Alexander 
Stephens  vice-president,  of  the  confederate  states  of  North  America  ;  and  here  they  were 
inaugurated  on  Feb.  18.  On  May  21,  the  congress  adjourned  to  meet  on  July  20  at  Richmond, 
in  Virginia,  that  state  having  joined  the  confederates  and  become  the  seat  of  war. 

MONTI  DI  PIETA,  charitable  institutions  for  advancing  money  on  pledges,  were  first 
established  at  Perugia,  Florence,  Mantua,  and  other  Italian  cities,  1462,  et  seq.  The  Fran- 
ciscans, in  1493,  first  began  to  receive  interest,  which  was  permitted  by  the  pope,  in  1515. 
Monts  de  Piete  were  not  established  in  France  till  1777.  They  were  suppressed  by  the 
Revolution,  but  restored,  1804;  regulated  by  law,  1851-2.  See  Pawribroking. 

MONTIEL  (Spain),  BATTLE  OF,  March  14  (or  23)  1369,  between  Peter  the  Cruel,  king 
of  Castile,  and  his  brother  Henry  of  Trastamare,  aided  by  the  French  warrior,  Bertram  du 
Guesclin.  Peter  was  totally  defeated,  and  afterwards  treacherously  slain. 

MONTLHERY  (Seine-et-Oise,  France),  site  of  an  indecisive  battle  between  Louis  XI. 
and  a  party  of  his  nobles,  termed  "The  League  of  the  Public  Good,"  July  16,  1465. 


MON  491  MOO 


MONTREAL,  the  second  city  in  Lower  Canada,  built  by  the  French. 


A  destructive  fire        ....     Aug:  23,  1850 
Another,  destroying  1200  bouses  ;  the  loi-s  esti- 
mated at  a  million  sterling         .          July  12,  1852 
At  an  anti-papal  lecture  here  by  Gavazzi,  riots 

ensued,  and  many  lives  were  lost      June  10,  185 
The  cathedral  destroyed  by  fire        .      Dec.  10, 
Victoria  railway   bridge   (vhick    see)    formally 
opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales        .    Aug.  25,  1860 


3  10,  1053 
.  10,  1856 


Surrendered  to  the  English  .  .  Sept.  6,  1760 
Taken  by  the  Americans,  Nov.  12,  1775  ;  retaken 

by  the  British  ....  June  15,  1776 
The  church,  Jesuits'  college,  prison,  and  many 

buildings  burnt  down  .  .  .  June  6,  1803 
Great  military  affray  .  .  .  .Sept.  29,  1833 
The  self-styled  "loyalists"  of  Montreal  assault 

the  governor-general,  lord  Elt-in  ;    enter  the 

parliament-house,  drive   out  the   members, 

and  set  fire  to  the  building  .        .       April  26,  1849 

MONTSERRAT,  a  "W.  India  island,  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493,  ar|d  settled  by  the 
British  in  1632.  It  has  several  times  been  taken  by  the  French,  but  was  secured  to  the 
British  in  1783. 

MONUMENT  OF  LONDON,  built  by  sir  Christopher  Wren,  1671-7.  The  pedestal  is 
forty  feet  high,  and  the  edifice  altogether  202  feet,  that  being  the  distance  of  its  base  from 
the  spot  where  the  fire  which  it  commemorates  commenced.  It  is  the  loftiest  isolated  column 
in  the  world.  Its  erection  cost  about  14,500^.  The  staircase  is  of  black  marble,  consisting 
of  345  steps.*  Of  the  four  original  inscriptions,  three  were  Latin,  and  the  following  in 
English, — Cut  in  1681,  obliterated  by  James  II.  ;  re-cut  in  the  reign  of  William  III. ;  and 
finally  erased  by  order  of  the  common  council,  Jan.  26,  1831. f 

THIS  PILLAR  WAS  SET  VP  IN  PERPETVAL  REMEMBRANCE  OF  THAT  MOST  DREADFUL  BURNING  OF  THIS 
PROTESTANT  CITY,  BEGUN  AND  CARRYED  ON  BY  Y«  TREACHERY  AND  MALICE  OF  Ye  POPISH  FACTION,  IN 
Y«  BEGINNING  OF  SEPTEM.  IN  Y<=  YEAR  OF  OUR  LORD  1666,  IN  ORDER  TO  Ye  CARRYING  ON  THEIR 
HORRID  PLOT  FOR  EXTIRPATING  Ye  PROTESTANT  HELIG1ON  AND  OLD  ENGLISH  LIBERTY,  AND  Ye 
INTRODUCING  POPEUY  AND  Sl^AVERY. 

MOODKEE  (India).  Here,  on  Dec.  18,  1845,  the  Sikhs  attacked  the  advanced  guard 
of  the  British,  and  were  repulsed  three  miles,  losing  many  men  and  fifteen  pieces  of  cannon. 
Sir  Robert  Sale  was  mortally  wounded.  Lady  Sale  signalised  herself  during  the  two 
memorable  retreats  from  Affghanistan.  The  battle  followed  that  of  Ferozeshah  (which  see). 

MOOLTAN  (India).  Here  Moolraj  Sing,  ruler  of  the  Sikhs,  murdered  Mr.  Vans  Agnew 
and  lieutenant  Anderson,  April  21,  1848.  This  led  to  a  siege.  A  conflict  took  place  between 
the  British  and  the  Sikhs,  in  which  the  latter  was  driven  to  the  town  of  Mooltan  with  great 
loss,  Nov.  7,  1848.  It  was  taken  after  a  protracted  bombardment,  Jan.  2-22,  1849. 

MOON.  Opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the  true  causes  of  lunar  eclipses,  taught  by  Thales, 
640  B.C.  Hipparchus  made  observations  on  the  moon  at  Rhodes,  127  B.C.  Posidonius 
accounted  for  the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the  moon,  79  B.C.  Diog.  Laert.  Maps  of  the 
moon  have  been  constructed  by  Hevelius  (1647),  Cassini  (1680),  and  others.  Beer  and 
Madler's  map  was  published  in  1834.  In  1862  professor  John  Phillips  invited  the  British 
Association  to  make  arrangements  to  obtain  a  "systematic  representation  of  the  physical 
aspect  of  the  moon. "  Photographs  of  the  moon  were  taken  and  exhibited  by  Mr.  Warren 
De  la  Rue  in  1857.  Hansen's  "  Tables  of  the  Moon,"  calculated  at  the  expense  of  the  British 
and  Danish  governments,  were  published  at  the  cost  of  the  latter  in  1857.  See  Eclipse. 

MOORS,  formerly  the  natives  of  Mauritania  (ivhidi  see),  but  afterwards  the  name  given 
to  the  Numidians  and  others,  and  now  applied  to  the  natives  of  Morocco  and  the  neighbour- 
hood. They  assisted  Genseric  and  the  Vandals  in  their  invasion  of  Africa,  429,  and 
frequently  rebelled  against  the  Roman  emperors.  They  resisted  for  a  time  the  progress  of 
the  Arab  Mahometans,  but  were  overcome  by  them  in  707  ;  and  in  1019  introduced  into 
Spain  to  support  the  Arabs,  where  their  arms  were  long  victorious.  In  1063  they  were 
defeated  in  Sicily  by  Roger  Guiscard.  The  Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada  was  set  up  in  1237, 
and  lasted  till  1492,  Avhen  it  fell  before  Ferdinand  V.  of  Castile,  mainly  owing  to  internal 
discord.  The  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain  was  decreed,  but  not  fully  carried  into 
effect  till  1609,  when  the  bigotry  of  Philip  III.  inflicted  this  great  injury  to  his  country. 
About  1518  the  Moors  established  the  piratical  states  of  Algiers  arid  Tunis  (which  see).  In 
the  history  of  Spain,  the  Arabs  and  Moors  must  not  be  confounded. 

*  William  Green,  a  weaver,  fell  from  this  monument,  June  25,  1750.  A  man  named  Thomas  Craddock, 
a  baker,  precipitated  himself  from  its  summit,  July  7,  1780.     Mr.  Lyon  Levy,  a  Jewish  diamond  merchant, 
of  considerable  respectability,  threw  himself  from  it,  Jan.  18,   1810;  as  did  more  recently  three  other 
persons  :  in  consequence  of  which  a  fence  was  placed  round  the  railings  of  the  gallery  in  1839. 
f  They  produced  Pope's  indignant  lines  : — 

"  Where  London's  column,  pointing  at  the  skies, 
Like  a  tall  bully,  lifts  the  head,  and  lies." 


MOR  492  MOR 

MORAL  PHILOSOPHY,  defined  as  the  knowledge  of  our  duty,  the  science  of  ethics, 
the  art  of  being  virtuous  and  happy.  Socrates  (about  430  B.C.)  is  regarded  as  the  father 
of  ancient,  and  Grotius  (about  1623)  of  modern  moral  philosophy.  See  Philosophy. 

MORAT  (Switzerland),  where  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy  was  completely  defeated  by 
the  Swiss,  June  22,  1476.  A  monument,  constructed  of  the  bones  of  the  vanquished,  was 
destroyed  by  the  French  in  1798,  who  erected  a  stone  column  in  its  place. 

MORAVIA,  an  Austrian  province,  occupied  by  the  Slavonians  about  548,  and  conquered 
by  the  Avars  and  Bohemians,  who  submitted  to  Charlemagne.  About  1000  it  was  subdued 
by  Boleslas  of  Poland,  but  recovered  by  Ulric  of  Bohemia  in  1030.  After  various  changes, 
Moravia  and  Bohemia  were  amalgamated  into  the  Austrian  dominions  in  1526. 

MORAVIAN'S,  UNITED  BRETHREN,  said  to  have  been  part  of  the  Hussites,  who  with- 
drew into  Moravia  in  the  I5th  century  ;  while  the  Brethren  say  that  their  sect  was  derived 
from  the  Greek  church  in  the  9th  century.  In  1722  they  formed  a  settlement  (called 
Herrnhutt,  the  watch  of  the  Lord),  on  the  estate  of  count  Zinzendorf.  Their  church  con- 
sisted of  500  persons  in  1727.  They  were  introduced  into  England  by  count  Zinzendorf  about 
1737;  he  died  at  Chelsea  in  June,  1760.  In  1851  they  had  thirty-two  chapels  in  England. 
They  are  zealous  missionaries,  and  founded  the  early  settlements  in  foreign  parts. 

MORAY  FLOODS.     See  Inundations,  1829. 

MORDAUNT.     See  Administrations,  1689.        MOREA,  the  Peloponnesus.     See  Greece. 

MORETON  BAY  (New  S.  Wales).  The  colony  founded  here  in  1859  has  since  been 
named  (Queens-land  (which  sec}. 

MORGANATIC  MARRIAGES.  When  the  left  hand  is  given  instead  of  the  right, 
between  a  man  of  superior  and  a  woman  of  inferior  rank,  in  which  it  is  stipulated  that  the 
latter  and  her  children  shall  not  enjoy  the  rank  or  inherit  the  possessions  of  the  former.  The 
children  are  legitimate.  Such  marriages  are  frequently  contracted  in  Germany  by  royalty 
and  the  higher  nobility.  Our  George  1.  was  thus  married  ;  and  later,  the  king  of  Denmark 
to  the  countess  of  Danner,  Aug.  7,  1850. 

MORGARTEN  (Switzerland),  BATTLE  or.  Here  1300  Swiss  engaged  20,000  Austrians, 
commanded  by  the  duke  Leopold,  whom  they  completely  defeated,  Nov.  16,  1315,  upon  the 
heights  of  Morgarten,  overlooking  the  defile  through  which  the  enemy  was  to  enter  their 
territory  from  Zug. 

MORICE  DANCE,  an  ancient  dance  peculiar  to  some  of  the  country  parts  of  England, 
and,  it  is  said,  also  to  Scotland :  it  was  performed  before  James  I.  in  Herefordshire. 

MORMONITES  (calling  themselves  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ,  of  LATTER-DAY  SAINTS). 
This  sect  derives  its  origin  from  Joseph  Smith,  called  the  prophet,  who  announced  in  1823, 
at  Palmyra,  New  York,  that  he  had  had  a  vision  of  the  angel  Moroni.  In  1827  he  said  that 
he  found  the  book  of  Mormon,  written  on  gold  plates  in  Egyptian  characters.  This  book, 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe,  was  written  about  1812,  by  a  clergyman  named  Solomon 
Spaulding,  as  a  religious  romance  in  imitation  of  the  scripture  style.  It  was  translated  and 
published  in  America  in  1830,  in  England  in  1841.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  Rigdon  and 
Smith,  who  determined  to  palm  it  off  as  a  new  revelation.  The  Mormonites  command  the 
payment  of  tithes,  permit  polygamy,  encourage  labour,  and  believe  in  their  leaders  working 
miracles.  Missionaries  are  propagating  these  doctrines  in  Europe  with  more  success  than 
would  be  expected  (1865). 

The  Mormonites  organise  a  church  atKirkland,  |  The  provisional  goveriimsnt  abolished  and  the 

Ohio 1830        Utah  territory   recognised    by  the     United 


They  found  Zion,  in  Jackson  county,  Missouri,  1831-2 

From  1833  to  1839  the  sect  endured  much  per- 
secution, and,  driven  from  place  to  place,  was 
compelled  to  travel  westwards  ;  till  the  city 
Xauvoo  on  the  Mississippi  was  laid  out  and 
a  temple  was  built 1840-1 

Joseph  and  his  brother  Hyrum,  when  in  prison 
on  a  charge  of  treason,  shot  by  an  infuriated 
mob,  and  Brigham  Young  chosen  seer  .  .  1844 

Much  harassed  by  their  neighbours,  departure 
from  Nauvoo  determined  on  .  .  .  .  1845 

The  Great  Salt  Lake  chosen  "for  an  everlasting 


States ;   Brigham  Young  appointed  the  first 
governor ;  and  the  University  of  Deseret  was 

founded 1849 

The  population,  11,354 1851 

The  crops  at  the  Utah  settlement  said  to  be 

destroyed  by  locusts        ....  Aug.  1855 
The  United  States  judge  at  Utah  resigned  from 


inability  to  discharge  his  functi 
quence  of  the  violent  and  tre; 


ons,  in  conse- 
treasonable  con- 


duct of    the    Mormons,    and   their    leader, 

Brigham  Young 1857 

A  conference  of  Mormon  elders,  <fec  ,  was  held 


abode,"  and  taken  possession  of          July  24,  1847  '      in  London,  at  which  most  offensive  speechc 
The  valley  surveyed  by  order  of  the  United  were  made  and  songs  sung  advocating  poly- 


States  government 1849 


gamy,  &c Sept. 


MOR 


493 


MOS 


MORMONITES,  continued. 

The  United  States  government  sent  an  army  to 
Utah  :  a  compromise  was  entered  into,  and 
pease  was  established  by  governor  Cummings 
in June,  1858 


A  Mormonite  meeting  at  Southampton,  Feb.  18,  1861 
A  French  Mormonite  priest  preached  at  Paris  in 

Oct.  1862 
"  Latter-day  Saints'"  meetings  held  in  London  1865 


MOROCCO,  an  empire  in  North  Africa,  formerly  Mauritania  (which  sec}.  In  1051  it 
was  subdued  for  the  Fatimite  caliphs  by  the  Almoravides,  who  eventually  extended  their 
dominion  into  Spain.  These  were  succeeded  by  the  Almohades  (1121),  the  Merinites  (1270), 
and  in  1516  by  the  Scherife,  pretended  descendants  of  Mahomet,  the  now  reigning  dynasty. 
See  Tangiers.  The  Moors  have  had  frequent  wars  with  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  due 
to  piracy. 

Invasion  of  Sebastian  of  Portugal,  who  perishes 

with  his  army  at  the  battle  of  Alcazar,  Avig.  4,  1578 
The  Moors  attack  the  French  in  Algeria  at  the 
instigation  of   Abd-el-Kader ;  the  prince  de 
Joinville    bombards   Tangiers,|  Aug.   6,   and 

Mogador Aug.  16,  1844 

Marshal  Bugeaud  signally  defeats  tha  Moors  at 
the  river  Isly,  and  acquires  the  title  of  duke, 

Aug.  14,     ,, 
Peace  signed  between    France  and    Morocco, 

Sept.  10,    „ 

e  Spaniards,  who  possess  several  places  on 
"  e  coast  of  Morocco  (Ceuta,  Penon  de  Valez, 
:.),   having  suffered  much    annoyance  by 
oorish  pirates,   declare   war    against    the 
Itaii  in Oct.  1859 


Negotiations  had  proved  fruitless  :  the  Spanish 
government  increasing  their  demands  as  the 
sultan  yielded.  The  English  government 
interfered  in  vain.  For  the  events  of  the  war, 
see  Spain 1859-60 

A  Moorish  ambassador  (the  first  since  the  time 
of  Charles  II.)  in  London.  (He  gave  2ooJ.  to 
the  lord  mayor  for  the  London  charities), 

June — Aug.  1860 

The  British  government  gave  a  guarantee  for  a 
loan  of  426,000^.  to  the  sultan  to  meet  his 
engagements  with  Spain  .  .  Oct.  24,  1861 

SULTANS. 

1822.   Muley  Abderrahman. 
1859.    Sidi  Mohammed,  Sept. 


MORPHIA,  an  alkaloid,  discovered  in  opium,  by  Sertiirner,  in  1803. 
MORRILL  TARIFF.     See  United  States,  1861. 
MORTALITY.     See  Bills  of  Mortality. 
MORTARA  ABDUCTION.     See  Jews,  1858. 

MORTARS,  a  short  gun  with  a  large  bore,  and  close  chamber,  used  for  throwing  bombs  ; 
said  to  have  been  used  at  Naples  in  1435,  and  first  made  in  England  in  1543.  The  mortar 
left  by  Soult  in  Spain  was  fixed  in  St.  James's-park  in  Aug.  1816.  On  Oct.  19,  1857,  a 
colossal  mortar,  constructed  by  Mr.  Robert  Mallet,  was  tried  at  Woolwich  ;  with  a  charge 
of  7olbs.  it  threw  a  shell  weighing  2550 Ibs.  i\  mile  horizontally,  and  about  f  mile  in 
height. 

MORTIMER'S  CROSS  (Herefordshire).  The  earl  of  Pembroke  and  the  Lancastrians 
were  severely  defeated  by  the  young  duke  of  York,  afterwards  Edward  IV.,  Feb.  2,  1461. 
He  assumed  the  throne  3s  Edward  IV.  in  March  following. 

MORTMAIN  ACT  (mort  main,  dead  hand).  When  the  survey  of  all  the  land  in  Eng- 
land was  made  by  William  I.,  1085-6,  the  whole  was  found  to  amount  to  62,215  knights' 
fees,  of  which  the  church  then  possessed  28,01*5,  to  which  additions  were  afterwards  made, 
till  the  7th  of  Edward  I.,  1279,  when  the  statute  of  mortmain  was  passed,  from  a  fear  that 
the  estates  of  the  church  might  grow  too  bulky.  By  this  act  it  was  made  unlawful  to  give 
any  estates  to  the  church  without  the  king's  leave  ;  and  this  act,  by  a  supplemental  pro- 
vision, was  made  to  reach  all  lay-fraternities,  or  corporations,  in  the  I5th  of  Richard  II., 
1391.  Mortmain  is  such  a  state  of  possession  as  makes  it  inalienable,  whence  it  is  said  to 
be  in  a  dead  hand.  Several  statutes  have  been  passed  on  this  subject ;  legacies  by  mort- 
main were  especially  restricted  by  the  loth  George  II.,  1736. 

MOSAIC  WORK  (the  Roman  opus  tesscllatum),  is  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  is  probably 
referred  to  in  EstJiei',  ch.  v.  6,  about  519  B.C.  It  had  attained  to  great  excellence  in  Greece, 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  and  his  successors,  when  Sosos  of  Pergamus,  the  most  renowned 
Mosaic  artist  of  antiquity,  flourished.  He  acquired  great  fame  by  his  accurate  representa- 
tion of  an  "  unswept  floor  after  a  feast."  The  Romans  also  excelled  in  Mosaic  work  as 
evidenced  by  the  innumerable  specimens  preserved.  Byzantine  Mosaics  date  from  the 
4th  century  "after  Christ.  The  art  was  revived  in  Italy  by  Tan,  Gaddi,  Cimabue,  and 
Giotto,  who  designed  Mosaics,  and  introduced  a  higher  style  in  the  I3th  century. 
In  the  1 6th  century  Titian  and  Veronese  also  designed  subjects  for  this  art.  The  prac- 
tice of  copying  paintings  in  Mosaics  came  into  vogue  in  the  I7th  century  ;  and  there 
is  now  a  workshop  in  the  Vatican  where  chemical  science  is  employed  in  the  produc- 


MOS  494  MUG 


tion  of  colours,  and  where  20,000  different  tints  are  kept.  In  1861,  Dr.  Salviati  of  Venice 
had  established  his  manufacture  of  "  Enamel-mosaics,"  and  in  July,  1864,  he  fixed  a  large 
enamel  Mosaic  picture  in  one  of  the  spandrils  under  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  Lon- 
don. He  has  since  executed  commissions  for  the  queen  and  other  persons. 

MOSCOW,  the  ancient  capital  of  Russia,  was  founded  it  is  said  by  Dolgorouki,  about 
1147.  The  occupation  of  the  south  of  Russia  by  the  Mongols,  in  1235,  led  to  Moscow 
becoming  the  capital,  and  beginning  with  Jaroslav  II.,  1238,  its  princes  became  the  reigning 
dynasty.  Moscow  has  been  frequently  taken  in  war  :  it  was  plundered  by  Timour  in  1382  ; 
by  the  "Tartars  in  1451  and  1477;  and  by  Ladislas  of  Poland  in  1611.  The  massacre  of 
Demetrius  arid  his  Polish  adherents  on  May  27,  1606,  is  termed  the  "Matins  of  Moscow/' 
This  city  was  entered  by  Napoleon  I.  and  the  French,  Sept.  14,  1812,  and  the  Russian 
governor,  Rostopchin,  ordered  that  it  should  be  set  on  fire  in  500  places  at  once.  In  this 
memorable  conflagration,  11,840  houses  were  burnt  to  the  ground,  besides  palaces  and 
churches.  The  French,  thus  deprived  of  quarters,  evacuated  Moscow,  Oct.  19,  and  it  was 
re-entered  by  the  Russians,  Oct.  22,  following.  Since  then,  Moscow  has  been  rebuilt  with 
great  splendour.  Although  St.  Petersburg  (built  in  1703)  has  become  the  capital,  yet  Mos- 
cow is  the  more  beloved  by  the  Russians,  who  regard  it  as  a  holy  city.  The  railway  to  St. 
Petersburg  was  opened  in  1851.  An  industrial  exhibition  held  at  Moscow  closed  July  16, 
1865. 

MOSKWA,  OK.  BORODINO,  BATTLE  OF.     See  .Borodino. 

MOSQUITO  COAST  (Central  America).  The  Indians  inhabiting  this  coast  were  long 
under  the  protection  of  the  British,  who  held  Belize  and  a  group  of  islands  in  the  bay  of 
Honduras.  The  jealousy  of  the  United  States  long  existed  on  this  subject.  In  April,  1850, 
the  two  governments  covenanted  not  "to  occupy,  or  fortify,  or  colonise,  or  assume,  or  exer- 
cise any  dominion  over  any  part  of  Central  America."  In  1855  the  United  States  charged 
the  British  government  with  an  infraction  of  the  treaty  ;  on  which  the  latter  agreed  to  cede 
the  disputed  territory  to  the  republic  of  Honduras,  with  some  reservation.  *  The  matter 
was  finally  settled  in  Feb.  1857. 

MOSS-TROOPERS,  desperate  plunderers,  and  lawless  soldiers,  secreting  themselves  in 
the  mosses  on  the  borders  of  Scotland.  They  were  finally  extirpated  in  1609. 

MOTTOES,  ROYAL.  Dieu  et  mon  Droit,  first  used  by  Richard  I.,  1198.  Ich  dien,  "  I 
serve,"  adopted  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  1346.  Honi  soil  qui 
'  mal  y  pense,  the  motto  of  the  Garter,  1349.  Je  maintiendrai,  "  I  will  maintain,"  adopted 
by  William  III.,  to  which  he  added,  in  1688,  "the  liberties  of  England  and  the  Protestant 
religion."  Semper  cadem,  was  assumed  by  queen  Elizabeth,  1558,  and  adopted  by  queen 
Anne,  1702.  See  them  severally. 

MOUNTAIN  PARTY.     See  Clubs,  French. 

MOUNTS.     See  Etna,  Hecla,  Vesuvius,  Bernard,  Calvary,  and  Olivet, 

MOURNING  FOR  THE  DEAD.  The  Israelites  neither  washed  nor  anointed  themselves 
during  the  time  of  mourning,  which  for  a  friend  lasted  seven  days ;  upon  extraordinary 
occasions  a  month.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  fasted.  The  ordinary  colour  for  mourning  in 
Europe  is  black  ;  in  China,  white  ;  in  Turkey,  violet ;  in  Ethiopia,  brown  ;  it  was  white  in 
Spain  until  1498.  Herrera.  Anne  of  Brittany,  the  queen  of  two  successive  kings  of 
France,  mourned  in  black,  instead  of  the  then  practice  of  wearing  white,  on  the  death  of  her 
first  husband,  Charles  VIIL,  April  7,  1498.  Henault. 

MOUSQUETAIRES,  or  MUSKETEERS,  horse-soldiers  under  the  old  French  regime,  raised 
by  Louis  XIII.,  1622.  This  corps  was  considered  a  military  school  for  the  French  nobility. 
It  was  disbanded  in  1646,  but  was  restored  in  1657.  A  second  company  was  created  in  1660, 
and  formed  cardinal  Mazarine's  guard.  Henault. 

MUGGLETONIANS,  so  called  from  Ludowic  Muggletori,  a  tailor,  known  about  1641, 
and  prominent  a,bout  1656.  He  and  John  Reeve  affirmed  that  God  the  Father,  leaving  the 
government  of  heaven  to  Elias,  came  down  and  suffered  death  in  a  human  form.  They 
asserted  that  they  were  the  two  last  witnesses  of  God  which  should  appear  before  the  end  of 
the  world.  Rev.  xi.  3.  A  sect  of  this  name  still  exists. 

*  St.  Juan  del  Norte  (Greytown)  was  held  by  the  British  on  behalf  of  the  Mosquitoes  till  the  American 
adventurer^,  under  col.  Kinney,  took  possession  of  it  in  Sept.  1855.  He  joined  Walker ;  and  on  Feb.  10, 
1856,  their  associate  Rivas,  the  president,  claimed  and  annexed  the  Mosquito  territory  to  Nicaragua. 


MUH  495  MUS 

MUHLBERG,  on  the  Elbe,  Prussia.  Here  the  German  Protestants  were  defeated  by  the 
emperor  Charles  V.,  April  24,  1547. 

MUHLDORF  (Bavaria).  Near  this  place  Frederick,  duke  of  Austria,  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Louis  of  Bavaria,  Sept  28,  1322. 

MULBERRY  TREES.  The  first  planted  in  England  are  in  the  gardens  of  Sion-house. 
Shakspeare  planted  a  mulberry-tree  with  his  own  hands  at  Stratford-upon-Avon  ;  and 
Garrick,  Macklin,  and  others  were  entertained  under  it  in  1742.  Shakspeare's  house  was 
afterwards  sold  to  a  clergyman  of  the  name  of  Gastrel,  who  cut  down  the  mulberry-tree  for 
fuel,  1765  ;  but  a  silversmith  purchased  the  whole,  and  manufactured  it  into  memorials. 

MULE,  a  spinning  machine  invented  in  1779,  by  Samuel  Crompton,  born  at  Bolt- .11, 
Lancashire,  in  1753;  named,  from  Crompton's  residence,  Hall-in-the-wood-wheel ;  muslin- 
vvhcel,  from  its  giving  birth  to  the  British  muslin  and  cambric  manufacture  ;  and  mule,  from 
its  combining  the  advantages  of  Hargreave's  spinning  jenny,  and  Arkwright's  adaptation. 
It  is  stated  that  Crompton  at  the  time  knew  nothing  of  the  latter.  He  did  not  patent  his 
invention,  but  gave  it  up  in  1780.  It  produced  yarn  treble  the  fineness  and  very  much 
softer  than  any  ever  before  produced  in  England.  Parliament  voted  him  5000^.  in  1812, 
now  considered  a  most  inadequate  compensation.  Mr.  Roberts  invented  the  self-acting  mule 
in  1825. 

MULHOUSE,  or  MULHATJSEN  (N.E.  France),  an  imperial  city,  under  Rodolph  of 
Hapsburg  ;  joined  the  Swiss  confederation  in  1515  ;  and  annexed  to  France  in  1798. 

MUMMIES  (from  the  Arabic  mum,  wax).  See  Embalming.  The  mummies  in  the 
British  Museum,  with  other  Egyptian  antiquities,  were  placed  there  about  1803.  Mr.  Alex. 
Gordon,  in  1737  published  an  essay  on  three  Egyptian  mummies,  one  of  which  was  brought 
to  England  in  1722,  by  capt.  ~Wm.  Lethieullier  ;  two  others  came  in  1734,  one  of  which  was 
retained  by  Dr.  Mead,  the  other  was  given  to  the  College  of  Physicians.  In  1834,  Mr.  T.  J. 
Pettigrew  published  a  "History  of  Egyptian  Mummies." 

MUNICH,  the  beautiful  capital  of  Bavaria,  was  founded,  it  is  said,  962.  It  was  taken 
by  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  in  1632  ;  by  the  Austrians,  in  1704,  1741,  and  1743  ;  and 
by  the  French  under  Moreau,  July  2,  1800.  It  abounds  in  schools,  institutions,  and  manu- 
factories. The  university  was  founded  by  king  Louis  in  1826. 

MUNICIPAL  CORPORATIONS,  &c.     See  Corporations. 

MUNSTER  (Westphalia).  The  bishopric  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Charlemagne, 
780,  was  secularised  in  1802,  and  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815.  The  Anabaptists,  under  John  of 
Leyden,  the  king  of  Minister,  held  the  city  in  1534  and  1536.  Here  was  signed  the  treaty  of 
Westphalia  (which  see)  or  Munster,  Oct.  24,  1648. — MUNSTER,  the  southern  province  of 
Ireland.  In  1568  a  commission  was  issued  for  its  government  by  a  president  and  council, 
and  new  colonies  were  founded  in  1588. 

MURCIA,  a  province,  N.E.  Spain,  was  subdued  by  the  Moors,  713  ;  by  Ferdinand  of 
Castile,  1240  ;  and  divided  between  Castile  and  Arragon,  1305. 

MURDER,  the  highest  offence  against  the  law  of  God.  (Genesis  ix.  6,  2348  B.C.).  A 
court  of  Ephetee  was  established  by  Demophoon  of  Athens  for  the  trial  of  murder,  1179  B.C. 
The  Persians  did  not  punish  the  first  offence.  In  England,  during  a  period  of  the  Heptarchy, 
murder  was  punished  by  fines  only.  So  late  as  Henry  VIJI.'s  time  the  crime  was  compounded 
for  in  Wales.  Murderers  were  allowed  benefit  of  clergy  in  1503.  Aggravated  murder,  or 
petit  treason  (a  distinction  now  abolished),  happened  in  three  ways  ;  by  a  servant  killing  his 
master ;  a  wife  her  husband  ;  and  an  ecclesiastical  person  his  superior,  stat.  25  Edw.  III. 
1350.  The  enactments  relating  to  this  crime  are  very  numerous,  and  its  wilful  commission 
has  been  rarely  pardoned  by  our  sovereigns.  The  act  whereby  the  murderer  should  be 
executed  on  the  day  next  but  one  after  his  conviction,  was  repealed,  1836.  See  Executions 
and  Trials. 

MURFREESBOROUGH  (Tennessee).  Near  here  severe  conflicts  took  place  between  the 
Federals  under  Rosencrans  and  the  Confederates  under  Bragg,  Dec.  30,  1862,  and  Jan.  2, 
1863.  The  Federals  claimed  the  victory. 

MURIATIC  ACID.     See  Alkali. 

MUSEUM,  originally  a  quarter  of  the  palace  of  Alexandria,  like  the  Prytaneum  of 
Athens,  where  eminent  learned  men  were  maintained  by  the  public.  The  foundation  is 
attributed  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  who  here  placed  his  library  about  284  B.C.  Besides 


MUS 


496 


MUS 


the   British  Museum   and  Sloane's  Museum  (which  sec],  there  are   very  many  others  in 
London. 

MUSIC.*  "  Jubal,  the  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  the  organ,"  (3875  B.C., 
Gen.  iii.  21).  Lucretius  ascribes  its  invention  to  the  whistling  of  the  \vinds  in  hollow  reeds. 
Franckinus  to  the  various  sounds  produced  by  the  hammers  of  Tubal-Cain.  Cameleon 
Pontique  and  others  to  the  singing  of  birds  ;  and  Zarlino  to  the  sound  of  water  dropping, 
&c.  The  flute,  and  harmony,  or  concord  in  music,  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Hyagnis,  1506.  Arund.  Marbles.  Vocal  choruses  of  men  are  first  mentioned  556  B.C. 
Dufresnoy. 

MUSIC  IN  ENGLAND.  Before  the  Reformation,  there  was  but  one  kind  of  music  in 
Europe  worth  notice,  namely,  the  sacred  chant,  and  the  descant  built  upon  it.  This  music, 
moreover,  was  applied  to  one  language  only,  the  Latin.  Aslie.  The  original  English  music 
from  the  period  of  the  Saxons  to  that  era  in  which  our  countrymen  imbibed  the  art,  and 
copied  the  manner  of  the  Italians,  was  of  a  character  which  neither  pleased  the  soul  nor 
charmed  the  ear.  But  as  all  the  arts  appear  to  have  been  the  companions  of  successful 
commerce,  our  music  soon  improved,  our  taste  was  chastened,  and  sweet  sounds  formed  an 
indispensable  part  of  polite  education.  Prior  to  1600,  the  chief  music  was  masses  and 
madrigals,  but  dramatic  music  was  much  cultivated  from  that  time.  About  the  end  of 
James  I.'s  reign,  a  music  professorship  was  founded  in  the  University  of  Oxford  by  Dr.  Win. 
Hychin  ;  and  the  year  1710  was  distinguished  by  the  arrival  in  England  of  George  Frederick 
Handel.  Mozart  came  to  England  in  1763  ;  Joseph  Haydn  in  1791  ;  and  Carl  Maria  von 
Weber  in  1825.  The  study  of  music  has  been  greatly  promoted  in  this  country  since  1840, 
by  the  labours  of  John  Hullah.  The  Tonic  sol-fa  system,  in  which  at  first  the  letters  d,  r, 
m,  f,  s,  I,  t,  (for  do,  re,  mi,  fa,  so,  la,  ti,  or  si)  are  used  instead  of  notes,  was  invented  by 
Miss  Glover  of  Norwich,  and  improved  by  John  Curwen,  about  1847.  It  has  been  successfully 
employed  in  schools. 


MUSICAL  NOTES  &c.  The  first  six  are  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Guy  Aretino,  a  Benedictine 
monk  of  Arezzo,  about  1025.  Blair.  Ihe  notes  at 
present  used  were  perfected  in  1338.  Counterpoint 
was  brought  to  perfection  by  Palestriua  about  1 555. 
Gafforio  of  Lodi,  read  lectures  on  musical  compo- 
sition in  the  isth  century,  and  they  effected  great 
improvement  in  the  science.  The  Italian  style  of 
composition  was  introduced  into  these  countries 
about  1616. 

THE  MUSICAL  PITCH  was  settled  in  France  in  1860. 
The  middle  C  to  be  522  vibrations  in  a  second. 
At  a  meeting  on  the  subject,  held  at  the  Society  of 
Arts,  in  Nov.  23,  1860,  the  concert  pitch  of  C  was 
recommended  to  be  528  vibrations  in  a  second. 
Mr.  Ilullah  adopted  512  vibrations. 

MUSICAL  FESTIVALS  IN  ENGLAND.  Dr.  Bysse,  chan- 
cellor of  Hereford,  proposed  to  the  members  of  the 
choirs,  a  collection  at  the  cathedral  door  after 
morning  service,  when  forty  giiineas  were  col- 
lected and  appropriated  to  charitable  purposes. 
It  was  then  agreed  to  hold  festivals  at  Hereford, 
Gloucester,  and  Worcester,  in  rotation  annually. 
Until  the  year  1753,  the  festival  lasted  only  two 
days  ;  it  was  then  extended  at  Hereford  to  three 
evenings ;  and  at  Gloucester,  in  1757,  to  three 
mornings,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  Handel's 
"  Messiah,"  which  was  warmly  received,  and  has 


been  performed  annually  ever  since.  Musical  fes- 
tivals on  a  great  scale  are  now  annually  held  at 
various  cathedrals  in  England,  See  Handel  and 
Crystal  Palace. 

MUSICAL  INSTITUTIONS.  The  Ancient  Academy  of 
Music  was  instituted  in  1710.  It  originated  with 
numerous  eminent  performers  and  gentlemen 
wishing  to  promote  the  study  of  vocal  harmony. 

The  Madrigal  Society  was  established  in  1741,  and 
other  musical  societies  followed. 

The  Royal  Society  of  Music  arose  from  the  principal 
nobility  and  gentry  uniting  to  promote  the  per- 
formance of  operas  composed  by  Handel,  1785. 

The  Philharmonic  concerts  began  in  1813. 

The  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  established  1822, 
(which  see). 

The  Musical  Society  of  London  established  1858. 

The  "  Popular  Monday  Concerts"  at  St.  James's 
Hall  commenced  with  a  "  Mendelssohn  night "  on 
Feb.  14, 1859. 

The  London  Academy  of  Music  founded  in  1860. 

The  centenary  of  the  "Noblemen's  Catch  Club  ''  was 
kept  in  July,  1861. 

The  Cecilian  Society,  London,  founded  about  1785  ; 
ceased  in  1862. 

The  "  Musical  Education  Committee"  of  the  Society 
of  Arts,  London,  with  the  prince  of  "Wales  as 
chairman,  held  its  first  meeting  May  22,  1865. 


EMINENT   MODERN    MUSICAL   COMPOSERS. 


Tallis     . 
Palestrina 
T.  Morley      . 
(  h-lando  Gibbons 

*  Pythagoras 
delightful  sounds, 

Born 
•  1529 
'.  1583 

(about  555 
inaudible 

Died 
1585 
1594 
1604 
1624 

H.  Lawes 
Lully 
Purcell 
J.  Seb.  Bachf    . 

Born 
.     .  1600 
•  1633 
.     .   1658 
.  1685 

Died 
1662 
1672 
1695 
1754 

G. 
T. 
C. 
W 

F.  Handel        . 
A.  Arne 
Gliick 
A.  Mozart    . 

twelve  spheres 
of  the  spheres 

Born        Died 

.  1684        1759 
.  1710        1778 
•   1714        1787 
.  1756        1791 

must  produce 
"    St.  Cecilia,  a 

B.C.)  maintained  that  the  motions  of  the 
to  mortal  ears,  which  he  called   "  the  music 

regions  by  the  fascinating  charms  of  her  melody ;  and  this  hyperbolical  tradition  has  been  deemed  sufficient 
authority  to  make  her  the  patroness  of  music  and  musicians.     She  died  in  the  3rd  century. 
t  He  had  eleven  sons ;  four  of  them  distinguished  musicians. 


HITS 


497 


MYC 


MUSIC,  continued. 

Born 

Died  I 

Born 

Died 

Born 

Died 

Joseph  Haydn 
C.  Dibdiri 

.     .  1732 
•  1748 

1809 
1814 

H.  Bishop     . 
M.  Cherubini    . 

•  1787 
.   1760 

1855 
1842 

J.  Meyerbeer 
J.  E.  Halevy   . 

•     •   J794 

1864 
1862 

S.  Web  be      . 
J.  W.  Callcott 

,     .   1740 
.  1766 

1817 
1821 

F.  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy      . 

^1809 

1848 

J.  Rossini    . 
M.  W.  Balfe 

•     '   J792 

C.  Weber       . 
L.  Beethoven 

.     .   1786 
.  1770 

1826 
1827 

L.  Spohr 
D.  T.  Auber      . 

•  1783 
.   1784 

1859 

W.Sterndale  Bennett  1816 

MUSKETS.     See  Fire-arms. 

MUSLIN,  a  fine  cotton  cloth,  so  called,  it  is  said,  as  not  being  bare,  but  having  a  downy 
nap  on  its  surface,  resembling  moss,  which  the  French  call  mousse.  According  to  others,  it 
was  first  brought  from  Moussol,  in  India,  whence  the  name.  Muslins  were  first  worn  in 


£ 

: 


tland  in  1670. 
~ia  muslins. 


Anderson.     By  means  of  the  Mule  (which  see),  British  have  superseded 


I 


MUTE.  A  prisoner  is  said  to  stand  mute,  when,  being  arraigned  for  treason  or  felony,  he 
either  makes  no  answer,  or  answers  foreign  to  the  purpose.  Anciently,  a  mute  was  subjected 
to  torture.  By  12  Geo.  III.  1772,  judgment  was  awarded  against  mutes,  as  if  they  were 
convicted  or  had  confessed.  A  man  refusing  to  plead  was  condemned  and  executed  at  the 
Old  Bailey  on  a  charge  of  murder,  1778,  and  another  on  a  charge  of  burglary  at  Wells,  1792. 
An  act  was  passed  in  1827,  by  which  the  court  is  directed  to  enter  a  plea  of  "not  guilty" 
when  the  prisoner  will  not  plead.* 

MUTINIES,  BRITISH.  The  mutiny  throughout  the  fleet  at  Portsmouth  for  an  advance 
wages,  April,  1797.  It  subsided  on  a  promise  from  the  Admiralty,  which  not  being 
ickly  fulfilled,  occasioned  a  second  mutiny  on  board  the  London  man-of-war ;  admiral 
Ipoys,  and  his  captain,  were  put  into  confinement  for  ordering  the  marines  to  fire,  whereby 
some  lives  were  lost.  The  mutiny  subsided  May  10,  1797,  when  an  act  was  passed  to  raise 
the  wages,  and  the  king  pardoned  the  mutineers.  A  more  considerable  one  at  the  Nore, 
which  blocked  up  the  trade  of  the  Thames,  broke  out  on  May  27,  1797,  and  subsided  June  13, 
1797,  when  the  principal  mutineers  were  put  in  irons,  and  several  executed  (including  the 
ringleader,  nicknamed  rear-admiral  Richard  Parker),  June  30,  at  Sheerness.  Mutiny  of  the 
Danae  frigate  ;  the  crew  carried  the  ship  into  Brest  harboifr,  March  27,  1800.  Mutiny  on 
board  admiral  Mitchell's  fleet  at  Bantry  Bay,  Dec.  1801,  and  January  following  (see  Bantry 
Bay}.  Mutiny  at  Malta,  began  April  4,  1807,  and  ended  on  the  I2th,  when  the  mutineers 
blew  themselves  up  by  setting  fire  to  a  large  magazine,  consisting  of  between  400  and  500 
barrels  of  gunpowder.  See  Madras,  1806,  and  India,  1857. 

MUTINY.  A  statute  for  the  discipline,  regulation,  and  payment  of  the  army,  &c.,  was 
passed  in  1689,  and  has  since  been  re-enacted  annually. 

MUTINY  OF  THE  BOUNTY,  April  28,  1789.     For  particulars  see  Bounty. 

MYCALE  (Ionia,  -»Asia  Minor),  BATTLE  OF,  fought  between  the  Greeks  (under 
Leotychides,  the  king  of  Sparta,  and  Xanthippus  the  Athenian)  and  the  Persians, 
Sept.  22,  479  B.C..;  being  the  day  on  which  Mardonius  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Platsea  by 
Pausanias.  The  Persians  (about  100,000  men),  who  had  just  returned  from  the  unsuccessful 
expedition  of  Xerxes  in  Greece,  were  completely  defeated,  thousands  of  them  slaughtered, 
and  their  camp  burnt.  The  Greeks  sailed  back  to  Samos  with  an  immense  booty. 

MYCENvE,  a  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Argives,  in  the  Peloponnesus.  It  stood 
about  fifty  stadia  from  Argos,  and  flourished  till  the  invasion  of  the  Heraclidse. 


Perseus  removes  from  Argos,  and  founds  My- 
cenae     B.C.  1431,  1313,  or  1282 

Reign  of  Eurystheus          .        .      1289,  1274,  or  1258 
(Towards  the  close  of  his  reign  is  placed  the 
story  of  the  several  dangerous   enterprises 
surmounted  by  Hercules.  ] 

JEgisthus  assassinates  Atreus      ....   1201 
Agamemnon  succeeds  to  the  throne  ;  becomes 

king  of  Sicyon,  Corinth,  and  perhaps  of  Argos    ,, 
He  is  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  Grecian  forces 
going  to  the  Trojan  war    .        .        .     .  about  1193 


jEgisthus,  in  the  absence  of  Agamemnon,  lives 
in  adultery  with  the  queen  Clytemnestra.  On 
the  return  of  the  king  they  assassinate  him  ; 
and  JEgisthus  mounts  the  throne  .  .B.C. 

Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon,  kills  his  mother 
and  her  paramour  .... 

Orestes  dies  of  the  bite  of  a  serpent  . 

The  Achaians  are  expelled 

Invasion  of  the  Heraclidse,  and  the  conquerors 
divide  the  dominions  .... 

Mycenae  destroyed  by  the  Argives 


1183 

1176 
1106 


1103 
468 


*  Walter  Calverly,  of  Calverly  in  Yorkshire,  esq.,  having  murdered  two  of  his  children,  and  stabbed 
his  wife  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  being  arraigned  for  his  crime  at  York  assizes,  stood  mute,  and  was  thereupon 
pressed  to  death  in  the  castle,  a  large  iron  weight  being  placed  upon  his  breast,  Aug.  5,  1605.  Stow's 
Cliron.  Major  Strangeway  suffered  death  in  a  similar  manner  at  Newgate  in  1657,  for  the  murder  of  his 
brother-in-law,  Mr.  Fussell. 


K   K 


MYL  498  NAN 

MYL/E,  a  bay  of  Sicily,  where  the  Komans,  under  their  consul  Duilius,  gained  their  first 
naval  victory  over  the  Carthaginians,  and  took  fifty  of  their  ships,  260  E.G.  Here  also 
Agrippa  defeated  the  fleet  of  Sextus  Porapeius,  36  B.C. 

MYSOKE  (S.  India),  was  made  a  flourishing  kingdom  by  Hyder  Ali  in  1761,  and  by  his- 
son,  Tippoo  Sahib,  who  considerably  harassed  the  English.  Tippoo  was  chastised  by  them 
in  1792,  and  on  May  4,  1799,  his  capital,  Seringapatam,  was  taken  by  assault,  and  himself 
slain.  The  English  now  hold  the  country. 

MYSTERIES.  "Mystery  "  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Hebrew  mistar,  to  hide.  The 
Sacred  mysteries  is  a  term  applied  to  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  the  chief  of  which  is  the- 
incarnation  of  Christ,  called  the  "mystery  of  godliness,"  I  Tim.  iii.  16.  The  Profane 
mysteries  were  the  secret  ceremonies  performed  by  a  select  few  in  honour  of  some  deity. 
From  the  Egyptian  mysteries  of  Isis  and  Osiris  sprang  those  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres  among 
the  Greeks.  The  Eleusiuian  mysteries  were  introduced  at  Athens  by  Eumolpus,  1356  B.C. — 
MYSTERY  PLAYS.  See  Drama. 

MYTHOLOGY  (Greek  mythos,  fable),  the  traditions  respecting  the  gods  of  any  people. 
Thoth  is  supposed  to  have  introduced  mythology  among  the  Egyptians,  1521  B.C.  ;  and 
Cadmus,  the  worship  of  the  Egyptian  and  Phoenician  deities  among  the  Greeks,  1493  B.  c. 


N. 

NAAS  (E.  Ireland),  an  ancient  town.  Here  a  desperate  engagement  took  place  between 
a  body  of  the  king's  forces  and  the  insurgent  Irish,  during  the  rebellion  of  1798.  The  latter 
were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  300  killed  and  many  wounded,  May  24,  1798. 

NAB  ON  ASS  AR,  ERA  OF,  received  its  name  from  the  celebrated  prince  of  Babylon,  under 
whose  reign  astronomical  studies  were  much  advanced  in  Chaldsea.  The  years  are  vague, 
containing  365  days  each,  without  intercalation.  The  first  day  of  the  era  was  Wednesday 
(said,  in  mistake,  to  be  Thursday,  in  ISArtde  Verifier  Ics  Dates),  Feb.  26,  747  B.C. — 3967, 
Julian  period.  To  find  the  Julian  year  on  which  the  year  of  Nabonassar  begins,  subtract  the 
year,  if  before  Christ,  from  748  ;  if  after  Christ,  add  to  it  747. 

NAG'S  HEAD  STORY.  Matthew  Parker  was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Canterbury  at 
Lambeth,  Dec.  17,  1559,  by  bishops  Barlow,  Coverdale,  Scory,  and  Hodgkins.  Many  years 
after,  the  Romish  writers  asserted  that  Parker  and  others  had  been  consecrated  at  the  Nag's 
Head  Tavern,  Cheapside,  by  Scory.  This  tale  was  refuted  by  Burnet. 

NAHUM,  FESTIVAL  OF.  Nahum,  the  seventh  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  about 
713  B.C.  ;  the  festival  is  the  24th  of  December. 

NAJARA  or  NAVARETE  (N.  Spain).  Here  Edward  the  Black  Prince  defeated  Henry  de- 
Trastamere,  and  re-established  Peter  the  Cruel  on  the  throne  of  Castile,  April  3,  1367. 

NAMES.  Adam  and  Eve  named  their  sons.  Gen.  iv.  25,  26.  The  popes  change  their 
names  on  their  exaltation  to  the  pontificate,  "a  custom  introduced  by  pope  Sergius,  whose 
name  till  then  was  swine-snout,"  687.  Platina.  Onuphrius  refers  it  to  John  XII.  956  ;  and 
gives  as  a  reason  that  it  was  done  in  imitation  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  who  were  first  called 
Simon  and  Sanl.  In  France  it  was  usual  to  change  the  name  given  at  baptism.  The  two- 
sons  of  Henry  II.  of  France  were  christened  Alexander  and  Hercules  ;  at  their  confirmation 
these  names  were  changed  to  Henry  and  Francis.  Monks  and  nuns,  at  their  entrance  into 
monasteries  assume  new  names,  to  show  that  they  are  about  to  lead  a  new  life.  See- 


NAMUR,  in  Belgium,  was  made  a  county  in  932,  was  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria  by 
the  peace  of  Utrecht,  and  was  garrisoned  by  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town  of  the  United 
Provinces  in  1715.  Namur  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1746,  but  was  restored  in  1748.  In 
1781,  the  emperor  Joseph  expelled  the  Dutch  garrison.  In  1792  it  was  again  taken  by  the 
French,  who  were  compelled  to  evacuate  it  the  following  year  ;  but  they  regained  possession 
of  it  in  1794.  The  French,  however,  delivered  it  up  to  the  allies  in  1814.  It  was  a  site 
of  a  severe  conflict  in  June,  1815,  between  the  Prussians  and  the  French  under  Grouchy, 
when  retreating  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

NANCY  (Lorraine,  France),  founded  in  the  I2th  century.  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy 
endeavoured  to  conquer  Lorraine,  and  besieged  Nancy  in  1476  ;  but  on  Jan.  5,  1477,  he  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  the  duke  of  Lorraine  and  his  Swiss  allies. 


NAN 


499 


NAP 


NANKIN",  said  to  have  been  made  the  central  capital  of  China,  420.  On  Aug.  4,  1842, 
3  British  ships  arrived  at  Nankin,  and  peace  was  made.  The  rebel  Tae-pings  took  it  on 
irch  19,  20,  1853.  It  was  recaptured  by  the  Imperialists,  July  19,  1864,  and  found  to  be 
a  very  desolate  condition. 

NANTES.     See  Edict. 

NAPIER'S  BONES.     See  Logarithms. 

NAPLES,  formerly  the  continental  division  and  seat  of  government  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  began  with  a  Greek  colony  named  Parthenope  (about  1000  B.C.),  which  was 
afterwards  divided  into  Palceopolis  (the  old)  and  Neapolis  (the  new  city),  from  which  latter 
the  present  name  is  derived.  The  colony  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  in  the  Samnite  war, 
326  B.C.  Naples,  after  resisting  the  power  of  the  Lombards,  Franks,  and  Germans,  was 
subjugated  by  the  Normans  under  Roger  Guiscard,  king  of  Sicily,  A.D.  1131.  Few  countries 
have  had  so  many  political  changes  and  cruel  and  despotic  rulers,  or  suffered  so  much  by 
convulsions  of  nature,  such  as  earthquakes,  volcanic  eruptions,  &c.  In  1856,  the  population 
of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  was  6,886,030,  of  Sicily,  2,231,020  ;  total,  9,117,050.  It  now 
forms  part  of  the  revived  kingdom  of  Italy. 


Naples  conqiiered  by  Theodoric  the  Goth     .     . 

Retaken  by  Belisarius 

Taken  again  by  Totila 

Retaken  by  Narses 

Becomes  a  duchy  nominally  subject  to  the 
Eastern  empire 568  or 

Duchy  of  Naples  greatly  extended 

Robert  Guiscard,  the  Norman,  made  duke  of 
Apulia,  founds  the  kingdom  of  Naples  .  . 

Naples  conquered,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  two 
Sicilies  founded  by  Roger  Guiscard  II.  . 

The  imperial  house  of  Hohenstaufen  (see  Ger- 
many) obtains  the  kingdom  by  marriage  ;  and 
rules 1194 

The  pope  appoints  Charles  of  Anjou,  king,  who 
defeats  the  regent  Manfred  (son  of  Frederic  II. 
of  Germany)  at  Benevento  (Manfred  slain) 

Feb.  26, 

Charles  also  defeats  Conradin  (the  last  of  the 
Hohenstaufens),  who  had  come  to  Naples  by 
invitation  of  the  Ghibellines,  at  Tagliacozzo, 
Aug.  23  ;  Conradin  beheaded  .  .  Oct.  29, 

The  massacre  called  the  Sicilian  vespers  (which 
see) March  30, 

Andrew  of  Hungary,  husband  of  Joanna  I., 
murdered Sept.  18, 

He  is  avenged  by  his  brother  Louis  king  of 
Hungary,  who  invades  Naples  .  .  .  . 

Alphonso  V.  of  Arragon  (called  the  Wise  and 
Magnanimous),  on  the  oeath  of  Joanna  II. 
seizes  Naples 

Naples  conquered  by  Charles  VIII.  of  France    . 

And  by  Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Ferdinand  of 
Spain 

Naples  and  Sicily  united  to  Spain 

Insurrection  Of  Masaniello.* 

Another  insurrection  suppressed  by  don  John 
of  Austria Oct. 

Henry  II.  duke  of  Guise  lands  and  is  proclaimed 
king,  but  in  a  few  days  is  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Spaniards April, 

Naples  conquered  by  prince  Eugene  of  Savoy, 
for  the  emperor 

Discovery  of  Herculaneum  (which  see)      1711  or 

The  Spaniards  by  the  victory  at  Bitonto  (May 
26)  having  made  themselves  masters  of  both 
kingdoms,  Charles  (of  Bourbon),  son  of  the 
king  of  Spain,  ascends  the  throne,  with  the 
ancient  title  renewed,  of  the  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  . 


493 
536 
543 
552 

572 
593 


.-1266 


1268 
1282 
1345 
1349 


1435 
1494 

1501 
1504 
1647 


1648 

1706 
1713 


•   1734 


Order    of    St.    Januarius  instituted  by  king 

Charles 

Charles,  becoming  king  of  Spain,  vacates  the 
throne  of  the  Two  Sicilies  in  favour  of  his 
third  son  Ferdinand,  agreeably  to  treaty  .     . 
Expulsion  of  the  Jesuits      .        .        .     Nov.  3, 
Dreadful  earthquake  in  Calabria    .         .  Feb.  5, 
Enrolment  of  the  Lazzaroni  (ichich  see)  as  pike- 
men  or  spontoneers 

The  king  flies  on  the  approach  of  the  French 
republicans,  who  establish  the  Parthenopean 

republic Jan.  14, 

Nelson  appears  :  Naples  retaken ;  the  restored 

king  rules  tyrannically    .        .        .        June, 

Prince  Caracciolo  tried  and  executed  by  order 

of  Nelson June  29, 

The  Neapolitans  occupy  Rome  .        .  Sept.  30, 
Dreadful  earthquake  felt  throughout  the  king- 
dom, and  thousands  perish         .     .    July  26, 
Treaty  of  neutrality  between  France  and  Naples 

ratified Oct.  9, 

Ferdinand,  through  perfidy,  is  compelled  to  fly 
to  Sicily,  Jan.  23  ;  the  French  enter  Naples, 
and  Joseph  Bonaparte  made  king          .  Feb. 
The  French  defeated  at  Maida        .        .  July  4, 
Joseph   Bonaparte,  after  beginning  many  re- 
forms, abdicates  for  the  crown  of  Spain,  June, 
Joachim  Murat  made  king  (rules  well),  July  15, 
His  first  quarrel  with  Napoleon  .... 
His  alliance  with  Austria        .        .        .       Jan. 
Death  of  queen  Caroline  of  Austria     .     Sept.  7, 
Joachim  declares  war  against  Austria,  March  15, 
Defeated  at  Tolentino      ....  May  3, 
He  retires  to  France,  May  22,  and  Corsica  ;  he 
madly  attempts  the  recovery  of  his  throne 
by  landing  at  Pizzo,  Sept.  28 ;  is  seized,  tried, 

and  shot Oct.  13, 

Ferdinand,    re-established,     soon    returns    to 

tyrannical  measures    ....     June, 

A  plague  rages  in  Naples,  Nov.  1815  to  June 

Establishment  of  the  society  of  the  Carbonari  . 

Successful  insurrection  of  the  Carbonari  under 

general  Pe"pe  :  the  king  compelled  to  swear 

solemnly  to  a  new  constitution        .    July  13, 

The  Austrians  invade  the  kingdom,  at  the  king's 

instigation  :  general  Pe"pe"  defeated    March  7, 

Fall  of  the  constitutional  government,  March  23, 

Death  of  Ferdinand ;  (reigned  66  years),  Jan.  4, 

[In  30  years,   100,000  Neapolitans  perished  by 

various  kinds  of  death.] 


1738 

1759 
1767 

1783 
1793 

1799 


1804 
1805 

1806 
1808 

1814 
1815 


1816 
1819 


1820 
1821 


*  Occasioned  by  the  extortions  of  the  Spanish  viceroys.  One  day  an  impost  was  claimed  on  a  basket 
of  figs,  and  refused  by  the  owner,  with  whom  the  populace  took  part  headed  by  Masaniello  (Thomas 
Aniello),  a  fisherman  ;  they  obtained  the  command  of  Naples,  many  of  the  nobles  were  slain  and  their 
palaces  burnt,  and  the  viceroy  was  compelled  to  abolish  the  taxes  and  to  restore  the  privileges  granted  by 
Charles  V.  to  the  city.  Masaniello  became  intoxicated  by  his  success  and  was  slain  by  his  own  followers 
after  a  few  days'  rule,  on  July  16,  1647. 


K   K  2 


NAP 


500 


NAP 


NAPLES,  continued. 

Insurrection  of  the  Carbonari  suppressed  .        .   1828 

Accession  of  Ferdinand  II.  (as  faithless  and 
tyrannical  as  his  predecessors)  .  Nov.  8,  1830 

Dispute  with  England  respecting  the  sulphur 
trade;  settled March,  1840 

Attilio  and  Emilio  Bandiera,  with  eighteen 
others,  attempting  an  insurrection  in  Cala- 
bria, are  shot"  ....  Jan.  17,  1844 

Prospect  of  an  insurrection  in  Naples  ;  the  king 
grants  a  new  constitution  .  .  Jan.  29,  1848 

Great  fighting  in  Naples  ;  the  liberals  and  the 
national  guard  almost  annihilated  by  the 
royal  troops,  aided  by  the  lazzaroni,  May  15,  1848 

A  martial  anarchy  prevails ;  the  chiefs  of  the 
liberal  party  arrested  in  .  .  .  Dec.  1849 

Settembrini,  Poerio,  Carafa,  and  others,  after  a 
mock  trial,  are  condemned,  and  consigned  to 
horrible  dungeons  for  life  .  .  .  June,  1850 

After  remonstrances  with  the  king  on  his  tyran- 
nical government  (May),  the  English  and 
French  ambassadors  are  withdrawn  Oct.  28,  1856 

Attempted  assassination  of  the  king  by  Milano, 

Dec.  8,  ,, 

The  Cagliari\  seized      ....      June,  1857 

Italian  refugees,  under  count  Pisaccane,  land 
in  Calabria,  are  defeated,  and  their  leader 
killed  ....  June  27 — July  2,  „ 

A  dreadful  earthquake  in  the  Apennines  (see 
Earthquakes) Dec.  16,  ,, 

Amnesty  granted  to  political  offenders,  Dec.  27,  1858 

Poerio  and  sixty-six  companions  released  and 
sent  to  N.  America,  Jan.  ;  on  their  way,  they 
seize  the  vessel ;  sail  to  Cork,  March  7  ;  and 
proceed  to  London  ....  March  18,  1859 

Death  of  Ferdinand  II.,  after  dreadful  suffer- 
ings . May  22,  ,, 

Diplomatic  relations  resumed  with  England 
and  France June,  „ 

A  subscription  for  Poerio  and  his  companions 
in  England  amounted  to  10,000?.  .  July,  „ 

Insubordination  among  the  Swiss  troops  at 
Naples ;  many  shot,  July  7  ;  major  Latour 
sent  to  Naples  by  the  Swiss  confederation, 

July  16,  ,, 

Army  increased ;  defences  strengthened,     Oct.    ,, 

Many  political  imprisonments  ;  the  foreign  am- 
bassadors collectively  address  a  note  to  the 
king  stating  the  necessity  for  reform  in  his 
states,  March  26 ;  the  count  of  Syracuse  re- 
commends reform  and  alliance  with  England 

April,  1860 


Revolution  in  Sicily  (lohich  see)      .     May  n,  14, 

Francis  II.  proclaims  an  amnesty ;  promises  a 

liberal  ministry;  adopts  a  tricolor  flag,  <fcc., 

June  26, 

Baron  Brenier,  French  ambassador,  wounded 
in  his  carriage  by  the  mob  .  •  June  27, 

A  liberal  ministry  formed  ;  destruction  of  the 
commissariat  of  the  police  in  12  districts ; 
state  of  siege  proclaimed  at  Naples ;  the 
queen-mother  flees  to  Gaeta  .  .  June  28, 

Revolutionary  committee  at-.  Naples,      June  15, 

Garibaldi  lands  in  Sicily,  May  n  ;  defeats  the 
Neapolitan  army  at  Calatifimi,  May  15  ;  and 
at  Melazzo,  July  20  ;  enters  Messina,  July 
21  ;  the  Neapolitans  agree  to  evacuate  Sicily, 

July  30, 

The  king  of  Sardinia  in  vain  negotiates  with 
Francis  II.  for  alliance  .  .  .  July, 

Francis  II.  proclaims  the  re-establishment  of 
the  constitution  of  1848,  July  2 ;  the  army 
proclaim  count  de  Trani  king  .  July  10, 

Garibaldi  lands  at  Melito,  Aug.  18;  takes  Reggio, 

Aug.  21, 

Defection  in  army  and  navy  ;  Francis  II.  retires 
to  Gaeta,  Sept.  6;  Garibaldi  enters  Naples 
without  troops  ....  Sept.  7, 

Garibaldi  assumes  the  dictatorship,  Sept.  8  ; 
and  gives  up  the  Neapolitan  fleet  to  the  Sar- 
dinian admiral  Persano,  Sept.  n  ;  expels  the 
Jesuits  ;  establishes  trial  by  jury ;  releases 
political  prisoners  ....  Sept. 

He  repulses  the  Neapolitans  at  Cajazzo,  Sept. 
19,  and  defeats  them  thoroughly  at  the  Vol- 
turno Oct.  i, 

The  king  of  Sardinia  enters  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  and  takes  command  of  his  army, 
which  combines  with  Garibaldi  s  Oct.  n, 

Naples  unsettled  through  intrigues  .        .  Oct. 

Cialdini  defeats  the  Neapolitans  at  Isernia,  Oct. 
17  ;  at  Venafro  ....  Oct.  18, 

The  Plebiscite  at  Naples,  &c.  ;  almost  unani- 
mous vote  for  annexation  to  Piedmont 
(1,303,064  to  10,312)  ....  Oct.  21, 

Garibaldi  meets  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  salutes 
him  as  king  of  Italy  .  .  .  .  Oct.  26, 

The  first  English  protestant  church  built  on 

ground    given    by   Garibaldi ;    consecrated, 

March  ir, 

[History  continued,  under  Italy.} 


1860 


SOVEREIGNS   OF    NAPLES   AND    SICILY. 


1131.  Roger  I.  (of  Sicily,  1130)  Norman. 

1154.  William  I.  the  Bad  ;  son. 

1166.  "William  II.  the  Good  ;  son. 

1189.  Tancred,  natural  son  of  Roger. 

1194.  William  III.   son,  succeeded    by  Constance, 

married  to  Henry  VI.  of  Germany. 

1197.  Frederic  II.  of  Germany  (Hohenstaufen). 


1250.   Conrad; -son. 

1254.   Conradin,  son  ;  but  his  uncle, 

1258.    Manfred,  nat.  son  of  Frederick  II.,  seizes  the 

government  ;  killed  at  Benevento,  in  1266. 
1266.    Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis,  king  of 

France. 
1282.    Insurrection  in  Sicily. 


(Separation  of  the  kingdoms  in  1282.) 


*  It  was  asserted,  but  denied  by  lord  Aberdeen,  that  his  government  had  given  warning  of  this 
attempt,  of  which  they  had  obtained  information  by  opening  letters  directed  to  Mazzini. 

t  The  Cagliari,  a  Sardinian  mail  steamboat  plying  between  Genoa  and  Tunis,  satled  from  the  former 
port  on  June  25,  1857,  with  thirty -three  passengers,  who,  after  a  few  hours'  sail,  took  forcible  posses-ion 
of  the  vessel,  and  compelled  the  two  English  engineers  (Watt  and  Park)  to  steer  to  Poiiza.  Here  they 
landed,  released  some  prisoners,  took  them  on  board,  and  sailed  to  Sapri,  where  they  again  landed,  and 
restored  the  vessel  to  its  commander  and  crew.  The  latter  steered  immediately  for  Naples  ;  but  on  the 
way  the  vessel  was  boarded  by  a  Neapolitan  cruiser,  and  all  the  crew  were  landed  and  consigned  to 
dungeons,  where  they  remained  for  nine  months  waiting  for  trial,  suffering  great  privations  and  insults. 
This  caused  great  excitement  in  England  :  and  after  much  negotiation,  the  crew  were  released  and  the 
vessel  given  up  to  the  British  government,  3000?.  being  given  as  a  compensation  to  the  sufferers. 


NAPLES,  continued. 

NAPLES. 

2.   Charles  I.  of  Anjou. 
85.   Charles  II.  ;  son. 

Robert  the  Wise  ;  brother. 
Joanna  (reigns  with  her  husband,  Andrew  of 
Hungary),   1343-45  ;  with  Louis  of  Tarento, 
1349-62  ;  Joanna  put  to  death  by 
1381.   Charles  III.  of  Durazzo,  grandson  of  Charles 
II.  :   he  becomes  king  of  Hungary,    1586; 
assassinated  there. 


Ladislas  of  Hungary, 
Joanna  II.,  sister,  die 


son. 

lies  in  1435,  and  bequeaths 
her  dominions  to  Hegnier  of  Anjou.  They 
are  acquired  by 


SICILY. 

1282.   Peter  I.  (III.  of  Arragon.) 
1285.   James  I.  (II.  of  Arragon.) 
1295.    Frederic  II. 
1337.  'Peter  II. 
1342.   Louis. 
1355.    Frederic  III. 

1376.    Maria  and  Martin  (her  husband). 
1402.   Martini. 

1409.  Martin  II. 

1410.  Ferdinand  I. 
1416.  Alphonsus  I. 


NAPLES. 
Ferdinand  I. 
Alphonso  II.  abdicates. 
Ferdinand  II. 


1435.  Alphonsus  I.  thus  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 
(Separation  of  Naples  and  Sicily  in  1458.) 

SICILY. 

1458.   John  of  Arragon. 
1479.   Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 


Frederic  II.  expelled  by  the  French,  1501. 


Ferdinand  III.  (king  of  Spain). 
16.   Charles  I.  (V.  of  Germany). 
Philip  I.  (II.  of  Spain). 
Philip  II.  (HI.  of  Spain). 


NAPLES. 
Charles  III.  of  Austria. 


735.  Charles  IV.  (III.  of  Spain.) 


THE    CROWNS   UNITED. 

1623.   Philip  III.  (IV.  of  Spain). 
1665.    Charles  II.  (of  Spain). 
1700.   Philip  IV.  (V.  of  Spain),  Bourbons. 
1707.   Charles  III.  of  Austria. 
(Separation  in  1713.) 

SICILY. 

1713.   Victor  Amadeus  of  Savoy;   exchanges  Sicily 
for  Sardinia,  1720. 

THE  TWO    SICILIES. 
(Part  of  the  empire  of  Germany,  1720-34.) 

11759.   Ferdinand  IV.,  a  tyrannical  and  cruel  sove- 
reign, flies  from  Naples  in  1806  to  Sicily. 
(Separation  in  1806.) 


NAPLES. 

Joseph  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
1808.   Joachim  Murat,  shot  Oct.  13,  1815. 


SICILY. 
1806-15.    Ferdinand  IV. 


THE  TWO  SICILIES. 


1815.   Ferdinand    I.,    formerly    Ferdinand  IV.,   of 

Naples  and  Sicily. 
1825.    Francis  I. 
1830.    Ferdinand  II.,  Nov.  8  (termed  King  Bomba). 


1859.   Francis  II.,  May  22  ;  born  Jan.  16,  1836,  last 

KING  OF  NAPLES. 
1861.   Victor-Emmanuel  II.  of  Sardinia,  as  KINO  OF 

ITALY;  March. 


NAPOLEON,  CODE.     See  Codes. 

NARBONNE  (S.E.  France),  the  Roman  colony,  Narbo  Martins,  founded  118  B.C.,  was 
made  the  capital  of  a  Visigothic  kingdom,  462.  Gaston  de  Foix,  the  last  vicomte  (killed 
at  the  battle  of  Ravenna,  April  n,  1512),  resigned  it  to  the  king  in  exchange  for  the  duchy 
of  Nemours. 

NARCEINE  AND  NARCOTINE,  alkaloids  obtained  from  Opium  (which  see}.  Narceine 
was  discovered  by  Pelletier  in  1832  ;  and  narcotine  by  Derosne  in  1803. 

NARVA  (Esthonia,  Russia).  Here  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  was  totally  defeated  by 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  "the  Madmaii  of  the  North,"  then  in  his  nineteenth  year,  Nov.  30, 
1700.  The  army  of  Peter  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  60,000,  some  Swedish  writers  affirm 
100,000  men,  while  the  Swedes  did  not  much  exceed  20,000.  Charles  attacked  the  enemy 
in  his  intrenchments,  and  slew  30,000 ;  the  remainder,  exceeding  that  number,  sur- 
rendered. He  had  several  horses  shot  under  him,  and  as  he  was  mounting  a  fresh  one  he 
said,  "These  people  seem  disposed  to  give  me  exercise."  The  place  was  taken  by  Peter 
in  1704. 

NASEBY  (Northamptonshire),  BATTLE  OF,  between  Charles  I.  and  the  parliament 
army  under  Fairfax  and  Cromwell.  The  main  body  of  the  royal  army  was  commanded  by 
lord  Astley  ;  prince  Rupert  led  the  right  wing,  sir  Marmaduke  Langdale  the  left,  and  the 
king  himself  headed  the  body  of  reserve.  The  victory  was  with  the  parliament  forces, 
and  was  decisive  against  the  king,  who  fled,  losing  his  cannon,  baggage,  and  5000  prisoners, 
June  14,  1645. 


NAS 


502 


NAT 


1839.   Adolphus-William- Charles,  born  July  24,  1817. 
The  PRESENT  duke. 


NASHVILLE  (Tennessee,  N.  America),  was  occupied  by  the  Confederates  in  1861,  and 
taken  by  the  Federals,  Feb.  23,  1862. 

NASSAU",  a  German  duchy,  was  made  a  county  by  the  emperor  Frederic  I.  about  nSo, 
for  Wolram,  a  descendant  of  Conrad  I.  of  Germany;  from  whom  are  descended  the  royal 
house  of  Orange  now  reigning  in  Holland  (see  Orange  and  Holland),  and  the  present  duke  of 
Nassau.  "Wiesbaden  was  made  the  capital  in  1839.  On  April  25,  1860,  the  Nassau  chamber 
strongly  opposed  the  conclusion  of  a  concordat  with  the  pope,  and  claimed  liberty  of  faith 
and  conscience.  Population  of  the  duchy  in  1865,  468,311. 

1788.   Count  Frederic-William  joins  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine,  and  is  made  DUKE  in  1806. 
1814.  William-George,  Aug.  20. 

NATAL  (Cape  of  Good  Hope),  Vasco  da  Gama  landed  here  on  Dec.  25,  1497,  and  hence 
named  it  Terra  Natalis.  The  Dutch  attempted  to  colonize  it  about  1721.  In  1823  lieut. 
Farewell  and  a  small  band  of  emigrants  settled  here.  It  was  annexed  to  the  British  crown 
in  1843  ;  and  made  a  bishopric  in  1853,  and  an  independent  colony  in  1856. 

NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY.  Upon  the  proposition  of  the  Abbe"  Sieyes,  the  states-general 
of  France  constituted  themselves  as  the  National  Assembly,  June  17,  1789.  On  the  2Oth, 
the  hall  of  this  new  assembly  was  shut  by  order  of  the  king  ;  upon  which  the  deputies  of 
the  Tiers  Etat  repaired  to  the  Jeu  de  Paume,  or  Tennis-court,  and  swore  not  to  dissolve  until 
they  had  digested  a  constitution  for  France.  On  the  22nd  they  met  at  the  church  at  St. 
Louis.  This  assembly  abolished  the  state  religion,  annulled  monastic  vows,  divided  France 
into  departments,  sold  the  national  domains,  established  a  national  bank,  issued  assignats, 
and  dissolved  itself  Sept.  21,  1792.  See  National  Convention.  In  1848  the  legislature  was 
again  termed  the  National  Assembly.  It  met  May  4,  and  a  new  constitution  was  proclaimed 
Nov.  12.  A  new  constitution  was  once  more  proclaimed  by  Louis  Napoleon  in  Jan.  1852, 
after  triumphing  over  the  National  Assembly. 

NATIONAL  ASSOCIATIONS.  One  was  formed  in  1584,  headed  by  the  carl  of  Leicester, 
to  protect  queen  Elizabeth  from  assassination,  in  consequence  of  the  discovery  of  various 
plots.  Another  for  the  defence  of  William  III.  against  assassins  was  established  in  1696,  of 
which  all  persons  holding  office  under  government  were  required  to  be  members.  See  Social 
Science  and  Volunteers  for  two  other  National  associations. 

NATIONAL  CONVENTION  OF  FRANCE,  constituted  in  the  hall  of  the  Tuileries 
Sept.  17,  and  formally  opened  Sept.  21,  1792,  when  M.  Gregoire,  at  the  head  of  the 
National  Assembly,  repaired  thither  and  announced  that  that  assembly  had  ceased  its 
functions.  It  was  then  decreed,  "That  the  citizens  named  by  the  French  people  to  form  the 
National  Convention,  being  met  to  the  number  of  371,  after  having  verified  .their  powers, 
declare  that  the  National  Convention  is  constituted."  This  convention  continued  until  a 
new  constitution  was  organised,  and  the  Executive  Directory  was  installed  at  the  little 
Luxembourg,  Nov.  i,  1795.  See  Directory.  The  Chartists  (which  see)  in  England  formed  a 
National  Convention  in  1 839. 

NATIONAL  DEBT.  The  first  mention  of  parliamentary  security  for  a  debt  of  the  nation 
occurs  in'  the  reign  of  Henry  V  I.  The  present  national  debt  commenced  in  the  reign  of 
William  III.  1690.  It  amounted,  in  1697,  to  about  five  millions  sterling,  and  was  then 
thought  to  be  of  alarming  magnitude.  The  sole  cause  of  the  increase  has  been  war. 

1817.  English  and  Irish 
Exchequers  con- 
solidated 

1830.  Total  amount 

1840.  Ditto 

1850.  Ditto  . 

1854.  Ditto 

1855.  Ditto  . 

1856.  Ditto 

1857.  Funded  debt 


Self. 

1702.  Anne  .  about  £14,000,000 
1714.  George  I.  .  .  54,000,000 
1749.  George  II.  (after 

Spanish  war)  .  78,000,000 
1763.  George  III.  (end 

of    the    Seven 

Years'  War)  .  139,000,000 
1786.  After  American 

war  .  .  268,000,000 
1798.  Foreign  war  .  .  462,000,000 
1802.  Close  of  French 

Revolutionary 

war  .  .  571,000,000 
1814.  Close  of  war  with 

Napoleon        .  865,000,000 


Unfunded 
1856.  Funded  debt 

Unfunded 
1859.  Funded  debt 

Unfunded 


Debt. 

Debt. 

1860.  Funded  debt       £785,962,000 

Unfunded 

16,228,300 

^848,282.477 

1861.  Funded  debt 

785,119,609 

840,184,022 

Unfunded 

16,689,000 

789>578,720 

1862.  Funded  debt 

784,252,338 

787,029,162 

Unfunded 

16,517,900 

775,041,272 
793)375,199 

1863.  Funded  debt 
Unfunded 

783,306,739 
16,495,400 

807,981,788 

1864.  Funded  debt 

777,429,224 

780,119,722 

Unfunded 

13,136,000 

27,989,000 

1865.  Funded  debt 

775,768,295 

779,225,495 

Unfunded 

10,742,500 

25,911,500 

[Exclusive  of  terminable 

786,801,154 

annuities.] 

18,277,400 

The  annual  interest  in  1850  was  23,862, 257!.  ;  and  the  total  interest,  including  annuities,  amounted  to 
27,699,740?.  On  Jan.  i,  1851,  the  total  unredeemed  debt  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  769,272,562?.,  the 
charge  on  which  for  interest  and  management  was  27,620,449?.  The  total  charge  on  the  debt  in  1861  was 

26, 090, 200  J. 


NAT  503  NAT 

NATIONAL  GALLERY,  LONDON  (containing  now  about  750  pictures),  began  with  the 
rchase,  by  the  British  government,  of  the  Angerstein  collection  of  38  pictures,  for  57,000?., 
in  Jan.  1824.  The  first  exhibition  of  them  took  place  in  Pall-mall,  on  May  10,  1824.  Sir 
O.  Beaumont  (1826),  Mr.  Holwell  Carr  (1831),  and  many  other  gentlemen,  as  well  as  the 
British  Institution,  contributed  many  fine  pictures  ;  and  the  collection  has  been  since  greatly 
augmented  by  gifts  and  purchases.  The  present  edifice  in  Trafalgar-square,  designed  by  Mr. 
AVilkins,  was  completed  and  opened  April  9,  1838.  In  July,  1857,  a  commission  appointed 
to  consider  the  propriety  of  removing  the  pictures  reported  in  favour  of  their  remaining  in 
their  present  locality  ;  and  in  1860,  15,000?.  were  voted,  to  be  expended  in  adapting  the 
central  part  of  the  building  to  exhibition  purposes.  On  May  n,  1861,  the  National  Gallery 
was  reopened,  after  having  been  closed  eight  months,  during  which  time  great  improvements 
were  made  in  the  internal  arrangements.  On  June  19,  1865,  the  house  of  commons  voted 
2O,oool.  to  buy  land  to  enlarge  the  building. 

NATIONAL  GUARD  OF  FHANCE  was  instituted  by  the  Committee  of  Safety  at  Paris 
July  13,  1 789  (the  day  before  the  destruction  of  the  Bastile),  to  maintain  order  and 
defend,  the  public  liberty.  Its  first  colours  were  blue  and  red,  to  which  white  was  added, 
when  its  formation  was  approved  by  the  king.  Its  action  was  soon  paralysed  by  the  revo- 
lutionary factions,  and  it  ceased  altogether  under  the  consulate  and  empire.  It  was  revived 
by  Napoleon  in  1814,  and  maintained  by  Louis  XV1IL,  but  was  broken  up  by  Charles  X. 
after  a  tumultuous  review  in  1827.  It  was  revived  in  1830,  and  helped  to  place  Louis 
Philippe  on  the  throne.  In  1848  its  reconstitution  and  its  enlargement  from  80,000  to 
100,000  men  led  to  the  frightful  conflict  of  June,  1848.  Its  constitution  was  entirely 
changed  in  Jan.  1852,  when  it  was  subjected  entirely  to  the  control  of  the  government. 
Formerly  the  National  Guard  had  many  privileges,  such  as  choosing  their  own  officers,  &c.— 
National  Guards  have  been  established  in  Spain,  Naples,  and  other  countries,  during  the 
present  century. 

NATIONAL  PORTRAIT  GALLERY  was  established  in  Feb.  185 7  in  pursuance  of  votes 
from  both  houses  of  parliament.  The  sum  of  2900?.  was  appropriated  for  the  purchase  of 
]>ortraits  of  persons  eminent  in  British  history,  and  apartments  were  assigned  for  their 
reception.  Donations  are  received  under  certain  restrictions.  A  valuable  collection  of 
National  Portraits  appeared  at  the  Manchester  Exhibition  in  1857.* 

NATIONAL  SCHOOLS.     See  Education. 

NATIONAL  TESTIMONIALS  (subscribed  for)  were  presented  to  Rowland  Hill  (for  his 
exertions  in  obtaining  the  penny  postage),  June  17,  1846  :  and  to  Miss  Florence  Nightingale 
(for  her  beneficent  exertions  for  the  sufferers  during  the  Crimean  war),  Nov.  29,  1855. 

NATIVITY.  There  are  two  festivals  in  the  Roman  and  Greek  churches,  under  this 
name.  The  Nativity  of  Christ,  also  observed  by  the  Protestants  on  December  25th  (see 
Christmas)  ;  and  the  Nativity  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  not  observed  by  the  Protestants  at  all. 
Pope  Sergius  I.,  about.  690,  established  the  latter;  but  it  was  not  generally  received  in 
France  and  Germany  till  about  1000  ;  nor  by  the  eastern  Christians  till  the  I2th  century. 

NATURAL  HISTORY  was  studied  by  Solomon,  1014  B.C.  (i  Kings  iv.  33),  and  by 
Aristotle  (384-322  B.C.).  See  Botany,  Zoology,  &c. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.     See  Philosophy. 

NATURAL  SELECTION.     See  Species. 

NATURALISATION  is  defined  to  be  "the  making  a  foreigner  or  alien  a  denizen  or 
freeman  of  any  kingdom  or  city,  and  so  becoming,  as  it  were,  both  a  subject  and  a  native  of 
a  king  or  country,  that  by  nature  he  did  not  belong  to. "  The  first  act  of  naturalisation 
passed  in  1437  ;  and  various  similar  enactments  were  made  in  most  of  the  reigns  from  that 
time  ;  several  of  them  special  acts  relating  to  individuals.  An  act  for  the  naturalisation  of 
the  Jews  passed  May,  1753,  but  was  repealed  in  1754,  on  the  petition  of  all  the  cities  in 
England ;  for  the  privileges  since  granted  them,  see  Jews.  The  act  for  the  naturalisation  of 
prince  Albert  passed  3  Viet.  Feb.  7,  1840. 

NATURE-PRINTING.  This  process  consists  in  impressing  objects,  such  as  plants, 
mosses,  feathers,  &c.,  into  plates  of  metal,  causiug  these  objects,  as  it  were,  to  engrave  them- 
selves ;  and  afterwards  taking  casts  or  copies  fit  for  printing  from.  Kniphof  of  Erfurt, 

*  The  formation  of  a  National  Portrait  Exhibition  was  proposed  by  the  earl  of  Derby,  earl  Granvillc, 
and  others,  at  a  meeting  in  London  on  July  13,  1865.  It  is  to  be  held  in  April,  1866,  in  the  old  refreshment 
room  of  the  exhibition  building  of  1862. 


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504 


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"between  1728  and  1757,  produced  his  Herbarium  vivum  by  pressing  the  plants  themselves 
(previously  inked)  on  paper  ;  the  impressions  being  afterwards  coloured  by  hand.  In  1833, 
Peter  Kyhl,  of  Copenhagen,  made  use  of  steel  rollers  and  lead  plates.  In  1842,  Mr.  Taylor 
printed  lace.  In  1847,  Mr.  Twining  printed  ferns,  grasses,  and  plants  ;  and  in  the  same 
year  Dr.  Branson  suggested  the  application  of  electrotyping  to  the  impressions.  In  1849, 
professor  Leydolt,  of  Vienna,  by  the  able  assistance  of  Mr.  Andrew  Worring,  obtained 
impressions  of  agates  and  fossils.  The  first  practical  application  of  this  process  is  in  Von 
Heufler's  work  on  the  Mosses  of  Arpasch,  in  Transylvania  ;  the  second  (the  first  in  this 
country)  in  "The  Ferns  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  edited  by  Dr.  Lindley,  the  illus- 
trations to  which  were  prepared  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Henry  Bradbury  in 
1855-6,  who  also  in  1859-60 printed  "The  British  Sea- weeds,"  edited  by  W.  G.  Johns'tone- 
and  Alex.  Croall. 

NAVAL  ARCHITECTS'  INSTITUTE  was  established  in  Jan.  1860.  The  members 
give  much  attention  to  the  consideration  of  the  strength  of  iron  ships. 

NAVAL  ASYLUM,  ROYAL,  began  at  Paddington  in  1801,  and  was  transferred  to  Green- 
wich in  1807.  The  interior  of  the  central  portion  was  commenced  in  1613  by  Anne,  queen 
of  James  I.,  and  completed  in  1635  by  queen  Henrietta- Maria,  whose  arms  still  adorn  the 
ceiling  of  the  room  in  which  her  son  Charles  II.  was  born  in  1630. 

NAVAL  BATTLES.  The  Argonautic  expedition  undertaken  by  Jason  is  the  first  upon 
record,  1263  B.C.  Dufresnoy.  The  first  sea  fight  on  record  is  that  between  the  Corinthians 
and  Corcyreans,  664  B.C.  Blair.  The  following  are  among  the  most  celebrated  naval 
engagements  :  for  the  details  of  which  see  separate  articles. 


Battle  of  Salamis  (Greek  victory)     Oct.  20,  B.C.     480 

Battle  of  Eurymedon  (ditto) 466 

Battle  of  Cyzicus;  the  LacediBmonian  fleet 
taken  by  Alcibiades,  the  Athenian .  .  .  410 

Battle  of  Arginusse 406 

Battle  of  JSgospotamos  (Spartans  victors).        .     405 
The  Persian  fleet,  under  Conon,  defeats  the 
Spartan,  at  Cnidos ;  Pisander,  the  Athenian 
admiral  is  killed  ;  and  the  maritime  power 
of  the  Lacedaemonians  destroyed    .        .        .     394 
Battle  of  Mylre  (Romans  defeat  Carthaginians)    260 
The  Roman  fleet,  off  Trepanum,  destroyed  by 

the  Carthaginians 249 

The  Carthaginian  fleet  destroyed  by  the  consul 

Lutatius 241 

Battle  of  Actium 31 

The  emperor  Claudius  II.   defeats  the  Goths, 

and  sinks  2000  of  their  ships      .         .     .  A.D.     269 
Battle  of  Lepanto  (Turks  defeated)    .       Oct.  7,  1571 
Bay  of    Gibraltar ;     Dutch   and   Spaniards   (a 
bloody  conflict  and  decisive  victory,  giving  for 
atime  the  superiority  to  the  Dutch,)  April  25,  1607 

NAVAL  ENGAGEMENTS  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY. 

Alfred  with  10  galleys,  defeated  300  sail  of 
Danish  pirates  on  the  Dorset  and  Hampshire 
coast.  Assess  Life  of  Alfred  ....  897 

Edward  III.  defeats  the  French  near  Sluys, 

June  24,  1340 

Off  Winchelsea ;  Edward  III.  defeated  the 
Spanish  fleet  of  40  large  ships,and  captured  26, 

Aug.  29,  1350 

The  English  and  Flemings  ;  the  latter  signally 
defeated  ........  1371 

Earl  of  Arundel  defeats  a  Flemish  fleet  of  100 
sail,  and  captures  80  ...  March  24,  1387 

Near  Milford  Haven  ;  the  English  take  8,  and 
destroy  15  French  ships 1405 

Off  Harfleur ;  the  duke  of  Bedford  takes  or 
destroys  nearly  500  French  ships  .  Aug.  15,  1416 

In  the  Downs  ;  a  Spanish  and  Genoese  fleet 
captured  by  the  earl  of  Warwick  .  .  .  1459 

Bay  of  Biscay  ;  English  and  French,  indecisive, 

Aug.  10,  1512 

Sir  Edward  Howard  attacks  the  French  under 
Prior  John  ;  repulsed  and  killed  April  25,  1513 

The  S  aniffi  Armada  destroyed .         .     July  19,  1588 

Dover  straits  ;  between  the  Dutch  admiral  Van 
Tromp,  and  admiral  Blake.  The  Dutch  sur- 
prise the  English  in  the  Downs,  80  sail  en- 


gaging  40  English,  six  of  which  are  taken  or 
destroyed  ;  and  the  Dutch  admiral  sails  in 
triumph  through  the  channel,  with  a  broom 
at  his  mash-head,  to  denote  that  he  had  swept 
the  English  from  the  seas  .  .  Nov.  29,  1652 

The  English  gain  a  victory  over  the  Dutch  fleet 
off  Portsmouth,  taking  and  destroying  u 
men-of-war  and  30  merchantmen.  Van  Tromp 
was  the  Dutch,  and  Blake  the  English  admiral, 

Feb.  18-20,  1653 

Again,  off  the  North  Foreland.  The  Dutch  and 
English  fleets  consisted  of  near  100  men- 
of-war  each.  Van  Tromp  commanded  the 
Dutch;  Blake,  Monk,  and  Deane,  the  Eng- 
lish. Six  Dutch  ships  taken;  u  sunk,  and 
the  rest  ran  into  Calais  roads  .  June  2,  ,, 

Again,  on  the  coast  of  Holland  ;  the  Dutch  lose 
30  men-of-war,  and  admiral  Tromp  was  killed 
(the  seventh  and  last  battle)  .  .  July,  ,, 

At  Cadiz,  when  two  galleons,  worth  2,000,000 
pieces  of  eight,  were  taken  by  Blake  .  Sept.  1656 

Spanish  fleet  vanquished,  and  burnt  in  the 
harbour  of  Santa  Cruz,  by  Blake  .  April  20,  1657 

English  and  French  :  130  of  the  Bordeaux  fleet 
destroyed  by  the  duke  of  York  (afterwards 
James  II.) Dec.  4,  1664 

The  duke  of  York  defeats  the  Dutch  fleet  off 
Harwich  ;  Opdam,  the  Dutch  admiral,  blown 
up  with  all  his  crew  ;  18  capital  ships  taken, 
14  destroyed June  3,  1665 

The  earl  of  Sandwich  took  12  men-of-war  and  2 
India  si  dps Sept.  4,  ,, 

A  contest  between  the  Dutch  and  English 
fleets  for  four  days.  The  English  lose  9,  and 
the  Dutch  15  ships  ....  June  1-4,  1666 

Decisive  engagement  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames,  the  English  gain  a  glorious  victory. 
The  Dutch  lose  24  men-of-war,  4  admirals 
killed,  and  4,000  seamen  .  .  July  25,  26,  „ 

The  Dutch  admiial  De  Ruyter  sails  up  the 
Thames  and  destroys  some  ships  .  June  u,  1667 

Twelve  Algerine  ships  of  war  destroyed  by  sir 
Edward  Spragg  ....  May  10,  1671 

Battle  of  Southwold-buy.  See  Solebay.    May  28,  1672 

Coast  of  Holland ;  by  prince  Rupert,  May  28, 
June  4,  and  Aug.  u,  sir  E.  Spragg  killed  ; 
d'Etrees  and  Ruyter  defeated ....  1673 

Off  Beachy  Head  ;  the  English  and  Dutch  de- 
feated by  the  French  .        .        .        June  30,  1690 
Victory  mar  Cape  La  Hogue      .        .     May  19,  1692 


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H^ 

i; 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  continued, 

St.  Vincent ;  the  English  and  Dutch  squad- 
3,  under  admiral  llooke,  defeated  by  the 
French June  16,  1693 

Off  Carthagena,  between  admiral  Benbow* 
and  the  French  fleet,  commanded  by  admiral 
Du  Casse.  Fought ....  Aug.  19,  1702 

Sir  George  Rooke  defeats  the  French  fleet  off 
Vigo  (which  see)  .  .  .  .  .  Oct.  12,  ,, 

Off  Malaga ;  bloody  engagement  between  the 
French,  under  the  count  of  Thoulouse,  and 
the  English,  under  sir  George  Rooke,  when 
the  former  entirely  relinquished  the  dominion 
of  the  seas  to  England  .  .  .  Aug.  24,  1704 

At  Gibraltar  ;  French  lose  5  men-of-war,  Nov.  5,     ,, 

In  the  Mediterranean,  admiral  Leake  took  60 
French  vessels,  laden  with  provisions,  May  22,  1 708 

Spanish  fleet  of  29  sail  totally  defeated  by  sir 
George  Byng,  in  the  Faro  of  Messina,  July  31,  1718 

Bloody  battle  off  Toulon ;  Matthews  and  Les- 
tock  against  the  fleets  of  France  and  Spain, 
iere  the  brave  captain  Cornwall  fell  with  42 
n,  including  officers  ;  and  the  victory  was 
t  by  a  misunderstanding  between  the 
glish  admirals  ....  Feb.  9,  1744 

Off  Cape  Finisterre,  the  French  fleet  of  38  sail 
taken  by  admiral  Anson  .  .  .  May  3,  1747 

Off  Finisterre,  when  admiral  Hawke  took  7 
men-of-war  of  the  French  .  .  Oct.  14,  ,, 

Off  Newfoundland,  when  admiral  Boscawen 
took  2  men-of-war  ....  June  10,  1755 

Off  Cape  Fran?oise  ;  7  ships  defeated  by  3  Eng- 
lish   Oct.  21,  1757 

Admiral  Pocock  defeats'  the  French  fleet  in  the 
East  Indies,  in  two  actions,  1758,  and  again  .  1759 

Admiral  Boscawen  defeats  the  French  under 
De  la  Clue,  off  Cape  Lagos  .  .  Aug.  18,  „ 

Admiral  Hawke  defeats  the  French  fleet,  com- 
manded by  Conflans,  in  Quiberon  Bay,  and 
thus  prevents  a  projected  invasion  of  Eng- 
land. See  Quiberon  Bay  .  .  .  Nov.  20,  ,, 

Keppel  took  3  French  frigates,  and  a  fleet  of 
merchantmen Oct.  9,  1762 

On  Lake  Champlain  the  provincial  force  totally 
destroyed  by  admiral  Howe  .  .  Oct.  n,  1776 

Off  Ushant ;  a  drawn  battle  between  Keppel 
and  d'Orvilliers  ....  July  27,  1778 

In  New  England;  the  American  fleet  totally 
destroyed July  30,  1779 

Near  Cape  St.  Vincent ;  admiral  Rodney  de- 
feated a  Spanish  fleet  under  admiral  Don 
Langara.  See  Rodney  ^  .  .  Jan.  16,  1780 

At  St.  Jago  ;  Mons.  Suffrein  defeated  by  com- 
modore Johnstone  .  .  .  April  16,  1781 

Dogger-bank,  between  adm.  Parker  and  the 
Dutch  adm.  Zoutman :  400  killed  on  each  side, 

Au£-  5>     „ 

Admiral  Rodney  defeated  the  French  going  to 

attack  Jamaica  ;  took  5  ships  of  the  line,  and 

sent  the  French  admiral,  Comte  de  Grasse, 

prisoner  to  England       .         .         .       April  12,  1782 

The  British  totally  defeated  the  fleets  of  France 

and  Spain  in  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar,     Sept.  13,     „ 
East  Indies :   a  series  of  actions  between  sir 
Edward  Hughes  and  Suffrein,  viz.  :  Feb.  17, 
1782,  the  French  had  n  ships  to  9;  April  12 
they  had  18  ships  to  n,  yet  were  completely 


beaten.  Again,  July  6,  off  Trincomaleo,  they 
had  15  to  12,  and  were  again  beaten  with  loss 
of  1000  killed,  Sept.  3,  1782  ;  again,  June  20,  1783 

Lord  Howe  defeated  the  French  off  Ushant, 
took  6  ships  of  war,  and  sunk  one  June  i,  1794 

Sir  Edward  Pellew  took  15  sail;  burnt  7,  out  of 
a  fleet  of  35  sail  of  transports  .  March  8,  1795 

French  fleet  defeated,  and  2  ships  of  war  taken 
by  admiral  Hotham.  Fought  March  14,  ,, 

Admiral  Cornwallis  took  8  transports,  convoyed 
by  3  French  men-of-war.  Fought  June  7,  ,, 

Eleven  Dutch  East  Iiidiamen  taken  by  the 
Sceptre,  man  of- war,  and  some  armed  British 
Indiamen  in  company  .  .  .  June  19,  ,, 

L'Orient;  the  French  fleet  defeated  by  lord 
Bridport,  and  3  ships  of  the  line  taken.  See 
L'Orient June  25,  „ 

Dutch  fleet,  under  admiral  Lucas,  in  Saldanba 
Bay  surrenders  to  sir  George  Keith  Elphin- 
stone.  See  Saldanha  Bay  .  .  Aug.  17,  1796 

Cape  St.  Vincent  (which  see)  .        .        .  Feb.  14,  1797 

Unsuccessful  attempt  011  Santa  Cruz ;  admiral 
Nelson  loses  his  right  arm  .  .  July  24,  „ 

Camperdown  (which  see)          .        .        .  Oct.  n,     ,, 

Kile  (which  see) Aug.  i,  1798 

Off  the  coast  of  Ireland ;  a  French  fleet  of  9  sail, 
full  of  troops,  as  succours  to  the  Irish,  engaged 
by  sir  John  Borlase  Warren,  and  5  taken, 

Oct.  12,  „ 

The  Texel  fleet  of  12  ships  and  13  Indiamen 
surrenders  to  admiral  Mitchell  .  Aug.  28,  1799 

Capture  of  the  Cerbere  (which  see) .        .  July  29,  1800 

Copenhagen  bombarded.  See  Copenhagen, 

April  2,  1801 

Gibraltar'Bay ;  engagement  between  tho  French 
and  British  fleets  ;  the  Hannibal  of  74  guns 
lost July  6,  ,, 

Off  Cadiz :  sir  James  Saumarez  obtains  a  vic- 
tory over  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  ;  i 
ship  captured.  Fought  .  .  .  July  12,  ,, 

Sir  Robert  Calder,  with  15  sail,  takes  2  ships 
(both  Spanish)  out  of  20  sail  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  fleets,  off  Ferrol  .  July  22,  1805 

Off  Trafalgar  (-which  see)  ....  Oct.  21,     „ 

Sir  R.  Strachan,  with  4  sail  of  British,  captures 
4  French  ships,  off  Cape  Ortegal  Nov.  4,  „ 

In  the  West  Indies  :  the  French  defeated  by  sir 
T.  Duckworth;  3  sail  of  the  line  taken,  2 
driven  on  shore  .....  Feb.  6,  1806 

Sir  John  Borlase  Warren  captures  2  Fren.cn 
ships March  13,  ,, 

Admiral  Duckworth  effects  the  passage  of  the 
Dardanelles.  See  article  Dardanelles,  Feb.  19,  1807 

Copenhagen  fleet  captured       .         .        Sept.  8,     ,, 

The  Russian  fleet  of  several  sail,  in  the  Tagus, 
surrenders  to  the  British  .  .  .  Sept.  3,  1808 

Basque  Roads :  4  sail  of  the  line,  &c. ,  destroyed 
by  lord  Gambler  ....  April  12,  1809 

Two  Russian  flotillas  of  numerous  vessels  taken 
or  destroyed  by  sir  J.  Saumarez .  .  July,  „ 

French  ships  of  the  line  driven  on  shore  by 
lord  Collingwood  (2  of  them  burnt  by  the 
French  next  day)  <  Oct  25,  „ 

Bay  of  Rosas,  where  lieut.  Tailour  by  direction 
of  captain  Hallo  well  takes- or  destroys  n  war 
and  other  vessels.  See  Rosas  Bay.  Nov.  i,  ,, 


*  In  the  engagement,  the  other  ships  of  admiral  Benbow's  squadron  falling  astern,  left  this  bravo 
commander  alone  to  maintain  the  unequal  battle.  In  this  situation  a  chain-shot  shattered  his  leg,  yet  he 
would  not  be  removed  from  the  quarter  deck,  but  continued  fighting  till  the  morning,  when  the  French 
sheered  off.  He  died  in  Oct.  following,  of  his  wounds,  at  Jamaica,  where,  soon  after  his  arrival,  he 
received  a  letter  from  the  French  admiral,  of  which  the  following  is  a  literal  translation  : — 

"  Carthagena,  Aug.  22,  1702. 

"SiR, — I  had  little  hopes,  on  Monday  last,  but  to  have  supped  in  your  cabin  ;  yet  it  pleased  God  to 
order  it  otherwise.  I  am  thankful  for  it.  As  for  those  cowardly  captains  who  deserted  you.  hang  them 
up.  for  by  G — d  they  deserve  it.  "  Du  CASSE." 

Two  of  those  unworthy  cowards,  captains  Kirby  and  Wade,  were  shot  on  their  arrival  at  Plymouth, 
having  been  previously  tried  by  a  court-martial. 


506 


NAV 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  continued. 

Basseterre  :  La  Loire  and  La  Seine,  French, 
frigates,  destroyed  by  sir  A.  Cocbrane, 

Dec.  1 8,  1809 

The  Spartan  frigate  gallantly  engages  a  large 
French  force  in  the  bay  of  Naples  May  3,  1810 

Action  between  the  Tribune,  captain  Reynolds, 
and  4  Danish  brigs.  Fought  .  May  12,  ,, 

Isle  of  Rhe;  17  vessels  taken  or  destroyed  by 
the  Armide  and  Cadmus  .  .  .  July  17,  ,, 

Captain  Barrett,  in  the  merchant  vessel,  Cum-  * 
lerland,  with  26  men,  defeats  four  privateers 
and  takes  1 70  prisoners  .  .  Jan.  16,  1811 

Twenty-two  vessels  from  Otranto  taken  by  the 
Cerberus  and  Active  ....  Feb.  22,  ,, 

Amazon  French  frigate  destroyed  off  Cape  Bar- 
fleur March  25,  ,, 

Sagone  Bay :  2  French  store-ships  burnt  by 
captain  Barrie's  ships  .  .  .  May  i,  ,, 

The  British  sloop,  Little  Belt,  and  American 
ship  President :  their  rencontre  .  May  16,  ,, 

Off  Madagascar  ;  3  British  frigates  under  cap- 
tain Schomberg,  engage  3  French  larger-sized, 
with  troops  on  board,  and  capture  2,  May  20,  ,, 

The  Thames  and  Cephalus  capture  36  French 
vessels July,  ,, 

The  Naiad  frigate  attacked  in  presence  of 
Bonaparte  by  7  armed  praams ;  they  were 
gallantly  repulsed  ....  Sept.  21,  ,, 

French  frigates  Pauline  and  Pomone,  captured 
by  the  British  frigates  Alceste,  Active,  and 
Unite Nov.  29,  ,, 

Pdvoli,  84  guns,  taken  by  Victorious,  74,  Feb.  21.  1812 

L'Orient ;  2  French  frigates,  &c. ,  destroyed  by 
the  Northumberland,  Capt.  Hotham  May  22,  ,, 

Guerriere,  British  frigate,  46  small  guns,  cap- 
tured by  the  American  ship  Constitution,  54 
guns  (an  unequal  contest)  .  .  Aug.  19,  ,, 

British  brig  Frolic,  captured  by  the  American 
sloop  Wasp Oct.  1 8,  „ 

British  frigate  Macedonian  taken  by  the  Ame- 
rican ship  United  States,  large  class,  Oct.  25,  „ 

British  frigate  Java,  taken  by  the  American 
ship  Constitution,  large  class  .  .  Dec.  29,  ,, 

British  frigate  Amelia  loses  46  men  killed  and 
95  wounded,  engaging  a  French  frigate, 

Feb.  7,  1813 

British,  sloop  Peacock  captured  by  the  Ameri- 


can ship  Hornet :  she  was  so  disabled  that 
she  sunk  with  part  of  her  crew  Feb.  25,  1813 

American  frigate  Chesapeake  taken  by  the  Shan- 
non, captain  Broke.  See  Chesapeake.  June  i,  ,. 

American  ships  Growler  and  Eagle  taken  by 
British  gun-boats  ....  June  3,  ,, 

American  sloop  Argus  taken  by  the  British 
sloop  Pelican Aug.  14,  „ 

French  frigate  La  Trave,  44  guns,  taken  by  the 
Andromache  of  38  guns  .  .  Oct.  23,  „ 

French  frigate  Certs  taken  by  the  British  ship 
Tagus Jan.  6,  1814 

French  frigates  Alcmene  and  Iph'.genia  taken 
by  the  Venerable  ....  Jan.  16,  „ 

French  frigate  Terpsichore  taken  by  the  Majestic 

Feb.  3,     „ 

French  ship  Clorinde  taken  by  the  Dryad  and 
Achates,  after  an  action  with  the  Eurotas, 

Feb.  25,    „ 

French  frigate  L'Etoile  captured  by  the  Hebrus, 

March  27,    „ 

American  frigate  Essex  captured  by  the  Phcebe 
and  Cherub March  29,  ,, 

British  sloop  Avon  sunk  by  the  American  sloop 
Wasp Sept.  8,  „ 

Lake  Champlain :  the  British  squadron  cap- 
tured by  the  American,  after  a  severe  conflict, 

Sept.  ii,    „ 

American  ship  President  captured  by  the  Endy- 
mion Jan.  15,  1815 

Algiers  bombarded  by  lord  Exmouth.  See 
Algiers Aug.  27,  1816 

Navarino  (which  see)    ....       Oct.  20,  1827 

Action  between  the  British  ships  Volage  and 
Hyacinth  and  29  Chinese  war- junks,  which 
were  defeated Nov.  3,  1839 

Bombardment  and  fall  of  Acre.  The  British 
squadron  under  admiral  Stopford  achieved 
this  triumph  with  trifling  loss,  while  the 
Egyptians  lost  2000  killed  and  wounded,  and 
3000  prisoners.  See  Syria  .  .  Nov.  3,  1840 

Lagos  attacked  and  taken  by  commodore  Bruce, 
with  a  squadron  consisting  of  the  Penelope, 
Bloodhound,  Sampson,  and  Teazer,  war- 
steamers,  and  the  Philomel  brig  of  war, 

Dec.  26,  27,  1851 

[For  naval  actions  which  cannot  be  called 
regular  battles,  see  China  and/apcm.] 


.SHIPS   TAKEN*OR   DESTROYED   BY   THE   NATAL   AND    MARINE   FORCES   OF    GREAT   BRITAIN: — 


In  the  French  War,  ending  1802. 

In  the  French  War,  ending  1814. 

. 

ri 

~ 

, 

d 

Force. 

1 

| 

1 

11 

•3 

1 

.2 

;f 

•i 

•g 

d 

1 

° 

I 

°* 

' 

i 

A 

s 

9 

' 

Of  the  line 

45 

25 

ii 

2 

83 

70 

27 

23 

4 

0 

124 

Fifties  

•2 

i 

0 

0 

3 

7 

o 

i 

o 

I 

Frigates    .... 
Sloops,  &c  

161 

32 

20 

55 

7 
16 

191 
264 

,8 

If 

64 

24 

16 

6 
7 

5 

288 

Total  .... 

341 

89 

86 

25 

541 

342 

127 

64 

17 

19 

569 

NAVAL  REVIEWS,  SALUTE,  AND  VOLUNTEERS.     See  under  Navy. 

NAVARINO  (S.W.  Greece),  BATTLE  OF,  pet.  20,  1827,  between  the  combined  fleets  of 
England,  France,  and  Russia,  tinder  command  of  admiral  Codrington,  and  the  Turkish  navy, 
in  which  the  latter  was  almost  wholly  annihilated.  More  than  thirty  ships,  many  of  them 
four- deckers,  were  blown  up  or  burnt,  chiefly  by  the  Turks  themselves,  to  prevent  their 
falling  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies.  This  destruction  of  the  Turkish  naval  power  was 
characterised  by  the  duke  of  Wellington  as  being  an  "untoward  event" — a  memorable 
phrase  applied  to  it  to  this  day. 


NAV 


507 


NAV 


NAVARRE,  now  a  province  of  Spain,  formed  a  part  of  the  Roman  dominions,  and  was 
conquered  by  Charlemagne,  778.  His  descendants  appointed  governors,  one  of  whom, 
Garcias  Ximenes,  took  the  title  of  king  about  860.  In  1076,  king  Sancho -IV.  was  poisoned, 
and  Sancho  Ramorez  of  Arragon  seized  Navarre.  In  1 134  Navarre,  became  again  independent 
under  Garcias  Ramorez  IV.  In  1234,  Thibault,  count  of  Champagne,  became  sovereign  of 
Navarre,  as  nephew  of  Sancho  VII.,  and  in  1284,  by  the  marriage  of  the  heiress  Jane  with 
Philip  IV.  le  Bel,  Navarre  was  united  to  France. 


SOVEREIGNS    OF   NAVARIIE. 


1274.   Jane  I.  and  (1284)  Philip-le-Bel  of  France. 

1305.   Louis  X.  Hutin  of  France. 

1316.   Philip  V.  the  Long,  of  France. 

1322.   Charles  IV.,  the  Fair. 

1328.  Jane  II.  (daughter  of  Jane  I.),  and  her  hus- 
band Philip  d'Evreux. 

1349.   Charles  II.,  the  Bad. 

1387.   Charles  III.,  the  Noble. 

1425.  Blanche,  his  daughter,  and  her  husband,  John 
of  Arragon. 


1441.   John  II.,  alone,  who  became  king  of  Arragon, 
in  1458.  He  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  crown 
of  Castile  also. 
Eleanor  de  Foix,  his  daughter. 


1479.    Francis  Phoebus  de  Foix,  her  son. 

1483.  Catherine  (his  sister)  and  her  husband  John 
d'Albret.  Ferdinand  of  Arragon  conquers 
and  annexes  all  Navarre  south  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, 1512. 

LOWER  NAVARRE  (in  France). 
1516.  Henry  d'Albret. 

1555.  Jane  d'Albret  and  her  husband,  Anthony  de 
Bourbon,  who  died  1562. 


1572.  Henry  III.  who  became  in  1589  king  of 
France,  to  which  Lower  Navarre  was  for- 
mally united  in  1609. 


1441. 

NAVIGATION.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  Phoenicians,  about  1500  B.C.  The  first  laws 
of  navigation  originated  with  the  Rhodians,  916  B.C.  The  first  account  we  have  of  any  con- 
siderable voyage  is  that  of  the  Phoenicians  sailing  round  Africa,  604  B.C.  Blair.  See  under 
Steam. 


Plane  charts  and  mariner's  compass  used  abovit  1420 ' 
Variation  of  the  compass  discovered  by  Colum- 

bxis 1492 

That  the  oblique  rhomb  lines  are  spirals,  disco- 
vered by  Nonius   1537 

First  ti-eatise  on  navigation         ....   1545 
The  log  first  mentioned  by  Bounie         .        .     .1577! 

Mercator's  chart 1599 

Davis's  quadrant,  or  backstaff,  for  measuring 
angles,  about 1600 


Logarithmic  tables  applied  to  navigation  by 

G-unter 1620 

Middle  latitude  sailing  introduced  .  .  .  1623 
Mensuration  of  a  degree,  Norwood  .  .  .  1631 

Hadley's  quadrant 1731 

Harrison's  time-keeper  used  ....  1764 
Nautical  almanac  first  published  .  .  .  .  1767 
Barlow's  theory  of  the  deviation  of  the  coni- 

1820 


See  Compass,  Latitude,  Longitude,  &c. 


NAVIGATION,  INLAND.     See  Canals. 

NAVIGATION  LAWS.  A  code  of  maritime  laws  is  attributed  to  Richard  I.  of  England, 
said  to  have  been  decreed  at  the  isle  of  Oleron,  1194  (see  Oleron),  and  further  enactments 
were  made  by  Richard  II.  in  1381. — In  Oct.  1651,  the  parliament  of  Cromwell  passed  an  act 


entitled  "  Goods  from  foreign  parts,  by  whom  to  be  imported,"  the  principles  of  which  were 

II.  c. 
and  Navigation."     The  latter  act  restricts  the  importation  and  exportation  of  goods  Irom 


ailinned  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  18,  "an  act  for  the  Encouraging  and  Increasing  of 


Shippin 
^  ods  froi 

or  to  Asia,  Africa,  or  America,  to  English  ships,  of  which  the  masters  and  three-fourths  of 
the  mariners  are  to  be  English.  This  was  followed  by  many  acts  of  similar  tenor  ;  which 
were  consolidated  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  54  (1833).  These  acts  were  in  the  whole  or  in  part 
repealed  by  the  act  ' '  to  amend  the  laws  in  force  for  the  encouragement  of  British  shipping 
and  navigation,"  passed  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  29,  June  26,  1849,  after  much  opposition.  This 
last  act  came  into  operation  Jan  i,  1850.  The  Steam  Navigation  act  passed  14  &  15  Viet, 
c.  79,  1851,  came  into  operation,  Jan.  i,  1852.  The  act  regulating  the  navigation  of  the 
river  Thames  was  passed  in  1786. — In  Feb.  1865  the  emperor  recommended  the  modification 
of  the  French  navigation  laws. 

NAVIGATORS  (or  Navvies).  These  important  helpers  in  the  construction  of  railways 
derived  their  name  (about  1830)  from  their  formerly  making  the  inland  navigation  in  Lin- 
'•olnshire,  &c.,  and  are  said  to  be  descendants  of  the  original  Dutch  canal  labourers. 

NAVY  OF  ENGLAND,  "whereon,  under  the  good  providence  of  God,  the  wealth,  safety, 
and  strength  of  the  kingdom  chiefly  depends."  Act  for  the  government  of  the  Navy. 


The  first  fleet  of  galleys,  like  those  of  the 
Danes,  built  by  Alfred 897 

The  number  of.  galleys  greatly  increased  under 
Ivl--ru-,  who  claimed  to  be  lord  of  the  ocean 
surrounding  Britain,  about  ....  965 

A  formidable  fleet  equipped  by  the  contribu- 


tion of  every  town  in  England,  in  the  reign  of   " 
Ethelred  II.  when  it  rendezvoused  at  Sand- 
wich, to  be  ready  to  oppose  the  Danes       .     .  1007 
Edward  the  Confessor,  collected  a  fleet  to  resist 
the  Norwegians,  1042 ;  and  Harold  to  resist 
the  Normans     .......  1066 


NAV 


508 


NAV 


NAVY,  continued. 

Richard  I.  collected  a  fleet  and  enacted  naval 
laws  about 1191 

[The  Cinque  ports  and  maritime  towns  fre- 
quently furnish  fleets  commanded  by  the 
king  or  his  officers.  ] 

Edward  III.'s  fleet  defeat  the  French  at  the 
battle  of  Sluys,  June  24, 1340 ;  and  the  Spanish 
off  Winchelsea  ....  Aug.  29,  1350 

Henry  V.  made  great  efforts  to  increase  the 
navy 1415-1422 

Henry  VII.  built  the  Royal  Harry  ;  considered 
to  be' the  beginning  of  the  Royal  Navy  .  .  1488 

The  Trinity  House  established  and  the  Navy 
office  appointed  with  commissioners.  (See 
Admiralty) 1512 


[The  navy  then  consisted  of  the  "Great  Harry," 
1200  tons,  two  ships,  of  800  tons,  and  six  or 
seven  smaller.] 

James  I.  and  Charles  I.  improve  the  navy.  The 
"  Sovereign  of  the  Seas  "  launched  .  .  .  1637 

Frigates  said  to  have  been  first  built      .         .     .  1649 

James  II.  systematises  sea-signals  and  improves 
the  navy 1685-8 

Reign  of  George  III.  ;  dimensions  of  ships  in- 
creased ;  copper  sheathing  adopted  for  ships 
of  every  class  ;  establishments  of  naval  stores 
provided  at  all  dockyards  and  naval  stations  ; 
and  various  improvements  made  in  shipbuild- 
ing   1760-1820 


Years. 

Ships. 

Tons. 

Men. 

Navy  Estimates. 

Years. 

Ships. 

Tons. 

Men. 

Navy  Estimates. 

iS46 

58 

12,455 

8,546 

no  account. 

1702 

272 

159020 

40,000 

£1,056,915 

1558 

27 

7,110 

3>565 

no  account. 

1760 

412 

32I,I34 

70,000 

3,227,143 

iS78 

24 

10,506 

6,700 

no  account. 

1793 

40-8 

433>226 

45,000 

5,525,331 

1603 

42 

17.055 

8,346 

no  account. 

1800 

767 

668,744 

135,000 

12,422,837 

1658 

157 

57,000 

21,910 

no  account. 

1808 

869 

892,800 

143,800 

17,496,047 

1688 

*73 

101,892 

42,000 

no  account. 

1814 

901 

966,000 

146,000 

18,786,509 

Great  Britain  had  901  ships,  of  which  177  were 
of  the  line  ;  and  in  1830,  she  had  621  ships, 
some  of  140  guns  each,  and  down  to  survey- 
ing vessels  of  two  guns  only.  Of  these  148 
sail  were  employed  on  foreign  and  home 

service  1814 

The   screw  propeller  introduced  in  the  Royal 

Navy 1840 

The  total  number  of  ships  of  all  sizes  in  com- 
mission, 183 Jan  i,  1841 

The  Navy  consisted  of  339  sailing  and  161  steam 

vessels 1850 

Naval  Coast  Volunteers'  act  passed    .         .  Aug.  1853 
Of  315  sailing  vessels,  97  screw  steamers,  and 

114  paddle  steamers      ....     April  1854 
The  queen' reviews  the  Baltic  fleet  at  Spithead, 

March  10,  1854,  and  A|>ril  23,  1856 
Of  271  sa'ling  vessels,  carrying  9594  guns,  and 
258  steam  vessels,  carrying  6582  guns  ;   to- 
gether 573  vessels,  carrying  16,176  guns  ;  also 
155  gun-boats,   and  in   vessels  on  harbour 

service July    ,, 

Proclamation  for  manning  the  navy,     April  30,  1859 
Naval  Reserve  Force  authorised      .         .     Aug.     „ 
Flogging  not  to  be  inflicted  on  first-class  sea- 
men except  after  a  trial    .         .        .         Dec.     „ 
Great  excitement  respecting  the  French  govern- 
ment building  the  plated  frigate  Glotre  (see 

next  page) 1860 

The  Warrior,  our  first  iron-plated  steam  frigate, 
the  largest  vessel  in  the  world  except  the 
Great  Eastern  (see  Steam),  length,  380  ft.  ; 
breadth  58  ft.  ;  iron-plate  4^  inches  thick  ; 
6170  tons  burthen ;  cost  about  400,000^.  ; 
launched  [censured  in  1864]  .  .  Dec.  29,  ,, 
A  royal  commission  recommends  the  abolition 
of  the  board  of  admiralty,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  minister  of  the  navy  department, 

March,  1861 

Lord  Clarence  Paget,  secretary  of  admiralty, 
states  that  England  has  67  steam  ships  of  the 
line  ;  while  France  has  37,  Russia  9,  .Spain  3, 

and  Italy  i April  n,     „ 

New  act  for  the  government  of  the  navy  (the 

Naval  Discipline  Act)  passes   .         .      Aug.  6,     ,, 
Four  iron-plated  vessels  (400  ft.  long;  59^  ft. 
wide  ;  and  cost  about  600,  ooot.  each)  build- 
ing          .       Dec.     „ 

Capt.  Cowper  Coles'  mode  of  constructing  iron- 
plated  vessels,  with  a  cupola  for  filing  from, 
made  known  in  1855^  and  reeommeivted  to 


the  admiralty  in  1861  ;  adopted  by  Ericsson  in 
the  Monitor,  1862  ;  proposed  to  be  adopted  by 
the  British  government 1862 

Six  different  kinds  of  plated  vessels  said  to  be 
constructing  ;  E.  J.  R-sed  authorised  to  build 
the  Enterprise  as  a  specimen  of  an  iron-plated 
sea-going  vessel April,  ,, 

Royal  Oak,  iron-clad  steamer,  launched  at  Chat- 
ham . Sept.  10,  ,, 

Twin  or  double-screws  for  vessels  of  light 
draught  introduced  .  .  .  .  .  .  1863 

Mr.  E.  J.  Reed  appointed  chief  constructor  in 
the  Royal  Navy  .  .  .  Jan.  ,, 

Navy  consists  of  1014  vessels  of  all  classes  ;  85 
line  of  battle  ships ;  69  frigates  ;  30  screw 
corvettes Jan.  „ 

Steam  ram  PoZtant  launched       .        .    Oct.  14,     „ 

Minotaur  iron-steamer  launched      .       Dec.  12,     ,, 

Ro.\al  School  of  Naval  Architecture,  South 
Kensington,  established 1864 

The  turret-ship  Sovereign,  constructed  on  Coles' 
principle,  put  out  of  commission,  and  placed 
among  reserve  ships  ;  this  blamed  by  some, 

Oct. 

Naval  models  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 
collected  early  in  the  present  century  by  sir 
Robert  Seppings,  removed  to  South  Kensing- 
ton Museum Dec. 

29  iron  clad  vessels  building  "to  be  ready  for 
sea  this  year" March,  1865 

Bellero-phon,  iron-clad,  lay  Mr.  E.  J.  Reed  ;  and 
their./  harden,  iron-clad,  launched  May,  ,, 

A  British  fleet  entertained  at  Cherbourg,  Brest, 
&c.,  Aug.  15,  <fcc.  ;  and  a  French  fleet  at  Ports- 
mouth   Aug.  29-31,  ,, 

ANNUAL  EXPENDITURE  ox  THE  BRITISH  NAVY. — 
1850,  6,942, 397^.  ;— 1854,  6,640,596^.  5  —  1855,  (to 
March  31,  Jiussian  war),  14,490,105^.  ;  — 1856, 
19,654,585^.  ; — 1859,  9  215,487;— 1861,  13,331,668.'.  ; 
•—1862,  I2,598,o42/.  ;  — 1863.  11,370,588^.  ;— 1864, 
10,821, 596?.  ; — istiiuate  for  year  1865-6,  10,392,224^. 

THE  NAVAL  SALUTE  10  THE  BRITISH  FLAG  began  in 
Alfred's  reign,  and  though  sometimes  disputed, 
may  be  said  to  have  been  continued  ever  since. 
Th<-  Dutch  agreed  to  strike  to  the  English  colours 
in  the  Biitish  seas,  in  1673.  The  honour  of  the 
flag  salute  at  sea  was  also  formerly  assented  to  by 
France  in  1704,  although  it  had  been  long  pre- 
viously exacted  by  England.  See  Flag  and  Salutes 
at  S  a . 

NAVAL  UNIFORMS.    The  first  notice  of  the  establish- 


NAVY,  continued. 

.lent  of  a  uniform  in  the  British  naval  service. 

irhich  we  have  met  with,  occurs  in  the  Jacobite's 
Journal  of  March  5,  1748,  under  the  head  of  "  Do- 

lestic    News,"  in  these   terms: — "An  order   is 

aid  to  be  issued,  requiring  all  his  majesty's  sea- 
officers,  from  the  admiral  down  to  the  midship- 
man, to  wear  a  uniformity  of  clothing-,  for  which 
purpose  pattern  coats  for  dress  suits  and  frocks 
for  each  rank  of  officers  are  lodged  at  the  Navy- 
office,  and  at  the  several  dock-yards  for  their  in- 
spection." This  is  corroborated  by  the  Gazette  of 
July  13,  1757,  when  the  first  alteration  in  the  uni- 
form took  place,  and  in  which  a  reference  is  made 
to  the  order  of  1748,  alluded  to  in  the  journal 
above  mentioned,  and  which,  in  fact,  is  the  year 

?hen  a  naval  uniform  was  first  established. 
James  1.  had  indeed  granted,  by  warrant  of  6th 
April,  1609,  to  six  of  his  principal  masters  of  the 
navy,  "  liverie  coats  of  fine  red  cloth."  The  war- 
rant is  stated  to  have  been  drawn  -verbatim  from 
one  signed  by  queen  Elizabeth,  but  which  had  not 
been  acted  upon  by  reason  of  her  death.  This 
curious  document  is  in  the  British  Museum  ;  but 
king  James's  limited  red  livery  is  supposed  to 
have  been  soon  discontinued.  Quarterly  Review. 
THE  NAVY  PAY  OFFICE,  organised  in  1644,  was  abo- 
lished in  1836,  when  the  army  and  navy  pay  de- 
partments were  consolidated  in  the  Paymaster 
General's  office. 
THE  NAVY  LIST  was  first  officially  compiled  by  John 


Finlaison,  the  celebrated  actuary,  and  published 
monthly  in  1814. 

NAVAL  REVIEWS.  The  queen  reviewed  the  fleet  at 
Portsmouth  in  March,  1854,  before  it  sailed  to  the 
Baltic,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Russinn  war ; 
and  again  at  Portsmouth,  on  the  conclusion  of 
peace,  in  the  presence  of  the  parliament,  &c.,  on 
April  23, 1856.  The  fleet  extended  in  an  unbroken 
line  of  5  miles,  and  consisted  of  upwards  of  300 
men-of-war,  with  a  tonago  of  150,000,  carrying 
3800  guns,  and  manned  by  40,000  seamen.  There 
were  about  100,000  spectators. 

NAVAL  VOLUNTEERS  (or  Reserve).  By  16  and  17  Viet. 
c.  73  (1853),  the  admiralty  were  empowered  to  raise 
a  body  of  seafaring  men  to  be  called  the  "  Naval 
Coast  Volunteers,"  not  to  exceed  10,000,  for  the 
defence  of  the  coast,,  and  for  actual  service  if  re- 
quired. On  Aug.  13,  1859,  an  act  was  passed  to 
enable  the  admiralty  to  raise  a  number  of  men, 
not  exceeding  30,000,  as  a  reserve  force  of  seamen, 
to  be  called  the  "Royal  Naval  Volunteers."  In 
November  following  the  admiralty  issued  a  state- 
ment of  the  "qualifications,  advantages,  and  obli- 
gations" of  this  reserve.  The  enrolment  com- 
menced on  Jan.  i,  1860  The  engagement  is  for 
five  years,  and  the  volunteers  are  entitled  to  a 
pension  when  incapacitated  after  the  expiration 
of  the  term.  At  the  prospect  of  war  with  the 
United  States  in  Dec.  1861,  a  great  number  of  sea- 
men at  Hartlepool,  Dundee,  London,  Aberdeen, 
«fec.,  offered  their  services. 


NAVY  OF  FRANCE.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  history,  728,  when,  like  that  of  England  at 
an  early  period,  it  consisted  of  galleys  ;  in  this  year  the  French  defeated  the  Frisian  fleet.  It 
was  considerably  improved  under  Louis  XIV.  at  the  instance  of  his  minister  Colbert,  about 
1697.  The  French  navy  was,  perhaps,  in  its  highest  splendour  about  1781  ;  but  it  became 
greatly  reduced  in  the  wars  with  England.  See  Naval  Matties.  It  has  been  greatly  increased 
by  the  present  emperor,  and  in  1859  consisted  of  51  ships  of  the  line  (14  sailing  Vessels  and 
37  steamers),  and  398  other  vessels,  in  all  449  ;  including  vessels  building,  converting,  or 
ordered  to  be  built.  The  new  French  iron-plated,  frigate  Gloire,  launched  in  1860,  has  been 
subjected  to  much  criticism,  but  appears  to  be  generally  considered  as  successful.*  The 
Solferino  and  Magenta  were  launched  in  June,  1861.  Other  iron  vessels  are  in  course  of 
construction. 

NEBRASKA,  a  N.AV.  territory  of  North  America,  was  organized  May  30,  1854.  Capital, 
Omaha  city. 

NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS,  put  forth  by  sir  Win.  Herschel,  in  1811,  supposes  that  the 
universe  was  formed  out  of  shapeless  masses  of  nebulae  or  clusters  of  small  stars.  It  has  not 
been  generally  received.  In  Oct.  1860,  Mr.  Lassell  strictly  scrutinised  the  dumb-bell  nebula, 
and  stated  that  the  brightest  parts  did  not  appear  to  be  stars.  In  1865  Mr.  Wm.  Huggins 
reported  that  he  had  analysed  certain  nebulae  by  their  spectra,  and  believed  them  to  be 
entirely  gaseous. 

NECTARINE,  the  Amygdalis  Pcrsica,  originally  came  from  Persia  about  1562. 
Previously,  presents  of  nectarines  were  frequently  sent  to  the  court  of  England  from  the 
Netherlands  ;  and  Catharine,  queen  of  Henry  VIII.,  distributed  them  among  her  friends. 

NEEDLES  were  first  made  in  England  in  Cheapside,  London,  in  the  time  of  Mary  I. 
by  a  negro  from  Spain,  but  was  lost  at  his  death,  and  not  recovered  till  1566,  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  when  Elias  Growse,  a  German,  taught  the  art  to  the  English.  Stow. 

NEGRO  TRADE.     See  Slavery. 

NELSON'S  VICTORIES,  &c.     See  separate  articles. 


Horatio  Nelson,  born  at  Burnham  Thorpe,  Nor- 
folk         Sept.  29,  1758 

Sailed  with  captain  Phipps  to  the  North  Pole,  1773 


Distinguished  himself  in  the  West  Indies .  .  1780 
Lost  an  eye  at  the  reduction  of  Calvi,  Corsica,  1794 
Captured  Elba Aug.  9,  1796 


*  Mr.  Scott  Russell  says : — "  The  Gloire  has  been  built  by  M.  Dupuis  de  Lome,  after  a  most  exact 
calculation  of  the  effect  of  iron  plates  upon  the  weight  and  speed  of  a  vessel.  She  is  perfectly  fit  to 
carry  a  broadside  of  guns  of  as  heavy  a  calibre  as  any  that  can  be  carried  and  worked  in  our  own  wooden 
ships,  and  she  is  driven  at  as  least  as  high  a  speed  as  any  vessel  of  similar  dimensions  in  our  own  service." 


NEM 


510 


NEU 


NELSON'S  VICTORIES,  continued. 

With  Jervis,  at  the  victory  off  St.  Vincent,  Feb. 
14  ;  made  admiral  .  .  .  Feb.  20,  1797 

Lost  his  right  arm  at  the  unsuccessful  attack 
on  Santa  Cruz  ....  July  25,  26,  „ 

Gained  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  Aug.  i  ;  created 
Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile  .  .  .  Oct.  6,  1798 

Attacks  Copenhagen,  April  2  ;  created  viscount, 
May  22;  attacks  Boulogne  and  destroys 
several  ships Aug.  3,  1801 

Appointed  to  chief  command  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean   May  20,  1803 

Pursues  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets,  March 
to  Aug.  ;  returns  to  England,  Aug.  ;  re-ap- 
pears at  Cadiz,  and  defeats  the  fleets  in 
Trafalgar  Bay,  where  he  is  killed  Oct.  21,  1805 

The  Victory  man-of-war  arrived  off  Portsmouth 
with  his  remains  .  .  Dec.  4,  ,, 


The  body  lay  in  state  in  the  Painted  Hall,  at 
Greenwich,  Jan.  5  ;  on  the  8th  was  removed 
to  the  Admiralty.;  the  funeral  took  place, 

Jan.  9, 

The  prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  George  IV.), 
the  duke  of  Clarence  (afterwards  William  IV.), 
and  other  royal  dukes ;  almost  all  the  peers 
of  England,  and  the  lord  mayor  and  corpora- 
tion of  London,  with  thousands  of  military 
and  naval  officers  and  distinguished  men, 
followed  the  funeral  car  to  St.  Paul's.  The 
military  assembled  on  this  occasion  amounted 
to  near  10,000  regulars,  independent  of  volun- 
teers. The  regulars  consisted  chiefly  of  the 
regiments  that  had  fought  and  conquered  in 
Egypt. 


i8o5 


NEMEAN  GAMES,  celebrated  at  Nemea,  in  Achaia,  were  originally  instituted  by  the 
Argives,  in  honour  of  Archemorus,  who  died  by  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  and  Hercules  some 
time  after  renewed  them,  1226  B.C.  The  conqueror  was  rewarded  with  a  crown  of  olives, 
afterwards  of  green  parsley,  in  memory  of  the  adventure  of  Archemorus,  whom  his  nurse 
laid  down  on  a  sprig  of  that  plant.  They  were  celebrated  every  third  year,  or,  according  to 
others,  on  the  first  and  third  year  of  every  Olympiad,  1226  B.C.  Herodotus.  They  were 
revived  by  the  emperor  Julian,  A.D.  362,  but  ceased  in  396. 

NEPAUL  (India).  The  East  India  Company's  war  with  the  state  of  Nepaul  commenced 
Nov.  i,  1814,  and  terminated  April  27,  1815.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between  the 
parties  Dec.  2,  1815.  "War  renewed  by  an  infraction  of  the  treaty  by  the  Nepaulese,  Jan. 
1816  :  and  after  several  contests,  unfavourable  to  the  Nepaulese,  the  former  treaty  was  ratified, 
March  15,  1816.  An  extraordinary  embassy  from  the  king  of  Nepaul  to  the  queen  of  Great 
Britain  arrived  in  England,  landing  at  Southampton,  May  25,  and  remained  till  Aug.  1850  ; 
it  consisted  of  the  Nepaulese  prince,  Jung  Bahadoor  and  his  suite,  to  whom  many  honours 
were  paid.  He  supported  the  English  during  the  English  mutiny  in  1857. 

NEPHALIA,  sacrifices  of  sobriety  among  the  Greeks,  when  they  offered  mead  instead  of 
wine  to  the  sun  and  moon,  to  the  nymphs,  to  Aurora,  and  to  Venus  ;  and  burnt  any  wood 
but  that  of  the  vine,  fig-tree,  and  mulberry-tree,  esteemed  symbols  of  drunkenness,  613  B.C. 

NEPTUNE,  a  primary  planet,  first  observed  on  Sept.  23,  1846,  by  Dr.  Galle  at  Berlin, 
in  consequence  of  a  letter  from  M.  Le  Verrier,  who  had  conjectured  from  the  anomalous 
movements  of  Uranus,  that  a  distant  planet  might  exist  nearly  in  the  position  where  Neptune 
is  situated.  Calculations  to  the  same  effect  had  been  previously  made  by  Mr.  J,  Couch 
Adams.  Neptune  is  said  to  have  been  seen  by  Lalande,  and  thought  to  be  a  fixed  star. 

NERWINDEN.     See  Landen. 

NESTORIANS,  the  followers  of  Nestorius,  bishop  of  Constantinople  (428-431),  who  is 
represented  as  a  heretic  for  maintaining  that  though  the  Virgin  Mary  was  the  mother  of 
Jesus  Christ  as  man,  yet  she  was  not  the  mother  of  God,  since  no  human  creature  could 
impart  to  another  what  she  had  not  herself ;  he  also  held  that  God  was  united  to  Christ 
under  one  person  but  remained  as  distinct  in  nature  and  essence  as  though  he  had  never 
been  united  at  all.  He  was  opposed  by  Eutyches,  and  died  439.  See  Eutycliians.  Nestorian 
Christians  in  the  Levant  administer  the  sacrament  with  leavened  bread  and  in  both  kinds, 
permit  their  priests  to  marry,  and  use  neither  confirmation  nor  auricular  confession.  DuPin. 
A  Nestorian  priest  and  deacon  were  in  London  in  July,  1862. 

NETHERLANDS.     See  Flanders,  Holland,  and  Belgium. 

NEUFCIlATEL,  a  canton  in  Switzerland,  formerly  a  lordship,  afterwards  a  principality. 
The  first  known  lord  was  Ulric  de  Fenis,  about  1032,  whose  descendants  ruled  till  1373, 
after  which  by  marriages  it  frequently  changed  governors.  On  the  death  of  the  last  of  the 
Longuevilles,  the  duchess  de  Nemours,  in  1707,  there  were  many  claimants  ;  among  them 
our  William  III.  He  and  the  allies  however  gave  it  to  Frederic  I.  of  Prussia  with  the  title 
of  prince.  In  1806  the  principality  was  ceded  to  France,  and  Napoleon  bestowed  it  on  his 
general  Berthier,  who  held  it  till  1814,  when  it  fell  to  the  disposal  of  the  allies.  They 
restored  the  king  of  Prussia  the  title  of  prince  with  certain  rights  and  privileges  ;  but 
constituted  it  a  part  of  the  Swiss  confederation.* 

*  After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  in  183*1,  the  inhabitants  in  1848  repudiated  their  allegiance  to  Prussia, 


NEUSTRIA  or  WEST  FRANCE,  a  kingdom  allotted  to  Clotaire  by  his  father  Clovis,  at  his 
ith  in  711.     His  descendant,  Charlemagne,  became  sole  king  of  France,  in  771. 

NEUTRAL  POWERS.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  signed  by  the  representatives  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  Turkey  and  Sardinia,  on  April  16,  1856,  it  was 
determined  that  privateering  should  be  abolished  ;  that  neutrals  might  carry  an  enemy's 
goods  not  contraband  of  war ;  that  neutral  goods  not  contraband  were  free  even  under  an 
enemy's  flag  ;  and  that  blockades  to  be  binding  must  be  effective.  The  president  of  the 
United  States  acceded  to  these  provisions  in  1861. 

NEVADA,  a  western  territory  of  the  United  States  of  N.  America,  organised  March  2, 
1 86 1.  Capital,  Carson  city. 

NEVILLE'S  CROSS,  or  DUEHAM,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  Scots  under  king  David 
Bruce,  and  the  English  under  Philippa,  consort  of  Edward  III.  and  lord  Percy,  Oct.  17,  1346. 
More  than  15,000  of  the  Scots  were  slain,  and  their  king  taken  prisoner. 

NEVIS,  ISLAND  OP  (W.  Indies),  planted  by  the  English  in  1628  ;  taken  by  the  French, 
Feb.  14,  1782  ;  restored  to  the  English  in  1783.  The  capital  is  Charleston. 

•  NEWARK  (Nottinghamshire),  BATTLE  OF,  in  which  the  royal  army  under  prince  Rupert 
repulsed  the  army  of  the  parliament,  besieging  the  town,  March  21,  1644.  The  church  was 
erected  by  Henry  IV.  Here,  in  the  midst  of  troubles,  died  king  John,  Oct.  9,  1216;  and 
here,  May  5,  1646,  Charles  I.,  after  his  defeat  at  Naseby,  put  himself  into  the  hands  of  the 
Scotch  army,  who  afterwards  gave  him  up  to  his  enemies.  Newark  was  first  incorporated 
by  Edward  VI.  and  afterwards  by  Charles  II. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK  was  taken  from  Nova  Scotia,  and  received  its  name  as  a  separate 
colony  in  1785.  In  1865  it  opposed  the  plan  for  uniting  all  the  British  North  American 
colonies  in  a  confederation. 

NEWBURY  (Berkshire).  Near  here  were  fought  two  desperate  battles— (i.)  Sept.  20, 
1643  :  between  the  army  of  Charles  I.  and  that  of  the  parliament  under  Essex ;  it  termi- 
nated somewhat  favourably  for  the  king.  Among  the  slain  wras  the  amiable  Lucius  Gary, 
viscount  Falkland,  deeply  regretted.  (2.)  A  second  battle  of  dubious  result  was  fought 
between  the  royalists  and  the  parliamentarians,  Oct.  27,  1644. 

NEW  CALEDONIA  (Pacific  Ocean),  discovered  by  Cook  on  Sept.  4,  1774,  was  seized  by 
the  French  and  colonised  in  1852.  The  French  government  in  Dec.  1864,  redressed  the 
outrages  committed  upon  the  British  missionaries  at  a  station  established  here  in  1854. 

NEWCASTLE  UPON  TYNE  (Northumberland),  the  Roman  Pons  ^Elia.  The  first  coal 
port  in  the  world,*  and  the  metropolis  of  the  north  of  England.  The  coal-mines  were 
discovered  here  about  1234.  The  first  charter  granted  to  the  townsmen  for  digging  coal 
was  by  Henry  III.  in  1239. 

The  castle  built  by  Robert  -Courthose,  son  of  i  The  magnificent  market  erected  by  Richard 


William  1 1080 

The  town  fortified  by  William  It ,, 

St.  Nicholas  church  built,  about  1091  ;  burnt  in 
1216;  restored  by  Edward  I.,  to  whom  John 
Baliol  did  homage  here,  1292  ;  rebuilt    .        .  1359 
Newcastle   surrenders  to  the  Scotch    in 

1640  and  1646 

Who  here  gave  up  Charles  I.  to  the  parliament  1644 
Occupied  by  general  Wade  in  .  .  .  .  1 745 
The  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  founded 


Grainger,  who  otherwise  greatly  improved 
the  town  ........  1835 

High  level  bridge  erected  by  Robert  Stephen- 
son  :  and  grand  central  station  built  .  1849-50 

1538  persons  die  of  cholera,  Aug.  31  to  Oct.  26,  1853 

Great  fire  through  the  explosion  at  Gateshead 
(which  see) Oct.  6,  1854 

Great  distress  through  failure  of  Northumber- 
land Joint- Stock  Bank  .  .  .  .Nov.  1857 

Richard  Grainger  dies,  aged  63      .         .  July  4, 


he  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  lounnea  Kicnard  urauiger  dies,  aged  63 

1793 1  liberally  endowed  by  Robert  Stephenson  j  Enthusiastic  reception  of  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone^ 

in 1858-9  I  Oct.  7-9,  1862 

T.  Bewick,  the  wood  engraver,  dies       .        .     .  1828  j 

and  proclaimed  Neufchatel  a  free  and  independent  member  of  the  Swiss  confederation.  The  king  of 
Prussia  protested  against  this  ;  and  in  1852  a  protocol  was  signed  between  England,  France,  and  Austria, 
recognising  his  claims.  In  Sept.  1856,  some  of  his  adherents,  headed  by  the  count  de  Pourtales,  broke  oxit 
into  insurrection  against  the  republican  authorities,  who,  however,  quickly  subdued  and  imprisoned  them, 
with  the  intention  of  bringing  them  to  trial.  War  was  threatened  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  great  energy 
and  determination  manifested  by  the  Swiss.  On  the  intervention  of  the  English  and  French  governments, 
after  many  delays,  a  treaty  was  signed  on  June  u,  1857,  by  which  the  king  of  Prussia  virtually  renounced 
his  claims,  on  receiving  a  pecuniary  compensation,  which  he  eventually  gave  up.  He  retains  the  title  of 
prince  of  Neufchatel  without  any  political  rights.  The  prisoners  of  Sept.  1856  were  released  withoxit 
trial,  Jan.  18,  1857. 

*  In  1306  the  use  of  coal  for  fuel  was  prohibited  in  London,  by  royal  proclamation,  chiefly  becaiise  it 
injured  the  sale  of  wood  for  fuel,  great  quantities  of  which  were  then  growing  about  the  city  ;  but  this 
interdiction  did  not  long  continue,  and  we  may  consider  coal  as  having  been  dug  and  exported  from  this 
place  for  more  than  500  years. 


NEW 


512 


NEW 


NEWCASTLE  ADMINISTRATION,  formed  April,  1754;  resigned  Nov.,  1756;  when 
the  duke  of  Devonshire  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 


Thomas  Holle  s  Pelham,  duke  of  Newcastle,  first  lord 
of  the  treasury. 

Henry  Bilson  Legge,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Earl  of  Holdemesse  and  sir  Thomas  Robinson  (after- 
wards lord  Grantham),  secretaries  of  state.  The 
latter  succeeded  by  Henry  Fox  (afterwards  lord 
Holland). 


Lord  Anson,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 

Lord  Grenville,  lord  president. 

Lord  Gower  (succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough), 
lord  privy  seal. 

Duke  of  Grafton,  earl  of  Halifax,  George  Gren- 
ville, &c. 

Lord  Hardwicke,  lord  chancellor. 


NEWCASTLE  AND  PITT  ADMINISTRATION  (see  Chatham  Administration),  formed 
June,  1757  ;  resigned  May,  1762  ;  lord  Bute  coming  into  power. 

Thomas  Holies  Felham,  duke  of  Newcastle,  first  lord    Earl  of  Holdemesse,  secretary  of  state  for  the  southern 

of  the  treasury.  department. 

William   Pitt   (afterwards   lord  Chatham),  secretory    Duke  of  Rutland,  lord  steward. 


of  state  for  the  northern  department,  and  leader  of  the 

house  of  commons. 
Lord  Grenville,  lord  president. 
Earl  Temple,  privy  seal. 
Mr.  Legge,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  lord  chamberlain. 


Lord  Anson,  admiralty. 

Duke  of  Marlborough  (succeeded  by  lord  Ligonier), 

ordnance. 
Henry  Fox,  George  Grenville,  viscount  Barrington, 

lord  Halifax,  James  Grenvdlle,  &c. 
Sir  Robert  Henley,  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal. 


NEW  CHURCH.     See  Swedenlomians. 

NEW  COLLEGE  (St.  John's-wood,  London),  erected  by  the  Independent  dissenters  for 
the  education  of  their  ministers,  1850-1,  is  founded  on  the  union  of  Homerton,  Highbury, 
and  Coward  colleges.  See  Oxford. 

NEW  ENGLAND  (N.  America),  comprising  the  states  of  Massachusetts,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island,  was  settled  by  the  Puritans  who  were  driven  from 
England.  The  first  attempt  to  form  a  settlement  was  made  in  1607,  which  was  named 
New  England  by  captain  Smith,  in  1614.  Settlement  of  the  Plymouth  company  in  1620. 

NEW  FOREST  (Hampshire),  was  made  ("afforested")  by  William  the  Conqueror, 
1079-85.  Many  populous  towns  and  villages,  and  indeed  the  whole  country,  for  above 
thirty  miles  in  compass,  were  laid  waste,  and  no  less  than  thirty-six  churches  were  destroyed. 
William  Rufus  was  killed  in  this  forest  by  an  arrow,  shot  by  Walter  Tyrrel,  that  accidentally 
glanced  against  a  tree,  Aug.  2,  1 100,  the  site  of  which  is  now  pointed  out  by  a  triangular 
stone.  The  New  Forest  Deer  Removal  act  was  passed  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  76,  Aug.  7,  1851. 

NEWFOUNDLAND  (N.  America),  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  who  called  it  Prima 
Vista,  June  24,  1497.  It  was  formally  taken  possession  of  by  sir  Henry  Gilbert,  1583.  In 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  other  nations  had  the  advantage  of  the  English  in  the  fishery. 
In  1577  there  were  100  fishing  vessels  from  Spain,  50  from  Portugal,  150  from  France,  and 
only  15,  but  of  larger  size,  from  England.  Hakluyt.  But  the  English  fishery  in  some  years 
afterwards  (1625)  had  increased  so  much  that  the  ports  of  Devonshire  alone  employed  150 
ships,  which  sold  their  fish  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Ital}r.  The  sovereignty  of  England  was 
recognised  in  1713.  Nearly  1000  English  families  reside  here  all  the  year  ;  and  in  the  fishing 
season  (May  to  September)  more  than  15,000  persons  resort  to  Newfoundland  (one  of  our 
finest  nurseries  for  seamen).  It  obtained  the  privilege  of  a  colonial  legislation  in  1845,  and 
the  bishopric  was  established  in  1839. — Appalling  fire  at  St.  John's,  a  great  portion  of  the 
town  destroyed,  the  loss  estimated  at  i,ooo,oooZ.  sterling,  June  9,  1846.* 

NEWGATE,  LONDON.  The  PRISON  derives  its  name  from  the  gate  which  once  formed  a 
part  of  it,  and  stood  a  little  beyond  the  Sessions-house  .in  the  Old  Bailey.  It  was  used  as 
a  prison  for  persons  of  rank,  as  early  as  1218;  but  was  rebuilt  about  two  centuries  afterwards 
by  the  executors  of  sir  Richard  Whittington,  whose  statue  with  a  cat  stood  in  the  niche  till 
the  time  of  its  demolition  by  the  great  fire  of  London,  in  1666.  It  was  then  reconstructed 
in  its  late  form  ;  but  the  old  prison  being  an  accumulation  of  misery  and  inconvenience,  was 
pulled  down  and  rebuilt  between  1778  and  1780.  During  the  riots  in  the  latter  year,  the 
interior  was  destroyed  by  fire,  but  shortly  afterwards  restored.  In  1857  the  interior  was 
pulled  down  to  be  re-erected  on  a  plan  adapted  to  the  reformatory  system.  The  market, 
established  in  1681,  was  ordered  to  be  abolished  by  an  act  passed  in  1861.  A  meat  and 
poultry  market  is  to  be  erected  in  Smithfield. 


*  On  Jan. 

firming  cert*-***.  *  *^*»v 
with  this  convention. 


in.  14,  1857,  a  convention  was  concluded  between  the  English  and  French  governments,  con- 
;ain  French  privileges  of  fishery  in  exchange  for  others.    The  English  colonists  were  dissatisfied 


NEW 


513 


NEW 


NEW  GRENADA  (S.  America),  discovered  by  Ojeda  in  1499,  and  conquered  and  settled 
the  Spaniards  in   1536.     It  formed  part  of  the  new  republic  of  Bogota,  established   in 

>ii ;  and,  combined  with  Caracas,  formed  the  republic  of  Colombia  in  Dec.  17,  1819.     See 

lombia. 


President  M.  Ospina  entered  on  office,  April  i,  1857 

After  several  reunions  and  dissolutions,  the  re- 
public of  New  Granada  merged  into  the  Grena- 
dine Confederation,  which  includes  Bolivar, 
Antioquia,  Panama,  and  other  small  states, 

June  15,  1858 

Struggles  between  the  conservatives,  partisans 
of  the  old  government,  and  the  liberals,  Jan.  1861 

General  Mosquera  (liberal)  deposes  Ospina  ;  and 
seizes  the  government .  .  .  July  18,  „ 

A  congress  of  the  states  determine  on  union, 


under   the    name    of  the  United  States  of 

Colombia Sept.  20,  1861 

Arboleda,  chief  of  the  conservatives,  assassi- 
nated (succeeded  by  Cassal)         .          Nov.  i,  1862 
New  constitution  established     .        .       May  8,  1863 
Mosquera  invites  Venezuela  and  Equator  to 

join  the  confederation          .        .        .      Aug.     „ 
Equator  declines — war  ensues  .          .     Nov.  20,     ,, 
The  troops  of  Equator  defeated,  Dec.  6  ;    peace 
ensues,  and  Equator  remains  independent, 

Dec.  3>    „ 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  one  of  the  original  united  states  of  N.  America,  was  settled  in 
1623,  and  separated  from  Massachusetts  in  1679.  Capital,  Concord. 

NEW  HARMONY.     See  Harmonists. 

NEW  HEBRIDES  (S.  Pacific  Ocean),  discovered  by  Quiros,  who  believing  them  to  be  a 
continent  named  them  Tierra  Australia  del  Espiritu  Santo,  in  1606.  Bougainville  in  1768 
found  them  to  be  islands  ;  and  in  1774  Cook  gave  them  their  present  name. 

NEW  HOLLAND.     See  Australia,  New  South  Wales,  &c. 

NEW  JERSEY,  one  of  the  original  united  states  of  N.  America,  was  settled  by  the  Dutch 
from  New  York,  1620  ;  and  by  Swedes  in  1627.  Capital,  Trenton. 

NEW  LANARK  (W.  Scotland).  Here  Robert  Owen  endeavoured  to  establish  socialism 
in  1801. 

NEWMARKET  (Cambridgeshire),  renowned  for  its  horse-races.  It  is  first  mentioned  in 
1227;  and  probably  derived  its  name  from  the  market  then  recently  established.  James  I. 
erected  a  hunting-seat  here,  called  the  king's  house,  to  which  Charles  I.  was  taken  as  a 
prisoner  in  1647,  when  the  parliament  army  was  quartered  in  the  neighbouring  village  of 
Kennet.  Charles  II.,  who  was  fond  of  racing,  built  a  stand-house  for  the  sake  of  the 
diversion,  about  1667,*  and  from  that  period  races  have  been  annual  to  the  present  time  ; 
and  many  extraordinary  races  have  been  run.  See  Races. 

NEW  MEXICO  (N.  America),  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1848,  and  organised  as  a 
territory,  Sept.  9,  1850.  Capital,  Santa  Fe. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  capital  of  Louisiana,  N.  America  (which  see},  founded  in  1717,  under 
the  regency  of  the  duke  of  Orleans.  In  1788,  seven-eighths  of  the  city  were  destroyed  by 
tire  ;  but  it  is  now  rebuilt.  The  British  attacked  New  Orleans  in  Dec.,  1814,  and  were 
repulsed  with  great  loss",  by  the  Americans  under  general  Jackson,  Jan.  8,  1815.  New 
Orleans  was  surrendered  to  the  Federals  on  April,  1862.  The  strong  feeling  of  the  inhabi- 
tants in  favour  of  the  Confederates  and  against  the  Federals  induced  general  B.  Butler  to  rule 
them  with  military  rigour,  occasionally  degenerating  into  brutal  tyranny,  especially  towards 
females,  May  to  October,  1862.  He  was  replaced  by  general  Banks,  Dec.  16,  1862. 

NEWPORT  (Monmouthshire).     Chartist  riots  here  were  suppressed,  Nov.  4,  i839.t 

*  During  the  races,  on  March  22,  1683,  Newmarket  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire,  which 
occasioned  the  hasty  departure  of  the  company  then  assembled,  including  the  king,  the  queen,  the  duke 
of  York,  the  royal  attendants,  and  many  of  the  nobility ;  and  to  this  disaster  historians  have  ascribed  the 
failure  of  the  Rye  -house  plot,  the  object  of  which  was  said  to  be  the  assassination  of  the  king  and  his 
brother  on  the  road  from  Newmarket  to  London,  if  the  period  of  their  journey  had  not  been  thus  antici- 
pated. See  Rye-House  Plot. 

t  The  chartists  (which  see)  collected  from  the  mines  and  collieries  in  the  neighbourhood,  to  the  number 
of  10,000,  armed  with  guns,  pikes,  clubs,  &c.,  arrived  at  Newport,  Nov.  4,  1839.  They  divided  them- 
selves into  two  bodies — one,  under  the  command  of  Mr.  John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate,  proceeded  down  the 
principal  street ;  whilst  the  other,  headed  by  his  son,  took  the  direction  of  Stow-hill.  They  met  in  front 
of  the  Westgate  hotel,  where  the  magistrates  were  assembled  with  about  30  soldiers  of  the  45th  regiment, 
and  several  special  constables.  The  rioters  commenced  breaking  the  windows  of  the  house,  and  fired  on 
the  inmates,  by  which  the  mayor,  Mr.  (now  sir  Thomas)  Phillips,  and  several  other  persons  were  wounded. 
The  soldiers  returned  the  fire,  and  succeeded  in  dispersing  the  mob,  which,  with  its  leaders,  fled  from  the 
town,  leaving  about  20  rioters  dead,  and  many  others  dangerously  wounded.  A  detachment  of  the  loth 
royal  Hussars  having  arrived  from  Bristol,  th6  town  became  tranquil.  Frost  was  apprehended  on  the 
following  day,  together  with  his  printer,  and  other  influential  persons  among  the  chartists.  He  and 
several  others  were  tried  and  convicted  in  Jan.  1840,  and  sentenced  to  death  ;  afterwards  commuted  to 
transportation.  An  amnesty  was  granted  them  on  May  3,  1856  ;  and  they  returned  to  England  in  Sept. 
following. 

L   L 


NEW 


514 


NEW 


NEW  RIVER.  An  artificial  river  for  the  supply  of  London  with,  water,  commenced  in 
1609,  and  finished  in  1613,  when  the  projector,  Hugh  Myddelton,  was  knighted  by  James  I. 
Strype.  This  river,  which  rises  in  Hertfordshire,  and  which,  with  its  windings,  is  forty- 
two  miles  long,  was  brought  to  London,  and  opened  Sept.  29,  1613.  So  little  was  the 
benefit  of  it  understood,  that  for  above  thirty  years  the  seventy-two  shares,  into  which  it 
was  divided,  netted  only  $1.  apiece.  Each  of  these  shares  was  sold  originally  for  looL 
Within  the  last  few  years  they  were  sold  at  goooL  a  share,  and  some  lately  at  io,ooo£. 

NEW  ROSS  (Wexford),  S.  E.  Ireland.  Here  general  Johnston  totally  defeated  the  rebels 
imder  Beauchamp  D.  Bagenal  Harvey,  June  4,  1798. 

NEWRY  (N.  Ireland).  In  the  rebellion  of  1641,  Newry  was  reduced  to  a  ruinous  con- 
dition ;  it  was  surprised  by  sir  Con.  Mageiiis,  but  was  retaken  by  lord  Conway.  After  the 
Restoration  the  town  was  rebuilt.  It  was  burnt  by  the  duke  of  Berwick  when  flying  from 
Schomberg  and  the  English  army,  and  only  the  castle  and  a  few  houses  escaped,  1689. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  the  principal  colony  of  Australia  (which  see).  The  eastern  coast 
of  New  Holland  was  explored  and  taken  possession  of  by  captain  Cook  in  1770.  At  his 
recommendation  a  convict  colony  was  first  formed  here.  Captain  A.  Phillip,  the  first 
governor,  arrived  at  Botany  Bay  with  800  convicts,  Jan.  20,  1788;  but  he  subsequently 
preferred  Sydney,  about  seven  miles  distant  from  the  head  of  Port  Jackson,  as  a  more  eligible 
situation  for  the  capital.  A  new  constitution  was  granted  in  1855  (18  &  19  Vic.  c.  54).  See 
Sydney.  Population,  in  1856,  269,722  ;  in  1859,  342,062  ;  in  1862,  367,495.  The  imports 
for  1859  amounted  to  6,597,053?.  ;  the  exports  to  4,768,049?.  Governor,  sir  John  Young, 
appointed  1860. 

NEWS-LETTERS.  News-writers  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  collected  from  the  coffee- 
houses information,  which  was  printed  weekly  and  sent  into  the  country.  The  London 
Gazette,  then  the  only  authorised  newspaper,  contained  little  more  than  proclamations  and 
advertisements. 

NEWSPAPERS.  The  Roman  Ada  Diurna  were  issued,  it  is  said,  691  B.C.  In  modern 
times,  a  Gazetta,  which  derived  its  name  from  its  price,  a  small  coin,  was  published  in  Venice 
(about  1536).  The  Gazette  de  France,  now  existing,  first  appeared  in  April,  1631,  edited  by 
Renaudot,  a  physician.  It  was  patronised  by  the  king,  Louis  XIII. ,  who  wrote  one  article 
for  it,  and  by  Richelieu.  The  first  real  newspaper  published  in  England  *  was  established 
by  sir  Roger  L1  Estrange,  in  1663  ;  it  was  entitled  the  Public  Intelligencer,  and  continued 
nearly  three  years,  when  it  ceased,  on  the  appearance  of  the  Gazette.  In  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  1622,  appeared  the  London  Weekly  C  our  ant ;  and  in  the  year  1643  (the  period  of 
the  civil  war)  were  printed  a  variety  of  publications,  certainly  in  no  respect  entitled  to  the 
name  of  newspapers,  of  which  the  following  were  the  titles  : — 


England's  Memorable  Accidents. 
The  Kingdom's  Intelligencer. 
The  Diurnal  of  Certain  Passages  in 

Parliament. 
The  Mercurius  Aulicus. 


The  Scotch  Intelligencer. 
The  Parliament's  Scout. 
The     Parliament's     Scout's    Dis- 
covery, or  Certain  Information. 


The  Mercurius  Civicus,  or  London's 

Intelligencer. 

The  Country's  Complaint,  &c. 
The  Weekly  Accounts. 
Mercurius  Britannicus. 


A  paper  called  the  London  Gazette  t  was  published 
Aug.  22,  1642.  The  London  Gazette  of  the  existing 
series  was  published  first  at  Oxford,  the  court 
being  there  on  account  of  the  plague,  Nov.  7,  1665, 
and  afterwards  at  London,  Feb.  5,  1666. 

Printing  of  newspapers  and  pamphlets  prohibited, 
31  Chas.  I.  1680.  Salmon's  Cfiron. 

The  regular  newspapers  commenced  on  the  abolition 
of  the  censorship  of  the  press,  in  1695. 

Daily  Courant  first  published  in  1709. 

Newspapers  first  stamped  in  1713. 

NUMBER  OF  STAMPS  ISSUED  TO  BRITISH  NEWSPAPERS. 

1753 7.4", 757 

1760 9,4°4,79° 

1774 12,300,000 


1790 14,035,639 

1800         .....   16,084,905 

1810 20,172,837 

1820 24,862,186 

1825 26,950,693 

1830 30,158,741 

1835 32,874,652 

1840 49,033,384 

1843 56,433>977 

1850 65,741,271 

[In  1850  there  were  also  issued  supplement 
stamps  at  ±d.,  11,684,423.] 

In  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1851,  there  were  159  Lon- 
don newspapers,  in  which  appeared  891,650  adver- 
tisements ;  222  English  provincial  newspapers, 
having  875,631  advertisements.  In  Scotland,  same 


*  Some  copies  of  a  publication  are  in  existence  called  the  Englifh  Mercury,  professing  to  come  out 
tinder  the  authority  of  queen  Elizabeth,  in  1588,  the  period  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  The  researches  of 
Mr.  T.  Watts,  of  the  British  Museum,  have  proved  these  to  be  forgeries,  executed  about  1766.  The  full 
title  of  No.  50  is  "  The  English  Mercurie,  published  by  authoritie,  for  the  prevention  of  false  reports, 
imprinted  by  Christopher  Barker,  her  highness's  printer,  No.  50."  It  describes  the  Spanish  Armada, 
giving  "  A  journall.of  what  passed  since  the  2ist  of  this  month,  between  her  majestie's  fleet  and  that  of 
Spayne,  transmitted  by  the  Lord  Highe  Admiral,  to  the  Lordes  of  council." 

t  On  May  22,  1787,  a  London  Gazette  Extraordinary  was  forged,  with  a  view  of  affecting  the  funds. 


NEW 


515 


NEW 


NEWSPAPERS,  continued. 


year 
men 

sirlvfi 


no  newspapers,  having  249,141  advertise- 
;ents.  In  Ireland,  102  newspapers,  having  236, 128 
advertisements.  The  nximber  of  stamps  issued 
was — in  England,  65,741,271  at  id,  and  11,684,423 
supplement  stamps  at  £d.  ;  in  Scotland,  7,643,045 
stamps  at  id.,  and  241,264  at  |d  ;  in  Ire! 
6,302,728  stamps  at  id.,  and  43,358  at  fyl. 

Reduction  of  newspaper  duty  from  4^.  to  id.  took 
effect  on  Sept.  15,  1836. 

The  distinctive  die  came  into  use  Jan.  i,  1837. 

Duty  on  advertisements  abolished,  1853. 

IRISH   NEWSPAPERS. 

first  was  the  Dublin  Neios- Letter,  by  Joseph  Ray, 
"5;  Pue's  Occurrences,  1700.  Faulkner's  Journal 
was  established  by  George  Faulkner,  "a  man 
celebrated  for  the  goodness  of  his  heart,  and  the 
weakness  of  his  head,"  1728.  The  oldest  of  the 
existing  Dublin  newspapers  are  Saunders'  (then 
Esdailes)  News-Letter,  1745  ;  and  Freeman's  Journal, 
founded  as  the  Public  Register,  by  the  patriot  Dr. 
about  1755.  The  Limerick  Chronicle,  the 
st  of  the  provincial  prints,  1768. 

PROVINCIAL   NEWSPAPERS. 

ch  Postman,   1706.       Worcester  Postman,  1709. 
castle-on-Tyne  Courant,  1711. 

FOREIGN   NEWSPAPERS. 

Gazette  de  Venise,  early  in  ijth  century  ;    Gazette  de 
France  (now  publishing),  1631. 
e  first  newspaper  set  up  in  Germany,  1715. 


^68 


533 

Norwich 
Newca 


The  first  published  in  America,  the  Boston  News- 
Letter,  in  1704  ;  the  first  at  Philadelphia  in  1719  ; 
and  the  first  in  Holland  in  1732. 

"America,  whose  population  is  23  millions  and  a 
half,  supports  800  newspapers  (50  of  these  publish- 
ing daily),  and  their  annual  circulation  is  stated 
at  64,000,000.  In  Paris  there  exist  169  journals, 
literary,  scientific,  religious,  and  political. "—  West- 
minster Review,  1830. 

REGISTERED   NEWSPAPERS.         1850.     1865. 

London  newpapers,  daily  . 

United  Kingdom,  daily 

London  newspapers,  weekly    . 

English  provincial  newspapers    . 

Irish  newspapers 

Scotch  newspapers 

British  isles 14          14 

By  the  act  passed  June  15,  1855  (18  &  19  Viet.  c.  27), 
the  stamp  on  newspapers,  as  such,  was  totally 
abolished,  and  will  be  employed  henceforth  only 
for  postal  purposes.  Many  new  papers  were  then 
started,  which  were  but  of  short  duration. 

In  1857,  71  million  newspapers  passed  through  the 
post-office.  In  Jan.  1860,  1060  newspapers,  and 
in  Jan.  1862,  1165  newspapers  were  in  course  of 
publication  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

On  Oct.  i,  1861,  when  the  paper  duty  came  off,  the 
Times,  Daily  News,  and  Morning  Post  reduced 
their  price  to  yi.  each  copy  unstamped. 


58 

222 


22 

M 

750 
132 
140 


ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   LONDON   NEWSPAPERS. 


DAILY. 

Times  (independent)  .  .  1788 
Sun  (liberal)  .  .  .  .  1792 
Morning  Advertiser  (liberal)  .  1794 
Globe  (whig),  evening  .  .  1803 
Standard  (conservative)  .  .  1827 


Daily  News  (liberal) . 
Daily  Telegraph*  (liberal) 
Morning  Star  (liberal) 
International  (in  French) 


1846 

1856 
1863 
Pall  Mall  Gazette  (liberal).     .  1865 


iblic  Ledger  (commercial)  .  1759 
Morning  Chronicle  (liberal), 

extinct  ....  1770-1862 
Morning  Post  (whig)  .  .  .  1781 
Morning  Herald  (conservative)  1781 


St.   James's    Chronicle  (con- 
servative)     ....  1761 
Observer  (whig)  .        .        .     .  1792 
Bell's  Messenger(H6.  conserv.)  1796 
Dispatch  (liberal)    .        .         .   1801 
Examiner  (liberal)     .        .     .   1808 
Literary  Gazette  (extinct)      1817-62 
John  Bull  (conservative) .        .  1820 
Bell's  Life  in  London  (sporting)  1820 
Sunday  Times  (lib.  conserv.)  .  1822 
Atlas  (liberal) .        .        .        .  1826 
Athenseum (literary and scien. )  1 828 
Spectator  (liberal)      .         .     .     „ 
Record  (liberal  conservative)   .     „ 
Court  Journal  (neutral) .        .  1829 


NEW  STYLE.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  in  order  to  rectify  the  errors  of  the  current 
calendar,  published  a  new  one,  in  which  ten  days  were  omitted— Oct.  5,  1582,  becoming 
Oct.  15.  The  new  style  was  adopted  in  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Denmark,  Flanders,  Portugal, 
in  1582,  and  in  Great  Britain  in  1751.  In  1752  eleven  days  were  left  out  of  the  calendar — 
Sept.  3,  1752,  being  reckoned  as  Sept.  14. 

NEW  TESTAMENT.     See  Bible. 

NEWTONIAN  PHILOSOPHY,  the  doctrines  respecting  gravitation,  &c.,  taught  by  sir 
Isaac  Newton  in  his  "  Principia,"  published  in  1687.  He  was  born,  Dec.  25,  1642  ;  became 
Master  of  the  Mint,  1699  ;  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  1703  ;  and  died  March  20,  1727. 
A  statue  of  him  in  marble  by  Roubilliac  was  set  up  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  July  14, 
1755,  and  one  in  bronze  by  Theed,  at  Grantham,  Sept.  21,  1858,  when  lord  Brougham 
delivered  an  excellent  discourse  on  the  life  and  works  of  Newton.  The  latter  statue  cost 
i6ool.,  which  sum  was  obtained  by  public  subscription. 

*  144,000  copies  sold  on  Dec.  16,  1861.     The  prince  consort  died  on  the  i4th. 


PRINCIPAL  WEEKLY. 

United  Service  Gazette      .     .  1833 

Economist  (liberal) 

1843 

Watchman  (  Wesleyan)    .        .  1835 

Jewish  Chronicle  (liberal). 

1845 

Musical  World  ....  1836 

Guardian  (High  Church)  . 

1846 

Jurist  (legal)   ....  1837 
Magnet  (agricultural)         .     .     ,, 
Railway  Times       .        .        .     ,, 

Press  (conservative)     . 
Field  (country  gentlemen's) 
Saturday  Review  (neutral) 

1853 
1855 

Era  (theatrical)    .        .        .     .     ,  , 

Engineer 

1856 

Tablet  (Roman  Catholic)  .        .   1840 

City  Press  (neutral)   . 

1857 

Gardeners'  Chronicle         .     .1841 

News  (bankers,  &c.)        . 

1858 

Nonconformist        .        .        .     ,, 

Chemical  News 

1859 

Punch         ...        .     .  1841 

London  Review  (liberal) 

1860 

Illus.  London  News  (liberal)  .  1842 

Reader  (literary  and  scientific) 

1863 

Lloyd's  Weekly  Paper  (radcl.  )    „ 

Age  (neutral)  .... 

1864 

Builder    1843 

Owl  (satirical)    .        .        .     . 

English  Churchman  (  High  Ch.)    „ 

Index  (Confederate)  extinct     . 

1865 

News  of  the  World  (liberal)  .  1843 

NEW 


516 


NEWTOWNBARBY  RIOT  (S.  E.  Ireland).  On  a  seizure  of  stock  for  tithes,  a  lament- 
able conflict  ensued  here  between  the  yeomanry  and  the  people,  when  thirty-five  persons 
were  killed  or  wounded,  June  18,  i8ji.  The  jury  at  the  coroner's  inquest  was  unable  to 
agree  on  a  verdict. 

NEWTOWN-BUTLER  (N.  Ireland).  On  July  30,  1689,  the  Enniskilleners  under  Gustavus 
Hamilton  thoroughly  defeated  the  adherents  of  James  II.  commanded  by  general  Maccarty, 
taking  him  prisoner  with  his  artillery,  arms,  and  baggage. 

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY,  &c.  The  feast  was  instituted  by  Numa,  and  was  dedicated  to 
Janus  (who  presided  over  the  new  year),  Jan.  I,  713  B.C.* 

NEW  YORK,  the  "empire  state  "  of  the  United  States  of  N.  America,  was  settled  by  the 
Dutch  in  1609.  The  city  was  named  by  them  Manhattan  and  New  Amsterdam  ;  but  the 
English  under  colonel  Nichols  dispossessed  them  and  the  Swedes,  Aug.  27,  1664,  and 
changed  its  name.  Population  in  1860,  805,651. 


New  York  was  confirmed  to  England  by  the 
peace  of  Breda  ....  Aug.  24,  1667 

The  city  was  one  of  the  principal  points  of  the 
struggle  for  independence  among  the  states 
of  America.  It  surrendered  to  the  British 
forces  under  general  Howe  .  Sept.  15,  1776 

The  city  was  evacuated  by  the  British  ; 
"  Evacuation  day "  made  one  of  rejoicing 
ever  siifte Nov.  25,  1783 

Academy  of  the  fine  arts,  and  a  botanical 
garden,  established  in 1804 

Awful  fire  here  ;  674  buildings  destroyed,  and 
property  valued  at  nearly  20,000,000  dollars, 

Dec.  16,  1835 

The  Park  theatre  destroyed  by  fire    .     Dec.  16,  1848 

Serious  riot  (several  lives  lost)  at  the  theatre, 
originating  in  a  dispute  between  Mr.  Mac- 
ready  (English)  and  Mr.  Forrest  (American) 
actors  .  .  .  .  .  .  May  10,  1849 

The  Crystal  Palace,  containing  an  exhibition  of          ' 


goods  from  all  nations,  was  opened  in  the 
presence  of    the  president    of    the  United- 
States  and  many  other  dignitaries,  July  14,  1853 
New  York  suffered  severely  by  large  commer- 
cial failures,  and  "hunger  demonstrations" 
took  place  during  the  panic   .        .        .  Nov.  1857 
The  Crystal  Palace  destroyed  by  fire    .      Oct.  5,  1858 
A  magnificent  cathedral  erected  in  .     .  1859 

Great  fire  ;  about  50  lives  lost    .         .       Feb.  2,  1860 
During  the  civil  war  of  1861  New  York  strongly 
supported  the  government  of  president  Lin- 
coln (republican,  or  abolitionist) ;  but  during 
1862  a  re  action  gradually  took  place,  and  the 
opposition  (democrat)    candidates     for  con- 
gress were  elected  by  large  majorities,  Nov.  1862 
Fierce  riots  against  conscription  ;   many  per- 
sons killed   and  much  property  destroyed, 

July.  13-17,  1863 

Barnum's  museum  burnt ;  great  loss,  July  13,  1865 
See  under  United  States. 


NEW  ZEALAND  (in  the  Pacific  Ocean),  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1642.  From  his  time 
the  country,  except  that  part  of  the  coast  wliich  was  seen  by  him,  remained  unknown,  and 
was  by  many  supposed  to  make  part  of  a  southern  continent,  till  1769-70,  when  it  was  cir- 
cumnavigated by  captain  Cook.  In  1773,  he  planted  several  spots  of  ground  on  this  island 
with  European  garden  seeds;  and  in  1777,  he  found  some  fine  potatoes,  greatly  improved  by 
change  of  soil.  European  population,  in  1860,  84,294.  Value  of  imports,  in  1859,  1,551,030?. ; 
exports,  551,484^.  Sir  George  Grey,  governor,  reappointed  June,  1861. 


The  right  of  Great  Britain  to  New  Zealand  re- 
cognised at  the  peace  in 

No  constitutional  authority  was  placed  over  it 
until  a  resident  subordinate  to  the  govern- 
ment of  New  South  Wales  was  sent  out  with 
limited  powers 

New  Zealand  company  established ;  Wellington 
founded 

C'apt.  Hobson,  the  first  governor,  landed  Jan. 
29  ;  treaty  of  Waitangi  signed,  by  which  the 
chiefs  cede  a  large  amount  of  land  .  Feb.  5, 

Becomes  an  independent  colony  and  made  a 
bishop's  see April, 

Capt.  (aft.  admiral)  Fitzroy,  governor,  Dec. 
1843  to  Nov. 

Sir  George  Grey,  governor  " 

A  charter,  founded  upon  an  act  passed  in  1846, 


1833 
1839 

1840 
1841 

1845 
1846 


creating  powers  municipal,   legislative,   and 

administrative Dec.  29,  1847 

This  charter  was  not  acted  on ;   a  legislative 

council  opened  by  the  governor     .      Dec.  20,  1848 
Foundation  of  Auckland,    1840 ;    Nelson    and 

Taranaki  (or  New  Plymouth),   1841  ;  Otago, 

1848  ;  Canterbury 1850 

New  Zealand  company  relinquish  charter         .     ,, 
Bishopric  subdivided  to  form  another   called 

Christchurch 1852 

New  constitution  granted ,, 

Col.  Wynyard,  governor     .     Jan.  1854  to  Sept.  1855 

Governor  Browne Oct.     ,, 

An  earthquake ;  not  much  damage  done,  Jan.  23,     ,, 

Constitution  modified 1857 

Insurrection  of  the  natives  (Maoris)  under  a 

chief  named  William  King  (Wirrimu  Kingi), 


*  On  this  day  the  Romans  sacrificed  to  Janus  a  cake  of  new  sifted  meal,  with  salt,  incense,  and  wine  : 
and  all  the  mechanics  began  something  of  their  art  of  trade  ;  the  men  of  letters  did  the  same,  as  to  books, 
poems,  &c.  ;  and  the  consuls,  though  chosen  before,  took  the  chair  and  entered  upon  their  office  this  day. 
Nonius  Marcellus  refers  the  origin  of  NEW-YEAR'S  GIFTS  among  the  Romans  to  Titus  Tatius,  king  of  the 
Subines,  who  having  considered  as  a  good  omen  a  present  of  some  branches  cut  in  a  wood  consecrated  to 
Strenia,  the  goddess  of  strength,  which  he  received  on  the  first  day  of  the  new  year,  authorised  the  custom 
afterwards,  and  gave  these  gifts  the  name  of  Stremv,  747  B.C. 


NEW 


NIC 


NEW  ZEALAND,  continued. 

'  arising  out  of  disputes  respecting  the  sale  of 
land  ;  the  bishop  Selwyn  and  others  consider 
the  natives  to  have  been  unjustly  treated, 

March,  1860 
Indecisive  actions  between    the    militia   and 

volunteers  and  the  Maoris      .      March  14-28,     ,, 
War  breaks  out  at  Taranaki  :    the  British  re- 
pulsed with  loss  ....        June  30,     ,, 
Great  excitement  in  Australia;  troops  sent  to 

New  Zealand,  under  gen.  Pratt,  land,  Aug.  3,  ,, 
Indecisive  actions  .  Sept.  10,  19,  Oct.  9,  12,  ,, 
Gen.  Pratt  defeats  the  Maoris  at  Mahoetahi, 

and  destroys  their  fortified  places    .    Nov.  6,     ,, 
The  New  Zealand  colonists  in  England  meet 
and    justify  the    conduct   of  the    governor, 

Nov.  22,     ,, 
The  Maoris  defeated,    Dec.   29,   1860 ;  Jan.  23, 

Feb.  24,  March  16-18,  1860-1 

The  war  ends  :  surrender  of  natives.  March  19,  1861 
Sir  George  Grey  re-appointed  governor,     June,     ,, 
Gold  discovered  at  Otago,  and  other  places, 

June,     ,, 
A  native  sovereignty  proclaimed  ;  5000  British 

soldiers  in  the  islands        .        .        .       July,     , , 
Loyalty  of  the  natives  increasing     .        .    May,  1862 
The  Maori  chiefs  sign  a  poetical  address  of 
condolence  to    the  queen  on  the  death  of 
the  prince  consort ;  received  .         .        .  Nov.   1862 
Natives  attack  a  military  escort  and  kill  8  per- 
sons         May  4,  1863 

Waikato  tribe  driven  from  a  fort          .  July  17,     ,, 
The  war  spreading ;  natives  construct  rifle  pits, 

Aug.     ,, 
Proposed  confiscation  of  Waikato  lands  .  Sept.     „ 


Gen.  Cameron  severely  defeats  the  Maoris  at 
Ransariri Nov.  20,  1863 

Continued  success  of  gen.  Cameron  ;  capitula- 
tion of  the  Maori  king  .  .  .  Dec.  9,  ,, 

British  attack  on  Galepa  repulsed  with  loss  of 
officers  and  men  ....  April  29,  1864 

Loan  of  i,ooo,oooi.  to  New  Zealand  ;  guaranteed 
by  parliament July,  ,, 

Several  tribes  submit Aug.     ,. 

Maori  prisoners  escape  and  form  a  nucleus  of  a 
new  insurrection Sept.  „ 

Sir  George  Grey  issues  proposals  of  peace,  Oct. 
25 ;  the  Aborigines  Protection  Society  sen  I 
religious,  moral,  and  political  advice  to  the 
Maoris  (considered  injudicious)  .  Nov.  ,. 

Change  of  ministry  and  policy  ;  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  be  removed  from  Auckland  to  Wel- 
lington on  Cook's  Strait  .  .  Nov.  24,  ,, 

Maoris  attack  on  Cameron  severely  defeated, 
Jan.  25  ;  again,  Feb.  25  ;  outbreak  of  the  Pai 
Mariri  or  Hau-hau  heresy,  a  compound  of 
Judaism  and  paganisn,  amongst  the  Maoris  ; 
the  rev.  C.  S.  Volkner  murdered  and  many 
outrages  committed,  March  2  ;  proclamation 
of  governor  sir  George  Grey  against  it ;  it  is 
checked  by  the  agency  of  a  friendlv  native 

chief  We-tako April,  1865 

William  Thompson,   an    eminent    chief,    sur- 
renders on  behalf  of  the  Maori  king    May  25,     ,, 
New  Zealand  still  unsettled    .        .        .    July,     „ 

The  Hau-haus  beaten  in  several  conflicts,  Aug.  ; 
the  governor  proclaims  peace,  Sept.  2 ;  British 
troops  about  to  leave  .  .  .  Sept.  15,  „ 


NEY'S  EXECUTION.  Ney,  duke  of  Elchiugen,  prince  of  the  Moskwa,  and  one  of  the 
most  valiant  of  the  marshals  of  France,  was  shot  as  a  traitor,  Dec.  7,  1815.*  On  Dec.  7,  1853, 
his  statue  was  erected  on  the  spot  where  he  fell. 

NIAGARA  (N.  America).  At  the  head  of  this  river,  on  the  western  shore,  is  Fort  Erie.t 
which  was  taken  by  the  English,  July  24,  1759.  It  was  abandoned  in  the  war  with  the 
United  States,  May  27,  1813,  but  was  retaken,  Dec.  19,  following.  A  suspension  bridge  of 
a  single  span  of  800  feet  over  the  Niagara,  connecting  the  railways  of  Canada  and  New 
York,  was  opened  in  March,  1855.  It  is  elevated  18  feet  on  the  Canadian,  and  28  feet  on 
the  American  side. 

NICJEA.     See  Nice. 

NICARAGUA,  a  state  in  Central  America  (which  see).  Population  about  30x3,000  ; 
president,  T.  Martinez  ;  elected  in  1859,  and  re-elected  in  1863.  The.  present  constitution 
was  established,  Aug.  19,  1858.  At  the  commencement  of  1855  it  was  greatly  disturbed  by 
two  political  parties  :  that  of  the  president,  Chamorro,  who  held  Grenada,  the  capital,  and 
that  of  the  democratic  chief,  Castellon,  who  held  Leon.  The  latter  invited  Walker,  thp 
filibuster,  to  his  assistance,  who  in  a  short  time  became  sole  dictator  of  the  state.  J  By  the 


*  After  the  abdication  of  Napoleon  I.,  sth  April,  1814,  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  kin'', 
Louis  XVIII.  On  Napoleon's  return  to  France  from  Elba,  he  marched  against  him  ;  but  his  troops  de- 
sorting,  he  regarded  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons  as  lost,  and  opened  the  invader's  way  to  Paris,  March,  1815. 
Ney  led  the  attack  of  the  French  at  Waterloo,  where  he  fought  in  the  midst  of  the  slain,  his  clothes 
pierced  with  bullet-holes,  five  horses  having  been  shot  under  him  :  night  and  defeat  obliged  him  to  flee. 
Though  included  in  the  decree  of  July  24,  1815,  which  guaranteed  the  safety  of  all  Frenchmen,  he  was 
sought  OTit,  and  on  Aug.  5,  taken  at  the  castle  of  a  friend  at  Urillac,  and  brought  to  trial  before  the 
Chamber  of  Peers,  Dec.  4.  The  i2th  article  of  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  fixing  a  general  amnesty,  was 
quoted  in  his  favour,  yet  he  was  sentenced  to  death  and  met  his  fate  with  fortitude,  Dec.  7,  1815. 

t  About  eighteen  miles  below  Fort  Erie,  are  the  remarkable  falls.  The  river  is  here  740  yards  wide. 
The  hnlf-rnile  immediately  above  the  cataracts  is  a  rapid,  in  which  the  water  falls  58  feet :  it  is  then 
thrown,  with  astonishing  grandeur,  down  a  stupendous  precipice  of  150  feet  perpendicular,  in  three 
distinct  and  collateral  sheets :  and,  in  a  rapid  that  extends  to  the  distance  of  nine  miles  below,  falls  nearly 
as  much  more.  The  river  then  flows  in  a  deep  channel  till  it  enters  lake  Ontario,  at  Fort  Niagara.  The 
falls  were  visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales  in  Sept.  1860. 

t  William  Walker  was  born  at  Tennessee,  in  the  United  States,  where  he  became  successively  doctor, 
lawyer,  and  journalist,  and  afterwards  gold-seeker  in  California,  whence  he  was  invited  to  Nicaragua  by 
Castellon,  with  the  promise  of  52,000  acres  of  land,  on  condition  of  bringing  with  him  a  band  of  adventurers 
to  sustain  the  revolutionary  cause.  Walker  accepted  the  terms,  and  on  June  28  landed  at  Realejo  with  68 
men.  He  increased  his  forces  at  Leon,  and  soon  after  attacked  the  town  of  Rivas,  where  he  was  repulsed 


NIC  518  NIC 

united  efforts  of  the  confederated  states  the  filibusters  were  all  expelled  in.  May,  1857. 
On  May  i,  1858,  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  appealed  to  the  great  European  powers  for 
protection. 

NICE  or  NICJEA,  a  town  in  Bithynia,  Asia  Minor,  N.  W.  Antigonus  gave  it  the  name 
Antigoneia,  which  Lysimachus  changed  to  Niccea,  in  memory  of  his  wife.  It  became  the 
residence  of  the  kings  of  Bithynia  about  208  B.C.  At  the  battle  of  Nice,  A.D.  194,  the 
emperor  Severus  defeated  his  rival,  Niger,  who  was  again  defeated  at  Issus,  and  soon  after 
taken  prisoner  and  put  to  death.  In  325,  the  first  general  council  was  held  here,  which 
composed  the  NICENE  CREED  and  condemned  the  Arians.  It  was  attended  by  318  bishops 
from  divers  parts,  who  settled  both  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the  time  for  observing 
Easter.  The  creed  was  altered,  381,  and  confirmed,  431,  when  it  wras  decreed  unlawful  to 
make  further  additions.  When  the  Crusaders  took  Constantinople,  and  established  a  Latin 
empire  there  in  1204,  the  Greek  emperors  removed  to  Nice  and  reigned  there  till  1261,  when 
they  returned  to  Constantinople.  See  Eastern  Empire,  p.  261.  Nice  was  taken  by  the 
Ottoman  Turks  in  1330. 

NICE  (N.  Italy),  a  colony  of  Massilia,  now  Marseilles.  It  was  taken  by  the  French,  and 
retaken  by  Eugene  of  Savoy,  in  1706;  and  by  the  Austrians  in  1800.  After  the  mind  of 
the  people  had  been  ascertained  by  universal  suffrage  (the  votes  being  nearly  unanimous 
for  annexation  to  France),  the  province  of  Nice  was  given  up  to  France  by  the  Sardinian 
government.  The  French  troops  occupied  Nice  on  April  I,  in  conformity  with  a  treaty 
signed  March  24,  1860.  The  people  are  said  to  have  been  really  unwilling  for  the  change, 
and  Garibaldi  vehemently  protested  against  the  annexation.  Population  of  the  province,  in 
1857,  256,593. 

NICIAS,  PEACE  OF,  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  421  B.C.,  so  named  on  account  of  its 
being  negotiated  by  that  eminent  and  unfortunate  Athenian  general,  who,  with  his  colleague, 
Demosthenes,  was  put  to  death  after  the  disastrous  termination  of  the  expedition  against 
Syracuse,  413  B.C. 

NICKEL,  a  white,  ductile,  malleable,  magnetic  metal,  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
German  silver.  Cronstedt  in  1751  discovered  nickel  in  the  mineral  copper-nickel. 

NICOLAITANES,  a  sect  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii.  6,  15,  said  to  have  sprung  from  Nicolas, 
one  of  the  first  seven  deacons  (Acts  vi.),  and  to  have  maintained  the  legality  of  a  community 
of  wives,  as  well  as  all  other  heresies,  and  to  have  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ. 

NICOMEDIA,  the  metropolis  of  Bithynia,  Asia  Minor,  N.  W.,  founded  by  king  Nico- 
medes  I.,  2646.0.,  on  the  remains  of  Astacus ;  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  A.D.  115  ;  and 
restored  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  124.  The  Eoman  emperors  frequently  resided  here  during 
their  eastern  wars.  Here  Diocletian  resigned  the  purple,  305  ;  and  Constantino  died  at  his 
villa  in  its  neighbourhood,  337.  It  surrendered  to  the  Seljukian  Turks,  1078  ;  and  to 
Orchan  and  the  Ottoman  Turks  in  1338. 

NICOPOLIS  (now  in  Bulgaria),  BATTLE  OF,  Sept.  28,  1396,  between  the  allied  Christian 
powers  under  Sigismund,  king  of  Hungary,  afterwards  emperor,  and  the  Turks  under 
Bajazet ;  said  to  have  been  the  first  battle  between  the  Turks  and  Christians  ;  the  latter 
were  defeated,  losing  20,000  slain,  and  as  many  wounded  and  prisoners. 


, r „__  the  general  ^ 

the  state  army,  Corral,  but  shot  him  on  Nov.  7,  on  finding  him  corresponding  with  fugitives  at  Costa  Rica. 
Walker  at  first  was  only  general-in-chief  ;  but  on  Rivas,  whom  he  had  made  president,  deserting  him  he 
became  sole  dictator.  On  May  14,  1856,  his  envoy  Vijil  was  recognised  by  the  president  of  the  United  States 
whence  also  he  obtained  reinforcements  during  his  retention  of  power.  Costa  Rica  declared  war  against 
him,  Feb.  28,  1856;  the  other  states  of  Central  America  soon  followed  the  example,  and  a  sanguinary 
struggle  ensued,  lasting  till  May,  1857.  On  Nov.  25,  1856,  Walker  totally  burnt  Grenada,  being  unable  to 
defend  it,  and  removed  the  seat  of  government  to  Rivas.  This  place  he  surrendered  to  gen.  Mora  on  May  r. 
1857,  on  the  intervention  of  capt.  Davis,  of  the  St.  Mary's,  U.S.  Himself,  his  staff,  and  260  men  were 
conveyed  in  that  vessel  to  New  Orleans,  where  they  were  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  On  Nov.  25, 
1857,  he  again  invaded  Nicaragua,  landing  at  Punta  Arenas  with  400  men  ;  but  on  Dec.  8,  was  compelled 
to  surrender  to  capt.  Paulding,  U.S.,  and  was  conveyed  to  New  York.  He  escaped  punishment  by  nolle 
prosequi(J\ine  2,  1858);  but  capt.  Paulding  was  tried  for  exceeding  orders,  and  blamed— yet  excused  by 
president  Buchanan.  On  Aug.  5,  1860,  Walker  landed  near  Truxillo,  Honduras,  and  took  the  fort  on  the 
6th.  On  the  7th  he  proclaimed  that  he  made  war  on  the  government,  not  on  the  people  of  Honduras. 
On  being  summoned  to  surrender  his  booty  by  capt.  Salmon,  R.N.,  of  the  Icarus,  he  refused  and  fled  He 
was  pursued,  caught,  given  up  to  the  Honduras  government,  tried,  and  shot  (on  Sept.  12).  His  followers 
were  dismissed. 


NIE  519  NIN 

NIELLO-WORK,  said  to  have  been  produced  by  rubbing  into  engravings  on  silver,  &c., 
mixture  of  silver,  lead,  copper,  sulphur,  and  borax,  was  an  art  known  to  the  ancients  and 
practised  in  the  middle  ages,  and  to  have  given  to  Maso  Finiguerra  the  idea  of  engraving 
ipon  copper,  about  1460. 

NIE  MEN  or  MEMEL,  a  river  flowing  into  the  Baltic,  and  separating  Prussia  from  Russia. 

a  raft  on  this  river  the  emperor  Napoleon  met  Alexander  of  Russia,  June  22,  1807 ;  and 
made  peace  with  him  and  Prussia.  He  crossed  the  Niemen  to  invade  Russia,  June  24,  1812, 
and  re-crossed  with  the  remains  of  his  army,  Dec.  28. 

NIGER  EXPEDITION,  undertaken  with  a  view  to  plant  an  English  colony  in  the  centre 
of  Africa,  and  supported  by  a  government  grant  of  6o,oooZ.,  started  in  the  summer  of  1841, 
and  commenced  the  ascent  of  the  river,  Aug.  20,  in  that  year.  The  expedition  consisted  of 
the  Albert,  Wilberforce,  and  Soudan.  Fever  broke  out  among  the  crews,  Sept.  2,  when 
these  vessels  had  arrived  at  Iddah.  The  confluence  of  the  Niger  and  the  Chadda  (270  miles 
from  the  sea)  was  reached  Sept.  II.  The  Soudan  then  returned  with  the  sick  ;  the  Wilber- 
force ascended  the  Chadda,  and  the  Albert  the  Niger.  But  the  Wilberforce  was  almost  imme- 
diately compelled  to  return,  and  follow  the  track  of  the  Soudan.  The  Albert  arrived  at  Egga, 
on  the  Niger  (320  miles  from  the  sea),  Sept.  28  ;  but  so  great  had  been  the  progress  of 
disease,  that  orders  were  now  given  for  the  third  vessel  to  return,  which  she  did,  after  the 
necessary  delay  for  procuring  firewood,  on  Oct.  4.  This  last  vessel  cast  anchor  in  Clarence 
cove,  Fernando  Po,  Oct.  17,  all  the  same  year. 

NIGHTINGALE  FUND.  On  Oct.  21,  1854,  Miss  Florence  Nightingale  left  England 
with  a  staff  of  thirty-seven  nurses,  and  arrived  at  Scutari,  Nov.  5  ;  they  rendered  invaluable 
services  to  the  army  ;  she  returning  to  London,  Sept.  8,  1856.  In  memory,  a  meeting  was 
held  at  "Willis's  Rooms  on  Nov.  29,  1855,  to  raise  funds  to  establish  an  institution  for  the 
training  of  nurses  and  other  hospital  attendants.  Madame  Jenny  Lind  Goldschmidt 
sang  at  Exeter  Hall  on  March  n,  1856,  and  gave  the  proceeds  (1872^.)  to  the  fund.  The 
subscriptions  closed,  April  24,  1857,  amounting  to  44,039?.  The  queen  gave  Miss  Nightin- 
gale a  valuable  jewel. 

NIKA  CONTESTS.     See  Circus.  NIL  DARPAN.     See  India,  June,  1861. 

NILE  (Egypt).  This  great  river  rises  in  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  •  in  about  ten 
degrees  of  N.  lat.  and  in  a  known  course  of  1250  miles  receives  no  tributary  streams.  The 
travels  of  Bruce  were  undertaken  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile ;  he  set  out  from  England 
in  June,  1768;  on  the  I4th  of  November,  1770,  he  discovered  the  source  of  the  Blue  Nile, 
and  returned  home  in  1773. — This  river  overflows  regularly  every  year,  from  about  the  i5th 
of  June  to  the  I7th  of  September,  when  it  begins  to  decrease,  having  given  fertility  to  the 
land.  It  must  rise  16  cubits  to  ensure  that  fertility.  In  1829,  the  inundations  of  the  Nile 
rose  to  26  instead  of  22,  by  which  30,000  people  were  drowned  and  immense  property  lost. 
Mr.  Petherick  set  out  early  in  1861  to  explore  the  country  at  the  source  of  the  Nile.  For 
recent  discoveries,  see  Africa,  1863 — 5. 

NILE,  BATTLE  OF  THE  (or  Aboukir),  Aug.  i,  1798,  near  Rosetta,  between  the  Toulon 
and  British  fleets,  the  latter  commanded  by  lord  (then  sir  Horatio)  Nelson.  Nine  of  the 
French  line-of- battle  ships  were  taken,  two  were  burnt,  and  two  escaped.  The  French  ship, 
U  Orient,  with  admiral  Brueys  and  1000  men  on  board,  blew  up,  and  only  70  or  80  escaped. 
Nelson's  exclamation  upon  commencing  the  battle  was,  "Victory  or  "Westminster  Abbey !" 

NIMEGUEN  (Holland).  Here  was  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  between  France  and 
the  United  Provinces,  1678.  The  French  were  successful  against  the  British  under  the 
duke  of  York,  before  Nimegueu,  Oct.  28,  1794;  but  were  defeated  by  the  British,  Nov.  8, 
following. 

NINEVEH,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire  (see  Assyria),  founded  by  Ashur,  who 
called  it  after  himself,  about  2245  B.C.  Ninus  reigned  in  Assyria,  and  called  this  city  also 
after  himself,  Nineveh,  2069  B.C.  Abbe  Lenglet.  Jonah  preached  against  Nineveh  (about 
862  B.C.),  which  was  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  606  B.C.  The  discoveries  of  Mr.  Layard  and 
others  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mosul,  the  supposed  site  of  this  ancient  capital,  since  1839, 
have  in  a  manner  disinterred  and  re-peopled  a  city  which  for  centuries  has  not  only  ceased 
to  figure  on  the  page  of  history,  but  whose  very  locality  had  long  been  blotted  out  of  the  map 
of  the  earth.*  In  1848  Mr.  Layard  published  his  "Nineveh  and  its  Remains,"  and  in  1853 
an  account  of  his  second  visit  in  1849-50. 

*  The  forms,  features,  costume,  religion,  modes  of  warfare,  and  ceremonial  customs  of  its  inhabitants 
stand  before  us  as  distinct  as  those  of  a  living  people ;  audit  is  anticipated  that,  by  help  of  the  sculptures  and 


NIS  520 


NISBET  or  NESBIT  (Northumberland).  Here  a  battle  was  ibuglit  between  the  English 
and  Scotch  armies,  the  latter  greatly  disproportioned  in  strength  to  the  former.  Several 
thousands  of  the  Scots  were  slain  upon  the  field  and  in  the  pursuit,  May  7,  1402. 

NISMES  (Nimes),  S.  France,  was  the  flourishing  Roman  colony,  Nemausus.  Its  noble 
amphitheatre  was  ruined  during  the  English  occupation  in  1417.  Nismes  embraced  Protest- 
antism, and  suffered  much  persecution  in  consequence,  and  has  frequently  been  the  scene  of 
fierce  religious  contests.  The  treaty  termed  the  Pacification  of  Nismes  (July  14,  1629)  gave 
religious  toleration  for  a  time  to  the  Huguenots. 

NITRE.     See  Saltpetre. 

NITRIC  ACID,  a  compound  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  formerly  called  aquafortis,  first 
obtained  in  a  separate  state  by  Raymond  Lully,  an  alchemist,  about  1287;  but  we  are 
indebted  to  Cavendish,  Priestley,  and  Lavoisier  for  our  present  knowledge  of  its  properties. 
Mr.  Cavendish  demonstrated  the  nature  of  this  acid  in  1785.  Nitrous  acid  was  discovered 
by  Scheele  about  1774.  Nitrous  gas  was  accidentally  discovered  by  Dr.  Hales.  Nitrous 
oxide  gas  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1776. 

NITROGEN  or  AZOTE  (from  the  Greek  a,  no,  and  zoo,  I  live),  an  irrespirable  elementary 
gas.  Before  1777,  Scheele  separated  the  oxygen  of  the  air  from  the  nitrogen,  and  almost 
simultaneously  with  Lavoisier  discovered  that  the  atmosphere  is  a  mixture  of  these  two  gases. 
Nitrogen  combined  with  hydrogen  forms  the  volatile  alkali  ammonia,  so  freely  given  off  by 
decomposing  animal  and  vegetable  bodies. 

NOBILITY.  The  Goths,  after  they  had  seized  a  part  of  Europe,  rewarded  their  heroes 
with  titles  of  honour,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  common  people.  The  right  of  peerage 
seems  to  have  been  at  first  territorial.  Patents  to  persons  having  no  estate  were  first  granted 
by  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  1095.  George  Neville  duke  of  Bedford  (son  of  John,  marquess 
of  Montague),  ennobled  in  1470,  was  degraded  from  the  peerage  by  parliament,  on  account  of 
his  utter  want  of  property,  19  Edw.  IV.,  1478.  Noblemen's  privileges  were  restrained  in 
June,  1773.  See  Lords,  and  the  various  orders  of  the  nobility. 

NOBILITY  OF  FRANCE  preceded  that  of  England.  On  June  18,  1790,  the  National 
Assembly  decreed  that  hereditary  nobility  could  not  exist  in  a  free  state  ;  that  the  titles  of 
dukes,  counts,  marquesses,  knights,  barons,  excellencies,  abbots,  and  others,  be  abolished  ; 
that  all  citizens  take  their  family  names ;  liveries  and  armorial  bearings  also  to  be  abolished. 
The  records  of  the  nobility,  600  volumes,  were  burnt  at  the  foot  of  the  statue  of  Louis  XIV. , 
June  25,  1792.  A  new  nobility  was  created  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  I.,  1808.  The  heredi- 
tary peerage  was  abolished,  Dec.  27,  1831. 

NOBLE,  an  ancient  English  coin,  first  struck  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  about  1337. 
It  was  stamped  with  a  rose,  and  was  thence  called  a  rose  noble  ;  value  6s.  8d. 

"  NOLUMUS  LEGES  ANGLIC  MUTARI."     See  Bastards  and  Merton. 

NON-CONFORMISTS.  The  Protestants  in  England  are  divided  into  conformists  and 
non- conformists,  or,  churchmen  and  dissenters.  The  first  place  of  meeting  of  the  latter,  in 
England,  was  established  at  Wandsworth,  near  London,  Nov.  20,  1572.  The  name  of  non- 
conformists was  taken  by  the  Puritans  when  the  Act  of  Uniformity  came  into  operation  on 
Aug.  24,  1662  (termed  "Black  Bartholomew's  day"),  when  2000  ministers  of  the  established 
religion  resigned,  not  choosing  to  conform  to  the  statute  passed  "for  the  uniformity  of  public 
prayers  and  administration  of  the  sacraments."  See  Puritans  and  Dissenters.  The  laws 
against  them  were  relaxed  in  1690. — The  Nonconformist  newspaper  (edited  by  Mr.  Edward 
Miall)  began  in  1841. 

NONES,  in  the  Roman  Calendar,  were  the  fifth  day  of  each  month,  excepting  March, 
May,  July,  and  October,  when  the  nones  fell  on  the  seventh  day. 

NON-JURORS.  In  1689,  they  considered  James  II.  to  have  been  unjustly  deposed,  and 
refused  to  swear  allegiance  to  William  III.  Among  them  were  Bancroft,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  ;  Ken,  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  and  the  bishops  of  Ely,  Gloucester,  Norwich, 

their  cuneiform  inscriptions,  the  researches  of  the  learned  may  go  far  in  filling  up  the  vast  blank  in  Assyrian 
annals.  Among  the  sculptures  that  enrich  the  British  Museum  may  be  mentioned  the  winged  bull  and 
lion,  and  numerous  hunting  and  battle-pieces  ;  but  perhaps  the  most  interesting  as  confirmatory  of  the 
truth  of  Holy  Scripture,  is  the  bas-relief  of  the  eagle-headed  human  figure,  presumed  to  be  a  representation 
of  the  Assyrian  god  Nisroch  (from  Nisr,  an  eagle  or  hawk),  whom  Sennacherib  was  in  the  act  of  worshipping 
when  he  was  assassinated  by  his  two  sons,  about  710  B.C.  2  Kings  xix.  37. 


NON  521  NOR 

and  Peterborough,  and  many  of  the  clergy  who  were  deprived,  Feb.  I,  1691.  N  on -jurors 
were  subjected  to  a  double  taxation,  and  were  obliged  to  register  their  estates,  May, 
1723.  They  formed  a  separate  communion,  which  existed  till  the  beginning  of  the  present 

Jtury. 
NON  NOBIS,  DOMINE  !  ("Not  unto  us,   0  Lord!"£c.,  Psalm  cxv.  i),  a  musical 
canon,  sung  as  a  grace  at  public  feasts,  was  composed  by  W.  Bird  in  1618. 

NON-RESISTANCE  OATH,  occurring  in  the  Corporation  Act,  1661,  was  repealed 
in  1719. 

NOOTKA  SOUND  (Vancouver's  Island),  discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  It  was 
settled  by  the  British  in  1786,  when  a  few  British  merchants  in  the  East  Indies  formed  a 
settlement  to  supply  the  Chinese  market  with  furs  :  but  the  Spaniards  in  1789  captured  two 
English  vessels  and  took  possession  of  the  settlement.  The  British  ministry  demanded 
reparation,  and  the  affair  was  amicably  terminated  by  a  convention,  and  a  free  commerce 
was  confirmed  to  England  in  1790. 

NO-POPERY  RIOTS."     See  Gordon. 

NORDLINGEN  (Bavaria).     Here  the  Swedes  under  count  Horn  were  defeated  by  the 
rians,  Aug.  27,  1634  ;  and  the  latter  by  Turenne  in  1645. 

NORE  MUTINY.     See  Mutinies. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND,  a  penal  colony  of  England,  discovered  in  1774,  by  captain  Cook, 
who  found  it  uninhabited,  except  by  birds.  The  settlement  was  made  by  a  detachment  from 
Port  Jackson  under  governor  Phillip,  in  1788,  in  Sydney  bay,  on  the  south  side  of  the  island. 
This  was  at  one  time  the  severest  penal  colony  of  Great  Britain.  The  island  was  abandoned 
in  1809  ;  but  re-occupied  as  a  penal  settlement  in  1825.  The  descendants  of  the  mutineers 
of  the  bounty  were  removed  to  it  in  June,  1856,  from  Pitcairn's  Island  (which  see). 

NORMANDY  (N.  France),  part  of  Neustria,  a  kingdom  founded  by  Clovis  in  511  for  his 
son  Clotaire,  which,  after  various  changes,  was  united  to  France  by  Charles  the  Bald  in  837. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century  it  was  continually  devastated  by  the  Scandinavians, 
called  Northmen  or  Normans,  to  purchase  repose  from  whose  irruptions  Charles  the  Simple 
of  France  ceded  the  duchy  to  their  leader  Rollo,  905.  From  its  conquerors  it  received  its 
present  name.  Rollo,  the  first  duke,  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  France,  and  several 
of  his  successors  after  him,  until  William,  the  seventh  duke,  acquired  England,  in  1066.  It 
remained  a  province  of  England  with  some  intermissions  till  the  reign  of  king  John,  1204, 
when  it  was  re-united  to  France.  It  was  re-conquered  by  Henry  V.,  1418,  and  held  by 
England  partially  till  1450.  The  English  still  possess  the  islands  on  the  coast,  of  which 
Jersey  and  Guernsey  are  the  principal. 


i  i 

~ 


912.   Rollo  (or  Raoul),  baptised  as  Robert. 
920  or  927.  William  I.  Longsword. 
943.    Richard  I.  the  Fearless. 
996.    Richard  II.  the  Good. 

1027.  Richard  III. 

1028.  Robert  I.  the  Devil. 

1035.    William  II.  (I.  of  England). 


1087.    Robert  II.,  Courthose  (his  son),  after  a  contest 

despoiled  by  his  brother. 
1106.    Henry  I  (king  of  England). 
1135.    Stephen  (king  of  England). 
1144.    Matilda  and  Geoffrey  Plantagenet. 
1151.    Henry  II.  (king  of  England  in  1154). 
1189.   Richard  IV.  (I.  of  England). 
1199 — 1203.  Arthur  and  John  of  England. 


NORTH  ADMINISTRATION,  formed  by  lord  North,  Jan.,  1770.  After  his  retirement 
from  office,  March  30,  1 782,  lord  North  entered  into  a  league  with  the  Whigs  :  this  led  to 
the  short-lived  Coalition  ministry  (1783).  He  succeeded  to -the  earldom  of  Guildford  in 
1790,  and  died  in  1792.  See  "  Coalition." 

Frederick,  lord  North,  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  and        Sandwich),  and  lord  Hillsborough,  secretaries   of 

chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Earl  Gower,  lord  president. 
Earl  of  Halifax,  privy  seal. 
Lord  Rochford,  lord  Weymouth  (succeeded  by  lord 


state. 


Sir  Edward  Hawko,  admiralty. 
Marquess  of  Granby,  ordnnnce. 

Sir  Gilbert  Elliot,  lord  Hertford,  duke  of  Ancaster, 
lord  Carteret,  &c. 


NORTH  ALLERTON  (Yorkshire).  Near  here  was  fought  the  "battle  of  the  Standard," 
where  the  English  totally  defeated  the  Scotch  armies,  Aug.  22,  1 138.  The  archbishop  of 
York  brought  forth  a  consecrated  standard  on  a  carriage  at  the  moment  when  they  were 
hotly  pressed  by  the  invaders,  headed  by  king  David. 


NOR 


522 


NOR 


NORTHAMPTON  was  burnt  by  the  Danes  in  1010.  Here  Henry  III.  proposed  to  found 
a  university  in  1260,  and  held  a  parliament  in  1269.  On  July  10,  1460,  a  conflict  took  place 
between  the  duke  of  York  and  Henry  VI.  of  England,  in  which  the  unfortunate  monarch 
was  defeated,  and  made  prisoner  (the  second  time)  after  a  sanguinary  fight  which  took  place 
in  the  meadows  below  the  town.  Northampton  was  ravaged  by  the  plague  in  1637.  It  was 
seized  and  fortified  by  the  parliamentary  forces  in  1642.  The  memorable  fire,  which  almost 
totally  destroyed  the  town,  occurred  Sept.  3,  1675. 

NORTH  BRITON  NEWSPAPER:  Number  45*  (Wilkes's  number),  dated  Saturday, 
April  23,  1763,  was,  by  order  of  both  houses  of  parliament,  publicly  burnt  in  London  by  the 
hands  of  the  common  hangman,  Dec.  3,  1763.  Wilkes  by  this  newspaper  (commenced  in 
1762),  increased  the  antipathy  to  the  Scotch  then  very  prevalent  in  England  ;  having  been 
greatly  favoured  by  the  minister,  the  earl  of  Bute. 

NORTH  CAROLINA.     See  Carolina. 

NORTHMEN  or  NORSEMEN.     See  Scandinavia  and  Normandy. 

NORTHUMBRIA,  a  Saxon  kingdom,  founded  by  Ida,  547. 

NORTH  -WEST  PASSAGE.  The  attempt  to  discover  a  north-west  passage  was  made 
by  a  Portuguese  named  Corte  Real,  about  1500.  In  1585,  a  company  was  formed  in  London 
called  the  "  Fellowship  for  the  Discovery  of  the  North- West  Passage."  From  1745  to  1818 
parliament  offered  20,000?.  for  this  discovery.  In  1818  the  reward  was  modified  by  pro- 
posing that  5000?.  should  be  paid  when  either  110°,  120°,  or  130°  W.  long,  should  be  passed : 
one  of  which  payments  was  made  to  sir  E.  Parry.  For  their  labours  in  the  voyages  enume- 
rated in  the  list  below,  Parry,  Franklin,  Ross,  Back,  and  Richardson,  were  knighted. 


Sir  Hugh  Willoughby's  expedition  to  find  a 
north-east  passage  to  China,  sailed  from  the 

Thames  f May  20,  1553 

Sir  Martin  Frobisher's  attempt  to  find  a  north- 
west passage  to  China 1576 

Capt.  Davis's  expedition  to  find  a  north-west 

passage 1585 

Barantz's  expedition 1594 

Wey  mouth  and  Knight's 1602 

Hudson's  voyages;  the  last  undertaken.     See 

Hudson's  Bay     \ 1610 

Sir  Thomas  Button's 1612 

Baffin's.     See  Baffin's  Bay 1616 

Foxe's  expedition 1631 

[A   number    of   enterprises,    undertaken   by 
varioiis  countries,  followed.] 

Middleton's  expedition 1742 

Moore's  and  Smith's 1746 

Hearne's  land  expedition        .  ...  1769 

Capt.  Phipps,  afterwards  lord  Mulgrave,  his 

expedition 1773 

Capt.  Cooke,  in  the  Resolution  &  Discovery,  July,  1776 

Mackenzie's  expedition 1789 

Capt.  Duncan's  voyage 1790 

The  Discovery,  capt.  Vancouver,  returned  from 
a  voyage  of    survey  and  discovery  on  the 
north-west  coast  of  America        .        .     Sept.   1795 
Lieut.  Kotzebue's  expedition      .         .        .  Oct.  1815 
Capt.  Buchan's  andlieut.  Franklin's  expedition 
in  the  Dorothea  and  Trent    ....  1819-22 


Capt.  Ross  and  lieut.  Parry  in  the  Isabella  and 
Alexander 1818 

Lieuts.  Parry  and  Linddon,  in  the  Hecla  and 
Griper May,  4,  1819 

They  return  to  Leith  ....     Nov.  3,  1820 
i  Capts.  Parry  and  Lyon  in  the  Fury  and  Hecla, 

May  8,  1821 

Capt.  Parry's  third  expedition  with  the  Hecla, 

May  8,  1824 

!  Capts.  Franklin  and  Lyon,  after  having 
attempted  a  land  expedition,  again  sail  from 
Liverpool  ,  Feb.  16,  1825 

Capt.  Parry,  J  again  in  the  Hecla,  sails  from 
Deptford,  and  reaches  a  spot  435  miles  from 
the  North  Pole,  June  22  ;  returns  .  Oct,  6,  1827 

Capt.  Ross  J  arrived  at  Hull,  on  his  return  from 
his  Arctic  expedition,  after  an  absence  of  four 
years,  and  when  all  hope  of  his  return  had 
been  nearly  abandoned  §.  .  .  Oct.  18,  1833 

Capt.  Back  and  his  companions  arrived  at 
Liverpool  from  their  perilous  Arctic  land 
expedition,  after  having  visited  the  Great 
Fish  River  and  examined  its  course  to  the 
Polar  Seas Sept.  8,  1835 

Capt.  Back  sailed  from  Chatham  in  command 
of  his  majesty's  ship  Terror,  on  an  exploring 
adventure  to  Wager  River  .  .  June  21,  1836 

[The  Geographical  Society  awarded  the  king's 
annual  premium  to  capt.  Back  for  his  polar 
discoveries  and  enterprise,  Dec.,  1835.] 


*  Number  45  contained  a  commentary  on  the  king's  speech,  couched  in  such  caustic  terms,  that  a  pro- 
secution was  commenced  against  Wilkes.  Having  been  arrested  on  a  general  warrant,  he  was  brought  by 
a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  before  chief  justice  Pratt,  of  the  common  pleas,  who  declared  the  judgment  of  that 
court,  that  general  warrants  were  illegal,  and  he  was  consequently  discharged.  But,  not  content  with 
this  escape,  he  reprinted  the  obnoxious  number,  which  produced  a  regular  prosecution  to  conviction.  See 
Warrants,  General. 

t  The  gallant  sir  Hugh  Willoughby  took  his  departureTrom  Ratcliffe,  on  his  fatal  voyage  for  discovering 
the  north-east  passage  to  China.  He  sailed  with  great  pomp  by  Greenwich,  where  the  court  then  resided. 
The  council  and  courtiers  appeared  at  the  windows,  and  the  people  covered  the  shores.  The  young  king, 
Edward  VI.,  alone  lost  the  noble  and  novel  sight,  for  he  then  lay  on  his  death-bed  ;  so  that  the  principal 
object  of  the  parade  was  disappointed.  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  was  unfortunately  entangled  in  the  ice,  and 
frozen  to  death  on  the  coast  of  Lapland.  Hakluyt. 

I  Sir  John  Franklin  died  June  n,  1847  (see  Franklin);  sir  E.  Parry  died  July  8,  1855,  aged  65  ;  and  sir 
John  Ross  died  Aug.  30.  1856,  aged  80. 

§  In  1831  he  discovered  Boothia  Felix :  on  June  31,  same  year,  he  came  to  a  spot  which  he  considered 
to  be  the  true  magnetic  pole,  in  70°  5'  17"  N.  lat.,  and  96°  46'  45"  W.  long. 


NOR 


523 


NOR 


NORTH- WEST  PASSAGE,  continued. 

Sir  John  Franklin,  and  capts.  Crozier  and  Fitz- 
james,  in  the  ships  Erebus  and  Terror,  leave 
England May  24,  1845 

Commanders  Collinson  and  M'Clure,  in  the 
Enterprise  and  Investigator,  sailed  eastward  in 
search  of  sir  John  Franklin  .  Jan.  20,  1850 

NORTH-WEST  PASSAGE  discovered  by  capt. 
M'Clure  * Oct.  26,  „ 


[Another  expedition  to  the  North  Pole,  under 
the  command  of  capt.  Sherard  Osborne,  was 
proposed  to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
in  the  spring  of  1865.] 

[For  the  other  expeditions  in  search  of  Frank- 
lin, &c.,  see  Franklin.] 


NORWAY,  until  the  yth  century,  was  governed  by  petty  rulers.  About  630,  Olaf 
Trsetelia,  of  the  race  of  Odin,  termed  Ynglings  or  youths,  expelled  from  Sweden,  established 
a  colony  in  Vermeland,  the  nucleus  of  a  monarchy,  founded  by  his  descendant,  Halfdan  III. 
the  black,  a  great  warrior  and  legislator,  whose  memory  was  long  revered. 


Olaf  Trsetelia,  630  ;  slain  by  his  subjects,  640." 
Halfdan  I.,  640;  Eystein  I.,  7^ ;  Halfdan  II.,  730; 

Gudrod,  784;   Olaf  Geirstade  and   Halfdan  III., 

824. 
Halfdan  recovers  his  inheritance  from  his  brother, 

whom  he  subdues,  together  with  the  neighbouring 

chiefs,  840 ;  accidentally  drowned,  863. 
The  chiefs  regain  their  power  during  the  youth  of 

his  son,  Harold  Harfager,  or  fairhaired,  who  vows 

neither  to  cut  nor  comb  his  hair  till  he  recovers  his 

dominion,  865. 

He  defeats  his  enemies  at  Hafursfiord,  885 ;  dies,  934. 
Eric  I.  (the  bloody  Axe),  his  son,  a  tyrant,  expelled ; 

and  succeeded  by  Hako  the  good,  940. 
Hako  endeavours  in  vain  to  establish  Christianity  ; 

dies,  963. 
Harold  II.,  Graafeld,  son  of  Eric,  succeeds  ;  killed  in 

battle  with  Harold  of  Denmark,  977. 
Hako,  Jarl,   made  governor   of  several  provinces  ; 

becomes  king  ;  his  licentiousness  leads  to  his  ruin; 

deposed  by  Olaf  I.,  Trygvaeson;  and  slain  by  his 

slave,  995. 
Olaf  I.  establishes  Christianity  by  force  and  cruelty, 

998 ;    defeated   and  slain,   during  an  expedition 

against  Pomerania,  by  the  kings  of  Denmark  and 

Sweden,  who  divide  Norway  between  them,  1000. 
Olaf  II.,  the  saint  (his  son),  lands  in  Norway,  1012  ; 

defeats    his   enemies    and  becomes    king,    1015 ; 

fiercely  zealous  in  the  diffusion  of  Christianity, 

1018-21. 
Successful  invasion  of  Canute,  who  becomes  king, 

1028, 1029  ;  Olaf  expelled ;  returns  and  is  killed  in 

battle,  1030.  ^. 

Sweyn,  at  the  death  of  Canute,  succeeds  as  king  of 

Norway,  but  is  expelled  in  favour  of  Magnus  I., 

bastard  son  of  Olaf  II.,  1035  ;  Magnus  becomes 

king  of  Denmark,  1036;  dies,  1047. 
Harold  Hardrade,    king  of    Norway,   1047,  invades 

England ;  defeated  and  slain  by  Harold  II.   at 

Stanford-bridge,  Sept.  25,  1066. 
Olaf  III.  and  Magnus  II.  (sons),  kings,  Sept.  25, 1066 ; 

Olaf  alone  (pacific),   1069-1093  ;    Olaf  III.  founds 

Bergen,  1070. 
Magnus  III.  (barefoot),  son  of  Olaf,  1093 ;  invades  the 

Orkneys  and  Scotland,    1096;  killed  in  Ireland, 

1103. 


Sigurd  I.,  Eystein  II.,  and  Olaf  IV.  (sons),  1103; 
Sigurd  visits  the  Holy  Land  as  a  warrior-pilgrim, 
1107-10  ;  becomes  sole  king,  1122  ;  dies,  1130. 

Magnus  IV.  (his  son)  and  Harold  IV.,  1130  ;  Magnus 
dethroned,  1134. 

Harold  IV.  nmrdered ;  succeeded  by  his  sons,  Sigurd 
II.,  &c.  ;  civil  war  rages,  1136. 

Nicolas  Breakspear  (afterwards  pope  Adrian  IV.),  the 
papal  legate,  arrives,  reconciles  the  brothers,  and 
founds  the  archbishopric  of  Trondheim,  1152. 

Numerous  competitors  for  the  crown ;  civil  war ; 
Inge  I.,  Eystein  III.,  Hako  III.,  Magnus  V., 
1136-62. 

Magnus  V.  alone,  1162;  rise  of  Swerro,  an  able  ad- 
venturer, who  becomes  king ;  Magnus  defeated  ; 
drowned,  1186. 

Swerro  rules  vigorously  ;  dies,  1202. 

Hako,  his  son,  king,  1202;  Guthrum,  1204;  Inge  II. 
1205. 

Hako  IV.,  bastard  son  of  Swerro,  1207;  unsuccess- 
fully invades  Scotland,  where  he  dies,  1263. 

Magnus  VI.,  his  son  (the  legislator),  dies,  1280. 

Eric  II.,  the  priest-hater,  marries  Margaret  of  Scot- 
land ;  their  daughter,  the  Maid  of  Norway,  be- 
comes heiress  to  the  crown  of  Scotland,  1286. 

Hako  V.,  his  brother,  king,  1299-1319. 

Decline  of  Norwegian  prosperity. 

Magnus  VII.  (III.  of  Sweden),  king,  1319-43. 

Hako  VI.,  1343-80. 

Olaf  V.  of  Norway  (II.  of  Denmark),  1380-87. 

Norway  united  with  Denmark  and  Sweden  under 
Margaret,  1389. 

At  an  assembly  at  Calmar  the  three  states  are 
formally  united,  1397. 

Sweden  and  Norway  separated  from  Denmark, 
1448 ;  re-united,  1450. 

Denmark  and  Norway  separated  from  Sweden,  1523. 

Christiania,  the  modern  capital,  built  by  Chris- 
tian IV.,  1624. 

Norway  given  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  Kiel  ; 
Pomerania  and  Kugen  annexed  to  Denmark,  Jan. 
14,  1814. 

The 

The  Swedi 

Charles  Frederic,  "duke  of  Holstein,  elected  king  of 
Norway ;  abdicates,  Oct.  10,  1814. 


regians  declare  their  independence,  May  17. 
lish  troops  enter  Norway,  July  16,  1814. 


*  Capt.  M'Clnre  sailed  in  the  Investigator  in  company  with  com.  Collinson  in  the  Enterprise  in  search 
of  sir  John  Franklin,  Jan.  20,  1850.  On  Sept.  6  he  discovered  high  land,  which  he  named  Baring's  land  ; 
on  the  qth,  other  land,  which  he  named  after  prince  Albert ;  on  the  3oth,  the  ship  was  frozen  in.  Enter- 
taining a  strong  conviction  that  the  waters  in  which  the  Investigator  then  lay  communicated  with  Barrow's 
straits,  he  set  out  on  Oct.  21,  with  a  few  men  in  his  sledge,  to  test  his  views.  On  Oct.  26,  he  reached  Point 
Russell  (73°  31'  N.  lat.,  114°  14'  W.  long.),  where  from  an  elevation  of  600  feet  he  saw  Parry  or  Melville 
Sound  beneath  them.  The  strait  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  he  named  after  the  prince  of 
Wales.  The  Investigator  was  the  first  ship  which  traversed  the  Polar  sea  from  Behring  straits  to  Behrmg 
island.  Intelligence  of  this  discovery  was  brought  to  England  by  com.  Inglefield,  and  the  Admiralty  chart 
was  published  Oct.  14,  1853.  Capt.  M'Clure  returned  to  England,  Sept.  1854.  In  1855,  5000^.  were  paid  to 
capt.  (afterwards  sir  Robert)  M'Clure,  and  5000^.  were  distributed  among  the  officers  and  crew.  On  Jan. 
30,  1855,  the  Admiralty  notified  that  the  Arctic  medal  would  be  given  to  all  persons  engaged  in  the  expe- 
ditions from  1818  to  1855. 


NOR  52  i 


NORWAY,  continued. 


Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden  proclaimed  king  by   the  j  Nobility  abolished,  1821. 
National  Diet  (Storthing)  assembled  at  Christiania;     The  national  order  of  St. 


he  accepted  the  constitution  which  declares  Nor- 
way a  free,  independent,  indivisible,  and  inalien- 
able state,  united  to  Sweden,  Nov.  4,  1814. 


Oscar,  1847. 


Olaf,  instituted  by  kin- 


See  Denmark  and  Sweden. 


NORWICH  (Norfolk),  mentioned  in  history  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle  at  the  period  when 
Sweyn,  king  of  Denmark,  destroyed  it  by  fire,  1004.  Artisans  from  the  .Low  Countries 
established  here  the  manufacture  of  baizes,  arras,  &c.,  about  1132.  A  great  plague  in  1348 
carried  off  many  thousand  persons  ;  and  in  1505  Norwich  Avas  nearly  consumed  by  fire.  The 
cathedral  was  first  erected  in  1088,  by  bishop  Herbert  Losinga ;  and  was  completed  by  bishop 
Middleton,  about  1280.  The  church  of  the  Black  friars,  now  St.  Andrew's- hall,  was  erected 
in  1415.  The  public  library  was  instituted  in  1784.  The  Norwich  new  canal  and  harbour 
were  opened  June  3,  1831. 

NORWICH,  BISHOPRIC  or,  originally  East  Anglia :  the  first  bishop  was  Felix,  a  Bur- 
gundian,  sent  to  convert  the  East  Anglians  about  630.  The  see  w,as  divided  into  two  distinct 
bishoprics — Elmham,  in  Norfolk,  and  Dunwich,  in  Suffolk,  about  673.  Both  sees  suffered 
extremely  from  the  Danish  invasions,  insomuch  that  after  the  death  of  St.  Humbert,  they 
lay  vacant  for  a  hundred  years.  At  last  the  see  of  Elmham  was  revived,  and  Dunwich  was 
united  to  it ;  but  Arfastus  removed  the  seat  to  Thetford,  where  it  continued  till  Herbert 
Losinga  removed  it  to  Norwich,  1091.  This  see  has  given  to  the  church  of  Rome  two  saints  ; 
and  to  the  nation  five  lord  chancellors.  It  was  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  899?.  i8s.  J^d. 
per  annum.  Present  income,  4500?.  See  Bishoprics. 

RECENT   BISHOPS    OF   NORWICH. 


1790.    George  Home  ;  died  Jan.  17,  1792. 
1792.    Charles  Manners  Sutton ;  translated  to  Can- 
terbury, Feb.  i,  1805. 


tion,   and  for  a  long  time  the  only  liberal 
bishop  in  the  house  of  peers. 
1837.    Edward  Stanley  ;  died  Sept.  6,  1849. 


1805.    Henry  Barhurst ;  died  April  5,  1837.     He  was     1849.    Samuel  Hinds  ;  resigned  1857. 

a  strenuous  supporter  of  catholic  emancipa-     1857.    Hon.  John  T.  Pelham,  May;   PRESENT  bishop. 

NOTABLES.  An  assembly  of  the  notables  of  France  was  convened  by  Calonne,  the 
minister  of  Louis  XVI.,  on  Feb.  22,  1787,  on  account  of  the  deranged  state  of  the  king's 
finances,  and  again,  in  1788,  when  Calonne  opened  his  plan  :  but  any  reform  militated  too 
much  against  private  interest  to  be  adopted  ;  Calonne  was  dismissed,  and  soon  after  retired 
to  England.  Louis  having  lost  his  confidential  minister,  De  Vergennes,  by  death,  called 
De  Brienne,  an  ecclesiastic,  to  his  counsels.  The  notables  were  re-assembled  on  Nov.  6, 
1788.  In  the  end,  the  States  General  were  convoked  Dec.  5  ;  and  from  this  assembly  sprang 
the  National  Assembly  (which  see).  The  notables  were  dismissed  by  the  king,  Dec.  12,  1788. 
— The  Spanish  notables  assembled  and  met  Napoleon  (conformably  with  a  decree  issued  by 
him  commanding  their  attendance),  at  Bayonne,  May  25,  1808. 

NOTARIES  PUBLIC,  said  to  have  been  appointed  by  the  primitive  fathers  of  the 
Christian  church,  to  collect  the  acts  or  memoirs  of  the  lives  of  the  martyrs  in  the  ist  century. 
Du  Fresnoy.  This  office  was  afterwards  changed  to  a  legal  employment,  to  attest  deeds  and 
writings,  so  as  to  establish  their  authenticity  in  any  other  country.  An  important  statute  to 
regulate  notarial  transactions  was  passed  in  1800,  and  some  statutes  on  the  subject  have 
been  enacted  since. 

"NOTES  AND  QUERIES,"  a  medium  of  intercommunication  for  literary  men  and 
general  readers,  was  first  published  on  Nov.  3,  1849. 

NOTRE  DAME,  the  cathedral  at  Paris,  was  founded  in  1163. 

NOTTINGHAM.  The  castle  here  was  defended  by  the  Danes  against  king  Alfred,  and 
his  brother  Ethelred,  who  retook  it,  868.  It  was  rebuilt  by  William  I.  in  1068  ;  and  ulti- 
mately became  a  strong  fortress.  It  was  burnt  by  rioters  during  the  Reform  excitement, 
Oct.  10,  1831.  The  riots  at  Nottingham,  in  which  the  rioters  broke  frames,  &c.,  commenced 
Nov.  14,  1811,  and  continued  to  Jan.  1812.  Great  similar  mischief  was  done  in  April,  1814, 
The  Watch  and  Ward  act  was  enforced,  Dec.  2,  1816.  The  British  Association  is  to  meet 
here  in  1866. 

NOVARA,  BATTLE  OF,  March  23,  1849,  when  the  Austrian  marshal  Radetzky  totally 
defeated  the  king  Charles  Albert  and  the  Sardinian  army.  'J  he  contest  began  at  10  A.M. 
and  lasted  till  late  in  the  evening  ;  the  Austrians  lost  396  killed,  and  had  about  1850 


NOV  525  NUN 

wounded  ;  the  Sardinians  lost  between  3000  and  40x30  men,  27  cannons,  and  3000  prisoners. 
The  king  soon  after  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel. 

NOVA  SCOTIA  (N.  America).  Settled  in  1622,  by  the  Scotch  under  sir  William 
Alexander,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  of  England,  from  whom  it  received  the  name  of  Nova 
Scotia.  In  1710  the  French  included  it  in  Acadia.  Since  its  first  settlement  it  has  more 
than  once  changed  proprietors,  and  was  not  confirmed  to  England  till  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 
in  1713.  It  was  taken  in  1745  and  1758;  but  was  again  confirmed  to  England  in  1760. 
Nova  Scotia  was  divided  into  two  provinces  in  1784  ;  and  was  erected  into  a  bishopric 
in  August,  1787.  King's  College,  Windsor,  was  founded  in  1788.  See  Baronets.  Gold  was 
found  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1861. 

NOVATIANS,  a  sect  which  denied  restoration  to  the  church  to  those  who  had  relapsed 
during  times  of  persecution,  begun  with  Novatian,  a  Roman  presbyter,  in  250. 

NOVELS  (NovellsB),  a  part  of  Justinian's  Code  published  535.     See  Romances. 

NOVEMBER  (novem,  nine),  anciently  the  ninth  month  of  the  year.  When  Numa  added 
January  and  February,  in  713  B.C.,  it  became  the  eleventh  as  now.  The  Roman  senators 
wished  to  name  this  month  in  which  Tiberius  was  born,  by  his  name,  in  imitation  of  Julius 
Ca?sar,  and  Augustus;  but  the  emperor  refused,  saying,  "What  will  you  do,  conscript 
fathers,  if  you  have  thirteen  Caesars  ? " 

NOVGOROD  (central  Russia),  made  the  seat  of  his  government  by  Ruric,  a  Varangian 
chief,  in  862,  is  held  to  be  the  foundation  of  the  Russian  empire.  In  memory  of  the  event 
the  czar  inaugurated  a  national  monument  at  Novgorod,  on  Sept.  20,  1862. 

NOVI  (N.  Italy),  BATTLE  OF,  in  which  the  French  army,  commanded  by  Joubert,  was 
defeated  by  the  Russians  under  Suwarrow,  with  immense  loss,  Aug.  15,  1799.  Among 
10,000  of  the  French  slain  was  their  leader,  Joubert,  and  several  other  distinguished  officers. 

NOVUM  ORGANON,  the  great  work  of  lord  Bacon  containing  his  system  of  philosophy, 
was  published  1620. 

NOYADES.     See  Drowning. 

NUBIA,  the  ancient  Ethiopia  supra  JSgyptum,  said  to  have  been  the  seat  of  the  king- 
dom of  Meroe,  received  its  name  from  a  tribe  named  Nubes  or  Nubates.  The  Christian 
kingdom,  with  Dongola,  the  capital,  lasted  till  the  I4th  century,  when  it  was  broken  up  into 
Mahometan  principalities.  It  is  now  subject  to  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  having  been  conquered 
by  Ibrahim  Pacha  in  1822. 

NUISANCES  REMOVAL  ACT  ;  passed  in  1848  ;  amended  1849.  See  Sanitanj  Legis- 
lation. 

NUMANTINE  WAR,  The  war  between  the  Romans  and  the  Celtiberians  (Celts  who 
possessed  the  country  near  the  Iber,  now  the  Ebro)  began,  140  B.C.,  on  account  of  the  latter 
having  given  refuge  to  th&ir  allies  the  Sigidiaus,  who  had  been  defeated  by  the  Romans. 
Numantia,  an  unprotected  city,  withstood  a  long  siege.  The  army  of  Scipio  Africanus, 
60,000  men,  was  bravely  opposed  by  no  more  than  4000  men  able  to  bear  arms.  The 
Xumantines  fed  upon  horse-flesh,  and  afterwards  on  their  own  dead,  and  at  last  drew  lots  to 
kill  one  another.  At  length  they  set  fire  to  their  houses,  and  destroyed  themselves,  so  that 
not  even  one  remained  to  adorn  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror,  133  B.C. 

NUMIDIA  (N.  Africa),  the  seat  of  the  war  of  the  Romans  with  Jugurtha,  which  began 
in  B.C.,  and  ended  with  his  subjugation  and  captivity,  106.  The  last  king,  Juba,  joined 
Cato  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus,  46  B.C.,  when  Numidia  became  a  Roman  pro- 
vince. See  Mauritania. 

NUMISMATICS,  the  science  of  coins  and  medals,  an  important  adjunct  to  the  study  of 
history.  In  this  country  Evelyn  (1697),  Addison  (1726),  and  Pinkerton  (1789),  published 
works  on  medals.  Ruding's  Annals  is  the  great  work  on  British  coinage  (new  edition,  1840). 
—The  Numismatic  Society  in  London  was  founded  by  Dr.  John  Lee  in  1836.  It  publishes 
the  Numismatic  Chronicle. — Mr.  Yonge  Akerman's  Numismatic  Manual  (1840)  is  a  useful 
introduction  to  the  science.  Foreign  works  are  numerous. 

NUNCIO,  an  envoy  from  the  pope  of  Rome  to  Catholic  states.  The  pope  deputed  a 
nuncio  to  the  Irish  rebels  in  1645.  The  arrival  in  London  of  a  nuncio,  and  his  admission  to 
;m  audience  by  James  II.,  July,  1687,  is  stated  to  have  hastened  the  Revolution. 

NUNNERY.  The  first  founded  is  said  to  have  been  that  to  which  the  sister  of  St. 
Anthony  retired  at  the  close  of  the  3rd  century.  The  first  founded  in  France,  near  Poictiers, 


NUR 


526 


QBE 


"by  St.  Marcellina,  sister  to  St.  Martin,  360.  Du  Frcsnoy.  The  first  in  England  was  at 
Folkestone,  in  Kent,  by  Eadbald,  or  Edbald,  king  of  Kent,  630.  Dugdalc's  Monasticum 
Anglicanum.  See  Abbeys  and  Monachism.  The  nuns  were  expelled  from  their  convents  in 
Germany,  in  Juty,  1785.  They  Avere  driven  out  of  their  convents  in  France,  in  Jan.  1790. 
In  Feb.  1861,  monastic  establishments  were  abolished  in  Naples,  compensation  being  made 


and  Coldingliam. 


For  memorable  instances  of  the  constancy  and  fortitude  of  nuns,  see  Acre 


NUREMBERG,  a  free  imperial  German  city  in  1219.  In  1522,  the  diet  here  demanded 
ecclesiastical  reforms  and  a  general  council,  and  in  1532  secured  religious  liberty  to  the 
Protestants. 


0. 

OAK,  styled  the  monarch  of  the  woods,  and  an  emblem  of  strength,  virtue,  constancy, 
and  long  life.  That  produced  in  England  is  considered  to  be  best  calculated  for  ship-building. 
The  constellation  Robur  Caroli,  the  oak  of  Charles,  was  named  by  Dr.  Halley  in  1676,  in 
memory  of  the  oak  tree  in  which  Charles  II.  saved  himself  from  his  pursuers,  after  the  battle 
of  Worcester,  Sept.  3,  1651.  See  Boscobel.  Herne's  oak,  Windsor  park,  mentioned  in 
Shakspeare's  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  wind,  Aug.  31,  1863. 
The  evergreen  oak,  Quercus  Ilex,  was  brought  from  the  south  of  Europe  before  1581.  The 
scarlet  oak,  Quercus  Coccinea,  was  brought  from  North  America  before  1691.  The  chestnut- 
leaved  oak,  Quercus  Primus,  from  North  America  before  1730.  The  Turkey  oak,  Quercus 
Berris,  from  the  south  of  Europe,  1735.  The  agaric  of  the  oak,  in  pharmacy,  was  known  as. 
a  styptic  in  1750.  In  June,  403,  the  "  Synod  of  the  oak"  was  held  at  Chalcedon. 

OATES'S  PLOT.  Titus  Gates,  at  one  time  chaplain  of  a  ship  of  war,  was  dismissed  for 
immoral  conduct,  and  became  a  lecturer  in  London.  In  conjunction  with  Dr.  Tongue,  he 
invented  a  plot  against  the  Roman  Catholics,  who  he  asserted  had  conspired  to  assassinate 
Charles  II.,  and  extirpate  the  Protestant  religion.  He  made  it  known  Aug.  12,  1678,  and 
in  consequence  about  eighteen  Roman  Catholics  were  accused,  and  upon  false  testimony  con- 
victed and  executed  ;  among  them  the  aged  viscount  Stafford,  Dec.  29,  1680.  Gates  was 
afterwards  tried  for  perjury  (in  the  reign  of  James  II.),  and  being  found  guilt}7,  was  fined, 
put  in  the  pillory,  publicly  whipped  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn,  and  sentenced  to  imprison- 
ment for  life,  May,  1685.  On  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  he  was  pardoned,  and  a 
pension  of  3^.  a  week  granted  him,  1689. 

OATHS  were  taken  by  Abraham,  B.C.  1892  (Gen.  xxi.  24),  and  authorised  (B.C.  1491) 
Exod.  xxii.  11.  The  administration  of  an  oath  in  judicial  proceedings  was  introduced  by  the 
Saxons  into  England,  600.  Rapin.  That  administered  to  a  judge  was  settled  1344. 


OF  SUPREMACY,  first  administered  to  British 
subjects,  and  ratified  by  parliament,  26  Hen. 
VIII.  (Stow's  Chron.)  .  .  .  ...  1535 

Oaths  were  taken  on  the  Gospels  so  early  as 
528  ;  and  the  words  "  So  help  me  God  and  all 
saints,"  concluded  an  oath  until  .  .  .  1550 

The  ancient  oath  of  allegiance,  which  contained 
a  promise  "to  be  true  and  faithful  to  the 
king  and  his  heirs,  and  truth  and  faith  to 
bear  of  life  and  lirnb  and  terrene  honour ;  and 
not  to  know  or  hear  of  any  ill  or  d:image  in- 
tended him  without  defending  him  there- 
from," was  modified  by  James  I.  in  1605,  a 
declaration  against  the  pope's  authority  being 
added.  It  was  again  altered  in  .  1689 

The  affirmation  of  a  Quaker  was  made  equiva- 
lent to  an  oath,  by  statute,  in  1696,  et  teq. 

OF  ABJURATION,  being  an  obligation  to  maintain 
the  government  of  king,  lords,  and  commons, 


the  church  of  England,  and  toleration  of  Pro- 
testant dissenters,  and  abjuring  all  Roman 
Catholic  pretenders  to  the  crown,  13  Will.  III.  1701 

The  Test  and  Corporation  oaths  modified  by 
stat.  9  Gep.  IV.  1828.  See  Tests. 

Act  abolishing  oaths  in  the  customs  and  excise 
departments,  and  in  certain  other  cases,  and 
substituting  declarations  in  lieu  thereof,  i  & 
2  Will.  IV 1831 

Affirmation,  instead  of  oath,  was  permitted  to 
Quakers  and  other  dissenters  by  acts  passed 
in  1833,  1837,  1838,  and  1863.  See  Affirmation. 

In  1858  and  1860,  Jews  elected  M.P.  were  re- 
lieved from  part  of  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
See  Jiws. 

A  bill  for  modifying  the  oath  taken  by  Roman 
Catholics  (passed  by  the  commons)  was  re- 


jected by 


June  26,  1865 


OBELISK.  (Greek  obelos,  a  spit,  monolithos,  a  single  stone).  The  first  mentioned  in 
history  was  that  of  Rameses,  king  of  Egypt,  about  1485  B.C.  The  Arabians  called  them 
Pharaoh's  needles,  and  the  Egyptian  priests  the  finger  of  the  sun  ;  they  differed  very  much 
as  to  their  costliness,  magnitude,  and  magnificence.  Several  were  erected  at  Rome  ;  one 
was  erected  by  the  emperor  Augustus  in  the  Campus  Martins,  on  the  pavement  of  which  was 


OBL  527  ODE 

an  horizontal  dial  that  marked  the.  hour,  about  14  B.C.  Of  the  obelisks  brought  to  Rome  by 
the  emperors,  several  have  been  restored  and  set  up  by  various  popes,  especially  Sixtus  V. 
In  London  are  three  obelisks  :  first  in  Fleet-street,  at  the  top  of  Bridge-street,  erected  to  the 
famous  John  Wilkes,  lord  rnaj^or  of  London  in  1775  ;  and  immediately  opposite  to  it  at  the 
south  end  of  Farringdon-street,  stands  another  of  granite  to  the  memory  of  Robert 
Waithman,  lord  mayor  in  1824,  erected  June  25,  1833  ;  the  third  at  the  south  end  of  the 
Blackfriars-road,  marks  the  distance  of  one  mile  and  a  fraction  from  Fleet-street.  An 
obelisk  from  Luxor  was  set  up  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris,  in  Oct.  1836. 

OBLIVION".  In  1660  was  passed  an  act  of  "free  general  pardon,  indemnity,  and 
oblivion  for  all  treasons  and  state  offences  committed  between  Jan.  I,  1637,  and  June  24, 
1660."  The  regicides  and  certain  Irish  popish  priests  were  excepted. 

OBSERVATORIES.  The  first  is  said  to  have  been  erected  on  the  top  of  the  temple  of 
Belus  at  Babylon.  On  the  tomb  of  Osymandyas,  in  Egypt,  was  another,  and  it  contained  a 
golden  circle  200  feet  in  diameter ;  that  at  Benares  was  at  least  as  ancient  as  these.  The 
first  in  authentic  history  was  at  Alexandria,  about  300  B.C.,  erected  by  Ptolemy  Soter. 


First  modern  meridional  instrument  by  Coper- 
nicus    1540 

First  observatory  at  Cassel 1561 

Tycho  Brahe's,  at  Uranienburg  ....  1576 

Astronomical  tower  at  Copenhagen        .         .     .  1657 

Royal  (French) 1667 

Royal  observatory  at  Greenwich  (which  see)  .     .  1675 

Observatory  at  Nuremburg          ....  1678 

At  Utrecht 1690 


At  Bologna 1714 

At  St.  Petersburg 1725 

At  Pekin,  about       ....:.        1750 
Oxford,  Dr.  Radcliffe 


Calton  Hill,  Edinburgh   . 
Dublin,  Dr.  Andrews    . 
Armagh,  Primate  Robinson 
Cambridge,  England    . 
Cambridge,  U.S. 


Berlin,  erected  under  Liebnitz's  direction  .        .  1711  |  Washington,  U.S. 


1772 
1776 
1783 
1793 
1824 
1840 
1842 


OCANA  (central  Spain),  near  which  the  Spaniards  were  defeated  by  the  French  com- 
manded by  Mortier  and  Soult,  Nov.  19,  1809. 

OCEAN  MONARCH,  an  American  emigrant  ship,  left  Liverpool  bound  for  Boston, 
Aug.  24,  1848,  having  396  passengers  on  board.  She  had  not  advanced  far  into  the  Irish 
Channel,  being  within  six  miles  of  Great  Ormshead,  Lancashire,  when  she  took  fire,  and  in 
a  few  hours  was  burnt  to  the  water's  edge,  and  178  persons  perished.* 

OCTARCH,  the  chief  of  the  kings  of  the  heptarchy,  was  called  Rex  gentis  Anglorum. 
Hengist  was  the  first  octarch,  455,  and  Egbert  the  last,  800.  See  Britain.  Some  authors 
insist  that  the  English  heptarchy  should  have  been  called  the  octarchy,  and  that  heptarchy  is 
not  the  correct  term. 

OCTOBER,  the  eighth  month  in  the  year  of  Romulus,  as  its  name  imports,  and  the  tenth 
in  the  year  of  Numa,  713  B.C.  October  still  retained  its  first  name,  although  the  senate 
ordered  it  to  be  called  F&tfgtinus,  in  honour  of  Faustina,  wife  of  Antoninus  the  emperor  ;  and 
Commodus  called  it  Invictus,  and  Domitianus.  October  was  sacred  to  Mars. 

OCTROIS  (from  the  low  Latin  auctorium,  authority),  a  term  applied  to  concessions  from 
sovereigns,  and  to  the  taxes  levied  at  the  gates  of  towns  in  France  on  articles  of  food  before 
entering  the  city.  These  octrois,  of  ancient  origin,  were  suppressed  in  1791,  but  re- 
established in  1797,  and  were  re-organised  in  1816,  1842,  and  1852.  In  1859,  the  octrois  of 
Paris  produced  above  54  million  francs.  The  Belgian  government  became  very  popular  in 
July,  1860,  by  abolishing  the  Octrois. 

ODES  are  nearly  as  old  as  the  lyre  ;  amongst  the  Greeks  they  were  extempore  compo- 
sitions sung  in  honour  of  the  gods.  Anacreon's  odes  were  composed  about  532  B.C.;  Pindar's 
498  to  446  ;  and  Horace's  from  24  to  13,  all  B.C.  Anciently,  odes  were  divided  into  strophe, 
antistrophe.  and  epode.  See  Poets  Laureate  and  Lyric  Poetry. 

ODESSA,  a  port  on  the  Black  Sea,  built  by  the  empress  Catherine  of  Russia,  in  1784- 
1792,  after  the  peace  of  Jassy.  In  1817  it  was  made  a  free  port,  since  when  its  prosperity 
has  rapidly  increased.  It  was  partially  bombarded  by  the  British  April  21,  1854,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Russian  batteries  having  fired  on  a  flag  of  truce,  April  6.  On  May  12,  the 

*  The  Brazilian  steam-frigate,  Alfonzo,  happened  to  be  out  on  a  trial  trip  at  the  time,  with  the  prince 
and  princess  de  Joinville  and  the  duke  and  duchess  d'Aumale  on  board,  who  witnessed  the  catastrophe, 
and  aided  in  rescuing  and  comforting  the  sufferers  with  exceeding  humanity.  They,  with  the  crews  and 
passengers  of  the  Alfonzo  and  the  yacht  Queen  of  the  Ocean,  so  effectually  rendered  their  heroic  and 
unwearied  services  as  to  save  156  persons  from  their  dreadful  situation,  and  62  others  escaped  by  various 


ODO 


528 


OLD 


English  frigate  Tiger  stranded  here,  and  was  destroyed  by  Eussian  artillery.     The  captain, 
Giti'ard,  and  many  of  his  «rew  were  killed,  and  the  rest  made  prisoners. 

ODONTOLOGY  (from  the  Greek  odontcs,  teeth),  the  science  of  the  teeth,  may  be  said  to 
have  really  begun  with  the  researches  of  professor  Richard  Owen,  who  in  1839  made  the  first 
definite  announcement  of  the  organic  connection  between  the  vascular  and  vital  soft  parts  of 
the  frame  and  the  hard  substance  of  a  tooth.  His  comprehensive  work,  "  Odontography  " 
(illustrated  with  beautiful  plates),  was  published  1840-5. 

ODYL,  the  name  given  in  1845  by  baron  von  Reichenbach  to  a  so-called  new 
"imponderable  or  influence,"  said  to  be  developed  by  magnets,  crystals,  the  human  body, 
heat,  electricity,  chemical  action,  and  the  whole  material  universe.  The  odylic  force  is  said 
to  give  rise  to  luminous  phenomena,  visible  to  certain  sensitive  persons  only.  The  baron's 
"  Researches  on  Magnetism,  &c.,  in  relation  to  the  Vital  Force,"  translated  by  Dr.  Gregory, 
were  published  in  1850.  Emanuel  Swedenborg  (died  1772)  described  similar  phenomena. 

(ECUMENICAL  BISHOP  (from  the  Greek  oikoumene,  the  habitable  understood  globe], 
"universal  bishop  ;"  a  title  assumed  by  John,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  587. 

OFFA'S  DYKE,  the  intrenchment  from  the  Wye  to  the  Dee,  made  by  Offa,  king  of 
Mercia,  to  defend  his  country  from  the  incursions  of  the  Welsh,  779. 

OGYGES,  DELUGE  OF  (which  laid  Attica  waste  for  more  than  two  hundred  years 
afterwards,  and  until  the  arrival  of  Cecrops),  is  stated  to  have  occurred  1764 B.C.  See  Deluge. 

OGULNIAN  LAW,  carried  by  the  tribunes  Q.  and  Cn.  Ogulnii,  increased  the  number  of 
the  pontiffs  and  augurs,  and  made  plebeians  eligible  to  those  offices,  B.C.  300. 

OHIO,  a  western  state  of  North  America,  was  ceded  to  the  British  with  Canada,  in 
1763  ;  settled  in  1788,  and  admitted  into  the  Union,  Nov.  29,  1802. 

OHM'S  LAW,  for  determining  the  quantity  of  the  electro-motive  force  of  the  Voltaic 
battery,  was  published  in  1827.  It  is  in  conformity  with  the  discovery  that  the  earth  may 
be  employed  as  a  conductor,  thus  saving  the  return  wire  in  electric-telegraphy. 

OIL  was  used  for  burning  in  lamps  as  early  as  the  epoch  of  Abraham,  about  1921  B.C. 
It  was  the  custom  of  the  Jews  to  anoint  with  oil  persons  appointed  to  high  offices,  as  the 
priests  and  kings,  Psalm  cxxxiii.  2  ;  I  Sam.  x.  I  ;  xvi.  13.  The  fact  that  oil,  if  passed 
through  red-hot  iron  pipes,  will  be  resolved  into  a  combustible  gas,  was  long  known  to 
chemists  ;  and  after  the  process  of  lighting  by  coal-gas  was  made  apparent,  Messrs.  Taylor 
and  Martineau  contrived  apparatus  for  producing  oil -gas  on  a  large  scale,  1815.  OIL  SPKINGS. 
See  Petroleum. 

OLBERS,  the  asteroid,  discovered  by  M.  Olbers,  in  1802,  is  now  termed  Pallas. 


OLD  BAILEY  SESSIONS-COURT  is  held  for  the  trial  of  criminals,  and  its  jurisdiction 
comprehends  the  county  of  Middlesex  as  well  as  the  city  of  London.  It  is  held  eight  times 
in  the  year  by  the  royal  commission  of  oyer  and  terminer.  The  judges  are,  the  lord  mayor, 
those  aldermen  who  have  passed  the  chair,  the  recorder,  and  the  common-serjeant,  who  arc 
attended  by  both  the  sheriffs,  and  one  or  more  of  the  national  judges.  The  court-house  was 
built  in  1773,*  and  enlarged  in  1808.  See  Central  Criminal  Court. 

OLD  MAN  or  THE  MOUNTAIN.     See  Assassins.         OLD  STYLE.     See  New  Style. 

OLEFIANT  GAS,  a  combination  of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  which  burns  with  much 
brilliancy.  In  1862,  Berthelot  formed  it  artificially  by  means  of  alcohol. 

OLDENBURG,  a  grand  duchy  in  North  Germany,  was  annexed  to  Denmark  in  1448  ; 
in  1773,  Christian  VII.  ceded  the  country  to  Russia  in  exchange  for  Holstein  Gottorp,  and 
soon  after  the  present  dignity  was  established.  Population  in  1864,  301,812. 


DUKES. 

1773.  Frederick  Augustus. 

1785.  Peter  Frederick.     The  duchy  was  seized  by 

Napoleon,   and  annexed  to  his   empire  in 

1811 ;  but  restored  in  1814. 


GRAND-DUKES. 

1829.  May  21.     Paul  Frederick. 

1853.  Feb.  27.      Nicholas  Frederick  (born    July    8. 

1827),  the  PRESENT  grandduke. 
Heir  :  Prince  Frederic  Augustus  (born  Nov.  16,  1852). 


*  During  some  trials  in  the  old  court,  the  lord  mayor,  one  alderman,  two  judges,  the  greater  part  of 
the  jury,  and  numbers  of  spectators,  caught  the  gaol  distemper,  and  died  May,  1750.  Again,  this  disease 
was  fatal  to  several  in  1772.  Twenty-eight  persons  were  killed  at  the  execution  of  Mr.  Steele's  murderers 
at  the  Old  Bailey,  Feb.  22,  1807. 


)LERON,  LAWS  OF,  relating  to  sea  affairs,  are  said  to  have  been  enacted  by  Richard  I. 
England,  when  at  the  island  of  Oleron  in  France,  1194  ;  which  is  now  doubted. 

OLIVES  are  named  in  the  earliest  accounts  of  Egypt  and  Greece  ;  and  at  Athens  their 
cultivation  was  taught  by  Cecrops,  1556  B.C.  They  were  first  planted  in  Italy  about  562  B.C. 
The  olive  has  been  cultivated  in  England  since  1648  A.D.  The  Cape  olive  since  1730. 

OLTENITZA,  BATTLE  OF.  A  large  Turkish  force  having  crossed  the  Danube,  under 
Omar  Pasha,  established  themselves  at  Oltenitza,  in  spite  of  the  vigorous  attacks  of  the 
Russians,  who  were  repulsed  with  loss,  Nov.  2  and  3,  1853.  On  the  4th  a  most  desperate 
attempt  to  dislodge  the  Turks  by  general  Danneberg  with  9000  men,  was  defeated  with 
great  loss. 

OLYMPIADS,  the  era  of  the  Greeks,  which  dates  from  July  I,  776  B.C.,  being  the  year 
in  which  Corcebus  was  successful  at  the  Olympic  games.  This  era  was  reckoned  by  periods 
of  four  years,  each  period  being  called  an  Olympiad,  and  in  marking  a  date  the  year  and 
Olympiad  were  both  mentioned.  The  computation  of  Olympiads  ceased  with  the  3O5th, 
A.D.  440. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES,  so  famous  among  the  Greeks,  are  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
the  Idoei  Dactyli,  1453  B.C.,  or  by  Pelops,  1307  B.C.  ;  revived  by  Iphitus,  884  B.C.,  in 
honour  of  Jupiter,  and  were  held  at  the  beginning  of  every  fifth  year,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Alpheus,  near  Olympia,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  now  the  Morea,  to  exercise  the  youth  in  five 
kinds  of  combats.  The  conquerors  in  these  games  were  highly  honoured.  The  prize 
contended  for  was  a  crown  made  of  a  kind  of  wild  olive,  appropriated  to  this  use.  In  1858, 
M.  Zappas,  a  wealthy  Peloponnesian,  gave  funds  to  re-establish  these  games,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  queen  of  Greece,  to  commence  in  Oct.  1859.  OLYMPIC  THEATRE.  See 
Theatres. 

OLYNTHUS,  a  city,  1ST.  Greece,  subdued  in  war  by  Sparta  in  382 — 379  B.C.  It  resisted 
Philip  of  Macedon,  350  B.C.,  by  whom  it  was  destroyed,  347. 

OMENS.  See  Augury.  Amphictyon  was  the  first  who  is  recorded  as  having  drawn  prog- 
nostications from  omens,  1497  B.C.  Alexander  the  Great  and  Mithridates  the  Great  are  said 
to  have  studied  omens.  At  the  birth  of  the  latter,  131  B.C.,  there  were  seen  for  seventy 
days  together,  two  large  comets,  whose  splendour  eclipsed  that  of  the  noon-day  sun,  occupying 
so  vast  a  space  as  the  fourth  part  of  the  heavens  ;  and  this  omen,  we  are  told,  directed  all 
the  actions  of  Mithridates  throughout  his  life.  Justin. 

OMMIADES,  a  dynasty  of  Mahometan  caliphs,  beginning  with  Moawiyah,  of  whom 
fourteen  reigned  in  Arabia,  661—750  ;  and  eighteen  at  Cordova,  in  Spain,  750—1031.  Their 
favourite  colour  was  green. 

OMNIBUSES  (from  omnibus,  for  all)  began  to  run  in  Paris  in  April,  1828.  The  idea  of 
such  conveyances  is  ascribed  to  Pascal,  about  1662,  when  similar  carriages  were  started,  but 
soon  discontinued.  They  were  revived  in  Paris,  April  u,  1828  ;  and  introduced  into  London 
by  a  coach  proprietor  named  Shillibeer.  The  first  omnibus  started  from  Paddington  to  the 
Bank  of  England  on  Saturday,  July  4,  1829.  The  omnibus  is  usually  licensed  to  carry  from 
ten  to  twelve  passengers  inside,  and  from  ten  to  fourteen  outside,  and  is  attended  by  a  foot- 
man, called  a  "  conductor."  Regulations  were  made  respecting  omnibuses  by  16  &  17  Viet. 
c-  33  (J853).  See  Cabriolets  and  Hackney  Coaches.  The  London  Omnibus  Company  was 
established  in  Jan.  1856.  The  saloon  omnibuses  ran  in  1857-60.  In  Sept.  1865,  it  was 
stated  that  there  were  then  running  about  620  omnibuses  belonging  to  the  General  Omnibus 
Company,  and  450  belonging  to  private  proprietors. 

ONE  POUND  NOTES  were  issued  by  the  bank  of  England,  March  4,  1797  ;  for  England 
only,  1823;  re -issued  for  a  short  time,  Dec.  16,  1852.  Rosse. 

0.  P.  RIOT  began  on  the  opening  of  the  new  Covent  Garden  theatre,  London,  with 
increased  prices  of  admission,  Sept.  18,*  and  lasted  till  Dec.  10,  1809. 

OPERAS.  Adam  de  la  Hale,  a  Trouvere,  surnamed  "  le  Bossu  d' Arras,"  born  in  1240, 
is,  as  far  as  has  yet  been  ascertained,  the  composer  of  the  first  comic  opera,  Li  Gieus  (Le  Jen) 
de  Robin  et  de  Marion.  The  Italian  opera  began  with  the  II  Satiro  of  Cavaliere,  and  the  Dafnc, 

*  The  play  was  Macbeth,  and  not  one  word  from  the  stage  was  heard.  The  concurrence  of  all  parts  of 
the  house  in  the  desire  for  reduction,  gave  a  furious  and  determined  party  in  the  pit  courage  to  proceed, 
and  great  injury  was  done  in  pit,  boxes,  and  galleries.  For  many  successive  nights  the  audience,  too 
strong  to  be  controlled,  continued  their  demand,  and  renewed  their  depredations,  while  the  managers 
•soemed,  on  their  part,  resolved  not  to  give  way. 

M  M 


OPE  530  OPT 

of  Kinuccini,  with  music  by  Peri,  about  1590.  Their  Eurydice  was  represented  at  Florence, 
1600,  on  the  marriage  of  Marie  de  Medicis  with  Henry  IV.  of  France.  ISOrfeo,  Favola  in 
Musica,  composed  by  Monteverde,  was  performed  in  1607,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
first  opera  that  was  ever  published.  About  1669,  the  abbot  Pen-in  obtained  a  grant  from 
XIV.  to  set  up  an  opera  at  Paris,  where,  in  1672,  was  acted  Pomona. — Rossini's  Harbiere  and 
Otello,  appeared,  1816  ;  Gazza  Ladra,  1817  ;  Semiramide,  1823  ;  Guillaume  Tell,  1829. 
Weber's  I)er  Freischutz,  1821;  Oberon,  1826.  Donizetti's  Lucrezia  Borgia,  1840.  Meyerbeer's 
Robert  le  Diable,  1831;  Huguenots,  1836;  Prophete,  1849. 

OPERAS  IN  ENGLAND.  Sir  "William  Davenant  introduced  a  species  of  opera  in  London 
in  1684.  The  first  regularly  performed  opera  was  at  York  buildings  in  1692.  The  first  at 
Drury-lane  was  in  1705.  The  operas  of  Handel  were  performed  in  1735,  and  they  became 
general  in  several  of  the  theatres  a  few  years  after.  Gay's  Beggars'  Opera,  first  performed  in 
1727  at  the  Lincoln's  Inn  theatre.  It  ran  for  sixty-three  successive  nights,  but  so  offended 
the  persons  in  power,  that  the  lord  chamberlain  refused  a  licence  for  the  performance  of  a 
second  part  of  it  entitled  "  Polly."  This  resentment  induced  Gay's  friends  to  come  forward 
on  its  publication  with  so  handsome  a  subscription,  that  his  profits  amounted  to  1200?., 
whereas  the  Beggars'  Optra  had  gained  him  only  400?.  Life,  of  Gay.  See  Theatres. 

OPERA-HOUSE,  THE  ITALIAN,  or  Queen's  Theatre.  The  original  building  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  constructed  by  sir  John  Vanbrugh,  though  Mr.  Pennant  attributes  it 
to  sir  Christopher  Wren.  It  was  built,  according  to  this  authority,  in  1704,  and  opened 
April  9,  1705  :  and  burnt  down  June  17,  1789.  The  foundation  of  the  new  theatre  was  laid 
April  3,  1790  ;  and  the  house  was  opened  Sept.  22,  1791,  on  an  improved  plan  ;  the  present 
exterior  was  erected  in  1818,  from  designs  by  Mr.  Nash. — The  ENGLISH  OPERA  (or  Lyceum) 
was  opened  June  15,  1816.  It  was  entirely  destroyed  by  fire,  Feb.  16,  1830.  The  new 
English  Opera-house,  or  Lyceum,  was  erected  from  designs  by  Mr.  S.  Beazley,  and  opened 
in  July,  1834.  See  Theatres. 

OPHTHALMIC  HOSPITALS.     See  Hospitals. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE,  an  apparatus  for  inspecting  the  interior  of  the  eye,  invented  by 
professor  H.  Helmholtz,  and  described  by  him  in  1851. 

OPIUM,  the  juice  of  the  white  poppy,  was  known  to  the  ancients,  its  cultivation  being 
mentioned  by  Homer,  and  its  medicinal  iise  by  Hippocrates.  It  is  largely  cultivated  in 
British  India,  and  was  introduced  into  China  by  merchants.  It  conduced  to  the  war  of  1834. 
The  revenue  derived  from  opium  by  the  Indian  government  in  1862  was  about  7,850,000?. 
Laudanum,  a  preparation  of  opium,  was  employed  early  in  the  i7th  century.  A  number  of 
alkaloids  have  been  discovered  in  opium  :  narcotine  by  Derosne,  and  morphia  by  Sertiirner, 
in  1803. 

OPORTO  (W.  Portugal),  the  ancient  Calle,  by  nature  one  of  the  most  impregnable  cities 
in  Europe  ;  the  great  mart  of  Portuguese  wine  known  as  "Port."  A  chartered  company 
for  the  regulation  of  the  port-wine  trade  was  established  in  1756.  The  French,  under 
marshal  Soult,  were  surprised  here  by  lord  "Wellington,  and  defeated  in  an  action  fought 
May  n,  1809.  The  Miguelites  attacked  Oporto,  and  were  repulsed  by  the  Pedroites,  with 
considerable  loss,  Sept.  19,  1832.  It  has  since  been  the  scene  of  civil  war.  See  Portugal. 
The  Oporto  wine  company  was  abolished  in  1834,  but  re-established  by  a  royal  decree, 
April  7,  1838.  An  international  exhibition  was  opened  here  by  the  king,  Sept.  18,  1865. 

OPTICS,  a  science  studied  by  the  Greeks  ;  and  later  by  the  Arabians  about  the 
century. 


, 


Burning  lenses  known  at  Athens         .         B.C.  424  I  Telescope  made  by  Jansen  (said  also  to  have  in- 

The  magnifying  power  of  convex  glasses  and  vented  the  microscope)  about  1609,  and  inde- 

concave   mirrors,  and  the   prismatic  colours  pendently,  by  Galileo,  about        .        .        .     .   1630 

produced  by  angular  glass,   mentioned  by  |  Microscope,  according  to  Huyghens,  invented 

Seneca,  about A.D.      50       by  Urebbel,  about 1621 


Treatise  on  Optics,  by  Ptolemy  .  .  .  .  1 20 
First  treatise  on  optics  by  Euclid,  about  .  .  280 
Two  of  the  leading  principles  known  to  the 

Platonists 300 

Greatly  improved  by  Alhazen         .        .        .     .  1108  I      mer,  and  after  him  by  Cassini    .        ...  1667 


Law  of  refraction  discovered  by  Snellius,  about  1624 

Reflecting  telescope,  James  Gregory      .        .    .  1663 

,,  ,,  Newton       ....  1666 

Motion  and  velocity  of  light  discovered  by  Roe- 


Hints  for  spectacles  and  telescopes,  given  by 
Roger  Bacon,  about 1280 

Spectacles  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Sal- 
vinus  Armatus,  of  Pisa,  before  ,  .  .  .  1300 

Camera  obscura  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Baptista  Porta 1560 

Telescopes  invented  by  Leonard  Digges,  about  1571 


[Its  velocity  demonstrated  to  be  190  millions  of 

miles  in  sixteen  minutes.] 
Double  refraction  explained  by  Bartholinus      .  1669 

Cassegrainian  reflector 1672 

Newton's  discoveries 1674 

Telescopes  with  a  single  lens  by  Tschirnhausen, 

about  1690 


OPT 


531 


ORA 


OPTICS,  continued. 

Polarisation  of  light,  Huyghens,  about  .  .  1692 
Structure  of  the  eye  explained  by  Petit,  about  1700 
Achromatic  telescope  constructed  by  Mr.  HaU 

(but  not  made  public)  in 1733 

Constructed  by  Dollond,  most  likely  without 

any  knowledge  of  Hall's 1757 

Herschel's  great  reflecting  telescope  erected  at 

Slough 1789 

Dr.  T.  Young's  discoveries  (undulatory  theory, 

&c.) 1800-3  I 

Camera,  Lucida  (Dr.  Wollaston)  .  .  .  .  1807  ', 
Mains  (polarisation  of  light  by  reflection)  .  .  1808  i 


Fresnel  (double  refraction,  <fec.)      .        .        .    .  1817 
Large  telescope  constructed  by  Lord  Rosse  .     .1845 
Arago  (colours  of  polarised  light,  &c.)        .        1811-53 
Dr.  Tyndall's  Lectures  on  Light,  illustrated  by 
Duboscq's  electric  lamp,  at  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution, London 1856 

Sir  D.  Brewster,  optical  researches  (see  Photo- 
graphy)          1814-57 

The    spectroscope    constructed    and   used   by 

Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen 1861 

See    Telescope,   Microscope,   Stereoscope,   Pseudo- 
scope,  Spectrum,  Photography,  <fec. 


OPTIC  NERVES  are  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  N,  Varole,  a  surgeon  and  physician 
of  Bologna,  about  1538.  Nouv.  Diet. 

ORACLES.  The  most  ancient  was  that  of  Dodona  ;  but  the  most  famous  that  of  Delphi, 
1263  B.C.  See  Delphi  and  Dodona. 

ORANGE.  The  sweet,  or  China  orange,  was  first  brought  into  Europe  from  China  by 
the  Portuguese,  in  1547  ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  the  identical  tree,  whence  all  the  European 
orange-trees  of  this  sort  were  produced,  is  still  preserved  at  Lisbon,  in  the  gardens  of  one  of 
its  nobility.  Orange-trees  were  first  brought  to  England,  and  planted,  with  little  success  in 
1595  ;  they  are  said  to  have  been  planted  at  Beddington  park,  near  Croydon,  Surrey.  The 
duty  on  imported  oranges  was  repealed  in  1860. 

ORANGE,  a  principality  in  S.E.  France,  formerly  a  lordship  in  the  9th  or  loth  century. 
It  has  been  ruled  by  four  houses  successively  :  that  of  Giraud  Adhemar  (to  1174) ;  of  Baux 
(1182  to  1393) ;  of  Chalons  (to  1530);  and  of  Nassau  (1530  to  1713).  See  Nassau.  Philibert 
the  Great,  prince  of  Orange,  the  last  of  the  house  of  Chalons,  having  been  wronged  by 
Francis  I.  of  France,  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  to  whom  he  rendered 
great  services  by  his  military  talents.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Florence,  Aug.  3,  1530. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew-in-law  Reaiee  of  Nassau.  See  princes  of  Orange  under 
Holland.  The  eldest  son  of  the  king  of  Holland  is  styled  the  prince  of  Orange,  although  the 
principality  was  ceded  to  France  in  1713. 

ORANGE  RIVER,  a  free  state  in  South  Africa.  The  British  government  transferred 
(by  sir  George  Clerk)  their  powers  over  this  territory  to  a  provisional  government,  March  29, 
1854.  A  Volksraad  (legislative  council)  and  governor  have  been  appointed. 

ORANGEMEN.  The  battle  of  the  Diamond,  fought  in  Armagh  in  Sept.  1795  >  an(*  tne 
treachery  experienced  by  the  Protestants  on  that  occasion,  convinced  them  they  would  become 
an  easy  prey  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  from  their  small  numbers,  unless  they  associated  for  their 
defence.  The  first  Orange  lodge  was  formed  in  Armagh,  Sept.  21,  1795;  hut  the  name  of 
Orangemen  already  existed  An  Orange  lodge  was  formed  in  Dublin  ;  the  members  published 
a  declaration  of  their  principles  (the  maintenance  of  church  and  state)  in  Jan.  1798.  It  is 
stated  that  in  1836,  there  were  145,000  Orangemen  in  England,  and  125,000  in  Ireland,  the 
duke  of  Cumberland  being  grand-master.  After  a  parliamentary  inquiry  Orange  clubs  were 
broken  up  at  the  request  of  the  house  of  commons  ;  but  revived  in  1845.  In  Oct.  1857,  the 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  ordered  that  justices  of  the  peace  should  not  belong  to  Orange  clubs. 
The  Orangemen  in  Canada  were  greatly  excited  during  the  visit  of  the  prince  of  "Wales 
in  Sept.  1860.  Orange  demonstrations  in  Belfast  have  led  to  desperate  riots.  See  Belfast. 

ORATOR  HENLEY.  An  English  clergyman  of  some  talents,  and  great  eccentricity, 
obtained  this  name  by  opening  what  he  called  his  "Oratory"  in  London,  in  1726.  He  had 
a  kind  of  chapel  in  Newport  market,  where  he  gave  lectures  on  theological  topics  on  Sundays, 
and  on  other  subjects  on  "Wednesdays,  every  week.  Novelty  procured  him  a  multitude  of 
hearers  ;  but  he  was  too  imprudent  to  gain  any  permanent  advantage  from  his  project. 
After  having  served  as  a  butt  for  the  satirical  wits,  poets,  and  painters  of  his  time,  he 
removed  his  oratory  to  Clare-market,  and  sank  into  comparative  obscurity  and  contempt 
previously  to  his  death,  in  1756. 

ORATORIANS  (from  the  Latin  orare,  to  pray),  a  regular  order  of  priests  established  by 
St.  Philip  Neri,  about  1564,  and  so  called  from  the  oratory  of  St.  Jerome,  at  Rome,  where 
they  prayed.  They  had  a  foundation  in  France,  commenced  by  father  de  Berulle,  after- 
wards cardinal,  1612. — The  rev.  Frederick  Faber  and  others,  as  "Fathers  of  the  Oratory," 
established  themselves  first  in  King  William -street,  Strand,  in  1848,  and  afterwards  at 
Brompton. 

M  M  2 


OR  A  532  01!  I 

ORATORIO,  a  kind  of  sacred  drama,  the  subject  of  it  being  generally  taken  from  the 
Scriptures,  set  to  music.  Mason.  The  origin  of  oratorios,  so  named  from  having  been  first 
performed  in  an  oratory,  is  ascribed  to  St.  Philip  Neri,  about  1550.  The  first  oratorio  in 
London  was  performed  in  Lincoln's-inn  theatre  in  Portugal-street,  in  1732.  Handel's 
oratorio  of  "  Israel  in  Egypt"  was  produced  in  1738,  and  the  "Messiah"  in  1741  ;  Haydn's 
"Creation"  in  1798;  Mendelssohn's  "St.  Paul"  in  1837,  and  "Elijah"  in  1846. 

ORCHOMENUS,  a  small  Greek  state  in  Beeotia,  was  destroyed  by  the  Thebans,  368  B.C.  ; 
restored  by  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  354  ;  and  given  up  by  him  to  Thebes,  346. 

ORDEAL  was  known  among  the  Greeks  and  Jews  (Num.  v.  2).  It  was  introduced  into 
England  by  the  Saxons.  A  prisoner  who  pleaded  not  guilty,  might  choose  whether  he  would  put 
himself  for  trial  upon  God  and  his  country,  by  twelve  men,  as  at  this  day,  or  upon  God  only. 
The  ordeal  was  abolished  in  1261. 

ORDERS.     See  Knighthood. 

ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL  were  issued  by  the  British  government  Jan.  7,  and  Nov.  n,  1807, 
prohibiting  trade  with  the  ports  occupied  by  the  French.  They  were  reprisals  for  Napoleon's 
Berlin  decree  (which  see).  These  restrictions  greatly  checked  the  progress  of  manufactures  in 
this  country,  and  caused  much  distress  till  their  removal  in  1814. 

ORDINATION"  of  ministers  in  the  Christian  church  began  with  Christ  and  his  apostles. 
See  Maile  iii.  14,  and  Acts  vi.  and  xiv.  23.  In  England  in  1549  a  new  form  of  ordination 
of  ministers  was  ordered  to  be  prepared  by  a  committee  of  six  prelates  and  six  divines. 

ORDINANCE.     See  Self-Denying  Ordinances. 

ORDNANCE-OFFICE.  Before  the  invention  of  guns,  this  office  was  supplied  by  officers 
under  the  following  names  :  the  bowyer  ;  the  cross-bowyer  ;  the  galeater,  or  purveyor  of 
helmets  ;  the  armourer  ;  and  the  keeper  of  the  tents.  Henry  VIII.  placed  it  under  the 
management  of  a  master-general,  a  lieutenant,  surveyor,  &c.  The  master-general  was  chosen 
from  among  the  first  generals  in  the  service  of  the  sovereign.  The  appointment  was  formerly 
for  life  ;  but  since  the  Restoration,  was  held  durante  bene  placito,  and  not  unfrequently  by  a 
cabinet  minister.  Bcatson.  The  letters  patent  for  this  office  were  revoked  May  25,  1855, 
and  its  duties  vested  in  the  minister  of  war,  lord  Panmure.  The  last  master-general  was 
lord  Fitzroy  Somerset,  afterwards  lord  Raglan. 

ORDNANCE  SURVEY.  The  trigonometrical  survey  of  England  was  commenced  by 
gen.  Roy,  in  1783,  continued  by  col.  Colby,  and  completed  by  col.  (now  sir  Henry)  James  in 
1856.  The  publication  of  the  maps  commenced  in  1819,  under  the  direction  of  col.  Mudge, 
and  was  completed  in  1862  ;  the  southern  part  on  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  mile,  the 
northern  six  inches  to  the  mile  :  a  large  part  of  these  maps  have  been  coloured  geologically. 
The  survey  of  Ireland  has  been  completed  arid  published  ;  that  of  Scotland  is  still  going  on. 

OREGON  TERRITORY.  A  dispute  respecting  boundaries  arose  in  1845  between  the 
British  government  and  that  of  the  United  States,  which  was  settled  by  treaty,  June  12, 
1846.  Oregon  was  admitted  as  a  state  by  the  Union  in  Feb.  1859. 

ORGANIC  SYNTHESIS.     See  Chemistry. 

ORGANS.  Their  invention  is  attributed  to  Archimedes,  about  220  B.C.  ;  and  to  one 
Ctesibius,  a  barber  of  Alexandria,  about  100  B.C.  The  organ  was  brought  to  Europe  from 
the  Greek  empire,  and  was  first  applied  to  religious  devotions  in  churches,  in  A.D.  657 
Bellarmine.  Organs  were  used  in  the  western  churches  by  pope  Vitalianus,  in  658. 
Ammonius.  It  is  affirmed  that  the  organ  was  known  in  France  in  the  time  of  Louis  I.  815, 
when  one  was  constructed  by  an  Italian  priest.  The  organ  at  Haarlem  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  Europe  ;  it  has  60  stops  and  8000  pipes.  At  Seville  is  one  with  1000  stops  and  5300 
pipes.  The  organ  at  Amsterdam  has  a  set  of  pipes  that  imitate  a  chorus  of  human  voices^ 
Of  the  organs  in  ENGLAND,  that  at  St.  George's  hall,  Liverpool,  by  Mr.  Willis,  is  the  largest  ; 
next  in  order,  that  at  York  minster,  and  that  in  the  Music-hall,  Birmingham.  In  London, 
the  largest  is,  perhaps  that  of  Spitalfields  church  ;  and  that  in  Christ  Church  is  nearly  as 
extensive.  The  erection  of  the  famous  Temple  organ  was  competed  for  by  Schmidt  and 
Harris  ;  after  long  disputes,  the  question  was  referred  to  vote,  and  Mr.  Jefferies,  afterwards 
chief  justice,  gave  the  casting  vote  in  favour  of  Schmidt  (called  Father  Smith),  about  1682. 
A  monster  organ  was  erected  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham,  in  June  1857. 

ORIEL  COLLEGE  (Oxford),  founded  in  1337,  by  Adam  de  Brome,  archdeacon  of  Stow, 
and  almoner  to  king  Edward  II.  This  college  derives  its  name  from  a  tenement  called 
rCriole,  on  the  site  of  which  the  building  stands. 


- 

OR1FLAMM 


OIL! 


ORP 


OR1FLAMME.     See  Aurijiamma. 

ORIGENISTS  pretended  to  draw  their  opinions  from  the  writings  of  Origen  (who  lived 
185-253).  They  maintained  that  Christ  was  the  son  of  God  no  other  way  than  by  adoption 
and  grace  ;  that  souls  were  created  before  the  bodies  ;  that  the  sun,  moon,  stars  and  the 
waters  that  are  under  the  firmament,  had  all  souls  ;  that  the  torments  of  the  damned  shall 
have  an  end,  and  that  the  fallen  angels  shall,  after  a  time,  be  restored  to  their  first  condition. 
They  were  condemned  by  councils,  and  the  reading  of  Origen's  works  was  forbidden.  Burke. 
These  doctrines  were  condemned  by  the  council  of  Constantinople  in  553. 

ORION  STEAM-SHIP.  On  June  18,  1850,  this  splendid  vessel,  bound  from  Liverpool  to 
Glasgow,  struck  on  a  sunken  rock,  northward  of  Portpatrick,  within  a  stone's  throw  of  land, 
and  instantly  filled.  Of  two  hundred  passengers,  more  than  fifty  were  drowned. 

ORKNEY  AND  SHETLAND  ISLES  (North  of  Scotland),  were  conquered  by  Magnus  III. 
of  Norway,  1099,  and  were  ceded  to  James  III.  as  the  dowry  of  his  wife  Margaret,  in  1469. 
The  Orkneys  were  the  ancient  Orcades  :  united  with  Shetland,  they  now  form  one  of  the 
Scotch  counties.  The  bishopric  of  Orkney,  founded  by  St.  Servanus  early  in  the  5th  century, 
some  affirm  by  St.  Colin,  ended  with  the  abolition  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland,  about  1689. 
See  Bishops. 

ORLEANS  (a  city  in  central  France),  formerly  A  urelianum  ;  gave  title  to  a  kingdom, 
491,  and  afterwards  to  a  duchy,  usually  held  by  one  of  the  royal  family.  It  was  besieged  by 
the  English  under  John  Talbot,  afterwards  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  Oct.  12,  1428,  and  was 
bravely  defended  by  Gaucour,  the  more  so,  as  its  fall  would  have  ruined  the  cause  of 
Charles  VI.  king  of  France.  It  was  relieved  by  the  heroism  of  Joan  of  Arc,  afterwards, 
surnamed  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  April  29,  1429,  and  the  siege  was  raised.  See  Joan  of  Arc. 
Siege  of  Orleans,  when  the  duke  of  Guise  was  killed,  1563. 


DUKES   OF    ORLEANS. 


Louis  contended  for   the  regency  with   John   the 

Fearless,  duke  of  Burgundy,  by  whose  instigation 

he  was  assassinated  in  1407. 
Charles  taken  prisoner  at  Agincourt,  1415  ;  released, 

1440  ;  died,  1465. 
Louis,  became  Louis  XII.  of  France  in  1498,  when 

the  duchy  merged  in  the  crown. 

BOURBON   BRANCH. 

Philip,  youngest  son  of  Louis  XIII.,  born  1640;  died, 

1701. 
Philip  II.,  son,  born  1673;  becomes  RKGENT,  1715  ; 

dies,  1723. 
Louis,  son,  born  1703;  died,  1752. 


Louis  Philippe,  son,  born  1725;  died,  1785. 

Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  son,  born,  1747;  opposed  the 
court  in  the  French  revolution  ;  takes  the  name 
Egalitf,  Sept.  n,  1792  ;  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis 
XVI.  ;  was  guillotined,  Nov.  6,  1793. 

Louis  Philippe,  son,  born,  Nov.  6,  1773  ;  chosen  king 
of  the  French,  Aug.  9,  1830 ;  abdicated,  Feb.  24, 
1848  ;  died,  Aug.  26,  1850.  See  France. 

Ferdinand  Philippe,  son,  duke  of  Orleans,  bora 
Sept.  3.  1810;  died,  through  a  fall,  July  13,  1842. 

Louis  Philippe,  son,  count  of  Paris,  born,  Aug.  24, 
1838,  married  Maria  Isabella,  daughter  of  the  duk« 
of  Montpensier,  May  30,  1864.  A  daughter,  Maria 
Amelia,  born,  Sept.  28,  1865. 


ORLEANS  NEW.     See  New  Orleans. 

ORMULUM,  a  metrical  version  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts,  in  early  English,  made  by 
Orm,  an  ecclesiastic,  in  the  I2th  century,  printed  at  Oxford  in  1852,  from  a  MS.  in  the 
Bodleian. 

ORNITHOLOGY.     See  Birds. 

ORN1THORHYNCHUS,  the  duck-billed  platypus,  or  water-mole,  a  singular  compound 
of  the  mammal  and  the  bird,  a  native  of  Australia,  was  first  described  by  Dr.  Shaw,  in  1819. 

ORPHAN-HOUSES.  The  emperor  Trajan  first  formed  establishments  for  this  purpose. 
Pliny  relates  in  his  Panegyric  that  Trajan  had  caused  five  thousand  free-born  children  to  be 
sought  out  and  educated,  about  105.  Orphan-houses,  properly  so-called,  are  mentioned  for 
the  first  time  in  the  laws  of  the  emperor  Justinian.  At  the  court  of  Byzantium,  the  office 
of  inspector  of  orphans,  orphanotrophos,  was  so  honourable,  that  it  was  held  by  the  brother 
of  the  emperor  Michael  IV.  in  the  nth  century.  See  Foundling  Hospitals.* 

ORPHEONISTES.     See  Crystal  Palace.  1860. 

*  The  Orphan  Working  Asylum  for  20  boys  was  established  at  Hoxton,  in  1758.  It  is  now  situated  at 
Haverstock  hill,  and  contains  350  boys  and  girls.  The  asylum  for  Female  Orphans,  Lambeth,  instituted  in 
1758.  Similar  institutions  are  now  numerous.  The  London  Orphan  Asylum  (in  1813  ;  removed  to  Clapton 
in  1823  ;  to  Slough,  Bucks,  opened  June  25,  1863) ;  the  Infant  Orphan  Asylum  at  Wanstead  (1827) ;  and  the 
Asylum  for  Fatherless  Children  (in  1844  ;  settled  at  Reedham,  Surrey),  were  established  mainly  through 
the  exertions  of  a  congregational  minister,  the  rev.  Andrew  Reed,  D.D. 


ORR  534  OTT 

ORRERY,  a  planetary  machine  to  illustrate  and  explain  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  appears  to  have  been  coeval  with  the  clepsydra.  Ptolemy  devised  the  circles  and 
epicycles  that  distinguish  his  system  about  130.  The  planetary  clock  of  Finee  was  begun 
1553.  The  planetarium  of  De  Rheita  was  formed  about  1650.  The  planetarium,  now  termed 
the  Orrery,  it  is  said,  was  constructed  by  Rowley,  after  a  pattern  devised  by  the  clock-maker, 
George  Graham,  at  the  expense  of  Charles  Boyle,  earl  of  Orrery,  about  1715. 

ORSINI'S  PLOT  against  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.     See  France,  Jan.  1858. 

ORTHES  or  ORTHEZ  (S.  France),  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  British  and  Spanish  armies 
on  one  side,  and  the  French  on  the  other,  the  former  commanded  by  Wellington,  and  the 
latter  by  marshal  Soult.  In  this  engagement  the  British  gained  a  great  and  decisive  victory, 
Feb.  27,  1814.  The  victory  was  soon  followed  by  the  battle  of  Toulouse  (which  see). 

OSBORNE  HOUSE  (Isle  of  Wight),  was  purchased  by  the  queen  in  1845,  and  rebuilt 
by  Mr.  Cubit  t. 

OSMIUM,  the  heaviest  known  metal,  discovered  in  platinum  ore  by  Tennant  in  1804. 

OSSORY  (S.E.  Ireland),  BISHOPRIC  OF,  was  first  planted  at  Saiger,  about  402  ;  trans- 
lated to  Aghavoe,  in  Upper  Ossory,  in  1052  ;  and  to  Kilkenny  about  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  II.  It  was  united  to  Ferns  and  Leighlin  in  1842. 

'  OSTEISTD  (Belgium)  is  famous  for  the  long  siege  it  sustained  against  the  Spaniards,  from 
July,  1 60 1,  to  Sept.  1604,  when  it  honourably  capitulated.  On  the  death  of  Charles  II.  of 
Spain,  the  French  seized  Ostend  ;  but  in  1706,  after  the  battle  of  Ramilies,  it  was  retaken 
by  the  allies.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  French  in  1745,  but  restored  in  1748.  In  1756,  the 
French  garrisoned  this  town  for  the  empress-queen  Maria  Theresa.  In  1792,  the  French 
once  _  more  took  Ostend,  which  they  evacuated  in  1793,  and  repossessed  in  1794.  The 
English  destroyed  the  works  of  the  Bruges  canal ;  but  the  wind  shifting  before  they  could 
re-embark,  they  surrendered  to  the  French,  May  19,  1798.  See  Cuba,  note. 

OSTRACISM  (from  the  Greek  ostrakon,  a  potsherd  or  shell),  a  mode  of  proscription  at 
Athens,  is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  by  the  tyrant  Hippias  ;  by  others  it  is  ascribed 
to  Cleisthenes,  about  510  B.t'.  The  people  wrote  the  names  of  those  whom  they  most 
suspected  upon  small  shells  ;  these  they  put  in  an  urn  or  box,  and  presented  it  to  the  senate. 
Upon  a  scrutiny,  he  whose  name  was  oftenest  written  was  sentenced  by  the  council  to  be 
banished  from  his  altar  and  hearth.  6000  votes  were  required.  Aristides,  noted  for 
his  justice,  Miltiades,  for  his  victories,  &c.,  were  ostracized.  It  was  abolished  by  ironically 
proscribing  Hyperbolus,  a  mean  person. 

OSTROGOTHS,  or  EASTERN  GOTHS,  were  distinguished  from  the  Visigoths  (Western 
Goths)  about  330.  After  ravaging  eastern  Europe,  Thrace,  &c.,  their  great  leader,  Theodoric, 
established  a  kingdom  in  Italy,  which  lasted  from  493  to  553.  See  Italy. 

OSTROLENKA,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  Poles  and  Russians,  May  26,  1831.  The 
slaughter  was  immense,  but  the  Poles  remained  masters  of  the  field. 

OSTRICH  (the  struthios  of  the  ancients),  a  native  of  Africa  (see  Job  xxxix.  14).  Ostriches 
were  hatched  and  reared  at  San  Donato,  near  Florence,  1859-60. 

OTAHEITE,  or  TAHITI,  an  island  in  the  S.  Pacific  Ocean,  seen  by  Byron  in  1765,  and 
visited  in  1767  by  captain  Wallis,  who  called  it  George  the  Third  Island.  Captain  Cook 
came  hither  in  1768  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  ;  sailed  round  the  whole  island  in  a  boat, 
and  stayed  three  months  ;  it  was  visited  twice  afterwards  by  that  celebrated  navigator.  See 
Cook.  Omai,  a  native  of  this  island,  was  brought  over  to  England  by  captain  Cook,  and 
carried  back  by  him  in  his  last  voyage.  In  1799,  king  Pomare  ceded  the  district  of  Matavai 
to  some  English  missionaries.  Queen  Pomare  was  compelled  to  put  herself  under  the 
protection  of  France,  Sept.  9,  1843.  She  retracted,  and  Otaheite  and  the  neighbouring 
islands  were  taken  possession  of  by  admiral  Dupetit-Thouars  in  the  name  of  the  French 
king,  Nov.  1843.  The  French  imprisoned  Mr.  Pilchard,  the  English  consul,  March  5,  1844, 
but  the  act  was  censured  in  France. 

OTTAWA  (formerly  BYTOWN),  on  the  river  Ottawa,  received  its  name  when  it  was 
appointed  to  be  the  capital  of  Canada  by  the  queen  in  August,  1858.  The  executive  council 
met  here,  Nov.  22,  1865.  Population  in  1861,  14,669. 

OTTERBURN  (Northumberland).  In  1388  the  Scots  besieged  Newcastle  and  were  driven 
off  by  Henry  Percy  (Hotspur),  son  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland.  Percy  pursued  them  to 
Otterburn,  where  a  battle  was  fought  on  Aug.  10,  in  which  the  earl  of  Douglas  was  killed 
and  Percy  taken  prisoner.  On  this  battle  the  ballad  of  Chevy  Chase  is  founded. 


OTT  535  OXF 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.     See  Turkey. 

OUDE  (North  India),  -formerly  a  vice-royalty  held  by  the  vizier  of  the  great  mogul, 
out  1760,  it  was  seized  by  the  vizier  Sujah-ud-Dowlah,  ancestor  of  the  late  king. 

epf  Buxar,  where  Sujahand  his  ally,  Meer  i  And  grandson,  Wajid  Ali  Shah,  exceed  all  their 

Cossim,  ai-e  totally  defeated,  and  the  British  predecessors  in  profligacy  ....     1847-56 

became  virtually  masters  of  Oude    .   Oct.  23,  1764  :  In  consequence  (by  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  1801) 

ReigQ  of  Asoph-ud-Dowlah,  who  cedes  Benares,  Oude  is  annexed  to  the  British  territories,  by 

&c.,  to  the  East  India  Company,  who  place  decree,  proclaimed          .        .        .        Feb.  7,  1856 

troops  in  Oude  (see  Chunar)        .        .        .  1775-81    The  queen  and  prince  of  Oude,  &c.,  arrive  in 

[The  annual  subsidy  to  the  company  in  1787  I      London  to  appeal       ....  Aug.  20,     ,, 

was   500,000^.;    in   1794,    760,000^.  ;    in   1801,  '  Oude  joins  the  Indian  mutiny  :  ex-king  of  Oude 

i,352.347'-]    More    territories    ceded   to    the  imprisoned  (on  suspicion)        .        .    June  14,  1857 

company 1801    The  queen  dies  at  Paris,  Jan.  24  ;  and  the  prince 

GhaKee-ud-deeii  becomes  king,  with  the  consent  !      at  London Feb.  26,  1858 

of  the  British 1819   [For  the  war,  see  India,  1857-8.] 

Dreadful  misgovernment  of  Nusser-ud-deen,  1827-37  :  Triumphal  entry  of  the  governor-general  into 


s  death,  the  British  resident,  colonel  Lowe, 


Lucknow.     The  Talookdars  (landholders)  re- 
ceive a  free  grant  of  their  estates     .     Oct.  22,  1859 


promptly  suppresses  an  insurrection.] 

Mahomed  Ali  governs  well         .        .        .        1837-42    Oude  is  said  to  be  prospering  under  British  rule. 
But  his  sou  Umjeed  Ali  Shah          .        .        .     1842-7  ' 

OUDENARDE  (Belgium),  where,  on  July  u,  1708,  the  English  and  allies  under  the 
•duke  of  Maflborough  and  prince  Eugene,  thoroughly  defeated  the  French  besiegers. 

OULART  (S.E.  Ireland),  where  a  body  of  5000  Irish  insurgents  attacked  the  king's 
troops,  in  small  number,  May  27,  1798.  The  North  Cork  militia,  after  great  feats  of  bravery, 
were  cut  to  pieces,  five  men  only  escaping.  Musgrave. 

OUNCE,  the  sixteenth  part  of  the  pound  avoirdupois,  and  twelfth  of  the  pound  troy. 
The  word  is  from  uneia  ;  and  its  precise  weight  was  fixed  by  Henry  III.,  who  decreed  that  an 
English  ounce  should  be  640  dry  grains  of  wheat ;  that  twelve  of  these  ounces  should  be  a 
pound  ;  and  that  eight  pounds  should  be  a  gallon  of  wine,  1233. 

OURIQUE  (Portugal),  where  Alfonso,  count  or  duke  of  Portugal,  encountered  five 
Saracen  kings  and  a  prodigious  army  of  Moors,  July  25,  1139,  and  signally  defeated  them. 
He  was  hailed  king  upon  the  spot.  Lisbon,  the  capital,  was  taken,  and  he  soon  after  was 
here  crowned  as  the  first  king  ;  the  Moorish  dominion  being  overthrown. 

OUTLAW,  one  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  the  law,  and  out  of  the  king's  protection  :  a 
punishment  for  such  as  being  called  in  law  do  contemptuously  refuse  to  appear.  In  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.  all  the  judges  agreed  that  none  but  the  sheriff  only,  having  lawful  warrant 
therefor,  should  put  to  death  any  man  outlawed.  Cowel. 

OUZEL  GALLEY  SOCIETY.  In  1700,  the  case  of  a  ship  in  the  port  of  Dublin,  the 
Ouzel  Galley,  excited  great  legal  perplexity,  and  was  referred  to  an  arbitration  of  merchants, 
whose  prompt  decision  was  highly  approved.  This  led  to  the  formation  of  the  present  society 
in  1705. 

OVATION,  an  inferior  triumph  which  the  Romans  allowed  those  generals  of  their  army 
whose  victories  were  not  considerable.  Publius  Posthumius  Tubertus  was  the  first  who 
was  decreed  an  ovation,  503  B.C.  A  sheep  (ovis)  was  offered  by  the  general  instead  of  a  bull. 

OVERLAND  MAIL.     See  Waghorn. 

OVERSEERS  of  the  poor  for  parishes  were  appointed  in  1601.     See  Poor  Laws. 

OWHYHEE  or  HAWAII,  an  island  in  the  N.  Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  in  1778,  by  capt. 
Cook.  On  Feb.  14,  1779,  he  here  fell  a  victim  to  a  sudden  resentment  of  the  natives.  A 
boat  having  been  stolen  by  one  of  the  islanders,  the  captain  went  on  shore  to  seize  the  king, 
and  keep  him  as  a  hostage  till  the  boat  was  restored.  The  people  would  not  submit  to  this 
insult,  and  their  resistance  brought  on  hostilities,  and  captain  Cook  and  some  of  his  com- 
panions were  killed.  Great  progress  has  been  recently  made  in  civilisation  here  ;  and  an 
order  of  nobility  and  a  representative  assembly  were  instituted  in  1860.  The  population  then 
was  about  120,000. 

OXALIC  ACID,  which  exists  in  several  plants,  especially  in  sorrel,  is  now  abundantly 
obtained,  for  use  in  the  arts,  from  sawdust  acted  upon  by  caustic  potash  or  soda,  according  to 
Dr.  Dale's  process,  patented  in  1862. 

OXFORD,  an  ancient  city,  restored  by  king  Alfred,  who  resided  here  and  established  a 
mint,  &c. 


OXF 


536 


OXF 


OXFORD,  continued. 

Canute  held  a  national  council  here    .         .        .   1018 

Stormed  by  William  1 1067 

Charter  by  Henry  II.,  the  city  granted  to  the 

burgesses  by  John 1199 

Henry  III.  holds  the  "mad"  parliament  here  1258 
The   BISHOPRIC,   established  by  Henry  VIII., 
formed  out  of  Lincoln,  first  placed  at  Osney 
in  1542  ;  removed  to  Oxford  (Cathedral,  for- 
merly St.  Frideswide,  now  Christ  church)      .   1545 


Bishops  Ridley  and"  Latimer  burnt  here,  Oct. 
16,  1555  ;  and  archbishop  Cranmer,  March  21,  1556 

Fatal  (or  Black)  Oxford  A^sizes,— when  the  high 
sheriff  and  300  other  persons  died  suddenly, 
of  an  infection  caught  from  the  prisoners  ,  1557 

Charles  I.  took  Oxford,  1642,  and  held  a  parlia- 
ment here  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  1644 

Taken  by  the  parliament 1646 

Charles  II.  held  parliaments  here      .         1665  &  1681 


RECENT  BISHOPS  OF  OXFORD.     (Present  income,  5000?.) 


1807.  Charles  Moss  ;  died,  Dec.  16,  1811. 
1812.  William  Jackson  ;  died,  Dec.  2,  1815. 
1815.  Edward  Legge ;  died,  Jan.  27,  1827. 


1827.  Charles  Lloyd  ;  died,  May  31,  1829. 

1829.  Richard  B.igot :  translated  to  Bath,  Nov.  1846. 

1845.  Samuel  Wilberforce,  PRESENT  bishop. 


OXFORD  ADMINISTRATION,  formed  May  29,  1711. 


Robert,  earl  of  Oxford  (previously  right  hon.  Robert 

Harley),  lord  treasurer. 

Sir  Simon  (afterwards  lord)  Harcourt,  lord  keeper. 
John,   duke  of  Normanby  and   Buckingham,    lord 

president. 

John,  bishop  of  Bristol  (aft.  London),  privy  seal. 
Henry  St.  John  (afterwards  viscount  Bolingbroke), 

and  William,  lord  Dartmouth,  secretaries  of  state. 


Robert  Benson  (afterwards  lord  Bingley),  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer. 

The  duke  of  Shrewsbury  succeeded  lord  Oxford,  re- 
ceiving the  lord  treasurer's  staff  on  July  30,  1714, 
three  days  before  the  death  of  queen  Anne  From 
the  reign  of  George  I.  the  office  of  lord  treasurer 
has  been  executed  by  commissioners. 


OXFORD  DECLARATION.     See  Church  of  England,  1864. 
OXFORD  MARBLES.     See  Arundelian. 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY.     An  academy  here  is  described  as  ancient  by  pope  Martin  II. 
in  a  deed,  802.     Alfred  founded  "the  schools"  about  879. 


Charter  granted  by  Henry  III  .....  1248 
The  university  incorporated  by  Elizabeth  .  .  1571 
Receives  the  elective  franchise  (to  send  two 

members  to  parliament)       .....  1603 
Bodleian  Library  opened,  Nov.  8.  1602  :  present 

building  completed      ......   1613 

The  botanic  garden,    &c.,  established  by  the 

earl  of  Danby    .......   1622 

Radeliffe  Library  opened,  April  13,  1749:  the 

Radcliffe  observatory  completed         .         .     .   1786 
A  commission  appointed  (Aug.  31,  1850)  to  in- 

quire into  its  "state,  studies,  discipline,  and 

revenues  ;"  reported         .        .        .  April  27,  1852 
Act  making  alterations  passed 
University  Museum  opened 
Examination  statutes  passed  . 
Extension    of    the    university 

meeting  held        ... 


1855,  1856 
.         .          July>  1860 
1801,  1807,  1850,  1862 
proposed    at    a 
.         Nov.  16,  1865 


COLLEGES. 

University.  Said  to  have  been  founded  by  king 
Alfred,  872  ;  founded  by  William,  archdeacon 
of  Durham,  about 1232 

Baliol.  John  Baliol,  knt.  (father  to  Baliol,  king 
of  the  Scots),  and  Deborah,  his  wife  .  .  1263 

Merton  College.  Walter  de  Merton,  bishop  of 

Rochester 1264  j 

Hertford  College  (dissolved  in  1818,  and  a  Hert- 
ford scholarship  appointed)  .  .  .  .1312 

Exeter.     Walter  Stapleton,  bishop  of  Exeter    .   1314 

Oriel  College.  King  Edward  II.  ;  Adam  de 
Brome,  archdeacon  of  Stowe  .  ...  1326 

Queen's  College.  Robert  de  Eglesfield,  clerk, 
confessor  to  queen  Philippa,  consort  of  Ed- 
ward III 1340 

New  College.  William  of  Wykeham,  bishop  of 
Winchester:  first  called  St.  Mary  of  Win- 
chester   1386 


All  Souls'  College,  founded  by  Henry  Chichely, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  .  .  .  -1437 

Magdalen.  William  of  Waynflete,  bishop  of 
Winchester 1456 

Lincoln  College.  Richard  Fleming,  1427 ; 
finished  by  Rotherham,  bishop  of  Lincoln  .  1479 

Brazenose.  William  Smyth,  bishop  of  Lincoln, 
and  sir  Richard  Sutton 1509 

Corpus  Christi.  Richard  Fox,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester  1516 

Christ  Church.  Cardinal  Wolsey,  1525  ;  and 
afterwards  by  Henry  VIII 1532 

Trinity.     Sir  Thomas  Pope,  on  the  basis  of  a 

previous  institution,  called  Durham  College,  1554 
.  St.  John's.     Sir  Thomas  Whyte,  lord  mayor  of 
London 1555 

Jesus  College.  Dr.  Hugh  Price  ;  queen  Eliza- 
beth   1571 

Wadham.  Nicholas  Wadham,  and  Dorothy,  his 
wife 1613 

Pembroke.  Thomas  Teesdale  and  Richard 
Wightwick,  clerk 1624 

Worcester.  Sir  Thomas  Coke  of  Bentley,  in 
Worcestershire  ;  it  was  joriginally  called  Glou- 
cester College 1714 


St.  Edmund's 
St.  Mary's      . 
New  Inn  Hall  . 
St.  Mary  Magdalen 
St.  Alban's 


HALLS  (not  incorporated). 

.  1269 

1333 

'392 

1487 

1547 

[Oxford  University  Calendar.} 


First  Professorships — Divinity  (Margaret),  1502, 
Divinity,  Law,  Medicine,  Hebrew,  Greek, 
1540,  &c. 


1809.  Lord  Grenville. 

1834.  The  duke  of  Wellington. 


RECENT   CHANCELLORS. 

I  1852.  The  Earl  of  Derby. 


OXF 


537 


PAD 


OXFORD'S  ASSAULT  ox  THE  QUEEN*.  A  youth  named  Edward  Oxford,  who  had  been 
a  servant  in  a  public-house,  discharged  two  pistols  at  her  majesty  queen  Victoria  and  prince 
Albert,  as  they  were  proceeding  up  Constitution-hill  in  an  open  phaeton  from  Buckingham 
palace,  June  10,  1840.  He  stood  within  a  few  yards  of  the  carriage  ;  but  fortunately  neither 
her  majesty  nor  the  prince  was  injured.  Oxford  M\as  subsequently  tried  at  the  Old  Bailey 
(July  10),  and  being  adjudged  to  be  insane,  was  sent  to  Bethlehem  hospital. 

OXYGEN",  a  gas  (named  from  the  Greek  oxus,  sharp,  as  being  generally  found  in  acids), 
is  the  most  abundant  of  all  substances,  constituting  about  one-third  of  tbe  solid  earth,  and 
forming  by  weight  nine-tenths  of  water  and  one-fourth  of  the  atmosphere.  It  was  first 
separated  from  red  oxide  of  mercury  by  Priestley,  Aug.  I,  1774,  and  by  Scheele,  who  was 
ignorant  of  Priestley's  discoveiy,  in  1775.  It  is  the  chief  supporter  of  animal  life  by 
respiration,  and  of  combustion.*  See  Ozone. 

OYER  AND  TERMINER,  a  commission  directed  to  the  judges  of  the  courts,  by  virtue 
whereof  they  have  power  to  hear  and  determine  treasons,  felonies,  &c.,  1285. 

0  YES  !  A  corruption  of  the  French  oycz,  hear  ye  !  The  ancient  term  used  by  a  public 
crier  to  enjoin  silence  and  attention. 

OYSTER,  (the  Latin  Ostrea  edulis),  is  said  to  have  its  capital  in  Britain,  for  though 
found  elsewhere  on  the  coasts  of  Europe,  in  no  part  of  them  does  it  attain  such  perfection  as 
in  our  seas.  British  oysters  are  celebrated  by  the  Roman  satirist  Juvenal  (Sat.  IV.  140) 
about  100.  The  robbery  of  oyster-beds  is  prohibited  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29  (1826).  About 
15,000  bushels  of  oysters  are  said  to  be  produced  from  the  Essex  beds  alone.  In  1858 
M.  Coste  commenced  rearing  oysters  in  great  numbers  on  the  coast  of  Brittany,  and  his  plan 
has  been  found  successful. 

OZONE  (from  ozein,  to  yield  an  odour),  a  name  given  in  1840  by  M.  Schb'nbein  of  Basel 
to  the  odour  in  the  atmosphere  developed  during  the  electric  discharge.  It  is  considered  to 
be  a  modification  of  the  oxygen  (which  see),  and  when  occurring  naturally,  to  have  an  effect 
on  health.  It  is  also  produced  by  the  action  of  moist  air  on  phosphorus.  In  1858 
ozonometers  had  been  constructed  by  Dr.  Lankester  and  others.  M.  Schonbein  lias  since 
discovered  another  modification  of  oxygen,  which  he  terms  antozone  (1859),  \vhich  hitherto 
has  been  found  only  in  the  compound  state  (in  peroxides  of  sodium,  potassium,  &c.).  On 
Dec.  4,  1865,  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  appointed  a  committee  of  eminent  philo- 
sophers to  inquire  into  the  nature  and  relations  of  ozone. 


P. 


PACIFICATION,  EDICTS  OF.      The   name  usually  given  to  the   edicts    of  toleration 
granted  by  the  French  kings  to  the  Protestants.     See  Ghent. 


First  edict,  by  Charles  IX.,  permitting  tbe  exer- 
cise of  the  reformed  religion  near  all  tbe 
cities  and  towns  in  tbe  realm  .  .  Jan.  1562 

Tbe  reformed  religion  permitted  in  the  houses 
of  lords  justiciaries,  and  certain  other  persons, 

March,  1563 

These  edicts  revoked,  and  all  Protestant  minis- 
ters ordered  to  quit  France  in  fifteen  days  .  1568 

Edict,  allowing  lords  and  others  to  have  service 
in  their  houses,  and  granting  public  service 
in  certain  towns 1570 


[In  August,  1572,  the  same  monarch  authorised 
tbe  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  See  Bar- 
tholomew.] 

Edict  of  Pacification  by  Henry  III.,  April ;  re- 
voked, Dec.  1576  ;  renewed  for  six  years,  Oct.  1577 

[Several  edicts  were  published  against  the  Pro- 
testants after  the  six  years  expired.  ] 

Edict  of  Henry  IV.,  renewing  that  of  Oct.  1577,  1591 

Edict  of   Nantes  (which  see),   by    Henry   IV., 


Pacification  (which  see)  of  Nismes 


April  13,  1598 
July  14,  1629 


PACIFIC  OCEAN.    See  Magellan.—  STEAM  VESSEL.    See  Steam,  1851 ;  Wrecks,  1856. 

PADLOCKS  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Becher  at  Nuremberg,  1540,  but  are 
mentioned  much  earlier. 

PADUA,  the  Roman  Patavium,  in  Venetia,  N.  Italy,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Antenor,  soon  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  1183  B.C.  It  flourished  under  the  Romans.  Patavian 
Latin  was  considered  very  corrupt,  and  is  traced  in  Livy,  a  native  of  Padua.  After  being 
an  independent  republic,  Padua  was  ruled  by  the  Carrara  family  from  1318  till  1405,  when 
it  was  seized  by  the  Venetians.  The  university  was  founded  about  1228. 

An  oxygen  gas  company  was  announced  in  Dec.  1864 :  its  object  is  the  cheap  manufacture  of  oxygen 
s  application  to  the  production  of  perfect  combustion  in  lamps,  stoves,  furnaces,  <fcc. 


PAG 


538 


PAI 


PAGAN'S,  the  heathen,  idolaters,  gentiles,  worshippers  of  idols,  not  agreeing  in  any  set 
form  or  points  of  belief.  Constantino  ordered  the  Pagan  temples  to  be  destroyed  throughout 
the  Roman  empire,  331 ;  his  nephew,  Julian,  attempted  their  restoration,  361 ;  but  Paganism 
was  renounced  by  the  Roman  senate,  in  388,  and  finally  overthrown  in  the  reign  of  Theo- 
<losius  the  younger,  about  391. 

PAINS  AND  PENALTIES.     See  queen  Caroline. 

PAINTING.  Osymandyas  (in  Egypt)  caused  his  exploits  to  be  represented  in  painting, 
2100  B.C.  Usher.  Pausias  of  Sicyon  was  the  inventor  of  the  encaustic,  a  method  of  burning 
the  colours  into  wood  or  ivory,  about  360-330  B.C.  The  ancients  considered  Sicyon  the 
nursery  of  painters.  Antiphiles,  an  Egyptian,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the 
grotesque,  332  B.C.  Pliny.  The  art  was  introduced  at  Rome  from  Etruria,  by  Quintus 
Fabius,  styled  Pictor,  291  B.C.  Livy*  The  first  excellent  pictures  were  brought  from  Corinth 
by  Mummius,  146  B.C.  After  the  death  of  Augustus,  not  a  single  painter  of  eminence 
appeared  for  several  ages  ;  Ludius,  who  was  very  celebrated,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
last,  about  A.D.  14.  Painting  on  canvas  seems  to  have  been  known  at  Rome  in  66.  Bede, 
the  Saxon  historian,  who  died  in  735,  knew  something  of  the  art.  It  revived  about  the  end 
of  the  1 3th  century,  and  to  Giovanni  Cimabue,  of  Florence,  is  awarded  the  honour  of  its 
restoration.  It  was  at  once  encouraged  and  generously  patronised  in  Italy.  John  Van  Eyck, 
of  Bruges,  and  his  brother,  Hubert,  are  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  Flemish  school  of 
painting  in  oil,  1415.  Dufresnoy.  Paulo  Uccello  was  the  first  who  studied  perspective. 
About  1523  Henry  VIII.  patronised  Holbein,  and  invited  Titian  to  his  court. f 


EMINENT   PAINTERS. 

School.       Born. 

Died. 

School. 

Born. 

Died. 

Cimabue 

.  Florentine,  1240 

1300 

Ostade    .... 

.  Dutch    . 

.  1610 

1685 

Giotto          .        .        . 

Ditto              1276 

1  316 

Murillo        ... 

.  Spfinisli 

1611 

1685 

J.  Van  Eyck  . 

.  Flemish     .  1366 

Aoou 

1441 

Berghem 

.  Dutch 

.   1624 

1685 

Giorgione    . 

.  Venetian    .  1477 

1511 

Carlo  Dolci  . 

.   Florentir 

e.  1616 

1686 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  . 

.  Florentine.  1452 

Wouvermans  . 

.  Dutch 

.  1620 

1688 

Raphael  d'Urbino 
Paolo  Perugino 

.  Roman       .  1483 
.  Ditto      .     .1446 

1520 
1524 

Le  Brun 

Teniers,  jun.  . 

.  French 
.  Flemish 

.  1619 
.  1610 

1690 
1694 

Albert  Durer  . 

.  German     .   1470 

1528 

W.  Vander  Velde 

.  Dutch 

.  1633 

1707 

Quentin  Matsys'. 

.  Flemish     .   1430 

J529 

Watteau 

.  French 

.    1684 

1721 

Corregifio 

.  Lombardn.   1494 

J534 

Sir  Godfrey  Kneller   . 

.  German 

.   1648 

Parmegiano 

.  Ditto      .     .1503 

1540 

Sir  J.  Thornhill     . 

.  English 

.  1676 

1732 

Giulio  Romano 

.  Roman       .  1492 

Huysum 

.  Dutch    . 

.  1682 

J749 

Sebastian  del  Piombo 

.  Venetian    .   1485 

J547 

Hogarth. 

.  English 

.   1697 

1764 

Hans  Holbein     . 

.  German        1498 

J554 

Canaletti     .        „        . 

.  Venetian 

1768 

Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti  Florentine,   1474 

Gainsborough 

.  English 

•  1727 

1788 

Titian, 

.  Venetian    .   1477 

I  S7^ 

Vernet 

.  French 

•   I7I4 

1789 

Paul  Veronese 

.  Ditto      .     .  1532 

1588 

Sir  J.  Reynolds 

.  English 

1792 

Tintoretto  . 

.  Ditto  .        .  1512 

*594 

Romney 

.  Ditto      . 

•   I734 

1802 

Annibal  Caracci     . 

.  Lombardn.   1568 

1609 

Moreland 

.  Ditto  . 

•  1764 

1804 

Breughel     . 

.  Flemish     .  1565 

1625 

Barry  .... 

.  Ditto      . 

1806 

P.  P.  Rubens 

.  Ditto     .     .1577 

1640 

Opie        .... 

.  Ditto  . 

.   1761 

1807 

Domenichino 

.  Bolognese  .  1581 

1641 

Bourgeois   . 

.  Ditto      . 

1811 

Vandyck 

.  Flemish     .   1599. 

1641 

Copley    .... 

.  Ditto. 

•  1738 

1815 

Lombardn.   1575 

1642 

West    .... 

.  Ditto      . 

1820 

Both        .... 

.  Dutch        .   1600 

1650 

Fuseli     .... 

.  Ditto  . 

•   1741 

1825 

P.  Potter     . 

.  Ditto      .     .  1625 

1654 

David  .... 

1825 

Le  Sueur 

.  French      .   1617 

1655 

Lawrence 

.  English 

•  ^769 

A  v*.  3 

1830 

Spagnoletto 

.  Spanish     .  1589 

1656 

Northcote   . 

.  Ditto      . 

•   J746 

1831 

Snyders  .... 
Velasquez   . 

.  Flemish     .  1579 
.  Spanish      .  1599 

1657 
1660 

Beechey. 
Wilkie 

.  Ditto  . 
.  Ditto      . 

1839 
1841 

N.  Poussin 

.  French      .   1594 

1^65 

Haydon  .... 

.  Ditto  . 

.  1786 

1846 

Guercino     . 

.  Bolognese.   1590 

1666 

Collins 

.  Ditto      . 

.    1788 

1847 

Hobbima 

.  Flemish     .  1611 

1670 

Etty        .... 

.  Ditto  . 

.   1787 

1849 

A.  Cuyp      . 

.  Dutch         .  1606 

1672 

Turner 

.  Ditto      . 

•   J775 

1851 

A.  Vander  Velde    . 

.  Ditto      .     .  1638 

1672 

Martin    .... 

.  Ditto. 

.  1790 

1854 

Salvator  Rosa     . 

.  Neapolitan.  1615 

l673 

Aug.  Egg    . 

.  Ditto      . 

.   1816 

1863 

Rembrandt    . 

.  Dutch         .  1606 

1674 

Wm.  Mulready 

.  Ditto  . 

.   1786 

1863 

Gerard  Douw 

.  Ditto      .     .1613 

1680 

Wm.  Hunt  . 

.  Ditto      . 

1864 

Sir  Peter  Lely 

.  German     .  1617 

1680 

W.  F.  Witherington 

.  Ditto. 

'.   1786 

1865 

Mieris. 

.  Dutch        .  1635 

1681 

H.  Vernet   . 

.  French 

1863 

Ruysdael 

.  Ditto      .     .  1636 

1681 

E.  De  la  Croix 

.  Ditto.' 

, 

1863 

Claude  Lorraine  . 

.  French       .  1600 

1682 

E.  W.  Cooke       . 

.  English    . 

1810 

*  Parrhasius  of  Ephesus  and  Zeuxis  were  contemporary  painters.  These  artists  once  contended  for 
pre  eminence  in  their  profession,  and  when  they  exhibited  their  respective  pieces  the  birds  came  to  peck 
the  grapes  which  Zeuxis  had  painted.  Parrhasius  then  produced  his  piece,  and  Zeuxis  said,  "  Remove 
the  curtain,  that  we  may  see  the  painting."  The  curtain  itself  was  the  painting,  and  Zeuxis  acknow- 
ledged himself  to  be  conquered,  exclaiming,  "Zeuxis  has  deceived  th«  birds  ;  but  Parrhasius  has  deceived 
Zeuxis  !  "  Parrhasius  dressed  in  a  purple  robe,  and  wore  a  crown  of  gold,  calling  himself  king  of -painters, 
415  B.C.  Plutarch. 

t  In  Aug.  1860,  the  sale  of  lord  Northwick's  pictures  occupied  eighteen  days.     It  produced  95,725?.    A 


PAL  539  PAL 

PALACE  COURT.     See  Marshalsea  and  Green  Cloth. 

PALACES.     See  Buckingham,  St.  James  s,  Parliament,  Escurial,  TuHeries,  St.  Cloud, 

Versailles,  &c. 

PAL^EOLOGI,  a  family  which  reigned  as  emperors  of  the  East  from  1260  to  1453. 
George  Palaeologus  raised  Alexius  Comnenus  to  the  throne  in  1081,  and  thereby  founded  his 
own  family.  Andrew,  the  last  Palseologus,  son  of  Thomas,  ruler  of  the  Morea,  after  the 
overthrow  of  his  father,  became  a  Mahometan  at  Constantinople  about  1533. 

PALAEONTOLOGY  (from  the  Greek  palaios,  ancient,  and  onta,  beings),  treats  of  the 
evidences  of  organic  beings  in  the  earth's  strata.  It  is  a  branch  of  geology  (which  6w:). 
Cuvier,  Mantell,  Agassiz,  Owen,  Edward  Forbes,  and  Blainville,  all  of  the  present  century, 
may  be  reckoned  as  fathers  of  this  science.  The  Palseontographical  society,  which  publishes 
elaborate  monographs  of  British  organic  remains,  was  founded  in  1847.  Professor  Owen's 
" Paleontology"  was  published  in  1860.  "Nearly  40,000  species  of  animals  and  plants 
have  been  added  to  the  Systema  Nature  by  palteontological  research."  Huxley.  See  Man. 

PALATINATE  OF  THE  RHINE,  one  of  the  seven  ancient  electorates  of  Germany.  It 
was  long  united  to  Bavaria  ;  but  was  separated  in  1294.— Frederic  V.,  the  elector  palatine  in 
1610,  married  in  1613  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  and  thus  became  the 
ancestor  of  queen  Victoria.  See  Hanover.  In  1619  he  was  elected  king  of  Bohemia;  but 
lost  all  by  his  defeat  by  the  Austrians  at  Prague  in  1620.  The  Palatinate  was  horribly  ravaged 
by  Tiily  in  1622,  and  by  the  French  in  1688.*  The  elector  palatine,  Charles  Theodore,  inherited 
Bavaria  in  1778  :  since  when  the  two  electorates  have  been  united.  See  Bavaria. 

PALATINE.  William  the  Conqueror  made  his  nephew,  Hugh  D'Abrincis,  count 
palatine  of  Chester,  with  the  title  of  earl,  about  1070.  Edward  III.  created  the  palatine  of 
Lancaster,  1539.  See  Lancaster,  duchy  of.  The  bishoprics  of  Ely  (963)  and  Durham  were 
also  made  county  palatines.  The  latter  was  vested  in  the  crown  in  1836.  There  is  also 
mention  made  of  the  county  palatine  of  Hexham,  in  33  Henry  VIII.  c.  10,  which  then 
belonged  to  the  archbishop  of  York,  but  by  the  I4th  of  Elizabeth  it  was  dissolved,  and  made 
part  of  the  county  of  Northumberland.  The  palatinate  jurisdiction  of  Durham,  was  separated 
from  the  diocese,  and  vested  in  the  crown,  6  Will.  IV.  c.  19,  June  21,  1836. 

PALERMO  (N.W.  Sicily),  the  ancient  Panormus.  It  has  been  held  by  the  Carthaginians, 
415  B.C.  ;  taken  by  the  Romans,  254  B.C.  ;  by  the  Saracens,  A.D.  832  ;  and  by  the  Normans, 
1072.  Here  Roger  II.  was  crowned  king  of  Sicily,  1130.  Palermo  was  the  scene  of  the 
Sicilian  Vespers  (which  see],  March  30,  1282.  It  suffered  from  earthquake  in  1726  and  1740. 
The  king  Ferdinand  resided  at  Palermo  from  1806  to  1815,  while  Naples  was  ruled  by  Joseph 
Bonaparte  and  Joachim  Murat.  It  revolted  against  the  tyranny  of  Ferdinand  II.,  Jan.  12, 
1848.  It  was  attacked  by  general  Filangieri,  March  29,  1849,  and  surrendered  on  May  14. 
It  was  taken  by  Garibaldi,  June  6,  1860. 

PALESTINE.  See  Jlhos.  After  being  several  times  conquered  by  the  Saracens,,  and 
retaken  from  the  7th  to  the  loth  century,  and  after  being  the  scene  of  the  wars  of  the 
Crusades  (which  see),  and  other  conflicts,  Palestine  was  united  to  the  Ottoman  empire  by 
Selim  I.  in  1516.  See  Bible  (note),f  Holy  Places,  and  Syria. 

PALESTRO  (N.  Italy),  where  the  Sardinians  defeated  the  Austrians,  May  30,  31,  1859. 

PALL,  PALLIUM,  in  the  Roman  Church  an  ensign  of  dignity  conferred  by  the  pope 
upon  archbishops.  By  a  decretal  of  pope  Gregory  XI.  (about  1370),  no  archbishop  could  call 
a  council,  bless  the  chrism,  consecrate  churches,  ordain  a  clerk,  or  consecrate  a  bishop,  till 
he  had  received  his  pall  from  the  see  of  Rome.  The  pall  was  first  worn  by  an  Irish  arch- 
bishop in  1152,  when  Gelasius  was  recognised  as  primate  of  all  Ireland. 

PALLADIUM,  the  statue  of  Pallas.  Some  authors  say  it  fell  from  heaven  near  the  tent 
of  Ilus,  as  he  was  building  Ilium ;  and  that  on  its  preservation  depended  the  safety  of  Troy; 
which  the  oracle  of  Apollo  declared  should  never  be  taken  so  long  as  the  Palladium  was 

Carlo  Dolci  fetched  2010?.,  and  a' Murillo  1400^.  The  Bicknell  collection,  sold  in  April,  1863,  produced 
25,600^. 

*  About  7000  of  poor  Protestants,  from  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  driven  from  their  habitations  by  the 
French,  arrived  in  England,  and  were  encamped  at  Blackheath  and  Camberwell :  a  brief  was  granted  to 
collect  alms  for  them.  Five  hundred  families  went  under  the  protection  of  the  government  to  Ireland, 
and  settled  chiefly  about  Limerick,  where  parliament  granted  them  24,000^.  for  their  support.  Three 
thousand  were  sent  to  New  York  and  Hudson's  Bay  ;  but  not  having  been  received  kindly,  they  went  to 
1 M HI sylvania,  and  being  there  greatly  encouraged  by  the  Quakers,  they  invited  over  some  thousands  of 
German  and  Swiss  Protestants,  who  soon  made  this  colony  nourishing,  7  Anne,  1709.  Anderson. 

t  By  means  of  the  Palestine  exploration  fund  (see  pi  103),  capt.  Wilson  and  a  party  left  England  for 
Palestine  in  Nov.  1865. 


PAL 


540 


PAL 


found  within  its  walls.  This  being  made  known,  the  Greeks  stole  it  away  during  the  Trojan 
war,  1 1 84  B.C.,  though  some  maintain  that  it  was  only  a  statue  of  similar  size  and  shape, 
and  that  the  real  Palladium  was  conveyed  from  Troy  to  Italy  by  TEneas,  1183  B.C.,  and  pre- 
served by  the  Romans  with  the  greatest  secresy  in  the  temple  of  Vesta,  and  esteemed  the 
destiny  of  Rome. — PALLADIUM  as  a  rare  metal  discovered  in  platinum  ore  by  Dr.  Wollaston 
in  1803. 

PALLAS,*  the  planet,  was  discovered  by  Olbers,  at  Bremen,  March  28,  1802. 

PALL  MALL,  a  street  near  St.  James's  palace,  London,  is  named  from  a  French  game 
at  ball  (paille-maille,  being  a  wooden  mallet),  having  been  played  there  about  1621.  Among 
eminent  inhabitants  were  Nell  Gwyn  and  Dr.  Thomas  Sydenham. 

PALMERSTON  ADMINISTRATION,  t  The  resignation  of  the  Aberdeen  adminis- 
tration was  announced  Feb.  I,  1855,  but  nearly  all  its  members  returned  to  office  soon  after 
under  lord  Palmerston, — lord  Derby  and  lord  John  Russell  having  each  in  vain  endeavoured 
to  form  an  administration.  On  Feb.  22,  Mr.  Gladstone,  sir  James  Graham,  and  Mr.  Sidney 
Herbert  resigned  on  account  of  the  Sebastopol  inquiry.  Lord  John  Russell  resigned 
July  13.  Lord  Canning  was  appointed  governor-general  of  India,  July  4,  1855.  This 
cabinet  resigned  Feb.  20,  1858,  in  consequence  of  a  vote  of  censure  upon  the  government 
for  introducing  the  Foreign  Conspiracy  bill.  It  was  succeeded  by  the  Derby  administration 


First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  sir  James  Graham  (re- 
signed Feb.  22)  ;  next,  sir  Charles  Wood. 

Board  of  control,  sir  Charles  Wood;  next,  R.  Vernon 
Smith. 

Public  work*,  sir  W.  Molesworth  ;  next,  sir  B.  Hall 
(appointed  July  22,  1855). 

Postmaster-general,  viscount  Canning  (appointed  go- 
vernor-general of  India,  July  4);  next,  duke  of 
Argyll. 

President  of  the  board  of  trade,  lord  Stanley  of  Al- 
derley. 

Marquess  of  Lansdowne,  without  office. 

ChancellQr  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  M.  T.  Baines 
(appointed  Nov.  24,  1855). 


First  lord  of  the  treasury,  Henry  viscount  Palmer- 
ston. 

Lord  chancellor,  lord  Craiiworth. 

President  of  the  council,  earl  Granville. 

Lord  privy  seal,  duke  of  Argyll ;  earl  of  Harrowby  ; 
afterwards  the  marquess  of  Clanricarde. 

Secretaries — home,  sir  George  Grey ;  foreign,  earl  of 
Clarendon ;  colonial,  Sidney  Herbert  (resigned 
Feb.  22) ;  afterwards  lord  J.  Russell  (resigned 
July  13) :  sir  William  Molesworth  (died  Oct.  22, 
1855)  ;  next,  Henry  Labouchere  ;  war,  Lord  Pan- 
mure. 

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  W.  Gladstone  (resigned 
Feb.  22)  ;  next,  sir  G.  Cornewall  Lewis. 


PALMERSTON-RUSSELL  ADMINISTRATION.  The  Derby  administration  (which 
see)  resigned  June  II,  1859.  Earl  Granville  was  requested  by  the  queen  to  form  an  adminis- 
tration, and  obtained  the  support  of  lord  Palmerston,  but  not  of  lord  John  Russell  :  the  two 
last  then  united  to  form  a  cabinet,  which  came  into  office  June  18,  1859.  On  the  decease 
of  lord  Palmerston,  Oct.  18,  1865,  earl  Russell  became  premier.  See  Russell.  » 


Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Wm.  Ewart  Gladstone. 
First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  duke  of  Somerset. 
President  of  the  board  of  trade,  Thomas  Milner  Gibson. 

[This  office  was  offered  to  Mr.  R.  Cobden,  and 

clined  by  him.J 
Secretary  of  state  for  Ireland,  Edward  Cardwell  ; 

ceeded  by  sir  R.  Peel  (not  in  the  cabinet). 
Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  sir  George  Grey, 

bart.  ;    succeeded  by  Edward  Cardwell  ;   and  by 

eai'l  Clarendon,  April  8,  1864. 
Postmaster-general,  earl  of  Elgin  (proceeded  to  Ch 

in  April,  1860)  ;  succeeded  by  lord  Stanley  of 

derley,  appointed  Sept.  1860. 
Poor-laic  board,  Charles  P.  Villiers  (July  9,  1860). 


First  lordofthetreasury,  Henry  viscount  Palmerston. 

Lord  high  chancellor,  John  lord  Campbell  (died,  June 
23,  1861)  ;  succeeded  by  sir  Richard  Bethell,  made 
lord  Westbury,  who  resigned  July  4,  1865  ;  suc- 
ceeded by  Lord  Cranworth. 

Lord  president  of  the  council,  earl  Granville. 

Lord  privy  seal,  duke  of  Argyll. 

Secretaries— foreign  affairs,  lord  John  (afterwards 
earl)  Russell ;  colonies,  duke  of  Newcastle ;  suc- 
ceeded by  Edward  Cardwell,  April  8,  1864;  home, 
sir  G.  Cornewall  Lewis  ;  succeeded  by  sir  George 
Grey ;  war,  Sidney  (afterwards  lord)  Herbert ; 
succeeded  by  sir  G.  C.  Lewis  (died  April  13,  1863), 
and  by  earl  De  Grey  (May  i) ;  India,  sir  Charles 
Wcod. 

PALM-SUNDAY.  When  Christ  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  multitudes 
of  the  people  who  were  come  to  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  took  branches  of  the  palm-tree, 

*  It  is  distant  f  rom  the  sun  about  263  millions  of  miles,  and  completes  its  revolution  in  four  years 
seven  months  and  one-third  of  a  month.  Schroeter,  a  Germui  astronomer,  estimated  its  diameter  to  be 
2099  miles,  and  consequently  nearly  the  size  of  our  moon.  It  presents  a  ruddy  aspect,  and  is  surrounded 
with  a  nebulosity.  It  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  planets  by  the  very  great  inclination  of  its  orbit 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  which  is  no  less  than  34  degrees  35  minutes. 

t  Henry  John  Temple  was  born,  Oct.  20,  1784  ;  was  educated  at  Harrow,  Edinburgh,  and  Cambridge  ; 
succeeded  his  father,  viscount  Palmerston,  1802  ;  became  M.  P. ,  and  a  junior  lord  of  the  admiralty,  1807  ;  was 
secretary-at  war,  1809-28,  and  a  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  Nov.  1830-34,  April  1835  to  Sept.  1841,  and 
July  1846  to  Dec.  1851  ;  and  home  secretary,  Dec.  1852  to  March  1855,  when  he  became  first  lord  of  the 
treasury.  He  was  created  lord  warden  of  the  cinque  ports,  March  31,  1861 ;  and  master  of  the  corporation 
of  the  Trinity  house,  June  16,  1862.  He  died,  Oct.  18,  1865.  He  sat  for  Tiverton,  1835-65. 


son. 

:: 


by 

- 


PAL  541  PAN 

and  went  forth  to  meet  him,  with  acclamations  and  hosannas,  33.     It  is  usual,  in  some 
countries,  to  carry  palms  on  the  Sunday  before  Easter,  hence«called  Palm-Sunday. 

PALMYRA  (Syria).  The  ruins,  chiefly  of  white  marble,  discovered  by  some  English 
travellers  in  1678,  prove  Palmyra  to  have  been  more  extensive  and  splendid  than  even  Rome 
itself.  It  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness  built  by  Solomon,  but 
was  manifestly  Grecian.  The  brilliant  part  of  the  history  of  Palmyra  was  under  Odenatus 
and  his  queen  Zenobia.  Odenatus  died,  and  Zenobia  assumed  the  title  of  queen  of  the  East, 
in  267.  Aurelian  defeated  her  at  Adessa  and  made  her  captive,  273.  From  that  time 
Palmyra  ceased  to  make  a  figure  in  history.  It  is  now  inhabited  by  only  a  few  Arab  families. 
The  ruins  were  visited  in  1751,  by  Mr.  "Wood,  who  published  an  account  of  them  in  1753. 
Mr.  Dawkins  also  visited  Palmyra  ;  and  Mr.  Bruce,  oil  ascending  a  neighbouring  mount,  was 
overcome  with  the  magnificent  sight. 

PAMPELUNA  (N.  E.  Spain,  taken  by  the  French  on  their  invasion  of  Spain),  was 
invested  by  the  British,  between  whom  and  the  French  obstinate  conflicts  took  place,  July 
27  and  29,  1813.  It  surrendered  to  the  British,  Oct.  31,  in  that  year. 

PAMPHLET.  .  The  first  appearance  of  pamphlets  amongst  us  is  generally  thought  to 
have  been  in  opposition  to  the  errors  and  corruptions  of  the  church  of  Rome.  Those  who 
were  first  convinced  of  the  reasonableness  of  the  "new  learning,"  as  it  was  then  called,  pro- 
pagated their  opinions  in  small  pieces,  which  were  cheaply  printed,  and  (what  was  then  of 
great  importance)  easily  concealed.  Political  pamphlets  began  in  Edward  VI. 's  time,  and 
were  very  numerous  in  the  I7th  century.  Large  collections  are  in  the  libraries  of  the  British 
Museum  and  the  Royal  and  London  Institutions. 

PANAMA,  the  isthmus  which  joins  the  two  Americas.  Across  this  a  ship  canal  has 
been  proposed  :  and  a  railway  was  opened  in  1855.  In  that  year  a  new  state,  New  Grenada, 
was  divided  into  eight  federal  states,  one  of  which  is  named  PANAMA.  A  revolution  took 
place  in  Panama  on  March  9,  1865  ;  the  government  was  deposed,  and  don  Jil  Colunje 
became  president. 

PANDECTS.  A  digest  of  the  civil  law  made  by  order  of  Justinian,  about  534.  It  is 
stated  that  these  Pandects  (which  condensed  all  the  then  known  laws)  were  accidental^ 
discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Amalfi,  1137;  were  removed  from  Pisa  in  1415,  and  now  pre- 
served in  the  library  of  the  Medici  at  Florence,  as  the  Pandcctce  Florentines. 

PANICS,  COMMERCIAL,  generally  the  result  of  over-speculation.  See  Bubbles,  South  Sea, 
Law's.  The  last  in  this  country  were,  in  1826,  through  bubble  companies  ;  in  1847, 
through  the  railway  mania;  in  1857,  through  American  failures;  and  in  April,  1859, 
through  the  fear  of  a  continental  war. 

PANNONIA,  part  of  Illyria,  now  Hungary,  was  finally  subdued  by  Tiberius,  8. 

PANOPTICON  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART,  in  Leicester-square,  erected  in  1852-3  for  a  char- 
tered company,  by  Mr.  T.  H.  Lewis,  the  architect ;  was  opened  in  1854  for  lectures,  musical 
performances,  &c.  It  had  a  very  large  electrical  machine,  battery,  &c.  The  speculation  did 
not  succeed  ;  the  building  was  sold  in  1857,  and  in  Feb.  1858,  was  opened  for  concerts  and 
horsemanship,  and  called  the  Alhambra. 

PANORAMAS,  the  invention  of  Robert  Barker,  are  bird's-eye  views  painted  in  dis- 
temper round  the  wall  of  a  circular  building.  In  1788  he  exhibited  at  Edinburgh  a  view  of 
that  city,  being  the  first  picture  of  the  kind.  He  then  commenced  similar  exhibitions  in 
London,  having  adopted  the  name  '  Panorama '  to  attract  notice,  and  was  ultimately 
enabled  to  build  commodious  premises  in  Leicester-square  for  that  purpose.  He  died  in 
April,  1806. 

PANORMUS.     See  Palermo. 

PANTHEON  AT  ROME.  A  temple  built  by  Augustus  Csesar,  some  say  by  Agrippa,  his 
son-in-law,  27  B.C.  It  was  in  a  round  form,  having  niches  in  the  wall,  where  the  image  or 
representation  of  a  particular  god  was  set  up ;  the  gates  were  of  brass,  the  beams  covered 
with  gilt  brass,  and  the  roof  covered  with  silver  plate.  Pope  Boniface  III.  dedicated  it  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  and  all  the  saints,  by  the  name  of  S.  Maria  della  Rotonda,  or  "ad 
Martyres,"  A.D.  608. — The  PANTHEON  IN  LONDON  wras  erected  by  subscription,  and  opened 
Jan.  25,  1772.  It  was  formed  into  an  opera-house  ;  was  burnt  down  Jan.  14,  1792  ;  was 
rebuilt  in  1795  and  1812  ;  and  made  a  bazaar  in  1834. 

PANTOMIMES  were  representations  by  gestures  and  attitudes  among  the  ancients,  and 
were  introduced  on  the  Roman  stage  by  Pylades  and  Bathyllus,  22  B.  c.  Comic  masques 


i 


PAP  542  PAP 

were  introduced  here  from  Italy  a.bout  1700.  The  first  regular  English  pantomime  is  said  to 
have  been  "  Harlequin  executed,"  produced  by  Rich  at  the  Lincoln s-inn- fields  theatre, 
Dec.  26,  1717. 

"  PAPAL  AGGRESSION."  In  a  consistory  holden  in  Rome,  Sept.  30,  1850,  the  pope 
(Pius  IX.)  named  fourteen  new  cardinals,  of  whom  four  only  were  Italians.  Among  the  ten 
foreigners  raised  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  was  Dr.  Wiseman,  Roman  Catholic  vicar- 
apostolic  of  the  London  district,  who  was  at  the  same  time  created  lord  archbishop  of  West- 
minster. On  Oct.  27.  following,  Dr.  Ullathorne  was  enthroned  as  Roman  Catholic  bishop 
of  Birmingham  in  St.  Chad's  cathedral  in  that  town.  The  same  day  a  pastoral  letter  from 
Dr.  Wiseman  was  read  in  all  the  Roman  Catholic  chapels  of  his  see  ;  and  on  its  becoming 
generally  known  to  the  British  people  that  all  England  had  been  parcelled  out  similarly 
into  Romish  dioceses,  the  strongest  indignation  of  the  assumption  of  the  pope  was  expressed 
throughout  the  empire.*  The  answer  of  the  bishop  of  London  (Dr.  Blomfield)  to  a  memorial 
from  the  Protestant  clergy  of  Westminster,  against  the  pope's  creation  of  a  Romish  hierarchy 
in  this  country,  was  followed  by  the  celebrated  "Durham"  letter  from  lord  John  Russell,  then 
chief  minister  of  the  crown  (Nov.  4),  to  the  bishop  of  Durham,  in  which  is  severely  censured 
not  only  the  papal  aggression,  but  also  the  proceedings  of  the  tractarian  clergy  of  the  Church 
of  England  ;  and  immediately  from  every  quarter  of  England  addresses  poured  into  her 
majesty  the  queen,  calling  upon  her  and  the  government  to  resist  the  usurpation.  As 
many  as  6700  addresses,  it  is  said,  had  been  voted  from  nearly  as  many  influential  meetings 
up  to  Dec.  31,  1850.  The  great  agitation  on  this  subject  produced  the  Ecclesiastical  Titles 
bill,  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  60  (passed  Aug.  1851),  which  prohibited  the  constitution  of  bishops 
of  pretended  provinces  under  a  penalty  of  looZ.  This  statute,  however,  has  not  yet  been 
acted  upon. 

PAPAL  STATES.     See  Rome  and  Popes. 

PAPER.  See  Papyrus.  Paper  is  said  to  have  been  invented  in  China,  170  B.C.  It  was 
first  made  of  cotton  about  A.D.  1000  ;  and  of  rags  about  1300.  f  White  coarse  paper  was  made 
by  sir  John  Speilman,  a  German,  at  Dartford,  in  England,  33  Eliz.  1590  :  and  here  the  first 
paper  mills  were  erected.  Stow.  Paper  for  writing  and  printing  manufactured  in  England, 
and  an  act  passed  to  encourage  it,  2  Will.  III.  1690;  before  this  time  we  paid  for  these 
articles  to  France  and  Holland  100,000?.  annually.  The  French  refugees  taught  our  people; 
they  had  made  coarse  brown  paper  almost  exclusively,  until  they  came  among  us.  White 
paper  was  first  made  by  us  in  1690.  Anderson.  Paper-making  by  a  machine  was  first  suggested 
by  Louis  Robert,  who  sold  his  model  to  the  celebrated  M.  Didot,  the  great  printer.  The 
latter  brought  it  to  England,  and  here,  conjointly  with  M.  Fourdrinier,  he  perfected  the 
machinery.  M.  Fourdriuier  obtained  a  patent  for  paper-making  machinery  in  1801 ;  and  for 
manufacturing  paper  of  an  indefinite  length  in  1807 ;  it  had  previously  been  made  tediously 
by  the  hand.  The  machinery  was  also  improved  by  Mr.  Bryan  Donkin.  A  sheet  of  paper 
13, 800  feet  long,  and  4  feet  wide,  was  made  at  Whitehall- mills,  Derbyshire,  in  1830;  and 
one  21,000  feet  long,  and  6  feet  3  inches  wide,  was  made  at  Colyton  in  Devon  in  1860.  The 
paper  duty  imposed  in  1694  (producing  latterly,  about  1,400,000?.  annually),  after  having 
been  the  subject  of  agitation  for  several  years,  was  repealed  in  1861.  Esparto,  a  Spanish 
grass,  first  imported  in  1857,  has  been  largely  employed  in  the  paper  manufacture  since 
1864.  See  Parchment  Paper. 

PAPER-HANGINGS,  &c.  Stamped  paper  for  this  purpose  was  first  made  in  Spain  and 
Holland,  about  1555.  Made  of  velvet  and  floss,  for  hanging  apartments,  about  1620.  The 
manufacture  of  this  kind  of  paper  rapidly  improved  in  this  country  during  the  present 
century. — PAPER  BRICKS  have  been  made  in  America  ;  and  paper  tubing  for  water  and 
made  by  M.  Jaloureau  of  Paris,  was  shown  in  1860. 

PAPER-MONEY.     See  Banlcs. 

PAPIER  MACHE.  This  manufacture  (of  paper-pulp  combined  with  gum  and  sometimes 
china  clay)  has  existed  for  above  a  century.  Martin,  a  German  snuff-box  maker,  is  said  to 

*  Among  other  consecrations  that  followed,  and  continued  the  excitement,  was  that  of  Dr.  Briggs, 
created  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Beverley,  and  enthroned  in  St.  George's  chapel  at  York,  Feb.  13,  1851 ; 
Dr.  Browne  created  bishop  of  Clifton,  and  Dr.  Burgess  bishop  of  Shrewsbury  :  both  consecrated  in  St. 
George's  cathedral,  S/mthwark,  July  27,  1851 ;  and  other  priests  were  similarly  raised  to  new  Roman 
Catholic  prelacies. 

t  Mr.  Joseph  Hunter  (in  the  ArcJiceologia,  xxxvii.)  states  that  the  earliest  paper  which  he  had  seen 
was  an  MS.  account  book,  dated  1302,  probably  of  Bordeaux  manufacture.  He  gives  engravings  of  manu- 
facturers' marks,  French  and  English,  the  dates  of  which  range  from  1330  to  1431.  He  also  gives  an 
extract  from  a  work  by  Bartholus,  a  writer  of  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century,  in  which  mention  is  made 
of  a  paper  manufactory  in  the  Marches  of  Ancona. 


imps 


PAP  543  PAR 

have  learnt  the  art  from  one  Lefevre  about  1740.  In  1745  it  was  taken  up  by  Baskerville, 
the  printer  at  Birmingham,  and  soon  spread  over  that  district.  Papier  macho"  is  now  largely 
employed  in  ornamenting  the  interior  of  buildings,  &c. 

PAPYRUS.  The  reed  from  which  was  made  the  celebrated  paper  of  Egypt  and  India, 
used  for  writings  until  the  discovery  of  parchment,  about  190  B.C.  Ptolemy  prohibited  the 
exportation  of  it  from  Egypt,  lest  Eumenes  of  Pergamus  should  make  a  library  equal  to 
that  of  Alexandria,  263  B.C.  A  manuscript  of  the  Antiquities  of  Josephus  on  papyrus  of 
inestimable  value  was  among  the  treasures  seized  by  Bonaparte  in  Italy,  and  sent  to  the 
National  Library  at  Paris  ;  but  was  restored  in  1815. 

PARACHUTE.     See  Balloons. 

PARADISE  LOST,  the  great  English  epic  by  John  Milton,  appeared  first  in  ten  books 
in  1667;  in  twelve  books  in  1674. 

PARAFFINS  (from  parum  affinis,  having  little  affinity  with  anything),  also  called 
photogen,  a  solid  substance,  somewhat  like -spermaceti,  produced  by  distillation  of  coal,  and 
first  obtained  by  Reichenbach  in  1830.  It  was  procured  from  mineral  oil  by  Mr.  James 
Young  about  1847,  and  is  also  obtained  from  Irish  peat.  It  makes  excellent  candles. 
Much  litigation  has  ensued  through  interference  with  Mr.  Young's  patent-right. 

PARAGUAY,  a  republic  in  S.  America,  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526;  and 
conquered  by  Alvarez  Nunez  in  1535,  and  civilised  by  the  Jesuits,  who  in  1608  commenced 
their  missions  there  and  established  an  exclusive  government,  which  they  held  till  their 
expulsion  in  1768.  Paraguay  rose  against  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1811.  In  1814  Dr.  Fraucia 
was  elected  dictator  ;  he  ruled  well ;  he  was  succeeded  on  his  death  in  1840  by  Vival.  From 
1814  to  1844  the  country  was  rigidly  closed  against  foreigners.  The  president,  C.  A.  Lopez, 
elected  in  1844,  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  C.  A.  Lopez,  in  Sept.,  1862.  Paraguay  was 
recognised  as  an  independent  state  by  the  Argentine  Confederation  in  1852,  and  by  Great 
Britain  in  1853.  Hostilities  between  Paraguay  and  Brazil  began  on  Nov.  "11,  1864;  when 
a  Brazilian  steamer  was  captured  as  an  intruder  on  the  Paraguay.  Brazil  was  invaded  in 
December.  On  April  14,  1865,  Lopez  invaded  the  territories  of  the  Argentine  republic, 
which  immediately  made  alliance  with  Brazil.  The  army  of  Lopez  having  been  defeated 

n  September,  retreated.     On   Oct.   18,  the   allies  captured  Uruguyana  and  an  army  of 

Paraguayans.     There  were  prospects  of  peace  in  Dec.  1865. 

PARASOLS  were  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  In  their  present  form  (said  to  have 
)een  devised  by  the  duchess  of  Rutland)  they  came  into  general  use  about  1820. 

PARCHMENT.*  Invented  for  writing  books  by  Eumenes  (some  say  by  Attains),  of 
?ergamus,  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  library  at  Pergamus,  formed  on  the  model  of  the 
Alexandrian,  about  190  B.C.  Parchment-books  from  this  time  became  those  most  used,  and 
;he  most  valuable  as  well  as  oldest  in  the  world  are  written  on  the  skins  of  goats.  It  should 
>e  mentioned  that  the  Persians  and  others  are  said  to  have  written  all  their  records  on  skins 
ong  before  Eumenes'  time. 

PARDONS.  General  pardons  were  proclaimed  at  coronations  :  first  by  Edward  III.  in 
1327.  The  king's  power  of  pardoning  is  said  to  be  derived  a  lege  suce  dignitatis;  and  no 
>ther  person  has  power  to  remit  treason  or  felonies,  stat.  27  Hen.  VIII.  1535.  Blackstone. 
A  pardon  cannot  follow  an  impeachment  of  the  house  of  commons  :  stat.  Will.  III.  1700. 

PARIAN  MARBLES  were  discovered  in  the  island  of  Paros,  A.  D.  1610.  Their 
chronology  was  composed,  264  B.C.  They  were  brought  to  England,  and  were  presented  to 
he  university  of  Oxford,  by  Thomas  Howard,  lord  Arundel,  whence  they  are  called  the 
Arundelian  Marbles,  which  see. 

PARIS  (formerly  Lutetia  Parisiorum),  the  capital  of  France,  situated  on  the  river  Seine, 
vhicli  cuts  it  into  two  unequal  parts,  the  strongest  being  towards  the  north,  and  in  which 
are  three  isles,  la  ville  (the  city),  the  tie  St.  Louis,  and  the  tie  Louviers.  In  the  time  of  Julius 
Cresar,  Lutetia  comprised  the  city  only.  It  was  greatly  improved  by  the  emperor  Julian, 
who  made  it  his  residence  while  he  governed  Gaul,  355  to  361,  and  Clovis  also  resided  here 
n  510.  It  became  successively  the  capital  of  the  kingdoms  of  Paris,  Soissons,  and  Neustria, 

Parchment  paper  (or  vegetable  parchment)  was  invented  and  patented  in  1857,  by  Mr.  "W.  E. 
Gaine,  C.E.,  who  discovered,  that  when  paper  is  exposed  to  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  concentrated  sul- 
)huric  acid  and  one  part  of  water  for  no  longer  time  than  is  required  to  draw  it  through  the  fluid,  it  is 
mmediately  converted  into  a  strong  tough  skin-like  material.  It  must  be  instantly  washed  with  water, 
ts  great  strength  points  out  many  applications  of  this  material,  e.g.,  maps,  school  and  account  books,  and 
Ira  wing  paper.  In  1859  it  appeared  that  a  similar  invention  had  been  made  in  Paris  by  Figuier  and  Pou- 
narede  in  1846. 


PAR 


544 


PAR 


and  eventually  of  all  the  kingdom.  The  representative  of  the  house  of  Orleans,  styled 
count  of  Paris,  now  resides  in  England.  Population  of  Paris  in  1856,  1,178,262  ;  in  1860, 
1,525,535.  See  France. 


St.  Denis  founded 613 

Paris  ravaged  by  the  Normans  (or  Danes)  ;  suf- 
fered from  famine 845-940 

Gallantly  defended  against  them  by  the  count 
Eudes  and  the  bishop  Goslin        .        .         .     .     885 

Rebuilt . 1231 

University  founded 1206 

Church  of  Notre  Dame  built      .        .        .     1163-1270 

The  parliament  established 1302 

Suffers  by  the  factions  of  the  Armagnacs  and 
Burgundians 1411-1418 


Taken  by  the  English      . 
Retaken  by  the  French 
Pont  Notre  Dame  built    . 
The  Louvre  built  (see  Louvre) 

Hotel  deVille 

The  Boulevards  commenced 

Fountain  of  the  Innocents 

The  Tuileries  built  (see  Tuileries) 

Massacre  of  St  Bartholomew's 

The  Pont  Neuf  begun 

Hospital  of  Invalids 

Place  Royale  begun      .... 

The  Hotel-  Dieu  founded 

The  Luxembovirg,  by  Mary  of  Medicis 

The  Palais -Royal  built     . 

The  Val-de- Grace          . 

Conflicts  of  the  Fronde    . 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  founded 

The  Observatory      .... 

Champs  Elyse"es  planted 

Arch  of  St.  Denis  erected 

Palais  d'Elyse'e  Bourbon 

The  Palace  of  the  Deputies 


1420 
1436 
1499 
1522 

I53I 
1536 


.  1564 

Aug.  24,  1572 

.  1578 

•  •  1595 

.  1604 

.  .  1606 

•  1615 

.  .  1629 

.  1645 


1667 
1670 
1672 
I7i8 
1722 


The  Military  School 1751 


The  Pantheon;  St.  Ge"nevieve        .        .        .     .  1764 

The  French  revolution  breaks  out ;  the  Bastile 
taken July  14,  1789 

Pont  de  Louis  XIV.  finished  .        .        .         .     .  1790 

Cemetery  of  Pere  La  Chaise  consecrated    .         .  1804 

1  Pont  des  Invalides 1806 

'  Paris  surrenders  to  the  allies      .          March  30,  1814 

!  Paris  lit  with  gas 1819 

j  Revolution  (see  France)        .        .        .         July,  1 830 
;  Fortifications  of  Paris  (for  which  140,000,000  of 
francs  were  voted,  1833)  commenced  Dec.  15, 
1840 ;  completed  ....          March,  1846 

Revolution  (see  France)        .....  1848 

Paris  much  improved  by  Louis  Napoleon  (pro- 
bable costs,  i2,8oo,ooo£ 1853-62 

Industrial  exhibition  opened  by  the  emperor 
and  empress,  May  15  ;  visited  by  queen  Vic- 
toria and  prince  Albert  (the  first  visit  of  au 
English  sovereign  to  Paris  since  1422),  Aug. 
24  ;  exhibition  closes  .  .  .  Nov.  15,  1855 

Conference  at  Paris  respecting  the  Danubian 
Principalities  (irhich  see) ;  closes  .  .  Aug.  1858 

Bois  du  Boulogne  opened  as  a  garden  of  accli- 
matisation .....  Oct.  6,  1860 

A  building  was  erected  for  a  permanent  indus- 
trial exhibition  by  a  company  .  .  Oct.  1862 

The  scheme  failed  and  the  company  was  wound 
up Feb.  1864 

Boulevard-prince-Eugene  opened  by  the  emperor 

Dec.  7,  1862 

Decree  for  an  International  Exhibition  of  the 
products  of  Agriculture,  Industry,  and  the 
Fine  Arts,  at  Paris,  in  1867 ;  commissioners 

appointed Feb.  21,  1864 

See  France. 


LATE   GKEAT   TREATIES    OF    PATHS. 


Between  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Portu- 
gal ;  cession  to  Great  Britain  of  Canada  by 
France,  and  Florida  ~by  Spain  .  .  Feb.  10, 

Between  France  and  Sardinia ;  the  latter  ced- 
ing Savoy,  &c May  15, 

Between  France  and  Sweden,  whereby  Swedish 
Pomerania  and  the  island  of  Rugen  were 
given  up  to  the  Swedes,  who  agreed  to  adopt 
the  French  prohibitory  system  against  Great 
Britain  .  .  .  .  .  Jan.  6, 

Capitulation  of  Paris  :  Napoleon  renounces  the 
sovereignty  of  France  .  .  April  n, 

Convention  of  Paris,  between  France  and  the 

allied  powers ;  the  boundaries  of  France  to 

be  the  same  as  on  the  ist  of  January,  1792, 

April  23, 

Peace  of  Paris  ratified  by  France  and  all  the 
allies May  14, 

Convention  of  St.  Cloud,  between  marshal  Da- 
voust,  and  Wellington,  and  Blucher,  for  the 
surrender  of  Paris  ....  July  3, 
[The  allies  entered  it  on  the  6th.  j 


1763 
1796 

1810 
1814 


Treaty  of  Paris,  between  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia,  styling  Napoleon  the 
prisoner  of  those  powers  and  confiding  his 
safeguard  to  England  .  .  .  Aug.  2,  1815 

Establishing  the  boundaries  of  France,  and 
stipulating  for  the  occupation  of  certain  for- 
tresses by  foreign  troops  for  three  years, 

Nov.  20, 

Treaty  of  Paris,  confirming  the  treaties  of  Chau- 
mont  and  Vienna,  same  day  .  .  Nov.  20, 

Treaty  of  Paris,  to  fulfil  the  articles  of  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  ....  June  10, 

Treaty  of  Paris  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 
England,  France,  and  Sardinia  March  30, 

Treaty  of  Paris  between  England  and  Persia, 

March  4, 

Treaty  of  Paris  between  the  European  powers, 
Prussia,  and  Switzerland,  respecting  Neuf- 
chatel May  26, 

Important  commercial  treaty  between  France 
and  England  ....  Jan.  23, 


PARISHES.  Their  boundaries  in  England  were  first  fixed  by  Honorius,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  636.  They  were  enlarged,  and  the  number  of  parishes  was  consequently 
reduced  in  the  I5th  century,  when  there  were  10,000.  The  parishes  of  England  and  Wales 
now  amount  to  11,077.  Parish  registers  were  commenced  in  1538.  By  an  act  passed  in 
1856  new  parishes  may  be  formed  out  of  too  extensive  ones.  See  Registers  and  .Benefices. 

PARK'S  TRAVELS.  Mungo  Park  set  sail  on  his  first  voyage  to  'Africa,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  African  Society,  to  trace  the  source  of  the  river  Niger,  May  22,  1 795  ;  and 
returned  Dec.  22,  1797,  after  having  encountered  great  dangers,  without  his  journey  through 
intertropical  regions  having  enabled  him  to  achieve  the  great  object  of  his  ambition.  He 
again  sailed  from  Portsmouth  on  his  second  voyage,  Jan.  30,  1804,  appointed  to  a  new 
expedition  by  government;  but  never  returned.  The  accounts  of  his  murder  at  Broussa  on 
the  Niger  were  a  long  time  discredited  ;  but  at  length  were  too  well  authenticated. 


PAR 


545 


PAR 


'ARKS.  The  Romans  attached  parks  to  their  villas.  Fulvius  Lupinus,  Pompey,  and 
Hortensius,  among  others,  had  large  parks.  In  England,  the  first  great  park  of  which  parti- 
cular mention  is  made,  was  that  of  Woodstock,  formed  by  Henry  I.,  1125.  The  parks  of 
London  are  in  a  high  degree  essential  to  the  health  of  its  immense  population.  St.  James's 
park  was  drained  by  Henry  VIII.  about  1537.  It  was  improved,  planted,  and  made  a 
thoroughfare  for  public  use,  1668.  The  Green  park  forms  a  part  of  the  ground  inclosed  by 
Henry  VIII.  In  Hyde  park,  the  sheet  of  water  called  the  Serpentine  river,  although  in  the 
form  of  a  parallelogram,  was  made  between  1730  and  1733,  by  order  of  queen  Caroline, 
consort  of  George  II.  This  queen  once  inquired  (it  is  said)  of  the  first  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards 
earl  of  Chatham),  how  much  it  would  cost  to  shut  up  the  parks  as  private  grounds.  He 
replied,  "  Three  crowns,  your  majesty."  She  took  the  hint,  and  the  design  was  never  after- 
wards entertained.  See  Green,  Hyde,  St.  James's,  Regent's,  Victoria,  Battersea,  Alexandra, 
and  People's  Parks. 

PARLIAMENT  (from  the  French,  parlement,  discourse)  derives  its  origin  from  the  Saxon 
general  assemblies,  called  Wittenagemot.  The  name  was  applied  to  the  general  assemblies  of 
the  state  under  Louis  VII.  of  France,  about  the  middle  of  the  I2th  century,  but  it  is  said 
not  to  have  appeared  in  our  law  till  its  mention  in  the  statute  of  Westminster  I.,  3  Edw.  I. 
1272  :  and  yet  Coke .  declared  in  his  Institutes,  and  spoke  to  the  same  effect,  when  speaker 
(1592),  that  this  name  was  used  even  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  1041.  The 
first  clear  account  we  have  of  the  representatives  of  the  people  forming  a  house  of  commons, 
was  in  the  43rd  Hen.  III.  1258,  when  it  was  settled  by  the  statutes  of  Oxford,  that  twelve 
persons  should  be  chosen  to  represent  the  commons  in  the  three  parliaments,  which,  by  the 
\  sixth  statute,  were  to  be  held  yearly.  Burton's  Annals.  The  general  representation  by 
knights,  citizens,  and  burgesses,  took  place  49  Hen.  III.  1265.  Dugdale's  Summons  to 
Parliament,  edit.  1685.  See  Commons  and  Lords.  The  power  and  jurisdiction  of  parlia- 
ment are  so  transcendent  and  absolute,  that  it  cannot  be  confined,  either  for  causes  or 
persons,  within  any  bounds.  It  hath  sovereign  and  uncontrollable  authority  in  making  and 
.•epealing  laws.  It  can  regulate  or  new-model  the  succession  to  the  crown,  as  was  done  in 
the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  William  III.  It  can  alter  and  establish  the  religion  of  the 
country,  as  was  done  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII. ,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  Sir 
Edward  Coke*  The  fourth  edition  of  May's  "Practical  Treatise  on  Parliament"  was 
Dublished  in  1859.  See  Triennial  and  Septennial. 


?irst  summons  of  barons,  by  writ  directed  to 
the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  by  John        .        .     .   1205 

?arliament  of  Merton 1236 

The  assembly  of  knights  and  burgesses.  Burton  1258 
First  assembly  of  the  commons  as  a  confirmed 

representation.     Dugdale 1265 

?irst  regular  parliament  according  to   many 
historians,  22  Edw.  I.        .         .        .        .         .  1294 

?irst  a  deliberate    assembly,   they  become  a 
legislative  power,  whose  assent  is  essential  to 

constitute  a  law .  1308 

The  commons  elect  their  first  speaker,  Peter  De 

la  Mere .  1377 

Parliament  of  but  one  session,  of  only  one  day, 

Richard  II.  deposed 1399 

Lawyers  excluded  from  the  house  of  commons  1404 
Members  were  obliged  to  reside  at  the  places 

they  represented 1413 

Forty-shilling  freeholders  only  to  elect  knights  1429 
The  Journals  of  the  Lords  commenced  .        .     .  1509 
Act*  of  parliament  printed  in  1501,  and  consecu- 
tively from 1509 

Members  protected  from  arrest.      See  article 
Fen-ars'  Arrest      .......  1542 

Journals  of  the  commons  begun          .        .        .   1547 
Francis  Russell,  son  of  the  earl  of  Bedford,  was 
the  first  peer's  eldest  son  who  sat  in  the  house 
of  commons 1549 


The  parliament  remarkable  for  the  epoch  in 
which  were  first  formed  the  parties  of  Court 
and  Country,  1614;  disputes  with  James  I. 

June  1620 

Charles  I.  dissolves  parliament,  which  does  not 
meet  for  eleven  years 1629 

The  Long  Parliament,  which  voted  the  house  of 
lords  as  useless,  first  assembled  .  Nov.  3,  1640 

The  Mump  Parliament;   it  voted  the  trial  of  . 
Charles  I. Jan.  1649 

A  peer  elected  and  sat  as  a  member  of  the  house 
of  commons ,, 

Cromwell  roughly  dissolves  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment   April  20,  1653 

A  convention  parliament.     See  Convention    .     .  1660 

Roman  Catholics  excluded  from  parliament,  30 
Charles  II 1678 

The  commons  committed  a  secretary  of  state  to 
the  Tower Nov.  „ 

The  speaker  of  the  commons  refused  by  the 
king 1679 

A  convention  parliament.     See  Convention    .     .   1688 

James  II.  convenes  the  Irish  parliament  at 
Dublin,  which  attaints  3000  Protestants  .  1 689 

Act  for  triennial  parliament ;  see  Triennial  .     .  1694 

First  parliament  of  Great  Britain  met    Oct.  23,  1707 

The  Triennial  Act  repealed,  and  Septennial  Act 
voted.  See  Septennial  Parliament  .  May  7,  1716 


When  the  royal  assent  is  given  to  a  public  bill,  the  clerk  says  "  Le  roi  le  veut." 
private  bill  he  says  "  Soit  fait  comme  il  est  de'sire."    If  the  bill  have  subsidies 


If  the  bill  be  a 

e  subsidies  for  its  object,  he  says,  "  Le  roi 

remercie  ses  loyaux  sujets,  accepte  leur  benevolence,  et  aussi  le  veut."  If  the  king  do  not  think  proper  to  assent 
to  the  bill,  the  clerk  says,  "  Le  roi  s'avisera  ;"  which  is  a  mild  way  of  giving  a  refusal.  It  is  singular 
that  the  sovereign  of  England  should  still  make  use  of  the  French  language  to  declare  her  intentions  to 
her  parliament. 

N   N 


TAR 


546 


PAR 


PARLIAMENT,  continued. 

The  Journals  ordered  to  be  printed    .        .        .  1752 

Privilege  as  to  freedom  from  arrest  of  the  ser- 
Tants  of  members  relinquished  by  the  com- 
mons   1770 

The  lord  mayor  of  London  (Oliver)  and  alder- 
man Crosby  committed  to  the  Tower  by  the 
commons  in  Wilkes'  affair  .  .  .  -1771 

Assembly  of  the  first  parliament  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

Feb.  2,  1801 

Sir  F.  Burdett  committed  to  the  Tower, 

April  6,  1810 

Murder  of  Spencer  Perceval,  by  Bellingham,  at 
the  house  of  commons  .  .  May  n,  1812 

Return  for  Clare  county,  Ireland,  of  Mr.  O'Con- 
nell,  the  first  Roman  Catholic  commoner 
elected  since  the  Revolution  .  July  5,  1828 

The  duke  of  Norfolk  took  his  seat  in  the  lords, 
the  first  Roman  Catholic  peer  under  the  Re- 
lief Bill.  See  Roman  Catholics  .  April  28,  1829 


The  refoimed  parliament  meet.  See  Reform, 

Aug.  7,  1832 

E.  Pease,  the  first  Quaker  admitted  on  his  affir- 
mation   Feb.  15,  1833 

Houses  of  parliament  destroyed  by  fire,  Oct.  16,  1834 

New  houses  of  parliament  commenced*        .     .  1840 

The  members  of  the  commons'  and  lords'  hoxises 
relinquish  the  privilege  of  franking  letters. 
See  franking Jan.  10,  ,, 

Committal  of  Smith  O'Brien  by  the  commons 
for  contempt.  See  Ireland  .  July  20,  1846 

The  peers  took  possession  of  their  house,  that 
portion  of  the  palace  being  ready,  April  15,  1847 

The  commons  assemble  in  their  new  house, 

Nov.  4,  1852 

The  two  houses  began  to  communicate  by  letter 
in  .  .  - 1855 

Baron  L.  Rothschild,  the  first  Jew  admitted, 

July  26,  1858, 


NUMBER  AND  DURATION  OF  PARLIAMENTS,    FROM   27  EDW.  I.    I2Q9,  TO   2$  VICT.   1862. 
.     .     8  parl.  in    8  yrs.  reign 

•  .'  •  :  I 


Edward  I. 
Edward  II.  . 
Edward  III. 
Richard  II. 
Henry  IV. 


50 


Henry  V. 
Henry  VI.    . 
Edward  IV. 
Richard  III. 
Henry  VII. 


.  ii  parl.  in    9  yrs.  reign 

•  22        „        39 

•  5        „        22        „ 


24 


Reign. 

Day  of  Meeting. 

"When  Dissolved. 

Reign. 

Day  of  Meeting. 

When  Dissolved. 

HENRY  VIII.    . 

Jan.  21    .  1510 

Feb.  23   .   1510 

CHARLES  I.  .     . 

June  18  .   1625 

Aug.  12  .   1625 

Feb.  4     .  1511 

March  4  .  1513 

Feb.  6     .  1626 

June  ii  .   1626 

Feb.  5     .  1514 

Dec.  22    .  1515 

March  17,  1628 

March  10,  1629 

April  15  .  1523 

Aug.  13  .  1523 

April  13  .  1640 

May  5      .1640 

Nov.  3     .  1530 

April  4    .  1536 

Long  Parliament 

Nov.  3     .      ,, 

April  20  .  1653 

June  8    .  1536 

JulyiS   .      „ 

COMMONWEALTH 

Sept.    3  .   1654 

Jan.  22    .  1655 

April  28  .  1539 

July  24   .  1540 

Sept.  17  .  1656 

Feb.  4     .  1658 

Jan.  16    .  1541 

March  29,  1:544 

Jan.  27    .  1659 

April  22  .  1659 

April  12  .      ,, 

May  6     .      „ 

March  16,  1660 

Nov.  23   .  1545 

Jan.  28    .  1547 

CHARLES  II. 

April  25  .    1660 

Dec.  29   .      ,, 

EDWARD  VI.    . 

Nov.  4     .1547 

April  15  .   1552 

Pensionary  Parl. 

May  8      .  1661 

Jan.  24    .  1679 

March  i  .  1553 

March  31,  1553 

March  6  .   1679 

July  10  .     ,, 

MARY      . 

Oct.  5      .      „ 

Dec.  6     .      „ 

March  21,  1681 

March  28,  1681 

Aprils    .  1554 

May  5      .   1554 

JAMES  II.     .     . 

May  19   .  1685 

July  22  .   1687 

Nov.  12  .      ,, 

Jan.  16    .  1555 

Jan.  22    .  1689 

Feb.  6     .  1690 

Oct.   21     .    1555 

Dec.  9     .      „ 

WILLIAM  III.   . 

March  20,  1690  ;  Oct.  n    .   1695 

Jan.  20   .  1558 

Nov.  17   .  1558 

Nov.  22  .  1695      July  7     .   1698 

ELIZABETH  '.    . 

Jan.  25    .  1559 

May8     .  1559 

Dec.  9     .  1698      July  19  .  1700 

~ 

Jan.  12    .  1563 

Jan.  2      .  1567 

Feb.  10   .  1701 

Nov.  u   .   1701 

April  2   .    1571 

May  29    .   1571 

ANNE  .... 

Dec.  30  .      ,, 

July  2     .   1702 

May  8     .1572 

Oct.  20    .  1702 

April  5    .1705 

Sept.  15  .  1586 

Oct.  25     .  1705 

April  ii  .  1708  ! 

Oct.  29    .1586 

March  23,  1587 

Nov.  1  8   .  1708 

Sept.  28  .  1710  j 

Feb.  4     .  1589 

March  29,  1589 

Nov.  25   .  1710 

Aug.  8     .  1713 

Feb.  19   .  1593 

April  10  .  1593 

Nov.  ii   .  1713 

Jan.  15    .   1715 

Oct.  24    .  1597 

Feb.  9     .1598 

GEORGE  I.    .    . 

March  21,  1715 

March  10,  1722 

Oct.  27    .  1601 

Dec.  19  .  1601 

Oct.  9     .   1722 

Aug.  7    .   1727 

JAMES  I.      .    . 

March  19,  1604 

Feb.  19   .  1610 

GEORGE  II..     . 

Jan.  28   .  1728 

April  1  8  .   1734 

April  5t  .  1614 

June  6    .  1614 

Jan.  14   .  1735 

April  28  .  1741 

Jan.  30   .   1621 

Jan.  6     .   1622 

Dec.  4     .  1741 

June  18  .   1747 

Feb,  29  .  1624 

March  27,  1625 

Nov.  10   .  1747  :   April  8    .   1754  I 

Nov.  14  .  1754      March  21,  1761 

*  Termed  the  "Palace  of  Westminster."  The  first  contract  for  the  embankment  of  the  river  was  taken 
in  1837,  by  Messrs.  Lee  ;  this  embankment,  faced  with  granite,  is  886  feet  in  length,  and  projected  into  the 
river  in  a  line  with  the  inner  side  of  the  third  pier  of  old  Westminster-bridge.  Sir  Charles  Barry  (born, 
1795,  died,  1860)  was  the  architect  of  the  sumptuous  pile  of  buildings  raised  since  1840.  The  whole  stands 
on  a  bed  of  concrete  twelve  feet  thick  :  to  the  east  it  has  a  front  of  about  icco  feet,  and  covers  an  area  if 
nine  statute  acres.  It  contains  noo  apartments,  100  staircases,  and  two  miles  of  passages  or  corridors. 
The  great  Victoria  tower  at  the  southwest  extremity  is  346  feet  in  height,  and  towers  of  less  magnitude 
crown  other. portions  of  the  building. 

t  Called  The  Addle  Parliament.     It  remonstrated  with  the  king  on  his  levying  btnevolencc*,  and 
passed  no  acts.    He  dismissed  it  in  anger,  and  imprisoned  some  of  the  members. 


PAS 

PARLIAMENT,  continued. 


547 


PAR 


Reign. 

Day  of  Meeting. 

When  Dissolved. 

Reign. 

Day  of  Meeting. 

When  Dissolved. 

GEORGE  III.     . 

Nov.  3     .  1761 

March  12,  1768 

GEORGE  IV.     . 

April  27     1820 

June  2     .   1826 

May  10    .  1  768 

Sept.  30.   1774 

Nov.  14      1826 

July  24    .  1830 

Nov.  29  .   1774 

Sept.  i    .  1780 

Oct.  26       1830 

April  23  .   1831 

Oct.  31    .  1780 

March  25,  1784 

WILLIAM  IV.    . 

June  14      1831 

Dec.  3     .  1832 

May  1  8    .1784 

June  12  .   1790 

Jan.  29       1833 

Dec.  30  .  1834 

Nov.  26  .  1790 

May  20    .  1796 

Feb.  9        1835 

July  17   .  1837 

Oct.  6      .1796 

June  29  .  1802 

VICTORIA     .    . 

Nov.  15       1837 

June  23  .  1841 

Nov.  16  .  1802 

Oct.  24    .  1806 

Aug.  18      1841 

July  23    .  1847 

Dec.  15  .  1806 

April  29  .  1807 

Nov.  1  8      1847 

July  i      .  1852 

June  24  .  1807 

Sept.  29  .   1812 

Nov.  4        1852 

March  21,  1857 

Nov.  24  .  1812 
Jan.  14    .  1819 

June  10  .  1818 
Feb.  29  .  1820  ] 

April  30     1857 
May  31       1859 

April  23  .  1859 
July  6     .  1865 

Feb.  i        1866 

PARLIAMENT  OF  IRELAND,  began  with  conferences  of  the  English  settlers,  it  is  said, 
on  the  hill  of  Tara,  in  1173.  Writs  for  knights  of  the  shire  were  issued  in  1295.  The  Irish 
parliament  last  met  on  Aug.  2,  1800;  the  bill  for  the  Union  having  passed. 

PARLIAMENT  OF  SCOTLAND  consisted  of  barons,  prelates,  and  abbots,  and  occasionally 
of  burgesses.  A  great  national  council  was  held  at  Scone  by  John  Balliol,  Feb.  9,  1292; 
and  by  Robert  Bruce  at  Cambuskenneth,  in  1326.  A  house  of  commons  was  never  formed 
in  Scotland.  The  parliament  of  Scotland  sanctioned  the  Act  of  Union  on  Jan.  16,  1707,  and 
met  for  the  last  time  on  April  22,  same  year. 

PARLIAMENT  OF  PARIS  was  made  the  chief  court  of  justice  in  France  by  Philip  IV.  ; 
at  his  suggestion  it  revoked  a  bull  of  pope  Boniface  VIII.,  1302.  It  was  suppressed  by 
Louis  XV.,  1771  ;  restored  by  Louis  XVI.,  1774;  demanded  a  meeting  of  the  States-General 
in  1787;  and  was  suspended  by  the  National  Assembly,  Nov.  3,  1789. 

PARMA  (N.  Italy),  founded  by  the  ancient  Etrurians.  It  took  part  with  the  Lombard 
legion  in  the  wars  with  the  German  emperors.  It  was  made  a  duchy  (with  Placentia),  1545. 


United  to  Spain  by  Philip  V.'s  marriage  with 
Elizabeth  Farnese 1714 

Battle  near  Parma ;  the  confederates,  England, 
France,  and  Spain,  against  the  emperor ;  in- 
decisive; both  armies  claiming  the  victory, 

June  29,  1734 

Battle  near  the  Trebbia,  the  French,  under 
Macdonald,  defeated  by  Suwarrow,  with  the 
loss  of  10,000  men  and  four  generals,  June  19,  1799 

The  duke  of  Parma  made  king  of  Etruria,  Feb.   1801 

Parma  united  to  France  (with  Placentia  and 
Guastalla),  and  conferred  on  Maria  Louisa, 
the  ex-empress,  by  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau, 

April  5,  1814 

Parma  alternately  occupied  by  the  Austrians 
and  Sardinians  in  the  war  of  .  .  .  .  1848 

The  Sardinians  retire  after  the  battle  of  Novara, 

March  23,  1849 


The  duke  Charles  II.  abdicates  in  favour  of  his 
son  Charles  III March  14,  1849 

Charles  III.  stabbed  by  an  assassin,  March  26, 
dies March  27,  1854 

Robert  I.,  a  minor  (born  July  9,  1848);  whose 
mother  becomes  regent. 

War  in  Italy ;  the  Parmesans  establish  a  pro- 
visional government ;  the  duchess-regent  re- 
tires to  Switzerland,  May  i,  and  died,  Feb.  i, 
1864. 

Farina  became  dictator      .        .        .    Aug.  18,  1859 

Annexation  to  Sardinia  voted        .        Sept.  12,    ,, 

Col.  Anviti,  a  former  obnoxious  police  minister, 
having  rashly  returned,  cruelly  murdered  by 
the  mob Oct.  5,  ,, 

Parma  is  now  part  of  the  province  of  Emilia  in 
the  kingdom  of  Italy ;  to  which  it  was  an- 
nexed by  decree  after  a  plebiscite,  March  18,  1860 


PARRICIDE.  There  was  no  law  against  it  in  Athens  or  Rome,  such  a  crime  not  being 
supposed  possible.  About  1726.0.,  L.  Ostius  having  killed  his  father,  the  Romans  first 
scourged  the  parricide ;  then  sewed  him  up  in  a  leathern  sack  made  air-tight,  with  a  live 
dog,  a  cock,  a  viper,  and  an  ape,  and  thus  cast  him  into  the  sea.  Miss  Blandy  was  executed 
at  Oxford  for  the  murder  of  her  father,  April,  1752. 

PARSEES,  the  followers  of  Zerdusht,  dwelt  in  Persia  till  638,  when,  at  the  battle  of 
Kadseah,  their  army  was  decimated  by  the  Arabs,  and  the  monarchy  annihilated  at  the  battle 
of  Na"hdrand  in  641.  Many  submitted  to  the  conquerors,  but  others  fled  to  India,  and 
their  descendants  still  reside  at  Bombay,  where  they  numbered  114,698  in  1849.  Mr. 
Dadabhai  Naoroji,  a  Parsee  merchant,  has  been  several  years  professor  of  Gujerati  at 
University  college,  London. 

PARTHENON  (from  Greek  pariJime,  virgin),  a  temple  at  Athens  dedicated  to  Minerva, 
erected  442  B  c.  In  it  Phidias  placed  his  renowned  statue  of  that  goddess,  438. 

N  N  2 


PAR  548  PAS 

PARTHENOPEAN  REPUBLIC  was  established  by  the  French  at  Naples  (anciently 
called  Parthenope),  Jan.  1799,  and  overthrown  in  June,  same  year. 

PARTHIA  (Asia).  The  Partisans  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Scythians,  who,  being  exiled, 
as  their  name  implies,  from  their  own  country,  settled  near  Hyrcania.  Arsaces  laid  the 
foundation  of  an  empire  which  ultimately  extended  over  a  large  part  of  Asia,  2506.0.; 
the  Parthians  were  never  wholly  subdued  by  the  Romans.  The  last  king,  Artabanus  V., 
\vas  killed  A.  D.  226:  his  territories  were  annexed  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Persia  founded 
by  Artaxerxes,  who  had  revolted  against  Parthia. 

PARTITION  TREATIES.  The  first  treaty  between  England  and  Holland  for  regulating 
the  Spanish  succession  (declaring  the  elector  of  Bavaria  next  heir,  and  ceding  provinces  to 
France)  was  signed  Aug.  19,  1698  ;  and  the  second  (between  France,  England,  and  Hol- 
land, declaring  the  archduke  Charles  presumptive  heir  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  Joseph 
Ferdinand  having  died  in  1699),  March  13,  1700.  Treaty  for  the  partition  of  Poland;  the 
first  was  a  secret  convention  between  Russia  and  Prussia,  Feb.  17,  1772;  the  second  between 
the  same  powers  and  Austria,  Aug.  5,  same  year ;  the  third  was  between  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia,  Nov.  25,  1795. 

PARTNERSHIP.    The  laws  respecting  it  were  amended  in  1863.    See  Limited  Liability. 
PASQUINADES.*     Small  satirical  poems  obtained  this  name  about  1533. 

PASSAROWITZ  TREATY  concluded  1718,  by  which  the  house  of  Austria  ceded  certain 
commercial  rights,  and  obtained  the  Banat  of  Temeswar,  Belgrade,  and  part  of  Servia  and 
Wallachia. 

PASSAU  (Germany),  TREATY  OF,  whereby  religious  freedom  was  established,  was 
ratified  between  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  July  31, 
1552.  Henault.  In  1662  the  cathedral  and  great  part  of  Passau  were  consumed  by  fire. 

PASSENGERS— by  public  vehicles,  are  protected  by  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  22  (1831), 
I  &  2  Yict.  c.  79  (1838),  and  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  33  (1853).  Mr.  Cleghorn,  under  whom  the 
front  seat  on  the  near  side  of  one  of  the  General  Omnibus  company's  carriages  had  given 
way,  recovered  400^.  damages  against  the  company,  in  a  verdict  by  consent,  in  the  Queen's 
Bench,  Dec.  10,  1856.  The  Ships'  Passenger  act,  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  119,  passed  in  1855,  was 
amended  in  1863.  See  Campbell's  Act. 

PASSION- WEEK,  the  name  given  since  the  Reformation  to  the  week  preceding  Easter, 
was  formerly  applied  to  the  fortnight.  Archbishop  Laud  says  the  two  weeks  were  so  called 
"for  a  thousand  years  together,"  and  refers  to  an  epistle  by  Ignatius,  in  the  ist  century, 
in  which  the  practice  is  said  to  have  been  "  observed  by  all." 

PASSOVER,  the  most  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  instituted  1491  B.C.  in  commemo- 
ration of  their  coming  out  of  Egypt ;  because,  the  night  before  their  departure,  the  destroying 
angel,  who  put  to  death  the  firstborn  of  the  Egyptians,  passed  over  the  houses  of  the 
Hebrews  without  entering  them  ;  the  door  posts  being  marked  with  the  blood  of  the  Paschal 
Lamb  killed  the  evening  before.  The  Passover  was  celebrated  in  the  new  temple,  April  18, 
515  B.C.  Usher. 

PASSPORT  SYSTEM  forbids  subjects  to  quit  one  country  or  enter  another  withe 
the  consent  of  the  sovereign  thereof.     In  1858  the  system  was  somewhat  changed  in  tl 
country,   arid  the  stamp  duty  on  passports  was  reduced  from  55.  to  6d.     Passports  wei 
abolished  in  Norway  in  1859;    in  Sweden  in  1860;  and  (with  regard  to  British  subject 
in  France,  Dec.  16,  1860;    in  Italy,  June  26,  1862;   in  Portugal,  Jan.   23,  1863  ;    and  a 
falling  into  disuse  in  other  countries.     The  passport  system  was  established  in  the  Unitec 
States  on  Aug.  19,  1861. 

P  ASTON  LETTERS,  the  correspondence  of  a  respectable  family,  1422-83,  giving  a 
picture  of  social  life  in  England,  were  edited  by  sir  John  Fenn,  and  published  in  five 
volumes,  quarto,  1787-1823.  Their  authenticity  was  questioned  Sept.  1865,  but  has  been 
satisfactorily  vindicated. 

*  This  name  originated  in  the  i6th  century :  At  the  stall  of  a  cobbler  named  Pasquin,  at  Rome,  a 
number  of  idle  persons  used  to  assemble  to  listen  to  his  pleasant  sallies,  and  to  relate  little  anecdotes  in 
their  turn,  and  indulge  themselves  in  raillery  at  the  expense  of  the  passers-by.  After  the  cobbler's  death 
the  statue  of  a  gladiator  was  found  near  his  stall,  to  which  the  people  gave  his  name,  and  on  which  the 
wits  of  the  time,  secretly  at  night,  affixed  their  lampoons  upon  the  state,  and  their  neighbours. 


PAT 


549 


PAU 


PAT  AY  (France),  where  Joan  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  was  present,  when  the  earl 
of  Richemont  signally  defeated  the  English,  June  18,  1429.  Talbot  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
the  valiant  Fastolfe  was  forced  to  fly.  In  consequence,  Charles  VII.  of  France  entered 
Rheims  in  triumph,  and  was  crowned  July  17,  following  year,  Joan  of  Arc  assisting  in  the 
ceremony  in  full  armour,  and  holding  the  sword  of  state.  See  Joan  of  Arc. 

PATENTS.  Licences  and  authorities  granted  by  the  king.  Patents  granted  for  titles 
of  nobility  were  first  made  1344,  by  Edward  III.  They  were  first  granted  for  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  printing  books,  in  1591.  The  property  and  right  of  inventors  in  arts  and 
manufactures  were  secured  by  letters  patent  by  an  act  passed  in  1623.  The  later  laws  regu- 
lating patents  are  very  numerous  ;  among  them  are  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  83  (1835),  and  15  &  16 
Viet.  c.  83  (1852).—  By  the  latter,  COMMISSIONERS  OF  PATENTS  were  appointed,  viz.,  the 
lord  chancellor,  the  master  of  the  rolls,  the  attorney-general  for  England  and  Ireland,  the 
lord  advocate,  and  the  solicitor-generals  for  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Since  1852,  a 
journal  has  been  published  under  their  authority,  and  indexes  of  patents,  from  March,  i6i7> 
to  the  present  time.  Specifications  of  patents  may  be  consulted  by  the  public  at  the  Free 
Library  and  Reading-Boom,  in  Southampton-buildings,  March  5,  1854.  A  museum  con- 
taining models,  portraits,  &c.,  was  established  in  1859  at  South  Kensington,  mainly  by  the 
exertions  of  Mr.  Bennet  Woodcrott.* 

PATRIARCHS.  The  dignity  among  the  Jews  is  referred  to  the  time  of  Nerva,  97. 
The  ecclesiastical  historian  Socrates  gives  this  title  to  the  chiefs  of  Christian  dioceses  about 
440.  It  was  first  conferred  on  the  five  grand  sees  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  The  Latin  Church  had  no  patriarchs  till  the  6th  century.  The 
first  founders  or  heads  of  religious  orders  are  called  patriarchs. 

PATRICIANS,  the  senators  of  Rome  ;  their  authority  began  with  the  city  itself. 
See  Rome. 

PATRICK'S  CATHEDRAL,  ST.  (Dublin),  was  erected  in  1190,  by  archbishop  Comyn, 
on  the  site  of  an  old  church.  The  cathedral  was  desecrated  in  1546,  and  used  as  a  law  court 
till  1564.  It  has  been  restored  by  the  munificence  of  Mr.  Guinness.  See  Dublin. 

PATRICK,  ST.,  KNIGHTS  OF,  an  order  instituted  by  king  George  III.,  Feb.  5,  1783,-. 
the  statutes  were  signed  Feb.  28.  The  number,  originally  fifteen,  was  increased  in  1821, 
1831,  and  1833,  and  is  now  twenty-two. 

PATRIOTIC  FUNDS,  established  to  encourage  the  army  and  navy  in  times  of  war. 

Large  sums  were  collected  from  this  country  and 
the  colonies,  amounting  to  1,171,270?.  in  July, 
1855;  to  1,296,282?.  on  Nov.  16,  1855;  to 
1,460,000?.  in  June,  1857. 

The  overplus,  200,000?.,  was  appropriated  to 
founding  an  asylum  for  300  orphan  girls  (the 
Royal  Victoria  Patriotic  Asylum),  on  Wands- 
worth  common,  the  first  stone  of  which  was 
laid  by  the  queen,  July  n,  1857. 

The  royal  family  and  many  of  the  aristocracy 
contributed  drawings,  some  of  which  were 


Founded  by  the  subscribers  to  Lloyd's,  "to  ani- 
mate the  efforts  of  our  defenders  by  sea  and 
land  "  by  providing  a  fund  for  the  relief  of 
themselves  when  wounded,  and  of  their 
widows  and  orphans,  and  for  granting  pe- 
cuniary rewards  and4?adges  of  distinction 
for  valour  and  merit,  July  20,  1803  :  on  Aug. 
24,  1809,  424,832?.  had  been  received,  and 
331,611?.  expended. 

From  1803  to  1826  the  total  sum  received  was 
629,823?.  148.  id. 

A  commission  (headed  by  prince  Albert)  was 
appointed  to  raise  and  distribute  a  fund 
bearing  this  name,  for  the  relief  of  the 
families  of  those  who  might  fall  in  the 
Ilusso-Turkish  war,  Oct.  1854. 


sold  for  high  prices,  in  May,  1855. 
A   large  fund    collected  for   the    relief 


sufferers  by  the  Indian  mutiny. 
1857- 


of   the 
See  India, 


PAUL  JONES,  a  Scotchman,  born  1742  ;  died  at  Paris,  1792.  He  commanded  an 
American  privateer  daring  the  American  war,  and  was  memorable  for  his  daring  depredations 
on  British  commerce.  He  landed  and  pillaged  the  house  of  lord  Selkirk,  near  Kirkcud- 
bright, and  at  Whitehaven  burnt  shipping  in  the  harbour,  April,  1778.  The  Dutch  per- 
mitted Paul  Jones  to  enter  their  ports  with  two  of  the  king's  ships  of  war  which  he  had 
taken,  and  which  the  stadtholder  peremptorily  refused  to  deliver  up,  1779. 

PAULICIANS,  a  sect  of  Christian  reformers,  arose  about  652.  Although  they  were 
severely  persecuted,  they  spread  over  Asia  Minor,  in  the  9th  century,  and  finally  settled  at 
Montfort,  in  Italy,  where  they  were  attacked  by  the  bishop  of  Milan  in  1028.  Severe  decrees 
against  them  were  made  in  1163,  and  they  gradually  dispersed  ;  very  probably  sowing  the 
i  seeds  of  the  great  reformation  of  the  i6th  century. 

*  In  1864,  the  detected  defalcations  of  Mr.  Edmunds,  a  clerk  in  the  patents  office  and  an  official  of 
the  house  of  lords,  led  to  his  retirement.  He  obtained  a  pension  of  800?. ,  which  was  taken  from  him  by  a 
vote  of  the  house  of  lords,  on  May  9,  1865. 


PAU 


550 


PAW 


PAUL'S  CATHEDRAL,  ST.  (London),  the  noblest  Protestant  church  in  the  world. 
Sir  Christopher  Wren's  opinion,  that  there  had  been  a  church  on  this  spot,  built  by  the 
Christians  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  was  confirmed  when  he  searched  for  the  foundations 
for  his  own  design.  He  explodes  the  notion  of  there  having  been  a  temple  of  Diana. 


The  first  church  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed during  the  Diocletian  persecution 
(302),  and  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Constantine, 

323-337 
Demolished  by  the  pagan  Saxons,  and  restored 

by  Sebert  in 603 

Injured  by  fire  in  962,  and  destroyed  by  the 
great  conflagration,  after  which  Mauritius, 
then  bishop  of  London,  commenced  the 
magnificent  edifice  which  preceded  the  pre- 
sent cathedral 1087 

A  commission  granted  to   Laud,   then  bishop 

of  London,  to  restore  the  cathedral      April  2,  1631 
It  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  fire  of        .         .  1666 
First  stone  of  the  present  edifice  laid,  June  21,  1675 
The  choir  opened  for  divine  worship       Dec.  2,   1697 
The  whole  edifice  completed  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  of  the  decorations,  not  finished 
until  1723)  under  the  illustrious  architect,  sir 

Christopher  Wren 1710 

The  total  cost  (including  200  tons  weight  of 
iron  railing)  was  1,511,202.] 


Ball  and  cross  restored  by  Mr.  Cockerell      .     .  1822 
Money  having  been  subscribed  to  adapt  St. 
Paul's    for    the    purpose,    evening    services 
began  on  Sunday,  Nov."  28,  when  above  4000 

persons  were  present 1858 

A  national  guinea  subscription  for  completing 
the  ornamentation  of  the  interior  began  in 

Feb.  1864 

DIMENSIONS. 

Length  of  St.  Paul's  from  the  grand  portico  to  feet. 

the  east  end,  is 510 

Breadth,  north  to  south  portico  ....  282 
Exterior  diameter  of  the  dome  .  .  .  .  145 
Height  from  ground  to  top  of  cross  .  .  .  404 
Campaniles,  or  bell  towers,  at  each  corner, 

height 208 

Breadth  of  western  entrance  .  .  .  .180 

Circumference  of  dome 420 

Entire  circumference  of  the  building  .  .  2292 
Diameter  of  ball  6 


PAUL'S  CROSS,  ST.  (London),  which  stood  before  the  cathedral,  was  a  pulpit  formed 
•of  wood,  mounted  upon  steps  of  stone,  and  covered  with  lead,  from  which  the  most  eminent 
divines  were  appointed  to  preach  every  Sunday  in  the  forenoon.  To  this  place,  the  court, 
the  mayor,  the  aldermen,  and  principal  citizens  used  to  resort.  It  was  in  use  as  early  as 
1259,  and  was  appropriated  not  only  to  instruct  mankind  by  preaching,  but  to  every  purpose 
political  or  ecclesiastical : — for  giving  force  to  oaths,  for  promulgating  laws,  &c.  Jane  Shore, 
mistress  of  Edward  IV.,  was  brought  before  this  cross  in  1483,  divested  of  all  her  splendour. 
It  was  demolished  in  1643  by  order  of  the  parliament. 

PAUL'S  SCHOOL,  ST.,  was  endowed  in  1512  by  John  Colet,  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  for  153 
boys  "  of  every  nation,  country,  and  class,"  in  memory  of  the  number  of  fishes  taken  by 
Peter.  (John  xxi.  n.)  The  first  schoolhouse  was  burnt  iu  1666  ;  the  second  by  Wren  was 
taken  down  in  1824,  and  the  present  building  erected  by  George  Smith.  William  Lilly  was 
the  first  master,  and  his  grammar  is  still  used  by  the  school.  Timbs. 

PAUPERS.     See  Poor. 

PAVEMENT.  The  Carthaginians  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  paved  their  towns 
with  stones.  The  Romans,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  had  pavement  in  many  of  their  streets; 
but  the  Appian  Way  was  a  paved  road,  and  was  constructed  312  B.C.  In  England  there  were 
few  paved  streets  before  Henry  VII. 's  reign.  London  was  first  paved  about  1533.  It  was 
paved  with  flagstones  between  1815  and  1825.  Wood  and  asphalte  paving  was  tried  in  1839, 
and  have  been  disused  since  1 847.  See  Wood  Pavement.  • 

PAVI A  (1ST.  Italy),  the  ancient  Tidnum  or  Papia.  Its  university,  founded  by  Charle- 
magne, is  the  oldest  in  Europe.  Pavia  was  built  by  the  Gauls,  who  were  driven  out  by  the 
Romans,  and  these  in  their  turn  were  expelled  by  the  Goths.  In  568  it  was  taken  by  the 
Lombards,  and  became  the  capital  of  their  kingdom.  In  the  I2th  century  it  was  erected 
into  a  republic,  but  soon  after  was  subjected  to  Milan  and  followed  its  fortunes.  On  Feb.  24, 
1545,  a  battle  was  fought  near  here  between  the  French  and  the  Imperialists,  when  the  former 
were  defeated,  and  their  king,  Francis  I.,  after  fighting  with  heroic  valour,  and  killing  seven! 
men  with  his  own  hand,  was  at  last  obliged  to  surrender  himself  a  prisoner.  Francis  wrote; 
to  his  mother,  Louisa  of  Savoy,  regent\>f  the  kingdom  during  his  absence,  saying,  Tout  est\ 
perdu,  Madame,  fors  I'honneur  (All  is  lost,  madam,  except  honour). 

PAWNBROKING.  The  origin  of  borrowing  money  by  means  of  pledges  deposited  with 
lenders  is  referred  to  Perugia,  in  Italy,  about  1462.  The  institutions  were  termed  monti  di 
pieta  (which  see}.  Soon  afterwards,  it  is  said  that  the  bishop  of  Winchester  established  a 
system  of  lending  on  pledges,  but  without  interest.  The  business  of  pawnbrokers  was  regu- 
lated in  1756,  and  licences  issued  in  1783.  The  rate  of  interest  on  pledges  was  fixed  in  1800. 
In  London  there  were,  in  1851,  334  pawnbrokers  ;  and  in  England,  exclusively  of  London, 
1127  ;  the  number  is  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  population.  In  1860  an  act  was  passed 


PAX 


PEE 


enabling  pawnbrokers  to  charge  a  halfpenny  for  every  ticket  describing  things  'pledged  for  a 
sum  under  55.     The  acts  relating  to  pawnbrokers  were  amended  in  1856. 

PAX,  a  small  tablet,  generally  silver,  termed  tabula,  pads  or  osculatorium,  kissed  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  priests  and  laity  ;  substituted  for  the  primeval  kiss  of  peace  in  the  early 
church.  The  pax  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  about  the  I2th  century. 

PAYMASTER-GENERAL.  In  1836  the  army  and  navy  pay  departments  were  consoli- 
dated into  the  Paymaster-general's  office,  sometimes  held  by  a  Cabinet  minister. 

PEABODY  FUND.  On  March  12,  1862,  Mr.  George  Peabody,  the  American  merchant, 
gave  I5o,ooo/.  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  London  poor.  A  large  pile  of  buildings, 
named  Peabody  dwellings,  were  erected  in  Spitalfields,  as  homes  for  the  working  classes. 

PEACE.  A  temple  was  dedicated  to  peace  by  Vespasian,  75.  See  Fire-works,  Treaties, 
Justices,  &c. — A  PEACE  SOCIETY  was  founded  in  1816  for  the  promotion  of  universal  peace. 
It  held  its  45th  anniversary  in  May,  1861.  A  congress  of  the  friends  of  peace,  from  all 
parts  of  the  world,  commenced  its  sittings  at  Paris,  Aug.  22,  1849.  It  met  in  London  at 
Exeter  hall,  Oct.  30,  following  ;  and  at  Frankfort,  in  St.  Paul's  church,  Aug.  22,  1850  ;  at 
Birmingham,  Nov.  28,  1850  ;  and  at  Exeter  hall,  July  22,  1851.  A  meeting  was  held  at 
Manchester,  Jan.  27,  1853  ;  and  at  Edinburgh,  Oct.  12,  1853.  Mr.  Bright  and  Mr.  Cobden 
are  among  the  most  conspicuous  members  of  the  society.  A  deputation  from  the  Peace 
Society,  consisting  of  Messrs.  J.  Sturge,  Pease,  and  another  Quaker  friend,  stated  their  views 
to  the  emperor  of  Russia  at  St.  Petersburg,  at  an  interview  granted  them  in  Feb.  1854. 

PEARLS.  The  formation  of  the  pearl  has  embarrassed  both  ancient  and  modern 
naturalists  to  explain.  M.  Reaumur,  in  1717,  alleged  that  pearls  are  formed  like  other  stones 
in  animals.  An  ancient  pearl  was  valued  by  Pliny  at  8o,oooZ.  sterling.  One  which  was 
brought  in  1574,  to  Philip  II.,  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  was  valued  at  14,400  ducats, 
equal  to  13,996^.  A  pearl  named  the  Incomparable,  spoken  of  by  De  Boote,  weighed  thirty 
carats,  equal  to  five  pennyweights,  and  was  about  the  size  of  a  muscadine  pear.  The  pearl 
mentioned  by  Tavernier,  as  being  in  possession  of  the  emperor  of  Persia,  was  purchased  of 
an  Arab  in  1633,  and  is  valued  at  a  sum  equal  to  110,400^. 

PEDESTRIANISM.  Euchidas,  a  citizen  of  Platsea,  went  from  thence  to  Delphi  to 
bring  the  sacred  fire.  This  he  obtained,  and  returned  with  it  the  same  day  before  sunset, 
having  travelled  125  English  miles.  No  sooner  had  he  saluted  his  fellow-citizens,  and 
delivered  the  fire,  than  he  fell  dead  at  their  feet.  After  the  battle  of  Marathon,  a  soldier 
was  sent  from  the  field  to  announce  the  victory  at  Athens.  Exhausted  with  fatigue,  and 
bleeding  from  his  wounds,  he  had  only  time  to  cry  out,  "  Rejoice,  we  are  conquerors  !"  and 
immediately  expired. 


Foster  Powel,  the  English  pedestrian,  performed 
many  astonishing  journeymen  foot.  His  expedi- 
tion from  London  to  York  and  back  again,  in  1788, 
is  said  to  have  been  completed  in  140  hours. 

Captain  Barclay,  for  a  wager  (on  which  many 
thousands  of  pounds  depended),  walked  1000 
miles  in  1000  successive  hours,  each  mile  in  each 
hour,  in  forty-two  days  and  nights  (less  8  hours). 
His  task  was  accomplished  on  July  10,  1809. 

Richard  Manks,  a  native  of  Warwickshire,  under- 
took (in  imitation  of  captain  Barclay)  to  walk 
1000  miles  in  1000  hours  :  the  place  chosen  was  the 


Barrack  tavern  cricket-ground,  in  Sheffield ;  he 
commenced  on  Monday,  June  17,  1850,  and  com- 
pleted the  1000  miles,  July  29,  following,  winning 
a  considerable  sum. 

On  Oct.  7,  1861,  a  12  miles  foot-race  was  held,  when 
Levett,  the  champion  of  England,  ran  7  miles  in 
37  minutes  27  seconds;  Deerfoot,  a  Seneca  Indian, 
ran  12  miles  in  65  minutes  5  seconds ;  and  Mills 
ran  10  miles  in  54  minutes  10  seconds ;  other 
races  followed. 

On  May  n,  1863,  Deerfoot  was  beaten  by  White, 
who  ran  10  miles  in  52  minutes  14  seconds. 


PEEL  ADMINISTRATIONS.*  The  FIRST  succeeded  the  Melbourne  administration, 
which  was  broken  up  on  the  retirement  of  lord  Althorpe,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
in  Nov.  1834.  Sir  R.  Peel,  then  in  Italy  was  summoned  home,  the  duke  of  "Wellington 
holding  the  seals  of  office  in  the  interim.  They  resigned  in  April,  1835.  In  May,  1841,  sir 
R.  Peel  carried  a  vote  of  want  of  confidence  in  the  Melbourne  cabinet,  but  did  not  take 
office  ;  and  in  Sept.  of  that  year,  he  became  again  premier. 

*  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  born  Feb.  5,  1788  ;  entered  parliament  in  1809 ;  became  under-secretary  of  the 
colonies  in  1811,  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  in  1812,  M.P.  for  Oxford  in  1818  (when  he  resigned  his  office), 
secretary  for  home  department  in  1822  ;  resigned  office  and  reappointed  in  1827  ;  resigned  again  in  1830  ; 
became  premier  in  1834  and  1841,  see  above.  He  was  thrown  from  his  horse  June  29,  and  died  July  2,  1850. 
He  greatly  relaxed  the  severity  of  our  criminal  code  in  1827,  et  seq.  ;  established  the  new  police,  and  carried 
the  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill  in  1829,  and  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  in  1846.  Statues  have  been 
erected  to  him— at  Salford  in  1852  ;  at  Tarn  worth,  Leeds,  Bury,  and  Manchester,  in  1853  ;  and  in  London 
and  Birmingham  in  1855. 


PEE  552  TEL 


PEEL  ADMINISTRATIONS,  continued. 

FIRST   ADMINISTRATION  (Dec.   1834). 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer. 

Lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor. 

Earl  of  Rosslyn,  lord  president. 

Lord  Wharncliffe,  privy  seal. 

Henry  Goulburn,  duke  of  Wellington,  and  earl  of 
Aberdeen,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries  of 
state. 

Earl  De  Grey,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 

Lord  Ellenborough,  and  Alexander  Baring,  board  of 


SECOND    ADMINISTRATION  (Sept.   1841). 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  first  minister. 

Duke  of  Wellington,  in  the  cabinet  without  office. 

Lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor. 

Lord  Wharncliffe,  lord  president. 

Duke  of  Buckingham,  lord  privy  seal. 

Sir    James   Graham,    earl    of    Aberdeen,   and  lord 

Stanley,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries. 
Henry  Goulburn,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Earl  of  Haddington,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 
Earl  of  Ripon,  board  of  trade. 


control  and  trade.  I  Lord  Ellenborough,  India  board. 


Sir  Edward  Knatchbull,  paymaster  of  the  forces. 
J.  C.  Herries,  secretary  at  war. 
Sir  George  Murray,  matter-general  of  the  ordnance, 
[hertninated,  April  1835.] 


Sir    Henry  Hardinge,  sir  Edward  Knatchbull,   sir 
George  Murray,  &c. 

[Terminated,  June  29,  1846,  by  sir  Robert's 
resignation.] 


PEELITES,  a  name  given  to  gentlemen,  whigs  and  tories,  who  adhered  to  sir  Robert 
Peel,  after  his  defeat  by  the  conservative  party,  on  account  of  his  free-trade  measures  carried 
in  1846.  The  principal  were  Henry  Goulburn,  W.  E.  Gladstone,  Sidney  (aftewards  lord) 
Herbert,  sir  James  Graham,  Edward  Cardwell,  sir  George  Clerk,  lord  Lincoln  (afterwards 
duke  of  Newcastle),  lords  Canning  and  Elgin,  and  others. 

PEEL'S  BILLS.  Among  the  most  important  were  the  Bank  Acts  of  1819  and  1844, 
and  the  act  repealing  the  Corn  Laws  in  1846. 

PEEP-0'DAY-BOYS  were  insurgents  in  Ireland,  who  visited  the  houses  of  their  antago- 
nists at  break  of  day,  in  search  of  arms.  They  first  appeared  July  4,  1784,  and  for  a  long 
period  were  the  terror  of  the  country.  See  Defenders. 

PEERS.     See  Lords. 

PEGU,  a  province  of  the  Burmese  empire,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1520.  Pegu, 
the  capital,  was  taken  by  major  Cotton,  with  300  men,  in  June,  1852,  without  loss  ;  and 
afterwards  abandoned.  It  was  again  occupied  by  the  Burmese  and  strongly  fortified,  with  a 
garrison  of  4000  men.  It  was  re-captured  by  general  Godwin  with  1200  men  and  two  guns, 
in  two  hours,  with  the  loss  of  six  killed  and  thirty-two  wounded.  The  province  was  annexed 
to  our  Indian  possessions,  by  proclamation,  Dec.  20,  1852,  and  has  since  prospered.  In  Feb. 
1862,  it  was  united  with  Arracan  and  Tenasserim  as  British  Burmah. 

PEIHO.     See  China,  1859,  1860. 

PEKIN,  the  northern  capital  of  China,  was  rebuilt  by  Kublai  in  1279  ;  and  by  Yong-lo, 
1471 ;  visited  by  lord  Macartney  in  1793  ;  surrendered  to  the  allied  English  and  French 
armies,  Oct.  12,  1860;  and  evacuated  by  them  Oct.  26  following,  after  peace  had  been 
signed.  It  was  described  as  being  in  a  very  desolate  state,  with  a  scattered,  indigent 
population,  estimated  at  4,000,000. 

PELAGIANS, "followers  of  Pelagius,  a  Briton,  appeared  at  Rome  about  400.  Their 
doctrines  were  condemned  at  Carthage,  and  other  councils,  415,  416.  They  maintained: — 

i.  That  Adam  was  by  nature  mortal,  and  whether  I      fall.     4.  That  the  law  qualified  men  for  the  king- 
he  had  sinned  or  not  would  certainly  have  died.  |      dom  of  heaven,  and  was  founded  upon  equal  pro- 


2.  That  the  consequences  of  Adam's  sin  were  con- 
fined to  his  own  person.  3.  That  new-bom  infants 
are  in  the  same  condition  with  Adam  before  the 


mises  with  the  Gospel.  5.  That  the  general  resur- 
rection of  the  dead  does  not  follow  in  virtue  of 
Our  Saviour's  resurrection. 


PELASGI,  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Greece  and  Italy,  appear  to  belong  to  the  Indo- 
Germanic  race.  They  were  in  Greece  about  1900  B.C.,  and  in  Italy  about  1600  B.C.  They 
have  been  termed  Tyrrheni,  Sicani,  or  Siculi,  Apuli,  &c.  From  the  Pelasgi  came  the 
Dorians,  JEolians,  and  lonians  ;  all  three  being  Hellenes  or  Greeks. 

PELEW  ISLANDS  (N.  Pacific  Ocean),  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  rytli  century. 
The  East  India  Company's  packet  Antelope,  captain  "Wilson  was  wrecked  here  in  1783.  The 
king,  Abba  Thulle,  allowed  captain  Wilson  to  bring  prince  Le  Boo,  his  son,  to  England, 
where  he  arrived  in  1784,  and  died  soon  after  of  the  smallpox.  The  East  India  Company 
erected  a  monument  over  his  grave  in  Rotherhithe  churchyard. 

PELHAM  ADMINISTRATION.  Mr.  Henry  Pelham  replaced  the  earl  of  Wilmington, 
as  premier,  Aug.  1743.  See  Wilmington.  In  Nov.  1744,  a  new  ministry  was  formed  (termed 
"the  broad  bottom  administration,"  because  it  comprehended  a  grand  coalition  of  the 
parties).  It  was  dissolved  by  the  death  of  Mr.  Pelham,  March  6,  1754. 


PEL 


553 


PEN 


PELHAM  ADMINISTRATION,  continued. 


Duke  of  Grafton,  lord  chamberlain. 

Duke  of  Richmond,  master  of  the  horse. 

Duke  of  Argyll,  keeper  of  the  great  seal  of  Scotland. 

Marquess  of  Tweeddale,  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland. 

Lord  Hardwicke,  lord  chancellor. 

All  of  the  cabinet. 

The  duke  of  Devonshire  and  duke  of  Bolton  were 
not  of  the  cabinet. 


Henry  Pelham,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer. 

Duke  of  Dorset,  president  of  the  council. 

Earl  Gower,  lord  privy  seal. 

Duke  of  Newcastle  and  the  earl  of  Harrington, 
secretaries  of  state. 

Duke  of  Montagu,  master-general  of  the  ordinance. 

Duke  of  Bedford,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 

PELOPIUM.     Sec  Niobium. 

PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  continued  for  twenty-seven  years  between  the  Athenians  and 
the  people  of  the  Peloponnesus,  with  their  respective  allies,  and  is  the  most  famous  of  the 
wars  of  Greece.  It  began  by  an  attempt  of  the  Boeotians  to  surprise  Plattea,  431  B.C.,  on 
May  7,  and  ended  404  B.C.  by  the  taking  of  Athens  by  the  Lacedaemonians. 

PELUSIUM  (now  Tineh),  formerly  the  key  of  Egypt.  Here,  in  525  B.C.,  Psam- 
meticus  III.  was  defeated  by  Cambyses,  the  Persian,  who  thereby  obtained  possession  of  the 
kingdom. 

PENAL  LAWS.  See  Criminal  Laws  and  Roman  Catholic?.  Penal  servitude  was 
substituted  for  transportation  by  acts  passed  in  1853  and  1857,  and  amended  in  1864. 

PENANCE,  a  sacrament  in  the  Roman  church,  arose  out  of  the  practice  of  auricular 
confession  (which  see).  The  council  of  Trent,  in  its  I4th  session  (1551),  decreed  that  every 
one  is  accursed  who  shall  affirm  that  this  sacrament  was  not  instituted  by  Christ. 

PENANG,  or  PRINCE  OF.WALES'S  ISLAND,  was  given  up  to  the  East  India  Company 
in  1786,  by  captain  F.  Light,  who  received  it  as  a  marriage  portion  with  the  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Keddah.  It  now  forms  one  of  the  Straits  Settlements  (which  sec}. 

PENDULUMS  are  affirmed  to  have  been  adapted  to  clocks  by  Galileo  the  younger? 
about  1641.  Christian  Huyghens  contested  the  priority  of  this  discovery,  1656.  Dufresnoy. 
See  Clocks.  Experiments  were  made  to  determine  the  density  of  the  earth  by  pendulums  by 
Mr.  G.  B.  Airy  (now  astronomer  royal)  and  others,  in  a  mine  in  Cornwall,  in  1826  and  1828  ; 
and  at  Harton  colliery  in  1854.  In  1851,  M.  Foucault  demonstrated  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  by  the  motion  of  a  pendulum. 

PENINSULAR  WAR.     See  under  Spain,  1808-14. 

PENITENTS.  See  Magdalens.  The  Penitents  of  the  name  of  Jesus  were  a  congregation 
of  religious  in  Spain  who  had  led  a  licentious  life,  formed  about  1550.  The  penitents  of 
Orvieto  were  formed  into  an  order  of  nuns  about  1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA  (N.  America),  the  first  state  in  the  Union  in  regard  to  mineral 
wealth.  Population  in  1860,  2,906,370.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  the  first  adventurer  who 
planted  a  colony  on  these*shores,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Pennsylvania  was  granted  by 
Charles  II.  to  the  duke  of  York,  1664  ;  and  it  was  sold  to  the  Penn  family,  1681.  Penn- 
sylvania was  afterwards  purchased  from  the  Indians  by  the  celebrated  William  Penn  (son  of 
admiral  Penn),  who  went  out  from  England  with  a  number  of  colonists  ;  from  which  period 
the  settlement  gradually  increased.  Mr.  Penn  granted  a  charter  in  May,  1701,  but  the 
emigrants  from  the  Low  Countries  refused  it,  and  separated  themselves  from  the  province  of 
Pennsylvania.  They  afterwards  had  their  own  assembly,  in  which  the  governor  of  Pennsyl- 
vania presided.  This  state  adopted  an  independent  constitution  in  1776,  and  established 
the  present  in  1790.  It  was  strongly  Unionist  during  the  civil  war,  1861-5.  See  United  States 
of  America,  and  Petroleum. 

PENNY.  The  ancient  silver  penny  was  the  first  silver  coin  struck  in  England,  and  the 
only  one  current  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  penny  until  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  was 
struck  with  a  cross,  so  deeply  indented  that  it  might  be  easily  parted  into  two  for  halfpence, 
and  into  four  for  farthings,  and  hence  these  names.  Copper  penny  and  two -penny  pieces 
were  coined  by  Boulton  and  Watt,  at  Soho,  Birmingham,  in  1797,  and  were  accounted  the 
finest  of  our  copper  currency.  See  Coins,  &c. — PENNY- POST.  See  Post-Office. — THE  PENNY 
MAGAZINE  began  in  1832  ;  the  PENNY  CYCLOPEDIA  in  1833  (supplements  in  1846  and  1858). 
tp  was  appointed  in  1853,  and  in  1850  a  penny  stamp  was  directed 


The  PENNY  RECEIPT  stamp 

to  be  placed  on  bankers'  cheques'—  PENNY  BANKS 

about  1850. 


1 86 1  about  200)  were  established 


PENRUDDOCK'S  REBELLION  on  behalf  of  Charles  II.  was  suppressed,  and  sir  John 
himself  executed,  in  1655. 


PEN 


554 


PER 


PENSIONS.     The  Crown's  power  of  granting  them,  often  much  abused,  was  materially 
checked  by  statute  i  Anne,  c.  I  (1702). 


English  pension  list  fixed  at  95,000?.       .        .     .  1781 
Irish  pension  list  said  to  amount  to  489,000?.     .  1793 
Provision  made  by  parliament  to  reduce  all  the 
pension  lists   of  the  United  Kingdom  from 
i45,oooJ.  to  a  maximum  of  75,0001.  .        .         .  1830 
A  committee  appointed  to  define  the  proper 
persons  to  whom  pensions  should  be  granted : 
it  reported  in  favour  of  servants  of  the  crown 


and  public,  and  also  of  those  who  "by  their 
useful  discoveries  in  science  and  attainments 
in  literature  and  the  arts,  have  merited  the 
gracious  consideration  of  their  sovereign  and 
the  gratitude  of  their  country^"  .  '  „  .  1834 
The  queen  empowered  to  grant  annually  new 
pensions  to  the  amount  of  1200?.  1837 


PENTECOST  signifies  the  fiftieth,  and  is  the  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  so  called  because 
it  was  celebrated  fifty  days  after  the  feast  of  the  Passover.  Lev.  xxiii.  15.  It  is  called  the 
feast  of  weeks,  Exod.  xxxiv.  22,  because  it  was  kept  seven  weeks  after  the  Passover.  See 
Whitsuntide. 

PENTLAND  HILLS  (near  Edinburgh).  Here,  the  Scotch  presbyterians,  since  called 
Cameronians  (ivhich  see),  who  had  risen  against  the  government,  on  account  of  the  establish- 
ment of  episcopacy,  were  defeated  by  the  royal  troops,  Nov.  28,  1666. 

PEOPLE.  The  duke  of  Norfolk  and  C.  J.  Fox,  at  dinner  in  1798,  gave  as  a  toast  "the 
Majesty  of  the  People,"  for  which  their  names  were  struck  off  the  list  of  privy  councillors. 
A  "People's  petition"  was  presented  to  parliament  by  Mr.  T.  Duncombe,  and  rejected, 
May  2,  1842. 

"PEOPLE'S  PARKS,"  principally  through  private  liberality,  have  been  opened  since 
1846,  at  Manchester,  Halifax,  Birmingham,  Sheffield,  Dundee,  Bradford,  Hull,  Bath,  and 
Bolton  (which  see). 

PEPSIN,  a  peculiar  organic  substance  found  by  Schwannn  in  the  gastric  juice,  and 
named  by  him  frompepsis,  digestion.  It  was  experimented  011  by  M.  Blondlot  in  1843,  and 
has  since  been  prescribed  as  a  medicine. 

PERCEVAL  ADMINISTRATION.  It  commenced  on  the  dissolution  of  that  of  the 
duke  of  Portland  through  his  death,  Oct.  30,  1809.  Mr.  Perceval  was  assassinated  in  the 
lobby  of  the  house  of  commons,  by  Bellingham,  May  n,  1812.  The  earl  of  Liverpool  suc- 
ceeded as  premier. 


*Spencer  Percevalfirst  lord  of  the  treasury,  chancellor 
of  (he  exchequer,  and  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster. 

Earl  Camden,  lord  president. 

Earl  of  Westmoreland,  lord  privy  seal. 

Richard  Ryder,  marquess  of  Wellesley,  and  earl  of 
Liverpool,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries. 


Lord  Mulgrave,  admiralty, 

Mr.  Dumas  and  earl  Bathurst,  boards  of  control  and 

trade. 

Earl  of  Chatham,  ordnance. 
Viscount  Palmerston,  secretary-at-war,  &c. 
Lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor. 


PERCUSSION-CAPS.     See  Fire-arms. 

PERCY  FAMILY.  William  de  Percy  obtained  lands  in  Yorkshire  from  "William  the 
Conqueror,  and  died  at  Antioch  about  1096. 

The  heiress  of  the  last  baron  Percy  married 

Joceline  de  Louvaine,  son  of  Godfrey,  duke 

of  Brabant,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.          .  1154-89 
Henry  de  Percy,  their  descendant,  created  earl 

of  Northumberland  in 1377 

Many  of  his  descendants  were  slain  during  the 

civil  wars. 
Lady  Elizabeth  Percy,  the  heiress  of  Josceline 

Percy,  who  died  1670,  married  Charles,  duke 

of  Somerset. 
Lady  Elizabeth    Percy,  heiress    of    Algernon 

PEREKOP,  an  isthmus,  five  miles  broad,  connecting  the  Crimea  with  the  mainland.  It 
was  called  by  the  Tartars  Orkapou,  "gate  of  the  isthmus,"  which  the  Russians  changed  to 
its  present  name,  which  signifies  a  barren  ditch.  The  Tartar  fortress  was  taken  and  destroyed 
by  the  Russian  marshal  Munich  in  1736,  by  assault,  although  it  was  defended  by  1000 
Janissaries  and  100,000  Tartars.  It  was  again  strongly  fortified  by  the  khan,  but  was  again 
taken  by  the  Russians  in  1771,  who  have  since  retained  it. 

PERE  LE  CHAISE.     See  Cemeteries. 


Seymour,  duke  of  Northumberland,  married 
sir  Hugh  Smithson,  created  duke  of  North- 
umberland in 1766 

Their  descendant,  duke  Algernon,  died  without 
issue,  Feb.  12,  1865,  an<*  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin,  George  Percy,  earl  of  Beverley. 

The  PERCY  SOCIETY,  for  the  publication  of 
ancient  ballads,  &c.,  was  established  in  1840, 
published  94  little  volumes,  and  was  dissolved 
in 1852 


PER 


555 


PER 


PERFUMERY.  In  Exodus  xxx,  (B.C.  1490),  directions  are  given  for  making  the  holy 
3ense.  Philip  Augustus  of  France  granted  a  charter  to  the  master  perfumers  in  1190. 
Perfumes  became  fashionable  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  1860  there  were 
about  forty  manufacturing  perfumers  in  London  ;  in  Paris  about  eighty.  No  such  trade  as.  a 
perfumer  was  known  in  Scotland  in  1763.  Creech.  A  stamp-tax  was  laid  on  various  articles 
of  perfumery  in  England,  and  the  vendor  was  obliged  to  take  out  a  licence  in  1786.  At  the 
corner  of  Beaufort -buildings,  in  the  Strand,  resided  Lilly,  the  perfumer,  mentioned  in  the 
Spectator.  Leigh. 

PERGAMOS.     See  Seven  Churches,  3. 

PERIODICAL  LITERATURE.     See  Newspapers,  Magazines,  and  Reviews. 

PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY.     See  Lyceum. 

PERJURY.  The  early  Romans  threw  the  offender  headlong  from  the  Tarpeian  precipice  ; 
but  that  penalty  was  afterwards  altered,  upon  a  supposition  that  the  gods  would  vindicate 
their  own  honour  by  some  remarkable  judgment  upon  the  offender.  The  Greeks  set  a  mark 
of  infamy  upon  him.  After  the  empire  became  Christian,  any  one  who  swore  falsely  upon 
the  Gospels,  was  to  have  his  tongue  cut  out.  The  canons  of  the  primitive  church  enjoined 
eleven  years'  penance  ;  and  in  some  states  the  false  swearer  became  liable  to  the  punishment 
he  charged  upon  the  innocent.  Perhaps  the  greatest  perjurer  in  modern  times  was  Titus 
Oates.  See  Dates.  A  woman  named  Alice  Grey  was  convicted  of  many  perjuries  in  1856. 
In  England  perjury  was  punished  with  the  pillory,  1563.  By  the  Abolition  of  Oaths  bill, 
persons  making  a  false  declaration  are  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor;  Act  5  &  6  Will.  IV. 
cc.  60  and  61,  9  Sept.  1835. 

PERKINS'  METALLIC  TRACTORS.     See  Animal  Magnetism. 

PERMISSIVE  BILL  (which  would  give  power  to  two-thirds  of  the  rate-payers  of  a 
parish  to  refuse  licences  for  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors)  was  rejected  by  the  house  of 
commons,  June  8,  1864. 

PERONNE  (N.  France),  TREATY  OF.  Louis  XL  of  France,  having  placed  himself  in  the 
power  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  forced  to  sign  this  treaty,  confirming  those  of  Arras  and 
Conflans,  with  some  other  humiliating  stipulations,  1468.  Louis  XI.  had  promised  Champagne 
and  Brie  as  appanages  to  his  brother  Charles,  duke  of  Berry,  not  intending  to  keep  his  word, 
apprehending  that  those  provinces,  being  so  near  Burgundy,  would  prove  a  fresh  source  of 
broils  and  disputes.  Henault. 

PERPETUAL  EDICTS.     See  Edicts. 

PERSECUTIONS.  Historians  usually  reckon  ten  general  persecutions  of  the  Christians. 
See  Jews,  Heretics,  Inquisition,  Huguenots,  Protestants,  Massacres,  Bartholomew,  St.,  &c. 


ist,  under  Nero,  who,  having  set  fire  to  Rome, 
threw  the  odium  upon  the  Christians  ;  mul- 
titudes were  massacred  ;  wrapt  up  in  the 
skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  torn  and  devoured 
by  dogs  ;  crucified,  burnt  alive,  &c.  .  .  64-68 

2nd,  under  Domitian 95 

3rd,  under  Trajan 106 

4th,  under  Marcus  Aurelius        .        .         .       166-177 
5th,  under  Septimus  Severus  .        .        .          199-204 


6th,  under  Maximinus 235-8 

7th,  under  Decius,  more  bloody  than  any  pre- 
ceding    25o-2 

8th,  under  Valerian 258-60 

gth,  under  Aurelian 275 

loth,  undei1  Diocletian,  who  prohibited  divine 
worship  ;  houses  filled  with  Christians  were 
set  on  fire,  and  droves  of  them  were  bound 
together  with  ropes  and  cast  into  the  sea  303-13 


PERSEPOLIS,  the  ancient  splendid  capital  of  Persia.  Alexander  has  been  falsely  accused 
of  setting  lire  to  it,  while  intoxicated,  33 1  B.  c.  The  fire  is  said  to  have  been  accidental,  and 
not  extensive.  Ruins  of  this  city  still  exist. 

PERSIA,  in  the  Bible  called  Elam,  is  said  to  have  received  its  appellation  from  Perseus, 
the  son  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda,  who  settled  here,  and  established  a  petty  sovereignty. 
The  name  is  more  probably  of  Indian  origin.  Persia  was  included  in  the  first  Assyrian 
monarchy,  900  B.C.  ;  when  that  empire  was  dismembered  by  Arbaces,  &c.,  it  appertained  to 
Media.  Population  of  the  present  kingdom,  about  10,000,000. 


Zoroaster,  king  of  Bactria,  founder  of  the 
Magi — Justin B.C.  2115 

Zoroaster  II.,  Persian  philosopher,  generally 
confounded  with  the  king  of  Bactria  .  .1082 

Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  557 ;  overthrows  the 
Medo-Babylonian  monarchy,  about  557  ;  con- 


quers Asia- Minor  about  548 ;  becomes  master 
of  the  east,  536;  killed  in  a  war  with  the 
Massagetae    .'        .         .         .        ...        .     .     529 

Cambyses,  his  son,  conquers  Egypt  (which  see)  .     525 
The  false  Smerdis  killed;    Darius  Hystasper 

king S2I 

Revolt  of  the  Babylonians  subdued    .        .        .512 


PER 


556 


PER 


PERSIA,  continued. 

Conquest  of  Ionia  ;  Miletus  destroyed  .         .     .     498 

Darius  equips  a  fleet  of  600  sail,  with  an  army 
of  300,000  soldiers  to  invade  the  Peloponnesus, 
which i  is  defeated  at  Marathon  (which  see)  .  490 

Xerxes  (king,  485) ;  recovers  Egypt,  484  ;  enters 
Greece  in  the  spring  of  this  year,  at  the  head 
of  an  immense  force  ;  the  battle  of  Ther- 
mopylae 480 

Xerxes  enters  Athens,  after  having  lost  200,000 
of  his  troops,  and  is  defeated  in  a  naval  en- 
gagement off  Salamis ,, 

The  Persians  defeated  at  Mycale  and  Platsea, 

Sept.  22,  479 

Cimon,  son  of  Militaries,  with  a  fleet  of  250  ves- 
sels, takes  several  cities  from  the  Persians, 
and  destroys  their  navy,  consisting  of  340 
sail,  near  Cyprus 470 

Xerxes  is  murdered  in  his  bed  by  Artabanus   .     465 

Artaxerxes  Longimanus  king        .         .        .     .       ,, 

Xerxes  IV.  king,  slain  by  Sogdianus,  who  is 
deposed  by  Ochus  Darius  II.,  Nothus  . 

Artaxerxes  II.  Mnemon,  king,  405  ;  battle  of 
Cunaxa,  Cyrus  the  younger  killed 

Retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks  (see  Retreat)  . 

Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus)  kills  all  his  relations  at 
his  accession 

He  is  killed  by  his  minister  Bagoas,  and  his 
son,  Arses,  made  king 

Bagoas  kills  him  and  sets  up  Darius  III.,  Todo- 
manus,  by  whom  he  himself  is  killed  .  . 

Alexander  the  Great  enters  Asia ;  defeats  the 
Persians  at  the  river  Granicus,  334 ;  near 
Issus,  333  ;  at  Arbela 

Darius  killed  by  Bessus,  who  is  torn  in  pieces  . 

Alexander  founds  the  3rd  or  Grecian  monarchy 

Persia  was  partly  re-conquered  from  the  Greeks ; 
is  subjugated  by  the  Parthians  .  .  .  . 

Artaxerxes  I.,  a  common  soldier,  founder  of 
the'Sassanides  dynasty,  restores  the  kingdom 
of  Persia A.D. 

Religion  of  Zoroaster  restored  and  Christianity 
persecuted 

Artaxerxes  murdered  ;  succeeded  by  Sapor  I.  ; 
Armenia  becomes  independent  under  Chosroes 

Sapor  conquers  Mesopotamia      .... 

Repels  the  Romans  and  slays  the  emperor 
Valerian 

Sapor  assassinated ;  succeeded  by  Hormisdas  I.  ; 
who  favours  the  Manichees  .... 

Varanes  I.  (Baharam)  persecutes  them  and  the 
Christians 

Varanes  II.  defeated  by  the  emperor  Probus ; 
makes  peace  .  .  .  .  '  . 

Persia  invaded  by  the  emperor  Carus,  who 
conquers  Seleucia  and  Ctesipon  .  .  . 

Varanes  III.  king,  293  ;  Narses  .... 

The  emperor  Galerius  conquers  Mesopotamia, 
Assyria,  &c .  . 

Peace  with  Diocletian 

Hormisdas  II.  king .... 

Ormuz  built  about 

Sapor  II.  kimr,  309 ;  proscribes  Christianity, 
326  ;  makes  war  successfully  with  Rome  for 
the  lost  provinces 337-360 

The  emperor  Julian  invades  Persia ;  slain  near 
the  Tigris ;  his  successor  Jovian  purchases 
his  retreat  by  surrendering  provinces  .  .  363 


301  or  303 
3°3 


Sapor  annexes  Armenia,  365  ;  and  Iberia,  366 ; 
makes  peace  with  Rome      ....          372 

Artaxerxes  II.  king,  380;  Sapor  III.  .         .         .     385 

Armenia  and  Iberia  independent  .         .        .     .     386 

Varanes  IV.,  390;    Yezdejird  I.,  404;  conquers 
Armenia    ........     412 

Varanes   V.    420,   persecutes  Christians ;    con- 
quers Arabia  Felix,  421  ;   makes  peace  with 
the  Eastern  Empire  for  100  years        .        .     .     422 
Armenia  again  united  to  Persia  ....     428 

Wars  with  Huns,  Tiirks,  &c 430-2 

Yezdejird  II.  king,  440  ;    Hormisdas  III.  457  ; 

civil  war,  458-86 ;  Feroze  king,  458 ;  Pallas, 

484  ;  Kobad,  486  ;  Jamaspes,  497 ;  Kobad  again    497 

His  son,   Chosroes   I.   king;    long  wars    with 

Justinian  and  his  successors,  with  various 

fortune 531-79 

Successful  campaigns  of  Belisarius         .  541-2 

Hormisdas  IV.  continues  the  war ;  degrades  his 
general,  Baharam,  who  deposes  him ;  but  is 
eventually  defeated  .  ....  590 

Chosroes  II.  591  ;  renews  the  war  with  success, 

603  ;  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor  subdued      .          614-6 
Chosroes    totally    defeated    by    the    emperor 

Heraclius,  who  advances  on  Persia  .  .  .  627 
Chosroes  put  to  death  by  his  son,  Siroes,  628  ; 
Artaxerxes  III.  king,  629 ;  Purandokt, 
daughter  of  Chosroes,  reigns  630;  Shenen- 
deh,  her  lover,  631 ;  Arzemdokt,  her  sister, 
631  ;  Kesra,  631 ;  Ferokhdad,  632  ;  Yesdejird 

III 632 

Persia  invaded  by  the  Arabs ;  the  king  flies, 
651  ;  is  betrayed  to  them  and  is  put  to  death, 
and  his  army  exterminated         .         .        .     .     652 
Persia  becomes  the  seat  of  the  Shiite  or  Fatimite 

Mahometans 661 

The   Taherite  dynasty   established,    813;    the 

Safferide,  872  ;  the  Samaiiide      .         ...     874 
Persia  subdued  by  Togrul  Beg  and  the  Seljukian 
Turks,  1038  ;  who  are  expelled,  1194  ;  subdued 
by  Genghis  Khan  and  the  Mongols          .  1223 

Bagdad  made  the  capital 1345 

Is  invaded  by  Timour,  1380 ;  ravaged  by  him, 
1399  ;  conquered  by  the  Turcomans,  1468  ; 
who  are  expelled  by  the  Shiites,  or  Fatimite 
Mahometans,  who  establish  the  Sophi  dy- 
nasty under  Ismail  I 1501 

Ispahan  made  the  capital       .        .         .        .        1590 
The  Turks  take  Bagdad  ;  great  massacre  .         .   1638 

Georgia  revolts  to  Russia 1783 

Teheran  made  the  capital 1796 

War  with  Russia      ......     1826-9 

Rupture  with  England  in  consequence  of  the 
Persians  taking  Herat  (which  see),  Oct.  25  ; 

war  declared Nov.  i,  1856 

Persians  defeated  ;  Bushire  taken  .  Dec.  8-10,  „ 
Gen.  Outram  defeats  the  Persians  at  Kooshab, 

Feb.  8,   1857 

And  at  Mohammerah  .  .  .  March  26,  ,, 
Peace  ratified  at  Teheran  .  .  .  April  14,  ,, 
Commercial  treaty  with  France,  &c.  .  June,  ,, 
Herat  given  up  by  the  Persians  .  .  July,  ,, 
The  shah  decrees  a  re-organisation  of  the 

government Sept.  9,  1858 

Railways  in  process  of  formation    .        .        .     .  1 865 


SHAHS    OF   PERSIA. 


1502.  Ismail  or  Ishmael:  conquers  Georgia,  1519.          1722. 

1523.  Tamasp  or  Thamas  I.  j  1725, 

1576.  Ismail  II.  Meerza.  1730, 

1577.  Mahommed  Meerza. 

1582.  Abbas  I.  the  Great ;  made  a  treaty  with  the 

English  1612  ;  died  in  1628. 

1628.  Shah  Sophi. 

1641.  Abbas  II.  1732 

1666.  Shah  Sophi  II. 

1694.  Hussein;  deposed. 


Mahmoud,  chief  of  the  Afghans. 
Ashraff,  the  Usurper  ;  slain  in  battle. 
Tamasp  or  Thamas  II.  ;  recovered  the  th 

of  his  ancestors  from  the  preceding. 
[Thamas-Kouli  Khan,    his    general,    obtain 

great  successes  in  this  and  the  subsequent 

reigns.] 
Abbas  III.,  infant  son  of  Tamasp,  under  the 

regency    of   Kouli-Khan,    who    afterwards 

caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king  as 


J 

lined 


PER 


557 


PES 


PERSIA,  continued. 

6.  Nadir  Shah  (the  Victorious  King) ;   conquers 

India,  1739  ;  assassinated  at  Korassan  by  his 
nephew. 

7.  Shah  Rokh. 


[  Interregnum.  1 
Kureem  Khan. 


Many  competitors  for  the  throne,  and  assassi- 
nations till — 
Aga-Mahommed  Khan  obtains  the  power,  and 


founds  the  reigning  (Turcoman)  dynasty  ; 
assassinated,  1797. 

1798.    Futteh  Ali-Shah. 

1834.  Mahommed-Shah,  grandson  of  Futteh  ;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son, 

1848.  Nasr-ul-Deen,  or  Nauss  er-ood-deen,  Sept.  4 ; 
born  1829;  the  PRESENT  shah  of  Persia; 
said  to  be  an  able  prince  and  friendly  to 
Britain,  1865. 


PERSON,  OFFENCES  AGAINST. 
nended  in  1861. 


The  statute  laws  respecting  these  were  consolidated  and 


PERSPECTIVE  in  drawing  was  observed  by  the  Van  Eycks  (1426-46),  and  was  treated 
scientifically  by  Michel  Angelo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Albert  Durer,  early  in  the  i6th 
century.  Guido  Ubaldo  published  the  first  treatise  in  1608  ;  Dubreuil's  treatise  (the  "Jesuits' 
perspective")  appeared  in  1642,  and  the  mathematical  theory  was  demonstrated  by  Brook 
Taylor  in  1731. 

PERTH  (Scotland),  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Agricola,  about  A.D.  70.  It  was 
besieged  by  the  regent  Eobert,  1339.  On  Feb.  20,  1437,  James  I.  was  murdered  at  the 
Black  Friars'  monastery  here,  by  Robert  Graham  and  the  earl  of  Athol,  for  which  their  bodies 
wore  torn  with  red-hot  pincers,  burning  crowns  of  iron  pressed  down  upon  their  heads,  and 
in  the  end  their  hearts  taken  out  and  thrown  into  a  fire. — Gowrie's  conspiracy  occurred  here, 
Aug.  6,  1600.  The  "Articles  of  Perth,"  relating  to  religious  ceremonies,  were  agreed  to  by 
the  General  Assembly  of  Scotland,  Aug.  25,  1618.  Perth  was  taken  by  Cromwell  in  1651  ; 
and  by  the  earl  of  Mar  after  the  battle  of  Dumblane,  in  1715.  The  statue  of  the  prince 
consort  was  inaugurated  in  the  presence  of  the  queen,  Aug.  30,  1864. 

PERU  (S.  America),  visited  by  the  Spaniards  in  1513,  and  soon  afterwards  easily  con- 
quered. Pizarro,  in  1530,  and  others,  with  one  vessel,  112  men,  and  four  horses,  set  out  to 
invade  South  America.  Not  succeeding  he  again,  in  1531,  embarked  with  three  small  vessels, 
140  infantry,  and  thirty-six  horses  ;  with  these  and  two  reinforcements  of  thirty  men 
each,  he  conquered  the  empire  of  Peru,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  vast  power  which 
the  Spaniards  long  enjoyed  in  the  new  world.  Peru  remained  in  subjection  to  the  Spaniards 
( who  murdered  the  Incas  and  all  their  descendants),  without  any  attempt  being  made  to  throw 
off  the  oppressive  yoke  till  1 782. 

The  independence  of  the  country  achieved        .  1825 
The  new  Peruvian  constitution  signed  by  the 

president  of  the  Republic     .         .      March  21,  1828 

The  president  general  Ramon  Castilla,  elected  .  1855 

Population  (without  Indians)  about  2^  millions  1859 

Marshal  San  Ramon  president         .         Oct.  24,  1862 

(icneral  J.  A.  Pezet  president      .         .    April  3,  1863 
1  The  Spanish  admiral  Pizon  took  possession  of 
"  e  Chincha  isles  (valuable  for  guano)  belong- 


ing to  Peru,  stating  that  he  would  occupy  them 
till  the  claim  of  his  government  or  that  of 


Peru  were  satisfied        .        .        .      April  24,  1864 
American  congress  at  Lima :   plenipotentiaries 

from  Chili  and  other  states  meet  to  concert 

measures    for    defence     against    European 

powers Nov.  .1864 

Negotiations    followed   by  peace  with   Spain, 

Jan.  28  ;  Chincha  islands  restored  .      Feb.  3  1865 
Revolt  against  president  Pezet,  Feb.  28 ;  several 

provinces  soon  lost       ....      May,',, 
The  insurgents  take   Lima  ;    Pezet  flies,  and 

Canseco  becomes  president     .        .          Nov.      , 

PERUGIA,  a  city-  of  Central  Italy,  anciently  one  of  the  Etruscan  Confederation.  It 
allied  itself  with  the  Samnites,  but  was  ruined  by  two  defeats  by  the  Romans,  309  and 
295  B.C.  It  was  taken  by  Octavius  Csesar  from  the  adherents  of  Antony  :  many  of  whom 
i  were  immolated  on  altars  by  their  victor.  Leo  X.  took  Perugia  from  the  rival  families  Oddi 
and  Baglioni,  in  1520.  An  insurrection  here  against  the  pope  was  put  down  by  the  Swiss 
with  great  cruelty,  June  20,  1859.  It  was  taken  by  the  Sardinian  general  Fanti,  in  Sept. 
1860,  when  the  cruel  papal  general  Schmidt  and  1600  men  were  made  prisoners. 

PERUKE,  or  WIG.  The  ancients  used  false  hair,  but  the  present  peruke  was  first  worn 
iiii  France  and  Italy  about  1620  ;  and  introduced  into  England  about  1660.* 

PERUVIAN  BARK.     See  Jesuits1  Bark. 

PESCHIERA,  a  strong  Austrian  fortress,  on  an  island  in  the  Mincio,  near  the  Lake  do 
Garda,  N.  Italy.  It  has  been  frequently  taken  by  siege  : — by  the  French,  1796  ;  by  the 
Austrians  and  Russians,  1799  ;  by  the  French  again,  1801  ;  given  up  by  them,  1814;  taken 

jby  the  Sardinians,  1848  ;  retaken  by  Radetzky,  1849.     The  Sardinians  were  preparing  to 

: besiege  it  in  July,  1859,  when  peace  was  made.     See  Quadrangle. 

*  It  is  said  that  bishop  Blomfield  (of  London)  obtained  permission  of  William  IV.  for  the  bishops  to 
disc  ontinue  wearing  their  wigs  in  parliament  in  1830. 


PES  558  PET 

PESTALOZZI  AN  SYSTEM  of  education  was  devised  by  Henri  Pestalozzi,  born  at  Zurich 
in  Switzerland,  in  1746,  died  1827.  In  1775  ne  turned  his  farm  into  a  school  for  educating 
poor  children  in  industrial  pursuits,  reading,  and  writing  ;  but  did  not  succeed.  In  1798  h<- 
established  an  orphan  school,  where  he  began  with  the  mutual  instruction,  or  monitorial 
system,  since  adopted  by  Lancaster  ;  but  his  school  was  soon  turned  into  an  hospital  for  the 
Austrian  army.  In  1802,  in  conjunction  with  Fellenberg,  he  established  his  school  at 
Hofwyl,  which  at  first  was  successful,  but  eventually  declined  through  mismanagement. ! 
Pestalozzi  certainly  aided  the  progress  of  education. 

PESTH  (Hungary),  built  about  889,  was  repeatedly  taken  and  besieged  in  the  wars  of! 
Hungary,  particularly  in  the  long  contests  with  the  Turks.  The  last  time  it  changed  masters, ; 
was  in  1684,  after  the  raising  of  the  famous  siege  of  Vienna  by  Sobieski.  Buda-Pesth  was; 
taken  by  the  Imperialists,  Jan.  5,  1849.  The  Hungarians  afterwards  defeated  the  Austrians, 
who  were  obliged  to  evacuate  it  April  18,  same  year.  See  Hungary. 

PESTILENCE.     See  Plague. 

PETALISM  (from  the  Greek  pdalon,  a  leaf),  a  mode  of  deciding  upon  the  guilt  of 
citizens  of  Syracuse,  similar  to  the  Athenian  ostracism,  the  name  being  written  on  a  leatj 
(generally  of  an  olive)  instead  of  a  shell,  about  460  B.C.  If  guilt  were  established,  the; 
sentence  was  usually  banishment.  Cotgrave. 

PETARD,  an  instrument  whose  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Huguenots  in  1579.    Petards; 
were  of  metal,  nearly  in  the  shape  of  a  hat,  and  were  employed  to  blow  up  gates  or  other 
barriers,  and  also  in  countermines  to  break  through  into  the  enemy's  galleries.     Cahors  w; 
taken  by  Henry  IY.  by  means  of  petards,  in  1580,  when  it  is  said  they  were  first  used. 

PETER  THE  WILD  BOY.  A  savage  creature  found  in  the  forest  of  Hertswold,  electorate 
of  Hanover,  when  George  I.  and  his  friends  were  hunting.  He  was  found  walking  on  ln% 
hands  and  feet,  climbing  trees  like  a  squirrel,  and  feeding  on  grass  and  moss,  Nov.  1725.  At 
this  time  he  was  supposed  to  be  thirteen  years  old.  The  king  caused  him  to  taste  of  all  tin 
dishes  at  the  royal  table  ;  but  he  preferred  wild  plants,  leaves,  and  the  bark  of  trees,  whioV 
he  had  lived  on  from  his  infancy.  No  efforts  of  the  many  philosophic  persons  about  couri 
could  entirely  vary  his  savage  habits,  or  cause  him  to  utter  one  distinct  syllable.  E< 
Feb.  1785,  at  the  age  of  72.  Lord  Monboddo  represented  him  to  be  a  proof  of  the  hypothesis 
that  "  man  in  a  state  of  nature  is  a  mere  animal." 

PETER'S  PENCE,  presented  -by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  to  the  pope  at  Rome 
for  the  endowment  of  an  English  college  there,  725  ;  so  called  because  agreed  to  be  paid  01 
the  feast  of  St.  Peter.  The  tax  was  levied  on  all  families  possessed  of  thirty  pence  yearh 
rent  in  land,  out  of  which  they  paid  one  penny.  It  was  confirmed  by  Offa,  777,  and  w;i. 
afterwards  claimed  by  the  popes  as  a  tribute  from  England,  and  regularly  collected,  til 
suppressed  by  Henry  VIII.  Camden.  A  public  collection  (on  behalf  the  pope)  was  forbiddei 
in  France  in  1860. 

PETERBOROUGH  (Northamptonshire),  founded  633  ;  anciently  called  Medeshamstede 
obtained  its  present  name  from  a  king  of  Mercia  founding  an  abbey  and  dedicating  it  T< 
St.  Peter  in  689.  The  church,  destroyed  by  the  Danes,  was  rebuilt  with  great  beauty.  Th 
bishopric  erected  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1541,  out  of  the  lands  of  the  dissolved  monastery,  in  tin 
diocese  of  Lincoln.  The  first  bishop  was  John  Chambers,  the  last  abbot  of  Peterborough 
The  see  was  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  419?.  195.  nc?.  Present  income  4500?. 


RECENT   BISHOTS    OF    PETERBOROUGH. 


1794.   Spencer  Madan ;  died  Oct.  8,  1813. 
"13.   John  Parsons  ;  died  March  12,  1819. 


1839.    George  Davys  ;  died  April  8,  1864. 
1864.    Francis  J eune,  May.    (PRESENT  bishop.) 


1819.   Herbert  Marsh  ;  died  May  i,  1839. 

PETERLOO.     See  Manchester  Reform  Meeting. 

PETERSBURG,  ST.,  the  modern  capital  of  Russia,  founded  by  Peter  the  Great,  May  271 
1703.  He  built  a  small  hut  for  himself,  and  some  wretched  wooden  hovels.  In  1710,  th 
count  Golovkin  built  the  first  house  of  brick  ;  and  the  next  year,  the  emperor,  with  his  ow: 
hands,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  house  of  the  same  material.  The  seat  of  empire  was  tram 
ferred  from  Moscow  to  this  place  in  1711.  Here,  in  1736,  a  fire  consumed  2000  houses  ;  an> 
in  1780,  another  fire  consumed  11,000  houses  ;  this  last  fire  was  occasioned  by  lightning 
Again  in  June,  1796,  a  large  magazine  of  naval  stores  and  100  vessels  were  destroyed.  Th 
winter  palace  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  Dec.  29,  1837.  The  railway  to  Moscow  was  finishe 
in  1851  ;  to  Berlin,  opened  May  5,  1862.  The  university  was  closed  in  Oct.  1861,  o 


PET  559  PEV 

account  of  the  riotous  behaviour  of  the  students.  Oil  June  10,  1862,  property  to  the 
amount  of  nearly  a  million  sterling  was  destroyed  by  fire. — PETERSBURG,  Virginia.  See 
United  States,  1864. 


Peace  of  St.  Petersburg,  between  Russia  and 
Prussia,  the  former  restoring  all  her  con- 
quests to  the  latter,  signed .  .  .  Mays,  J?62 

Treaty  of  St.  Petersburg  for  the  partition  of 
Poland,  see  'article  (Partition  Treaties),  Aug.  5,  1772 


Treaty  of  Alliance,  signed  at  St.  Petersburg, 
between  Bernadotte,  prince  royal  of  Sweden, 
and  the  emperor  Alexander ;  the  former 
agreeing  to  join  in  the  campaign  against 
France,  in  return  for  which  Sweden  was  to 


Treaty  of    St.   Petersburg,   led  to  a  coalition  receive  Norway     ....     March  24, 

against  France Sept.  8,  1805  I 

PETER'S  CHURCH,  ST.  (Rome),  originally  erected  by  Constantine,  306.  About  1450, 
pope  Nicholas  V.  commenced  a  new  church.  The  present  magnificent  pile  was  designed  by 
Bramante  ;  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  pope  Julius  II.  in  1506.  In  1514,  Leo  X.  employed 
Raphael  and  two  others  to  superintend  the  building.  Paul  III.  committed  the  work  to 
Michael  Angelo,  who  devised  the  dome,  in  the  construction  of  which  30,000  K>.  of  iron  was 
used.  The  church  was  consecrated  Nov.  18,  1626.  The  front  is  400  feet  broad,  rising  to  a 

!  height  of  180  feet,  and  the  majestic  dome  ascends  from  the  centre  of  the  church  to  a  height  of 
324  feet :  the  length  of  the  interior  is  600  feet,  forming  one  of  the  most  spacious  halls  ever 
constructed.  The  length  of  the  exterior  is  669  feet ;  its  greatest  breadth  within  is  442  feet ; 

;    and  the  entire  height  from  the  ground  432  feet. 

PETERSWALDEN  (Germany),  CONVENTION  OF,  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  by 
i    which  a  firm  and  decisive  alliance  between  those  powers  was  made  against  France,  and  the 
1   course  of  action  against  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  planned,  signed  July  8,  1813.  This  alliance 
led  to  the  overthrow  of  Bonaparte  in  the  next  year. 

PETERWARADEIN  (in  Austria)  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  July,  1526.     Here  prince 
s   Eugene  of  Savoy  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks,  Aug.  5,  1716. 

PETITIONS.  The  right  of  petitioning  the  crown  and  parliament  for  redress  of 
grievances  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  constitution.  Petitions  are  extant  of  the  date, 
of  Edward  I.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  petitions  began  to  be  addressed  to  the  house  of 
commons  in  considerable  numbers.  In  1837,  there  were  presented  to  parliament  10,831 
petitions,  signed  by  2,905,905  persons  ;  in  1859,  24,386,  signed  by  2,290,579  persons.  See 
Rights,  Petition  of. 

PETRARCH  AND  LAURA  :  celebrated  for  the  refined  passion  of  the  former  for  the  latter, 
begun  in  1327,  which  was  the  chief  subject  of  his  enchanting  sonnets.  He  was  born  1304, 
crowned  with  laurel,  as  a  poet  and  writer,  on  Easter-day,  April  8,  1341,  ;  and  died  at  Arqua, 
uear  Padua,  July  18,  1374.  Laura  died  April  6,  1348. 

PETROLEUM,  rock  oil  or  mineral  oil,  similar  to  paraffin,  has  been  found  in  many  parts 

of  the  world,  especially  at  Rangoon.     In  1860- 1,  a  number  of  oil-springs  were  discovered  in 

the  bituminous  coal  regions  of  N.W.  Pennsylvania,  now  termed   "Petrolia,"  and  others 

have  been  since  discovered  in  Ohio  and  other  states,  and  also  in  Canada.     In  consequence 

:  numerous  artesian  wells  have  been  sunk,  manufactories  erected,  and  an  almost  unlimited 

i  supply  obtained.     In  consequence  of  the  importation  of  large  supplies  of  this  oil  into  this 

country,  and  many  accidents  having  taken  place  through  its  inflammability  at  low  tempe- 

1  rature,  an  act  for  "  the  safe  keeping  of  petroleum"  was  passed  in  July,  1862. 

PETROPAULOVSKI,  a  fortified  town  on  the  east  coast  of  Kamtschatka,  was  attacked  by 

an  English  and  French  squadron,  Aug.  30,  1854.  .They  destroyed  the  batteries,  but  failed 

in  taking  some  Russian  frigates,  except  the  Sitka,  a  store-ship  taken  by  the  President,  and 

a  schooner  taken  by  the  Pique.     Admiral  Price  was  killed,  it  is  supposed,  by  the  accidental 

discharge  of  his  own  pistol.     A  party  of  700  sailors  and  marines  landed  to  assault  the  place, 

i  but  fell  into  an  ambuscade  ;  many  were  killed,  including  capt.  Parker  and  M.  Bourasset, 

j  English  and  French  officers.    The  objects  of  the  attack  were  not  attained,  it  is  thought  from 

;  want  of  stores.     After  this  the  Russians  greatly  strengthened  their  defences,  but  on  May  30, 

j  I^55j  the  allied  squadron  in  the  Pacific  arriving  here  found  the  place  deserted.     The  fortifi- 

>ns  were  destroyed,  but  the  town  was  spared.     The  Russian  ships  escaped. 

PEVENSEY  (Sussex).  The  castle  is  very  ancient.  From  the  abundance  of  Roman 
'bricks,  it  is  supposed  that  there  was  a  Roman  fortress  on  the  spot.  Here  William  of 

Normandy  landed,  Sept.  28  or  29,  1066.  The  duke  of  York,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  was 
;for  some  time  confined  within  the  walls  of  this  castle  ;  as  was  also  queen  Joan  of  Navarre, 

the  last  wife  of  Henry  IV.,  who,  with  her  confessor,  friar  Randal,  was  accused  of  a  design  to 
;  destroy  the  king. 


PEW  560  PHI 


PEWS  in  churches  were  not  in  use  in  England  till  long  after  the  Reformation :  about 
the  middle  of  the  1 7th  century.  The  earliest  reading-pew  with  a  date  is  one  at  Geddington 
St.  Mary,  Northamptonshire,"  dated  1602.  Hook. 

PFAFFENDORF,  or  LIEGKITZ  (Silesia).  Here  was  fought  a  battle  between  the  Impe- 
rialists and  Prussians,  Aug.  15,  1760.  The  Austrians  were  signally  defeated  by  the  king  of 
Prussia,  who  thus  prevented  the  junction  of  the  Russian  and  Austrian  armies. 

PHALANX,  the  Greek  phalanx  consisted  of  8000  men  in  a  square  battalion,  with  shields 
joined,  and  spears  crossing  each  other.  The  battalion  formed  by  Philip  of  Macedon, 
called  the  Macedonian  phalanx,  was  formed  by  him  360  B.  c. 

PHARAOH'S  SERPENTS,  a  chemical  toy,  composed  of  sulpho-cyanide  of  mercury, 
appeared  in  Paris  in  the  summer  of  1865. 

PHARISEES,  a  sect  among  the  Jews ;  so  called  from  pharash,  a  Hebrew  word  which 
signifies  separated,  because  they  pretended  to  a  greater  degree  of  holiness  than  the  rest  of 
the  Je\vs.  Luke  xviii.  9.  The  Talmud  enumerates  seven  classes  of  Pharisees. 

PHARMACOPOEIA,  a  book  of  directions  for  the  preparation  of  medicines,  published  by 
colleges  of  physicians.  In  1862  the  General  Medical  Council  were  empowered  to  prepare 
and  sell  a  new  Pharmacopoeia,  to  supersede  those  of  the  colleges  of  London,  Edinburgh,  and 
Dublin,  which  was  published  in  June,  1864. 

PHARMACY :  the  knowledge  of  the  chemical  and  medical  properties  of  drugs  and 
other  things  employed  medicinally.  The  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  founded 
in  1841,  mainly  by  Mr.  Jacob  Bell,  obtained  its  charter  in  1843.  It  publishes  a  monthly 
journal. — 15  &  16  Viet.  c.  56(1852),  regulates  the  qualifications  of  pharmaceutical  chemists. 

PHAROS,  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  of  Alexandria,  was  esteemed  as  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world.  It  was  a  tower  built  of  white  marble,  erected  about  280  B.C.  On  the  top, 
fires  were  constantly  kept,  to  direct  sailors  in  the  bay.  The  building  cost  800  talents,  which 
are  equivalent  to  above  165,100?.  English,  if  Attic  ;  or,  if  Alexandrian,  double  that  sum. 
There  was  this  inscription  upon  it — "King  Ptolemy  to  the  gods,  the  saviours,  for  the  benefit 
of  sailors ; "  but  Sostratus,  the  architect,  wishing  to  claim  all  the  glory,  engraved  his  own 
name  upon  the  stones,  and  afterwards  filled  the  hollow  with  mortar,  and  wrote  the  above 
inscription.  When  the  mortar  had  decayed,  Ptolemy's  name  disappeared,  and  the  following 
inscription  became  visible:  "  Sostratus,  the  Cnidian,  son  of  Dexiphanes,  to  the  gods,  the 
saviours,  for  the  benefit  of  sailors." 

PHARSALIA,  a  strong  city  in  Thessaly,  N.  Greece.  Near  it  Julius  Caesar  defeated  his 
rival  Pompey,  Aug.  9,  483.0.  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  treacherously  slain, 
by  order  of  Ptolemy  the  younger,  then  a  minor,  and  his  body  thrown  naked  on  the  strand, 
till  it  was  burnt  by  his  faithful  freedman,  Philip. 

PHILADELPHIA  (Asia  Minor).  See  Seven  Churches.— PHILADELPHIA,  Pennsylvania, 
was  planned  by  William  Penn  in  1682.  The  first  American  Congress  assembled  here  in 
1774,  and  promulgated  the  declaration  of  independence  on  July  4,  1776.  It  was  the  capital 
of  the  Union  till  1800,  when  Washington  was  selected  in  its  place. 

PHILIPHAUGH,  near  Selkirk,  S.  Scotland,  where  the  marquess  of  Montrose  and 
royalists  were  defeated  by  David  Leslie  and  the  Scotch  Covenanters,  Sept.  13,  1645. 

PHILIPPI  (Macedonia),  so  named  by  the  great  Philip.     Here  Octavius  Csesar  and 
Antony  defeated  the  republican  forces  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  who  both  committed  suicide, 
Oct.,  42  B.C.     Paul  wrote  an  epistle  to  the  Christians  at  Philijypi,  A.D.  64. 

PHILIPPICS,  the  term  applied  to  the  orations  of  Demosthenes  against  Philip  II.  oi 
Macedon,  352-341  B.C.,  and  also  to  the  orations  of  Cicero  against  Marc  Antony  (the  secc 
of  which,  called  divine  by  Juvenal,  cost  Cicero  his  life),  43  B.  c. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLES  (in  the  Malay  Archipelago),  discovered  by  Magellan,  in  Mai 
1521,  who  here  lost  his  life  in  a  skirmish.  They  were  taken  possession  of  in  1565  by  a  fleet 
from  Mexico,  which  first  stopped  at  the  island  of  Zeba,  and  subdued  it.  In  1570  a  settle- 
ment was  effected  at  the  mouth  of  the  Manilla  river,  and  Manilla  became  the  capital  of  tin. 
Spanish  possessions  in  the  Philippines.  See  Manilla. 

PHILISTINES,  a  people  of  Palestine,  conquered  Israel,  1156  B.C.,  and  ruled  it  fort) 
years.  They  were  defeated  by  Samuel,  1120;  and  by  Saul  and  Jonathan,  1087.  The) 
again  invaded  Israel  about  1063,  when  David  slew  their  champion,  Goliath.  After  Davk 
became  king  he  thoroughly  subdued  them,  1040.  In  conmioii  with  Syria  their  country 


PHI 


561 


PHO 


was  subjugated  by  the  Romans,  under  Pompey,  about  63.  In  Germany,  about  A.  D.  1830, 
Heine  and  the  liberal  party  applied  the  term  "  Philistines  "  to  the  opponents  of  progress, 
the  conservative  party. 

PHILOBIBLON  SOCIETY  was  instituted  in  1853  by  Mr.  R.  Monckton  Milnes  (now 
lord  Houghton),  M.  Sylvain  Van  de  Weyer,  the  Belgian  minister,  and  others.  It  publishes 
volumes  of  "  Miscellanies,"  &c. 

PHILOSOPHER'S  STONE.     See  Alchemy. 

PHILOSOPHY  (love  of  wisdom),  the  knowledge  of  the  reason  of  things,  in  opposition 
to  history,  which  is  only  the  knowledge  of  facts ;  or  to  mathematics,  which  is  the  knowledge 
of  the  quantity  of  things : — the  hypothesis  or  system  upon  which  natural  effects  are 
explained.  Locke.  Pythagoras  first  adopted  the  name  of  philosopher  (such  men  having 
been  previously  called  sages)  about  528  B.C.  Philosophers  were  expelled  from  Rome,  and 
their  schools  suppressed,  by  Domitian,  A.D.  83.  Philosophy  is  now  divided  into  :— I.  Moral 
or  Ethical ;  2.  Intellectual  ;  3.  Natural  or  Physical. 


«    MORAL  AND   INTELLECTUAL  PHILOSOPHY. 
ENT   SCHOOLS. — Pythagorean,   about    500    B.C.  ; 
itonic  (the  Academy),  by  Plato,  374 ;  Peripat-Mc 
(the  Lyceum),  by  Aristotle,  334 ;  Sceptic,  by  Pyrrho, 
334 ;   Cynic,  by  Diogenes,  330  ;  Epicurean,  by  Epi- 
curus, 306 ;  Stoic,  by  Zeno,  290  ;  Middle  Academy, 
by  Arcesilaus,  278 ;  New  Academy,  by  Carneades, 
160. 

MODERN  SYSTEMS. — Rational,  Bacon,  about  A.D.  1624  ; 
Cartesian,  Descartes,  about  1650 ;  Rfflective  or  Per- 
ceptive, Locke,  1690 ;  Idealistic,  Berkeley,  1710 ; 
Elective,  Leibnitz,  1710;  Common  Sense,  Reid, 
1750-70;  Transcendental,  Kant,  Hamilton,  &c., 
1770-1860;  Scientific,  Fichte,  1800-14;  Absolute 
Identity,  Schelling,  1800-20 ;  Absolute  Idealism, 
Hegel,  1810-30;  Utilitarian,  Bentham,  1790-1830; 
Positive,  Comte,  1830. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 

Greek-  and  latin. — Thales,  about  600  B.C.  ;  Pythagoras, 
590 ;  Aristotle  and  Plato,  350 ;  Euclid,  300 ;  Ar- 
chimedes, 287  ;  Hipparchus,  150  ;  Lucretius,  about 
ioo ;  Julius  Caesar,  50;  Ptolemy,  A.D.  150. 

Middle  Ages. — Arabians :  Ben  Mu.sa,  800  :   Alhazen, 


&c.,  i  ioo.     Gerbert,  Decimals,  959.     Roger  Bacon, 
Opus  Majus,  1266. 
Iiiductive  Philosophy : — 
Copernicus's  system  published   .        ...  1543 

Tycho  Brahe     ......    1546-1601 

Kepler's  Laws      .        .    *    .        .        .        .  1609-18 

Bacon's  Novum  Organum 1620 

Galileo's  Dialogues 1632 

Royal  Society  begins  (which  see)       .        .        .  1645 
Otto     Guericke— Air-pump     and     Electric 

machine 1654 

Huyghens  on  Pendulums        ....  1658 
Newton— Fluxions,   1665 ;  Analysis  of  Light, 
1669 ;   Theory  of  Gravitation,  1684 ;   Prin- 
cipia  published,  1687  ;  death    .        .        .     .  1727 
Bradley  discovers  aberration       .         .        .        .     „ 
Euler  on  Perturbation  of  the  Planets    .        .     .  1748 

Black  on  Heat 1762 

Laplace  on  Tides i?75 

Lagrange,  Me'canique  Analytique  ....  1788 
Galvani  and  Volta's  researches        .        .        .    .  1791 

Laplace,  Me'canique  Celeste 1799 

[See  Astronomy,  Optics,  Chemistry,  Electricity,  <fcc.] 


PHIPPS'  EXPEDITION.  The  hon.  captain  Phipps  (afterwards  lord  Mulgrave)  sailed 
from  England  in  command  of  the  Sea-Horse,  and  Carcase  ships,  to  make  discoveries,  as  near 
as  possible,  to  the  North  Pole,  1773.  In  August  of  that  year,  he  was  for  nine  days  envi- 
roned with  impenetrable  barriers  of  ice,  in  the  Frozen  Ocean,  north  of  Spitzbergen,  80° 
48'  N.  lat.  All  further  progress  was  not  only  impossible,  but  retreat  also,  and  in  this 
dreadful  situation  all  on  board  gave  themselves  up  for  lost  ;  but  a  brisk  wind  in  two  or  three 
days  accomplished  their  deliverance.  They  returned  to  England  without  having  made  any 
discoveries,  Sept.  20,  1773.  Nelson  was  coxwain  to  the  second  in  command. 

PHOCIS,  a  state  in  Northern  Greece.  The  Phocians  seized  Delphi  357  B.C.  and  com- 
menced the  second  Sacred  War.  They  were  opposed  by  Thebes  and  other  states,  and  were 
utterly  subdued  by  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  in  346. 

PHOENICIA,  on  the  sea  coast  of  Syria.  The  natives  were  the  most  eminent  navigators 
and  traders  of  antiquity  ;  their  cities  or  allied  states  being  Tyre,  Sidon,  Berytus,  Tripoli, 
Byblos,  and  Ptolemais  or  Acre.  From  the  igth  to  the  I3th  centuries  before  Christ,  they 
established  colonies  on  the  shores  or  isles  of  the  Mediterranean — Carthage,  Hippo,  Utica, 
Gades,  Panorrnus,  and  are  said  to  have  visited  the  British  Isles.  Phoenicia  was  conquered 
by  Cyrus,  537  B.C.;  by  Alexander,  334;  by  the  Romans,  47;  and  after  partaking  of  the 
fortunes  of  Palestine,  was  added  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  A.D.  1516. 

PHOENIX  CLUBS,  of  a  treasonable  character,  were  formed  in  Ireland  in  1858.  They 
met  at  night  to  drill.  Several  persons  were  arrested  and  tried  in  March,  1859,  at  Tralee ; 
but  the  jury  could  not  agree  on  their  verdict.  Eventually  some  of  the  prisoners  pleaded 
guilty,  and  were  discharged  on  being  bound  over  to  keep  the  peace. 

PHONOGRAPH,  a  machine  which  may  be  attached  to  pianofortes  and  other  keyed 
instruments,  by  which  any  music  that  is  played  may  be  written  down  on  blank  paper,  since 
it  rules  and  prints  the  notes  simultaneously.  It  was  patented  by  Mr.  Fenby,  June  13,  1863. 

0   0 


PHO 


502 


PHO 


The  motive  power  is  electro-magnetism.     Machines  with  a  similar  object  were  projected  by 
Mr.  Creed  in  1747;  Mr.  J.  F.  linger  in  1774;  and  by  Mr.  Carreyre  in  1827. 

PHONOGRAPHY  (from  the  Greek  phone,  sound).  The  Phonetic  society,  whose  object 
is  to  render  our  mode  of  writing  and  printing  more  consonant  to  sound,  was  established, 
March  i,  1843  ;  sir  "W.  C.  Trevelyan,  president,  and  Mr.  Isaac  Pitman,  secretary,  the  latter 
being  the  inventor  of  the  system  which  was  made  known  in  1837.  Among  other  works 
published  by  the  promoters  of  the  system,  was  the  "  Phonetic  News,"  in  1849. 

PHONOSCOPE,  an  apparatus  for  testing  the  quality  of  musical  strings,  invented  by 
M.  Koenig,  and  exhibited  at  the  International  Exhibition  in  1862. 

PHOSPHORUS  was  discovered  in  1667,  by  Brandt,  of  Hamburg,  who  procured  it  from 
urine.  The  discovery  was  prosecuted  by  John  Kunckel,  a  Saxon  chemist,  about  1670,  and 
by  the  hon.  R.  Boyle  about  the  same  time.  Nouv.  Diet.  Phosphoric  acid  is  first  mentioned 
in  1743,  but  is  said  to  have  been  known  earlier.  Gahn  pointed  out  its  existence  in  bones  in 
1769,  and  Scheele  devised  a  process  for  extracting  it.  Canton's  phosphorus  is  so  called  from 
its  discoverer,  1 768.  Photophosphuretted  hydrogen  was  discovered  by  sir  Humphry  Davy 
in  1812.  The  consumption  of  phosphorus  has  immensely  increased  since  the  manufacture  of 
lucifer  matches.  In  1845,  Schrotter,  of  Vienna,  discovered  what  is  termed  allotropic  or 
amorphous  phosphorus,  which  is  not  so  unwholesome  to  work  as  ordinary  phosphorus. 

PHOTOGRAPHY.  The  action  of  light  on  chloride  of  silver  was  known  as  early  as  the 
l6th  century.  The  phenomenon  was  studied  by  Scheele  (1777),  Senebier  (1790),  Ritter 
and  Wollaston  (1801).  From  the  results  of  these  investigations,  experiments  were  made  by 
Thos.  "Wedgwood  and  Humphry  Davy,  in  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  which  were  pub- 
lished in  its  journal,  1802.  Wedgwood  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  photographer.  His 
paper  was  entitled  "An  account  of  a  method  of  copying  paintings  upon  glass,  and  of  making 
profiles  by  the  agency  of  light  upon  nitrate  of  silver."* 

Further  discoveries  were  made  by  Niepce  in  1814, 

and  sir  J.  Herschel  in  1819. 
Daguerre  commenced  his  experiments  in  1824  ;  and 

in  1826  joined  Niepce,  and  worked  with  him  till 

the  death  of  the  latter  in  1833.     The  production 

of  Daguerreotype  plates  was  announced  in  Jan. 

1839  ;  and  the  French  chamber  of  deputies  granted 

a  pension  to  Daguerre  and  to  Isidore  Niepce  (the 

son). 
In  1839  Mr-   Henry  Fox  Talbot  first  published  his 

mode  of    multiplying  photographic  impressions, 

by  producing  a  negative  photograph  (i.e.  with  the 

light  and  shades  reversed)  from  which  any  number 

of  positive  copies  may  be  obtained.     His  patent 

for  producing  the  Talbotype  or  Calotype  (on  paper) 

is  dated  Feb.  1841. 

In  1851,  Collodion  (which  see)  was  applied  to  photo- 
graphy by  Mr.  F.  Archer. 
The  Photographic  Society  of  London  was  established 

in  1853.     It  publishes  a  journal.     On  Dec.  22,  1852, 

774  specimens  of  photography  were  exhibited  at 

the  rooms  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  Adelphi. 
Celestial  Photography  began  with  professor  Bond,  the 

astronomer  of  Cambridge,  U.S.,  who  exhibited  a 

photograph  of  the  moon  in  1851.     Sinclfthen,  Mr. 

Warren  De  la  Rue  of  London  has  produced  ex- 
cellent   photographs    of    the    moon    and   other 

heavenly  bodies,   and  on  July   18,   1860,   photo- 
graphed the  solar  eclipse. 
Cartes  de    Visite   portraits  (which  see)  taken  by  M. 

Ferrier  at  Nice,  1857. 
In  1861  Mr.  Thompson  of  "Weymouth  photographed 

the  bottom  of  the  sea. 
Photography  was  successfully  applied  to  the  transfer 

of  works  of  art  to  wood  blocks,   by  Mr.    John 

Leighton,  in  his  illustrated  edition  of  Lyra  Ger- 

manica,  1861. 

In  1861,  professor  O.  M.  Rood  suggested  the  applica- 
tion-of  photography  to  the  microscope. 
The  tannin  process  introduced  by  major  Russell 

about  1861. 


The  copyright  of  Photographs  is  secured  by  an  act 

passed  in  1862. 
Dr.  Henry  Wright  photographed  objects  of  surgical 

interest  in  Jan.  1863. 
The  Wothlytype  process,  in  which  nitrate  of  silver 

and  albumen  are;  discarded  and  a  double  salt  of 

uranium  and  collodion  substituted,  was  announced 

in  the  autumn  of  1864. 
The  light  of  ignited  magnesium  was  employed  for 

photographs  by  Mr.  Brothers  of  Manchester  in  the 
•    spring  of  1864. 

PHOTOGALVANOGRAPHY,  the  art  of  producing  engrav- 
ings by  the  action  of  light  and  electricity.  The 
earliest  specimens  were  produced  by  Nicephore 
Nie"pce  and  presented  by  him  in  1827  to  the  great 
botanist  Robert  Brown.  Great  advances  have 
since  been  made  in  this  art  by  MM.  Niepce  de  St. 
Victor  (who  published  a  treatise  on  it  in  1856),  and 
Vitry,  Mr.  W.  R.  Grove,  H.  Fox  Talbot,  .fee.  In 
1852,  Paul  Pretsch  patented  a  process  which  he 
called  "  Photogalvanography." 

PHOTOGLYPHIC  ENGRAVING  (a  process  by  which  the 
light  actually  etches  a  picture  on  a  plate  that  may 
be  and  has  been  printed  from),  was  patented  by 
Mr.  Fox  Talbot,  in  1858,  and  is  described  and  ex- 

and 

1  6,    1859,  a 
number. 


emplified  in  the  Photographic  News,  Sept.  9  a 

specimen  being  given  in  the  latter 


PHOTOZINCOGRAPHY  (a  process  by  which  photographs 
are  transferred  to  zinc  plates  which  may  bepi'inted 
from),  was  devised  by  sir  Henry  James,  chief  of 
the  Ordnance  Survey,  and  made  known  in  1860. 
By  it  maps,  charts,  and  engravings  may  be  printed 
at  a  small  cost. 

PHOTO-SCULPT  CJRE  ;    M.    Villeme's    employment  of 
photographs  in  the  formation  of  sculpture 
announced  in  1863. 


Journal  of  the  Royal  Institution,  i'8o2,  p.  170. 


PHOTOMETER  (light-measurer):  one  was  constructed  by  Dr.  "W.  Ritchie  in  1825.    Many 
iprovements  have  been  made  recently  in  connection  with  photography. 
PHOTOSPHERE.     See  Sun,  note. 
PHRENOLOGY.     See  Craniology. 

PHRYGIA  (now  Kerman),  a  province  in  Asia  Minor,  in  which  Troy  was  situated  ; 
became  part^of  the  Persian  empire  in  537  B.C.,  and  partook  of  its  changes.  It  became  a 
Roman  province  in  47  B.C.,  and  a  Turkish  one,  A.D.  1392. 

PHYSIC  appears  to  have  been  first  practised  by  the  Egyptian  priests.  Pythagoras 
endeavoured  to  explain  the  philosophy  of  disease  and  the  action  of  medicine,  about  529  B.C. 
Hippocrates,  the  father  of  medicine,  flourished  about  422  B.C.,  and  Galen,  born  A.D.  131, 
was  the  oracle  of  medical  science.  About  980,  Avicenna,  an  Arab,  wrote  a  system  of  medi- 
cine. The  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  by  Dr.  Harvey,  furnished  an  entirely 
new  system  of  physiological  and  pathological  speculation,  1628.* 


EMINENT  PHYSICIANS   AND   SURGEONS. 


Born 

Tlios.  Linacre  .  .1460 
Paracelsus  .  .  .  1493 
William  Harvey  .  1578 
Thomas  Sydenham  .  1624 


Died 
i524 
I541 
1657 
1689 


Born 

Malpighi  .  .  .  1628 
Hermann  Boerhaave  1668 
R.  Mead  .  .  .  1673 
William  Hunter  .  .1718 


Died 
1694 
1738 
1754 
1783 


John  Hunter     . 
R.  T.  Laennec 
John  Abernethy 
Astley  Cooper 


Born 
.  1728 
.  1781 
.  1764 
.  1768 


Died 
1793 
1826 
1831 
1841 


PHYSIC  GARDENS.  The  first  cultivated  in  England  was  by  John  Gerard,  surgeon  of 
London,  in  1567;  that  at  Oxford  was  endowed  by  the  earl  of  Danby,  in  1652  ;  that  at  Cam- 
bridge Avas  commenced  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century ;  and  that  at  Chelsea,  originated 
by  sir  Hans  Sloane,  was  given  to  the  Apothecaries'  Company,  in  1721 ;  this  last  was  very 
much  admired  by  the  illustrious  Linnseus. 

PHYSICIANS,  ROYAL  COLLEGE  or,  of  London  (of  England  since  1858),  was  projected 
by  Dr.  Linacre,  physician  to  Henry  VIII.  ;t  who,  through  his  interest  with  cardinal  "Wolsey, 
obtained  letters  patent,  constituting  a  corporate  body  of  regular  physicians  in  London,  with 
peculiar  privileges,  Sept.  23,  1518.  Linacre  was  elected  the  first  president  of  the  college. 
Dr.  "W".  Harvey  was  a  great  benefactor  to  this  institution,  1653.  He  built  a  library  and 
public  hall,  which  he  granted  for  ever  to  the  college,  with  his  books  and  instruments.  The 
college  was  afterwards  held  in  a  building  in  Warwick-lane,  erected  by  sir  C.  "Wren,  where  it 
continued  till  1825,  when  the  present  elegant  stone  edifice  in  Trafalgar-square  was  erected 
from  designs  by  sir  R.  Smirke. — The  College  of  Physicians,  Dublin,  was  founded  by  charter 
of  Charles  II.  1667,  and  was  re-incorporated  in  1692.  The  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
Edinburgh,  Nov.  29,  1681. 

PHYSICS.     See  under  Philosophy. 

PHYSIOGNOMY,  a  science  which  affirms  that  the  dispositions  of  mankind  may  be 
discovered  from  the  features  of  the  face.  The  origin  of  the  term  is  referred  to  Aristotle; 
Cicero  was  attached  toihe  science.  It  became  a  fashionable  study  from  the  beginning  of  the 
i6th  century;  and  in  the  last  century,  the  essays  of  Le  Cat  and  Pernethy  led  to  the  modern 
system.  Lavater's  researches  in  this  pursuit  arose  from  his  having  been  struck  with  the 
singular  countenance  of  a  soldier  who  passed  under  a  window  at  which  he  and  Zimmerman 
were  standing  ;  his  "  Fragment  "  on  this  subject  appeared  in  1776. 

PHYSIOLOGY  is  that  part  of  physics  which  treats  of  the  inner  constitution  of  animals 
and  plants,  and  the  several  functions  and  operations  of  all  their  organs  and  tissues.  The 
works  of  Miiller,  Milne-Edwards,  and  Carpenter  are  much  celebrated,  and  Todd's  Cyclopedia 
of  Physiology  (1836-59)  is  a  library  in  itself. 

PIANO-FORTE,  invented  by  J.  C.  Schroder,  of  Dresden,  in  1717  ;  he  presented  a  model 
of  his  invention  to  the  court  of  Saxony;  and,  some  time  after,  G.  Silverman,  a  musical 
instrument  maker,  began  to  manufacture  piano-fortes  with  considerable  success.  The 
invention  has  also  been  ascribed  to  an  instrument-maker  at  Florence.  The  square  piano- 

*  On  Sept.  28,  1865,  Miss  Garrett,  at  Apothecaries'  Hall,  London,  received  the  licence  to  practise 
medicine. 

t  PHYSICIAN  TO  THE  KING.  The  earliest  mandate  or  warrant  for  the  attendance  of  a  physician  at  court 
is  dated  1454,  the  33  Henry  VI.,  a  reign  fertile  in  the  patronage  which  was  afforded  to  practitioners  in 
medicine  ;  but  in  that  reign  no  appointment  existed  which  can  justly  be  called  physician  to  the  royal 
person.  By  this  warrant  the  king,  with  the  consent  of  his  privy  council,  deputed  to  three  physicians  and 
two  surgeons  the  regulation  of  his  diet,  and  the  administration  of  such  medicines  and  remedies  as  might 
be  sufficient  for  his  cure,  without  any  allusion  to  the  previous  existence  or  permanency  of  the  office  which 
they  were  authorised  for  a  time  to  fill,  or  to  a  remuneration  for  their  services.  Life  of  Linacre. 

o  o  2 


PIC  564  PIL 

forte  was  first  made  by  Freiderica,  an  organ-builder  of  Saxony,  about  1758-  Piano-fortes 
were  made  in  London  by  M.  Zumpie,  a  German,  1766  ;  and  have  been  since  greatly  improved 
by  Broadwood,  Collard,  Kirkman,  Erard,  and  others. 

PICENTINES,  a  Sabine  tribe,  subdued  by  the  Romans,  and  their  capital,  Asculum, 
taken,  268  B.C.  They  began  the  Social  War  in  90,  and  were  conquered  in  89  B.C. 

PICHEGRU'S  CONSPIRACY.     See  Georges,  &c. 

PICQUET,  the  first  known  game  upon  the  cards,  invented,  it  is  said,  by  Joquemin,  for 
the  amusement  of  Charles  VI.  of  France,  then  in  feeble  health,  1390.  Mezeray. 

PICTS.  A  Scythian  or  German  colony,  who  landed  in  Scotland  much  about  the  time 
that  the  [Scots  began  to  seize  upon  the  Hebrides,  or  Western  Isles  (Hebrides).  They  after- 
wards lived  as  two  distinct  nations,  the  Scots  in  the  highlands  and  isles,  and  the  Picts  in 
that  part  now  called  the  lowlands.  Between  838  and  842,  the  Scots  under  Kenneth  II. 
totally  subdued  the  Picts,  and  seized  all  their  kingdom.  See  Roman  Wall. 

PICTURES.     See  Painting. 

PIEDMONT  (Pedemontium,  Latin,  foot  of  the  mountains),  a  region  in  N.  Italy,  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  which  see. 

PIE-POUDRE  COURT,  the  Court  of  Dusty  Foot,  whose  jurisdiction  was  established  for 
cases  arising  at  fairs  and  markets,  to  do  justice  to  the  buyer  and  seller  immediately  upon 
the  spot.  By  stat.  17  Edw.  IV.  it  had  cognizance  of  all  disputes  in  the  precincts  of  the 
market  to  which  it  might  belong,  1477. 

PIER  AND  HARBOUR  ACT,  to  facilitate  the  formation,  management,  and  maintenance 
of  piers  and  harbours  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was  passed  in  1862. 

PIGEONS  were  employed  as  carriers  by  the  ancients.* 

PILGRIMAGE  OF  GRACE.  An  insurrection,  so  called,  began  in  Oct.  1536,  headed 
by  Aske,  and  other  gentlemen  of  Yorkshire,  joined  by  priests  and  40,000  men  of  York, 
Durham,  Lancaster,  and  other  counties,  against  Henry  VIII.  They  took  Hull  and  York, 
with  smaller  towns.  The  duke  of  Norfolk  marched  against  them  and  made  terms,  and  they 
dispersed.  In  1537  they  again  took  arms  but  were  promptly  suppressed,  and  great  numbers 
were  executed. 

PILGRIMAGES t  began  with  the  pilgrimage  of  the  empress  Helena  to  Jerusalem,  326. 
They  became  frequent  at  the  close  of  the  loth  century.  Robert  II.  of  France  made  several 
pilgrimages;  among  others,  one  to  Rome  about  the  year  1016,  perhaps  in  1020,  when  he 
refused  the  imperial  dignity  and  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Henault. 

"PILGRIM'S  PROGRESS,"  written  by  John  Bunyan,  in  Bedford  gaol,  where  he  was 
imprisoned  twelve  years,  1660-72.  The  first  part  was  published  in  1678.  A  Hebrew  version 
appeared  in  1851. 

PILLORY,  a  scaffold  for  persons  to  stand  on,  to  render  them  publicly  infamous.  This 
punishment  was  awarded  against  persons  convicted  of  forgery,  perjury,  libelling,  &c.  In 
some  cases  the  head  was  put  through  a  hole,  the  hands  through  two  others,  the  nose  slit,  the 
face  branded  with  one  or  more  letters,  and  one  or  both  ears  were  cut  off.  There  is  a  statute 
of  the  pillory,  41  Hen.  III.  1256.  Many  persons  died  in  the  pillory  by  being  struck  with 
stones  by  the  mob,  and  pelted  with  rotten  eggs  and  putrid  offal.  It  was  abolished  as  a 
punishment  in  all  cases  except  perjury,  1815,  and  totally  abolished  in  1837.  The  last  who 
suffered  at  the  Old  Bailey  was  Peter  Jas.  Bossy  for  perjury,  June  24,  1830. 

PILNITZ,  near  Dresden,  Saxony.  The  famous  convention  of  Piluitz  took  place  between 
the  emperor  Leopold  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  July  20,  1791.  On  Aug.  27  the  treaty  of 
Pilnitz,  or,  as  some  style  it,  the  Partition  Treaty,  was  finally  agreed  upon  at  Pavia  by  the 
courts  in  concert.  It  was  to  the  effect  "that  the  emperor  should  retake  all  that  Louis  XIV. 

*  When  they  took  a  long  journey,  they  carried  tame  pigeons  with  them.  When  they  thought  proper 
to  write  to  their  friends,  they  let  one  of  these  birds  loose,  with  letters  fastened  to  its  neck  :  the  bird  once 
released,  would  never  cease  its  flight  till  it  arrived  at  its  nest  and  young  ones.  Taurosthenes  announced 
to  his  father  his  victory  at  the  Olympic  games  by  sending  to  him  at  ^Egina  a  pigeon  stained  with  purple. 
Ovid.  Hirtius  and  Brutus  corresponded  by  means  of  pigeons  at  the  siege  of  Modeua.  In  modern  times, 
the  most  noted  were  the  pigeons  of  Aleppo,  which  served  as  couriers  at  Alexandretta  and  Bagdad.  Thirty- 
two  pigeons  sent  to  Antwerp  were  liberated  from  London  at  7  o'clock  in  the  morning  ;  and  on  the  same 
day  at  noon  one  of  them  arrived  at  Antwerp ;  a  quarter  of  an  hour  afterwards  a  second  arrived ;  the 
remainder  on  the  following  day,  Nov.  23,  1819.  Philips. 

t  PILGRIM  FATHERS  is  the  name  given  in  North  America  to  a  party  of  about  100  English  Puritans  who 
called  in  the  May  Flower  to  North  America  in  1620. 


: 


conquered  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  and  uniting  these  provinces  to  the  Netherlands, 
ive  them  to  his  serene  highness  the  elector  palatine,  to  be  added  to  the  palatinate  ;  Bavaria 
"i  be  added  to  the  Austrian  possessions,"  &c. 

PILOT.     The  act  relating  to  pilots,    16  &  17  Viet.  c.  129  (1853),  with  other  acts,  is 
ibodied  in  the  Merchant  Shipping  act,  1854.     See  Trinity -House. 

PINE-TREES.     The  Stone  pine  (Pinus  Pinca),  brought  to  these  countries  before  1548. 
le  Cluster  pine  (Pinus  Pinaster),  brought  from  the  South  of  Europe  before  1596.     The 
^eymouth  pine  (Pinus  S(robus),  from  North  America,  1705.     Frankincense  pine  (Pinus 
Tceda),  from  North  America,  before  1713.     There  are  other  varieties. 

PINKEY  (near  Edinburgh),  where  the  English  under  the  earl  of  Hertford,  protector, 
totally  defeated  the  Scots,  Sept.  10,  1547.     There  fell  not  200  of  the  English,  but  above 
ooo  of  the  Scots.     Above  1500  were  taken  prisoners.     Hume. 

PINS  are  mentioned  in  a  statute  of  1483.  Brass  pins  were  brought  from  France  in  1540, 
and  first  used  in  England,  it  is  said,  by  Catherine  Howard,  queen  of  Henry  VIII.  Pins 
were  made  in  England  in  1543.  Stow.  They  were  first  manufactured  by  machinery  in 

gland  in  1824,  under  a  patent  of  Lemuel  Wellman  Wright,  of  the  United  States. 

PIRACY  was  severely  repressed  by  the  Romans.     Pompey  destroyed  the  Cilician  pirates, 
B.C.     See  Buccaneers.     An  act  of  parliament  to  punish  piracy  was  passed  in  1837. 

PIRAEUS,  the  port  of  Athens,  was  united  to  the  city  by  two  long  walls,  one  erected  by 
Themistocles,  and  the  other  by  Pericles,  456  B.C.,  which  were  destroyed  by  Lysander, 
404  B.C.  It  was  fortified  by  Conon,  3936.0.  The  Pirseus  was  able  to  contain  400  Greek 
vessels.  It  was  occupied  by  the  French  during  the  Russian  war  in  1854. 

PISA,  an  ancient  city  in  Tuscany,  was  founded  about  six  centuries  before  Christ,  and 
was  favoured  by  the  early  Roman  emperors.  The  citizens  took  an  active  part  in  the  Italian 
wars  of  the  middle  ages,  and  eventually  became  subject  to  Florence,  after  a  long  siege,  1405-6. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1343,  and  revived  by  the  Medici  in  1472,  and  1542.  The 
celebrated  Campanile  or  leaning  tower  was  built  about  1154,*  and  the  Campo  Santo  about 
the  same  time.  The  rival  popes,  Benedict  XII  I.  and  Gregory  XII.,  were  deposed  at  a  council 
held  at  Pisa  in  1409,  and  Alexander  V.  elected  in  their  room. 

PISCICULTURE.     See  Fisheries. 

PISTOLS,  the  smallest  sort  of  fire-arms,  carried  sometimes  at  the  saddle-bow,  sometimes 
in  a  girdle  round  the  waist,  sometimes  in  the  pocket,  &c.  Pardon.  Pistols  were  first  used 
by  the  cavalry  of  England  in  1544.  Of  late  years  they  have  been  made  with  a  revolving 
cylindrical  breech,  in  which  are  formed  several  chambers  for  receiving  cartridges,  and  bringing 
them  in  succession  into  a  line  with  the  barrel  ready  for  firing.  The  earliest  model  of  this 
kind  of  arm,  is  to  be  found  in  the  United  Service  Museum,  and  is  supposed  to  date  from  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  The  manufacture  of  pistols  by  machinery  was  first  introduced  into 
England  from  the  United.  States,  America,  in  the  year  1853,  by  colonel  Colt,  the  inventor  of 
the  celebrated  Colt  pistol,  at  which  time  nearly  the  whole  of  the  machinery  used  was  new  to 
this  country.  The  perfection  and  economy  of  this  system  of  manufacture  induced  the  British 
government  to  establish  the  Enfield  armoury,  in  the  year  1855. 

PITCAIRN'S  ISLAND.  A  small  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered by  Pitcairn  in  1768,  and  seen  by  Cook  in  1773,  and  since  noted  for  being  colonised 
by  ten  mutineers  from  the  ship  Bounty,  captain  Bligh,  in  1789^  See  Bounty. 

*  This  celebrated  tower  was  erected  for  the  purpose  of  containing  bells,  and  stands  in  a  square  close  to 
the  cathedral  of  Pisa.  It  is  built  entirely  of  white  marble,  and  is  a  beautiful  cylinder  of  eight  stories, 
each  adorned  with  a  round  of  columns,  rising  one  above  another.  It  inclines  so  far  on  one  side  from  the 
perpendicular,  that  in  dropping  a  plummet  from  the  top,  which  is  188  feet  in  height,  it  falls  sixteen  feet 
from  the  base.  Some  think  this  was  done  purposely  by  the  architect ;  others  attribute  it  to  an  accidental 
subsidence  of  the  foundation.  From  this  tower  Galileo  made  his  observation  on  gravitation  (about  1635). 

t  They  remained  unknown  to  England  until  discovered  accidentally  in  1814.  A  ship  nearing  the  island 
was  hailed  by  a  swarthy  youth  in  the  English  language,  when  it  appeared  that  the  mutineers,  soon  after 
settling  there,  had  married  some  black  women  from  a  neighbouring  island,  and  had  become  a  singularly 
well-conducted  community  under  the  fostering  care  of  Adams,  the  principal  mutineer.  As  their  numbers 
increased,  the  island  proved  incapable  of  their  support.  Their  priest,  the  rev.  Mr.  Nobbs,  obtained  for 
them  the  favour  of  the  English  government,  which  removed  them  with  all  their  property  in  the  ship 
Moray  shire,  on  May  srd,  and  landed  them,  after  a  boisterous  passage,  on  Norfolk  island,  prepared  pre- 
viously for  their  reception,  June  8,  1856.  The  government  stocked  Norfolk  island  with  2000  sheep,  450 
head  of  cattle,  and  twenty  horses,  and  gave  them  stores  10  last  twelve  months  ;  their  numbers  were  96 
males  and  102  fcmaks. 


PIT 


506 


TLA 


PITT  ADMINISTRATION'S.*  The  first  administration  was  formed  on  the  dismissal  of 
the  Coalition  ministry  (which  see),  Dec.  27,  1783.  and  terminated  by  resignation  in  1801. 
The  second  was  formed  May  12,  1804  ;  and  terminated  by  Mr.  Pitt's  death,  Jan.  23,  1806. 
A  public  funeral  was  decreed  to  his  honour  by  parliament,  and  a  grant  of  40,000^.  to  pay 
his  debts. 


ADMINISTRATION   OF   1783. 

William  Pitt,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer. 

Earl  Gower,  lord  president. 

Duke  of  Rutland,  privy  seal. 

Marquess  of  Carmarthen  and  earl  Temple,  immedi- 
ately succeeded  by  lord  Sydney,  secretaries. 

Lord  Thurlow,  lord  chancellor. 

Viscount  Howe,  admiralty. 

Duke  of  Richmond,  ordnance. 

William  Wyndham  Granville,  Henry  Dundas,  &c. 

[Mr.  Pitt  continued  minister  until  1801.  Many 
changes  in  his  ministry,  of  course,  occurred  in  the 
long  period  of  seventeen  years.] 


ADMINISTRATION   OF    1804. 

William  Pitt,  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor. 

Duke  of  Portland,  succeeded  by  lord  Sidmouth  (late 

Mr.  Addington )  lord  president. 
Earl  of  Westmorland,  lord  privy  seal. 
Lord    Hawkesbury,   lord  Harrowby   (succeeded  by 

lord  Mulgrave),  and  earl  Camden  (succeeded  by 

viscount  Castlereagh),  home,  foreign,  and  colonial 

secretaries. 
Viscount    Melville    (succeeded    by  lord    Barham), 

admiralty. 
Duke  of  Montrose,  Mr.  Dundas,  &c. 


PITTSBURG  LANDING  (near  Corinth,  Tennessee).  On  Sunday  April  6,  1862,  a  great 
battle  was  fought  between  the  American  federals  under  Grant  and  Prentiss,  and  the  con- 
federates under  Albert  Sydney  Johnston  and  Beauregard.  The  latter  began  the  attack  and 
were  victorious,  but  lost  their  able  general  Johnston.  The  federals  were  reinforced  the  next 
day  and  renewed  the  attack  ;  the  confederates  maintained  their  ground  ;  but  soon  after 
retired  in  good  order  to  Corinth. 

PIUS  IV.,  CREED  OF.     See  Confessions. 

PLACENTIA,  a  city  in  North  Italy,  founded  by  the  Romans  about  220  B.C.  It  suffered 
in  all  the  convulsions  attending  the  fall  of  the  empire,  and  the  wars  of  the  middle  ages.  In 
1254  it  fell  under  the  rule  of  the  family  of  the  Scotti.  In  1302  Alberto  Scotto  was  overcome 
find  Placentia  was  united  to  Milan,  then  ruled  by  the  Yiscouti.  On  their  extinction  in  1447, 
Placentia  revolted,  but  was  taken  by  Sforza  duke  of  Milan,  and  treated  very  cruelly.  In 
1513  it  was  given  to  pope  Leo  X.  In  1545,  Paul  III.  gave  it  with  Parma,  as  a  duchy,  to  his 
son  Peter  Louis  Farnese.  See  Parma. 

PLAGUE.  The  plagues  of  Egypt'(i49i  B.C.)  are  described  in  Exodus,  chap,  ix.,  &c. 
The  first  recorded  general  plague  in  all  parts  of  the  world  occurred  767  B.C.  Petavius.  At 
Carthage  a  plague  was  so  terrible  that  people  sacrificed  their  children  to  appease  the  gods, 
534  B.C.  JBaronius.  At  Rome  prevailed  a  desolating  plague,  carrying  off  a  hundred  thousand 
persons  in  and  round  the  city,  461  B.C.  The  plague  at  Athens,  which  spread  into  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia,  and  caused  an  awful  devastation,  430  B.C.,  is  admirably  described  by  Thucydides. 
Another  which  raged  in  the  Greek  islands,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  destroyed  2000  persons  every 
day,  1 88  B.C.  Pliny.  See  Cattle. 


At   Rome,    a  most  awful  plague ;    10,000    persons 

perished  daily,  80. 

Again  ravaged  the  Roman  empire,  167,  169,  189. 
Another  in  the  Roman  empire.     For  some  time  5000 

persons  died  daily  at  Rome,  and  many  towns  were 

entirely  depopulated,  250-265. 
In  Britain,  a  plague  swept  away  such  multitudes 

that  the  living  were  scarcely  sufficient  to  bury  the 

dead,  430. 
A  dreadful  one  began  in  Europe  in  558,  extended  all 

over  Asia  and  Africa,  and  it  is  said  did  not  cease 

for  many  years. 
At  Constantinople,  when  200,000  of  its  inhabitants 

perished,    and   in   Calabria,  Sicily,   and   Greece, 

746-749. 

In  London,  962. 
At  Chichester,  in   England,  an  epidemical  disease 

carried  off  34,000  persons,  772.      Will.  Malms. 
In  Scotland  40,000  persons  perished  of  a  pestilence, 

Q54" 
In  London,  a  great  mortality,  1094 ;  and  in  Ireland, 

1095. 


Again,  in  London  :  it  extended  to  cattle,  fowls, 

other  domestic  animals,  uu.     Holinshed. 
In   Ireland  :   after  Christmas  this  year,  Henry  I] 

was  forced  to  quit  the  country,  1172. 
Again,    in    Ireland,    when     a    prodigious    numl 

perished,  1204. 

The  "Black  Death"  in  Italy,  1340. 
A  plague  raged  throughout  Europe,  causing  ext 

sive    mortality.       Britain    and    Ireland    suffer 

grievously.      In   London   alone  200  persons  we 

buried  daily  in  the  Charterhouse-yard,  1348. 

at  Florence  described  by  Boccaccio.) 
In  London  and  Paris  a  dreadful  mortality  prevai 

in  1362  and  1367,  and  in  Ireland  in  1370. 
A  great  pestilence   in  Ireland    called   the   Font 

destroyed  a  great  number  of  the  people,  1383. 
30,000  persons  perished  of  a  dreadful  pestilence  in 

London,  1407. 
Again,  in  Ireland,  superinduced  by  a  famine  :  great 

numbers  died,  1466  ;  and  Dublin  was  wasted  by  a 

plague,  1470. 
An  awful  pestilence  at  Oxford,  1471 ;  and  throughout 


*  William  Pitt,  the  second  son  of  the  great  earl  of  Chatham,  was  born  March  28,  1759  ;  became  M.P. 
Jan.  23,  1782;  moved  for  reform  in  parliament,  May  7,  1782:  and  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
in  1782  ;  died  Jan.  23,  1806. 


PLA 


567 


TLA 


PLAGUE,  continued. 

land,  a  plague  which  destroyed  more  people 
lan  the  continual  wars  for  the  fifteen  preceding 
irs,  1478.    Rapin  :  Salmon. 

awful  Sudor  Anglicus,  or  sweating  sickness,  very 
fatal  in  London,  1485.     Delaune. 

plague  in  London  so  dreadful  that  Henry  VI  [. 
''.  his  court  removed  to  Calais,  1499-1500.     Stow. 
sweating  sickness  (mortal  in  three  hours),  in 
mdon,  1506;  and  again  in  1517.     In  most  of  the 
pital  towns  in   England  half   the  inhabitants 
ed,  and  Oxford  was  depopulated,  9  Hen.  VIII. 
Stow. 

Limerick    was   visited  by  a  plague,   when   many 
thousands  perished,  1522. 

sweating  sickness  again  in  England,  1528  :  and 
North  Germany  in  1529  ;  and  for  ths  fifth  time 
England,  in  1551. 

78  persons   perished  of  the  plague  in  London 
ne,  1603-1604.     It  was  also  fatal  in  Ireland, 
ooo  perished  of  a  pestilence  at  Constantinople, 
1611. 
In  London  a  great  mortality  prevailed,  and  3.5,417 

persons  perished,  1625. 
In  France,  a  general   mortality  ;    at  Lyons,  60,000 

persons  died,  1632. 

The  plague  brought  from  Sardinia  to  Naples  (being 
introduced  by  a  transport  with  soldiers  on  board), 
with  such  violence  as  to  carry  off  400,000  of 
e  inhabitants  in  six  months,  1656. 


THE  GREAT  PLAGUE  OF  LONDON,  in  1664-5,  which 
carried  off  68,596  persons ;  some  say  100,000.* 
Fires  were  kept  up  night  and  day  to  purify  the 
air  for  three  days  :  and  it  is  thought  the  infection 
was  not  totally  destroyed  till  the  great  conflagra- 
tion of  1666. 

60,000  persons  perished  of  the  plague  at  Marseilles 
and  neighbourhood,  brought  in  a  ship  from  the 
Levant,  1720 

One  of  the  most  awful  plagues  that  ever  raged,  pre- 
vailed in  Syria,  1760.  Abbe  Mariti. 

In  Persia,  a  fatal  pestilence,  which  carried  off  80,000 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Bassora,  1773. 

In  Egypt,  above  800,000  persons  died  of  plague,  1792. 

In  Barbary,  3000  died  daily ;  and  at  Fez  247,000 
perished,  1799. 

In  Spain  and  at  Gibraltar,  immense  numbers  were 
carried  off  by  a  pestilent  disease  in  1804  and  1805. 

Again  at  Gibraltar,  an  epi  leinie  fever  much  resemb- 
ling the  plague,  caused  great  mortality,  1828. 

The  Asiatic  Cholera  (see  Cholera)  made  its  first  ap- 
pearance in  England,  at  Sunderland,  Oct.  26, 1831 ; 
in  Scotland,  at  Haddittgton,  Dec.  23,  same  year ; 
and  in  Ireland,  at  Belfast,  March  14,  1832. 

The  Cholera  again  visited  England,  &c.  1848  and 
1849.  See  Cholera. 

The  Cholera  raged  at  Smyrna  and  Constantinople, 
and  appeared  in  Paris,  Marseilles,  Naples ;  July 
—Dec.  1865. 

A  great  cattle  plague  in  England,  resembling  typhus, 
near  London,  begins  June*— increasing  Dec.  1865. 

PLANETS.  The  planet  Jupiter  was  known  as  a  planet  to  the  Chinese  and  the  Chaldeans; 
to  the  former,  it  is  said  3000  B.C.  ;  correctly  inserted  in  a  chart  of  the  heavens,  made 
about  600  B.C.,  and  in  which  1460  stars  are  accurately  described  ;  this  chart  is  said  to  be  in 
the  imperial  library  at  Paris.  The  satellites  of  Jupiter  are  generally  considered  to  have  been. 
discovered  by  Galileo,  1610;  but  Jansen,  it  is  affirmed,  claimed  some  acquaintance  with  them 
about  twenty  years  before.  "We  now  know  nine  primary  planets,  termed  major  ;  Mercury, 
Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  Neptune,  and  Vulcan ;  and  eighty-four 
secondary  or  minor,  situated  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  f 


Uranus,  formerly  called  Georgium  Sidus  and 
Herschel:  discovered  by  W.  Herschel  (sea 
Georgium  Sidus)  ....  March  13,  1781 

Ne/>tane,  discovered  by  Galle  (inconsequence  of 
the  calculations  of  Le  Verrier  and  Adams, 
see  Neptune) Sept.  23,  1846 

Vulcan  (between  Mercury  and  the  Sun),  dis- 
covered by  M.  Lescarbault,  a  physician, 

March  26,  1859 

MINOR  PLANETS  (accordinsHo  Mr.  G.  F.  Chambers). 
i.  Ceres,  discovered  by  Piazzi  (visible  to  the 

naked  eye)        ....        Jan.  i,  1801 


2.  Pallas,  discovered    at  Bremen 

(see  Pallas)    .... 

3.  Juno,  discovered  by  Harding 

4.  Vesta,  discovered  by  Olbers  . 

5.  Astrcea,  by  K.  C.  Hencke  . 

6.  Hebe,  by  the  same 

7.  Iris,  by  J.  R.  Hind    . 

8.  Flora,  by  the  same 

9.  Metis,  by  A   Graham 

10.  Hygeia,  by  A.  De  Gasparis     . 
IT.  Parthenope,  by  the  same  . 
12.   Victoria,  by  J.  R.  Hind 


by  Olbers 
March  28,  1802 
Sept.  i,  1804 
March  s 
.  Dec. 

July  i 

Aug.  13 

.      Oct.  1 8 


April,  25 

.  April  12 

May  ii 

Sept.  13 


1807 
1845 
1847 


1848 
1849 
1850 


*  The  following  passage  is  taken  from  De  Foe's  History  of  the  Pligue  (a  work  of  imagination)  : — "  It 
commenced  in  December,  1664.  In  May,  June,  and  July,  it  had  continued  with  great  severity  ;  but  in 
August  and  September  it  quickened  into  dreadful  activity,  sweeping  a'vay  8000  parsons  in  a  week.  Then 
it  was  that  the  whole  British  nation  wept  for  the  sufferings  of  the  metropolis.  In  some  houses  carcases 
lay  waiting  for  burial ;  and  in  others,  persons  were  seen  doubled  up  in  their  last  agonies.  In  one  room 
were  heard  dying  groans ;  and  in  the  next  the  ravings  of  delirium,  mingled  with  the  wailings  of  relatives 
and  friends,  and  the  apprehensive  shrieks  of  children.  Infants  passed  at  once  from  the  womb  to  the  grave. 
The  yet  healthy  child  hung  upon  the  putrid  breast  of  a  dead  mother  ;  and  the  nuptial  bed  was  changed 
into  a  sepulchre.  Some  of  the  affected  ran  about  staggering  like  drunken  men,  and  fell  and  expired  in  the 
streets  ;  while  others  calmly  laid  themselves  down,  never  to  rise  but  at  the  call  of  the  last  trumpet.  At 
length,  in  the  middle  of  September,  m:>re  than  12,000  perished  in  one  week  ;  in  one  night  4000  died  ;  and 

ne.     The  hearses  were  but 
ing  out  your  dead,'  thrilled 
all  those  that  were  dear 

to  them  thrown  with  a  pitchfork  into  a  cart,  like  the  offal  of  a  slaughter-house,  to  be  conveyed  without  the 
walls,  and  flung  into  one  promiscuous  heap,  without  the  rites  of  sepulture,  without  a  coffin,  and  without 
a  shroud  !  Some  graves  were  dug  so  large  as  to  hold  a  thousand  bodies  each  ;  and  into  those  huge  holes, 
the  living,  wrapt  in  blankets  and  rags,  threw  themselves  among  the  dead,  in  their  agonies  and  delirium. 
They  were  often  found  in  this  state  hugging  the  flesh  of  their  kindred  that  had  not  quite  perished.  People 
in  the  intolerable  torment  of  their  swellings,  ran  wild  and  mad,  laying  violent  hands  upan  themselves  ; 
and  even  mothers,  in  their  lunacy,  murdered  their  own  children.  When  the  carts  were  insufficient  for  their 
ofuca,  the  houses  ani  streets  wore  renierad  tenfold  more  pestilential  by  the  unburied  dead."  Di  Foe. 
\  The  numsrical  ordar  differs  in  th3  lists  of  Eaglish  and  French  astronomers. 


PLA 


568 


PLA 


.  Nov.  2,  1850  1  so. 

Pales,  by  the  same 

.  Sept.  19, 

l8S7 

May  19,  1851 

51- 

Virginia,  by  James  Ferguson 

.  Oct.  4, 

.  .  July  29,    „ 
March  17,  1852 

52. 

53- 

Nemausa,  by  M.  Laurent 
Europa,  by  H.  Goldschmidt 

.    Jan.  22, 
.  Feb.  6, 

1858 

April  17. 

54- 

Calypso,  by  R.  Luther   . 

.     April  4, 

.    June  24, 

f 

55- 

Alexandra,  by  H.  Goldschmidt 

.      Sept.  10, 

Aug.  22, 

56. 

Pandora,  by  Mr.  Searle  . 

.  Sept.  10, 

>f 

.  Sept.  19, 
Nov.  15, 

• 

57- 
58. 

Mnemosyne,  by  R.  Luther  . 
Concordia,  by  R.  Luther 

Sept.  22, 
March  24, 

1859 
1860 

.   Nov.  1  6, 

59- 

Danaf,  by  H.  Goldschmidt 

Sept.  9, 

Dec.  15, 

60. 

Olympia,  by  M.  Chacornac     . 

.  Sept.  12, 

.     April  5,  i 

853 

61. 

Erato,  by  MM.  FOrsterand  Lessing,  Sept.  14,     ,, 

April  6, 

62. 

Echo(orig.  Titania),  by  J,  Ferguson,  Sept.  14,     ,t 

.     May  5, 

t 

63- 

Ausonia,  by  A.  De  Gasparis 

Feb.  10, 

1861 

Nov.  8, 

^ 

64. 

Angelina,  by  M.  Tempel 

.  March  4, 

M 

.  March  i,  i 

854 

65. 

Cybele  (orig.  Maximiliana"),  by 

M.  Tempel, 

.  March  i, 

March  8, 

" 

July  22, 

| 

66. 

Maia,  by  H.  P.  Tuttle      . 

.  April  9, 

.     Sept.  i, 

j 

67. 

Asia,  by  N.  Pogson 

.     April  17, 

f| 

Oct.  26, 

68. 

Leto,  by  R.  Luther    . 

April  29, 

Jf 

.    Oct.  28, 
April  6,  i 

355 

69. 
70. 

Hesperia,  by  M.  Schiaparelli 
Panopea,  by  H.  Goldschmidt  . 

.     April  29, 
.    Mays, 

» 

.  April  19, 

' 

71- 

Feronia,  by  Mr.  Safford 

.      May  29, 

}j 

April  19, 

72. 

Niobe,  by  R.  Lutber  . 

Aug.  13, 

.      Oct.  s, 

| 

73- 

Clytie,  by  H.  P.  Tuttle  . 

.     April  7, 

1862 

Jan.  12,  i 

856 

74- 

Galatea,  by  M.  Tempel      . 

Aug.  29, 

.     Feb.  8, 

f 

75- 

Eurydice,  by  C.  H.  Peters     . 

.    Sept.  22, 

Fl 

March  31, 

76. 

Freia,  by  M.  D'Arrest 

Oct.  21, 

" 

.  May  22, 

| 
' 

77- 

Frigga,  by  C.  H.  Peters 

.    Nov.  12, 

May  23, 

78. 

Diana,  by  R.  Luther 

March  15, 

1863 

.  April  15,  i 
May  27, 

857 

79- 

80. 

Eurynome,  by  Jas.  C.  Watson 
Sappho,  by  N.  Pogson 

.  Sept  14, 
.     May, 

1864 

.  June  28, 

t 

81. 

Terpsichore,  by  M.  Tempel    . 

.  Sept.  30, 

,, 

Aug.  1  6, 

82. 

Alcmene,  by  R.  Luther 

Nov.  27, 

.    Sept.  9, 

t 

83- 

Beatrice,  by  A.  De  Gasparis  . 

.    April  26, 

1865 

Sepr.  15, 

Rp-nf.     T/~I 

', 

84. 

8c- 

Clio,  by  R.  Luther    . 

Ktr    n       Tl       T>ofa».a 

Aug.  27, 

Ss^rvh     -m 

» 

PLANETS,  continued. 

13.  Egeria,  by  A.  De  Gasparis 

14.  Irene,  by  J.  R.  Hind     . 

15.  Eunoiiiia,  by  A.  De  Gasparis  . 

16.  Psyche,  by  the  same 

17.  Thetis,  by  R.  Luther 

18.  Melpomene,  by  J.  R.  Hind    . 
ig.  Fortune/.,  by  the  same 

20.  Massilia,  by  A.  De  Gasparis  . 

21.  Lutttia,  by  H.  Goldschmidt 

22.  Calliope,  by  R.  J.  Hind  . 

23.  Thalia,  by  the  same  . 

24.  Ihemis,  by  A.  De  Gasparis    . 

25.  Phocea,  by  M.  Chacornac   . 

26.  Proserpinf,  by  R.  Luther 

27.  Euterpe,  by  J.  R.  Hind 

28.  Bellona,  by  R.  Luther    . 

29.  Amphitrite,  by  Mr.  Marth 

30.  Urania,  by  J.  R.  Hind 

31.  Euphrosyne,  by  James  Ferguson 

32.  Pomona,  by  H.  Goldschmidt 

33.  Polyhymnia,  by  M.  Chacornac 

34.  Circe,  by  the  same 

35.  Leucothea,  by  R.  Luther 

36.  Atalanta,  by  H.  Goldschmidt    . 

37.  Fides,  by  R.  Luther 

38.  Leda,  by  M.  Chacornac 

39.  Lcetitia,  by  the  same 

40.  Harmonia,  by  R.  Luther    . 

41.  Daphne,  by  H.  Goldschmidt  . 

42.  Isix,  by  Norman  Pogson    . 

43.  Ariadne,  by  the  same    . 

44.  Nt/f.a,  by  H.  Goldscbmidt  . 

45.  Eugenia,  by  the  same 

46.  Hestia,  by  N.  Pogson  . 

47.  *Melete,  by  H.  Goldschmidt    . 

48.  Agtaia,  by  R.  Luther. 

49.  Doris,  by  H.  Goldschmidt 

PLANING-MACHINE.  One  for  wood  was  constructed  by  Bramah,  about  1802  ;  and  one 
for  iron  by  Joseph  Clement  in  1825. 

PLANTAGENET,t  HOUSE  OF,  to  which  belonged  fourteen  English  kings,  from  Henry  II. 
1154,  to  Eichard  III.  killed  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  1485.  See  England,  p.  279. 

PLANTATIONS.     See  Trade. 

PLASSEY,  in  Bengal,  India,  the  site  of  a  battle  fought  between  the  British  under  Clive, 
and  the  Hindoos  under  Surajah  Dowlah,  June  23,  1757.  The  nabob,  although  at  the  head 
of  about  68,000  men,  was  vanquished  by  1000  British,  and  about  2000  sepoys.  The  victory 
laid  the  foundation  of  our  empire  in  India.  See  India. 

PLASTER    OF  PAEIS.     Gypsum,  sulphate'of  lime,  used  for  moulds,  statuary,  &c.,  first 
found  at  Montmartre,  a  village  near  Paris,  whence  it  obtained  its  name.     The  method 
taking  likenesses  by  its  use  was  first  discovered  by  Andrea  Verrochio,  about  1466. 

PLATA,  LA.     See  Argentine  Republic. 

PLAT^EA  (Boeotia,    N.   Greece),    site   of   the  battle  between   Mardonius,    command* 
of  the  army  of  Xerxes  of  Persia,    and  Pausanias,    commanding   the  Lacedaemonians 
Athenians,  Sept.  22,  479  B.C.  ;  the  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Mycale.     Of  300,000  Persia 
scarce  3000  escaped   with  their  lives.     The  Grecian  army,  about  110,000,  lost  but  few  mei 
The  Greeks  obtained  immense  plunder,  and  were  henceforth  delivered  from  the  fear  of  Pers 
invasions.     Platsea  was  destroyed  by  the  Thebans,  374  B.C. 

PLATE.  In  England,  plate,  with  the  exception  of  spoons,  was  prohibited  in  public 
houses  by  statute  8  Will.  III.  (1696).  The  celebrated  Plate  Act  passed  in  May  1756.  Tl 
act  was  repealed  in  1780.  The  act  laying  a  stamp-duty  upon  plate  passed  in  1784. 

*  It  was  believed  at  first  to  be  Daphne,  No.  41 ;  and  hence  was  called  "  Pteudo-Daphne,"  when 
Schubert  proved  it  to  be  a  new  planet.     It  was  not  re-discovered  by  M.  Goldschmidt  till  Sept. 
when  it  received  its  present  name,  that  of  the  Muse  of  Meditation. 

f  Fulke  Martel,  earl  of  Anjou,  having  contrived  the  death  of  his  nephew,  the  earl  of  Brittany,  in  ore 
to  Bucceed  to  the  earldom,  his  confessor  sent  him,  in  atonement  for  the  murder,  to  Jerusalem,  attend* 
by  only  two  servants,  one  of  whom  was  to  lead  him  by  a  halter  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  the  other  to  strip 
and  whip  him  there,  liko  a  common  malefactor.  Broom,  in  French  genet,  in  Latin  genista,  being  the  only 
tough,  pliant  shrub  iu  Palestine,  the  noble  criminal  was  smartly  scourged  with  it,  and  from  this  instru- 
ment of  his  chastisement,  he  was  called  Planta-genista,  or  Plantagenet.  Skinner  and  Mezeray. 


PLA  569  PLU 

Goldsmiths'  Company,  By  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  96  (1854),  gold  wares  were  allowed  to  be  manu- 
factured at  a  lower  standard  ;  but  a  later  act  excepted  marriage-rings. — The  art  of  covering 
baser  metals  with  a  thin  plate  of  silver,  either  for  use  or  for  ornament  (PLATING),  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  a  Birmingham  spur-maker,  who  began  with  making  the  branches  of  a  pair 
of  spurs  hollow,  and  filling  the  hollow  with  a  slender  rod  of  steel.  He  continued  to  make 
the  hollow  larger  and  the  iron  thicker,  till  at  last  he  merely  coated  the  iron  spur  with  silver. 
See  Electro-type. 

PLATINUM,  the  heaviest  of  all  the  metals,  except  Osmium.  The  name  originated  with 
the  Spaniards  on  account  of  its  silvery  colour,  from  the  word  Plata,  signifying  silver.  It 
was  found  in  the  auriferous  sand  of  the  river  Pinto,  in  South  America,  and  was  unknown  in 
Europe  until  1741,  when  Don  Antonio  Ulloa  announced  its  existence  in  the  narrative  of  his 
voyage  to  Peru.  Greig.  In  its  ore  have  been  found  the  metals  Palladium,  Rhodium, 
Osmium,  Indium,  and  Ruthenium  (which  see).  In  1859,  M.  H.  Ste.  Claire  Deville  made 
known  a  new  method  of  obtaining  platinum  from  its  ore,  in  great  abundance  and  purity,  and 
at  the  international  exhibition  of  1862  was  shown  a  mass  worth  3840^.,  weighing  2665  ft.,  of 
a  metal  hitherto  considered  infusible,  obtained  by  his  process. 

PLATONIC  PHILOSOPHY,  the  most  popular  of  all  systems  (see  Philosophy).  Plato's 
dialogues  have  been  termed  "  Philosophy  backed  by  example."  He  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates, 
409  B.C.  and  died  347.  The  leading  feature  of  his  mind  was  comprehensiveness. 

PLATONIC  YEAR,  the  period  of  time  which  the  equinoxes  take  to  finish  their  revo- 
lution, at  the  end  of  which  the  stars  and  constellations  have  the  same  place  with  regard  to  the 
equinoxes  that  they  had  at  first.  Tycho  Brahe  says  that  this  year  or  period  requires  25,816 
common  years  to  complete  it ;  Ricciolus  computes  it  at  25,920  ;  and  Cassini  at  24,800  ;  at 
the  end  of  which  time  some  imagined  that  there  would  be  a  total  and  natural  renovation  of 
the  whole  creation. 

PLATTSBURG.  A  British  expedition  against  this  place,  a  town  of  New  York,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  was  designed  under  general  sir  George  Prevost  ;  but  was  abandoned  after  the 
naval  force  of  England  had  suffered  a  defeat  in  an  engagement  with  the  Americans,  Sept.  1 1, 
1814,  when  the  British  squadron  in  Lake  Champlain  was  captured.  See  United  States. 

PLAY-GROUNDS.  In  1858  a  society  was  established  by  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury  and 
other  benevolent  persons  to  provide  play-grounds  for  the  recreation  of  adults  and  the  children 
of  the  humble  classes.  Ground  was  liberally  offered  by  the  government,  and  by  the  marquess 
of  Westminster  and  others  ;  and  in  1859  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed  to  facilitate  grants 
of  lands  for  this  purpose,  for  which  part  of  Smithfield  was  to  be  reserved.  The  scheme  has 
not  been  successful  hitherto. 

PLAYS.     See  Drama  and  Theatres. 

PLEADINGS.  Clothaire  held  a  kind  of  moveable  parliament  called  placita,  whence 
came  the  word  pleas,  A.D.  616.  Henault.  In  the  early  courts  of  judicature  in  England, 
pleadings  were  made  in  the  Saxon  language  in  786  ;  and  in  Norman- French  from  the  period 
of  the  conquest  in  1066 -until  1362.  Cromwell  ordered  all  law  proceedings  to  be  taken  in 
English  in  1650.  In  English  law  the  pleadings  are  the  mutual  statements  of  the  plaintiff's 
cause  of  action,  and  the  defendant's  ground  of  defence. 

PLEBEIANS,  Plebes,  the  citizens  of  Rome, 'distinct  from  the  Patricians.  See  Some, 
494-366  B.C. 

PLOTS.     See  Conspiracies  and  Rebellions. 

PLOUGH  MONDAY,  in  January,  the  first  Monday  after  the  Epiphany.  In  1866,  Jan.  8; 
in  1867,  Jan.  14.  It  received_the  appellation  from  its  having  been  fixed  upon  by  our  forefathers 
as  the  day  upon  which  they  returned  to  the  duties  of  agriculture  after  enjoying  the  festivities 
of  Christmas.  Ashe.  On  Plough  Monday,  too,  the  ploughmen  of  the  north  country  used  to 
draw  a  plough  from  door  to  door  and  beg  plough  money  to  drink.  Bailey. 

PLUM.  We  have  two  native  plums  :  our  finer  kinds  came  from  Italy  and  Flanders  about 
1522.  The  Diospyros  Lotus,  the  date-plum,  was  brought  from  Barbary,  before  1596.  The 
Pishamin  plum,  Diospyros  Virginiana,  from  America,  before  1629.  Formerly  damsons> 
apricots,  and  peaches  went  by  this  name,  as  raisins  do  to  this  day. 

PLURALITIES.  Clergymen  have  been  restrained  from  holding  more  than  one  benefice 
by  several  statutes  ;  the  first  being  21  Henry  VIII.  1529.  In  1838  an  act  was  passed 
prohibiting  the  holding  of  more  than  two  benefices  except  they  were  at  a  distance  less 
than  ten  miles  ;  and  the  law  on  this  subject  was  still  further  amended  in  1850  and  1855, 
provisions  being  made  for  the  amalgamation  of  neighbouring  benefices. 


PLU  570  POE 

PLURAL  NUMBER.    See  We. 

PLUS  (  +  )  and  Minus  (— ).  Professor  De  Morgan  attributes  these  signs  to  either 
Christopher  Rudolf,  who  published  a  book  on  algebra  about  1522,  or  Michael  Stifelius, 
about  1544. 

PLYMOUTH,  a  fortified  seaport  in  Devonshire.  It  was  in  1588  the  rendezvous  of  the 
English  fleet  of  120  sail  under  Howard,  Drake,  &c.,  which  pursued  the  Spanish  Armada. 
The  fine  hotel  and  assembly-rooms  were  burnt  Jan.  6,  1863  ;  loss  about  50,000^.  See  Break- 
water and  Dock-yards. 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN".  A  body  of  Christians  calling  themselves  "the  Brethren," 
which  first  appeared  at  Plymouth  about  1830.  In  1851  they  had  132  places  of  worship  in 
England  and  Wales.  They  object  to  national  churches  as  too  latitudinarian,  and  to  dissenters 
as  too  sectarian.  They  receive  into  communion  all  who  confess  Christ,  and  own  the  Holy 
Ghost  as  his  vicar.  Their  doctrines  agree  with  those  of  most  evangelical  Protestant  churches, 
but  they  recognise  no  order  of  ministers. 

PNEUMATIC  DESPATCH  COMPANY  conveys  letters  and  parcels  through  tubes  by 
means  of  atmospheric  pressure  and  a  vacuum.  The  company's  act  was  passed  Aug.  13,  1859, 
and  tubes  were  laid  down  in  Threadneedle -street  on  Sept.  12,  1860  :  and  on  Aug.  20,  1861, 
successful  experiments  were  performed  at  Battersea.  In  1862  tubes  were  laid  down  from 
the  Euston  railway  station  to  the  N.W.  post- office  in  Camden-town,  and  011  Feb.  21,  1863, 
the  conveyance  of  the  mail-bags  began.  In  Oct.  1865,  tubes  had  been  laid  down  between 
Euston  railway  and  Holborn  ;  and  on  Nov.  7,  several  persons  travelled  in  them.  Engineer, 
Mr.  Raminell. 

PNEUMATIC  LOOM,  in  which  compressed  air  is  the  motive  power,  invented  by  Mr. 
Harrison,  was  exhibited  in  London  in  Dec.  1864.  A  company  has  been  formed  to  bring  it 
into  general  use. 

PNEUMATICS,  the  science  which  treats  of  the  mechanical  properties  of  air  and  gases. 
See  Air  and  Atmospheric  Railways. 

PODESTA  (from  potestas_,  power),  an  Italian  governor,  afterwards  a  judge  ;  one  with 
supreme  authority  was  appointed  at  Milan  by  the  emperor  Frederick  I.,  when  he  took  the 
city  in  1158. 

POET-LAUREAT.  Selden  could  not  trace  the  precise  origin  of  this  office.*  Chaucer, 
on  his  return  from  abroad,  assumed  the  title  of  poet-laureat ;  and  in  the  twelfth  year  of 
Richard  II.  1389,  he  obtained  a  grant  of  an  annual  allowance  of  wine.  James  I.  in  1615, 
granted  to  his  laureat  a  yearly  pension  of  100  marks  ;  and  in  1630,  this  stipend  was 
augmented  by  letters  patent  of  Charles  I.  to  lool.  per  annum,  with  an  additional  grant  of 
one  tierce  of  Canary  Spanish  wine  to  be  taken  out  of  the  king's  store  of  wine  yearly. 

POETS-LAUEEAT   FROM   THE   EEIGN   OF   QUEEX  ELIZABETH,  f 

Edmund  Spenser,  died        ....        1598-9  I  Rev.  Laurence  Eusden.  died  1730 

Samuel  Daniel,  died 1619  I  Colley  Gibber,  died  . 

Ben  Jonson,  died 1637  {  William  AVhitehead,  died 


1757 
1785 
1790 
1813 
1843 
1850 


JJCJU   UU11OU11,     U.1GU.  .  *  .  .  .      *Vjy     |       »»  1J..LUVLLA      tT  JJ.1  LUlACil/U. ,    U-itJU.  ,  .  •  . 

Sir  William  Davenant,  died 1668  i  Eev.  Dr.  Thomas  Warton,  died 

John  Dryden  :  deposed  at  the  revolution  .        .  1688  j  Henry  James  Pye,  died       .... 

Thomas  Shadwell,  died 1692  I  Dr.  Robert  Southey,  died         .        .     March  21 

Nahum  Tate,  died 1715  i  William  Wordsworth,  died  .        .  April  23 

Nicholas  Ro we,  died 1718  [  Alfred  Tennyson  (born  1809) .        .        installed  1850 

POETRY,  the  oldest,  rarest,  and  most  excellent  of  the  fine  arts,  and  highest  species  of 
refined  literature.  It  was  the  first  fixed  form  of  language,  and  the  earliest  perpetuation  of 
thought.  It  existed  before  music  in  melody,  and  before  painting  in  description.  Hazlitt. 

*  "Warton,  in  his  History  of  English  Poetry,  states  that  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  there  was  a  Versiftcator 
Regis,  to  whom  an  annual  stipend  was  first  paid  of  one  hundred  shillings.  The  first  mention  of  a  Poet 
Laureat  occurs,  we  believe,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  when  John  Kay  was  laureat ;  Andrew  Bernard  was  i 
laureat,  temp.  Henry  VII.  ;  and  John  Skelton,  temp.  Henry  VIII.  Edmund  Spenser,  as  above,  was  poet- , 
laureat  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Whitehead  was  created  on  the  refusal  of  Grey,  Warton  on  the  refusal  of 
Mason,  and  Southey  on  the  refusal  of  Scott.  Laurence  Eusden  commenced  a  series  of  Birth-Day  and  New 
Year's  Odes  which  continued  till  the  death  of  Pye,  in  1813.  We  believe  that  on  Southey's  appointment 
the  tierce  of  Canary  wine  was  commuted  for  zjl. 

t  "  At  the  accession  of  George  I.  Rowe  was  made  poet-laureat,  I  am  afraid  by  the  ejection  of  poor 
Nahum  Tate,  who  died  in  the  Mint,  where  he  was  forced  to  seek  shelter  from  extreme  poverty."  Dr. 
Johnson.  On  the  death  of  Warton  its  abolition  was  recommended  by  Gibbon,  whose  elegant  compliment 
on  the  occasion  still  more  forcibly  applied  on  Wordsworth's  death,  in  1850.— "This is  the  best  time  for  not 
filling  up  the  office,  when  the  prince  is  a  man  of  virtue,  and  the  poet  just  departed  was  a  man  of  genius." 
— Decline  and  Fall,  &c.,  chap.  Ixx. 


POI 


571 


POL 


The  song  of  Moses  on  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites,  and  their  passage  through  the  Eed 
Sea,  1491  B.C.  (Exodus  xv.),  is  the  most  ancient  poetry  extant.  Orpheus  of  Thrace  is  deemed 
the  inventor  of  poetry  (at  least  in  the  western  part  of  the  world)  about  1249  B.C.  See  Epics, 
Odes,  Satire,  Comedy,  Tragedy,  Sonnets,  Ballads,  Hymns,  and  Verse. 

POICTIEES  (W.  France),  the  site  of  the  battle  between  Edward  the  Black  Prince  and 
John,  king  of  France,  in  which  the  English  arms  triumphed,  Sept.  19,  1356.  The  standard 
of  France  was  overthrown,  many  of  her  nobility  slain,  and  her  king  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
brought  to  London.  Carte, 

POISONING.  A  number  of  Eoman  ladies  formed  a  conspiracy  for  poisoning  their 
husbands,  which  they  too  fatally  carried  into  effect.  A  female  slave  denounced  170  of  them 
to  Fabius  Maximus,  who  ordered  them  to  be  publicly  executed,  331  B.C.  It  was  said  that 
this  was  the  first  public  knowledge  they  had  of  poisoning  at  Eome.*  Poisoning  was  made 
petty  treason  in  England,  and  was  punished  by  boiling  to  death  (of  which  there  are  some 
remarkable  instances)  23  Hen.  VIII.  1532.  See  Boiling  to  Death.  The  frequency  of  cases 
of  poisoning  by  means  of  arsenic,  in  England,  caused  the  British  legislature  to  pass  a  law 
rendering  the  sale  of  arsenic  (which,  until  then,  could  be  obtained  without  check  by  any 
person  from  druggists'  and  apothecaries'  shops)  a  matter  of  difficulty.  This  act  regulated  the 
sale  of  arsenic,  and  was  passed  14  Viet.  c.  13,  June  6,  1851.+  Eecent  remarkable  cases 
of  poisoning  are  those  for  Avhich  W.  Palmer  was  executed  in  1856,  and  Miss  M.  Smith  tried 
in  1857  (see  Trials).  Catherine  "Wilson,  a  noted  poisoner,  was  executed  on  Oct.  20,  1862. 
Edward  William  Pritchard,  M.D.,  was  executed  at  Glasgow,  July  28,  1865,  for  the  slow 
murder  of  his  wife  and  her  mother,  by  antimony.  A  committee  of  the  commons  on  the 
subject  of  the  sale  of  poisons  was  appointed  in  1857,  but  no  legislation  has  yet  ensued.  The 
Poisoned  Grain  Prohibition  Act  was  passed  July  28,  1863. 

POITOU,  an  ancient  province  W.  France,  (part  of  the  dowry  of  Eleanor,  queen  of 
Hemy  II.  of  England.  It  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  Aquitaine  (which  see). 

POLAND  (N.E.  Europe),  part  of  ancient  Sarmatia.  It  is  said  to  have  become  a  duchy 
under  Lechus  or  Lesko  1.  550  ;  and  a  kingdom  under  Boleslaus,  about  992.  The  natives 
belong  to  the  great  Sclavonic  family.  The  word  Pole  is  not  older  than  the  loth  century. 
Population  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland  in  1857  was  4,789,379. 


Piastus,    a   peasant,  is    elected    to  the  ducal 

dignity about    842 

[Piastus  lived  to  the  age  of  120,  and  his  reign 
was    so    prosperous   that  every    succeeding 
native  sovereign  was  called  a  Piast.] 
Introduction  of  Christianity  .        .        .      about    992 
Boleslaus  II.  murders  St.  Stanislas,  the  bishop 
of   Cracow,  with  his  own  hands,  1079  >   n^8 
kingdom  laid  under  an  interdict  by  the  pope, 
and  his  subjects  absolved  of  their  allegiance,  1080 
He  flies  to  Hungary  for  shelter ;  but  is  refused 
it  by  order  of  Gregoi-y  VII.,  and  he  at  length 
kills  himself  or  dies  in  a  monastery        .        .  1081 

Tartar  invasion 1241 

Premislas  assassinated 1295 

Louis  of  Hungary  elected  king  .  .  .  .  1370 
Ladislas  VI.  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Turks  .  1444 
War  against  the  Teutonic  knights  .  .  .  1447 
The  Wallachian  invaders  carry  off  100,000  Poles, 

and  sell  them  to  the  Turks  as  slaves  .        .     .  1498 
Splendid  reign  of  Sigismund  II.          ...  1548 


Stephen  forms  a  militia  composed  of  Cossacks, 
on  whom  he  bestows  the  Ukraine  .  .  . 

Abdication  of  John  Casimir         .... 

Victories  of  John  Sobieski  over  the  Turks  at 
Vienna 

Many  Protestants  killed  after  an  affray  at  Thorn 

Stanislaus  abolishes  torture         .... 

An  awful  pestilence  destroys  250,000  persons    . 

The  evils  of  civil  war  so  weaken  the  kingdom, 
that  it  falls  an  easy  prey  to  the  empress  of 
Russia,  emperor  of  Austria,  and  king  of 
Prussia 

The  first  partition  treaty    .        .        .      Feb.  17, 

The  public  partition  treaty  .        .        .  Aug.  5. 

A  new  constitution  granted  by  the  king  May  3, 

The  Russians,  <fcc.,  on  various  pretexts  enter 
Poland 

The  Poles,  under  Poniatowski  and  Kosciusko 
(battle  of  Maciejovice),  defeated  (Kosciusko 
is  carried  prisoner  to  Russia)  .  Oct.  4, 

Suwarrow's  victories  and  massacres  . 

Battle  of  Warsaw Oct.  4, 


IS75 
1668 

1683 
1724 
1770 


1772 

1791 
1792 

J794 


*  A  deadly  poison  freely  administered  by  Italians  in  the  seventeenth  century,  was  called  aqua  tofana, 
from  the  name  of  the  woman  Tofania,  who  made  and  sold  it  in  small  flat  vials.  She  carried  on  this  traffic 
for  half  a  century,  and  eluded  the  police ;  but,  on  being  taken,  confessed  that  she  had  been  a  party  in 
poisoning  600  people.  Numerous  persons  were  implicated  by  her,  and  many  of  them  were  publicly  exe- 
cuted. All  Italy  was  thrown  into  a  ferment,  and  many  fled,  and  some  persons  of  distinction,  on  conviction, 
were  strangled  in  prison.  It  appeared  to  have  been  chiefly  used  by  married  women  who  were  tired  of 
then-  husbands.  Four  or  six  drops  were  a  fatal  dose ;  but  the  effect  was  not  sudden,  and  thei-efore  not 
suspected.  It  was  as  clear  as  water,  but  the  chemists  have  not  agreed  about  its  real  composition.  A  pro- 
clamation of  the  pope  described  it  as  aquafortis  distilled  into  arsenic,  and  others  considered  it  as  a  solution 
of  crystallised  arsenic.  Between  1666  and  1676  the  marchioness  de  Brinvilliers  poisoned  her  father  and  two 
brothers  and  many  others.  She  was  executed  July  16,  1676. 

t  Nov.  1858,  1 7  persons  died  at  Bradford  through  eating  sweetmeats  in  which  arsenic  had  been  mixed 
by  mistake.  Mr.  Hodgson,  a  chemist,  was  tried  for  homicide,  but  was  acquitted — though  guilty  of 
culpable  negligence. 


POL 


POL 


POLAND,  continued. 

Courland  is  annexed  to  Russia   ....  1795 
Stanislaus  resigns  his  crown  at  Grodno  ;  final 

partition  of  his  kingdom  .  .  Xov  25,  ,, 
Kosciusko  set  at  liberty  .  .  .  Dec.  25,  1796 
He  arrives  in  London  .  .  .  May  30,  1797 
Stanislaus  dies  at  St.  Petersburg  .  Feb.  12,  1798 
Treaty  of  Tilsit  (which  see)  .  .  .  July  7,  1807 
General  Diet  at  Warsaw  .  .  June,  1812 

The  central  provinces  form  the  duchy  at  War- 
saw, between  1807  and  1813  ;  which  is  made 
the  kingdom  of  Poland  under  Alexander  of 

Russia April  30,  1815 

New  constitution  granted  and  Cracow  declared 
to  be  a  free  republic  .  .  .  Nov.  27,  ,, 

Polish  Diet  opened Sept.  1820 

A  revolution  at  Warsaw  ;  the  army  declare  in 

favour  of  the  people     .        .  Nov.  29,  1830 

The  Diet  declares  the  throne  of  Poland  vacant, 

Jan.  25,  1831 

Battle  of  Grochow,  near  Praga  ;  the  Russians 
lose  7000  men ;  the  Poles,  who  keep  the  field, 

2000 Feb.  25, 

Battle  of  Wawz  (which  see)      .        .      March  31, 
The  insurrection  spreads  to  Wilna  and  Volhynia, 

April  3, 
Battle  of  Zelicho        ....        April  6, 

Battle  of  Seidlece April  10, 

Battle  of  Ostrolenka  (which  see),  defeat  of  the 

Russians        .....        May  26, 

The  Russian  general  Diebitsch,  dies     June  10, 

Battle  of  Wilna June  19, 

Grandduke  Constantino  dies  .        .       June  27, 

Battle  of  Minsk July  14, 

Warsaw  taken  (see  Warsaw)  .        .          Sept.  8, 
The  insurrection  suppressed      .        .        Oct.  5, 
Ukase  issued  by  the  emperor  Nicholas,  decree- 
ing that  the  kingdom  of  Poland  shall  hence- 
forth form  an  integral  part  of   the  Russian 

empire Feb.  26,  1832 

Attempt  at  revolution  in  Poland*        .  Feb.  22,  1846 
The  courts   of  Austria,    Russia,   and  Prussia, 
revoke  the  treaty  of  1815  which  constituted 
Cracow  a  free  republic,  "and  it  is   declared 
Austrian  territory      ....  Nov.  16,     „ 
[This    annexation    was   protested  against    by 

England,  France,  Sweden,  and  Turkey.] 
The  kingdom  of  Poland  finally  made  a  Rxissian 

province May,  1847 

Great  popular  demonstration  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  battle  of  Grochow       .        Feb.  25,  1861 
Six  members  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 

killed  by  the  military        .         .         .  Feb.  27,     „ 
Great  excitement  at  their  funeral ;  many  citi- 
zens put  on  mourn'ng ;    an  address  to  the 
emperor  Alexander  signed  by  60,000  persons  ; 
mild    conduct   of    prince   Gortschakoff,   the 

governor March  1-7,     ,, 

Mukhanoff,  curator  of  Poland,  who  had  written 
a  circular  exciting  the  peasantry  against  their 
lords,  quits  Warsaw,  which  is  illuminated  in 
consequence  ....  March  17,  ,, 
The  government  promises  reforms  and  the  re- 
establishment  of  Poland  as  a  separate  king- 
dom ;  yet  abolishes  the  Agricultural  Society, 

April  7,     ,, 


Great  meeting  in  consequence  ;  which  is  dis- 
persed by  the  military  (now  32,000  strong) ; 
above  100  are  killed  and  wounded  April  8, 

Great  agitation  in  the  rural  districts  ;  the  Rus- 
sian officials  quit  Lublin  ;  general  Chruleff 
marches  hither April, 

80,000  soldiers  in  Poland;  reign  of  terror  in 
Warsaw May, 

Death  of  Prince  Gortschakoff,  lieut.-gen.  of 
Poland May  30, 

New  administrative  council  appointed       June, 

Death  of  prince  Adam  Czartoryski  at  Paris, 
aged  91 July  15, 

Oppressive  regulations  issued  respecting  dress . 

Fresh  disturbances  :  Warsaw  put  in  a  state  of 
siege .  Oct. 

Military  arrests  in  churches  in  Warsaw,  they 
are  closed  by  the  priests  .  .  .  Oct.  17, 

The  governor,  count  Lambert,  leaves  Warsaw, 

Oct.  23, 

General  Gerstenzweig,  the  military  govei-nor, 
assassinated Oct.  25, 

Bialobzeski,  catholic  archbishop  of  Warsaw, 
arrested,  Nov.  19;  tried  and  condemned  to 
death  as  a  rebel  for  closing  the  churches  [he 
died  shortly  after]  .  .  .  Dec.  18, 

The  new  archbishop  Felinski  exhorts  the  Poles 
to  submission Feb.  15, 

Rigour  of   the  government  relaxed ;    amnesty 

granted  to    89  convicted  political  prisoners, 

April  29, 

The  grandduke  Constantino  appointed  gover- 
nor, May  28  ;  begins  with  lenient  policy,  but 
his  life  is  attempted  by  Jaroszynsky,  July  3, 
who  is  executed  ....  Aug.  21, 

Attempted  assassination  of  Wielopolski,  a  liberal 
Pole,  president  of  the  council  .  .  Aug.  26, 

Count  Zamoyski,  an  eminent  loyal  Pole,  exiled 
for  presenting  to  the  government  the  report 
of  a  meeting  of  nobles  at  Warsaw,  for  which  he 
had  been  asked  ....  Sept. 

Telkner,  the  chief  of  the  secret  police,  found 
murdered. Nov.  9, 

Severe  military  conscription  without  notice, 

Jan.  14, 

Insurrection  in  the  night ;  at  Warsaw    Jan.  22, 

Many  Russians  murdered ;  Poland  put  in  a 
state  of  siege  ....  Jan.  24, 

The  Polish  provisional  government  issues  its 
first  proclamation  ....  Feb.  2, 

Louis  Mieroslawski  announces  himself  as  head 
of  the  Poles,  Feb.  19 ;  his  band  defeated  and 
dispersed Feb.  23, 

Marian  Langiewicz  declared  dictator  of  Poland, 

March  10 ;  after  several  defeats  he  enters  the 

Austrian  territory,  is  detected  and  imprisoned 

March  19, 

The  insurrection  becomes  general  and  is  sup- 
ported by  the  landed  proprietors,  Feb.  ;  suc- 
cessful guerilla  warfare  March  and  April, 

The  secret  central  committee  assumes  the 
supreme  command  .  .  .  March, 

The  czar's   offer   of  an   amnesty  to    all  who 

lay  down  arms  before    May  13  ;    rejected, 

April  12, 


1863 


*  On  Feb.  22,  1846,  an  Austrian  force  under  general  Collin,  which  had  entered  Cracow  on  the  approach  ; 
of  armed  bands  of  peasantry,  was  attacked  and  driven  out  of  the  town.  A  Provisional  Government  was 
then  proclaimed  by  the  insurgents,  and  two  days  afterwards  they  crossed  the  Vistula,  expecting  to  be 
joined  by  the  peasantry  of  Gallicia,  who  were  solicited  by  the  nobles  and  clergy  to  strike  a  blow  in  the  | 
cause  of  liberty.  The  Austrian  government-,  in  order  to  prevent  this  junction,  excited  in  the  peasantry 
a  suspicion  of  the  motives  of  the  nobles,  and  offered  a  reward  for  every  noble  delivered  up,  alive  or  dead  :  i 
a  general  massacre  of  the  nobility  and  clergy  in  the  circle  of  Tarnow  followed  :  the  insurgents  from  Cracow  i 
were  defeated  at  Gdow,  whence  they  retreated  to  Podgorze,  a  suburb  of  Cracow ;  here  they  were  attacked 
by  General  Collin,  and  driven  into  Cracow  on  the  27th  of  February.  The  forces  of  the  three  powers  then 
began  to  concentrate  on  Cracow  ;  the  people  in  the  town  opened  negotiations  with  the  Austrians  about  a 
surrender,  and  while  these  were  going  on,  a  Russian  corps  entered  the  town  without  resistance,  and  soon 
afterwards  the  revolution  was  at  an  end. 


POL 


573 


POL 


POLAND,  continued. 

European  intervention  on  behalf  of  Poland, 
April  17,  &c.  ;  firmly  replied  to  by  the  czar, 

April  26,  &c.,  1863 

The  secret  committee  (as  a  provisional  govern- 
ment) levies  taxes,  May  3,  and  forbids  pay- 
ment of  taxes  to  Russia  .  .  .  May  9,  ,, 

8o,oooi.  taken  from  the  Russian  treasury  at 
Warsaw  for  the  provisional  government, 
June  12  ;  the  1'oles  claim  the  Poland  of  1772, 

June  26,  „ 

Fruitless  intervention  of  European  powers ; 
sanguinary  rule  of  Mouravieff  at  Wilna,  June,  , , 

General  Berg  replaces  the  marquis  de  Wie- 
polski,  as  lieut. -general,  and  governs  with 
great  rigour July  7,  ,, 

Unsuccessful  invasion  of  Volhynia  by  the  Poles 
under  Wysocki  and  Horodycki,  July  i  ; 
Felinski,  the  R.  C.  archbishop  of  Warsaw, 
banished,  July;  frequent  conflicts  with 
varying  results ;  many  captured  priests  and 
nobles  executed Aug.  ,, 

Lelewel,  a  brave  Pole,  after  several  victories 
killed  in  battle Sept.  6,  „ 

Earl  Russell  decides  against  armed  interven- 
tion, Aug.  :  negotiation  ceases  .  .  Sept.  „ 

Gen.  Berg  fired  at  from  the  Zamoyski  hotel, 
Warsaw,  Sept.  19:  the  hotel  destroyed,  Sept.  ,, 

Many  eminent  Poles  executed,  Oct.  ;  Wm. 
Alger,  an  Englishman,  shot  at  Warsaw  for 
making  grenades ;  the  hotel  de  ville  fired, 

Oct.  9,  „ 

Mourning  forbidden  to  be  worn  for  the  Poles 


at  Warsaw,  Oct.  27;  41  ladies  arrested  at 
night Nov.  3, 

The  Times  correspondent  expelled  from  Warsaw, 

Nov.  27, 

The  abbe"  Machiewicz,  a  warlike  priest,  venerated 
as  a  martyr,  hanged  .  .  .  Dec.  28, 

Mouravieff  rules  Lithuania  with  great  rigour, 

Dec. 

Numerous  skirmishes,  and  many  executions  of 
prisoners  captured  by  the  Russians  ;  the  insur- 
rection gradually  dying  out  Jan.  to  April, 

The  pope  promulgates  an  arrogant  encyclical 
letter  to  the  Polish  church  .  .  July  30, 

Romuald  Traugott,  formerly  a  Russian  colonel, 
the  head  of  the  Polish  provisional  govern- 
ment since  Oct.  1863,  and  five  others,  hanged, 

Aug.  5, 

Decree  for  reorganising  education  at  Warsaw, 
founding  a  university,  &c.  .  .  Sept.  n, 

The  secret  provisional  government,  after  stating 
that  50,000  men  had  been  slain,  and  100,000 
exiled  to  Siberia,  still  calls  on  the  Poles  to 
begin  a  "national  mau"  .  .  Sept.  21, 

Many  R.  C.  convents  clesed  for  participating  in 
the  insurrection  ....  Nov. 

Further  measures  for  denationalising  Poland 
adopted Dec. 

The  ex-dictator  Langiewicz  released  by  the 
Austrian s  and  sent  to  Switzerland  .  Feb. 

The  abbe"  Stanislas  Bizoski  and  his  lieutenant, 
captured  and  executed  .  .  .  May  23, 
See  Cracow,  Warsaw,  and  Russia. 


1863 


1864 


.  1865 


DUKES   AND    KINGS    OF   POLAND. 


842. 
861. 
892. 
921. 
962. 
992. 


025. 
034- 


037- 
041. 


058. 
082. 


194. 

200. 
I2O2. 
1206. 

I227. 


[290. 

1296. 
I300. 
C304. 

'333- 


'370 
=382. 


399- 
434- 


Piastus,  duke. 
Ziemovitus,  his  son. 
Lesko  or  Lescus  IV. 
Ziemomislas,  son  of  Lesko. 
Miecislas  I.  becomes  Christian. 
Boleslas  I.  surnamed  the  Lion-hearted  ;    ob- 
tained the  title  of  KING  from  the  emperor 

Otho  III. 
Miecislas  II. 
Richense  or  Richsa,  his  consort,  regent ;  driven 

from  the  government. 
[Anarchy.] 
Casimir  I.  her  son,  suniamed  the  Pacific;  he 

had  retired  to  a  monastery,  but  was  invited 

to  the  throne. 

Boleslas  II.  styled  the  intrepid. 
Ladislas,  called  the  Careless. 
Boleslas  III.  surnamed  Wry-mouth. 
Ladislas  II.  son  of  the  preceding. 
Boleslas  IV.  the  Curled. 
Miecislas  III.  the  Old  :  deposed. 
Casimir  II.  surnamed  the  Just. 
Lesko  V.  the  White  :  abdicated. 
Miecislas  III.  :  restored. 
Ladislas  III.  :  retired. 
Lesko  V.  restored ;  assassinated ;    succeeded 

by  his  son,  an  infant. 
Boleslas  V.  surnamed  the  Chaste. 
Lesko  VI.  surnamed  the  Black. 
[Eorrid  Anarchy.] 
Premislas,    styled    king  of   Poland,    governs 

wisely  :  assassinated. 
Ladislas  I.  (IV.)  the  Short :  deposed. 
Wenceslas,  king  of  Bohemia,  abandons  Poland. 
Ladislas  IV.  the  Short. 
Casimir  III.  the  Great,  one  of  the  best  princes 

of  Poland  ;  encourages  the  arts  and  amends 

the  law  ;  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse. 
Louis,  king  of  Hungary. 
Maria,  and  1384  Hedwige  (daughters  of  Louis), 

and  her  consort,  Jagello,  duke  of  Lithuania, 

by  the  style  of  Ladislas  V. 
Ladislas  II.  (V.)  alone  :  he  united  Lithuania  to 

Poland. 
Ladislas  III.  (VI.)  his  son;  succeeded  as  king 

of  Hungary,  1440. 


1445.   [Interregnum.] 

„      Casimir  IV. 
1492.  John  (Albert)  I.  his  son. 
1501.   Alexander,  prince  of  Livonia,  brother  of  the 

preceding. 
1506.   Sigismuud  I.  brother  of  Alexander;  obtained 

the  surname  of  the  Great. 
1548.   Sigismund  II.  Augustus,  son  of  the  last  king; 

a    splendid    reign ;    added  Livonia    to    his 

kingdom  ;  died  1570.     Interregnum. 

ELECTED   MONARCHS. 

1573.  Henry  de  Valois,  duke  of  Anjou,  brother  to 
the  king  of  France  ;  he  afterwards  succeeded 
to  the  French  throne. 

1575.  Stephen  Bathori,  prince  of  Transylvania  : 
established  the  Cossacks  as  a  militia. 

1586.  [Interregnum.] 

1587.  Sigismuud  III.  son  of  the  king  of  Sweden,  to 

the    exclusion   of    Maximilian  of  Austria, 

elected  by  the  nobles. 
1632.   Ladislas  IV.  (VII.)  Vasa,  son  of  Sigismund 

III.  ;  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1648.   John  II.  or  Casimir  V.  :  abdicated,  and  retired 

to  France,  where  he  died  in  1672. 

1668.  [Interregnum.] 

1669.  Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski :  in  this  reign 

the   Cossacks  join  the   Turks,  and  ravage 

Poland. 
1674    John  III.    Sobieski;     the   last   independent 

king ;     illustrious    for   victories    over    the 

Cossacks,  Turks,  and  Tartars. 
1697.   [Interegnum.] 
„     Frederick-Augustus    I.    son    of   John-George, 

elector    of  Saxony:    and  elector   in    1694, 

deprived  of  his  crown. 
1 704.    Stanislas  I.  (Lezinski) :  forced  to  retire  from 

his  kingdom  in  1709. 
1709.   Frederick- Augustus  again. 
1733.   Frederick-Augustus  II.,  son  of  the  preceding 

sovereign. 

1763.  [Interregnum.] 

1764.  Stanislaus  II.  Augustus  Poniatowski,  resigned 

his  sovereignty,  Nov.  25,  1795 ;  died  at  St. 
Petersburg,  a  state  prisoner,  Feb.  12,  1798. 


POL  574  POL 

POLAR  CLOCK.  An  optical  apparatus  invented  by  professor  Wheatstone  (about  1849), 
•whereby  the  hour  of  the  day  is  found  by  means  of  the  polarisation  of  light. 

POLARISATION  OF  LIGHT.     See  Optics. 

POLAR  REGIONS.     See  North-West  Passage  and  South  Pole. 

POLE  STAR,  or  POLAR  STAR.  A  star  of  the  second  magnitude,  the  last  in  the  tail  of 
the  constellation  called  the  Little  Bear  ;  its  nearness  to  the  North  Pole  causes  it  never  to  set 
to  those  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  therefore  it  is  called  the  seaman's  guide.  Two 
stars  in  the  constellation  Ursa  Major,  or  Great  Bear,  are  called  pointers  to  the  Polar  star. 
The  discovery  of  the  Pole  star  is  ascribed  by  the  Chinese  to  their  emperor,  Hong  Ti,  the 
grandson  (they  say)  of  Noah,  who  reigned  and  flourished  1970  B.C.  Univ.  Hist. 

POLICE.  The  London  police  grew  out  of  the  London  watch,  instituted  about  1253.  Its 
jurisdiction  was  extended  27  Eliz.  1585,  and  16  Chas.  I.  1640  ;  and  the  system  improved  by 
various  acts  in  subsequent  reigns.  The  magistracy  at  Bow  street  has  been  long  established. 
See  Magistrates. 

Police  offices.     The  jurisdiction  of  twenty-one  intendents,  140  inspectors,  630  sergeants,  and 

magistrates,  three  to  preside  in  each  of  the  5296  constables. 

seven  divisional  offices,  commenced  Aug.  i,  1792     The  total  efficient  police  force  in  England  and  j 

The  Thames  police  was  established  in   .        .     .  1798  •      "Wales,  exclusive  of  the  Metropolis,  in  Sept. 

The  London  police    was    remodelled    by  Mr.  1859  was  11,309,  and  in  Sept.  1863,  14,661.  See 

(afterwards  sir  Robert)  Peel,  by  statute  10  Constabulary. 

Geo.  IV.  June  19,  1829,  and  commenced  duty  Division  X.  was  established  to  attend  the  Inter- 
Sept.  29,  1829  1      national  Exhibition  in i 

The  London  police  Improvement  acts  passed  3  i  The  whole  police  and  constabulary  in  England 

Viet.  1839,  4  Viet.  1840,  which  were  amended  and  "Wales  amounted  to  23,032  men;  Mctro- 

by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  2 1856        politan  police,  6590  ;    city  of  London  police, 

In  1857  the  total  expenditure  was  445, 212^.  for  743 ;  dockyard  police,  &c. ,  743,  on     Sept.  29,  1863 

the  Metropolitan  police,  consisting  of  17  super- 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  the  science  which  has  for  its  object  the  improvement  of  the 
condition  of  mankind,  and  the  promotion  of  civilisation,  wealth,  and  happiness.  Its  history 
in  this  country  may  be  dated  from  the  publication  of  Dr.  Adam  Smith's  "Wealth  of  Nations," 
1776.  The  works  of  Mill  and  M'Culloch  are  justly  celebrated.  A  professorship  of  Political! 
Economy  was  established  at  Oxford  by  Mr.  Henry  Drummond,  M.P.,  1825  ;  and  at 
Cambridge,  first  by  Mr.  G.  Pryme,  in  1828  ;  but  regularly  established  by  the  university 
1863,  Henry  Fawcett  (blind)  being  the  first  professor. 

POLITICAL  UNIONS  were  formed  in  England  in  1831  to  carry  the  Reform  Bill ;  tl 
most  important  was  that  of  Birmingham. 

POLITICIANS.  A  politician  is  described  as  a  man  well  versed  in  policy,  or  the  well 
regulating  and  governing  of  a  state  or  kingdom  ;  a  wise  and  cunning  man.  A  man  of  artifice ; 
one  of  deep  contrivance.  South.  The  term  was  first  used  in  France  about  1569.  Henault.. 
A  new  faction  appeared,  known  by  the  name  of  Politicians,  headed  by  the  due  d'Alengon 
and  the  Montmorencies,  and  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  the  Huguenots  in  1574.  The 
duke  was  arrested  and  the  Montmorencies  sent  to  the  Bastile.  Idem. 

POLLENTIA  (Piedmont,  N.  Italy),  the  site  of  a  great  victory  of  Stilicho,  the  Im 
general,  over  Alaric  the  Goth,  March  29,  403. 

POLL-ACT.     An  iniquitous  act  passed  in  Ireland  by  the  Junto  of  the  Pale,  putting 
price  upon  the  heads  of  certain  of  the  ancient  Irish  ;  the  earl  of  Desmond  being  then  deputy 
5  Edward  IV.  1465.     This  act  endured  for  a  number  of  years.     For  particulars,  see  NOTE  t< 
article  Ireland,  p.  397.     Numbers  of  the  Irish  suffered  under  this  act.     Scully. 

POLL-TAX,  or  CAPITATION  TAX,  existed  among  the  ancient  Romans.  It  was  first  levie( 
in  England  in  1379  ;  and  occasioned  the  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler  (see  Tyler),  1381.  It  wa;j 
again  levied  in  1513.  By  the  i8th  Charles  II.  every  subject  was  assessed  by  the  head,  viz.'  • 
a  duke  lool.,  a  marquis  8oZ.,  a  baronet  30?.,  a  knight  20?.,  an  esquire  iol.,  and  every  singlfj 
private  person  12^.,  1667.  This  grievous  impost  was  abolished  by  William  III.  at  the  perioo 
of  the  Revolution. 

POLOTSK  (Russia).  The  French  under  marshal  Oudinot  were  here  defeated  by  th 
Russians  under  general  Wittgenstein,  July  30  and  31,  1812.  The  same  armies  contendinj 
the  next  day,  the  Russians  were  defeated.  After  several  actions  of  less  note,  in  which  th 
advantage  was  sometimes  on  one,  sometimes  on  the  other  side,  Polotsk  was  stormed  by  th 
Russians,  and  retaken  Oct.  1812. 


)LTOWA.     SeePultowa. 

POLYGAMY,  &c.  Most  of  the  early  nations  of  the  world  permitted  polygamy.  In  Media, 
it  was  a  reproach  to  a  man  to  have  less  than  seven  wives.  Among  the  Romans,  Marc  Antony 
is  mentioned  as  the  first  who  took  two  wives  ;  and  the  practice  "became  frequent,  until 
forbidden  by  Arcadius,  393.  The  emperor  Charles  Y.  punished  this  offence  with  death. 
In  England,  by  statute  I  James  I.  1603,  it  was  made  felony,  but  with  benefit  of  clergy.  This 
offence  was  punished  with  transportation,  but  now  by  imprisonment  or  penal  servitude.  It 
is  permitted  by  the  Mahometans  and  Mormonites.  See  Marriages.  POLYANDRY  (where  one 
woman  has  several  husbands)  is  permitted  in  some  eastern  countries,  the  children  having 
equal  rights. 

POLYGLOT,  a  term  derived  from  two  Greek  words  denoting  "many  languages,"  is  chiefly 
applied  to  editions  of  the  Bible  in  several  languages. 


1.  The  Complutensian  Polyglot,  in  six  vols.  folio, 
was  printed  at    Alcala  (Complutensis)  in  Spain, 
1502-14 ;  the  first  edition  published  in  1522,  at  the 
expense  of  the  celebrated  cardinal  Ximenes,  cost- 
ing 250,000  ducats.     Six  hundred  copies  of  it  were 
printed  ;  three  on  vellum.     Count  Mac  Carthy,  of 
Toulouse,  paid  483?.  for  one  of  these  copies  at  the 
Pinelli  sale. 

2.  The  Polyglot,  printed  at  Antwerp,  by  Montanus, 


8  vols.  folio,  in  1559-69,  at  the  expense  of  Philip  II. 
of  Spain. 

3.  Printed  at    Paris,  by  Le  Jay,  in   10  vols.  folio, 
1628-45. 

4.  Edited  by  Biyan  Walton,  was  published  in  6  vols. 
folio,  1654-7. 

Copies  of  all  four  are  in  the  library  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

5.  Edited    by  Dr.    Samuel  Lee,  published  by    S. 
Bagster,  i  vol.  folio,  1831. 


)LYNESIA,  a  name  recently  given  to  the  isles  in  the  great  Pacific  Ocean. 


>LYPES  (many-footed]  animals,  also  named  Hydra?,  on  account  of  their  property  of 

^r ucing  themselves  when  cut  in  pieces,  every  part  soon  becoming  a  perfect  animal  ;  first 

discovered  by  Leeuwenhoek,  and  described  by  him  in  the  Philosophical  Trans.  1703.  The 
polypes  are  of  the  order  Zoophytes  ;  they  partake  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  nature,  and 
therefore  are  justly  placed  as  the  link  which  joins  the  animal  to  the  vegetable  world. 

POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTION,  ROYAL,  Regent-street,  London,  was  erected  by 
Thompson  in  1838,  and  enlarged  in  1848.  It  contains  a  hall  of  manufactures  with  machines 
worked  by  steam-power,  lecture  theatres,  &c.,  diving-bell,  electric  machine,  &c.  Timbs. 
The  institution  did  not  prosper  commercially,  and  its  decline  was  hastened  by  the  fall  of  a 
staircase  on  Jan.  3,  1859,  when  one  person  was  killed  and  many  injured.  The  institution 
was  closed  in  May,  1859,  but  was  re-opened  by  a  new  company  on  Nov.  12,  1860. 

POMEGRANATE  TREE  (Punica  Granatum)  was  brought  to  England  from  Spain  before 
1584.  It  originally  came  from  Spanish  America. 

POMERANIA,  a  Prussian  province,  N.  Germany,  was  held  by  the  Poles,  980,  and  by* 
Denmark,  1210  ;  made  an  independent  duchy,  1479 ;  and  divided  between  Sweden  and 
Brandenburg,  1648.  The  Swedish  part  wras  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815. 

POMFRET  or  POKTEFRACT  (S.  York).  At  the  castle  (built  1069),  Richard  II.  was 
confined  and  murdered,  Feb.  10.  Henry  IV.,  by  whom  he  was  deposed,  wishing  foT  his 
death,  an  assassin,  attended  by  eight  followers,  rushed  into  the  king's  apartment.  He 
wrested  a  pole-axe  from  one  of  the  murderers,  and  soon  laid  four  of  their  number  dead  at 
his  feet,  but  was  at  length  overpowered  and  slain.  Some  writers  assert  that  Richard  escaped 
and  died  in  Scotland.  In  this  castle  also,  the  earl  Rivers,  lord  Gray,  sir  Thomas  Vaughan, 
and  sir  Richard  Haut  or  Hause,  were  executed,  or  rather  murdered,  by  order  of  the  duke  of 
Gloucester,  then  protector  of  England  (afterwards  Richard  III.),  June  13 — 26,  1483. 

POMPEII  (S.  Italy),  an  ancient  city  of  Campania,  was  partly  demolished  by  an  earth- 
quake in  A.D.  63.  It  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  but  was  swallowed  up  by  an  awful  eruption 
of  Vesuvius,  accompanied  by  an  earthquake,  on  the  night  of  the  24th  of  August,  79. 
Many  of  the  principal  citizens  happened  at  the  time  to  be  assembled  at  a  theatre  where  public 
spectacles  were  exhibited.  The  ashes  buried  the  whole  city  and  covered  the  surrounding 
country.  After  a  lapse  of  fifteen  centuries,  a  countryman,  as  he  was  turning  up  the  ground, 
accidentally  found  a  bronze  figure  ;  and  this  discovery  attracting  the  attention  of  the  learned, 
further  search  brought  numerous  other  objects  to  light,  and  at  length  the  city  was  once  more 
shone  on  by  the  sun.  The  part  first  cleared  was  supposed  to  be  the  main  street,  1750.  The 
kings  of  Naples  have  greatly  aided  in  uncovering  Pompeii,  and  the  present  Italian  govern- 
ment resumed  the  work  in  1863. 


POM 


57d 


POO 


POMPEY'S  PILLAR  stands  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  Alexandria,  between 
the  city  and  the  lake  Mareotis.  The  shaft  is  fluted,  and  the  capital  ornamented  with  palm- 
leaves  ;  the  whole,  which  is  highly  polished,  composed  of  three  pieces,  and  of  the  Corinthian 
order.  The  column  measures,  according  to  some,  94  feet ;  and  others  141,  and  even  i6ofeet ; 
but  of  its  origin,  name,  use,  and  age,  nothing  is  certain.* 

PONDICHERRY  (S.E.  India),  the  capital  of  French  India,  and  first  settled  by  the 
French  in  1674.  It  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Dutch  in  1693,  and  was  besieged  by  the 
English  in  1748.  It  was  taken  by  the  English  in  Jan.  1761,  and  was  restored  in  1763  ; 
again  taken  Oct.  1778,  and  restored  in  1783.  Pondicherry  was  captured  by  the  British, 
Aug.  23,  1793,  and  in  1803  ;  but  was  restored  to  the  French  in  1815. 

PONTIFFS  (Latin  Pontifices),  the  highest  Roman  sacerdotal  order,  established  byNuma. 
The  college  first  consisted  of  4  patricians ;  to  these  4  plebeians  were  afterwards  added.  Sylla 
increased  the  number  to  15  (8  majores,  7  minores).  The  chief  was  called  the  Pontifex 
Maximus.  T.  Coruncanius,  a  plebeian,  obtained  this  office,  254  B.C. 

PONTUS,  a  kingdom  in  Asia  Minor,  seems  to  have  been  a  portion  of  Cappadocia,  and 
received  its  name  from  its  vicinity  to  the  Pontus  Euxinus.  Artabazus  was  made  king  of 
Pontus  by  Darius  Hystaspes.  His  successors  were  little  more  than  satraps  of  the  kings  of 
Persia. 


Artabazus   made  king   of     Pontus  by  Darius 

Hystaspes B.C.  487 

Reign  of  Mithridates  1 383 

Ariobarzaiies  invades  Pontus        ....  363 

Mithridates  II.  recovers  it 336 

Mithridates  III.  reigns 301 

Ariobarzaiies  II.  reigns 266 

Mithridates  IV.  is  besieged  in  his  capital  by  the 

Gauls,  <fec 252 

Mithridates  makes  an  unsuccessful  attack  upon 

the  free  city  of  Sinope,  and  is  obliged  to  raise 

the  siege  by  the  Rhodians 219 

Reign  of  Pharnaces,  190 ;   he  takes  Sinope,  and 

makes  it  the  capital  of  his  kingdom          .        .183 

Reign  of  Mithridates  V. 157 

He  is  murdered  in  the  midst  of  his  court    .         .  123 
Mithridates  VI.  surnamed  the  Great,  or  Eupator, 

receives  the  diadem  at  12  years  of  age  .  .  ,, 
Marries  Laodice,  his  own  sister  .  .  .  -115 
She  attempts  to  poison  him ;  he  puts  her  and 

accomplices  to  death      .        .         .        .        .     .  112 

^Mithridates     conquers      Scythia,     Bosphorus, 

Colchis,  and  other  countries     .         .        .        .  in 

He  enters  Cappadocia 97 

His  war  with  Rome 89 

Tigranes  ravages  Cappadocia 86 


Mithridates  enters  Bithynia,  and  makes  him- 
self master  of  many  Roman  provinces,  and 
puts  80,000  Romans  to  death     .        .         .  B.C.     86 
Archelaus    defeated    by    Sylla,    at   Chajronea ; 

100,000  Cappadocians  slain „ 

Victories   and  conquests   of  Mithridates  up  to 

this  time 74 

The  fleet  of    Mithridates    defeats    that  under 

Lucullus,  in  two  battles 73 

Mithridates  defeated  by  Lucullus        .        .        .69 

Mithridates  defeats  Fabius 68 

But  is  defeated  by  Pompey 66 

Mithridates  stabs  himself,  and  dies          .        .     .     63 
Reign  of  Pharnaces        .        .        .        .        .  ,, 

Battle  of  Zela  (see  Zela) ;  Phamaces  defeated  by 

Caesar 47 

Darius  reigns 39 

Polemon,  son  of  Zeno,  reigns 36 

Polemon  II.  succeeds  his  father  .        .        .  A.D.     33 

Mithridates  VII.  reigns 40 

Pontus  afterwards  became  a   Roman  province, 

under  the  emperors. 

Alexis  Comneiius  founded  a  new  empire  of  the 
Greeks  at  Trebisond,  in  this  country,  1204, 
which  continued  till  the  Turks  destroyed  it  in 
1459- 


POOR  KNIGHTS  OF  WINDSOR,  instituted  by  Henry  VIII.  in  his  testament,  1546-7. 
Their  original  number,  thirteen,  was  subsequently  increased  to  twenty-eight.  King 
"William  IV.  changed  the  name  to  the  "  Military  Knights  of  Windsor,"  in  consequence  of 
their  all  having  held  commissions  in  the  army,  Sept.  1833.  The  "  Naval  Knights  of 
Windsor"  are  maintained  on  a  distinct  foundation,  under  the  bequest  of  Samuel  Travers. 

POOR  LAWS.  The  poor  of  England,  till  the  time  of  Henry  VIIL,  subsisted  as  the  poor 
of  Ireland  until  1838,  entirely  upon  private  benevolence.  By  statute  23  Edw.  III.  1349,  it 
was  enacted  that  none  should  give  alms  to  a  beggar  able  to  work.  By  the  common  law,  the 
poor  were  to  be  sustained  by  "  parsons,  rectors  of  the  church,  and  parishioners,  so  that  none 
should  die  for  default  of  sustenance  ;  "  and  by  15  Rich.  II.  impropriators  were  obliged  tD 
distribute  a  yearly  sum  to  the  poor;  but  no  compulsory  law  was  enacted  till  the  27th 
Hen.  VIIL  1535-  The  origin  of  the  present  system  of  poor  laws  is  referred  to  the  43rd  of 
Elizabeth,  1601,  by  which  overseers  were  appointed  for  parishes. 


*  It  is  generally  believed  that  the  column  has  no  reference  to  Pompey,  to  whom  a  mark  of  honour  was, 
nevertheless,  set  up  somewhere  about  this  part.  One  supposes  the  edifice  was  dedicated  to  Vespasian, 
another  to  Severus  ;  and  Mr.  Clarke,  from  a  half-effaced  inscription  on  the  base,  considered  that  Adrian 
is  the  person  honoured  ;  while  many  assert,  from  the  same  inscription,  that  it  is  dedicated  "  to  Diocletian 
Augustus,  most  adorable  emperor,  tutelar  deity  of  Alexandria." 


POO 


577 


POP 


POOR  LAWS,  continued 

Poor  Law  Amendment  bill  passed  1834  ;  amended 
in  1836,  1838,  1846,  and  1847. 

Poor  Law  (Ireland)  act  passed  1838  ;  amended  1839. 

Poor  Law  (Ireland)  Rate  in  Aid  act  passed  in  1849. 

In  Scotland,  in  the  year  ending  May  1851,  the  num- 
ber relieved  was  141,870,  at  an  average  cost  of 
2!.  2S.  $d.  and  the  expenditure  was  535,943?. 

In  Ireland,  the  poor's  rate  for  the  year  ending  Sept. 
1851,  was  1,101,878?. 

A  Poor  Law  system  established  in  Scotland,  1845. 

An  agitation  for  the  equalisation  of  poor's  rates 
throughout  the  kingdom  began  in  1857. 

The  Times  draws  attention  to  the  condition  of  the 
houseless  poor  in  London,  which  led  to  measures 
for  their  relief,  Dec.  1858. 

Laws  respecting  removal  of  the  poor  amended  in  1861. 


Union  Relief  act  passed  to  enable  certain  unions  to 
obtain  temporary  aid  (on  account  of  the  distress 
in  Lancashire  through  suspension  of  cotton  manu- 
factures) 1862. 

Metropolitan  houseless  poor  act  (authorising  guar- 
dians to  receive  destitute  persons  into  work- 
houses, and  the  metropolitan  board  to  reimburse 
them)  passed,  July  29,  1864. 

Annual  report  of  Poor  Law  board  for  1864,  shows 
great  decrease  of  pauperism — issued  Sept.  1865. 

40  refuges  for  houseless  poor  established  in  London 
1864-5. 

"  Casual  wards  "  in  London  workhouses  receive  1000 
per  night,  Jan.  1865. 

Union  chargeability  act  passed,  1865. 


ENGLAND  AND 

Expended. 
In  1580  . 
1680      . 
1698  . 

WALES. 

Poor  Rates. 

£188,811 
665,562 
819,000 

Expended. 
In  1815     .... 
1820 
1830                     .     . 
1835 
1840     .        .        .     . 

Pool-  Rates. 
£5,418,845 
7>329»594 
8,111,422 
6,356,345 
5,468,699 

Expended.                      Poor  Rales. 
In  1853       .        .        .     .  £6,522,412 
March   1857,   to   March 
1858,  about.        .        .     3,082,600 
1859-60.  about   .        .     .     3,795,500 
6  months  to  Mar.  25,  1  86  r     2,073,  394 

1781  . 

2,184,950 

1845 

•^'^    »~ys* 

,,        ,,        ,,       1862     2,181,124 

1802       .        . 

4,952,421 

1850,  year  to  Mar.  25 

3,816,909 

»        «?        »      1864    2,250,971 

PAUPERS    RECEIVING-  RELIEF    (NOT   VAGRANTS). 

1849.  1853.                          1858.                          1862. 

England  and  Wales,  Jan.  r     .      934,419    .  .      798,822    .        .      968,186    .        .  932,400 

Scotland.        .         .  May  14 .        82,357        .  .        75>437        •     •        69,217  [1857] .        78,433  [1861] 

Ireland        .        .     .  Jan.  i    .      620,747    .  .      141,822    .        .       50,582    .        .        59,541 


Total 


1,016,081 


.  1,007,985 


'  1,070,374 


_  JPE  (from  the  Greek  Pappas  and  Papa,  a  father  or  grandfather),  considered  by 
3inanists  to  be  the  visible  chief  of  the  church,  the  vicar  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  successor 
of  St.  Peter.  This  title  was  formerly  given  to  all  bishops.  It  was  first  adopted  by  Hyginus, 
139  ;  and  pope  Boniface  III.  induced  Phocas,  emperor  of  the  East,  to  confine  it  to  the 
prelates  of  Rome,  606.  By  the  connivance  of  Phocas  also,  the  pope's  supremacy  over  the 
Christian  Church  was  established.  See  Italy,  Reformation,  and  Rome,  Modern. 

his  prerogative  of    making  and  unmaking 

kings  t 1191 

The  pope  collected  the  tenths  of  the  whole 

kingdom  of  England 1226 

The  papal  seat  was  removed  for  seventy  years 

to  Avignon  in  France  .  .  .  '  .  .  1308 
The  pope's  demands  on  England  refused  by 

parliament 1363 

Appeals  to  Rome  from  England  abolished 

(Viner) 1533 

The  words  "Lord  Pope"  struck  out  of  all 

English  books 1541 

Kissing  the  pope's  toe  and  other  ceremonies 

abolished  by  Clement  XIV 1773 

The  pope's  political  influence  destroyed  by  the 

French  revolution  ....  1789-1814 
His  diplomatic  relations  with  Great  Britain 

authorised  by  parliament  ....  1848 
He  offends  the  British  nation  by  creating 

bishops.     See  Papal  Aggression.     .    Sept.  30,  1850 


JOJ 

7So 


844 
1024 


Custom  of  kissing  the  pope's  toe  introduced    . 

Adrian  I.  caused  money  to  be  coined  with  his 
name 

Sergius  II.  the  first  pope  who  changed  his 
name  on  his  election  ;  some  contend  that  it 
was  Sergius  I.  and  others  John  XII.  or  XIII. 

John  XVIII.  a  layman,  made  pope     . 

The  first  pope  who  kept  an  army,  Leo  IX.    .     . 

Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand)  obliges  Henry  IV. 
emperor  of  Germany,  to  stand  three  days,  in 
the  depth  of  winter,  barefooted  at  the  gate  of 
the  castle  of  Canossa,  to  implore  his  pardon  .  1077 

The  pope's  authority  fixed  in  England  .         .     .  1079 

Appeals  from  English  tribunals  to  the  pope 
introduced  (Viner),  19  Stephen  .  .  .  1154 

Henry  II.  of  England  holds  the  stirrup  for  pope 
Alexander  III.  to  mount  his  horse*  .  .  .  1161 

Celestine  III.  kicked  the  emperor  Henry  VI. 's 
crown  off  his  head  while  kneeling,  to  show 


*  "  When  Louis,  kin?  of  France,  and  Henry  II.  of  England,  met  pope  Alexander  III.  at  the  castle  of 
Torci,  on  the  Loire,  they  both  dismounted  to  receive  him,  and  holding  each  of  them  one  of  the  reigns  of  his 
bridle,  walked  on  foot  by  his  side,  and  conducted  him  in  that  submissive  manner  into  the  castle."  Hume. 

t  In  the  nth  century  the  power  of  the  pontiff  of  Rome  seems  to  have  reached  its  utmost  height. 
Gregory  VII.  assumed  the  exclusive  title  of  Pope,  which  till  then  had  been  common  to  other  bishops  ;  and 
his  successors  carried  their  pretensions  so  far  as  to  hold  themselves  out  as  lords  of  the  universe,  arbiters 
of  the  fate  of  empires,  and  supreme  rulers  of  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  earth.  In  this  character  they 
proceeded  to  dispose  of  kingdoms,  and  to  loose  subjects  from  their  allegiance,  as  is  remarkably  instanced 
in  the  history  of  John,  king  of  England.  At  length  they  affirmed  the  whole  earth  to  be  their  property,  as 
well  where  Christianity  had  been  propagated,  as  where  it  had  not ;  and  therefore,  on  the  discovery  of  the 
East  and  West  Indies  and  America,  Alexander  VI.,  in  1493,  granted  to  the  Portuguese  a  right  to  all  the 
countries  lying  to  the  eastward,  and  to  the  Spaniards  all  those  westward  of  Cape  Non,  in  Africa,  which 
they  might  respectively  be  able  to  conquer.  They  finally  preteuded  to  be  lords  of  the  future  world  also  ; 
and  by  licences,  pardons,  dispensations,  and  indulgences,  which  they  sold  to  the  best  bidders,  to  have  a 
power  of  restraining,  and  in  some  instances  of  subverting,  even  the  Divine  justice  itself.  Aspin :  Lives  of 
the  Popes. 

P  P 


POP 


578 


POP 


POPE,  continued. 


BISHOPS   AND    POPES   OF   ROME. 


42. 


66. 

78. 
91. 

3OO. 

log. 
a  19. 
127. 

I39- 
142. 

357- 
368. 

177. 
^93- 

202. 

219. 

222. 
223. 

230. 

235- 
236. 
250. 
251. 
252. 

253- 
257- 


259- 
20Q. 

275- 
283. 
296. 

3°4- 
308. 

310. 

3lr- 
3M- 
336. 
337- 


535- 


353. 


359- 
366. 


384- 


ST.  PETER  :  (said  by  very  doubtful  tradition  to 

have  been  the  first  bishop  of  Borne,  and  to 

have  been  crucified,  head  downwards,  in  66.) 
St.  Clement  (Clemens  Romanus) ;  according  to 

Tertullian. 

St.  Linus  :  *  martyred. 
St.  Anacletus  :  martyred. 
St.  Clement :  abdicated. 
St.  Evaristus  :  martyred. 
St.  Alexander :  martyred. 
St.  Sixtus:  martyred. 
St.  Telesphorus :  martyred. 
St.  Hyginus  :  the  first  who  called  himself  pope. 
St.  Pius :  martyred. 
St.  Anicetus. 

St.  Soterus  :  martyred  under  Marcus  Antoninus. 
St.  Eleutherus  :  opposed  the  Valentinians. 
St.  Victor  ;  martyred  under  Severus. 
St.  Zephirinus. 
St.  Calixtus  :  martyred. 
[The  chair  vacant.  ] 
St.    Urban  :    beheaded  in  the  persecution  of 

Alexander  Severus. 
St.   Pontianus  :    banished    by    the    emperor 

Maximin. 

St.  Anterus  :  martyred. 
St.  Fabian  :  martyred  under  Decius. 
[The  chair  vacant.] 
St.  Cornelius  :  died  the  next  year. 
St.    Lucius  :     martyred    the  year    following. 

Novatianus :  f  antipope. 
St.  Stephen:  martyred  in  the  persecution  of 

Valerian. 
Sixtus  II.  (his  coadjutor) :  martyred  three  days 

before  his  faithful  disciple  St.  Laurence,  in 

the  persecution  of  Valerian,  258. 
[The  chair  vacant.] 

Dionysius  :  opposed  the  heresy  of  Sabellius. 
Felix:  martyred;  canonised. 
Eutychianus :  martyred. 
Caius  :  a  relative  of  the  emperor  Diocletian. 
Marcellinus :     distinguished    by    his    courage 

under  a  severe  persecution ;  canonised. 
[The  chair  vacant.] 
Marcellus  :  banished  from  Rome  by  the  emperor 

Maxentius;  canonised. 
St.  Eusebius  :  died  the  same  year. 
St.  Melchiades:  coadjutor  to  Eusebius. 
Silvester. 

Marcus  or  Mark  :  died  the  next  year. 
Julius  :    of    great  piety  and    learning  main- 
tained the  cause  of  St.  Athanasius. 
Liberius  :  banished ;  and  in 
Felix  II.,  antipope  :    placed  in  the  chair   by 

Constans,  during  the  exile  of  Liberius,  on 

whose  return  he  was  driven  from  it  with 

ignominy. 
[The  emperor  would  have  the  two  popes  reign 

together;   but  the  people  cried  out,   "One 

God,  one  Christ,  and  one  bishop  /•"] 
Liberius  again  :  abdicated. 
Felix  became  legal  pope  ;  but  he  was  made 

away  with  by  Liberius. 
Liberius  again. 
Damasus  :    opposed    the  Arians  :   St.  Jerome 

was  his  secretary. 
Ursinus. 
Siricius  :     succeeded     to    the    exclusion    of 

Ursicinus. 


398.  Anastasius :  caused  the  works  of  Origen  to  be 

proscribed. 
402.  Innocent  I. 

417.  Zosimus  :  canonised. 

418.  Boniface  I.  :  maintained  in  the  pontifical  chair 

by  the  emperor  Honorius,  against  his  rival 

Eulalixis  :  canonised. 
422.  Celestine  I.  :  canonised. 
432.  Sixtus  III.  :  suppressed  the  heresies  of  Nes- 

torius  and  Pelagius  in  the  West. 
440.  Leo  I.  the  Great :  most  zealous  in  his  endeavours 

to  extend  the  papal  see  :  canonissd. 
461.  St.  Hilary. 
468.  St.  Simplicius. 
483.  Felix  III.  :     had  a  violent  dis-pute  with  the 

emperor     Zeno     respecting    the    Western 

Church :  canonised. 
492.  Gelasius :  canonised. 
496.  Anastasius  II.  :  endeavoured  to  bring  about  a 

unity  between  the    Eastern    and  Western. 

Churches  :  canonised. 
498.  Symmachus :  canonised. 

,,     Laurentius :  antipope. 
514.  Hormisdas  :  canonised. 
523.  John  I.  :  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  died  in 

526. 
526.  Felix  IV.  :    introduced  extreme  unction  as  a 

sacrament :  canonised. 
530.  Boniface  II. — Diofcorus. 
533.  John  II.  :   opposed  the  Eutychians  and  Nes- 

torians. 

535.  Agapetus :  died  the  same  year. 

536.  Silverius  :    son  of  pope  Hormisdas,  who  had 

married  before  entering  into  the  ecclesias- 
tical state.  The  empress  Thcodosia  violently 
persecuted  him,  and  procured  his  banish- 
ment into  Lycia,  making  Vigilius  his  suc- 
cessor. 

537.  Vigih'us  :  banished,  but  restored. 

555.  Pelagius  I.  :  endeavoured  to  reform  the  man- 
ners of  the  clergy. 
560.   John  III.  :  the  great  ornamenter  of  churches. 

573.  [The  see  vacant.] 

574.  Benedict  I.,  surnamed  Bonosus. 

578.  Pelagius  II.:  died  of  the  plague  then  desolating 

Rome. 
590.  Gregory  the    Great,   an  illustrious  patrician : 

converted  the  Anglo-Saxons  to  Christianity. 
604.  Sabinianus. 

606  or  607.  Boniface  III.  :  died  in  a  few  months. 

607  or  608.  Boniface  IV. 
614  or  615.  Deusdedit. 
617  or  618.  Boniface  V. 
625.  Honorius  I. 

639.  [T tie  see  vacant.] 

640.  Severinus  :  died  shortly  after. 
„    John  IV. 

642.  Theodorus  I. 

649.  Martin  I.  :  some  say,  starved  to  death  ;  otl 

died  of  his  sufferings. 
654.  Eugenius  I.  :  canonised. 
657.  Vitalianus  :  this  pope  sent  missionaries 

England. 

672.  Adeodatus,  the  "  Gift  of  God." 
676.  Domnus  I. 
678.  Agathon. 

682.  Leo  II.  :  instituted  holy  water. 

683.  [The  see  vacant.] 

684.  Benedict  II. 


*  St.  Linus  is  set  down  in  nearly  all  accounts  of  popes  as  the  immediate  successor  of  St.  Peter  ; 
Tertullian,  who  was  undoubtedly  well  informed,  maintains  that  St.  Climcnt  succeeded  the  Apostle.  In 
the  first  century  of  tbe  Christi an  Church,  neither  the  dates  of  succession,  nor  the  succession  of  bishops,  are 
reconciled  by  even  the  best  authorities.  Some  assert  that  there  were  two  or  three  bishops  of  Rome  at 
the  same  time. 

t  The  names  in  italics  were  antipopes. 


POP 


579 


POP 


POPE,  continued. 

685.  John  V.  :  ruled  with  wisdom.  999. 

686.  Conon. — Theodore  and  Peter.*  1003. 

687.  Scrgius :  "  governed  wisely."  ,, 
701.  John  VI.  1009. 
705.  John  VII.  1012. 
708.  Sisinnius  :  died  20  days  after  election.  1024. 

, ,    Constantino.  1033. 
715.  Gregory  II.  :  canonised. 

731.  Gregory  III.  :  the  first  pope  who  sent  nuncios  1044. 

to  foreign  powers.                                                 j  ,, 

741.  Zacharias.                                                                      I  1046. 
752.  Stephen  II.  :  with  this  pope  commenced  the  I 

temporal  power  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  1047. 

757.  Paul  I.  :  moderate  and  pious.                                   i  1048. 

767.  Conttantine  Theophylactus.                                       \  ,, 

768.  Stephen  III.  1054. 
772.  Adrian  I.  :    sanctioned  images,  in  which  he  1055. 

was  opposed  by  the  kings  of  England  and  1057. 

France.  1058. 

795.  Leo  III.  ,, 

816.  Stephen  IV. :  died  the  next  year.  1061. 

817.  Pascal  I. 

824.  Eugenius  II. — Zozimus.  1073. 

827.  Valentinus.  1080. 

,,    Gregory  IV.  :  pious  and  learned.  1085. 

844.  Sergius  II.  1086. 

847.  Leo  IV.  :  defeated  the  Saracens.  ic88. 

855.  Pope  Joan  (icliich  see)  said  to  have  been  elected.  1099. 

,.     Benedict  III. — Anastagius.  1118. 
858.  Nicholas  I.,  styled  the  Great. 

867.  Adrian  II.  1119. 

872.  John  VIII.  1124. 

882.  Marirms  or  Martin  II.  1130. 

884.  Adrian  III.  :  died  the  next  year.  1138. 

885.  Stephen  V.  1143. 
891.  Formosus  :    died  detested  ;     his   corpse   was  1144. 

thrown  into  the  river  Tiber.  —Sergius. 

896.  Boniface  VI.  :  deposed.  1145. 

897.  Romanus. — Sergius.  1153- 
,,     Stephen  VI.  :  strangled  in  prison.  1154. 

898.  Theodoras  II. :  governed  22  days. 
„    John  IX. 

900.  Benedict  IV. 

903.  Leo  V.  :    driven  from  his  seat  a  few  months 

after  his  election,  and  died  in  prison; 

,,     Christopher.  U59- 

904.  Sergius  III.  :  disgraced  his  dignity  by  his  vices. 
911.  Aiiastasius  III. 

913.  Landonius,  or  Lando. 

914.  John  X.  :   resigned,  and  was  stifled  by  Guy,  1181. 

duke  of  Tuscany.  1185. 

928.  Leo  VI.  :    consideVed  ,a_n    intruder  by  many  1187. 

Roman  Catholic  historians.  ,, 

929.  Stephen  VII.  1191. 
931.  John  XI.  :  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  St.  An-  1198. 

gelo,  where  he  died. 

936.  Leo  VII.  :  great  in  zeal  and  piety.  1216. 

939.  Stephen  VIII.  :  "  of  ferocious  character."  1227. 
942.  Marinus  II.,  or  Martin  III. 

946.  Agapetus  II.  :  of  holy  life.  1241. 

956.  John  XII.,  the  Infamous  :   deposed  for  adultery  ,, 

and  cruelty,  and  murdered.  1243. 

963.  Leo  VIII.  :  aii  honour  to  the  chair,  though  an  1254 

intruder. — Baroniu*.  1261. 

964.  Benedict  V.  :  chosen  on  the  death  of  John  XII.,  1265. 

but  opposed  by  Leo  VIII.,  who  was  sup- 
ported by  the  emperor  Otho  :  the  Roman 
people  were  obliged  to  abandon  his  cause. 

965.  John  XIII.,   elected  by  the  authority  of  the  1271 

emperor  against  the  popular  will. 

972.  Benedict  VI.  :  murdered  in  prison.  1276. 
974.  Domnus  II. — Benedict  VII. 

983.  John  XIV. 

984.  John  XV.  :  died  before  consecration. 

985.  John  XVI. 

996.  Gregory  V. — John  XVII.  was  expelled  by  the  1277. 

emperor,  and  barbarously  used  by  his  rival.  I  1281. 

*  The  names  in  italics  were  antipopes. 


Silvester  II. 

John  XVII.  :  legitimate  pope,  died  same  year. 

John  XVIII.  :  abdicated. 

Sergius  IV. 

Benedict  VIII.— Gregory. 

John  XIX. 

Benedict  IX.  :  became  pope,  by  purchase,  at 
12  years  of  age  ;  expelled. 

Sylvester  HI.  :  3  months. 

Gregory  VI. :  deposed. — Sylvester. 

Clement  II.  (the  Romanists  call  Clemens  Ro- 
manus the  first  Clement) :  died  next  year. 

Benedict  again  :  again  deposed. 

Damasus  II.  :  died  soon  after. 

Leo  IX.  :  canonised. 

[The  throne  vacant  one  year.] 

Victor  II. 

Stephen  IX. 

Benedict  X.  :  expelled. 

Nicholas  II. 

Alexander  II.  :  he  raised  the  papal  power. — 
Honorius  II. 

Gregory  VII.  the  celebrated  Hildebrand.f 

Clement  III. 

[The  throne  vacant  one  year.] 

Victor  III. 

Urban  II. :  crusades  commenced. 

Pascal  II. 

Gelasius  II.  :  retired  to  a  monastery. — Gregory 
VIII. 

Calixtus  II. 

Honorius  II.— Celestine  II. 

Innocent  II. — Anacletus  II. 

Victor  III. 

Celestine  If.  :  ruled  5  months. 

Lucius  II.  :  killed  by  accident  in  a  popular 
commotion. 

Eugenius  III. :  canonised. 

Anastasius  IV.  :  ruled  a  short  time  only.     • 

Adrian  IV.,  or  Nicholas  Brakespeare,  the  only 
Englishman  elected  pope :  born  at  Abbot's 
Langley,  near  St.  Alban's.  He  obliged 
Frederick  I.  to  prostrate  himself  be  fore  him, 
kiss  his  foot,  hold  his  stirrup,  and  lead  the 
white  palfrey  on  which  he  rode. 

Alexander  III.,  avenger  of  the  murder  of 
Thomas  a  Becket. — 1159,  Victor  IV.  :  1164, 
Pascal  HI.  :  1168,  Calistus  III.  :  1178,  Inno- 
cent III. 

Lucius  III. 

Urban  III. 

Gregory  VIII.  :  ruled  only  two  months. 

Clement  II  f. 

Celestine  III. 

Innocent  III.  (Lothario  Conti) :  excommuni- 
cated king  John  of  England. 

Honorius  III. ;  learned  and  pious. 

Gregory  IX.  :  caused  a  new  crusade  to  be 
undertaken. 

Celestine  IV.  :  died  18  days  after  his  election. 

[The  throne  vacant  i  year  and  7  months.] 

Innocent  IV.  :  gave  the  red  hat  to  cardinals. 

Alexander  IV. 

Urban  IV. 

Clement  IV.,  an  enlightened  Frenchman, -pre- 
viously cardinal  and  legate  to  England  :  dis- 
couraged the  crusades. 

[The  throne  vacant  2  years  and  9  months.] 

Gregory  X.  :  elected  while  he  was  with  Ed- 
ward I.  of  England  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Innocent  V.  :  died  shortly  after. 

Adrian  V.  :  legate  to  England  in  1254 :  died 
36  days  after  election. 

Vicedorninus  :  died  the  next  day. 

John  XX.  or  XXI.  :  died  in  8  months. 

Nicholas  III.  :  died  in  1280. 

Martin  IV. 


t  See  p.  577. 


p  P  2 


POP 


580 


POP 


POPE,  continued. 

1285.  Hpnorius  IV.  :  promoted  the  crusades. 

1288.  Nicholas  IV.  :  endeavoured  to  stir  up  the 
princes  of  Christendom  to  a  new  crusade, 
but  without  success. 

1292.  [The  throne  vacant  2  years  and  3  months.] 

1294.  Celestine  V.  :  resigned  from  fear. 
,,      Boniface    VIII.  :   proclaimed  that    "  God  had 
set  him  over  kings  and  kingdoms  :  "  im- 
prisoned his  predecessor,  and  laid  France 
and  Denmark  under  interdict. 

1303.  Benedict  XI.  :    a  pious  and  liberal  pontiff  : 

poisoned  by  some  ambitious  cardinals  a 
short  time  after  his  election. 

1304.  [The  throne  vacant  u  months.] 

1305.  Clement  V.  Bertrand  the  Goth  :    removed  the 

papal  seat  from  Rome  to  Avignon. 
1314.  [The  throne  vacant  2  years  and  4  months.]  • 
1316.  John  XXII. 

1334.  Benedict  XII.  [Nicholas  V.*  at  Rome.] 
1342.  Clement  VI. :   a  learned    prelate,  a  generous 

prince,  and  an  amiable  man. 
1352.  Innocent  VI. 

1362.  Urban  V.  :  illustrious  as  a  patron  of  learning. 
1370.  Gregory  XI.  :    also   an  eminent  protector  of 

learning  ;    he  restored  the  papal  chair  to 

Rome. 

SCHISM— 1378-1447. 

1373.  Urban  VI.  :  so  severe  and  cruel  that  the  car- 
dinals chose  Robert  of  Geneva,  under  the 
name  of  Clement  VII. ,  which  led  to  great 
violence. 

1389.  Boniface  IX. 

1394.  Benedict  (called  XIII.),  at  Avignon. 

1404.  Innocent  VII.  :  died  in  1406. 

1406.  Gregory  XII.  Angelo  Corario. 

1409.  Alexander  V.  :  died,  supposed  by  poison. 

1410.  John  XXIII.  :  deposed. 
1417.  Martin  V.  OthoColonna. 
1424.  Clement  VIII. 

1431.  Eugenius  IV.  Gabriel  Condolmera  :  deposed 
by  the  council  of  Basil ;  and  Amadeus  of 
Savoy  chosen  as  Felix  V.,  in  1439,  whore- 
signed  1449. 

1447.  Nicholas  V. 

1455.  Calixtus  III. 

1458.  Pius  II.  ^Eneas  Silvius  Piccolomini.' 

1464.  Paul  II.  :  a  noble  Venetian. 

1471.  Sixtus  IV. 

1484.  Innocent  VTII.  :  a  noble  Genoese. 

1492.  Alexander  VI.,  the  infamous  Roderic  Borgia; 
poisoned  at  a  feast  by  drinking  of  a  bowl  he 
had  prepared  for  another. 

1503.  Pius  III.  Francis  Todeschini  :  21  days  pope. 
,.     Julius  II.  Julian  de  la  Ruvere. 

1513.  Leo  X.  (John  de'  Medici)  :  this  pope's  grant  of 
indulgences  for  crime  led  to  the  Reformation. 

1522.  Adrian  VI. 

1523.  Clement   VII.    Giulio  de'  Medici    refused    to 

divorce  Catherine  of  Aragon,  and  denounced 
the  marriage  of  Henry  VIII.  with  Anne 
Boleyn. 


1534.  Paul  III.  Alexander  Farnese. 

1550.  Julius  III. 

1555.  Marcellus  II.  :  died  soon  after  his  election. 
,,  Paul  IV.  John  Peter  Caraffa.  When  queen 
Elizabeth  sent  him  an  ambassador  to  an- 
nounce her  accession,  he  haughtily  answered 
"  that  to  the  holy  see,  and  not  to  her, 
belonged  the  throne,  to  which  she  had  no 
right  as  being  a  bastard. " 

1559.  Pius  IV.,  cardinal  de'  Medici. 

1566.  PiusV. 

1572.  Gregory  XIII.,  the  greatest  civilian  and  canon- 
ist of  his  time  :  under  him  the  calendar  was 
reformed. 

1585.   Sixtus  V.  :  an  able  governor. 

1590.  Urban  VII.  :  died  12  days  after  election. 
,,      Gregory  XIV.  Nicholas  Sfondrate. 

1591.  Innocent  IX.  :  died  in  two  months. 

1592.  Clement  VIII.  :  learned  and  just. 
1605.    Leo  XI.  :  died  same  month. 

,,      Paul  V.  Camille  Borghese. 

1621.    Gregory  XV.  Alexander  Ludovisio. 

1623.  Urban  VIII.  :  gave  the  title  of  Eminence  to 
cardinals. 

1644.    Innocent  X.  John  Baptist  Pamphilus. 

1655.   Alexander  VII.  Fabio  Chigi. 

1667.   Clement  IX. 

1670.   Clement  X.  John  Baptiste  Emile  Altieri. 

1676.    Innocent  XI. 

1689.   Alexander  VIII. 

1691.    Innocent  XII.  Antonio  Pignatelli. 

1700.   Clement  XII.  John  Francis  Albani. 

1721.  Innocent  XIII.  Michael  Angelo  Conti ;  the 
eighth  pontiff  of  his  family. 

1724.   Benedict  XIII.,  properly  so  called. 

1730.    Clement  XII. 

1740.    Benedict  XIV.,  the  amiable  Lambertini. 

1758.   Clement  XIII.  Charles  Razzonico. 

1769.  Clement  XIV.  (the  illustrious  Ganganelli) ; 
suppressed  the  Jesuits. 

1775.  Pius  VI.  Angelo  Braschi,  Feb.  15  ;  dethroned 
by  Bonaparte  :  he  was  expelled  from  Rome, 
and  deposed  in  Feb.  1798;  and  died  at 
Valence,  Aug.  29,  1799. 

1800.  Pius  VII.  Chiaramonte :  elected  March  13  ; 
agrees  to  a  concordat  with  France,  July  15, 
1801 ;  crowns  Napoleon,  Dec.  2,  1804 ;  ex- 
communicates him,  June  10,  1809;  im- 
prisoned, July  6,  1809;  restored  in  1814: 
died,  Aug.  20,  1823.  (He  restored  the 

1823.  Leo  XII.  'Annibal  della  Ganga,  Sept.  28. 
1829.   Pius  VIII.  Francis  Xavier  Castiglioni,  March 

1831.  Gregory  XVI.  Mauro  Capellari,  Feb.  2,  1831 : 
died  June  i,  1846. 

1846.  Pius  IX.  Giovanni  Maria  Mastai  Ferretti : 
the  252nd  pope  (according  to  "  1'Art  de 
Verifier  les  Dates  ")  elected  June  16  (born 
May  13,  1793).  The  PRESENT  (1865)  pope. 

See  Rome. 


POPE  JOAN.  It  is  asserted  that  in  the  9th  century,  a  female  named  Joan  conceived 
a  violent  passion  for  Felda,  a  young  monk,  and  in  order  to  be  admitted  into  his  monastery, 
assumed  the  male  habit.  On  the  death  of  her  lover  she  entered  upon  the  duties  of  professor, 
and,  being  very  learned,  was  elected  pope,  when  Leo  IV.  died,  in  855.  Other  scandalous 
particulars  follow  ;  "yet,  until  the  Reformation,  the  tale  was  repeated  and  believed  without 
offence."  Gibbon. 


POPISH  PLOTS. 

POPLAR  TREES. 

from  North  America  before  1692. 


See  Gunpowder  Plot  and  Oalcs's  Plot. 

The  Tacamahac  poplar  (Populus  Balsamifera)  was  brought  hither 
The  Lombardy  poplar  from  Italy  about  1758. 


The  names  in  italics  were  antipopes. 


POP 


581 


POP 


POPULATION".     The  population  of  the  world  was  estimated  in  1863  at  1,288,000,000. 
For  the  Population  of  Countries,  see  the  table  (after  the  Preface)  facing  page  1. 


Europe . 
Asia . 


275,806,741  I  Africa  . 
755,000,000  I  America 


.  200,000,000  I  Australia 
.    67,896,041  I  Polynesia  . 


1,445,000 
1,500,000 


Estin 


mated  in  1377 


POPULATION   OF   ENGLAND   AND   WALES. 
2,092,978  |  In  1483  ....     4,689,000  |  In  1696       .        .        ;     .     5,250,000 


1700 
1710 
1720 
1730 


Population. 

•  5,475,000 
.     5,240,000 
.     5,565,00° 

•  5,796,ooo 


1740 


1760 


Population. 

.  6,064,000 

6,467,000 

.  6,736,000 


1770 
1780 
1790 


Population. 
.  7,428,000 
.  7,953,000 
.  8,675,000 


iSoi 
1851 
1861 


Population- 

.  8,872,980 
.  17,987,609 
.  20,061,17* 


POPULATION  OF   CHEAT  BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND  BY  CENSUS.* 


Division. 

1801. 

1311. 

1821. 

1831. 

1841. 

1851. 

1861. 

England    . 
Wales     .        .     . 
Scotland  t  . 
Army,  Navy,  &c.- 

8,33i,434 
54i,546 
1,599,068 
470,598 

9,551,888 
611,788 
1,805,688 
640,500 

11,261,437 
7I7>438 
2,093,456 
3-19,300 

13,089,338 
805,236 
2,365,807 
277,017 

14,995,138 
916,619 
2,620,184 
312,493 

16,854,142 
1,060,626 
2,870,784 
142,916 

18,949,130 
1,111,795 
3,061,251 
162,021 

Total 
Ireland}:         .     . 
Islands  in  Bri-  \ 
tish  seas          J 

10,942,646 

12,609,864 
5,937.856 

14,391,631 
8,1.75,124 

16,537.398 
7,784,934 

18,844,434 
8,175,124 

20,936,468 
6,5I5,794 
143,1-26 

23,284,197 
5,764-543 
143,779 

27>  595,  388 

29,192,419 

*  Estimated  by  Registrar-General  in  June  1865,  29,772,294. 
t  Estimated  population  of  SCOTLAND  in  1751,  1,255,663. 
t  Estimated  population  of  IRELAND  : — 


In  1652 


850.000  |  1712 


2,099,094  |  1754 


2,372,634  |  1805  •    . 


•    5,395,456 


18G1. 

Males. 

Females. 

Inhabited  Houses. 

England  and  Wales  _^ 
Scotland       .        .    -   . 

9,758,852 
1,446,982 

10,302,873 
1,614,269 

3,745,463 
393,289 

POPULATION  OF   THE   PRINCIPAL  TOWNS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Towns. 

1801. 

1311. 

1821. 

1831. 

1811. 

1851. 

1861.+ 

London  and  suburbs  *     . 
Manchester,  <fec.           .     . 

864,845 
94,876 

1,009,546 
H5,874 

1,225,694 
161,635 

1,474,069 
237,832 

1,873,676 
242,583 

2,362,236 
404,465 

2,803,034 
357,604 

Glasgow,  &c.     .        .  '     . 

77,385 

100,749 

147.043 

202,426 

274,533 

340,653 

394,857 

Liverpool 

79,722 

100,240 

131,801 

189,244 

286,487 

375,955 

443,874 

Edinburgh,  &c. 

82,560 

102,987 

138,235 

162,403 

168,182 

193,929 

168,098 

Birmingham 
Leeds,  &c. 

*  7I'*72 

*  !5>/5*3 

106,721 
83,796 

142,251 
123,393 

182,922 
152,054 

232,841 
172,270 

295,955 
207,153 

Bristol,  &c.  . 

63,645 

76,433 

87,779 

103,886 

122,296 

137,328 

154,093 

Sheffield    . 

*  *  *  * 

*    -X-    *    * 

69,479 

91,692 

111,091 

185.157 

Plymouth    . 

43,194 

56,060 

61,212 

75.534 

80,059 

102,380 

62,823 

In  1851,  1,106,558  males,  and  1,255,678  females. 


t  i£6i :  parliamentary  limits  of  the  boroughs  only. 


POP 


582 


POR 


POPULATION,  continued. 


Towns. 

1801. 

1811. 

1821. 

1831. 

1811. 

1851. 

18G1.« 

Portsmouth. 

43.46i 

52,769 

56,620 

63,026 

63,032 

72,096 

94,546 

Norwich       . 

36,832 

37,256 

50,288 

61,116 

72,344 

68,195 

74,414 

Aberdeen  . 

Newcastle    .        .        f 
Paisley      . 

27,608 
36,963 
3*>*79 

35,370 
36,369 
36,722 

44,796 
46,948 
47,°°3 

58,019 
57,937 
57,466 

63,288 
70,860 
60,487 

7I,945 
87,784 
69,951 

73>794 
109,291 

47,419 

Nottingham 

28,861 

34,253 

40,415 

50,680 

71,844 

57,407 

74,531 

Hull. 

34.964 

32,467 

41,874 

49,461 

71,629 

84,690 

98,994 

Dundee 

26,084 

29,616 

30,575 

45,355 

62,794 

77,829 

90,425 

Brighton  . 

7.339 

12,012 

24,429 

40.634 

46,661 

65,573 

87,311 

Bath     .... 

3o,"3 

32,214 

36,811 

38,063 

38,304 

54,240 

52,528 

York 

23,692 

26,422 

29,527 

34,46i 

38,321 

40,359 

45,326 

Preston 

11,887 

17,065 

24,575 

33>"2 

S0,^1 

69,542 

82,961 

Cambridge 

13,360 

13,802 

14,142 

20,917 

24.453 

27,815 

26,351 

Oxford. 

I  ^   I2J. 

*5»337 

1  6,  364 

2O,432 

23,834 

27,843 

27,561 

J-Oj  *-<£^ 

Cities.                      Inhabitants.            Cities.                        I 

ihabitants,           Cities. 

Alexandria,  Egypt,  abt.      170,000 
Amsterdam,  1865    .               261,4=;'; 

Glasgow,  1865 
Hamburg,  1860  . 

423,723  i  Oporto,  1863    . 
175,683    Palermo,  1862 

Antwerp,  1864     .         , 
Athens  and  Pirseus 

120,444 
47,723 

Jeddo,  reputed 
Leipsic,  1864 

1,800,000    Paris,  &c.,  1862 
85,394     Pekin,  reputed   . 

Barcelona,  1861  . 
Basle,  1860       . 

252,015 
37>9X8 

Lie'ge,  1864 
Lisbon,  1863 

101,710    Pesth,  1857 
224,063  !  Philadelphia,  1860 

Berlin,  1865 

547,571 

Lisle,  1862 

131,827    Prague,  1857    .        f 

Berne,  1860 
Bombay,  1864,  above  . 

29,016 
600,000 

Liverpool,  1865   . 
London,  1865,  estimatec 

476,368    Quebec,  1861 
3,015,494    Rio  Janeiro,  1855     . 

Bordeaux,  1862 

162,750 

Lyons,  1862 

318,803  !  Rome,  1864. 

Breslau,  1865 

163,179 

Madras,  1864,  about 

1  Rotterdam,  1865      . 

Brussels,  1864. 

184,932 

Madrid,  1861 

475,785  ''  Rouen,  1862 

Cajro,  estimated 

265,000 

Marseilles,  1862 

260,910  i  Seville,  1861     . 

Calcutta,  1864,  about 

Messina,  1862      .        . 

62,024    Smyrna,  1863 

Christiania,  1855 

38,958 

Mexico,  estimated  . 

200,000    Stockholm,  1863 

Cologne,  1865   . 

122,162 

Milan,  1862 

196,109  1  St.  Petersburg,  1858 

Constantinople,  estimtd 

1,075,000 

Montreal,  1864 

120,000    Stutgardt,  1864 

Copenhagen,  1860 

155,I43 

Moscow,  1858     . 

377,838  !  Teheran,  estimated 

Dresden,  1864. 

145,728 

Munich,  1864  . 

167,054  !  Toulouse,  1862 

Florence,  1862    . 

"4,363 

Nankin,  estimated     . 

1,000,000    Tunis,  estimated 

Frankfort,  1864 

78,177 

Nantes,  1862    . 

113,625    Turin,  1862 

Geneva,  1860 

4I»4I5 

Naples,  1862 

418,968  i  Venice,  1857 

Genoa,  1862     . 

127,986 

New  Orleans,  1860  . 

168,675  1  Vienna,  1864,  about 

Ghent,  1864 

122,960 

New  York,  1860  . 

805,651  :  Warsaw,  1865,  about 

POPULATION   OF   THE   CHIEF    CITIES   OF   THE   WORLD. 
From  latest  returns  (Almanack  de  Gotha,  1865). 

Inhabitants. 

86,257 
167,625 
1,696,141 
4,000,000 
I3I>705 
562,529 
142,588 
51,109 
296,136 
203,896 
114,052 
102,649 
152,000 

124,691 
586,283 
69,084 
80,000 
113,229 
200,000 
180,520 
118,172 
560,000  i 
223,000 

PORCELAIN.     See  Pottery. 

PORT  EGMOISTT,  a  fine  harbour  on  the  KW.  coast  of  Falkland  Islands.  Commodore 
Byron  was  despatched  to  found  a  colony  here  in  1765.  See  Falkland  Islands. 

PORTEOUS  MOB.     Capt.  Porteous,  at  Edinburgh,  on  April  15,  1736,  commanded  the 
guard  at  the  execution  of  Wilson,  a  smuggler,  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a  fellow  criminal,  by 
springing  upon  the  soldiers  around  them,  and  by  main  force  keeping  them  back,  while  his  [ 
companion  lied.     The  execution  of  Wilson  excited  great  commiseration,  and  the  spectators  ' 
pelted  the  guard  with  stones.     Fearing  a  rescue,  Porteous  ordered  his  men  to  fire  upon  the  ! 
mob,  and  seventeen  persons  were  killed  or  wounded.     He  was  found  guilty  of  murder, 
June  22,  1736  ;  but  the  queen  granted  him  a  reprieve  (the  king  being  then  in  Hanover). 
The  people,  at  night,  broke  open  the  prison,  took  out  Porteous,  and  hanged  him  on  a  dye 
sign-post,  in  the  Grass  Market,  Sept.  7,  1736.     None  of  the  rioters  Avasisver  detected. 

PORTER.     Dr.  Ashe  says  that  this  beverage  obtained  its  appellation  on  account  of 
having  been  drunk  by  porters  in  the  city  of  London,  about  i73O.f    The  number  of  licer 

*  1861  :  parliamentary  limits  of  the  boroughs  only. 

t  The  malt  liquors  previously  in  use  were  ale,  beer,  and  twopenny,  and  it  was  customary  to  call  for  a 
pint  or  tankard  of  half  and  half, — i.e.,  half  of  ale  and  half  of  beer.  In  the  course  of  time  it  also  became 
the  practice  to  ask  for  a  pint  of  three-thirds,  meaning  a  third  of  ale,  beer,  and  twopenny.  To  avoid 
trouble,  Harwood,  a  brewer,  made  a  liquor  which  partook  of  the  united  flavours  of  ale,  beer,  and 
twopenny,  calling  it  entire,  or  entire  butt  beer,  meaning  that  it  was  drawn  entirely  from  one  cask  or 
butt.  Being  relished  by  porters  and  other  working  people,  it  obtained  its  name  of  porter,  and  was  first 
retailed  at  the  "  Blue  Last,"  Curtain  Road.  Leiyh. 


FOR 


583 


FOR 


brewers  in  1850,  in  England,  was  2257  ;  in  Scotland,  154;  and  in  Ireland,  96 — total,  2507. 
On  Oct.  17,  1814,  at  Meux's  brewhouse  two  large  vats  burst,  destroying  many  neighbouring 
houses.  Several  lives  were  lost ;  and  the  total  loss  of  porter  was  estimated  at  between  8000 
and  9000  barrels. 

PORTER  BREWED   BY  THE  PRINCIPAL  LONDON  BREWERIES. 

In  1760.  In  1815. 

Barrels. 

Calvert  &  Co.      .        .        .     74.734    Barclay  &  Perkins    . 
Whitbread     .        ...     63,408  j  Meux,  Reid,  &  Co. 
Truman       .        .        .        .60, 140  i  Truman,  Hanbury,  &  Co. 
Sir  William  Calvert       .     .     52,785    Wtiitbread  &  Co.  . 
Gifford  &  Co.      .        .        .     41,410    Henry  Meux  <fc  Co.  . 
Lady  Parsons         .        .     .     34,098  ,  F.  Calvert  &  Co.   .        .     . 
Thrale         ....     30,740  !  Combe,  Delafield,  &  Co.  . 

Huck  &  Co 29,615  j 

Harman      ....     28,017  j 
Meux  &  Co 10,012  i 


In  1840. 

Barrets. 

Barrels- 

337,621 

Barclay,  Perkins,  &  Co.  . 

361,321 

282,104 

Truman,  Hanbury,  &  Co. 

263,235 

272,162 

Whitbread  &  Co.       . 

218,828 

261,018 

Reid  &  Co.   . 

196,442 

229,100 

Combe,  Delafield,  &  Co. 

177,542 

2I9;333 

Felix  Calvert  &  Co.      . 

13^7 

105,081 

Sir  Henry  Meux  &  Co. 

"6,547 

PORTERAGE  ACT,  regulating  the  charge  for  porterage  of  small  parcels,  passed  1799. 

FORT  JACKSON  (New  South  Wales),  thirteen  miles  north  of  Botany  Bay,  was  so 
named  by  capt.  Cook  in  1770.  See  Sydney. 

PORTLAND  ADMINISTRATIONS.  The  first  was  the  "  Coalition  ministry,"  of  which 
William  Henry  Cavendish,  duke  of  Portland,*  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  was  the  head. 
It  obtained  the  name  of  the  "Coalition"  ministry,  from  its  (including  lord  North  with 
Mr.  Fox,  formerly  inveterate  opponents.  Formed  April  5,  1783  ;  dissolved  by  Mr.  Pitt's 
coming  into  power,  Dec.  same  year. 

SECOND   ADMINISTRATION,   March  25,  1807. 

Earl  Camden,  lord  president. 

Earl  of  Westmoreland,  lord  privy  seal. 

Hon.  Spencer  Perceval,  lord  Hawkesbury  (after- 
wards earl  of  Liverpool),  Mr.  Canning,  and 
viscount  Castlereagh  (afterwards  marquess  of 
Londonderry),  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  sccrc~ 
taries. 

Earl  Bathurst  and  Mr.  Dundas,  boards  of  trade  and. 
control. 

Lord  Mulgrave,  admiralty. 

Earl  of  Chatham,  ordnance. 

Lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor. 


FIRST   ADMINISTRATION. 

Duke  of  Portland,  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Viscount  Stormont,  president  of  the  council. 

Earl  of  Carlisle,  privy  seal. 

Frederick,  lord  North,  and  Charles  James  Fox,  home 

and  foreign  secretaries. 

Lord  John  Cavendish,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Viscount  Keppel,  admiralty. 
Viscount  Townshend,  ordnance. 
Lord  Loughborough,  chief  commissioner  of  great  seal. 
Charles  Townshend. 
Edmund  Burke. 
Richard  Fitzpatrick,  &c. 
(See  also  Aberdeen  and  Broad  Bottom  Administration.) 


PORTLAND  ISLE  (off  Dorset).  Fortified  before  1142.  Portland  castle  was  built  by 
Henry  VIII.  about  1536.  Off  this  peninsula  a  naval  engagement  commenced  between  the 
English  and  Dutch,  Feb.  18,  1653,  which  continued  for  three  days.  The  English  destroyed 
eleven  Dutch  men-of-war  and  thirty  merchantmen.  Van  Tromp  was  admiral  of  the  Dutch, 
and  Blake  of  the  English. — Here  is  found  the  noted  freestone  used  for  building  our  finest 
edifices.  The  Portland  lights  were  erected  1716  and  in  1789.  The  pier,  with  nearly  half  a 
mile  square  of  land,  was  washed  into  the  sea  in  Feb.  1792.  Prince  Albert  laid  the  first 
stone  of  the  Portland  breakwater,  July  25,  1849.  A  mutiny  among  the  convicts  here  in 
Sept.  1858  was  promptly  suppressed. 

PORTLAND  on  BARBERINI  VASE.  This  beautiful  specimen  of  Greek  art  (composed 
of  a  glass-like  substance,  with  figures  and  devices  raised  on  it  on  white  enamel ;  height 
10  inches ;  diameter  in  the  broadest  part,  7  ;  with  a  handle  in  each  side)  was  discovered 
about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  in  a  marble  sarcophagus  in  a  sepulchre  at  a  place 
called  Monte  del  Grano,  about  2|  miles  from  Rome.  The  sepulchre  was  supposed  to  have 
been  that  of  the  Roman  emperor,  Alexander  Severus  (222 — 235),  and  his  mother  Mammtea, 
and  the  vase  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  cinerary  urn  of  one  or  other  of  these  royal 
personages.  It  was  placed  in  the  palace  of  the  Barberini  family,  at  Rome,  where  it  remained 
till  1770,  when  it  was  purchased  by  sir  William  Hamilton,  from  whose  possession  it  passed 
to  that  of  the  duchess  of  Portland,  and  in  1810  it  was  deposited  in  the  British  Museum  by 
the  duke,  who  was  one  of  the  trustees.  There  it  remained  till  Feb.  7,  1845,  when  it  was 

*  Born  1738 ;  became  lord  chamberlain,  1765;  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1782;  premier,  1783;  homo 
secretary,  1794  ;  lord  president,  1801  ;  premier  again,  1807;  died,  1803  ;  when  Mr.  Spencer  Percevalbscaine 
premier. 


FOR  584  FOR 

smashed  to  pieces  with  a  stone  by  a  man  named  William  Lloyd.  The  vase  was  skilfully 
repaired,  ami  still  exists  in  the  Museum,  but  is  not  shown  to  the  public.  Josiah  Wedgwood 
made  a  mould  of  this  vase,  and  took  from  it  a  number  of  casts. 

PORTO  BELLO  (S.  America),  discovered  by  Columbus,  Nov.  2,  1502,  was  taken  by 
Morgan  the  buccaneer  in  1668 ;  by  the  British  under  admiral  Vernon,  from  the  Spaniards, 
Nov.  20,  1739.  It  was  again  taken  by  admiral  Vernon,  who  destroyed  the  fortifications,  in 
1742.  Before  the  abolition  of  the  trade  by  the  galleons,  in  1748,  it  was  the  great  mart  for 
the  rich  commerce  of  Peru  and  Chili. 

PORTO  FERRAJO,  capital  of  Elba  (which  see) ;  built  and  fortified  by  Cosmo  I.  duke  of 
Florence,  in  1548.  The  fortifications  were  not  finished  till  1628,  when  Cosmo  II.  completed 
them  with  great  magnificence.  See  France. 

PORT  PHILLIP  (New  S.  Wales),  the  original  name  of  the  colony  of  Victoria  (which 
see). 

PORTRAIT  GALLERY.     See  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

PORTREEVE  (derived  from  Saxon  words  signifying  the  governor  of  a  port  or  harbour). 
The  chief  magistrate  of  London  was  so  styled  ;  but  Richard  I.  appointed  two  bailiffs,  and 
afterwards  London  had  mayors.  Camden.  See  Mayors. 

PORT  ROYAL  (Jamaica),  once  a  considerable  town,  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
June,  1692  ;  laid  in  ashes  by  a  tire  in  1702  ;  reduced  to  ruins  by  an  inundation  of  the  sea  in 
1722  ;  and  destroyed  by  a  hurricane  in  1774.  After  these  extraordinary  calamities,  the 
custom-house  and  public  offices  were  removed  to  Kingston.  Port  Royal  was  again  greatly 
damaged  by  fire  in  1750;  by  another  awful  storm  in  1784;  and  by  a  devastating  fire  in 
July,  1815.  In  1850,  this  place  suffered  by  cholera. 

PORT  ROYALISTS,  the  learned  members  of  the  celebrated  convent  of  the  Port  Royal 
des  Champs  (founded  about  1230  ;  and  refounded  in  1626),  who  occupied  their  time  there  in 
religious  exercises,  and  in  instructing  youth,  from  about  1636  to  1656,  when  they  were 
expelled  by  Louis  XIV.,  as  Jansenists  and  heretics.  Among  the  distinguished  persons 
connected  with  Port  Royal  were  Lancelot,  Pascal,  Arnauld,  Nicole  de  Sacy,  and  Tillemont. 
Their  school-books  were  greatly  esteemed.  The  establishment  was  suppressed  in  1 709. 

PORTSMOUTH  (Hampshire),  the  most  considerable  haven  for  men-of-war,  and  the 
most  strongly  fortified  place  in  England.  The  dock,  arsenal,  and  storehouses  were 
established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Population  in  1851,  72,096  ;  in  1861,  94,546. 


The  French,  under  D'Annebaut  attempted  to 
destroy  Portsmouth,  but  were  defeated  by 
viscount  Lisle,  in  the  then  finest  war-ship  in 
the  world,  the  Great  Harry  .  .  .  .  1 544 


[French  pei-fidy  was  suspected  both  times,  but 

there  was  no  actual  proof.] 
Grand  naval  mock  engagement  and  parade  of 

the  fleet,  the  king  being  present,  June  22  to 


Here   Georg'e  Villiers,    duke   of  Buckingham,  I      25,  1773,  and June  30,  1794 


as  assassinated  by  Felton         .         Aug.  23,  1628 
Admiral  Byng  (see  Byng),  on  a  very  dubious 

sentence,  was  shot  at  Portsmouth   March  14,  1757 
The  dockyard  was  fired,  the  loss  estimated  at 

400,000? July  3,  1760 

Another  fire  occasioned  loss  to  the  amount  of 

July  27,  1770 


Another  great  fire  occurred    .        .        .  Dec.  7,  1776 


A  great  naval  review  was  held  near  Portsmou 


th' 

on April  25,  1856 

Visited  by  a  French  fleet  amid  great  rejoicings, 

Aug.  29 — Sept.  i,  1865 


PORTUGAL,  the  ancient  Lusitania.  The  present  name  is  derived  from  Porto  Callo,  the 
original  appellation  of  Oporto.  After  a  nine  years'  struggle,  under  Viriathes,  a  brave  able 
leader,  the  Lusitanians  submitted  to  the  Roman  arms  about  137  B.C.  Portugal  underwent 
the  same  changes  as  Spain  on  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  There  are  in  Portugal  two 
universities,  that  of  Coimbra,  founded  in  1308,  and  the  smaller  one  of  Evora,  founded  in 
1533.  Lisbon  has  also  its  royal  academy,  and  the  small  town  of  Thomar  has  an  academy  of 
sciences  ;  but  in  general,  literature  is  at  a  low  ebb  in  Portugal.  The  poet  Camoeiis,  called 
the  Virgil  of  his  country,  and  author  of  the  Lusiad  (1569),  translated  into  English  by 
Mickle,  was  a  native  of  Lisbon.  Population  of  the  kingdom  and  colonies,  in  1863, 
8,037,194. 

Settlement  of  the  Alains  and  Visigoths  here     .     472  I      Valiant,  of  Castile,  assisted  by  many  other 

Conquered  by  the  Moors 713        princes  and  volunteers.      Among  those  who 

The   kings  of   Asturias   subdue  some  Saracen  I      shone  most  in  this  celebrated  expedition  was 

chiefs,  and  Alfonso  III.  establishes  bishops   .     900        Henry  of  Besancon  (a  relative  of  the  duke  of 

The    Moors,    conquered    by    Alfonso    VI.  the" -Burgundy    and    king    of  France).     Alfonso 


FOR 


585 


rou 


PORTUGAL,  continued. 

bestowed    upon    him    Theresa,   his    natural 
daughter,  and  Portugal  as  her  marriage  por- 
tion, which  he  was  to  hold  of  him  .        .         .  1095 
Alfonso  Henriquez  defeats  five  Moorish  kings; 

and  is  proclaimed  king ;  see  Ourique  .        .     .  1139 
Assisted  by  a  fleet  of  Crusaders  on  their  way  to 
the  Holy  Land,  he   takes   Lisbon  from  the 

Moors 1147 

Part  of   Algarve    taken  from    the    Moors   by 

Sancho  1 1189 

Reign  of  Dionysius  I.  or  Denis,  father  of  his 
country,  who  builds  44  cities  or  towns  in 

Portugal 1279 

University  of  Ooimbra  founded      .         .        .     .   1308 
Military  orders  of  Christ  and  St.  James  insti- 
tuted         1279  and  1325 

Ifies  de  Castro  murdered 1354 

John  I.,  surnamed  the  Great,  carries  his  arms 

into  Africa .1415 

Maritime  discoveries        ....  1419-30 

Madeira  and  the  Canaries  seized         .         .        .  1420 

Code  of  laws  digested 1425 

Lisbon  made  the  capital,  about  ....   1433 

Discovery  of  the  Brazils 1499 

Passage  to  the  East  Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  discovered  1487  ;  first  voyage  of  Vasco 

de  Gama 1500 

Camoens,  author  of  the  Liusiad,  born  about        .  1520 

The  Inquisition  established 1526 

University  of  Evora  founded       .        .       1451  or  1533 
Disastrous  African  expedition  ;  king  Sebastian 
defeated  and  slain  in  the  battle  of  Alcazar, 

Aug.  4,  1578 

The  kingdom  seized  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain   .     .  1580 
The  Dutch  seize  the  Portuguese  Indian  settle- 
ments          1602-20 

The  Portuguese  throw  off  the  yoke,  and  place 

John,  duke  of  Braganza,  on  the  throne  .  .  1640 
The  great  earthquake  which  destroys  Lisbon. 

See  Earthquake  ....  Nov.  1755 
Joseph  I.  is  attacked  by  assassins,  and  narrowly 

escapes  death 1758 

[This  affair  caused  some  of  the  first  families  of 
the  kingdom  to  be  tortured  to  death  ;  their 
very  names  being  forbidden  to  be  mentioned  ; 
yet  many  were  unjustly  condemned,  and 
their  innocence  was  soon  afterwards  made 
manifest.  The  Jesuits  were  also  expelled  on 
this  occasion.] 

Joseph,  having  no  son,  obtains  a  dispensation 
from  the  pope   to  enable  his  daughter  and 
brother  to  intermarry.     See  Incest  .        .        .  1760 
The    Spaniards    and  French^lnvade  Portugal, 

which  is  saved  by  the  English  .  1762  and  1763 
Regency  of  John  (afterwards  king),  owing  to 

the  queen's  lunacy 1792 

War  with  Spain 1801 

The  court,  on  the  French  invasion,  emigrates 

to  the  Brazils Nov.  2,  1807 

Marshal  Junot  enters  Lisbon          .         Nov.  29,     ,, 
Convention  of  Cintra.     See  C intra    .      Aug.  30,  1808 
Battle  of  Busaco      ....         Sept.  27,  1810 
The  British  parliament  grants  the  sufferers  in 

Portugal  ioo,ooo[ 1811 

Portugal  cedes  Guiana  to  France  .  .  .  .1814 
Union  of  Portugal  and  Brazil  .  .  .  .1815 
Revolution  in  Portugal  .  .  .  Aug.  29,  1820 
Constitutional  Junta  ....  Oct.  i,  ,, 
Return  of  the  Court  ....  July  4,  1821 
Independence  of  Brazil;  the  prince  regent 

made  emperor.  See  Brazil  .  .  Oct.  12,  1822 
The  king  modifies  the  constitution  June  5,  1823 
Disturbances  at  Lisbon ;  Dom  Miguel  departs, 

&c May  1-9,  1824 

Treaty  with  Brazil  ....  Aug.  29,  1825 
Death  of  John  VI.  .  .  .  March  10,  1826 
Dom  Pedro  grants  a  constitutional  charter,  and 

confirms  the  regency      .        .        .     April  26,    ,, 
He  relinquishes  the  throne  in   favour  of  his 
daughter,  Donna  Maria  da  Gloria         May  2,    ,, 


Dom  Miguel  takes  the  oath  of  fealty  at  Vienna, 

Oct.  4,  1826 
Marquess  of  Chavcs'  Insurrection  at  Lisbon  in 

favour  of  Dom  Miguel  .  .  .  Oct.  6,  , , 
Doin  Miguel  and  Donna  Maria  betrothed.  See 

Incest Oct.  29,     ,, 

Portugal  solicits  the  assistance  of  Great  Britain, 
Dec.  3 :  departure  of  the  first  British  auxi- 
liary troops  for  Portugal    .        .        .  Dec.  17,     ,, 
Bank  of  Lisbon  stops  payment .        .        Dec.  7.  1827 
Dom  Miguel  made  regent ;  he  arrives  in  London, 
Dec.  30,  1827  ;  and  takes  the  oaths  at  Lisbon, 

Feb.  22.   1828 
The  British  armament  quits  Portugal,  April  28 ; 

foreign  ministers  withdraw  .  .  May  3,  „ 
Sir  John  Doyle  arrested  .  .  .  June  13,  „ 
Dom  Miguel  assumes  the  title  of  king  July  4,  ,, 
He  dissolves  the  three  estates  .  .  July  12,  ,, 
His  troops  take  Madeira  .  .  .  Aug.  24,  ,, 
Release  of  sir  John  Doyle  .  .  .  Sept.  7,  „ 
The  queen  Donna  Maria  arrives  in  London, 

Oct.  6 ;  and  at  Windsor         .        .       Dec.  22,    ,, 
Dom  Miguel's  expedition  against  Terccira  de- 
feated          Aug.  ii,  1829 

Duke  of  Palmella  appointed  regent  March,  1830 
Dom  Pedro  arrives  in  England  .  June  16,  1831 
Insurrection  in  Portugal,  in  favour  of  the 

queen  ;  more  than  300  lives  lost         Aug.  21,    ,, 
Dom  Pedro's  expedition  sails  from  Belle-isle, 
Feb.  9 ;  at  Terceira  he  proclaims  himself  re- 
gent of  Portugal,  April  2  ;  and  takes  Oporto, 

July  8,  1832 
The  Miguelites  attack  Oporto  ;  and  are  defeated 

with  considerable  loss  on  both  sides,  Sept.  19,     ,, 
Mount  Cavello  taken        .         .        .        April  9,  1833 
Admiral  Napier  takes  Dom  Miguel's  squadron 

off  Cape  St.  Vincent  .  .  .  July  2,  „ 
Lisbon  is  evacuated  by  the  duke  of  Cadaval's 

army ;  the  queen  proclaimed      .        July  24,     „ 
After  various  conflicts  Dom  Miguel  capitulates 
to  the  Pedroite  forces,  and  Santarem  surren- 
ders         May  26,  1834 

Dom  Miguel  is  permitted  to  leave  the  country 
unmolested,   and  he  embarks  at  Evora  for 

Genoa May  31,     ,, 

Massacres  take  place  at  Lisbon        .        June  9,     ,, 
The   Cortes  declare  the   queen  to  be  of  age, 

Sept.  15,     „ 

Dom  Pedro  dies Sept.  21,    ,, 

Oporto  wine  company  abolished     .        .        .     .     „ 

Prince  Augustus  of  Portugal  (duke  of  Leuch- 
tenberg),  just  married  to  the  queen,   dies, 

March  28,  1835 

The  queen  marries  prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe 
Coburg        ......    April  9,  1836 

Revolution  at  Lisbon        .        .        .         Aug.  9,     , , 
Another  outbreak  there        .        .        .     Nov.  8,     ,, 
The  duke  of  Terceira  attempts  to  restore  Dom 
Pedro's  charter      ....        Aug.  18,  1837 

He  and  Saldanha  fail  in  the  attempt,  and  em- 
bark for  England      ....  Sept.  18,    ,, 

Oporto  wine  company  re-established       April  7,  1838 
The  northern  province  in  a  state  of  insurrection 
about  this  time    ....         April  20,  1846 

The  duke  of    Palmella  resigns  his    ministry, 

Oct.  31,    ,, 

Action  at  Evora,  the  queen's  troops  defeat  the 
insurgent  forces        ....      Oct.  31,     ,, 

British  squadron  under  admiral  Parker  arrives 

in  the  Tagus,  at  the  queen's  request    Oct.  31,     ,, 
Palmella  banished    ....        Nov.  26,    ,, 

Marquess  of  Saldanha  defeats  count  Bomfin  at 

Torres  Vedras Dec.  22,     ,, 

The  insurgents  enter  Oporto    .        .          Jan.  7,  1847 
London  conference,  by  which  England,  France, 
and  Spain  determine    to    assist    the  queen 
of    Portugal    to    terminate    the   civil  ;war, 

May  21,    „ 
Submission  of  Sa  de  Bandeira  to  the  queen, 

June"  ii,    „ 


FOR 


586 


FOR 


PORTUGAL,  continued. 

A  Spanish  force  enters  Oporto,  and  the  Junto 

capitulates June  26, 

An  American  squadron  arrives  in  the  Tagus  to 
enforce  claims  against  the  Portuguese  govern- 
ment   June  22, 

Military  insurrection,  headed  by  the  duke  of 

Saldanha,    who    being    outstripped    in    his 

march  on  Santarem  by  the  king  of  Portugal, 

flees  northward      ....      April  10, 

Oporto  declares  for  the  duke,  who  had  left  the 

city  for  Vigo  to  embark  for  England  ;  but  is 

called  back  by  the  insurgents    .         April  24, 

Saldanha' s     triumphal     entry     into    Oporto, 

April  29, 

The  conde  de  Thomar,  prime  minister,  resigns, 
and  embarks  on  board  a  British  ship  for  Eng- 
land, where  he  arrives  .        .        May  16, 
Dom  Miguel  marries  the  princess  of  Lowenstein- 

Rosenberg Sept.  21, 

Revision  of  the  charter  by  the  Cortes  sanctioned 

by  the  queen  :  the  prince- royal  takes  the  oath 

to  the  constitution        .        .        .        July  1 8, 

Conversion  of  the  public  debt    .        .     Dec.  18, 

Death  of  the  queen  Maria  II.          .         Nov.  15, 

King-consort  recognised  as  regent     .     Dec.  19, 

The  young  king  visits  England      .        .      June, 

The  slaves  on  royal  domains  freed      .     Dec.  30, 

The  king  visits  France    ....      May, 

Inauguration  of  the  king     .        .        .  Sept.  16, 

Resignation  of  Saldanha  ministry  .         June  5, 

First  Portuguese  railway  (from  Lisbon  to  Sau- 

tarem)  opened        ....        Oct.  26, 

Fever  rages  in  Lisbon  :  the  king  very  active  in 

relieving  the  sufferers        .         Oct.  and  Nov. 

The  French  emigrant  ship  for  negroes,  Charles- 

et-Georges,  seized     ....       Nov.  29, 

Anger  of  the  French  government :  its  ultirna- 


1847 
1850 

1851 


1852 
1853 
1854 
1855 
1856 

1857 


turn  sent,  Oct.  13  ;  and  ships  of  war  to  the 
Tagus :  the  vessel  restored  (see  Charles-et- 
Georges) Oct.  25, 

Death  of  the  duke  of  Terceira,  prime  minister, 
April  26 ;  succeeded  by  the  senhor  Aguiar, 
May  2,  who  resigns  .  .  .  July  2, 

Death  of  the  king,  Pedro  V.  ;  succeeded  by'his 
brother  the  duke  of  Oporto  .  .  Nov.  n, 

Death  of  Dom  John,  the  king's  brother  Dec.  29, 

The  law  of  succession  altered  in  favour  of  the 
king's  sisters Jan.  3, 

The  due  de  Louie"  becomes  minister        Feb.  21, 

The  king  married  to  princess  Maria  Pia  of 
Savoy  by  proxy,  at  Turin,  Sept.  27  ;  at  Lisbon, 

Oct.  6, 

Elections  :  majority  for  the  government     Nov. 

Birth  of  Dom  Carlos,  heir  to  the  throne, 

Sept,  28, 

Ministerial  changes      .         .  .        .  Jan. 

Death  of  the  celebrated  statesman,  the  duke  of 
Palmella April  2, 

Free-trade  measures  introduced         .     June  i, 

Frontier  treaty  with  Spain  concluded  Sept.  29, 

U.S.  vessels  Niagara  and  Sacramento  in  the 
Tagus  fired  on,  through  suspicion  of  their 
sailing  after  the  confederate  vessel  Stonewall, 
March  27  ;  the  difficulty  with  the  U.S.  govern- 
ment arranged  ....  April  7, 

The  premier,  De  Louie,  resigns  ;  marquess  de 
Bandeira  forms  a  ministry  .  April  17, 

Constitutional  privileges  granted  to  the  colonies, 

May, 

Another  prince  born        .        .        .        July  31, 

New  ministry  formed  ;  Aguiar  premier  Sept.  4, 

The  international  exhibition  at  Oporto  opened 
by  the  king Sept.  18, 

The  king  visits  England  and  France    .        Dec. 


1858 

1860 
1861 

1862 


1863 
1864 


1865 


COUNTS   AND   KINGS   OF   PORTUGAL. 


1093.  Henry,  count  or  earl  of  Portugal. 

1 1 12.  Alfonso,  his  son,  and  Theresa. 

1128.  Alfonso,  count  of  Portugal,  alone. 

1139.  Alfonso  I.  declared  KING,  having  obtained  a 

signal  victory  over  a  prodigious  army  of 

Moors  on  the  plains  of  Ourique. 
1185.  Sancho  I. ,  son  of  Alfonso. 
1212.  Alfonso  II.,  surnamed  Crassus,  or  the  Fat. 
1223.  Sancho  II.  or  the  Idle  :  deposed. 
1248.  Alfonso  III. 
1279.  Denis  or  Dionysius,  styled  the  father  of  his 

country. 

1325.  Alfonso  IV.,  the  Brave. 
1357.  Peter,  the  Severe  :  succeeded  by  his  son, 
1367.  Ferdinand    I.  ;    succeeded    by    his     natural 

brother, 
1383.  John  I.,  the  Bastard,  and  the  Great ;  married 

Philippa,  daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt,  duke 

of  Lancaster. 
1433.  Edward  or  Duarte. 
1438.  Alfonso  V.,  the  African. 
1481.  John  II.,   whose  actions    procui-ed  him    the 

titles  of  the  Great  and  the  Perfect ;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  cousin, 
1495.  Emmanuel,  the  Fortunate. 
1521.  John  III.,  son  of  Emmanuel ;  he  admitted  into 

his  kingdom  the  religious  institution  of  the 

Inquisition. 
1557-  Sebastian :  drowned  after  the  great  battle  of 

Alcazarquivir,  in  Africa,  Aug.  4,  1578  ;  when 

the  crown  reverted  to  his  great  uncle, 
1578.  Henry,  the  Cardinal,  son  of  Emmanuel. 
1580.  Anthony,  prior  of  Crato,  son  of  Emmanuel; 

deposed  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who  united 

Portugal  to  his  other  dominions  till  1640. 
1640.  John  IV.,  duke  of  BRAGANZA  :  dispossessed  the 

Spaniards  in  a  bloodless  revolution,  and  was 

proclaimed  king,  Dec.  i. 
1656.  Alfonso  VI. :  deposed  in  1667,  and  his  brother 


and  successor  Peter  made  regent :  the  latter 
ascended  the  throne  in 

1683.  Peter  II.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1706.  John  V.  :  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1750.  Joseph  Emmanuel.  The  daughter  and  succes- 
sor of  this  prince  married  his  brother,  by 
dispensation  from  the  pope,  and  they  as- 
cended the  throne,  as 

1777.  Maria- Frances-Isabella  and  Peter  III.  jointly. 

1786.  Maria,  alone  :  this  princess  afterwards  falls 
into  a  state  of  melancholy  and  derangement  ; 
dies,  1816. 

1792.  Regency— John,  son  of  the  queen,  and  aftei- 
wards  king,  declared  regent  of  the  kingdom, 
1791. 

1816.  John  VI.,  previously  regent.  He  had  with- 
drawn in  1807,  owing  to  the  French  invasion 
of  Portugal,  to  his  Brazilian  dominions  ;  but 
the  discontent  of  his  subjects  obliged  him  to 
return  in  1821 ;  died  in  1826. 

1826.  Peter  IV.  (Dom  Pedro),  son  of  John  VI.  :  mak- 
ing his  election  of  the  empire  of  Brazil,  ab- 
dicated the  throne  of  Portugal  in  favour  of 
his  daughter, 

„     Maria  II.  (da  Gloria),  who  became  queen  at    ' 
seven  years  of  age. 

1828.  Dom  Miguel,  brother  to  Peter  IV.,  usurped  the  i 
crown,  which  he  retained,  amid  civil  con-  i1 
tentions,  until  1833. 

1833.  Maria  II.  restored:    declared  in    Sept.    1834    i 
(being  then  15)  to  be  of  age,  and  assumed  the 
royal  power  accordingly  :  died  Nov.  15,  1853  > 
succeeded  by  her  son, 

1853.  Peter  V.  (Dom  Pedro),  born  Sept.  16,  1837  ; 
died  Nov.  u,  1861 ;  succeeded  by  his  brother, 

1861.  Luis  I.,  the  PRESENT  (1865)  king  ;  born  Oct.  i, 
1838,  married  to  Maria  Pia,  daughter  of  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel,  king  of  Italy,  Oct.  6,  1862. 
Heir  :  Dom  Carlos  (son),  born  Sept.  28,  1863. 


POS 


587 


POS 


POSEN",  a  Polish  province,  annexed  to  Prussia  1772  and  1793  ;  made  part  of  the  duchy 
of  Warsaw,  1807  ;  restored  to  Prussia,  1815.     An  insurrection  here  was  quelled  in  May, 


POSITIVE  PHILOSOPHY*  set  forth  by  Auguste  Comte,  an  eminent  mathematician, 
born  about  1795  ;  died  at  Paris,  1852. 

POSTS,  said  to  have  originated  in  the  regular  couriers  established  by  Cyrus,  who 
erected  post-houses  throughout  the  kingdom  of  Persia,  about  536  B.C.  Augustus  was  the 
first  who  introduced  this  institution  among  the  Romans,  and  who  employed  post-chaises. 
This  was  imitated  by  Charlemagne  about  A.D.  800.  Ashe.  Louis  XI.  first  established  post- 
houses  in  France  owing  to  his  eagerness  for  news,  and  they  were  the  first  institution  of  this 
nature  in  Europe,  1470.  llenault.  An  International  Commission  respecting  postal 
arrangements  met  at  Paris  May  n,  and  broke  up  June  9,  1863. 

POST-OFFICE  OF  ENGLAND.  In  England,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  1481,  riders  on 
post-horses  went  stages  of  the  distance  of  twenty  miles  from  each  other,  in  order  to  procure 
the  king  the  earliest  intelligence  of  the  events  that  passed  in  the  course  of  the  war  that  had 
arisen  with  the  Scots.  Gale.  Richard  III.  improved  the  system  of  couriers  in  1483.  In 
1543  similar  arrangements  existed  in  England.  Sadler's  Letters.  Post  communications 
between  London  and  most  towns  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  existed  in  1635. 
Strype.  The  first  chief  postmaster  of  England  was  Thomas  Randolph,  appointed  by  queen 
Elizabeth  in  1581.  James  I.  appointed  Matthew  de  1'Equester  as  foreign  postmaster ;  and 
Charles  I.  appointed  William  Frizell  and  Thomas  Witherings  in  1631.  A  proclamation  of 
Charles  I.  states  in  the  preamble  that  "whereas  to  this  time  there  hath  been  no  certain 
intercourse  between  the  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  king  now  commands  his 
postmaster  of  England  for  foreign  parts  to  settle  a  running  post  or  two  to  run  night  and  day 
between  Edinburgh  and  London,  to  go  thither  and  come  back  again  in  six  days,"t  1631. 
An  enlarged  office  was  erected  by  the  parliament  in  1643  ;  and  one  more  considerable  in 
1657,  with  a  View  "to  benefit  commerce,  convey  the  public  dispatches,  and  as  the  best 
means  to  discover  and  prevent  many  dangerous  wicked  designs  against  the  commonwealth 
by  the  inspection  of  the  correspondence."  Ashe. 


The  Post-office  as  at  present  constituted  was 
founded  12  Charles  If.  .  .  Dec.  27,  1660 

Cross  posts  established  by  Ralph  Allen         .     .  1 720 

The  mails  were  first  conveyed  by  coaches,  Aug. 
2,  1784,  when  the  first  mail  left  London  for 
Bristol.  See  Mail  Coaches. 

PENNY  POST  first  set  up  in  London  and  its 
suburbs  by  a  Mr.  Robert  Murray,  uphol- 
sterer ;  in  1681.  He  assigned  his  interest  in 
the  undertaking  to  Mr.  Dockwra,  a  merchant, 
1683 ;  but  on  a  trial  at  the  King's  Bench  bar 
it  was  adjudged  to  belong  to  the  duke  of 
York,  as  a  branch  of  the  general  post,  and  was 
thereupon  annexed  to  the  revenue  of  the 
crown,  1690.  This  institution  was  consider- 
ably improved  in  and  around  London,  and 
was  made  a  two-penny  post,  July,  1794,  et  seq. 

A  penny  post  was  first  set  up  in  Dublin         .     .  1774 

The  mails  first  conveyed  by  railway,  1830  ;  by 
the  overland  route  to  India  ....  1835 

Early  in  1837,  Mr.  Rowland  HillJ  broached  his 
plan  of  penny  postage,  which  was  adopted 
after  a  full  investigation  by  a  Committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  in 1839 

The  new  postage  law,  by  which  the  uniform 
rate  of  ^d.  per  letter  was  tried  as  an  experi- 
ment, came  into  operation  .  . '  Dec.  5,  „ 


The  uniform  rate  of  id.  per  letter  of  half  an 
ounce  weight,  &c.,  commenced  .  Jan.  10,  1840 

The  stamped  postage  covers  came  into  use, 

May  6,  „ 

Reduction  in  postage — to  be  id.  instead  of  zd. 
for  every  ounce  above  the  first  .  April,  1865 

Number  of  letters  delivered  in  the  last  year  of 
the  heavy  postage  (1839)  was  82,470,596,  in- 
cluding 6,563,024  franks. 

In  1840,  the  number  was  168,768,344;  in  1851, 
360,651,187,  whereof  36,512,649  were  in  Scot- 
land, and  35,982,782  were  in  Ireland. 

The  number  in  1856  was,  England  388  millions  ; 
Scotland,  42  millions  ;  Ireland,  48  millions  ; 
total,  478  millions ;  being  an  increase  of  4! 
per  cent,  on  1855,  and  an  average  of  17  to  each 
person. 

On  Feb.  14,  1856,  618,000  letters  passed  through 
the  general  post-office. 

In  1859,  544,796,000  letters  were  posted  in  the 
United  Kingdom  ;  being  an  increase  of  4^  per 
cent,  on  1858.  The  average  annual  number 
to  each  person — in  England,  22 ;  Scotland,  16 ; 
Ireland,  7. 

In  1860,  564  millions  of  letters  were  delivered 
in  the  United  Kingdom ;  in  1861,  593  millions ; 
1862,  605  millions. 


*  It  sets  aside  theology  and  metaphysics  as  two  merely  preliminary  stages  in  life  ;  and  abandons  aU 
search  after  causes  and  essences  of  things,  and  restricts  itself  to  the  observation  and  classification  of  phe- 
nomena and  the  discovery  of  their  laws.  Comte  asserted  that  Europe  had  now  arrived  at  the  third  stage 
•of  its  progress.  He  aimed  at  being  the  founder  of  a  new  religion  as  well  as  a  new  philosophy,  the  "reli- 
gion of  humanity. " 

t  The  king  also  commanded  his  "  postmaster  of  England  for  foreign  parts"  to  open  a  regular  com- 
munication by  running  posts  between  the  metropolis  and  Edinburgh,  West  Chester,  Holyhead,  Ireland, 
Plymouth,  Exeter,  &c°  (Rates  of  postage— i  letter  carried  under  80  miles,  •zd.  ;  under  140  miles,  4^.  ;  above 
that  distance  in  England,  6d.  ;  to  any  part  of  Scotland,  8d.)  Even  so  late  as  between  1730  and  1740,  the 
post  was  only  transmitted  three  days  a  week  between  Edinburgh  and  London  ;  and  the  metropolis,  on  one 
occasion,  only  sent  a  single  letter,  which  was  for  an  Edinburgh  banker,  named  Ramsay. 

t  A  national  testimonial  was  presented  to  him,  June  17,  1846 ;  on  Nov.so,  he  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  post  office ;  and  created  K.C.B.  in  1860. 


POS 


588 


TOT 


POST-OFFICE  OP  ENGLAND,  continued. 

Book-Post. — On  June  5,  1855,  a  treasury  warrant 
was  issued,  providing  for  the  carriage  by  post 
of  books,  pamphlets,  &c. ,  under  certain  restric- 
tions -4  oz.  for  it?.  ;  8  oz.  for  zd.,  &c. 

Public  receptacles  for  letters  before  1840,  about 
4500. 

In  1860,  there  were  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
11,412  post-offices  ;  1862,  11,316. 

The  street  Letter-boxes  were  erected  in  March, 
1855.  The  first  one  was  placed  at  the  corner 
of  Fleet-street  and  Farringdon-street.  There 
were  1958  in  1860 ;  3460  in  1862. 


Officers  employed,  Dec.  i,  1861,  25,473. 

A  Money-Order  Office,  set  up  in  1792,  was  little 
used  on  account  of  the  expense,  till  1840.  In 
1839,  188,291  money  orders  were  issued  for 
313, 124?.  ;  in  1861,  7,580,455  orders  for 
14,616,348;. 

The  Postal  Guide  first  appeared  in  1856;  in 
which  year  London  and  the  vicinity  were 
divided  into  districts  for  postal  purposes : 
viz.  East,  West,  <fcc.  The  postmaster-general 
has  issued  Annual  Reports  (1854-64). 

The  Post-office  Directory  first  appeared  in  1800. 


REVENUE   OF   THE   POST-OFFICE. 


1643. 

It  yielded 

£5,000 

1744. 

It  yielded     .        .     £235,492    1835. 

United  Kingdom  £2,353,340 

1653. 

Farmed     to     John 

1764. 

Ditto         .        .     .        432,048  [  1839. 

Ditto     .        .             2,522,4.0^ 

Mauley  for  . 

10,000 

1790. 

Ditto     .        .                480,074    1840. 

New  rate. 

471,000 

1663. 

Farmed    to   Daniel 

1800. 

Ditto 

745,313 

1845. 

Net  revenue 

761,982 

O'Neale  fur     .     . 

21,500 

1805. 

Great  Britain 

1,424,994 

1850. 

Ditto 

803,898 

1674 

Farmed  for 

43,000 

1810. 

Ditto 

1,709,065 

1855- 

Ditto     . 

1,137,220 

1685. 

1707. 

It  yielded   .        .     . 
Ditto 

65,000 
111,461 

1815. 
1820. 

Ditto     . 
United  Kingdom 

1,755,898 
2,402,697 

1859. 
1860. 

Ditto 
Ditto     . 

1,150,960 
1,102,479 

1714. 

Ditto  .... 

145,227 

1825. 

Ditto 

2,255,239 

1861. 

Ditto 

1,161,985 

1723- 

Ditto 

201,805 

1830. 

Ditto 

2,301,432 

1862. 

Ditto     . 

1,236,941 

POST-OFFICES. 

THE  GENERAL  POST-OFFICE  of  London  was  originally 
established  in  Cloak-lane,  near  Dowgate  -  hill, 
whence  it  was  removed  to  the  Black  Swan,  in 
Bishopsgate-street.  After  the  great  fire  of  1666,  it 
was  removed  to  the  Two  Black-Pillars  in  Brydges- 
street,  Covent-Garden,  and  afterwards  (about  1690) 
to  sir  Robert  Viner's  mansion  in  Lombard-street. 
It  was  transferred  to  the  building  in  St.  Martin's- 
le-Grand,  erected  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  college 
and  sanctuary,  from  designs  by  R.  Smirke,  esq. , 
Sept.  23,  1829. 

The  new  Post-office  of  Dublin  opened,  Jan,  6,  1818. 

The  foundation  of  a  new  Post-office  at  Edinburgh 
was  laid  by  the  prince  consort  in  Oct.  1861. 

POST-OFFICE  SAVING-BANKS  established,  1861  (began 
Sept.  16) ;  interest  2^-  per  cent.  ;  government  re- 
sponsible to  depositors.  The  number  of  these 
banks  and  the  amount  of  deposits  received  on 
March  31,  1862,  were 


England  . 
Wales  . 
Scotland 
Ireland 
The  Islands 


London  district 


JBanki. 

129 

299 
300 

9 

2532 


Deposits. 

£668,879    I0  2 

.       28,392       2  IO 

10,237    9  8 

.     26,064  1 8  8 

1,679  15  o 

£735,253  16  4 

•  267,329  13  8 


POSTMASTERS. 

The  number  of  postmasters  (2)  reduced  to  i,  1822. 
The  offices  of  postmaster-general  of  England  and  of 

Ireland  united  in  one  person,  1831. 
1823.  Thomas  earl  of  Chichester. 

1826.  Lord  Frederick  Montague. 

1827.  William  duke  of  Manchester. 
1830.  Charles  duke  of  Richmond. 

1834.  Francis  marquess  of  Conyngham. 

1835.  William  lord  Maryborough. 

,,     Francis  marquess  of  Conyngham. 

,,    Thomas  earl  of  Lichfi eld. 
1841.  William  viscount  Lowther. 
1846.  Edward  earl  of  St.  Germans. 

,,     Ulick  marquess  of  Clanricarde. 
1855.  George  duke  of  Argyle. 

1858.  Charles  lord  Colchester. 

1859.  James  earl  of  Elgin. 

1860.  Edward  lord  Stanley  of  Alderley  (the  PRESENT 

postmaster). 


SECRETARIES. 


1797.  Francis  Freeling. 
1836  Wm.  L.  Mabsrley. 
1846.  Rowland  Hill,  resigned  Feb.  29, 

pension  granted. 
1864.  John  Tilley  (March). 


:    2000?. 


POSTING.  Post-chaises  were  invented  by  the  French,  and,  according  to  Grainger, 
were  introduced  into  this  country  by  Mr.  "William  Tull,  son  of  the  well-known  writer  on 
Husbandry.  Posting  was  fixed  by  statute  of  Edward  VI.  at  one  penny  per  mile,  1548. 
By  a  statute,  re-establishing  the  post-office,  none  but  the  postmaster  or  his  deputies  could 
furnish  post-horses  for  travellers,  1660,  and  hence  the  name.  The  post-horse  duty  was 
imposed  in  1779.  Post-horse  duty  yielded,  in  1852,  in  England,  128,501?.,  and  in  Scotland, 

16,933^. 

POTASSIUM,  a  most  remarkable  metal,  discovered  in  1807  by  Humphry  Davy,  who 
first  succeeded  in  separating  it  from  potash  by  means  of  a  powerful  voltaic  battery,  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  Royal  Institution,  London  ;  and  also  the  metals  Sodium  from  soda,  Calcium 
from  lime,  &c.  The  alkalis  and  earths  had  been  previously  regarded  as  simple  substances. 
Potassium  ignites  on  contact  with  water. 

POTATOES,  natives  of  Chili  and  Peru,  originally  brought  to  England  from  Santa  Fe, 
in  America,  by  sir  John  Hawkins,  1563.  Others  ascribe  their  introduction  to  sir  Francis 
Drake,  in  1586  ;  while  their  general  introduction  is  mentioned  by  many  writers  as  occurring 
in  1592.  Their  first  culture  in  Ireland  is  referred  to  sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  had  large 
estates  in  that  country,  about  Youghal,  in  the  county  of  Cork.  It  is  said  that  potatoes 


POT 


589 


row 


were  not  known  in  Flanders  until  1620.  A  fine  kind  of  potato  was  first  brought  from 
America  by  Mr.  Howard,  who  cultivated  it  at  Cardington,  near  Bedford,  1765  ;  and  its 
culture  became  general  soon  after.  The  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland,  four  successive 
years  from  1845,  caused  famine  among  the  poor,  to  which  succeeded  pestilent  disease  of  which 
multitudes  died  ;  among  them  many  priests  and  physicians.  Parliament  voted  ten  millions 
sterling  in  this  awful  exigency,  and  several  countries  of  Europe,  and  the  United  States  of 
America,  forwarded  provisions  and  other  succours.  See  Ireland* 

POTID^EA,  a  town  in  Macedonia,  a  tributary  of  Athens,  against  which  it  revolted  432 
B.C.,  but  submitted  in  429.  It  was  taken  from  the  Athenians  after  three  years'  siege,  by 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon  in  358  B.C. 

POTOSI  (Peru).  Silver  mines  here  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1545  ;  they  are 
in  a  mountain  in  the  form  of  a  sugar-loaf. 

POTSDAM  (near  Berlin),  the  Versailles  of  Prussia.  It  was  made  an  arsenal  in  1721. 
Here  is  situated  the  palace  of  Sans  Souci,  embellished  by  Frederic  II.,  which  was  occupied 
by  Napoleon  I.  in  Oct.  1806.  Here  also  is  the  new  palace,  the  residence  of  prince  Frederick 
William  and  his  wife  the  princess  royal  of  England,  married,  Jan.  25,  1858. 

POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN".  The  manufacture  of  earthenware  (the  ceramic  art) 
existed  among  the  Jews  as  an  honourable  occupation  (see  I  Chron.  iv.  23),  and  the  power  of 
the  potter  over  the  clay  as  a  symbol  of  the  power  of  God  is  described  by  Jeremiah,  B.C.  605 
(ch.  xviii.)  Earthenware  was  made  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Greeks,  Etruscans, 
and  Romans.  The  art,  which  was  lost  at  the  subversion  of  the  Roman  Western  empire,  re- 
appeared in  Spain  with  the  Arabs. 


The  Majolica,  Raffaelle,  or  Umbrian "ware  of  the 
1 5th  century,  was  probably  introduced  into 
Italy  from  the  Moors,  as  coloured  tiles  of  the 
6th  and  yth  century  adorn  some  ancient 
churches. 

Pottery  was  manufactured  at  Beauvais  in 
France  in  the  i2th  century. 

St.  Cloud  enamelled  pottery  made         .    about  i( 

Luca  della  Robbia  (born  about  1410)  applied 
tin  enamel  to  terra-cotta.  Fayence  ware  was 
made  in  France  by  Bernard  Palissy  (died  1589) 
and  his  family. 

PORCELAIN,  formed  of  earth  kaolin,  was  made 
in  China  in  the  snd  century  after  Christ. 
Chinese  porcelain  is  mentioned  in  histoiies 
of  the  i6th  century,  when  it  was  introduced 
into  England,  and  eagerly  sought  after. 

Porcelain  was  made  at  Bow,  near  London,  early 
in  the  i8th  century,  and  at  Chelsea,  before  .  16 


The    first  European  porcelain    was    made    at 
Dresden  by  Bottcher,  about        .        .         .     .   1700 

[The  manufacture  was  fostered  by  the  king 
Augustus  II.] 

The  Capo  di  Monte  factory  at  Naples  estab- 
lished          i736 

Thos.  Frye  patented  porcelain,  1749;  and  Dr. 
Wall  established  the  manufacture  at  Worces* 

ter i75o 

!  The  St .   Cloud  china  manufactory  removed  to 

Sfevres I756 

Josiah  Wedgwood's  patent  ware  was  first  made    1 762 

Birch's  "~ ~ 


1858 
1860 


niarfs    "Arts    Ceramiques,"    are    valuable 

works. 
The  British  manufacture  greatly  improved  by 

Herbert  Minton,  who  died  in  .        .     . 

The  duty  on  earthenware  taken  off  in 


POULTRY.     An   exhibition  of  poultry  was  held  in  London  in  January  1853,  when 
nearly  1000  cocks  were  exhibited.     Similar  exhibitions  have  been  held  at  the  Crystal  Palace 


POULTRY  COMPTER  (London),  was  one  of  the  most  noted  of  the  old  city  prisons. 
The  compter  of  Wood-street  belonged  to  the  sheriff  of  London,  and  was  made  a  prison-house 
in  1555.  This  latter  and  Bread-street  compter  were  rebuilt  in  1667.  The  Gilts] mr-street 
prison,  built  to  supply  the  place  of  the  old  city  compters,  vras  pulled  down  in  1855.  The 
Poultry  chapel  was  erected  on  the  site  of  the  Poultry  compter,  in  1819.  Leigh. 

POUND,  from  the  Latin  Pondus.  The  value  of  the  Roman  pondo  is  not  precisely  known, 
though  some  suppose  it  was  equivalent  to  an  Attic  mina  or  3^.  45.  yd.  The  pound  sterling 
was  in  Saxon  times,  about  671,  a  pound  troy  of  silver,  and  a  shilling  was  its  twentieth 
part ;  consequently  the  latter  was  three  times  as  large  as  it  is  at  present.  Peacham.  Our 
avoirdupois  weight  pound  came  from  the  French,  and  contains  sixteen  ounces;  it  is  in 
proportion  to  our  troy  weight  as  seventeen  to  fourteen.  See  under  Standard. 

POWDERING  THE  HAIR  is  said  to  have  taken  its  rise  from  some  of  the  ballad-singers 
at  the  fair  at  St.  Germains  whitening  their  heads,  to  make  themselves  ridiculous.  It  became 
very  general  about  1614.  In  England  the  hair-powder  tax,  one  guinea  for  each  person, 

*  From  statistical  returns,  it  appaars  that  the  potato  crop  is  so  very  uncertain  that  it  ought  njt  to  be 
relied  ou  as  a  staple  article  of  food. 


POW  590  PEA 

began  in  May  1795,  at  which  time  the  practice  was  at  its  height.  The  tax  still  exists, 
yielding  in  England,  a  few  years  ago,  4000?.  per  year,  but  only  1200?.  in  1863.  It  was 
abolished  in  Ireland. 

POWER-LOOMS.     See  Looms  and  Cotton. 

POYNINGS'  LAW,  so  called  after  sir  Edward  Poynings,  one  of  the  lord  deputies  of 
Ireland  at  the  time  of  its  passing,  1494.  By  this  law  all  legislation  in  the  Irish  parliament 
was  confined  to  matters  first  approved  of  by  the  king  and  the  English  council.  This  act 
was  repealed  together  with  the  English  Declaratory  act  of  the  6th  of  Geo.  I.  and  some  other 
equally  obnoxious  Irish  statutes,  April,  1782. 

PRjEMONSTRATENSIAN  ORDER,  founded  in  1120  by  Norbert,  a  monk.  Its  first 
house  in  England  was  founded  by  Peter  de  Gousla  or  Gousel,  at  Newsham,  in  Lincolnshire, 
1143 — Tanner;  according  to  others  in  1146.  The  order  spread  widely  through  England  soon 
after.  The  house  at  Newsham  was  dedicated  to  St.  Mary  and  St.  Martial.  Lewis. 

PRFEMUNIRE,  LAW  OF.  This  law  (which  obtained  its  name  from  the  first  two  words 
"  Prccmoneri"  or  "  Prcemuniri  facias,"  "  Cause  to  be  forewarned,"  and  which  is  applied  to 
any  offence  in  the  way  of  contempt  of  the  sovereign  or  his  government)  derived  its  origin 
from  the  aggressive  power  of  the  pope  in  England.  The  offence  introduced  a  foreign  power 
into  the  land,  and  created  an  imperium  in  imperio.  The  first  statute  of  Prfemunire  was 
enacted  35  Edward  I.  1306.  Coke.  The  pope  bestowed  most  of  the  bishoprics,  abbeys,  &c., 
before  they  were  void,  upon  favourites,  on  pretence  of  providing  the  church  with  better 
qualified  successors  before  the  vacancies  occurred.  To  put  a  stop  to  these  encroach- 
ments, Edward  III.  enacted  a  statute  in  1352.  The  statute  commonly  referred  to  as  the 
statute  of  Prsemimire  is  the  i6th  of  Richard  II.  1392.  But  several  other  enactments,  with  i 
similar  object,  followed  in  subsequent  reigns. 

PRAETORIAN    GUARDS  were  instituted  by  the  emperor  Augustus  (13  B.C.)  :  their  | 
numbers  were  enlarged  by  Tiberius,  Vitellius,  and  their  successors.     At  first  supporters  of  j 
the  imperial  tyrants  they  eventually  became  their  masters,  actually  putting  up  the  imperial 
diadem  for  sale  (as  in  A.D.  193  when  it  was  bought  by  Didius  Julianus).     They  committed 
many  atrocities,  and  were  finally  disbanded  by  Constantine,  in  312. 

PRJETORS,  Roman  magistrates.  In  365  B.C.,  one  prretor  was  appointed  ;  a  second  was  ! 
appointed  in  252  B.C.  One  (prcetor  urbanus)  administered  justice  to  the  citizens,  and  the 
other  (prcetor  peregrinus)  in  causes  which  related  to  foreigners.  In  227  B.C.  two  more 
praters  were  created  to  assist  the  consul  in  the  government  of  the  provinces  of  Sicily  and 
Sardinia,  which  had  been  lately  conquered  ;  and  two  more  when  Spain  was  reduced  into  the 
form  of  a  Roman  province,  197  B.C.  Sylla,  the  dictator,  added  two  more,  and  Julius  Ccesar 
increased  the  number  to  10,  which  afterwards  became  16.  After  this,  their  number  fluctuated, 
being  sometimes  18,  16,  or  12  ;  till,  in  the  decline  of  the  empire,  their  dignity  decreased, 
and  their  numbers  were  reduced  to  three. 

PRAGA,  a  suburb  of  Warsaw,  where  a  most  bloody  battle  was  fought,  Nov.  5,  1794;! 
30,000  Poles  were  butchered  by  the  Russian  general  Suwarrow.     Near  here,  on  Feb.  25, 
1831,   the  Poles,    commanded  by  Skrznecki,   defeated  the  Russian  army,    commanded  by 
general  Giesmar,    who  lost  4000  killed  and  wounded,    6000  prisoners,   and  12  pieces  of 
cannon. 

PRAGMATIC  SANCTION.  An  ordinance  relating  to  the  church  and  sometimes  state 
affairs.  The  ordinances  of  the  kings  of  France  are  thus  called  :  in  one  the  rights  of  the 
Gallican  church  were  asserted  against  the  usurpation  of  the  pope  in  the  choice  of  bishops,  by 
Charles  VII.  in  1438.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  for  settling  the  empire  of  German y  in  the 
house  of  Austria,  1439.  Again  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  published  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  >  i 
whereby,  in  default  of  male  issue,  his  daughters  should  succeed  in  preference  to  the  daughters 
of  his  brother  Joseph  I.,  in  April  17,  1713  ;  and  he  settled  his  dominions  on  his  daughter 
Maria  Theresa,  in  conformity  thereto,  1723.  She  succeeded  in  Oct.  1740 ;  but  it  gave  rise  to 
a  war,  in  which  most  of  the  powers  of  Europe  were  engaged,  which  lasted  till  1 748. 

PRAGUE,  the  capital  of  Bohemia  (which  see).     The  old  city  was  founded  about  759  ;  the 
new  city  was  rebuilt  in  1348  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  who  made  it  his  capital  and  erected  ; 
a  university.      Prague  has  suffered  much  by  war.      It  was  taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1648,  and  : 
by  the  French  in  1741  ;  but  they  were  obliged  to  leave  it  in  1742.     In  1744  it  was  taken  by 
the  king  of  Prussia  ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  it  in  the  same  year.     The  .great  battle 
of  Prague  was  fought  May  6,  1757.     In  this  engagement  the  Anstrians  were  defeated  by   i 
prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  and  their  whole  camp  taken  ;  their  illustrious  commander,  genera] 


PRA  591  PRE 

Braun,  was  mortally  wounded,  and  the  brave  Prussian,  marshal  Schwerin,  was  killed.  After 
this  victory,  Prague  was  besieged  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  but  he  was  soon  obliged  to  raise 
the  siege. — An  insurrection  in  Prague,  June,  1848,  was  suppressed  in  a  few  days. 

PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES'  PARLIAMENT.     See  Barelones. 

PRASLIN  MURDER.  The  duchesse  de  Choiseul-Praslin  was  murdered  by  her  husband, 
the  due  de  Praslin,  at  his  own  house,  in  Paris,  Aug.  17,  1847.  She  was  the  only  daughter 
of  the  celebrated  marshal  Sebastiani,  the  mother  of  nine  children,  and  in  her  forty-first  year. 
Circumstances  were  so  managed  by  him  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  being  the  act  of 
another.  During  the  arrangements  for  the  trial,  the  duke  took  poison. 

PRAYER-BOOK.     See  Common  Prayer. 

PRAYERS.  "  Then  began  men  to  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  "  (Gen.  iv.  26),  3875 
B.C.  The  mode  of  praying  with  the  face  to  the  east  was  instituted  by  pope  Boniface  II.  A.D. 
532.  This  last  custom,  which  prevailed  among  the  Jews,  has  been  recently  adopted  in  some 
Protestant  places  of  worship  in  England.  Prayers  for  the  dead  were  first  introduced  into  the 
Christian  church  about  190.  Ensebius.  Prayers  addressed  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  to  the 
saints  were  introduced  by  pope  Gregory,  593. 

PRECEDENCE  was  established  in  very  early  ages,  and  was  amongst  the  laws  of  Justinian. 
In  England  the  order  of  precedency  was  regulated  chiefly  by  two  statutes,  31  Hen.  VIII. 
1539,  and  I  Geo.'I.  1714. 

PREDESTINATION".  The  doctrine  concerning  this  is  denned  in  the  seventeenth  article 
of  the  Church  of  England.  See  Articles.  It  was  maintained  by  St.  Augustin,  and  opposed 
by  Pelagius,  in  the  early  part  of  the  5th  century.  In  later  times  it  has  been  maintained  by 
the  Augustinians,  Jansenists,  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  many  dissenters  (termed  Calvin- 
istic),  and  opposed  by  the  Dominicans,  Jesuits,  and  many  dissenters  (termed  Arminian), 
especially  by  the  Wesleyan  methodists. 

PREROGATIVE  COURT,  in  which  formerly  all  wills  were  proved,  and  all  administrations- 
taken,  which  belonged  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  his  prerogative,  a  judge  being 
appointed  by  him  to  decide  disputes.  Appeals  from  this  court  to  the  judicial  committee  of 
the  privy  council  were  instituted  in  1830.  This  court  was  abolished,  and  the  Probate  Court 
established  in  1857. 

PREROGATIVE  ROYAL.  In  England  the  sovereign  is  the  supreme  magistrate,  and  it 
is  a  maxim  that  he  can  do  no  wrong.  He  is  the  head  of  the  established  church,  of  the  army 
and  navy,  and  the  fountain  of  office,  honour,  and  privilege,  but  is  subject  to  the  laws, 
unless  exempted  by  name.  The  royal  prerogatives  were  greatly  exceeded  by  several  despotic 
sovereigns,  such  as  Elizabeth,  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  Elizabeth  used  the  phrase  "We,  of 
our  Royal  prerogative  which  we  will  not  have  argued  or  brought  in  question"  (1691). 
James  I.  told  his  parliament  "that  as  it  was  blasphemy  to  question  what  the  Almighty  could 
do  of  His  power,  so  it  was  sedition  to  enquire  what  a  king  could  do  by  virtue  of  his  prero- 
gative." These  extreme  doctrines  were  nullified  by  the  revolution  of  1688  ;  and  the  exercise 
of  the  prerogative  is  now  virtually  subject  to  parliament.  See  Lords. 

PRESBURG,  an  ancient  city  in  Hungary,  where  the  diets  have  been  held  and  the  kings, 
crowned.  On  Dec.  26,  1805,  a  treaty  was  signed  between  France  and  Austria,  by  which  the 
ancient  states  of  Venice  were  ceded  to  Italy  ;  the  principality  of  Eichstadt,  part  of  the 
bishopric  of  Passau,  the  city  of  Augsburg,  the  Tyrol,  all  the  possessions  of  Austria  in  Suabia, 
in  Brisgau,  and  Ortenau,  were  transferred  to  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  and  the  duke  of  Wurtem- 
berg,  who,  as  well  as  the  duke  of  Baden,  were  then  created  kings  by  Napoleon.  The  inde- 
pendence of  the  Helvetic  republic  was  also  stipulated. 

PRESBYTERIANS  *  are  so  called  from  their  maintaining  that  the  government  of  the 
church  appointed  in  the  New  Testament  was  by  presbyteries,  or  association  of  ministers  and 
ruling  elders,  equal  in  power,  office,  and  in  order.  Presbyterianism  was  established  in  place 
of  episcopacy  in  England  in  1648,  but  abolished  at  the  restoration  in  1660.  It  became  the 
established  form  of  church  government  in  Scotland.  Its  tenets  were  embodied  in  the 
formulary  of  faith  said  to  have  been  composed  by  John  Knox,  in  1560,  which  was  approved 
by  the  parliament,  and  ratified,  1 567,  and  finally  settled  by'  an  act  of  the  Scottish  senate, 
1696,  afterwards  secured  by  the  treaty  of  union  with  England  in  1707.  The  first  Presbyterian 
meeting-house  in  England  was  established  at  Wandsworth,  Surrey,  Nov.  20,  1572. 

*  "  The  elders  (Greek  presbyterous)  I  exhort,  who  am  also  an  elder  (symprestyteros)."    i  Peter  v.  i. 


PRE  592  PRE 

PRESCOTT  (Upper  Canada).  On  Nov.  17,  1838,  the  Canadian  rebels  were  attacked  by 
the  British  under  major  Young,  and  (on  the  i8th)  by  lieut. -colonel  Dundas,  who  dispersed 
the  insurgents,  several  of  whom  were  killed,  and  many  taken  prisoners,  and  the  remainder 
surrendered.  The  troops  also  suffered  considerably. 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  COUNCIL,  LORD,  the  fourth  great  officer  of  state,  is  appointed 
under  the  great  seal,  durante  bcncplacito,  and,  by  his  office,  is  to  attend  the  king's  royal 
person,  and  to  manage  the  debates  in  council ;  to  propose  matters  from  the  king  at  the 
council-table  ;  and  to  report  to  his  majesty  the  resolutions  taken  thereupon.  See  Privy 
Council;  United  Slates,  1789;  France,  1848;  and  Wrecks,  1841. 

PRESS,  LIBERTY  OF  THE.  The  imprimatur  "let  it  be  printed,"  was  much  used  on  the 
title-pages  of  books  printed  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The  liberty  of  the 
press  was  severely  restrained,  and  the  number  of  master-printers  in  London  and  Westminster 
limited  by  the  Star  Chamber,  13  Charles  I.,  July  I,  1637.  "Disorders  in  printing"  were 
redressed  by  the  parliament  in  1643  and  1649  ;  and  by  Charles  II.  in  1662.  The  censorship 
of  the  press  (by  a  licence  established  in  1655  and  1693)  was  abandoned  in  1695  (6  Will.  III.). 
The  celebrated  toast,  ' '  The  liberty  of  the  press  :  it  is  like  the  air  we  breathe — if  we  have  it 
not  we  die,"  was  first  given  at  the  Crown  and  Anchor  tavern,  at  a  Whig  dinner  in  1795. 
Presses  were  licensed,  and  the  printer's  name  required  to  be  placed  on  both  the  first  and 
last  pages  of  a  book,  July,  1799.  The  severity  of  the  restrictions  on  the  French  press  was 
relaxed  by  M.  Persigny,  minister  of  the  Interior,  in  Dec.  1860,  but  soon  restored.  The 
liberty  of  the  press  in  the  United  States  was  greatly  checked  during  the  Civil  War, 
1861-1865. 

PRESS  (Newspaper),  a  journal,  published  in  Dublin,  of  considerable  talent,  but  of  a 
most  revolutionary  tendency.  It  was  commenced  in  Oct.  1797,  and  the  celebrated  Arthur 
O'Connor,  Mr.  Emniett,  the  barrister  (whose  brother  was  executed  in  1803),  and  several 
other  conspicuous  men  were  contributors  to  it  ;  their  writings  served  to  inflame  the  public 
mind  in  Ireland,  on  the  eve  of  the  memorable  rebellion,  Avhich  broke  out  in  1798.  The 
paper  was  suppressed  by  a  military  force,  March  6,  1798,  and  Mr.  O'Connor  was  arrested  at 
Margate,  while  attempting  his  escape  to  France. — The  existing  weekly  Conservative  paper 
the  Press  Avas  first  published  in  May,  1853. 

PRESSING  TO  DEATH.     See  Mute.     FOR  THE  SEA  SERVICE.     See  Impressment. 

PRESTON  (Lancashire).  Near  here  Cromwell  totally  defeated  the  royalists  under  sir 
Marmaduke  Langdale,  Aug.  17,  1648.  Preston  was  taken  in  1715  by  the  Scotch  insurgents, 
under  Forster,  who  proclaimed  king  James  VII.  They  were  defeated  in  a  battle  on  Nov.  12, 
by  generals  Wills  and  Carpenter,  Avho  with  the  royal  army  invested  Preston  on  all  sides. 
The  Scots  at  length  laid  doAvn  their  arms,  and  their  nobles  and  leaders  Avere  secured  ;  some  of 
them  were  shot  as  deserters,  and  others  were  sent  to  London  pinioned  and  bound  together, 
to  intimidate  their  party. — The  stoppage  of  the  cotton  manufacture  in  1861  and  1862 
occasioned  great  suffering  in  Preston.  The  festival  termed  "the  Preston  guild,"  said  to 
have  been  instituted  in  Saxon  times,  and  to  have  been  kept  once  in  20  years  regularly  since 
1562,  Avas  duly  celebrated  in  Sept.,  1862.*  A  fine  art  and  industrial  exhibition  here  - 
opened,  Sept.  21,  1865. 

PRESTON-PANS,  near  Edinburgh,  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the  Young  Pretenc 
prince  Charles  Stuart,  and  his  Scotch  adherents,  and  the  royal  army  under  sir  John  Coj 
Sept.  21,  1745.     The  latter  Avas  defeated  Avith  the  loss  of  500  men,  and  fled. 

PRETENDERS.  A  name  given  to  the  son  and  grandsons  of  James  II.  of  England. - 
The  OLD  PRETENDER,  or  Chevalier  de  St.  George,  born  June  10,  1688,  Avas  acknowledged  " 
Louis  XIV.  as  James  III.  of  England,  in  1701.  He  Avas  proclaimed,  and  his  standard 
up,  at  Braemar  and  Castletown,  in  Scotland,  Sept.  3,  1715  ;  and  he  landed  at  Peterhead,  in 
Aberdeenshire,  from  France,  to  encourage  the  rebellion  that  the  earl  of  Mar  and  his  other 
adherents  had  prompted,  Dec.  25,  same  year.  This  rebellion  having  been  soon  suppressed, 
the  Pretender  escaped  to  Montrose  (from  Avhence  he  proceeded  to  Gravelines),  Feb.  4,  1716  ; 
and  died  at  Rome,  Dec.  30,  1765.— The  YOUNG  PRETENDER,  Charles-Edward,  was  Jborn  in 
1720.  He  landed  in  Scotland,  and  proclaimed  his  father  king,  June,  1745.  He  gained  the 

*  PRESTON  STRIKE.  In  1853,  a-great  number  of  strikes  took  place  among  the  workmen  in  the  north 
of  England.  Those  at  Preston  struck  for  an  increase  of  10  per  cent,  on  their  wages.  On  Oct.  15,  the 
masters,  in  consequence,  closed  forty-nine  mills,  and  20,000  persons  were  thrown  out  of  employment,  who 
were  mostly  maintained  for  a  long  time  by  subscriptions  from  their  fellows.  In  the  week  ending  Dec.  17, 
1853,  J4'972  were  relieved  at  the  cost  of  2820^.  8s.  The  committee  of  workmen  addressed  lord  Palmerston, 
Nov.  15,  1853,  who  gave  them  his  advice  Dec.  24,  following.  After  many  attempts  at  reconciliation,  the 
strike  closed  for  want  of  funds,  May  i,  1854. 


PRI 


593 


PRI 


"battle  of  Preston-pans,  Sept.  21,  1745,  and  of  Falkirk,  Jan.  17,  1746  ;  but  was  defeated  at 
Culloden,  April  16,  same  year,  and  sought  safety  by  flight.  He  continued  wandering  among 
the  wilds  of  Scotland  for  nearly  six  months  ;  and  as  30,000?.  were  offered  for  taking  him,  he 
was  constantly  pursued  by  the  British  troops,  often  hemmed  round  by  his  enemies,  but  still 
rescued  by  some  lucky  accident,  and  at  length  escaped  from  the  isle  of  Uist  to  Morlaix.  He 
died  Jan.  31,  1788.  His  natural  daughter  assumed  the  title  of  duchess  of  Albany  ;  she  died 
in  1789.  His  brother,  the  cardinal  York,  calling  himself  Henry  IX.  of  England,  born 
March,  1725,  died  at  Rome  in  Aug.,  1807.  See  Scotland. 

PRICES.  See  Corn,  Bread,  and  Provisions.  Mr.  T.  Tooke,  in  1838,  published  a 
"  History  of  Prices  from  1793  to  1856."  He  was  latterly  aided  by  Mr.  "W.  Newmarch. 

PRIDE'S  PURGE.  On  Dec.  6,  1648,  colonel  Pride  at  the  head  of  two  regiments, 
surrounded  the  house  of  parliament,  and  seizing  in  the  passage  forty-one  members  of  the 
Presbyterian  party,  sent  them  to  a  low  room,  then  called  hell.  Above  160  other  members 
were  excluded,  and  none  admitted  but  the  most  furious  of  the  Independents.  The  privileged 
members  were  named  the  Rump-parliament,  which  was  dismissed  by  Cromwell,  April  20, 
1653- 

PRIEST  (derived  from  prcsbyteros,  elder),  in  the  English  church  the  minister  who  presides 
over  the  public  worship.  In  Gen.  xiv.  18,  Melchizedek  king  of  Salem  is  termed  "priest  of 
the  most  high  God."  (19138.0.  See  Hebrews  vii.)  The  Greek  hiereus,  like  the  Jewish 
priest,  had  a  sacrificial  character,  which  idea  of  the  priesthood  is  still  maintained  by  the 
Romanists  and  those  who  favour  their  views.  Among  the  Jews,  the  priests  assumed  their 
office  at  the  age  of  thirty  years.  The  dignity  of  high  or  chief  priest  was  fixed  in  Aaron's 
family,  1491  B.C.  After  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  the  civil  government  and  the  crown  were 
superadded  to  the  high  priesthood  ;  it  was  the  peculiar  privilege  of  the  high  priest,  that  he 
could  be  prosecuted  in  no  court  but  that  of  the  great  Sanhedrim.  The  heathens  had  their 
arch-flamen  or  high  priest,  resembling  the  Christian  archbishop. 

PRIMER.  A  book  so  named  from  the  Romish  book  of  devotions,  and  formerly  set  forth 
or  published  by  authority,  as  the  first  book  children  should  publicly  learn  or  read  in  schools, 
containing  prayers  and  portions  of  the  scripture.  Copies  of  primers  are  preserved  of  so  early 
a  date  as  1539.  Ashe.  Henry  VIII.  issued  a  prayer-book  termed  a  primer  in  1546. 

PRIMOGENITURE,  RIGHT  OF.  A  usage  brought  down  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
firstborn  in  the  patriarchal  ages  had  a  superiority  over  his  brethren,  and  in  the  absence  of  his 
father  was  priest  to  the  family.  In  England,  by  the  ancient  custom  of  gavel-kind,  primo- 
geniture was  of  no  account.  It  came  in  with  the  feudal  law,  3  Will.  I.  1068.  The  rights  of 
primogeniture  were  abolished  in  France  in  1790. 

PRINCE  EDWARD'S  ISLAND  (N.  America),  was  discovered  by  Cabot,  in  1497 ;  was 
finally  taken  from  the  French  by  the  British,  in  1758  ;  united  with  Cape  Breton  as  a  colony 
in  1763  ;  but  separated  in  1768. 

PRINCE  OF  WALESA  ISLAND.     See  Penang. 

PRINTED  GOODS.     See  Calico. 

PRINTING.  Block-printing  was  practised  by  the  Chinese  several  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  The  honour  of  printing  with  single  types  has  been  appropriated  to  Mentz, 
Strasbourg,  Haarlem,  Venice,  Rome,  Florence,  Basle,  and  Augsburg  ;  but  the  names  of  the 
three  first  only  are  entitled  to  attention.  See  Press. 


Adrian  Junius  awards  tbe  honour  of  the  inven- 
tion to  Laurenzes  John  Koster  of  Haarlem, 
"  who  printed  with  blocks,  a  book  of  images 
and  letters,  Speculum  Humance  Salvationis, 
and  compounded  an  ink  more  viscous  and 
tenacious  than  common  ink,  which  blotted, 
about :  1438.' 

[The  leaves  of  this  book  being  printed  on  one 
side  only,  were  afterwards  pasted  together.] 

John  Fust  established  a  printing-omc  at 
Mentz,  and  printed  the  Tractatus  Petri 
His'pani 14^ 


John  Guttenburg  invented  cut  metal  types,  and 
used  them  in  printing  the  earliest  edition  of 
the  Bible,  which  was  commenced  in  1444, 
and  finished  in 1460 

Peter  Schceffer  cast  the  first  metal  types  in 
matrices,  and  was  therefore  the  inventor  of 

COMPLETE  PRINTING 1452 

Book  of  Psalms,  printed  by  Fust  and  Schoeffer 

Aug.  14,  1457 
The  Durandi  Rationale,  first  work  printed  with 

cast  metal  types 1459 

[Printing  was   introduced  into  Oxford,  about 


*  In  1859  Mr.  Samuel  Leigh  Sotheby  issued  an  elaborate  work  compiled  by  his  father  and  himself 
entitled  "  Principia  Typographical,"  containing  fac-similes,  &C.  of  the  block-books  of  the  isth  century; 
and  Mr.  J.  Russell  Smith 'published  a  fac-simile  of  the  Biblia  Pauperum,  a  very  early  block-book. 

Q  Q 


PE1 


594 


PR  I 


PRINTING,  continued. 

this  time.      Collier.     But  this  statement  is 
discredited  by  Dibdin.] 

A  Livy  printed.     Du  Fresnoy 1460 

The  first  Bible  completed.     Idem.       .        .        .     ,, 
Mentz  taken  and   plundered,  and  the   art  of 
printing,  in   the   general  ruin,  is   spread  to 

other  towns *    * 

The  types  were  uniformly  Gothic,  or  old  German 

(whence  our  old  English  or  Black  Letter),  until  1465 
Greek  characters  (quotations  only)  first  used, 

same  year ,, 

Cicero  de  Ofjlciis  printed  by  Fust  at  Mentz     .     .     ,, 
Roman  characters,  first  at  Rome        .         .        .  1467 
A  Chronicle,  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury's  palace  (the  fact  dis- 
puted), bearing  the  date  "  Oxford,  anno  1468  " 
William  Caxton,  a  mercer  of  London,  set  up  the 

first  press  at  Westminster*  ....  1471 
He  printed  Willyam  Caxton's  Recuyel  of  the  Hys- 

toryes  of  Troy,  by  Raoul  le  Feure.     Phillips.      .     ,, 
His  first  pieces  were,  A  Treatise  on  the  Game  of 

Chesse  and  Tully's  Offices  (see  below).  Dibdm.  1474 
^sop's  Fables,  printed  by  Caxton,  is  supposed 

to  be  the  first  book  with  its  leaves  numbered.     * 
Aldus  cast  the  Greek  Alphabet,  and  a  Greek 

book  printed  ap.  A  Idi 1476 

He  introduces  the  Italics * 

The  Pentateuch,  in  Hebrew 1482 

Homer  in  folio,  beautifully  done  at  Florence, 

eclipsing  all  former  printing,  by  Demetrius  .  1488 
Caxton  prints  the  Boke  of  Eneydos  .  .  .  1490 
Aldus  Manutius  begins  printing  at  Venice  .  .  1494 

Printing  used  in  Scotland 1509 

The  first  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  was,  strictly 
ypeaking,    the     Complutensian   Polyglot   of 
cardinal  Ximenes  (see  Polyglot)  .        .        .     .  1517 
The  Liturgy,  the  first  book  printed  in  Ireland, 

by  Humphrey  Powell 1550 

Printing    in    Irish    characters  introduced  by 

Nicholas  Walsh,  chancellor  of  St.  Patrick's  .  1571 
The  first  newspaper  printed  in  England  (see 

Newspapers) 1588 

First  patent  granted  for  printing  .         .        .     .   1591 
First  printing-press  improved  by  William  Blaeu, 

at  Amsterdam 1601 

First  printing  in  America,  in  New  England, 


when  the  Freeman's  Oath  and  an  almanack 
were  printed  .......  16^9 

First  Bible  printed  in  Ireland  was  at  Belfast. 
Hardy's  Tour  .......  1704 

First  types  cast  in  England  by  Caslon.  Phillips.  1720 

Stereotype  printing  practised  by  William  Ged, 
of  Edinburgh,  about  .  .  .  .  .  1730 

The  present  mode  of  stereotype  invented  by 
Mr.  Tilloch,  about  .  ...  .  .  .  1779 

[Stereotype  printing  was  in  use  in  Holland  in 
the  last  century.  Phillips.'] 

Logographic  Printing  in  which  words  cast  in 
one  piece  were  employed :  patented  by  H. 
Johnson  and  Mr.  Walter  of  the  Times;  (soon 
disused)  ........  1783 

Machine-printing  (which  see)  first  suggested  by 
Nicholson ,  1790 

The  Stanhope  press  invented  about  1800 ;  in 
general  use 1806 

Columbian  press  of  Clymer  introduced      .        .1814 

Albion  press  introduced 1816 

The  roller,  which  was  a  suggestion  of  Nicholson, 
introduced ,, 

Cowper's  and  Applegath's  rollers   .        .        .     .  1817 

Printing  for  the  blind  (by  raised  characters) 
begins 1827 

Printer's  Pension  Society  established    .        .     .     ?> 

Type-composing  machines. — By  James  Young's 
several  numbers  of  the  "Family  Herald" 
were  set  up,  beginning  Dec.  17,  1842  ;  Hat- 
tersley's  appeared  at  the  Exhibition  of  1862  ; 
Hart's  was  shown  at  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  at  Cambridge  .  Oct.  6,  1862 

Printing- types  electvo-faced  with  copper,  about  1850 

Engraved  copper-plate  electro- faced  with  iron 
and  nickel 1858. 

W.  H.  Mitchel's  machine  was  tried  at  Messrs. 
Spottiswoode's,  1861  ;  these  machines  were 
said  to  be  in  use  in  America  in  .  Jan.  1863 

Miss  Emily  Faithfull  established  the  Victoria 
printing-office  in  Great  Coram-street,  London, 
in  which  female  compositors  are  employed : 
the  "  Englishwoman's  Journal  "  printed  there 
Aug.  1861  ;  appointed  printer  and  publisher 
in  ordinary  to  her  Majesty  .  .  .  June  1862 

[See  Printing  Machine,  Stereot ype,a3\d.Nature-Printing.} 


TITLES   OF   THE  EAELIEST   BOOKS   OF    CAXTON   AND   WYNKYN  DE   WOKDE. 


THE  GAME  AND  PLAYE  OF  THE  CHESSE.  f  Translated 
out  of  the  Frenche  and  etnprynted  by  me  William 
Caxton.  Fynysshid  the  laf-t  day  of  Marche  the  yer 
of  our  Lord  God  a  thousand  foure  hondred  and 
Ixxiiij. 

THE  BOKE  OF  TULLE  OF  OLDE  AGE  Em.prynted  by  me 
simple  persone  William  Caxton  into  Englysslie  as  the 
playsir  solace  and  revfrence  of  men  grouing  in  to  old 
age  the  xij  day  of  August  the  yere  of  our  Lord  M. 
cccc.  Ixxxj.  HERBERT. 

THE  POLYCRONYCON  conteyning  the  Berynges  and 
Dedes  of  many  Tymes  in  cyght  Bokes.  Imprinted  by 
William  Caxton  after  having  somewhat  chaunged 
the  rude  and  olde  Englysshe,  that  is  to  wete  [to  wit] 
certayn  Words  which  in  these  Dayes  be  neither  vsyd 
ne  understanden.  Ended  the  second  day  of  Jvyll  at 
Westmestre  the  xxij  yere  of  the  Regne  of  Kynge 
Edward  the  fourth,  and  of  the  Incarnacion  of  oure 
Lord  a  Thousand  four  Hondred  four  Score  and 
tweyne  [1482].  DIBDIN'S  TYP.  ANT. 


THECRONICLES  OF  EvGi.oxn Empnted  by  me  Wyllyam 
Caxton  t/iabbey  of  Wettmynstre  by  london  the  v  day 
of  Juyn  the  yere  of  thincarnacion  of  our  lord  god 

M.CCCC.LXXX. 

POLYCRONYCON.  Ended  the  thyrtenth  daye  of  Apryll 
the  tenth  yere  of  the  reyne  of  kinge  Harry  the  seuenth 
And  of  the  Jncarnacyon  of  our  lord  MCCCCLXXXXV. 
Emrrynted  by  Wynkyn  The  worde  at  Wermestre. 

THE  HYLLE  OF  PERFECTION  empryntfd  at  the  instance 
of  the  reverend  relygyous  fader  Tho.  Prior  of  the 
hous  of  St.  Ann,  the  order  of  the  charterouse  Accom- 
plysshe[d]  and  fynysshe[di]  att  Westmyn&ter  the  iiiii 
day  of  Janeuer  the  yere  of  our  lord  Thousands 
CCCC.LXXXXVII.  And  in  the  xii  yere  of  kynge  Henry 
the  vii  by  me  vrynkyn  de  worde.  AMES,  HERBERT, 
DIBDIN. 

THE  DESCRIPCYON  OF  ENGLONDE  Walys  Scotland  and 
Irlond  speaking  of  the  Noblesse  and  Worthynetse  of 
the  same  Fynysthfd  and  empryntfd  in  Flete  stretein 
the  syne  of  the  Sonne  by  me  Wynkyn  de  Worde  the 


*  To  the  west  of  the  Sanctuary  in  Westminster  Abbey,  stood  the  Eleemosynary  or  Almonry,  where 
the  first  printing-press  in  England  was  erected  in  1471,  by  William  Caxton,  encouraged  by  the  learned 
Thomas  Miling,  then  abbot.  He  produced  "  The  Game  and  Play  of  Cliesse,"  the  first  book  ever  printed  in 
these  kingdoms.  There  is  a  slight  difference  about  the  place  in  which  it  was  printed,  but  all  agree  that  it 
\vas  within  the  precincts  of  this  religious  house.  Leigh. 

t  A  fac-simile  of  this  book  was  printed  by  Mr.  Vincent  Figgins  in  1859. 


PPJ 


595 


PPJ 


FEINTING,  continued. 

yere  of  our  lord  a  M.  ccccc  and  ij.  mensis  Mayiis 
[mense  Mali].  DIBDIN'S  TYP.  ANT. 

The  Feslyvall  or  Sermons-  on  sondays  and  holidais 
taken  out  of  the  golden  legend  enprynted  at  london 
in  Flete-strele  at  ye  sygne  of  y*  Sonne  by  wynkyn  de 
worde.  In  the  yere  of  our  lord  M.  ccccc.  VITI.  And 
ended  the  xi  daye  of  Maye.  AMES. 

THE  LORD'S  PRAYER  [As  printed  by  Caxton  in  1413.] 
Father  our  that  art  in  heavens,  hallowed  be  thy  name : 
thy  kingdome  come  to  us  ;  thy  will  be  done  in  earth  as 
is  in  heaven  :  our  every  days  bread  give  us  to  day  ; 


and  forgive  us  cure  trespasses,  as  we  forgive  them 
that  trespass  against  us;  and  lead  us  not  into  tempta- 
tion, but  deliver  us  from  all  evil  sin,  amen.  LEWIS'S 
LIFE  OF  CAXTON. 

A  PLACARD.  [As  printed  by  William  Caxton.]  If  it 
plese  ony  man  spirituel  or  tempcrel  to  bye  ony  pies  of 
two  or  three  comemoracios  of  Salisburi  use*  enprynted 
after  the  forme  of  this  preset  lettre  whiche  ben  wel  and 
truly  correct,  late  him  come  to  westmonester  in  to  the 
almonestye  at  the  reed  pale  [red  palej  and  he  shall 
have  them  good  there.  DIBDIN'S  TYP.  ANT. 


PRINTING-MACHINES.— William  Nicholson,  editor  of 
the  Philosophical  Journal,  first  projected  (1790-1), 
but  M.  Konig  first  contrived  and  constructed  a 
working  printing-machine,  which  began  with  pro- 
ducing the  Times  of  Nov.  28,  1814,  a  memorable 
day  in  the  annals  of  typography. 

In  1815,  Mr.  E.  Cowper  applied  his  inventive  mind 
to  the  subject.! 

Konig' s  machine  printed  1800  an  hour  on  one  side  ; 
Cowper's  improvements  increased  this  number  to 
4200.  This  was  raised  to  15,000,  by  Mr.  Applegath's 
machine,  which  prints  the  'limes. 

Hoe's  American  machine  introduced  into  London  in 
1858,  prints  20,000  an  hour. 


PRINTING  IN  COLOURS  was  first  commenced  by  the 
employment  of  several  blocks,  to  imitate  the 
initial  letters  in  MSS.  (for  instance,  the  Mentz 
Psalter  of  Fust,  1457,  which  has  a  letter  in  three 
colours).  Imitations  of  chiaroscuro  soon  followed 
("Repose  in  Egypt,"  engraving  on  wood  after 
Louis  Cranach,  in  1519,  in  Germany :  others  by 
Ugo  da  Carpi,  in  Italy,  1518). 

J.  B.  Jackson  (1720-1754)  attempted,  without  suc- 


cess,  to  imitate  water-colour  drawings,  and  to 
print  paper-hangings. 

About  1783,  John  Skippe,  an  amateur,  printed  some 
chiaroscuros. 

In  1819-22,  Mr.  William  Savage  produced  his  re- 
markable work,  "Hints  on  Colour  Printing," 
illustrated  by  imitations  of  chiaroscuro,  and  of 
coloured  drawings,  giving  details  of  the  processes 
employed. 

In  1836,  Mr.  George  Baxter  produced  beautiful 
specimens  of  Picture-Printing,  and  took  out  a 
patent,  which  expired  in  1855.  In  some  of  the 
illustrations  to  the  "  Pictorial  Album  "  (1836),  he 
employed  twenty  different  blocks. 

It  has  been  applied  to  Lithography  (hence  Chromo- 
lithography). 

In  1849,  Mr«  G.  C.  Leigh  ton  produced  imitations  of 
water-colour-drawings,  by  means  of  modifications 
and  improvements  of  Savage's  processes.  In  1851 
he  commenced  colour-printing  by  machinery,  and 
has  since  availed  himself  of  aqua-tinted  plates, 
and  also  of  electrotyped  silver  and  copper  surfaces 
to  obtain  purity  of  "colour  as  well  as  durability. 

The  large  coloured  prints  of  The  Illustrated  London 
News  were  first  issued  in  Dec.  1856. 


PRIORIES,  at  first  dependent  on  the  great  abbeys,  are  mentioned  in  722  in  England. 
See  Abbeys  and  Monasteries.  The  priories  of  aliens  were  seized  by  the  king  (Edward  I.),  in 
1285,  and  in  succeeding  reigns  with  the  breaking  out  of  war  with  France  ;  but  were  usually 
restored  on  the  conclusion  of  peace.  These  priories  were  dissolved,  and  their  estates  vested 
in  the  crown,  3  Hen.  V.  1414.  Rymer's  Fcedera. 

PRISONERS  OF  WAR,  among  the  ancient  nations,  when  spared,  were  usually  enslaved. 
About  the  I3th  century,  civilised  nations  began  to  exchange  their  prisoners. 


The  Spanish,  French,  and  American  prisoners 
of  war  in  England  were  12,000  in  number, 

Sept.  30,  1779 

The  number  exchanged  by  cartel  with  France, 
from  the  commencement  of  the  then  war, 
was  44,000  .....  June,  1781 

The  English  prisoners  in  France  estimated  at 


6000,    and  the    French   in  England   27,000 

Sept.  1798 
The  English  in  France  amounted  to  10,300,  and 

the  French,  &c.,  in  England  to  47,600,  in  .     .  1811 
[This  was  the  greatest  number,  owing  to  the 

occasional  exchanges  made,  up  to  the  period 

of  the  last  war.] 


PRISONS  OF  LONDON.     See  Fleet,  King's  Bench,  Newgate,  Poultry,  Clerlcenwell. 


Horsemonger-lane  gaol  wras  built  in  .  .  .  1791 
The  state  of  prisons  greatly  improved  after  the 

exertions    of     Howard.  J      Cold    Bath-fields 

prison  was  built  on  his  suggestion  .  .  .  1 794 
The  atrocities  of  governor  Aris  in  this  prison 

were  exposed  in  parliament  .  .  July  12,  1800 
White  Cross-street  prison  for  debtors  was 

erected  in 1813-15 


Borough  compter;  mean  and  confined  till 
visited  by  a  parliamentary  committee  in  .  1817 

Savoy  prison,  for  the  confinement  of  deserters 
from  the  Guards,  formerly  situated  in  the 
Strand,  was  pulled  down  to  make  room  for 
Waterloo-bridge 1819 

New  Bridewell  prison  was  erected  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  City  Bridewell,  Blackfriars,  in  1829 


*  Romish  Service  books,  used  at  Salisbury  by  the  devout  called  Pies  (Pica,  Lathi),  as  is  supposed  from 
the  different  colour  of  the  text  and  rubric.  Our  printing-type  Pica  is  called  Cicero  by  foreign  printers. 
Wheatley. 

t  In  1817  was  published  Blumenbach's  Physiology  by  Elliotson,  ihe  first  book  printed  by  machinery. 
The  machine  employed  being  Bensley's  patent,  one  which  printed  both  sides  in  one  operation  at  the  rate 
of  900  sheets  an  hour  (1816). 

J  John  Howard  was  born  Sept.  2,  1726;  made  sheriff  of  Bedford,  1773;  investigated  into  the  state  of 
English  prisons,  1773-5  ;  and  gave  evidence  thereon  before  the  house  of  commons,  which  led  to  amend- 
ments by  law,  1774  ;  he  visited  prisons  all  over  the  continent,  and  died  at  Kherson,  Jan.  20,  1790. 

Q  Q  2 


PR  I  596  PRO 

PRISONS  OF  LONDON,  continued. 

Tothill  Fields  Bridewell,  built  in  1618,  was  re-  j  Middlesex  House  of  Detention,   Clerkenwell, 

built  in 1836  i      was  erected  in 1847 

The  old  Marshalsea  prison  was  pulled  down      .  1842  i  Hollo  way  prison  was  opened        .        .     Feb.  6,  1852 
Pentonville  Model  prison  was  completed  in       .     „      i  Act  passed  for  abolishing  Queen's  Bench  prison  1862 

1  Prison  Ministers'  act  passed 1863 

PRISON  DISCIPLINE  SOCIETY  owes  its  existence  to  the  philanthropic  labours  of 
sir  T.  F.  Buxton,  M.P.  It  was  instituted  in  1815,  and  held  its  first  public  meeting  in  1820. 
Its  objects  are  the  amelioration  of  gaols,  by  the  diffusion  of  information  respecting  their 
management,  the  classification  and  employment  of  the  prisoners,  and  the  prevention  of 
crime,  by  inspiring  a  dread  of  punishment,  and  by  inducing  the  criminal,  on  his  discharge, 
to  abandon  his  vicious  pursuits. 

PRIVATEER,  a  ship  belonging  to  private  individuals,  sailing  with  a  licence  (termed  a 
Letter  of  Marque),  granted  by  a  government  in  time  of  war,  to  seize  and  plunder  the  ships 
of  the  enemy.  The  practice,  said  to  have  been  adopted  by  Edward  I.  against  the  Portuguese 
in  1295,  was  general  during  the  war  between  Spain  and  the  Netherlands  in  the  1 7th  century, 
and  during  the  last  French  war.  Privateering  was  abolished  by  the  great  sovereigns  of 
Europe  by  treaty,  March  30,  1856.  The  United  States  government  refused  to  agree  unless 
the  right  of  blockade  was  also  given  up.  The  British  government  declined  this,  asserting 
"  that  the  system  of  commercial  blockade  was  essential  to  its  naval  supremacy."  On  April 
17,  1861,  Jefferson  Davis,  president  of  the  southern  confederacy,  announced  his  intention  of 
issuing  letters  of  marque,  and  on  the  ipth  president  Lincoln  proclaimed  that  all  southern 
privateers  should  be  treated  as  pirates.  This  decree  was  not  carried  out.  See  United  States. 
All  the  great  powers  forbade  privateering  during  the  American  civil  war. 

PRIVILEGED  PLACES.     See  Asylums. 

PRIVY  COUNCIL.  A  council  was  instituted  by  Alfred,  895.  The  number  of  the 
council  was  about  twelve  when  it  discharged  the  functions  of  state,  now  confined  to  the 
members  of  the  cabinet ;  but  it  had  become  of  unwieldy  amount  before  1679,  in  which 
year  it  was  remodelled  upon  sir  William  Temple's  plan,  and  reduced  to  thirty  members : 
Anthony  Ashley,  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  being  president.  The  number  is  now  unlimited.  To 
attempt  the  life  of  a  privy-councillor  in  the  execution  of  his  office  was  made  capital,  occa- 
sioned by  Guiscard's  stabbing  Mr.  Harley  while  the  latter  was  examining  him  on  a  charge 
of  high  treason,  9  Anne,  1711.* 

PRIVY  SEAL,  THE  LOED,  the  fifth  great  officer  of  state,  has  the  custody  of  the  privy 
seal,  which  he  must  not  put  to  any  grant,  without  good  warrant  under  the  king's  signet.  ! 
This  seal  is  used  by  the  king  to  all  charters,  grants,  and  pardons,  signed  by  the  king,  before 
they  come  to  the  great  seal.  Richard  Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester,  held  this  office  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  previously  to  1523,  when  Cuthbert  Tunstall,  bishop  of  London,  was 
appointed.  The  privy  seal  has  been  on  some  occasions  in  commission.  Beatson. 

PRIZE  MONEY,  arising  from  captures  made  from  the  enemy,  was  decreed  by  govern- 
ment to  be  divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  and  distributed  by  order  of  ranks,  April  1 7,  1 793. 

PROBATE  COURT,  established  in  1857  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  77,  which  abolished  alii! 
powers  exercised  by  the  Ecclesiastical  Courts  in  the  granting  of  probates  of  wills,  &c.     See 
Prerogative  Court.    The  first  judge,  appointed  Jan.  5,  1858,  was  sir  Cresswell  Cresswell,  who 
took  his  seat  on  Jan.  12.     On  his  death,  sir  James  P.  Wilde  was  appointed  judge,  Aug.  28, ,  j 
1863.     Probate  is  the  exhibiting  and  proving  a  will  before  the  proper  authority. 

PROCLAMATIONS,  ROYAL,  "have  only  a  binding  force  when  grounded  upon  and  to 
enforce  the  laws  of  the  realm."  Coke.  Henry  VIII.,  in  1539,  declared  that  they  were  as 
valid  as  acts  of  parliament. 

PROFILES.     The  first  profile  taken,  as  recorded,  was  that  of  Antigonus,  who,  having; | 
but  one  eye,  his  likeness  was  so  taken,  330  B.C.     Ashe.     "  Until  the  end  of  the  3rd  century, 

*  JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  PRIVV  COUNCIL.— In  lieu  of  the  Court  of  Delegates,  for  appeals  from 
the  lord  chancellors  of  Great  Britain  and  of  Ireland  in  cases  of  lunacy— from  the  Ecclesiastical  and 
Admiralty  courts  of  England,  and  the  Vice-Admiralty  courts  abroad— from  the  Warden  of  the  Stannaries, 
the  courts  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  other  islands,  and  the  Colonial  courts,  &c.,— fixed  by  statute  3  &  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  41,  1833.  Judge? — the  president  of  the  privy  council,  the  lord  chancellor,  and  such  members  of  the  privy 
council  as  may  hold  and  have  held  the  office  of  lord  keeper  or  first  commissioner  of  the  great  seal,  lord 
chief  justice  of  the  Queen's  Bench,  master  of  the  rolls,  vice-chancellor,  lord  chief  justice  of  the  Common 
Pleas,  lord  chief  baron,  judge  of  the  Admiralty,  chief  judge  of  the  court  of  Bankruptcy,  and  others  appointed 
by  the  queen,  being  privy  councillors. 


PRO 


597 


PltO 


I  have  not  seen  a  Roman  emperor  with  a  full  face  ;   they  were  always  painted  or  appeared  in 
profile,  which  gives  us  the  view  of  a  head  in  a  very  majestic  manner."     Addison. 

PROGRESSIONIST  THEORY  IN  NATURAL  HISTORY  supposes  that  the  existing 
species  of  animals  and  plants  were  not  originally  created,  but  were  gradually  developed 
from  simple  forms.  See  /Species. 

PROMISSORY  NOTES  were  regulated  and  allowed  to  be  made  assignable  in  1705. 
First  taxed  by  a  stamp  in  1782  :  the  tax  was  increased  in  1804,  and  again  in  1808,  and 
subsequently.  See  Bills  of  Exchange. 

PROPAGANDA  FIDE,  CONGREGATIO  DE  (congregation  for  the  propagation  of  the  faith 
of  the  Romish  church),  was  constituted  at  Rome  by  Gregory  XV.  in  1622. 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  GOSPEL  SOCIETY  received  its  charter,  June  16,  1701.  Its 
sphere  is  generally  limited  to  the  British  Colonies. 

PROPERTY  TAX.  The  assessments  on  real  property,  under  the  property  tax  of  1815, 
were  51,898,423?.;  of  which  Middlesex  was  5, 595, 537?.;  Lancashire,  3,087, 774?.;  and  York- 
shire, 4,700,000?.;  Wales,  2,153,801?.  See  Income  Tax. 

PROPHETS.     See  under  Jews. 

PROPHESYING  :  about  1570  the  puritanical  part  of  the  clergy,  particularly  at  North- 
ampton, held  meetings  (termed  prophesyings)  for  prayer  and  exposition  of  the  Scripture. 
These  were  forbidden  by  queen  Elizabeth,  May  7,  1577,  and  immediately  ceased. 

PROTECTIONIST,  a  name  given  to  that  section  of  the  Conservative  party  which 
opposed  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  and  which  separated  from  sir  Robert  Peel  in  1846.  The 
name  was  derived  from  a  "  Society  for  the  Protection  of  Agriculture,"  of  which  the  duke  of 
Richmond  was  chairman,  and  which  had  been  established  to  counteract  the  efforts  of  the 
Anti-Corn  Law  League,  Feb.  17,  1844.  Lord  George  Bentinck  was  the  head  of  the  party 
from  1846  till  his  death,  Sept.  21,  1848.  The  Derby  administration  not  proposing  the 
restoration  of  the  corn-laws,  the  above  society  was  dissolved,  Feb.  7,  1853. 

PROTECTORATES  IN  ENGLAND.  That  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke  began  Oct.  19,  1216, 
and  ended  by  his  death  the  same  year.  Of  Humphry,  duke  of  Gloucester,  in  England,  began 
Aug.  31,  1422;  he  was  murdered  Feb.  28,  1447.  Of  Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester,  began 
April  9,  1483,  and  ended  by  his  assuming  the  royal  dignity,  June  22,  the  same  year.  Of 
Somerset  began  Jan.  28,  1547,  and  ended  by  his  resignation  in  1549.  Of  Oliver  Cromwell 
began  Dec.  16,  1653,  and  ended  by  his  death,  Sept.  13,  1658.  0£  Richard  Cromwell  began 
Sept.  14,  1658,  and  ended  by  his  resignation,  May  5,  1659. 


PROTESTANTS.  The  emperor  Charles  V.  called  a  diet  at  Spires  in  1529,  to  request  aid 
from  the  German  princes  against  the  Turks,  and  to  devise  means  for  allaying  the  religious 
disputes  which  then  rageti  owing  to  Luther's  opposition  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 
Against  a  decree  of  this  diet,  to  support  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  six  Lutheran 
princes,  with  the  deputies  of  thirteen  imperial  towns,  formally  and  solemnly  protested,  April 
19,  1529.  Hence  the  term  Protestants  was  given  to  the  followers  of  Luther,  and  it  after- 
wards included  Calvinists,  and  all  other  sects  separated  from  the  see  of  Rome.  The  six  pro- 
testing princes  were  :  John  and  George,  the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg ;  Ernest  and 
Francis,  the  two  diikes  of  Lunenburg ;  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  ;  and  the  prince  of  Anhalt : 
these  were  joined  by  the  inhabitants  of  Strasbourg,  Nuremberg,  Ulm,  Constance,  Heilbron, 
and  seven  other  cities.  See  Lutkeranism,  Calvinism,  Huguenots,  Germany,  &c. 


Protestants  persecuted  in  Scotland  andGermany  1546 
Edward  VI.  established  Protestantism  in  Eng- 
land   1548 

Mary  re-establishes  Romanism,  and  persecutes 
the  Protestants  :  above  300  put  to  death  .     1553-8 


Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  and  Latimer,  bishop 
of  Worcester,  were  burnt  at  Oxford,  Oct.  16, 
1555  !  and  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury * March  21,  1556 

Elizabeth  restores  Protestantism  .        .        .     .  1558 


*  His  love  of  life  had  induced  Cranmer,  some  time  previously,  to  sign  a  paper  wherein  he  condemned 
the  Reformation  ;  and  when  he  was  led  to  the  stake,  and  the  fire  was  kindled  round  him,  he  stretched  forth 
his  right  hand,  with  which  he  had  signed  his  recantation,  that  it  might  be  consumed  before  the  rest  of  his 
body,  exclaiming  from  time  to  time,  •'  This  unworthy  hand  !  "  Raising  his  eyes  to  heaven,  he  expired 
with  the  dying  prayer  of  the  first  martyr  of  the  Christian  Church,  "  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit." 

The  following  documents  are  taken  from  a  "  Book  of  the  Joint  Diet,  Dinner,  and  Supper,  and  the  charge 


the  northern  counties  of  Ireland,  established 
in  Dublin  in Dec. 

(London)  Protestant  Society,  established  1827  ; 
Protestant  Association,  1835;  Protestant  Al- 
liance   

Protestant  Conservative  Society  established 

Dec.  g,  1831 

Protestant  alliance  formed  at  Armagh  .  Nov.  7,  1845 


PROTESTANTS,  continued. 

Protestant  settlements  formed  in  Ulster,  N.  Ire- 
land   1608-11 

Thirty  years'  war  between  Romanists  and  Pro- 
testants in  Germany  ....  1618-48 

Protestants  persecuted  at  Thorn  in  Poland        .  1724 

Protestant  Association  (see  "  Gordon's  No- 
Popery"  Mob)  1780 

A  society  for  planting  communities  of  the  poorer 
Protestants  on  tracts  of  land,  particularly  in 

PROVENCE  (the  Roman  Provincia),  S.  E.  France,  was  made  a  kingdom  by  the  emperor 
Lothaire  for  his  son  Charles.  It  afterwards  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries  as  a  feudal 
country,  and  was  re-united  to  the  German  empire  in  1032  by  Conrad  II.  On  the  fall  of  the 
Hohenstaufens  it  was  acquired  by  Charles  of  Anjou,  king  of  Naples,  in  1265  ;  and  was  held 
by  his  successors  till  its  annexation  to  France  by  Louis  XL  in  1481. 

PROVERBS.  The  Book  of  Proverbs  by  Solomon  is  dated  about  1000  B.C.  The  latter 
part  were  collected  by  order  of  Hezekiah,  about  700  B.C.  Ray's  collection  of  English  pro- 
verbs appeared  in  1672,  and  Bonn's  general  collection  in  1857. 

PROVISIONS— REMARKABLE  STATEMENTS  CONCERNING  THEM.     See  Oxford. 


Wheat  for  food  for  100  men  for  one  day  worth  only 
one  shilling,  and  a  sheep  for  fourpence,  Henry  I. 
about  1130.  The  price  of  wine  raised  to  sixpence 
per  quart  for  red,  and  eightpence  for  white,  that 
the  sellers  might  be  enabled  to  live  by  it,  2  John, 
T2oo.  Burton's  Annals. 

When  wheat  was  at  6s.  per  quarter,  the  farthing  loaf 
was  to  be  equal  in  weight  to  twenty-four  ounces 
(made  of  the  whole  grain),  and  to  sixteen  the  white. 
When  wheat  was  is.  6d.  per  quarter,  'the  farthing 
white  loaf  was  to  weigh  sixty-four  ounces,  and  the 
whole  grain  (the  same  as  standard  now)  ninety-six, 
by  the  first  assize,  1202.  Mat.  Paris. 

A  remarkable  plenty  in  all  Europe,  1280.   Dufresnoy. 

Wheat  is.  per  quarter,  14  Edw.  I.  1286.     Stow. 

The  price  of  provisions  fixed  by  the  common  council 
of  London  as  follows :  two  pullets,  three  half-pence ; 
a  partridge,  or  two  woodcocks,  three  half-pence  ; 
a  fat  lamb,  sixpence  from  Christmas  to  Shrovetide, 


the  rest  of  the  year  fourpence,  29  Edw.  I.  1299. 
Stoio. 

Price  of  provisions  fixed  by  parliament :  at  the  rate 
of  2.1.  8s.  of  our  money  for  a  fat  ox,  if  fed  with  corn, 
3^.  i2S.;  a  shorn  sheep,  55.;  two  dozen  of  eggs,  yl.\ 
other  articles  nearly  the  same  as  fixed  by  the 
common  council  above  recited,  7  Edw.  II.  1313. 
Rot.  Parl. 

Wine  the  best  sold  for  20?.  per  tun,  10  Rich.  II.  1387. 
Wheat  being  at  is.  id.  the  bushel  in  1390,  this  was 
deemed  so  high  a  price  that  it  is  called  a  dearth  of 
corn  by  the  historians  of  that  era. 

Beef  and  pork  settled  at  a  half-penny  the  pound,  and 
veal  three  farthings,  by  act  of  parliament,  24  Hen. 
VIII.  1533.  Anderson. 

Milk  was  sold  three  pints,  ale-measure,  for  one  half- 
penny, 2  Eliz.  1560.  Stow's  Chronicle. 

In  the  autumn  of  1865,  meat,  and  milk,   and  butter 
j      increased  in  price,  owing  to  the  cattle-plague. 
I  For  the  price  of  Bread  since  1735,  see  Bread. 

PROVVEDIMENTO  SOCIETIES  in  Italy,  formed  to  aid  in  acquiring  Rome  and 
Venice,  elect  Garibaldi  as  their  chief,  March  10,  1862.  They  were  tolerated  by  Ricasoli, 
but  warned  to  be  moderate  by  Rattazzi. 

PRUD'HOMMES,  CONSEILS  DE  (from  prudens  homo,  a  prudent  man),  trade  tribunals 
in  France,  composed  of  masters  and  workmen,  were  constituted  to  arbitrate  on  trade  disputes 
in  1806.  Similar  bodies  with  this  name  existed  as  far  back  as  1452  at  Marseilles,  and  at 
Lyons  in  1464. 

PRUSSIA.  This  country  was  anciently  possessed  by  the  Venedi,  about  320  B.C.  They 
were  conquered  by  the  Borussi,  who  inhabited  the  Riphsean  mountains  ;  and  from  these  the 
country  was  called  Borussia.  Some  historians,  however,  derive  the  name .  from  Po,  signi- 

thereof,  for  Cranmer,  laiimer,  and  Ridley,"  kept  by  the  bailiffs  of  Oxford,  while  they  were  in  the  custody 
of  those  officers,  previously  to  their  being  burnt  alive  : — 


Oysters      
Butter 

.       .       001 

.008 

A  piece  of  fresh  salmon  . 
Wine 

.       .       0      0    10 

Cheese  and  Dears 

Item,  for  the  carriage  of  these  4  loads 

Item,  a  post 

Item,  2  chains        .... 

Item,  2  staples 

Item,  4  labourers  .... 


.£o 


The  three  dinners    .        .        .          £026 

TO  BURN  LATIMER  AND  RIDLEY. 

For  3  load  of  wood  faggots   .        .        .        .  £o  12    o 
Item,  i  load  of  furze  faggots 034 


TO  BURN  CRANMER. 

For  ioo  wood  faggots  for  the  fire 
For  ioo  and  £  of  furze 
For  the  carriage  of  them 
For  2  labourers 


.£o 


£o  12    8 


PKU 


PRU 


lung  near,  and  Russia.  The  Porussi  afterwards  intermixed  with  the  followers  of  the 
Teutonic  knights,  and  latterly  with  the  Poles.  The  constitution,  established  Jan.  31,  1850, 
was  modified  April  30,  1851 ;  May  21,  June  5,  1852  ;  May  7  and  24,  1853  ;  June  10,  1854; 
May  30,  1855;  and  May  15,  1857.  Population,  with  Laueuburg  (annexed  Aug.  14,  1865), 


),  304,843. 

St.  Adalbert  arrives  in  Prussia  to  preach 

Christianity,  and  is  slain  about  .  .  .  . 

Boleslaus  of  Poland  revenges  his  death  by 
dreadful  ravages 


997 

1018 
Berlin  built  by  a  colony  from  the  Netherlands, 

in  the  reign  of  Albert  the  Bear  .         .         .     .  1163 
The  Teutonic  knights  returning  from  the  holy 
wars,  undertake  the  conquest  of  Prussia,  and 
the  conversion  of  the  people    ....  1225 
Thorn  founded  by  them  .         .        .        .  .   1231 


Konigsberg,  lately  built,  made  the  capital 

The  Teutonic  knights  almost  depopulate  Prussia. 
It  is  repeopled  by  German  colonists  in  the  i3th 
century 

Frederick  IV.  of  Nuremberg  (the  founder  of  the 
reigning  family)  obtains  by  purchase  from 
Sigismond,  emperor  of  Germany,  the  mar- 
graviate  of  Brandenburg 

Casimir  IV.  of  Poland  assists  the  natives  against 


1286 


I4I5 
1446 


the  oppression  of  the  Teutonic  knights  . 
Albert   of  Brandenberg,   grand  master  of  the 
w  Teutonic  order,  renounces  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  embraces  Lutheranism,   and   is  ac- 
knowledged duke  of  East  Prussia,  to  be  held 

as  a  fief  of  Poland 1525 

University  of    Konigsberg    founded  by   duke 

Albert 1544 

John  Sigismond  created  elector  of  Brandenburg 

and  duke  of  Prussia 1608 

The    principality     of     Halberstadt    and    the 
bishopric  of  Minden  transferred  to  the  house 

of  Brandenburg 1648 

Poland  obliged  to  acknowledge  Prussia  as  an 
independent  state,  under  Frederick  William, 
surnamed  the  Great  Elector    ....  1657 
Order  of  Concord  instituted  by  Christian  Ernest, 
elector  of  Brandenburg  and  duke  of  Prussia, 
to  distinguish  the  part  he  had  taken  in  re- 
storing peace  to  Europe 1660 

Frederick  III.  in  an  assembly  of  the  states,  puts 

a  crown  upon  his  own  headand  upon  the  head 

of  his   consort,   and  is  proclaimed    king  of 

Prussia  by  the  title  of  Frederick  I.    .  Jan.  18,  1701 

Order     of     the    Black    Eagle    instituted    by 

Frederick  I.  on  the  day  of  his  coronation       .     „ 
Guelders  taken  from  the  Dutch       .        .         .     .  1702 
Frederick  I.   seizes  Neufcha'tgl  or  Neunburg, 

and  purchases  Tecklenburg      ....  1707 
The  principality  of  Meurs  added  to  Prussia  .     .  1712  j 
Reign  of  Frederick  the   Great,   during  which 
the    Prussian    monarchy  is    made  to    rank 
among  the  first  powers  in  Europe   .        .         .  1740 

Breslau  ceded  to  Prussia         1741 

8ile8ia,  Glatz,  &c.  ceded 1742 

Frederick  II.,  the  Great,  visits  England  .  .  1744 
*' Seven  years'  war"  (which  see)  begins  .  .  1756 
Frederick  II.  victor  at  Prague,  May  6 ;  defeated 

at  Kolin,  May  18;  victor  at  Rosbach,  Nov.  5,  1757 
General  Lacy,  with  an  Austrian-Russian  army, 
marches  to  Berlin  ;  the  city  is  laid  under  con- 
tribution, &c.  ;  magazines  destroyed          .     .  1760 
Peace  of    Hubertsburg   (ends    "seven    years' 

war")         .        .         .         .  .     Feb.  15,  1763 

Frederick  the  Great  dies         .        .         Aug.  17,  1786 

War  with  France 1792 

The  Prussians  seize  Hanover  .  .  1801  and  1806 
Prussia  joins  the  allies  of  England  against 


Germany  at  the  king's  appeal,  and  form  the 
"  " 


laudwehr"  or  militia 
Treaty  of  Paris 
The  king  visits  England  . 


March  17,  1813 

April  n,  1814 

June  6,  ,, 

June  18,  „ 

.         .  1817 

.Aug.  i,  1819 

Sept.  12,  ,, 


France 
Fatal  battles  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt  . 

[Nearly  all  the  monarchy  subdued.] 
Berlin  decree  promulgated 
Pevce  of  Tilsit  (ichich  see) 
Convention  of  Berlin 


.  Oct.  6,  ,, 

Oct.  14,  „ 

Nov.  20,  ,, 

.  July  7,  1807 


Dines  at  Guildhall 

Ministry  of  education  established 

Congress  of  Carlsbad 

Blucher  dies  in  Silesia,  aged  77  . 

[From  this  time  Prussia  pursued  a  peaceful  and 

undisturbed  policy  until  1848.] 
Serious  attempt  made  on  the  life  of  the  king, 
by  an  assassin  named  Tesch,  who  fired  two 

shots  at  him July  26,  1844 

Insurrection  in  Berlin        .        .        .  March  18,  1848 
Berlin  declared  in  a  state  of  siege  Nov.  12,     ,, 
The  Constituent  Assembly  meets  in  Branden- 
burg castle Nov.  29,    ,, 

This  assembly  is  dissolved,  and  the  king  issues 

a  new  constitution  to  his  subjects  .       Dec.  5,     ,, 
The  German  National  Assembly  elect  the  king 
of    Prussia    "hereditary    emperor    of    the 

Germans" March  28,  1849 

The  king  declines  the  imperial  crown,  April  29,  „ 
The  kingdom  put  under  martial  law  .  May  10,  „ 
The  Prussians  enter  Carlsruhe  .  June  23,  „ 
j  Armistice  between  Prussia  &  Denmark,  July  10,  „ 
Bavaria  declared  an  imperial  constitution  with 

the  king  of  Prussia  at  its  head  .  Sept.  8,  ,, 
Treaty  between  Prussia  and  Austria  Sept.  30,  „ 
Austria  protests  against  the  alliance  of  Prussia 

with  the  minor  states  of  Germany  Nov.  12,  ,, 
New  constitution,  Jan.  31 ;  the  king  takes  the 

oath  required  by  it        .         .        .        .  Feb.  6,  1850 
Hanover  withdraws  from  the  Prussian  alliance, 

Feb,  25,     „ 

Treaty   signed   at    Munich  between    Austria, 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wurtemberg  to  main- 
tain the  German  union         .        .         Feb.  27,     ,, 
Wurtembei-g  denounces  the  insidious  ambition, 
of  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  announces  a  league 
between  Wurtemberg,  Bavaria,  and  Saxony, 
under  the  sanction  of  Austria  .          March  15,     ,, 
Attempt  to  assassinate  the  king    .          May  22,     „ 
Hesse-Darmstadt  withdraws  from  the  Prussian 

league June  30,    ,, 

Treaty  of  peace  between  Prussia  and  Denmark, 

July  2,     ,, 

A  congress  of  deputies  from  the  states  included 
in  the  Prussian  Zollverein  opened  at  Cassel, 

July  12,     ,, 
Prussia  refuses  to  join  the  restricted  diet  of 

Frankfort Aug.  25,     ,, 

The  Prussian  government  addresses  a  despatch 
to  the  cabinet  of  Vienna,  declaring  its  resolve 
to  uphold  the  constitution  in  Hesse-Cassel, 

Sept.  21,    „ 
Count  Brandenburg,  prime  minister  of  Prussia, 

dies Nov.  6,    ,, 

Decree,  calling  out  the  whole  Prussian  army, 
223,000  infantry,   38,000  cavalry,  and  29,000 
artillery,  with  1080  field-pieces         .     Nov.  7,     ,, 
The  Prussian  troops  in  Hesse  occupy  the  mili- 
tary road  in  that  electorate .         .        .  Nov.  9,     „ 
The  Prussian  forces  withdraw  from  the  grand 

duchy  of  Baden  ....  Nov.  14,  ,, 
Gener  il  Radowitz,  late  foreign  minister,  visits 

queen  Victoria  at  Windsor  .  ,  Nov.  26,  „ 
Convention  of  Olmutz  for  the  pacification  ot 

Germany Nov.  29,     „ 

The  Prussian  troops  commence  their  retreat 

from  Hesse-Cassel Dec.  5,     ,, 

Prince  Schwartzenberg  visits  the  king,  Dec.  28,    „ 


Nov.  5,  1808  i  The  king  celebrates  the  i5oth  anniversary  of 


The    people  rise  to    expel  the    French   from  i     the  Prussian  monarchy 


Jan.  18,  1851 


PB.U  600 


PRU 


- 


PRUSSIA,  continued. 

The  king  visits  tbe  Czar  of  Russia     .     May  18,  1851 

The  king  and  Czar  leave  Warsaw  for  Olmutz  to 
meet  the  emperor  of  Austria  .  May  27,  ,, 

Statue  of  Frederick  the  Great,  by  Ranch,  in- 
augurated at  Berlin  ....  May  31,  ,, 

The  king  revives  the  council  of  state  as  it  ex- 
isted before  the  revolution  of  1848  .  Jan.  12,  1852 

A  Prussian  industrial  exhibition  opened  at 
Berlin May  28,  „ 

Prussia  repudiates  a  customs'  union  with 
Austria June  7,  ,, 

But  agrees  to  a  commercial  treaty         Feb.  19,  1853 

Plot  at  Berlin  detected     ....  April,     ,. 

Death  of  Radowitz        ....    Dec.  25,     „ 

Vacillation  of  the  government  upon  the  Eastern 
question.  .  .  .  March  and  April,  1854 

Agrees  to  a  protocol  for  preservation  of  the 
integrity  of  Turkey,  which  is  signed  at 
Vienna April  7,  ,, 

Continues  neutral  in  the  war,  Sept.  21,  Oct.  13,     ,, 

Excluded  from  the  conferences  at  Vienna,  Feb.  1855 

Dispute  with  Switzerland  (see  Neufchdtcl) 

Nov.  1856  to  May,  1857 

Alarming  illness  of  the  king,  the  prince  of 
Prussia  appointed  regent  .  .  Oct.  23,  ,, 

Chevalier  Bunsen  ennobled   .        .         .        Jan.  1858 

Prince  Frederick  William  of  Prussia  married  to 
the  princess  royal  of  England  .  Jan.  25,  ,, 

Queen  Victoria  visits  them  at  Potsdam  .     Aug.     ,, 

Prince  of  Prussia  made  permanent  regent, 

Oct.  7,  ,, 

Resignation  of  Manteuffel  ministry ;  succeeded 
by  that  of  prince  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 
(liberal) :  the  elections  end  in  favour  of  the 
new  government Nov.  , , 

Prince  Frederick  William,  son  of  the  princess 
royal  of  England,  born  .  .  .  Jan.  27,  1859 

Italian  war  — Prussia  declares  its  neutrality,  but 
arms  to  protect  Germany  May  and  June,  ,, 

The  regent  announces  that  "  the  Prussian  army 
will  be  in  future  the  Prussian  nation  in  arms," 

Jan  12,  1860 

The  regent  and  several  German  sovereigns  meet 
the  emperor  of  the  French  at  Baden  (see 
Baden) June  15-17,  „ 

Baron  Bunsen  dies  (aged  70)  .        .          Nov.  27,     ,, 

Disclosures  respecting  the  oppressive  system  of 
Prussian  police.  Stieber,  the  director,  prose- 
cuted and  censured,  but  not  punished  Nov.  ,, 

Death  of  Frederick  William  IV.  Accession  of 
William  I. Jan.  2,  1861 

Meeting  of  the  chambers :  on  the  motion  for 
the  address,  M.  Von  Vincke  carries  an 
amendment  in  favour  of  Italian  Unity  and 
"  a  firm  alliance  with  England  "  .  Feb.  6,  „ 

The  Macdonald  affair*  settled  by  a  firm  yet 
conciliatory  despatch  from  the  Baron  von 
Schleinitz May,  ,, 

Attempted  assassination  of  the  king  by  Becker, 
a  Leipsic  student,  July  14;  who  is  sentenced 
to  20  years  imprisonment  .  .  Sept.  23,  ,, 

The  king  meets  the  emperor  Napoleon  at  Com- 
peigne Oct.  6-8,  ,, 

The  king  and  queen  crowned  at  Konigsberg ; 
he  declares  that  he  will  reign  by  the  "Grace 
of  God" Oct.  18,  ,, 

Bill  for  making  the  ministry  responsible,  passed, 

March  6,  1862 

The  chamber  of  representatives  oppose  the  go- 
vernment in  regard  to  the  length  of  military 
service,  March  6  ;  and  resolve  on  discussing 
the  items  of  the  budget ;  the  ministry  resigns ; 
the  king  will  not  accept  the  resignation,  but 
dissolves  the  chambers,  .  .  .  March  n,  „ 


The  ministry  (liberal),  resign,  and  a  reactionary 

cabinet  formed  under  Van  der  Heydt,  March 

1 8— April  12, 

Elections  go  against  the  government :  only  one 
minister  elected May, 

Parliament  opens ;  ministers  appeal  to  the 
patriotism  of  the  members  .  .  May  19, 

Severe  discussion  on  military  expenditure  ;  the 

chamber  reduces  the  vote  for  the  maintenance 

of  the  army  from  200,000  to   135,000  men, 

Sept.  11-16, 

Van  der  Heydt  resigns ;  succeeded  as  premier 
by  the  Count  Bismarck  Schonhausen,  Sept.  ; 
who  informs  the  chamber  that  the  budget  is 
deferred  till  1863  ;  the  chamber  protests 
against  this  as  unconstitutional  Sept  30, 

The  chamber  of  peers  passes  the  budget  with- 
out the  amendments  of  the  chamber  of 
representatives;  which  (by  237  against  2) 
resolves  that  the  act  is  contrary  to  the  letter 
and  spirit  of  the  constitution  .  .  Oct.  n, 

The  king  closes  the  session  (65th)  saying,  "The 
budget  for  the  year  1862,  as  decreed  by  the 
chamber  of  representatives,  having  been 
rejected  by  the  chamber  of  peers  on  the 
ground  of  insufficiency,  the  government  of 
his  majesty  is  under  the  necessity  of  con- 
trolling the  public  affairs  outside  the  consti- 
tution."   Oct.  13, 

Agitation  in  favour  of  the  constitution  proceed- 
ing :  passive  resistance  adopted ;  several 
liberal  papers  suppressed  .  .  .  Nov. 

The  chambers  reassemble ;  unconciliatory 
address  from  the  king,  Jan.  14;  and  bold 
reply  of  the  deputies ;  adopted  .  Jan.  23, 

They  recommend  neutrality  in  the  Polish  war 

Feb.  28, 

Violent  dissension  between  the  deputies  and 
the  ministry May, 

The  chamber  of  deputies  address  the  king  on 
their  relation  with  the  ministry,  and  the  state 
of  the  country,  May  22  ;  the  king  replies,  that 
his  ministers  possess  his  confidence,  and 
adjourns  the  session  .  .  .  May  27, 

Resolves  to  govern  without  a  parliament 

The  press  _  severely  restricted,  June  i ;  the 
crown  prince  in  a  speech  disavows  participa- 
tion in  the  recent  acts  of  the  ministry,  June 
5  ;  and  censures  them  in  a  letter  to  the  king, 
July  6  ;  reconciled  to  the  king  .  Sept.  8, 

The  liberal  members  feted  in  the  provinces, 
July  1 8,  19, 

The  chamber  of  deputies  dissolved,  Sept.  2  ;  a 
liberal  majority  re-elected  .  .  .  Oct. 

A  motion  in  favour  of  maintaining  the  rights 
of  the  duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein, 
carried  Dec.  2  ;  but  the  chamber  obstinately 
refuses  its  assent  to  it  or  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  war Dec. 

Chambers  dissolved Jan. 

[For  the  events  of  the  war,  see  Denmark.] 

Preliminaries  for  peace  with  Denmark    Aug.  i, 

Peace  with  Denmark  signed  .         .          Oct.  30, 

The  opening  of  the  chambers,  Jan.  14  :  revival 
of  the  constitutional  agitation  for  control 
over  the  army  budget  .  .  .  Jan.  16, 

International  exhibition  at  Cologne  opened  by 
the  crown  prince  .  .  .  .  June  2, 

The  deputies  having  rejected  the  budget,  the 
bills  for  reorganising  the  army  and  increasing 
the  fleet,  and  meeting  the  expense  of  the  war 
with  Denmark,  the  chamber  is  prorogued  ; 
the  government  will  rule  without  it  June  1 7, 

The  king  at  Carlsbad  issues  a  despotic  decree 


1862 


1863 


*  On  Sept.  12,  1860,  captain  Macdonald  was  committed  to  piison  at  Bonn,  for  resisting  the  railway 
authorities  there.  The  English  residents  appealed  and  were  also  censured.  A  correspondence  ensued 
between  the  Prussian  government  and  the  British  foreign  secretary  ;  and  strong  language  was  uttered  in 
the  house  of  commons,  April  26,  and  in  the  Prussian  chambers,  May  6,  1861. 


PRU 


601 


PUB 


PRUSSIA,  continued. 

iting  and  disposing  of  the  revenue, 

July  s, 

litical  dinner  of  the  liberal  deputies  pro- 
iibited  at  Cologne,  and  forcibly  prevented  at 
Overlahnstein  in  Nassau  .  .  July  24, 


Convention  of    Gastein    (see  Gastein)  signed, 

Aug.  14,  1865 

The    king     takes     possession    of     Lauenburg 
purchased  from  Austria  with  his  own  money, 

Sept.  15,    ,r 


MARGRAVES,    ELECTORS,    DUKES,    AND    KINGS. 


MARGRAVES  OR   ELECTORS   OF   BRANDENBURG.  | 

Albert  I.  surnamed  the  Bear,  first  elector  of 

Brandenburg. 
1170.    Otho  I. 
1184.    Otho  II. 
1206.    Albert  II. 
1221.   John  I.  and  Otho  III. 
1266.   John  II. 
1282.   Otho  IV. 
1309.   Waldemar. 

1319.  Hemy  I.  the  Young. 

1320.  [Interregnum.] 
1323.    Louis  I.  of  Bavaria. 

1352.  Louis  II.  surnamed  the  Roman. 

1365.  Otho  V.  the  Sluggard. 

1373.  Wenceslas,  of  Luxemburg. 

1378.  Sigismund,  of  Luxemburg. 

1388.  Jossus,  the  Bearded. 

1411.  Sigismund  again,  emperor. 

1415.  Frederick  I.  of  Nuremberg  (of  the  house  of 

HOHENZOLLERN). 

1440.  Frederick  II.  surnamed  Ironside. 

1470.  Albert  III.  surnamed  the  German  Achilles. 

1476.  Jobn  III.  his  son;   as  Margrave;  styled  the 

Cicero  of  Germany. 

1486.  John  III.  as  elector. 

1499.  Joachim  I.  son  of  John. 

1535.  Joachim  II.  poisoned  by  a  Jew. 

1571.  John-George. 


1 598.   Joachim-Frederick. 
1608.   John-Sigismund. 

DUKES   OF   PRUSSIA. 

1 6 1 8 .  John-Sigismund. 

1619.  George- William. 

1640.    Frederick- William,  his  son ;    generally  styled 

the  ' '  Great  Elector. " 
1688.   Frederick  III.  son  of  the  preceding;  crowned 

king,  Jan.  18,  1701. 


KINGS  OF  PRUSSIA. 

Frederick  I.  :  king. 

Frederick- William  I.  son  of  Frederick  I. 

Frederick  II.  (Frederick  III.;  styled  the 
Great),  son  ;  made  Prussia  a  military  power. 
1786.  Frederick- William  II.,  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding king. 

Frederick-William  III.  He  had  to  contend 
against  the  might  of  Napoleon,  and  after 
extraordinary  vicissitudes,  he  aided  England 
in  his  overthrow. 

Frederick- William  IV.  son ;  succeeded  June  7 


1701. 


1740. 


1797. 


1840. 
1860. 


(born  Aug.  3,  1770;  died  Jan.  2,  1861). 

William  I.  brother  ;  born  March  22,  1797. 

Heir.  His  son  prince  Frederick- William,  born 
Oct.  1 8,  1831  ;  married  Victoria,  princess- 
royal  of  England,  Jan.  25,  1858.  They  have 
four  children. 


PRUSSIC  ACID  (or  hydrocyanic  acid)  is  colourless,  smells  like  peach  flowers,  freezes  at 
5°  Fahrenheit,  is  very  volatile,  and  turns  vegetable  blues  into  red.  It  was  accidentally 
discovered  by  Diesbach,  a  German  chemist,  in  1709.  Scheele  first  obtained  this  acid  in  a 
separate  state,  about  1 782.  Simple  water  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the  lauro-cerasus  was 
first  ascertained  to  be  a  most  deadly  poison  by  Dr.  Madden  of  Dublin. 

PRYTANIS,  a  magistrate  of  Corinth,  annually  elected  from  745  B.C.  till  the  office  was 
abolished  by  Cypselus,  a  despot,  655  B.C. 

PSALMS  OF  DAVID  were  collected  by  Solomon,  1000  B.C.  ;  others  were  added  580  and 
515  B.C.  The  old  Church  of  England  version  in  metre  by  Sternhold  and  Hopkins  was 
published  in  1562  ;  the  N^ew  Version  by  Tate  and  Brady  in  1598. 

PSEUDOSCOPE,  a  name  given  by  professor  Wheatstone  (in  1852)  to  the  stereoscoper 
when  employed  to  produce  "conversions  of  relief,"  i.e.,  the  reverse  of  the  stereoscope  :  a 
terrestrial  globe  appears  like  a  hollow  hemisphere. 

PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM.  Claudius  Ptolemy  of  Pelusium,  in  Egypt  (about  A.D.  140), 
supposed  that  the  earth  was  fixed  in  the  centre  of  the  imiverse,  and  that  the  sun,  rnoon,  and 
stars  moved  round  once  in  twenty-four  hours.  This  system  (long  the  official  doctrine  of  the 
church  of  Rome)  was  universally  taught  till  that  of  Pythagoras  (500  B.C.)  was  revived  by 
Copernicus,  A.D.  1530,  and  demonstrated  by  Kepler  (1619)  and  Newton  (1687). 

PUBLIC  -EDUCATION,  HEALTH,  &c.     See  Education,  Health. 
PUBLIC  HOUSES.     See  Victuallers. 

PUBLIC  SAFETY,  COMMITTEE  OF,  was  established  at  Paris  during  the  French  Revo- 
lution on  April  6,  1793,  with  absolute  power  ;  in  consequence  of  the  coalition  against  France. 
The  severe  government  of  this  committee  is  termed  the  Reign  of  Terror,  which  ended  with 
the  execution  of  Robespierre  and  his  associates,  July  28,  1 794. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.     See  Education. 

PUBLIC  WORKS  ACT,  passed  July  21,  1863,  to  provide  work  for  unemployed  persons 
in  the  manufacturing  districts  at  the  time  of  the  cotton  famine.  It  enabled  corporate 
bodies  to  raise  loans,  and  proved  very  successful. 


PUB  602  PUR 

PUBLIC  WORKS  AND  BUILDINGS.  The  sum  voted  for  this  purpose  in  1862  was 
692,215^.;  in  1863,  893, 523?.;  in  1864,  867,518^.;  in  1865,  799>37<^- 

PUDDLING,  making  the  walls  of  canals  water-tight  "by  means  of  clay  was  largely 
adopted  by  Briudley  in  constructing  the  Bridgewater  canals,  1761  ct  seq.  See  also  under  Iron 
Manufacture. 

PUEBLA.     See  Mexico,  1863.  PUGILISM.     See  Boxing. 

PULLEY.  The  pulley,  together  with  the  vice  and  other  mechanical  instruments,  are 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Archytas  of  Tarentum,  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  about  516  B.C. 
It  has  been  ascertained  that  in  a  single  moveable  pulley  the  power  gained  is  doubled.  In  a 
continued  combination  the  power  is  equal  to  the  number  of  pulleys,  less  one,  doubled. 

PULTOWA  (Russia),  where  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was  entirely  defeated  by  Peter  the 
Great  of  Russia,  July  8,  1 709.  He  fled  to  Bender,  in  Turkey. 

PULTUSK  (Russia),  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  Saxons  under  king  Augustus,  and 
the  Swedes  under  Charles  XII.,  in  which  the  former  were  signally  defeated,  May  I,  1703. 
Here  also  the  French  under  Napoleon  fought  the  Russian  and  Prussian  armies ;  both  sides 
claimed  the  victory,  but  it  inclined  in  favour  of  the  French,  Dec.  26,  1806. 

PUMPS.  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  is  said  to  have  invented  pumps  (with  other  hydraulic 
instruments),  about  224  B.C.,  although  the  invention  is  ascribed  to  Danaus,  at  Lindus, 
1485  B.C.  Pumps  were  in  general  use  in  England,  A.D.  1425.  An  inscription  on  the  pump 
in  front  of  the  late  Royal  Exchange,  London,  stated  that  the  well  was  first  sunk  in  1282. 
The  air-pump  was  invented  by  Otto  Guericke  in  1654,  and  improved  by  Boyle  in  1657. 

PUNCTUATION.  The  ancients  do  not  appear  to  have  had  any  system,  and  doubtless 
employed  arbitrary  signs  to  distinguish  the  parts  of  a  discourse.  Of  our  points  the  period  (.) 
is  the  most  ancient.  The  colon  (:)  was  introduced  about  1485  ;  the  comma  (,)  was  first  seen 
about  1521,  and  the  semicolon  (;)  about  1570.  In  sir  Philip  Sidney's  "Arcadia"  (1587), 
they  all  appear,  as  well  as  the  note  of  interrogation  (?),  asterisk  (*),  and  parentheses  (). 

PUNIC  WARS.     See  Carthage,  264  B.C. 

PUNISHMENTS.  See  Beheading,  Blinding,  Boiling,  Death,  Drowning,  Flogging,  and 
Poisoning. 

PUNJAB  (N.  W.  Hindostan),  was  traversed  by  Alexander  the  Great,  327  B.C.;  and  by 
Tamerlane,  A.D.  1398.  The  war  with  the  Sikhs  began  here,  Dec.  14,  1845,  and  was  closed, 
March  29,  1849,  when  the  Punjab  was  annexed.  See  India.  The  Punjab  has  since 
flourished,  and  on  Jan.  I,  1859,  was  made  a  distinct  presidency  (to  include  the  Sutlej  states, 
and  the  Delhi  territory).  See  Durbar. 

PURGATIVES  of  the  mild  species  (aperients),  particularly  cassia,  manna,  and  senna, 
are  ascribed  to  Actuarius,  a  Greek  physician,  1245. 

PURGATORY,  the  middle  place  between  heaven  and  hell,  where,  it  is  believed  by  t 
Roman  Catholics,  the  soul  passes  through  the  fire  of  purification  before  it  enters  the  kingdo 
of  God.  The  doctrine  was  known  about  250,  and  was  introduced  into  the  Roman  chur 
in  the  6th  century.  It  was  first  set  forth  by  a  council  at  Florence,  1438. 

PURIFICATION,  after  childbirth,  was  ordained  by  the  Jewish  law,  1490  B.C.  (Lev.  xii 
See  Churching.     The  feast  of  the  purification  was  instituted,  542,  in  honour  of  the  Vi 
Mary's  going  to  the  temple.     (Luke  ii.)     Pope  Sergius  I.  ordered  the  procession  with  w 
tapers,  whence  Candlemas-day. 

PURITANS,  the  name,  first  given  about  1564,  to  persons  who  aimed  at  greater  purity 
doctrine,  holiness  of  living,  and  stricter  discipline  than  others.  They  withdrew  from  tin 
Established  church,  professing  to  follow  the  word  of  God  alone,  and  maintaining  that  the 
church  retained  many  human  inventions  and  popish  superstitions.  See  Nonconformists  and 
Presbyterianism. 

PURPLE,  a  mixed  tinge  of  scarlet  and  blue,  discovered  at  Tyre.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
found  by  a  dog's  having  by  chance  eaten  a  shell-fish,  called  murex  or  purpura;  upon 
returning  to  his  master,  Hercules  Tyres,  he  observed  his  lips  tinged,  and  made  use  of  the 
discovery.  Purple  was  anciently  used  by  the  princes  and  great  men  for  their  garments  by 
way  of  distinction,  and  to  this  day  the  purple  colour  is  the  livery  of  our  bishops,  &c.  The 
dignity  of  an  archbishop  or  great  magistrate  is  frequently  meant  by  the  purple.  The  purple 
was  first  given  to  the  cardinals  *by  pope  Paul  II.  1465. 


PUR,  603  PYX 

PURVEYANCE,  an  ancient  prerogative  of  the  sovereigns  of  England  of  purchasing 
provisions,  &c.,  without  the  consent  of  the  owners,  led  to  much  oppression.  It  was  regu- 
lated by  Magna  Charta,  1215,  and  other  statutes,  and  was  only  surrendered  by  Charles  II. 
in  1660,  for  a  compensation. 

PUSEYISM,  a  name  attached  to  the  views  of  certain  clergymen  and  lay  members  of  the 
church  of  England,  who  endeavoured  to  restore  the  practice  of  the  church  of  England  to 
what  they  believed  to  be  required  by  the  language  of  her  Liturgy  and  Rubrics,  but  which 
were  considered  by  their  opponents  to  be  contrary  to  her  doctrine  and  discipline,  and  of  a 
Romish  tendency.  The  term  was  derived  from  the  name  of  the  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Oxford,  Dr.  Pusey,  who  was  popularly  supposed  to  be  the  originator  and  chief  supporter  of 
those  views.  The  heads  of  houses  of  the  university  of  Oxford  passed  resolutions  censuring 
Dr.  Pusey' s  attempts  to  renew  practices  which  are  now  obsolete,  March  15,  1841;  and  his 
celebrated  sermon  was  condemned  by  the  same  body,  Ma}r3o,  1843.  See  Tractarians. 

PYDNA  (Macedon),  where  Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Macedon,  was  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  by  the  Romans,  commanded  by  JEmilius  Paulus,  168  B.C. 

PYRAMIDS  OF  EGYPT,  according  to  Dr.  Pococke  and  Sonnini,  "so  celebrated  from 
remote  antiquity,  are  the  most  illustrious  monuments  of  art."  The  three  principal  pyramids 
are  situated  on  a  rock,  at  the  foot  of  some  high  mountains  which  bound  the  Nile.  The  first 
building  of  them  commenced,  it  is  supposed,  about  1500  B.C.  The  greatest  is  said  to  have 
been  erected  by  Cheops,  1082  B.C.  The  largest,  near  Gizeh,  is  461  feet  in  perpendicular 
height,  with  a  platform  on  the  top  32  feet  square,  and  the  length  of  the  base  is  746  feet.  It 
occupies  -above  twelve  acres  of  ground,  and  is  constructed  of  stupendous  blocks  of  stone. 
There  are  many  other  smaller  pyramids  to  the  south  of  these. — The  battle  of  the  Pyramids, 
when  Bonaparte  defeated  the  Mamelukes,  and  thus  subdued  Lower  Egypt,  took  place 
July  21,  1798. 

PYRENEES.  After  the  battle  of  Yittoria  (fought  June  21,  1813),  Napoleon  sent  Soult 
to  supersede  Jourdan,  with  instructions  to  drive  the  allies  across  the  Ebro,  a  duty  to  which 
his  abilities  were  inferior,  for  Soult  retreated  into  France  with  a  loss  of  more  than  20,000 
men,  having  been  defeated  by  "Wellington  in  a  series  of  engagements  from  July  25  to 
August  2.  One  at  the  Pyrenees  on  July  28.  A  railway  through  the  Pyrenees  (from  Bilbao 
to  Miranda)  was  opened  Aug.  21,  1862. — THE  PEACE  OF  TJTE  PYRENEES  was  concluded 
between  France  and  Spain,  by  cardinal  Mazarin,  for  the  French  king,  and  Don  Lewis  de 
Haro,  on  the  part  of  Spain,  in  the  island  of  Pheasants,  on  the  Bidassoa.  By  this  treaty 
Spain  yielded  Roussillon,  Artois,  and  her  right  to  Alsace  ;  and  France  ceded  her  conquests  in 
Catalonia,  Italy,  &c.,  and  engaged  not  to  assist  Portugal,  Nov.  7,  1659. 

PYROMETER  (fire-measurer),  an  apparatus  employed  to  ascertain  the  temperature  of 
furnaces,  &c.,  where  thermometers  cannot  be  employed  ;  Muschenbroek's  p}rrometer  (a 
metallic  bar)  was  described  by  him  in  1731.  Improvements  were  made  by  Ellicott  and 
others.  Wedgwood  employed  clay  cylinders  about  1782.  Professor  Daniell  received  the 
Rumford  medal  for  an  excellent  pyrometer  in  1830.  Mr.  Ericsson's  useful  pyrometer  appeared 
in  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851.  Eng.  Cyc. 

PYROXYLIN,  the  chemical  name  of  Gun  Cotton  (which  see). 

PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Pythagoras,  of  Samos,  head  of  the  Italic  sect, 
nourished  about  555  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  taught  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  or 
transmigration  of  the  soul  from  one  body  to  another  ;  forbidden  his  disciples  to  eat  flesh, 
and  also  beans ;  to  have  invented  the  multiplication  table ;  to  have  improved  geometry ;  and 
to  have  taught  the  present  system  of  astronomy. 

PYTHIAN  GAMES,  in  honour  of  Apollo,  near  the  temple  of  Delphi ;  first  instituted, 
according  to  the  more  received  opinion,  by  Apollo  himself,  in  commemoration  of  the  victory 
which  he  had  attained  over  the  serpent,  Python,  from  which  they  received  their  name  • 
though  others  maintain  that  they  were  first  established  by  Agamemnon,  or  Diomedes,  or  by 
Amphictyon,  or  lastly,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  1263  B.C. 

PYX,  the  casket  in  which  Catholic  priests  keep  the  consecrated  wafer.  In  the  ancient 
chapel  of  the  pyx,  at  Westminster  abbey,  are  deposited  the  standard  pieces  of  gold  and 
silver,  under  the  joint  custody  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury  and  the  comptroller-general. 
The  "trial  of  the  pyx"  signifies  the  verification  of  a  jury  of  goldsmiths  of  the  coins  deposited 
in  the  pyx-box  by  the  master  of  the  mint.  This  took  place  on  July  17,  1861,  at  the 
exchequer  office,  Old  Palace-yard,  in  the  presence  of  twelve  privy  councillors,  twelve  gold- 
smiths, and  others. 


QUA  604  QUA 


Q. 

QUACKERY  is  eoseval  with  the  art  of  medicine  ;  quack  medicines  were  taxed  in  1783, 
ct  seq.  An  inquest  was  held  on  the  body  of  a  young  lady,  Miss  Cashin,  whose  physician, 
St.  John  Long,  was  afterwards  tried  for  manslaughter,  Aug.  21,  1830;  he  was  found  guilty, 
and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  250^.,  Oct.  30,  following.  He  was  tried  for  manslaughter  in 
the  case  of  Mrs.  Catherine  Lloyd,  and  acquitted  Feb.  19,  1831.  Dr.  Vries,  "the  black 
doctor,"  a  professed  cancer-curer,  at  Paris,  was  condemned  to  fifteen  months'  imprisonment 
as  an  impostor  in  Jan.  1860.  See  Homoeopathy  and  Hydropathy. 

QUADRAGESIMA  SUNDAY,  first  Sunday  in  Lent.     See  Lent  and  Quinquagesima. 

QUADRANGLE,  or  QUADRILATERAL,  terms  applied  to  the  four  strong  Austrian 
fortresses  in  N.  Italy : — Peschiera,  on  an  island  in  the  Mincio ;  Mantua,  on  the  Mincio  ; 
Verona  and  Legnago,  both  on  the  Adige.  See  Peschicra,  &c. 

QUADRANT,  the  mathematical  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  quarter  of  a  circle.  The 
solar  quadrant  was  introduced  about  290  B.C.  The  Arabian  astronomers  under  the  caliphs, 
in  A.D.  995,  had  a  quadrant  of  21  feet  8  inches  radius,  and  a  sextant  57  feet  9  inches  radius. 
Davis's  quadrant  for  measuring  angles  was  produced  about  1600.  Hadley's  quadrant,  in 
1731.  See  Navigation. 

QUADRILLE.  This  popular  dance  was  introduced  into  this  country  in  1813,  by  the 
then  duke  of  Devonshire,  and  others.  Raikcs. 

QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE,  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  the  emperor  (signed  at 
London,  July  22,  1718),  on  the  accession  of  the  states  of  Holland,  Feb.  8,  1719,  obtained 
its  name.  It  was  for  the  purpose  of  guaranteeing  the  succession  of  the  reigning  families 
of  Great  Britain  and  France,  and  settling  the  partition  of  the  Spanish  monarchy.  It 
led  to  war. 

QUJESTOR,  in  ancient  Rome,  was  an  officer  who  had  the  management  of  the  public 
treasure  ;  appointed  484  B.C.  It  was  the  first  office  any  person  could  bear  in  the  common- 
wealth, and  gave  a  right  to  sit  in  the  senate.  At  first  there  were  two  quaestors, 
afterwards  eight.  Two  were  added  in  409  B.C.  Two  were  called  Percgrini,  two  (for  the 
city)  Urbani. 

QUAKERS,  or  SOCIETY  OF  FRIENDS,  originally  called  Seekers,  from  their  seeking  the 
truth,  and  afterwards  Friends  (3  John  14).  Justice  Bennet,  of  Derby,  gave  the  society  the 
name  of  Quakers  in  1650,  because  George  Fox  (the  founder)  admonished  him,  and  those 
present,  to  tremble  at  the  word  of  the  Lord.  This  sect  was  commenced  in  England 
about  1646,  by  George  Fox  (then  aged  22),  who  was  joined  by  George  Keith,  "William 
Penn,  and  Robert  Barclay,  of  Ury,  and  others.*  Fox  rejected  all  religious  ordinances, 
explained  away  the  commands  relative  to  baptism,  &c. ;  discarded  the  ordinary  names  of 
days  and  months,  and  used  thee  and  thou  for  you,  as  more  consonant  with  truth.  He 
published  a  book  of  instructions  for  teachers  and  professors,  and  died  Jan.  13,  1691.  The 
first  meeting-house  in  London  was  in  White  Hart-court,  Gracechurch-street.  The  first 
meeting  of  Quakers  in  Ireland  was  in  Dublin  in  1658  ;  and  their  first  meeting-house  in  that 
city  was  opened  in  Eustace-street,  1692.  The  solemn  affirmation  of  Quakers  was  enacted  to 
be  taken  in  all  cases  in  the  courts  below,  Avherein  oaths  are  required  from  other  subjects, 
1696.  See  Affirmation.  In  1682,  William  Penn,  with  a  company  of  Friends,  colonised 
Philadelphia,  where  on  Jan.  I,  1788,  they  emancipated  their  negro  slaves.  On  Feb.  15,  1833, 
Edward  Pease,  a  Quaker,  was  admitted  to  parliament  on  his  affirmation.  The  Quakers  had 
in  England  413  meeting-houses  in  1800,  and  371  in  1851.  At  a  Conference  held  on  Nov.  2, 

•  *  The  Quakers  early  suffered  grievous  persecutions  in  England  and  America.  At  Boston,  U.S.,  where 
the  first  Friends  who  arrived  were  females,  they  (even  females)  were  cruelly  scourged,  and  had  their  ears 
cut  off.  In  1659  they  stated  in  parliament  that  2000  Friends  had  endured  sufferings  and  imprisonment  in 
Newgate  :  and  164  Friends  offered  themselves  at  this  time,  by  name  to  government,  to  be  imprisoned  in 
lieu  of  an  equal  number  in  danger  (from  confinement)  of  death.  Fifty-five  (out  of  120  sentenced)  were 
transported  to  America,  by  an  order  of  council,  1664.  The  masters  of  vessels  refusing  to  cany  them  for  some 
months,  an  embargo  was  laid  on  West  India  ships,  when  a  mercenary  wretch  was  at  length  found  for  the 
service.  But  the  Friends  would  not  walk  on  board,  nor  would  the  sailors  hoist  them  into  the  vessel,  and 
soldiers  from  the  Tower  were  employed.  In  1665,  the  vessel  sailed  ;  but  it  was  immediately  captured  by 
the  Dutch,  who  liberated  twenty-eight  of  the  prisoners  in  Holland,  the  rest  having  died  of  the  plague  in 
that  year.  Of  the  120  few  reached  America. 


QUA  605  QUE 


1858,  it  was  agreed  to  recommend  that  mixed  marriages  should  be  permitted,  and  that  many 
of  the  peculiarities  of  the  sect  in  speech  and  costume  should  be  abandoned.  In  1860  an  act 
was  passed  rendering  valid  Quaker  marriages  when  only  one  of  the  persons  is  a  Quaker. 

QUARANTINE,  the  custom  fir*st  observed  at  Venice,  1127,  whereby  all  merchants  and 
others  coming  from  the  Levant  were  obliged  to  remain  in  the  house  of  St.  Lazarus,  or  the 
Lazaretto,  forty  days  before  they  were  admitted  into  the  city.  Various  southern  cities  have 
now  lazarettos  ;  that  of  Venice  is  built  in  the  water.  In  the  times  of  plague,  England  and 
all  other  nations  oblige  those  that  come  from  the  infected  places  to  perform  quarantine  with 
their  ships,  &c.,  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  as  may  be  judged  most  safe.  Quarantine  acts  were 
passed  in  1753  and  in  1826. 

QUARTER  SESSIONS  were  established,  25  Edw.  III.  1350-1.  The  days  of  sitting  were 
appointed,  2  Hen.  V.  1413.  In  1830  it  was  enacted,  that  quarter  sessions  of  the  peace 
should  be  held  in  the  first  week  after  Oct.  n,  Dec.  28,  March  31,  and  June  24. 

QUARTERLY  REVIEW,  the  organ  of  the  Tory  party,  first  appeared  in  Feb.  1809, 
under  the  editorship  of  William  Gifford,  the  celebrated  translator  of  "Juvenal." 

QUATRE-BRAS  (Belgium),  where  on  June  16,  1815,  two  days  before  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  British  and  allied  army  under  the  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, the  prince  of  Orange,  and  sir  Thomas  Picton,  and  the  French  under  marshal  Ney. 
The  British  fought  with  remarkable  intrepidity,  notwithstanding  their  inferiority  in  number, 
and  their  fatigue  through  marching  all  the  preceding  night.  The  42nd  regiment  (Scotch 
Highlanders)  suffered  severely  in  pursuit  of  a  French  division  by  cuirassiers  being  posted  in 
ambush  behind  growing  corn.  The  duke  of  Brunswick  was  killed. 

QUEBEC  (Canada),  was  founded  by  the  French  in  1608. 


Quebec  reduced  by  the  English,  with  all  Canada, 
in  1626,  but  restored  in 1632 

Besieged  by  the  English,  but  without  success, 
in 1711 

Conquered  by  them  after  a  battle  memorable  for 
the  death  of  general  Wolfe  in  the  moment  of 
victory Sept.  13,  1759 

Besieged  in  vain  by  the  American  provincials, 
under  their  general,  Montgomery,  who  was 


Public  and  private  stores  and  several  wharfs, 
destroyed  by  fire ;  the  loss  estimated  at 
upwards  of  260,000? Sept.  1815 

Awful  fire,  1650  houses,  the  dwellings  of  12,000 
persons,  burnt  to  the  ground  .  May  28,  1845 

Another  great  fire,  1365  houses  burnt,  June  28     ,,   . 

Disastrous  fire  at  the  theatre,  50  lives  lost 

Jan.  12,  1846 

Visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales  .        Aug.  18-23,  l86° 


slain Dec.  31,  1775  '  (See  Canada,  aud  Montreal.) 

QUEEN.  The  first  woman  invested  with  sovereign  authority  was  Semiramis,  queen  of 
Assyria,  2017  B.C.  In  1554  an  act  was  passed  "declaring  that  the  regall  power  of  this 
realme  is  in  the  queues  majestie  [Mary]  as  fully  and  absolutely  as  ever  it  was  in  any  of  her 
moste  noble  progenitours  kinges  of  this  realme. "  The  Hungarians  called  a  queen-regnant 
king.  See  Hungary. 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY,  established  in  Feb.  1704,  by  queen  Anne,  being  the  First 
Fruits  with  the  Tenths,  to  increase  the  incomes  of  the  poorer  clergy.  There  were  5597 
clerical  livings  under  50^.  per  annum  found  by  the  commissioners  Under  the  act  of  Anne 
capable  of  augmentation.  Chalmers.  Act  to  consolidate  the  offices  of  First  Fruits,  Tenths, 
and  Queen  Anne's  Bounty,  I  Viet.  1838. 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  FARTHINGS.  The  popular  stories  of  the  great  value  of  this  coin  are 
fabulous,  although  some  few  of  particular  dates  have  been  purchased  by  persons  at  high 
prices.  The  current  farthing,  with  the  broad  brim,  when  in  fine  preservation,  is  worth  il. 
The  common  patterns  of  1713  and  1714  are  worth  il.  The  two  patterns  with  Britannia  under 
a  canopy,  and  Peace  on  a  car,  R  K  R,  are  worth  2.1.  2s.  each.  The  pattern  with  Peace  on  a 
car  is  more  valuable  and  rare,  and  worth  5?.  Pinkerton  (died  1826). 

QUEEN'S  BENCH  COURT  AND  PRISON.     See  King's  Bench. 

QUEEN'S  BOUNTY,  an  annual  grant  of  iooo7.  which  commenced  about  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  George  III.  and  was  continued  until  the  loth  Geo.  IV.  1829,  when  it  ceased 
altogether.  The  collection  upon  the  king's  letter,  which  used  to  accompany  this  grant,  has 
also  been  discontinued  since  that  year. 

QUEEN'S  COLLEGES  IN  IRELAND,  from  their  unsectarian  character  termed  the 
"Godless  Colleges,"  were  instituted  in  1845,  to  afford  education  of  the  highest  order  to  all 
religious  denominations.  They  were  placed  at  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway ;  the  last  was 
opened  on  Oct.  30,  1849. — THE  "  QUEEN'S  UNIVERSITY  in  Ireland"  comprehending  these 


QUE  GOG  QUI 

colleges,  was  founded  by  patent,  Aug.  15,  1850  ;  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  lord  lieutenant,  the 
first  chancellor.  They  were  "condemned"  by  the  propaganda  and  the  pope,  and  by  a 
majority  (a  small  one)  of  the  Irish  bishops  in  a  synod  held  at  Thurles,  in  Sept.  1850. 


QUEEN  CAROLINE'S  TRIAL,  &c. 

? 

Last  debate  on  the  bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties^ 


Her  trial  commences     ....  Aug.  19,  1820 

alti 


Caroline  Amelia  Augusta,  second  daughter  of 

Charles  Wm.  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Brunswick, 

born  May  17,  1768 ;  married  to  George,  prince 

of  Wales Aprils,  1795!      99;  the  mimerical  majority  of  nine  being  pro 

Their  daughter,  princess  Charlotte  born,  Jan.  7,  1796  i      duced   by  the  votes  of  the  ministers  them- 


when  the  report  was  approved  by  108  against 


The  Delicate  Investigation  (which  see)  May  22,  1806 
Charges  against  her  again  disproved  .  .  .  1813 
Embarks  for  the  continent  .  .  .  Aug.  1814 

Becomes  queen Jan.  20,  1820 

Arrives  in  England June  6,     ,, 

A    secret  committee    in   the  house   of  lords, 

appointed  to  examine  papers  on  charges  of 

incontinence    .....       June  8,     ,, 
Bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties  introduced  by  lord 

Liverpool July  5,     ,, 

The    queen    removes    to    Brandenburg-house, 

Aug-  3,     „ 
Receives  the  address  of  the  married  ladies  of 

the  metropolis        ....      Aug.  16,     ,, 


selves.  Lord  Liverpool  moves  that  the  bill  be 
reconsidered  that  day  six  months  .  Nov.  10, 

Great    exultation    throughout    England,    and 

illuminations  for  three  nights   in   London, 

Nov.  10,  ii,  12, 

The  queen  goes  to  St.  Paul's  in  state,  Nov.  29, 

She  protests  against  her  exclusion  from  the 
coronation July  18,  1821 

Taken  ill  at  Drury-lane  theatre,  July  30  ;  dies 
at  Hammersmith  ....  Aug.  7,  ;> 

Her  remains  removed  on  their  route  to  Bruns- 
wick ;  an  alarming  riot  occurs,  owing  to  the 
military  opposing  the  body  being  carried 
through  the  city  ....  Aug.  14,  ,, 


QUEEN  CHARLOTTE  SHIP  OF  WAK,  a  first-rate  ship  of  the  line,  of  no  guns,  the 
flag-ship  of  lord  Keith,  then  commanding  in  chief  in  the  Mediterranean,  was  burnt  by  an 
accidental  fire,  off  the  harbour  of  Leghorn,  and  more  than  700  British  seamen  out  of  a  crew 
of  850  perished  by  fire  or  drowning,  March  17,  1800. 

QUEEN  VICTORIA  STEAM  SHIP.     Wrecked  Feb.  15,  1853.     See  Wrecks. 
QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND.     See  under  England. 

QUEEN'S  LAND,  Moreton-bay,  Australia,  now  including  the  "plains  of  promise," 
Carpenteria,  was  established  as  a  colony  in  1859.  Admiral  sir  George  F.  Bowen  was 
appointed  governor,  and  Brisbane,  the  capital,  was  made  a  bishopric.  Population  in  Dec. 
1859,  23,450 ;  in  Sept.  1865,  about  90,000.  Its  chief  productions  are  sugar,  cotton,  and 
tobacco. 

QUEEN'S  THEATRE.     See  Opera  House,  the  Italian. 

QUEENSTOWN  (Upper  Canada).  This  town,  on  the  river  Niagara,  was  taken  in  the 
last  war  with  America  by  the  troops  of  the  United  States,  Oct.  13,  1812  ;  but  was  retaken 
by  the  British  forces,  who  defeated  the  Americans  with  considerable  loss  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  prisoners,  on  the  same  day.  Queenstown  suffered  severely  in  this  war. — The  Cove  of 
Cork  was  named  QUEENSTOWN,  Aug.  3,  1849,  by  the  queen. 

QUENTIN,  ST.  (N.  France).  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  assisted  by  the  English,  defeated 
the  French  at  St.  Quentin,  Aug.  10,  1557  ;  and  in  memory  of  his  victory,  the  Spanish 
monarch  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  he  had  made  before  the  engagement,  built  the  famous 
monastery,  &c. ,  the  Escurial,  which  is  called  by  the  Spaniards  the  eighth  wonder  of  the 
world.  See  Escurial. 

QUERN.  The  quern,  or  handmill,  is  of  Roman,  or  as  some  say,  of  Irish  invention; 
but  the  latter  is  not  likely,  as  Roman  querns  have  been  found  in  Yorkshire  ;  and  it  is  said 
by  others  that  the  Romans  found  querns  there. 

QUESNOY  (N.  France),  was  taken  by  the  Austrians,  Sept.  n,  1793,  ^ut  was  recovered 
by  the  French,  Aug.  16,  1794.  It  surrendered  to  prince  Frederic  of  the  Netherlands,  June 
29,  1815,  after  the  battle  of  "Waterloo. — It  was  here  that  cannon  were  first  used,  and  called 
bombards.  Henault. 

QUIBERON  BAY  (W.  France).  A  British  force  landed  here  in  1746,  but  was  repulsed. 
In  the  Bay  admiral  Hawke  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  French  admiral  Conflans,  and 
thus  defeated  the  projected  invasion  of  Great  Britain,  Nov.  20,  1759.  Qtiiberon  was  taken 
by  some  French  regiments  in  the  pay  of  England,  July  3,  1795  ;  but  on  July  21,  owing  to 
the  treachery  of  some  of  these  soldiers,  the  French  republicans,  under  Hoche,  retook  it  by 
surprise,  and  many  of  the  emigrants  were  executed.  About  900  of  the  troops,  and  nearly 
1500  royalist  inhabitants  who  had  joined  the  regiments  in  the  pay  of  Great  Britain,  effected 
their  embarkation  on  board  the  ships. 


QUI 


C07 


QUO 


QUICKSILVER,  in  its  liquid  state,  mercury.  Its  use  in  refining  silver  was  discovered, 
1540.  There  are  mines  of  it  in  various  parts,  the  chief  of  which  are  at  Almeida,  in  Spain, 
and  at  Idria,  in  Illyria  ;  the  latter,  discovered  by  accident  in  1497,  for  several  years  yielded 
1200  tons.  A  mine  was  discovered  at  Ceylon  in  1797.  Quicksilver  was  congealed  in  winter 
at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1759.  It  was  congealed  in  England  by  a  chemical  process,  without 
snow  or  ice,  by  Mr.  "Walker  in  1 787.  Corrosive  sublimate,  a  deadly  poison,  is  a  combination 
of  mercury  and  chlorine.  See  Calomel. 

QUIETISM,  the  doctrine  of  Molinos,  a  Spaniard  (1627-96),  whose  work,  the  Spiritual 
Guide,  published  in  1675,  was  the  foundation  of  a  sect  in  France.  He  held  that  the  purity 
of  religion  consisted  in  an  internal  silent  meditation  and  recollection  of  the  merits  of  Christ 
and  the  mercies  of  God.  Madame  de  la  Mothe-Guyon  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile  for  IIH: 
visions  and  prophecies,  but  released  through  the  interest  of  Fenelon,  archbishop  of  Cambray, 
between  whom  and  Bossuet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  arose  a  controversy,  1697.  These  doctrines 
were  condemned  by  pope  Innocent  XL  in  1685. 

QUILLS  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  for  pens  in  553  ;  some  say  not  before  635. 

QUINCE,  the  Pyrus  Cydonia,  brought  to  these  countries  from  Austria,  before  1573. 
The  Japan  Quince  or  Pyrus  Japonica,  brought  hither  from  Japan,  1 796. 

QUININE,  or  QUINIA,  an  alkaloid  (much  used  in  medicine),  discovered  in  1820  by 
Pelletier  and  Caventou.  It  is  a  probable  constituent  of  all  genuine  cinchona  barks,  especially 
of  the  yellow  bark.  See  Jesuits  Baric. 

QUINQUAGESIMA  SUNDAY.  The  observation  was  appointed  by  pope  Gregory  the 
Great,  about  1572.  The  first  Sunday  in  Lent  having  been  termed  Quadragesima,  and  the 
three  weeks  preceding  having  been  appropriated  to  the  gradual  introduction  of  the  Lent  fast, 
the  three  Sundays  of  these  weeks  were  called  by  names  significant  of  their  position  in  the 
calendar :  and  reckoning  by  decades  (tenths),  the  Sunday  preceding  Quadragesima  received 
its  present  name,  Quinquagesima,  the  second  Sexagesima,  and  the  third  Septuagesima. 

QUINTILIANS,  heretics  in  the  2nd  century,  the  disciples  of  Montanus,  who  took  their 
name  from  Quintilia,  a  lady  whom  he  had  deceived  by  his  pretended  sanctity,  and  whom 
they  regarded  as  a  prophetess.  They  made  the  eucharist  of  bread  and  cheese,  and  allowed 
women  to  be  priests  and  bishops.  Pardon. 

QUIRINUS,  a  Sabine  god;  afterwards  identified  with  Romulus.  L.  Papirius  Cursor, 
general  in  the  Roman  army,  first  erected  a  sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus,  from  which 
time  the  days  began  to  be  divided  into  hours,  293  B.C.  Aspin.  The  sun-dial  was  sometimes 
called  the  Quirinus,  from  the  original  place  in  which  it  was  set  up.  Aslie.  The  Roman 
citizens  were  termed  Quirites. 

QUITO,  a  presidency  of  Columbia  (which  see),  celebrated  as  having  been  the  scene  of  the 
measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  by  the  French  and  Spanish  mathematicians  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XV.  Forty  thousand  souls  were  hurled  into  eternity  by  a  dreadful  earth- 
quake which  almost  overwhelmed  the  city  of  Quito,  Feb.  4,  1797.  Since  then  violent  shocks, 
but  not  so  disastrous,  occurred  ;  till  one,  on  March  21,  1859,  when  about  5000  persons  were 
killed.  See  Earthquakes. 

QUIXOTE.     See  Don  Quixote. 

QUOITS,  a  game  said  to  have  originated  with  the  Greeks.  It  was  first  played  at  the 
Olympic  games,  by  the  Idaei  Dactyli,  fifty  years  after  the  Deluge  of  Deucalion,  1453  B.C. 
He  who  threw  the  discus  farthest,  and  with  the  greatest  dexterity,  obtained  the  prize. 
Perseus,  the  grandson  of  Acrisius,  by  Danae,  having  inadvertently  slain  his  grandfather, 
j  when  throwing  a  quoit,  exchanged  the  kingdom  of  Argos,  to  which  he  was  heir,  for  that 
of  Tirynthus,  and  founded  the  kingdom  of  Mycense,  about  1313  B.C. 

QUO  WARRANTO  ACT,  passed  '1280.  By  it  a  writ  may  be  directed  to  any  person 
to  inquire  by  what  authority  he  holds  any  office  or  franchise.  Charles  II.  directed  a  writ 
against  the  corporation  of  London  in  1683,  and  the  court  of  king's  bench  declared  their 
charter  forfeited.  The  decision  was  reversed  in  1690. 


RAG 


60S 


RAD 


R. 

RACES,  one  of  the  exercises  among  the  ancient  games  of  Greece.  (See  Chariots.) 
Horse-races  were  known  in  England  in  very  early  times.  Fitz-Stephen  who  wrote  in  the 
days  of  Henry  II.  mentions  the  delight  taken  by  the  citizens  of  London  in  the  diversion. 
In  James's  reign,  Croydon  in  the  south,  and  Garterly  in  the  north,  were  celebrated  courses. 
Near  York  there  were  races,  and  the  prize  was  a  little  golden  bell,  1607.  Camden.  In  the 
end  of  Charles  I.'s  reign,  races  were  performed  at  Hyde  Park.  Charles  II.  patronised  them, 
and  instead  of  bells,  gave  a  silver  bowl,  or  cup,  value  100  guineas.  "William  III.  added  to 
the  plates  (as  did  queen  Anne),  and  founded  an  academy  for  riding. 


The  first  racing  calendar  is  said  to  have  been 

published  by  John  Cheny  in        .         .        .     .  1727 
Act  for  suppressing  races  by  ponies  and  weak 

•    horses,  13  Geo.  II 1739 

The  most  eminent  races  in  England  are  those  at 
Newmarket  (which  see),  established  by  Charles 
II.  in  1667  ;  at  Epsom,  begun  about  1711,  by 
Mr.  Parkhurst  (annual  since  1730,  Allen's 
Surrey);  at  Ascot,  begun  by  the  duke  of 
Cumberland,  uncle  to  George  III.  ;  at  Don- 
caster,  established  by  col.  St.  Leger  in  1778, 
and  at  Goodwood,  begun  by  the  duke  of 

Richmond,  who  died  in 1806 

The    Jockey     Club    began    in    the     time   of 


George  II.  Its  latest  rules,  by  which  races 
are  regulated,  were  enacted  in  ...  1828 

On  the  accession  of  queen  Victoria,  the  royal 
stud  was  sold  for  16,476^.  on  .  .  Oct.  25,  1837 

Lord  Stamford,  said  to  have  engaged  Jemmy 
Grimshaw,  a  light-weight  jockey  at  a  salary 
of  xoooZ.ayear  .  .  .  .  March,  1865 

"  Tattersall's,"  the  "high-change  of  horse- 
flesh," was  established  by  Richard  Tattersall, 
near  Hyde  Park  Corner  (hence  termed  "the 
Corner")  in  1766,  for  the  sale  of  horses.  The 
lease  of  the  ground  having  expired,  the  new 
premises  at  Brompton  were  erected  and 
opened  for  business  on  .  .  April  10,  1865 


RACE-HORSES. 

Flying  Childers,  bred  in  1715  by  the  duke  of  Devon- !  Eclipse  was  the  fleetest  horse  that  ran  in  England 
shire,  was  allowed  by  sportsmen  to  have  been  the  since  the  time  of  Childers  ;  he  was  never  beaten, 
fleetest  horse  that  ever  ran  at  Newmarket,  or  that  I  and  died  in  February,  1789,  aged  25  years.  His 
was  ever  bred  in  the  world  ;  he  ran  four  miles  in  six  ;  heart  weighed  14  lb.,  which  accounted  for  his 
minutes  and  forty-eight  seconds,  or  at  the  rate  of  !  wonderful  spirit  and  courage.  Christie  White's  Hist.  \ 
35^  miles  an  hour,  carrying  nine  stone  two  pounds,  of  the  Turf. 
He  died  in  1741,  aged  26  years. 


RECENT   WINNERS   OF    "THE   DERBY"    AT   EPSOM. 


1846.  Pyrrhus. 

1847.  Cossack. 

1848.  Surplice. 

1849.  Flying  Dutchman. 

1850.  Voltigeur. 

1851.  Teddington. 

1852.  Daniel  O'Rourke. 

1853.  West  Australian. 

1854.  Andover. 


1855.  Wild  Dayrell. 

1856.  Ellington. 

1857.  Blink  Bonny. 

1858.  Beadsman. 

1859.  Musjid. 

1860.  Thormanby. 

1861.  Kettledrum. 

1862.  Caractacus. 


1863.  Maccaroni. 

1864.  Blair  Athol. 

1865.  Gladiateur,    May    31    (a 

horse  reared  in  France, 
the  property  of  the 
Comte  de  Grange.  He 
also  won  the  St.  Leger 
at  Doncaster,  Sept.  13). 


RACK,  an  engine  of  torture,  for  extracting  a  confession  from  criminals,  was  early  known 
in  the  southern  countries  of  Europe.     The  early  Christians  suffered  by  the  rack,  which  was 
in  later  times  an  instrument  of  the  Inquisition.     The  duke  of  Exeter,   in  the  reign  of  > 
Henry  VI.,  erected  a  rack  of  torture  (then  called  the  duke  of  Exeter's  daughter),  now  seen  in  ' 
the  Tower,  1423.     In  the  case  of  Felton,  who  murdered  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  the  judges 
of  England  nobly  protested  against  the  proposal  of  the  privy  council  to  put  the  assassin  to 
the  rack,  as  being  contrary  to  the  laws,  1628.     See  Ravaillac  and  Torture. 

RADCLIFFE  LIBRARY,  OXFORD,  founded  under  the  will  of  Dr.  John  Radcliffe,  an 
•eminent  physician.  He  died  Nov.  i,  1714,  leaving  40,000?.  to  the  university  of  Oxford  for 
the  founding  a  library,  the  first  stone  of  which  was  laid  May  17,  1737  ;  the  edifice  was  com-  \ 
pletely  finished  in  1 749,  and  was  opened  April  13,  in  the  same  year.  The  library  consists  chiefly 
of  works  of  medical  and  philosophical  science.— The  RADCLIFFE  OBSERVATORY,  Oxford, 
was  founded  by  the  exertions  of  Dr.  Hornsby,  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy,  about  1771, 
and  completed  in  1794.  The  publication  of  the  observations  was  commenced  in  1842,  by 
Mr.  Manuel  J.  Johnson,  the  director,  appointed  in  1839. 

RADSTADT,  or  RASTADT  (in  Baden),  where  a  peace  was  signed,  March  6,  1714,  by 
marshal  Villars  on  the  part  of  the  French  king,  and  by  prince  Eugene  on  the  part  of  the 
emperor  ;  it  restored  the  German  frontier  to  the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Ryswick.  — The  CON- 
GRESS OF  RADSTADT,  to  treat  of  a  general  peace  with  the  Germanic  powers,  was  commenced 


BAG 


609 


RAI 


Dec.  9,  1797;  and  negotiations  were  earned  on  throughout  the  year  1798.  The  atrocious 
massacre  of  the  French  plenipotentiaries  at  Radstadt  by  the  Austrian  regiment  of  Szeltzler, 
took  place  April  28,  1799. 

RAGGED  SCHOOLS,  free  schools  for  outcast  destitute  ragged  children,  set  up  in  large 
towns.  The  instruction  is  based  on  the  scriptures,  and  most  of  the  teachers  are  unpaid. 
They  existed  in  London  previous  to  1844,  but  did  not  receive  their  name  till  that  year, 
when  the  "Ragged  school  union"  was  formed,  principally  by  Mr.  S.  Stacey,  and  Mr.  Win. 
Locke  (since  hon.  secretary).  The  earl  of  Shaftesbury  was  chairman.  In  1856  there  were  150 
Ragged  school  institutions  :— 


128  Sunday  schools  with  16,937  scholars. 

98  Day  schools  with  13,057  scholars. 
117  Evening  schools  with  8085  scholars. 

84  Industrial  classes  with  3224  scholars. 


163  Paid  teachers  in  day  schools. 
126  Paid  teachers  in  week  night  schools. 
43  Paid  refuge  and  industrial  masters. 
2139  Voluntary  teachers. 

In  1860,  560 


There  were  in  1856,  16  refuges,  where  500  inmates  are  fed,  lodged,  clothed,  and  educated 
ragged  schools  existed.     See  Shoe-black  Brigade. 

RAGMAN  ROLL  (said  to  derive  its  name  from  Ragimunde,  a  papal  legate  in  Scotland) 
contains  the  instruments  of  homage  and  fealty  to  Edward  I.,  sworn  to  by  the  nobility  and 
clergy  of  Scotland  at  Berwick  in  1296.  The  original  was  given  up  to  Robert  Brace,  king 
of  Scotland,  in  1328,  when  his  son  David  was  contracted  in  marriage  to  the  princess  Joanna 
of  England. 

RAGUSA,  a  city  on  the  Adriatic,  on  the  south  confines  of  Dalmatia,  was  taken  by  the 
Venetians,  1171,  but  soon  after  became  an  independent  republic,  1358.  It  suffered 
nuch  by  an  earthquake,  1667;  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1807,  and  given  up  to  Austria 
n  1814. 

RAILWAYS.  There  were  short  roads  in  and  about  Newcastle,  laid  down  by  Mr.  Beau- 
mont so  early  as  1602  ;  which  are  thus  mentioned  in  1676  : — "the  manner  of  the  carriage  is 
)y  laying  rails  of  timber  from  the  colliery  to  the  river,  exactly  straight  and  parallel ; 
and  bulky  carts  are  made  with  four  rollers  fitting  those  rails,  whereby  the  carriage  is  so  easy 
;hat  one  horse  will  draw  down  four  or  five  chaldron  of  coals,  and  is  an  immense  benefit  to 
;he  coal  merchants."  Roger  North.  They  were  made  of  iron  at  "Whitehaven,  in  1738. 
See  Tram-roads. 


An  iron  railway  was  laid  down  near  Sheffield  by  John 
Curr  in  1776,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  colliers. 

?he  first  considerable  iron  railway  was  laid  down  at 
Colebrook  Dale  in  1786. 

he  first  iron  railway  Sanctioned  by  parliament  in 
1801  (with  the  exception  of  a  few  undertaken  by 
canal  companies  as  small  branches  to  mines)  was 
the  Surrey  iron  railway  (by  horses),  from  the 
Thames  at  Wandsworth  to  Ooydon. 

["revethick  and  Vivian  obtained  a  patent  for  a  high 
pressure  locomotive  engine  in  1802. 

IVilliam  Hedley  of  Wylam  colliery  constructed  a 
locomotive  in  1813. 

Jtockton  and  Darlington  railway,  constructed  by 
Edw.  Pease  and  George  Stephenson,  was  opened 
Sept.  27,  1825. 

Che  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway  commenced 
in  Oct.  1826,  and  opened  Sept.  15,  1830.  See  Liver- 
pool. This  railway  led  to  similar  enterprises 
throughout  England  and  the  continent.' 

["he  examination  of  railway  schemes,  before  their 
introduction  into  parliament,  by  the  Board  of 
Trade,  was  ordered  1844. 

7  &  8  Viet.  c.  85,  required  companies  to  run  cheap 
trains  every  day,  and  to  permit  erection  of  electric 
telegraphs,  and  authorised  government,  after  Jan. 
i,  1866,  to  buy  existing  railways  with  the  per- 
mission of  parliament,  1844. 

An  act  passed  roVict.  Aug.  28,  1846,  for  constituting 
commissioners  of  railways,  who  have  since  been 
incorporated  with  the  Board  of  Trade. 


In  1824,  the  first  locomotive  constructed  by  George 
Stephenson,  travelled  at  the  rate  of  6  miles  per 
hour  ;  in  1829,  the  Rocket  travelled  at  the  rate  of 
15  miles  per  hour  :  *  in  1834,  the  Fire-Fly  attained 
a  speed  of  20  miles  per  hour;  in  1839,  tne  North 
Star  moved  with  a  velocity  of  37  miles  per  hour ; 
and  at  the  present  moment  locomotives  have  at- 
tained a  speed  of  70  miles  per  hour.  During  the 
same  period,  the  quantity  of  fuel  required  for  gene- 
rating steam  has  been  diminished  five-sixths  :  that 
is,  six  tons  of  coal  were  formerly  cousumed  for 
one  at  the  present  time,  and  other  expenses  are 
diminished  in  a  corresponding  ratio. 

The  CAPITAL  invested  in  railway  undertakings  has 
become  enormous.  Up  to  1840,  it  was  69  millions  ; 
on  March  i,  1853,  it  was  estimated  at  303  millions  ; 
in  1859,  at  33°  millions  ;  in  1860,  348,130,127*. 

The  Railway  Mania  and  panic  year,  when  270  rail- 
way acts  passed,  was  1846. 

An  act  for  the  better  regulation  of  railways  passed 
1854. 

An  act  for  compensating  families  of  persons  killed 
by  accidents  (see  Campbell's  Act]  passed,  1846. 

An  act  passed  to  enable  railway  companies  to  settle 
their  differences  with  other  companies  by  arbitra- 
tion in  1859. 

Railway  Clauses  Consolidation  act  passed  1863. 

A  joint  committee  of  both  houses  of  parliament 
appointed  to  report  on  railway  schemes,  Feb.  5, 
1864. 

See  Atmospheric  and  Street  Railways. 


*  It  obtained  the  prize  of  500?.  offered  by  the  directors  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway 
iompany  for  the  best  locomotive. 

R  K 


EAI 


610 


EAI 


RAILWAYS,  continued. 


LIST   OF   THE  PRINCIPAL   RAILWAYS    OF   THE   UNITED   KINGDOM. 


Railways 

Arbroath  and  Forfar     . 
Atmospheric  Railway  (which  see) 
Aylesbury  branch 
Bangor  and  Carnarvon    . 
Belfast  and  county  of  Down 
Birmingham  and  Derby  . 
Birmingham  and  Gloucester 
Birmingham,      Wolverhampton, 

Valley 

Brighton  and  Chichester 
Brighton  and  Hastings 


The  railways  are  generally  named  after  their  termini. 

Date  of  Opening.  Railways. 

Jan.  3,  1839  London  and  Cambridge 
London  and  Colchester 
London  and  Croydon  . 
London  and  Dover  . 
London  and  Greenwich 
London  and  Richmond 


.     June  10,  1839 

.      July,  1852 

April,   1850 

Aug.  12,  1839 

.     Dec.  17,  1840 

and     Stour 

July,  1852 
.  June  8,  1846 
June  27, 


Bristol  and  Exeter May  i,  1844 

Bristol  and  Gloucester .        .        .        .         July,  1845 

Caledonian        . 1848 

Canterbury  and  Whitstable  .  .  May,  1830 
Charing  Cross  Railway,  London,  opened  Jan.  n,  1864 
Cheltenham  and  Swindon.  .  .  .  May  12,  1845 
Chepstow  and  Swansea,  South  Wales  June,  1850 
Chester  and  Birkenhead  .  .  Sept.  22,  1840 
Chester  and  Crewe  ....  Oct.  i,  ,, 
Cockermouth  and  Workington  .  April  28,  1847 
Colchester  and  Ipswich  .  .  .  June  15,  1846 

Cork  and  Bandon Dec.  1851 

Cornwall May  i,  1859 

Coventry  and  Leamington  .  .  .  Dec.  2,  1844 
Croydon  and  Epsom  ....  May  17,  1847 
Dublin  and  Carlow  ....  Aug.  10,  1846 
Dublin  and  Drogheda  ....  May  26,  1844 
Dublin  and  Kingstown  .  .  .  Dec.  17,  1834 
Dublin  and  Belfast  Junction  .  .  June,  1852 
Dundee  and  Arbroath  .  .  .  April  8,  1840 

Dundee  and  Newtyle Dec.  1831 

Dundee  and  Perth  ....  May  22,  1847 
Dunfermline  and  Alloa ;  Sterling  and  Dunferm- 

line Aug.  1850 

Durham  and  Sunderland     .        .        .  June  28,  1839 
Eastern  Counties      ....        June  18,     ,, 
Eastern  Union  (London  and  Colchester)  Mar.  29,  1843 
East  and  West  India  Docks  and  Birmingham 
Junction;  from  Blackwall  railway  to  Camden 

Town Aug.  1850 

Edinburgh  and  Berwick          .  June  18,  1846 

Edinburgh  and  Dalkeith 1831 

Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  .  .  .  Feb.  8,  1842 
Edinburgh,  Leith,  and  Granton  ....  1846 
Edinburgh  and  Musselburgh  .  .  July  14,  1847 

Ely  and  Huntingdon ,, 

Ely  and  Peterborough      ....      Jan.     „ 
Exeter  and  Crediton     .        .        .        .         May,  1851 
Exeter  and  Plymouth  (part)  .        May  29,  1846 

Glasgow  and  Ayr Sept.  19,  1840 

Glasgow  and  Greenock  .  .  .  March  24,  1841 
Glasgow,  Garnkirk,  and  Coatbridge  .  July,  1845 
Gloucester  and  Chepstow  .  .  .  Sept.  1851 
Grand  Junction  from  Birmingham  to  tNewton, 

July,  1837 

Gravesend  and  Rochester  .  .  .  Feb.  10,  1845 
Great  Western  ....  June  30,  1841 

Great  Northern 1842 

Hertford  branch  of  Eastern  Counties  Oct.  31,  1843 
Ipswich  and  Bury  St.  Edmund's  .  Dec  24,  1846 
Kelso ;  branch  of  North  British  .  .  June,  1850 

Kendal  and  Windermere 1847 

Lancaster  and  Carlisle  .  .  .  Dec.  16,  1846 
Lancaster  and  Preston  .  .  June  30,  1840 

Leeds  and  Bradford    ....       July  i,  1846 

Leeds  and  Derby July,  1840 

Leeds  and  Selby Sept.  1834 

Liverpool  and  Birmingham     .        .        .  July  4,  1837 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  .        .        .   Sept.  15,  1830 
Liverpool  and  Preston      .        .        .         Oct.  31,  1838 
London  and  Birmingham    .        .        .   Sept.  17,     „ 
London  and  Blackwall     .        .        .        .Aug.  2,  1841 
London  and  Brighton  ....  Sept.  21,     „ 
London  and  Bristol          .  June  30,    „ 


Date  of  Opening. 
July,  1845 
March  29,  1843 
.  June  i,  1839 
Feb.  6,  1844 
.  Dec.  26,  1838 
July  27,  1846 
London  and  Southampton  .  .  .  May  n,  1840 
London  and  Warrington ;  branch  of  the  Great 

Northern Aug.  1850 

Lowestoft  branch  of    the  Norwich  and  Yar- 
mouth     1847 

Lynn  and  Ely       ...;...„ 
Manchester  and  Birmingham          .        Aug.  10,  1842 
Manchester,  Bolton,  and  Bury    .        .     May  29,  1838 
Manchester  and  Leeds     .        .        .       March  i,  184^ 
Manchester  and  Sheffield    .        .        .     Dec.  22,  1845 
Margate  branch  of  the  London  and  Dover     .     .  1846- 
Merthyr-Tydfil  and  Cardiff          .         .  April  12,  1841 
Metropolitan,     London  ;    act   obtained,    1853 ; 
construction  began,  1860;  opened  .    Jan.  10,  1863 


Middlesborough  and  Redcar 
Newcastle  and  Berwick 
Newcastle  and  Carlisle 
Newcastle  and  Darlington 
Newcastle  and  North  Shields     . 
Newmarket  and  Cambridge    . 
Newtown-Stewart  and  Omagh    . 
Northampton  and  Peterborough 
North  and  South- Western  Junction 
!  Northern  and  Eastern     . 


June  4, 

Jul 
June  i 


June 


1847 
1839 
1844. 
.  1839 
Oct.  1851 
Sept,  1852. 
June  2,  1845 
.  Dec.  1852 
July,  1845 


Norwich  and  Brandon. 

Norwich  and  Yarmouth  ....  May  i,  1845 

Nottingham  to  Grantham  .        .         July,  1850 

Nottingham  and  Lincoln         .        .          .Aug.  3,  1846 

Nottingham    branch    of    Rugby  ^and    Derby, 

May  30,  1839 

Oxford  branch  of  London  and  Bristol   June  12,  1844 

Oxford  and  Banbury    ....         Aug.   1850 

Oxford,  Worcester,  and  Wolverhampton 

Paisley  and  Renfrew         .... 

Penzance  to  Cambourne 

Rugby  and  Derby 

Rugby  and  Leamington      .        .        . 

St.  Andrew's 

St.  Helen's  ;  first  act  passed 

Salisbury  branch  of  the  London  and  South- 
ampton   1847 

Sheffield  and  Rotherham         .        .        .       Oct.  if 

Shrewsbury  and  Chester 

Shrewsbury  and  Ludlow 

Southampton  and  Dorchester 

South  Eastern  .        .        . 

South-Eastern  ;  North  Kent  line 

Stockton  and  Darlington. 

Stockton  and  Hartlepool     . 

Stourbridge  and  Dudley 

Swinton  and  Barnsley. 

TaffVale 

Teignmouth  to  Newton       .     .    . 

Tipperary  and  Clonmel    . 

Trent  Valley          .... 

Tunbridge-Wells'branch  . 

Ulster 

Warrington  and  Retford 
Northern 

West  and  East  India  Docks  and  Birmingham 
Junction  from  the  Blackwall  railway  to 
Camden  Town Aug.  1850 

West  Durham  June,  1840 

West  London  (part)        ....  May  27,  1844 

Worcester  and  Droitwich  .        .        .    Jan.  1852 

York  and  Darlington      ....    Jan.  4,  1841 

York  and  Newcastle  ....     June  17,  1847 

York  and  Normanton    ....  June  30,  1840 

York  and  Scarborough        .        .        .      July  7,  1845 


.  May,  1852 
May,  1837 
.  Jan.  1852 
July,  1840 
.  Feb.  1851 
July,  1852 
1830 


Nov.  4,  1846 
.    April,  1852 
June  i,  1847 
Feb.  6,  1844 
.  1849 
.     Sept.  1825 
.    Feb.  10,  1841 
.    fDec.  1852 
June,  1851 
.  Oct.  8,  1840 
.    .   .        .    Dec.  31,  1846 
.  April,  1852 
.        .  June  26,  1847 
.      Oct.  1846 
Aug.  1839 
branch  of  the  Great 

July,  1852 


RAI 


611 


EAI 


RAILWAYS,  continued. 

EXTENT  OF  RAILWAYS   IN    1848. 

Miles.  I  Miles. 

3800  I  France 2200 


America 

Germany 
Holland . 
Belgium 


1570  |  Italy  . 
200    Denmark 
1095  I  Cuba . 


"5 
106 
800 


Russia 


Miles. 
52 

British  Colonies       .        .     .     1000 

East  India     ....       500 

[864  miles  ini86i.] 


Austria  . 

Denmark 

France 

Germany  (without 

and  Prussia)  . 
Great  Britain  : 

England     . 

Scotland 


EXTENT  OF  RAILWAYS,  JUNE,  1858  (from  Captain  Gallon's  Report). 

Miles.  |  Miles.  \ 

Ireland 1070 

Holland 182 

Naples 64 

Portugal 29 

Prussia 2544 

Russia 715 

Sardinia         ....  390 

.     6706    Spain 456 

1243    States  of  the  Church 


.     2086 
•        •    •      813 

220 
•        .       45°9 

Austria 

.     .     2930 


Sweden  and  Norway    . 

Switzerland 

Tuscany 

Total    . 

United  States  of  America 
Grand  Total 


Miles. 
88 

.  15= 
24,592 
17,481 


UNITED   KINGDOM— LENGTH    OF   RAILWAY   OPENED,    NUMBER   OF    PASSENGERS,    AND 

TOTAL   RECEIPTS. 


Milos 

Miles 

Year. 

then 

Travellers. 

Receipts. 

Year. 

then 

Travellers. 

Receipts. 

opened. 

opened. 

i  1845  .  . 
1849  •  •  • 
1854 

2343 
4355 
5962 

33,79^253 
63,841,539 
111,206,707 

£6,277,892 
9,174,945 

1859  (£yr.)   . 
1861  (year)    . 
1863  (year)    . 

9795 
10,869* 
12,322 

67,229,700 

173.721,139 
204,699,466 

£11,862,639 
28,561,355 
3i,i56,397 

1858  (4yr.)  . 

9540 

76,529,202 

12,825,826 

PERSONS   KILLED   BY   RAILWAY   ACCIDENTS. 


1854-5. 

1855-6. 

1856. 

1857-8. 

1858-9. 

1859-60- 

1861. 

Total  in  one  year  
By  causes  beyond  their  own  control  . 

236 
38 

259 
29 

281 
38 

f27I 

38 

261 

35 

236 
23 

284 
69 

It  has  been  calculated  that  out  of  16,168,459  travellers  by  railway  one  person  is  killed,  and  out  of 
458,370  one  is  injured  by  causes  beyond  their  own  control. 
In  1864,  68  persons  were  killed,  and  831  injured. 


MEMORABLE   RAILWAY   ACCIDENTS. 
Very  many,  where  only  2  persons  killed,  are  not  noted;  in  nearly  all  cases  a  large  number  were  injured. 


W.  Huskisson,  M.P.,  killed  at  the  opening  of 
the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway, 

Sept  15,  1830 

Great  Corby  (Newcastle  and  Carlisle):  train  runs 
off  line  ;  3  killed Dec  3,  1836 

Brentwood  (Eastern  Counties)  :  carriages  over- 
turned ;  3  killed  ....  Aug.  21,  1840 

Cuckfield  (London  and  Brighton)  :  engine  runs 
off  line  ;  4  killed  ....  Oct.  2,  1841 

Sunnyhill  cutting,  near  Reading  :  engine  forced 
off  the  line  ;  8  killed  ....  Dec.  24,  ,, 

Versailles  :  carriages  take  fire,  passengers  locked 
in ;  52  or  53  lives  lost,  including  admiral 
D'Urville May  8,  1842 

Masborough  (Midland  Counties) :  collision ; 
Mr.  Boteler  and  others  killed,  many  injured, 

Oct.  20,  1845 

Stratford  (Eastern  Counties) ;  collision  through 
great  carelessness;  Mr.  Hind  killed,  many 
mutilated July  18,  1846 

Pevensey  (Brighton  and  Hastings):  collision; 
40  persons  injured  .  .  .  Aug.  24,  ,, 


Clifton  (Manchester  and  Bolton)  :  express  runs 

off  hue  ;  2  killed,  many  injured  Dec.  15,  1846 

Chester  (Chester  and  Shrewsbury) :  train  runs 

off  bridge ;    4  killed,  great  number  injured, 

May  1 8,  1847 
Wolverton (North  Western) :  collision;  7  killed, 

many  injured        ....         June  5,     „ 
Shrivenham  (Great  Western) :  collision ;  7  killed, 

many  injured        ....          May  10,  1848 
Carlisle     (Caledonian)  :    axletree    of    carriage 

breaks  ;  5  killed         ....  Feb.  10,  1849 
Frodsham    Tunnel  (Chester    and    Warrington 

Junction)  :  collision  ;  6  killed        .     April  30,  1851 
Newmarket  Hill  (Lewes  and  Brighton):  train 

runs  off  line  ;  4  killed.        .        .        .  June  6,     „ 
Bicester      (Buckinghamshire) :      collision ;     6 

killed         .        .         .        ..•:..        .      Sept.  6,     ,, 
Burnley  (Lancashire  and  Yorkshire)  :  collision ; 

4  killed July  12,  1852 

Dixonfold  (Lancashire  and  Yorkshire)  :  engine 

wheels  broke  ;  7  killed  .        .     March  4,  1853. 

R   R  2 


RAI 


612 


RAP 


RAILWAYS,  continued. 

Near  Straffan  (Great  Southern  and  Western, 
Ireland) ;  collision  ;  13  killed    .        .     Oct.  5, 

Near    Harling,    Norfolk   (Eastern    Counties) : 
collision  ;  6  killed    ....     Jan.  12, 

Croydon  (Brighton  and  Dover) :   collision ;    3 
killed Aug.  24, 

Burlington,    between    New    York    and  Phila- 
delphia ;  21  killed     .         .        .        .  Au 

Beading  (South  Eastern) :  collision ;  5  1 

Sept.  12, 

Near  Paris  :  collision ;  9  killed         .         Oct.  g, 

Between  Thoret  and  Moret :  collision ;  16  killed 

Oct.  23, 

Campbell  (N.  Pennsylvanian) :  collision  ;  above 
100  killed July  17, 

Dunkett  (Waterford  and  Kilkenny) 
7  killed 

Kirby  (Liverpool    and    Blackpool) : 
200  injured,  none  killed 

Lewisham  (North  Kent) :  collision 


collision ; 
.  Nov.  19, 
collision ; 
.June  27, 
ii  killed, 
June  28, 
collision  ; 
Oct.  14, 


Between    Pyle   and    Port    Talbot: 
4  killed 

Attleborough  (North  Western)  :  train  thrown 
off  the  line  through  a  cow  crossing  the  rails  ; 
3  killed May  10, 

Near  Mons,  Belgium :  coke  waggon  on  the  rails; 
21  killed June 

Chilham  (South  Eastern);  either  too  great 
speed  or  broken  axletree  ;  3  killed  .  June  30, 

Near  Bound  Oak  Station  (Oxford  and  Wolver- 
hampton) — Excursion  train:  collision;  14 
killed Aug.  23, 

Tottenham  (Eastern  Counties) :  engine  wheel 
breaks  ;  6  killed  ....  Feb.  20, 

Helmshore  (Lancashire  and  Yorkshire)  excur- 
sion train  :  collision  ;  1 1  killed  .  Kept.  4, 


Atherstone  (North  Western)  :  collision  of  mail 

1853  and  cattle  trains  :  n  killed  Nov.  16,  1860 
Near  Wimbledon  ;  Dr.  Baly  killed       .    Jan.  28,  1861 

1854  Bailway    tunnel   falls    in  near   Haddon   Hall, 

i      Derbyshire  :  5  men  killed    .        .          July  2,     „ 
Clayton  Tunnel  (London  and  Brighton)  :  colli- 
sion ;  23  killed,  176  injured       .  Aug.  25,     „ 
Kentish  Town  (Hampstead  Junction) :  16  killed, 
320  injured Sept  2,     ,, 

1855  Market  Harborough :  collision  ;  i  killed  and  50 

injured Aug.  28,  1862 

Near  Winchburgh  (Edinburgh  and    Glasgow): 

collision;  15  killed,  100  wounded    .     Oct.  13,     „ 
Near  Streatham  (London  and  Brighton):    ex- 

1856  plosion  of  boiler  through  attempting  too  great 
speed ;  4  killed  :  above  30  injured       May  30,  1863 

Near  Lynn  (Lynn  and  Hunstanton)  :  carriages 
upset  through  bullock  on  the  line ;  5  killed 

1857  Aug.  3,     ,, 
Egham  (South-Western) :    collision;    5   killed, 

above  20  injured        ....     June  7,  1864 
Canada  :  train  ran  off  a  bridge  at  St.  Hilaire  in 

crossing ;    about    83   killed,   200    wounded 

June  29,    „ 
Blackheath  Tunnel  :*  fast  train  ran  into  a  ballast 

1858  train  ;  6  killed Dec.  16,     „ 

Near  Bednal  (on  a  branch  of  Great  Western) 

train  ran  off  insecure  rails ;  13  killed,  about 

40 injured June  7,  1865 

Near  Staplehurst  (South  Eastern):  train  ran 
off  insecure  rails,  &c.  ;  10  killed  and  many 
injured  ..'...  June  9,  ,, 

Near  Colney  Hatch  (Great  Northern) :  collision 
with  coal  trucks  ;  above  50  persons  injured 
1860  Aug.  30,  „ 


RAINBOW.  Its  theory  was  developed  by  Kepler  in  1611,  and  by  Rene*  Descartes  in 
1629.  See  Spectrum. 

RAMADAN,  the  Mahometan  month  of  fasting  ;  in  1865,  Jan.  28  to  Feb.  27  :  in  1866, 
Jan.  1 8  to  Feb.  16,  inclusive.  It  is  followed  by  the  festival  of  Bairam  (which  see). 

R  AMI  LIES  (in  Belgium),  the  site  of  a  battle  between  the  English  under  the  duke  of 
Marlborough  and  the  allies  on  one  side,  and  the  French  on  the  other,  commanded  by  the 
elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  marshal  de  Villeroy,  on  Whitsunday,  May  23  (o.  s.  12),  1706. 
The  French  were  soon  seized  with  a  panic,  and  a  general  rout  ensued :  about  4000  of  the 
allied  army  were  slain  in  the  engagement.  The  duke  pursued  and  achieved  one  of  his  most 
glorious  victories,  which  accelerated  the  fall  of  Louvain,  Brussels,  &c.  Parliament  settled 
his  honours  upon  the  male  and  female  issue  of  his  daughters. 

RANGOON,  maritime  capital  of  the  Burmese  empire,  was  taken  by  sir  A.  Campbell  on 
May  n,  1824.  In  Dec.  1826,  it  was  ceded  to  the  Burmese  on  condition  of  the  payment  of 
.a  sum  of  money,  the  reception  of  a  British  resident  at  Ava,  and  freedom  of  commerce. 
Oppression  of  the  British  merchants  led  to  the  second  Burmese  war ;  Rangoon  was  taken  by 
storm  by  general  Godwin,  April  14,  1852;  and  annexed  to  the  British  dominions  in 
December  following. 

RANSOME'S  ARTIFICIAL  STONE,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Fred.  Ransome,  1848,  is 
made  by  dissolving  common  flint  (silica)  in  heated  caustic  alkali,  adding  fine  sand.  The 
mixture  is  pressed  into  moulds  and  heated  to  redness. 

RANTERS,  a  name  given  to  a  sect  which  arose  in  1645,  similar  to  the  Seekers,  n< 
termed  Quakers.     It  is  now  applied  to  the  Primitive  Methodists,  who  separated  from 
main  body  in  1810.     See  Wesley  am. 

RAPE  was  punished  by  the  Jews  with  death;  by  mutilation  and  the  loss  of  eyes 
William  I.'s  reign.     This  was  mitigated  by  the  statute  of  Westminster  i,  3  Edw.  I.  1274 
Made  felony  by  stat.  Westminster  2,  12  Edw.  III.  1338 ;  and  without  benefit  of  clerc 


*  On  Dec.  27,  1864,  the  queen  wrote  to  the  directors  of  the  railway  companies  of  London,  requesting 
them  "to  be  as  careful  of  other  passengers  as  of  herself." 


RAP  613  REA 

1 8  Eliz.  1575.     Rape  made  punishable  by  transportation  in  1841  ;  by  penal  servitude  for 
life  or  a  less  period,  1861. 

RAPHIA,  a  port  of  Palestine.  Here  Antiochus  III.  of  Syria,  was  defeated  by  Ptolemy 
Philopater  of  Egypt,  217  B.C. 

RAPHOE  (a  bishopric  in  N.  Ireland).  St.  Columb-kille,  a  man  of  great  virtue  and 
learning,  and  born  of  royal  blood,  founded  a  monastery  in  this  place,  and  it  was  afterwards 
enlarged  by  other  holy  men  ;  but  it  is  the  received  opinion  that  St.  Eunan  erected  the  church 
into  a  cathedral,  and  was  the  first  bishop  of  this  see  in  the  8th  century.  Raphoe  was  united 
to  the  bishopric  of  Derry  by  act  3  &  4  Will.  IY.  1833.  See  Bislwps. 

RAPPAHANNOCK  CASE.     See  Trials,  1865. 

RASPBERRY  is  not  named  among  the  fruits  that  were  early  introduced  into  this 
country  from  the  continent.  The  Yirginian  raspberry  (Rubus  occidentalis)  before  1696,  and 
the  flowering  raspberry  (Rubus  odoratus),  about  1 700,  came  from  North  America. 

RASTADT.     See  Radstadt. 

RATHMINES  (near  Dublin).  Colonel  Jones,  governor  of  Dublin  castle,  made  a  sally 
out,  routed  the  marquis  of  Ormond  at  Rathmines,  killed  4000  men,  took  2517  prisoners,, 
with  their  cannon,  baggage,  and  ammunition,  Aug.  2,  1649. 

RATIONALISM,  the  doctrine  of  those  who  reject  a  divine  revelation  and  admit  no  other 
means  of  acquiring  knowledge  but  reason.  The  leading  writers  are  Reimarus  of  Hamburg 
(died  1768),  Paulus  of  Heidelberg,  Eichhorn,  Reinhard,  and  Strauss. 

RATISBON  (in  Bavaria),  was  made  a  free  imperial  city  about  1200.  Several  diets  have 
been  held  here.  A  peace  was  concluded  here  between  France  and  the  emperor  of  Germany 
by  which  was  terminated  the  war  for  the  Mantuan  succession,  signed  Oct.  13,  1630.  In- 
later  times,  it  was  at  Ratisbon,  in  a  diet  held  there,  that  the  German  princes  seceded  from, 
the  Germanic  empire,  and  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  emperor  Napoleon 
of  France,  Aug.  i,  1806.  Ratisbon  was  made  an  archbishopric  in  1806,  but  secularised  in 
1 8 10.  In  1815  it  was  ceded  to  Bavaria,  and  became  again  an  archbishopric  in  1817. 

RAUCOUX  (Belgium).  Here  marshal  Saxe  and  the  French  army  totally  defeated  the 
allies  on  Oct.  n,  1746. 

RAYAILLAC'S  MURDER  of  Henry  IY.  of  France,  May  14,  1610.* 

RAYENNA  (on  the  Adriatic),  a  city  of  the  Papal  states.  It  was  founded  by  Greek 
colonists.  It  fell  under  the  Roman  power  about  234  B.C.  It  was  favoured  and  embellished 
by  the  emperors,  and  Honorius  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Empire  of  the  West,  about 
A.D.  404.  In  568  it  became  the  capital  of  an  exarchate.  It  was  subdued  by  the  Lombards- 
in  752,  and  their  king,  Astolphus,  in  754  surrendered  it  to  Pepin,  king  of  France,  who  gave 
it  in  754  to  the  pope  Stephen,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
Holy  see.  On  April  n,  1-512,  a  great  battle  was  fought  between  the  French  under  the  great 
Gaston  de  Foix  (duke  of  Nemours  and  nephew  of  Louis  XII.),  and  the  Spanish  and  Papal 
armies.  De  Foix  perished  in  the  moment  of  his  victory,  and  his  death  closed  the  fortunes 
of  the  French  in  Italy.  The  confederate  army  was  cut  to  pieces.  The  duke  of  Nemours  had 
performed  prodigies  of  valour,  but  being  too  eager  in  his  pursuit  of  the  Spaniards,  who  were 
retiring  in  good  order,  he  was  slain.  Henault,  Ravenna  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  in  1860. 

READING  (Berkshire).  Here  Alfred  defeated  the  Danes,  871.  The  abbey  was  founded 
in  12 1 1  by  Henry  I.  The  last  abbot  was  hanged  in  1539  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy. 

REAPING-MACHINES.  One  was  invented  in  this  country  early  in  the  present 
century,  but  failed  from  its  intricacies.  McCormick's  American  machine  was  invented 
about  1831,  and  perfected  in  1846,  and  received  a  gold  medal  from  the  jurors  of  the  Exhi- 
bition of  1851.  Hussey's  machine,  also  American,  exhibited  at  the  same  time,  was  highly 
commended. 

*  His  punishment  was  most  dreadful.  He  was  carried  to  the  Greve,  and  tied  to  the  rack,  a  wooden 
engine  in  the  shape  of  St.  Andrew's  cross.  His  right  hand,  within  which  was  fastened  the  knife  with 
which  he  did  the  murder,  was  first  burned  at  a  slow  fire.  Then  the  fleshy  and  most  delicate  parts  of  his 
body  were  torn  with  red-hot  pincers,  and  into  the  gaping  wounds  melted  lead,  oil,  pitch,  and  rosin  were 

Cred.     His  body  was  so  robust,  that  he  endured  this  exquisite  pain,  and  his  strength  resisted  that  of  the 
r  horses  by  which  his  limbs  were  to  be  pulled  to  pieces.  The  executioner,  in  consequence,  cut  him  into 
quarters,  and  the  spectators,  who  refused  to  pray  for  him,  dragged  him  through  the  streets. 


REA 


614 


REG 


REASON  was  decreed  to  be  worshipped  as   a  goddess  by   the  French  republicans, 
Nov.  10,  1793.     Thomas  Paine's  "  Age  of  Reason  "  was  published  in  1794-5. 

REBECCA  RIOTS.     See  Wales,  1843. 

REBELLIONS  (or  INSURRECTIONS)  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY.     Among  the  most  memorable 
from  the  period  of  the  Norman  conquest  were  the  following  : — 


Against  "William  the  Conqueror,  in  favour  of  Edgar 
Atheling,  aided  by  the  Scots  and  Danes,  1069. 

By  Odo  of  Bayeux  and  others,  against  William  II.  in 
favour  of  his  brother  Robert,  1088.  Extinguished, 
logo. 

Of  the  Welsh,  who  defeated  the  Normans  and  Eng- 
lish, commenced  in  1095. 

In  England,  in  favour  of  the  empress  Maude,  1139. 
Ended,  1153. 

The  rebellion  of  prince  Richard  against  his  father 
Henry  II.  1189. 

Of  the  Barons,  April  1215.  Compromised  by  the 
grant  of  Magna  Charta,  June  15  following.  See 
Magna  Charta. 

Of  the  Barons  1261.  This  rebellion  terminated  in 
1267. 

Of  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  against  Edward 
II.  on  account  of  his  favourites,  the  Gavestons, 
1312.  Again,  on  account  of  the  Spencers,  1321. 

Of  Walter  the  Tyler,  of  Deptford,  vulgarly  called 
Wat  Tyler,  occasioned  by  the  brutal  rudeness  of  a 
poll-tax  collector  to  his  daughter.  He  killed  the 
collector  in  his  rage,  and  raised  a  party  to  oppose 
the  tax  itself,  1381.  See  Tyler. 

Of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  and  other  lords,  in 
England,  1387. 

In  Ireland,  when  Roger,  earl  of  March,  the  viceroy 
and  heir  presumptive  to  the  crown,  was  slain,  1398. 

Of  Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  caused  Richard  II. 
to  be  deposed,  1399. 

Rebellion  of  the  English  and  Welsh,  1400-2. 

Against  king  Henry  IV.  by  a  number  of  confederated 
lords,  1403. 

Of  Jack  Cade,  in  favour  of  the  duke  of  York,  against 
Henry  VI.  1450.  See  Cade's  Insurrection. 

In  favour  of  the  house  of  York,  1452,  which  ended 
in  the  imprisonment  of  Henry  VI.  and  seating 
Edward  IV.  of  York  on  the  throne,  1461. 

Under   Warwick   and  Clarence,  1470,  which'  ended 
with  the  expulsion  of  Edward  IV.  and  the  restora- 
tion of  Henry  VI.  the  same  year. 
Under  Edward  IV.  1471,  which  ended  with  the  death 

of  Henry  VI. 
Of  the  earl  of  Richmond,  against  Richard  III.  1485, 

which  ended  with  the  death  of  Richard. 
Under    Lambert    Simnel,    who    pretended    to    be 
Richard    III.'s   nephew,  1486,  which   ended   the 
same  year   in    discovering   that    Simnel    was    a 
baker's  son  ;  he  was  pardoned. 
Under  Perkin  Warbeck,  1492,  which  ended  in  the 

execution  of  Warbeck. 

Under  Thomas  Flammock  and  Michael  Joseph,  in 
Cornwall,  against  taxes  levied-to  pay  the  Scottish 
war  expenses.  They  marched  towards  London, 
and  lord  Audley  took  the  command  at  Wells. 


They  were  defeated  at  Blackheath,  June  22,  and 
the  three  leaders  were  executed,  June  28,  1497. 
Of  the  English  in  the  West,  to  restore  the  ancient 

liturgy,  <fcc.,  1549  ;  suppressed  same  year. 
In  Norfolk,  headed   by  Ket,  the  tanner,  but  soon 

suppressed,  Aug.  1549. 

In  favour  of  lady  Jane  Grey,  against  queen  Mary. 
Lady  Jane  was  proclaimed  queen  of  England  on 
the  death  of  Edward  VI.  July  10,  1553  ;  but  she 
resigned  the  crown  to  Mary  a  few  days  after- 
wards :  she  was  beheaded  for  high  treason,  in  the 
Tower,  Feb.  12,  1554,  aged  17. 

Of  sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  the  poet,  and  others,  against 
queen  Mary's  marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain,  &c., 
fails  ;  he  is  beheaded  April  n,  1554. 
Of  the  Roman  Catholic  earls  of  Northumberland  and 
Westmoreland  against  queen  Elizabeth,  Nov.  and 
Dec.  1567.     The  former  fled  to  Scotland,  but  was 
given  up  by  the  regent  Murray  and  executed. 
Of  the  Irish,  under  the  earl  of  Tyrone,  1599,  sup- 
pressed in  1601. 
Under  the  earl  of  Essex,  against  queen  Elizabeth, 

1600  ;  it  ended  in  his  death,  1601. 
Of  the  Irish  under  Roger  More,  sir  Phelim  O'Neil, 
&c.,  against  the  English  in  Ireland ;  it  ended  in 
1651. 
Rebellion  of  the  Scots,  1666;   soon  afterwards  put 

down. 
Under  the  duke  of  Monmouth,   1685 ;   it  ended  in 

his  death. 
Of  the  Scots  in  favour  of  the  Old  Pretender,  1715  ; 

quelled  in  1716. 

Of  the  Scots,  under  the  Young  Pretender,  1745  ; 
suppressed  in  1746,  when  lords  Lovat,  Balmerino, 
an  t  Kilmarnock  were  beheaded. 
Of   the  Americans,   on  account  of   taxation,  1774. 
This  rebellion  led  to  a  disastrous  war,  to  the  loss 
of  our  chief  North  American  colonies,  and  to  the 
independence  of  the  United  States,  1782. 
In  Ireland,  called  the    Great  Rebellion,  when  great 
numbers  took  up  arms,  commenced  May  24,  1798  ; 
suppressed  next  year. 

Again  in  Ireland,  under  Robert  Emmett,  a  gifted 
enthusiast,  July  23, 1803,  when  lord  Kilwardenwas 
killed  with  several  others,  by  the  insurgents. 
Canadian  Insurrection  (ichicli  see),  Dec.  1837  to  Nov. 

1838. 

Of  Chartists  at  Newport  (which  see),  Nov.  4,  1839. 
Smith  O'Brien's  silly  Irish  rebellion  ;  terminated  in 
the  defeat  and  dispersion  of  a  multitude  of  his 
deluded    followers    by  sub-inspector  Trant    and 
about  sixty  police  constables,  on  Boulagh  com- 
mon,  Ballingary,   co.    Tipperary,  July  29,    1848. 
See  Ireland. 
Rebellion  in  India  (see  India),  1857-8. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MONEY.  Receipts  were  first  taxed  by  a  stamp-duty  in  1783.  The  act 
was  amended  in  1784,  1791  el  seq.,  and  receipts  were  taxed  by  a  duty  varying  according  to 
the  amount  of  the  money  received,  in  all  transactions.  Stamps  required  on  bills  of 
exchange,  notes,  and  receipts  in  Ireland,  by  stat.  35  Geo.  III.  1795.  See  Bills  of  Exchange. 
The  uniform  stamp  of  one  penny  on  receipts,  for  all  sums  above  2?.,  was  enacted  by 
16  &  17  Viet.  c.  59  (Aug.  4,  1853).  See  Stamps. 

RECIPROCITY  TREATY  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  regulating  the 
relation  between  the  latter  and  Canada,  in  regard  to  trade,  fisheries,  &c.,  was  negotiated 
by  lord  Elgin,  and  ratified  Aug.  2,  1854.  Its  abrogation  was  proposed  by  the  United  States' 
government  in  1864. 

RECITATIVE,  a  species  of  singing    differing  but  little  from  ordinary  speaking,  and 


: 


for  narratives  in  operas,  is  said  to  have  been  first  employed  at  Rome  by  Emilio  del 
valiere,  who  disputed  the  claim  of  Rinuccini  to  the  introduction  of  the  Italian  opera, 
1600.     See  Optra.     It  was  soon  afterwards  adopted  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  and  throughout 
rope. 

RECORDER,  the  principal  judicial  officer  of  great  corporations.     The  first  recorder  of 
nidon  was  Jeffrey  de  Norton,  alderman,  1298;  Russell  Gurney,  esq.,  Q.C.,  the  PRESENT 
recorder,  was  elected  in  1856.     The  salaiy,  originally  lol.  per  annum,  is  now  2500?. 

RECORDS,  PUBLIC,  IN  ENGLAND,  began  to  be  regularly  preserved  in  noo,  by  order  of 
Henry  I.  The  repositories  which  possessed  materials  the  most  ancient  and  interesting  to  the 
historian  were,  the  Chapter-house  of  Westminster  Abbey,  the  Tower  of  London,  and  the 
Queen's  Remembrancer's  offices  of  the  exchequer.  The  early  records  of  Scotland,  going 
from  London,  were  lost  by  shipwreck  in  1298.  In  Ireland,  the  council-chamber  and  most 
of  the  records  were  burned,  1711.  Public  Records  act,  2  Viet.  c.  94  (Aug.  10,  1838). — A 
new  RECORD  OFFICE  has  been  erected  on  the  Rolls  estate,  between  Chancery  and  Fetter- 
lanes,  to  which  the  records  will  be  gradually  removed. 


RECREATION.     See  Playground. 
REDHILL.     See  Reformatory  Schools. 


REDEMPTORISTS.     See  Liguorians. 


RED  SEA.  In  1826  Ehrenberg  discovered  that  the  colour  was  due  to  the  presence  of 
marine  plants,  which  he  named  " Triclwdesmium  Erythrceum." 

REFLECTORS.     See  Burning-glass. 

REFORM  IN  PARLIAMENT,  a  chief  source  of  agitation  for  many  years.  Mr.  Pitt's  motion 
for  a  reform  in  parliament  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  20  in  1782,  of  144  in  1783,  and  of 
74  in  1785.  The  first  ministerial  measure  of  Reform  was  in  earl  Grey's  administration, 
when  it  was  proposed  in  the  house  of  commons  by  lord  John  Russell,  March  I,  1831. 


BILL  OF   1831. 

First  division  ;  second  reading ;  for  it,  302  ;  against 
it,  301 — majority,  ONE,  March  22.  On  motion  for 
a  committee,  General  G-tscoyne  moved  an  amend- 
ment, "that  the  number  of  representatives  for 
England  and  Wales  ought  not  to  be  diminished." 

Amendment  carried  on  a  division,  299  to  291 — 
majority,  EIGHT,  April  19.  The  bill  was  abandoned 
and  parliament  dissolved,  April  22. 

A  new  parliament  assembled,  June  14.  Bill  again 
introduced,  June  24.  Division  on  second  reading  : 
for  it,  367 ;  against  it,  251 — majority,  116,  July  4. 
Division  on  third  reading  of  the  bill :  for  it,  349 ; 
against  it,  236 — majority,  113,  Sept.  21. 

In  the  LORDS— first  division  on  second  reading  :  lord 
Wharncliffe  moved  "that  the  bill  be  read  that  day 
six  months."  For^the  amendment,  199;  against 
it,  158 — majority,  FORTY-ONE,  Oct.  8.  [Parliament 
prorogued,  Oct.  20,  1831.] 

BILL  OF   1832.* 

Read  in  the  COMMONS  a.  first  time,  without  a  division, 
December  12,  1831.  Second  reading ;  division,  viz.  : 
for  the  bill,  324  ;  against  it,  162 — majority,  162, 
Dec.  17,  1831.  Third  reading ;  division,  viz.  :  for 
the  bill,  355  ;  against  it,  239— majority  for  it,  116, 
March  23,  1832. 

In  the  LORDS  —read  a  first  time  on  motion  of  earl 
Grey,  March  26.  Second  reading :  for  the  bill,  184  ; 
against  it,  175— majority,  NINE,  April  14.  In  the 
committee  lord  Lyndhurst  moved  "  that  the  ques- 


tion of  enfranchisement  should  precede  that  of 
disf ranchisement. "  The  division  was  151  and  116 
— majority  against  ministers,  THIRTY-FIVE,  May  7. 

Resignation  of  ministers,  May  9 ;  great  public  excite- 
ment ensued,  and  they  were  induced  to  resume 
office  on  the  king  granting  them  full  power  to 
secure  majorities,  by  the  creation  of  new  peers. 

In  the  LORDS,  the  bill  was  carried  through  the  com- 
mittee. May  30 ;  read  a  third  time  :  106  against  22 
—majority  EIGHTY-FOUR,  June  4;  received  the 
royal  assent,  June  7,  1832. 

The  royal  assent  given  to  the  Scotch  Reform  Bill, 
July  17  ;  and  to  the  Irish  one,  Aug  7,  1832. 

Lord  John  Russell  introduced  a  new  reform  bill, 
Feb.  13,  1854,  which  was  withdrawn,  April  n, 
1854,  in  consequence  of  the  war  with  Russia. 

On  Feb.  28,  1859,  Mr.  Disraeli  brought  in  a  reform 
bill,  which  was  rejected  by  the  commons  on  March 
31,  by  a  majority  of  39.  This  led  to  a  dissolution  of 
parliament,  and  eventually  a  change  of  ministry. 

The  new  government  (lords  Palmerston  and  J.  Rus- 

-  sell)  brought  forward  a  new  bill,  March  i,  1860 ; 

but  withdrew  it  June  n.     No  reform  bill  was 

brought  forward  by  the  government  1861-65.    See 

Commons,  note. 

The  discussion  respecting  Parliamentary  Reform  was 
revived  in  the  autumn  of  1864  and  1865,  in  con- 
nection with  the  approaching  elections,  and 
various  plans  were  proposed.  Mr.  Baines'  re- 
form bill  was  rejected  by  the  commons,  May  8, 
1865. 


REFORMATION,  THE.  Efforts  for  the  reformation  of  the  church  may  be  traced  to  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne,  when  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Aquileia,  employed  his  voice  and  pen  to 
accomplish  this  object.  The  principal  reformers  were  Wickliffe,  Huss,  Jerome  of  Prague, 
Savonarola,  Luther,  Zuiuglius,  Tyndal,  Calvin,  Melanchthon,  Erasmus,  Cranmer,  Latimer, 


*  By  this  "  Act  to  amsnd  the  Representation  of  the  People  in  England  and  Wales  "  (2  &  3  Will.  4,  c.  45), 
56  boroughs  in  England  ware  disfranchised  (schedule  A.),  30  were  reduced  to  one  member  only  (B.) ;  22 
new  boroughs  were  created  to  sand  two  msmbsrs  (C.),  and  20  to  send  one  member  (D.),  and  other  important 
changes  were  made. 


REF 


616 


KEG 


Knox,  and  Browne.     See  WicUiffites,  Protestants,  Calmnists,  Lutherans,  Presbyterianism,  &e. 
The  eras  of  the  reformation  are  as  follow  :— 


In  England  (WicUiffe)  

In  Bohemia  (Huss)  . 

In  Germany  (Luther)    
In  Switzerland  (Zuinglius)      .... 
In  Denmark  
In  Prussia         

1517 
15*9 
1521 
1527 

In  France  (Calvin),  see  Huguenots 
Protestants  first  so  called  * 

1529 

In  Sweden  (Petri) 1530 

In  England  (Henry  Fill.) 1534 

In  Ii-eland  (Archbishop  George  Browne)         .         .  1535 
In  England,  completed  (Cranmer,  Eucer,  Fagius, 
&c.),  1547;  annulled  by  Mary,  1553;  restored 

by  Elizabeth 1558 

In  Scotland  (Knox),  established  ....  I56o 
In  the  Netherlands,  established     .        .        .     .  I562 


REFORMATORY  SCHOOLS.  The  increasing  number  of  juvenile  delinquents*  has 
long  occupied  the  minds  of  philanthropists,  and  various  schemes  have  been  devised  to  check 
the  evil.  Two  great  institutions  have  been  recently  set  up  for  this  purpose ;  the  Reformatory 
Schools  at  Mettray,  near  Tours  in  France,  and  Redhill,  near  Reigate  in  Surrey.  The  former 
was  established  in  1839,  by  M.  de  Metz,  formerly  a  councillor  at  Paris;  warmly  seconded  in 
his  beneficent  work  by  the  vicomte  de  Courcelles,  who  gave  the  estate  on  which  the 
establishment  is  placed.  The  latter  is  situated  on  land  purchased  in  1849  by  the  Philan- 
thropic Society,  and  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  the  rev.  Sydney  Turner.  The  first 
stone  of  the  building  was  laid  April  30,  1849,  by  the  prince  consort.  The  inmates  of  these 
establishments  are  instructed  in  farm  labour,  and  are  divided  into  so-called  families.  In 
1854  the  Juvenile  Offenders  act  was  passed.  In  1851  and  1853  great  meetings  were  held  on 
the  subject :  and  in  Aug.  1856,  the  first  grand  conference  of  the  National  Reformatory  Union 
was  held.  In  1852  the  North-West  London  Preventive  and  Reformatory  Institution,  in  the 
New  Road,  was  established :  in  this,  all  kinds  of  trades  are  taught.  Acts  for  establishing 
reformatory  schools  were  passed  in  1857  and  1858.  In  1863  there  were  fifty-one  reformatory 
schools  in  England,  and  nine  in  Ireland.  In  1865  an  international  exhibition  of  the  works, 
of  these  schools,  at  the  Agricultural-hall,  Islington,  near  London,  was  opened  by  the  prince 
of  Wales. 

REFRESHMENT  HOUSES  for  the  sale  of  wine,  &c.,  are  licensed  in  pursuance  of  an 
act  passed  in  1860,  amended  in  1861. 

REGENCY  BILLS.  One  was  proposed  to  parliament  in  consequence  of  the  mental 
illness  of  George  III.,  and  debated  Dec.  10,  1788.  It  was  relinquished  on  his  majesty's 
recovery,  Feb.  26,  1789.  The  return  of  the  malady  led  to  the  prince  of  Wales  (afterwards 
George  IV.)  being  sworn  in  before  the  privy  council  as  regent  of  the  kingdom,  Feb.  5,  1811. 
The  Regency  Bill  providing  for  the  administration  of  the  government,  should  the  crown 
descend  to  the  princess  Victoria  while  under  eighteen  years  of  age,  passed  i  Will.  IV.,  Dec. 
23,  1830.  A  Regency  Bill  appointing  prince  Albert  regent  in  the  event  of  the  demise  of  the 
queen,  should  her  next  lineal  successor  be  under  age,  Aug.  4,  1840. 

REGENTS.     See  Protectorates. 

REGENT'S  CANAL  begun  at  Paddington,  where  it  joins  a  cut  to  the  Grand  Junction, 
passes  under  Maida-hill,  continues  its  course  by  the  Regent's-park  to  Islington,  where 
another  subterranean  excavation,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  has  been  formed 
for  its  passage.  It  then  proceeds  by  Hoxton,  Hackney,  Mile- end,  to  Limehouse,  where  it 
joins  the  Thames.  The  whole  length  of  it  is  nine  miles ;  it  comprises  twelve  locks  and 
thirty-seven  bridges.  Opened  Aug.  i,  1820. 

REGENT'S  PARK,  originally  part  of  the  grounds  belonging  to  a  palace  of  queen  Eliza- 
beth, near  to  the  north  end  of  Tottenham  court-road,  pulled  down  in  1791.  Since  1600,  the 
property  was  let  to  various  persons,  but  the  leases  having  expired  it  reverted  to  the  crown  ; 
and  in  1814  great  improvements  were  commenced  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Nash.  The 
park  consists  of  about  450  acres  :  within  it  are  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  and  the 
Royal  Botanical  Society. 

REGGIO.     See  Rhegium. 

REGIMENTS  of  INFANTRY  were  formed  in  France  about  1588.     See  Infantry. 
following  are  the  dates  of  the  establishment  of  several  of  the  British  regiments  : 


-, 

iifl.a 


*  It  was  calculated  (about  1856)  that  there  were  in  London  30,000,  and  in  England  100,000  youths 
under  17  leading  a  vagabond  life,  and  that  out  of  15,000  of  those  who  were  committed  for  trial  nearly  half 
were  in  custody  for  the  first  time. 


REG  617  REM 


REGIMENTS,  continued. 

CAVALRY. 

The  Dragoon  Guards,  the  Royal  Irish,  and  the 
Scots  Greys  were  formed  by  James  II., 
about 1685-6 

Oxford  Blues  are  erroneously  said  to  have  been 
formed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ;  they 
derive  their  name  from  their  colonel,  the 
earl  of  Oxford in  1661 

Three  Indian  regiments  (igth,  2oth,  and  2ist), 
added Aug.  ,, 


INFANTRY. 


Coldstream  Guards,  established  by  Monk,  in   i66o> 
ist  Royal 


3rd  Buffs 

2nd  Queen's  Royal 

4th  King's  Own 

5th  Northumberland  Fusiliers    . 

26th  Cameronian 

xooth  Canadian     .... 

icist  to  logth  (Indian),  added         .        .    Aug 


1660 
1661 
1685 
1685 
1689. 
1858 
1861 


The  Highland  regiments  are  the  42nd,  7ist,  y2nd,  jSth,  jgfh,  gznd,  a 


REGISTERS.  The  registering  of  deeds  and  conveyances  disposing  of  real  estates  war; 
appointed  to  be  effected  in  Yorkshire  and  in  Middlesex,  2  Anne,  1703,  et  seq.  By  this 
regulation,  greater  security  was  made  for  purchasers  and  mortgagees ;  and  the  value  of  estates 
increased  in  the  register  counties.  Wills  have  been  for  a  series  of  years  kept  and  registered, 
in  London,  at  Doctors'  Commons.  See  Wills.  The  registering  of  shipping  in  the  Thames 
was  commenced,  1786;  and  throughout  England,  1787;  and  several  acts  and  amendment* 
of  acts  have  since  followed  for  keeping  and  improving  registers.  See  Revising  Barristers. 

REGISTERS,  PAROCHIAL,  were  established  by  Cromwell,  lord  Essex,  by  which  the  dates 
of  births,  marriages,  and  burials,  became  ascertaiiiable,  27  Hen.  VIII.  1530-8.  This  measure 
was  opposed  by  the  people,  who  feared  some  new  taxation.  A  stamp-tax  was  laid  on  them 
in  1784.  Laws  for  their  better  regulation  were  enacted  in  1813,  et  seq.  The  great  Regis- 
tration act  (introduced  by  lord  John  Russell),  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  86,  passed  Aug.  17,  1836. 
See  Bills  of  Mortality,  &c. 

REGISTRATION"  OF  VOTERS  was  enacted  by  the  Reform  act,  passed  June,  1832. 

REGIUM  DONUM  (Royal  gift),  an  allowance  granted  by  the  sovereign  to  dissenting 
ministers  in  Ireland,  began  in  1672,  and  has  since  been  greatly  increased.  Its  acceptance- 
has  been  censured  by  some  nonconformists. 

REICHSRATH,  the  representative  council  of  the  empire  of  Austria,  reconstituted  by  a 
decree,  March  5;  met  on  May  31,  1860.  In  May,  1861,  the  upper  house  consisted  of 
17  spiritual,  55  hereditary,  and  39  peers.  The  lower  house  consisted  of  136  elected  deputies. 
No  representatives  came  from  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Venetia,  the  Banat,  Slavonia,  Croatia, 
and  Istria.  The  Reichsrath  was  abolished  by  a  rescript,  Sept.  21,  1865,  with  the  view  of 
restoring  autonomy  to  Hungary  and  other  provinces. 

REIGN  OF  TERROR.  Maximilien  Robespierre  headed  the  populace  in  the  Champ  de- 
Mars,  in  Paris,  demanding  the  dethronement  of  the  king,  July  17,  1791.  He  was  trium- 
phant in  I793>  and  great  numbers  of  eminent  men  and  citizens  were  sacrificed  during  his 
sanguinary  administration.  Billaud  Varennes  denounced  the  tyranny  of  Robespierre  in  the- 
tribune,  July  28,  1794.  Cries  of  "  Down  with  the  tyrant !  "  resounded  through  the  hall ; 
and  he  was  immediately  ordered  to  the  place  of  execution  and  suffered  death.  A  large 
number  of  his  companions  were  also  executed.  See  France.  This  has  been  termed  the  Red 
Terror.  The  re-action,  disgraced  by  many  atrocious  acts  of  wanton  cruelty,  has  been  termed 
the  White  Terror.  The  Jesuits  were  conspicuous  in  the  destruction  of  their  adversaries. 

RELIGION  (from  religo,  I  bind  again,  in  the  sense  of  a  vow  or  oath)  comprehends  a 
belief  in  the  being  and  perfections  of  God,  and  obedience  to  his  commandments.  The 
Christian  religion  is  set  forth  in  the  New  Testament,  which  is  the  spirit  and  interpreter  of 
the  Old.  Departure  from  these  scriptures  has  been  the  origin  of  all  corrupt  forms  of  religion, 
as  foretold  in  them.  See  Mahometanism,  and  other  religions  and  sects  under  their  names.. 
The  population  of  the  globe  with  reference  to  religious  worship,  is  given  by  Balbi  (who 
assumed  the  total  population  to  be  1,050,00x5,000),  and  Dieterici  (who  assumed  it  to  be 
1,288,000,000),  as  follows  : 

Balbi  (1836).  Dieterici  (1861).     _  p   Balbi  (1836).  Dieterici  (1861). 

Jews      .....      4,500,000        5,000,000 
Christians         .        ...  225,000,000    335,000,000 


Idolaters,  &c. ,  not  professing 


the  Jewish,   Christian,  or 

Roman  Catholics       .        .  160,000,000    170,000,000  j      Mahometan  worship         .  665,500,000    800,000,000 
Mahometans     .  .     .  155,000,000    160,000,000  | 

REMONSTRANCE,  THE  GRAND,  was  drawn  up  by  the  house  of  commons,  and  pre- 
sented to  king  Charles  I.,  Dec.  I,  1641.  It  consisted  of  206  articles,  and  dwelt  bitterly  on 
all  the  king's  illegal  and  oppressive  acts. 

REMONSTRANTS.     See  Arminians. 


REN 


618 


REV 


RENAISSANCE,  a  term  applied  to  the  revival  of  the  classic  style  of  art  at  the  beginning 
of  the  1 6th  century,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Medici  and  others.  See  Painters  and 
Sculptors. 

RENTS  were  first  made  payable  in  money,  instead  of  in  kind,  1135.  Numerous  statutes 
have  been  enacted  in  various  reigns  to  define  the  relations  and  regulate  the  dealings  between 
landlord  and  tenant.  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  106  (1845)  regulates  leases.  By  the  act  8  Anne,  1709, 
no  goods  are  removable  from  tenements  under  an  execution  until  the  rent  shall  have  baen 
paid  to  the  landlord  by  the  sheriff,  1709.  In  England,  the  duke  of  Sutherland  received  his 
rents  in  the  value  of  corn,  and  in  Scotland,  in  the  value  of  wool  and  sheep.  The  rental  of 
England,  including  land,  houses,  and  mines,  was  6,ooo,oooZ.  about  the  year  1600,  and  twelve 
years'  purchase  the  value  of  land.  About  1690,  the  rental  amounted  to  14,000,000^.,  and  the 
land  was  worth  eighteen  years'  purchase.  Davenant  on  the  Revenues.  The  present  rental 
of  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  estimated  in  the  present  century  at  127,000,000?.  See 
Land,  &c. 

REPEAL  OF  THE  UNION,  IRELAND.  An  Irish  association  was  formed  with  this  object 
under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  O'Connell,  in  1829. 


A  proclamation  of  the  lord-lieutenant  pro- 
hibited the  meetings  of  a  society  "  leagued 
for  the  purpose  of  procuring  a  repeal  of  the 
union,  under  the  name  of  the  Irish  Society 
for  Legal  and  Legislative  Relief,  or  the  Anti- 
Union  Society  "  ....  Oct.  18,  1830 

The  house  of  commons,  by  a  majority  of  484, 
reject  Mr.  O 'Council's  motion  for  repeal, 

April  27,  1834 

A  new  association  in  1841,  1842,  and  1843  be- 
came more  violent.  Assemblies  of  the  lower 
classes  of  the  people  were  held  in  the  last- 
named  year,  in  various  parts  of  Ireland,  some 
of  them  amounting  to  150,000  persons,  and 
called  "  monster  meetings." 

The  great  meeting  at  Trim  took  place  on  March 
19;  other  meetings  were  held  at  Mullingar, 
Cork,  and  Longford,  on  May  14,  21,  and  28, 
respectively :  at  Drogheda,  Kilkenny,  Mal- 


low, and  Dundalk,  on  June  5,  8,  n,  and  29 ; 
at  D.onnybrook  and  Baltinglass,  July  3  and 
20  ;  at  Tara,  Aug.  15  ;  at  Loughrea,  Clifton, 
and  Lismore,  Sept.  10,  17,  and  24;  and  at 
Mullaghmast Oct.  i,  1843 

A  meeting  to  be  held  at  Clontarf,  on  Oct.  8, 
was  prevented  by  government ;  and  Mr. 
O'Connell  and  his  chief  associates  were 
brought  to  trial  for  political  conspiracy,  Jan. 
15,  1844,  and  convicted,  Feb.  12  ;  but  the 
sentence  was  reversed  by  the  house  of  lords, 
Sept.  4.  See  Trials. 

The  association  for  the  repeal  of  the  union  con- 
tinued for  some  time  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  John  O'Connell,  but  was  little  regarded. 
The  total  "  i-epeal  rent "  amounted  to  134, 379?. 

A  fruitless  attempt  was  made  in  Dublin  to 
revive  repeal  agitation  .  .  .  Dec.  4,  1860 


REPUBLICANS.  See  Democrats.        REPUBLICS.  See  Athens,  Rome,  Genoa,  Venice,  &c. 
REQUESTS,  COURTS  OF.     See  Court  of  Conscience. 

RESERVE  FORCES.  In  the  summer  of  1859,  acts  were  passed  to  provide  for  the 
establishment  of  a  military  reserve  force  of  men  who  have  been  in  her  majesty's  service  (not 
to  exceed  20,000),  and  a  volunteer  reserve  force  of  seamen  not  to  exceed  30,000. 

RESTORATION,  THE,  that  of  king  Charles  II.  to  the  crown  of  England,  after  an  inter- 
regnum  of  eleven  years  and  four  months,  between  Jan.  30,  1649,  when  Charles  I.  was 
beheaded,  and  May  29,  1660,  when  Charles  II.  was  restored,  and  entered  London  amidst 
the  acclamations  of  the  people. 

RETREAT  OF  THE  TEN  THOUSAND  GREEKS,  who  had  joined  the  army  of  the  younger 
Cyrus  in  his  revolt  against  his  brother,  Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  Cyrus  was  defeated  and  slain 
at  Cunaxa,  401  B.C.  Artaxerxes  having  enticed  the  Greek  leaders  into  his  power  and  killed 
them,  Xenophon  was  called  by  his  countrymen  to  the  command.  Under  continual  alarm,' 
from  sudden  attacks,  he  led  them  across  rapid  rivers,  through  vast  deserts,  over  the  tops  o 
mountains,  till  he  reached  the  sea.  The  Greeks  returned  home  after  a  march  of  1155  para 
sangs  or  leagues  (3465  miles),  which  was  performed  in  215  days,  after  the  absence  of  fifteei 
months.  This  retreat  has  been  immortalised  by  the  account  given  by  its  conductor. 

REUSS-GREIZ  AND  REUSS-SCHLEIZ,  two  principalities  in  Central  Germany,  wit! 
a  united  population  of  121,200.  The  reigning  family  sprang  from  Ekbert,  count  of  Osterode 
in  the  loth  century.  The  princely  dignity  was  conferred  by  the  emperor  Sigismom 
in  1426. 


1856.  Reigning  prince  of  Reuss-Schleiz,  Henry  LXIX. 
Sept.  16 ;  born  May  19,  1792. 


1859.   Reigning  prince  of  Reuss-Greiz,  Henry  XX£ 
Nov.  8  ;  born  March  28,  1846. 


REVELATION.     See  Apocalypse. 


REV 


619 


REV 


REVENUE,  PUBLIC,  OF  ENTGLAND.  The  revenue  collected  for  the  civil  list,  and  for 
all  the  other  charges  of  government,  as  well  ordinary  as  extraordinary,  was  i,2OO,oooZ.  per 
annum,  in  1660,  the  first  after  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  in  1690  was  raised  6,ooo,oooZ., 
every  branch  of  the  revenue  being  anticipated ;  this  was  the  origin  of  the  funds  and  the 
national  debt,  2  William  and  Mary.  Salmon.  The  revenue  laws  were  amended  in  1861. 

GENERAL   VIEW   OF   THE   PUBLIC    REVENUE    SINCE   THE   CONQUEST. 


William  I.       .        .             £400,000 
William  Rufus  .        .             350,000 

Henry  VI.               .        .     £  64,976 
Edward  IV.        .                      *    *    * 

William  III.  .        .          £3,895,205 
Anne  (at  the  Union)  .         5,  69  1  ,  803 

Henry  I.         .        .                 300,000 

Edward  V.      .        .                 100,000 

George  I.        .        .             6,762,643 

Stephen     .        .        .             250,000 

Richard  III.       .        .             130,000 

George  II.  .        .        .          8,522,540 

Henry  II.        .        .                200,000 

Henry  VII.     .        .                400,000 

George  III.,  1788    .           15.572,971 

Kichard  I.  .        .        .             150,000 

Henry  VIII.       .        .             800,000 

,,            1800,  about  38,000,000 

John       .        .        .                100,000 

Edward  VI.    .        .                400,000 

United  Kingdom,  1820     65,599,570 

Henry  III.         .        .               80,000 

Mary  ....             450,000 

George  IV.,  1825        .        62,871,300 

Edward  I.       .        .                150,900 

Elizabeth       .        .                500,000 

William  IV.,  1830  .           55,431,317 

Edward  II.        .        .             100,000 

James  I.     .        .        .            600,000 

„            1835      .        50,494,732 

Edward  III.  .        .                154,000 

Charles  I.       .        .                895,819 

Victoria,  1845,  net  .           53,060,354 

Kichard  II.        .        .             130,000 

Commonwealth         .          1,517,247 

„        1850    .        .        52,810,680 

Henry  IV.      .        .                100,000 

Charles  II.      .        .              1,400,000 

„        1853         •           54,430,344 

Henry  V.  .        .        .               76,643 

James  II.  .        .        .         2,001,855 

I  

Revenue. 

Expenditure. 

Revenue. 

Expenditure. 

1855,  net      . 

£63,364,605 

£65,692,962 

1859,  gross    . 

£65,477,284 

£64,663,882 

\     1856         .        . 

!  llll  •  .  •  .  : 

68,008,623 
66,056,055 
61,812,525 

88,428,345 
75,588,667 
68,128,859 

1860         .        .     . 
1863      . 
1864         .        .    . 

71,089,669 
70,603,561 
70,208,964 

69,502,289 
69,302,008 
67,056,286 

1865     . 

70,313,436 

Surplus,  on  the  year  ending  June  30,  1865,  2,496,849?. 

Previously  to  1854  there  had  been  an  average  surplus  of  2,500,000?.  since  1849.  In  consequence  of  the 
Rassian  war  the  deficiency  in  1854  was  3,209,059?.  ;  in  1855,  21,141,183'-. ;  in  1856,  10,104,412?.  In  1857  there 
was  a  surplus  of  36,097?. ;  in  1858,  of  1,127,657?.  ;  in  1859  a  deficiency  of  2,019,584?. 

REVIEWS.  The  Journal  dis  Sjavans,  published  on  Jan.  5,  1665,  by  Denis  de  Salo, 
under  the  name  of  Hedouville,  was  the  parent  of  critical  journals.  It  was  soon  imitated 
throughout  Europe,  and  was  itself  translated  into  various  languages.  It  is  still  published. 
George  III.  spoke  of  this  publication  to  Dr.  Johnson,  in  the  private  interview  with  which 
he  was  honoured  by  his  majesty,  in  the  library  of  the  queen's  house,  in  Feb.  1767.  Boswell. 
The  Bibliotheque  Anglaise  came  out  in  1716-27.  For  Military  REVIEWS,  see  Volunteers. 


Monthly  Review  .  1749 

Critical         .        ,  .  1756 

Anti- Jacobin    .  .  1798 

Edinburgh  .        .  .  1802 


Quarterly         .  .  1809 

Eclectic        .        .  .1813 

N^prth  American  .  1815 

Retrospective     .  .  1820 


Westminster  .  .  .  1824 
Southern  America  .  1828 
Dublin  .  .  .  1836 
North  British  .  .1844 


British  Quarterly  .  1844 

National       .        .  .  1855 

Saturday .        .  .     ,, 

Fortnightly         .  .  1865 


REVISING  BARRISTERS'  COURTS,  to  examine  the  lists  of  voters  for  members  of 
parliament,  were  instituted  by  the  Reform  bill  of  1832. 

REVIVALS  on  the  subject  of  religion  arose  in  the  United  States  in  1857.  In  the 
autumn  of  1859,  they  began  in  Scotland,  the  north  of  Ireland  (particularly  Belfast),  and 
England.  Many  meetings  were  held  for  prayers  and  preaching  throughout  the  week,  as  well 
as  on  Sundays. 

REVOLUTIONS  :— 

The  Assyrian  empire  destroyed,  and  that  of  the 
Medes  and  Persians  founded  by  Cyrus  the 
Great B.C.  536 

The  Macedonian  empire  founded  on  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Persian,  by  the  defeat  of  Darius 
Codomanus,  by  Alexander  the  Great  .  .  331 

The  Roman  empire  established  on  the  ruins  of 
the  republic  by  Julius  Caesar  ....  47 

The  empire  of  the  Western  Franks  begun  under 
Charlemagne A.D.  800 

In  Portugal 1640 

In  England    ......  1649  and  1688 

In  Poland          ....     1704,  1795,  and  1830 

In  Russia 1730  and  1762 


In  Sweden 1772  and  1809 

In  North  America 1775 

In  France          .        .        .    1789,  1830,  1848,  and  1851 
In  Holland,  1795 ;  counter-revolution    .        .    .  1813 

In  Venice 1797 

In  Rome 1798  and  1848 

In  the  Netherlands 1830 

In  Brunswick „ 

In  Brazil 1831 

In  Hungary 1848 

In  Italy 1859  and  1860 

In  United  States 1860-5 

[See  the  countries  respectively.] 


REV  620  RIG 

REVOLVERS.     See  Pistols. 

RHEGIUM  (now  REGGIO),  S.  Italy,  a  Greek  colony,  flourished  in  the  5th  century,  B.C. 
It  was  held  by  the  Campanian  legion,  281-271,  afterwards  severely  punished  for  its  rebellion. 
Reggio  was  taken  by  Garibaldi,  Aug.  1860. 

RHEIMS  (N.  France).  The  principal  church  here  was  built  before  406 ;  it  was  rebuilt 
in  the  I2th  century,  and  is  now  very  beautiful.  The  corpse  of  St.  Remy,  the  archbishop,  is 
preserved  behind  the  high  altar,  in  a  magnificent  shrine.  The  kings  of  France  were  crowned 
at  Rheims  ;  probably  because  Clovis,  the  founder  of  the  French  monarchy,  when  converted 
from  paganism,  was  baptized  in  the  cathedral  in  496.  Several  ecclesiastical  councils  have 
"been  held  here.  The  city  was  taken  and  retaken  several  times  in  the  last  months  of  the 
French  war,  1814. 

RHETORIC.  Rhetorical  points  and  accents  were  invented  by  Aristophanes  of 
Byzantium,  200  B.C.  Rhetoric  was  first  taught  in  Latin  at  Rome  by  Photius  Gallus,  about 
87  B.C.  He  taught  Cicero,  who  said,  "We  are  first  to  consider  what  is  to  be  said;  secondly, 
how ;  thirdly,  in  what  words ;  and  lastly,  how  it  is  to  be  ornamented."  A  regius  professor  of 
rhetoric  was  appointed  in  Edinburgh,  April  20,  1762,  when  Dr.  Blair  became  first  professor. 

RHINE.  This  river  was  fortified  as  the  frontier  of  the  Roman  empire,  298  and  369,  and 
became  the  boundary  of  the  French  republic  in  1 794.  See  Confederation. 

RHODE  ISLAND  (K  America),  settled  about  1635,  was  taken  in  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence by  the  British,  Dec.  8,  1776  ;  but  was  evacuated  by  them,  Oct.  25,  1779. 

RHODES,  an  island  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  is  said  to  have  been  peopled  from  Crete, 
as  early  as  916  B.C.  The  Rhodians  were  famous  navigators,  masters  of  the  sea,  and 
institutors  of  a  maritime  code  which  was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Romans.  The  city  was 
built  about  432  and  nourished,  300-200  B.C.  See  Colossus.  Rhodes,  long  an  ally  of  the 
Romans,  was  taken  by  the  emperor  Vespasian,  A.D.  71.  It  was  held  by  the  Knights 
Hospitallers  from  1309  to  1522,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  who  still  retain  it. 
The  knights  retired  to  Malta  (tvhich  see).  Rhodes  suffered  severely  by  an  earthquake  on 
April  22,  1863. 

RHODIUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  in  platinum  ore,  by  Dr.Wollaston  in  1804.  It  has 
been  used  for  the  points  of  metallic  pens. 

RIALTO,  BRIDGE  OF  THE,  at  Venice  (mentioned  by  Shakspeare  in  his  "  Merchant  of 
Venice  "),  built  about  1590,  consists  of  a  marble  arch  across  the  Grand  Canal,  90  feet  wide 
and  24  feet  high. 

RIBBONISM,  a  term  given  to  the  principles  of  a  secret  society  in  Ireland,  organised 
about  1820,  to  retaliate  on  landlords  any  injuries  done  to  their  tenants,  not  scrupling  even 
at  assassination.  To  the  ribbonmen  are  attributed  many  of  the  agrarian  murders. 

RICHMOND  (Surrey),  anciently  called  Sheen,  which  in  the  Saxon  tongue  signifies 
resplendent.  Here  stood  a  palace  in  which  Edward  I.  and  II.  resided,  and  Edward  III.  died, 
1377.  Here  also  died  Anne,  queen  of  Richard  II.  The  palace  was  repaired  by  Henry  V., 
who  founded  three  religious  houses  near  it.  In  1497  it  was  destroyed  by  fire  ;  but  Henry  VII. 
rebuilt  it,  and  commanded  that  the  village  should  be  called  Richmond,  he  having  borne  the 
title  of  earl  of  Richmond  (Yorkshire)  before  he  obtained  the  crown  ;  and  here  he  died  in 
1 509.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  a  prisoner  in  this  palace  for  a  short  time  during  the  reign  of  her 
sister.  When  she  became  queen,  it  was  one  of  her  favourite  places  of  residence  ;  and  here 
she  died,  March  24,  1603.  It  was  afterwards  the  residence  of  Henry,  prince  of  Wales.  The 
beautiful  park  and  gardens  were  enclosed  by  Charles  I.  The  observatory  was  built  by  sir  W. 
Chambers  in  1769.  In  Richmond,  Thomson  "sang  the  Seasons  and  their  change;"  and  died 
Aug.  27,  1748. — RICHMOND  (Virginia)  became  the  capital  of  the  southern  confederate  states. 
The  congress  adjourned  from  Montgomery,  Alabama,  to  Richmond,  where  it  met  July  20, 
1861.  After  a  siege  of  1452  days  and  many  desperate  battles  Richmond  was  evacuated  by 
the  confederates,  April  2,  1865.  See  United  States. 

RIFLE  CORPS.     See  National  Association  and  Fire-arms. 

RIGHTS,  BILL  OF,  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  constitution,  obtained  by  parliament  from  • 
king  Charles  I.,  although  he  had  endeavoured  by  various  artifices  to  avoid  granting  it, 
June  26,  1628.  To  the  PETITION  of  RIGHTS,  preferred  March  17,  1627-8,  his  majesty 
answered,  "  I  will  that  right  be  done,  according  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  realm." 
Both  houses  addressed  the  king  for  a  fuller  answer  to  their  petition  of  rights,  whereupon  he 
gave  them  an  answer  less  evasive,  "  Soit  fait  comme  il  est  desire,'\  June  7,  1628.  An 


RIM 


621 


RIO 


important  declaration  was  made  by  the  lords  and  commons  of  England  to  the  prince  and 
princess  of  Orange  on  Feb.  13,  1689,  in  an  act  "declaring  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the 
subject,  and  settling  the  succession  of  the  crown." 

RIMNIK,  near  Martinesti,  Wallachia.  Here  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  under  prince 
Coburg  and  Suwarrow,  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks,  Sept.  22,  1789. 

RINDERPEST,  German  for  cattle-plague  (which  see) 

RINGS  anciently  had  a  seal  or  signet  engraved  on  them,  to  seal  writings,  and  they  are 
so  used  to  this  day.  In  Genesis  xli.  42,  it  is  said  that  Pharaoh  gave  Joseph  his  ring. 
Rings  are  now  put  upon  women's  fourth  ringer  at  marriage  ;  but  the  first  use  of  rings  by  the 
Jews  was  at  the  espousal  or  contract  before  marriage. 

RIO  JANEIRO  (S.  America)  was  made  capital  of  the  empire  of  Brazil  in  1807. 

RIOTS,  in  BRITISH  HISTORY.  The  riotous  assembling  of  twelve  or  more  persons,  and 
their  not  dispersing  upon  proclamation,, was  first  made  high  treason  by  a  statute  enacted 
2  &  3  Edw.  VI.  1548-9.  The  present  Riot  Act  was  passed  I  Geo.  I.  1714.  See  below. 


Some  riotous  citizens   of  London   demolished  the 
convent  belonging  to   Westminster  abbey ;    the  I 
ringleader  was    hanged,  and  the  rest  had  their 
hands  and  feet  cut  off,  6  Hen.  III.  1221. 

Goldsmiths'  and  Tailors'  companies  fought  in  the 
streets  of  London ;  several  were  killed ;  the 
sheriffs  quelled  it,  and  thirteen  were  hanged,  1262. 

A  riot  at  Norwich  ;  the  rioters  burn  the  cathedral 
and  monastery ;  the  king  went  thither,  and  saw 
the  ringleaders  executed,  1271. 

Riot  of  Evil  May-day  (which  see),  1517. 

Dr.  Lamb  killed  by  the  mob,  June,  1628. 

A  riot  on  pretence  of  pulling  down  houses  of  ill- 
fame  ;  several  of  the  ringleaders  hanged,  1668. 

Another,  at  Guildhall,  at  the  election  of  sheriffs  ; 
several  considerable  persons  who  seized  the  lord 
mayor  were  concerned,  1682. 

At  Edinburgh  and  Dumfries,  on  account  of  the 
Union,  1707. 

In  London,  on  account  of  Dr.  Sacheverel's  trial ; 
several  dissenting  meeting-houses  were  broken 
open,  Feb.  1710. 

Riot  of  the  Whig  and  Tory  mobs,  called  Ormoud  and 
Newcastle  mobs,  1715. 

The  Mug-house  riot,  in  Salisbury-court,  between  the 
Whigs  and  Tories.  The  riot  quelled  by  the  guards. 
Five  rioters  hanged,  July,  1716. 

Of  the  Spitalfields  weavers,  on  account  of  employing 
workmen  come  over  from  Lreland.  Quelled  by 
the  military,  but  many  lives  lost,  1736. 

Porteous  riot  at  Edinburgh  (see  Porteov.fi),  1736. 

The  nailers  in  Worcestershire  march  to  Birmingham, 
and  make  terms  with  the  i?6n-merchants  there, 

Of  sailors  who  were  robbed  and  ill-used  at  a  house 
of  ill-fame  in  the  Strand ;  being  assisted  by  a 
large  body,  they  pulled  down  the  house  and 
destroyed  the  furniture  of  several  other  houses, 
turning  the  women  naked  into  the  streets,  1749. 

Of  the  Spitalfields  weavers;  the  duke  of  Bedford 
narrowly  escaped  death  ;  many  lives  lost,  1765. 

A  mob  in  St.  George's  Fields,  to  see  Mr.  Wilkes  in 
the  King's  Bench  prison ;  the  military  aid  indis- 
creetly called  for  by  the  justices  of  the  peace,  and 
several  innocent  persons,  particularly  young 
Allen,  fired  upon,  and  killed,  1768. 

Gordon's  "  No  Popery  "  riots.  1780. 

At  Birmingham,  on  account  of  commemorating  the 
French  revolution,  July  14,  1791,  when  several 
houses  were  destroyed. 

In  various  parts  of  Scotland,  on  account  of  the 
Militia  act,  Aug.  1797,  when  several  were  killed. 

At  Maidstone,  at  the  trial  of  Arthur  O'Connor  and  ' 
others,   May   22,    1798;    the  earl  of  Thanet,  Mr.  ! 
Ferguson,  and  others,  were  active  in  endeavouring  i 
to  rescue  O'Connor,  for  which  they  were  tried  and 
convicted,  April  25,  1799. 

At  Liverpool,  occasioned  by  a  quarrel  between  a 
party  of  dragoons  and  a  press-gang,  June  27,  1809. 

O.P.  riot  (which  see)  at  Covent-garden,  Sept.  1809. 


In  Piccadilly,  in  consequence  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons committing  sir  Francis  Burdett  to  the 
Tower,  April  6,  1810. 

At  Sheffield,  during  which  800  muskets  belonging  to 
the  local  militia  were  destroyed,  April  14,  1812. 

Machinery  destroyed  by  rioters  at  Nottingham  from 
Nov.  1811  to  Jan.  1812. 

In  various  parts  of  the  north  of  England,  by  the 
Luddites,  during  1811  and  1812. 

At  the  Theatre  Royal,  Dublin,  on  account  of  the 
celebrated  Dog  of  Montargis,  several  nights,  Dec. 
1814. 

Alarming  riots  at  Westminster,  on  account  of  the 
Corn  Bill;  they  lasted  several  days,  March,  1815. 

At  the  dep6t  at  Dartmoor,  in  quelling  which  seven 
Americans  were  killed,  and  thirty-five  wounded, 
April,  1815. 

Popular  meetings  at  Spa-fields,  when  the  shops  of 
the  gunsmiths  were  attacked  for  arms.  Mr.  Platt 
shot  in  that  of  Mr.  Beckwith  on  Snow-hill,  Dec.  2, 
1816.  Watson  tried  for  high  treason,  but  acquitted, 
June,  1817. 

In  the  park,  on  the  prince-regent  going  to  the  house, 
in  which  an  air-gun  was  fired  at  him,  Jan.  28,  1817. 

At  Manchester,  at  a  popular  meeting,  March  3,  1817. 

Affray  at  Manchester,  called  the  "  Field  of  Peterloo,' 
Aug.  16,  1819.  See  Manchester  Reform  Meeting. 

At  the  Theatre  Royal,  Dublin,  of  several  nights' 
duration,  1819. 

Riot  at  Paisley  and  Glasgow ;  many  houses  plun- 
dered, Sept.  1 6,  1819. 

At  Edinburgh,  on  the  acquittal  of  queen  Caroline, 
Nov.  19,  1820. 

In  London,  at  the  funeral  of  the  queen,  throxigh  the 
military  opposing  the  body  being  carried  through 
the  city,  Aug.  14,  1821. 

At  Knightsbridge,  between  the  military  and  the 
populace,  on  the  funeral  of  Honey  and  Francis, 
Aug.  26,  1821. 

At  the  Theatre  in  Dublin ;  the  riot  called  the 
"  Bottle  Conspiracy,"  against  the  marquess  Wel- 
lesley,  lord-lieutenant,  Dec.  14,  1822. 

Riot  at  Ballybay ;  Mr.  Lawless  was  arrested,  Oct.  9, 
1828. 

Riot  at  Limerick  ;  the  provision- warehouses  plun- 
dered and  mischief  done,  June  15,  1830. 

Fatal  affrays  at  Castlepollard,  May  23,  1831  ;  and 
Newtonbarry  (which  see),  June  18,  1831. 

Alarming  riots  at  Merthyr-Tydfil,  among  the  iron- 
workers, several  of  whom,  fired  on  by  the  military, 
were  killed  and  wounded,  June  3,  1831. 

Riot  at  the  Forest  of  Dean,  June  8,  1831.     See  Dean. 

Nottingham  castle  burnt  by  rioters,  Oct.  10,  1831. 

Reform  riots  at  Bristol  (see  Bristol),  Oct.  29,  1831. 

Affray  at  Castleshock,  county  Kilkenny,  when 
a  number  of  police,  attacked  by  the  populace, 
were,  with  their  commander,  Mr.  Gibins,  killed, 
Dec.  14,  1831. 

Riot  at  Boughton,  near  Canterbury,  produced  by  a 
body  of  persons  called  Thomites,  headed  by  a 


RIO 


622 


ROB 


RIOTS,  continued. 

fanatic  named  Thorn,   or   Courteiiay,   who  with 

others,  was  killed,  May  31,  1838.     See  Thomites. 
Great  riots  throughout  the  country,  occasioned  by 

the     Chartists.      Suppressed     by    proclamation, 

Dec.  12,  1838. 
Riots  in  Birmingham,  when  much  mischief  ensued, 

July  15,  1839.     See  Birmingham. 
Chartist  riot  at  Newport  (which  see),  Nov.  4,  1839. 
Meditated  Chartist  outbreak  at  Sheffield,  with  most 

destructive  objects,  providentially  discovered,  and 

many  persons  arrested,  Jan.  u,  1840. 
Rebecca  riots  against  turnpikes  in  Wales,  in  1843. 
Chartist  demonstration  (see  Chartists),  April  10, 1848. 
Fatal  affray  at  Dolly's  Brae,  near  Castlewellaii,  in 

Ireland,  between  the  Orangemen  and  the  Roman 

Catholics  ;  several  of  the  latter  lost  their  lives,  and 

some  of  their  houses  were  ransacked  aud  burnt, 

July  12, 1849. 
Serious    riots    at     Yarmouth,    through    a    dispute 

between  the  ship-owners  and  the  seamen,  Feb.  23, 

1851. 
Riots  occasioned  by  a  procession  of  Orangemen  at 

Liverpool,  and  several  lives  lost,  July  14,  1851. 
Riot  at  Stockporfc,  Cheshire ;  two  Catholic  chapels 

destroyed  and  houses  burnt,  June  29,  1852. 
Fierce  religious  riots  at  Belfast,  in  Ireland,  occur, 

July  14,  1852. 


Fatal  election  riot  at  Six-mile-Bridge,  in  the  county 

of  Clare,  in  Ireland  ;  five  persons  shot  dead  by  the 

military,-  July  22,  1852.     See  Six-mile-Sridge. 
Riots  at  Wigan,  among  the  coal-miners,  suppressed 

by  the  military  without  loss  of  life,  Oct.  28,  1853. 
Bread  riots  at  Liverpool,  Feb.  19,  1855. 
Riots  at  Hyde  Park,  about  Sunday  Bill,  July,  1855  ; 

about  dearness  of  bread,  Oct.  14,  21,  28,  1855. 
Riots  at  Belfast  through  the  open-air  preaching  of 

the  rev.  Hugh  Hanna,  Sept.  6,  13,  20,  1857. 
Religious  riots  at  St.  George's  in  the  East,  London, 

on  Sundays  in  Sept.  and  Nov.  1859. 
Break  out  of  the  convicts  at  Chatham,  suppressed 

by  the  military,  Feb.  n,  1861. 
Violent  riots  at  Belfast  begin,  through  an  Orange 

demonstration,  Sept.  17,  1862. 
Fierce   rioting   (caused   by   the   Irish   against    the 

favourers  of   Garibaldi)  at  Hyde   Park,   London, 

Sept.  28  and  Oct.  5  ;  and  at  Bifkenhead,  Cheshire, 

Oct.  8  and  15,  1862. 
Rioting  at  Staleybridge  (on  account  of  the  mode  of 

relief  to  unemployed  cotton-workers),  principally 

Irish,  put  down  by  the  military,  March  21,  1863. 
Fierce  conflicts  between  Romanists  and  Protestants 

at  Belfast ;  9  persons  killed  and  about  150  injured, 

Aug  10-27,  1864. 

See  Rebellions. 


RIPON  (Yorkshire),  ^in  ancient  town.  About  66 1  an  abbey  cell  was  built  here  by  Eata. 
Ripon  was  made  a  bishopric  by  archbishop  Wilfred  in  690,  but  did  not  endure  so.  It  suffered 
much  by  the  ravages  of  the  Danes,  the  Normans  (1069),  and  the  Scots  (1319  and  1323).  The 
present  see  was  erected  Oct.  1836,  out  of  the  archdeaconry  of  York  in  the  West  Riding. 
Income,  4500^. 

BISHOPS. 

1836.   Charles  Thomas  Longley,  translated  to  Dur- I  1856.  Robert  Bickersteth  (PEESENT  bishop), 
ham  in  1856.  I 

ROAD  MURDER.  On  the  night  of  June  29-30,  1860,  Francis  Savile  Kent,  four  years 
old,  was  murdered,  and  his  body  hid  in  a  garden  water-closet.  His  sister  Constance  Kent 
(aged  sixteen),  and  the  nurse  Elizabeth  Gough,  the  first  suspected,  after  several  examinations, 
were  discharged  for  want  of  evidence.  The  coroner  was  severely  blamed  for  charging  the 
jury  improperly,  but  the  court  of  Queen's  Bench,  in  Jan.  1861,  refused  to  issue  a  writ  for  a 
new  inquiry.  Constance  Kent,  on  April  25,  1865,  before  sir  Thomas  Henry  at  Bow-street, 
and  on  July  21,  following,  at  her  trial  at  Salisbury,  confessed  herself  to  be  guilty  of  the 
murder.  Her  punishment  was  commuted  to  penal  servitude  for  life. 

ROADS  OF  ENGLAND.  The  first  general  repair  of  the  highways  of  this  country  was 
directed  about  1285.  Acts  were  passed  for  the  purpose  in  1524  and  1555,  followed  by  others 
in  Elizabeth's  and  succeeding  reigns.  Roads  through  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  were  begun 
by  General  Wade  in  1746.  Loudon  M'Adam's  roads  were  introduced  about  1818  ;  he  pre- 
scribes the  breaking  of  stones  to  six  ounces  weight,  and  calculates  the  expense  of  breaking 
stones  at  a  shilling  a  ton  ;  clean  flints  and  granite  clippings  answer  best.  Wooden  pave- 
ments were  tried  with  partial  success  in  the  streets  of  London  ;  at  Whitehall  in  1839,  and 
in  other  streets  in  1840.  Asphalt  pavement  soon  after.  See  Roman  Roads  and  Wooden 
Pavements.  An  act  "for  the  better  management  of  the  highways "  was  passed  in  I 
after  much  opposition.  See  M'Adam. 

ROASTING  ALIVE.     An  early  instance  is  that  of  Bocchoris,  king  of  Egypt,  by  01 
of  Sabacon  of  Ethiopia,  737  B.C.     Lenglet.     Sir  John  Oldcastle,  lord  Cobham,  was  thus 
to  death  in  1418,  and  M.  Servetus  for  heresy  at  Geneva,  in  1553.     See  Burning  Alive 
Martyrs. 

ROBBERS.  First  punished  with  death  by  Edmund  I. '&  laws,  which  directed  that  thej 
eldest  robber  should  be  hanged.  Remarkable  robbers  were  Robin  Hood,  in  England,  1189 
(see  RoMn  Hood),  and  Claud  Du  Val,  "executed  at  Tyburn,"  says  an  historian,  quaintly, 
"  to  the  great  grief  of  the  women, "  Jan.  1670.  In  Ireland,  the  famous  Mac  Cabe  was  hanged 
at  Naas,  Aug.  19,  1691.  Galloping  Hogan,  the  rapparee,  flourished  at  this  period.  Freney, 
the  celebrated  highwayman,  surrendered  himself,  May  10,  1749.  The  accomplished 
Barriugton  was  transported,  Sept.  22,  1790.  See  Trials. 


ROB 


ROH 


ROBIN  HOOD,  captain  of  a  band  of  robbers,  in  Sherwood  forest,  Nottinghamshire. 
Some  assert  that  he  was  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  disgraced  and  banished  the  court  by 
Richard  I.  at  his  accession  (1189).  Robin  Hood  and  Little  John  and  their  band  are  said  to 
have  continued  their  depredations  till  1247,  when  Robin  died.  Stow. 

"  ROBINSON  CRUSOE,"  by  Daniel  De  Foe,  first  appeared  in  1719. 

ROCHELLE  ("W.  France),  a  sea-port  on  the  Atlantic,  belonged  to  the  English  for  some 
time,  but  finally  surrendered  to  the  French  leader,  Du  Guesclin,  in  1372.  It  became  a 
stronghold  of  the  Calvinist  party,  and  was  vainly  besieged  by  the  duke  of  Anjou  in  1573. 
It  was  taken  after  a  siege  of  thirteen  months  by  cardinal  Richelieu  in  1628.  The  duke  of 
Buckingham  was  sent  with  a  fleet  and  army  to  relieve  it ;  but  the  citizens  declined  to 
admit  him.  A  conspiracy  here  in  1822  caused  loss  of  life  to  sergeant  Bories  and  others. 

ROCHESTER,  in  Kent,  an  ancient  city,  built  by  the  Romans  and  called  Durobrims. 
The  bishopric,  founded  by  Augustin,  604,  is  the  next  in  age  to  Canterbury.  The  first 
cathedral  was  erected  by  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent.  St.  Justus  was  bishop  in  604 ;  alterations 
were  made  in  the  diocese  in  1845.  Rochester  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  358;.  35.  2\d. 
per  annum.  Present  income,  5000?. 

RECENT   BISHOPS. 


t    1793-   Samuel  Horsley,  trans,  to  St.  Asaph's,  1802. 
1802.   Thomas  Dampier,  translated  to  Ely,  1808. 
1809.   Walter  King,  died  Feb.  22,  1827. 


1827.   Hugh  Percy,  translated  to  Carlisle,  Oct.  27. 
1827.    George  Murray,  died  Feb.  16,  1860. 
1860.  Joseph  Cotton  Wigram  (PRESENT  bishop). 


ROCKETS,  destructive  war  implements,  were  invented  by  sir  "William  Congreve  about 
1803.  The  carcase-rockets  were  first  used  at  Boulogne,  Oct.  8,  1806,  when  they  set  the  town 
on  fire,  their  powers  having  been  previously  demonstrated  in  the  presence  of  Mr.  Pitt  and 
several  of  the  cabinet  ministers,  1806.  Improved  rockets  were  made  by  Hales  in  1846. 


ROCKINGHAM  ADMINISTRATIONS. 

FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,  July,  1765  to  Aug.   1766. 

Charles,  marquess  of  Rockingham,  first  lord  of  the 

treasury. 

William  Dowdeswell,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Earl  of  Winchelsea  and  Nottingham,  lord  president. 
Duke  of  Newcastle,  privy  seal. 
Earl  of  Northington,  lord  chancellor. 
Duke  of  Portland,  lord  chamberlain. 
Duke  of  Rutland,  master  of  the  horse. 
Lord  Talbot,  lord  steward. 
Henry  Seymour  Conway  and  the  duke  of  Grafton, 

secretaries  of  state. 
Lord  Egrnont,  admiralty. 
Marquess  of  Granby,  ordnance. 
Viscount  Barrington,  secreta,ry-at-war. 
Viscount  Howe,  treasurer  of  the  navy. 
Charles  Townshend,  paymaster!!?  the  forces. 


Earl  of  Dartmouth,  first  lord  of  trade. 
Lords    Besborough     and      Grantham,     lord    John 
Cavendish,  Thomas  Townshend,  &c. 

SECOND   ADMINISTRATION,  March  to  July  2,  1782, 

when  the  marquess  died. 

Marquess  of  Rockingham,  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 
Lord  John  Cavendish,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Lord  Camden,  president  of  the  council. 
Duke  of  Grafton,  privy  seal. 
Lord  Thurlow,  lord  chancellor. 
William,  earl  of  Shelburne  and  Charles  James  Fox,. 

secretaries  of  state. 

Augustus  Keppel,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 
Duke  of  Richmond,  master-general  of  the  ordnance. 
Thomas  Townshend,  secretary-at-war. 
Isaac  Barre",  Edmund  Burke,  &c. 


ROCROY  (N.  France).  Here,  May  19,  1643,  the  Spaniards  were  totally  defeated  by  the 
French,  commanded  by  the  great  Conde'. 

RODNEY'S  VICTORIES.  Admiral  Rodney  fought,  near  Cape  St.  Vincent,  the  Spanish 
admiral,  Don  Langara,  whom  he  defeated  and  made  prisoner,  capturing  six  of  his  ships,  one 
of  which  blew  up,  Jan.  16,  1780.  On  April  12,  1782,  he  encountered  the  French  fleet  in  the 
West  Indies,  commanded  by  the  count  de  Grasse,  took  five  ships  of  the  line,  and  sent  the 
French  admiral  prisoner  to  England  :  Rodney  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  June,  1782. 

ROGATION  WEEK.  Rogation  Sunday  received  its  title  from  the  Monday,  Tuesday, 
and  Wednesday  following  it,  called  Rogation  days,  derived  from  the  Latin  rogare,  to 
!  beseech.* 

ROHILLAS,  an  Affghan  tribe,  who  emigrated  from  Cabul  at  the  end  of  the  I7th  century, 
i  and  established  themselves  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Delhi.  They  were  defeated  by  the  English 
in  1774,  and  nearly  exterminated  by  the  sovereigns  of  Oude  ;  and  after  a  struggle  finally 
!  subdued  by  the  English  in  1849. 

*  Extraordinary  prayers  and  supplications  for  these  three  days  are  said  to  have  been  appointed  in  the 
third  century,  as  a  preparation  for  the  devout  observance  of  our  Saviour's  ascension  on  the  next  day  suc- 
ceeding to  them,  denominated  Holy  Thursday  or  Ascension-day.     The  wbole  week  in  which  these  days 
i  is  styled  Rogation  week  ;  and  in  some  parts  it  is  still  known  by  the  other  names  of  Crop  week, 
week,  and  Procession  week.    The  perambulations  of  parishes  have  usually  been  made  in  this  week. 


ROL 


624 


ROM 


ROLLS.     See  Master  of  the  Rolls,  and  Records. 

ROLLS'  CHAPEL  (London),  founded  by  Henry  III.,  in  1233,  for  ordaining  Jewish 
rabbis  converted  to  Christianity.  On  the  banishment  of  the  Jews,  the  buildings  now  called 
the  Rolls,  and  the  chapel,  were  annexed  by  patent  to  the  office  of  the  keeper  or  master  of 
the  rolls  of  Chancery,  from  which  circumstance  they  took  their  name.  A  number  of  public 
records  from  the  time  of  Richard  III.  were  kept  iu  presses  in  this  chapel. 

ROMAGXA,  a  province  of  the  Papal  States,  comprised  in  the  legations  of  Forli  and 
Ravenna.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Lombards  ;  but  taken  from  them  by  Pepin,  and  given 
to  the  pope,  753.  Csesar  Borgia  held  it  as  a  duchy  in  1501,  but  lost  it  in  1503.  In  1859 
the  Romagna  threw  off  the  temporal  authority  of  the  pope,  and  declared  itself  subject  to  the 
king  of  Sardinia,  who  accepted  it  in  March,  1860.  It  now  forms  part  of  the  province  of 
JEmilia,  in  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy.  Population  (1860)  1,014,582.  See  Rome. 

ROMAINVILLE  AND  BELLEVILLE,  heights  near  Paris,  where  Joseph  Bonaparte,  Mortier, 
a«d  Marmont  were  defeated  by  the  allies  after  a  vigorous  resistance,  March  30,  1814.  The 
next  day  Paris  capitulated. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS,  called  also  ROMANISTS  and  PAPISTS.  Their  religion  was  the 
established  one  till  the  Reformation.  Since  then  many  laws  were  made  against  them,  which 
have  been  repealed.  *  See  Religion. 


Bishop  Fisher,  sir   Thomas  More,  and  others, 

executed  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy   .  1535 
Catholics  absolved  from  their  allegiance  to  the 
king  by  Paul  III.  1535  :  by  Pius  V.          .        .  1570 

They  rebel  in 1549  and  1567 

The  Gunpowder  Plot  (which  see)  ....  1605 
They  suffer  by  Oates's  fictitious  popish  plot  .  1678 
They  are  excluded  from  the  throne  .  .  .  1689 
They  suffer  by  the  Gordon  riots  .  June,  1780 
Various  disabilities  removed  in  .  1780  and  1791 
Mr.  Pitt  proposes  measures  for  their  relief, 

which  he  gives  up 1801-4 

Roman  Catholic  Association  organised  in  Ire- 
land, with  the  object  of  removing  the  political 
and  civil  disabilities  of  Roman  Catholics        .   1824 
Bills  in  their  favour  frequently  brought  in  with- 
out effect  from 1813  to  1828 

An  act  of  parliament  passed  for  the  suppression 
of  the  Catholic  Association.  March  5,  1829 ; 
but  it  voted  its  own  dissolution,  Feb.  12, 
preceding. 

The  duke  of  Wellington  and  sir  Robert  Peel 
carry  the  great  Catholic  emancipation  bill 
(10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7)  in  the  commons,  March  30  ; 
in  the  lords,  April  10 ;  it  receives  the  royal 

assent April  13,  1829 

The  duke  of  Norfolk  and  lords  Dormer  and 
Clifford,  the  first  Roman  Catholic  peers,  take 

their  seats April  28,     „ 

The  first  English  member  returned,  the  earl  of 
Surrey  for  Horsham  .  .  .  May  4,  „ 


Mr.  0 'Conn  ell  elected  for  Clare,  takes  his  seat 
(first  Roman  Catholic  M.  P.  since  1689),  Aug.  1829 

Mr.  Alexander  Raphael  the  first  Roman 
Catholic  Sheriff  of  London  .  .  Sept.  28,  1834 

Sir  Michael  O'Loghlen,  the  first  Roman  Catholic 
judge  (as  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  Ireland), 
appointed Oct.  30,  1836 

Mr.  O'Connell  elected  first  Roman  Catholic 
lord  mayor  of  Dublin 1841 

The  "  Papal  Aggression  "  (which  see);  cardinal 
Nicholas  Wiseman  appointed  archbishop  of 
Westminster Sept.  30,  1850 

Agitation  in  favour  of  the  pope  .        .         1860-2 

[In  1851  there  were  in  England  570  Roman 
Catholic  chapels  with  186,111  sittings. — The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland  consists 
of  four  archbishops,  24  bishops,  and  (in  1854) 
2291  priests ;  there  are  numerous  monasteries 
and  convents.] 

Roman  Catholic  university  founded  at  Drum- 
condra,  Ireland July  20,  1862 

Roman  Catholic  chaplains  permitted  for  gaols, 
by  Prison  Ministers  Act  .  .  .  July,  1863 

Serjeant  Wm.  Shee  made  a  justice  of  the 
Queen's  Bench, the  first  Roman  Catholic  judge 
since  the  Reformation  .  .  Dec.  15,  , 

Death  of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  aged  63  ;  7th  Eng- 
lish cardinal  since  the  Reformation  Feb.  15,  1865 

Henry  Manning  (formerly  an  archdeacon  in  the 
English  Church)  consecrated  archbishop  of 
Westminster  ....  June  8,  , 


ROMAN  ROADS  IN  ENGLAND.  Our  historians  maintain,  but  are  mistaken,  that  there 
were  but  four  of  these  roads.  Camden.  "The  Romans,"  says  Isidore,  "made  roads  almost 
all  over  the  world,  to  have  their  marches  in  a  straight  line,  and  to  employ  the  people ; " 
and  criminals  were  frequently  condemned  to  work  at  such  roads,  as  we  learn  from  Suetonius, 
in  his  life  of  Caligula.  They  were  commenced  and  completed  at  various  periods,  between 
the  2nd  and  4th  centuries,  and  the  Roman  soldiery  were  employed  in  making  them,  that 
inactivity  might  not  give  them  an  opportunity  to  raise  disturbances.  Bede. 

ist,  WATLING-STREET,  so   named  from  Vitellianus,  i      been  defended  by    a  fosse  on  both    sides  (from, 

who  is  supposed  to  have  directed  it,  the  Britons  j      Cornwall  to  Lincoln). 

calling  him  in  their  language  Guetalin  (from  Kent    4th,  ERMIN-STREET,  from  Innunsul,  a  German  word, 

to  Cardigan  Bay), 
^nd,  IKENELD,  or  IKENILD-STREET,  from  its  beginning 

among  the  Iceni  (from  St.  David's  to  Tynemouth). 
3rd,  FOSSE,  or  FOSSE  WAY,  probably  from  its  having 


meaning  Mercury,  whom  our  German  ancestors 
worshipped  under  that  name  (from  St.  David's  to  J 
Southampton). 


*  Among  other  disabilities,  Roman  Catholics  were  excluded  from  corporate  offices,  1667 ;  from 
parliament,  1691  ;  forbidden  to  marry  Protestants,  1708 ;  to  possess  arms,  1695,  &c.  See  Scully's  History 
of  the  Penal  Laws,  1812. 


- 


ROM 


625 


ROM 


ROMAN  WALLS.  One  was  erected  by  Agricola  (79  to  85)  to  defend  Britain  from  the 
incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots  ;  the  first  wall  extended  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway  frith 
{80  miles) ;  the  second  from  the  frith  of  Forth,  near  Edinburgh,  to  the  frith  of  Clyde,  near 
Dumbarton  (36  miles).  The  former  was  renewed  and  strengthened  by  the  emperor  Adrian 
(121),  and  by  Septimus  Severus  (208).  It  commenced  at  Bowness,  near  Carlisle,  and  ended 
at  Wallsend,  near  Newcastle.  It  had  battlements  and  towers  to  contain  soldiers.  The  more 
northern  wall  was  renewed  by  Lollius  Urbicus  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  about  140. 
Many  remains  of  these  walls  still  exist,  particularly  of  the  southern  one.  See  Bruce 's 
"Roman  Wall,"  published  in  1853. 

ROMANCES.  As  Heliodorus,  a  bishop  of  Tricea,  in  Thessaly,  was  the  author  of 
Hthiopics,  in  Greek,  the  first  work  in  this  species  of  writing,  he  is  hence  styled  the  "  Father 
of  Romances."  He  nourished,  398.  Huet  de  Origine  FabuL  Roman.  Duulop's  "  History 
of  Fiction,"  published  in  1814,  is  an  esteemed  book  on  this  subject. 

ROME.  The  foundation  of  the  city,  by  Romulus,  was  laid  on  the  2oth  April,*  according  to 
Tarro,  in  the  year  3961  of  the  Julian  period  (3251  years  after  the  creation  of  the  world,  753 
before  the  birth  of  Christ,  431  years  after  the  Trojan  war,  and  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  sixth 
Olympiad.  Other  dates  given  :  Cato,  75 1 ;  Poly  bins,  750 ;  Fabius  Pictor,  747 ;  Cincius, 
728  B.C.)  The  Romans  conquered  nearly  the  whole  of  the  then  known  world.  In  the  time 
of  Julius  Cresar,  the  empire  was  bounded  by  the  Euphrates,  Taurus,  and  Armenia  on  the 
east ;  by  Ethiopia  on  the  south  ;  by  the  Danube  on  the  north  ;  and  by  the  Atlantic  on  the 
west.  Numerous  ecclesiastical  councils  have  been  held  at  Rome,  beginning  in  197. 


Foundation  of  the  city  by  Romulus .         .     B.C. 

The  Romans  seize  on  the  Sabine  women  at  a 
public  spectacle,  and  detain  them  for  wives  . 

The  Cieninians  defeated,  and  first  triumphal 
procession 

Rome  taken  by  the  Sabines  ;  the  Sabines  incor- 
porated with  the  Romans  as  one  nation  . 

Romulus  sole  king  of  the  Romans  and  Sabines. 

The  Circensian  games  established  .         .         .     . 

Romulus,  said  to  have  been  murdered  by  the 
senators 

Xuma  Pompilius  elected  king,  715  ;  institutes 
the  priesthood,  the  aug\irs  and  vestals  .  . 

Roman  calendar  of  10  months  reformed  and 
and  made  12 

The  Romans  and  the  Albans  contesting  for 
superiority,  agreed  to  choose  three  champions 
on  each  part  to  decide  it.  The  three  Horalii, 
Roman  knights,  and  the  three  Curiatii,  Albans, 
having  been  elected  by  their  respective 
countries,  engaged  in  the  celebrated  combat, 
which,  by  the  victory  of  the  Horatii,  united 
Alba  to  Rome about 

War  with  the  Fidenates ;  tke  city  of  Alba 
destroyed 

Ostia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  built  .        .     . 

The  first  census  of  the  Roman  state  is  taken 


753 
750 
748 

747 
742 
732 

716 
710 


(Lenglet) 
'olitica 


Political  institutions  of  Servius  Tullius         .     . 

The  rape  of  Lucretia  by  Sextus,  son  of  Tarquin. 

Royalty  abolished :  the  Patricians  establish 
an  aristocratical  commonwealth  .  .  . 

Junius  Brutus  and  Tarquinius  Collatimis  first 
consuls ;  first  alliance  of  the  Romans  with 
Carthage  ...  .... 


669 

665 
627 

566 

550 

5*0 

509 


508 


beginning 

The  Capitol  finished,  and  dedicated  to  Jupiter 

Capitolinus .  B  C.     507 

The  Latins  and  the  Tarquins  declare  war  against 
the  republic,  501 ;  defeated  at  the  lake  Re- 

gillus 496 

First  dictator  Titus  Lartius 501 

Secession    of    the    Plebeians    to    the    sacred 
mount ;    establishment  of  tribunes  of  ;the 

Plebeians .494 

First  agrarian  law  passed  ;  Spurius  Cassius  put 

to  death  by  the  Patricians 493 

C.  Martius  Coriolanus  banished  .         .        .        •     491 
He  (with  the  Volsci)  besieges  Rome,  but  with- 
draws at  the  suit  of  his  wife  and  mother         .     488 
Contests  between  the  Patricians  and  Plebeians 

respecting  the  agrarian  law          .        .        .     •    486 
The  Fabii  slain  (see  Fabii)  .     477 

Consulship  of  Cincinnatus 460 

The  Secular  Games  first  celebrated    .        .        -     456 

The  Decemviri  created 451 

Virginius  kills  his  daughter,  Virginia,  to  save 

her  from  the  decemvir,  Appius  Claudius  f      •     449 
The  Canuleian  law  passed,  permitting  marriages 
between  Patricians  and  Plebeians  .        .        .     445 

Military  tribunes  first  created         444 

Office  of  Censor  instituted 443 

Rome  afflicted  with  an  awful  famine,  and  many 
persons  on  account  of  it  drown  themselves 

in  the  Tiber 440 

The  Veientes  defeated,  and  their  king  Tolumnus 

slain 437 

War  with  the  Tuscans 434 

A  temple  is  dedicated  to  Apollo  on  account  of  a 

pestilence 433 

.lEqui  and  Volsci  defeated 431 


*  In  its  original  state,  Rome  was  but  a  small  castle  on  the  summit  of  mount  Palatine  ;  and  the  founder, 
to  give  his  followers  the  appearance  of  a  nation  or  a  barbarian  horde,  was  obliged  to  erect  a  standard  as  a 
common  asylum  for  criminals,  debtors,  or  murderers,  who  fled  from  their  native  country  to  avoid  the 
punishment  which  attended  them.  From  such  an  assemblage  a  numerous  body  was  soon  collected,  and 
before  the  death  of  the  founder,  the  Romans  bad  covered  with  their  habitations  the  Palatine,  Capitoline, 
Aventine,  and  Esquiline  hills,  with  Mounts  Ccelius  and  Quirinalis. 

t  Appius  Claudius  became  enamoured  of  her,  and  attempted  to  remove  her  from  the  place  where  she 
resided.  She  was  claimed  by  one  of  his  favourites,  as  the  daughter  of  a  slave,  and  Appius  had  adjudged 
her  to  his  friend,  when  Virginius  arrived  from  the  camp.  The  father  demanded  to  see  his  daughter,  and 
when  she  came  he  plunged  a  knife  into  her  breast,  exclaiming,  "This is  all,  my  daughter,  I  can  give  thee 
to  preserve  thee  from  the  lust  of  a  tyrant ! "  Virginius  ran  to  the  camp  with  the  bloody  knife  in  his 
hand,  and  the  incensed  soldiers  marched  to  Rome.  Appius  was  seized,  but  destroyed  himself  in  prison. 
Spurius  Oppius,  another  decemvir,  killed  himself  also.  Marcus  Claudius,  the  favourite  of  Appius,  was 
put  to  death,  and  the  decemviral  power  abolished. 


ROM 


626 


KOM 


HOME,  continued. 

Two  new  quaestors  are   added  to  the  former 

number B.C.  421 

Another  and  more  dreadful  famine  occurs  at 

Rome 411 

Three  quaestors  are  chosen  frcm  the  Plebeians 

for  the  first  time 409 

Institution  of    the    Lectistemian    festival   on 

account  of  a  pestilence 399 

Veii  taken  after  a  siege  of  more  than  ten  years  396 

Banishment  of  Camillus 391 

The    Gauls  under    Brennus,    besiege   Clusium 

(see  Gauls) 390 

They  are  expelled  by  Camillus        .  .     .  389 

Rome  b\irnt  to  the  ground  by  the  Gauls,  who 

besiege  the  Capitol 387 

M.  Manlius  Capitolinus  thrown  from  the  Tar- 
peian  rock  on  a  charge  of  aiming  at  sovereign 

power 384 

The  first  appointment  of  curule  magistrates     .  371 

Lucius  Sextus,  the  first  Plebeian  consiil        .     .  366  ! 
Marcus   Curtius  leaps  into  the  gulf  which  had 

opened  in  the  forum 362 

The  Gauls  defeated  in  Italy 350 

War  with  the  Samnites,  which  lasts  51  years     .  343 

Embassy  to  Alexander  tLe  Great        .        .        .  324 

Defeat  at  Caudium 321 

Priests  first  elected  from  the  Plebeians      .         .  300 

End  of  the  Samnite  war 290 

The  Gauls  invade  the  Reman  territory;  siege 

of  Arezzo  ' 284 

The    Etruscans  defeated   at   the    Vadimonian 

lake 310  and  283 

Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  invades  Italy,  281 ;  defeats 
the  Romans  at  Pandosia,  280;  andat  Asculum, 

278  ;  defeated  by  them  at  Benevento      .        .  278 

All  Italy  subdued  by  Rome 266 

First  Punic  war  commenced  (see  Punic  Wars)  .  264 

First  Roman  fleet  built 260 

Attilius  Regulus  said  to  be  put  to  a  cruel  death 

by  the  Carthaginians 255 

End  of  first  Punic  war ;  Sicily  made  a  Roman 

province 241 

Temple  of  Janus  closed 235 

Corsica  and  Sardinia  annexed     ....  231 

First  Roman  Embassy  to  Greece    .        .        .     .  228 

Great  invasion  of  the  Gauls;  repulsed        .        .  225 

Second  Punic  war  breaks  out          .        .        .     .  218 
The    Romans    are    defeated   by   Hannibal    at 

Ihrasymene,  217;  Cannae         ....  216 

Syracuse  taken  by  Marcellus 212 

Scipio  defeats  Hannibal  at  Zama  in  Africa         .  202 
The  Macedonian  wars  with  Philip  begin,  213 


and  200  ;  his  defeat  at  CynoFcephalae 
Scipio  Africanus  the  elder 


Death  of  ecipio  Airicanus  tne  elder 

Third  Macedonian    war  begins  171 ;  Macedon 

conquered  and  annexed 

First  public  library  erected  at  Rome 
Philosophers    and    rhetoricians    are   banished 

from  Rome 

Third  Punic  war  begins 

Corinth  and  Carthage  destroyed  by  the  Romans 

(see  Corinth  and  Carlliage) 146 

Numantine  war  in  Spain  ....  153-133 
Attalus  III.  of  Pergamos bequeaths  his  kingdom 

and  riches  to  the  Romans        ....     133 

The  Servile  war  in  SiciJy 132 

Two  plebeian  consuls  chosen      .        .        .  ,, 

The  Jugurthine  war 112-106 

The  Mithridatic  war  (vhich  see)  ".  .  .  108-63 
The  Ambrones  defeated  by  Marius  .  .  .  102 

The  Social  war 90-88 

Rome  besieged  by  four  armies  (viz. :  those  of 

Marius,  Cinna,  Carbo,  and  Strtorius)  and  taken      87 

Sylla  defeats  Marius 82 

Bithynia  bequeathed  to  the  Romans  by  king 

Nicomedes 74 

Revolt  of  Spartacus  and  the  slaves  .  .  73-71 
Syria  conquered  by  Pcmpey  ....  65 
Ihe  Catiline  contpiracy  suppressed  by  Cicero  .  63 


The  first  triumvirate :  Caesar,  Pcmpey,  and 
Crassus B.C. 

Caesar's  campaigns  in  Gaul,  58 ;  in  Britain . 

Crassus  killed  by  the  Parthians      .        ... 

Gaul  conquered  and  made  a  province 

War  between  Caesar  and  Pompey    .        .        .     . 

Battle  of  Pharsalia  (which  see)     .... 

Ca'sar  defeats  Pharnaces  at  Zela ;  and  writes 
home  "  Veni,  vidi,  vici" 

Cato  kills  himself  at  Utica  ..... 

Caesar  killed  in  the  Senate-house    .        .  Mar.  15 

Second  triumvirate :  Octavius,  Antony,  and 
Lepidus  

Cicero  killed,  proscribed  by  Antony   . 

Battle  of  Philippi  (vhich  see) 

Lepidus  ejected  from  the  triumvirate;  war  be- 
tween Octavius  and  Antony,  32  ;  Antony  de- 
feated totally  at  Actium  .  .  .  Sept.  2, 

Octavius  becomes  emperor,  and  assumes  the 
title  of  Augustus 

The  empire  now  at  peace  with  all  the  world  ; 
the  Temple  of  Janus  shut ;  JESUS  CHRIST 
born.  (SeeJeus)  ....  April  4, 

Ovid  banished  to  Tcmi        .        .        .        .  A.D. 

Death  of  Ovid  and  Livy 

Tiberius  retires  to  Caprea  ;  tyranny  of  Sejanus 

A  census  being  taken  by  Claudius,  the  emperor 

and  censor,  the  inhabitants  of  Rcme  are  stated 

to  amount  to  6,944,000.— [It  is  now  considered 

that  the  population  of  Rome  within  the  walls 

was  under  a  million.] 

Caractacus  brought  in  chains  to  Rome  .        .    . 

St.  Paul  arrives  in  bonds  at  Rcme 

Nero  burns  Rome  to  the  ground,  and  charges 

the  crime  upon  the  Christians    .        ... 
Seneca,  Lucan,  &c.,  put  to  death 
Peter  and  Paul  said  to  be  put  to  death  .        .     . 
Jerusalem  levelled  to  the   ground  by  Titus, 

Sept.  8, 

Coliseum  founded 

The  Dacian  war  (continues  15  years)  . 

Pliny   junior,   proconsul    in    Bithynia,    sends 

Trajan  his  celebrated  account  of  the  Christians 
Trajan's  expedition  into  the  East  against  the 

Parthians,  &c. ;  subdues  Dacia  .        .        .    . 
Trajan's  column  erected  at  Rome 
Adrian  resides  in  Britain,  and  builds  the  wall  . 
The  Capitol  destroyed  by  lightning       .        .     . 
Byzantium  taken  ;  its  walls  razed     .        . 

The  Goths  are  paid  tribute 

[The  Goths,  Vandals,  Alani,  Suevi,  and  other 

Northern  nations  attack  the  empire.] 
Pompey's  amphitheatre  burnt        .        .        .    « 

Invasion  of  the  Goths 

Pestilence  throughout  the  empire .  .  .  . 
Great  victory  over  the  Goths  obtained  by 
Claudius  ;  300,000  slain  .... 
Dacia  relinquished  to  the  Goths  . 
Palmyra  conquered,  and  Longinus  put  to  death 
The  era  of  Martyrs,  or  of  Diocletian  .  .  . 
The  Franks  settle  in  Gaul.  Freret  . 

Constantius  dies  at  York 

Four  emperors  reign  at  one  time 

Constantino  the  Great,  it  is  said,  in  consequence 

of  a  vision,  places  the  Cross  on  his  banners, 

and  begins  to  favour  the  Christians 
Constantino  defeats  Licinius,  at  Chrysopolis, 

and  reigns  alone        ....  Sept.  18, 
He  tolerates  the  Christian  faith     . 
Puts  his  son  Crispus  to  death 
Constantino  convokes  the  first  general  council 

of  Christians  at  Nice 

j  The  seat  of  empire  removed  frcm  Rome  to 

Byzantium,  328  ;  dedicated  to  Constantino 
Constant ine  orders  the  heathen  temples  to  be 

destroyed 

Revolt  of  300,000  Sarmatian  slaves  suppressed . 
Death  of  Constantine,  soon  after  being  baptized 


KOME,  continued. 

The  army  under  Julian  proclaims  him  emperor    360 
Julian,  who  had  been  educated  for  the  priest- 
hood, and  had  frequently  officiated,  abjures 
Christianity,     and     re-opens    the     heathen 
temples,  becoming  the  pagan  pontiff      .        .     361 
Julian  killed  in  battle ;  Christianity  restored  by 

Jovian 363 

The  empire  divided  into  Eastern  and  "Western 
by  Valentinian  and  Valens,    brothers :    the 
former  has  the  Western  portion,  or  Rome      .     364 
(See  Western  and  Eastern  Empires  ;  and  Italy.) 
Rome  placed  under  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  .     404 

Taken  by  Alaric 410 

Taken  and  pillaged  by  Genseric      .        .    June,     455 
Odoacer  takes  Rome,  and  becomes  king  of  Italy  476 


536 


553  , 
728 


800 


Rome  recovered  for  Justinian  by  Belisarius 
Retaken  by  the  Goths,  546 ;  recovered  by  Beli- 
,     sarius,  547 ;  seized  by  Totila,  549  ;  recovered 
by  Narses,  and  annexed  to  the  eastern  empire 
Rome  independent  under  the  popes,  about 
Pepin  of  France  compels  Astolphus,  king  of  the 
Lombards,  to  cede  Ravenna  and  other  places 

to  the  Holy  Church 

Confirmed  and  added  to  by  Charlemagne     .     . 

Charlemagne  crowned  emperor  of  the  West  by 

the  pope  at  Rome     ....     Dec.  25, 

The  emperor  Henry  IV.  takes  Rome      .   March,  1084 

Arnold  of   Brescia,    endeavouring    to    reform 

church  and  state  and  to  establish  a  senate,  is 

put  to  death  as  a  heretic 1155 

The  pope  removes  to  Avignon         .         .         .     .  1309 
Nicola  di    Rienzi,  as  tribune    of  thev  people, 
establishes  a  republic,  but  is  compelled  to 
abdicate,    1347 ;    returning,  is  assassinated, 

Sept.  8,  1354 

Papal  court  returns  to  Rome  .  .  .  -1371 
Rise  of  the  families,  Colonna,  Orsini,  &c.,  about  1377 
Julius  II.  conquers  the  Romagna,  Bologna,  and 

Perugia 1503-13 

The  city  greatly  embellished  by  Pope  Leo  X.  1513-21 
It  is  captured  by  the  constable  de  Bourbon, 

who  is  slain June  6,  1527 

Ferrara  annexed 1597 

Harassed  by  the  French,  German,  and  Spanish 

factions  from  the  i6th  to  the  i8th  century. 
The  French  invasion  ;  the  Legations  incorpo- 
rated with  the  Cisalpine  republic    .        .         .  1 796 
The  French  proclaim  a  Roman  republic,  Mar.  20,  1798 
Recovered  for  the  pope  by  the  Neapolitans        .  1799 

Retaken  by  the  French 1800 

Restored  to  pope  Pius  VII. .  •»•  .  .  .  .1801 
Annexed  by  Napoleon  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 

and  declared  second  city  of  the  empire  .  .  1808 
Restored  to  the  pope,  who  returns  .  Jan.  1814 
He  re-establishes  the  Inquisition  and  the 

Jesuits Aug.     ,, 

The  papal  government  endeavour  to  annul  all 
innovations,  and  thus  provoke  much  opposi- 
tion ;  the  Carbonari  increase  in  numbers  .    1815-17 
Political  assassinations  in  the  Romagna    .         .  1817 
The    "  Young   Italy  "    party    established   by 
Joseph  Mazzini ;  temporary  insurrections  at 
Bologna  suppressed  by  Austrian  aid 
Election  of  Pius  IX.  June  16,  1846,  who  pro- 
claims an  amnesty ;  and  authorises  a  na- 
tional guard  and  municipal  institutions 
The  Romans  desire  to  join  the  king  of  Sardinia 
against  the  Austrians ;   the  pope  hesitates ; 
the  Antonelli  ministry  retires :  and  the  Ma- 
miani  ministry  is  formed         .... 
Count  Rossi,  minister  of  justice  of  the  pontifical 
government,  assassinated  on  the  staircase  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  at  Rome  .  Nov.  15, 
Insurrection  at  Rome,  the  populace  demand  a 
democratic  ministry  and  the  proclamation  of 
Italian  nationality  •   the  pope  (Pius  IX.)  hesi- 
tates, the  Romans  surround  the  palace,  and  a 
conflict  ensues.    The  pope  accepts  a  popular 
ministry Nov.  16, 


1831 


1847 


1848 


[Cardinal  Palma,  the  pope's  secretary,  was  shot 
in  this  conflict.] 

A  free  constitution  published       .         .  Nov.  20,  1848 

The  pope  escapes  in  disguise  from  Rome  to 
Gaeta Nov.  24,  „ 

M.  de  Corcelles  leaves  Paris  for  Rome,  a  French 
armed  expedition  to  Civita  Vecchia  having 
preceded  him,  to  afford  protection  to  the 
pope Nov.  27,  ,, 

Protest  of  the  pope  against  the  acts  of  the  pro- 
visional government  ....  Nov.  28,  r, 

A  constituent  assembly  meets  at  Rome,  Feb.  5,  18/10 

The  Roman  National  Assembly  divests  the  pope 
of  all  temporal  power,  and  adopts  the  repub- 
lican form  of  government  .  .  .  Feb.  8,  ,, 

The  pope  appeals  to  the  great  Roman  Catholic 
powers Feb.  18,  „ 

Civita  Vecchia  occupied  by  [the  French  force 
tinder  Marshal  Oudinot  .  .  .  April  26,  „ 

A  French  force  repulsed  from'Rome  with  loss, 

April  30,  , 

Engagement  between  the  Romans  and  Neapoli- 
tans; the  former  capture  60  prisoners  and 
400  muskets May  5,  ,, 

The  French  under  marshal  Oudinot  commence 
an  attack  on  Rome  ....  June  3,  ,, 

After  a  brave  resistance  the  Romans  capitulate 
to  the  French  army  ....  June  30,  „ 

The  Roman  assembly  dissolved      .        .  July  4,    ,, 

An  officer  from  Oudinot's  camp  arrives  at 
Gaeta,  to  present  the  pope  with  the  keys  of 
the  two  gates  of  Rome  by  which  the  French 
army  had  entered  the  city  .  .  .  July  4  ,, 

The  re-establishment  of  the  pope's  authority 
proclaimed  at  Rome  ....  July  15,  „ 

Oudinot  issues  a  general  order  stating  that  the 
pope  (or  his  representative)  now  re-possesses 
the  administration  of  affairs,  but  that  public 
security  in  the  pontifical  dominions  still 
remains  under  the  special  guarantee  of  the 
French  army Aug.  3,  ,, 

The  pope  arrives  at  Portici  .on  a  visit  to  the 
king  of  Naples Sept.  4,  ,, 

He  arrives  at  Rome ;  cardinal  Antonelli  be- 
comes foreign  minister  ....  April,  1850 

He  issues  the  bull  establishing  a  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy  in  England  (see  Papal 
Aggression) Sept.  24,  ,, 

Important  concordat  with  Austria    .        .  Aug.  1855 

The  pope  visits  his  dominions        .        .     June,  1857 

Insurrection  in  the  Romagna,  at  Bologna,  and 
Ferrara June,  1859 

They  declare  for  adhesion  to  Piedmont,   Sept.     ,, 

Accept  Buoncompagni  as  governor-general, 

Nov.  ,, 

The  pope  appeals  to  Europe  for  help  against 
Sardinia July  12,  „ 

The  Legations  form  ba  defensive  alliance  with 
Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Modena  .  .  Aug.  20,  ,, 

The  queen  of  Spain  engages  to  send  troops  to 
Rome,  if  the  French  retire  .  .  Aug.  26,  ,, 

The  assembly  at  Bologna  vote  annexation  to 
Piedmont,  Sept.  7  ;  the  king  engages  to  sup- 
port their  cause  before  the  great  powers, 
Sept.  15  ;  the  pope  annuls  the  acts  of  the 
assembly  at  Bologna ;  and  denounces  the 
punishment  due  to  those  who  attack  the 
holy  see,  Sept.  26;  and  dismisses  the  Sar- 
dinian charge"  d'affaires  at  Rome  .  Oct.  i,  ,, 

The  Romagna,  Modena,  and  Parma  formed  into 
a  province,  to  be  called  ^Emilia  .  Dec.  24,  ,, 

The  Sardinian  government  annul  the  Tuscan 
concordat,  Jan.  27 ;  and  the  Lombard  one, 

March  20,  1860 

Riots  at  Rome  suppressed  by  the  police  with 
groat  cruelty  ....  March  19,  ,, 

The  pope  excommunicates  all  concerned  in  the 
rebellion  in  his  states  .  .  March  26,  ,, 

General  Lamoriciere  takes  command  of  papal 

s  s  2 


ROM 


628 


ROM 


1860 


ROME,  continued. 

army,  March  ;  which  is  reorganised,  and  in- 
creased by  volunteers  from  Ireland,  &c.,  May, 

Irish  volunteers  are  severely  treated  tor  insub- 
ordination ;  many  dismissed  .  .  July, 

The  papal  army  estimated  at  20,000        .     Aug. 

Tuscan  volunteers  enter  the  papal  states  and 
are  repulsed  .  .  .  .  .  May  19, 

Insurrection  in  the  Marches,  Sept.  8  ;  Fossem- 
brone  subdued  by  the  papal  troops  ;  the 
people  appeal  to  the  Sardinian  government, 
whose  troops,  under  Cialdini  and  Fanti, 
enter  ihe  Papal  States  .  .  .  Sept.  n, 

Fanti  takes  Pesaro,  Sept.  12  ;  and  Perugia,  in- 

cluding general  Schmidt  and  1600  prisoners, 

Sept.  14, 

Ancona  besieged  by  sea  and  land     .     Sept.  17, 

Severe  allocution  of  the  pope  against  France 

and  Sardinia  ;  he  appeals  to  Europe  for  help, 

Sept.  28, 

Cialdini  defeats  Lamoriciere  at  Castel-Fidardo, 
Sept.  18;  and  takes  Ancona  .  .Sept.  29, 

Additional  French  troops  sent  to  Rome  .  Oct. 

The  Marches  vote  for  annexation  to  Sardinia, 

Nov. 

Monastic  establishments  suppressed  in  the 
Legations  ;  the  monks  pensioned  ;  educa- 
tional institutions  founded  .  .  Dec. 

Subscriptions  raised  for  the  pope  in  various 
countries  ;  the  formal  collection  forbidden  in 
France  and  Belgium  ;  permitted  in  England, 

Nov. 

The  French  emperor  advises  the  pope  to  give 
up  his  revolted  provinces  .  .  .  Dec.  21, 

Publication  of  Rome  et  les  Eveques,  Jan.  6  ;  and 
of  La  France,  Rome  et  Vltalie,  Feb.  15  ;  great 
excitement,  and  strong  advocacy  of  the  pope's 
temporal  government  (attacked  by  prince 
Napoleon)  in  the  French  chambers  .  March, 


Petition  to  the  emperor  Napoleon  to  withdraw 
French  troops  from  Rome,  signed  by  num- 
bers of  the  Romans  .  .  .  .  May  10,  1861 

The  emperor  of  France  declines  a  union  with 
Austria  and  Spain  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
pope's  temporal  power  .  .  .  June,  ,. 

Grand  ceremony  at  the  canonization  of  27 
Japanese  martyrs  (see  Canonization)  .  June  8,  „ 

The  pope  declares  a  severe  allocution  against 
the  Italians June  9,  ,, 

Garibaldi  calls  for  volunteers,  taking  as  his 
watchword,  "  Rome  or  death  !"  .  July  19,  1862 

Railway  between  Rome  and  Naples  completed  ; 
its  opening  opposed  by  the  papal  government, 

Nov.     , . 

Earl  Russell's  offer  to  the  pope  of  a  residence  at 
Malta,  Oct.  25;  declined  .  .  .  Nov.  n,  ,, 

Antonelli's  resignation  of  his  office  not  ac- 
cepted   March  5,  1863 

Convention  between  France  and  Italy  :  French 
troops  to  quit  Rome  within  two  years, 

Sept.  15,  1864 

Encyclical  letter  of  the  pope,  censuring  80  er- 
rors in  religion,  philosophy,  and  politics 
(caused  much  dissatisfaction,  and  was -for- 
bidden to  be  read  in  churches  in  France  and 
other  countries) Dec.  8,  ,, 

Jews  persecuted  at  Rome  ....  Dec.     ,, 

Fruitless  negotiations  between  the  pope  and 
the  king  of  Italy  (by  Vegezzi) ;  mutual  con- 
cessions proposed  .  April  21  to  June  23,  1865 

Pope's  severe  allocution  against  secret  societies 
(Freemasons,  Fenians,  &c.)  .  .  Sept.  25,  „ 

Merode,  the  papal  minister  of  war,  dismissed, 

Oct.  20,     „ 

A  part  of  the  French  troops  leave  the  papal 

dominions Nov.     „ 

See  Italy  ,  and  France,  1862-5. 


KINGS    OF   ROME. 


BEFORE    CHRIST. 

735.  Romulus  ;  murdered  by  the  senators. 

[Tatius,  king  of  the  Sabines,  had  removed  to  | 

Rome  in  747,  and  ruled  jointly  with  Romulus 

six  years.] 
716.  [Interregnum.] 
715.  Numa  Pompilius,  son-in-law  of  Tatius  the  Sa- 

bine,  elected  ;  died  at  the  age  of  82. 
672.  Tullus  Hostilius  ;  murdered  by  his  successor,  j 

by  whom  his  palace  was  set  on  fire  ;  his  j 

family  perished  in  the  flames. 
640.  Ancus  Martius,  grandson  of  Numa. 


616.   Tarquinius    Priscus ;    son    of   Demaratus, 
Corinthian  emigrant,  chosen  king. 

578.  Servius  Tullius  ;  a  manumitted  slave ;  married 
the  king's  daughter  ;  and  succeeded  by  the 
united  suffrages  of  the  army  and  the  people.  | 

534.  Tarquinius  Superbue,  grandson  of  Tarquinius! 
Priscus  ;  assassinates  his  father-in-law,  and  j 
usurps  the  throne. 

510.  [The  rape  of  Lucretia,  by  Sextus/son  of  Tar-  i 
quin,  and  consequent  insurrection,  leads  to  i 
the  abolition  of  royalty  and  the  establish- j 
merit  of  the  consulate.] 


REPUBLIC. 


BEFORE   CHRIST. 

510-82.  First  period.     From  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin 
to  the  dictatorship  of  Sylla. 


82-27.  Second  period.     From  Sylla  to  Augustus. 


EMPERORS    OF    ROME. 


BEFORE    CHRIST. 

48.  Caius  Julius  C«sar  ;  perpetual  dictator  ;  assas- 
sinated, March  15,  44  B.C. 


smated,  March  15,  44  B.C. 
31.  Octavianus  Cfesar  ;  in  the  year  27  B.C.  AUGUSTUS 

IMPERATOR.      Livy. 

AFTER   CHRIST. 

14.  Tiberius  (Claudius  Nero). 

37.  Caius  Caligula  ;  murdered  by  a  tribune. 

41.  Claudius  I.  (Tiber.  Drusus);  poisoned  by  his 
wife  Agrippina,  to  make  way  for 

54.  Claudius  Nero  ;  deposed ;  kills  himself,  68. 

68.  Servius  Sulpicius  Galba ;  slain  by  the  praeto- 
rians. 


69.  M.  Salvius  Otho  ;  stabbed  himself. 
,,  Aulus  Vitellius ;  deposed  by  Vespasian,  and 

to  death. 

,,   Titus  Flavins  Vespasian. 
79.  Titus  (Vespasian),  his  son. 
81.  Titus  Flavius  Domitian,  brother  of  Titus ; 

of  the  twelve  Caesars  ;  assassinated. 

96.  Cocceius  Nerva. 

98.  Trajan  (M.  Ulpius  Crinitus). 

117.  Adrian  or  Hadrian  (Publius  .ZElius). 

138.  Antoninus  Titus,  surnamed  Pius. 

161.  Marcus  Aurelius   (a  philosopher)  and   Lucius 

Verus,  his  son-in-law  ;  the  latter  died'in  169. 

'  1 80.  Commodus   (L.    Aurelius    Antoninus),   son  of 


ROM 


620 


ROS 


ROME,  continued. 

Marcus  Aurelius  ;  poisoned  by  his  favourite 

mistress,  Murtia. 
193.  Publius-Helvius-Pertinax  ;  put  to  death  by  the 

praetorian  band. 
[Four  emperors  now  start  up  :  Didianus  Juli- 

auus,  at  Rome  ;  Pescennius  Niger,  in  Syria ; 

Lucius   Septimius  Severus,    in   Pannonia ; 

and  Clodius  Albinus,  in  Britain.] 
,,    Lucius  Septimius   Severus;    died    at  York    in 

Britain,  in  211  ;  succeeded  by  his  sons, 
jn.  M.  Aurelius  Caracalla  and  Septimius  Geta.  Geta 

murdered    the   same   year  by  his  brother, 

who  reigned  alone   till  217,   when  he  was 

slain  by  his  successor, 

217.  M.   Opilius  Macrinus,  prefect  of  the  guards; 

beheaded  in  a  mutiny. 

218.  Heliogabalus (M.  Aurelius  Antoninus),  a  youth ; 

put  to  death  for  enormities. 

222.  Alexander  Severus ;  assassinated  by  some 
soldiers  corrupted  by  Maximinus. 

235.  Caius  Julius  Verus  Maximinus  ;    assassinated 

in  his  tent  before  the  walls  of  Aquileia. 
'•I.  Antonius  Gordianus,  and  his  son  ;  the  latter 
having  been  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  par- 
tisans of  Maximinus,  the  father  strangled 
himself  in  a  fit  of  despair,  at  Carthage,  in 
his  8oth  year. 

238.  Balbinus  and  Pupienus  ;  put  to  death. 
,,      Gordian,  junior,  grandson  of  the  elder  Gordian, 
in  his  i6th  year  ;  assassinated  by  the  guards, 
at  the  instigation  of  his  successor, 

244.  Philip  the  Arabian  ;  assassinated  by  his  own 
soldiers ;  his  son  Philip  was  murdered,  at 
the  same  time,  in  his  mother's  arms. 

-'49.  Metius  Decius  ;  he  perished  with  his  two  sons, 
and  their  army,  in  an  engagement  with  the 
Goths. 

251.  Gallus  Hostilius,  and  his  sou  Volusianus  ;  both 
slain  by  the  soldiery. 

253.  .Emilianus ;  put  to  death  after  a  reign  of  only 

four  months. 

i  253.  Valeriauus,  and  his  son  Gallienus  ;  the  first  was 
taken  prisoner  by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  and 
flayed  alive. 

260.  Gallienus  reigned  alone. 

[About  this  time  thirty  pretenders  to  imperial 
power  start  up  in  different  parts  of  the  em- 
pire ;  of  these,  Cyriades  is  the  first,  but  he 
is  slain.] 

268.  Claudius  II.  (Gallienus  having  been  assassinated 
by  the  officers  of  the-guard)  succeeds  ;  dies 
of  the  plague. 

270.  Quintillus,  his  brother,  elected  at  Rome  by  the 
senate  and  troops  ;  Aurelian  by  the  army  in 
Illyricum.  Quintilhis,  despairing  of  success 
against  his  rival,  who  was  marching  against 
him,  opened  his  veins  and  bled  himself  to 
death. 


270.  Aurelian  ;  assassinated  by  his  soldiers  on  his 
march  against  Persia,  in  Jan.  275. 

275.  [Interregnum  of  about  nine  months.] 

,,  Tacitus,  elected  Oct.  25;  died  at  Tarsus  in 
Cilicia,  April  13,  276. 

276.  Florian,  his  brother ;  his  title  not  recognised 

by  the  senate. 

276.  M.  Aurelius  Probus  ;  assassinated  by  his  troops 
at  Sirmium. 

282.  M.   Aurelius    Carus ;    killed   at  Ctesiphon  by 

lightning  ;  succeeded  by  his  sons, 

283.  Carhms  and  Numerianus  ;    both  assassinated, 

after  transient  reigns. 

284.  Diocletian ;  who  associated  as  his  colleague  in 

the  government, 

286.  Maximiaiius  Hercules ;  the  two  emperors  resign 
in  favour  of 

305.  Constantius  Chlorus  and  Galerius  Maximianus  ; 

the  first  died  at  York,  in  Britain,  in  306,  and 
the  troops  saluted  as  emperor,  his  son, 

306.  Constantine,     afterwards     styled  the     Great : 

whilst  at  Rome  the  pnetorian  band  pro- 
claimed 

,,  Maxentius,  son  of  Maximianus  Hercules. 
Besides  these  were, 

,,  Maximianus  Hercules,  who  endeavoured  to  re- 
cover his  abdicated  power, 

„  Flavius  Valerius  Severus,  murdered  by  the  last 
named  pretender ;  and 

307.  Flavius  Valerianus  Licinius,  the  brother-in-law 

of  Constantine. 

[Of  these,  Maximianus  Hercules  was  strangled 
in  Gaul,  in  310  ;  Galerius  Maximianus  died 
wretchedly  in  311 ;  Maxentius  was  drowned 
in  the  Tiber  in"  31 2  ;  and  Licinius  was  put  to 
death  by  order  of  Constantine  in  324.] 
323.  Constantine  the  Great  now  reigned  alone  ;  died 
on  Whitsunday,  May  22,  337. 

f  Sons    of    Constantine ;    di- 

Ivided  the  empire  between 
them ;  the  first  was  slain 
in  340,  and  the  second 
murdered  in  350,  when 
the  third  became  sole 
emperor. 

361.  Julian,  the  Apostate,  so  called  for  abjm-ing 
Christianity,  having  been  educated  for  the 
priesthood  ;  mortally  wounded  in  a  battle 
with  the  Persians,  636. 

363.  Jovian ;  reigned  8  months  ;  found  dead  in  his 

bed,  supposed  to  have  died  from  the  fumes 
of  charcoal. 

364.  Valentinian  and  Valens. 

375.  Valens  with  Gratian  and  Valentinian  II. 
379.  Theodosius  I.,  &c. 
392.  Theodosius  alone. 

The    Roman    empire    divided.      See    Eastern 
Empire,  Western  Empire,  and  Popes. 


RONCESVALLES  (in  the  Pyrenees),  where,  it  is  said,  Charlemagne's  paladin,  Roland, 
or  Orlando,  was  surprised,  defeated^  and  slain,  778.  On  July  25,  1813,  marshal  Soult  was 
defeated  by  the  British  entering  France. 

ROOF.  The  largest  in  the  world  is  said  to  be  that  over  a  riding-school  at  Moscow, 
erected  in  1791,  being  235  feet  in  span.  The  proposed  width  of  the  roof  of  the  London 
station  of  the  Midland  railway  is  240  feet  (1866). 

ROPE -MAKING  MACHINE.  One  was  patented  by  Richard  March  in  1784,  and  by 
Edmd.  Cartwright,  in  1792.  Many  improvements  have  been  made  since. 

ROSAMOND'S  BOWER.  Rosamond  was  daughter  of  lord  Clifford,  and  mistress  of 
Henry  II.  about  1154.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  by  the  queen,  prince  Henry,  and  his  other 
sons,  against  the  king,  on  account  of  his  attachment  to  her.  Henry  kept  her  in  a  labyrinth 
at  Woodstock,  where  his  queen,  Eleanor,  it  is  said,  discovered  her  apartments  by  the  clue 
of  a  silk  thread,  and  poisoned  her.  She  was  buried  at  Godstow  church,  from  whence  Hugh, 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  had  her  ashes  removed,  1191. 


ROS  630  EOT 

ROSARY.     See  Beads. 

ROSAS  (N.  E.  Spain),  BAY  OF,  where  a  brilliant  naval  action  was  fought  by  the  boats 
of  the  Cumberland,  Volontaire,  Apollo,  Topaze,  Philomel,  Scout,  and  Tuscan,  commanded  by 
Kent.  Tailour,  which  ended  in  the  capture  or  destruction  of  eleven  armed  vessels  in  the  bay, 
Nov.  i,  1809. 

ROSBACH  (Rosebec),  in  Flanders.  Here  Charles  VI.  of  France  beat  the  Flemings,  who 
had  revolted  against  their  count,  1382.  At  Rosbach,  in  Prussia,  a  great  battle  was  fought 
between  the  Prussians,  commanded  by  Frederick  the  Great,  and  the  combined  army  of 
French  and  Austrians,  in  which  the  latter  sustained  a  complete  defeat  and  severe  loss, 
Nov.  5,  1757. 

ROSE.*    See  under  Flowers. 

ROSES,  WARS  OF  THE,  between  the  Lancastrians  (who  chose  the  red  rose  as  their 
emblem),  and  the  Yorkists  (who  chose  the  white  rose),  began  1455  an^  ended  1485^  It  is 
stated,  that  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  there  perished  12  princes  of  the  blood,  200  nobles,  and 
100,000  gentry  and  common  people.  The  union  of  the  roses  was  effected  in  the  marriage  of 
Henry  VII.  with  the  princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  1486. 

ROSETTA  (in  Egypt),  taken  by  the  French  in  1798;-^  and  by  the"  British  and  Turks, 
April  19,  1801.  The  Turks  repulsed  the  British  here,  May  21,  1807.  Near  Rosetta,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile,  was  fought  the  memorable  battle  of  Aug.  I,  1798,  between  the  fleets  of 
France  and  England,  the  latter  commanded  by  Nelson.  See  Nile.  AH  Pacha  rendered  great 
service  to  his  country  by  constructing  a  canal  between  Rosetta  and  Alexandria. 

ROSICRUCIANS,  a  sect  of  mystical  philosophers,  who  first  appeared  in  Germany  in  the 
I4th  century,  and  again  early  in  the  I7th  century.  They  derived  their  name  from  the  Con- 
fessce  Rosece  Cruets  of  Valentine  Andreas,  1615.  They  swore  fidelity,  promised  secrecy,  and 
wrote  hieroglyphically,  and  affirmed  that  the  ancient  philosophers  of  Egypt,  the  Chaldeans, 
Magi  of  Persia,  and  Gymnosophists  of  the  Indies,  taught  the  same  doctrine. 

ROSS,  Cork  (S.  Ireland),  a  bishopric  founded,  it  is  supposed,  by  St.  Faclman,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  6th  century.  It  was  united  to  Cork  in  1340  ;  and  Cloyne  to  both,  by  the 
Irish  Church  Temporalities  act  (1833).  See  Bishops;  New  Ross. 

ROTA  CLUB.  A  society  who  met  at  Miles's  Coffee-house  in  New  Palace-yard,  "West- 
minster, during  the  administration  of  Oliver  Cromwell :  their  plan  was  that  all  the  great 
officers  of  state  should  be  chosen  by  ballot:  and  that  a  certain  number  of  members  of  parlia- 
ment should  be  changed  annually  by  rotation,  from  whence  they  took  their  title.  Sir  William 
Petty  was  one  of  the  members  in  1659.  Biog.  Brit. 

ROTHESAY  CASTLE.     See  Wrecks,  1831. 

ROTHSCHILD  FAMILY.  Meyer  Amschel,  or  Anselm,  was  born  at  No.  148,  Jtiden- 
gasse  (Jew-lane),  Frankfort,  in  1743.  In  1772  he  began  business  as  a  money-lender  and 
dealer  in  old  coins,  in  the  same  house,  over  which  he  placed  the  sign  of  the  Red  Shield  (in 
German,  Roth  Schild).  Having  had  dealings  with  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  that  prince 
entrusted  him  with  his  treasure  (said  to  have  been  250,000?.)  in  1806,  when  the  French  held 

*  The  rose,  a  symbol  of  silence,  gave  rise  to  the  phrase  sub  rosd,  "  under  the  rose ;"  said,  by  Italian 
writers,  to  have  risen  from  the  circumstance  of  the  pope's  presenting  consecrated  roses,  which  were 
placed  over  the  confessionals  at  Rome,  to  denote  secrecy,  1526. 

t  Richard  II.,  who  succeeded  his  grandfather  Edward  III.  in  1377,  was  deposed  and  succeeded  in  1399 
by  his  cousin  Henry  IV.  (son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster,  the  fourth  son  of  Edward  III.),  in 
prejudice  to  the  right  of  Roger  Mortimer  (grandson  of  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  Edward's  third  son),  who 
was  declared  presumptive  heir  to  the  throne  in  1385.  Roger's  grandson,  Richard  duke  of  York,  first 
openly  claimed  the  crown  in  1449.  Attempts  at  compromise  failed,  and  the  war  began  in  1455.  The 
Lancastrians  were  defeated  at  St.  Albans,  May  23,  1455.  The  protector  Somerset  was  slain  ;  a  truce  was 
made,  and  Richard  became  his  successor.  The  war  was  renewed,  and  the  Yorkists  defeated  the  Lancas- 
trians at  Bloreheath,  Sept.  23,  1459  ;  but  eventually  dispersed,  and  the  duke  was  attainted.  In  1460,  he 
defeated  his  opponents  at  Northampton,  took  Henry  prisoner,  and  was  declared  heir  to  the  crown  ;  but 
fell  into  an  ambuscade  near  Wakefield,  and  was  put  to  death,  Dec.  31,  1460.  His  son  (Edward)  continued 
the  struggle.  He  was  installed  as  king,  March  4,  1461 ;  defeated  the  Lancastrians  at  Towton,  March  29  ; 
was  deposed  by  Warwick,  who  restored  Henry  VI.,  Sept.  1470;  defeated  the  Lascastrians  at  Barnet,  April 
14,  1471 ;  and  finally  at  Tewkesbury,  May  4.  The  struggle  ended  with  the  defeat  and  death  of  Richard  III. 
at  Bosworth,  Aug.  22,  1485. 

J  The  Rosetta  Stone,  discovered  by  the  French  in  1799,  was  brought  from  Rosetta  in  a  French  vessel, 
from  whence  it  was  taken  by  Mr.  Wm.  R.  Hamilton,  who  deposited  it  in  the  British  Museum.  In  1841,  Mr. 
Letronne  published  the  text  and  a  translation  of  the  Greek  inscription.  It  is  a  piece  of  black  basalt,  about 
3  feet  long,  and  i\  feet  wide,  with  an  inscription  in  three  languages,  viz.  hieroglyphics,  modified 
hieroglyphics  (enchorial),  and  Greek,  setting  forth  the  praises  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  (about  194  B.C.).  It 
has  been  investigated  by  Dr.  T.  Young  and  Charnpollion. 


EOT  631  HOY 

his  country.  "With  this  sum  as  capital,  Anselm  traded  and  made  a  large  fortune,  and  restored 
the  250,000^.  to  the  landgrave  in  1815.  At  his  death  his  sons  continued  the  business  as 
partners.  His  son,  Nathan,  began  at  Manchester  in  1798,  removed  to  London  in  1803  ;  and 
died  immensely  rich,  July  28,  1836. 

ROTTERDAM,  the  second  city  in  Holland.  Its  importance  dates  from  the  I3th  century. 
The  commerce  of  Antwerp  was  transferred  to  it  in  1509.  It  suffered  much  from  the  French 
revolutionary  wars,  and  from  inundations  in  1775  and  1825.  Desiderius  Erasmus  was  born 
here  in  1467.  The  museum  and  picture-gallery  of  Rotterdam  were  destroyed  at  the  fire  of 
the  Schieland  palace,  Feb.  16,  1864. 

ROUEN  (N.  France),  an  archbishopric,  260,  became  the  capital  of  Normandy  in  the  loth 
century.  It  was  held  by  the  English  king  till  1204 ;  and  was  retaken  by  Henry  V.,  Jan.  19, 
1419.  Joan  of  Arc,  the  maid  of  Orleans,  was  burnt  here,  May  30,  1431.  It  was  subdued  by 
the  king  of  France  in  1449  ;  and  was  besieged  1562  and  1591, 

ROUMANIA,  the  name  assumed  by  the  Danubian  principalities  on  Dec.  23,  1861,  when 
their  union  was  proclaimed  at  Bucharest  and  Jassy. 

ROUND -HEADS.  In  the  civil  war  which  began  in  1641,  the  adherents  of  Charles  I. 
were  called  Cavaliers,  and  the  friends  of  the  parliament  were  Round-heads.  The  term,  it  is 
said,  arose  from  those  persons  who  distinguished  themselves  by  having  a  round  bowl  or 
wooden  dish  put  upon  their  heads,  and  their  hair  cut  by  the  edges  or  brim  of  the  bowl.  See 

Cavaliers . 

ROUND  WAY  DOWN,  near  Devizes,  Wiltshire.    Here  the  royalists  defeated  the  parlia- 
i  mentarians  with  great  slaughter,  July  13,  1643. 

ROXBURGHE  CLUB  was  instituted  in  1812  by  earl  Spencer,  and  a  number  of  gentle- 
men, for  the  republication  of  rare  books,  or  hitherto  unpublished  MSS. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY.     A  society  of  artists  met  in  St.  Peter's-court,  St.  Martin's-lane, 

about  1739,  which  Hogarth  established  as  the  society  of  Incorporated  Artists,  who  held  their 

first  exhibition  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  Adelphi,  April  21,  1760.     From  this  sprang  the  Royal 

|  Academy,  in  consequence  of  a  dispute  between  the  directors  and  the  fellows.     On  Dec.  10, 

1768,  the  institution  of  the  present  Royal  Academy  was  completed  under  the  patronage  of 

j  George  III. ;  and  sir  Joshua  Reynolds,   knighted  on  the  occasion,   was  appointed  its  first 

I  president.     Leigh.     The  first  exhibition  of  the  Academicians  (at  Pall- Mall)  was  in  1769. 

In  1771  the  king  granted  them  apartments  in  old  Somerset-house,  and  afterwards,  in  1780, 

in  new  Somerset-house,  where  they  remained  till  1838,  when  they  removed  to  the  National 

Gallery.     Among  its  professors   have   been  Johnson,   Gibbon,    Goldsmith,  Macaulay,   and 

Hallam.    Turner,  the  painter,  gave  funds  to  the  academy  for  the  award  of  a  medal  triennially 

for  landscape  painting,  which  was  awarded  to  Mr.  N.  0.  Lupton  in  1857.     A  commission  of 

inquiry  into  the  affairs  of  the  academy,  appointed  in  1862,  recommended  various  changes  in 

July,  1863. 

PRESIDENTS.  I      1820.  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence. 

1768.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  1830.  Sir  Martin  A.  Shee. 

2792.  Benjamin  West.  |      1850.  Sir  Charles  Eastlake,  died  Dec.  23,  1865. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC  was  established  in  1823,  mainly  by  the  exertions  of  lord 
Burghersh  (afterwards  earl  of  Westmoreland,  who  died  Oct.  16,  1859),  and  was  incorporated 
by  charter  in  1830.  The  first  concert  took  place  Dec.  8,  1828.  Its  re-construction  is 
proposed  (1866). 

ROYAL  ADELAIDE  AND  ROYAL  CHARTER,     See  Wrecks,  1850,  1859. 

ROYAL  ASSENT.  If  the  king  assent  to  a  public  bill,  the  clerk  of  the  parliament 
declares  the  Norman  French,  "  Le  roy  U  veut,"  the  king  wills  it  so  to  be.  If  the  king 
refuses  his  assent,  it  is  in  the  gentle  language  of  "  Le  roy  s'avisera,"  the  king  will  advise 
upon  it.  This  is  the  language  usually  adopted  to  the  present  day.  Hale.  By  the  statute 
33  Hen.  VIII.  1541,  the  king  may  give  his  assent  by  letters-patent.  Blackstone's  Com. 

ROYAL  EXCHANGE  (Cambium  Regis),  London.  The  foundation  of  the  original 
edifice  was  laid  by  sir  Thomas  Gresham,  June  7,  1566,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Tun  prison. 
Queen  Elizabeth  opened  it  in  Jan.  23,  1571,  and  her  herald  named  it  the  Royal  Exchange. 
Hume.  It  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  great  fire,  Sept.  1 666.  Charles  II.  laid  the  foun- 
dation-stone of  the  next  edifice,  Oct.  23,  1667,  which  was  completed  by  Mr.  Hawkesmore,  a 
pupil  of  sir  Christopher  Wren's,  in  about  three  years ;  it  was  repaired  and  beautified  in  1769. 
This  also  was  burnt,  Jan.  10,  1838,  with  a  number  of  public  offices,  &c.  The  new  Royal 
Exchange,  commenced  in  1842  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Tite,  was  opened  by  the  queen, 


EOY 


632 


ROY 


Oct.   28,    1844. — The  ROYAL   EXCHANGE,  Dublin,   was  commenced  in  1769,  and  opened 
in  1779. 

ROYAL  GEORGE,  a  first-rate  man-of-war  of  100  guns,  overset  off  Spithead,  and 
suddenly  went  down  while  at  anchor,  by  the  guns  rolling  to  one  side.  Rear-admiral  Kem- 
penfeldt,  the  crew,  many  marines,  women,  and  Jews,  in  all  about  600  persons,  were  drowned, 
Aug.  29,  1782.* 

ROYAL  HUMANE  SOCIETY  (London).     See  Humane  Society. 

ROYAL  INSTITUTION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  the  earliest  of  the  kind  in  London,  was 
founded  March,  1 799,  by  count  Rumford  and  sir  Joseph  Banks,  assisted  by  earls  Spencer  and 
Morton,  and  other  noblemen  and  gentlemen.  It  received  the  immediate  patronage  of 
George  III.  and  was  incorporated,  Jan.  13,  1800,  by  royal  charter,  as  "The  Royal  Institution 
of  Great  Britain,  for  the  diffusing  knowledge,  and  facilitating  the  general  introduction  of 
useful  mechanical  inventions  and  improvements,  and  for  teaching,  by  courses  of  philosophical 
lectures  and  experiments,  the  application  of  science  to  the  common  purposes  of  life."  It  was 
enlarged  and  extended  by  an  act  of  parliament  in  1810  ;  the  original  plan,  as  drawn  up  by 
count  Eumford,  in  1799,  having  been  considerably  modified,  "j- 


The  HOUSE  (in  Albemarle-street,  Piccadilly)  was 
purchased  in  June,  1799;  and  the  present  front 
was  added  by  subscription  in  1838.  The  Lecture 
theatre  was  erected  in  1803,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  Mr.  T.  Webster. 

The  LIBRARY  was  commenced  in  1803,  by  the 
munificent  subscriptions  of  the  proprietors  of  the 
institution.  It  now  (1866)  comprises  about  35,000 
volumes.  Classified  catalogues  (by  W.  Harris) 
were  published  in  1809  and  1821;  a  new  one  (by 
B.  Vincent)  in  1857. 

The  MUSEUM  contains  geological  specimens  collected 
by  Davy,  Hatchett,  Wollaston,  <fcc.,  and  much  of 
the  original  philosophical  apparatus  of  Cavendish, 
Davy,  and  Faraday. 

The  first  LECTURE  was  delivered  March,  4,  1801,  by 
Dr.  Garnett,  he  being  the  first  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  chemistry.  In  1802  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  so  celebrated  for  his 
researches  in  optics,  resulting  in  the  discovery  of 
the  interference  of  light,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  theory  of  undulation.  His  "  Lectures  on 
Natural  Philosophy  and  the  Mechanical  Arts," 
first  published  in  1807,  are  still  considered  a  text- 
book of  physical  science.  His  works  on  antiqua- 
rian literature  (hieroglyphic  inscriptions,  &c.)  are 
also  highly  esteemed.  In  Feb.  1801,  Mr.  (after- 
wards sir  Humphry)  Davy  was  engaged  as  assistant 
lecturer  and  director  of  the  laboratory,  and  on 
May  31,  1802,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  che- 
mistry. His  lectures  were  eminently  successful, 
and  his  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  electricity 
have  immortalised  his  name,  and  conferred  honour 
on  the  institution  :  by  him  the  alkaloids,  potas- 
sium and  sodium,  were  discovered  in  1807 ;  the 
nature  of  chlorine  was  determined  in  1810,  and  the 
safety-lamp  invented  in  1815.— William  Thomas 
Erande  succeeded  sir  Humphry  as  professor  of 
chemistry  in  1813,  and  held  that  office  till  his 
resignation  in  1852,  since  which  time  he  has 
been  elected  hon.  professor.  From  1816  to  1850  he 
delivered,  in  the  laboratory  of  this  institution,  his 
celebrated  chemical  lectures  to  students. — In  1813 
Michael  Faraday,  on  the  recommendation  of  sir 
H.  Davy,  was  engaged  as  assistant  in  the  laboratory, 
and  in  1825  as  its  director  :  in  1827  he  became  one 
of  the  permanent  lecturers  of  the  institution. 
In  1820  he  commenced  those  researches  in  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism  which  form  an  era  in  the 
history  of  science.  In  1823-4  he  discovered  the 
condensability  of  chlorine  and  other  gases  ;  in  1831 
he  obtained  electricity  from  the  magnet ;  in  1845 


he  exhibited  the  two -fold  magnetism  of  matter, 
comprehending  all  known  substances,  the  magnet- 
ism of  gases,  flame,  &c.  ;  and  in  1850  he  published 
his  researches  on  atmospheric  magnetism. — 
John  Tyndall,  F.R.S.,  the  present  professor  of 
natural  philosophy,  first  elected  in  July,  1853,  *s 
eminent  for  his  researches  on  magnetism,  heatr 
glaciers,  &c.,  here. — Edward  Frankland,  F.R.S., 
elected  professor  of  chemistry  in  1863,  is  eminent 
for  his  discoveries  in  organic  chemistry. 

In  1804  sir  J.  St.  Aubyn  and  other  gentlemen  pro- 
posed to  form  a  SCHOOL  OF  MINES  at  this  insti- 
tution ;  but  the  plan,  although  warmly  supported 
by  the  members,  was  withdrawn  for  want  of 
encouragement  by  the  government  and  by  mining 
proprietors. 

The  WEEKLY  EVENING  MEETINGS,  on  the  Fridays 
from  January  to  June,  as  now  arranged,  com- 
menced in  1826.  Discourses  (of  which  abstracts 
are  printed)  are  given  at  these  meetings  by  the 
professors  of  the  institution,  and  other  eminent 
scientific  men. 

ENDOWMENTS.  In  1833  John  Fuller,  esq.,  of  Rose- 
hill,  endowed  two  professorships,  of  chemistry 
and  physiology :  the  former  was  bestowed  on  Mr. 
Faraday  for  life  ;  the  latter  on  Dr.  Roget  for  three 
years,  to  be  filled  up  afterwards  by  triennial  elec- 
tion.— The  Fullerian  professors  of  physiology  have 
been  R.  E.  Grant,  T.  R.  Jones,  W.  B.  Carpenter, 
W.  W.  Gull,  T.  W.  Jones,  T.  H.  Huxley,  R.  Owen, 
and  J.  Marshall. — In  1838  Mrs.  Acton  gave  loool. 
to  be  invested  for  paying  every  seven  years  100 
guineas  for  the  best  essay  on  the  beneficence  of 
the  Almighty  as  illustrated  by  discoveries  in 
science;  which  have  been  awarded — in  1844  to 
Mr.  G.  Fownes  ;  in  1851  to  Mr.  T.  Wharton  Jones; 
in  1858  no  award  was  made ;  in  1865  to  Mr.  George 
Warington. 

The  "  Fund  for  the  Promotion  of  Experimental 
Researches"  was  founded  on  July  6,  1863,  by  sir 
Henry  Holland,  Professor  Faraday,  sir  R.  I. 
Murchison,  Dr.  Bence  Jones,  and  others. 

The  first  officers  were  sir  Joseph  Banks,  president, 
till  the  charter  was  granted,  afterwards  the  earl  of 
Winchelsea  ;  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Thomas)  Bernard, 
treasurer;  rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Glasse, secretary.  The 
duke  of  Northumberland,  K.  G. ,  elected  president 
1842,  was  succeeded  by  sir  Henry  Holland,  in  1865  ; 
W.  Pole,',esq.(  treasurer,  elected  1849,  was  succeeded 
by  Wm.  Spottiswoode,  esq.,  in  1865  •  the  rev.  John 
Barlow,  secretary,  elected  1842,  was  succeeded  by 
Henry  Bence  Jones,  M.D.,  1860. 


*  By  the  use  of  the  diving-bell,  the  ship,  imbedded  in  the  deep,  was  surveyed  in  May  1817,  et  seq. 
Portions  of  the  vessel  and  its  cargo  were  brought  up  in  1839-42,  under  the  superintendence  of  sir  Charles 
Pasley,  when  gunpowder  was  ignited  by  the  agency  of  electricity. 

t  The  members  are  elected  by  ballot,  and  pay  five  guineas  on  admission,  and  five  guineas  annually,  or 
a  composition  of  sixty  guineas. 


ROY 


633 


RUM 


ROYAL  MARRIAGE  ACT,  &c. 

Navy. 


See  Marriage  Act;  Military  and  Naval  Asylums ; 


ROYAL  SOCIETY  (London).  In  1645  several  learned  men  met  in  London  to  discuss 
philosophical  questions  and  report  experiments  ;  the  Novum  Organon  of  Bacon,  published  in 
1620,  having  given  great  impulse  to  such  pursuits.  Some  of  them  (Drs.  Wilkins,  Wallis, 
&c.),  about  1648-9,  removed  to  Oxford,  and  with  Dr.  (afterwards  bishop)  Seth  Ward,  the 
hon.  Robert  Boyle,  Dr.  (afterwards  sir)  W.  Petty,  and  several  doctors  of  divinity  and  physic, 
frequently  assembled  in  the  apartments  of  Dr.  Wilkins,  in  Wadham  college,  Oxford.  They 
formed  what  has  been  called  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Oxford,  which  only  lasted  till  1690. 
The  members  were,  about  1658,  called  to  various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  on  account  of  their 
respective  professions  ;  and  the  majority  coming  to  London,  constantly  attended  the  lectures 
at  Gresham  college,  and  met  occasionally  till  the  death  of  Oliver  Cromwell  in  1659.  See 
Societies. 


The  society  was  organised  in  1660,  and  constituted  by 
Charles  II.  a  body  politic  and  corporate,  by  the 
appellation  of  "  the  President,  Council,  and  Fel- 
lows of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  for  improving 
Natural  Knowledge,"  April  22,  1662. 
Evelyn  records  the  first  anniversary  meeting,  St. 

Andrew's  day,  Nov.  30,  1663. 

The  Philosophical  Transactions  begin  March  6,  1664-5. 
In  1668,  Newton  invented  his  reflecting  telescope 
.ow  in  the  possession  of  the  society),  and  on 
il  28,  1686,  presented  to  the  society  the  MS. 
his  Principia,  which  the  council  ordered  to  be 
nted.  This  was  done  under  the  superintendence 
d  also  at  the  expense  of  Halley  the  astronomer, 
that  time  clerk  to  the  society, 
society  met  for  some  years  at  Gresham  College, 
and  afterwards  at  Arundel  House  (1666),  where  it 
came  into  possession  of  a  valuable  library,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Howard,  grandson  of  its  collector, 
the  earl  of  Arundel,  After  various  changes  the 


fellows  returned  to  Gresham  College,  where  they 
remained  till  their  removal  to  Crane-court,  in  a 
house  purchased  by  themselves,  Nov.  8,  1610. 
They  remove  to  apartments  granted  them  in  Somer- 
set-house, 1780 ;  to  apartments  in  Burlington-house, 
Piccadilly,  1857. 
The  first  Copley  Medal  was  awarded  to  Stephen  Gray 

I     in  1731  ;  the  Royal  Medal  to  John.  Dal  ton,  1826 ; 

i  the  Rumford  Medal,  instituted  in  1797,  to  count 
Rumford  himself  in  1800. 

i  Parliament  votes  annually  loool.  to  the  Royal  Society 

for  scientific  purposes. 

Regulations  made  by  which  fifteen  fellows  are  to  be 
elected  annually,  who  pay  ten  pounds  on  admis- 
sion, and  four  pounds  annually,  or  a  composition 

i      of  sixty  pounds,  March,  1847. 

I  The  "  Royal  Society  Scientific  Fund  "  was  founded 

!     in  imitation  of  the  "  Literary  Fund  "  in  1859.     See 

i      Scientific  Fund. 


PRESIDENTS. 

1660.  Sir  Robert  Moray. 
1663.  Lord  Brouncker. 
1677.  Sir  Joseph  Williamson. 
1680.  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 
1682,  Sir  John  Hoskyns. 
1683.  Sir  Cyril  Wyche. 
1684.  Samuel  Pepys. 
1686.  John,  earl  of  Carbery. 
1689.  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke. 
1690.  Sir  Robert  Southwell. 

1695.  Chas.   Montague  (aftds.  earl 
of  Halifax). 
1698.  John,  lord  Soiners. 
1703.  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 
1727.  Sir  Hans  Sloane. 
1741.  Martin  Folkes. 
1752,  Geo.,  earl  of  Macclesfield. 
1764.  James,  earl  of  Morton. 
1768.  James  Burrow. 
,  ,     James  West. 
1772.  James  Burrow. 

1772. 
1778. 
1820. 

1  82*7. 
1830. 
1838. 
1848. 
1854- 
1858. 
1861. 

Sir  John  Pringle. 

Sir  Joseph  Banks. 

Dr.  W.  H.  Wollaston. 

Sir  Humphry  Davy. 

Davies  Gilbert. 

Duke  of  Sussex. 

Marquis  of  Northampton, 

Earl  of  Rosse. 

Lord  Wrottesley. 

Sir  Benjamin  C.  Brodie. 

Major-gen.  Edward  Sabine. 


RUBICON,  a  small  river  flowing  into  the  Adriatic  sea,  separated  Cisalpine  Gaul  from 
Italy  proper.  Roman  generals  were  forbidden  to  pass  this  river  at  the  head  of  an  army. 
Julius  Csesar  did  so,  49  B.C.,  and  thereby  began  a  revolt  and  deadly  civil  war. 

RUBIDIUM,  an  alkaline  metal,  discovered  by  Bunsen  by  means  of  the  spectrum  analysis, 
and  made  known  in  1861. 

RUGBY  SCHOOL  (Warwickshire),  was  founded  in  1567  by  Lawrence,  sheriff,  a  London 
tradesman.  Dr.  Thomas  Arnold,  the  historian,  entered  on  the  duties  of  head-master  here 
in  August,  1828,  and  under  him  the  school  greatly  prospered.  He  died  June  12,  1842. 

RUHMKORFF'S  INDUCTION  COIL.     See  Induction. 

RULING-MACHINES,  used  for  ruling  paper  with  faint  lines,  for  merchants'  account- 
books,  &c.  They  were  invented  by  an  ingenious  Dutchman,  resident  in  London,  in  1 782, 
and  were  subsequently  greatly  improved  by  Woodmason,  Payne,  Brown,  and  others.  They- 
were  improved  in  Scotland  in  1803.  An  invention  has  lately  rendered  account-books  perfect 
by  the  numbering  of  the  pages  with  types,  instead  of  the  numbers  being  written  by  a  pen,  so 
that  a  page  cannot  be  torn  out  from  them  without  being  discovered. 

RUM  (French  rhum),  ardent  spirit  distilled  from  sugar  lees  and  molasses,  deriving  its 
peculiar  flavour  from  a  volatile  oil.  Rum  is  principally  made  in  the  West  Indies.  The  duty 
(since  1858)  on  colonial  rum  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  is  8s.  2d.  per  gallon,  on 


RUM 


634 


RUS 


foreign  rum  (since  1846)  is  155.  per  gallon, 
spirits  was  reduced  in  1863. 


Imported. 
1848 
1851    . 


Gallons. 
6,858,981 
4,745,^44 


Imported. 
1853 
1855    • 


The  duty  on  rum  to  be  employed  as  methylated 


Gallons. 
5,206,248 
8,714,337 


Imported. 
1857 
1863    . 


Gallons. 
6,515,683 
7,194,739 


BUMP  PARLIAMENT.     See  Pride's  Purge. 

RUNNY-MEDE  (council-mead),  near  Egham,  Surrey.     Here  king  John  signed  Magna 
Charta,  June  15,  1215. 

RUSSELL  ADMINISTRATIONS.*    See  Palmerston  Administration,  &c. 


FIRST  ADMINISTRATION  (formed  on  the  resignation  of 
sir  Robert  Peel),  July,  1846. 

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  lord  John  Russell. 

Lord  chancellor,  lord  Cottenham  (succeeded  by  lord 
Truro). 

Lord  president  of  the  council,  marquess  of  Lansdowne. 

Privy  seal,  Earl  of  Minto. 

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Mr.  (now  Sir  Charles) 
Wood. 

Foreign,  home,  and  colonial  secretaries,  vicount  Pal- 
merston, sir  George  Grey,  and  earl  Grey. 

Boards  of  control  and  trade,  sir  John  Hobhouse  (now 
lord  Broughton),  and  earl  of  Clarendon  (succeeded 
by  Mr.  Labouchere). 

Admiralty,  the  earl  of  Auckland  (succeeded  by  sir 
Francis  Thornhill  Baring). 

Duchy  of  Lancaster,  lord  Campbell  (succeeded  by  the 
earl  of  Carlisle,  late  viscount  Morpeth). 

Secretary  at  war,  Mr.  Fox  Maule. 

Postmaster,  marquess  of  Clanricarde. 

T.  B.  Macaulay,  &c. 

Lord  John  Russell  and  his  colleagues  resigned  their 
offices,  Feb.  21,  1851 ;  but  were  induced  (after  the 
failure  of  lord  Stanley's  party  to  form  an  adminis- 
tration) to  return  to  power,  March  3  following  :— 

SECOND  ADMINISTRATION  (or  continuation  of  his 

first),  March,  1851. 

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  lord  John  Russell. 
President  of  the  Council,  marquess  of  Lansdowne. 
Lord  privy  seal,  Earl  of  Minto. 
Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  sir  Charles  Wood. 
Home,  foreign,   and    colonial  secretaries,  sir    George 


Grey,   viscount    Palmerston    (succeeded   by  earl 

Granville,  Dec.  22),  and  earl  Grey. 
Lord  chancellor,  lord  Truro. 

First  Lord  of  the  admiralty,  sir  Francis  T.  Baring. 
Board  of  control,  lord  Broughton. 
Board  of  trade,  Mr.  Labouchere. 
Secretary  at  -war,  Mr.  Fox  Maule  (afterwards  lord 

Panmure,  and  now  earl  of  Dalhousie). 
Postmaster-general,  marquess  of  Clanricarde. 
Paymaster-general,  earl  Granville. 
Lord  Seymour,  earl  of  Carlisle,  &c. 

This  ministry  resigned  Feb.  21,  1852.     See  Derby 
Administration. 

THIRD  ADMINISTRATION.  (On  the  decease  of  lord  Pal- 
merston, Oct.  1 8,  1865,  earl  Russell  received  Her 
Majesty's  commands  to  reconstruct  the  adminis- 
tration.) 

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  John,  earl  Russell. 

Lord  chancellor,  Robert,  lord  Cranworth. 

Postmaster-general,  John,  lord  Stanley  of  Alderley. 

President  of  the  poor-laic  board,  Chas.  Pelham  Villiers. 

Lord  president  of  the  council,  George,  earl  Granville. 

Lord  privy  seal,  George,  duke  of  Argyll. 

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Wm.  E.  Gladstone. 

Secretaries— foreign  affairs,  George,  earl  of  Clarendon ; 
colonies,  Edward  Cardwell ;  home,  sir  George  Grey  ; 
war,  George,  earl  De  Grey  and  Ripon  ;  India,  sir 
Charles  Wood. 

First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  Edward,  duke  of  Somerset. 

President  of  the  board  of  trade,  Thos.  Milner  Gibson. 

Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  George  J.Goschen. 

Secretary  for  Ireland,  Chichester  Fortescue. 


RUSSELL  INSTITUTION  (Great  Coram-street,  London),  was  founded  in  1808  by  sir 
Samuel  Romilly,  Francis  Horner,  Dr.  Mason  Good,  Henry  Hallam,  lord  Abinger,  and  others. 
The  building  comprises  a  library,  lecture  room,  news  room,  &c. 

RUSSELL  TRIAL.  William,  lord  Russell's  trial  for  complicity  in  the  Rye-house  plot 
was  marked  by  a  most  touching  scene.  When  he  supplicated  to  have  some  one  near  him  to 
take  notes  to  help  his  memory,  he  was  answered,  that  any  of  his  attendants  might  assist 
him  ;  upon  which  he  said,  "  My  WIFE  is  here,  and  will  do  it  for  me."  He  was  beheaded  in 
Lincoln' s- Inn -Fields,  July  21,  1683,  having  slept  soundly  the  night  before  his  execution. 
Lady  Russell  survived  him  forty  years,  dying  Sept.  29,  1723,  in  her  eighty-seventh  year. 
The  attainder  of  this  nobleman  was  reversed,  I  Will.  III.  1689,  his  execution  having  "been 
deemed  a  MURDER. 

RUSSIA,  the  eastern  part  of  ancient  Sarmatia.  The  name  is  generally  derived  from  the 
Roxolani,  a  Slavonic  tribe.  Rurick,  a  Varangian  chief,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to 
establish  a  government,  862.  His  descendants  ruled  amid  many  vicissitudes  till  1598.  The 
progress  of  the  Russian  power  under  Peter  the  Great  and  Catherine  II.  is  unequalled  for 


*  Lord  John  Russell,  3rd  son  of  John,  duke  of  Bedford,  was  born  Aug.  19,  1792  ;  M.P.  for  Tavistock, 
1813  ;  for  London,  1841-61  ;  was  paymaster  of  the  forces,  1830-34  ;  secretary  for  home  department,  1835-9  ; 
for  the  colonies,  1839-41 ;  first  minister,  July  1846  to  March  1852  ;  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  Dec.  1852 
to  Feb.  1853 ;  president  of  the  council,  June  1854  to  Feb.  1855 ;  secretary  for  the  colonies,  March  to  Nov. 
1855  ;  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  June.  1859,  *°  Oct.  1865,  when  he  succeeded  Lord  Palrnerston  as 
premier;  created  a  peer  as  earl  Russell,  July  30, 1861.  His  motion  for  reform  in  parliament  was  negatived 
in  1822  ;  adopted  March  i,  1831 ;  he  introduced  the  Registration  bill,  and  a  New  Marriage  bill,  in  1836. 


11  US 


635 


II  US 


rapidity  in  the  history  of  the  world.  The  established  religion  of  Russia  is  the  Greek  church, 
Avith  a  free  toleration  however  of  other  sects,  even  the  Mahometans.  By  an  imperial  ukase, 
in  1802,  six  universities  were  established,  viz.,  at  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  "Wiliia,  Dorpat 
(in  Livonia),  Charcov,  and  Kasan  ;  but  literature  has  made  little  progress,  the  native  publi- 
cations being  very  few,  and  the  best  books  being  all  translations.  The  Russian  language, 
though  not  devoid  of  elegance,  is,  to  a  foreigner,  of  very  difficult  pronunciation  :  the  number 
of  letters  and  diphthongs  is  forty-two.  The  estimated  population  of  the  empire  in  1865  is 
80,255,430.  By  the  first  Russian  budget  (1862),  the  estimated  revenue  was  34,500,000?. ; 
expenditure,  37,850,000?. 


Russia  invaded  by  the  Huns  .        .        .        A.D.     376 
Ruric  the  Norman  or  Varangian,  arrives  at  Nov- 
gorod (or  New  City),  and  becomes  grand  duke 
Janniversavy  kept.  Sept.  20,  1 862]     .        .         .     862 
Olbg  successfully  invades  the  Greek  empire.     .     904 
Vladimir  the  Great  marries  Anne,  sister  of  the 

emperor  Basil  II.,  and  is  baptized  .        .         .     988 
The  Golden  Horde  of  Tartars  conquer  a  large 

part  of  Russia  about 1223 

The  grand  duke  Jurie  killed  in  battle        .        .   1237 
The  Tartars  establish  the  empire  of  the  Khan  of 
Kaptschak,  and  exercise  great  influence  in 

Russia 1242 

Alexander  Newski  defeats  the  invading  Danes, 

•fee 1244 

He  is  made  grand  duke  of  Russia  by  the  Tartars  1252 
Tartar  war,  1380 ;  Moscow  burnt  .  .  .  .  1383 
Tamerlane,  after  ravaging  Tartary,  invades 

Russia ;  but  retires 

Accession  of  Ivan  III.  the  Great— able  and  des- 


1395 
1462 


potic 

The  foundation  of  the  present  monarchy  laid    . 
Ivan    introduces    fire-arms    and    cannon    into 

Russia 1475 

Great  invasion  of  the  Tartars  ;  consternation  of 

Ivan 1479 

His  general  Svenigorod  attacks  them  and  anni- 
hilates their  power 1481 

Ivan  takes  the  title  of  czar 1482 

Accession  of  Ivan  IV. ,  a  cruel  tyrant  .  .  1533 
The  English  "Russian  company  "  established  .  1553 
Richard  Chancellor  sent  to  open  the  trade  .  .  1554 

Discovery  of  Siberia ,, 

The  royal  bodyguard  (the  Strelitz)  established  .  1568 
Ivan  solicits  the  hand  of  queen  Elizabeth  of 

England 1579 

The  race  of  Ruric,  who  had  governed  Russia 

for  700  years,  becomes  extinct  .  .  .  .  1598 
The  imposition  of  Demetrius  (see  Impostors)  .  1606 
Michael  Fedorovitz,  of  the  house  of  Romanoff, 

ascends  the  throne    ......   1613 

Finland  ceded  to  Sweden 1617 

Russian  victories  in  Poland         ....  1654 

First  Russian  vessel  built 1667 

.Subjugation  of  the  Cossacks  ....  1671 
Reign  of  Ivan  and  Peter  I.  or  the  Great  .  .  1682 

Peter  sole  sovereign 1689 

He  visits  Holland  and  England,  and  works  in 

the  dockyard  at  Deptford 1697 

Recalled  by  a  conspiracy  of  the  Strelitz,  which 

he  cruelly  revenges  ;  2000  tortured  and  slain  ; 

he  beheads  many  with  his  own  hand  .  .  1697 
The  Russians  begin  their  new  year  from  Jan.  i ; 

(but  retain  the  old  style) 1700 

War  with  Sweden,  Peter  totally  defeated  by 

Charles  XII.  at  Narva      .        .         .     Nov.  30,     ,, 
Peter  founds  St.  Petersburg  as  a  new  capital    .   1703 

The  Strelitz  abolished 1704 

Charles  XII.  totally  defeated  by  Peter  at  Pul- 

towa,  and  flees  to  Turkey  .  .  July  8,  1709 
14,000  Swedish  prisoners  sent  to  colonise 

Siberia *      .        .     „ 

War  with  Turkey ;  Peter  and  his  army  cross 

the  Pruth,  and  are  surrounded  by  the  Turks  ; 

they  escape  by  the   energy  of  the  empress 

Catherine,  who  obtains  a  truce  .  .  June,  1711 
Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  a  large  part  of  Finland 

added  to  the  empire 1715 


Peter  visits  Germany,  Holland,  and  France  .     .1715 

The  Jesuits  expelled 1718 

Conspiracy  and  mysterious  death  of  the  prince 

Alexis July,     ,, 

Peter  II.  (last  of  the  Romanoffs),  deposed,  and 

the  crown  given  to  Anne  of  Corn-land         .     .  1730 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  I.,  reigns,  in  pre- 
judice of  Ivan  VI.,  an  infant,  who  is  impri- 
soned for  life 1741 

Peter  III.  dethroned  and  murdered,  succeeded 

by  Catherine  his  wife 1762 

Ivan  VI.,  the  rightful  heir,  till  now  immured, 

put  to  death 1764 

Rebellion  of  the  Cossacks,  1774  ;  suppressed     .  1775 
Dismemberment  of    Poland ;    commenced  by 

Catherine  (see  Poland),  1772  ;  completed 
Successful  invasions  of  the  Crimea 
Catherine  gives  her  subjects  a  new  code  of 
laws  ;  abolishes  torture  in  punishing  crimi- 
nals ;  and  dies 1796 

Unsuccessful  war  with  Persia         •        .        .     .     ,, 
Russian  treaty  with  Austria  and  England  .        .  1798 
Suwarrow  with  an  army  joins  the  Austrians, 

and  checks  the  French  in  Italy  .  .  .  .  1799 
Mental  derangement  of  Paul  ....  1800 
He  is  murdered  .  .  .  .  March  23,  1801 
Accession  of  Alexander  I.  (who  makes  peace 

with  England) ,, 

He  joins  the  coalition  against  France     .    April,  1805 
Allies  defeated  at  Austerlitz        .         .      Dec.  2,     „ 
Treaty  of  Tilset  with  France     .         .         July  8,  1807 
Russians  defeated  by  the  Turks,  near  Silistria, 

Sept.  26,  1809 

War  with  France June,  1812 

The  Russians  defeated  at  Sniolensko,  Aug.  17  ; 

and  at  the  Borodino     .        .        .         Sept.  7,    ,, 
Moscow  burnt  by  the  Russians,  retreat  of  the 

French Sept.     „ 

Alexander  present  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  Oct. 

1813  ;  entered  Paris     ....  March,  1814 
He  visits  England       ....          June,     ,, 
Alexander  forms  the  Holy  Alliance       .        .     .1815 
The  grand  duke  Constantino    renounces  the 

right  of  succession ....       Jan.  26,  1822 
Euiperor  Nicholas  crowned  at  Moscow,  Sept.  3,  1826 
Russian  war  against  Persia  .        .         Sept.  28,     ,, 
Nicholas  visits  England;    invested  with  the 

order  of  the  Garter  .  .  .  July  9,  1827 
Peace  between  Russia  and  Persia  .  Feb.  22,  1828 
War  between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman  Porte 

declared  (see  Turkey,  and  Battles)    .  April  26,     ,, 
The  war  for  the  independence  of  Poland  against 

Russia  (see  Poland)  ....   Nov.  29,  1830 
Failure  of  the  expedition  against  Khiva .     Jan.  1840 
Treaty  of  London  (see  Syr ia)  .        .       July  15,     ,, 
The  emperor  Nicholas  arrives  in  London  June  i,  1844 
The  grand  duke  Constantine  arrives  at  Ports- 
mouth in  the  Ingermanland,  of  74  guns,  June  9,  1846 
[For  the  participation  of  Russia  in  the  Hun- 
garian war  of  1848-9,  see  Hungary.] 
Russia  demands  the  expulsion  of  the   Hun- 
garian and  Polish  refugees  from  Turkey  (see 

Turkey) Nov.  5,  1849 

They  are  sent  to  Konieh,  in  Asia  Minor  .     Jan.  1850 
Conspiracy  against  the  life  and  policy  of  the 
emperor  detected      ....     Jan.  6, 
Harbour  of  Sebastopol  completed   .         .     Feb.     ,, 
The  emperor  decrees  seven  men  in  each  thou- 


RUS 


RUS 


RUSSIA,  continued. 

sand  of  the  population  of  Western  Russia  to 
be  enrolled  in  the  army,  giving  a  total  in- 
crease of  180,000  soldiers  .  .  .  Aug.  1850 

The  czar  visits  Vienna          .        .        .      May  8,  1852 

Concentrates  his  forces  on  the  frontiers  of 
Turkey .  Feb.  1853 

Origin  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war  (which  see,  and 
Holy  Places') March,  ,, 

Conference  between  the  emperors  of  Russia 
and  Austria  at  Olmutz  .  .  Sept.  24,  ,, 

And  king  of  Prussia  at  Warsaw          .       Oct.  2,     ,, 

Interview  of  Mr.  J.  Sturge  and  other  quakers 
with  the  czar,  to  obtain  peace  .  .  Feb.  1854 

Ten  northern  provinces  put  in  a  state  of  siege, 

March  5,     ,, 

The  czar  issues  a  manifesto  to  his  subjects  ; 
he  will  combat  only  for  the  faith  and  Chris- 
tianity   April  23,  ,, 

Death  of  the  czar  Nicholas,  and  accession  of 
Alexander  II.;  no  change  of  policy,  March  2,  1855 

Most  extensive  levy  ordered  by  the  czar  (at 
Nicolaieff) Nov.  3,  ,, 

He  visits  his  army  at  Sebastopol     .       Nov.  10,     „ 

Death  of  prince   Ivan  Paskiewitsch,  aged  74, 

Feb.  i,  1856 

Amnesty  granted  to  the  Poles,  May  27;  political 
offenders,  <fcc.  ....  Sept.  7,  ,, 

Alexander  II.  crowned  at  Moscow     .     Sept.  2,     ,, 

Manifesto  on  account  of  the  English  and  French 
interference  in  the  affairs  of  Naples,  Sept.  2,  ,, 

St.  Petersburg  and  Warsaw  Railway  begun  by 
government,  1851  ;  ceded  to  Great  Russian 
railway  company  (about  335  miles,  the  half 
completed) ,, 

Grand  duke  Constantino  visits  France  and 
England April,  1857 

The  czar  meets  the  emperor  Napoleon  at  Stut- 
gardt,  Sept.  25  ;  and  the  emperor  of  Austria 
at  Weimar Oct.  i,  ,, 

Partial  emancipation  of  the  serfs  on  the  im- 
perial domains July  2,  1858 

A  Russian  naval  station  established  at  Villa 
Franca,  on  the  Mediterranean,  creates  some 
political  excitement  .  .  .  Aug.  ,, 

New   commercial  treaty  with   Great  Britain, 

Jan.  i2,   1859 

Russia  reproves  the  warlike  movements  of  the 
German  confederation  during  the  Italian  war, 

May  27,     ,, 

The  czar  protests  against  the  recognition  of  the 
sovereignty  of  peoples  .  .  .  Feb.  13,  1860 

Fruitless  meeting  of  the  emperors  of  Russia 
and  Austria  and  the  regent  of  Prussia  at 
Warsaw Oct.  20-25,  » 

Treaty  with  China,  for  enlargement  of  com- 
merce   Jan.  i,  1861 

Decree  for  the  total  emancipation  of  the  serfs 


(23,000,000)  throughout  the    empire  in  two 
years March  3.  1861 

Demonstrations  and  repression  in  Poland 
(which  see) Feb.— April,  ,, 

Disturbances  in  South  Russia,  caused  by  an 
impostor  asserting  himself  to  be  a  descendant 
of  Peter  III. ;  many  peasants  shot  and  flogged 

May  and  June,     ,, 

Inundations  at  Kiev,  Moscow ;  615  houses 
underwater May,  ,, 

Death  of  prince  Michael  Gortschakoff,  governor 
of  Poland May  30,  „ 

Student  riots  at  the  university  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, which  is  closed,  Oct.  6-9;  reopened, 

Oct.  24,     „ 

The  nobles  sign  a  petition  for  a  political  con- 
stitution   Nov.  ,, 

Increased    privileges    granted    to    the    Jews, 

Jan.  26,  1862 

Death  of  Nesselrode,  the  chancellor  of  the 
empire March  23  or  24,  ,, 

Alarming  increase  of  fires  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow  ;  the  government  suppresses  various 
educational  institutions  .  .  .  June,  ,, 

Russia  recognises  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  July  10,     ,, 

Anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  establiah- 
ment  of  the  Russian  monarchy  at  Novgorod, 
celebrated Sept.  20, 

Re-organisation  of  the  departments  of  justice 
decreed  ;  juries  to  be  employed  in  trials,  &c. 

Oct.  14,    ,, 

Trade  tax  bill  introduced ;  admitting  foreigners 
to  merchants' guilds,  &c.  .  .  Nov.  26,  ,, 

Insurrection  in  Poland    .        .         .  Jan.  22-24,  J863 
[For  events,  see  Poland.] 

Termination  of  serfdom        .         .  March  3,     ,, 

Provincial  institutions  established  throughout 

Russia Jan.  13,  1864 

j  Great  victory  over  the  Oubykhs  in  the  Cau- 
casus, March  31 ;  emigration  of  the  Caucasian 
tribes  into  Turkey,  April ;  submission  of  the 
A'ibgas ;  the  war  declared  to  be  at  an  end, 

June  2,     ,, 

The  czarowitch  betrothed  to  the  princess  Dag- 
mar  of  Denmark  ....  Sept.  28,  ,, 

Serfdom  abolished  in  the  Trans-Caucasian 
provinces ;  new  judicial  system  promul- 
gated   Dec.  „ 

j  The  Russian  nobles  request  the  emperor  to 
establish  two  houses  of  representatives 
[declined] Jan.  24,  1865 

!;  New  province,  "  Turkestan,"  in  central  Asia, 
created Feb.  14,    ,, 
The  czarowitch  Nicholas  dies  at  Nice,  April  24,     , , 
;  Industrial  exhibition  at  Moscow  closes,  July  16,     ,, 
I  Censorship  of  the  press  relaxed :  law  begins, 

Sept.  13,    ,, 


DUKES,    CZARS,    AND   EMPERORS. 


DUKES  OF   KIOV. 

862.  Rurick. 

878.  Igor. 

(  Olega,  regent 

y->5'     (  Swiatoslaw  or  Spendoblos. 

972.  Jaropalk  I. 

980.  Vladimir,  Wladimir,  or  Waldrmir  I.,  styled  the 

Great. 

1015.  Jaraslaw,  or  Jaroslaf  I. 
1054.  Isjialaw  I. 
1078.  Wsewolod  I. 
1093.  Swiatopallr. 
1114.  Vladimir  II. 
1125.  Mtislaw  or  Michael  I. 
1132.  Jaropalk  II. 

1138.  f  Wiatschelaw, 

1139.  1  Wsewolod  II. 
1146.     J  Isjialaw  II. 
1154.     ( Ilostislaw. 


1 155.  Jurie  or  George  I.  ;  the  city  of  Moscow 
built  by  this  duke. 

GRAND-DUKES   OF   WLADIMIR. 

f  Andrew  I.  until  1175:  first  grand-duke. 
II57-    1  Michael  II. 
1177.  Wsewolod  III. 

(  Jurie  or  George  II. 
'•    1  Constantine,  until  1218. 
1238.  Jaraslaw  II.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son, 
1245.  Alexander-Nevski  or  Newski,  the  Saint. 
1263.  Jaraslaw  III. 
1270.  Vasali  or  Basil  I. 
1277.  *Dmitri  or  Demetrius  I. 
1284.  *  Andrew  II. 
1294.  *Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 
1302.  *  Jurie  or  George  III. :  deposed. 
1305.  *Michael  III. 
1320.  *Vasali  or  Basil  II. 


KUS 


637 


RUS 


RUSSIA,  continued. 

1325.  *Jurie  or  George  III.  :  restored. 

[Those  marked  thus  *  are  doubtful,  owing  to 
the  difficulty  that  occurs  at  every  step  in 
early  Russian  annals.] 

GRAND-DUKES   OF  MOSCOW. 

1328.  I  van  or  John  I. 

1340.  Simon,  surnamed  the  proud. 

1353.  Ivan  or  John  II. 

1359.  Demetrius  II.  prince  of  Susdal. 

1362.  Demetrius  III.  Donskoi. 

1389.  *Vasali  or  Basil  III.  Temxioi. 

1425.  Vasali  or  Basil  IV. 

CZARS   OF   MUSCOVY. 

1462.  Ivan  (Basilovitz)  or  John  HI.  :  took  the  title 

of  czar  1482. 
1505.  Vasali  or  Basil  V.  obtained  the  title  of  emperor 

from  Maximilian  I. 
1533.  Ivan  IV. 
1584.  Feodor  or  Theodor  I. ;  supposed  t  ohave  been 

poisoned,  and  his  son,  Demetrius,  murdered 

by  his  successor, 

1598.  Boris-Godonof,  who  usurped  the  throne. 
1606.  Demetrius,   the    Impostor,    a    young   Polish 

monk  ;  pretended  to  be  the  murdered  prince 

Demetrius  ;  put  to  death. 
,,     Vasali-Chouiski,  or  Zouinski. 
1610.  [Interregnum.] 
1613.  Michael-Feodorovitz,  of  the  house  of  Romanof, 

descended  from  the  czar  Ivan-Basilovitz. 
1645.  Alexis,  son  of  the  preceding,  styled  the  father 

of  his  country. 
1676.  Feodor  or  Theodor  II. 
fc.        (  Ivan  IV.  and 

'"    \  Peter  I.  brothers  of  the  preceding. 


RUSSO- TURKISH  WAR.*  The  Russian  and  French  governments  having  each  taken 
a  side  in  the  dispute  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  as  to  the  exclusive  possession  of 
the  Holy  'Places  (which  see)  in  Palestine,  the  Porte  advised  the  formation  of  a  mixed  com- 
mission, which  decided  in  favour  of  the  Greeks,  and  a  firman  was  promulgated  accordingly, 
March  9,  1853  :  to  this  decision  the  French  acceded,  although  dissatisfied. 


EMPERORS. 

1689.  Peter  I.  the  Great,  alone  ;   took  the  title  of 

emperor  in   1728,  founded  St.  Petersburg, 

and  elevated  the  empire. 
1725.  Catherine  I.  his  consort ;  at  first  the  wife  of  a 

Swedish  dragoon,  who  is  said  to  have  been 

killed  on  the  day  of  marriage. 
1727.  Peter  II.  son  of  Alexis-Petrovitz,  and  grandson 

of  Peter  the  Great :  deposed. 
1730.  Anne,  duchess  of  Courland,  daughter  of  the 

czar  Ivan. 

1740.  Ivan  VI.  an  infant,  grand-nephew  to  Peter  the 

Great ;  immured  in  a  dungeon  for  18  years  ; 
murdered  in  1764. 

1741.  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  reigned 

during  Ivan's  captivity. 

1762.  Peter  III.  son  of  Anne  and  of  Charles-Fre- 
derick, duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp:  deposed, 
and  died  soon  after,  supposed  to  have  been 
murdered. 

,,  Catherine  II.  his  consort :  a  great  sovereign  ; 
extended  the  Russian  territories  on  all 
sides  ;  died  in  1796. 

1796.  Paul,  her  son ;  found  dead  in  his  chamber ; 
supposed  to  have  been  murdered. 

1801.  Alexander,  his  son  ;  who,  after  many  adverse 
battles,  and  a  forced  alliance  with  France, 
at  length  aided  in  the  overthrow  of  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte. 

1825.  Nicholas,  brother  to  Alexander;  succeeded 
Dec.  i,  1825. 

1855.  Alexander  II.  son  of  Nicholas,  born  April  29, 
1818';  succeeded  at  his  father's  death, 
March  2,  1855;  married  April  28,  1841,  Mary 
princess  of  Hesse ;  the  PRESENT  emperor  of 
Russia. 

Heir :  his  son  Alexander,  born  March  10,  1848. 


The  Russians  make  further  claims,  and  prince 
Menschikoff  (who  arrived  at  Constantinople 
Feb.  28,  1853),  by  various  notes  (between 
March  22  and  May  18),  demands  that  a  con- 
vention should  be  sign«jd  by  the  sultan 
granting  to  the  czar  such  a  protectorate  over 
the  Greek  Christians  in  Turkey,  as  the  sultan 
considered  inimical  to  his  own  authority, 

March  22— May  18,  1853 

Menschikoff 's  ultimatum  rejected;  he  quits 
Constantinople May  21,  ,, 

The  sultan  issues  a  hatti-scherif  confirming  all 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Greek 
Christians,  and  appeals  to  his  allies  June  6,  ,, 

The  English  and  French  fleets  anchor  in  Besika 
Bay June  13,  ,, 

The  Russians,  under  gen.  Luders,  cross  the 
Pruth  and  enter  Moldavia  .  .  July  2,  ,, 


Circular  of  count  Nesselrode  in  justification, 
July  2  ;  lord  Clarendon's  reply  .  July  16  1853 

The  conference  of  representatives  of  England, 
France,  Austria,  and  Prussia  meet  at  Vienna, 
agree  to  a  note,  July  31 ;  which  is  accepted 
by  the  czar,  Aug.  10  ;  but  the  sultan  requires 
modifications,  Aug.  19;  which  the  czar  rejects, 

Sept.  7)  „ 

Two  English  and  two  French  ships  enter  the 
Dardanelles Sept.  14,  ,, 

The  sultan  (with  the  consent  of  a  great 
national  council)  declares  war  against  Russia, 

Oct.  5,  „ 

The  Turkish  fortress  at  Issaktocha  fires  011  a 
Russian  flotilla  (the  first  act  of  war)  Oct.  23,  ,, 

The  Turks  cross  the  Danube  at  Widdon  and 
occupy  Kalafat  ..  .  Oct.  28 — Nov.  3,  ,, 

Russia  declares  war  against  Turkey         Nov.  i,     ,, 


*  In  1844,  when  the  czar  was  in  England,  he  conversed  with  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  lord  Aberdeen 
(whom he  had  known  many  years)  respecting  the  dissolution  of  tbe  Turkish  empire;  and  on  his  return 
he  embodied  his  views  in  a  memorandum  drawn  up  by  count  Nesselrode,  which  was  transmitted  to 
London,  but  kept  secret  till  March  1854.  In  January  and  February  of  that  year  the  czar  had  several  con- 
versations on  the  subject  with  the  British  envoy  at  St.  Petersburg,  sir  G.  H.  Seymour,  in  one  of  which 
(Jan.  14)  he  compared  Turkey  to  a  man  in  a  state  of  decrepitude  and  sickness,  on  tbe  point  of  death,  and 
made  proposals  to  the  British  government  as  to  the  disposal  of  his  property.  He  stated  frankly  that  he 
would  not  permit  the  British  to  establish  themselves  at  Constantinople ;  but  said  in  another  conversation, 
he  would  not  object  to  their  possessing  Egypt.  The  purport  of  these  conversations  was  conveyed  hides 
patches  to  lord  John  Russell,  who  replied  that  the  British  government  declined  to  make  any  provision  for 
the  contingency  of  the  fall  of  Turkey.  The  czar  made  similar  proposals  to  the  French  government  with 
the  same  result. 


RUS 


638 


RUS 


RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR,  continued. 

English  and  French  fleets  enter  Bosphorus, 

Nov.  2, 

Russians  defeated  at  Oltenitza         .        Nov.  4, 

Turks  (in  Asia)  defeated  at  Bayandur,  Atskur, 
and  Achaltzik  .  .  .  Nov.  14,  18,  26, 

Turkish  fleet  destroyed  at  Sinope        .  Nov.  30, 

Collective  note  from  the  four  powers  requiring 
to  know  on  what  terms  the  Porte  will 
negotiate  for  peace  .  .  .  Dec.  5, 

Contests  at  Kalafat  (Russians  defeated  at 
Citate,  Jan.  6)  .  .  Dec.  31,  1853  —  Jan.  9, 

At  the  request  of  the  Porte  (Dec.  5),  the  allied 
fleets  enter  the  Black  Sea  .  .  Jan.  4, 

Reply  of  the  Porte  to  the  note  of  Dec.  5,  con- 
taining foxir  points  as  bases  of  negotiation  : 
viz.  i.  The  promptest  possible  evaciiation 
of  the  principalities.  2.  Revision  of  the 
treaties.  3.  Maintenance  of  religious  privi- 
leges to  the  communities  of  all  confessions. 
4.  A  definitive  settlement  of  the  convention 
respecting  the  Holy  Places  (dated  Dec.  31),  — 
approved  by  the  four  powers  .  Jan.  13, 

Vienna  conferences  close     .        .        .    Jan.  16, 

Kalafat  invested  by  the  Russians        Jan.  28-31, 

Proposal  in  a  letter  from  the  emperor  of  France 
to  the  czar  (Jan.  29)  declined  .  Feb.  9, 

Turkish  flotilla  at  Rustchuk  destroyed  by  the 
Russians  under  Schilders  .  .  Feb.  15, 

Ultimatum  of  England  and  France  sent  to  St. 
Petersburg  .....  Feb.  27, 

The  czar  "  did  not  judge  it  suitable  to  give  an 
answer  "  .....  March  19, 

Baltic  fleet  sails,  under  sir  C.  Napier,  March  n, 

Treaty  between  England,  France,  and  Turkey, 

March  12, 

Russians,  under  Gortschakoff,  pass  the  Danube 
and  occupy  the  Dobrudscha  :  severe  conflicts  ; 
the  Turks  retire  .  .  .  March  23,  24, 

France  and  England  declare  war  against  Russia, 
March  27,  28, 

Rupture  between  Turkey  and  Greece,  March  28, 

Gen.   Canrobert  and  French  troops  arrive   at 

Gallipoli,  soon  after  followed  by  the  English, 

March  31, 

Russians   defeated   by  the  Turks  at  Karakai, 


1853 


1854 


English  vessel  Furious,  with  a  flag  of  truce, 

fired  on  at  Odessa  .  .  .  April  8, 
Four  powers  sign  a  protocol  at  Vienna, 

guaranteeing  the  integrity  of  Turkey  and  civil 

and  religious  rights  of  her  Christian  subjects, 

April  10, 

Russians    defeated    at  Kostelli  by    Mustapha 

Pacha  ......          April  10, 

Offensive  and  defensive  alliance  between 

England  and  France  .  .  .  April  10, 
Treaty  between  Austria  and  Prussia  April  20, 
Bombardment  of  Odessa  by  allied  fleet  April  22, 
Russians,  under  gen.  Schilders,  assault  Kalafat  ; 

repulsed  ;  the  blockade  raised  April  19-21, 
The  Tiger  steamer  run  aground  near  Odessa, 

captured  by  the  Riissians  .  .  May  12, 
Russians  defeated  at  Turtukai  .  May  13, 
Siege  of  Silistria  begun  .  .  .  May  17, 
Allied  armies  disembark  at  Varna  .  May  29, 
Mouths  of  the  Danube  blockaded  by  allied  fleets, 

June  i, 
Russians  repulsed  at  Silistria;  Paskiewitsch 

and  many  officers  wounded         .          June  5, 

Turks  defeated  at  Ozurgheti  (in  Asia)  June  16, 

Severe  conflict  before  Silistria;  the  siege  raised, 

June  18-26, 

Batteries  at  the  Sulina  mouths  destroyed  by 

capt.  Parker  ....  June  26,  27, 
Captain  Parker  killed  ....  July  8, 
Russians  defeated  at  Giurgevo  .  July  7, 
10,000  French  troops  embark  at  Boulogne  for 

the  Baltic    ......  July  15, 


Turks  defeated  at  Bayazid  in  Armenia,  July 

29,  30;  and  near  Kars    .        .        .        Aug.  5,  1854 
Surrender  of  Bomarsund      ".  Aug.  16,      „ 

[In  July  and  August  the  allied   armies   and 
fleets    in    the   east    suffered    severely  from 
cholera.] 
The  Russians  defeated  by  Schamyl  in  Georgia, 

about  Aug.  28,     ,, 

They  evacuate  the  principalities,  Aug.  Sept.  20,     ,, 
By  virtue  of  a  treaty  with  Turkey  (June  14) 
the  Austrians  under  count  Coronini,   enter 

Bucharest Sept.  6,     ,, 

Allies  sail  from  Varna,  Sept.  3,  and  land  at  Old 

Fort,  near  Eupatoria*  .  .  .  Sept.  14,  ,, 
Skirmish  at  the  Bulganac  .  .  .  Sept.  19,  „ 
Battle  of  the  Alma  (see  Alma)  .  Sept.  20,  ,, 
Russians  sink  part  of  their  fleet  at  Sevastopol, 

Sept.  23,    ,, 

Allies  occupy  Balaklava  .  .  .  Sept.  26,  ,, 
Death  of  marshal  St.  Arnaud  .  Sept.  29,  , , 
General  Canrobert,  his  successor  Nov.  24,  „ 

Siege  -of  Sebastopol  commenced — grand  attack 

(without  success)  ....  Oct.  17,  ,, 
Battle  of  Balaklava — charge  of  the  light  cavalry, 

with  severe  loss  ....  Oct.  25,  ,, 
Sortie  from  Sebastopol  repulsed  by  generals 

Evans  and  Bosquet  ....  Oct.  26,  ,, 
Russian  attack  at  Inkerman  ;  defeated,  Nov.  5,  „ 
Miss  Nightingale  and  nurses  arrive  at  Scutari, 

Nov.  6,     „ 
Great  tempest   in  the   Black  Sea,  loss  of  the 

Prince  and  store  vessels  .  Nov.  14-16,     ,, 

Treaty  of  alliance   between  England,  France, 
Austria,  and  Prussia— a  commission  to  meet 
at  Vienna:  signed    ....      Dec.  2,    ,, 
Russian  sortie          ....          Dec.  20,    , , 
Omar  Pacha  arrives  in  the  Crimea  (followed  by 

the  Turkish  army  from  Varna)        .      Jan.  5,  1855 
Sardinia  joins  England  and  France         Jan.  26,     ,, 
Great  sufferings  in  the  camp  from  cold  and 

sickness  ....  Jan.  and  Feb.  ,, 
Russians  defeated  by  the  Turks  at  Eupatoria, 

Feb.  17,    „ 

Death  of  Emperor  Nicholas  ;  accession  of  Alex- 
ander II.  (no  change  of  policy)  .  March  2,  ,, 
Sortie  from  the  Malakhoff  tower  March  22,  ,, 
Capture  of  Russian  rifle-pits  .  .  April  19,  ,, 
Arrival  of  Sardinian  contingent  .  .  May  8,  , , 
Resignation  of  Gen.  Canrobert,  succeeded  by 

gen.  Pelissier         ....        May  16,     ,, 
Desperate  night  combats     .        .        May  22-24,    » 
Expedition  into  the  sea  of  Azoflf  (under  sir  E. 
Lyons  and   sir  G.    Brown) ;    destruction    of 
Kertch  and  large  amount  of  stores,  May  24- 

June  3,    ,, 

Taganrog  bombarded  .  .  .  June  3,  ,, 
Massacre  of  an  English  boat's  crew  with  flag  of 

truce  at  Hango  ....  June  5,  ,, 
Russians  evacuate  Anapa  .  .  June  5,  ,, 
The  White  Works  and  Mamelon  Vert  taken, 

June  6,  7,     ,, 
Unsuccessful  attack  on  the  Malakhoff  tower 

and  Redan June  18,     „ 

Death  of  Lord  Raglan ;  succeeded  by  general 

Simpson June  28,     ,, 

Russians  invest  Kars  in  Armenia,  defended  by 

gen.  Williams July  15,    ,, 

Bombardment  of  Sweaborg  .  .  Aug.  9,  ,, 
Defeat  of  the  Russians  at  the  Tchernaya,  Aug.  16  , , 
Ambuscade  on  the  glacis  of  the  Malakhoff 

taken  ;  Russian  sortie  repulsed      .     Aug.  18,     ,, 
The  French  take  the  Malakhoff  (which  see)  by 
assault ;  the  English  assault  the  Redan  with- 
out success  ;  the  Russians  retire  from  Sebas- 
topol to  the  North  Forts,' and  the  allies  enter 
the  city ;  the  Russians  destroy  or  sink  the 
remainder  of  their  fleet      .        .      Sept.  8  <fec. 
Tan  an  and  Fanagoria  captured  .        .     Sept.  24, 


40,000  men,  a  large  number  of  horses,  and  a  powerful  artillery  were  landed  in  one  day. 


RUS 


639 


SAB 


RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR,  continued. 

The  Russians  assaulting  Kars  ai-e  defeated  with 
great  loss Sept.  29,  1855 

Russian  cavalry  defeated  (50  killed,  105  pri- 
soners) at  Konghil,  near  Eupatoria,  by  the 
French  .  .'  .  .  .  Sept.  29,  ,, 

Kinburn  taken Oct.  17,     ,, 

Russians  blow  up  Oczakoff        .         .       Oct.  18,     ,, 

Large  stores  of  corn  destroyed  near  Gheisk  in 
the  sea  of  Azoff Nov.  4,  , , 

Defeat  of  the  Russians,  and  passage  of  the 
Ingour  by  the  Turks  under  Omar  Pacha, 

Nov.  6,  ,, 

The  czar  visits  his  army  near  Sebastopol 

Nov.  10,  „ 

Sir  Wm.  Codrington  takes  the  command  in 
room  of  gen.  Simpson  .  .  .  Nov.  14,  ,, 

Explosion  of  100,000  Ibs.  of  powder  in  the 
French  siege-train  at  Inkerman,  with  great 
loss  of  life Nov.  15,  ,, 

Sweden  joins  the  allies  by  a  treaty        Nov.  21,     ,, 

Capitulation  of  Kars  to  gen.  Mouravieff,  after  a 
gallant  defence  by  gen.  Williams  .  Nov.  26,  „ 


Death  of  admiral  Bruat  .  .  .  Nov.  27, 
Russian  attack  on  the  French  posts  at  Baidar 

repulsed Dec.  8, 

Proposals  of  peace  from  Austria,  with  the 

consent  of  the  allies,  sent  to  St.  Petersburg, 

Dec.  12, 
Centre  dock  at  Sebastopol  blown  up  by  the 

English Jan.  2, 

Council  of  war  at  Paris  .  .  .  Jan.  u, 
Protocol  signed  accepting  the  Austrian  proposi- 
tions as  a  basis  of  negotiation  for  peace,  Feb.  i, 
Destruction  of  Sebastopol  docks  .  Feb.  i, 
Report  of  sir  John  M'Neill  and  col.  Tulloch  on 

state  of  the  army  before  Sebastopol,  published 

Feb.  5, 
Peace  conferences  open  at  Paris,  an  armistice 

till  March  31  agreed  on  .  .  Feb.  25, 
Suspension  of  hostilities  .  .  .  Feb.  29, 
Proclamation  of  peace  in  the  Crimea,  April  2, 

in  London April  29, 

The  Crimea  evacuated  .  .  .  July  9,* 


1855 


1856 


RUTHENIUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  in  the  ore  of  platinum  by  M.  Claus,  in  1845. 

RUTHERFORD'S  ACT,  LORD  (13  &  14  Viet.  c.  36),  for  simplifying  law  proceedings  in 
Scotland,  passed  1850. 

RUTHVEN,  RAID  OF,  a  term  applied  to  the  seizure  of  the  person  of  James  VI.  of 
Scotland  by  William  Ruthven,  earl  of  Gowrie,  and  other  nobles,  in  1582.  They  compelled 
the  king  to  dismiss  his  favourites,  Arran  and  Lennox.  Ostensibly  for  this,  Gowrie  was 
judicially  put  to  death  by  his  two  opponents  in  1584. 

RYE-HOUSE  PLOT,  a  plot  (some  think  pretended)  to  secure  the  succession  of  the  duke 
of  Monmouth  to  the  throne  in  preference  to  the  duke  of  York  (afterwards  James  II.),  a 
Roman  Catholic.  Some  of  the  conspirators  are  said  to  have  projected  the  assassination  of 
the  king,  Charles  II.,  and  his  brother.  This  design  was  said  to  have  been  frustrated  by  the 
king's  house  at  Newmarket  accidentally  taking  fire,  which  hastened  the  royal  party  away 
eight  days  before  the  plot  was  to  take  place,  March  22,  1683.  See  Neivmarket.  The  plot 
was  discovered  June  12  following.  Lord  William  Russell  on  July  21,  and  Algernon 
Sidney  on  Dec.  7  following,  suffered  death  for  being  concerned  in  this  conspiracy.  The 
name  was  derived  from  the  conspirators'  place  of  meeting,  the  Rye-house  at  Broxbourne, 
Hertfordshire. 

RYSWICK  (Holland),  where  the  celebrated  peace  was  concluded  between  England, 
France,  Spain,  and  Holland,  signed,  by  their  representatives,  Sept.  20,  and  by  the  emperor 
of  Germany,  Oct.  30,  1697. 


S. 


SABBATARIANS.     Traces  exist  of  Sabbatarii,  or  Sabbathaires,  among  the  sects 
i6th  century  on  the  continent.     Upon  the  publication  of  the  "  Book  of  Sports  "  in  n 


of  the 

long  and  violent  controversy  arose  among  English  divines  on  these  two  points  :  first, 
whether  the  Sabbath  of  the  fourth  commandment  was  in  force  among  Christians  ;  and 
secondly,  whether,  and  on  what  ground,  the  first  day  of  the  week  was  entitled  to  be  distin- 
guished and  observed  as  "  the  Sabbath."  In  1628,  Theophilus  Brabourne,  a  clergyman, 
published  the  first  work  in  favour  of  the  Seventh-day  or  Saturday,  as  the  true  Christian 
Sabbath.  He  and  several  others  suffered  great  persecution  for  this  opinion  ;  but  after  the 
restoration  there  were  three  or  four  congregations  observing  the  last  day  of  the  week  for 
public  worship  in  London,  and  seven  or  eight  in  the  country  parts  of  England.  In  1851 
there  were  three  Sabbatarian  or  Seventh-day  Baptist  congregations  in  England;  but  in 
America  (especially  in  the  New  England  states)  they  are  more  numerous. 

*  The  English  lost :  killed  in  action  and  died  of  wounds  about  3500  ;  died  of  cholera,  4244  ;  of  other 
diseases  nearly  16,000 ;  total  loss  nearly  24,000  (including  270  officers) ;  2873  "were  disabled.  The  war  added 
to  the  national  debt  41,041,000?.  The  French  lost  about  63.500  men  :  the  Russians  about  half  a  million. 
The  army  suffered  greatly  by  sickness.  See  Scutari,  Times,  and  Nightingale. 


SAB  640  SAD 

SABBATH:  ordained  by  God.  Gen.  ii. ;  Exocl.  xx.  8;  Isaiah  Iviii.  13.  Jews  observe 
the  seventh  day  in  commemoration  of  the  creation  of  the  world  and  of  their  redemption 
from  the  bondage  of  the  Egyptians  ;  Christians  observe  the  first  day  of  the  week  in 
commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ  from  the  dead,  and  the  redemption  of  man. 
See  Sunday. 

SABBATH  SCHOOLS.  The  first  "  Sabbath  school"  was  founded  by  Ludwig  Hacker 
between  the  years  1740  and  1747,  at  Ephrata,  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  among  the 
German  Seventh-day  Baptists  there.  The  school-room  was  used  as  an  hospital  after  the 
battle  of  Brandywine,  fought  in  1777.  This  event  occasioned  the  breaking  up  of  the  schools, 
about  five  years  before  the  first  Sunday-school  was  instituted  in  England,  at  Gloucester,  by 
Robert  Raikes,  about  1 782.  See  Sunday  Schools. 

SABBATICAL  YEAR:  a  Jewish  institution,  1491  B.C.  Every  seventh  year,  during 
which  time  the  very  ground  had  rest,  and  was  not  tilled  ;  and  every  forty-ninth  year  all 
debts  were  forgiven,  slaves  set  at  liberty,  and  estates,  &c.,  that  were  before  sold  or  mortgaged, 
returned  to  their  original  families,*  &c.  Josephus. 

SABELLIANISM,  from  Sabellius  (of  Ptolemais  in  Egypt),  who  flourished  in  the  3rd 
century,  and  who  taught  that  there  was  but  one  person  in  the  Godhead,  the  other  persons  of 
the  Trinity  being  but  different  names  of  the  same  person.  This  doctrine  was  condemned  at 
a  council  held  at  Rome,  263. 

SA BINES,  from  whom  the  Romans,  under  Romulus,  took  away  their  daughters  by  force, 
having  invited  them  to  some  public  sports  or  shows  on  purpose.  "When  the  Sabines  deter- 
mined to  revenge  this  affront,  the  women  became  mediators  to  their  fathers  in  behalf  of  their 
husbands,  the  Romans,  and  a  lasting  peace  was  made  between  them  ;  the  Sabines  became  a 
part  of  the  Roman  people,  750  B.C.  One  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  is  still  called  Terra 
Sabina  ;  chief  town,  Magliano. 

SACHEVEREL  RIOTS.     See  Riots,  1710. 

SACRAMENT  (from  sacramentum,  an  oath,  obligation,  also  mystery).  The  council  of 
Trent,  in  1547,  affirmed  that  there  were  seven  sacraments :  viz.,  baptism,  the  Lord's  supper, 
confirmation,  penance,  holy  orders,  matrimony,  and  extreme  unction.  The  name  was  given 
to  the  Lord's  supper  by  the  Latin  fathers.  The  wine  was  laid  aside,  and  communion  by  the 
laity  under  one  form  alone,  that  of  bread,  took  its  rise  in  the  West,  under  pope  Urban  II. 
1096.  M.  de  Marca.  Communion  in  one  kind  only  was  authoritatively  sanctioned  by  the 
council  of  Constance,  in  1414.  Dr.  Hook.  Henry  VIII.  of  Germany  was  poisoned  by  a 
priest  in  the  consecrated  wafer,  1314.  The  sacramental  wine  was  poisoned  by  the  grave- 
digger  of  the  church  at  Zurich,  by  which  sacrilegious  deed  a  number  of  persons  lost  their 
lives,  Sept.  4,  1776.  In  1614,  by  the  Test  act,  all  members  of  both  houses  of  parliament 
were  ordered  to  take  the  sacrament,  as  a  guard  against  the  introduction  of  Roman  Catholics. 
The  act  was  repealed  in  1828. 

SACRED  WAR  (Sacrum  Bellum}.  The  first,  concerning  the  temple  of  Delphi,  took 
place  448  B.C.  The  Athenians  and  Lacedaemonians  were  auxiliaries  on  opposite  sides.  The 
second  Sacred  War  occurred  on  Delphi  being  seized  by  the  Phocians,  357  B.C.  This  latter 
war  was  terminated  by  Philip  of  Macedon  taking  all  the  cities  of  the  Phocians,  and  dispersing 
the  inhabitants,  346  B.C.  Plutarch. 

SACRIFICE.  The  first  religious  sacrifice  was  offered  to  God  by  Abel,  3875  B.C.  Sacrifices 
to  the  gods  were  introduced  into  Greece  by  Phoroneus,  king  of  Argos,  1773  B-c-  Human 
sacrifices  seem  to  have  originated  with  the  Chaldeans,  from  whom  the  custom  passed  into 
other  Eastern  nations.  All  sacrifices  to  the  true  God  were  to  cease  with  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ,  33.  Heb.  x.  12-14.  Pagan  sacrifices  were  forbidden  by  the  emperor  Constau- 
tius  II.  341. 

SADDLES.  In  the  earlier  ages  the  Romans  used  neither  saddles  nor  stirrups.  Saddles 
were  in  use  in  the  3rd  century,  and  are  mentioned  as  made  of  leather  in  304,  and  were  known  in 
England  about  600.  Side-saddles  for  ladies  were  introduced  by  Anne,  queen  of  Richard  II. 
in  1388.  Stow. 

SADDUCEES,  a  Jewish  sect,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Sadoc,  a  scholar  of  Antigonus, 
about  200  B.C.,  who,  misinterpreting  his  master's  doctrine,  taught  that  there  was  neither 
heaven  nor  hell,  angel  nor  spirit ;  that  the  soul  was  mortal,  and  that  there  was  no  resur- 
rection of  the  body  from  the  dead.  The  Sadducees  were  opposed  by  the  Pharisees. 


SAC  641  SAL 

SACRAMENTO,  ST.,  a  Portuguese  settlement  in  S.  America,  claimed  by  Spain  in  1680, 
it  relinquished  in  1713  ;  ceded  in  1777  ;  and  acquired  by  Brazil  in  1825. 

SADLER'S  WELLS  (N.  London),  so  called  after  Mr.  Sadler,  who  built  an  orchestra  to 
entertain  the  invalids  who  used  the  waters  medicinally,  1683.  In  time  the  orchestra  was 
enclosed,  and  the  building  became  a  place  for  dramatic  performances.  The  present  theatre 
was  opened  in  1765.  Eighteen  persons  were  trampled  to  death  at  this  theatre,  on  a  false 
alarm  of  fire,  Oct.  15,  1807.  See  under  Theatres. 

SAFETY-LAMP.  One  was  invented  in  1815  by  sir  Humphry  Davy,  to  prevent  accidents 
which  happen  in  coal  and  other  mines.  The  safety-lamp  is  founded  on  the  principle  that 
flame,  in  passing  through  iron- wire  meshes,  loses  so  much  of  its  heat  as  not  to  be  capable  of 
igniting  inflammable  gases.  It  should  be  mentioned,  that  the  father  of  all  safety-lamps  is 
Dr.  Reid  Clanny,  of  Sunderland,  whose  invention  and  improvements  are  authenticated  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Arts  for  1817.  A  safety-lamp,  the  "Geordy,"  was  also  devised 
by  George  Stephenson,  the  engineer,  in  1815.  A  miner's  electric  light,  by  MM.  Dumas  and 
Benoit,  was  exhibited  in  Paris  on  Sept.  8,  1862. 

SAFFRON"  (Sa/ran,  French ;  Sa/rano,  Italian),  the  flower  of  crocus,  was  first  brought 
to  England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  by  a  pilgrim,  about  1339,  probably  from  Arabia,  as 
the  word  is  from  the  Arabic  saphar.  Miller.  It  was  cultivated  in  England  in  1582  ;  and 
the  best  grows  in  Essex,  between  Cambridge  and  Saffron  "Walden. 

SAGE  (Sauge,  French ;  Salvia,  Latin),  a  wholesome  herb,  comfortable  to  the  brain  and 
nerves.  Mortimer.  A  species  of  this  garden  plant  grew  early  in  England,  and  some  varieties 
were  imported.  The  Mexican  sage,  Salvia  Mexicana,  was  brought  from  Mexico,  1724.  The 
blue  African  sage,  Salvia  Africana,  and  the  golden  African  sage,  Salvia  aurea,  were  brought 
to  England  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1731. 

SAGUNTUM  (now  MTJRVIEDRO,  in  Valencia,  E.  Spain),  renowned  for  the  dreadful  siege 
it  sustained,  219  B.C.  The  heroic  citizens,  after  performing  incredible  acts  of  valour  for  eight 
months,  chose  to  be  buried  in  the  ruins  of  their  city  rather  than  surrender  to  Hannibal. 
They  burnt  themselves,  with  their  houses  and  all  their  effects,  and  the  conqueror  became 
master  of  a  pile  of  ashes,  218  B.C. 

SAILORS'  HOME,  in  Wells-street,  London  Docks,  established  by  Mr.  George  Green  in 
1835.  In  one  year  it  admitted  5444  boarders,  who,  besides  a  home,  had  evening  instruction, 
the  use  of  a  savings'  bank,  &c.  The  establishment  is  self-supporting,  aided  by  subscriptions. 
Similar  institutions  have  since  been  established. 

SAINT.    For  the  names  with  this  prefix,  see  the  names  themselves  throughout  the  book. 
SALADS,  introduced  into  England  from  the  Low  Countries,  1520-47. 

SALAMANCA  (W.  Spain),  taken  from  the  Saracens,  861.  The  university  was  founded 
1240,  and  the  cathedral  Thiilt  1513.  Near  here  the  British  and  allies,  commanded  by  lord 
Wellington,  totally  defeated  the  French  army  under  marshal  Marmont,  July  22,  1812.  The 
loss  of  the  victors  was  most  severe,  amounting  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  to  nearly 
6000  men.  Marmont  left  in  the  victor's  hands  7141  prisoners,  n  pieces  of  cannon,  6  stands 
of  colours,  and  2  eagles.  This  victory  was  followed  by  the  capture  of  Madrid. 

SALAMIS  (near  Athens).  In  a  great  sea-fight  here,  Oct.  20,  480  B.C.,  Themistocles, 
the  Greek  commander,  with  only  310  sail,  defeated  the  fleet  of  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia, 
which  consisted  of  2000  sail. — Near  Salamis,  in  Cyprus,  the  Greeks  defeated  the  Persian 
fleet,  449  B.C. 

SALDANHA  BAY,  S.  Atlantic  Ocean,  northward  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Here, 
on  Aug.  17,  1796,  a  Dutch  squadron,  under  admiral  Lucas,  was  captured  by  vice-admiral  sir 
George  Keith  Elphinstone,  without  resistance  ;  sir  George  was  created  lord  Keith. 

SALENCKEMEN,  on  the  Danube.  Here  a  victory  was  gained  by  the  imperialists, 
under  prince  Louis  of  Baden,  over  the  Turks,  commanded  by  the  grand  vizier  Mustapha 
Kiuprigli,  Aug.  19,  1691. 

SALIQUE,  or  SALIC  LAW,  by  which  females  are  excluded  from  inheriting  the  crown  of 
France,  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Pharamond,  424,  and  ratified  in  a  council  of  state 
by  Clovis  I.,  the  real  founder  of  the  French  monarchy,  in  511.  Henault.  This  law  prevailed 
long  in  Spain,  but  was  formally  abolished,  March,  1830 ;  and  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
his  daughter  succeeded  to  the  sceptre  as  Isabella  II.,  Sept.  29,  1833.  See  Spain.  By  this 

T   T 


SAL  642  SAM 

law  also  Hanover  was  separated  from  England,  when  queen  Victoria  ascended  the  English 
throne,  in  1837. 

SALISBURY  ("Wilts),  founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  I3th  century,  on  the  removal  of 
the  cathedral  hither  from  Old  Sarum.  National  councils  or  parliaments  were  repeatedly  held 
at  Salisbury,  particularly  in  1296,  by  Edward  I. ;  in  1328,  by  Edward  III.;  and  in  1384. 
Henry  Stafford,  duke  of  Buckingham,  was  executed  here  by  order  of  Richard  III.,  in  1483. 
On  SALISBURY  PLAIN  is  Stonehenge  (which  see).  This  plain  was  estimated  at  500, ooo  acres. 
On  it  were  so  many  cross-roads,  and  so  few  houses  to  take  directions  from,  that  Thomas,  earl 
of  Pembroke,  planted  a  tree  at  each  milestone  from  Salisbury  to  Shaftesbury,  for  the 
traveller's  guide.  The  first  seat  of  the  BISHOPRIC  was  at  Sherborne,  St.  Aldhelm  being 
prelate,  705.  Herman  removed  the  seat  to  Old  Sarum,  about  1072 ;  and  the  see  was  removed 
to  this  city,  under  the  authority  of  a  papal  bull,  in  1217.  It  has  yielded  to  the  church  of 
Rome  one  saint  and  two  cardinals.  The  building  of  the  cathedral  commenced  April  28, 
1220,  and  was  completed  in  1258.  This  edifice  is  reckoned  one  of  our  finest  ecclesiastical 
erections.  Its  spire,  the  loftiest  in  the  kingdom,  was  considered  in  danger  in  April,  1864, 
and  subscriptions  were  begun  for  its  repair.  The  bishopric  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at 
1367?.  1 15.  Sd.  Present  income,  5000?. 

RECENT  BISHOPS   OF   SALISBURY. 

7797.  John  Fisher,  died  July  2,  1825.  |  1837.  Edmund  Denison,  died  March  6,  1854. 

1825.  Thomas  Burgess,  died  Feb.  19,  1837.  |  1854.  Walter  Kerr  Hamilton  (PRESENT  bishop,  1866). 

SALMON  FISHERIES.  The  laws  relating  to  them  were  consolidated  and  amended  in 
1 86 1,  and  the  report  of  a  commission  of  inquiry  (including  sir  Wm.  Jardine)  was  published 
in  Feb.  1862.  An  act  restricting  the  exportation  of  salmon  at  certain  times  was  passed 
in  1863. 

SALT  (chloride  of  sodium,  a  compound  of  the  gas  chlorine  and  the  metal  sodium)  is 
procured  from  rocks  in  the  earth,  from  salt-springs,  and  from  sea-water.  The  famous  salt- 
mines of  Wielitzka,  near  Cracow,  in  Poland,  have  been  worked  600  years.  The  salt-works 
in  Cheshire,  called  the  WICHES  (Nantwich,  Northwich,  and  Middlewich),  were  of  great 
importance  in  the  time  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy.  Since  1797  salt  has  been  largely  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  bleaching  powder  (by  obtaining  its  chlorine),  and  soap  (by  obtaining 
its  soda).  On  this  are  based  the  chemical  works  of  Cheshire  and  Lancashire.  The  salt- 
mines of  Staffordshire  were  discovered  about  1670.  Salt  duties  were  first  exacted  in  1702  ; 
they  were  renewed  in  1732  ;  reduced  in  1823  ;  and  in  that  year  were  ordered  to  cease  in  1825. 
During  the  French  war,  the  duty  reached  to  30^.  per  ton.  For  the  salt-tax  in  France,  see 
Gabelle.  The  government  monopoly  in  India  was  abolished  in  May,  1863,  by  sir  C. 
Trevelyan. 

SALT-PETRE  (from  sal  petrce-,  salt  of  the  rock),  or  NITRE,  is  a  compound  of  nitric  acid 
and  potash  (nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  potassium),  and  hence  is  called  Nitrate  of  Potash.  It  is 
the  explosive  ingredient  in  gunp.owder,  many  detonating  powders,  and  lucifer  matches. 
Boyle  in  the  I7th  century  demonstrated  that  salt-petre  was  composed  of  aqua  fortis  (nitric 
acid)  and  potash ;  but  the  discoveries  of  Lavoisier  (1777)  and  Davy  (1807)  showed  its  i 
composition.  Its  manufacture  in  England  began  about  1625.  During  the  French  re 
lutionary  war,  the  manufacture  was  greatly  increased  by  the  researches  of  Berthollet. 

SALUTE  AT  SEA.  It  is  a  received  maxim  at  sea,  that  he  who  returns  the  salute  always 
fires  fewer  guns  than  he  receives,  which  is  done  even  between  the  ships  of  princes  of  equal 
dignity ;  but  the  Swedes  and  Danes  return  the  compliment  without  regarding  how  many 
guns  are  fired  to  them.  The  English  claim  the  right  of  being  saluted  first  in  all  places,  as 
sovereigns  of  the  seas  ;  the  Venetians  claimed  this  honour  within  their  gulf,  &c.  See  Play 
and  Naval  Salute. 

SALVADOR,  SAN,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  and'the  first  point  of  land  discovered  in  the 
"West  Indies  or  America  by  Columbus.  It  was  previously  called  Guanahami,  or  Cat's  Isle, 
and  Columbus  (in  acknowledgment  to  God  for  his  deliverance)  named  it  San  Salvador, 
Oct.  n,  1492. — A  small  republic,  with  a  constitution,  established  Jan.  24,  1859.  It  has 
been  much  troubled  by  internal  dissension.  Present  president,  Francis  Duenas,  elected 
April,  1865.  The  capital,  San  Salvador,  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  April  16,  1854, 
and  is  now  abandoned. 

SAMARCAND  (in  Tartar}')  was  conquered  by  the  Mahometans,  707 ;  by  Genghis  Khanr 
1219  ;  and  by  Titnour  in  1359. 


Ltnc 

5 


0 
have 


SAMARITANS.  Samaria  was  built  by  Omri,  925  B.C.,  and  became  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  On  the  breaking  up  of  that  kingdom  (721  B.C.),  the  conqueror  Shal- 
maneser  placed  natives  of  other  countries  at  Samaria.  The  descendants  of  these  mixed  races 
were  abominable  to  the  Jews,  and  much  more  so  in  consequence  of  the  rival  temple  built  on 
Mount  Gerizim  by  Sanballat  the  Samaritan,  332  B.  c.,  which  was  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus, 
130  B.C.  (See  John  iv.  &  viii.  48,  and  Liike,  x.  33.) 

SAMNITES,  a  warlike  people  of  S.  Italy,  who  strenuously  resisted  the  Roman  power, 
and  were  not  subjugated  till  after  three  sanguinary  wars,  from  343  to  292  B.C.  Their  brave 
leader,  Cains  Pontius,  who  spared  the  Romans  at  Caudium,  320,  having  been  taken  prisoner, 
was  basely  put  to  death,  292.  They  did  not  acquire  the  right  of  citizenship  till  88  B.C. 

SAMOS,  an  island  on  the  W.  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Colonised  by  lonians  about  1043  E.  c- 
The  city  was  founded  about  986.  Here  Pythagoras  was  born  555  B.C.,  and  flourished  in  the 
favour  of  Polycrates,  who  aided  him  in  his  travels,  532.  Samos  was  taken  by  the  Athenians, 
440;  and,  with  Greece,  became  subject  to  Rome,  146.  It  was  taken  by  the  Venetians, 
A.D.  1125,  who  here  made  velvet  (samet),  and  became  subject  to  the  Turks,  1459. 

SANCTION.     See  Pragmatic. 

SANCTUARIES.  See  Asylums.  Privileged  places  for  the  safety  of  offenders  are  said  to 
been  granted  by  king  Lucius  to  churches  and  their  precincts.  St.  John's  of  Beverley 
was  thus  privileged  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons.  St.  Burein's,  in  Cornwall,  was  privileged  by 
Athelstan,  935  ;  "Westminster,  by  Edward  the  Confessor  ;  St.  Martin' s-le- Grand,  1529. 
Being  much  abused,  the  privilege  of  sanctuary  was  limited  by  the  pope  in  1503,  at  the 
request  of  Henry  VII. ;  it  was  abolished  at  the  Reformation. — In  London,  persons  were  secure 
from  arrest  in  certain  localities :  these  were  the  Minories,  Salisbury-court,  "VVhitefriars,  Ful- 
wood's-rents,  Mitre-court,  Baldwin's-gardens,  the  Savoy,  Clink,  Deadman's-place,  Montague- 
close,  and  the  Mint.  This  security  was  abolished  1696,  but  lasted  in  some  degree  till  the 
reign  of  George  II. 

SANDALS.     See  Shoes.  SANDEMANIANS.     See  Glasites. 

SANDHURST,  ROYAL  MILITARY  COLLEGE,  founded,  first  at  High  Wycombe,  in  1799. 
Removed  to  Great  Marlow  in  1802,  and  to  Sandhurst  in  1812.  The  college,  for  which  the 
land  was  purchased  at  Blackwater,  near  Bagshot,  consists  of  senior  and  junior  departments  : 
competitive  examination  for  entrance  into  the  junior  began  in  Feb.  1858. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  by  captain  Cook  in 
1778.  In  Owhyhee  or  Hawaii,  one  of  these  islands,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  sudden  resentment 
of  the  natives,  Feb.  14,  1779.  The  king  and  queen  visited  London  in  1824,  and  died  there 
•in  July.  These  people  have  made  great  progress  in  civilisation,  and  embraced  Christianity 
before  any  missionaries  were  settled  among  them.  The  present  king,  Kamehameha  V., 
succeeded  his  brother,  Nov.  1863.  The  preceding  king,  Kame'ham^ha  IV.,  married  Miss 
Emma  Rooker,  1856.  She  came  to  England  in  1865  ;  landing  at  Southampton,  July  13, 
and  visited  our  queen,  Sept.  9.  An  English  bishopric  was  established  at  Honolulu  in  1861, 
for  which  Dr.  Thomas  Staley  was  consecrated,  Aug.  18,  1862. 

SANHEDRIM.  An  ancient  Jewish  council  of  the  highest  jurisdiction,  of  seventy,  or,  as 
some  say,  seventy-three  members,  usually  considered  to  be  that  established  by  Moses, 
Num.  xi.  1 6, — 1490  B.C.  It  was  yet  in  being  at  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  John  xviii.  31. 
A  Jewish  Sanhedrim  was  summoned  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  I.  at  Paris,  July  23,  1806, 
and  assembled  accordingly,  Sept.  18. 

SANITARY  LEGISLATION.  Strict  cleanliness  is  enjoined  in  the  law  of  Moses, 
1490  B.C.  Great  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  public  health  in  France  since  1802.  Tardieu 
published  his  "  Dictionnaire  de  Hygiene,"  1852-54.  To  Dr.  Southwood  Smith  is  mainly 
attributable  the  honour  of  commencing  the  agitation  on  the  subject  of  public  health  in 
England  about  1832  ;  his  "  Philosophy  of  Health"  having  excited  much  attention.  Since 
1838  he  has  published  numerous  sanitary  reports,  having  been  much  employed  by  the 
government.  Among  the  results  are — 

Nuisances  Removal  Acts  passed  (repealed)  1845— 1860  j  Smoke  Nuisance  Abatement  Act  (and  amend- 

Baths  and  Washhouses  Act          .         .        1846—1847  |      ment 1853 

Public  Health  Act,  and  subsequent    Supple-  Diseases  Prevention  Act 1855 

mental  Acts 1848    Public  Health  Act „ 

Common  Lodging  Houses  Act        .        .     1851—1853  j  Metropolitan  Interments  Acts        .        .     1850—1855 
Labouring  Classes  Lodging  Houses  Act         .    .  1851 1 

SAN  SALVADOR.     See  Salvador. 

T  T  2 


SAN  644  SAR 

SANSKRIT,  the  language  of  the  Brahmins  of  India,  spoken  at  the  time  of  Solomon,  has 
been  much  studied  of  late  years.  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  who  published  a  translation  of  the  poem, 
Sakuntala,  in  1783,  discovered  that  a  complete  literature  had  been  preserved  in  India, 
comprising  sacred  books  (the  Vedas),  history  and  philosophy,  lyric  and  dramatic  poetry. 
Texts  and  translations  of  many  works  have  been  published  by  the  aid  of  the  East  India 
Company,  the  Oriental  Translation  Fund,  and  private  liberality.  The  professorship  of 
Sanskrit  at  Oxford  was  founded  by  colonel  Boden.  The  first  professor,  H.  H.  Wilson, 
appointed  in  1832,  translated  part  of  the  Rig-veda  Sanhitd,  the  sacred  hymns  of  the 
Brahmins,  and  several  poems,  &c.  The  present  professor,  Monier  Williams  (elected  1860), 
published  an  English  and  Sanskrit  dictionary,  1851.  Professor  Max  Miiller  published  his 
History  of  Sanskrit  Literature  in  1859,  and  has  edited  part  of  the  original  text  of  the  Vedas. 
Philologists  have  discovered  an  intimate  connection  between  the  Sanskrit,  Persian,  Greek, 
Latin,  Teutonic,  Slavonian,  Celtic,  and  Scandinavian  languages. 

SANTA  CRUZ  (Teneriffe,  Canary  Isles).  Here  admiral  Blake,  by  daring  bravery, 
entirely  destroyed  sixteen  Spanish  ships,  secured  with  great  nautical  skill,  and  protected  by 
the  castle  and  forts  on  the  shore,  April  20,  1657.  Clarendon.  In  an  unsuccessful  attack 
made  upon  Santa  Cruz  by  Nelson,  several  officers  and  141  men  were  killed,  and  the  admiral 
lost  his  right  arm,  July  24,  1797.* 

SANTIAGO  DE  COMPOSTELA  (N.W.  Spain),  was  sacked  by  the  Moors  in  995,  and 
held  by  them  till  it  was  taken  by  Ferdinand  III.  in  1235.  The  order  of  Santiago,  or  St. 
James,  was  founded  about  1 1 70  to  protect  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  of  St.  James,  said  to  be 
buried  in  the  cathedral.  The  town  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1809,  and  held  till  1814. — 
SANTIAGO,  the  capital  of  Chili,  S.  America,  was  founded  by  Valdina  in  1541,  has  suffered 
much  by  earthquakes,  especially  in  1822  and  1829.  About  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening  of 
Dec.  8,  1863,  the  feast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  the  last  day 
of  a  series  of  religious  celebrations  in  the  "month  of  Mary,"  the  church  of  the  Campania, 
when  brilliantly  illuminated  in  a  dangerous  manner,  was  burnt  down,  the  fire  beginning 
amidst  the  combustible  ornaments,  and  above  2000  persons,  principally  women,  perished  ; 
the  means  of  egress  being  utterly  insufficient.  On  Dec.  20  the  government  ordered  the 
church  to  be  razed  to  the  ground,  and  muck  public  indignation,  was  excited  against  the 
fanatical  priesthood. 

SAPPERS  AND  MINERS,  a  name  given  in  1812  to  the  non-commissioned  officers  and 
privates  of  the  corps  of  Royal  Engineers.  Brande. 

SAPPHIC  VERSE,  invented  by  Sappho,  the  lyric  poetess  of  Mitylene.  She  was  equally 
celebrated  for  her  poetry,  beauty,  and  a  hopeless  passion  for  Phaon,  a  youth  of  her  native 
country,  on  which  last  account  it  is  said  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea  from  Mount  Leucas, 
and  was  drowned.  The  Lesbians,  after  her  death,  paid  her  divine  honours,  and  called  her 
the  tenth  muse,  594  B.C.  Some  consider  the  story  fabulous. 

SAPPHIRE,  a  precious  stone  of  an  azure  colour,  and  transparent ;  in  hardness  it  exceeds 
the  ruby,  and  is  next  to  the  diamond.  Thamas  Kouli  Khan  is  said  to  have  possessed  a 
sapphire  valued  at  300,000?.,  1733.  Artificial  sapphires  were  made  in  1857  by  M.  Gaudin. 
Equal  parts  of  alum  and  sulphate  of  potash  were  heated  in  a  crucible. 

SARACENS,  an  Arab  race,  the  first  disciples  of  Mahomet,  who  within  forty  years  after 
his  death  (632)  had  subdued  a  great  part  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe.  They  conquered 
Spain  in  711,  et  seq.,  and  (under  Abderahman)  established  the  caliphate  of  Cordova  in  755, 
which  gave  way  to  the  Moors  in  1237.  The  empire  of  the  Saracens  closed  by  Bagdad  being 
taken  by  the  Tartars,  1258.  Blair. 

SARAGOSSA  (N.  E.  Spain),  anciently  Caesarea  Augusta,  was  taken  from  the  Arabs  by 
Alfonso  of  Spain,  in  1118.  Here  Philip  V.  was  defeated  by  the  archduke  Charles,  in  1710. 
On  Dec.  17,  1778,  400  of  the  inhabitants  perished  in  a  fire  at  the  theatre.  Saragossa  was 
taken  by  the  French,  after  a  most  heroic  defence  by  general  Palafox,  Feb.  20,  1809.  The 
inhabitants,  of  both  sexes,  resisted  until  worn  out  by  fighting,  famine,  and  pestilence. 

SARAH  SANDS.     See  Wrecks,  1857. 

*  It  was  remarkable,  that  captain  Fremantle,  the  friend  of  Nelson,  and  his  companion  in  most 
of  his  brilliant  achievements,  was  also  wounded  in  the  arm  immediately  before  Nelson  had  received  his 
wound  in  the  same  limb.  The  following  characteristic  note,  addressed  to  the  lady  of  captain  Fremantle 
(who  was  on  board  with  her  husband  at  the  time  he  wrote),  has  been  preserved,  as  being  the  first  letter 
written  by  the  hero  with  his  left  hand  : — "  MY  DEAR  MRS.  FREMANTLE, — Tell  me  how  Tom  is,  I  hope  he 
has  saved  his  arm.  Mine  is  off;  but,  thank  God !  I  am  as  well  as  I  hope  he  is. 

"Ever  yours,  HORATIO  NELSON." 


SAR 


645 


SAR 


1855 

» 

1856 

1857 
1859 


SARATOGA  (New  York  State,  N.  America).  Here,  general  Burgoyne,  commander  of  a 
body  of  the  British  army,  after  a  severe  engagement  with  the  Americans  (Oct.  7),  being 
surrounded,  surrendered  all  his  army  (5791  men)  to  the  American  general  Gates,  Oct.  17, 
1777.  This  was  the  greatest  check  the  British  suffered  in  the  war. 

SARAWAK.     See  Borneo. 

SARDINIA,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  successively  possessed  by  the  Phoenicians, 
Greeks,  Carthaginians  (550  B.C.),  Romans  (subjugated  it  231),  Saracens,  Genoese,  and 
Spaniards.  From  settlers  belonging  to  these  various  nations  the  present  inhabitants  derive 
their  origin.  Victor  Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  acquired  Sardinia  in  1720,  with  the  title  of 
king.  See  Savoy.  Population  of  the  Sardinian  dominions  in  1858,  5,194,807.  The  king  of 
Sardinia  was  recognised  as  king  of  Italy  by  his  parliament  in  Feb.  1861.  See  Italy. 

James  of  Arragon  becomes  master  of  a  large 

part  of  Sardinia 1324 

Conquered  by  the  English  naval  forces,  under 

sir  John  Leake  and  gen.  Stanhope  .  .  .  1708 
Given  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  .  .  .  1714 

Recovered  by  the  Spaniards 1717 

Ceded  to  the  duke  of  Savoy  with  the  title  of 

king,  as  an  equivalent  for  Sicily  .  .  .  1720 
Victor  Amadeus  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son  .  1730 
Attempting  to  recover  his  throne,  he  is  taken, 

and  dies  in  prison 1732 

The  court  kept  at  Turin,  till  Piedmont  is  over- 
run by  the  French 1792 

The  king  resigns  his  crown  to  his  brother,  duke 

of  Aosta June  4,  1802 

Piedmont    annexed    to  Italy,    and   Napoleon 

crowned  king  of  Italy  .  .  .  Dec.  26,  1805 
The  king  resides  in  Sardinia  .  .  1798 — 1814 
Piedmont  restored  to  its  rightful  sovereign, 

with  Genoa  added  to  it         .        .        .      Dec.    ,, 
King  Charles- Albert  promulgates  a  new  code    .  1837 
Cavour  establishes  the  newspaper  ' '  II  Risorgi- 

mento  "("  the  Revival  ")  ....  1847 
The  king  grants  a  constitution,  and  openly 

espouses   the   cause   of  Italian  regeneration 

against  Austria  ....  March  23,  1848 
Defeats  the  Austrians  at  Goito ;  and  takes 

Peschiera May  30,     ,, 

Sardinian  army  defeated  by  Radetzky,  July  26,     ,, 
Sardinians  at   Milan   capitulate  to  Radetzky, 

Aug.  5,     ,, 
Armistice    between     Sardinia     and    Austria, 

Sept.  21,     „ 

Hostilities  resumed     ....  March  12,  1849 
Radetzky  defeats  a  division  of  the  Sardinians, 

and  occupies  Mortara  .  .  .  March  21,  ,, 
Complete  defeat  of  the  Sardinians  by  the 

Austrians  at  Novara  .  .  .  March  23,  ,, 
Charles- Albert  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son, 

Victor-Emmanuel  .  .  .  March  23,  ,, 
The  Austrians  occupy  Novara,  &c.  March  25,  ,, 
Another  armistice  ....  March  26,  „ 
Death  of  Charles-Albert,  at  Oporto  July  28,  „ 
Treaty  of  Milan  between  Austria  and  Sardinia, 

signed Aug.  6,     ,, 

Adoption  of  the  Siccardi  law,  which  abolishes 

ecclesiastical  jurisdictions  .        .        .  April  9,  1850 
Arrest  of  the  bishop  of  Turin    .         .        May  4,     „ 
He  is  released  from  the  citadel    .         .    June  2,     ,, 
Cavour  minister  of  foreign  affairs  .         .        ..       1851 
Bill    for    suppression    of    convents    passed, 

March  2,  1855 
Convention  with  England  and  France  signed  ; 

a  contingent  of  15,000  troops  to  be  supplied 

against  Russia  ....  April  10,  „ 
10,000  troops  under  general  La  Marmora  arrive 

in  the  Crimea         ....         May  8,    „ 


Who  distinguish  themselves  in  the  battle  of  the 
Tchemaya Aug.  16, 

The  king  visits  London,  <fec.     .        Nov.  30,  &c. 

Important  note  on  Italy  from  count  Cavour  to 
England April  16, 

Rupture  with  Austria;  subsequent  war,  see 
Austria,  1857,  et  seq. 

Cavour  declares  in  favour  of  free-trade      June, 

Prince  Napoleon  Jerome  marries  princess 
Clotilde Jan.  30, 

Preliminaries  of  peace  signed  at  Villa  Franca, 
July  ii  ;  count  Cavour  resigns,  July  13; 
Ratazzi  administration  formed  .  July  19, 

The  emperor  Napoleon's  letter  to  Victor-Em- 
manuel, advocating  the  formation  of  an 
Italian  confederation :  the  latter  declares  it 
to  be  impracticable,  and  maintains  his  en- 
gagements with  the  Italians  .  .  Oct.  20, 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Zurich       .        .  Nov. 

Garibaldi  retires  into  private  life .        .  Nov.  17, 

Count  Cavour  returns  to  office  .        .      Jan.  16, 

The  Sardinian  government  refers  the  question 
of  annexation  of  Tuscany,  &c.,  to  the  vote  of 
the  people Feb.  29, 

Annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  proposed  by  the 
French  government ;  the  Sardinian  govern- 
ment refer  it  to  the  vote  of  the  people, 

Feb.  25, 

Annexation  to  Sardinia  voted  almost  unani- 
mously by  Emilia,  March  14 ;  by  Tuscany, 
March  16;  accepted  by  Victor-Emmanuel, 
March  18-20, 

Treaty  ceding  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France,  signed, 

March  24, 

Prussia  protests  against  the  Italian  annexations 

March  27, 

New  Sardinian  paiiiament  opens        .    April  2, 

Annexation    to    France    almost  unanimously 

voted   for    by    Nice,   April    15;    by  Savoy, 

April  22, 

The  government  professes  disapproval  of  Gari- 
baldi's expedition  to  Sicily  (which  see)  May  18, 

The  chambers  ratify  treaty  of  cession  of  Savoy 
and  Nice May  29, 

The  Sardinian  troops  enter  the  papal  territories 
(see  Italy  and  Rome)  .  .  .  Sept.  n, 

Victor- Emmanuel  enters  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 

Oct.  15, 

Naples  and  Sicily  vote  for  annexation  to  Sardinia 

Oct.  21, 
[For  future  history  see  Italy.} 

[For  the  disputes,  and  war  with  America,  and 
the  events  of  1859-61,  see  Austria,  France^ 
Rome,  Sicily,  and  Naples.] 


1860 


KINGS   OF    SARDINIA. 
1720.   Victor- Amadeus  I.  kingCas  duke  II.);  resigned,     1802.   Victor-Emmanuel  I. 


in  1730,  in  favour  of  his  son  j  died  in  1732. 
1730.  Charles-Emmanuel  I.  his  son. 
1773.    Victor-Amadous  II.  his  son 
1796.    Charles-Emmanuel  II.,  son  of  the  preceding  ; 

resigned  his  crown  in  favour  of  his  brother. 


1805.  [Sardinia  merged  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  of 
which  the  emperor  Napoleon  was  crowned 
king,  May  26,  1805.] 

1814.  Victor-  Emmanuel  restored ;  resigned  in  March, 
1821 ;  and  died  in  1824. 


SAR 


646 


SAV 


SARDINIA,  continued. 

1821.  Charles-Felix;  succeeded  by  his  nephew. 
1831.   Charles- Albert ;    abdicated    in    favour  of  his 

son,  March  23,  1849.     Died  at  Oporto,  July 

28,  1849. 


1849.  Victor-Emmanuel  II.,  March  23;  born  March 

14,  1820  ;  the  PRESENT  king  of  Italy. 
Heir :    Humbert,    prince    of   Piedmont ;    boru 
March  14,  1844. 


SARDIS.     See  Seven  Churches. 

SARMATIA,  the  ancient  name  of  modern  Russia  and  Poland. 

SARUM,  OLD  ("Wiltshire),  an  ancient  town,  the  origin  of  Salisbury,  which  see. 

SATIRE.  About  a  century  after  the  introduction  of  comedy,  satire  made  its  appearance 
at  Rome  in  the  writings  of  Lucilius,  who  was  so  celebrated  in  this  species  of  composition  that 
he  has  been  called  the  inventor  of  it,  116  B.C.  Livy.  The  Satires  of  Horace  (35  B.C.), 
Juvenal  (about  A.D.  100),  and  Perseus  (about  A.D.  60),  are  the  most  celebrated  in  ancient 
times,  and  those  of  Churchill  (1761)  and  Pope  (1729),  in  modern  times. 

SATRAPIES,  divisions  of  the  Persian  empire,  formed  by  Darius  Hystaspes  about  516  B.C. 

SATURDAY  (the  last,  or  seventh  day  of  the  week  ;  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  See  Sabbath). 
It  was  so  called  from  an  idol  worshipped  on  this  day  by  the  Saxons,  and  according  to 
Verstegan,  was  named  by  them  Saterne's  day.  Pardon.  It  is  more  properly  from  Saturn, 
dies  Saturni.  Addison. 

SATURN,  the  planet,  ascertained  to  be  about  900  millions  of  miles  distant  from  the  sun, 
and  its  diameter  to  be  about  77,230  miles.  One  of  the  eight  satellites  was  discovered  by 
Huyghens  (March  25,  1655) ;  four  by  Cassini  (1671-84)  ;  two  by  sir  William  Herschel  (1789), 
and  one  by  Bond  and  Lassells  (1848).  The  ring  was  discovered  to  be  twofold  by  Messrs. 
Ball,  Oct.  13,  1665  ;  and  an  inner  ring  was  detected  in  1850  by  Dawes  in  England  (Nov.  29) 
.and  by  Bond  in  America. 

SATURNALIA,  festivals  in  honour  of  Saturn,  father  of  the  gods,  were  instituted  long 
before  the  foundation  of  Rome,  in  commemoration  of  the  freedom  and  equality  which  pre- 
vailed on  the  earth  in  his  golden  reign.  Some,  however,  suppose  that  the  Saturnalia 
were  first  observed  at  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius,  after  a  victory  obtained  over  the 
Sabines  :  whilst  others  suppose  that  Janus  first  instituted  them  in  gratitude  to  Saturn,  from 
whom  he  had  learned  agriculture.  Others  assert  that  they  were  first  celebrated  after  a 
victory  obtained  over  the  Latins  by  the  dictator  Posthumius.  During  these  festivals  no 
business  was  allowed,  amusements  were  encouraged,  and  distinctions  ceased.  Lenglet. 

SAYINGS'  BANKS.*  The  rev.  Joseph  Smith,  of  Wendover,  began  a  Benevolent 
Institution  in  1799  ;  and  in  1803-4  a  Charitable  Bank  was  instituted  at  Tottenham  by  Miss 
Priscilla  Wakefield.  Henry  Dundas  established  a  parish  bank  at  Ruth  well  in  1810.  One 
was  opened  in  Edinburgh  in  1814.  The  benefit  clubs,  among  artizans,  having  accumulated 
stocks  of  money  for  their  progressive  purposes,  a  plan  was  adopted  to  identify  these  funds 
with  the  public  debt  of  the  country,  and  an  extra  rate  of  interest  was  held  out  as  an  induce- 
ment ;  hence  were  formed  savings'  banks  to  receive  small  sums,  returnable  with  interest  on 
demand. 


Sir  Geo.  Rose  developed  the  system  and  brought  it 
under  parliamentary  control,  1816. 

la  1840  there  were  550  banks  ;  766,354  depositors  ; 
amount  22,060,904?. 

Acts  to  consolidate  and  amend  previous  laws  relat- 
ing to  savings'  banks  were  passed  in  1828  and  1847  ; 
extended  to  Scotland  in  1835 ;  again  consolidated 
and  amended  in  1863. 

On  Nov.  20,  1851,  the  number  of  savings'  banks  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  574,  besides  above 
twenty  thousand  friendly  societies  and  charitable 
institutions.  The  depositors  (in  the  banks)  were 
1,092,581,  while  the  societies  embraced  a  vast  but 


unknown  number  of  persons :  the  amount  of  de- 
posits was  32,893,511?. 

Amount  of  stock  held  on  account  of  savings'  banks 
in  1853,  34,546,334^  ;  in  I857,  35,108,596?.  ;  in  1859, 
38,995,876.  In  1861  the  savings'  banks  received 
8,764,870?.;  paid  9,621,539?.;  estimated  capital, 

41 

savings' 

banks  held  26,448?; 
For  Post-Office  Savings'  Banks,  established  in  1861, 

see  under  Post  Office. 
The  deposits  in  the  old    savings'  banks    had 

diminished  in  consequence  in  1864. 


(.1,532,945?.  (depositors,  1,479,723).      The  military 
savings'  bank  held  204,377?.  >  the  seamen's  savings' 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   THE   FIRST   2O,OOO  DEPOSITORS   WHO    OPENED   ACCOUNTS. 


Domestic  servants 7245 

Persons  in  trade,  mechanics,  &c.        .        .        .  7473 

Labourers  and  porters 672 

Miners 1454 


Friendly  and  charitable  societies   .         .        .     .       58 

Persons  not   classed,  viz.,  widows,  teachers, 

sailors,  &c 3098 


*  The  first  of  these  was  instituted  at  Berne,  in  Switzerland,  in  1787,  by  the  name  of  caisse  de  domes- 
tiques,  being  intended  for  servants  only ;  another  was  set  up  in  Basel,  in  1792,  open  to  all  depositors. 


SAV 


647 


SAX 


SAVOY,  the  ancient  Sapaudia  or  Sabaudia,  formerly  a  province  in  N.  Italy,  east  of  Pied- 
mt.  It  became  a  Roman  province  about  118  B.C.  The  Alemanni  seized  it  in  A.D.  395, 
id  the  Franks  in  496.  It  shared  the  revolutions  of  Switzerland  till  about  1048,  when 
Conrad,  emperor  of  Germany,  gave  it  to  Humbert,  with  the  title  of  count.  Count  Thomas 
acquired  Piedmont  in  the  I3th  century.  Amadeus,  count  of  Savoy,  having  entered  his 
dominions,  solicited  Sigismund  to  erect  them  into  a  duchy,  which  he  did  at  Cambray, 
Feb.  19,  1417.  Victor-Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  obtained  the  kingdom  of  Sicily,  by  a  treaty 
from  Spain,  in  1713,  which  he  afterwards  exchanged  with  the  emperor  for  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  with  the  title  of  king,  1720.  See  Sardinia.  The  French  subdued  Savoy  in  1792, 
and  made  it  a  department  of  France,  under  the  name  of  Mont  Blanc,  in  1800.  It  was 
restored  to  the  king  of  Sardinia  in  1814 ;  but  was  once  more  annexed  to  France  in  1860, 
in  accordance  with  a  vote  by  universal  suffrage,  April  23,  1860.  Savoy  was  visited  by  the 
emperor  and  empress  of  the  French  in  August,  1860.  The  annexation  was  censured  in 
England. 


K  DUKES  OF  SAVOY. 

Count  Amadeus  VIII.  is  made  duke  in  1417; 
he  was  named  pope  as  Felix  V.     He  abdi- 
cated as  duke  of  Savoy,  1439 ;  renounced  the 
tiara,  1449;  died  in  1451. 
Louis. 
Amadeus  IX. 
1472.   Philibertl. 
1482.    Charles  I. 
Charles  II. 


* 


1496.  Philip  II. 

1497.  Philibertll. 
1504.    Charles  III. 

1553.  Emmanuel-Philibert. 
1580.  Charles-Emmanuel  I. 
1630.  Victor- Amadeus  I. 

1637.  Francis- Hyacin the. 

1638.  Charles-Emmanuel  II. 

1675.  Victor-Amadeus  II.  became  king  of  Sicily,  1713  ; 
exchanged  for  Sardinia  in  1720. 


SAVOY  PALACE  (London)  was  given  to  Peter  of  Savoy,  uncle  of  Eleanor,  queen  of 
Henry  III.,  in  1236.  Here  was  held  the  CONFERENCE  between  the  clergy  and  the  non- 
conformists in  1 66 1.  It  was  partially  taken  down  to  make  way  for  Waterloo-bridge.  The 
ancient  chapel  was  destroyed  by  fire,  July  7,  1864,  and  was  rebuilt  at  the  queen's  expense, 
and  reopened  Nov.  26,  1865. 

SAW.  Invented  by  Daedalus.  Pliny.  Invented  by  Talus.  Apollodorus.  Talus,  it  is 
said,  having  found  the  jaw-bone  of  a  snake,  employed  it  to  cut  through  a  piece  of  wood, 
and  then  formed  an  instrument  of  iron  like  it.  Saw-mills  were  erected  in  Madeira  in  1420  ; 
at  Breslau,  in  1427.  Norway  had  the  first  saw-mill  in  1530.  The  bishop  of  Ely,  ambassador 
from  Mary  of  England  to  the  court  of  Rome,  describes  a  saw-mill  there,  1555.  The  attempts 
to  introduce  saw-mills  in  England  were  violently  opposed,  and  one  erected  by  a  Dutchman 
in  1663  was  forced  to  be  abandoned.  Saw-mills  were  erected  near  London  about  1770. 
Excellent  saw-machinery  exists  in  Woolwich  dockyard.  Powis  and  James's  band-saw  was 
patented  in  1858. 

r  SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA  (Central  Germany),  capitals  Gotha  and  Coburg.  Population, 
Dec.  1861,  159,431.  The  reigning  family  is  descended  from  John,  younger  son  of  Ernest, 
who  became  elector  of  Sjixony  in  1464. 


DUKES. 

1826.  Ernest  I.  duke  of  Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ;  mar- 
ried Louisa,  heiress  of  Augustus,  duke  of 
Saxe-Gotha,  and  became  by  convention  duke 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Nov.  12.* 

1844.  Ernest  II.  son,  Jan.  29 ;  born  June,  21,  1818 


(married   Alexandrina,  duchess  of   Baden, 
May  3,  1842  ;  no  issue). 

Heir  (presumptive) :  Prince  Alfred  of  England, 
born  Aug,  6,  1844  (in  whose  favour  the 
prince  of  Wales  resigned  his  rights,  April 
19,  1863). 


SAXE- WEIMAR  (Central  Germany).  The  grand-dukes  are  descended  from  John  Frederic, 
the  Protestant  elector  of  Saxony,  who  was  deprived  by  the  emperor  in  1548.  See  Saxony. 
The  houses  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Saxe-Gotha,  Hilberghausen,  and  Saxe-Meiniugen  also 
sprang  from  him.  They  are  all  termed  the  senior  or  Ernestine  branch  of  the  old  family. — 
Saxe-Weimar  became  a  grand  duchy  in  1815.  The  dukes  have  greatly  favoured  literature, 
and  their  capital  Weimar  has  been  called  the  Athens  of  Germany.  Population  of  the  duchy, 
Dec.  1861,  273,252. 


GRAND-DUKES. 

1815.  Charles  Augustus. 
1828.   Charles  Frederic. 


[853.  Charles    Alexander,    July  8 ;    born  June  24, 

1818,  the  PRESENT  (1866)  grand-duke. 
Heir :  Charles  Augustus,  born  July  31,  1844. 


*  His  brother,  Leopold,  married  the  princess  Charlotte  of  England,  May  2,  1816  ;  became  king  of  the 
Belgians,  July  12,  1831  ;  and  Ferdinand,  the  sou  of  his  brother  Ferdinand,  married  Maria  da  Gloria,  queeu. 
of  Portugal,  April  9,  1836. 


SAX 


648 


SCH 


SAXONY,  a  kingdom  in  N.  Germany.  The  Saxons  were  a  fierce  warlike  race,  the  terror 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  later  western  empire,  frequently  attacked  France,  and  conquered 
Britain  (which  see).  After  a  long  series  of  sanguinary  conflicts  they  were  completely  subdued 
by  Charlemagne,  who  instituted  many  fiefs  and  bishoprics  in  their  country.  Witikind, 
their  great  leader,  who  claimed  descent  from  Woden,  professed  Christianity  about  785. 
From  him  descended  the  first  and  the  present  ruling  family  (the  houses  of  Supplinburg,  Guelf, 
and  Ascania  intervened  from  Iio6to  1421).  Saxony  became  a  duchy,  880;  an  electorate, 
1180  ;  and  a  kingdom,  1806.  It  was  the  seat  of  war  in  1813  ;  the  king  being  on  the  side 
of  Napoleon.  Population,  Dec.  1861,  2,225,240. 


ELECTORS. 

1423.   Frederic  I. 
1428.   Frederic  II. 

[His  sons  Ernest  and  Albert  divide  the  states.] 
1464.   Ernest. 
1486.   Frederic  III. 
1525.   John. 
1532.   John  Frederic ;    deprived    by   the    emperor 

Charles  V.  ;  succeeded  by 
1548.   Maurice  (of  the  Albertine  line). 
1553.   Augustus. 
1586.    Christian  I. 
1591.   Christian  II. 
1611.    John  George  I. 
1656.  John  George  II. 


1680.  John  George  III. 

1691.  John  George  IV. 

1694.  Frederic  Augustus  I.,  king  of  Poland,  1697. 

1733.  Frederic  Augustus  II.,  king  of  Poland. 

1763.  Frederic  Augustus  III.  becomes  king,  1806. 

KINGS. 

1.806.    Frederic  Augustus  I. 
1827.    Anthony  Clement. 
1836.   Frederic    Augustus    II.     succeeded    by   his 

brother. 
1854.   John,  Aug.  9  (born  Dec.  12,  1801),  the  PRESENT 

king. 

Heir:    His  son,   Frederic    Augustus    Albert, 
born  April  23,  1828. 


SCANDALUM  MAGNATUM,  a  special  statute  relating  to  any  wrong,  by  words  or  in 
writing,  done  to  high  personages  of  the  land,  such  as  peers,  judges,  ministers  of  the  crown, 
officers  in  the  state,  and  other  great  public  functionaries,  by  the  circulation  of  scandalous 
statements,  false  news,  or  horrible  messages,  by  which  any  debate  or  discord  between  them 
and  the  commons,  or  any  scandal  to  their  persons,  might  arise.  Chambers.  This  law  was 
first  enacted  2  Rich.  II.  1378. 

SCANDINAVIA,  the  ancient  name  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  great  part  of  Denmark 
(which  see),  whence  proceeded  the  Northmen  or  Normans,  who  conquered  Normandy  (about 
900),  and  eventually  England  (1066).  They  were  also  called  Sea-kings  or  Vikings.  They 
settled  Iceland  and  Greenland,  and,  it  is  thought,  the  northern  regions  of  America,  about  the 
9th  centmy.  A  "National  Scandinavian  Society  "  has  been  formed  at  Stockholm.  See 
Sweden.  Dec.  1864. 

SCARLET,  or  kermes  dye,  was  known  in  the  East  in  the  earliest  ages  ;  cochineal  dye, 
1518.  Kepler,  a  Fleming,  established  the  first  dye-house  for  scarlet  in  England,  at  Bow, 
1643.  The  art  of  dyeing  red  was  improved  by  Brewer,  1667.  Beckmann. 

SCEPTICS,  the  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by  Pyrrho,  about  334  B.C.  Pyrrho  was 
in  continual  suspense  of  judgment ;  he  doubted  of  everything  ;  never  made  any  conclusions, 
and  when  he  had  carefully  examined  the  subject,  and  investigated  all  its  parts,  he  concluded 
by  still  doubting  of  its  evidence. 

SCEPTRE,  a  more  ancient  emblem  of  royalty  than  the  crown.  In  the  earlier  ages  the 
sceptres  of  kings  were  long  walking-staves  ;  afterwards  carved  and  made  shorter.  Tarquiii 
the  elder  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  sceptre  among  the  Romans,  about  468  B.  c.  The 
French  sceptre  of  the  first  race  of  kings  was  a  golden  rod,  A.D.  481.  Le  Gendre. 

SCHELDT  TOLL  was  imposed  by  the  treaty  of  Munster  (or  Westphalia),  1648.  The 
toll  was  abolished  for  a  compensation.  The  house  of  commons  voted  175,650?.  for  the 
British  portion  on  March  9,  1864.  The  Scheldt  was  declared  free  on  Aug.  3,  with  much 
rejoicing  at  Antwerp  and  Brussels. 

SCHIEHALLIEN,  a  mountain  in  Perthshire,  where  Dr.  Neville  Maskelyne,  the 
astronomer-royal,  made  his  observation  with  a  plumb-line  in  1774,  from  which  Hutton 
calculated  that  the  density  of  the  earth  is  five  times  greater  than  water. 

SCHLESWIG.     See  Holstein,  Denmark,  and  Gastein. 

SCHOOLS.  Charity  schools  were  introduced  in  London  to  prevent  the  seduction  of  the 
infant  poor  into  Roman  Catholic  seminaries,  3  James  II.  1687.  Rapin.  Charter  schools 
were  instituted  in  Ireland,  1733.  Scully.  In  England  there  were,  1111847,  13,642  schools 
(exclusively  of  Sunday  schools)  for  the  education  of  the  poor  ;  and  the  number  of  children 
was  998,431.  The  parochial  and  endowed  schools  of  Scotland  were  (exclusively  of  Sunday 


SCI 


649 


SCO 


schools)  4836  ;  and  the  number  of  children,  181,467.  The  schools  in  Wales  were  841,  and 
the  number  of  children,  38,164  ;  in  Ireland,  13,327  schools,  and  774,000  children.  In  1851 
there  were  2310  schools  in  connection  with  the  Education  Committee  actually  inspected  in 
England  and  Scotland.  They  included  :  1713  Church  of  England  schools  in  England  and 
Wales  ;  282  Protestant  Dissenting  schools  in  England  and  Wales  ;  98  Roman  Catholic 
schools  in  Great  Britain  ;  and  217  Presbyterian  schools  in  Scotland,  whereof  91  were  of  the 
Free  Church  :  the  whole  affording  accommodation  for  299,425  scholars.  See  Education, 
Design,  &c. 

SCIENTIFIC  RELIEF  FUND.  In  1859,  several  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society  (Messrs. 
Gassiot,  Wheatstone,  Miller,  Tyndall,  and  others)  commenced  the  collection  of  subscriptions- 
with  the  view  of  establishing  a  permanent  fund  to  be  expended  in  aiding  necessitous  men  of 
science  and  their  families,  in  imitation  of  the  "Literary  Fund."  In  the  spring  of  1860, 
3365?.  had  been  subscribed  ;  in  Jan.  1865,  5320?.,  and  many  cases  had  been  relieved. 

SCILLY  ISLES  (the  Cassiterides  or  Tin-islands).  They  held  commerce  with  the 
Phoenicians  ;  and  are  mentioned  by  Strabo  as  being  ten  in  number.  A  memorable  shipwreck 
of  the  British  squadron  under  sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  occurred  here.  This  brave  admiral, 
returning  from  an  expedition  against  Toulon,  mistook  these  rocks  for  land,  and  struck  upon 
them.  His  ship,  the  Association,  in  which  were  his  lady,  two  sons,  many  persons  of  rank, 
and  800  brave  men,  went  instantly  to  the  bottom.  The  Eagle,  captain  Hancock,  and  the 
Eomney  and  Firebrand,  were  also  lost.  The  rest  of  the  fleet  escaped.  Oct.  22,  1707.  Sir 
Cloudesley's  body,  being  found,  was  conveyed  to  London,  and  buried  in  Westminster  abbey, 
where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

SCIO  MASSACRE.     See  Chios. 

SCONE  (near  Perth).  The  Scotch  coronation  chair  was  brought  from  Scone  to  West- 
minster abbey  by  Edward  I.  in  1296. 

SCOTLAND.  (See  Caledonia.}  A  kingdom  till  the  death  of  queen  Elizabeth,  when 
James  VI.  of  Scotland,  as  the  most  immediate  heir,  was  called  to  the  throne  of  England. 
Each  country  had  a  separate  parliament  till  1707,  when  both  kingdoms  were  united  under 
the  general  name  of  Great  Britain.  See  England. 


Camelon,  capital  of  the  Picts,  taken  by  Ken- 
neth II.  and  every  living  creature  put  to  the 
sword  or  destroyed   .'....     843 
The  Norwegians  invade  and  occupy  Caithness 

in  the  gth  century. 
The  feudal  system  established  by  Malcolm  II.  .  1004 

Divided  into  baronies 1032 

The  Danes  driven  out  of  Scotland       .         .        .   1040 
Duncan  I.  is  murdered  by  his  kinsman  Mac- 
» ».beth,  by  whom  the  crown  is  seized    .        .     .     „ 
Malcolm  III.  aided  by  Edwa*d  the  Confessor, 
meets  the  usurper  at  Dunsinane ;  Macbeth  is 

killed  by  Macduff 1057 

The  Saxon-English  language  introduced  into 
Scotland  by  fugitives  from  England  escaping 

from  the  Normans 1080 

Siege  of  Alnwick  :  Malcolm  III.  killed       .        .  1093 
Reign  of  David  I.,  a  legislator        .        .        .  1124-53 
Scotland  invaded  by  Hacho,  king  of  Norway, 
with  160  ships  and  20,000  men  ;   the  invaders 
are  cut  to  pieces  by  Alexander  III.,  who  now 
recovers  the  Western  Isles       .        .        .        .  1263 
Death  of  Margaret  of  Norway,  heiress  to  the 

throne Oct.  7,  1290 

John  Baliol  and  Edward  Bruce  contend  for  the 
throne,  1291  ;  Edward  I.  of  England,  as  um- 
pire, decides  in  favour  of  John .  .  Nov.  1292 
John  Baliol,  king  of  Scotland,  appears  to  a 
summons,  and  defends  his  own  cause  in 
Westminster  hall  against  the  earl  of  Fife  .  1293 
Edward,  wishing  to  annex  Scotland  to  Eng- 
land, dethrones  John,  ravages  the  country, 
destroys  the  monuments  of  Scottish  history, 
and  seizes  the  prophetic  stone  (see  Corona- 
tion)   1296 

William  Wallace  defeats  the  English  at  Cambus 
Kenneth,  and  expels  them,  1297  ;  is  defeated 
at  Falkirk,  July  22,  1298  ;  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish, and  executed  at  Smithfield  Aug.  24,  1305 


Robert  Bruce,  crowned,  1306 ;  he  defeats  the 
English,  1307 ;  and  takes  Inverness,  1313  ; 
defeats  the  English  at  Bannockburn,  June  25, 

David  II.  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Dur- 
ham, by  queen  Philippa  of  England  (and 
detained  in  captivity  1 1  years)  .  ... 

Battle  of  Chevy  Chase,  between  Hotspur  Percy 
and  earl  Douglas.  (See  Otterburn.)  Aug  15 

Robert  III.  defeated  at  Homelden  Hill      . 

James  I.  captured  by  the  English  near  Flam- 
borough  head  on  his  passage  to  France 

St.  Andrew's  university  founded  by  bishop 
William  Turnbull  .  .  .  .  .  . 

University  of  Aberdeen  founded     .        .        . 

Battle  of  Flodden  Field  ;  James  IV.  is  slain,  and 
his  army  cut  to  pieces  .  .  .  Sept.  9, 

James  V.  banishes  the  Douglases 

He  establishes  the  court  of  session         .        .     . 

Order  of  St.  Andrew,  or  the  Thistle,  is  revived. 

Mary,  the  queen  of  Scots,  born,  Dec.  8 ;  succeeds 
her  father,  James  V.  ...  Dec.  13, 

The  regent,  cardinal  Beaton,  persecutes  the 
reformers,  1539,  I5^>  ne  is  assassinated  at 
St.  Andrew's May  29, 

The  Scots  defeated  at  Pinkie       .        .  Sept.  10, 

Mary  marries  the  dauphin  of  France          April, 

Francis  II.  dies,  leaving  Mary  a  widow       Dec. 

The  Reformation  begins  in  Scotland,  during 
the  minority  of  Mary  .  between  1550  and 

The  Reformation  is  consummated  by  John 
Knox  .  

Mary,  after  an  absence  of  thirteen  years,  ar- 
rives at  Leith  from  France  .  .  Aug.  21, 

Upon  an  inquisition,  which  was  officially  taken, 
by  order  of  queen  Elizabeth,  only  58  Scots- 
men were  found  in  London.  Stow.  . 

Mary  marries  her  cousin,  Henry  Stuart,  lord 
Darnloy July  27, 


1388 
1402 

1406 


J494 .. 


1513 

1528 


1546 
1547 

1560 


1561 

1562 
1565 


SCO 


650 


SCO 


SCOTLAND,  continued. 

David  Rizzio,  her  confidential  secretary,  mur- 
dered by  Darnley,  in  her  presence  March  9,  1566 

Lord  Darnley  blown  up  by  gunpowder,  in  his 
house  (Mary  accused  of  conniving  at  his 
death) Feb.  10,  1567 

James  Hepburn,  earl  of  Bothwell,  carries  off 
the  queen,  who  marries  him  .  .  May  15,  ,, 

Mary  made  prisoner  at  Carberry  hill  by  her 
nobles  .  .  .  -  .  .  .  June  15,  ,, 

Resigns  her  crown  to  her  infant  son  James  VI.  ; 
the  earl  of  Murray  appointed  regent  July  22,  „ 

Mary  escapes  from  prison,  and  collects  a  large 
army,  which  is  defeated  by  the  regent 
Murray,  at  the  battle  of  Langside  May  15,  1568 

The  regent  Murray  murdered         .         Jan.  23,  1570 

The  earl  of  Lennox,  appointed  regent.  July  12,     ,, 

The  earl  of  Lennox  murdered  ;  the  earl  of  Mar 
chosen  regent  ....  Sept.  6,  1571 

Death  of  the  Reformer  John  Knox    .  Nov.  24,  1572 

£His  funeral  in  Edinburgh  is  attended  by  most 
of  the  nobility,  and  by  the  regent  Morton, 
who  exclaims,  "There  lies  he  who  never 
feared  the  face  of  man  !"] 

The  university  of  Edinburgh  founded  .        .     .  1582 

The  Raid  of  Ruthven  (see  Muthven)    .        .        .     „ 

Mary,  having  taken  refuge  in  England,  May  16, 
1568,  is,  after  a  long  captivity,  beheaded  at 
Fotheringay  castle.  (See  Fotheringay.)  Feb.  8,  1587 

Cowrie's  conspiracy          .        .        .          Aug.  5,  1600 

Union  of  the  crown  of  Scotland  with  that  of 
England  by  the  accession  of  James  VI., 
March  24,  1603  ;  James  is  proclaimed  by  the 
style  of  "king  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Ireland  " Oct.  24,  1604 

Charles  I.  attempts  in  vain  to  introduce  the 
English  liturgy 1637 

Solemn  league  and  covenant  subscribed, 

March  i,  1638 

A  Scotch  army  enters  England    ....  1640 

Charles  joins  the  Scotch  army,  1646;  betrayed 
into  the  hands  of  the  English  parliament 

Jan.  30,  1647 

Marquess  of  Montrose  defeated  at  Philiphaugh, 
Sept.  13,  1645  ;  put  to  death  at  Edinburgh, 

May  21,  1650 

Charles  II.  crowned  at  Scone,  Jan.  i ;  defeated 
at  Worcester  ....  Aug.  22,  1651 

Scotland  united  to  the  English  commonwealth 
by  Oliver  Cromwell  ....  Sept.  „ 

Charles  II.  revives  episcopacy  in  Scotland         .  1661 

The  Covenanters  defeated  on  the  Pentland  hills  1666 

Archbishop  Sharpe  murdered  near  St.  Andrew's, 
by  some  fanatics,  headed  by  John  Balfour  of 
Burley May  3,  1679 

The  Covenanters  defeat  Claverhouse  at  Drum- 
clog,  June  i ;  but  are  routed  at  Bothwell 
bridge June  22,  . 

Revolution  effected  by  a  convention  in  favour  of 
William  III.  and  establishment  of  presbytery, 

March  14,  1689 

Insurrection  of  Claverhouse  :  killed  at  Killie- 
crankie July  27, 


1736 


1746 


Massacre  of  the  Macdonalds  at  Glencoe,  Feb.  13,  1692 
Legislative  union  of   Scotland  with  England, 

May  i,  1707 
Insurrection  under  the  earl  of  Mar  in  favour  of 

the  son  of  James  II.     (See  Pretender.)    .        .  1715 
The  rebels  defeated  at  Preston,  Nov.  12  ;  and  at 
Dumblane  (or  Sheriffmuir)  .        .         Nov.  13, 
Captain  Porteous  is  killed  by  a  mob  in  Edin- 
burgh.    (See  Porteous.)     .        .        .     Sept.  7, 
Prince  Charles  Edward   proclaimed  at  Perth, 
Sept.  4  ;    at  Edinburgh,   Sept.   16 ;  with  the 
Highlanders  defeats  sir  John  Cope  at  Preston- 
pans,    Sept.    21 ;     takes    Carlisle,  Nov.    15  ; 
arrives  at  Manchester,   Nov.   28;    at  Derby, 
Dec.  4;  retreats  to  Glasgow         .        Dec.  25,  1745 
Defeats  general  Hawley  at  Falkirk,  Jan.  17  ;  is 
totally  defeated  at  Culloden     .        .  April  16, 
The  Highland  dress  prohibited  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment         Aug.  12,     ,, 

Lords  Kilmarnock  and  Balmerino  executed  for 

high  treason  on  Tower-hill.  .        Aug.  18,     ,, 

Simon  Fraser,  Lord  Lovat,  aged  80,  executed, 

April  9,  1747 

Thomson,  the  poet,  dies         .        .          Aug.  27,  1748 
The  Old  Pretender,  "  Chevalier  de  St.  George," 

dies  at  Rome Dec.  30,  1 765 

Prince    Charles    Edward    Louis    Casimir,  the 

Young  Pretender,  dies  at  Rome  .  Jan.  31,  1788 
Death  of  Robert  Burns  .  .  .  July  21,  1796 
Scott's  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel "  published  .  1806 
Cardinal  Henry  duke  of  York  (last  of  the 

Stuarts)  dies Aug.   1807 

The  Court  of  Session  is  formed  into  two  divisions    , , 

"  Waverley  "  published 1814 

The  establishment  of  a  jury  court  under  a  lord 

chief  commissioner 1815 

Visit  of  George  IV.  to  Scotland          .    October,  1822 
Sir  Walter  Scott  dies        .         .        .        Sept.  21,  1832 
Seven   ministers  of  the  presbytery  of  Strath- 
bogie  are  deposed  by  the  General  Assembly 
of   the   Church  of  Scotland,  for  obeying  the 
civil  in  preference  to  the  ecclesiastical  law. 
(Their    deposition    was     formally    protested 
against  by  the  minority  of  ministers,  headed 
by  Dr.  Cook.)         ....        May  28,  1841 
The  General  Assembly  condemn  patronage  as  a 
grievance  to  the  cause  of  true  religion  that 
ought  to  be  abolished.         .        .        .  May  23,  1842 
Visit  of  the  queen,  prince  Albert,  and  the  court ; 

she  landed  at  Granton  pier     .         .       Sept.  i,     ,, 
The  Queen  embarks        .         .         .        Sept.  13,     ,, 
Secession  of  the  non-intrusion  ministers  of  the 
church  of  Scotland  (about  400)  at  the  General 
Assembly.     (See  Free  Church)  .        .     May  18, 
Death  of  Jeffrey        ....        Jan.  26,  1850 
National  Association  for  vindication  of  Scottish 

rights  formed Nov.  1853 

Act  for  better  government  of  the  universities 

Aug.  18. 


1843 


See  Edinburgh. 


KINGS   OF   SCOTLAND. 


BEFORE  CHRIST. 

[The  early  accounts  of  the  kings  are  *by  many  his- 
torians deemed  in  a  great  measure  fabulous.  The 
series  of  kings  is  carried  as  far  back  as  Alexander 
the  Great.] 

330.  Fergus  I.  :  ruled  25  years;  lost  in  the  Irish 
Sea.* 


1858 


AFTER   CHRIST. 

357.  Eugenius  I.,  son  of  Fincormachus ;  slain  in  | 
battle  by  Maximus,  the  Roman  general,  and_ 
the  confederate  Picts. 

V  With  this  battle  ended  the  kingdom  of  the  Scots 
after  having  existed  from  the  coronation  of   ; 
Fergus  I.,  a  period  of  706  years,  the  royal   t 
family  fled  to  Denmark.     Boece  ;  Buchanan.    \ 


*  Fergus,  a  brave  prince,  came  from  Ireland  with  an  army  of  Scots,  and  was  chosen  king.  Having 
defeated  the  Britons  and  slain  their  king  Coilus,  the  kingdom  of  the  Scots  was  entailed  upon  his  posterity 
for  ever.  He  went  to  Ireland,  and,  having  settled  his  affairs  there,  was  drowned  on  his  return,  launching 
from  the  shore,  near  the  harbour,  called  Carrick-Fergus  to  this  day,  3699  A.M.  Anderson. 


SCO 


651 


SCO 


479- 
501. 


535- 

558. 
569- 
57°- 
605. 
606. 
621. 


632. 
646. 

664. 


684. 
688. 
698. 

699. 


73o. 
761. 

764. 


767. 
787. 
819. 
824. 
831. 
834- 


S54. 


874. 

876. 
893- 
904. 

944. 

953- 

961. 
965. 


SCOTLAND,  continued. 

[Interregnum  of  27  years.] 
Fergus  II.*  (I.)  great-grandson  of  Eugenius  and 

4oth  king  ;  slain  in  battle  with  the  Romans. 
Eugenius  II.  or  Evenus,  son  of  Fergus  :  reigned 

31  years. 
Dongardus  or  Domangard,  brother  of  Eugenius  ; 

defeated  and  drowned 

Constantino  I. ,  brother  of  Dongardus  :  assassi- 
nated by  Dugall,  a  noble  whose  daughter  he 

had  dishonoured. 

Congallus  I.  nephew  ;  just  and  prudent. 
Goranus,    brother ;    murdered.      Boece.      Died 

while  Donald  of  Athol  was  conspiring  to  take 

his  life.    Scott. 
Eugenius  III.  nephew     "  none  excelled  him  in 

justice." 

Congallus  II.  brother. 
Kinnatellus,  brother  ;  resigned  for 
Aidauus  or  Aldan,  son  of  Goranus. 
Kenneth,  son  of  Congallus  II. 
Eugenius  IV.  son  of  Aidanus. 
Ferchard  or  Ferquhard   I.    son ;   confined  for 

misdeeds  to  his  palace,  where  he  laid  violent 

hands  upon  himself.     Scott. 
Donald  IV.  brother  ;  drowned  in  Loch  Tay. 
Ferchard  II.  son  of  Ferchard  I.  ;  "  most  exe- 
crable." 
Malduimis,  son  of  Donald  IV.  ;  strangled  by  his 

wife  for  his  supposed  infidelity,  for  which 

crime    she    was    immediately    afterwards 

burnt. 

Eugenius  V.  brother. 
Eugenius  VI.  son  of  Ferchard  IT. 
Amberkeletus,  nephew  ;  fell  by  an  arrow  from 

an  unknown  hand. 
Eugenius  VII.  brother  ;  some  ruffians  designing 

the  king's  murder,  entered  his  chamber,  and 

he  being  absent,  stabbed  his  queen,   Spon- 

tana,  to  death.     Scott. 
Mordachus,  son  of  Amberkeletus. 
Etfinus,  son  of  Eugenius  VII. 
Eugenius  VIII.  son  of  Mordachus  ;  sensual  and 

tyrannous  ;  put  to  death  by  his  nobles. 
Fergus  III.  son  of  Etfinus  ;  killed  by  his  jealous 

queer/,  who  afterwards  stabbed  herself  to 

escape  a  death  of  torture. 
Solvathius,  son  of  Eugenius  VIII. 
Achaius  ;  a  just  and  wise  prince. 
Congallus  III.  ;  a  peaceful  reign. 
Dongal  or  Dougal,  son  of  Solvathius  ;  drowned. 
Alpine,  son  of  Achaius -beheaded  by  the  Picts. 
Kenneth    II.    son  of   Alpine,    and    surnamed 

Mac  Alpine ;  defeated  the  Picts,  slew  their 

king,  and  united  them  and  the   Scots  under 

one    sceptre,    and    became     the    first    sole 

monarch  of  all  Scotland,  843. 
Donald   V.   brother ;     dethroned ;     committed 

suicide. 
Constantino  II.  son  of  Kenneth  II.  ;  taken  in 

battle  by  the  Danes  and  beheaded. 
Eth  or   Ethus,   surnamed  Lightfoot ;    died   of 

grief   in  prison,   having  been  thrown  into 

confinement  for  his  sensuality  and  crimes. 
Gregory  the  Great ;  brave  and  just. 
Donald  VI.  son  of  Constantine  II.  ;  excellent. 
Constantino  III.  son  of  Ethus  ;  became  a  monk, 

and  resigned  in  favour  of 
Malcolm  I.  son  of  Donald  VI.  ;  murdered. 
Indulfus  or  Gondulph  ;  killed  by  the  Danes  in 

an  ambuscade. 
Duff  or  Duffus,  son  of  Malcolm  ;  murdered  by 

Donald,  the  governor  of  Forres  castle. 
Cullen  or  Culenus,  son  of  Indulfus  ;  avenged 

the  murder  of  his  predecessor ;  assassinated 


at  Methven,  by  a  thane,  whose  daughter  he 
had  dishonoured. 

970.  Kenneth  III.  brother  of  Duffus  ;  murdered  by 
Fenella,  the  lady  of  Fettercairn. 

994.    Constantine  IV.  son  of  Cullen  ;  slain. 

995  Grimus  or  the  Grim,  son  of  Duffus ;  routed 
and  slain  in  battle  by  Malcolm,  the  rightful 
heir  to  the  crown,  who  succeeded. 

1003.  Malcolm  II.  son  of  Kenneth  III.  ;  assassinated 
on  his  way  to  Glamis  ;  the  assassins  in  their 
flight  crossing  a  frozen  lake  were  drowned. 

1033.   Duncan  I.  grandson ;  assassinated  by  his  cousin. 

1039.  Macbeth,  usurper;  slain  by  Macduff,  the  thane 
of  Fife. 

%*  Historians  so  differ  up  to  this  reign,  in  the 
number  of  the  kings,  the  dates  of  succes- 
sion, and  the  circumstances  narrated,  that  no 
account  can  be  taken  as  precisely  accurate. 

1057.  Malcolm  III.  (Camnore),  son  of  Duncan;  killed 
while  besieging  Alnwick  castle. 

1093.  Donald  VII.  (Donald  Bane),  brother   of  the 

usurper  ;  fled  to  the  Hebrides. 

1094.  Duncan  II.  natural  son  of  Malcolm  :  murdered. 
1094.    Donald  Bane  again ;  deposed. 

1098.   Edgar,  son  of    Malcolm  (Henry  I.  of  England 

married  his  sister  Maud). 
1107.   Alexander  the  Fierce,  brother. 
1124.  David  I.  brother;  married  Matilda,  daughter 

of  Waltheof,  earl  of  Northumberland. 
1153.    Malcolm  IV.  grandson. 
1165.   William,  surnamed  the  Lion  ;  brother. 
1214.   Alexander  II.  son  ;  married  Joan,  daughter  of 

John,  king  of  England. 
1249.   Alexander  III.  ;  married  Margaret,  daughter 

of  Henry  III.  of  England  ;    dislocated  his 

neck,  when  hunting  near  Kinghorn. 
1285.    Margaret,  the  "  Maiden  of  Norway,"  grand- 
daughter of  Alexander,  "  recognised  by  the 

states  of  Scotland,  though  a  female,{au  infant, 

and  a  foreigner ; "  died  on  her  passage  to 

Scotland. 
A  competition  for  the  vacant  throne  ;    Edward  I. 

of  England  decides  in  favour  of 
1292.  John  Baliol,  who  afterwards  surrendered  his 

crown,  and  died  in  exile. 
[Interregnum.] 

1306.   Robert  (Bruce)  I.  a  great  prince. 
1329.   David  (Bruce)  II.  son  ;  Edward  Baliol  disputed 

the  throne  with  him. 

1332.   Edward  Baliol,  son  of  John  ;  resigned. 
1342.  David  II.  again;    eleven  years  a  prisoner  in 

England. 

1371.   Robert  (Stuart)  II.  nephew. 
1390.    Robert  III.  son  (whose  name  was  John). 
1406.   James  I.  second  son ;  imprisoned  18  years  in 

England  ;  set  at  liberty  in  1423 ;  conspired 

against  and  murdered   at  Perth,   Feb.   20, 

1437.     Banks. 
1437.   James  II.  son ;  killed  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh 

castle  by  a  cannon  bursting,  Aug.  3,  1460. 
1460.   James  III.  son  ;  killed  in  a  revolt  of  his  sub- 
jects at  Bannockburn-field,  June  n,  1488. 
1488.   James    IV.    son ;    married    Margaret    Tudor, 

daughter  of  Henry  VII.  of  England;  killed 

at  the  battle  of  Flodden. 
1513.   James  V.  son ;   succeeded  when  little  more 

than  a    year  old ;    a  sovereign  possessing 

many  virtues. 
1542.    Mary,  daughter;  born  Dec.  8,  1542,  succeeded 

in  her  infancy.     See  Annals,  above. 
1567.   James  VI.  son.     Succeeded   to  the  throne  of 

England,  and  the  kingdoms  became  united, 

1603. 

See  England. 


*  Some  call  this  Fergus  the  first  king,  and  suppose  that  either  the  foregoing  kings  were  fabulous,  or 
that  they  were  only  chiefs  or  generals  of  armies,  having  no  royal  authority.  The  controversy  thus  arising 
I  leave  to  be  decided  by  the  antiquaries,  and  must  follow  the  received  histories  of  Scotland.  Anderson. 


SCR  652  SEA 

SCREW  was  known  to  the  Greeks.  The  pumping-screw  of  Archimedes,  or  screw- 
cylinder  for  raising  water,  invented  236  B.C.,  is  still  in  use.  It  is  stated  that  with  the 
assistance  of  the  screw,  one  man  can  press  down  or  raise  up  as  much  as  150  men  can  do 
without  it. — The  SCREW-PROPELLER  consists  of  two  or  more  twisted  blades,  like  the  vanes 
of  a  windmill,  set  on  an  axis,  running  parallel  with  the  keel  of  a  vessel,  and  revolving 
beneath  the  water  at  the  stern.  It  is  driven  by  a  steam-engine.  The  principle  is  as  old  as 
the  windmill.  It  was  shown  by  Hooke  in  1681,  and  since  by  Du  Quet,  Bernouilli,  and 
others.  Patents  for  propellers  were  taken  out  by  Joseph  Bramah  in  1784 ;  by  Win.  Lyttelton 
in  1 794  ;  and  by  Edward  Shorter  in  1 799.  But  these  led  to  no  useful  result.  However,  in 
1836  patents  were  obtained  by  F.  P.  Smith  and  captain  John  Ericsson,  and  to  them  the 
successful  application  of  the  screw-propeller  must  be  attributed.  The  first  vessels  with  the 
screw  were  the  Archimedes,  built  on  the  Thames  in  1836,  and  the  Rattler,  built  in  the  United 
States  (1814),  and  tried  in  England  in  1845.  Double  screw-propellers  are  now  employed. 

SCULLABOGUE.     See  Massacres,  1 798. 

SCULPTURE  is  said  to  have  begun  with  the  Egyptians.  Pausanias  refers  the  nearest 
approach  to  perfection  in  the  art  to  560  B.  c.  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  built  the  tabernacle  in 
the  wilderness,  and  made  all  the  vessels  and  ornaments,  1491  B.C.,  and  their  skill  is  recorded 
as  the  gift  of  God.  Exod.  xxxi.  3.  Dipoenus  and  Scyllis,  statuaries  at  Crete,  established  a 
school  at  Sicyoii.  Pliny  speaks  of  them  as  being  the  first  who  sculptured  marble  and 
polished  it ;  all  statues  before  their  time  being  of  wood,  568  B.C.  Alexander  gave  Lysippus 
the  sole  right  of  making  his  statues,  326  B.C.  He  left  no  less  than  600  pieces,  some  of  which 
were  so  highly  valued  in  the  age  of  Augustus,  that  they  sold  for  their  weight  in  gold. 
Sculpture  did  not  flourish  among  the  Romans  ;  and  in  the  middle  ages  had  much  degraded. 
With  the  revival  of  painting,  it  revived  also ;  and  Donate  di  Bardi,  born  at  Florence, 
A.D.  1383,  was  the  earliest  professor  among  the  moderns.  An  institute  of  sculptors  was 
established  in  1861. 


Pheidon  flourished .        .B.C.  869 

Myron 480 

Phidias 442 

Praxiteles 363 

Lysippus         ....  328 


Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti, 


A.D.   1474-1564 


EMINENT   SCULPTORS. 
Bernini ....     1598-1680 
Roubiliac,  statue  of  sir  I. 

Newton  .  .  .  died  1762 
Bacon  ....  1740-1799 
Canova  .  .  .  1757-1822 
Flaxman  .  .  .  1754-1826 


Thorwaldsen     . 

Sir  R.  Westmacott 

Rauch 

J.  Thomas     . 

Wm.  Behnes     . 

0.  Kiss 


Chantrey  .        .        .    .     1781-1841  I  J.  Gibson  . 


1770-1844 
1775-1856 
1777-1857 
1813-1862 
-1864. 
1802-1865 
1791 


SCUTAGE  or  ESCUAGE.  The  service  of  the  shield  (scutum)  is  either  uncertain  or  certain. 
Escuage  uncertain  is  where  the  tenant  by  his  tenure  is  bound  to  follow  his  lord  ;  and  is  called 
Castleward,  where  the  tenant  is  bound  to  defend  a  castle.  Escuage  certain  is  where  the 
tenant  is  set  at  a  certain  sum  of  money  to  be  paid  in  lieu  of  such  uncertain  services.  The 
first  tax  levied  in  England  to  pay  an  army,  5  Hen.  II.  1159.  Cowel. 

SCUTARI,  Asiatic  Turkey,  opposite  Constantinople,  of  which  it  is  a  suburb.  It  was 
anciently  called  Chrysopolis,  golden  city,  in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  the  Persians  having 
established  a  treasury  here  when  they  attempted  the  conquest  of  Greece.  Near  here 
Constantiue  finally  defeated  Licinius,  324.  The  hospital  was  occupied  by  the  sick  and 
wounded  of  the  Anglo-French  army,  in  1854-5,  whose  sufferings  were  much  alleviated  by 
the  kind  exertions  of  Miss  Florence  Nightingale  and  a  band  of  nurses  under  her,  aided  by  a 
large  fund  of  money  (15,000^.)  subscribed  by  the  public  and  placed  in  the  care  of  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  Times  newspaper.  See  Times. 

SCYTHIA,  situate  in  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  boundaries 
were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  The  Scythians  made  several  irruptions  upon  the  more 
southern  provinces  of  Asia,  especially  624  B.C.,  when  they  remained  in  possession  of 
Asia  Minor  for  twenty-eight  years,  and  at  different  periods  extended  their  conquests  in 
Europe,  penetrating  as  far  as  Egypt.  See  Tartary. 

SEA  FIGHTS.     See  Naval  Battles. 

SEALS  or  SIGNETS.  Engraved  gems  were  used  as  such  by  the  Egyptians,  Jews, 
Assyrians,  and  Greeks  (see  Exod.  xxviii.  14).  The  Romans  in  the  time  of  the  Tarquins 
(about  600  B.C.)  had  gemmed  rings.  They  sealed  rooms,  granaries,  bags  of  money,  &c.  The 
German  emperor  Frederick  I.  (A.D.  1152)  had  seals  of  gold,  silver,  and  tin.  Impressions 
of  the  seals  of  Saxon  kings  are  extant  ;  and  the  English  great  seal  is  attributed  to  Edward 
the  Confessor  (1041-66).  "  A  seal  with  armorial  bearings  before  the  eleventh  century  is 
certainly  false."  FosbroJce.  The  most  ancient  English  seal  with  arms  on  it  is  said  to  be  that 


SEA  653  SEC 

of  Richard  I.  or  John.  White  and  coloured  waxes  were  used.  Our  present  sealing-wax, 
containing  shellac,  did  not  come  into  general  use  in  Germany  and  Plngland  until  about 
1556.  Red  wafers  for  seals  came  into  use  about  1624  ;  but  were  not  used  for  public  seals  till 
the  1 8th  century. 

SEAS,  SOVEREIGNTY  OF  THE.  The  claim  of  England  to  rule  the  British  seas  is  of  very 
ancient  date.  Arthur  is  said  to  have  assumed  it,  and  Alfred  afterwards  supported  this 
right.  It  was  maintained  by  Selden,  and  measures  were  taken  by  government  in  con- 
sequence, 8  Chas.  I.  1633.  The  Dutch,  after  the  death  of  Charles  L,  made  some  attempts  to 
obtain  it,  but  were  roughly  treated  by  Blake  and  other  admirals.  Russia  and  other  powers 
of  the  north  armed  to  avoid  search,  1780  ;  again,  1800.  See  Armed  Neutrality  and  Flag. 

SEBASTIAN,  ST.  (N.  Spain),  was  taken  by  the  French,  under  the  duke  of  Berwick,  in 
1719.  It  was  besieged  by  the  British  and  allied  army  under  "Wellington.  After  a  most 
heavy  bombardment,  by  which  the  whole  town  was  laid  nearly  in  ruins,  it  was  stormed  by 
general  Graham  (afterwards  lord  Lynedoch),  and  taken  Aug.  31,  1813.  The  loss  sustained  by 
the  besiegers,  though  not  considerable,  was  chiefly  British. — On  May  5,  1836,  the  fortified 
works,  through  the  centre  of  which  ran  the  high  road  to  Hernani,  were  carried  by  the  English 
auxiliary  legion  under  general  Evans,  after  very  hard  fighting.  The  British  naval  squadron, 
off  St.  Sebastian,  under  lord  John  Hay,  lent  very  opportune  aid  to  the  victors  in  this 
contest. — A  vigorous  assault  was  made  on  the  lines  of  general  De  Lacy  Evans,  at  St.  Sebastian, 
by  the  Carlists,  Oct.  I,  1836.  Both  parties  fought  with  bravery.  The  Carlists  were  repulsed, 
after  suffering  severely.  The  loss  of  the  Anglo-Spanish  force  was  376  men  and  37  officers, 
killed  and  wounded.  General  De  Lacy  Evans  was  slightly  wounded. 

SEBASTOPOL,  or  SEVASTOPOL,  a  town  and  once  a  naval  arsenal,  at  S.W.  point  of  the 
Crimea,  formerly  the  little  village  of  Aktiar.  The  buildings  were  commenced  in  1784,  by 
Catherine  II.  after  the  conquest  of  the  country.  The  town  is  built  in  the  shape  of  an 
amphitheatre  on  the  rise  of  a  large  hill  flattened  on  its  summit,  according  to  a  plan  laid 
down  before  1794,  which  has  been  since  adhered  to.  The  fortifications  and  harbour  were  con- 
structed by  an  English  engineer,  colonel  Upton,  and  his  sons,  since  1830.  The  population  in 
1834  was  15,000.  This  place  will  be  memorable  hereafter  for  its  eleven  months'  SIEGE,  by 
the  English  and  French  in  1854  and  1855.  Immediately  after  the  battle  of  the  Alma, 
Sept.  20,  1854,  the  allied  army  marched  to  Sebastopol,  and  took  up  its  position  on  the 
plateau  between  it  and  Balaklava,  and  the  grand  attack  and  bombardment  commenced 
Oct.  17,  1854,  without  success.*  After  many  sanguinary  encounters  by  day  and  night,  and 
repeated  bombardments,  a  grand  assault  was  made  on  Sept.  8,  1855,  upon  the  Malakhoff 
tower  and  the  Redans,  the  most  important  fortifications  to  the  south  of  the  town.  The 
French  succeeded  in  capturing  and  retaining  the  Malakhoff.  The  attacks  of  the  English  on 
the  great  Redan  and  of  the  French  upon  the  little  Redan  were  successful,  but  the  assailants 
were  compelled  to  retire  after  a  desperate  struggle  with  great  loss  of  life.  The  French  lost 
1646  killed,  of  whom  5  were  generals,  24  superior  and  116  inferior  officers,  4500  wounded, 
and  1400  missing.  The  English  lost  385  killed  (29  being  commissioned  and  42  non-com- 
missioned officers),  1886  wounded,  and  176  missing.  In  the  night  the  Russians  abandoned 
the  southern  and  principal  part  of  the  town  and  fortifications,  after  destroying  as  much  as 
possible,  and  crossed  to  the  northern  forts.  They  also  sank  or  burnt  the  remainder  of  their 
fleet.  The  allies  found  a  very  great  aihount  of  stores  when  they  entered  the  place,  July  9. 
The  works  were  utterly  destroyed  in  April,  1856,  and  the  town  was  restored  to  the  Russians 
in  July.  See  Russo-Turkisli  War. 

SECRETARIES  OF  STATE.  The  earliest  authentic  record  of  a  secretary  of  state  is  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  when  John  Maunsell  is  described  as  " Secretarius  Noster,"  1253. 
Rymer.  Towards  the  close  of  Henry  VIII. 's  reign,  two  secretaries  were  appointed ;  and 
upon  the  union  with  Scotland,  Anne  added  a  third  as  secretary  for  Scotch  affairs  ;  this 
appointment  was  afterwards  laid  aside  ;  but  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  the  number  was 
again  increased  to  three,  one  for  the  American  department.  In  1782  this  last  was  abolished 
by  act  of  parliament ;  and  the  secretaries  were  appointed  for  home,  foreign,  and  colonial 
affairs.  When  there  were  but  two  secretaries,  one  held  the  portefeuille  of  the  Northern 

*  In  consequence  of  the  sufferings  and  disasters  of  the  army  in  the  winter  of  1854-5,  the  Sebastopol 
Inquiry  Committee  was  appointed,  and  the  Aberdeen  administration  resigned,  Feb.  1855.  The  committee 
sat  from  March  i  to  May  15,  lord  Aberdeen  being  the  last  person  examined.  Its  report  was  presented 
June  18.  Mr.  Roebuck,  the  chairman,  moved  on  July  17  that  the  house  should  pass  a  vote  of  severe 
reprehension  on  every  member  of  the  Aberdeen  administration.  On  July  19  his  motion  was  lost  by  a 
majority  107  against  it.  In  1855  the  government  sent  sir  John  M'Neill  and  col.  Tulloch  to  inquire  into 
the  state  of  the  armies  in  the  Crimea.  Their  report  was  presented  to  parliament  in  Feb.  1856.  A  com- 
mission was  appointed  to  consider  the  statements  in  the  report  (which  were  very  unfavourable  to  many 
officers),  but  the  substance  of  the  report  was  unshaken,  j 


SEC  654  SEM 

department,  comprising  the  Low  Countries,  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland,  Eussia, 
&c. ;  the  other,  of  the  Southern  department,  including  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Turkey ;  the  affairs  of  Ireland  belonging  to  the  elder  secretary ;  both,  secre- 
taries then  equally  directed  the  home  affairs.  Beaison.  There  are  now  five  secretaries — 
home,  foreign,  colonial,  war,  and  India  (appointed  in  1858),  all  in  the  cabinet. 

SECTS,  RELIGIOUS.     See  under  Worship,  and  their  respective  titles. 

SECULAR  GAMES  (Ludi  Sccculares).  Yery  ancient  Roman  games,  celebrated  on 
important  occasions.  Horace  wrote  his  "  Carmen  Sseculare"  for  their  celebration,  in  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Augustus  (17).  This  took  place  again  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  (47),  of 
Domitian  (88),  and  for  the  last  time,  of  Philip  (248),  believed  to  be  2000  years  after  the 
foundation  of  the  city. 

SECURITY  FROM  YIOLENCE  ACT,  passed  in  1863,  appointed  whipping  as  a  punish- 
ment for  attempts  at  garotting. 

SEDAN  CHAIRS,  so  called  from  Sedan,  on  the  Meuse,  in  France.  The  first  seen  in 
England  was  in  1581.  One  was  used  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  by  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
to  the  great  indignation  of  the  people,  who  exclaimed  that  he  was  employing  his  fellow- 
creatures  to  do  the  service  of  beasts.  Sedan  chairs  came  into  fashion  in  London  in  1634, 
when  sir  Francis  Duncomb  obtained  the  sole  privilege  to  use,  let,  and  hire  a  number  of  such 
covered  chairs  for  fourteen  years.  They  came  into  very  general  use  in  1649. 

SEDGMOOR  (Somersetshire),  where  the  duke  of  Monmouth  (the  natural  son  of  Charles  II. 
by  Lucy  'Walters),  who  had  risen  in  rebellion  on  the  accession  of  James  II.,  was  completely 
defeated  by  the  royal  army,  July  6,  1685.  The  duke  was  made  a  prisoner,  in  the  disguise  of 
a  peasant,  at  the  bottom  of  a  ditch,  overcome  with  hunger,  fatigue,  and  anxiety.  He  was 
beheaded  on  July  15,  following. 

SEDITION.  Sedition  acts  were  passed  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  The  proclamation 
against  seditious  writings  was  published  May,  1792..  The  celebrated  Sedition  bill  passed 
Dec.  1795.  Seditious  societies  were  suppressed  by  act,  June  1797.  The  seditious  meetings 
and  assemblies' bill  passed  March  31,  1817.  In  Ireland,  during  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
Repeal  agitation,  acts  or  proclamations  against  sedition  and  seditious  meetings  were 
published  from  time  to  time  until  1848. 

SEEKERS.     See  Quakers.  SEICENTO.     See  Italy,  p.  372,  note. 

SEIDLICE  (Poland),  where  a  battle  was  fought  April  10,  1831,  between  the  Poles  and 
Russians.  The  Poles  obtained  the  victory  after  a  bloody  conflict,  taking  4000  prisoners  and 
several  pieces  of  cannon.  The  killed  and  wounded  on  both  sides  amounted  to  many 
thousands.  This  success  was  soon  followed  by  fatal  reverses. 

SEISMOMETRY  (from  seismos,  Greek  for  earthquake),  an  apparatus  for  measuring  the 
violence  of  the  shocks.  One  is  described  by  Mr.  Robert  Mallet  in  his  work  on  earthquakes, 
published  in  1858. 

SELENIUM,  a  greyish- white  metal  discovered  in  the  stone  riolite  by  Berzelius,  in  1817. 

SELEUCIA,  a  part  of  Syria,  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Syrian  monarchy  by  its  builder, 
Seleucus  Nicator,  312  B.C.  On  the  fall  of  the  Seleucidte,  it  became  a  republic,  65  B.C.  It 
was  taken  by  Trajan,  A. p.  116  ;  was  several  times  given  up  and  retaken  ;  was  subjugated  by 
the  Saracens,  and  united  with  Ctesiphon,  636. 

SELEUCIDES,  ERA  OF  THE,  dates  from  the  reign  of  Seleucus  Nicator.  It  was  used  in 
Syria  for  many  years,  and  frequently  by  the  Jews  until  the  I5th  century,  and  by  some 
Arabians.  Opinions  vary  as  to  its  commencement.  To  reduce  it  to  our  era  (supposing  it  to 
begin  Sept.  I,  312  B.C.),  subtract  311  years  4  months. 

SELF-DENYING  ORDINANCE,  which  ordained  that  no  member  of  parliament  should 
hold  any  civil  or  military  office  or  command  conferred  by  either  or  both  of  the  houses,  or  by 
authority  derived  from  them,  was  passed  April  3,  1645,  by  the  influence  of  Cromwell,  who 
thus  removed  the  earl  of  Essex;  and  other  Presbyterians  out  of  his  way.  A  somewhat 
similar  ordinance  was  adopted  by  the  parliament  at  Melbourne  in  Australia,  in  1858. 

SELLASIA  (Laconia).  Here  the  Spartans  tinder  Cleomenes  were  defeated  by  Antigonus 
Doson  and  the  Achseans,  221  B.C. 

SEMINCAS  (Castile,  Spain).  Here,  in  938,  the  Moors  were  totally  defeated  by 
Ramirez  II.,  king  of  Leon  and  Asturias.  It  is  said  that  more  than  80,000  of  the  infidels 
were  slain. 


SEM  655  SEIl 

SEMPACH  (Switzerland).  Here  was  fought  a  battle  between  the  Swiss  and  Leopold, 
duke  of  Austria,  July  9,  1386.  The  Swiss  gained  a  great  victory;  and  the  duke  was 
slain.  The  liberty  of  their  country  was  established  ;  and  the  day  is  still  commemorated  at 
Seinpach. 

SEMPER  EADEM  ("Always  the  same"),  one  of  the  mottoes  of  queen  Elizabeth,  was 
adopted  by  queen  Anne  Dec.  13,  1702.  Many  suspected  this  motto  to  denote  her  Jacobitism. 
It  ceased  to  be  used  after  her  reign. 

SENESCHAL,  a  high  officer  of  the  French  royal  household.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  I. 
1059,  the  office  was  esteemed  the  highest  place  of  trust. 

SENONES,  a  Celtic  tribe,  invaded  lower  Italy,  and  were  defeated  by  Camillus,  367  B.O. 
They  defeated  Metellus  the  consul  at  Arretium,  284,  but  were  almost  exterminated  by 
Dolabella,  283. 

SENTINUM  (Central  Italy).  The  site  of  a  great  victory  of  the  Eomans  over  the 
Samnites  and  Gauls,  whose  general,  Gellius  Egnatius,  was  slain,  295  B.C. 

SEPOYS  (a  corruption  of  Sipdhi,  Hindostanee  for  a  soldier),  the  term  applied  to  the 
native  troops  in  India.  Under  able  generals  they  greatly  aided  in  establishing  British  rule 
in  India.  For  their  mutinies,  see  Madras,  1807,  and  India,  1857. 

SEPTEMBER,  the  seventh  Roman  month  reckoned  from  March  (from  Septimus,  seventh). 
It  became  the  ninth  month  when  January  and  February  were  added  to  the  year  by  Numa, 
713  B.C.  The  Roman  senate  would  have  given  this  month  the  name  of  Tiberius,' but  the 
emperor  opposed  it ;  the  emperor  Domitian  gave  it  his  own  name,  Germanicus  ;  the  senate 
under  Antoninus  Pius  gave  it  that  of  Antoninus ;  Commodus  gave  it  his  surname,  Herculeus  ; 
and  the  emperor  Tacitus  his  own  name,  Tacitus. 

SEPTEMBRIZERS.  In  the  French  revolution  a  dreadful  massacre  took  place  in  Paris, 
Sept.  2-5,  1792.  The  prisons  were  broken  open,  and  the  prisoners  butchered,  among  them 
an  ex-bishop,  and  nearly  100  non-juring  priests.  Some  accounts  state  the  number  of  persons 
slain  at  1200,  others  at  4000.  The  agents  in  this  slaughter  were  named  Septembrizers. 

SEPTENNIAL  PARLIAMENTS.  Edward  I.  held  but  one  parliament  every  two  years. 
In  the  4th  Edward  III.  it  was  enacted,  "that  a  parliament  should  be  holden  every  year 
once."  This  continued  to  be  the  statute-law  till  i6th  Charles  I.  1641,  when  an  act  was 
passed  for  holding  parliaments  once  in  three  years  at  least ;  repealed  in  1664.  The 
Triennial  act  was  re-enacted  in  1694.  Triennial  parliaments  thence  continued  till  the  second 
year  of  George  I.'s  reign,  May  1716,  when,  in  consequence  of  the  allegation  that  "a  popish 
faction  were  designing  to  renew  the  rebellion  in  this  kingdom,  and  the  report  of  an  invasion 
from  abroad,  it  was  enacted  that  the  then  parliament  should  continue  for  seven  years." 
This  Septennial  act  has  ever  since  been  in  force.  See  Parliaments.  Several  unsuccessful 
motions  have  been  made  for  its  repeal ;  one  in  May  1837. 

SEPTUAGESIMA  SUNDAY  in  1866,  Jan.  28;  in  1867,  Feb.  17;  in  1868,  Feb.  9. 
See  Quadragesima  Sunday  and  Week. 

SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  OF  THE  BIBLE,  made  from  Hebrew  into  Greek,  277  B.C. 
Seventy-two  translators  were  shut  up  in  thirty- six  cells  ;  each  pair  translated  the  whole  ; 
and  on  subsequent  comparison  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a  word  or  letter.  Justin 
Martyr.  St.  Jerome  affirms  that  they  translated  only  the  Pentateuch  ;  but  St.  Justin  and 
others  say  they  translated  the  whole.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  gave  the  Jews  about  a  million 
sterling  for  a  copy  of  the  Testament,  and  seventy  translators  half  a  million  more  for  the 
translation.  Josephus.  Finished  in  seventy-two  days.  Hewlett,  The  above  statements 
are  merely  traditional.  See  Bible. 

SERAPIS,  TEMPLE  OF  (near  Naples),  was  exhumed  in  1750.  The  investigations  of 
Lyell  and  Babbage  into  the  history  of  the  sinking  and  burying  of  this  temple  are  of  great 
geological  interest. 

SERFS.     See  Slavery  (note)  and  Russia,  1861,  1863. 

SERINGAPATAM  (S.  India).  See  Mysore.  The  battle  of  Seringapatam,  called  also  the 
battle  of  Arikera,  in  which  the  British  defeated  Tippoo  Sahib,  was  fought  May  15,  1791.  The 
redoubts  were  stormed,  and  Tippoo  was  reduced  by  lord  Cornwallis,  Feb.  6,  1792.  After  this 
capture,  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed,  and  Tippoo  agreed  to  cede  one  half  of  Mysore, 
and  to  pay  33,000,000  of  rupees  (about  3,300,000?.  sterling)  to  England,  and  to  give  up  to 
lord  Cornwallis  his  two  eldest  sons  as  hostages. — In  a  new  war  the  Madras  army,  under 
general  Han-is,  arrived  before  Seringapatam,  April  5,  1799  ;  it  was  joined  by  the  'Bombay 


SER 


656 


SEV 


army,  April  14  ;   and  the  place  was  stormed  and  carried  by  major-general  Baird,  May  4, 
same  year.     In  this  engagement  Tippoo  was  killed. 

SERJEANTS-AT-LAW  are  pleaders  from  among  whom  the  judges  are  ordinarily  chosen, 
and  who  are  called  Serjeants  of  the  coif.  The  judges  call  them  brothers.  See  Coif. 

SERVANTS.  An  act  laying  a  duty  on  male  servants  was  passed  in  1775.  This  tax  was 
augmented  in  1781,  et  scq.  A  tax  on  female  servants  was  imposed  in  1785  ;  but  this  latter 
act  was  repealed  in  1792.  The  tax  on  servants  yielded  in  1830  about  250,000?.  per  annum  ; 
in  1840  the  revenue  from  it  had  fallen  to  201,482?.;  in  1850  it  produced  about  the 
same  sum. 

SERVIA,  a  hereditary  principality  nominally  subject  to  Turkey,  south  of  Hungary. 
The  Servians  are  of  Slavonic  origin.  They  embraced  Christianity  about  640.  The  emperor 
Manuel  subjected  them  in  1150  ;  but  they  recovered  their  independence  in  1180,  and  were 
ruled  by  princes,  generally  named  Stephen,  till  their  country  was  finally  subdued  by  the 
sultan  Mahomet  II.  in  1459.  Population  in  1854,  985,000. 


A  Servian  rebellion  quelled  ....  1737 
The  Servians  assist  Austria  by  free  companies, 

1788-90 

Again  rebel,  and  capture  Belgrade  .  .  .  1806 
Kara  George,  aided  by  the  Russians,  establishes 

a  government 1807-11 

The  Turks  break  a  treaty  and  Kara  George 

flees 1814 

Their  governor  Milosch  rebels  .  .  March,  1815 
Kara  George  returning,  is  executed  .  .  .1816 
Milosch  I.  recognised  as  hereditary  prince  by 

the  sultan Aug.  15,  1829 

Milosch  becoming    despotic  is    compelled    to 

abdicate,  and  a  new  constitution  established, 

June  13,  1839 
His  son  Michael  also  retires  ;  Alexander,  son  of 

Kara  George,  chosen  prince         .         Sept.  14,  1842 
Alexander  becoming  unpopular,  is  compelled  to 


abdicate,  and  Alexander  Milosch  is  re-elected 
prince Dec.  23, 

Plot  against  Milosch  frustrated,  July  n  ;  the 
Servian  assembly  meets  .  .  .  July  13, 

Milosch  dies  ;  siicceeded  by  his  son  Michael 
III.  Obrenovitch  (present  ruler)  .  Sept.  26, 

Rising  movement  to  render  Servia  independent 
of  Turkey March, 

Disputes  between  the  Servians  and  the  Turkish 
garrison  at  Belgrade,  which  leads  to  blood- 
shed ;  June  15,  the  city  bombarded  ;  submits, 
June  17 ;  the  Turkish  pasha  dismissed, 

June  19, 

A  conference  of  the  representatives  of  the  great 
powers  at  Constantinople,  Aug.  ;  the  Porte 
agrees  to  liberal  concessions  to  the  Servians, 
which  their  prince  accepts  .  .  Oct.  7, 


1862 


SESSION  COURTS  in  England  were  appointed  to  be  held  quarterly  in  1413,  and  the 
times  for  holding  them  regulated  in  1831.  See  Quarter  Sessions  and  Court  of  Session.  The 
kirk-session  in  Scotland  consists  of  the  ministers  and  elders  of  each  parish.  They  super- 
intend religious  worship  and  discipline,  dispense  the  money  collected  for  the  poor,  &c. 

SESTTTS,  on  the  Thracian  Chersonesus.  See  Hellespont.  Near  Sestus  was  the  western 
end  of  Xerxes'  bridge,  across  the  Hellespont,  480  B.C.  Sestus  was  retaken  from  the  Persians 
by  the  Athenians,  478  B.C.,  and  held  by  them  till  404,  giving  them  the  command  of  the 
trade  of  the  Euxine. 

SETTLEMENT,  ACT  OF,  for  securing  the  succession  to  i^he  British  throne,  to  the 
exclusion  of  Roman  Catholics,  was  passed  in  1689.  This  name  is  also  given  to  the  statute 
by  which  the  crown,  after  the  demise  of  William  III.  and  queen  Anne,  without  issue,  was 
limited  to  Sophia,  electress  of  Hanover,  grand-daughter  of  James  I.,  and  to  heirs  being 
Protestants,  1702.  The  Irish  act  of  settlement,  passed  in  1662,  was  repealed  in  1689.  See 
Hanover. 

SEVEN  CHURCHES  OF  ASIA,  to  the  angels  (ministers)  of  which  the  apostle  John  was 
commanded  to  write  the  epistles  contained  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  chapters  of  his  Revelation, 
viz.,  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamos,  Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and  Laodicea,  96. 


i.  Ephesus  (which  see).  Paul  founded  the  church 
here,  57.  In  59  he  was  in  great  danger  from  a 
tumult  created  by  Demetrius:  to  the  elders  of 
this  church  he'delivered  his  warning  address,  60 
(Acts  xix.  xx.).  Ephesus  was  in  a  ruinous  state 
«ven  in  the  time  of  Justinian  (527),  and  still  re- 
mains so. 

^.  Sniyrna.  Now  an  important  commercial  city 
and  seaport  of  Ionia.  Polycarp,  its  first  bishop, 
suffered  martyrdom,  175. 

3.     Pergamos.     Capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  same 

fc  name,  founded  by  Philetserus,  whom  Lysimachus, 
one  of  Alexander's  generals,  had  made  governor, 
2833.0.  He  was  succeeded  by  Eumeues  I.,  263; 


Attains  (who  took  the  title  of  king),  241 ;  Eumenes  i 
II.  (who  collected  a  great  library),  197  ;  Attalus 
II.,   159;    Attalus  III.,  138.     He  bequeathed  his 
kingdom  to  the  Romans,  133.      It  revolted,  was   , 
subdued,  and    made  the   Roman  province,  Asia. 
Pergamos  is  still  an  important  place,  called  Ber- 
gamo.    Parchment  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
here. 

4.  Thyatira.     Now  a  mean  town  of  2000  houses, 
called  Ak-hissar,  "White  Castle." 

5.  Sardis.      Formerly    the    capital  of  Lydia,    the 
kingdom  of  Croesus  (560  B.C.),  is  now  a  miserable 
village,  named  Sart. 

6.  Philadelphia  was   built  by  Attalus  (III.)  Phila- 


SEV  657  SHA 


SEVEN  CHURCHES  OF  ASIA,  continued. 

delphus,   king  of    Pergamos  ( 


159-138  B.C.);   was 
It  is  now  called 

,h  Stiehr, ""  The  city  of  God,"  and  is  a  miserable 
of  3000  houses. 


taken  by  Bajazet  I.   A.D.  1390. 


7.  Laodicea.  In  Phrygia,  near  Lydia,  has  suffered 
much  from  earthquakes.  It  is  now  a  deserted 
place  called  Eske-hissar,  "  The  old  castle." 

SEVEN-SHILLING  PIECES  in  gold  were  authorised  to  be  issued  Nov.  29,  1797. 
SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR,  the  conflict  maintained  by  Frederick  II.   of  Prussia  against 
istria,  Russia,  and  France,  from  1756  to  1763.     See  Battles.     He  gained  Silesia. 

SEVENTH-DAY  BAPTIST.     See  article  Sabbatarians,  &c. 
SEVERUS'S  WALL.     See  Roman  Walls. 

SEVILLE  (S.W.  Spain),  the  Hispalis  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Julia  of  the  Romans, 
was  the  capital  until  Philip  II.  finally  established  his  court  at  Madrid,  1563.  It  opened  its 
gates  to  the  Saracens,  in  712,  and  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Christians  in  1247,  after  an 
obstinate  siege.  The  peace  of  Seville  between  England,  France,  and  Spain,  and  also  a 
defensive  alliance"  to  which  Holland  acceded,  signed  Nov.  9,  1729.  In  the  peninsular 
war,  Seville  surrendered  to  the  French,  Feb.  I,  1810;  and  was  taken  by  assault  by  the 
British  and  Spaniards,  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  Aug.  27,  1812. 

SEVRES.     See  Porcelain. 

SEWERS.  An  act  was  passed  in  1847  enforcing  the  conveyance  of  the  sewage  of  houses 
into  the  public  sewers.  The  Commissioners  of  Sewers  in  London  were  superseded  by  the 
Metropolitan  Commissioners  of  Sewers,  nominated  by  the  government.  They  abolished  the 
large  brick  sewers,  introducing  pipe  drains,  and  turned  the  contents  of  30,000  cesspools 
into  the  river  Thames.  The  necessity  for  purifying  the  river  led  to  the  construction  of  a  new 
system  of  drainage,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  (which 
see).  The  main  drainage  (the  plan  of  Mr.  J.  W.  Bazalgette)  consists  of  the  Northern  High- 
level,  Middle-level,  and  Low-level,  and  Southern  High-level  and  Low-level.  On  March  14, 
1865,  the  works  were  said  to  be  completed,  except  the  low-level  sewer  on  the  north  side, 
which  was  waiting  for  the  completion  of  the  Thames  embankment,  &c.  On  April  4,  1865, 
the  prince  of  Wales  started  the  engines  which  commenced  lifting  the  waters  of  the  southern 
outfall,  at  Crossness  Point,  near  Erith.*  Estimated  total  cost,  4,000,000^.  See  Carbolic 
Acid. 

SEWING-MACHINE.  The  first  practical  sewing-machine  was  the  invention  of  Elias 
Howe,  an  American  mechanic,  of  Cambridge,  in  Massachusetts,  about  1841.  It  is  now 
known  under  an  improved  form  as  Thomas's  shuttle  machine,  by  whom  it  was  introduced 
into  England  in  1846.  Two  threads  are  wrought  into  the  fabric  to  be  sewn,  by  a  needle  and 
shuttle,  which  interlace  the  threads  and  form  a  strong  seam.  In  some  machines  now  in 
extensive  use,  two  needles  are  employed  to  make  with  two  threads  a  double  chain  stitch, 
and  a  more  simple  machine  makes  by  the  aid  of  one  needle  and  a  hook,  the  common  single 
chain  stitch  with  one  thread.  These  machines  are  all  of  American  origin. 

SEXAGESIMA  SUNDAY.     See  Quadragesima  Sunday  and  Week. 

SEXTANT,  an  instrument  used  like  a  quadrant,  containing  sixty  degrees,  or  the  sixth 
part  of  a  circle,  invented  by  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Augsburg,  in  1550.  Vince's  Astron.  The 
Arabian  astronomers  are  said  to  have  had  a  sextant  of  fifty  nine  feet  nine  inches  radius, 
about  995.  A  she. 

SHAKSPEARE'S  PLAYS.  William  Shakspeare  was  born  at  Stratford-upon-Avon, 
Warwickshire,  April  23,  1564,  and  died  on  his  birthday,  1616.  The  first  collected  edition 
of  his  works  is  dated  1623  [a  facsimile  of  this  edition  was  published,  1862-5]  5  tne  second, 
1632  ;t  the  third,  1664;  the  fourth,  1685  ;  all  in  folio.  Critical  editions  of  the  text,  edited 
by  Alexander  Dyce,  were  published  in  1857  and  1864-6  ;  Boydell's  edition,  with  numerous 

*  The  utilisation  of  disinfected  sewage  as  manure  is  now  much  advocated.  Great  success  is  said  to  have 
been  attained  at  Edinburgh,  Carlisle,  Croydon,  and  other  places.  Much  hot  controversy  has  arisen  respect- 
ing this  disposal  of  the  London  sewage.  On  Nov.  15,  1864,  the  Metropolitan  board  accepted  a  contract  for 
its  disposal  from  Messrs.  Hope  and  Napier.  The  Sewage  Utilisation  Act,  and  the  Metropolitan  Sewage  and 
Essex  Reclamation  Acts  were  passed  in  June,  1865. 

t  In  1849,  Mr.  J.  P.  Collier,  editor  of  an  edition  of  Shakspeare,  purchased  a  copy  of  the  second  folio, 
on  which  was  written  in  pencil,  a  number  of  corrections,  supposed  to  have  been  made  soon  after  the  time 
of  publication.  At  first  he  thought  little  of  these  marks ;  but  in  1853  he  was  induced  to  publish  "  Notes 
and  Emendations  "  derived  from  this  volume.  Much  controversy  ensued  as  to  the  authenticity  of  these 
corrections ;  and  in  1859  it  was  generally  agreed  that  they  were  of  modern  date,  and  consequently  of  little 
value. 

TJ  U 


SHA 


658 


SHE 


plates,  was  published  in  nine  vols.,  folio,  in  1802.  Ayscongh's  Index  to  Shakspeare  was 
published  in  1790  ;  Twiss's  Index,  in  1805,  and  Mrs.  Cowden  Clarke's  Concordance,  1847. 
See  Ireland s  Forgeries. 


SHAKSPEARE'S  GLOBE  THEATRE,  London,  was  situated 
near  the  spot  still  called  Bankside,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  seventeenth  century.  Shak- 
speare was  himself  part-proprietor ;  here  some' of 
his  plays  were  first  produced,  and  he  himself 
performed  in  them.  It  was  of  a  horse-shoe  form, 
partly  covered  with  thatch.  After  it  was  licensed, 
the  thatch  took  fire,  through  the  negligent  dis- 
charge of  a  piece  of  ordnance,  and  the  whole 
building  was  consumed.  The  house  was  crowded 
to  excess,  to  witness  the  play  of  Henry  VIII.,  but 
the  audience  escaped  unhurt.  This  was  the  end 
of  Shakspeare's  connection  with  this  theatre:  it 
was  rebuilt  the  following  year,  much  in  the  same 
style,  about  1603. 

SHAKSPEARE'S  JUBILEE,  and  that  projected  by  David 
Garrick,  was  celebrated  at  Stratford-on-Avon, 
Sept.  6-8,  1769 ;  a  similar  festival  was  kept 
April  23,  1836.  The  tercentenary  of  Shakspeare's 
birth  was  celebrated  with  many  festivities  at 
Stratford-on-Avon,  April  23,  1865. 


SHAKSPEARE'S  NATIVE  PLACE.  In  1847,  a  number  of 
persons  of  distinction  interested  themselves  for 
the  preservation  of  the  house  in  which  Shakspeare 
was  born,  then  actually  set  up  for  sale :  they  held 
a  meeting  at  the  Thatched-House  Tavern,  London, 
Aug.  26,  in  that  year,  and  took  measures  for 
promoting  a  subscription  set  on  foot  by  the  Shak- 
spearian  Club  at  Stratford-upon-Avon ;  and  a 
committee  was  appointed  to  carry  out  their  object. 
In  the  end  Shakspeare's  house  was  sold  at  the 
Auction  Mart  in  the  city  of  London,  where  it  was 
"knocked  down"  to  the  United  Committee  of 
London  and  Stratford  for  the  large  sum  of  30001. 
Sept.  16,  1847.  In  1856,  a  learned  oriental  scholar, 
John  Shakespeare,  no  relation  of  the  poet,  gave 
2500?.  to  purchase  the  adjoining  house,  that  it 
might  be  pulled  down,  in  order  to  ensure  tho 
poet's  house  from  the  risk  of  fire. 

SHAKSPEARE'S  GARDEN  was  bought  by  subscription 
got  up  by  Mr.  J.  O.  Halliwell,  in  Oct.  and  Nov. 
1861. 


SHAMROCK,  It  is  said  that  the  shamrock  used  by  the  Irish  was  introduced  by  Patrick 
M  'Alpine,  since  called  St.  Patrick,  as  a  simile  of  the  Trinity,  432.  When  he  could  not 
make  them  understand  him  by  his  words,  he  showed  the  Irish  a  stem  of  clover  or  trefoil, 
thereby  exhibiting  an  ocular  demonstration  of  the  possibility  of  three  uniting  into  one,  and 
one  into  three. 

SHARPSBUEG  (Maryland).     See  Antietam. 

SHAWLS  are  of  Oriental  origin.  The  manufacture  was  introduced  by  Barrow  and 
Watson,  in  1784,  at  Norwich.  It  began  at  Paisley  and  Edinburgh  about  1805.  Ure. 

SHEEP  were  exported  from  England  to  Spain,  and,  the  breed  being  thereby  improved, 
produced  the  fine  Spanish  wool,  which  proved  detrimental  to  our  woollen  manufacture, 
8  Edw.  IV.  1467.  Anderson.  Their  exportation  was  prohibited  on  pain  of  fine  and  impri- 
sonment, 1522.  The  number  of  sheep  in  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  variously  stated — 
by  some  at  43,000,0x20,  by  others  at  49,000,000,  and  by  more  at  60,000,000,  in  1840.  The 
number  must  have  progressively  increased  to  the  present  time,  particularly  as  the  unre- 
stricted importation  since  1846  vastly  swells  the  amount.  In  1851  there  were  imported 
into  England  201,859  sheep  and  lambs  ;  in  1858,  184,482  ;  in  1864,  496,243.  In  Aug.  and  ! 
Sept.  1862,  many  sheep  in  Wiltshire  died  of  small-pox;  and  on  Sept.  n,  government 
declared  its  intention  of  enforcing  the  act  for  the  prevention  of  contagion.  The  evil  soon  i 
abated. 

SHEEPSHANKS'  DONATIONS.  On  Feb.  2,  1857,  Mr.  John  Sheepshanks,  by  a  deed  i 
of  gift,  presented  to  the  nation  his  valuable  collection  of  paintings  and  drawings,  valued  at 
6o,oooZ.  In  accordance  with  the  donor's  directions,  the  pictures  were  placed  at  the  South 
Kensington  Museum.  The  collection  is  rich  in  the  works  of  Mulready,  Landseer,  and 
Leslie.  He  died  Oct.  5,  1863. — On  Dec.  2,  1858,  the  trustees  of  his  brother,  the  late  Rev.  I 
Richard  Sheepshanks,  presented  io,oooZ.  stock  to  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  for  the 
promotion  of  the  study  of  astronomy,  meteorology,  and  magnetism. 

SHEERNESS  (N.  Kent),  a  royal  dockyard,  planned  and  fortified  by  Charles  II.  in  1667, 
•was  taken  by  the  Dutch,  under  De  Ruyter,  June  n,  same  year.  Improved  since  1815. 


held  by  the  Lovetots,  Nevils,  Talbots,  and  Howards. 

I 

Plate  assay  office  established  .  .  .  .  177^] 
Made  a  borough  by  the  Reform  Act  . 
Wesley  college  opened  .... 
Sheffield  and  Manchester  railway  opened  .  .  1845 
Athenaium  and  Mechanics'  Institution  opened.  1849 
John  A.  Roebuck  (grandson  of  Dr.  Roebuck  of 


St.  Peter's  church  built  temp.  Henry  I. 
Hospital  and  alnishouses  erected  by  the  earl  of 

Malmesbury 1616 

Cutlers'  company  incorporated  ....  1624 
The  castle  (built  in  the  i3th  century)  was  taken 

and  demolished  by  the  parliamentarians  .    .  1648 
Cutlers'  hall  built 1726 


32 


Sheffield),  M.P.  for  Sheffield 


.  May,  1849-66  ; 


SHE 


659 


SHI 


SHEFFIELD,  continued. 

Embankment  of  the  Bradfield  water  reservoir 
broke  down,  and   flooded  Sheffield  and  the 
itry  12  or  14  miles  round ;  about  250  lives 
lost;    many  buildings  and  much  pro- 


perty destroyed;   estimated  loss,   327,000?., 

March  n,  1864 
52,751?.  had  been  collected  for  the  sufferers, 

April  29,     „ 
The  Surrey  music  hall  burnt        .        March  25,  1865 


SHELBURNE  ADMINISTRATION,  formed  at  the  death  of  the  marquis  of  Rock- 
ingham,  July,  1782;  terminated  April,  1783;  and  was  succeeded  by  the  "Coalition" 
administration. 


Thomas,   lord  Grantham,  and  Thomas  Townahend 

(afterwards  lord  Sydney),  secretaries. 
Viscount  Keppel,  admiralty. 
Duke  of  Richmond,  ordnance. 
Lord  Thurlow,  lord  chancellor. 
Henry  Dundas,  Isaac  Barre,  sir  George  Yonge,  &c. 


The  earl   of   Shelburne   (afterwards    marquess    of 

Landsdowne),  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 
William  Pitt,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Lord  (afterwards  earl)  Camden,  president  of  the 

council. 
Duke  of  Grafton,  privy  seal. 

SHELLS.     See  Bombs. 

SHERIFF.  The  office  of  sheriff  is  from  shire-reve,  governor  of  a  shire  or  county.  London 
had  its  sheriffs  prior  to  William  I.'s  reign  ;  but  some  say  that  sheriffs  were  first  nominated 
for  every  county  in  England  by  William  in  1079.  According  to  other  historians,  Henry 
Cornhill  and  Richard  Reynere  were  the  first  sheriffs  of  London,  I  Rich.  I.  1189.  The  nomi- 
nation of  sheriffs  according  to  the  present  mode  took  place  in  1461.  Stow.  Anciently  sheriffs 
were  hereditary  in  Scotland,  and  in  some  English  counties,  as  Westmoreland.  The  sheriffs  of 
Dublin  (first  called  bailiffs)  were  appointed  in  1308,  and  obtained  the  name  of  sheriff  by  an 
incorporation  of  Edward  VI.  1548.  Thirty-five  sheriffs  were  fined,  and  eleven  excused  in 
one  year,  rather  than  serve  the  office  for  London,  1734.  See  Bailiffs. 

SHERIFFMUIR.     See  Dumblane.  SHETLAND  ISLES.     See  Orkneys. 

SHIBBOLETH,  the  word  by  which  the  followers  of  Jephthah  tested  their  opponents  the 
Ephraimites,  on  passing  the  Jordan,  about  1143  B.C.  Judges  xii.  The  term  is  now  applied 
to  any  party  watchword  or  dogma. 

SHIITES,  a  Mahometan  sect,  predominated  in  Persia.     See  Malwmetanism. 

SHILLING.  The  value  of  the  ancient  Saxon  coin  of  this  name  was  fivepence,  but  it 
was  reduced  to  fourpence  about  a  century  before  the  conquest.  After  the  conquest  the  French 
solidus  of  twelve  pence,  in  use  among  the  Normans,  was  called  shilling.  The  true  English 
shilling  was  first  coined,  but  in  small  quantity,  18  Hen.  VII.  1503.  Dr.  Kelly.  In  1505. 
Bishop  Fleetwood.  A  peculiar  shilling,  value  nine  pence,  but  to  be  current  at  twelve,  was 
struck  in  Ireland,  1560;  and  a  large  but  very  base  coinage  in  England  for  the  service  of 
Ireland,  1598.  Milled  shillings  were  coined  13  Chas.  II.  1662.  See  Coins. 

SHIP-BUILDING.  The  first  ship  (probably  a  galley)  was  brought  from  Egypt  to  Greece, 
by  Danaus,  1485  B.C.  Blair.  The  first  double-decked  ship  was  built  by  the  Tyrians,  786  B.C. 
Lenglet.  The  first  double-decked  one  built  in  England  was  of  1000  tons  burthen,  by  order 
of  Henry  VIII.  1509  ;  it  was  called  the  Great  Harry,  and  cost  14,000?.  Stow.  Port-holes 
and  other  improvements  were  invented  by  Descharges,  a  French  builder  at  Brest,  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XII.,  about  1500.  Ship-building  was  first  treated  as  a  science  by  Hoste, 
1696.  A  74-gun  ship  was  put  upon  the  stocks  at  Van  Diemen's  Land,  to  be  sheathed 
with  India-rubber,  1829.  Iron  is  now  greatly  used  in  ship-building.  See  Navy  and 
Steam  Vessels. 

SHIP-MONEY  was  first  levied  about  1007,  to  form  a  navy  to  oppose  the  Danes. 
This  impost  being  illegally  levied  by  Charles  I.  in  1634-6  led  to  the  revolution.  He 
assessed  London  in  seven  ships,  of  4000  tons,  and  1560  men  ;  Yorkshire  in  two  ships,  of 
600  tons,  or  i2,oooZ. ;  Bristol  in  one  ship,  of  100  tons  ;  Lancashire  in  one  ship,  of  400  tons. 
John  Hampden  refused  to  pay  the  tax,  and  was  tried  in  the  Exchequer  in  1636.  Ship-money 
was  included  in  a  redress  of  grievances  in  1641.  The  five  judges,  who  had  given  an  opinion 
in  its  favour,  were  imprisoned.  Hampden  received  a  wound  in  a  skirmish  with  prince 
Rupert,  and  died  June  24,  1643. 

SHIPPING,  BKITISH.  Shipping  was  first  registered  in  the  river  Thames  in  1786  ;  and 
throughout  the  empire  in  1787.  In  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century,  the  shipping  of  England 
was  but  half  a  million  of  tons — less  than  London  now.  In  1830,  the  number  of  ships  in  the 
British  empire  was  22,785.  See  Navy  and  Navigation  Acts. 

u  u  2 


SHI 


660 


SHO 


SHIPPING,  BRITISH,  continued. 

NUMBER   OF   VESSELS   REGISTERED   IN   THE   BRITISH  EMPIRE    ON   JAN.    I,    1840. 

Country.                                                    Vessels.  Tonnage. 

England 15,830  ....  1,983,522  . 

Scotland 3,3I8      •         •        •     •  378,194 

Ireland 1,889  ....  169,289  . 

Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  Man      .        .     .         633      .        .        .     .  39,630 

British  Plantations       ....      6,075  ....  497,798  . 


Seamen. 
i  HJ  593 
25,909 
11,288 
4.473 
35,020 


Total 


27,745      ....     3,068,433 


181,283 


The  following  are  the  numbers  of  the  Registered  Sailing  and  Steam  Vessels  (exclusive  of 
River  Steamers)  of  the  United  Kingdom,  engaged  in  the  home  and  foreign  trade  :— 


1849. 

1856. 

1861. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Men 
employed. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Men 
employed. 

Vessels.* 

Tonnage. 

Sailing        .        .     . 
Steamers 

Total    .        .    . 

17,807 
414 

2,988,021 
108,321 

144,165 
8,446 

18,419 
851 

3,825,022 
331,055 

151,080 
22,838 

19,288 
997 

3,9i8,5« 
441,184 

18,221 

3,096,342 

152,611 

19,270 

4,156,077 

I73>9i8 

20,285 

4>359,695 

Men  employed — sailing  vessels,  144,949  >  steamers,  27,008  ;  total,  171,957. 


SHIPWRECKS.     See  Wrecks. 


SHIRES.     See  Counties. 


SHIRTS  are  said  to  have  been  first  generally  worn  in  the  west  of  Europe  early  in  the  8th 
century.  Du  Frcsnoy.  Woollen  shirts  were  commonly  worn  in  England  until  about  1253, 
when  linen,  but  of  a  coarse  kind  (fine  coming  at  this  period  from  abroad),  was  first  manu- 
factured in  England  by  Flemish  artisans.  Stow. 

SHOEBURYNESS  (Essex).  Some  ground  here,  purchased  in  1842  and  1855,  and  by 
an  act  of  parliament  in  1862,  was  set  apart  as  "ranges  for  the  use  and  practice  of 
artillery."  See  Cannon,  note.  Experiments  with  Mr.  Whitworth's  projectiles  on  Nov.  12, 
1862,  showed  their  great  improvement  in  form  and  material.  Shells  were  sent  through 
5 1  inch  plate  and  the  wood- work  behind  it.  It  was  objected,  that  they  might  not  do  this 
with  ships  in  motion. 

SHOEBLACK  BRIGADES  (Blue,  Red,  and  Yellow)  were  established  at  various  times, 
especially  in  1851,  by  the  Ragged  School  Union  (which  see),  founded  1844.  In  1855,  108 
boys  had  cleaned  544,800  pairs  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  thus  earned  2270^.;  of  which  1235^. 
had  been  paid  to  the  boys,  527?.  to  their  bank,  and  516?.  to  the  society.  The  brigades  earned 
45482.  in  1859. 

SHOES,  among  the  Jews  were  made  of  leather,  linen,  rush,  or  wood.  Moons  were  worn 
as  ornaments  in  their  shoes  by  the  Jewish  women.  Isaiah  iii.  18.  Pythagoras  would  have 
his  disciples  wear  shoes  made  of  the  bark  of  trees  ;  probably,  that  they  might  not  wear  what 
were  made  of  the  skins  of  animals,  as  they  refrained  from  the  use  of  everything  that  had  life. 
The  Romans  wore  an  ivory  crescent  on  their  shoes  ;  and  Caligula  enriched  his  with  precious 
stones.  In  England,  about  1462,  the  people  wore  the  beaks  or  points  of  their  shoes  so  long, 
that  they  encumbered  themselves  in  walking,  and  were  forced  to  tie  them  up  to  their  knees  ; 
the  fine  gentlemen  fastened  theirs  with  chains  of  silver  or  silver  gilt,  and  others  with  laces. 
This  was  prohibited,  on  the  forfeiture  of  205.  and  on  pain  of  being  cursed  by  the  clergy, 
7  Edw.  IV.  1467.  See  Dress.  Shoes,  as  at  present  worn,  were  introduced  about  1633. 
The  buckle  was  not  used  till  1668.  Stow;  Mortimer.  The  buckle-makers  petitioned  against 
the  use  of  shoe-strings  in  1791. 

SHOP-TAX.  The  act  by  which  a  tax  was  levied  upon  retail  shops  was  passed  in  1785  ; 
but  it  caused  so  great  a  commotion,  particularly  in  London,  that  it  was  deemed  expedient  to 
repeal  it  in  1789.  The  .statute  whereby  shoplifting  was  made  a  felony,  without  benefit  of 
clergy,  was  passed  10  &  n  Will.  III.  1699.  This  statute  has  been  some  time  repealed. 


SHO  661  SIB 

SHORE,  JANE,  the  mistress  of  Edward  IV.  and  afterwards  of  lord  Hastings.  She  did 
public  penance  in  1483,  and  was  afterwards  confined  in  Ludgate  ;  but  upon  the  petition  of 
Thomas  Hymore,  who  agreed  to  marry  her,  king  Richard  III.,  in  1484,  restored  her  to 
liberty ;  and  sir  Thomas  Moore  mentions  having  seen  her,  which  contradicts  the  story  of 
her  having  perished  by  hunger.  Harlcian  MSS. 

SHORT-HAND.     See  Stenography. 

11  SHORT-LIVED  "  ADMINISTRATION— that  of  William  Pulteney,  earl  of  Bath,  lord 
Carlisle,  lord  Winchilsea,  and  lord  Granville,  existed  from  Feb.  10  to  Feb.  12,  1746. 

SHOT.  In  early  times  various  missiles  were  shot  from  cannon.  Bolts  are  mentioned  in 
1413  ;  and  in  1418  Henry  V.  ordered  his  clerk  of  the  ordnance  to  get  7000  stones  made  at 
the  quarries  at  Maidstone.  Since  then  chain,  grape,  and  canister  shot  have  been  invented, 
as  well  as  shells  ;  all  of  which  are  described  in  Scoffern's  work  on  "Projectile  Weapons  of 
"War,  and  Explosive  Compounds,"  1858.  See  Bombs  and  Cannon. 

SHREWSBURY  ADMINISTRATION.  Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury,  was  made  lord 
treasurer,  July  30,  1714,  two  days  before  the  death  of  queen  Anne  ;  his  patent  was  revoked 
soon  after  the  accession  of  George  I.,  Oct.  13  following,  when  the  earl  of  Halifax  became  first 
lord  of  the  treasury.  See  Halifax.  The  office  of  lord  treasurer  has  been  executed  by  com- 
missioners ever  since. 

SHREWSBURY  (Shropshire),  arose  on  the  ruin  of  the  Roman  town  Uriconium  (see 
Wroxeter),  and  became  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  kingdom,  having  a  mint  till  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  Here  Richard  II.  held  a  parliament  in  1397.  On  July  21  or  23,  1403,  was 
fought  the  sanguinary  battle  of  Shrewsbury  between  the  army  of  Henry  IV.  and  that  of 
the  nobles,  led  by  Percy  (surnamed  Hotspur),  son  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  had 
conspired  to  dethrone  Henry.  Henry  was  seen  in  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  with  bis  son, 
afterwards  Henry  V.  The  death  of  Hotspur  by  an  unknown  hand  gave  the  victory  to  the 
king.  Hume.  Shrewsbury  grammar  school  was  founded  by  Edward  VI.  in  I553>  and 
endowed  by  Elizabeth. 

SHROPSHIRE,  BATTLE  OF,  in  which  the  Britons  were  completely  subjugated,  and 
Caractacus,  the  renowned  king  of  the  Silures,  became,  through  the  treachery  of  the  queen  of 
the  Brigantes,  a  prisoner  to  the  Romans,  50.* 

SHROVE  TUESDAY,  the  day  before  Ash -Wednesday,  the  first  day  of  the  Lent  Fast. 
See  Carnival. 

SIAM,t  a  kingdom  in  India,  bordering  on  the  Burmese  empire.     Siam  was  re-discovered 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1511,  and  a  trade  established,  in  which  the  Dutch  joined  about  1604. 
A  British  ship  arrived  about  1613.     In  1683,  a  Cephalonian  Greek,  Constantine  Phaulcon, . 
became  foreign  minister  of  Siam,  and  opened  a  communication  with  France ;  Louis  XIV. 
sent  an  embassy  in  1685  with  a  view  of  converting  the  king,  without  effect.     After  several 
ineffectual  attempts,  sir  John  Bowring  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  treaty  of  friendship  and ' 
commerce  between  England  and  Siam,  which  was  signed  April  30,  1855,  and  ratified  April  5, 
1856  ;  and  one  with  France  followed  in  August.     Two  ambassadors  from  Siam  arrived  in 
Oct.  1857,  and  had  an  audience  with  the  queen  ;    they  brought  with  them  magnificent 
presents,  which  they  delivered  crawling,  on  Nov.  16.     They  were  at  Paris  in  June,  1861. 

SIBERIA  (N.Asia).  In  1580  the  conquest  was  begun  by  the  Cossacks  under  Jermak 
Timofejew.  In  1710  Peter  the  Great  began  to  send  prisoners  thither. 

SIBYLS,  Sibyllse  were  women  believed  to  be  inspired,  who  flourished  in  different  parts 
of  the  world.  Plato  speaks  of  one,  others  of  two,  Pliny  of  three,  yElian  of  four,  and  Varro 
of  ten.  An  Erythrean  sibyl  is  said  to  have  offered  to  Tarquin  II.  nine  books  containing  the 
Roman  destinies,  demanding  for  them  300  pieces  of  gold.  He  denied  her  ;  whereupon  the 

*  It  is  asserted  that  while  Caractacus  was  being  led  through  Rome,  his  eyes  were  dazzled  by  the 
splendours  that  surrounded  him.  "  Alas  !  "  he  cried,  "how  is  it  possible  that  a  people  possessed  of  such 
magnificence  at  home,  could  envy  me  an  humble  cottage  in  Britain  ?  "  The  emperor  was  affected  with  the 
British  hero's  misfortunes,  and  won  by  his  address.  He  ordered  him  to  be  unchained  upon  the  spot,  and 
set  at  liberty  with  the  rest  of  the  captives. 

t  SIAMESE  TWINS.  Two  persons  born  about  1811,  enjoying  all  the  faculties  and  powers  usually 
possessed  by  separate  and  distinct  individuals,  although  united  together  by  a  short  cartilaginous  band  at 
the  pit  of  the  stomach.  They  are  named  Chang  and  Eng,  and  were  first  discovered  on  the  banks  of  the 
Siam  river  by  an  American,  Mr.  Robert  Hunter,  by  whom  they  were  taken  to  New  York,  where  they  were 
exhibited.  Captain  Coffin  brought  them  to  England.  After  having  been  exhibited  for  several  years  in 
Britain,  they  went  to  America,  where  they  settled  on  a  farm,  and  married  sisters'.  In  1865  they  were  said 
to  be  living  in  North  Carolina  in  declining  health. 


SIC 


662 


sibyl  threw  three  of  them  into  the  fire,  and  asked  the  same  price  for  the  other  six,  which 
being  still  denied,  she  burnt  three  more,  and  again  demanded  the  same  sum  for  those  that 
remained  ;  when  Tarquin  conferring  with  the  pontiffs  was  advised  to  buy  them.  Two 
magistrates  were  created  to  consult  them  on  all  occasions,  531  B.C. 

SICILIAN  VESPERS,  the  term  given  to  the  massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily,  com- 
menced at  Palermo,  March  30,  1282.  The  French  had  become  hateful  to  the  Sicilians,  and 
a  conspiracy  against  Charles  of  Anjou  was  already  ripe,  when  the  following  occurrence  led 
to  its  development  and  accomplishment.  On  Easter  Monday,  the  chief  conspirators  had 
assembled  at  Palermo  ;  and  while  the  French  were  engaged  in  festivities,  a  Sicilian  bride 
happened  to  pass  by  with  her  train.  She  was  observed  by  one  Drochet,  a  Frenchman,  who 
began  to  use  her  rudely,  under  pretence  of  searching  for  arms.  A  young  Sicilian,  exaspe- 
rated at  this  affront,  stabbed  him  with  his  own  sword  ;  and  a  tumult  ensuing,  200  French 
were  instantly  murdered.  The  enraged  populace  now  ran  through  the  city,  crying  out, 
"Let  the  French  die  !"  and,  without  distinction  of  rank,  age,  or  sex,  slaughtered  all  of  that 
nation  they  could  find,  to  the  number  of  8000.  Even  the  churches  proved  no  sanctuary, 
and  the  massacre  became  general  throughout  the  island. 

SICILY  (anciently  Trinacria,  three-cornered).  The  early  inhabitants  were  the  Sicani,  a 
people  of  Spain,  and  Etruscans,  who  came  from  Italy  about  1294  B.C.  A  second  colony, 
under  Siculus,  arrived  eighty  years  before  the  destruction  of  Troy,  1284  B.C.  The 
Phoenicians  and  Greeks  settled  some  colonies  here  (735-582).  It  is  supposed  that  Sicily  was 
separated  from  Italy  by  an  earthquake,  and  that  the  straits  of  the  Charybdis  were  thus 
formed.  Its  government  has  frequently  been  united  with  and  separated  from  that  of  Naples 
(which  see) ;  the  two  now  form  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Population  of  Sicily  in  1856, 
2,231,020. 


Arrival  of  Ulysses.  Homer.  .  .  .  B.C.  1186 
Syracuse  founded  Eusebius  .  .  about  73-2 

Gela  founded.     Thucydides      .        .        .     680  or  713 

Agrigentum  founded 582 

Phalaris,  tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  put  to  death. 

See  Brazen  Bull 549 

Law  of  Petalism  instituted         ....    460 

Athenian  expedition  fails 413 

War  with  Carthage 409 

Dionysius  becomes  master  of  Syracuse,  makes 

peace  with  the  Carthaginians  and  reigns   .  406-367 
Dionysius  II.   sells  Plato  for  a  slave,  who  is 

ransomed  by  his  friends 360 

Dionysius  expelled  by  Timoleon    .        .        .    .     343 
Who  governs  well :  and  dies       ....     337 
Agathocles  usurps  sovereign  power  at  Syracuse, 
317 ;  defeated  at  Himera  by  the  Carthaginians, 

310  ;  poisoned 289 

Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  invades  Sicily ;  expels 
the  Carthaginians  from  most  of  their  settle- 
ments, but  returns  to  Italy  .  .  .  278-277 

The  Romans  enter  Sicily 264 

Agrigentum  taken  by  the  Romans  .  .B.C.  262 
Palermo  besieged  by  the  Romans  .  .  .  .  254 
Archimedes  flourishes  .  .  .  about  236 
Hiero  II.  defeated  by  the  Romans,  263-; 

becomes  their  ally,  and  reigns  till     .        .     .     216 
The  Romans  take  Syracuse,  and  make  all  Sicily 

a  province;  Archimedes  slain         .        .        .212 
The  Carthaginians  lose  half  their  possessions, 

241 ;  all  the  remainder „ 

The  Servile  wars  .  .  .  135,  134,  and  132 
Tyrannical  government  of  Verres  (for  which  he 

was  accused  by  Cicero) 73-71 

Sicily  held  by  Sextus  Pompeius,  son  of  the 
great  Pompey 42-36 

Invaded  by  the  Vandals,  A.D.  440  ;  by  the 
Goths,  493  ;  taken  for  the  Greek  emperors  by 
Belisarius A.D.  535 

Conquered  by  the  Saracens         ....     832 

The  Greeks  and  Arabs  driven  out  by  a  Norman 
prince,  Roger  I.  son  of  Tancred,  1058 :  who 
takes  the  title  of  count  of  Sicily  .  1061-1090 

Roger  II.  son  of  the  above-named,  unites  Sicily 
with  Naples,  and  is  crowned  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies 1131 


1282 


1435 


1501 


Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis,  king  of 
France,  conquers  Naples  and  Sicily,  deposes 
the  Norman  princes,  and  makes  himself  king,  1266 

The  French  becoming  hated  by  the  Sicilians, 
a  general  massacre  of  the  invaders  takes 
place.  See  Sicilian  Vespers  .  .  .  . 

Sicily  is  seized  by  a  fleet  sent  by  the  kings  of 
Aragon ;  but  Naples  remains  to  the  house  of 
Anjou 

Alphonso,  king  of  Aragon,  takes  possession  of 
Naples 

The  kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  united  to  the 
Spanish  monarchy  under  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic ' 

Victor,  duke  of  Savoy,  made  king  of  Sicily,  by 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht 1713 

Which  he  gives  up  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI., 
and  becomes  king  of  Sardinia  ....  1720 

Charles,  son  of  the  king  of  Spain,  becomes  king 
of  the  Two  Sicilies 1735 

The  throne  of  Spain,  becoming  vacant,  Charles, 
who  is  heir,  vacates  the  throne  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  in  favour  of  his  third  son  Ferdinand, 
agreeably  to  treaty 1759 

Dreadful  earthquake  at  Messina,  in  Sicily, 
which  destroys  40,000  persons  ....  1783 

The  French  conquer  Naples  (lehich  see) ;  Ferdi- 
nand IV.  retires  to  Sicily  .  .  .  .1806 

Political  disturbances 1810 

New  constitution  granted,  under  British 
auspices !8i2 

The  French  expelled  from  Naples  ;  kingdom  of 
The  Two  Sicilies  re-established;  Ferdinand 
returns  to  Naples 1815 

He  abolishes  the  new  constitution      .        .        .     ,, 

Revolution  at  Palermo  suppressed         .        .     .  1820 

The  great  towns  in  Sicily  rise  and  demand  the 
constitution  ;  a  provisional  government  pro- 
claimed   Jan.  12,  1848 

The  king  nominates  his  brother,  the  count  of 
Aquila,  viceroy,  Jan.  17 ;  promises  a  new 
constitution Jan.  29,  ,, 

The  Sicilian  parliament  decrees  the  exclusion 
of  the  Bourbon  family,  April  13  ;  and  invites 
the  duke  of  Genoa  to  the  throne  .  July  u,  „ 

Messina  bombarded  and  taken  by  the  Neapo- 
litans   Sept.  7,  ,, 


SIC 


663 


[SIE 


SICILY,  continued. 

Catania  taken  by  assault,  April  8 ;  Syracuse 
surrenders,  April  23  ;  and  Palermo  .  May  15,  1849 

Insurrections  suppressed  at  Palermo,  Messina, 
and  Catania,  April  4  et  seq. ;  the  rebels  retire 
into  the  interior  .  .  .  April  21  et  seq.  1860 

Garibaldi  and  his  followers  (2,200  men)  embark 
at  Genoa,  May  5  ;  and  land  at  Marsala, 
May  ii  ;  he  abandons  his  ships ;  and  assumes 
the  dictatorship  in  the  name  of  the  king  of 
Sardinia May  14,  „ 

He  .defeats  the  royal  troops  at  Calatafimi, 
May  15  ;  storms  Palermo,  May  27  ;  which  is 
bombarded  by  the  royal  fleet,  May  28;  an 
armistice  agreed  to  ...  May  31,  „ 

A  provisional  government  formed  at  Palermo, 
June  3 ;  which  is  evacuated  by  the  Neapoli- 
tans   June  6,  „ 

Garibaldi  defeats  the  Neapolitans  at  Melazzo, 

July  20,  21,  ,, 

Convention  signed,  by  which  the  Neapolitans 
free  to  evacuate  Sicily  (retaining  the  citadel 
Messina) July  30,  ,, 


The  Sicilian  constitution  proclaimed  .    Aug.  3,  1860 

Garibaldi  embarks  for  Calabria:  see  Naples. 

Aug.  19,  „ 

Professor  Saffi  (late  of  Oxford),  a  short  time 
dictator Sept.  „ 

The  Sicilians  by  universal  suffrage  vote  for 
annexation  to  Sardinia  (432,054  against  667), 

Oct.  21,  „ 

Victor-Emmanuel  visits  Sicily          .         Dec.  i.     „ 

Citadel  of  Messina  blockaded,  Feb.  28;  sur- 
renders to  general  Cialdini  .  .  March  13,  1861 

King  Victor-Emmanuel  warmly  received  at 
Messina May,  1862 

Imprudent  speeches  of  Garibaldi  at  Marsala, 
July  19 ;  he  enters  Catania,  and  establishes 
a  provisional  government,  Aug.  19 ;  embarks 
for  Italy Aug.  24,  ,, 

Sicily  placed  under  blockade ;  removed  in 
Sept.  ;  tranquil Oct.  „ 

(See  Italy,  1862.) 


SICYON,  an  ancient  Grecian  kingdom  in  the  Peloponnesus,  founded,  it  is  said,  about 
2080  B.C.  In  252  it  became  a  republic  and  joined  the  Achaean  league  formed  by  Aratus.  It 
was  the  country  of  the  sculptors  Polycletes  (436)  and  Lysippus  (238  B.C.). 

SIDON  (Syria),  a  city  of  Phoenicia,  to  the  north  of  Tyre.  It  was  conquered  by  Cyrus 
about  537  B.C.  ;  and  surrendered  to  Alexander,  332  B.C.  See  Phoenicia.  The  town  was  taken 
from  the  pacha  of  Egypt  by  the  troops  of  the  sultan  and  of  his  allies,  assisted  by  some  ships 
of  the  British  squadron,  under  admiral  the  hon.  sir  Robert  Stopford  and  commodore  Charles 
Napier,  Sept.  27,  1840.  See  Syria  and  Turkey. 

SIEGES,  MEMORABLE.  Azoth,  which  was  besieged  by  Psammetichus  the  Powerful,  held 
out  for  nineteen  years.  Usher.  It  held  out  for  twenty-nine  years.  Herodotus.  This  was 
the  longest  siege  recorded  in  the  annals  of  antiquity.  The  siege  of  Troy  was  the  most  cele- 
brated, and  occupied  ten  years,  1184  B.C.  The  following  are  the  most  memorable  sieges 
since  the  I2th  century;  for  details  see  separate  articles. 


Acre,  1192,  1799,  1832,  1840. 

Algesiras,  1341. 

Algiers,  1681 :  Bomb  vessels  first  used 
by  a  French  engimer  named  Re- 
nau,  1816. 

Alkmaer,  1573. 

Almeida,  Aug.  27,  1810. 

Amiens,  1597. 

Ancona,  1174,  1799,  1860.   .». 

Antwerp,  1576,  1583,  1585,  1746, 
1832. 

Arras,  1640. 

Azoff,  1736. 

Badajoz,  March  n,  1811 ;  April  6, 
1812. 

Bagdad,  1258. 

Barcelona,  1697,  1714. 

Belgrade,  1439,  1456,  1521,  1688, 
J7i7,  i739>  *789- 

Belle-Isle,  1761. 

Bergen-op-Zoom,  1622,  1747,  1814. 

Berwick,  1333. 

Bethune,  1710. 

Bois-le-Duc,  1603,  1794. 

Bologna,  1512,  1796,  1799. 

Bommel :  the  invention  of  the  covert- 
way,  1794. 

Bonn,  1672,  1689,  1703. 

Bouchain,  1711. 

Boulogne,  1544. 

Breda,  1625. 

Brescia,  1238,  1512,  1849. 

Breslau,  1807. 

Brisac,  1638,  1704. 

Brussels,  1695,  1746. 

Boinarsund,  1854. 

Buda,  1541,  1686. 


Burgos,  1812,  1813. 

Cadiz,  1812. 

Calais,  1347  (British  historians  affirm 
that  cannon  were  used  at  Cressy, 
1346,  and  here  in  1347.  First 
used  here  in  1388.  RYMER'S 
FOSD.),  1558,  1596. 

Calvi,  1794. 

Candia :  the  largest  cannon  then 
known  in  Europe,  used  here  by  the 
Turks,  1667. 

Cathagena,  1706-7,  1740. 

Chalus,  1199. 

Charleroi,  1693. 

Charleston,  U.S.,  1864-5. 

Chartres,  1568. 

Cherbourg,  1758. 

Ciudad  Rodrigo,  1810,  1812. 

Colchester,  1643. 

Comorn,  1849. 

Compiegne  (Joan  of  Arc),  1430. 

Conde",  1676,  1793,  1794- 

Coni,  1691,  1744. 

Constantinople,  1453. 

Copenhagen,  1653,  1801,  1807. 

Corfu,  1716. 

Courtray,  1646. 

Cracow,  1702. 

Cremona,  1702. 

Dantzic,  1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. 

Delhi,  1857. 

Douay,  1710. 

Dresden,  1756,  1813. 

Drogheda,  1649. 

Dublin,  1500. 

Dunkirk,  1646,  1793. 

Flushing,  Aug.  15,  1809. 


Frederickshald:  Charles  XII.  killed, 

1718. 

Gaeta,  1435,  1734,  1860-1. 
Genoa,  1747,  1800. 
Gerona,  1809. 
Ghent,  1708. 

Gibraltar,  1704,  1779,  1782-3. 
Giatz,  1742, 1807. 
Gottingen,  1760. 
Graves,  1674. 
Grenada,  1491,  1492. 
Groningen,  1594. 
Haerlem,  1572,  1573. 
Harfleur,  1415. 
Heidelberg,  1688. 
Herat,  1838. 
Ismail,  1790. 
Kars,  1855. 
Kehl,  1733,  1796. 
Landau,  1702  et  seq.,  1792. 
Landrecy,  1712,  1794. 
Laon,  988,  991. 
Leipsic,  1757  et  seq.,  1813. 
Lerida,  1647,  1707,  1810. 
Leyden,  1574. 
Liege,  1408,  1688,  1702. 
Lille,  1708,  1792. 
Limerick,  1651,  1691. 
Londonderry,  1689. 
Louisbourg,  1758. 
Luxemburg,  1795. 
Lyons,  1793. 
Maestricht,    1579,    1673:    Vauban 

first  came  into  notice;  1676,  1748, 
Magdeburg,  1631,  1806. 
Malaga,  1487. 
Malta,  1565,  1798,  1800. 


SIE 


664 


SIL 


SIEGES,  continued. 

Mantua,  1797,  1799. 

Marseilles,  1524. 

Menin,  1706. 

Mentz,  1689,  1793. 

Messina,  1282,  1719,  1848,  1861. 

Metz,  1552-3. 

Mons,  1691,  1709,  1792. 

Montargis,  1426. 

Montauban,  1621. 

Montevideo,  Jan.  1807. 

Mothe  :  the  French,  taught  by  afMr. 

Muller,  first  'practised  the  art  of 

throwing  shells,  1634. 
Namur,  1692,  1746, 1794. 
Naples,  1435,  1504,  1557, 1792, 1799, 

1806. 

Nice,  1706. 
Nieuport,  1600. 
Olivenza,  1801,  1811. 
Olmutz,  1758. 
Orleans,  1428,  1563. 
Ostend,  1601,  1798. 
Oudenarde,  1706. 
Padua,  1509. 
Pampeluna,  1813. 
Paris,  806,  1420,  1594. 
Parnia,  1248. 
Pavia,  1524,  1655. 
Perpignan,  1542,  1642. 
Philipsburg,  1644,  1676,  1688,  first 


experiment  of  firing  artillery  a-ri- 

cochet,  1734,  1799. 
Platasa,  427  B.C. 
Pondicherry,  1748,  1793. 
Prague,  1741—1744. 
Quesnoy,  1793,  1794. 
Rheims,  1359. 
Rhodes,  1521. 
Richmond,  U.S.,  1864-5. 
Riga,  1700,  1710. 
Rochelle,  1573,  1627. 
Rome,  1527,  1798,  1849. 
Romorentin  :  artillery  first  used  in 

sieges.    VOLTAIRE,  1356. 
Rouen,  1419,  1449,  1591- 
Roxburgh,  1460. 
St.  Sebastian,  1813. 
Saragossa,    1710,    1808,   1809;    the 

two  last  dreadful. 
Sebastopol,  1854-5. 
Schweidnitz  :  first  experiment  to 

reduce    a  fortress    by    springing 

globes  of  compression,  1757 — 1762. 
Scio  (see  Greece),  1822.5 
Serin  gapatam,  1799. 
Sestos,  478  B.C. 
Seville,  1247-8. 
Silistria,  1854. 
Smolensko,  1632,  1812. 
Stralsund ;  the  method  of  throwing 


red-hot  balls  first  practised  with 

certainty,  1715. 
Tarragona,  1811. 
Temeswar,  1716. 
Thionville,  1792. 
Thorn,  1703. 
Tortosa,  1811. 
Toulon,  1707,  1793. 
Toulouse,  1217. 
Tournay,    1340,   1513,    1583,    1667, 

1709  (this  was  the  best  defence  ever 

drawn  from  countermines),  1792. 
Treves,  1635,  1673,  1675. 
Tunis,  1270,  1535. 
Turin,  1640,  1706. 
Valencia,  1705,  1707,  1712. 
Valenciennes,  1677,  I793>  J794- 
Vannes,  1342. 
Venloo,  1702, 
Verdun,  1792. 
Vicksburg,  U.S.,  1863. 
Vienna,  1529,  1683. 
Wakefield,  1460. 
Warsaw,  1831. 
Xativa,  1246. 
Xeres,  1262. 
Ypres,  1648. 
Zurich,  1544. 
Zutphen,  1586. 


SIERRA  LEONE  ("W.  Africa),  discovered  in  1460.  In  1786,  London  swarmed  with  free 
negroes  living  in  idleness  and  want ;  and  400  of  them,  with  sixty  whites,  mostly  women  of 
bad  character  and  in  ill-health,  were  sent  out  to  Sierra  Leone,  at  the  charge  of  government 
to  form  a  settlement,  Dec.  9,  1 786.  The  settlement  was  attacked  by  the  French,  Sept.  1 794 ; 
by  the  natives,  Feb.  1802.  Sir  Charles  Macarthy,  the  governor  of  the  colony,  murdered  by 
the  Ashantee  chief,  Jan.  21,  1824. — 16  &  17  Viet.  c.  86,  relates  to  the  government,  &c.,  of 
this  colony.  It  is  now  a  bishopric.  See  Asliantecs. 

SIGNALS  are  alluded  to  by  Polybius.  Elizabeth  had  instructions  drawn  up  for  the 
admiral  and  general  of  the  expedition  to  Cadiz,  to  be  announced  to  the  fleet  in  a  certain 
latitude  :  this  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  set  of  signals  given  to  the  commanders  of  the 
English  fleet.  A  system  for  the  navy  was  invented  by  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards 
James  II.  1665.  Guthrie.  See  Fog-signals. 

SIGNETS.     See  Seals. 

SIGN  MANUAL,  ROYAL,  a  stamp  employed  when  the  sovereign  was  so  ill  as  to  be 
unable  to  write  :  in  the  case  of  Henry  VIII.  1547 ;  James  I.  1628  ;  and  George  IV.,  May  29, 
1830.  Rosse. 

SIKHS,  a  people  of  N.  India,  invaded  the  Mogul's  empire,  1703-8.  See  Punjab  and 
India,  1849. 

SILESIA,  formerly  a  province  of  Poland,  was  invaded  by  John  of  Bohemia,  1325,  and 
ceded  to  him,  1355.  It  was  conquered  and  lost  several  times  during  the  seven  years'  war  by 
Frederick  of  Prussia,  but  was  retained  by  him  at  the  peace  in  1763. 

SILICIUM  (from  silex,  flint),  a  metal,  next  to  oxygen,  the  most  abundant  substance  in 
the  earth,  as  it  enters  into  the  constitution  of  many  earths,  metallic  oxides,  and  a  great 
number  of  minerals.  The  mode  of  procuring  pure  silicium  was  discovered  by  Berzelius  in 
1823.  Gmelin.  See  Water-glass  and  Ransome's  Stone. 

SILISTRIA,  a  strong  military  town  in  Bulgaria,  European  Turkey.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Russians,  Sept.  26,  1 829,  after  nine  months'  siege,  and  held  some  years  by  them  as  a  pledge 
for  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  by  the  Porte  ;  but  was  eventually  returned.  In  1854,  it  was 
again  besieged  by  the  Russians,  30,000  strong,  under  prince  Paskiewitch,  and  many  assaults 
were  made.  The  Russian  general  was  compelled  to  return  in  consequence  of  a  dangerous 
contusion.  On  June  2,  Mussa  Pacha,  the  brave  and  skilful  commander  of  the  garrison,  was 
killed.  On  June  9,  the  Russians  stormed  two  forts,  which  were  retaken.  A  grand  assault 
took  place  on  June  13,  under  prince  Gortschakoff  and  general  Schilders,  which  was 
vigorously  repelled.  On  the  I5th,  the  garrison  assumed  the  offensive,  crossed  the  river, 
defeated  the  Russians,  and  destroyed  the  siege  works.  The  siege  was  thus  raised,  and  the 


SIL  665  SIM 

Russians  commenced  their  retreat,  as  Omar  Pacha  was  drawing  near.  The  garrison  was  ably 
assisted  by  two  British  officers,  captain  Butler  and  lieutenant  Nasmyth,  the  former  of  whom, 
after  being  wounded,  died  of  exhaustion.  To  them,  in  fact,  the  successful  defence  is. 
attributed.  They  were  highly  praised  by  Omar  Pacha  and  lord  Hardinge,  and  lieutenant 
Nasmyth  was  made  a  major. 

SILK.  "Wrought  silk  was  brought  from  Persia  to  Greece,  325  B.C.  Known  at  Rome  in 
Tiberius' s  time,  when  a  law  passed  in  the  senate  prohibiting  the  use  of  plate  of  massy  gold, 
and  also  forbidding  men  to  debase  themselves  by  wearing  silk,  fit  only  for  women.  Helio- 
gabalus  first  wore  a  garment  of  silk,  A.D.  220.  Silk  was  at  first  of  the  same  value  with  gold, 
weight  for  weight,  and  was  thought  Lo  grow  in  the  same  manner  as  cotton  on  trees.  Silk- 
worms were  brought  from  India  to  Europe  in  the  6th  century.  Charlemagne  sent  Offa,  king 
of  Mercia,  a  present  of  two  silken  vests,  780.  The  manufacture  was  encouraged  by  Roger, 
king  of  Sicily,  at  Palermo,  1 146,  when  the  Sicilians  not  only  bred  the  silk- worms,  but  spun 
and  wove  the  silk.  The  manufacture  spread  into  Italy  and  Spain,  and  also  into  the 
south  of  France,  a  little  before  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  about  1510;  and  Henry  IV.  pro- 
pagated mulberry-trees  and  silk-worms  throughout  the  kingdom,  about  1600.  In  England, 
silk  mantles  were  worn  by  some  noblemen's  ladies  at  a  ball  at  Kenilworth  castle,  1286. 
Silk  was  worn  by  the  English  clergy  in  1534.  Manufactured  in  England  in  1604 ;  and 
broad  silk  wove  from  raw  silk  in  1620.  Brought  to  perfection  by  the  French  refugees  in 
London  at  Spitalfields.  1688.  A  silk  throwing-mill  was  made  in  England,  and  fixed  up  at 
Derby,  by  sir  Thomas  Lombe,  merchant  of  London,  modelled  from  the  original  mill  then  in 
the  king  of  Sardinia's  dominions,  about  1714.  Six  new  species  of  silk-worm  were  rearing  in 
France,  1861.* 

SILURES,  a  British  tribe,  occupying  the  counties  of  Monmouth  and  Hereford,  was- 
subdued  by  the  Roman  general  Ostorius  Scapula,  50.  The  chief,  Caractacus,  was  taken  to 
Rome. — From  this  tribe  is  derived  the  geological  term  "  Silurian  strata, "  among  the  lowest 
of  the  palaeozoic  or  primary  series,  from  their  occurrence  in  the  above  mentioned  counties. 
Murchison's  "  Siluria" 

SILVER  exists  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  found  mixed  with  other  ores  in  various- 
mines  in  Great  Britain.  The  silver  mines  of  South  America  are  far  the  richest.  A  mine 
was  discovered  in  the  district  of  La  Paz  in  1660,  which  was  so  rich  that  the  silver  of  it  was 
often  cut  out  with  a  chisel.  In  1749,  one  mass  of  silver  weighing  370  Ibs.  was  sent  to  Spain. 
From  a  mine  in  Norway,  a  piece  of  silver  was  dug,  and  sent  to  the  Royal  Museum  at 
Copenhagen,  weighing  560  Ibs.  and  worth  1680?.  In  England  silver-plate  and  vessels  were 
first  used  by  "Wilfrid,  a  Northumbrian  bishop,  a  lofty  and  ambitious  man,  709.  Tyrrell. 
Silver  knives,  spoons,  and  cups,  were  great  luxuries  in  1300.  See  Mirrors.  In  1855, 
561,906  oz.  and  in  1857,  532,866  oz.  were  obtained  from  mines  in  Britain.  Pattinson's 
process  for  obtaining  silver  from  lead  ore  was  introduced  in  1829. 

SILVER  COIN.  Silver  was  first  coined  by  the  Lydians,  some  say  at  ./Egina,  in  Greece, 
783  ;  others,  by  Pheidon^of  Argos,  869  B.  c.  At  Rome  it  was  first  coined  by  Fabius  Pictor, 
269  B.C.  Used  in  Britain  25  B.C.  The  Saxons  coined  silver  pennies  which  were  22^  grains- 
weight.  In  1302,  the  penny  was  yet  the  largest  silver  coin  in  England.  See  Shillings,  &c. 
New  silver  coinage,  1816.  From  1816  to  1840,  inclusive,  were  coined  at  our  mint  in 
London,  11,108,265?.  I5S-  *n  silver,  being  a  yearly  average  of  444,330?.  The  total  amount 
of  the  seniorage  received  on  this  coin  was  616,747?.  8s.  2d.  Parl.  Mot.  From  1837  to  1847, 
the  amount  of  silver  coined  was  2,440,614?.  See  Coin  of  England. 

SIMON  AS  AKI.     See  Japan,  1864. 

SIMONIANS,  a  sect  named  after  the  founder,  Simon  Magus,  the  first  heretic,  about  41. 
A  sect  of  social  reformers  called  ST.  SIMONIANS  sprang  up  in  France  in  1819,  and  attracted 
considerable  attention  ;  the  doctrines  were  advocated  in  England,  particularly  by  Dr.  Prati, 
who  lectured  upon  them  in  London,  Jan.  24,  1834.  St.  Simon  died  in  1825,  and  his. 
follower,  Pere  Enfantin,  died  Sept.  I,  1864. 

SIMPLON,  a  mountain  road,  leading  from  Switzerland  into  Italy,  constructed  by 
Napoleon  in  1801-7.  It  winds  up  passes,  crosses  cataracts,  and  passes  by  galleries  through 
solid  rock,  and  has  eight  principal  bridges.  The  number  of  workmen  employed  at  one  time 
varied  from  30,000  to  40,000. 

*  In  1858,  M.  Guerin-Meneville  introduced  into  France  a  Chinese  worm  termed  the  Cynthia  Bombyx, 
which  feeds  on  the  Ailanthus  glandulosa,  a  hardy  tree  of  the  oak  kind.  The  Cynthia  yields  a  silk-like  sub- 
etance  termed  AUanline,  which  promises  to  become  valuable.  It  was  brought  to  Turin  by  Fantoni  in  1856. 


666 


SINGAPORE.     See  Straits  Settlements.  SINGING.     See  Music  and  Hymns. 

SINKING  FUND.  First  projected  by  sir  Robert  Walpole  to  redeem  the  debt  to  the 
bank  of  England  ;  act  passed  in  1716.  The  act  establishing  the  sinking  fund  of  Mr.  Pitt 
was  passed  in  March,  1786.  A  then  estimated  surplus  of  900,000^.  in  the  revenue  was 
augmented  by  new  taxes  to  make  up  the  sum  of  i,ooo,ooo£.  which  was  to  be  invariably 
applied  to  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt.  The  fallacy  of  the  scheme  was  shown  by 
Dr.  Hamilton  in  1813.  In  July,  1828,  the  sinking  fund  was  limited  to  the  actual  surplus 
of  revenue. 

SINOPE  (Sinoub),  an  ancient  sea-port  of  Asia  Minor,  formerly  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Poiitus,  said  to  have  been  the  birth-place  of  Diogenes,  the  cynic  philosopher.  On  Nov.  30, 
1853,  a  Turkish  fleet  of  seven  frigates,  three  corvettes,  and  two  smaller  vessels,  was  attacked 
by  a  Russian  fleet  of  six  sail  of  the  line,  two  sailing  vessels,  and  three  steamers,  under 
admiral  Nachimoff,  and  totally  destroyed,  except  one  vessel,  which  conveyed  the  tidings  to 
Constantinople.  Four  thousand  lives  were  lost  by  fire  or  drowning,  and  Osman  Pacha,  the 
Turkish  admiral,  died  at  Sebastopol  of  his  wounds.  In  consequence  of  this  event,  the  Anglo- 
French  fleet  entered  the  Black  Sea,  Jan.  3,  1854. 

SION  COLLEGE  AND  HOSPITAL,  situated  on  the  site  of  a  nunnery,  which,  having  fallen 
to  decay  was  purchased  by  William  Elsynge,  a  citizen  and  mercer,  and  converted  into  a 
college  and  hospital,  called  from  his  name  Elsynge  Spital.  In  1340  he  changed  it  to  an 
Austin  priory,  which  was  afterwards  granted  by  Henry  VIII.  to  sir  John  Williams,  master 
of  the  jewel-office,  who,  with  sir  Roland  Hay  ward,  inhabited  it  till  its  destruction  by  fire. 
In  1623,  Dr.  Thomas  White  having  bequeathed  3000?.  towards  purchasing  and  building  a 
college  and  alms-house  on  the  ancient  site,  his  executors  erected  the  present  college.  It  is 
held  by  two  charters  of  incorporation,  6  Chas.  I.  1630  and  16  Chas.  II.  1664.  It  contains  a 
valuable  library  (easily  accessible  by  the  public)  maintained  by  a  treasury  grant. 

SIRENE,  an  instrument  for  determining  the  velocity  of  aerial  vibrations  corresponding 
to  the  different  pitches  of  musical  sounds,  was  invented  by  Baron  Cagniard  de  la  Tour  of 
Paris  in  1819. 

SIX  ARTICLES.     See  Articles. 

SIX  CLERKS,  officers  of  the  court  of  chancery,  who  were  anciently  clerici  or  clergy. 
They  were  to  conform  to  the  laws  of  celibacy,  and  forfeit  their  places  if  they  married  ;  but 
when  the  constitution  of  the  court  began  to  alter,  a  law  was  made  to  permit  them  to  marry ; 
statute  24  &  25  Hen.  VIII.  1533.  The  six  Clerks  continued  for  many  ages  officers  of  the 
chancery  court,  and  held  their  offices  in  Chancery-lane,  London,  where  proceedings  by  bill 
and  answer  were  transacted  and  filed,  and  certain  patents  issued.  Law  Diet.  The  Six  Clerks 
were  discontinued  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  103,  1841. 

SKINS.  The  raw  skins  of  cattle  were  usually  suspended  on  stakes  and  made  use  of 
instead  of  kettles  to  boil  meat,  in  the  north  of  England,  and  in  Scotland,  I  Edw.  III.  1327. 
Leland.  In  1857,  4,489,163  skins  of  oxen,  lambs,  kid,  &c.,  dressed  and  undressed,  were 
imported  into  Great  Britain. 

SLAVERY  has  existed  from  the  earliest  ages.  The  traffic  in  men  came  from  Chaldsea 
into  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  all  over  the  East.  In  Greece,  in  the  time  of  Homer,  all  prisoners 
of  war  were  treated  as  slavey  The  Lacedaemonian  youths,  trained  up  in  the  practice  of 
deceiving  and  butchering  slaves,  were  from  time  to  time  let  loose  upon  them  to  show  their 
proficiency;  and  once,  for  amusement  only,  murdered,  it  is  said,  3000  in  one  night. — 
Alexander,  when  he  razed  Thebes,  sold  the  whole  people  for  slaves,  335  B.C.  See  Helots. 
There  were  400,000  slaves  in  Attica,  317  B.C.  In  Rome  slaves  were  often  chained  to  the 
gate  of  a  great  man's  house,  to  give  admittance  to  the  guests  invited  to  the  feast.  By  one 
of  the  laws  of  the  XII.  Tables,  creditors  could  seize  their  insolvent  debtors,  and  keep  them 
in  their  houses,  till  by  their  services  or  labour  they  had  discharged  the  sum  they  owed. 
C.  Pollio  threw  such  slaves  as  gave  him  the  slightest  offence  into  his  fish-ponds,  to  fatten  his 
lampreys,  42  B.C.  Ceecilius  Isidorus  left  to  his  heir  41 16  slaves,  12  B.C.  The  first  Janissaries 
were  Christian  slaves,  1329.* 

*  Serfs  were  peasants  attached  to,  and  part  of,  the  landed  estates.  The  system  was  abolished  by 
Frederic  I.  of  Prussia  in  1702  ;  by  Christian  VII.  of  Denmark  in  1766,  by  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  in  his 
hereditary  states  in  1781  ;  by  Nicholas  I.  of  Russia,  on  the  imperial  domains  in  1842  ;  and  by  his  successor, 
Alexander  II.  (March  3,  1861),  throughout  his  empire.  Slavery  ceased  in  the  Dutch  West  Indies  on  July 
i,  1863. 


SLA 


667 


SLA 


SLAVERY  IN  ENGLAND.  Laws  respecting  the  sale  of  slaves  were  made  by  Alfred.  The 
English  peasantry  were  so  commonly  sold  for  slaves  in  Saxon  and  Norman  times,  that 
children  were  sold  in  Bristol  market  like  cattle  for  exportation.  Many  were  sent  to  Ireland 
and  others  to  Scotland.  Under  the  Normans  the  vassals  were  termed  villains  (of  and 
pertaining  to  the  mil).  They  were  devisable  as  chattels  during  the  feudal  times. 


Severe  statutes  were  passed  in  the  reign  of 
Kichard  II.  1377  and  1385 ;  the  rebellion  of 
Wat  Tyler,  1381,  arose  partly  out  of  the  evils 
of  serfdom.* 

In  1574  queen  Elizabeth  ordered  her  bondsmen 
in  the  western  counties  to  be  made  free  at 


Serfdom  was  finally  extinguished  in  1660,  when 
tenures  in  capite,  knight's  service,  &c.,  were 
abolished. 

In  1772  it  was  decided  that  slavery  could  not 
exist  in  England,  f 


1574 


Act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the 
British  colonies,  and  for  the  promotion  of 
industry  among  the  manumitted  slaves,  and 
for  compensation  to  the  persons  hitherto 
entitled  to  the  services  of  such  slaves  by  the 
grant  from  parliament  of  20,000,000?.  sterling, 
passed Aug.  28,  1833 

Slavery  terminated  in  the  British  possessions 
on  Aug.  i,  1834,  and  770,280  slaves  became 
free. 

Slavery  was  abolished  in  the  East  Indies, 

Aug.  i,  1838 


SLAVERY  IN  UNITED  STATES.  Before  the  war  of  independence  all  the  states  contained 
slaves.  In  1783  the  statement  in  the  Massachusetts  Bill  of  Rights,  "All  men  are  born  free 
and  equal,"  was  declared  in  the  supreme  court  at  Boston  to  bar  slave-holding  in  that  state. 
Slaves  in  the  United  States  in  1790,  697,897  ;  in  1810,  1,191,364 ;  in  1820,  2,009,031  ;  in 
1850,  3,204,313  ;  in  1860,  4,002,996. 

The  Missouri  Compromise  was  abrogated  by 
the  admission  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas  as 
slave-holding  states  ;  civil  war  ensued.  See 
Kansas  .........  1854 

Dred  Scot's  case  (see  United  States)     .        .        .  1857 

John  Brown's  attempt  to  create  a  slave  re- 
bellion in  Virginia  failed  (see  United  States), 

Nov.  1859 

Abraham  Lincoln,  the  anti-slavery  candidate, 
elected  president  of  the  United  States,  Nov.  4,  1860 

Secession  of  South  Carolina  (see  United  States), 

Dec.  ,, 

Slavery  abolished  in  the  district  of  Colombia, 

April  16,  1862 

President  Lincoln  proclaims  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  the  Southern  states  if  they  have 
not  returned  to  the  Union  on  Jan.  i,  1863, 

Sept.  22,  ,, 

Slavery  was  extinguished  by  the  defeat  and 
submission  of  the  Southern  states  .  April,  1865 

The  total  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United 
States  officially  announced  .  Dec.  18,  „ 

See  United  States,  1860-5. 


Congress  passes  unanimously  the  celebrated 
ordinance  "  for  the  government  of  the  terri- 
tory to  the  N.W.  of  the  Ohio,"  which  con- 
tained an  "unalterable"  article,  forbidding 
slavery  or  involuntary  servitude  in  the  said 
state,  July  13,  1787;  after  1800,  several  of  the 
states  prayed,  without  effect,  to  be  relieved 
from  this  prohibition. 

Louisiana  purchased,  which  was  considered  by 
many  as  fatal  to  the  constitution  .  .  .  1803 

The  enormous  increase  in  the  growth  of  cotton 
in  the  Southern  States  (see  Cotton)  led  to 
a  corresponding  increase  in  the  demand  for 
slave  labour.  The  Missouri  Compromise,  drawn 
up  by  Henry  Clay,  by  which  slavery  was  per- 
mitted in  that  state,  but  was  prohibited  in  all 
that  part  of  it  to  the  north  of  36°  30'  N.  Lat. 
carried Feb.  1820 

Contest  between  the  slave-holders  and  their 
opponents  at  the  annexation  of  Texas;  a 
similar  division  to  that  of  Missouri  obtained, 

Dec.  25,  1845 

Another  compromise  effected ;  California  ad- 
mitted as  a  free  state  ;  but  the  Fugitive  Slave 
act  passed  (which  see) 1850 


SLAVE  TRADE.  TRe  slave  trade  from  Congou  and  Angola  was  begun  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1481.  The  commerce  in  man  has  brutalised  a  tract  fifteen  degrees  on  each  side  of 
the  equator,  and  forty  degrees  wide,  or  of  4,000,000  of  square  miles  ;  and  men  and  women 
have  been  bred  for  sale  to  the  Christian  nations  during"the  last  250  years,  and  war  carried  on 
to  make  prisoners  for  the  Christian  market.  The  Abbe  Raynal  computed  (1777)  that,  at  the 
time  of  his  writing,  9,000,000  of  slaves  had  been  consumed  by  the  Europeans.  The  slave- 
trade  is  now  approaching  extinction. 

*  A  statute  was  enacted  by  Edward  VI.  that  a  runaway,  or  any  one  who  lived  idly  for  three  days 
should  be  brought  before  two  justices  of  the  peace,  and  marked  V  with  a  hot  iron  on  the  breast,  and 
adjudged  the  slave  of  him  who  bought  him  for  two  years.  He  was  to  take  the  slave  and  give  him  bread, 
water,  or  small  drink,  and  refuse  meat,  and  cause  him  to  work  by  beating,  chaining,  or  otherwise ;  and  if 
within  that  space,  he  absented  himself  fourteen  days,  was  to  be  marked  on  the  forehead  or  cheek,  by  a 
hot  iron,  with  an  S,  and  be  his  master's  slave  for  ever :  second  desertion  was  made  felony.  It  was  lawful 
to  put  a  ring  of  iron  round  his  neck,  arm,  or  leg.  A  child  might  be  put  apprentice,  and,  on  running  away 
become  a  slave  to  his  master,  1547. 

t  Determined  by  the  judgment  of  the  court  of  king's  bench,  at  the  instance  of  Mr.  Granville  Sharpe. 
A  poor  slave  named  Somerset,  brought  to  England,  was,  because  of  his  ill  state,  turned  adrift  by  his 
master.  By  the  charity  of  Mr.  G.  Sharpe,  he  was  restored  to  health,  when  his  unfeeling  and  avaricious 
master  again  claimed  him.  This  was  resisted,  and  a  suit  was  the  consequence,  which  established,  by  its 
result  in  favour  of  the  black,  the  great  point,  that  slavery  could  not  exist  in  Great  Britain,  June  22,  1772. 
In  1853,  John  Anderson,  a  runaway  slave,  killed  Septimus  Digges,  a  planter  of  Missouri,  who  attempted 
to  arrest  him,  and  escaped  to  Canada.  The  American  government  claimed  him  as  a  murderer.  The 
Canadian  judges  deciding  that  the  law  required  his  surrender,  Mr.  Edwin  James,  Q.C.  (Jan.  15,'  1861) 
obtained  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  for  his  appearance  before  the  court  of  queen's  bench.  Anderson  was' 
however,  discharged  on  Feb.  16,  following,  on  technical  grounds. 


SLA 


668 


SMI 


tinction  of  the  slave  trade,  died,  aged  85,  Sept. 
1846. 

FOREIGN  COUNTRIES  : — The  trade  was  abolished  by 
Austria  in  1782  ;  by  the  French  convention  in 
1794. 

The  Allies  at  Vienna  declared  against  it  Feb.  1815. 

Napoleon,  in  the  hundred  days,  abolished  the  trade, 
March  29,  1815. 

Treaty  for  its  repression  with  Spain,  1817  ;  with  the 
Netherlands,  May  1818  ;  with  Brazil,  Nov.  1826. 

Its  revival  was  proposed  in  the  congress  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  Dec.  14,  1856,  and  nega- 
tived by  183  votes  to  58. 

In  June,  1857,  the  French  government  gave  permis- 
sion to  M.  Regis  to  convey  free  negroes  from  Africa 
to  Guadalotipe  and  Martinico,  French  colonies. 
This  having  led  to  abuses  and  consequent  troubles 
(see  Charles  et  Georges),  was  eventually  given  up  in 
Jan.  1859. 

It  is  said  that  about  40,000  slaves  were  landed  at 
Cuba  in  1860. 

A  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  was 
signed  April  7  ;  ratified  May  20,  1862. 

The  Spanish  government  denounce  the  slave  trade 
as  piracy,  Nov.  1865. 


SLAVE  TEADE,  continued. 

In  1768  the  slaves  taken  from  their  own  continent 

amounted  to  104,100.     In  1786  the  annual  number 

was  about  100,000. 
In  1807  it  was  shown  by  documents,  produced  by 

government,  that  since  1792  upwards  of  3,500,000 

Africans  had  been  torn  from  their  country,  and 

had  either  perished  on  the  passage  or  been  sold  in 

the  West  Indies. 
SLAVE    TRADE   OF  ENGLAND  :    begun  by   sir    John 

Hawkins.     His  first  expedition,  with  the  object  of 

procuring    negroes  on  the  coast  of   Africa,   and 

conveying  them  for  sale  at  the  West  Indies,  took 

place  in  Oct.  1562.     See  Guinea. 
England  employed  130  ships  and  carried  off  42,000 

slaves,  1786. 

Slave-trade  question  debated  in  parliament,  1787. 
The  debate  for  its  abolition  lasted  two  days,  April, 

Mr.  Wilberforce's  motion  lost  by  a  majority  of  88  to 

83,  April  3,  1798. 
The  question  introduced  under  the  auspices  of  lord 

Grenville  and  Mr.  Fox,  then  ministers,  March  31, 

1806. 

The  trade. abolished  by  parliament,  March  25,  1807. 
Thomas  Clarkson,  whose  whole  life  may  be  said  to 

have  been  passed  in  labouring  to  effect  the  ex- 

SLIDING-SCALE.     See  Corn  Laws. 

SLING,  an  ancient  missive  weapon.  In  Judges  xx.  16,  is  mentioned  the  skill  of  the 
Benjamite  slingers  (about  1406  B.C.),  and  with  a  sling  David  slew  Goliath  1063  B.C.  (i.  Sam. 
xvii).  The  natives  of  the  Balearic  isles  (Majorca,  Minorca,  and  Ivi9a)  were  celebrated 
slingers,  and  served  as  mercenaries  in  the  Carthaginian  and  Roman  armies.  Slings  are  said 
to  have  been  used  by  the  Huguenots  at  the  siege  of  Sancerre,  in  1672,  to  economise  their 
powder. 

SLUYS  (Holland),  near  which  Edward  III.  gained  a  signal  naval  victory  over  the  French. 
The  English  had  the  wind  of  the  enemy,  and  the  sun  at  their  backs,  and  began  the  action, 
which  was  fierce  and  bloody,  the  English  archers  galling  the  French  on  their  approach.  Two 
hundred  and  thirty  French  ships  were  taken  ;  thirty  thousand  Frenchmen  were  killed,  with 
two  of  their  admirals  ;  the  loss  of  the  English  wTas  inconsiderable  :  June  24,  1340. 

SMALCALD  (Hesse),  TKEATY  OF,  entered  into  between  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  and 
the  other  princes  of  Germany  in  favour  of  Protestantism,  Dec.  31,  1530.  See  Protestants. 
The  emperor,  apprehensive  that  the  kings  of  France  and  England  would  join  this  league, 
signed  the  treaty  at  Nuremburg,  in  July  1532,  allowing  liberty  of  conscience. 

SMALL  POX,  Variola  (the  diminutive  of  varus,  a  pimple),  a  highly  contagious  disease, 
supposed  to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  from  the  East  by  the  Saracens.  Rhazes,  an 
Arabian,  was  the  first  who  accurately  described  it,  about  900.  From  Europe  it  was  carried 
to  America,  soon  after  its  discovery,  and  raged  there  with  great  severity,  destroying  the 
Indians  by  thousands.  In  1694,  queen  Mary  of  England  died  of  small  pox,  as  did  in  1711 
and  1712  the  emperor  of  Germany,  dauphin  and  dauphiness  of  France  and  their  son,  in 
1730  the  emperor  of  Russia,  in  1741  the  queen  of  Sweden,  and  in  1774  Louis  XV.  of  France: 
It  is  stated  that  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  two  millions  perished  by  it  in  Russia.  In 
London  in  1723  one  out  of  fourteen  deaths  was  caused  by  small  pox,  and  in  France  in  1754 
the  rate  was  one  in  ten.  For  the  attempts  to  alleviate  this  scourge,  see  Inoculation, 
introduced  into  England  in  1722,  and  Vaccination,  announced  by  Dr.  Jenner  in  1798.  In 
Sept.  and  Oct.  1862  a  great  many  sheep  died  of  small  pox  in  the  West  of  England,  till 
successful  preventive  measures  were  resorted  to. 

SMITHFIELD,  WEST,  in  the  heart  of  London,  was  once  a  favourite  walk  of  the  London 
citizens,  outside  the  city  walls.  Sir  W.  Wallace  was  executed  here,  Aug.  24,  1305.  On 
June  13,  1381,  Wat  Tyler  was  met  by  king  Richard  II.  at  this  place,  and  was  stabbed  by 
Walworth  the  mayor.  Many  tournaments  were  also  held  here.  In  the  reign  of  Mary, 
(1553-8),  277  persons  perished  by  fire  ;  and  Bartholomew  Leggatt  and  Edward  Wightman, 
Arians,  were  burnt  here  in  1612. — Bartholomew  fair  was  held  here  till  1853. — This  place 
is  mentioned  as  the  site  of  a  cattle-market  as  far  back  as  1150.  The  space  devoted  to  this 
purpose  was  enlarged  from  about  three  acres  to  four  and  a  half,  and  in  1834  to  six  and  a 
quarter.  The  ancient  regulations  were  called  the  "statutes  of  Smithfield."  In  one  day 


SMI  669  SOA 

there  were  sometimes  assembled  4000  beasts  and  30,000  sheep.  The  annual  amount  of  the 
sales  was  about  7,000,000?.  In  1846  there  were, sold  here  226,132  beasts,  1,593,270  sheep 
and  lambs,  26,356  calves,  33,531  pigs.  There  were  about  160  salesmen.  The  contracted 
space  of  the  market,  the  slaughtering  places  adjoining,  and  many  other  nuisances,  gave 
ground  to  much  dissatisfaction,  and  after  parliamentary  investigation,  an  act  was  passed  on 
Aug.  i,  1851,  appointing  metropolitan  market  commissioners  with  powers  to  provide  a  new 
market,  slaughtering  places,  &c.  ;  and  to  close  the  market  at  Sinithfield.  Smithneld  was 
used  as  a  cattle  market  for  the  last  time  on  June  n,  1855  ;  and  the  new  market  in  Copen- 
hagen-fields was  opened  on  June  13.  See  Metropolitan  Market.  The  act  passed  in  1861  by 
which  a  dead-meat  and  poultry  market  was  ordered  to  be  erected  in  Smithfield,  and  Newgate 
market  to  cease,  has  not  yet  been  carried  into  effect,  1865.* 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  "for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among 
men,"  a  handsome  building  at  "Washington,  U.S.,  was  founded  in  1846,  by  means  of  a  legacy 
of  above  100,000?.  bequeathed  for  the  purpose  to  the  United  States  government  by  James 
Smithson,  illegitimate  son  of  sir  Hugh  Smithson,  who  became  duke  of  Northumberland  in 
1766.  It  publishes  and  freely  distributes  scientific  memoirs  and  reports.  The  library  was 
burnt  on  Jan.  25,  1865. 

SMOKE  NUISANCE.  An  act  was  passed  in  1853  to  abate  this  nuisance,  proceeding 
from  chimney  shafts  and  steamers  above  London  bridge.  In  1856  another  act,  obtained  for 
its  further  application  to  steamers  below  London  bridge,  and  to  potteries  and  glass-houses 
previously  exempted,  came  into  operation,  Jan.  I,  1858 ;  enactments  have  been  made  for 
all  the  kingdom. 

SMOLENSKO  (Kussia).  The  French  in  a  most  sanguinary  engagement  here  were  three 
times  repulsed,  but  ultimately  succeeded  in  entering  Smolensko,  and  found  the  city,  Avhich 
had  been  bombarded,  burning  and  partly  in  ruins,  Aug.  16-19,  1812.  Barclay  de  Tolly,  the 
Russian  commander  in  chief,  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  emperor  Alexander  because  he 
retreated  after  the  battle,  and  Kutusoff  succeeded  to  the  command. 

SMUGGLERS.  The  customs  duties  were  instituted  originally  to  enable  the  king  to 
afford  protection  to  trade  against  pirates ;  and  they  afterwards  became  a  branch  of  public 
revenue,  but  gave  rise  to  much  smuggling.  The  act  so  well  known  as  the  Smugglers'  Act 
was  passed  in  1736.  Its  severity  was  mitigated  ia  1781  and  1784.  A  revision  of  these 
statutes  took  place,  1826  and  1835. 

SMYRNA.     See  Seven  Churches. 

SNEEZING.  The  custom  of  saying  "God  bless  you"  to  the  sneezer,  originated, 
according  to  Strada,  among  the  ancients,  who,  through  an  opinion  of  the  danger  attending 
it,  after  sneezing  made  a  short  prayer  to  the  gods,  as  "  Jupiter  help  me."  Polydore  Vergil 
says  it  took  its  rise  at  the  time  of  the  plague,  A.D.  558,  when  the  infected  fell  down  dead 
sneezing,  though  seemingly  in  good  health. 

SNUFF-TAKING  took  its  rise  in  England  from  the  captures  made  of  vast  quantities  of 
snuff  by  sir  George  Rooke's  expedition  to  Vigo  in  1 702.  It  soon  became  general,  from  which, 
the  revenue  now  draws,  with  tobacco,  considerably  more  than  5,000,000?.  per  annum.  In 
1839  there  were  imported  1,622,493  Ibs.  of  snuff,  of  which  196,305  Ibs.  were  entered  for  home 
consumption  ;  the  duty  was  88,263?.  See  Tobacco.  In  1858,  2,573,925  Ibs.  of  snuff  and 
cigars,  in  1861,  2,110,429  Ibs.  were  imported. 

SOANE  MUSEUM,  at  No.  13,  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  was  gradually  formed  by  sir  John 
Soane,  the  architect,  who  died  in  1837,  after  making  arrangements  for  its  being  open  to  the 
public.  It  contains  Egyptian  and  other  antiquities,  valuable  paintings,  rare  books,  &c. 

SOAP  was  imperfectly  known  to  the  ancients.  The  first  express  mention  of  it  occurs  in 
Pliny  and  Galen ;  and  the  former  declares  it  to  be  an  invention  of  the  Gauls,  though  he 
prefers  the  German  to  the  Gallic  soap.  In  remote  periods  clothes  were  cleaned  by  being 
rubbed  or  stamped  upon  in  water.  Nausicaa  and  her  attendants,  Homer  tells  us,  washed 
theirs  by  treading  upon  them  with  their  feet  in  pits  of  water.  Odyssey,  book  vi.  The 
Romans  used  fuller's  earth.  Savon,  the  French  word  for  soap,  is  ascribed  to  its  having  been 
manufactured  at  Savona,  near  Genoa.  The  manufacture  of  soap  began  in  London  in  1524, 
before  which  time  it  was  supplied  by  Bristol  at  one  penny  per  pound.  The  duty  upon  soap 
imposed  in  1711,  was  totally  repealed  in  1853,  then  set  down  by  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  Mr.  Gladstone,  as  yielding  a  yearly  revenue  of  1,126,000?. 

*  The  Smithfield  Club,  to  promote  improvements  in  the  breed  of  cattle,  was  established  in  1798.  For 
many  years  the' members  supported  a  cattle  show  in  December  in  Gos well-street,  which  was  removed  to 
Baker-street  in  1840,  and  to  the  New  Agricultural  Hall,  Liverpool-road,  Islington,  in  1862. 


SOB 


670 


SOC 


SOBRAON  (N.W.  India).  The  British  army,  35,000  strong,  under  sir  Hugh  (afterwards 
viscount)  Gough,  attacked  the  Sikh  force  on  the  Sutlej,  Feb.  10,  1846.  The  enemy  was 
dislodged  after  a  dreadful  contest,  and  all  their  batteries  taken  ;  and  in  attempting  the 
passage  of  the  river  by  a  floating  bridge  in  their  rear,  the  weight  of  the  masses  that  crowded 
upon  it  caused  it  to  break  down,  and  more  than  13,000  Sikhs  were  killed,  wounded,  or 
drowned.  The  British  loss  Avas  2338  men. 

SOCIALISM  was  advocated  in  London,  Jan.  24,  1834,  by  the  celebrated  Robert  Owen. 
He  laboured  indefatigably  to  propagate  his  doctrines,  and  established  a  settlement  at  New 
Harmony  in  America  in  1824.  He  died  Nov.  17,  1858,  aged  90.  The  French  socialists, 
termed  Communists,  became  a  powerful  political  body  in  that  country,  and  were  much 
implicated  in  the  revolution  in  1848. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE.  The  National  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Social  Science 
originated  in  a  meeting  at  lord  Brougham's  in  May,  1857.  Its  object  is  to  promote  improve- 
ments in  the  administration  of  law,  in  education,  in  public  health,  and  in  social  economy. 
It  holds  annual  meetings,  and  publishes  its  proceedings.  The  first  meeting  was  at  Birming- 
ham, Oct.  12,  1857;  2nd  at  Liverpool,  Oct.  n,  1858;  3rd  at  Bradford,  Oct.  n,  1859;  4th 
at  Glasgow,  Sept.  24,  1860  ;  5th  at  Dublin,  Aug.  14,  1861  ;  6th  in  London,  June  5,  1862  ; 
7th  at  Edinburgh,  Oct  7,  1863  ;  8th  at  York,  Sept.  22,  1864  ;  9th  at  Sheffield,  Oct.  3,  1865. 

SOCIAL  WARS.     See  Athens  and  Marsi. 

SOCIETIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS,  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC,  in  Great  Britain.  Further 
details  of  many  of  these  will  be  found  under  their  respective  heads.  All  in  the  list  below 
are  in  London,  except  otherwise  stated.  An  act  was  passed,  Aug.  u,  1854,  "to  afford 
facilities  for  the  establishment  of  institutions  for  the  promotion  of  Literature  and  Science,'' 
by  grants  of  land,  &c.  ;  and  for  their  regulation.  The  Royal  and  London  Institutions  are 
exempted  from  the  operation  of  the  act. 


Charter  1662 


(Charter  1751) 

(Charter  1783) 
(Charter  1847) 


Eoyal  Society    . 

Christian  Knowledge  Society 

Society  of  Antiquaries 

Society  of  Dilettanti 

Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh 

Society  of  Arts 

Bath  and  West  of  England  Society 

Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society . 

Highland  Society 

Royal  Irish  Academy  .  .  .  Charter 
Linnsean  Society  ....  (Charter  1802) 
Newcastle  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  . 
Royal  Institution  .  .  .  (Charter  1810) 
Royal  Horticultural  Society  .  (Charter  1809) 
Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society 
(Charter  1834) 

London  Institution 

Geological  Society        .        .        .  (Charter  1826) 

Russell  Institution 

Swedenborg  Society 

Liverpool  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society    . 

Roxburghe  Club 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers        (Charter  1828) 
Leeds  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  . 

Egyptian  Society 

Cambridge  Philosophical  Society  (Charter  1832) 
Royal  Astronomical  Society  .        (Charter  1831) 

Medico-Botanical  Society 

Hull  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society     . 
Yorkshire  Philosophical  Society     .         .        .     . 
Sheffield  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society 
Royal  Society  of  Literature       .     (Charter  1826) 
Royal  Asiatic  Society         .        .    (Charter  1824) 
Bannatyne  Club,  Edinburgh 
Athenaeum  Club 
Western  Literary  Institution 
Eastern  Literary  Institution  . 
Zoological  Society 
.  Incorporated  Law  Society     . 
Mechanics'  Institution,  London 
Society  for  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge 
Ashmolean  Society,  Oxford    . 
Maitland  Club,  Glasgow       .... 
Royal  Geographical  Society    . 
Gaelic  Society       ...... 


1717 
1734 
1782 
1753 
1777 
1781 
1785 
1786 


1800 
1804 

1805 

1807 
1808 
1810 


1819 

1820 
1821 
1822 


1823 


1824 
1825 


.  1826 
(Charter  1831)  1827 


1828 
1830 


1831 


1832 
1833 
1834 


Royal  United  Service  Institution 
Royal  Dublin  Society      .... 

Harveian  Society 

British  Association 

Marylebone  Literary  Institution 

Entomological  Society      .... 

Statistical  Society         .... 

Westminster  Literary  Institution 

Surtees  Society,  Durham      .        .        .        .         •    "} 

Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects  (Charter 

1837)    ,, 

Leicester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society     .  1835 
Abbotsford  Club,  Edinburgh  .        ...     1835-7 

Numismatic  Society !836 

Ornithological  Society 1837 

Electrical  Society 1837-8 

Etching  Club ^S 

English  Historical  Society         .        .        .        .1838-56 

Royal  Agricultural  Society 1838 

Camden  Society 

Royal  Botanical  Society 1839 

Microscopical  Society 

Ecclesiological  Society } 

Spalding  Club,  Aberdeen 

Royal  Botanical  Society  of  London        .        .    .     ,', 

Parker  Society 1840-55 

Percy  Society 1840-52 

Irish  Archseological  Society,  Dublin   .        .        .  1840 

London  Library 

Shakespeare  Society.  ' 

Chemical  Society ^41 

Pharmaceutical  Society 

Wodrow  Society,  Edinburgh  ....     1841-7 
Philological  Society          ....  1842 

JElfric  Society 1843-56 

Chetham  Society,  Manchester     ....  1843 
Spottiswoode  Society,  Edinburgh  .        .        .    .     ,, 

Archaeological  Association , , 

Archa3ological  Institute ,, 

Sydenham  Society M 

Ethnological  Society 

Law  Amendment  Society ,, 

Handel  Society 1844 

Syro-Egyptian  Society ,, 

Ray  Society 


671 


SOL 


SOCIETIES,  continued. 

Celtic  Society,  Dublin 

Pathological  Society 

Sussex  Archaeological  Society,  Lewes 

Cambrian  Archaeological  Association 

Cavendish  Society        .... 

Hakluyt  Society       .... 

Pala;ontographical  Society  . 

Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers  (Birmingham 

Institute  of  Actuaries 

Arundel  Society 

British  Meteorological  Society 


1845-53 
1846 


1847 
1848 
1850 


North  of  England  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  1851 

Photographic  Society 1852 

Philobiblon  Society 1853 

Juridical  Society  1855 


Genealogical  Society 

National  Association  for  Social  Science 

Horological  Institute 

Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Fine  Arts 
Institution  of  Naval  Architecture 
Anthropological  Society          .... 


1857 
1858 

1860 
1863 


SOCINIANS.  Persons  who  accept  the  opinions  of  Faustus  Socinus  (died  1562),  and  his 
nephew  Lselius  (died  1604),  Siennese  noblemen.  They  held — i.  That  the  Eternal  Father 
was  the  one  only  God,  and  that  Jesus  Christ  was  no  otherwise  God  than  by  his  superiority 
to  all  other  creatures ;  2.  That  Christ  was  not  a  mediator  ;  3.  That  hell  will  endure  for  a 
time,  after  which  the  soul  and  body  will  be  destroyed  ;  and  4.  That  it  is  unlawful  for 
princes  to  make  war.  Hook.  They  established  a  church  in  Poland,  and  made  proselytes  in. 
Transylvania,  1563. 

SODIUM,  a  remarkable  metal,  first  obtained  in  1807  by  sir  Humphry  Davy  from  soda 
(which  was  formerly  confounded  with  potash,  but  proved  to  be  a  distinct  substance  by 
Duhamel  in  1736).  This  metal,  like  potassium,  was  obtained  by  the  agency  of  the  electric 
battery.  In  consequence  of  Deville's  improved  processes,  sodium  is  now  manufactured  by 
Bell  Brothers,  of  Newcastle,  at  IDS.  a  pound.  Common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium)  is  a  com- 
pound of  sodium  and  chlorine. 

SODOM  AND  GOMORRAH  (Palestine),  with  their  inhabitants,  were  destroyed  by  fire  from 
heaven,  1898  B.C.,  Gen.  xix. 

SODOR  is  a  village  of  Icolmkill*  Dr.  Johnson  calls  it  "the  luminary  of  the  Caledonian 
regions,  whence,"  he  adds,  "savage  clans  and  roving  barbarians  derived  the  benefits  of 
knowledge,  and  the  blessings  of  religion."*  The  bishop's  seat  was  at  Rushin,  or  Castletown, 
in  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  in  Latin  is  entitled  Sodorcnsis.  But  when  that  island  became 
dependent  upon  the  kingdom  of  England  the  western  islands  withdrew  themselves  from  the 
obedience  of  their  bishop,  and  had  a  bishop  of  their  own,  whom  they  entitled  also 
Sodorensis,  but  commonly  bishop  of  the  Isles.  See  Isles.  Germanus  was  settled  here  by  St. 
Patrick  in  447.  The  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man  is  not  a  lord  of  parliament.  See  Man. 

SOISSONS  (France),  capital  of  the  Gallic  Suessiones,  was  subdued  by  Julius  Caisar, 
57  B.C.  It  was  held  by  Syagrius,  after  his  father  JEgidius,  till  his  defeat  by  Clovis,  A.D.  486. 
Several  Councils  have  been  held  at  Soissons  (in  744,  1092,  1122). 

SOLAR  SYSTEM,  nearly  as  now  accepted,  is  said  to  have  been  taught  by  Pythagoras  of 
Samos,  about  529  B.C.  He  placed  the  sun  in  the  centre,  and  all  the  planets  moving  in 
elliptical  orbits  round  it-»a  doctrine  superseded  by  the  Ptolemaic  system  (which  see).  The 
system  of^  Pythagoras,  revived  by  Copernicus  (1543),  is  called  the  Copernican  system.  Its 
truth  was  demonstrated  by  sir  Isaac  Newton  in  1687. 

SOLDIERS'  DAUGHTERS'  HOME  was  established  at  Hampstead,  near  London,  in 
Aug.  1857,  by  the  surplus  of  the  money  collected  by  the  central  association  in  aid  of  the 
wives  and  families  of  soldiers  in  active  service  during  the  Crimean  war,  and  opened  in  1859. 

SOLEBAY,  or  SOUTHWOLD  BAY  (Suffolk),  where  a  fierce  naval  battle  was  fought  between 
the  fleets  of  England  and  France  on  one  side,  and  the  Dutch  on  the  other,  the  former  com- 
manded by  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  May  28,  1672.  The  English  lost  four 
ships,  and  the  Dutch  three  ;  but  the  enemy  fled,  and  were  pursued  to  their  coasts.  The 
earl  of  Sandwich  was  blown  up,  and  thousands  were  killed  and  wounded. 

SOLFERINO  (in  Lombardy),  the  site  of  the  chief  struggle  on  the  great  battle  of  June  24, 
1859,  between  the  allied  French  and  Sardinian  army  commanded  by  their  respective 
sovereigns,  and  the  Austrians  under  general  Hesse  ;  the  emperor  being  present.  The 
Austrians,  after  their  defeat  at  Magenta,  gradually  retreated  across  the  Mincio,  and  took  up 
a  position  in  the  celebrated  quadrilateral,  and  were  expected  there  to  await  the  attack.  But 
the  advance  of  Garibaldi  on  one  side,  and  of  prince  Napoleon  and  the  Tuscans  on  the  other, 
induced  them  to  recross  the  Mincio  and  take  the  offensive,  on  June  23.  The  conflict  began 
early  on  the  24th,  and  lasted  fifteen  hours.  At  first  the  Austrians  had  the  advantage  ;  but 
the  successful  attack  of  the  French  on  Cavriana  and  Solferino  changed  the  fortune  of  the  day, 
and  the  Austrians  were  after  desperate  encounters  compelled  to  retreat.  The  French  attri- 


SOL  672  SON 

bute  the  victory  to  the  skill  and  bravery  of  their  emperor  and  the  generals  M'Mahon  and 
Niel ;  the  Austrians,  to  the  destruction  of  their  reserve  by  the  rifled  cannon  of  their  adver- 
saries. The  Sardinians  maintained  a  fearful  contest  of  fifteen  hours  at  San  Martino,  it  is  said 
against  double  their  number.  Loss  of  the  Austrians,  630  officers,  and  19,311  soldiers  ;  of  the 
allies,  8  generals,  936  officers,  and  17,305  soldiers  killed  and  wounded.  This  battle  closed 
the  war  ;  preliminaries  of  peace  being  signed  at  Villa  Franca,  July  12. 

SOLFIDIANS  (from  solus,  only,  and  fides,  faith),  a  name  given  to  the  Antinomiaris 
(which  see). 

SOLICITOR.     See  Attorney. 

SOLICITOR-GENERAL,  the  legal  officer  next  in  rank  to  the  attorney-general,  to  whom 
he  is  deputy.     Those  below  with  a*  became  attorney-general. 


1839.   *Sir  Thomas  Wilde  (afterwards  lord  Truro), 
1841. 


1844. 


Dec.  5. 

*Sir  William  Follett  (second  time),  Sept.  6. 
*Sir  Frederick  Thesiger  (since  lord  Chelms- 


ford),  April  17. 


1851.  Sir  W.  Page  Wood,  March  28. 

1852.  *Sir  Fitzroy  Kelly,  Feb. 
*Sir  Richard  Bethell,  Dec. 

1856.  Rt.  Hon.  James  Stuart  Wortley,  Nov. 

1857.  Sir  Henry  Keating,  May.l 
1858  Sir  Hugh  M.  Cairns,  Feb.  26. 
1859.  Sir  Henry  Keating,  June  18. 

„  *Sir  William  Atherton,  Dec. 

1861.  Sir  Roundell  Palmer,  June  27. 


1845.  *Sir  Fitzroy  Kelly,  July  17. 

1846.  *Sir  John  Jervis,  July  4. 

„  Sir  David.Dundas,  July  18. 

1848.  *Sir  John  Romilly,  April  4. 

1850.  *Sir  Alex.  J.  E.  Cockbum,  July  n.  '1863.    Sir  Robert  Porrett  Collier,  Oct.  2. 

SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE.     See  Temple. 

SOLWAY  MOSS,  bordering  on  Scotland.  On  Nov.  13,  1771,  it  swelled,  owing  to  heavy 
rains.  Upwards  of  400  acres  rose  to  such  a  height  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  that  at 
last  it  rolled  forward  like  a  torrent  above  a  mile,  sweeping  along  with  it  houses,  trees,  &c. 
It  covered  600  acres  at  Netherby,  and  destroyed  about  30  small  villages.  Near  Solway  Moss 
the  Scots  were  defeated,  Nov.  25,  1542. 

SOMBRERO  (West  Indies).  On  this  desert  isle,  Robert  Jeffery,  a  British  man-of-war's 
man,  was  put  ashore  by  his  commander,  the  hon.  captain  W.  Lake,  for  having  tapped  a 
barrel  of  beer  when  the  ship  was  on  short  allowance.  After  sustaining  life  for  eight  days  on 
a  few  limpets  and  rain-water,  he  was  saved  by  an  American  vessel,  Dec.  13,  1807  ;  and 
returned  to  England.  Sir  Francis  Burdett  advocated  his  cause  in  parliament,  and  he 
received  6ooZ.  as  a  compensation  from  captain  Lake,  who  was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and 
dismissed  the  service,  Feb.  10,  1810. 

SOMERSET  THE  BLACK.     See  Slavery  in  England. 

SOMERSET-HOUSE  (London),  formerly  a  palace,  founded  on  the  site  of  several  churches 
and  other  buildings  levelled  in  1 549,  by  the  protector  Somerset,  whose  residence  fell  to  the 
crown  after  his  execution.  Here  resided  at  times  queen  Elizabeth,  Anne  of  Denmark,  and 
Catherine,  queen  of  Charles  II.  Old  Somerset-house,  a  mixture  of  Grecian  and  Gothic,  was 
demolished  in  1775,  and  the  present  edifice,  from  a  design  by  sir  William  Chambers,  was 
erected  for  public  offices.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  first  assembled  in  the  apartments 
given  to  the  members  by  the  king,  Jan.  17,  1771,  and  the  Royal  Society  met  here  in  1780. 
Large  suits  of  government  buildings  were  erected  in  1774.  The  Navy-office,  Pipe-office, 
Yictualling  and  other  offices,  were  removed  here  in  1 788,  and  various  government  depart- 
ments since.  The  east  wing,  forming  the  King's  College  (see  King's  College),  was  completed 
in  1833.  By  an  act  passed  in  1854,  the  offices  of  the  duchy  of  Cornwall  were  ordered  to  be 
transferred  to  Pimlico. 

SOMNATH  GATES,  the  gates  of  an  ancient  Hindoo  temple  at  Guzerat  which  was 
destroyed  by  Mahmoud  of  Ghuznee  in  1025.  The  priests  wished  to  preserve  the  idol ;  but 
Mahmoud  broke  it  to  pieces  and  found  it  filled  with  diamonds,  &c.  He  carried  the  gates  to 
Ghuznee.  When  that  city  was  taken  by  gen.  Nott,  Sept.  6,  1842,  lord  Ellenborough 
ordered  the  gates  to  be  restored  after  an  exile  of  800  years.  They  are  made  of  sandal  wood, 
and  are  figured  in  the  Archseologia  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  vol.  xxx. 

SONDERBUND.     See  Switzerland,  1846. 

SONNET,  a  poem  in  fourteen  lines,  the  rhymes  being  adjusted  by  rules,  invented,  it  is 
said,  by  Guido  d'Arezzo,  about  1024.  The  most  celebrated  sonnets  were  written  by 
Petrarch  (about  1327),  Shakspeare  (1609),  Milton  (about  1650),  aud^Wordsworth  (1820). 

SONNITES,  the  orthodox  Mahometans  who  now  possess  the  Turkish  empire.  See 
Malwmctanism. 


SON"  673  SOU" 

SONTHALS,  a  tribe  of  Northern  India,  brought  to  Bengal  about  1830,  where  they 
prospered  ;  till,  partly  from  the  instigation  of  a  fanatic,  and  partly  from  the  exactions  of 
money-lenders,  they  broke  out  into  rebellion  in  July,  1855,  and  committed  fearful  outrages. 
They  were  quite  subdued  early  in  1856,  and  many  were  removed  to  the  newly-conquered 
province  of  Pegu. 

SOPHIA,  ST.  (in  Constantinople).  The  first  church  was  dedicated  to  St.  Sophia  (wisdom) 
by  Constantius  II.,  360  ;  having  been  destroyed,  the  second,  the  present  edifice,  was 
founded  by  Justinian,  532.  Since  the  Mahometan  conquest  in  1453,  ^  nas  been  used  as  an 
imperial  mosque.  Its  length  is  269  feet,  and  its  breadth,  243  feet.  It  abounds  in  curiosities. 
Six  of  its  pillars  are  of  green  jasper,  from  the  temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus  ;  and  of 
porphyry,  from  the  temple  of  the  Sun,  at  Rome.  Four  minarets  were  added  by  Selim  II., 
who  reigned  in  1566.  The  interior  of  the  dome  is  beautifully  ornamented  with  mosaic  work. 

SORBONNE,  a  society  of  ecclesiastics  at  Paris,  founded  by  Robert  de  Sorbonne  in  1252. 
The  members  lived  in  common,  and  devoted  themselves  to  study  and  gratuitous  teaching. 
They  attained  a  European  reputation  as  a  faculty  of  theology,  their  judgment  being 
frequently  appealed  to,  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  seventeenth  centuries.  The  influence  of 
the  Sorbonne  was  declining  when  the  society  was  broken  up  in  1789. 

SORCERERS  AND  MAGICIANS.  A  law  was  enacted  against  their  seductions,  33  Hen. 
VIII.  1541  ;  and  another  statute  equally  severe  was  passed,  5  Eliz.  1563.  The  pretension  to 
sorcery  was  made  capital,  I  James  I.  1603.  See  Witchcraft. 

SOUDAN,  or  SOUJAH,  the  title  of  the  lieutenant-generals  of  the  caliphs,  which  they 
bore  in  their  provinces  and  armies.  These  officers  afterwards  made  themselves  sovereigns. 
"Saladin,  general  of  the  forces  of  Noureddin,  king  of  Damascus,  was  the  first  that  took  upon 
him  this  title  in  Egypt,  1165,  after  having  killed  the  caliph  Caym. 

SOULAGES  COLLECTION.  About  1827,  M.  Soulages  of  Thoulouse,  collected  790 
specimens  of  Italian  art  and  workmanship,  &c.  These  were  bought  for  n,oool.  by  73 
English  gentlemen,  with  the  view  of  first  exhibiting  them  to  the  public,  and  afterwards 
selling  them  to  the  government  (who  gradually  purchased  them  between  1858  and  1865). 
They  formed  part  of  the  "  Art  Treasures"  exhibited  at  Manchester  in  1857. 

SOUND.  Robesval  stated  the  velocity  of  sound  to  be  560  feet  in  a  second  ;  Gassendi, 
1473  >  Derham,  1 142  feet.  The  velocity  increases  as  the  temperature  falls.  At  Paris,  where 
cannon  were  fired  under  many  varieties  of  weather,  in  1738,  it  was  found  to  be  1107.  The 
range  of  perception  of  sound  by  the  human  ear  was  determined  by  Savart  (1830)  to  extend 
from  7  to  24,000  vibrations  in  a  second.  The  fire  of  the  British  on  landing  in  Egypt  was 
distinctly  heard  130  miles  on  the  sea.  See  Acoustics. 

SOUND  DUTIES.  Till  the  year  1857  no  merchant  ship  was  allowed  to  pass  the  Sound 
(a  narrow  channel  separating  Zealand  from  Sweden)  without  clearing  at  Elsineur  and  paying 
toll.  These  duties  had  t}}eir  origin  in  an  agreement  between  the  king  of  Denmark  and  the 
Hanse  towns  (1348),  by  which  the  former  undertook  to  maintain  lighthouses,  &c.,  along  tho 
Cattegat,  and  the  latter  to  pay  duty  for  the  same.  The  first  treaty  with  England  in  relation 
to  this  was  in  1450  ;  other  countries  followed.  In  1855  the  United  States  determined  to  pay 
the  dues  no  more  ;  and  in  the  same  year  the  Danish  government  proposed  that  these  dues 
should  be  capitalised;  which  was  eventually  agreed  to,  the  sum  agreed  on  bsing 
30,476,325  rix-dollars.  In  Aug.  1857,  the  British  government  paid  10,126,855  rix-dollars, 
{1,125,206^.)  to  the  Danes  as  their  proportion. — The  passage  of  the  Sound  was  effected,  in 
defiance  of  strong  fortresses,  by  sir  Hyde  Parker  and  lord  Nelson,  April  2,  1801.  See  Baltic 
Expedition. 

SOUNDINGS  AT  SEA.  Captain  Ross  of  H.M.S.  (Edipus,  in  1840  took  extraordinary 
soundings  at  sea.  One  of  these  was  taken  900  miles  west  of  St.  Helena,  where  it  extended 
to  the  depth  of  5000  fathoms.  Another  sounding  was  made  in  the  latitude  of  33  degrees  S. 
and  longitude  9  degrees  W.  about  300  miles  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  when  2266  fathoms 
were  sounded  ;  the  weight  employed  amounted  450  Ibs. 

SOUTHAMPTON,  a  seaport  (S.  England),  a  county  of  itself,  near  the  Roman  Clausentum 
and  the  Saxon  Hantune.  It  frequently  suffered  by  Danish  incursions  :  Canute  .when  king 
occasionally  resided  here.  The  charter  was  granted  by  Henry  I.  and  confirmed  by  Richard 
I.  and  John  ;  and  the  free  grammar  school  was  founded  by  Kdward  VI.  On  July  17,  1861, 
a  monument  to  Dr.  Isaac  Watts  was  inaugurated,  and  on  Oct.  15,  i852,  the  Hartley  insti- 
tution was  opened  by  lord  Palmerston. 

X  X 


SOU  674  SOU 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA  was  discovered  by  capt.  Sturt  in  1830,  and  explored  shortly  after 
by  capt.  Parker  and  Mr.  Kent,  the  former  of  whom  was  killed  by  the  natives.  The  boun- 
daries of  the  province  were  fixed  by  4  &  5  "Will.  IV.  c.  95  (1834)  ;  and  it  was  occupied  Dec. 
26,  1836,  by  capt.  Hindmarsh,  the  first  governor.  It  was  colonised  according  to  Mr.  E. 
Gibbon  "Wakefield's  scheme,  which  was  carried  out  by  the  South  Australian  Colonisation 
Association.  The  colony  for  several  years  underwent  severe  trials  through  the  great  influx 
of  emigrants,  land-jobbing,  building  speculations,  &c.,  which  produced  almost  universal 
bankruptcy  in  1839.  In  five  years  after  the  energy  of  the  colonists  had  overcome  their 
difficulties,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  colony  appeared  fully  established.  In  1842  the 
highly  productive  Burra  Burra  copper  mines  were  discovered,  and  large  fortunes  were 
suddenly  realised;  but  in  1851  the  discovery  of  gold  in  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria 
almost  paralysed  this  province  by  drawing  off  a  large  part  of  the  labouring  population. 
Very  little  gold  was  found  in  South  Australia  ;  but  a  reaction  took  place  in  favour  of  the 
copper  mines  and  agriculture,  &c.  Before  the  discovery  of  gold,  little  trade  existed  between 
Adelaide  (the  capital  of  South  Australia)  and  Melbourne  ;  but  in  1852  gold  was  transmitted 
from  the  latter  to  the  former  to  the  amount  of  2,215,167?.  principally  for  bread-stuffs,  farm 
produce,  &c.  The  bishopric  of  Adelaide  was  founded  in  1847.  Sir  Dominic  Daly  was 
appointed  governor  in  Nov.  1861.  Population  in  1855,  85,821  ;  in  1857,  185,698. 

SOUTHCOTT,  JOANNA,  a  fanatic,  born  in  1750,  came  from  Exeter  to  London,  where 
her  followers  at  one  period  amounted  to  many  thousands,  among  whom  were  military 
officers,  but  the  low  and  ignorant  were  her  principal  dupes.  In  1792  she  announced 
herself  as  the  woman  spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Revelation,  chap.  xii.  ;  and  a  disorder  gave 
her  the  appearance  of  pregnancy  after  she  had  passed  her  grand  climacteric,  favouring  the 
delusion  that  she  would  be  the  mother  of  the  promised  Shiloh.  She  died  Dec.  27,  1814. 
In  1851  there  existed  in  England  four  congregations,  professing  to  expect  her  return. 

SOUTHERN  CONFEDERATE  STATES.     See  Confederates. 

SOUTHERN  CONTINENT.  The  Southern  Ocean  was  first  traversed  by  Magellan  in 
1520  ;  and  explored  by  "Wallis  and  Carteret  in  1766  ;  and  by  Cook  in  1773  and  1774.  Of 
the  southern  continent  little  more  is  known  than  that  it  is  ice-bound,  and  contains  active 
volcanoes.  It  was  discovered  in  the  first  instance  by  capt.  John  Biscoe,  on  Feb.  27,  1831, 
in  lat.  65°  57'  S.,  long.  47°  20'  E.,  extending  east  and  west  200  miles, — this  he  named 
Enderby  Land,  after  the  gentleman  who  had  equipped  him  for  the  voj^age.  Capt.  Biscoe 
also  discovered  Graham's  Land  on  Feb.  15,  1832,  situated  in  lat.  67°  i'  S.,  long.  71°  48'  W. 
The  Messrs.  Enderby  equipped  three  other  expeditions  in  search  of  the  southern  continent, 
the  last  (in  connection  with  some  other  gentlemen)  in  1838,  when  capt.  Balleny  had 
command,  who  on  Feb.  9,  1839,  discovered  the  Balleny  Islands,  in  lat.  67°  S.,  long.  165°  E., 
and  in  March,  1839,  Salvina  Land,  in  lat.  65°  10'  S.,  long.  118°  30'  E.  In  1840,  a  French 
expedition,  under  the  command  of  admiral  D'Urville,  and  an  American  expedition,  under 
the  command  of  commodore  Wilkes,  greatly  added  to  our  knowledge  in  respect  to  the  exis- 
tence of  a  southern  continent,  and  this  was  again  increased  by  the  expedition  which  sailed 
from  England  in  1839,  under  the  command  of  capt.  sir  James  Clark  Ross,  who  discovered 
Victoria  Land  in  1841,  and  subsequently  penetrated  as  far  south  as  78°  n'. 

SOUTH  KENSINGTON  MUSEUM,  near  Brompton  old  church  (containing  the  pictures 
presented  by  Mr.  Vernon,  Mr.  Sheepshanks,  Mrs.  Ellison,  and  those  bequeathed  by  Turner, 
the  great  painter,  as  well  as  specimens  of  sculpture  and  art,  educational  collections,  products 
of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms,  &c.),  was  opened  on  June  24,  1857.  A 
special  Exhibition  of  "Works  of  Art,  of  immense  value,  lent  for  the  occasion,  was  opened  here 
in  the  summer  of  1862,  and  closed  in  November. 

SOUTH-SEA  BUBBLE  commenced  with  the  establishment  of  the  South-sea  company  in 
1710,  which  Avas  at  first  unwisely  and  afterwards  dishonestly  managed.  It  exploded  in  1720, 
ruining  thousands  of  families,  and  the  directors'  estates,  to  the  value  of  2,oi4,ooo/.  were 
seized  in  1721  and  sold.  Mr.  Knight,  the  cashier,  absconded  with  ioo,ooo£.  ;  but  he  com- 
pounded the  fraud  for  io,ooo£  and  returned  to  England  in  1743.  Almost  all  the  wealthy 
persons  in  the  kingdom  had  become  speculators  ;  the  artifices  of  the  directors  having  raised 
the  shares,  originally  looZ.  to  the  price  of  loco?.  A  parliamentary  inquiry  took  place  in 
Nov.  1720,  and  Aislabie,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  several  members  of  parliament 
were  expelled  the  house  in  1721.  See  Law's  Bubble, 

SOUTHWARK  (S.  London),  was  governed  by  its  own  bailiffs  till  1327.  The  city,  \ 
however,  found  great  inconvenience  from  the  number  of  malefactors  who  escaped  thither,  in  j 
order  to  be  out  of  the  reach  and  cognizance  of  the  city  magistrates  ;  and  a  grant  was  made  of  j 
Southwark  to  the  city  of  London  by  the  crown,  for  a  small  annuity.  In  Edward  VI.'s  reign  j 


sou 


675 


SPA 


it  was  formed  into  a  cityward,  and  was  named  Bridge  Ward  Without,  1550. — Southwark 
bridge  was  begun  September  23,  1814,  and  was  completed  March  26,  1819,  at  an  expense  of 
800,000?.  It  consists  of  three  great  cast-iron  arches,  resting  on  massive  stone  piers  and 
abutments  ;  the  distance  between  the  abutments  is  708  feet ;  the  centre  arch  is  240  feet  span, 
the  two  others  210  feet  each  ;  and  the  total  weight  of  iron  5308  tons. 

SOUTHWOLD.     See  Solcbay. 

SOVEREIGN,  an  ancient  and  modern  British  gold  coin.  In  1489  22|  pieces,  in  value  205. 
"to  be  called  the  sovereign,"  were  ordered  to  be  coined  out  of  a  pound  of  gold.  Ruding. 
In  1542  sovereigns  were  coined  in  value  205.,  which  afterwards,  in  1550  and  1552  (4  &  6 
Edw.  VI.),  passed  for  245.  and  305.  "Sovereigns  "  of  the  new  coinage  were  directed  to  pass 
for  2os.^hily  I,  and  half-sovereigns  for  105.  Oct.  10,  1817.  See  Coin  and  Gold. 

SPA-FIELDS  (N.  London).  Here  upwards  of  30,000  persons  assembled  to  vote  an 
address  from  the  distressed  manufacturers  to  the  prince  regent,  Nov.  15,  1816.  A  second 
meeting,  Dec.  2  following,  terminated  in  an  alarming  riot ;  the  shops  of  several  gunsmiths 
were  attacked  for  arms  by  the  rioters  ;  and  in  the  shop  of  Mr.  Beckwith,  on  Snowhill,  Mr. 
Platt  was  wounded,  and  much  injury  was  done  before  the  tumult  was  suppressed.  For  this 
riot,  Cashman  the  seaman  was  hanged,  March  12,  1817. 

SPAHIS,  African  horsemen,  incorporated  by  the  French  in  Algeria  ia  1834";  three 
regiments  of  them  came  to  France  in  1863. 

SPAIN"  (the  ancient  Iberia  and  Hispania).  The  first  settlers  are  supposed  to  have  been 
the  progeny  of  Tubal,  fifth  son  of  Japheth.  The  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians  (360  B.C.) 
successively  planted  colonies  on  the  coasts  ;  and  the  Romans  conquered  the  whole  country, 
206  B.C.  Population  of  Spain  in  1857,  15,464,078  ;  of  the  colonies,  4,528,633.  Estimated 
revenue  in  1861,  19,324,743?.  ;  expenditure,  19,386,800?. 


The   Carthaginians  enriched  by  the  mines  of 

Spain  (B.C.  480 et  seq.)  form  settlements  B.C.  360 
Hamilcar  extends  their  dominions  in  Spain  238-233 
New  Carthage  (Carthagena)  founded  by 

Hasdrubal 229 

At  his  death,  Hannibal,  his  son  takes  the  com- 
mand, 221;  and  prepares  for  war,  220;  he 
takes  Saguntum,  219  :  crosses  the  Alps  and 

enters  Italy 218 

The  Romans  carry  the   war  into  Spain  ;   two 
W  Scipios  defeated  and  slain  by  Hasdrubal         .     212 
Pub.    Cornelius    Scipio  Africanus    takes    New 
Carthage,  210 ;  and  drives  the  Carthaginians 

out  of  Spain 207 

Numantine  war 153-133 

Viriathus,  general  of  the  Celtiberians  and  Lusi- 

tanians,  subdued  all  West  Spain,  145  ;  makes 

peace    with  the  consul  Fabius  Servilianus, 

142  ;  assassinated  by  order^of  the  Romans.     .     140 

Insurrection    of    Sertorius,  "78 ;    subdued    by 

Pompey,  and  assassinated  ....  72 
Julius  Caesar  quells  an  insurrection  in  Spain  .  67 

Pompey  governs  Spain 60-50 

Revolt  through  the  rapacity  of  Crassus  .  .  48-47 
The  Vandals,  Alani,  and  Suevi  wrest  Spain  from 

the  Romans A.D.     409 

Adolphus  founds  the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths    414 
The  Vandals  pass  over  to  Africa      .        .        .     .     427 

Theodoric  I.  vanquishes  the  Suevi      .        .        .     452 
Assassinated  by  his  brother  Euric,  who  becomes 
master  of  all  Spain       ......     466 

Recared  I.  expels  the  Franks     ....     587 

He  abjures  Arianism,  and  rules  ably  .  till  601 
Wamba's  wise  administration  ;  he  prepared  a 

fleet  for  defence  against  the  Saracens  .  672-677 
The  Arabs  invited  into  Spain  against  king 

Roderic 709 

His  defeat  and  death  at  Xeres 711 

Establishment  of  the  Saracens  at  Cordova         .      ,, 
Victorious  progress  of  Musa  and  Tarik  .         .     712-13 
Emirs  rule  at  Cordova  ;  Pelayo,  of  Gothic  blood, 

rules  in  Asturias  and  Leon 718 

The  Saracens  defeated  at   Tours   by  Charles 

Martel 732  or    733 

Abderahman  the  first  king  at  Cordova  .  .  755 
Unsuccessful  invasion  of  Charlemagne  .  777-78 
Sancho  Inigo,  count  of  Navarre,  &c.  .  .  .  873 


Sancho  of  Navarre  becomes  king  of  Castile      .  1026 
The    kingdom    of  Aragon   commenced    under 

Ramirez  I. 1035 

Leon  and  Asturias  united  to  Castile        .        .    .  1037 
Portugal  taken  from  the  Saracens  by  Henry  of 

Besancon.     (See  Portugal.)       ....  1095 
The  Saracens,  beset  on  all  sides  by  the  Chris- 
tians, call  in  the  aid  of  the  Moors  from  Africa, 
who  seize  the  dominions  they  came  to  protect, 
and  subdue  the  Saracens        .         .        .  1091  et  seq. 
Exploits  of  the  Cid  Rodrigo  ;  dies        .      about  1099 
Dynasty  pf  the  Almoravides  at  Cordova        1094-1144 
The    Moors    defeated    in    several   battles    by 

Alfonso  of  Leon 1 144 

Dynasty  of  the  Almohades  at  Cordova   .       1144-1225 
Cordova,  Toledo,  Seville,  &c.,  taken  by  Ferdi- 
nand of  Castile  and  Leon         .        .        .  1233-1248 
The  kingdom  of  Granada  begun  by  the  Moors, 

last  refuge  from  the  power  of  the  Christians  .  1238 
The  crown  of  Navarre  passes  to  the  royal  family 

of  France 1274 

200,000  Moors    arrive    to    assist   the   king    of 

Granada 1327 

They  are  defeated  at  Tarifa  by  Alfonso  XI.  of 
Castile  with  great  slaughter    ....  1340 

Reign  of  Pedro  the  Cruel 1350 

His  alliance  with  Edward  the  Black  Prince       .  1363 
Defeated  at  Montiel  and  treacherously  slain      .  1369 
Ferdinand  II.  of  Aragon    marries    Isabella  of 
Castile;    and   nearly    the    whole   Christian 
dominions    of    Spain    are    united    in    one 
monarchy  ...  ....  1474 

Establishment  of  the  Inquisition  .        .     1480-4 

Persecution  of  the  Jews       ....         1492-8 

Granada  taken  after  a  two  years'  siege ;  and 
the  power  of  the  Moors  is  finally  extirpated 

by  Ferdinand 1492 

Columbus  is  sent  from  Spain  to  explore  the 

western  ocean  ....  April  17,  ,,  . 
Mahometans  persecuted  and  expelled  .  1499-1502 
Death  of  Columbus .  .  .  .  May  20,  1506 
Ferdinand  conquers  great  part  of  Navarre  .  1512 
Accession  of  the  house  of  Austria  to  the  throne 

of  Spain ;  Charles  I.  of  Spain  .  .  .  .1516 
Able  administration  of  Ximenes ;  ungratefully 

used,  1516  ;  his  death 1517 

Charles  elected  emperor  of  Germany  .        .        .1519 

x  x  2 


SPA 


676 


SPA 


SPAIN,  continued. 

Dreadful  insurrection  in  Castile  .  .  .  1520-21 
Philip  of  Spain  marries  Mary  of  England  .  .1554 
Charles  retires  from  the  world  .  .  .  .  1556 
War  with  France ;  victory  at  St  Quentin, 

Aug.  10,  1557 
Philip  II.  commences  his  bloody  persecution  of 

the  Protestants 1 561 

The  Escurial  begun  building  .  .     .   1562 

Revolt  of  the  Moriscoes,  1567;  suppressed  .  1570 
Naval  victory  of  Lepanto  over  the  Turks  .  .  1571 
Portugal  united  to  Spain  by  conquest  .  .  1580 
The  Spanish  Armada  destroyed.  See  Armada.  1588 
Philip  III.  banishes  the  Moors  (900,000)  .  1598-1610 

Philip  IV.  loses  Portugal 1640 

Death  of    Charles    II.,    last    of   the  house   of 
Austria  ;  accession  of  Philip  V.  of  the  house 
of  Bourbon   ........  1700 

War  of  the  Succession  .*..,.  1702-13 
Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English  .  .  .  .  1704 

Siege  of  Barcelona 1713 

Able  government  of  cardinal  Alberoni ;  he  re- 
established the  authority  of  the  king,  reformed 
many  abuses,  and  raised  Spain  to  the  rank  of  a 
first  power,  1715-1720:   ordered  to  quit  Spain  1720 
Charles,  son  of  Philip  V.  conquers  Naples    .     .   1735 
Charles  III.  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  succeeds 

to  the  crown  of  Spain 1759 

War  with  England   .        .        .        .  •  .     .  1796 

Battle  of  Cape  St.  Vincent  .  .  .  Feb.  14,  1797 
Spanish  treasure-ships,  valued  at  3,000,000 

dollars,  seized  by  the  English  .  Oct.  29,  1804 
Battle  of  Trafalgar.  See  Trafalgar  Oct.  21,  1805 
Sway  of  Godoy,  prince  of  Peace  .  .  .  1806 
The  French  enter  Spain  ;  a  Spanish  army  sent 

to  the  Baltic 1807 

Conspiracy  of  the  prince  of  Asturias  against  his 

father July  25,     ,, 

Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  .        .         .        Oct.  27,     ,, 
The  French  take  Madrid      .        .        .      March,  1808 
The  prince  of  Peace  dismissed.        .     March  18,     ,, 
Abdication  of  Charles  IV.  in  favour  of  Ferdi- 
nand, March  19 ;  and  at  Bayonne,  in  favour 
of  his    "  friend  and  ally "   Napoleon,    when 
Ferdinand  relinquished  the  crown    .    May  i,     ,, 
Revolution  :  the  French  massacred  at  Madrid, 

May  2,     „ 

The  province  Asturias  rises  en  matse    .     May  3,     ,, 
Napoleon  assembles  the  notables  at  Bayonne, 

May  25,     ,, 
Joseph   Bonaparte   enters  Madrid  as   king   of 

Spain,  July  12 ;  retires  .  .  July  29,  ,, 
Battle  of  Vimiera  ;  French  defeated .  Aug.  21,  ,, 
Supreme  Junta  installed  .  .  .  Sept.  ,, 
Madrid  taken  by  the  French,  and  Joseph 

restored Dec.  2,     ,, 

Napoleon  enters  Madrid    .         .         .        Dec.  4,     ,, 
The  royal  family  of  Spain  imprisoned  in  the 

palace  of  Chambery  in  Savoy         .         Dec.  5,     , , 
The  French  take  Ferrol,  Jan.   27  :   Saragossa, 
Feb.    21  ;    Oporto,    Feb.    29;     Cordova    and 
Seville,  Nov.  ;  Gerona        .         .        .  Dec.  12,  1809 
Ney  takes  Ciudad  Rodrigo        .        .        July  10,  1810 
The  Spanish  cortes  meet      .        .        .  Sept.  24,     ,, 
Wellington  defeats  Massena  at  Fuentes  d'Onore, 

May  6,  1811 

Soult  defeated  at  Albuera         ,        .         May  16,     ,, 
Constitution  of  the  cortes     .         .        .     May  8,  1812 
Wellington    takes  Ciudad    Rodrigo,    Jan.    19, 
storms  Badajoz,  April  6;   defeats    Marmont 

at  Salamanca July  22,     ,, 

He  occupies  Madrid,  and  totally  defe  its  the 

French  at  Vittoria,  June  21 ;  defeats  Soult  in 

the  Pyrenees,  July  28;  takes  St.  Sebastian, 

Aug.  31  ;  and  enters  France  .        .        Oct.  8,  1813 

Ferdinand  VII.  (infamously  ungrateful) restored 

May  14,  1814 

Slave  trade  abolished  for  a  compensation  .  .1817 
Insurrection  at  Valencia  repressed  .  .  .  1819 
Spanish  i  evolution  began  ....  Jan.  1820 


Ferdinand  swears  to  the  constitution  of    the 
cortes        ......     March  8, 

The   cortes    remove  the  king    to  Seville,   and 
thence  to  Cadiz     ....  March, 

The   French  enter  Spain  April  7 ;   and  invest 

Cadiz June  25, 

Battle  of  the  Trocadero  .  .  .  Aug.  31, 
Despotism  resumed  ;  the  cortes  dissolved  ;  exe- 
cutions of  liberals  .....  Oct. 
Riego  put  to  death  ....  Nov.  27, 
The  French  evacuate  Cadiz  .  .  Sept.  21, 
Cadiz  made  a  free  port  .  .  .  Feb.  24, 

Salique  law  abolished         .        .        .        Mgrch, 
Queen  of   Spain  appointed  regent  during  the 
king's  indisposition  ;  change  in  the  ministry, 

Oct.  25, 
Don  Carlos  declares  himself  legitimate  successor 

to  the  king April  29, 

Death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  his  queen 
assumes  the  title  of  governing  queen  until 
Isabella  II.  her  infant  daughter,  attains  her 

majority Sept.  29, 

The  royalist  volunteers  disarmed  with   some 

bloodshed  at  Madrid        .        .        .      Oct.  27, 

Queen    Christina    marries    Ferdinand    Munoz 

(afterwards  duke  of  Ilianzares)    .        Dec.  28, 

The  quadruple  treaty  establishes  the  right  of 

Isabella  to  the  throne          .        .         April  22, 

Don  Carlos  suddenly  appears  in  Spain,  July  10, 

The  peers  vote  his  exclusion      .        .     Aug.  30, 

Mendizabal,      prime      minister ;      Minn,     and 

Espartero  commanded  the  royalists  ;  the  rebel 

leader,  Zumlacarregui  killed  near  Bilboa 

Sir  De  Lacy  Evans,  lord  John  Hay,  and  others, 

raised  a  British  legion  for  the  queen  of  Spain, 

They  defeat  the  Carlists  at  St.  Sebastian,  Oct.  i, 

Espartero  gains  the  battle  of  Bilboa  .    Dec.  25, 

General  Evans  takes  Irun        .         .         May  17, 

The  Carlists  under  Maroto  desert  Don  Carlos 

and  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace         .  Aug.  29, 

Don  Carlos  seeks  refuge  in  France         Sept.  13, 

Surrender  of  Morello        .        .        .         May  28, 

Cabrera,  the  Carlist general,  unable  to  maintain 

the  war,  enters  France     .         .        .      July  7, 

The  British  auxiliaries  evacuate  St.   Sebastian 

and  Passages  .  Aug.  25, 

Revolutionary    movement    at    Madrid :      the 

authorities  triumphant     .        .         .     Sept.  i, 

Dismissal  of  the  ministry  and  dissolution  of  the 

cortes Sept.  9, 

Espartero    makes    his    triumphal    entry    into 

Madrid Oct.  5, 

The  queen  regent  appoints  a  new  ministry, 
who  are  nominated  by  Espartero,  Oct.  5  ;  she 
abdicates  and  leaves  the  kingdom ;  visits 
France  ;  next  Sicily  ;  but  returns  to  France, 

Oct.  12, 
Espartero,  duke  of  Victory,   expels  the  papal 

nuncio Dec.  29, 

The  Spanish    cortes  declare  Espartero  regent 

during   the    minority  of  the  young  queen, 

April  12, 

Queen     Christina's    protest    to     the    nation. 

July  19, 

Insurrection  in  favour  of  Christina  is  com- 
menced at  Pampeluna  by  general  O'Donnell, 

and  Concha Oct.  2, 

Don  Diego  Leon  attacks  the  palace  at  Madrid  ; 

his    followers    are    repulsed,    and    numbers 

slain  by  the  queen's  guards  .          Oct.  7, 

Don  Diego  Leon  shot  at  Madrid  .        .      Oct.  15, 

Zurbano  captures  Bilboa         .        .          Oct.  21, 

Rodil,     the      constitutional     general,     enters 

Vittoria Oct.  21 

Montes  de  Oca  shot  ....         Oct.  21, 
General  O'Donnell  takes  refuge  in  the  French 

territory Oct.  21, 

Espartero  decrees  the  suspension  of  queen 
Christina's  pension  ....  Oct.  26, 


1820 
1823 


1828 

1829 


1832 
1833 


1834 


1835 

1836 
1837 


184 


SPA 


677 


SPA 


SPAIN,  continued. 

Fueros  of  the  Basque  provinces  abolished, 

Oct.  29,  1841 

Borio  and  Gobemado  implicated  in  the  Chris- 
tina plot,  put  to  death  at  Madrid  .  Nov.  g,  , 

K-partero  enters  Madrid  .         .         Nov.  23, 

General  pardon  of  all  persons  not  yet  tried, 
concerned  in  the  events  of  October,  Dec.  13,  „ 

The  effective  strength  of  the  army  fixed  at 
130,000  men  .  .  .  .  .  June  28,  1842 

An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Barcelona ;  the 
national  guard  joins  the  populace,  Nov.  13 ; 
battle  in  the  streets  between  the  national 
guard  and  the  troops  ;  the  latter  lose  500  in 
killed  and  wounded,  and  retreat,  to  the 
citadel  • "Nov.  15,  . 

Barcelona  blockaded ;  the  British  consul  refuses 
refuge  to  any  but  British  subjects  on  board 
British  ships  ....  Nov.  26, 

The  regent  Espartero  arrives  before  Barcelona' 
Nov.  29;  its  bombardment  and  surrender, 

The  disturbances  at  Malaga         .         .     May  25'  1843 
The  revolutionary  junta  is    re-established    at 

Barcelona June  n, 

[Corunna,     Seville,     Burgos,     Santiago,      and 
numerous  other  towns,   shortly  afterwards 
"pronounce  "  against  the  regent  Espartero.] 
Arrival  of  general  Narvaez  at   Madrid,  which 

surrenders July  15 

Espartero  bombards  Seville     .         .        July  21 
The  siege  is  raised         ....   July  27,'    ,, 
[The  revolution   is  completely  successful,  and 
Espartero    flies    to    Cadiz,   and  embarks   on 
board  her  Majesty's  ship  Malabar.} 
The  new  government  deprives  Espartero  of  his 

titles  and  rank  ....  Aug.  16,  ,, 
Espartero  arrives  in  London  .  .  Aug.  23,  ,, 
He-action  against  the  new  government  breaks 

out  at  Madrid        ....        Aug.  23,     ,, 
The  young  queen  Isabella  II.  13  years  old,  is 
declared  by  the  cortes  to  be  of  age  ;  Narvaez 
(friend    of    the    queen-mother),    lieutenant- 
general    Nov.  8,     ,, 

The  queen-mother  returns  to'  Spain,    March  23,  1844 
Zurbano's  insurrection,   Nov.   12,    1844;    he   is 

shot Jan.  21,  1845 

Don  Carlos  relinquishes  his  right  to  the  crown 

in  favour  of  his  son  .  .  .  May  18,  ,, 
Narvaez  and  his  ministry  resign  Feb.  12  ;  return 

to  power,  March  17  ;  again  resign    March  28,  1846 
Escape  of  Don  Carlos  from  France         Sept.  14,     „ 
Marriage    of    the    queen    to  -her  cousin,   Don 
Francisco    d'Assiz,     duke    of     Cadiz  ;     and 
marriage  also  of   the  infanta  Louisa  to  the 
duke  de  Montpensier        .        .        .     Oct.  10,     „ 
[The  Montpensier  marriage  oc3asions  the  dis- 
pleasure of  England,  and  disturbs  the  friendly 
relations  of  the  French  and  English  govern- 
ments.] 

Amnesty  granted  to  political  offenders,  Oct.  18,     ,, 
Two  shots  fired  at  the  queen  by  an  assassin, 

1^  Riva May  4,  1847 

He  is  sentenced  to  "  death  by  the  cord,",and  is 

executed June  23,     ,, 

Espartero  restored    ....         Sept.  3,     „ 
Sir    Henry    Lytton    Bulwer,    British    envoy, 
Bordered  to  quit  Spain  in  48  hours  .  March  19,  1848 
Narvaez  dismissed  and  recalled      .        .         .     .   1849 
Diplomatic  relations  between  the  two  countries 

not  restored       .        .        .        .  until  April  1 8,  1850 
The  queen  of  Spain  delivered  of  a  male  child 

which  lives  but  ten  minutes    .         .  .     „ 

The  American  expeditions  under  Lopez  against 

Cuba.     See  Cuba  and  the  United  Stales,    1850,  1851 
Resignation  of  Narvaez     .        .        .         .Jan  10,     „ 
The  infante  dou  Henrique  permitted  to  return 

to  Spain Feb.  2,     „ 

Madrid- Aranjuez  railway  opened    .          Feb.  9,     „ 
The  queen  pardons  the"  prisoners  taken  in  the 
attempt  upon  Cuba    ....     Dec.  n     ., 


Her  majesty  gives  birth  to  a  princess     Dec.  20,  1851 
Attempt  made  on  the  life  of  the  queen  ;  she  is 
slightly  wounded  by  the  dagger  of  Merino,  a 

Franciscan Feb.  2,  1852 

Gen.  Castaflos,  duke  of  Baylen,  renowned  in 
the  war  against  the  French,  dies  in  his  96th 

year Sept.  23,     „ 

Narvaez  exiled  to  Vienna        .        .        .        Jan.  1853 
Ministerial  changes — Lersundi  forms  a  cabinet, 

April  ii,     ,, 
Resignation  of   Lersundi — Sartorius's  cabinet, 

Sept.     „ 

Birth  and  death  of  a  princess        .        .    Jan.  5,  1854 
General      O'Donnell,      Concha,     and      others 

banished Jan   18, 

Disturbances  at  Saragossa,  &c.  .        .  Feb,     ,, 

Don   Francisco  (father    of    the  king  consort), 

marries  an  "  unfortunate"  woman.    .    March,     ,, 
Military  insurrection  near  Madrid        .  June  28,     ,, 
The  movement  headed  by  Espartero  ;  Barcelona 
and  Madrid  pronounce  against  the  govern- 
ment; barricades  in  Madrid  .         .   July  1-17,     ,, 
Triumph   of    the  insurrection;   resignation  of 
the  ministry  ;  the  queen  sends  for  Espartero, 

July  19,     ,, 

Peace  restored :  the  degraded  generals  rein- 
stated, <fec. ;  Espai'tero  forms  an  administra- 
tion  July  31,  ,, 

The  queen  mother  impeached ;  she  quits  Spain, 

Aug.  28,    ,, 

Ministerial  crisis ;    Espartero  resign",  but  re- 
sumes office        ....      Nov.  21-30,    „ 
New    constitution    of    the    cortes    proposed, 

Jan.  13,  1855 

The  cortes  vote  that  all  power  proceeds  from 
the  people  ;  they  permit  liberty  of  belief,  but 

not  of  worship Feb.     „ 

Don  Carlos  dies         ....     March  10,     ,, 
Insurrection  at  Valencia     .        .        .     April  6,  1856 
Resignation  of  Espartero  ;  new  cabinet  formed 
headed  by  marshal  O'Donnell;  insurrection 
in  Madrid,  July  14 ;  O'Donnell  and  the  govern- 
ment   troops    subdue    the  insurgents ;    the 
national  guard  suppressed        .       July  15-16,     ,, 
Insurrection  at  Barcelona  and  Saragossa,  quelled 

by  O'Donnell,  as  dictator.  .  July  15-23,  ,, 
Amnesty  granted  to  political  offenders,  Oct.  19,  ,, 
O'Donnell  compelled  to  resign  ;  Narvaez 

becomes  minister         ....  Oct  12,    ,, 
Espartero  resigns  as  senator      .        .        Feb.  i,  1857 
Insurrection  in  Andalusia ;  quickly  suppressed ; 
cruel  military  executions ;  98  insurgents  shot 
(24  at  Seville)        .        .        .     June  and  July,     ,, 
Ministerial  changes ;  Armero  becomes  minister 

Oct.  26,    ,, 
[sturitz  becomes  minister,  Jan.  14  ;  O'Donnell 

becomes  minister         .        .         .        .  July  i,  1858 
Cessation  of  state  of  siege  at  Barcelona,  &c. 

Sept.  20,    ,, 
Joint  French  and  Spanish  expedition  against 

Cochin  China  announced  .        .     Dec.  i,     ,, 

War  with  Morocco  (which  see)         Nov.  and  Dec.  1859 
An  association    for  reforming  the  tariff,   &c. 

formed ,, 

3'Donnell  commands  the  army  in  Africa ;  inde- 
cisive conflicts  reported;  battle  at  Castellejos; 
a  Spanish  "  Balaklava "  charge        .       Jan.  T,  1860 
The  Moors  defeated  near  Tetuan,  which  sur- 
renders         Feb.  4,     ,, 

An  ineffectual  truce    .         .        .         Feb.  16-23,     >» 
The  Moors  defeated  at  Guad-el-ras,  March  23,    ,, 
Treaty  of  peace  signed  ;  400,000,000  reals  to  be 
paid  by  Moors,  and  Tetuan  to  be  held  till 

paid March  26,     „ 

General  Ortega,  governor  of  the  Balearic  Isles, 
lands  near  Tortosa,  in  Valentia,  with  3000 
men,  and  proclaims  the  comte  de  Monte- 
molin  king,  as  Charles  VI.  :  his  troops  resist, 
and  he  is  compelled  to  flee,  with  the  comte 
and  others April  3,  ,, 


SPA 


678 


SPA 


SPAIN,  continued. 

He  is  arrested  and  shot  .        .        .     .  April  19,  1860 
The  comte  de  Montemolin  and  his  brother  Fer- 
dinand are  arrested  at  Tortosa,  April  21 ;  they 
renounce  their  claim  to  the  throne,  April  23,     ,, 
An  amnesty  proclaimed        .         .        .     May  2,     ,, 
Their  brother  Juan  asserts  his  right,  June  5  ; 
and  they,  when  at  Cologne,  annul  their  re- 
nunciation          June  28,     ,, 

The    emperor  Napoleon's    proposal    to  admit 
Spain  as  a  first-class  power  is  opposed  by 
England,  and  given  up        ...      Aug.     ,, 
The  comte  de  Montemolin  and  his  wife  die  at 

Trieste Jan.  14,  1861 

The  annexation  of  St.  Domingo  to  Spain  rati- 
fied ;  slavery  not  to  be  re  -established,  May  19,     „ 
Insurrection  at  Loja  suppressed       .        .  July,     ., 
The  queen  said  to  be  governed  by  the  nun  Pa- 

trocinio Dec.     ,, 

Intervention  in  Mexico  (see  Mexico)    .     Dec.  8,     ,, 
Much  church  property  in  course  of  sale,  April,  1862 
Jos6  Alhama  and. Manuel  Matamoras,  protes- 
tant  propagandists,  sentenced  to  10  years'  im- 
prisonment          Oct.  14,     „ 

Don  Juan  de  Bourbon  renounces  his  right  to 

the  throne Jan.  8,  1863 

Resignation  of  the  premier,  marshal  O'Don- 
nell,  Feb.  26  ;  a  ministry  formed  by  marquis 
de  Miraflores  ....  March  4,  ,, 

Insurrection  at  St.  Domingo ;  war  ensues  (see 

Domingo) Sept.  i,     ,, 

Empress  of  France  visits  the  queen         .     Oct.     ,, 
Rupture  with  Peru  (which  see)          .          April,  1864 
General  Prim  exiled  for  conspiracy    .    Aug.  13,     ,, 
M.  Mon  forms  a  ministry,  March  i ;  resigns, 

Sept.  13  ;  Narvaez  forms  a  cabinet  .  Sept.  16,     ,, 
Queen  Christina  returns  to  Spain     .     Sept.  26,     ,, 


English  government  recognises  the  ins\irrec- 
tion  at  St.  Domingo ;  Narvaez  advises  aban- 
donment of  the  contest ;  the  queen  refuses  ; 
the  ministry  resign ;  but  resume  office, 
|Dec.  14-18, 

1  Peace  with  Peru,  which  has  to  pay  a  heavy 
indemnity Jan.  27, 

The  queen  orders  the  sale  of  crown  lands, 
giving  up  three-fourths  to  the  nation,  Feb.  20, 

Student  riots  at  Madrid  ;  several  persons  killed, 

April  10, 

Decree  relinquishing  St.  Domingo        .    May  5, 

Dispute  with  Chili ;  M.  Ta viva's  settlement  (May 
20)  disavowed  by  the  government  .  July  25, 

Suppression  of  a  conspiracy  at  Valentia  to  re- 
unite Spain  and  Portugal  .  .  June  10, 

Resignation  of  Narvaez,  June  19 ;  O'Donnell 
forms  a  liberal  cabinet  .  .  .  June  22, 

Kingdom  of  Italy  recognised  by  Spain,  June  26, 

Admiral  Pareja,  at  Valparaiso,  insults  the 
Chilian  government,  Sept.  18  ;  which  declares 
war,  Sept.  25 ;  Pareja  declares  a  blockade. 

Oct. 

The  Chilian  capt.  Williams  captures  the 
Spanish  vessel  Coradonga  .  .  Nov.  26, 

Intervention  fruitless        ....     Dec. 

New  cortes  elected ;  the  great  Progresista  party 
still  abstain  from  action  in  public  affairs  ; 
queen  opens  cortes  ....  Dec.  27, 

Military  insurrection  at  Aranjuez,  headed  by 
gen.  Prim,  Jan.  3 ;  martial  law  in  Madrid, 
Jan.  4;  Concha  and  Zabala  march  against 
rebels,  Jan.  4,  &c.  ;  riots  at  Barcelona ;  state 
of  siege  in  New  Castile,  Catalonia,  and  Arra- 
gon,  Jan.  6-12  ;  insurgents  said  to  be  en- 
deavouring to  enter  Portugal  .  Jan.  17, 


1864 


1866 


KINGS    OF    SPAIN. 


REIGN  OF  THE  GOTHS. 


411.  Ataulfo  ;  murdered  by  his  soldiers. 
415.  Sigerico  ;  reigned  a  few  days  only. 
„     Valia,  or  Wallia. 

420.  Theodoric  I.  ;   killed  in  a  battle,   which  he 
gained,  against  Attila. 

451.  Thorismund,  or  Torrismund  ;  assassinated  by 

his  favourite. 

452.  Theodoric  II.  :  assassinated  by 

466.  Euric,  the  first  monarch  of  all  Spain. 
483.  Alaric  II. ;  killed  in  battle. 
506.  Gesalric  ;  his  bastard  son. 
511.  Amalric,  or  Amalaric  ;  legitimate  son  of  Alaric. 
531.  Theudis,  or  Theodat ;  assassinated  by  a  mad- 
man. 

548.  Theudisela,  or  Theodisele ;  murdered. 

549.  Agila  ;  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death. 
554.  Atanagildo. 

567.  Liuva,  or  Levua  I. 

568.  Leuvigildp  ;    associated  on  the  throne  with 

Liuva,  in  568  ;  and  sole  king  in  572. 
586.  Recaredo  I. 
601.  Liuva  II.  \. assassinated. 
603.  Vitericus ;  also  murdered. 
610.  Gundemar. 

612.  Sisibut,  or  Sisebuth,  or  Sisebert. 
621.  Recaredo  II. 
„     Suintila ;  dethroned. 
631.  Sisenando. 
636.  Chintclla. 
640.  Tulga,  or  Tulca. 
642.  Cindasuinto ;  died  in  652. 
649.  Recesuinto  ;    associated    on  the  throne  this 

year,  and  in  653  became  sole  king. 
672.  Varnba,  or  Wamba ;  dethroned,  and  died  in  a 

monastery. 

680.  Ervigius,  or  Ervigio. 
687.  Egica,  or  Ejdza. 
698.  Vitiza,  or  Witiza ;  associated  on  the  throne ; 

m  701  sole  king. 


711.  Rodrigo,  or  Roderic ;  slain  in  battle. 

[Six  independent  SUEVIC  kings  reigned  409-469  p 
and  Two  VANDALIC  kings  :  Gunderic  409-425  ;  his 
successor  Genseric  with  his  whole  nation  passed 
over  to  Africa.] 

MAHOMETAN    SPAIN. 

CORDOVA. 

I.  Emirs.  The  first,  Abdelasis ;  the  last,  Yussuf-el- 

Tehri:  A.D.  714-755. 

Kings.    The  first,  Abderahman  I.  ;  the  last  Abu 
AH  :  755-1238. 


Kings.    The  first,   Mohammed  I. ;  the  last,  Ab- 
dalla :  1238-1492. 

CHRISTIAN  SPAIN. 

KINGS   OF  ASTURIAS   AND   LEON. 

718.  Pelagius,  or  Pelayo  ;  overthrew  the  Moors, 
and  checked  their  conquests. 

737.  Favila  ;  killed  in  hunting. 

739.  Alfonso  the  Catholic. 

757.  Froila  ;  murdered  his  brother  Samnran,  in 
revenge  for  which  he  was  murdered  by  his 
brother  and  successor, 

768.  Aurelius  or  Aurelio. 

774.  Mauregato,  the  Usurper. 

788.  Veremundo  (Bermuda)  I. 

791.  Alfonso  II.,  the  Chaste. 

842.  Ramiro  I.  :  he  put  70,000  Saracens  to  the 
sword  in  one  battle.  Rabbe. 

850.  Ordofio  I. 

866.  Alfonso  III.,  surnamod  the  Great;  relin- 
quished his  crown  to  his  son. 


tz: 

SPAIN,  (. 


SPA 


679 


SPA 


SPAIN,  continued. 

QIO.  Garcias. 
914.  Orcloiio  II. 

923.  Froila  II. 

925.  Alfonso  IV.,  the  Monk  ;  abdicated. 
930.  Ramiro  II.  ;  kiUed  in  battle. 
950.  Ordofio  III. 

955.  Ordofio  IV. 

956.  Sancho  I.,  the  Fat  ;  poisoned  with  an  apple. 
967.  Ramiro  III. 

983.  Veremundo  II.  (Bermuda),  the  Gouty. 
999.  Alfonso  V.  ;  killed  in  a  siege. 
1027.  Veremundo  III.  (Bermuda) ;  killed. 

KINGS   OF   NAVARRE. 

873.  Sancho  liiigo,  Count. 

885.  Garcia  I.,  king. 

905.  Sancho  Garcias ;  a  renowned  warrior. 

924.  Garcias  II.,  surnamed  the  Trembler. 

970.  Sancho  II.,  surnamed  the  Great  (king  of  Cas- 
tile through  his  wife). 

1035.  Garcias  III. 

1054.  Sancho  III. 

1076.  Sancho  IV.,  Ramirez,  king  of  Aragon. 

1094.  Peter  of  Aragon. 

1104.  Alfonso  I.,  of  Aragon. 

1134.  Garcias  IV.,  Ramirez. 

1150.  Sancho  V.,  surnamed  the  Wise. 

1194.  Sancho  VI.,  surnamed  the  Infirm. 

1234.  Theobald  I.,  count  of  Champagne. 

1253.  Theobald  II. 

1270.  Henry  Crassus. 

1274.  Joanna  ;  married  to  Philip  the  Fair  of  France, 
1285. 

1305.  Louis  Hutiii  of  France. 

1316.  John  ;  lived  but  a  few  days. 
,,     Philip  V.,  the  Long,  of  France. 

1322.  Charles  I.  the  IV.  of  France. 

1328.  Joanna  II.,  and  Philip,  count  d'Evreux. 

1343.  Joanna  alone. 

1349.  Charles  II.,  or  the  Bad. 

1387.  Charles  III.,  or  the  Noble. 

1425.  Blanche  and  her  husband  John  II.,  afterwards 
king  of  Aragon. 

1479.  Eleanor. 
,,     Francis  Phoebus  de  Foix. 

1483.  Catherine  and  John  d'Albrot. 

1512.  Navarre  conquered  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic, 
and  united  with  Castile. 

KINGS   OF  LEON   AND   CASTILE. 

1035.  Ferdinand  the  Great. 

1065.  Sancho  II.,  the   Strong,  son  of    Ferdinand  ; 

Alfonso  in  Leon  and.  Asturias,  and  Garcias 

in  Galicia. 

1072.  Alfonso  VI.,  the  Valiant,  king  of  Leon. 
1109.  Uraca  and  Alfonso  VII. 
1126.  Alfonso  VII.,  Raymond. 

1157.  Sancho  III.,  surnamed  the  Beloved. 

1158.  Alfonso  VIII.,  the  Noble. 

[Leon  is  separated  from  Castile  under  Fer- 
dinand II.,  1157-1188. 

1 1 88.  Alfonso  IX.,  of  Leon. 

1214.  Henry  I. 

1217.  Ferdinand  III. ,  the  Saint  and  the  Holy.  By  him 
Leon  and  Castile  were  permanently  united. 

1252.  Alfonso  X.,  the  Wise  (the  Alphonsine  Tables 
were  drawn  up  under  his  direction). 

1284.  Sancho  IV.,  the  Great  and  the  Brave. 

1295.  Ferdinand  IV. 

1312.  Alfonso  XL 

1350.  Peter  the  Cruel  :  deposed  ;  reinstated  by 
Edward  the  Black  Prince  of  England  ;  slain 
by  his  natural  brother  and  successor. 

1369.  Henry  II.,  the  Gracious  ;  poisoned  by  a  monk. 

1379.  John  I :  he  united  Biscay  to  Castile. 

1390.  Henry  III.,  the  Sickly. 

1406.  John  II.,  son  of  Henry. 

1454.  Henry  IV.,  the  Impotent. 

1474.  Isabella,  now  queen  of  Castile,  married  Fer- 
dinand of  Aragon. 


1504.  Joanna,  (daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella) 
and  Philip  I.  of  Austria.  On  her  mother's 
death  Joanna  succeeded,  jointly  with  her 
husband  Philip  ;  but  Philip  dying  in  1506, 
and  Joanna  becoming  imbecile,  her  father 
Ferdinand  continued  the  reign ;  and  thus 
perpetuated  the  union  of  Castile  with  Aragon. 

KINGS  OF  ARAGON. 

1035.  Ramiro  I. 

1065.  Sancho  Ramirez  (IV.  of  Navarre). 

1094.  Peter  of  Navarre. 

1104.  Alfonso  I.,  the  Warrior,  king  of  Navarre. 

1134.  Ramiro  II.,  the  Monk. 

1137.  Petronilla,  and  Raymond,  count  of  Barcelona. 

1163.  Alfonso  II. 

1196.  Peter  II. 

1213.  James  1.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 

1276.  Peter  III.  ;  conquered  Sicily  (which  see)  in  1282. 

1285.  Alfonso  III.,  the  Beneficent. 

1291.  James  II.,  surnamed  the  Just. 

1327.  Alfonso  IV. 

1336.  Peter  IV.,  the  Ceremonious. 

1387.  John  I. 

1395.  Martin. 

1410.  [Interregnum.] 

1412.  Ferdinand  the  Just,  king  of  Sicily. 

1416.  Alfonso  V.,  the  Wise. 

1458.  John  II.,  king  of  Navarre,  brother  of  Alfonso ; 
died  1479. 

1479.  Ferdinand  II.,  the  Catholic,  the  next  heir  :  in 
consequence  of  his  marriage  with  Isabella  of 
Castile  (1474),  the  kingdoms  were  united. 


SPAIN. 
1512.  Ferdinand  V.  (of  Castile),  the  Catholic. 


This 


prince  having  conquered  Granada  and  Na- 
varre, became  king  of  all  Spain  ;  succeeded 
by  his  grandson, 

1516.  Charles  I.,  son  of  Joanna  of  Castile  and  Philip 
of  Austria  (became  emperor  of  Germany,  as 
Charles  V.,  in  1519);  resigned  both  crowns, 
and  retired  to  a  monastery. 

1556.  Philip  II.,  hia  son,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily; 
a  merciless  bigot;  married  Mary,  queen- 
regnant  of  England  ;  died  a  most  dreadful 
death,  being  covered  with  ulcers. 

1598.  Philip  III.,  his  son,  drove  the  Moors  from 
Granada  and  the  adjacent  provinces. 

1621.  Philip  IV.  his  son  :  a  reign  of  unfortunate  war 
with  the  Dutch  and  French ;  he  lost  Por- 
tugal in  1640. 

1665.  Charles  II.,  his  son ;  last  of  the  Austrian  line  ; 
he  nominated,  by  will,  as  his  successor, 

1700.  Philip  V.,  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  of  Louis 
XIV.  of  France  :  hence  arose  the  "  war  of 
the  Succession,"  terminated  by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht  in  1713 ;  resigned. 

1724.  Louis  I.,  son  ;  reigned  only  a  few  months. 
,,      Philip  V.  :  again. 

1746.  Ferdinand  VI.,  the  Wise ;  liberal  and  bene- 
ficent. 

1759.  Charles  III.,  brother-king  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
which  he  gave  to  his  third  son  Ferdinand. 

1788.  Charles  IV.,  son  of  Charles  III,  ;  the  influence 
of  Godoy,  prince  of  Peace,  reached  to  almost 
royal  authority  in  this  reign  ;  Charles  abdi- 
cated in  favour  of  his  son  and  successor,  in 
1808,  and  died  in  1819. 

1808.  Ferdinand  VII.,  whom  Napoleon  of  France  also 

forced  to  resign. 

, ,     Joseph  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon  ;  forced 
to  abdicate. 

1814.  Ferdinand  VII.,  restored  ;  succeeded  by 

1833.  Isabella  II.  daughter  (bom  Oct.  10,  1830) ; 
ascended  the  throne,  Sept.  29,  1833  ;  mar- 
ried her  cousin,  Don  Francis  d'Assisi,  Oc- 
tober 10, 1846.  The  PRESENT  queen  of  Spain. 
[Heir  :  Alfonso,  prince  of  Asturias,  born  Nov. 
28,  1857-] 


SPA 


680 


SPA 


SPANISH  ARMADA.     See  Armada. 


SPANISH  ERA.     See  Eras. 


SPANISH  GRANDEES,  the  higher  nobility,  almost  equal  to  the  kings  of  Castile  and 
Aragon,  and  who  often  set  their  authority  at  defiance,  were  restrained  on  the  union  of  the 
crowns  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  1474,  who  compelled  several  to  relin- 
quish the  royal  fortresses  and  domains  which  they  held.  Charles  V.  reduced  the  grandees 
to  sixteen  families  (Medina-Sidonia,  Albuquerque,  &o.)  dividing  them  into  three  classes. 

SPANISH  LANGUAGE  (Lengua  Castellana),  is  a  dialect  of  Latin  largely  intermingled 
with  Arabic,  which  was  the  legal  language  till  the  fourteenth  century.  Spanish  did  not 
"become  general  till  the  i6th  century. 


Born 

Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  1503 
Boscan       .        .        .1496 
Las  Casas     .        .     .  1474 
Cervantes  (author  of 
Don  Quixote)   .     .  1547 


EMINENT  SPANISH  AUTHORS. 
Born 


Died 

1536  Mariana 
1543  I  Herrera 
1566  j  Lope  de  Vega 

I  Quevedo 
1616  i  Calderon    . 


1565 

1568 

i|70 
IDOI 


Died 
1623 
1625 
1635 
1647 


Solis  . 
Fey  j  os  . 
Yriarte 
Conde    . 


Born  Died 

,   1610  1686 

.   1701  1765 

,  1750  1798 

.  1765  1820 


SPANISH  SUCCESSION  AND  MARRIAGES.     See  Spain,  1700  and  Oct.  10,  1846. 

SPARTA,  the  capital  of  Laconia,  the  most  considerable  republic  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
the  rival  of  Athens.  Though  without  walls,  it  resisted  the  attacks  of  its  enemies  by  the 
valour  of  its  citizens  for  eight  centuries.  Lelex  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  king. 
From  Lacedsemon  the  fourth  king,  and  his  wife  Sparta,  who  are  also  spoken  of  as  the 
founders  of  the  city,  it  obtained  the  names  by  which  it  is  most  known.  The  Lacedaemonians 
were  a  nation  of  soldiers.  They  cultivated  neither  the  arts,  sciences,  commerce,  nor  agri- 
culture. 


Sparta  founded.  Pausanias  .  .  .  B.C.  1490 
Tyndarus  marries  Leda  :  Helen  born  .  .  .  *** 
Helen  stolen  by  Theseus,  king  of  Athens,  but 

recovered  by  her  brothers        ....   1213 
The  princes  of  Greece  demand  Helen  in  mar- 
riage ;    she    makes  choice  of   Menelaus    of 

Mycense 1201 

Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  carries  off 

Helen,  1198  ;  which  leads  to 

The  Trojan  war 1193 

After  a  war  of  ten  years,  and  a  disastrous  voyage 

of  nearly  eight,  Menelaus  and  Helen  return 

to  Sparta 1176 

Reign  of    Orestes,   the  son  of    Agamemnon. 

Pausanias .        .        .        .        .         .        .         .1175 

The    kingdom    is    seized   by   the    Heraclidse. 

Lenalet 1104 

Establishment  of  two  kings,  Eurysthenes  and 

Procles,  by  their  father,  Aristodemus      .         .  1102 
Rule  of  Lycurgus,  who  establishes  the  senate, 

and  enacts  a  code  of  laws.     Eustbius  .         .  881-884 
Charilaus  declares   war  against  Polymnestor, 

king  of  Arcadia 848 

Alcamenes,  known  by  his  apophthegms,  makes 

war  upon  the  Messenians 813 

Nicander  succeeds  his  father,  Charilaus  ;  war 

with  the  Argives 800 

Theopompus  introduces  the   Ephori   into  the 

government about 

War    declared    against    the     Messenians,  and 

Amphia  taken 743 

War  with  the  Argives,  and  celebrated  battle*   . 
The  Progeny  of  the   Parthenite,  the  sous    of 

Virgins       

Battle  of  Ithome 

Ithome  taken;  the  Messenians  become  vassals 

to  Sparta,  and  the  war  ends,  which  had  lasted 

nineteen  years 

Conspiracy  of  the  Parthenii  with  the  Helots  to 

take  Sparta 


757 


735 


733 
730 


724 


707 


The  Parthenii  colonise  Tarentum        .        .   B  c. 

The  Messenians  revolt,  and  league  with  Elis, 
Argos,  and  Arcadia,  against  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians. [This  war  lasts  fourteen  years.]  . 

Carnian  festivals  instituted 

The  Messenians  settle  in  Sicily  .... 

The  states  of  Greece  unite  against  the  Persians    482 

Lconidas,  at  the  head  of  300  Spartans,  with- 
stands the  Persian  arms  at  the  defile  of 
Thermopylae.  (See  Thermopylae,  Battle  of) 

Persians  defeated  by  Pausanias  .... 

He  is  put  to  death  for  treason  ;  the  Grecian 
armies  choose  an  Athenian  general  .  .  . 

An  earthquake  at  Sparta  destroys  thirty  thou- 
sand persons  ;  rebellion  of  the  Helots 

Plataea  taken  by  the  Spartans         .        .        .     . 

The  Spartans,  under  Agis,  enter  Attica,  and 
lay  waste  the  country 

Agis  (king  427)  gains  a  great  victory  over  the 
Argives  and  the  Mantinajans  .  .  .  . 

The  Lacedaemonian  fleet,  under  Mindarus, 
defeated  at  Cyzicum,  and  Mindarus  slain  in 
the  battle 

The  Spartans,  defeated  by  land  and  at  sea, 
sue  for  peace,  which  is  denied  by  the  Athe- 
nians   

Reign  of  Pausanias 

The  Athenians  defeated  at  y£gospotamos  by 
Lysander 

Athens  taken  by  him,  which  ends  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  ........ 

Agesilaus  (king  398)  enters  Lydia 

The  Athenians,  Thebans,  Argives,  and  Corin- 
thians enter  into  a  league  against  the  Spartans 
which  begins  the  Corinthian  war        .        .     . 
Agesilaus  defeats  the  Allies  at  Coronea 
The    Lacedaemonian    fleet,     under    Lysander, 
defeated  by  Conon,  the  Athenian  commander, 
near  Cnidos  ;  Lysander  killed  in  an  engage- 
ment       


706 


685 
675 
669 


480 
479 

472 

466 
428 

426 
418 

410 


405 


404 
396 


395 
394 


*  This  celebrated  battle  was  fought  between  300  select  heroes  of  each  nation,  and  all  perished  except 
two  Argives  and  one  Spartan.  The  latter  remained  on  the  field,  whilst  the  two  former  repaired  to  Argos  to 
announce  their  victory.  Each  party  claimed  the  advantage  ;  the  Argives  because  they  had  lost  the  fewest 
men ;  the  Lacedaemonians,  because  they  remained  masters  of  the  field.  A  second  battle  was  foiight,  in 
which  the  Argives  were  beaten.  Pausanias. 


SPA 


681 


SPE 


SPARTA,  continued. 

The  Thebans  drive  the  Spartans  from  Cadmca. 

Lenglet B.C. 

The  Spartans  lose  the  dominion  of  the  seas ; 

their  fleet  totally  destroyed  by  Timotheus 
The  Spartans  defeated  at  Leuctra 
-  Epaminondas,  heading  50,000  Thebans,  appears 

before  Sparta 

Battle  of  Mantinea:   the  Thebans  obtain  the 

victory.     See  Mantinea 

Pyrrhus  invades  Sparta  ;  is  defeated  before  the 

walls 

Agis  endeavours  to  revive  the  laws  of  Lycurgus 
Lsonidas  vacates  the  tin-one,  and  flies  from 

Sparta 

He  is  recalled,  and  becomes  sole  sovereign ; 

Agis  put  to  death 

Reign  of  Cleomenes  III.  the  son  of  Leonidas  . 
He  re-establishes  most  of  the  laws  of  Lycurgus. 
Antigonus  meets  Cleomenes  on  the  plains  of 

Sellasia,  routs  his  army,  and  enters  Sparta  as 


378 

376 
371 

369 
362 

294 

244 

243 

241 

236 
225 


~: 


Cleomenes  retires  to  E'/ypt  .  .  .  B.C.  222- 
The  Spartans  murder  the  Ephori  .  .  .221 
Madianidas  ascends  the  throne,  and  abolishes 

the  Ephori 210 

He  is  defeated  and  slain  by  Pbilopcemen,  Pnet :•  >r 

of  the  Achaean  league        .        .        .         .        .     206 
Government    of     Nabis,     execrable     for    his 

cruelties „ 

The  Romans  besiege  Sparta,  and  the  tyrant 
sues  for  peace    .......     197 

The  ^Etolians  obtain  Sparta  by  treachery :  Nabis 

is  assassinated 192 

The  laws  of  Lycurgus  abolished  .         .        .         .188 
Sparta,  under  the  protection  or  rather  subjuga- 
tion of  Rome,  retains  its  authority  for  a  short 
time       .  I47 

Taken  by  Mahomet  II A.D.  1460 

Burnt  by  Sigismund  Malatesta  ....  1463 
Rebuilt  at  Misitra  ;  it  is  now  called  Sparta,  and 
is  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  (1865). 


SPARTACUS'3  INSURRECTION.  He  was  a  noble  Thracian,  who  served  in  an 
auxiliary  corps  of  the  Roman  army.  Having  deserted  and  been  apprehended,  he  was  reduced 
to  slavery  and  made  a  gladiator.  With  some  companions  he  made  his  escape,  collected  a 
body  of  slaves  and  gladiators,  73  B.C.  ;  ravaged  Southern  Italy  ;  and  defeated  the  Roman 
forces  under  the  consuls  sent  against  him.  Knowing  the  impossibility  of  successfully 
resisting  the  republic,  he  endeavoured  to  conduct  his  forces  into  Sicily,  but  on  the  way  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  Crassus,  72  B.C. 

SPEAKERS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS.  Peter  de  Montfort,  afterwards  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Evesham,  was  the  first  speaker,  45  Hen.  III.  1260  ;  but  sir  Peter  de  la  Mare  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  regular  speaker,  50  Ed\v.  III.  1376.  The  king  refused  his 
assent  to  the  choice  of  sir  Edward  Seymour,  as  speaker,  March  6,  1678  ;  and  serjeant  William 
Gregory  was  chosen  in  his  room.  Sir  John  Trevor  was  expelled  the  chair  and  the  house  for 
taking  a  gratuity  after  the  act  for  the  benefit  of  orphans  had  passed,  March  20,  1694. 

RECENT    SPEAKERS. 


1801.  Henry   Addington  (afterwards  viscount  Sid- 

mouth),  Jan.  22. 

, ,      Sir  John  Mitf ord  (afterwards  baron  Redesdale), 
Feb.  ii. 

1802.  Charles  Abbot   (afterwards  lord  Colchester), 

Feb.  10. 


1817.  Charles  Manners  Sutton  (afterwards  viscount 
Canterbury),  June  2. 

1835.  James  Abercromby  (afterwards  baron  Dun- 
fermline).  Feb.  19. 

1839.  Charles  Shaw  Lefevre  (afterwards  viscount 
Eversley),  May  27. 

1857.  John  Evelyn  Denison,  April  30. 

SPEAKING-TRUMPET,  used  by  ships  at  sea.  One  is  said  to  have  been  used  by 
Alexander,  335  B.C.  One  was  constructed  from  Kircher's  description  by  Saland,  1652. 
Philosophically  explained  and  brought  into  notice  by  Moreland,  1671. 

SPECIES.  Much  controversy  among  naturalists  arose  in  consequence  of  the  pub- 
lication, in  1859,  of  Mr.  Charles  Darwin's  "Origin  of  Species,"  in  which  he  suggests  that 
all  the  various  species  of  animals  were  not  created  at  one  time,  but  have  been  gradually 
developed  by  what  he  terms  "natural  selection,"  and  the  struggle  for  life  of  the  strong 
against  the  weak. 

SPECTACLES,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  invented 
by  Alexander  de  Spina,  a  monk  of  Florence,  in  Italy,  about  1285.  According  to  Dr.  Plott, 
they  were''  invented  by  Roger  Bacon,  about  1280.  Mr.  Manni  in  his  Treatise  gives  proof 
in  favour  of  Salvino  being  the  inventor. 

SPECTATOR.  The  first  number  of  this  periodical  appeared  on  March  I,  1711  ;  the  last 
was  No.  635,  Dec.  20,  1714.  The  papers  by  Addison  have  one  of  the  letters  CLIO  at  the 
end.  The  most  of  the  other  papers  are  by  sir  Richard  Steele,  a  few  by  Hughes,  Budgell, 
Eusden,  Miss  Shephard,  and  others. — The  Spectator  newspaper  began  in  1828. 

SPECTRUM,  the  term  given  to  the  image  of  the  sun  or  any  other  luminous  body  formed 
on  a  wall  or  screen,  by  a  beam  of  light  received  through  a  small  hole  or  slit  and  refracted 
by  a  prism.  The  colours  thus  produced  are  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and 
violet.  The  discovery  was  made  by  Newton,  whose  "Optics"  were  published  in  1704. 


SPE  G82  SPI 

Several  of  these  colours  are  considered  to  be  compounds  of  three  primary  ones,  by  Mayer 
(1775),  red,  yellow,  and  blue  ;  by  Dr.  Thos.  Young  (1801),  red,  green,  and  violet ;  by  Prof. 
Clerk  Maxwell  (1860),  red,  green,  and  blue.*  As  the  colour  of  a  flame  varies  according  to 
the  substance  producing  it  or  introduced  into  it,  so  the  spectrum  varies  also.  This  has  led 
to  the  invention  of  a  method  of  chemical  analysis  by  professors  Bunsen  and  Kirchhoff  (1860), 
by  which  they  have  discovered  two  new  metals,  and  have  drawn  conclusions  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  atmosphere  of  the  sun  and  stars,  and  of  the  light  of  the  nebulee,  by  comparing  the 
spectrum  with  that  produced  by  flames  into  which  iron,  sodium,  and  other  substances  have 
been  introduced.! 

SPECULATIVE  SOCIETY,  Edinburgh  (which  had  included  amongst  its  members 
David  Hume),  celebrated  its  hundredth  anniversary  on  Oct.  14,  1863. 

SPHERES.  The  celestial  and  terrestial  globes,  and  also  sun-dials,  are  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Anaximander,  552  B.C.  ;  and  the  armillary  sphere  by  Eratosthenes,  about 
225  B.C.  The  planetarium  was  constructed  by  Archimedes  before  212  B.C.  Pythagoras 
maintained  that  the  motions  of  the  twelve  spheres  must  produce  delightful  sounds,  inaudible 
to  mortals,  which  he  called  the  music  of  the  spheres. 

SPINNIISTG  was  ascribed  by  the  ancients  to  Minerva,  the  goddess  of  wisdom.  Areas, 
king  of  Arcadia,  taught  his  subjects  the  art  about  1500  B.C.  Lucretia  with  her  maids  was 
found  spinning,  when  her  husband  Collatinus  paid  a  visit  to  her  from  the  camp.  The  wife 
of  Tarquin  was  an  excellent  spinner  ;  and  a  garment  made  by  her,  worn  by  Servius  Tullius, 
was  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Fortune.  Augustus  Ca?sar  usually  wore  no  garments  but  such 
as  were  made  by  his  wife,  sister,  or  daughter.  The  spinning-wheel  was  invented  at 
Brunswick,  about  A.D.  1530.  Till  1767,  the  spinning  of  cotton  was  performed  by  the  hand 
spinning-wheel,  when  Hargreaves,  an  ingenious  mechanic,  near  Blackburn,  made  a  spinning 
jenny,  with  eight  spindles.  Hargreaves  also  erected  the  first  carding  machine,  with 
cylinders.  Arkwright's  machine  for  spinning  by  water  was  an  extension  of  the  principle  of 
Hargreaves  ;  but  he  also  applied  a  large  and  small  roller  to  expand  the  thread,  and,  for  this 
ingenious  contrivance,  took  out  a  patent  in  1769.  At  first  he  worked  his  machinery  by 
horses  ;  but  in  1771  he  built  a  mill  on  the  stream  of  the  Derwent,  at  Cromford.  In  1774-9, 
Crompton  invented  the  Mule  (which  sec). 

SPIRES  (in  Bavaria).  The  emperors  held  many  diets  at  Spires  since  1309,  and  it  was  the 
seat  of  the  Imperial  chamber  till  1688,  when  the  city  was  burnt  by  the  French,  and  not 
rebuilt  till  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  The  diet  to  condemn  the  reformers  was 
held  at  Spires,  called, there  by  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  1529.  See  Protestants. 

SPIRIT-RAPPING,  &c.  Spiritual  manifestations  (so  called)  began  it  is  said  in  America, 
about  1848,  and  attracted  attention  in  this  country  about  1851,  in  the  shape  of  table-turning, 
&c.  Many  inquisitive  or  credulous  persons  visited  Mr.  Hume  and  Mr.  Forster,  noted 
* '  spiritual  mediums. " 

SPIRITS.  See  Distillation.  In  all  nations  spirituous  liquors  have  been  considered  as  a 
proper  subject  of  heavy  taxation  for  the  support  of  the  state.  See  Alcohol,  Brandy,  Methy- 
lated Spirits,  d-c. 

In  1840 1  England  made  about  ten  millions  of  gallons'  In  1858,  9,195,154?.  was  paid  as  duty  on  27,370,934 

of  spirits,  Scotland  about  seven  millions  of  gallons,  j  gallons. 

and  Ireland  about  nine  millions  of  gallons.                 [  In  1855,  methylated  spirits  of  wine,  for  use  in  the  arts 

In  1851  the  number  of  gallons  on  which  duty  was  and  sciences,  were  made  duty  free. 

paid  for  home  consumption  was  23,976,596.     The  ,  In  1859,  27,657,721  gallons  of  spirits  were  distilled  in 

total    amount     paid     was   6,017,218?.,    of   which  the  United   Kingdom.      The  uniform  duty  of  8s. 

3,758, 186?.  were  paid  by  England,   1,252,297?.   by  •  per  gallon  was  paid  on  24,254,403  gallons  for  home 

Scotland,  and  1,006,735?.  by  Ireland.  consumption,  producing  9,701,764?. 

The  total  duty  on  home  consumption  paid  1111853  In  1861  an  act  was  passed  repealing  wholly  or  in  part 

was  6,760,422?.  26  previous  acts,  and  embodying  all  regulations  for 

i  the  guidance  of  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  spirits 

SPITALFIELDS  (East  London).  Here  the  French  Protestant  refugees  settled  and 
established  the  silk  manufacture  in  1685.  In  consequence  of  commercial  changes  the 
weavers  endured  much  distress  about  1829. 

*  Fraunhofeifg  Lines.  In  1802  Dr.  "Wollastoii  observed  several  dark  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum  ;  in 
1815  Joseph  Fraunhofer  not  only  observed  them  but  constructed  a  map  of  them,  giving  590  lines  or  dark 
"bands.  By  the  researches  of  Brewster  and  others  the  number  observed  is  now  above  2000. 

t  Mr.  Fox  Talbot  observed  the  orange  line  of  strontium  in  the  spec! rum  in  1826  ;  and  sir  David 
Brewster  observed  other  lines,  1833-42-3.  In  1862-3  Mr.  Wm.  Huggins  analysed  the  light  of  the  fixed  stars 
and  of  the  nebulae  ;  and  in  1865  Dr.  Bence  Jones,  by  means  of  spectrum  analyses,  detected  the  presence  of 
minute  quantities  of  metals  in  tli3  living  body,  introduced  only  a  few  minutes  previously. 


SIT  683  STA 

SPITZBERGEN,  an  archipelago  in  the  Arctic  ocean,  discovered  in  1553,  by  sir  Hugh 
"VVilloughby,  who  called  it  Greenland,  supposing  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  western  continent. 
In  1595  it  was  visited  by  Barentz  and  Cornelius,  two  Dutchmen,  who  pretended  to  be  the 
original  discoverers,  and  called  it  Spitzbergen,  or  sharp  mountains,  from  the  many  sharp 
pointed  and  rocky  mountains  with  which  it  abounds.  See  Phipps. 

SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION.  The  origin  of  the  germs  of  infusorial  animalcules 
developed  during  putrefaction,  &c.,  has  been  and  is  still  fiercely  debated  by  naturalists. 
Spallanzani  (about  1766),  and  especially  M.  Pasteur  and  others  at  the  present  time  (1865), 
assert  that  these  germs  are  really  endowed  with  organic  life  existing  in  the  atmosphere. 
Needham  (about  1747),  and  especially  M.  Pouchet  and  his  friends  in  our  day,  pretend  that 
these  germs  are  spontaneously  formed  out  of  organic  molecules,  and  may  be  formed 
artificially.  Pouchet's  ' '  Heterogcnie, "  appeared  in  1859. 

SPORTS.  The  first  "Book  of  Sports,"  under  the  title  of  "The  King's  Majestie's 
Declaration  to  his  Subjects  concerning  Lawful  Sports  to  be  used  "  on  Sundays  after  evening 
prayers,  was  published  by  king  James  I.  May  24,  1618.  The  second  "  Book  of  Sports,"  with 
a  ratification  by  his  majesty  Charles  I.  is  dated  Oct.  18,  1633.  On  the  publication  of  the 
first  "  Book  of  Sports,"  there  arose  a  long  and  violent  controversy  among  English  divines 
on  certain  points.  See  Sabbatarians,  Sunday,  &c.  The  book  was  ordered  to  be  burnt  by 
the  hangman  and  the  sports  were  suppressed  by  the  parliament. 

SPRINGFIELD  (Missouri),  near  which  was  fought  the  desperate  battle  of  Wilson's 
Creek,  in  which  the  federals  had  the  advantage  over  the  confederates,  but  lost  their  brave- 
general,  Nathaniel  Lyon,  Aug.  10,  1861. 

SPURS.  Anciently  the  difference  between  the  knight  and  esquire  was,  that  the  knight 
wore  gilt  spurs  (cqucs  auratus)  and  the  esquire  silver  ones.  Two  sorts  of  spurs  seem  to  have 
been  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  one  called  a  pryck,  having  only  a  single  point,  the 
other  a  number  of  points  of  considerable  size.  Spurs  nearly  of  the  present  kind  came  into 
use  about  1400.  See  Plating. 

SPURS,  BATTLE  OF.  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  the  Swiss, 
in  1513,  entered  into  an  offensive  alliance  against  France.  Henry  VIII.  landed  at  Calais  in 
the  month  of  July,  and  soon  formed  an  army  of  30,000  men,  counting  his  own  troops.  He 
was  joined,  by  the  emperor  with  a  good  corps  of  horse  and  some  foot.  The  emperor  was  so 
mean  as  to  act  as  a  mercenary  to  the  king  of  England,  who  allowed  him  a  hundred  ducats  a 
clay  for  his  table  !  They  invested  Teroiienne  with  an  army  of  50,000  men  ;  and  the  due  de 
Longueville,  marching  to  its  relief,  was  signally  defeated  on  the  i6th  of  August,  at  Guine- 
gate.  This  battle  was  called  the  battle  of  Spurs,  because  the  French  used  their  spurs  more 
than  they  did  ^their  swords.  The  English  king  laid  siege  to  Tournay,  which  submitted  in  a 
few  days.  Henault.  See  Courtrai,  for  another  "battle  of  spurs." 

STADE  DUES.  At  a  castle  near  the  town  of  Stade,  in  Hanover,  certain  dues  were 
charged  by  the  Hanoverian  government  on  all  goods  imported  into  Hamburg.  The  British 
government  settled  these  dues  in  1844;  and  they  were  resisted  by  the  Americans  in  1855. 
Negotiations  on  the  subject  began  in  1860,  and  the  dues  were  abolished  in  June,  1861. 
Great  Britain  paid  160,000?.  as  her  share  of  the  compensation. 

STADTHOLDER.     See  Holland. 

STAFF^  COLLEGE  (Sandhurst),  for  providing  an  education  to  qualify  military  officers 
for  the  duties  of  the  staff.  The  foundation  stone  was  laid  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge, .on 
Dec.  14,  1859. 

STAGE-COACHES.  So  called  from  the  stages  or  inns  at  which  the  coaches  stopped  to 
refresh  and  change  horses.  Bailey.  The  stage-coach  duty  act  passed  in  1785.  These 
coaches  were  made  subject  to  salutary  provisions  for  the  safety  of  passengers,  in  1809  ;  to 
mileage  duties,  1814.  "See  Mail  Coaches,  &c. 

STAMP-DUTIES,  first  instituted  in  1671.  They  Avere  re-enacted  1694,  when  a  duty  was 
imposed  upon  paper,  vellum,  and  parchment.  The  stamp-duty  on  newspapers  was  com- 
menced in  1713,  and  every  year  added  to  the  list  of  articles  upon  which  stamp-duty  was 
made  payable. 


The  American  Stamp  Act,  a  memorable  statute, 
one  of  those  imposts  levied  by  the  parliament 
of  Great  Britain,  which  led  to  the  American 
•war,  and  the  independence  of  that  country, 
passed  March  22,  1765.  It  was  repcakd  in  .  1766 


Stamp  duties  in  Ireland  commenced  .  .  .  1774 
Sta:nps  on  notes  and  bills  of  exchange  in  .  .  1782 
The  stamp-duties  produced  in  England,  in  1800, 

a  revenue  of  3,126,535?. 
Many  alterations  made  in  1853  and  1857.     In 


STA  684  STA 

STAMP-DUTIES,  continued. 

June,  1855,  the  stamp-duty  on  newspapers  as  (on  leases,  bills  of  exchange,  dock  warrants, 

such  was   totally  abolished:    the  stamp  011  extracts   from  registers  of  births,  &c.);    in 

them  being  henceforth  for  postal  purposes.  1861  (on  leases,  licences  to  hou'-e  agents,  &c.). 

Stamp-duties  reduced  in  1864,  1865. 
All  fees  payable  in  the  superior  courts  of  law, 
after   Dec.  31,   1865,   are  to  be   collected  by 
stamps,  by  an  act  passed  in  June,  1865. 


In  July  and  Aug.  1854,  19,115,000  newspaper 
stamps  were  issued ;  in  the  same  months, 
1855,  only  6,870,000. 

Drafts  on  bankers  to  be  stamped   .  .     .   1858 

Additional  stamp  duties  were  enacted  in  1 860 


AMOUNT   OF   STAMP   DUTIES    RECEIVED    IX   THE   UNITED    KINGDOM. 


1840    ....  £6,726,817 
1845 7, 710,683 


1850    .    .    .    .£6,558,332  1859  (to  Mar.  31)  .    -£7,994,636 


1855 6,805,605 


1864   (ditto)     .  .  9,324,850 


STANDARD.  First  fixed  by  the  law  for  gold  and  silver  in  England,  1300.  Standard 
gold  is  22  parts  out  of  24  of  pure  gold,  the  other  tAvo  parts  or  carats  being  silver  or  copper, 
The  standard  of  silver  is  n  oz.  2  dwts.  of  fine  silver  alloyed  with  18  dwts.  of  copper,  or  37 
parts  out  of  40  pure  silver,  and  three  parts  copper.  In  1300  these  12  oz.  of  silver  were 
coined  into  20  shillings  ;  in  1412  they  were  coined  into  30  shillings  ;  and  in  1527  into  45 
shillings.  In  1545,  Henry  VIII.  coined  6  oz.  of  silver  and  6  oz.  of  alloy  into  48  shillings  ; 
and  the  next  year  he  coined  4  oz.  of  silver  and  8  oz.  of  alloy  into  the  same  sum.  Elizabeth, 
in  1560,  restored  the  old  standard  in  60  shillings  ;  and  in  1601  in  62  shillings.  It  is  now  66 
shillings.  The  average  proportions  of  silver  to  gold  at  the  royal  mint  are  154  to  I.  The 
standard  of  plate  and  silver  manufactures  was  affirmed,  6  Geo.  I.  1719  et  scq.  See  Gold  and 
Coinage.— BATTLE  OF  THE  STANDARD.  See  Northallerton. 

STANDARD  MEASURES.  In  the  reign  of  Edgar  a  law  was  made  to  prevent  frauds 
arising  from  the  diversity  of  measures,  and  for  the  establishment  of  a  legal  standard  measure 
to  be  used  in  every  part  of  his  dominions.  The  standard  vessels  made  by  order  of  the  king 
were  deposited  in  the  city  of  Winchester,  and  hence  originated  the  well-known  term  of 
"  Winchester  measure."  The  bushel  so  made  is  still  preserved  in  the  guildhall  of  that  city. 
Henry  I.  also,  to  prevent  frauds  in  the  measurement  of  cloth,  ordered  a  standard  yard  of  the 
length  of  his  own  arm  to  be  made  and  deposited  at  Winchester,  with  the  standard  measures 
of  king  Edgar.  The  Guildhall  contains  the  standard  measures  of  succeeding  sovereigns. 
Camden. — The  standard  weights  and  measures  were  settled  by  parliament  in  1824.  The 
pound  troy  was  to  be  5760  grains,  and  the  pound  avoirdupois  7000  grains.  The  "  Standard 
yard  of  1760,"  in  the  custody  of  the  clerk  of  the  house  of  commons,  was  declared  to  be  the 
Imperial  Standard  yard  and  the  unit  of  measures  of  extension.  This  standard  having  been 
destroyed  by  the  fire  in  1834,  a  new  commission  was  appointed  to  reconstruct  it,  and 
researches  for  this  purpose,  in  conformity  with  the  act,  which  directed  the  comparison  of  the 
standard  with  a  pendulum  vibrating  seconds  of  time  in  the  latitude  of  London,  were  begun 
by  Francis  Baily  (died  in  1844),  continued  by  the  rev.  R.  Sheepshanks  till  his  death  in  1855, 
and  completed  by  G.  B.  Airy,  astronomer  royal.  In  1855  was  passed  "an  act  for  legalising 
and  preserving  the  lost  standards  of  weights  and  measures."  The  parliamentary  copies  of  the 
standard  pound  and  yard  are  deposited  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich. 

STANDARDS.  See  Banners,  Flags,  &c.  The  practice  in  the  army  of  using  a  cross  on 
standards  and  shields  is  due  to  the  asserted  miraculous  appearance  of  a  cross  to  Constantine, 
previously  to  his  battle  with  Maxentius  ;  Eusebius  says  that  he  received  this  statement  from 
the  emperor  himself,  312.  For  the  celebrated  French 'standard,  see  A  uriflamme. — STANDARD 
OF  MAHOMET  ;  on  this  ensign  no  infidel  dared  look.  It  was  carried  in  procession  about 
1768,  when  several  hundred  Christians,  who  ignorantly  looked  upon  it,  were  massacred  by 
the  Turkish  populace. — The  British  IMPERIAL  STANDARD  was  first  hoisted  on  the  Tower  of 
London,  and  on  Bedford  Tower,  Dublin,  and  displayed  by  the  Foot  Guards,  on  the  union  of 
the  kingdoms,  Jan.  I,  1801. 

STANFORD  BRIDGE,  York.  In  1066,  Tostig,  brother  of  Harold  II.,  rebelled  against 
his  brother,  and  joined  the  invading  army  of  Harold  Hardrada,  king  of  Norway.  They 
defeated  the  northern  earls  and  took  York,  but  were  defeated  at  Stanford-bridge  by  Harold, 
Sept.  25,  and  were  both  slain.  The  loss  by  this  victory  no  doubt  led  to  his  own  ruin  at  the 
battle  of  Hastings  on  Oct.  14,  following. 

STANHOPE  ADMINISTRATION  was  formed  by  James  (afterwards  earl)  Stanhope  and 
the  earl  of  Sunderland  in  April,  1717.  It  included  earl  Stanhope,  chancellor  of  the  exche- 
quer ;  earl  Cowper,  lord  chancellor ;  earl  of  Sunderland  and  Joseph  Addisou,  secretaries  of 
state,  &c.  In  March,  1718,  Addison  resigned,  and  the  earl  of  Sunderland  became  premier. 

STANNARY  COURTS  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  for  the  administration  of  justice  among 


STA  685  STA 

the  tin  miners,  whose  privileges  were  confirmed  by  33  Edw.  I.  1305.     They  were  regulated 
by  parliament  in  1641  and  1855. 

STARCH  is  a  sediment  produced  at  the  bottom  of  vessels  wherein  wheat  has  been 
steeped  in  water  :  it  is  soft  and  friable,  easily  broken  into  powder,  and  is  used  to  stiffen  and 
clear  linen,  with  blue  ;  its  powder  is  employed  to  powder  the  hair.  The  art  of  starching 
linen  was  brought  into  England  by  Mrs.  Dinghein,  a  Flemish  woman,  I  Mary,  1553.  Stow. 
Patents  for  obtaining  starch  from  other  substances  have  been  taken  out  :  from  potatoes  by 
Samuel  Newton  and  others  in  1707  ;  from  the  horse-chestnut  by  Wm.  Murray  in  1796  ;  from 
rice  by  Thomas  Wickham  in  1823  ;  from  various  matters  by  Orlando  Jones  in  1839-40. 

STAR-CHAMBER,  COURT  OF.  So  called  haply  from  its  roof  being  garnished  with  star?. 
Coke.  This  court  of  justice  was  called  Star-Chamber,  not  from  the  stars  on  its  roof  (wlm-h 
were  obliterated  even  before  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth),  but  from  the  St.arra,  or  Jewish 
covenants,  deposited  there  by  order  of  Richard  I.  No  star  was  allowed  to  be  valid  except 
found  in  those  repositories,  and  here  they  remained  till  the  banishment  of  the  Jews  by 
Edward  I.  The  court  was  instituted  2  Hen.  VII.  1486,  for  trials  by  a  committee  of  the 
privy  council,  which  was  in  violation  of  Magna  Charta  ;  as  jt  dealt  with  civil  and  criminal 
causes  unfettered  by  the  rules  of  law.  In  Charles  I.'s  reign  (1634-37),  it  exercised  its  power 
upon  several  bold  innovators  in  liberty,  who  only  gloried  in  their  sufferings,  and  contributed 
to  render  government  odious  and  contemptible.  It  was  abolished  in  1641.  There  were  in 
this  court  from  26  to  42  judges,  the  lord  chancellor  having  the  casting  voice. 

STAR  OF  INDIA,  a  new  order  of  knighthood  for  India,  gazetted  June  25,  1861.* 

STARS,  THE  FIXED.  They  'were  classed  into  constellations,  it  is  supposed,  about 
1 200  B.C.  Hicetas,  of  Syracuse,  taught  that  the  sun  and  the  stars  were  motionless,  and 
that  the  earth  moved  round  them,  about  344  B.C.  (this  is  mentioned  by  Cicero,  and  perhaps 
gave  the  first  hint  of  this  system  to  Copernicus).  Job,  Hesiod,  and  Homer  mention 
several  of  the  constellations.  The  Royal  Library  at  Paris  contains  a  Chinese  chart  of  the 
heavens,  made  about  600  B.C.  in  which  1460  stars  are  correctly  inserted.  The  aberration  of 
the  stars  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Bradley,  1727.  See  Astronomy  and  Solar  System.  Maps 
of  the  stars  were  published  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Knowledge  in  1839,  and  a  set 
of  Celestial  Maps,  issued  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Royal  Prussian  Academy,  was 
completed  in  1859. 

STATE  PAPER  OFFICE  was  founded  in  1578.  In  1857  the  British  government  began 
the  publication  of  Calendars  of  State  Papers,  which  will  be  invaluable  to  future  historians. 

STATES-GENERAL  OF  FRANCE.  An  ancient  assembly  of  France,  first  met,  it  is  said, 
in  1302  to  consider  the  exactions  of  the  pope.  Previously  to  the  Revolution,  it  had  not  met 
since  1614.  The  states  consisted  of  three  orders,  the  clergy,  nobility,  and  commons.  They 
were  convened  by  Louis  XVI.  and  assembled  at  Versailles,  May  5,  1789  (308  ecclesiastics, 
285  nobles,  and  621  deputies  or  tiers  etat).  A  contest  arose  whether  the  three  orders  should 
make  three  distinct  houses,  or  but  one  assembly.  The  commons  insisted  upon  the  latter,  and, 
assuming  the  title  of  the  National  Assembly,  declared  that  they  were  competent  to  proceed 
to  business,  without  the  concurrence  of  the  two  other  orders,  if  they  refused  to  join  them. 
The  nobility  and  clergy  found  it  expedient  to  concede  the  point,  and  they  all  met  in  one 
hall.  See  Rational  Assembly. 

STATES  OF  THE  CHURCH.     See  Pope  and  Rome. 

STATIONERS.  Books  and  papers  were  formerly  sold  only  at  stalls,  hence  the  dealers 
were  called  stationers.  The  company  of  stationers  of  London  is  of  great  antiquity,  and 
existed  long  before  printing  was  invented,  yet  it  was  not  incorporated  until 3  Philip  &'Mary, 
1555.  Their  old  dwelling  was  in  Paternoster- row.  Mortimer. 

STATISTICS,  defined  as  the  science  of  figures  applied  to  life,  is  stated  to  have  been 
founded  by  sir  Wm.  Petty,  who  died  in  1687.  The  term  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
professor  Achenwall  of  Gottingen  in  1749.  The  first  statistical  society  in  England  was  formed 
at  Manchester  in  1833  ;  the  Statistical  Society  of  London,  which  publishes  a  quarterly 
journal,  was  established  in  1834  ;  similar  societies  have  been  established  on  the  continent. 
International  Statistical  Congresses  are  now  held  occasionally.  The  1st  at  Brussels,  in  1853  ; 
2nd  at  Paris,  1855  ;  3rd  at  Vienna,  1857  ;  4th  at  London,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
prince  consort,  July  16-21,  1860. 

*  It  comprises  the  sovereign,  the  grand  master,  25  knights  (Europeans  and  natives),  and  extra  or 
honorary  knights,  such  as  the  prince  consort,  the  priiico  of  Wales,  &c.  The  queen  invested  several  knights 
on  Nov.  i,  i£6i. 


STA 


686 


STATUES.  See  Sculpture,  &c.  Phidias,  whose  statue  of  Jupiter  passed  for  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world,  was  the  greatest  statuary  among  the  ancients,  440  B.C.  He  had 
previously  made  a  statue  of  Minerva  at  the  request  of  Pericles,  which  was  placed  in  the 
Parthenon.  It  was  made  of  ivory  and  gold,  and  measured  39  feet  in  height.  Acilius  raised 
a  golden  statue  to  his  father,  the  first  that  appeared  in  Italy.  Lysippus  invented  the  art  of 
taking  likenesses  in  plaster  moulds,  from  which  he  afterwards  cast  models  in  wax,  326  B.C. 
Michael  Angelo  was  the  greatest  artist  among  the  moderns.  The  first  equestrian  statue 
erected  in  Great  Britain  was  that  of  Charles  I.  in  1678.*  By  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  10  (July  10, 
1854),  public  statues  are  placed  under  the  control  and  protection  of  the  Board  of  "Works. 
The  following  are  the  chief  public  statues  in  London  : — 


Achilles,  Hyde-park,  in  honour  of  the  duke  of 
Wellington,  by  the  ladies  of  Great  Britain, 

June  1 8,  1822 
Albert,  prince  consort,  Horticultural  Society 

gardens 1863 

Anne,  queen,  St.  Paul's  Church-yard  .  .  1711 
Bedford,  duke  of,  Russell-square  .  .  1809 

Canning,  George,  New  Palace-yard-  .  .  1832 
Cartwright,  major,  Burton  Crescent .  .  1831 

Charles  I.  Charing  Cross  ....  1678 
Charles  II.  Soho-square  ....  **** 

Cumberland,  duke  of,  Cavendish-square  .  1770 
Elizabeth,  queen,  St.  Dunstan's,  Fleet-street  1586 
Fox,  Charles  James,  Bloomsbury-square  .  1816 

George  I.  Grpsvenor-square  ....  1726 
George  I.  Leicester-square  .  .  .  .  „ 

George  III.  Somerset-house 1788 


'  George  III.  Cockspur-street  ....  1836 
Havelock,  sir  Henry,  Trafalgar-square  .  .  .  1861 
Howard,  John  ;  first  erected  in  St.  Paul's .  .  1796 
Jenner,  Edward,  Trafalgar-square,  1858 ;  re- 

!      moved  to  Kensington-gardens    .        .        .     .  1862 

I  James  II.  Whitehall 1687 

Myddelton,  sir  Hugh,  Islington -green  .  .  .  1862 
Napier,  gen.  sir  Charles  J.,  Trafalgar-square  .  1856 

j  Nelson,  lord,  Trafalgar-square  ....  1843 
Pitt,  William,  Hanover-square  .  .  .  .  1831 

i  Peel,  sir  Robert,  Cheapside         ....  1855 

!  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  near  Westminster  abbey  1860 
Wellington,  duke  of,  Royal  Exchange  .  .  .  1844 

I  Wellington,  duke  of,  arch,  Hyde-park  corner  .  1846 
William  III.  St.  James's-square  ....  1717 
William  IV.  King  William-street  .  .  .  .  1845 
York,  duke  of,  Waterloo-placo  ....  1834 


STATUTES.  See  Ads  of  Parliament,  Clarendon,  Merton,  &c.  The  Statute  Law 
Revision  act  was  passed  in  1863. 

STEAM  CARRIAGE  (for  ordinary  roads),  in  vented  by  the  earl  of  Caithness,  was  said  to 
be  successful  in  1860.  It  travels  over  rough  roads  at  the  rate  of  8  miles  an  hour,  at  a  cost 
of  less  than  id.  per  mile.  His  lordship  made  a  journey  of  140  miles  in  two  days. 

STEAM-ENGINE  AND  NAVIGATION.  Hero  of  Alexandria,  in  his  "Pneumatics," 
describes  various  methods  of  employing  steam  as  a  power  ;  and  to  him  is  ascribed  the 
JElopile,  which,  although  a  toy,  possesses  the  properties  of  the  steam-engine  :  he  nourished 
about  284-241  B.C.  Roger  Bacon  appears  to  have  foreseen  the  application  of  steam-power. 
See  Railways,  Locomotives,  &c. 


Solomon  de  Cans,  a  French  protestant,  pub- 
lishes a  work  which  Arago  considers  to  have 
contained  the  germs  of  the  steam-engine  .     .  1615 
The  marquess  of  Worcester  alhides  to  steam  in 
his  "  Century  of  Inventions "    .        .        .     .  1663 

Papin's  digester  invented 1681 

Captain  Savery's  engine  constructed  for  raising 

water 1698 

Papiu's  engine  exhibited  to  the  Royal  Society 

about  1699 

Atmospheric  engine  by  Savery  and  Newcomen  1713 
First  idea  of  steam  navigation  set  forth  in  a 

patent  obtained  by  Jonathan  Hulls         .        .  1736 
Watt's  invention  of  performing   condensation 
in  a  separate  vessel  from  the  cylinder         .     .  1765 

His  first  patent 1769 

His  engines  upon  a  large  scale  erected  in  manu- 
factories, and  his  patent  renewed  by  act  of 

parliament 1775 

Thomas    Paine   proposes   the    application    of 

steam  in  America 1778 

Engines  made  to  give  a  rotary  motion  .        .     .     „ 

Watt's  expansion  engine ,, 

Double-action  engines  proposed  by  Dr.  Falck 

on  Newcomen's  principle 1779 

Watt's  double-engine,  and  his  first  patent  for  it 
granted 1781 


The  marquess  Jouffroy  constructed  an  engine 
on  the  Sadne 

Win.  Patrick  Miller  patented  paddle-wheels 

[He  and  Mr.  Symington  arc  said  to  have  con- 
structed a  small  steamboat  which  travelled  at 
about  5  miles  an  hour  soon  after.] 

W.  Symington  made  a  passage  on  the  Forth 
and  Clyde  canal 

First  steam-engine  erected  in  Dublin  by  Henry 
Jackson  ........ 

First  experiment  with  steam  navigation  on  the 
Thames 

Trevethick's  high-pressure  engine .         .        .     . 

Woolf's  double  cylinder  expansion  engine  con- 
structed   

Manufactories  warmed  by  steam    .        .        .     . 

Fulton's  steam-boat  "  Clermont"  on  the  Seine, 
Aug.  9,  1803  ;  at  New  York  .... 

Fulton  started  a  steam-boat  on  the  river 
Hudson,  America 

Steam  power  to  convey  coals  on  a  railway, 
employed  by  Blenkinsop 

The  Comet  built  by  Henry  Bell,  plies  on  the  Clyde, 


Jan.  1 8 


Steam  applied  to  printing  in  the  Times  office. 
See  Printing  Machines. 


1781 
1787 


1789 
1791 


1804 
1806 


1807 
1811 
1812 
1814 


*  This  statue  is  of  brass,  cast  by  Le  Sueurs,  in  1633,  at  the  expense  of  the  Howard-Arundel  family. 
During  the  civil  war,  the  parliament  sold  it  to  John  River,  a  brazier,  in  Holborn,  with  strict  orders  to 
break  it  to  pieces  ;  but  he  concealed  it  underground  till  the  Restoration,  when  it  was  erected,  in  1678,  on  a 
pedestal  executed  by  Grinlin  Gibbons.  The  first  equestrian  statue  of  bronze,  founded  at  one  cast,  was  that 
of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  1699  ;  it  was  elevated  about  1724. 


G87 


STE 


STEAM-ENGINE,  continued. 
There  were  five  steam-vessels  in  Scotland  ( Fa rl. 

Returns) 1814 

First  steam-vessel  on  the  Thames  brought  by 

Mr.  Dodd  from  Glasgow 1815 

First  steamer  built  in  England  (Parl.  Returns)  .     ,, 
The  Savannah  steamer,  of  350  tons,  came  from 
New  York  to  Liverpool  in  26  days      July  15,   1819 

First  steamer  in  Ireland 1820 

Steam-gun  invented  by  Perkins .         .        .        .  1824 

Steam-j  et  applied 1825 

Captain  Johnson  obtained  10,000?.  for  making 
the  first  steam  voyage  to  India,  in  the  Enter- 
prise, which  sailed  from  Falmouth  .  Aug.  16,     ,, 
The  locomotive  steam-carriages  on   railways, 

at  Liverpool Oct.  1829 

The  railway  opened.     See  Liverpool   .        .        .1830 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Company  formed  1836 
The  Great  Western  arrives  from  Bristol  at  New 
York,  being  her   first    voyage  in   18  days, 

June  17,  1838 

ar-steamers  built  in  England      .        .        .    .     , , 
steamers  built  at  Birkenhead,  named  the 
emesis  and   Phltgethon,  carrying    each  two 
irty-two  pounders,  sent  by  government  to 
.ina 1840 


The  Cunard  steamers  began  to  sail .         July  5,  1840 
[Sir  Sam.  Cunard  died  April  28,  1865,  aged  78.] 

The  Collins  steamers  began 1850 

The  Pacific    crosses  the    Atlantic  in  9  days, 

ighouis,  25  minutes,  arriving  at  Holyhead, 

May  20,  1851 

Steam  packets  leave  Gal  way  for  America  .        .  1858 
The  merits   of  an   attacking  vessel  termed  a 

steam  ram  advocated  by  sir  G.  Sartorius,  were 

discussed  in 1859  60 

An  iron-plated  frigate,  La  Glvire,  completed  in 

France.     See  Navy,  French 1860 

The  Warrior,  an  iron-plated  vessel,  launched, 

Dec.  29,     ,, 
The  Far  East,  a  vessel  with  two  screws,  launched 

at  Millwall Oct.  31,  1863 


Steam  vessels  belonging  to  the  British  empire  in 
1814,  6  ;  in  1815,  10 ;  in  1820,  43  ;  in  1825,  168  ;  in 
1830,  315;  in  1835,  545;  in  1845,  1001  ;  in  1850, 
1187  ;  in  1864,  2490. 

See  Navy  and  Shipping. 


THE   LARGE   STEAM   VESSELS    OF    ENGLAND. 


,t  Western 
Duke  of  Wellington  . 
British  Queen 
Great  Britain    . 
Himalaya 


Long. 
.  236  feet 
.  240  feet 
.  275  feet 
.  322  feet 
.  370  feet 


Broad. 
35  feet 

60  feet 

61  feet 
51  feet 
43  feet 


Long.  Broad. 

Persia 390  feet  45  feet 

Great  Eastern*  .  ...  692  feet  83  feet 

Hone  Poicer  .• — Paddles,    1000  ;     Screw,    1600 ; 

Weight  of  ship,    &c.,    12,000   tons;    ordinary 

light  draught  1 2,000  tons. 


STEAM-HAMMER  was  invented  by  Mr.  James  Nasmyth  in  1838,  and  patented  by  him 
June  1 8,  1842.  The  main  feature  in  the  construction  of  the  steam-hammer  is,  the  abso- 
lutely direct  manner  by  which  the  elastic  power  of  steam  is  employed  to  lift  up  and  let  fall 
the  mass  of  iron  which  constitutes  the  hammer,  which  mass  or  block  of  iron  is  attached 
direct  to  the  end  of  a  piston-rod  passing  through  the  bottom  of  an  inverted  steam  cylinder 
placed  immediately  over  the  anvil.  The  vast  range  and  perfect  control  over  the  power  of  the 
blows  enable  the  largest  or  smallest  forge-work  to  be  executed  by  the  same  steam-hammer. f 
In  1842,  Mr.  Nasmyth  applied  his  steam-hammer  to  driving  piles,  which  invention  has 
importantly  assisted  in  the  execution  of  every  great  public  work  in  which  pile-driving  has 
been  required. 

STEAM  NAVIGATION.     See  under  Steam. 

STEAM-PLOUGH  was  invented  by  John  Fowler,  who  died  in  1864.  ' 


*  The  Great  Eastern — for  a  short  time  only  (in  1857-8)  called  Leviathan — was  designed  by  Mr.  I.  K. 
Brunei  [who  died  Sept.  15,  1859],  and  built  by  Messrs.  Scott  Russell  and  Co.,  at  Millwall.  Its  launching  lasted 
from  Nov.  3.  1857,  to  Jan.  31,  1858.  The  capital  subscribed  having  been  all  expended,  a  new  company  was 
formed  to  fit  her  for  sea.  On  Sept.  7,  1859,  she  left  her  moorings  at  Deptford  for  Portland- roads.  On  the 
voyage  an  explosion  took  place  (off  Hastings),  through  some  neglect  in  regard  to  the  casing  of  one  of  the 
chimneys,  when  ten  firemen  were  killed,  and  many  persons  seriously  injured.  After  repairs  she  sailed 
to  Holyhead,  arriving  there  Oct.  10  ;  she  endured  the  storm  of  Oct..  25-26  well ;  and  proceeded  to  South- 
ampton for  the  winter,  Nov.  4. — She  was  constructed  to  convey  5000  persons  from  London  to  Australia,  a 
distance  of  22,500  miles  ;  with  accommodation  for  800  ist  class  passengers  ;  2000  2nd  class  ;  and  1200  3rd 
class.  Her  able  captain  (Harrison)  was  drowned  in  the  Solent,  Jan.  22,  1860,  deeply  regretted.  She  sailed 
for  New  York,  June  17,  under  command  of  captain  Vine  Hall,  and  arrived  there  June  28th.  After  being 
exhibited  she  left  New  York,  Aug.  16,  and  returned  to  England  Aug.  26.  Owing  to  a  lawsuit  in  April,  the 
ship  came  into  the  hands  of  sheriff's  officers  ;  but  was  released  and  sailed  for  New  York  on  May  i,  1861. 
On  Sept.  12,  1861,  she  suffered  much  loss  through  a  violent  gale.  In  1862  she  performed  several  voyages 
to  and  from  New  York  ;  but  on  Aug.  1862,  ran  on  a  rock  near  Long  Island,  and  injured  her  bottom.  She 
was  repaired  and  arrived  at  Liverpool,  Jan.  17,  1863,  and  sailed  to  New  York  (May  16-27).  The  ship  was 
bought  by  Glass,  Elliot,  and  Co.,  in  March  or  April,  1864,  and  was  chartered  to  convey  the  Atlantic 
telegraph  cable.  It  sailed  from  Sheerness,  July  15  ;  and  returned,  Aug.  19,  1865.  See  Electric  Telegraph, 
p.  270. 

t  It  is  now  employed  in  every  country  where  the  working  of  malleable  iron  is  earned  on.  Owing  to 
the  vast  range  of  power  possessed  by  the  steam-hammer,  forged  iron  work  can  now  by  its  means  be 
executed  on  a  scale,  and  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  with  such  ease  and  perfection  as  could  not  have  been 
possible  by  the  means  previously  existing.  Parts  of  the  most  gigantic  marine  steam-engines,  anchors,  and 
Armstrong  guns,  as  well  as  the  most  minute  details  of  machinery,  as  in  Enfield  rifles,  are  now  executed 
by  the  steam-hammer. 


STE  688  STE 

STEAM-RAM  (to  be  used  in  naval  warfare),  was  invented  by  Mr.  James  Nasmyth  in 
1836,  and  communicated  to  the  Admiralty  in  1845.  Steam-rams  built  by  Mr.  James  Laird 
of  Birkenhead  for  the  confederates  in  N.  America,  were  stopped  and  eventually  bought  by 
the  British  government  in  1864. 

STEARINE  (from  stear,  suet),  that  part  of  oils  and  fats  which  is  solid  at  common  tem- 
peratures. The  nature  of  these  substances  was  first  made  known  by  Chevreul,  in  1823,  who 
showed  that  they  were  compounds  -of  peculiar  acids,  with  a  base  termed  glycerine  ;  of  these 
compounds  the  chief  are  stearine,  margarine,  and  elaine.  See  Candles. 

STEEL,  metal,  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon,  exists  in  nature,  and  has  been  largely 
fabricated  from  the  earliest  times.  A  manufactory  for  cast  steel  is  said  to  have  been  set  up 
by  Benjamin  Huntsman  at  Handsworth,  near  Sheffield,  in  1740.  The  manufacture  of  shear 
steel  began  at  Sheffield  about  1800.  German  steel  was  made  at  Newcastle  previously  by  Mr. 
Crawley.  The  inventions  of  Mushat  (1800)  and  Lucas  (1804)  were  important  steps  in  this 
manufacture.  See  Engraving.  In  1856,  Mr.  H.  Bessemer  made  steel  by  passing  cold  air 
through  liquid  iron  ;  in  1859,  tungsten  steel  was  made  in  Germany  ;  and  in  1861,  M.  Fremy 
made  steel  by  bringing  red  hot  iron  in  contact  with  carbonate  of  ammonia.  The  subject  has 
been  much  investigated  by  M.  Caron,  1861-5.  In  1860,  much  attention  was  excited  by 
cutlery  made  from  a  metallic  sand,  brought  from  Taranaki  or  New  Plymouth,  in  New 
Zealand.  In  consequence  of  improved  modes,  steel  is  now  made  cheaply  in  large  masses, 
and  will  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cannon,  &c. 

STEEL  PENS.  "Iron  pens"  are  mentioned  by  Chamberlayne  in  1685.  Steel  pens 
came  into  use  about  1820,  when  the  first  gross  of  three-slit  pens  was  sold  wholesale  for  jl.  45. 
In  1830,  the  price  was  8s.,  and  in  1832,  6s.  A  better  pen  is  now  sold  for  6d.  a  gross  ;  the 
cheapest  sort  at  2d.  ;  Birmingham  in  1858  produced  about  1000  million  pens  per  annum. 
Women  and  children  are  principally  employed  in  the  manufacture.  Perry,  Mitchell,  and 
Gillott  are  eminent  makers. 

STEEL-  YARD.  An  ancient  instrument,  the  same  that  is  translated  balance  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch. The  Statera  Romana,  or  Roman  steel-yard,  is  mentioned  in  315  B.C.  —  The  STEEL- 
YARD COMPANY,  London  merchants,  who  had  the  steel-yard  assigned  to  them  by  Henry  III. 
A.D.  1232,  were  Flemings  and  Germans,  and  the  only  exporters,  for  many  years  after,  of  the 
staple  commodities  of  England.  Anderson.  The  company  lost  its  privileges  in  1551. 

STEENKIRK.     See  Enghein. 

STENOGRAPHY  (from  stenos,  narrow),  the  art  of  short-hand,  said  to  have  been 
practised  by  the  ancients.  Its  improvement  is  attributed  to  the  poet  Ennius,  to  Tyro, 
Cicero's  freedman,  and  still  more  to  Seneca.  The  Ars  Scribendi  Characteris,  written  about 
1412,  is  the  oldest  system  extant.  Peter  Bales,  the  famous  penman,  published  on  steno- 
graphy in  1590  ;  and  John  Willis  'published  his  "  Stenoc/raphie  "  in  1602.  There  are  now 
numerous  systems  :  Byrom's  (1750),  Gurney's  (1753),  Taylor's  (1786),  Pitman's  (phono- 
graphic), (1857). 

STEPHEN'S  CHAPEL,  ST.,  Westminster.  The  commons  of  England  held  their 
assemblies  in  this  chapel,  which  was  built  by  king  Stephen,  and  dedicated  about  1135.  It 
was  rebuilt  by  Edward  III.  in  1347,  and  by  him  made  a  collegiate  church,  to  which  a  dean 
and  twelve  secular  priests  were  appointed.  Soon  after  its  surrender  to  Edward  VI.,  about 
1548,  it  was  applied  to  the  use  of  parliament.  See  Parliament.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire, 
Oct.  16,  1834.  The  Society  of  Antiquaries  published  memorials  of  it  about  1810  ;  and  Mr. 
Mackenzie's  work  appeared  in  1844. 

STEREOCHROMY,  a  mode  of  painting  in  which  water-glass  (an  alkaline  solution  of 
flint,  silex)  serves  as  the  connecting  medium  between  the  colour  and  the  substratum.  Its 
invention  is  ascribed  to  Von  Fuchs,  who  died  at  Munich  on  March  5,  1856.  Fine  specimens 
of  this  art  by  Kaulbach  and  Echter  exist  in  the  Museum  at  Berlin,  and  also  at  Munich. 

STEREOMETER,  by  which  is  compassed  the  art  of  taking  the  contents  of  vessels  of 
liquids  by  gauging,  invented  about  1350.  Anderson.  M.  Say's  stereoineter,  for  deter- 
mining the  specific  gravity  of  liquids,  porous  bodies,  and  powders  as  well  as  solids,  was 
described  in  1797. 

STEREOSCOPE  (from  stereos,  solid,   and  skopcin,  to  see),-  an  optical   instrument  for 


representing  in  apparent  relief  natural  objects,  &c.,  by  uniting  into  one  image  two  plane 
tions  of  these  objects  as  seen  by  each  eye  separately.     The  first  stereoscope  by 
reflection  was  constructed  and  exhibited  by  professor  Charles  Wheatstone  in  1838,  who 


representations  of  these  objects  as  seen  by  each  eye  separately.     The  first  stereoscope  by 
reflection  was  constructed  and  exhibited  by  professor  Charles  Wheatstone  in  1838, 
announced  its  principle  in  1833.     Sir.ce  1854,  stereoscopes  have  been  greatly  improved. 


STE  C89  STO 


in 

9 


STEREOTYPE  (a  cast  from  a  page  of  moveable  printing- types).  It  is  said  that  stereo- 
typing was  known  in  1711.  It  was  practised  by  Wm.  Ged  of  Edinburgh,  about  1730.  Some 
of  Ged's  plates  are  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London.*  A  Mr.  James  attempted  to  introduce 
Ged's  process  in  London,  but  failed,  about  1735.  Nichols.  Stereotype  printing  was  in  use 
in  Holland,  in  the  last  century  ;  and  a  quarto  Bible  and  a  Dutch  folio  Bible  were  printed 
^.ere.  Phillips.  It  was  revived  in  London  by  Wilson  in  1804.  Since  1850  the  durability 
stereotypes  has  been  greatly  increased  by  electrotyping  them  with  copper  or  silver. 

STERLING  (money).  Camden  derives  the  word  from  easterling  or  esterling,  observing 
that  the  money  brought  from  the  east  of  Germany,  in  the  reign  of  Richard  I.,  was  the  most 
esteemed  on  account  of  its  purity,  being  called  in  old  deeds,  "nummi  easlcrling." 

STETHOSCOPE.  In  1816  Laennec,  of  Paris,  by  rolling  a  quire  of  paper  into  a  kind  of 
cylinder,  and  applying  one  end  to  the  patient's  chest  and  the  other  to  his  own  ear,  perceived 
the  action  of  the  heart  in  a  much  more  distinct  manner  than  by  the  immediate  application 
of  the  ear.  This  led  to  his  inventing  the  stethoscope,  or  "breast-explorer;"  the  principle 
of  which,  now  termed  "auscultation,"  was  known  by  Hippocrates. 

STEWARD  OF  ENGLAND,  LORD  HTGH.  The  first  grand  officer  of  the  crown.  This 
office  was  established  prior  to  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  was  formerly  annexed 
to  the  lordship  of  Hinckley,  Leicestershire,  belonging  to  the  family  of  Montfort,  earls  of 
Leicester,  who  were,  in  right  thereof,  lord  high  stewards  of  England  ;  but  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  the  last  earl  of  this  family,  having  raised  a  rebellion  against  his  sovereign  Henry  III., 
was  attainted,  and  his  estate  forfeited  to  the  king,  who  abolished  the  office,  1265.  It  is  now 
revived  only  pro  hdc  vice,  at  a  coronation,  or  the  trial  of  a  peer.  The  first  afterwards 
appointed  was  Thomas,  second  son  of  Henry  IV.  The  first  for  the  trial  of  a  peer  was 
Edward,  earl  of  Devon,  on  the  arraignment  of  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  in  1400.  The  last 
was  lord  Denrnan  at  the  trial  of  the  earl  of  Cardigan,  Feb.  16,  1841.  The  duke  of  Hamilton 
was  lord  high  steward  at  the  coronations  of  William  IV.  and  Victoria, 

STEWARD  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD,  LORD  (an  ancient  office),  has  the  sole  direction  of 
the  king's  house  below-stairs  ;  he  has  no  formal  grant  of  his  office,  but  receives  his  charge 
from  the  sovereign  in  person,  who,  delivering  to  him  a  white  wand,  the  symbol  of  his  office, 
says,  "Seneschal,  tenez  le  baton  de  noire  maison."  This  officer  has  been  called  lord  steward 
since  1540  ;  previously  to  the  3ist  of  Henry  VIII.,  he  was  styled  grand  master  of  the  house- 
hold. His  function  as  a  judge  was  abolished  in  1849. 

STICKLESTADT  (Norway).  Here  Olaf  II.,  aided  by  the  Swedes,,  was  defeated  in  his 
endeavours  to  recover  his  kingdom  from  Canute,  king  of  Denmark,  and  slain,  July  29,  1030. 
He  was  afterwards  sainted,  on  account  of  his  zeal  for  Christianity. 

STIRRUPS  were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Gracchus  fitted  the  highways  with  stones 
to  enable  the  horsemen  to  mount.  Warriors  had  projections  on  their  spears  for  the  same 
purpose.  Stirrups  were  used  in  the  5th  century,  but  were  not  common  even  in  the  I2th. 

STOCKHOLM,  capital  of  Sweden,  was  fortified  by  Berger  Jarl  in  1254.  Here  the 
Swedish  nobility  was  massacred  by  Christian  II.  in  1528. 


Peace  of  Stockholm,  between  the  king  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  queen  of  Sweden,  by  which 
the  former  acquired  the  duchies  of  Bremen 
and  Verden  as  elector  of  Brunswick,  Nov.  20,  1719 


Treaty  of  Stockholm,  between  Sweden  and 
Russia,  in  favour  of  the  duke  of  Holstein- 
Gor,torp March  24,  1724 

Another  between  England  and  Sweden,  March  3,  1813 


STOCKINGS  of  silk  were  first  worn  by  Henry  II.  of  France,  1547.  In  1560  queen 
Elizabeth  was  presented  with  a  pair  of  knit  black  silk  stockings,  by  her  silk-woman, 
Mrs.  Montague,  and  she  never  wore  cloth  ones  any  more.  Howell.  He  adds,  "  Henry  VIII. 
wore  ordinary  cloth  hose,  except  there  came  from  Spain,  by  great  chance,  a  pair  of  silk 
stockings  ;  for  Spain  very  early  abounded  with  silk."  Edward  VI.  was  presented  with  a  pair 
of  Spanish  silk  stockings  by  his  merchant,  sir  Thomas  Gresham  ;  and  the  present  was  then 
much  taken  notice  of.  Idem.  Others  relate  that  William  Rider,  a  London  apprentice, 
seeing  at  the  house  of  an  Italian  merchant  a  pair  of  knit  worsted  stockings  from  Mantua, 
made  a  pair  like  them,  the  first  made  in  England,  which  he  presented  to  the  earl  of 
Pembroke,  1564.  Stow.  The  art  of  weaving  stockings  in  &  frame  was  invented  in  England 
by  the  rev.  Mr.  Lee,  of  Cambridge,  in  1589,  twenty-five  years  after  he  had  learnt  to  knit 
them  with  wires  or  needles.  Cotton  stockings  were  first  made  in  1730.  See  Cotton. 

*  In  the  library  of  this  institution  is  an  edition  of  Sallust,  (printed  at  Edinburgh  by  William  Ged 
of  Edinburgh,  goldsmith,  not  with  moveable  types,  as  is  commonly  done,  but  with  cast  tablets  or  plates," 
with  this  imprint :  "  Edinburgi,  Gulielmus  Ged,  auri  fabcr  Edinensis,  non  typis  mobilibus,  ut  vulgo  fieri 
solet,  eed  tabellis  seu  lamiiiis  fusis,  excudebat.  1744." 

Y    Y 


STO 


690 


STO 


STOCKPORT  (in  Cheshire)  has  become  eminent  on  account  of  the  cotton  trade. 
Heaton  Norris,  in  Lancashire,  is  united  to  it  by  a  bridge  over  the  river.  Here  the  Man- 
chester blanketeers  were  dispersed,  March  u,  1817;  and  here  was  a  serious  religious  riot, 
when  two  Eoman  Catholic  chapels  Avere  destroyed,  and  the  houses  of  many  Eoman  Catholics 
were  gutted,  and  their  furniture  and  other  contents  smashed  or  burnt,  June  29,  1852. 

STOCKS,  in  which  drunkards  were  placed.  The  last  in  London  was  removed  from 
St.  Clement's  Danes,  Strand,  Aug.  4,  1826. 

STOCKS.  The  public  funding  system  originated  in  Venice,  about  1173,  and  was  intro- 
duced into  Florence  in  1340.  The  English  funding  system  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  rise 
in  1690. 

Act  to  prevent  stock-jobbing,  passed  March, 

1734;  repealed 1860 

The  foundation   of   the    Stock    Exchange,   in 

Capel  court,  the  residence  of  the  lord  mayor, 

sir  Wm.  Capel,  in  1504,  was  laid  on  May  18, 

1801.     It  was  stated  on  the  first  stone  that 

the  public  debt  was  then  552,730,924^. 
The    memorable    Stock    Exchange    hoax,   for 

which  lord  Cochrane,  the  celebrated  admiral 

Johnstone,  and  others  were  convicted,  Feb. 

22,  1814.     Lord  Cochrane  was  in  consequence 

expelled  the  house  of  commons.     His  inno- 
cence was    afterwards  proved,  and  he  was 

restored  to  his  rank  by  king  William  IV.,  and 

to  the  honours    belonging  to  it  by  queen 

Victoria. 
Stock-exchango  coffee-house  destroyed  by  fire, 

Feb.  u,  1816 


The  number  of  stock-holders  in  1840  amounted 

to  337,481. 

Three  per  cent,  annuities  created  .  .  .  1726 
Three  per  cent,  consols  created  .  .  .  .  1731 

Three  per  cent,  reduced 1746- 

Three  per  cent,  annuities,  payable  at  the  South 

Sea-house 1751 

Three-and-a-half  per  cent,  annuities  created     .  1758 

Long  annuities 1761 

Four  per  cent,  consols 1762 

Five  per  cent,  annuities  .  .  .  1797  and  1802 
Five  per  cents,  reduced  to  four  .  .  .  .  1822 
Old  four  per  cents,  reduced  to  three-and-a-half 

in 1824 

Further  reductions  made  in  1825,   1830,   1834, 

1841,  and   1844:    the  maximum  being  now 

three  per  cent. 


1749   .    £100  o  o 
1780  .    .     63  13  6 
1785    .      68  6  6 
1790  .    .     71  2  6 
1795    .      74  8  6 

The  price  of  £100 
1853,  from  £101  to  £go£ 
1854,  „    96  „   85£ 
1855,  „    93l  >,   86| 

1798   .     £59  10  ° 
1800  .    .     66  3  3 
1805    .       58  14  o 
1810  .    .     67  16  3 
1815    .       58  13  9 

stock  varied  in 
1856,  from  £96  &  to  £87| 
1857,  „    95s  „   86* 
1858,  „    98$  „   94 

1820 
1825  . 
1830 
1840  . 

1859,  from 
1861,  „ 
1862,  „ 

.  £68  12  o 
90  o  8 
.   89  15  7 
.   89  17  6 

£97!  to  £89 
94*  >,   89  J 

1845 
1848 
1850 
1852 

1863, 
1864, 

from 

By  a  return  of  the  average  price  of  the  public  funds  by  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction 
of  the  national  debt,  it  appears  that  Consols  (i.e.,  consolidated  annuities,  paying  3  per  cent, 
per  annum)  averaged  in  the  year — 

.  £93    2    6 

.  86  15  a 
.  96  10  o 
.  99  12  6 


£94  to  £90 


STOICS,  disciples  of  Zeno,  the  philosopher  (about  290  B.C.)  ;  obtained  the  name  because 
they  listened  to  his  instructions  in  a  porch  or  portico  at  Athens,  called  in  Greek  Stoa. 
Zeno  taught,  that  man's  supreme  happiness  consisted  in  living  agreeably  to  nature  and 
reason,  and  that  God  was  the  soul  of  the  world.  Stanley. 

STOKE  (near  Newark,  Nottinghamshire).  Near  here,  on  June  16,  1487,  the  adherents 
of  Lambert  Simnel,  who  personated  Edward,  earl  of  Warwick,  and  claimed  the  crown,  were 
defeated  by  Henry  VII.  John  De  la  Pole,  the  earl  of  Lincoln,  and  most  of  the  leaders  were 
slain  ;  and  Sinmel,  whose  life  was  spared,  was  afterwards  employed  in  the  king's  household. 

STONE  BUILDINGS,  &c.  Stone  buildings  were  introduced  into  England,  670.  A 
stone  bridge  was  built  at  Bow,  in  1087,  and  is  accounted  the  first  ;  but  a  bridge  exists  at 
Crowland,  which  is  said  to  have  been  built  in  860.  See  .Bridges.  The  first  stone  building 
in  Ireland  was  a  castle,  1161.  See  Building.  Stone  china-ware  was  made  by  Wedgwood  in 
1762.  Artificial  stone  for  statues  was  manufactured  by  a  Neapolitan,  and  introduced  into 
England,  1776.  Stone  paper  was  made  in  1776.  See  Hansom's  Artificial  Stone. 

STONEHENGE  (on  Salisbury-plain,  Wiltshire)  is  said  to  have  been  erected  on  the 
counsel  of  Merlin,  by  Aurelius  Ambrosius,  in  memory  of  460  Britons  who  were  murdered 
by  Hengist  the  Saxon,  about  450.  Geoffrey  of  Monmoulh.  Erected  as  a  sepulchral  monu- 
ment of  Ambrosius,  500.  Polydore  Vergil.  An  ancient  temple  of  the  Britons,  in  which  the 
Druids  officiated.  Dr.  Stukeley.  The  Britons  had  annual  meetings  at  Abury  and  Stone- 
henge,  where  laws  were  made,  justice  administered,  and  heinous  crimes  punished. 

STONE  OPERATION.  Extracting  stone  from  the  bladder  was  first  performed  by 
Ammonius  of  Alexandria,  about  240.  Cutting  for  the  stone  was  first  performed  on  a 
criminal,  at  Paris,  in  1474,  with  success.  A  remedy  discovered  by  Mrs.  Stevens,  for  which 
she  was  rewarded  by  government,  1739.  See  Lithotomy. 


STO 


691 


STO 


STORMS.  The  following  are  among  the  best  authenticated  and  most  memorable.  In 
London  a  storm  raged  which  destroyed  1500  houses,  944.  One  in  several  parts  of  England, 
the  sky  being  very  dark,  the  wind  coining  from  the  S.W. ;  many  churches  were  destroyed  ; 
and  in  London  500  houses  fell,  Oct.  5,  1091.  One  on  the  coast  of  Calais,  when  Hugh  de 
Beauvais  and  several  thousand  foreigners,  on  their  voyage  to  assist  king  John  against  the 
barons,  perished,  1215.  Holinslied.  See  Meteorology. 


It  thundered  1 5  days  successively,  with  tempests  of 
rain  and  wind,  1233. 

Storm  with  violent  lightnings  ;  one  flash  passed 
through  a  chamber  where  Edward  I.  and  his 
queen  were  conversing,  did  them  no  damage,  but 
killed  two  of  their  attendants,  1285.  Hoveden. 

Violent  storm  of  hail  near  Ohartres,  in  France,  which 
fell  on  the  army  of  Edward  III.  then  on  its  march. 
The  hail  was  so  large  that  the  army  and  horses 
suffered  very  much,  and  Edward  was  obliged  to 
conclude  a  peace,  1339.  Matt.  Paris. 

When  Richard  II. 's  queen  came  from  Bohemia,  on 
her  setting  foot  on  shore  an  awful  storm  arose, 
and  her  ship  and  a  number  of  others  were  dashed 
to  pieces  in  the  harbour,  Jan.  1382.  Holinshed. 

Richard's  second  queen  also  brought  a  storm  with 
her  to  the  English  coasts,  in  which  the  king's 
baggage  was  lost,  aud  many  ships  cast  away,  1396. 
Idem. 

Hurricane  throughout  Europe,  which  did  very  con- 
siderable damage,  on  Sept.  3,  1658,  the  day  that 
Cromwell  died.  Mortimer. 

Storm  on  east  coast  of  England  :  200  colliers  and 
coasters  lost,  with  most  of  their  crews,  1696. 

The  "  Great  Storm,"  one  of  the  most  terrible  that 
ever  raged  in  England.  The  devastation  on  land 
was  immense  ;  and  in  the  harbours  and  on  the 
coasts,  the  loss  in  shipping  and  in  lives  was  still 
greater,  Nov.  26-27,  1703.* 

Snow-storm  in  Sweden, "when  7000  Swedes,  it  is 
said,  perished  upon  the  mountains,  in  their  march 
to  attack  Drontheim,  1719. 

One  in  India,  when  many  hundreds  of  vessels  were 
cast  away,  a  fleet  of  Indiamen  greatly  damaged, 
and  some  ships  lost,  and  30,000  persons  perished, 
Oct.  ii,  1737. 

Dreadful  hurricane  at  the  Havanah  :  many  public 
edifices  and  4048  houses  were  destroyed,  and  1000 
inhabitants  perished,  Oct.  25,  1768. 

Awful  storm  in  the  North  of  England,  in  which  many 
vessels  were  destroyed,  and  four  Dublin  packets 
foundered,  Oct.  29,  1775. 

One  at  Surat,  in  the  East  Indies  ;  destroyed  7000  of 
the  inhabitants,  April  22,  ^82. 

One  hundred  and  thirty-one  villages  and  farms  laid 
waste  in  France,  1785. 

One  general  throughout  Great  Britain :  several 
hundred  sail  of  shipping  destroyed  or  damaged, 
Oct.  6,  1794. 

One  which  did  vast  damage  in  London,  and  through- 
out almost  the  whole  of  England,  Nov.  8,  1800. 

A  tremendous  storm  throughout  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  by  which  immense  damage  was  done,  and 
many  ships  wrecked,  Dec.  16-17,  1814. 

An  awful  gale,  by  which  a  great  number  of  vessels 
were  lost,  and  much  damage  was  done  to  the 
shipping  in  general  on  the  English  coast,  Aug.  31, 
1816. 

Dreadful  hurricane,  ravaged  the  Leeward  Islands, 
from  the  2oth  to  22nd  Sept.  1819.  At  the  island  of 
St.  Thomas  alone,  104  vessels  were  lost. 


Great  storm  along  the  coast  from  Durham  to  Corn- 
wall ;  many  vessels  lost,  Nov.  1821. 

In  Ireland,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  Dublin, 
many  houses  were  thrown  down,  and  vast  num- 
bers unroofed,  Dec.  12,  1822. 

Awful  storm  on  the  coast  of  England  :  many  vessels 
lost,  and  13  driven  ashore  and  wrecked  in  Ply- 
mouth alone,  Jan.  12-13,  1828. 

At  Gibraltar,  where  more  than  100  vessels  were  de- 
stroyed, Feb.  18,  1828. 

Dreadful  storm  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where 
immense  property  was  lost,  July  16,  1831. 

A  hurricane  visited  London  and  its  neighbourhood, 
which  did  great  damage  to  the  buildings,  but 
without  the  destruction  of  human  life,  though 
many  serious  accidents  occurred,  Oct.  28,  1838. 

Awful  hurricane  on  west  coast  of  England,  and  in 
Ireland.  The  storm  raged  through  Cheshire, 
Staffordshire,  and  Warwickshire  ;  20  persons  were 
killed  in  Liverpool,  by  the  falling  of  buildings, 
and  100  were  drowned  in  the  neighbourhood ;  the 
coast  and  harbours  were  covered  with  wrecks ; 
the  value  of  two  of  the  vessels  lost  being  nearly 
half-a-million  sterling.  In  Limerick,  Galway, 
Athlone,  and  other  places,  more  than  200  houses 
were  blown  down,  and  as  many  more  were  burnt, 
the  winds  spreading  the  fires.  Dublin  suffered 
dreadfully  ;  London  and  its  neighbourhood  scarcely 
sustained  any  damage,  Jan.  6-7,  1839. 

[The  winter  of  1852-3  (Dec.  and  Jan.)  was  one  of 
storms,  many  of  which  were  very  destructive,, 
particularly  to  shipping.] 

Great  storm  in  the  Black  Sea,  Nov.  13-16,  1854, 
causing  much  loss  of  life,  shipping,  and  stores  sent 
for  the  allied  armies  in  the  Crimea. 

Great  storm  on  N.  coast  of  Europe,  &c.,  Dec.  31,  1854. 

Great  storm  on  N.  E.  coast  of  Scotland ;  42  fishermen 
lost,  Nov.  23,  1857. 

Dreadful  storm  on  the  night  Oct.  25-26 :  the  Royal 
Charter  totally  lost,  and  many  other  vessels; 
another  storm  Oct.  31,  and  Nov.  i,  1859. 

Great  storm  in  the  channel  causing  much  loss  of 
life  and  property,  Jan.  i,  1860. 

Dreadful  gales,  doing  much  mischief,  Feb.  26,  27, 28 ; 
May  28  ;  and  June  2,  1860. 

Great  storm  :  part  of  the  Crystal  palace  blown  down ; 
Chichester  cathedral  steeple  fell,  Feb.  20,  21,  1861. 

Great  storm  on  British  coasts,  143  wrecks,  May  28, 
1 86*. 

Storm  on  the  north-east;  50  wrecks,  Nov.  13,  14, 
1861. 

At  Market  Laverton,  <fec.  ;  hail  six  and  seven  feet 
deep  ;  much  damage  to  crops  ;  Sept.  2,  1862. 

Storm  on  British  coasts  ;  very  many  wrecks  ;  Oct. 
19,  20,  1862. 

There  were  severe  gales,  doing  much  damage  and 
loss  of  life,  Jan.  19,  &c.,  1863  ;  and  Jan.  14,  &c.t 
1865.  (See  under  Wrecks.) 

Dreadful  hurricance  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  &c.  (see 
Cyclone,  Calcutta),  Oct.  5,  1864. 

Hurricane  at  Lisbon,  causes  much  damage ;  worst 
for  many  years,  Dec.  13,  1864. 


*  The  loss  sustained  in  London  alone  was  calculated  at  2,ooo,oooZ.  sterling.  The  number  of  persons 
drowned  in  the  floods  of  the  Severn  and  Thames,  and  lost  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  and  in  ships  blown 
from  their  anchors  and  never  heard  of  afterwards,  is  thought  to  have  been  8000.  Twelve  men-of-war,  with 
more  than  1800  men  on  board,  were  lost  within  sight  of  their  own  shore.  Trees  were  torn  up  by  the  roots, 
17,000  of  them  in  Kent  alone.  The  Eddystone  light-house  was  destroyed,  and  in  it  the  ingenious  contriver 
of  it,  Winstanley,  and  the  persons  who  were  with  him.  The  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  and  his  lady  were 
killed  in  bed  in  their  palace  in  Somersetshire.  Multitudes  of  cattle  were  also  lost:  in  one  level  15,000 
fcheep  were  drowned. 

Y  Y  2 


STO  692  STR 

STORTHING,  the  Norwegian  parliament,  said  to  have  been  first  held  at  Bergen  by 
Haclio  V.  in  1223. 

STOVES.  The  ancients  used  stoves  which  concealed  the  fire,  as  the  German  stoves  yet 
do.  They  lighted  the  fire  also  in  a  large  tube  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  the  roof  being  open. 
Apartments  were  warmed  by  portable  braziers.  Stoves  on  this  old  principle,  improved,  con- 
tinue in  use  in  many  houses  and  public  establishments  in  England,  and  generally  on  the 
continent.  See  Chimneys  and  Cottager's  Stove. 

STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS,  including  Malacca,  Penang  or  Prince  of  Wales  island,  and 
Singapore,  were  made  a  separate  dependency  of  the  British  crown  in  1853,  and  placed  under 
the  governor- general  of  India. 

STRAND  (London).  Houses  were  first  built  upon  the  Strand  about  1353,  at  which 
period  it  was  the  court  end  of  the  town,  or  formed  the  communication  between  the  two  cities 
of  London  and  Westminster,  being  then  open  to  the  Thames  and  to  the  fields.  Somerset 
and  other  palaces  were  erected  1549-1605.  Stow.  The  Strand  bridge  was  commenced  Oct.  II, 
1811.  See  Waterloo  Bridge.  The  Strand  improvements  were  commenced  in  1829. 

STRASBURG,  the  Roman  Argentoratum,  the  capital  of  Alsace.  Here  Julian  defeated 
the  Allemanni,  357.  This  town,  formerly  imperial,  was  taken  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1681. 
The  citadel  and  fortifications,  which  he  constructed,  have  been  so  much  augmented,  that 
Strasburg  may  be  considered  one  of  the  strongest  places  in  Europe.  It  was  confirmed  to 
France  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697.  Strasburg  is  remarkable  for  its  magnificent  cathe- 
dral and  tower,  the  latter,  the  loftiest  in  the  world.  An  attempt  at  insurrection  in  the  city 
was  made,  Oct.  30,  1836,  by  prince  Louis  Napoleon  (afterwards  president  of  the  French 
republic,  and  now  emperor),  aided  by  two  officers  and  some  privates.  It  was  instantly 
suppressed  by  their  arrest.  The  prince  was  then  shipped  off  to  America  by  the  French 
government.  See  France. 

STRATHCLUYD,  a  kingdom  formed  by  the  Britons,  who  retii-ed  northward  after  the 
Saxon  conquest,  about  560.  It  extended  from  the  Clyde  to  Cumberland.  The  Britons  in  it 
submitted  to  Edward  the  Elder,  in  924. 

STRATHMORE,  COUNTESS  OF.  Miss  Bowes  of  Durham,  the  then  richest  heiress  in 
Europe,  whose  fortune  was  i,O4O,ooo/.  with  vast  additions  on  her  mother's  death,  and 
immense  estates  on  the  demise  of  her  uncle,  married  the  earl  of  Strathmore,  Feb.  25,  1766. 
Having,  after  the  earl's  death,  married  Mr.  Stoney,  she  was  forcibly  carried  off  by  him  and 
other  armed  men,  Nov.  10,  1786.  She  was  brought  up  to  the  King's  Bench  by  habeas  corpus 
and  released,  and  he  committed  to  prison,  Nov.  23.  The  lady  recovered  her  estates,  which 
she  had  assigned  to  her  husband  under  the  influence  of  terror,  in  May,  1788. 

STRATTON-HILL,  BATTLE  OF,  in  Cornwall,  May  16,  1643,  between  the  royal  army 
under  sir  Ralph  Hopton,  and  the  forces  of  the  parliament  under  the  earl  of  Stamford.  The 
victory  was  gained  over  the  parliamentarians,  who  lost  numbers  in  killed  and  wounded. 

STRAWBERRY-HILL,  the  Gothic  villa  of  Horace  Walpole,  erected  by  him,  1753-76,  at 
Twickenham,  near  London.  In  April  and  May,  1842,  his  collection  of  pictures,  and  articles 
of  taste  and  virtu,  were  sold  by  auction  for  29,61 5?.  85.  gd. 

STREET-MUSIC.  An  act  was  passed  in  1864  for  the  better  regulation  of  street-music 
in  the  metropolitan  police  districts. 

STREET  RAILWAYS,  previously  established  by  Mr.  Train  in  New  York,  were  opened 
by  him  at  Birkenhead,  Cheshire,  Aug.  30,  1860,  and  at  Bayswater,  London,  March  23,  1861. 
A  street  railway  bill  was  rejected  by  the  house  of  commons  in  April,  1861.  Several  of  these 
railways  existed  for  a  time  in  various  parts  of  the  metropolis  in  1861,  but  were  all  taken  up 
in  1862. 

STRELITZ,  the  imperial  guard  of  Russia,  established  by  Ivan  IV.  in  1568.  Becoming 
frequently  seditious,  it  was  suppressed  by  Peter  the  Great ;  great  numbers  were  put  to  death, 
many  by  the  czar's  own  hand,  1697-1704. 

STRIKES.  See  Preston  and  London,  1859-1861.  The  tailors  of  London  struck  for 
increase  of  wages  in  April,  1834.  The  strike  of  the  calico-printers  of  Glasgow,  lasted  nine 
months  in  1834.  The  strike  of  the  amalgamated  engineers  took  place  in  1852  ;  and  of  the 
London  cabmen,  July  27-30,  1853.  A  strike  amongst  the  silk-workers  at  Coventry  came  to 
an  end,  Aug.  30,  1860.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  to  get  up  a  strike  in  the  building  trade 


STIl  693  SUE 

began  March  23,  1861.     A  strike  of  the  puddlers  in  the  iron  trade  occurred  in  the  spring  of 
1865.     See  Iron. 

STRONTIUM.  The  native  carbonate  of  strontia  was  discovered  at  Strontian,  in  Argyle- 
shire,  in  1787.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  first  obtained  from  it  the  metal  strontium  in  1808. 

STRYCHNIA,  a  poisonous  vegetable  alkaloid,  discovered  in  1818  by  Pelletier  and 
Caventou  in  the  seeds  of  the  strychnus  ignatia  and  nux  vomica,  and  also  in  the  upas  poison. 
It  is  so  virulent  that  half  a  grain  blown  into  the  throat  of  a  rabbit  occasions  death  in  four 
minutes  ;  its  operation  is  accompanied  by  lock-jaw.  Much  attention  was  given  to  strychnia 
in  1856,  during  the  trial  of  William  Palmer,  who  was  executed  for  the  murder  of  Cook, 
June  14,  1856. 

STUCCO  -WORK  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  was  much  prized  by  them,  particularly 
by  the  Romans,  who  excelled  in  it.  Abbe  Lenglet.  It  was  revived  by  D'Udine,  about  1550  ; 
and  in  Italy,  France,  and  England  in  the  i8th  century. 

STYLE.  The  style  was  altered  by  Augustus  Caesar's  ordering  leap-year  to  be  once  in 
four  years,  and  the  month  Sextilis  to  be  called  Augustus,  8  B.C.  See  New  Style. 

STYLE  ROYAL.  See  Majesty  and  Titles.  The  styles  of  the  English  sovereigns  are  given 
in  the  later  editions  of  Nieolas's  "Chronology  of  History." 

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH.     See  Telegraph  (under  Electricity}. 

SUBSIDIES.  Subsidies  to  the  kings  of  England  formerly  granted  in  kind,  particularly 
in  wool ;  30,000  sacks  were  voted  to  Edward  III.  en  account  of  the  war  with  France,  1340. 
Anderson.  Subsidies  were  raised  upon  the  subjects  of  England  by  James  I.  1624  ;  but  they 
were  contained  in  a  bill  for  the  redress  of  grievances,  1639.  Four  subsidies  were  granted  to 
Charles  II.  in  1663.  England  granted  subsidies  to  foreign  powers  in  several  wars,  particu- 
larly in  the  war  against  the  revolutionists  of  France,  and  the  war  against  Bonaparte.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  latter  was  June  20,  1800,  when  a  treaty  of  subsidies  was 
ratified  at  Vienna  between  Austria  and  England,  stipulating  that  the  war  should  be 
vigorously  prosecuted  against  France,  and  that  neither  of  the  contracting  powers  should 
enter  into  a  separate  peace.  Subsidies  to  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  the  Porte,  and  other 
powers,  were  afterwards  given  by  England  to  the  amount  of  many  millions  sterling. 
Phillips. 

SUCCESSION  ACTS.     See  Settlement. 

SUCCESSION,  WAR  OF  (1702-1713),  distinguished  by  the  achievements  of  the  duke  of 
Marlborough  and  the  earl  of  Peterborough,  and  their  unprofitable  results,  arose  on  the 
question  whether  an  Austrian  prince  or  a  French  prince,  should  succeed  to  the  throne  of 
Spain.  The  British  court  opposed  Louis,  and  Marlborough  was  victorious  ;  but  the  allies 
withdrew  one  after  another,  and  the  French  prince  succeeded.  See  Spain,  Utrecht. 

SUCCESSION  DUTY  ACT  (16  &  17  Yic.t.  c.  51),  after  much  discussion,  was  passed 
Aug.  4,  1853.  By  this  act  the  legacy  duty  was  extended  to  real  estate,  and  was  made 
payable  on  succession  to^oth  landed  and  personal  property. 

SUDBURY,  in  Suffolk,  was  disfranchised  for  bribery  in  1848. 

SUEVI,  a  warlike  Gothic  tribe,  which  with  the  Alani  and  the  Visigoths  entered  Spain 
about  408,  were  overcome  by  the  latter,  and  absorbed  into  their  kingdom  about  584. 

SUEZ  CANAL.  A  plan  for  a  canal  between  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  bay  of 
Pelusium  was  brought  forward  by  M.  de  Lesseps  in  1852.  The  consent  of  the  Egyptian, 
Turkish,  Russian,  French,  and  Austrian  governments  was  gradually  obtained,  but  not  that 
of  the  British.  A  company  has  been  formed  for  the  purpose,  and  the  work  commenced  in 
1858.  The  cost  was  estimated  at  8,ooo,oooZ.* 

*  M.  de  Lesseps  undertook  to  cut  a  canal  through  90  miles  of  sand,  to  run  out  moles  into  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  to  deepen  the  shallow  waters  ;  to  create  ports  to  receive  the  ships  from  India  and  Australia, 
and  to  adapt  the  canal  to  irrigation.  Writing  on  Nov.  7,  1862,  M.  Delacour,  a  French  engineer,  after 
viewing  the  works  which  were  "employing  25,000  men  in  the  desert,"  expresses  his  conviction  that  this 
important  work  will  be  completed  in  four  or  five  years.  Cosmos.  The  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  have 
been  admitted  into  a  narrow  channel  communicating  with  Lake  Timsah.  This,  however,  is  a  very  insigni- 
ficant part  of  the  work  (Dec.  1862).  In  1863  the  works  were  visited  by  the  sultan  and  by  Mr.  Hawkshaw. 
In  Aug.  1863  the  company  were  compelled,  lny  the  Egyptian  government,  to  give  up  the  employment  of 
compulsory  labour,  and  litigation  ensued.  In  Feb.  1865,  M.  de  Lesseps  reported  that  a  vessel  con- 
taining 30  persons  had  been  tugged  along  the  canal  the  whole  distance  between  the  two  seas.  On  April  17, 
1865,  delegates  from  the  British  chambers  of  commerce  visited  the  works,  and  reported  that  the  success  of 
the  scheme  was  only  an  affair  of  time  and  money.  On  Aug.  15,  1865,  the  floodgates  of  the  smaller  Suez 
Canal  were  opened,  the  fresh  water  from  the  Nile  was  admitted,  and  a  coal  vessel  passed  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  the  Red  Sea.  M.  de  Lesseps  expects  the  larger  canal  for  ships  will  be  ready  in  1868. 


SUF 


694 


SUI 


SUFFRAGAN  BISHOPS.  Power  to  appoint  them  was  given  by  parliament  in  1534  to 
Henry  VIII.  as  head  of  the  church.  See  Supremacy. 

SUGAR*  (Saccharum  officinarum)  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient  Jews. 
Found  in  the  East  Indies  by  Nearchus,  admiral  of  Alexander,  325  B.C.  Strabo.  An  oriental 
nation  in  alliance  with  Pompey  used  the  juice  of  the  cane  as  a  common  beverage.  Lucan. 
The  best  sugar  was  produced  in  India.  Pliny.  It  was  prescribed  as  a  medicine  by  Galen. 
Brought  into  Europe  from  Asia,  A.D.  625.  In  large  quantities,  1150.  It  was  attempted  to 
be  cultivated  in  Italy  ;  but  not  succeeding,  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  carried  it  to 
America  about  I5io.f  Our  chief  importations  of  sugar  are  from  the  British  West  Indies, 
the  East  Indies,  Mauritius,  and  Brazil.  Sugar  was  first  taxed  by  name,  I  James  II.  1685. 
The  previous  customs  duties  upon  sugar  were  repealed,  and  moderated  duties  substituted, 
by  the  act  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  63,  passed  Aug.  18,  1846,  by  which  act  the  same  duties  were 
levied  upon  the  sugar  of  foreign  countries  as  levied  upon  sugar  the  produce  of  British 
colonies:  annually  reduced  until  July  5,  1851.  The  importations  of  sugar  have  in  con- 
sequence considerably  increased,  and  amounted  in  1852  to  upwards  of  8,000,000  cwts., 
paying  a  duty  exceeding  4,000,000?.  sterling.  Sugar  imported  in  1854,  9,112,364  cwts. ;  in 
1864,  10,767,538  cwts.  In  1855,  the  duty  was  increased,  but  was  reduced  in  1864.!  Sugar 
was  extracted  from  beet-root  in  France,  by  Achard,  in  1799,  and  has  been  since  largely 
manufactured. 

SUGAR-REFINING  -was  made  known  to  Europeans  by  a  Venetian,  1503,  and  was  first 
practised  in  England  in  1659,  though  some  say  that  we  had  the  art  a  few  years  earlier.  Dr. 
Scoffern's  improved  processes  were  patented  in  1848-50. 

SUICIDE  (fromsMt,  self;  ccedere,  to  kill),  the  slayer  of  himself.  The  first  instances 
recorded  in  Jewish  history  are  those  of  Samson,  about  1120,  and  Saul,  1055  B.C.  The  Greek 
and  Roman  philosophers  deemed  it  a  crime,  and  burned  the  offending  hand  apart  from  the 
rest  of  the  body.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Roman  history,  the  only  instance  recorded  occurs 
in  the  reign  of  Tarquin  I.,  when  the  soldiers,  thinking  themselves  disgraced  by  being  ordered 
to  make  common  sewers,  destroyed  themselves,  606  B.C.  Instances  afterwards  occurred, 
however,  of  illustrious  men  committing  suicide,  as  Cato,  46  B.C.§  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  in  the  6th  century,  it  was  ordained  that  no  commemoration  should  be  made  in  the 
Eucharist  for  such  as  committed  self-murder.  This  ecclesiastical  law  continued  till  the 
Reformation,  when  it  was  admitted  into  the  statute  law  of  England  by  the  authority  of 
parliament,  with  the  confiscation  of  land  and  goods.  Till  1823  the  body  of  the  suicide  was 
directed  to  be  buried  in  a  cross-road,  and  a  stake  to  be  driven  through  it. 


A  FEW  OF  TUE  MOST  MEMORABLE  LATE  CASES  OF  SUICIDE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN,   ETC. 


Gen.  Pichegru April  7,  1804 

Miss  Champante      ....        Aug.  15,     ,, 
Sellis,  valet  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  May  31,  1810 
Abraham  Goldsmid,  an  eminent  merchant        .     , , 
Williams,  murderer  of  the  Marr  family,  Dec.  15,  1811 
Lord  French Dec.  9,  1814 


Marshal  Berthier       . 
Samuel  Whitbread,  Esq. 
Sir  Samuel  Romilly  . 
Sir  Richard  Croft 
Christophe,  king  of  Hayti 
Adm.  sir  George  Campbell . 


181; 


June  i, 
Sept.  6,     „ 
Nov.  2,  1818 
Nov.  6,     ,, 
.  Oct.  8,  1820 
Jan.  23,  1821 


*  Sugar,  long  considered  a  neutral  substance,  without  congeners,  his  of  late  years  become  the  head  of 
a  numerous  family,  daily  increasing,  viz.  :  Cane-sugar  (sucrose,  from  the  sugar-cane  ;  boiled  with  dilute 
acids  it  yields  glucose)  ;  fruit-sugar  (from  many  recent  fruits) ;  grape-sugar  (glucose  ;  from  dried  fruits  and 
altered  starch)  ;  sugar  of  milk  ;  Melitose  (from  Eucalyptus,  by  Berthelot  in  1856)  ;  sorbin  (from  the  berries 
of  the  mountain  ash,  by  Pelouze) ;  inosite  (from  muscular  tissue,  Scherer)  ;  dulcose  (by  Laurent)  ;  mannitf 
(from  manna,  obtained  from  the  Fraxinus  Ornus,  a  kind  of  ash) ;  guercite  (from  acorns)  ;  to  these  have  been 
lately  added  mycose,  by  M.  Mitscherlich,  and  melezetose  and  trehalose,  by  M.  Berthelot. 

t  About  the  year  1138  the  sugar-cane  was  transported  from  Tripoli  and  Syria  to  Sicily,  thence  to 
Madeira,  and  finally  to  the  West  Indies  and  America.  It  is  not  known  at  what  date  sugar  was  introduced 
into  England,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  prior  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Mr.  Whittaker,  in  the  History 
of  Whalley,  p.  109,  quotes  an  earlier  instance  in  1497.  A  manuscript  letter  from  sir  Edward  Wotton  to  lord 
Cobham,  dated  Calais,  6th  March,  1546,  advertises  him  that  sir  Edward  had  taken  up  for  his  lordship 
twenty-fire  sugar-loaves  at  six  shillings  a  loaf,  "  whiche  is  eighte  pence  a  pounde." 

J  In  1840,  the  imports  of  sugar  into  the  United  kingdom  were  nearly  5,000,000  cwts.,  of  which  nearly 
four  millions  were  for  home  consumption  ;  and  the  duty  amounted  to  about  five  millions  and  a  half  sterling. 
In  1850,  the  imports  were  8,285,734  cwts.  and  the  reduced  duty,  amounted  ^4,138,951^.  ;  in  1853,  7,272,83^ 
cwts.  were  retained  for  home  consumption;  duty,  4,083,836?.  ;  in  1859,  8,641,920  cwts.  were  retained  for 
home  consumption;  duty,  s,935,gogl.  ;  in  1864.  8,937,798  cwts.  were  retained. 

§  There  have  been  three  instances  of  self-destruction  by  fire ;  that  of  the  philosopher  Empedocles,  who 
threw  himself  into  the  crater  of  Mount  Etna  ;  of  a  Frenchman,  who,  in  imitation  of  him,  threw  himself,  in 
1820,  into  the  crater  of  Vesuvius  ;  and  of  an  Englishman,  who  jumped  into  the  furnace  of  a  forge  about  the 
year  1811.  Plutarch  relates  that  an  unaccountable  passion  for  suicide  seized  the  Milesian  virgins,  from 
which  they  could  not  be  prevented  by  the  tears  and  prayers  of  their  friends  ;  but  a  decree  being  issued 
that  the  body  of  every  young  maid  who  did  self-murder  should  be  drawn  naked  through  the  streets,  a  stop 
was  soon  put  to  the  extraordinary  frenzy. 


SUI 


695 


SUN 


Charles  Russell,  Esq.,  late  chairman  of  Great 
Western  Railway  ....  May  15,  1856 

Hugh  Miller,  geologist,  author  of  The  Old  Red 
Sandstone  (insane,  through  overwork)  Dec.  23,  ,, 

Major  gen.  Stalker,  C.B.  of  Indian  army  (March* 
14),  and  commodore  Ethersey,  of  the  Indian 
navy.  (Both  through  physical  and  mental 
depression  while  on  the  expedition  against 
Persia  ;  see  Bushire.)  .  .  March  17,  1857 

Major  Warburton,  M.P.  for  Harwich,  brother 
of  Eliot,  lost  in  the  A  mazon  .  .  Oct.  23,  ,, 

Henry  M.  Witt,  a  promising  young  chemist,  at 
the  Government  School  of  Mines  June  19,  1858 

Dr.  Sadleir,  Senior  Fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin July,  „ 

Rev.  G.  Martin,  chancellor  of  the  diocese  of 
Exeter Aug.  27,  1860 

Lord  Forth,  son  of  earl  of  Perth      .        .  Oct.  8,  1861 

Win.  G.  Prescott,  banker.       .        .        April  29,  1865 

Admiral  Robert  Fitz-Roy  (see  New  Zealand  and 
Meteorology)  .  .  .  '  .  .  April  30,  ,, 


INQUESTS  ON  SUICIDES   IN   ENGLAND  AND   WALES. 


SUICIDE,  continued. 

Marquess  of  Londonderry       .        .        Aug.  12,  1822 

Hon.  colonel  Stanhope         .         .        .    Jan.  26,  1825 

Mr.  Montgomery  in  Newgate  (see  Prussia  Acid), 

July  4,  1828 

Miss  Charlotte  Both          .        .        .          Jan.  3,  1830  j 

Lord  Greaves Feb.  7,     ,,      j 

Colonel  Brereton       ....        Jan.  13,  1832  j 

Major  Thompson June  13,     ,, 

Mr.  Simpson,  the  traveller        .         .       July  24,  1840 

Lord  James  Beresford          .         .        .  April  27,   1841 

Gen.  sir  Rufane  Shaw  Donkin        .         .  May  i,     ,, 

The  earl  of  Munster      .        .         .         March*  20,  1842 

Lord  Congleton         ....         June  8,     ,, 

Laman  Blanchard         ....    Feb.  15,  1845 

Colonel  Gurwood      ....         Dec.  29,     ,, 

Rear-admiral  Collard    .        .        .          March  18,  1846 

Haydon,  the  eminent  painter          .        June  22,     ,, 

Count  Bresson Nov.  2,  1847 

Colonel  King,  in  India     .        .         .        July  12,  1850 

Walter  Watts,  lessee  of  the  Olympic  theatre, 

July  13,     ,, 

Rev.  Dr.  Rice Jan.  20,  1853 

Lieut. -col.  Layard    ....         Dec.  27,     ,, 

Rev.   T.    Robinson  (threw  himself   off    Shak- 
spere's  Cliff,  Dover)          .        .         .     Aug.  16,  1854 

Dr.  Franks,  late  editor  of  the  Allgcmeine  Zeitung,  1856  919  males  395  females         1314 

after  killing  his  son      .         .         .          Nov.  3,  1855        1858  909  366      ,  1275 

John  Sadleir,  M.P.  (in  1852,  a  lord  of  the  trea-  1860  961  396      ,  1357 

sury),  by  prussic  acid ;  on  Hampstead  Heath.  1861  961  363      ,  1324 

(He  was  found  to  have  been  guilty  of  enormous  1862  938  346      ,  1284 

f rauds  upon  the  Tipperary  bank,  &c.)  Feb.  16,  1856        1863  1048  337      ,  1385 

A.  Smart,  a  watchmaker,  threw  himself  from  1864  978  359      „  1337 

the  whispering  gallery  in  St.  Paul's,  March  14, 

SUITORS'  FUND  (in  the  Court  of  Chancery),  in  1862  amounted  to  1,290,000?.  As  this 
money  had  no  specific  owner,  a  proposal  was  made  by  government  to  apply  it  to  the  building 
of  new  law-courts,  payment  of  all  legal  claims  being  guaranteed.  The  scheme  was  deferred 
by  parliament. 

SULPHUR  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  times.  Basil  Valentine  mentions  its  pro- 
duction from  green  vitriol.  Sulphuric  acid  (vitriol),  produced  from  the  burning  of  sulphur, 
was  introduced  into  England  about  1720.  Sulphur  has  been  the  object  of  research  of  many 
eminent  chemists  during  the  present  century,  and  many  discoveries  have  been  made,  such  as 
its  allotropic  condition,  &c.  It  is  the  inflammable  constituent  in  gunpowder. — The  sulphur 
mines  of  Sicily  have  been  wrought  since  the  i6th  century,  but  the  exportation  was  incon- 
siderable till  about  1820  ;  in  1838  the  trade  increased  so  much  that  Great  Britain  alone 
imported  38, 654  tons.  In  that  year  the  Neapolitan  government  was  induced  to  grant  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  to  a  French  company;  but  a  firm  remonstrance  from  the  British 
government  led  to  a  discontinuance  of  this  impolitic  restriction  in  1841,  which,  however  gave 
a  great  and  a  lasting  impetus  to  the  British  sulphur  manufacture. 

SULTAN",  a  Turkish  title,  from  the  Arabic,  signifying  king  of  kings,  and  given  to  the 
grand  signior  or  emperor  of  Turkey.  It  was  first  given  to  the  Turkish  princes,  Angrolipez 
and  Musgad,  about  1055.  Vattier.  It  was  first  given,  according  to  others,  to  the  emperor 
Mahmoud,  in  the  4th  century  of  the  Hegira. 

SUMPTUARY  LAWS  restrain  excess  in  dress,  furniture,  eating,  &c.  Those  of  Zaleucus 
ordained  that  no  woman  should  go  attended  by  more  than  one  maid  in  the  street,  unless  she 
were  drunk  ;  and  that  she  should  not  wear  gold  or  embroidered  apparel,  unless  she  designed 
to  act  unchastely,  450  B.C.  Diog.  Laert.  The  Lex  Orchid  among  the  Romans  (181  B.C.), 
limited  the  guests  at  feasts,  and  the  number  and  quality  of  the  dishes  at  an  entertainment ; 
and  it  also  enforced  that  during  supper,  which  was  the  chief  meal  among  the  Romans,  the 
doors  of  every  house  should  be  left  open.  The  English  sumptuary  laws,  chiefly  of  the  reigns 
of  Edward  III.  and  Henry  VIII.,  were  repealed  in  1856.  See  Dress. 

SUN.*     Pythagoras  taught  that  the  sun  was  one  of  the  twelve  spheres,  about  529  B.C. 

*  The  estimated  diameter  is  882,000  miles,  and  the  distance  from  the  earth,  till  lately  given  as  95,000,000 
miles,  has  been  recently  corrected  to  94,000,000,  by  the  result  of  the  experiments  and  calculations  of  N.  M. 
Fizeau  and  Foucault  (1864).  "The  error  corrected  corresponds  to  the  apparent  breadth  of  a  human  hair 
at  125  feet,  or  of  a  sovereign  at  8  miles  off."  Herschel.  The  sun  is  now  described  as  consisting  of  a  solid  or 
liquid  nucleus,  surrounded  by  a  luminous  envelope  (photosphere)  over  which  is  a  dense  atmosphere,  con- 
taining the  vapours  of  various  metals  and  other  elements  (1865).  See  Spectrum. 


SUN 


696 


SUR 


The  relative  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  were  first  calculated  geometrically  by  Aristarchus, 
who  also  maintained  the  stability  of  the  sun,  about  280  B.C.  Numerous  theories  were 
ventured  during  fifteen  centuries,  and  astronomy  lay  neglected  until  about  A.D.  1200,  when 
it  was  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary  and  Spain.  The  Copernican  system 
was  made  known  in  1530.  See  Copernican  System  and  Solar  System.  Galileo  and  Newton 
maintained  that  the  sun  was  an  igneous  globe.  The  transit  of  Mercury  was  observed  by 
Gassendi. 


By  the  observations  of  Dr.  Halley  on  the  spot 
which  darkened  the  sun's  disc  in  July  and 
August,  1676,  he  established  the  certainty  of 
its  motion  round  its  own  axis. 

Parallax  of  the  sun,  Dr.  Halley  .... 

Solar  spots  were  first  observed  by  Fabricius  and 
Harriot  in  1610.  A  macula  three  times  the 
size  of  the  earth  passed  the  sun's  centre, 
April  21,  1766,  and  frequently  since. 


Herschel  measured  two  spots,  whose  length 
together  exceeded  50,000  miles  .  April  19,  1779 

Since  1851  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
luminous  protuberances  observed  on  the  edge 
of  the  sun's  disc  during  a  total  eclipse.  On 
July  18,  1860,  Mr.  Warren  De  la  Rue  took  two 
photographs  at  the  time  of  total  obscuration. 

"  Solar  physics  "  especially  studied  by  Messrs. 
Warren  De  la  Rue,  Balfour,  Stewart,  &c.  1865-6 


SUNCION,  TREATY  OF,  between  general  Urquiza,  director  of  the  Argentine  confede- 
ration, and  C.  A.  Lopez,  president  of  the  republic  of  Paraguay,  recognising  the  independence 
of  Paraguay,  July  15,  1852. 

SUNDAY,  or  LORD'S  DAT.  Most  nations  have  counted  one  day  in  seven  holy.  Sunday 
was  the  day  on  which,  anciently,  divine  adoration  was  paid  to  the  Sun.  Among  Christians 
it  is  commonly  called  Dies  Dominica,  or  Lord's  day,  on  account  of  our  Saviour's  appearance 
on  that  day,  after  his  resurrection.  The  first  civil  law  that  was  issued  for  the  observance  of 
this  day,  combined  it  with  that  of  the  seventh-day  Sabbath  and  other  festivals  (Eusebius, 
Life  of  Constantine},  and  it  was  followed  by  several  imperial  edicts  in  favour  of  this  day, 
which  are  extant  in  the  body  of  Roman  law,  the  earliest  being  that  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  dated  March  7,  321.  Corpus  Juris  Civilis.  See  Sabbath;  Sabbatarians;  Sports, 
Book  of,  &c. 


The  council  of  Orleans  prohibited  country 
labour,  which  that  decree  had  allowed  .  .  338 

The  Sabbath-day  was  ordained  to  be  kept  holy 
in  England,  from  Saturday  at  three  in  the 
afternoon  to  Monday  at  break-of-day,  4th 
Canon,  Edgar 960 

Act  of  parliament,  levying  one  shilling  on  every 
person  absent  from  church  on  Sundays,  3 
James  1 1606 

James  I.  and  Charles  I.  authorised  certain 
snorts  after  divine  service  on  Sundays.  See 
Sports. 


I  Act  res-training  amusements,  i  Charles  I.          .  1625 

j  Act   restraining    the   performance    of    servile 

works,  and  the  sale  of  goods  except  milk  at 

certain  hours  and  meat  in  public-houses,  and 

works  of  necessity  and  charity,  on  forfeiture 

of  five  shillings,  29  Charles  II 1677 

The  Sunday  act  was  passed  in  1781.  In  March, 
1855,  Lord  Robert  Grosvenor  (since  lord 
Ebury),  introduced  a  bill  to  suppress  Sunday 
trading.  It  met  with  much  opposition  and 
was  withdrawn. 


SUNDAY  SCHOOLS  were  first  established  in  England  about  1781,  by  Robert  Raikes, 
an  eminent  printer  of  Gloucester,  conjointly  with  Dr.  Stock.  See  Education  and  Sabbath 
Schools. 

SUNDERLAND  ADMINISTRATION,  formed  in  1718,  arose  out  of  a  modification  of 
the  Stanhope  ministry.  After  various  changes  it  was  broken  up  in  1721. 


Charles,  earl  of  Sunderland,^irs<  lord  of  the  treasury. 
Earl  Cowper,  lord  chancellor. 


Earl  Stanhope  and  Mr.  Craggs,  secretaries. 
Mr.  Aislabie,  chancellor  of  i/tt  exchequer,  &c. 


SUN-DIALS  were  invented  by  Anaximander,  550  B.C.  Pliny,  I.  2.  The  first  put  up 
at  Rome  was  by  Papirius  Cursor,  at  the  temple  of  Quirinus,  when  time  was  divided  into 
hours,  293  B.C.  Sun-dials  were  first  set  up  in  churches,  A.D.  613.  Lcnglet. 

SUPERANNUATION  ACT  for  the  Civil  Service  was  passed  in  April,  1859. 

SUPREMACY  over  the  church  was  claimed  by  pope  Gelasius  I.  as  bishop  of  Rome,  494. 
On  Jan.  15,  1535,  Henry  VIII.  by  virtue  of  the  act  26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  I,  formally  assumed 
the  style  of  "on  earth  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church  of  England,"  which  has  been  retained 
by  all  succeeding  sovereigns.  The  bishop  of  Rochester  (Fisher)  and  the  ex-lord  chancellor 
(sir  Thomas  More),  and  many  others  were  beheaded  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy  in 
1535  ;  and  in  1578,  John  Nelson,  a  priest,  and  Thomas  Sherwood,  a  young  layman,  were 
executed  at  Tyburn  for  the  same  offence. 

SUB  AT  (E.  Indies).  Before  the  English  East  India  Company  obtained  possession  of 
Bombay,  the  presidency  of  their  affairs  on  the  coast  of  Malabar  was  at  Surat  j  and  they  had 


SUR  697  SUS 

a  factory  here  established  under  captain  Best  in  1611.  The  Great  Mogul  had  here  an  officer 
who  was  styled  his  admiral.  An  attack  of  the  Mahratta  chief  Sivajee,  on  the  British  factory, 
was  defeated  by  sir  George  Oxenden,  1664.  The  English  were  again  attacked  in  1670,  and 
1702,  and  often  subsequently.  The  East  India  Company,  in  1759,  fitted  out  an  armament, 
which  dispossessed  the  admiral  of  the  castle  ;  and,  soon  after,  the  possession  of  this  castle 
was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  court  of  Delhi.  Surat  was  vested  in  the  British  by  treaty  in 
1800  and  1803. 

SURGEONS,  ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF.  The  first  charter  was  granted  by  Henry  VIII.  1540. 
Formerly  barbers  and  surgeons  were  united,  until  it  was  enacted  that  "  no  person  using  any 
shaving  or  barbery  in  London  shall  occupy  any  surgery,  letting  of  blood,  or  other  matter 
excepting  only  the  drawing  of  teeth."  The  surgeons  obtained  a  new  charter  in  1745,  iSco, 
and  1844.  Since  that  period,  various  legislative  and  other  important  regulations  have  been 
adopted  to  promote  their  utility  and  respectability  ;  and  no  person  is  legally  entitled  to 
practise  as  a  surgeon  in  the  cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  or  within  seven  miles  of  the 
former,  who  has  not  been  examined  at  this  college.  The  college  in  Lincoln's-inn-Fields  was 
re-modelled  in  1836,  and  the  interior  completed  in  1837.  The  premises  were  enlarged  in 
1852-3.  See  Medical  Council. 

SURGERY.  It  was  not  until  the  age  of  Hippocrates  that  diseases  were  made  a  separate 
study  from  philosophy,  &c.,  about  410  B.C.  Hippocrates  mentions  the  ambe,  the  ancient 
instrument  with  which  they  reduced  dislocated  bones.  Celsus  flourished  about  A.D.  17  ; 
Galen,  170;  ^Etius,  500;  Paulus  ^Egineta,  in  640.  The  Arabians  revived  surgery  about 
900  ;  and  in  the  i6th  century  a  new  era  in  the  science  began  ;  between  these  periods  surgery 
was  confined  to  ignorant  priests  and  barbers.  Anatomy  was  cultivated  under  the  illustrious 
Vesalius,  the  father  of  modern  surgery,  in  1538.  Surgeons  and  doctors  were  exempted  from 
bearing  arras  or  serving  on  juries,  1513,  at  which  period  there  were  only  thirteen  in  London. 
See  Physic. 

SURINAM  (Dutch  Guiana).  The  factories  established  by  the  English  in  1640  were 
occupied  by  the  Portuguese,  1643  ;  by  the  Dutch,  1654  ;  taken  by  the  British,  1804  ;  and 
restored  to  the  Dutch,  1814. 

SURNAMES  first  began  in  Greece  and  Egypt,  as  Soter,  Saviour ;  Nicator,  conqueror  ; 
Euergctes,  benefactor  ;  Philopator,  lover  of  his  father  ;  Philometor,  lover  of  his  mother,  &c. 
Strato  was  surnamed  Physicus,  from  his  deep  study  of  nature  ;  Aristides  was  called  the 
Just  ;  Phocion,  the  Good;  Plato,  the  Athenian  Bee  ;  Xenophon,  the  Attic  Muse  ;  Aristotler 
the  Stagyrite  ;  Pythagoras,  the  Samian  Sage  ;  Menedemus,  the  Eretrian  Bull ;  Democritus, 
the  Laughing  Philosopher  ;  Virgil,  the  Mantuan  Swan,  &c.  Surnames  were  introduced  into 
England  by  the  Normans,  and  were  adopted  by  the  nobility  about  noo.  The  old  Normans 
used  Fitz,  which  signifies  son,  as  Fitz-herbert.  The  Irish  used  0,  for  grandson,  as  O'Neal, 
O'Dounell.  The  Scottish  Highlanders  used  Mac,  as  Macdonald,  son  of  Donald.  The 
Saxons  added  the  word  son  to  the  father's  name,  as  Williamson.  Many  of  the  most  common 
surnames,  such  as  Johnson,  Wilson,  Dyson,  Nicholson,  &c.,  were  taken  by  Brabanters  and 
other  Flemings,  who  were  naturalised  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  1435.  M.  A.  Lower's 
"  Dictionary  of  English  Surnames  "  was  published  in  1860. 

SURPLICES.  First  worn  by  the  Jewish  priests,  and  said  to  have  been  first  used  in 
churches,  316,  and  encouraged  by  pope  Adrian,  786.  Every  minister  saying  public  prayers 
shall  wear  a  comely  surplice  with  sleeves,  Canon  58.  The  garb  prescribed  by  stat.  2  Edw. 
VI.  1547  ;  again,  i  Eliz.  1558  ;  and  13  &  14  Chas.  II.  1662. 

SURREY  ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS  (near  London),  were  established  in  1831,  by  Mr, 
Edward  Cross,  who  brought  hither  the  menagerie  formerly  at  Exeter  change.  Various 
picture  models  have  been  exhibited  here  since  1837,  viz.  Vesuvius,  Iceland,  &c.,  accompanied 
by  fireworks.  In  1856,  a  company  which  had  taken  the  gardens,  erected  a  large  yet  elegant 
building  for  concerts  ;  the  architect  being  Mr.  Horace  Jones.  On  Oct.  19,  1856,  when  the 
hall  contained  about  9000  persons,  attending  to  hear  the  rev.  C.  H  Spurgeon,  seven  were 
killed  and  thirty  seriously  injured,  by  a  false  alarm  of  fire.  In  1862  the  hall  was  temporarily 
taken  for  the  reception  of  the  patients  of  St.  Thomas's  hospital. 

SURVEY.     See  Ordnance. 

SUSPENSION  BRIDGES.  The  oldest  in  the  world  is  in  China,  near  King-tung  ;  it  is 
formed  of  chains.  Rope  suspension  bridges,  from  rocks  to  rocks,  are  also  of  Chinese  origin. 
The  bridge  over  the  Menai  Strait  is  a  most  surprising  work.  The  Hungerford  (or  Charino- 
Cross)  suspension  bridge,  opened  May  I,  1845,  was  removed  to  Clifton  and  opened  there7 
Dec.  8,  1864.  Parliament  empowered  the  commissioners  of  woods  to  erect  (among  other 


sus 


698 


SWE 


improvements  there)  a  suspension  bridge  at  Battersea,  Sept.  1846  ;  and  many  bridges  of 
similar  construction  have  been  erected  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Lambeth  and 
"Westminster  suspension  bridge  was  opened  Nov.  10,  1862.  See  Menai  Strait,  Hungerford, 
Clifton,  &c. 

SUSSEX,  KINGDOM  OF.     See  Britain. 

SUTLEJ,  a  river  in  N.-W.  India,  on  the  banks  of  which  were  fought  the  desperate 
battles  of  Aliwal  and  Sobraon  (which  see}. 

SUTTEES,  the  burning  of  widows.  This  custom  began  in  India  from  one  of  the  wives  of 
"  Bramah,  the  Son  of  God,"  sacrificing  herself  at  his  death,  that  she  might  attend  him  in 
heaven.  So  many  as  seventeen  widows  have  burnt  themselves  on  the  funeral  pile  of  a  rajah  ; 
and  in  Bengal  alone,  700  have  thus  perished,  until  lately,  in  each  year.  But  the  English 
government,  after  long  discouraging  suttees,  formally  abolished  them,  Dec.  7,  1829.  They 
have  since  occasionally  taken  place.  The  wife  of  the  sou  of  the  rajah  of  Beygoon  thus 
perished,  June,  1864. 

SWABIA,  a  province  in  S.  Germany  ;  was  conquered  by  Clovis,  and  incorporated  into 
the  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  496.  After  various  changes  of  rulers,  it  was  made  a  duchy  by 
the  emperor  Conrad  I.  in  912,  for  Erchanger  ;  according  to  some,  in  916,  for  Burckhardf. 
The  duchy  became  hereditary  in  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  in  1080.  Duke  Frederic  III. 
became  emperor  of  Germany  as  Frederic  I.  (usually  styled  Barbarossa,  red  beard),  in  1152. 
Conradin,  his  descendant,  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Tagliacozzo  (which  see],  in  1268,  and 
beheaded  shortly  after.  The  breaking  up  of  the  duchy  gave  rise  to  many  of  the  small 
German  states  ;  part  of  Swabia  is  included  in  Wurteinberg  and  Switzerland.  Swabia  was 
made  a  circle  of  the  empire  in  1387  and  1500. 

SWAN  RIVER  SETTLEMENT.     See  Western  Australia. 

SWEABORG,  a  strong  fortress  in  Finland,  3^  miles  south  of  Helsingfors  :  it  is  situated 
on  seven  rocky  islands,  the  fortifications  were  commenced  by  the  Swedes  in  1748,  and 
were  not  completed  in  1789,  when  Finland  was  united  to  Russia,  by  whose  government  the 
works  were  zealously  continued.  It  is  termed  the  Gibraltar  of  the  north.  On  Aug.  6,  1855, 
the  English  and  a  part  of  the  French  fleet  anchored  off  Sweaborg,  and  bombarded  it  by 
mortar  and  gun-boats  from  the  9th  to  the  nth,  causing  the  destruction  of  nearly  all  the 
principal  buildings,  including  the  dockyard  and  arsenal.  But  few  casualties  and  no  loss  of 
life  ensued  in  the  allied  squadron.  Success  could  not  be  pursued  for  want  of  mortars. 

SWEARING  ON  THE  GOSPELS,  first  used  about  528,  and  introduced  in  judicial  pro- 
ceedings about  600.  Rapin.  PROFANE  SWEARING  made  punishable  by  fine  ;  a  labourer  or 
servant  forfeiting  is.  others  2s.  for  the  first  offence  ;  for  the  second  offence,  45.  ;  the  third 
offence,  65.  ;  6  Win.  III.  1695.  See  Oaths. 

SWEATING  SICKNESS.     See  Plague. 

SWEDEN  (N.  Europe).  The  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Fins,  now  the  modern 
inhabitants  of  Finland,  a  diminutive  race,  who  retired  to  their  present  territory  on  the 
appearance  of  the  Scandinavians  or  Goths,  who  have  ever  since  been  masters  of  Sweden. 
See  Scandinavia.  The  internal  state  of  this  kingdom  is  little  known  previously  to  the  nth 
century.  By  the  union  of  Calmar  in  1397,  Sweden  became  a  province  of  Denmark,  and  was 
not  rescued  from  this  subjection  till  1521,  when  Gustavus  Vasa  recovered  the  kingdom  from 
the  Danish  yoke.  He  became  king  in  1523,  and  his  descendants  ruled  till  1809.  The 
government  of  Sweden  is  a  limited  monarchy.  The  diet  consists  of  four  orders,  the  nobles, 
the  clergy,  the  peasants,  and  the  burghers,  and  meet  every  three  years  (last  time  Oct.  15, 
1865).  The  king  is,  as  in  Britain,  the  head  of  the  executive.  There  are  two  universities, 
Upsal  and  Lund  ;  and  Sweden  can  boast,  among  its  great  men,  Linnaeus,  Celsus,  Scheele, 
Bergman,  Berzelius,  Thorwaldsen,  and  Andersen.  Population  of  Sweden  (1863)  4,022,564  : 
of  Norway  (1855)  1,490,007. 


Odin  arrives  in  the  north,  and  dies  .  .  B.  c.  70 

His  son  Skiold  reigns 40 

The  Skioldungs  reign  till  Olaf  the  Infant  is 

baptised,  and  introduces  Christianity  among 

his  people  ....  about  A. D.  1000 
Waldemar  I.  of  Denmark  subdues  Rugen,  and 

destroys  the  pagan  temples  .  .  .  .  1168 

Stockholm  founded 1260 

Magnus  Ladelus  establishes  a  regular  form  of 

government 1279 


The  crown  of  Sweden  which  had  been  here- 
ditary, is  made  elective  ;  and  Stecnchel  Mag- 
nus, surnamedSmeek,  or  the  Foolish,  king  of 

Norway,  is  elected 1319 

Waldemar  lays  Gothland  waste       .         .        .     .  1361 
Albert  of  Mecklenburg  reigns      ....  1363 
Treaty  or  union  of  Calmar  (which  see),  by  which 
Sweden  is  united  to  Denmark  and  Norway, 

under  Margaret 1397 

University  of  Upsal  founded       ....  1476 


699 


SWE 


SWEDEN,  continued. 

Christian  II.  "  the  Nero  of  the  North,"  massa- 
cres the  Swedish  nobility,  to  fix  his  despotism  1520 
The  Swedes  delivered  from  the  Danish  yoke  by 

the  valour  of  Gustavus  Vasa  ....  1521 
Gustavus  Vasa  is  raised  to  the  throne  .  .  .  1523 
He  introduces  Lutheranism  and  religious  liberty  1527 
Makes  the  crown  hereditary  .  .  .  .  1 544 
Gustavus  Adolphus  heads  the  Protestant  cause 

in  Germany  ;  takes  Magdeburg  and  Munich,  1630 
He  is  slain  at  Lutzen  .  .  .  Nov.  6,  1632 
Rugen  ceded  to  Sweden  by  Denmark  .  .  1648 

Abdicatioix  of  Christina 1654 

Charles  X.  overruns  Poland         ....  1657 
Arts  and  sciences  begin  to  flourish          .        .     .  1660 
University  of  Lund  founded        ....  1666 
Charles  XII.   "the  Madman  of  the  North,"  be- 
gins his  reign ;  he  makes  himself  absolute ; 

and  abolishes  the  senate 1699 

Battle  of  Pultowa,  where  Charles  is  defeated 

by  the  czar  of  Russia  (see  Pultowa)  .  .  .  1709 
He  escapes  to  Bender,  where,  after  three  years' 

protection,  he  is  made  a  prisoner  by  the  Turks  1713 
He  is  restored ;   and  after  ruinous  wars,   and 
fighting  numerous  battles,  is  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Frederickshald  .        .        .      Dec.  it,  1718 
Queen     Ulrica    Eleanora     abolishes    despotic 

government 1719 

Royal  Academy  founded  by  Linne",  afterwards 

called  Linnaeus 1741 

Conspiracy  of    counts  Brahe  and  Home,  who 

arejjeheaded 1756 

The  Hats  and  Caps  (French  and  Russian  parties), 
1738-57  :  put  down  by  Gustavus  III.  .  .  1770 

Despotism  re-established 1772 

Order  of  the  Sword  instituted    .        .         .        .     ,, 
Assassination  of  Gustavus  III.  by  count  Anker- 
strdm,  at  a  ball,  March  16 ;  he  expired  the 

29th    .         .        , 1792 

The  regicide  was  scourged  with  whips  of  iron 
thongs  three  successive  days ;  his  right  hand 
was  cut  off,  then  his  head,  and  his  body  im- 
paled   May  18,  ,, 

Gustavus  IV.  dethroned  and  the  government 
assumed  by  his  uncle,  the  duke  of  Suder- 

mania March  13,  1809 

Representative  constitution  established,  June  7,    „ 


Sweden  cedes  Finland  to  Russia        .     Sept.  17,  1809 
Marshal  Bernadotte,  the  prince  of  Ponte  Corvo 
(one    of    Bonaparte's   greatest  generals),    is 
chosen  the  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  Aug.  21,  1810 
Gustavus  IV.  arrived  in  London         .     Nov.  12,     ,, 
Swedish  Pomerania  seized  by  Napoleon,  Jan.  9,  1812 
Alliance  with  England    .         .        .          July  12,     „ 
Sweden  joins  the  grand  alliance  against  Na- 
poleon       March  13,  1813 

Norway  is  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty  of 

Kiel,  Jan.  14  ;  carried  into  effect  .  Nov.  1814 
Bernadotte  ascends  the  throne  of  Sweden,  as 

Charles  John  XIV.  ...  Feb.  5,  iSiS 
Canals  and  roads  constructed  ....  1822 
Treaty  of  navigation  between  great  Britain  and 

Sweden May  19,  1826 

Death  of  Bernadotte,  whose  son  Oscar  ascends 

the  throne March  8,  1844 

Treaty  of  alliance  with  England  and  France, 

Nov.  21,  1855 
Banishment  decreed  against  Catholic  converts 

from  Lutheranism         ....       Oct.   1857 
Demonstration  in  favour  of    Italian  indepen- 
dence          Dec.  17,  1859 

Increased  religious  toleration  towards  seceders, 

May,  1860 

The  king  visits  England  and  France    .        Aug.  1861 
He  is  warmly  received  in  Denmark  .      July  17,  1862 
Treaty  of  commerce  with  Italy,  signed  June  14,     ,, 
Strong    demonstration    in  favour   of    Poland, 

April,  1863 

Inauguration  of  free  trade         .        .        Jan.  i,  1864 
Sweden  protests  against  the  occupation  of  Sles- 

wig  by  the  allies.        .        .        .         Jan.  22,      „ 
Great    excitement    throughout    the    country, 
March :    preparation    for    war ;    (no    result) 

April,    ,, 

Foundation  of  a   "National  Scandinavian  So- 
.  ciety  "  at  Stockholm  to  obtain  by  legal  means 
a  confederation  of  the  three  kingdoms   for 
military  and  foreign  affairs,  reserving  inde- 
pendent interior  administration        .        Dec.     ,, 
Reform    of    the    constitution  proposed   Nov.; 
adopted  by  the  legislature  ;  great  rejoicings, 

Dec.     ,, 
Commercial  treaty  with  France  signed,Feb.  15,  1865 


KINGS  OF  SWEDEN  (previously  Kings  of  Upsal). 


1026. 
1051. 
1056. 
1066. 
1090. 

III2. 

1118. 
1129. 
1155- 
1161. 
1167. 
1199. 

I2IO. 

1216. 

1222. 
1250. 
1266. 

1275- 
1290. 


1359- 
1363. 


1389. 


Olaf  Schotkonung,  or  Olif  Schcetkonung  the     1397. 

Infant,  is    styled  kThg,  1015.      Christianity 

introduced  in  this  reign.  1412. 

Edmund  Colbrenner.  1440. 

Edmund  Slemrne.  1448. 

Stenkill.  1471. 

Halstan.  1483. 

Ingo  I.  styled  the  Good.  1502. 

Philip.  1503- 

Ingo  II.  1512. 

Swerker  or  Suercher  I.  1520. 

St.  Eric  I. 

Charles  VII.  :  made  prisoner  by  his  successor, 
Canute,  son  of  Eric  I.  1523. 

Swerker  or  Suercher  II.  ;  killed  in  battle. 
Eric  II.  1560. 

John  I. 

Eric  III.  the  Stammerer.  1568. 

Birger  Jarl,  regent.  *592- 

Waldemar  I. 
Magnus  I. 

Birger  II.  1604. 

Magnus  II.  ;  dethroned.  1611. 

Eric  IV. 

Magnus  restored.  1633. 

Albert  of  Mecklenburg  :  his  tyranny  causes  a        ,, 

revolt  of  his  subjects,  who  invite  Margaret 

of  Denmark  to  the  throne. 
Margaret,  queen  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  now     1654. 

also  of  Denmark,  and  Eric  XIII. 


[Union  of  Calmar,   by  which  the  three  king- 
doms are  united  under  one  sovereign.] 
Eric  XIII.  governs  alone ;  deposed. 
Christopher  III. 

Charles  VIII.  surnamed  Canuteson. 
[Interregnum.]  Sten  Sture,  Protector. 
John  II.  (I.  of  Denmark) 
[Interregnum.] 
Swante  Sture,  Protector. 
Sten  Sture,  Protector. 
Christiern,  or  Christian  II.,  of  Denmark,  styled 

the  "Nero  of  the  North ;"  deposed  for  his 

cruelties. 
Gustavus  Vasa ;  by  whose  valour  the  Swedes 

are  delivered  from  the  Danish  yoke. 
Eric  XIV.,  son  of  Gustavus  ;  dethroned  and 

slain  by 

John  III.  his  brother. 
Sigismund,  king  of  Poland,  son  of  John  III.  : 

disputes  for  the  succession  continued  the 

whole  of  this  reign. 
Charles  IX  brother  of  John  III. 
Gustavus  (Adolphus)  II.  the  Great ;  fell  at  the 

battle  of  Lutzen,  Nov.  6,  1632. 
[Interregnum.] 
Christina,   daughter   of   Gustavus  Adolphus. 

Resigned  the  crown  to  her  cousin  ;   died  at 

Rome  in  1689. 
Charles  X.  (Gustavus),  son  of  John  Casimir, 

count  palatine  of  the  Rhine. 


SWE 


SWI 


SWEDEN,  continued. 

1660.   Charles  XT.  son  of  the  preceding  ;  the  arts  and  ,'  1792. 

sciences  flourished  in  this  reign. 
1697.   Charles  XII.   styled  the    "Alexander"    and  | 

the   "Madman  of  the  North;"   killed  at 

Frederickshald,  Dec.  n,  1718. 


1719.  Ulrica  Eleanora,  his  sister,  and  her  consort 
Frederick  I.  landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel. 
Ulrica  relinquishes  the  crown,  and  in 

1741.   Frederick  reigned  alone. 

1751.  Adolphus  Frederick  of  Holxtein  Gottorp,  de- 
scended from  the  family  of  Vasa. 

1771.  Gustavus  (Adolphus)  III.;  assassinated  by 
count  Ankerstrom  at  a  masked  ball. 


1814. 
1818. 

1844. 

1859. 


Gustavus  (Adolphus)  IV.  ;  dethroned  and  the 

government  assumed  by  his  uncle,  the  duke 

of  Sudermania. 

Charles  XIII.  duke  of  Sudermania. 
Treaty  of  Kiel,  by  which  Norway  falls  under 

the  sovereignty  of  Sweden. 
Charles  (John)  XIV.     Bernodotte  the  French 

prince  of  Ponte  Corvo  ;  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Oscar,  March  8. 
Charles  XV.  July  8  (born  May  3,   1826);  the 

PRESENT  king  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 
Daughter,  Princess  Louisa,  born  Oct.  31,  1851. 
Brother,  Prince  Oscar,  born  Jan.  21,  1829. 


SWEDENBORGIANS.  A  sect  (calling  themselves  "the  New  Church"  or  "the  New 
Jerusalem  Church "  *)  which  holds  the  opinions  of  baron  Emanuel  Swedenborg  (born  at 
Stockholm,  1688  ;  died  at  London,  1772).  He  stated  that  he  began  to  receive  spiritual 
manifestations,  &c.,  in  1745,  of  which  an  account  is  given  in  his  numerous  works.  The 
sect  arose  about  1760,  and  began  to  spread  in  1783  in  England,  where  there  were  50  congre- 
gations in  1851. 

SWEET-BAY,  Laurus  nobilis,  was  brought  to  these  realms  from  Italy  before  1548. 
Laurus  indica,  or  Royal  Bay,  was  brought  from  Madeira  in  1665.  The  Sweet-Fern  bush, 
Comptonia  asplenifolia,  came  from  America,  1714.  Laurus  aggregata,  or  the  Glaucous 
Laurel,  came  from  China  in  1806. 

SWING.  Between  1830  and  1833  many  haystacks  and  barns  were  fired  in  the  rural 
districts  of  England,  and  attributed  to  an  imaginary  person  named  "  Swing."  Many  persons 
were  caught  and  punished.  The  probable  cause  was  disputes  between  the  farmers  and  their 
deluded  labourers. 

SWITHIN,  ST.,  lived  in  the  ninth  century,  and,  having  been  the  preceptor  to  king 
Ethelwulf,  was  by  that  prince  made  bishop  of  Winchester  in  852.  The  tradition,  that  if  it 
rain  upon  St.  Swithin's  day,  July  15,  it  will  rain  forty  days  following,  is  supposed  to  have  a 
shadow  of  reason  only  from  the  circumstance  of  some  constellations,  which  have  the 
character  of  portending  rain,  rising  cosmically  about  the  time  of  St.  Swithin's  festival. 

SWITZERLAND,  the  ancient  Helvetia,  was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  15  B.C.  ;  and 
afterwards  was  successively  subject  to  the  Burgundians  and  Germans.  Franks  also  settled 
here  in  the  early  ages.  The  canton  of  Schweitz  was  peopled  by  the  Cimbrians,  who,  leaving 
their  original  habitation  in  Scandinavia,  invaded  Italy,  and  were  defeated  by  the  Roman 
general  Marius  ;  after  which  they  fled  into  Helvetia,  about  100  B.C.  This  canton  has  given 
name  to  the  whole  confederacy. — The  present  national  council  is  elected  every  third  year, 
at  the  rate  of  one  member  for  2000  persons. 


The    Helvetians,   invading  Gaul,   severely  de- 
feated by  Julius  Csesar         .         .  B.C.       58 
The   Helvetians  converted   to   Christianity  by 

Irish  missionaries A.D.     612 

Helvetia  ravaged  by  the  Huns       .        .        .     .     909 
Becomes  subject  to  Germany      ....  1032 

Friburg  built  by  Berthold  IV 1179 

Berne  built  .        .        .         .     •    .         .        .   1191 

Tyranny  of  Gessler,  which  occasions  the  memo- 
rable revolt  under  the  patriot  William  Tell    .   1306 
Confederation  against  Austria ;  declaration  of 

Swiss  independence 1307 

A  malignant  fever  carries  off,  in  the  canton  of 

Basle,  1100  souls  1314 

Form  of  government  made  perpetual        .        .  1315 
Leopold  I.  of  Austria  defeated  at  Morgarten, 

Nov.  16,     „ 

Lucerne  joins  the  confederacy        .         .        .     .  1335 
The  canton  of  Zurich  joins  and  becomes  head 

of  the  league 1350 

Berne,  Claris,  and  Zug  join 1351 

Leopold  II.  of  Austria  defeated  and  slain  at 
Sempach July  9,  1386 


The  Austrians  defeated  at  Nafels ;  make  peace, 

April  9,  1389 

The  Grisons  league  (see  Caddee)  ..."  1400 
Second  league  of  the  Grisons          .        .        .     .  1424 
The  third  league  of  the  Grisons  ....  1436 
Battle   of  St.    Jacobs  on  the  Birs,  near  Basle 
(1600  Swiss  resist  30,000  French,  and  are  all 
killed,  the  enemy  losing  10,000)        .  Aug.  26,  1444 
The  Swiss  defeat  Charles  the  Bold  at  Granson, 

April  5  ;  and  at  Morat          .        .        June  22,   1476 
And  aid  the  duke  of  Lorraine  at  Nancy,  where 

Charles  is  slain.        .        .  .       Jan.  5,  1477 

Swiss  soldiers  first  enter  into  the  pay  of  France, 

under  Louis  XI 1480 

Union  of  Fribourg  and  Soleure       .        .        .     .  1481 
Maximilian  I.  emperor  acknowledges  Swiss  in- 
dependence         1499 

Schaffhausen  joins  the  union          .        .        .     .  1501 
The  Swiss  invade  Milan  and  defeat  the  French 

at  Novara June  6,  1513 

Defeated  by  them  at  Marignano       Sept.  13,  14,  1515 
The  Swiss  confederacy  acknowledged  by  France 
and  other  powers 1516 


*  It  does  n"t  receive  the  usual  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  believing  that  the  three  persons  are  one  in 
Christ ;  it  rejects  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  and  the  imputed  righteousness  of  Christ,  and 
holds  that  salvation  cannot  be  obtained  except  by  faith  and  good  works.  It  accepts  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  uses  a  liturgy  and  hymns. 


SWI 


701 


SYD 


SWITZERLAND,  continued. 

The  Reformation  begins  at  Basle ;  the  bishop 
compelled  to  retire    .         .         .         .        .        .1519 

The   Grisou  leagues  join  the  Swiss  confederacy 

as  allies '  .        .     .   1544 

Appenzel  joins  the  other  cantons  .         ...  1597 
Charles  Emanuel  of  Savoy  attempts  Geneva  by 
surprise,  scales  the  walls,  and  penetrates  the 
town,  but  in  the  end  is  defeated      .        .         .  1602 
[This    circumstance    gave    rise  to    an    annual 
festival  commemorative  of  their  escape  from 
tyranny.] 
Independence  of  Switzerland  recognised  by  the 

treaty  of  Westphalia  (see  Westphalia,  Peace  of)  1648 
[From  this  period  until  the  French  revolution 
the  cantons  enjoyed  tranquillity,   disturbed 
only    by  the   changes  arising    out    of    their 
various  constitutions.  ] 

Alliance  with  France        .         .        .         May  25,   1777 
Strife  in  Geneva,  between  the  aristocratic  and 

democratic  parties  ;  France  interferes        .     .1781 
looo    fugitive    Genevese    seek    an    asylum    in 

Ireland  (see  Geneva) 1782 

Swiss  guards  ordered  to  quit  France       .        .     .  1792 
Helve-tic  confederation  dissolved  ;  its  subjuga- 
tion by  France 1798 

Helvetian  republic  formed      .        .        .         •    .     ,, 
Switzerland  the  seat  of  war         .         .  1799-1802 

The  number  of   cantons  increased  to  19 ;   the 
federal  government    restored ;     and  a   lan- 
damman  appointed  by  France        .       May  12,  1802 
Uri,   Schweitz,  and  Underwald  separate  from 

the  republic July  13,     ,, 

Switzerland  joins  France  with  6ooomen,  Aug.24,  1811 
The  allies  entered  Switzerland  in  the  spring  of  1814 
The  number  of  cantons  increased  to  22,  and  the 
independence  of  Switzerland  secured  by  the 

treaty  of  Vienna 1815 

Revision  of  the  constitution  of  the  cantons       .   1830 
Law  to  make  education  independent  of   the 

clergy 1839 

It  leads  to  dissensions  between  the  Catholics 

and  Protestants 1840-4 

Dispute  about  the  convents  of  Aargr.u,  1844;  to 

put  education  into  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits, 

&c.  ;  opposition  of    the  Protestant    cantons  1846 

Luoerne,Uri,  Schweitz,  UnterwaWen,  Freiburg, 

Zug,    and  Valais  (Roman  Catholic  cantons), 


!848 
1857 


form  a  separate  league  (Sonderbund)  to  sup- 
port education  by  the  Jesuits,  &c.  .  .  .  1846 

Insurrection  at  Geneva  against  Jesuit  teaching ; 
a  temporary  provisional  government  estab- 
lished   Oct.  7,  ,, 

The  diet  declares  the  Sonderbund  illegal,  and 
dissolves  it,  July  20;  the  seven  cantons  pro- 
test, July  22 ;  the  diet  orders  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits,  Sept.  3 ;  communal  assemblies 
held  to  resist  it,  Sept.  26;  Oct.  3,  10  .  .  .  1847 

The  diet  prepares  to  repress  the  Sonderbund, 

Nov.  4 ;  civil  war ;  the  Sonderbund  defeated  ; 

submits  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  and 

the    secularisation    of    monastic    property, 

Nov.  19-29, 

New  federal  constitution          .         .       Sept.  12, 

Dispute  about  Neufchatel  (whichsfe) 

Declaration  of  neutrality  in  the  coming  Italian 
war  .  .  .  .  .  .  March  14,  1859 

Mutiny  and  punishment  of  the  Swiss  mercenary 
troops  at  Naples  ;  the  confederation  forbid 
foreign  enlistment  .  .  July  and  Aug.  ,, 

Swiss  government  protests  against  the  annex- 
ation of  Savoy  to  France  .  .  March  15,  1860 

150  Swiss  attempting  to  enter  Savoy,  are 
stopped  by  the  Genevese  government, 

March  30,  ,, 

M.  Thorel,  a  Swiss,  obtains  a  prize  at  the 
national  shooting  match  at  Wimbledon,  July,  „ 

The  government  forbid  the  Swiss  to  enlist  in 
foreign  service  without  permission  July  30,  ,, 

Proposed  European  congress  to  preserve  Swiss 
neutrality,  put  off  ....  July,  ,, 

Glarus  destroyed  by  fire       .        .         .       May  3,  1861 

French  troops  occupy  Valle'e  des  Dappes,  Oct. 
28  ;  the  Swiss  announce  the  violation  of  their 
territory Nov.  5,  ,, 

Treaty  of  France  settles  the  question  of  the 
Valley  of  Dappes  by  mutual  cession  of  terri- 
tory ;  no  military  works  to  be  constructed  on 
territory  ceded ;  signed  .  .  Dec.  8,  1862 

Serious  election  riots  at  Geneva,  with  bloodshed, 
Aug.  22  ;  federal  troops  arrive  .  Aug.  23,  1864 

Federal  troops  quit  Geneva          .        .     Jan.  n,  1865 

Revision  of  the  constitution ;  deliberations 
begin Oct.  23,  „ 

M.  Knlisel  elected  president    .        .         Nov.  6,    „ 


SWISS    CONFEDERATION   OF    1815. 


Uri  ")  first  con- 

Schweitz          f     federa- 

Unterwalden )     tion. 

Zurich 

Berne 

Lucerne 


Schaffhausen 

Appenzel 

St.  Gall 

Glarus 

Zug 

Frieburg 


Solothurn 

Basel 

Grisuns 

Aargau 

Thurgau 

Tessins 


Pays  de  Vaud 
Valais 
Neufchatel 
Geneva 


SWORDS  were  formed  of  iron  taken  from  a  mountain  by  the  Chinese,  1879  B.C.  Univ. 
Hist.  The  Roman  swords  were  from  20  to  30  inches  long.  The  broadsword  and  scimitar 
are  of  modern  adoption.  The  sword  of  state  carried  at  an  English  king's  coronation  by  a 
king  of  Scotland,  1194.  Damascus  steel  swords  are  most  prized;  the  next  the  sword  of 
Ferrara  steel.  The  Scotch  Highlanders  were  accustomed  to  procure  the  latter  from  the 
celebrated  artificer  named  Andrea  di  Ferrara,  and  used  to  call  them  their  Andrew  Ferraras. 
The  broad-sword  was  forbidden  to  be  worn  in  Edinburgh  in  1724. 

SYBARIS,  a  Greek  colony  in  S.  Italy,  founded  about  720  B.C.  ;  destroyed  by  the  Croto- 
nians  about  510  B.C.  The  people  were  greatly  addicted  to  luxury,  hence  the  term  Sybarite. 

SYCAMORE  TREE,  called  the  Egyptian  fig-tree.  In  Mrs.  Jameson's  "Memoirs  of 
Female  Sovereigns,"  we  are  told  that  Mary  queen  of  Scots  brought  over  from  France  a  little 
sycamore  tree,  which  she  planted  in  the  gardens  at  Holyrood,  and  that  from  this  have 
sprung  all  the  beautiful  groves  of  sycamore  now  to  be  seen  in  Scotland. 

SYDNEY,  capital  of  New  South  Wales  ;  founded  by  governor  Phillip,  on  a  cove  on 
Port  Jackson,  in  1788,  as  a  British  settlement  for  the  colony  of  convicts  originally  intended 
for  Botany  bay.  It  was  named  after  lord  Sydney,  secretary  for  the  colonies.  A  legislative 


SYM 


702 


SYR 


council  was  first  held  July  13,  1829  ;  the  university  opened,  Oct.  n,  1852.  Sydney  was 
erected  into  a  bishopric  in  1836,  afterwards  into  an  archbishopric.  It  was  lit  with  gas  in 
May,  1841,  the  first  place  so  lit  in  Australia.  The  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  burnt,  and 
valuable  property  destroyed,  June  29,  1865.  See  Australia,  New  South  Wales,  Convicts,  &c. 

SYMPIESOMETER,  a  species  of  barometer  invented  by  Adie  of  Edinburgh  in  1819. 

SYNAGOGUE  (usually  an  assembly),  a  congregation  of  the  Jews,  the  place  where  such 
assembly  is  held  for  religious  purposes.  "When  first  held  is  uncertain  ;  some  refer  it  to  the 
times  after  the  Babylonish  captivity.  In  Jerusalem  were  480  synagogues.  In  1851  there 
were  in  London  10  synagogues,  in  England  and  Wales,  53. 

SYNOD.  The  first  general  synods  were  called  by  emperors,  and  afterwards  by  Christian 
princes ;  but  the  pope  ultimately  usurped  this  power,  one  of  his  legates  usually  presiding 
(see  Councils}.  The  first  national  synod  held  in  England  was  at  Hertford,  673  ;  the  last  was 
held  by  cardinal  Pole  in  1555.  Made  unlawful  to  hold  synods  but  by  royal  authority, 
25  Hen.  VIII.  1533.  See  Dort  and  Thurles. 

SYRACUSE,  S.-E.  Sicily,  founded  by  Archias,  7343.0.  ;  732  B.C.  Euselius ;  749  B.C. 
Univ.  Hist.  See  Sicily. 


Gelon  becomes  supreme .  .  .  .  B.C.  485 

Succeeded  by  Hiero 478 

Republic  established 467 

Becomes  predominant  in  Sicily  ....  453 
Athenian  expedition  against  Syracuse,  under 

Nicias 415 

Gylippus  theLacedsemonian  succours  Syracuse ; 

defeats  Nicias 413 

Government  of  Dionysius  the  elder,  406;  he 

receives  Plato  well 389 

Dionysius,  the  younger,  succeeds  .  .  .  367 
Opposed  by  Dion,  361 ;  who  is  banished,  and 

Plato,  who  endeavoured  to  reconcile  them,  is 

sold  for  a  slave 360 

Dion  returns  with  a  Greek  army  and  fleet,  and 

expels  Dionysius,  356 ;  rules  Syracuse,  355  ; 

assassinated  by  Callippus  ....  353 
Dionysius  recovers  his  authority,  347 ;  but  is 


banished  to  Corinth  by  Timoleon,  343 ;  who 

governs  well  till  his  death  .  .  .  B.C.  337 

Agathocles  usurps  power 317 

He  is  poisoned  by  Hicetas,  and  the  republic 

restored 289 

Hiero,  pretor  of  Syracuse,  275  ;  elected  king, 

270 ;    rules    in    peace    till    his    death,    216 ; 

Hieronymus,   his   grandson,   succeeds,   216 ; 

murdered .  214 

Syracuse  declares  against  Rome,  besieged  by 

Marcellus,  214,  and  taken  ;   Archimedes,  the 

illustrious  mathematician,  slain.  .  .  .  212 
Syracuse  taken  by  the  Saracens,  A.D.  669,  and 

retaken  by  count  Roger,  the  Norman  .  .  1088 
Destroyed  by  earthquakes  in  1542,  Jan.  1693; 

and  nearly  destroyed  ....  Aug.  6,  1757 
In  the  insurrection,  Syracuse  surrendered  to 

the  Neapolitan  troops      .        .        .      April  8,  1849 


SYRIA.     The  capital  was  originally  Damascus  ;  but  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  Seleucus 
founded  Antioch. 


Alliance  of  king  David  and  Hiram  king  of 
Syria B.C.  1049 

Syria  conquered  by  David 1040 

Liberated  by  Rezin 980 

Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  makes  war  on  the 
Jews 898 

Benhadad  II.  reigns        ....     about    830 

Syria  subjugated  by  Tiglathpileser  king  of 
Assyria 740 

Syria  conquered  by  Cyrus 537 

And  by  Alexander 333 

Seleucus  Nicator  enters  Babylon    .        .        .    . 

./Era  of  the  Seleucidae  (which  see) .... 

Great  battle  of  Ipsus  ;  death  of  Antigonus,  de- 
feated by  Ptolemy,  Seleucus,  and  Ljsimachus 

The  city  of  Antioch  founded 

Antiochus,  son  of  Seleucus,  falling  in  love  with 
his  father's  queen,  Stratonice,  he  pines  away 
nearly  to  death ;  but  the  secret  being  dis- 
covered, she  is  divorced  by  the  father,  and 
married  by  the  son 

Battle  of  Cyropedium  ;  Lysimachus  slain  by 
Seleucus 281 

Seleucus  foully  assassinated  by  Ceraunus ; 
Antiochus  I.  king 

Antiochus  I.  defeats  the  Gauls,  and  takes  the 
name  of  the  Soter,  or  Saviour  .  .  .  . 

Antiochus  II.  surnamed  by  the  Milesians  Tkeos 
(God!),  king 

Poisoned  by  Laodice 

Seleucus  II.  (king,  246)  makes  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Smyrna  and  Magnesia 

Seleucus  III.  Ceraunus  (or  Thunder),  king    .     . 


312 


297 


280 


Antiochus  III.  the  Great  (king,  223),  conquers 
Palestine,  but  is  totally  defeated  at  RaphiaB.c.  217 

Again  conquers  Palestine,  198  ;  but  gives  it  to 
Ptolemy 193 

Enters  Greece,  192 ;  defeated  by  the  Romans 
at  Thermopylae,  191  ;  and  at  Magnesia  .  .  190 

Makes  peace  with  the  Romans,  giving  up  to 
them  Asia  Minor 188 

Seleucus  Philopator  king 187 

Antiochus  IV.  king,  who  assumes  the  title  of 
Theos-Epiphanes,  or  the  Illustrious  God  .  -175 

He  sends  Apollonius  into  Judea  ;  Jerusalem  is 
taken  ;  the  temple  pillaged  ;  40,000  inhabi- 
tants destroyed,  and  40,000  more  sold  as  slaves  168 

Antiochus  V.  Eupator  (king,  164),  murdered  by 
Demetrius  Soter,  who  seizes  the  throne  .  .  162 

Demetrius  is  defeated  and  slain  by  his  successor 
Alexander  Bala,  150 ;  who  is  also  defeated 
and  slain  by  Demetrius  Nicator  .  •  .146 

Antiochus  VI.  Sidetes  (son  of  Demetrius  Soter) 
rules  during  the  captivity  of  his  brother 
Demetrius  Nicator  (after  slaying  the  usurper 
Trypho) 137 

Antiochus  grants  peace  to  the  Jews,  and 
Placates  the  Romans,  133  ;  invades  Parthia, 
129  ;  and  is  defeated  and  slain  .  .  .128 

Demetrius  Nicator  restored „ 

Cleopatra,  the  queen,  murders  her  son  Seleucus 
with  her  own  hand 124 

Her  son  Antiochus  VII.  Grypus  (king,  125), 
whom  she  attempts  to  poison  ;  but  he  com- 
pels his  motherto  swallow  the  deadly  draught 
herself 123 


SYK 


703 


TAG 


SYRIA,  continued. 

Reign  of  Antiochus  VIII.  Cyzicenus  at  Damas- 
cus, and  of  Grypus  at  Antioch  .  .B.C. 

Seleucus,  king 

Antiochus  Eusebes,  king 

Dethroned  by  Philip 

Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia,  acquires  Syria 

Antiochus  X.  Asiaticus,  solicits  the  aid  of  the 
Romans 

Defeat  of  Tigranes  by  Lucullus,  69  ;  he  submits 
to  Pompey,  who  enters  Syria,  and  dethrones 
Antiochus  Asiaticus 

Syria  made  a  Roman  province        ,        .        .     . 


Syria  invaded  by  the  Parthians  . 

By  the  Persians 

Violent  earthquakes 

Invaded  by  the  Saracens,  497,  502,  529  ;  by  the 


162 
256 


Persians 

Conquered  by  the  Saracens 
Conquest  of  Syria  by  the  Fatimite  caliphs 
Revolt  of  the  emirs  of  Damascus 
The  emirs  of  Aleppo  revolt     . 
The  crusades  commence  (see  Crusadei) 
Desolated  by  the  Crusades  (ichich  see)  . 
Noureddin  conquers  Syria          .... 
Saladin  dethrones  the  Fatimite  dynasty       .     . 
The  Tartars  overrun  all  Syria      .... 
The  sultans  of  Egypt  expel  the  Crusaders    .     . 
Syria  overrun  by  Tamerlane        .... 
Syria  and  Egypt  conquered  by  the  Turks      .     . 
Syria  continued  in  possession  of  the  Turks  till 

the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  French    July  i,  1798 
Bonaparte  defeats  the  Mamelukes  with  great 

loss,  Aug.  6  ;  overruns  the  country,  and  takes 

Gaza  and  Jaffa „ 

Siege  of  Acre    .        .        .       March  6  to  May  27,  1799 
Bonaparte    returns     to     France    from    Egypt, 

Egypt  and  Syria  evacuated  by  the  French  army, 

Sept.  10,  1801 

Mehemet  AH  attacks  and  captures  Acre,  and 
overruns  the  whole  of  Syria        .        .        .  1831-32 


607 

•  638 
•     •    970 

.  1067 
.  .  1068 

•  1095 
1096-1272 

.  1166 
.  .  1171 

.  1259 
.  .  1291 

.  1400 
1517 


Ibrahim  Pacha,  his  son,  defeats  the  army  of 
the  grand  signior  at  Konit-h  .  .  Dec.  21,  1832 

Numerous  battles  and  conflicts  follow  with 
various  success :  the  European  powers 
intervene  and  peace  is  made  .  .  May  6,  1833 

The  Turkish  fleet  arrives  at  Alexandria,  and 
deserts  to  Mehemet  Ali  .  .  .  July  14,  ,, 

The  war  renewed,  May ;  Ibrahim  defeats  the 
Turks  at  Nezib June  24,  1839 

The  Five  Powers  unite  to  support  the  Porte, 

July,    »» 

Death  of  lady  Hester  Stanhope      .        June  23,  1840 
Treaty  of    London    (not    signed    by    offended 

France) July  15,     „ 

Capture  of  Sidon  (see  Sidort)   .        .        Sept.  27,     ,, 
Fell  of  Bey  rout  (see  Beyrout)       .        .     Oct.  10, 
Fall  of  Acr-3  (see  Acre)      .        .        .         Nov.  3,     ,, 
Long  negotiations  :  the  sultan  grants  hereditary 

rights  to  Mehemet,  who  gives  up  Syria    Jan.  1841 
The  Druses  said  to  have  destroyed  151  Christian 
villages  and  killed  1000  persons  (see  Drusts), 

May  29  to  July  i,  1860 

The  Mahometans  massacre  Christians  at  Da- 
mascus ;  about  3300  slain  ;   many  saved  by 
Abd-el-Kader    ....       July  9,  &c.,     „ 
The  English  and  French  government  intervene ; 
a  convention  signed  at  Paris ;  12,000  men  to 
be  sent  by  France        ....  Aug.  3,     ., 
Vigorous  conduct  of  Fuad  Pacha  ;  he  punishes 
the  Mahometans  implicated  in  the  massacres 
at  Damascus  very  severely  ;  167  of  all  ranks, 
including  the  governor,  executed,  Aug.  20, 

et  seq.     , , 
4000  French  soldiers,  under  general  Hautpoul, 

land  at  Beyrout         ....  Aug.  22,     ,, 
Lord  Dufferin,  the    British   commissioner  in. 

Syria,  arrives  at  Damascus   .        .         Sept.  6,     ,, 
The   French  and  Turks  advance  against    Le- 
banon ;  14  emirs  surrendered          .        .Oct.     ,, 
Pacification  of  the  country  effected        .      Nov.     ,, 
The  French  occupation  ceases      .        .    June  5,  1861 
Prince  of  Wales  visits  Syria     .        .        .  April,  1862 


T. 

TABERNACLE,  the  Holy  Place  of  the  Israelites,  till  the  erection  of  Solomon's  temple, 
was  constructed  by  Divide  direction,  1491  B.C.  When  the  Jews  were  settled  in  Canaan,  the 
tabernacle  was  set  up  at  Shiloh  by  Joshua,  1444  B.C.  It  was  replaced  by  the  temple  erected 
by  Solomon,  1004  B.C. — The  chapel  erected  for  George  Whitfield  in  Moorfields  in  1741,  being 
of  a  temporary  nature,  received  the  name  of  Tabernacle,  which  was  afterwards  given  to  their 
chapels  by  the  Calvinistic  Methodists.  Whitfield's  Tabernacle  in  Tottenham-court-road  was 
erected  in  1756,  and  enlarged  in  1760.  His  lease  expired  in  1828;  and  the  chapel  was 
opened  by  the  Independents  in  1830.  A  large  Metropolitan  Tabernacle,  erected  for  the 
ministrations  of  Mr.  C.  H.  Spurgeon,  a  Baptist,  near  the  Elephant  and  Castle,  Kennington- 
road,  Surrey,  was  opened  on  March  31,  1861. 

TABOR,  in  Bohemia,  was  founded  by  Ziska  in  1419,  and  became  the  chief  seat  of  the 
Hussites,  or  Taborites.  Casimir  of  Poland,  invited  to  be  their  king,  was  defeated  here  by 
Albert  of  Austria  in  1438.  Tabor  itself  was  taken  by  the  emperor  in  1544. 

TADMOR,     See  Palmyra.  TAEPINGS.     See  China,  1851,  note. 

TAFFETY,  an  early  species  of  silken  manufacture,  more  prized  formerly  than  now, 
woven  very  smooth  and  glossy.  It  was  worn  by  our  elder  queens,  and  was  first  made  in 
England  by  John  Tyce,  of  Shoreditch,  London,  41  Eliz.  1598.  Staw's  Chron. 

TAGLIACOZZO,  in  the  Abruzzi  mountains,  S.  Italy,  where,  on  Aug.  23,  1268,  Charles 
of  Anjou,  the  usurping  king  of  Naples,  defeated  and  made  prisoner  the  rightful  monarch, 
young  Conradin  (the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens,  and  grandson  of  the  emperor  Frederic  II.), 
Avho  had  been  invited  into  Italy  by  the  Ghibelline  or  Imperial  party  ;  their  opponents,  the 
Guelfs,  or  papal  party,  supporting  Charles.  Conradin  was  beheaded,  Oct.  29,  following. 


TAH  704  TAP 

TAHITI.     The  French,  abbreviated  name  for  Otaheite.     See  Otahcitt. 

TALAVERA  DE  LA  REYXA,  Central  Spain,  was  taken  from  the  Mahometans  by  Ordono, 
king  of  Leon,  913.  Here  a  battle  was  fought  July  27,  28,  1809,  between  the  united  British 
and  Spanish  armies  under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (19,000  British  and  30,000  Spaniards),  and 
the  French  army  (47,000)  commanded  by  marshals  Victor  and  Sebastiani.  After  a  battle  on 
the  27th,  both  armies  remained  on  the  field  during  the  night,  and  the  French  at  break  of 
day  renewed  the  attack,  but  were  again  repulsed  by  the  British  with  great  slaughter.  At 
noon  Victor  charged  the  whole  British  line,  but  was  repulsed  at  all  points,  and  sir  Arthur 
"Wellesley  secured  the  victory,  the  enemy  retreating  with  a  loss  of  10,000  men  and  20  pieces 
of  cannon.  The  British  lost  800  killed,  and  4000  wounded  or  missing.  Soult,  Ney,  and 
Mortier,  being  in  the  rear,  obliged  the  British  to  retire  after  the  battle. 

TALBOTYPE.     See  Photography. 

TALLY  OFFICE  in  the  Exchequer  took  its  name  from  the  French  word  tattler,  to  cut. 
A  tally  is  a  piece  of  wood  written  upon  both  sides,  containing  an  acquittance  for  money 
received  ;  which,  being  cloven  asunder  by  an  officer  of  the  Exchequer,  one  part,  called  the 
stock,  was  delivered  to  the  person  who  paid,  or  lent,  money  to  the  government  :  and  the 
other  part,  called  the  counter-stock,  or  counter-foil,  remained  in  the  office,  to  be  kept  till 
called  for,  and  joined  with  the  stock.  This  manner  of  striking  tallies  is  very  ancient. 
Beatson.  The  practice  was  ordered  to  be  discontinued  in  1782.  On  Oct.  16,  1834,  the 
houses  of  parliament  were  burnt  down  by  too  many  of  these  tallies  being  used  in  heating  the 
stoves  in  the  house  of  lords.  See  Exchequer. 

TALMUDS,  two  books  concerning  the  religion  and  morality  of  the  Jews, — the  Talmud 
of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Talmud  of  Babylon.  The  one  composed  by  the  Rabbi  Juda 
Hakkadosh,  about  the  close  of  the  2nd  century;  the  second  contains  commentaries,  &c., 
by  succeeding  rabbis,  collected  by  Ben  Eliezer,  about  the  6th  century ;  abridged  by 
Maimonides  in  the  I2th  centur}'. 

TANAGRA  (Boeotia).  Here  the  Spartans  defeated  tie-Athenians  457  B.C.,  "but  were 
defeated  by  them  in  426,  when  Agis  II.  headed  the  Spartans,  and  Nicias  the  Athenians, 

TANDY  ARREST.  James  Napper  Tandy  proposed  his  plan  of  reform  in  1791.  In  the 
French  expedition  against  Ireland  he  acted  as  a  general  of  brigade,  Aug.  1798.  He  failed,  and 
fled  to  Hamburg,  and  was  there  delivered  up  to  the  English,  Nov.  24  ;  for  which  Bonaparte 
declared  war  upon  Hamburg,  Oct.  15,  1799.  Tandy  was  liberated  after  the  peace  of  Amiens 
in  1802. 

TANGIER  (Morocco,  N.W.  Africa).  Besieged  by  prince  Ferdinand  of  Portugal,  who 
was  beaten  and  taken  prisoner,  1437.  It  was  conquered  by  Alfonso  V.  of  Portugal  in  1471, 
and  given  as  a  dower  to  princess  Catherine,  on  her  marriage  with  Charles  II.  of  England, 
1662  ;  but  he  did  not  think  it  worth  keeping,  and  in  1683,  caused  the  works  to  be  blown  up, 
and  the  place  abandoned.  Tangiers  afterwards  became  a  piratical  station  ;  but  the  discon- 
tinuance of  piracy  has  greatly  diminished  its  importance. 

TAN1STRY  (in  Ireland),  the  equal  division  of  lands,  after  the  decease  of  the  owner, 
amongst  his  sons,  legitimate  or  illegitimate.  If  one  of  the  sons  died,  his  son  did  not 
inherit,  but  a  new  division  was  made  by  the  tanist  or  chief.  Abolished  1604.  Dames. 

TANNING  leather  with  the  bark  of  trees  was  early  practised.  It  was  introduced  into 
these  countries  from  Holland  by  William  III.  for  raising  orange-trees  about  1689.  It  was 
discontinued  until  about  1719,  when  ananas  were  first  brought  into  England.  Great 
improvements  have  been  made  in  tanning  by  means  of  chemical  knowledge. 

TANTALUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  in  an  American  mineral  by  Hatchett,  in  1801,  and 
named  by  him  Colubium  ;  and  in  a  Swedish  mineral  by  Ekeberg,  who  gave  it  its  present 
name.  Wollaston  pointed  out  the  indentity  of  the  two  metals  in  1809  ;  and  Berzelius 
prepared  pure  metallic  tantalum  in  1824.  In  1846  Rose  discovered  that  tantalum  was  really 
a  mixture  of  three  metals,  which  he  named  tantalum,  niobium,  and  pelopiurn.  Gmelin. 

TAPESTRY.  An  art  of  weaving  borrowed  from  the  Saracens,  and  hence  its  original 
workers  in  France  were  called  Sarazinois.  The  invention  of  tapestry  hangings  belongs  [the 
date  is  not  mentioned]  to  the  Netherlands.  Guicciardini.  Manufactured  in  France  under 
Henry  IV.  by  artists  invited  from  Flanders,  1606.  The  art  was  brought  into  England  by 
"William  Sheldon  ;  and  the  first  manufactory  of  it  was  established  at  Mortlake  by  sir  Francis 
Crane,  17  James  I.  1619.  Salmon.  Under  Louis  XIV.  the  art  of  tapestry  was  much 
improved  in  France.  See  Gobelin  Tapestry.  Very  early  instances  of  making  tapestry  are 


TAR  705  TAV 

mentioned  by  the  ancient  poets,  and  also  in  Scripture  ;  so  that  the  Saracens'  manufacture  is 
a  revival  of  the  art.     For  the  tapestry  wrought  by  Matilda  of  England,  see  Bayeux  Tapestry. 

TAR.  The  chemist  Becher  first  proposed  to  make  tar  from  pit-coal — the  earl  of  Dun- 
donald's  patent,  1781.  The  mineral  tar  was  discovered  at  Colebrook-dale,  Shropshire,  1779  ; 
and  in  Scotland,  Oct.  1792.  Tar- water  was  first  recommended  for  its  medicinal  virtues  % 
the  good  Dr.  Berkeley,  bishop  of  Cloyne,  about  1744.  From  coal-tar  brilliant  dyes  are  now 
produced.  See  Aniline. 

TARA,  a  hill  in  Meath,  Ireland,  where  it  is  said  a  conference  was  held  between  the 
English  and  Irish  in  1173.  Near  here,  on  May  26,  1798,  the  royalist  troops,  400  strong, 
defeated  the  insurgent  Irish  (4000  men),  500  killed.  On  Aug  15,  1843,  Daniel  O'Counell 
held  a  monster  meeting  here  (250,000  persons  said  to  have  been  assembled). 

TARANTISM.     See  Dancing. 

TARBES  (S.  France,  near  the  Pyrenees).  The  French,  under"  Soult,  were  forced  from 
their  position  at  Tarbes,  with  considerable  loss,  by  the  British  army  commanded  by  Wel- 
lington, March  20,  1814.  See  Toulouse. 

TARENTUM  (now  Taranto,  S.  Italy)  was  founded  by  the  Greek  Phalantus,  B.C.  708. 
The  people  of  Tarentum,  assisted  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  supported  a  war  against  the 
Romans,  which  had  been  undertaken  B.C.  281,  by  the  Romans,  to  avenge  the  insults  the 
Tarentines  had  offered  to  their  ships  when  near  their  harbours  ;  it  was  terminated  after  ten 
years  ;  300,000  prisoners  were  taken,  and  Tarentum  became  subject  to  Rome.  Tarentum 
has  shared  in  all  the  revolutions  of  Southern  Italy. 

TARIFF,  a  book  of  duties  charged  on  goods  exported  or  imported.  Our  tariff  in  1840 
comprised  1042  articles  ;  the  number  was  reduced  (by  sir  Robert  Peel)  in  1845  and  1847.  It 
comprised  439  articles  in  1857  ;  the  number  was  greatly  reduced  in  1860. 

TARRAGONA  (N.E.  Spain),  occupied  as  a  naval  station  by  the  British  before  their 
capture  of  Gibraltar,  in  1704.  It  was  stormed  and  sacked  by  the  French  under  Suchet, 
Jan.  28,  1811,  and  the  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword. 

TARTAN",  or  HIGHLAND  PLAID.  This  dress  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders  is  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  ancient  Gauls,  or  Celtse,  the  Galli  non  braccati. 

TARTARIC  ACID  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  discovery  of  the  eminent  chemist, 
Scheele,  who  procured  it  in  a  separate  state  by  boiling  tar  with  lime,  and  in  decomposing 
the  tartrate  of  lime  thus  formed  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid,  about  1770.  In  1859  Baron 
Liebig  formed  tartaric  acid  from  other  sources. 

TARTARY  (Asia).  The  Tartars,  Mongols,  or  Moguls,  were  known  in  antiquity  as 
Scythians.  During  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  these  tribes  began  to  seek  more  fertile 
regions  ;  and  the  first  who  reached  the  frontier  of  Italy  were  the  Huns,  the  ancestors  of  the 
modern  Mongols.  The  first  acknowledged  sovereign  of  this  vast  country  was  the  famous 
Genghis  Khan.  His  empire,  by  the  conquest  of  China,  Persia,  and  'all  Central  Asia 
(1206-27),  became  one  of  the  most  formidable  ever  established  ;  but  it  was  split  into  parts  in 
a  few  reigns.  Timur,  or  Tamerlane,  again  conquered  Persia,  broke  the  power  of  the  Turks 
in  Asia  Minor  (1370-1400),  and  founded  the  Mogul  dynasty  in  India,  which  began  with 
Baber  in  1525,  and  formed  the  most  splendid  court  in  Asia  till  the  close  of  the  i8th  century. 
See  Golden  Horde.  The  Calmuck  Tartars,  expelled  from  China,  settled  on  the  banks  of  the 
Volga  in  1672,  but  returned  in  1771,  suffering  much  on  the  journey. 

TASMANIA,  the  name  now  given  to  the  British  settlement  in  Van  Diemen's  Land 
(which  see}. 

TAVERNS  maybe  traced  to  the  I3th  century  "In  the  raigne  of  king  Edward  the  Third, 
only  three  taverns  were  allowed  in  London  :  one  in  Chepe,  one  in  Walbrok,  and  the  other  in 
Lombard-street."  *  Spclman.  The  Boar's  Head,  in  Eastcheap,  existed  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV.,  and  was  the  rendezvous  of  prince  Henry  and  his  dissolute  companions.  Shakspeare 
mentions  it  as  the  residence  of  Mrs.  Quickly,  and  the  scene  of  Falstaffs  merriment. 
Shakspeare,  Henry  IV.  The  White  Hart,  Bishopsgate,  established  in  1480,  was  rebuilt  in 
1829.  Taverns  were  licensed  in  I752- 

*  Taverns  were  restricted  by  an  act  of  Edward  VI.  1552,  to  40  in  London,  8  in  York,  4  in  Norwich,  3  in 
Westminster,  6  in  Bristol,  3  in  Lincoln,  4  in  Hull,  3  in  Shrewsbury,  4  in  Exeter,  3  in  Salisbury,  4  in 
Gloucester,  4  in  Chester,  3  in  Hereford,  3  in  Worcester,  3  in  Southampton,  4  in  Canterbury,  3  in  Ipswich, 
3  in  Winchester,  3  in  Oxford,  4  in  Cambridge,  3  in  Colchester,  4  in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

z  z 


TAX 


TEE 


TAXES  were  levied  by  Solon,  the  first  Athenian  legislator,  540  B.C.  The  first  class  of 
citizens  paid  an  Attic  talent  of  silver,  about  55?.  of  our  money.  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes, 
levied  a  land-tax  by  assessment,  which  was  deemed  so  odious  that  his  subjects  styled  him,  by 
way  of  derision,  Darius  the  Trader,  480  B.C.  D'Eon.  Taxes  in  specie  were  first  introduced 
into  England  by  William  I.  1067,  and  he  raised  them  arbitrarily  ;  yet  subsidies  in  kind, 
as  in  wool,  leather,  and  other  products  of  the  country,  continued  till  the  accession  of 
Richard  II.  1377.  Camden.  See  Revenue  and  Income  Tax. 

Land  Tar.  Assessed  Taxes.— Gross  Amount. 

1851  (to  Jan.  5)  .  .  £4,365,033 
1855  (year  end.  March  31)  3,160,641 
1860  ,,  ,,  3,232,000 

1865  ,,  ,,  3,292,000 


Assessed  Taxes. 

1800 

.  £3,468,131 

1800 

1805  . 

.  .  4.508,752 

1805 

iSio 

.  6,233,161 

1810 

1815  . 

.  .  6,524,766 

1815 

1820 

•  6,311,346 

1820 

1825  . 

.  .  5,176,722 

1825 

1830 

•  5-013,405 

1830 

1835  • 

•  •  3,733,997 

1835 

1840 

3,866,467  1840 

.  £1,307,941 
•    1,596,481 

,418,337 

,084,251 

|a88,'393 

,189,214 

,203,579 

,298,022 

TCHERNAYA,  a  river  in  the  Crimea.  On  Aug.  16,  1855,  the  lines  of  the  allied  army  at 
this  place  were  attacked  by  50,000  Russians  under  prince  Gortschakoff  without  success,  being 
repulsed  with  the  loss  of  3329  slain,  1658  wounded,  and  600  prisoners.  The  brunt  of  the 
attack  was  borne  by  two  French  regiments  under  general  D'Herbillon.  The  loss  of  the 
allies  was  about  1200  ;  200  of  these  were  from  the  Sardinian  contingent,  which  behaved  with 
great  gallantry  under  the  command  of  general  La  Marmora.  The  Russian  general  Read,  and 
the  Sardinian  general  Monte vecchio,  were  killed.  The  object  of  the  attack  was  the  relief  of 
Sebastopol,  then  closely  besieged  by  the  English  and  French. 

TEA  was  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Dutch,  1610.  It  is  mentioned  as  having  been  used 
in  England  on  very  rare  occasions  prior  to  1657,  and  sold  for  61.  and  even  lol.  the  pound. 


Samuel  Pepys  records  his  first  "cup  of  tea," 

Sept.  25,  1660 

A  duty  of  8d.  was  charged  upon  every  gallon  of 
tea  made  for  sale  (12  Ch.  II.  c.  13),  1660;  the 
East  India  Company  first  import  it  .  .  1669 

It  was  brought  into  England  in  1666,  by  lord 
Ossory  and  lord  Arlington,  from  Holland : 
and  being  admired  by  persons  of  rank,  it  was 
imported  from  thence,  and  generally  sold  for 
60  shillings  per  pound,  till  our  East  India 
Company  took  up  the  trade.  Anderson. 

Green  tea  began  to  be  used ^1715 

Price  of  black  tea  per  Ib.  138.  to  208.,  of  green, 
i2S.  to  30-5 1728 

The  duty  imposed  on  tea  in  America,  1767 : 
this  tax  occasioned  the  destruction  of  17 
chests  at  New  York,  and  340  at  Boston,  Nov. 
1773,  and  ultimately  led  to  the  American  war 
(see  Boston). 

The  tea-plant  brought  to  England    .        .  about  1768 

Tea-dealers  obliged  to  have  sign-boards  fixed 
up,  announcing  their  sale  of  tea  .  Aug.  1779 

Commutation  act  for  reducing  the  duty  on  tea 
from  50  to  122  per  cent,  and  taxing  windows 
in  lieu June,  1784 


"Millions  of  pounds'  weight  of  sloe,  liquorice, 
and  ash- tree  leaves,  are  every  year  mixed 
with  Chinese  teas  in  England."  Report  of  the 
House  of  Commons 1818 

"  The  consumption  of  the  whole  civilised  world, 
exclusively  of  England,  is  about  22,000,000  of 
pounds,  while  the  annual  consumption  in 
Great  Britain  is  30,000,000."  Evidence  in 
House  of  Commons 1830 

The  first  tea-sale  in  London  on  the  abolition  of 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  East  India 
Company  took  place  in  Mincing-lane, 

Aug.  19,  1834 

New  duties  were  charged,  1796 ;  the  duty  was 
96  and  ioo  per  cent.,  made  23.  id.  per  pound  1836 
The  duty  derived  from  the  import  of  tea  in  1 850 
amounted  to  5,471,461?.  :  and  the  amount  was 
5,902,433? in  1852 

Various  changes  made  in  1854,  1855    .        .  and  1856 

Duty  of  is.  yl.  per  pound  begun      .         .  April,  1857 

The  duty  upon  tea  gradually  reduced  from 
2S.  2-^d.  to  is.  per  pound  ;  reduced  to  6d.  per 
pound June  i,  1865 


700,000 
7,000,000 
13,185,000 

23,723>000 

24,133,000 
25,414,000 

1815  . 
1820 
1825  . 
1830   . 
1835  • 
1840   . 

.  Ib.  26,368,000 
.  .    25,662,474 
24,803,668 
.  .    30,544,404 
44>36o,55o 
•  •    38,068,555 

1845  • 
1850  govt.  returns 
1856  . 
1858   . 
1861  . 
1864   . 

Ib.  44,193,433 
50,512,384 
86,200,414 
75,432,535 
96,577,383 
124,359,243 

TEAS   IMPORTED   INTO  ENGLAND,    OR   CHARGED   WITH   DUTY,    IN   THE  FOLLOWING  YEARS  : — 

1726  . 
I766      . 
1792  . 
1800 
1805  . 
1810 

TE-DEUM.  A  song  of  thanksgiving  used  in  the  Romish  and  English  Churches,  beginning 
' '  Te  Deum  laudamus  — We  praise  thee,  0  God, "  supposed  to  be  the  composition  of 
Augustin  and  Ambrose,  about  390. 

TEETOTALLER.  Richard  Turner,  an  artisan  of  Preston,  Lancashire,  in  addressing 
temperance  meetings,  acknowledged  that  he  had  been  a  hard  drinker,  and  being  an  illiterate 
man,  and  in  want  of  a  word  to  express  how  much  he  then  abstained  from  malt  and  spirits, 


TEL 


TEM 


exclaimed  "  I  am  now  a  Teetotaller  ;"  about  1831. 
Kingdom. 


See  Encratites,  Temperance,  and  United 


TELEGRAPHS.  Polybius  calls  the  different  instruments  used  by  the  ancients  for 
communicating  information,  pyrsice,  because  the  signals  were  always  made  by  fire.  In  1663, 
a  plan  was  suggested  by  the  marquess  of  Worcester,  and  a  modern  telegraph  was  suggested 
by  Dr.  Hooke,  1684.  M.  Amontons  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  telegraphs 
about  this  period.  M.  Chappe  then  invented  the  telegraph  first  used  by  the  French  in  1793, 
and  two  were  erected  over  the  Admiralty- office,  London,  1796.  The  Semaphore  was  erected 
there  1816.  The  naval  signals  by  telegraph  enabled  400  previously  concerted  sentences  to 
be  transmitted  from  ship  to  ship,  by  varying  the  combinations  of  two  revolving  crosses.  See 
Electric  Telegraph,  under  Electricity. 

TELESCOPES  were  noticed  by  Leonard  Digges,  about  1571.  Roger  Bacon,  about  1250, 
described  telescopes  and  microscopes  exactly,  and  yet  neither  were  made  till  one  Metius,  at 
Alkmaer,  and  Jansen,  of  Middleburg,  constructed  them  about  1590-1609.  Galileo  imitated 
their  invention  by  its  description,  and  made  three  in  succession,  one  of  which  magnified 
a  thousand  times,  1630.  With  these  he  discovered  Jupiter's  moons  and  the  phases  of 
Venus.  Telescopes  were  improved  by  Zucchi,  Huyghens,  Gregory,  and  Newton,  and  after- 
wards by  Martin,  Hall,  Dolloiid,  and  Herschel. 


The  reflecting  telescope  invented  by  Newton 

Achromatic  telescopes  made  by  More  Hall  about 

A  telescope  made  in  London  for  the  observatory 

of  Madrid,  which  cost  n,oooZ.,  in  1802  ;  but 

the  Herschel  telescope,  made  1789-1795,  was 

superior  ;  it  had  the  great  speculum  48  inches 

diameter,  3^  inches  thick,  weighed  2118  Ibs., 

and  magnified  6400  times.     See  Herschel, 

The  earl  of  Kosse  erected  on  his  estate  at  Par- 

sonstown,  in  Ireland,  the  largest   telescope 

ever  constructed,  at  a  cost  exceeding  20,000?. 

This    wonderful    instrument     is     7    feet    in 

diameter,  and  52  feet  in  length ;  the  machinery 

is  supported  on  massive  walls,  and  notwith- 


1668 
1723 


standing  its  great  weight  and  size,  is  moved 
with  the  utmost  ease,  and  can  be  lowered  to 
any  angle,  while  it  sweeps  the  horizon  by 
means  of  wheels  running  on  a  graduated 
circle 1828-1845 

One  of  gigantic  size,  85  feet  in  length  (very  im- 
perfect), completed  at  Wandsworth  by  the 
rev.  John  Craig 1852 

Magnificent  equatorial  telescopes  set  up  at  the 
national  observatories  at  Greenwich  and  Paris  1860 

M.  Foucault  exhibits  at  Paris  a  reflecting 
telescope,  the  mirror  315  inches  in  diameter; 
the  focal  length  17!  feet 1862 


TELLURIUM,  a  rare  metal,  in  its  natural  state  containing  small  quantities  of  iron  and 
gold,  was  discovered  by  Muller  at  Reichenstein  in  1782. 

TEMESWAR  (Hungary),  capital  of  the  Banat,  often  besieged  by  the  Turks.  On  Aug. 
10,  1849,  Haynau  totally  defeated  the  Hungarians  besieging  this  town,  and  virtually  ended 
the  war. 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES  originated  with  Mr.  Calhoun,  who,  while  he  was  secretary 
of  war  in  America,  in  order  to  counteract  the  habitual  use  of  ardent  spirits  among  the 
people,  prohibited  them  ^altogether  in  the  United  States'  army,  1818.  The  first  public 
temperance  society  in  America  was  projected  in  1825,  and  formed  Feb.  13,  1826.  Tem- 
perance societies  immediately  afterwards  were  formed  in  England  and  Scotland.  In  Ireland, 
the  rev.  Dr.  Edgar,  of  Belfast,  published  upon  temperance  in  1829-31  ;  and  Father  Mathew,  a 
Roman  Catholic  clergyman,  affirmed  that  in  1839,  1840,  and  1841,  he  had  made  more  than 
a  million  of  converts  to  temperance.  *  In  England,  the  National  Temperance  Society  was 
formed  in  1842  ;  the  London  Temperance  League  in  1851  ;  and  the  United  Kingdom 
Alliance  for  the  legislative  suppression  of  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  June  I,  1853.  See 
Teetotaller. 

TEMPLARS.  The  first  military  order  of  Knights  Templars  was  founded  in  1118,  by 
Baldwin  II.,  king  of  Jerusalem.  The  Templars  were  numerous  in  several  countries,  and 
came  to  England  1185.  Their  wealth  having  excited  the  cupidity  of  the  French  kings,  the 
order  was  suppressed  by  the  council  of  Vieune,  and  part  of  its  revenues  was  bestowed  upon 
other  orders  in  1312.  Numbers  of  the  order  were  burned  alive  and  hanged  in  1310,  and  it 
suffered  great  persecutions  throughout  Europe.  The  grand-master  Molay  was  burnt  alive  at 
Paris  in  1314. 

TEMPLE  (London),  the  dwelling  of  the  Knights  Templars,  at  the  suppression  of  the 
order,  was  purchased  by  the  professors  of  the  common  law,  and  converted  into  inns,  1340. 
They  are  called  the  Inner  and  Middle  Temple,  in  relation  to  Essex-house,  which  was  also  a 

*  This  success  was  probably  owing  to  the  general  poverty,  as  the  majority  of  the  converts  are  stated 
to  have  relapsed  on  the  return  of  prosperity.  Father  Mathew  arrived  in  America  in  July,  1849,  but  was  not 
so  successful  there.  He  died  Dec.  8,  1856,  aged  66. 

z  z  2 


TEM  708  TET 

part  of  the  house  of  the  Templars,  built 'in  1185,  and  called  the  Outer  Temple,  because  it 
was  situated  without  Temple  Bar. — St.  Mary's,  or  the  Temple  Church,  situated  in  the  Inner 
Temple,  is  an  ancient  Gothic  stone  building,  erected  by  the  Templars  in  1240,  and  is  remark- 
able for  its  circular  vestibule,  and  for  the  tombs  of  the  crusaders,  who  were  buried  here. 
The  church  was  recased  with  stone  by  Mr.  Smirke  in  1828.— The  Temple  Hall  was  built  in 
1572,  and  Temple  Bar  in  1672.  The  new  Middle  Temple  library  was  opened  by  the  prince 
of  Wales,  Oct.  31,  1861. 

TEMPLES  originated  in  the  sepulchres  built  for  the  dead.  Euselius.  The  Egyptians 
were  the  first  who  erected  temples  to  the  gods.  Herodotus.  The  first  erected  in  Greece  is 
ascribed  to  Deucalion.  Agollonius. 

The  temple  of  Jerusalem  built  by  Solomon,  1012  B.C 


consecrated  1004 ;  pillaged  by  Sheshak,  971 ;  re- 
paired by  Joash,  856  ;  profaned  by  Ahaz,  740 ;  re- 
stored by  Hezekiah,  726;  pillaged  and  fired  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  588,  587  ;  rebuilt,  536;  pillaged 
by  Antiochus,  170 ;  rebuilt  by  Herod,  18  ;  destroyed 
by  Titus,  A.D.  70. 

The  temple  of  Apollo,  at  Delphi,  first  a  cottage  with 
bouo-hs,    built   of    stone    by    Trophonius,   about 
1  •      "  '     ",dse,  54~ 


it  employed  220  years ;  destroyed  by  the  Goths, 

A.D.  260. 

The  temple  of  Piety  was  built  by  Acilius,  on  the  spot 
where  once  a  woman  had  fed  with  her  milk  her 
aged  father,  whom  the  senate  had  imprisoned,  and 
excluded  from  all  aliments.  Val.  Max. 

Temple  of  Theseus,  built  480  B.C.,  is  at  this  day  the 
most  perfect  ancient  edifice  in  the  wo^ld. 

Most  of  the  heathen  temples  were  destroyed 
throughout  the  Roman  empire  by  Constantino  the 
Great,  331.  See  separate  articles. 

The  temple  at  Paris,  formerly  an  asylum  for  debtors, 
was  made  the  site  of  a  market  in  1809,  and  rebuilt 
in  1864. 


I2QOB.C.  ;  burnt  by  the  Pisistratidse,  548;  a  new 
temple  raised  by  the  family  of  the  Alcmaeonidse, 
about  513. 

Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  built  seven  times ; 
planned  by  Ctesiphon,  544  B.C.  ;  fired  by  Hero- 
stratus,  to  perpetuate  his  name,  3566.0.;  to  rebuild 

TENANT.  See  Rent.  "Tenant-right"  in  Ireland  has  caused  much  discussion  in  that 
country. 

TENASSERIM  (N.E.  India),  ceded  by  Burmah  to  the  British,  Feb.  1826. 

TENERIFFE  (Canaries,  N.W.  coast  of  Africa).  The  celebrated  peak  of  Teneriffe  is 
15,396  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  was  ascended  in  1856  by  professor  C.  Piazzi 
Smyth  for  astronomical  observations.  An  earthquake  in  this  island  destroyed  several  towns 
and  many  thousands  of  people  in  1 704.  In  an  unsuccessful  attack  made  at  Santa  Cruz, 
admiral  (afterwards  lord)  Nelson  lost  his  right  arm,  and  141  officers  and  men  were  killed, 
July  24,  1797.  For  the  particulars  of  this  heroic  affair,  see  Santa  Cruz. 

TENNESSEE,  a  southern  state  of  North  America,  was  settled  in  1765,  and  admitted 
into  the  Union,  June  I,  1796.  An  ordinance  of  secession  from  the  Union  was  passed,  it  is 
asserted  illegally,  on  May  6,  1861.  On  Feb.  23,  1862,  the  Federal  general  Nelson  entered 
Nashville,  and  in  March,  Andrew  Johnson  (now  the  president  of  the  United  States)  was 
made  military  governor  over  a  large  part  of  Tennessee.  In  Sept.  1863,  Eosencrans  expelled 
the  Confederate  government. 

TENTHS.     See  Tithes. 

TENURES,  the  mode  in  which  land  is  held.  Military  tenures  were  abolished  in  1660. 
Lyttelton's  book  on  Tenures  is  dated  1481. 

TERBIUM,  a  metal  sometimes  found  with  yttrium  (which  see). 

TERMS  OF  LAW  AND  VACATIONS.  They  were  instituted  in  England  from  the  Norman 
usage,  the  long  vacation  being  suited  to  the  time  of  the  vintage  in  France,  14  "Will.  I.  1079. 
Glanville  de  Leg.  Anglic.  They  were  gradually  formed.  Spelman.  The  terms  were  fixed 
by  statute  n  Geo.  IV.  and  i  Will.  IV.  July  22,  1830  :  Hilary  Term  to  begin  Jan.  n  and 
end  Jan.  31  ;  Easter,  April  15,  to  end  May  8  ;  Trinity,  May  22,  to  end  June  12  ;  Michaelmas, 
Nov.  2,  to  end  Nov.  25.  This  act  was  amended  i  Will.  IV.  Nov.  15,  1830. 

TERROR,     See  Reign  of. 

TEST  ACT,  directing  all  officers,  civil  and  military,  under  government,  to  receive  the 
sacrament  according  to  the  forms  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  to  take  the  oaths  against 
transubstantiation,  &c.  ;  enacted  March  1673.  The  Test  and  Corporation  acts  were  repealed 
by  statute  in  1828. 

TESTER.  Testone.  A  silver  coin  struck  in  France  by  Louis  XII.  1513  ;  and  also  in 
Scotland  in  the  time  of  Francis  II.  and  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  1559.  It  was  so  called  from 
the  head  of  the  king,  stamped  upon  it.  In  England  the  tester  was  of  I2d.  value  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  and  afterwards  of  6d.  (still  called  a  tester). 

TETUAN  (Morocco),  was  entered  by  the  Spaniards,  Feb.  6,  1860,  after  gaining  a  decisive 
victory  on  Feb.  4.  The  general,  O'Donnell,  was  made  a  grandee  of  the  first  class. 


TEU  709  THA 

TEUTONES  (hence  Deutsche,  German),  a  people  of  Germany,  who  with  the  Cimbri  made 
incursions  upon  Gaul,  and  cut  to  pieces  two  Roman  armies,  113  and  105  B.C.  They  were  at 
last  defeated  by  the  consul  Marius  at  Aix,  and  a  great  number  made  prisoners,  102  B.C. 
See  Cimbri,  with  whom  authors  commonly  join  the  Teutones.  The  appellation  came  to  be 
applied  to  the  German  nation  in  general. 

TEUTONIC  ORDER,  military  knights  established  in  the  Holy  Land  about  1191,  through 
the  humanity  of  the  Germans  (Teutones)  to  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  Christian  army  in 
the  Holy  Land,  under  the  celebrated  Guy  of  Lusignan,  when  before  Acre.  The  order  was 
confirmed  by  a  bull  of  pope  Cselestine  III.  On  their  return  to  Germany,  they  were  invited 
to  subdue  and  Christianise  the  country  now  called  Prussia  and  its  neighbourhood,  which  they 
gradually  accomplished.  A  large  part  of  their  possessions  was  incorporated  into  Poland  in 
1466,  and  into  Brandenburg  about  1521.  In  1525,  the  grand-master  was  made  a  prince  of 
the  empire.  The  order  was  dissolved,  and  its  remaining  possessions  seized,  by  Napoleon  I. 
in  1809.  See  Prussia,  &c. 

TEWKESBURY  (Gloucestershire),  where  Edward  IV.  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
Lancastrians,  May  4,  1471.  Queen  Margaret,  the  consort  of  Henry  VI.  and  her  son,  were 
taken  prisoners.  The  queen  was  conveyed  to  the  Tower  of  London,  where  king  Henry 
expired  a  few  days  after  this  fatal  engagement ;  being,  as  is  generally  supposed,  murdered 
by  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  Richard  III.  The  queen  was  ransomed  in  1475  by -the 
French  king,  Louis  XL,  for  50,000  crowns.  This  was  the  last  battle  between  the  houses  of 
York  and  Lancaster.  See  Roses. 

TEXAS  (N.  America).  Separated  from  Mexico  in  1836.  Its  independence  was  acknow- 
ledged in  1840.  Its  proposed  annexation  led  to  war  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States. 
It  was  admitted  into  the  Union  by  the  latter  in  1846  ;  seceded  from  it  in  1861  ;  submitted 
in  1865. 

TEXEL  (at  the  mouth  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  Holland).  Its  vicinity  has  been  the  scene  of 
memorable  naval  engagements.  An  engagement  of  three  days'  continuance,  between  the 
English  under  Blake,  Dean,  and  Monk,  and  the  Dutch  under  Van  Tromp  and  De  Ruyter, 
in  which  the  latter  were  worsted,  and  admiral  Van  Tromp  was  killed,  1653.  Again,  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Texel,  when  D'Etrees  and  Ruyter  were  signally  defeated,  Aug.  n,  1673.  The 
Dutch  fleet  vanquished  by  lord  Duncan,  on  Oct.  n,  1797.  See  Camperdown.  The  Dutch 
fleet  of  twelve  ships  of  war,  and  thirteen  Indiamen,  surrendered  to  admiral  Mitchell,  who, 
entering  the  Texel,  possessed  himself  of  them  without  firing  a  shot,  Aug.  28,  1799. 

THALLIUM,  a  metal,  occurring  in  the  sulphuric-acid  manufacture,  discovered  by  Mr. 
"Wm.  Crookes,  by  means  of  the  spectrum  analysis  in  March,  1861. 

THAMES  (London).  The  richest  river  in  the  world.  It  has  been  erroneously  said  that 
its  name  is  Isis  till  it  arrives  at  Dorchester,  when,  being  joined  by  the  Thame  or  Tame,  it 
assumes  the  name  of  Thames.  What  was  the  origin  of  this  vulgar  error  cannot  now  be 
traced  :  poetical  fiction,  however,  had  perpetuated  the  error,  and  invested  it  with  a  kind  of 
classical  sanctity.  It  was*called  Thames  or  Terns  before  it  came  near  the  Thames.  Camden. 


The  river  rose  so  high  at  Westminster  that  the 
lawyers  were  brought  out  of  the  hall  in  boats  1235 

It  rose  to  a  great  height,  1736,  1747,  1762  .        .  1791 

The  conservation  of  the  Thames  was  given  to 
the  mayors  of  London 1489 

The  Thames  was  made  navigable  to  Oxford       .   1624 

It  ebbed  and  flowed  twice  in  three  hours,  1658  ; 
again,  three  times  in  four  hours,  March  22, 
1682  ;  again,  twice  in  three  hours  Nov.  24,  1777 

An  act  of  parliament  gave  the  conservation  of 
the  Thames  to  the  corporation  of  London  : 
twelve  conservators  were  to  be  appointed — 
three  by  the  government 1857 

THAMES  TUNNEL.— Projected  by  Mr.  I.  K. 
Brunei,  to  form  a  communication  between 
Botherhithe  and  Wapping.  The  bill  received 
the  royal  assent,  June  24,  1824.  The  shaft 
was  begun  in  1825  ;  the  first  brick  was  laid 
by  Mr.  Smith,  March  2  ;  the  excavation  com- 
menced, April  i ;  and  the  first  horizontal 
excavation in  Dec.  1825 

At  a  distance  of  544  feet  from  the  shaft,  the  first 
irruption  took  place  .  .  .  May  18,  1827 

The  second  irruption,  by  which  six  workmen 


the  tunnel  is  1300  feet ;  its  width  is  35  feet ; 
height,  20  feet ;  clear  width  of  each  archway, 
including  foot-path,  about  14  feet ;  thickness 
of  earth  between  the  crown  of  the  tunnel  and 
the  bed  of  the  river,  about  15  feet. 

In  consequence  of  the  great  contamination  of 
the  Thames  by  the  influx  of  the  sewage  of 
London,  and  the  bad  odours  emanating  from 
it  in  the  summer  of  1858,  an  act  was  passed 
empowering  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works 
(which  see)  to  undertake  its  purification  by 
constructing  new  drainage.  The  works  are 
still  in  progress  .  1866 

THAMES  EMBANKMENT  :  sir  Christopher  Wren 
recommended  it  in  1666.  The  corporation 
embanked  a  mile  in  1767.  It  was  further 
recommended  by  sir  Fred.  Trench,  in  1824  ;  by 
the  duke  of  Newcastle  in  1844 ;  and  by  John 
Martin  the  painter  in  1856.  In  1860,  the 
Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  recommended 
that  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames  should 
be  embanked  ;  whereby  the  bed  of  the  river 
would  be  improved;  a  low-level  sewer 
couid  be  easily  constructed  beneath  a  broad 
roadway;  docks  to  be  constructed  within 


perished Jan.  12,  1828  I 

The  tunnel  was   opened  throughout  for  foot-  the  embankment  wall ;   the   expense  to  be 

passengers,  March  25,  1843.     The  length  of          I      defrayed  by  the  city  duties  on  coal,  and  by 


THA 


•10 


THE 


THAMES,  continued. 

means  provided  by  government.  The  prin- 
ciple of  this  recommendation  was  approved 
by  parliament,  and  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed, which  sat  for  the  first  time  April  30,  1861 

An  act  for  "  embanking  the  north  side  of  the 
Thames  from  Westminster  bridge  to  Black- 
friars  bridge,  and  for  making  new  streets  in 
and  near  thereto,"  passed  Aug.  7;  the  work 
begun  in Nov.  1862 

Mr.  J.  W.  Bazalgette  presented  a  report,  with  a 
plan  for  embanking  the  south  side  of  the 


Thames,  Nov.  6, 1862;  act  for  carrying  it  out 
passed July  28,  1863 

The  Thames  Angling  Preservation  Society 
(established  about  1838)18  revived  in  .  .  ,, 

First  stone  of  the  embankment  laid  by  Mr. 
Thwaites  near  Whitehall-stairs  .  July  20,  1864 

Mr.  Leach,  engineer  of  the  conservators,  re- 
ported that  "the  river  is  dreadfully  mis- 
managed from  its  source  to  its  mouth," 

July  23,  „ 


THANE,  a  Saxon  title  of  nobility,  abolished  in  England  at  the  conquest,  upon  the  intro- 
duction of  the  feudal  system,  and  in  Scotland  by  king  Malcolm  III.,  when  the  title  of  earl 
was  adopted,  1057. 

THANET,  Kent,  was  the  first  permanent  settlement  of  the  Saxons,  428.  The  Danes  held 
a  part  of  it,  853-865,  and  ravaged  it  980. 

THEATINES.  An  order  of  religious,  the  first  who  assumed  the  title  of  regular  clerks, 
founded  by  Caraffa,  bishop  of  Theate,  in  Naples  (afterwards  pope  Paul  IV.),  1524,  to  repress 
heresy.  They  first  established  themselves  in  France,  according  to  the  historian  Henault,  in 
Paris,  1644.  The  Theatines  endeavoured,  but  vainly,  to  revive  among  the  clergy  the  poverty 
of  the  apostles.  Ashe. 

THEATRES.  That  of  Bacchus,  at  Athens,  built  by  Philos,  420 B.C.,  was  the  first  erected. 
Marcellus' theatre  at  Rome  was  built  about  80  B.C.  Theatres  were  afterwards  numerous, 
and  were  erected  in  most  cities  of  Italy.  There  was  a  theatre  at  Pompeii,  where  most  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  town  were  assembled  on  the  night  of  Aug.  24,  A.D.  79,  when  an  eruption 
of  Vesuvius  covered  Pompeii.  Scenes  were  introduced  into  theatres,  painted  by  Balthazar 
Sienna,  A.D.  1533.  See  Drama,  Plays,  &c. 

THEATRES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  first  royal  licence  for  a  theatre  in  England  was  in  1574, 
to  master  Burbage  and  four  others,  servants  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  to  act  plays  at  the 
Globe,  Bankside.  See  Globe,.  But,  long  before  that  time,  miracle  plays  were  represented  in 
the  fields.  The  prices  of  admission  in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  were — gallery*  2cl.  ;  lords' 
rooms,  is.  The  first  play-bill  was  dated  April  8,  1663,  and  issued  from  Drury-lane  ;  it  runs 
thus  :  "By  his  Majestie  his  company  of  Comedians  at  the  New  Theatre  in  Drury-lane,  will 
be  acted  a  comedy  called  the  Numovrous  Lievtenant."  After  detailing  the  characters,  it 
concludes  thus  :  ' '  The  play  will  begin  at  three  o'clock  exactly. "  Lincoln's-inn  theatre  was 
opened  in  1695.  The  licensing  act  (10  Geo.  II.  c.  23,  1735)  was  passed  in  consequence  of 
the  performance  of  Fielding's  Pasquin  at  the  Haymarket,  satirising  Walpole's  administration. 
Marionettes  or  Puppets  were  produced  at  the  Adelaide  Gallery  in  1852.  See  Covent  Garden, 
Drury  Lane,  Opera  House,  Drama,  &c.  In  Jan.  1860,  several  of  the  theatres  were  first 
opened  on  Sunday  evenings  for  religious  worship,  and  were  filled. 


DRURY  LANE. 

Killigrew's  patent        ....  April  25,  1662 

Opened April  8,  1663 

Nell  Gwynn  performed 1666 

Theatre  burnt  down 1671 

Rebuilt  by  sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  opened, 

March  26,  1674 

Gibber,  Wilkes,  Booth 1712 

Garrick's  debut  here         .        .    '     .        .        .     .  1742 
Garrick  and  Lacy's  tenure  (revival  of   Shak- 

speare) i?47 

Interior  rebuilt  by  Adams ;   opened  Sept.  23,  1775 
Garrick's  farewell     ....        June  10,  1776 

Sheridan's  management ,, 

Theatrical  fund  founded  by  Mr.  Garrick       .     .  1777 
Mrs.  Siddons'  debut  as  a  star        .        .     Oct.  10,  1782 
Mr.  Kemble's  debut  as  Hamlet          .        Sept.  30,  1783 
The  theatre  rebuilt  on  a  large  scale,  and  re- 
opened         March  12,  1794 

Charles  Kemble's  first  appearance  (as  Malcolm 

in  Macbeth) April  21,     „ 

Dowton's  first  appearance  (as  Sheva  in  the  Jeio), 

Oct.  ii,  1796 

Hatfi eld  fired  at  George  III.        .        .     May  n,  1800 
The  theatre  burnt    ....        Feb.  24,  1809 


Rebuilt  by  "Wyatt,  and  re-opened  with  a  pro- 
logue by  lord  Byron          .        .        .     Oct.  10,  1812 
Edmund     Kean's    appearance     (as    Shylock), 

Jan.  26,  1814 

Mr.  Elliston,  lessee  ....          Oct.  3,  1819 
Madame  Vestris's  first  appearance  (as  Lilla), 

Feb.  19,  1820 
Real  water  introduced  in  the  Cataract  of  the 

Ganges Oct.  27,  1823 

Mr.  Price,  lessee July,  1826 

Miss    Ellen    Tree's   appearance    (as    Violante), 

Sept.  23,    ,, 

Charles  Kean's  appearance  (as  Norval)     Oct.  i,  1827 
Mrs.  Nisbett's  first  appearance  (as  the    Widow 

Cheer Jy) Oct.  9,  1829 

Mr.    Alexander    Lee's    and    Captain    Polhill's 

management 1830 

Mr.  Alfred  Bunn,  lessee 1831 

Mr.   Forrest's  first  appearance  (as  Spartacus), 

Oct.  17,  1836 

Mr.  Hammond's  management        .        ...  1839 
German  operas  commenced   at    this  theatre, 

March  15,  1841 

Mr.  Macready's  management      .        .        .        .     , , 
Mr.  Bunn,  again  lessee 1843 


THE 


711 


THE 


THEATRES,  continued,  t 
Miss  Clara  Webster  burnt  on  the  stage,  Dec.  14 ; 

and  died Dec.  16,  1844 

Mr.  Anderson's  management 1849 

Mr.  Macready's  farewell  .  .  .  Feb.  26,  1851 
Mr.  Bunn,  lessee  and  manager  .  .  .  .  1852 

Mr.  E.  T.  Smith 1853-9 

English  opera  (Mr.  Harrison  and  Miss  Pyne)     .  1858 

Italian  opera 1859 

Opened  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Smith  .  .  Oct  15,  1860 
Suddenly  closed  ....  April  20,  1861 
Mr.  G.  V.  Brooke  appears  (as  Othello)  Oct.  27,  ,, 

[Drowned  in  the  London.   See  Wrecks,  Jan  n,  1866] 

Mr.  Falconer Dec.  1862-1865 

Messrs.  Falconer  and    Chatterton,    managers, 

Jan.     1866 
COVENT  GARDEN. 

(The  Duke's  Theatre)  Sir  William  Davenant's 

patent April  25,  1662 

The  theatre  opened  by  Rich  .  .  .  Dec.  7,  1732 
Beef-steak  Society,  founded  by  Rich  and 

Lambert 1735 

Theatrical  fund  instituted 1765 

Mr.  Harris's  tenure 1767 

Lewis's   first   appearance  in  the  character  of 

Belcour Sept.  15,  1773 

Miss  Rcay  killed  by  Mr.   Hackman,    coming 

from  the  house         ....      April  7,  1779 
Jack  Johnstone's    first   appearance    in    Irish 

characters Oct.  3,  1783 

Munden's  appearance  ....  Dec.  2,  1790 
Fawcett's  first  appearance  (as  CaJeV)  Sept.  21,  1791 
G.  F.  Cooke's  appearance  (as  Richard  III.), 

Oct.  31,  1800 

Braham's  appearance  ....  Dec.  9,  1801 
Mr.  Kemble's  management  ....  1802 
Appearance  of  Master  Betty,  the  Infant  Roscius, 

Dec.  i,  1803 
Lewis's  last  appearance  (as  the  Copper  Captain), 

May  28,  1808 

Theatre  burnt  down         .        .        .        Sept.  20    ,, 
Rebuilt  by  R.    Smirk e,  R.A.,  and  re-opened 

with  Macbeth Sept.  18,  1809 

The  O.  P.  Riot  (which  see)  .  Sept.  i8to  Dec.  10,     ,, 
Horses  first  introduced  ;  in  Bluebeard  .  Feb.  18,  1811 
The  farewell  benefit  of  Mrs.  Siddons  (immense 

house) June  29,  1812 

[Mrs.  Siddons,  however,  performed  once  after- 
wards, in  June,   1819,  for  Mr.  and  Mrs.  C. 
Kemble's  benefit.] 
Miss  Stepheiis's  first  appearance  (as  Mundane), 

•*  Sept  7,  1813 

Miss  Foote's  appearance  here  (as  Amanthis), 

May  26,  1814 

Miss  O'Neill's  appearance  here  (as  Juliet),  Oct.  6,     ,, 
Miss  Kelly  fired  at  by  George  Barnet,  in  the 

house  . Feb.  7,  1816 

Mr.    Macready's   first  appearance  (as  Orestes), . 

Sept.  16,  '  „ 
Mr.   J.   P.   Kemble's  farewell  (as  Coriolanus), 

June  23,  1817 

Henry  Harris's  management.  .  •  .  .1818 
Charles  Kemble's  management  .  .  •  .  .  1823 
!Miss  Fanny  Kemble's  appearance  (as  Juliet), 

Oct  5,  1829 

Mr.  Fawcett's  farewell  .  .  .  May  21,  1830 
Charles  Young's  farewell  .  .  May  30,  1832 
Mr.  Macready's  management  ....  1837 
Madame  Vestris's  management  .  .  .  .  1839 
Miss  Adelaide  Kemble's  appearance  (as  Norma), 

Nov.  2,  1841 

Charles  Kemble  again  .        .        Sept.  10,  1842 

Mr.  Laurent's  management        .        .     Dec.  26,  1844 
Opened  for  Italian  opera        .        .        .  April  6,  1847 
Destroyed   by  fire  (during  a  lal  masque,  eon- 
ducted  by  Anderson  the  Wizard)  .    March  5,  1856 
New  theatre  (by  Barry),  opened  by  Mr.  F.  Gye 

(Les  Huguenots) May  15,  1858 

English  opera  (Miss  Pync  and  Mr.  Harrison), 

Oct.  1859 


All  principal  actors  perform  parts  of  plays  for 

the  benefit  of  the  Dramatic  College,  March  29,  1860 
Balfe's  Jttanca  brought  out  .        .        .     Dec.  6,     ,, 
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye)     .        .        .          April,  1861 
Last  appearance  of  Grisi       .        .        .    Aug.  3,     ,, 
English  opera  (Pyne  and  Harrison)  .       Oct.  21,     ,, 
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye)          .        .        .      April,  1862 
English  opera  (Pyne  ai .d  Harrison)  .     Aug.  25,     ,, 
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye)         .        .        .  April  7,  1863 

Gounod's  Faust July>     » 

English  opera  (Pyne  and  Harrison)      .   Oct.  12,     ,, 
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye)    ....  April,  1864 
English  opera,  &c.  (Opera  Company,  Limited), 

Oct.  17,     „ 

Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye)        .        .        .  April  28,  1865 
Becomes  the  property  of  a  company,  Mr.  Gye 
manager Aug.  1865 


ITALIAN   OPERA-HOUSE,  OR  QUEEN'S 
THEATRE. 


Pennant. 


(See  Op<ra- 

1705 
1720 

June  17,  1789 

Sept.  22,  1791 

.        .        .  1818 

1821 

.    May  10,  1841 
.     .  1842 
May  4,  1847 


Opera-house  opened. 

house) 

.  The  theatre  was  enlarged 
I  Burnt  down 

Rebuilt,  and  re-opened    .        . 
Exterior  improved  by  Mr.  Nash 
The  rilievo  by  Mr.  Bubb 
Madame  Rachel's  appearance      . 
Mr.  Lumley's  management    . 
Jenny  Lind's  first  appearance    . 
Association  formed    for   conducting  financial 
affairs  of  the  house  ......  1852 

Jullien's  concerts     .....      Oct.  1857 

Festive  performances  on  the  marriage  of  the 
princess  royal        .....      Jan.  1859 

Macfarreu's  Robin  Hood  brought  out  .    Oct.  n,  1860 

[Not  opened  in  1861.] 
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Mapleson)  .  April  26,  1862— 

April,  1865 


HAYMARKET. 

Built 1702 

Opened  by  French  comedians  .  Dec.  29,  1720 
Fielding's  Mogul  company  ....  1734-5 
A  French  company  prohibited  from  acting  by 

the  audience 1738 

Mr.  Foote's  patent  1747 

The  Bottle-conjuror's  dupery  (see  Bottle  Con- 
juror)     Jan.  1 6,  1748 

The  theatre  rebuilt 1767 

Mr.  Colman's  tenure  .  .  .  Jan.  i,  1777 
Miss  Farren's  appearance  here  (afterwards 

countess  of  Derby) , , 

Royal  visit — great  crowd — 16  persons  killed  and 

many  wounded         ....      Feb.  3,  1794 
Mr.  Elliston's  debut  here  .        .       June  24,  1796 

First  appearance  of  Mr.  Mathews  (as  Lingo), 

Mayi6,  1803 

Mr.  Morris's  management 1805 

Appearance  of  Mr.  Liston  (as  Sheepface),  June  8,    ,, 
The  tailors'  riot        ....        Aug.  15,     ,, 
Appearance  of  Mr.  Young  (as  Hamlet),  June  22,  1807 
Of  Miss  F.  Kelly  (as  Floretta)'      .        .  June  12,  1810 
Theatre  rebuilt  by  Nash  ;  opened    .        July  4,  1821 
Miss   Paton's    (Mrs.    Wood)    appearance    (as 

Susannah) Aug.  3,  1822 

Mr.  Webster's  management        .        .   June  12,  1837 
Mr.  Charles  Kean's  appearance  here     .        .     .  1839 
Mr.   Webster's  management  (16  years)  termi- 
nated with  his  farewell  appearance,  March  14,  1853 
First  appearance  of  Our  American  Cousin  (said 
to  be  by  Tom  Taylor,  and  to  have  been  acted 
800  times  in  America),  Mr.  Sothern,   Lord 

Dundreary Nov.  n,  1861 

Mr.  Buckstone's  management       .        .        .  1853-66 


THE 


712 


THE 


THEATRES,  continued. 

ENGLISH  OPERA-HOUSE,  OR  LYCEUM. 

Built  by  Dr.  Arnold 1 794-5 

Winsor  experiments  with  gas-lighting    .        .  1803-4 
Opened  as  the  Lyceum  in    .....  1809 
Appearance  of  Mr.  Wrench  (as  Belcour)  .  Oct.  7,     ,, 
Re-opened  with  an  address  spoken  by  Miss 

Kelly June  15,  1816 

House  destroyed  by  fire  .        .        .        Feb.  16,  1830 
Re-built,  and  re-opened     .        .        .    July  14,  1834 
Equestrian  performances         .        .        Jan.  16,  1844 
Mrs.  Keeley's  management         .        .    April  8,     ,, 
Madame  Vestris  and  Mr.  C.  Mathews'  manage- 
ment           Oct.  1847-56 

Retirement  of  Mr.  C.  Mathews  .  March,  1855 
Appearance  of  Madame  Ristori  .  .  June,  1856 
Taken  by  Mr.  Gye  for  Italian  opera  for  forty 

nights April  14,  1857 

Opened  for  English  opera  by  Miss  Louisa  Pyne 

and  Mr.  Harrison  ....  Sept.  21,  „ 
Balfe's  opera,  Rose  of  Castile,  produced  ."  Oct.  ,, 
Mr.  G.  Webster  and  Mr.  Falconer,  July,  1858  ; 

closed April,  1859 

Opened  by  Madame  Celeste,  Nov.  1859,  an<^ 

Oct.  1860 
The  "  Savage  Club"  perform  before  the  queen 

and  prince March  7,     ,, 

Italian  opera June  8,  1861 

Mr.    Falconer,    manager    (English    comedy), 

Aug.  19,    ,. 

Peep  o'  Day  brought  out         .        .        .   Nov.  9,     , , 
Mr.  Fechter       .        .        .  Jan.  10,  1863— June,  1865 


THE  ADELPHI  THEATRE. 

Formerly  called  the  Sans  Pareil,  opened  under 
the  management  of  Mr.   and    Miss    Scott, 

Nov.  27,  1806 

Under  Rodwell   and  Jones,  who  gave  it  the 
present  name 1820-1 

Terry  and  Yates 1825 

Messrs.  Mathews  and  Yates'  management  join 
(Mathews  at  Home) 1828 

New  front 1840 

Madame  Celeste's  management  .        .  Sept.  30,  1844 

Rebuilt  and  opened,  with  improved  arrange- 
ments         Dec.  27,  1858 

Colleen  Bawn  represented       .        .        Sept.  10,  1860 
[Immense  run  ;  above  360  nights.] 

Miss  Bateman  appears  as  Leah,  Oct  i,  1863,  to 

June  n,  1864 

Mr.  B.  Webster,  present  lessee      .        .        .1844-66 


PRINCE'S,  LATE   ST.  JAMES'S. 

This  theatre  was  built  'by,  and  opened  under 

the  management  of,  Mr.  Braham    .    Dec.  14,  1835 
German    operas    performed    here    under    the 

management  of  Mr.  Bunn 1840 

Mr.  Mitchell's  tenure  ;  performance  of  French 

plays Jan.  22,  1844 

German  plays 1852 

Mrs.  Seymour's  tenure         .        .        .0^.22,1854-5 

French  plays 1857 

Neapolitan  Buffo-opera       ....  Nov.     „ 

Italian  plays 1858 

French  opera Jan.  1859 

French  plays     .        .  .        .        .     May,    ,, 

English    comedy,   under    Mr.   F.    Chatterton, 

manager Oct.    ,, 

French  plays May  28,  1860 

English  plays Aug.  12,     ,, 

Mr.  Wigan,  manager 1860-2 

French  plays May  20,  1861 


PRINCESS'S  THEATRE,  OXFORD  STREET. 

First  opened 1840 

Sold  for  16,400^ Sept.  9,  1841 


Mr.  Bartley's  farewell  hero         .        .    Dec.  18,  1852 
Mr.  Charles  Kean's  management,  1850  ;  closed, 

Aug.  29,  1859 

Mr.  A.  Harris's  management ;  opened,  Sept.  29,     , , 
Zouave  Crimean  company        .        .     .  July  23,  1860 
Mr.  Fechter  appears  (as  Hamlet)  .       March  20,  1861 

Mr.  Harris,  lessee 1860-1 

Mr.  Liudus,  manager       .        .        .         Oct.  20,   1862 
Mr.  G.  Vining,  lessee  and  manager    .    May,  1863-66 


OLYMPIC. 

Erected  by  the  late  Mr.  Astley,   and  opened 

with  horsemanship  ....  Sept.  18,  1806 
Here  the  celebrated  Elliston  (1813),  and  after- 
wards Madame  Vestris,  had  managements  ; 

the  latter  until 1839 

Mr.  George  Wild's  tenure 1840 

Miss  Davenport's  tenui'e    .        .        .     Nov.  11,  1844 

Mr.  Watts's  management 1848 

The  theatre  destroyed  by  fire    .        .  March  29,  1849 
Rebuilt  and  opened — Mr.  Watts  resumes  his 

management        ....         Dec.  26,     ,, 
Mr.  William  Farren's  management    .        .        .  1850 
Lessee  and  manager,  Mr.  A.  Wigan  .   Oct.  17,  1853-7 
Messrs.  Robson  and  Embden's  management, 

Aug.  1857-62 
Mr.  Horace  Wigan,  manager.  Nov.  1864 — June,  1865 


STRAND    THEATRE. 

First  opened— Mr.  Rayner  and  Mrs.  Waylett    .  1831 

Mr.  William  F  arren's  management        .        .     .  1849 

Lessee,  Mr.  F.  Allcroft ;  manager,  Mr.  T.  Payne  1855 
Lessee,  Miss  Swanborough .        .        .        .       1858-61 

Mr.  Swanborough,  sen.    ....     Dec.  1862 

Mrs.  Swanborough        .        .  June,  1865 — Jan.  1866 


ASTLEY'S  AMPHITHEATRE. 

Built  by  Philip  Astley,  and  opened   .        .         .  1773 
Destroyed    by    fire,  with  numerous  adjacent 

houses Sept.  17,  1794 

Rebuilt .1795 

Burnt  again,  with  forty  houses  .        .      Sept.  i,  1803 

Ducrow's  management 1825 

Again  destroyed  by  fire  .  .  .  June  8,  1841 
Rebuilt  and  reopened  by  Mr.  Batty  .  April  17,  1843 
Lessee  and  manager,  Mr.  W.  Cooke  .  1855-60 
Mr.  W.  Cooke's  farewell  benefit  .  Jan.  30,  1860 
A  man  killed  by  a  lion  ....  Jan  7,  1861 
Opened  by  Mr.  Batty  .  .  .  Dec.  6,  ,, 
Opened  by  Mr.  Boucicault,  as  the  THEATRE 

ROYAL,  WESTMINSTER        .        .        .  Dec.  26,  1862 
Horsemanship  and  opera  (under    Mr.    E.    T. 

Smith)  exhibiting  in  .        .        .        .      June,  1865 


CIRCUS,  NOW  SURREY  THEATRE. 

[Originally  devoted    to  equestrian    exercises, 

under  Mr.  Hughes]  ....  Nov.  4,  1782 
Opened  for  performances  .  .  Nov.  4,  1783 
Destroyed  by  fire  .  .  .  .  Aug.  12,  1805 
Mr.  Elliston's  management  ....  1809 
Mr.  Elliston  again  ....  June  4,  1827 

Mr.  Davidge's  tenure 1833 

Mr.   Shepherd  and  Mr.  Anderson,    managers, 

Sept.  12,  1863-5 
Destroyed  by  fire,  Jan.  31 ;  rebuilt  and  opened, 

Dec.  26,  1865 

COBURG,  NOW  VICTORIA. 

[The  erection  was  commenced  under  the 
patronage  of  the  late  princess  Charlotte  and 
the  prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  .  .  1816 

The  house  was  opened 1818 


THE 


713 


THE 


THEATRES,  continued. 

Messrs.  Egerton  and  Abbott  had  the  manage- 
ment in     l833 

Mr.  Osbaldiston's  tenure 1840 

Alarm  of  tire,  sixteen  persons  killed  .  Dec.  27,  1858 


SADLER'S  WELLS. 

Opened  as  an  orchestra 1683 

Present  house  opened 1765 

Eighteen  persons  trampled  to  death  on  a  false 

alarm  of  fire Oct.  15,  1807 

Management  of  Mrs.  Warner  and  Mr.  Phelps, 

May  20,  1844-59 

Management  of  Mr.  Joseph  .  March  25,  1861 
Re-opened  by  Mr.  Phelps  .  .  Sept.  7,  „ 
Lessee,  Miss  C.  Lucette  .  .  .  Sept.  27,  1862 
Miss  Mariott,  manager,  Septs,  1863 -May  20,  1864 
Miss  C.  Lucette,  for  opera  .  .  May  22,  1865 
Miss  Mariott,  legitimate  drama  .  .  Oct.  „ 


OTHER  THEATRES. 


1828 
1850 


Queen's  Theatre,  Tottenham-court-road    . 
Garrick  Theatre,  Goodmaii's-fields 

Bowery  Theatre,  Lambeth 

City  Theatre,  Norton-Folgate         .        .        .     .  1837 

Miss  Kelly's  Theatre 1840 

Marylebone,  opened 1842 

Pavilion  Theatre  burnt        .        .        .    Feb.  23,  1856 
New  Royalty  (Soho)        .        .        .        Aug.  31,  1863 


DUBLIN  THEATRES. 

Werburg-street,  commenced       .        .        .        .  1635 

Orange-street,  now  Smock-alley    ....  1662 

An ngier- street  (  Victor) 1728 

Ditto,  management  of  Mr.  Hitchcock    .         .     .  1733 

Crow-street  Music-hall 1731 

Rainsford-strect  Theatre 1732 

Smock-alley  Theatre,  rebuilt       ....  1735 

Fisharable-street  Music-hall 1741 

Capel-street  Theatre 1745 

Crow-street,  Theatre  Royal 1758 

Ditto,  Mr.  Daly's  patent 1786 

Ditto,  Mr.  Fred.  Edw.  Jones's  patent    .        .     .  1798 
Peter-street,  Theatre  Royal         .        .        .         .1789 

Hawkin's-street,  Theatre  Royal    .         .         .     .  1821 

Ditto,  Mr.  Abbott,  lessee 1824 

Ditto,  Mr.  Bunn,  lessee          ^        .        .        .     .  1827 

Ditto,  Mr.  Calcraft,  lessee 1830 

Queen's  Theatre,  Brunswick-street        .        .     .  1844 


EDINBURGH  THEATRES. 

Theatre  of  Music 1672 

Allan  Ramsay's 1736 

Theatre,  Shakspeare-square         .  .        .  1769 

The  Caledonian  Theatre 1822 

Adelphi  Theatre  burnt  down      .        .     May  24,  1853 
Royal  Theatre  burnt  down  (several  lives  lost), 

Jan.  13,  1865 

FIRST   OR  LAST  APPEARANCES. 

Quin's  first  appearance 1716 

Macklin  at  Lincoln's-inn-fields       .        .        .     .  1725 
Garrick's  at  Goodman's-fields,  as  Richard  III., 

Oct.  19,  1741 
Miss  Farren  (afterwards  countess  of   Derby) 

first  appears  at  Liverpool         ....  1773 

Garrick's  last  appearance        .        .        June  10,  1776 
Mrs.  Robinson,  Perdila :  her  last  appearance, 

Dec.  24,  1779 


Braharn's    first   appearance  at    the    Royalty, 

April  20,  1787 
Madame     Storace ;    her    first    appearance    in 

London Nov.  24,  1789 

Incledon's  first  appearance  .  .         .  1 790 

Miss  Mellon,   her    first    appearance  as    Lydia, 

Languish Jan.  31,  1795 

Listen's  first  appearance  in  London  .  June  i,  1805 
Romeo  Coates  appears  as  Lothario  April  10,  1811 
Mrs.  Jordan's  last  appearance,  as  Lady  Teazle, 

June  i,  1814 
Mr.   Macready's  first   appearance  at  Bath,   as 

Jtomeo        ......      Dec.  29,     ,, 

Booth's  first  appearance  .        .        Feb.  12,  1817 

W.  Farreu's  first  appearance        ....  1818 

Munden's  last  appearance  .  .  May  31,  1824 
Fanny  Kemble's  first  appearance  .  Oct.  5,  1829 

Edmund  Kean's  farewell 1833 

Liston's  last  appearance  .  .  .  May  31,  1838 
Adelaide  Kemble's  first  appearance  Nov.  2,  1841 
Jenny  Lind  s  first  appearance  .  .  May  4,  1847 
Mrs.  Glover's  farewell  .  .  .  July  12,  1850 
Mr.  Bartley's  farewell  .  .  .  Dec.  18,  1852 

Mr.  W.  Farren's  farewell 1855 

Clara  Novello's  farewell  .  .  .  Nov.  21,  1860 
Miss  Bateman  appears  as  Leah  .  .  Oct.  i,  1863 
Her  farewell  at' H.M.'s  theatre  .  Dec.  22,  1865 


MEMORANDA. 

David  Garrick  died 

Charles  Macklin  died 

Mr.  Palmer  died  on  the  stage  at  Liverpool, 

Aug.  2, 

Bannister  retired  from  the  stage 

John  P.  Kemble  died 

Talma  died  in  Paris 

Weber  came  to  London  .        .        .      Feb. 

The  Brunswick  theatre  fell,  owing  to  the  weight 
of  a  newly-erected  roof,  and  numbers  of  per- 
sons were  wounded  and  some  killed,  Feb.  29, 

Sarah  Siddons  died 

Edmund  Kean  died 

Madame  Malibfan  died  at  Manchester,  Sept.  23, 

Paganini  died May  29, 

Power  lost  in  the  President  steamer,  about 

March  13, 

Elton  lost  in  the  Pegasus 

Theatres'  Registry  Act  passed 

Madlle.  Mars  died  at  Paris  . 

Madame  Catalini  died  at  Paris 

Alexander  Lee  died 

Mrs.  Warner  died      . 

C.  Kemble  died      .... 

John  Braham  died    . 

Madame  Vestris  died    . 

Madlle.  Rachel  died 

Mrs.  Nisbett  (lady  Boothby)  died 

Louis  Lablache  (buffo  singer)  died 

John  Pritt  Harley  died      . 

Flexmore,  celebrated  clown,  died 

Mrs.  Bates  died 

Alfred  Burin  died 

William  Farren  died 

Mr.  Vandenhoff  died    . 

M.  Tree  (Mrs.  Bradshaw)  died 

Subscription  testimonial  (value  2000?.)  pre- 
sented to  C.  J.  Kean :  Mr.  Gladstone  in  the 
chair March  22, 

Sheridan  Knowles  died  .        .        .         Nov.  30, 

Mrs.  Wood  (once  Miss  Paton)  died     .     July 

Mr.  F.  Robson.  died . 

Madame  Pasta  died,  aged  66 


July  19, 

A\lg.   22, 

March  23, 
June  13, 
.      Oct.  9, 
Sept.  5, 
.     Nov.  5, 
Feb.  17, 
.     Aug.  8, 
Jan.  4, 
,     Jan.  1 6, 
.  Jan.  23, 
Aug.  22, 
.  Aug.  20, 
Oct.  30, 
.   Dec.  20, 
Sept.  25, 
.       Oct.  4, 
Feb. 


Aug.  ii, 
April  i, 


1779 
1797 

1798 
1815 
1823 
1826 


1828 
1831 
1833 
1836 
1840 

1841 
1843 

1847 
1849 
1851 
1854 

1856 
1858 


1860 

1861 
1862 


THEATRICAL  FUNDS.  The  Theatrical  fund  of  Covent  Garden  was  established  in 
1765;  that  of  Drury  Lane  in  1776.  They  grant  pensions  to  their  members  and  their  families. 
The  General  Theatrical  fund  was  established  in  1839. 


THE  714  THE 

THEBES  or  LUXOR,  in  Egypt,  called  also  Hecatompylos  on  account  of  its  hundred  gates, 
and  Diospolis,  as  being  sacred  to  Jupiter.  In  the  time  of  its  splendour,  it  extended  above 
thirty- three  miles,  and  upon  any  emergency  could  send  into  the  field,  by  each  of  its  hundred 
gates,  20,000  fighting  men  and  200  chariots.  Thebes  was  ruined  by  Cambyses,  king  of 
Persia,  521  B.C.,  and  few  traces  of  it  were  seen  in  the  age  of  Juvenal.  Plutarch.  THEBES 
(the  capital  of  the  country  successively  called  Aonia,  Messapia,  Ogygia,  Hyantis,  and 
Bceotia)  was  called  Cadmeis,  from  Cadmus,  its  founder,  1493  B.C.  It  became  a  republic 
about  1 1 20  B.C.,  and  flourished  under  Epaminondas  378 — 3626.0.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Romans,  198  A.D.  See  Bceotia  and  Greece. 

THEFT,  This  offence  was  punished  by  heavy  fines  among  the  Jews.  By  death  at 
Athens,  by  the  laws  of  Draco.  See  Draco,  The  Anglo-Saxons  nominally  punished  theft 
with  death,  if  above  I2d.  value  ;  but  the  criminal  could  redeem  his  life  by  a  ransom.  In 
the  9th  of  Henry  I.  this  power  of  redemption  was  taken  away,  1108.  The  punishment  of 
theft  was  very  severe  in  England,  till  mitigated  by  Peel's  acts,  9  &  10  Geo.  IV.  1829.  The 
laws  respecting  theft  were  consolidated  in  1862. 

THEISTS  (Theos,  God).     A  kind  of  deists  about  1660.     Dean  Martin. 

THELLUSSON'S  WILL.  One  of  the  most  singular  testamentary  documents  ever 
executed.  Mr.  Peter  Isaac  Thellusson,  an  affluent  London  merchant,  left  100,000?.  to  his 
widow  and  children  ;  and  the  remainder,  amounting  to  more  than  600,000?.,  he  left  to 
trustees,  to  accumulate  during  the  lives  of  his  three  sons,  and  the  lives  of  their  sons  ;  then 
the  estates,  directed  to  be  purchased  with  the  produce  of  the  accumulating  fund,  were  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  eldest  lineal  male  descendant  of  his  three  sons,  with  the  benefit  of  survivor- 
ship. Should  no  heir  then  exist,  the  whole  was  to  be  applied,  by  the  agency  of  the  sinking- 
fund,  to  the  discharge  of  the  national  debt.  Mr.  Thellusson  died  on  July  21,  1797.  His 
will  incurred  much  public  censure,*  and  was  contested  by  the  heirs-at-law,  but  finally 
established  by  a  decision  of  the  house  of  lords,  June  25,  1805.  The  last  surviving  grandson 
died  in  Feb.  1856.  A  dispute  then  arose  Avhether  the  eldest  male  descendants  or  the 
descendants  of  the  eldest  son  should  inherit  the  property.  The  question  was  decided  on 
appeal  to  the  house  of  lords  (June  9,  1859),  in  favour  of  the  latter,  lord  Rendlesham,  and 
Charles  S.  Thellusson,  confirming  the  decision  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  1858.  In 
consequence  of  legal  expenses  the  property  is  said  not  to  exceed  greatly  its  .value  in  the 
testator's  lifetime. 

THEOLOGY  (from  the  Greek  Theos,  God),  the  science  which  treats  of  the  nature  and 
attributes  of  God,  of  his  relations  to  man,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  they  may  be 
discovered.  It  is  generally  divided  into  two  heads.  r.  Inspired  (including  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  their  interpretation,  &c.).  2.  Natural;  which  lord  Bacon  calls  the  first  part 
of  Philosophy. — Butler's  Analogy  of  Religion  (1736)  and  Paley's  Natural  Theology  (1802) 
are  eminent  books  on  the  latter  subject. — The  "  Summa  Totius  Theologise  "  by  Thomas 
Aquinas  (born  about  1224),  a  standard  Roman  Catholic  work,  was  printed  with  commen- 
taries, &c.,  in  1596. 

THEOPHILANTHROPISTS  (lovers  of  God  and  man),  a  sect  formed  in  France  in  1796; 
was  headed  by  one  of  the  five  directors,  Lepaux,  in  1797,  and  broke  up  in  1802. 

THERMIDOR  REVOLUTION.  On  the  9th  Thermidor  of  the  2nd  year  (July  27, 
1794),  the  Convention  deposed  Robespierre,  and  on  the  next  day  he  and  twenty-two  of  his 
partisans  were  executed. 

THERMO-ELECTRICITY.     See  under  Electricity  and  Heat. 

THERMOMETER.  The  invention,  of  this  instrument  is  ascribed  to  several  scientific 
persons,  all  about  the  same  time.  To  Galileo, before  1597.  Libri.  Invented  by  Drebbel  of 
Alcmaer,  1609.  Boerliaave.  Invented  by  Paulo  Sarpi,  1609.  Fulgenlio.  Invented  by 
Sanctorio  in  1610.  Borelli.  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  was  invented  about  1726  ;  Reaumur's 
and  Celsius's  (the  latter  now  termed  Centigrade)  soon  after.  Fahrenheit's  scale  is  usually 
employed  in  England  and  Reaumur's  and  the  Centigrade  on  the  continent.  Freezing  point : 
Fah.  32°  ;  R.  o°  ;  (7.  o°.  Boiling  point  :  Fall.  212°,  R.  80,  C.  100.  The  mode  of  con- 
struction by  substituting  quicksilver  for  spirits  was  invented  some  years  subsequently. 
Halley  proposed  it  in  1697.  Mr.  L.  M.  Casella  issued  a  minimum  thermometer  in  Sept. 
1 86 1.  It  registers  degrees  of  cold  by  means  of  mercury  ;  hitherto  deemed  impossible. 

*  In  1800  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed,  preventing  testators  devising  their  property  for  purposes  of 
accumulation  for  longer  than  20  years  after  their  death. 


THE  715  THO 

THERMOPYLAE,  in  Doris  N.  Greece.  Leonidas,  at  the  head  of  300  Spartans  and  700 
Thespians,  at  the  defile  of  Thermopylae,  withstood  the  whole  force  of  the  Persians  during 
three  days,  Aug.  7,  8,  9,  480  B.C.,  when  Ephialtes,  a  Trachinian,  perfidiously  leading  the 
enemy  by  a  secret  path  up  the  mountains,  brought  them  to  the  rear  of  the  Greeks,  who,  thus 
placed  between  two  assailants,  perished  gloriously  on  heaps  of  their  slaughtered  foes.  One 
Greek  only  returned  home,  and  he  was  received  with  reproaches  for  having  fled.  Here 
Antiochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria,  was  defeated  by  the  Romans,  191  B.C. 

THESSALONICA  (now  Salonica),  a  city  in  Macedonia.  Here  Paul  preached,  53  ;  and  to 
the  church  here  he  addressed  two  epistles  in  54.  In  consequence  of  seditions,  a  frightful 
massacre  of  the  inhabitants  took  place  in  390,  by  order  of  the  emperor  Theodosius.  Thes- 
salonica  partook  of  the  changes  of  the  Eastern  empire.  It  was  sold  to  the  Venetians  by  the 
emperor  Andronicus  in  1425  ;  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1430  ;  burnt,  July  u,  1856. 

THESSALY  (N.  Greece),  the  seat  of  many  of  the  adventures  described  by  the  poets. 
The  first  king  of  whom  we  have  any  certain  knowledge  was  Hellen,  son  of  Deucalion,  from 
whom  his  subjects  were  called  Hellenists,  a  name  afterwards  extended  to  all  Greeks.  From 
Thessaly  came  the  Achceans,  the  yEtoliaus,  the  Dorians,  the  Hellenists,  &c.  The  two  most 
remarkable  events  in  the  early  history  of  this  country  are  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  1548  B.C., 
and  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  1263  B.C.  See  them  severally.  Thessaly  was  conquered 
by  the  great  Philip,  352  B.C.,  and  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  Macedon.  It  is  now  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Greece. 

THETFORD  (Norfolk),  the  Roman  Sitomagus,  was  a  bishopric  from  1070  to  1091,  when 
the  see  was  removed  to  Norwich. 

THIMBLES  are  said  to  have  been  found  at  Herculaneum.— The  art  of  making  them  was 
brought  to  England  by  John  Lofting,  a  mechanic,  from  Holland,  who  set  np  a  workshop  at 
Islington,  near  London,  and  practised  the  manufacture  in  various  metals  with  profit  and 
success,  about  1695.  Anderson. 

THIRTY-NINE  ARTICLES.     See  Articles. 

THIRTY  TYRANTS,  a  term  applied  to  the  governors  of  Athens,  in  404  B.C.,  who  were 
expelled  by  Thrasybulus  ;  and  also  to  the  aspirants  to  the  imperial  throne  of  Rome  during 
the  reigns  of  Gallienus  and  Aurelian,  A.D.  259—274. 

THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR,  in  Germany,  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants.  It 
began  with  the  latter  in  Bohemia  in  1618,  and  ended  with  the  peace  of  "Westphalia  in  1648. 
It  is  renowned  for  the  victories  of  Wallenstein  and  Gustavus  Adolphus,  of  Sweden. 

THISTLE,*  ORDER  OF  THE,  SCOTLAND,  founded  by  James  Y.  1540.  It  consisted 
originally  of  himself,  as  sovereign,  and  twelve  knights,  in  imitation  of  Christ  and  his  twelve 
apostles.  In  1542,  James  died,  and  the  order  was  discontinued,  about  the  time  of  the 
Reformation.  The  order  was  renewed  by  James  VII.  of  Scotland  and  II.  of  England,  by 
making  eight  knights,  JVIay  29,  1687;  increased  to  twelve  by  queen  Anne  in  1703  ;  to 
sixteen  by  George  IV.  in  1827. 

THE  ORIGINAL  KNIGHTS  OP   1687. 


George,  duke  of  Gordon. 
John,  marquess  of  Athol. 

James,  earl  of  Arran,  afterwards  duke  of  Hamilton ; 
killed  in  a  duel,  1712. 


James,  earl  of  Perth  ;  attainted. 
Kenneth,  earl  of  Seaforth  :  attainted. 
George,  earl  of  Dumbarton. 
John,  earl  of  Melford ;  attainted. 


Alexander,  earl  of  Moray. 

THISTLEWOOD'S  CONSPIRACY.     See  Cato-strcet  Conspiracy. 

THOMAS'S  HOSPITAL,  ST.  (Southwark),  was  founded  as  an  almshouse  by  Richard, 
prior  of  Bermondsey,  in  1213,  and  surrendered  to  Henry  VIII.  in  1538.  In  1551  the  mayor 
and  citizens  of  London,  having  purchased  of  Edward  VI.  the  manor  of  Southwark,  including 
this  hospital,  repaired  and  enlarged  it,  and  admitted  into  it  260  poor,  sick,  and  helpless 
objects  ;  upon  which  the  king,  in  1553,  incorporated  it,  together  with  Bethlehem,  St. 
Bartholomew's,  &c.  It  was  built  in  1693.  In  1862,  the  site  was  sold  to  the  railway  com- 
pany, and  the  patients  were  removed  to  the  Surrey  music»hall.  A  new  hospital  is  to  be 
erected  near  the  Surrey  side  of  Westminster  bridge. 

*  Some  Scottish  historians  make  the  origin  of  this  order  very  ancient.  The  abbot  Justinian  says  it 
was  [instituted  by  Achaius  I.  of  Scotland,  809,  when  that  monarch  made  an  alliance  with  Charlemagne, 
and  then  took  for  his  device  the  thistle.  It  is  stated  that  king  Hungus,  the  Pict,  had  a  dream,  in  which 
St.  Andrew  made  a  midnight  visit,  and  promised  him  a  sure  victory  over  his  foes,  the  Northumbrians  ;  and 
that  the  next  day  St.  Andrew's  Cross  appeared  in  the  air,  and  the  Northumbrians  were  defeated.  On  this 
story,  it  is  said,  Achaius  framed  the  order  more  than  700  years  before  James  V.  revived  it. 


THO  716  THU 

THOMITES  (or  TOMITES),  a  body  of  enthusiasts  who  assembled  at  Broughtou,  near 
Canterbury.  A  Cornish  publican  named  Thorn,  or  Tom  (religiously  insane),  assumed  the 
name  of  sir  W.  Courtenay,  knight  of  Malta  and  king  of  Jerusalem,  and  incited  the  rabble 
against  the  Poor  Law  Act.  On  May  31,  1838,  a  farmer  of  the  neighbourhood,  whose  servant 
had  joined  the  crowd  which  attended  Thorn,  sent  a  constable  to  fetch  him  back  ;  but  on  his 
arrival  on  the  ground  he  was  shot  dead  by  Thorn.  The  military  were  then  called  out,  and 
lieut.  Bennett  proceeded  to  take  the  murderer  into  custody  ;  but  Thorn  advanced,  and, 
firing  a  pistol,  killed  the  lieutenant  on  the  spot.  One  of  the  soldiers  fired  at  Thorn,  and 
laid  him  dead  by  the  side  of  lieut.  Bennett.  The  people  then  attacked  the  military,  who 
were  compelled  to  fire  ;  and  several  persons  were  killed  before  the  mob  dispersed.  Many 
considered  Thorn  a  saint. 

THORACIC  DUCT,  discovered  first  in  a  horse  by  Eustachius,  about  1563  ;  in  the  human 
body,  by  01.  Rudbec,  a  Swedish  anatomist.  Thomas  Bartholine,  of  Copenhagen,  and 
Dr.  Joliffe,  of  England,  also  discovered  it  about  1654.  See  Lacteals. 

THORINUM,  a  very  rare  metal  (a  heavy  gray  powder),  discovered  by  Berzelius  in  1828. 

THORIST  (on  the  Vistula,  Poland)  was  founded  by  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  1231.  Many 
Protestants  were  slain  here  (after  a  religious  riot)  at  the  instigation  of  the  Jesuits  in  1724. 

THRACE  (now  Roumelia,  in  Turkey)  derived  its  name  from  Thrax,  the  son  of  Mars. 
Aspin.  Thraces,  the  people,  were  descendants  of  Tiras,  son  of  Japhet,  and  hence  their 
name.  They  were  a  warlike  people,  and  therefore  Mars  was  said  to  have  been  born  and  to 
have  his  residence  among  them.  Euripides.  Thrace  was  conquered  by  Philip  and 
Alexander,  and  annexed  to  the  Macedonian  empire  about  335  B.C.  ;  and  it  so  remained  till 
the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans,  168  B.C.  On  the  ruins  of  Byzantium,  the 
capital  of  Thrace,  Constantinople  was  built.  The  Turks  under  Mahomet  II.  took  the 
country  A.D.  1453.  Priestley. 

THRASHING-MACHINES.  The  flail  was  the  only  instrument  formerly  in  use  for 
thrashing  corn.  The  Romans  used  a  machine  called  the  tribulum,  a  sledge  loaded  with 
stones  or  iron,  drawn  over  the  corn- sheaves  by  horses.  The  first  machine  attempted  in 
modern  times  was  invented  by  Michael  Menzies,  at  Edinburgh,  about  1732 ;  Andrew 
Meikle  invented  a  machine  in  1776.  Many  improvements  have  been  since  made. 

THRASYMENE  (N.  Italy).  A  most  bloody  engagement  took  place  here  between  the 
Carthaginians  under  Hannibal  and  the  Romans  under  Flaminius,  217  B.C.  No  less  than 
15,000  Romans  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  10,000  taken  prisoners  ;  or,  accord- 
ing to  Livy,  6000;  or  Polybius,  15,000.  The  loss  of  Hannibal  was  about  1500  men. 
About  10,000  Romans  made  their  escape,  all  covered  with  wounds.  Livy;  Polybius.  On 
the  same  day  an  earthquake  occurred  which  desolated  several  cities  in  Italy. 

THREATENING  LETTERS.  Sending  letters,  whether  anonymously  written,  or  with 
a  fictitious  name,  demanding  money,  or  threatening  to  kill  a  person  or  fire  his  house,  was 
made  punishable  as  a  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy,  in  1723,  1730.  Persons  extorting 
money  by  threatening  to  accuse  others  of  such  offences  as  are  siibjected  to  death,  or  other 
infamous  punishments,  were  to  be  adjudged  imprisonment,  whipping,  or  transportation,  by 
30  Geo.  II.  1756 ;  and  other  acts,  the  latest  10  &  n  Viet.  c.  66,  1847. 

THUMB-SCREW,  an  inhuman  instrument,  commonly  used  in  the  first  stages  of  torture 
by  the  Spanish  inquisition.  It  was  in  use  in  England  also.  The  rev.  Win.  Carstairs  was 
the  last  who  suffered  by  it  before  the  privy  council,  to  make  him  divulge  secrets  entrusted 
to  him,  which  he  firmly  resisted.  After  the  revolution  in  1688,  the  thumb-screw  was 
presented  to  him  by  the  council.  King  William  expressed  a  desire  to  see  it,  and  tried  it  on, 
bidding  the  doctor  to  turn  the  screw  ;  but  at  the  third  turn  he  cried  out,  "Hold ;  holdf 
doctor  ;  another  turn  would  make  me  confess  anything." 

THUNDERING  LEGION.  During  a  contest  with  the  invading  Marcomanni,  the 
prayers  of  some  Christians  in  a  Roman  legion  are  said  to  have  been  followed  by  a  storm  of 
thunder,  lightning,  and  rain,  which  tended  greatly  to  discomfit  the  enemy.  Hence  the 
legion  received  the  name  above,  X.D.  174. 

THUR1NGIA,  an  early  Gothic  kingdom  in  central  Germany,  was  overrun  by  Attila  and 
the  Huns,  451  ;  the  last  king,  Hermanfried,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Thierry,  king  of  the 
Franks,  who  annexed  it  to  his  dominions.  It  was  made  an  independent  duchy,  674  ;  a 
landgraviate,  880  ;  given  to  Otho  of  Saxony,  909,  when  the  landgrave  Burchardt  was  slain  ; 
it  was  separated  from  Saxony,  1180  j  but  reunited  to  it  in  1548. 


THU  717  TIM 

THURLES  (S.  Ireland).  Here  was  held  a  synod  of  the  Koman  Catholic  archbishops, 
bishops,  inferior  clergy,  and  religions  orders,  under  the  direction  of  archbishop  Cullen,  the 
Roman  Catholic  primate,  Aug.  22,  1850.  It  condemned  the  Queen's  Colleges,  and  recom- 
mended the  foundation  of  a  Roman  Catholic  ^university,  Sept.  10,  following.  The  acts 
were  forwarded  to  Rome  for  approval  of  the  pope,  Pius  IX. 

THUROT'S  INVASION.  Thurot,  an  Irish  commodore  in  the  French  service,  by  his 
courage  and  daring  became  a  terror  to^all  the  merchant-ships  of  this  kingdom.  He  had  the 
command  of  a  small  armament,  and  landed  1000  men  at  Carrickfergus  in  Ireland,  and 
plundered  the  town.  He  reached  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  was  overtaken  by  captain  Elliot, 
with  three  frigates,  who  engaged  his  little  squadron,  which  was  taken,  and  the  commodore 
killed,  Feb.  28,  1760.  Thurot' s  true  name  was  O'Farrell ;  his  grandfather  had  followed  the 
fortunes  of  James  II.  ;  but  his  mother  being  of  a  family  of  some  dignity  in  France,  he 
assumed  her  name.  Burns. 

THURSDAY,  the  fifth  day  of  the  week,  derived  from  Thor,  a  deified  hero  worshipped  by 
the  northern  nations,  particularly  by  the  Scandinavians  and  Celts.  His  authority  was  said  to 
extend  over  the  winds,  seasons,  thunder  and  lightning,  &c.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
most  valiant  of  the  sons  of  Odin.  This  day  still  retains  his  name  in  the  Danish,  Swedish, 
and  Low-Dutch  languages,  as  well  as  in  the  English.  Thursday  is  in  Latin  dies  Jovis,  or 
Jupiter's  day. 

TIARA,  the  triple  crown  of  the  pope,  indicative  of  his  civil  rank,  as  the  keys  are  of  his 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  The  ancient  tiara  was  a  high  round  cap.  Pope  Damasus  II.  first 
caused  himself  to  be  crowned  with  a  tiara,  1048.  John  XX.  encompassed  the  tiara  with  a 
crown,  &76.  Boniface  VIII.  added  a  second,  1295  :  and  Benedict  XII.  formed  the  tiara 
about  1334. 

TICINUS,  a  river,  N.  Italy.     Here  Hannibal  defeated  the  Romans,  217  B.C. 
TICKETS  OF  LEAVE.     See  Transportation  and  Crime.  • 

TICONDEROGA  (N.  America).  The  French  fortress  here  was  unsuccessfully  besieged 
by  Abercromby  in  July,  1758;  taken  July  26,  1759.  The  Americans  took  it  in  1775,  but 
retired  from  it  in  July,  1777.  The  British  retired  from  it  shortly  after. 

TIDES.  Homer  is  the  earliest  profane  author  who  speaks  of  the  tides.  Posidonius  of 
Apamea  accounted  for  the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the  moon,  about  79  B.  c.  ;  and  Caesar 
speaks  of  them  in  his  fourth  book  of  the  Gallic  war.  The  theory  of  the  tides  was  first 
satisfactorily  explained  by  Kepler,  1598  ;  but  the  honour  of  a  complete  explanation  of  them 
was  reserved  for  sir  Isaac  Newton,  about  1683. 

TIEN-TS1N.     See  China,  1858. 

TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO.     See  Missions,  note. 

TIGRIS,  a  river  forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  Mesopotamia,  celebrated  for  the  cities 
founded  on  its  banks  :— Nineveh,  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon,  and  Bagdad.  It  was  explored  by  an 
English  steamer  in  1838. 

TILBURY  (Essex).  The  camp  formed  here  in  1588  to  resist  the  Spanish  invasion  was 
visited  by  queen  Elizabeth. 

TILES  were  originally  flat  and  square,  and  afterwards  parallelogramic,  &c.  First  made 
in  England  about  1246.  They  were  taxed  in  1784.  The  number  of  tiles  taxed  in  England 
in  1820  was  81,924,626  ;  and  in  1830,  97,318,264.  The  tax  was  discontinued  as  discouraging 
house-building  and  interfering  with  the  comfort  of  the  people,  in  1833. 

TILSIT  (on  the  river  Niemen),  where  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  France  and  Russia. 
Napoleon  restored  to  the  Prussian  monarch  one-half  of  his  territories,  and  Russia  recognised 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  elevation  of  Napoleon's  three  brothers,  Joseph, 
Louis,  and  Jerome,  to  the  thrones  of  Naples,  Holland,  and  Westphalia.  Signed  July  7, 
1807,  and  ratified  July  19  following. 

TILTS.     See  Tournaments. 

TIMBER,  The  annual  demand  of  timber  for  the  royal  navy,  in  war,  was  60,000  loads, 
or  40,000  full-grown  trees,  a  ton  each,  of  which  thirty-five  will  stand  on  an  acre  ;  in  peace, 
32,000  tons,  or  48,000  loads.  A  seventy-four  gun  ship  consumed  3,000  loads,  or  2,000  tons 
of  trees,  the  produce  of  fifty-seven  acres  in  a  century.  Hence  the  whole  navy  consumed 
102,600  acres,  and  1026  per  annum.  Allnut.  Iron  is  now  much  used  in  preference  to 


TIM 


718 


TIN 


timber.     In  1843  we  imported  1,317,645  loads  of  timber  (cut  and  uncut)  ;  in  1857,  2,495,964 
loads  ;  in  1864,  3,366,478  loads.     The  duties  on  timber  were  modified  in  1851. 

TIMBER  BENDING.  Apparatus  was  invented  for  this  purpose  by  Mr.  T.  Blancliard, 
of  Boston,  U.S.,  for  which  a  medal  was  awarded  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855.  A 
company  was  formed  for  its  application  in  this  country  in  1856. 

TIME.  Our  ideas  in  regard  to  time  have  been  of  late  greatly  extended.  The  distant 
planet  Neptune,  discovered  by  Le  Yerrier  and  Adams  in  1846,  requires  above  900  of  our 
years  for  a  single  revolution  ;  and  the  coal  measures  in  Wales,  a  thickness  of  strata  of  more 
than  twelve  miles,  would  require  for  its  deposition  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  ;  while 
other  formations  could  only  be  estimated  in  millions  of  years.  Phillips.  See  Clock,  Sun- 
dials, Watches,  &c. 

TIMES  NEWSPAPER.  On  Jan.  13,  1785,  Mr.  John  Walter  published  the  first  number 
of  the  Daily  Universal  Register,  price  2^d.,  printed  on  the  logographic  system  (invented  by 
Henry  Johnson,  a  compositor),  in  which  types  containing  syllables  and  words  were  employed 
instead  of  single  letters. 


On  Jan.  i,  1788,  the  paper  was  named  the  Times, 

In  1803,  when  Mr.  Walter  gave  up  the  paper  to  his 
son,  the  circulation  was  about  1000;  that  of  the 
Morning  Post  being  4500. 

Dr.  Stoddart  (satirised  as  Dr.  Slop  by  Moore  the 
poet)  became  editor  in  1812,  but  five  years  after 
retired  and  set  up  in  opposition  the  New  Times,  an 
unprofitable  speculation.  Thomas  Barnes  became 
next  editor.  He  died  May  7,  1841.  fThe  succeeding 
editors  were  William  F.  A.  Delane,  who  died  in 
1858,  and  John  Thaddeus  Delane  (his  son). 

On  Nov.  28,  1814,  the  Times  was  first  printed  by  steam 
power  (the  invention  of  F.  Konig),  1200  per  hour, 
afterwards  increased  to  2000  and  4000. 

The  powerful  articles  contributed  by  Edward  Stir- 
ling gained  the  paper  the  name  of  the  Thunderer. 

On  Jan.  19,  1829,  the  first  double  number  appeared. 

In  July,  1834,  an  attack  of  Mr.  O'Connellin  the  house 
of  commons  on  the  correctness  of  the  reports  of 
the  debates  in  the  Times  was  signally  defeated. 

Shortly  after  begun  the  convenient  summary  of 
the  debates,  written  in  the  first  instance  by  Mr. 
Horace  Twiss. 

In  1841  the  Times  was  instrumental  in  detecting  and 
exposing  a  scheme  organised  by  a  company,  to 
defraud  by  forgery  all  the  influential  bankers  of 
Europe.  This  brought  on  the  proprietors  an  action 
for  libel  (in  the  case  Bogle  v.  Lawson).  The  jury 
found  the  charge  to  be  true,  giving  a  verdict  of 
one  farthing  damages,  but  the  judges  refused  costs. 
Subscriptions  were  set  on  foot  in  all  parts  of 
Europe  to  reimburse  the  proprietors  for  the 
immense  outlay  in  defending  the  action.  This 
they  firmly  declined  ;  and  the  money  was  expended 
in  establishing  Times  Scholarships  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  at  Christ's  Hospital,  and  other 


schools ;  marble  tablets  also,  commemorating  the 
event,  were  set  up  in  the  Royal  Exchange  and  in 
other  places.  These  were  the  greatest  honours 
ever  conceded  to  a  newspaper. 

In  Oct.  1845,  the  Times  express  was  for  the  first  time 
conveyed  to  India  overland,  by  the  agency  of  lieut. 
Waghorn. 

Of  the  number  of  the  Times  containing  the  life  of 
the  duke  of  Wellington  for  Nov.  19,  1852,  70,000 
were  sold — the  ordinary  number  being  then  36,000 ; 
the  present  circulation  is  stated  to  vary  from 
50,000  to  60,000  (1866). 

In  1854,  the  proprietors  sent  Mr.  W.  H.  Russell  as 
their  special  correspondent  to  the  seat  of  war  in 
the  Crimea ;  in  1857  to  India,  and  in  1861  to  the 
southern  states  of  North  America. 

Times  Fund. — On  the  i2thof  October,  1854,  sir  Robert 
Peel  originated  by  a  letter  in  the  Times  a  subscrip- 
tion for  the  sick  and  wounded  in  the  Crimean  war, 
and  in  less  than  a  fortnight,  15,000?.  were  sent  to 
the  Times'  office  to  be  thus  appropriated.  Mr. 
Macdonald  (the  present  manager)  was  sent  out  by 
the  proprietors  as  special  Commissioner  to  ad- 
minister the  fund,  from  which  large  quantities  of 
food  and  clothing  were  supplied  to  the  sufferers, 
with  inestimable  advantage.  See  Scutari  and 
Nightingale. 

In  Dec.  1858,  the  Times  drew  attention  to  the  state 
of  the  houseless  poor  of  London  ;  and  in  a  few 
days  8oooU.  were  subscribed  for  their  relief. 

In  1851,  13,000,000  copies  were  sold;  in  1857, 
16,100,000;  in  1859,  16,900,000  ;  in  1860,  16,670,000. 

In  1860,  16,400  copies  per  hour  were  printed. 

On  June  21,  1861,  the  Times  consisted  of  24  pages, 
containing  4076  advertisements  (about  1810  it  con- 
tained 150  advertisements). 


TIN.  The  Phoenicians  traded  with  England  for  this  article  for  more  than  noo  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  It  is  said  that  this  trade  first  gave  them  commercial  importance 
in  the  ancient  world.  Under  the  Saxons,  our  tin  mines  appear  to  have  been  neglected  ;  but 
after  the  coming  in  of  the  Normans,  they  produced  considerable  revenues  to  the  earls  of 
Cornwall,  particularly  to  Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III.  A  charter  and  various  immunities 
were  granted  by  Edmund,  earl  Richard's  brother,  who  also  framed  the  Stannary  laws  (which 
see),  laying  a  duty  on  the  tin,  payable  to  the  earls  of  Cornwall.  Edward  III.  confirmed  the 
tinners'  in  their  privileges,  and  erected  Cornwall  into  a  dukedom,  with  which  he  invested  his 
son,  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  1337.  Since  that  time,  the  heirs-apparent  to  the  crown  of 
England,  if  eldest  sons,  have  enjoyed  it  successively.  Tin  mines  were  discovered  in 
Germany,  Avhich  lessened  the  value  of  those  in  England,  till  then  the  only  tin  mines  in 
Europe,  1240.  Anderson.  Discovered  in  Barbary,  1640  ;  in  India,  1740  ;  in  New  Spain, 
1782.  We  export  at  present,  on  an  average,  1500  tons  of  unwrought  tin,  besides  manufac- 
tured tin  and  tin  plates,  of  the  value  of  about  400,000?.  In  1857,  9783  tons,  in  1860, 
10,462  tons,  in  1864,  10, 108  tons  of  metallic  tin  were  procured  from  British  mines.  Of  tin 
plates  and  tin  and  pewter  ware,  we  exported  in  value,  in  1847,  484, 184?.  ;  in  1854,  1,075,531?. ; 
in  1860,  1,500,812;. ;  in  1861,  907,590^. ;  in  1864,  1,264,100*. 


TIN 


TOB 


TINCHEBRAY  (N.  W.  France),  where  a  battle  was  fought  between  Henry  I.  of  England 
and  Robert  duke  of  Normandy.  England  and  Normandy  were  reunited  under  Henry,  on 
the  decease  of  William  Rufus,  who  had  already  possessed  himself  of  Normandy,  though  he 
had  no  other  right  to  that  province  than  by  a  mortgage  from  his  brother  Robert,  at  liis 
setting  out  for  Palestine.  Robert,  on  his  return,  recovered  Normandy  by  an  accommodation 
with  Henry  ;  but  the  two  brothers  having  afterwards  quarrelled,  the  former  was  defeated  by 
the  latter  in  the  battle  of  Tinchebray,  Sept.  28,  1106,  and  Normandy  was  annexed  to  the 
crown  of  England.  Hcnault. 

TITANIUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  by  Gregor  in  menakite,  a  Cornish  mineral,  in  1791, 
and  in  1794  by  Klaproth. 

TITHES,  or  TENTHS,  were  commanded  to  be  given  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  1490  B.C. 
Lev.  xxvii.  30.  Abraham  returning  from  his  victory  over  the  kings  (Gen.  xiv.),  gave  tithes 
of  the  spoil  to  Melchisedek,  king  of  Salem,  priest  of  the  most  high  God  (1913  B.C.).  For  the 


theocracy."  Blackstone.  They  were  established  in  France  by  Charlemagne,  about  800. 
Uenault.  Tenths  were  confirmed  in  the  Lateran  councils,  1215.  Rainailda. — The  pay- 
ment of  tithes  appears  to  have  been  claimed  by  Augustine,  the  first  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  to  have  been  allowed  by  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  under  the  term  "  God's  fee," 
about  600. 


TITHES   IN   ENGLAND. 

The  first  mention  of  them  in  any  English  written 

law,  is  a  constitutional  decree  made  in  a  synod 

strongly  enjoining  tithes,  786. 

Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  gave  unto  the  church  the  tithes 
t  of  all  his  kingdom,  to  expiate  the  death  of  Ethel- 

bert,  king  of  the  East  Angles,  whom  he  had  caused 

to  be  basely  murdered,  794. 
Tithes  were  first  granted  to  the  English  clergy  in  a 

general  assembly  held  by  Ethelwold,  A.D.   844. 

Henry. 
In  1545,  tithes  were  fixed  at  the  rate  of  25.  g<l.  in  the 


pound  on  rent ;  since  then,  many  acts  have  been 

passed  respecting  them. 
The  Tithe  Commutation  act,  passed  Aug.  13.  1836.  It 

was  amended  in  1837,  1840,  and  1846. 
A  rector  is  entitled  to  all  the  tithes  ;  a  vicar  to  a 

small  part  only,  frequently  to  none. 

TITHES  IN   IRELAND. 

Several  acts  relating  to  tithes  have  been  passed  in 
1832,  1838,  1839,  1840,  and  1841,  altering  and  im- 
proving the  tithe  system. 


TITHING.  The  number  or  company  of  ten  men  with  their  families  knit  together  in  a 
society,  all  of  them  being  bound  to  the  king  for  the  peaceable  and  good  behaviour  of  each  of 
their  society  ;  of  these  companies  there  was  one  chief  person,  who,  from  his  office,  was 
called  (toothingman)  tithingmau  ;  but  now  he  is  nothing  but  a  constable,  formerly  called  the 
headborough.  Cowel. 

TITLES,  ROYAL.  Henry  IV.  had  the  title  of  "Grace"  and  "My  liege,"  1399. 
Henry  VI.,  "Excellent  Grace,"  1422.  Edward  IV.,  "Most  High  and  Mighty  Prince," 
1461.  Henry  VII.,  "Highness,"  1485;  Henry  VIII.  the  same  title,  and  sometimes 
"Grace,"  1509  et  seq.  But  these  two  last  were  absorbed  in  the  title  of  "Majesty,"  being 
that  with  which  Francis  I.  of  France  addressed  Henry  at  their  memorable  interview  in  1520. 
See  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Henry  VIII.  was  the  first  and  last  king  who  was  styled 
"Dread  Sovereign."  James  I.  coupled  to  "Majesty"  the  present  "Sacred,"  or  "Most 
Excellent  Majesty."  "Majesty"  was  the  style  of  the  emperors  of  Germany  ;  the  first  king 
to  whom  it  was  given  was  Louis  XI.  of  France,  about  1463. 

TOBACCO,  Nicotiana  tabacum,  received  its  name  from  Tabacco,  a  province  of  Yucatan, 
New  Spain  ;  some  say  from  the  island  of  Tobago,  one  of  the  Caribbees  ;  others  from  Tobasco, 
in  the  gulf  of  Florida.  It  is  said  to  have  been  first  observed  at  St.  Domingo,  1492  ;  and  to 
have  been  used  freely  by  the  Spaniards  in  Yucatan  in  1520.  Tobacco  was  first  brought  to 
England  in  1565,  by  sir  John  Hawkins  ;  but  sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  sir  Francis  Drake  are 
also  mentioned  as  having  first  introduced  it  here,  1586.  It  was  manufactured  only  for 
exportation  for  some  years.  '.Stow's  Chron.  The  Pied  Bull  inn,  at  Islington,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  house  in  England  where  tobacco  was  smoked.  In  1584  a  proclamation  was 
issued  against  it.  The  star-chamber  ordered  the  duties  to  be  65.  lod.  per  pound,  1614. 
Its  cultivation  was  prohibited  in  England  by  Charles  II.,  1684.  Act  laying  a  duty  on 
the  importation  was  passed  1684.  The  cultivation  was  allowed  in  Ireland,  1779.  The 
tax  was  increased  and  put  under  the  excise,  1789.  Anderson;  Ashe.  Various  statutes 
have  passed  relative  to  tobacco.  Act  to  revive  the  act  prohibiting  the  culture  of  tobacco  in 
Ireland  passed  2  Will.  IV.  Aug.  1831.  Act  directing  that  tobacco  grown  in  Ireland  be 
purchased  in  order  to  its  being  destroyed,  March  24,  1832.  The  quantity  consumed  in 


TOB  720  TON 

England  in  1791  was  nine  millions  and  a  half  of  pounds,  and  in  1829  about  fifteen  millions 
of  pounds.  We  imported  in  1850,  35,166,358  Ibs.,  and  1,557,558  Ibs.  manufactured 
(cigars  and  snuff)  ;  in  1855,  36,820,846  Ibs.,  and  8,946,766  Ibs.  manufactured  ;  in  1860, 
48,936,471  Ibs.,  and  12,475,000  Ibs.  manufactured  ;  and  in  1864,  60,092,768  Ibs.,  and 
6,522,408  Ibs.  manufactured.  The  tobacco  duties  were  modified  in  1863. 

TOBAGO  ("West  Indies),  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492  ;  settled  by  the  Dutch,  1642. 
Taken  by  the  English,  1672  ;  retaken,  1674.  In  1748,  it  was  declared  a  neutral  island; 
but  in  1763  it  was  ceded  to  the  English.  Tobago  was  taken  by  the  French  under  De  Grasse 
in  1781,  and  confirmed  to  them  in  1783.  Again  taken  by  the  English,  April  14,  1793,  but 
restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  Oct.  6,  1802.  The  island  was  once  more  taken  by  the 
British  under  general  Grinfield,  July  I,  1803,  and  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of 
Paris,  in  1814.  Population  in  1861,  15,410. 

TOISON  D'OB,.     See  Golden  Fleece. 

TOKEN'S,  BANK,  silver  pieces  issued  by  the  Bank  of  England,  of  the  value  of  55., 
Jan.  i,  1798.  The  Spanish  dollar  had  a  small  profile  of  George  III.  stamped  on  the  neck  of 
the  Spanish  king.  They  were  raised  to  the  value  of  55.  6d.  Nov.  14,  1811.  Bank  tokens 
were  also  current  in  Ireland,  where  those  issued  by  the  bank  passed  for  65.  and  lesser  sums 
until  1817.  They  were  called  in  on  the  revision  of  the  coinage. 

TOLBIAC  (now  ZULPICH),  near  the  Khine,  where  Clovis  totally  defeated  the  Allemanni, 
496. 

TOLEDO  (Central  Spain),  capital  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom,  554,  subdued  by  the 
Saracens,  711.  Toledo  was  taken  by  Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile,  1084.  The  university  was 
founded  in  1499.  Toledo  sword-blades  have  been  famed  since  the  I5th  century. 

TOLENTINO  (in  the  Papal  States),  where  a  treaty  was  made  between  the  pope  and  the 
French,  Feb.  19,  1797.  Here  Joachim  Murat  having  resumed  arms  against  the  allies,  was 
defeated  by  the  Austrians,  May  3,  1815. 

TOLEPiATION  ACT,  passed  in  1689*  to  relieve  Protestant  dissenters  from  the  church 
of  England.  Their  liberties  were,  however,  greatly  endangered  in  the  latter  days  of  queen 
Anne,  who  died  oh  the  day  that  the  Schism  bill  was  to  become  a  law,  Aug.  i,  1714. 

TOLLS  were  first  paid  by  vessels  passing  the  Stade  on  the  Elbe,  1109.  They  were  first 
demanded  by  the  Danes  of  vessels  passing  the  Sound,  1341.  See  Stade  and  Sound.  Toll- 
bars  in  England  originated  in  1267,  on  the  grant  of  a  penny  for  every  waggon  that  passed 
through  a  certain  manor;  and  the  first  regular  toll  was  collected  a  few  years  after  for  mending 
the  road  in  London  between  St.  Giles's  and  Temple-bar.  Gathered  for  repairing  the  high- 
ways of  Holburn-inn-laue  and  Martin's-lane  (now  Aldersgate-street),  1346.  Toll-gates  or 
turnpikes  were  set  up  in  1663.  In  1827,  27  turnpikes  near  London  were  removed  by 
parliament;  81  turnpikes  and  toll-bars  ceased  on  the  north  of  London  on  July  i,  1864; 
and  6 1  on  the  south  side,  ceased  on  Oct.  31,  1865. 

TONNAGE.     See  Tunnage. 

TONOMETER,  a  delicate  apparatus  for  tuning  musical  instruments,  by  marking  the 
number  of  vibrations,  was  invented  by  H.  Scheibler,  of  Crefeld,  about  1834.  It  received 
little  notice  till  M.  Kcenig  removed  some  of  the  difficulties  opposed  to  its  successful  use,  and 
exhibited  it  at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862. 

TONQUIN,  South  Asia,  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Anam.  Here  a  French  missionary 
bishop,  Melchior,  was  murdered  with  great  barbarity  July  27,  1858  :  the  abbe  Neron  was 
also  murdered,  Nov.  3,  1860.  See  Anam. 

TONTINES,  loans  given  for  life  annuities  with  benefit  of  survivorship,  invented  by 
Laurence  Tonti,  a  Neapolitan.  They  were  first  set  on  foot  at  Paris  to  reconcile  the  people  to  j 
cardinal  Mazarin's  government,  by  amusing  them  wTith  the  hope  of  becoming  suddenly  rich,  j 
1653.  Voltaire.  Tonti  died  in  the  Bastille  after  seven  years'  imprisonment.  A  Mr.  Jennings  \ 
was  an  original  subscriber  for  a  lool.  share  in  a  tontine  company  ;  and  being  the  last  survivor  I 
of  the  shareholders,  his  share  produced  him  3000?.  per  annum.  He  died,  aged  103  years,  i 
June  19,  1798,  worth  2,115,244^. 

*  The  toleration  granted  was  somewhat  limited.  It  exempted  persons  who  took  the  new  oath  of 
allegiance  and  supremacy  and  made  also  a  declaration  against  popery,  from  the  penalties  incurred  by 
absenting  themselves  from  church  and  holding  unlawful  conventicles ;  and  it  allowed  the  Quakers  to 
substitute  an  affirmation  for  an  oath,  but  did  not  relax  the  provisions  of  the  Test  act  (which  see).  The  party 
spirit  of  the  times  checked  the  king  in  his  liberal  measures. 


TOR  721  TOU 

— • — 

TORBANEHILL  MINERAL.  Mr.  Gillespie,  of  Torbanehill,  granted  a  lease  of  all  the 
coal  in  the  estate  to  Messrs.  Russell.  In  the  course  of  working,  the  lessees  extracted  a 
combustible  mineral  of  considerable  value  as  a  source  of  coal-gas,  and  realised  a  large  profit 
in  the  sale  of  it  as  gas-coal.  The  lessor  then  denied  that  the  mineral  was  coal,  and  disputed 
the  right  of  the  lessees  to  work  it.  At  the  trial  in  1853  there  was  a  great  array  of  scientific 
men  and  practical  gas  engineers.  The  evidence  was  most  conflicting.  One  side  maintained 
the  mineral  to  be  coal,  the  other  that  it  was  bituminous  schist.  The  judge  set  aside  the 
scientific  evidence,  and  the  jury  pronounced  it  to  be  coal.  The  authorities  in  Prussia 
have  since  pronounced  it  not  to  be  coal.  Percy. 

TORGAU  (N.  Germany),  the  site  of  a  battle  between  Frederic  II.  of  Prussia  and  the 
Austrians,  in  which  the  former  obtained  a  signal  victory  ;  the  Austrian  general,  count  DauiK 
a  renowned  warrior,  being  wounded,  Nov.  3,  1760.  He  had,  in  1757,  obtained  a  great 
victory  over  the  Prussian  king.  Torgau  was  taken  by  the  allies  in  1814. 

TORIES,  a  term  given  to  a  political  party  about  1678.  See  Whig.  Dr.  Johnson  defines 
a^  Tory  as  one  who  adheres  to  the  ancient  constitution  of  the  state,  and  the  apostolical 
hierarchy  of  the  Church  of  England.  The  Tories  long  maintained  the  doctrines  of  ' '  divine 
hereditary  indefeasible  right,  lineal  succession,  passive  obedience,  prerogative,"  &c.  Boling- 
broke.  See  Conservatives.  For  the  chief  Tory  administrations,  see  Pitt,  Perceval,  Liverpool, 
Wellington,  Peel,  and  Derby. 

TORONTO,  the  capital  of  Canada  West,  founded  in  1794 as  York;  it  received  its  present 
name  in  1834. 

TORPEDO  SHELLS,  a  name  given  to  explosives  placed  under  ships,  an  invention 
ascribed  to  David  Bushnell,  in  1777.  Torpedo  shells  ignited  by  electricity  were  employed 
in  the  war  in  the  United  States,  1861-5.  ®n  Oct.  4,  1865,  Messrs.  M'Kay  &  Beardslee  tried 
them  at  Chatham  before  the  duke  of  Somerset  and  others.  An  old  vessel,  the  Terpsichore, 
was  speedily  sunk.  The  preliminary  arrangements  are  considered  rather  complicated. 
Magneto-electricity  was  employed. 

TORRES  VEDRAS  (a  city  of  Portugal).  Near  here  Wellington,  retreating  from  the 
French,  took  up  a  strong  position,  called  the  Lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  Oct.  10,  1810. 

TORTURE  was  only  permitted  by  the  Romans  in  the  examination  of  slaves.  It  was 
used  early  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  against  heretics,  and  was  used  in  England  so  late 
as  1558,  and  in  Scotland  until  1690.  The  trial  by  torture  was  abolished  in  Portugal,  1776  ; 
in  France,  by  Louis  XVI.,  in  1789;  and  in  Sweden,  by  Gustavus  III.,  1786.  General 
Picton  was  convicted  of  applying  the  torture  to  Louisa  Calderon,  in  Trinidad,  at  his 
trials,  Feb.  21,  1806,  and  June  11,  1808. 

TOULON  (S.  France),  an  important  military  and  naval  port.  It  was  taken  by  Charles  V., 
in  1536.  In  1707  it  wa*»bombarded  by  the  allies,  both  by  land  and  sea,  by  which  almost 
the  whole  town  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  several  ships  burned  ;  but  the  allies 
were  at  last  obliged  to  raise  the  siege.  It  surrendered  Aug.  27,  1793,  to  the  British  admiral, 
lord  Hood,  who  took  possession  both  of  the  town  and  shipping,  in  the  name  of  Louis  XVII., 
under  a  stipulation  to  assist  in  restoring  the  French  constitution  of  1789.  A  conflict  took 
place  between  the  English  and  French  forces,  when  the  latter  were  repulsed,  Nov.  15,  1793. 
Toulon  was  retaken  by  Bonaparte,  Dec.  19,  when  great  cruelties  were  exercised  towards  such 
of  the  inhabitants  as  were  supposed  to  be  favourable  to  the  British. — A  naval  battle  off  this 
port  was  fought  Feb.  10,  1744,  between  the  English  under  Mathews  and  Lestock,  against  the 
fleets  of  France  and  Spain  :  in  this  engagement  the  brave  captain  Cornewall  fell.  The 
victory  was  lost  by  a  misunderstanding  between  the  English  admirals.  Mathews  was  after- 
wards dismissed  for  misconduct  by  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 

TOULOUSE  (S.  France),  founded  about  615  B.C.  ;  was  the  capital  of  the  Visigothic 
kings  in  A.D.  419  ;  and  was  taken  by  Clovis  in  507.  A  dreadful  tribunal  was  established 
here  to  extirpate  heretics,  1229.  The  troubadours,  or  rhetoricians  of  Toulouse,  had  their 
origin  about  850,  and  consisted  of  a  fraternity  of  poets,  whose  art  was  extended  throughout 
Europe,  and  gave  rise  to  the  Italian  and  French  poetry.  See  Troubadours.  The  allied 
British  and  Spanish  army  entered  this  city  on  April  12,  1814,  immediately  after  the  BATTLE 
OF  TOULOUSE,  fought  between  the  British  Peninsular  army  under  lord  Wellington  and  the 
French,  April  10,  1814.  The  French  were  led  by  marshal  Soult,  whom  the  victorious 
British  here  forced  to  retreat,  after  twelve  hours'  fighting,  from  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning 
until  seven  at  ni^ht.  the  British  forcing  the  French  intrenched  position  before  Toulouse.  At 

3  A 


TOU  722  TOW 

the  battle,  neither  of  the  commanders  knew  that  Napoleon  had  abdicated  the  throne  of 
France. 

TOULOUSE  :  the  county  was  created  out  of  the  kingdom  of  Aquitaine  by  Charlemagne, 
in  778.  It  enjoyed  great  prosperity  till  the  dreadful  war  of  the  Albigenses  (which  see),  wheu 
the  count  Eaymond  VI.  was  expelled,  and  Simon  de  Montfort  became  count.  At  his  death, 
in  I2'i8,  Eaymond  VII.  obtained  his  inheritance.  His  daughter  Jane  and  her  husband, 
Alphonse  (brother  of  Louis  IX.  of  France),  dying  without  issue,  the  county  of  Toulouse  was 
united  to  the  French  monarchy  in  1271. 

TOURNAMENTS,  or  JOUSTS,  were  martial  sports  of  the  ancient  cavaliers.  Tournament 
is  derived  from  the  French  word  tourner,  "  to  turn  round. "  Tournaments  were  frequent 
about  890  ;  and  were  regulated  by  the  emperor  Henry  I.,  about  919.  The  Lateran  council 
published  an  article  against  their  continuance  in  1136.  One  was  held  in  Smithfield  so  late 
as  the  1 2th  century,  when  the  taste  for  them  declined  in  England.  Henry  II.  of  France,  in 
a  tilt  with  the  count  of  Montgomery,  had  his  eye  struck  out,  an  accident  which  caused  the 
king's  death  in  a  few  days,  June  29,  1559.  Tournaments  were  then  abolished  in  France. — 
A  magnificent  feast  and  tournament,  under  the  auspices  of  Archibald,  earl  of  Eglintoun, 
took  place  at  Eglintoun  castle,  Aug.  29,  1839,  and  the  following  week  :  many  of  the  visitors 
(among  whom  was  the  present  emperor  of  the  French)  assumed  the  characters  of  ancient 
knights,  lady  Seymour  being  the  "  Queen  of  Beauty." 

TOURNAY  (S.  Belgium)  was  very  nourishing  till  it  was  ravaged  by  the  barbarians  in  the 
5th  century.  It  has  sustained  many  sieges.  Taken  by  the  allies  in  1709,  and  ceded  to  the 
house  of  Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  ;  but  the  Dutch  were  allowed  to  place  a  garrison 
in  it,  as  one  of  the  barrier  towns.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  under  general  Labourdonnaye, 
Nov.  II,  1792.  Battle  near  Tournay,  between  the  Anstrians  and  British  on  one  side,  and 
the  French  on  the  other;  the  former  victorious,  May  8,  1793. 

TOURNIQUET  (from  tourner,  to  turn),  an  instrument  for  stopping  the  flow  of  blood  into 
a  limb,  by  tightening  the  bandage,  employed  in  amputations,  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Morelli  at  the  siege  of  Besancon,  1674.  J.  L.  Petit,  in  France,  invented  the  screw 
tourniquet  in  1718. 

TOURS,  an  ancient  city,  central  France,  near  which  Charles  Martel  gained  a  great 
victory  over  the  Saracens,  Oct.  10,  732,  and  from  wrhich  he  acquired  the  name  of  Martel, 
signifying  hammer.  This  victory  saved  Europe. 

TOWERS.  That  of  Babel,  the  first  of  which  we  read,  built  in  the  plains  of  Shinar 
(Gen.  XL),  2247  B.C.  See  Babel.  The  Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens,  built  550  B.C.'  The 
Tower  of  Pharos  (see  Pharos),  280 B.C.  The  round  towers  in  Ireland  were  the  only  structures 
of  stone  found  at  the  arrival  of  the  English,  1169,  except  some  buildings  in  the  maritime 
towns  founded  by  the  Danes.  These  towers  are  tall  hollow  pillars,  nearly  cylindrical,  but 
narrowing  towards  the  top,  pierced  with  lateral  holes  to  admit  the  light,  and  covered  with 
conical  roofs.  Fifty-six  of  them  still  remain,  from  50  to  130  feet  high.  See  Pisa. 

TOWER  OF  LONDON.  The  tradition  that  Julius  Caesar  founded  a  citadel  here  is  very 
doubtful.  A  royal  palace,  consisting  of  no  more  than  what  is  now  called  the  White  Tower, 
which  appears  to  have  been  first  marked  out  by  William  the  Conqueror,  1076,  was  com- 
menced in  1078,  and  completed  by  his  son,  William  Rufus,  who,  in  1098,  surrounded  it 
with  walls,  and  a  broad  deep  ditch.  Several  succeeding  princes  made  additions  to  it,  and 
king  Edward  III.  built  the  church.  In  1638,  the  White  Tower  was  rebuilt  ;  and  since  the 
restoration  of  king  Charles  II.  it  has  been  thoroughly  repaired,  and  a  great  number  of 
additional  buildings  made  to  it.  Here  are  the  Armoury,  Jewel-office,  and  various  other 
divisions  and  buildings  of  peculiar  interest  ;  and  here  took  place  many  executions  of 
illustrious  persons,  and  many  murders  (king  Henry  IV.,  1471  ;  king  Edward  V.  and  his 
brother,  1485  ;  sir  Thomas  Overbury,  1613).  See  England.  The  armoury  and  280,000 
stand  of  arms,  &c.,  were  destroyed  by  fire,  Oct.  30,  1841.  The  "New  Buildings"  in  the 
Tower  were  completed  in  1850. 

TOWNLEY  MARBLES,  in  the  British  Museum,  were  purchased  in  1812. 

TOWTON  (Yorkshire),  where  a  sanguinary  battle  was  fought,  March  29,  1461,  between 
the  houses  of  York  (Edward  IV.)  and  Lancaster  (Henry  VI.),  to  the  latter  of  whom  it  was 
fatal,  and  on  whose  side  more  than  37,000  fell.  Edward  issued  orders  to  give  no  quarter,  and 
the  most  merciless  slaughter  ensued.  Henry  was  made  prisoner,  and  confined  in  the 
Tower  ;  his  queen,  Margaret,  fled  to  Flanders. 


TOX  723  TRA 

TOXOPHILITES  (from  toxon,  a  bow,  and  philos,  a  lover),  a  society  established  by  sir 

iston  Lever  in  1781.     In  1834  they  took  grounds  in  the  inner  circle  of  Regent's-park,  and 

built  the  archery  lodge.     They  possess  a  very  curious  piece  of  plate,  given  by  Catherine, 

queen  of  Charles  II.,  to  be  shot  for  by  the  Finsbury  archers,  of  whom  the  Toxophilites  are 

the  representatives. 

TRACTARIANISM,  a  term  applied  to  certain  opinions  on  church  matters  propounded  in 
the  "Tracts  for  the  Times,"  of  which  ninety  numbers  were  published,  1833-41.  The 
principal  writers  were  the  revs.  Dr.  E.  Pusey,  J.  II.  Newman,  J.  Keble,  J.  Froude,  and 
I.  Williams — all  of  the  university  of  Oxford.  See  Puseyism. 

TRACTION-ENGINES  were  used  on  common  roads  in  London  in  1860,  but  afterwards 
restricted.  In  Aug.  1862  one  of  Bray's  traction-engines  conveyed  through  the  city  a  m?.s« 
of  iron,  Avhich  would  have  required  29  horses. 

TRADE  AND  PLANTATIONS,  BOARD  OF.  .Cromwell  seems  to  have  given  the  first 
notions  of  a  board  of  trade  :  in  1655  he  appointed  his  son  Richard,  with  many  lords  of  his 
council,  judges,  and  gentlemen,  and  about  twenty  merchants  of  London,  York,  Newcastle, 
.Yarmouth,  Dover,  &c.,  to  meet  and  consider  by  what  means  the  trade  and  navigation  of  the 
republic  might  be  best  promoted.  Thomas's  Notes  of  the  Rolls.  Charles  II.,  on  his  restora- 
tion, established  a  council  of  trade  for  keeping  a  control  over  the  whole  commerce  of  the 
nation,  1660;  he  afterwards  instituted  a  board  of  trade  and  plantations,  which  was 
remodelled  by  William  III.  This  board  was  abolished  in  1782  ;  and  a  new  council  for  the 
affairs  of  trade  on  its  present  plan  was  appointed,  Sept.  2,  1786. 

TRADES'  MUSEUM.  Its  formation  was  undertaken  in  1853,  jointly  by  the  commis- 
sioners of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  and  the  Society  of  Arts.  The  animal  department 
was  opened  May  17,  1855,  when  a  paper  on  the  mutual  relations  of  trade  and  manufactures 
was  read  by  professor  E.  Solly.  The  contents  of  this  museum  were  removed  to  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  which  was  opened  June  24,  1857.  The  French  "  Conservatoire  des 
Arts  et  Metiers"  was  established  in  1795. 

TRAFALGAR  (Cape,  S.  Spain),  off  which  a  great  naval  victory  was  gained  by  the 
British,  under  Nelson,  against  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  commanded  by 
admiral  Villeneuve  and  two  Spanish  admirals,  Oct.  21,  1805.  The  enemy's  force  was 
eighteen  French  and  fifteen  Spanish  vessels,  all  of  the  line  ;  that  of  the  British,  twenty-seven 
ships.  After  a  protracted  fight,  Villeneuve  and  the  other  admirals  were  taken,  and  nineteen 
of  their  ships  captured,  sunk,  or  destroyed.  Nelson  was  killed,  and  admiral  Collingwood 
succeeded  to  the  command.  Nelson's  ship  was  the  Victory  •  and  his  last  signal  was, 
"England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty."  See  Nelson. 

TRAGEDY.     See  Drama. 

TRAINING  SCHOOLS,  the  first  of  these  useful  establishments  was  founded  at  Batter- 
sea  in  1840,  by  sir  J.  Kay  Shuttleworth,  and  Mr.  E.  C.  Tufnell ;  the  latter,  who  was  then 
in  the  Poor  Law  Commission,  devoting  a  year's  salary  towards  the  expenses.  Mr.  Mann 
stated  in  1855  that  there  were  about  40  of  these  schools  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

TRAJAN'S  PILLAR  (in  Rome),  erected  114,  by  his  directions,  to  commemorate  his 
victories,  and  executed  by  Apollodorus,  still  exists.  It  was  built  in  the  square  called  the 
Forum  Romanum;  it  is  140  feet  high,  of  the  Tuscan  order. 

TRAM-ROADS,  an  abbreviation  of  Outram-roads,  derive  the  name  from  Mr.  Benjamin 
Outram,  who,  in  1800,  made  improvements  in  the  system  of  railways  for  common  vehicles, 
then  in  use  in  the  north  of  England.  The  iron  tram-road  from  Croydon  to  Wandsworth  was 
completed  on  July  24,  1801.  Mr.  Outram  was  father  of  the  late  sir  James  Outram,  the 
Indian  general.  Chambers. 

TRANQUEBAR  (East  Indies),  the  Danish  settlement  here,  founded  in  1618,  was  pur- 
chased by  the  English  in  1845. 

TRANSFIGURATION.  The  change  of  Christ's  appearance  on  Mount  Tabor,  in  the 
presence  of  Peter,  James,  and  John,  A.D.  32  (Matt.  xvii.).  The  feast  of  the  Transfiguration, 
kept  on  Aug.  6,  was  instituted  by  pope  Calixtus  II.  in  1455. 

TRANSFUSION  OF  BLOOD.     See  Blood.  TRANSIT.     See  Venus. 

TRANSLATION  TO  HEAVEN.  The  translation  of  Enoch  to  heaven  for  his  faith  at  the 
age  of  365  years,  took  place  3017  B.o.  The  prophet  Elijah  was  translated  to  heaven  in  a 
chariot  of  fire,  896  B.C.  — The  possibility  of  translation  to  the  abode  of  eternal  life  has  been 
maintained  by  some  extravagant  enthusiasts.  The  Irish  house  of  commons  expelled  Mr. 

3  A  2 


TRA 


724 


TRA 


Asgill  from  his  seat,  for  his  book  asserting  the  possibility  of  translation  to  the  other  world 
without  death,  1703. 

TRANSPORTATION.  See  Banishment.  Judges  were  given  the  power  of  sentencing 
offenders  to  transportation  "into  any  of  his  Majesty's  dominions  in  North  America,"  by 
18  Charles  II.  c.  3  (1666),  and  by  4  Geo.  I.  c.  II  (1718).  Transportation  ceased  in  1775, 
but  was  revived  in  1784.  The  reception  of  convicts  has  been  successfully  refused  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  (in  1849),  and  by  the  Australian  colonies  (1864).  Transportation,  even 
to  West  Australia,  where  labour  is  wanted,  is  to  cease  in  a  few  years,  through  the  fierce 
opposition  of  the  eastern  colonies.  In  consequence  of  the  recent  difficulty  experienced  in 
transporting  felons,  16  &  17  Yict.  c.  99  was  passed  to  provide  other  punishment,  namely 
penal  servitude,  empowering  her  majesty  to  grant  pardon  to  offenders  under  certain  condi- 
tions, and  licences  to  others  to  be  at  large  :  such  licences  being  liable  to  be  revoked  if 
necessary;  and  many  have  been.  These  licences  are  termed  "tickets  of  leave."  The 
system  was  much  assailed  in  Oct.  and  Nov.  1862,  on  account  of  many  violent  crimes  being 
traced  to  ticket-of-leavers.  See  Crime. 


arrived  with  about  800  on  Jan,  20,  1788  ;  con- 
victs were  afterwards  sent  to  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  Norfolk  Island,  &c. 

Eeturning  from  transportation  was  punishable 
with  death  until  5  Will.  IV.  c.  67,  Aug  1834, 
when  an  act  was  passed  making  the  offence 
punishable  by  transportation  for  life. 


John  Eyre,  esq.,aman  of  fortune,  was  sentenced 

to  transportation  for  stealing  a  few  quires  of 

paper  (Phillips) Nov.  i,  1771 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Halloran,  tutor  to  the  earl  of 

Chesterfield,   was   transported  for  forging  a 

frank  (tod.  postage)  ...  .  Sept.  9,  1818 
The  first  transportation  of  felons  to  Botany  Bay 

was  in    May  1787  ;    where  governor  Phillip 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION,  the  doctrine  that  the  bread  and  wine  in  the  Eucharist  are 
•changed  into  the  very  flesh  and  blood  of  Christ  by  the  consecration,  was  broached  in  the 
days  of  Gregory  III.  (731),  and  accepted  by  Amalarius  and  Radburtus  (about  840),  but 
rejected  by  Rabanus  Maurus,  Johannes  Scotus  Erigena,  Berengarius,  and  others.  In  the 
Lateran  council,  held  at  Rome  by  Innocent  III.,  the  word  "  transubstantiatioii "  was  used  to 
express  this  doctrine,  which  was  decreed  to  be  incontrovertible  ;  and  all  who  opposed  it  were 
condemned  as  heretics.  This  was  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  Jan.  18,  1562.  John 
Huss,  Jerome  of  Prague,  and  other  martyrs  of  the  reformation,  suffered  for  denying  this 
dogma,  which  is  renounced  by  the  Church  of  England  (28th  Article),  and  by  all  protestant 
dissenters. 

TRANSYLVANIA,  an  Austrian  province,  was  part  of  the  ancient  Dacia  (which  see).  In 
1526,  John  Zapoly  rendered  himself  independent  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  by  the  aid  of 
the  Turks.  His  successors  ruled  with  much  difficulty  till  1699,  when  the  emperor  Leopold  I. 
finally  incorporated  Transylvania  into  the  Aiistrian  dominions.  The  Transylvaniau  deputies 
did  not  take  their  seat  in  the  Austrian  parliament  till  Oct.  20,  1863. 


PEINCES    OF   TRANSYLVANIA. 


1526-40.  John  Zapoly. 
1571.  John  Sigismund. 

,,      Stephen  Zapoly  I.  Bathori. 
1581.  Christopher  Bathori. 
1602.  Sigismund  Bathori. 
1606.  Stephen  II.  Bottskai. 


1613.  Gabriel  I.  Bathori. 

1629.  Gabriel  II.  Bethlem  (Bethlem  Gabor). 

1648.  George  I.  Ragotzski. 

1661.  George  II.  Ragotzski. 

1690.  Michael  I.  Abaffi. 

1699.  Michael  II.  Abaffi. 


TRAPPISTS.  The  first  abbey  of  La  Trappe  in  Normandy  was  founded,  in  1140,  by 
Retrou,  count  de  Perche.  The  present  order  of  Trappists  owes  its  origin  to  the  learned 
Bouthillier  de  la  Ranee  (editor  of  Anacre.on  when  aged  14),  who,  from  some  cause  not 
certainly  known,  renounced  the  world,  and  sold  all  his  property,  giving  the  proceeds  to  the 
abbey  of  La  Trappe,  to  which  he  retired  in  1662,  to  live  there  in  great  austerity.  After 
several  efforts  he  succeeded  in  reforming  the  monks,  and  in  establishing  a  new  rule,  which 
commands  silence,  prayer,  reading,  and  manual  labour,  and  which  forbids  study,  wine,  fish, 
&c.  Ranee"  was  born  in  1620,  and  died  in  1700.* 

TRAVELLING  IN  ENGLAND.  In  1707,  it  took  in  summer  one  day,  in  winter  nearly  two 
days,  to  travel  from  London  to  Oxford  (46  miles).  In  1817,  the  journey  was  accomplished  in 

*  A  number  of  these  monks,  driven  from  France  in  the  revolution  of  1790,  were  received  by  Mr.  Weld, 
of  Lulworth,  Dorsetshire,  who  gave  them  some  land  to  cultivate  and  a  habitation,  where  they  remained 
till  1815.  This  order  was  charged  with  rebellion  and  conspiracy  in  France,  and  sixty-four  English  and  Irish 
Trappists  were  shipped  by  the  French  government  at  Paimboeuf,  Nov.  19,  and  were  landed  from  the  Hebe, 
French  frigate,  at  Cork,  Nov.  30,  1831.  They  have  established  themselves  at  Mount  Melleray,  county  of 
Watert'ord  ;  but  do  not  maintain  there  the  extreme  rigour  of  their  order. 


TRE  725  TRE 

six  or  seven  hours.  By  the  Great  Western  Railway  express  (63  miles)  it  is  done  in  i|  hour. 
In  1828,  a  gentleman  travelled  from  Newcastle  to  London  (273  miles)  inside  the  best  coach 
in  35  hours,  at  an  expense  of  61.  155.  $d.  or  6d.  per  mile  (including  dinner,  &c.).  In  1857, 
the  charge  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway  (275 \  miles)  first  class  express  (6  hrs.)  was  505.  gd. 
TREAD-MILL,  an  invention  of  the  Chinese,  to  raise  water  for  the  irrigation  of  the 
fields.  The  complicated  tread-mill  introduced  into  the  prisons  of  Great  Britain  is  the 
invention  of  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  William)  Cubitt,  of  Ipswich.  It  was  erected  at  Brixton 
gaol,  1817,  and  soon  afterwards  in  other  large  prisons. 

TREASON.  See  High  Treason.  PETTY  TREASON  (a  term  abolished  in  1828)  was  a  wife's 
murder  of  her  husband  ;  a  servant's  murder  of  his  master  ;  and  an  ecclesiastical  person's 
murder  of  his  prelate  or  other  superior — so  declared  by  statute,  1352. 

TREASON-FELONY.  By  the  Crown  and  Government  Security  Act,  u  Vic.  c.  12 
(1848),  certain  treasons  heretofore  punishable  with  death  were  mitigated  to  felonies,  and 
subjected  to  transportation  or  imprisonment.  The  Fenians  in  Ireland  were  tried  under  this 
act.  See  Trials,  1865. 

TREASURER  OF  ENGLAND,  LORD  HIGH,  the  third  great  officer  of  the  crown,  a  lord  by 
virtue  of  his  office,  having  the  custody  of  the  king's  treasure,  governing  the  upper  court  of 
exchequer,  and  formerly  sitting  judicially  among  the  barons.  The  first  lord  high  treasurer  in 
England  was  Odo,  earl  of  Kent  in  the  reign  of  William  I.  This  great  trust  is  now  confided 
to  a  commission,  and  is  vested  in  five  persons,  called  Lords  Commissioners  for  executing  the 
office  of  Lord  High  Treasurer,  and  of  these  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  is  usually  one ; 
the  first  lord  being  usually  the  premier.  See  Administrations,  for  a  succession  of  these  officers. 
The  first  of  this  rank  in  IRELAND  was  John  de  St.  John,  Henry  III.JI2I7  ;  the  last,  William, 
duke  of  Devonshire,  1766  ;  vice-treasurers  were  appointed  till  1789  ;  then  commissioners  till 
1816,  when  the  revenues  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  were  united.  The  first  lord  high 
treasurer  of  SCOTLAND  was  sir  Walter  Ogilvie,  appointed  by  James  I.  in  1420 ;  the  last,  in 
1641,  John,  earl  of  Traquair,  when  commissioners  were  appointed. 

TREASURER  OF  THE  CHAMBER,  formerly  an  officer  of  great  consideration,  and  always 
a  member  of  the  privy  council.  He  discharged  the  bills  of  all  the  king's  tradesmen,  and  had 
his  office  in  Cleveland-row,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  royal  palace.  His  duties  were  transferred 
and  the  office  suppressed  at  the  same  time  with  the  offices  of  master  of  the  great  wardrobe 
and  cofferer  of  the  household,  in  1 782.  Beatson. 

TREATIES.  The  first  formal  and  written  treaty  made  in  England  with  any  foreign 
nation  wras  entered  into  between  Henry  III.  and  the  dauphin  of  France  (then  in  England 
and  leagued  with  the  barons),  Sept.  n,  1217.  The  first  commercial  treaty  was  with  the 
Flemings,  I  Edw.  1272  ;  the  second  with  Portugal  and  Spain,  1308.  Anderson.  The  chief 
treaties  of  the  principal  civilised  nations  of  Europe  will  be  found  described  in  their  respective 
places  :  the  following  forms  an  index.  See  Conventions ;  Coalitions  ;  Leagues,  &c. 

Abo,  peace  of.        .        .        .  1743  '  Belgium,  treaty  of  London    .  1839 '  Commerce  (Great  Britain  and 
Adrianople         .        Sept.  14,  1829!  Belgrade,  peace  of  .        .        .  1739       the  Two  Sicilies)  .  June  25,  1845 
Aix-la-Chapelle      .         .        .  1668  j  Berlin,  peace  of .         .        .     .  1742  i  Commerce  (Great  Britain  and 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  of  .     .  1748    Berlin  decree  .        .        .        .  1806       France)        ....  1861 
Akermann,  peace  of,  Oct.  7,  1826  :  Berlin  convention      .        .     .  1808    Concordat  (which  see)         .     .  1801 
Alt  Radstadt   .        .  Sept.  14,  1706    Beyara        .        .         Aug.  31,  1839   Conflans,  treaty  of .        .         .  1465 
Allahabad  (Bahar,  &c.,  ceded  Breda,  peace  of      ...  1667  j  Constantinople,  peace  of        .1712 

to  E.  I.  Company)       .         .  1765    Bretigny,  peace  of     .         .     .  1360:  Constantinople,  treaty  of  .     .1833 
America,  peace  with  .        .     .  1783  !  Bucharest,  treaty  of       .         .   1812  !  Constantinople,  treaty  of, 
Amiens,  peace  of    .        .         .   1802  !  Cambray,  league  of  .         .     .  1508  May  8,  1854 

Antwerp,  truce  .        .        .     .  1609  '  Cambray,  peace  of  .         .        .  1529   Copenhagen,  peace  of    .        .  1660 
Armed  Neutrality  .        .        .   1800  |  Carnpo  Formio,  treaty  of  .     .  1797 1  Copenhagen  (composition  for 
Arras,  treaty  of  .        .        .     .  1435    Carlowitz,  peace  of         .         .  1699'      Sound  dues)         March  14,  1857 

Arras,  ditto     ....   1482    Carlsbad,  congress  of         .     .  1819   Crecy 1544 

Augsburg,  league  of  .        .     .   1686    Chateau-Cambresis,  peace  of  1559    Dresden  .  .  1745 

Baden,  peace  of  ...  1714  ,  Chaumont,  treaty  of  .  .  1814  Eliot  convention  .  .  April,  1835 
Bagnalo  (Venice,  Naples,  &c.)  1484  ;  Chunar,  India  .  .  .  .1781  Evora  Monte  .  .  May  26,  1834 
Balta  Liman  .  .  1838  and  1849  j  Cintra,  convention  of  .  .  1808  Family  Compact  .  .  .  1761 
Barcelona  (France  and  Spain)  1493  j  Closterseveii,  convention  of  .  1757  Fontainebleau,  peace  of  .  .  1679 
Barrier  treaty  .  .  .  1715  j  Coalition,  first,  agnst.  France,  1792  Fontainebleau,  treaty  of  .  1785 
Barwalde  (France  &  Sweden)  1631  J  Coalition,  second,  ditto  .  .  .  1799  Fontainebleau,  concordat  at .  1813 
Basel,  peace  of  .  .  .  1795  !  Coalition,  third  ditto  .  .1805  French  commercial  treaty, 
Basseiii  (Great  Britain  and  I  Coalition,  fourth  ditto  .  .1806  Jan.  23,  1860 

Mahrattas)  .  .  .  .  1802  j  Coalition,  fifth  ditto  .  .  .  1809 '  Friedwald,  treaty  of  .  .  1551 
Bayonne,  treaty  of  .  .  1808  Coalition,  sixth  ditto  .  .  1813 '  Fuessen,  peace  of  .  .  .  1745 
Beckascog  (Russia  and  Prus-  I  Commerce  (Great  Britain  and  |  Gastein  Convention,  Aug.  14,  1865 

eia) 1807  I      Turkey)    .        .    .  Nov.  16,  1839   Ghent,  pacification  of        .     .  1576 


THE 


726 


THE 


TREATIES,  continued. 


Simcion,  treaty  of  .  July  15,  1852 
Temeswar,  truce  of  .  .  .  1664 
Teschen,  peace  of  .  .  .  1779 
Teusin,  peace  of  .  .  .  1595 
Tien-Tsin,  China  .  June  26,  1858 
Tilsit,  peace  of  ...  1807 
Tolentmo,  treaty  of  .  ..  .  1793 
Toplitz,  treaty  of  .  .  .1813 
Triple  Alliance  of  the  Hague,  1668 
Triple  Alliance  .  .  .  .1717 
Troppeau,  congress  of  .  .  1820 
Troyes,  treaty  of  .  .  .  1420 
Turin  (cession  of  Savoy  and 

Nice)  .  .  .  March  24,  1860 
Turkmauchay,  peace  of  .  1828 
Ulm,  peace  of  .  .  .  .  1620 
Unkiarskelessi  .  July  8,  1833 
Utrecht,  union  of  .  .  .  1579 
Utrecht,  peace  of  .  .  -1713 
Valencay,  treaty  of  .  .  .1813 
Verona,  congress  of  .  .  1822 
Versailles,  peace  of  .  .  .  1783 
Vienna,  treaty  of  .  .  -1725 
Vienna,  treaty  of  alliance  .  .  1731 
Vienna,  definitive  peace  .  1738 
Vienna,  peace  of  .  .  1809 

Vienna,  treaty  of  .  March  25,  1815 
Vienna,  treaty  of    .    May  31,     „ 
Vienna,  treaty  of    .     June  9,     ,, 
Vienna  (Austria  and  Prussia), 

commercial  .  Feb.  10,  1853 
Vienna,  treaty  of  .  Oct.  30,  1864 
Vienna  (Austria  and  Great 

Britain,  commercial)  Dec.i6,  1865 
Villa  Franca  d/relim.),  July  12,  1859 
Vossem,  peace  of  .  167^ 

Warsaw,  alliance  of  .  .  1683 
Warsaw,  treaty  of  .  .  1768 

Washington,  reciprocity  treaty 
between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  respect- 
ing Newfoundland  fishery, 
commerce,  &c.     .      July  2,  1854 
Westminster,  peace  of       .     .   1674 
Westminster  (with  Holland)  1716 
Westphalia,  peace  of          .     .  1648 
Wilna,  treaty  of     .        .         .1561 
Wurms,  edict  of         .         .     .  1521 
Wurtzburg  league  .        .        .   1610 
Zurich  (Austria,  France,  and 
Sardinia)         .         Nov.  10,  1859 


TREBIA,  now  Trebbia,  a  river  in  North  Italy,  where  Hannibal  defeated  the  Roman 
•consul  Semproiiius,  B.C.  218  ;  and  Suvarrow  defeated  the  French  marshal  Macdonald  and 
compelled  him  to  retreat,  June  17-19,  1799. 

TREBIZOND,  a  port  of  Asia  Minor  in  the  Black  Sea,  was  colonised  by  the  Greeks,  and 
became  subject  to  the  kings  of  Pontus.  It  enjoyed  self-government  under  the  Roman 
empire,  and  when  the  Latins  took  Constantinople  in  1204,  it  became  the  seat  of  an  empire 
which  endured  till  1461,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  under  Mahomet  I. 


Ghent,  peace  of  (America)     .  1814 

Paris,  treaty  of       .         .        .1814 

Golden  Bull        .         .        .     .  1356 

Paris,  peace  of    .        .         .     .1815 

Grand  Alliance        .        .        .  1689 

Paris,  treaty  of        .        .        .   1817 

Greece,  treaty  of  London  .     .  1832 
Hague,  treaty  of  the      .        .  1659 

Paris,  treaty  of  (ends  Russian 
war)  ....  April,  1856 

Hague,  treaty  of  the  .        .     .  1669 

Paris    (settlement    of    Neuf- 

Halle,  treaty  of       ...  1610 

chatel  affair)      .       May  26,  1857 

Hamburg,  peace  of    .        .     .  1762 

Partition,  first  treaty         .     .   1698 

Hanover  treaty       .         .         .  1725 

Partition,  second  treaty         .   1700 

Hanover  &  England,  July  22,  1834 

Passarowitz,  peace  of        .     .1718 

Holland,  peace  with       .        .1784 

Passau,  treaty  of    .        .        .  1552 

Holy  Alliance     .        .        .     .1815 

Pekin  (peace  with  Gt,  Britain 

Hubertsburg,  peace  of   .         .  1763 

and  France)      .       Aug.  24,  1860 

Interim  treaty   .        .        .     .  1548 

Persia,  treaty  with         .        .  1857 

Jay's  treaty     .        .  Nov.  19,    1794 
Japan  aud   Great  Britain, 

Petersburg,  St.,  peace  of  .     .  1762 
Petersburg,  St.  ,  treaty  of       .  1772 

Ang.  26,  1858 

Petersburg,  St.,  treaty  of  .     .  1805 

Kaynardji,    or    Koutschouc- 

Petersburg,  St.,  treaty  of       .   1810 

Kaynardji  (Turks  and  Rus- 

Peterswald, convention  of     .1813 

sians)        .        .        July  21,  1774 

Pilnitz,  convention  of    .        .  1791 

Kiel,  treaty  of        .        .        .1814 

Poland,  partition  of  .        .     .  1795 

Lay  bach,  congress  of         .     .1821 
League    1576 

Pragmatic  Sanction        .        .  1439 
Pragmatic  Sanction  .         .     .1713 

Leipsic,  alliance  of    .        .     .  1631 

Prague,  peace  of      ...  1653 

Leoben,  peace  of    .        .        .  1797 

Presburg,  peace  of      .        .       1805 

Lisbon,  peace  of         .         .     .  1668 

Public  good,  league  for  the   .  1464 

London,  treaty  of  (Greece)    .   1832 

Pyrenees,  treaty  of  the  .           1659 

London,     convention    of 

Quadruple  Alliance   .        .     .1718 

(Turkey).        .         .         .     .   1840 

Radstadt,  peace  of.        .         .  1714 

London,    treaty    between 

Radstadt,  congress  of    .        .   1797 

France    and     England, 

Hatisboii,  peace  of     .        .     .  1630 

April  15,  1854 

Ratisbon,  treaty  of        .         .  1806 

Lubeck,  peace  of    .        .        .  1629 

Reichenbach  treaties  .  June,  1813 

Limeville,  peace  of    .        .    .  1801 

Religion,  peace  of  .         .        .  1555 

Madrid,  treaty  of   .        .        .  1526 

Rhine,  Confederation  of  the  .  1806 

Methuen  treaty  .        .        .     .  1  703 
Milan  decree    ....   1807 

Ryswick,  peace  of  .        .        .  1697 
St.  Germain's,  peace  of      .     .   1570 

Milan  (Austria  and  Sardinia), 

St.  Germain-eii-Laye      .         .  1679 

Aug.  6,  1849 

St.  Ildefonzo,  alliance  of  Spain 

Munster,  peace  of  .        .        .1648 

with  France         .        .        .  1796 

Nankin  (see  China)    .        .     .  1842 

Seville,  peace  of         ...  1792 

Nantes,  edict  of      ...  1598 

Siorod,  peace  of      ...  1613 

Naumberg,  treaty  of  .        .    .   1554 

Sistowa        .         .         Aug.  4,  1791 

Nice,  treaty  of        .        .        .1518 

Smalcald,  league  of  .        .     .  1529 

Nimeguen,  peace  of  .        .     .  1678 

Spain,  pacification  of  (London)  1834 

Noyoii,  treaty  of     .        .         .  1516 

Stettin,  peace  of     .        .        .   1570 

Nuremberg,  treaty  of        .     .  1532 

Stockholm  1630 

Oliva,  peace  of        .        .        .1660 

Stockholm,  peace  of       .         .1719 

Paris,  peace  of  (see  Paris)     .   1763 

Stockholm,  treaty  of         .     .  1724 

Paris,  treaty  of  .        .        .     .  1796 

Stockholm,  treaty  of      .        .   1813 

Paris,  peace  of  (Sweden)        .  1810 

Stockholm,  treaty  of  (Sweden 

Paris,  capitulation  of         .    .  1814 

and  allies)    .        .    Nov.  21,  1856 

1204.  Alexis  I.  Coninenus. 

1222.  Andronicus  I. 

1235.  John  T. 

1238.  Manuel  I. 

1263.  Andrew. 

1266.  George  I. 

1280.  John  II. 


EMPERORS    OF    TREBIZOND. 

1298.  Alexis  II. 
1330.  Andronicus  II. 
1332.  Manuel  II. 
„     Basil  I. 

1340.  Irene. 

1341.  Anna. 
1341-50.  Michael. 


1344.  John  III. 
1350.  Alexis  III. 
1390.  Manuel  III. 
1412.  Alexis  IV. 
1447.  John  IV. 
1458-61.  David. 


TRECENTO.     See  Italy,  note. 

TRENT  (the  ancient  Tridentum)  in  the  Tyrol,  belongs  to  Austria.     The  council  held 
here  is  reckoned  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church  as  the  i8th  or  last  general  council.     Its 


THE 


TRI 


decisions  are  implicitly  received  as  the  standard  of  faith,  morals,  and  discipline  in  that 
church.  It  first  sat  Dec.  13,  1545,  and  continued  (with  interruptions)  under  pope  Paul  III., 
Julius  III.,  and  Pius  IV.  to  Dec.  4,  1563,*  its  last  sitting  (the  25th).  A  jubilee  in  relation 
to  this  council  was  celebrated  in  June,  1863. 

TREVES,  the  Roman  Treviri,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  was  a  prosperous  city  of  the  Gauls 
12  B.C.  The  emperor  Gallienus  held  his  court  here  A.D.  255.  Treves  was  made  an  electorate 
in  the  I4th  century,  and  became  subject  to  the  archbishop  in  1585.  The  archbishopric  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  before  the  yth  century  and  to  be  the  oldest  in  Germany.  After 
various  changes,  Treves  was  acquired  by  Prussia  in  1815.  In  1844  much  excitement  was 
occasioned  by  miracles  said  to  have  been  wrought  by  a  "  Holy  Coat." 

"  TRI  A  JUNCTA  IN  UNO"  (three  joined  in  one),  the  motto  of  the  knights  of  the 
military  order  of  the  Bath,  signifying  "faith,  hope,  and  charity."  See  Bath. 

TRIALS.  Regulations  for  conducting  trialslwere  made  by  Lothaire  and  Edric,  kings  of 
Kent,  about  673  to  680.  Alfred  the  Great  is  said  to  have  begun  trial  by  jury  ;  but  there  is 
good  evidence  of  such  trials  long  before  his  time.  In  a  cause  tried  at  Hawarden,  nearly  a 
hundred  years  before  the  reign  of  Alfred,  we  have  a  list  of  the  twelve  jurors  ;  confirmed  too 
by  the  fact  that  the  descendants  of  one  of  them,  of  the  name  of  Corbyn  of  the  Gate,  still 
preserve  their  name  and  residence  at  a  spot  in  the  parish  yet  called  the  Gate.  Phillips. 


REMARKABLE   TRIALS. 


King  Charles  I. :  Jan.  20  ;  convicted,      Jan.  29,  1649 

Oates's  Popish  Plot  :  Edward  Coleman,  con- 
victed, Nov.  27;  Win.  Ireland  and  other 
priests Dec.  17,  1678 

Robt.  Green  and  others,  Feb.  10 ;  Thos. 

Whitbread  and  other  Jesuits,  June  13 ; 
Richard  Langhorne,  counsellor,  June  14  ; 
convicted 1679 

Sir  George  Wakeman,  the  queen's  physician ; 
acquitted July  13,  ,, 

Viscount  Stafford  :  convicted      Nov.  30 -Dec.  7,  1681 

Rye  House  Plot :  convicted,  lord  William  Russell, 
July  13  ;  Algernon  Sidney  .  .  Nov.  21,  1683 

The  Seven  Bishops  ;  acquitted        .        June  29,  1688 

Colonel  Charteris,  for  the  rape  of  Ann  Bond 

Feb.  25,  1730 

Captain  Porteous,  for  murder.  See  Porteous, 

July  6,  1736 

Jenny  Diver,  for  felony,  executed        March  18,  1740 

William  Duell,  executed  for  murder  at  Tyburn, 
but  who  came  to  life  when  about  undergoing 
dissection  at  Surgeons'  Hall  .  Nov.  24,  ,, 

Lords  Kilmarnock  and  Balmerino  for  high 
treason July  28,  1746 

Mary  Hamilton,  for  marry  ing  with  her  own  sex, 
14  wives  ...-»...  Oct.  7,  ,, 

Lord  Lovat,  80  years  of  age,  for  high  treason ; 
beheaded March  9,  1747 

Freney,  the  celebrated  Irish  robber,  who  sur- 
rendered himself  ....  July  9,  1749 

Amy  Hutchmson,  burnt  at  Ely,  for  the  murder 
of  her  husband  .  .  .  .  Nov.  5,  1750 

Miss  Blandy,  the  murder  of  her  father  ;  hanged, 

March  3,  1752 

Ann  Williams,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband ; 
burnt  alive April  n,  1753 

Eugene  Aram,  for  murder  at  York  ;  executed, 

Aug.  13,  1759 

Earl  Ferrers,  for  the  murder  of  his  steward  ; 
executed April  16,  1760 

Mr.  MacNaughten,  at  Strabane,  for  the  murder 
of  Miss  Knox Dec.  8,  1761 

Ann  Bedingfield,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband  ; 
burnt  alive April  6,  1763 

Mr.  Wilkes,  alderrmn  of  London,  for  an  obscene 
poem  ("Essay  on  Woman.")  .  Feb.  21,  1764 

Murderers  of  captain  Glas,  his  wife,  daughter, 
mate,  and  passengers,  on  board  the  ship  Earl 
of  Sandwich,  at  sea  .  .  .  March  3,  1766 


i  Elizabeth  Brownrigg.  for  the  murder  of  one  of 

her  female  apprentices ;  hanged         Sept.  12, 

|  Lord  Baltimore,  the  libertine,  and  his  female 

accomplices,  for  rape         .        .         March  28, 

Great  cause  between  the  families  of  Hamilton 
and  Douglas Feb.  27, 

Great  Valencia  cause  in  the  house  of  peers,  in 
Ireland March  18, 

Cause  of  Somerset,  the  slave ;  see  Slavery, 

June  22, 

Elizabeth  Herring,  for  the  murder  of  her  hus- 
band; hanged,  and  afterwards  burnt  at 
Tyburn Sep.  13, 

Messrs.  Perreau  brothers,  bankers,  forgei-y ; 
hanged Jan.  17, 

Duchess  of  Kingston,  for  marrying  two  hus- 
bands;  guilty.  See  Kingston  .  April  15, 

Dr.  Dodd  for  forging  a  bond  of  4200?.  in  the 
name  of  the  earl  of  Chesterfield  ;  Feb.  22. 
See  Forgery:  executed  .  .  June  27, 

Admiral  Keppel,  by  court  martial ;  honourably 
acquitted Feb.  n, 

Mr.  Hackman,  for  the  murder  of  Miss  Reay, 
when  coming  out  of  the  Theatre  Royal, 
Covent-garden April  16, 

Lord  George  Gordon  on  a  charge  of  high  trea- 
son ;  acquitted  ....  Feb.  5, 

Mr.  Woodi'all,  the  celebrated  printer,  for  a  libel 
on  lord  Loughborough,  afterwards  lord  chan- 
cellor  Nov.  10, 

Lord  George  Gordon,  for  a  libel  on  the  queen  of 
France ;  guilty  ....  Jan.  28, 

Mr.  Warren  Hastings :  a  trial  which  lasted 
seven  years  and  three  months.  See  Hastings, 
Trial  of,  commenced  .  .  .  Feb.  13, 

The  Times  newspaper,  for  a  libel  on  the  prince 
of  Wales  ;  guilty  ....  Feb.  3, 

Renwick  Williams,  called  the  Monster,  for 
stabbing  women  in  the  streets  of  London. 
See  Monster July  8, 

Barrington,  the  pick-pocket,  most  extraordi- 
nary adept ;  transported  .  .  Sept.  22, 
i  Thomas  Paine,  political  writer  and  deist,  for 
libels  in  the  Rights  of  Man  ;  guilty  Dec.  18, 
i  Louis  XVI.  of  France.  See  France  .  1792, 
1  Archibald  Hamilton  Rowan,  for  libel ;  impri- 
soned and  fined  .  .  .  .Jan.  29, 

Mr.  Purefoy,  for  the  murder  of  colonel  Roper, 
in  a  duel ;  acquitted  .  .  .  Aug.  14, 


1767 
1768 
1769 
1772 


1773 
1776 


1777 
1779 

1781 

1786 
1788 

1790 


1792 
1793 


*  At  this  council  was  decreed,  with  anathemas  :  the  canon  of  scripture  (including  the  apocrypha),  and 
the  church  its  sole  interpreter :  the  traditions  to  be  equal  with  scripture  ;  the  seven  sacraments  (baptism, 
confirmation,  the  Lord's  supper,  penance,  extreme  unction,  orders,  and  matrimony)  ;  transubstantiation  ; 
purgatory  ;  indulgences ;  celibacy  of  the  clergy  ;  auricular  confession,  &c. 


THI 


728 


Till 


TRIALS,  continued. 

Mr.  Robert  Watt  and  Downie,  at  Edinburgh, 

for  treason Sept.  3,  1794 

Messrs    Hardy,   Horne   Tooke,   Th  el  wall,   and 

Joyce,  for  high,  treason  ;  acquitted       Oct.  29,     ,, 
Earl  of  Abingdon,  for  his  libel  on  Mr.  Serman  ; 

guilty Dec.  6,     ,, 

Major  Semple,  alias  Lisle,  for  felony 

Redhead  Yorke,  at  York,  libel    .        .    Nov.  27, 

Lord  Westmeath  v.  Bradshaw,  for  crim.  con.  ; 

damages,  io,ooo/  ....        March  4,  1796 
Lord  Valentia  v.    Mr.   Gawler,   for    adultery ; 

damages,  2000? June  16,     ,, 

Daniel  Isaac  Eaton,  for  libels  on  kingly  govern- 
ment ;  guilty         ....          July  8,     „ 
Sir   Godfrey    Webster    v.    lord    Holland,     for 

adultery ;  damages,  6oool.        .         .   Feb.  27,  1797 
Parker,  the  mutineer  at  the  Nore,  called  admi- 
ral Parker.     See  Mutinies        .         .    June  27,     ,, 
Boddington    v.    Boddington,    for    crim.    con.  ; 

damages,  10,000?.          ....  Sept.  5,     „ 
William  Orr  at  Carrickfergus,  for  high  treason  ; 

executed Oct.  12,     ,, 

Mrs.  Phepoe,  alias  Benson,  murderess    Dec.  9,  1797 
The  murderers  of  colonel  St.  George  and  Mr. 

Uniacke,  at  Cork  ....       April  15,  1798 
Arthur  O'Connor  and  O'Coigley,  at  Maidstone, 

for  treason  ;  latter  hanged        .        .    May  21,     ,, 
Sir  Edward  Crosbie  and  others,  for  high  trea- 
son; hanged  .  ...        June  T,    ,, 
Beauchamp  Bagenal  Harvey,  at  Wexford,  for 

high  treason June  21, 

Two  Messrs.  Sheares,  at  Dublin,  for  high  trea- 
son ;  executed        ....       July  12,     ,, 
Theobald  Woulffe  Tone,  by  court-martial  (he 

died  on  the  1 8th)        ....    Nov.  iq    „ 
Sir  Harry  Brown  Hayes,  for  carrying  off  Miss 

Pike  of  Cork April  13,  1800 

Hatfield,  for  shooting  at  George  III.     See  Hat- 
field      June  26,     „ 

Mr.  Tighe  of  Westmeath  v.  Jones,  for  crim.  con.; 

damages,  10,000? Dec.  2,     „ 

Mutineers  at  Bantry  Bay  ;  hanged.    See  Bantry 

Say Jan.  8,  1802 

Charles  Hayes,  for  an  obscene  libel  .        Jan.  9,     „ 
Governor  Wall,  for  cruelty  and  murder,  twenty 

years  before.     See  Goree     .         .        .  Jan.  20,     , , 
Crawley,  for  the  murder  of  two  females   in 

Peter's-row,  Dublin         .        .        .     March  6,     „ 
Colonel  Despard  and  his  associates,  for  high 
treason  ;  hanged  on  the  top  of  Horsemonger- 
lane  gaol.     See  Despard       .        .        .  Feb.  7,  1803 
M.  Peltier,  for  libel  on  Bonaparte,  first  consul 
of  France,  in  I'Ambigue;  guilty      .     Feb.  21, 
Robert  Aslett,  cashier  at  the  bank  of  England, 
for  embezzlement  and  frauds  ;  the  loss  to  the 
Bank,  320,000?. ;  found  not  guilty,  on  account 
of  the  invalidity  of  the  bills        .         July  18,     ,, 
Robert  Emrnett,  at  Dublin,  for  high  treason ; 

executed  next  day  ....     Sept.  19,     „ 
Keenan,  one  of  the  murderers  of  lord  Kil  warden ; 

tanged Oct  2,  1803 

Mr.   Smith,   for  the  murder  of  the  supposed 

Hammersmith  Ghost ....      Jan.  13,  1804 
Lockhart  and  Laudon  Gordon,  for  carrying  off 

Mrs.  Lee March  6,     „ 

Rev.    C.   Massy  v.  marquess  of  Headfort,  for 

crim.  con.  ;  damages,  io,oooZ.  .        .    July  27,     ,, 
William    Cooper,     the    Hackney    Monster,    for 

offences  against  females       .        .       April  17,  1805 
General  Picton,   for  applying   the   torture  to 
Louisa  Calderon,   to    extort    confession,    at 
Trinidad ;  tried  in -the  court  of  King's  Bench  ; 
guilty,  [new   trial,  same  verdict,  June   n, 

,  *8o8J Feb.  24,  1806 

Hamilton    Rowan,    in    Dublin;     pleaded    the 

king's  pardon July  i, 

Judge  Johnson,  for  a  libel  on  the  earl  of  Hard- 
wicke ;  guilty         ....      Nov.  23, 


Mr.  Patch,  for  the  murder  of  his  partner,  Mr. 

Bligh April  6,  1806- 

Lord    Melville,    impeached    by  the    house  of 

commons ;  acquitted  .        .         .          June  12,     ,, 
The  Warriugton  gang,  for  unnatural  offences  ; 

executed Aug.  23,     ,, 

Palm,   the  bookseller,   by  a   French   military 

commission  at  Brennau      .        .         Aug.  26,     „ 
Lord  Cloncurry  v.  sir  John  B.  Piers,  for  crim. 

con.  ;  damages,  20,000?.   .        .         .     Feb.  19,  1807 
Holloway  and  Haggerty,  the  murderers  of  Mr. 

Steele  ;  thirty  persons  were  crushed  to  death 

at  their  execution,  at  the  Old  Bailey,  Feb.  20,     ,, 
Sir  Home  Popham,   by  court-martial;    repri- 
manded         March  7,     ,, 

Knight  v.  Dr.  Wolcot,  alias  Peter  Pindar,   for 

crim.  con.  ......  June,  27,     ,, 

Lieut.   Berry,  of  H.M.S.  Hazard;    for  an  un- 
natural offence Oct.  2,     ,, 

Lord     Elgin     v.    Ferguson,     for    crim.    con.  ; 

damages,  10,000?.  *  Dec.  22,     if 

Simmons,  the  murderer  of  the  Boreham  family, 

at  Hoddesdon March  4,     ,, 

Sir  Artbur  Paget,   for    crim.    con.   with    lady 

Borrington July  14,    ,, 

Major  Campbell,  for  killing  captain  Boyd  in  a 

duel ;  hanged Aug.  4,     „ 

Peter  Finnerty  and  others,  for  a  libel  on  the 

duke  of  York         ....          Nov.  9,     „ 
The   Duke  of  York,  by  inquiry  in  the    house 

of  commons,  on   charges   preferred  against 

him    by  colonel  Wardle,    from  Jan.   26,   to 

March  20,  1809 
Wellesley  v.  lord  Paget,  for  crim.  con. ;  damages, 

20,000? May  12,  1809 

The   king  v.    Valentine  Jones,   for  breach  of 

duty  as  commissary-general  .        .        May  26,     ,, 
The  earl  of  Leicester  v.  Morning  Herald,  for  a 

libel ;  damages,  1000?.        .        .          June  29,     ,, 
Wright  v.  colonel  Wardle,  for  Mrs.   Mary  Ann 

Clarke's  furniture  .         .        .         .        June  i,     ,, 
William  Cobbett,   for  a  libel  on  the  German 

legion  ;  convicted       ....     July  9, 
Hon.  captain  Lake,  for  putting  Robert  Jeffery, 

a    British  seaman,   on  shore  at  Sombrero ; 

dismissed  the  service.  See  Sombrero.  Feb.  10,  1810 
Mr  Perry,  for  libels  in  the  Morning  Chronicle; 

acquitted Feb.  24, 

The  Vere-street  gang,  for  unnatural  offences  ; 

guilty Sept.  20,     „ 

Peter  Finnerty,  for  a  libel  on  lord  Castlereagh  ; 

judgment Jan.  31,  1811 

The  king  v.  Messrs.  John  and  Leigh  Hunt,  tor 

libels  ;  guilty Feb.  22,     ,, 

Ensign  Hepburn  and  White,   the    drummer ; 

both  were  executed        .        .        .     March  7,     ,, 
Walter  Cox,  in  Dublin  ;  for  libels ;  he  stood  in 

the  pillory    .        .        .        .        .      March  12,     ,, 
The  king  v.  W.  Cobbett,  for  libels ;  convicted, 

June  15,     ,, 

Lord  Louth,  in  Dublin  ;  sentenced  to  imprison- 
ment and  fine,  for  oppressive  conduct  as  a 

magistrate June  19,     ,, 

The  Berkeley  cause,  before  the  Louse  of  peers, 

concluded June  28,     ,, 

Dr.  Sheridan,  physician,  on  a  charge  of  sedition  ; 

acqiiitted Nov.  21,     „ 

Gale  Jones,    for    seditious    and    blasphemous 

libels;  convicted  ....        Nov.  26, 
William   Cundell  and  John    Smith,   for    high 

treason  (see  High  Treason)         .        .     Feb.  6,  1812 
Daniel  Isaac  Eaton,  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy  ; 

convicted March  6,     ,, 

Bellingham,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Perceval, 

prime  minister May  15, 

The  king  v.  Mr.  Lovell,  of  the  Statesman,  for 

libel;  guilty Nov.  19,     ,, 

Messrs.  John  and  Leigh  Hunt,  for  libels  in  the 

Examiner;  convicted         .         .         "    Dec.  9,     ,, 


TRI 


Till 


TRIALS,  continued. 

Marquess  of  Sligo,  for  concealing  a  sea-deserter, 

Dec.  16,  1812 

The  murderers  of  Mr.  Horsfall ;  at  York ; 
executed Jan.  7,  1813 

Mr.  Hugh  Fitzpatrick,  for  publishing  Scully's 
History  of  the  Penal  Laws  .  .  .  Feb.  6,  ,, 

The  divorce  cause  against  the  duke  of  Hamilton 
for  adultery  .  April  n,  „ 

Mr.  John  Magee,  in  Dublin,  for  libels  in  the 
Evening  Post ;  guilty  .  .  .  July  26,  , , 

Nicholson,  the  murderer  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bonar ; 
hanged Aug.  21,  ,, 

Tuite,  murder  of  Mr.  Goulding;  executed 

Oct.  7,  „ 

The  celebrated  Mary  Ann  Clarke,  for  a  libel  on 
the  right  hon.  Wm.  Vesey  Fitzgerald,  after- 
wards lord  Fitzgerald  .  .  .  Feb.  7,  1814 

Admiral  Bradley,  at  Winchester,  for  frauds  in 
ship  letters Aug.  18,  ,, 

Lord  Cochrane,  Cochrane  Johnstone,  Bereriger, 
Butt,  and  others,  for  frauds  in  the  public 
funds ;  convicted.  See  Stocks  .  Feb.  22,  ,, 

Colonel  Queutin,  of  the  loth  hussars,  by  court- 
martial  Nov.  10,  ,, 

Sir  John  Henry  Mildmay,  bart.,  for  crim.  con. 
with  the  countess  of  Roseberry  :  damages, 
i5,oooZ Dec.  5,  ,, 

George  Barnett,  for  shooting  at  Miss  Kelly,  of 
Co  vent  Garden  theatre  .  .  .  April  8,  1816 

Captain  Hutchinson,  sir  Robert  Wilson,  and 
Mr.  Bruce,  in  Paris,  for  aiding  the  escape  of 
count  Lavalette.  See  Lavalette  .  April  24,  ,, 

"Captain  Grant,"  the  famous  Irish  robber  at 
Maryborough  ....  Aug.  16,  ,, 

Vaughan,  a  police  officer,  Mackay,  and  Browne, 
for  conspiracy  to  induce  men  to  commit  felo- 
nies to  obtain  the  rewai'd ;  convicted,  Aug.  21,  ,, 

Colonel  Stanhope,  by  court-martial,  at  Cam  bray, 
in  France Sept.  23,  ,, 

Cashman,  the  intrepid  seaman,  for  the  Spa- 
fields  riots,  and  outrages  on  Snowhill ;  con- 
victed and  hanged.  See  Spafields  Jan.  20,  1817 

Count  Maubreuil,  at  Paris,  for  robbing  the 
queen  of  Westphalia  ....  May  2,  ,, 

Mr.  R.  G.  Butt,  for  a  libel  on  lord  chief -justice 
Ellenborough May  23,  ,, 

Mr.  Wooler,  for  libels  on  the  government  and 
ministers June  6,  ,, 

Thistlewood,  Dr.  Watson,  Hooper,  and  others, 
for  treason June  9,  ,, 

The  murderers  of  the  Lynati  family  at  Wild- 
goose-lodge,  Ireland  .  .  .  July  19,  ,, 

Mr.  Roger  O'Connor,  on  a  charge  of  robbing  the 
mail ;  acquitted  ....  Aug.  5,  ,, 

Brandreth,  Turner,  and  others,  at  Derby,  for 
high  treason Oct.  15,  ,, 

Hone,  the  bookseller,  for  parodies  ;  three  trials 
before  lord  Elleuborough :  extemporaneous 
and  successful  defence  .  Dec.  18,  19,  20,  ,, 

Mr.  Dick,  for  the  abduction  and  rape  of  Miss 
Crockatt March  21,  1818 

Appeal  of  murder  case,  Ashford,  the  brother  of 
Mary  Ashford,  against  her  murderer,  Abraham 
Thornton.  ^QQ  Battle .  .  .  April  16,  ,, 

Rev.  Dr.  O'Halloran,  for  forging  a  frank.  See 
Transportation Sept.  9,  ,, 

Robert  Johnston,  at  Edinburgh  ;  his  dreadful 
execution Dec.  30,  ,, 

Sir  Manasseh  Lopez,  for  bribery  at  Grampound. 
See  Bribery  ....  March  18,  1819 

Mosely,  Woolfe,  and  other  merchants  for  con- 
spiracy and  fraud .  .  .  .  April  20,  ,, 

Carlile  for  the  publication  of  Paine's  Age  of 
Reason,  &c Oct.  15,  ,, 

John  Scanlan,  at  Limerick,  for  the  murder  of 
Ellen  Hanly March  14,  1820 

Sir  Francis  Burdett,  at  Leicester,  for  a  seditious 
libel March  23.  ,, 

Henry  Hunt,  and  others,  for  their  conduct  at 


the    Manchester    meeting ;    convicted.      See 

Manchester  Reform  Meeting  .  .  March  27, 
Sir  Charles  Wolseley  and  rev.  Mr.  Harrison,  for 

sedition;  guilty  .  .  .  .April  10, 
Thistlewood,  Ings,  Brunt,  Davidson,  and  Tidd, 

for  conspiracy  to  murder  the  king's  ministers ; 

commenced.  See  Cato-street .  .  April  17, 
Louvel,  in  France,  for  the  murder  of  the  duke 

de  Berri June  7, 

Lord  Glerawley  v.  John  Burn,  for  crim.  con. 

June  1 8, 
Major  Cartwright  and  others,  at  Warwick,  for 

sedition Aug.  3, 

"Little  Waddington,"  for  a  seditious  libel; 

acquitted Sept.  19, 

Lieutenant-colonel  French,  6th  dragoon  guards, 

by  court-martial  ....  Sept.  19. 
Caroline,  queen  of  England,  before  the  house  of 

lords,  for  adultery,  commenced  Aug.  16 ;  it 

terminated  (see  Quetn  Caroline's  Trial)  Nov.  10, 
The  female  murderers  of  Miss  Thompson,  in 

Dublin  ;  hanged May  i, 

David  Haggart,  an  extraordinary  robber,  and  a 

man  of  singularly  eventful  life,  at  Edinburgh, 

for  the  murder  of  a  turnkey  .  .  June  9, 
Samuel  D.  'Hayward,  the  favourite  man  of 

fashion,  for  burglary  ....  Oct.  8, 
The  murderers  of  Mrs.  Torrauce,  in  Ireland ; 

convicted  and  hanged  .  .  .  Dec.  17, 
Cussen,  Leahy,  and  others,  for  the  abduction 

of  Miss  Gould  ....  July  29, 
Barthelemi,  in  Paris,  for  the  abduction  of 

Elizabeth  Florence  ....  Sept.  23, 
Cuthbert  v.  Browne,  singular  action  for  deceit, 

Jan.  28, 
The  famous  "  Bottle  Conspirators,"  in  Ireland, 

by  ex-officio Feb.  23, 

The  extraordinary  "earl  of  Portsmouth's  case," 

commenced March  18, 

Probert,  Hunt,  and  Thurtell,  murderers  of  Mr. 

Weare ;    Probert    turned    king's    evidence  ; 

afterwards  hanged    for  horse -stealing.     See 

Executions.          .....     Jan.  5, 

Mr.  Henry  Faimtleroy,  banker  of  London,  for 

forgery ;  hanged  ....  Oct.  30, 
Foote  v.  Hayne,  for  breach  of  promise  of 

marriage  ;  damages,  3000^  .  .  Dec.  22, 
Mr.  Henry  Savary,  a  banker's  son  at  Bristol, 

for  forgery April  4, 

O'Keefe  and  Bourke,  the  murderers  of  the 

Franks  family Aug.  18, 

John  Grosset  Muirhead,  esq.,  for  indecent 

practices Oct.  21, 

The  case  of  Mr.  Wellesley  Pole,  and  the  Misses 

Long  :  commenced  ....  Nov.  9, 
Captain  Bligh  v.  the  hon.  Wm.  Wellesley  Pole, 

for  adultery Nov.  25, 

Fisher  v.  Stockdale,  f  or  a  libel  in  Harriette  Wilson 

March  20, 
Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield,  and  others,  for 

abduction  of  Miss  Turner  .  .  March  24, 
Rev.  Robert  Taylor,  for  blasphemy;  found 

guilty Oct.  24, 

Richmond  Seymour,  esq.,  and  Macklin,  for  an 

unnatural  crime  .  March  12, 

Richard  Gillam,  for  the  murder  of  Maria 

Bagster,  at  Taunton  .  .  .  April  8, 
Mr.  Montgomery,  for  forgery:  he  committed 

suicide  in  prison  on  the  morning  appointed 

for  his  execution  ....  July  4, 
Brinklett,  for  the  death  of  lord  Mount  Sandford 

by  a  kick July  16, 

William  Corder,  for  the  murder  of  Maria 

Marten ;  executed  .  .  .  Aug.  6, 
Joseph  Hunton,  a  quaker  merchant,  for 

forgery  ;  hanged  ....  Oct.  28, 
Burke,  at  Edinburgh,  for  the  Burking  murders  ; 

Hare,  his  accomplice,  became  approver.     See 

Burking Dec.  24, 


1820 


1821 


1822 


1823 


1824 


1826 
1827 


1828 


TRI 


730 


TRI 


TRIALS,  continued. 

The  king  v.  Buxton,  and  others,  for  a  fraudu- 
lent marriage        ....      March  21,  1829 
Jonathan   Martin,   for    setting    fire    to    York- 
minster    March  31,     ,, 

Stewart  and  his  wife,    noted    murderers,    at 

Glasgow ;  hanged        .        .        .          July  14,     ,, 
Reinbauer,  the  Bavarian  priest,  for  his  murders 

of  women Aug.  4,     ,, 

Captain  Dickenson,  by  court-martial,  at  Ports- 
mouth ;  acquitted        .        .        .        Aug.  26,     ., 
Mr.  Alexander,  editor  of  the  Morning  Journal, 

for  libels  on  the  duke  of  Wellington  ;    con- 
victed          Feb.  10,  1830 

Chine,    &c.    at    Ennis,    for    cutting    out    the 

tongues  of  the  Doyles  .         .        .       March  4,     ,, 
Mr.    Comyn,    for   burning    his    house    in   the 

county  of  Clare  ;  hanged  .        .  March  6,     ,, 

Mr.  Lambrecht,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Clayton, 

in  a  duel April  2,     ,, 

Captain    Moir,    for    the    murder    of    William 

Malcolm  ;  hanged       ....  July  30,     , , 
Captains  Smith  and  Markhnm,  for  killing  Mr. 

O'Grady  in  a  duel   ....      Aug.  24,    , , 
Captain   Helsham,   for  the    murder    of    lieut. 

Crowther  in  a  duel      ....    Oct.  8,     ,, 
Mr.   St.  John  Long,  for  the  manslaughter  of 

Miss  Cashin.     See  Quacks        .        .      Oct.  30,     ,, 
Polignac,  Peyronnet,  and  others,  ministers  of 

France.     See  France    .        .        .         Dec.  21,     ,, 
Carlile,  for  a  seditious  libel,  inciting  to  a  riot ; 

guilty Jan.  10,   1831 

Mr.  D.  O'Connell,  for  breach  of  proclamation  ; 

pleaded  guilty       ....        Feb.  12,     „ 
St.    John    Long,    for    manslaughter    of    Mrs. 

Lloyd.     See  Quacks    ....   Feb.  19,     ,, 
Mr.    Luke   Dillon,   for  the    violation    of   Miss 

Frizell ;  convicted.        .         .        .       April  14,     ,, 
Major    Dundas,    for    the    seduction    of     Miss 

Adams  ;  damages,  3000^.  .         .        .    May  26,     ,, 
Mr.   Cobbett,   for  a  seditious  libel;  the  jury 

could  not  agree       ....        July  7,     ,, 
Rev.  Robert  Taylor  (who  obtained  the  revolting 

distinction  of   "the  Devil's   Chaplain"),   for 

reviling  the  REDEEMER  ;  convicted       July  6,     ,, 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Deacle  v.  Mr.  Bingham  Baring, 

M.P July  14,     ,, 

Bird,  a  boy  of  14  years  of  age,  for  the  murder 

of  a  child  ;  hanged  .        .        .         .       Aug.  i,     ,, 
The    great    cause,    earl    of   Kingston    v.   lord 

Lorton  ;  commenced  ....   Nov.  9    , , 
Bishop  and  Williams,  for  murder  of  the  Italian 

boy.     See  Burking   ....       Dec.  3,     ,, 
Earl  of  Mar,  in  Scotland,  for  shooting  at  Mr. 

Oldham Dec.  17,     ,, 

Elizabeth  Cooke,  for  the  murder  of  Mrs.  Walsh, 

by  "Burking"        ....        Jan.  6,  1832 
Colonel  Brereton,  by  court-martial,  at  Bristol. 

See  Bristol Jan.  9,     ,, 

The  murderers  of    Mr.   Blood,   of   Applcvale, 

county  of  Clare        ....       Feb.  28,     ,, 
William  Duggan,  at  Cork,  for  the  murder  of  his 

wife  and  others  .        .        .        .        March  26,     ., 
Mr.  Hodgson  (son  of  the  celebrated  Miss  Aston) 

v.  Greene July  26,     ,, 

Mayor  of  Bristol,  for  neglect  of  duty  in  the 

Bristol  riots *  Oct.  26,     ,, 

Rev.  Mr.  Irving,  by  his  own  (the  Scots)  church, 

for  heresy March  13,  1833 

Lord    Teynham,     and    Dolan,     a    tailor,     for 

swindling;  guilty      .         .        .        .  May  10,     ,, 
Mr.    Baring     Wall,    M.P.  ;     most    honourably 

acquitted May  u,     ,, 

Attorney-general     <•.     Shore     (lady     Rowley's 

charity,  which  is  taken  from  the^Unitarians), 

Dec.  23,     „ 
Captain  Wathen ,  1 5th  hussars,  by  court-martial, 

at  Cork  ;  honourably  acquitted  ;  his  colonel, 

lord  Brudenell,  cashiered    .         .          Jan.  — ,  1834 
Proprietors  of  the  True  Sun,  for  libels  ;  guilty, 

Feb.  6,     ,. 


1839- 


1840 


Mary  Ann  Burdock,  the  celebrated  murderess, 
at  Bristol April  10,  1835 

Sir  John  de  Beauvoir,  for  perjury;  acquitted, 

May  29,  ,, 

Fieschi,  at  Paris,  for  attempting  the  life  of  the 
king,  Louis  Philippe,  by  exploding  an  infernal 
machine.  See  Fieschi  .  .  .  Jan.  30,  1836 

Hon.  G.  C.  Norton  v.  lord  Melbourne,  in  Court 
of  Common  Pleas,  for  crim.  con.  with  the  hon. 
Mrs.  Norton  ;  verdict  for  defendant,  June  22,  ,. 

Lord  de  Roos  v.  Cumming,  for  defamation, 
charging  lord  de  Roos  with  cheating  at 
cards  ;  verdict  in  favour  of  Mr.  Cumming, 

Feb.  10,  1837 

James  Greenacre  and  Sarah  Gale,  for  the  murder 
of  Hannah  Browne ;  Greenacre  convicted 
and  hanged  ;  Gale  transported  .  April  10,  , , 

Francis  Hastings  Medhurst,  esq.,  for  killing 
Mr.  Joseph  Alsop  ;  guilty  .  .  April  13, 

Bolam,  for  the_murder  of  Mr.  Millie ;  verdict, 
manslaughter July  30, 

Rev.  Mr.  Stephens,  at  Chester,  for  inflamma- 
tory language  ....  Aug.  15, 

John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate,  and  others,  for 
high  treason  ;  guilty  :  sentence  commuted  to 
transportation.  See  Newport  .  .  Dec.  31, 

Courvoisier,  for  the  murder  of  lord  William 
Russell ;  hanged  .  .  .  June  18,  20, 

Gould,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Templeman ; 
transported June  22,  .. 

Edward  Oxford,  attempted  the  life  of  the 
queen ;  adjudged  insane,  and  confined  in 
Bethlehem.  See  Oxford  .  .  July  9,  10,  ,. 

Madame  Lafarge,  in  France,  for  the  murder  of 
her  husband  ;  guilty  .  .  .  Sept.  2,  ,. 

Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  for  his  descent  upon 
France.  See  France  .  .  .  Oct.  6,  ,, 

Captain  R.  A.  Reynolds,  nth  hussars,  by  court- 
martial  ;  guilty  :  the  sentence  excited  great 
popular  displeasure  against  his  colonel,  lord 
Cardigan Oct.  20,  ,. 

Lord  Cardigan  before  the  house  of  peers, 
capitally  charged  for  wounding  captain 
Harvey  Tucket  in  a  duel ;  acquitted,  Feb.  16,  1841 

The  Wallaces,  brothers,  merchants,  for  having 
wilfully  caused  the  destruction  of  the  ship 
Dryad  at  sea,  to  defraud  the  under-writers ; 
transported March  4,  ,. 

Josiah  Mister,  for  attempting  the  life  of  Mr. 
Mackreth ;  guilty  .  .  .  .  March  23,  ,, 

Bartholomew  Murray,  at  Chester,  for  the 
murder  of  Mrs.  Cook  .  .  .  April  5,  ,. 

Earl  of  Waldegrave  and  captain  Duff,  for  an 
aggravated  assault  on  a  police  constable ; 
guilty  :  judgment,  six  months'  imprisonment, 
and  fines  of  2ooL  and  20?.  .  .  Mays,  j- 

Madame  Larfarge  again,  for  robbery  of  diamonds, 

Aug.  7,  „ 

The  great  case,  Allen  Bogle  v.  Mr.  Lawson, 
publisher  of  the  Times  newspaper,  for  an 
alleged  libel,  in  stating  the  plaintiff  to  be 
connected  with  numerous  bank  forgers 
throughout  Europe  in  their  schemes  to 
defraud  Messrs.  Glyn  and  Company, 
bankers  of  London,  by  means  of  fictitious 
letters  of  credit :  damagesr  one  farthing. 
This  exposure,  so  honourable  to  the  Times, 
led  to  the  Times  Testimonial  .  .  Aug.  16,  .. 

Mr.  Mac  Leod,  at  Utica,  America,  for  taking 
part  in  the  destruction  of  the  Caroline,  com- 
menced :  acquitted  after  a  trial  that  lasted 
eight  days Oct.  4,  . . 

Robert  Blakesley,  for  the  murder  of  Mr. 
Burdon,  of  Eastcheap ;  hanged  .  Oct.  28,  .. 

Mr.  Beaumont  Smith,  for  the  forgery  of 
Exchequer  bills  to  an  immense  amount ;  he 
pleaded  guilty,  and  was  sentenced  to  trans- 
portation for  life  .....  Dec.  4,  ,. 

Sophia  Darbon  v.  Rosser  ;  breach  of  promise  of 
marriage ;  damages  i6ool.  .  .  Dec.  8,  ,. 


TRI 


731 


Till 


TRIALS,  continued. 

Dr.  Webster,  for  bribery  at  an  election  of  St. 
Alban's;  acquitted  .  .  .  March  3,  1842 

Mr.  John  Levick  and  Antonio  Mattei,  principal 
and  second  in  the  duel  in  which  lieut.  Adams 
was  killed  at  Malta;  both  acquitted, 

March  10,  ,, 

Vivier,  courier  of  the  Morning  Herald,  at 
Boulogne,  for  conveying  the  Indian  mail 
through  France,  for  that  journal,  contrary  to 
the  French  regulations  .  .  .  April  13,  ,, 

Daniel  Good,  for  the  murder  of  Jane  Jones ; 
the  memorable  Roehampton  murder;  found 
guilty,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged  May  13,  ,, 

John  Francis,  for  attempting  to  assassinate  the 
queen  (see  Francis)  .  .  .  Jnnc  17,  ,, 

Thomas  Cooper,  for  the  murder  of  Duly,  the 
policeman  ;  hanged  ....  July  4,  ., 

Nicholas  Suisse,  valet  of  the  late  marquess  of 
Hei-tford,  at  the  prosecution  of  that  noble- 
man's executors,  charged  with  enormous 
frauds  ;  acquitted  ....  July  6,  „ 

M'Gill  and  others,  for  the  abduction  of  Miss 
Crellin ;  guilty  ....  Aug.  8,  ,, 

Nicholas  Suisse  again,  upon  like  charges,  and 
again  acquitted  ....  Aug.  24,  ,, 

Bean,  for  pointing  a  pistol  at  the  queen;  18 
months'  imprisonment  '.  .  .  Aug.  25,  ,, 

The  rioters  in  the  provinces,  under  a  special 
commission,  at  Stafford  .  .  .  Oct.  i,  „ 

The  Cheshire  rioters,  under  a  special  com- 
mission, before  lord  Abinger  .  .  Oct.  6,  ,, 

The  Lancashire  rioters,  also  under  a  special 
commission Oct.  10,  ,, 

Alice  Lowe,  at  the  prosecution  of  lord  Frank- 
fort; acquitted  ....  Oct.  31,  ,, 

Mr.  Howard,  attorney,  v.  sir  William  Gosset, 
serjeant-at-arms Dec.  5,  ,, 

Mr.  Egan,  in  Dublin,  for  the  robbery  of  a  bank 
parcel ;  acquitted  ....  Jan.  17,  1843 

Rev.  W.  Bailey.,  LL.D.,  for  forgery;  guilty: 
transportation  for  life  .  .  .  .  Feb.  i,  ,, 

Mac  Naughten,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Drum- 
mond,  secretary  to  sir  Robert  Peel ;  acquitted 
on  the  ground  of  insanity  .  .  March  4,  , , 

The  Rebeccaites,  at  Cardiff,  under  a  special 
commission Oct.  27,  ,, 

Samuel  Sidney  Smith,  for  forgery  ;  sentenced 
to  transportation  for  life  .  .  Nov.  29,  , , 

Edward  Dwyer,  for  the  murder  of  his  child  at 
South wark ;  guilty  ....  Dec.  i,  ,, 

Mr.  Holt,  of  the  Age  ;  libel  on  the  duke  of 
Brunswick ;  guilty  >  Jan.  29,  1844 

Lieut.  Grant,  second  to  licut.  Munro,  in  his 
duel  with  col.  Fawcett ;  acquitted  Feb.  14,  ,, 

Fraser  v.  Bagley,  for  crini.  con;  verdict  for 
the  defendant  .  .  .  .  .  Feb.  19,  ,, 

Lord  William  Paget  v.  earl  of  Cardigan  for 
crim.  con.  ;  verdict  for  defendant  iFeb.  26,  ,, 

Mary  Furley,  for  the  murder  of  her  child  in  an 
agony  of  despair  ....  April  1 6,  ,, 


The  will-forgers,  William  Henry  Barber  (since 
declared  innocent*),  Joshua  Fletcher, 
Georgiana  Dorey,  William  Sanders,  and 
Susannah,  his  wife ;  ah1  found  guilty,  April 
15  ;  sentenced  ....  April  22, 

Crouch,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife :  found 
guilty.  May  8 ;  hanged  .  .  May  27, 

Messrs.  O'Connell,  sen.,  O'Connell,  jun.,  Steele, 
Ray,  Barrett,  Grey,  Duffy,  and  rev.  Thomas 
Tieniey,  at  Dublin,  for  political  conspiracy  : 
the  trial  commenced  Jan.  15,  and  lasted 
twenty-four  days  :  all  the  traversers  were 
found  guilty,  Feb.  12.  Proceedings  on  motions 
for  a  new  trial,  &c.,  extended  the  case  into 
Easter  term  ;  and  sentence  was  pronounced 
upon  all  but  the  clergyman,  on  whom  judg- 
ment was  remitted  .  .  .  May  30, 

Augustus  Dalmas,  for  the  murder  of  Karah 
Macfarlane  ;  guilty  ....  June  14, 

Wm.  Burton  Newenham,  for  the  abduction  of 
Miss  Wortham  ;  guilty  .  .  .  June  17, 

Bellamy,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife  by  prussic 
acid  ;  acquitted  ....  Aug.  21, 

John  Tawell,  for  the  murder  of  Sarah  Hart ; 
hanged March  13,  14. 

Thomas  Henry  Hocker,  for  the  murder  of 
James  Delarue April  1 1 , 

Joseph  Connor,  for  the  murder  of  Mary 
Brothers May  16, 

The  Spanish  pirates,  for  the  murder  of  ten 
Englishmen  at  sea  ....  July  26. 

Rev.  Mr.  Wetherell,  for  crim.  con.  with  Mrs. 
Cooke,  his  own  daughter  .  .  Aug.  16, 

Capt.  Johnson,  of  the  ship  Tori/,  for  the  murder 
of  several  of  his  crew  ....  Feb.  5, 

Miss  M.  A.  Smith  v.  earl  Ferrers ;  breach  of 
promise  of  marriage  .  .  .  Feb.  18, 

Lieut.  Hawkey,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Seton, 
in  a  duel ;  acquitted  .  .  .  July  16, 

Richard  Dunn,  for  perjury  and  attempted 
fraud  on  Miss  A.  Burdett  Coutts  Feb.  27, 

Mitchell,  the  Irish  confederate ;  transported 
for  14  years.  See  Ireland  .  .  May  26, 

Wm.  Smith  O'Brien,  Meagher,"  and  other 
confederates ;  sentenced  to  death  ;  the  sen- 
tence afterwards  commuted  to  transportation 
(pardoned  in  1856)  ....  Oct.  9, 

Blourafield  Rush,  for  the  murder  of  Messrs. 
Jermy,  at  Norwich  ;  hanged  .  March  29, 

Gorham  v.  the  bishop  of  Exeter ;  ecclesiastical 
case  ;  judgment  given  in  the  court  of  Arches 
against  the  plaintiff  t  .  Aug.  2, 

Manning  and  his  wife,  for  the  murder  of 
O'Connor  ;  guilty :  death  .  .  .  Oct.  27, 

Walter  Watts,  lessee  of  the  Olympic  theatre, 
for  forgery,  &c May  10, 

Robert  Pate,  a  retired  lieutenant,  for  an  assault 
on  the  queen  .....  July  n, 

The  Sloanes,  man  and  wife,  for  starving  their 
servant,  Jane  Wilbred  .  .  .  Feb.  5, 


1844 


1843 


1846 


1847 
1848 

1848 
1849 


1850 
1851 


*  In  1848  Mr.  Barber  returned  to  England  with  a  free  pardon,  and  an  acknowledgment  of  his  inno- 
cence by  his  prosecutors  :  he  was  re-admitted  to  practise  as  an  attorney  :  and  on  the  3rd  of  August,  1859, 
in  conformity  with  the  recommendation  of  a  select  committee  of  the  house  of  commons,  the  sum  of 
SoooZ.  was  voted  him  "as  a  national  acknowledgment  of  the  wrong  he  had  suffered  from  an  erroneous 
prosecution." 

t  This  long-contested  case  created  much  sensation  at  the  time.  The  bishop  had  refused  to  institute 
the  rev.  Mr.  Gorham  in  the  living  of  Brampton-Speke,  in  Devonshire,  to  which  he  had  been  presented. 
The  cause  of  the  bishop's  refusal  was  alleged  want  of  orthodoxy  in  the  plaintiff,  who  denied  that  spiritual 
regeneration  was  conferred  by  baptism  ;  the  court  held  that  the  charge  against  the  plaintiff  of  holding  false 
doctrine  was  proved,  and  that  the  bishop  was  justified  in  his  refusal.  Mr.  Gorhani  appealed  to  the 
Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  which  pronounced  its  opinion  (March  8,  1850) that  "the  doctrine 
held  by  Mr.  Gorham  was  not  contrary  or  repugnant  to  the  declared  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England,  and 
that  Mr.  Gorham  ought  not,  by  reason  of  the  doctrine  held  by  him,  to  have  been  refused  admission  to  the 
vicarage  of  Brampton-Speke. "  This  decision  led  to  subsequent  proceedings  in  the  three  courts  of  law,  succes- 
sively, for  a  rule  to  show  cause  why  a  prohibition  should  not  issue  directed  to  the  jxidge  of  the  Arches 
Court,  and  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  against  giving  effect  to  the  judgment  of  her  majesty  in  council. 
The  rule  was  refused  in  each  court,  and  in  the  end  Mr.  Gorham  was  instituted  into  the  vicarage  in  question, 
Aug.  7,  1850. 


TRI 


732 


TRI 


TRIALS,  continued. 

The  Board  of  Customs  v.  the  London  Dock 
Company,  on  ;i  charge  of  defrauding  the 
revenue  of  duties;  a  trial  of  n  days  ended 
in  a  virtual  acquittal  .  .  .  Feb.  18,  1851 

Sarah  Chesham,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband 
by  poison  :  she  had  murdered  several  of  her 
children  and  others  by  the  same  means ; 
hanged March  6,  „ 

Thomas  Drory,  for  the  murder  of  Jael  Denny : 
hanged March  7,  ,, 

Doyle  v.  Wright,  concerning  the  personal 
custody  of  Miss  Augusta  Talbot,  a  Roman 
Catholic  ward  of  Chancery,  before  the  lord 
chancellor ;  protracted  case  .  March  22,  ,, 

The  murderers  of  the  rev.  George  Edward 
Holiest,  of  Firmley,  Essex  ;  guilty,  March  31,  ,, 

Miller  r.  aid.  Salomons,  M.P.,  for  voting  as  a 
member  without  having  taken  the  required 
oath  ;  verdict  against  the  defendant,  April  19,  1852 

The  case  "Bishop  of  London  v.  the  rev.  Mr. 
Gladstone :"  judgment  of  the  Arches  court 
against  the  defendant  .  .  .  June  10,  ,, 

Achilli  v.  Newman,  for  libel ;  tried  before  lord 
chief  justice  Campbell  in  the  Queen's  Bench  : 
verdict  for  the  plaintiff  .  .  .  Jan.  31,  „ 

Lord  Frankfort,  for  scandalous  and  defamatory 
libels ;  guilty  .  .  .  .  .  Dec.  3,  ,, 

Richard  Bourke  Kirwan,  for  the  murder  of  his 
wife;  guilty Dec.  TO,  ,, 

Eliot  Bower,  for  the  nrnrder  of  Mr.  Saville 
Morton,  at  Paris  ;  acquitted  .  Dec.  28,  „ 

Henry  Horler,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife ; 
hanged  at  the  Old  Bailey  .  .  Jan.  15,  1853 

James  Barbour,  for  the  murder  of  Robinson; 
hanged  at  York  ....  Jan.  15,  ,, 

George  Sparkes  and  James  Hitchcock,  for  the 
murder  of  William  Blackmore  at  Exeter; 
guilty March  19,  ,, 

Five  Frenchmen  (principal  and  seconds)  for 
the  murder  of  a  sixth  Frenchman  in  a  duel 
at  Egham  ;  verdict,  manslaughter,  March  21,  „ 

Moore  and  Walsh,  for  the  murder  of  John 
Blackburn,  at  Stafford  ;  hanged  .  March  21, 

Saunders,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Toler  ;  hanged 
at  Chelmsford  ....  March  30,  ,, 

The  Stackpole  family,  four  in  number;  two 
of  them  females,  and  wives  to  the  others,  for 
the  murder  of  their  relative,  also  a  Stackpole  ; 
hanged  at  Ennis  ....  April  28,  ,, 

Case  of  Holy  Cross  Hospital,  Winchester,  de- 
cided against  rev.  earl  of  Guildford,  Aug.  i,  ,, 

Smyth  v.  Smyth,  ended  in  the  plaintiff  being 
committed  on  a  charge  of  forging  the  will  on 
which  he  grounded  his  claim  Aug.  8,  9,  10,  ,, 

The  Braintree  case  respecting  liability  to 
church-rates,  decided  by  the  house  of  lords, 
against  the  rate  ....  Aug.  12,  „ 

Case  of  Lumley  v.  Gye,  respecting  Madlle. 
Wagner  ;  decided  ....  Feb.  22,  1854 

Mr.  Jeremiah  Smith,  mayor  of  Rye,  convicted 
of  perjury March  2,  ,, 

Duchess  of  Manchester's  will  case        .       April,     „ 

Mr.  Carden  for  the  abduction  of  Miss  E. 
Arbuthnot,  and  assault  upon  John  Srnith- 
wick  ;  convicted  .  .  .  July  28,  29,  ,, 

Mary  Anne  Brough,  for  murdering  her  six 
children  ;  not  guilty  (insanity)  .  Aug.  9,  „ 

Case  of  Pierce  Somerset  Butler  v.  viscount 
Mountgarret ;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  who  thus 
came  into  a  peerage,  the  defendant  being 
proved  illegitimate  ....  Aug.  „ 

Courts-martial  on  lieutenants  Perry  and  Greer  ; 


sentences  reversed  by  lord  Har dingo,  July 

29— Aug.   1854 

Courts-martial  on  sir  E.  Belcher,  captain 
McClure,  &c.,  for  abandoning  their  ships  in 
the  Arctic  regions  ;  acquitted  .  .  Oct.  ,, 

Emanuel  BartheltSmy,  for  murder  of  Charles 
Collard  and  Mr.  Moore  (executed)  ;  Jan.  4,  1855 

Handcock  r.  Delacour,  otherwise  De  Burgh 
(cruelty  of  Mrs.  Handcock,  and  charges 
against  lord  Clanricarde)  ;  compromised  .  .  , , 

Earl  of  Sefton  v.    Hopwood  (will   set   aside), 

April  3-10,     ,, 

Luigi  Baranelli,  for  murder  of  Joseph  Latham 
(or  Lambert);  (executed  April  30)  .  April  12,  ,, 

Charles  King,  a  great  thief -trainer ;  transported, 

April  13,     ,, 

David  M.  Davidson  and  Cosmo  W.  Gordon,  for 
frauds  and  forgeries  of  securities,  <fcc.  ;  con- 
victed   May  24,  ,, 

Wm.  Austin  (governor),  for  cruelties  in  Bir- 
mingham gaol;  acauitted  .  .  Aug.  3,  ,, 

Sir  John  Dean  Paul,   William    Strahan,   and 
Robert  M.  Bates,  bankers,   for  disposing  of 
their  customers'  securities  (to  the  amount  of    . 
113,625?.) :  convicted    .        .        .         Oct.  27,     , 

Joseph  Wooler,  on  charge  of  poisoning  his  wife  ; 
acquitted Nov.  7, 

Westerton  v.  Liddell*  (on  decorations,  &c.,  in 
church  in  Knightsbridge  ;  decision  against 
them) Dec.  5,  ,, 

Celestina  Sommers,  for  murder  of  her  children ; 
convicted  (but  reprieved)  .  .  March  6,  1856 

Wm.  Palmer,  f  for  murder  of  J.  P.  Cook  by 
poison  (executed)  .  .  .  May  14-27,  ,, 

Wm.  Dove,  for  murder  of  his  wife  (executed 
Aug.  9) July  19,  ,, 

Ditcher  v.  archdeacon  Dcnison,  respecting  the 
doctrine  of  the  eucharist ;  defendant  deprived, 
and  appeal  disallowed  .  .  .  Oct.  22,  ,, 

W.S.  Hardwicke  and  H.  Attwell ;  convicted  of 
forgery Oct.  31,  „ 

Wm.  Robson,  for  frauds  of  Crystal  Palace 
Company  (to  the  amount  of  about  28,000?.)  ; 
transported  for  twenty  years  .  Nov.  i,  ,, 

Earl  of  Lucan  v.  Daily  News  for  libel ;  verdict 
for  defendant  .  .  .  .  Dec.  3,  ,, 

Pearce,  Burgess,  and  Tester.     See  Gold  Robbery 

Jan.  14,  1857 

Leopold  Redpath,  for  forgeries  (to  the  amount 
of  150,000?.)  upon  Great  Northern  Railway 
Company  ;  transported  for  life  .  Jan.  16,  ,, 

Miss  Madeline  Smith,  on  charge  of  poisoning 
Emile  L'Angelier,  at  Glasgow ;  not  proven, 

June  30 — July  9,    ,, 

Thos.  Fuller  Bacon,  J  for  poisoning  his  mother, 
convicted July  25,  ,, 

James  Spollen,  on  charge  of  murder  of  Mr. 
Little,  near  Dublin  ;  acquitted  .  Aug.  7-11,  ,, 

Jem  Saward,  a  barrister  (called  the  Penman), 
Wm.  Anderson,  and  others,  convicted  of 
extensive  forgery  of  bankers'  cheques,  Mar.  5,  ,, 

W.  Attwell  and  others,  convicted  of  stealing  the 
countess  of  Ellesrnere's  jewels  (value  15,000?.) 
from  the  top  of  a  cab  •  .  .  Dec.  15,  ,, 

Strevens  r.  Campion,  for  slander,  in  charging 
the  plaintiff  with  complicity  in  the  murder 
of  his  aunt,  Mrs.  Kelly  ;  damages  6d.  Dec.  31,  ,, 

The  directors  of  the  British  Bank,  Humphry 
Brown,  Edw.  Esdaile,  H.  D.  Macleod,  alder- 
man R.  H.  Kennedy,  W.  D.  Owen,  James 
Stapleton,  and  Hugh  Innes  Cameron,  for 
fraud  (see  Banks,  p.  68)  ;  convicted  Feb.  13-27,  1858 


t 

he  woul 
remarkable  one  for  many  years. 

\  He  was  acquitted  on  a  charge  of  murdering  two  children  in  May  13,  14,  same  year.    His  wife  con- 
fessed the  murder,  but  appeared  to  be  insane. 


Till 


733 


TRI 


TRIALS,  continued. 

Rev.  S.  Smith  and  his  wife,  for  murderous 
assault  en  John  Leech  ;  convicted,  April  6,  7,  1858 

Edw.  Auchmuty  Glover,  M.P.,  for  false  declara- 
tion of  qualification  of  M.P.  .  April  9,  <fcc.  ,, 

Simon  Bernard,  as  accessory  to  the  conspiracy 
against  the  life  of  the  emperor  Napoleon; 
acquitted  ....  April  12-17,  >• 

The  earldom  of  Shrewsbury  case ;  earl  Talbot's/ 
claim  allowed  ....  June  i,  ,, 

James  Seal,  for  the  murder  of  Sarah  Guppy ; 
convicted  (and  executed)  .  .  July  23,  ,, 

The  Berkeley  peerage  case       .         .        July  23,     ,, 

Patience  Swynfen  v.  F.  H.  Swynfen  ;  *  a  will 
case  ;  the  will  affirmed  .  .  .  July  27,  „ 

Lemon  Oliver,  a  stockbroker,  convicted  of  ex- 
tensive frauds  ....  Nov.  10,  ,, 

Marchmont  v.  Marchmont ;  a  disgraceful  divorce 
case,  began Nov.  30,  ,, 

W.  H.  Guernsey,  for  stealing  Ionian  despatches 
from  the  Colonial  Office  ;  acquitted,  Dec.  15,  ,, 

Evans  v.  Evans  and  Rose  ;  divorce  case       Dec.     „ 

Lieut. -col.  Dickson  v.  earl  of  Wilton,  for  libel ; 
verdict  for  the  plaintiff  .  .  Feb.  14,  1859 

Black  v.  Elliott,  850  sheep  poisoned  by  a  sheep- 
wash  sold  by  defendant;  damages  1400^. 

Feb.  23,     ,, 

Wagner,  Bateman,  and  others,  a  gang  of  bank 
forgers ;  convicted  .  .  .  May  13,  ,, 

Earl  of  Shrewsbury  v.  Hope  Scott,  and  others  ; 
the  earl  gains  the  Shrewsbury  estates,  June  3,  ,, 

Thellusson  will  case  decided  (see   Tkellusson) 

June  9,     „ 

T.  R.  Marshall,  E.  A.  Mortimer,  and  H.  S. 
Eicke,  convicted  of  illegal  sale  of  army  com- 
missions   June  29,  ,, 

Thomas  Smethurst,t  a  surgeon,  for  the  murder 
by  poison  of  Isabella  Bankes,  whom  he  had 
married  during  his  wife's  lifetime ;  convicted 

Aug.  15-19,     „ 

Oakley  v.  the  Moulvie  Ooddeen,  "  ambassador 
of  the  king  of  Oude."  Verdict  for  the  defen- 
dant, who  seems  to  have  fallen  among  bill- 
sharpers  Dec.  17,  ,, 

David  Hughes,  an  attorney,  convicted  of  gross 
frauds  upon  his  clients  .  .  .  Jan.  1860 

Eugenia  Plummer,  aged  n  years,  convicted  of 
perjury  against  rev.  Mr.  Hatch  May  14,  ,, 

Nottidge  v.  Prince  (see  Agapemone)         July  25,     ,, 

Thomas  Hopley,  a  schoolmaster,  convicted  of 
manslaughter  of  Reginald  Cancellor,  by 
flogging July  23,  ,, 

Mr.  Edward  Leatham,  M.-l?.,  convicted  of 
bribery  at  Wake  field  .  .  .  July  19,  „ 

Rev.  J.  Bonwell,  of  Stepney,  degraded  for  im- 
morality   Aug.  29,  „ 

James  Mullens,  convicted  for  the  murder  of  Mrs. 
Elmsley  ;  by  endeavouring  to  inculpate  one 
Ems,  he  led  to  his  own  conviction  Oct.  25,  „ 

Miss  Sheddtn  v.  Patrick.  (The  plaintiff  ably 
pleaded  her  own  cause  when  the  case  was 


opened  ;  her  object,  to  prove  the  legitimacy  of 
her  father,  was  not  attained)  Nov.  9,  et  seq. 

Hooper  v.  Ward;  disgraceful  profligacy  of  a 
magistrate  ;  verdict  for  plaintiff  Dec.  19,  20, 

Brook,i>.  Brook  (see  Marriage  with  Wife's  Sister). 
The  house  of  lords  on  appeal  decide  against 
the  validity  of  such  marriages,  even  when 
celebrated  in  a  foreign  country  March  18, 

Thelwall  v.  hon.  major  Yelverton.  The  plaintiff 
sued  for  expenses  incurred  by  defendant's 
wife ;  the  major  denied  the  validity  of  his 
marriage  with  Miss  Longwurth,  having  since 
married  the  widow  of  professor  Edward 
Forbes,  the  eminent  naturalist.  The  court 
in  Dublin,  supported  the  first  marriage,  } 
Feb.  21,  to  March  4, 

Reade  v.  Lacy  ;  the  dramatising  a  novel  re- 
strained   April  17, 

Beamish  v.  Beamish  ;  the  lords  on  appeal  decide 
that  a  clergyman  cannot  perform  the  cere- 
mony of  marriage  for  himself  .  April  22, 

Emperor  of  Austria  v.  Day;  verdict  for  plaintiff. 
The  defendant  had  printed  too  millions  florin 
notes  on  the  bank  of  Hungary,  for  Louis 
Kossuth.  The  notes  were  ordered  to  be  de- 
stroyed within  oue  month,  May  6  ;  judgment 
affirmed  ......  June  12, 

Cardross  case.  John  MacMillan,  a  free-church 
minister,  was  expelled  for  drunkenness  and 
misconduct,  May,  1858.  The  Glasgow  synod 
and  the  general  assembly  of  the  free  church 
affirmed  the  sentence.  He  appealed  to  the 
court  of  session,  which  set  aside  the  decree 
(which  involved  temporalities),  asserting  that 
the  assembly  had  only  spiritual  authority, 

July, 

W.  B.  Turnbull  v.  Bird,  secretary  of  Protestant 
alliance ;  libel ;  verdict  for  defendant,  July 

8-10, 

J.  C.  Charlesworth,  M.P.,  convicted  of  bribery 
at  the  Wakefield  election  .  .  July  20, 

Baron  de  Vidil ;  convicted  of  wounding  his  son  ; 
the  latter  refused  to  give  evidence  against  his 
father Aug.  23, 

Vincent  Collucci :  convicted  of  obtaining  money 
on  false  pretences,  from  Miss  F.  Johnstone 

Oct.  23, 

John  Curran,  a  Dublin  cabman  ;  convicted  of  a 
violent  assault  on  Miss  Jolly,  who  heroically 
defended  herself  ....  Oct.  25-30 

Patrick  McCaffery  ;  shot  col.  Crofton  and  capt. 
Hanham,  at  Preston  ;  convicted  .  Dec.  13, 

Inquiry  into  sanity  of  Wm.  Fred.  Wyndham  (on 
behalf  of  his  relatives),  with  a  view  of  an- 
nulling an  injudicious  marriage  ;  trial  lasted 
34  days  ;  140  witnesses  examined  ;  verdict, 
sane  mind  (see  Lunacy),  Dec.  16,  i86i-Jan.  30, 

[Each  party  adjudged  to  pay  its  own  costs, 
March,  i86z.J 

Capt.    Robertson,  by  court-martial ;  convicted 


1860 


1861 


*  The  plaintiff  was  Patience  Swynfen,  widow  of  Henry  John  Swynfen,  son  of  the  testator  Samuel 
Swynfen.  Her  husband  died  June  15,  1854,  and  his  father  on  July  16  following,  having  made  a  will 
19  days  before  his  death,  devising  the  Swynfen  estate  (worth  above  6o,ooo£.)  to  his  son's  wife  ;  but  leaving  a 
large  amount  of  personal  estate  undisposed  of.  The  defendant,  F.  H.  Swynfen,  son  of  the  testator's 
eldest  half-brother,  claimed  the  estate  as  heir-at-law  on  the  ground  of  the  testator's  insanity.  The  issue  was 
brought  to  trial  in  March,  1856  ;  but  proceedings  were  stayed  by  Mrs.  Swynfen's  counsel,  sir  F.  R.  Thesiger, 
entering  into  an  agreement  with  the  opposite  counsel,  sir  Alexander  Cockburn,  without  her  consent,  and 
in  defiance  of  her  instructions.  After  various  proceedings,  the  Court  of  Chancery  ordered  a  new  trial. 
She  gained  her  cause,  mainly  through  the  energy  of  her  counsel,  Mi\  Chas.  R.  Kennedy,  to  whom  she  had 
promised  to  pay  20,000?.  for  his  extraordinary  services.  Mrs.  Swynfen,  however,  married  a  Mr.  Broun  and 
repudiated  Mr.  Kennedy's  claim.  The  latter,  in  an  action  against  her,  obtained  a  verdict  in  his  favour  on 
March  29,  1862,  which  was,  on  appeal,  finally  reversed  in  Feb.  1864.  Mrs.  Swynfen  was  non-suited  in  an 
action  brought  against  her  counsel  (afterwards  lord  Chelmsford  and  lord  chancellor),  in  July,  1859,  and 
June,  1860. 

t  He  was  reprieved  on  the  ground  of  insufficient  evidence  ;  but  was  tried  and  found  guilty  of  bigamy 
Nov.  16,  1859.  °»  Nov-  "»  l862>  he  Proved  Miss  Bankes's  will  and  obtained  her  property. 

J  On  appeal,  the  Scotch  court  annulled  this  marriage,  July,  1862,  and  this  judgment  was  affirmed  by 
the  house  of  lords,  July  28,  1864. 


TRI 


734 


TRI 


TRIALS,  continued. 

of  submitting  to  ungentlemanly  conduct  from 

his  brother  officers  : — 30  days'  inquiry ;  ended 

March  24, 

[The  court  was  much  blamed  by  the  public  and 
the  sentence  was  annulled.] 

Mrs.  A.  C.  Vyse,  for  poisoning  her  two  children, 
acquitted  as  insane  ....  July  9, 

Roupell  v.  Waite  ;  during  the  trial,  W.  Roupell, 
M.P.,  a  witness,  confessed  himself  guilty  of 
forging  a  will,  and  other  frauds  Aug.  18,  19, 

Jessie  McLachlan  ;  convicted  for  the  murder  of 
Jessie  Macpherson,  at  Glasgow ;  she  con- 
fessed to  being  accessary  after  the  murder, 
which  she  imputed  to  Mr.  Fleming,  a  gentle- 
man 80  or  90  years  old  .  .  (Sept.  17-20, 
[She  was  respited,  Oct.  27,  1862.] 

Wm.  Roupell,  M.P.,  for  forgery;  convicted  on 
his  own  confession  .  .  .  Sept.  24, 

Catherine  Wilson  ;  convicted  of  poisoning  Mrs. 
Soames  in  1856  ....  Sept.  25-27, 

27  indictments  and  24  convictions  for  savage 
personal  outrages  in  the  streets  of  the  metro- 
polis during  the  month  .  .  .  Nov. 

Wm.  Digby  Seymour,  M.P.,  v.  Butterworth ; 
libel;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  damages  408. ,  Dec.  3, 

Hall  v.  Semple  ;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  who  had 
been  consigned  to  a  lunatic  asylum  through 
his  wife's  getting  the  defendant  to  sign  a 
certificate  of  lunacy  with  culpable  negligence  ; 
damages,  150^ Dec  10, 

George  Buncher,  Wm.  Burnett,  Richd.  Brewer, 
and  James  Griffiths,  for  foi-ging  bank-notes, 
printed  on  paper  stolen  from  the  paper-mill 
at  Laverstoke ;  convicted  .  .  Jan.  7-12, 

Clare  v.  The  Queen;  petition  of  right,  for  in- 
fringement of  a  patent ;  verdict  for  defendant, 

Feb.  2-6, 

Rev.  John  Campbell  v.  Spottiswoode  (as  printer 
of  a  libel  in  Saturday  Review);  verdict  for 
plaintiff Feb.  27, 

Queen  on  appeal  of  earl  of  Cardigan  v.  col.  CaL- 
thorpe  for  libel,  charging  the  earl  with  de- 
serting his  men  at  Balaclava,  Oct.  25,  1855  : 
verdict  for  defendant  (who,  however,  admitted 
his  error) June  9,  10, 

Attorney-general  r.  Sillim  and  others,  for 
having  built  the  Alexandra  for  the  Con- 
federates, against  the  Enlistment  Act ;  verdict 
for  defendants June  25, 

[Decision  finally  affirmed  on  appeal  to  the  house 
of  lords,  April  6,  1864.] 

Col.  Lothian  Dickson  v.  viscount  Combermere, 
earl  of  Wilton,  and  gen.  Peel,  for  conspiracy 
to  expel  him  from  the  army  ;  verdict  for  de- 
fendants ....  June  27,  et  seq. 


Morrison  (Zadkicl)  v.  sir  Edward  Belcher ;  libel  ; 
verdict,  20.?.  damages  .  .  June  29,  1863 

Richard  Roupell  v.  Haws :  arising  out  of 
Roupell  forgeries  ;  no  verdict  .  July  16-24,  „ 

Woolley  v  Pole  for  Sun  fire-office  :  verdict  for 
plaintiff,  awarding  him  his  claim  for  29,000?. 
for  his  insurance  of  Campden-house  ;  burnt 
March  23,  1862  ....  Aug.  29,  ,, 

George  Victor  Townley;  for  murder  of  Miss 
Goodman,  through  jealousy ;  convicted 

Dec.  12,     „ 

[He  escaped  execution  through  a  certificate  of 
insanity,  too  hastily  signed ;  and  committed 
suicide  in  prison,  Feb.  12.  1865.] 

Lieut.-col.  Crawley,  by  court-martial  at  Alder- 
shot,  for  alleged  oppression  and  cruelty  to 
serjeant-major  John  Lilley,  in  consequence  of 
a  court-martial  at  Mhow,  in  India ;  honour- 
ably acquitted  .  .  .  Nov.  i7-Dec.  23,  ,, 

Franz  Muller,  for  murder  of  Mr.  Briggs  in  a 
railway  carriage,  July  9 ;  convicted,  Oct.  27-29,  1864 

Gedney  v.  Smith ;  a  supposititious  child  de- 
tected and  deprived  of  much  property,  Nov.  10,  ,, 

E.  K.  Kohl,  for  murder  of  Theodore  Fuhrkop ; 
convicted Jan.  n,  12,  1865 

Queen  v.  Wm.  Rumble,  for  infringement  of 
Foreign  Enlistment  Act,  in  equipping  the 
Happahannock  for  the  Confederate  govern- 
ment; acquitted  ....  Feb.  4,  ,. 

Woodgate  v.  Ridout  (for  Morning  Post)  for  libel 
respecting  the  great  will  case  of  the  earl  of 
Egremout  v.  Darell ;  verdict  for  plaintiff, 
loool Feb.  10,  „ 

Bishop  Colenso's  appeal  to  privy  council  against 
decision  of  bishop  of  Capetown,  deposing 
him  ;  which  is  annulled  .  .  March  21,  ,, 

Roberts,  Jeffery,  Casely,  and  others  ;  for  jewel 
robberies  in  London  ;  convicted  .  April  13,  ,, 

J.  W.  Terry  and  Thos.  Burch,  for  misdemeanour 
in  connexion  with  the  Unity  bank  ;  acquitted 

April    „ 

Edw.  Wm.  Pritchard,  M.D.,  for  murder  of  his 
wife  and  her  mother,  by  poisoning ;  guilty, 

July  3-7,     ,, 

Trials  of  Fenians  for  treason-felony:  Thos. 
Clarke  Luby,  convicted  and  sentenced  to  20 
years'  penal  servitude,  Nov.  28-Dec.  i ;  O'Leary 
and  others  convicted ;  O' Donovan  Rossa  (pre- 
viously convicted)  sentenced  to  imprisonment 
for  life,  Dec.  13  :  others  convicted  at  Cork, 

Dec.     „ 

Stephen  Forwood  (or  Ernest  Southey),  for  mur- 
der of  his  wife  and  children  ;  guilty,  Dec.  20-21,     ,, 
(See  Executions) 

Other  Fenians  convicted  at  Dublin         .    Jan.  1866 


TRIBUNES  OF  THE  PEOPLE  (Tribuni  Plebis),  magistrates  of  Rome,  first  chosen  from 
among  the  commons  to  represent  the  people,  493  B.C.,  at  the  time  the  people,  after  a  quarrel 
with  the  Senators,  had  retired  to  Mons  Sacer.  The  first  two  were  C.  Licinius  and  L. 
Albinos  ;  but  their  number  was  soon  after  raised  to  five,  and  37  years  after  to  ten,  which 
number  remained  fixed.  Their  office  was  annual,  and  as  the  first  had  been  created  on  the 
4th  of  the  ides  of  December,  that  day  was  chosen  for  the  election.  In  A.D.  1347,  Nicolo  di 
Rienzi  assumed  absolute  power  in  Rome  as  tribune  of  the  people,  and  reformed  many  abuses  ; 
but  committing  many  extravagances,  he  lost  his  popularity  and  was  compelled  to  abdicate. 
He  returned  to  Rome  and  was  assassinated,  Sept.  8,  1354. 

TRICOTEUSES  (knitters),  a  name  given  to  a  number  of  French  republican  females,  who 
zealously  attended  executions  in  1 792,  knitting  at  intervals. 

TRIENNIAL  PARLIAMENTS.  On  Feb.  15,  1641,  an  act  was  passed  providing  for 
the  meeting  of  a  parliament  at  least  once  in  three  years.  It  was  repealed  in  1664.  Another 
triennial  bill,  passed  in -1694,  was  repealed  by  the  Septennial  act,  1716.  See  Parliaments 
and  Septennial  Parliaments. 

TRIESTE,  an  Austrian  port  on  the  Adriatic,  declared  a  free  port  in  1750.     It  was  held 


Till  735  TRI 

by  the  French  in  1717,  1797,  and  1805.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  overland  mail  to 
India,  it  has  risen  to  great  commercial  importance. 

TRIGONOMETRICAL  SURVEY.     See  Ordnance. 

TRIMMER  ;  a  term  applied  to  Charles  Montague,  earl  of  Halifax,  and  others  who  held 
similar  political  opinions,  midway  between  those  of  the  extreme  Whigs  and  Tories,  about 
the  latter  part  of  the  I  7th  century.  He  assumed  the  title  as  an  honour,  asserting  that  it 
could  be  rightly  given  to  the  British  constitution  and  church.  Macaulay  says  that  Halifax 
was  a  Trimmer  on  principle,  and  not  a  renegade.  He  died  in  1715. 

TRINCOMALEE.  Reckoned  the  finest  harbour  in  the  East  Indies.  Trincomalee  was 
taken  from  the  Dutch,  by  the  English,  in  1782  ;  it  was  retaken  by  the  French  the  same 
year  ;  but  was  restored  to  the  Dutch  by  the  peace  of  1783.  It  surrendered  to  the  British, 
under  colonel  Stewart,  Aug.  26,  1795,  and  was  confirmed  to  England  by  the  peace  of  Amiens, 
in  1802.  See  Ceylon.  Of  a  series  of  actions  off  Trincomalee  between  sir  Edward  Hughes 
and  the  French  admiral  Suffrein,  one  was  fought  Feb.  18,  1782,  the  enemy  having  eleven 
ships  to  nine  ;  on  April  12  following,  they  had  eighteen  ships  to  eleven,  and  on  July  6,  same 
year,  they  had  fifteen  ships  to  twelve.  In  all  these  conflicts  the  French  were  defeated. 

TRINIDAD,  an  island  in  the  West  Indies,  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  was 
taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1595  ;  but  the  French  took  it  from  the 
English  in  1676.  Taken  by  the  British,  with  four  ships  of  the  line,  and  a  military  force 
under  command  of  sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  to  whom  the  island  capitulated,  Feb.  21,  1797  ; 
they  captured  two,  and  burnt  three  Spanish  ships  of  war  in  the  harbour.  This  possession 
was  confirmed  to  England  by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802.  The  insurrection  of  the  negroes 
occurred  Jan.  4,  1832.  Population  in  1861,  84,438. 

TRINITY  AND  TRINITARIANS.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  received  by  nearly  all 
Christians.  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch,  who  flourished  in  the  2nd  century,  was  the 
first  who  used  the  term  Trinity,  to  express  the  three  sacred  persons  in  the  Godhead.  His 
Defence  of  Christianity  was  edited  by  Gesner,  at  Zurich,  in  1546.  Watkins.  An  order  of 
the  Trinity  was  founded,  1198,  by  John  de  Matha  and  Felix  do  Valois.  The  Trinity 
fraternity,  originally  of  fifteen  persons,  was  instituted  at  Rome  by  St.  Philip  Neri,  in  1548. 
The  act  to  exempt  from  penalties  persons  denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  (such  as 
Unitarians  and  Swedenborgians)  passed  in  1813. 

TRINITY  COLLEGES.  See  Cambridge  and  Oxford.  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  called 
the  University:  grant  of  the  Augustine  monastery  of  All  Saints  within  the  suburbs  for 
erecting  this  college,  conferred  by  queen  Elizabeth,  1591.  First  stone  laid  by  Thomas  Smith, 
mayor  of  Dublin,  Jan.  I,  1593.  New  charter,  1637.  Made  a  barrack  for  soldiers,  1689. 
Burns.  The  principal  or  west  front  erected,  1759.  Library  erected,  1732. 

TRINITY  HOUSE,  LONDON,  founded  by  sir  Thomas  Spert,  1512,  as  an  "association 
for  piloting  ships,"  was  incorporated  in  1514,  and  re-incorporated  in  1647  and  1685.  The 
present  Trinity  House  was  erected  in  1795.  Trinity  Houses  were  founded  at  Deptford,  at 
Hull,  and  at  Newcastle :  these  three  societies  were  instituted  and  incorporated  by  Henry  VIII. , 
the  first  in  1512,  the  other  two  in  1537.  By  their  charter  they  have  the  power  of  examining, 
licensing,  and  regulating  pilots,  and  of  erecting  beacons  and  lighthouses,  and  of  placing  buoys 
in  the  channels  and  rivers ;  and  their  powers  and  privileges  have  been  greatly  augmented  by 
succeeding  kings.  Recent  masters  :  the  Prince  Consort,  died,  Dec.  14,  1861 ;  lord  Palmerston, 
appointed  June  16,  1862,  died  Oct.  18,  1865 ;  succeeded  by  the  prince  of  Wales. 

TRINITY  SUNDAY.  The  festival  of  the  Holy  Trinity  was  instituted  by  pope  Gregory 
IV.  in  828,  on  his  ascending  the  papal  chair,  and  is  observed  by  the  Latin  and  Protestant 
churches  on  the  Sunday  next  following  Pentecost  or  Whitsuntide,  of  which,  originally,  it  was 
merely  an  Octave.  The  observance  of  the  festival  was  first  enjoined  in  the  council  of  Aries, 
1260.  It  was  appointed  to  be  held  on  the  present  day  by  pope  John  XX.  in  1334.  Trinity 
Sunday,  in  1866,  May  27  ;  in  1867,  June  16  ;  in  1868,  June  7. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE  was  ratified  between  the  States- General  and  England  against 
France,  for  the  protection  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  ;  Sweden  afterwards  joining  the 
league,  it  was  known  as  the  Triple  Alliance,  Jan.  28,  1668.  Another  Triple  Alliance  was 
that  between  England,  Holland,  and  France  against  Spain,  1717- 

TRIPOLITZA,  Greece,  was  stormed  by  the  Greeks,  who  committed  dreadful  cruelties, 
Oct.  5,  1821  ;  retaken  by  the  Egyptians,  1825  ;  given  up  to  the  Greeks,  1828. 

TRIREMES,  galleys  with  three  banks  of  oars,  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  the 
Corinthians,  784  B.C. 


TRI 


TRU 


TRIUMPHS  were  granted  by  the  Roman  senate  to  generals  of  armies  after  they  had  won 
great  victories.  They  were  received  into  the  city  with  great  magnificence  and  public  accla- 
mations. There  were  the  great,  called  the  Triumph  ;  and  the  less,  the  Ovation.  See 
Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRATES,  ROMAN.  The  first,  60  B.C.,  consisted  of  Julius  Ca?sar,  Pompey,  and 
Crassus,  who  formed  a  coalition  to  rule  the  state.  Their  union  lasted  ten  years,  and  the  civil 
war  ensued.  The  second  triumvirate  43  B.C.,  was  formed  by  Octavius  Csesar,  Mark  Antony, 
and  Lepidus,  through  whom  the  Romans  totally  lost  their  liberty.  Octavius 'disagreed  with 
his  colleagues  :  Lepidus  was  expelled  in  36  ;  Antony  was  subdued  in  31,  and  Octavius  made 
himself  absolute  in  Rome.  This  triumvirate  continued  for  about  twelve  years.  See  Rome. 
On  March  29,  1849,  a  triumvirate  was  appointed  at  Rome,  consisting  of  Joseph  Mazzini, 
Armellini,  and  Saffi,  which  resigned  on  July  i,  1849,  when  the  city  was  taken  by  the  French. 

TROPPAU,  CONGRESS  or,  in  Austrian  Silesia.  The  emperors  Francis  of  Austria  and 
Alexander  of  Russia  met  at  Troppau,  Oct.  20,  1820.  The  conference  between  them  and  the 
king  of  Prussia,  against  Naples,  took  place  Nov.  10  ;  and  the  congress  was  transferred  to 
Laybach,  as  nearer  to  Italy,  Dec.  17,  1820.  See  Laybach. 

TROUBADOURS  AND  TROUVERES  (  from  troubar,  trouver,  to  find  or  invent),  the  poets 
of  the  middle  ages  (from  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  century).  The  former  flourished  in  the 
south  of  France  and  north  of  Spain,  and  used  the  Langue  d'oc  (that  is  oc  for  oui,  yes)  ;  the 
latter  flourished  in  the  north  of  France,  and  used  the  Langue  d'oi'l  (that  is  o:il  for  oui).  The 
Troubadours  produced  romances,  yet  excelled  chiefly  in  lyric  poetry  ;  the  Trouveres  excelled 
in  romances,  several  of  which  are  extant  ;  as,  the  Brut  d? Anglcterre,  and  the  Itou,  by  Wace  ; 
the  romance  of  the  "Rose,"  by  Guillaume  de  Lorris,  and  Jean  de  Meuiig.  The  Troubadours 
were  usually  accompanied  by  Jongleurs,  who  sang  their  masters'  verses,  with  the  accompani- 
ment of  the  guitar.  Histories  of  these  French  poets,  and  specimens  of  their  works,  have 
been  published  in  France.  These  poets,  although  frequently  very  licentious,  undoubtedly 
tended  to  promote  civilisation  during  those  warlike  times. 

TROY  (Asia  Minor).     Its  obscure  and  traditional  history  is  immortalised  by  Homer. 


Arrival  of  Scamander  in  Phrygia  Minor.     Blair 

B.C.  1546 

Teucer  succeeds  his  father 1502 

Dardanus  succeeds  Teucer,  and  builds  the  city 

of  Dardania 1480 

Reign  of  Erich thonius 1449 

Reign  of  Tros,  from  whom  the  people  are  called 

Trojans,  and  the  city  Troy        ....  1374 
Ilus,  son  of  Troas,  reigns,  and  the  city  is  called 

Ilium 1314 

Reign  of  Laomedon 1260 

Arrival  of  Hercules  in  Phrygia.      Hesione  de- 
livered from  the  sea-monster.      Blair;  Usher  1225 
"War  of  Hercules  and  Laomedon      .        .        .     .  1224 
Reign  of  Priam  or  Podarces          .        .        .        .     ,, 
Hape  of  Helen,   by  Alexander  Paris,   son  of 
Priam,  20  years  before  tho  sacking  of  Troy. 


Homer's  Iliad,  book  xxiv.  line  964,  Pope's  edit. 

B.C.  1204 

Commencement  of  the  invasion  of  the  Greeks 
to  recover  Helen  1193 

Troy  taken  and  burnt  in  the  night  of  the 
nth  of  June,  i.e.  23rd  of  the  month  Thar- 
gelion.  Parian  Marbles.  408  years  before 
the  first  Olympiad.  Apollodorus,  Hales,  and 
Clinton,  1183  ;  others 1184 

^Eneas  arrives  in  Italy.     Lenglet      .        .        .     .  1183 

[Some  time  after  the  destruction  of  Troy,  a 
new  city  was  built  with  the  same  name, 
about  thirty  stadia  distant  from  the  old  site. 
It  was  favoured  by  Alexander  the  Great  in 
his  Asiatic  expedition,  but  never  rose  to 
much  importance,  and  in  the  age  of  Strabo 
was  nearly  in  ruins.—  Priestley.} 


TROY  WEIGHT.  The  Romans  left  their  ounce,  now  our  avoirdupois  ounce,  in  Britain. 
The  present  ounce  of  this  weight  was  brought  from  Grand  Cairo  into  Europe,  about  the  time 
of  the  Crusades,  1095.  It  was  first  adopted  at  Troyes,  a  city  of  France,  whence  the  name  ; 
.and  is  used  to  weigh  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones.  The  Troy  weight,  Scots,  was 
established  by  James  VI.  (our  James  I.)  in  1618.  See  Standard. 

TROYES,  Central  France,  where  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  England,  France,  and 
Burgundy,  whereby  it  was  stipulated  that  Henry  V.  should  marry  Catherine,  daughter  of 
Charles  VI.,  be  appointed  regent  of  France,  and  after  the  death  of  Charles  should  inherit  the 
crown,  May  21,  1420.  Troyes  was  taken  by  the  allied  armies,  Feb.  7  ;  retaken  by  Napoleon, 
Feb.  23  ;  and  again  taken  by  the  allies,  March  4,  1814. 

TRUCE  OF  GOD  (Treuga  Dei},  a  term  given  to  a  cessation  of  the  private  feuds  and 
conflicts  so  general  during  the  middle  ages,  all  over  Europe.  The  clergy  strenuously  exerted 
their  influence  for  the  purpose.  A  synod  at  Roussillon,  1027,  decreed  that  none  should 
attack  his  enemy  between  Saturday  evening  (at  nones)  and  Monday  morning  (at  the  hour  of 
prime).  Similar  regulations  were  adopted  in  England,  1042  (sometimes  Friday  and  Wednes- 
day being  chosen  for  the  time).  The  truce  of  God  was  confirmed  by  many  councils  of  the 
church,  especially  the  Lateran  Council,  in  1179. 


TRU  737  TUI 

TRUMPET.  Some  of  the  Greek  historians  ascribe  the  invention  of  the  trumpet  to  the 
Tyrrhenians,  and  others  to  the  Egyptians.  It  was  in  use  in  the  time  of  Homer,  but  not  at 
the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  First  torches,  then  shells  of  fish  sounded  like  trumpets,  were 
the  signals  in  primitive  wars.  Potter.  The  speaking-trumpet  is  said  to  have  been  used  by 
Alexander  the  Great  in  335  B.C.  Trumpets  were  first  sounded  before  the  king  in  the  time  of 
Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  A.D.  790.  Speaking-trumpets  were  improved  by  Kircher  in  1652, 
by  Salland,  1654,  and  philosophically  explained  by  Moreland,  1671. 

TRUMPET-FLOWER,  Bignonia  radicans,  was  brought  hither  from  North  America, 
about  1640.  The  Trumpet  Honeysuckle,  Lonicera  sempervirens,  came  from  North  America 
in  1656.  The  Bignonia  capensis  was  brought  to  England,  from  the  Cape,  in  1823.  The 
Large-flowered  Trumpet-flower,  or  Bignonia  grandiflora,  was  brought  from  China  in  1800. 


TRUSS.  A  transverse  spring  truss  for  ruptures  was  patented  by  Robert  Brand  in  1771, 
and  by  many  other  persons  since.  The  National  Truss  Society,  to  assist  indigent  persons, 
was  established  in  1786  ;  and  many  similar  societies  since. 


TUAM  (W.  Ireland).  St.  Jarlath,  the  son  of  Loga,  who  lived  about  501,  is  looked  upon 
as  the  first  founder  of  the  cathedral  of  Tuam,  though  the  abbey  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
in  487.  The  church  was  anciently  called  Tuaim-da-Gualand.  In  1151,  Edan  O'Hoisin  was 
the  first  archbishop,  at  least  the  first  who  had  the  use  of  the  pall,  for  some  of  his  predecessors 
are  sometimes  called  bishops  of  Connaught,  and  sometimes  archbishops,  by  Irish  historians. 
The  see  of  Mayo  was  annexed  to  Tuam  in  1559,  Tuam  is  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an 
extent  returned  anno  28  Eliz.,  at  50?.  sterling  per  annum.  Beatson.  It  ceased  to  be 
archiepiscopal,  conformably  with  the  statute  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  1833,  and  is  now  a  bishopric 
only,  to  which  Killala  and  Achonry,  a  joint  see,  has  been  added.  See  Archbishops. 

TUBULAR  BRIDGES.  The  Britannia  Tubular  Suspension  Bridge,  then  the  most 
wonderful  enterprise  in  engineering  in  the  world,  was  constructed  about  a  mile  southward 
of  the  Meiiai  Strait  Suspension  Bridge.*  At  this  spot  is  a  rock  called  the  Britannia  rock, 
near  the  centre  of  the  Menai  Strait,  the  surface  of  which  is  about  ten  feet  above  low-water 
level,  on  which  is  built  a  tower  two  hundred  feet  above  high  water  (commenced  building, 
May  1846),  and  on  which  rest  two  lines  of  tubes  or  hollow  girders  strong  enough  to  bear 
their  weight  and  laden  trains  in  addition,  the  ends  resting  on  the  abutments  on  each  shore  ; 
each  tube  being  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length.  The  height  of  the  tube  within  is 
thirty  feet  at  the  Britannia  tower,  diminishing  to  twenty-three  feet  at  the  abutments.  The 
lifting  of  these  tubes  to  their  places  was  regarded  as  the  most  gigantic  operation  ever  success- 
fully performed,  June  27,  1849.  The  first  locomotive  passed  through,  March,  1850.  The 
Coriway  Tubular  Bridge  (1846-48)  is  a  miniature  copy  of  the  Britannia,  and  therefore  requires 
TIO  description.  The  principal  engineers  were  Mr.  Robert  Stephenson  and  Mr.  Fairbairn. 
At  Chepstow  is  a  railway  tubular  bridge,  erected  in  1852.  A  bridge  or  viaduct  on  the 
tubular  principle  (called  the  Albert  viaduct)  over  the  river  Tamar  at  Plymouth  was  opened 
by  the  prince  consort,  May  2,  1859.  The  most  stupendous  tubular  bridge  in  the  world  is 
that  over  the  St.  Lawrence,  Canada.  See  Victoria  Bridge. 

T  LJDELA  ON  THE  EBRO  (N.  Spain).  Near  here  marshal  Lannes  totally  defeated  the 
Spaniards,  Nov.  23,  1809. 

TUESDAY,  in  Latin  Dies  Martis,  the  day  of  Mars,  the  third  day  of  the  week,  so  called 
from  Tuisto  Tiw,  or  Tuesco,  a  Saxon  deity,  worshipped  on  this  day.  Tuisto  is  mentioned 
by  Tacitus.  See  Week  Days. 

TUILERIES  (Paris),  the  imperial  palace  of  France,  commenced  by  Catherine  de  Medicis, 
after  the  plans  of  Philibert  de  1'Orme,  1564  ;  continued  by  Henry  IV.  ;  and  finished  by 
Louis  XIV.  This  palace  was  stormed  by  the  mob,  Aug.  10,  1792;  and  ransacked  in  the 
revolutions  of  1830  and  1848. 

*  The  Britannia  tubular  bridge  was  intended  to  supply  the  place  of— we  may  also  say  supersede  -one 
of  the  finest  bridges  in  the  kingdom  ;  and  the  railway,  of  which  the  tubular  bridge  forms  a  part,  is  in  like 
manner  a  substitute  for  one  of  the  finest  mail-coach  roads  ever  constructed.  The  road  from  London  to 
Holyhead  has  been  long  regarded  as  the  highway  from  the  British  metropolis  to  Dublin  ;  and  the  late  Mr. 
Telford  was  applied  to  by  the  government  to  perfect  this  route  by  the  London  and  Holyhead  mail-^oaeh 
road,  which  he  did  by  erecting  a  beautiful  suspension  bridge  over  the  river  Con  way  and  over  the  M.  nai 
.Strait ;  commenced  in  July  1818,  and  finished  in  July,  1825.  When  Chester  became  a  centre  of  railway 
communication  a  few  years  since,  it  was  considered  that  a  through  route  to  Holyhead  would  be  more 
conveniently  established  from  that  point  than  from  Shrewsbury,  which  lies  in  the  route  of  Telford's  road. 
Accordingly  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  Railway  was  constructed  ;  and  in  its  course,  both  the  Conway  and 
the  Menai  had  to  be  crossed ;  and  hence  were  formed  the  present  tubular  bridges. 


TUL  733  TUR 

TULIPS  came  to  England  from  Vienna,  1578.  It  is  recorded  in  the  register  of  Alkmaer, 
in  Holland,  that  in  1639,  120  tulips,  with  the  offsets,  sold  for  90,0x20  florins  ;  and  that  one 
called  the  Viceroy,  sold  for  4203  guilders  !  The  States  stopped  this  ruinous  traffic.  The 
tulip-tree,  Liriodendron  tulipifera,  was  brought  to  England  from  America,  about  1663. 

TUNBRIDGE  WELLS  (Kent).  The  springs  were  discovered,  it  is  stated,  by  Dudley, 
lord  North,  who,  in  the  last  stage  of  consumption,  was  restored  to  health  by  the  use  of  its 
waters,  1606.  The  wells  were  visited  by  the  queens  of  Charles  I.  and  II.  The  place  soon 
"became  fashionable. 

TUNGSTEN  (also  called  wolfram  and  scheelium),  a  hard  whitish  brittle  metal.  From 
tungstate  of  lead,  Scheele  in  1781  obtained  tungstic  acid,  whence  the  brothers  De  Luyart  in 
1786  obtained  the  metal.  In  1859  it  was  employed  in  making  a  new  kind  of  steel. 

TUNIS  AND  TRIPOLI  (N.  Africa).  The  former  stands  near  where  Carthage  was  built. 
The  territories  of  both  formed  part  of  the  Carthaginian  state,  and  were  entirely  destroyed  by 
the  Romans  after  the  third  Punic  war,  148  B.C.  Tunis  was  besieged  by  Louis  IX.  of  France, 
1270.  It  remained  under  African  kings  till  taken  by  Barbarossa,  for  Solyman  the  Mag- 
nificent. Barbarossa  was  expelled  by  Charles  V.  ;  but  the  country  was  recovered  by  the 
Turks  under  Selim  II.  Taken  with  great  slaughter  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  when  10,000 
Christian  slaves  were  set  at  liberty,  1535.  The  bey  of  Tunis  was  first  appointed  in  157°- 
Tunis  was  reduced  by  admiral  Blake,  on  the  bey  refusing  to  deliver  up  the  British  captives, 
1655.  In  July  1856,  the  bey  agreed  to  make  certain  constitutional  reforms.  The  bey  died 
Sept.  22,  1859  ;  and  his  successor  Sidi  Sadok  took  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  constitution. 
An  insurrection  broke  out  in  April  18,  1864,  and  the  European  powers  sent  ships  of  war  to 
protect  their  subjects  in  May. 

TUNNAGE  AND  POUNDAGE  were  ancient  duties  levied  on  every  tun  of  wine  and  pound  of 
other  goods,  imported  or  exported,  and  were  the  origin  of  our  "  customs."  They  commenced 
in  England  about  21  Edw.  III.  1346.  They  were  granted  to  the  kings  of  England  for  life, 
beginning  with  Edward  IV.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign  Charles  I.  gave  great  offence  by 
levying  them  on  his  own  authority.  They  ceased  in  1689. 

TUNNELS.  The  earliest  tunnel  for  internal  navigation  was  executed  by  M.  Riguet,  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  at  Bezieres  in  France.  The  first  in  England  was  by  Mr.  Brindley, 
on  the  duke  of  Bridgewater's  navigation,  near  Manchester,  about  1760.  Project  of  the 
Gravesend  tunnel,  1800— the  report  upon  it,  1801.  The  Thames  Tunnel  was  projected  by 
Mr.  Brunei  in  1823,  and  opened  for  foot  passengers,  March  25,  1843.  See  Thames  Tunnel. 
In  1857  M.  Thome  de  Gamond  proposed  the  making  a  submarine  tunnel  from  France  to 
England  !  Innumerable  tunnels  have  been  made  for  railways.  The  railway  tunnel  at 
Liverpool  was  completed  in  the  middle  of  1829,  lit  up  with  gas,  and- exhibited  once  a  week. 
On  the  London  and  Birmingham  railway  there  are  eight  tunnels  (the  Primrose-hill,  "VVatford, 
Kilsby,  &c.),  their  total  length  being  7336  yards.  Smiles.  It  was  computed  by  Mr.  Fowler, 
that  there  were  80  miles  of  tunnels  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1865,  which  cost  about 
6,500,000?.,  at  the  average  of  45 1.  a  yard. 

TURIN,  an  ancient  Roman  city  in  Piedmont,  capital  of  the  Sardinian  States,  and  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  till  1864,  when  it  was  superseded  by  Florence.  Its  importance  dates  from 
the  permanent  union  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont  in  1416.  The  French  besieged  this  city  in 
1706  ;  but  prince  Eugene  defeated  their  army,  and  compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege.  In 
1798,  the  French  republican  army  took  possession  of  Turin,  seized  all  the  strong  places  and 
arsenals  of  Piedmont,  and  obliged  the  king  and  his  family  to  remove  to  the  island  of 
Sardinia.  In  I799>  the  French  were  driven  out  by  the  Austrians  and  Russians  ;  but  shortly 
afterwards  the  city  and  all  Piedmont  surrendered  to  the  French.  In  1814,  it  was  delivered 
up  to  the  allies,  who  restored  it  to  the  king  of  Sardinia.  See  Italy,  1864. 

TURKESTAN,  Independent  Tartary.  The  original  country  of  the  Turks,  in  Central 
Asia,  was  reached  by  Alexander,  331  B.C.  The  Russians  are  gradually  encroaching  on  this 
country ;  and  on  Feb.  14,  1865,  a  new  province,  named  Turkestan,  was  created  by 
decree. 

TURKEY.  The  Turks  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Tartars  ;  but  by  incorporation  with  the 
peoples  they  have  conquered,  they  must  be  regarded  as  a  mixed  race.  About  760,  they: 
obtained  possession  of  a  part  of  Armenia,  called  from  them  Turcomania.  They  afterwards 
gradually  extended  their  power ;  but  in  the  I3th  century,  being  harassed  in  their  new 


TUR 


739 


TUR 


possessions  by  other  Tartar  tribes,  they  returned  to  Asia  Minor.  Their  dominions,  divided 
for  some  time  into  petty  states,  were  united  under  Othman,  who  assumed  the  title  of  .sultan, 
and  established  his  empire  at  Prasa,  in  Bithynia,  in  1298.  The  Turkish  empire  compre- 
hends the  almost  independent  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  "Wallachia,  Servia,  and 
Montenegro,  and  the  hereditary  vice-royalty  of  Egypt.  The  population  of  the  empire  in 
1860  was  estimated  at  37,430,000. 


The  Oghusian  Tartars,   the   ancestors   of  the 

present  Turks,  settle  in  Asia  Minor  .  .  .  1231 
The  Turkish  empire  first  formed  under  Othman 

at  Bithynia  (hence  called  Ottoman)  .  .  .  1298 
The  Turks  penetrate  into  Thrace,  and  take 

Adrianople 1361 

Amurath  I.  institutes  the  Janissaries,  a  guard 

compqsed  of  young  Christian  slaves,  trained 

as  Mahometans 1362 

Bajazet    I.    overruns   the    provinces    of    the 

Eastern  empire 1389  et  seq. 

He  defeats  Sigismund  of  Hungary  at  Nicopolis, 

Sept.  28,  1396 
He  besieges  Constantinople ;  but  is  interrupted 

by  the  approach  of  Tamerlane  (or  Timour), 

by  whom  he  is  defeated  and  made  prisoner, 

July  28,  1402 
Ladislas  of    Hungary  defeated    and    slain  at 

Varna  by  Amurath ....  Nov.  10,  1444 
Amurath  defeats  John  Hunniades  at  Kossova  .  1448 
The  Turks,  invading  Hungary,  are  repelled  by 

Hunniades 1450 

Constantinople    taken    by    the    Turks  under 

Mahomet  II.  which  ends  the  Eastern  Iloman 

empire 1453 

Greece  made  subject  to  the  Mahometans.     See 

Greece 1458 

The    Turks    penetrate    into    Italy,  and    take 

Otranto,   which    diffuses  terror  throughout 

Europe 1480 

Selim  I.  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  Janissaries  ; 

he  murders  his  father,  brothers,  &c.  .  .  .1512 
He  takes  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  from 

the  Christians 1514 

He  overruns  Syria   .......  1515 

Adds  Egypt  to  his  empire 1516 

Solyman  II.  takes  Belgrade 1521 

Khodes  taken  from  the  knights  of   St.  John, 

who  go  to  Malta 1522 

Battle  of  Mohatz  (which  see) 1526 

Solyman  II.  with  250,000  men,  is  repulsed  before 

Vienna 1529 

Cyprus  taken  from  the  Venetians  .  .  .  .  1571 
Great  battle  of  Lepanto,  which  puts  an  end  to 

the  fears  of  Europe  fronTTurkish  power.  See 

Lepanto Oct.  7,     „ 

Amurath  II.  ascends  the  throne ;  strangles  his 

five  brothers 1574 

[Dreadful  persecutions  of  the  Christians  during 

this  reign.] 

Treaty  of  commerce  with  England  .  .  .  1579 
The  Turks  driven  out  of  Persia  by  the  famous 

Shah  Abbas 1585 

Bloody  reign  of  Mahomet  III 1595 

Reign  of  Achmet  I. 1603 

Great  fire  in  Constantinople  ....  1606 
Reign  of  Amurath  IV.  who  strangles  his  father 

and  four  brothers 1624 

War  with  the  Cossacks,  who  take  Azof  .  .  1637 
The  Turks  defeat  the  Persians  and  take  the 

city  of  Bagdad 1639 

The  island  of  Candia,  or  Crete,  taken  after  a 

25  years'  siege   .  ....  1669 

Vienna  besieged  by  Mahomet  IV.  but  relieved 

by  John  of  Poland   > 1683 

Mahomet  IV.  deposed  by  Solyman     .        .        .  1687 

Peace  of  Carlovitz 1699 

Mustapha  III.  deposed 1703 

The  Morea  retaken  by  the  Turks  ....  1715 
The  Turks  defeated  at  Peterwaradein  .  .  1716 
They  lose  Belgrade  ;  and  their  power  declines  .  1717 
Peace  of  Erivan,  (with  Persia)  .  .  .  1732 


Belgrade    taken   from    Austria;    and    Russia 
relinquishes  Azof      ....  .  1739 

The  Turks  defeated  at  Kars 1745 

Great  sea-fight  in  the  channel   of   Scio;    the 

English  and  Russian  fleets  defeat  the  Turkish  1770 
The  Crimea  falls  to  Russia  .        .        .        .  Jan.   1,84 
Disastrous  war  with  Russia  and  Austria,  the  • 
Turks  lose  more  than  200,000  men      .        .  1787-91 

Cession  of  Oczacow 1791 

Insurrection  of  Mamelukes  at  Cairo       .        .     .  1803 
War  against  Russia  and  England         .        .         .1807 
Passage    and    repassage    of    the    Dardanelles 
effected  by  the  British  fleet,  but  with  great 
loss.     See  Dardanelles  .        .        .        Feb.  19,    ,, 
Murder  of  Hali  Aga      ....    May  25,     ,, 
The  sultan  Selim  is  deposed,  and  Mustapha  IV. 

called  to  the  throne  .  .  .  May  29,  , , 
The  Janissaries  massacre  the  newly  disciplined 

troops 1808 

The  Russians  defeated  at  Silistria .        .        .     .  1809 
Treaty  of  Bucharest  (which  see)   .        .    May  28,  1812 
A  caravan  consisting  of  2000  souls,  returning 
from  Mecca,  destroyed  by  a  pestilential  wind 
in  the  deserts  of  Arabia  ;  20  saved        Aug.  9,     „ 
Subjugation  of  the  Wahabees  (which  see)       .     1818-9 
Ali  Pacha  of  Janina,  in  Greece,  declares  himself 

independent 1820 

Insurrection    of     Moldavia     and     Wallachia, 

March  6,  1821 

The    Greek  patriarch  put  to    death  at    Con- 
stantinople     April  23,     „ 

[For  the  events  in  connection  with  the  inde- 

dependence  of  Greece,  see  Greece.'] 
Horrible  massacre  at  Scio  ;  the  most  dreadful 

in  modern  history  (see  note  to  Greece)  April  23,  1822 
Sea-fight  near  Mitylene        .        .        .      Oct.  6,  1824 
New  Mahometan  army  organised    .        May  29,  1826 
Insurrection   of   the   Janissaries  at  Constanti- 
nople, June  14 ;    they  are  suppressed   and 

massacred June  16,     ,, 

Fire  at  Constantinople ;  6000  houses  reduced  to 

aeb.es Aug.  30,    „ 

Battle  of  Navarino  ;  the  Turkish  fleet  destroyed 
by  the  fleets  of  England,  France,  and  Russia. 

See  Navarino Oct.  20,  1827 

Banishment  of   132  French,   120  English,  and 

85  Russian  settlers  from  the  empire  Jan.  5,  1828 
War  with  Russia  ....  April  26,  „ 
The  czar  Nicholas  takes  the  field  .  May  20,  „ 
Capitulation  of  Brahilow  .  .  June  19,  „ 
Surrender  of  Anapa  .  .  .  .  June  23,  ',, 
The  eminences  of  Shumla  taken  by  the 

Russians July  20,    ,, 

The  czar  arrives  before  Varna  .  .  Aug.  5,  „ 
Battle  of  Akhalzic  ....  Aug.  24,  ,, 
Fortress  of  Bajazet  taken  .  .  .  Sept.  9,  ,, 
The  sultan  proceeds  to  the  camp  with  the 

aacred  standard  ....  Sept.  26,  ,. 
Dardanelles  blockaded  .  .  .  Oct.  i,  „ 
Surrender  of  Varna  .  .  .  .  Oct.  15,  ,, 
Russians  retreat  from  Shumla  .  .  Oct.  16,  „ 
Surrender  of  the  castle  of  the  Morea  to  the 

French Oct.  30,    ,, 

Siege    of    Silistria    raised    by    the    Russians, 

Nov.  io,    ,, 
Victory  of  the  Russians  at  Kulertscha,  near 

Shumla June  n,  1829 

Battle  near  Erzeroum  ....  July  2,  ,, 
Adrianople  is  entered  by  the  Russians,  Aug.  20  ; 

armistice  agreed  on  ...  Aug.  29,  „ 
Treaty  of  peace  ....  Sept.  14,  ,, 
Fire  at  Constantinople;  extinguished  by  the 

3  B  2 


TUR 


740 


TUR 


TURKEY,  continued. 

seamen    and    marines    of    H.M.S.    Blondt, 

Jan.  22,  1830 
The  Porte  acknowledges  the   independence  of 

Greece April  25,     ,, 

Treaty  with  America  ....        May  7,     ,, 
St.  Jean  d'Acre  taken  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  son  of 

Mehemet  Ali July  2,  1832 

He  defeats  the  army  of  the  sultan  at  Konieh 

with  great  loss        ....       Dec.  21,     „ 
Ibrahim  Pacha  marches  within  eighty  leagues 
of  Constantinople,  and  the  sultan  has  recourse 
to  the  aid  of  Russia    ....        Jan.   1833 
The  Russians  enter  Constantinople   .      April  3,     „ 
Treaty  with  Russia,  offensive   and  defensive, 

JulyS,    „ 

Office  of  grand  vizier  abolished      .       March  30,  1838 
Treaty  of  commerce  with  England,  concluded 
by  lord  Ponsonby,  ratified      .        .     Aug.  16,     ,, 

[For  the  events  of  1839  and  1840  in  relation  to 
Syria,  see  Syria.} 

Christians  admitted  to  office  in  Turkey     June,  1849 

The  Turkish  government  refuses  to  surrender 
the  Hungarian  and  Polish  refugees  on  the 
joint  demand  of  Russia  and  Austria,  Sept.  16,  ,, 

[The  Porte  (countenanced  by  England)  firmly 
resists  this  demand.  J 

Russia  suspends   intercourse  with  the  Porte, 

Nov.  12,     ,, 

The  British  fleet,  under  Sir  W.  Parker,  anchors 
in  Besica  bay  ....  Nov.  13,  ,, 

Diplomatic  relations  between  Russia  and  the 
Porte  resumed,  the  latter  sending  the  refugees 
to  Konieh Jan.  1850 

Turkish  Croatia  in  a  state  of  rebellion   .       Jan.  1851 

Treaty  with  France  respecting  the  Holy  Places 
(which  nee) Feb.  13,  1852 

Prince  Menschikoff  repairs  to  Constantinople 
as  Russian  negotiator,  Feb.  28  ;  his  peremp- 
tory demands  rejected  .  .  April  19,  1853 

Reschid  Pacha  becomes  foreign  minister  ;  the 
tiltimatum  being  rejected,  Menschikoff  quits 
Constantinople May  21,  ,, 

Hatti-sherif  issued,  confirming  the  rights  of 
the  Greek  Christians  .  .  June  6,  „ 

Russian  manifesto  against  Turkey      .  June  26,     ,, 

Russian  army  crosses  the  Pruth      .         July  2,     ,, 

Grand  national  council— war  to  be  declared  if 
the  principalities  are  not  evacuated  Sept.  26,  „ 

War  declared  against  Russia         .        .     Oct.  5,     ,, 

[See  Russo- Turkish  War.] 

Insurrection  in  Epirus  and  Albania,  favoured 
by  the  Greek  government  at  Athens — Hel- 
lenic empire  proclaimed  .  .  Jan  27,  1854 

"Volunteers     from     Athens     join     insurgents, 

March  14,     ,, 

Rupture  between  Greece  and  Turkey,  March  28,     ,, 
[Several  conflicts    ensue    with    varied    suc- 
cess.] 

Osrnan  Pacha  storms  Peta,  the  central  point  of 
the  insurrection  ....  April  25,  ,, 

English  and  French  governments,  after  many 
remonstrances,  send  troops,  which  arrive  at 
the  Pirams ;  the  king  of  Greece  submits,  and 
promises  strict  neutrality  :  the  Greek  volun- 
teers are  recalled  ....  May  25,  26,  ,, 

Abdi  Pacha  and  Fuad  Effendi  take  the  in- 
trenched camp  at  Kolampaka,  and  the  insur- 
rection shortly  after  ceases  .  .  June  18,  „ 

Reschid  Pacha,  having  retired  (June  3),  re- 
sumes his  office  ....  July  i,  ,, 

Convention    between     Turkey    and    Austria, 

June  14,    ,, 

The  Russians  retire  from  the  principalities, 
which  are  thereupon  occupied  by  the  Aus- 
trians  .  .  .  Sept.  1854  till  March,  1857 

Misunderstanding  among  the  allied  powers 
respecting  Moldavian  elections,  which  are 
annulled July,  ,, 

Death  of  Reschid  Pacha        .        .        .    Jan.  7,  1858 


Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  many  years  English 

ambassador  at  Constantinople,   returned  to 

England,  Jan.  ;   he   is  succeeded  by  sir  H. 

Lytton  Bulwer ;  accredited    .         .      July  12,   1858 

Indecisive  conflicts  in  Montenegro  between  the 

natives  and  the  Turks        .        .         .       July,     ,, 
Massacre   of    Christians  at  Jeddo  (which  see), 

July  25,     „ 

Turkish  financial  reforms  begun    .        .     Aug.     ,, 
The  first  Turkish  railway  opened  (from  Aden  to 
Smyrna) Sept.  19,     ,, 

Base  coinage  called  in ;  a  fictitious  Turkish 
coinage  begun  at  Birmingham,  and  is  sup- 
pressed   Oct.  ,, 

The  allied  powers  determine  the  Montenegrine 
boundaries Nov.  8,  ,, 

Prince  Alexander  Cousa  elected  hospodar  of 
both  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  Feb.  5  and  7,  1859 

[The  Porte  at  first  objects,  but  afterwards 
accedes  to  the  double  election.] 

Electric  telegraph  completed  between  Aden 
and  Suez May,  ,, 

Great  fire  at  Constantinople ;  1000  houses  de- 
stroyed   Sept.  10-14,  » 

Great  conspiracy  against  the  sultan  detected, 
Sept.  17 ;  his  brother  implicated ;  several 
persons  condemned  to  die  are  reprieved, 

Sept.  and  Oct.     ,, 

Great  agitation  for  financial  reform        .       Oct.     ,, 

Alleged  ill  treatment  of  Christians  in  Turkey  ; 
proposed  intervention  of  the  great  powers, 
May  5 ;  the  Turkish  government  promise 
investigation  and  redress ;  all  the  powers 
satisfied  except  Russia  .  .  .  May  30,  1860 

War  between  the  Druses  and  Maronites  in 
Lebanon  ;  massacres.  See  Druses.  June,  ,, 

Massacre  of  Christians  at  Damascus.  See 
Damascus  and  Syria  .  .  .  July  9-11,  ,, 

Convention  on  behalf  of  the  Great  Powers  at 
Paris ;  armed  intervention  of  the  French 
agreed  to  .  .  .  _.  Aug.  2,  „ 

Inundations    at  Galatz;    loss  about  175,000^., 

Feb.  24,  1861 

Christians  revolt  in  the  Herzegovina,  aided  by 
the  Montenegrins  ....  March  ,, 

Great  need  of  financial  reform ;  the  British 
ambassador,  sir  H.  Lytton,  proposes  a  scheme, 

April,     ,, 

Discussion  respecting  the  French  occupation  of 
Syria  ;  it  ceases June  5,  ,, 

Death  of  the  sultan,  Abdul-Medjid ;  accession 
of  Abdul-Aziz,  his  brother  .  .  June  25,  1861 

Economical  reforms  begun  ;  Fuad  Pacha  made 
president  of  the  council  ....  July  ,, 

The  late  sultan's  jewels  sold  in  London       Aug.     ,, 

New  order  of  knighthood  (Nishan  Osmanieh) 
to  include  civil  as  well  as  military  persons, 

Sept.     „ 

Imperial  guaid  re-organised  .        .        .        Oct.     ,, 

Fuad  Pacha  made  grand  vizier  .     Nov.  22,     „ 

He  puts  forth  a  budget ;  treaties  of  commerce 
with  Sweden,  Spain,  &c.  .  .  March,  1862 

A  Turkish  loan  (8,000,000?.)  taken  up  in  London 

May,     „ 

Secularisation  of  the  property  of  the  mosques, 
(value  about  3,000,000?,)  said  to  be  deter- 
mined on Oct.  „ 

Insurgents  in  the  Herzegovina  submit ;  peace 
made  with  Montenegro  .  .  Sept.  23,  ,, 

Dispute  with  Servia.  (which  fee)  settled       Oct.  7,     „ 

Ministerial  crisis  through  the  sultan's  attempt 
at  reaction ;  Fuad  Pacha  and  others  resign, 
but  resume  office.  .  .  .  Jan.  7,  1863 

A  new  bank  established        .        .  Jan.  28,    ,, 

Fuad  Pacha  becomes  seraskier         .       Feb.  12,     ,, 

Exhibition  of  the  produce  of  the  empire, 
opened  in  March  ;  closed  .  .  July  26,  „ 

The  sultan  visits  Egypt    .        .         .    April  7-17,    ,, 

Fuad  Pacha  made  grand  vizier        .        June  i, 


TUR 


741 


TUS 


TURKEY,  continued. 

Great   immigration    of   the    Caucasian   tribes, 

April,  1864 

Financial  reforms  ;  conversion  and  verification 
of  the  Turkish  debt        ....     Aug.   1865 


Cholera  rages  at  Constantinople,  nearly  50,000 
deaths,  Aug.  and  Sept.  ;  great  fire  there, 
about  2 500  buildings  (mosques,  dwellings,  <fec.) 
destroyed,  and  cholera  subsides  .  Sept.  6,  1865 


TURKISH    EMPERORS. 


1299. 

1326. 
1360. 

1389. 
1402. 

1410. 
i4I3- 
1421. 


1481. 
1512. 
1520. 

1566. 

I574- 


1595- 

1603. 
1617. 


Othman,  Osman,  or  Ottoman,  who  assumed 

the  title  of  Grand  Seignior 
Oz-chan,  son  of  Othman. 
Amurath  or  Murad  I.  :  stabbed  by  a  soldier, 

of  which  wound  he  died. 
Bajazet  I.,  his  son  :   defeated  by  Tamerlane, 

and  died  imprisoned. 
Solyman  I.,  son  of  Bajazet:  dethroned  by  his 

brother  and  successor, 
Musa-Chelebi  ;  strangled. 
Mahomet  I.,  also  son  of  Bajazet. 
Amurath  II.,  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Mahomet  II.,  by  whom  Constantinople  was 

taken  in  1453. 

Bajazet  II.,  deposed  by  his  son, 
Selim  I.,  who  succeeded  him. 
Solyman  II.  the  Magnificent,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Selim  II.,  son  of  the  last. 
Amurath  III.,  his  son:    on  his  accession  he 

caused  his  five  brothers  to  be  murdered, 

and  their  mother,  in  grief,  stabbed  herself. 
Mahomet  III.,  son  of  Amurath  :    commenced 

his  reign  by  strangling  all  his  brothers,  and 

drowning  all  his  father's  wives. 
Ahmed  or  Achmet,  his  son  :  succeeded  by  his 

brothei-, 
Mustapha  I.  ;  deposed  by  the  Janissaries,  and 

imprisoned  ;  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 


1618.   Osman  II.  :  strangled  by  the  Janissaries,  and 
his  imcle  restored. 

1622.  Mustapha  I.  again  :  again  deposed,  sent  to  the 

Seven  Towers,  and  strangled. 

1623.  Amurath  IV.  :  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
1640.    Ibrahim  :  strangled  by  the  Janissaries. 

1648.   Mahomet  I V. ,  son  of  Ibrahim  :  deposed,  and 

died  in  prison. 

1687.    Solyman  III.,  his  brother. 
1691.   Ahmed  or  Achmet    II.  :    succeeded   by  his 

nephew, 
1695.   Mustapha  II.,   eldest  son  of  Mahomet  IV.  : 

deposed  ;  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
1703.  Ahmed  or  Achmet  HI. :  deposed,  and  died  in 

prison  in  1736. 
1730.   Mahmud  I.,   or  Mahomet  V.,  succeeded  his 

uncle,  the  preceding  sultan. 
1754.   Osman  III.,  brother  of  Mahmud. 
1757.    Mustapha  III.,  brother  of  Osman. 
1774.   Abdul- Ahmed. 
1789.   Selim  III.  :  deposed  by  the  Janissaries,  and 

his  nephew  raised  to  the  throne. 

1807.  Mustapha  IV. :   deposed,  and,  with  the  late 

sultan  Selim,  murdered. 

1808.  Mahmud  II.,  or  Mahomet  VI.  :  succeeded  by 

his  son, 
1839.    Abdul-Medjid,  July  2  (born  April   23,  1823) ; 

died  June  25,  1861. 
1861.  Abdul- Aziz,  June  25  (born  Feb.  9,  1830),  the 

PRESENT  sultan  of  Turkey. 


TURKEY  TRADE,  most  lucrative  at  the  time  and  long  afterwards,  commenced  in  the 
year  1550.  The  Turkey  or  Levant  Company  of  London  was  instituted  by  charter  of 
Elizabeth,  in  1579. 

TURKEYS  AND  GUINEA  FOWLS.  First  brought  to  England,  1523,  and  to  France  in 
1570.  Turkeys  are  natives  of  America,  and  were  consequently  unknown  to  the  ancients. 
Mr.  Pennant  has  established  this  fact  by  various  particulars  in  the  history  of  these  birds  ; 
evincing  that  they  are  natives  neither  of  Europe,  Asia,  nor  Africa  ;  a  circumstance  since 
placed  beyond  controversy,  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  Beckmann. 

TURKOMANS.     See  White  Sheep, 

TURNER'S  LEGACIES.  Joseph  M.  W.  Turner,  one  of  the  greatest  of  landscape- 
painters,  was  born  in  April  1775,  and  died  Dec.  19,  1851.  He  bequeathed  to  the  nation  all 
the  pictures  and  drawings  collected  by  him  and  deposited  at  his  residence,  47,  Queen  Anne- 
street,  London,  on  condition  that  a  suitable  gallery  be  erected  for  them  within  ten  years  ; 
and  directed  his  funded  property  to  be  expended  in  founding  an  asylum  at  Twickenham  for 
decayed  artists.  The  will  was  disputed  by  his  relatives,  but  a  compromise  was  made.  The 
oil-paintings  (100  in  number)  and  the  drawings  (1400)  were  obtained  by  the  nation,  and  the 
engravings  and  some  other  property  were  transferred  to  the  next  of  kin.  The  drawings  were 
cleaned  and  mounted  under  the  careful  superintendence  of  Mr.  Ruskin,  and  the  pictures 
were  sent  to  Marlborough  House  for  exhibition.  In  1861,  the  pictures  were  removed  from 
the  South  Kensington  Museum  to  the  National  Gallery. 

TURNING.  See  Lathe.  In  our  dockyards,  blocks  and  other  materials  for  our  ships  of 
war  are  now  produced  by  an  almost  instantaneous  process,  from  rough  pieces  of  oak,  by  the 
machinery  of  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Mark  Isambard)  Brunei  (who  died  in  1849). 

TURNPIKES.     See  Tolls. 

TURPENTINE  TREE,  Pistacia  Terebinthinus,  came  from  Barbary,  before  1656.  Spirits 
of  turpentine  were  first  applied,  with  success,  to  the  rot  in  sheep  ;  one-third  of  the  spirit 
diluted  with  two-thirds  water,  1772.  Annual  Register. 

TUSCAN  ORDER  OF  ARCHITECTURE,  a  debased  Doric,  invented  in  Tuscany,  and  used 
in  the  erection  of  coarse  and  rude  buildings,  in  which  strength  is  principally  intended, 
without  regard  to  ornament  or  beauty.  Wotton. 


TUS 


742 


TYL 


TUSCANY,  formerly  a  grand-duchy  in  Central  Italy,  the  northern  part  of  the  ancient 
Etruria  (which  see).  It  formed  part  of  the  Lombard  kingdom  ;  at  the  conquest  of  which  by 
Charlemagne,  it  was  made  a  marquisate  for  Boniface  about  812  or  828.  His  descendant,  the 
great  countess  Matilda,  bequeathed  the  southern  part  of  her  domains  to  the  pope.  In  the 
northern  part  (then  called  Tuscia),  the  cities,  Florence,  Pisa,  Sienna,  Lucca,  &c.,  gradually 
became  nourishing  republics.  Florence  became  the  chief  under  the  government  of  the  Medici 
family  (see  Florence).  The  duchy  in  that  family  began  in  1531  ;  and  the  grand-duchy  in 
1569.  After  the  extinction  of  the  Medicis  in  1737,  Tuscany  was  given  by  the  treaty  of 
"Vienna  (1738)  to  Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine  (husband  of  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria  in  1736), 
who  had  ceded  his  hereditary  states  to  France.  Population  in  1860,  1,826,830. 


The  French  enter  Florence  .        .        March  28,  1799 
The  grand-duke  is   dispossessed,   and  his  do- 
minions given  to  Louis  duke  of  Parma  (of 
the  royal  house  of  Spain),  with  the  title  of 

king  of  Etruria 1801 

Tuscany  incorporated  with  the  French  empire     1807 
The  grand-duchy  given  to  Eliza,  sister  of  Napo- 
leon         1808 

Ferdinand  III.  restored 1814 

Lucca  united  to  Tuscany 1847 

Leopold  II.  grants  a  free  constitution       .  Feb.  1848 
Insurrection  at  Florence  ;  republic  proclaimed ; 

the  duke  flies         ....        Feb.  n,  1849 
He  is  restored  by  the  Austrians  .         July,  1850 
Prosecution  of  the  Madiai  *    .         .        .     May,  1 852 
The  Tuscan  army  demand  alliance  with   the 
Sardinians ;    the    grand-duke    refuses,    and 
departs  to  Bologna;  the  king  of  Sardinia  is 
proclaimed  dictator,  and  a  provisional  govern- 
ment formed,  April  27  ;  the  king  assumes  the 
command  of  the  army,  but  declines  the  dic- 
tatorship        April  30,  1859 

The  Sardinian  commissary  Buoncompagni  in- 


vested   with   the    powers    of    government, 

May  1 1, 

Prince  Napoleon  arrives  at  Leghorn,  addresses 

the  Tuscans  and  erects  his  standard.  May  23, 

The  grand-duke  Leopold  II.  abdicates  in  favour 

of  his  son  Ferdinand        .        .        .     July  21, 

The     Tuscan    constituent     assembly     meets, 

Aug.  ii, 

It  declares  against  recalling  the  house  of  Lor- 
raine, and  votes  for  annexation  to  Sardinia, 

Sept. 

Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy-Carignan  elected 
governor-general  of  central  Italy ;  he  de- 
clines ;  but  recommends  Buoncompagni, 
Nov. ;  who  is  accepted  by  the  Tuscans, 

Dec.  8, 

Annexation    to    Sardinia    voted  by  universal 

suffrage,  March  u,  12;  decreed        March  22, 

Prince  Eugene    of  Savoy-Carignan  appointed 

governor March  26, 

Florence  made  the  capital  of  Italy,  by  decree 

published Dec.  n, 

(See  Italy.) 


1859 


1860 


1864 


SOVEREIGNS    OF   TUSCAXY. 


GRAND-DUKES. 

1569.   Cosmo  I.,  Medici. 

1574.    Francis  I. 

1587.    Ferdinand  I. 

1609.   Cosmo  II. 

1621.   Ferdinand  II. 

1670.   Cosmo  III.  (visited  England,  and  wrote  an 

account  of  his  travels.) 
1723.  John  Gaston  (last  of  the  Medici). 
1737.   Francis  II.  (duke  of  Lorraine)  became  emperor 

of  Germany  in  1745. 
1765.  Leopold  I.  (emperor  in  1790.) 
1790.   Ferdinand  III.  (second  son  of   Leopold  I.) ; 

expelled  by  the  French  in  1800. 


KINGS  OF  ETRURIA. 

1801.    Louis  I.,  duke  of  Parma. 
1803.  Louis  II. 

GRAND-DUCHESS. 

1808-14.   Eliza  Bonaparte  (married  to  Bacciochi,  made 
prince  of  Lucca). 

GRAND-DUKKS. 

1814.   Ferdinand  III.  restored. 

1824.   Leopold  II.,  June  18  (born  Oct.  3,  1797  ;  abdi- 
cated, July  21,  1859). 
1859.   Ferdinand  IV.,  July  21  (born  June  10,  1835). 


TWELFTH-DAY,  the  church  festival  called  the  Epiphany,  or  manifestation  of  Christ  to 
the  Gentiles,  Jan.  6.  See  Epiphany. 

TYBURN  ("W.  London),  at  the  west  end  of  Oxford-road  (now  street)  the  place  in  London 
for  the  execution  of  malefactors  till  1783.  Pennant  (who  died  1798)  remembered  Oxford- 
street  as  "a  deep,  hollow  road,  and  full  of  sloughs,  with  here  and  there  a  ragged  house,  the 
lurking-place  of  cut-throats." 

TYLER'S  INSURRECTION  arose  in  opposition  to  the  poll-tax  levied  in  1379.  One  of 
the  collectors  acting  with  indecent  rudeness  to  Wat  Tyler's  daughter,  the  father  struck  him 
dead.  His  neighbours  took  arms  to  defend  him,  and  in  a  short  time  almost  the  whole  of  the 
population  of  the  southern  and  eastern  counties  were  in  a  state  of  insurrection,  extorting 
freedom  from  their  lords,  and  plundering.  On  June  12,  1381,  they  gathered  upon  Black- 
heath  to  the  number  of  100,000  men.  The  king,  Richard  II.,  invited  Tyler  to  a  parley, 
which  took  place  on  the  I5th  at  Smithfield,  where  the  latter  addressed  the  king  in  a  somewhat 

*  Much  interest  and  sympathy  were  excited  in  England  and  other  Protestant  countries  of  Europe,  bjT 
the  imprisonment  at  Florence  of  the  Madiai  (husband  and  wife),  who  had  embraced  the  English  reformed 
religion,  and  read  the  Bible  in  due  conformity  with  the  teaching  of  their  new  faith.  For  this  "  crime  " 
they  were  separately  incarcerated  in  loathsome  dungeons,  and  subjected  to  all  the  rigours  of  the  Romish 
ecclesiastical  law,  May,  1852.  A  Protestant  deputation  from  England,  headed  by  the  earls  of  Shaftesbury 
and  Roden,  proceeded  to  Florence  in  Oct.  1852,  with  the  view  to  their  release  from  confinement ;  but  the 
grand- duke  refused  to  receive  them.  The  Madiai  were  set  at  liberty,  by  the  interposition  of  the  British 
government,  in  March,  1853.  An  annuity  of  looi.  was  provided  for  them  by  subscription. 


TYP  743  UMB 


menacing  manner,  now  and  again  lifting  up  his  sword.  On  this  the  mayor,  "Walworth, 
stunned  Tyler  with  a  blow  of  his  mace,  and  one  of  the  king's  knights  dispatched  him. 
Kichard  temporised  with  the  multitude  by  promising  a  charter,  and  thus  led  them  out  of  the 
city,  when  sir  R.  Knollys  and  a  band  of  knights  attacked  and  dispersed  them  with  much 
slaughter.  The  insurrection  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  was  subdued  by  the  bishop  of  Norwich, 
and  1500  of  the  rebels  were  executed. 

TYPE-COMPOSING  MACHINES.     See  under  Printing. 

TYRANT.  In  early  Greek  history,  the  term  was  applied  to  any  man  who  governed  with 
irresponsible  power.  Solon  objected  to  the  term,  and  chose  the  name  Archon  (ruler), 
594  B.C.  The  earliest  tyrants  were  those  at  Sicyon,  beginning  with  Clisthenes,  in  the  7th 
century  B.C.  Tyranny  declined  in  Greece  about  490  B.C.,  and  revived  after  the  close  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  404  B.C.  See  Thirty  Tyrants. 

TYRE  (Phoenicia).  This  great  city  was  first  built  by  Agenor.  Another  city  was  built 
1257  (about  2267,  Hales}  B.C.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Assyrians,  719  B.C.,  and  they  retired 
from  before  it,  after  a  siege  of  upwards  of  five  years,  713  B.C.  Taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
572  B.C.,  and  the  city  demolished,  when  the  Tyrians  removed  to  an  opposite  island,  and 
built  a  new  and  magnificent  city.  It  was  taken  by  Alexander  with  much  difficulty,  after  a 
siege  of  seven  months,  Aug.  20,  332  B.C.  He  joined  the  island  to  the  continent  by  a  mole. 
Strabo.  It  was  taken  by  the  allied  fleet  in  1841  A.D. 

TYRE,  ERA  or,  began  on  Oct.  19,  125  B.C.,  with  the  month  of  Hyperberetseus.  The 
months  were  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  Grecian  era,  and  the  year  is  similar  to  the  Julian, 
year.  To  reduce  this  era  to  ours,  subtract  124 ;  and  if  the  given  year  be  less  than  125, 
deduct  it  from  125,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  year  before  Christ. 

TYROL,  the  eastern  part  of  ancient  Rhetia,  now  a  province  of  the  Austrian  empire,  was 
ceded  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg  in  1359,  by  Margaret,  the  heiress  of  the  last  count  Tyrol. 
The  province  became  an  appanage  of  the  younger  (or  Tyrol)  branch  of  the  imperial  house, 
which  came  to  the  throne  in  the  person  of  Maximilian  II.,  in  1618.  The  French  conquered 
the  Tyrol  in  1805,  and  united  it  to  Bavaria;  but  in  1809  an  insurrection  broke  out,  headed  by 
Andrew  Hofer,  an  innkeeper,  who  drove  the  Bavarians  out  of  the  Tyrol,  thoroughly  defeated 
some  French  detachments,  but  laid  down  his  arms  at  the  treaty  of  Vienna.  He  was 
subsequently  accused  of  corresponding  with  the  Austrians,  captured  and  sent  to  Mantua, 
and  there  shot  by  order  of  the  French  government  (to  its  great  disgrace)  Feb.  20,  1810. 
The  Austrian  emperor  ennobled  his  family  in  1819,  and  erected  his  statue  in  Inspruck  in 
1834.  The  Tyrolese  riflemen  were  very  effective  in  the  Italian  war  in  1859. 


U. 

UBIQUITARIANS,  a  small  German  sect,  originated  by  Brentius  about  1560,  who 
asserted  that  the  body  ot  Christ  was  present  everywhere  (ubique). 

UKRAINE  (a  frontier),  a  vast  fertile  plain  in  Russia,  ceded  to  the  Cossacks  by  Poland 
in  1672,  and  obtained  by  Russia  in  1682.  The  country  was  divided,  Poland  having  the  west 
side  of  the  Dnieper,  and  Russia  the  east.  The  whole  country  was  assigned  to  Russia  by  the 
treaty  of  partition  in  1795. 

ULM,  in  Wurtemberg,  S.  Germany,  where  a  PEACE  was  signed,  July  3,  1620,  by  which 
Frederick  Y.  lost  Bohemia  (having  been  driven  from  it  previously).  Ulm  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1796.  After  a  battle  between  the  French  and  Austrians,  in  which  the  latter, 
under  general  Mack,  were  defeated  with  dreadful  loss  by  marshal  Ney,  Ulm  surrendered  with 
28,000  men,  the  flower  of  the  Austrian  army,  Oct.  17-20,  1805. 

ULPHILAS'S  BIBLE.     See  Bible. 

UMBRELLA,  described  in  early  dictionaries  as  "a  portable  pent-house  to  carry  in  a 
person's  hand  to  screen  him  from  violent  rain  or  heat."  Umbrellas  are  very  ancient,  as  they 
appear  in  the  carvings  at  Persepolis.  Niebuhr,  who  visited  the  southern  part  of  Arabia, 
informs  us  that  he  saw  a  great  prince  of  that  country  returning  from  a  mosque,  preceded  by 
some  hundreds  of  soldiers,  and  that  he  and  each  of  the  princes  of  his  numerous  family  caused 
a  large  umbrella  to  be  carried  by  his  side.  The  old  chiuaware  in  our  pantries  and  cupboards 
shows  the  Chinese  shaded  by  an  umbrella.  It  is  said  that  the  first  person  who  used  an 
umbrella  in  the  streets  of  London  was  the  benevolent  Jonas  Han  way,  who  died  in  1786.* 

*  For  a  long  while  it  was  not  usual  for  men  to  carry  them  without  being  branded  as  effeminate.    At 


UNC  744  UNI 

UNCTION",  EXTREME.     See  Anointing. 

UNIFORMITY,  ACT  OF  (2  &  3  Edward  VI.),  Jan.  15,  1549,  ordained  that  the  order  of 
divine  worship,  drawn  up  by  Cranmer  and  others,  "with  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  should 
be  the  only  one  used  after  May  20.  The  penalties  for  refusing  to  use  it  were  fine  and  impri- 
sonment. This  act  was  re-enacted  by  Elizabeth  in  1559.  The  statute  known  as  the  act  of 
Uniformity,  14  Charles  II.  c.  4,  was  passed  in  1662.  It  enjoined  uniformity  in  matters  of 
religion,  and  obliged  all  clergy  to  subscribe  to  the  thirty-nine  articles,  and  use  the  same  form 
of  worship,  and  same  book  of  common  prayer.  Its  enforcement  on  Aug.  24,  1662,  termed 
Black  Bartholomew's  day,  caused  upwards  of  2000  ministers  to  quit  the  church  of  England, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  dissenting  interest.  The  day  was  commemorated  by  dissenters 
in  1862. 

UNIFORMS.  Military  uniforms  were  first  used  in  France,  "in  a  regular  manner,"  by 
Louis  XIV.  1668.  In  England  the  uniform  was  soon  afterwards  adopted  in  the  military 
service,  but  with  little  analogy  to  the  modern  dress.  A  she.  See  under  Navy. 

UNION  OF  CALMAR,  1397  ;  of  Utrecht,  1579. 

UNION  of  the  crowns  and  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland  by  the  accession  of 
James  VI.  of  Scotland  as  James  I.  of  England,  March  24,  1603.  The  legislative  union  of 
the  two  kingdoms  was  attempted,  but  failed  in  1604  and  1670  ;  in  the  reign  of  Anne, 
commissioners  were  appointed,  the  articles  discussed,  and,  notwithstanding  a  great  opposi- 
tion made  by  the  Tories,  every  article  in  the  union  was  approved  by  a  great  majority,  first 
in  the  house  of  commons,  and  afterwards  by  the  peers,  July  22,  1706  ;  was  ratified  by  the 
Scottish  parliament,  Jan.  16,  1707,  and  became  a  law,  May  I,  same  year. 

UNION  of  GREAT  BRITAIN  and  IRELAND,  proposed  in  the  Irish  parliament,  Jan.  22, 
1799.  Rejected  by  the  commons  of  Ireland,  Jan.  24,  the  votes  being  105  for,  to  106  against 
the  union.  The  English  house  of  commons  on  the  same  question  divided,  140,  141,  and 
149  for  the  union  ;  against  it,  15,  25,  and  28,  respectivel}7.  Lord  Castlereagh  detailed  his 
plan  of  the  union,  in  the  Irish  house  of  lords,  founded  on  the  resolutions  of  the  British 
parliament  thereon,  Feb.  5,  1800.  Votes  of  the  commons  agreeing  to  it,  161  against  115, 
Feb.  17  ;  and  again,  152  against  108,  Feb.  21.  The  houses  of  lords  and  commons  wait  on  the 
lord  lieutenant  with  the  articles  of  union,  March  27.  The  act  passed  in  the  British  parlia- 
ment, July  2,  1800.  The  imperial  united  standard  was  first  displayed  at  the  Tower  of 
London,  and  upon  Bedford  Tower,  Dublin  Castle,  in  consequence  of  the  act  of  legislative 
union  becoming  ail  operative  law,  Jan.  I,  1801.  For  attempts  to  dissolve  the  union,  see 
Repeal. 

UNION  JACK.  The  original  flag  of  England  was  the  banner  of  St.  George,  i.e.,  white 
with  a  red  cross,  which,  April  12,  1606  (three  years  after  James  I.  ascended  the  throne), 
was  incorporated  with  the  banner  of  Scotland,  i.  e, ,  blue  with  a  white  diagonal  cross.  This 
combination  obtained  the  name  of  "  Union  Jack,"  in  allusion  to  the  union  with  Scotland, 
and  the  word  Jack  may  be  considered  a  corruption  of  the  word  "  Jacques,"  or  James.  This 
arrangement  continued  until  the  union  with  Ireland,  Jan.  I,  1801,  when  the  banner  of  St. 
Patrick,  i.e.,  white,  with  a  diagonal  red  cross,  was  thus  amalgamated  with  it,  and  forms  the 
present  Union  flag. 

UNION  CHARGEABILITY  ACT,  providing  for  the  better  distribution  of  the  charge 
for  relieving  the  poor  in  unions,  was  passed  in  June,  1865.  One  object  of  the  act  is  the 
improvement  of  the  dwellings  of  agricultural  labourers. 

UNION  RELIEF  ACT  was  passed  in  1862,  to  enable  boards  of  guardians  of  certain 
unions  to  obtain  temporary  aid  to  meet  the  extraordinary  expenditure  for  relief  occasioned 
by  the  distress  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  districts.  This  act  was  continued  by  one  passed 
in  1863. 

first,  a  single  umbrella  seems  to  have  been  kept  at  a  coffee-house  for  extraordinary  occasions — lent  as  a 
coach  or  chair  in  a  heavy  shower,  but  not  commonly  carried  by  the  walkers.  The  Female  Tatter  advertises  : 
"The  young  gentleman  belonging  to  the  Custom-house  who,  in  fear  of  rain,  borrowed  the  umbrella  from 
Wilks's  Coffee-house,  shall  the  next  time  be  welcome  to  the  maid's  pattens."  As  late  as  1778,  one  John 
Macdonald,  a  footman,  who  wrote  his  own  life,  informs  us  that  he  had  "  a  fine  silk  umbrella,  which  he 
brought  from  Spain  ;  but  he  could  not  with  any  comfort  to  himself  use  it,  the  pt  ople  calling  out,  '  French- 
man !  why  don't  you  get  a  coach  ? ' "  TLe  hackney- coachmen  and  chairmen,  with  true  e*prit  de  corps,  were 
clamorous  against  their  portentous  rival.  The  footman,  in  1778,  gives  us  some  farther  information  : — "At 
this  time  there  were  no  umbrellas  worn  in  London,  except  in  noblemen's  and  gentlemen's  houses,  where 
there  was  a  large  one  hung  in  the  hall  to  hold  over  a  lady  if  it  rained,  between  the  door  and  her  carriage." 
This  man's  sister  was  compelled  to  quit  his  arm  one  day  from  the  abuse  he  drew  down  upon  himself  and 
his  umbrella.  But,  he  adds,  that  "he  persisted  for  three  months,  till  they  took  no  further  notice  of  this 
novelty.  Foreigners  began  to  use  theirs,  and  then  the  English.  Now  it  is  become  a  great  trade  in 
London." — New  Monthly  Magazine. 


UNI 


745 


UNI 


UNION  REPEAL  ASSOCIATION,  IRELAND.     See  Repeal  of  the  Union. 
UNIT,  a  gold  coin,  value  205.,  issued  by  James  I.  in  1604. 

UNITARIANS,*  began  with  Servetus,  a  learned  man,  who  printed  a  tract  in  disparage- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  In  1553,  proceeding  to  Naples  through  Geneva,  Calvin 
induced  the  magistrates  to  arrest  him  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy  and  heresy.  Servetus, 
refusing  to  retract  his  opinions,  was  condemned  to  the  flames,  which  sentence  was  carded 
into  execution,  May  27,  1553.  Servetus  is  numbered  among  those  anatomists  who  made  the 
nearest  approach  to  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  before  Harvey  established 
that  doctrine.  The  Unitarians  were  numerous  in  Transylvania  in  the  iyth  century  ;  they 
came  to  England  about  1700,  and  many  of  the  original  English  presbyterian  churches 
became  Unitarians  about  1730.  They  were  not  included  in  the  Toleration  act  till  1813. 
There  were  229  congregations  in  England  in  1851.  The  Unitarian  marriage  bill  was  passed, 
June  1827.  In  Dec.  1833,  by  a  decision  of  the  vice-chancellors  the  Unitarians  (as  such) 
lost  the  possession  of  lady  Hewley's  charity  ;  the  decision  was  affirmed  on  appeal  in  1842. 

UNITED  IRISHMEN,  a  political  society  which  met  secretly,  was  formed  in  1795  to 
counteract  the  effect  of  the  Orange  clubs. 

UNITED  KINGDOM.  England  and  Wales  were  united  in  1283  ;  Scotland  to  both  in 
1707  ;  and  the  British  realm  was  named  the  United  Kingdom  on  the  union  with  Ireland, 
Jan.  i,  1801.  See  Union.  The  UNITED  KINGDOM  ALLIANCE,  for  the  total  suppression  of 
liquor  traffic,  was  founded  June  I,  1853. 

UNITED  PROVINCES  (Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Groningen,  Overyssell, 
and  Guelderland),  the  deputies  of  which  met  at  Utrecht,  Jan.  23,  1579,  and  signed  a  treaty 
for  their  mutual  defence.  See  Holland. 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  were  so  styled  by  the  congress  of  the  revolted 
British  provinces,  Sept.  9,  1776.  Their  flag  was  declared  to  be  thirteen  stripes,  alternately 
red  and  white,  and  thirteen  stars  in  a  blue  field,  corresponding  with  the  then  number  of 
states  of  the  union,  f  June  20,  1777.  The  government  of  the  United  States  is  a  pure 
democracy.  Each  of  the  states  has  a  separate  and  independent  legislature  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  its  local  affairs,  but  all  are  ruled  in  matters  of  imperial  policy  by  two  houses  of 
legislature,  the  senate  and  the  house  of  representatives,  to  which  delegates  are  sent  from  the 
different  members  of  the  confederacy.  The  president  of  the  United  States  is  elected  every 
fourth  year  by  the  free  voice  of  the  people.  The  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  as  president 
on  Nov.  4,  1860,  was  followed  by  the  secession  of  eleven  slaveholding  states,  and  led  to  the 
great  civil  war,  1861-5.  See  Confederates. 


Act  of  the  British  parliament,  imposing  new 

and  heavy  duties  on  imported  merchandise, 

March  u,  1764 

Obnoxious  stamp  act  passed         .         March  22,  1765 
First  American  congress  h£ld  at  New  York, 

June  ;  the  stamp  act  resisted        .        Nov.  i,     ,, 

Stamp  act  repealed 1766 

British    act,    levying   duties    on    tea,    paper, 

painted  glass,  <fec.          .        .        .       June  14,  1767 

Gen.  Gates  sent  to  Boston 1768 

840  chests  of  tea  destroyed  by  the  populace  at 

Boston,  and  17  chests  at  New  York  .  Nov.  1773 
Boston  Port  Bill  ....  March  25,  1774 
Deputies  from  the  States  meet  at  Philadelphia, 

Sept.  5;  Declaration  of  Rights  issued,  Nov.  4,     ,, 
First  action  between  the  British  and  Americans, 

at  Lexington April  19,  1775 

Act  of  perpetual  union  between  the  States, 

May  20,     ,, 


George  Washington  appointed  commander-in- 
chief,  May ;  battle  of  Bunker's  hill,  June  16, 

America  declared  "free,  sovereign,  and  inde- 
pendent " July  4, 

General  Howe  takes  Long  Island,  Aug.  27 ; 
New  York,  Sept.  15 ;  victor  at  White  Plains, 
Oct.  29 ;  at  Rhode  Island  .  .  .  Dec.  8, 

The  Hessians  surrender  to  Washington,  Dec.  25, 

La  Fayette  and  other  French  officers  join  the 
Americans 

Washington  defeated  at  Brandy  wine     Sept.  n, 

Lord  Cornwallis  takes  Philadelphia    .        Sept. 

Burgoyne  victor  at  Germautown,  Oct.  3  ;  is 
surrounded,  and  capitulates  at  Saratoga, 

Oct.  17, 

A    federal  government  adopted  by  congress, 


The  States  recognised  by  France 
The  king's  troops  quit  Philadelphia 


Nov.  15, 
Feb.  6, 
.  June, 


1775 
1776 


1777 


1778 


*  Their  tenets  are  different,  but  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  Arians  and  Socinians,  which  see.  The 
Unitarians  believe  in  and  worship  one  only  self-existent  God,  in  opposition  to  those  who  worship  the. 
Trinity  in  unity.  They  consider  Christ  to  have  been  a  mere  man  ;  and  do  not  admit  the  need  of  an  atone- 
ment, or  the  complete  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures. 

t  The  following  thirteen  states  formed  the  union  at  the  declaration  of  independence  in  1776  ;  the 
italics  indicate  the  then  slaveholding  states  ;  those  with  a  *  prefixed  secedtd  from  the  federal  government 
in  1860  and  1861,  and  rejoined  it  in  1865  : — 


New  Hampshire. 
Massachusetts. 
Rhode  Island. 
Connecticut. 


New  York. 
New  Jersey. 
Pennsylvania. 


Delaware. 
Maryland. 
*  Virginia. 


*  North  Carolina. 

*  South  Carolina. 

*  Georgia. 


UNI 


746 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  continued. 


Cornwallis  defeats  Gates  at  Camden,  Aug.  16,  1780 
Major  Andre  hanged  as  a  spy*    .        .      Oct.  2,     ,, 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  at 
!•    Boston  founded         .        .        .        .        .  ,, 

The  federal    government  accepted  by  all  the 

states,  March  i ;  congress  assembles,  March  2,  1781 
Cornwallis  defeats  Green  at  Guildford,  March 

16 ;  Arnold  defeats  the  Americans  at  Eutaw, 

Sept.  8,    „ 
Surrender   of  lord  Cornwallis  and  his  whole 

army  of  7000  men  to  generals  Washington 

and  Kochambeau,  at  Yorktown       .     Oct.  29,     ,, 
Arrival  of  sir  Guy  Carleton  to  treat  for  peace, 

May  5  ;  provisional  articles  signed  at  Paris  by 

commissioners        ....       Nov.  30,  1782 
Definitive  treaty    of   peace    signed   at    Paris, 

Sept.  3,  1783  ;  ratified  by  congress    .    Jan.  4,  1784 
Samuel    Seabury    consecrated   bishop    of    the 

episcopal  church  in  America  .         .        .     , , 

John  Adams,  first  American  ambassador's  first 

inter Tiew  with  the  king  of  England    June  2,  1785 
The  cotton  plant  introduced  into  Georgia.     See 

Cotton 1786 


New  constitution  signed  by  a  convention  of 
States Sept.  17,  1787 

The  same  ratified         ....     May  23,  1788 

The  quakers  of  Philadelphia  emancipate  their 
slaves Jan.  i,  ,, 

New  government  organised        .        .    March  4,  1789 

Washington  declared  the  first  president, 

April  6,  „ 

Present  departments  _  of  state  established, 

July  27,  ,, 

Death  of  Benjamin  Franklin          .        April  17,  1790 

Bank  instituted;  capital,  10,000,000  dollars, 

June  7,  1791 

City  of  Washington  chosen  the  capital  of  the 
States July  8,  1792 

Eli  Whitney's  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  gives 
an  immense  impetus  to  the  growth  of 
American  cotton 1 793 

Re-election  of  general  Washington  as  president, 
March  4, 1793  ;  resigns  .  .  .  Sept.  17,  1796 

Washington  dies  amid  universal  sorrow,  Dec.  14,  1799 

The  seat  of  government  removed  to  Washington  1800 


The  following  have  been  added  : — 

Vermont  (from  New  York) 1791 

*  Tennessee  (from  North  Carolina)    .        .        .    .  1796 

Kentucky  (from  Virginia) 1792 

Columbia  district  (under  the  immediate  govern- 
ment of  congress)  contains  Washington,  the 
seat  of  government 1790-1 

Ohio  (created) 1802 

*  Louisiana  (bought  from  France  in  1803)        .    .1812 
Indiana  (created)  . 1816 

*  Mississippi  (from  Georgia) 1817 

Illinois  (created) 1818 

*  Alabama  (from  Georgia) 1819 

Maine  (from  Massachusetts)        ....  1820 
Missouri  (from  Louisiana)         .        .        .        .    .  1821 

Michigan '.  1837 

*Arkansas  .........  1836 

*Florida  (ceded  by  Spain,  1820);  made  a  state  .  1845 


Iowa 

Wisconsin  ..... 
*  Texas 

California 

Minnesota  (territory,  1849);  state 
Oregon  (territory,  1850) ;  state 
Kansas  (territory,  1854) ;  state 


1846 
1848 
1845 
1850 
1857 
1859 
1861 


New  Mexico  (territory) 1850 

Utah  (territory,) ,, 

Washington  (territory) 1853 

Nebraska  (territory) 1854 

Nevada  (territory) 1861 

Colorado  (territory) ,, 

Dakota  (territory) ,, 

Arizona  (territory) 1863 

Idaho  (territoiy) 1863 

West  Virginia  (from  Virginia)     ....  1863 


*  Seceded  from  the  Union  in  1861,  submitted,  1865. 


1776 
1800 


POPULATION.     See  Slavery  in  America. 

Total.      I  Slaves.  Total,      \ 

2,614,300    1810 .        .     1,191,364 
896,849    .     5)309,756  I  1830     .     .     2,009,050 


Slaves. 


7,239,903    150, 
12,858,670  I  1860 


Slaves.  Total. 

3,204,313    .  23,191,918 
3,952,801    .  31,429,891 


The  senate  is  composed  of  2  members  for  each  state,  elected  for  6  years.     The  representatives  in  con- 
gress are  elected  in  the  ratio  of  i  in  93,423  persons  (5  slaves  were  counted  as  three  persons). 


Revenue. — Total  receipts,  July  i,  1854,  to  June  30,  1855 
ditto  July  i,  1858,  to  June  30,  1859 

ditto  July  i,  1862,  to  June  30,  1863 

Expenditure. — July  j,  1854,  to  June  30,  1855 
ditto  July  i,  1858,  to  June  30,  1859 
ditto  July  i,  1862,  to  June  30,  1863 


.  65,003,930  dollars. 
.  .53,405,071  dollars. 

888,082,128  dollars. 
•  56,365,393  dollars. 
.  66,346,226  dollars. 

714,709,996  dollars. 


ARMY. — That  which  achieved  independence  was  disbanded  at  the  end  of  the  war.  In  1789,  a  war 
department  was  established,  and  in  1790  the  army  consisted  of  1216  men.  In  1808,  the  militia  was  newly 
equipped.  When  war  with  Great  Britain  was  declared  on  June  18,  1812,  35,000  men  were  voted  ;  and  this 
army  was  disbanded  at  the  peace  in  1815.  Armies  were  voted  for  the  wars  in  1833  and  1835,  afterwards 
disbanded. 

In  1855,  Army,  11,658.     Militia,  1,873,558.     Fleet,  72  vessels  (2290  guns). 

In  1860,  the  United  States  Militia  were  3,070,987.  The  Fleet  consisted  of  92  vessels  (of  all  kinds);  in 
Oct.  1862,  of  256  vessels  of  war. 

Federal  Army,  July  29,  1861,  estimated  at  660.971.  In  Dec.  1862,  nearly  1,000,000  men.  In  April, 
1865,  about  1,500,000,  at  the  end  of  the  war,  when  the  reduction  began  at  once. 


*  Andre"  (born  1751),  was  an  adjutant-general  in  the  British  army,  and  was  taken  in  disguise  on  his 
return  from  a  secret  expedition  to  the  traitorous  American  general  Arnold,  Sept.  23,  1780.  He  was 
sentenced  to  execution  as  a  spy  by  a  court  of  general  Washington's  officers  at  Tappan,  New  York,  and 
suffered  death,  Oct.  2  following.  His  remains  were  removed  to  England  in  a  sarcophagus,  Aug.  10,  1821, 
and  interred  in  Westminster  abbey.  Impartial  judges  justify  the  severity  of  this  punishment. 


UNI 


747 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  continued 


Discussion  between  England  and  America  re- 
specting the  rights  of  neutrals  .  .  .1807 

American  ports  closed"  to  the  British,  July; 
trade  suspended  ....  Dec.  9,  ,, 

Slave  trade  abolished 1808 

War  with  Great  Britain  (New  England  States 
opposed  to  it,  threatened  to  secede)  June  18,  1812 

Action  between  the  American  ship  Constitution, 
and  the  British  frigate  G merrier e,  an  unequal 
contest  ......  Aug.  19,  ,, 

Fort  Detroit  taken         ....     Aug.  21     „ 

The  British  sloop  Frolic  taken  by  the  American 
sloop  Wasp Oct.  1 8,  ,, 

The  ship  United  States  of  54  guns,  great  calibre 
(commodore  Decatur),  captures  the  British 
frigate  Macedonian  ....  Oct.  25  ,, 

Battle  of  Frenchtown      .        .        .        Jan.  22,  1813 

The  Hornet  captures  the  British  sloop  of  war, 
Peacock Feb.  25  „ 

Fort  Erie  and  Fort  George  abandoned  by  the 
British May  27,  ,, 

The  American  frigate  Chrsapeake  captured  by 
the  Shannon  frigate,  captain  Broke  June  i,  ,, 

At  Burlington  Heights  Americans  defeated 

June  6,  ,, 

H.  M.  sloop  Pelican  takes  the  sloop  Argus,  Aug.  14    „ 

Buffalo  town  burnt  by  the  British  .        .  Dec.  9    ,, 

American  frigate  Essex  taken  by  the  Phoebe  and 
Cherub March  29,  1814 

The  British  defeat  the  Americans  in  a  severe 
conflict July  2,  ,, 

[Several  engagements  with  various  success 
followed.] 

The  British  defeat  the  Americans  at  Bladens- 
burg Aug.  14,  „ 

Alexandria  capitulates  to  the  British    Aug   17,    ,, 

The  city  of  Washington  is  taken  by  the  British, 
and  the  public  edifices  burnt  .  Aug.  24,  „ 

The  British  sloop  of  war  Avon  sunk  by  the 
American  sloop  Wasp  .  .  .  Sept.  8,  „ 

The  British  squadron  on  Lake  Champlain  cap- 
tured   Sept.  ii  ,, 

Attack  on  Baltimore  by  the  British ;  general 
Ross  killed Sept.  12,  ,, 

Treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  signed  at 
Ghent Dec.  24  ,, 

The  British  ship  Endymion  captures  the  Presi- 
dent   Jan.  15,  1815 

The  Ghent  treaty  ratified        .        .         Feb.  17,     ,, 

Centre  foundation  of  the  capitol  of  Washington 
laid Aug.  24,  1818 

The  "Missouri  Compromise"  of  Henry  Clay, 
regarding  slavery,  passed  .  .  .  Feb.  1820 

Spain  cedes  Florida  to  the  United  States,  Oct.  24,  1820 

The  States  acknowledge  the  independence  of 
South  America March  8,  1822 

Treaty  with  Columbia     ....  Oct.  3,  1824 

Death  of  the  two  ex-presidents,  Adams  and 
Jefferson,  on  the  soth  anniversary  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  American  States  .  July  4,  1826 

Convention  with  Great  Britain  concerning  in- 
demnities   Nov.  13,  ,, 

American  Tariff  Bill  imposing  heavy  duties  on 
British  goods  ....  May  13,  1828 

General  Jackson,  president          .        .    Feb.  16,  1829 

Treaty  between  the  United  States  and  the  Otto- 

-  man  Porte May  7,  1830 

Ports  re-opened  to  British  commerce      'Oct.  5,    ,, 

New  Tariff  laws        ....         July  14,  1832 

Commercial  panic ,, 

Great  fire  at  New  York,  647  houses  and  many 
public  edifices  burnt ;  loss  estimated  at 
20,000,000  dollars.  See  New  York.  Nov.  15,  1835 

National  debt  paid  off 1836 

In  the  Canadian  insurrection,  many  Americans 
assist  the  insurgents  .  .  Oct.  to  Dec.  1837 

The  American  steamboat  Caroline  is  attacked 
and  burnt  by  the  British,  near  Schlosser,  to 
the  east  of  the  Niagara,  on  the  territory  of 
the  United  States  .  .  .  Dec.  29,  „  ' 


Proclamation  of  the  president  against  American 
citizens  aiding  the  Canadians  .  Jan.  5,  1838 

The  Great  Western  steam-ship  first  arrives  at 
New  York June  17,  ,, 

American  bankssuspend  cash  payments,  Oct.  14,  1839 

Affair  of  Mr.  MacLeod,  charged  with  aiding  in 
the  destruction  of  the  Caroline;  true  bill 
found  against  him  for  murder  and  arson 

Feb.  6,  1841 

The  United  States  bank  again  suspends  pay- 
ment   Feb.  7,  ,, 

Mr.  Fox,  British  minister,  demands  the  release 
of  Mr.  MacLeod  ....  March  12.  ,, 

The  case  of  MacLeod  is  removed  to  the  supreme 
court  at  New  York  ....  May  6,  ,, 

A  party  of  British  volunteers  from  Canada 
carry  off  col.  Grogan  ....  Sept.  9,  ,, 

Resignation  of  all  the  United  States  ministers, 
with  the  exception  of  Mr.  Webster  Sept.  n,  „ 

President's  proclamation  against  lawless  at- 
tempts of  American  citizens  to  invade  British 
possessions,  and  to  suppress  secret  lodges, 
clubs,  and  associations  .  .  .  Sept.  25,  ,, 

Grogan  is  given  up  to  the  Americans        Oct.  4    „ 

Trial  of  MacLeod  commences  at  Utica,  Oct.  4 ; 
acquitted Oct.  12  ,, 

Colossal  statue  of  Washington  placed  in  the 
capitol  at  Washington  .  .  .  Dec.  i, 

Affair  of  the  Creole,  which  leads  to  a  dispute 
with  England Dec.  ,, 

[This  vessel,  an  American,  was  on  her  voyage 
to  New  Orleans  with  a  cargo  of  slaves  :  they 
mutinied,  murdered  the  owner,  wounded  the 
captain,  and  compelled  the  crew  to  take  the 
ship  to  Nassau,  New  Providence,  where  the 
governor,  considering  them  as  passengers, 
allowed  them,  against  the  protest  of  the 
American  consul,  to  go  at  liberty.  ] 

Announcement  of  lord  Ashburton's  mission  to 
the  United  States  ....  Jan.  i,  1842 

Arrest  of  Hogan,  implicated  in  the  Caroline 
affair Feb.  2,  ,, 

Lord  Ashburton  arrives  at  New  York     April  i,    „ 

Washington  treaty,  defining  the  boundaries 
between  the  United  States  and  the  British 
American  possessions,  and  for  suppressing 
the  slave  trade,  and  giving  up  fugitive 
criminals ;  signed  at  Washington,  by  lord 
Ashburton  and  Mr.  Webster  .  Aug.  9, 

The  tariff  bill  is  passed        .        .        .  Aug.  10, 

Lord  Ashburton  leaves  the  United  States, 
Sept.  5  ;  arrives  in  England  .  Sept.  23,  ,, 

Death  of  Dr.  Channing        .        .        .      Oct.  2,    „ 

War  declared  against  the  United  States  by 
Mexico,  on  account  of  the  proposed  annex- 
ation of  Texas  ....  June  4,  1845 

[Several  actions  are  fought'  between  the  belli- 
gerents, adverse  to  Mexico.] 

Resolution  of  the  senate  and  hotisc  of  repre- 
sentatives for  terminating  the  joint  occu- 
pancy of  Oregon  ....  April  20,  1846 

Annexation  of  New  Mexico  to  the  United 
States,  after  a  protracted  war  .  .  Aug.  23,  „ 

Treaty  fixing  the  north-west  boundary  of  the 
U.  S.  at  the  4gth  parallel  of  latitude,  and 
giving  the  British  possession  of  Vancouver's 
island,  the  free  navigation  of  the  Columbia 
river,  &c.,  signed ....  June  12,  ,, 

The  Mexicans  defeated  by  general  Taylor,  at 
Bueno  Vista  ....  Feb.  22,  23,  1847 

Vera  Cruz  taken  by  storm,  March  29;  the 
Mexicans  everywhere  worsted.  Great  battle 
of  Sierra  Gorda ;  the  Mexicans  signally  de- 
feated by  gen.  Scott  .  .  .  April  1 8  ,, 

Treaty  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States, 
ratified May  19,  1848 

Riot  at  the  theatre,  New  York,  occasioned  by 
the  dispute  between  Mr.  Forrest  and  Mr. 
Macready May  10,  1849 


UNI 


748 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  continued 


Proclamation    of    the    president    against    the 

marauding  expedition  to  Cuba*     .      Aug.  n,   1849 
The  French  ambassador  dismissed  from  Wash- 
ington        ......  Sept.  14, 

Treaty  with  England  for  a  transit  way  across 
Panama          ........  1850 

Death  of  Mr.  Calhoun  .  .  .  March  31, 
Destructive  fire  in  Philadelphia  .  July  g, 
California  admitted  a  member  of  the  states, 


Fugitive  slave  bill  passed        ..... 

President  Fillmore  issues  a  second  proclamation 
against  the  promoters  of  a  second  expedition 

j  to  Cuba,  and  the  ship  Cleopatra,  freighted 
•with  military  stores  destined  for  that  island, 
is  seized  ......  April  25, 

Census  of  the  United  States  taken  ;  the  popu- 
lation ascertained  to  amount  to  23,347,884,  in 
the  whole  union  ....  June  16, 

Death  of  Henry  Clay,  the  American  minister, 


1851 


aged 
ailur 


75        ......  June  29, 

Failure  of  the  second  expedition  against  Cuba 
by  Lopez  and  his  followers  ;   they  are  all 
defeated  and  taken  ;  51  are  shot  by  the  Cuban 
authorities,  Lopez  is  garotted,  and  the  rest 
are  sent  prisoners  to  Spain,  where,  after  some 
negotiation,  they  are  mercifully  set  at  liberty. 
See  Cuba    .....     Aug.  —  Sept. 

Death  of  J.  F.  Cooper,  the  American  novelist, 

Sept.  17, 

The  president  issues  a  proclamation  against  the 
sympathisers  with  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment in  Mexico     ....        Oct.  22, 

Part  of  the  capitol  of  Washington,   and  the 
whole  of  the  library  of  the  United  States  con- 
gress, destroyed  by  fire     .         .        .    Dec.  24, 
M.  Kossuth,  the   Hungarian  chief,  arrives  at 
Washington,  on  the  invitation  of  the  United 
States  legislature    ....      Dec.  30, 

Publication  of  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  by  Mrs. 
Stowe     ......      March  20, 

The  dispute  with  England  relating  to  the  Fish- 

eries occurs  about  this  time  ;  Mr.  Webster's 

note  upon  the  subject        .        .        .  July  14, 

Lone  Star  Society  (see  Lone  Star)      .        .    Aug. 

The  United  States  ship  Crescent  City  boarded  at 

Havannah,  and  not  allowed  to  land  her  mails 

or  passengers  .....          Oct  3, 

Death  of  the  eminent  statesman  Daniel  Webster, 
in  his  7oth  year  .....  Oct.  24, 

Expedition  to  Japan  .....         .        . 

Address  to  the  women  of  America  on  slavery, 
adopted  by  the  duchess  of   Sutherland  and 
other  ladies   (signed  afterwards  by   576,000 
Englishwomen)    ....         Nov.  26, 

Affair  of  Koszta  at  Smyrna  (see  Koszta)  June  21, 

Crystal  palaoe  opens  at  New  York        .  July  14, 

Duel  between  M.  Soule  (American  minister  at 

Madrid)  and  M.  Turgot      .        .        .    Dec.  18, 

Great  fire  at  New  York  —  Great  Republic  clipper 

destroyed       .....        Dec.  26, 

Astor    Library,   New    York,    opened    for    the 
public        ......       Jan.  9, 

Wm.  Walker  proclaims  the  republic  of  Sonora 
divided  into  two   states—  Sonora  and  Lower 
California      .....         Jan.  18, 

American  steamer  Slack  Warrior  seized  at  Cuba 

Feb.  28, 

The  Spanish  government  remitted  the  fine,  but 

considered  the  seizure  legal         .         .  April, 

Commercial  treaty  concluded  between  Japan 


1852 


1853 


1854 


and  United  States  by  commodore  Perry  (sent 
there  for  the  purpose)        .        .        March  23, 
Captain  Hollins  in  American  sloop  Cyan?,  bom- 
bards San  Juan  de  Nicaragua        .       July  13, 
Reciprocity  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and 
United    States     (respecting     Newfoundland 
fishery,    international    trade,    &c.)  ratified, 

Aug.  2, 

Negotiation  for  the  annexation  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands        .-.•....   Oct. 

Dreadful  election  liots  in  Kansas,  March  and 

April, 

Indian  war ;  they  are  defeated         April  25,  29, 

Dispute  with  British  government  on  enlistment 

(see  Foreign  Legion)      ....      July, 

Gen.    Hamey  gains  a  victory  over  the  Sioux 
Indians      ......      Sept.  3, 

Senator  Charles  Sumner  savagely  assaulted  by 

senator  Preston  Brooks  in  the  senate-house 

for  speaking  against  slavery        .        .  May  2, 

Mr.   Crampton,  the  British  envoy,  dismissed, 

May  28, 

John  C.  Fremont  nominated  the  "  Repiiblican  " 

candidate  for  the  presidency    .         .  June  17, 

Battle  in  Kansas  ;  the  slavers  (under  capt.  Reid) 

defeat  Brown  and  the  Abolitionists    Aug.  30, 

James  Buchanan  elected  president          Nov.  4, 

The  Resolute  presented  to  queen  Victoria  (see 

Franklin) Dec.  12, 

Lord  Napier  appointed  British  envoy  to  United 
States  (Jan.  16);  warmly  received    March  1 8, 
Central  American  question  settled        .    March, 
Judgment  given  in  the  "  Di-ed  Scott"  case  in 
the  supreme  court.      He  was  claimed  as  a 
slave  in  a  free  state  :  2  j  udges  declared  for  his 
freedom,  5  against  it,  which  causes  great  dis- 
satisfaction throughout  the  free  states  March, 
Disorganised  state  of  Utah ;   troops  march  to 
support  new  governor        .        May  and  June, 
Riots  in  Washington  against    Irish    electors, 

June  i, 

And  in  New  York  on  account  of  changes  in  the 
police  arrangements  .  .  .  June, 
Insurrection  in  Kansas  quelled  .  .  July, 
Commercial  panic  in  New  York  .  .  Aug. 
Outrage  at  Staateii  Island ;  quarantine  house 

burnt Sept.  7, 

Dispute  respecting  right  of  search,  settled  May, 

Tranquillity  restored  in  Utah     .  June, 

Great  rejoicing  at  the  completion  of  the  Atlantic 

telegraph  (see  Submarine  Telegraph)         Aug. 

Lieut.    Moffat  seizes  the  American  slave  ship 

Echo  and  takes  her  to  Charleston          .    Sept. 

Death  of  W.  H.  Prescott,  the  historian,  Jan.  28, 

Daniel  Sickles,  a  government  official,  killing 

Pbilp  Barton  Key,  for  adultery  with  his  wife, 

is  acquitted  of  murder  amid  much  applause, 

Feb.  26, 

The  American  commodore  Tatnall  assists  the 
English  at  the  Chinese  engagement  on  the 
river  Peiho,  saying,  "Blood  is  thicker  than 

water " June  25, 

Gen.  Ward,  the  United  States  envoy,  goes  to 

Pekin,  but  does  not  see  the  emperor   .    July, 

Gen.  Harney  sends  troops  to  San.  Juan  Island, 

near  Vancouver's    Island,    "to    protect  the 

American     settlers ; "     moderation    of    the 

British,   who  have  a  naval  force  at  hand ; 

Governor  Douglas  also  sends  troops,  July  27, 

Insurrection  at  Harper's  Ferry  f        .       Oct.  16, 

Gen.  Harney  superseded  by  gen.  Scott  at  San 


1854 


1855 


1856 


1857 


1859 


*  This  expedition,  notwithstanding,  under  a  Spanish  adventurer,  named  Lopez,  landed  600  men  at 
Cuba.  After  a  short  but  obstinate  struggle  they  took  the  town  of  Cardenas  ;  and  shortly  afterwards  had  a 
land  engagement  with  tome  Spanish  soldiers,  in  which  many  of  them  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners ;  the 
others  then  embarked  with  Lopez  in  the  Creole  steamer,  and  thus  escaped  from  a  Spanish  war  steamer,  the 
Pizarro,  May,  1850.  The  second  expedition  of  Lopez,  in  Aug.  1851,  was,  however,  fatal  to  him  and  his 
followers,  as  above  related. 

t  John  Brown,  called  captain  Brown  and  old  Brown,  was  a  prominent  leader  in  the  violent  conflicts  in 


UNI 


749 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  continued. 


Juan,    who  makes    conciliatory    overtures ; 
accepted  by  governor  Douglas          .         Nov.  1859 
Death  of  Washington  Irving   .         .        Nov.  26,    ,, 
Great  agitation  in  the  congress,  Nov.  1859  ;  no 

speaker  elected  till  ....       Feb.  i,  1860 
President  Buchanan  protests  against  a  proposed 

inquiry  into  his  acts     .         .         .      March  28,     ,, 
The  national   republican  convention  meet   at 
Chicago  ;  Abraham  Lincoln  chosen  as  candi- 
date for  the  presidency    .        .         .     May  16,     ,, 

Japanese  embassy  received  by  the  president  at 
Washington May  17,  ,, 

Fresh  disputes  at  San  Juan,  through  general 
Harney,  who  is  recalled  .  .  .  May,  ,, 

William  Goodrich  (Peter  Parley)  dies          May,     „ 

The  national  democratic  convention  meet  at 
Baltimore ;  a  large  number  of  delegates 
secede  ;  the  remainder  nominate  Stephen 
Douglas  as  president ;  the  seceders  nominate 
John  Breckinridge  ....  June  18,  ,, 

The  Great  Eastern  arrives  at  New  York,  June  23,     ,, 

The  prince  of  Wales  arrives  at  Detroit  in  the 
United  States,  Sept.  20;  visits  Washington, 
Oct.  3;  Philadelphia,  Oct.  9;  New  York, 
Oct.  ii ;  Boston,  Oct.  17;  embarks  at  Port- 
land   Oct.  20,  ,, 

Abraham  Lincoln,  the  republican  candidate, 
elected  president*  (see  Southern  Confederacy) 

Nov.  6,     „ 

Intense  excitement  at  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, and  in  other  southern  states  .  Nov.  ,, 

South  Carolina  secedes  from  the  union,  Dec.  20,     ,, 

Major  Anderson,  of  United  States  army,  occu- 
pies Fort  Sumter  in  Carolina  .  .  Dec.  26,  , , 

Delegates  from  South  Carolina  not  received  by 
the  president Dec.  30,  ,, 

Vacillating  policy  of  president  Buchanan  ;  the 
secretaries  Cass,  Cobb,  Floyd,  and  Thompson 
resign  ....  Dec.  1860— Jan.  1861 

New  York  and  other  northern  states  protest 
against  the  secession ;  a  general  fast  pro- 
claimed;  observed  on  .  .  .  Jan.  4,  ,, 

Vicksburg,  Mississippi,  fortified        .     Jan.  12,     ,, 

Kansas  admitted  a  state  .         .        .        Jan.  21,    „ 

Secession  (by  convention)  of  Mississippi,  Jan.  8  ; 
Alabama,  Florida,  Jan,  n  ;  Georgia,  Jan.  19; 
Louisiana,  Jan.  26;  Texas  (by  legislature), 

Feb.  i,     „ 

Jefferson  Davis,  elected  by  the  six  seceding 
states,  is  inaugurated  president  of  the  "south- 
ern confederacy,"  at  Montgomery,  Alabama, 

Feb.  18,     ,, 

New  (Morrill)  tariff  bill  passed  (nearly  prohibits 
commerce  with  England)  .  .  March  2,  ,, 

President  Davis  prepares  for  war  (100,000  men 
to  be  raised) March,  , , 

Lincoln,  inaugurated  president  at  Washington, 
says,  "  the  central  idea  of  secession  is  the 
essence  of  anarchy "  .  .  March  4,  ,, 

Southern  commissioners  not  received  by  the 
president  at  Washington  .  .  March  12,  „ 

Gen.  Winfield  Scott,  in  a  letter  to  president 
Lincoln,  sets  before  him  four  courses  :  either, 
I.,  to  surrender  to  slavery  half  the  territory 
acquired  or  to  be  acquired ;  II.,  to  blockade  all 


revolted  ports  ;  III.,  to  say  to  seceding  states, 
"  Wayward  sisters,  go  in  peace  !  "  or  IV.,  to 
conquer  the  south,  which  would  require 
300,000  and  afterwards  a  resident  army  [the 
letter  became  public  in  Oct.  1862]  March,  1861 
Great  excitement  at  the  operation  of  the  new 
Morrill  tariff,  which  begins  .  .  April  i,  „ 

The  war  begins:  Major  Anderson  refuses  to 
surrender  Fort  Sumter,  Charleston,  when 
summoned,  April  n  ;  it  is  taken  by  the  seces- 
sionists, after  a  bloodless  conflict  April  13,  ,, 
President  Lincoln  summons  the  congress  to 
meet  on  July  4 ;  issues  a  proclamation  calling 
on  the  states  to  furnish  a  contingent  of 
75,000  men,  &c April  15.  „ 

Massachusetts,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
other  states  zealously  respond,  with  vigorous 
preparations  for  war  ;  Kentucky,  North  Caro- 
lina, Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri,  de- 
cidedly refuse,  asserting  the  proposed  coer- 
cion to  be  wicked,  illegal,  and  unconstitu- 
tional   April,  ,, 

The  mob  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  attack  some 
Massachusetts  regiments  on  their  way  to 
Washington ;  several  persons  killed  in  the 
conflict April  19, 

President  Davis  issues  letters  of  marque,  April 
17  ;  president  Lincoln  proclaims  the  blockade 
of  the  ports  of  seceding  states  .  April  19,  ,. 

U.  S.  Arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  Virginia,  fired 
by  command,  and  15,000  stand  of  arms  de- 
stroyed, April  18;  9  ships  of  war  and  naval 
stores  in  the  navy  yard,  Norfolk,  Va.,  burnt 
to  prevent  them  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
southern  confederates,  who  occupy  the  place, 

April  21,     ,, 

Virginia  (except  West  Virginia)  secedes  by  ordi- 
nance (the  8th  state)  .  .  .  April  25,  „ 

Lincoln  calls  for  42,034  volunteers  for  three 
years,  May  3,  and  informs  foreign  powers  of 
his  intention  to  maintain  the  union  by  war, 

May  4,     , , 

The  confederates  under  Beauregard  and  John- 
ston, in  Virginia,  threaten  Washington,  de- 
fended by  the  federals  under  generals  Winfield 
Scott  and  George  McClellan  .  .  May,  „ 

The  British  queen  commands  her  subjects  to  be 
neutral  in  the  ensuing  war  .  .  May  13,  ,, 

The  federals  enter  Virginia ;  Beauregard  calls  on 
the  Virginians  to  rise  and  expel  them,  June  i,  , , 

Formal  secession  of  Arkansas,  May  6 ;  North 
Carolina,  May  20;  Tennessee  (gih,  ioth,  and 
nth) June  8,  ,, 

Several  British  vessels  seized  while  endeavour- 
ing to  break  the  blockade ;  the  southern 
privateer  Savannah  capttired  .  .  June,  ,, 

Neutrality  announced  by  the  French  emperor, 

June  10,    „ 

Fast-day  in  confederate  states    .        .   June  13,    „ 

Missouri,  t — Gen.  Lyon  raises  a  federal  army, 
and  defeats  the  state  troops,  June  17 ;  the 
federals  successful  at  Carthage,  July  5  ;  Fre- 
mont takes  command  in  W.  Missouri,  July 
26 ;  federals  victorious  at  Athens,  Aug.  5  ;  at 
Wilson's  Creek  (gen.  Lyon  killed),  Aug.  10; 


Kansas,  during  the  agitation  respecting  the  question  of  its  becoming  a  slave  state.  He  was  a  monomaniac 
on  the  slavery  question,  and  contended  that  all  means  for  annihilating  slavery  were  justifiable.  He 
gathered  together  a  band  of  desperate  characters,  who  so  much  annoyed  Missouri  and  other  slave  states, 
that  a  reward  was  offered  for  his  head.  He  had  arranged  for  the  successful  issue  of  the  insurrection  above 
mentioned,  so  far  as  to  devise  a  provisional  government  and  a  new  constitution.  On  Oct.  16,  he  and  his 
band,  aided  by  a  mob,  seized  the  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  a  town  on  the  borders  of  Virginia  and  Baltimore, 
stopped  the  railway  trains,  and  cut  the  telegraph  wires  ;  a  conflict  with  the  military  ensued,  when  many 
of  the  insurgents  were  killed.  Brown  was  captured,  tried,  and  executed  on  Dec.  2  ;  and  several  of  his 
companions  were  executed  in  March,  1860.  These  events  caused  a  temporary  panic  in  the  Southern  States, 
and  much  excitement  in  Boston  and  other  northern  towns. 

*  303  electors  are  appointed  to  vote  for  a  president :  152  to  be  a  majority.  The  numbers  were,  for 
A.  Lincoln,  180  ;  John  C.  Breckinridge,  72  ;  John  Bell,  39;  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  12. 

t  Very  many  skirmishes  took  place,  with  various  results. 


UNI 


750 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  continued. 
Fremont  proclaims  martial  law,  and  freedom 
to  slaves  or  rebels,  Aug.  31  ;  Lexington  sur- 
renders to  confederates,  Kept.   20 ;  Fremont 
blamed,    retires ;     succeeded    by    Hunter, 

Nov.  2, 

Virginia.*— Federals  defeated  at  Big  Eethell, 
June  10 ;  occupy  Harper's  Ferry,  evacuated 
by  the  confederates,  June  16 ;  col.  Pegrim 
and  600  confederates  surrender  at  Beverley, 

July  13, 

McClellan  defeats  confederates  at  Rich  Moun- 
tain, July  ii  :  Paterson  permits  the  junction 
of  the  confederates  under  Johnston  and 
Beauregard  near  Manassas,  July  1 5  ;  who  are 
repulsed  at  Blackburn's  ford,  near  Centre- 
ville July  18, 

Battle  of  Bull  Run  (which  see)  or  Manassas, 
Virginia  ;  the  federals,  seized  with  panic,  flee 
in  utter  disorder  ....  July  21, 

Meeting  of  U.  S.  Congress,  July  4;  a  loan  of 
250  million  dollars  authorised  .  July  17, 

Meeting  of  confederate  congress  at  Richmond, 
Virginia July  20, 

Passport  system  introduced  into  the  northern 
states,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press  greatly 
restricted Aug. 

The  charges  in  the  Merrill  tariff  greatly  raised  ; 
the  confederates  prohibit  exportation  of 
cotton  except  by  southern  ports  .  .  Aug. 

Federal  gen.  Butler  takes  Fort  Hatteras,  N. 
Carolina  (700  prisoners  and  1000  stand  of 
arms) Aug.  29, 

Fast-day  in  federal  states    .        .         .   Sept.  26, 

Garibaldi  declines  command  in  the  federal 
army Sept. 

Battle  of  Ball's  Bluff;  federals  defeated  and 
gen.  Baker  killed,  near  Leesburg,  Virginia  ; 
hundreds  drowned  ....  Oct.  21, 

The  federals  and  confederates  enter  Kentxicky  ; 
the    governor    protests;    many    skirmishes, 
Sept.— Dec. 

Resignation  of  lieut. -gen.  Scott,  Oct.  31 :  George 
McClellan  made  commander-in-chief  of  the 
federal  army Nov.  i, 

The  federal  general  Sherman  takes  Port  Royal 
forts,  S.  Carolina  .  .  .  Nov.  7,  8, 

Capt.  Wilkes,  of  federal  war  steamer  San  Jacinto, 
boards  the  Royal  British  mail  packet  Trent, 
and  carries  off  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell, 
confederate  commissioners,  and  their  secre- 
taries, Nov.  8,  and  conveys  them  to  Boston, 

Nov.  19, 

Great  rejoicings  in  the  northern  states  at  the 
capture  of  Mason  and  Slidell  .  .  Nov. 

McClellan  reviews  70,000  men      .        .  Nov.  20, 

Capt.  Pegram,  of  confederate  steamer  Nashville, 
burns  the  federal  ship  Harvey  Birch,  Nov.  19, 
and  brings  the  crew  on  to  Southampton, 

Nov.  21, 

A  secession  ordinance  passed  by  a  party  in 
Missouri,  Nov.  2  ;  the  same  in  Kentucky, 

Nov.  30, 

Dissensions  increase  between  the  republicans 
(abolitionists)  and  the  democrats  in  New 
York,  &c Nov. 

Jefferson  Davis  elected  president  of  confederate 
states  for  six  years  .  .  .  Nov.  30, 

President  Lincoln  states  that  the  federal  armies 
comprise  660,971  men  .  .  .  Dec.  2, 


Meeting  of  congress,  which  votes  thanks  to 
capt.  Wilkes,  Dec.  2  ;  the  foreign  envoys  at 
Washington  protest  against  his  act  Dec.  3, 

The  federals  commence  sinking  hulks  filled 
with  stones  to  block  up  Charleston  harbour, 
S.  Carolina  [it  created  much  indignation  in 
England] Dec.  21, 

Banks  at  New  York,  &c.,  suspend  cash  pay- 
ments   Dec.  30, 

A  firm  despatch  from,  the  British  government 
arrives,  Dec.  18,  1861 ;  Mason,  &c.  surren- 
dered, sail  for  Europe  .  .  .  Jan.  i, 

Phelps'  fruitless  expedition  to  Ship  Island, 
Mississippi  Sound  .  .  Dec.  3,  1861 — Jan. 

Confederate  gen.  Zollicoffer  defeated  and  slain 
at  Mill  Springs  or  Somerset,  Kentucky, 

Jan.  19, 

Tennessee.—  The  federals  take  Fort  Henry,  Feb. 
6;  Fort  Donnelson,  with  15,000  prisoners, 
Feb.  16 ;  and  Nashville  .  .  Feb.  23, 

Confederates  defeated  at  Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas, 
March  6,  7, 

Confederate  iron-plated  ship  Merrimac  destroys 
federal  vessels  Cumberland  and  Congress  in 
Hampton  roads,  March  8 ;  is  repulsed  by 
federal  iron-clad  floating  battery  Monitor, 


1861 


1862 


McClellan  and  his  army  (100,000)  cross  the 
Potomac  and  find  the  confederate  camp  at 
Bull  Run  evacuated  .  .  .  March  10, 

McClellan  resigns  general  command,  and  as- 
sumes that  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac 
only;  Fremont  that  of  the  Mountain  depart- 
ment ;  and  Halleck  that  of  the  Mississippi, 
March  n, 

Burnside's  expedition  sails,  Jan.  u  ;  takes 
Roanoke,  N.  Carolina,  Feb.  7,  8;  Newbern, 
March  14, 

Capt.  Wilson  (British)  boldly  rescues  his  vessel, 
Emily  St.  Pierre,  a  merchantman,!  from  the 
federals March  21. 

Confederates  defeated  at  Winchester,  March  23, 

General  Burnside  occupies  Beaufort  and  Fort 
Macon April  i, 

Slavery    abolished     in    district    of    Columbia 

McClellan  advances  into  Virginia,  with  the  view 
of  taking  Richmond  ;  he  besieges  Yorktown, 
held  by  30,000  confederates  .  .  April  5, 

Correspondents  of  English  newspapers  ex- 
cluded from  federal  army  .  .  April  5, 

Great  battles  of  Shiloh  or  Pittsburg  Landing, 
near  Corinth,  Tennessee;  confederates  vic- 
torious, but  lose  their  able  gen.  Albert  John- 

m  stone April  6,  7, 

Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade, 

Federals  take  Fort  Pulaska,  on  the  Savannah', 
April  ii ;  and  New  Orleans  .  .  April  26-28, 

Yorktown  evacuated  by  confederates       May  5, 

The  Seward-Lyons  treaty  between  Great  Bri- 
tain and  the  United  States,  for  suppression 
of  the  slave  trade,  signed  April  7 ;  ratified 

May  20, 

Confederates  repulsed  at  Williamsburg  May  5  ; 
their  naval  depot  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  sur- 
renders, May  10 ;  they  burn  the  Merrimac, 

May  ii, 


*  Very  many  skirmishes  took  place,  with  various  results. 

t  She  was  sailing  from  Calcutta  to  New  Brunswick,  and  while  attempting  to  inquire  whether  a  blockade 
existed,  was  captured  off  Charleston  bar  by  a  federal  ship  of  war.  Her  captain,  William  Wilson,  and  his 
cook  and  steward,  were  permitted  to  remain  on  board  on  her  voyage  to  Philadelphia.  On  March  i,  1862, 
Wilson  with  his  two  associates  succeeded,  by  stratagem  and  courage,  in  recovering  the  command  of  the 
vessel,  overcoming  two  U.  S.  officers  and  13  sailors,  and  brought  her  into  Liverpool.  The  owners  of  the 
ship  gave  him  2000  guineas,  and  the  Liverpool  merchants  presented  him  with  a  magnificent  testimonial  of 
their  admiration  of  his  gallantry.  The  British  government  refused  to  restore  the  vessel  when  claimed  by 
the  Americans. 


UNI 


751 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  continued. 


Commodore  Furragut  with  a  flotilla  ascends  the 
Mississippi May,  186 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  taken  by  federals,  May,    ,, 

McClellan  takes  Hanover  court-house.  May  27,     ,, 

Skirmishes  in  Virginia  ;  success  varying,  May,     , , 

Severe  battles  of  Fair  Oaks,  before  Richmond 
(indecisive)  .  .  .  May  31,  June  i,  ,, 

Beauregard  and  the  confederates  retreat  from 
Corinth,  Tennessee,  May  30;  pursued  by 
Halleck  and  the  federals  .  .  .  June,  ,, 

Memphis,  on  the  Mississippi,  taken        June  6,     , , 

Federals  defeated  near  Charleston         June  1 6,     ,, 

Federal  forces  under  Fremont,  Banks,  and 
McDowell,  placed  under  Pope ;  Fremont  re- 
signs   June  27,  „ 

Federals  suffer  through  several  severe  engage- 
ments in  Virginia  .  .  .  June  25-30,  „ 

General  Butler  excites  great  indignation  by  his 
military  rigour  at  New  Orleans.  May  &  June  „ 

United  States  debt  estimated  at  100,000,000?., 

June,    ,, 

Seven  days'  conflict  on  the  Chickahominy 
before  Richmond ;  the  confederate  gen.  Lee 
compels  McClellan  to  abandon  the  siege  and 
retreat  17  miles,  taking  up  a  position  at  Har- 
rison's Landing,  on  James's  river,  June  26 

— July  i,     ,, 

The  tariff  still  further  raised  .        .        .     July,     „ 

Many  conflicts  in  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and 
Tennessee,  through  confederate  guerilla  par- 
ties   June  and  July,  ,, 

Lincoln  visits  and  encourages  the  army  of 
McClellan,  and  calls  for  300,000  volunteers, 

July,    „ 

Lincoln's  assent  to  a  bill  confiscating  the  pro- 
perty and  emancipating  the  slaves  of  all  rebels 
in  arms  after  60  days  .  .  .  July  17,  ,, 

Halleck  supersedes  McClellan  as  commander-in- 
chief July  26,  ,, 

Slow  volunteering ;  many  emigrations  to  Canada 
and  Europe ;  habeas  corpus  suspended  ;  the 
president  ordains  a  draft  if  the  volunteers  are 
not  ready  by  Aug.  15  .  .  .  July,  ,, 

Public  debt  of  United  States  estimated  at 
1,222,000,000  dollars.  .  .  .  July  i,  ,, 

Pope    takes  command  of   army  in  Virginia, 

July  14,     ,, 

Lincoln's  proclamation  of  confiscation  of  pro- 
perty of  rebels  ....  July  26,  , , 

The  federals  take  Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana,  but 
soon  after  retire  from  it  .  .  .  Aug.  5,  ,, 

Pope's  troops  ravage  Virginia;  Banks,  his 
subordinate,  defeated  at  Cedar  Mountain  by 
gen.  Thomas  Jefferson  "  Stonewall "  *  Jackson 

Aug.  9,    ,, 

McClellan  retreats  from  Harrison's  Landing 
(said  to  have  lost  70,000  men,  killed,  wounded, 
prisoners,  and  deserters)  .  .  Aug.  16,  ,, 

The  federals  surprised,  and  Pope  loses  his 
baggage Aug.  25,  „ 

Jackson  turns  the  flank  of  Pope's  army,  and 
attacks  him  at  Groveton,  Aug.  29  ;  and  when 
reinforced  by  Lee,  defeats  him  and  McDowell 
at  Bull  Run,  Aug.  30  ;  Pope  retreats  to  Centre- 
ville Sept.  i  „ 

The  remains  of  Pope's  army  flee  behind  the 
lines  of  Washington,  Sept.  2 ;  he  is  removed 
to  the  north-west  to  act  against  the  Indian 
insurrection Sept.  3  ,, 

McDowell  superseded ;  charged  with  treachery, 
he  claims  a  trial Sept.  ,, 

McClellan  appointed  commander-in-chief,  saves 
Washington,  and  marches  against  the  con- 


federates -under  Lee,  who  have  crossed  the 
Potomac  and  entered  Maryland       Sept.  5,  6,  1862 

Severe  conflicts  at  South  Mountain  Gap  (or 
Middletown),  Sept.  14-16;  confederates,  after 
a  great  fight  near  Antietam  Creek  and  Sharps- 
burg  road,  retreat  ....  Sept.  17,  ,, 

Harper's  Ferry  surrendered  to  Jackson,  Sept. 
15  :  he  crosses  Potomac  and  joins  Lee's  army 

Sept.  17    ,, 

Federal  cause  declining  in  the  west;  they 
lose  Lexington,  Aug.  ;  and  Munsfordville 

Sept.  17,     ,, 

Thanksgiving-day  in  southern  states,  Sept.  18,     .. 

Rosen crans  defeats  the  confederates  at  ruka, 

Sept.  19,     „ 

Confederates  re-enter  Virginia  laden  with  stores 

Sept,  22,     „ 

Lincoln  proclaims  freedom  to  the  slaves  in  the 
confederate  states,  on  Jan.  i,  1863,  if  the 
states  have  not  returned  to  the  union, 

Sept.  22,    „ 

Secret  convention  of  16  governors  of  states-at 
Altoona,  Pennsylvania,  approve  Lincoln's 
policy  .  .  .  .  '  .  .  Sept.  24,  „ 

Draught  of  40,000  men  ordered  in  New  York 
state  by  Oct.  15  .  .  .  .  Sept.  „ 

Lincoln  suspends  habeas  corpus  writ,  and 
authorises  severe  measures  against  disloyal 
persons Sept.  25-27,  ,, 

Desperate  but  indecisive  conflicts  near  Corinth, 
Tennessee,  Oct.  3-5  ;  and  at  Perrysville,  Ken- 
tucky   Oct.  8,  „ 

Confederate  gen.  Stuart  crosses  Upper  Potomac, 
and  enters  Pennsylvania ;  enters  Chambers- 
burg  and  other  places,  carrying  off  horses, 
ammunition,  <fcc.  ;  rides  round  the  federal 
army,  and  returns  to  his  camp  Oct.  10,  13,  ,, 

Gold  at  29  premium  at  New  York    .        .     Oct.    „  j 

Great  Democratic  meeting  at  New  York,  con- 
demning the  president's  policy  .  Oct.  12,  ,, 

At  New  Orleans  Butler  compels  all  persons  who 
refuse  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  send 
in  their  names  and  register  their  property  to 
the  provost  marshal  .  .  .  Oct.  12,  ,, 

McClellan's  head-quarters  at  Harper's  Ferry, 

Oct.  17,     „ 

Raid  of  confederate  gen.  Morgan  in  Kentucky ; 
he  carries  off  80  federal  waggons  of  ammuni- 
tion, <fcc Oct.  18  ,, 

Ten  confederate  prisoners  at  Palmyra  shot  by 
order  of  gen.  McNeil  in  consequence  of  the 
disappearance  of  Abraham  Allsman  Oct.  18,  „ 

M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys,  on  behalf  of  the  French 
government,  proposes  joint  mediation  in  the 
American  conflict  to  Great  Britain  and  Russia, 
Oct.  30  ;  declined  by  Gortschakoff ,  Nov.  8 ;  by 
earl  Russell Nov.  13,  ,, 

The  confederate  steamer  Alabama,  capt.  Sem- 
mes,  captures  many  U.  S.  vessels,  and  excites 
much  alarm  at  New  York  .  .  Oct. -Dec.  ,, 

Elections  for  next  congress ;  great  majority  for 
the  democrat  (opposition)  candidates  in  New 
York  and  several  other  states  .  Nov.  4,  „ 

McClellan,  while  advancing  towards  Richmond, 
is  superseded  by  gen.  Burnside,  who  ad- 
vances towards  Richmond  .  .  .  Nov.  7,  ,, 

President  Davis  threatens  reprisals  if  gen. 
McNeil  is  not  surrendered  (see  Oct.  18) 

Nov.  17,     ,, 

Burnside  summons  Fredericksburg  to  surren- 
der ;  confederate  gen.  Lee  with  about  80,000 
men  near Nov.  22,  „ 

100,000  federal  soldiers  on  the  sick  list        Nov.    ,, 


*  According  to  some  accounts  he  obtained  the  name  by  promising  Beauregard,  at  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  that  his  brigade  should  stand  like  a  "stone  wall;"  others  say  that  Beauregard  gave  the  name 
himself. 


UNI 


752 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  continued. 


Great  honour  shown  to  McClellan ;  he  is  pro- 
posed as  the  next  president  .  .  Nov. 

The  federal  government  orders  release  of  dis- 
affected persons  in  prisons  .  .  Nov.  25, 

Annual  session  of  U.  S.  congress  ;  the  presi- 
dent recommends  compensated  emancipation 
of  all  slaves  in  the  loyal  states  before  the 
year  1900  .....  Dec.  1, 

Battle  of  Fredericksburg  (which  see);  Burn- 
side  crosses  the  Rappahannock,  Dec.  10 ; 
bombards  Fredericksburg,  Dec.  n  ;  a  series 
of  desperate  attacks  on  the  confederates  ;  he 
is  totally  defeated,  Dec.  13  ;  and  recrosses  the 
river Dec.  15 

Engagements  in  Tennessee  with  varying  results 

Dec. 

Discovery  of  frauds  on  the  U.  S.  army  financial 
accounts ;  public  dissatisfaction  with  the 
government ;  secretaries  Chase  and  Seward 
resign,  but  resume  office  .  .  .  Dec. 

Battles  near  Murfreesboro',  or  Stone  River,  be- 
tween Rosencrans  and  the  federals  and  Brax- 
ton  Bragg  and  the  confederates  :  begin  Dec. 
29 ;  severe  but  indecisive,  Dec.  31  ;  battle 
continued,  Jan.  i  ;  Bragg  defeated,  retreats, 

Jan.  2, 

["  There  have  been  about  2000  battles  and 
skirmishes  since  the  commencement  of  the 
war." — American  Almanack.  ] 

President  Lincoln  preclaims  the  freedom  of 
slaves  in  the  rebel  states,  except  in  parts 
held  by  the  U.  S.  army  .  .  .  Jan.  2, 

Gen.  Burnside  superseded  by  gen.  Joseph 
Hooker  in  command  of  army  of  the  Potomac 

Jan.  26 

The  French  government's  offer  of  mediation, 
Jan.  9  ;  declined  ....  Feb.  6, 

The  George  Griswold,  a  vessel  containing  pro- 
visions and  other  relief  for  the  distressed 
cotton  workers  in  Lancashire,  arrives,  Feb.  9 

A  conscription  bill  (for  men  between  18  and  45) 
passed Feb.  25 

The  congress  authorises  the  suspension  of  the 
habeas  corpus  act,  March  3 ;  and  establishes 
a  National  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Washing- 
ton   March  4, 

Confederate  loan  for  3,000,000^  well  taken  up 
in  Europe March, 

Charleston,  South  Carolina,  attacked  by  moni- 
tors and  gunboats;  the  Keokuk,  a  monitor, 
sunk April  7, 

Battle  of  Chancellorsville  (which  see)  ;  the 
federals  under  Hooker  cross  the  Rappahan- 
nock, April  28 ;  defeated  (gen.  Stonewall 
Jackson  is  mortally  wounded),  May  2-4 ; 
Hooker  recrosses  the  Rappahannock  May  5, 

Stonewall  Jackson  dies     .        .         .          May  9, 

Grant's  successful  campaign  in  Tennessee : 
he  defeats  the  confederates  under  Joseph 
Johnston  at  Jackson,  May  14 ;  and  under 
Pemberton  at  Champion  Hills,  May  16 ;  and 
invests  Vicksburg.  Mississippi,  which  is 
strongly  fortified,  May  18  ;  a  dreadful  assault 
on  it  repelled May  22, 

•Great  peace  meeting  at  Norfolk      .          June  5, 

Confederate  invasion  under  Lee  :  invade  Mary- 
land and  Pennsylvania,  and  take  various 
towns  ....  June  14,  et  seq. 

The  federal  gen.  Hooker  superseded  by  George 
H.  Meade June  27, 

Meade  advances  against  Lee  ;  great  battle  of 
Gettysburg,  indecisive  ;  but  the  confederates 
evacuate  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland 

July  1-3, 

Vicksburg  bombarded,  July  3  :  surrendered  by 
Pemberton  to  Grant  and  Porter  .  July  4, 

Port  Hudson,  a  confederate  fortress  on  the 
Mississippi,  surrenders  .  .  .  July  8, 

Fierce  riots  at  New  York  against  the  conscrip- 


1862 


tion  ;  many  negroes  murdered,  and  much 
property  destroyed  .  .  .  July  13-16,  1863 

The  Sioux  defeated,  Aug.  7  ;  gen.  Pope  reports 
that  the  Indian  war  is  ended  .  .  Aug.  ,, 

New  York  rioters  tried  and  convicted.  Aug.  12  ; 
conscription  going  on  peaceably  .  Aug.  21,  ,, 

Siege  of  Charleston ;  defended  by  Beauregard— 
attacks  with  varied  success,  July ;  Fort 
Sumter  bombarded  and  destroyed  (and  so- 
called  Greek  fire  employed)  ;  attacks  on  the 
ruins  repulsed  .  .  .  Aug.  21,  22,  „ 

Knoxville  occupied  by  Burnside        .    Sept.  10,     ,, 

A  Russian  squadron  warmly  received  at  New 
York Sept.  and  Oct.  „ 

Battle  of  Chickamauga,  Tennessee  ;  Rosencrans 
defeated  by  Bragg  .  .  .  Sept.  20, 

Mason,  the  confederate  commissioner  in 
England,  protests  against  the  mode  of  his 
reception,  and  quits  .  .  .  Sept.  22,  ,, 

Rosencrans'  command  of  the  federal  army  in 
Tennessee  superseded  by  Grant  and  Thomas, 
and  Sherman Oct.  19,  „ 

The  steam  rams  El  Tousson  and  El  Monassir, 
built  by  Mr.  Laird  at  Birkenhead,  and  sus- 
pected to  be  for  the  confederates,  are  placed 
under  charge  of  a  government  vessel  in  the 
Mersey Oct.  31,  ,, 

Lincoln  calls  for  300,000  volunteers  .      Oct.  17,     ,, 

British  consuls  dismissed  from  the  southern 
states Oct.  ,, 

Meade  captures  a  part  of  Lee's  army  on  the  N. 
side  of  the  Rappahannock  .  .  .  Nov.  7,  , . 

The  chief  justices  Lowrie,  Woodward,  and 
Thompson  declare  that  the  Conscription  Act 
is  unconstitutional  .  .  .  Nov.  12,  ,, 

Longstreet  defeats  Burnside,  and  compels  him 
to  retire  into  Knoxville  .  .  Nov.  14-17,  ,, 

Sherman  and  Thomas  defeat  Bragg  at  Chatta- 
nooga   Nov.  23,  ,, 

Longstreet's  attack  on  Knoxville,  defended  by 
Burnside,  fails,  and  he  retreats  into  Virginia, 

Nov.  29  and  Dec.  i,  ,, 

The  confederate  general  Bragg  superseded  by 
Hardee Dec.  2,  „ 

Lincoln's  message  to  congress  warlike ;  he 
proffers  amnesty  to  all  except  heads  of 

fovernments,  <fec. ,  Dec.  4 ;  Davis's  message  : 
rm,  but  acknowledging  reverses  .  Dec.  7,  ,, 

Gen.  Joseph  Johnston  takes  command  of  the 
confederate  army  in  Georgia  .  .  Dec.  27,  ,, 

President  Lincoln  orders  a  draft  of  500,000  men 
in  3  years Feb.  i,  1864 

Federal  expedition  into  Florida;  defeated  at 
Olustee Feb.  20,  ,, 

Failure  of  attack  of  Kilpatrick  and  Dahlgren  on 
Richmond  .  .  .  Feb.  27 — March  i,  ,, 

Ulysses  Grant  made  commander-in- chief,  suc- 
ceeding Halleck  ....  March  2  ,, 

Confederate  raids  into  the  Western  states 

March,  ,, 

Sherman's  expedition  against  Mobile,  March  2  ; 
defeated  by  Kirby-Smith  .  .  April  5,  ,, 

James  E.  Stuart,  the  celebrated  confederate 
cavalry  officer,  killed  .  .  .  May  n,  „ 

Campaign  in  Virginia;  the  army  of  the  Poto- 
mac crosses  the  Rapidan ;  advance  of  Lee 
(now  supported  by  Longstreet)  May  2  ;  severe 
battle  in  the  "Wilderness  "  (near  Chancellors- 
ville) ;  indecisive,  May  5,  6 ;  battle  of  Spott- 
sylvania ;  the  federals  remain  on  the  field ; 
much  carnage  ....  May  u,  12,  ,, 

Sherman  (in  Georgia)  beats  the  confederates  at 
Resacca,  May  14,  and  at  Dallas  .  May,  ,, 

Fugitive  slave  act  repealed  by  the  house  of 
representatives  ....  June  13,  ,, 

After  a  succession  of  attacks  on  both  sides. 
Grant  compels  Lee  to  retire  gradually,  and 
by  a  flank  movement  marches  to  the  other 
side  of  Richmond,  and  faces  Petersburg, 
June  15 ;  wbere,  having  taken  the  first 


UNI 


753 


UNI 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  continued. 


intrenchments  after  desperate  assaults,  he 

is  repulsed  with  considerable  loss  June  18,  1864 

The  confederate  steamer  Alabama  (capt. 
Semmes)  attacked  and  sunk  by  the  U.  S.  cor- 
.  vette  Kearsarge  (capt.  Winslow)  near  Cher- 
bourg, France  ....  June  19,  ,, 

Lee  invades  Maryland,  July  i ;  defeats  Wallace 
near  Monocracy  river,  July  g ;  threatens 
Baltimore  and  Washington,  and  retreats, 

July  12,  13,  ,, 

Sherman's  3  battles  at  Atlanta  (Georgia),  July  20, 
22  ;  victory  remains  with  the  federals,  July  28,  , , 

Confederates  again  invade  Maryland  and  Penn- 
sylvania, and  destroy  Chambersburg,  July3<>,  ,, 

Grant  orders  the  explosion  of  a  mine  at  Peters- 
burg, whereby  250  confederates  are  killed : 
"but  the  assault  following  is  repulsed  with 
great  slaughter  ....  July  30,  „ 

Mr.  Chase,  secretary  to  the  U.S.  treasury,  re- 
signs ;  succeeded  by  Mr.  Fessenden  .  July,  ,, 

The  Tallahassee  confederate  steamer  (built  in 
London)  destroys  many  U.S.  merchantmen, 

July,  Aug.  ,, 

Severe  conflicts  in  the  Shenandoah  valley ;  the 
federals  victors Aug.  ,, 

The  confederate  flotilla  near  Mobile  destroyed 
by  Farragut,  Aug.  ;  Fort  Gaines  taken, 

Aug  8,  ,, 

McClellan  nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the 
"  Democratic  "  Chicago  convention  Sept.  i,  ,, 

Sherman  occupies  Atlanta;  the  confederate 
genei-al  Hood  retires  .  .  .  .Sept.  i,  ,, 

Sherman  orders  the  depopulation  of  Atlanta, 

Sept.  7,  ,, 

McClellan  declares  for  maintaining  the  union  ; 
the  democratic  party  divided  .  .  Sept.  13,  ,, 

Sheridan  (federal)  defeats  Early  at  Winchester, 
in  the  Shenandoah  valley,  but  with  very 
great  loss Sept.  19,  ,, 

Longstreet  replaces  Early  in  the  command  of 
the  confederates  ....  Oct.  ,, 

Longstreet  defeats  the  federals  at  Cedar  Creek  ; 
Sheridan  arrives,  rallies  his  troops,  and  de- 
feats the  confederates  .  .  - .  Oct.  19,  ,, 

St.  Allan's  raid. — Between  20  and  30  armed 
men  enter  St.  Alban's,  Vermont;  rob  the 
bank,  and  carry  off  horses  and  stores  ;  fire  on 
and  kill  several  persons,  and  flee  to  Canada, 
Oct.  19;  where  13  of  them  are  arrested, 

Oct.  21,  „ 

Lincoln  re-elected  president ;  McClellan  re- 
signs his  command  in  U.  Smarmy  Nov.  8,  ,, 

Sherman  destroys  Atlanta,  and  begins  his 
march  through  Georgia  to  Savannah,  Nov.  13,  ,, 

Hood's  attack  on  Thomas  (federal)  repulsed 
with  severe  loss  .  .  .  .Nov.  30,  ,, 

Lincoln's  message  to  congress  considered 
"bold" Dec.  6,  „ 

The  St.  Alban's  raiders  discharged  by  Judge 
Coursol ;  General  Dix  issues  an  intemperate 
order  for  reprisals  (disannulled  by  the  presi- 
dent)   Dec.  14,  ,, 

Hood  defeated  by  Thomas  (federal)  near  Nash- 
ville   Dec.  15,  16,  ,, 

Sherman  storms  fort  M'Allister.  Dec.  13 ; 
enters  Savannah  ....  Dec.  21,  ,, 

Wilmington  bombarded  ;  the  attack  of  gene- 
ral Butler  and  admiral  Porter  repulsed, 

Dec.  24,  25,  ,, 

The  St.  Alban's  raiders  recaptured  and  com- 
mitted for  trial  .  .  .  Dec.  27,  et  seq.  „ 

The  federal  congress  abolishes  slavery  in  the 
United  States Feb.  i,  1865 

Fruitless  meeting  of  President '  Lincoln  and 
secretary  Seward  with  the  confederate  secre- 
tary Stephens,  and  2  commissioners,  to  treat 
for  peace  at  Fort  Monroe  .  .  Feb.  3,  ,, 

The  Canadian  government  surrenders  Burley,  a 
raider,  to  the  federals  ....  Feb.  3,  , , 

Lee  takes   the  general  command  of  the  con- 


federate armies ;  he  recommends  enlistment 
of  negroes Feb.  18, 

Wilmington  captured  by  Schofield  ;  Charleston 
evacuated  by  the  confederates  ;  retreat  of 
Beauregard Feb.  22, 

The  confederate  congress  decree  the  arming  of 
the  slaves Feb.  22, 

A  new  stringent  tariff  comes  into  operation, 

April  i, 

Three  days'  sanguinary  conflict  at  Petersburg  ; 
at  first  favourable  to  the  confederates,  March 
31  ;  Sheridan  tuny?  Lee's  front,  at  Five-forks, 
April  i ;  and  Lee  retreats  .  .  .  April  2, 

Richmond  and  Petersburg  evacuated  by  the 
confederates  and  occupied  by  Grant,  April  2, 

Sheridan  overtakes  and  defeats  Lee  at  Farm- 
ville,  April  6  ;  Lee  surrenders  with  the  army 
of  Northern  Virginia,  to  Grant,  at  Appomatox 
courthouse April  9, 

Mobile  evacuated  by  the  confederates,  April  12, 

The  Union  flag  replaced  at  Fort  Sumter, 
Charleston April  14, 

President  Lincoln  shot  in  the  head  at  Ford's 
Theatre,  Washington,  about  n  o'clock,  p.m., 
April  14,  by  Wilkes  Booth,  who  escapes  ;  Mr. 
Seward,  the  foreign  secretary,  and  his  son, 
wounded  in  his  own  house  by  an  assassin 
about  the  same  time;  Lincoln  dies  at  7.30 
a.m.  ;  Andrew  Johnson,  vice-president, 
sworn  in  as  president  .  .  .  April  15, 

The  convention  between  Sherman  and  Johnston 
(favourable  to  confederates),  April  18  :  dis- 
avowed by  the  government,  April  21 ;  John- 
ston surrenders  on  same  terms  as  Lee, 
April  25, 

Wilkes  Booth  shot,  and  his  accomplice  Harrold 
captured  in  a  farmhouse  .  .  April  26, 

The  confederate  general  Dick  Taylor  (near 
Mobile)  surrenders  ....  May  4, 

President  Jefferson  Davis  captured  at  Irwins- 
ville,  Georgia  (and  consigned  to  prison), 

May  10, 

The  confederate  general  Kirby-Smith,  in  Texas, 
surrenders  ;  end  of  the  war  .  .  May  26, 

President  Johnson  proclaims  a  conditional 
amnesty May  26, 

President  Johnson  proclaims  the  opening  of  the 
southern  ports,  May  22 :  and  an  amnesty 
with  certain  exemptions  .  .  May  29, 

Solemn  fast  observed  for  death  of  president 
Lincoln June  i, 

The  armies  on  both  sides  rapidly  disbanding ; 
fierce  riots  at  New  York  between  the  whites 
and  negroes June, 

Galveston,  Texas,  the  last  sea-port  held  by  the 
south,  surrendered  by  Kirby-Smith  June  5, 

The  British  and  French  governments  rescind 
their  recognition  of  the  confederates  as 
belligerents June  2,  6, 

President  Johnson,  uniting  with  the  demo- 
crats and  acting  leniently  towards  the  south  : 
reorganisation  of  the  state  governments, 

June, 

Close  of  the  long  trial  of  the  conspirators, 
June  29 ;  execution  of  Payne,  Atzerott, 
Harrold  or  Herold,  and  Mrs.  Suratt,  July  7, 

All  southern  prisoners  of  war  to  be  released  on 
parole  on  taking  oath  of  allegiance  July  29, 

Federal  debt  declared  2,757,253,275  dollars, 

July  31, 

The  confederate  privateer  Shenandoah  (captain 
Waddell)  captures  and  destroys  many  federal 
vessels  (about  30)  ....  Aug. 

Pacific  policy  of  president  Johnson  ;  he  declares 
himself  opposed  to  centralisation  and  in 
favour  of  state  rights;  and  is  bitterly  op- 
posed by  the  radicals  ....  Sept. 

Correspondence  between  earl  Russell  and  Mr. 
Adams  (U.S.  minister,  London)  respecting 
the  Alabama,  confederate  privateer  ;  proposal 
3  C 


1865 


UNI 


TNI 


UNITED  STATES   OF  AMERICA,  continued. 


of  a  commission  to  whom  claims  for  repara- 
tion shall  be  referred  .  April  7— Sept.  18,1865 

Mtich  public  discussion  respecting  equal  negro 
suffrage July— Oct.  „ 

The  national  debt  stated  to  be  600,000,000?.  Oct.     ,, 

General  Robert  Lee  becomes  president  of 
Washington  College,  Virginia  .  Oct.  2,  ,, 

Several  southern  states  pass  ordinances  an- 
nulling secession,  abolishing  slavery,  and 
renouncing  confederate  debt.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  „ 

National  thanksgiving  for  the  peace        Nov.  2,     ,, 

Capt.   Waddell  arrives  at  Liverpool,   Nov.  6; 

•  surrenders  the  Shenandoah  to  the  British 
government,  stating  that  he  had  not  heard  of 
the  end  of  the  war  till  Aug.  2  ;  he  and  his 
crew  paroled,  Nov.  8 ;  the  vessel  given  up  to 
the  American  cor  sul  .  .  .  Nov.  9,  ,, 

Capt.  Wirz,  after  a  1  ong  military  trial,  executed 
for  cruelty  to  the  federal  prisoners  at  Ander- 
son svillej Nov.  10,  „ 

A  Negro  convention  at  Charleston,  appeals  for 
justice  and  generosity  .  .  .  Nov.  25,  ,, 

Ex- president  Buchanan  publishes  his  justifica- 
tion   Nov.  ,, 

Habeas  corpus  act  restored  in  northern  states, 

Dec.  i,  „ 

Close  of  correspondence  between  the  British 


and  U.  S.  governments  respecting  depreda- 
tions of  Alabama,  Shenandoah,  &c.  The  earl 
of  Clarendon  maintains  that  "no  ai-med 
vessel  departed  during  the  war  from  a  British 
port,  to  cruise  against  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States "...  .  .  .  Dec.  2,  1865 

President  Johnson's  message  conciliatory  and 
firm  (he  requires  from  the  southern  states  : 
repeal  of  their  act  of  secession,  abolition  of 
slavery,  and'repudiation  of  confederate  debt), 

Dec.  4,     „ 

The  radical  party,  opposed  to  the  president, 
and  to  clemency  to  the  south,  predominate 
in  the  congress,  and  move  violent  resolutions 
against  restoration  of  southern  states  to  the 
union Dec.  ,, 

Estimated  federal  debt,  600,000,000?.  ;  re 
venue,  80,000,000? Dec.  ,, 

85  members  for  the  southern  states  excluded 
from  'congress;  the  conservative  party 
support  the  president  in  his  endeavours  to 
reconstruct  the  union  ;  the  radicals  violently 
oppose  his  policy,  requiring  the  south  to 
undergo  (previously  a  severe  probation  ;  the 
president  has  restored  state  government  to 
all  the  southern  states  except  Texas  and 
Florida Dec.  29,  ,, 


PRESIDENTS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES    OF   AMERICA. 


1789.  General  George  Washington,  first  president./ 
Elected  April  6.  / 

1793.  General  Washington  again ;  assumed  office  ' 
March  4. 

1797.  John  Adams.     March  4.  / 

1801  &  1805.  Thomas  Jefferson.     March  4. 

1809  <fc  1813.  James  Madison.     March  4. 

1817  cfc  1821.  James  Monroe.     March  4. 

1825.  John  Quincey  Adams.     March  4.  / 

1829  &  1833.  General  Andrew  Jackson.     March  4. 

1837.  Martin  Van  Buren.     March  4 


1841.  General  William   Henry  Harrison. 
Died  April  4,  succeeded  by 


March 


1841.  John  Tyler  (formerly  vice-president). 
1845.  James  Knox  Polk.     March  4. 

1849.  General  Zachary  Taylor.    March  4.    Died  July 

9,  1850,  succeeded  by  the  vice-president, 

1850.  Millard  Fillmore. 

1853.  General  Franklin  Pierce.     March  4. 

1857.  James  Buchanap.     March  4. 

1861  &  1865.  Abraham  Lincoln.  March  4.  Assassi- 
nated April  14,  succeeded  by  the  vice-presi- 
dent, 

1865.  Andrew  Johnson.     April  15. 
tf-i-u^t" 


UNIVERSALISTS,  who  believe  in  the  final  salvation  of  all  men,  have  existed  in  various 
countries  and  ages.  Dr.  Tillotson  appears  from  some  of  his  sermons  to  have  adopted  the 
opinion  of  this  universal  salvation.  Johnson.  Certain  it  is,  about  1691,  he  entertained  a 
design  for  forming  a  new  book  of  homilies  ;  and  a  sermon  which  he  preached  before  the  queen 
(Mary)  against  the  absolute  eternity  of  hell  torments,  involved  this  doctrine.  Universalists 
are  numerous  in  America. 

UNIVERSAL  SUFFRAGE,  one  of  the  six  points  of  the  charter  (see  Chartists),  was 
adopted  by  the  French  in  the  election  of  their  president  in  1851,  and  of  their  emperor  in 
1852,  and  by  the  Italian  States  in  voting  for  annexation  to  Sardinia  in  1860. 

UNIVERSITIES.  The  most  ancient  in  Europe  are  those  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Paris, 
Salamanca,  and  Bologna.  In  old  Aberdeen  was  a  monastery,  in  which  youths  were 
instructed  in  theology,  the  canon  law,  and  the  school  philosophy,  at  least  200  years  before 
the  University  and  King's  College  were  founded.  The  following  dates  are  generally  those 
given  by  Bouillet. 

Dijon,  France  .  .  .  .  1722 

Dillingen,  Swabia  .  .  .  1565 

Dole,  Burgundy  .  .  .  1422 

Dorpat  .....  1632 

Douay,  French  Flanders  .  .  1568 

Dresden,  Saxony  .  .  .  1694 
Drumcondra  (Catholic),  Ire- 

land .....  1862 

Dublin  (see  Trinity  College)  .  1591 
Edinburgh,  founded  by 

James  VI  .....  1582 

Erfurt,  Thuringia  ;  enlarged  1390 

Erlangen  ....  1743 

Evora,  Portugal  .  .  .  1533 

Florence,  Italy,  enlarged  .  1439 


Aberdeen  founded  .        . 

I4Q4. 

Brussels  . 

18-34. 

Abo,  Finland      . 
Andrew's,  St.,  Scotland 
Angers,  chiefly  law   . 
Anjou,  1349;  enlarged  . 
Athens        .... 
Basle,  Switzerland 
Berlin         .... 
Berne      .... 
Besancon,  Burgundy 
Bologna,  Italy 
Bonn  ..... 

*-yj'\ 
1640 
1411 
1364 

1836 
1460 
1810 
1834 
1676 

433 
1818 

Caen,   Normandy,   1436;  re 
vived    .... 
Cambridge,  began  about  630 
revived 
Cambridge,    New    England 
projected 
Cologne,    in    Germany,    re 
founded 
Compostella,  Spain    . 
Coimbra,  Portugal  . 
Copenhagen        . 

loo4 
1803 
915 
1630 

1385 
i5J7 
1279 

T  A*l£) 

Bourdeaux 
Bourges      .... 
Bruges,  French  Flanders 

1472 
1465 
1665 

Cordova,  Spain 
Corfu  

Cracow,  Poland,  700  ;  revivec 

±  4/u 

968 
1823 
1  1364 

UNI 


USH 


UNIVERSITIES,  continued. 


Frankfort-on-the-Odcr      .     .  1506 

Mechlin,  Flanders     .        .        1440 

Rome  .  1245 

Franeker         .        .        .        .1585 

Mentz      .                 .                    1477 

Fribourg,  Germany   .        .     .   1460 
Geneva    .                                      1068 

Montpellier         .        .        .     .   1289 

Salamanca  ....  1239 

Glasgow      I45o 
Gottingen        ....  1735 
Granada,  Spain  .                 .     .  1537 

Munich.       .        .        .        .        1826 
Munster  1491 
Nancy         1769 

Salzburg.  .  .  .  1623 
Saragossa,  Aragon  .  .  1474 
Seville  1504 

Gripswald        ....   1547 
Groningen,  Friesland        .     .  1614 
Halle,  Saxony         .        .        .  1694 
Heidelberg         .                 .     .  1386 
Helmstadt       ....  1575 
Ingoldstadt,  Bavaria          .     .  1573 
Jena,  or  Sala,  Thuringia         .  1558 
Kiel,  Holstein    ....  1665 
King's  College,  London  (which 
see)  1829 

Nantes    1460 
Naples         1224 
Orange    1365 
Orleans,  France         .        .     .  1305 
Oxford  (see  Oxford)        .          8o2(?) 
Paderborn  1592 
Padua,  Italy    .        .        .        .1228 
Palenza,    1209;    removed    to 
Salamanca  ....  1249 
Palermo      1394 

Sienna  ....  1380 
Siguenza,  Spain  .  .  1517 
Sorbonne,  France  .  .  1253 
Strasbourg  .  .  .  1538 
Stutgardt  .  .  .  .  1775 
Toledo,  Spain  .  .  .  1499 
Toulouse  ....  1229 
Treves,  Germany  .  .  1473 
Tubingen,  Wirtemberg  .  1477 
Turin  1405 

Konigsberg,  Prussia       .        .1544 
Leipsic,  Saxony         .        .     .   1409 
Leyden,  Holland    .        .        .1575 
Liege  1816 

Paris,  792  ;  renovated    .        .  1200 
Parma         1482 
Pau          1722 
Pa  via,  1360;  enlarged       .     .  1599 

Upsal,  Sweden  .  .  .  1476 
Utrecht,  Holland  .  .  1636 
Valence,  Dauphine"  .  .  1454 
Valencia  .  .  .  ,  1209 

Lima,  in  Peru         .        .        .  1614 
Lisbon,    1290  ;    removed    to 
Coimbra  1391 
London  University  (which  see)  1826 
Louvaine  Flanders  926  •  en- 

Perpignan       .        .        .        .1349 
Perugia,  Italy    .        .        .     .  1307 
Petersburg,  St.,  1747  ;  again  1819 
Pisa,  1343  ;  enlarged         .     .  1552 

Valladolid  .  .  .  .  1346 
Venice  ....  15921 
Vienna  .  .  .  .  1365 
Wittenburg  .  .  .  1502 

Wilna  i8o-> 

Lyons,  France    .                .    .     830 

Queen's  University  (Ireland).   1850 
Rheims.  1145;  enlarged    .     .  11548 

Zurich  1832 

UNIVERSITY  BOAT-RACE.  The  contest  between  the  universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  on  the  river  Thames  began  in  1829,  and  has  been  annual  since  1856.  In  1864, 
after  20  contests,  the  opposing  parties  were  equal ;  but  on  April  8,  1865,  Oxford  won  for  the 
fifth  time  in  succession. 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  London.     See  London  University  and  Oxford. 
UNIVERSITY  ELECTIONS.     See  Dodson's  Act. 
UNKNOWN  TONGUES.     See  Irvingites,  note. 

URANIUM,  a  brittle  grey  metal,  discovered  by  Klaproth  in  1789,  in  the  mineral 
pitch-blende.  It  has  lately  been  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  for  certain  philoso- 
phical purposes. 

URANUS,  a  planet  with  six  satellites,  was  discovered  by  William  Herschel,  March  13, 
1781,  first  called  Georgium  Sidus,  after  George  III.  ;  next  Herschel;  and  finally  Uranus. 
It  is  about  twice  as  distant  from  the  sun  as  the  planet  Saturn.  The  anniversary  of  its  first 
revolution  (in  84  years^  days)  since  its  discovery,  was  celebrated  on  March  20,  1865.  Its 
perturbations  led  to  the  discovery  of  Neptune  in  1846. 

URICONIUM.     See  Wroxeter. 

URIM  AND  THUMMIM,  LIGHT  and  PERFECTION.  (Exodus  xxviii.  30.)  It  is  conjectured 
that  these  words  are  in  some  way  connected  with  the  breastplate  worn  by  the  high  priest 
when  he  entered  into  the  holy  place,  with  the  view  of  obtaining  an  answer  from  God 
(1420  B.C.). 

URSULINE  NUNS  (so  called  from  St.  Ursula),  founded  originally  by  St.  Angela,  of 
Brescia,  in  1537.  Several  communities  existed  in  England,  and  some  still  exist  in  Ireland. 

URUGUAY,  a  republic  in  South  America,  declared  its  independence,  Aug.  25,  1825  ; 
recognised,  Oct.  4,  1828.  The  president  of  the  executive,  G.  A.  Pereyra,  elected  in  1856, 
was  succeeded  in  1860  by  B.  P.  Berro.  A  civil  war  broke  out  in  consequence  of  the  invasion 
of  the  ex-president,  general  Flores,  June  26,  1863.  On  March  i,  1864,  the  vice-president 
Aguirre  became  president,  who  refused  (in  June)  to  modify  his  ministry  according  to 
the  desire  of  general  Flores,  who  marched  towards  the  capital  in  June.  In  Feb.  1865,  Flores 
became  provisional  president.  Population  in  1865,  about  350,000. 

USHANT,  an  island  near  Brest,  N.  W.  France,  near  which  two  naval  battles  were  fought 
between  the  British  and  French  fleets. 


(i.)  On  July  27,  1778,  after  an  indecisive  action  of 
three  hours,  the  latter,  under  cover  of  the  night, 
withdrew  into  the  harbour  of  Brest.  Admiral 


Keppel  commanded  the  English  fleet :  the  count 
d'Orvilliers  the  French.  The  failure  of  a  com- 
plete victory  was  attributed  to  adm.  sir  Hugh 

3  c  2 


USH  756  VAG 

USHANT,  continued. 


Palliser's  non-compliance  with  the  admiral's  sig  • 

nals.      Palliser    preferred    articles  of    accusation 

against     his   commander,    who    was    tried    and 

acquitted,  and  the  charge  against  him  declared 

to  be  "  malicious  and  ill-founded." 

(2. )  Lord  Howe  signally  defeated  the  French  fleet, 

.  taking  six  ships  of  the  line,  and  sinking  one  of 

large   force,   and    several    others,  June  1,   1794. 


While  the  two  fleets  were  engaged  in  this  action, 
a  large  fleet  of  merchantmen,  on  the  safety  of 
which  the  French  nation  depended  for  its  means 
of  prosecuting  the  war,  got  safely  into  Brest 
harbour,  which  gave  occasion  to  tbe  enemy  to 
claim  the  laurels  of  the  day,  notwithstanding 
their  loss  in  ships,  and  in  killed  and  wounded, 
which  was  very  great. 


USURY  was  forbidden  by  parliament,  1341.  Until  the  I5th  century,  410  Christians 
were  allowed  to  receive  interest  of  money,  and  Jews  were  the  only  usurers,  and  therefore 
often  banished  and  persecuted  (see  Jctvs).  By  the  37th  of  Henry  VIII.  the  rate  of  interest 
was  fixed  at  10  per  cent.  1545.  This  statute  was  repealed  by  Edward  VI.  but  re-enacted 
1 3th  Eliz.  1570.  See  Interest  for  later  legislation. 

UTAH,  a  western  territory  of  North  America,  was  organised  Sept.  9,  1850.  The  capital, 
Great  Salt  Lake  city,  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  Mormonites  (which  see). 

UTRECHT  (the  Roman  Trajectum  ad  Rhenium],  was  the  seat  of  an  independent  bishopric  ; 
founded  about  695.  The  last  prelate,  Henry  of  Bavaria,  weary  of  his  turbulent  subjects, 
sold  his  temporal  government  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1528.  The  union  of  the  Seven 
United  Provinces  began  here  (see  United  Provinces),  1579.  The  celebrated  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
which  terminated  the  wars  of  queen  Anne,  was  signed  by  the  ministers  of  Great  Britain  and 
France,  and  all  the  other  allies,  except  the  ministers  of  the  empire,  April  u,  1713.  This 
treaty  secured  the  Protestant  succession  in  England,  the  separation  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
crowns,  the  destruction  of  Dunkirk,  the  enlargement  of  the  British  colonies  and  plantations 
in  America,  and  a  full  satisfaction  for  the  claims  of  the  allies.  Utrecht  surrendered  to 
the  Prussians,  May  9,  1787  ;  was  possessed  by  the  French,  Jan.  18,  1795,  and  restored  at 
the  peace. 

V. 

VACCINATION  (from  Variola  Vaccina,  the  cow-pox),  discovered  by  Dr.  Edward  Jenner. 
He  was  born  in  1749,  and  educated  for  the  medical  profession,  partially  under  John  Hunter. 
Having  heard  that  milkmaids  who  have  had  the  cow-pox  never  take  the  small-pox,  he,  about 
1780,  conceived  the  idea  of  vaccination,  which  was  then  ridiculed  by  eminent  physiologists. 
He  made  the  first  experiment  by  transferring  to  a  healthy  child,  in  May  14,  1796,  the 
pus  from  the  pustule  of  a  milkmaid  who  had  caught  the  cow-pox  from  the  cows.  He 
announced  his  success  in  a  memoir  published,  1798,  and  vaccination  became  general  in  1799, 
having  been  introduced  Jan.  21  in  that  year.  Dr.  Jenner  received  io,ooo£.  from  parliament 
for  the  discovery,  June  2,  1802,  and  2O,oooL  in  1807.  The  first  national  institution  for  the 
promotion  of  vaccination,  called  the  Royal  Jennerian  Institution,  was  founded  Jan.  19,  1803. 
The  emperor  Napoleon  valued  this  service  of  Dr.  Jenner  to  mankind  so  highly,  that  he 
liberated  Dr.  "Wickham,  when  a  prisoner  of  war,  at  Jenner's  request,  and  subsequently  Avhole 
families  of  English  ;  making  it  a  point  to  refuse  him  nothing  that  he  asked.  Vaccination, 
although  much  opposed  on  moral  and  religious  grounds,  was  practised  throughout  all  Europe 
previously  to  1816.  Dr.  Jenner  died  in  1823.*  The  Vaccination  Act,  3  &  4  Viet,  passed 
July  23,  1840.  Vaccination  was  made  compulsory  in  England  in  1853,  and  in  Ireland  and 
Scotland  in  1863.  See  Small-pox  and  Inoculation.  An  important  blue-book,  entitled 
"Papers  on  the  History  and  Practice  of  Vaccination,"  edited  by  Mr.  John  Simon,  was 
published  by  the  Board  of  Health  in  1857. 

VADIMONIAN  LAKE  ;  here,  the  Romans  totally  defeated  the  Etruscans,  283  B.C. 

VAGRANTS.  By  law,  after  being  whipped,  a  vagrant  was  to  take  an  oath  to  return  to 
the  place  where  he  was  born,  or  had  last  dwelt  for  three  years,  1530.  A  vagrant  a  second 
time  convicted,  to  lose  the  upper  part  of  the  gristle  of  his  right  ear,  1535  ;  and  a  third  time 
convicted,  death.  A  vagabond  to  be  marked  with  a  V,  and  be  a  slave  for  two  years,  1327. 
Vagrants  were  punished  by  whipping,  gaoling,  boring  the  ears,  and  death  for  a  second 
offence,  1572.  The  milder  statutes  were  those  of  17  Geo.  II.  ;  32,  35,  and  59  Geo.  III. 
The  present  Vagrant  Act  was  passed  in  1824. 

*  Dr.  Jenner  died  suddenly  in  1823.  A  statue  subscribed  for  by  all  nations,  was  erected  to  his  memory 
in  Trafalgar-square,  April  30,  1858,  in  the  presence  of  the  prince  consort.  It  was  removed  to  Kensington 
in  1862.  Another  statue  was  erected  by  the  French  at  Boulogne,  and  inaugurated  Sept.  u,  1865. 


I 


VAL  757  VAN 

VALEN^AY,  a  chateau  near  Chateauroux,  Central  France,  where  Napoleon  I .  imprisoned 
Ferdinand  of  Spain  from  1808  to  1813.  His  kingdom  was  restored  to  Ferdinand  by  a  treaty 
signed  Dec.  8,  1813. 

VALENCIA  (E.  Spain),  the  Valentia  Edetanorum  of  the  Romans.  Its  university  was 
founded,  it  is  said,  in  the  I3th  century,  and  was  revived  in  the  i5th.  Valencia  was  taken 
by  the  earl  of  Peterborough  in  1705,  but  submitted  to  the  Bourbons  after  the  unfortunate 
battle  of  Almanza,  in  1707.— It  resisted  the  attempts  made  on  it  by  marshal  Moncey,  but 
was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  with  a  garrison  of  more  than  16,000  men,  and  immense  stores, 
by  the  French  under  Suchet,  Jan.  9,  1812.  ,• 

VALENCIENNES  (N.  France).  This  city  (founded  about  399  B.C.)  was  besieged  from 
May  23  to  July  26,  1793,  when  the  French  garrison  surrendered  to  the  allies  under  the  duke 
of  York.  It  was  retaken,  together  with  Conde,  by  the  French,  Aug.  27-30,  1794  ;  on 
capitulation,  the  garrison  and  1 100  emigrants  were  made  prisoners,  with  immense  stores. 

VALENTINE'S  DAY  (Feb.  14).  Valentine  is  said  to  have  been  a  bishop,  who  suffered 
martyrdom  under  Claudius  II.  at  Rome  ;  others  say  under  Aurelian,  in  271.  6 18,000  letters 
passed  through  the  post-office  on  Feb.  14,  1856.  The  origin  of^the  ancient  custom  of 
"  choosing  a  valentine  "  has  been  much  controverted.  See  Post*- 

VALENTINIANS,  followers  of  Valentine,  a  priest,  who,  on  being  disappointed  of  a 
bishopric,  forsook  the  Christian  faith,  declaring  there  were  thirty  gods  and  goddesses,  fifteen 
of  each  sex,  which  he  called  /Eones,  or  Ages.  He  taught  in  the  2nd  century,  and  published 
a  gospel  and  psalms  :  his  followers  added  other  errors. 

VALMY  (N.  E.  France).  Here  the  French,  commanded  by  Kellerman,  defeated  the 
Prussians,  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  Sept.  20,  1792.  The  victory  was  of 
immense  moral  advantage  to  the  Republicans. 

VAL01S,  HOUSE  OF.     See  France,  1328. 

VALTELINE  (Switzerland),  now  part  of  Austrian  Italy.  Here  took  place  a  general 
massacre  of  the  Protestants  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  Avho  revolted  against  the  government, 
July  20,  1620.  It  began  at  Tirano,  extended  to  all  the  district,  and  lasted  three  days. 

VALVASOR.  The  first  dignity  beneath  a  peer,  was  anciently  that  of  vidames, 
vicedomini,  or  valvasors.  Valvasors  are  mentioned  by  our  ancient  lawyers  as  viri  magna 
dignitatis,  and  sir  Edward  Coke  speaks  highly  of  them.  Now,  the  first  personal  dignity 
after  the  nobility  is  a  knight  of  the  order  of  St.  George  or  of  the  Garter.  Blackstone. 

VANADIUM  (from  Vanadis,  the  Scandinavian  Venus),  a  metal  discovered  by  Sefstrbm^ 
in  1830,  combined  with  iron  ore.  A  similar  metal,  discovered  in  lead  ore  by  Del  Rio  in 
1801,  and  named  Erythronium,  was  proved  by  Wohler  to  be  Vanadium. 

VANCOUVER'S  ISLAND,  North  Pacific  ocean,  near  the  main  land.  Settlements  were 
made  here  by  the  English  in  1781,  which  were  seized  by  the  Spaniards  in  1789,  but 
restored.  By  a  treaty  between  the  British  government  and  that  of  the  United  States  in 
1846,  this  island  was  secured  to  the  former.  It  has  become  of  much  greater  importance 
since  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  neighbouring  main  land  in  1858,  and  the  consequent 
establishment  of  the  colony  of  British  Columbia  (which  see).  Victoria,  the  capital,  was 
founded  in  1857. 

VANCOUVER'S  VOYAGE.  Captain  Vancouver  served  as  a  midshipman  under  captain 
Cook,  and  was  appointed  to  command  during  a  voyage  of  discovery,  to  ascertain  the  existence 
of  any  navigable  communication  between  the  North  Pacific  and  North  Atlantic  oceans.  He 
sailed  in  1790,  and  returned  Sept.  24,  1795.  He  compiled  an  account  of  this  voyage  of 
survey  of  the  north- west  coast  of  America,  and  died  in  1 798. 

VANDALS,  a  Germanic  race,  attacked  the  Roman  empire  in  the  3rd  century,  and  began 
their  ravages  in  Germany  and  Gaul,  406-414  ;  their  kingdom  in  Spain  was  founded  in  411  ; 
under  Genseric  they  invaded  and  conquered  the  Roman  territories  in  Africa,  and  took 
Carthage,  Oct.  24,  439.  They  were  subdued  by  Belisarius  in  534.  They  were  driven  out 
by  the  Saracen  Moors. 

VANDAL   KINGS    IN  AFRICA. 

429.  Genseric  (see  Mecklenburg').          I         484-  Gundamund.  I         523-  Hilderic. 

477.  Hunneric.  I          496.  Thorismund.  |         331.  Gelimer. 


VAN  758  YEG 

VAN  DIEMEN'S  LAND  was  discovered  by  Tasmaii  in  1633.  Hence  a  part  is  called 
TASMANIA.  It  was  visited  by  Furneanx  in  1773  ;  by  captain  Cook  in  1777  ;  and  was  deemed 
the  south  extremity  of  New  Holland  (now  Australia)  until  1799,  when  Flinders  explored 
Bass's  Straits,  and  proved  Van  Diemen's  Land  to  be  an  island.  A  British  settlement  was 
established  on  the  south-east  part,  within  the  mouth  of  the  Derwent,  in  1804,  and  named 
Hobart  Town,  or  Hobarton,  now  the  seat  of  government.  This  island  was  made  a  convict 
colony  of  Great  Britain,  whither  many  of  our  remarkable  transports  have  been  sent. 
Governor,  col.  Thos.  Gore  Browne  (1862).  Population  in  1857,  81,492  ;  in  1859,  84,080. 

VARENNES,  a  town  in  N.  E.  France,  is  celebrated  by  the  arrest  of  Louis  XVI.,  his 
queen,  sister,  and  two  children.  They  fled  from  the  Tuileries  on  June  21,  and  were 
taken  here  on  the  22nd,  1791,  and  conducted  back  to  Paris,  mainly  through  Drouet  the  post- 
master at  an  intermediate  town,  who  recognised  the  king. 

VARNA,  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  in  Bulgaria,  European  Turkey.  A  great  battle 
was  fought  near  this  place,  Nov.  10,  1444,  between  the  Turks  under  Amurath  II.  and  the 
Hungarians  under  their  king,  Ladislaus,  and  John  Hunniades.  The  latter  were  defeated 
with  great  slaughter  :  the  king  was  killed,  and  Hunniades  made  prisoner.  The  Christians 
had  previously  broken  a  recent  truce. — The  emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  arrived  before  Varna, 
the  head-quarters  of  his  army,  then  besieging  the  place,  Aug.  5,  1828.  The  Turkish 
garrison  made  a  vigorous  attack  on  the  besiegers,  Aug.  7  ;  and  another  on  the  2ist,  but  were 
repulsed.  Varna  surrendered,  after  a  sanguinary  conflict,  to  the  Russian  arms,  Oct.  u, 
1828.  It  was  restored  at  the  peace  in  1829  ;  its  fortifications  were  dismantled,  but  have 
since  been  restored. — The  allied  armies  disembarked  at  Varna,  May  29,  1854,  and  remained 
there  till  they  sailed  for  the  Crimea,  Sept.  3  following.  While  at  Varna  they  suffered 
severely  from  cholera. 

VASSY  (N.E.  France).  The  massacre  of  the  Protestants  at  this  place  by  the  duke  of 
Guise  on  March  I,  1562,  led  to  the  civil  wars  which  desolated  France  to  the  end  of  the 
century. 

VASSALAGE.     See  Feudal  Laws  and  Slavery. 

VATICAN  HILL  (Rome)  became  the  seat  of  the  papal  government  about  800.  The 
pope's  palace  is  said  to  contain  7000  rooms,  rich  in  works  of  art,  ancient  and  modern.  The 
library,  founded  by  pope  Nicholas  V.,  1448,  is  exceedingly  rich  in  printed  books  and 
MSS. — Pistolesi's  description  of  the  Vatican,  with  numerous  plates,  was  published  1829-38. 
— The  phrase  "Thunders  of  the  Vatican"  was  first  used  by  Voltaire,  1748. — The  ancient 
Vatican  Codex  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  in  Greek  was  published  at  Rome  in  1857. 

VAUDOIS.     See  Waldmses. 

VAUXHALL  BRIDGE,  constructed  of  iron  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  "VValker,  at  an 
expense  of  about  150,000?.  (to  be  defrayed  by  a  toll).  The  first  stone  was  laid  May  9,  1811, 
by  prince  Charles,  eldest  son  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick  ;  and  the  bridge  was  opened  on 
June  4,  1816. 

VAUXHALL  GARDENS,  London,  were  so  denominated  from  the  manor  of  Vauxhall,  or 
Faukeshall ;  but  the  tradition,  that  this  house  or  any  other  adjacent  was  the  property  of  Guy 
Fawkes,  is  erroneous.  The  premises  were  the  property  of  Jane  Vaux  in  1615,  and  the 
mansion-house  was  then  called  Stockden's.  From  her  it  passed  through  various  hands,  till 
it  became  the  property  of  Mr.  Tyers  in  1752.  There  is  no  certain  account  of  the  time  when 
these  premises  were  first  opened  for  the  entertainment  of  the  public  :  but  the  Spring  Gardens 
at  Vauxhall  are  mentioned  in  the  Spectator  as  a  place  of  great  resort  (1711).  Some  writers 
of  accounts  of  London  suppose  1730  to  be  the  first  year  of  the  opening  of  Vauxhall  Gardens, 
which  succeeded  Ranelagh  Gardens.  The  greatest  season  of  Vauxhall  wras  in  1823,  when 
133,279  persons  visited  the  gardens,  and  the  receipts  were  29,590?.  The  greatest  number 
of  persons  in  one  night  was  Aug.  2,  1833,  when  20, 137  persons  paid  for  admission.  The 
number  on  the  then  supposed  last  night,  Sept.  5,  1839,  was  1089  persons.  Vauxhall  was 
sold  by  auction,  Sept.  9,  1841,  for  20,200?.  The  last  performances  at  Vauxhall  took  place 
on  July  25,  1859.  The  ground  has  been  sold  for  building  purposes. 

VEDAS,  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos,  in  Sanskrit,  were  probably  written  about 
1000  B.C.  Veda  means  knowledge.  These  books  comprise  hymns,  prayers,  and  liturgical 
formulae.  The  edition  by  professor  Max  Miiller,  printed  under  the  patronage  of  the  East 
India  Company,  appeared  in  1849-62. 

VEGETABLES  for  the  table  were  brought  from  Flanders,  about  1520.     See  Gardening. 


VEG 


759 


YEN 


VEGETARIAN  SOCIETY,  whose  members  restrict  themselves  to  a  vegetable  diet,  held 
their  fifteenth  anniversary  in  London,  on  Sept.  4,  1862. 

VEHMIC  TRIBUNAL  (Vchmgericlite  or  Fchmgerichte),  secret  tribunals  established  in 
"Westphalia  to  maintain  religion  and  the  public  peace,  had  their  origin  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  and  rose  to  importance  about  1182,  when  Westphalia  became  subject  to  the 
archbishop  of  Cologne.  Persons  of  the  most  exalted  rank  were  subjected  to  their  decisions, 
being  frequently  seized,  tried,  and  executed.  The  emperors  endeavoured  to  suppress  them, 
but  did  not  succeed  till  the  i6th  century.  Sir  "VV.  Scott  has  described  them  in  "Anne  of 
Geierstein."  A  remnant  of  this  tribunal  was  abolished  by  Jerome  Bonaparte,  king  of 
Westphalia,  in  1811. 

VEII,  an  independent  Latin  city  near  Rome.  Between  the  Romans  and  Veientos 
frequent  wars  occiirred,  till  Veii  was  utterly  destroyed,  388,  B.C.  The  Roman  family,  the 
Fabii,  who  had  seceded  from  Rome  for  political  reasons,  were  surprised  and  destroyed  at  the 
river  Cremera,  by  the  Veieutes,  477  B.C.  A  siege  of  Veii  by  the  Romans  lasted  from  405  to 
396  B.C. 

VELLORE  (S.E.  India),  became  the  residence  of  the  family  of  the  dethroned  sultan  of 
Mysore,  and  was  strongly  garrisoned  by  English  troops.  The  revolt  of  the  Sepoys,  in 
which  the  family  of  the  late  Tippoo  took  an  active  part,  took  place  July  10,  1806.  The 
insurgents  were  subdued  by  colonel  Gillespie,  and  mostly  put  to  the  sword  :  800  Sepoys 
were  killed. 

VELOCIPEDES,  vehicles  of  German  construction,  first  appeared  in  England  in  April, 
1818,  and  obtained  the  name  from  being  impelled  by  the  feet  with  great  celerity,  the  mover 
of  the  vehicle  sitting  astride  upon  it  as  upon  a  rocking-horse. 

VENDEE.     See  La  Vendee. 

VENEZUELA,  the  seat  of  a  South  American  republic.  When  the  Spaniards  landed 
here  in  1499,  they  observed  some  huts  built  upon  piles,  in  an  Indian  village  named  Cora,  in 
order  to  raise  them  above  the  stagnated  water  that  covered  the  plain  ;  and  this  induced  them 
to  give  it  the  name  of  Venezuela,  or  Little  Venice.  This  state  in  July,  1814,  declared  in 
congressional  assembly  the  sovereignty  of  its  people,  which  was  recognised  in  1818.  It 
formed  part  of  the  republic  of  Columbia  till  1831,  when  it  separated  from  the  federal  union, 
and  declared  itself  sole  and  independent.  General  D.  T.  Monagas  was  elected  in  1855 
president,  and  continued  so  till  March,  1858,  when  a  revolution  broke  out,  and  Don  Jose 
Castro  became  president,  who  also  was  compelled  to  resign  in  Aug.  1859  ;  and  Dr.  Pedro 
Gual  assumed  the  government.  A  new  constitution  was  promulgated  in  Dec.  1858.  General 
Jose  Paez  was  elected  president,  Sept.  8,  1861.  He  resigned  on  June  17,  1863,  and  Juan. 
E.  Falcon  succeeded  him,  June  17.  General  Febres  Cordero  protested  and  setup  a  rival 
government  at  Porto-Cabello,  which  broke  up  in  October  following.  Marshal  J.  E.  Falcon 
was  sworn  as  president,  June  8,  1865.  The  population  in  1859  was  about  one  million  and 
a  half.  See  Columbia^ 

VENI,   VIDI,    VICI,—"1  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered."    See  Zela. 

VENICE  (N.  Italy).  The  Veneti  inhabited  its  site  when  it  was  made  a  kingdom  by  the 
Gauls,  who  conquered  it  about  356  B.C.  Marcellus  reconquered  it  for  the  Roman  republic, 
and  slew  the  Gaulish  king,  221  B.C.  Population  of  the  city  of  Venice  in  1857,  118,172. 


733 


•     997 

IOOO-IIOO 


Venice,  founded  by  families  from  Aquileia  and 
Padua  fleeing  from  Attila,  about  .  A.D.  452 

First  doge  (or  duke)  chosen,  Anaf  esto  Paululio,    697 

Bishopric  founded        ...... 

The  Ilialto  made  the  seat  of  government      .    . 

Venice  becomes  independent  of  the  eastern 
empire,  and  acquires  the  maritime  cities  of 
Dalmatia  and  Istria  ..... 

Its  navy  and  commerce  increases    . 

Bank  of  Venice  established         .        .        .        -  1157 

Crete  purchased 1205 

The  Venetians  defeat  the  Genoese  near  Negro- 
pont 1263 

War  with  Genoa,  1293  ;  the  Venetian  fleet  is 
destroyed,  and  peace  concluded  .  .  .  1299 

The  doge  Andrea  Dandolo  defeats  Louis  of 
Hungary  at  Zara 1346 

Venice  helps  in  the  Latin  conquest  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  obtains  power  in  the  East,  1204  ; 
severe  contest  with  Genoa.  .  .  .  I35Q-81 


The  doge  Marino  Faliero  is  accused  of   con- 
spiracy and  beheaded  1355 

The  Venetians  lose  Istria  and  Dalmatia      .        .  1358 
War  with  the  Genoese,  who  defeat  the  Vene- 
tians at  Pola,  and  advance  against  Venice, 
which  is  vigorously  defended      .        .        .    .  1377 

The  Genoese  fleet  is  captured  at  Chiozza   .        .  1380 
And  peace  concluded       ......  1381 

Venice  takes  an  active  part  in  the  Italian  war,  1425-54 
The  city  suffers  from  the  plague  .  .  .  1447 
War  with  the  Turks  ;  Venice  loses  many  of  its 

eastern  possessions ^461-77 

The  Venetians  take  Athens,  1466 ;  and  Cyprus  1475 
Venice  helps  to  overcome  Charles  VIII.  of 


France 


1495 
1497 


Injured  by  the  discovery  of  America  (1492),  and 
the  passage  to  the  Indies  .... 

The  Venetians  excite  the  Turks  against  the 
emperor  Charles  V 1504 

And  are  nearly  ruined  by  the  league  of  Cambray  1508 


YEN  760  [YER 

VENICE,  continued. 


They  assist  in  defeating  the  Turks  at  Lcpanto  .   1571 

The  Turks  retake  Cyprus ,, 

Destructive  fire  at  Venice 1577 


The  whole  of  Venice  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg  .        .         .  1806 


All  Venice  transferred  to  the  empire  of  Austria,  1814. 
The  Rialto  bridge  and  the  Piazza  di  San  Marco  j  Venice  declared  a  free  port          .        .      Jan.  24,  1830 

erected 1592  !  Insurrection  begins  March  22,    1848;  the  city 

Paul  V.'s  interdict  on  Venice  contemptuously  |      surrenders  to  the  Austrians  after  a  long  siege 

disregarded :     .  1607  i  Aug.  22,   1849 

Naval  victories  over  the  Turks;  at  Scio,  1651 ;  j  [In  conseqxience  of  the  Italian  war  in  1859,  the 

and  in  the  Dardanelles 1655  j      country  has    been    much  disorganised,   and 

The  Turks  take  Candia  1669  \      large    numbers    of    persons    emigrated    in 

Venice  recovers  part  of  the  Morea      .        .       1683-99  !      1860-1.] 

But  loses  it  again 1715-39  '  Venetian  deputies  will  not  attend  the  Austrian 


Venice  occupied  by  Bonaparte,  who,  by  the 
treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  gives  part  of  its 
territory  to  Austria,  and  annexes  the  rest  to 


territory  TO  Austria, 
the  Cisalpine  republi 


parliament  at  Vienna  .        .         .      May,  1861 

[Venice  has  had   122  doges :    Anafesto  697  to 
Luigi  Manin,  1797.] 


1797 


VENTILATORS  were  invented  by  the  rev.  Dr.  Hales,  and  described  to  the  Royal  Society 
of  London,  May  1741  ;  and  the  ventilator  for  the  use  of  ships  was  announced  by 
Mr.  Triewald,  in  November,  same  year.  The  marquess  of  Chabanne's  plan  for  warming  and 
ventilating  theatres  and  houses  for  audiences  was  applied  to  those  of  London  in  1819.  The 
systems  of  Dr.  Reid  (about  1830)  and  others  followed.  Dr.  Arnott's  work  on  this  subject 
was  published  in  1838.  A  commission  on  warming  and  ventilation  issued  a  report  in  1859. 

VENTRILOQUISM  (speaking  from  the  belly).  The  phenomena  are  evidently  described 
in  Isaiah  xxix.  4.  Among  eminent  ventriloquists  were  baron  Mengen  and  M.  St.  Gille, 
about  1772  (whose  experiments  were  examined  by  a  commission  of  the  French  academy); 
Thomas  King  (about  1716)  ;  Charles  Matthews  (1824)  ;  and  M.  Alexandre  (1822). 

VENUS.  Her  transit  over  the  sun  on  Nov.  24,  1639,  was  first  ascertained  by  Horrox  in 
1633.  The  astronomer- royal  Maskelyne  observed  her  transit  at  St.  Helena,  June  6,  1761. 
Capt.  Cook  made  his  first  voyage  in  the  Endeavour,  to  Otaheite,  to  observe  a  transit  of 
Yenus,  June  3,  1769.  See  Cook's  Voyages.  The  diurnal  rotation  of  Yenus  was  discovered  by 
Cassini  in  1667.  The  transit  on  Dec.  9,  1874,  majr  be  observed  in  Eastern  Europe  and  in 
Asia. 

YERA  CRUZ  (Mexico),  built  about  1600  ;  was  taken  by  the  Americans  in  1847,  and  by. 
the  allies  in  1861  during  the  intervention. 

VERMONT,  a  Northern  State  in  North  America,  was  settled  by  the  French  1724-31  ; 
and  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1763  ;  and  freed  from  the  authority  of  New  York,  and 
admitted  as  a  state  of  the  Union  in  1791. 

YERNEUIL  (N.W.  France),  the  site  of  a  battle  fought  Aug.  17,  1424,  between  the 
Burgundians  and  English  under  the  regent  duke  of  Bedford,  and  the  French,  assisted  by  the 
Scots,  commanded  by  the  count  de  Narbonne,  the  earls  of  Douglas  and  Buchan,  &c.  The 
French  at  first  were  successful ;  but  some  Lombard  auxiliaries,  who  had  taken  the  English 
camp,  commenced  pillaging.  Two  thousand  English  archers  came  then  fresh  to  the  attack  ; 
and  the  French  and  Scots  were  totally  defeated,  and  their  leaders  killed. 

YERNON  GALLERY.  The  inadequate  manner  in  which  modern  British  art  was  repre- 
sented in  the  National  Gallery  was  somewhat  remedied  in  1847  by  the  munificent  present  to 
the  nation  by  Mr.  Robert  Yernon,  of  a  collection  of  157  pictures,  all  but  two  being  by  first- 
rate  British  artists.  They  were  first  exhibited  at  Mr.  Yemen's  house  in  Pall  Mall,  next  in 
the  vaults  beneath  the  National  Gallery,  afterwards  at  Marlborough  House,  and  are  now 
(1865)  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  In  1857,  Mr.  John  Sheepshanks  followed  Mr. 
Yernon's  example.  See  Sheepshanks'  Donations. 

YERONA  (N.  Italy)  was  founded  by  the  Gauls  or  Etruscans.  The  amphitheatre  was 
built  by  Titus,  A.D.  82.  Verona  has  been  the  site  of  many  conflicts.  On  Sept.  27,  489, 
Theodoric  defeated  Odoacer  king  of  Italy.  About  1259  Mastino  della  Scala  was  elected 
podestk ;  and  his  descendants  (the  Scaligeri)  ruled,  till  subdued  by  the  Yisconti,  dukes  of 
Milan.  Verona  was  conquered  by  the  Venetians,  1405,  and  held  by  them  with  some  inter- 
missions till  its  capture  by  the  French  general  Massena,  June  19,  1796.  Near  to  it  Charles 
Albert  of  Sardinia  defeated  the  Austrians,  May  4,  1848.  Verona  is  one  of  the  four  strong 
Austrian  fortresses  termed  the  Quadrangle,  or  Quadrilateral,  and  here  the  emperor  Francis 
Joseph,  on  July  12,  1859,  in  an  order  of  the  day  announced  to  his  army  that  he  must  yield 
to  circumstances  unfavourable  to  his  policy,  and  thanked  his  people  and  army  for  their 
support. 


VER  7G1  VIC 

VERSAILLES,  PALACE  or  (near  Paris).  In  the  reign  of  Louis  X11J.  Versailles  was 
only  a  small  village,  in  a  forest  thirty  miles  in  circuit  ;  and  here  this  prince  built  a  hunting- 
seat,  about  1632.  Louis  XIV.  between  1661  and  1687  enlarged  it  into  a  magnificent  palace, 
which  became  the  iisual  residence  of  the  kings  of  France.  Here  was  held  the  military 
festival  of  the  royal  guards,  Oct.  I,  1789,  which  was  immediately  followed  (on  the  5th  and 
6th)  by  the  attack  of  the  mob,  who  massacred  the  guards  and  brought  the  king  back  to 
Paris.  It  was  afterwards  the  residence  of  Louis-Philippe,  and  is  still  a  royal  palace.  The 
historical  gallery  was  opened  in  1837.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Britain  and 
British  North  America,  signed  at  Paris,  the  latter  power  was  admitted  to  be  a  sovereign  and 
independent  state,  Sept.  3,  1783.  On  the  same  day  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Versailles 
between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  by  which  Pondicherry  and  Carical,  with  other 
possessions  in  Bengal,  were  restored  to  France,  and  Trincomalee  restored  to  the  Dutch. 

VERSE.  See  Poetry.  Surrey's  translation  of  part  of  Virgins  ^Eneid  into  blank  verse,  is 
the  first  English  composition  of  the  kind,  omitting  tragedy,  extant  in  the  English  language 
(published  in  1547).  The  verse  previously  used  in  our  grave  compositions  was  the  stanza  of 
eight  lines,  the  ottava  rim  a,  (as  adopted  with  the  addition  of  one  line  by  Spenser  (in  his 
faery  Qiceen),  who  probably  borrowed  it  from  Ariosto  and  Tasso.  Boccaccio  introduced  it 
into  Italy  in  his  Teseide,  having  copied  it  from  the  old  French  chansons.  Trissino  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  introducer  of  blank  verse  among  the  moderns,  about  1508.  Vossius. 

VESPERS.  See  Sicilian  Vespers.  In  the  house  of  the  French  ambassador  at  Black- 
friars,  in  London,  a  Jesuit  was  preaching  to  upwards  of  three  hundred  persons  in  an  upper 
room,  the  floor  of  which  gave  way  with  the  weight,  when  the  whole  congregation  was 
precipitated  to  the  street,  and  the  preacher  and  more  than  a  hundred  of  his  auditory,  chiefly 
persons  of  rank,  were  killed.  This  catastrophe,  termed  the  Fatal  Vespers,  occurred  Oct.  26, 
1623.  Stow. 

VESTA.  The  planet  Vesta  (the  ninth)  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Olbers,  of  Bremen,  on 
March  29,  1807.  She  appears  like  a  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude. 

VESTALS  were  priestesses  of  Vesta,  who  took  care  of  the  perpetual  fire  consecrated  to 
her  worship.  The  mother  of  Romulus  was  a  vestal.  Numa,  in  710  B.C.  appointed  four,  and 
Tarquin  added  two.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  the  high-priest  was  entrusted 
with  the  care  of  them.  Minutia  was  buried  alive  for  breaking  her  virgin  vow,  337  B.C.  ; 
Sextalia,  274  B.C.  ;  and  Cornelia  Maximiliana,  A.D.  92. 

VESUVIUS.  By  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum 
(which  see)  were  overwhelmed  A.D.  79,  and  more  than  250,000  persons  perished,  among  them 
Pliny  the  naturalist.  Numerous  other  disastrous  eruptions  have  occurred.  In  1631  the 
town  of  Torre  del  Greco,  with  4000  persons,  and  a  great  part  of  the  surrounding  country, 
were  destroyed.  One  of  the  most  dreadful  eruptions  ever  known  took  place  suddenly, 
Nov.  24,  1759.  The  violent  burst  in  1767  was  the  34th  from  the  time  of  Titus.  One  in 
1794  was  most  destructive  :  the  lava  flowed  over  5000  acres  of  rich  vineyards  and  cultivated 
land,  and  the  town  of  Torre  del  Greco  was  a  second  time  burned  ;  the  top  of  the  mountain 
fell  in,  and  the  crater  is  now  nearly  two  miles  in  circumference.  Eruptions  in  May  1855, 
May  and  June  1858,  and  June  1859,  caused  great  destruction,  and  in  the  spring  and  summer 
of  1860.  A  series  of  violent  eruptions  causing  much  damage  occurred  in  Dec.  1861,  and  in 
Feb.  1865.  Torre  del  Greco  was  again  destroyed  in  1861. 

VETERINARY  COLLEGE,  London,  was  established  at  Camden-town,  1791  ;  and 
Albert  Veterinary  College  was  opened  in  1865. 

VICE,  THE.  An  instiument  of  which  Archytas  of  Tarentum,  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor,  along  with  the  pulley  and  other  implements,  420  B.C. 

VICE-CHANCELLOR  OF  ENGLAND,  an  equity  judge,  appointed  by  parliament,  first 
took  his  seat,  May  5,  1813.  A  new  court  was  erected  about  1816,  contiguous  to  Lincoln's- 
inn-hall.  Two  additional  vice-chancellors  were  appointed  under  act  5  Viet.  Oct.  1841. 
The  office  of  vice-chancellor  of  England  ceased  in  August,  1850,  and  a  third  vice-chancellor 
was  appointed  in  1851,  when  two  more  equity  judges,  styled  lords  justices,  were  appointed. 

VICE-CHANCELLOES    OF   ENGLAND. 

1813.    Sir  Thomas  Phimer,  April  13.  I      1827.    Sir  Anthony  Hart,  May  4. 

1818.   Sir  John  Leach,  Jan.  13.  |      1827-50.   Sir  Lancelot  Shadwell,  Nov.  i,  THE  LAST, 

VICKSBURG.     See  United  Slates,  1863. 


TIC 


762 


TIC 


VICTORIA,  formerly  PORT  PHILLIP  (Australia),  situated  between  New  South  Wales  and 
South  Australia,  the  most  successful  colony  in  that  region.  In  1798,  Bass,  in  his  whale-boat 
expedition,  visited  Western  Port,  one  of  its  harbours  ;  and,  in  1802,  Flinders  sailed  into 
Port  Phillip  Bay. 


Colonel  Collins  lands  with  a  party  of  convicts 
with  the  intention  of  founding  a  settlement 
at  Port  Phillip,  but  afterwards  removed  to 
Van  Diemen's  Land 

Messrs.  Hume  and  Hovell,  two  stock-owners 
from  New  South  Wales,  explore  part  of  the 
country,  but  do  not  discover  its  great  advan- 


Mr.  Henty  imports  some  sheep  from  Van 
Diemen's  Land 

Mr.  John  Batman  enters  between  the  heads  of 
Port  Phillip,  and  purchases  a  large  tract  of 
land  from  the  aborigines  for  a  few  gewgaws 
and  blankets.  He  shortly  after,  with  fifteen 
associates  from  Hobarton,  took  possession  of 
600,000  acres  in  the  present  Geelong  country, 

May, 

The  Launceston  Associates  and  Mr.  John  Pascoe 
Fawkener  ascend  the  Yarra-Yarra  (or  ever- 
flowing)  river,  and  encamp  on  the  site  of 
Melbourne 

The  colonists  (450  in  number)  possess  140,000, 
sheep,  2500  cattle,  and  150  horses  ;  sir  B. 
Bourke,  governor  of  New  South  Wales,  visits 
the  colony,  determines  the  sites  of  towns, 
and  causes  the  land  to  be  surveyed  and  re- 
sold, setting  aside  many  contending  claims  ; 
he  appoints  captain  Lonsdale  chief-magis- 
trate. See  Melbourne 

The  colony  named  Victoria 

Its  prosperity  brings  great  numbers  to  it,  and 
induces  much  speculation  and  consequent 
embarrassment  and  insolvency  .  .  .  i! 

Mr.  C.  J.  Latrobe  appointed  lieutenant-governor 
under  sir  G.  Gipps 

The  province  declared  independent  of  New 
South  Wales ;  a  reward  of  200?.  offered  for 


1804 

1824 
1834 


1835 


1837 
1839 


the  discovery  of  gold  in  Victoria,  which  was 
soon  after  found  near  Melbourne,  and  was 
profitably  worked  ....  Aug.  1851 

7000  persons  were     at  Ballarat,  Oct. ;    10,000 

round  Mount  Alexander            .        .        Nov.     ,, 
From  Sept.  30  to  Dec.  31,  1851,  30,311  ounces  of 
gold  were  obtained  from  Ballarat ;  and  from 
Oct.  29  to  Dec,  31,  94,524  ounces^from  Mount 
Alexander — total  124,835  ounces. 
The  production  was  still  very  great    .        .        .  1859 
Immense  immigration  to  Melbourne.    See  Mel- 
bourne     1852 

A  representative  constitution  granted  .  .  1855 
Sir  Henry  Barkly  appointed  governor  .  .  .  1856 
The  parliament  was  opened  .  .  Nov.  26,  1857 
Four  administrations  had  been  formed  in  1857-1860 
Exhibition  of  the  products  of  the  colony  opened 

by  the  governor Oct.  i,  1861 

Sir  Charles  Darling  appointed  governor,  May  : 

arrives Sept.  10,  1863 

Great  opposition  to  reception  of  convicts  in  any 
part  of    Australia;  a  ship  containing  them 

sent  back Oct.  1864 

Important  land  act  passed    .        .        March  22,  1865 
The  assembly  passes  the  new  government  tariff, 
Jan.,   which   is  rejected   by  the   legislative 
council ;   the  governor  raises  money  for  the 
public  service  irregularly .        .         .        July,     „ 
The  crisis  still  continues  ;  appeal  to  the  queen 

proposed Oct.     ,, 

Parliament  prorogued        .  Dec.     , . 

Population  of  the  colony  in  1836,  224;  in  1841, 
11,738;  in  1846,  32,879;  in  1851,  77,345; 
Dec.  31,  1852,  about  200,000;  in  March  1857 
there  were  258,116  males  and  145,403  females  ;  ! 
in  all  403,519.  In  1859,  in  all  517,366  ;  in  1861, 
540,322. 


VICTORIA.     See  Hong  Kong  and  Vancouver's  Island. 

VICTORIA  CROSS,  a  new  order  of  merit,  instituted  to  reward  the  gallantry  of  persons 
of  all  ranks  in  the  army  and  navy,  Feb.  5,  1856.  It  is  a  Maltese  cross  made  of  Russian 
cannon  from  Sebastopol.  The  queen  conferred  the  honour  on  62  persons  (of  both  services) 
on  Friday,  June  26,  1857  ;  and  on  many  of  the  Indian  army,  Aug.  2,  1858. 

VICTORIA  PARK  (E.  London),  was  originated  by  an  act  passed  in  1841,  which  enabled 
her  majesty's  commissioners  of  woods  and  forests  to  purchase  certain  lands  for  a  royal  park, 
with  the  sum  of  72,000?.  raised  by  the  same  act,  by  the  sale  of  York-house  to  the  duke  of 
Sutherland.  The  act  described  the  land  to  be  so  purchased,  containing  290  acres,  situate 
in  the  parishes  of  St.  John,  Hackney  ;  St.  Matthew,  Bethnal-green ;  and  St.  Mary, 
Stratford-le-bow,  at  the  east  end  of  London.  The  park  was  completed,  and  opened  to  the 
public  in  1845. 

VICTORIA  RAILWAY-BRIDGE,  on  the  tubular  principle,  over  the  St.  Lawrence, 
Montreal,  erected  by  Mr.  James  Hodges,  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Robert  Stephen- 
son  and  Mr.  A.  M.  Ross,  engineers,  was  completed  and  formally  opened,  Aug.  25,  1860.  It 
forms  part  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway,  which  connects  Canada  and  the  seaboard  states  of 
North  America.  The  length  is  about  sixty  yards  less  than  two  English  miles,  and  about  7^ 
times  longer  than  Waterloo  bridge,  and  ten  times  longer  than  new  Chelsea  bridge  ;  the 
height  sixty  feet  between  the  summer  level  of  the  river  and  the  under  surface  of  the  central 
tube.  It  is  supported  by  24  piers.  The  cost  was  1,700,000?.  On  Jan.  5,  1855,  while 
constructing,  the  bridge  was  carried  away  by  floating  ice,  but  the  stonework  remained 
firm. 

VICTORIA,  STEAM-PACKET.  Injured  on  the  Thames  on  her  first  voyage  by  explosion 
of  the  boiler,  April  1837.  Sailed  from  Hull,  for  St.  Petersburg,  on  Nov.  i,  1852,  and 
having  encountered  a  dreadful  gale  of  wind,  in  which  she  damaged  her  machinery  and 
rigging,  was  obliged  to  return  to  Hull,  where  her  injuries  were  repaired,  and  whence  she 


VIC 


763 


VIE 


again  sailed  on  the  7th  of  same  mouth.  She  had  scarcely  put  to  sea  when  another  storm 
arose,  more  violent  than  the  first,  whereby  she  was  a  second  time  severely  crippled,  and  in 
that  state,  the  tempest  continuing  to  rage  with  unabated  fuiy,  she  neared  the  Wingo  Beacon, 
off  Gottenburg,  on  the  rocks  round  which  she  struck,  and  was  instantly  wrecked.  Many 
of  the  crew  and  passengers  were  drowned ;  the  remainder  with  difficulty  saved  their  lives, 
Nov.  8-9,  1852.  She  was  a  splendid  ship,  and  her  disastrous  fate  excited  the  deepest 
sorrow  in  England,  Gottenburg,  and  St.  Petersburg.  The  storm  in  which  this  vessel  was 
lost,  was  perhaps  the  most  terrible  of  the  many  that  made  the  winter  of  1852-3  memorable. 

VICTORIA  EEGIA,  the  magnificent  water-lily,  brought  to  this  country  from  Guiana  by 
sir  Robert  Schomburgk,  in  1838,  and  named  after  the  queen.  Fine  specimens  are  at  the 
Botanic  Gardens  at  Kew,  Regent's  Park,  &c.  It  was  grown  in  the  open  air  ^in  1855,  by 
Messrs.  Weeks,  of  Chelsea. 

VICTORY,  MAN-OF-WAR,  of  100  guns,  the  finest  first-rate  ship  in  the  navy  of  England, 
was  lost  in  a  violent  tempest  near  the  race  of  Alderney,  and  its  admiral  sir  John  Balchen, 
and  100  gentlemen's  sons,  and  the  whole  crew,  consisting  of  1000  men,  perished,  October  8, 
1744.— The  Victory,  the  flag-ship  of  Nelson  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  Oct.  21,  1805,  is  kept 
in  fine  preservation  at  Portsmouth. 


VICTUALLERS,  an  ancient  trade  in  England, 
founded  1437  ;  their  hall  rebuilt  in  1823. 


The  Vintners'  company  of  London  was 


None  shall  sell  less  than  one  full  quart  of  the 
best  beer  or  ale  for  id.  and  two  quarts  of  the 

smaller  sort  for  i  d 1603 

The    power  of    licensing    public  -  houses    was 
granted  to  sir  Charles  Mompesson  and  sir 

Francis  Mitch  el 1621 

The  number  in  England  then  was  about  13,000.     ,, 
In  Great  Britain  about  76,000  public-houses       .  1790 
England,    59,335 ;    Scotland    15,081 ;     Ireland, 

14,080  ;  total,  88,496  in 1850 

Public-houses  allowed  to  be  opened  on  Sundays 
±  from  the  hour  of  half -past  twelve  till  half -past 


two  in  the  day-time  and  from  six  till  ten  in 

the  evening 1848  and  1854 

The  prescribed  time  enlarged  ,  1855 

127,352  licences  were  issued  for  the  sale  of  beer, 
cider,  and  perry  in  the  United  Kingdom,  pro- 
ducing a  revenue  of  304,688^.  ;  and  93,936 
licences  for  the  sale  of  spirits :  revenue, 


560,557?. 

Licensed  Victuallers'  School  established 


Licensed     Victuallers'     Asylum 


established, 
Feb  22, 


1803 


VICTUALLING  OFFICE  (London),  managed  the  victualling  of  the  royal  navy;  was 
instituted  December,,  1663.  The  number  of  commissioners  was  five,  afterwards  seven,  and 
then  reduced  to  six.  The  various  departments  on  Tower-hill,  St.  Katharine's,  and  Rother- 
hithe,  were  removed  to  Deptford  in  Aug.,  1785,  and  the  office  to  Somerset-house,  1783.  In 
1832,  the  office  of  commissioners  was  abolished,  and  the  victualling  office  made  one  of  five 
departments  under"  the  lords  of  the  admiralty. 

VIENNA  (the  Roman  Vindebona),  was  capital  of  the  margraviate  of  Austria,  984;  capital 
of  the  German  empire,  1^278  ;  and  since  1806  the  capital  of  the  Austrian  dominions  only. 
Population  in  1857,  476,222  ;  in  1865,  about  560,000.  See  Austria. 


Vienna  made  an  imperial  city  in          .        .        .1136 
Walled  and  enlarged  with  the  ransom  paid  for 

Richard  I.  of  England,  40,000? 1194 

Besieged  by  the  Turks  under  Solyman  the  Mag- 
nificent, with  an  army  of  300,000  men  ;  but  he 
was  forced  to  raise  the  siege  with  the  loss  of 

70,000  of  his  best  troops 1529 

Besieged July— Sept.  1683 

The  siege  raised  by  John    Sobieski,   king    of 
Poland,  who  totally  defeats  the  Turkish  army 
of  100,000     .....        Sept.  12,     ,, 

Vienna  taken  by  the  French  under  prince  Murat, 

Nov.  14,  1805 
Evacuated     ......    Jan.  12,  1806 

Again  captured  by  the  French        .        May  13,  1809 
Restored  on  the  conclusion  of  peace       Oct.  14,     ,, 


Congress  of  sovereigns  at  Vienna         .        Nov. 

The  revolt  in  Hungary  induces  an  insurrection 
in  Vienna March  13, 

The  emperor   retires,   May  17 ;    but   returns, 

Aug. 

A  second  insurrection  :  count  Latour,  the  war 
minister,  is  murdered  ....  Oct.  6, 

The  emperor  again  takes  flight  .      Oct.  7, 

Vienna  is  bombarded  by   Windischgratz  and 
Jcllachich,  Qct  28  ;  its  capitulation     Oct.  30, 

Conferences  respecting  the  Russo-Turkish  war 
held  at  Vienna  * i 

The  fortifications  demolished,  and  the  city  en- 
larged and  beautified i 

The  imperial  parliament  (Reichsrath)  assembles 
here May  31, 


1814 


853-5 
857-8 


*  A  conference  of  the  four  great  powers,  England,  France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  was  held  July  24, 
"when  a  note  was  agreed  on  and  transmitted  for  acceptance  to  St.  Petersburg  and  Constantinople,  July  31. 
This  note  was  accepted  by  the  czar,  Aug.  10,  but  the  sultan  required  modifications,  which  were  rejected  by 
Russia,  Sept.  7.  The  sultan's  note  (Dec.  31)  contained  four  points  : — i.  The  promptest  possible  evacuation  of 
the  principalities.  2.  Revision  of  the  treaties.  3.  Maintenance  of  religious  privileges  to  the  communities  of  all 
confessions.  4,  A  definite  settlement  of  the  convention  respecting  the  holy  places.  It  was  approved  by  the 
four  powers,  and  the  conferences  closed  on  Jan.  16,  1854.— A  new  conference  of  plenipotentiaries  from 


VIE  7(34  ViN 

VIENNA,  continued. 


TREATIES   OF   VIENNA. 

The  treaty  between  the  emperor  of  Germany  and 
the  king  of  Spain,  by  which  they  confirmed  to 
each  other  such  parts  of  the  Spanish  dominions 
as  they  were  respectively  possessed  of;  and  by  a 
private  treaty  the  emperor  engaged  to  employ  a 
force  to  procure  the  restoration  of  Gibraltar  to 
Spain,  and  to  use  means  for  placing  the  Pretender 
on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain.  Spain  guaranteed 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  April  30,  1725. 

Treaty  of  alliance  between  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
Charles  VI.,  George  II.,  king  of  Great  Britain,  and 
the  states  of  Holland,  by  which  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  was  guaranteed,  and  the  disputes  as  to 
the  Spanish  succession  terminated.  (Spain  acceded 
to  the  treaty  on  the  22nd  of  July.)  Signed 


ceded  to  France  the  Tyrol,  Dalmatia,  and  other 
territories,  which  were  shortly  afterwards  declared 
to  be  united  to  France  under  the  title  of  the 
Illyrian  Provinces,  and  engaged  to  adhere  to  the 
prohibitory  system  adopted  towards  .England  by 
France  and  Russia.  Oct.  14,  1809. 

Treaty  between  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia,  confirming  the  principles  on  which  they 
had  acted  by  the  treaty  of  Chaumout,  March  i, 
1814.  Signed  March  23,  1815. 

Treaty  between  the  king  of  the  Netherlands  on  the 
one  part,  and  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Prussia  on  the  other,  agreeing  to  the  enlargement 
of  the  Dutch  territories,  and  vesting  the  sove- 
reignty in  the  house  of  Orange.  May  31,  1815. 

Treaty  by  which  Denmark  ceded  Swedish  Pomerania, 


March  16,  1731.  and  Rugen  to  Prussia,  in  exchange  for  Lauenburg. 

Treaty  of  Peace  between  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  of  i      June  4,  1815. 

Germany  and  the  king  of  France,  Louis  XV.,  by  !  Commercial  treaty  for  twelve  years  between  Austria 
which  the  latter  power  agreed  to  guarantee  the  j      and  Prussia.     Signed  at  Vienna,  Feb.  19,  1853. 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  Lorraine  was  ceded  to  !  Treaty  for  the  maintenance  of  Turkey  signed  by  the 


France.     Signed  Nov.    18,    1738.      See   Pragmatic 
Sanction. 

Treaty  between  Napoleon  I.  of  France  and  Francis 
(II.  of  Germany)  I.  of  Austria,  by  which  Austria 


representatives  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Austria, 
and  Russia,  signed  April  9,  1854. 
Treaty  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  Denmark,  by 
which  Denmark  ceded  the  duchies,  Oct.  30,  1864. 


VIGO  (N.-W.  Spain)  was  attacked  and  burned  by  the  English  in  1589.  Sir  George  Rooke, 
with,  the  combined  English  and  Dutch  fleets,  attacked  the  French  fleet  and  the  Spanish 
galleons  in  the  port  of  Vigo,  when  several  men  of  war  and  galleons  were  taken,  and  many 
destroyed,  and  abundance  of  plate  and  other  valuable  effects  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
conquerors,  Oct.  12,  1702.  Vigo  was  taken  by  lord  Cobhain  in  1719,  but  relinquished  after 
raising  contributions.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  British,  March  27,  1809. 

VILLA  FRANCA  (in  Portugal),  here  the  British  cavalry,  under  sir  Stapleton  Cotton,  ' 
defeated  the  French  cavalry  of  marshal  Soult  (April  10,  1812)  and  freed  Estremadura. — 
VILLA  FRANCA,  a  small  port  on  the  Mediterranean,  near  Genoa,  was  bought  for  a  steam- 
packet  station  by  a  Russian  company,  about  Aug.  1858,  which  caused  some  political  excite- 
ment.— At  VILLA  FEANCA,  in  Lombardy,  the  emperors  of  France  and  Austria  met  on 
July  n,  1859  (after  the  battle  of  Solferino),  and  on  July  12  signed  the  preliminaries  of 
peace,  the  basis  of  the  treaty  of  Zurich  (which  see). 

VILLAIN.     See  Slavery  in  England. 

VIMEIRA  (in  Portugal),  where  the  British  under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley  defeated  the 
French  and  Spanish  forces  under  marshal  Junot,  duke  of  Abrantes,  Aug.  21,  1808.  The 
attack  made  with  great  bravery,  was  gallantly  repulsed  ;  it  was  repeated  by  Kellerman  at 
the  head  of  the  French  reserve,  which  was  also  repulsed  ;  and  the  French  being  charged 
with  the  bayonet,  withdrew  on  all  points  in  confusion,  leaving  many  prisoners. 

VINCENT,  CAPE  ST.  (S.-W.  Portugal).  Admiral  Rooke,  with  twenty  men-of-war,  and 
the  Turkey  fleet  under  his  convoy,  was  attacked  by  admiral  Tourville,  with  a  force  vastly 
superior  to  his  own,  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  when  twelve  English  and  Dutch  men-of-war,  and 
eighty  merchantmen,  were  taken  or  destroyed  by  the  French,  June  16,  1693.  Near  here 
admiral  Rodney  destroyed  several  Spanish  ships,  Jan.  16,  1780.  (See  Rodney's  Victories.) 
The  celebrated"  battle  was  fought  Feb.  14,  1797,  between  the  Spanish  and  British  fleets  off 
the  Cape.  The  latter  commanded  by  admiral  sir  John  Jervis,  Avho  took  (after  a  well-fought 
battle)  four  line-of-battle  ships,  and  considerably  damaged  the  rest  of  the  Spanish  fleet, 
Feb.  14,  1797.  Two  of  the  captured  ships  were  of  100  guns  each,  and  the  other  two  each  of 
74.  From  this  Cape  the  earl  had  his  title. 

VINCENT'S,  ST.  (West  Indies),  long  a  neutral  island;  but  at  the  peace  of  1763,  the 
French  agreed  that  the  right  to  it  should  be  vested  in  the  English.  The  latter  soon  after 
engaged  in  a  war  against  the  Caribs,  on  the  windward  side  of  the  island,  who  were  obliged  to 

Great  Britain  (lord  John  Russell),  France  (M.  Drouyn  do  1'Huys),  Austria  (count  Buol),  Turkey  (Arif 
Effendi),  and  Russia  (count  Gortschakoff),  took  place'  March,  1854.  Two  points,  the  protectorate  of  the 
principalities  and  the  free  navigation  of  the  Danube,  were  agreed  to  ;  but  the  proposals  of  the  powers  as  to 
the  reduction  of  the  Russian  power  in  the  Black  Sea  were  rejected  by  the  czar,  and  the  conference  closed, 
June  5,  1855.  The  English  and  French  envoys'  assent  to  the  Austrian  propositions  was  not  approved  of  by 
their  governments,  and  they  both  resigned  their  official  positions. 


VIN  7  iJ5  VI R 

consent  to  a  peace,  by  which  they  ceded  a  large  tract  of  land  to  the  British  crown.  In  1779 
the  Caribs  greatly  contributed  to  the  reduction  of  this  island  by  the  French,  who,  however, 
restored  it  in  1783.  In  1795  the  French  landed  some  troops,  and  again  instigated  the 
Caribs  to  an  insurrection,  which  was  not  subdued  for  several  months.  The  great  eruption  of 
the  Scouffrier  mountain,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century,  occurred  in  1812.  Population 
in  1861,  31,755. 

VINCENT  DE  PAUL,  ST.,  CHARITABLE  SOCIETY,  founded  in  1833,  in  France,  by 
twelve  young  men.  It  extends  its  extremely  beneficial  operations  even  into  Britain.  Its 
power  excited  the  jtralousy  of  the  French  government,  which  suppressed  its  central  committee 
at  Paris,  in  Get,  1861. 

VINE.*  The  vine  was  planted  by  Noah  2347,  B.C.  Gen.  ix.  20.  A  colony  of  vine- 
dressers from  Phocea,  in  Ionia,  settled  at  Marseilles,  and  instructed  the  South  Gauls  in 
tillage,  vine-dressing,  and  commerce,  about  600  B.C.  Some  think  the  vines  are  the  abori- 
gines of  Languedoc,  Provence,  and  Sicily,  and  that  they  grew  spontaneously  on  the 
Mediterranean  shores  of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  The  vine  was  carried  into  Champagne, 
and  part  of  Germany,  by  the  emperor  Probus,  about  A.I).  279.  The  vine  and  sugar-cane  were 
planted  in  Madeira  in  1420.  The  vine  was  planted  in  England  in  1552  ;  and  in  the  gardens 
of  Hampton-court-palace  is  an  old  and  celebrated  vine,  said  to  surpass  any  known  vine  in 
Europe.  See  Grapes  and  Wine.  The  Tokay  vines  were  planted  in  1350. 

VINEGAR.  Known  nearly  as  early  as  wine.  The  ancients  had  several  kinds  of  vinegar, 
which  they  used  for  drink.  The  Roman  soldiers  were  accustomed  to  take  it  in  their 
marches.  The  Bible  represents  Boaz,  a  rich  citizen  of  Bethlehem,  as  providing  vinegar  for 
his  reapers  (1312  B.C.),  a  custom  still  prevalent  in  Spain  and  Italy. 

VINEGAR-HILL  (near  Enniscorthy,  in  Wexford,  S.-E.  Ireland).  Here  a  sanguinary 
conflict  took  place  between  the  British  troops,  commanded  by  Lake,  and  the  Irish  insurgent 
forces,  June  21,  1798.  The  rebels  suffered  a  severe  defeat,  though  they  claimed  the  victory 
from  their  having  killed  so  many  of  the  king's  troops. 

VINTNERS.     See  Victuallers. 

VIOL  AND  VIOLIN.  The  lyre  of  the  Greeks  became  our  harp,  and  the  viol  of  the  middle 
ages  became  the  violin.  The  violin  is  mentioned  as  early  as  1200,  in  the  legendary  life  of 
St.  Christopher.  It  was  introduced  into  England,  some  say,  by  Charles  II.  Straduarius 
(or  Stradivarius)  of  Cremona  was  a  renowned  violin-maker  (1700  to  1722). 

VIRGIN  MARY.  The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  is  a  festival  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches,  in  honour  of  the  miraculous  ascent  of  Mary  into  Heaven,  according  to  their  belief, 
Aug.  15,  A.D.  45.  The  Presentation  of  the  Virgin  is  a  feast  celebrated  Nov.  21,  said  to  have 
been  instituted  among  the  Greeks  in  the  nth  century;  its  institution  in  the  West  is 
ascribed  to  pope  Gregory  XI.  1372. f  See  Annunciation  and  Conception,  Immaculate. 

VIRGINIA.     See  Rome,  449  B.C. 

VIRGINIA,  the  first  British  settlement  in  North  America,  was  discovered  by  John 
Cabot  in  1497,  and  was  taken  possession  of  and  named  by  Raleigh,  after  the  virgin-queen 
Elizabeth,  July  13,  1584.  Vain  attempts  were  made  to  settle  it  in  1585."'  Two  expeditions 
were  formed  by  patent  in  1606,  and  others  in  1610.  In  1626,  it  reverted  to  the  crown  ;  and 
a  more  permanent  colony  was  established  soon  afterwards.  George  Washington  was  delegate 
for  Virginia  in  the  congress  of  1774.  Eastern  Virginia  seceded  from  the  Union,  April  25, 
1 86 1,  but  Western  Virginia  declared  for  the  Union,  Feb.  13,  and  elected  a  governor, 
Feb.  20,  1 86 1.  Virginia  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  war.  See  United  States  and  Richmond. 

*  Vine  Disease.  In  the  spring  of  1845,  Mr.  E.  Tucker,  of  Margate,  observed  a  fungus  (since  named 
Oidium  Tuckfri)  on  grapes  in  the  hot-houses  of  Mr.  Slater,  of  Margate.  It  is  a  whitish  mildew,  and  totally 
destroys  the  fruit.  The  spores  of  this  otfium  were  found  in  the  vineries  at  Versailles  in  1847.  The  disease 
soon  reached  the  trellised  vines,  and  in  1850  many  lost  all  their  pi-oduce.  In  1852,  it  spread  over  France, 
Italy,  Spain,  Syria,  and  in  Zante  and  Cephalonia  attacked  the  currants,  reducing  the  crop  to  one-twelfth  of 
the  usual  amount.  Through  its  ravages,  the  wine  manufacture  in  Madeira  ceased  for  several  years. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  disease,  but  without  much  effect.  Sulphur 
dust  is  the  most  efficacious  remedy.  The  disease  had  much  abated  in  France,  Portugal,  and  Madeira  (1863). 
In  1862  Calif ornian  vines  were  introduced  into  the  two  latter. 

t  "The  Indian  incarnate  god  Chrishna,  the  Hindoos  believe,  had  a  virgin-mother  of  the  royal  race, 
and  was  sought  to  be  destroyed  in  his  infancy,  about  900  years  B.C.  _  It  appears  that  he  passed  his  life  in 
working  miracles  and  preaching,  and  was  so  humble  as  to  wash  his  friends'  feet :  at  length  dying,  but  rising 
from  the  dead,  he  ascended  into  heaven  in  the  presence  of  a  multitude.  The  Cingalese  relate  nearly  the 
same  things  of  their  Buddha."  Sir  William  Jones. 


VIS  766  VOL 

VISCONTI,  the  name  of  a  noble  Italian  family,  which  ruled  in  Milan  from  1287  to  1447  ; 
the  heiress  of  the  family  was  married  to  Francesca  Sforza,  afterwards  duke  of  Milan. 

VISCOUNT  ( Vice  Comes),  anciently  the  name  of  an  office  under  an  earl,  who  being 
oftentimes  required  at  court,  was  his^deputy,  to  look  after  the  affairs  of  the  county.  The 
first  viscount  in  England  created  by  "patent  was  John,  lord  Beaumont,  whom  Henry  VI. 
created  viscount  Beaumont,  giving  him  precedence  above  all  barons,  Feb.  10,  1440. 
Ashmole.  This  title,  however,  is  of  older  date  in  Ireland  and  France.  John  Barry,  lord 
Barry,  was  made  viscount  Buttevant,  in  Ireland,  9  Eich.  II.  1385.  Beatson. 

VISIER,  GRAND,  an  officer  of  the  Ottoman  Porte,  first  appointed  about  1326.  The 
office  was  abolished  in  1838. 

VISIGOTHS,  separated  from  the  Ostragoths  about  330.  See  Gotlis.  The  emperor 
Valens,  about  369,  admitted  them  into  the  Roman  territories  upon  the  condition  of  their 
serving  when  wanted  in  the  Roman  armies  ;  and  Theodosius  the  Great  permitted  them  to 
form  distinct  corps  commanded  by  their  own  officers.  In  400,  under  Alaric,  they  invaded 
Italy,  and  in  410  took  Rome.  They  founded  their  kingdom  of  Toulouse,  414  ;  conquered 
the  Alani,  and  extended  their'rule  into  Spain,  414  ;  expelled  the  Romans  in  468  ;  and  finally 
were  themselves  conquered  by  the  Saracens  under  Muza,  in  71 1,  when  their  last  king  Roderic, 
was  defeated  and  slain.  See  Spain  for  a  list  of  the  Visigothic  kings.  Their  rule  in  France 
ended  with  their  defeat  by  Clovis  at  Vougle,  in  507. 

VITTORIA  (N.  Spain),  the  site  of  a  brilliant  victory  obtained  by  Wellington  over  the 
French  army  commanded  by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  king  of  Spain,  and  marshal  Jourdan, 
June  21,  1813.  The  hostile  armies  were  nearly  equal,  from  70,000  to  75,000  each.  After  a 
long  and  fearful  battle,  the  French  were  driven,  towards  evening,  through  the  town  of 
Vittoria,  and  in  their  retreat  were  thrown  into  irretrievable  confusion.  The  British  loss  was 
twenty-two  officers  and  479  men  killed ;  167  officers  arid  2640  men  wounded.  Marshal 
Jourdan  lost  151  pieces  of  cannon,  451  waggons  of  ammunition,  all  his  baggage,  provisions, 
cattle,  and  treasure,  with  his  baton  as  a  marshal  of  France.  Continuing  the  pursuit  on  the 
25th,  "Wellington  took  Jourdan' s  only  remaining  gun. 

VIVARIUM.     See  Aquavivarium. 

VIVISECTION,  physiological  experiments  upon  living  animals,  having  much  increased, 
the  Societies  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals  in  Dresden  and  Paris  in  1859  requested 
the  opinion  of  a  committee  of  eminent  scientific  men  on  the  merits  of  the  knowledge  thus 
acquired.  Their  judgment  was  not  unanimous.  The  London  Society  took  up  the  question 
in  1860  ;  and  printed  a  pamphlet  by  Mr.  G.  Macilwain  against  vivisection.  In  Aug.  1862 
an  international  conference  to  discuss  the  question  was  held  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham.* 

VOLCANOES.  In  different  parts  of  the  earth  there  are  above  200  volcanoes  which 
have  been  active  in  modern  times.  See  Etna,  Vesuvius,  and  Iceland.  In  Mexico  a  plain 
was  filled  up  into  a  mountain  more  than  a  thousand  feet  in  height  by  the  burning  lava  from 
a  volcano,  in  1759.  A  volcano  in  the  isle  of  Ferro  broke  out  Sept.  13,  1777,  which  threw 
out  an  immense  quantity  of  red  water,  that  discoloured  the  [sea  for  several  leagues.  A  new 
volcano  appeared  in  one  of  the  Azore  islands,  May  i,  1808. 

VOLSCI,  an  ancient  Latin  people,  frequently  at  war  with  the  Romans.  From  their 
capital,  Corioli,  Caius  Martius  (who  defeated  them  about  490  B.C.)  derived  his  name 
Coriolanus.  The  story  of  his  banishment  by  his  ungrateful  countrymen  ;  of  his  revenge 
on  them  by  bringing  the  Volsci  to  the  gates  of  Rome,  yet  afterwards  sparing  the  city  at  the 
entreaties  of  his  mother,  Volumnia  (487  B.C.),  is  considered  by  many  as  a  poetical  legend. 
The  Volsci  were  finally  subdued  and  incorporated  into  the  Roman  people  about  338  B.  c. 

VOLTAIC  PILE,  on  BATTERY,  was  constructed  in  consequence  of  the  discoveries  of 
Galvani  (see  Galvanism  in  article  Electricity).  The  principle  was  discovered  by  Alessandro 
Volta,  of  Como  (born  1745),  for  thirty  years  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at  Pavia,  and 
announced  by  him  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1793.  The  battery  was  first  set  up  in 
1800.  Volta  was  made  an  Italian  count  and  senator  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  and  was 
otherwise  greatly  honoured.  While  young  he  invented  the  electrophorus,  electric  pistol,  and 
hydrogen  lamp.  He  died  in  1826,  aged  81.  The  form  of  the  Voltaic  battery  has  been 
greatly  improved  by  the  researches  of  modern  philosophers.  The  nitric  acid  battery  of 
Mr.  W.  R.  Grove  was  constructed  in  1839  ;  the  carbon  battery  of  Professor  Robert  Bunsen 
in  1842.  The  former  is  very  much  used  in  this  country  ;  that  of  Bunsen  on  the  continent. 

*  Sir  Charles  Bell's  opinion  of  vivisection  was,  that  it  either  obscured  the  subject  it  was  meant  to 
illustrate,  or  misled  men  into  practical  errors  of  the  most  serious  character. 


VOL 


7G7 


VOL 


VOLTURNO,  a  river  in  S.  Italy,  near  Capua,  near  to  which  Garibaldi  and  his  followers 
held  a  strong  position.  This  was  furiously  assailed  by  the  royal  troops  on  Oct.  i,  1860,  who 
were  finally  repulsed  after  a  desperate  struggle,  the  fiercest  in  which  Garibaldi  had  yet  been 
engaged.  He  was  aided  greatly  by  a  band  of  Piedmontege  from  Naples.  On  Oct.  2  general 
Bixio  completed  the  victory  by  capturing  2500  fresh  Neapolitan  troops  and  dispersing  others. 

VOLUNTARY  CONTRIBUTIONS.  Public  contributions  for  the  support  of  the  British 
government  against  the  policy  and  designs  of  France  amounted  to  two  millions  and  a  half 
sterling  in  1798.  About  200,000^.  were  transmitted  to  England  from  India  in  1799.  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  of  Bury,  among  other  contributions  of  equal  amount,  subscribed  io,oooZ. 
Annual  Register.  See  Patriotic  Fund.  In  1862  nearly  a  million  pounds  were  subscribed  in 
the  British  empire  for  the  relief  of  the  Lancashire  cotton  spinners.  See  Cotton. 

VOLUNTEERS.  This  species  of  force  was  formed  in  England  in  consequence  of  the 
threatened  invasion  of  revolutionary  France,  March  1794.  Besides  our  large  army,  and 
85,000  men  voted  for  the  sea,  we  subsidised  40,000  Germans,  raised  our  militia  to  100,000 
men,  and  armed  the  citizens  as  volunteers.  Between  the  years  1798  and  1804,  when  this 
force  was  of  greatest  amount,  it  numbered  410,000,  of  which  70,000  were  Irish.*  On 
Oct.  26,  1803,  king  George  III.  reviewed  in  Hyde  Park  12,401  London  volunteers,  and  on 
Oct.  28,  14,676  more.  The  English  volunteers  were,  according  to  official  accounts,  341,600 
on  Jan.  i,  1804.  See  Naval  Volunteers.  In  May,  1859,  in  consequence  of  the  prevalence  of 
the  fear  of  a  French  invasion,  the  formation  of  volunteer  corps  of  riflemen  commenced  under 
the  auspices  of  the  government,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  many  thousands  were  enrolled  in 
all  parts  of  the  kingdom. 


[The  first  Middlesex  volunteers  were  formed  in 
1803  as  the  duke  of  Cumberland's  sharp- 
shooters. They  retained  their  organisation 
as  a  rifle  club,  when  other  volunteers  were 
disbanded.  In  1835  they  were  permitted  by  , 
the  duchess  of  Kent  to  take  the  name  of  the 
Royal  Victoria  Rifle  Club.] 

Nat  ional  Volunteeer  Association  for  promoting  the 
practice  of  Rifle-shooting,  was  established  in 
London,  under  the  patronage  of  the  queen 
and  prince  consort,  Mr.  Sidney  (afterwards 
lord)  Herbert,  secretary  at  war,  president, 
and  the  earl  of  Derby  and  other  noblemen 
vice-presidents.  (Annual  subscription  one 
guinea,  oracompositionforlifeof  tenguineas.) 

Nov.  16,  1859 

2500  Volunteer  officers  presented  to  the  queen  ; 
a  dinner  followed,  with  the  duke  of  Cam- 
bridge in  the  chair  :  and  a  ball  .  March  7,  1860 

The  queen  reviews  about  18,450  volunteers  in 
Hyde-park. June  23,  ,, 

[Mr.  Tower,  of  Wealdhall,  Essex,  aged  80,  was 
present  as  a  private  ;  he  Itad  been  present  as 
an  officer  in  a  volunteer  review  in  1803.] 

First  meeting  of  the  National  Association  for 
rifle  shooting  held  at  Wimbledon  ;  captain 
Edwd.  Ross  obtained  the  queen's  prize  of 
250?.  and  the  gold  medal  of  the  association, 

July  2-7,  1860 
[M.  Thorel,  a  Swiss,  obtained  a  prize.  ] 

Successful     sham-fight     at     Bromley,     Kent, 

July  14,     „ 

Above  20, ooo  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  queen 
at  Edinburgh Aug.  7,  ,, 

Above  10,000  Lancashire  volunteers  reviewed 
by  the  earl  of  Derby  at  Knowsley  .  Sept.  i,  ,, 

Lord  Herbert  stated  that  the  association  had  a 
capital  of  3000?.  and  an  annual  income  of  isoo/. 

Feb.  16,  1861 


Volunteers  in  Britain  estimated  at  about  160,000 

May, 

Second  meeting  at  Wimbledon ;  Mr.  Jopliiig 
gains  the  queen's  prize  and  the  association 
medal July  4-10, 

Review  of  11,504  volunteers  at  Wimbledon, 
July  13  ;  of  9000  at  Warwick  .  .  July  24, 

Registered  number  of  volunteers  162,681, 

April  i, 

20,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  lord  Clyde  at 
Brighton April  21, 

Third  meeting  at  Wimbledon ;  Mr.  Pixley  gains 
the  queen's  prize,  &c.  .  .  July  1-14, 

A  commission  recommends  that  an  annual  grant 
of  either  20?.,  30.?.,  or  345.  be  given  to  each, 
volunteer  according  to  circumstances  .  Oct. 

Fourth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  July  7,  &c.  ; 
queen's  prize,  &c. ,  won  by  sergeant  Roberts 
of  the  i2th  Shropshire  rifle  volunteers, 

July  14, 

An  act  to  amend  and  consolidate  the  acts 
relating  to  the  volunteer  force  of  Great 
Britain  was  passed  .  .  .  July  21, 

22,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  prince  of 
Wales  in  Hyde-park  (great  improvement 
noticed) M.&y  28, 

Fifth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  July  n,  <fec. ;  the 
queen's  prize,  Ac.,  won  by  private  John 
Wyatt  of  the  London  rifle  brigade  July  23, 

Volunteers  estimated  at  165,000  in  1864. 

Reviews  and  sham  fights  on  Easter  Mondays, 
near  Brighton,  April  5,  1863  ;  near  Guildford, 
March  28,  1864;  near  Brighton  .  April  17, 

Sixth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  began  July  n  ; 
the  queen's  prize  was  won  by  private  Sharman 
of  the  4th  West  York  Rifle  Volunteers,  July 
1 8  :  the  meeting  ended  with  a  review  by  the 
duke  of  Cambridge  .  •  .  July  22, 


1861 


1863 

1864 
1865 


*  The  first  regiment  of  Irish  volunteers  was  formed  at  Dublin,  under  command  of  the  duke  of  Leinster, 
Oct.  12,  1779.  They  armed  generally  to  the  amount  of  20,000  men,  and  received  the  unanimous  thanks  of 
the  houses  of  lords  and  commons  in  Ireland,  for  their  patriotism  and  spirit,  for  coming  forward  and 
defending  their  country.  At  the  period  when  the  force  appeared,  Irish  affairs  bore  a  serious  aspect ; 
manufactures  had  decreased,  and  foreign  trade  had  been  hurt  by  a  prohibition  of  the  export  of  salted 
provisions  and  butter.  Xo  notice  of  the  complaints  of  the  people  had  been  taken  in  the  English  parliament, 
when,  owing  to  the  alarm  of  an  invasion,  ministers  allowed  the  nation  to  arm,  and  an  immense  force  was 
soon  raised.  The  Irish  took  this  occasion  to  demand  a  free  trade,  and  government  saw  there  was  no  trifling 
with  a  country  with  arms  in  its  hands.  The  Irish  parliament  unanimously  addressed  the  king  for  a  free 
trade,  and  it  was  granted,  1779. 


vos 


763 


WAG 


VOSSEM,  PEACE  OF,  between  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  and  Louis  XIV.  of  France  ; 
the  latter  engaged  not  to  assist  the  Dutch  against  the  elector ;  signed  June  6,  1673. 

VOUGLE,  or  VOUILLE,  S.-W.  France  (near  Poitiers),  where  Alaric  II.  king  of  the 
Visigoths,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Clovis,  king  of  France,  507.  Clovis  immediately  after 
subdued  the  whole  country  from  the  Loire  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  thus  his  kingdom  became 
firmly  established.  A  peace  followed  between  the  Franks  and  Visigoths,  who  had  been 
settled  above  one  hundred  years  in  that  part  of  Gaul  called  Septimania.  Clovis  soon  after- 
wards made  Paris  the  capital  of  his  kingdom.  Henault. 

VOYAGES.  By  order  of  Pharaoh-necho,  of  Egypt,  some  Phoenician  pilots  sailed  from 
Egypt  down  the  Arabian  Gulf,  round  what  is  now  called  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  entered  the 
Mediterranean  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  coasted  along  the  north  of  Africa,  and  at  length 
arrived  in  Egypt,  after  a  navigation  of  about  three  years,  604  B.C. — Herodotus.  The  first 
voyage  round  the  world  was  made  by  a  ship,  part  of  a  Spanish  squadron  which  had  been 
under  the  command  of  Magellan  (who  was  killed  at  the  Philippine  Islands  in  a  skirmish)  in 
1519-20.  See  Circumnavigators  and  North-West  Passage. 

VULGATE  (from  Vulgatus,  published)  a  term  applied  to  the  Latin  version  of  the 
Scriptures,  which  is  authorised  by  the  council  of  Trent  (1546),  and  which  is  attributed  to 
St.  Jerome,  about  384.  The  older  version,  called  the  Italic,  is  said  to  have  been  made  in 
the  beginning  of  the  2nd  century.  Critical  editions  of  the  Vulgate  were  printed  by  order  of 
pope  Sixtus  V.  in  1590,  and  of  pope  Clement  V.  in  1592  and  1593.  (The  former  was 
suppressed  as  imperfect.)  The  Latin  Bible  called  the  Mentz  Bible  was  printed  in  1460. 


W. 

"VVADHAM  COLLEGE,  OXFORD.  Founded  by  Nicholas  Wadham,  esq.  and  Dorothy, 
his  wife,  in  1613.  In  this  college,  in  the  chambers  of  Dr.  Wilkins  (over  the  gateway),  the 
Royal  Society  frequently  met  prior  to  1658. 

WAGER  OF  BATTLE.     See  Appeal. 

WAGES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  wages  of  sundry  workmen  were  first  fixed  by  act  of 
parliament  25  Edw.  III.  1350.  Haymakers  had  but  one  penny  a  day.  Master  carpenters, 
masons,  tilers,  and-  other  coverers  of  houses,  had  not  more  than  $d.  per  day  (about  yd.  of 
our  money)  ;  and  their  servants  I  ^d.  Viner's  Statutes. 


By  the  23rd  Hen.  VI.  the  wages  of  a  bailiff  of 
husbandry  was  235.  ^d.  per  annum,  and 
clothing  of  the  price  of  55.  with  meat  and 
drink  ;  chief  hind,  carter,  or  shepherd,  205., 
Clothing,  48.  ;  common  servant  of  husbandry, 
155.,  clothing,  40^.  ;  woman-servant,  ios., 
clothing  45 1444 

By  the  nth  Hen.  VII.  a  like  rate  of  wages  with 
a  little  advance:  as,  for  instance,  a  free 


mason,  master  carpenter,  rough  mason, 
bricklayer,  master  tiler,  plumber,  glazier, 
carver  or  joiner,  was  allowed  from  Easter  to 
Michaelmas  to  take  6d.  a  day  without  meat 
and  drink  ;  or,  with  meat  and  drink,  4d.  : 
from  Michaelmas  to  Easter,  to  abate  id.  A 
master  having  under  him  six  men  was  allowed 
irf.  a  day  extra 1495 


WAGES   OF   HARVEST-MEN   IN   ENGLAND   AT   DIFFERENT   PERIODS  : 


Year. 
In  1350  . 
In  1460 
In  1568  . 
In  1632 
In  1688  . 


per  diem  o  i 

02 

„       04 
„       06 

o  8 


Year. 
In  1716 
In  1740 
In  1760 
In  1788 
In  1794 


s.  d. 

per  diem    o    9 
»          °  I0 


Year. 
In  1800 
In  1811 
In  1850 
In  1857 


s.  d. 

.  per'diem  2    o 

'„  2       li 

3      ° 
„  50 


WAGGONS  were  rare  in  the  last  century.  They,  with  carts,  &c.,  not  excepting  those 
used  in  agriculture,  were  taxed  in  1783.  The  carriers'  waggons  are  now  nearly  superseded 
by  the  railways. 

WAGHORN'S  NEW  OVERLAND  ROUTE  TO  INDIA.  Lieut.  Waghorn  devoted  a 
large  portion  of  his  life  to  connect  India  with  England.  On  Oct.  31,  1845,  he  arrived  in 
London,  by  a  new  route,  with  the  Bombay  mail  of  the  ist  of  that  month.  His  despatches 
reached  Suez  on  the  I9th,  and  Alexandria  on  the  2Oth,  whence  he  proceeded  by  steamboat 
to  a  place  twelve  miles  nearer  London  than  Trieste.  He  hurried  through  Austria,  Baden, 
Bavaria,  Prussia,  and  Belgium,  and  reached  London  at  half-past  four  on  the  morning  of  the 


WAG  769  WAL 

first-mentioned  day.  The  authorities  of  the  different  countries  through  which  he  passed 
eagerly  facilitated  his  movements.  The  ordinary  express,  via  Marseilles,  reached  London 
Nov.  2  following.*  Mr.  Waghoru  subsequently  addressed  a  letter  to  The  Times  newspaper, 
in  which  he  stated  that  in  a  couple  of  years  he  would  bring  the  Bombay  mail  to  London  in 
21  days.  He  died  January  8,  1850. 

WAGE  AM,  a  village  near  Vienna,  the  site  of  a  battle  fought  July  5-6,  1809,  between 
the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  in  which  the  latter  was  completely  victorious.  The 
slaughter  on  both  sides  was  dreadful  :  20,000  Austrians  were  taken  by  the  French,  and  the 
defeated  army  retired  to  Moravia.  An  armistice  was  signed  on  the  I2th  ;  and  on  Oct.  24, 
by  a  treaty  of  peace,  Austria  ceded  all  her  sea-coast  to  France  ;  the  kingdoms  of  Saxony  and 
Bavaria  were  enlarged  at  her  expense  ;  part  of  Poland  in  Galicia  was  ceded  to  Russia  ;  and 
Joseph  Bonaparte  was  recognised  as  king  of  Spain. 

WAHABEES,  or  WAHABITES,  a  warlike  Mahometan  reforming  sect,  considering  them- 
selves the  only  true  followers  of  the  prophet,  arose  in  Arabia  about  1750,  under  the  rule  of 
Abd-el-Wahab.  His  grandson,  Saoud,  in  1801,  defeated  an  expedition  headed  by  the  caliph 
of  Bagdad.  In  1803  this  sect  seized  Mecca  and  Medina,  and  continued  their  conquests, 
although  their  chief  was  assassinated  in  the  midst  of  his  victories.  His  son,  Abdallah,  long 
resisted  Mahommed  Ali,  pacha  of  Egypt,  but  in  1818  he  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by 
Ibrahim  Pacha,  who  sent  him  to  Constantinople,  where  he  was  put 'to  death.  The  sect  now 
flourishing  is  well  described  by  Mr.  W.  Gilford  Palgrave  in  his  Journey  and  Residence  in 
Arabia  in  1862-3,  published  in  1865. 

"WAITS,  the  night  minstrels  who  perform  shortly  before  Christmas.  The  name  was 
given  to  the  musicians  attached  to  the  king's  court.  We  rind  that  a  company  of  waits  was 
established  at  Exeter  in  1400  to  "  pipe  the  watch."  The  waits  in  London  and  Westminster 
were  long  officially  recognised  by  the  corporation. 

WAKEFIELD  (W.  Yorkshire),  the  site  of  a  battle  between  Margaret,  the  queen  of 
Henry  VI.,  and  the  duke  of  York,  in  which  the  latter  was  slain,  and  3000  Yorkists  fell 
upon  the  field,  Dec.  31,  1460.  The  death  of  the  duke,  who  aspired  to  the  crown,  seemed  to 
fix  the  good  fortune  of  Margaret ;  but  the  earl  of  Warwick  espoused  the  cause  of  the  duke's 
son,  the  earl  of  March,  afterwards  Edward  IV.,  and  the  civil  war  was  continued.  An  art  and 
industrial  exhibition  was  opened  at  Wakefield,  Aug.  30,  1865. 

WALBROOK  CHURCH  (London),  reputed  the  masterpiece  of  sir  Christopher  Wren, 
completed  in  1679.  There  was  a  church  here  in  1135,  and  anew  church  was  erected  in  1429. 

WALC KEREN  EXPEDITION.  This  unfortunate  expedition  of  the  British  to  the 
island  of  Walcheren  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt  in  Holland  in  1809  consisted  of  35  ships 
of  the  line,  and  200  smaller  vessels,  principally  transports,  and  40,000  land  forces,  the 
latter  under  the  command  of  the  earl  of  Chatham,  and  the  fleet  under  sir  Richard  Strachan. 
For  a  long  time  the  destination  of  this  expedition  remained  secret ;  but  before  July  28, 
1809,  when  it  set  sail,  the  French  journals  had  announced  that  Walcheren  was  the  point  of 
attack.  Perhaps  a  more  powerful  and"  better  appointed  armament  had  never  previously  left 
the  British  ports,  or  ever  more  completely  disappointed  public  expectation.  Flushing  was 
invested  in  August  ;  a  dreadful  bombardment  followed,  and  the  place  was  taken  Aug.  15  ; 
but  no  suggestion  on  the  part  of  the  naval  commander,  nor  urging  on  the  part  of  the  officers, 
could  induce  the  earl  to  vigorous  action,  until  the  period  of  probable  success  was  gone,  and 
necessity  obliged  him  to  return  with  as  many  of  the  troops  as  disease  and  an  unhealthy 
climate  had  spared.  The  place  was  evacuated,  Dec.  23,  1809.  The  house  of  commons 
instituted  an  inquiry,  and  lord  Chatham  resigned  his  post  of  master-general  of  the  ordnance, 
to  prevent  greater  disgrace  ;  but  the  policy  of  ministers  in  planning  the  expedition  was, 
nevertheless,  approved.  The  following  epigram  appeared  at  the  time  : — 

"  Lord  Chatham,  with  his  sword  undrawn,  Stood  waiting  for  sir  Richard  Strachan  ; 
Sir  Richard,  longing  to  be  at  'em,  Stood  waiting  for  the  earl  of  Chatham." 

WALDECK,  a  German  principality,  established  in  1682.  The  reigning  family  claim 
descent  from  the  Saxon  hero,  Witikind,  who  flourished  about  772.  The  reigning  prince, 
George  Victor  (born  Jan.  14,  1831),  succeeded  his  father,  George,  on  May  15,  1845. 
Population,  in  Dec.  1861,  58,604. 

*  The  Overland  Mail,  which  had  left  Bombay  on  Dec.  i,  1845,  arrived  early  on  the  soth  in  London,  by 
way  of  Marseilles  and  Paris  This  speedy  arrival  was  owing  to  the  great  exertions  made  by  the  French 
government  to  show  that  the  route  through  France  was  shorter  and  better. 

3   D 


WAL 


"70 


WAL 


WALDENSES,  a  sect  (also  called  Valdenses  and  Vaudois)  inhabiting  the  Cottian  Alps, 
derives  its  name,  according  to  some  authors,  from  Peter  de  "Waldo,  of  Lyons  (1170).  They 
had  a  translation  of  the  Bible,  and  allied  themselves  to  the  Albigenses,  and  were  much  vilified 
and  persecuted,  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Holy  Office  or  Inquisition.  Pope 
Innocent  III.  commissioned  some  monks  to  preach  against  the  heresies  of  the  Waldenses  in 
Narbonne  and  Provence  ;  but  the  French  bishops  were  at  first  jealous  of  this  mission,  armed 
as  it  was  with  great  power,  and  the  feudal  chiefs  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  legates,  1203-4. 
One  of  the  monks,  the  first  inquisitor,  Peter  Chateauneuf,  having  been  assassinated,  the 
aspiring  pontiff  called  on  all  the  neighbouring  powers  to  march  into  the  heretical  district. 
All  obstinate  heretics  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  commander  of  this 
crusade,  and  the  whole  race  of  the  Waldenses  and  Albigenses  were  ordered  to  be  pursued 
with  fire  and  sword.  See  Albigenses.  They  settled  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont  about  1375* 
but  were  frequently  dreadfully  persecuted,  especially  in  the  iyth  century,  when  Charles  I.  of 
England  interceded  for  them  (1627-9),  and  Oliver  Cromwell  (1655-6),  obtained  them  some 
degree  of  toleration.  They  were  permitted  to  have  a  church  at  Turin,  Dec.  1853. 

WALES,  called  by  the  Romans,  Britannia  Secunda.  After  the  Roman  emperor  Hono- 
riiis  quitted  Britain,  Vortigern  was  elected  king  of  South  Britain.  He  invited  over  the 
Saxons,  to  defend  his  country  against  the  Picts  and  Scots  ;  but  the  Saxons  perfidiously  sent 
for  reinforcements,  consisting  of  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Angles,  by  which  they  made  them- 
selves masters  of  South  Britain.  Many  of  the  Britons  retired  to  Wales,  and  defended 
themselves  against  the  Saxons,  in  their  inaccessible  mountains,  about  447.  In  this  state 
Wales  remained  unconquered  till  Henry  II.  subdued  South  Wales  in  1157;  and  in  1282 
Edward  I.  entirely  reduced  the  whole  country,  putting  an  end  to  its  independence  by  the 
death  of  Llewelyn,  the  last  prince.*  The  Welsh,  however,  were  not  entirely  reconciled 
to  this  revolution,  till  the  queen  gave  birth  to  a  son  at  Caernarvon  in  1284,  whom  Edward 
styled  prince  of  Wales,  which  title  the  heir  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  has  borne  almost 
ever  since.  Wales  was  united  and  incorporated  with  England  by  act  of  parliament,  1536. 
See  Britain. 


The  supreme  authority  in  Britannia,  Secunda 

intrusted  to  Suetonius  Paulinus          .        .     .       58 
Conquests  by  Julius  Frontinus  ....       70 

The  Silures  totally  defeated ,, 

The  Roman,    Julius    Agricola,   commands    in 

Britain 78 

Bran  ab  Llyr,  snrnamedthe  Blessed,  dies  about      80 
Reign  of  Caswallon .......     443 

The  ancient  Britons  defeat  the  Saxons  447-448 

The  renowned  Arthur  elected  king    .         .        -517 
Dyvnwal   Moelmud,  a  great  monarch,   comes 
from  Armorica,   and  becomes    king  of  the 

Cymry,  about 640 

Reign  of  Roderic  the  Great  ....  843 
He  unites  the  petty  states  of  Wales  into  one 

principality  ;  his  death 877 

Division  of  Wales — into  north,  south,  and  cen- 
tral (or  Powys  land) ,, 

The  Welsh  princes  submit  to  Alfred  .  .  .  885 
The  Danes  land  in  Anglesey  ....  900 
Laws  enacted  by  Howel  Dha,  prince  of  all 

Wales,  about 911 

He  acknowledges  the  supremacy  of  Athelstan .     926 
Civil  wars  at  his  death,  about     ....     948 
Great  battle  between  the  sons  of  Howel  Dha 
and  the  sons    of    Edwal  Voel;    the    latter 

victorious 952 

Edgar  invades  Wales 963 

Danes  again  invade  Wales,  and  lay  Anglesey 

waste 980 

Devastations  committed  by  Edwin,  the  son  of 

Eineon 990 

The  couutry  reduced  by  Aedan,  prince  of  North 

Wales 1000 

Aedan,  the  usurper,  slain  in  battle  by  Llewelyn  1015 
Rhun,  the  fierce  Scot,  defeated  near  Caermar- 
then      .........  1020 


1089 


1074 
1079 
1080 
1081 
1087 


The  joint  Irish  and  Scots  forces  defeated  with 

great  slaughter 

Jestyn,  lord  of  Glamorgan,  rebelling,  is  de- 
feated and  slain 

Part  of  Wales  laid  waste  by  the  forces  of  Harold  1055 
Rhys  overthrown  and  slain  ....  1056 
William  I.  claims  feudal  authority  over  Wales  .  1070 

Rhys  ab  Owain  slain 

Ravaging  invasion  of  the  earl  of  Chester       .     . 
Invasion  of  the  Irish  and  Scots   .... 

William  I.  invades  Wales 

Battle  of  Llechryd 

[In  this  conflict  the  sons  of  Bleddyn  ab  Cynvyn 
were  slain  by  Rhys  ab  Tewdwr,  the  reigning 
prince  ] 

Rhys  ab  Tewdwr  slain 1087 

The  Welsh  destroy  many  Norman  castles  .  .  1092 
The  formidable  insurrection  of  Payne  Tuber- 

ville 1094 

Invasion  of  the   English  under  the    earls    of 

Chester  and  Shrewsbury 1096 

The  settlement  in  Wales  of  a  colony  of  Flemings  1 106 
Violent  seizure   of  Nest,   wife  of    Gerald    de 
Windsor,   by   Owain,   son    of    Cadwgan    ab 

Bleddyn     , 1107 

[This  outrasre  entailed  dreadful  retribution  on 

Cadwgau's  family.] 
Cardigan  conquered  by  Strongbow     .        .        .     „ 

Cadwgan  assassinated mo 

Gruff ydd  ab  Rhys  lays  claim  to  the  sovereignty  1113 
Another  body  of  Flemings  settle  hi  Pembroke- 
shire   „ 

[The  posterity  of   these  settlers   are   still  dis- 
tinguished from  the  ancient  British  popula- 
tion    by    their     language,    manners,     and 
customs.] 
Henry  I.  erects  castles  in  Wales     .        .        .     .  1114 


*  The  statute  of  Wales,  enacted  at  Rhuddlan  March  19,  1284,  alleges  that— "Divine  Providence  has 
now  removed  all  obstacle-,  and  transferred  wholly  and  entirely  to  the  king's  dominion  the  land  of  Wales 
and  its  inhabitants,  heretofore  subject  unto  him  in  feudal  right."  The  ancient  laws  were  to  be  preserved 
in  civil  causes  ;  but  the  law  of  inheritance  was  to  be  changed,  and  the  English  criminal  law  to  be  put  in 
force.  Annals  of  Eny Land. 


WAL 


771 


WAL 


"WALES,  continued. 

Revolt  of    Owen  Gwynned  on  the  death    of 

Henry  I.  ;  part  of  South  Wales  laid  waste  .  1135 
The  Welsh  ravage  the  borders  .  .  .  .1136 
Strongbow,  earl  of  Pembroke,  invested  with 

the  powers  of  a  count  palatine  in  Pembroke  .   1138 
Henry   II.    invades    Wales,    which    he    subse- 
quently subdues,  after  a  stout  resistance  by 

Owen  Gwynned 1157 

Confederacy  of  the  princes  of  Wales   for  the 

recovery  of  their  lost  rights  and  independence  1164 
Prince  Madoc  said  to  have  emigrated  to  America, 

about  1169 

Anglesey  devastated 1173 

The  crusades   preached  in  Wales  by  Baldwin, 

archbishop  of  Canterbury 1 1 8  8 

Powys  castle  besieged 1191 

The  earl  of  Chester  makes  an  inroad  into  North 

Wales 1210 

King  John  invades  Wales,  laying  waste  a  great 
part  of  the  principalities  ....  1211-12 

Revolt  of  the  Flemings 1220 

Llewelyn,   prince  of    North    Wales,    commits 

great  ravages „ 

Death  of  Maelgwy  ap  Rhys          ....  1230 
Powys  castle  taken  by  Llewelyn  ap  lorwerth's 

forces     ' 1233 

William,  earl  of  Pembroke,  slain        .        .        .  1234 
Prince  David  ravages  the  marshes,  &c.  .         .     .   1244 

Invasion  of  Henry  III. 1245 

Anglesey  again  devastated      .         .        .  ,, 

Llewelyn  ap  Griffith,  the  last  prince  .         .         .   1246 
Convention  of  the  Welsh  nobility  against  the 

English 1258 

Kay  and  Brecknock   castles  taken  by  prince 

Edward 1265 

Peace  with  the  English 1267 

Edward  I.  summons  Llewelyn  to  Westminster ; 
on  his  refusal  to  come,  deposes  him ;  and 

invades  Wales 1277 

Edward  encamps  a  powerful  army  on  Saltney 

marsh ,, 

The  sons  of  Grufydd  treacherously  drowned  in 
the  river  Dee,  by  the  earl  Warrenne  and 

Roger  Mortimer 1281 

Hawarden  castle  taken  by  surprise  by  Llewelyn 
and  his  brother  David  ;  they  destroy  Flint 

and  Rhuddlan  castles 1282 

Great  battle  between  Llewelyn  ap  Grufydd, 
the  last  prince,  and  the  English :  Llewelyn 
slain,  after  the  battle,  by  De  Franctau, 

Dec.  ii,     ,, 
Wales  finally  subdued  by  Edward  I.,  after  a 

severe  contest ,, 

Prince  David  surrenders,  and  is  executed  as  a 

traitor 1283 

The  first  English  prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Ed- 
ward, born  at  Caernarvon  castle  (see  Princes  of 

Wales,  p.  772) April  25,  1284 

The    insurrection    of    Llewelyn    ap    Madoc; 

checked,  1294;  suppressed  ....  1316 
Great  rebellion  of  Owain  Glyndwr,  or  Owen 


Glendowcr  (grandson    of    the    last  prince, 

Llewelyn),  commences 1400 

Radnor    and    other    places    taken   by  Owain 

Glyndwr I4oi 

He  besieges  Caernarvon 1402 

And  seizes  Harlech  castle 1404 

Harlech  castle  retaken  by  the  English  forces    .  1408 

Owain  Glyndwr  dies 1415 

Margaret  of  Anjou,  queen  of  Henry  VI.,  takes 

refuge  in  Harlech  castle 1459 

Town  of  Denbigh  burnt 1460 

The  earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII. , 
lands  in    Pembroke,   and    is    aided  by  the 

Welsh Aug.  1485 

Palatine    jurisdiction  in  Wales   abolished   by 

Henry  VIII ^35 

Monmouth  made  an  English  county  by  the 

same  king „ 

The    counties    of     Brecknock,    Denbigh,    and 

Radnor  formed ,, 

Act  for  "laws  and  justice  to  be  administered 
in   Wales    in    same  form    as    in    England," 

27  Henry  VIII „ 

Wales  i  r .  corporated  into  England  by  parliament,  1 536 
Divided  into  twelve  counties  .        .        .     .  1543 

Dr.  Ferrars,  bishop  of  St.  David's,  burnt  at  the 

stake  for  heresy 1555 

Lewis  Owain,  a  baron  of  the  exchequer,   at- 
tacked and  murdered  while  on  his  assize  tour    „ 
The  bible  and  prayer-book  ordered  to  be  trans- 
lated into  Welsh,  and  divine  service  to  be 
performed  in  that  language     ....  1563 
First  congregation  of  dissenters  assembled  in 
Wales  ;  Vavasour  Powel  apprehended  while 

preaching 1620 

Beaumaris  castle  garrisoned  for  king  Charles  I.  1642 
Powys  castle  taken  by  sir  Thomas  Myddelton, 

Oct.  1644 

Dr.  Laud,  formerly  bishop  of  St.  David's,  be- 
headed on  Tower-hill         .        .        .  Jan   10,  1645 
Surrender  of  Hawarden  castle  to  the  parlia- 
ment general  Mytton „ 

Charles  1.  takes  refuge  in  Denbigh        .        .     .     ,, 
Rhuddlan  castle  surrenders        .        .        .  , , 

Harlech  castle  surrenders  to  Cromwell's  army 

under  Mytton 1647 

Battle  of  St.  Fagan's ;  the  Welsh  tp'ally  de- 
feated by  col.  Horton,  Cromwell's  lieutenant, 

May8,  !648 

Beaumaris  castle  surrenders  to  Cromwell    .     .     ,, 
Pembroke  castle  taken ;  colonel  Poyer  shot,* 

April  25,  1649 
The  French  land  in  Pembrokeshire,  and  are 

made  prisoners Feb.  1797 

Rebecca  or  "  Becca  "  riots  broke  out  against 
toll-gates,  Feb. ;  an  old  woman,  a  toll-keeper, 
was  murdered  Sept.  10  ;  many  persons  were 
tried  an-1  punished  ....  Oct.  1843 
Subscriptions  begun  for  establishing  a  tmi- 
versity  in  Wales Dec.  1863 


SOVEREIGNS   OF   WALES. 


640.  Dyvrfwal  Moelmud.  king  of  the  Cymry. 

688.  Idwallo. 

720.  Rhodri,  or  Roderic. 


755.  Conan. 

818.  Mervyn. 

843.  Rodeiic,  surnamed  the  Great. 


*  At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war,  Pembroke  castle  was  the  only  Welsh  fortress  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  parliament,  and  it  was  entrusted  to  the  command  of  col.  Langharne.  In  1647,  he,  and 
colonels  Powel  and  Poyer,  embraced  the  cause  of  the  king,  and  made  Pembroke  their  head  quarters ; 
after  the  defeat  at  St.  Fagan's,  retired  to  the  castle,  followed  by  an  army  led  by  Cromwell.  They 
capitulated,  after  having  endured  great  sufferings  from  want,  of  water.  Langhnrne,  Powel,  and-  Poyer 
were  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  condemned  to  death  ;  bat  Cromwell  having  been  induced  to  spare  the 
lives  of  two  of  them,  it  was  ordered  that  they  should  draw  lots  for  the  favour,  and  three  papers  were 
folded  up,  on  two  of  which  were  written  the  words,  "  Life  given  by  Go-1  ;  "  the  third  was  left  blank. 
The  latter  was  drawn  by  colonel  Poyer,  who  was  shot  accordingly  on  the  above  mentioned  day.  Pennant. 

3  I>  2 


WAL 


772 


WAL 


WALES,  continued. 

PRINCES   OF   NORTH    WALES. 

877.  Anarawd. 

913.  Edwal  Voel. 

939.  Howel  Dha  the  Good,  prince  of  all  Wales. 

948.  Jevaf,  or  Jevav,  and  lago. 

972.  Howel  ap  Jevaf. 

984.  Cadwallon  ap  Jevaf. 

985.  Meredith  ap  Owen  ap  Howel  Dha. 
992.  Edwal  ap  Meyric  ap  Edwal  Voel. 
998.  Aedan,  a  usurper. 

1015.  Llewelyn  ap  Sitsyllt. 
1021.  lago  ap  Edwal  ap  Meyric. 
1038.  Griffith  ap  Llewelyn  ap  Sitsyllt. 
1061.  Bleddyn  and  Rygwallon. 
1073.  Trahaern  ap  Caradoc. 
1079.  Griffith  ap  Conan. 
1137.  Owain  Gwynedd. 
1169.  David  ap  Owain  Gwynedd. 
1194.  Llewelyn  the  Great. 
1240.  David  ap  Llewelyn. 

1246.  Llewelyn  ap  Griffith,  last  prince  of  the  blood 
slain  after  battle,  in  1282. 


PRINCES   OF   SOUTH  WALES. 

877.  Cadeth  or  Cadell. 

907.  Howel  Dha  the  good. 

948.  Owain  ap  Howel  Dha,  his  son. 

987.  Meredith  ap  Owain. 

993.  Llewelyn  ap  Sitsyllt. 
1021.  Rytherch  ap  Jestyn,  a  usurper. 
1031.  Hywel  and  Meredydd. 

1042.  Rhydderch  and  Rhys,  the  sons  of  the  usurper. 
1061.  Meredydd  ap  Owain  ap  Edwyn. 
1073.  Rhys  ap  Owain,  and  Rhydderch  ap  Caradoc. 
1077.  Rhys  ap  Tewdwr  Mawr. 
1092.  Cadwgan  ap  Bleddyn. 
1115.  Griffith  ap  Rhys. 
1137.  Rhys  ap  Grufydd,  or  Griffith. 
1196.  Grufydd  ap  Rhys. 
1202.  Rhys  ap  Grufydd. 
1222.  Owain  ap  Grufydd. 
1235.  Meredith  ap  Owain  ;  he  died  in  1267. 

PRINCES   AND   LORDS   OF   POWYS-LAND. 

877.  Mervyn. 

900.  Cadeth  ;  also  prince  of  South  Wales. 

927.  Howel  Dha  the  Good. 

985.  Meredydd  ap  Owain. 

*o6i.  Bleddyn  ap  Cynvyn. 
1073.  Meredydd  ap  Bleddyn. 
1087.  Cadwgan  ap  Bleddyn. 
1132.  Madoc  ap  Meredydd. 
1160.  Griffith  ap  Meredydd. 


1256.  Gwenwinwin,  or  Gwenwynwyn. 
,,     Owain  ap  Grufydd. 

ENGLISH   PRINCES   OF   WALES.* 

1301.  Edward  Plantagenet  (afterwards  king  Ed- 
ward II.),  son  of  Edward  I.,  born  in  Caer- 
narvon Castle  on  the  2sth  April,  1284.  It 
is  asserted  that  immediately  after  his  birth 
he  was  presented  by  his  father  to  the  Welsh 
chieftains  as  their  future  sovereign,  the  king 
holding  up  the  royal  infant  in  his  arms,  and 
saying,  in  the  Welsh  language,  "  Eich  I)yn," 
literally  in  English,  "  This  is  your  man," 
but  signifying  "This  is  your  countryman 
and  king."  See  however  "  Ich  Dien." 

1343.  Edward  the  Black  Prince. 

1376.  Richard,  his  son  (afterwards  Richard  II.) 

1399.  Henry  (afterwards  Henry  V.),  son  of  Henry  IV. 

1454.  Edward,  son  of  Henry  VI.  ;  slain  at  Tewkes- 
bury,  May  4,  1471. 

1471.  Edward  (afterwards  Edward  V.),  son  of  Ed- 
ward IV. 

1483.  Edward,  son  of  Richard  III.  ;  died  in  1484. 

1489.  Arthur,  son  of  Henry  VII.  ;  died  in  1502. 

1503.  Henry  his  brother  (afterwards  Henry  VIII). 

1537.  Edward,  his  son  (afterwards  Edward  VI.)  was 
duke  of  Cornwall,  and  not  prince  of  Wales. 

1610.  Henry  Frederic,  son  of  James  I. ;  died  NOT.  6, 
1612. 

1616.  Charles,  his  brother  (afterwards  Charles  I.). 

1630.  Charles,  his  son  (afterwards  Charles  II.),  never 
created  prince  of  Wales. 

1714.  George  Augustus  (afterwards  George  II.). 

1729.  Frederic  Lewis,  his  son  ;  died  March  20,  1751. 

1751.  George,  his  son  (afterwards  George  III.). 

1762.  George,  his  son  (afterwards  George  IV.). 

1841.  Albert- Ed  ward,  son  of  queen  Victoria. 

Travelled  on  the   continent,   and  studied  at 

Oxford  and  Edinburgh  in  1859. 
Visited  Canada,  with  the  dignity  of  a  viceroy, 

and  the  United  States,    1860. 
Entered  the  university  of  Cambridge  in  Jan.  ; 
attended  the  camp  at  Dublin,  July  to  Sept. ; 
opened  New  Middle  Temple  Library,  Oct.  31  ; 
1861. 

Ordered  to  be  prayed  for  as  Albert-Edward, 
instead  of  Albert,  Jan.  8  ;   visited  'the  con- 
tinent,    Syria,   and    Egypt,    March — June  ; 
Germany  and  Italy,  Aug. — Dec.  1862. 
Admitted  to  the  house  of  peers,  Feb.  5  ;  a  privy 

councillor,  Dec.  8,  1863 
Married  to  princess  Alexandra  of  Denmark, 

March  10,  1863. 
Visited   Denmark    and  Sweden,    Sept. — Oct. 

1864. 

Issue:    Albert  -  Victor,    born    Jan.    1864; 
George-Frederick,  born  June  3,  1865. 


WALHALLA  (the  Hall  of  Glory),  a  temple  near  Ratisbon,  erected  by  Louis,  king  of 
Bavaria,  to  receive  the  statues  and  memorials  of  the  great  men  of  Germany,  commenced 
Oct.  1 8,  1830,  and  inaugurated  Oct.  18,  1842.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  fabled 
meeting-place  of  Scandinavian  heroes  after  death. 

WALKING.     See  Pedestrianism. 

WALLACHIA.  See  Danulian  Principalities.  On  Dec.  23,  1861,  the  union  of 
Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  under  the  name  of  Roumania,  was  proclaimed  at  Jassy  and 
Bucharest. 


*  WALES,  PRINCESS  OF.     This  title  was  held,  some  authors  say,  during  the  early  period  of  her  life,  by    I 
the  princess  Mary  of  England,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  afterwards  queen  Mary  I.     She  was 
created,  they  state,  by  her  father  princess  of  Wales,  in  order  to  concilinte  the  Welsh  people  and  keep  alive    i 
the  name,  and  was,  they  add,  the  first  and  only  princess  of  Wales  in  her  own  right ;  a   rank  she  enjoyed 
until  the  birth  of  a  son  to  Henry,  who  was  afterwards  Edward  VI.,  born  in  1537.     This  is  however  denied 


WAL 


773 


WAR 


WALLIS'S  VOYAGE.  Captain  Wallis  sailed  from  England  on  liis  voyage  round  the 
world,  July  26,  1766  ;  and  returned  to  England,  May  19,  1768. 

WALLOONS,  a  people  who  fled  to  England  from  the  persecution  of  the  cruel  duke  of 
Alva,  the  governor  of  the  Low  Countries  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  1566.  A  church  was  given 
to  them  by  queen  Elizabeth. 

WALLS.     See  Roman  Walls. 

WALNUT-TREE  has  long  existed  in  England.*  The  black  walnut-tree  (Juglans  nigra) 
was  brought  to  these  countries  from  North  America  before  1629. 

WALPOLE'S  ADMINISTRATIONS.  Mr.  Walpole  (afterwards  sir  Robert,  and  earl  of 
Orford),  was  born  in  1676  ;  became  secretary-at-war  in  1708  ;  was  expelled  the  house  of 
commons  on  a  charge  of  misappropriating  the  public  money,  1711  ;  committed  to  the  Tower, 
Jan.  17,  1712;  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1715. 
He  resigned,  on  a  disunion  of  the  cabinet,  in  1717,  bringing  in  the  sinking-fund  bill  on  the 
day  of  his  resignation.  On  the  earl  of  Sunderland  retiring  in  1721,  he  resumed  his  office 
and  held  it  till  1742.  He  died  March  18,  1745. 


SECOND   WALPOLE   ADMINISTRATION  (1721).  I 

Sir  Robert  Walpole,  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 
Thomas,  lord  Parker,  created  earl  of  Macclesfield, 

lord  chancellor. 
Henry  lord  Carleton  (succeeded  by  William,  duke  of 

Devonshire),  lord  president. 
Evelyn,  duke  of  Kingston  (succeeded  by  lord  Trevor), 

pirvy  seal. 
James,  earl  of  Berkeley,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 


Charles  (viscount  Townshend),  and  John,  lord 
Carteret  (the  latter  succeeded  by  the  duke  of 
Newcastle),  secretaries  of  state. 

Duke  of  Marlborough  (succeeded  by  the  earl  of 
Cadogan),  ordnance. 

George  Treby  (succeeded  by  Henry  Pelham),  secre- 
tary-at-war. 

Viscount  Torrington,  &c. 


WALTZ,  the  popular  German  national  dance,  was  introduced  into  England  by  baron 
Neuman  and  others  in  1813.  Raikcs. 

WANDSWORTH,  near  London.  Here  was  opened  Wandsworth  meeting-house,  the 
first  place  of  worship  for  dissenters  in  England,  Nov.  20,  1572.  In  Garrett-lane,  near  this 
place,  a  mock  election  of  a  mayor  of  Garratt  was  formerly  held,  after  every  general  election 
of  parliament,  to  which  Foote's  dramatic  piece,  The  Mayor  of  Garratt  (1763),  gave  no  small 
celebrity. 

WAR,  called  by  Erasmus  "the  malady  of  princes."  Osymandyas  of  Egypt,  the  first 
warlike  king  ;  he  passed  into  Asia,  and  conquered  Bactria,  2100  B.C.  Usher.  He  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  the  Osiris  of  the  priests.  It  is  computed  that,  to  the  present  time1 
no  less  than  6,860,000,000  of  men  have  perished  in  the  field  of  battle.  See  Battles. 


FOREIGN  WARS   OF   GREAT  BRITAIN  SINCE  THE   CONQUEST. 


War  with 

Scotland      . 

o6S 

France     . 

116 

Scotland       . 

138 

France     . 

161 

France 

194 

France     . 

201 

France 

224 

France     . 

294 

Scotland       . 

[296 

Scotland  . 

1327 

France  . 

3^9 

France    . 

3 

368 

Peace. 

War  with 

Peace. 

War  with                      Peace. 

.  1092 

France 

1422  .        .  1471 

Spain  .        .           1624  .           1629' 

.  1118 

France     .         .     . 

1492  same  year. 

France    . 

1627 

1629 

•   "39 

France 

1512  .           1514 

Holland 

1651  . 

l6S4 

.  1186 

France     .        .     . 
Scotland 

1522      . 
1522  . 

1527 

I542 

Spain 
France 

1655      • 
1666  . 

1660 
1668 

.   1216 

Scotland  .         .    . 

J542 

Denmark 

1666      . 

1668 

.   1234 

Scotland 

*547  • 

1550 

Holland 

1666  . 

1668 

.  1299 
•   1323 

France     .        .     . 
France 

1549      • 
J557  • 

1559 

Algiers    . 
Holland 

1669      . 
1672  . 

1671 
1674 

•  1328 

Scotland  .        .    . 

I557 

1560 

France 

1689 

1607 

•  1360 

France 

1562  . 

1564 

Peace  of  Ryswick,  Sept.  20,  1697 

.   1420 

Spain       .        .     . 

1588       . 

1604 

GREAT   MODERN   WARS   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN. 


War  of   the  Succession,   commenced    May  4,    1702. 

Peace  of  Utrecht,  March  13,  1713. 
War  with  Spain,  Dec.  16,   1718.     Peace  concluded, 

1721. 
War ;  Spanish  War,  Oct.  23,  1739.     Peace  of  Aix-la- 

Chapelle,  April  30,  1748. 


War  with  France,  March  31,  1744.    Closed  also  on 

April  30,  1748. 
War;  the  Seven  Years'  War,  June  9,  1756.     Peace  of 

Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763. 
War  with  Spain,  Jan.  4,  1762.     General  peace,  Feb. 

10,  1763. 


*  NearWelwyn.  in  Hertfordshire,  there  was  the  largest  walnut-tree  on  record ;  it  was  felled  in  1627,  and 
from  it  were  cut  nineteen  loads  of  planks ;  and  as  much  was  sold  to  a  gunsmith  in  London  as  cost  lol. 
carriage ;  besides  which  there  were  thirty  loads  of  roots  and  branches.  When  standing  it  covered  76 
poles  of  ground ;  a  space  equal  to  2299  square  yards,  statute  measure. 


WAR 


774 


WAR 


"War  against  Bonaparte,  April  29, 1803.   Finally  closed 

June  18,  1815. 
War  with  America,  June  18,  1812.     Peace  of  Ghent, 

Dec.  24,  1814. 
War  with  Russia,  March  27,  1854.     Peace  of  Paris. 

March  31,  1856. 
For  the  wars  with  India,  China,  and  Persia,  sec 

those  countries  respectively. 


WAR,  continued. 

War  with  the  United  States  of  North  America,  July 

14,  1774.     Peace  of  Paris,  Nov.  30,  1782. 
War  with  France,  Feb.  6,  1778.     Peace  of  Paris,  Jan. 

20,  1783. 
War  with  Spain,  April  17,  1780.     Closed  same  time 

Jan.  20,  1783. 
War  with  Holland,   Dec.   21,    1780.     Peace  signed, 

Sept.  2,  1783. 
War  of  the  Revolution,  Feb.  i,  1793.    Peace  of  Amiens, 

March  27,  1802. 

WAR  AFFAIRS.  On  account  of  the  war  with  Russia,  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  previously 
colonial  secretary,  was  appointed  a  secretary  for  war  affairs,  and  a  cabinet  minister,  June  9, 
1854.  See  Secretaries. 

WARBECK'S  INSURRECTION.  Perkin  Warbeck,  the  son  of  a  Florentine  Jew,  to 
whom  Edward  IV.  had  stood  godfather,  was  persuaded  by  Margaret,  duchess  of  Burgundy, 
sister  to  Richard  III.,  to  personate  her  nephew,  Richard,  Edward  V.'s  brother,  which  he  did 
first  in  Ireland,  where  he  landed,  1492.  The  imposture  was  discovered  by  Henry  VII.  1493. 
Some  writers  consider  that  Warbeck  was  not  an  impostor. 


Made  an  attempt  to  land  at  Kent,  with  600  men,  I 
when  150  were  taken  prisoners,   and  executed, 
J495- 

Recommended  by  the  king  of  France  to  James  IV. 
of  Scotland,  who  gave  him  his  kinswoman,  lord 
Huntley's  daughter,  in  marriage,  the  same  year. 
James  IV.  invaded  England  in  his  favour,  1496. 

Left  Scotland,  and  went  to  Bodmin,  in  Cornwall, 


where  3000  joined  him,  and  he  took  the  title  of 

Richard  IV.,  1497. 

Taken  prisoner  by  Henry  VII.,  1498. 
Set  in  the  stocks  at  Westminster  and  Cheapside,  and 

sent  to  the  Tower,  1499. 
Plotted  with  the  earl  of  Warwick  to  escape  out  of 

the    Tower,    by  murdering    the    lieutenant,    for 

which  he  was  hanged  at  Tyburn,  Nov.  28,  1499. 


WARDIAN  CASES.  In  1829,  Mr.  N.  B.  Ward  observed  a  small  fern  and  grass  growing 
in  a  closed  glass  battle,  in  which  he  had  placed  a  chrysalis  covered  with  moist  earth.  From 
this  circumstance  he  was  led  to  construct  his  well-known  closely  glazed  cases,  which  afford 
to  plants  light,  heat,  and  moisture,  and  exclude  deleterious  gases,  smoke,  &c.  They  are 
particularly  adapted  for  ferns.  In  1833  they  were  first  employed  for  the  transmission  of 
plants  to  Sydney,  &c.,  with  great  success  ;  and  professor  Faraday  lectured  on  the  subject  hi 
1838. 

WARDMOTES,  meetings  of  the  citizens  of  London  in  their  wards,  where  they  elect 
annually  their  common  councilmen.  The  practice  is  said  to  have  begun  in  1386.  They  had 
previously  assembled  in  Guildhall. 

WARRANTS,  GENERAL,  do  not  specify  the  name  of  the  accused.  They  were  declared 
to  be  illegal  and  unconstitutional  by  lord  chief  justice  Pratt,  Dec.  6,  1763,  in  relation  to  the 
seizure  and  committal  of  Mr.  Wilkes  to  the  Tower  for  a  libel  on  the  king.  After  the 
decision  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in  favour  of  Wilkes,  he  brought  an  action  against  lord 
Halifax,  then  secretary  of  state,  and  recovered  4000?.  damages.  Wilkes  laid  his  damages  at 
20,oooZ.,  Nov.  10,  1769. 

WARRIOR,     See  under  Navy  of  England. 

WARSAW,   the  metropolis  of  Poland.      The  diet  was  transferred  to  this  city  from 
Cracow  in  1566,  and  it  became  the  seat  of  government  in  1689 
See  Poland,  1861-5,  for  recent  events. 


Population  in  1859,  162,777. 


Alliance  of  Warsaw,  between  Austria  and 
Poland,  against  Turkey,  in  pursuance  of 
•which  John  Sobieski  assisted  in  raising  the 
siege  of  Vienna  (on  the  i8th  of  September 
following),  signed  ....  March  31,  1683 

Warsaw  surrenders  to  Charles  XII.     .        .        .  1703 

Treaty  of  Warsaw,  between  Russia  and  Poland, 

Feb.  24,  1768 

The  Russian  garrison  placed  here  in  1794; 
expelled  by  the  citizens  with  the  loss  of  2000 
killed  and  500  wounded,  and  36  pieces  of 
cannon April  17,  1794 

The  Poles  defeated  by  the  Russians  at  Maciejo- 
vice Oct.  4,  „ 

The  king  of  Prussia  besieges  Warsaw,  July ; 
compelled  to  raise  the  siege,  Sept.  ;  it  is 
taken  by  the  Russians  .  .  .  Nov.  ,, 

Suwarrow,  the  Russian  general,  after  the  siege 
and  destruction  of  Warsaw,  cruelly  butchered 


30,000  Poles,  of  all  ages  and  conditions,  in 
cold  blood  .....  Nov.  4,  1794. 

Warsaw  constituted  a  duchy  and  annexed  to 
the  house  of  Saxony  ....  Aug.  1807 

The  duchy  overrun  by  the  Russians  ;  Warsaw 
made  the  residence  of  a  Russian  viceroy  .  1813 

The  last  Polish  revolution  commences  at  War- 
saw   Nov.  29,  1830 

Battle  of  Grochow,  near  Warsaw,  in  which  the 
Russians  were  defeated,  and  forced  to  retreat 
with  the  loss  of  7000  men  .  .  .  Feb.  25,  1831 

Battle  of  Warsaw,  when,  after  two  days'  hard 
fighting,  the  city  capitulated,  and  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  Russians  ;  and  great  part 
of  the  Polish  army  retired  towards  Plock  and 
Modlin Sept.  6-8, 

The  czar  meets  the  emperor  of  Austria  and  the 
regent  of  Prussia  ;  no  result  .  Oct.  20-25, 


WAS  775  WAT 

WASHINGTON"  (in  Columbia  district,  partly  in  Virginia  and  Maryland,  on  the  bank  of 
the  Potomac,  N.-E.  of  Virginia),  the  capital  of  the  United  States,  founded  in  1791,  and  made 
the  seat  of  government  in  1800.  The  house  of  representatives  was  opened  for  the  first  time, 
May  30,  1808.  Washington  was  taken  in  the  late  war  by  the  British  forces  under  general 
Ross,  when  all  its  superb  national  structures  were  consumed  by  a  general  conflagration,  the 
troops  not  sparing  even  the  national  library,  Aug.  24,  1814.  General  Ross  was  soon  after- 
wards killed  by  some  American  riflemen,  in  a  desperate  engagement  at  Baltimore,  Sept.  12, 
following.  —  Part  of  the  capitol  and  the  whole  of  the  library  of  the  United  States'  congress 
were  destroyed  by  fire,  Dec.  24,  1851.  The  prince  of  Wales  was  entertained  by  the  president 
here  in  Sept.  1860.  See  United  States.  Washington  was  fortified  in  April,  1861,  against  the 
Confederates. 

WASIUM  (named  from  the  royal  house  of  Wasa  or  Vasa),  a  supposed  new  metal,  dis- 
covered by  F.  Bahr,  of  Stockholm,  in  1682.  In  Nov.,  1863  Nickles  declaredit  to  be  a  com- 
pound of  didymium,  yttrium,  and  terbium. 

WASTE  LANDS.  The  inclosure  of  waste  lands  and  commons,  in  order  to  promote 
agriculture,  first  began  in  England  about  the  year  1547,  and  gave  rise  to  Ket's  rebellion, 
1549.  Inclosures  were  again  promoted  by  the  authority  of  parliament,  1785.  The  waste 
lands  in  England  were  estimated  in  1794  to  amount  to  14  millions  of  acres,  of  which  there 
were  taken  into  cultivation,  2,837,476  acres  before  June,  1801.  In  1841,  there  were  about 
6,700,000  acres  of  waste  land,  of  which  more  than  half  was  thought  to  be  capable  of 
improvement.  See  Agriculture. 

WATCH  OF  LONDON,  at  night,  appointed  1253,  proclaimed  the  hour  with  a  bell  before 
the  introduction  of  public  clocks.     Ilardie.     The  old  watch  was  discontinued,  and  a  new 
lice  (on  duty  day  and  night)  commenced,  Sept.  29,  1829.     See  Police. 

WATCHES  are  said  to  have  been  first  invented  at  Nuremberg,  1477,  although  it  is 
rmed  that  Robert,  king  of  Scotland,  had  a  watch  about  1310. 


Ki 
i 


Watches  first  used  in  astronomical  observations  i      ghens  by  the  Dutch.     Dr.  Derham,   in  his 

by  Purbach 1500        Artificial  Clockmaker,   says  that   Dr.    Hooke 

Authors  assert  that  the  emperor  Charles  V.  was  was  the  inventor  ;  and  he  appears  certainly 


the  first  who  had  anything  that  might  be 
called  a  watch/  though  some  call  it  a  small 
table-clock 1530 

Watches  first  brought  to  England  from  Ger- 
many in  1577 

A  watch  which  belonged  to  queen  Elizabeth  is 
preserved  in  the  library  of  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion, London. 

Spring  pocket-watches  (watches  properly  so- 
called)  have  had  their  invention  ascribed  to 
Dr.  Hooke  by  the  English,  and  to  M.  Huy- 


to  have  produced  what  is  called  the  pendu- 
lum watch  about  1658 ;  manifest,  among 
other  evidences,  from  an  inscription  on  one 
.of  the  double-balance  watches  presented  to 
Charles  II.,  "Rob.  Hooke,  inven.  1658;  T. 
Tompion  fecit,  1675." 

Repeating  watches  invented  by  Barlowe  .  .  1676 
Harrison's  first  time-piece  produced  .  .  .  1735 
Watches  and  clocks  were  taxed  in  ...  1797 
The  tax  was  repealed  in  1798.  See  Clocks. 


WATER.  Thales  of  Miletus,  founder  of  the  Ionic  sect,  considered  water  to  be  the 
original  principle  of  everything,  about  594  B.C.  Stanley.  In  the  Roman  church,  water  was 
first  mixed  with  the  sacramental  wine,  A.D.  122.  Lenglet.  Cavendish  and  Watt,  in  1781, 
demonstrated  that  water  is  composed  of  8  parts  of  oxygen  and  i  part  of  hydrogen.  In 
freezing,  water  contracts  till  it  is  reduced  to  42°  or  40°  Fahr.  ;  it  then  begins  to  expand  till 
it  becomes  ice  at  32°. — Water  was  first  conveyed  to  London  by  leaden  pipes,  21  Hen.  III. 
1237.  Stow.  It  took  nearly  fifty  years  to  complete  it ;  the  whole  being  finished,  and 
Cheapside  conduit  erected,  only  in  1285.  The  New  River  water  was  brought  to  _  London 
from  Am  well  in  Hertfordshire,  at  an  immense  expense,  by  sir  Hugh  Myddelton,  in  1613. 
The  city  was  supplied  with  its  water  by  conveyances  of  wooden  pipes  in  the  streets  and  small 
leaden  ones  to  the  houses,  and  the  New  River  Company  was  incorporated,  ^  1620.  So  late 
as  queen  Anne's  time  there  were  water-carriers  at  Aldgate  pump.  London  is  now  supplied 
by  eight  companies  -.—The  New  River,  East  London,  Chelsea,  Grand  Junction,  Southwark 
and  Vauxhall,  Kent,  Lambeth,  and  West  Middlesex.  The  water-works  at  Chelsea  were 
completed,  and  the  company  incorporated,  1722.  London-bridge  ancient  water- works  were 
destroyed  by  fire,  Oct.  29,  1779.  An  act  to  supply  the  metropolis  with  water,  15  &  16  Viet 
c.  84,  was  passed  July  i,  1852.  The  supply  is  now  considered  to  be  much  improved  in 
quality  and  quantity.  In  Jan.  1857,  a  company  was  formed  to  carry  out  Dr.  Normandy's 
patent  for  converting  salt  water  into  fresh.  See  Artesian  Wells. 

WATER- CLOCKS.     See  Clocks. 

WATER-COLOUR  PAINTING  was  gradually  raised  from  the  hard  dry  style  of  the  last 


WAT  776  WAT 

century,  to  its  present  brilliancy,  by  the  efforts  of  Nicholson,  Copley,  Fielding,  Varley,  the 
great  Turner,  Pyne,  Cattennole,  Prout,  &c.,  within  the  present  century.  The  exhibition 
was  founded  in  1805. 

WATER-GLASS,  a  name  given  to  a  liquid  mixture  of  sand  (silex)  and  one  of  the  alkalies 
(potash  or  soda).  Glauber  (De  Lithiase]  mentions  a  similar  mixture  in  1644.  Dr.  Von 
Fuchs,  the  modern  inventor,  gave  an  account  of  his  process  in  1825  ;  and  Mr.  Frederick 
Ransom  of  Ipswich,  ignorant  of  Von  Fuchs'  discovery,  patented  a  mode  of  preparing  water- 
glass  in  1845,  which  he  has  since  greatly  improved  upon.  In  1857,  M.  Kuhlmann  of  Lille 
published  a  pamphlet  setting  forth  the  advantageous  employment  of  water-glass  in  hardening 
porous  stone  and  in  stereochromy  (which  see).  It  has  been  applied  to  the  exterior  of  many 
buildings  in  France  and  England.  The  memoirs  of  Von  Fuchs  and  Kuhimann  were 
translated  and  printed  in  England  in  1859  by  direction  of  the  prince  consort. 

WATER-MILLS,  used  for  grinding  corn,  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Belisarius, 
the  general  of  Justinian,  Avhile  besieged  in  Rome  by  the  Goths,  555.  The  ancients  parched 
their  corn,  and  pounded  it  in  mortars.  Afterwards  mills  were  invented,  which  were  turned 
by  men  and  beasts  with  great  labour  ;  yet  Pliny  mentions  wheels  turned  by  water. 

WATER  TOFANA.     See  Poisoning. 

WATERFORD  (S.  Ireland),  built  879,  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire  in  981.  Rebuilt  and 
considerably  enlarged  by  Strongbow  in  1171,  and  still  further  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII., 
who  granted  considerable  privileges  to  the  citizens.  Richard  II.  landed  and  was  crowned 
here  in  1399  ;  in  1690,  James  II.  embarked  from  hence  for  France,  after  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne  ;  and  William  III.  resided  here  twice,  and  confirmed  its  privileges.  Memorable 
storm  here,  April  18,  1792.  The  cathedral  of  Waterford,  dedicated  to  the  blessed  Trinity, 
was  first  built  by  the  Ostmen,  and  by  Malchus,  the  first  bishop  of  Waterford,  after  his 
return  from  England  from  his  consecration,  1096.  This  see  was  united  with  that  of  Lismore 
in  1363.  It  was  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  returned  29  Henry  VIII.,  at 
72^.  8s.  id.  Irish  per  annum.  By  stat.  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  the  see  of  Waterford  and  Lismore 
was  united  by  the  Irish  Church  Temporalities  act  with  the  see  of  Cashel  and  Emly,  Aug.  14, 
1833.  The  interior  of  the  cathedral,  organ,  &c.,  were  destroyed  by  fire,  Oct.  25,  1815. 

WATERLOO,  in  Belgium,  the  site  of  the  great  battle  on  the  i8th  of  June,  1815,  between 
the  French  army,  of  71,947  men  and  246  guns,  under  Napoleon,  and  the  allies,  commanded 
by  the  duke  of  Wellington  ;  the  latter,  with  67,661  men  and  156  guns,  resisted  the  various 
attacks  of  the  enemy  from  nine  in  the  morning  until  fire  in  the  afternoon.  About  that  time, 
16,000  Prussians  reached  the  field  of  battle;  and  by  seven,  the  force  under  Blucher  amounted 
to  above  50,000  men,  with  104  guns.  Wellington  then  moved  forward  his  whole  army.  A 
total  rout  ensued,  and  the  carnage  was  immense.  Of  the  British  (23,991),  93  officers  and 
1916  men  were  killed  and  missing,  and  363  officers  and  4560  men  wounded  :  total  6932  ;  and 
the  total  loss  of  the  allied  army  amounted  to  4206  killed,  14,539  wounded,  and  4231  missing, 
making  22,976  hors  de  combat.  Napoleon,  quitting  the  wreck  of  his  flying  army,  returned 
to  Paris  ;  and  finding  it  impossible  to  raise  another,  abdicated  the  throne  of  France. 
P.  Nicholas* 

WATERLOO  BRIDGE,  LONDON.  A  bridge  over  this  part  of  the  Thames  was  repeatedly 
suggested  during  the  last  century,  but  no  actual  preparations  to  carry  it  into  effect  were  made 
till  1806,  when  Mr.  G.  Dodd  procured  an  act  of  parliament,  and  gave  the  present  site,  plan, 
and  dimensions  of  the  bridge  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  some  disagreement  with  the  com- 
mittee, he  was  superseded  by  Mr.  Rennie,  who  completed  this  noble  structure.  It  was 
commenced  Oct.  n,  1811,  and  finished  June  18,  1817,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  when  the  prince  regent,  the  duke  of  Wellington,  and  other  distinguished 
personages,  were  present  at  the  opening.  Its  length  within  the  abutments  is  1242  feet  :  its 
width  within  the  balustrades  is  42  feet ;  and  the  span  of  each  arch,  of  which  there  are  nine, 
is  1 20  feet,  f 

*  It  is  an  historical  fact,  that  the  British  forces  have  been  twice  signally  successful  over  those  of 
France  on  the  same  ground — Waterloo  ;  and  that  by  the  side  of  the  very  chapel  of  Waterloo,  which  was 
remarked  for  being  uninjured  by  shot  or  shell  on  the  memorable  i8th  of  June,  1815,  did  Maryborough  cut 
off  a  large  division  of  the  French  forces  opposed  to  him  on  the  ijth  of  Augxist,  1705.  It  is  no  less  a  fact, 
that  the  conquerors  of  each  of  those  days,  on  the  same  field,  are  the  only  commanders  in  the  British 
service  whose  military  career  brought  them  to  the  summit  of  the  peerage — to  dukedoms. 

t  On  Oct.  9,  1857,  two  youths,  named  Kilsby,  found  on  one  of  the  abutments  of  the  bridge  a  carpet 
bag,  containing  human  bones  and  flesh,  which  had  been  cut  up,  salted,  and  boiled,  and  some  foreign 
clothes.  After  much  investigation  no  clue  could  be  found  respecting  the  name  of  the  individual,  and  the 
remains  were  interred  in  Woking  cemetery. 


WAT  777  WEE 

WATERSPOUT.     Two  waterspouts  fell  on  the  Glatz  mountains  in  Germany,  and  caused 
/ireadful  devastation   to   Hautenbach   and  many  other   villages  ;    many  persons  peri.shedr 
'July  13,  1827.     A  waterspout  at  Glanflesk,  near  Killarney,  in  Ireland,  passed  over  a  farm  of 
Mr.  John  Macarthy,  destroying  farm-houses  and  other  buildings  ;  seventeen  persons  perished, 
Aug.  4,  1831.     The  estimated  length  of  one  seen  near  Calcutta,  Sept.  27,  1855,  was  1000 
feet.     It  lasted  ten  minutes,  and  was  absorbed  upwards.     One  seen  on  Sept.  24,  1856, 
burst  into  heavy  rain. 

WATLING  STREET.     See  Roman  Roads. 

WAVE  PRINCIPLE  (in  accordance  with  which  the  curves  of  the  hull  of  a  ship  should 
be  adapted  to  the  curves  of  a  wave  of  the  sea)  formed  the  subject  of  experiments  begun  by 
Mr.  John  Scott  Russell  in  1832,  with  the  view  of  increasing  the  speed  of  ships.  Colonel 
Beaufoy  is  said  to  have  spent  30,000^.  in  researches  upon  this  matter.  It  was  also  taken  up 
by  the  British  Association,  who  have  published  reports  of  the  investigations.  The  principle 
has  been  adopted  by  naval  architects. 

WAVERLEY  NOVELS.  The  publication  of  the  series  began  with  "  Waverley  ;  or, 
'Tis  Sixty  Years  Since,"  in  1814,  and  closed  with  "Tales  of  my  Landlord,"  fourth  series,  in 
1831.  The  authorship  was  acknowledged  by  sir  Walter  Scott,  at  a  dinner,  Feb.  23,  1827. 

WAWZ,  or  WAWEE,  (Poland).  The  Poles  under  Skrzynecki  attacked  the  Russians  at 
Wawz,  and  after  two  days'  hard  fighting,  all  the  Russians'  positions  were  carried  by  storm, 
and  they  compelled  to  retreat  with  the  loss  of  12,000  men  and  2000  prisoners,  March  31, 
1831.  The  loss  of  the  Poles  was  small;  but  their  triumph  was  followed  by  defeat  and 
ruin. 

WAX  came  into  use  for  candles  in  the  I2th  century  ;  and  wax  candles  were  esteemed  a 
luxury  in  1300,  being  but  little  used.  In  China,  candles  of  vegetable  wax  have  been  in  use 
for  centuries.  See  Candleberry.  The  wax  tree,  Ligustrum  lucidum,  was  brought  from 
China  before  1794.—  SEA.LING-WAX  was  not  brought  into  use  in  England,  until  about  1556. 
Its  use  has  been  almost  superseded  by  the  introduction  of  adhesive  envelopes,  about  1844. 

WE.  Sovereigns  generally  use  we.  for  /,  which  style  began  with  king  John,  1199.  Coke. 
The  German  emperors  and  French  kings  used  the  plural  about  1200. 

WEATHER.     See  Meteorology. 

WEAVING  appears  to  have  been  practised  in  China  more  than  a  thousand  years  before 
it  was  known  in  Europe  or  Asia.  The  Egyptians  ascribed  the  art  to  Isis  ;  the  Greeks  to 
Minerva  ;  and  the  Peruvians  to  the  wife  of  Manco  Capac.  Our  Saviour's  vest,  or  coat,  had 
not  any  seam,  being  woven  from  the  top  throughout,  in  one  whole  piece.  The  print  of  a 
frame  for  weaving  such  a  vest  may  be  seen  in  CalmeCs  Dictionary  under  the  word  Vestments. 
Two  weavers  from  Brablnt  settled  at  York,  where  they  manufactured  woollens,  which,  says 
king  Edward,  "  may  prove  of  great  benefit  to  us  and  our  subjects,"  1331.  Flemish  dyers, 
cloth  drapers,  linen-makers,  silk- throwsters,  &c.,  settled  at  Canterbury,  Norwich,  Colchester* 
Southampton,  and  other  places,  on  account  of  the  duke  of  Alva's  persecution,  1567.  See 
Loom  and  Electric  Loom. 

WEDGWOOD  WARE,  pottery  and  porcelain,  produced  by  Mr.  Josiah  Wedgwood  of 
Staffordshire,  in  1762.  His  potteries,  termed  Etruria,  were  founded  in  1771.  Previously  to 
1763,  much  earthenware  was  imported  from  France  and  Holland. 

WEDNESDAY,  the  fourth  day  of  the  week,  so  called  from  the  Saxon  idol  Woden  or 
Odin,  worshipped  on  this  day.  "  Woden  was  the  reputed  author  of  magic  and  the  inventor 
of  all  the  arts,  and  was  thought  to  answer  to  the  Mercury  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans." 
Butler. 

WEEDON  INQUIRY  (Northamptonshire).  Commissioners  were  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  accounts  of  Mr.  Elliot,  superintendent  of  the  great  military  clothing  establishment, 
at  this  place  in  July,  1858,  and  commenced  sitting  in  September.  Many  of  the  statements, 
afterwards  disputed,  caused  much  dissatisfaction. 

WEEK.  The  space  of  seven  days,  supposed  to  be  first  used  among  the  Jews,  who 
observed  the  sabbath  every  seventh 'day.  They  had  three  sorts  of  weeks,  the  first  the 
common  one  of  seven  days,  the  second  of  years,  which  was  seven  years,  the  third  of  seven 


WEI 


778 


WEL 


times  seven  years,  at  the  end  of  which  was  the  jubilee.     All  the  present  English  names  are 
derived  from  the  Saxon  : — 


Latin. 
Dies  Soils, 
Dies  Lunse, 
Dies  Martis, 
Dies  Mercurii, 
Dies  Jovis, 
Dies  Veneris, 
Dies  Saturni, 


Day  of  the  Sun, 
Day  of  the  Moon, 
Day  of  Mars, 
Day  of  Mercury, 
Day  of  Jupiter, 
Day  of  Venus, 
Day  of  Saturn, 


English. 
Sunday, 
Monday, 
Tuesday, 
Wednesday, 
Thursday, 
Friday, 
Saturday, 


Saxon. 
Sun's  day. 
Moon's  day. 
Tiw's  day. 
Woden's  day. 
Thor's  day. 
Friga's  day. 
Saterne's  day. 


"WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  These  and  the  stamping  of  gold  and  silver  money,  were 
invented  by  Pheidon,  tyrant  of  Argos,  895,  B.C.  et  seq.  Arundelian  Marbles.  Weights 
were  orginally  taken  from  grains  of  wheat,  the  lowest  being  still  called  a  grain.  Chalmers. 


The  standard  measure  was  originally  kept  at  Win- 
chester by  the  law  of  king  Edgar,  972. 

Standards  of  weights  and  measures  were  provided 
for  the  whole  kingdom  of  England  by  the  sheriffs  of 
London,  9  Rich.  I.  1197. 

A  public  weighing-machine  was  set  up  in  London, 
nnd  all  commodities  ordered  to  be  weighed  by  the 
city-officer,  called  the  weigh-master,  who  was  to  do 
justice  between  buyer  and  seller,  stat.  3  Edw.  II. 
(Stow)  1309. 

Edward  III.  ordered  that  there  should  be  "one 
weight,  measure  and  yard,"  throughout  the  king- 
dom, 1353. 

First  statute,  directing  the  use  of  avoirdupois 
weight,  of  24  Hen.  VIII.  1532. 


Weights  and  measures  ordered  to  be  examined  by 
the  justices  at  quarter- sessions,  35  Geo.  III.  1794. 

Again  regulated,  1800. 

Statute  for  establishing  a  uniformity  of  weights 
and  measures,  1824,  took  place  throughout  the 
United  Kingdom,  Jan.  i,  1826. 

New  acts  relating  thereto  passed  in  1834,  1835, 
1855,  and  lastly  in  1859. 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  29,  regulates  the  weights  to  be 
used  in  the  sale  of  bullion,  and  adopts  the  use  of 
the  Troy  ounce,  1853. 

A  committee  of  the  house  of  commons  recom- 
mended that  the  decimal  system  should  be  lega- 
lised, but  not  made  compulsory  until  sanctioned  by 
general  approval,  1862. 

See  Standard  ;  and  Metrical  System. 


WEIMAR  (termed  the  Athens  of  Germany),  capital  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Saxe  Weimar, 
is  celebrated  as  having  been  the  residence  of  the  German  classic  writers,  Schiller,  Goethe, 
Herder,  and  Wieland  :  the  grand-dukes  having  been  eminent  patrons  of  literature.  The 
city  became  important  in  the  I5th  century,  and  suffered  in  the  German  wars. 

WELLINGTON  ADMINISTRATION,  succeeded  that  of  Viscount  Godcrich,  Jan.  1828, 
and  resigned  Nov.  16,  1830. 

Duke  of  Wellington,  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Mr.  Henry  Goulburn,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Earl  Bathurst,  president  of  the  council. 

Lord  Ellenborough,  privy  seal. 

Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  Robert  Pool,  earl  Dudley,  and 

Mr.  Wm.  Huskisson,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial 

secretaries. 

Viscount  Melville,  board  of  control. 
Mr.  Charles  Grant,  board  of  trade. 
Lord  Palmerston,  secretary -at -war. 
Mr.  Herries,  master  of  the  mint. 
Earl  of  Aberdeen,  duchy  of  Lancaster. 


Lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor. 

Mr.  Huskisson,  earl  Dudley,  viscount  Palmerston, 

and  Mr.  Grant  quitted  the  ministry,  and  various 

changes  followed  in  May  and  June  same  year. 
The  earl  of  Aberdeen  and  sir  George  Murray  became, 

respectively,  foreign  and  colonial  secretaries. 
Sir  Henry  Hardinge,  secretary -at-war. 
Mr.  Vesey  Fitzgerald  (afterwards  lord  Fitzgerald), 

India  board. 
Lord  Lowther,  first  commissioner  of  land  revenues,  &c., 

May  and  June,  1828. 
Mr.  Arbuthnot,  Mr.  Vesey  Fitzgerald,  &c. 


WELLINGTON  COLLEGE,  Sandhurst,  was  erected  by  subscription  in  memory  of  the 
great  duke  of  Wellington.  It  was  instituted  for  the  support  and  education  of  the  orphan 
children  of  soldiers.  The  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  queen  on  June  2,  1856  ;  and  the 
building  was  opened  by  her  majesty  on  June  29,  1859.  Out  of  the  159,000^.  subscribed, 
55,000?.  were  expended  on  the  building  and  the  rest  invested  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
institution. 

WELLINGTONIA  GIGANTEA,  the  largest  tree  in  the  world,  a  native  of  California, 
was  discovered  by  Mr.  Lobb  in  1853,  and  first  described  by  Dr.  John  Lindley.  When  full 
grown  it  is  about  450  feet  high,  and  116  feet  in  circumference. 

WELLINGTON'S  VICTORIES,  &c.     For  details,  see  separate  articles. 


Arthur  Wellesley  was  born,  according  to  some 
authorities  in  March  ;  to  others  May  i,  1769 

Appointed  to  command  in  the  Mahratta  war  in 
India;  takes  Poonah  and  Ahmednuggur, 
Aug.  12 ;  and  gains  his  first  victory  at  Assaye, 
Sept.  23  ;  defeats  Scindiah  at  Argaum,  Nov. ; 
and  at  Gawalghur  ,  .  .  Dec.  13,  1803 


Becomes  secretary  for  Ireland  ....  1807 
Takes  the  command  in  Portugal,  defeats  Junot 

at  Vimeira Aug.  21,  1808 

Defeats  Victor  at  Talavera,  July  28  ;  created 

viscount  Wellington  .  .  .  Sept.  4,  1809 
Repulses  Massena  at  Busaco,  Sept.  27 ;  and 

occupies  the  lines  at  Torres  Vedras     Oct.  10,  1810 


WEL 


779 


WES 


WELLINGTON'S  VICTORIES,  continued. 


Defeats  Massena  at  Fuentes  d'Onore,  May  5 ; 
takes  Almeida May  10,  1811 

Storms  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  Jan.  19  ;  and  Badajos, 
April  6 ;  defeats  Marmont  at  Salamanca, 
July  22;  enters  Madrid  .  .  .  Aug.  12,  1812 

Defeats  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Jourdan  at 
Vittoria,  June  21 ;  storms  St.  Sebastian, 
Aug.  31  ;  enters  France  .  .  .  Oct.  8,  1813 

Defeats  Soult  at  Orthez,  Feb.  27  ;  and  at  Tou- 
louse .  April  10,  1814 

Created  duke  of  Wellington,  with  an  annuity  of 
13,000?-.  and  a  grant  of  300,000^.  .  .  May,  1814 

Commands  the  army  in  the  Netherlands  ;  re- 
pulses an  attack  of  Ney  at  Quatre  Bras, 
June  16;  defeats  Napoleon  at  Waterloo, 
JuneiS;  invests  Paris  .  .  .  July  3,  1815 

Commands  the  army  of  occupation  in  France, 

1815  tiU  Nov.  1818 

His  assassination  attempted  by  Cantillon,  who 
escapes Feb.  10,  ,, 

Appointed  master-general  of  the  ordnance    .     .  1819 

The  Wellington  shield  and  supporting  columns 


designed  by  Stpthard,  commemorating  all 
the  above-mentioned  victories,  presented  to 
the  duke  by  the  merchants  and  bankers  of 
London.  (It  was  manufactured  by  Green 
and  Ward,  and  cost  ii, ooo/.)  .  .  Feb.  16,  1822 
The  duke  appointed  Commander-in-chief,  Jan. 

22;  resigns April  30,  1827 

Becomes  first  minister        ....  Jan.  1828 
Aids  in  carrying  the  Catholic  Emancipation  bill, 

April,  1829 
Asserts  that  no  reform  in  parliament  is  needed 

Nov.  2;  resigns    ....         Nov.  1 6,  1830 
Transacts  all  the  business  of  the  country  after 
the  resignation  of  lord  Melbcmrne,  till  the 
arrival  of  sir  R.  Peel  from  Italy,  Nov.  ;  and 
becomes  foreign  secretary  under  sir  R.  Peel, 
Dec.  1834;  resigns    ....       April,  1835 
Dies  at  Wanner  castle      ...        .       Sept.  rZ  1852 
His  body  removed  to  Chelsea  hospital,  where 

it  lay  in  state Nov.  io,    , 

Removed  to  the  Horse  Guards        .       Nov.  17 
Public  funeral  at  St.  Paul's  cathedral*  Nov  18 


WELLS  BISHOPRIC  (in  Somerset).  The  cathedral  church  was  built  by  Ina,  king  of 
the  West  Saxons,  704,  and  by  him  dedicated  to  St.  Andrew.  Several  other  of  the  West 
Saxon  kings  endowed  it,  and  it  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  909,  during  the  reign  of  king 
Edward  the  Elder.  The  present  church  was  begun  by  Robert,  the  iSth  bishop  of  this  see" 
and  completed  by  his  immediate  successor.  The  first  bishop  of  Wells  was  JSthelm  or 
Adelmus  (afterwards  bishop  of  Canterbury).  Beatson.  The  see  was  united  with  Bath 
(ivhich  sec)  in  1088. 

WENDS,  a  branch  of  the  Slavonic  family  which  spread  over  Germany  in  the  6th 
century,  and  settled  especially  in  the  north-eastern  parts. 

WESLEY  AN  METHODISTS,  a  large  Christian  sect  founded  by  John  Wesley  (born  1703, 
died  1791)  and  his  brother  Charles,  who  in  1727  with  a  few  other  students  formed  themselves 
into  a  small  society  for  the  purpose  of  mutual  edification  in  religious  exercises.  On  account 
of  their  strictness  of  life  they  were  called  Methodists,  in  1729  (as  living  according  to  the 
methods  laid  down  in  the  Bible).  John  Wesley  went  to  Georgia  in  America,  in  1735,  with 
a  view  of  converting  the  Indians.  On  his  return  to  England,  in  1738,  he  commenced 
itinerant  preaching,  and  gathered  many  followers.  On  finding  the  churches  shut  against 
him,  he  built  spacious  meeting-houses  in  London,  Bristol,  and  other  places.  For  some  time 
he  was  united  with  George  Whitefield  ;  but  differences  arising  on  account  of  the  doctrine  of 
election,  which  Wesley  rejected,  they  separated  in  1741.  (See  Whitefield.)  Wesley  was 
almost  continually  engaged  in  travelling  through  the  United  Kingdom.  His  society  was 
well  organised,  and  he  preserved  his  influence  over  it  to  the  last.  "  His  genius  for  govern- 
ment was  not  inferior  To  that  of  Richelieu."  Macaulay.  In  1851  there  were  428  circuits  in 
Great  Britain,  with  between  13,000  and  14,000  local  or  lay  preachers,  and  about  920 
itinerant  preachers,  and  6579  chapels. t  The  H7th  annual  conference  met  in  London  on 
July  26,  1860. 

*  A  multitude  of  all  ranks,  estimated  at  a  million  and  a  half  of  persons,  were  congregated  in  the  line 
of  route,  a  distance  of  three  miles,  to  witness  and  share  in  the  imposing  spectacle.  The  military  consisted 
of  the  household  regiments  of  horse  and  foot  guards,  the  2nd  battalion  of  the  Rifles,  a  battalion  of 
the  Royal  Marines,  the  33rd  regiment,  the  ijth  Lancers,  and  the  i8th  Light  Dragoons,  with  the  regiment 
of  Scots  Greys.  There  were  besides,  a  body  of  Chelsea  pensioners,  and  men  of  different  arms  of  the  East 
India  Company.  The  body  was  placed,  early  in  the  morning  of  the  i8th,  by  means  of  machinery,  upon  a 
lofty  and  sumptuous  funeral  car  (which  science  had  contributed  to  complete),  drawn  by  twelve  horses 
richly  caparisoned,  and  the  coffin  was  thus  seen  by  the  whole  of  the  crowd.  The  procession  moved  about 
seven  o'clock,  and  it  was  three  o'clock  before  the  body  was  lowered  into  the  vault  beside  the  remains  of 
Nelson,  under  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  In  1857  a  number  of  models  for  the  tomb  were  exhibited 
in  Westminster  Hall ;  none  was  chosen.  The  stone  sarcophagus,  completed  in  1858,  cost  nooi. 

t  The  Conference,  the  highest  Wesleyan  court,  is  composed  of  100  ministers,  who  meet  annually.  It. 
was  instituted  by  John  Wesley  in  1784.  At  the  centenary  of  the  existence  of  Methodism,  216,000?.  were 
collected,  to  be  expended  in  the  objects  of  the  society.  Out  of  the  original  connection  have  seceded  : — 


Chapels  in  1851. 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Association  (1834)   .    .     329 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Reformers  (1849).        •  2000 


Chapels  in  1851. 

New  Connection  (in  1796)  .  .  .  .  301 
Primitive  Methodists  (1810)  ....  2871 
Bible  Christians,  or  Bryanites  (1815)  .  .  403 

The  last  arose  out  of  the  publication  of  "  Fly  Sheets,"  advocating  reform  in  the  body.  The  suspected 
authors  and  their  friends  were  expelled.  By  these  disruptions  the  main  body  is  thought  to  have  lost 
100,000  members.  —This  sect  in  America  numbered  about  a  million  in  1844,  when  a  division  took  place  on 
the  slavery  question. 


WES 


780 


WES 


WESSEX.     See  Britain. 

WEST  INDIES,  islands  discovered  by  Columbus,  St.  Salvador  being  the  first  land  he 
made  in  the  New  World,  and  first  seen  by  him  in  the  night  between  the  nth  and  I2th  Oct. 
1492.  The  largest  are  Cuba,  Hayti  (or  St.  Domingo),  Jamaica,  Porto  Rico,  Trinidad,  and 
Guadaloupe.  See  the  Islands  respectively. 

WEST  SAXONS.     See  Wessex  in  Britain. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA,  formerly  SWAN  RIVER  SETTLEMENT,  which  was  projected 
by  colonel  Peel  in  1828.  Regulations  issued  from  the  colonial  office,  and  captain  Stirling, 
appointed  lieutenant  governor,  Jan.  17,  1829,  arrived  at  the  appointed  site  in  August  fol- 
lowing. The  three  towns  of  Perth,  Freemantle,  and  Guildford  were  founded  same  year.  In 
March  1830,  fifty  ships,  with  2000  emigrants,  with  property  amounting  to  i,ooo,ooo£.,  had 
arrived  before  hardly  any  dwellings  had  been  erected  or  land  surveyed.  The  more  energetic 
settlers  left  for  home  or  the  neighbouring  colonies,  and  the  colony  languished  for  twenty 
years  for  want  of  suitable  inhabitants — the  first  settlers,  from  their  previous  habits  and  rank 
in  life,  proving  unable  for  the  rough  work  of  colonisation.  In  1848,  the  colonists  requested 
that  convicts  might  be  sent  out  to  them,  and  in  1849  a  band  arrived,  who  were  kindly 
received  and  well  treated.  The  best  results  ensued.  By  1853,  2000  had  arrived,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Perth  had  requested  that  1000  should  be  sent  out  annually.  The  reception 
of  convicts  is  to  cease  in  after  years,  in  consequence  of  the  energetic  opposition  of  the  other 
Australian  colonies  (1865). — The  settlement  at  King  George's  Sound  was  founded  in  1826  by 
the  government  of  New  South  Wales.  It  was  used  as  a  military  station  for  four  years.  In 
1830,  the  home  government  ordered  the  settlement  to  be  transferred  to  Swan  River.  Since 
the  establishment  of  steam  communication,  the  little  town  of  Albany  here,  employed  as  a 
coaling  station,  has  become  a  thriving  sea-port.  It  possesses  an  excellent  harbour,  used  by 
whalers.  A  journal  called  the  Freemantle  Gazette  was  published  here  in  March  1831. 
Population  of  West  Australia  in  1859,  14,837  ;  Dec.  1861,  15,555.  Governor,  John  Stephen 
Hampton,  appointed  1861. 

WESTERN  CHURCH  (called  also  the  LATIN  or  ROMAN)  broke  off  communion  with 
the  Greek  or  Eastern  Church,  653.  (See  Greek  Church.}  The  history  of  the  Western 
Church  is  mainly  comprised  in  that  of  the  Popes  and  of  the  several  European  kingdoms. 
(See  Popes.)  This  church  was  disturbed  by  the  Arian  heresy  about  345  and  500  ;  and  by 
the  Pelagian  about  409  ;  by  the  introduction  of  image- worship  about  600  ;  by  the  injunction 
of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  and  the  rise  of  the  monastic  orders  about  649  ;  by  the  contests 
between  the  emperors  and  the  popes  respecting  ecclesiastical  investitures  between  1073  and 
11 73  5  ^J  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  the  I5th  and  i6th  centuries  ;  by 
the  contests  between  the  Jesuits  and  Jansenists  in  the  I7th  and  i8th  centuries  ;  and  by 
the  progress  of  modern  philosophy  and  rationalism  in  the  I9th.  See  Roman  Catholics. 

WESTERN  EMPIRE.  The  Roman  empire  was  first  divided  into  Eastern  and  Western 
by  Diocletian  in  A.D.  296  ;  but  was  reunited  under  Constans  in  340.  It  was  again  divided 
into  Eastern  and  Western  by  Valentinian  and  Yalens,  of  whom  the  former  had  the  Western 
portion,  or  Rome,  properly  so  called,  364.  See  Eastern  Empire,  Italy  and  Rome. 


FwULERS   Or   THE   WESTERN    EMPIRE. 


364.  Valentinian,  son  of  Gratian,  takes  the  Western, 
and  his  brother  Valens  the  Eastern  empire. 

367.  Gratian,  a  youth,  son  of  Valentinian,  made  a 
colleague  in  the  government  by  his  father. 

375.  Valentinian  If.,  another  son,  also  very  young, 
is,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  associated  with 
his  brother  in  the  empire.  Gratian  is  assassi- 
nated by  his  general,  Andragathius,  in  383. 
Valentinian  murdered  by  one  of  his  officers, 
Arbogastes,  in  392. 

392.  Eugenius,  a  usurper,  assumes  the  imperial 
dignity ;  he  and  Arbogastes  are  defeated  by 
Theodosius  the  Great,  who  becomes  sole 
emperor. 

[Andragathius  throws  himself  into  the  sea,  and 
Arbogastes  dies  by  his  own  hand.] 

395.  Honorius,   son  of  Theodosius,   reigns,   on    his 
father's  death,  in  the  West,  and  his  brother 
Arcadius  in  the  East.     Honorius  dies  in  423. 
[Usurpation  of  John,  the  Notary,  who  is  de- 
feated and  slain  near  Ravenna.  ] 

425.  Valentinian  III.,  son  of  the  empress  Placidia, 


daughter  of  Theodosius  the  Great :  murdered 

at  the  instance  of  his  successor, 
455.  Maximus  :     he    marries     Eudoxia,    widow    of 

Valentinian,  who,  to  avenge  the  death  of  her 

first  husband  and  the  guilt  of  her  second, 

invites  the  African  Vandals  into  Italy,  and 

Rome  is  sacked.     Maximus  stoned  to  death. 
455.  Marcus  Mfeeilius  Avitus  :  forced  to  resign,  and 

dies  in  his  flight  towards  the  Alps. 
457.  Julius  Valerius  Majorianus :   murdered  at  the 

instance  of  his  minister,  Ricimer,  who  raises 
461.  Libius   Severus  to  the  throne,  but  holds  the 

supreme   power.      Severus   is    poisoned    by 

Ricimer. 
465.  [Interregnum.     Ricimer  retains  the  authority, 

without  assuming  the  title  of  emperor.  J 
467.  Anthemius,  chosen  by  the  joint  suffrages  of  the 

senate    and    army :    murdered    by  Ricimer, 

who  dies  soon  after. 
472.  Flavius-Anicius  Olybrius  :  slain  by  the   Goths 

soon  after  his  accession. 
473-  Glycerins  :  forced  to  abdicate  by  his  successor, 


WES 


781 


WES 


WESTERN  EMPIRE,  continued. 
474.  Julius  Nepos  :  deposed  by  his  general,  Orestes,  '  476.  Odoacer,    king    of 


and  retires  to  Salonas. 
475.  Eomulus      (called       Augustulus,      or      Little 
Augustus),  son  of  Orestes.     Orestes  is  slain, 
and  the  emperor  deposed  by 


the  Heruli  :    takes   Rome, 
of  Italy,  and  com- 


assumes the  st 
pletes  the  fall 

See  Jlaly,  Rome,  and  Germany. 


tyle  of  king 

of  the  Western  empire. 


WESTMINSTER.  A  city  so  called  on  account  of  its  western  situation  in  respect  to 
St.  Paul's  cathedral,  or  from  there  being  formerly  a  monastery  named  East  Minster,  on  the 
hill  now  called  Great  Tower-hill.  This  city  joins  London  at  Temple-bar.  Formerly 
Westminster  was  called  Thorney,  or  Thorn ey  Island  :  and  in  ancient  times  Canute  had  a 
palace  here,  which  was  burnt  in  1263.  Westminster  and  London  were  one  mile  asunder  so 
late  as  1603,  when  the  houses  were  thatched,  and  there  were  mud  walls  in  the  Strand.  It 
is  said  that  the  great  number  of  Scotsmen  who  came  over  after  the  accession  of  James  I. 
occasioned  the  building  of  Westminster,  and  united  it  with  London.  HoweVs  Londinopolis. 
See  Palace  of  Westminster  and  Parliament. 

WESTMINSTER  ABBEY.  The  miraculous  stories  concerning  this  pile  of  buildings 
were  questioned  by  sir  Christopher  Wren,  who  was  employed  to  survey  the  present  edifice, 
and  who,  upon  close  examination,  found  nothing  to  countenance  the  belief  that  it  was 
erected  on  the  ruins  of  a  pagan  temple.  Historians  have  fixed  the  era  of  the  first  abbey  in 
the  6th  century,  and  ascribed  to  Sebert  the  honour  of  erecting  it. 


The  church  becoming  ruinous  was  splendidly 
rebuilt  by  Edward  the  Confessor  (1055-65) 
and  filled  with  monks  from  Exeter.  (Pope 
Nicholas  II.  constituted  it  the  place  for  the 
inauguration  of  the  kings  of  England  )  De- 
dicated   Dec.  28,  1065 

The  church  once  more  built  in  a  magnificent 
and  beautiful  style  by  Henry  III.  about  .  1220 

In  the  reigns  of  Edward  II.  Edward  III.  and 
Richard  II.  the  great  cloisters,  abbot's  hoiise, 
and  the  principal  monastic  buildings,  were 
erected. 

The  western  parts  of  the  nave  and  aisles  re- 
built between  ....  1 340  and  1483 

The  west  front  and  the  great  window  were 
built  by  the  rival  princes  Richard  III.  and 
Henry  VII.  ;  and  it  was  the  latter  monarch 
who  commenced  the  beautiful  chapel  which 


bears  his  name,  the  first  stone  of  which  was 
laid Jan.  24,  1502-3 

The  abbey  dissolved  and  made  a  bishopric, 
1541 ;  finally  made  a  collegiate  church  by 
Elizabeth 1560 

Made  a  barrack  for  soldiers,  July  1643.  Mer- 
curius  Rasticus. 

The  great  west  window  and  the  western  towers 
rebuilt  m  the  reigns  of  George  I.  aud  II.  1714-60 

The  choir  injured  by  fire        .        .        .  July  9,  1803 

Mr.  Wyatt  commenced  restoring  the  dilapidated 
parts  at  an  expense  of  42,ooo<.  in,  .  .  .  1809 

A  fire,  without  any  serious  injury         April  27,  1829 

The  evening  services  for  the  working  classes, 
when  a  sermon  was  preached  by  the  dean, 
Dr  Trench,  commenced  on  .  .  Jan.  3,  1858 

The  Sooth  anniversary  of  the  foundation  cele- 
brated   Dec.  28,  186-; 


WESTMINSTER  BISHOPRIC  AND  DEANERY.  At  the  dissolution  of  monasteries,  West- 
minster abbey  was  valued  at  3977^.  per  annum  ;  king  Henry  VIII.  in  1539,  erected  it  into 
a  deanery  ;  and  in  1541  he  erected  it  into  a  bishopric,  and  appointed  John  Thirleby  prelate. 
But  he,  having  wasted*. the  patrimony  allotted  by  the  king  for  the  support  of  the  see,  was 
translated  to  Norwich  in  1550,  and  with  him  ended  the  bishopric  of  Westminster  ;  Middle- 
sex was  the  diocese,  being  restored  to  London.  The  dean  continued  to  preside  until  the 
accession  of  Mary,  who  restored  the  abbot  ;  but  Elizabeth  displaced  the  abbot,  and  erected 
the  abbey  into  a  collegiate  church  of  a  dean  and  twelve  prebendaries,  as  it  still  continues. 
On  the  revival  of  the  order  of  the  Bath,  in  1725,  the  dean  of  Westminster  was  appointed 
dean  of  that  order,  which  honour  has  been  continued;  Dr.  Nicholas  Wiseman  was  created 
archbishop  of  Westminster  by  the  pope  Pius  IX.  in  Sept.  30,  1850.  See  Papal  Aggression. 

WESTMINSTER  BRIDGES.  The  old  bridge  was  accounted  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
bridges  in  the  world.  It  was  begun  (after  a  design  of  M.  Labelye),  Sept.  13,  1738  ;  the 
first  stone  was  laid  Jan.  29,  1738-9  ;  and  it  was  opened  for  passengers  Nov.  17,  1750  ;  cost 
426, 650^.  It  was  built  of  Portland  stone,  and  crosses  the  river  where  the  breadth  is  1223 
feet.  Owing  to  the  sinking  of  several  of  its  piers,  most  of  the  balustrade  on  both  sides 
was  removed,  to  relieve  the  structure  of  its  weight.  —  By  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  46  (Aug.  4,  1853), 
the  estates  of  its  commissioners  were  transferred  to  her  majesty's  commissioners  of  works, 
who  were  empowered  to  remove  the  then  existing  bridge,  and  build  a  NEW  BRIDGE  (near  the 
old  one),  which  was  shortly  after  begun.  The  contract  required  the  completion  of  the  works 
by  June  i,  1857.  The  driving  of  the  first  elm  pile  commenced  on  July  3,  and  the  driving 
of  the  iron  piles  and  plates  in  September.  The  works  were  suspended  for  a  time,  in  con- 
squence  of  the  failure  of  Messrs.  Mare  the  contractors.  The  government  eventually 
undertook  the  building,  which  they  entrusted  to  Mr.  Thomas  Page,  the  engineer.  One 
half  of  the  new  bridge  was  opened  for  use  early  in  1860  ;  the  whole  on  May  24,  1862. 


WES  782  WHE 


"WESTMINSTER  CONFESSION  OF  FAITH  AND  CATECHISMS  were  drawn  up  by  the 
"  Assembly  of  Divines,"  (partly  consisting  of  laymen)  who  sat  by  authority  of  parliament  in 
Floury  VII. 's  chapel,  Westminster,  from  1643  to  1647.  These  have  ever  since  been  the 
doctrinal  standards  of  Scotch  Presbyterians. 

WESTMINSTER  HALL,  London.  One  of  the  most  venerable  remains  of  English 
architecture,  first  built  by  William  Rufus  in  1097,  for  a  banqueting-hall ;  and  here  in  1099, 
on  his  return  from  Normandy,  "  he  kept  his  feast  of  Whitsuntide  very  royally."  The  hall 
became  ruinous  before  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  who  repaired  it  in  1397,  raised  the  walls, 
altered  the  windows,  and  added  a  new  roof,  as  well  as  a  stately  porch  and  other  buildings. 
In  1236,  Henry  III.  on  New-year's  day  caused  6000  poor  persons  to  be  entertained  in  this 
hall,  and  in  the  other  rooms  of  his  palace,  as  a  celebration  of  queen  Eleanor's  coronation ; 
and  here  Richard  II.  held  his  Christmas  festival  in  1397,  when  the  number  of  the  guests 
each  day  the  [feast  lasted  was  10,000.  Stow.  The  courts  of  law  were  established  hereby 
king  John.  Idem.  Westminster  hall  was  stated  to  be  the  largest  room  in  Europe  unsup- 
ported by  pillars  :  it  is  270  feet  in  length,  74  feet  broad.  The  hall  underwent  a  general 
repair  in  1802.  Concurrently  with  the  erection  of  the  palace  of  Westminster,  many 
improvements  and  alterations  have  lately  been  made  in  this  magnificent  hall.  The  Volun- 
teer Rifle  corps  were  drilled  in  the  hall  in  the  winter  of  1859. 

WESTMINSTER  PALACE.     See  under  Palace  of  Westminster  and  Parliament. 

WESTMINSTER  SCHOOL,  London,  was  founded  by  queen  Elizabeth  in  1560,  for  the 
education  of  forty  boys,  denominated  the  Queen's  scholars,  who  are  prepared  for  the 
university.  It  is  situated  within  the  walls  of  the  abbey,  and  is  separated  into  two  schools 
or  divisions,  comprising  seven  forms  or  classes.  Besides  the  scholars  on  the  foundation, 
many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  send  their  sons  to  Westminster  for  instruction.  A  proposal 
in  1860  to  remove  the  school  was  disapproved  of  in  1861. 

WESTMORELAND.  This  county  and  Cumberland  were  granted  as  a  fief  to  Malcolm  of 
Scotland  by  Edward  the  Elder  in  945  ;  and  resumed  by  Henry  III.  in  1237.  Neville,  earl 
of  Westmoreland,  revolted  against  Elizabeth  in  1569,  and  was  attainted  in  1570. 

WESTPHALIA  (Germany).  This  duchy  belonged  in  former  times  to  the  dukes  of 
Saxony,  and  afterwards  became  subject  to  the  archbishop  of  Cologne.  On  the  secularisation 
of  1802,  it  was  made  over  to  Hesse  Darmstadt ;  and  in  1814,  was  ceded  for  an  equivalent 
to  Prussia.  The  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  one  of  the  temporary  kingdoms  of  Bonaparte, 
composed  of  conquests  from  Prussia,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hanover,  and  the  smaller  states  to  the 
west  of  Elbe,  was  created  Dec.  i,  1807,  and  Jerome  Bonaparte  appointed  king.  Hanover 
was  annexed  to  it,  March  i,  1810.  The  kingdom  of  Westphalia  was  abolished  in  1813,  and 
the  countries  restored  to  their  former  rulers. 

WESTPHALIA,  or  MUNSTEE,  PEACE  OF,  signed  at  Munster  and  at  Osnaburg,  between 
France,  the  emperor,  and  Sweden  ;  Spain  continuing  the  war  against  France.  By  this  peace 
the  principle  of  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe  was  first  recognised  ;  Alsace  given  to  France, 
and  part  of  Pomerania  and  some  other  districts  to  Sweden  ;  the  Elector  Palatine  restored  to 
the  Lower  Palatinate  ;  the  religious  and  political  rights  of  the  German  States  established  ; 
and  the  independence  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  recognised  by  Germany,  Oct.  24,  1648. 

WHALE-FISHERY,  it  is  said,  was  first  carried  on  by  the  Norwegians  so  early  as  837. 
Lenglet.  Whales  Avere  killed  at  Newfoundland  and  Iceland  for  their  oil  only  till  1578  ;  the 
use  of  their  fins  and  bones  was  not  yet  known,  consequently  (a  writer  quaintly  adds)  no 
stays  were  worn  by  the  ladies.  The  English  whale-fishing  commenced  at  Spitzbergen  in 
1598  ;  but  the  Dutch  had  been  previously  fishing  there.  The  fishery  was  much  promoted 
by  an  act  of  parliament  passed  in  1749.  From  1800  to  2000  whales  have  been  killed 
annually  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  &c.  The  quantity  of  whale-oil  imported  in  1814  was 
33,567  tuns.  The  quantity  in  1826,  when  gas-light  became  general,  was  reduced  to  25,000 
tuns  ;  so  that  the  consumption  of  oil  had  become,  on  this  account,  greatly  diminished.  In 
1840  the  quantity  was  about  22,000  tuns  ;  in  1850,  21,360  tuns  ;  in  1861,  19,176  tuns  ;  in 
1864,  14,701  tuns. 

WHEAT.  The  Chinese  ascribe  to  their  emperor,  Ching-Noung,  who  succeeded  Fohi,  the 
art  of  husbandry,  and  method  of  making  bread  from  wheat,  about  2000  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  Wheat  was  introduced  into  Britain  in  the  6th  century,  by  Coll  ap  Coll 
Frewi.  Roberts.  The  first  wheat  imported  into  England  of  which  we  have  a  note  was  in 
1347.  Various  statutes  have  regulated  the  sales  of  wheat,  and  restrained  its  importation, 
thereby  to  encourage  its  being  raised  at  home.  Imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  in  1854, 
2,656,455  qrs.  of  wheat,  and  6,329,038  cwts.  of  flour;  in  1861,  6,912,815  qrs  of  wheat,  and 


WHE  783  WHI 

6, 152,938  cwts.  of  flour;  in  1864,  23,196,714  cwts.  of  wheat,  and  4,975,935  cwts.  of  flour. 
See  Corn  Laws  and  Bread.  In  1862  attention  was  drawn  to  the  probable  utility  of  con- 
sidering the  pedigree  of  wheat. 

"WHEEL,  BREAKING  ON  THE.  A  barbarous  mode  of  death,  of  great  antiquity,  ordered 
by  Francis  I.  for  robbers,  1515.  See  Ravaillac,  &c. 

WHEEL- WORK.     See  Spinning,  Looms,  Automatons. 

WHIGS.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  name  Whig  was  a  term  of  reproach  given  by 
the  court  party  to  their  antagonists  for  holding  the  principles  of  the  "whigs,"  or  fanatical 
covenanters  in  Scotland  ;  and  the  name  Tory  was  given  to  the  coiirt  party,  comparing 
them  to  the  Tories,  or  Popish  robbers  in  Ireland.  Baker.  This  distinction  arose  out  of  the 
discovery  of  the  Meal-tub  plot  (which  see)  in  1678.  Upon  bringing  up  the  Meal  plot  before 
parliament,  two  parties  were  formed  :  the  ones  who  doubted  the  plot  styled  those  who 
believed  in  it,  Whigs  ;  these  styled  their  adversaries  Tories.  In  time  these  names,  given  as 
marks  of  opprobrium,  became  honoured  distinctions.  Hume.  The  Whigs  brought  about 
the  revolution  of  1688-9,  and  established  the  Protestant  succession.  They  were  instru- 
mental in  obtaining  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  and  slavery,  the  repeal  of  the  Test 
and  Corporation  act,  Catholic  emancipation,  parliamentary  and  municipal  reform,  and  the 
repeal  of  the  Corn  laws.  The  Whig  Club  was  established  by  Charles  James  Fox  ;  one  of  its 
original  members  was  the  great  Francis,  duke  of  Bedford,  who  died  in  1802.  For  the 
principal  Whig  ministries,  see  Godolphin,  Halifax,  Walpole,  Rockingham,  Grenville,  Grey, 
Melbourne,  Russell,  Palmerston. 

WHISKY,  the  distilled  spirit  produced  from  malt  and  other  corn  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  of  which  about  eight  millions  of  gallons  have  been  distilled  annually  in  the  former, 
and  upwards  of  nine  millions  of  gallons  in  the  latter.  The  duty  upon  this  article  has 
produced  an  annual  revenue  of  about  three  millions.  The  distillation  of  whisky  in  these 
countries  is  referred  to  the  i6th  century  ;  but  some  authors  state  it  to  have  been  earlier. 
See  Distillation.  In  1855  the  duties  on  spirits  distilled  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  were 
equalised  with  those  distilled  in  England. 

WHITE-BAIT  DINNER,  when  the  cabinet  ministers  meet  at  the  end  of  each  session,  is 
said  to  have  begun  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  through  sir  Robert  Preston  and  sir  George 
Rose  inviting  Mr.  Pitt  and  his  colleagues  to  dine  at  Dagenham,  and  afterwards  at  Greenwich. 
Another  account  dates  the  origin  in  1721. 

WHITEBOYS,  a  body  of  ruffians  in  Ireland,  so  called  on  account  of  their  wearing  linen 
frocks  over  their  coats.  They  committed  dreadful  outrages  in  1761,  but  were  suppressed 
by  a  military  force  and  their  ringleaders  executed  in  1762.  They  rose  into  insurrection  again 
and  were  suppressed  1786-7.  Whiteboys  have  appeared  at  various  times  since,  committing 
the  most  frightful  crimes.  The  insurrection  act  was  passed  on  their  account  in  1822. 

WHITEFIELD,  GBORGE,  the  founder  of  the  "  Calvinistic  MetJiodists"  was  the  son  of  an 
innkeeper  at  Gloucester,  where  he  received  his  first  education.  He  was  admitted  a  servitor 
at  Oxford  in  1732,  and  became  a  companion  of  the  Wesleys  there,  and  aided  them  in  estab- 
lishing Methodism.  He  parted  from  them  in  1741,  on  account  of  their  rejection  of  the 
'doctrine  of  election.  He  was  the  most  eloquent  preacher  of  his  day.  His  fh'st  sermon  was 
preached  in  1 736  ;  and  he  commenced  field  preaching  in  1 739.  He  is  said  to  have  delivered 
18,000  sermons  during  his  career  of  34  years.  His  followers  are  termed  "the  countess  of 
Huntingdon's  Connection,"  from  his  having  become  her  chaplain  in  1748.  There  were  109 
chapels  of  this  connection  in  1851  ;  but  many  of  his  followers  have  joined  the  Independents. 
He  was  born  in  1714,  and  died  in  1770.  See  Tabernacle. 

WHITE  FRIARS.     See  Carmelites. 

WHITE  HATS,  a  party  in  the  Low  Countries  formed  about  1377,  against  Louis,  count 
of  Flanders.  The  struggle  lasted  till  1384,  when  it  was  settled  by  Philip,  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. 

WHITE  SHEEP,  a  name  given  to  the  Turcomans  who  conquered  Persia  about  1468  ; 
and  persecuted  the  Shiites,  but  were  expelled  by  Ismail,  who  founded  the  Sophi  dynasty  in 
1501. 

WHITEHALL  (London),  built  by  Hubert  de  Burgh,  earl  of  Kent,  before  the  middle  of 
the  I3th  century.  It  afterwards  devolved,  by  bequest,  to  the  Black  Friars  of  IJolborn,  who 
sold  it  to  the  archbishop  of  York,  whence  it  received  the  name  of  York-place,  and  continued 
to  be  the  town  residence  of  the  archbishops  till  purchased  by  Henry  VIII.  of  cardinal 


WHI  784  WIG 

Wolsey,  in  1530.  At  this  period  it  became  the  residence  of  the  court.  Queen  Elizabeth, 
who  died  at  Richmond,  in  1603,  was  brought  from  thence  to  Whitehall,  by  water,  in  a 
grand  procession.  It  was  on  this  occasion,  Camden  informs  us,  that  the  following  quaint 
panegyric  on  her  majesty  was  written  : 

"  The  queen  was  brought  by  water  to  "Whitehall,  At  every  stroke  the  oars  did  tears  let  fall. 
More  clung  about  the  barge  :  fish  under  water  Wept  out  their  eyes  of  pearl,  and  swam  blind  after. 
I  think  the  bargemen  might,  with  easier  thighs,  Have  rowed  her  thither  in  her  people's  eyes  ; 
For  howsoe'er  thus  much  my  thoughts  have  scann'd,  She  had  come  by  water,  had  she  come  by  land." 

In  1697,  Whitehall  was  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire,  except  the  banqueting-house, 
which  had  been  added  to  the  palace  of  Whitehall  by  James  I.,  according  to  a  design  of 
Inigo  Jones,  in  1619.  In  the  front  of  Whitehall,  Charles  I.  was  beheaded,  Jan.  30,  1649. 
George  I.  converted  the  hall  into  a  chapel  1723-4.  The  exterior  of  this  edifice  underwent 
repair  between  1829  and  1833. 

WHITE  HOUSE  (Washington),  built  of  freestone,  gives  name  to  the  United  States 
government,  as  St.  James's  palace  does  to  that  of  Great  Britain. 

WHITE  PLAINS  (N.  America),  where  a  battle  was  fought  Oct.  28,  1776,  between  the 
revolted  Americans  and  the  British  forces  under  sir  William  Howe.  It  terminated  in  the 
defeat  of  the  Americans,  who  suffered  considerable  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 

WTHITE  TOWER,  the  keep  or  citadel  in  the  Tower  of  London,  a  large  square,  irregular 
building,  erected  in  1070,  by  Gandulph,  bishop  of  Rochester.  It  measures  116  feet  by  96, 
and  is  92  feet  in  height ;  the  walls,  which  are  1 1  feet  thick,  having  a  winding  staircase  con- 
tinued along  two  of  the  sides,  like  that  in  Dover  castle.  It  contains  the  sea  armoury,  and 
the  volunteer  armoury — the  latter  for  30,000  men.  Within  this  tower  is  the  ancient  chapel 
of  St.  John,  originally  used  by  the  English  monarchs.  The  turret  at  the  N.E.  angle,  the 
highest  of  the  four  by  which  the  White  Tower  is  surmounted,  was  used  for  astronomical 
purposes  by  Flamsteed  previously  to  the  erection  of  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich. 

WHITSUNTIDE.  The  festival  appointed  to  commemorate  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  upon  the  apostles  :  the  newly-baptized  persons  or  catechumens,  used  to  wear  white 
garments  on  Whitsunday.  This  feast  is  moveable,  being  always  exactly  seven  weeks  after 
Easter.  Rogation  week  (which  see)  is  the  week  before  Whitsunday.  Whitsunday  in  1866, 
May  20  ;  in  1867,  June  9  ;  in  1868,  May  31. 

WHITTINGTON'S  CHARITIES.  Sir  Richard  Whittington,  a  citizen  and  mercer  of 
•  London,  served  the  office  of  lord  mayor  three  times,  the  last  time  in  1419.  Many  stories  con- 
nected with  his  name  are  destitute  of  truth.  His  munificent  charities  are  little  known  and 
seldom  praised.  He  founded  his  college,  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Virgin  Mary, 
in  1424  ;  and  his  almshouses  in  1429  ;  the  latter  stand  on  Highgate-hill,  near  the  supposed 
site  of  the  famous  stone  which  commemorated  the  legend  of  his  return  to  London,  after 
leaving  it  in  despair,  the  church  bells  chiming  him  back  by  the  promise  of  his  future 
greatness. 

WICKLIFFITES,  the  followers  of  John  Wickliffe  (born  1324),  a  professor  of  divinity  in 
the  university  of  Oxford  and  rector  of  Lutterworth  in  Leicestershire.  He  was  the  father  of 
the  Reformation  of  the  English  church  from  popery,  being  among  the  first  who  opposed  the 
authority  of  the  pope,  transubstantiation,  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  &c.  Wickliffe  was 
protected  by  John  of  Gaunt,  Edward's  son  and  Richard's  uncle,  yet  virulently  persecuted 
by  the  church,  and  rescued  from  martyrdom  by  a  paralytic  attack,  which  caused  his  death, 
December  31,  1384,  in  his  6oth  year.  The  council  of  Constance,  in  1428,  decreed  his  bones 
to  be  disinterred  and  burnt,  which  was  done  by  the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  his  dust  was 
cast  into  the  river  Swift.  Wickliffe' s  English  version  of  the  Bible  was  commenced  in  1380  : 
an  edition  of  it  was  printed  at  Oxford  in  1850. 

WIDOWS.  The  Jewish  law  required  a  man's  brother  to  marry  his  widow  (1490  B.  c. ).  For 
the  burning  of  widows  in  India,  see  Suttees.  Among  the  numerous  associations  in  London 
for  the  relief  of  widows,  are,  one  for  the  widows  of  musicians,  instituted  in  1 738  ;  one  for 
widows  of  naval  men,  founded  in  1739  ;  one  for  widows  of  medical  men,  1788  ;  a  law 
society,  for  widows  of  professional  gentlemen,  1817  ;  and  a  society  for  artists'  widows,  1827. 
WIDOWERS  were  taxed  in  England  as  follows  :  a  duke,  i2l.  los.  ;  lower  peers,  smaller 
sums ;  a  common  person,  is.  7  Will.  III.  1695. 

WIG.     See  Peruke. 


- 


WIG  785  WIL 


WIG  AN  (Lancashire).  In  the  civil  war  the  king's  troops  commanded  by  the  earl  of 
Derby,  were  defeated  and  driven  out  of  the  town  in  1643  by  the  parliamentary  forces  under 
sir  John  Smeaton.  The  earl  was  again  defeated  by  colonel  Ashton,  who  razed  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Wigan  to  the  ground,  same  year  ;  and  once  more  by  a  greatly  superior  force  com- 
manded by  colonel  Lilburne,  1651.  In  this  last  engagement,  sir  Thomas  Tildersley,  an 
ardent  royalist,  was  slain  ;  a  pillar  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  1679. 

WIGHT,  ISLE  OF,  the  Roman  Vecta  or  Vectis,  was  conquered  by  Vespasian  in  the  reign 
of  Claudius.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Saxons  under  Cerdic  about  530 ;  in  787  by  the 
Danes  ;  and  in  1001,  when  they  held  it  for  several  years.  It  was  taken  by  the  French, 
July  13,  1377,  and  has  several  times  suffered  from  invasions  by  that  people.  In  the  year 
1442,  Henry  VI.  alienated  the  isle  of  Wight  to  Henry  de  Beauchamp,  first  premier  earl  of 
England  and  then  duke  of  Warwick,  with  a  precedency  of  all  other  dukes  but  Norfolk,  and 
lastly  crowned  him  king  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  with  his  own  hands  ;  but  this  earl  dying 
without  heirs  male,  his  regal  title  died  with  him,  and  the  lordship  of  the  isle  returned  to  the 
crown.  Charles  I.,  after  his  flight  from  Hampton- court,  was  a  prisoner  in  Carisbrook  castle, 
in  1647.  In  the  time  of  Charles  II.  timber  was  so  plentiful,  that  it  is  said  a  squirrel 
might  have  travelled  on  the  tops  of  the  trees  for  many  leagues  together  ;  but  it  is  now 
much  reduced,  through  supplying  the  dockyards  for  the  British  navy.  The  queen  has  a 
marine  residence  here  called  Osborne-house. 

WILKES'  NUMBER,  45,  from  the  45th  number  of  the  North  Briton,  published  by  Mr. 
Wilkes,  an  alderman  of  London.  He  commenced  a  paper  warfare  against  the  earl  of  Bute 
and  his  administration,  and  in  this  number,  printed  April  23,  1763,  made  so  free  a  use  of 
royalty  itself  that  a  general  warrant  was  issued  against  him  by  the  earl  of  Halifax,  then 
secretary  of  state,  and  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  April  30.  His  warfare  not  only 
deprived  him  of  liberty,  but  exposed  him  to  two  duels  ;  yet  he  obtained  4000?.  damages  and 
lull  costs  of  suit  for  the  illegal  seizure  of  his  papers.  He  was  afterwards  condemned  for 
libel;  but  was,  however,  elected  a  fifth  time  for  Middlesex  in  Oct.  1774,  and  served  the 
office  of  lord  mayor.  He  was  elected  chamberlain  of  London  in  1779,  and  died  in  1797. 
See  North  Briton,  and  also  Warrants,  General. 

WILLS  AND  TESTAMENTS  are  of  very  high  antiquity.  See  Genesis  xlviii.  Solon  intro- 
duced them  at  Athens,  578  B.C.  There  are  many  regulations  respecting  wills  in  the  Koran. 
Trebatius  Testa,  the  civilian,  was  the  first  person  who  introduced  codicils  to  wills  at  Rome, 
31  B.C.  The  power  of  bequeathing  lands  by  the  last  will  and  testament  of  the  owner  was 
confirmed  to  English  subjects  I  Henry  I.  noo  ;  but  with  great  restrictions  and  limitations 
respecting  the  feudal  system,  which  were  taken  off  by  the  statute  of  32  Henry  VIII.  I541- 
Blackstone's  Commentaries.  The  first  will  of  a  sovereign  on  record  is  stated  (but  in 
error)  to  be  that  of  Richard  II.  1399  ;  Edward  the  Confessor  made  a  will,  1066.  Various 
laws  have  regulated  the  wills  and  testaments  of  British  subjects.  All  previous  statutes 
were  repealed  by  I  Viet.  c.  26,  1837,  and  the  laws  with  relation  to  wills  thereby  amended.* 
The  present  PROBATE  CoiJRT  (which  see)  was  established  in  1857.  An  office  for  the  reception 
of  the  wills  of  living  persons  was  opened  in  Jan.  1861.  See  Thellussorfs  Witt. 

EXTRACTS   FROM  THE  LAST  WILL  OF  NAPOLEON  I.,   EMPEROR  OF  FRANCE.  + 

[He  died  May  5,  1821,  eleven  days  after  he  had  signed  these  documents.     The  original  in  French  occupies 

about  twenty-six  pages  in  Peignot's  "  Testamens  Bemarquables,"  1829.] 
This  day,  April  24,  1821,  at  Longwood,  in  the  j  the  services  he  has  performed  for  me  are  those  of 


Island  of  St.  Helena.     This  is  my  testament,  or  act 


friend.    I  desire  that  he  may  marry  a  widow,  sister, 


of  my  last  will : or  daughter  of  an  officer  or  soldier  of  my  old  guard. 

"I  leave  to  the  comte  de  Montholon  2,000,000;  To  St.  Denis,  100,000  francs.  To  Novarre,  100,000 
francs,  as  a  proof  of  my  satisfaction  for  the  atten-  [  francs.  To  Pijeron,  100,000  francs.  To  Archam- 
tions  he  has  paid  to  me  for  these  six  years,  and  to  baud,  50,000  francs.  To  Cuvier,  50,000  franca.  To 
indemnify  him  for  the  losses  which  my  residence  Chandelle,  idem. 

in  St.  Helena  has  occasioned  him.  I  leave  to  the  "To  the  Abb<5  Vignali,  100,000  francs.  I  desire 
comte  Bertrand  500,000  francs.  I  leave  to  Mar-  that  he  may  build  his  house  near  Ponte  Novo  de 
chand,  my  first  valet-de-chambre,  400,000  francs;  Rossino.  To  the  comte  Las  Casas,  100,000  francs. 


*  13  v  this  act  the  testator  must  be  above  21,  not  a  lunatic  or  idiot,  not  deaf  and  dumb  not  drunk  at 
the  time  of  signing,  not  an  outlawed  or  unpardoned  felon.  All  kinds  of  property  may  be  devised.  The 
will  must  be  writteiUegibly  and  intelligibly,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  his  direction,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  two  or  more  witnesses,  who  also  must  sign.  A  married  woman  may  bequeath  only  her  pin- 
money  or  separate  maintenance,  without  the  consent  of  her  husband . 

t  These  documents,  dated  from  April  15-24,  which  had  been  deposited  since  1821  in  England,  have 
been,  at  the  request  of  the  French  government,  given  up  to  the  authorities  at  Pans,  to  be  deposited 
among  the  archives  of  that  capital. 

3  E 


WIL 


786 


WIN 


WILLS,  continued. 

To  comte  Lavalette,  100,000  francs.  To  the  surgeon 
in  chief,  Larrey,  100,000  francs.  He  is,  the  most 
virtuous  man  I  nave  known.  To  general  Brayer, 
100,000  francs. 

"To  general  Lefevre  Desnouettes,  100,000  francs. 
To  general  Drouet,  100,000  francs.  To  general  Cam- 
bronne,  100,000  francs.  To  the  children  of  general 
Muton  Duvernais,  100,000  francs.  To  the  children 
of  the  brave  Labedoyere,  100,000  francs.  To  the 
children  of  general  Girard,  killed  at  Ligny,  100,000 
francs.  To  the  children  of  general  Chartrand, 
100,000  francs.  To  the  children  of  the  virtuous 
general  Travost,  100,000  francs.  To  general  Lalle- 
mand,  the  elder,  100,000  francs.  To  general  Clausel, 
100,000  francs.  To  Costa  Bastilica,  also  100,000 
francs.  To  the  baron  de  Menevalle,  100,000  francs. 
To  Arnault,  author  of  Marius,  100,000  francs. 

"To  colonel  Marbot,  100,000 francs  :  I  request  him 
to  continue  to  write  for  the  defence  and  glory  of  the 
French  armies,  and  to  confound  the  calumniators 


and  the  apostates.  To  the  Baron  Bignon,  100,000 
francs  :  I  request  him  to  write  the  history  of  French 
Diplomacy  from  1792  to  1815.  To  Poggi  de  Talaro, 
100,000  francs.  To  the  surgeon  Emmery,  100,000 
francs. 

"These  sums  shall  be  taken  from  the  six  millions 
which  I  deposited  on  leaving  Paris  in  1815,  and  from 
the  interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  since  July  1815  ; 
the  account  of  which  shall  be  adjusted  with  the 
bankers  by  the  counts  Montholon  and  Bertrand,  and 
by  Marchand. 

"These  legacies,  in  case  of  death,  shall  be  paid  to 
the  widows  and  children,  and  in  their  default,  shall 
revert  to  the  capital.  I  institute  the  counts  Mon- 
tholon,  Bertrand,  and  Marchand  my  testamentai-y 
executors.  This  present  testament,  written  en- 
tirely by  my  own  hand,  is  signed  and  sealed  with 
my  arms. 

"  NAPOLEON. 

"April  24,  1821,  Longwood." 


The  following  are  part  of  the  eight  Codicils  to  the  preceding  will  of  the  emperor  :— 


"  On  the  liquidation  of  my  civil  list  of  Italy— such 
as  money,  jewels,  plate,  linen,  coffers,  caskets  of 
which  the  viceroy  is  the  depositary,  and  which 
belong  to  me,  I  dispose  of  two  millions,  which  I 
leave  to  my  most  faithful  servants.  I  hope  that 
without  their  showing  any  cause,  my  son  Eugene 
Napoleon  will  discharge  them  faithfully.  He  cannot 
forget  the  forty  millions  which  I  have  given  him 
in  Italy,  or  by  the  right  (parage)  of  his  mother's 
inheritance. 

' '  From  the  funds  remitted  in  gold  to  the  empress 
Maria  Louisa,  my  very  dear  and  well-beloved  spouse, 
at  Orleans,  in  1814,  there  remain  due  to  me  two 
millions,  which  I  dispose  of  by  the  present  codicil, 
in  order  to  recompense  my  most  faithful  servants, 
whom  I  beside  recommend  to  the  protection  of  my 
dear  Maria  Louisa.  I  leave  200,000  francs  to  pount 
Montholon,  100,000  francs  of  which  he  shall  pay  into 
the  chest  of  the  treasurer  (Las  Casas)  for  the  same 
purpose  as  the  above,  to  be  employed  according  to 
my  depositions  in  legacies  of  conscience. 

"10,000  francs  to  the  sub-officer  Cantillon,  who 
has  undergone  a  prosecution,  being  accused  of  a 
desire  to  assassinate  lord  Wellington,  of  which  he 


has  been  declared  innocent.  Cantillou  had  as  much 
right  to  assassinate  that  oligarch,  as  the  latter  had 
to  send  me  to  perish  on  the  rock  of  St.  Helena,  &c., 
&c.,  &c. 

LETTER  TO  M.    LAFITTE. 

"  MONSIEUR  LAFITTE, — I  remitted  to  you  in  1815, 
at  the  moment  of  my  departure  from  Paris,  a  sum 
of  nearly  six  millions,  for  which  you  gave  me  a 
double  receipt.  I  have  cancelled  one  of  these 
receipts,  and  I  have  charged  aomte  de  Montholon  to 
present  to  you  the  other  receipt,  in  order  that  you 
may,  after  my  death,  deliver  to  him  the  said  sum 
with  interest  at  the  rate  of  five  per  cent. ,  from  the 
ist  of  July,  1815,  deducting  the  payments  with 
which  you  have  been  charged  in  virtue  of  my 
order.  I  have  also  remitted  to  you  a  box  containing 
my  medallion.  I  beg  you  will  deliver  it  to  comte 
Montholon. 

"  This  letter  having  no  other  object,  I  pray  God, 
Monsieur  Lafitte,  that  He  may  have  you  in  His  holy 
and  worthy  keeping. 

"NAPOLEON. 

"Longwood,  in  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  April  25, 


WILMINGTON'  ADMINISTRATION.     Feb.  1742. 


Earl  of  Wilmington,  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Lord  Hardwicke,  lord  chancellor. 

Earl  of  Harrington,  president  of  the  council. 

Earl  Gower,  lord  privy  seal. 

Mr.  Sandys,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Lord  Carteret  and  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  secretaries 

of  state. 
Earl  of  Winchilsea,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 


Duke  of  Argyll,  commander  of  the  forces  and  masttr 
general  of  the  ordnance. 

Mr.  Henry  Pelham,  paymaster  of  the  forces. 

With  several  of  the  household  lords. 

[On  lord  Wilmington's  death,  July  26,  1743,  Mr. 
Pelham  became  prime  minister  ;  and  in  Nov. 
1744,  he  formed  the  "Broad-bottom"  administra- 
tion. See  Pelham.] 


WINCHESTER  (Hampshire),  a  most  ancient  city,  whose  erection  may  reasonably  be 
ascribed  to  the  Celtic  Britons,  though  the  alleged  date  of  its  foundation,  892  B.C.  is 
manifestly  unworthy  of  attention.  It  became  the  capital  of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom  under 
Cerdic,  530  A.D.  ;  was  the  residence  of  Alfred  879-901  ;  and  under  the  rule  of  Egbert,  was 
the  metropolis  of  England.  In  the  reign  of  William  I.,  though  Winchester  was  still  a  royal 
residence,  London  began  to  rival  it,  and  acquire  the  pre-eminence ;  and  the  destruction  of 
religious  houses  by  Henry  VIII.  almost  ruined  it.  Several  kings  resided  at  Winchester, 
and  many  parliaments  were  held  there.  Memorials  of  its  ancient  superiority  exist  in  the 
national  denomination  of  measures  of  quantity,  as  Winchester  ell,  Winchester  bushel,  &c., 
the  use  of  which  has  but  recently  been  replaced  by  imperial  measures.  The  bishopric  is  of 
great  antiquity.  The  cathedral  church  was  first  founded  and  endowed  by  Kingil,  or 
Kenegilsus,  the  first  Christian  king  of  the  West  Saxons.  The  church  first  built  becoming 
ruinous,  the  present  fabric  was  begun  by  Walkin,  the  34th  bishop,  1073  ;  but  not  finished 
till  the  time  of  William  of  Wykeham,  who  founded  the  college  about  1373.  The  church 
was  first  dedicated  to  St.  Amphibalus,  then  to  St.  Peter,  and  afterwards  to  St.  Swithin,  once 


WIN 


787 


WIN 


bishop  here.    St.  Birine  was  the  first  bishop  of  the  West  Saxons,  635.     The  see  is  valued  in 
the  king's  books  at  2,793?.  45-  2(^  annually.     Present  income,  10,500?, 

EECENT  BISHOPS   OF  WINCHESTER, 
Prelates  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter. 


1781.    Brownlow  North,  died  July  12,  1820. 
1820.     George  Pretyman  Tomline,  died  1827. 


1827. 


Charles  Richard   Sumner  (PRESENT   bishop. 

1865). 


WINDING-UP  ACTS  (to  facilitate  the  winding  up  the  affairs  of  joint-stock  companies 
which  are  unable  to  meet  their  engagements)  were  passed  in  1848,  1857,  and  1862. 

WINDMILLS  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  some  writers  state  them  to  be  of  Roman 
invention  ;  but  certainly  we  are  indebted  for  the  windmill  to  the  Saracens.  They  are  said 
to  have  been  originally  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  knights  of  St.  John,  who  took  the 
hint  from  what  they  had  seen  in  the  crusades.  Baker.  Windmills  were  first  known  in 
Spain,  France,  and  Germany,  in  1299.  Anderson.  Wind  saw-mills  were  invented  by  a 
Dutchman,  in  1633,  when  one  was  erected  near  the  Strand,  in  London. 

WINDOWS.  See  Glass.  There  were  windows  in  Pompeii,  A.D.  79,  as  is  evident  from 
its  ruins.  It  is  certain  that  windows  of  some  kind  were  glazed  so  early  as  the  3rd  century, 
if  not  before,  though  the  fashion  was  not  introduced  until  it  was  done  by  Bonnet,  633. 
Windows  of  glass  were  used  in  private  houses,  but  the  glass  was  imported,  1177.  Anderson. 
In  England,  in  1851,  about  6000  houses  had  fifty  windows  and  upwards  in  each;  about 
275,000  had  ten  windows  and  upwards  ;  and  725,000  had  seven  windows,  or  less  than  seven. 


Window-tax  first  enacted  in  order  to  defray  the 
expense  of  and  deficiency  in  the  re-coinage  of 
gold 1695 

The  tax  increased,  Feb.  5,  1746-7  ;  again  in  1778  ; 
and  again  on  the  commutation-tax  for  tea, 

Oct.  i,  1784 

The  tax  again  increased  in       .   1797,  1802,  and  1808 


Reduced 1823 

The  revenue  derived  from  windows  was  in  1840 

about  a  million  and  a-quarter  sterling;  and 

in  1850  (to  April  5),  1,832,684?. 
The  tax  repealed  by  act  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  36 

(which  act  imposed  a  duty  upon  inhabited 

houses  in  lieu  thereof)         .        .        July  24,  1851 


WINDSOR  CASTLE  (Berkshire),*  a  residence  of  the  British  sovereigns,  begun  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  and  enlarged  by  Henry  I.  about  mo.  Edward  III.,  who  was  born 
here,  caused  the  old  building,  with  the  exception  of  three  towers  at  the  west  end,  to  be 
taken  down,  and  re-erected  the  whole  castle,  under  the  direction  of  William  of  Wykeham, 
1356,  and  built  St.  George's  chapel.  He  assessed  every  county  in  England  to  send  him 
workmen.  James  I.  of  Scotland  was  imprisoned  here  1406-23.  Several  additions  were 
"made  by  Henry  VIII.  Elizabeth  made  the  grand  north  terrace  ;  and  Charles  II.  repaired 
and  beautified  it,  1680.  Camden ;  Mortimer.  The  chapel  was  repaired  and  opened,  Oct. 
1790.  The  castle  was  repaired  and  enlarged,  1824-8  ;  and  George  IV.  took  possession  of  it, 
Dec.  8,  1828.  Our  sovereigns  have  here  entertained  many  royal  personages  :  as  the 
emperor  and  empress  of  the  French,  in  April  1855.  A  serious  fire  occurred  at  the  castle,  in 
the  prince  of  Wales's  tower,  owing  to  some  defect  in  the  heating  apparatus,  March  19,  1853. 

WINE.  "Noah  planted  a  vineyard,  and  drank  of  the  wine,"  2347  B.C.  (Gen.  ix.  20). 
See  Vine.  Ching-Noung,  emperor  of  China,  is  said  to  have  made  rice  wine,  1998  B.C.  The 
art  of  making  wine  is  said  to  have  been  brought  from  India  by  Bacchus.  Christ  changed 
water  into  wine  at  the  marriage  in  Cana  of  Galilee,  A.D.  30.  John  ii.  3,  10.  Wine  was  sold 
in  England  by  apothecaries  as  a  cordial  in  1300,  and  so  continued  for  some  time  after, 
although  there  is  mention  of  "  wine  for  the  king"  so  early  as  1249.  In  1400,  the  price  was 
twelve  shillings  the  pipe.  A  hundred  and  fifty  butts  and  pipes  condemned,  for  being 
adulterated,  to  be  staved  and  emptied  into  the  channels  of  the  streets,  by  Raimvell,  mayor 
of  London,  1427.  Stows  Chron.  The  first  importation  of  claret  wine  into  Ireland  was  on 
June  17,  1490.  The  first  act  for  licensing  sellers  of  wine  in  England  passed  April  25,  1661. 
Wine  duties  to  be  2s.  gd.  per  gallon  on  Cape  wine,  and  55.  6d.  on  all  other  wines,  1831.  In 


*  Windsor  Forest,  situated  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  town  of  Windsor,  was  formerly  120  miles  in 
circumference  ;  in  1607,  it  was  77^  miles  round,  but  it  has  since  been  reduced  in  its  bounds  to  about  =6 
miles.  It  was  surveyed  in  1789,  and  found  to  contain  59,600  acres.  Virginia  Water  and  the  plantations 
about  it  were  taken  out  of  the  forest.  The  marshes  were  drained  and  the  trees  planted  for  WQIlaia.  duke 
of  Cumberland,  about  1746 :  and  much  was  done  by  George  IV.,  who  often  resided  at  the  lodge.  On  the 
south  side  is  Windsor  Great  Park,  which  was  fourteen  miles  in  circumference,  but  it  has  been  much 
enlarged  by  the  Inclosure  act ;  it  contains  about  3,800  acres.  The  Little  Park,  on  the  north  and  east  sic  es 
of  the  castle,  contains  about  500  acres.  The  gardens  are  elegant,  and  have  been  considerably  improved  by 
the  addition  of  the  house  and  gardens  of  the  duke  of  St.  Alban's,  purchased  by  the  crown. 

3  E  2 


WIN 


738 


WIT 


l8*5  4-306,528 
1830    6,879,558 
I^39  9,909,056 
1845    8  469  776 

1  1857 
!  !859 
1  1861 
I  1864 

1850  ...                  .   Q.304,112 

1856,  the  customs  duties  on  wines  produced  2,073,694?. ;  in  1858,  1,721,742?.}-  in  1859 
1,982,302?.;  in  1863,  1,212,971?.  By  the  French  treaty  of  commerce  about  1860,  the  duty 
on  wines  was  much  reduced.  Wine  licences  are  granted  to  refreshment  houses  by  an  act 
passed  in  1860. 

IMPORTATION   OF   WINE    OF    ALL   KINDS   INTO   THE   UNITED    KINGDOM. 

,  10,875,855  gallons. 

-0,336,485       „ 

8,195,513       ,, 

11,052,^36       ,, 

15,451,622       „ 

•    9.304>3i2  I 

WINTER.     See  Frosts. 

WIRE.  The  invention  of  drawing  wire  *  is  ascribed  to  Rodolph  of  Nuremberg,  about 
1410.  Mills  for  this  purpose  were  first  set  up  at  Nuremberg  in  1563.  The  first  wire-mill  in 
England  was  erected  at  Mortlake  in  1663.  Mortimer. 

WIRTEMBERG.     See  Wurtemberg. 

WISCONSIN,  a  N.  W.  state  of  N.  America,  was  organised  as  a  territory  in  1836  ;  and 
received  into  the  Union,  May  29,  1848. 

WITCHCRAFT.  The  punishment  of  witchcraft  was  commanded  in  the  Jewish  law 
(Exodus  xxii.  18)  1491  B.C.,  <k  Thou  shalt  not  suffer  a  witch  to  live."  Saul,  after  banishing 
or  condemning  witchcraft,  incurred  the  wrath  of  God  by  consulting  the  witch  of  Endor, 
1056  B.C.  (i  Sam.  xxviii.)  Bishop  Hutchinson's  important  historical  "Essay  on  Witch- 
craft" was  published  in  1718.  The  church  of  Rome  subjected  persons  suspected  of  the 
crime  to  the  most  cruel  torments  ;  and  pope  Innocent  VIII.  issued  a  bull  against  witchcraft 
in  1484.  Thousands  of  victims,  often  innocent,  were  burned  alive,  while  others  were  killed 
by  the  tests  applied. 


Joan  of  Arc  was  burnt  at  Rheims  as  a  witch,  May 
30.  I43i- 

About  five  hundred  witches  were  burnt  in  Geneva, 
in  three  months,  1515. 

One  thousand  were  burnt  in  the  diocese  of  Como  in 
a  year,  about  1524. 

An  incredible  number  in  France,  about  1520,  when 
one  sorcerer  confessed  to  having  1200  associates. 

Nine  hundred  were  burnt  in  Lorraine  between  1580 
and  1595. 

One  hundred  and  fifty-seven  were  burnt  at  Wurtz- 
burg  between  1627  and  1629,  old  and  young, 
clerical,  learned,  and  ignorant. 

At  Lindheim,  thirty  were  burnt  in  four  years,  out 
of  a  population  of  600 ;  and  more  than  100,000 
perished,  mostly  by  the  flames,  in  Germany. 

Grandier,  the  parish  priest  at  London,  was  burnt  on 
a  charge  of  having  bewitched  a  whole  convent  of 
nuns,  1634. 

In  Bretagne,  twenty  poor  women  were  put  to  death 
as  witches,  1654. 

Disturbances  commenced  on  charges  of  witchcraft  in 
America,  at  Massachusetts,  1648-9;  and  persecu- 
tions raged  dreadfully  in  Pennsylvania  in  1683. 

At  Salem,  in  New  England,  nineteen  persons  were 
hanged  (by  the  Puritans)  for  witchcraft,  eight 
more  were  condemned,  and  fifty  confessed  them- 
selves to  be  witches  and  were  pardoned,  1692. 

Maria  Renata  was  burnt  at  Wurtzburg  in  1749. 

At  Kalisk,  in  Poland,  nine  old  women  were  charged 


with  having  bewitched  and  rendered  unfruitful 
the  lands  belonging  to  that  palatinate,  and  were 
burnt,  Jan.  17,  1775. 

Five  women  were  condemned  to  death  by  the 
Brahmins,  at  Patna,  for  sorcery,  'and  ^executed, 
Dec.  15,  1802. 


WITCHCRAFT  IN  ENGLAND. 

Severe  laws  were  in  force  against  them  in  these 
countries  in  former  times,  by  which  death  was  the 
punishment,  and  thousands  of  persons  suffered 
both  by  the  public  executioner  and  the  hands  of 
the  people. 

A  statute  was  enacted  declaring  all  witchcraft  arid 
sorcery  to  be  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy, 

;3  Hen.   VIII.    1541.     Again,    5   Eliz.    1562,  and 
!  James,  1603. 
The  73rd  canon  of  the  church  prohibits  the  clergy 

from  casting  out  devils,  1603. 

Barrington  estimates  the  judicial  murders  for  witch- 
craft in  England  in  200  years  at  30,000. 
Matthew   Hopkins,  the  "witch-finder,"   causes   the 

judicial  murder  of  about   100  persons   in  Essex, 

Norfolk,  and  Suffolk,  1645-7. 
Sir  Matthew  Hale  burnt  two  persons  for  witchcraft 

in  1664. 
Northamptonshire  and  Huntingdon  preserved  the 

superstition  about  witchcraft  later  than  any  other 

counties. 


*  The  astonishing  ductility  which  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  qualities  of  gold,  is  no  way  more  con- 
spicuous than  in  gilt  wire.  A  cylinder  of  48  ounces  of  silver,  covered  with  a  coat  of  gold  weighing  only 
one  ounce,  is  usually  drawn  into  a  wire,  two  yards  of  which  only  weigh  one  grain  ;  so  that  98  yards  of  the 
wire  weigh  no  more  than  49  grains,  and  one  single  grain  of  gold  covers  the  whole  98  yards ;  and  the 
thousandth  part  of  a  grain  is  above  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.  Halley.  Eight  grains  of  gold,  covering  a 
cylinder  of  silver,  are  commonly  drawn  into  a  wire  13,000  feet  long;  yet  so  perfectly  does  it  cover  the 
silver,  that  even  a  microscope  does  not  discover  any  appearance  of  the  silver  underneath.  Boyle. 


WIT  789  WOO 

WITCHCRAFT,  continued. 

yenteen  or  eighteen  persons  burnt  at  St.  Osyths,  [      acquittal.     The  king  pxiblished  his  Dcemonologie  in 
in  Essex,  about  1676.  Edinburgh,  1597. 

Two  pretended  witches  were  executed  at  North-    The  last  sufferer  in  Scotland  was  at  Dornach  in  1722 


ampton  in  1705,  and  five  others  seven  years  after- 
wards. 

In  1716,  Mrs.  Hicks,  and  her  daughter,  aged  nine, 
were  hanged  at  Huntingdon. 


The  laws  against  witchcraft  had  lain  dormant  for 
many  years,  when  an  ignorant  person,  attempting 
to  revive  them,  by  finding  a  bill  against  a  poor 
old  woman  in  Surrey  for  the  practice  of  witchcraft, 


,  acc 

In   Scotland,   thousands  of  persons  were  burnt  in  I      they -were  repealed,  ioGeo.  II.  1736. 


the  period  of  about  a  hundred  years.  Among  the 
victims  were  persons  of  the  highest  rank,  while 
all  orders  in  the  state  concurred.  James  I.  even 
caused  a  whole  assize  to  be  prosecuted  for  an 


Credulity  in  witchcraft  still  abounds  in  the  country 
districts  of  England.  OnSept.  4,  i863,apoorold 
lyzed  Frenchman  died  in  conseqence  of  having 
ducked  as  a  wizard  at  Castle  Hedingham,  Essex. 


WITENA-MOT,  or  WITENA-GEMOT,  the  assembling  of  the  wise  men,  the  great  council  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons.  A  witena-mot  was  called  in  Winchester  by  Egbert,  800,  and  in  London, 
833,  to  consult  on  the  proper  means  to  repel  the  Danes.  See  Parliament. 

WITEPSK  (in  Russia),  where  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  French  under  marshal 
Victor,  duke  of  Belluno,  and  the  Russians  commanded  by  general  Wittgenstein.'  The  French 
were  defeated  after  a  desperate  engagement,  with  the  loss  of  3000  men,  Nov.  14,  1812. 

WITNESSES.  The  evidence  of  two  witnesses  required  to  attaint  for  high  treason, 
25  Eclw.  III.  1352.  In  civil  actions  between  party  and  party,  if  a  man  be  subpoenaed  as  a 
witness  on  a  trial,  he  must  appear  in  court  on  pain  of  lool.  to  be  forfeited  to  the  king,  and 
lol.,  together  with  damages  equivalent  to  the  loss  sustained  by  the  want  of  his  evidence  to 
the  party  aggrieved.  Lord  Ellenborough  ruled  that  no  witness  is  obliged  to  answer 
questions  which  may  tend  to  degrade  himself,  Dec.  10,  1802.  New  act  relating  to  the 
examination  of  witnesses  passed  13  Geo.  III.  1773.  Act  to  enable  courts  of  law  to  order  the 
examination  of  witnesses  upon  interrogations  and  otherwise,  I  Will.  IV.  March  30,  1831. 

WIVES.  See  Marriage.  By  the  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Causes  act,  passed  in  1857, 
the  condition  of  married  women  has  been  much  benefited.  When  ill-used  they  can  obtain  a 
divorce  or  judicial  separation  ;  and  while  in  the  latter  state  any  property  they  may  acquire 
is  secured  to  them  personally,  as  if  unmarried.  By  another  act  passed  in  1857,  they  are 
enabled  to  dispose  of  reversionary  interests  in  personal  property  or  estates. 

WIVES'  POISON,  or  WATER  TOFANO.     See  Poisoning. 

WOLVES  were  once  very  numerous  in  England.  Their  heads  were  demanded  as  a 
tribute,  particularly  300  yearly  from  Wales,  by  king  Edgar,  961,  by  which  step  they  were 
said  to  be  totally  destroyed.  Carte.  Edward  I.  issued  his  mandate  for  the  destruction  of 
wolves  in  several  counties  of  England,  1289.  Ireland  was  infested  by  wolves  for  many 
centuries  after  their  extirpation  in  England  ;  for  there  are  accounts  of  some  being  found 
there  so  late  as  1710,  when  the  last  presentment  for  killing  wolves  was  made  in  the  county 
of  Cork.  Wolves  still  infest  France,  in  which  kingdom  834  wolves  and  cubs  were  killed  in 
1828-9. 

WONDERS  OF  THE  WOULD.  I.  The  pyramids  of  Egypt.  2.  The  mausoleum  or  tomb 
built  for  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  by  Artemisia,  his  queen.  3.  The  temple  of  Diana,  at 
Ephesus.  4.  The  walls  and  hanging-gardens  of  the  city  of  Babylon.  5.  The  vast  brazen 
image  of  the  sun  at  Rhodes,  called  the  Colossus.  6.  The  ivory  and  gold  statue  of  Jupiter 
Olympus.  7.  The  pharos  or  watch-tower,  built  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  king  of  Egypt. 
See  separate  articles. 

WOOD-CUTS.     See  Engraving  on  Wood. 

WOOD'S  HALF-PENCE,  for  circulation  in  Ireland  and  America,  were  coined  by  virtue 
of  a  patent,  passed  1722-3.  Against  this  project,  Dr.  Jonathan  Swift,  by  his  Drapiers 
letters  raised  such  a  spirit  against  Wood,  that  he  was  effectually  banished  the  kingdom. 
The  half-pence  were  assayed  in  England  by  sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  proved  to  be  genuine,  in 
1724. 

WOODEN  PAVEMENT  (expensive  and  perishable)  seemed  at  one  time  likely  to 
supersede  stone  in  the  principal  thoroughfares  of  London.  A  wooden  pavement  was  laid 
down  at  Whitehall  in  1839  ;  and  in  Oxford-street,  the  Strand,  and  other  streets.  It  was 
soon  taken  up  as  inefficient. 

WOODSTOCK  (Oxfordshire).  In  Woodstock,  now  Blenheim-park,  originally  stood  a 
royal  palace,  in  which  king  Ethelred  held  a  parliament,  and  Alfred  the  Great  translated 
Boetius  de  Consolatione  Philosophic,  888.  Henry  I.  beautified  the  palace  ;  and  here  resided 


woo 


790 


WOO 


Rosamond,  mistress  of  Henry  II.  1191.  In  it  were  born  Edmund,  second  son  of  Edward  I., 
1301,  and  Edward,  eldest  son  of  Edward  III.,  1330;  and  here  the  princess  Elizabeth  was 
confined  by  her  sister  Mary,  155  4..  A  splendid  mansion,  built  at  the  expense  of  the  nation, 
for  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  was  erected  here  to  commemorate  the  victory  he  obtained  at 
Blenheim,  in  1704.  At  that  time  every  trace  of  the  ancient  edifice  was  removed,  and  two 
elms  were  planted  on  its  site. 

WOOL.  From  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  the  wool  of 
Great  Britain  was  not  only  superior  to  that  of  Spain,  but  accounted  the  finest  in  the 
universe  ;  and  even  in  the  times  of  the  Romans  a  manufacture  of  woollen  cloths  was 
established  at  Winchester  for  the  use  of  the  emperors.  Anderson.  In  later  times,  wool  was 
manufactured  in  England,  and  is  mentioned  1185,  but  not  in' any  quantity  until  1331,  when 
the  weaving  of  it  was  introduced  by  John  Kempe  and  other  artizans  from  Flanders.  This 
was  the  real  origin  of  our  now  unrivalled  manufacture,  6  Edw.  III.  1331.  Rymers  Fwdcra. 


Duties  on  exported  wool  were  levied  by  Edw.  I.  1275 

The  exportation  prohibited 1337 

Staples  of  wool  established  in  Ireland,  at  "Dub- 
lin, Waterford,  Cork,  and  Drogheda,  18 
Edw.  Ill 1343 

Sheep  were  first  permitted  to  be  sent  to  Spain, 
which  has  since  injured  our  manufacture. 
Stow 1467 

First  legislative  prohibition  of  the  export  of 
wool  from  Ireland 1521 

The  exportation  of  English  wool,  and  the  im- 
portation of  Irish  wool  into  England  pro- 
hibited   1696 

The  export  forbidden  by  act  passed      .        .    .1718 


Bill  to  prevent  the  running  of  wool  from  Ire- 
land to  France 

The  duty  on  wool  imported  from  Ireland  taken 


Wool-combers'  act,  35  Geo.  III.  . 

The    non-exportation    law    was    repealed,*  5 

Geo.  IV.  

In  1851  we  imported  83,311,975  Ib.  of  wool  and 

alpaca;    in  1856,   116,211,392    Ib. ;    in  1859, 

133,284,634  Ib.  ;  in  1861,  147,172,841    Ib.  ;    in 

1864,  206, 473, 645  Ib. 
We     imported     from     Australia,     in     1842, 

12,979,856  Ib. ;   in    1856,  56,052,139   Ib. ;    in 

1859,  53,700,542  Ib.  ;    in  1861,  68,506,222  Ib. ; 

in  1864,  99,037,459  Ib. 


1738 
1739 


1824 


WOOLLEN  CLOTH.     Woollen  cloths  were  made  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  time 
Julius  Csesar,  and  are  familiarly  alluded  to  by  him. 


The  Jews  were  forbidden  to  wear  garments  of 
woollen  and  linen  together  .  .  .  B.C.  1451 

70  families  of  cloth-workers  (from  the  Nether- 
lands) settled  in  England  by  Edward  III. 
Rymer 1331 

A  kind  of  blankets  were  first  made  in  England. 
Camden about  1340 

"Woollens  made  at  Kendal 1390 

No  cloth  but  of  Wales  or  Ireland  to  be  imported 
into  England 1463 

The  art  of  dyeing  brought  to  England.  See 
Dyeing 1608 

Medleys,  or  mixed  broad-cloth,  first  made         .  1614 

Manufacture  of  fine  cloth  began  at  Sedan,  in 
France,  under  the  patronage  of  cardinal 
Mazarine 1646 

Broadcloth  first  dressed  and  dyed  in  England, 
by  Brewer,  from  the  Low  Countries  .  .  .  1667 


British  and  Irish  woollens  prohibited  in  France  1677 
All  persons  obliged  to  be  buried  in  woollen,  and 

the  persons  directing  the  burial  otherwise  to 

forfeit  5?.,  29  Chas.  II 1678 

The  manufacture  of  cloth  greatly  improved  in 

England  by  Flemish  settlers  ....  1688 
Injudiciously  restrained  in  Ireland,  n  Will.  III.  1698 
The  exportation  from  Ireland  wholly  prohibited, 

except  to  certain  ports  of  England  .  .  .  1701 
English  manufacture  encouraged  by  10  Anne, 

1712,  and  2  Geo.  1 1715 

Greater  in  Yorkshire  in  1785  than  in  all  England 

at  the  revolution.     Chalmers 
Value  of  woollen  manufactures  of  all  kinds 

exported :     in    1847.    6,896,038?. ;   in    1854, 

9,120,759?.;   in    1861,   11,118,692?.;   in    1864, 

18,566,078?. 


WOOL-COMBERS  in  several  parts  of  England  have  a  procession  on  Feb.  3,  in  comme- 
moration of  bishop  Blaize,  who  is  reported  to  have  discovered  their  art.  He  is  said  to  have 
Visited  England  ;  and  St.  Blazy,  a  village  in  Cornwall,  is  celebrated  for  having  been  his 
landing-place.  He  wras  bishop  of  Sebastia,  in  Armenia,  and  suffered  martyrdom  in  the 
Diocletian  persecution,  289. 

WOOLSACK,  the  seat  of  the  lord  high  chancellor  of  England  in  the  house  of  lords,  is  so 
called  from  its  being  a  large  square  bag  of  wool,  without  back  or  arms,  covered  with  red 
cloth.  Wool  was  the  staple  commodity  of  England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  when  the 
woolsack  first  came  into  use. 

WOOLWICH  (Kent),  the  most  ancient  military  and  naval  arsenal  in  England,  and 
celebrated  for  its  royal  dockyard,  where  men-of-war  have  been  built  as  early  as  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  1512,  when  the  Harry  Grace  de  Dieu  was  constructed.  Here  she  also  was  burnt 
in  1552.  The  royal  arsenal  was  formed  about  1720,  on  the  site  of  a  rabbit-warren  ;  it  contains 
vast  magazines  of  great  guns,  mortars,  bombs,  powder,  and  other  warlike  stores  ;  a  foundry, 
with  several  furnaces,  for  casting  ordnance  ;  and  a  laboratory,  where  fireworks,  cartridges, 
grenades,  &c.,  are  made  for  the  public  service.  The  Royal  Military  Academy  was  erected  in 


WOE 


791 


WOE 


the  royal  arsenal,  but  the  institution  was  not  completely  formed  until  igth  Geo.  II.  1745. 
The  arsenal,  storehouses,  &c.,  burnt,  to  the  value  of  200,000?.  May  20,  1802.  Another  great 
fire  occurred  June  30,  1805.  Fatal  explosion  of  gunpowder,  Jan.  20,  1813.  The  hemp- 
store  burnt  down,  July  8,  1813.  Another  explosion  by  gunpowder,  June  16,  1814.  About 
10,000  persons  are  now  employed  in  Woolwich  arsenal. 

WORCESTER  was  successively  an  important  Welsh,  Konian,  and  Saxon  town.  It  was 
burnt  by  the  Danes  1041,  for  resisting  the  tribute  called  Danegelt.  William  I.  built  a  castle 
1090.  The  city  was  frequently  taken  and  retaken  during  the  civil  Avars  of  the  middle  ages. 
— The  BISHOPRIC  was  founded  by  Ethelred,  king  of  the  Mercians,  680,  and  taken  from  the 
see  of  Lichfield,  of  which  it  composed  a  part.  The  married  priests  of  the  cathedral  were 
displaced,  and  monks  settled  in  their  stead,  964.  The  church  was  rebuilt  by  Wolstan, 
25th  bishop,  1030.  The  see  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Eome  four  saints,  and  to  the 
English  nation  five  lord  chancellors  and  three  lord  treasurers.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's 
books  at  1049?.  165.  3j<l  per  annum.  Present  income,  5000?. 

RECENT  BISHOPS   OF  WORCESTER. 


1781.  Richard  Hiird,  died  May  28,  1808. 
1808.  Folliott  H.  Cornwall,  died  Sept.  5,  1831. 
1831.  Robert  James  Carr,  died  April  24,  1841. 


1841.  Henry  Pepys,  died  Nov.  13, 1860. 
1860.  Henry  Philpott  (PRESENT  bishop). 


WORCESTER,  BATTLE  OF,  Sept.  3,  1651,  when  the  Scots  army  which  came  to  England 
to  reinstate  Charles  II.  was  defeated  by  Cromwell,  who  called  it  his  crowning  mercy. 
Charles  with  difficulty  escaped  to  France.  More  than  2000  of  the  royalists  were  slain,  and 
of  8000  prisoners  most  were  sold  as  slaves  to  the  American  colonists. 

WORKING  MEN'S  CLUBS  may  be  considered  to  have  begun  with  the  Working  Men's 
Mutual  Improvement  and  Recreation  society,  established  in  Lancaster  by  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  Rev.  H.  Soils,  in  1860.  The  Westminster  Working  Men's  club,  in  Duck- 
lane,  originated  with  Miss  Adeline  Cooper,  and  was  opened  in  Dec.  1860.  The  Working 
Men's  Club  and  Institute  Union  was  established  by  Lord  Brougham  and  others,  June  4,  1862. 

WORKING  MEN'S  COLLEGES.  The  first  was  established  in  Sheffield,  by  working- 
men.  The  second,  in  London,  by  the  rev.  professor  Frederic  D.  Maurice,  as  principal, 
in  Oct.  1854  ;  a  third  in  Cambridge,  and,  in  1855,  a  fourth  at  Oxford;  all,  wholly  for  the 
working  classes,  and  undertaking  to  impart  such  knowledge  as  each  man  feels  he  is  most  in 
want  of.  The  colleges  engage  to  find  a  teacher,  wherever  10  or  12  members  agree  to  form  a 
class,  and  also  to  have  lectures  given.  There  were  eleven  classes  at  the  one  in  London  in 
1856  ;  Mr.  Ruskin  gave  lessons  in  drawing.  These  colleges  have  been  found  to  be  self- 
supporting. 

WORLD.     See  Creation  and  Globe. 

WORMS,  a  city  on  the  Rhine,  in  Hesse  Darmstadt.  Here  Charlemagne  resided  in 
806  B.C.  Several  imperial  diets  have  been  held  at  Worms,  where  was  held  the  imperial  diet 
before  which  Martin  Luther  was  summoned,  April  4,  1521,  and  by  which  he  was  proscribed. 
Luther  was  met  by  2000  persons  on  foot  and  on  horseback,  at  the  distance  of  a  league 
from  Worms.  Such  was  his  conviction  of  the  justice  of  his  cause,  that  when  Spalatin  sent 
a  messenger  to  warn  him  of  his  danger,  he  answered,  "If  there  were  as  many  devils  in 
Worms  as  there  are  tiles  upon  the  roofs  of  its  houses,  I  would  go  on."  Before  the  emperor, 
the  archduke  Ferdinand,  six  electors,  twenty-four  dukes,  seven  margraves,  thirty  bishops  and 
prelates,  and  many  princes,  counts,  lords,  and  ambassadors,  Luther  appeared,  April  I7th, 
in  the  imperial  diet,  acknowledged  all  his  writings  and  opinions,  and  left  Worms  in  fact  a 
conqueror.  Yet,  to  save  his  life,  he  had  to  remain  in  seclusion  under  the  protection  of  the 
elector  of  Saxony  for  about  a  year. 

WORSHIP.  The  first  worship  mentioned  is  that  of  Abel,  3872  B.C.  Gen.  iv.  "Men 
began  to  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord,"  3769  B.C.  Gen.  iv.  The  Jewish  order  of  worship 
was  set  up  by  Moses,  1490  B.C.  Solomon  consecrated  the  temple,  1004  B.C.  ^  To  the 
corruptions  of  the  simple  worship  of  the  patriarchs  all  the  Egyptian  and  Greek  idolatries- 
owed  their  origin.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  king  of  Upper  Egypt,  is  supposed  to  be  the  Copt 
of  the  Egyptians,  and  the  Toth,  or  Hermes,  of  the  Greeks,  the  Mercury  of  the  Latins,  and 
the  T&utotes  of  the  Celts  or  Gauls,  2112  B.C.  Usher. 

WORSHIP  IN  ENGLAND.  The  Druids  were  the  priests  here,  at  the  invasion  of  the 
Romans  (55  B.C.),  who  eventually  introduced  Christianity,  which  was  almost  extirpated  by 
the  victorious  Saxons  (455-820),  who  were  pagans.  The  Roman  Catholic  form  of  Christianity 
was  introduced  by  Augustine,  596,  and  continued  till  the  Reformation,  which  see. 


WOR 


792 


WRE 


WORSHIP,  continued. 


Church  of  England     . 

Wesleyan  Methodists     . 

Independents 

Baptists  .... 

Roman  Catholics 

Society  of  Friends 

Unitarians 

Scottish  Presbyterians  .        .     , 

Latter-day  Saints  (Mormonites) 

Brethren  (Plymouth) 

Jews       .       . 


fORSHI 

1' 

IN  ENGLAND   AND   WALES   IN    1851. 

/  Worship. 

Sittings.                                                               Places  of  Worship 

Sittings. 

I4>077 

5,317,915  !  New  Church  (Swedenborgians)  . 

50 

12,107 

6,579 

2 

,194,298 

Moravians    . 

S2 

9.305 

3,244 
2,789 

i 

,067,760    Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church  ) 
752,343  !      (Irvingites)  .                         .   f 

32 

7,437 

57° 

1  86,  ii  i  i  Greek  Church     .... 

3 

291 

91,559    Countess     of     Huntingdon's) 

229 

68,554 

Connection    .         .        .        .  ) 

109 

35>2io 

160 

86,6^2 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists     . 

828 

198,242 

222 
I32  (?) 

30,783 
18,529 

Various    small    bodies,    some  ) 
without  names          .        .      f 

546 

105,557 

53 

8,438 

See  Wesleyan  Methodists  . 

note. 

"WORSTED,  spun  wool,  obtained  its  name  from  having  been  first  spun  at  a  town  called 
"Worsted,  in  Norfolk,  in  which  the  inventor  lived,  and  where  manufactures  of  worsted  are 
still  extensively  carried  on,  14  Edw.  III.  1340.  Anderson.  "A  Worsted-stocking  Knave  " 
is  a  term  of  reproach  or  contempt  used  by  Shakspere. 

WORTHIES,  NINE,  a  term  long  ago  given  to  the  following  eminent  men  : 


Jews. 

Joshua     . 
David  . 
Judas  Maccabeus 


Died. 
B.C.  1426 
.     .  1015 
.     161 


Heathens. 
Hector  of  Troy 
Alexander  the  Great . 
Julius  Csesar  . 


Died. 
B.C.  1184 
•     •    323 
44 


Christians.  Died. 

King  Arthur  of  Britain  .  A.D.     542 

Charlemagne  of  France  .     .     814 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon        .  .  noo 


In  Shakspeare's  Love's  Labour's  Lost,  act  v.  sc.  2,  Hercules  and  Pompey  appear  as  worthies. 

WOTHLYTYPE.     See  under  Photography. 

WOUNDING.  Malicious  wounding  of  another  was  adjudged  death  by  the  English 
statutes.  The  Coventry  act  was  passed  in  1671.  See  Coventry  Act.  By  lord  Ellenborough's 
act,  persons  who  stab  or  cut  with  intent  to  murder,  maim,  or  disfigure  another  Avero 
declared  guilty  of  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy.  Those  guilty  of  maliciously  shooting  at 
another  in  any  dwelling-house  or  other  place,  are  also  punishable  under  the  same  statute  in 
the  same  degree,  43  Geo.  III.  1802.  This  offence  is  met  by  some  later  statutes,  particu- 
larly the  act  for  consolidating  and  amending  the  acts  relating  to  offences  against  the  person, 
9  Geo.  IV.  June,  1828.  This  last  act  is  extended  to  Ireland  by  10  Geo.  IV.  1829.  An  act 
for  the  prevention  of  maliciously  shooting,  stabbing,  &c.,  in  Scotland,  6  Geo.  IV.  1825; 
amended  by  10  Geo.  IV.  June  4,  1829.  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  30,  1853,  was  passed  for  the 
prevention  and  punishment  of  assaults  on  women  and  children. 

WRECKS.  The  loss  of  merchant  and  other  ships  by  wreck  upon  lee-shores,  coasts,  and 
disasters  in  the  open  sea,  was  estimated  at  Lloyd's,  in  1800,  to  be  about  an  average  of  365 
ships  -a  year.  In  1830,  it  appeared  by  Lloyd's  Lists,  that  677  British  vessels  were  totally 
lost,  under  various  circumstances  in  that  year. 


British  vessels  wrecked  in  1848,  were,  sailing  vessels, 

501,  steamers  13  ;  tonnage,  96,920. 
In  1851  there  were  wrecked  611  vessels,  of  which 

number  1 1  were  steamers ;   the  tonnage  of  the 

whole  being  111,976  tons. 
The  year   1852-3,    particularly  the  winter  months 


(Dec.  and  Jan.),  was  very  remarkable  for  the 
number  of  dreadful  shipwrecks  and  fires  at  sea  ; 
but  a  few  of  them  are  recorded. 
Many  vessels  were  lost  in  the  great  storms  Oct.  25, 
26,  1859,  May  28,  1861,  Oct.  19,  20,  1861,  and  Nov. 
13,  14,  1862. 


\V11ECKS   OF   VESSELS   ON  BRITISH   COASTS. 


1852     . 
1853 


Vessels. 

1015 

.       832 


Lives  lost.  [ 

.     920    1854 
•     •    689  I  1855 


7essels. 

.      897 

1141 


Livet  lost. 

•  1549 

.     .    469 


Vessels  wrecked  or  suffering 


1856 
1857 
1858 
1859 
1860 


other  casualties. 
"53 
"43 


14*5 
1379 


Vessels 
totally  wrecked. 

384 
354       ' 

541       • 


Lives  lost. 


521 
S32 
34° 
1645 
536 


Vessels  wrecked  or  suffering  Vessels          T.      ,    . 

other  casualties.  totally  icrtcked.  Llces  tost- 

1861  .     .      668        .     .          —          .        .     .  884 

1862  .        .     1827    .        .        455      .         .        .690 

1863  .     .     2001        .     .        503          .        .     .  620 

1864  .        .     1741     ..        467      ...  516* 


*  3619  lives  were  saved  by  the  use  of  rocket  apparatus,  life-boats,  <£c. 


AVKE 


793 


WKE 


WllEUKrf  OF  Si 


REMARKABLE   CASES    OF   BRITISH   VESSELS    WRECKED    OR   BURNT. 


Alo.ry  Rose,  60  guns,  going  from  Portsmouth 
to  Spithead,  upset  in  a  squall ;  all  on  board 
perished  .....  July  20,  1545 

Coronation,  go  guns,  foundered  off  the  Ram- 
head  ;  crew  saved :  Harwich,  70  guns,  wrecked 
on  Mount  Edgcumbe  ;  crew  perished,  Sept.  i,  1691 

Royal  Sovereign,  looguns;  burnt  in  the  Medway, 

Jan  29,  1696 

Stirling  Castle,  70  guns,  Mary,  70  guns,  Nor- 
thumberland, 70  guns,  lost  on  the  Goodwin  ; 
Vanguard,  70  guns,  sunk  at  Chatham  ;  York; 
70  guns,  lost  near  Harwich  ;  all  lost  but  four 
men ;  Resolution,  60  guns,  coast  of  Sussex ; 
Newcastle,  60  guns,  at  Spithead,  193  drowned  ; 
Reserve,  60  guns,  at  Yarmouth,  1 73  perished  ; 
in  the  night  of Nov.  26,  1703 

Association,  70  guns,  and  other  vessels,  lost 
with  admiral  sir  C.  Shovel,  off  the  Scilly  isles 
(which  see) Get.  22,  1707 

Solebay,  32  guns,  lost  near  Boston  neck ;  crew 
perished Dec.  25,  1709 

Edgar,  70  guna,  blew  up  at  Spithead ;  all  on 
board  perished  .  .  .  Oct.  15,  1711 

Victory,  100  guns,  near  the  isle  of  Alderney ;  all 
perished Oct.  5,  1744 

Colchester,  50  guns,  lost  on  Kentish  Knock ;  40 
men  perished Sept.  21,  „ 

Namur,  74  guns,  foundered  near  Fort  St.  David, 
East  Indies  ;  all  perished  except  26  persons  ; 
Pembroke,  60  guns,  near  Porto  Novo  ;  330  of 
her  crew  perished  .  .  .  April  13,  1749 

Prince  George,  So  guns,  burnt  in  lat.  48  N.,  on 
her  way  to  Gibraltar ;  about  400  perished 

April  13,  1758 

Lichfield,  50  guns,  lost  on  the  coast  of  Barbary; 
1 30  of  the  crew  perished  .  .  Nov.  29  ,, 

Tilbury,  60  guns,  lost  off  Louisbourg  ;  most  of 
the  crew  perished  .  .  .  Sept.  25,  1759 

Ramilies,  90  guns,  lost  on  the  Bolt-head ;  only 
26  persons  saved ;  Conqueror,  lost  on  St. 
Nicholas's  Island,  Plymouth  .  Feb.  15,  1760  | 

Due  d' Aquitaine,  64  guns,  and  Sunderland,  60 
guns,  lost  off  Pondicherry ;  all  perished, 

Jan  i,  1761 

Raisonnable,  64  guns,  lost  at  the  attack  of  Mar- 
tinique * Feb.  3,  1762 

Repulse,  32  guns,  foundered  off  Bermuda;  crew 
perished 1775 

Thunderer,  74  guns  ;  Stirling  CoMle,  64 ;  Defiance, 
64 ;  Phcenix,  44  ;  La  Blanche,  32 ;  Laurel,  28  ; 
Stiark,  28 ;  Andromeda,  28 ;  Deal  Castle,  24  ; 
Penelope,  24;  Scarborough,  20  ;  Barbadoes,  14; 
Cameleon,  14;  Endeavour,  14;  and  Victor,  10 
guns  :  all  lost  in  the  same  storm,  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  Oct.  1780 

Gen.  Barker,  Indiaman,  off  Scheveling,  Feb.  17,  1781 

Grosvenor,  Indiaman,  coast  of  Caffraria,  Aug.  4,  1782 

Swan,  sloop  of  war,  off  Waterford ;  130  persons 
drowned Aug.  4,  „ 

Royal    George,    above    600    persons    perished, 

Aug.  29,     „ 

Centaur,  74  guns,  foundered  on  her  passage 
from  Jamaica ;  capt.  Iiiglefield  and  1 1  of  the 
crew  saved Sept.  21,  ,, 

Ville  de  Paris,  of  104  guns,  one  of  admiral  Rod- 
ney's prizes  ;  the  Glorieux,  of  74  guns,  lost  in 
the  West  Indies Oct.  5,  „ 

Si>p>-  rb,  74  guns,  wrecked  in  Tellicherry  roads, 
East  Indies Nov.  5,  1783 

Cato,  50  guns,  admiral  sir  Hyde  Parker,  on  the 
Malabar  coast ;  crew  perished  .  .  .  ,, 

Count  Bclgioioso,  Indiaman,  off  Dublin  Bay  ;  147 
souls  perished  ....  March  13,  ,, 

Menai,  ferry-boat,  in  the  Strait ;   60  drowned, 

Dec.  5,  1785 

Halseicell,  E.  Indiaman  ;  100  persons  perished, 

Jan.  6,  1786 


Hartwell,  Indiaman,  with  immense  wealth  on 
board May  24,  1787 

Charletuont  Packet,  from  Holyhead  to  Dublin  ; 
104  drowned  .....  Dec.  22,  1790 

Pandora,  frigate,  on  a  reef ;  100  souls  perished, 

Aug.  28,  1791 

Union,  packet,  of  Dover,  lost  off  the  port 'of 
Calais ;  a  similar  occurrence  had  not  hap- 
pened for  105  years  before  .  .  Jan.  28,  1792 

Winterton,  E.  Indiaman  :  many  perish,  Aug.  20,     ,, 

Impe'tueux,  74  guns,  burnt  at  Portsmouth, 

Aug.  24,  ,, 

Scorpion,  74  guns,  burnt  at  Leghorn.     Nov.  20,  1793 

Ardent,  64  guns,  burnt  off  Corsica          .     April,  1794 

Boyne,  by  fire,  at  Spithead  (see  Boyne)     May  4,  1795 

Courageux,  74  guns,  capt.  B.  Hallowell,  near 
Gibraltar ;  crew,  except  124,  perished, 

Dec.  1 8,  1796 

La  Tribune,  36  guns,  off  Halifax;  300  souls 
perished  •&- Nov.  16,  1797 

Resistance,  Wown  up  in  the  Straits  of  Banca, 

July  24,  1798 

Royal  Charlotte,  East  Indiaman,  blown  up  at 
Culpee Aug.  i,  ,, 

Proserpine  frigate,  in  the  Elbe;  15  lives  lost, 

Feb.  i,  ,, 

Lutine,  36  guns,  wrecked  off  the  Vlie  island, 
coast  of  Holland;  only  two  men  saved, 

Oct.  9,  1799 

Impregnable,  98  guns,  wrecked  between  Lang- 
stone  and  Chichester  .  .  .  Oct.  19,  ,, 

Sceptre,  64  guns,  wrecked  in  Table  Bay,  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  ;  291  of  the  crew  perished  .  .  ,, 

Nassau,  64  guns,  on  the  Haak  Bank ;  100 
perished Oct.  25,  ,, 

Ethalion,  frigate,  38  guns,  on  the  Penmarks 

Dec.  24,  ,, 

Queen,  transport,  on  Trefusis  Point ;  369  souls 
perished Jan.  14,  1800 

Mastiff,  gunbrig,  on  the  Cockle  Sands,  Jan.  19,     ,, 

Repulse,  64  guns,  off  Ushant    .        .     March  10,     ,, 

Queen,  W.  Indiaman,  by  fire,  off  Brazil.   July  9,     , , 

Invincible,  74  guns,  near  Yarmouth  ;  capt.  John 
Rennie  and  the  crew,  except  126  souls, 
perished March  16, 


Margate,  Margate-hoy,  near  Reculver ;  23  per- 
sons perished Feb.  10, 

Bangalore,  E.  Indiaman,  Indian  Sea,  April  12, 
Active,  West  Indiaman,  in  Margate  Roads, 

Jan.  10, 
Hindostan,  East  Indiaman,  went  to  pieces  011 

the  Culvers Jan.  n, 

La  De'terminiie,  24  guns,  in  Jersey  Roads :  many 

drowned March  26, 

Resistance,    36   guns,    off    Cape    St.    Vincent, 

May  31, 

Lady   Hobart,  packet,    on   an   island   of   ice, 

June  28, 

Seine,  fiigate,  44  guns,  off  Schelling,  July  31, 
Antelope,  capt.  Wilson,  off  Pellew  Islands, 

Aug.  9, 
Victory,     Liverpool    ship,    at    Liverpool ;    27 

drowned Sept.  30, 

Circe    frigate,   32   guns,  on  Yarmouth  coast, 

Nov.  16, 

Nautilus,  E.  Indiaman,  on  Ladrones  Nov.  18, 
Fanny,  in  Chinese  Sea;  46  souls  perish, 

Nov.  29, 

Suffisante,  sloop  of   war,    16   guns,    off  Cork, 

Dec.  25, 

Apollo,  frigate,  on  coast  of  Portugal  .  April  i, 
Cumberland  Packet,  on  Antigua  coast,  Sept.  4, 
Romney,  50  guns,  on  Haak  Bank,  Texel, 

Nov.  1 8, 

Venerable,   74  guns,  at  Torbay;   lost  8    men, 

Nov.  24, 
Severn,  on  a  rock,  near  Grouville,       .    Dec.  21, 


1801 
1802 


1804 


WEE 


'94 


WEE 


WEECKS  OF  SHIPPING,  continued. 

Doris,  frigate,  on  the  Diamond  Rock,  Quiberon 
Bay Jan.  12,  1805 

Abergavenny,  East  Indiaman,  on  the  Bill  of  Port- 
land ;  more  than  300  persons  perish,  Feb.  6,  ,, 

Naias,   transport,     on    Newfoundland    coast, 

Oct.  23,    „ 

JEneas,  transport,  off  Newfoundland :  340  pe- 
rished   Oct.  23,  ,, 

Aurora,  transport,  on  the  Goodwin  Sands;  300 
perished Dec.  21,  ,, 

King  George,  packet,  from  Park- gate  to  Dublin, 
lost  on  the  Hoyle  bank  ;  125  persons,  pas- 
sengers and  crew,  drowned  .  Sept.  21,  1806 

Alhenien,  64  guns,  near  Tunis ;  347  souls 
perished Oct.  27,  ,, 

Glasgow,  packet,  off  Farm  Island;  several 
drowned Nov.  17,  „ 

Fdix,  12  guns,  near  Santander;  79  souls  lost, 

Jan.  22,  1807 

Blenheim,  74  guns,  admiral  sir  T.  Troubridge, 
and  Java,  32  guns,  foundered  near  isle  of 
Rodriguez,  East  Indies  .  .  Feb.  i,  ,, 

Ajax,  74  guns,  by  fire,  off  the  island  of  Tenedos ; 
250  perished Feb.  14,  ,, 

Blanche,  frigate,  on  the  French  coast ;  45  men 
perished ......  March  4,  „ 

Ganges,  East  Indiaman,  off  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope May  29,  ,, 

Prince  of  Wales,  Park-gate  packet,  and  Rochdale, 
transport,  on  Dunleary  point,  near  Dublin ; 
nearly  300  souls  perished  .  .  Nov.  19,  ,, 

Boreas,  man-of-war,  upon  the  Hannois  rock  in 
the  Channel Nov.  28,  „ 

Anson,  44  guns,  wrecked  in  Mount's  Bay ;  60 
lives  lost Dec.  29,  ,, 

Agatha,  near  Memel ;  lord  Royston  and  others 
drowned April  7,  1808 

Astrea,  frigate,  on  Anagada  coast     .       May  23,    „ 

Frith,  passage-boat,  in  the  Frith  of  Dornoch ; 
40  persons  drowned  .  .  .  Aug.  13,  1809 

Foxhound,  18  guns,  foundered  on  passage  from 
Halifax ;  crew  perished  .  .  Aug.  31,  ,, 

Sirius,  36  guns,  and  Magicienne,  36  guns, 
wrecked  when  advancing  to  attack  the 
French,  off  Isle  of  France  .  .  Aug.  23,  1810 

Satellite,  sloop  of  war,  16  guns,  upset,  and  all  on 
board  perished  ....  Dec.  14,  ,, 

Minotaur,  of  74  guns,  wrecked  on  the  Haak 
Bank ;  360  persons  perished  .  .  Dec.  22,  ,, 

Pandora,  sloop-of-war,  off  Jutland,  30  persons 
perished Feb.  13,  1811 

Saldanha,  frigate,  on  the  Irish  coast ;  300  per- 
sons perished Dec.  4,  ,, 

St.  George,  of  98,  and  Defence,  of  74  guns,  and 
the  Hero,  stranded  on  the  coast  of  Jutland, 
adm.  Reynolds  and  all  the  crews  (about  2000 
persons)  perished  except  1 8  seamen,  Dec.  24,  ,, 

Manilla,  frigate,  on  the  Haak  Sand,  12  persons 
perished Jan.  28,  1812 

British  Queen,  packet,  from  Ostend  to  Margate, 
wrecked  on  the  Goodwin  Sands,  and  all  on 
board  perished Dec.  17,  1814 

Duchess   of  Wellington,    at   Calcutta,    by   fire, 

Jan.  21,  1816 

Seahorse,  transport,  near  Tramore  Bay ;  365  per- 
sons, chiefly  soldiers  of  the  sgth  regiment, 
and  most  of  the  crew,  drowned  .  Jan.  30,  , , 

Lord  Melville  and  Boadicea,  transports,  with 
upwards  of  200  of  the  82iid  regiment,  with 
wives  and  children,  lost  near  Kinsale  ;  almost 
all  perished Jan.  31,  ,, 

Uarpooner,  transport,  near  Newfoundland  ;  100 
persons  drowned  ....  Nov.  10,  „ 

William  and  Mary  packet,  struck  on  the 
Willeys  rocks,  near  the  Holmes  lighthouse, 
English  Channel,  nearly  60  persons  perished, 

Oct.  24,  1817 

Queen  Charlotte,  East  Indiaman,  at  Madras  ;  all 
on  board  perished  ....  Oct.  24,  1818 


Ariel,  iu  the  Persian  Gulf;  79  souls  perished, 

March  18,  1820 

Earl  of  Moira,  on  the  Burbo  Bank,  near  Liver- 
pool ;  40  drowned  ....  Aug.  8,  1821 

Blendon  Hall,  on  Inaccessible  Island;  many 
perished July  23,  „ 

Juliana,  East  Indiaman,  on  the  Kentish  Knock ; 
40  drowned Dec.  26,  ,, 

Thames,  Indiaman,  off  Beachey  Head ;  several 
drowned Feb.  3,  1822 

Drake,  10  guns,  near  Halifax;  several  drowned, 

June  20,     ,, 

Ellesmere,  steamer  ;  n  persons  lost    .    Dec.  14,     ,, 

Alert,  Dublin  and  Liverpool  packet ;  70  souls 
perished March  26,  1823 

Robert,  from  Dublin  to  Liverpool ;  60  souls 
perished May  16,  ,, 

Fanny,  in  Jersey  Roads;  lord  Harley  and 
many  drowned Jan.  i,  1828 

Venus,  packet,  from  Waterford  to  Dublin,  near 
Gorey ;  9  persons  drowned  .  .  March  19,  ,, 

Newry,  from  Newry  to  Quebec,  with  360  pas- 
sengers ;  cast  away  near  Bardsy,  about  40 
persons  were  drowned  .  .  April  16,  1830 

Lady  Sherbrooke,  from  Londonderry  to  Quebec ; 
lost  near  Cape  Ray;  273  souls  perished;  32 
only  were  saved  ....  Aug.  19,  1831 

Experiment,  from  Hull  to  Quebec ;  wrecked 
near  Calais April  15,  1832 

Earl  of  Wemyss,  near  Wells,  Norfolk:  the  cabin 
filled,  and  u  ladies  and  children  were 
drowned;  all  on  deck  escaped  .  July  13,  1833 

Amphitrite,  ship  with  female  convicts  to  New 
South  Wales  ;  lost  on  Boulogne  Sands ;  out  of 
131  persons,  three  only  were  saved  Aug.  30,  1833 

United  Kingdom,  W.  Indiaman,  with  rich  cargo ; 
run  down  by  the  Queen  of  Scotland  steamer 
off  Northfleet,  near  Gravesend  .  Oct.  15,  „ 

Watenoitch,  steamer,  on  the  coast  of  Wexford  ; 

_  4  drowned Dec.  18,    ,, 

Lady  Munro,  from  Calcutta  to  Sydney ;  of  90 
persons  on  board,  not  more  than  20  were 
saved Jan.  9,  1834 

Cameleon,  cutter;  run  down  off  Dover  by  the 
Castor  frigate  ;  13  persons  drowned  Aug.  27,  ,, 

Killarney,  steamer,  off  Cork ;  29  persons  pe- 
rished   Jan.  26,  1838 

Forfarshire,  steamer,  from  Hull  to  Dundee ;  38 
persons  drowned.  Owing  to  the  courage  of 
Grace  Darling  and  her  father,  15  persons 
were  saved.  (See  Forfarshire)  .  .  Sept.  6,  ,, 

Protector,  E.  Indiaman ;  at  Bengal ;  of  178  per- 
sons on  board,  170  perished  .  Nov.  21,  ,, 

William  Huskisson,  steamer,  between  Dublin 
and  Liverpool ;  93  passengers  saved  by  capt. 
Clegg,  of  the  Huddersfleld  .  .  Jan.  n,  1840 

Lord  William  Bentinck,  off  Bombay;  58 recruits, 
20  officers,  and  7  passengers  perished :  the 
Lord  'Castlereagh  also  wrecked;  most  of  her 
crew  and  passengers  lost  .  .  June  17,  „ 

H.M.S.  Fairy,  captain  Hewitt;  sailed  from 
Harwich  on  a  surveying  cruise,  and  was  lost 
next  day  in  a  violent  gale,  off  the  coast  of 
Norfolk Nov.  13,  ,, 

City  of  Bristol,  steam-packet,  35  souls  perished,  ),.     ! 

Nov.  1 8,    „ 

Thames,  steamer,  captain  Gray,  from  Dublin  to 
Liverpool,  wrecked  off  St.  Ives  ;  the  captain 
and  55  persons  perished  .  .  Jan.  4,  1841 

Governor  Fenner,  from  Liverpool  for  America ; 
run  down  off  Holyhead  by  the  Nottingham 
steamer  out  of  Dublin ;  122  persons  perished. 

Feb.  19,    „ 

Amelia,' from  London  to  Liverpool ;  lost  on  the 
Herne  Sand Feb.  26,  ,, 

President,  steamer,  from  New  York  to  Liverpool, 
with  many  passengers  on  board ;  sailed  on 
March  u,  encountered  a  terrific  storm  two 


WRE 


795 


AVRE 


WRECKS  OF  SHIPPING,  continued. 

days  afterwards,  and  has  never  since  been 
heard  of March  13,  1841 

flu  this  vessel  were,  Mr.  Tyrone  Power,  the 
comedian ;  a  son  of  the  duke  of  Richmond, 
&c.] 

William  Browne,  by  striking  on  the  ice ;  16 
passengers  who  had  been  received  into  the 
long  boat  were  thrown  overboard  by  the  crew 
to  lighten  her  ....  April  19,  „ 

Isabella,  from  London  to  Quebec ;  struck  by  an 
iceberg May  9,  „ 

Solway,  steamer,  on  her  passage  between  Belfast 
and  Port  Carlisle ;  crew  saved  .  Aug.  25,  ,, 

Amanda,  off  Metis  :  29  passengers  and  12  of  the 
crew  lost Sept.  26,  ,, 

James  Cooke,  of  Limerick,  coming  from  Sligo  to 
Glasgow Nov.  21,  „ 

Abercrombie  Robinson  and  Waterloo  transports, 
in  Table  Bay,  Cape  of  Good  Hope  :  of  330 
persons  on  board  the  latter  vessel,  189,  prin- 
cipally convicts,  perished  .  .  Aug.  28,  1842 

Spitfire,  war-steamer,  on  the  coast  of  Jamaica, 

Sept.  10,    ,, 

Reliance,  East  Iiidiaman,  from  China  to  London, 
off  Merlemont,  near  Boulogne:  of  116  per- 
sons on  board,  seven  only  were  saved  Nov.  13,  ,, 

Hamilton,  on  the  Gunfleet  sands,  near  Har- 
wich;  1 1  of  the  crew  perished  .  Nov.  15,  ,, 

Conqueror,  East  Indiaman,  homeward  bound, 
near  Boulogne ;  crew  and  passengers  lost, 

Jan.  13,  1843 

Jessie  Logan,  East  Indiaman,  on  the  Cornish 
coast ;  many  lives  lost  .  .  Jan.  16,  „ 

Solway,  royal  mail-steamer,  near  Corunna ;  28 
lives  lost,  and  the  mail  .  .  .  April  7,  ,, 

Catharine,  trader,  blown  up  off  the  Isle  of  Pines  : 
most  of  the  crew  were  massacred  by  the 
natives,  or  afterwards  drowned  .  April  12,  „ 

Amelia  Thompson,  near  Madras,  part  of  crew 
saved May  23,  ,, 

Albert,  troop-ship,  from  Halifax,  with  the  64th 
regiment  on  board,  which  was  miraculously 
saved July  13,  ,, 

Pc(/ams,  steam-packet,  from  Leith  ;  off  the  Fern 
Islands ;  of  59  persons,  7  only  were  saved, 

July  19,    „ 

[Mr.  Elton,  a  favourite  actor,  was  among  the 
sufferers.] 

P/ur:nix,  in  a  terrific  snow-storm,  off  the  coast  of 
Newfoundland ;  many  lives  were  lost,  Nov.  26,  ,, 

Elberfeldt,  iron  steam-ship,  from  Brielle,  Feb.  22,  1844 

Manchester,  steamer,  fron>  Hull  to  Hamburg, 
off  the  Vogel  Sands,  near  Cuxhaven  ;  about 
30  lives  lost June  16,  ,, 

Margaret,  Hull  and  Hamburg  steamer;  many 
lives  lost Oct.  22,  1845 

Great   BritoAn,  iron  steam-ship,  grounded   in 
Dundrum  bay.    (See  Great  Britain.)  Sept.  22,    ,, 
[Recovered  by  Brunei,  &c.,  Aug.  27,  1847.] 

John  Lloyd,  by  collision,  in  the  Irish  sea : 
several  lives  lost  ....  Sept.  25,  ,, 

T 'weed,  W.  India  mail-packet;  72  souls  perished, 

Feb.  19,  1847 

Carrick,  brig  ;  a  gale  in  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  170 
emigrants  perished  .  .  .  May  19,  ,, 

Avenger,  H.M.  steam -frigate  ;  off  N.  coast  of 
Africa ;  officers  and  crew  (nearly  200)  lost; 

Dec.  20,    „ 

Exmouth,  emigrant-ship,  from  Londonderry  to 
Quebec ;  of  240  persons  on  board,  nearly  all 
were  drowned  ....  April  28,  ,, 

Ocean  Monarch  (which  see)     .        .        .  Aug.  24,  1848 

Caleb  Grimshaw,  emigrant-ship,  by  fire  ;  400 
persons  miraculously  escaped  .  Nov.  12,  1849 

Ro>/al  Adelaide,  steamer,  wrecked  on  the  Tongue 
Sands,  off  Margate,  above  400  lives  lost, 

March  30,  1850 


Orion,  steam-ship,  off  Portpatrick.  (See  Orion.) 

June  r  8,  1850 

Rosalind,  from  Quebec ;  a  number  of  the  crew 
drowned Sept.  9,  „ 

Edmund,  emigrant-ship,  with  nearly  200  pas- 
sengers from  Limerick  to  New  York  (of 
whom  more  than  one-half  perished),  wi-ecked 
off  the  Western  coast  of  Ireland  .  Nov.  12,  ,, 

Amazon,  W.  India  mail-steamer.  (See  Amazon.) 

Jan.  4,  1852 

Birkenhead,  troop-ship,  iron  paddle-wheeled, 
and  of  556  horse-power,  sailed  from  Queens- 
town,  Jan.  7,  1852,  for  the  Cape,  having  on 
board  detachments  of  the  i2th  Lancers,  2nd, 
6th,  1 2th,  43rd,  45th,  and  6oth  Rifles,  7srd, 
74th,  and  gist  regiments.  It  struck  upon  a 
pointed  pinnacle  rock  off  Simon's  bay,  South 
Africa,  and  of  638  persons,  only  184  were 
saved  by  the  boats ;  454  of  the  crew  and 
soldiers  perished  ....  Feb.  26,  „ 

Victoria,  steam-packet.  (See  Victoria.)  Nov.  8,9,    „ 

Lily,  stranded  and  blown  up  by  gunpowder, 
on  the  Gulf-of-Man  ;  by  which  more  than  30 
persons  lost  their  lives  .  .  .  Dec.  24,  ,, 

St.  George,  steam-ship,  bound  from  Liverpool  to 
New  York,  with  121  emigrant  passengers 
(chiefly  Irish),  and  a  crew  consisting  of 
twenty-nine  seamen  (the  captain  inclusive), 
was  destroyed  by  fire  at  sea.  The  crew  and 
seventy  of  the  passengers  were  saved  by  the 
American  ship  Orlando,  and  conveyed  to 
Havre,  in  France ;  but  the  remainder,  fifty- 
one  souls,  are  supposed  to  have  perished, 

Dec.  24,  „ 

Queen  Victoria,  steam-ship,  bound  from  Liver- 
pool, was  wrecked  off  the  Bailey  lighthouse, 
near  Dublin ;  she  mistook  her  course  in  a 
snow-storm;  67  lives  were  lost  out  of  120, 

Feb.  15,  1853 

Independence,  on  the  coast  of  Lower  California, 
and  which  afterwards  took  fire ;  140  persons 
were  drowned  or  burnt  to  death,  a  few  escap- 
ing, who  underwent  the  most  dreadful  ad- 
ditional sufferings  on  a  barren  shore,  Feb.  16,  , , 

Duke  of  Sutherland,  steamer  from  London  to 
Aberdeen  ;  wrecked  on  the  pier  at  Aberdeen, 
and  the  captain  (Hoskins)  and  manyof_the 
crew  and  passengers  perished  .  April  2,  ,, 

Rebecca,  on  west  coast  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  ; 
capt.  Shephard  and  many  lives  lost,  April  29,  ,, 

William  and  Mary,  an  American  emigrant-ship, 
near  the  Bahamas.  She  struck  on  a  sunken 
rock ;  about  170  persons  perished  May  3,  „ 

Aurora,  of  Hull ;  sailed  from  New  York,  April 
26,  and  foundered ;  about  25  lives  lost.  May  20,  „ 

Bourneuf,  Australian  emigrant  vessel.  Struck 
on  a  reef  near  Torres  Straits.  The  captain 
(Bibby)  and  six  lives  lost  .  .  Aug.  3,  „ 

Annie  Jane,  of  Liverpool,  an  emigrant  vessel, 
driven  on  shore  on  the  Barra  Islands  on  west 
coast  of  Scotland;  about  348  lives  lost, 

Sept.  29,  „ 

Harwood,  brig,  by  collision  with  the  Trident 
steamer,  near  the  Mouse  light  near  the  Nore ; 
foundered  with  six  of  the  crew,  who  perished, 

Oct.  5,  „ 

Dalhousie,  foundered  off  Beachey  Head.  The 
captain  (Butterworth),  the  passengers,  and 
all  the  crew  (excepting  one),  about  60  persons 
in  all,  perished.  The  cargo  was  valued  at 
above  100,000? Oct.  19,  ,, 

Marshall,  screw-steamer,  in  the  North  Sea,  ran 
into  the  barque  Woodhouse  ;  about  48  persons 
supposed  to  have  perished  .  .  Nov  28,  „ 

Tayleur,  emigrant  ship,  driven  on  the  rocks  off 
Landbay  Island,  north  of  Howth ;  about  380 
lives  lost Jan.  20,  1854 


*  Arctic,  U.  S.  mail- steamer,  by  collision  in  a  fog  with  the  Veita  French  steamer  off  Newfoundland ; 
above  300  lives  lost,  Sept*  27,  1854. 


WRE 


796 


WRE 


WRECKS  OF  SHIPPING,  continued. 

Favourite,  in  the  Channel,  on  her  way  from 
Bi-emen  to  Baltimore,  came  into  violent  con- 
tact with  the  American  barque  Hesper,  off 
the  Start,  and  immediately  went  down  ;  201 
persons  were  drowned  .  .  April  29,  1854 

Lady  Nugent,  troop-ship,  sailed  from  Madras, 
May  10,  1854  ;  foundered  in  a  hurricane  ;  350 
rank  and  file  of  the  Madras  light  infantry, 
officers  and  crew,  in  all  400  souls,  perished, 

May, 

Forerunner,  African  mail-steamer,  struck  on  a 
sunken  rock  off  St.  Lorenzo,  Madeira,  and 
went  down  directly  afterwards,  with  the  total 
loss  of  ship  and  mails,  and  14  lives  .  Oct.  25,  1854 

Kile,,  iron  screw-steamer,  struck  on  the 
Godevry  rock,  St.  Ives'  Bay,  and  all  perished, 

Nov.  30, 

City  of  Glasgow,  a  Glasgow  steamer,  with  480 
persons  on  board,  disappeared  in  . 

In  the  storm  which  raged  in  the  Black  Sea, 
Nov.  13—16,  1854,  eleven  transports  were 
wrecked  and  six  disabled.  The  new  steam- 
ship Prince  was  lost  with  144  lives,  and  a 
cargo  worth  500,000^.  indispensable  to  the 
army  in  the  Crimea.  The  loss  of  life  in  the 
other  vessels  is  estimated  at  340  .  .  .  , 

George  Canning,  Hamburg  and  New  York  packet, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe :  96  lives  lost,  and 
Staley,  English  schooner,  near  Nexiwreek,  in 
a  great  storm  .  .  .  .  Jan.  i,  1855 

Mercury,  screw-steamer,  by  collision  with  a 
French  ship  :  passengers  saved  .  Jan.  n,  ,, 

Janet  £oyd,  bark,  in  a  storm  off  Margate 
Sands  ;  28  lives  lost  ....  Jan.  20,  „ 

Will  o'  the  Wisp,  screw-steamer,  on  the  Burn 
Rock,  off  Lam  bay  ;  18  lives  lost  .  Feb.  9,  „ 

Morna,  steamer,  on  rocks  near  the  Isle  of  Man  ; 
21  lives  lost  • Feb.  25,  ,, 

John,  emigrant  vessel,  on  the  Muiicles  rocks  off 
Falmouth  ;  200  lives  lost  .  .  .  May  i,  ,, 

Pacific,  Collins  steamer,  left  Liverpool  for  New 
York,  with  186  persons  on  board  ;  never  since 
heard  of  (supposed  to  have  struck  on  an  ice- 
berg)   Jan.  23,  1856 

Josephine  Willis,  packet-ship,  lost  by  collision 
with  the  screw  steamer  Mangerton  in  the 
channel ;  about  70  lives  lost  .  .  Feb.  3,  „ 

John  Rutledge,  from  Liverpool  to  New  York, 
ran  on  an  iceberg  and  was  wrecked  ;  many 
lives  lost Feb.  20,  „ 

Many  vessels    and  their  crews  totally  lost,* 

Jan.  1-8,  1857 

Violet,  royal  mail-steamer,  lost  on  the  Good- 
win ;  many  parsons  perished  .  Jan.  5,  ,, 

Tyne,  roj  al  mail-steamer,  stranded  on  her  way 
to  SoutL  ampton  from  the  Brazils  .  Jan.  13,  ,, 

St.  Andr.it;  screw-steamer,  totally  wrecked 
near  Laiakia;  loss  about  145,00x3?.  .  Jan.  29,  ,, 

C.iarlemagvr,  iron  clipper,  wrecked  by  the  coast 
of  Caircn:  passengers  saved;  loss,  about 
uo,ooo/ March  20,  „ 

H.M.S.  J  aleigh,  50 guns,  wrecked  on  south-east 
coas'  of  Macao  ....  April  14,  ,, 

Cat''  -hie  Adamson,  Australian  vessel,  wrecked, 
twenty-five  miles  from  Sydney,  20  lives  lost, 

about  June  3,    ,, 

H.M.S.  Transit,  wrecked  on  a  reef  in  the  Straits 
ofBanca July  10,  „ 

Dimbar,  clipper,  wrecked  on  the  rocks  near 
Sydney;  121  persons,  and  cargo  valued  at 
22,000!.,  lost;  one  person  only  saved,  who 
was  on  the  rocks  thirty  hours  .  Aug.  20,  ,, 


|  Sarah  Sands,  an  iron  screw-steamer,  sailed 
from  Portsmouth  for  Calcutta,  in  Aug.  1857  ; 
300  soldiers  on  board.  On  Nov.  n,  the  cargo 

I  (government  stores)  took  fire.  By  the  exer- 
tions of  colonel  Moffat  and  captain  Castle,  the 
master  of  the  vessel,  who  directed  the  soldiers 

!  and  the  crew,  the  flames  were  subdued, 
although  a  barrel  of  gunpowder  exploded 
during  the  conflagration.  A  new  danger  then 
arose — the  prevalence  of  a  strong  gale — water 
was  shipped  heavily  where  the  port  quarter 
had  been  blown  out.  Nevertheless,  after  a 
fearful  struggle,  the  vessel  arrived  at  the 
Mauritius,  Nov.  21,  without  losing  a  single  life, 

NOV.    II-2I,     1857 

Windsor,  emigrant-ship,  struck  on  a  reef  near 
the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands  .  .  Dec.  i,  ,, 

Ava,  Indian  mail-steamer,  with  ladies  and 
others  from  Lucknow  on  board ;  wrecked 
near  Ceylon Feb.  16,  1858 

Eastern  City,  burnt  about  the  equator  on  her 
way  to  Melbourne ;  by  great  exertions  all 
on  board  wei-e  saved  .  .  .  Aug.  23,  24, 

Austria,  steam  emigrant-ship,  burnt  in  the 
middle  of  the  Atlantic.  Of  538  persons  on 
board,  only  sixty-seven  were  saved.  The 
disaster  due  to  carelessness  .  Sept.  13, 

St.  Paul,  captain  Pennard,  from  Hong  Kong  to 
Sydney,  with  327  Chinese  emigrants,  wrecked 
on  the  island  of  Rossel,  Sept.  30,  1858.  The 
captain  and  8  of  the  crew  left  the  island  in 
search  of  assistance,  and  were  picked  up  by 
the  Prince  of  Denmark  schooner.  The  French 
steamer  Styx  was  dispatched  to  the  island, 
and  brought  away  one  Chinese,  Jan.  25,  1859. 
All  the  rest  had  been  massacred  and  devoured 
by  the  natives 

Czar,  steamer,  wrecked  off  the  Lizard,  four- 
teen lives  lost  ....  Jan.  23,  1859! 

Eastern  Monarch,  burnt  at  Spithead ;  out  of  500, 
eight  lives  lost.  The  vessel  contained  invalid 
soldiers  from  India,  who  with  the  crew,  be- 
haved admirably  ....  June  2,  ,, 

Alma,  steamer,  grounded  on  a  reef  near  Aden, 
Red  Sea,  about  35  miles  from  Mocha ;  all  per- 
sons saved;  after  3^  days'  exposure  to  the 
sun,  without  water,  they  were  rescued  by 
H.M.S.  Cyclops  :  sir  John  Bowring,  who  was 
on  board,  lost  valuable  papers  .  June  12, 

Admdla,  steamer,  running  between  Melbourne 
and  Adelaide,  struck  on  a  reef;  of  about  72 
persons,  only  23  were  saved  ;  many  perished 
through  exposure  to  cold  .  .  Aug.  6, 

Royal  Charter,  screw-steamer,  captain  Taylor, 
totally  wrecked  off  Moelfra,  on  the  Anglesea 
coast  ;  446  lives  lost.  The  vessel  contained 
gold  amounting  in  value  to  between  700,0001. 
and  8oo,ooo£. ;  much  of  this  has  been  reco- 
vered .  .  .  .  night  of  Oct.  25-26,  ,, 

Indian,  mail-steamer,  wrecked  off  the  coast  of 
Newfoundland;  out  of  116,  27  lives  lost, 

Nov.  21,    ,, 

Sterne  Castle,  sailed  from  London  Docks  for 
Adelaide ;  lost  in  the  Channel  and  all  on 
board,  57  persons  ;  last  seen  on  .  Dec.  25,  ,, 

Northerner  steamer,  wrecked  on  a  rock  near 
Cape  Mendorino,  between  San  Francisco  and 
Oregon  ;  38  lives  lost  .  .  Jan.  6,  i£€o 

Endymion,  sailing-vessel,  burnt  in  the  Mersey  ; 

loss  above  20,  ooot Jan  31,     ,, 

Dreadful  gales  ;  and  many  wrecks  on  the  coast,  % 

Feb.  15-19,    ,, 


*  A  large  American  vessel,  Northern  Belle,  was  wrecked  near  Broadstairs.  The  American  government 
sent  21  silver  medals  and  270^.  to  be  distributed  among  the  heroic  boatmen  of  the  place,  who  saved  the 
crew.  Jan.  5 — 6,  1857. 

t  Pomona,  an  American  ship,  captain  Merrihew  ;  419  persons  on  board,  from  Liverpool  to  New  York, 
was  wrecked  on  Black  water  Bank,  through  the  master  mistaking  the  Blackwater  for  the  Tuskar  light. 
only  24  persons  saved,  night  of  April  27-28,  1859. 

{  American  barque  Lima,  with  emigrants,  wrecked  off  Barfieur ;  above  100  lives  lost,  Feb.  17, 1860.    On 


WRE 


707 


WTU 


WRECKS  OF  SHIPPING,  continued. 

0,)dine,  steamer;;  lost  through  collision  with  the 
Heroine  of  Bideford,  abreast  of  Beacbey  Head, 
the  captain  and  about  50  persons  perished, 

Feb.  19,  1860 

ll'-ingnrian,  new  mail-steamer,  wrecked  off 
coast  of  Nova  Scotia  ;  all  on  board  (205)  lost 
on  the  night  of  .  .  .  .  Feb.  19-20,*  ,, 

Nimrod,  steamer,  wrecked  on  rocks  near  St. 
David's  head  ;  40  lives  lost  .  .  Feb.  28,  ,, 

Malabar,  iron  ship,  on  her  way  to  China,  with 

lord  Elgin  and  baron  Gros ;  wrecked  off  Point 

de  Galle,  Ceylon.   The  ambassadors  displayed 

much  heroism  ;  no  lives  lost.  Of  much  specie 

unk,  a  good  deal  was  recovered    .     May  22,    ,, 

Arctic,  Hull  steamer,  wrecked  off  Jutland; 
many  persons  saved  by  Mr.  Earle,  who  lost  his 
own  life  while  endeavouring  to  save  others, 

Oct.  5,     „ 

Connaught,  steamer,  burnt ;  crew  saved  through 
the  gallantry  of  the  crew  of  an  American  brig. 

Oct.  7,     ,, 

Juanita,  wrecked  through  collision  with  an 
American  vessel,  Joseph  Fish,  13  lives  lost, 

March  15,  1861 

Canadian,  steamer,  struck  on  a  field  of  ice  in 
the  straits  of  Belle-isle,  and  foundered  in  half 
an  hour ;  35  lives  lost  .  .  .  June  4,  , , 

II. M.S.  Conqueror,  stranded  on  Rum  Cay,  near 
Bahamas,  and  lost  [the  captain  and  master 
were  censured  for  neglect  of  duty]  Dec.  29,  ,, 

Harmony,   lost  with  all  hands  off  Plymouth, 

Feb.  27,  1862 

Lotus,  merchantman,  off  Chale  Bay,  in  the  great 
storm  ;  crew  all  lost  except  two  .  Oct.  19,  ,, 

Ocean  Monarch,  2195  tons,  sailed  from  New  York, 
March  5,  laden  with  provisions  ;  foundered  in 
a  gale March  9,  „ 

Upwards  of  60  merchantmen  lost  during  gales  in 

March,     „ 

Mars,  Waterf ord  steamer,  struck  on  a  rock  near 
Milford  haven  ;  about  50  lives  lost  April  i,  ,, 

Bencoolen,  East  Indiaman,  1400  tons  ;  struck  on 
sands  near  Bude  haven,  Cornwall ;  about  26 
lives  lost Oct.  19,  „ 

Many  vessels  lost  during  storm  .        .     Oct.  19,     ,, 

Colombo,  East  India  mail  steamer,  in  thick 
weather,  wrecked  on  Minicog  Island;  440 
miles  from  Point  de  Galle,  Ceylon  ;  no  lives 
lost  (the  crew  and  passengers  taken  off  by 
the  Ottawa  from  Bombay,  Nov.  30)  Nov.  19,  ,, 


Lifeguard,  steamer,  left  Newcastle,  with  about 
41  passengers  ;  never  sinceheard  of ;  supposed 
to  have  foundered  off  Flamborough  head, 

Dec.  20,  1862 

Orpheus,  H.M.S.  steamer,  new  vessel,  1700  tons; 
commander  Burnett  ;  wrecked  on  Manakau 
bar,  W.  coast  New  Zealand ;  70  persons  saved ; 
about  190  perished  .  .  .  Feb.  7,  1863 

Anglo-Saxon,  mail  steamer,  captain  Burgess,  in 
dense  fog,  wrecked  on  reef  off  Cape  Race, 
Newfoundland ;  about  237,  out  of  446,  lives 
lost  .  .  .  •  .  .  .  April  27,  ,, 

All  Serene,  Australian  ship  ;  gale  in  the  Pacific ; 
above  30  lives  lost  (the  survivors  suffered  much 
till  they  reached  the  Fiji  isles  in  a  punt)," 

Feb.  21,  1864 

Many  shipwrecks  in  consequence  of  the  cyclone 
at  Calcutta Oct.  $,  „ 

H.M.S.  Racehorse,  off  Chefoo  Cape,  Chinese 
coast;  99  lives  lost  .  .  Nov.  4,  ,, 

The  Stanley,  Friendship,  &c.,  in  the  gale  off 
Tynemouth ;  and  the  Dalhousie,  screw 
steamer,  mouth  of  the  Tay;  same  gale;  34 
lives  lost Nov.  24,  ,, 

H.  M.  S.  Bombay ;  burnt  off  Flores  Island,  near 
Montendes  ;  91  lives  lost  .  .  Dec.  14,  ,, 

Lelia,  cutter ;  off  Great  Ormes  head,  during  a 
gale ;  several  lives  lost ;  7  persons  drowned 
by  upsetting  of  the  life-boat  .  Jan.  14,  1865 

Eagle  Speed,  emigrant  vessel,  foundered  near 
Calcutta ;  265  coolies  drowned  ;  great  cruelty 
and  neglect  imputed  .  .  .  Aug.  24,  „ 

Duncan  Dunbar,  wrecked  on  a  reef  at  Las  Rocas, 
S.  America  ;  no  lives  lost    .        .        Oct.  7,     ,, 

Ibis,  steamer,  machinery  damaged,  off  Bally- 
croneen  bay;  15  lives  lost ;  sailed  from  Cork, 

Dec.  1 8,    ,, 

Samphire,  mail-steamer ;  collision  with  an 
American  barque ;  several  lives  lost,  Dec.  13,  ,, 

London,  steamer,  on  her  way  to  Melbourne; 
foundered  in  Bay  of  Biscay ;  about  220  persons 
perished  (including  capt.  Martin,  Dr.  Woolley, 
principal  of  the  university  of  Sydney,  G.  V. 
Brooke,  the  tragedian) ;  about  the  same  time 
the  Amalia  steamer  went  down  with  a  cargo 
worth  200,000?.  ;  no  lives  lost  .  .  Jan.  n,  1866 

Many  wrecks  and  much  loss  of  life  during 
gales Jan.  6- 1 1  „ 


WRITING.  Pictures  were  undoubtedly  tlie  first  essay  towards  writing.  Tlie  most 
ancient  remains  of  writing  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us,  are  upon  hard  substances, 
such  as  stones  and  metals,  used  by  the  ancients  for  edicts,  and  matters  of  public  notoriety. 
Athotes,  or  Hermes,  is  said  to  have  written  a  history  of  the  Egyptians,  and  to  have  been  the 
author  of  the  hieroglyphics,  2112  B.C.  Usher.  Writing  is  said  to  have  been  taught  to  the 
Latins  by  Europa,  daughter  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia,  1494  B.C.  Thucydides.  Cadmus, 
the  founder  of  Cadmea,  1493  B.C.,  brought  the  Phoenician  letters  into  Greece.  Vossius. 
The  commandments  were  written  on  two  tables  of  stone,  1491  B.C.  Usher.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  used  waxed  table-books,  and  continued  the  use  of  them  long  after  papyrus  was 
known. t  See  Papyrus,  Parchment,  Paper.  Astle's  "History  of  Writing"  was  first  pub- 
lished in  i 784. 


the  same  rock,  on  Nov.  25,  1120,  was  wrecked  the  Blanche  Nef,  containing  the  children  of  Henry  I.  and 
a  large  number  of  attendants  :  in  all  363  persons  perished. 

*  Luna,  American  emigrant  vessel,  wrecked  on  rocks  off  Barfleur ;  about  100  lives  lost,  Feb.  19,  1860. 
Lady  Elgin '  an  American  steamer,  sunk  through  collision  with  schooner  Augusta  on  lake  Michigan  ;  of  385 
persons  on  board,  287  were  lost,  including  Mr.  Herbert  Ingram,  M.P.,  founder  of  the  "  Illustrated  London 
News,"  and  his  son  :  morning  of  Sept.  8,  1860. 

+  "  I  would  check  the  petty  vanity  of  those  who  slight  good  penmanship,  as  below  the  notice  of  a 
scholar,  by  reminding  them  that  Mr.  Fox  was  distinguished  by  the  clearness  and  firmness,  Mr.  Professor 
Porson  by  the  correctness  and  elegance,  and  sir  William  Jones  by  the  ease  and  beauty  of  the  characters 
they  respectively  employed.  "—Dr.  Parr. 


WHO 


798 


XER 


WROXETER,  in  Shropshire,  the  Roman  city  Uriconium.  Roman  inscriptions,  ruins, 
seals,  and  coins  were  found  here  in  1752.  Some  new  discoveries  having  been  made,  a 
committee  for  further  investigation  met  at  Shrewsbury  on  Nov.  u,  1858.  Excavations  were 
commenced  in  Feb.  1859,  which  were  continued  till  May.  Large  portions  of  the  old  town 
were  discovered ;  also  specimens  of  glass  and  pottery,  personal  ornaments  and  toys,  house- 
hold utensils  and  implements  of  trade,  cinerary  urns,  and  bones  of  man  and  of  the  smaller 
animals.  A  committee  was  formed  in  London  in  Aug.  1859,  with  the  view  of  continuing  these 
investigations,  which  were  resumed  in  1861,  through  the  liberality  of  Beriah  Botfield,  M.P. 

WURTEMBERG,  originally  part  of  Swabia,  was  made  a  county  in  1297,  and  a  duchy 
in  1495.  The  dukes  were  Protestants  until  1772,  when  the  reigning  prince  became  a 
Roman  Catholic.  Wurtemberg  has  been  repeatedly  traversed  by  hostile  armies,  particularly 
since  the  revolution  of  France.  Moreau  made  his  celebrated  retreat,  Oct.  23,  1796.  The 
political  constitution  is  dated  Sept.  25,  1819.  Population  of  Wurtemberg  in  Dec.  1861, 
1,720,708;  of  Stuttgardt,  the  capital,  51,655. 


DUKES. 

1495.  Eberhard  I. 

1496.  Eberhard  II. 

1498.   Ulrich  ;  deprived  of  his  states  by  the  emperor 

Charles  V.  ;  recovers  them  in  1534. 
1550.  Christopher  the  Pacific. 
1568.   Louis. 
1593.   Frederic  I. 
1608.   John  Frederic  ;  joined  the  Protestants  in  the 

thirty  years'  war. 
1628.   Eberhard  III. 
1674.  William  Louis. 
1677.  Eberhard  Louis ;  served  under  William  III.  in 

Ireland ;  and  with  the  English  armies  on 

the  continent. 
1733.   Charles  Alexander. 
1737.    Charles  Eugene. 
1793.   Louis    Eugene    (joins    in    the    war  against 

France). 


1795.   Frederic  Eugene  makes  peace  with  France, 

Frederic  II.  marries  the  princess  royal  of 
England,  May  18  ;  made  elector  of  Germany, 
1803 ;  acquired  additional  territories,  and 
the  title  of  king  in  1 805. 


1797. 


KINGS. 

1805.  Frederic  I.  supplies  a  contingent  to  Napo- 
leon's Russian  army ;  yet  joined  the  allies 
at  Leipsic  in  1813.  Died  in  1816. 

1816.  William  I.,  Oct.  30;  son  (born  Sept.  27,  1781). 
He  abolished  serfdom  in  1818;  instituted 
representative  government  in  1819 ;  entered 
into  a  concordat  with  Rome  in  1857;  was 
the  oldest  living  sovereign,  1862 ;  died  June 
25,  1864. 

1864.  Charles  I.,  son  ;  June  25  ;  born  March  6,  1823  ; 
married  princess  Olga  of  Russia. 


WURTZBURG,  in  Bavaria,  was  formerly  a  bishopric,  and  its  sovereign  was  one  of  the 
greatest  ecclesiastic  princes  of  the  empire.  It  was  given  as  a  principality  to  the  elector 
of  Bavaria  in  1803  ;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  in  1805,  was  ceded  to  the  archduke 
Ferdinand  of  Tuscany,  whose  electoral  title  was  transferred  from  Salzburg  to  this  place.  In 
1814  this  duchy  was  again  transferred  to  Bavaria,  in  exchange  for  the  Tyrol,  and  the  arch- 
duke Ferdinand  was  reinstated  in  his  Tuscan  dominions.  Ministers  from  the  second-rate 
German  states  met  at  Wurtzburg  to  promote  union  amongst  them,  Nov.  21 — 27,  1859. 

WURTZCHEK     See  Bautzen. 

WYATT'S  INSURRECTION.     See  Rebellions,  1554. 


X. 

XANTHICA,  a  military  festival  observed  by  the  Macedonians  in  the  month  called 
Xanthicus  (our  April),  instituted  about  392  B.C. 

XANTHUS,  in  Lycia,  Asia  Minor,  was  besieged  by  the  Romans  under  Brutus,  42  B.C. 
After  a  great  struggle,  the  inhabitants  set  lire  to  their  city,  destroyed  their  wives  and 
children,  and  perished.  The  conqueror  wished  to  spare  them,  and  offered  rewards  to  his 
soldiers  if  they  brought  any  of  the  Xanthians  into  his  presence,  but  only  150  were  saved, 
Plutarch. 

XENOPHON.     See  Retreat  of  the  Greeks. 

XERES  DE  LA  FRONTERA  (S."W.  Spain),  the  Asia  Regia  of  the  Romans,  and  "the  seat  of 
the  wine-trade  in  Spain  of  which  the  principal  wine  is  that  so  well  known  in  England  as 
Sherry,  an  English  corruption  of  Xeres.  The  British  importations  of  this  wine  in  1850 
reached  to  3,826,785  gallons  ;  and  in  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1852,  to  3,904,978  gallons. 
Xeres  is  a  handsome  and  large  town,  of  great  antiquity.  At  the  battle  of  Xeres,  July  19-26, 
711,  Roderic,  the  last  Gothic  sovereign  of  Spain,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Saracens, 
commanded  by  Tarik  and  Muza. 


XEE 


799 


YEA 


XERXES'  CAMPAIGN.  Xerxes  crossed  the  Hellespont  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  and 
entered  Greece  in  the  spring  of  480  B.C.,  with  an  army  which,  together  with  the  numerous 
retinue  of  servants,  eunuchs,  and  women  that  attended  it,  amounted  (according  to  some 
historians)  to  5,283,220  souls.  Herodotus  states  the  armament  to  have  consisted  of  3000 
sail,  conveying  1,700,000  foot,  besides  cavalry  and  the  manners  and  attendants  of  the  camp. 
This  multitude  was  stopped  at  Thermopylae  (which  see)  by  the  valour  of  300  Spartans  under 
Leonidas,  Aug.  7-9,  480  B.  c.  The  fleet  of  Xerxes  was  defeated  at  Artemisium  and  Salamis, 
Oct.  20,  480  B.C.  ;  and  he  hastened  back  to  Persia,  leaving  behind  Mardonius,  the  best  of 
his  generals,  with  an  army  of  300,000  men,  who  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Platea,  Sept.  22, 
479,  B.C.  Xerxes  was  assassinated  by  Artabanus,  465  B.C. 

XIMENA  (S.  Spain),  the  site  of  a  battle  between  the  Spanish  army  under  the  command 
of  general  Ballasteros,  and  the  French  corps  commanded  by  general  Regnier,  Sept.  10,  1811. 
The  Spaniards  defeated  their  adversaries  ;  the  loss  was  great  on  both  sides. 


Y. 

YARD.  The  precise  origin  of  our  yard  is  uncertain.  It  is,  however,  likely  that  the 
word  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  gyrd,  a  rod  or  shoot,  or  gyrdan  to  enclose  ;  being  anciently 
the  circumference  of  the  body,  until  Henry  I.  decreed  that  it  should  be  the  length  of  his 
arm.  See  Sttmdard  Measures. 

YARMOUTH,  GREAT  (Norfolk),  was  a  royal  demesne  in  the  reign  of  William  I.,  as 
appears  from  Domesday  Book.  It  obtained  a  charter  from  John,  and  one  from  Henry  III. 
In  1348,  a  plague  here  carried  off  7000  persons  :  and  that  terrible  disease  did  much  havoc, 
again  in  1579  and  1664.  The  theatre  was  built  in  1778  ;  and  Nelson's  pillar,  a  fluted 
column,  140  feet  in  height,  was  erected  in  1817.  The  suspension  chain  bridge  over  the  river 
Bure  was  built  by  Mr.  R.  Cory,  at  an  expense  of  about  4,000^.  Owing  to  the  weight  of  a 
vast  number  of  persons  who  assembled  on  this  bridge  to  witness  an  exhibition  on  the  water, 
it  suddenly  gave  way,  and  seventy-nine  lives,  mostly  those  of  children,  were  lost,  May  2, 
1845.  The  railway  from  London  to  Norwich  was  opened  in  1844. 

YEAR.     The  Egyptians,  it  is  said,  were  the  first  who  fixed  the  length  of  the  year. 

the  last  article  of  which  ordered  the  year  for  the 
time  to  come  to  be  constantly  and  universally 
begun,  and  written  on  and  from  January  i. 

See  New  Style,  Platonic  Year,  Sabbatical  Year,  French 
Revolutionary  Calendar.* 

The  beginning  of  the  year  has  been  reckoned  from 
the  day  celebrating  the  birth  of  Christ,  Dec.  25th  ; 
his  circumcision,  Jan.  i ;  his  conception,  March 
25  ;  and  his  resurrection,  Easter. 

The  English  began  their  year  on  the  25th  of  Decem- 
ber, until  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror. 
This  prince  having  been  crowned  on  Jan.  i,  gave 
occasion  to  the  English  to  begin  their  year  at  that 
time,  to  make  it  agree  with  the  then  most  remark- 
able period  of  their  history.  Stow.  Until  the  act 
for  altering  the  style,  in  1752  (see  Style),  the  year 
did  not  legally  and  generally  commence  in  Eng- 
land until  March  25th.  In  Scotland,  at  that 
period,  the  year  began  on  the  ist  of  January.  This 
difference  caused  great  practical  inconveniences  ; 
and  January,  February,  and  part  of  March  some- 
times bore  two  dates,  as  we  often  find  in  old  re- 
cords, 1745-1746,  or  1745-6,  or  1748.  Such  a  reckon- 
ing often  led  to  chronological  mistakes ;  for  in- 
stance, we  popularly  say  "the  revolution  of  1688," 
as  that  event  happened  in  February  1688,  accord- 


The  Roman  year  was  introduced  by  Romulus, 
738  B.C.  ;  and  it  was  corrected  by  N\ima,  713  B.C., 
and  again  by  Julius  Csesar,  45  B.C.  See  Calendar. 

The  solar  or  astronomical  year  was  found  to  comprise 
365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  51  seconds,  and  6 
decimals,  265  B.C. 

The  lunar  year,  which  comprehends  twelve  lunar 
months,  or  354  days,  8  honors,  48  minutes,  was  in  use 
among  the  Chaldgeans,  Persians,  and  ancient  Jews. 
Once  in  every  three  years  was  added  another  lunar 
month,  so  as  to  make  the  solar  and  the  lunar  year 
nearly  agree.  But  though  the  months  were  lunar, 
the  year  was  solar  ;  that  is,  the  first  month  was  of 
thirty  days,  and  the  second  of  twenty-nine,  and  so 
alternately :  and  the  month  added  triennially  was 
called  the  second  Adar.  The  Jews  afterwards 
followed  the  Roman  mauner  of  computation. 

The  sidereal  year,  or  return  to  the  same  star,  is  365 
days,  6  hours,  9  minutes,  1 1  seconds. 

The  Jews  dated  the  beginning  of  the  sacred  year  in 
March  ;  the  Athenians  in  June  ;  the  Macedonians 
on  Sept.  24  ;  the  Christians  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia 
on  Aug.  29  or  30 ;  and  the  Persians  and  Armenians 
on  Aug.  1 1.  Nearly  all  Christian  nations  now  com- 
mence the  year  on  January  i. 

Charles  IX.  of  France,  in  1564,  published  an  arret, 


*  The  year  in  the  northern  regions  of  Siberia  and  Lapland  is  described  in  the  following  calendar,  given 
by  a  traveller  : — "  June  23.  Snow  melts.  July  i.  Snow  gone.  July  g.  Fields  quite  green.  July  17.  Plants  at 
full  growth.  July  25.  Plants  in  flower.  Aug.  2.  Fruits  ripe.  Aug.  10.  Plants  shed  their  seed.  Aug.  18. 
Snow."  The  snow  then  continues  upon  the  ground  for  about  ten  months,  from  Aug.  i8th  of  one  year  to 
June  23rd  of  the  year  following,  being  309  days  out  of  365 ;  so  that  while  the  three  seasons  of  spring, 
summer,  and  autumn  are  together  only  fifty-six  days,  or  eight  weeks,  the  winter  is  of  forty-four  weeks.' 
duration  in  these  countries. 


YEA  SCO 


YEAR,  continued. 

ing  to  the  then  mode  of  computation  :  but  if  the 
year  were  held  to  begin,  as  it  does  now,  on  the 
first  of  January,  it  would  be  the  revolution  of 
1689. 

YEAR  OF  OUR  LORD.     See  Anno  Domini. 

YEAR  OF  THE  REGN.  From  the  time  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  1066,  the  year  of  the  sovereign's  reign 
has  been  given  to  all  public  instruments.  The 
king's  patents,  charters,  proclamations,  and  all 
acts  of  parliament  have  since  then  been  generally 
so  dated.  The  same  manner  of  dating  is  used  in 


most  01  the  European  states  for  all  similar  docu- 
ments and  records.  See  List  of  Kings  under 
England,  p.  275. 

YEAR  AND  A  DAY.  A  space  of  time  in  law,  that  in 
many  cases  establishes  and  fixes  a  right,  as  in  an 
estray,  on  proclamation  being  made,  if  the  owner 
does  not  claim  it  within  the  time  it  is  forfeited. 
The  term  arose  in  the  Norman  law,  which  enacted 
that  a  beast  found  on  another's  land  if  unclaimed 
for  a  year  and  a  day,  belonged  to  the  lord  of  the 
soil.  It  is  otherwise  a  legal  space  of  time. 


YEAR-BOOKS  contain  reports  in  Norman -French  of  cases  argued  and  decided  in  the 
courts  of  common  law.  The  printed  volumes  extend  from  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  II.  to  nearly  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  a  period  of  about  220  years  ;  but 
in  this  series  there  are  many  omissions.  These  books  are  the  first  in  the  long  line  of  legal 
reports  in  which  England  is  so  rich,  and  may  be  considered  as,  to  a  great  extent,  the  founda- 
tion of  our  unwritten  law,  " Lex  non  scripta."  In  1863  et  seq.  the  year-books  of  30  &  31 
Edward  I.  1302-3,  were  edited  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Horwood,  for  the  series  of  the  Chronicles  and 
Memorials  published  at  the  expense  of  the  British  government. 

YELLOW  FEVER,  a  dreadful  American  pestilence,  made  its  appearance  at  Philadelphia, 
where  it  committed  great  ravages,  A.D.  1699.  It  appeared  in  several  islands  of  the  West 
Indies  in  1732,  1739,  and  1745.  It  raged  with  unparalleled  violence  at  Philadelphia  in 
Oct.  1762  ;  and  most  awfully  at  New  York  in  the  beginning  of  August  1791.  This  fever 
again  spread  great  devastation  at  Philadelphia  in  July  1793  ;  carrying  off  several  thousand 
persons.  Hardie.  It  again  appeared  in  Oct.  1797  ;  and  spread  its  ravages  over  the 
northern  coast  of  America, 'Sept.  1798.  It  re-appeared  at  Philadelphia  in  the  summer  of 
1802  ;  and  broke  out  in  Spain,  in  Sept.  1803.  The  yellow  fever  was  very  violent  at 
Gibraltar  in  1804  and  1814  ;  in  the  Mauritius,  July  1815  ;  at  Antigua,  in  Sept.  1816  ;  and 
it  raged  with  dreadful  consequences  at  Cadiz,  and  the  Isle  of  St.  Leon,  in  Sept.  1819.  A 
malignant  fever  raged  at  Gibraltar  in  Sept.  1828,  and  did  not  terminate  until  the  following 
year. 

YEOMEN  OF  THE  GUARD,  a  peculiar  body  of  foot  guards  to  the  king's  person,  instituted 
at  the  coronation  of  Henry  VII.  Oct.  30,  1485,  which  originally  consisted  of  fifty  men  under 
a  captain.  They  were  of  a  larger  stature  than  other  guards,  being  required  to  be  over 
six  feet  in  height,  and  Avere  armed  with  arquebuses  and  other  arms.  The  band  Avas  increased 
by  Henry's  successors  to  one  hundred  men,  and  seventy  supernumeraries  ;  and  when  one  of 
the  hundred  died,  it  was  ordered  that  his  place  should  be  supplied  out  of  the  seventy. 
They  were  clad  after  the  manner  of  king  Henry  VIII.  Ashmole's  InstiL  This  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  permanent  military  band  instituted  in  England.  John,  earl  of  Oxford, 
was  the  first  captain  in  1486.  Beatson's  Pol.  Index. 

YEW-TREE  (Taxus).  The  origin  of  planting  yew-trees  in  churchyards  was  (these  latter 
being  fenced)  to  secure  the  trees  from  cattle,  and  in  this  manner  preserve  them  for  the 
encouragement  of  archery.  A  general  plantation  of  them  for  the  use  of  archers  was  ordered 
by  Richard  III.  1483.  Stow's  Chron.  Near  Fountains  Abbey,  Yorkshire,  were  lately 
seven  yew-trees  called  the  Seven  Sisters,  supposed  to  have  been  planted  before  1088  ;  the 
circumference  of  the  largest  Avas  thirty-four  feet  seven  inches  round  the  trunk.  In  1851,  a 
yew-tree  was  said  to  be  growing  in  the  churchyard  of  Gresford,  North  Wales,  whose  circum  - 
ference  was  nine  yards  nine  inches,  being  the  largest  and  oldest  yeAv-tree  in  the  British 
dominions  ;  but  it  is  affirmed  on  traditionary  evidence  that  there  are  some  of  these  trees  in 
England  older  than  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  The  old  yeAv-tree  mentioned  in  the 
survey  taken  of  Richmond  palace  in  1649,  is  said  to  be  still  existing. 

YEZDEGIRD,  OR  PERSIAN  ERA,  was  formerly  universally  adopted  in  Persia,  and  is  still 
used  by  the  Parsees  in  India,  and  by  the  Arabs,  in  certain  computations.  This  era  began 
on  the  26th  of  June,  A.D.  632,  Avhen  Yezdegird  was  elected  king  of  Persia.  The  year  con- 
sisted of  365  days  only,  and  therefore  its  commencement,  like  that  of  the  Old  Egyptian  and 
Armenian  year,  anticipated  the  Julian  year  by  one  day  in  every  four  years.  This  difference 
amounted  to  nearly  112  days  in  the  year  1075,  Avhen  it  Avas  reformed  by  Jelaledin,  Avho 
ordered  that  in  future  the  Persian  year  should  receive  an  additional  day  Avhenever  it  should 
appear  necessary  to  postpone  the  commencement  of  the  following  year,  that  it  might  occur 
on  the  day  of  the  sun's  passing  the  same  degree  of  the  ecliptic. 


YNG 


801 


YOU 


YNGLINGS  (youths,  or  off-shoots),  descendants  of  the  Scandinavian  hero  Odin,  ruled 
Sweden  till  830,  when  the  last  of  the  pontiff  kings,  Olaf  Traetelia,  being  expelled,  lead  to 
the  foundation  of  the  Norwegian  monarchy. 

YOKE.  The  yoke  is  spoken  of  as  a  type  of  servitude  throughout  Scripture.  The  cere- 
mony of  making  prisoners  pass  under  it  was  practised  by  the  Samnites  towards  the  Romans, 
321  B.C.  See  Caudinc  Forks.  This  disgrace  was  afterwards  inflicted  by  the  Romans  upon 
their  vanquished  enemies.  Dufresnoy. 

YORK.     The  Eboracum  of  the  Romans,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  England. 

Here  Severus  (A.D.  207),  and  here  also  Constan- 
tino kept  courts,  and  his  son  Constantino  the 
Great  was  born,  in  274,  and  proclaimed  em- 
peror    A.D.  306 

Abbey  of  St.  Mary's,  founded  by  Seward  the 
Dane 1050 

York  was  burnt  by  the  Danes,  and  all  the  Nor- 
mans slain  ........  1069 

The  city  and  many  churches  were  destroyed  by 
fire June  3,  1137 

York  received  its  charter  from  Richard  II.  and 
the  mayor  was  made  a  lord  .  .  .  .  1389 

The  Guildhall  erected 1446 


The  castle  was  built  by  Richard  III.,  1484,  and 
was  rebuilt 

The  corporation  built  a  mansion-house  for  the 
lord  mayor 

The  famous  York  petition  to  parliament  to  re- 
duce the  expenditure  and  redress  grievances 
was  gotten  up Dec. 

Yorkshire  Philosophical  Society  established      . 

First  meeting  of  the  British  Associati 


meeting  of 
here    . 

Fall  of  the  iron 
persons  killed 


bridge 


Association  held 
.  Sept.  27, 

over  the  Ouse ;  five 
.       Sept.  27, 


1741 
1728 

1779 
1822 

1831 
1861 


DUKES  OF  YORK. 


1385.  Edmund  Plantagenet  (fifth  son  of  king  Ed- 
ward III.);  created  duke,  Aug.  6;  died 
1402. 

1406.  Edward  (his  son),  was  degraded  by  Henry  IV. 
in  1399,  but  restored  in  1414;  killed  at 
Agincourt,  1415  ;  succeeded  by  his  nephew. 

1415.  Richard  (son  of  Richard,  earl  of  Cambridge, 
who  was  beheaded  for  treason  in  1415); 
became  regent  of  France  in  1435  :  quelled 
the  rebellion  in  Ireland  in  1449  ;  claimed 
the  throne,  and  was  appointed  protector  in 
1454:  his  office  was  annulled,  and  he  b'.'gan 
the  civil  war  in  1455,  and  was  slain  after  his 
defeat  at  Wakefield  in  1460. 

1460.   Edward  (his  son)  afterwards  king  Edward  IV. 
Richard  (his  second  son\  said  to  have  been 

murdered  in  the  Tower,  1483. 
Henry  Tudor,  afterwards  Henry  VIII. 


1474. 


1494. 


1605.   Charles  Stuart,  afterwards  Charles  I. 

1643.  James  Stuart  (his  second  son),  afterwards 
James  II. 

1716.   Ernest  (brother  of  George  I.)  ;  died  1728. 

1760.   Edward  (brother  of  George  111.)  ;  died  1767. 

1784.  Frederic  (son  of  George  III.),  born,  Aug.  16, 
1762  ;  marries  princess  Frederica  of  Prussia, 
Sept.  29,  1791 ;  commands  the  British  forces 
at  Antwerp,  April  8,  1793;  present  at  the 
siege  of  Valenciennes,  May  23  ;  defeated  at 
Dunkirk,  Sept.  7  ;  at  Bois-le-'Duc,  Sept.  14  ; 
and  at  Boxtel,  Sept.  17  ;  appomted  com- 
mander-in-chief,  1798 ;  defeated  near  Alk- 
maar,  Sept.  19  and  Oct.  6,  1799;  accused  by 
colonel  Wardle  of  abuse  of  his  pati-onage, 
he  resigns,  Jan.  27,  1809;  becomes  agaiu 
commander-in-chief,  1811;  strongly  opposes 
the  Catholic  claims,  1825  ;  dies  Jan.  3,  1827. 


YORK,  ARCHBISHOPRIC  OF.  The  most  ancient  metropolitan  see  in  England,  being,  it 
is  said,  so  made  by  king  Lucius  about  180,  when  Christianity  was  first  partially  established 
in  England.  The  bishop  Eborius  was  present  at  the  council  of  Aries,  314.  The  see  was 
overturned  by  the  Saxons,  was  revived  by  pope  Gregory  on  their  conversion,  and  Paulinus 
was  made  archbishop  about  625.  York  and  Durham  were  long  the  only  two  sees  in  the 
north  of  England,  until  Henry  I.  erected  a  bishopric  at  Carlisle  and  Henry  VIII.  another  at 
Chester.  York  was  the  metropolitan  see  of  the  Scottish  bishops  ;  but  during  the  time  of 
archbishop  JSTevil,  1464,  they  withdrew  their  obedience,  and  had  archbishops  of  their  own. 
Much  dispute  arose  between  the  two  English  metropolitans  about  precedency,  as  by  pope 
Gregory's  institutions  it  was  thought  he  meant,  that  whichever  of  them  was  first  confirmed, 
should  be  superior  :  appeal  was  made  to  the  court  of  Rome  by  both  parties,  and  it  was 
determined  in  favour  of  Canterbury.  The  archbishop  of  York  was  allowed  to  style  himself 
primate  of  England,  while  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  styles  himself  primate  of  all 
England.  The  province  of  York  now  contains  the  dioceses  of  York,  Carlisle,  Chester, 
Durham,  Sodor  and  Man,  Manchester,  and  Ripon  (which  see).  York  has  yielded  to  tho 
church  of  Rome  eight  saints  and  three  cardinals,  and  to  England  twelve  lord  chancellors, 
two  lord  treasurers,  and  two  lord  presidents  of  the  north.  It  is  rated  in  the  king's  books, 
39  Henry  VIII.  1546,  at  1609,?.  195.  2d.  per  annum.  Beatson.  Present  income  io,oooZ. 


ARCHBISHOPS    OF 

1501.  Thomas  Savage,  died  Sept.  3,  1507. 

1508.  Christopher   Bainbrigg,   poisoned    at    Rome, 

July  14,  1514. 

1514.  Thomas  Wolsey,  died  Nov.  29,  1530. 

1531.  Edward  Lee,  died  Sept.  13,  1544. 

1545.  Robert  Holgate,  deprived  March  23,  1554. 

1555.  Nicolas  Heath,  deprived. 

1561.  Thomas  Young,  died  June  26,  1568. 


YORK  SINCE    I5OO. 

1570.  Edmund  Grindal,   translated  to  Canterbury, 

Jan.  10,  1576. 

1577.  Edwin  Sands  or  Sandys,  died  July  10,  1588. 

1589.  John  Piers,  died  Sept.  28,  1594. 

T595.  Matthew  Hutton,  died  Jan.  16,  1606 

1606.  Tobias  Matthew,  died  March  29,  1628. 

1628.  George  Mouataigne,  died  Oct.  24,  1628. 

„  Samuel  Harsnet,  died  May  25,  1631. 

3   F 


YOR  802  ZAM 

YORK,  continued. 
1632.   Richard  Neyle,  died  Oct.  31,  1640.  j  1747.   Matthew  Hutton,  translated  to  Canterbury, 


1641.   John  Williams,  died  March  25,  1650. 

[See  vacant  tin  years.} 
1660.   Accepted  Frewen,  died  March  28,  1664. 


March,  1757. 
1757.   John  Gilbert,  died  1761. 
761.   Robert  Hay  Drummond,  died  Dec.  10,  1776. 


1664.   Richard  Sterne,  died  June  18,  1683.  |  1777.  William  Markham,  died  Nov.  3,  1807. 

1683.   John  Dolben,  died  April  u,  1686.  !  1808.  Edward  Venables  Yernon,  died  Nov.  5,  1847. 

[See  vacant  two  years.}  \  1847.  Thomas  Musgrave,  died  May  4,  1860. 

1688.   Thomas  Laniplough,  died  May  5,  1691.  I  1860.  Charles  T.  Longley,  translated  to  Canterbury 

1691.   John  Sharp,  died  Feb.  2,  1714.  (from  Durham),  1862. 

1714.    Sir  William  Dawes,  died  April  30,  1724.  |  1862.  William  Thomson,  translated  from  Gloucestei*, 

1724.   Launcelot  Blackburn,  died  March  23,  1743.  PRESENT  archbishop. 
1743.   Thomas  Herring,  translated  to  Canterbury,  ! 
Oct.  1747. 

YOEK  MINSTER  Avas  erected  at  different  periods,  and  on  the  site  of  former  "buildings. 
The  first  Christian  church  erected  here,  which  appears  to  have  been  preceded  by  a  Roman 
temple,  Avas  built  by  Edwin,  king  of  Northumbria,  of  Avood,  in  625,  and  of  stone  about  635. 
It  was  damaged  by  fire  in  741,  and  Avas  rebuilt  by  archbishop  Albert,  about  780.  It  Avas 
again  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  year  1069,  and  rebuilt  by  archbishop  Thomas.  It  Avas  once 
more  burnt  doAvn  in  1137,  with  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  and  39  parish  churches  in  York. 
Archbishop  Roger  began  to  build  the  choir  in  1171  ;  Walter  Gray  added  the  south  transept 
in  1227  ;  John  de  Romayne,  the  treasurer  of  the  cathedral,  built  the  north  transept  in  1260. 
His  son,  the  archbishop,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  naA7e  in  1291.  In  1330,  "William  de 
Melton  built  the  two  Avestem  toAvers,  which  Avere  finished  by  John  de  Birmingham  in  1342. 
Archbishop  Thoresby,  in  1361,  began  to  rebuild  the  choir,  in  accordance  Avith  the  magnifi- 
cence of  the  nave,  and  he  also  rebuilt  the  lantern  toAver.  Thus  by  many  hands,  and 
many  contributions  of  multitudes  on  the  promise  of  indulgences,  this  magnificent  fabric  Avas 
completed.  It  Avas  first  set  on  fire  by  Jonathan  Martin,  a  lunatic,  and  the  roof  of  the  choir 
and  its  internal  fittings  destroyed,  Feb.  2,  1829;  the  damage,  estimated  at  6o,ooo/.,  Avas 
repaired  in  1832.  An  accidental  fire  broke  out,  which  in  one  hour  reduced  the  belfry  to  a 
shell,  destroyed  the  roof  of  the  nave,  and  much  damaged  the  edifice,  May  20,  1840. 

YORK  AND  LANCASTER,  WARS  OF.    See  Roses. 

YORK  (Upper  Canada),  founded  in  1794  ;  since  1834  named  Toronto.  In  the  war 
between  America  and  Great  Britain,  the  United  States'  forces  made  several  attacks  upon  the 
province  of  Upper  Canada,  and  succeeded  in  taking  York,  the  seat  of  the  government,  April 
27,  1813  ;  but  it  was  soon  afterwards  again  retaken  by  the  British. 

YORK  TOWN  (Virginia,  United  States).  Lord  Corirwallis  had  taken  possession  of 
York  toAA?n  in  Aug.  1781  :  but  after  sustaining  a  disastrous  siege,  lie  Avas  obliged  to  sur- 
render his  army,  consisting  of  about  7000  men,  to  the  allied  armies  of  France  and 
America,  under  the  command  of  general  Washington  and  count  Rochambeau,  Oct.  19,  1781. 
This  mischance  AA'as  attributed  to  sir  Henry  Clinton,  Avho  had  not  given  the  garrison  the 
necessary  succour  they  expected  ;  and  it  mainly  led  to  the  close  of  the  Avar.  It  Avas  strongly 
fortified  by  the  Confederates  in  the  American  civil  Avar,  but  surrendered  to  M'Clellan, 
May,  1862. 

YTTRIUM,  a  rare  metal.  The  earth  yttria  Avas  discovered  by  professor  Gadolin  in  a 
mineral  at  Ytterby,  in  SAvedeu,  1794.  The  metal  Avas  first  obtained  by  Wb'hler  in  1828.  It 
is  of  a  dark  grey  colour,  and  brittle. 

YVRES  (now  IVEY,  N.-W.  France),  Avhere  a  battle  was  fought,  March  14,  1590,  betAveen 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  aided  by  his  chief  nobility,  and  the  generals  of  the  Catholic  league, 
over  whom  the  king  obtained  a  complete  victory. 


Z. 

ZAMA  (near  Carthage,  N.  Africa),  the  scene  of  the  battle  between  the  tAvo  greatest 
commanders  in  the  Avorld  at  the  time,  Hannibal  and  Scipio  Africanus.  The  victory  Avas  Avon 
by  Scipio,  and  was  decisive  of  the  fate  of  Carthage  ;  it  led  to  an  ignominious  peace  the  year 
after,  Avhich  closed  the  second  Punic  Avar.  The  Romans  lost  about  2000  killed  and  Avounded, 
Avhile  the  Carthaginians  lost  in  killed  and  prisoners  more  than  40,000 ;  some  historians 
make  the  loss  greater  ;  202  B.  a 


ZAN  803  ZOO 

ZANTE.     One  of  the  Ionian  islands,  which  sec. 

ZANZALEENS.  This  sect  rose  in  Syria,  under  Zanzale?,  535  ;  he  taught  that  water 
baptism  was  of  no  efficacy,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  be  baptised  with  fire,  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  red-hot  iron.  The  sect  was  at  one  time  very  numerous. 

ZE,  ZOW,  ZIERES.  For  ye,  you,  and  yours.  The  letter  z  was  retained  in  Scotland, 
and  was  commonly  written  for  the  letter  y  so  late  as  the  reign  of  queen  Mary,  up  to  which 
period  many  books  in  the  Scottish  language  were  printed  in  Edinburgh  with  these  words, 
I543- 

ZELA«(N.-E.  Asia  Minor).  Where  Julius  Cresar  defeated  Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus, 
son  of  Mithridates.  Caesar,  in  announcing  this  victory,  sent  his  famous  dispatch  to  the 
senate  of  Rome,  in  these  words  :  "  Veni,  vidi,  vici" — "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered"  (perhaps 
the  shortest  despatch  on  record).  This  battle  ended  the  war  :  Pharnaces  escaped  into 
Bosphorus,  where  he  was  slain  by  his  lieutenant,  Asander ;  Pontus  was  made  a  Roman 
province,  and  Bosphorus  given  to  Mithridates  of  Pergamus,  47  B.C. 

ZELL,  Hanover.     Sse  Denmark,  1772. 

ZEND-AVESTA,  ancient  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees  ;  of  which  3  out  of  21  are  extant. 
The  age  of  these  books  is  much  disputed.  Professor  Max  Miiller  says  that  the  MSS.  had 
been  preserved  by  the  Parsee  priests  at  Bombay,  where  a  colony  of  fire-worshippers  had  fled 
in  the  loth  century.  Anquetil  Duperron's  French  translation,  from  a  modern  Persian 
version,  was  published  in  1771. 

ZENO,  SECT  OF.     See  Stoics. 

ZENOBIA,  Queen  of  the  East.     See  Palmyra. 

ZENTA,  in  Hungary,  the  scene  of  a  battle  where  the  Germans  under  prince  Eugene, 
defeated  the  Turks,  Sept.  u,  1697.  This  victory  led  to  the  peace  of  Coiiowitz,  ratified, 
January,  1699. 

ZINC.  The  ore  of  zinc,  calamine,  was  known  to  the  Greeks,  who  used  it  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brass.  It  is  said  to  have  been  known  in  China  also,  and  is  noticed  by 
European  writers  as  early  as  1231  ;  though  the  method  of  extracting  it  from  the  ore  was 
unknown  for  nearly  five  hundred  years  after.  The  metal  zinc  is  first  mentioned  by  Para- 
celsus (who  died  in  1541).  A  mine  of  zinc  was  discovered  on  lord  Ribblesdale's  estate, 
Craven,  Yorkshire,  in  1809.  Zincography  was  introduced  in  London  shortly  after  the 
invention  of  lithography  became  known  in  England,  in  1817.  See  Lithography.  Zinc  is 
much  used  in  voltaic  batteries  ;  and  its  application  in  manufactures  has  greatly  increased  of 
late  years.  It  is  often  called  Spelter.  See  Photozincography. 

ZIRCONIUM,  the  metallic  base  of  the  earth  Zirconia,  which  was  discovered  by  Klaproth 
in  1789  ;  from  this  Berzelius  obtained  the  metal  in  1824.  Zirconia  is  found  in  the  sand  of 
the  rivers  of  Ceylon.  The  metal  exists  in  the  form  of  a  black  powder. 

ZIZYPHTJS  VULtfARIS.  A  shrub  brought  from  the  south  of  Europe  about  1640.  The 
Zhyphus  Paliurus  shrub  (Christ's  Thorn)  was  brought  from  Africa  before  1596.  See 

Flowers. 

ZODIAC.  Its  obliquity  was  discovered,  its  twelve  signs  named,  and  their  situations 
assigned  them  by  Anaximander,  about  560  B.C.  The  Greeks  and  Arabians  borrowed  the 
zodiac  from  the  Hindoos.  Sir  W.  Joms. 

ZOLLVEREIN  (Customs  Union},  the  name  given  to  the  German  Commercial  union,  of 
which  Prussia  is  at  the  head.  It  began  in  1818,  and  was  gradually  joined  by  nearly  all  the 
German  states  except  Austria,  and  a  treaty  was  signed  March  22,  1833,  which  became  the 
basis  of  the  association.  On  Feb.  19,  1853,  an  important  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation, 
between  Austria  and  Prussia,  to  last  from  Jan.  1854  to  Dec.  1865,  was  signed,  to  which  the 
other  states  of  the  Zollverein  gave  in  their  adhesion  on  April  5,  1853.  In  Nov.  1861, 
Prussia  threatened  to  withdraw  unless  certain  changes  were  made. 

ZOOLOGY  (from  zoon,  Greek  for  animal)  is  the  division  of  biology  which  treats  of 
animals.  Aristotle  (322-284  B.C.)  is  the  founder  of  the  science.  Systems  of  classification 
have  been  made  by  John  Ray  (1628-1705),  Charles  Linnd  (1707-78),  G.  Button  (1707-88), 
and  George  Cuvier  (1769-1832).* 

*  The  animal  kingdom  -was  divided  by  Linnftms  into  six  classes  ;  viz.  :— Mammalia,  which  includes  all 
animals  that  suckle  their  young ;  Aves,  birds ;  Amphibia,  or  amphibious  animals ;  Pisces,  fishes ; 
Inxecta,  insects;  Vennes,  worms  ;  1741.  Cuvier,  who  died  in  Paris,  May  13,  1832,  in  his  great  work,  Refine 
Ardniale,  published  in  1816,  distributed  the  animals  into  four  great  divisions,  the  Vertebrate  (ribbed;  • 

3  F  2 


ZOO  804  ZUT 

ZOOLOGY,  continued. 

The  Zoological  Society  of   London  (originally  the  \  menagerie  of  Mr.  Cross  was  temporarily  lodged  in 

Zoological  Club)  was  founded  in  1826,  and  its  gar-  the  King's  Mews,  whence  it  was  removed  to  tho 

dens  in  the  Regent's  Park  were  opened  in  April,  Surrey  Zoological  Gardens,  1832. 
1827 ;  the  society  was  chartered  March  27,  1829.  j  The  Zoological  Gardens  of    Dublin  were  opened, 

Dr.  James  Murie  was  appointed  by  the  society  to  be  j  1832. 

their  first  "anatomical  prosector,"  May  3,  1865.  See  Aquarium,   Hippopotamus,  Giroffe,  and  Accli- 

On  the  demolition  of  Exeter  Change,  in  1829,  the  '•     realisation. 

ZORNDORFF,  in  Prussia,  where  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  Prussian  and  Eussian 
armies  ;  the  former,  commanded  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  obtained  a  victory  over  tb,e  forces  of 
the  czarina,  whose  loss  amounted  to  21,529  men,  while  that  of  the  Prussians  did  not  exceed 
n,ooo,  Aug.  25  and  26,  1758. 

ZOUAVES  AND  FOOT  CHASSEURS.  When  the  French  established  a  regency  at  Algiers, 
in  1830,  they  hoped  to  find  the  employment  of  native  troops  advantageous,  and  selected  the 
Zooaouas,  a  congregation  of  Arab  tribes,  famous  for  daring  and  skilful  courage.  In  time 
numbers  of  red  republicans,  and  other  enthusiastic  Frenchmen,  joined  the  regiments, 
adopting  the  costume,  &c.  :  eventually  the  Africans  disappeared  from  the  ranks,  and  no 
more  were  added,  they  having  been  frequently  guilty  of  treachery.  The  French  Zouaves 
formed  an  important  part  of  the  army  in  the  Crimean  war,  1854-5.* 

ZUINGLIANS,  the  followers  of  the  reformer  Ulricus  Zuinglius,  who  at  Zurich,  declaimed 
against  the  church  of  Rome,  and  effected  the  same  separation  for  Switzerland  from  the  papal 
dominion,  which  Luther  did  for  Saxony.  He  procured  two  assemblies  to  be  called  ;  by  tho 
first  he  was  authorised  to  proceed,  by  the  second,  the  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church  were 
abolished,  1519.  Zuinglius  died  in  arms  as  a  soldier,  being  slain  in  a  skirmish  against  his 
popish  opponents  in  1531.  The  Zuinglians  were  also  called  Sacramentarians. 

ZULPICH.     See  TolUac, 

ZURICH  was  admitted  a  member  and  made  head  of  the  Swiss  confederacy,  1351,  and 
was  the  first  town  in  Switzerland  that  separated  from  the  church  of  Rome.  See  Zuinglians. 
A  grave-digger  at  Zurich  poisoned  the  sacramental  wine,  by  which  eight  persons  lost  their 
lives  and  many  others  were  grievously  injured,  Sept.  4,  1776.  The  French  were  defeated  here, 
losing  4000  men,  June  5,  1799.  The  Imperialists  were  defeated  by  Massena,  the  former 
losing  20,000  men  killed  and  wounded,  Sept.  25,  1799.  See  Switzerland.  On  June  24, 
1859,  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  the  allied  French  and  Sardinian  army  at  Solferino. 
Preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at  Villa  Franca  by  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  France  on 
July  12  following.  A  conference  between  the  representatives  of  the  powers  concerned 
having  been  appointed,  the  first  meeting  took  place  on  August  8.  After  many  delays  a 
treaty  was  signed  on  Nov.  n,  and  ratified  Nov.  12.  Lombardy  was  ceded  to  Sardinia  ;  the 
formation  of  an  Italian  Confederation,  under  the  presidency  of  the  pope,  was  determined  on, 
and  the  rights  of  the  ex-sovereigns  of  Tuscany,  Modena,  and  Parma  were  reserved.  The 
formation  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1861  annulled  the  treaty  of  Zurich. 

ZUTPHEN,  in  Holland.  At  a  battle  here  Sept.  22,  1586,  between  the  Spaniards  and  the 
Dutch,  the  amiable  sir  Philip  Sidney,  author  of  "Arcadia,"  was  killed.  He  was  serving 
with  the  English  auxiliaries,  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Leicester. 


the  Mollusca  (soft  bodied) ;  the  Articulata  (jointed) ;  and  the  Radiata  (the  organs  disposed  round  a  centre). 
In  1859,  professor  Owen  made  known  a  system  of  arranging  the  class  Mammalia  according  to  the  nature  of 
their  brains. 

*  The  Zouave  organisation  and  drill  were  introduced  into  the  federal  army  in  the  grcnt  civil  war  in 
America,  by  Ephraim  E.  Elleswoi-th,  early  in  1861.  He  was  assassinated  on  May  24,  same  year,  at 
Alexandria,  just  after  taking  down  a  secession  flag. 


INDEX. 


[The  references  are  to  articles  in  the  body  of  the  work ;  the  italics  refer  to  articles  in  this  Index.  The  year 
given  isA.D.  when  B.C.  is  not  mentioned ;  two  dates,  thus,  1508-82,  signify  the  year  of  the  person's 
birth  and  death  ;  6.,  born ;  d.,  died ;  fl.,  flourished ;  m.,  murdered  ;  k.,  killed.] 


ABBAS,  Persia,  1582 
Abbot,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1611 
Abbot,  Charles;  speaker,  1802 
Abd-el-Kader ;  Algiers,  1835 
Abderahman,  I. — V.,  caliphs,  755- 

1023 

Abdul-Medjid,  Turkey,  1839-61 
Abdul- Aziz,  Turkey,  1861 
Abelard,  d.  1142;  Abelard 
Abercromby,  Jas.,  speaker,  1835 
Abercromby,  sir  R.,  1738-1801 ; 

Trinidad,  Alexandria, 
Aberdeen,  earl  of,  1784-1860;  Aber- 
deen adm.  note 

Abernethy,  J.,  surgeon,  1764-1831 
Abingdon,  earl  of ;  trials,  1 794 
Abinger,   Id.,   att.-gen.,  1827  ;  ex- 
chequer b.,  1834 
Abrantes,  duke  of ;  see  Junot 
Absalom  killed,  1023  B.C. 
Abubeker ;  Ali,  632 
Accum,  F. ;  adulterations,  1822 
Achilli  v.  Newman  ;  trials,  1852-3 
Achmet ;  see  Ahmed 
Acilius  ;  statues,  temples 
Ackermann,  R.  ;  lithograph y,  1817 
Acron ;  aromatics,  473  B.C. 
Acton,  Mrs. ;  Royal  Ins t.,  1838 
Actuarius ;  purgatives,  1245 
Adair,  serj.;  Junius,  1769 
Adalbert,  St. ;  Prussia,  993^ 
Adam;  duel,  1779 
Adam,    R.   and  bros.,  architects 

1728-92 

Adams,  J.  C  ,  inathemat. ;  Nep- 
tune, 1845 ;  J.  (1797)  and  J. 
Q.  (1825),  United  States  (pre- 
sidents) 

Adams  v.  Dundas  ;  trials,  1831 
Adderley,  Mr.  ;  Birmingham,  1856 
Addington,!!.,  1757-1844;  Addingt. 
Addieon,  Joseph,   1672-1719,  Spec- 
tator,    1711;     Stanhope    ad- 
ministration,  1717  ;    allegory, 
Clio,  clubs 

Adelais ;      Adelaide ;       England 
queens  (Hen.  I.,  William  IV.) 
Adeodatus ;  pope,  672 
Adolphus,  Frederic  ;  Sweden,  1751 
Adrian,     Rome;     emperor,     117 

edicts,  persecutions  ;  popes 
JEgeus  ;  Athens,  1283  B.C. 
^Egineta,  Paulus  ;  surgery,  640 
JEgisthus ;  Mycenfe,  1201  B.C. 
-/Ernilianus  ;  Rome,  146  B  c. 
yEneas;  Italy,  Alba,  1182  B.C. 
J^schines,  Gk.  orator,  389-344  B.C. 
Jischylus,  Greek  tragedy,  526-456 

B.C.  ;  drama 
^sculapius ;  infirmaries 


;  fables  (about  600  B.C.) 

Africanus ;  see  Scipio 

Agamemnon;  Mycenae,  1201  B.C. 

Agathocles;  Carthage,  Sicily,  Sy- 
racuse, 317  B.C. 

Age,  proprietor  of ;  trials,  1844 

Agesander ;  Laocoon 

Agesilaus;  Sparta,  398  B.C. 

Agis  ;  Sparta,  427  B.C. 

Agnew,  Mr.  Vans  ;  India,  1848 

Agnodice;  midwifery 

Agricola  ;  Britain,  78  ;  Lancaster, 
Caledonia,  Roman  wall 

Agricola,  John ;  Antinomians 

Agrippa  ;  Pantheon,  27  B.C. 

Aholiab ;  sculpture 

Ahmed  I.— III.  ;  Turkey,  1603, 
et  seq. 

Airy,  G.  B.,  b.  1801  ;  Greenwich, 
*%35  ;  pendulum,  standard 

Aislabie,  Mr.  ;  Sunderland  admi- 
nistration, 1718 ;  South  Sea 

Akbar,  India ;  1556 

Akenside,  Mark,  poet,  1721-70 

Alaric,  d.  410  ;  Rome,  France 

Albemarle,  Geo.,  Monk,  duke  of, 
1608-70;  administrations,  1660 

Alberoni,  card.,  1664-1751;  Spain, 
1715 

Albert ;  Austria,  Bohemia,  Ger- 
many, Hungary 

Albert  (prince  consort),  1819-61 ; 
England,  1840;  regency  bill, 
duelling 

Albertus  Magnus ;  automatons 

Albion  the  Longobard,  killed  573 

Albuquerque  (viceroy) ;  India, 
1 503-1 5 

Alcibiades,  killed  404  B.C.  ;  Athens 

Alcippe ;  Areopagitas 

Alcock,  Mr.  ;  duelling,  1807 

Alcuin  (theologian),  735-804 

Aldebert ;  impostors,  743 

Aldhelme  ;  Salisbury,  705 ;  poetry, 
ballads 

Alectus;  Britain,  294 

A]en?on,  due  d' ;  Agincourt,  1415 

Alexander  of  Paris :  Alexandrine 


Alexander  the  Great.  356-323  B.C.  ; 
Macedon,  Egypt,  Gordian, 
Tyre,  Memphis 


Alexander Severus ;  Rome, em. ,222 
Alexander  I.  ;  Russia,  1801  ;  Aus- 

terlitz,  1805  ;  Leipsic,  1813 
Alexander  ;  see  pope  ;  Scotland 
Alexander,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1830 
Alexander,  sir  W.  ;  Nova  Scotia, 

1722 

Alexius,  East  (emperors),  1081-1203 
Alfieri,  Y.,  1749-1803 


Alfred  the  Great,  849-901;  Eng- 
land, councils,  clocks,  crown, 
militia 

Alfred,  prince ;  Godwin,  1053 ; 
England;  royal  family,  b.  1844 

Alibaud ;  France,  1836 

Ali  Pacha;  Rosetta;  Turkey,  1820  ; 
Albania 

Alleyne,  Edwd.,  d.  1617;  Dulwich 
coll. 

Almansour;  Bagdad,  762 

Almeida,  L. ;  Madagascar,  1506 

Alphonsus ;  Sicily,  Spain,  Por- 
tugal (kings) 

Alsop,  Joseph  ;  trials,  1839 

Althorp,  vise.  ;  Grey  administra- 
tion, 1830 ;  Melbourne,  1835 

Alva,  duke  of,  1508-82;  Antwerp, 
Holland 

Alvanley,  lord ;  duel,  1835 

Alvinzi,  Marshal;  Arcola,  1796 

Alyattes  ;  Lydia,  761  B.C. 

Alypius  of  Alexandria  ;  dwarfs 

Amadeus,  Savoy ;  annunciation 

Ambrose,  St.,  d.  397  :  anthems, 
Te  Deum,  liturgies 

Ambrosius ;  Stonehenge 

Amenophis  ;  Egypt,  1821  B.C. 

Americus  Vespucius,  d.  1512 ; 
America,  note 

Amherst,  lord;  China,  1816,  India 
1823 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  hist.,   d. 

39° 
Amontons,  W. ;  telegraphs,  1663- 

1705 

Amos  prophesies  abt.  787  B.C. 
Ampere,    A.   M.    1735-1836;    elec- 

ricity    (galvanism);     electric 

telegraph 

Amulius  ;  Alba,  794  B.c 
Amurath ;  Turkey,  Beyrout 
Amyntas  ;  Macedon,  540  B.C. 
Anacharsis,    592    B.C.  ;     anchors, 

bellows 

Anacletus ;  pope,  78 
Anacreon,  poet,  fl.  about  557  B.C. 
Anastasius  ;  pope  ;  East ;  emperors 
Anaxagoras,  480  B.C.  ;  earthquakes 
Anaximander,  547  B.C.  ;  maps 
Anaximenes,  548  B.C.  ;  air 
Anderson,  J. ;  slavery(in  U.  States), 

note,  1853 

Andre",  maj.,  United  States,  1780 
Andrew ;  Hungary,  kings 
Andrews,  H.,  d.  1820;  almanacs 
Andronicus,  240  B.  c. ;  drama 
Andronicus ;      Eastern      empire 

1071-1391 
Angela,  St. ;  Ursuliue  nuns,  1537 


806 


INDEX. 


Angerstein,  J.,  d.  1822;  National 

Gallery 
Anglesey,  Arthur,  earl  of  ;  Ireland 

(lord-lieutenant),  1828,  1830 
Angus,  earl  of ;  Linlithgow 
Anjou,  Plantagenet,  Jarnac,  1569; 

Naples,  1266 
Ankerstrom  (kills  Gustavus  I1I.)> 

Sweden,  1792 
Anna,  St.  ;  Mexico,  1853 
Anne  of  Brittany,  d.  1514;  maids 

of  honour 
Anne  of  Austria,   d.   1666;    iron 

mask 

Anne  ;  England,  semper  eadem 
Ansell,  G.\  fire-damp,  1865 
Anselm,  apb.  ;  Canterbury,  1093 
Anson,  admiral;  Acapulco,  1744; 

naval  battles,  1747 
Anson,  general ;  India,  1857 
Anthony  :  monachism,  4th  century 
Antigonus  ;  Ipsus,  301  B.C.,  profiles 
Antiochus  L— X.  280-65  B.C.  Syria, 

Jews,  170  or  168  B.C. 
Antipator;  Cranon,  322  B.C. 
Autistheiies  ;  cynics,  396  B.C. 
Antonelli,   card.    b.   1806;  Rome, 

1848 
Antoninus  Pius  ;  Rome,  emperors, 

138 ;  Roman  wall 
Antony,  Mark,  d.   30 ;  Rome,   43 

B.C.  ;    Armenia,    Philippi,   42 

B.C.  ;  Actium,  31  B.C. 
Anviti,  col.,  killed;  Parma,  1859 
Apelles,  painter,  352-308  B.C. 
Apollodorus  ;  Trajan's  pillar,  114 
Apollonius;  Syria,  1 68  B.C. 
Appian,  hist.,jl  about  147 
Appius  Claudius  ;  Rome,  449  B.  c.  ; 

aqueducts,  decemviri,  Virginia 
Applegarth ;  printing  machine 
Apries;  Egypt,  571  B.C. 
Apsley,  Id.  ;  North  adminis.,  1770 
Apuleius,  d.  174 
Aquinas,  T.,  theol.  d.  1274 
Arago,  D.  F.,  nat.  phil.,  1786-1853 
Aram,  Eugene  ;  trials,  1759 
Aratus  ;  Achaia,  245  B.C. 
Arbogastes  ;  Aquileia,  394 
Arcadius    and    Honorius,   eastern 

and  western  empire,  395 
Arch  clans  ;  Cappadocia,  20  B.C. 

Macedon,  413  B.C. 
Archemorus  ;  Nemaean  games 
Archer,  F.  S. ;  collodion,  1851 
Archidanius  ;  Sparta,  648  B.  c. 
Archilochus,     708    B.C.  ;    Iambic 

verse 
Archimedes,  287-212  B.C.  ;   circle, 

cranes,   mechanics,   mensura- 
tion, organs,  reflectors,  screw, 

planetarium 

Archytas ;  automaton,  pulley 
Ardesoif,  Mr.  ;  cockfighting,  1788 
Aretin,  Gui ;  musical  notes,  1025 
Arfastus,    chancellor,    lord  high, 

1067 

Arfwedson,  Mr.  ;  lithium,  1817 
Argyll,  duke  of  ;  Dunblane,  1715 
Ariarathes ;  Cappadocia 
Ariobarzanes,     322    B.C.  ;    Cappa- 
docia, 93  B.C. 

Ariosto,  L.  Ital.  poet.,  1474-1533 
Aris,  gov.  ;  prisons,  1800 
Aristarchus,  1566.0.  ;  sun,  globe 
Aristaeus;  conic  sections,  3306.0. 
Aristides  the  Just,  d.   468    B.C.  ; 

Athens 

Aristippus  ;  Cyrenaic  sect,  392  B.C. 
Aristocrates  ;  Arcadia,  715  B.C. 
Aristodemus  ;  biarchy,  1102  B.C. 
Aristophanes,  d.  427  B.C.  ;  comedy 


Aristotle,     384-332    B.C.  ;     Aristo-  ] 
telian    philosophy,   acoustics, 
botany,  Macedon,  mechanics, 
metaphysics,  philosophy 

Arius,  d.  336  ;  Arians 

Ark wright,  R.  (1732-92);  cotton, 
Manchester,  spinning 

Arlington,  lord ;  cabal,  1670 

Arnrinius,  d.  1609 ;  Arminians, 
Dort 

Armstrong,  W.  G. ;  electricity, 
1840 ;  cannon,  1859 

Arne,  T.,  music  composer,  1710-88 

Arnold,  gen.  ;  United  States,  1780 

Arnold,  Dr.  Thos.,  hist.,  1795-1842 

Arrian,  hist. ,  fl.  148 

Arsaces :  Parthia,  250  B.C. 

Artabazus  ;  Pontus,  487  B.  c. 

Artaxerxes ;  Persia  (kings) 

Artemisia  ;  mausoleum,  350  B.C. 

Artemones ;     battering-ram,     441 

B.C. 

Arthur,  king  ;  Britain,  506 
Artois,  count  d' ;  duelling,  1778 
Arundel,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1397-9 
Arundel,  Henry,  earl  of  ;  adminis- 
trations, 1547 
Ascanius  ;  Alba,  1152  B.C. 
Asdrubal ;  see  Hasdrubal 
Asellius  ;  lacteals  (1622),  lympha- 
tics 

Asgill,  Mr. ;  translation,  1703 
Ashburton,  Id.  ;  treaty,  1842 
Ashe,  gen.  ;  Briar's  creek,  1779 
Ashford,  Mary;  appeal,  1818 
Ashley,  lord  ;  cabal,  1670 
Ashley,  sir  Arthur  ;  cabbages 
Ashtoii,  colonel ;  Wigan,  1643 
Aske  ;  pilgrimage  of  grace,  1536 
Aslett,  Rob.  ;  exchequer  bills,  1803 
As.sheton,  Wm.  ;  clergy,  charities 
Astley,  lord  ;  Naseby,  1645 
Aston,  sir  A.  ;  Drogheda,  1649 
Astyages  ;  Media,  594  B.C. 
Athanasius,    d.    373;    Athamsian 

creed 
Athelstan ;   England  (king),  924  ; 

mint,  928 

Athenams,  Greek,  d.  194 
Athol,  duke  of;  Man,  sold  by,  1765 
Athothes  ;  hieroglyphics,  writing 
Atossa ;  marriage  by  sale 
Attains,  d.  197  B.C.  ;  seven  churches 

(Pergamus),  parchment 
Atterbury,  bp.  F.  ;  banished,  1723 
Attila  ;  Hungary,  Chalons,  451 
Attwood,  T.  ;  chartists,  1838 
Atwell,  W.  ;  trials,  1857 
Auber,  D.,  music  composer,  b.  1784 
Auchmuty,  sir  Samuel;   Batavia, 

1811 ;  Monte  Video,  1807 
Auckland,  Id.  bp.  ;  Bath  and  Wells 

1854 

Auckland,  lord  ;  Grey  administra- 
tion, 1830 ;  India,  1835 

Augereau,  gen.  ;  Castiglione,  1796 

Augustenburg,  duke  of,  Denmark, 
1863 

Augustin,  St.  (of  Hippo),  354-430 

Augustin  the  monk,  abp.  Canter- 
bury, 602 ;  Rochester 

Augustus  (emperor),  Rome,27B.c. ; 
praetorian  guards 

Aulus  Gellius,  Latin  misc.,/.  169 

Aurelian  ;  Rome,  emp.  270  ;  Ale- 
manni 

Aurelius;  Rome,  emp.  161 

Aurungzebe ;  India,  1658 

Ausonius,  poet,  d.  394 

Austin ;  see  Austin,  St. 

Austin,  capt. ;  Franklin 

Austin.  W. ;  trials,  1855 


Austria,  John  of;  Lepanto,  1571 
Averroes,  med.  writer,/.  1199 
Avisa ;  queens  (John) 


B. 

Babbagc,  C.,  b.  1792;   calculating 

machine 

Baber;  India,  1525 
Babeuf ;  d.  i 791  ;  agrarian  law 
Babbington,  which  see,  1586 
Babrius;  fable 
Bach,  J.    Sebastian,  music,  1685- 

Bachelier,  M.  ;  encaustic,  1749 
Back,  G.  ;  north-w.  passage,  1833 
Bacon,  lord  (1561-1626);  lawyers, 

aeronautics 
Bacon,  sir  Nicholas  ;  keeper,  Id., 

1558,  baronet 

Bacon,  John,  sculptor,  1740-99 
Bacon,  Roger,  d.  1292  ;  astrology, 
camera  lucida,  loadstone,  ma- 
gic-lantern,   magnet,    optics, 
spectacles 

Bacon,  T.  F.  ;  trials,  1857 
Baffin,  W.  M.  ;  Baffin's  Bay,  1616 
Bagnal,  lieut.  ;  duel,  1812 
Bagot,  bishop;  Oxford,  1829 
Bagration,  pr.  ;  Mohilows,  1812 
Bagster,  Miss  M.  ;  trials,  1828 
Bailey,  rev.  W.  ;  trials,  1843 
Baillie,  col.  ;  Arcot,  1780 
Baillie,  general ;  Alford,  1645 
Baillie.  Joanna,  poet,  1763-1851 
Bailly,  M.,  philo.  :  executed,  1793 
Bainbrigg,  abp.  ;  York,  1508 
Baines,  M.  T. ;  Palmerston adminis- 
tration, 1855 
Baird,    sir   David;    Cape,     1806, 

Scringapatam,  1799 
Bajazet ;  Turkey,  1389 
Baker,  colonel ;  Bull's  Bluff,  1861 
Baker,    H.  ;    Bakerian    Lecture, 

1765 

Baker,  S.  W.  ;  Africa,  1864 
Balard,  M.  ;  amylene,  1844 
Balchan,  admiral;  Alderney,  1744 
Baldwin  I. — V.  ;  Jerusalem,  noo- 

85 ;  East  Flanders 
Bales,  P.  ;  calligi-aphy 
Balfe,  M.  W.,  b.  1808 
Balfour,  John  ;  Scotland,  1679 
Baliol,  Edw.  ;  Scotland,  kings,  1329 
Baliol,     John ;     Scotland,     1293, 

Oxford,  Duribar 
Ballarat,  Melbourne,  1854 
Ballard,  John;    Babiugton's  con- 
spiracy, 1586 

Ballasteros,  gen.  :  Ximena,  1811 
Balmerino,  lord  ;  rebellion,    Scot- 
land, 1745  ;  trials,  1746 
Baltimore,  lord ;   America,  1632  ; 

trials,  1768 

Bancroft,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1604 
Bancroft,  G.,  hist.,  b.  1800 
Banks,  sir  J.,  1743-1820  ;  hort.  soc., 

royal  institution,  1799 
Bannister,  Mr.  ;  retired,  1815 
Bar,  due  de  ;  Agincpurt,  1415 
Baradajus  ;  Eutychians,  Jacobites 
Baranelli,  L. ;  trials,  1855 
Barantz,  north-w.  passage,  1594 
Barbarossa,  d.  1546;  Tunis,  Algiers 
Barbauld,  Mrs.  A.  L.,  1743-1825 
Barber,   Fletcher,    Saundcrs,   and 

Doi-ey;  trials,  1844,  and  note 
Barberini ;  Portland  vase 
Barbou  ;  printers,  1539-1755 
Barbour,  J.  ;  trials,  1853 
Barclay,  capt.;pedestrianism,  1809 


INDEX. 


807 


Barclay,  Perkins,  &  Co. ;  porter 
Barclay,  Rob.,  d.  1690;  quakers 
Barbara,  lord  ;  admiralty,  1805 
Baring,     Alex.,  Peel      administ. 
1834;   sir  F.  ;    London  Insti- 
tution, 1805 ;  Russell  adminis- 
tration, 1846 

Barker,  Robert  ;  panorama,  1788 
Barlow  ;  clocks,  1676 
Barlow,  rev.  J.  ;Royal  Institut. ,  1 842 
Barlow,  sir  G. ;  India,  governors,  i 

1805 

Barlowe,  William  ;  compass,  1608    j 
Barnard,  general;  India,  1857 
Barnes,  T.,  d.  1841  ;  Times 
Barnet,  Geo.  ;  trials,  1816 
Barre",     Isaac,    Rockingham     ad-  ] 

ministration,  1782 
Barrett,     captain ;    Cumberland  ;  j 

naval  battles,  1811 
Barrie,  capt.;  naval  battles,  1811 
Barrington,  bp.  ;  Durham,  1791 
Barrington,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1788 
Barrington;  trials,  1790 
Barrot,  0.  ;  France,  1848 
Barrow,  Isaac,  1630-77 
Barry,  sir  Charles,  architect,  1795-  i 

1860 ;  parliament 
Earth,  Dr.  ;  Africa,  1849 
Barthe'le'my,  E.  ;  trials,  1855 
Barton,  Bernard,  poet,  d.  1849 
Barton,  Dr.  ;  insurance,  1667 
Barton,  Elizabeth;  impostor,  1534  \ 
Baschi,  Matt.  :  Capuchins,  1525 
Basil,  St.,  d.  380;  Basilians 
Basil ;  East.  emp.  867  ;  Russia 
Basilowitz;  Russia,  czars,  1462 
Bath,  earl  of;  Bath  admin.,  1746     j 
Bathou  ;  Transylvania,  1851,  &c.      i 
Bathurst,  bp. ;  Norwich,  1805 
Bathurst,  earl ;  Liverpool  adminis-  j 

tration,  1812. 
Bathyllus  ;  pantomimes 
Batman,  J.  ;  Victoria,  1835 
Batthyany,  Hungary,  1848 
Battus  ;  Gyrene,  631  B.C. 
Baumgarten ;  {esthetics,  1730 
Bavaria,  elector  of ;  Ramilies,  1706 
Baxter,  sir  D.;  Dundee,  1863 
Baxter,  G.  ;  printing  in  colours, 

1836 

Baxter,  Rd.,  theologian,  1615-91 
Bayard,  chevalier.,  killed,  1524 
Bayle,  P.,  d.  1706  ;  dictionary,  1697 
Bayley,  lieut.  ;  duel,  1818 
Baynard,  Geoffrey ;  combat 
Bazalgette,  J.  W.,  b.  1819;  sewers, 

Thames 

Beadon,  bishop  ;  Bath,  1802 
Bean  aims  at  the  qxieeii  ;  trials,  1842 
Beaton,  cardinal;  m.  1546 
Beattie,  Jas.;  poet,  1735-1803 
Beauclerc,  lord  Charles,  drowned  : 

while  assisting  at  a  wreck,  1861 
Beau  Nash  ;  ceremonies 
Beauchamp,  Henry  de  ;  Wight 
Beauchamp,  John  de  ;  barons 
Beaufort,  cardinal,  d.  1447 
Beauharnais,  Eugene,    1781-1824 ; 

Italy,  Mockern 

Beaulieu,  general ;  Lodi,  1796 
Beaumont,  sir  G. ,  National  Gallery 

opened 

Beaumont,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1821-1826 
Beaumont ;  viscount,  1440 
Beauregard,  P.  G.,6.  1818;  United 

States,  1861 

Beauvoir,  sir  J.  de;  trials,  1835 
Becket,  T.,  m.  1170  ;  Becket 
Beckford,  W.  ;  Fonthill  Abbey 
Bede,  Venerable,  d.  735 
Bedford,  duke  of ;  duel,  1822  ;  Ire- 


land,  lord-lieuts.,    1490-1757;! 
France,  1422 ;  admiralty,  1744  ; 
nobility,  1470 

Bedingfield,  Ann  ;  trials,  1763 
Beeby,  William ;  longevity 
Beeching,  J. ;  life-boat,  1851 
Beethoven,  L.,  mus.  comp.,  1770- 

1827 

Begum  charge,  Chunar,  1781 
Behem,  Martin ;  Azores 
Behring,  d.  1741;  Behring's  straits 
Bela,  Hungary 
Belasyse,  Id.  L.  ;  adm.,  1687 
Belcher,  sir  E.  ;  circumnavigation, 

1836;  Franklin 
Belcredi,    count     Rd.,     b.    1823 ; 

Austria,  1865 

Belisarius,  d.  564 ;  Africa,  east  emp. 
Bell,  And.,  d.  1832  ;    Lancasterian 

schools 

Bell,  sir  C.,  1778-1842;  nerves 
Bell,  H.  ;  steam,  1812 
Bellamont,  lord ;  duel,  1773 
Bellamy;  trial,  1844 
Bellarmine,  card.,  1542-1621 
Bellingham  kills  Perceval,  1812 
Bellingham,  sir  Daniel ;  mayor  (of 

Dublin),  1665 
Bellini,  music,  1802-35 
Bellot,  lieut.,  d.  1853  ;  Franklin 
Belochus;  Assyria,  14466.0. 
Belus  ;  Assyria,  2245  B.C. 
Belzoni,  d.  1823 
Bern ;  Hungary ;  d.  1850 
Benbow, adm.;  naval  battles,  1702 
Benedict,     Benedictines ;     popes, 

574-1758 
Bcntham,  Jer.  (1746-1832);  savings' 

banks 

Bentinck, lord  G.,  c?.  1848;  protec- 
tionists 
Bentinck,  lord  W. ;  Assam,  India ; 

1827 

Bentley,  Rd.,  scholar,  1662-1742 
Beranger,  J.  P.  de,  poet,  1780-1857 
Berengarius  ;  fete  de  Dieu 
Berenger,  Butt,  lord  Cochrane,  and 

others  ;  trials,  1814 
Berengeria  ;  queens  (Richard  I.) 
Beresford,  lord;  Albuera,  1811 
Beresford,  lord  J.  ;  suicide,  1841 
Beresford,  Wm.;  Derby  adm.,  1852 
Berg,  gen.;  Poland,  1863 
Berkeley  case  ;  trials,  1858 
Berkeley  cause  ;  trials,  1811 
Berkeley,  Hon.  C.  ;  duel,  1842 
Berkeley,  lord ;  admiralty,  1717 
Berkeley,  lord  ;  America,  N.,  1644  ; 

Brest,  1694 ;  Carolina 
Bernadotte,  1764-1818  ;Dennewitz, 

Sweden 

Bernard,  St.,  1091-1153 
Bernard,  S.  :  trials,  1858 
Bernard,  sir  Thomas ;  British  Inst. 
1805;  Royal  Institution,  1799 
Bernini,  1598-1680 
Berri.duke  and  duchess  of;  France, 

1820-1833 

Berry,  lieut. ;  trials,  1807 
Berthelot,  P.  M.,  6.  1827;  acety- 
lene, olefiant  gas,  1862 
Berthier,  gen.  ;  marshals 
Berthollet,  C.  L.,  1748-1822;  chlo- 
rine 
Bertie,  lady    G.    C.;    lord    great 

chamberlain 
Berwick,  duke  of,  d.  1734 ;  Landen, 

Almanza,  Newry 

Berzelius,   Jas.,    1779-1848;     che- 
mistry, silicium 

I  Bessemer,  H. ;  iron,  steel,  1856 
I  Bessus  ;  Persia,  331  B.C. 


Best,  capt.;  duel,  1804  ;  Surat,  1611 
Bethell,  bp.;  Gloucester,  1824 
Bethell,  sirR.  ;  solicitor-gen.,  1852, 

attorney -gen.,  1859  (see  West- 
bury) 

Bethencourt ;  Canaries,  1400 
Betty,  master  ;  theatres,  1804 
Beveni,  prince  ;  Breslau,  1757 
Bewick,  T.,  1753-1828  ;  wood  en- 
graving 
Bexley,  Vansittart,  lord ;  Liverpool 

administration,  1812 
Beza,  Theodore,  theologian,  1519- 

1605 

Bialobrzeski,  abp. ;  Poland,  1861 
Bickersteth,  bp.  ;  Ripon,  1856 
Biela,  comet,  1826 
Big  Sam;  giants,  1809 
Bingley,  lord;  Oxford  adm.  1711 
Bird,  the  boy ;  trials,  1831 
Birkbeck,  Dr..  d.  1841 ;  mechanics' 

institutes 
Biscoe,  capt. ;  southern  continent, 

1832 

Bishop  ;  burking,  1831 
Bishop,  A.  ;  derrick,' 1857 
Bishop,  sirH.,  music,  1787-1855 
Bishop,  J.  F.  ;  Italy,  1862 
Bismarck,   0.,   b.    1813;    Prussia, 

1862;  Gastein 
Black,  Dr.  ;  duel,  1835 
Black,  Jos.,  1728-99 ;  magnesia,  air, 

balloon 

Blackburn,  abp.  ;  York,  1724 
Blackstone,  sir  W.,  law,  1723-80 
Blair,  Hugh,  1717-1800;  rhetoric, 

verse ;— John,  chronologist,  d. 

1797 
Blake,  adm.  R.,  1599-1657;  Algiers, 

Dover  straits,   Portland  isle, 

Santa  Cruz 

Blakesley,  Robt.  ;  trials,  1841 
Blanc,  Louis,  b.  1813;  France,  1848 
Blanchard ;  balloon,  1784-1819 
Blanchard,  Laman  ;  suicide,  1845 
Blanchard, T. ;  timber  bending,  1855 
Blandy,  Miss  ;  trials,  1752 
Bligh,   captain  ;  bread-fruit  tree  ; 

Adventure  bay,  Bounty  mutiny 
Bligh,  captain,    v.   Mr.  Wellesley 

Pole ;  trials  1825 
Bligh,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1806 
Blomfield,    bp.  ;     Chester,    1824 ; 

London,  1828 

Blondin,  crystal  palace,  1861 
Blood,  col.,  d.  1680  ;  Blood,  crown 
Blood,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1832 
Bloomer,  Mrs.  ;  dress,  1849 
Bloomfield,  R.,  poet,  1766-1823 
Blucher,  marshal,  d.    1819;    Jan- 

villiers,  Ligny,  Waterloo 
Blum,  R. ;  shot  in  1848 
Blumenbach,  J.  F.,  1752-1840 
Blundell,  lieut.  ;  duel,  1813 
Boadicea  ;  Britain,  d.  61 
Boardman,  captain  ;  duel,  1811 
Boccaccio,  1313-75,  Decameron 
Boddington ;  trials,  1797 
Boden,  col. ;  Sanscrit,  1832 
Bodley,  T.  ;  Bodleian  lib.,  1602 
Boerrhaave,  H. ;  med.  writ.  1668- 

!733 

Boethius,  killed,  524 
Boeticher:  Dresden  china,  1700 
Bogle  v.  Lawson;  trials.  1841 
Bohemia,  king  of— "Ich  Dien;" 

Crecy,  1346 

Boileau,  Nic.,  poet,  1636-1711 
Boiroimhe,  Bryan  :  Ireland,  1014 
Bois  de  Chene,  Mdlle. ;  beards,  1834 
Bolam,  Mr.;  trials,  1839 
Boldero,  capt. ;  duel,  1842 


308 


INDEX. 


Boleslaus ;  Poland 

Boleyn,   Anne,    England     (queen 

Hen.  VIII.) 

Boleyn,  earl  of  Wiltshire  ;  admi- 
nistrations, 1532 

Bolingbroke,    lord  ;     Oxford    ad- 
ministration, 1711  ;  deism 
Bolivar  (1783-1830),  Columbia 
Bollaiid,  Acta  Sanctorum,  1643 
Bonaparte  family,  France,  p. 
Bonar.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  ;  trials,  1813 
Bonaventura,  1221-74  ;  conclave 
Bonavisa,  Anthony;  distaff,  1505 
Bond  ;  magnetism,  1668 
Bmd,  prof.  ;  photography,  1851 
Bonelli,  electric  loom,  1854 
Bonheur,  Rosa,  painter,  b.  1822 
Bonner,  bishop  of  London  ;  admi- 
nistrations, 1554 
Bonnet,  C.,  naturalist,  1720-93 
Bonnycastle,    J.,  mathematician, 

d.  1821 

Bonpland,  A.,  naturalist,  1773-1858 
Bon  well,  rev.  J.  ;  trials,  1860 
Boon,  colonel ;  America,  1754 
Boosey,  T.;  copyright,  1854 
Booth,  B.  ;  book-keeping,  1789 
Booth,  Wilkes,  assassin ;  U.  States, 

1865 

Booth,  Mr.  ;  theatres,  1817 
Borde,  Andrew  ;  Merry -Andrew 
Borelli ;  mechanics,  1679 
Borgese,  H.  ;  diamond 
Borgia,  Cresar,  killed,  1507 
Borowlaski,  count ;  dwarf,  1739 
Borrington,  lady  ;  trials,  1808 
Borromeo,  abp.  Charles,  1538-84 
Boscan,  poet,  1496-1543 
Boscawen,  adm.,  i7ii"-6o;  Lagos 
Bosquet,    marshal :     Inkermann, 

1854 

Bossuet,  J.,  misc.,  1627-1704 
Bos  well,  sir  A.  ;  duel,  1822 
Boswell,  James,  biogra.,  1740-95 
Both  well,  earl  of ;  Scotland,  1567 
Bottle  conspirators  ;  trials,  1839 
Bouchet,  Anthony  ;  illuniiiiati 
Bouchier,    archbp. ;    Canterbury, 

1486 

Boufflers,  marshal ;  1644-1711 
Bougainville,  d.  1811;  circurnnavi 

gation,  New  Hebrides 
BoiiiHe",  marquis  de;  Eustatia,i78i 
Boulby,  Mr. ;  China,  1860 
Boulton,  Mat.,  d.  1809;  Birming 

ham 

Boulton  and  Watt ;  coinage,  1788 
Bourbon  family ;    Bourbon,  duke 

of;  duels,  1778 

Bourgeois,  sir  F.  ;  Dulwich,  1813 
Bourke,  sir  R. ;  Victoria,  Australia, 

1831 

Bourrnont,  marshal :  Algiers,  1830 
Bourne,  Sturges ;  Canning  admin- 
istration, 1827 

Bousfield,  W.  ;  executions,  1856 
Bowen,  sir  G.  ;  Queensland,  1859 
Bower,  Mr.  Elliott ;  trials,  1852 
Bowes,  Miss  ;  Strathmore,  1766 
Bowring,  sir  J.  ;  b.  1792 ;  Canton, 

China,  Siam 

Bowstead,  bishop  ;  Lichfield,  1843 
Bowyer,  bp. ;  Ely,  Chester,  1812 
Boyd,  captain  ;  duel,  1808 
Boyd,  Hugh  ;  Junius 
Boydell,  aid.,  d.  1804;  British  In 

stitution 

Boyle,  earl  of  Orrery ;  orrery 
Boyle,  Rob.,  1626-92  ;  phosphorus, 

Royal  Society 

Boyle,  Henry  ;  Godolphin  admin- 
istration, 1702 


Brabant,  duke  of ;  merchants,  1296 
3radbury,  H.  ;  nature  -  printing, 

1855-6 

Bradley,  admiral :  trials,  1814 
Bradley,    Jas.,    1693-1762;    astro- 
nomy, Greenwich 
Bradwardine,  abp.  ;    Canterbury, 

1349 

Braganza,  John  of  ;  Portugal,  1640 
Bragg,  gen.  ;  United  States,  1862-3 
Bra" 

theatres 
Brahe,   Tycho 


John,  singer,  1777-1856 ; 


1546-1601 ;    astro- 


r^^'t    * 
nomy,  globe 
Braidwood,  Jas.  ;  fires,  k.  1861 
Bramah,  J.,  1749-1814;   hydrosta- 
tics ;  planing-machine 
Brande,  W.  T.,  chemist,  b.  1788; 
Royal  and  London  Institutions 
Brandreth,   the  Luddite ;    Derby 

trials,  1817 
Brandt,  count ;  Zell,  1772 
Brandt ;  cobalt,  phosphorous,  1667 
Brantome,  P.,  historian,  1527-1614 
Brasidas,  killed,  422  B.C. 
Breakspeare,  Nicholas ;  pope,  1154 
Brederode,  H.  de  ;  gueux,  1566 
Bremer,  sir  Gordon  ;  China,  1840    j 
Bremer,  Fred.,  novelist,  b.  1802 
Brendon,  St.  ;  Clonfert,  558 
Brenn,  captain  ;  Hibernia,  1833 
Brennus  ;  Rome,  390  B.  c. 
Brereton,  col.  ;  Bristol,  1832 
Bresson,  count:  suicide,  1847 
Brett,    J.    W.  ;    submarine    tele- 
graph, 1845 

Brewster,  David,   b.   1781  ;  kalei- 
doscope, British  association 
Brie,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1826 
Bridgewater,  earl ;  admiralty,  1699 
Bridgewater,  duke  of,  1720-1803  ; 

Bridgewater  Canal 
Bridport,  lord  ;  L'Orient,  1795 
Brienne,  M.  de ;  notables,  1788 
Bright ;  corpulency,  1809 
Bright,  John,  6.  1811 :    agitators, 

peace  congress 
Brindley,  Jas.,   1716-72;  tunnels, 

Bridgewater  canal,  Barton 
Brinklett;  trials,  1828 
Brin  vii  Hers,  madame  de,  executed, 

1676 ;  poisoning 
Bristol,  mayor  of;  trials,  1832 
Bristol,  John,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions, 1621 

Brodie,  sir  B.  C.,  surgeon,  1783- 
1862;  —  chemist,  b.  1817,  gra- 
phite, 1862 

Broke,  captain  ;  Chesapeake,  1813 
Brome,  Adam  de  ;  Oriel,  1337 
Bromley,  sir  Thomas;    adminis- 
trations, 1579 

Brongniart,  A.,  geo.  ;  1770-1847 
Brooke,  sir  James,  b.  1803  >  Borneo 
Brothers,  R.,  d.  1824 
Brough,  M.  A.;  trials,  1854 
Brougham,  H. ,  b.  1778 ;  chancellor, 

impeachment,  social  science 
Broughton,  lord ;  Russell  admin- 
istrations, 1846,  1851 
Brown,  gen.  ;  Prague,  1751 
Brown,  H.  ;  trials,  1858 
Brown,    captain    John;     United 

States,  1859 
Brown,  W.,  1783-1864;   Liverpool, 

1857 
Brown,   R.,   d.    1620;    Brownists, 

independents 
Brown,  Rob.,   botanist,  d .   1858; 


Brownian 

Browne,    American 
pawa,  1814 ;  Fort 


gen. ; 
Erie 


Chip- 


Browne,  Hannah;  trials,  1837 
Browne,  George;  Dublin,  1554 
Brownrigg,  Eliz. ;  trials,  1767 
Brownrigg,  gen.  ;  Candy,  1815 
Bruck,  baron  ;  Lloyd's,  note 
Bruce,  J.,  1730-94;  Africa,  Bruce  ; 

Nile,  Palmyra 

Bruce,  David  ;  Nevill's  Cross,  1346 
Bruce,  Edward;  Dundalk,  1318 
Bruce,  Robert,  d.  1329  ;  Scotland, 
king,  1306;  Bannockbum,i3i4 
Bruce,  Michael;  Lavalette,  1816 
Bruce,  com.  ;  Lagos,  China,  1851 
Brucher,  Antonio  ;  coinage,  1553 
Brudenell ;  trials,  1834 
Brueys,  admiral ;  Nile,  1798 
Brunei,  I.  K.,  1769-1849;   blocks, 

steam,  Thames  tunnel 
Brunei,  I.  K.,  1806-59;  steam 
Bruno;  Benedictines,  Chartreuse, 

Cologne,  turnery 
Brunswick,  duke  of  ;  Valmy,  1792; 

Quatre  Bras,  1815 
Brunt,     Davidson,      Thistlewood, 
Ings,  and  Tidd;   Cato-street, 
1820 
Brutus,  Lucius  Junius  ;    consuls, 

509  B.C. 
Brutus    and    Cassius;    Philippi, 

42  B.C. 
Bryan  Boiroimhe  ;  harp,  Clontarf , 

1014 

B\ibb  ;  opera-house,  1821 
Buchan,  M  ;  Buchaiiites,  1779 
Buchan,  captain;  N.-W.   passage, 

1819-22 

Buchanan,  J.  ;  U.  States,  1856 
Buckhurst,   Thomas,  lord;  admi- 
nistrations, 1599 
Buckingham,   Stafford,   duke  of; 

constable,  1521 

Buckingham,  G.  Villiers,  duke  of ; 
administrations,    1615,    1621  ; 
dress ;  killed,  1628 
Buckingham,     duke    of ;      cabal 
ministry,  1670  ;  Peel  adminis- 
trations, 1841  ;  duel,  1822 
Buckingham,   marquess  of ;    Ire- 
land, lord  lieutenant,  1787 
Buckinghamshire,  earl  of;  Liver- 
pool administration,  1812 
Bucklarid,  W. ;  geologist,  1784-1856 
Buckland,  F.  ;  fisheries,  1863 
Buckle.  H.  T.  ;  historian,  1823-62 
Bufalinaco ;  caricatures,  1330 
Buff  on,     G. ,     1 707-88  ;     geology, 

zoology,  1749 
Bugeaud,      marshal,       1784-1849; 

Morocco,  1844 

Bulkeley,  bishop;  Bangor,  1553 
Bull,  J.,   "  God  save  the  King," 

1606 

Bull,  G.,  bishop,  1634-1709 
Bulwer,   E.   Lytton,    novelist,    &. 

1805 
Bunning,    J.   B. ;    coal-exchange, 

1849 

Bunseii,  baron  C.  J.  ;  1791-1860 
Bunsen,   R.  ;    voltaic    pile,   1842 ; 

spectrum,  i8f-o 

Bunyan,  J.,  1628-88,  Bedford;  al- 
legory, pilgrim's  progress 
Buonarotti,  Michael  Angelo;  1474- 

1564 

Burbage,  James  ;  plays,  drama 
Burdett,   sir  F.,   1769-1844;  duel, 

1807  ;  riots,  trial,  1820 
Burdock,  Mary  Anne  ;  trials,  1835 
Burdon,  Mr.  :  trials,  1841 
Bttrger,  G.  ;  poet,  1748 
Burgess,  bishop ;   Salis" 
David's,  1825 


i-94 
isbury ;   St 


INDEX. 


809 


Burgh,  Hubert  de  ;  Whitehall 
Burgoyne,  gen. ;  Saratoga,  1777 
Burke,  Edmund,   1730-97;    Rock- 

ingham  administrations,  1782, 

Canada,  Junius 

Burke  and  Wills;  Australia,  1860-3 
Burleigh,  lord;    administrations, 

1558 
Burnes,  sir  A.,  murdered;  India, 

1841 

Biirnet,  Dr.  ;  antediluvians 
Burns,  R.  ;  poet,  1750-96 
Burnside,  gen.  A.  ;  U.  States,  1862 
Bun-,  colonel;  duel,  1804 
Burton,  R.  ;  1576-1616 
Bury,  Richard  de  ;  libraries,  1341 
Bute,  earl  of;  Bute  adm.,  1762-3 
Buttevant,  viscounts,  1385 
Butler,  bp.  S.  ;  Lichfield,  1840 
Butler,  bp.  J.,  1692-1752 
Butler,  captain  ;  Silistria,  1854 
Butler,  Sam.  (Hudibras},  1612-80 
Butler,  gen.  B.  ;  New  Orleans,  1862 
Butt,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1817 
Button,   sir  Thomas;  N.-W.  pas- 
sage, 1612 

Buxton,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1829 
Buxton,     sir    T.     F.,    1782-1845; 

prisons,  1815 
Byng,  J.,  exec.   1757;  Gibraltar; 

Byng,  1757 

Byrne,  Miss;  riot,  1819 
Byron,  commodore  ;  port  Egmont, 

I7^5 
Byron,   George,    lord,    1788-1824; 

Greece ;  Missolonghi 
Bysse,  Dr.  ;  musical  festivals 

C. 

Cabot,  Sebastian  and  John  ;  Ame- 
rica, 1497 

Cabral,  Alvarez  de  ;  Brazil,  1500 
Cabrera,  general ;  Spain,  1840 
Cade,  Jack  ;  Cade's  insurrection, 

J45° 
Cadmus,     1453     B.C.  ;     alphabet, 

Boeotia 

Cadogan,  captain ;  duel,  1809 
Cadwallader ;  Britain,  678 
Ctecilius     Isidorus ;     slavery     in 

Rome,  12  B.C. 

Caemon ;  Anglo-Saxons,  6£o 
Caesar,  Julius,  100-44  B-°-  5  Rome, 
Britain,  calendar,  ides,  Dover, 
Pharsalia,  Zela,  Rubicon 
Caesar,   Octavius,  63  B.C.-I4  A.D.  ; 
Rome,  Actium,  massacres,  tri- 
umvirate, Philippi,  emperor 
Csesalpinus ;     blood,    circulation, 


liostro,     d. 


Cagliostro,     d.     1795  J      diamond 

necklace 
Caithness,  earl  of ;  steam-carriage, 

1860 

Calaphilus  ;  "wandering  Jew 
Calas,  J.,  judicially  murdered,  1761 
Calder,  sir  Rob. ;  naval  batt.,  1805 
Calderon,  P.,  dramatist,  1601-82 
Calepini ;  dictionaries,  1500 
Calhoun,   Mr. ;    temperance  soc., 

1818 

Caligula  ;  Rome,  emperor,  37 
Calippus;  Calippic  period,  3306.0. 
^Calixtus,  pope;  Calixtins,  1656 
Callcott,  J.  W. ;  music,  1766-1821 
Callicratus  :  calligraphy 
Callimachus ;    Abacus,     architec 

ture,  Corinthian,  5406.0. 
Callinicus  ;  Greek  fire,  wildfire 
Callisthenes ;  Chaldean,  Macedon, 

328  B.C. 


Calonne  ;  notables,  1788 
Calthorpe,  Id.  ;  Birmingham,  1857 
Calverly  ;  pressing  to  death,  1605 
Calvert  and  Co  ;  porter,  1760 
Calvin,  John,  1509-64  ;  Calvinism 
CambaceYfes ;  directory,  1799 
Cambridge,  dukes  of  ;  Cambridge 
Cambridge,  present    duke  of,   6. 

1819 

Cambyses  ;  Egypt,  Persia,  525  B.C. 
Camden,   lord ;    chancellor,   lord, 
Percival   adm.,    1809,    exche- 
quer, Ireland  (lord-lieut.) 
Camden,  W.,  antiquary,  1551-1623 
Camelford,  lord;  duel,  1804 
Cameron,  H.  I.  ;  trials,  1858 
Camillus;  Rome,  391  B.C. 
Camoens,  poet,  1524-79 
Campbell,  bishop;  Bangor,  1859 
Campbell,  sir  C.     See  Clyde. 
Campbell,  John,  lord,   1779-1861 ; 
attorney-general,  king'sbench, 
chancellor,  Palmerston 
Campbell,  Rev.  J. ;  trials,  1863 
Campbell,  major ;  duel,  trials,  1808 
Campbell,  capt. ;  marriages  forced, 

1690 

Campbell,  Thos.,  poet,  1777-1844 
Campion;  trials,  1857 
Canaletti,  painter,  1697-1768 
Canning,  George,  1770-1827;  Can- 
ning, duel,  1809,  grammarians, 
king's  speech 
Canning,    visct.,    1812-62;   India, 

l855 

Canova,  A.,  sculptor,  1757-1822 
Cantillon;  wills  (Napoleon's),  1821 
Canton,  J.,  d.  1772 ;  phosphorus, 

magnetism 

Canute;  England,  1017;  Alney 
Capel,  H.  ;  admiralty,  1679 
Capet  family  ;  France,  987 
Capo  d'Istria,  count ;  Greece,  1831 
Car ;  augury 
Caracalla;  Rome,  emp.  211  ;  Ale- 

manni 
Caracci,  L.,  painter,  1555-1619 ;  An., 

1568-1609 

Cai-accioli,  adm.,  executed  1799 
Caractacus ;  Britain,  50 
Caraffa,  bishop  ;  Theatines,  1524 
Carausius ;  Britain,  281 
Cardan,  J.,  1501-76 
Cardigan,  lord  ;  duel,  1840  ;  trials, 

1841-63 ;  Balaklava,  1854 
Carden,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1854 
Cardross  case  ;  trials,  1861 
Cardwell,    Edward ;     Palmerston 

administration,  1855-1859 
Carey,  bishop ;  St.  Asaph,  1830 
Carleton,  sir  Guy  ;  U.  States,  1782 
Carlile,  R.  ;  atheist ;   trials,   1819, 

1831 

Carlisle,   earls   of;   Ireland,   lord- 
lieutenant,  1859 
Carlyle,  Thos.,  b.  1795 
Carlos,  Don  ;  Spain,  1833 
Carmarthen,  marquess  of;  admi- 
nistrations, 1689 
Carnot,  L.,  mathem.,  1753-1823 
Caroline;     queens    (George   II.), 

parks 

Caroline;  queen  (George  IV.), 
Brandenburg-house,  delicate 
investigation 

Carpenter,  gen.  ;  Preston,  1715 
Carr,  bishop  ;  Worcester,  1831 
Carr,  Holwell ;  National  Gallery, 

1824 

Carre";  congelation,  1860 
Carstairs,  rev.  W.  ;  thumbscrew 
Cartier ;  America,  1534 


Carter,  Richard;  alchemy,  1476 
Carteret;  circumnavigator,  1766 
Carteret,  lord ;  Walpole  adminis- 
trations, 1721 

Carthage,  St.  ;  Lismore,  636 
Cartwright,  major ;  trials,  1820 
Carvilius,      Spurius ;       divorces 

231  B.C. 

Casella,  L.  ;  thermometer,  1861 
Cashin,  Miss  ;  quackery,  1830 
Cashman;  Spafields,  riots,  1816 
Casimir;  Poland 
Cassander;  Macedon,  3166.0. 
Cassibelaunus  ;  chariots 
Cassini,     1625-1712 ;     astronomy ; 
Bologna,  latitude,  Saturn,  1655 
Cassius  ;  Philippi,  42  B.C. 
Castanos;  Spain,  1852 
Castel,  M.  ;  Dartmouth,  1404 
Castlereagh,  lord  ;  union  with  Ire- 
land, 1800  ;  Pitt  admin.,  1804 ; 
Liverpool  admin.,  1812  ;  duel, 
1809;  suicide,  1822 
Catesby,  Rob. ;  gunpowder,  1605 
Cathcart,  Id.  ;  Copenhagen,  1807 
Cathcart,  general;  Kaffraria;   In- 

kermann,  1854 
Catherine ;  England,  queens  (Hen 

V.,  VIII.,  Charles  II.)     ' 
Catherine;  Russia,  1725;  Odessa; 

Sebastopol 

Cato    (the    censor);    agriculture; 
149  B.C.  ;  (the  tribune),  kills 
himself,  46  B.C. 
Catullus,  poet,  d.  40  B.C. 
Catulus  ;  Cirobri,  101  B.C. 
Caulaincourt ;  Chatillon,  1814 
Cans,  S.  de;  steam-engine,  1615 
Cautley,  sir  P.  ;  Ganges,  1854 
Cavaignac,  general;  France,  1848 
Cavaliere,  Emilio  di ;  opera,  reci- 
tative, 1600 

Cavendish,  circumnavigator,  1586 
Cavendish,  H.,  d.  1810;  balloons, 
electricity,   chemistry,   nitro- 
gen, hydrogen,  water 
Cavendish,  Johnde;  judges,  1382 
Cavendish,   lord   John;   Portland 

administration,  1783 
Cavour,  Camille  de,  1810-61 ;  Sar- 
dinia, Austria 

Caxton,  Wm.  1421-91 ;  printing 
Caylus,  count ;  encaustic  painting, 

1765 

Cecil,  Win. ;  administrations,  1572 
Cecrops  ;  Athens,  1556  B.C. 
Celeste,  madame;  theatres,  1844 
Celestin:  pope,  1143 
Celsus;  midwifery,  &c.,  37 
Cerdic  ;  Britain  (Wessex) 
Cerinthus ;  apocalypse 
Cervantes,  M.S.,  1547-1616;    don 

Quixote 

Chacornac;  planets,  1853 
Chad,  St.  ;  baths,  667 
Challoner,  T. ;  alum,  1608 
Chalmers,  Dr.  T.,  1780-1847 
Chambers,  bishop;  Peterborough, 

J541 

Chambers;  encyclopaedia,  1728, 1859 
Chambers,  sir  William ;  Somerset- 
house,  1775 

Changarnier,  general;  France,  1851 
Channing,  \V.,  1780-1842 
Chaiitrey,  F.,  sculpt.,  1781-1841 
Chappe,  M.  ;  telegraphs,  1793 
Chares  ;  colossus,  288  B.C. 
Charlemagne,    742-814:    academy, 
couriers,  Avars,  Bavaria, Chris- 
tianity, Navarre 

Charles  Albert;    Sardinia,    1831; 
Novara,  1849 


810 


INDEX. 


Charles;  England,  France,  Spain, 
Savoy,  Germany,  Sweden, 
Sicily,  &c. 

Charles  V.  ;  emperor,  1500-58 ; 
Spain,  Austria,  Germany, 
Spires 

Charles  V. ;  Bastile,  1369 
Charles  VI.  ;  picquet,  1390 
Charles  XII.,  1682-1718  ;  Sweden, 

Frederickshald 
Charles  the  Bold,  Bui-gundy,  1468, 

Nancy,  Liege 
Charles,  archduke,  1771-1847;  As- 

perne,  Eckmuhl,  Essling 
Charles  of  Anjou  ;  Naples,  1266 
Charles  of  Lorraine  ;  Lissa,  1757 
Charles  Stuart,  prince  ;  pretender, 

Culloden,  1746 

Charlesworth,  J.  C.  ;  trials,  1861 
Charlotte,  queen  (George  III.) 
Charlotte,  princess  of  Wales,  1796- 

1817 ;  Claremont 
Charteris,  col.  ;  trials,  1730 
Chasse",  gen.  ;  Antwerp,  1832 
Chateaubriand,  viscount,  1769-1848 
Chatham,  earl  of,   1708-78  ;    New- 
castle admin.,  1757;  Chatham 
admin.,  1766;  Walcheren,  1809 


Chatterton,  T.,  poet;  1752-70 
> ;  Cant 
tales 


Chaucer,  G.,  1328-1400;  Canterbury 


Chaves,  marq.  of;  Portugal,  1826 
Chelrnsford,  Id. ;  Derby  adm.,  1858 
Cherubini,  music  comp.,  1760-1842 
Chesham,  Sarah  ;  trials,  1851 
Cheshire  rioters  ;  trials,  1842 
Chevallier,  M.,  6.  1806 
Chevreul,  E.,  chemist,  &c.,  b.  1786; 

candles 
Chicheley,   archbp.  ;   Canterbury, 

1414-1443 

Childeric ;  France,  kings 
Chillingworth,  W.,  theolo.,  1602-44 
Ching  Nouug ;  China,  wine,  1998 

B.C. 

Chladni.  E.  ;  1756-1827;  acoustics 
Choiseul,  E.  due  de,  1719-85 
Cholniondcley,  gen.;  horseguards, 

1693 

Chosroes  I.  ;  Persia,  531 
Christian  ;  Denmark  ;  Sweden,  1448 
Christian  IV.  ;  Christiana,  1624 
Christum  VII.  ;  Oldenburg 
Christina ;    Sweden,  1633  ;    Spain, 

J833 

Christophe;  Ilayti,  1811 
Christopher,  Root.  Adam  ;  Derby 
administration,     1852 ;     Den- 
mark (kings) 

Chrysostorn,  father,  354-407 
Churchill,  C. ;  satires,  1731-64 
Cialdini,  gen.  ;  Italy,  1860;  Castcl 

Fidardo,  Gaeta 

Cibber,  C.  ;  poet-laureate,  d.  1757 
Cicero,  106-43  B-c- !  Athens,  Rome, 

Catiline,  Philippics 
Cid  (Spanish  hero),  d.  1099 
Cimabue,  music,  1240-1300  . 
Cimarosa,  musician,  1755-1801 
Cimon  ;  Eurymedon,  466  B.C. 
Cincinnatus,  dictator,  4586.0. 
Cinna,  consul,  killed,  84  B.C. 
Clanny,  Dr.   Reid ;    safety  lamp, 

1817 

Clanricarde,  marq.  of  ;  postmaster, 
1846;  Russell  administration, 
1851 ;  Palmerston  administra- 
tion, 1855 
Clappcrton,  Hugh,  traveller,  1788- 

1827 

Clare,  John,  poet,  1793-1864 
Clare,  earl  of;  duel,  1820 


Clarence,  duke  of;  Anjou,  Clarcn- 
cieux ;  rebellion,  1478 ;  ad- 
miralty, 1827 

Clarendon,  earl  of  (Hyde),  1608-74  ; 
administrations,  1660,  1685 ; 
— G.  F.  Villiers,  6.  1801  ;  Ire- 
land, lord-lieut. ;  Aberdeen, 
Palmerston 

Clarke,  Adam,  theol.,  1760-1832; 
Sam.,  theol.,  1675-1729;  Edw. 
D.,  traveller,  1768-1822 

Clarke,  M.A.  ;  trials,  1814 

CJarke,  Gen. ;  cape,  1795 

Clarke,  M.  C. ;  Shakspeare,  con- 
cordance, 1847 

Clarkson,  Thomas,  d.  1846;  slavery 

Claude  Lorraine,  painter,  1600-82 

Claudian,  Latin  poet,  d.  408  ; 
archery 

Claudius  ;  Rome,  emperor,  41 

Claudius,  App.;  decemviri,  451  B.C. 

Clausel,  marshal ;  Algiers,  1836 

Claussen,  chev.  ;  flax,  1851 

Claverhouse  ;  Both  well,  1679 

Clay,  Mr.  ;  slavery,  U.S.,  1820, 
Liberia 

Clayton,  Mr. ;  duel,  1830 

Clayton.  Dr. ;  gas,  1739 

Cleaver,  bishop ;  Bangor,  St. 
Asaph,  1806-1815 

Cleisthenes;  ostracism,  510  B.C. 

Clemens  Romanus,  pope,  662 ; 
Alexandrinus,  d.  abt.  213 

Clement,  popes,  91 ; — IV.  ;  con- 
clave, 1268  ; — VII.  ;  pontiff, 
benefices,  Clementines,  1378; 
—VIII.;  index;— XIV.  (Guu- 

fanelli) ;      1769 ;     Jesuits  ;  — 
acques  ;      France;     1589; — 

Joseph,  planing-machine,  1825 ; 

— Julian;  midwifery,  1663 
dementi,  M.,  music,  of.  1832 
Cleombrotus  ;  Sparta,  380  B.C. 
Cleomenes ;  Sparta,  520  B.C. 
Cleon,    Athenian    demagogue,    d. 

422  B.C. 

Cleopatra ;  Egypt,  69-30  B.C.  ;  rose 
Clifford,  C.  ;  life-boat  (note).  1856 
Clifford,  lord;    Roman   Catholics, 

1829; — sir  Tho.  cabal,  1670 
Clinton,     H.     Fynes,     1780-1852 ; 

chronology 

Clinton,  sir  H. ;  Yorktown,  1781 
Clinton,  Geoffrey  de  ;  Kenilworth, 

1120 

Clive,  Rob.  lord,  1725-74  ;  Arcot, 

India,  Plassey 

Cloncurry,  lord,  v.  Piers;  trials,  1807 
Close,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1836 
Clotaire,  France,  kings,  558 
Clovis  (Chlodowig,  Ludwig,  Ludo- 

vicus,   Louis) ;     France,    481 ; 

Normandy,       Paris,       Clovia, 

Salique,  fleur-de-lis,  Alemanni 
Cloots,  Anacharsis,  exec.,  1794 
Clune,  &c. ;  trials,  1830 
Clyde,  lord,  b.  1792  ;  India,  1857 
Clymer;  printing-press,  1814 
Cobbett,;William,  1762-1835 ;  trials, 

1809,  1811,  1831 

Cobden,  R.,  1804-65 ;  anti-corn- 
law  league,  free  trade,  French 

treaty,  peace  congress 
Cobham,  Id.  ;  roasting  alive,  1418 
Coburg,  prince  of  ;  Fleurus,  1794. 

(See  Saxe-Cobvrr/.) 
Cochrane,  lord  (afterwards  Dun- 

donald) ;  d.  1860 ;  Basque  roads, 

stocks,  trials,  1814 
Cockbum,  sir  A. ,  solicitor-general, 

1858 ;  attorney-general,  king's 

bench 


Cocking,  Mr.  ;  balloons,  1837 
Codrington,  admiral  sir  E. ;  Nava- 

rino,  1827 

Codrus  ;  Athens,  1092  B.  c. 
Cohorn,  B.  van  (military  engineer), 

1641-1704 

Coke,  sir  Edw.,  1550-1634;  parlia- 
ments, 1592 

Colbert,  J.  B.,  1619-83;  tapestry 
Colborne,  sir  John  ;  Canada,  1838 
Colclough,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1807 
Coleman,  St.  ;  Cloyne,  6th  cent. 
Coleman,  Mrs.  ;  actress,  1656 
Colenso,  bp.,  Church  of  England, 

1863 
Coleridge,  Samuel  T. ;    poet,  &c., 

1772-1834 
Coles,    capt.    Cowper ;     navy    of 

England,  1855-62 
Colet,  J.,  Paul's  school,  1512 
Coligni,  admiral,  killed  1572 
Collard,  rear-adml. ;  suicide,  1846 
Collier,   J.  P.,  Shakspeare,   1849; 

Jeremy,  1650-1726 
Collingwood,  lord,  1750-1810;  Tra- 
falgar, 1805  ;  naval  battles,  1809 
Collins,  govr.  ;  Hobart  Town,  1804 
Collinson.  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1850 
Collucci,  V. ;  trials,  1861 
Colman,  G.,  d.   1794;  G.  jun.,  d. 

1826;  theatres,  1777 
Colonna  family  flourish,  1288-1555 
Colonna,  V.,  poetess,  1490-1547 
Colpoys,  admiral ;  mutinies,  1797 
Colt,  colonel ;  pistols,  1853 
Columba,  St.,  521-97;  isles 
Columbanus,  d.  614  or  615 
Columbiere  ;     armorial    bearings, 

1639 

Columbus,  Chr.,  1436  or  1442-1506 ; 
America,    Bahama,    Caraceas, 
Christopher's,    Salvador,    Do- 
mingo 
Columbus,   Bartholomew ;    maps, 

1489 

Columella,  medical writer,about  46 
Colville,   sir    Charles;    Cambray, 

1815 

Combe,  G.,  1788-1858;  craniology, 
Combermere,  lord ;  Bhurtpore, 

1826 

Comines,  Ph.  de,  hist.,  1445-1509 
Com  modus  ;  Rome,  emperor,  180 
Comnent ;  eastern  emperors,  1057  ; 

Poiitus,  Trebizond,  1204 
Comte,    A.,    1795-1852  ;    positive 

phil. 

Comyii,  Mr. ;  trials,  1830 
Conde,  Louis;  Jarnac,  1569 
Conflans  ;  Quiberon,  1759 
Confucius,  d.  4798.0.  ;  China 
Congleton,  lord  ;  suicide,  1842 
Congreve,  W.,  dramatist,  1672-1729 
Congreve,  sir  Win.,  d.  1828  ;  fire- 
works, 1814 

Conolly,  J. ;  lunatics,  1839 
Conon  ;  Sparta,  394  B.C.  ;  Ar 
Conrad  ;  Germany,  91 1 
Conrad  II.  :  Germany,  1024 ;  Bur- 
gundy 

Conradin  ;  Naples,  Germany,  1268 
Constans  ;  Aquileia,  340 
Constantino ;    Rome,    emp.    323 ; 
Adrianople,  aruspices,  banner, 
Britain,  Easteruempire,  Rome 
York,  Scotland 

Coiistantine  II. ;  Aquileia,  340 
Constantino  IV.  ;  monasteries 
Constantius  ;  Rome,  emps.,  305 
Contarini  (doges  at  Venice),  1041- 

1674 
Con  way;   sir   Edw.,   admiuistra- 


INDEX. 


811 


tion,  1621  ;    genei'al  Con  way, 

Chatham  administration,  1766 

Cook,   capt.,    1728-79;     Australia, 

Cook's     voyages,       Behring's 

8  traits,  Botany  Bay,  Flattery 

Cape,    New     Hebrides,    New 

Zealand,  Norfolk  Island,  Ota- 

heite,  Owhyhee,  Port  Jackson 

Cook,  Mrs.,  murdered  ;  trials,  1841 

Cook,  J.  P.,  murdered  ;  trials,  1856 

Cooke,  sir  George  ;  Chatham,  1766 

Cooke,  E.  W.,  II.  A.,  6.  1810  or  1811 

Cooke,  Eliz.  ;  trials,  1832 

Cooke,  Geo.  Fred.,  actor,  1765-1812 

Cooke,  W.  F.,  electric  teleg.,  1837] 

Cooper,  Astley,  surgeon,  1768-1841 

Cooper,  J.  Feuimore,  Am.  novelist, 

1798-1851 

Cooper,  Mr.  ;  slave  trade,  1787 
Cooper;  trials,  1805,  1842 
Coote,   sir   Eyre;    India,    Arcot, 

1760;  Carnatic,  Cuddaiore 
Cope,  sir  John ;  Prestonpans,  1745 
Copernicus,  Nic.  1473-1543  ;  astro- 
nomy, attraction,  solar  system 
Copleston,  bishop ;  Llandaff,  1827 
Copley,  J.,  painter,  1738-1815 
Coram,  T.,  foundling  hosp.,  1739 
Corday,  Charlotte  ;  France,  1793 
Corder,  Wrn.  ;  trials,  1828 
Cordova,  general de  ;  Granada,  1492 
Cjrelli,  A.,  musician,  b.  1653 
Conn;  libertines,  1525 
Coriolanus  ;  Volsci,  490  B.C. 
Coi-mac ;  Cashel,  901 
Corneille,  P.,  tragedy,  1606-84 
Cornelia,  Maximiliana  ;  vestals,  92 
Cornelius  ;  Spitzbergen,  1595 
Cornhill,  Henry  ;  sheriff,  1189 
Cornwall,  bp.  ;  Worcester,  i8o3 
Cornwallis,      abp.  ;      Canterbury, 

1768  ;  Lichfield,  1781 
Cornwallis,   marquess,   1738-1805  ; 
admiralty,      India,     America, 
Bangalore,  Ireland(lord-lieut.), 
Seringapatam 

Coroebus;  Olympiads,  776  B.C. 
Correggio.  A.,  painter,  1494-1534 
Cony ;  duel,  1800 
Cort,  H.  ;  iron,  1781 
Corte  Real ;  America,  north-west 

passage,  1500 

Cortez,  F.  ;  Mexico,  1521  :d.  1547 
Coryate,  Thomas  ;  forks,  1608 
Cosmo  I.  ;  Port  Ferrajo,  1548 
Costa,  M.,  musician,  b.  1810 
Coster,  L. ;  printing 
Cottenham,  lord  ;  chancellor,  lord 

high,  1836 
Cottington,  lord;  administrations, 

1635 

Cotton,  R. ;  Cottonian  library,  1600 
Cotton,  sir  Stapleton;  Villa  Franca, 

1812 
Coulomb,  C.,  d.  1806;  electricity, 

1785 

Courtanvaux ;  ether,  1759 
Courtenay,  abp.  Canterbury,  1381 
Courtenay  ;  Thomites,  1838 
Courtenay,  sir  Wm.  ;  Exeter,  1469 
Courtois,  M.  de  ;  iodine,  1812 
Courvoisier;  trials,  1840 
Cousin,  V.,  French  philos.,  6.  1792 
Coutts,  Miss  A.  Burdett,  b.  1814; 

trials,  1847 
Coventry,  sir  John ;  Coventry  act, 

1670 
Coventry ;      administrations,     T. 

1628-1672 
Coverdale,  Miles,  b.   1487 ;  Bible, 

1535 
Cowlcy,  Abraham,  poet,  1618-67 


Cowper,lord;Burford,Halifax,i7i4 
Cowper,  E. ;  printing-machine,  1815 
Cowper,  Wm.,  poet,  1731-1800 
Cox,  Walter;  trials,  1811 
Coyle,  Mr.  Bernard ;  duel,  1802 
Crabbe,  G.,  poet,  1754-1832 
Craggs,  Mr.  ;  Sunderland  admin., 

1718 
Crampton,    Mr. ;    United   States, 

1856 

Crane,  sir  Francis ;  tapestry,  1619 
Cranfield,  Lionel,  lord ;  adminis- 
trations, 1621 

Cranmer,  archbp.,  1489-1556;  Can- 
terbury, administrations,  1529 ; 
Cranmer,homilies,martyrdom 
Cranworth,  lord ;  chancellor,  1852 
Crassus,    Marcus ;  ovation,   slain, 

53  B.C. 

Craterus  ;  Cranon,  322 
Crawfurd,  earl  of  ;  Brechin,  1452 
Crawley  ;  trials,  1802-1863  ;  steel 
Crellin,  Miss ;  trials,  1842 
Crespigny,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1828 
Cresswell,  sir  C.  ;  probate,  1857 
Crewe,  bp.  ;  Bambrough,  1778 
Crichton,Jas.  "the  admirable,"  m. 

about  1560 

Crillon,  due  de  ;  Gibraltar,  1782 
Crockatt  v.  Dick  ;  trials,  1818 
Croesus ;  Lydia,  560  B.C. 
Croft;  impostors.  1553 
Croft,  sir  Richard;  suicide,  1818 
Crofts,  Mr.  ;  dwarfs,  1653 
Crollius  ;  calomel,  1608 
Croly,  G.  ;  poet,  1785-1860 
Crompton,  S.,  1753-1827;  cotton; 

rnule,  1779 

Cromwell,   Oliver,   1599-1658 ;  ad- 
ministrations, 1653 !  Amboyna, 
agitators,commonwealth,  Eng- 
land,     Drogheda,      Dundalk, 
mace,  Ireland,  Marston  Moor, 
Naseby,  Worcester 
Cromwell,"  Richard ;    administra- 
tions, 1658 ;  England 
Cromwell,  T.,  lord  Essex  :  admin- 
istrations, 1532  ;  registers 
Crookes,  Wm. ;  thallium,  1861 
Crosbie,  sir  Edward  ;  trials,  1798 
Cross,  E.  ;  Surrey  Gardens,  1831 
Crossle}',  F.  ;  Halifax,  1857 
Crouch  ;  trials,  1844 
Crowther,  lieut.  ;  duel,  1829 
Crozier,  capt.  ;  N.-W.  passage,  1845 
Cruden,  Alex.  ;  concordance,  1737 
•Cruikshank,  G.,  6.  1794;  wood-en- 
graving 

Ctesias;  hist.,  3986.0. 
Ctesibius,  140  B.C.  ;  clock,  organ, 

pump 

Cubitt,  Mr.  ;  treadmill,  1817 
Cullen,  W.,  physician,  1710-90 
Cumberland,   duke    of ;    Closter- 
seven,     Culloden,    Fontenoy, 
1745 

Cumberland,  R. ;  comedies,  1732-84 
Gumming  v.  lord  de  Roos ;  trial, 

1837 

Cxmaming,  rev.  John,  b.  1810 
Cunard,  Sam.,  1787-1865  ;  steam 
Curio;  amphitheatres,  abt.  50  B.C. 
Curran,  John  Philpot,  orator,  1750- 

1817;  duel,  1790 

Cursor,  Papirius  ;  dials,  293  B.C. 
Curtius,     Marcus ;     earthquakes, 

358  B.C.  < 
Cuthbert,  St,d.  687;  Canterbury, 

Cuthbert  v.  Browne  ;  trials,  1829 
Cuvier,  G.,  naturalist,  1769-1832; 
zoology 


Cuyp,  A.,  painter,  1606-72 

Cyprian,  father,  m.  258 

Cyriacus  ;  Abrahamites 

Cyril,  father,  d.  386 

Cyrus  the  Great,  killed,  5293.0-.  ; 

Bactriana,  Cyprus,  Jerusalem, 

Media,  Persia 
Cyrus     the     younger ;     Cunaxa, 

•  401  B.C. 
C/crmak,  Dr. ;  laryngoscope,  1861 


D. 


Dacier,  mad.  ;  1650-1720,  Deli-liin 
Dredalus ;  labyrinth,  axe,  1240  B.C.? 
Dagobert ;  Denis,  St.,  673 
Daguerre,  M.,  d.  1851 ;  photography 
Dahl,  professor ;  dahlias 
D'Alembert,  1717-83;  acoustics 
Dalhousie,   marquess  of,  1812-60; 

India,  go  v. -gen.,  1848 
Dalmas,  A.  ;  trials,  1844 
Dalmatia,  see  Soult 
Dalrymple,  sir  Hew  ;  Cintra,  1808 
Dalton,  John,  chemist,  1766-1844; 

atomic  theory,  1808 
Damasus,  pope,  366 ;  pontiff,  crown, 

pope,  tiara 

Damiens,  Damiens'  attempt,  1757 
Dampier;  circumnavigator,  1689 
Dampier,  bishop  ;  Ely,  1808 
Damremont,     marshal;     Algiers, 

Constantia,  1837 

Danaus;  Greece,  1485  B.C.?  ^ 

Danby,  earl  of;   administrations, 

1673  ;  physic  garden 
Dangerfield  ;  meal-tub  plot,  1679 
Daniel  prophesies,  606  B.C. 
Daniel,  Sam.  ;  poet-laureate,  1619 
Danneker,  J.,  sculptor,  1758-1841 
Dannenberg,  gen.  ;  Oltenitza,  1854 
Dante,  Alighieri,  Italian  poet,  1265- 

1321 

Danton,G.,exec.  1794;  clubs,  Freii. 
D'Arblay,  mad.,  1752-1849 
Darbon  v.  Rosser;  trials,  1841 
D'Arcon,  M.  ;  Gibraltar 
Dardanus.  Ilium,  1483.0. 
Dargan,   Ireland,   Dublin   exhibi- 
tion, 1853 

Darius,  Persia,  521  B.C.  ;  Greece 
Darling,  Grace  ;  Forfarshire,  1838 
Darling,   sir  C.  ;    Jamaica,    1857 ; 

Victoria,  1863 
Darmes;  France,  1840 
Darnley,  lord;  Scotland,  1565 
Dartmouth,  earl  of;  Oxford  ad- 
ministration, 1711 ;   Rocking- 
ham  admin.,  1766 
Darwin,  Erasmus,  naturalist,  1731- 

1800 

Darwin,  Charles,  naturalist,  6. 1809 
Dashwood,  sir  Francis ;  Bute  ad- 
ministration, 1762 
Daubeny,  C.  ;  atomic  theory,  1850 
Dauglish,  Dr.  ;  bread,  1859 
Daun,  count,  ^.1766;  Hochkirchen, 

Torgau 
Davcnant,  William ;  drama,  opera, 

1684 

Davenport,  Miss;  theatres,  1844 
David  ;  Jews,  1065  B.C. 
David,  George  ;  impostors,  1556 
David  I.  ;  Scotland,  1124:  Carlisle 
David,  J.,  painter.  1748-1825 
Davidson,  D.  ;  trials,  1855 
Davila,  1576-1631 
Davis,  Jefferson,  6.  1808;  United 

States,  1861 

Davis  ;  N.-W.  passage,  1585  ;  quad- 
rant, China 


S12 


INDEX. 


Davoust,  marshal ;    Krasnoi,   Mo- 

hilow,  Jena,  Eckmiihl,  1809 
Davy,  sir  Humphrey,  chemist,&c., 
"1779-1829 ;   Royal  Institution, 
barium,  electricity,  phospho- 
rus,     calcium,      magnesium, 
potassium,     sodium,     safety- 
lamp,  strontium 
Davys,  bp.  ;  Peterborough,  1839 
Dawes,  abp.  ;  York,  1714 
Day  (Kossuth's  notes  case),  trials, 

1860 

Day,  Mr.  ;  Fairlop  fair 
Deacle  v.  B.  Baring ;  trials,  1831 
Deane,  adinl. ;  naval  battles,  1653 
Deane,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1501 
Debain  ;  harmonium 
De  Balton  ;  duel,  1811 
De  Burgh,  Hubert ;  Whitehall 
DeCandolle,  A.,  botanist,  1778-1 841 
De  Courcy,  baron;  peers,  1181 
Decius    Mus    sacrifices    himself, 

295  B.C. 

Dee,  Dr.  J.,  d.  1608  ;  astrology 
Deerfoot;  pedestrianism,  1861 
De  Foe,  Daniel,  1663-1731  ;  Robin- 
son Crusoe,  Juan,  plague 
De  Foix,  Gaston  ;  Ravenna,  1512 
De  Gasparis,  A. ;  planets,  1849 
Do  Genlis,  mad.,  1746-1830 
De  Grasse,  admiral ;  Chesapeake, 

naval  battles,  Tobago,  1781 
De  Grey,  earl ;  Ireland,  lord  lieu- 
tenant, 1427 

De  Haven,  lieut.  ;  Franklin,  1850 
Delabeche,  H.,  1796-1855;  geology 
De  la  Clue,  admiral ;  Lagos,  1759 
Delambre,  J.,  mathematician,  1749- 

1822 

De  la  Rue  ;  trials,  1845 
De  la  Rue,  Warren,  photography, 

1857 ;  eclipse,  1860 
De  la  Roche,  Paul,  1797-1856 
De  l'Epe"e,  abbe1,  1712-89;  deaf 
De  Lesseps,  M.  ;  Suez,  1857 
De  Loundres,  Henry;  Dublin,  1205 
D'Estaign,  count;  Bencoolen, 1 760; 

Georgia 

D'Esterre,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1815 
D'Etrees,  adml.  ;  Texel,  1673 
Delille,  J.,  Fr.  poet,  1738-1813 
Demetrius  ;      Athens,     Macedon, 

impostors,  Poland 
Dernocritus,  b.  about  470  B.C. 
Demosthenes,  382-322  B.C.  ;  philip 

Eics 
>on,  archdeacon  ;  trials,  1856 
Dcnison,  bishop;  Salisbury,  1801 
Denison,  E.  B.  ;  bells,  1856 
Denison,  J.  E. ;  speaker,  1857 
Denman,    lord,     1778-1854;    att. 

gen. ,  king's  bench 
Denmark,  prince  George  ;  admi 

ralty,  1702,  queens  (Anne) 
Denner,  J.,  clarionet,  about  1690 
Denny,  J. ;  trials,  1851 
De  Quincey,  Thos.,  essayist,  1786- 

1859 
Derby,  present  earl  of,   b.  1799 

Derby  administrations,   1852, 

1858 

Derby,  earl  of ;  Man,  Wigan,  Derbj 
Derby,  countess  of;  Latham -house 

1644 
De  Roos,  lord,  v.  Gumming  ;  trials 

i337 
De    Ruyter,    adml.  :     Sheernes 

1667 ;  Chatham,  Texel 
Derwent  water,   earl    of  ;     execu 

tions,  1716 ;  Greenwich 
Des  Cartes,  Rene",  1596-1650;  car 

tesian,  rainbow 


esmoulins,  Camille;  exec.  1794; 

clubs,  1782 

essaix,  general ;   Marengo,  1800 
)essalines;  Hayti,  1803 
)e  Stael,  madame,  1766-1817 
eucalion;  deluge,  1503  B.C. 
e  Veres,  earls  of  Oxford  ;  Id.  gt. 
chamberlain,  marquess,  duke 
evigne,  Hen.  ;  billiards,  1571 
)eville,   H.    St.    C.  ;    aluminium, 

1856;  platinum,  1859 
)evonshire,  duke  of;  Devonshire 

administration,  1756 
)e  Winter,  adm.  ;   Camperdown, 

1797 
)e  Witt ;  chain,  1666  ;  murderer, 

1672  ;  Hague,  m.  1762 
Dhuleep  Singh;  India,  1849  '>  Pun- 

jab 
Diaz,  B.,  discovers  Cape  of  Good 

Hope,  1486 
Di  Bardi,  Donate ;  sculpture,  1383 
)ibdin,  C.,  1748-1814;  ballads 
Kbutades ;  models 
Dick,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1818 
)ickens,  Chas.,  novelist,  b.  1812 
Mckinsou,  capt.  ;  trials,  1829 
)ickson,  col.  ;  trials,  1859,  1863 
)iderot,  D.,  philos.,  1713-84 
)idius  Juliaiius ;  Rome,  emp.  193 
)ido ;  Carthage,  869  B.  c. 
Didot,  M.  ;  paper-making,  stereo- 
type 

)iebitsch,  gen.  ;  Balkan,  1829 
Jiesbach  ;  prussic  acid,  1709 
3igby,  E.  ;  gunpowder  plot,  1605 
3igges,  L.  ;  optics,  1671 
Dillon,  Mr.  Luke ;  trials,  1831 
Diocletian ;  Rome,  emp.  284  ;  Dal- 

matia 

Diodati,  J.,  theologian,  1576-1649 
[)iodorus  Siculus  ;  50  B.C.-I3  A.D.  ; 

Etna 
Diogenes,  cynic,  d.  323  B.C.  ;  an 

thropophagi 
Dionysius;  Portugal,  aimodoniini, 

catapultae 
Dionysius  Halicarnassus,  Gr.  poet, 

ft.  30  B.C. 

Dionysius  Syracuse,  406  B.C. 
Diophantus ;  algebra,  370 
Dipcenus  ;  sculpture,  marble 
Dircks,  H.  ;  ghosts,  1858 
Disraeli,  I.,  1766-1848;  Benjamin. 
b.   1805 ;     Derby    administra- 
tions, 1852,  1858 
Diver,  Jenny  ;  trials,  1740 
Dixon,  capt.  ;  Apollo 
Dixoii,  Hepworth,  b.  1821 
Dockwra,  Mr. ;  penny-post,  1683 
Dodd,  Mr.  ;  steam,  1815 
Dodd,    Dr.  ;    trials  (executed  for 
forgery),  1777  ;  Magdalens,  for- 
gery 

Doddridge,  Philip,  theol.,  1702-51 
Dodsley,  R.  ;  annual  register,  1758 
Dodson,  sir  John :  admiralty  court, 

1857 

Doggett,  T.  :  gives  prize,  17,15 
Dolci,  C.,  painter,  1616-86 
Dolben,  abp. ;  York,  1683 
Dollond,    John,    1706  61  ;     achro- 
matic telescopes,  1753  ;  optics 
Domenichino,  Z. ,  painter,  1581-1641 
Dominic,  St.  ;  Dominicans,  1215 
Domitian  ;  Rome,  emp.,  81 
Donald  of  the  Isles  ;  liarlaw,  1411 
Donatus,  grammarian,  fl.  355 
Donizetti,  G.  ;  music.,  1798-1848 
Donkin,  sir  R.,  suicide,  1841 
Donovan ;  duel,  1779 
Dord,  Gustav,  artist,  b.  1833 


}orey,  Georgiaua  ;  trials,  1844 

)oria,  And.,  1466-1560 

)ormer,  lord ;  Roman  Catholics, 

1829 
).orset,  duke  of  ;  administrations, 

1689 ;  Pelham  administration, 

D'OrvUliers ;  Ushant,  1778 
3ost  Mahomed  ;  Afghanistan,  1829 
Douglas,  earl  of  ;  Homelden,  1402 
Douglas,     William ;      Otterburn, 

1388 

Douglas,  James ;  British  Colum- 
bia, 1858 
Douglass,  sir  John;  delicate  inves- 
tigation, 1806 
Douw,  G.,  1613-80 
Dove,  H.,  b.  1803;  dichrooscope, 

1860 

Dove,  W. ;  trials,  1856 
Dowdeswell,   William;    Rocking- 

ham  administration,  1765 
Doyle,  sir  John  ;  Portugal,  1828 
Doyle,  J.,  b.  1826;  caricatures 
Doyle  v.  Wright  ;  trials,  1851 
Draco,    Athens,   621    B.C.  ;    laws, 

Draco 

Drake,  Francis,  1545-96  ;  Armada, 
Cadiz,    California,    Chatham, 
circumnavigation,       Drake's ; 
Deptford,  New  Albion 
Drayton,  M.,  poet,  1563-1631 
Drebbel ;  optics,  1621 ;  microscope, 

thermometer 

Pred  Scott  case  ;  slavery,  U.S. 
Drouet ;  Varennes,  1791 
Drummond,  abp.  ;  York,  1761 
Drummond,  gen. ;  Chippawa,  1814 
Drummond,     lieut.  ;     lime-light, 

about  1826 
Drummond,  Mr. ;  murdered, trials, 

1843 
Dryden,  John,  poet;    1631-1700; 

poet-laureate 

Dubois,  cardinal,  1656-1723 
Duboscq,  M.  ;  electric  lamt>,  1855 
Dubritius,  St.  ;  Llandaff,  612 
Duckworth,  sir  ;  Dardanelles,  1807 
Ducheene,  Pere,  see  Hebert 
Ducrow ;  theatres,  Astley's,  1825 
Dudley,    earl    of    Leicester;    ad- 
ministrations, 1558 
Dudley,  lord;  admin.,  1551 
Duell,  Wm.  ;  trials,  1740 
Dufay;  electricity,  1733 
Duff,  captain  ;  trials,  1841 
Dugdale,  W.,  !6o5-86 
Duggan,  Wm.  ;  trials,  1832 
Du  Guesclin,  B.  ;  Montiel,  1369 
Duilius     defeats     Carthaginians, 

260  B.C. 

Dulong,  P.  L.,  1785-1838;  acids 
Dumouriez,  gen.,  1739-1823  ;  Jem- 

mappes,  1792 
Dun,  John ;  bailiff 
Duncan,  Dr. ;  ichnology,  1828 
Duncan  I.  ;  Scotland,  1033 
Duncan,   admiral  lord ;    Camper- 
down,  1797;  Texel 
Duncannon,  viscount ;  Melbourne 

administration,  1834-5 
Duncombe,  F.  ;  sedan  chairs,  1634 
Dundas,  Henry;    savings'  banks, 

1810;  Pitt  admin.,  1804 
Dundas,  sir  D.  ;  solicitor-general, 

1846;  com. -in-chief,  1809 
Dundas,  gen.  ;  Kilcullen,  1798 
Dundas,  lieut.-col.  ;  Prescott,  1838 
Dundas,  major;  trials,  1831 
Dundas,  sir  R.  ;  Baltic,  1855 
Dundee,  vise. :  Killiecrankie,  168 
Dundonald,  earl,  1775-1860 


INDEX. 


813 


Pundonald,  lord,  see  Cochrane  :  d. 

1860 

Punn,  Richard  ;  trials,  1847 
Punstan,  abp.,  </.  988 ;  Canterbury, 

959 ;  coronation 
Duns    Scotus,   J.   1308;    burying 

alive 

Dupetit  Thouars ;  Otaheite,  1843 
Dupont ;  Baylcn,  1808 
Purazzo,    Charles    of,    m.    1386  ; 

Maples,  king',  1381 
Purer,  A.  U.,  1471-1528  ;  engraving 
Purham,  carl  of,   1792-1840;  Grey 

admin.,  1830;  Canada,  1838 
Puroc,  marshal ;  Bautzen,  1813 
Dutrochet ;  endosmosis,  abt.  1828 
Pu  Yal,  Claude  ;  robbers,  1670 
Pwyer;  trials,  1843 
Pyce,  Wm.,  painter,  1806-64 
Pymocke  family ;  championship 


E. 


Eadbald  ;  convents,  630 

Eadmer,  d.  about  1124 

Eastlake,  sirC.,  1793-1809:  Royal 
Academy 

Eaton,  Paniel ;  trials,  1796,  1812 

Eden,  bp.  ;  Man,  1847 

Edgar  ;  England,  king,  958 

Edgar,  rev.  Mr.  :  temperance,  1829 

Edgeworth,  Maria,  1767-1849 

Edmund  ;  England,  940,  1016 

Edward  the  Confessor,  England  ; 
kings,  1042  ;  Panegeld 

Edward  I.  ;  England,  kings,  1272, 
Lewes,  Scotland,  Wales 

Edward  III.  ;  England,  kings, 
1327,  Cressy,  Sluys,  Garter 

Edward  IV.  ;  England,  kings, 
1461,  Barnet,  Tewkesbury, 
Towton 

Edward  VI.  ;  England,  kings, 
1547,  Christ's  hospital 

Edward,  Black  Prince  ;  1330-76  ; 
duke,  Cressy,  Poitiers 

Edwardes,  lieut.  ;   India,  1848 

Edwy,  England,  955 

Egan,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1843 

Egbert ;  England,  king,  828 

Egerton,  sir  Thomas ;  ch^jicellor, 
lord  high,  1596 

Egg,  Aug.,  painter,  1816-63 

Eglinton,  earl  of;  Ireland,  lord- 
lieutenant,  1852,  tournament 

Egmont,  lord ;  administrations, 
1763 

Egremont,  earl  of;  Grenville  ad- 
ministration, 1762 

Ehrenberg,  C.,  naturalist ;  6.  1795 

Eicke,  H.  ;  trials,  1859 

Eldon,  lord  ;  chancellor,  lord,  1801 ; 
d.  1838 

Eleanor,  queens  (Edward  I., 
Hen.  II.  and  III.) 

Elgin,  lord ;  Elgin  marbles ;  d. 
1841  ;  James,  lord,  1811-63  ; 
Canada,  1846 ;  China,  1857 ; 
Japan ;  Palmerston  ;  India, 
1861,  govr.-gen.,  1861 

Elgin,  lord,  v.  Ferguson  ;  trials,  1807 

Elijah  prophesies  about  910  B.C. 

Elisha  prophesies  896  B.C. 

Elizabeth/queen,  1533-1603  ;  Eng- 
land, 1558 ;  goose  ;  poor  laws  ; 
Richmond  ;  Whitehall 

Elizabeth,  England,  queens  (Ed- 
ward IV.,  and  Henry  VII.) 

Elizabeth;  France;  trials,  1794 

Elkington ;  gilding ;  electrotype 


Ellice,  E.  :  Melbourne  administra- 
tion, 1834 

Ellenborough,  lord ;  attorney- 
general,  1801  ;  king's  bench  ; 
delicate  investigation  ;  p,-<  .-•<•/, •/ 
lord,  b.  1790;  Wellington  ad- 
ministration, 1828 ;  India, 
govr.-gen.,  1842;  Perby  admi- 
nistration, 1858 
Ellesmere,  lord  ;  administrations, 

1615;  chancellors,  Id.,  1603 
Elliot,  captain  ;  China,  1840 
Elliot,  gen.  ;  Gibraltar,  1781 
Elliot,  sir  Gilbert,  North  admini- 
stration, 1770 

Ellis,   Wellbore;   Grenville  admi- 
nistration, 1770 

Elphinstone,administrations,i795; 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  Saldanha 
Elsynge,  Wm.  ;  Sion  college,  1340 
Elzevir  family,  printers,  1583-1680 
Ernerson,  R.  W. ;  essayist,  b.  1803 
Emmet,  Robert;  rebellions,  con- 
spiracies ;  trials,  1803  ;  press 
Empedocles ;  suicide 
Encke,   J.  F. ;  b.    1791  ;    comets, 

1818 

Enderby,  Messrs.  ;  southern  con- 
tinent, 1838 

Enghien,  due  d',  executed,  1804 
Ennius,  239-169  B.C.  ;  stenography 
Epaminondas,   371  B.C.  ;   Leuctra, 

Man  tinea,  362  B.C. 
Epicurus;  342-2703.0.,  philosophy 
Epictetus  ;  philoso.  ;  fl.  118 
Epiphanius,  St. ;  abstinence 
Erasistratus  ;  anatomy,  about  300 

BC. 

Erasmus,     P.,    1467-1536;    Greek  I 

language,  Rotterdam 
Eratosthenes ;    degree,    250    B.C. 

armillary  sphere 
Eratostratus  fires  Piana's  temple, 

356  B.C. 

Erechtheus  ;  Athens,  1383  B.C. 
Eric  ;  Penmark 

Ericsson,  capt.  ;  caloric  ship,  1853 
Erichthonius  ;  Troy,  1449  B.C.,  car 
Erie,  sir  W.  ;  common  pleas,  1859 
Ernley  sir  John  ;  administrations, 

1685 

Erroll,  earls  of  ;  constable  of  Scot- 
land, lord  high 
Erskine,  lord  ;    chancellor,   lord  ; 

Grenville  administration,  1806 
Erskine,  gen.  ;  India,  1795 
Esdaile,  E.  ;  trials,  1858 
Espartero  ;  Spain,  Bilboa,  1836 
Esquirol,  E.  ;  lunatics,  1810 
Essex,   earl  of;    administrations, 

1532,  1579;  Newbury,  1643 
Este,   Sir  Augustus  d' ;  marriage 

act,  royal,  1844 
Ethelbert  ;  560,  Canterbury 
Etheldra ;  Ely,  673 
Ethelrcd;  979;  coronation,  Pane 

geld 

Ethersey,  com. ;  suicide,  1857 
Etty,  Wm.,  painter,  1787-1849 
Euclid;  geometry,  300  B.C. 
Euler  ;  1707-83  ;  acoustics 
Euchidas  ;  pedestrianism 
Eugene,   prince  ;   1663-1736 ;  Bel-  | 

grade,  Turin,  Zenta 
Eugenie,  empress,  France,_  1853 
Eugenius  ;  popes ;  Aquileia 
Eumenes  ;  parchment,  190  B.C. 
Eumolpus ;  Eleusinian  mysteries 
Euripides,  480-406  B.C.  ;  tragedy 
Eurystheucs  ;  Diarchy,  1102  B.C. 
Eurystheus;  Mycenm,  1289  B.C. 
Eusden,  L.  ;  poet  laureate,  d.  1730 


Eusebius,  of  Cajsarea,  275-340 
Eustachius  ;  thoracic  duct,  1563 
Euthalius  ;  accents,  458 
Eutyches ;  ft.  447 
Evander ;  Circensian  games 
Evans,  general  de  Lacy;   British 
legion,     1835;      Spain,     1835, 
Irun,  Sebastian 
Evans ;  trials,  1858 
Evans,  W.  E.,  harmonium,  1841 
Evelyn,    J.,    1620-1706;    horticul- 
ture, lime-tree 
Examiner,  the  ;  trials,  1812 
Exmouth,  lord;  Algiers,  1816 
Eyi-e,  John  ;  transportation,  1771 
Ezekiel  prophesies  about  595  P.r. 


F. 

Fabius,    Quintus;    painting,    311 

B.C. 
Fabii,  killed  at  Cremera,  477  B.C.  ; 

Fabii 

Faber,  F.  ;  oratorians,  1848 
Fahrenheit,     G.    P.,     1686-1736; 

thermometer,  about  1726 
Fairbairn,  Mr.  ;    tubular    bridgo, 

1849 

Fairfax,  T.  ;  Naseby,  1645 
Falck,  Pr.  ;  steam-engine,  1779 
Falconbridge ;  London,  1453 
Falconer,  H.,  geologist,  d.  1865 
Falieri,  M.,  Venice,  1355 
Falkland,  visct. ;  Newbury,  1643 
Falstaff,  sir  John  ;  taverns 
Fancourt,     Samuel ;     circulating 

libraries,  1740 
Faustin  I.  ;  Hayti,  1849 
Faraday,   Michael,   b.  1791;  Royal 
Institution,  chemistry,  electri- 
city,    magnetism,     magneto- 
electricity,  ice 
Farqnhar,     Mr.  ;     buys    Fonthill 

abbej',  1822 

Fai-ren,  Miss,  actress,  retires,  1797 
Fatima ;  Mahometanism,  note 
Faulkner,  G. ;  newspapers,  1728 
Fauntleroy,  H.  ;  forgery,  1824 
Faust,  John  ;  printing,  1442 
Faustulus  ;  Alba,  770  B.C. 
Faux,  Guy ;  gunpowder  plot,  1605 
Fawcett,  col.  ;  duel,  1843 
Felix,  popes 

Fellows,  C. ;  Lycia,  1840 
Felton    assassinates  Buckingham 

at  Portsmouth,  1628 
Fenelon,  abp.,  1651-1715;  Cambrr.y 
Fenning,  Eliza;  executions,  1815 
Fenwick,  J.  ;  executed,  1697 
Ferdinand ;  Austria,  Naples,  Por- 
tugal, Sicily,  Spain,  Tuscany, 
Castile,  Cordova 
:  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  Minden, 

1759 

|  Fergus ;  Scotland,  coronation 
Ferguson,  J. ;  planets,  1854 
Ferrers,  earl ;  trials,  1760 
Fessel ;  gyroscope,  1852 
Fielding,    H.,    novelist,    1707-54; 

magistrates 
Fieschi  ;  France,  1836 
Fillmore,  M. ;  United  States,  presi- 
dent, 1850 

Finch,  sir  John  ;  chancellor,  lord  ; 
administrations,    1640;  Hene- 
age.  chancellor,  1673 
Finch,  P.  ;  admiralty,  1680 
Finiguerra  ;  engraving,  1460 
Finnerty,  Peter';  trials,  1808,  1811 
Finnis,  T.  ;  lord  mayor,  1856 
Finnis,  col. ;  India ;  1857,  nctt 


814 


INDEX. 


Fisher,  bp.  ;  administrations,  1509, 

Salisbury ;  executed,  1535 
Fisher ;  duel,  1806 
Fitzgerald,  H.  ;  life  boat,  1856 
Fitzgerald,  lord  ;  attainder,  1798 
Fitzgerald,   lord,  v.   Mrs.  Clarke  ; 

trials,  1814 

Fitzgerald,  lord;    Wellington  ad- 
ministration, 1830 
Fitzherbert,  Mrs.  ;  lit  el,  1789 
Fitz-Osborn  ;  justiciars,  1067 
Fitzpatrick,  Grenville  administra- 
tion, 1806 

Fitzpatrick,  Hugh ;  trials,  1813 
FitzRoy,  R.,  1805-65  ;  circumnavi- 
gation,  1826 ;    New    Zealand, 
1843  ;  meteorology,  1857 
Fitzwalter,  llobert  de ;  Dunmow, 

Fitzwilliam,  earl;  Grenville  ad- 
ministration, 1806;  Ireland; 
lord-lieut. 

Flaminius  ;  Thrasymene,  217  B.C. 
Flamsteed,  J. ;  Greenwich,  1745 
Flannock ;  rebellions,  1497 
Flavins,  Titus  Lartius  ;  dictators, 

498  B.C. 

Flaxman,  J.,  sculptor,  1754-1826 
Fletcher    of    Saltoun,    ft.     1700; 

ballads 

Fletcher,  will- forger ;  trials,  1844 
Flight  and    Robson,  apollonicon, 

1817 
Flinders,    capt.  :     explores     New 

Holland,  1801 

Flood,  Mr.  ;  absentees,  1773 
Florence,  Eliz.  ;  trials,  1822 
Flores,  gen.,  Uruguay,  1863 
Fionas,  Rom.  historian  ;  fl.  106 
Flourens,  M.  J.  P.,philos  ,  6.  1794 
Fohi  ;  China,  2240  B.C. 
Folengio,  Theo.  ;  macaroni 
Foix,  Gaston.  de  ;  Ravenna,  1512 
Folkestone,  lord ;  arts,  society  of, 

1754 
Follett,   sir  Wm.  ;    solicitor-gen.  ; 

attorney-gen.,  1844 
Folliott,  bp.  ;  Hereford,  1803 
Foote,  Sam. ;  1721-77  ;  theatres 
Foote  v.  Hayne  ;  trials,  1824 
Forbes,  lord  ;  horse-guards,  1702 
Forbes,  Edwd.,  naturalist,  1815-54 
Forbes,  J.  D.,  nat.  philos.,  6.  1809 
Forster,  Mr.  ;  Preston,  1715 
Forster,  M.  ;  planets,  1860 
Fortescue,    lord:     Ireland;   lord- 
lieutenant,  1839 

Forwood,  St.  (Southey),  murdered 
wife  and  four  children,  Aug., 
1865 

Foscaro,  doge ;  deposed  1457 
Foster,  John,  essayist,  1770-1843 
Fottrell,  capt.  ;  duel,  1817 
Foucault,  M.  ;  pendulum,  1851 
Foaache,  J.,   due  d'  Otnmto,  1763- 

1820 
Fould,  Achille,   b.   1800;   France, 

1861 

Foulis,  R.  &  A.  ;  printers,  1707-76 
Fourdrinier,  M.  ;  paper,  1807 
Fourier,  C.,  ('.  3837;  Fpurierism 
Fowke,  capt.  :  exhibition,  1862 
Fox  &  Henderson ;  crystal  palace, 

1851 

Fox,   bishop  of  Winchester;    ad- 
ministrations, 1509;  privy  seal 
Fox,    Chnrles    James,    1748-1806; 
duel,   1779  ;  Portland  admin., 
1783;  India  bill,  people 
Fox,  George  ;  1624-91  ;  quakcrs 
Fox,  Henry  ;  Newcastle    admini- 
stration, 1757 


Fox,  sir  Stephen  ;  Chelsea,  1628 
Foxc,  John,  martyrologist,  1517-87 
Francia,  Dr.,  1755-1840  ;  Paraguay 
Francis,  St. ;  1182-1226,  Cordeliers, 
Francis  I.,    emperor,   17 — ;    Ger- 
many, Austria 
Francis  I.  France,  1515  ;  duelling; 

cloth  of  gold  ;  Marignan ;  lie  ; 

Pavia ;  Sicily 
Francis;  trials,  1842 
Francis,  sir  Philip  ;  Junius 
Francisco  d'Assise  :  Spain,  1846 
Franks  ;  suicide  :  trials,  1825 
Frankfort,   lord,   r.   Alice    Lowe  ; 

trials,  1842,  1852 
Frankland,  Edw.,  ethyl,   methyl, 

1849 
Franklin,  B.,  1706-90;  electricity, 

1752;  lightning 
Franklin,    sir   John  ;    north-west 

passage,  1825  ;  Franklin 
Fraser  r.  Bagley  ;  trials,  1844 
Frederick,   duke    of    York,    1762- 

1827;  York 
Frederick ;      Germany,      Prussia, 

Hesse,  Niaremberg,  Palatinate, 

Prague,  Hochkirchen,  Torgau 
Fredercik- Augustus  ;  Poland,  1697 
Frederick- Lewis,  prince  ;  Wales, 

1729 
Fremont,  J.  C.,  b.  1813;  U.  States, 

1856 

Fre"my,  M.  ;  steel,  1861 
French,  col.  ;  trials,  1820 
Freiiey  :  trials,  1749 
Frewen,  abp.  ;  York,  1660 
Frith,  W.  P.,  painter,  b,  1820 
Frivell,  Wm.,  post-office,  1631 
Frobisher,    sir    Martin,    d.    1 594  ; 

north-west  passage,  1576 
Froissart,  historian,  1337-1410  , 
Frumentius  ;  Abyssinia,  329 
Frost,  John  ;   chartist ;  Newport, 

l839 

Fronde,  J.  A.,  historian,  b.  1818 
Fuad  Pasha ;  Damascus,  Turkey, 

1860-5 

Fuller,  J.  ;  Royal  Institution,  1833 
Fulton,     R.     1765-1815 ;      steam- 
engine,  1803 

Furley,  Mary  ;  trials,  1844 
Furneaux,  capt.  ;  Adventure  Bay, 

New  Holland  ;  returns,  1774 
Fuseli,  H.,  painter,  1741-1825 


G. 

Gage,  gen. ;  America,  1775 
Gaine,  W.  ;  parchment,  paper,  1857 
Gainsborough,    Thomas,    painter, 

1727-88 

Galba  ;  Rome,  emp.,  68 
Gale,  balloons  ;  gunpowder,  1865 
Gale  Jones  ;  trials,  1811 
Gale,  Sarah,  and  Greenacre;  trials, 

1857 

Galen,  130-200;  physic 

Galgacus,  84 ;  Grampians 

Galileo  di  Galilei,  1564-1642 ; 
acoustics,  astronomy,  falling 
bodies,  harmonic  curve,  ice, 
inquisition,  planets,  sun,  tele- 
scopes 

Gall,  J.,  1758-1828;  oraniology 

Galle.  Dr.  ;  Neptune,  1846 

Gallien;  balloons,  1755 

Gallienus  ;  Rome,  emp. ,  260 

Galvarii,  Louis,  1737-98  ;  electricity, 
1791 ;  voltaic  pile 

Galway,  earl  of;  Alrnanza,  1707 

Gama,  Yasco  da,  c'.  1525 


Gambier,    lord ;     Basque    Roads, 

1809 ;  Copenhagen 
Ganganelli ;  Clement  XIV.,  popes, 

1769 

Gangcland ;  apothecary 
Gardiner,    bp.  ;    administrations, 

Gardiner,  lieut.   Alan ;    missions, 

1850 

Garibaldi,  Joseph,   b.  1807  ;  Italy, 
1859-62 ;      Solferino,       Sicily, 
Naples,  Volturno 
Garnerin,  M.  ;  balloons,  1802 
Garnet,  gunpowder  plot,  1605 
Garnet,  Dr.  Thos.  ;  Royal  Institu- 
tion, 1801 
Garrick,  David,  iji-j'-jg ;  theatres, 

Drury-lane,  jubilees 
G arrow,   Wm. ;    attorney-general, 

1813 

Garth,  Dr.  ;  Kit-Cat  club,  1703 
Gassendi,  1592-1655;  sun,  sound 
Gaston  de  Foix  ;  Ravenna,  1512 
Gates,  gen.  ;  Saratoga,  1777  ;  Cam- 
den,  1780 

Gauden,  bp. ;  eikon  basilike,  1649 
Gaudin,  M.  ;  sapphire,  1857 
Gaunt,  John  of,  b.  1340 ;  Ghent, 

roses,  wars 

Gausius,  335  B.C.  ;  caustic 
Gavestons,    beheaded,   1312 ;    re- 
bellions 

Gay,  John,  1687-1732  ;  fables, operas 
Gay-Lussac,  J.,  1778-1850  ;  balloons 
Ged,  William  ;  stereotype,  1730 
Geffrard,  general;  Hayti,  1858 
Gelasius  I.  pope,  492 ;    breviary, 


sius  I.  pope,  492 ; 

pall ;  Candlemas 
Gellert,  C.  F.,  1715-69 
Gellius,  Aulus,  Latin  miscellany, 

ft-  i49 

Gelon  ;  Syracuse,  485  B.C.,  Himera 
Genghiskhan  ;  see  JeagJds  Khan 
Genseiic  lands  in  Africa,  429 
George,  David,  d.  1556;  family  of 

love 

George,  St.  ;  garter 
George  I. — IV.;  England;  kings 
George  I.  ;  accession,  1714 
George  II.  ;  Dettingen,  1743 
Georgi  ;  dahlia,  1815 
Geramb,  barons  ;  aliens,  1812 
Gerard,  J.  ;  physic  garden,  1567 
Gerbert,  d.  1003  ;  arithmetic 
Gcrmaine,  lord  George  Sackville, 

Minden,  1759 
Germanus  ;  Sodor,  447 
Gerstenzweig,  general,  Poland,  m., 

1861 

Gesler;  Switzerland,  1306 
Geta  ;  Rome,  emp.  211 
Gibbins,  Mr.,  killed;  riots,  1831 
GiVibon,  Edward  ;  historian,  1737-94 
Gibbons,  Grinlin  ;   sculptor,  1648- 

1721 
Gibbons,  Orlando;    music,   1583- 

1625 

Gibbs  J.,  architect,  1674-1754 
Gibbs,  sirV. ;  attorney-gen.,  1807  ; 

common  pleas 

Gibson,  J.,  sculptor,  1790-1866 
Git'son,  T.  M.  ;  Palmers  ton  admi- 
nistration, 1859 
Giesrnar,  general;  Praga,  1831 
Gifford,  lieut. ;  Kildare,  1798 
Gifford,  R.  ;  attorney -gen. ,  1819 
Gifford,  Win.;    "Quarterly  Rev." 

1809 

Gilbert,  archbp.  ;  York,  1757 
Gilbert,    Dr.;     electricity,    iCco; 

magnetism 
Gilbert,  gen.  ;  Ferozeshuh,  1845 


INDEX. 


815 


Gilbert,  G.,  execution,  1862 
Gilchrist,  earl  (of  Angus),  1037 
Gildas,  historian,  516-570 
Gillam,  Rd.  ;  trials,  1828 
Gillespie,  col. ;  Vellore,  1806 
Gillespie,  gen. ;  Kalunga ;  duel,  1788 
Ginckel,  gen.  ;  Aughrim,  1691 
Gioberti,  Italian  writer,  1801-52 
Gioja,  F.,  compass,  1302 
Giotto,  painter,  1276-1336 
Gladstone,  rev.  Mr.  ;  trials,  1852 
Gladstone,  W.  E.  ;   b.  1809 ;  Peel, 
Aberdeen,      Palmerston     ad- 
minist. ,  Russell 
Glaisher,  J. ;   meteorology,  1850  ; 

balloons,  1862 

Glanville,  R.  de,  ch.  justice,  1180 
Glas,  capt.,  murdered  ;  trials,  1766 
Glas,  John;  Glasites,  1727 
Glenelg,    lord    (Charles    Grant) ; 

Wellington  adm.,  1828 
Glcndower,  Owen  ;  Wales.  1401 
Glerawley,  lord,  v.  Bm-n ;   trials, 

1820 
Gloucester,  duke  of ;  marriage  act, 

1772 

Glover,  E.  A.  ;  trials,  1858 
Gluck,  C.  ;  music,  1714-87 
Gobelin,  G.  ;  tapestry  ;  Gobelins 
Goderich,  lord,  d.  1859  ;  Goderich 
Godolphin,   earl ;    Godolphin  ad- 
min. 1684 
Godfrey,  M.  ;   Bank  of  England, 

1694 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon ;   Jerusalem, 

1099 
Godoy,  M.,  prince  of  peace  ;  Spain, 

1806;  d.  1851 
Godwin,   Wm.  ;  politics ;  novels, 

1755-1836 

Godwin,  sir  G.  ;  Pegu,  1852 
Goethe,  or  Gothe;  German  miscel. 

1749-1832 

Gog  and  Magog  ;  Guildhall 
Goldoni,  Italian  dramatist,  1707-95 
Goldschmidt  (Jenny  Lind)  ;  Night- 
ingale fund 

Goldschmidt,  H. ;  planets,  1852 
Goldsmith,  Oliver  ;  misceL  1728-74 
Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  d.  1515 
Good,  Daniel ;  trials,  1842 
Goodrich,  bp.  ;  administ.  1551 
Goodyear,  C. ;  caoutchouc 
Gordian ;  Rome,  emps.  2^7 
Gordon,   lord  G.,  d.   1793  ;    riots ; 

libel ;  trials,  1781,  1788 
Gordon,  col.  duel,  1783;  China,i863 
Gordons,  L.  and  L.  ;  trials,  1804 
Gorgey,  gen.  ;  Hungary,  1849 
Gorham  v.  bishop  of  Exeter ;  trials 

1849 
Gortschakoff,  gen.  ;  Kalafat,  1854; 

Silistria,  Tchernaya 
Gortschakoff,  prince ;  Vienna  con- 
ference, 1853  ;  Poland,  1861 
Gossett,  sir  W.  ;  trials,  1842 
Gough,  Sir  Hugh  ;    China,  1841 ; 
India,  1846 ;  Goojerat,Sobraon, 
Ferozeshah 

Goulbum,  H. ;  Wellington  admin- 
istration, 1828 
Gould,  J.  ;  works  on  birds,  1832-64; 

humming-birds,  1862 
Gould,  Miss,  trials,  1822 
Gould,  murderer  ;  trials,  1840 
Gourlay,  captain;  duel,  1824 
Gower,   earl;    Wilmington  acini.,  i 

1742;  North  adm.,  1770 
Gower,  J.,d.  1402 
Gracchus,     Tiberius,    slain,    133  : 

Cams  slain,  121  B.C. 
Grady,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1827 


Grafton,  duke  of;  Rockingham 
adm.,  1765;  Grafton  adm., 
1767 

Graham,  bp.  ;  Chester,  1848 
Graham  of  Claverhouse,  1641-80, ' 

Killiercankie 

Graham,  A.  ;  planets,  1848 
Graham,    gen.  ;      Barossa,    1811  ; 

Sebastian,  Bergen-op-Zoom 
Graham,  Mr.  ;  magnetism,  1722 
Graham,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1791 
Graham,  Thos.,  b.  1805  ;  mint,  dif- 
fusion, dialysis,  atmolysis 
Graham,    sir    James.     1702-1861  • 

Grey,  Peel 

Grammont,  ducde,  Dettingen,i743 
Granard,   Arthur,    earl   of;    Kil- 

mainham,  1675 
Granby,   marquess  of;    Chatham 

adminis.,  1766 
Grant,  capt.  John;  cookery,  1857  ; 

cottager's  stove 

Grant,  sir  Colquhoun ;  duel,  1835 
Grant,  lieut.  ;   trials,  1816,  1844 ; 

Central  Africa,  1863 
Grant,  see  Ghndp,  Pittsburg,  1862 
Grant,     gen.     Ulysses,    b.    1828; 

United  States,  1863 
Grantham,   lord ;    Shelburne    ad- 
ministration, 1782 
Grantley,  Id.  ;  attorney-gen.,  1763 
Granville,  earl;  Russell,  Palmero- 

ton  admin.,  1851 
Gratian  ;  canon  law,  1151 
Gratian,  Rome  emp. 
Grattan,  Henry,  1746-1820;  duel- 
ling, 1800,  1820 
Gray,  bp.  ;  Bristol,  1827 
Gray,  lord  ;  Pomfret  castle,  1483 
Gray,  Thomas,  1716-71 
Greathead,  Mr.  ;  life-boats,  1789 
Greatrix,  Val.  ;  impostors,  1666 
Greaves,  lord  ;  suicide,  1830 
Greeley,  Horace,  b.  1811 
Green,  Mr. ;  balloons,  1828 
Greeiiacre,  J.  ;  trials,  1837 
Greene,  general ;  Camden,  1781 
Greenwood,  T.  ;  file,  1860 
Gregoire,  M. ;  national  convention, 

1792 

Gregory  the  Great,  d.  604 ;   Aber- 
deen, chanting,  Christianity 
Gregory  I. -XV  I. ;    popes,   590  et 

seq. 

Gregory  VII. ;  Italy,  237 
Gregory  XI. ,  pope  ;  pallium 
Gregory  XIII.  :  calendar,  1582 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  Greek  lather, 

326-390 

Grenville,  George,  Newcastle  ad- 
min., 1754;  Grenville  adrnin., 
1763 
Grenville,   F. ;    British  Museum, 

1846 
Grenville,  lord  ;  Grenville  admin., 

1806 ;  delicate  investigation 
Gresham,  sirT.,  d.  1579;  Gresham 
Grey,  bp.  ;  Hereford,  1832 
Grey,  earl,  1764-1845  ;  Grey,  reform 
Grey,  Henry,  earl ;  Russell  admi- 
nistration, 1835 

Grey,  lady  Jane,  exec.  1554 ;  Eng- 
land, queens 
Grey,  Sir  George  ;  Russell  admin., 

1846;  Palmerston  adm.,  1855 
Grey,  sir  G.  ;  Cape,  1856 
Grey,  S.  ;  electricity,  1720 
Griesbach,  J.,  Greek  critic,   1745- 

1812 

Griinaldi,  Joseph,  retires,  1828 
Grimm  Jacob,  1785-1863;  diction- 
ary (German) 


electricity,  1647  ;  Magdeburg 
rin-Meneville  (ailantine),  silk, 


Grindall,  abp.  ;  York,  1570;  Can- 
terbury, liturgy 
Grinfield,  general ;  Demerara,i8o3, 

Tobago 

Grinncll,  Mr.  ;   Franklin  expedi- 
tion, 1850 

Grocyn,  Wm.  ;  Greek,  1490 
Grogan,  col. ;  captured,  U.  States, 

1841 

Gros,  baron;  china,  1858 
Grote,  G.,  b.  1794 
Grotius,  H.,  1583-1645;  philosophy 
Grove,   W.    R.  ;    voltaic    battery, 

1839 ;  correlation,  1842 
Growse,  Elias ;  needles 
Guelph  ;  Bavaria,  Brunswick 
Guericke,  Otto  von,  d.  1686;  air, 

ele<     ' 
GiieYin 

185- 

Guernsey,  W.  H.  ;  trials,  1858 
Guesclin,  B.  du,  d.  1380 
Guicciardini,  F.;  hist.,  1482-1540 
Guido,  Aretino,./?.  1030 
Guido,  Reni,  painter,  1575-1642 
Guilford,  earl  of  ;  trials,  1853 
Guinness,  Mr. ;  Patrick's,  St.,  1865 
Guiscard :  Naples,  1059 ;  conspira- 
cies, 1710 

Guise,  dukes  of ;  Guise 
Guizot,  M.,  b.  1787;  France 
Gunter,  E. ;  Gunter's  chain,  1606 
Gurney,  G. ;  Bude  light,  1841 
Gurney,  Russell ;  recorder,  1856 
Gurwood,  Colonel;  suicide,  1845 
Gustavus  Adolphus  ;  killed,  Lut- 

zen,  1632  ;  Sweden,  Munich 
Gustavus  Vasa  ;  Sweden, 1521 
Gustavus  I. — IV.  ;  Sweden 
Outer,  of  Nuremberg ;  air,  1659 
Guttenberg,  J.,  d.  1467;  printing 
Guy  Faux  ;  gunpowder  plot,  1605 
Guy,  Thos.  ;  Guy's  hospital,  1721 
Guy  ton,  Morveau ;  balloons,  1784-94 
Guzman,  Dominickde  ;  beads,  1202 
Gwynne,  Nell ;  bell-ringing,  1687 
Gyges  ;  Lydia,  718  B.C. 
Gylippus,  414  B.C.  ;  Syracuse 


II. 


Habakkuk,  prophet,  ab.  326  B.C. 
Hachette,  Jeanne  de  la  ;  Beauvais, 

1472 

Hacker,  L.  ;  Sabbath  schools,  1740 
Hacket,  Wm.  ;  impostoi-s,  1591 
Hackman,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1770 
Haddington,  earl  of  ;  Ireland  (lord- 

lieut.),  1834 

Hadley  ;  quadrant,  1731 
Hadrian;  Rome,  emperor,  117 
Hfecker;  magnetism,  1851 
Hafiz  (Persian  poet),  fi.  i4th  cent. 
Haggai  prophesies  about  630  B.  c. 
Haggart,  David  ;  trials,  1821 
Haggarty  and  Holloway  ;   trials, 

1807 
Hahnemann,    Sam.,     1755-1843; 

homoeopathy 

Hakluyt,  R.;  geog.,  1553-1616 
Hale,  sir  Matthew,  judge,  1609-76 
Hales,  Stephen,  philosopher,  1 


1761 


677- 


Halifax,  earl  of  ;  Halifax  adminis- 

tration, 1714  ;  trimmer 
Hall,  sir  B.  ;   health,  Palmerston 

administration,  1855 
Hall  r.  Semple  ;  trials,  1862 
llalhun.  Henry,  1778-1859 
Hall,  Marshall,  M.D.,  1790-1857 
Hall,  Rev.  Robert,  1764-1831 
Hall,  Sam,  d.  1862  ;  lace 


816 


INDEX. 


Haller,  A.  von ;  physiologist,  1708- 

Halley,     Edmund,     astronomer; 

Greenwich,  1719 
Halloran,    Dr.  ;    transported    for 

forging  a  frank,  1818 
Hamel,  J.  ;  Mont  Blanc,  1820 
Hamilcar;  Carthage,  237  B.C. 
Hamilton    and    Douglas    cause ; 

trials,  1769 

Hamilton,  bp.  ;  Salisbury,  1854 
Hamilton,  duke  of ;  duelling,  1712; 

trials,  1813 
Hamilton,    James,    marquess  of, 

administrations.  1640 
Hamilton,  J. ;  court  of  honour 
Hamilton  ;  duel,  1748,  1804 
Hamilton,  Mary;  trials,  1736 
Hamilton,  sir  W.  ;  Herculaneum 
Hammond,  Mr.  ;  ambassador,  1791 
Harnpden,  Richard ;    administra- 
tions, 1690 
Hampden,  John,  killed  1643  ;  ship- 

rnoney,  Chalgrove 
Hampton,  H.  ;  free  church,  1859 
Hancock,  T.  caoutchouc,  1843 
Handcock;  trials,  1855 
Handel,  G.  F.,  1684-1759;  Handel, 

opera,  oratorios 

Hannibal,    247  183    B.C.  ;     Rome, 
Bernard,      Sagentum,       Spain, 
Cannae,  Carthage,  Zama 
Hanson,  capt.  ;  duel,  1776 
Hans  Sachs,  German  comic  writer, 

1474-1578 

Han  way,  Jonas,  d.  1768  ;  umbrella 
Harcourt,  lady,  fete  de  vertu 
Harcourt,  lord  ;    Oxford  adminis- 
tration, 1711 

Hardicanute ;  England,  1039 
Harding,  prof.  ;  planets,  1804 
Hardingc,  sir  Henry  (aft.  lord), 

1846;  India 

Hardinge,  Mr.  ;  journals,  1752 
Hardwicke,   earl  of;   Pelham  ad- 
min.,   1744;     Derby    admin., 
1852  ;  Ireland  (lord-lieut.),  1801 
Hare,  R. ;  blowpipe,  1802 
Hargrave,  J.  ;  cotton,  1767 
Hargreaves,  E.  ;  Australia,  1851 
Harley,    Robert,     Godolphin    ad- 
ministration, 1702 ;    Harleian 
library,  see  Oxford 
Harmodius  kills  Hipparchus,  514 

B.C. 

Harney,  gen.  ;  United  States,  1855 
Harpur,  W.  ;  Bedford,  1561 
Harold  II.  ;  Hastings,  1066 
Haroun-al  Raschid,  caliph,  786-809 
Harrington,  earl  of  ;   Pelham  ad- 
ministration, 1744 
Harris,  Mr.  ;    Covent-garden,  or- 
gans,   1682 ;    clocks,    apples, 
fluxions 

Harris,  sir  W.  S.  ;    lightning  con- 
ductors, 1820 
Harrison,   gen.  ;      United   States, 

president,  1841 
Harrison,   J.  ;    pneumatic    loom, 

1864,  Harrison,  1714 
Harrison,  Mr. ;  congelation,  1857 
Harrowby,  earl  of ;   Pitt  adminis- 
tration, 1804  et  seq 
Harsnet,  archbp.  ;  York,  1628 
Hartinger,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1820 
Hartland,  sir  R.  ;  Madras,  1771 
Harvey,  B.  Bagenal ;  trial,  7798 
Harvey,   Dr.   William,   1578-1657  ; 

blood,  anatomy,  midwifery 
Harwood  ;  porter,  1730 
Hasdi  ubal ;  Carthage,  Spain  ;  Me- 
taurus,  207  B.C. 


Hastings, mai-quess  of,  India  gov.- 
gen.  1813 

Hastings,  Warren,  1732-1818  ;  In- 
dia. 1772 ;  Chunar,  Hastings 

Hatchell,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1814 

Hatneld  tires  at  George  III. ;  trials, 
1800 

Hatneld ;  executions,  1803 

Hatton,  sir  Christopher,  d.  1591  ; 
chancellor  (lord  high),  master 
in  chancery) 

Hatiy,  R.,  1742-1822 ;  crystallo- 
graphy 

Haiiy,  V.  ;  blind  school,  1804 

Havelock,  gen. ;  India,  1857,  Cawn- 
pore 

Hawke,  admiral;    naval  battles, 

*747 

Hawkesburjr,    lord ;    administra- 
tions, 1807,  Amiens 
Hawkey,  lieut.  ;  duel,  trial,  1846 
Hawkins,     Sir    John,     d.      1595, 

Guinea,    slave    trade,     1 562 ; 

potatoes,  tobacco,  Chatham 
Hay,   lord  John  ;    British  legion, 

1835  ;  St.  Sebastian's 
Haydn,  Joseph  [compiler  of  this 

book],  d.  1856 

Haydn,  Joseph,  1732-1809;  music 
Haydon,  Benj.,  painter,  1786-1846 
Hayes,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1728,  1806  ;  ; 

trials,  1802 

Hayes,  sir  H.  B.  ;  trials,  1800 
Haynau,  gen.  ;  Hungary,  1849 
Hayward ;  trials,  1821 
H.  B.  ;  caricatures 
Head,  sir  Francis;  Canada,  1836 
Headfort,  marquess  ;  trial,  1805 
Hearne,  north-west  passage,  1769 
Heath,  archbp.  ;  York,  1555 
Heberden,  Dr.  ;  Humane  Society, 

Hebert,  J.   R.    (pere    Duchesne), 

executed,  1794 

Hector  of  Troy  ;  slain,  1183  B.C. 
Heenan,  J.  ;  boxing,  1860 
Hegel,  G.,  philosopher,  1770-1831 
Hehl ;  animal  magnetism,  1774 
Heine,  H.,  German  poet,  1797-1856 
Helena,  St. ;  cross,  328  ;  Bethlehem 
Heliodorus,./Z.  398 
Heliogabalus ;  Rome, emp. 218;  silk 
Helmholtz,  H.,  b.  1821  ;  ophthal- 
moscope, 1851 
Helo'ise,  d.  1163  ;  Abelard 
Helps,  Arthur  ;   hist,  and  miscel., 

b.  1811 

Helsham,  capt.  ;  duel,  1829 
Hemans,  Felicia,  poet,  1794-1835 
Hencke ;  planets,  1845 
Hengist,  octarch,  Salisbury 
Henley,  lord  ;   Grenville  admini- 
stration, 1763 

Henley,  Jos.  ;  Derby  administra- 
tion, 1852 

Henley,  orator,  d.  1756 
Hennis,  Dr.  ;  duel,  1833 
Henrietta  ;  queens  (Charles  I.) 
Henry;  kings;   England,  France, 

Germany,  Spain 
Henry  I.  ;  Tinchebray,  1106 
Henry  V.  ;  Agincourt,  1415;  Cher- 
bourg 

Henry  VII.  ;  Bosworth,  1485 
Henry  VIII.  ;  England,  1 509 ;  age, 
defender,    field,  monasteries, 
spurs 

Henry  II.  ;  tournaments,  1559 
Henry  IV.  ;  France,  1589;  Nantes, 

Ravaillac,  Yvres 

Henry  the  Lion  ;  Brunswick,  1139 
Henshaw,  Mr. ;  duel,  1820 


Hepburn,  ensign;  trials,  iSn 
Heraclitus,  philosopher,}?.  500  B.C. 
Hcraclius  ;  cross,  615 
Herbert,  adm.  ;  Bantry  Bay,  1689 
Herbert,  George,    ch.  poet,    1593- 

!635 

Herbert  of  Cherbury,lord,  1581-1648 
Herbert,  Sidney  (aft.  lord),  1810-61 ; 

Peel,  Palmerston  admin. 
Hercules  Tyrius  ;  purple 
Herder,  J.   G.   von,   philosopher, 

1744-1803 

Hermann  (Armlnius),  Germany,  9 
Hero  of  Alexandria,  fl.  284-221  B.C. 
Herod  ;  Jews,  42  B.C. 
Herodian,  hist.,  fl.  173 
Herostratus      fires     temple       at 

Ephesus,  356  B.C. 
Herodotus,  b.  484  B.C.  :  history 
Herophilus  ;  anatomy,  302  B.C. 
Herries,  J.  C.  ;  Peel  adm.,  1834 
Herring,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1747 
Herring,  Mrs.  ;  trials,  1773 
HerscLel,  W.,  1738-1822  ;   Saturn, 
astronomy,     telescope,     sun, 
Uranus,  nebular  hypothesis 
Herschel,  J.    F.,  b.  1790;   actino- 

meter,  photography 
Hertford,  marquess  of  ;  his  execu- 
tors v.  Suisse,  trials,  1842 
Hertford,  earl  of  ;  administrations, 

1547,  Pinkey 
Hervie,    H.  ;    doctors'    commons, 

1560 

Hesiod,  Greek  poet,  fl.  850  B.C. 
Hess,  gen.  ;  Solferino,  1859 
Heytesbury,  lord ;   Ireland  (lord- 

lieut.),  1844 

Hiero,  Syracuse.  478-275  B.C. 
Hieronymus,  see  Jerome 
Hilary ;  hymns,  431 
Hill,    lord ;    commander-in-chief, 

1828 

Hill,  Rowland,  b.  1795  ;  post-office 
Hillsborough,  lord ;    North  admi- 
nistration, 1770 
Hind,  J.  R.,  b.  1823 ;  planets,  1847  ; 

comets 

Hindes,  lieut.  ;  duel,  1817 
Hinds,  bp.  ;  Norwich,  1849 
Hipparchus,   fl.    162   B.C.  ;    astro- 
nomy,   Canary,  constellation, 
degrees,  latitude,  longitude 
Hippias  ;  ostracism,  510  B.C. 
Hippocrates,  d.  357  B.C.;  anatomy, 

surgery,  loadstone 
Hoadley,   bp.  B.,   d.    1761  ;   Ban- 

gorian 
Hobart,    lord ;    Addington  adm., 

1801 

Hobbes,  T.,  1588-1679;  academies 
Hobbima,  painter,  jl.  1681 
Hobhouse,    sir    J.    C.    (aft.    lord 
Broughtou) ;  Melbourne  adm., 
1834 

Hoche,  gen.  ;  Dunkirk,  1793 
Hocker,  murderer  ;  trials,  1845 
Hodgson,  gen.  ;  Belleisle,  1761 
Hodgson  v.  Greene  ;  trials,  1832 
Hofer,  Andrew ;  Tyrol,  1809-10 
Hofmann,  A.,  b.  1818  ;  chemistry, 

ammonia,  aniline 
Hogarth,  W.,  painter,  1697-1764 
Hogg,  James,  poet,  1772-1835 
Holbein,  Hans,  d.  1554 
Hoi  croft,  T.  ;  melodrama,  1793 
Holdernesse,  earl  of ;  Devonshire 

administrations,  1756 
Holgate,  abp. ;  York,  1545 
Holinshed,  Ralph,  d.  about  1580 
Holkar  ;  India,  1804 
Holland,  lord;    Melbourne  adrci- 


INDEX. 


817 


nistration,  1835  et  seq.,  trials, 

Holland,  sir  H.,  b.  1788  ;  Roy.  Inst. 

1865 

Holiest  murderers  ;  trials,  1851 
Holmes,  adrn.,  Cape  Coast,  1663 
Holt,  sir  John,  King's  Bench,  1689 
Holt ;  trials.  1844 
Holwell,  Mr.  ;  suttees,  1743 
Home,  lieut.  ;  Delhi,  1857 
Homer,  fl.  962  B.C.  (Clinton);  poetry 
Hompesch,  baron,  duel,  1806 
Hone,     Wm.,     1779-1842;     trials, 

1817,  almanacs 

Honey  and  Francis  ;  riots,  1821 
Honorius  ;  West,  empire,  395 
Hood,      adm.  ;      Madeira,     1807  ; 

Toulon 
Hood,  Thomas,  comic  writer,  1798- 

1845 
Hook,    Theodore,    novelist,    1788- 

1841 

Hooke,   Rob.,  1635-1703  ;  air,  boil- 
ing, camera,  geology,  mechan- 
ics, microscope,  telegraphs 
Hooker,  Rich.,  theol.,  1553-1600 
Hooker,   W.,  botanist,   1785-1865; 

J.  D.  b.  1816  ;  gen.  R.,  U.  S., 

1862-3,  Fredericksburg 
Hopkins,  Matthew ;  witches,  1645 
Hopley,  T.  ;  trials,  1860 
Horace,  65-8  B.c.,Lat.  poet;  Athens, 

satires 

Horler,  H.  ;  trials,  1853 
Hormisdas ;   Persia,  272 
Horn,  count  ;  Nordlingen,  1634 
Home,  G.,  bp.  ;  Norwich,  1790 
Horne    Tooke,     John,    d.     1812 ; 

Home  Tooke,  &c. 
Horner,  Fr.  ;  bullion,  1810 
Hornor,  Mr.  ;  Colosseum,  1824 
Hornsby,  Dr.  ;  Radcliffe  obs.,  1771 
Horrebow ;  astronomy,  1659 
Horrox,  Jer.,  d.  1641  ;  astronomy, 

Venus 

Horsfall,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1813 
Horsfall,  Messrs.  ;  cannon,  1856 
Horsley,  bp.  ;  St.  Asaph,  1802 
Hosea  prophesies  about  785  B.C. 
Hotham,  adm.  ;  naval  battles,  1795 
Hotspur;  Otterburn,  1388 
Houblon,  sir  J. ,  Bank  of  England, 

1695  -v 

Houghton,  John,  executed,  1535  ; 

Charterhouse 
Howard,  John,   1726-90  ;  prisons, 

potatoes 

Howard,  Luke,  d.  1864;  clouds 
Howard,  adml.  sir  Edward ,  naval 

battles,  1513 
Howard     of      Effingham,      lord ; 

armada,  1588 

Howard  r.  Gossett  ;  trials,  1842 
Howe,  sir  William;  Long  Island, 

1776 
Howe,  lord,  1784 ;  Pitt,  1783;  Brest, 

Ushant 

Howel  Dha  ;  Wales,  911 
Howley,   Dr.,  abp.  ;    Canterbury,  ! 

1828  ;  Lambeth 
Huber,  F.,  1750-1831 ;  bees 
Hudson,  Jeffrey,  1626 ;  dwarf 
Hudson,  H. ;  Hudson's  Bay 
Huggins,  Wm.  ;  spectrum,  note 
Hughes,  sir  E.  ;  Trincomalee,  1782 
Hugo,  Victor,  6.  1802 
Hullah,  J.,  b.  1812;  music,  1840 
Humbert,  gen.  ;  Killala,  1798 
Humboldt,  A.  de,  1769-1859 
Humboldt,  W.  de,  1767-1835 
Hume,  David,  hist.,  1711-76;  Jos., 

politics,  1777-1855 


Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester,  d. 

at  Bury,  1447 
Hunniades,   J.  ;    Hungary,   1442  ; 

Turkey,  Varna 
Hunt,    Henry,    reformer ;    trials, 

1820,  Clerkenwell,  Manchester 
Hunt,  John  and  Leigh  ;  trials,i8ri- 

1812  ;  J,,  anthropology 
Hunt,  Wm.    Holman    painter,  6. 

1827 
Hunter,  John,  surgeon,  1728-93; 

Huntingford,  bp.  ,  Hereford,  1802 
Huntly,  earl  of';  Brechin,  1452 
Hunton,    Jos.    (forgery) ;    execu- 
tions, 1828 

Kurd,  bishop  ;  Worcester,  1781 
Huskisson,  Wm.,  1770-1830;  Wel- 
lington admin.,  1828 ;    Liver- 
pool, 1830 

Huss,  John,  burnt,  1415  ,  Hussites 
Hutchinson,  Amy  ;  trials,  7750 
Hutchinson,  John,  d.  1737 ;  Hutch  - 

insonians 
Hutchinson,  major ;    Alexandria, 

1801 
Hutchinson,    J.    H.  ;    Lavalette's 

escape,  1815 

Hutton,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1757 
Hutton,  W.,  d.  1815  ;  geology 
Huyghens,   d.    1695 ;    astronomy, 

optics,  pendulums 
Hyde,  sir  E.;  chancellor,  Id. h.,  1660 
Hyde,  Laurence  ;  administrations, 

1689  et  seq. 
Hyder  Ali,  d.  1782  ;  India,  Arcot, 

Carnatic,  Mysore 
Ilyginus,  pope,  139 ;  martyr 
Hypatia,  philosopher,  m.  415  B.C.  ; 

hydrometer 

Hyperides  ;  Cranon,  322  B.C. 
Hyrcanus,  John,  d.  107  B.C.  ;  Sa- 
maritans 


Ibrahim,  pacha,  1789-1848;  Anti- 
och,  Beyrout,  Egypt,  Greece, 
Syria,  Turkey,  Damascus, 
Wahabees 

Ignatius,  St. ;  mart.  115  :  liturgies, 
250 

Impey,  major  ;  duel,  1801 

Inachus  ;  Argos,  1856  B.C. 

Incledon,  C.,  d.  1826 

Inez  de  Castro  ;  Coimbra,  1355 

Inglefield,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1852 

Inglis,  col.  ;  Albuera,  1811 

Ingram,  Herbert,  d.  1860,  111.  Lon. 
News 

Innocent  I. — XII.  ;  popes 

Innocent  III.,  pope,  1198;  tran- 
substantiation 

Irehseus,  martyr,  202 

Irving,   E.,   1792-1834:  Irvingites, 


63;  Manassas,  United  States, 
1862 ;  Chancellorsville 
Jackson,  T.  ;  executions,  1861 
Jackson,  C.  T.  ;  ether,  1846 
Jackson,  J.  B.;  printing  in  colours, 

1720 

Jacob,  Dr. ;  Christ's  hospital,  1854 
Jacobi ;  Baltic,  note,  electrotype 
Jacquard  loom,  1806 
James  ;  England,  Scotland,  Spain 

(kings) 

James  IV.  ;  Flodden,  1513 
James,  H. :  photozincography,  1860 
Jane,     England,     1554;    queens, 

Sicily 

Jansen,  C.,  1585-1638;  Jansenism 
Jason,  argonautic  exp.,  1263  B.C. 
Jebb,    Joshua,    prison   reformer, 

1793-1863 

Jeffcott,  sir  John  W.  ;  duel,  1833 
Jefferson,  T.  ;  United  States,  pre- 
sident, 1801-8 

Jeffery,  Robert;  Sombrero,  1807 
Jeffrey,  Francis,  critic,  1773-1850 
Jeffreys,  George  (afterwards  lord) ; 
administrations,   1685 ;  king's 
bench,  chancellor,  lord  high, 
bloody  assize,  d.  1689 
Jellachich  ;  Hungary,  Vienna,  1848 
Jenghis     Khan;     Tartary,     1206; 
Hungary,  India,  Moguls,  Af- 
ghanistan 

Jenkinson,  bp. ;  David's,  St.,  1825 
Jenkins,  Henry  ;  longevity,  d.  1670 
Jenner,  E.,  1749-1823;  vaccination 
Jennings,  Mr.  ;  tontines,  1798 
Jeretniah prophesies  about  629  B.C. 
Jerningham,  Mrs. ;  blue-stockings, 

1760 

Jerome,  331-420 ;  ascension,  litur- 
gies 

Jerome  of  Prague  ;  burnt,  1416 
Jersey,  countess  of;   delicate  in- 
vestigation, 1806 
Jervis.  sir  John ;  Cape  St.  Vincent ; 
— solicitor-gen. ,  att.  -gen. ,  com- 
mon pleas,  d.  1856 
Joan  of  Arc,  burnt  1431  :  Joan 
Joan  ;  queens  (Henry  IV.),  Naples 
Joel  prophesies  about  800  B.C. 
John,   St.,   d.    loo ;   baptism,   ac- 
cusers, evangelists,  gospels 
John  I. — XXIII. ;  popes,  523,  <fec. 
John  of  Austria ;  Lepanto,  1571 
John,  king  ;   Bohemia,  Portugal, 

Spain,  France,  Poitiers 
John,  king;  England  (1199),  char- 
ter of  forests,  magna  charta, 
"  We  " 

John  of  Leyden ;  anabaptists,  1534 
John  the  Fearless  ;  Burgundy,  1404 
Johnson,  Andrew,  6.  1809  ;  United 

States,  1865 
Johnson,  Sam.,  1709-84;  dictionary, 

literary  societies 
Johnson,  judge  ;  trials,  1805 


trial,  1832 ;  unknown  tongues    Johnson,  capt.  ;  trials,  1846 


Irving,  Washington,  1783-1859 
Isabella ;  salique  law,  Spain 
Isaiah  prophesies  about  760  B.C. 
Islip,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1349 
] socrates,  Gr.  orat.,  436-338  B.C. 
Iturbide.  ;  Mexico,  1821-1865 
Ivan;  Russia,  1462;  czars 


J. 


Jackson,  bp. ;  Oxford,  1812  ;  Lin- 
coln, 1852 

Jackson,  gen  ;  United  States,  1829 
Jackson,  Thos.  "Stonewall,"  1824- 


Johnston,  capt.  ;  steam,  1825 
Johnston,  gen.  ;  Ross,  N.,  1798 
Johnston,  Albt.,  /t.Pittsburg,  1862  ; 

Jos.,  U.  S.  1863 

Johnston,  Robert ;  trials,  1818 
Johnston,  sir  John ;    marriages, 

forced,  1690 

Joinville,  Jean  de,  hist.,  1224-1318  ; 
prince  de ;  Ocean  Monarch, 
1848 

Jonah  prophesies  about  862  B.C. 
Jones,     colonel;    Dungan,    1647, 

Rathmines 

Jones,  H.  Beuce ;  Royal  Institu- 
tion, 1860 ;  spectrum,  nt/te 

3    G 


818 


INDEX. 


Jones,  Gale;  trials,  1811 
Jones,  Inigo,  architect,  1572-1652 
Jones,  Jane  ;  trials,  1842 
Jones,  Mr.  :  riots,  1819 
Jones,  Mr.  Todd  ;  duel,  1802 
Jones,    Owen,    1842 ;    Alhambra, 

James's  Hall,  St. 
Jones,  sir  Wm.,  1746-94;  Asiatic, 

chess,  Menu,  Sanskrit 
Jones,  T.  ;  book-keeping,  1821 
Jonson,  Ben.,  1574-1637  ; poet-laur. 
Joquemin,  M.  ;  picquet,  1390 
Jordan,  Mrs.,  actress,  d.,  1816 
Joseph ;  Germany,  Namur,  Portugal 
Josephine,     empress,     1763-1814 ; 

France,  1809 

Josephus,  Jewish  hist.,  d.  93 
Jotham  ;  fables,  1209  B.C. 
Joubert,  gen.  ;  Novi,  1799 
Jourdan,  marshal :  Cologne,  Fleu- 

rus,  Vittoria,  1813 
Jovian,  Rome,  emps.,  363 
Juarez,  B.  ;  Mexico,  1858 
Judas    Maccabseus ;     rules,     168- 

160  B.C. 

Judith ;  Abyssinia,  960 
Jugurtha,  d.   104  B.C.  ;  Numidia, 

Jugurthine  war 
Julian ;   Rome,  emp.  360,  edicts, 

Paris 

Julianus,  Salvins  ;  edicts,  132 
Julius,  Mr. ;  duel,  1791 
Julius    II.,    pope,     1503;    Rome, 

Bologna,  Laocoon,  Cambray 
Julius  Caesar  ;  see  Casar,  Julius 
Jung  Bahadooi- :  Nepaul,  1857-60 
Junot,  marshal,  1771-1813  ;  Cintra, 

Vimiera,  1808 
Jussieu,  A.  L.  de,  botanist,  1748- 

1836 

Justin,  emp.,  Rome,  518  and  565 
Justin,  St.  ;  Rochester,  604 
Justinian  ;  eastern  empire,  527 
Justin  Martyr,  164  ;  millennium 
Juvenal,  59-128  ;  satires 
Juxon,      apb.  ;      administrations, 

1640;  Canterbury,  1660,  bishs. 


K. 

Kane,  Dr.  ;  Franklin,  1843 
Kant,   Imman,    1724-1804 ;    meta- 
physics 

Kaunitz,  1755-94 
Kaye,      bishop;      Bristol,      1820, 

Lincoln 

Kean,  Charles,  b.  1811  ;  theatres 
Kean,  Edmund,  1787-1833 
Keane,  lord  ;  Ghiznee,  1839 
Keats,  John,  1796  1821 
Keenan  ;  trial,  1803 
Keith,  George ;   earl-marischal  of 

Scotland,  Aberdeen,  1593 
Keith,  George  ;  quakers,  1646 
Kellet,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1848 
Kelly,  Miss  ;  theatres,  trials,  1816 
Kelly,   sir    F. ;     solicitor-general, 

1845  ;  attorney-general 
Kemble,  Charles,  1775-1854 
Kemble,  John,  1757-1823 
Kemble,  Miss  F.,  ft.  1811 
Kemp  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1452 
Kempe,  John  ;  wool,  1331 
Kempenfeldt,  adm. ;  Royal  George, 

1782 

Kempis,  T.  a,  theology,  1380-1471 
Kennedy,  alderman  ;  trials,  1858 
Kennedy,  Mr.  ;  Franklin,   1851-53 
Kennedy,  C.  R.  ;  trials,  1858,  note 
Kent,  Edw.  duke  of,  1767-1820 
Kent,  Odo,  earl  of ;  treasurer,  1066 


Kent,  G.  ;  knives  (cleaner),  1844 
Kentigern,  St.  ;  abstinence,  Glas- 
gow, Asaph,  560-83 
Kenyon,    lord ;    attorney-general, 

1782,  king's  bench 
Kepler,     J.,     1571-1630;      optics, 
planetary  motions,  1609,  rain- 
bow, tides,  dye-hous'es 
Keppel,  adm.  ;  Belleisle,  Ushant, 
trials,    1779,    coalition,   naval 
battles 

Keppel,  commodore  ;  China,  1857 
Keying ;  China,  1842-58 
Killigrew,  Thos.  ;  drama,  1662 
Kilmarnock,      lord ;      rebellions, 

trials,  executions,  1746 
Kilwarby,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1272 
Kilwarden,   lord;    king's    bench; 

trials,  1803 

King,  Thos.  ;  ventriloquism,  1716 
King,  Mr.  Locke  ;  administrations, 

1851 

King,  Dr.  ;  Csesarean  operation 
King,  col.  ;  suicide,  1850 
King,  C.  ;  trials,  1855 ;  gems,  1860 
Kinglake,  A.  W.,  hist.,  b.  1802 
Kingsley,  C.,  novels,  &c.,  6.  1819 
Kingston,  duchess  of;  trials,  1776 
Kingston,  earl  of,  v.  Lord  Lorton ; 

trials,  1776 
Kingston,   Evelyn  duke  of;  Wal- 

pcle,  1721 
Kirby  and    Wade,    capts.  ;    shot, 

1702  ;  naval  battles,  note 
Kircher ;  jEoliaii  harp,   1653,  phi- 
losopher's stone,  trumpet 
Kirkman  ;  piano- forte 
Kirwan,  Richard  B.  ;  trials,  1852 
Kiss,  Karl,  sculptor,  1802-65 
Klapka,  general  G.,  1820 
Kleist;  electricity,  1745  ;  Leyden 
Klopstock,  poet,  1724-1803 
Kmety,    gen.    (Ismail    pacha),  d. 

1865  ;  Hungary,  Kars 
Knatchbull,  sir  E.  ;  Peel  adminis- 
trations, 1834-5 
Kneller,  sir  Godfrey,  painter,  1648- 

1723 

Knight,  Chs.,  diffusion  soc.,  1827 
Knight,  G.  ;  magnetism,  1756 
Knight,  Mr.  ;  north-west  passage, 
1602,      South      Sea     bubble, 
bribery 

Knight  v.  Wolcot ;  trials,  1807 
Knox,  John;  1505-72,  Presbyteri- 
ans ;  congregation  ;  Scotland 
Knutzen,  Matthias ;  atheism,  1674 
Kock,  Paul  de,  novelist,  6.  1794 
Kohl,  F.  :  execution,  1865 
Konig,  F.  ;  printing-machine,  1814 
Konig,  M. ;  phonoscope,tonometer, 

1862 

Korner,  Th.,  poet,  1791-1813 
Kosciusko;  Poland,  1794;  Cracow 
Kossuth,   L.,   b.   1802;    Hungary. 

United  States 

Koster,  Laurence  ;  printing,  1438 

Kotzebue ;    north-west     passage, 

1815,     Aug.    drama;     killed, 

1819 

Kouli  Khan ;  Moguls,  India,  Persia, 

173° 

Kunckel ;  phosphorus,  1670 
Kutusoff,   M.,   1745-1813;   Russia, 

Muskwa,  Smolensko,  1812 
Kyhl,  P.  ;  nature- printing,  1833 


Labouchere,  Henry ;  Russell  ad- 
ministration, 1846  ;  Palmer- 
ston  administration,  1855 


Labourdonnaye  ;  Tournay,  1792 
Lachaise,  Pere,  i624-i7o9,cemeteiy 
La  Bruyere,  French  essays,  1644-96 
Lacordaire,  Pere  H.  D.,  1802-61 
Lactantius  ;  d.  325  ;  fathers 
Ladislas ;  Bohemia,  Hungary 
Laennec,  R.,  physician,  1781-1826 
Lafarge,  madame  ;  trials,  1840 
Lafayette,  marq.  ;  1757-1834 
Lafitte,  d.  1844  ;  wills  (Napoleon's) 
La  Fontaine,  1621-95,  fables 
Lagava,  &c.  ;  execution,  1856 
Lagny ;  circle,  1719 
La    Grange,     J.      L.,     1736-1813; 

acoustics,  astronomy,  1780 
Laing,  S.  ;  India,  1861-2 
L;.ird,  Mr.  ;  Birkenhead 
Lake,     gen.  ;     Bhurtpore,      1805 ; 

Delhi,  Lincellas 
Lake,     hon.      capt.  ;      Sombrero, 

1807-10 

Lalande,  J.,astron.,  1732-1804 
Lally  ;  beheaded,  1766 
La   Marmora,    gen.   A.,    b.    1804  ; 

Tchernaya,  1855,  Italy,  1862 
Lamartiue,  A.  de  ;  b.  1792  ;  miscel. 

writer 

Lamb,  C.  ;  1775-1834  ;  essays 
Lamb,  Dr.  ;  killed,  1628  ;  riots 
Lamballe,  princesse  de ;   France, 

1792 

Lamberg,  ct.  ;  Austria,  1848 
Lambert,  Mr.  ;  d.  1809;  corpulency 
Lambert  (Latham),  J.  ;  trials,  1855 
Lambrecht,  Mr.  ;  duel,  trials,  1830 
Lambton,  Mr.  ;  du^-l,  1826 
Lamennais,  Pere,  F.  R.    de,  1782- 

1854. 
Lamoriciere,  gen.,  1806-65  J  France, 

1851  :  Rome,  1860 
Lamplough,  archbp.  :  York,  1688 
Lancaster,  capt.  ;  Bantam,  1603 
Lancaster,  duke  of;  Lancaster 
Lancaster,      Joseph ;       1771-1838, 
Lancasterian    schools,    educa- 
tion 

Lander,  Richard ;  1804-34  '•>  Africa 
Landseer,  sir  E  ,  painter,  b.  1803 
Lan  franc,  archbp.  Cant  erbury,  1070 
Langara,  adm.  ;  naval  battles,  1780 
Langdale,  Id.  ;  master  of  rolls,  1836 
Langdale,  sir  M.  ;  Naseby,  1645 
Langham,  abp.  Canterbury,  1366 
Langton,  abp.  Canterbury,  1206 
Lannes;  marshals;  Asperne,  1809 
Lansdowne,    marquess    of,    1780- 
1863 ;    see    Petty,    Shelburne ; 
God^rich  adm.  1827  ;   Russell 
adm.    1846,    1851 ;     Aberdeen 
adm.  1852  ;   Palmerstou  adm. 
1855  et  seq. 

Laomedon ;  Troy,  1260  B.C. 
Laplace,  P.  de  ;  mathemat.,  1749- 

1827 
Latimer,  bp. ;   burnt,  1555 ;  pro- 

testants 

Latimer,    viscount ;     administra- 
tions, 1672-3 
Laud,    William,   abp.,    1573-1645; 

Canterbury,  administrations 
Lauderdale,  duke  of ;  cabal,   1670 
Laura  ;  Petrarch,  1327 
Lautrec  ;  d.  1528 
Lavalette's  escape,  1815 
Lavater,  J.  ;    1741-1801 ;   physiog- 
nomy 
Lavoisier,   A.  ;    1743-94 ;     carbon, 

nitric  acid,  &c. 

Law,  bishop  ;  Chester,  Bath,  1824 
Law's  bubble,  1720 
Lawes,  H. ,  1600-62 
Lawless,  Mr.  ;  riots,  1828 


INDEX. 


819 


Lawrence,  gen.  H  ;  1806-57 ;  India, 

1857 
Lawrence,  Sir  J.  ;  b.  1811  ;  India, 

1863 

Lawrence,  Sir  T.,  painter,  1769-1830 
Layard,  Austen  ;  6.  1817  ;  Nineveh 
Layer's  conspiracy,  1722;  Layer 
Leake,  adm.  ;  d.  1720  ;  admiralty, 
Gibraltar,  Mediterranean,.  Mi- 
norca 

Leatkam,  E.  ;  trials,  1861 
Ledru  Rollin,  A.  ;  b.  1808 ;  France, 

1848 

Lee,  Alexander  ;  theatres,  1830 
Lee  Boo,  prince  ;  Pelew  Islands, 

1784 

Lee,  archbp.  ;  York,  1544 
Lea,  VV.  ;  stocking-frame,  1589 
Lee,  gen.  Eobt.,  Unit.  States,  1862 
Leech,  John,  1817-64,  caricatures 
Leeds,  duke  of ;   administrations, 

1689 

Leeke,  H.,  Bushire,  1856 
Leeuweiihoek  ;  1632-1723;  animal- 
cules, polypus 

Lefevre,  C.  Shaw ;  speaker,  1839 
Leggatt,  B.  ;  burning.  1612 
Legge,  bishop  ;  Oxford,  1827 
Legge,  H.  B  ,  Newcastle adin.,i754 
Legros  Raymond  ;  Dublin,  1171 
Leibnitz,     Gottfried;      1646-1716, 

mathematics,  fluxions 
Leicester,  earl  of ;  administrations, 

1558 ;  national  associations 
Leicester,     earl    of,    v.     Morning 

Herall;  trials,   1809 
Leighton,  abp.  Robt.,  1611-84 
Leighton,     G.     C.  ;     printing   in 

colours,  1849 

Le  Jay  ;  polyglot,  1628-45 
Lelewel  ;  Poland,  1863 
Lsly,  sir  P.,  painter,  1617-80 
Le  Maire  ;  circumnavigator,  1615 
Lennox,  col.  ;  duel,  1789 
Lenoir;  gas,  1861 
Le  Notre;  James's  Park,  St.  1668 
Leo  ;  popes,  Eastern  empire 


Leo  X.,  pope;  1513,  indulge] 
Leon,  Diego  de  ;  Spain,  1841 
Leon,  Ponce  de;  America,  1512 
Leonarda  of  Pisa  ;  algebra,  1202 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1452-1519 
Leoiiidas  ;  Thermopylae,  480  B  c. 
Leopardi,  Italian  oral,  1798-1837 
Leopold,    Germany ;     Morgarten, 
1315;    Sempach,    1386;     Bel- 
gium, 1830 

Lepidus  ;  triumvir,  43  H.C. 
L'Epee,  abbe  de  ;  1712-89,  deaf 
Le  Pique,  M.  ;  duel,  1808 
Le  Sage,  1668-1747 
Leslie,  C.  R.,  painter;  1794-1859 
Lessing,   G.    E.,  German  philoso- 
pher, 1729-81 

Lestock,  admiral ;  Toulon,  1744 
L'Estrange,  sir  R.  ;    newspapers, 

1663 

Lettsom,  Dr.  ;  Humane  Soc.  1774 
Lever,  sir  Ashton  ;  museum 
Leverrier,    U.,  b.  1811;   Neptune, 

1846 

Levy,  Mr.  Lyon;  monument,  1810 
Lewis,  Mr.  ;  theatres,  1773 
Lewis,  Sir  G.  Cornewall,  1806-63 ; 

Palmerston  adm.  1855 
Lewisham,  vise.  ;   Addington  ad- 
ministration, 1801 
Leybourue,  William  de  ;  admiral, 

1297 

Libanius,  orator,  314-363 
Liddon,   lieut. ;    north-west    pas- 
sage, 1819 


Lieber,  T.  ;  Erastianism,  1523-84 
Liebig,  J.,    6.  1803 ;    agriculture, 

chemistry 
Light,  F.  ;  Penang 
Ligonier,  lord;  Bute,  1762 
Lilburne,   coL  ;    levellers,  Wigau, 

1651 

Lilly,  George,  d.  1559;  charts 
Lilly  ;  astrology,  1647 
Lin  ;  China,  1840 
Linacre,  Dr.,  d.  1524;   gardening, 

lectures,  physicians 
Lincoln,   Abm.,  6.   1809;    United 

States,  1860-2 
Lincoln,  earl  of;  administrations, 

1579 

Lind,  Dr.  ;  anemometer,  wind 
Lind,  Jenny  (Goldschmidt),  6. 1821 
Lindley,  John,  bot.  1799-1865 
Liszt,  F. ;  music,  b.   1811 
Lindsay,  earl  of;  Edgehill,  1642 
Lindsay,  sir  John;  Madras,  1770 
Lingard,  J.,  1771-1851,  historian 
Linlithgow,  lord  ;  guards,  1660 
Linnaeus,  C.  von,  1707-78 ;  butany, 

Linnsean  zoology 
Linus,  poet,./!.  1281  B.C. 
Liprandi ;   Balaklava,   Eupatoria, 

1855 

Lisle,  lord  ;  administrations,  1544 
Lisle,  sir  G.  ;  Colchester,  1648 
Lisle,  visct.  :  Portsmouth,  1544 
Listen,  J.  ;  retires,  1838 
Little  John  ;  Sherwood  forest 
Littleton,lord;chancellor,lord,i64i 
Littleton,    Mr  ;     Melbourne    ad- 
ministration, 1834 
Liverpool,     earl    of;     1770-1828; 

Liverpool  administration,  1812 
Livingstone,  D.,  b.  1817  ;  Africa 
Livius,  Titus,  hist.  d.  18 
Llewellyn  :  Wales,  1194 
Lloyd,  bishop  ;  Oxford,  1827 
Lloyd,  Mrs.  Catherine ;  quackery, 

1831 

Lloyd,  Charles,  esq.  ;  Junius,  1769 
Lloyd,  W.  ;  Portland  vase,  1845 
Locke,  J.,  1632-1704;  physics,  car- 
tesian, coin 

Locke,  W. ;  ragged  schools,  1844 
Lockyer,  major  :  duel,  1817 
Lofting,  John,  thimble,  1695 
Logeman  ;  magnetism,  1851 
Lollard,  Walter ;   Lollards,  1315 ; 

burned,  1322 

Lombe,  sir  Thomas  ;  silk,  1714 
London  dock  company  ;  trials,  1851 
Londonderry,    lord ;    see    Castle- 

reagh;  suicide,  1822 
Long,  sirR. ;  administrations,  1660 
Long,  Misses  Tilney ;  trials,  1825 
Long,   St.    John ;    quack ;   trials, 

1830-1 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  6.  1807 
Longinus ;  philoso.  ;  killed,  273 
Longley,  abp.  York,  1860;  Ripon 
Longstreet,     gen.,     Chicamauga, 

1863,  U.  States 

Lonsdale,  bishop:  Lichfield,  1843 
Lonsdale,  earl  of;  duel,  1792 ;  Derby 

administration,  1852 
Lopez ;  Cuba,  1850 ;  United  States 
Lopez,      sir     Manasseh  ;      Gram- 
pound  ;  trials,  1819 
L'Orme,  Philibert  de  ;  Tuileries  ; 

1564 
Lorraine,  Chas.  of ;  Lissa,  Mohatz, 

1687 

Lorraine,  duke  of-;  Crecy,  1346 
Lorraine,  Claude,  painter,  1600-82 
|  Losinga,  H.  ;  Norwich,  1091 
i  Loudon,  C.  J.,  1783-1843 ;  botany 


Loughborough  ;    att  -gen. ;    coali- 
tion, 1783 

Louis  ;  France,  Spain,  1724 
Louis  III.  ;  landgrave,  1130 
Louis  XL,  "  Christ.an  ;  "  blood, 

posts,  1470;  Provence 
Louis  XII  ;  tester,  1513 
Louis  XIII.  ;  Louis  d' or,  1640 
Louis  XIV.  ;  Dieu-donue,  Nantes, 

1685 
Louis  XVIII.  ;  Hartwel),  1807-14, 

France 

Louis,  king;  Hungary,  Buda,  1526 
Louis,   prince  of  Conde" ;  Jarnac, 

1569 

Louis  Bonaparte  ;  Holland,  1806 
Louis  Napoleon  ;    France,      1848, 

and  vi. 

Louis-Philippe ;  France,  1830 
Louisa-Maria,  infanta  ;  Spain,  1846 
Louise,  queeja,  d.  1850 ;  Belgium, 

1832 

Louth,  lord,  trials,  1811 
Louvel  ;  trials,  1820 
Lovel,  trials,  1812 
Lovat,    lord ;    conspiracy,   trials, 

X747 

Lowe,  Alice  ;  trials,  1842 
Lowther,  vise. ;  Wellington  adm., 

1828 

Loyola,  Ignatius  ;  Jesuits,  1534 
Luby,  Thos.  ;  fenian,  trial,  1865 
Lucan,  earl  of  ;  trials,  1856 
Lucan,  killed,  65  ;  Rome,  Cordova 
Lucas,  Mr. ;  steel,  1804 
Lucian,  about  120  200 
Lucilius  ;  satire,  116  B.  c. 
Lucretia,     d.    47    B.    c.  ;    Rome, 

spinning 

Lucretius,  d.  52  B.C. 
Lully ;   nitric  acid,  1287  (music,) 

1633-72 

Lumley  v.  Gye  ;  trials,  1854 
Lunardi,  M.  ;  balloons,  1784 
Lutatius  ;  naval  battles  ;  241  B.C- 
Luther,    Martin,    1483-1546;    Au- 

gustins,   Lutheranisrn,    Dort, 

Protestantism,  Augsburg,  Cal- 

vinists,  Worms 
Luther,  R  ;  planets,  1852 
Luxemburg,    marshal ;    Enghien, 

1692 

Luxmore,  bishop;  Bristol,  1807 
Lycurgus  ;  Sparta,  881  B.C 
Lyell,   sir  C.,  6.    1797;    geology, 

man 

Lyly.  W. ;  euphuism,  1581 
Lyndhurst,  lord,  1772-1863;  chan- 
cellor;   lord  Canning,    adm., 

1827  ;  Wellington  adm.  1828  ; 

Peel  adm.  1834,  1841 
Lynedoch,   lord;    Barrosa,    1811  ; 

Bergen-op-Zoom,  St.  Sebastian 
Lynch;  trials,  1817 
Lyon,  capt.  ;  north-west  passage, 

1821;  gen.  N.,  Springfield,  1861 
Lyon,  John ;  Harrow  school,  1571 
Lysander  ;  Sparta,  405  B.C. 
Lysimachus  ;     Ipsus,    301     B.C., 

Corus 
Lysippus ;  Lysistratus ;  sculpture, 

busts,  328  B.C. 

Lyttelton,  Geo.,  lord ;  dreams,  1779 
Lytton,  E.  Bulwer,  novels,  6. 1805, 

guilds 


M. 

Macadam,  J.;  macadamising,  1819 
Macarthy,    sir    Charles  ;     Sierra 
Leone,  Ashantees,  1824 

3  G  2 


820 


INDEX. 


Macartney,  earl ;  duel,  1786;  China, 

1793  ;  India 
Macaulay,  T.   B.,   1800-1859;  Mel' 

bourne  adm.,  1837 
Macbeth  ;  Scotland,  1057 
MacCabe  ;  robbers,  1691 
MacClellan,  gen.  George,   b.   1826; 

United  States,  1861-4 
Macclesfield,  earl  of;   chancellor, 

lord  high,  1718 
MaeCormack  ;    reaping  machine, 

1831 
Macdonald,      marshal ;      Parma, 

Trebia,  1799 

Macdonald,  capt. ;  Prussia,  1861,  n. 
Macdonalds  massacred  ;   Gleucae, 

1692 

MacDowell,  gen.  J.;  Manassas,i86i 
Macduff,  Mr.  :  duel,  1790 
Macfarlane,  S.  ;  trials,  1844 
Macgregor,  J.  ;  bankfc  British,  1849 
Machiavelli,  N.,  1469-1527 
Mack,  general ;  Ulna,  1805 
Mackay,  gen. ;  Killiecrankie,  1689 
Mackay  and  Vaughan  ;  trials,  1816 
Mackintosh,  sir  James  ;  1765-1832 
MacLachlam,  Jessie;  trials,  1862 
Mackliu,  C.,  actor,  d.  1797 
Macklin ;  Bible,  books 
Macreath,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1841 
MacleoJ,  H.  D.  ;  trials,  !85S 
Macleod,  Mr.  ;  United  States,  1841 
Maclise,  D..  ;  painter,  b.  1811 
M.cMillan,  J.  ;  trials,  1861 
MacNamara,  capt.  ;  duel,  1803 
M'Clure,  capt,  ;    Franklin,    1850  ; 

north-west  passage 
M'Culloch,  J.  R.,  polit.   econ.,  b. 

1789 

M'Neill,  sir  J.  ;  Sebastopol,  1855 
McCarry,  gen.  ;  Euniskillen,  1689 
McClintock,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  i8so 
McGill,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1.842 
*McKenzie,  Mr. ;  duel,  1788 
McNaghten,  sir  W. ;  killed,  1841 
McNaughten,  Mr.;  trials,  1761, 1843 
Macready,  W.  ;  aeter,  6.  1793 
Macrobius;  writer,  d.  415 
Madan,  bp.  ;  Peterborough,  1794 
Madiai,  the;  Tuscany,  1852 
Madison,   James ;  United   States, 

president,  1809 

Maecenas,  d.  8 ;  dedications,  baths 
Magee,  J.;  trials,  1813 
Magellan ;    killed,   1521  ;    circum- 
navigation, Philippine 
Magi ;  fire  worshippers,  Epiphany 
Magnus,  king,  Norway,  Swedeu 
Maguire,  capt.;  Franklin,  1848 
Magus,  Simon;  Simonians,  heretics 
Mahomet,    570-632  ;    Hegira,  622  ; 
Mahometanism,     Mecca,    Me- 
dina, Beder,  Turkey,  Koran 
Mahomet  II.,  d.  1481 ;  eastern  em- 
pire,     Turkey,     Adrianople, 
Constantinople,  Albania 
Maimonides;  Jewish  wr.,  d.  1208 
Maitland,  capt.;  France,  1815 
Maitland,  sir  Fred.;  China,  1838 
Majendie,  bishop  ;  Chester,  1800 
Major;  conchology,  1675 
Malachi prophesies  about  397  B.C. 
Malcolm  ;    Scotland,   kings,  clan- 
ships, Alnwick,  Dunsinane 
Malebranche,    N.  ;    philos.,    1638- 

1713 

Malherbe  ;  Fr.  poet,  1556-1628 
Malibran,  madame ;  music,  1808-36 
Mallet,  R.  ;  earthquakes,  seismo- 
meter, 1858 

Malmesbury,  lord,  b.  1807 ;  Derby 
administrations,  1852,  1858 


'•  Malpighi,  M.  ;  anatomist,  1628-94 
I  Maltby,  bishop  ;  Durham,  1836 
Malthus,  T.,  1766-1834,  polit.  econ. 
Malzel,  J.  ;  metronome,  1815 
Manasseh,  Ben  Israel ;  Jews,  1657 
Manby,  capt.  ;  life-preserver,  1809 
Manchester,  earl  of ;  administra- 
tions, 1620 

Manchester  will ;  trials,  1854 
Mandeville,  vise.;  administrations, 

1620 

Manes  ;  killed,  274  ;  Manicheans 
Manfred  ;  killed,  1266  ;  Naples 
Manlius;  Cimbri,  102  B.C.,  Rome 
Manners,    lord  John ;   Derby  ad- 
ministrations, 1852,  1858 
Mannings  ;  murderers,  trial,  1849 
Manny,  sirW. ;  charter-house,  1371 
Mansel,  bishop ;  Bristol,  1808 
Mansell,  T.  ;  executions,  1857 
Mansfield,   lord  ;  att.-gen.,    1754  ; 
Dumblain,    1715  ;    fictions    in 
law,  king's  bench 
Mansfield,  C   B. ;  benzole,  1849 
Manuel ;    Eastern  empire,   Trebi- 

zond 

Manutius,  see  Aldus 
Mar,  earl  of;  Harlaw,  1411 
Marat ;  stabbed  ;  France,  1793 
Marcellus  ;  Rome,  212  B.C. 
March,  Roger,  earl  of;  rebellions, 

J398 

March,  R.  ;  rope-making,  1784 
March mont ;  trials,  1858 
Marcion  ;  Marcionites,  140 
Marcus  Aurelius  ;  Rome,  emp.  161 
Marcus  Curtius  ;  Rome,  362  B.C. 
Mardonius  ;       Myeale,      Platsea, 

497  B.C. 

Margaret ;  queens  (Edward  I.) 
Margaret    of     Anjou    (queen    of 
Henry  VI.),  d.   1481  ;  Tewkes- 
bury,  Towton,  Wakefield 
Margaret  of  Norway ;  Calmar,  1393 
Margaret  (governess  of  the  Nether- 
lands, 1559);  beards 
Margraff ;  beet-root,  1747 
Maria  da  Gloria  ;  Portugal,  1826 
Maria-Louisa,    d.    1847  ;     France, 

p.  318  ;  wills  (Napoleon's) 
Maria-Theresa;  Germany,  1711 
Maria- Antoinette;  France,  1793  ; 

diamond  necklace 
Marius,    d.    86   B.C.  ;    Ambrones, 

Cimbri 

Markhum,  abp.  ;  York,  1776 
Marlborough,  duke  of,   1650  1716  ; 
com.-in-chief,  marshals,  Blen- 
heim, Douay,  Liege,  Lisle,  Mal- 
plaquet,  Oudenarde,  Ramilies 
Marlborough,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions, 1628 

Marlowe,  Chr.  ;  dramatist,  d.  1593 
Marmont,    marshal  ;    Salamanca, 

1812 

Marmontel,  J.  P.,  1723-99 
Marot,  Clement ;  poet,  1495-1544 
Marr,  earl  of  ;  trials,  1831 
Marsh,  bp.  ;  Llandaff,  1816 
Marshall,  Mr.  ;  California,  1847 
Marshall,  T.  R  ;  trials,  1859 
Martel,  Charles  ;  France,  714 
Marten,  Maria  ;  trials,  1828 
Marth  ;  planets,  1854 
Martial;   epigram s,^.  100 
Martin,  John  ;  painter,  1790-1854 
Martin,  Jon.  ;  fires  York  minster, 

1829 

Martin  ;  popes,  649,  et  seq. 
Martin,  Rd.  ;  animals,  1822 
Martin,  rev.  G.  ;  suicide,  1860 
Martyr,  Peter,  d.  1561 


Mary  ell,  A.  ;  d.  1678  ;  ballot 

Mary  I.,  1516-58;  England,  queen, 
1553^  Calais 

Mary  II.  166294;  England,  queen, 
1689 

Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  1542-87  ; 
Scotland,  Carlisle,  Edinburgh, 
sycamore,  Langside,  Loch- 
leven-castle,  Fotheringay 

Maryborough,  lord ;  postmaster, 
1835 

Masaniello ;  Naples,  1647 

Maskelyne,  Dr.  N.;  Greenwich, 
1765;  Schiehallien,  1772 

Maskelyne,  N. ;  Venus,  Greenwich, 
almanacs 

Mason,  Mr.  ;  U.  States,  1861 

Massena ;  Zurich,  1799;  Almeida, 
Busaco 

Massey  v.  Headfort ;  trials,  1804 

Massey,  W.  ;  India,  1865 

Massillon,  1663-1742 

Mathew,  Theobald,  d.  1856;  tem- 
perance 

Mathews,  Chas.  ;  actor,    1776-1835 

Mathias  ;  anabaptists,  15^4 

Matilda,  queens  (William  I.)  ; 
Bayeux  tapestry,  1066 

Matilda,  queens  (Stephen) 

Matilda  (empress)  ;  England,  1135 

Matilda,  Denmark  ;  1772  ;  Zcll 

Matilda,  countess  ;  Canossa,  1077  ; 
Italy 

Matthew,  T.,  abp,  York,  1606 

Matthews,  adm.  ;  Toulon,  1744 

Maud.     See  Matilda 

Maule,  Fox  (lord  Panmure),  Rus- 
sell administration,  1846 

Maunsell,  col.  ;  meal-tub  plot, 
1679 

Maupertuls,  P.  K  de,  1698-1759  ; 
latitude 

Maurice,  F.  D.;  b.  1805;  working- 
men's  college.  1854 

Mausolus;  377  B.C.  mausoleum, 
wonders 

Maximin ;  Rome,  emp.  235;  giants, 
persecutions 

Maximilian ;  emperors,  Germany, 
1493  ;  Mexico,  1864 

Mazarin,  cardinal ;  France,  1643  ; 
tontines 

Mazzuoli,  F.  ;  engraving,  1532 

Mead,  Dr.  Rich.,  1673-1754;  ino- 
culation 

Mead,  Geo.,  gen.,  b.  1816  ;  United 
States,  1863 

Meagher ;  Ireland,  1848 

Medhurst,  Frs.  H.  ;  trials,  1839 

Medici;  Medici  family 

Medicis,  Catherine  de,  ^.1589  ;  Bar- 
tholomew, St. 

Medina-Sidonia,  duke  of;  armada 

Medon  ;  Athens,  1044 

Mehemet,  Ali  ;  Egypt,  Syria 

Meikle,  A,,  thrashing-machine, 
1776 

Melanchthon,  Philip,  1497-1560; 
Augsburg  confession 

Melas,  general ;  Marengo,  1800 

Melbourne,  viscount ;  Melbourne  ; 

trials,  1836 

Mellon,  Miss  (afterwards  duchess 
of  St.  Alban's),  first  appear- 
ance, 1795 

Melville,  lord  ;  impeachment,  1806 
Memnon  said  to  invent  alphabet, 

1822  B.C. 

Menander,  d.  291  B.  c.,  drama 
Mendelssohn,  F.  Bartholdy,  1809 

48 
Mendizabal,  Spain,  1835 


INDEX. 


821 


Mendoza,     Pedro     do ;      Buenos 

Ay  res,  1530. 
Menovt,  general ;  Alexandria,  1800 
Mensehikoff,  prince  ;  Holy  Places, 
1853  ;    Russia,    Alma,   Russo- 
Turkish  war 

Mercator,  Ger.,  1512-94  ;  charts 
Moruvieus,  Merovingians,  France, 

448 

Mesnier,  Frederic  Ant.  ;  mesmer- 
ism, 1766 

Metellus  ;  Achaia,  147  B.  c. 
Metastasio,  Pet.,  poet,  1698-1782 
Metius ;  telescopes,  1590-1609 
Mcton  ;  golden  number.  432  B.C. 
Metternich,  prince,  1773-1859 
Mot/,  M.  de  ;  reformatory,  1839 
Mt-ux  and  Co.  ;  porter 
Meyer,  Simon  ;  Saturn,  1608-9-10 
Meyerbeer,  J.  M.,  1794-1864  ;  mus. 

comp. 

Mezentius  ;  infliction,  312 
Mic  ill  prophesies  about  750  B.C. 
Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti,  1474- 

X564 

Michael  ;  eastern  empire 
Michaolis,  J.,W.,  bib.  critic,  1717-91 
Jviichelet,  J.,  hist.,  6.  1798 
Middlesex,   earl  of  ;    administra- 
tions, 1621 

Middleton,  Con  ;  1683  1750 
Midclleton  ;  N.W.  passage,  1742 
Middleton    (or     Myddelton),    sir 

Hugh,  1555-1631,  New  River 
Middleton,  John  ;  giants,  1578 
Miccislas  ;  Poland,  962 
Miguel,  dom.  ;  Portugal,  1824 
Mildmay,  sir  J.  H.  ;  trials,  1814 
Mildmay,  sir  Walter ;  administra- 
tions, 1579 

Mill,  Jas.,  hist.,  1776-1836 
Millais,  J.  E  ,  6.   1829,  painter 
Miller,   Hugh ;    geology,   suicide, 

1856 

Miller  r.  Salomons;  trials,  1852 
Millie,  Mr. ;  trials,  1839 
Miltiades  ;  Marathon," 490  B.C. 
Mihnan,  H.  H.,  b.  1791,  hist. 
Milosch;  Servia,  1815 
Milton,    John,    160874;    Paradise 
Lost,     Ci-ipplegate,     English 
literature 

Minn,  d.  1836  ;  Spain,  1835 
Minos;  Crete,  1015  B.C.  •*• 
Minto,  earl  of;  India,  gov-gen. 

1807 

Miramon,  gen.  ;  Mexico,  1859 
Miros  M.  ;  Mexico,  i86r 
Mister,  Josiah  ;  trials,  1841 
Mitchell,  sir  F.  ;  victuallers,  1621 
Mitchell,  D.  ;  aquarium,   1853 
Mitchell,  adm.  ;  Bantry-bay,  1801-2 
Mitchell ;  Ireland,  1848 
Mitf ord,    sir  John  ;    att.  -general, 
1800  ;    speaker,    1801  ;  —  W., 
hist,  of  Greece,  1744-1827 
Mithridates  the  Great,  131-63  B  c.  ; 
I'ontus,     comets,     electuary, 
massacres,  omens 
Mitra,   gen.    B.,    Buenos    Ayres, 

l859 

Moffat,  colonel ;  wrecks,  1857 
Mohun,  lord;  duel,  1712 
Moir,  capt.  ;  trials,  1830 
Moira,    earl  of;   ludia,  gov.-gen., 

18:3 

Mole,  count,  d.  1855 
Molesworth,  sir    William  ;    Aber- 
deen adm.,  1852 

Moliore,  Fr.  comic  drama.,  1622-73 
Molinos,  1627-96;  quietists 
Molyneux,  Mr.  ;  absentee,  1738 


Mompesson,    Giles ;     victuallers 

1621 
Monk,   general,    administrations 

1660,  guards,  d.  1670 
Monk,  bishop  ;  Gloucester,  18- 
Monmouth,  duke  of,   1685  ;  re" 
lion,   Sedgemoor,   iron  mask, 
Bothwell 
Monroe,  Mr.  ;  United  States,  pre 

sident,  1817-21 
Monstrelet,    Eng.    de,     hist.,     d. 

M53 
Montacute,    marquess    of ;    Man, 

1314-43 
Montagu,   lord;   administrations, 

1660-89 

Montagu,   lady  M.   W.  ;   inocula- 
tion, 1718 

Montague,   Mrs.,   d.    1800  ;   May- 
day 
Montaigne,  M.  de,  essayist,  1533- 

92 

Montalembcrt,  comte  de  ;  Prance 
Montanus  ;  Montanists,  about  171  ; 

polyglot,  1559 

Montefiore,  sir  Moses  ;  Jews,  1837 
Montemolin,   comte    de  ;    S^aiu, 

1 860- 1 

Montesquieu,  1689-1755 
Monteverde  ;  opera,  1607 
Montferrat ;  assassins,   1192 
Montfort,  Simon  de  ;  barons'  war, 
commons,   Kenilworth,  stew- 
ard, lord  high,  speaker,  Lewes, 
killed  at  Evesham,  1265 
Montfort,  Amauri  de  ;  Albigenses, 

1208 

Montgolfier,  M.  ;  balloons,  1782 
Montgomery,  Mr.  ;  suicide,  duel, 

1803 

Montgomery,   comte   de ;  tourna- 
ments, 1559 

Montholon,  comte  de  ;  will  (Napo- 
leon's), 1821 

Monti,  Ital.  poet,  1754-1828 
Moutpensier ;     France,     Spanish 

marriage,  1846 

Montrose,  duke  of;  Pitt  adm.  1804 
Montrose,  marquess  of,  executed, 
1650;    Corbiesdale,   Scotland, 
Alford,  Philiphaugh 
Moore,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1783 
Moore  ;  murdered,  trials,  1853 
Moore,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1848 
Moore ;  almanac,  1698-1713 
Moore,  Serjeant;  leases,  1535 
Moore,  Anne;  abstinence,  1808 
Moore,   sir  John,  k.  at  Corunna, 

1809 

Moore,  sir  Jonas  ;  Greenwich 
Moore,  Thos.  ;  poet,  1780-1852 
Mordaunt,  Charles,  viscount;  ad- 
ministrations, 1689 
More,  sir  Thomas,   1482-1535  ;  ad- 
ministrations, 1529,  lord  chan- 
cellor, supremacy 
More,  Hannah,  1745-1833 
More,  Roger ;  rebellion,  1651 
Moreau,  general,  1763-1813  ;  Ales- 
sandria,   Augsburg,  Wtirtcm- 
berg,  Dresden 

Moreland,        Sam.  ;        speaking- 
trumpet,  1671 


Morelli  ;  tourniquet,  1674 

of  ;  Ireland, 
1177 


Morcton,  John,  earl 


Morgan;  buccaneer,  1668 
Moi-gan,  colonel ;  Lincoln 
Morgan,  confederate  general;  U. 

States,  1862 

Morland,  Geo.,  1764-1804 
Morley,  T.  ;  music,  d.  1604 


Morning  Chronicle  ;  trials,  1810 
Morning  Herald  ;  trials,  1809 
M. »rn ing  Post;  libel,  1792 
Mornington,  lord  ;  India,  1798 
Morpeth,   viscount    (now  earl  of 
Carlisle)  ;    Melbourne     adm  , 
1835 

Morris,  George  ;  flowers,  1792 
Morris,  Mr.  ;  theatres,  1805 
Mortara,  E. ;  Jews,  1858 
Alortior,  mar.  ;  Romainville,  1814 
Mortimer,  E.  A.  ;  trials,  1859 
Mortimer,  earl  of  March ;  Berke- 
ley, 1327 
Morton,  arc  b  bishop  ;  Canterbury, 

1486 

Morton,  regent  of  Scotland,  1572 
Morton,  sir  A.  ;   administrations, 

1628 

Morton,  Thomas  ;  ether,  1846 
Morton ;  trials,  1852 
Moryson,  Fynes ;  forks 
Mosely,  Wolf,  &c.  ;  trials,  1819 
Moses,  1571-1451  B.C. 
Mosquera,    gen.,     New   Granada, 

1861 

Moss,  bishop;  Oxford,  1807 
Mosse,  Dr.  ;  lying-in-hospital,  1745 
Mothe-Guyon,     madame    de     la ; 

quietists,   1697 
Mountaigne,  abp.  ;  York,  1628 
Mount-Sandford,      lord,     killed  ; 

trial,  1828 

Mouravieff ;  Kars,  1855 
Mourzoufle  ;  Constantinople,  east- 
ern empire,  1204 
Mozart,  W.  A  ;  music,  1756-91 
Muirhcad,  J.  G.  ;  trials,  1825 
Mudie,    C. ;    circulating   library, 

1842 
Mulgrave,   earl ;    Liverpool  adm., 

1812,  Ireland,  lord-lieut. 
Mullens,  J.  ;  trials,  1860 
M  tiller,  F.  ;  execution,  1864 
Mliller,   V.   Max;   b.    1823,  Vedas> 

Sanskrit,  language 
Mulct,  M.  ;  artesian  well,  1841 
Mulready,  Wm.  ;  painter,  1786-63  ) 
Vlummius,  L.,  Corinth,  146  B.C.  ; 

painting 
Munich,  marshal ;  Perekop,  1736 
Muftoz,  duke  ;  Spain,  1833 
Uunro,  H.  ;  Buxar,  1764 
Minister,  earl  of;  suicide,  1842 
"lunzer ;     levellers,    anabaptists, 

tfurat,Joachim,  1767-1815  ;  Erfurt 
Naples 

Juratori,  L.  ;  hist.,  1672-1750 
Murchison,  sir  Roderick  I. 
1792;  geology,  Brit.  Assor, 

Murdoch,  Mr.  ;  gas,  1792 
Murillo,  B.  S.,  1613-85  ;  painting 
Murray,  Mr.  ;  penny  post,  1683 

tlurray,  earl  of  ;  Scotland,   1567 
Murray,  lady  Aug.  ;  marriage  act, 
1793 

Tun-ay,  B.  ;  trials,  1841 

lurray,  bishop  ;  David's,  St.,  1800 

lurray,    sir    James  ;    Tarragona, 
1813 

Turray,  sir  Geo.  ;  Peel  adm.,  1834 

lusa ;  Spain,  712 

ilusams, /.  1413  B.C. 

Jusgrave,  abp.  ;  Hereford,  1837 
Musgrave,  sir  Richard  :  duel,  1802 

iTushat,  Mr.  ;  steel,  1800 

Myddelton,   sir  Hugh,   1555-1631  ; 
New  River 

Mylne,  R.  ;  1734-1811 
Myron;  scul ptor,  fl.  4806.0. 
Mytton,  general ; '  Wales,  1645 


822 


INDEX. 


N. 

Nabis  ;  Sparta,  206  B.C. 
Nabanasser,./?.  747  B.C.  ;  astronomy 
Nachimoff,  admiral ;  Sinope,  1853 
Nadar;  balloon,  1863 
Nadir  Shah  ;  Persia,  1732  ;  Delhi, 

Afghanistan,  Cabul 
Nahum  prophesies  about  713  B.C. 
Nana    Sahib ;    Cawnpore,    India, 

1857 
Napier  of  Merchiston ;  logarithms: 

Napier's  bones,  1614 
Napier,  admiral  sir   C.,  Portugal, 

Sidon,  Baltic,  1854 
Napier,  gen.  sir  C.  ;  Meeanee,  1843 
Napier,  lord  ;  China  ;  Edinburgh  ; 

United  States,  1856 
Napier,  Mr.  ;  coin,  1844 
Napoleon  Jerome  ;  p.  318  n. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  1769-1821, 
p.  318  ;  confederation,  legion 
of  honour,  models,  notables, 
Cairo,  Egypt,  Elba,  Fontaine- 
bleau,  Malta,  Mamelukes,  St. 
Helena,  Simplon,  vaccination; 
his  battles  :  Acre,  Arcola,  As- 
perne,  Auerstadt,  Austerlitz, 
Bautzen,  Borodino,  Castig- 
lione,  Charleroi,  Dresden, 
Eckmiihl,  Essling,  Eylau, 
Friedland,  Hanau,  Italy,  Jena, 
La  Rothiere,  Leipsic,  Ligny, 
Lodi,  Lutzen,  Marengo,  Mou- 
tereau,  National  guard,  Pul- 
tusk,  St.  Dizier,  Simplon, 
Tilsit,  Troyes,  Vienna,  Water- 
loo, Wurtzburg 

Napoleon,  king  of  Rome  ;  p.  319 
Napoleon  III.,   6.    1808;    p.   318; 
Boulogne,     Strasburg,    Cher- 
bourg, Italy,  Magenta,  Solf  eriiio 
Narses  ;  East,  empire,  552  :  Goths 

Italy,  Rome 

Narvaez,  gen,  ;  Spain,  1846  ' 
N,.sh,  Mr.  ;  theatres,  parks,  1818 
Nasmyth,  J. ;  steam  hammer,  1838 
Nasmyth,  lieut  ;  Silistria,  1854 
Nasr-ul-Uin.  ;  Persia,   1848 
Nearchus  :  sugar,  325  B.C. 
Nebuchadnezzar;  Jews,  605  B.C. 

Tyre,  Babylon 
Necho  ;  Egypt,  634  B.C. 
Neil,  col.  ;  India,  1857.  Allahabad, 

Benares 

Neilson,   J.  ;  1792-1865  ;   blowing- 
machine,  1828 
Nelson,    Horat.  ;      admiral    lord, 

1758-1805  ;  Nelson 
Nero ;  Rome,  emperor,  54 
Nesselrode,  comte  de,  1770-1862 
Newcastle,  marquess  of  ;  Marston- 

moor,  1644 

Newcastle,  duke  of  ;  Pelham  adm 
1749;    Newcastle  adm.    1754; 
Aberdeen  adm.  1852 
Newenham,  W,  B.  ;  trials,  1844 
Newman,   rev.   J.,   and    Achilli 

trials,  1852  ;  Tractarians 
Newport,   sir    John ;    exchequer, 

l834 

Newton,  sir  Isaac,  1642-1727  :  air  ; 
binomial ;  coin  ;  diamond  ; 
astronomy ;  royal  society  ; 
hydrostatics  ;  gravitation  ; 
mechanics 

Ney,  marshal,  1769-1815 ;  Den- 
newitz,  France,  Quatre-Bras, 
Ulm,  Ney 

Neyle,  archp.  ;  York,  1632 
Niccoli,   Nicholas;  libraries,  1436 


Sicephori,  emperors ;  east,  empire, 

802-963 
S'icephorus ;  comets 
Nicholas  ;  Russia,   1825-55 
Nicholas,   V.,   pope,   1447-55  ;    St. 

Peter's,  Rome 
STichols,  col.  ;  New  York,  1664 
Nicholson  ;  trials,  1813 
Siebuhr,  B.  H.  ;  hist.",  1776-1821 
Nlepce  ;  photography,  1814 
^iger,  P.;  Rome,  emp  ,  killed,  194 
Nightingale,  F.,  b.  1820;  Scutari, 

Nightingale 
Ninus  ;  Assyria,  2059  B.C. 
tfisbet,  sir  John  ;  advocates,  1685 
Noad,  H.  M.  ;  electricity,  1855 
Noah,  2347  B.C.  ;  ark,  Armenia 
Noailles,      marshal ;      Dettingen, 

Norfolk,   Thomas,   duke    of ;    ad- 
ministrations, 1540;  people 
Norman,  sir  J.  ;  mayor,  1453         * 
Norman   Robert ;  magnet,  1576 
Normanbyand  Buckingham,  duke 

of;  Godolphin  adrn.  1702 
Norman  by,  marquess  of ;  Ireland 

(lord  lieut.)  1835 
North,  bishop  ;  Winchester,  1781 
North,  lord;  North  adm.  1770 
North,    sir    F.  ;    king's    counsel, 

1663 

Northampton,  Henry,  earl  of ;  ad- 
ministrations, 1609 
Northumberland,  Algernon,  duke 
of;  Derby  administration,  1852 
Northumberland,    Dudley,     duke 

of;  administrations,  1551 
Northumberland,  Hugh,  duke  of; 

Ireland  (lord-lieut.),  1763 
Northumberland,  earl  of ;  coaches, 

Man 
Norton,    sir   Fletcher;    att.-gen., 

1763 

Norton,  Jeffrey  de  ;  rec-order,  1298 
Norton  v.  lord  Melbourne ;  trials, 

1836 

Nostradamus  ;  almanacs,  1566 
Nott,  gen.  ;  Ghiznee,  1842 
Nottingham,  earl  of  ;  administra- 
tions, 1684 
Numa  Pompilius  ;  Rome,    kings, 

715  B.C.  ;  calendar 
Numitor;  Alba,  795  B.C. 
Nuuez,  A.  ;  Paraguay,  1535 


O. 

Oakley,  sir  Charles ;  Madras,  1792 
Gates,  T. ;  Gates'  plot,  1678 
Obadiah  prophesies  about  587  B.C. 
O'Brien,  king  ;  Limerick,  1200 
O'Brien,  W.  S.  ;  Ireland,  1846,  1848 
O'Connell,  Mr.  Daniel,  1775-1847  ; 
duel,    1815  ;    agitators,    duel, 
emancipation,    repeal,    trials 
(1831,  1844),  Ireland 
O'Connell,  Mr.  Morgan ;  duel,  1835 
O'Connor,   Arthur ;    press,    riots, 

trials,  1798 

O'Connor,   Fergus,  <1.  1855  ;  char- 
tists 

O'Connor,  Roger;  trials,  1817 
Ochus;  Persia,  3596.0. 
Octavius  ;  Rome.  37  B.C. 
Odin  ;  Sweden,  70  B.C. 
Odo,  earl  of  Kent ;  treasurer 
Odo,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  941-58 
Odoacer  ;  Italy,  476,  Heruli 
O'Donnell,  gen.;  Spain,  1841 
OZdipus;  Bceotia,  1266-766.0. 
GSnotrus;  Arcadia,  Groece,  1710 B.C 


Oersted,    H.   C.,    1777-1851;    elec- 
tricity, 1819 

Ogle,  George;  duel,  1802 
Oglethorpe,  gen.  ;  Georgia,  1732 
O'Grady,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1803 
Ogyges  ;  deluge,  17643.0. 
O'Halloran,  Dr.  ;  trials,  1818 
O'Keefe;  trials,  1825 
Olbers,  M.  ;  planet,  1802 
Oldcastle,  sir  John  ;  burnt,  1418 
Oliphant,  sir  Wm.  ;  advocate 
Olivarez  governs  Spain,  1621-43 
Oliver,  L.  ;  trials,  1858 
Ollendorff,  H.  G.  ;  linguist,  1803-65 
Ollivant,  bp.  ;  Llandaff,  1849 
O'Loghlen,  sir  M.  ;  Roman  catho- 
lics. 1836 
Omai ;  Otaheite 

Omar,  caliph,  634  ;  Alexandria,  All 
Omar  Pacha  ;  Citate,  Montenegro, 
Oltenitza,       Ingour,      Russo- 
Turki.-h  war,  1855 
Ommaney,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1850 
O'Moore,  Rory ;  Carlow,  1577 
O'Neil,  rebellion ;  massacre,  Black- 
water,  1598 
O'Neil,   Miss ;   appears  at  Covent 

Garden,  1814 
Opie,  John;  painter,  1761-1807 
Oppian,  poet,/.  171 
Onsluw,   sir   R.  ;    Halifax    adm., 

1714 

Orange,  William,  prince  of ;  Hol- 
land,   Maastricht,   revolution, 
1572  ;  England,  1689 
Orange,  prince   of;    Quatre-Bras, 

1815 

Orbelliana;  Circassia,  1857 
Orellana ;  Amazonia,  1540 
Orestes ;  My  cense,  Sparta,  1175 

B.C. 

Orfila,  M.  J.  ;  phys'c,  1783-1853 
Orford,  earl  of;  admiralty,  1709 
Orloff,  count;  diamonds,  1772 
Ormond,  James,  duke  of  ;  Ireland, 

Ormond,  earl  of;  combat,  1446 
Ormond,   marq.  of  ;    Rathmin.es, 

1649 

Orr,  Win.  ;  trials,  1797 
Orrery,  eari  of ;  Orrery 
Ortega,  gen.  ;  Spain,  1860 
Osborn,  Sherard  ;  Franklin,  1854 
Osborne,    sir  Thos.  ;    administra- 
tions, 1672 

Oscar;  Sweden,  1844 
Osgodeby,  Adam   de ;  master  of 

the  rolls,  1295 

Ospina  ;  New  Grenada,  1857 
Ossory, lord  ;  tea,  1666 
Osymandyas;    Egypt,   2100    B.C  ; 

observatories,  painting 
Othman;  Turkey,  1298 
Otho;  Rome,  emp.,  69;  Germany, 

936;  Greece,  1832-62 
Otto,  M.  ;  Amiens,  1802 
Ottocar;  Bohemia,  1197 
Oudinot,  marshal ;  Rome,  1849 
Outram,  sir  James  ;  1805  63  ;  Mo- 

hammerah,  India,  1857 
Overbury,  sir  T.,  poisoned,  1613 
Ovid  ;  poet,  d.  18 
Owen,  W   D.  ;  trials,  1858 
Owen,  Robert;  socialists,  1834 
Owen,  Richard,  b.  1804 ;   odonto- 

graphy,  paleontology,  zoology 
Oxenden,  sir  George  ;  Surat,  1664 
Oxford,  Edward  ;  trials,  1840 
Oxford,  earl  of;  Godolphin  adm., 

1702  ;  Oxford  ad  in. 
Oxford,   John,   earl  or';    yeomen, 

1486 


INDEX. 


823 


p. 

Paciolo ;  algebra,  1494 

Paddon,  lieut.  ;  tatces  Cerbere 
1800 

Paget,  lord  ;  duel,  trials,  1809 

Paget,  lord  Wm.,  v.  Cardigan, 
trials,  1844 

Paget,  sir  A.  ;  trials,  1808 

Paget,  sir  William ;  administra- 
tions, 1547 


Paine,  Thomas  ;  trials,  1792 
;  adm 

1858 


Pakington,  sir  John  ;  admiralty, 


Palafox,  gen.  ;  Saragossa,  1809 
Palamedes ;    alphabet,    backgam- 
mon, battle,  dice,  chess,    680 
B.C. 

Palestrina;  1529-94,  music 
Palludio,  A.  ;  architect,  1518-80 
Palliser,  sir  Hugh  ;  Ushant,  1778 
Palm,  the  bookseller ;  trials,  1806 
Palma,  cardin  il,  shot ;  Rome,  1848 
Palmer,  J.  ;  mail  coaches,  1784 
Palmer;  duel,  1815  ;  trials.  1856 
Palmerston,    Henry,   vise.  ;    1784- 

1865 ;  Palmerston 
Panizzi,  A.  ;  British  Museum,  1859 
Panmure,     lord ;    Russel!     adm., 

1851 

Paoli,  Pascal ;  Corsica,  1753 
Papachin,  adm.  ;  flag-,  1688 
Papin  ;  steam-engine,  1681 
Papineau  ;  Canada,  1837 
Papirius  Cursor  ;  sun-dial,  2938.0. 
Paracelsus;  d.  1541;  alchemy 
Parini,  Guis.  ;  poet,  1729-99 
Paris,  count  of ;  b.  1838;  Orleans 
Park,  Mungo  ;  d,  1805  ;  Africa 
Parker,  adm.  ;  Copenhagen,  1801 
Parker,    abp.    Matthew  ;    Canter- 
bury,    1558  ;     liturgy,    Nag's 
Head 

Parker  (mutineer)  ;  trials,  1797 
Parner,  capt.  ;  Boulogne 
Parker,  sir  Peter  ;  Bellair,  1814 
Parker,  Thomas,  lord  ;  chancellor, 

lord,  1718 

Parkes,  consul;  China,  1860 
Parma,  duke  of;  Yvres,  1590 
Parma,  prince  of;  Antwerp,  1585 
Parmenio  ;  Macedonia,  329  B.C. 
Parnell,    sir  Henry  ;     Melbourne 

adm.  1835 

Parr,  Thomas  ;  1483-1635  ;  longe- 
vity 

Parrha>-ius  ;  painting,^.  397  B.C. 
Parry.    E.  ;    north-west    passage, 

1818 

Parsons,  bp.  ;  Peterborough,  1813 
Parsons  family  ;  Cock-lane  ghost, 

impostors,  1762 

Pascal,    B.  ;     1623-62 ;    air,   calcu- 
lating machine,  barometers 
Paskiewitch  ;  Silistria,  1854 
Pasteur,  M.  ;  fermentation,  1861 
Patch,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1806 
Pate,  lieut.  ;  trials,  1850 
Paterculus  ;  d.  31 
Paterson,  W.  ;  bank,  1694  ;  Darien 
Paton,  Miss  ;  at  Haymarket,  1822 
Patrick,    St.  ;    preaches,  433,  Ar- 
dagh,  Armagh,  Dublin,  isles, 
shamrock 

Paul,  St.  ;  martyred,  65;  popes 
Paul ;  see  Sarpi 
Paul  I.  ;  Russia,  1796 
Paul  II.  ;  pope,  1464;  purple 
Paul,    sir   J.,    &c.  ;    trials,  1855; 

fraudulent  trustees 
Paulinus ;  bells,  400 


Paull,  Mr. ;  duel,  1807 
Paululio,  Anafesto  ;  doge,  697 
Paulus  ^Kmilius  ;  Cannai,  216  B.C. 
Paulus,  Marcus  ;  compass,  1260 
Paulus;  Abrahamites 
Pausanias;  Sparta,  480  B.C.  ;  Pla- 

teie,  Macedon,  3368.0. 
Pausias,   of  Sicyon,  360-330  B.C.  ; 

painting 

Paxton,  sir  Joseph;  1803-65  ;  ex- 
hibition of  1851  ;  crystal 
palace 

Payne,  Mr.  G.  ;  duel,  1810 
Peabody,  G.,  6.  1795  ;  London,  1862 
Peace,  the  prince  of ;  Spain,  1806 
Pearce,  &c. :  gold  robbery,  1857 
Peckham,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  i->7g 
Pedro  (Peter);   Portugal,   Brazil, 

1822 

Peel,  captain  sir  F.  ;  India,  1858 
Peel,  col.  ;  West  Australia,  1828 
Peel,  sir  Robert ;  178-81855  ;  Peel 
adm.  (nee  note),  1834-1841  ;  acts 
of    parliament,    conservative, 
corn  bill,  duel,  1815  J  income- 
tax,  tariff 

Peele,  James  ;  book-keeping,  1569 
Pelham,    H.  ;    Wilmington    adm. 

1742  ;  Pelham  adm.,  1744 
Pelham,  bp.  ;  Bristol,  1807;  Nor- 
wich, 1857 

Pelham,  sir  W.  ;  engineers,  1622 
Pelissier,  due  de  Malakhoff;  1784 

1854;  Algiers,  Dabra 
Pelletier  ;  quinine,  1820 
Pellew,  sir  Ed.;  naval  battles,  179= 
Pelouze,  F.  J.,  b.  1807,  formic  acid 
Peltier,  M.  ;  libel,  trials,  1803 
Pemberton,    sir    Francis  ;  king's 

bench,  1681 

Pembroke,    earl     of ;    Godolphin 
adm.    1702  ;  lord    lieutenant  ; 
Lincoln ;  protectorates;  Salis- 
bury ;  admiralty 
Pengelly,  W. ;  man 
Penn,  admiral ;  Jamaica,  1655 
Penn,  Wm. ;  d.  1718  ;  Pennsylva- 
nia, Quaker 

Penny,  captain  ;  Franklin,  1850 
Pe"pe,  gen.  F.  ;  Naples,  1820. 
Pepin ;  France,  752  ;  Ferrara 
Pepys,  bp.  ;  Worcester,  1841 
Perceval,  Spencer;  m.  1812  ;  Per- 
ceval 

Percy  (Hotspur) ;  Otterburn,  1388 
Percy,  lord  ;  Durham,  1346  ;  Ho- 

melden 

Perdiccas  ;  Macedon,  454  B.C. 
Perdita,  Mrs.  Robinson ;  theatres, 

1779 

Pereire,  M.  ;  credit  mobilier,  1852 
Pereyra  ;  Uruguay,  1856 
Pericles  ;  Athens,  469  B.C. 
Perillus  ;  brazen  bull,  570  B.C. 
Perkin  Warbeck  ;  Warbeck,  1492 
Perkin,  W.  H.  ;  aniline,  1857 
Perkins  ;  engraving ;  copper-plate 

printing,  1819 

Derreaus  ;  forgery  ;  trials,  1776 
Perreira  ;  deaf  and  dumb 
'erring,  John  ;  mayor,  1803 
Perry,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1810 
Perry,  lieut.  ;  trials,  1854 
Perseus  ;  Pydna,  168  B.C. 
Persigny,  J.  G.,  b.  1808     France, 
1860 


Persius,  34-65  ;  satires 

ugino,  Paolo,  1446-1524 
Peter  the  Cruel  ;  Montiel,  1369 


Perugi 


Peter  the  Great  ;  1672-1725;  Russia, 
Deptford,  Petersburg,  Narva, 
Pultowa 


Peter  the  Hermit ;  crusades,  1094 
Peters,  C   H. ;  planets,  1862 
Pdtion ;  Port-au-Prince,  1806 
Peto,  S.  M.,  1809  ;  diorama,  1855 
Petrarch,  1304-74  ;  Petrarch,  son- 
nets 

Petre,  sir  Win.  ;  administrns,  1547 
Petronius  ;  Ethiopia,  22  B.C. 
Petronius  Arbiter,  </.  66 
Pettigrew,  T.  ;  epitaphs,  1857 
Petty,  lord  H. ;    Grenville  adm., 

1807 

Petty,  Wm. ;  Royal  Society,  x66o 
Pezet,  J.  A.  ;  Peru,  1863-5 
Phalaris;  brazen  bull,  599  B.C. 
Pharamond  ;  France,  418? 
Pharaohs  ;  Egypt,  1899  B  c. 
Pharnaces  ;   Pontus,   Cappadocia, 

744  B.C. 

Phredrus  writes  fables,  8 
Pheidon,  Jl.    869    B.C.  ;     coinage, 

silver,  scales,  weights 
Phelps,    Mr. ;     theatres,   Sadler's 

Wells,  ,844 

Phepoe,  Mrs.  ;  trials,  1797 
Phidias,./?.  438  B.C.,  statues 
Philip,     D.  ;    France,     Macedon, 

Spain,  Hesse,  Orleans,  1640 
Philip,  St.,  Neri;  oratorios,  1550 
Philip  the  Good  ;  Burgundy,  Hol- 
land, 1419-67 

Philip  the  Great,  killed  336  B.C.  ; 
Macedon,   yEtolia,  Chaeronaea, 
Locri,  338  B.C. 
Philip  II.  ;  Spain,  15^6 
Philippa,  queen  (Edward.  III.); 

Durham,  1346 

Philipps,  T.  ;  Newport,  1839 
Phillip,  gov.  ;  Australia,  1788 
Phillips,  J.  T.,  Brit.  Assoc.    1831  ; 

fire  annihilator,  1849 
Philopcemen  ;  Achaia,  194  B.C. 
Philpott,  bp.  ;  Worcester,  1861 
Phipps,  capt. ;  north-west  passage, 

1773 

Phocas  ;  east.  emp. ,  602 
Phocion  ;  killed,  317  B.C. 
Phoroneus  ;  Argos  (1807  B.C.),  sa- 
crifice, laws 

Photius  Gallus;  rhetoric,  87  B.C. 
Piastus  ;  Poland,  842 
Piazzi,  M.  ;  planet,  1801 
Pichegru  ;  Manheim  ;  killed,  1805 
Pickard,  sirH.  ;  lord  mayor,  1357 
Picton,  gen.   trials,  1806  ;  Quatre- 

Bras,  Waterloo,  1815 
Pierce  ;  United  States,  president, 

1853 

Piers,  abp.  ;  York,  1589 
Pigot,  David  Richard  ;  exchequer, 

1846 
Pigot,  Id.  ;  India,  Pigot  diamond, 

1802 

Pigot,  major-gen. ;  Malta,  1800 
Pike,  Miss  ;  Cork,  trials,  1800 
Pilkington,  bishop ;  liturgy 
Pilpay  ;  fables 
Pindar,   522-439    B.C.— Peter   (Dr. 

Wolcot) ;  trials,  1807 
Pinel,  M.  ;  lumtics,  1792 
Pinzon  ;  America  S.,  1500,  Peni, 

if  63 

Pisander;  naval  battles,  394  B.C. 
Pisistratus;  Athens,  527  B.C. 
Pitman,  I.  ;  phonography,  1837 
Pitt ;  diamond,  1720 
Pitt,  Wm.  ;  see  Chatham,  earl 
Pitt,  Wm. ;  1759-1806;  Pitt  admi- 
nistration,   1783;  India  com- 
pany, E.,  reform,  duel,  1798 
Pius  ;  popes,  142  et  seq. 
Pius  IV.  ;  confession,  1504 


824 


INDEX. 


Pius  VII.  ;  concordat,  1801 
Pius  IX.  ;   pope,  1846 ;  papal  ag- 
gression, conception 
Pizarro  ;  America,  1524 
Plato,    429-347    B.C.  ;    academies, 
anatomy,    antipodes,    names, 
Sicily 

Platts,  John  ;  executions,  1847 
Plautus,  b.  184  B.C.  ;  drama 
Pliny,   the    elder,   24-79 !    pearls, 
Vesuvius  ;  the  younger,  d.  100 
Plumer,   sir    Thomas;    att.-gen., 

1812 

Plummer,  Eugenia;  trials,  1860 
Plunket,    lord ;    lord    chancellor 

(Ireland),  1830 
Plutarch,  fl.  80  ;  biography 
Pocock,  admiral ;  Cuba,  1762 
Poerio,  C.  ;  Naples,  1850-59-60 
Pogson,  N.  ;  planets,  1856 
Poictiers,   Roger  de  ;    Liverpool, 

1089 

Poitevin,  M.  ;  balloons,  1852-58 
Pole,    Wellesley ;     mint  ;    trials, 

1825 

Pole,  abp,  ;  Canterbury,  1556 
Polignac,  prince  de  ;  France  ;  1830 
Polk,  Jas  ;   United  States,  presi- 
dent, 1845 

Pollio,  C.  ;  slavery,  42  B.C. 
Pollock,  gen.  G.  ;  India,  1842 
Pollock,  sir  Frederick  ;  attorney- 
general,  exchequer,  1834-1844 
Polo,  Marco,  writes  about  1298 
Polybius,   207-122    B.C.  ;    signals, 

telegraphs,  Achaia,  physic 
Polycarp  martyred,  166 
Polydorus  :  Laocoon 
Pomare  ;  Otaheite,  1799 
Pompey,   killed  48    B  c.  ;    Rome, 

Spain,  Pharsalia 
Pond,  J.  ;  Greenwich,  1811 
Pontius,  C.  ;    Claudine  forks,  321 

B.C. 
Poole,  A.  ;    auricular   confession, 

1858 

Pope,    Alex.,    1688-1744 ;    alexan- 
drine verse,  satire,  Homer,  1 714 
Pope,  gen.   J.  ;  Manassas,  United 

States,  1862 
Popham,sir  Home  ;  Buenos  Ayres, 

Cape,  trials,  1807 
Poppsea  (wife  of  Nero) ;  masks 
Porsenna ;  labyrinth,  520  B.C. 
Porson,  prof.,  1759-1808;  writing 
Porter,  sir  Charles  ;  Limerick 
Porteus,  bp.  ;  London,  1787 
Portland,  duke  of,  Portland  adm. , 
1783 ;    Ireland    (lord    lieute- 
nant ;  Junius 
Portman,  sir  Wm.  ;  king's  bench, 

1554 

Portsmouth,  earl  of  ;  trials,  1823 
Posidonius/.  86  B.C.  ;  atmosphere, 

moon,  tides,  air 
Potamon  ;  eclectics,  about  i 
Potter,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1737 
Pottinger,  sir  H.  ;  China,  1841 
Pouchet,    M. ;    spoilt,  generation, 

i8.59 

Poussin,  N.,  painter,  1594-1665 
Powell,   Langharne,    and    Poyer, 

colonels  ;  Wales,  1647 
Power,  Mr.  ;  wrecks,  1841 
Power, Mrs.,  Mary  ;  longevity,  1853 
Powys,  bishop  ;  Man,   1854 
Poyer,  colonel ;  Wales,  1647 
Praslin  murder,  1847 
Praxiteles,/.  363  B.C.  ;  mirrors 
Premislaus  ;  Poland,  1295 
Prescott,  Wm.  ;  1796-1859 
Preston,  lord;  conspiracy,  1691 


Pretender,  old,  1688-1765  ;  young, 
1720-88;    Pretender,   Falkirk, 
Prestonpans,  Culloden 
Pretsch,  P. ;  photo-galvanography, 

1854 
Prevost,  sir  George  ;  Plattsburg, 

1814 

Priam  ;  Ilium,  Troy,  1224  B.C. 
Price,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1816  ;  alchemy 
Price,  adrn.  ;  Petropaulovski,  1854 
Prichard,  Dr.  ;  ethnology,  1841-7 
Priessnitz,  V. ;  hydropathy,  1828 
Priestley,  Joseph,  1733-1804  ;  earth- 
quakes,  eudiometer,    nitrous 
gas,  oxygen,  fluorine 
Pride,  col.  ;  Pride's  purge,  1648 
Prim,  gen.  Juan,   6.   1814  ;  Castel- 
lejos,  Guad-el-ras,  1860,  Spain 
Prior,  M.  ;  poet;  1664-1721 
Prince,  H.  J.  ;  agapemonians 
Priscillian  ;  gnostics,  384 
Pritchard,  Dr.   E.  W.  ;  trials,  exe- 
cution, 1865 
Probert ;  trials,  1824 
Probus,  Rome,  emp.  276 ;  massacre 
Procles  ;  biarch,  1102  B.C. 
Proper  this;  poet,  26  B.C. 
Proudhon,  P.  de.  ;   socialist,  1809- 

65 

Prynne,  W.  ;  lawyer,  1600-70 
Psammetichus,   650   B.C.  ;  Egypt, 

labyrinth,  languages,  sieges 
Pseusennes,  971  B.C.  ;  Egypt 
Ptolemy  (astronomer),  d.  161 
Ptolemy ;    Egypt,   Bible,   Septua- 
gint,  Ipsus,   pharos,  arithme- 
tic, academies 
Ptolemy,    Epiphanes,    205    B.C.  ; 

Egypt,  Rosetta 
Puckering,  sir  John;  chancellor, 

lord  high,  1592 

Pugin,  A.  W.,  1811-52  ,  decorat.art 
Pullen,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1852 
Pulteney,  Mr.  ;  Halifax  adm.,  1714 
Pulteney  sir  James  ;  Ferrol,  1800 
Pnrcell,  Henry;  music,  1658-95 
Purchas,  Sam.  ;  1577-1628 
Purdon,  col.  ;  Ashantees,  1826 
Purefoy  ;  duel,  1788  ;  trials,  1794 
Pusey,  Dr.  E.,  b.  1860;  Puseyism 
Pye,  Hen.  J.  ;  poet-laureate,  1790 
Pym,  J.  ;  politician,  d.  1643 
Pyrrho;  sceptics,  3346.0. 
Pyrrhus,  281  B.C.  ;  Macedon,  Epi- 

rus,  Tarentum,  Ascutum 
Pythagoras,/.  555  B.C.  ;  acoustics, 
astronomy,  Copernicus,  Egypt, 
the  globe,  harmonic   strings, 
shoes,  solar  system,  spheres 


Quekett,  prof.  ;  histology,  1857 
Quentin,  col.  ;  duel,  1815  ;  trials, 

1814 

Quevedo,  Span,  writer,  1570-1647 
Quintilia  ;  Quintilians 
Quintin ;  libertines,  525 
Quintus  Fabius,  291  B.C.  ;  painting 
Quiros ;  New  Hebrides,  1606 


R. 

Rabelais,  F.,  satirist,  1483-1553 
Rachel,  mademoiselle,  d.  1858 
Racine,  J.  ;  dramat.,  1639-90 
Radcliffe,     Dr.    John;     Ra'dcliffe 

library,  1737 

Radetzky,  marshal,  d.  1858  ;  Aus- 
tria, Novara,  Italy,  1848 


Radnor,  earl  of;  administrations, 

1684 

Rae,  Dr.  ;  Franklin,  1848 
Raglan,  lord ;  Russo-Turkish  war, 

1857 

Ragotski  ;  Transylvania 
Raikes,  Mr.,  1781  :  Sunday-schools, 

education,  infanticide 
Raleigh,    sir    Walter,    1552-1618  ; 

dress,  Pennsylvania, Trinidad, 

Virginia,  England 
Ramirez  II.  ;  Semincas,  B.C.  938 
Rameses;  Egypt,  1618 
Ramsay,  David  ;  combat,  1631 
Ramsay,  sir  George  ;  duel,  1790 
Ranee;  Trappist,  1662 
Randolph,  T.  ;  post-office,  1581 
Randolph,  bp. ;  Bangor,  London, 

1809 

Raphael,  1483-1520 ;  cartoons 
Raphael,  A] ex.  ;  Roman  Catholics, 

Rarey,  J.  S.  ;  horse,  1858 
Ratazzi,   U.,  b.   1808;  Italy,  1862 
Rauch,  C.  ;  sculptor,  1777-1857 
Ravaillac  kills  Henry  IV.,  1610 
Rawdon,  lord  ;  Camden,  1781 
Rawlinson,col.  sir  H. ,  b.  1810  ;  As. 
syria,  Babylcn,  Behistun,  1844 
Ray,  John,  1628-1705 
Rayhere  ;  Bartholemew's,  noo 
Raymond,  lord;  attorney  -general, 

1725  ;  king's  bench 
Reaumur,  d.   1757  ;  light 
Reay,  Miss,  killed ;  trials,  1779 
Reay,  lord;  combat,  1631 
Rebeccaites ;  trials,  1843 
Redanies,  D.  ;  execution,  1857 
Redesdale,  lord  ;  att.-geu.,  1800 
Redpath,  L.  ;  trials,  1857 
Reece,  R.  ;  bogs,  1849 
Reed,  Andrew,  1787-1862  ;  orphan, 

idiots,  incurables 
Reeves,  Mr.  John  ;  levellers,  1792 
Regnier,   gen.  ;   Kalitsch,   Maida, 

Ximera,  18  n 

Regulus,  250  B.C.  ;  Carthage 
Reich,    F.,   and  Richter,   T.,   in- 
dium, 1863 
Reich enbach,  C.  ;  b.    1788  ;  paraf- 

fme,  1831;  odyl 
Reicfienstein ;  tellurium,  1782 
Reichstadt,duke  de  ;  France,  p.  319 
Reid,  gen.  ;  India,  1857 
Reinbauer  ;  trials,  1829 
Rembrandt ;  painter,  1606-74 
Remigius  de   Fescamp;   Lincoln, 

1086 

Remy,  St.  ;  Rheims 
Renata,  Maria  ;  witchcraft,  1749 
Renaudot,  M.  ;  newspapers,  1631 
Rennie,  J.  (1761-1821),  and  sir  J.  ; 
breakwater,    1812  ;    Waterloo- 
bridge,  London -bridge 
Reschid,  Pacha ;  Turkey,  1853 
Reuchlin,  J.,  reformer,  d.  1522 
Reuss  ;  engraving 
Raynere,  Richard;  sheriff,  1189 
Reynolds,      sir     Joshua ;      royal 

academy,  1768 

Reynolds,  sir  Joshua,  1723-92 
Reynolds,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1313 
Reynolds,  capt ;  trials,  1840 
Reynolds,  George  ;  duel,  1788 
Riall,  gen.  ;  Chippawa,  1814 
Ricasoli.  B.,  b.  abt.  1803  ;  Italy,i86i 
Rice,    Spring    (lord    Monteagle) ; 

administrations,  1834 
Rich,   Richard,  lord;   chancellor, 

lord,  1547 

Richard  I. ,  England,    1189;    Acre, 
Ascalon,  Coeur  de  Lion,   Diou 


INDEX. 


825 


et  mon  droit,   laws,   Oleron, 
navigation  laws 
JRichard  III.,  1485  ;    Bosworth 
Richardson,  sir  John  ;  naturalist, 

1783-1865,  Franklin 
Richardson,   H.,    1852  ;   life-boat ; 

Sam.,  1689-1761 
Richelieu,  duke  of  ;  Closterseven, 

1757 

Richmond,  duke  of ;  Rockingham 
administration,      1782,     Azc.  ; 
Ireland,  duel 
Richter,  J.  Paul,  Ger.  novel.,  1763- 

1825 
Ridel,  Stephen,  1189  ;  chancellor, 

lord,  Ireland 

Rider,  William  ;  silk  hose 
Ridley,  bp.,  burnt,  1554 
Riego  put  to  death,  1823  ;  Spain 
Rieiizi,  N.,  ra.  1354 ;  tribune,  Rome 
Riguet,  M.  ;  tunnels 
Rinuccini,  Octavio,  b.  1621  ;  opera 
Ripon,   earl  of ;    Goderich    admi- 
nistration, 1827 

Rivers,  earl,  m.  1483  ;  Pomfret 
Rizzio,  David,  m.  1566 ;  Scotland, 

France,  Naples 
Robert,      duke      of     Normandy ; 

Tinchebray,  1106 
Robert  II.  ;  pilgrimages,  1060 
Roberts,  D.,  R.A.,  d.  1864 
Robertson,  capt.  ;  trials,  1862 
Robertson,  Dr.  \Vm.,  hist ,  1721-93 
Robespierre,     F.    M.  ;      reign    of 

terror,  France,  1793-4 
Robin    Hood;    robbers,    archery, 

1189 

Robinson,  F. ;  Goderich,  note 
Robinson,  James ;  ether,  1848 
Robinson,    R.,    1735-90;    indepen- 
dents 
Robinson,  sir  Thomas  ;  Newcastle 

administration,  1754 
Robinson,     of    York,    murdered ; 

trials,  1853 

Robson,  W.  ;  trials,  1856 
Rochambeau  ;  Yorktown,  1781 
Rochefoucauld,   F.  De  la,  philos., 

1613-80 

Rochester,   earl    of  ;    administra- 
tions, 1679 
Rockingham,  marq.  of;  Rocking- 

harn  administrations,  1765 
Roderick  ;  Spain,  709  ;  Wales,  843 
Rodney,  G.  ;  Eustatia,  1781 
Rodolph   of    Hapsburg;    Austria, 

1278 
Rodolph    of    Nuremberg ;    Wire, 

1410 
Roebuck,  J.  ;  duel,  1835 ;   Sebas- 

topol 

Roger;  Sicily,  Naples,  1130 
Rogers,  John,  burnt,  1555 
Rogers,  Sam.,  poet,  1763-1855 
Roggewein ;  circumnavigator,  Eas- 
ter Island,  1722 
Rohun,    card.  ;    diamond   neckl., 

1786 

Rollin,  Chas.,hist.,  1661-1741 
Romain,  M.  ;  balloons,  k.  1785 
lloniilly,  sir  Samuel ;  criminal  law, 

suicide,  1818 
Romilly,  sir  J.  ;  solicitor-general, 

master  of  the  rolls,  1851 
Romney,  Geo.,  painter,  1734-1802 
Romulus;    Rome,   753     B.C.  ;    ca- 
lendar, Alba,  aruspices 
Romulus     Augustulus ;     western 

empire,  475 
Ronalds,    F.  ;    electric  telegraph, 

1823 
Ronge,  J.  ;  kinder-garten,  1851 


Rooke,     sir    George ;     Gibraltar, 
1704;  snuff,  Alderney,  Cadiz, 
Cape    la    Hogue,     Cape     St. 
Vincent,  Vigo 
Roper,  colonel;  duel,  1788 
Rosas  ;  Buenos  Ayres,  1852 
Roscoe,  W.,  hist.,  1753-1831 
Rose,  sir  Hugh  ;  India,  1858 
lloseberry,  countess  of  ;  trials,  1814 
Rosencrans,  gen.,  Unit.  8.,  1862 
Ross,  sir  J.  ;  Franklin,  north-west 

passage,  1848 

Ross,  colonel ;  duelling,  1817 
Ross,  gen.  ;   Baltimore,  Washing- 
ton, 1814 
Rosse,   earl  of;  telescopes,   1828; 

Royal  Society,  1848 
Rosser,    Mr.,    and    Miss    Darbon ; 

trials,  1841 

Rossi,  count,  m.  1848;  Rome 
Rossini,  G. ,  mus.  comp.,  b.  1792 
Hostopchin  ;  Moscow,  1812 
Rothesay  ;  duke 
Rothschild,    Anselm     (the    first), 

d.  1812 

Rothschild,  baron  ;  Jews,  1849 
Roubiliac,  sculptor,  d.  1762 
Roupell,  W.,  M.P.  ;  trials,  1862 
Rousseau,  J.  J,,  philos.,  1712-1778 
Rowan,  A.  H.  ;  trials,  1794,  1805 
Rowe,  Nicholas ;  poet-laureate,  d. 

1715 
Rowley,    admiral     J.  ;    Bourbon, 

1810 

Roxana;  Macedon,  311  B.C. 
Roxburgh,    duke  of,    1812 ;    Boc- 
caccio 

Rozier,  M.  ;  balloons,  1783 
Rubens,  P.  P.,  painter,  1577  1640 
Rudbeck,  Ol.,  thoracic  duct 
Rudolph ;  Austria,  Germany 
Ruhmkorff's  induction  coil,  1851 
Runjeet  Singh  ;  Afghanistan,  1818; 

diamonds 

Rupert, prince,  1619-82  ;  engraving, 
Birmingham,   Edgehill,    Mctr- 
ston-moor,  Naseby,  Newark 
Ruric  ;  Russia,  862 
Rush,  Bloomneld,  the  murderer  ; 

trials,  1849 

Ruskin,  John,  art  critic,  b.  1819 
Russell,  C.  ;  suicide,  1856 
Russell,  colonel ;  guards,  1660 
Russell,  adm.  Edw.  ;    La  Hc^ue, 

1692 
Russell,  J.    Scott,  b.   1808;    fires, 

steam-navigation,  wave 
Russell,  lord  John,  b.  1792  ;   Rus- 
sell administration,  mite,  Aber- 
deen ;  reform 

Russell,  lord  W.,  m.  ;  trials,  1840 
Russell,  W.  H. ;  Times,  1854,  1857, 

1861 

Ruthven,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1836 
Rutland,  duke  of;    Ireland  (lord 

lieutenant),  1784 
Ruyter  ;  see  De  Ruyter 
Ryder,  bp.  ;  Gloucester,  1815 
Ryder,  sir  Dudley  ;  king's  bench, 
1754 


S. 


Sabatta,  Levi ;  1666 

Sabine,  gen.  Edw.  ;  Royal  Society, 

1861  ;  magnetism 
Sacheverel,     Dr.  ;      high    church 

party,  1709 
Sackville,   lord  George;    Minden, 

1759 

Sadleir,  J.;  suicide,  1856:  Dr.  ;  1858 
Sadler,  Mr.  ;  balloons,  1812 


Sadler,  Mr.  ;  Sadler's  Wells,  1683 
Sadler,  sir  Ralph;  administrations, 

Safford,  Mr.  ;  planets,  1862 

Sagarelli ;  Apostolici,  300 

St.     Arnaud,     marshal ;      Russo- 

Turkish  war,  Alma,  1854 
St.  Charo ;  concordance,  1247 
St.  Cyr,  marshal ;  Dresden,  1813 
St.  George,  Mr. ;  trials,  1798 
St.  John,  John  de;  treasurer,  1217 
St.  John  Long;  quack,  1830 
St.  John,  Henry,  afterwards  lord 
Bolingbroke ;    Oxford    admi- 
nistration, 1711 

St.  John,  O.  ;  benevolences,  1615 
St.  John,  William  ;  chancellor,  lord 

high,  1547 
St.    Leonards,    lord  ;    chancellor, 

lord  high,  1852 
St.  Mars,  M.  de  ;  iron  mask 
St.  Ruth,  general ;  Aughrim,  1691 
St.  Vincent,  earl ;  admiralty,  1801 ; 

Cape  St.  Vincent 

Saladin,    1136-1193;    Ascalon,  Da- 
mascus, Egypt,  Syria,  Aleppo 
Sale,  lady ;  Cabul,  India,  1842 
Sale,  sir  Robert;  Moodkee,  1845 
Salisbury,  bishop  of ;  assay 
Salisbury,    marquess    of ;    Derby 

administrations,  1852,  1858 
Salisbury,   Robert,  earl  of ;  admi- 
nistrations, 1603 
Salisbury,  countess  of  ;  garter 
Salisbury,  earl  of,  1604 ;   coronets, 

Orleans 

Salkcld;  Delhi,  1857 
Sallo,  Denis  de ;  critics,  reviews, 

1655 
Sallust,    d.    34  B.  c. ;    Mauritania, 

Catiline 

Salomons,  D.  ;  Jews,  1835;  mayor 
J^alt,  Titus  ;  alpaca,  1852 
Salvator  Rosa,  painter,  1615-1673 
Salvino    .  degli     Armato ;      spec- 
tacles 

Palviati,  Dr.,  mosaic,  1861 
Salvius  Julianus ;  edicts,  132 
Samuel  rules  Israel,  1140  B.C. 
Sanballat;  Samaritan,  332  B.C. 
Sancho,   king ;    Portugal,    Spain, 

97° 

Bancroft,  abp.  Canterbury,  1678; 
bishops,  England 

Smders,  will-forger;  trials,  1844 

Sandwich,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions, 1660 ;  naval  battles, 
Sulebay,  Aix-la-Chapelle 

Sandys ;  administrations,  1742, 1767 

Sandys,  abp.  E.  ;  York,  1577 

Sapor:  Persia,  240 

Sappho;  writes  611  B.C.  ;  Sapphic 

Sardanapalus  ;  Assyria,  820  B.C. 

Sarpi,  Paul,  1552-1622 ;  thermo- 
meter, blood 

Saul,  Jews,  1096  B.C.  ;  Ammonites 

Sauuiarez,  sir  James  ;  Algesiras, 
1801 

Saunters;  trials,  1853 

Saunders,  com.  ;  Franklin,  1849 

Saunders,  sir  Charles;  Chatham 
administration,  1766 

Saussure,  d.  1799;  hygrometer 

Savage,  John ;  Babington's  con- 
spiracy, 1586 

Savage,  abp.  ;  York,  1501 

Savage,  R.,  poet,  1700-43 

Savage,  W.  ;  printing  in  colours, 
1819-22 

Savary  ;  trials,  1825 
i  Savary,  capt.  ;  steam-engine,  1698 

Savonarola,  Jerome  ;  burnt,  1498 


826 


INDEX. 


Sri  ward,  J.  ;  trials,  1857 

Sawtre,     sir    William ;     burning 

alive,  1401  ;  Lollards 
Saxe,  count  ;  Fontenoy,  1745 
Saye  and  Sele,  lord     administra- 
tions, 1660 

Saye,  lord,  beheaded,  1450;  Cade 
Sayers,  T.  ;  boxing,  iJ6o 
Seanderbeo: ;  Albania,  1443 
Scanlan,  Mr. ;  trials,  1820 
Sshamyi ;  Circassia,  1859 
Scheele,  1742-86;  nitrogen, oxygen, 
prussic  acid,tartaric  acid,  pho- 
tography, glycerine,  chlorine 
cheffer,  Ary,  painter,  1795-1858 
Scheibler,  M.  ;  tonometer,  1834 
Scheiner,  Chr. ;  heliometer,  1625 
Scheutz  ;       calculating  -  machine, 

1857 

Schiaparelli :  planets,  1861 
Schilders,  general ;  Silistria,  1854 
Schiller,  F.,  poet,  &c.,  1759-1845 
Sclummelpenninck ;  Holland,  1805 
Sehlegel,  W.  ;  1767-1836;— F.,  1772- 

1829 

Schmidt ;  organs,  1682 
Schoeffer,  Peter ;  printing,  1452 
Schonbein,  M. ;  gun-cotton,   1840, 

ozone 
Schomberg,  capt. ;  naval  battles, 

1811 

Schomberg,  duke  of;  Boyne,  Ire- 
land,  Londonderry,    Carrick- 
fergus,  1689 
Schomburgk,  sir  R.;  Victoria  regia, 

1838 

Schroeder;  piano-forte,  1717 
Schrotter;  phosphorus,  1845 
Sehwaun  ;  cell  theory,  1839 
Schwartz,  C.  (missionary),  d.  1798 
Schwartz,  M.  ;  gunpowder,  1320 
Schwartzenberg,  prince  of ;  Dres- 
den, 1813 

Schwerin,  marshal;  Prague,  1757 

Scipio    Africanus ;     honour,    JSu- 

mantia,  Rome,  Zama,  202  B.C. 

Scott,    G.    Gilbert;    architect,    b. 

i  Sxi 

Scott,  gen.  Winfield,  b.  1786; 
Mexico,  1847,  United  States, 
1861-2 

Scott;  duelling,  1821,  1836 
Scott,  Walter,  1771-1832  ;  Waverley 
Scott,  Dred  ;  United  States,  1857 
Scribe,     E.,     dramatist,     d.     1861 

(at.  So) 

Scudamore,  lord ;  apples 
Seabury,  Samuel;  bishoprics,  1784 
Seaforth,  earl  of ;  thistle,  1687 
Seal,  J.  ;  trials,  1858 
Searle  ;  planets,  1858 
Sebacon  ;  Egypt,  737  B.C. 
Sebastiani,      marshal ;     Talavera, 

1809 

Sebert ;  Westminster  Abbey 
Seeker,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1758 
Sefton  v.  Hop  wood  ;  trials,  1855 
Sejanus,  d.  31 

Selden,  J.,  1584-1651  ;  seas,  poet- 
laureate 
Seleucus      Nicator ;      Seleucides, 

Syria,  omens,  Ipsus,  311  B.C. 
Selim;  Turkey,  Syria,  1512 
Selkirk,    Alexander;    Juan    Fer- 
nandez, 1705 

Sellis,  the  valet;  suicide,  1810 
Semiramis,   queen ;    Assyria,    eu- 
nuchs, 2007  B.C. 
Semple ;  trials,  1795,  1862 
Seneca,  put  to  death,  65  ;  Cordova 
Sennacherib  ;  Assyria,  710  B.C. 
Sennef elder ;  lithography,  1796 


Sergius ;  popes,  nativity,  690 ;  pu- 
rification, Koran 

Ser turner,  morphia,  1803 

Servetus,  Michael,  burnt,  1553; 
Unitarians,  Arians,  blood 

Servius    Tullius ;    coins,    census, 

566  B.C. 

Sesostris;  Egypt,  1618  B.C. 
Setalla ;  burning-glasses 
Severus,  Rome,  emp,  193  ;  Britain, 

Roman  walls,  Memphis,  202 
Sextus  Pompeius  ;  Mylae,  36  B.  c, 
Seymour,  sir  Edw.  ;  speaker,  1678 
Seymour,  sir  M.  ;  China,  1856 
Seymour  v.   Butterworth;   trials, 

1862 

Seymour,  Edward,  duke  of  Somer- 
set ;     administrations,    1547 ; 
protectors,  admiralty 
Seymour,  lord;  duel,  1835 
Seymour,  lady  ;  tournament,  183^ 
Shad  well,  Thomas;  poet-laureate, 

d.  1692 

Shaftesbury,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions, 1672  (present  earl,  6, 
1801) 

Shakapeare,  W.,  1564-1616;  Sbak- 
»peare,  drama,  mulberry-tree 
Shalmaneser ;  Assyria,  7308.0. 
Sharp,  A.  ;  circle  (squared),  1717 
Sharp,  archpb.  ;  Scotland,  1679 
Sharp,  Graiiville  ;  slavery,  1772 
Shaw,  sir  James  ;  mayor,  1805 
Shaw,  sir  John  ;  Greenock 
Sheares,  the  Messrs,  ;  trials,  1798 
Shedden  v.  Patrick  ;  trials.  1860 
Sheepshanks,      R.  ;      astronomy, 
standard,  1855  ;  Sheepshanks' 
donations,  1858 
Sheil,  R.  L.  ;  mint,  1846 
Shelburne,  earl  of ;  Shelburne  ad- 
ministration, 1782  ;  duel,  1780 
Sheldon,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1663 
Sheldon,  William ;  tapestry 
Shelley,  Percy  B.,  poet,  1792-1822 
Sheppard,  Jack  ;  execution,  1724 
Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley,  1751- 
1816 ;     Grenville    administra- 
tion, comedy,  theatres 
Sheridan,  Dr  ;  trials,  1811 
Sherman,    gen.  ;     United    States, 

1861 

Shillibeer;  omnibuses,  1829 
Shi|*!ey  ;  arts,  soc.  of;  1754 
Shirley,  bishop;  Man,  1846 
Short,   bishop;    Man,   St.  Asaph, 

1841 

Shovel,  sir  Cloudesley ;  Sicily,  1707 
Shrewsbury  peerage  cases,  trials, 

1858,  1859 

Shrewsbury,  duke  of ;  administra- 
tions, 1714 
Shrewsbury,  earl  of;  Patay,  1429  ; 

Castillon,  1453 
Sibour,  abp. ;  France,  1857 
Sicard,  abbe  ;  deaf  and  dumb,  1742 
Siddons,  Sarah  ;  retired,  1819 
Sidney,  sir  P.,  1554-86;  Algernon, 

1617-83  ;  Rye- house  plot 
Sidmouth,  Henry  Addington,  vis- 
count, d.  1844  ;  Addington  ad- 
minis' ration,  1800,  green  bag, 
speaker 
Sieyes,   abbe:    directory;  France, 

1799 

Sigismund ;  Germany,  Bohemia, 
Hungary,  Nicopolis,  Poland, 
Prussia 

Silius  Italicus,  poet,  d.  101 
Sillim,  Mr ;  trials,  1863 
Simeon  the  Stylite  ;  abstinence 
Simmons ;  trials,  1808 


Sirnnel,     Lambert ;    conspiracies, 

rebellion,  1846;  Stoke 
Simon  Magus  ;    Adrianists,  Simo- 

nians,  41 
Simonides ;    letters,    mnemonics, 

477  B.C. 

Simplicius,  St.;  collar  of  SS.,  1407 
Simpson,  Dr.  ;  chloroform,  1848 
Simpson,  the    traveller;    suicide> 

1840 

Sindercomb ;  conspiracy,  1756 
Sitsgh,  Runjoor ;  Aliwal,  1846 
Bismondi,  C,,  hist.,  1773  1842 
Sisyphus  ;  Corinth,  1326  B.C. 
Sixtus  ;  popes,  1 19 
Sixtus  V.,  pope;  interdict,  1588 
Skrznecki,   gen.  ;    Praga,    Wawz, 

Slidellf  Mr. ;  United  States,  1861 

Sligo,  marquess  of ;  trills,  1812 

Sloane,  sir  Hans,  1660-1727 ;  apo- 
thecary, Jesuit's  bark,  British 
Museum,  Chelsea 

Sloanes  ;  trials,  1851 

Smart,  A.  ;  suicide,  1856 

Smart ;  chimneys,  1805 

Smeaton,  Mr.  ;  Eddystone,  canal, 

I759 

Smeaton,  sir  John  ;  Wigan.  1643 
Smethurst,  T.  ;  trials,  1859 
Smirke,  R.  ;  post-office,  1825 
Smirke,   S. ;    Bethlehem,    British 

Museum 
Smith,  sir  Harry;  India>  Aliwal, 

Kaffraria,  1850 
Smith,   Joseph  ;    savings'   banks, 

Mormc  nites,  1823 
Smith,  Madeleine;  trials,  1857 
Smith,  Thomas  ;  lord  mayor,  1809 
Smith,  Miss,  v.  earl  Ferrers ;  trials, 

1846 
Smith,    Adam;    1723-90,    political 

economy,  1776 
Smith,   sir  J.  E.   (botanist),   1759- 

1828 

Smith,  capt, ;  duel,  trials,  1830 
Smith,  Dr.  R,  Angus;  air,  1858 
Smith,  Dr.  Southwood  ;  1790-1861  ; 

sanitary  legislation,  1832 
Smith,  Mr.  Beaumont ;  exchequer, 

trials,  1841 

Smith,  rev.  S.  ;  trials,  1858 
Smith,  rev.  Sidney,  1771-1845 
Smith,  Sam.  Sidney ;  trials,  1843 
Smith,  sir  C.  Eardley ;  evangelical 

alliance,  1845 

Smith,  sir  Sidney  ;  Acre,  1799 
Smith,  Mr.  Thomas  ;  customs 
Smith,  J.  ;  bribery,  trials,  1854 
Smith,  and  Markham,  captains, 

duel,  trials,  1830 
Smith,  Wm.  ;  geology,  d.  1840 
Smithson,  J  ;  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 1846 
Smollett,     Tobias,     novels,     <fcc., 

1720-71 

Smyth  (will  case);  trials,  1855 
Smyth,  W.  H.,  astron.,  1788-65 
Snellius;  optics,  1624 
Snow,  Dr.  ;  amylone,  1856 
Soames  ;  cocoanut-tree  oil,  1829 
Soane,  sir  J.,  architect,  1753-1837 
Sobieski,  John  ;  Poland,  Cossacks, 

Hungary.  Vienna 
Socinus,  Faustus  {d.  1562)  and  L?e- 

lius,  anti-trinitarians,   arians, 

Unitarians 
Socrates,    468-399    B.C.  ;   Athens, 

philosophy 
Solomon;  Jerusalem,  1004  B.C. 
Solon ;    Athens,  594    B.C.  ;    laws 

tax 


INDEX. 


827 


Solyman ;  Turkey,  Belgrade,  - 
Vienna,  1529 

Solyman  II.  ;  Hungary,  Buda, 
Mohatz,  1526 

Somers,  lord ;  administrations, 
1690 ;  corn 

Somers,  sir  George ;  Bermudas, 
1609 

Somerset  the  black  declared  free, 
1772  ;  slavery  in  England,  note 

Somerset,  see  Seymour  ;  admiralty, 
1859 

Sophia,  princess ;  Hanover,  1659 

Sophia  Dorothea,  d.  1796;  Eng- 
land, queens  (Geo.  I.) 

Sophocles,  495-405  B.C.  ;  tragedy, 
drama 

Sorel,  Agnes  ;  jewellery,  1434 

Sostratus  ;  pharos,  280  B.C. 

Soto,  Ferdinand  de;  Louisiana, 
1541 

Soult,  marshal,  1 769- 1 85 1 ;  Albuera, 
Oporto,  OrthAs,  Pyrenees, 
Tarbes,  Toulouse,Villa  Franca, 
Douro 

Southey,  Rob.,  1774-1843;  poet- 
laureate 

Soyer,  A.  (cook),  d.  1858 

Spalding,  Mr.  ;  diving-bell,  1783 

Sparks,  George ;  trials,  1853 

Speke,  capt.,  1827-64  ;  Africa, 
1863-4 

Speilman,  sir  John  ;  paper-making, 
Dartford,  1590 

Spencer,  earl ;  Grenville  admin. 
1806;  Roxburghe  club 

Spencer,  Mr.  ;  electrotype,  1837 

Spenser,  E,  1553-98;  allegory, 
poet-laureate,  verse 

Spert,  sir  Thos.  ;  Trinity-house, 
1512 

Spim,  Alexander  de;  spectacles, 
1285 

Spinoza,  B.  de,  1632-77  ;  atheism 

Spohr,  L.,  mus.  comp. ,  1783-1859 

Spollen,  Jas.  ;  trials,  1857 

Spurgeon,  C.  H.,  b.  1834;  Surrey 
gardens,  crystal  palace,  taber- 
nacle 

Spurzheim,  J.  G.  ;  craniology,  1800 

Stackpole,  captain ;  duel,  1814  " 

Stackpoles,  trials ;  1853 

Stael,  mad.  de,  novelist,  d.  1817 

Stafford,  archbishop ;  Canterbury, 

T443 

Stafford,  lord  ;  popish  plot,  1680 
Stafford,   marquess  of,    d.    1803 ; 

Bloomsbury 
Staines,  sir  William  ;  lord  mayor, 

1800 
Stair,   earl  of,  d.    1707  ;   Gleucoe, 

1692  ;  Dettingen,  1743 
Staite  ;  electric  light,  1848 
Stalker,  gen. ;  Bushire,  suicide, 

1857 

Stanberry,  Jphn  ;  Eton,  1448 
Stanhope,  earl ;  Halifax  adminis- 
trations, 1714 

Stanhope,  Charles,  earl;  1752-1816  ; 
printing-press :    present    earl 
(before,  lord  Mahon,  the  his- 
torian), b.  1805 
Stanhope,  col.  ;  trials,  1816 
Stanhope,  hon.  col,  ;  suicide,  1825 
Stanhope,     lieut.-gen.  ;     Minorca, 

1708 

Stanislaus;  Poland,  1704 
Stanley,  bishop  ;  Norwich,  1837 
Stanley,  sir  John  ;  Man,  1406 
Stanley,    sir     W.  ;    chamberlain ; 

Bosworth,  1485 
Stanley,  lord ;  see  Derby,  1820 


Stanley,  lord,  of  Alderley,  b.  1802  ; 
Aberdeen,  Palrnerston  admin. 
Stanley,  Edw.,  lord,  b.  1826 
Stapleton,  J.,  trials,  1858 
Stapleton,   Walter,  bp.  ;    Exeter, 

X3T9 

Statins,  Lat.  poet  (Thebais),  fl.  79 
Staunton,  Mr.  ;  China,  1840 
Steele,   sir  R.,    1671-1729;   Tatler, 
Spectator,  clubs,  Kit-Cat  club 
Steele,  Mr.  ;  murdered,  trials,  1807 
Steenchel,  Magnus;  Sweden,  1314 
Stenhouse,     J. ;    dyes,     charcoal, 

1853 

Stephen,   pope ;    England,    Hun- 
gary, 997 ;  Poland 
Stephens,  Miss  ;  theatres,  1813 
Stephens,  rev.  Mr.  ;  trials,  1839 
Stephens,  Robert  ;  Bible,  1551 
Stephenson,    G.,    1781-1848 ;    rail- 
ways, Chatmoss 
Stephenson,  R.,  1803-59;  tubular 

bridges 
Sterne,      Laurence,      humourist, 

1713-68 

Sternhold,  T.  ;  Psalms,  1555 
Stesichorus ;  choruses,  5566.0. 
Stewart,  col.  ;  Trincoinalee,  1795 
Stewart,  gen.  ;  Madras,  1783 
Stewart,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1850 
Stewart,      Dugald,      philosopher, 

1753-1828 

Stewart,  Duncan ;  Cpesarean 
Stewarts,  trials,  1829 
Stifelius ;  algebra,  1544 
Stigand,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1052 
Stillingfleet,  B.  ;  blue-stocking 
Stock,  Dr. ;  Sunday-schools,  1781 
Stockdale;  trials,  1826 
Stoddart,  Dr.  ;  Times,  1812 
Stopford,  adro.  ;  Acre,  Sidon,  1840 
Storace,  madame,  d.  1817 
Storck  ;  levellers,  anabaptists,  1524 
Storks,  H.  ;  Ionian  Isles,  1859 
Stormont,  vise.  ;  Portland  admin., 

T783 

Strabo  ;  geog. ,  writes,  14 
Strachan,    admiral   sir    Richard ; 

Havre,  Walcheren,  1809 
Straduarius  ;  viol,  1700-22 
Strafford,  lord  ;  beheaded,  1641 
Strafford,  earl ;  admiralty,  1712 
Strangford,  lord  ;  bribery,  1784 
Stratford,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1333 
Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  lord,  6.  1788 
Strevens,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1857 
Strickland,    Hugh;    nat.     hist, 

1811-53 

Stromeyer;   clubfoot,  1831 
Strongbow  ;  Ireland,  1176 
Struensee,  count;  Zell,  1772 
Strutt,Edw. ;  Aberdeen,  adm. ,  1852 
Struve,  F.  ;  astron.,  1793-1864 
Strzelecki,  A.  ;  Australia,  1840 
Stuart,  Alexander ;  marquess 
Stuart,  conf.  gen. ;  United  Statss, 

1862 

Stuart,  gen.  ;  Cuddalore,  1783 
Stuart,  sir  John  ;  Mai  da,  1806 
Stukeley,  Dr.  ;  earthquakes 
Sturt,  capt.  ;  South  Australia,  1830 
Sturmiua ;  magnet 
Succoth(St  Patrick),  preaches,  433 
Suchet,  marshal ;  Valencia,  1812 
Sudbnry,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1375 
Sue,  Eng.,  novelist,  1804-57 
Suetonius,  C.  T. ;  writes,  118 
Suetonius  Paulinus  ;  Menni,  61 
Suffolk,  Thomas,  earl  of;  adminis- 
trations, 1540 

Suffrein,  Thos.  ;  Trincomalee,  1782 
Sugden,   sir  Edward  (afterwards 


lord  St.  Leonards) ;  chancellor, 
lord,  1852 

Suisse,  Nicholas;  trials,  1842 
Sullivan,  Mr.  ;  Lima,  1857 
Sulpicius,  Servius ;  civil  law,  code, 

53  B-C- 
Sumner,  archbp.  ;  Chester,   1828; 

Canterbury,  1848 
Sumner,  bishop;    Llandaff,  1826; 

Winchester,  1827 
Sumner,  C.  ;  United  States,  1856 
ttunderland,  earl  of;  administra- 
tions, 1684 
Surajah      Dowlah ;       Black-hole, 

India,  Plassey,  1757 
Surrey,   earl  of;    Flodden,   1513; 

Roman  Catholics,  1829 
Susarion    and    Dolon ;    comedy. 

562  B.C. 

Sussex,  duke  of;  marriage,  1793 
Sutter,  capt.  ;  California,  1847 
Sutton  ;  air-pipe,  1756 
Sutton,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1805 
Sutton,  C.  M.  ;  speaker,  1817 
Sutton,  Thos.  ;  Charter-house,  i6ri 
Suwarrow,     marshal,     1730-1800; 
Alessandria,     Ismae'l,     Novi, 
Parma,    Poland,  Praga,  War- 
saw, Trebia,  1799 
Swan,  Mr.,  M.P.  ;  bribery,  1819 
Sweyn  ;  Denmark,  985  ;  England 
Swift,  dean  J.,  1667-1745;  Drapier 
Swynfen :  trials,  1858 
Sy  den  ham,  Floyer,  d  1788;  literary 

fund 

Sydenham,  lord;   Melbourne  ad- 
min., 1834 

Sydenham,  Thos.,  1624-89 
Sydney,    Henry,    viacouut ;    Ire- 
land, Id.  lieut. ,  1690 
Sydney,  see  Sidney 
Sykes     and     Rumbold,    Messrs.  ; 

briber}-,  1776 

Sylla  ;  Rome,  Athens,  86  B.C. 
Symington  ;  steam-engine,  1789 
Symonds,     rev.     Symou ;     Bray, 
1533-58 


T. 


Tacitus,  M.  C.,  hist.,  about  62- 
loo  ;  Rome,  emp.,  275 

Tait,  bp.  ;  London,  1856 

Talbot,  Miss  Augusta  ;  .trials,  1851 

Talbot,  H.  F.  ;  photography,  calo- 
type,  &c.,  1840 

Tallard,  marshal ;  Blenheim,  1704 

Talleyrand,  1754-1838;  Benevento, 
weights 

Tallis,  Thos.  ;  music.,  d.  1585 

Talma  ;  actor,  d.  1826 

Tamerlane,  d.  1404  ;  India,  Da- 
mascus, Tamerlane 

Tandemus ;  Adamite 

Tankerville,  Ford,  earl  of;  ad- 
ministrations, 1699 

Tantia  Topee  ;  India,  1857 

Tarquin;  Rome,  kings,  Sibylline 
books 

Tarquinius Priscus ;  cloaca,588  B.C. 

Tasman,  Abel ;  circumnavigator, 
Australia,  1642  ;  New  Zealand, 
Van  Diemen's  Land 

Tasso,  Torquato  ;  poet,  1544-93 

Tate,  Xahum,tf.i7i5 ;  poet-laureate 

Tatian,  about  170;  aquarians, 
encratites 

Tattersall,  R.  ;  races,  1766 

Taurosthenes  ;  carrier-pigeons 

Tavernier ;  pearls,  1633 

Tawell,  John  ;  trials,  1845 


823 


INDEX. 


Taylor,  bp.  Jeremy,  1613-67 
Taylor,  gen.  Zachary  ;  presidents, 

United  States,  1849 
Taylor,  Messrs.  ;  oil-gas 
Taylor,  Dr.  Brook;  acoustics,  1714 
Taylor,     rev.     Robert;     atheism, 

trials,  1827,  1831 

Taylor,  rev.  W. ;  blind,  bells,  1855-6 
Teba,  countess  ;  (empress)  France, 

1853 

Tekeli ;  Hungary,  revolts,  1676 
Teleki ;  Austria,   1860;   Hungary, 

1861 

Telesphorus;  Lent,  130 
Telford,  T.  ;  chain-bridges,  1819 
Tell,  William  ;  Switzerland,  1307 
Tempel ;  planets,  1861 
Temple,  earl;  Newcastle  admin., 

r757 

Teniers,  D.  (two),  1582-1694 
Tenison,  abp.  ;  Canterbury.  1694 
Tennant,  Mr.  ;  bleaching,  1798 
IVnniel,  John,  b.  1820  ;  Punch 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  b.   1809;   poet- 
laureate 
Tenterden,    lord;    king's    bench, 

1818 

Terentius  Varro  ;  Cannse,  216  B.C. 
Terence,  195-159  B.C.  ;  drama 
Tertullian     writes,      197 ;     cross, 

Montanists 

Teucer,  Troy,  1502  B.C. 
Teynham,  lord  ;  trials,  1833 
Thackeray,      W.      M.,      novelist, 

1811-63 

Thales,   Miletus ;   globe,  640  B.C.  ; 
Ionic  sect,  moon,  water, world 
Thalestris;  queens 
Thanet,  earl  of ;  riots,  1799 
Thecla ;  Alexandrine  codex 
Themistocles ;  Marathon,  Salamis, 

480  B.C. 

Theobald;  civil  law,  1138 
Theocritus;  verse,  265  B.C. 
Theodore ;  Corsica,   1736;    Samos, 

keys,  lathe 

Theodoric  ;  Spain,  Goths,  553 
Theodosius ;    Eastern  emp.,   379; 
Aquileia,   Ostrogoths,   massa- 
cre, paganism 

Theodosius,  the  younger;   acade- 
mies, Bologna 

Theophilus  ;  Antioch,  chronology 
Theophrastus,  394-287  B.C. 
Theopompus ;      Ephori,      funeral 

orations,  Sparta,  353  B.C. 
Theseus  ;  Athens,  1235  B.C. 
Thesiger,    sir    F.  ;    solicitor-gen., 
1844;    attorney -gen. ,   chanc., 
lord  high,  1858  ;  trials,  1850 
Thespis;  drama,  5368.0. 
Thevenot,  M.  ;  coffee,  1662 
Thierry  ;  Holland,  936 
Thiers,  M.,  b.  1798  ;  France,  1836 
Thirleby  ;  Westminster,  1541 
Thirl  wall,  bp.  ;  St.  David's,  1840 
Thomas,  col.  ;  duel,  1783 
Thompson,  miss  ;  trials,  1821 
Thompson,  major  ;  suicide,  1832 
Thompson,  William ;  lord  mayor, 

1828 
Thomson,  Mr.  Poulett ;  Melbourne 

admin.,  1835  ;  calico 
Thomson,  Jas.   (the   "Seasons"), 

1700-48  ;  Richmond 
Thornton,  Abraham  ;  appeal,  1817 
Thorpe,  William  de  ;  bribery,  1351 
Thorpe,  JohnT.  ;  lord  mayor,  1820 
Thorwaldsen,  1777-1840 
Thoth  ;  mythology,  152  B.C. 
Thrasybulus  ;  Athens,  403  B.C. 
Thucydides,  470-404  B.C. 


Thurlow,    lord ;    chancellor,    lord 

high,  1778  ;  great  seal 
Thurtell,  J.  :  executions,  1824 
Thyra,  Dannawerke 
Tiberius,  903  B.C.  ;  Capri,   Rome, 

emp.,  14 
Tiberius  Gracchus ;  agrarian  law, 

132  B.C. 

Tibullus,  Lat.  poet,  50-18  B.C. 
Tieck.  L.,  Ger.  poet,  1753-1853 
lierney,  George ;  duel,  1798 ; 

boderich 

Tighe,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1800 
Tigranes ;  Armenia,  03  B.  c. ;  Pontus 
Tiidesley,  sir  Thomas;  Wigan,i65i 
Tilly;    Magdeburg,   1631;   Palati- 
nate, Lech 

Tilloch,  Mr.  ;  stereotype 
Tillotson,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1691  ; 

universalists 
Times  newspaper;   Times,  trials, 

1790 

Timoleon;  Syracuse,  343  B.C. 
Timour ;  see  Tamerlane 
Tindal  and  Coverdale  ;  Bible,  1526 
Tippoo   Sahib  ;    Madras,  Serin  ga- 

patam,  Mysore,  1792 
Titian,  1477-1576 
Titus,  Rome,  emp.  79;  Jerusalem, 

Tyre,  arches 

Tofts,  Mary  ;  impostor,  1726 
Toler,  Mr.  ;  m.,  trials,  1853 
Tolly,    Barclay    de;     Srnolensko, 

1812 

Tolmidas  ;  Coronea,  447  B.C. 
Tomline,  bp. ;  Lincoln,  Winchester, 

18^0 

Tom  Thumb  ;  dwarfs,  1846 
Tone,  Theobald  W.  ;  trials,  1798 
Tonson,  Jacob,  bookseller,  d.  1736 
Tonti,  Laurence  ;  tontines 
Tooke,  J.  Home,  1736-1812 
Tooke,  W.  ;  prices 
Torrence,  Mrs. ;  trials,  1821 
Torrens,  lieut.  ;  duel,  1806 
Torres  ;  Australasia,  1606 
Torricelli ;     d.    1647  >    au*>   micro- 
scopes 

Torrington,   Herbert,   lord ;    Wai- 
pole  admin.,  1727 
Totila  ;  Italy,  541 
Toussaint,    1794;    Hayti,    St.   Do- 
mingo 
Tower,  Mr. ;  volunteer  in  1803  and 

1860 

Townley,  G.  V.  ;  trials,  1863 
Townshend,  lord;  duel,  1773;  Ire- 
land 

Townshends ;  Rockingham,  Chat- 
ham, and  Graftoii  admins., 
1765-7 

Train,  Mr.  ;  street  railways,  1860 
Trajan  ;  Rome,  emp.,  98  ;  Trajan's 

pillar,  Dacia 

Traugott,  R.  ;  Poland,  1864 
Travers,  Samuel ;  poor  knights  of 

Windsor 

Treby,  George  ;  Walpole,  1721 
Tresylian  ;  king's  bench 
Trevelyan,  C.  ;  Madras,  1859-60 
Trevethick  ;  steam  engine,  1802 
Trevor,  sir  John  ;  speaker,  1694 
Troas  ;  Troy,  1374  B.C. 
Troubridge,  sir  T.  ;  wrecks,  1807 
True  Sun,  prop,  of;  trials,  1834 
Truman,  Haubury,  &  Co.  ;  porter, 

1815  . 

Truro,  lord;  chancellor,  lord,  1850 
Truxo,  Louisa ;  longevity,  1780 
Tucker,  E.  ;  vine  disease,  1845 
Tuckett,  capt.  Harvey  ;  duel,  1840 
Tuite,  murderer;  trials,  1813 


*Tuke,  W.  ;  lunatics,  1792 
Tull,  AVilliam  ;  posting 
Tulloch,  col.  ;  Sebastopol,  1855 
Tullns  Hostilius  ;  Alba,  saturnalia 
Tunstall,    bp.  ;     administrations, 

1529,  arithmetic,  privy  seal 
Turenne,  marshal,  1611-1675 
Turnbull,  W.  B.  ;  trials,  1861 
Turner,  J.  W.,  1775-1851 
Turner,  miss  ;  trials,  1827 
Turner,  Richard  ;  teetotaller,  1831 
Turner,     Sydney ;      reformatory, 

schools.  1849 
Turner;  trials,  1817 
Turpin,  or  Tilpin,  bp.  ;  writes,  818 
Turton,  bishop  ;  Ely,  1845 
Tusser  ;  agriculture,  1562 
Tyce,  John  ;  taffety,  1598 
Tycho    Brahe,    1546-1601  ;    astro- 
nomy, platonic  year,  globe 
Tyler,  John  ;  United  States  presi- 
dent, 1841 

Tyler,  Wat;  killed,  1381 
Tyndal,  Wm.  ;  martyred,  1536 
Tyndall,    J.  ;     Roy.    Inst.,    1853  ; 
magnetism,  Mont  Blanc,  1857  ; 
calorescence 

Tyndarus  ;  Sparta,  1490  B.C. 
Tyrconnel,  earl  of ;  Ireland,  1687 
Tyrone;  rebellion,  1599 
Tysias,  or  Stesichorus  ;  choruses, 
epithalamium,  536  B.C. 


U. 

Udine ;  stucco-work,  1530 

Ulfilas,  bp.  ;  Bible,  about  373 

Ulloa,  Antonio  ;  platinum.  1741 

Ulpian  (lawyer) ;  slain,  228 

Ulysses;  Trojan  war 

Upton,  colonel ;  Sebastopol,  1830 

Urban  ;  popes,  223 

Urban  II. ;  communion,  crusades, 

1094 
Urban  VIII.,  pope,  "Eminence," 

1630 
Ursula,  St. ;   Cologne,  Ursulines, 

J537 
Usher,  abp.  ;  articles,  1614 


Valens  ;   eastern  empire,  western 

empire,  364 
Valentia,  lord ;  duel,  1798;  trials, 

1796 

Valentia  cause  ;  trials,  1772 
Valentine,  B.  ;  antimony,  1410 
Valentinian  ;  western  empire,  364 
Valerian  ;  persecutions,  257 
Vallaret,  Foulques  de  ;  Malta,  1310 
Valliere,madame  de  la  ;  midwifery, 

1663 

Van  Artevelde  ;  Ghent,  1379-83 
Vanbrugh,  sir  J.  ;    1670-1726,  Cla- 
rendon printing  office,  opera 
Van   Buren  (president; ;     United 

States,  1837 
Vancouver ;    north-west  passage. 

Vancouver,  1790 

Vander  Heyden  ;  fire-engines,  1663 
Vandyck,  1599-1641 
Vane,  sir  Henry;  administrations, 

1640 

Van  Eyck  ;  painting,  1366 
Van  Horn  ;  buccaneer,  1603 
Van  Leyden  ;  engraving  on  wood, 

M97 
Van  Marum  ;  electricity,  1785 


INDEX. 


829 


Van   Mildert,    bishop  ;    Llandaff, 

Durham,  1826 
Vansittart,    Nicholas  ;     Liverpool 

adm.,  1812 
Van  Tromp  ;  Holland,  naval  battles, 

Portland  Isle,  1653 
Varole,  M.  ;  optics,  1538 
Varro  ;   writes  "  de  Re  Rustica," 

37   B.C.  ;    grammarians,    illu- 

minated books 
Varus,  Alfrenus;  civil  law,  66  B.C.  ; 

code,  digest 

Vasali,  or  Basil  ;  Russia,  1270 
Vasco  deGama  ;  Cape,  1497  ;  India 
Vattel,  E.  de;  publicist,  1714-67 
Vauban,    S.  ;    1633-1707,   fortifica- 

tions, Cherbourg 

Vaughan,  sir  Thos.  ;  Pomfrct,  1483 
Vaughan,  Mackay,  <fcc.  ;  trial,  1816 


W 

Waddington  ;  trials,  1820 
Wager,  C.  ;  admiralty,  1733 
Waghorn,  lieut.,d.  1849;  Waghorn 
Waithman,   Robert ;   lord  mayor, 

1823  ;  obelisk,  bank 
Wake,  abp.';  Canterbury,  1715 
Wakefield,  Eliz.  ;    savings   banks, 

1804 
Wakefield,  Ed.  Gibbon  ;  marriages, 

S.  Australia,  trials,  1827 
Waldegrave,  earl  of  ;  trials,  1841 
Waldegrave,  bp. ;  Carlisle,  1860 
Waldemar ;  Denmark,  1157 
Walden,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1398 
Wales,  George,  prince  of,  v.  Tunes; 

trials,  1790;  regency 


Vauquelin;  chromium,  glucinum,     Walker,  Mr.  ;   Vauxhall,  cangela- 
1798  tion,  ice,  1782 


Vaux,  Jane,  Mrs.  ;  Vauxhall,  1615 
Vega,    G.    de,    1503-36 — Lope   de, 

1562-1635,  poets 
Velasquez,      painter,      1599-1660; 

Cuba,  1511 

Venables,  Wm.  ;  lord  mayor,  1825 
Venner,  T.  ;  anabaptists,  1661 
Vere-street  gang  ;  trials,  1816 
Vergennes,  M.  de  ;  notables,  1788 
Vermandois,  count  de  ;  iron  ma.sk 
Vermuyden,  Cornelius;  levels,  1621 
Vernet,  1714-89;  Horace,  1789- 1863 ; 

painters 
Vernon,  adm.  ;  grog,  Porto  Bello, 

1739 

Vernon,  abp.  ;  York,  1808 
Verres ;  Sicily,  706.0. 
Verrochio,  Andrea;  plaster,  1466 
Vesalius  ;  anatomy,  surgery,  1538 
Vespasian  ;  Rome,  emp.  69  ;  am- 
phitheatres, Coliseum,  Rhodes 
Vespucius,  Americus,  1498 
Victor  Amadeus  ;  Sardinia,  1630 
Victor  Emmanuel,  b.    1820 ;    Sar- 
dinia, 1849  ;  Italy,  1860 
Victor,  marshal ;    Talavera,  1809 ; 

Barrosa,  Witepsk 
Victor ;  pope,  193 
Victoria,  queen,  6.  1819 ;  England, 

Scotland,  Ireland,  India 
Victory,  Espartero,  duke  of ;  Spain, 

1840 

Vidil,  baron  de  ;  trials,  -*86i 
Viefa,  Francis  ;  algebra,  1590 
Vigilius  ;  pope,  537 
Villars,  marshal ;  Malplaquet,  1709 
Villeneuve,  adm.  ;  Trafalgar,  1805 
Villeroy,  marshal ;  Brussels,  1695  ; 

Rarnilies,  1706 

Villiers,  sir  George  ;   administra- 
tions, 1615 

Villierp,  bp.  ;  Durham,  1860 
Vincent,  B.,   Royal  Inst.  Library 
Catalogue,  1857  ;  Bible  index, 
1848 

Vincent,  H.  ;  chartists 
Virgil,  70-19  B.C. 
Virginia  ;  killed,  449  B.C. 
Vitalianus ;  pope,  537 
Vitellius,  Rome,  emp.  69 
Vitruvius  ;  abt.  27  B  c.  ;  ink 
Vivier ;  trials,  1842 
Volta,  Alex.,  1745-1826  ;  electricity, 

Volta 
Voltaire,  F.  M.  A.  de ;   1694-1778, 

miscel. 

Von  Fuchs,  Dr.,  d.  1856;  water- 
glass,  stereochromy 
Vortigerii ;  Wales,  447 
Voss,  poet,  1751-1826 
Vyse,  Mrs.  A.,  trials,  1862 


Walker,    George ;     Londonderry, 

Boyne,  1689 

Walker,    gen.  ;    filibusters,   Nica- 
ragua, 1855,  exec.,  1860 
Wall,  governor ;  trials,  1802,  Goree 
Wall,  Mr.  Baring ;  trials,  1833 
Wallace,  Sir  W.  ;  exec.,  1305  ;  Fal- 

kirk,  Cambuskenneth,  1297 
Wallaces  ;  trials,  1841 
Wallcnstein,  Albert,  general,  1583- 

1634 ;  Mecklenburg 
Waller,  Sir  W.  ;  Abiiigdon,  1644 
Wallis,  circumnavigator ;  Otaheite, 

Wallis,  1766 

Wai  pole,  Horace,  1717-97  ;  letters 
Walpole,   Sir    Robert,    1676-1745 ; 

Walpole  adm.  ;  sinking  fund 
Walpole,  Spencer  Horatio  ;  Derby 

administration,  1852-1858 
Walsh,  Mrs. ;  murdered,  trials,  1832 
Walsh,  Nicholas;  printing,  1571 
Walsingham,  lord;  attorney-gen. , 

1766 

Walsingham,  sir  Francis  ;  adminis- 
trations, 1587 

Walter,  E.  ;  commissionaires,  1859 
Walter,  J.,  1739-1812  ;    Times,  1785 
Waltheof;    beheading,  1076 
Walton,  Brian,  1600-61  ;  polyglot 
Walton,  Izaac,  1593-1683  ;  angling 
Wai  worth  ;  Blackheatb,  mace,  1381 
Warburton,  Eliot  (lost),  Amazon, 

1852 

Ward,  Mr.  ;  forgery,  1726 
Ward,   N.  B.  ;   aquarium,  Ward's 

cases,  1829 
Wardle,     colonel ;    impeachment, 

Wardle  v.  duke  of  York  ;  trials, 

1809 

Warenne,  earl  of  ;  Dunbar,  1296 
Warham,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1503  ; 

administrations,  1509 
Warrington,  R.  ;  aquarium,  1850 
Warner,  Mrs.,  d.  1854;  theatres 
Warner,  Messrs.  ;  bells,  1856 
Warren  admiral  sir  John  Borlace  ; 

naval  battles,  1798 
Warrington  gang  ;  trials,  1806 
Warton,   Thomas ;  poet    laureate, 

1785 
Warwick,    earl    of;    Bamet,    St. 

Albans,  Wakefield,  1460 
Warwick,  John  Dudley,  earl  of; 

administrations,  1551 
Washington,      George,       1732-99; 

United    States,    York    Town, 

Virginia 
Watcrton,  Chas. ;  naturalist,  1783- 

1865 

Wathen,  captain  ;  trials,  1834 
Watboa,  admiral ;  India,  1756 


Watson,  bishop  ;  Llandaff,  1782 
Watson,  sir  Wm.  ;  electricity,  1740; 
lightning    conductor ;     trials, 
1817 

Watt  and  Downie  ;  trials,  1794 
Watt.Jas.,  1736-1819  :  steam  engine 
Watteau,   Ant.,    French     painter, 

1684-1721 

Watts,  Isaac,  1673-1748  ;  hymns 
Watts  ;      theatres,      trials,     1859, 

suicide 

Watts,  T.  ;  newspapers,  1766 
Weare,  Mr. ;  trials,  1824 
Weathershed,  abp.  ;    Canterbury, 

1229 

Webbe,  Sam.,  music.,  1740-1819 
Weber,  Carl  von,  1786-1826  ;  music 
Webster,  Daniel,  d.  1852  ;  United 

States 

Webster,  Dr.  ;  trials,  1842 
Webster,  sir  Godfrey  ;  trials,  1797 
Wedgwood,  Josiah,  1731-95  ;  earth- 
enware, Wedgwood  (porcelain) 
Wedgwood,  T.  ;  photography,  1802 
Weld,  Mr.  ;  trappists 
Wellesley,  sir  A.,  see  Wellington 
Wellesley,  marquess  ;  India,  1798 
Wellesley,  Mr.  Long ;  duel,  1828 
Wellesley  Pole,  v.  Misses   Long  : 

trials,  182- 

Wellesley  v.  Paget ;  trials,  1809 
Wellington,    duke    of,    1769  1852  ; 
Wellington;    commander- in- 
chief,  duel,  1829;  trials,  18^0 
Wells,  W.  ;  dew,  j8i4 
Wells,  lord  Lyon  ;  Ireland  (lord- 

lieut.),  1438 

Wensleydale,  lord  ;  peers,  1857 
Werner,  A.  G.,  1750-1817  ;  geology, 

Wesley,  J.,  1703-91 ;  Wesleyans 
West,     Benj.,    1738-1820;      Royal 

Academy,  1792 
Westbury,lord  chancellor;  Palmer- 

ston  adm.,  1861 

Westerton  v.  Liddell  ;  trials,  1855 
Westmacott,  sir  R.,  1775-1856     " 
Westmeath,  lord  ;  trials,  1796 
Westmorland,     earl     of;     Ireland 

(lord-lieut.),  1790 

Weston,   Richard   lord  ;  adminis- 
trations, 1628 
Wctherell,  sir  Chas. ;  attorney-gen 

1826  ;  Bristol 

Wetherell,  rev.  Mr  ;  trials,  1845 
Weyland,  Thomas  de ;  bribery,  1 288 
Weymouth  ;    north-west  passage, 

1602 
Weymouth,  visct.  ;  Grafton  adm., 

1767 

Wharncliffe,  Id.  ;  Peel  adm.,  1834 
Wharton,   Thomas,  marquess  of; 

Halifax  adm.,  1714 
Wharton,   Miss;   marriagfs,    1690 
Whately,     abp.      R.,      1787-1863: 

logic,  <fcc. 

Wheatstone,    C.,  b.  1802;   stereo- 
scope,  electricity,  1834;   elec- 
tric telegraph,  and  clock 
Wheeler,    sir    Hugh;    Cawnpore, 

Whewell,  W.,  philosopher,  6.  i7qe 
Whiston,  W.,  theol.,  d.  1752 
Whitbread,  Samuel;  suicide   1811; 
White,  H.  K.,  poet,  1785-1806 
White,  Thos.,  Sion  College,  1623 
Whitefield,G.,  1714-70;  Whitefield, 

Wesleyans,  1741 

Whitehead,  W.,  d.  1785  ;  poet  lau- 
reate 

Whitelock,  gen. ;  Buenos  Ayres, 
1807 


830 


INDEX. 


Whitgift,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1583 
Whitney,  Eli ;  cotton,  1793 
Whittington  ;  lord  mayor,  1405 
Whittlesey,  archbp.  ;  Canterbury, 

1368 
Whitworth,    Mr.  ;   cannon,   Shoe- 

buryness,  1862 

Whitworth,  earl ;  Ireland,  1813 
Whyte,  maj.-gen.  ;  Demerara,  1796 
Wickham,    William  of,  1324-1405 ; 
education,  Oxford,  Winchester 
Wiekliffe,  John,  6.  1324 ;  Wickliff- 

ites,  Bible 
Wieland,  C. ;  Germ,  miscel.,  1733- 

1813 

Wigram,  bp.  ;  Rochester,  1860 
Wilberforce,  bp.  ;  Oxford,  1846 
Wilberforce,  W.,  1759-1833;  slave- 
trade 

Wild,  Jonathan  ;  executed  1725 
Wilde,  sir  James;  probate  court, 

1863 

Wilf  ride,  bp.  ;  Chichester,  673 
Wilkes,  captain;  circumnavigation, 

1838  ;  United  States,  1861 
Wilkes,     John;      North    Briton, 
obelisk,     warrants ;      Wilkes, 
duel,  1763  ;  trials,  1764 
Wilkie,  sir  D.,  painter,  1785-1841 
Wilkins,  Dr.  ;  Wadham,  1613 
William  I.,  1066;  England,  Battel- 
abbey,   conquest,    Domesday, 
castles 

William  II.  ;    England,  1087 
William  III.;. England,  1689,  revo- 
lution.    Boyne,    Enghien,    Jn. 
maintiendrai,  New  Forest 
William  IV.  ;  England,  kings,  1830; 

admiral 

William  ;  Holland,  Scotland 
Williams,  Ann  ;  trials,  1753 
Williams,  David,  d.  1816 ;  literary 

fund 

Williams,   John,   dean ;  adminis- 
trations, 1621 
Williams,  see  Burking 
Williams,  Roger ;  America,  1635 
Williams,  gen.  W.  P.  ;   Kars,  1855 
Williamson,  sir  Joseph ;  adminis- 
trations, 1629 
Willoughby,  sir  Hugh  ;  north-west 

passage,  1553 

Willoughby    de     Eresby,      lord  ; 
chamberlain,  lord  great,  1626 
Willoughby,  lieut. ;  Delhi,  1857 
Wills,  gen.  ;  Preston,  1715 
Wilmington,  earl  of  ;  Wilmington 

adrn.,  1742 

Wilson,  capt.  ;  Pelew  Islands,  1783 
Wilson,  sir  A.  ;  Delhi,  1857 
Wilson,  H.  H. ;  Sanskrit  professor, 

1832 

Wilson,  sir  Robert;  Lavalette,  1815 
Wilson,  prof.  John,  1785-1854 
Wilson,  Mrs.  C.  ;  poisoning,  trials, 

1862 
Wilson,  capt.  W.  ;  United  States, 

1862,  note 

Wilton,  earl  of ;  trials,  1859 
Winchelsey,    abp.  ;     Canterbury, 

1293 
Winchester,    gen. ;    Frenchtown, 

1813 
Winchester,  Henry;  mayor,  lord, 

l834 

Winchester,    Wm.,   marquess  of; 
administrations,  1554 


Winchilsea,  earl  of ;  duel,  1829 

Winchilsea,  earl  of  ;  Wilmington 
adm.,  1742;  Bath  adm.,  1746 

Windebank,  sir  Francis  ;  adminis- 
trations, 1635 

Windham,  general ;  India,  1857 

Windham,  W.  F.  ;  trials,  1861-2 

Windham,  Wm. ;  Greuville  adm., 
1806 

Windischgratz,  prince ;  Vienna, 
1848 

Winstanley;  Eddystone,  1696 

Winwood,  sir  Ralph ;  administra- 
tions, 1612 

Winzingerode,  gen.  ;  Kalisch,  1813 

Wiseman,  cardinal  Nicholas,  1802- 
65  ;  ecclesiastical  titles,  papal 
aggression,  Rome,  Ireland, 
1858 

Witts,  De  ;  massacred,  1672 

Withers,  Dr.  ;  libel,  1789 

Witheriugs,  Thomas ;  post-office, 
1631 

Witherington,  W.,  painter,  1786- 
1865 

Withing,    Richard ;    Glastonbury, 

J539 

Witikmd  (Saxon  chief),  779-785 
Wittgenstein,       gen.  ;       Polotsk, 

Witepsk,  1812 
Wodehouse,  lord ;    Ireland   (lord- 

lieut.),  1864 
Woden  ;  Wednesday 
Wohler,  F. ;  aluminium,  1827 
Wolcot,  Dr.,  alias  Peter  Pindar; 

trials,  1807 

Wolfe,  gen.  ;  Quebec,  1759 
Wolfius  ;  anemometer,  1709 
Wollaston,  Wm.,  1760-1828  ;  cryo- 
phorus,     camera,     blow-pipe, 
palladium,  rhodium 
Wolseley,  sir  Charles  ;  trials,   1820 
Wolsey,    cardinal,   1471-1530 ;    ad- 
ministrations, 1514 ;  Hampton, 
Whitehall,  York 

Wood,  sir  Charles  ;  Russell  adm., 
1846;  Palmei-ston  adm.,  1855 
Wood,  Matthew ;  mayors  of  Lon- 
don, 1815 

Wood  ;  Palmyra,  1751-53 
Wcodfall,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1786 
Wood  mason  ;  ruling  machines 
Wooler,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1817  ;  1855 
Woolley,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1863 
Worcester,   marquess  of;    steam, 

telegraph,  1663 

Worcester,    Edward,   earl  of;  ad- 
ministrations, 1621 
Wordsworth,      Wm.  ;     1770-1850; 

poet-laureate 

Wotton,  sir  Edward  ;  sugar,  1 546 
Wouvermanns,  painters,  1620-83 
Wray,  sir  C.  ;  king's  bench,  1573 
Wrede,  gen.  ;  Hanau,  1813 
Wren,  sir  Christopher,  architect, 
1632-1723 ;  Chelsea,  engraving. 
Greenwich,     monument,     St. 
Paul's,  Walbrook 
Wren,  Matthew  ;  Royal  Society 
Wrench,  Mr.  ;  theatres,  1809 
Wright;  Mercator's  charts,  1556 
Wright,  sir  Rob.;  king's  bench, 

1687 

Wright  and  Doyle ;  trials,  1851 
Wriothesley  ,lord ;  administrations, 

Wuruiscr,  gen.  :  Castiglione,  1796 


I  Wyat,  sirThos.  ;  rebellions,  1^4 

j  Wyld,  S.  ;  globe,  1851 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  ;  angling,  1496  ; 

printing 

Wyun,  W.  ;  Canning  adm.,  1827 
Wyon,  W.,  medallist,  1795-1851 


Xavier,  Francis  ;    1506-52  ;  Jesuits 

Xenophanes  ;  Eleatic  sect,  535  B.C. 

Xeiiophon  ;  anatomy,  couriers 
cymbals,  retreat  of  the  Greeks 
401  B.C. 

Xerxes  ;  Persia,  485  B.C.  ;  Mycale, 
Salamis 

Ximenes,  card.,  1437-1517 ;  poly- 
glot 


Y. 

Yale,  Elisha  ;  auctions,  1700 
Yeh,  commissioner;  China,  1857 
Yelverton,  major ;  trials,  1860 
Yonge,  sir  Geo.  ;  Shelburne  adm., 

1783 

York,  bishop  ;  Ely,  1781 
York,  cardinal ;  Scotland,  1807 
York,  duke  of,  1762-1827;  York 
York,  James,  duke  of ;    Solebay, 

1672 
Yorke,    Charles,   chancellor,   lord 

high,  1770 
Yorke,  sir  Philip;  att.-gen.;  king's 

bench,  1733 

Yorke,  Mr.  Redhead  ;  trial,  1795 
Young ;  impostors,  1692 
Young,  major;  Prescott,  1838 
Young,  Charles  ;  theatre,  1807 
Young,    Brigham,   b.    1801 ;    Mor- 

monites 

Young,  Edw.,  poet,  1681-1765 
Young,    Thos.,   1773-1829;     Royal 

Institution,  colour,  spectrum 
Younginan,  W.  ;  executions,  1860 


Z. 


Zacharias  ;  pope,  741 
Zaleucus  ;  sumptuary  laws,45o  B.C. 
Zamoyski,  count ;  Poland,  1862 
Zechariah  prophesies  about  5206.0. 
Zeno  (stoic),  fi.  299    B.C.   eastern 

empire,  474 

Zenobia ;  Palmyra,  263 
Zenon;  Armenia,  18 
Zephaniah  prophesies  abt.  630  B.  c. 
Zephyrinus ;  pope,  202 
Zeuxis,yZ.  397  B.C.  ;  painting 
Zimmermann ;  physiognomy,  1776 
Zinzendorf,  1700-60 ;  Moravians 
Ziska;  Bohemia,  1417 
Zoe  ;  eastern  empire,  1034 
Zollicoffer,  gen.  ;  U.  States,  1861 
Zoroaster    (supposed    author     of 

"  Zendavesta")  ;  about  555  B.C. 

fire  -worshippers 
Zosimus ;  alchemy,  410 
Zumalacarregui   (Carlist);    killed 

near  Bilbao,  1835 
Zumpie,  M.  ;  pianoforte,  1766 
Zurbano,  gen.  ;  Spain,  1844 


ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 


AOE 

4.  Note.  ABVSSINIA. — Mr.  Plowden  was  appointed 
consul  at  Massowah,  in  1848,  He  concluded  a 
treaty  of  commerce  with  Ras  AH,  emperor  of 
Abyssinia,  Nov.  2,  1849,  who  was  deposed  in 
1854  by  his  son-in-law,  Theodore,  the  present 
ruler,  who  set  aside  the  treaty. 

ii.  ADMINISTRATIONS. — Decease  of  lord  Palmers- 
ton,  Oct.  18,  1865.  Earl  Russell  reconstituted 
the  cabinet ;  lord  Clarendon  became  foreign 
minister. 

AFKICA.— M.  Du  Chaillu,  after  being  robbed, 
and  undergoing  many  privations,  returned  to 
London  near  the  end  of  1865.  He  gave  an 
account  of  his  journey  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  Jan  8,  1866. 

20.  ALBERT  MEMORIAL.— A  statue  of  the  prince- 
consort  (by  Theed)  was  inaugurated  at  Rose- 
nau,  his  birth-place,  in  the  presence  of  the 
queen  and  the  royal  family,  Aug.  19,  1865. 

63.  AUGUSTINS. — Austin  Friars  church  was  restored 
and  reopened,  Oct.  i,  1865. 

66.  AUSTRIA. — Peace  with  Denmark  signed  Oct.  30, 

1864. 
Convention  of  Gastein  (see  Gfasttin)  signed,  Aug. 

14,  1865. 

Emperor's  rescript  suppressing  the  constitu- 
tion (reichsrath,  &c. ),  with  the  view  of  giving 
autonomy  to  ^ungary  (which  see),  Sept.  21, 
1865. 

Rejoicing  in  Hungary,  but  dissatisfaction  in 
Croatia,  Austria,  and  other  provinces,  Nov., 
Dec.,  1865. 

Important  treaty  of  commerce  withGreat  Britain 
signed  December.  16,  1865. 

74.  BALLOONS. — Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Bri- 
tain was  founded  with  the  object  of  fostering 
and  developing  aeronautics  and  aerology,  by 
the  duke  of  Argyll,  Mr.  James  Glaisher,  sir 
Charles  Bright,  and  others,  Jan.  12,  1866. 

78.  BANK  DISCOUNT  raised  to  44,  Sept.  28 ;  to  5, 
Oct.  2 ;  to  6,  Oct.  5  ;  to  7,  Oct.  7  (three  times 
in  one  week)  ;  reduced  to  6,  Nov.  23  j  raised 
to  7,  Dec.  28,  1865  ;  to  8,  Jan.  4.  1866. 

92.  BATTLES. — 2nd  col.,  line  53,  after  Oeversee(.Dawes 

and  Prussians),  Feb  6,  insert  1864 

93.  BAYKUX  tapestry  is  now  preserved  in  the  public 

library  at  Bayeux. 

97.  BELGIUM. — Leopold  I.  died  Dec.  10,  1865 ;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Leopold  II. 

114.  BOLIVIA. — General  Melgarejo  defeats  the  troops 
of  president  De  Acha,  Dec.  28,  1864;  and  be- 
comes chief  of  the  republic,  Feb.  1865.  He  puts 
down  an  insurrection  under  Belzu,  March,  1865. 

122.  BRAZIL. — The  allies  under  Flores  defeat  the 
Paraguayans  at  Santayuna  on  the  Uruguay, 
Sept.  1865. 

Uruguayana  surrenders  to  the  allies,  Sept.  18, 
1865. 

130.  BROUGHAM. — This  popular  vehicle  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  in  1839,  and  received  its 
name  in  consequence  of  its  adoption  by  lord 
Brougham  soon  after. 


135.  Insert  CACHET  ;  see  Lcttres  de  Cachet. 

141.  CALCULATING  MACHINES.— Tables  constructed 
by  means  of  Scheutz's  machine,  edited  by  Dr. 
W.  Farre,  were  published  by  the  government 
in  1864. 

158.  CATTLE. — A  severe  cattle  plague  raged  in  Eng- 
land, 1745-56. 

The  privy  council  ordered  diseased  beasts  to  be 
shot,  and  their  skins  destroyed;  granting 
moderate  compensation,  March  12,  1746. 
A  royal  commission  to  inquire  into  the  causes 
of  the  cattle  plague  and  suggest  remedies  met 
first,  Oct.  to  ;  report  of  majority  consider  the 
disease  to  have  been  imported,  and  recommend 
slaughter  of  animals,  and  stringent  prohibi- 
tion of  passage  of  cattle  across  public  roads, 
&c.,  Oct.  31,  1865. 
27,432  beasts  had  been  attacked ;  12,680  died ; 

8,998  slaughtered,  up  to  Oct.  21,  1865. 
Orders  in  council  for  regulating  the  cattle  trade 
(in  conformity  with  the  act  of  1850),  Nov.  23 
and  Dec.  16,  1865  ;  and  Jan.  20,  1866. 
Disease  still  raging ;   official  report ;   cattle  at- 
tacked,  120,740;  killed,   16,742;  died,  73,750; 
recovered,    14,162  ;    unaccounted  for,    16,086, 
Feb.  i,    1866. 

158.  CAUCUS. — An  American  term,  applied  to  a  pri- 
vate meeting  of  the  leading  politicians  of  a 
party  to  agree  upon  the  plans  to  be  pui-sued 
durinsr  an  election  or  session  of  congress.  This 
institution  is  now  a  very  powerful  antagonist 
to  public  opinion.  The  word  is  said  to  be  de- 
rived from  "  ship  "-caulkers'  meetings.  A 
"  caucus  club,"  is  mentioned  by  John  Adams, 
in  1763.  Bartlett. 

170.  CHILI.  Dispute  with  Spain  ;  see  Spain,  1864-5. 

174.  CHINA.— Rebellion  of  the  north,  the  Nien-fei; 

June,  1865. 

Sir  Rutherford  Alcock,   ambassador  at  Pekin, 
Nov.  26,  1865. 

175.  CHOLERA  prevalent  at  Marseilles,  Paris,  Madrid, 

and  Naples,  July — October,  1865. 
An  international  meeting  at  Constantinople,  to 
consider  preventive  measures,  proposed,  Oct. , 
1865. 

178.  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.—  Meeting  in  London  of 

three  English  bishops,  Dr.  Pusey,  and  nearly 
80  of  the  clergy  and  laity,  with  counts  Orloff 
and  Tolstse,  and  the  Russian  chaplain,  to  con- 
sider on  the  practicability  of  uniting  the 
English  and  Russian  churches,  Nov.  15,  1865. 

179.  CINQUE  PORTS. — Lord  Palmerston  died  Oct.  18, 

1865,  and  earl  Granville  was  appointed  lord 

warden,  Dec.  1865. 
COAL.— Explosion    at"  Gethin    mine,    Merthyr 

Tydvill ;,  30  lives  lost,  Dec.  20,  1865. 
[In  1862  the  explosion  was  at  Gethin  mine,  not 

Cethin.] 
Explosion  at  Highbrook  colliery,  near  Wigan, 

Lancashire  ;  about  30  lives  lost,  Jan.  23,  1866. 
202.  CONSERVATIVES.— This  name  is  now  given  to  the 

party  in  the  north  of  the  United  States  which 


832 


ADDITIONS   AND   CORRECTIONS. 


PAGE 

supports  the  president  in  his  conciliatory 
efforts  to  re-establish  the  Union,  Jan  1866. 

213.  COTTON. — The  executive  of  the  central  relie 
fund  held  their  last  meeting,  Dec.  4,  1865. 

231.  DEATH. — The  commission  on  capital  puiiishmem 
issued  their  report  (recommending  that  pena 
servitude  be  substituted  for  death  in  some 
cases  where  murder  was  unpremeditated,  and 
that  executions  should  not  be  public),  Dec. 
1865. 

237.  DENMARK. — The  project  of  a  new  constitution 

rejected  by  the  assembly,  Feb.  25,  1865. 
New  ministry  formed  under  count  Frysenborg, 

Nov.  6,  1865. 

A  new  constitution  approved  by  the  Rigsraad, 
Nov.  7,  1865. 

248.  DOVER. — Earl  Granville  was  appointed  con- 
stable, Dec.  1865. 

265.  EDUCATION.  Committee  appointed  at  a  meeting 

for  establishment  of  higher  schools  for  middle 
classes  in  London,  by  means  of  funds  of  lapsed 
charities,  &c.,  Nov.  7  ;  nearly  28,000^.  sub- 
scribed by  end  of  Dec.  1865. 

266.  EGYPT. — 2nd  col.  read  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus 

reigns,  <fec.  285. 

281.  ENGLAND. — The  Queen  announces  her  assent  to 
the  marriage  of  princess  Helena  with  prince 
Christian  of  Augustenburg,  Dec.  5,  1865. 
Important    commercial    treaty    with    Austria 

signed,  Dec.  16,  1865. 
New  Parliament  opened  by  the  Queen  in  person, 

Feb.  6,  1866. 

286.  ETHYL  ;  read  "  compounds  with  metals." 
292.  EXECUTIONS. — Stephen  Forward,  alias    Ernest 
Southey,   for  murder  of  his   wife  and    four 
children,  at  Maidstone,  Jan.  n,  1866. 
294.  EXTRADITION   TREATY  between   Great  Britain 
and  France  was  concluded  in  1843.     In  Dec. 
1865,  the  French  government  gave  notice  of 
withdrawing  from  it  in  six  months. 
297.  FENIANS. — They  establish  a  provisional  govern- 
ment at  New  York,   and  a  congress  of  600 
members  held  at  Philadelphia,  Oct.  1865. 
Fierce     disputes     between     the     senate    and 
O'Mahony,  the  head-centre,  who  is  charged 
with  corruption  and  deposed;    Mr.  Roberts 
appointed  his  successor,  Dec.  1865. 
Fenians  in  United   States  said  to  have  raided 
200,000?.  in  October ;  they  prepare  to  attack 
Canada,  Dec.  1865. 
380  ooo  Fenians  reported  in  the  United  States 

Jan.  1866. 
302.  FIRES. — Great    fire   at  Beale's  wharf,  ;    about 

i8,ooo£.  damage,  Oct.  30,  1865. 
Immense  fire  at  St.  Katherine's  docks,  Jan.  i, 

1866. 

300.  FIRE-BRIGADE. — The  new  one  came  into  action 
and  its  energies  were  tested  at  the  great  fire  at 
St.  Katherine's  docks,  Jan.  i,  1866. 
313.  FRANCE. — Extradition  treaty  signed,  1843. 
316.  Convention  with  Italy  respecting  the  evacua- 
tion of  Rome,  &c.,  Sept.  15,  1864. 
Death  of  M.  Mocquard,  Dec.  9,  1864. 
Notice  given  of  the  abrogation  of  the  Extradition 

treaty  in  six  months,  Dec.  1865. 
Riots  of  republican  students  at   Paris ;   several 
exjjelled    from    the    Academy    of    Medicine, 
Dec.  1865. 
Emperor  opens  chambers  with  a  pacific  speech, 

Jan  22,  1866. 
337.  GIANTS. — 2nd  column.  It  is  stated  that  M.  Brice 

is  Anak. 
339.  GLASGOW. — Industrial  exhibition  opened,  Dec. 

12,    1865. 

347.  GRAPHOTYPE,  a  new  process  for  obtaining  blocks 
for  surface-printing,  the  invention  of  Mr.  De 
Witt  Clinton  Hitchcock  in  1860.  It  was  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Fitz-Cook  at  the  Society  of  Arts, 
Dec.  6,  1865.  Drawings  are  made  on  blocks  of 
chalk  with  a  silicious  ink ;  when  dried,  the 
soft  parts  are  brushed  away,  and  the  drawing 


PAGE 

remains  in  relief ;  stereotypes  are  then  taken 
from  the  block. 

349.  GRKECE. — Brigandage  prevails  ;  frequent  minis- 
terial changes  under  Dsligeorges,  Comoun- 
douros,  Bulgaris,  Oct.,  Nov.  Roufos  becomes 
minister,  Dec.  10,  1865. 

356.  GYPSIES  are  said  to  have  entered  Paris  in  1427. 
363.    HAYTI. — Military  insurrection  under  Salnave 
against   Geffrard,  May  7  ;  Cape  Hayti  seized, 
May  9,  1865. 

Valorogue,  a  rebel  vessel,  fires  into  British 
Jamaica  packet,  near  Acul,  St.  Domingo,  Oct. 
22;  H.M.S.  Bulldog  threatens  Valorogue: 
Salnave  orders  the  removal  of  refugees  from 
British  consulate  at  Cape  Hayti,  shoots  them, 
and  destroys  the  building.  The  JKulidog  failing 
to  obtain  satisfaction,  shells  the  fort,  sinks  the 
Valarugue,  but  gets  on  a  reef,  and  the  crew  is 
taken  out  and  she  is  blown  up.  H.M.S.  Galatea 
and  Lily  take  the  other  forts  and  give  them 
up  to  Geffrard ;  the  rebels  flee  inland,  Nov.  9, 
1865. 

368.  HIGH  TREASON,  add,  "see  Treason." 
377.  HUNGARY. — The  emperor  visits  Pesth  ;  the  diet 
opened,   Dec.    14;    Carl    Szentivanyi   elected 
president,  Dec.  20,  1865. 
Emperor  and  empress  arrive  at  Pesth.  Jan.  20 

1866. 
384.    INDEX    EXPURGATORIUS. — Several  books  were 

inserted  in  it  in  Jan.  1866. 
390.  INDIA. — Much  dissatisfaction  at  mildewed  cotton 
goods  being  received  from  England,  July — Oct. 
1865. 
398.  IRELAND. — Stephens  escapes  from  jail,  Nov.  25, 

1865. 

Fenian  trials  began  at  Dublin,  Nov.  27  ;  Thos. 
Clarke  Luby  convicted  of  treason-felony  ;  sen- 
tenced to  20  years'  penal  servitude,  Dec.  i, 
1865. 

O'Leary  and  others  convicted,  Dec. ;  O'Donovan 
or  Rossa  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life, 
Dec.  13,  1865. 
More  Fenians  arrested  and  convicted  at  Cork  and 

Dublin,  Jan.,  Feb.  1866. 

Discovery  of  an  arms  manufactory  at  Dublin  ; 
the  city  and  county  proclaimed  as  put  under 
the  provisions  of  the  peace  preservation  act, 
Jan.  ii,  1866. 
404.  ITALY. — Serious    financial    deficiency;    heavy 
taxation  proposed,  Dec.   13;  much  dissatisfac- 
tion ;   the  ministers    resign,  Dec.   21  ;   a  new 
ministry  formed  under  La  Marmora,  Dec.  31, 
1865. 
Death  of    the    patriot    and    soldier,    Massimo 

D'Azeglio,  Jan.  15,  1866. 
406.  JAMAICA. — note.    Moses,   not   Paul,   Bogle    was 
hanged    at    once ;    in    December    sir    Henry 
Storks  was  summoned  from  Malta  and  sent  to 
Jamaica  (Dec.  n)as  commissioner  to  inquire 
respecting  the  disturbances,  and  the  measures 
taken  in  suppressing  them;    Governor  Eyre 
was  temporarily  suspended.  Sir  Henry  Storks 
arrives  in  Jamaica,  Jan.  6,  1866. 
.58.  MADRAS  . — Lord  Napier  appointed  governor,  Jan. 

31,  1866. 
.72.  MASTER  OF  THE  ROLLS. — Sir  John  Romilly  was 

made  a  peer  as  baron  Romilly,  Dec.  1865. 
.89.  MONACO. — A  commercial  convention    between 
the  prince  and  France    signed,  Nov.  9,  1865, 
was  much  discussed,  as  tending  towards  the 
abolition  of  the  French  navigation  laws. 
;o7-  NEW  ZEALAND. — The  Maoris  treacherously  kill 
the  envoys  of  peace  :  resignation  of  the  Weld 
ministry  ;   one  formed  by  Mr.  Stafford,  Oct. 
1865. 

Prospects  of  peace  reported,  Jan.  1866. 
39.  PALESTINE,  note. — The  party  arrived  at  Damas- 
cus, Dec.  20,  186^. 

44.  PARKESINE.— A  new  substance,  composed  of 
gun-cotton,  obtained  from  various  vegetable 
bodies,  and  oil.  It  can  be  formed  with  the  pro- 


ADDITIONS  AND   CORRECTIONS. 


833 


perties  of  ivory,  tortoiseshell,  wood,  india- 
rubber,  gutta-percha,  &c.  It  is  the  invention 
of  Mr.  Alexander  Parkes,  of  Birmingham,  and 
was  shown  by  him  at  the  Exhibition,  in  1862. 
In  Dec. ,  1865,  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  Parkesine 
was  proved  to  be  an  excellent  electric  insulator, 
aid  therefore  likely  to  be  suitable  for  tele- 
graphic p'urposes. 

551.  PEABODY  FUND. — The  first  block  of  buildings  for 
working  classes  in  Commercial-street,  Spital- 
fields,  opened  Feb.  29,  1864 ;  others  erecting 
in  Islington,  Shadwell,  Chelsea,  and  Bermond- 
sey;  they  have  been  found  to  be  self-sup- 
porting. Mr.  Peabody  presented  ioo,oooi.  in 
addition,  Jan.  1866. 

568.  PLANET.— No.  86  discovered,  M.  Tietjen,  Jan. 
4,  1866. 

587.  POST  OFFICE. — Number  of  letters  delivered  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  in  1864,  679,084,822. 


PAGE 

596.  PRISONS.— An  act  to  consolidate  and  amend  the 

law  relating  to  prisons  was  passed  July  5, 

1865. 

601. — PRUSSIA. — The  chambers  opened  with  a  super- 
cilious speech  from  M.  Bismarck,  Jan.  15, 1866. 
603.  PYX.— The  ceremony  of  the  trial  was    again 

performed,  Jan.  19-20,  1865. 
631.  ROYAL  ACADEMY.— Sir  Edwin  Landseer  elected 

president,   declines,  Jan.  24;  Francis  Grant 

elected,  Feb.  i,  1866. 
634.  RUSSELL  ADMINISTRATIONS  (third) ;  resignation 

of  sir  Charles  Wood ;  earl  de  Grey  becomes 

secretary  for    India;    and  lord    Hartington, 

secretary  of  war,  Feb.  1866. 

662.    ScuLPTURE.-^John  Gibson  died  Jan.  27,  1866. 
678.  SPAIN.— Prim  enters  Portugal  and  lays  down 

arms  ;  the  insurrection  ends,  Jan.  20,  1866. 
691.  STORMS. — Severe  gales ;  many  vessels  and  lives 

lost  (see  Wrecks    Jan.  6-n   1866. 


THE  END. 


BRADBURY,    EVANS,   AND  CO.,   J-RINTSRS,    WHlTEFRlARS. 


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