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"•IHI'  iiiil'-lrriil 


']  >;."  yyiy 


LIBRARY  OF 

WELLES  LEY  COLLEGE 


PURCHASED  FROM 

Sweet  Fund 


THE  RELIGIOUS 
QUEST   OF   INDIA 


EDITED    BY 


J.  N.  FARQUHAR,  M.A. 

LITERARY   SECRETARY,    NATIONAL  COUNCIL  OF   YOUNG   MEN's 
CHRISTIAN   ASSOCIATIONS,   INDIA  AND   CEYLON 

AND 

H.  D.  GRISWOLD,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

SECRETARY   OF  THE   COUNCIL  OF   THE   AMERICAN   PRESBYTERIAN 

MISSIONS   IN   INDIA 


UNIFORM   WITH   THIS   VOLUME 
ALREADY  PUBLISHED 


INDIAN  THEISM,  FROM 
THE  VEDIC  TO  THE 
MUHAMMADAN 
PERIOD. 


By  NicoL  Macnicol,  M.A., 
D.Litt.  Pp.  xvi  +  292.  Price 
6s.  net. 


IN   PREPARATION 


THE  RELIGIOUS  LITERA- 
TURE OF  INDIA. 

THE   RELIGION    OF  THE 
RIGVEDA. 

THE  VEDANTA   . 


HINDU  ETHICS  . 


BUDDHISM    . 


ISLAM  IN  INDIA 


By  J.  N.  Farquhar,  M.A. 

By   H.  D.   Griswold,  M.A., 
Ph.D. 

By  A.  G.  Hogg,  M.A.,  Chris- 
tian College,  Madras. 

By  John  McKenzie,  M.A., 
Wilson  College,  Bombay. 

By  K.  J.  Saunders,  M.A., 
Literary  Secretary,  National 
Council  of  Y.M.C.A.,  India 
and  Ceylon. 

By  H.  a.  Walter,  M.A., 
Literary  Secretary,  National 
Council  of  Y.M.C.A.,  India 
and  Ceylon. 


EDITORIAL   PREFACE 

The  writers  of  this  series  of  volumes  on  the  variant  forms 
of  rehgious  hfe  in  India  are  governed  in  their  work  by  two 
impelHng  motives. 

I.  They  endeavour  to  work  in  the  sincere  and  sympathetic 
spirit  of  science.  They  desire  to  understand  the  perplexingly 
involved  developments  of  thought  and  life  in  India  and  dis- 
passionately to  estimate  their  value.  They  recognize  the 
futility  of  any  such  attempt  to  understand  and  evaluate, 
unless  it  is  grounded  in  a  thorough  historical  study  of  the 
phenomena  investigated.  In  recognizing  this  fact  they  do  no 
more  than  share  what  is  common  ground  among  all  modern 
students  of  religion  of  any  repute.  But  they  also  believe  that 
it  is  necessary  to  set  the  practical  side  of  each  system  in  living 
relation  to  the  beliefs  and  the  literature,  and  that,  in  this 
regard,  the  close  and  direct  contact  which  they  have  each  had 
with  Indian  religious  life  ought  to  prove  a  source  of  valuable 
light.  For,  until  a  clear  understanding  has  been  gained  of  the 
practical  influence  exerted  by  the  habits  of  worship,  by  the 
practice  of  the  ascetic,  devotional  or  occult  discipline,  by  the 
social  organization  and  by  the  family  system,  the  real  impact 
of  the  faith  upon  the  life  of  the  individual  and  the  community 
cannot  be  estimated  ;  and,  without  the  advantage  of  extended 
personal  intercourse,  a  trustworthy  account  of  the  religious 
experience  of  a  community  can  scarcely  be  achieved  by  even 
the  most  careful  student. 

II.  They  seek  to  set  each  form  of  Indian  religion  by  the  side 
of  Christianity  in  such  a  way  that  the  relationship  may  stand 
out  clear.  Jesus  Christ  has  become  to  them  the  light  of  all 
their  seeing,  and  they  believe  Him  destined  to  be  the  light  of 


iv  EDITORIAL    PREFACE 

the  world.  They  are  persuaded  that  sooner  or  later  the  age- 
long quest  of  the  Indian  spirit  for  religious  truth  and  power 
will  find  in  Him  at  once  its  goal  and  a  new  starting-point,  and 
they  will  be  content  if  the  preparation  of  this  series  contri- 
butes in  the  smallest  degree  to  hasten  this  consummation. 
If  there  be  readers  to  whom  this  motive  is  unwelcome,  they 
may  be  reminded  that  no  man  approaches  the  study  of  a 
religion  without  religious  convictions,  either  positive  or  nega- 
tive :  for  both  reader  and  writer,  therefore,  it  is  better  that 
these  should  be  explicitly  stated  at  the  outset.  Moreover, 
even  a  complete  lack  of  sympathy  with  the  motive  here 
acknowledged  need  not  diminish  a  reader's  interest  in  follow- 
ing an  honest  and  careful  attempt  to  bring  the  religions  of 
India  into  comparison  with  the  religion  which  to-day  is  their 
only  possible  rival,  and  to  which  they  largely  owe  their  pre- 
sent noticeable  and  significant  revival. 

It  is  possible  that  to  some  minds  there  may  seem  to  be 
a  measure  of  incompatibility  between  these  two  motives. 
The  writers,  however,  feel  otherwise.  For  them  the  second 
motive  reinforces  the  first :  for  they  have  found  that  he  who 
would  lead  others  into  a  new  faith  must  first  of  all  understand 
the  faith  that  is  theirs  already, —  understand  it,  moreover, 
sympathetically,  with  a  mind  quick  to  note  not  its  weaknesses 
alone  but  that  in  it  which  has  enabled  it  to  survive  and  has 
given  it  its  pov/er  over  the  hearts  of  those  who  profess  it. 

The  duty  of  the  editors  of  the  series  is  limited  to  seeing  that 
the  volumes  are  in  general  harmony  with  the  principles  here 
described.  Each  writer  is  alone  responsible  for  the  opinions 
expressed  in  his  volume,  whether  in  regard  to  Indian  religions 
or  to  Christianity. 


THE  RELIGIOUS  QUEST  OF  INDIA 

THE 

HEART  OF  JAINISM 


BY 

MRS.  SINCLAIR  STEVENSON 
M.A.;  Sc.D.  (Dublin) 

OF  THE  IRISH   MISSION   IN  GUJARAT 

SOMETIME  SCHOLAR  OF  SOMERVILLE  COLLEGE,   OXFORD 

AUTHOR   OF   'NOTES  ON   MODERN  JAINISM*,   'FIRST  STEPS  IN  GUJARATI' 

'ON  SOME  PAINTERS  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE',   ETC. 

WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION 

BY    THE 

REV.  G.  P.  TAYLOR,  M.A.,  D.D. 

PRINCIPAL  OF  STEVENSON  COLLEGE,   AHMADABAD 


HUMPHREY    MILFORD 

OXFORD    UNIVERSITY   PRESS 

LONDON     EDINBURGH    GLASGOW    NEW  YORK 

TORONTO    MELBOURNE    BOMBAY 

1 915 


Fecisti  nos  ad  te,  et  inquietum  est  cor  nostrum  donee  requiescat  in  te. 

{Conf.  Div.  Aur.  Augusttni,  i.  i.) 

BL 
1351 


TO  MY  HUSBAND 

WITH 

HAPPY  MEMORIES 

OF 

NINE  YEARS'  COMRADESHIP 

IN  WORK  AND  PLAY 


193 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

Amongst  the  many  friends,  Indian  and  English,  whose 
help  has  made  the  production  of  this  little  book  possible, 
the  writer  owes  a  special  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  Rev. 
G.  P.  Taylor,  M.A.,  D.D.,  who  years  ago  first  directed  her 
attention  to  Jainism  as  an  almost  untrodden  field  for 
research,  and  who  ever  since  has  allowed  her  to  make  the 
fullest  use  of  his  unrivalled  stores  of  oriental  scholarship  ; 
to  Mr.  J.  N.  Farquhar,  M.A.,  from  whom  she  has  received 
constant  help  and  suggestion,  especially  in  the  compilation 
of  the  Historical  Summary  and  the  paragraphs  on  Jaina 
writers ;  and  to  her  husband,  who,  when  she  was  hindered 
by  illness,  not  only  prepared  the  index,  but  also  under- 
took, together  with  Mr.  Farquhar,  the  whole  of  the  proof 
correcting. 

Amongst  her  Indian  friends,  the  writer  would  like  to 
thank  two  Jaina  pandits,  who  successively  lectured  to 
her  in  Rajkot  (Kathiawad)  almost  daily  during  a  period 
of  seven  years,  for  the  patience  and  lucidity  with  which 
they  expounded  their  creed.  Each  of  these  gentlemen, 
the  one  representing  perhaps  the  more  modern,  and  the 
other  the  more  conservative,  points  of  view,  most  kindly 
re-read  the  MS.  with  her. 

In  her  study  of  Jainism,  however,  the  writer  is  not  only 
indebted  to  pandits,  but  also  to  nuns  in  various  Apasara, 
to  officiants  in  beautiful  Jaina  temples,  to  wandering 
monks,  happy-go-lucky  Jaina  schoolboys  and  thoughtful 
students,  as  well  as  to  grave  Jaina  merchants  and  their 
delightful  wives.  Nearly  all  these  informants  spoke  Gujarat!, 


X  PREFATORY  NOTE 

but  the  technical  words  they  used  in  discussing  their 
faith  were  sometimes  of  Gujarat!,  sometimes  of  Magadhi 
and  sometimes  of  Sanskrit  origin.  This  '  use ',  which 
seems  to  be  one  of  the  idioms  of  Jainism,  the  writer  has 
tried  to  reproduce  by  transhterating  the  actual  words 
employed,  beheving  that  thus  her  work  would  retain  more 
of  the  character  of  field-study  and  have  less  of  the  odour 
of  midnight  oil  than  if  she  had  standardized  and  sanskritized 
all  the  terms. 

But  whatever  language  they  spoke,  every  one  whom  the 
writer  asked  showed  the  same  readiness  to  help  ;  indeed 
almost  every  fact  recorded  in  this  book  owes  its  presence 
there  to  the  courtesy  of  some  Jaina  friend,  and  every  page 
seems  to  the  writer  water-marked  with  some  one's  kindness. 
The  difficulty  of  the  task  has  sometimes  seemed  over- 
whelming ;  but  never  perhaps  does  the  magnificent  old 
motto  Dominus  illuminatio  mea  prove  a  greater  inspiration 
than  when  one  is  attempting  sympathetically  to  decipher 
an  alien  creed ;  and  to  no  one  does  it,  together  with  its 
sister-saying  Magna  est  Veritas  et  praevalebit,  ring  a  happier 
carillon  of  hope  than  to  the  foreign  missionary. 

MARGARET  STEVENSON. 
Dublin, 
6"/.  Patrick's  Day,  191 5. 


INTRODUCTION 

To  the  general  public  Jainism  is  little  more  than  a  mere 
name,  and  even  students  of  the  Religions  of  India  have 
often  failed  to  give  it  the  attention  it  well  may  claim.  True, 
out  of  India's  315  miUions  less  than  one  million  and  a 
quarter  (1,248,162)  to-day  profess  the  Jaina  faith,  and  the 
last  twenty  years  have  witnessed  a  steady  decrease  in  the 
number  of  its  adherents ;  but,  its  numerical  weakness 
notwithstanding,  Jainism  can  make  its  own  distinct  appeal 
for  a  more  informed  acquaintance  with  its  special  tenets. 
If  Professor  Hopkins  is  right,  and  we  believe  he  is,  in 
affirming  that  Jainism  '  represents  a  theological  mean 
between  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism  ',^  then  assuredly 
a  serious  study  of  Jainism  becomes  incumbent  on  all  who 
may  seek  to  understand  aright  either  the  early  Brahmanic 
ritual  or  the  trenchant  and  for  long  effective  Buddhist 
protest  which  that  elaborate  ritual  evoked. 

In  that  sixth  century  before  Christ  which  in  so  many 
countries  witnessed  an  earnest  aspiration  after  higher 
truths  and  nobler  lives,  the  country  of  Bihar  was  strangely 
agitated  by  the  teachings  of  not  a  few  bold  reformers,  men 
then  styled  heretics.  Mahavira,  Buddha,  Gosala,  Jamali, 
all  founded  sects  of  their  own,  and  others  there  were  who 
vied  with  these  either  in  propounding  rival  heresies  or  in 
establishing  separate  monastic  organizations.  Yet  of  all 
these  ancient  Orders  one  only  has  survived  in  India  down 
to  the  present  day,  and  that  one  is  the  Jainism  founded 
whether  by  Mahavira  himself  or  by  his  reputed  master 

^  E.  W.  Hopkins,  The  Relis^ions  of  India,  p.  283. 


xii  INTRODUCTION 

Parsvanatha.  It  were  surely  at  once  an  interesting  and  an 
instructive  study  to  search  out  the  causes  that  enabled 
Jainism  thus  to  weather  the  storms  that  in  India  wrecked 
so  many  of  the  other  faiths.  Quietly,  unobtrusively, 
Jainism  has  held  on  the  even  tenor  of  its  way  :  but  why  ? 
Here,  for  the  student  of  Comparative  Rehgion,  lies  a 
fascinating  problem.  Dr.  Hoernle's  discussion  of  this 
subject  in  his  Presidential  Address  of  1898  before  the 
Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  was  singularly  luminous,  empha- 
sizing as  it  did  the  place  accorded  from  the  very  first  to  the 
lay  adherent  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Jaina  organization. 
In  the  Buddhist  Order,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lay  element 
received  no  formal  recognition  whatsoever.  Lacking  thus 
any  '  bond  with  the  broad  strata  of  the  secular  life  of  the 
people  ',  Buddhism,  under  the  fierce  assault  on  its  monastic 
settlements  made  by  the  Moslems  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  proved  incompetent  to  maintain  itself 
and  simply  disappeared  from  the  land.  In  contrast  there- 
with, Jainism,  less  enterprising  but  more  speculative  than 
Buddhism,  and  lacking  the  active  missionary  spirit  that 
in  early  times  dominated  the  latter,  has  been  content  to 
spend  a  quiet  life  within  comparatively  narrow  borders, 
and  can  show  to-day  in  Western  and  Southern  India  not 
only  prosperous  monastic  establishments  but  also  lay 
communities,  small  perhaps,  yet  wealthy  and  influential. 
Adopting  the  terms  of  present-day  ecclesiastical  discussion, 
one  may  say  the  survival  of  the  Jainas  has  been  due  in  large 
measure  to  their  having  opened  the  doors  of  the  Synod  of 
their  Church  to  lay  representation. 

Yet  another  reason  that  well  may  attract  to  the  study 
of  Jainism  lies  in  the  fact  that  a  singular  interest  attaches 
to  its  doctrines  and  its  history.  Its  first  home  was  near 
Benares,  and  thus  lay  to  the  east  of  that  '  holy  land  '  which 
was  the  seat  of  the  Vedic  cult.  But  with  the  process  of 
years  it  has  migrated  westwards  and  northwards,  with  the 
remarkable  consequence  that  to-day  '  there  are  no  Jainas 


INTRODUCTION  xiii 

among  the  indigenous  inhabitants  of  Bengal,  which  includes 
Bihar,  where  the  religion  had  its  origin,  and  Orissa,  where 
the  caves  of  Udayagiri  and  Khandagiri  bear  witness  to  its 
popularity  in  the  early  centuries  of  our  era  '.^  While  to  the 
north  in  Mathura,  Delhi,  Jaipur,  and  Ajmer,  it  is  still  fairly 
well  represented,  the  chief  seats  of  Jaina  influence  in 
modern  times  are  the  cities  and  trading  marts  of  Western 
India.  The  mercantile  communities  of  Gujarat  and  Marwar 
owe  not  a  little  of  their  prosperity  to  Jaina  enterprise,  and 
the  Order  is  said  to  be  largely  recruited  from  the  cultivators 
in  the  Carnatic  district  of  Belgaum.  To  trace  through  the 
centuries  this  westward  trend  of  Jainism  and  to  investigate 
its  causes  were  surely  a  subject  worthy  of  engaging  the 
attention  of  students  of  the  Indian  religions. 

Again,  in  its  origin,  Jainism  was  a  protest  on  the  part  of 
the  Ksatriyas,  or  warrior  caste,  against  the  exclusiveness 
of  priests  who  desired  to  limit  entry  into  the  mendicant 
stage  [Sannydsin  Asrama)  to  persons  of  the  Brahman  caste 
alone.  As  Professor  Hopkins  graphically  puts  it,  '  The 
Kings  of  the  East  were  impatient  of  the  Western  Church  : 
they  were  pleased  to  throw  it  over.  The  leaders  in  the 
"reformation"  were  the  younger  sons  of  noble  blood  .  .  . 
they  were  princes  and  had  royalty  to  back  them.'  ^  But 
time  brings  its  revenges,  and  this  Jaina  rehgion,  cradled  in 
the  aristocracy  of  a  military  caste,  was  destined  to  become 
the  chief  exponent  of  a  grotesque  exaggeration  of  the 
principle  of  ahiiksd,  or  '  non-injury  '  to  any  living  being. 
The  explanation  of  a  change  so  radical  cannot  but  prove 
of  the  deepest  interest. 

Yet  once  again  Jainism,  with  its  explicit  belief  in  a 
plurality  of  eternal  spirits,  every  material  entity  having 
its  own  individual  spirit,  jlvdtmd,  no  less  expressly  dis- 
believes in  the  Supreme  Spirit,  the  Paramdtmd.  Jainism  is 
definitely  atheistic,  if  by  atheism  we  mean  the  denial  of 

^  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India  (New  Edition),  i.  417. 
2  E.  W.  Hopkins,  op.  cit.,  p.  282. 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

a  divine  creative  spirit.  In  the  philosophy  of  the  Jainas 
no  place  is  reserved  for  God.  Indeed  it  seems  probable 
that  the  first  Jainas  did  not  acknowledge  gods  at  all. 
They  early  taught  that  one  should  not  say  '  God  rains  ',  but 
just  '  the  cloud  rains  '.  Thus  one  of  their  fundamental 
principles  would  seem  to  have  been  that  there  is  no  power 
higher  than  man.  This  principle,  however,  it  is  instructive 
to  note,  soon  proved  unworkable,  and  it  has  long  since  been 
practically  abandoned.  The  Jainas  do  worship,  yet  are  the 
objects  of  their  worship  neither  God  nor  gods.  Denying 
God,  they  worship  man,  to  wit,  the  Venerable  {Arhat),  the 
Conqueror  {Jina),  the  Founder  of  the  (four)  Orders  [Tlrthan- 
kara).  Now  this  revolt  from  God- worship,  and  the 
acceptance  in  its  stead  of  man-worship,  this  starthng 
anticipation  of  Positivism,  may  well  claim  one's  attention, 
if  only  as  affording  some  idea  of  the  possibihties  of  intel- 
lectual frailty. 

Within  the  last  thirty  years  a  small  band  of  scholars, 
pre-eminent  amongst  whom  are  the  late  Hofrath  Professor 
Biihler,  Professor  Jacobi,  and  Dr.  Hoernle,  have  effected 
a  great  advance  in  our  knowledge  of  Jainism.  For  long 
it  had  been  thought  that  Jainism  was  but  a  sub-sect  of 
Buddhism,  but,  largely  as  a  consequence  of  the  researches 
of  the  Orientalists  just  mentioned,  that  opinion  has  been 
finally  relinquished,  and  Jainism  is  now  admitted  to  be 
one  of  the  most  ancient  monastic  organizations  of  India.  So 
far  from  being  merely  a  modern  variation  of  Buddhism, 
Jainism  is  the  older  of  the  two  heresies,  and  it  is  almost 
certain  that  Mahavira,  though  a  contemporary  of  Buddha, 
predeceased  him  by  some  fifty  years. ^  A  flood  of  light  has 
been  shed  on  the  origin  of  Jainism,  on  its  relations  both  to 
Brahmanism  and  to  Buddhism,  on  the  sects  of  the  Jainas, 

^  As  now  generally  accepted,  the  dates  are 

for  Mahavira,  599-527  B.C. 

and  for  Buddha,  557-477  B.C. 
If  these  dates  be  correct,  then  Mahavira  and  Buddha  were  for  thirty 
years  contemporaries. 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

the  '  white-clad  '  and  the  '  space-clad  '  votaries  and  the 
non-idolatrous  Sthanakavasis,  on  the  formation  of  the 
Jaina  Siddhanta  or  Canon,  and  on  the  Councils  of  Patali- 
putra  and  Vallabhi  that  legislated  regarding  the  Jaina 
Scriptures  :  also  the  highest  linguistic  scholarship  has  been 
brought  to  bear  upon  translations  of  a  few  of  the  Sacred 
Books  of  the  Jainas.  For  all  this  good  work  accomplished, 
students  of  Jainism  cannot  be  too  grateful.  But  one  whole 
department  of  this  large  subject  still  awaits  elucidation. 
One  can  learn  much  concerning  early  Jainism  and  of  its 
development  in  mediaeval  times  :  but  modern  Jainism,  its 
present-day  practices  and  its  present-day  teachings,  these 
still  remain  very  much  a  terra  incognita.  Blihler's  Indian 
Sect  of  the  Jainas  and  an  article  by  Dr.  Burgess  on  the 
Jaina  Temple  Ritual  tell  us  something,  but  very  much 
remains  untold. 

And  just  here  a  necessary  caution  should  be  given.  It 
is  not  always  safe  to  assume  that  the  meaning  a  technical 
term  bore  in  early  times  remains  the  same  in  the 
Jainism  of  to-day.  For  instance,  the  term  Tirtha-kara, 
or  Tlrthankara,  would  seem  originally  to  have  denoted 
the  man  who  has  '  made  the  passage  '  across  the  ocean 
of  worldly  illusion  {samsdra),  who  has  reached  that 
further  shore  where  he  is,  and  will  for  ever  be,  free  from 
action  and  desire  :  thus,  the  man  who  has  attained  unto 
a  state  of  utter  and  absolute  quiescence,  and  has  entered 
into  a  rest  that  knows  no  change  nor  ending,  a  passionless 
and  ineffable  peace.  But  no  Jaina  whom  I  have  ever 
consulted  has  assigned  this  meaning  to  the  word  Tlrthan- 
kara. Widely  different  is  the  explanation  given  me  by 
those  whom  I  have  asked,  and  they  all  agree.  A  Tlrthan- 
kara, they  say,  is  one  who  has  '  made  ',  has  founded,  the 
four  '  tirthas  '.  But  what  then  is  a  tirtha }  Tirtha, 
derived  from  the  root  tr^  '  to  save ',  is,  they  affirm,  a  technical 
term  indicating  '  the  means  of  salvation  ',  the  means  par 
excellence ;    and  the  caturvidha  sahgha,  or  that  '  fourfold 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

Communion  '  within  which  all  who  take  refuge  find  ultimate 
salvation,  consists  of  the  four  tirthas,  or  *  orders  ',  namely, 
those  of  (i)  sadhu  or  monk,  (2)  sadhvi  or  nun,  (3)  sravaka 
or  lay-brother,  and  (4)  sravika  or  lay-sister.  These  four 
tirthas  are  thus,  as  it  were,  four  boats  that  will  infallibly 
carry  the  passengers  they  bear  unto  the  desired  haven  of 
deliverance  [moksa).  Hence  the  Tirthankara  is  one  who 
is  the  Founder  (with  a  very  large  F)  of  the  four  '  orders  '  that 
collectively  constitute  the  Communion  or  Saiigha. 

Another  illustration  of  a  term  whose  meaning  may  have 
changed  with  time  is  Nirvana.  Originally  the  prefix  nir,  or 
nis,  was  held  to  be  intensive,  and  hence  nirvana,  from  the 
root  vd,  *  to  blow ',  came  to  mean  *  blown  out,  extinguished  '. 
Thus,  according  to  the  early  Jainas,  Nirvana  is  that  state 
in  which  the  energy  of  past  actions  {karma)  has  become 
extinguished,  and  henceforward  the  spirit  {jivdtma),  though 
still  existent  as  an  individual  spirit,  escapes  re-embodiment, 
and  remains  for  ever  free  from  new  births  and  deaths.  But 
nowadays  some  Jainas  at  least  regard  the  prefix  nir  as 
a  mere  negative,  and  thus  with  them  Nirvana  implies  that 
state  in  which  '  not  a  breath  '  reaches  the  emancipated  one. 
The  underlying  conception  is  that  of  a  constant  steady 
flame  with  '  never  a  breath  '  to  make  even  the  slightest 
tremulous  quiver. 

Evidently,  then,  the  study  of  the  Jainism  of  the  past, 
helpful  though  it  be,  does  not  of  itself  alone  suffice  to 
acquaint  one  accurately  with  the  current  phases  of  that 
faith,  and  accordingly  some  account,  more  or  less  detailed, 
of  modern  Jainism  becomes  a  distinct  desideratum.  It  is 
in  the  hope  of  supplying  this  felt  need  that  Dr.  Margaret 
Stevenson  has  prepared  the  present  volume.  She  has 
named  it  '  The  Heart  of  Jainism  ',  and  aptly  so,  for  in  the 
writing  of  it  she  has  been  careful  to  indicate  not  so  much 
the  causes  that  contributed  to  the  origin  and  development 
of  that  religion  as  the  conditions  that  now  obtain  in  it,  and 
its  present-day  observances.    The  life-blood  that  is  coursing 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

through  its  veins  and  is  invigorating  it,  this  she  seeks  to 
gauge.    She  would  fain  register,  and  not  unsympathetically, 
its  pulse-beats  and  its  heart-throbs.     For  the  execution  of 
this  self-imposed  task  Mrs.  Stevenson  has  special  qualifica- 
tions.    More  than  eight  years  ago,  on  her  arrival  as  a  bride 
in  Ahmadabad,  she  and  her  husband  visited  with  me  the 
large  Jaina  temple  erected  in  this  city  so  recently  as  1848, 
through  the  munificence  of  Seth  Hatthisirhha.     We  were 
on  that  occasion  conducted  past  the  enclosing  cloisters 
(bhamati)  with  their  fifty-two  small  shrines  to  the  inner 
court,    and   then   admitted   to   the   temple   itself,    passing 
through  first  the  open  porch  [mandapa)  and  next  the  hall 
of   assembly  [sahhd  mandapa)^  till  we  stood  on  the  very 
threshold  of  the  adytum  {gabhdro),  and  there  we  witnessed 
the  ceremonial  waving  of  lights   (draft).     The  pathos  of 
this  service  and  its  sadness  made  a  deep  impression,  and 
from  that  evening  Mrs.  Stevenson  has  been  a  keen  and 
constant    student    of    Jainism.      Her    knowledge    of    the 
Gujarat!    language    has    enabled    her    to    acquire    much 
information  at  first  hand  both  from  the  Jaina  pandits  who 
have  for  years  assisted  her  in  her  research-work,  and  from 
the  vernacular  text-books  which  have  of  late  been  issuing 
from  the  local  printing-presses.      Her  kindly  sympathies 
have  won  her  many  friends  in  the  Jaina  community,  and 
have  even  procured  her  a  welcome  entree  into  the  seclusion 
of  a  Jaina  nunnery.     Time  and  again  she  has  been  present 
by  invitation  at  Jaina  functions  seldom  witnessed  by  any 
foreigner.     Her  long  residence  in  Kathiawad  has  afforded 
her  opportunities  for  repeated  visits  to  those  marvellous 
clusters  of  stately  temples  that  crown  the  holy  hills  of 
Girnar  and  Abu  and  Satrufijaya.    In  her  admirable  Notes 
on  Modern  jfainism,  severely  simple  notes  published  five 
years  ago,  Mrs.  Stevenson  gave  us  a  first  instalment  of  the 
rich  fruits  of  her  patient  research,  but  since  then  she  has 
been  able  to  glean  a  more  abundant  harvest.     The  contri- 
bution that  she  now  offers  to  the  public  will  prove  simply 

b 


xviii  INTRODUCTION 

invaluable  to  the  Christian  missionary  and  to  the  student 
of  the  religions  of  India,  but  we  further  bespeak  for  it 
a  hearty  welcome  from  all  who  delight  in  fine  scholarship 
and  literary  grace. 

GEO.  P.  TAYLOR. 

Stevenson  College, 
Ahmadabad. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 
INTRODUCTORY      I 

The  ideal  of  Indian  thought  death,  not  life—Attraction  of 
asceticism— Revolt  against  Brahman  exclusiveness— Rise  of 
Buddhist  and  Jaina  orders. 

CHAPTER  H 
HISTORICAL  SUMMARY 7 

The  sixth  century — Mahavlra- Order  of  Parsvanatha — 
Sudharma  and  his  successors — The  great  famine  and  conse- 
quent migration  under  Bhadrabahu  to  Mysore — Sthulabhadra 
and  the  Council  of  Pataliputra — The  Canon  of  Scriptures— The 
nudity  question — Idolatry — Suhastin — Disruption  into  Svetam- 
bara  and  Digambara  sects— Council  of  Vallabhi — The  Scrip- 
tures—Zenith of  Jainism — Decline  under  Mohammedan  and 
Saiva  persecution — Rise  of  SthanakavasI  sect — Modern  con- 
ditions. 

CHAPTER  HI 

THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 21 

Birthplace — The  fourteen  dreams — Birth — Childhood  and 
legends — Initiation — Parsvanatha's  Order — Legends  of  Maha- 
vira's  asceticism — Enlightenment — Preaching — Death — Pre- 
vious incarnations. 

CHAPTER  IV 

MAHAVIRA'S  PREDECESSORS  AND  DISCIPLES     .        .      48 

Parsvanatha — The  Four  Vows  of  Parsvanatha — The  twenty- 
two  earlier  Tirthankara  : — Risabhadeva — Ajitanatha — Sam- 
bhavanatha  —  Abhinandana —  SumatinatKa — -Padmaprabhu  — 
Suparsvanatha — Candraprabhu— Suvidhinatha — Sitalanatha — 
Sreyamsanatha  — Vasupujya  —  Vimalanatha — Anantanatha — 
Dharmanatha — Santmatha — Kunthunatha — Aranatha — Malli- 
natha  —  Munisuvrata  —  Naminatha  —  Neminatha  —  The  Fol- 
lowers of  Mahavlra  : — Gosala — Gautama  Indrabhuti — Sermon 
by  Mahavlra — Sudharma. 


XX  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  V 

PAGE 

HISTORY  OF  THE  JAINA  COMMUNITY    ....      65 

The  four  Tirtha  : — Monks — Nuns — Laymen  — Lay  women — 
The  great  leaders: — Jambu  SvamI — Prabhava — Sayambhava — 
Bhadrabahu— Sthulabhadra — The  six  Srutakevali — The  Dasa- 
purvl — The  early  Schisms  :— Jamilll's — Gosala's — Avyakta, 
KsanikavadI,  and  Ganga  schisms— Mahagiri — Samprati — 
Suhastin — Susthitasuri — Indradinna — Kalikacarya — Siddha- 
sena  Divakara — VajrasvamI — Vajrasena — Digambara  schism 
— Differences  between  Svetambara  and  Digambara — Hari- 
bhadra  Suri  —  Siddhasuri — Silagunasuri  —  Bappabhattlsuri  — 
Sllilngacarya  —  Abhayadevasuri  —  Hemacarya  —  Epigraphic 
Corroboration — The  later  sects — Non-idolatrous  sects  :  Lonka  • 
— Sthanakavasl. 

CHAPTER  VI 

INTRODUCTION  TO  JAINA  PHILOSOPHY        ...      89 

Origin  of  Jaina  ideas — The  Sankhya  and  Vedanta  schools — 
The  SaptabhangI  Naya. 

CHAPTER  VH 

THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF  FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS   94 

i.  JIVA  (94) :  Prana — Divisions  of  Jiva  :  into  Siddha  and 
Saiiisari — Male,  Female  and  Neuter — Hell-beings,  Animals, 
Human  beings  and  Gods — Ekendriya,  Be-indriya,  Tri-indriya, 
Corendriya  and  Pancendriya — Prithvlkaya,  Apakaya,  Teukaya, 
Vayukaya,  Vanaspatikaya  and  Trasakaya — Two  artificial 
divisions — Lesya  division — Paryfipti  division. 

ii.  AJIVA  (106):  Arupl :  (Dharmastikaya — Adharmastikaya 
— Akasastikaya — Kala) — Rupl :  (Pudgal.astikaya). 

iii.  MERIT  (no) :  Nine  kinds  (giving  food,  drink,  clothes, 
lodging  and  bed  ;  good  wishes,  kind  acts,  kind  words  and 
reverence) — Forty-two  ways  of  enjoying  the  fruit  of  Merit. 

iv,  SIN  (116):  Eighteen  kinds  (killing,  untruth,  stinginess, 
impurity,  acquisitiveness,  anger,  pride,  deceit,  greed,  attach- 
ment, hatred,  quarrelsomeness,  slander,  tale-bearing,  criticism, 
lack  of  self-control,  hypocrisy,  false  faith) — Eighty-two  results 
of  Sin. 

v.  ASRAVA  (Channels  of  Karma)  (139):  Seventeen  major 
and  twenty-five  minor. 

vi.  SAMVARA  (Impeding  of  Karma)  (144)  :  Five  points  of 


CONTENTS  xxi 

PAGE 

good  behaviour  (Samiti) — Control  of  mind,  speech  and  body 
(Gupti) — Twenty-two  ways  of  enduring  hardship  (Parlsaha) — 
Ten  duties  of  Ascetics — Five  Rules  of  Conduct  (Caritra)— 
Twelve  important  Reflections  (Bhavana). 

vii.  BONDAGE  to  Karma  (i6i)  :  Four  kinds. 

viii.  DESTRUCTION  of  Karma  (163) :  Six  Exterior  Aus- 
terities— Six  Interior  Austerities. 

ix.  MOKSA  (169)  :  the  Siddha— Final  Bliss. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

KARMA  AND  THE  PATH  TO  LIBERATION       .         .         .173 

Four  Sources  of  Karma — Nine  ways  of  arresting  Karma — 
Eight  kinds  of  Karma — their  arrangement — Ghatin  and  Aghatin 
— Three  tenses  of  Karma — Fourteen  steps  to  Liberation. 

CHAPTER  IX 

THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA 193 

Babyhood  and  birth-ceremonies — Betrothal  and  marriage 
ceremonies — The  first  child — Death  and  funeral  ceremonies. 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND  HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  .         .     205 

-  The  Twelve  Lay  Vows  :  Five  Anuvrata  (against  killing, 
falsehood,  dishonesty,  unchastity  and  covetousness)  —  Three 
Strengthening  Vows  (limiting  travel  and  use  of  possessions 
and  guarding  against  abuses) — Four  Vows  of  Religious  Ob- 
servances—  How  the  vows  are  taken — Santharo  (Religious 
suicide) — The  eleven  Pratima — The  perfect  gentleman. 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE  JAINA  ASCETIC 225 

Initiation — Daily  duties — Begging — Confession — Leisure — 
Study — Nuns — Goraji — The  Five  Great  Vows  :  (Non-killing 
— Truth — Honesty — Chastity — Detachment) — No  meals  after 
sundown — The  ideal  monk. 

CHAPTER  XII 

THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD 239 

The  Five  Great  Ones  :  (Sadhu — Upadhyaya — Acarya — Tir- 
thankara — Siddha) — Rules  by  which  even  non-Jaina  may  reach 
Moksa— The  Three  Jewels — The  Three  Evil  Darts. 


xxii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XIII 

PAGE 

JAINAWORSHIP  AND  RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS        .        .     250 

Temple  worship  (Digambara  and  Svetambara) — Private  wor- 
ship— Jaina  holy  days — Pajjusana — Samvatsarl — Divali — 
Full-moon  fasts — Dusting  day — the  Eleventh — Saint-wheel 
worship — Days  of  Abstinence — Consecration  of  an  idol — 
Sravana  Belgola  festival — Oh — Hindu  festivals — Sraddha — 
Superstitions:  Evil  eye — Demons  and  ghosts— Plague  and 
Small-pox — Childless  women. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

JAINA  MYTHOLOGY 268 

Gods  in  Hell  and  Patala — Gods  in  Heaven — Divisions  of 
time :  AvasarpinI  and  Utsarpinl — The  twenty-four  Tirthan- 
kara  to  come. 

CHAPTER  XV 

JAINA  ARCHITECTURE  AND  LITERATURE    .         .         .279 

Wooden  buildings — Stupa — Cave-temples — The  golden  age 
of  architecture — The  shadow  of  Islam — Modern  architecture — 
Architecture  of  the  South — Jaina  writers — Hemacandra — 
Modern  literature. 

CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM 289 

Attraction  of  Christ  for  the  Jaina — Dissatisfaction  with  in- 
adequate ideals — The  problem  of  pain — Mahavira  and  Christ 
— The  lack  of  Jainism — No  Supreme  God — No  forgiveness — 
No  prayer- — No  brotherhood  of  man — Difference  in  ideas  of 
Heaven — Karma  and  Transmigration — Ahiiiisa  and  service — 
Ethics — Personality  and  Life — The  empty  Throne. 

APPENDIX 

I.  Analysis  of  the  Nine  Categories 299 

II.  The  Twenty-four  Tirthahkara  of  the  Present  Age  .         .312 

INDEX 314 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Barodia,  U.  D.,  History  and  Lite^'ature  ofjamisfn,  Bombay,  1909. 
Benarsi  Dass,  Lala,  Lecture  on  Jainisni^  Agra,  1902. 

Bhandarkar,  R.  G.,  Report  on  the  Search  for  Sanskrit  Manuscripts  in 

the  Bombay  Presidency  duri7tg  the  year  188^-4,  Bombay,  1887. 
Bombay  Gazetteer,  vol.  ix,  part  I. 

Biihler,  J.  G.,  On  the  Indian  Sect  of  the  Jai7tas  (translated  and  edited 
with  an  outline  of  Jaina  mythology  by  J.  Burgess),  London,  1903. 

Ueber  das  Leben  des  Jaifia-Monches  Heinacha7idra,  Vienna,  1889. 

Colebrooke,  H.  T.,  Miscella^ieous  Essays,  vol.  ii,  London,  1873. 

Crooke,  W.,  Article  on  Indiaft  Religions  in  the  Imperial  Gazetteer  of 
India,  vol.  i,  Oxford,  1909. 

De  Milloue,  Essai  sur  la  religion  des  fains,  Le  Museon,  Louvain,  1884. 

Encyclopedia  of  Religion   and   Ethics   (E.R.E.)  :    articles   on   Jaina 
topics. 

Girndra  Mdhdtinya  (in  Gujarati). 

Guerinot,  A.  A.,  Essai  de  bibliographic  jaitia,  Paris,  1906. 

Hoernle,  A.  F.  R.,  Annual  Address,  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  (A.S.B.), 
Calcutta,  1898. 

Uvdsagadasdo,  Calcutta,  1890. 

Hopkins,  E.  W.,  The  Religions  of  India,  Boston,  1895. 

Jacobi,  H.,  Sacred  Books  of  the  East  (S.B.E.),  vols,  xxii  and  xlv. 

The  Metaphysics  and  Ethics  of  the  fainas  (Transactions  of  the 

Congress  for  the  History  of  Religion),  Oxford,  1908. 

Edition  of  Hemacandi-a's  Parisista  Parvan  (Bibl.  Ind.),  Calcutta, 

1891. 

faina  Dha7'nia  Pravesa  Pothi  Series,  Ahmadabad,  1907  (in  Gujarati). 

Jaini,  Manak  Chand,Z2/^  of  Mahdvi7'a,  Allahabad,  1908. 

Jhaveri,  J.  L.,  First  Principles  of  fai7ia  Philosophy,  Bombay,  191 2. 

Latthe,  A.  B.,  An  Introductio7i  to  fai7iis77i,  Bombay,  1905. 

*  Seeker ',  Notes  on  the  Stha7iakivasi  or  the  non- Idolatrous  Shweta77dnxr 
fains,  India,  191 1. 

Shah,  Popatlal  K.,  Jai7ia  Dhar77ia  Ni7'upa7ia  (in  Gujarati). 


xxiv  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Smith,  Vincent  A.,  The  Early  Hist oiy  of  hidia  (third  edition),  Oxford, 

1914. 
Stevenson,  Rev.  J.,  Nava  Tatva,  London,  1848. 
Stevenson,  Mrs.  Sinclair,  Notes  o?i  Mode?Ji /(Wiisni,  Oxford,  1910. 

Weber,  A.,  Saci'ed  Literature  of  the  Jai?ias  (tr.),  Indian  Antiquary 
(I.  A.),  xvii(i888)-xxi  (1892). 

Jaina  Architecture  and  Archaeology. 

Biihler,  J.  G.    Specimens  of  Jai?ia  Sculptures  ft'ovi  Mathurd,  Epi- 
graphia  Indica,  i  (1892)  and  ii  (1894). 

Burgess,  J.,  Dii^ambara  Jai7ia  Ico?iograf)Jiy,  I.  A.,  xxxii  (1903). 

Fergusson,   J.,  History  of  India?i   afid  Eastern   Architecture   (new 
edition),  London,  1910. 

Fergusson,  J.,  and  J,  Burgess,  Cave  l^einples,  London,  1880. 

Guerinot,  A.  A.,  Repertoire  d'epigi-aphie  jaina,  Paris,  1908. 

Smith,  \^incent  A.,  A    History  of  Fi7ie  Art  in  India  and  Ceyton, 
Oxford,  191 1. 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY 

The  desire  of  India  is  to  be  freed  from  the  cycle  of  re- 
births, and  the  dread  of  India  is  reincarnation.  The  rest  that 
most  of  the  spiritual  seek  through  their  faith  is  a  state  of 
profound  and  deathlike  trance,  in  which  all  their  powers 
shall  have  ceased  to  move  or  live,  and  from  which  they  shall 
never  again  be  awakened  to  undergo  rebirth  in  this  toil- 
some and  troubled  world. 

If,  therefore,  we  would  try  reverently  and  sympatheti- 
cally to  grasp  the  inner  meaning  of  an  Indian  faith,  we 
must  put  aside  all  thought  of  the  perfectly  developed  per- 
sonality which  is  our  ideal,  and  of  the  joy  and  zest  that  come 
from  progress  made  and  powers  exercised,  and,  turning  our 
thoughts  backwards,  face  for  a  while  another  goal,  in  which 
death,  not  life,  is  the  prize,  cessation  not  development 
the  ideal. 

In  Indian  religions  as  in  ours  asceticism  has  its  place,  but 
we  must  remember  the  different  connotation  which  that 
word  bears  to  Indian  minds.  To  the  Christian,  asceticism 
is  only  a  means  to  an  end,  the  eager,  glad  decision  of  the 
athlete  to  refuse  the  lower,  if  it  clash  with  the  higher,  good. 
Far  different  is  the  Indian  ideal,  for  in  India  asceticism 
has  been  born  of  fear,  fear  of  future  rebirths  no  less  than  of 
present  ills.  To  Indian  thinkers  asceticism  is  the  beginning 
in  this  life  of  the  cessation  they  crave,  and  their  hope  is  that 
thus  one  by  one  their  powers  and  talents,  with  all  that 
leads  to  and  results  from  action,  may  drop  off,  burnt  away 
in  the  glow  of  austerity,  till  only  a  stump  of  character 
remains,  from  which  the  soul  may  easily  free  itself.  The 
unused  gifts  shrivel  up  the  quicker  if  their  owner  be  a  pro- 
fessed ascetic,  for  the  more  limited  the  sympathies  and  the 

B 


a  INTRODUCTORY 

fewer  sides  of  life  a  mortal  touches,  the  better.  All  that 
makes  for  colour  and  vividness  and  joy  in  life  must  be 
sacrificed,  and  if  through  voluntary  starvation  life  itself 
should  go,  the  less  risk  is  there  of  doing  those  actions  which 
involve  reincarnation. 

To  men  believing  thus,  the  life  of  the  professed  ascetic 
offered  irresistible  attractions.  As  such  they  were  cut  off 
from  wife  and  child,  and  from  all  the  labours  and  keen  joys 
and  sorrows  these  entail ;  clothing,  food,  or  shelter  need 
not  claim  their  thought  or  work ;  houseless  and  effortless 
they  might  wander  at  will  through  a  land  of  hospitality 
and  sunshine. 

To  understand  the  creeds  of  India  one  must,  of  course, 
remember  its  climate  :  over  a  large  part  -of  the  country, 
except  during  the  rainy  season,  when  ascetics  suspend  their 
wanderings,  it  is  always  fine  :  no  drenching  rain  and  (in  the 
greater  part  of  India)  no  biting  frost  compel  men  to  provide 
themselves  w^th  houses  or  fires.  The  intense  heat  dis- 
courages exertion  and  robs  men  of  energy,  till  rest  seems 
the  greatest  bliss  and  meditation  an  alluring  duty.  And 
then,  as  we  know  only  too  well,  the  influence  of  the  climate 
breeds  pessimism  eventually  in  the  blithest  European  or 
Indian.  In  the  east  death  and  disease  come  with  such 
tragic  swiftness,  and  famine  and  pestilence  with  such 
horrifying  frequency,  that  the  fewer  hostages  one  has  given 
to  fortune,  the  happier  is  one's  lot.^  To  the  poor  and  un- 
aided in  ancient  India  justice  was  unknown  and  life  and 
property  but  ill  secured,  just  as  we  may  see  in  many  native 
states  to  this  day.  All  these  influences,  creed,  climate, 
pessimism  and  injustice,  pressed  men  more  and  more 
towards  the  pathway  of  the  professed  ascetic's  life  ;  but 
the  door  of  this  pathway  was  barred  more  and  more  firmly 
as  time  went  on  to  every  qualification  but  that  of  birth. 

^  '  Happy  are  we,  happy  live  we  who  call  nothing  our  own  ;  when 
Mithila  is  on  fire,  nothing  is  burnt  that  belongs  to  me.'  Uttarddhya- 
yafiii,  S.  B.  E.,  xlv,  p.  37. 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

Unless  a  man  had  been  born  a  Brahman,^  he  must  remain 
in  all  the  hurry,  sorrow  and  discontent  of  the  world,  until  his 
life's  end  ;  but  to  a  Brahman  the  way  of  escape  was  always 
open ;  he  must  pass  through  the  four  Asrama  (or  stages), 
and  having  been  successively  a  student,  a  householder, 
and  a  hermit,  spend  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  as  a 
wandering  mendicant. 

There  must  have  been  constant  revolts  against  the  ex- 
clusiveness  that  so  selfishly  barred  the  door  to  other  castes, 
and  echoes  more  or  less  clear  of  such  revolts  have  come 
down  to  us,  but  only  two  were  really  permanent — the 
revolt  of  the  Buddhists  and  the  revolt  of  the  Jaina.  The 
Buddhists  are  scarcely  found  any  longer  in  India  proper, 
but  the  Jaina  exist  as  an  influential  and  wealthy  community 
of  laymen  who  support  a  large  body  of  ascetics,  the  only 
example  of  the  early  mediaeval  monastic  orders  of  India 
which  has  survived  to  our  day. 

Both  Buddhist  and  Jaina  orders  arose  about  the  same 
time,  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  a  period  when  the  constant 
wars  between  various  little  kingdoms  must  have  made  the 
lot  of  the  common  people  hideous  with  suffering  and  oppres- 
sion ;  and  a  man  might  well  have  longed  to  escape  from  all 
fear  of  rebirth  into  such  a  sorrowful  world,  and  have  hoped, 
by  renouncing  everything  that  could  be  taken  from  him, 
and  by  voluntarily  stripping  himself  of  all  possessions  and  all 
emotions,  to  evade  the  avaricious  fingers  of  king  or  fortune.^ 

About  this  time,  too,  a  wave  of  religious  feeling  was  making 
itself  felt  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  India  has  always 
been  peculiarly  susceptible  to  psychic  emotions. 

^  Some  European  scholars  doubt  this,  but  all  the  Jaina  the  writer 
has  met  believe  it  most  strongly ;  and  the  aim  of  this  book  throughout 
is  to  present  the  Jaina  point  of  view  and  to  reflect  current  Jaina 
opinions. 

^  '  At  one  time,  his  manifold  savings  are  a  large  treasure.  Then  at 
another  time,  his  heirs  divide  it,  or  those  who  are  without  a  living 
steal  it,  or  the  king  takes  it  away,  or  it  is  ruined  in  some  wayor  other, 
or  it  is  consumed  by  the  conflagration  of  the  house.'  Acardhga 
Sutra,  S,  B.  £".,  xxii,  p.  20. 

B  2 


4  INTRODUCTORY 

The  fact  of  being  debarred  from  entering  the  ascetic  life 
through  the  recognized  stages  and  of  being  treated  as  in 
every  way  inferior  was  naturally  most  keenly  felt  by  those 
in  the  caste  next  below  the  Brahmans,  the  clever,  critical 
Ksatriya,^  and  it  is  from  the  ranks  of  these  that  the  Jaina 
as  well  as  the  Buddhist  reformers  sprang. 

Sacrifice  was  another  occasion  of  quarrelling  between  the 
two  castes.  The  Ksatriya  claimed  that  in  old  days  they 
had  been  allowed  to  take  part  with  the  Brahmans  in  the 
sacrifices  from  which  they  were  now  shut  out ;  but  the 
whole  feeling  about  sacrifice  was  altering.  As  the  Aryan 
invaders  settled  down  in  India,  they  grafted  on  to  their 
original  faith  much  from  the  darker  creeds  belonging  to  the 
lands  and  people  they  conquered,  and  gradually  lost  the 
child-like  joy  of  the  earlier  Vedic  times.  The  faith  of  the 
woodland  peoples  inspired  them  with  the  idea  that  all 
things — animals,  insects,  leaves  and  clods — were  possessed 
of  souls  ;  and  this,  together  with  the  growing  weight  of 
their  belief  in  transmigration,  gave  them  a  shrinking  horror 
of  taking  life  in  any  form,  whether  in  sacrifice^  or  sport, 
lest  the  blood  of  the  slain  should  chain  them  still  more 
firmly  to  the  wheel  of  rebirth.  So  they  came  to  dislike 
both  the  creed  and  the  pretensions  of  their  own  priests, 
and  the  times  were  indeed  ripe  for  revolt. 

The  Brahmans  declared  that  their  supremacy  and  their 
sacrifices  were  based  on  the  Vedas,  so  the  authority  of  the 
Vedas  was  denied  by  the  new  thinkers.  The  Brahmans 
claimed  that  the  four  castes  had  been  created  from  the 
mouth,  arms,  thighs  and  feet  of  the  Creator,  thus  ensuring 
the  supremacy  of  that  caste  which  had  issued  from  the 

^  It  seems  probable  that  the  atheistic  (anti-Brahmanic)  system  of 
philosophy — the  Sankhya — also  arose  amongst  the  Ksatriya.  Jaina 
philosophy,  as  we  shall  see  later,  has  much  in  common  with  this. 

2  '  The  binding  of  animals  (to  the  sacrificial  pole),  all  the  Vedas, 
and  sacrifices,  being  causes  of  sin,  cannot  save  the  sinner  ;  for  his 
works  (or  Karman)  are  very  powerful.'  Uttaradhyayana,  S.  B.  £"., 
xlv,  p.  140. 


\ 


INTRODUCTORY  5 

highest  portion,  i.  e.  the  Brahmans  who  came  from  the 
god's  mouth.  So  the  reformers  proceeded  to  deny  the  exis- 
tence of  a  creator,  feeling  that,  if  that  creator  had  existed, 
not  only  would  he  be  responsible  for  the  superiority  of 
the  Brahmans  but  also  for  all  the  sorrows  that  darkened 
existence. 

From  the  birth-story  of  their  great  founder  one  school  of 
reformers — the  Jaina — proved  that  it  was  a  greater  honour 
to  be  born  of  a  Ksatriya  than  of  a  Brahman  mother. 
Indeed  all  through  the  Jaina  sacred  books  one  comes  across 
traces  of  this  antagonism  to  Brahmans  and  to  Brahmanic 
practices  such  as  bathing,^  divination,^  &c.,  and  one  whole 
chapter,  '  The  True  Sacrifice  ',^  is  directly  written  against 
them. 

The  Brahmanic  ascetic  had  to  pass  through  four  stages, 
but  once  the  door  of  asceticism  was  forced  open  by  rebels 
like  the  Jaina,  it  was  opened  as  widely  as  possible,  and  the 
postulant  was  allowed  to  leap  the  intervening  stages  and 
become  a  wandering  mendicant  at  once,  if  he  so  willed. 

Having  declared  against  birth  exclusiveness,  the  Jaina 
were  bound  to  find  some  other  hall-mark  of  worth,  and  for 
this  purpose  they  laid  stress  on  karma,  A  man's  karma* — 
his  actions — not  his  caste,  they  declared,  was  of  supreme  im- 
portance, but  from  this  position  they  have  since  backslidden, 
as  they  themselves  lament,  and  it  rests  with  the  Jaina  of 
to-day  to  free  themselves  from  the  shackles  of  caste  which 
they  have  allowed  to  rebind  them,  and  once  more  to  restate 
this  fundamental  tenet  of  their  creed. 

It  must  always  be  remembered  that  Jainism,  though 
a  rebellious  daughter,  is  none  the  less  a  daughter  of  Brah- 
manism,  many  of  whose  leading  beliefs  are  still  held  by  the 

^  Suti'akritahga^  S.  B.  E.,  xlv,  p.  294. 

^  Ibid.,  p.  366. 

^  Uttaradhyayana^  S.B.  E.,  xlv,  p.  136  ff. 

*  '  By  one's  ^actions  one  becomes  a  Brahmana  or  a  Kshattriya  or 
a  Vaisya  or  a  Sudra  .  .  .  him  who  is  exempt  from  all  Karman  we  call 
a_  Brahmana.'  Uttarddhyaya7ia^  S.B.E.,  xlv,  p.  1 40.  See  also 
Acdraiiga  Siltra^  S.  B.E,,  xxii,  p.  45. 


6  INTRODUCTORY 

Jaina,  while  much  of  their  worship  exactly  resembles  Hindu 
worship,  and  their  domestic  chaplains,  though  not  their 
temple  officiants,  are  still  Brahmans ;  in  fact  both  faiths 
must  be  studied  if  Jainism  is  to  be  understood.  One 
might  even  suggest  that  one  of  the  easiest  approaches  to 
the  study  of  the  boundless  creed  of  Hinduism  would  be 
through  the  study  of  its  more  clearly  defined  and  less 
nebulous  offspring,  Jainism. 


CHAPTER  II 

HISTORICAL  SUMMARY 

Early  Indian  history  as  yet  resembles  those  maps  of  our 
grandfathers  in  which 

Geographers  for  lack  of  towns 
Drew  elephants  on  pathless  downs. 

The  genius  of  the  people  of  India  does  not  lie  in  historical 
research  :  to  them  metaphysical  thought  is  the  chief  end 
of  man,  and  they  are  content  to  leave  to  Western  scholars 
the  task  of  filling  in  the  large  gaps  of  unexplored  country 
in  their  history.  It  is  the  misfortune  of  Jainism  that  so 
much  of  its  life-story  falls  within  these  unexplored  tracts 
of  time,  and,  though  the  Jaina  have  kept  historical  records* 
of  their  own,  it  is  very  difficult  to  correlate  these  records 
with  known  facts  in  the  world's  history. 

Modern  research  seems  to  have  proved  that  this  great 
monastic  fraternity  arose  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  centuryB.c, 
and  one  of  its  great  claims  to  interest  lies  in  the  fact  that 
enshrined  in  its  rules  and  precepts  it  has,  like  some  slow 
moving  glacier,  brought  down  to  this  materialistic  century 
the  thoughts  of  a  time  when  men,  ignoring  the  present, 
were  ready  to  stake  their  all  on  a  future  life.  Originating 
amongst  a  people  whose  trade  was  war,  it  has  laid  greater 
emphasis  on  the  duty  of  mercy  and  the  evils  of  killing  than 
any  sect  save  the  Friends  ;  its  founder  was  an  aristocrat, 
but  it  has  met  with  greatest  acceptance  amongst  the  middle 
classes  ;  and  though  an  unworldly  faith,  whose  highest 
precept  it  is  to  discard  all  wealth  as  dross,  it  has  nevertheless 
won  its  adherents  from  a  class  famed  throughout  India 
for  their  love  of  gain  and  their  reluctance  to  part  with 


8  HISTORICAL  SUMMARY 

money,  and  induced  these  close-fisted  merchants  to  support 
out  of  their  largesse  a  large  body  of  religious  mendicants. 
Indeed  it  would  be  impossible  to  imagine  any  creed  or  rule 
of  conduct  which,  prima  facie,  would  seem  so  little  likely  to 
appeal  to  a  constituency  of  cautious,  middle-class  bankers 
and  shopkeepers.  Yet  even  to-day  Jaina  men  and  women 
are  renouncing  everything  for  the  sake  of  an  idea  with 
a  heroism  that  has  all  the  romance  of  the  early  Rajput  days, 
when  kings  and  nobles  vied  with  one  another  to  enter  the 
order ;  and  to  this  wealth  of  devotion,  this  still  surviving 
power  of  renunciation,  the  religion  of  the  Cross  must 
eventually  make  a  victorious  appeal. 

It  may  make  for  clearness  to  state  quite  baldly  the  few 
facts  which  we  do  know  about  Jaina  history,  taking,  as  it 
were,  a  bird's-eye  glance  over  it  from  a  European  stand- 
point, before  we  look  at  it  from  the  Jaina  point  of  view. 

Mahavira,  the  great  hero  of  the  Jaina,  was  born  the 
second  son  of  a  Ksatriya  chieftain,  in  Magadha  (the  modern 
Bihar),  then  the  most  powerful  state  in  India.  According 
to  Jaina  tradition,  he  was  born  in  599  and  died  in  527  b.  c.^ 
Many  modern  scholars  think  these  dates  are  somewhat  too 
early,  and  are  inclined  to  place  his  death  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifth  century,  but  absolute  certainty  is  not  yet 
attainable.  When  he  was  thirty  years  of  age,  he  entered 
a  previously  established  order,  that  of  Parsvanatha,  but 
left  it  after  twelve  months  and  spent  the  following  eleven 
years  in  preaching  his  Law  of  Renunciation,  albeit  with 
little  acceptance.  Then  came  the  high  tide  of  success, 
and  during  the  last  thirty  years  of  his  life  men  and  women 
from  the  lands  east  of  '  the  middle  country '  crowded  into 
his  order.  His  adherents  were  drawn  chiefly  from  the 
Ksatriya  aristocracy,  with  whom  he  was  connected  through 
his  mother  by  ties  of  kinship.  The  great  ascetic  pro- 
ceeded to  organize  all  his  followers  into  a  regular  com- 
munity containing  lay  as  well  as  monastic  members  of 

^  Other  traditions  give  545  and  467. 


HISTORICAL  SUMMARY  9 

both  sexes;  and  at  his  death  it  contained  more  than  14,000 
monks. 

Under  Mahavlra's  influence  members  of  two  differing 
opinions  had  joined  the  order,  those  who  held  with  the 
great  leader  that  the  complete  abandonment  of  possessions 
involved  the  giving  up  of  all  clothing,  and  also  members 
of  another  and  earlier  order,  that  of  Parsvanatha,  who 
felt  that  some  covering  was  a  necessity  and  stopped  short 
of  this  extreme  of  Renunciation.  For  long  after  the 
founder's  death  the  sections  cohered  together,  and  the 
genius  of  Mahavira  in  adapting  his  order  to  the  need  of 
the  times  was  shown  in  the  numbers  of  harassed  men 
and  women  who  crowded  into  it,  finding  in  the  renuncia- 
tion of  all  things — property,  affections  and  emotions — the 
surest  refuge  from  the  trials  and  changes  of  this  mortal  life. 

The  Jaina  sometimes  speak  of  Mahavira's  order  as  a  pro- 
test against  caste  exclusiveness  as  such,  but  some  European 
scholars  hold  that  it  was  rather  a  protest  of  Ksatriya 
against  Brahman  ;  and  the  present  practices  of  the  Jaina 
community  would  seem  to  uphold  this  view,  for  the  modern 
Jaina  is  as  fast  bound  as  his  Hindu  brother  in  the  iron 
fetters  of  caste. 

But,  whatever  its  origin  may  have  been,  the  order  after  the 
death  of  Mahavira  continued  to  flourish  under  the  rule  of  the 
great  ascetic's  disciple,  Sudharma,  and  his  successors,  as 
we  shall  learn  from  our  study  of  Jaina  legends  and  history. 

Unlike  Buddhism,  Jainism  has  never  spread  beyond  the 
borders  of  India.  A  religion  which,  by  its  very  nature,  is 
one  of  intense  individualism,  feels  little  responsibility  for 
another's  soul  and  spends  its  energy  on  saving  itself,  is  not 
likely  to  spread  rapidly  or  far  ;  yet,  as  we  shall  see,  Jainism 
did  gradually  extend  over  the  whole  of  India. 

In  particular  it  is  plain  that  it  found  its  way  into  Mysore 
and  the  Tamil  country  at  a  very  early  date.  We  shall  study 
later  the  literary  and  artistic  results  of  the  predominance 
of  this  religion   in   the   south  during  the  early  centuries 


lo  HISTORICAL  SUMMARY 

of  the  Christian  era.  The  following  tradition  is  given  by 
Jaina  authorities  as  the  reason  for  this  early  transplanting 
of  the  faith  to  such  a  distance.  There  is  no  conclusive 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  narrative,  and  some  modern 
scholars  think  it  a  pure  invention  ;  yet  it  links  itself  so 
closely  and  naturally  to  later  facts,  that  it  is  safer  to  say 
that  it  is  probably,  though  not  certainly,  historic. 

Some  two  centuries  after  Mahavira's  death,  according 
to  this  story,  a  terrible  famine  visited  Magadha,  which  had 
been  the  scene  of  his  labours.  Year  after  year  the  monsoon, 
on  which  the  fertility  of  the  land  depends,  failed,  until  at 
length  all  the  accumulated  stores  of  grain  were  consumed, 
and  it  became  apparent  that  the  country  had  no  longer  any 
superfluity,  out  of  which  to  provide  for  a  large  body  of 
mendicants.  Accordingly  half  the  community,  under  the 
leadership  of  Bhadrabahu,  moved  off  towards  the  south  ' 
and  settled  in  Mysore  ;  and  as  the  famine  lasted  for  twelve 
years,  they  were  able  to  establish  their  faith  in  all  that 
region.  We  are  also  told  that  the  emigrants  were  accom- 
panied to  Mysore  by  Candragupta,  the  first  Emperor  of 
India,  and  founder  of  the  Maurya  Dynasty,  whom  the  Jaina 
claim  as  a  co-religionist.  They  add  that  he  committed 
rehgious  suicide  by  self-starvation  at  Sravana  Belgola.  If 
the  tradition  is  trustworthy,  the  date  of  the  migration 
must  be  placed  c.  298  or  296  b.c,  for  Bindusara  succeeded 
Candragupta  about  that  time. 

This  period  is  perhaps  the  most  important  in  Jaina 
history ;  for  not  only  did  it  lead  to  the  establishment  of 
Jainism  in  the  south,  but  it  is  also  the  time  of  the  fixing 
of  the  earliest  canon  of  Jaina  scripture. 

Tradition  says  that  all  the  monks  did  not  migrate  to  the 
south  ;  some,  under  the  leadership  of  Sthulabhadra,  pre- 
ferred to  cling  at  any  risk  to  the  hallowed  scenes  of  their 
Holy  Land.  It  was  perhaps  easier  for  the  minority  to  carry 
things  through  than  it  would  have  been  for  the  whole  un- 
wieldy body  ;  or  it  may  have  been  that  the  death  of  many 


HISTORICAL  SUMMARY  ii 

of  their  members  through  famine  warned  their  leaders  on 
how  precarious  a  footing  the  memoriter  knowledge  of  their 
sacred  books  stood.  However  this  may  be,  Sthulabhadra 
summoned  a  council  of  monks  early  in  the  third  century 
B.C.  at  Pataliputra,  the  modern  Patna,  a  place  historic  in 
the  annals  of  their  order  and  at  that  time  the  capital  of 
the  Maurya  Empire.  This  council  fixed  the  canon  of  the 
Jaina  sacred  literature,  consisting  of  the  eleven  Ahga  and 
the  fourteen  Purva.  It  seems  likely  that  the  books  were 
not  committed  to  writing  at  this  time,  but  were  still  pre- 
served in  the  memories  of  the  monks.  The  action  of  the 
council  would  thus  be  limited  to  settling  what  treatises 
were  authoritative.  Unfortunately,  as  we  shall  see  later, 
the  sects  do  not  quite  agree  as  to  what  is  meant  by  the 
eleven  Anga  and  the  fourteen  Purva,  so  that  the  work  of 
the  famous  council  of  Pataliputra  did  not  carry  the  weight 
which  Sthulabhadra  hoped  it  would  have  done. 

During  this  period  not  only  was  Jainism  established  in 
■  the  south  and  the  canon  of  the  Scriptures  fixed  in  the  north, 
but  also  the  famous  clothQS-versus-nndity  question  was 
raised,  never  again  to  be  laid.  We  are  told  that,  when  at 
last  the  famine  was  over  and  the  real  head  of  the  order,  Bha- 
drabahu  or  his  successor,  could  bring  some  of  his  travelled 
mendicants  back  from  the  south  to  the  original  home 
of  their  order,  he  found  that  the  home-keeping  minority 
had  all  adopted  some  form  of  clothing ;  and,  though  the 
actual  schism  did  not  take  place  until  two  more  centuries 
had  passed,  the  unity  of  the  order  was  lost  for  ever,  and  any 
whole-hearted  agreement  on  such  a  question  as  the  canon 
of  their  scriptures  was  never  again  possible. 

As  the  Jaina  laity  had  been  drawn  away  from  Hinduism 
by  their  adhesion  to  Mahavira,  they  were  left  without  any 
stated  worship.  Gradually,  however,  reverence  for  their 
master  and  for  other  teachers,  historical  and  mythical, 
passed  into  adoration  and  took  the  form  of  a  regular  cult. 
Finally,  images  of  these  adored  personages  were  set  up  for 


12  HISTORICAL  SUMMARY 

worship,  and  idolatry  became  one  of  the  chief  institutions 
of  orthodox  Jainism.  The  process  was  precisely  parallel 
to  what  happened  in  Buddhism.  It  is  not  known  when 
idols  were  introduced,  but  it  was  probably  in  the  second  or 
first  century  B.C. 

The  third  and  second  centuries  B.C.  must  have  been 
a  period  of  great  activity  amongst  the  Jaina.  Under  Asoka 
the  religion  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Kashmir. 
Under  Suhastin,  the  great  ecclesiastical  head  of  the  order 
in  the  second  century,  Jainism  received  many  marks  of 
approbation  from  Samprati,  grandson  of  Asoka.  Inscrip- 
tions show  that  it  was  already  very  powerful  in  Orissa  in 
the  second  century  and  in  Mathura  in  the  north-west  in 
the  first  century  b.  c.  The  history  is  not  known  in  detail, 
but  it  is  clear  that  after  the  Christian  era  the  faith  spread 
over  the  whole  of  the  west  and  rose  to  great  prominence 
and  power  in  Gujarat.  We  have  also  evidence  of  its  activity 
in  most  parts  of  Southern  India  during  the  first  millen-  « 
nium  of  the  Christian  era.  M 

The  next  important  event  in  Jaina  history  is  the  great 
schism  and  the  final  division  into  Svetambara  (white- 
clothed)  and  Digambara  (atmosphere-clad,  i.e.  nude)  sects 
which  took  place  in  a.  d.  79  or  82.  The  Jaina  have  many 
legends  to  account  for  the  division  taking  place  when  it  did  ; 
but,  whatever  the  reason,  the  depth  of  the  cleavage  between 
the  two  parties  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  nowadays  every 
sect  adds  after  its  own  particular  designation  the  name  of 
one  of  these  two  great  parties  to  which  it  adheres.  For  in- 
stance, the  members  of  the  modern  non-idolatrous  sect,  the 
SthanakavasI,  call  themselves  Sthanakavasi  Svetambara, 
though  it  would  seem  to  us  that  in  having  no  idols  they 
differ  from  the  Svetambara  far  more  than  the  Svetambara 
differ  from  the  Digambara. 

In  the  meantime  the  sacred  literature  of  the  Jaina  was 
in  a  thoroughly  unsatisfactory  state,  and  was  in  real  danger 
of  being  entirely  lost.     Owing  to  the  conversion  or  patron- 


HISTORICAL  SUMMARY  13 

age  of  western  kings  the  centre  of  Jainism  was  gradually 
changing  from  Bihar  to  Gujarat,  and  so  when  the  great 
council  of  A.D.  454-^  came  together,  it  was  summoned  not 
in  the  historic  land  of  Magadha  but  in  the  western  country- 
won  for  the  Jaina  faith  by  missionary  effort.  The  place 
chosen  was  Vallabhi,  near  Bhavnagar,  and  the  president 
of  the  council  was  Devarddhi.  So  far  the  Svetambara 
and  Sthanakavasi  sects  concur,  though  they  do  not  agree 
as  to  the  canon  of  the  scriptures  then  determined.  In 
Kathiawad  at  the  present  time  there  are  at  least  eleven 
sub-sects  amongst  the  Sthanakavasi  Jaina  and  eighty-four 
amongst  the  Svetambara,  and  these  hold  differing  views 
as  to  the  correct  list  of  books  rightly  comprised  in  their 
canon.  Curiously  enough  they  do  not  seem  much  to  study 
the  sacred  texts  themselves,  but  usually  content  themselves 
with  quoting  lists  of  the  names  of  their  books.  It  will 
perhaps  suffice  for  our  purpose  if  we  note  one  such  list 
from  amongst  those  that  have  been  given  to  the  writer. 

A.  The  Eleven  Anga. 

1.  Acaranga  Sutra. 

2.  Suyagadahga  (Sutrakritaiiga)  Sutra. 

3.  Thananga  (Sthanahga)  Sutra. 

4.  Samavayahga  Sutra. 

5.  BhagavatijI  or  Vivihapannanti. 

6.  Jfiatadharma  Kathafiga. 

7.  Upasaka  Dasanga. 

8.  Antagada  Dasanga  (Antakritahga). 

9.  Anuttarovavai  Dasanga  (Anuttaropapatika). 

10.  Prasna  Vyakarana. 

11.  Vipaka  Sutra. 

B.  Twelve  Updnga. 

1.  Uvavai  (Aupapatika). 

2.  RayapasenI  (Rajaprasniya). 

3.  Jivabhigama. 

^  Other  traditions,  however,  put  the  date  as  late  as  a.d.  467  or  even 
A.D.  513. 


14  HISTORICAL  SUMMARY 

4.  Pannavaqa  (Prajfiapana). 

5.  Jambudivapannati  (Jambudvipaprajfiapti). 

6.  Candapannati  (Candraprajnapti). 

7.  Surapannati  (Suryaprajnapti). 

8.  Niravalia  (Nirayavali)  (according  to  other  lists, 

Kappla). 

9.  Kappavadlsayya  (Kalpavantasika). 

10.  Pupphiya  (Puspaka). 

11.  Puppaculia  (Puspaculika). 

12.  Vanhidasa. 

C.  Six  Chedagrantha  (or  Five  Chedagrantha). 

1.  Vyavahara  Sutra. 

2.  Brihatkalpa  (Vrihatkalpa). 

3.  Dasasrutaskandha. 

4.  Nisitha. 

5.  Mahanisitha.^ 

6.  Jitakalpa.^ 

Four  Millagrantha  (according  to  the  Svetambara  canon). 

1.  DasavaikaHka. 

2.  Uttaradhyayana. 

3.  Avasyaka. 

4.  Oghaniryuti. 

Four  Mulagrantha  (according  to  the  Sthanakavasi  canon). 

1.  DasavaikaHka. 

2.  Uttaradhyayana. 

3.  Nandl  Sutra. 

4.  Anuyogadvara. 

This  completes  the  Sthanakavasi  canon,  but  the  Svetam- 
bara also  accept  the  following  : — 
Ten  Pay  amid  (or  Prakirna). 

1.  Causarana  (Catuhsarana). 

2.  Santhara  (Sanstaraka)  Payanna. 

^  Sthanakavasi  Jaina  do  not  recognize  the  MahanisTtha  or  the 
Jitakalpa. 

^  Some  Svetambara  Jaina  do  not  accept  the  Jitakalpa,  but  add 
another  Mulagrantha. 


HISTORICAL  SUMMARY  15 

3.  Tandulaveyalla  (Tandulavaicarika). 

4.  Candavijaya  (Candravedhyaka). 

5.  Ganlvijaya  (Ganividya). 

6.  Devindathuo  (Devendrastava). 

7.  Virathuo  (Virastava). 

8.  Gacchacara. 

9.  Jyotikaranda  (Jyoti§karandaka). 

10.  Ayuhpaccakhana  (Aturapratyakhyana). 

In  certain  other  lists  the  Svetambara  canon  is  made  to 
contain  eighty-four  books  by  adding  twenty  more  Payanna, 
twelve  Niryukti,  and  nine  miscellaneous  works,  including  the 
Kalpa  Sutra,  which  is  held  in  special  honour  among  the 
Svetambara.  Both  Svetambara  and  Sthanakavasi  agree 
that  there  were  originally  twelve  Ahga,  but  that  the  twelfth 
or  Dristivada  Anga,  containing  an  account  of  the  fourteen 
Purva,  has  been  lost. 

What  is  the  relation  of  the  new  canon  to  the  old  ?  It  is 
probable  that  the  Anga  of  the  later  correspond  to  those 
of  the  original  canon  ;  but  it  is  also  probable  that  during 
the  centuries  they  underwent  many  changes.  Jaina  tra- 
dition acknowledges  that  all  the  Purva  were  lost  at  quite 
an  early  date.  The  other  books  are  doubtless  of  later  origin; 
yet  even  they  rest  on  early  tradition  and  probably  contain 
a  good  deal  of  early  material. 

The  original  canon  was  not  written,  but  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  individual  monks  used  writing  to  aid  memory  long 
before  the  second  codification.  It  seems  certain  that  in 
A.D.  454  the  whole  canon  was  reduced  to  writing,  and  that 
a  large  number  of  copies  were  made,  so  that  no  monastery 
of  any  consequence  should  be  without  one. 

The  Jaina  are  very  proud  of  the  fact  that  their  scriptures 
were  not  written  in  Sanskrit  but  in  '  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant, the  best  preserved,  and  the  most  copious  of  all  the 
Prakrit  dialects  \^  that  of  Ardha-Magadh! ;   that  is  to  say, 

*  hnperial  Gazetteer  of  hidia^  ii,  p.  261. 


i6  HISTORICAL  SUMMARY 

not  in  the  language  of  the  learned  but  of  the  common 
people ;  and  we  who  have  our  scriptures  and  our  book  of 
Common  Prayer  in  our  mother  tongue  can  understand 
their  pride. 

The  Svetambara  do  not,  as  a  rule,  allow  their  scriptures 
to  be  read  by  laymen,  or  even  by  nuns,  but  restrict  the 
study  of  them  to  monks.  The  laity  seem  to  read  chiefly 
a  book  composed  of  quotations  from  their  scriptures.  The 
Sthanakavasi  are  not  so  strict,  and  allow  most  of  their  sacred 
books  to  be  read  by  the  laity,  but  not  the  Chedagraiitha, 
which  they  say  were  intended  for  the  professed  alone.  The 
most  popular  of  the  books  amongst  the  Sthanakavasi  laity 
are  the  Updsaka  Dasdnga,  the  Acdrdnga  Sutra,  and  the 
Dasavaikdlika.  To  judge  by  their  preaching  and  lectures 
the  Kalpa  Sutra  would  seem  to  be  the  scripture  most  studied 
by  the  Svetambara  sadhus. 

The  Digambara  canon  differs  so  entirely  from  the 
Svetambara  that  it  does  not  seem  probable  that  the  sect 
was  represented  at  the  great  council  of  a.  d.  454. 

They  call  their  scriptures  their  Four  Veda,  and  members 
of  their  community  at  Mount  Abu  and  at  Palitana  gave 
the  writer  a  list  of  them  in  the  following  order  : 

1.  Prathamanuyoga. 

2.  Karananuyoga. 

3.  Carananuyoga. 

4.  Dravyanuyoga. 

Professor  Jacobi  adduces  in  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  the 
Jaina  scriptures,  amongst  other  things,  the  fact  that  they 
contain  no  reference  to  Greek  astrology  which  was  intro- 
duced into  India  in  the  third  or  fourth  century  a.  d. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  it  seems  probable  that,  though 
the  canon  of  the  scriptures  had  been  fixed  in  300  b.  c.  by  the 
council  of  Pataliputra,  they  had  not  all  been  committed  to 
writing,  but  had  generally  been  handed  down  by  word  of 
mouth  from  teacher  to  disciple ;  the  result,  however,  of  the 


HISTORICAL  SUMMARY  17 

council  of  Vallabhi  was  the  enshrining  of  the  sacred  lore  in 
manuscript  books.  To  this  day  the  manuscript  scriptures 
are  considered  more  sacred  than  those  which  have  been 
printed — the  writer  has  sometimes  seen  a  little  pile  of  rice 
placed  before  a  bookcase  to  do  honour  to  the  manuscript 
scriptures  it  contained. 

■  The  zenith  of  Jaina  prosperity  lasted  from  the  council 
of  Vallabhi  down  to  the  thirteenth  century.  Strangely 
enough  the  years  that  witnessed  the  decHne  and  fall  of 
Buddhism  saw  the  spread  both  in  the  west  and  south  of  its 
rival  faith,  and  though  Jainism  almost  vanished  from 
Bihar,  the  land  of  its  birth,  yet  in  the  west  it  became  the 
court  religion.  The  events  of  these  happy  centuries  are 
enshrined,  as  we  shall  see,  in  the  legends  that  are  still  current 
amongst  the  Jaina,  and  more  abiding  monuments  to  this 
epoch  of  prosperity  remain  in  the  books  that  were  written 
and  the  temples  erected  in  the  sunshine  of  royal  favour. 

The  princely  names  the  Jaina  best  love  to  recall  in  this 
connexion  are  Mandalika,  a  king  of  Surastra  (Kathiawad) 
about  A.  D.  1059,  who  repaired  the  temple  of  Neminatha  on 
Mt.  Girnar ;  Siddharaja  Jayasimha,  a  king  of  Gujarat 
(died  A.  D.  1125),  the  first  patron  of  Hemacandra,  who 
often  went  on  pilgrimage  to  Girnar,  and  his  successor 
Kumarapala  (a.  d.  1125-59)  whom  the  Jaina  claim  to  have 
been  converted  to  their  faith, ^  and  who  is  said  to  have 
estabhshed  Jainism  as  the  state  religion. 

But  the  decline  of  Jainism  was  close  at  hand.  The 
Jaina  attribute  the  first  destruction  of  their  temples  to 
the  hostility  of  the  Brahmans,  especially  under  Ajayapala, 
A.D.  1174-6,  but  the  injuries  he  inflicted  were  as  nothing 
to  the  devastation  wrought  by  the  Mohammedans.  As  the 
Irish  execrate  the  name  of  Cromwell,  so  did  the  Jaina  that 
of  Ala-ud-din — '  the  Bloody  ' — who  conquered  Gujarat 
A.D.  1297-8. 

^  At  any  rate  he  built  thirty-two  temples  to  atone  for  the  sins  of  his 
teeth  ! 


t8  historical  summary 

He  razed  many  of  their  temples  to  the  ground,  massacred 
their  communities  and  destroyed  their  libraries.  Many  of 
the  most  beautiful  Mohammedan  mosques  in  India  have 
woven  into  their  fabric  stones  from  Jaina  shrines  which 
the  ruthless  conquerors  had  destroyed. 

In  the  south  Jainism  had  flourished  exceedingly  after  its 
introduction  by  Bhadrabahu,  and  many  of  the  languages 
and  grammars  were  largely  shaped  by  the  labours  of  Jaina 
monks. 

In  A.  D.  640,  when  the  Chinese  traveller  Hiuen  Tsang 
visited  India,  he  met  numbers  of  monks  belonging  to  the 
Digambara  (naked)  sect  in  the  south  and  admired  their 
beautiful  temples.  But  after  his  visit  a  great  persecution 
arose.  A  Jaina  king,  Kuna,^  became  converted  to  Saivism 
in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  and,  if  we  may  trust 
the  sculptures  at  Trivatur  in  Arcot,  slew  with  the  most 
horrible  severity  thousands  of  his  former  co-religionists  who 
refused  to  follow  his  example.  Even  if  the  account  of  the 
persecution  be  exaggerated,  there  is  no  doubt  that  after 
this  time  the  prosperity  of  Jainism  in  the  south  steadily 
declined. 

To  return  to  the  north.  The  wonder  is,  not  that  any  temples 
survived  the  Mohammedan  persecutions,  but  that  Jainism 
itself  was  not  extinguished  in  a  storm  which  simply  swept 
Buddhism  out  of  India.  The  character  of  Jainism,  however, 
was  such  as  to  enable  it  to  throw  out  tentacles  to  help  it  in 
its  hour  of  need.  It  had  never,  like  Buddhism,  cut  itself 
off  from  the  faith  that  surrounded  it,  for  it  had  always 
employed  Brahmans  as  its  domestic  chaplains,  who  presided 
at  its  birth  rites  and  often  acted  as  officiants  at  its  death  and 
marriage  ceremonies  and  temple  worship.  Then,  too,  amongst 
its  chief  heroes  it  had  found  niches  for  some  of  the  favourites 
of  the  Hindu  pantheon,  Rama,  Krisna  and  the  like. 
Mahavira's  genius  for  organization  also  stood  Jainism 
in  good  stead  now,  for  he  had  made  the  laity  an  integral 

^  Vincent  Smith,  Early  History  of  India  ^  third  edition,  p.  455. 


HISTORICAL  SUMMARY  19 

part  of  the  community,  whereas  in  Buddhism  they  had  no 
part  nor  lot  in  the  order.  So,  when  storms  of  persecution 
swept  over  the  land,  Jainism  simply  took  refuge  in 
Hinduism,  which  opened  its  capacious  bosom  to  receive  it ; 
and  to  the  conquerors  it  seemed  an  indistinguishable  part 
of  that  great  system. 

The  receptivity,  however,  which  Hinduism  has  always 
shown  towards  it  is  to-day  one  of  the  reasons  that  makes 
Jainism  so  difficult  to  study ;  for  many  Jaina,  justified  by  the 
resemblance  in  their  worship  and  thought,  simply  count 
themselves  Hindus  and  actually  so  write  themselves  down 
in  the  census  returns. 

If  one  effect  of  the  Mohammedan  conquest,  however,  was 
to  drive  many  of  the  Jaina  into  closer  union  with  their 
fellow  idol-worshippers  in  the  face  of  iconoclasts,  another 
effect  was  to  drive  others  away  from  idolatry  altogether. 
No  oriental  could  hear  a  fellow  oriental's  passionate  outcry 
against  idolatry  without  doubts  as  to  the  righteousness  of 
the  practice  entering  his  mind. 

Naturally  enough  it  is  in  Ahmadabad,  the  city  of  Gujarat 
that  was  most  under  Mohammedan  influence,  that  we  can 
first  trace  the  stirring  of  these  doubts.  About  a.d.  1452 
the  Lohka  sect,  the  first  of  the  non-idolatrous  Jaina  sects, 
arose  and  was  followed  by  the  Dhundhia  or  Sthanakavasi 
sect  about  a.  d.  1653,  dates  which  coincide  strikingly  with 
the  Lutheran  and  Puritan  movements  in  Europe. 

Jainism  has  never  recovered  its  temporal  power  since  the 
days  of  the  Mohammedan  conquest ;  it  is  no  longer  in  any 
sense  a  court  religion  ;  nevertheless  the  influence  that  it 
wields  in  India  to-day  is  enormous.  Its  great  wealth  and 
its  position  as  the  religion  par  excellence  of  money-lenders 
and  bankers  makes  it,  especially  in  native  states,  the  power 
behind  the  throne ;  and  if  any  one  doubt  its  influence,  he 
need  only  count  up  the  number  of  edicts  prohibiting  the 
slaying  of  animals  on  Jaina  sacred  days  that  have  recently 
been  issued  by  the  rulers  of  independent  states. 

c  2 


20  HISTORICAL  SUMMARY 

According  to  the  last  census  the  Jaina  numbered  some 
1,248,182,  but  probably  many  more  are  included  under 
Hindus.  Their  standard  of  literacy  (495  males  and  40 
females  per  thousand)  is  higher  than  that  of  any  other 
community  save  the  Parsis,  and  they  proudly  boast  that 
not  in  vain  in  their  system  are  practical  ethics  wedded  to 
philosophical  speculation,  for  their  criminal  record  is 
magnificently  white. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 

Birth  and  Childhood. 

We  have  seen  that  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.  the  times 
were  ripe  for  revolt ;  now,  after  the  event,  it  is  almost  easy 
to  prophesy  where  the  revolt  was  first  likely  to  arise. 

The  strongest  centre  of  Brahmanical  influence  was  in  Birth- 
the  country  lying  round  the  modern  Delhi — it  was  the  ^ 
language  spoken  by  the  people  in  this  tract  of  land  that 
was  destined  to  be  developed  by  grammarians  into  the 
classical  Sanskrit,  and  it  was  they  who  composed  much 
of  the  old  Brahmanic  literature  that  has  come  down  to  us. 
All  this  region,  Dr.  Grierson  tells  us,  was  called  the  '  Mid- 
land ',  but  encircling  it  on  east,  south,  and  west  was  an 
'  Outland  ',  where  the  Brahmanic  influence  was  less  strong, 
and  where  the  thinkers  were  to  be  found  not  in  the  priestly 
ranks,  but  '  among  the  Ksatriya  class  to  whose  learning 
and  critical  acumen  witness  is  borne  even  in  contem- 
porary Brahmanic  writings.'  ^  In  this  Outland  near  the 
modern  Patna  is  a  town  called  nowadays  Besarh. 

Most  Indian  towns  are  to-day  divided  into  wards,  where 
the  various  castes  live  apart.  One  must  seek  the  potters 
in  one  quarter  and  the  washermen  in  another,  whilst  the 
lowest  of  all,  the  despised  refuse-removers,  live  actually 
outside  the  city  walls. 

Some  two  thousand  years  ago  in  Besarh  the  same  divi- 
sions existed  as  would  be  found  to-day  ;  and  there,  in  fact, 
the  priestly  [Brahman),  the  warrior  [Ksatriya),  and  the 
commercial  [Baniyd)  communities  lived  so  separately  that 
their  quarters  were  sometimes  spoken  of  as  though  they  had 
been  distinct  villages,  as  Vaisali,  Kuijdagrama,  and  Varii- 
jyagrama.     Strangely  enough,  it  was  not  in  their  own  but 

^  See  art.  Bhakti  Mdrga  in  E.R.E, 


22  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 

in  the  K$atriya  ward  that  the  man  was  born  who  was  to 
be  the  great  hero  of  the  Baniya,  and  who  was  to  found 
amongst  these  commercial  people  a  religion  which,  with  all 
its  limitations,  yet  made  one  of  the  most  emphatic  protests 
the  world  has  ever  known  against  accounting  luxury,  wealth, 
or  comfort  the  main  things  in  life.  It  seems  almost  para- 
doxical also  that  the  warrior  caste  should  produce  the  great 
apostle  of  non-killing.  He  was  afterwards  known  from  his 
exploits  as  Mahavira — the  great  hero — but  his  earliest 
name  he  derived  from  his  birthplace,  being  known  simply 
as  Vaisaliya,  '  the  man  of  Vaisali '  (the  main  ward  of  the 
town).  The  government  of  such  a  city  or  ward  seems  to 
have  resembled  that  of  a  Greek  state.  '  It  was ',  says 
Dr.  Hoernle,^  '  an  oligarchic  republic  ;  its  government  was 
vested  in  a  Senate,  composed  of  the  heads  of  the  resident 
Ksatriya  clans,  and  presided  over  by  an  officer  who  had 
the  title  of  king  and  was  assisted  by  a  Viceroy  and  a  Com- 
mander-in-Chief.' The  chief  of  one  of  these  Ksatriya  clans, 
the  Nata  or  Naya  clan,  was  a  man  called  Siddhartha,  who  - 
doubtless  attained  some  eminence  in  Senate  and  State, 
for  he  eventually  married  the  daughter  of  this  repubhcan 
king,  a  Ksatriya  lady  named  Trisala.  ' 

-phe  This  old-world  princess  longed,  as  every  Indian  woman 

lourteen  does  to-day,  to  bear  her  lord  a  son,  and  suddenly  one  night, 
the  legend  tells,  wonderful  dreams  came  to  her  as  she  slept, 
revealing  to  her  not  only  that  she  should  bear  a  son,  but 
also  that  this  son  should  win  everlasting  rest  and  renown. 
These  dreams  of  Trisala's  ^  are  to-day  often  graven 
round  the  silver  treasuries  in  Jaina  temples,  and  Jaina 
women  love  to  recall  them,  for  it  is  given  to  all  the 
mothers  of  the  great  Jaina  saints  to  see  them. 
i       First  the  happy  princess  dreamed  of  a  mighty  elephant  ^ 

^  Hoernle,/.  ^4.5.  j5.,  1898,  p.  40. 

^  Many  devout  laymen  and  lay  women  repeat  them  every  day  at 
their  morning  devotions. 

^  All  mothers  of  Tlrthankara  see  first  of  all  this  elephant  in  their 
dreams,  excepting  only  the  mother  of  Risabhadeva,  who  saw  a  bull 
first,  hence  the  child's  name. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA  2^ 

whose  colour  was  whiter  than  a  cloud,  a  heap  of  pearls, 
the  spray  of  water,  or  moonbeams,  and  the  sound  of  whose 
voice  was  like  thunder. 

Then  she  saw  a  white  bull,  whiter  than  the  petals  of  the  ii 
lotus,  which  diffused  a  glory  of  light  on  all  around,  and  this 
— so  one  sect  of  the  Jaina,  the  Digambara,  say — foretold 
the  birth  of  a  great  religious  teacher  who  should  spread  the 
light  of  knowledge.  Another  sect,  however,  the  Sthana- 
kavasi,  hold  that  it  showed  that  he  should  have  strength  to 
bear  the  yoke  of  religion,  for  the  yoke  that  a  Jaina  ascetic 
must  bear  is  not  light,  and  no  weakling  can  endure  it. 

The  next  dream  prophesied  that  she  should  bear  one  ill 
who  should  overcome  all  his  enemies  (i.  e.  his  karma, 
the  results  of  his  actions) :  for  she  saw  a  magnificent  white 
lion  leap  from  the  sky  towards  her  face  ;  his  eyes  were  like 
pure  lightning,  and  his  tongue  came  out  of  his  mouth  '  like 
a  shoot  of  beauty'.  This  further  foretold  that  Mahavira 
should  be  '  the  lion  of  houseless  monks ',  and  so  he  has  the 
lion  as  his  symbol. 

The  fourth  dream  was  of  the  beautiful  goddess  Sri  or  iv 
LaksmI  (the  goddess  of  wealth),  whom  Trisala  saw  floating 
on  the  petals  of  a  lotus  in  the  lotus  lake  on  Mount  Himavata, 
with  guardian  elephants  '  anointing'  her  with  water,  and  this 
she  knew  meant  that  her  son  should  be  an  '  anointed  '  king. 

Next,  a  garland^  of  sweet-smelling  Mandara  flowers  fore-  v 
told  how  fragrant  the  body  of  the  little  child  should  be. 

The  white  moon^  dispelling  the  darkness  of  the  wildest  vi 
wilderness  again  prophesied  a  religious  preacher. 

The  radiant  sun,^  red  as  the  beak  of  a  parrot,  which  vii 

^  The  SthanakavasI  say  there  were  two  garlands. 

^  In  all  the  pictures  of  this  moon  vision  a  stag  is  seen  in  the  centre 
of  the  moon.  The  general  belief  of  all  Indians  is  that  there  is  either 
a  stag  or  a  hare  inhabiting  the  moon.  There  are  a  score  or  more  of 
names  for  the  moon  in  Sanskrit,  and  a  dozen  at  least  are  derived  from 
this  belief.  The  villagers,  however,  find  in  the  moon  an  old  woman 
spinning  a  wheel  and  a  she-goat  standing  by  her. 

^  The  Digambara  assert  that  she  saw  the  sun  before  the  dream 
about  the  moon. 


U  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAViRA 

throttles  the  cold  and  '  disperses  the  evil-doers  who  stroll 
about  at  night,  whose  thousand  rays  obscure  the  lustre 
of  other  lights ',  showed  that  the  child  should  dispel  the 
darkness  of  ignorance. 

viii  The  sects  do  not  agree  as  to  what  the  eighth  dream  of 
the  princess  was  about.  The  Svetambara  believe  she  saw 
a  beautiful  banner  (an  Indra  Dhvaja)  embroidered  with 
those  signs  which  Hindus  and  Jaina  alike  consider  specially 
auspicious,  and  to  whose  golden  pole-^  was  tied  a  plume  of 
peacock's  feathers  ;  while  the  Digambara  affirm  that  she 
saw  two  fishes,  which  showed  the  child  was  to  be  happy. 
ix  The  ninth  dream,  the  Svetambara  say,  was  a  golden 
pitcher  of  exquisite  beauty,  filled  with  water — or,  accord- 
ing to  others,  with  jewels — which  was  the  abode  of  happy 
fortune  and  was  wreathed  at  all  seasons  with  fragrant 
flowers,  portending  happiness.  The  Digambara  assert 
that  she  saw  two  golden  pitchers  filled  with  pure  water, 
to  show  that  the  child  should  be  constantly  immersed  in 
spiritual  meditation. 

^  X  The  next  vision  was  that  of  a  lotus  lake  whose  flowers 
'  were  licked  by  bees  and  mad  drones  ',  from  which  Trisala 
knew  that  her  baby  would  possess  all  the  marks  of 
a  perfect  being  ;  or,  as  the  Sthanakavasi  say,  that  the 
honey  of  his  sermons  would  be  eagerly  absorbed  by  the 
whole  world, 
xi  The  princess  then  saw  the  milk  ocean,  white  as  the 
breast  of  Laksmi,  tossing  its  transparent  breakers  as  the 
wind  played  over  it  and  the  great  rivers  rushed  into  it, 
and  this  foretold  that  the  child  should  attain  to  the  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  Kevali. 

xia  At  this  point  the  Digambara,  who  beheve  the  princess 
saw  not  fourteen  but  sixteen  dreams,  insert  a  vision  of 
a  throne  of  diamonds  and  rubies,  which  foretold  that  the 
coming  child  should  rule  over  the  three  worlds. 

1  According  to  the  Tapagaccha  sect  the  pole  was  topped  by  a  temple 
roof. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA  25 

Her  next  dream  was  of  a  jewel-bedecked  celestial  abode  ^  xii 
which  shone  like  the  morning  sun  and  which  was  hung 
with  garlands  and  pictures  of  birds  and  beasts.  There  the 
celestial  choirs  gave  concerts,  and  the  place  resounded 
with  the  din  of  the  drums  of  the  gods  which  imitated  the 
sound  of  rain  clouds. 

Here  again  the  Digambara  insert  a  vision  of  a  great  xii  a 
king  of  the  gods  dwelling  below  the  earth.  This  the 
Svetambara  do  not  accept,  but  both  agree  about  the  next  xiii 
dream,  in  w^hich  Trisala  saw  a  great  vase  piled  up  with 
jewels.  The  base  of  the  vase  was  on  the  level  of  the  earth, 
and  its  height  was  as  the  height  of  Mount  Meru,  and  its 
brightness  illuminated  even  the  sky  ;  it  foretold  the  birth 
of  a  child  that  should  possess  right  knowledge,  right  intui- 
tion, and  right  conduct. 

Her  last  dream  was  of  a  clear  fire  fed  with  clarified  butter,   xiv 
whose  beautiful  flames  seemed  almost  to  scorch  the  firma- 
ment, which  prophesied  that  the  white-souled  child  she 
was  to  bear  should  illumine  the  universe  by  his  wisdom. 

All  these  dreams  Trisala  related  to  Siddhartha,  and  the 
next  day  the  interpreters  that  he  summoned  foretold  from 
them  the  birth  of  a  spiritual  conqueror  (Jina),  lord  of  the 
three  worlds  and  the  universal  emperor  of  the  law. 

Some  of  the  more  advanced  Jaina  do  not  believe  that 
Trisala  actually  saw  all  these  dreams,^  but  they  hold  that 
before  the  child's  birth  both  father  and  mother  knew/ 
that  he  would  be  either  a  Cakravartl  (universal  monarch)  or' 
a  Tirthahkara.  Perhaps  the  legend  of  the  dreams  may 
carry  with  it  this  meaning,  that  at  that  time  there  was 
a  universal  stirring  of  desire,  and  that  many  were  hoping 
some  reformer  or  reHgious  leader  might  be  born.     At  any 

^  The  SthanakavasI  believe  this  abode  to  have  been  a  huge  im- 
movable car  as  big  as  a  city. 

"^  A  really  orthodox  Jaina,  however,  would  deny  the  title  of  Jaina 
altogether  to  any  one  who  did  not  hold  these  and  all  the  other  legends 
mentioned  in  this  book  to  be  literally  and  historically  true,  though 
varying  interpretations  of  them  are  given. 


26  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 

rate  they  ijiust  have  conveyed  the  welcome  assurance 
that  the  child  at  least  would  safely  survive  all  the  dangers 
that  an  Indian  birth-chamber  holds  for  both  mother  and 
babe. 

There  is  another  legend  about  Mahavlra's  birth  which 
is  also  recorded  in  the  Jaina  sacred  books,  and  which 
possesses  some  value  as  showing  the  intense  hatred  exist- 
ing between  the  Brahmans  and  the  Ksatriyas.  Accord- 
ing to  this  legend,  a  Brahman  lady,  Devananda,  wife 
of  the  Brahman  Risabhadatta,  living  in  the  Brahmanical 
part  of  the  town,  saw  the  Fourteen  Auspicious  Dreams 
which  foretold  the  birth  of  a  great  saint  or  Tirthan- 
kara.  But  Indra,^  the  chief  of  the  gods,  saw  from  his 
celestial  throne  what  had  happened,  and  knew  that  the 
child  would  be  the  great  Tirthahkara  Mahavira ;  so  he 
sent  his  commander-in-chief  in  the  form  of  a  deer  to 
remove  the  embryo  from  Devananda^  and  to  give  it  to 
Trisala,  in  order  that  Mahavira  might  not  be  born  in  a 
*  beggarly  or  Brahmanical  family '.  However  that  may  be, 
the  stories  go  on  to  show  how  carefully  Trisala,  two  thou- 
sand years  ago,  prepared  for  the  joy  of  motherhood  just 
as  a  modern  woman  would,  by  avoiding  all  sickness  and 
fatigue  and  walking  in  quiet  country  places,  so  that  she 
might  gain  health  for  body  and  mind.  At  last,  in  the 
year  599  b.c.  of  our  era,  or  towards  the  end  of  the 
Dusama  Susama  period,  as  the  Jaina  reckon  time,  on 
the  thirteenth  day  of  the  bright  half  of  the  moon  in  the 
month  Caitra,  the  time  came  when  Trisala,  herself  perfectly 
healthy,  gave  birth  to  a  perfectly  healthy  child. 

The  thought  of  India  centres  largely  round  marriage 
and  motherhood,  and  the  birth  of  a  manchild  then,  as  now, 

^  The  Jaina  believe  that  Indra  (or  Sakra),  the  chief  of  the  sixty-four 
gods  of  that  name,  belongs  especially  to  them,  but  has  been  stolen  from 
them  by  the  Brahmans. 

^  It  is  interesting  to  compare  with  this  the  story  of  Krisna  being  re- 
moved from  the  womb  of  Devaki  to  that  of  RohinI,  for  the  Jaina  believe 
Krisna  to  be  one  of  their  own  future  Tirthankara. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA  27 

was  the  occasion  of  a  very  delirium  of  rejoicing.  To-day, 
in  a  native  state,  the  birth  of  an  heir  is  celebrated  in  very 
much  the  same  way  as  it  was  in  Mahavira's  time.  The 
town  is  en  fete,  prisoners  are  released,  fines  are  cancelled, 
presents  are  given,  and  presents  (alas  !)  are  exacted. 

When  the  child  was  three  days  old,  it  was  shown  the 
sun  and  the  moon  (this  is  not  usual  now)  ;  on  the  sixth 
day  they  observed  the  rehgious  vigil  (modern  Jaina  still 
worship  '  Mother  Sixth  '),  Trisala  bathed  on  the  tenth 
day,  and  on  the  twelfth,  after  the  usual  family  feast,  the 
boy  w^as  named  with  all  pomp  and  circumstance.  In 
India  it  is  the  father's  sister  who  usually  names  a  child, 
but  his  parents  themselves  chose  Mahavira's  name,  an- 
nouncing that  '  since  the  prince  was  placed  in  the  womb 
of  the  Ksatriyaiii  Trisala  this  family's  (treasure)  of  gold, 
silver,  riches,  corn,  jewels,  pearls,  shells,  precious  stones 
and  corals  increased  ;  therefore  the  prince  shall  be  called 
Vardhamdna  (i.e.  the  Increasing^) '.  Mahavira  was  some- 
times, as  we  have  seen,  called  Vaisaliya  from  his  birth- 
place ;  his  followers,  however,  seldom  call  him  by  this  or 
by  the  name  his  parents  gave  him,  but  prefer  to  use  the 
title  they  say  the  gods  gave  him,  that  of  Mahavira,  the 
great  hero,  or  else  Jina,  the  conqueror,  though  this  last 
is  really  more  used  in  connexion  with  the  reHgion  ( Jainism) 
he  promulgated  than  with  himself.  He  is  also  known  as 
Jfiataputra,  Namaputra,^  Sasananayaka,  and  Buddha. 

It  was  partly  the  multitude  of  his  names,  partly  also  the 
number  of  legends  that  loving  child-Hke  folk  had  woven 
round  the  cradle  of  their  hero,  that  long  obscured  the 
fact  that  Mahavira  was  an  historical, personage.  Another 
reason  for  doubting  his  existence  lay  in  the  superficial 
resemblance  there  is  bietween  his  life  and  teaching  and 
that  of  his  contemporary,  Buddha.  It  was  assumed  that 
one  of  the  two  systems  must  have  sprung  from  the  other, 


*  Acarahga  Sutra,  S.B.E.,  xxii,  p.  192. 
Or  Nayaputra,  sometimes  Nataputta. 


3 


28  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAViRA 

and  it  is  only  through  the  labours  of  European  scholars 
like  Jacobi,  Hoernle,  and  Biihler  that  Mahavira's  historical 
existence  has  been  proved.  It  seems  strange  that  Jaina 
should  still  be  dependent  on  the  labours  of  scholars  of 
another  faith  and  speech  for  all  they  know  about  their 
greatest  hero  ! 

We  have  noticed  some  of  the  legends  that  have  gathered 
round  Mahavira,  and  it  is  worth  while  examining  more, 
since  legends  help  us  in  a  special  way  to  grasp  the  latent 
ideals  of  a  faith.  We  can  learn  from  them  what  its 
followers  admire  and  what  they  despise,  and  also  what 
qualities  they  revere  sufficiently  to  link  with  their  leader's 
name.  If  we  contrast  the  stories  told  of  Mahavira  with 
those  told,  for  instance,  of  Krisna  by  Hindus,  we  shall  see 
at  once  that  the  thoughts  of  these  early  followers  of  Jainism 
moved  on  a  higher,  cleaner  plane,  and  this  purity  of 
thought  is  one  of  the  glories  of  Jainism  to-day. 

Austere  though  the  creed  of  the  Jaina  is,  there  are 
some  amongst  them  whose  habit  of  mind  leads  them  to 
interpret  even  these  severe  tenets  as  sternly  as  possible. 
This  diversity  of  temperament  (which  is  surely  inherent 
in  the  human  race)  manifests  itself  in  the  stories  told  of 
Mahavira's  life.  The  Digambara  (who  are  the  straitest 
sect  among  the  Jaina)  always  represent  their  hero  as 
choosing  the  sterner  and  less  pleasing  path  :  avoiding 
marriage  and  going  on  his  way  unhindered  by  any  fear  of 
hurting  his  parents'  feelings.  The  Svetambara  sect,  on 
the  other  hand,  believe  that,  though  from  his  earliest  hours 
Mahavira  longed  to  forsake  the  world  and  betake  himself 
to  a  houseless,  wandering  life,  he  nevertheless  felt  he 
could  not  do  this  during  his  parents'  lifetime,  lest  he 
should  cause  them  pain.  Even  before  his  birth,  the  legend 
runs,  he  decided  thus  :  '  It  will  not  behove  me,  during  the 
life  of  my  parents,  to  tear  out  my  hair,  and  leaving 
the  house  to  enter   the  state  of  houselessness.'  ^     So  he 

^  Kalpa  Sutra^  S.  B.  E.^  xxii,  p.  250. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAvIRA  29 

lived  the  ordinary  life  of  a  happy  boy,  watched  over 
by  the  innumerable  servants  that  seem  inseparable  from 
Indian  life,^  but  enjoying  to  the  full  '  the  noble  five- 
fold joys  and  pleasures  of  sound,  touch,  taste,  colour 
and  smell '. 

Both  sects  delight  to  tell  of  his  boyish  prowess  and  of  how 
easily  he  excelled  all  his  companions  in  strength  and 
physical  endurance,  as  he  did  in  beauty  of  mind  and  body. 
One  day,  they  say,  the  sons  of  his  father's  ministers  had 
come  as  usual  to  play  with  him  in  the  royal  gardens,  when 
suddenly  a  mad  elephant  charged  down  on  the  group  of 
children,  who  fled  hither  and  thither  in  their  efforts  to 
escape.  Mahavira,  however,  quietly  went  up  to  the  in- 
furiated animal,  caught  it  by  its  trunk,  and  climbing  up  on 
it,  escaped  being  trodden  by  its  feet  by  riding  on  its  back ! 

Another  legend  tells  how,  when  he  was  playing  with  the 
same  children  at  dmbali  pipall  (a  sort  of  '  tick  '  or  '  tig ') 
among  the  trees,  a  god  appeared  and  thought  to  frighten  the 
child  by  carrying  him  high  up  into  the  sky  on  his  shoulders. 
Mahavira,  however,  was  not  in  the  least  alarmed,  and, 
seizing  the  opportunity  to  show  his  superiority  over  im- 
mortals, whacked  the  god  and  pulled  his  hair  so  hard, 
that  he  was  only  too  ready  to  descend  and  get  rid  of  his 
obstreperous  burden.  The  child  who  had  thus  defeated 
one  of  their  number  was  called  Mahavira  by  the  other  gods 
■ — a  name  mortals  were  quick  to  adopt. 

According  to  the  Svetambara  tradition  Mahavira  married 
a  lady  called  Yasoda  (belonging  to  the  Kaundinya  gotra), 
and  a  daughter  was  born  to  them  named  Anuja  (Anojja) 
or  Priyadarsana.  This  daughter  eventually  married  a 
nobleman  called  Jamali,  who,  after  becoming  one  of 
Mahavira's  followers  and  fellow  workers,  ended  by  opposing 
him.  Their  child  (Mahavira's  granddaughter)  had  two 
names,  being  known  both  as  Sesavati  and  Yasovati. 

'  He  had  five  nurses  :  a  wet  nurse,  a  nurse  to  wash  him,  one  to  dress 
him,  one  to  play  with  him,  and  one  to  carry  him. 


30  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 

It  was  pointed  out  in  the  introduction  how  profoundly  some 
Indians  beheve  that  the  result  of  action  (karma)  ties  men 
to  the  cycle  of  rebirth,  and  that  if,  through  the  cessation 
of  life,  action  and  its  resultant  karma  could  be  ended,  so 
much  the  less  would  be  the  danger  of  rebirth.  This  tenet 
naturally  encouraged  belief  in  suicide  as  a  form  of  prudential 
insurance  !  Amongst  the  recorded  deaths  by  suicide  are 
those  of  Mahavlra's  parents,  who,  according  to  the  Svetam- 
bara  belief,  died  of  voluntary  starvation  :  '  on  a  bed  of 
kusa  grass  they  rejected  all  food,  and  their  bodies  dried 
up  by  the  last  mortification  of  the  flesh  which  is  to  end  in 
death.'  ^  At  their  death  Mahavira,  who  was  by  now  ap- 
proaching his  thirtieth  year,  felt  free  to  become  an  ascetic, 
and  asked  his  elder  brother's  permission  to  renounce  the 
world ;  the  brother  consented,  only  stipulating  that  Maha- 
vira should  do  nothing  in  the  matter  for  a  year,  lest 
people  should  think  they  had  quarrelled. 

The  Digambara  accounts  differ  widely  from  this.  Accord- 
ing to  them,  even  when  only  a  child  of  eight,  Mahavira 
took  the  twelve  vows  ^  which  a  Jaina  layman  may  take, 
and  that  he  always  longed  to  renounce  the  world  ;  other 
Digambara  say  that  it  was  in  his  thirtieth  year  that,  whilst 
meditating  on  his  *  self  ',  he  determined  to  become  a  monk, 
realizing  that  he  would  only  spend  seventy-two  years  in 
this  incarnation  as  Mahavira.  At  first  his  parents  were 
opposed  to  the  idea  of  their  delicately  nurtured  child 
undergoing  all  the  hardships  that  fall  to  the  lot  of  a  house- 
less mendicant,  but  at  last  they  consented,  and  it  was 
during  their  lifetime  that  Mahavira  entered  on  the  spiritual 
vocation,  which  in  India,  as  in  Europe,  has  so  often  proved 
a  suitable  career  for  younger  sons. 

Modern  research  would  seem  to  favour  the  Svetambara 
belief  that  Mahavira  had  married,  but  this  the  Digambara 
strenuously  deny,  for  an  ascetic  who  has  never  married 

^  Acardhga  Siltra,  S.B.E.,  xxii,  p.  194. 

^  See  below.  Twelve  Vows  of  a  Layman,  p.  205. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA  31 

moves  on  a  higher  plane  of  sanctity  than  one  who  has 
known  the  joys  of  wedded  hfe. 

Mahdvira's  Initiation. 

Jainism,  though  it  denies  the  existence  of  a  creator 
and  of  the  three  great  gods  of  the  Indian  Trimurti,  Brahma, 
Visnu  and  Siva,  has  never  shaken  itself  free  from  the  belief 
in  many  of  the  minor  gods  of  the  Hindu  pantheon.  It  gives 
these  gods,  it  is  true,  a  very  secondary  position  as  servants 
or  tempters  of  the  great  Jaina  saints,  but  their  existence 
is  accepted  as  undoubted ;  accordingly,  in  the  account 
of  Mahavira's  initiation  we  shall  find  many  of  the  old  Hindu 
gods  represented  as  being  present. 

This  initiation,  all  sects  agree,  took  place  when  Mahavira 
was  about  thirty  years  of  age,  some  time  therefore  between 
570  and  569  B.  c.  The  Naya  clan  to  which  he  belonged 
seem  to  have  supported  a  body  of  monks  who  followed 
the  rule  of  Parsvanatha,  an  ascetic  who  had  lived  some 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  Mahavira.  It  was 
naturally  to  this  order,  probably  considered  rather  irregular 
by  the  Brahmans,  that  the  thoughts  of  Mahavira  turned. 
Its  monks  had  their  cells  in  a  park^  outside  the  Ksatriya 
suburb  (Kundagrama)  of  Vaisall,  and  in  the  centre  of  this 
park  grew  one  of  those  evergreen  Asoka  or  '  sorrowless 
trees,  whose  leaves  are  supposed  never  to  know  either 
grief  or  pain.  The  Asoka  tree  is  always  associated  with 
Mahavira,  for  the  legends  say  that  in  his  later  life  an  Asoka 
tree  grew  wherever  he  preached,  and  it  was  now  under 
its  shade  that  he  made  the  great  renunciation  and  entered 
upon  that  ascetic  life,  whose  austerities  were  to  dry  up 
all  the  founts  of  karma  and  free  him  from  the  sorrowful 
cycle  of  rebirth. 

Mahavira  had  fasted  for  two-and-a-half  days,  not  even 
allowing  water  to  cross  his  lips,  and  had  then  given  away 

^  The  Svetambara  call  the  park  Sundavana,  the  Digambara  Sarathi 
Khanda. 


32  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 

all  his  property,  which  can  only  have  been  the  ordinary 
possessions  of  the  cadet  of  a  small  House,  but  which  the 
love  of  his  followers  has  exaggerated  into  the  wealth  of 
a  mighty  emperor.^  Then,  followed  by  a  train  of  gods 
and  men,  he  was  carried  in  a  palanquin  to  the  park  and, 
alighting,  took  his  seat  on  a  five-tiered  throne,^  which 
was  so  placed  as  to  face  the  east.  There  he  stripped 
himself  of  all  his  ornaments  and  finery,  flinging  them  to 
the  attendant  god  Vaisramana,  who  caught  them  up  as 
they  fell. 

Most  Hindu  mendicants  cut  or  shave  off  their  hair,  but 
a  peculiar  and  most  painful  custom  of  the  Jaina  is  that 
all  ascetics,  as  a  proof  of  their  power  of  endurance,  must 
tear  out  their  hair  by  the  roots.  One  Jaina  writer  declares 
in  his  English  '  Life  of  Mahavira  '  that  '  only  those  can  do 
it  who  have  no  love  with  their  flesh  and  bones  '.  It  is  looked 
on  as  a  sign  that  henceforth  the  monk  or  nun  will  take  no 
thought  for  the  body. 

As  Mahavira  performed  this  crowning  act  of  austerity, 
Indra,  the  leader  and  king  of  the  gods,  falling  down  before 
the  feet  of  the  venerable  ascetic,  caught  up  the  hairs  in 
a  diamond  cup  and  took  them  to  the  Ocean  of  Milk.  The 
saint  then  did  obeisance  to  all  liberated  spirits,  and  vowing 
to  do  no  sinful  act,  adopted  the  holy  conduct.^ 

The  Jaina  mark  with  great  precision  the  five  degrees  of 
knowledge  that  lead  to  Omniscience.  Mahavira,  they  say, 
was  born  with  the  first  three,  Mati  jfidna,   Sruta  jndna^ 

*  The  Jaina  believe  that  when  an  ascetic  who  will  eventually  develop 
into  aTlrthankara  is  about  to  give  away  his  possessions,  the  god  Indra 
bestows  on  him  all  the  wealth  that  has  been  buried  in  forgotten  treasure 
stores,  in  order  that  the  amount  to  be  given  away  may  be  worthy  of 
the  giver. 

2  This  sort  of  throne  is  called  a  Pdndusild,  and  in  Jaina  temples 
Mahfivlra's  image  is  generally  kept  on  one. 

^  The  Kaipa  Sfitra  gives  quite  a  different  account,  in  which  it  says 
that  Mahavira  fasted  for  two-and-a-half  days  after  all  the  pomp,  and 
then,  '  Quite  alone,  nobody  else  being  present,  he  tore  out  his  hair,  and 
leaving  the  house  entered  the  state  of  houselessness '.  Kaipa  Sillra, 
S.  B.  /T.,  xxii,  p.  259. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA  33 

and  Avadhi  jndna.  He  now  gained  the  fourth  kind  of 
knowledge,  Manahparydya  jiidna,  by  which  he  knew  the 
thoughts  of  all  sentient  beings  of  five  senses  in  the  two- 
and-a-half  continents,  and  it  only  remained  for  him  to 
obtain  the  fifth  degree  of  knowledge,  that  of  Kevala  jiidna 
or  Omniscience,  which  is  possessed  by  the  Kevali  alone. 

The  Digambara,  however,  do  not  believe  that  Mahavira 
obtained  the  fourth  kind  of  knowledge  till  some  time  after 
his  initiation.  According  to  them,  he  failed  to  gain  it, 
though  he  performed  meditation  for  six  months,  sitting 
absolutely  motionless.  At  the  end  of  the  six  months 
he  went  to  Kulapura ;  the  king  of  Kulapura,  Kuladhipa, 
came  and  did  him  honour,  washed  his  feet  with  his 
own  hands  and,  having  walked  round  him  three  times, 
offered  him  rice  and  milk;  these  Mahavira  accepted 
and  took  them  as  his  first  meal  [pdranuin]  after  a  fast 
of  six  months.  He  returned  to  the  forest  and  wandered 
about  in  it  performing  twelve  kinds  of  penance,  but  still 
the  knowledge  was  withheld  from  him.  At  last  he  visited 
Ujjayini  (Ujjain)  and  did  penance  in  a  cemetery  there, 
when  Rudra  and  his  wife  in  vain  tried  to  interrupt  him  ; 
it  was  only  after  overcoming  this  temptation  and  again 
entering  on  his  forest  life  of  meditation  that,  according  to 
the  Digambara  belief,  he  obtained  Manahparyaya  jfiana. 
Henceforth  Mahavira  was  houseless,  and  wandered  through 
the  land  so  lost  in  meditation  as  to  be  indifferent  to  sorrow 
and  joy,  pain  and  pleasure,  subsisting  only  on  the  alms  of 
the  charitable. 

Research  seems  to  have  established  the  fact  that  at  first 
he  belonged  to  the  order  of  Parsvanatha  mentioned  above, 
a  body  of  mendicants  leading  a  more  or  less  regular  life, 
and  that  in  accordance  with  their  custom  he  wore  clothes  ; 
but  many  Jaina  will  not  acknowledge  that  a  Tirthankara 
could  have  belonged  to  an  order  even  for  ever  so  short 
a  time ;  they  agree,  however,  that  for  thirteen  months  he 
did  wear  one  cloth. 

D 


34  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVlRA 

The  legend  runs  that  the  god  Indra  himself  gave  Maha- 
vlra  the  beautiful  robe  which  he  wore  at  his  initiation. 
Before  the  ceremony  the  saint  had  given  away  all  his  goods 
in  charity,  but  a  certain  Brahman  named  Somadatta,  being 
absent  at  that  time,  had  received  nothing.  He  came  and 
complained,  and  Mahavira  was  greatly  troubled  to  think 
that  he  had  nothing  left  to  give  him,  till  he  remembered 
Indra's  robe  ;  taking  this  off,  he  cut  it  in  two  and  gave 
half  to  the  greedy  Brahman.  Somadatta  was  delighted, 
and  showed  it  off  with  great  pride  to  a  friend  of  his  who 
was  a  weaver.  The  weaver  told  Somadatta  to  go  back  and 
get  the  other  half  and  then  he  would  have  a  robe  worth 
having,  which  could  all  be  woven  into  one.  The  Brahman 
was  ashamed  to  actually  go  and  ask  for  the  remaining  part, 
but  knowing  how  completely  unconscious  of  everything 
that  went  on  around  him  Mahavira  was,  he  w^alked  softly 
behind  the  ascetic,  and  when  the  robe  slipped  off  (as  is 
the  nature  of  half  robes)  he  stooped,  and  gently  lifting  it 
off  the  thorns  on  to  which  it  had  fallen,  quietly  made  off 
with  his  booty.  When  Mahavira  discovered  the  theft,  all 
he  did  was  to  make  a  parable  about  it,  in  which  he  taught 
how  thorny  would  be  the  road  of  his  true  disciples  in  this 
world,  but  how  priceless  would  be  their  value  when  delivered 
at  last  from  the  thorns  that  beset  them. 

Not  only  was  the  great  ascetic  unconscious  of  the 
whereabouts  of  his  earthly  possessions,  he  was  also  abso- 
lutely indifferent  to  pain  ;  for  instance,  one  day  he  was 
sitting  in  meditation  outside  a  village,  when  some  herdsmen, 
in  rough  sport,  lit  a  fire  between  his  feet  and  drove  nails 
into  his  ears,  without  the  saint  being  in  the  least  aware  of 
what  they  were  doing. 

In  India  it  would  be  specially  easy  for  abuses  to  spring 
up  among  a  body  of  mendicants  ;  they  could  gain  their 
food  so  easily,  that  a  great  part  of  '  the  long  Indian  day ' 
would  hang  idle  on  their  hands,  and  our  proverb  about 
Satan  finding  work  for  idle  hands  to  do  has  its  Gujarat! 


I 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVTRA  35 

counterpart :  '  A  man  sitting  idle  brings  ruin  to  pass.'  ^ 
Many  men  doubtless  had  become  monks  through  a  constitu- 
tional aversion  from  honest  labour,  and  the  climate  and 
leisure,  whilst  increasing  this  distaste  for  work  in  them, 
would  be  apt  to  create  it  even  in  those  who  had  entered 
the  order  from  the  highest  motives.  Altogether  the  world- 
old  employer  of  the  unemployed  could  find  fair  scope  for 
his  mischievous  energies  amongst  them  !  ^  And  so  before 
long  Mahavira  found  the  discipline  of  Parsvanatha's  monks 
too  lax,  and  after  a  year  he  left  them,  to  wander  alone  in 
a  state  of  absolute  nudity. 

The  question  of  clothes  was  a  crucial  one  amongst  the 
Jaina.  Mahavira  apparently  felt  that  the  complete  ascetic 
must  have  completely  conquered  all  his  emotions,  shame 
amongst  others,  A  true  monk  would  not  feel  either  heat 
or  cold,  and  so  would  not  need  the  protection  from  the 
weather  offered  by  clothes,  and  he  would  be  so  indifferent 
to  mere  appearance  as  to  be  unconscious  as  to  whether  he 
wore  raiment  or  not.  Being  rid  of  clothes,  one  is  also  rid 
of  a  lot  of  other  worries  too  :  one  needs  no  box  to  keep  them 
in,  no  materials  to  mend  them  with,  no  change  of  raiment 
when  the  first  set  is  dirty  or  outworn,  and,  still  more  impor- 
tant to  a  Jaina,  no  water  is  needed  in  which  to  wash  them. 

On  this  point  Mr.  Benarsi  Dass  makes  some  rather 
interesting  remarks  in  his  lecture  on  Jainism,  and  throws 
an  astonishingly  new  light  on  an  old  story. 

'  Jaina  monks ',  he  says,  'are  naked  because  Jainism  says  that  as 
long  as  one  entertains  the  same  idea  of  nakedness  as  we  do,  he  cannot 
obtain  salvation.  One  cannot,  according  to  Jain  principles,  obtain 
Moksa,  as  long  as  he  remembers  that  he  is  naked.  He  can  only  cross 
over  the  ocean  of  the  world  after  he  has  forgotten  that  he  is  naked. .  . . 
As  long  as  a  man  thinks  and  knows  that  he  is  naked,  that  there  is 
something  like  good  and  evil,  he  cannot  obtain  Moksa.  He  must 
forget  it  to  obtain  Nirvana.     This  is  very  well  illustrated  by  the  well- 

2  The  Brahmans  had  tried  to  avoid  some  of  the  more  obvious  abuses 
by  restricting  entrance  to  the  fourth  dsraina  to  men  of  mature  years, 
who  had  passed  through  a  long  course  of  preparatory  discipline. 

D  2 


36  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 

known  story  of  the  expulsion  of  Adam  and  Eve  from  heaven.  Adam 
and  Eve  were  naked  and  pure.  They  enjoyed  perfect  happiness  in  the 
garden  of  Eden.  They  had  no  knowledge  of  good  and  evil.  The 
devil,  their  enemy,  desired  to  deprive  them  of  their  happiness.  He 
made  them  eat  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil.  They  at  once  saw  their  nakedness.  They  fell.  They  were  ex- 
pelled from  heaven.  It  is  this  knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  it  is  this 
knowledge  of  nakedness,  that  deprived  them  of  Eden.  The  Jains  hold 
the  same  belief.  Our  knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  our  knowledge  of 
nakedness,  keeps  us  away  from  salvation.  To  obtain  it  we  must  forget 
nakedness.  The  Jaina  Nirgranthas  have  forgot  all  knowledge  of  good 
and  evil.     Why  should  they  require  clothes  to  hide  their  nakedness  ? ' ' 

Sir  Monier  Williams  suggests^  that  the  Jaina  'felt  that 
a  sense  of  shame  implied  sin,  so  that  if  there  were  no  sin 
in  the  world  there  would  be  no  shame.  Hence  they  argued 
rather  illogically  that  to  get  rid  of  clothes  was  to  get  rid 
of  sin,  and  every  ascetic  who  aimed  at  sinlessness  was  en- 
joined to  walk  about  naked  with  the  air  or  sky  {dig)  as  his 
sole  covering.' 

The  Digambara  believe  that  Mahavira  abandoned  clothes 
at  the  time  of  his  initiation ;  the  Svetambara,  as  we  have 
seen,  that  he  abandoned  them  after  thirteen  months. 

It  was  whilst  Mahavira  was  walking  naked  and  homeless 
and,  as  the  Digambara  believe,  keeping  absolutely  un- 
broken his  vow  of  silence,  that  he  was  joined  by  Gosala, 
a  disciple  whose  story  we  shall  have  to  study  more  in 
detail  later.  For  the  present  we  need  only  note  that 
Gosala  followed  Mahavira  for  six  years,  but  subsequently 
left  him  and  fell  into  those  grievous  sins  which  so  easily 
beset  a  mendicant,  and  to  guard  against  which  so  many 
precepts  in  the  Jaina  scriptures  are  directed. 

For  twelve  years  Mahavira  wandered  from  place  to  place, 
never  staying  for  longer  than  a  single  night  in  a  village 
or  for  more  than  five  nights  in  a  town.  The  object  of 
this  custom  may  have  been  to  avoid  levying  too  great 

*  Lecticre  07i  Jaitiism.     Agra,  1902,  p.  69. 
^  Buddhism^  p.  530. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 


^1 


a  tax  on  the  hospitality  of  the  people,  and  also  to  pre- 
vent the  ascetic  forming  close  or  undesirable  friendships, 
which  might  tempt  him  to  break  either  his  vow  of  non- 
possession  of  goods  or  of  chastity.^  The  rule  was,  however, 
relaxed  during  the  rainy  season,  when  Mahavira,  like  his 
subsequent  followers,  made  a  practice  of  remaining  for 
four  months  at  the  same  place,  lest  he  should  injure  any 
of  the  young  life  that  springs  so  suddenly  and  abundantly 
into  being,  once  the  monsoon  bursts  and  the  rains,  on 
which  India's  prosperity  depends,  begin  to  fall.  During 
these  twelve  years,  we  are  told,  he  meditated  always  on 
himself,  on  his  Atma,  and  walked  sinless  and  circumspect 
in  thought,  word  and  deed. 

'As  water  does  not  adhere  to  a  copper  vessel,  or  collyrium  to 
mother  of  pearl  (so  sins  found  no  place  in  him) ;  his  course  was  un- 
obstructed like  that  of  Life  ;  like  the  firmament  he  wanted  no  support ; 
like  the  wind  he  knew  no  obstacles  ;  his  heart  was  pure  like  the  water 
(of  rivers  or  tanks)  in  autumn  ;  nothing  could  soil  him  like  the  leaf  of 
a  lotus  ;  his  senses  were  well  protected  like  those  of  a  tortoise ;  he 
was  single  and  alone  like  the  horn  of  a  rhinoceros ;  he  was  free  like 
a  bird ;  he  was  always  like  the  fabulous  bird  Bharunda,  valorous  like 
an  elephant,  strong  like  a  bull,  difficult  to  attack  like  ia  lion,  steady 
and  firm  like  Mount  Mandara,  deep  like  the  ocean,  mild  like  the  moon, 
refulgent  like  the  sun,  pure  like  excellent  gold ;  like  the  earth  he 
patiently  bore  everything ;  like  a  well-kindled  fire  he  shone  in  his 
splendour.'  ^ 

Many  legends  are  told  of  Mahavira's  absolute  absorp- 
tion in  meditation  and  of  his  unconsciousness  of  outward 
circumstances  during  these  years.  One  of  these  stories 
has  a  slight  resemblance  to  that  of  -King  Alfred  and  the 
cakes  :  Once  upon  a  time  the  great  ascetic  sat  down  to 
meditate  on  the  outskirts  of  Kumaragrama.  He  crossed 
his  ankles,  and,  gazing  fixedly  at  the  tip  of  his  nose,  was 
soon  so  immersed  in  reflection  as  to  be  lost  to  all  that  went 

•■•  There  is  a  GujaratI  couplet : 
'  Water  should  be  allowed  to  flow  that  it  become  not  stagnant, 
Monks  should  be  allowed  to  wander  that  they  may  be  stainless.' 
A  Sanskrit  proverb  runs  :  '  A  monk  who  wanders  is  worshipped.' 
^  Kaipa  Siitra^  S,  B.  E.,  xxii,  pp.  260,  261. 


38  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAvIRA 

on  around  him.  A  busy  farmer  bustled  past  and  asked 
this  man  who  was  sitting  down  and  apparently  doing 
nothing  to  look  after  his  bullocks  till  his  return.  Mahavira 
neither  heard  the  request  nor  saw  the  animals,  far  less 
took  care  of  them.  On  his  return  the  farmer  saw  the 
apparently  idle  man  still  seated  doing  nothing,  but  could 
get  no  answer  from  him  as  to  the  whereabouts  of  his  beasts 
and  had  to  go  off  in  search  of  them.  The  bullocks  mean- 
while, having  eaten  their  fill,  returned  and  lay  down  to 
rest  beside  the  gentle  saint.  The  poor  owner  searched 
for  the  beasts  the  whole  night  through,  and  was  enraged 
on  returning  next  morning  to  find  where  they  were,  for  it 
seemed  to  him  a  plot  to  steal  the  animals  ;  so  he  seized 
their  halter  and  began  to  beat  Mahavira  with  it.  For- 
tunately the  god  Indra  knew  what  was  happening  and 
interfered  in  time  to  stop  such  sacrilege  ;  but  he  begged 
Mahavira  to  allow  him  in  future  to  guard  him  himself,  or 
to  appoint  some  other  god  to  do  so.  The  saint,  however, 
refused  any  protection,  saying  that,  just  as  a  Tirthahkara 
must  always  obtain  omniscience  by  his  own  unaided  efforts, 
so  must  he  attain  Moksa  unprotected  by  any  one.  But 
the  gods  had  grown  nervous  lest  Mahavira  should  be  killed 
inadvertently,  so  Indra,  without  the  saint's  knowledge, 
appointed  one  Siddhartha  (a  cousin  of  Mahavira's  who  had 
become  a  god)  to  protect  him. 

Enlightenment  and  Death. 

low  We  have  seen  that  Mahavira  was  born  with  three  degrees 

lahavTra  of  knowledge  and  had  acquired  the  fourth.  He  was  now, 
at  the  end  of  his  twelve  years  of  wandering  and  penance, 
to  acquire  the  fifth  degree — Kevala  jndna  or  Omniscience. 
In  the  thirteenth  year  after  his  renunciation  of  the  world 
and  initiation  as  an  ascetic,  Mahavira  stayed  in  a  place 
not  very  far  from  the  Parasnath  hills  called  Jrimbhaka- 
grama.-^    There  was  a  field  there  belonging  to  a  farmer 

*  Also  called  Jrimbhila  or  Jrimbhikagrama. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA  39 

called  Samaga  ^  which  surrounded  an  old  temple,  and 
through  this  field  the  river  RijupaHka^  flowed.  One  after- 
noon Mahavira  was  seated  under  the  shade  of  a  Sala  tree 
in  this  quiet  meadow  in  deepest  meditation.  Just  as  before 
his  initiation,  so  now  he  had  fasted  for  two-and-a-half 
days  without  even  touching  water,  and  as  he  sat  there 
lost  in  thought,  he  peacefully  attained  supreme  knowledge. 
Henceforth  he  possessed  '  complete  and  full,  the  unob- 
structed, unimpeded,  infinite  and  supreme,  best  knowledge 
and  intuition  called  Kevala  jfiana '.  His  meditations  and 
austerities  had  been  so  profound  as  to  destroy  the  last  of 
all  the  karma,  the  enemies  to  enlightenment,  knowledge 
and  freedom,  and  henceforth  his  pathway  would  be  unim- 
peded. Mahavira  now  added  to  his  titles  those  of  Jina 
(or  Conqueror  of  the  Eight  Karma,  the  great  enemies),  from 
which  Jainism  derives  its  name,  Arhata  (or  Being  worthy 
of  Veneration),  Arihanta  (or  Destroyer  of  Enemies)  and 
Aruhanta  or  (One  who  has  killed  even  the  roots  of  karrna). 

Now,^  as  the  conqueror  of   karma  and  equipped  with  Maha- 
supreme  knowledge,    Mahavira  began   to   teach  his  way,  p^\^^^, 
and  his  first  sermon  was  on  the  five  great  vows  which  we 
shall  study  later. 

The  Jaina  declare  that  Mahavira's  great  message  to 
mankind  was  that  birth  is  nothing  and  caste  nothing, 
but  karma  everything,  and  on  the  destruction  of  karma 
future  happiness  depends. 

The  Brahmans  had  laid  stress  on  birth,  and  had  insisted 
that,  however  bad  a  Brahman  were,  he  would  need  to  do 
small  penance  compared  with  what  would  be  obligatory 
on  even  a  righteous  man  of  low  caste. 

Mahavira's  contemporary  Buddha  had  taught  that  in 
desire   lay   the   cause   that   led   to   rebirth ;  that  mental 

^  Or  Samaka  or  Samaka. 

^  Or  Rijukula,  or  Rijuvalika. 

^  If  Mahavira  had  preached  before  he  got  Kevalajndnay\i\'5>  sermons 
would  have  contained  some  mistakes ;  now  of  course  they  were 
perfect. 


40  THE  lifp:  of  mahAvira 

discipline  was  of  supreme  importance,  and  asceticism  and 
austerity  of  no  avail.  Mahavira,  on  the  contrary,  laid  the 
greatest  stress  on  asceticism.  In  its  glow  karma  could  be 
burnt  up,  and  only  through  austerities  could  one  become 
a  Tirthaiikara. 

Mahavira's  first  disciple  was  Gautama  Indrabhuti,  who 
in  turn  became  a  Kevali,  and  whose  story  we  tell  later. 
After  instructing  Gautama,  Mahavira  set  off  on  his  preach- 
ing tours  in  real  earnest,  and  taught  his  Rule  with  great 
acceptance  to  all  his  warrior  kinsfolk.  Like  Buddha,  he 
preached  first  to  the  rich  and  aristocratic,  and  though  his 
followers  to-day  are  to  be  found  more  amongst  the  middle 
classes,  his  earliest  supporters  seem  to  have  been  rulers 
and  petty  kings.  This  may  have  been  because  they  too 
disliked  Brahman  pretensions  and  were  pleased  that  one 
of  their  own  kinsfolk  should  lead  a  revolt  against  them. 
Mahavira's  connexions  through  his  mother  Trisala  must  have 
been  invaluable  to  him  at  the  beginning  of  this  work ;  indeed, 
Dr.  Jacobi  thinks  that  the  real  meaning  of  the  story  about 
the  removal  of  the  embryo  from  one  mother  to  another  was 
to  hide  the  fact  that  Mahavira  was  really  the  son  of  another 
and  far  less  highly  connected  wife  of  the  king,  and  to  pre- 
tend that  he  was  the  son  instead  of  the  stepson  of  Trisala.-^ 
This  of  course  the  Jaina  indignantly  deny.  The  Digambara 
and  Svetambara  legends  give  the  names  of  the  different 
rulers  Mahavira  visited, and  tell  how  Cetaka,  king  of  Videha, 
became  a  patron  of  the  order,  and  Kunika,  king  of  Ahga, 
gave  him  the  most  cordial  welcome,  and  how,  when  he 
travelled  as  far  as  KausambI,  he  was  received  with  the 
greatest  honour  by  its  king  Satanika,  who  listened  with 
deep  interest  to  his  preaching,  and  eventually  entered 
his  order.  The  Digambara  claim  that  in  thirty  years  he 
converted  to  Jainism  Magadha,  Bihar,  Prayaga,  Kau- 
sambI, Campapurl  and  many  other  powerful  states  in 
North  India.  They  believe  that  he  did  not  travel  alone, 
^  See  Introduction,  S.  B.  E.^  xxii,  p.  xxxi. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA  41 

but  that  everywhere  he  went  he  was  accompanied  by  all 
the  monks  and  nuns  who  had  entered  his  order  (eventually 
these  amounted  to  fourteen  thousand  persons),  and  that 
magnificent  halls  of  audience  were  erected  for  him  to  preach 
in.  He  preached  in  a  language  which  they  call  An-aksari, 
which  was  unintelligible  to  the  common  people,  so  Gau- 
tama acted  as  his  interpreter  and  translated  all  he  said 
into  Magadhi. 

According  to  the  Digambara  again,  the  place  Mahavira 
loved  best  of  all  was  Rajagriha,  the  capital  of  Magadha. 
Its  king  Srenika,  with  his  whole  army,  had  gone  out  to  do 
honour  to  the  saint  on  his  first  entry  into  the  country  and 
had  been  won  over  by  him.  The  king  asked  sixty  thou- 
sand questions  concerning  the  faith,  and  all  of  them  being 
satisfactorily  answered  by  Gautama,  he  entered  the  order 
and  became  one  of  the  staunchest  champions  of  Jainism. 

The  Svetambara  have  recorded  the  names  of  the  places 
where  Mahavira  stayed  during  each  rainy  season,  and 
they  cover  a  period  of  forty-one  years.  First,  they  say, 
he  went  to  Asthikagrama  (the  village  of  bones).  The 
name  of  this  village,  the  commentators  declare,  was 
originally  Vardhamana  (the  Kathiawad  Jaina  believe  it 
to  have  been  identical  with  the  modern  Wadhwan)  ;  but 
an  evil  demon,  Yaksa,  collected  there  an  enormous  heap  of 
bones  belonging  to  all  the  people  he  had  killed,  and  on  this 
heap  the  inhabitants  built  a  temple,  hence  the  change 
of  name. 

Mahavira  then  spent  three  rainy  seasons  in  Campa  and 
Pristicampa  (Bihar).  As  a  prophet  he  cannot  have  been 
without  honour  in  his  own  country,  for  he  spent  twelve 
monsoons  at  Vaisall  and  its  suburb  Vanijyagrama,  doubtless 
recruiting  for  his  order,  which,  having  at  its  head  the 
brother  of  their  king,  naturally  held  out  many  attractions 
to  the  inhabitants.  He  was  also  able  to  win  over  all  the 
members  of  the  order  of  Parsvanatha  to  which  he  had 
originally  belonged.    He  paid  even  more  visits  to  Rajagriha, 


42  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 

where,  as  the  Svetambara  and  Digambara  both  agree,  he 
was  much  beloved,  and  whose  inhabitants  prevailed  on  him 
to  return  fourteen  times.  Another  favourite  resort,  Mithila, 
has  provided  the  Jaina  ascetics  with  a  proverb  :  '  If  Mithila 
burns,  what  have  I  to  lose  ? ' ;  and  it  must  have  been  a  place 
of  considerable  importance,  for  Mahavira  spent  six  mon- 
soons there,  and  its  kings,  as  we  know  from  other  sources, 
were  men  of  high  standing  and  culture.  The  great  ascetic 
spent  two  rainy  seasons  in  Bhadrika,  and  then  just  for  one 
monsoon  he  went  to  Alabhika,  to  Punitabhumi,  and  to 
Sravasti  in  turn,  and  his  last  monsoon  he  spent  at  Papa 
(or  Pampa). 

It  will  be  noticed  how  closely  these  travels  of  Mahavira 
resemble  those  of  Buddha,  and  this,  and  the  fact  that 
they  never  met^  led  to  a  doubt  of  Mahavlra's  separate  exis- 
tence. It  must  have  required  no  small  tact  to  have  won 
over  the  members  of  an  order  to  which  he  had  once  belonged 
and  afterwards  left,  but,  despite  this  tact,  Mahavira  seems 
never  to  have  possessed  the  personal  charm  which  Buddha 
had,  a  charm  which  even  Western  people  can  feel  to-day 
as  they  read  his  story ;  but  the  Jaina  leader  certainly 
possessed  a  greater  power  of  organization  (a  gift  which 
seldom  goes  with  charm),  and  to  this  faculty  we  owe  the 
existence  of  Jainism  in  India  to-day. 

The  work  of  Mahavira  during  these  years  must  have 
closely  resembled  that  of  the  Dominican  or  Franciscan 
monks  who  (owing  how  much  of  their  inspiration  to  him 
and  his  compeers  we  do  not  know)  were  to  wander  over 
Europe  centuries  later. 

About  a  year  after  gaining  Omniscience  Mahavira  became 
a  Tirthahkara,  one  of  those  who  show  the  true  way  across 
the  troubled  ocean  of  life.  The  path  Mahavira  pointed 
out  for  others  to  follow  lay  in  becoming  a  member  of  one 
of  the  four  Tirtha — a  monk,  or  nun,  if  possible,  otherwise 
a  devout  layman  or  lay  woman. 

We  come  now  to  the  closing  scene  of  Mahavlra's  life. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAvIRA  43 

He  died  in  his  seventy-second  year,  some  fifty  years  before  The 
his  rival  and  contemporary  Buddha.^    Modern  research  has  ^^J  - 
shown  that  the  traditional  dates  for  his  birth  and  death,^  vira. 
599  B.C.  and  527  B.C.,  cannot  be  far  wrong. 

Mahavira's  last  rainy  season  was  spent  in  Papa,  the 
modern  Pavapurl,  a  small  village  in  the  Patna  district 
which  is  still  held  sacred  by  the  Jaina.  The  king  of  Papa, 
Hastipala,  was  a  patron  of  Mahavira's,  and,  according  to 
some  accounts,  it  was  in  his  '  office  of  the  writers  '  that 
the  saint  died.  Sitting  in  the  Samparyahka  position,  he 
delivered  the  fifty-five  lectures  that  explain  the  results 
of  karma  and  recited  the  thirty-six  unasked  questions 
(i.  e.  the  Uttarddhyayana  Sutra),  and  having  finished  his 
great  lecture  on  Marudeva  he  died  all  alone,  and  cut  asunder 
the  ties  of  birth,  old  age  and  death. ^ 

Legends  have  gathered  as  thickly  round  Mahavira's 
death  as  round  his  birth.  One  tells  how  nearly  all  the 
ruling  chiefs  of  the  country  had  gathered  to  hear  his  dis- 
courses, and  how  the  saint  preached  to  them  with  wonder- 
ful eloquence  for  six  days ;  then  on  the  seventh  he  took 
his  seat  upon  a  diamond  throne  in  the  centre  of  a  magni- 
ficent hall,  which  had  been  specially  built  for  him  on  the 
borders  of  a  lake.  His  hearers  had  arranged  themselves 
into  twelve  grades  according  to  their  rank,  for  all  were 
there  from  the  king  to  the  beggar.  It  was  a  dark  night, 
but  the  hall  was  brilliantly  illumined  by  the  supernatural 
glow  that  issued  from  the  gods  who  had  come  to  listen  to 
the  illustrious  preacher.  Mahavira  preached  all  night, 
and  towards  dawn  his  hearers  fell  Asleep.  The  saint  knew 
by  his  Sukladhyana  that  his  end  was  drawing  nigh,  so  he 
sat  reverently  with  clasped  hands  and  crossed  knees  (the 
Samparyahka  position),  and,  just  as  the  morning  dawned, 

1  Hoernle,  A.S.B.,  p.  42.     Buddha's  dates  are  557-477  B-C. 
^  The   word  the  Jaina  prefer  to  use  instead  of   Death  is   Mrityu 
Mahotsava  or  Great  Death  Festival. 
^  Kaipa  Sutra,  S.  B.  E.,  xxii,  p.  264  ff.         _ 


44  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 

he  attained  Nirvana,  and  the  people  awakened  only  to  find 
their  lord  was  dead. 

Now  at  last  Mahavira  was  freed  ;  his  forty-two  years 
as  a  monk  with  all  their  self-denial  and  austerities  had 
completely  exhausted  his  karma.  He  had,  unaided,  worked 
out  his  own  salvation,  and  never  again  could  the  accumu- 
lated energy  of  his  past  actions  compel  him  to  be  reborn, 
for  all  their  force  was  spent.  The  Jaina  say  there  are  two 
Terrible  Ones  who  dog  the  soul,  like  policemen  attending 
a  prisoner :  one  is  called  Birth  and  one  Death,  '  He  who 
is  born  must  die  some  day  or  other,  and  he  who  is  dead 
must  be  born  in  some  form  or  other.'  These  two  Terrible 
Ones  had  no  longer  any  power  over  Mahavira,  for  the 
chain  of  karma  that  bound  him  to  them  had  been  snapped, 
and  never  again  could  the  prisoner  be  sentenced  to  life. 

All  of  Mahavlra's  disciples  had  been  present  at  his  death, 
save  the  chief  of  them,  Gautama  Indrabhuti.  This  earliest 
disciple  knew  that  he  could  never  attain  omniscience 
whilst  he  was  attached  to  a  human  being  ;  nevertheless, 
he  could  not  conquer  his  love  for  his  master.  On  the 
night  of  Mahavlra's  death  he  had  been  sent  on  some  mis- 
sion, and  whilst  absent  he  was  able  to  overcome  this  last 
tie  of  friendship,  and  having  attained  Kevala  jfiana,-^  he 
returned  to  find  the  master,  whom  he  no  longer  loved,  dead 
and  the  people  mourning. 

The  kings  who  were  present  on  the  night  that  Mahavira 
died  instituted  an  illumination  to  commemorate  him,  for 
they  said,  '  Since  the  light  of  intelligence  is  gone,  let  us 
make  an  illumination  of  material  matter  '  ;  ^  and  this  the 
Jaina  claim  to  be  the  origin  of  the  yearly  festival  of  lamps, 
Divali,  which  the  Hindus  and  they  alike  observe. 

Some  Digambara  give  a  different  version  of  the  saint's 

^  It  was  only  for  sixty-four  years  after  Mahavlra's  death  that  it  was 
possible  for  any  one  to  obtain  Kevala  jiiana,  but  during  that  time  not 
only  Gautama  but  also  Sudharma  (on  Gautama's  death)  and  Jambu 
(on  Sudharma's  death)  became  omniscient. 

^  Kalpa  Siitra^  S.  13.  £".,  xxii,  p.  266. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA  45 

death,  according  to  which  they  say  that  there  was  neither 
hall,  illumination,  nor  audience,  but  that  Mahavira  died 
quietly  and  alone,  and  when  he  had  passed  away  only  his 
nails  and  hair  were  left,  all  else  had  dried  up  and  dis- 
appeared with  his  karma.  A  new  body  was  made  from 
these  relics,  which  was  duly  cremated  with  all  fitting 
ceremony. 

Mahavira's  enemies  record  yet  another  version — that  the 
saint  died  in  a  fit  of  apoplectic  rage.  But  this  hardly 
accords  with  the  character  of  the  man,  nor  with  his  prob- 
able physical  condition  after  such  prolonged  austerities. 

Both  Digambara  and  Svetambara  Jaina  love  to  visit 
Pavapurl  at  the  feast  of  Divali.  There  are  several  small 
temples  there  belonging  to  both  sects,  but  the  main  temple 
is  the  one  which  contains  the  footprints  of  Mahavira,  and 
a  narrow  stone  bridge  leads  to  this  shrine  over  a  lake  on 
which  bloom  white  and  red  lotus  lilies. 

Mahavira,  or  rather  his  jiva,  the  more  orthodox  Jaina  Previous 
believe,  passed  through  many  incarnations  previous  to  his  J^carna- 
birth  as  Mahavira.     Some  of  the  more  modern  members  Maha- 
of  the  community  believe  these  to  be  purely  legendary,  ^""''^• 
but  they  illustrate  the  Jaina  view  of  karma  so  pictorially 
as  to  be  worth  quoting  here. 

Once  upon  a  time  Mahavira  was  incarnate  as  a  carpenter 
called  Nayasara,  who  worked  at  his  trade  in  the  jungle. 
One  day  he  met  there  some  tired,  travel-worn  Jaina  sadhus, 
whom  he  took  pity  on  and  fed.  They  preached  to  him 
in  return  the  Jaina  creed,  with  the  result  that  he  became 
a  convert.  He  met  his  death  later  through  a  branch  of 
a  tree  falling  on  him,  and  was  reborn  as  Marici,  the  grand- 
son of  Risabhadeva,  the  first  Tirthafikara. 

This  was  the  most  famous  of  his  early  incarnations,  and 
during  it  he  became  a  Jaina  sadhu  through  listening  to 
a  sermon  of  Risabhadeva's.  However,  he  found  the  life 
of  an  ascetic  as  usually  practised  very  hard,  and  the 
hardest  part  of  all  was  to  remember  to  control  speech, 


46  THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA 

word  and  act,  which  the  Jaina  call  the  three  Danda.  This 
difficulty  he  evaded  by  an  ingenious  mechanical  pun.  The 
word  Danda  or  stick  is  the  same  as  the  word  Danda  that 

•    •  •    • 

connotes  the  three  controls  he  found  it  so  hard  to  exercise, 
so  he  gathered  together  three  sticks  and  preached  far  and 
wide  the  comforting  doctrine  that  any  ascetic  might  do 
what  he  liked  and  linger  at  will  on  the  primrose  path  of 
dalliance,  provided  he  carried  in  his  hand  three  rods.  He 
gained  a  disciple,  Kapila,  who  preached  the  doctrine  even 
more  vigorously  than  his  master. 

Mahavira  was  then  reborn  a  god,  and  in  his  next  birth  was 
born  as  a  Brahman,  and  after  that  he  was  born  alternately 
as  a  god  and  a  Brahman,  with  the  occasional  interlude 
of  being  born  a  king,  for  countless  ages.  He  was  once  the 
famous  king  Vasudeva  or  Triprista,  and  during  this  incar- 
nation he  wrought  so  many  evil  deeds  that  he  was  con- 
demned to  spend  his  next  rebirth  in  hell  (Naraka)  ;  from 
there  he  issued  forth  in  his  following  incarnation  as  a  lion. 
When  a  lion  he  slew  so  many  people  that  his  evil  karma 
condemned  him  once  more  to  Naraka  for  an  incarnation  ; 
when  that  was  over  he  became  a  god,  and  then  a  Brahman, 
and,  alternating  between  the  two,  he  at  last  arrived  at  his 
twenty-seventh  and  most  famous  incarnation  as  Mahavira. 
During  his  incarnation  as  Marici  he  had  learned  ^  that  he 
was  to  be  the  twenty-fourth  and  last  Tirthahkara,  where- 
upon he  had  been  so  overcome  with  pride  and  joy  and 
had  shown  so  much  conceit,  that  he  had  accumulated 
a  great  weight  of  karma ;  it  was  this  that  very  nearly 
resulted  in  his  being  born  a  Brahman,  but  fortunately  his 
karma  was  exhausted  just  before  his  birth  in  time  to 
admit  of  his  embryo  being  removed  from  '  the  beggarly 
Brahman  stock  '  to  the  womb  of  a  Ksatriya  lady. 

The  Jaina  women  have  a  story  to  account  for  the  dis- 

^  King  Bharala  had  once  asked  his  father  Risabhadeva  who  would 
be  among  the  next  Tirthankara,  and  Risabhadeva  had  pointed  to  Marici 
who  was  sitting  last  in  the  assembly. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MAHAVIRA  47 

appointment  of  the  poor  Brahman  lady  Devananda,  which 
was  due,  they  say,  to  her  evil  karma.  In  a  previous 
incarnation  Devananda  and  Trisala  had  been  sisters-in- 
law,  and  Devananda  had  taken  advantage  of  their  intimacy 
to  steal  a  priceless  jewel  from  Trisala,  and  so,  by  the  auto- 
matic working  of  the  law  of  karma,  which  invariably 
makes  the  punishment  fit  the  crime,  her  jewel  of  a  son 
was  removed  from  her  and  given  to  the  woman  she  had 
wronged. 


I 


CHAPTER  IV 

mahAvira'S  predecessors  and  disciples 

Pars-  Parsvanatha,   the  Tirthankara  who  immediately  pre- 

'  ceded  Mahavira,  may  also  have  been  an  historical  person. 
Very  probably  he  did  something  to  draw  together  and 
improve  the  discipline  of  the  homeless  monks  who  were 
outside  the  pale  of  Brahmanism,  much  as  St.  Benedict  did 
in  Europe.  If  so,  he  was  the  real  founder  of  Jainism, 
Mahavira  being  only  a  reformer  who  carried  still  further 
the  work  that  Parsvanatha  had  begun. 

The  Jaina  say  that  Parsvanatha  was  born  in  what  is 
now  the  city  of  Benares  about  817  b.  c.  His  father, 
Asvasena,  was  the  king  of  that  town,  and  to  his  mother. 
Queen  Vama,  were  granted  the  wonderful  dreams  which 
always  foretell  the  birth  of  a  Tirthankara.  Before  he  was 
born,  his  mother,  lying  in  the  dark,  saw  a  black  serpent 
crawling  about  by  her  side,  and  so  gave  her  little  son  the 
name  of  Parsva.  All  his  life  Parsvanatha  was  connected 
with  snakes,  for  when  he  was  grown  up  he  was  once  able 
to  rescue  a  serpent  from  grave  danger.  A  Brahman 
ascetic  was  kindhng  a  fire,  without  noticing  whether  in 
so  doing  he  was  destroying  life  or  not,  when  Parsvanatha 
happened  to  pass  and  drew  from  the  log  the  Brahman  was 
lighting  a  poor  terrified  snake  that  had  taken  up  its  abode 
in  the  w^ood. 

Whilst  in  the  world,  Parsvanatha  bore  himself  with 
great  credit ;  he  was  a  brave  warrior  and  defeated  the 
Yavana  king  of  Kalihga,  and  he  eventually  married  Pra- 
bhavat!,  daughter  of  Prasannajita,  king  of  Ayodhya. 

At  the  age  of  thirty  he  renounced  the  world  and  became 
f     an  ascetic  with  the  same  ceremonies  that  have  been  de- 
scribed in  the  case  of  Mahavira.     In  order  to  gain  Omni- 


mahAvira's  predecessors  49 

science  he  practised  austerities  for  eighty-three  days,  and 
during  this  time  an  enemy,  Kamatha,  caused  a  heavy 
downpour  of  rain  to  fall  on  him,  so  that  these  austerities 
might  be  made  as  trying  to  flesh  and  blood  as  possible. 
Now  this  enemy  was  no  one  else  than  the  Brahman  ascetic 
whose  carelessness  in  a  previous  incarnation  had  so  nearly 
caused  the  death  of  the  poor  snake.  But  if  Parsvanatha's 
enemies  were  active,  his  grateful  friends  were  no  less 
mindful  of  him,  and  the  snake,  who  by  now  had  become 
the  god  Dharanendra,  held  a  serpent's  hood  over  the 
ascetic,  and  sheltered  him  as  with  an  umbrella  ;  and  to  this 
day  the  saint's  symbol  is  a  hooded  serpent's  head.  On 
the  eighty-fourth  day  Parsvanatha  obtained  Kevala  jfiana 
seated  under  a  Dhataki  tree  near  Benares. 

He  now  became  the  head  of  an  enormous  community, 
his  mother  and  wife  being  his  first  disciples.  Followed 
by  these,  he  preached  his  doctrines  for  seventy  years,  until 
at  last  his  karma  was  exhausted,  and,  an  old  man  of 
a  hundred  years,  he  reached  deliverance  at  last  on  Mount 
Sameta  Sikhara  in  Bengal,  which  was  thenceforth  known 
as  the  Mount  of  Parsvanatha. 

Parsvanatha  made  four  vows  binding  on  the  members  The  four 
of  his  community :  not  to  take  life,  not  to  lie,  not  to  steal  p^^f  ^^ 
and  not  to  own  property.    He  doubtless  felt  that  the  vow  of  natha. 
chastity  and  celibacy  was  included  under  the  last  two  heads, 
but  in  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  that  elapsed  between 
his  death  and  the  coming  of  Mahavira,  abuses  became  so 
rife  that  the  latter  was  forced  to  add  another  vow — that  of 
chastity — to  those  already  enumerated.  This  he  did  by  divid- 
ing the  vow  of  property  specifically  into  two,  one  part  relating 
to  women  and  the  other  to  material  possessions.  Some  Jaina, 
however,  believe  that  Parsvanatha's  four  vows  were  those 
of  non-killing,  non-lying,  non-stealing  and  chastity,  that 
it  was  the  promise  to  keep  nothing  as  one's  own  possession 
that  Mahavira  added  to  these,  and  that  it  was  in  order  to 
keep  this  vow  that  Mahavira  himself  went  about  naked. 

E 


50 


mahAvira's  predecessors 


Jainism 
the 
oldest 
religion. 


Another  reform  which  they  say  Mahavira  introduced  was 
the  making  confession  compulsory  instead  of  optional  for 
monks.  All  these  traditions  bear  out  the  idea  that  Maha- 
vira was  a  reformer  rather  than  a  founder  of  his  faith  and 
order,  and  that  the  rule  of  Parsvanatha  had  not  been  found 
in  practice  sufficiently  stringent. 

The  Twenty-two  Earlier  Tirthahkara. 

We  have  begun  our  survey  of  Jaina  legend  with  the 
birth  of  Mahavira,  but  no  Jaina  historian  would  do  that. 
The  Jaina  firmly  believe  that  theirs  is  the  oldest  religion 
in  India,  and  delight  to  quote  many  passages  ^  from  the 
Veda  which  prove  to  them  that  Jainism  existed  before 
the  Veda  were  written  and  cannot  therefore  be  an  offshoot 
of  Brahmanism,  as  most  scholars  believe.  They  reject 
the  old  theory  ^  that  Gautama  Indrabhuti  revolted  from 
Jainism  and  became  the  founder  of  Buddhism,  and  claim 
Buddhism  as  a  late  offshoot  of  Jainism,  telling  the  follow- 
ing legend  to  prove  it.  During  the  interval  between  the 
days  of  Parsvanatha  and  those  of  Mahavira  there  lived 
a  certain  Jaina  monk  called  Buddha  Kirti,  who  was  well 
learned  in  the  scriptures.  One  day  he  was  performing 
austerities  by  the  side  of  the  river  Sarayu  in  Palasa  Nagara, 
and  as  he  sat  there  he  saw  a  dead  fish  floating  by  him. 
As  he  watched  it,  he  reflected  that  there  could  be  no  harm 
in  eating  the  flesh  of  dead  fish,  for  there  was  no  soul  within 
it.  This  thought  inspired  him,  the  Jaina  say,  to  found 
a  new  religion  ;  he  left  his  austerities,  assumed  red  gar- 
ments, and  preached  Buddhism. 

According  to  the  Jaina,  the  best  way  to  begin  the  study 
of  their  history  is  through  the  stories  of  the  Tirthankara. 
We  have  studied  the  lives  of  the  two  latest  Tirthankara, 
Parsvanatha,  the  twenty-third,  and  Mahavira,  the  twenty- 

^  See,  for  instance,  Jain  Itihds  series,  No.  i,  a  lecture  by  Lala 
Benarsi  Dass,  M.A.,  Agra,  1902. 

^  They  declare  that  this  mistake  was  never  made  by  Jaina,  only  by 
European  scholars. 


AND  DISCIPLES  51 

fourth  ;  but  the  Jaina  have  legends  regarding  each  one 
of  their  predecessors. 

The  first  Tirthankara  was  born  when  the  world   had  i.  Risa- 
passed  out  of  its  happiest  stage  and  was  in  the  era  ofoj-Adi^^ 
Susama  Dusama.^    A  Rajput  king  had  a  little  son  born  to  natha. 
him,  whom  his  mother  called  Risabhadeva,  because  in  her 
dream  she  had  seen  a  bull  {risabha)  coming  towards  her. 
Risabhadeva  (also  called  Adinatha)  taught  men  seventy- two 
arts  and  women  sixty-four,  for  these  have  only  to  be  skilled 
in  domestic  and  not  in  literary  and  industrial  crafts ;  but 
his  great  glory  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  first  taught  men  the 
Jaina  faith.    He  lived  for  eighty-four  lakhs  of  purva  of  time, 
of  which  he  spent  only  one  lakh  of  purva  as  an  ascetic. 
Risabhadeva  had  one  hundred  sons  (amongst  whom  was 
the  famous  king  Bharata)  ;  their  height  was  five  hundred 
bow-shots.     This  first  Tirthankara  attained  moksa  from 
Astapada  (or  Kailasa)  in  the  modern  Himalayas. 

The  world  grew  steadily  worse,  and  in  fifty  lakhs  of  crores  2.  Ajita- 
of  sagara  of  time  the  next  Tirthankara,  Ajitanatha,  was  "^^"^*  ■ 
born  in  Ayodhya.  After  his  birth  all  his  father's  enemies 
were  conquered  {jita),  hence  his  name,  *  the  invincible  one  '. 
He  was  born  in  the  period  called  Dusama  Susama,  and  all 
the  remaining  Tirthankara  were  born  in  the  same  period. 
His  sign,  which  one  sees  on  all  his  images  in  the  temples, 
is  an  elephant.  During  his  life  he  himself  earned  the  title 
of  Victorious,  for  he  was  so  devout  an  ascetic  that  he  was 
beaten  by  none  in  performing  austerities.  He  attained 
moksa  together  with  a  thousand  other  Sadhus. 

After  thirty  more  lakhs  of  crores  of  sagara  Sambhava-  3.  Sam- 
natha,  the  third  Tirthankara,  was  born  in  SravastI  of  Rajput  bhava- 
parents.  The  king  his  father  had  been  distressed  to  see  the 
way  his  dominions  were  ravaged  by  plague  and  famine,  but 
when  he  heard  the  good  news  of  the  boy's  birth,  he  felt 
there  was  a  chance  {sambhava)  of  better  times  coming,  hence 
the  boy's  name.     He  too  was  able  to  persuade  a  thousand 

^  Otherwise':  Susama  Duhsama. 
E  2 


5a  MAHAVIRA'S  PREDECESSORS 

ascetics  to  join  his  community  or  sartgha,  who  eventually 
all  attained  moksa  with  him.     His  emblem  is  the  horse. 

4.  Abhi-       The  fourth  Tirthankara  owes  his  name  to  the  fact  that 
nandana-  ^^^  g^^  Indra  used  to  come  down  and  worship  [ahhinanda] 

him  in  Vanita,  where  his  parents,  Samvara  and  Siddartha 
Ram,  ruled.  He  attained  moksa  accompanied  by  a  thou- 
sand monks,  as  indeed  did  all  the  first  eleven  Tirthankara 
except  Suparsvanatha.  Abhinandana  has  the  ape  for  his 
sign  ;  he  was  born  ten  lakhs  of  crores  of  sagara  of  time 
after  his  predecessor.  His  height  was  three  hundred  and 
fifty  bow-shots. 

5.  Suma-      The  legend  about  the  fifth  Tirthankara,  Sumatinatha, 
tinatha.     |g  ^lore  interesting  ;  he  was  born  in  Kahkanapura,  where 

his  father,  a  Rajput  named  Megharatha,  was  king  ;  his 
mother's  name  was  Sumahgala.  The  child  was  called 
Sumatinatha,  because  even  before  his  birth  his  mother's 
intellect  {sumati)  was  so  sharpened.  To  prove  the  queen's 
ability,  a  story  is  told  resembling  that  of  the  judgement 
of  Solomon.  An  old  Brahman  died,  leaving  two  wives  ; 
both  women  claimed  the  only  son  as  theirs,  and  the  dispute 
was  taken  to  the  queen  to  settle,  who  decreed,  as  Solomon 
did  (and  with  similar  results),  that  the  living  child  should 
be  cut  in  two.  This  Tirthahkara's  sign  is  sometimes  given 
as  a  red  goose,  but  others  say  it  is  a  red  partridge.  He 
was  born  nine  lakhS  of  crores  of  sagara  after  Abhinandana, 
and  his  height  was  three  hundred  bow-shots. 

6.  Pad-         Susima,   the  mother  of  the  sixth  Tirthankara,   longed 
mapra-      before  his  birth  to  sleep  on  a  bed  of  red  lotuses  [padma), 

with  the  result  that  her  son  was  always  the  colour  of  a  red 
lotus,  which  flower  he  took  for  his  emblem.  His  father,  Dhara, 
was  the  Rajput  king  of  Kausambi.  Padmaprabhu  was  born 
ninety  thousandcrores  of  sagara  of  time  after  his  predeces- 
sor ;  his  height  was  two  hundred  and  fifty  bow-shots. 

7.  Supar-      The  father  of  the  next  Tirthankara  was  the  Rajput  king 
svanatha.  q£  Benares  ;  but  his  wife  suffered  from  leprosy  in  both 

her  sides.     This   dreadful   disease  was   cured   before   the 


AND  DISCIPLES  ^^ 

child's  birth,  so  he  was  given  the  name  of  Su  (good)  pdrsva 
(side).     His  emblem  is  the  Svastika  symbol  •- 


T 


Unlike 


the  other  earlier  Tirthahkara  he  attained  moksa  with  only 
five  hundred  companions.  Nine  thousand  crores  of  sagara 
of  time  had  elapsed  since  the  death  of  his  predecessor,  and 
his  height  was  two  hundred  bow-shots. 

After  a  further  interval  of  nine  hundred  crores  of  sagara  8.  Can- 
of  time  the  eighth  Tirthankara  was  born ;  his  height  was  ^J'^P'^^" 
one  hundred  and  fifty  bow-shots.  Before  his  birth  his 
mother  (the  wife  of  the  Rajput  king  of  Candrapuri)  longed 
to  drink  the  moon  [candra).  To  assuage  her  craving,  a  plate 
of  water  was  one  night  handed  to  her  in  such  a  way  that  the 
moon  was  reflected  in  it ;  when  the  child  was  born,  he  was 
found  to  be  as  bright  and  white  as  the  moon,  which  accord- 
ingly became  his  emblem,  and  he  was  called  Candraprabhu. 

Two  names  are  given  to  the  next  Tirthahkara.  Owing  9.  Suvi- 
to  the  peace  he  brought  to  a  distracted  family,  all  of  whose  dhinatha. 
kingly  relatives  were  warring  against  one  another,  he  is 
called  Suvidhinatha,  for  on  his  birth  they  gave  up  fighting 
and  took  instead  to  performing  their  religious  duties 
(suvidhi) ;  but  as  his  teeth  were  so  beautiful  that  they 
resembled  the  buds  of  an  exquisite  flower  (puspa),  he  was 
also  called  Puspadanta.  There  is  a  dispute  over  his  emblem : 
the  Svetambara  say  it  is  the  crocodile,  while  certain  Digam- 
bara  declare  it  is  the  crab.  Ninety  crores  of  sagara  elapsed 
before  his  birth,  and  his  height  was  one  hundred  bow-shots. 

The  tenth  Tirthahkara  had  a  marvellous  power  of  im-  10.  Sita- 
parting  coolness  (slta/atd)  to  fevefed  patients.  Before  his  .^"^^'^a- 
birth  his  mother  laid  her  hand  on  her  husband,  the 
Rajput  king  of  Bhaddilapura,  and  immediately  the  fever 
which  had  defied  all  the  efforts  of  his  physicians  left  him, 
and  all  his  life  long  the  saint  had  a  similar  power,  hence 
his    name,    Sitalanatha,      ,  Lord  of  Coolness.     His  sign  is 

' — Lj-i  ,  or  according  to  the  Digam- 


the  Srivatsa  svastika  ■      1      ■  , 

T         'T'    l— 

bara,  the  Ficus  religiosa.  'His  height  was  ninety  bow-shots. 


54  mahAvira's  predecessors 

and  the  interval  of  time  between  him  and  his  predecessor 
was  nine  crores  of  sagara. 

11.  Sre-        King   Visnudeva,    who   ruled   in   SirhhapurT,    possessed 
n'atha^"      ^  most  beautiful  throne,  but  unfortunately  an  evil  spirit 

took  up  his  abode  in  it,  so  that  no  one  dare  sit  there.  His 
wife,  however,  so  longed  to  sit  on  it  that  she  determined 
to  do  so  at  any  risk  ;  to  every  one's  astonishment  she  was 
quite  uninjured,  so,  when  her  son  was  born,  he  was  named 
Sreyamsanatha,  the  Lord  of  Good,  for  already  he  had 
enabled  his  mother  to  cast  out  an  evil  spirit  and  so  do 
a  world  of  good  [sreydvisa).  His  sign  is  the  rhinoceros; 
one  crore  of  sagara  of  time  had  intervened  before  his 
birth ;  and  his  height  was  eighty  bow-shots. 

12.  Vasu-      Before  the  birth  of  the  twelfth  Tirthankara  the  gods 
pujya.       Indra  and  Vasu  used  to  go  and  worship  the  father  of  the 

future  saint,  and  as  the  father's  name  was  Vasupuja  and 
the  god  Indra  used  to  give  him  jewels  called  vasu,  the 
child  was  naturally  enough  called  Vasupujya.  His  sign 
is  the  male  buffalo,  and  he  passed  to  moksa  from  his  birth- 
place, Campapuri,  accompanied  by  six  hundred  Sadhus. 
Fifty-four  sagara  of  time  had  intervened,  and  his  height 
was  seventy  arrow-shots. 

i3.Vima-      The   sign   of   the   thirteenth   Tirthankara   is   the   boar. 

lanatha.  f^g  got  his  name  Vimalanatha,  Lord  of  Clearness,  through 
the  clearness  [vimalatd)  of  intellect  with  which  he  endowed 
his  mother  before  his  birth,  and  which  she  displayed  in 
the  following  manner.  A  certain  man  and  his  wife  un- 
wisely stayed  in  a  temple  inhabited  by  a  female  demon, 
who,  falling  in  love  with  the  husband,  assumed  his  real 
wife's  form.  The  miserable  man  was  quite  unable  to 
tell  which  was  his  true  wife,  and  asked  the  king  of  Kam- 
pilapura  to  distinguish  between  them.  It  was  the  queen, 
however,  who  solved  the  difficulty.  She  knew  the  long 
reach  that  witches  and  only  witches  have,  and  telling  the 
husband  to  stand  a  long  distance  off,  challenged  the  two 
wives   to   prove   their   chastity   by   touching   him.     Both 


AND  DISCIPLES  ^^ 

tried  their  utmost,  but,  of  course,  the  human  wife  could 
not  reach  so  far,  whereas  the  demon  wife  did  and  thus 
showed  her  real  character.  Vimalanatha  had  six  hundred 
companions  to  moksa.  Thirty  sagara  of  time  had  passed 
before  his  birth,  and  his  height  was  sixty  bow-shots. 

There  was  an  endless  [ananta]  thread  which  lay  about  i4.Anan- 
quite  powerless  in  Ayodhya ;  but  after  the  king's  wife  had  ^^-natha. 
given  birth  to  the  fourteenth  Tirthahkara,  it  became 
endued  with  power  to  heal  diseases ;  this  event,  com- 
bined with  the  fact  that  his  mother  had  seen  an  endless 
necklace  of  pearls,  decided  the  child's  name.  Ananta- 
natha's  birth  was  divided  from  his  predecessor's  death  by 
nine  sagara  of  time,  and  his  height  was  fifty  bow-shots. 
His  sign  is  the  hawk,  or,  according  to  the  Digambara, 
the  bear. 

The  fifteenth  Tirthahkara  was  born  four  sagara  of  time  15.  Dhar- 
after  Anantanatha's  Nirvana,  and  his  height  was  only  manatha. 
forty-five  bow-shots.  His  parents  were  the  Rajput  king 
and  queen  of  Ratnapuri,  and  before  his  birth  they  exhibited 
such  new  zeal  in  the  performance  of  their  rehgious  duties 
{dharma),  that  the  child  was  given  the  name  of  Lord  of 
Religion,  Dharmanatha.  He  attained  moksa  with  eight 
hundred  monks.     His  sign  is  a  thunderbolt. 

After  the  nirvana  of  the  ninth  Tirthahkara,  Suvidhi-  16.  San- 
natha,  the  Jaina  faith  disappeared  until  the  birth  of  the  ^^"^"^^• 
tenth  Tirthahkara,  who  revived  it;  on  his  nirvana  it  dis- 
appeared again,  but  was  revived  on  the  birth  of  the  eleventh  ; 
and  this  continued  to  be  the  case  until  the  birth  of  San- 
tinatha,  the  sixteenth  Tirthahkara,  after  which  it  never 
disappeared  again.  The  parents  of  this  Tirthahkara  ruled 
in  Hastinapura  three  sagara  of  time  after  Dharmanatha's 
nirvana.  It  happened  that  plague  was  raging.  Before 
Santinatha's  birth,  however,  his  mother  was  able  to  stay 
the  course  of  the  pestilence  by  sprinkling  the  sufferers 
with  water ;  so  when  the  child  was  born  he  was  called 
Santinatha,  or  Lord  of  Peace  [sdnti).     The  special  interest 


56  MAHAVIRA'S  PREDECESSORS 

of  this  saint  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  was  the  first  Tlrthafi- 
kara  to  become  a  cakravarti/  or  emperor  of  the  whole 
of  Bharata  (i.  e.  India).  Santinatha's  height  was  forty 
bow-shots,  and  his  emblem  is  the  deer.  He  attained 
moksa  from  Mt.  Parsvanatha  in  Bengal  in  company  with 
nine  hundred  Sadhus.  With  the  exception  of  four,^  all 
the  Tirthahkara  passed  to  nirvana  from  this  hill. 

17.  Kun-      After  half  a  palya  of  time  the  seventeenth  Tirthankara 
thunatha.  ^^,^g  j^qj-j^  [^  Gajapurl,  where  his  parents,  King  Sivaraja  and 

Queen  Sridevi,  reigned.  Before  his  birth  his  mother  saw 
a  heap  [kuntha)  of  jewels  ;  during  his  life  people  began  to 
show  greater  kindness  to  insects  [kunthu),  and  the  power 
of  his  father's  enemies  was  stunted  [kuntha).  Kunthuna- 
tha's  sign  was  the  goat,  and  he  was  thirty-five  bow-shots 
in  height.  He,  like  his  predecessor,  became  an  emperor, 
and  obtained  moksa  from  Parsvanatha,  but  accompanied 
by  a  thousand  companions. 

18.  Ara-       Queen  Devi,  wife  of  King  Sudarsana  of  Hastinapura, 
natha.       gg^^y    ^    vision    of    a    bank    of    jewels    before    the    birth 

of  her  son,  the  eighteenth  Tirthankara,  who  was  born 
a  quarter  palya  of  time  after  Kunthunatha.  Aranatha  was 
thirty  bow-shots  in  height,  his  emblem  is  the  third  kind 
of  svastika  (the  Nandavartta),  he  was  also  an  emperor, 
and  he  passed  to  moksa  from  Sameta  Sikhara  (Mt.  Pars- 
vanatha) with  a  thousand  monks. 

19.  Mai-       The  nineteenth  Tirthankara  is  the  most  interesting  of  all, 
linatha.     £qj.  owing  to  deceitfulness  in  a  previous  life  this  saint  was 

born  as  a  woman ;  ^  having,  however,  done  all  the  twenty 
things  that  make  an  ascetic  a  Tirthahkara,  nothing  could 
prevent  his  becoming  one,  but  his  previous  deceitfulness 
resulted  in  his  becoming  a  female  Tirthahkara.  She  was 
born  in  Mithila,  where  her  parents.  King  Kumbera  and 

^  There  have  been  twelve  of  these  great  rulers,  and  these  with  the 
twenty-four  Tirthankara,  nine  Bajadeva,  nine  Vasudeva,  and  nine 
Prati-vasudeva  make  up  the  sixty-three  Great  Heroes  of  the  Jaina. 

*  Risabhadeva,  Vasupujya,  Neminatha  and  Mahavlra. 

^  See  p.  121. 


AND  DISCIPLES  57 

Queen  Prabhavati,  ruled.  Before  her  birth  her  mother 
longed  to  wear  a  garland  [malli)  woven  of  the  flowers  of  all 
seasons,  and  the  gods  and  goddesses  themselves  brought 
the  flowers  to  gratify  her  desire.  Malhnatha's  symbol  is 
a  water-jar,  and  she  also  passed  to  moksa  from  Sameta 
Sikhara.  Her  height  was  twenty-five  bow-shots.  The 
Digambara,  who  deny  that  any  woman  can  pass  to  moksa 
without  rebirth  as  a  man,  deny  of  course  that  Mallinatha 
could  have  been  a  woman.  Another  point  of  interest  is 
that  the  time  between  the  Tirthankara  can  now  be 
measured  by  years,  and  this  nineteenth  Tirthankara  was 
born  a  thousand  crores  of  years  after  the  eighteenth. 

Before  the  birth  of  Munisuvrata,  his  mother,  the  wife  20.  Mu- 
of  King  Sumitra  of  Rajagriha,  kept  all  the  beautiful  vows  "isuvrata. 
of  Jainism  [su  vrata,  good  vows)  as  devoutly  as  if  she  had 
been  an  ordinary  woman  and  not  a  queen  ;  hence  the  child's 
name.  Hisheight  was  twenty  bow-shots;  he  was  born  fifty- 
four  lakhs  of  years  after  the  last  Tirthankara.  His  parents, 
while  Ksatriya  or  Rajputs,  belonged  to  the  Hari  dynasty, 
whereas  all  the  other  Tirthankara,  save  the  twenty-second, 
belonged  to  the  Iksvaku  family.  His  symbol  is  the  tor- 
toise. 

The  twenty-first  Tirthankara  was  born  in  Mathura  after  21.  Na- 
an  interval  of  only  six  lakhs  of  years.  His  father.  King  "^i^^tha, 
Vijya,  was  engaged  in  an  apparently  hopeless  warfare  with 
his  enemies,  but  the  astrologers  declared  that  if  his  wife, 
Queen  Vipra,  showed  her  face  on  the  city  wall  (this  was 
before  the  time  of  the  zenana  system)  the  enemy  would 
bow  down  (nama)  with  fear  and  flee  away.  This  all  hap- 
pened, and  the  child  was  named  accordingly.  Naminatha 
was  fifteen  bow-shots  in  height,  his  emblem  is  the  blue 
lotus,  and  he  attained  mok?a  from  Sameta  Sikhara  together 
with  a  thousand  ascetics.  22.  Ne- 

The  twenty-second  Tirthankara  (like  the  twentieth)  is  minatha, 
always  represented  as  black ;  before  his  birth  his  mother,  Nem?-^"^ 
the  wife  of  Samudravijaya,  king  of  Sauripura,  saw  a  wheel  natha. 


58  mahAvira's  predecessors 

(nenii)  of  black  jewels  {arista).  Kri§na  and  his  brother 
Baladeva  lived  at  this  time,  and  were  cousins  of  Nemi- 
natha's.  This  Tirthahkara  was  ten  bow-shots  in  height, 
and  his  sign  was  the  conch  shell.  Unlike  most  of  the 
other  Tirthahkara,  he  attained  mok$a  from  Girnar  in 
Kathiawa(^. 

The  twenty-third  and  twenty-fourth  Tirthahkara  are 
respectively  Parsvanatha  and  Mahavira. 

The  Followers  of  Mahavira. 

Maha-  The  peculiar  temptations  with  which  an  ascetic's  life 

unruly  ^^^  beset  are  illustrated  for  us  in  the  life  of  Gosala,  an 
disciple  early  antinomian.  He  seems  to  have  been  the  head  of 
'  a  body  of  unclothed  anchorites,  a  section  of  the  Ajivika 
monks,  and  joined  forces  with  Mahavira  whilst  the  latter 
was  still  practising  austerities  before  the  period  of  his 
enlightenment.  Gosala,  Dr.  Hoernle  suggests  in  his  ex- 
haustive article  on  the  Ajivikas,^  may  either  have  been 
moved  by  a  desire  to  learn  the  tricks  of  Mahavlra's  trade, 
or  else  the  strong  stern  personality  of  the  great  ascetic 
may  have  had  an  irresistible  attraction  for  the  weaker 
sensual  nature.  At  any  rate,  for  six  years  they  lived 
together,  but  a  permanent  association  was  impossible 
between  a  man  like  Mahavira  and  one  of  Gosala's  tricky, 
unreliable  disposition. 

There  seems  no  doubt  that  they  separated  owing  to 
some  act  of  unchastity  on  Gosala's  part,  and  this  had  the 
natural  effect  of  opening  Mahavlra's  eyes  to  the  special 
temptation  besetting  wandering  mendicants.  An  added 
element  of  bitterness  would  be  caused  by  the  disciple 
venturing  to  preach  before  the  master  felt  himself  qualified 
to  do  so,  for  whilst  Mahavira  waited  twelve  years  before 
teaching  his  Way,  Gosala  preached  after  only  six. 

It  was  probably  owing  to  Gosala's  conduct  that  Mahavira 

^  E.  R.  £".,  vol.  i. 


AND  DISCIPLES  59 

added  the  vow  of  chastity  to  the  four  vows  of  Parsva- 
natha's  order,  and  all  through  the  Jaina  scriptures  one 
seems  to  find  references  to  this  unworthy  disciple.  '  A 
wise  man  should  consider  that  these  (heretics)  do  not  live 
a  life  of  chastity.'  ^  '  In  the  assembly  he  pronounces  holy 
(words),  yet  secretly  he  commits  sins  ;  but  the  wise  know 
him  to  be  a  deceiver  and  great  rogue.'  ^  A  dialogue  is 
given  between  a  disciple  of  Mahavira's,  called  Ardraka,  and 
Gosala,  in  which  Gosala,  hke  many  another  impenitent, 
tries  to  defend  himself  by  finding  fault  with  his  old  leader, 
and  takes  up  an  antinomian  position  :  '  according  to  our 
Law  an  ascetic,  who  lives  alone  and  single,  commits  no 
sin  if  he  uses  cold  water,  eats  seeds,  accepts  things  pre- 
pared for  him,  and  has  intercourse  with  women.' ^ 

The  references  to  Gosala  in  the  Buddhist  books,  though 
slighter,  bear  out  the  same  idea  of  his  character.  Dr. 
Hoernle  mentions  Buddha's  well-known  abhorrence  of 
Gosala,  and  tells  how  Buddha  classified  the  ascetic  systems 
differing  from  his  own  into  those  whose  members  lived  in 
incontinency  and  those  which  could  only  be  condemned 
as  unsatisfying — placing  Gosala  amongst  the  former. 

Gosala  obtained  this  his  best-known  name  through 
having  been  born  in  a  cowshed,  but  he  is  also  known  by 
another  name,  that  of  Mahkhali  Putra,  which  the  Jaina 
say  was  given  to  him  because  he  was  the  illegitimate  son 
of  a  monk.  If  there  were  this  piteous  taint  in  his  blood 
it  would  account  for  his  strange  dual  nature,  his  strivings, 
and  his  failure.  After  he  left  Mahavira,  he  and  his  followers 
seem  to  have  lived  in  open  defiance  of  all  the  laws  of 
ascetic  life,  expressed  or  implied,  and  to  have  made  their 
head-quarters  in  the  premises  of  a  potter  woman  in  the 
town  of  Sravastl.  There  after  sixteen  years  Mahavira 
found  him  and  exposed  his  real  character.  Gosala  had 
previously  tried  to  justify  himself  by  adopting  not  only 

^  Sutra  Kritdhga,  S.  ^.  £".,  xlv,  p.  245. 

^  Ibid.,  xlv,  p.  273,  '  Ibid.,  xiv,  p.  411. 


6o  mahAvira's  predecessors 

an  antinomian  position,  but  also  one  of  absolute  fatalism, 
in  which  he  declared  that  all  things  were  absolutely  fixed 
and  so  man  was  relieved  of  all  moral  responsibihty.  Now 
he  brought  forward  another  doctrine,  that  of  re-animation, 
by  which  he  explained  to  Mahavira  that  the  old  Gosala 
who  had  been  a  disciple  of  his  was  dead,  and  that  he  who 
now  animated  the  body  of  Gosala  was  quite  another 
person  ;  this  theory,  however,  deceived  nobody,  and  Go- 
sala, discredited  in  the  eyes  of  the  townspeople,  fell  lower 
and  lower,  and  at  last  died  as  a  fool  dieth.  Just  before 
the  end,  however,  the  strange  duality  of  his  nature  again 
asserted  itself,  and,  acknowledging  that  all  that  Mahavira 
had  said  against  him  was  true,  and  that  he  had  left  the 
true  faith  and  preached  a  false  one,  he  directed  his  own 
disciples  to  drag  his  body  through  the  town  by  a  rope 
for  people  to  spit  at,  and  to  bury  him  with  every  mark 
of  shame. •'^  This  command  they  naturally  did  not  carry 
out,  nor  would  it  have  been  necessary  for  us  so  long  after 
his  death  to  have  discussed  this  unhappy  man,  but  for  the 
profound  effect  his  life  had  on  the  formulation  of  Mahavira's 
doctrine. 

Gosala  is  of  importance  to  those  of  us  who  are  trying  to 
understand  Jainism  for  two  reasons  :  the  sin  and  shame 
of  his  life  emphasized  the  need  for  stringent  rules  for  the 
order  ;  and  the  doctrine  of  absolute  fatalism  was  shown 
to  result  in  non-moral  conduct.  Jainism  avoids  this 
determinism,  as  we  shall  see  later,  by  teaching  that,  though 
karma  decides  all,  we  ourselves  can  affect  our  past  karma 
by  our  present  life. 

**  Some  Jaina  believe  that,  because  he  so  sincerely  repented  before 
his  death,  he  went  not  to  hell,  but  to  one  of  the  Devaloka,  i.e.  heavens, 
and  is  now,  at  the  time  of  writing,  in  the  Twelfth  Devaloka,  from 
which  he  will  pass  in  another  age  to  be  a  Tirthahkara. 


AND  DISCIPLES  6i 


Other  Disciples. 

The  Svetambara  tell  the  following  story  of  the  conver-  Gautama 
sion  of  Mahavira's  earliest  and  greatest  disciple,  Gautama  i?4^?" 
Indrabhuti.  It  happened  that  once  when  Mahavira  went 
to  the  city  of  Apapa  to  preach,  a  rich  Brahman  was  pre- 
paring to  offer  a  great  animal  sacrifice,  and  had  invited 
Gautama  Indrabhuti  and  his  ten  brothers  to  be  present. 
They  heard  of  the  new  teacher,  and  that  he  was  denouncing 
the  animal  sacrifice  at  which  they  had  assisted,  and  they 
were  very  much  enraged  at  his  audacity.  They  therefore 
determined  to  oppose  him  and  expose  the  falseness  of  his 
teaching,  but  felt  that  they  must  first  learn  more  of  this 
new  doctrine.  They  listened  to  Mahavira's  discourses, 
and  heard .  the  gentle,  thoughtful  answers  he  gave  to  all 
questioners,  till  at  length,  being  convinced  of  the  truth  of 
his  Way,  they  cast  in  their  lot  with  his,  and  became  his 
chief  disciples  or  Ganadhara.^ 

The  Digambara  give  a  different  account  of  Gautama's 
conversion.  Indrabhuti  was,  they  say,  born  of  Brahman 
parents  in  a  village  called  Govara,  his  father's  name  being 
Vasumati,  and  his  mother's  Prithv! ;  ^  he  became  a  very 
learned  pandit  and  grew  extremely  vain  of  his  learning. 
One  day,  however,  an  old  man  appeared  and  asked  him 
to  explain  a  certain  verse  to  him.  Mahavira  had,  the  old 
man  said,  repeated  the  sloka  to  him,  but  had  immediately 
afterwards  become  so  lost  in  meditation  that  he  could  get 
no  explanation  of  it  from  the  saint^  and  yet  he  felt  that 
he  could  not  live  unless  he  knew  the  meaning.  The  verse 
contained  references  to  Kd/a  ^  and  Dravya,  Pailca  Astikdya, 
Tattva  and  Lesyd,^  not  one  of  which  could  Gautama  under- 
stand, but  being  too  true  a  scholar  to  pretend  to  a  knowledge 
which  he  did  not  possess,  he  sought  out  Mahavira  to  ask 

^  At  this  time  Candana,  daughter  of  Dadhivahana,  king  of  Campa, 
also  entered  the  order  and  became  the  head  of  the  nuns. 

^  Sanskrit  Prithivl.  ^  Sanskrit  Kala.  *  Often  written  Lesd. 


62  mahAvira's  predecessors 

for  an  explanation.  The  moment  he  was  in  the  presence 
of  the  great  ascetic  all  his  pride  in  his  fancied  learning  fell 
from  him,  and  he  besought  Mahavira  to  teach  him.  He 
not  only  became  a  convert  himself,  but  took  over  with  him 
his  five  hundred  pupils  and  his  three  ^  brothers. 

The  Sthanakavasi  tell  yet  a  third  story  of  Gautama's 
conversion.  Indrabhuti  was  going  to  assist  at  a  great 
sacrifice,  but,  to  his  surprise,  he  saw  that  all  the  gods, 
instead  of  going  to  the  sacrifice,  were  going  to  hear  an 
ascetic  preach  !  Gautama  asked  who  the  ascetic  was,  and, 
going  to  meet  him,  was  astonished  at  being  called  by  his 
own  name.  He  was  still  more  astonished  when  Mahavira 
proceeded  to  answer  all  the  unspoken  questions  and  solve 
all  the  doubts  that  had  been  in  his  mind  about  karma, 
jiva,  moksa,  &c. 

All  sects  beheve  that,  however  converted,  Gautama  by 
his  intense  attachment  to  his  master,  was  for  long  prevented 
from  attaining  Kevala  jnana  or  Omniscience. 
A  sermon  The  Uttaradhyayana  records  a  sermon  entitled  The  Leaf 
by  Maha-  ^y  ^j^g  j^y^^  which  the  Jaina  say  Mahavira  preached  to  Gau- 
tama to  try  and  help  him  to  reach  Kevala  jnana.  It  is 
worth  while  studying  it  closely,  ^  for  it  tells  us  much  of 
Mahavira's  doctrine.  Mahavira  warns  Gautama  that  life 
will  end  sometime,  even  as  the  withered  leaf  of  a  tree 
must  fall  to  the  ground  when  its  days  are  done  ;  and  that 
its  duration  is  as  brief  as  that  of  a  dew-drop  clinging  to 
a  blade  of  grass.  Only  when  the  chances  of  rebirth  have 
resulted  in  one's  being  born  as  a  human  being  can  one  get 
rid  of  the  result  [karma)  of  past  action.  How  rare  is  the 
opportunity;  for  one's  soul  might  have  been  imprisoned 
for  aeons  in  an  earth,  or  a  fire,  or  a  wind  body ;  or  it  might 
have  been  clothed  with  a  plant,  an  insect,  or  an  animal 
form  ;  one  might  have  been  born  in  heaven  or  hell  as  a  god 

^  According  to  other  accounts  there  were  only  two  brothers. 
^  This  sermon  the  Jaina  regard  as  containing  the  essence  of  their 
rehgion. 


AND  DISCIPLES  63 

or  a  demon,  but  only  to  a  human  being  is  the  chance  of 
escape  open.  Even  if  one  happens  to  be  born  as  a  man, 
one  might  not  be  born  an  Arya  but  only  an  aboriginal 
or  a  foreigner  (to  whom  apparently  Mahavira  did  not 
regard  the  way  of  escape  as  open)  ;  or  if  born  as  an  Arya, 
one  might  not  be  capable  or  have  the  opportunity  of 
intelligently  hearing  and  believing  the  Law ;  or  again, 
one  might  not  have  the  strength  of  will  to  choose  the 
hard  path  of  asceticism.  As  Gautama  grows  old  and 
frail,  this  priceless  opportunity  which  comes  so  seldom 
will  gradually  pass  away  from  him,  so  Mahavira  beseeches 
him  to  cast  away  every  sort  of  attachment  that  might  chain 
him  to  rebirth,  and,  since  he  has  chosen  the  path  of  asceti- 
cism which  leads  to  deliverance,  to  press  on  to  the  very 
end.  *  You  have  crossed  the  great  ocean,  why  do  you 
halt  so  near  the  shore  ?  Make  haste  to  get  on  the  other 
side  and  reach  that  world  of  perfection  [nirvana]  where 
there  is  safety  and  perfect  happiness.' 

In  the  Uttaradhyayana  it  is  recorded  that  the  effect 
of  this  sermon  was  such  as  to  enable  Gautama  to  cut  off 
love  and  reach  perfection,^  but  the  Kalpa  Sutra  supports  the 
current  belief  that  it  was  not  till  the  night  that  Mahavira 
died  that  this  the  oldest  of  his  disciples  '  cut  asunder  the 
tie  of  friendship  which  he  had  for  his  master,  and  obtained 
the  highest  knowledge  and  intuition  called  Kevala  '.^ 

Gautama  survived  Mahavira  for  twelve  years,  and  finally 
obtained  nirvana  at  Rajagriha  at  the  age  of  ninety-two, 
having  lived  fifty  years  as  a  monk. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  ten^  of  Indrabhuti's  brothers 
attached  themselves  to  the  great  ascetic  at  the  same  time 
that  he  did.  They,  too,  must  have  been  men  of  strong 
character,  for  three  ^  of  them  became  heads  of  communities. 

There  was  another   great   disciple   of   Mahavira   called  Su- 
Sudharma,  who  also  survived  him,  and  to  whom  we  are      ^^^^' 

'   S.B.E.,  xlv,  p.  46.  ^  Ibid.,  xxii,  p.  265, 

^  The  numbers  vary  in  different  versions  of  the  story. 


64  mahAvira'S  disciples 

indebted  for  the  Jaina  scriptures.  The  Jaina  say  that 
Gautama  Indrabhuti  had  become  a  Kevall  and  imparted 
knowledge  which  was  the  result  of  his  own  thinking,  but 
Sudharma,  not  having  attained  omniscience,  could  only 
pass  on  the  teaching  of  others.^  He  therefore  wrote  out 
what  he  had  heard  his  master  say  and  compiled  twelve 
Anga,  eleven  Upaiiga,  and  various  other  works.  All  that 
tradition  states  about  Sudharma  could  be  tersely  expressed 
on  a  tombstone.  He  was  born  in  a  httle  village  called 
Kollaga,  his  father  was  a  Brahman  called  Dhamila,  and 
his  mother's  name  was  Bhaddila.  He  lived  for  fifty  years 
as  a  householder  before  receiving  ordination  from  Mahavira, 
and  then  followed  him  for  thirty  years.  After  Mahavira's 
death  he  became  head  of  the  community,  and  held  that 
position  for  twelve  years,  till  he  too  obtained  Kevala  jnana, 
whereupon  the  headship  of  the  order  passed  to  a  disciple 
of  his  named  Jambu  Svami.  It  is  said  that  Sudharma 
attained  moksa  when  a  hundred  years  old. 

^  This  must  surely  be  one  of  the  earliest  references  to  the  difference 
between  original  work  and  compilation  ! 


CHAPTER  V 

HISTORY  OF  THE  JAINA  COMMUNITY 

The  Four  Tlrtha. 

During  Mahavira's  lifetime  he  attracted  a  great  number 
of  disciples,  both  men  and  women,  and  from  these  grew  the 
four  orders  of  his  community  :  monks,  nuns,  laymen  and 
laywomen. 

Chief  amongst  his  followers  were  fourteen  thousand  Monks, 
monks  (or  muni)  and  at  the  head  of  these  were  eleven  chief 
disciples  or  Ganadhara  whom  Jaina  compare  to  the  twelve 
disciples  of  our  Lord,  Gosala  the  twelfth  corresponding  to 
Judas.  Mahavira  had  seen  in  the  case  of  Gosala  and  others 
the  special  temptations  and  dangers  which  beset  ascetics 
in  their  wandering  hfe,  and  he  resolved  to  combat  these  as 
well  as  he  could  by  organization  and  regulations.  He 
therefore  divided  his  fourteen  thousand  followers  into  nine 
regular  schools  called  Gaita  and  placed  each  school  under 
the  headship  of  one  of  his  chief  disciples  or  Ganadhara. 
The  leading  Ganadhara  had  five  hundred  monks  under 
them,  but  some  of  the  others  had  only  three  hundred  or 
two  hundred  and  fifty. 

Gautama  was  at  the  head  of  a  school  of  five  hundred, 
and  so  were  his  brothers  Agnibhuti  and  Vayubhuti,  his 
other  brother  Akampita  ^  being  at  the  head  of  three  hundred 
scholars. 

Sudharma  was  at  the  head  of  another  school  of  five 
hundred  monks. 

Only  two  of  these  eleven  Ganadhara,  Gautama  and 
Sudharma,  survived  Mahavira ;  the  others  attained  Kevala 
jfiana  and  died  of  voluntary  starvation  at  Rajagriha  before 
their  master's  death. 

^  The  SthanakavasI  Jaina  do  not  believe  that  Akampita  was  the 
brother  of  Gautama  ;  they  think  he  was  only  a  friend. 

F 


ee  HISTORY  OF  THE 

All  the  present  Jaina  monks  are  considered  to  be  the 
spiritual  descendants  of  Sudharma,  for  the  other  Ganadhara 
left  no  disciples. 

Nuns.  Besides  the  fourteen  thousand  monks  a  great  multitude 

of  women  followed  Mahavira,  and  of  these  some  thirty-six 
thousand,  the  Jaina  say,  actually  left  the  world  and 
became  nuns.  At  their  head  (at  least  according  to  the 
Svetambara)  was  Candana,  a  first  cousin  of  Mahavira's, 
or  as  other  accounts  have  it,  his  aunt.-^ 

In  those  troublous  times  acts  of  oppression  and  violence 
must  have  often  occurred,  and  it  was  such  an  act  that  led 
to  Candana's  becoming  a  nun.  Once,  as  a  girl,  the  story 
runs,  Candana  was  walking  in  an  open  garden,  when  a 
wicked  man  named  Vidyadhara  saw  her  and,  fascinated  by 
her  beauty,  carried  her  off,  meaning  to  take  her  to  his  own 
home.  On  his  way  thither  he  began  to  realize  how  dis- 
pleasing her  presence  in  his  house  would  be  to  his  wife,  so, 
without  troubling  to  take  her  back  to  the  garden  where  he 
had  found  her,  he  abandoned  her  in  a  forest.  A  hillman 
found  her  weeping  there,  took  her  to  Kausambi  and  sold 
her  to  a  wealthy  merchant  named  Vrisabhasena,  who  in- 
stalled her  in  his  house  against  his  wife's  will.  The  wife 
grew  more  and  more  jealous  of  her,  for  Candana's  beauty 
increased  every  day,  and  ill-treated  her  in  every  possible 
way,  clothing  her  in  rags,  feeding  her  on  broken  meats, 
and  often  beating  her.  Mahavira  came  and  preached  in 
Kausambi  and  poor  Candana  needed  but  little  persuasion  to 
convince  her  of  how  evil  a  place  the  world  was  ;  gladly 
renouncing  it  she  joined  his  community  and  eventually 
became  the  head  of  the  nuns.^ 

Laymen.       Mahavira's   third    order    consisted    of    laymen  ;    these 

•  • 

*  Candana  was  the  daughter  of  Cetaka,  king  of  Vaisall ;  and  this 
Cetaka  was  either  the  brother  or  the  father  of  Trisala,  Mahavira's 
mother. 

^  The  SthanakavasI  legend  differs  a  good  deal.  Candana  according 
to  this  was  captured  in  warfare  and  sold  by  a  soldier  into  the  house 
where  she  was  ill-treated. 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  (>^ 

were  householders  who  could  not  actually  renounce  the 
world,  but  who  could  and  did  keep  his  rule  in  a  modified 
form,  while  their  alms  supported  the  professed  monks. 
The  genius  for  organization  which  Mahavira  possessed  is 
shown  in  nothing  more  clearly  than  in  the  formation  of  this 
and  the  order  of  laywomen.  These  two  organizations 
gave  the  Jaina  a  root  in  India  that  the  Buddhists  never 
obtained,  and  that  root  firmly  planted  amongst  the  laity 
enabled  Jainism,  as  we  have  seen,  to  withstand  the  storm 
that  drove  Buddhism  out  of  India.  The  laymen,^  Srdvaka 
or  Hearers  as  they  were  called,  numbered  during  Maha- 
vlra's  lifetime  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  thousand  men.^ 
At  the  head  of  their  order  were  Sankhajl  and  Satakaji. 
These  Hearers  numbered  amongst  their  ranks  many  nobles 
of  high  rank  and  even  kings,  who  were  delighted  to  thus 
proclaim  their  opposition  to  the  priestly  pretensions  of 
the  Brahmans ;  nowadays  the  Sravaka  are  almost  entirely 
recruited  from  the  mercantile  classes. 

The  fourth  and  last  order  consisted  of  devout  laywomen  Lay- 
or  Sravika,  whose  household  duties  prevented  their  becom-  '^^°"''^"- 
ing  nuns,  and  who  yet  served  the  great  ascetic  in  many  ways. 
They  numbered  some  three  hundred  and  fifty-eight  thousand, 
and  at  their  head  were  two  women  Sulasa  and  Revati.  Sulasa 
is  considered  the  highest  type  of  the  purely  domestic  woman, 
the  faithful  wife  or  satl,  and  the  Gujarat!  Jaina  women 
sing  the  following  verse  about  her  in  the  hymn  of  praise  to 
the  sixteen  faithful  wives  which  they  chant  every  morning 
when  they  get  up  : 

Sulasa  was  a  really  faithful  wife,  there  was  no  sham  about  her ! 

She  found  no  pleasure  in  worldly  delights. 

If  we  saw  her  face  sins  would  flee  away, 

If  we  mention  her  name  our  minds  are  filled  with  joy. 

Revati  is  typical  of  the  generous  woman  who  gladly  gives 
alms  to  ascetics.     Once  when  Mahavira  was  ill  (injured 

*  It  is   interesting  to   compare   with  these   the   Grihastha  of  the 
Hindus.  ^  The  Digambara  say  loo.coo. 

F  2 


Svaml. 


68  HISTORY  OF  THE 

through  the  magic  fire  the  faithless  Gosala  had  thrown  at 
him)  he  felt  that  only  one  thing  would  cure  him,  and  that 
was  some  of  the  jam  which  Revati  made.  Much  as  he 
longed  for  it,  however,  he  warned  his  disciples  that  they  were 
not  to  accept  it  unless  Revati  gave  it  gladly,  for  it  was  the 
very  best  jam  !  However,  Revati  was  so  delighted  to  give 
it,  and  pressed  it  on  the  monks  with  such  eagerness,  that 
her  name  has  ever  since  been  a  synonym  for  hospitality. 

The  Great  Leaders} 

Mahavira  was  during  his  lifetime  the  head  of  all  the 
four  orders  in  his  community.  After  his  death  Gautama 
Indrabhuti,  according  to  some  authorities,^  succeeded  him 
and  continued  to  be  the  spiritual  leader^  for  twelve  years;  he 
was  followed  bySudharma,  who  held  office  for  another  twelve 
Jamba  years.  Jambu  Svami,  a  pupil  of  Sudharma,  succeeded  his 
old  master  and  led  the  community  for  twenty-four  years ;  he 
w^as  the  last  Jaina  to  obtain  Kevala  jfiana,  for  after  him  both 
moksa  and  omniscience  were  closed  to  men.^  At  the  present 
time  not  only  omniscience  but  also  the  degree  of  knowledge 
next  below  it,  Manahparyaya  jfiana,  are  lost  to  mankind. 

Jambu  Svami  is  called  '  the  celibate ',  and  the  following 
story  is  told  of  him.  He  was  the  son  of  a  rich  merchant 
in  Rajagriha,  and  eight  other  rich  merchants  of  the  same 
town  offered  him  their  daughters  in  marriage.  He  (though 
not  only  already  convinced  through  Sudharma's  teaching 
of  the  higher  virtue  of  the  unmarried  state,  but  having 

^  The  following  history  is  gleaned  entirely  from  Jaina  sources  and 
represents  what  the  Jaina  say  about  themselves  and  their  past.  It 
was  found  impossible  to  include  all  the  legends,  so  the  selection 
was  left  to  Jaina  pandits  who  chose  those  which  they  considered  of 
crucial  importance  for  the  comprehension  of  their  religion.  The  dates, 
unless  otherwise  stated,  are  those  given  by  the  Jaina. 

^  According  to  others  Gautama  never  held  office,  having  become 
a  KevalT. 

^  The  word  the  GujaratI  Jaina  use   for   the  spiritual  headship  is 

trrz  t'^^t^'^- 

^  This  was  a  sign  of  the  degeneration  of  the  Avasarpinl. 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  69 

actually  taken  a  vow  of  perpetual  celibacy  !)  offered  no 
resistance  to  his  father  and  eight  would-be  fathers-in-law, 
but  married  all  the  eight  ladies.  After  the  eight-fold  mar- 
riage Jambu  returned  to  his  father's  house,  which  that 
very  night  was  attacked  by  Prabhava,  the  bandit  son  of 
Vindhya,  king  of  Jaipur.  The  doughty  robber  had  taken 
the  precaution  to  weave  a  spell  (for  he  was  not  only  a  prince 
and  a  robber  but  also  a  magician),  which  ought  to  have 
caused  all:  the  inhabitants  of  the  merchant's  house  to  fall 
into  a  deep  sleep  ;  but  this  aristocratic  spell  had  no  effect 
on  Jambu.  When  Prabhava  asked  the  reason,  Jambu  ex- 
plained that,  as  he  was  going  to  enter  a  spiritual  career  the 
next  morning,  spells  had  no  power  over  him;  Prabhava  tried 
to  dissuade  him,  and  apparently  their  discussion  aroused 
the  eight  wives  of  the  celibate,  for  they  joined  their  en- 
treaties with  his.  Jambu  told  them  many  moral  tales 
showing  the  superior  virtues  of  celibacy  ;  the  ladies  replied 
with  other  stories  upholding  the  honour  of  the  married  state, 
but  the  palm  lay  with  Jambu,  for  not  only  was  he,  with 
his  parents'  consent,  initiated  next  morning  by  Sudharma, 
but  in  a  few  days  Prabhava,  the  robber,  also  followed  his 
example  and  renounced  not  only  his  habit  of  acquiring 
other  people's  property,  but  also  his  own  possessions. 

Jambu  attained  moksa  according  to  Jaina  authorities  Pra- 
in  403  B.  c,  and  was  succeeded  by  Prabhava,  the  erstwhile  o"^^^- 
prince,  robber  and  magician.  It  was  no  longer  possible  for 
any  one  to  attain  moksa,  so  Prabhava  (who  died  397  b.  c.) 
was  not  immediately  released  from  the  cycle  of  rebirth;  yet 
so  famous  a  saint  must  eventually  attain  moksa,  though  he 
would  first  have  to  pass  through  one,  three,  five,  or  at  most 
fifteen,  rebirths. 

It  was  during  this  time  that  the  two  sects  of  Osavala  Jaina 
and  Srimala  Jaina  arose.  It  is  also  said  that  it  was  now  that 
the  image  of  Mahavira  was  enshrined  at  Upakesa  Pattana. 
This  is  probably  a  reference  to  the  first  introduction  of  idol 
worship  into  Jainism. 


70 


HISTORY  OF  THE 


Sayam- 
bhava. 


Bhadra- 
bahu. 


Prabhava  felt  that  there  was  no  one  amongst  the  Jaina 
capable  of  succeeding  him  as  leader,  and  being  much  im- 
pressed by  the  spiritual  genius  of  a  staunch  Brahman  called 
Sayambhava,  he  determined  to  win  him  over.  He  was  suc- 
cessful and  converted  him  just  after  he  had  offered  a  great 
sacrifice.  Though  he  was  married,  he  left  his  wife  to  be- 
come an  ascetic,  and  the  little  son  Manaka  who  was  shortly 
after  born  to  her  eventually  became  a  Jaina  ascetic  also, 
receiving  initiation  at  his  father's  hands.  Sayambhava 
knew  by  his  supernatural  powers  that  his  son  would  only 
live  a  short  time,  so  he  wrote  a  book  for  him  called  Dasa- 
vaikalika,  in  which  he  gave  a  complete  conspectus  of  the 
leading  Jaina  tenets  ;  it  is  on  this  book  (a  monument  of 
a  father's  love  persisting  even  in  the  ascetic  life)  that 
Sayambhava's  claim  to  fame  rests. 

He  was  followed  by  Yasobhadra,  who  died  in  319  B.C., 
and  was  succeeded  by  Sambhutivijaya,  who  only  held 
sway  for  two  years.  The  rule  of  these  two  was  not 
marked  by  any  outstanding  event,  but  after  them  we 
come  to  one  of  the  great  epochs  in  Jaina  history,  which 
began  with  the  leadership  of  Bhadrabahu,  who  succeeded 
in  317  B.C. 

The  new  leader  was  a  scholar,  and  Jaina  credit  him  with 
the  authorship  of  the  Niryukti  or  commentaries  on  the  ten 
canonical  books,  and  of  a  book  on  astronomy  which  is  named 
after  him  the  Bhadrabahu  Sarhhita.  He  also  wrote  what 
the  Svetambara  Jaina  consider  to  be  their  holiest  work,  the 
Upasarga  Harastotra  Kalpa  Sutra. 

It  was  during  the  headship  of  Bhadrabahu  and  during 
the  reign  of  Candragupta^  of  the  Maurya  dynasty  that 
a  great  famine^  took  place,  which  seems  to  have  been  of 
the  most  terrible  severity.     It  would  of  course  be  very 

^  Candiagupta  {c.  322-298  I3.  c),  grandfather  of  Asoka  and  first 
paramount  sovereign  of  India.  According  to  Jaina  tradition  he 
abdicated  in  297  B.C.,  became  a  Jaina  ascetic,  and  died  twelve  years 
later  of  voluntary  starvation  in  Sravana  Belgola  in  Mysore. 

^  Dr.  Hoernle  suggests  310  B.C.  as  the  date  of  this  famine. 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  71 

difficult  for  a  starving  population  to  support  a  huge  body 
of  mendicants  during  famine  years,  and  as  the  monks 
were  homeless  and  wanderers  by  profession,  it  was  only 
sensible  that  they  should  wander  where  food  was  more 
plentiful.  Now  it  is  probable,  as  we  have  seen,  that 
Mahavira's  community  or  sahgha  had  been  formed  by  the 
union  of  two  orders  of  mendicants,  one  clothed  and  one 
naked.  This  difference,  being  outward  and  visible,  would 
be  always  liable  to  recur  and  cause  schism,  and  probably 
the  fusion  of  the  two  orders  had  never  been  complete,  so 
that  the  famine  sufficed  to  sever  the  community  along  the 
lines  of  the  old  division. 

Part  of  the  community,  numbering,  the  Jaina  say,  twelve  Sthula- 
thousand,  went  with  Bhadrabahu  to  the  south  of  India  ^"^^^^• 
where  famine  had  not  penetrated,  whilst  the  other  part,  also 
amounting  to  twelve  thousand,  remained  behind  under  the 
leadership  of  Sthulabhadra.  Sthulabhadra  was  the  son 
of  Sakadala,  who  had  been  prime  minister  to  the  ninth 
Nanda  king ;  on  his  father's  death  he  was  offered  the 
post,  but  renounced  that  and  all  earthly  love  to  become 
an  ascetic. 

It  was  naturally  only  the  more  vigorous  monks  who 
undertook  the  long  journey  to  Southern  India,  and  perhaps 
the  older  and  more  infirm  ascetics  who  remained  at  home 
had  already  been  allowed  to  wear  some  clothing  as  a  con- 
cession to  their  infirmities;  the  habit  of  so  doing ^  would 
have  been  likely  now  to  become  general  amongst  them. 
Thus  one  element  of  division  was  established  amongst  the 
Jaina,  that  of  difference  in  practice,  and  it  only  remained,  in 
order  to  make  the  division  permanent,  that  they  should  have 
a  differing  sacred  literature.  Experience  has  shown  what 
a  unifying  force  a  common  sacred  literature  has  on  diver- 
gent sects,  and  the  converse  is  also  true.  For  example,  it  is 
probably  only  their  refusal  to  accept  the  Veda  as  sacred  which 
has  prevented  the  Jaina  from  being  long  ago  amalgamated 
^  They  seem  generally  to  have  worn  white  garments. 


72  HISTORY  OF  THE 

with  the  Hindus.  This  element  of  division  was  not  to  be 
lacking  between  the  two  sects  of  Jaina.  Sthulabhadra  was, 
the  Jaina  say,  keenly  alive  to  the  importance  of  preserving 
their  sacred  literature,  and  he  alone  had  learnt  (in  Nepal) 
the  ten  Purva  and  (on  condition  of  keeping  them  secret) 
the  four  other  Purva.  In  spite  of  the  absence  of  Bha- 
drabahu  and  his  party,  he  called  a  council  at  Pataliputra 
(modern  Patna),  which  collected  the  Eleven  Aiiga,  but  found 
that  the  Twelfth  was  missing.  This  Twelfth  Aiiga  con- 
tained fourteen  Purva,  which  Sthulabhadra  was  able  to 
supply.  When  the  famine  was  over,  Bhadrabahu  returned ; 
but  he  and  his  party  refused  to  accept  the  work  of  the 
council  of  Patna  and  declared  that  the  Ahga  and  Purva 
were  lost ;  they  also  declined  to  wear  clothes.  Though  all 
this  laid  a  very  firm  foundation  for  the  schism  between  the 
Digambara  (sky  clothed,  i.e.  naked)  and  the  Svetambara 
(white  clothed)  when  it  should  come,  yet  the  split  did  not 
actually  arise  till  a.  d.  142,  according  to  Jaina  dates,  or 
A.D.  82  according  to  Dr.  Hoernle. 

Bhadrabahu  died  in  297  B.C.   and  was   succeeded  by 
Sthulabhadra,  who  remained  the  head  of  the  whole  com- 
munity till  his  death  in  252  B.C. 
^ruta-  The  six  spiritual  leaders  who  followed  Jambu  Svam!  are 

kevali.      called   Srutakevali,  because,  though  the   complete  omni- 
science Jambu  Svami  and  his  predecessors  attained  was 
denied  to  them,  they  possessed  complete  knowledge  of  the 
Da^a-       scriptures.      They   were   followed   by    the    Dasapurvl,    or 
P^^^^'       leaders  who  knew  the  ten  Purva  of  the  Twelfth  Anga. 

The  Great  Schism, 

Two  schisms  had  already  taken  place  during  the  lifetime 
of  Mahavira,  and  two  leaders  had  left  the  community.  One 
was  headed  by  Jamali,  son-in-law  of  Mahavira,  who  denied 
that  a  thing  is  perfected  when  it  is  begun  (which  some 
Jaina  scriptures  teach),  and  was  specially  annoyed  when 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  ^o, 

the  doctrine,  to  his  own  discomfort,  was  apphed  by  a  disciple 
to  the  practical  question  of  bed-making. 

The  other  we  have  already  noted  ;  it  was  led  by  Gosala,^ 
and  its  main  tenet  was  Fatalism. 

During  the  years  that  immediately  followed  the  death 
of  Sthulabhadra  three  more  schisms  took  place,  seriously 
weakening  the  Jaina  church.  In  251  B.C.  Asadha  Acarya 
headed  a  schism  called  Avyakta.  Four  years  later  Asva- 
mitra  left  the  Jaina  community  and  became  head  of  the 
Ksanikavadi;  and  in  239  B.C.  a  Jaina  called  Gahga  led  a 
fifth  schism. 

The  great  schism  had  not,  however,  as  yet  taken  place. 
It  is  interesting  to  remember  that  Bhadrabahu  had  returned 
from  South  India  to  be  head  over  the  whole  community, 
even  over  the  refractory  part  that  had  t^ken  to  clothes; 
that  he,  the  staunch  believer  in  nakedness,  had  been 
followed  by  Sthulabhadra,  the  clothed ;  and  that  this  man  in 
his  turn  was  followed  by  a  leader  who  discarded  clothing. 

Mahagiri,  the  next  head  of  the  community  after  Sthula-  Maha- 
bhadra's  death,  is  said  to  have  revived  '  the  ideal  practice  ^'^^* 
of  nakedness  '  which  had  fallen  into  disuse.  During  his  rule 
two  famous  Jaina  books  are  said  to  have  been  written  : 
Tattvdrtha  Sutra,  by  Umasvati,  and  the  Pannavand  Sutra 
(one  of  the  Upd/iga),  by  Syamacarya,  who  was  himself 
a  disciple  of  Umasvati.  Mahagiri's  rule  is  also  noteworthy 
for  his  endeavours  to  bring  the  community  back  to  their 
primitive  faith  and  practice ;  he  was  a  real  ascetic  and 
recognized  that  under  Sthulabhadra's  sway  many  abuses 
had  crept  into  the  order.  It  was  doubtless  this  that  had  led 
so  many  of  the  community  to  drift  away  from  it  under  the 
leaders  of  the  schisms  already  mentioned.  Mahagiri  was 
spurred  on  in  his  efforts  after  reform  by  the  memory  of 
a  prophecy  which  foretold  that  after  Sthulabhadra  the 
monks  would  become  less  strenuous  in  their  lives.  He  was  Sam- 
defeated  in  his  aims  by  the  conversion  of  Samprati,  grand-  P^^^'' 

^  See  p.  58. 


74  HISTORY  OF  THE 

son  and  successor  of  Asoka  ^  and  by  the  disastrous  effects 
of  the  royal  bounty  that  thenceforth  flowed  into  the 
community. 

The  legend  of  Samprati's  conversion  is  given  as  follows 
by  the  Svetambara.     Suhastin  was  one   of   the   leading 
members  of   the  Jaina   community  under  Mahagiri,   and 
he  once  met  King  Samprati  in  Ujjain  (East  Malwa).     Now 
in  a  previous  birth  Samprati  had  been  a  beggar  and  had 
seen  Suhastin's  disciples  carrying  sweets.     When  he  asked 
for  some   of   this   confectionery  Suhastin   said   he    could 
only  give  them  on  condition  of  Samprati's  becoming  his 
disciple,  so   he  received  initiation,   took  the  sweets,   ate 
heartily  of  them  and  died.     When,  as  King  Samprati,  he 
saw  Suhastin  again,  his  former  birth  came  back  to  his 
memory,   and   he   again    became   a   convert   to   Jainism. 
Samprati  tried  to  spread  Jainism  by  every  means  in  his 
power,  working  as   hard  for  Jainism   as   Asoka  had  for 
Buddhism  :   he  even  sent  preachers  as  far  as  Afghanistan ; 
but  unfortunately  he  quite  demoralized  the  monks  with 
the  rich  food  he  showered  upon  them.     Suhastin  dared 
not  refuse  this  food,  for,  as  in  his  previous  birth,  the  king 
laid  great  stress  on  diet  and  would  have  been  irreconcilably 
offended  if  it  and  his  superabundant  alms  had  been  re- 
fused.    So  the  old  leader  of  the  community,  Mahagiri,  saw 
all   his  hopes  of  winning  the  monks  to  lives  of   sterner 
asceticism  overturned ;    and,   finding   that    remonstrance 
with  Suhastin  was  of  no  avail,  he   separated   from   him 
and  withdrew   to    Dasarnabhadra,    where   he   committed 
suicide  by  voluntary  starvation. 
Suhastin.      After  Mahagiri's  death  Suhastin  became  dejure  the  leader 
that  he  had  previously  been  de  facto,  and  the  Jaina  account 
him  one  of  their  greatest  spiritual  heads.     A  strong  man 
was  needed,  for  the  community  had  been  much  weakened 
by  the  three  schisms  and  by  the  late  quarrel  between 

^  Asoka  was  Emperor  of  India  273-231  B.C.     The  Jaina  say  that  he 
was  a  Jaina  before  he  was  converted  to  Buddhism. 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  ^^ 

Mahagiri  and  himself ;  Suhastin  therefore  set  himself  to  gain 
new  disciples,  and  owing  to  his  influence  many  newbranches  of 
the  order  were  formed.  Perhaps  new  recruits  were  received 
too  readily,  at  any  rate  it  was  under  him  that  AvantI 
Kumara,  whom  the  Jaina  cite  as  the  typical  man  who  found 
the  ascetic  life  too  hard,  joined  the  order.  Avanti,  the  son 
of  a  rich  man  and  brought  up  in  luxury,  could  not  bear  all 
the  suffering  and  hardships  which  fell  to  his  lot  as  a  monk. 
He  dared  not  return  to  the  world,  so,  to  put  an  end  to  a 
position  which  he  found  intolerable,  he  committed  suicide 
by  fasting.  His  relatives  built  a  magnificent  temple  on  the 
spot  where  he  died,  and  the  Jaina  say  that  this  was  the 
temple  of  Mahakala  in  Ujjain,  which  is  now,  however,  one 
of  the  twelve  most  famous  Saiva  temples  in  India.  Poor 
Avanti's  story  is  still  quoted  as  a  warning  not  to  enter  on 
the  mendicant  life  without  counting  the  cost,  and  he  is 
known  as  AvantI  Sukumara — Avanti  the  delicate. 

Suhastin  was   succeeded   by  Susthitasuri   in   177   b.  c.  Susthita- 
Under  him,  according  to  the  Jaina,  their  name  of  Nirgrantha-  ^^^^' 
gaccha  was  changed  to  that  of  Kalikagaccha  in  honour  of 
the  krores  of  times  the  leader  repeated  the  secret  mantra 
taught  him  by  his  guru. 

Indradinna,  who  followed  Susthitasuri,  is  famous,  not  for  Indra- 
anything  that  he  did,  but  because  the  great  Jaina  saint  ^'""a- 
Kalikacarya  flourished  under  his  rule. 

The  Jaina  tell  many  stories  of  Kalikacarya  and  the  Kaljka- 
occult  powers  that  his  great  learning  gained  him.  It  was  ^^''y^* 
owing  to  these  powers,  they  believe^  that  he  was  able  in  61 
B.  c.  to  destroy  the  dynasty  of  Gardabhila.  Kalikacarya's 
sister  was  a  nun,  and  she  was  once  carried  off  by  King 
Gardabhila.  The  saint  went  to  a  Scythian  king  and  im- 
plored his  assistance,  but  the  king  was  afraid  of  attacking 
so  powerful  a  sovereign  as  Gardabhila,  especially  as  he  was 
under  the  peculiar  protection  of  the  goddess  Rasabhi,  who  was 
able  by  the  witchery  of  her  singing  to  make  it  impossible 
for  any  one  to  approach  within  fourteen  miles  of  the  king. 


^6  HISTORY  OF  THE 

Kalikacarya  could,  however,  on  his  part  produce  wealth 
by  magic,  and  by  this  means  he  persuaded  the  Scythian 
king  to  come  to  his  aid  with  an  army.  They  encamped  at 
a  safe  distance  of  about  fifteen  miles  from  King  Gardabhila, 
and  when  his  protecting  goddess  began  to  sing,  all  the 
Scythian  army  shot  arrows  at  her  mouth  and  filled  it  so 
full  that  she  was  unable  to  utter  a  sound.  The  spell 
being  broken,  Gardabhila  was  easily  captured,  and  Kali- 
kacarya's  sister  released.  The  king  Gardabhila  was  even- 
tually forgiven  and  set  at  liberty  ;  he  betook  himself  to 
a  neighbouring  forest,  where  he  was  finally  devoured  by 
a  tiger,  to  the  total  extinction  of  his  race. 

Kalikacarya  is,  however,  specially  remembered  through  the 
dispute  which  continues  to  this  day  about  the  keeping  of  Paj  - 
jusana,^some  Jaina  sects  holding  that  it  should  begin  on  the 
fourth  and  some  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  month  Bhadrapada. 
The  difference  arose  in  this  way  :  Kalikacarya  once  visited 
the  king  of  Pentha  (in  the  Dekkan)  and  asked  him  to  come 
and  listen  to  the  discourses  he  was  going  to  deliver  at 
Pajjusana.  The  king  said  he  would  have  come  if  it  had 
been  any  day  but  the  fifth  (in  those  days  Pajjusana  only 
lasted  for  one  day),  but  that  being  a  special  festival  of 
Indra  which  he  was  bound  to  keep,  he  asked  the  saint  to 
postpone  the  fast  till  the  sixth.  The  ascetic,  while  declaring 
any  postponement  impossible,  offered  to  arrange  to  hold  it 
one  day  earlier,  on  the  fourth  of  Bhadrapada.  This  was 
accordingly  done,  and  ever  since  then  some  sects  ^  have 
begun  the  fast  on  the  fourth  and  some  on  the  fifth.  The 
importance  they  give  to  this  difference  reminds  one  of  the 
old  ecclesiastical  dispute  about  the  date  of  Easter. 
Siddha-  According  to  the  Jaina  a  learned  ascetic,  Siddhasena 
Div^-       Divakara,  the  son  of  a  Brahman  minister,  lived  about  this 

kara.  i  Qj.  Paryusana,  the  sacred  festival  at  the  close  of  the  Jaina  year. 

'^  The  Tapagaccha  observe  the  fourth,  the  SthilnakavasI  the  fifth 
day,  the  Ancalagaccha  sometimes  the  fourth  and  sometimes  the  fifth. 
Occasionally  owing  to  differing  astrologers  all  sects  observe  the  same 
day  as  the  beginning  of  the  fast. 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  77 

time  at  the  court  of  King  Vikramaditya.^  There  was 
another  equally  learned  ascetic  called  Vriddhavadl,  and 
these  two  were  anxious  to  meet  and  discover  whose 
learning  entitled  him  to  be  regarded  as  the  superior  of 
the  other.  At  last  they  did  encounter  each  other,  but 
unfortunately  they  met  in  a  jungle  where  the  only  judges 
they  could  find  to  decide  their  cause  were  ignorant  village 
cowherds.  Siddhasena,  fresh  from  the  Sanskrit-loving  court, 
began  the  dispute,  but  used  so  many  Sanskrit  words  that 
the  cowherds  had  no  idea  what  he  was  talking  about,  and 
quickly  gave  the  palm  to  Vriddhavadi  who  spoke  in  the 
simplest  language  and  quoted  many  a  shrewd  rural  jest 
and  proverb  ;  so  Siddhasena  had  to  accept  Vriddhavadi  as 
his  conqueror  and  guru.  Siddhasena,  however,  still  proud 
of  his  Sanskrit,  formed  the  plan  of  translating  all  the  Jaina 
scriptures  from  Magadh!  (a  language  understood  by  the 
common  people)  into  Sanskrit :  but  his  guru  showed  him 
the  sin  it  would  be  thus  to  place  them  out  of  the  reach 
of  ordinary  folk,  and  as  penance  for  the  very  idea  he 
wandered  about  for  twelve  years  without  uttering  a  word. 
His  importance  to  Jainism  lies  evidently  in  his  failure 
to  sanskritize  either  the  language  or  the  scriptures ;  ^ 
but  he  is  also  credited  with  the  conversion  to  Jainism 
of  King  Vikramaditya  of  Ujjain  and  of  Devapala,  king 
of  Kumarapura.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
57  B.C. 

Two  other  events  are  supposed  to  have  happened  about 
this  time,  the  defeat  of  the  Buddhists  in  a  great  argument 
by  a  famous  Jaina  controversialist,  an  ascetic  called  Arya 


*  Vikramaditya,  according  to  tradition,  was  king  of  Ujjain,  and 
4he  golden  age  '  of  Sanskrit  literature  is  said  to  have  coincided  with 
his  reign.  He  is  now  considered  by  many  scholars  to  be  a  purely 
legendary  monarch. 

^  There  is  said  to  be  always  a  marked  difference  between  the 
speech  of  a  Brahman  and  a  Jaina,  since  the  former  use  as  many 
Sanskrit  words  as  possible,  and  the  latter,  especially  the  Sthana- 
kavasT,  use  the  simple  vernacular. 


78 


HISTORY  OF  THE 


Vajia- 
svami. 


Vajra- 
sena. 

The 

Great 

Schism. 


Khaputa  who  lived  in  Broach,  and  the  founding  of  Satrufi- 
jaya^  in  the  state  of  Pahtana. 

The  next  spiritual  leader  ^  of  great  importance  for  our 
purpose  was  Vajrasvami,  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  Dasa- 
purvl.  It  was  in  his  time  that  the  sixth  schism  took  place. 
A  Jaina  sddhu  called  Rohagupta^  taught  that  there  are  not 
seven  but  only  three  constituent  elements  of  the  earth,  viz. : 
Jiva,  Ajiva  and  Nojiva;  the  schism  is  accordingly  called 
the  Nojiva  schism  and  is  believed  to  have  arisen  in  a.  d.  71. 
A  seventh  schism,  led  by  Gosta  Mahal,  also  took  place 
under  Vajrasvami's  rule.  The  Jaina  believe  that  Vajrasvami 
was  able  to  call  up  at  will  a  magic  carpet  which  conveyed 
him  and  his  friends  to  any  distance,  and  that  once  by  its 
means  he  transplanted  the  whole  community  from  a  famine- 
stricken  district  to  the  town  of  Puri.  The  more  enlightened 
Jaina  say  that  this  carpet  really  represents  some  modern 
mode  of  locomotion  (steam  engine,  motor  car,  or  aeroplane) 
the  secret  of  whose  construction  Vajrasvami  had  anticipated. 
Vajrasvami  had  a  famous  disciple,  Aryaraksita,  who  had 
originally  been  a  Brahman  and  had  studied  all  knowledge  at 
Benares.  His  mother  spurred  him  on  to  study  the  Jaina 
Purva,  and  whilst  doing  so  he  was  converted  to  Jainism  and 
learnt  from  Vajrasvami  the  whole  of  the  nine-and-a-half 
Purva.  He  is  famous  amongst  the  Jaina  for  having  arranged 
the  Sutra  into  four  divisions  that  they  might  be  the  more 
easily  understood. 

We  now  come  to  the  great  division  of  the  community. 
Vajrasvami  was  followed  by  Vajrasena,  and  under  his 
leadership  the  Digambara  finally  separated  from  the  main 
community.     The  new  Head  had  not  the  personality  of  his 

^  Satrunjaya,  the  Jaina  say,  was  built  by  a  monk  who  had  the 
power  of  rising  through  the  air,  and  by  a  disciple  of  his  who  had  the 
power  of  creating  gold.  This  fortunate  conjunction  of  talents  has 
resulted  in  one  of  the  loveliest  temple  cities  in  the  world. 

2  Indradinna  had  been  followed  by  Dinnasiiri,  and  he  by  Sirhhagiri, 
and  then  came  Vajrasvami. 

^  Rohagupta  had  a  disciple  called  Kanada  who  was,  according  to 
the  Jaina,  the  founder  of  the  famous  Vaisesika  philosophy. 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  79 

predecessors,  and  was  probably  not  strong  enough  to  hold 
the  balance  between  two  contending  parties ;  at  any  rate  the 
Digambara  now  hived  off.  Differing  dates  are  given  for  the 
separation :  the  Svetambara  believe  it  to  have  taken  place 
in  A.  D.  142,  the  SthanakavasI  in  a.  d.  83,  whilst  Dr.  Hoernle 
places  the  date  about  a.  d.  79  or  82. 

The  Svetambara  declare  that  the  opposition  sect  was 
really  founded  (like  many  another  sect  since  !)    in  a  fit  of 
temper,  and  give  the  following  account  of  how  it  occurred. 
A  certain  Sivabhuti,  who  had  been  in  the  service  of  the 
king  of  Rathavirapura,  decided  to  become  a  Jaina  ascetic. 
On  the  day  of  his  initiation  the  king  gave  him  a  most  costly 
and  beautiful  blanket  as  a  farewell  present.     Seeing  how 
over-fond  he  was  of  it,  his  guru  advised  him  to  return  the 
gift,  but  he  refused  ;    whereupon,  to  save  him  from  the 
snare,  the  guru  during  his  absence  tore  the  blanket  into 
small  pieces.     Sivabhuti  was  so  angry  when  he  found  what 
had  happened  that  he  declared  that  if  he  might  not  keep 
his  blanket  he  would  keep  no  covering  at  all,  but  would 
wander  naked  through  the  world  like  the  Lord  Mahavira 
himself.      His   first    two   disciples   were   Kaundinya   and 
Kattavlra.     His  sister  Uttara  also  wanted  to  follow  him, 
but,  seeing  that  it  was  impossible  for  a  woman  to  go  about 
nude,   Sivabhuti  refused   to  allow   her  to  join  him   and 
declared    that    no   woman   could   attain   moksa  without 
rebirth  as  a  man. 

The  probability  is  that  there  had  always  been  two  parties 
in  the  community :  the  older  and  weaker  section,  who  wore 
clothes  and  dated  from  Parsvanatha's  time,  and  who  were 
called  the  Sthavira  kalpa  (the  spiritual  ancestors  of  the 
Svetambara) ;  and  the  Jina  kalpa,  or  Puritans,  who  kept  the 
extreme  letter  of  the  law  as  Mahavira  had  done,  and  who 
are  the  forerunners  of  the  Digambara. 

The  five  main  tenets  of  the  Digambara  in  which  they 
oppose  the  Svetambara  views  ^  are  :   that  the  Tirthankara 
^  They  also  differ  on  many  points  of  ritual  and  custom. 


8o 


HISTORY  OF  THE 


Differ- 
ences be- 
tween 
Svetam- 
bara  and 
Digam- 
bara. 


Hari- 

bhadra 

Suri. 


must  be  represented  as  nude  and  unadorned,  and  with 
downcast  eyes;  that  women  cannot  obtain  moksa;  that 
Mahavira  never  married  ;  that  once  a  saint  had  obtained 
Kevala  jnana  he  needed  no  food,  but  could  sustain  Hfe 
without  eating ;  and  finally  the  great  point  over  which  the 
split  occurred,  that  ascetics  must  be  entirely  nude,  a  decision 
which  condemns  the  one  or  two  Digambara  ascetics  now 
existing  to  live  in  the  strict  seclusion  of  a  forest,  somewhat 
to  the  relief  of  the  reformers  of  their  sect,  who  are  thus 
saved  from  their  interference.-^ 

There  were  several  spiritual  leaders  of  no  great  moment 
who  followed  Vajrasena,^  but  the  next  of  real  importance 
was  the  great  Haribhadra  Suri.  Haribhadra  was  origin- 
ally a  learned  Brahman  and  inordinately  proud  of  his 
knowledge.  He  was  converted  to  Jainism  through  hearing 
a  Jaina  nun  named  Yakani  recite  a  sloka  which  Haribhadra 
could  not  understand  ;  the  nun  referred  him  to  her  guru, 
but  the  guru  refused  to  explain  it  unless  the  inquirer  first 
received  initiation  as  a  Jaina  monk,  which  he  accord- 
ingly did.  Two  of  Haribhadra's  nephews,  Harhsa  and 
Paramaharhsa,  became  his  disciples,  and  later  on  he  sent 

^  The  Digambara  also  differ  on  certain  historical  details.  The 
following,  according  to  some  authorities,  is  the  list  of  Acarya  who 
came  after  Jambu  SvamI ;  this  list  carries  their  records  up  to  A.D.  216. 
Visnu,  Nandimitra,  Aparajita,  Covardhana  and  Bhadrabahu,  who  all 
knew  the  twelve  Anga.  These  were  followed  by  Visakhacarya, 
Paustilacarya,  Ksatriya,  Jayasena,  Nagasena,  Siddhartha,  Dhritisena, 
Vijaya,  Buddhimana,  Ganadeva  and  Dharmasena  ;  all  these  eleven 
knew  eleven  Anga  and  ten  Purva.  Naksatra,  Jayapala,  Pandu, 
Dharmasena  and  Kamsacarya,  who  followed,  knew  only  the  texts 
of  eleven  Anga.  Then  came  four  men,  Subhadeva,  Yasobhadra, 
Mahiyasa  and  Lokacarya,  who  knew  only  one  Anga. 

^  His  immediate  follower  was  Candrasuri,  under  whom  the  name 
of  the  community  was  changed  from  Kodlgaccha  to  Candragaccha, 
only  to  be  renamed  Vanavasigaccha  under  the  next  leader,  Samanta- 
bhadrasuri,  owing  to  that  ascetic's  love  of  living  in  the  forest. 

Manadeva  was  the  next  Head  of  the  community.  He  was  waited  on 
by  four  goddesses,  and  composed  many  mantras  (called  sdntistotra), 
against  the  plague  that  raged  in  Taxila.  He  was  followed  by 
Manatufiga,  the  author  of  the  Bhaktamarastotra.  This  stotra  of  forty- 
four  verses  was  so  powerful  that  each  verse  when  repeated  could 
break  open  a  locked  door  ! 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  8i 

them  disguised  to  study  Buddhist  doctrines  in  order  to  re- 
fute them  on  their  return.  The  Buddhist  monks,  however, 
were  suspicious  of  the  orthodoxy  of  these  new  inquirers 
and  drew  images  of  the  Tirthankara  on  the  steps  of  their 
monastery  to  see  if  they  would  tread  on  them.  But  the 
two  Jaina  boys  neatly  turned  the  tables  by  adding  the 
sacred  thread  ^  to  the  sketches  and  so  making  them  repre- 
sentations of  Buddha ;  this  done,  they  trod  on  them  happily 
enough.  Enraged  at  this  insult  to  their  great  leader,  the 
Buddhist  monks  slew  the  lads.  Haribhadra,  maddened  at 
their  loss,  determined  to  slay  all  the  monks,  some  1,444, 
in  boiling  oil  by  means  of  his  occult  powers,  but  was  stopped 
in  time  by  his  guru.^  He  repented  deeply  of  his  hasty 
resolve,  and  to  expiate  it  he  wrote  no  less  than  1,444  books 
on  various  subjects,  some  of  which  remain  to  this  day. 

Siddhasuri  ^  was  the  next  great  head  of  the  community ;  Siddha- 
he  was  the  grandson  of  a  Prime  Minister  of  Srimala  (once  ^^"' 
the  capital  of  Gujarat)  and  the  cousin  of  the  famous 
Sanskrit  poet  Magha.  Siddhasuri's  conversion  happened 
on  this  wise.  After  his  marriage  he  became  a  great  gambler, 
and  his  wife  grieved  sorely  over  his  absences  from  home. 
One  night  she  was  sitting  up  as  usual  waiting  for  his  return, 
when  her  mother-in-law,  seeing  her  weeping,  asked  her  to  go 
to  sleep  and  said  she  would  sit  up  for  her  son.  When 
Siddhasuri  returned  long  after  midnight,  his  mother  refused 
to  open  the  door  and  told  him  to  go  and  spend  the  night 
anywhere  he  could  gain  a  welcome,  for  there  was  no  admit- 
tance for  him  there.  Deeply  hurt,  he  sought  entrance  at  the 
only  open  door  he  could  find,  which  happened  to  be  that  of 
a  Jaina  Apasaro.'*    The  sadhus  were  all  sitting  on  the  floor, 

^  The  Jaina  never  wear  the  sacred  thread  as  the  Buddhists  do.  The 
Brahmans  of  course  always  wear  it  from  their  eighth  year. 

'^  Bhandarkar  gives  a  different  account  in  his  Search  after  Jaina 
MSS.,  1883,  p.  141,  where  it  is  said  that  Haribhadra  actually  killed 
the  monks.     This  the  Jaina  indignantly  deny. 

^  His  date  is  variously  given  as  A.D.  536  and  539. 

^  The  name  given  to  a  Jaina  meeting-house  and  monks*  lodging. 


82  HISTORY  OF  THE 

recalling  what  they  had  learnt  during  the  day,  and  their 
head,  the  gargarisi,  as  he  was  called,  told  him  that  before 
he  could  join  their  company  he  must  become  a  sadhu  too. 
Siddhasuri  instantly  resolved  to  do  so :  he  obtained  his 
father's  permission,  though  with  great  difficulty,  and  was 
initiated  on  the  following  morning.^  He  studied  Jainism 
deeply  and  became  a  great  scholar,  wTiting  a  commentary 
on  the  Upadesamala  of  Dharmadasagani.  He  then  wished 
to  study  Buddhism  and  asked  the  gargarisi's  permission  to 
go  to  a  Buddhist  monastery  for  this  purpose.  The  gargarisi 
agreed,  though  with  misgivings,  but  stipulated  that  if  ever 
Siddhasuri  felt  he  was  being  drawn  to  the  Buddhist  faith, 
he  should  come  back  and  see  him  at  least  once  before  he 
joined  their  order.  It  fell  out  as  the  gargarisi  had  feared; 
the  Buddhists  were  so  struck  with  Siddhasuri's  learning  that 
they  proposed  that  he  should  turn  Buddhist  and  become 
their  Acarya.  Remembering  his  promise,  he  returned  home 
to  see  the  gargarisi  once  again  ;  he  was,  however,  engaged, 
and  asked  Siddhasuri  to  read  a  certain  book,  the  Lalitavi- 
stara  by  Haribhadrasuri,  whilst  he  waited.  As  he  read  it, 
repentance  overtook  him  ;  he  was  again  convinced  of  the 
soundness  of  the  Jaina  faith,  sought  forgiveness  from  the 
gargarisi,  performed  the  penance  imposed  and  became  a 
sound  Jaina.  Eventually  he  rose  to  the  position  of  Acarya 
and  strove  by  every  means  in  his  power  to  spread  the  faith. 
^Tlaguna-  The  biographies  of  the  successive  leaders  of  the  com- 
munity need  not  detain  us,  but  about  two  hundred  years 
later  there  arose  a  great  sadhu  named  Sllagunasuri,  who 
is  famous  as  the  restorer  of  the  Cavada  dynasty.  Once 
when  wandering  as  a  sadhu  in  the  jungle  between  Wadhwan 
and  Kadlpatana  he  saw  a  cradle  hanging  from  a  tree  with 
a  baby  in  it.  By  his  knowledge  of  palmistry  he  at  once 
discovered  that  this  forlorn  child  would  some  day  be  a  king. 
The  child's  mother  appeared  and  told  him  that  she  was  the 

^  The  Jaina  now  wish  to  institute  a  period  of  testing  and  training 
before  a  candidate  can  obtain  initiation. 


sun. 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  83 

widow  of  the  vanquished  king  of  Gujarat,  Jayasikhara, 
and  that  the  child's  name  was  Vanaraja.  Silagunasuri 
went  to  the  neighbouring  city  and  told  the  Jaina  laymen 
of  his  discovery  and  of  his  behef  that  this  child  would  one 
day  be  a  king,  and  advised  them  to  bring  him  up  as  a  Jaina 
to  the  advantage  of  their  faith.  It  all  fell  out  as  Silagunasuri 
had  foretold,  and  when,  grown  to  manhood  after  some  years 
of  outlawry,  Vanaraja  defeated  his  enemies  and  recovered 
the  crown,  he  called  Silagunasuri  to  his  court,  declared  his 
intention  of  reigning  as  a  Jaina  king,  and  built  the  temple 
of  Paficasara  Parasanatha  which  still  stands  in  Patana. 

An  Acarya  named  Siddhasena  once  had  a  dream  in  which  Bappa- 
he  saw  a  lion's  cub  on  the  roof  of  a  temple  ;  by  this  sign  "^^^^^^"• 
he  knew  that  whoever  should  come  to  him  during  the 
following  day  would  be  capable  of  becoming  a  great  sadhu. 
The  next  day  a  clever  lad  called  Bappa  appeared,  and 
Siddhasena  asked  him  if  he  would  like  to  stay  in  the  Apasaro 
and  study  with  him.  The  boy  agreed,  and  the  boy's  father 
too  was  quite  content,  until  he  learnt  that  Siddhasena  wished 
to  turn  his  son  into  a  sadhu.  The  father's  chief  objection 
was  that,  as  the  boy  was  an  only  son,  his  own  name  would 
die  out,  but  this  was  overcome  by  adding  the  father's  name 
to  the  son's  and  caUing  him  Bappabhatti.  Bappabhattl 
as  a  sadhu  was  most  zealous  for  the  faith.  Once  he  saw 
a  boy  weeping  in  a  Jaina  temple,  who  told  him  that  he  and 
his  mother  (one  of  the  wives  of  the  king  of  Kanauj)  had 
been  driven  out  through  the  intrigues  of  a  co-wife.  Bappa- 
bhatti arranged  for  the  boy's  comfort  and  assured  him  that 
he  would  one  day  be  king  of  Kanauj.  When  this  happened, 
the  young  king  called  Bappabhatti  to  his  court  and  assisted 
Jainism  in  every  possible  way  by  building  temples  and 
Apasara.  Bappabhatti  declined  to  stay  long  in  the  morally 
enervating  atmosphere  of  a  court,  but  during  his  second 
visit  was  enabled  to  save  the  king  from  the  toils  of  a  nautch 
girl.  Visiting  Bengal,  Bappabhatti  won  over  a  reigning 
prince  to  the  Jaina  faith.    Later  he  met  a  Buddhist  preacher 

G  2 


84  HISTORY  OF  THE 

whom  he  defeated  in  a  discussion,  thereby  gaining  for  himself 
the  magnificent  title  of  the  Lion  who  defeated  the  Elephant 
in  argument.    After  spreading  the  faith  in  many  other  ways, 
he  died  in  a.  d.  839. 
Silanga-        Passing  over  other  leaders  of  less  importance,  we  come  to 
ciirya.       Silangacarya,^  the  dates  of  whose  birth  and  death  are  un- 
certain, but  who  was  alive  in  a.  d.  862.     He  wrote  com- 
riientaries  on  each  of  the  eleven  Ahga,  but  unfortunately 
only  two  of  these  remain. 
Abhaya-       In  A.  D.  1031  a  boy  of  sixteen,  named  Abhayadevasuri,  was 
devasuri.  j^iade  head  of  the  community ;   he  wrote  commentaries  to 
supply   the   place   of   the   missing   nine   commentaries   of 
Silangacarya. 
Henia-  Some  sixty  years  later  was  born  the  famous  Hemacarya^  or 

carya.  Hemacandrasuri,  who  became  Head  or  Acarya  in  a.  d.  1121. 
He  wrote  a  comparative  grammar  of  six  of  the  Prakrits, 
with  which  Siddharaja,  the  reigning  king  of  Gujarat,  was  so 
delighted  that  he  placed  it  before  him  on  an  elephant  and 
took  it  to  his  treasury  in  state.  The  next  king,  Kumarapala, 
was  converted  to  Jainism  through  Hemacarya's  influence. 
This  monarch,  besides  building  magnificent  temples,  en- 
deared himself  still  more  to  his  Jaina  subjects  by  prohibiting 
the  killing  of  animals  throughout  his  dominions.  Under 
Kumarapala  Jainism  became  the  state  religion  of  Gujarat, 
and  its  head-quarters  were  no  longer  to  be  found  in  the 
district  of  Bihar  its  birthplace,  but  were  transferred  to  the 
dominions  of  this  Jaina  king.  Hemacarya  continued  his 
literary  labours  throughout  his  long  life,  and  it  is  said  that 
before  his  death  in  a.  d.  1184  he  had  written  35,000,000  sloka 
on  such  differing  subjects  as  religion,  history  and  grammar. 
As  Hemacarya  wrote  chiefly  in  Sanskrit,  his  name  is  held 
in  high  honour  by  educated  Hindus  as  well  as  Jaina.  No 
Acarya  since  Hemacandra  has  ever  wielded  so  great  an 

^  Or,  Sllankacarya. 

2  Dr.  Jacobi  gives  Hemacandra's  dates  as  A.  D.  1088  or  1089-1173, 
E.R.E.,  vi.  591. 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  85 

influence;-^  he  is  called  the  'Omniscient  of  the  Kaliyuga', 
and  with  his  name  we  may  fitly  close  our  account  of  the 
early  Heads  of  the  Community. 

Epigraphic  Corroboration. 

In  our  study  of  the  Jaina  tradition  with  regard  to 
Mahavira  and  his  successors  we  have  incidentally  touched 
the  outstanding  points  of  Jaina  history  as  accepted  to-day 
by  European  scholars.  Not  long  ago  all  statements  made  by 
the  Jaina  about  themselves  were  received  with  the  gravest 
suspicion,  but  the  inscriptions  which  have  been  deciphered 
at  Mathura  and  elsewhere  so  corroborate  the  Jaina  account 
that  it  would  seem  well  worth  while  to  collect  and  collate 
their  annals  and  legends  as  material  for  that  Jaina  history 
which,  owing  to  the  incompleteness  of  our  knowledge, 
cannot  yet  be  written  in  full. 

The  events  on  which  in  the  meantime  most  scholars  are 
agreed,  and  which  are  borne  out  in  the  Jaina  history  that 
we  have  studied,  include  the  existence  of  the  Parsvanatha 
order  of  monks  prior  to  Mahavira ;  the  birth  of  Mahavira 
somewhere  about  599  b.c.  and  his  death  about  527  b,c.  ; 
and  the  remarkable  spread  of  Jainism  under  Suhastin  in  the 
third  century  B.C.,  which,  as  Dr.  Hoernle  ^  points  out,  is 
corroborated  not  only  by  their  own  pattavalis,^  but  also 
by  an  inscription  of  Kharavela  on  the  Khandagiri  rock  near 
Cuttack,  which  shows  that  by  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  the  Jaina  had  spread  as  far  as  Southern  Orissa. 

There  is  a  still  earlier  inscription  dating  from  about 
242  B.  c.  referring  to  the  Jaina,  the  edict  of  Asoka,  the 
great  Maurya  king  who  lived  in  the  third  century  B.C., 
which  is  cited  by  Vincent  Smith.*  He  says  in  the  second 
part  of  the  seventh  '  pillar '  edict  which  he  issued  in  the 
twenty-ninth  year  of  his  reign : 

^  An  English-speaking  Jaina  has  written  of  him  thus  :  *  He  was  man 
pious  and  profound  and  wiser  even  than  Shakespeare,  and  had  a 
memory  far  surpassing  that  of  Macaulay.' 

-  J.A.S.  B.,  1898,  p.  48.  2  Lists  of  the  succession  of  teachers. 

*  Asoka  (Rulers  of  India  series),  pp.  192,  193. 


86  HISTORY  OF  THE 

*  My  Censors  of  the  Law  of  Piety  are  employed  on  manifold  objects 
of  the  royal  favour  affecting  both  ascetics  and  householders,  and  are 
likewise  employed  among  all  denominations.  Moreover,  I  have 
arranged  for  their  employment  in  the  business  of  the  Church  {sangha) 
and  in  the  same  way  I  have  employed  them  among  the  Brahmans  and 
the  Ajivikas,  and  among  the  Jains  also  are  they  employed,  and,  in  fact, 
among  all  the  different  denominations.' 

This,  as  Dr.  Blihler  says,  shows  that  the  Jaina  occupied 
a  position  of  no  small  importance  even  at  that  date. 

The  inscriptions  in  Mathura  dating  from  the  first  and 
second  century  a.  d.  also  go  to  prove  the  trustworthiness  of 
the  Jaina  historical  traditions  enshrined  in  the  Kalpa  Sutra, 
for  they  show  the  same  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the 
Jaina  schools,  families  and  branches  as  the  Kalpa  Sutra 
recorded,^  and  they  also  mention  the  Kautika^  division 
(founded  by  Susthita)  which  belonged  to  the  Svetambara 
sect,  thus  proving  the  early  date  of  the  schism. 

After  the  schism  the  next  great  event  in  Jaina  history 
was  the  birth  of  Hemacandra,  his  success  in  winning  over 
to  Jainism  Kumarapala  (perhaps  in  a.  d.  1125)  and  the 
resulting  change  of  the  Jaina  head-quarters  from  Bihar,  its 
birthplace,  to  Gujarat,  which  since  that  date  has  been  the 
chief  centre  of  Jaina  influence. 

The  legends,  however,  throw  light  for  us  on  much  of  the 
intervening  time,  witnessing  as  they  do  to  the  conflicts 
between  Jainism  and  its  two  great  rivals,  Brahmanism  and 
Buddhism. 

The  Later  Sects, 

Under  the  rule  of  Hemacandra  Jainism  reached  its 
zenith,  and  after  his  time  its  influence  declined.  Brahman 
opposition  grew  stronger  and  stronger,  and  the  Jaina  say 
that  their  temples  were  often  destroyed.  Constant  dissen- 
sions amongst  themselves  divided  the  Jaina  community 
into  numberless  sects  such  as  the  Punamiyagaccha,  the 

^  J.  G.  Biihler,  The  Indian  Sect  of  the  Jainas^  London,  1903,  p.  43. 
^  -  Hoernle, /.  ^.  S.B.,  189S,  p   50. 


JAINA  COMMUNITY  87 

Kharataragaccha,  the  Aficalagaccha,  the  Sardhapunamiya- 
gaccha,  the  Agamikagaccha  and  the  Tapagaccha.^ 

Thus  weakened,  Jainism  could  ill  withstand  the  Moham- 
medan deluge  which  swept  over  India  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries.  Jaina  temples  were  razed  to  the 
ground,  their  sacred  books  burnt  and  their  monastic  com- 
munities massacred.  Buddhism  was  simply  swept  out  of 
India  proper  altogether  by  the  storm,  but,  as  we  have  already 
noticed,  Mahavira's  genius  for  organization  now  proved  the 
salvation  of  his  community.  Firmly  rooted  amongst  the 
laity,  they  were  able,  once  the  hurricane  was  past,  to 
reappear  once  more  and  begin  to  throw  out  fresh  branches. 

One  trace  of  their  suffering  still  remains  in  the  way  the 
Jaina  guard  their  sacred  books  in  Treasure  Houses  (often 
underground)  to  which  no  ahen  can  gain  admittance. 

The  next  outstanding  event  in  Jaina  history  was  the  rise  Rise  of 

of   the  non-idolatrous  sects.     The   Sthanakavasi  love  to  f^e  non- 

.     .,     .         ,  idola- 

pomt  out  the  similarity  of  dates  between  their  rise,  which  trous 

was  a  true  Reformation  as  far  as  they  were  concerned,  and  ^^^'^^* 
that  of  the  birth  and  work  of  Martin  Luther  in  Europe. 
They  arose  not  directly  from  the  Svetambaira  but  as  re- 
formers of  an  older  reforming  sect. 

Lohka  Sa  was  the  name  of  an  Ahmadabad  Jaina  belonging  The 
originally  to  the  Svetambara  sect,  who  employed  several  Lonka 
clerks  to  copy  the  Jaina  scriptures.  About  a.  d.  1474 
a  Svetambara  sadhu  named  Jfianaji  asked  him  to  copy 
several  sacred  books  for  him  :  whilst  reading  these, 
Lohka  Sa  was  struck  with  the  fact  that  idol-worship 
was  not  once  mentioned  in  them.  He  pointed  this  out 
to  Jfianaji  and  others,  and  a  sharp  controversy  arose 
between  them  as  to  the  lawfulness  of  idolatry.  In  the 
meantime  a  crowd  of  pilgrims  going  to  Satruhjaya  arrived 
in  Ahmadabad  and  were  won  over  to  Lohka  Sa's  side,  but 
unfortunately  they  had  no  sadhu  amongst  them.    At  length 

^  This  last  is  the  most  important  sect.  It  is  ruled  by  twelve  Sripiijya, 
the  chief  of  whom  has  his  seat  in  Jaipur. 


88     HISTORY  OF  THE  JAINA  COMMUNITY 

a  Svetambara  layman  named  Bhanaji  was  convinced  and 
decided  to  become  a  sadhu.  As  there  was  no  guru  obtain- 
able, he  ordained  himself  and  became  the  first  Acarya  of  the 
Lohka  sect.  The  office  of  Acarya  might  almost  be  said  to 
have  become  hereditary  in  his  hands;  for  though,  of  course, 
he  had  no  descendants,  yet  he  himself  selected  from  the 
Lohka  sadhus  the  one  who  should  fill  the  office  of  Acarya 
on  his  death ;  his  successor  did  the  same,  and  this  custom 
exists  amongst  the  Lohka  Jaina  down  to  the  present  day. 
The  Some  of  the  members  of  the  Lohka  sect  disapproved  of 

Sthana-    ^]-^g  jjygg  ^f  their  sadhus,   declaring  that  they  lived  less 
ka.va,si  >  a  j 

sect.  Strictly  than  Mahavira  would  have  wished.     A  Lohka  lay- 

man, Viraji  of  Surat,  received  initiation  as  a  sadhu  and 
won  great  admiration  through  the  strictness  of  his  life. 
Many  from  the  Lohka  sect  joined  this  reformer,  and  they 
took  the  name  of  Sthanakavasi  ^  whilst  their  enemies  called 
them  Dhundhla.^ 

The  present  writer  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting  the  Acarya 
of  the  Sthanakavasi  sect,  a  gentleman  named  Sri  Lalajl, 
whom  his  followers  hold  to  be  the  seventy-eighth  Acarya 
in  direct  succession  to  Mahavira.  Many  sub-sects  have  arisen 
amongst  the  Sthanakavasi  Jaina,  and  each  of  these  has  its 
own  Acarya,  but  they  all  unite  in  honouring  Sri  Lalaj!  as  a 
true  ascetic.  Excepting  on  the  crucial  point  of  idol-worship, 
the  Sthanakavasi  differ  very  little  from  the  Svetambara  sect 
out  of  which  they  sprang,  often  indeed  calling  themselves 
Sthanakavasi  Svetambara. 

*  Those  who  live  in  Apasara  (not  in  temples). 

^  Searchers.    This  title  has  grown  to  be  quite  an  honourable  one. 


CHAPTER  VI 

INTRODUCTION  TO  JAINA  PHILOSOPHY 

A  WELL-KNOWN  authority  has  said  that  it  is  doubtful 
whether  Jainism  can  truthfully  claim  to  haVe  contributed 
a  single  new  thought  of  value  to  the  sum  of  philosophy. 
However  that  may  be,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  follow 
this  intricate  system  through  all  those  long  lists  with  their 
divisions  and  subdivisions  in  which  the  Jaina  love  to  classify 
and  arrange  their  thought,  if  one  would  understand  how  they 
think  of  the  soul  {jlva)  and  the  means  by  which  it  may  free 
itself  from  the  consequence  of  action  and  obtain  deliverance  ; 
for  this  is  the  chief  content  of  Jaina  philosophy.  A  special 
interest  to  the  student  of  Jaina  thought  lies  in  trying  to  guess 
— for  as  yet  we  are  only  in  the  guessing  stage — from  whence 
the  Jaina  have  gleaned  their  various  ideas.  The  animistic 
element  bulks  largely  in  all  Indian  thought,  and  one  proof 
of  the  antiquity  of  Jainism  is  the  way  in  which  it  has  in- 
corporated animistic  beliefs  into  its  '  systematic  theology  ' ; 
for,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to  discuss  the  nine  cate- 
gories, the  system  is  not  only  animistic  but  hylozoistic. 
The  Jaina,  in  common  with  the  Buddhists,  seem  to  have 
accepted  as  the  ground-work  of  their  belief  the  philosophy 
of  the  Brahman  Sannyasin.  They  incorporated  into  their 
faith  the  doctrines  of  transmigration  and  karma  ^  without 
putting  a  special  stamp  on  either ;  but  the  doctrine  of 
non-killing  {ahwisd)^  which  they  also  borrowed,  they 
exalted  to  a  position  of  primary  importance,  and  they 
laid  an  entirely  new  emphasis  on  the  value  of  austerity 
both  inward  and  outward.  Like  Buddhism  and  Brah- 
manism,  Jainism  might  be  defined  as  a  '  way  of  escape  ' 

•'•  Save  that  whilst  the  Brahmans  believe  that  karma  acts  indirectly 
through  the  agency  of  God,  the  Jaina  hold  that  it  acts  automatically. 


90    INTRODUCTION  TO  JAINA  PHILOSOPHY 

not  from  death  but  from  life ;  but  unlike  either  of  them, 
it  hopes  to  escape  not  into  nothingness  nor  into  absorption, 
but  into  a  state  of  being  without  qualities,  emotions,  or 
relations,  and  removed  from  the  possibihty  of  rebirth. 
It  is  interesting  to  look  at  Jainism  in  relation  to  the  six 
schools  of  Indian  philosophy.  In  reference  to  them  the 
Jaina  quote  the  old  story  of  six  blind  men  who  each  laid 
their  hands  on  a  different  part  of  an  elephant  and  tried 
to  describe  the  whole  animal.  The  man  who  held  the 
ear  thought  the  creature  resembled  a  winnowing-fan,  the 
holder  of  the  leg  imagined  that  he  was  clinging  to  a  big 
round  pillar,  and  similarly  each  opinion  differed,  but  the 
owner  who  saw  the  whole  explained  that  each  had  only 
a  portion  of  the  truth.  The  six  men  represent  the  six 
schools,  and  the  owner  is  in  their  view  of  course  Jainism. 
The  Jaina  hold  in  fact  that  the  six  schools  of  philosophy 
are  part  and  parcel  of  one  organic  whole,  and  that  if  one 
be  taken  by  itself  it  becomes  a  false  doctrine.  One  of  the 
great  questions  amongst  the  schools  is  as  to  whether  an 
effect  is  the  same  as  its  material  cause  or  pre-exists  in  that 
cause  and  is  only  made  manifest  by  the  operation  which 
that  cause  undergoes  (this  is  the  Satkarya  doctrine  of 
the  Saiikhya  and  the  Vedanta) ;  or  whether  the  effect 
is  something  new  and  did  not  exist  before  (which  is  the 
Asatkarya  doctrine  held  by  the  Vaisesika).  On  this  point 
Jainism  shows  its  usual  comprehensiveness,  and  believing 
that  both  views  were  linked  together  from  time  without 
beginning,  says  that  '  an  effect  pre-exists  in  the  cause  in 
one  sense  and  is  a  new  thing  in  another.  If  you  look  at 
an  effect  such  as  a  jar  as  a  mere  substance,  the  substance 
is  the  same  as  in  the  loose  earth  of  which  the  jar  is  made  ; 
but  if  you  look  at  the  jar  as  a  modification,  it  is  new  and 
did  not  exist  when  the  earth  was  in  the  condition  of  loose 
particles  '.^ 

Another  burning  question  is  whether  or  no"tthe  soul 
^  Bhandarkar,  Search /or  Sanskrit  Manuscripts  in  1883-4,  p.  101. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  JAINA  PHILOSOPHY    91 

exists  and  acts.  The  Kriyavada  doctrine  teaches  that  the 
soul  exists,  acts,  and  is  affected  by  acts,  and  this  is  held 
by  the  Jaina  ^  in  common  with  the  Vaisesika  and  Nyaya 
schools.  The  opposite  doctrine — the  Akriyavada — that 
the  soul  does  not  exist,  or  that  it  does  not  act,  or  is  not 
afTected  by  acts,  is  held,  according  to  the  Jaina  view,  by 
the  Buddhists  in  common  with  the  Vedanta,  Sahkhya 
and  Yoga  schools,  and  those  who  hold  this  doctrine  will 
be,  so  the  Jaina  aver,  whirled  round  in  the  endless  circle 
of  rebirths. 

Another  great  question  is  as  to  how  the  soul  becomes 
fettered.  The  Sahkhya  school  believe  it  to  be  owing  to  an 
insentient  principle  which  they  call  prakriti ;  the  Vedantists 
believe  also  that  it  is  owing  to  an  insentient  principle,  but 
this  principle  they  hold  to  be  mdyd  or  avidyd  ;  but  the 
Jaina  believe  the  jiva  to  be  bound  through  the  pudgala  ^ 
of  karma. 

Deliverance  necessarily  differs,  according  as  the  fetters 
differ.  The  Vedanta  school  holds  that  moksa  is  gained 
by  learning  to  distinguish  the  true  soul  {dtmd)  from  the 
illusion  (mdyd)  which  fetters  it,  and  the  Sahkhya  similarly 
strives  to  know  atma  as  separated  from  prakriti,  but  the 
Jaina  conceive  of  the  spirit  as  freed  through  austerities 
from  the  karma  it  had  accumulated,  and  existing  in  limit- 
less serenity. 

The  Jaina  claim  not  to  be  Ekantavadin,  those  who  look 
at  things  from  one  point  of  view,  but  Anekantavadin, 
those  who  look  at  things  from  various  points  of  view,  and 
the  part  of  their  philosophy  of  which  they  are  most  proud 
is  the  Saptabhahgi  Naya. 

Dr.  Jacobi  ^  thinks  that  this  may  have  been  invented  to 
confute  the  views  of  some  dangerous  opponent,  probably 
the  Agnosticism  of  Sahjaya.  (Certainly  to  fight  against  it 
would  be  as  difficult  and  useless  as  fighting  against  a  London 
fog  !)     The  locus  classicus  of   its  exposition  to  which  all 

^  S.  B.  E.J  xlv,  p.  XXV.        ^  See  p.  106.        ^  .S".  B,  E.,  xiv,  p.  xxvii. 


tion. 


92    INTRODUCTION  TO  JAINA  PHILOSOPHY 

Jaina  immediately  refer  you  is  in  Dr.  Bhandarkar's  Search 

for  Jaina  Manuscripts,^  from  which  they  always  quote  it 

in  full. 

Seven  'You  can',  the  famous  passage  runs,  'affirm  existence  of  a  thing 

modes  from  one  point  of  view  {Syad  asti),  deny  it  from  another  {Sydn?iasti) ; 
of  asser-  and  affirm  both  existence  and  non-existence  with  reference  to  it  at 
different  times  {Sydd  asti  iidsti).  If  you  should  think  of  affirming 
both  existence  and  non-existence  at  the  same  time  from  the  same  point 
of  view,  you  must  say  that  the  thing  cannot  be  so  spoken  of  {Sydd 
avaktavyaJi).  Similarly  under  certain  circumstances,  the  affirmation 
of  existence  is  not  possible  {Sydd  asti  avaktavyah) ;  of  non-existence 
{^Sydn  ndsti avaktavyah) ;  and  also  of  both  {Sydd asti  ndsti avaktavyah). 
What  is  meant  by  these  seven  modes  is  that  a  thing  should  not  be 
considered  as  existing  everywhere,  at  all  times,  in  all  ways,  and  in  the 
form  of  everything.  It  may  exist  in  one  place  and  not  in  another,  and 
at  one  time  and  not  at  another.' 

The  example  pandits  gave  the  writer  to  illustrate  this 
important  doctrine  was  that  one  and  the  same  man  is 
spoken  of  as  father,  uncle,  father-in-law,  son,  son-in-law, 
brother  and  grandfather. 

As  an  illustration  of  its  use  they  say  : 

'  Let  us  suppose  that  an  agnostic  denies  the  existence  of  soul  in  all 
ways.  To  him  the  Jaina  Syadvada  would  answer  that  as  soul  is  a 
substance,  it  exists.  Soul  exists  in  itself  and  its  modifications,  but  it 
does  not  exist  in  other  substances  such  as  matter  [pudgala],  &c., 
and  also  other  substances  do  not  exist  in  soul.  So,  from  this  point  of 
view,  soul  does  not  exist.  But  soul  sometimes  exists  and  also  does  not 
exist  at  different  times.  But  the  soul  cannot  be  spoken  of,  if  .we  think 
of  affirming  its  existence  and  non-existence,  at  the  same  time  and  from 
the  same  point  of  view.  Similarly,  under  certain  conditions,  viz.  when 
the  state  of  existence  (i.e.  astitva)  itself  cannot  be  spoken  of,  i.e.  exists 
and  exists  and  does  not  exist  cannot  be  spoken  of  at  the  same  time,  we 
are  unable  to  affirm  that  existence  is  possible,  that  non-existence  is 
possible,  and  that  both  existence  and  non-existence  are  possible.  Thus 
Syadvada  teaches  the  fundamental  theory  that  everything  in  the 
universe  is  related  to  every  other  thing.  .  .  .  The  Jaina  school  of 
philosophy  coincides,  in  one  respect,  with  Hegel's  idea  that  being 
and  non-being  are  identical.'  "^ 

*  Bhandarkar,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  95  ff. 

"^  U.  D.  Barodia,  History  and  Literature  of  Jainisni  j^omhdiy,  1909? 
p.  119. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  JAINA  PHILOSOPHY    93 

But  though  the  Jaina  are  very  proud  of  this  part  of  their 
philosophy,  they  hold  it  as  a  thing  apart,  and  it  does  not 
seem  to  permeate  their  daily  thought  and  life.  To  them 
the  crucial  point  is,  how  may  a  jiva  free  itself  from  its 
transitory  imprisonment,  and,  following  the  upward  path, 
attain  deliverance  at  last  ?  The  answer  to  this  question 
they  find  in  the  Nine  Categories. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF  FUNDAMENTAL 

TRUTHS 

First  Category:  Jlva. 

The  Jaina  consider  that  the  foundation  of  true  philo- 
sophy consists  of  nine  categories.-^  *  He  who  truly  believes 
the  true  teaching  of  the  fundamental  truths  possesses 
righteousness,'  says  the  Uttaradhyayana.^ 

All  three  sects  of  Jaina,  however  much  they  may 
differ  with  regard  to  the  eyes  and  adornments  of  their 
idols,  or  as  to  whether  they  should  have  idols  at  all,  agree 
as  to  these  principles,  though  the  Digambara  number  them 
differently,  and  by  including  two  of  them  under  other 
heads  make  the  categories  seven  instead  of  nine. 

The  first  of  these  nine  categories  (Nava  Tativa)  is  always 
given  as  jlva^  a  word  which  is  varyingly  used  to  connote 
life,  vitahty,  soul,  or  consciousness.  When  jiva  is  used 
as  equivalent  to  *  soul '  it  differs  from  the  Brahmanic  idea 
of  '  soul ',  for  the  Jaina  believe  that  whilst  the  knowledge 
possessed  by  the  jiva  (or  atma)  may  be  boundless,  the  jiva 
itself  is  limited  ;  whilst  followers  of  the  Saiikhya,  Nyaya 
and  Vaisesika  schools  believe  the  soul  to  be  co-extensive 
with  the  universe.  Both  Brahmans  and  Jaina  believe, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  Buddhists,  that  the  soul  is 
absolute  and  permanent,  and  according  to  the  Jaina  it 
is  the  jiva  which  suffers  or  enjoys  the  fruits  of  its  deeds, 
and  then,  in  consequence  of  the  karma  it  has  acquired, 
goes  through  the  succession  of  rebirths,  and  finally,  obtain- 
ing freedom  through  the  destruction  of  its  karma,  soars 
upwards  to  moksa. 

^  An  analysis  of  the  Nine  Categories  is  given  in  the  Appendix. 
^  S.B.E.,  xlv,  p.  154. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  95 

A  famous  sloka  of  the  great  Hemacarya  thus  describes 
the  characteristics  of  the  jiva  : 

It  performs  different  kinds  of  actions,  it  reaps  the  fruit 
of  those  actions,  it  circles  round  returning  again  ;  these 
and  none  other  are  the  characteristics  of  the  soul. 

Jiva  has  further  been  described  as  a  conscious  substance, 
capable  of  development,  imperceptible  to  the  senses,  an 
active  agent,  and  as  big  as  the  body  it  animates.^ 

In  a  most  interesting  note  Dr.  Jacobi  suggests  that  the 
Jaina  have  arrived  *  at  their  concept  of  soul,  not  through 
the  search  after  the  Self,  the  self-existing  unchangeable 
principle  in  the  ever-changing  world  of  phenomena,  but 
through  the  perception  of  life.  For  the  most  general 
Jaina  term  for  soul  is  life  {jwa),  which  is  identical  with 
self  {dyd,  dtman) ' ;  ^  and  the  way  in  which  the  category 
jiva  is  divided  and  subdivided,  building  up  from  the  lesser 
to  the  more  developed  life,  certainly  bears  out  Dr.  Jacobi's 
contention ;  for  the  Jaina  lay  stress  on  Life  not  Self. 

Sometimes  jiva  itself  is  considered  as  a  division  of 
Dravya  (or  substance),  its  chief  characteristic  being  cai* 
tanya  (consciousness). 

This  conscious  sentient  principle,  jiva  or  atma,  so  long  The 
as  it  feels  desire,  hatred  and  other  attachments,  and  isP^^^^^^^ 

*  .  '        ,  Prana 

fettered  by  karma,  undergoes  continual  reincarnations,  possessed 
In  each  new  birth  it  makes  its  home  in  a  new  form,  and  ^y  J^^^- 
there  assumes  those  bodily  powers  or  prdna  ^  which  its 
various  actions  in  previous  births  have  entitled  it  to  possess, 
for  the  possession  or  non-possession  of  any  faculty  depends 
on  karma.  The  most  perfectly  developed  jiva  has  ten 
prana  and  the  lowest  type  must  possess  at  least  four. 
Of  these  ten  prana,  five  are  called  Indriya  prana,  since 
they  relate  to  the   senses.     They  are  the  sense  of  touch 

^  Bhandarkar,  Search  for  Sanskrit  MSS.  in  1883-4.,  p.  106. 

^  S.  B.  E.y  xxii,  p.  3. 

^  Much  confusion  has  arisen  through  not  distinguishing  the  Jaina 
use  of  the  word,  prana  from  the  Vedantist,  with  whom  it  means  breath, 
and  who  say  that  there  are  five  vital  prana  or  breaths. 


96 


THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 


The 

divisions 
of  Jiva 
into  : — 
i.  Two 
classes. 


ii.  Three 

classes. 


iii.  Four 
classes. 


[Sparsendriya)  ;  the  sense  of  taste  [Rasendriya)  ;  the  sense 
of  smell  {Ghrdnendriyd) ;  the  sense  of  sight  (Caksurmdriya) ; 
the  sense  of  hearing  [SravaHendriya). 

There  are  also  three  other  powers  known  as  Baja  praria  : 
bodily  power  {Kay  ah  a! a),  speech  [Vacanahala)  and  mind 
[Manahala).  The  ninth  Prana,  Anapana  prana  (or  Svaso- 
cchvasa)  gives  the  powers  of  respiration ;  and  the  tenth 
prana,  Ayu  prana,  is  the  possession  of  the  allotted  span 
of  life  during  which  the  j!va  has  to  sustain  a  particular 
bodily  form. 

In  order  to  understand  Jiva  more  fully,  the  Jaina  divide 
it  according  to  the  class  of  beings  in  which  its  past  karma 
may  force  it  for  a  time  to  take  up  its  abode.  The  first 
division  which  they  make  is  into  Siddha  and  Samsari. 
A  man's  karma  may  force  him  to  dwell  in  some  being  still 
strugghng  with  all  the  troubles  of  this  present  world, 
sulHed  by  contact  with  Ajiva  (insentient  matter),  and 
having  further  rebirths  to  undergo  before  he  can  reach 
moksa ;  or  he  may  have  attained  deliverance  and  become 
a  Siddha.  The  Samsari  live  in  the  world,  but  the  Siddha, 
or  perfected  ones,  who  are  freed  from  karma,  live  in  a 
place  called  Isatpragbhara,  which  consists  of  pure  white 
gold  and  has  the  form  of  an  open  umbrella.^  The  beings 
who  dwell  there  have  no  visible  form,  but  consist  of  Life 
throughout  and  possess  paramount  happiness  which  admits 
of  no  comparison. 

We  have  divided  Life  into  two  classes :  Siddha  and 
Sarhsari,  perfected  and  unperfected  ;  we  may  now,  the 
Jaina  say,  divide  Sarhsari  life  into  three  divisions :  male, 
female  and  neuter.^ 

Or  again,  we  may  regard  it  in  four  ways,  according  to 
the  place  where  it  was  born.    Jiva  born  in  hell  are  called 


^  Cp.  S.  B.  E.,  xlv,  p.  212. 

^  With  the  Jaina,  however,  these  words  do  not  seem  to  bear  quite 
the  usual  English  connotation.  Living  things  are  sometimes  con- 
sidered neuter,  and  non-living  things  male  or  female. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  97 

Ndrakl ;  those  born  in  a  state  lower  than  human  and  inhabit- 
ing the  bodies  of  insects,  birds,  reptiles,  animals,  or  plants 
are  named  Tiryanc ;  Manusya  are  jiva  born  as  human  beings ; 
and  those  who  are  born  as  spirits,  whether  gods  or  demons,^ 
are  called  Devatd.  These  four  possible  places  of  birth  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  Svastika  sign,  which  is  con- 
stantly seen  in  Jaina  books  and  temples. 


Devata 


Manusya 


Tiryanc 


Narakl 


Jiva  may  be  classified  in  five  ways,   according  to  the  iv.  Five 
number  of  senses  it  possesses,  as  Ekendriya,  Be-indriya,^  ^^^^^^^* 
Tri-indriya,  Corendriya,  and  Paficendriya.^ 

Ekendriya  jiva  possess  only  one  sense,  the  sense  of  touch,  iv  [a). 
but  have  four  prana  :  touch,  body,  the  power  of  exhaling  y^|^^"' 
and  inhaling;  and  the  allotted  term  of  life. 

They  are  subdivided  into  Prithvikaya,  Apakaya,  Teukaya, 
Vayukaya,  and  Vanaspatikaya.  Things  belonging  to  the 
earth,  such  as  stones,*  lumps  of  clay,  salts,  chalk,  diamonds 
and  other  minerals,  are  called  Prithvikdya  ekendriya. 
Though  ordinary  persons  are  unable  to  perceive  in  these 
the  power  of  suffering,  yet  a  Kevalf  can  do  so,  for  he  sees 
that  they  have  four  prana,  including  the  power  of  breathing 
and  of  touch.     The  longest  span  for  which  a  jiva  can  be 

*  A  Vedantist  would  not  use  the  word  devata  to  express  an  evil 
spirit,  and  this  has  sometimes  led  to  confusion. 

2  Saftskrit  Dvindriya,  Trindriya,  Caturindriya,  Pancindriya. 

^  It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  divisions  with  those  of  Gosala, 
which  they  much  resemble. 

^  Dr.  Jacobi  shows  how  this  and  the  other  animistic  beliefs  of 
Jainism  point  to  its  antiquity.     S.  B.  £",,  xlv,  p.  xxxiii. 

H 


98  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

compelled  to  inhabit  such  a  lodging  is  twenty-two  thou- 
sand years,  and  the  shortest  time  less  than  forty-eight 
moments,^  but  as  the  jiva's  karma  is  gradually  exhausted, 
it  will  be  reborn  into  happier  conditions.^  These  earth 
lives  are  also  divided  into  those  which  we  can  see  and 
those  which  are  invisible  to  the  human  eye.  By  ill-treating 
any  earth  life  we  deprive  ourselves  of  our  chance  of  happi- 
ness and  perfect  wisdom. 

The  Jaina  believe  that  water  ^  itself  (not,  as  is  so  often 
supposed,  the  animalculae  living  in  it)  is  inhabited  by 
Ekendriya  jiva  called  Apakdya  ekendriya.  Apakaya  in- 
clude rain,  dew,  fog,  melted  snow,  melted  hail,  &c.  The 
shortest  span  a  jIva  can  pass  in  water  is  a  moment,^  though 
more  usually  it  will  have  to  wait  there  for  rebirth  for  at  least 
forty-eight  moments  ;  but  the  longest  time  its  karma  can 
condemn  it  to  this  imprisonment  is  seven  thousand  years. 
It  is  this  belief  in  the  power  of  inflicting  pain  on  water 
that  makes  Jaina  monks  so  particular  about  only  taking  it 
when  it  has  been  boiled  and  strained  and  prevents  some 
of  them  using  it  at  all  for  toilet  purposes  ! 

A  man's  karma  again  may  force  him  to  become  a  Teukdya 
ekendriya,  or  fire  life,  and  he  may  have  to  pass  into  an 
ordinary  fire,  the  light  of  a  lamp,  a  magnet,  electricity, 
a  meteor,  flintstone  sparks,  a  forest  conflagration,  or  a 
submarine  fire,^  but  one  can  only  be  condemned  to  be 
afire  life  for  a  period  varying  from  one  instant^  to  three 

*  Antarmuhurtta. 

^  Jaina  differ  from  some  other  schools  of  thought  in  believing  that  it 
is  possible  for  the  jiva  inhabiting  a  man  to  be  so  weighed  down  by  evil 
karma  that  it  may  in  its  very  next  rebirth  have  to  pass  into  an 
Ekendriya  Prithvlkaya,  or  earth  life.  They  also  differ,  of  course,  from 
the  Vcdantists,  who  believe  in  one  all-soul,  not  in  numberless  individual 
souls  like  these. 

^  Compare '  the  heroes  (of  faith),  humbly  bent,  (should  retain  their  belief 
in)  the  illustrious  road  (to  final  liberation)  and  in  the  world  (of  water 
bodies)'.     Acdr-diiga  Sutra,  S.  B.  E.,  xxii,  p.  5. 

*  Some  Jaina  think  it  is  forty-eight  moments. 

^  Jaina,  like  many  Hindus,  believe  that  waves  are  caused  by  sub- 
marine fire  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean. 
®  Samaya. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  99 

days  (i.e.  seventy-two  hours).  A  difference  of  opinion 
exists  amongst  Jaina  as  to  whether  one  can  be  condemned 
to  become  Hghtning  or  not,  for  it  does  not  seem  to  be  known 
for  certain  whether  or  no  Teukaya  exists  in  Hghtning.^ 

Again,  all  sorts  of  wind,  such  as  cyclones,  whirlwinds, 
monsoons,  west  winds  and  trade-winds,  are  thought  of  as 
inhabited  by  what  are  called  Vdyukdya  ekendriya  jiva.  It 
is  difficult  for  us  to  understand  that  wind  has  a  body  and 
can  be  made  to  suffer  pain,  but  all  this  is  plain  to  a  Kevali. 
The  period  a  jiva  may  spend  as  wind  varies  according  to 
his  karma  from  one  instant  to  three  thousand  years. 

All  vegetable  life,  or  Vanaspatikdya,  also  possesses  but 
one  indriya.  These  jiva  are  divided  into  two  classes  : 
Pratyeka,  or  life  such  as  that  of  a  tree  (e.  g.  an  orange  or 
mango  tree),  whose  various  branches,  fruits  and  leaves 
possess  life  derived  from  it,  and  Sddhdrana,  the  life  pos- 
sessed by  potatoes,^  onions,  carrots,  figs,  &c.  Strict  Jaina 
will  not  eat  any  of  the  latter  class,  for  example,  potatoes, 
beet,  onions,  &c.,  because  more  than  one  jiva  has  taken 
up  its  lodging  there ;  but  they  will  take  oranges  and  man- 
goes, once  they  are  ripe,  for  then  they  are  inhabited  by 
only  one  life.  Life  as  a  vegetable  ^  may  last  from  one 
instant  to  ten  thousand  years. 

Ascending  the  scale,  we  come  to  jiva  possessing  two  iv(/5).  Be- 
senses  (or  Be-indriya),  that  of  taste  as  well  as  that  of  touch,  ^"^^'y^- 
and  having  six  prana  :  taste,  touch,  body,  the  power  of 
exhaling  and  inhaling,  an  allotted  term  of  life,  and  speech. 
Such  are  animalculae,  worms,  things  living  in  shells,  leeches, 
earth-worms.  No  one  can  be  condemned  to  be  a  Be-indriya 
for  longer  than  twelve  years. 

^  In  the  Uttaradhyayana  it  is  expressly  stated  that  fire  lives  do  exist 
in  lightning.     S.B.  E,,  xlv,  p.  217. 

^  In  one  potato  there  are  countless  bodies,  and  in  each  body  count- 
less lives  exist. 

^  Dr.  Jacobi  points  out  that  plants  and  animals,  being  admitted 
by  all  to  be  living  beings,  were_considered  a  better  support  of  the 
hylozoistic  theory  than  wind.      Acdrdhga  Stltra,  S.B.E.,  xxii,  p.  9. 

H  2 


100  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

A  strict  Jaina  abstains  from  killing  anything  even  in 
the  Ekendriya  class,  but  the  actual  vow  of  Ahirhsa  or 
Non-killing  for  laymen  starts  from  the  Be-indriya  class. 
Monks  vow  not  to  kill  anything  in  the  Ekendriya  class, 
and  hence  refuse  to  touch  water,  clay,  a  clod  of  earth, 
fire,  &c.  They  cannot  of  course  help  breathing  air,  but 
to  hurt  it  as  little  as  possible  they  cover  their  mouths 
with  a  cloth.  Monks  never  snap  their  fingers,  or  swing  or 
fan  themselves,  lest  they  should  injure  air.  No  point  in 
Jainism  has  been  more  misunderstood  than  this,  even 
scholars^  supposing  the  mouth-cloth  to  be  worn  to  pre- 
vent the  taking  of  animal  life,  whereas  it  is  to  prevent  the 
taking  of  air  life. 
iv  (c).  In  the  next  highest  class,  Tri-indriya,  are  placed  all  those 

dHva^'  beings  that  in  addition  to  the  sense  of  touch  and  taste  have 
also  the  sense  of  smell,  and  so  possess  three  indriya  and  seven 
prana.  In  this  class  are  red  ants,  white  ants,  black  ants,  bugs 
and  moths.  A  Jaina  told  me  that  in  order  to  please  the 
insects  of  this  class  a  devout  householder  when  he  finds 
vermin  will  often  place  them  on  one  particular  bedstead 
and  then  pay  some  poor  person  from  four  to  six  annas  to 
spend  the  night  on  that  bedstead !  Others,  however,  deny  this. 
Of  course  no  true  Jaina  will  kill  vermin,  but  will  carefully 
remove  it  from  his  body  or  house  to  some  shady  place 
outside  where  it  can  dwell  in  safety.  They  say  that,  far 
from  killing  vermin,  they  are  bound  to  protect  it,  as  it  has 
been  created  through  their  lack  of  cleanliness.  No  one's 
karma  can  force  him  to  pass  into  this  class  of  being  for 
more  than  forty-nine  days,  or  for  less  than  an  instant  of 
time, 
iy  {(i).  Beings   still    higher   in   the   scale   are   the    Corendriya, 

driya.       those  possessed  of  the  four  senses  of  touch,  taste,  smell 
and    sight  ;    these   of   course   have  eight   prana.     Wasps, 

*  Mr.  W.  Crooke,  for  instance,  says  [Imperial  Gazetfee?',  vol.  i,  p.  416), 
*  They  wear  a  screen  of  cloth  before  their  mouths,  lest  they  should 
unwittingly  inhale  and  destroy  animal  life.' 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  loi 

scorpions,  mosquitoes,  gnats,  flies,  locusts  and  butterflies 
should  be  included  under  this  heading,  and  also,  according 
to  some  Jaina,  moths,  which  are,  however,  often  classed  as 
Tri-indriya.  Beings  cannot  be  kept  in  this  division  for 
longer  than  six  months  without  rebirth. 

The  extra  sense  added  to  the  jiva  in  the  next  class  is  iv  (e). 
that  of  hearing  ;  and  these  Paficendriy'a  should  therefore,  •^^.^^^"" 
to  correspond,  be  possessed  of  nine  prana.  Some,  how- 
ever, have  an  extra  prana  added,  that  of  mind,  and  these 
are  called  Samjfii  paficendriya,  whilst  the  rest  who  have 
only  nine  are  called  Asarhjfii.  There  are  four  divisions  of 
the  Paficendriya :  hell  beings,  lower  animals,  human  beings 
and  demigods.  Of  these  the  hell  beings,  human  beings 
and  demigods  are  possessed  of  intelligence,  and  so  are  cer- 
tain creatures  such  as  cows,  buffaloes  and  other  domestic 
animals ;  whilst  frogs,  fish  and  disease  germs  have  no  intel- 
ligence, for  these  are  all  self-created  ! 

Germs  which  are  thus  classified  in  a  way  that  seems 
strange  to  us  as  Paficendriya  are  of  great  importance  in 
Jaina  philosophy.  When  engaging  in  Pratikramana  (or 
Padikamanurh),  i.  e.  Confession,  Jaina  think  of  the  sins 
they  may  have  committed  against  any  being  possessing  any 
indriya  and  ask  forgiveness.  At  this  time  they  also  think 
of  any  germs  which  they  may  have  created  by  sinning 
against  the  laws  of  sanitation  in  fourteen  specified  ways. 
If  through  a  man's  carelessness  or  insanitary  habits  germs 
should  have  multiplied  and  infection  spread,  Mahavira 
declared  him  to  be  guilty  of  a  sin  as  grave  as  that  of 
murder. 

The  minimum  of  time  which  a  being  may  be  sentenced 
to  spend  as  a  hell  being  or  a  demigod  is  ten  thousand 
years,  and  it  may  extend  to  thirty-three  sagaropama.  In 
the  case  of  human  beings  (including  germs,  which  are 
ranked  as  humans  !)  and  lower  animals,  the  period  may 
extend  from  one  instant  to  three  palya  of  time. 

We  have  already  followed  the  Jaina  as  they  divided 


102  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

V.  Six        Jiva,  in  two,  in  three,  in  four,  and  lastly  in  five  ways.    We 

classes,  j^^^^  come  to  the  six  ways  in  which  Jiva  may  be  divided, 
namely,  into  Prithvikaya,  Apakaya,  Teukaya,  Vayukaya, 
Vanaspatikaya,  and  Trasakaya.  Of  these  we  have  studied 
earth,  water,  fire,  wind  and  vegetable  lives,  so  it  only 
remains  for  us  to  look  at  Trasakaya.  The  Jaina  say  that 
in  the  class  of  Trasakaya  are  included  all  lives  that  have 
the  power  of  motion  and  which,  when  swayed  by  trdsa 
(dread),  can  try  and  get  out  of  danger.  All  lives  possess- 
ing two  or  more  indriya  are  included  under  this  heading 
as  Trasakaya  or  mobile,  whilst  earth,  water,  fire,  air  and 
vegetable  are  considered  immobile. 

vi.  Seven  Again,  Jiva  may  be  classified  in  seven  ways  :  hell  beings 
(which  are  all  neuter  !),  male  lower  animals,  female  lower 
animals,  male  human  beings,  female  human  beings,  male 
demigods  and  female  demigods. 

vii.  Eight  This  last  is  perhaps  a  somewhat  artificial  classification 
introduced  for  the  sake  of  symmetry,  but  when  we  come 
to  the  next  series,  where  Jiva  is  divided  into  eight  classes, 
we  touch  on  one  of  the  most  important  points  in  Jaina 
philosophy,  and  one  which  it  shares  with  the  followers 
of  Gosala.  The  Jaina  say  Jiva  may  be  divided  into  eight 
classes  according  to  the  six  Lesya  ^  by  which  it  is  swayed, 
and  according  to  whether  it  is  sw^aycd  by  any  emotion 
or  not.^  These  emotions  affect  the  colour  of  the  soul  they 
govern  just  as  a  crystal  is  coloured  by  the  hue  of  the  sub- 
stance on  which  it  rests. 

vii  (a).  Beings    in    the   first    class,   or  Salesi,    include    all    who 

are  yet  swayed  by  any  of  the  three  good  or  three  bad 
emotions. 

vii  {d).  Krisnalesyd  is  the  worst  of  the  three  bad  emotions,  and 

it  is  described  as  being  black  as  a  thunder-cloud,  bitter 
as  a  Neem  tree,  smelling  like  a  dead  cow,  and  rougher 

'   Or  Lesa. 

^  Jaina  divisions    are  not,  unfortunately  for  the  student,  mutually 
exclusive,  and  even  include  the  whole  along  with  its  parts. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  103 

than  a  saw  to  the  touch.  Jiva,  under  the  direction  of 
this  so  graphically  described  bad  temper,  accumulate 
karma  by  all  sorts  of  cruel  and  violent  acts  without  stopping 
to  think  of  the  consequences.  All  the  emotions  last  for 
differing  periods  according  to  whether  they  influence  a  god, 
a  hell  being,  or  a  man. 

In  the  third  division  are  all  those  ruled  by  Nilalesyd.  vii  {c). 
This  emotion  is  less  evil  than  the  last,  though  it  is  still 
evil  enough  ;  its  colour  is  blue  as  indigo,  its  taste  more 
pungent  than  pepper,  it  still  has  the  odour  of  a  dead  cow 
about  it,  and  its  roughness  is  as  bad  as  ever.  A  man  under 
its  influence  is  envious  of  the  good  qualities  of  others ; 
he  will  not  only  not  perform  austerities  or  acquire  know- 
ledge himself,  but  tries  to  hinder  others  from  doing  so  ;  and 
he  is  lazy,  gluttonous,  and  wanting  in  modesty.  Such 
a  man  thinks  only  of  his  own  happiness,  and  pursuing 
only  his  own  pleasure  is  continually  beset  by  evil  thoughts 
and  purposes. 

The  last  wicked  emotion  that  may  lead  men  to  do  evil  vii  {d). 
is  called  Kdpotalesyd.  It  is  grey  in  colour  like  a  dove, 
as  bitter  of  flavour  as  an  unripe  mango,  and  of  as  evil  an 
odour  and  as  rough  to  touch  as  its  predecessors.  A  man 
under  its  command  becomes  crooked  in  thought  and  deed, 
he  develops  into  a  thief  and  a  liar,  loves  intrigue,  and 
delights  to  expose  the  bad  qualities  of  others  whilst  con- 
cealing his  own  faults.  It  is  torment  to  such  a  person 
to  see  others  prosperous  or  wealthy. 

There  are  three  good  emotions  whose  scent  is  like  to  vii  {e), 
fragrant  flowers  and  whose  touch^is  as  soft  as  butter,  and 
these  govern  three  more  classes  of  beings.  The  first  good 
emotion,  Tejolesyd,  is  red  like  the  rising  sun  and  sweeter 
to  the  taste  than  ripe  mangoes.  It  removes  all  evil 
thoughts  from  the  jiva  under  its  sway  as  dawn  destroys 
the  darkness  of  night,  and  all  under  its  influence  are  bright 
and  happy.  Men  governed  by  it  are  firm  in  their  rehgion, 
afraid  of  sinning,   anxious  to  keep  the  law,   desirous  of 


104  THE  NINE   CATEGORIES  OF 

getting  knowledge,  humble  and  free  from  curiosity,  straight- 
forward and  righteous. 

vii  (/).  The  second  good  emotion  takes  its  name,  Padmalesyd, 
from  the  lotus-flower,  for  jiva  beneath  its  dominion  open 
their  hearts  to  all  good  things  as  lotus  hhes  expand  to  the 
sun.  Its  colour  is  yellow,^  and  its  taste  is  better  than 
honey.  Through  its  power  a  man  controls  anger,  pride, 
deceit  and  avarice,  and  gains  as  a  reward  a  quiet  mind, 
whose  thoughts  are  always  calm  and  collected. 

vii  (^).  The  last  emotion,  the  Siiklalesyd,  is  the  highest  of  all ; 

it  is  as  white  as  pearls,  and  its  taste  sweeter  than  sugar. 
Love  and  hatred  disappear  when  a  man  is  under  its 
influence,  and  he  feels  in  harmony  with  all  nature. 
Knowledge  is  now  complete,  austerity  finished  and  char- 
acter perfected,  for,  governed  by  it,  the  mind  itself  becomes 
a  sun  and  has  no  stain  of  evil  and,  unbarred  by  karma, 
the  way  lies  open  to  moksa. 

vii  (//).  The  eighth  class  of  jiva  are  called  Alesl,  for  they  have  done 

with  all  feeling  and  completely  stultified  everything  in 
their  personality  which  might  respond  to  emotion.  Only 
the  Siddha  are  to  be  found  in  this  class. 

viii.  Nine  The  Jaina  divide  Jiva  again  in  nine  ways  :  Pfithvikaya, 
Apakaya,  Teukaya,  Vayukaya,  Vanaspatikaya,  Be-indriya, 
Tri-indriya,  Corendriya,  and  Paficendriya,  but  all  these 
have  already  been  discussed,  and  this  division  is  only 
made  for  the  sake  of  symmetry. 

ix.  Ten  When  Jiva  is  classified  in  ten  ways,  the  five  old  divi- 
sions we  already  know  of  (Ekendriya,  &c.)  are  used,  but 
each  of  these  is  subdivided  into  two  classes,  Parydptd 
and  Aparydptd,  according  as  they  have  or  have  not  all 
the  Paryapti.  There  are  six  of  these  paryapti  :  dhdra, 
the  seed  of  life ;  sarlra,  the  body ;  indriya,  the  senses ; 
svdsocchvdsa,  breathing;  bhdsd,  speech;  and  mana,^  intel- 
lect ;  and  in  this  order  the  Jaina  believe  the  jiva  develops 
them  as  it  passes  by  transmigration  from  life  to  life.  The 
'  SthilnakavasI  say  pink.  ^  Scmskrit  manas. 


classes. 


classes. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  105 

resemblance  between  paryapti  and  prana  will  be  noticed. 
A  Jaina  sadhu  told  the  writer  that  the  peculiarity  of 
paryapti  consisted  in  the  fact  that  when  a  jiva  migrated 
from  one  life  to  another,  it  could  obtain  these  paryapti  in 
the  space  of  forty-eight  minutes.  Others,  however,  say 
that  paryapti  and  praiia  are  practically  identical.  Some 
jiva  have  all  six  paryapti,  some  five,  and  some  four  ; 
but  none  can  have  less  than  four ;  if  a  jiva  dies  before 
it  attains  the  number  decreed  for  it,  it  is  classed  as 
Aparyapta. 

When  Jiva, is  classified  in  eleven  ways,  to  the  first  four  x.  Eleven 
orders  of  mdriya  are  added  the  three  subdivisions  of  paficen- 
driya  [ndrakl,  tiryanc  and  manusya)  which  we  have  already 
discussed,  and  then  to  these  are  added  the  four  subdivi- 
sions of  demi-gods,  or  Deva.^  Jaina  subdivide  their  gods 
into  Bhavanapati,  the  lords  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  earth, 
who  are  often  serpents  of  various  kinds  ;  Vyantara,  evil 
spirits  such  as  ghosts,  witches,  goblins,  &c. ;  Jyotisi,  who 
live  in  '  planets  ',  under  which  are  included  sun,  moon, 
and  stars  ;  and  Vaimanika,  or  residents  of  celestial  worlds, 
which  are  sometimes  larger  and  sometimes  smaller  than 
our  world. 

The  twelve  ways  in  which  Jiva  can  be  looked  at  are  xi. 
made  up  of  Prithvikaya,  Apakaya,  Teukaya,  Vayukaya,  ^las^ses. 
and  Vanaspatikaya  (i.e.  the  five  divisions  of  Ekendriya), 
Trasakaya  (the  collective  name  for  the  last  four  indriya), 
and  the  subdivision  of  each  of  these  six  classes  into  Par- 
yapta  and  Aparyapta. 

The  thirteen  ways  are  similarly^  artificially  formed  by  xii. 
dividing  the  six  Lesya  into  Paryapta  and  Aparyapta  and    ,  ^^^^^^ 
adding  Alesi. 

In  the  fourteen-fold  division  the  five  orders  of  Indriya  xiii. 
are  divided  into  Paryapta  and  Aparyapta,  but  Ekendriya  ^°^^*^^^" 
are  divided  into  two  new  classes :    Suksma  ekendriya  and 

^  It  will  be  remembered  that  demi-gods  were  the  fourth  subdivision 
of  Pancendriya. 


io6  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

Bddara  ekendriya.  In  the  first  of  these  are  lives  so  minute 
that  they  can  never  be  seen,  killed,  or  destroyed,  whilst 
those  of  the  Badara  ekendriya  can  be  killed  or  destroyed, 
and  can  sometimes  be  perceived.  To  make  up  the  number 
to  fourteen  the  two  divisions  of  the  fifth  class,  Samjni  and 
Asarhjni,  are  included. 

The  Second  Category :  Ajiva. 

The  second  great  Tattva  of  the  Jaina  deals  with  Ajiva 
(things  inanimate),  and  is  in  all  respects  the  opposite  of 
Jiva.  Until  jiva  is  freed  from  one  particular  division 
(pudgala)  of  ajiva,  it  is  impossible  for  it  to  progress  towards 
deliverance.  The  union  of  jiva  with  ajiva  is  never  so 
absolutely  complete  as  to  make  their  separation  impossible. 
Ajiva  is  divided  into  two  main  classes :  Arupi  (without 
form)  and  Rupi  (with  form).  Arupl  ajiva  has  four  great 
subdivisions  :  Dharmastikaya,^  Adharmastikaya,  Akasasti- 
kaya  and  Kala.^ 
Dharma-  Dharmdstikdya  helps  the  jiva  associated  with  pudgaja^ 
sti -aya.  ^^  progress  just  as  (to  use  their  own  illustration)  water 
helps  on  the  movements  of  a  fish.  It  is  divided  into  three 
classes  :  Skandha,  Desa,  and  Pradesa.  The  whole  power 
of  motion  is  called  skandha  ;  a  large  fraction  of  it  is  called 
desa  as  long  as  it  is  linked  with  skandha  ;  while  pradesa 
is  a  small  fraction  of  desa.  The  Jaina  declare  that  they 
had  so  thoroughly  studied  the  laws  of  motion  that  they 
were  cognizant  of  the  law  of  gravity  long  before  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  discovered  it. 

^  The  ordinary  meaning  of  Dharma  and  Adharma  is  of  course  merit 
and  demerit,  or  right  conduct  and  unrighteousness,  as  Dr.  Jacobi  *  and 
Dr.  Bhandarkar^  translate  them  ;  but  all  the  Jaina  that  I  have  met  in 
India  assure  me  that  these  two  words  are  here  used  in  a  special 
technical  sense  which  we  shall  better  understand  as  we  discuss  these 
divisions. 

^  Introduction,  S.  B.  E.,  xlv,  p.  xxxiv. 

^  Dr.  Bhandarkar,  Search  for  Sanskrit  Manuscripts,  p.  96.  Dr. 
Biihler  falls  into  the  same  trap,  Indian  Sect  of  the  Jaina,  p.  9. 

^  Sans.  Kala. 

^  Pudgala  {Sans,  pudgala)  is  roughly  translated  by  Jaina  as  *  matter '. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  107 

Adharmdstikdya  the  Jaina  explain  by  an  illustration  Adhar- 
of  a  man  walking  along  a  road  on  a  hot  day  ;  he  sees  the  F.^^*^' 
shadow  of  a  tree,  and  the  shadow  first  attracts  him  to  seek 
its  shelter,  and  then  keeps  him  quietly  resting  under  it. 
So  Adharmastikaya  without  any  movement  on  its  part 
first  attracts  and  then  keeps  motionless  the  one  attracted. 
It  has  the  same  divisions  of  skandha,  desa,  and  pradesa 
as  Dharmastikaya. 

The  third  subdivision  of  Arupi  Ajlva  is  Akdsdstikdya,  Akasasti- 
or  that  which  gives  space  and  makes  room.     If,  for  example,    ^^^* 
a  lamp  is  lighted,  it  is  Akasastikaya  which  gives  space  for 
its  beams  to  shine  in  ;    if  a  nail  be  knocked  into  a  wall,  ■ 
it  is  Akasastikaya  which  gives  it  space  to  go  into  the  wall. 
Again,  if  a  lump  of  sugar  is  dropped  into  a  cup  of  water 
and  melts,  the  Jaina  declare  that  the  water  remains  water 
and  the  sugar  sugar,  but  that  a  hidden  power  gives  the 
sugar  room  to  melt,  and  this  power  is  Akasastikaya.     As 
a  house   affords  room  for  its  residents,  so  Akasastikaya 
gives  space  for  Ajiva  to  dwell  in.     Akasastikaya  is  also 
divided  into  skandha,  desa,  and  pradesa,  but  the  skandha 
of  Akasastikaya  includes  space  in  the  heavens  as  well  as 
on  the  earth. 

The  real  nature  of  Kd/a  or  time  (the  fourth  division  of  Kala. 
Arupl  Ajiva)  can  only,  according  to  the  Jaina,  be  under- 
stood by  the  initiated.  To  the  worldling  Kala  bears  the 
connotation  of  '  time  ',^  and  he  divides  and  subdivides  it 
into  seconds,  minutes,  hours,  days,  years,  &c.  But  to  the 
initiated  Kala  is  indivisible,^  and  is  that  which  is  con- 
tinually making  old  things  new  and  new  things  old.^  As 
an  illustration,  the  Jaina  quote  the  fate  of  a  jiva  or  soul 
which  may  be  forced  by  its  karma  to  inhabit  the  body 
of  a  child.  The  child  grows  up  into  a  young  man,  and 
finally  dies  in  old  age,  and  the  jiva  is  forced  to  inhabit 

'  Or  Vyavaharika  Kala.  ^  Addhasamaya. 

^  Dr.  Griswold  draws  attention  in  this  connexion  to  Bergson's  doctrine 
of  Time  in  his  Creative  Evolution. 


io8  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

afresh  the  body  of  another  infant.  The  jiva  remains  the 
same,  but  the  power  that  made  its  covering  body  at  one 
time  old  and  then  young  again  is  Kala.  As  Kala  in  this 
sense  is  indivisible,  it  cannot  have  the  divisions  of  skandha, 
desa,  and  pradesa. 

All  these  four  divisions  of  Arupi  ajiva  are  further 
subdivided  with  regard  to  Dravya  (substance),  Ksetra 
(place),  Kd/a  (time),  Bhdva  (nature),  and  Gmta  (qualities). 
For  instance,  Dharmastikaya  is  considered  of  one  sub- 
stance ;  its  place  is  the  seven  lower  worlds,  including  the 
worlds  of  the  serpents,  this  world,  and  the  worlds  of  the 
demi-gods ;  with  regard  to  time,  it  is  without  beginning 
and  without  end  ;  its  nature  is  without  colour,  without 
smell,  without  taste,  imperceptible  to  touch,  and  without 
form ;  its  quality  is  that  it  helps  motion.  Adharmastikaya 
when  looked  at  in  this  way  agrees  with  Dharmastikaya  in 
every  point,  excepting  that  its  special  quality  is  to  arrest 
motion.  Akasastikaya  differs  in  that  it  has  its  place  in 
both  Loka  and  Aloka,  and  that  its  quality  is  to  afford  space. 
Kala  with  regard  to  place  is  found  in  two-and-a-half  con- 
tinents only  (i.e.  Jambudvipa,  Dhataki  Khanda  and  half 
of  Puskara),  and  its  quality  is  to  make  old  things  new  and 
new  things  old.  In  this  way  they  make  up  twenty  divi- 
sions, and  sometimes  thirty  by  skandha,  desa,  and  pra- 
desa, out  of  the  four  original  divisions  of  Arupi  ajiva, 
without,  however,  adding  enough  new  material  to  make 
it  worth  our  while  to  follow  out  the  labyrinth. 
Pudgalas-  The  Rupi  division  of  Ajiva  contains  only  Piidgaldstikdya, 
t«  'aya.  ^^  matter  which  possesses  colour,  smell,  taste  and  form, 
and  is  perceptible  to  touch.  Pudgala  can  be  consumed 
or  destroyed,  and  it  may  decay  or  alter  its  form.  Where 
there  is  no  pudgala  present,  none  of  the  five  primary 
colours,  black,  green  (or  blue),  red,  white,  or  yellow,  can 
be  present,  and  so,  for  instance,  a  Siddha  who  is  freed 
from  pudgala  is  freed  from  colour  also.  The  smells  of 
pudgaja,   the  Jaina  say,   are  of  two  kinds,   pleasing  and 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  109 

unpleasing,^  and  a  Siddha  being  free  from  pudgala  is  also 
free  from  odour. 

Pudgala  may  have  any  of  the  five  flavours :  pungent, 
bitter,  astringent,  sour,  or  sweet.  It  may  be  of  five  shapes  : 
circular,  globular,  triangular,  square,  or  oblong,  i.  e. '  stretched 
out  like  a  log  lying  on  the  earth.'  A  Siddha,  of  course, 
is  freed  from  all  shape. 

There  are  eight  kinds  of  *  touch '  that  pudgala  may 
have :  it  may  be  light  or  heavy,  hot  or  cold,  rough  or 
smooth,  wet  or  dry;  but  a  Siddha  can  possess  none  of 
these  qualities. 

Jaina  indulge  their  genius  for  subdivision  by  dividing 
each  colour  by  the  two  smells,  five  flavours  and  eight 
touches,  and  then  again  they  divide  each  smell  by  the 
five  colours,  five  tastes  and  eight  touches,  and  so  on,  till 
they  get  560  divisions  out  of  pudgala. 

Pudgala  is  also  divided  into  four  classes  :  Skandha,  Desa, 
Pradesa,  and  Paramanu  (i.e.  the  smallest  particle).  Skan- 
dha, desa,  and  pradesa  are  linked  together,  but  paramanu 
is  separate  and  indivisible. 

The  pudgala  enter  and  leave  our  bodies  incessantly, 
and  are  infinitely  more  numerous  than  jiva.  As  we  shall 
see  later,  the  Jaina  believe  that  karma  arises  out  of  pudgala. 

The  Jaina  hold  that  it  is  through  Jiva  and  these  five 
divisions  of  Ajlva  (Dharmastikaya,  Adharmastikaya,  Aka- 
sastikaya,  Kala,  and  Pudgalastikaya)  that  the  universe 
exists,  and  that  these  serve  instead  of  a  creator,  whose 
existence  they  do  not  acknowledge. 

^  In  order  that  the  uninitiated  may  realize  this  deep  truth,  the  follow- 
ing legend  is  told.  Once  a  king  crossed  a  stream  wherein  a  dead  dog 
lay,  and  to  avoid  the  smell  held  a  cloth  across  his  nose.  When  he 
asked  his  prime  minister  why  he  did  not  do  likewise,  he  replied  that 
he  knew  his  Jaina  philosophy,  and  realized  that  it  was  of  the  nature  of 
pudgala  to  be  sometimes  sweet  and  sometimes  evil  smelling.  Seeing 
his  master  unconvinced,  he  secretly  drew  water  from  the  very  place 
where  the  corpse  of  the  dog  lay,  and,  having  filtered,  iced  and  spiced 
it,  offered  it  to  the  king,  who  drank  it  with  delight.  Afterwards  learn- 
ing its  source,  he  learnt  also  that  the  same  pudga]a  may  sometimes 
be  of  a  sweet  odour  and  sometimes  of  an  evil  one. 


no  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

The  Third  Category :    Piuiya. 
Nine  Another  of  the  great  Tattva  deals  with  Punya  or  merit.' 

in  s  o  q-j^g  actions  which  lead  to  the  good  karma  which  bring 
peace  of  mind  are  called  punya,  and  there  are  nine  ways  of 
performing  these  actions. 
i.  Anna  If  we  give  food  to  deserving  people  who  are  hungry, 
P"'?y^  weak,  destitute  of  help  and  needy,  we  perform  Anna  punya. 
The  greatest  merit  is  gained  when  the  food  is  given  to 
monks  or  nuns,  but  these  must  be  Jaina  ascetics  (not 
Hindu  for  instance),  and  in  order  to  gain  the  fullest  benefit 
from  charity  the  food  must  be  given  in  such  a  way  as  not  to 
involve  hirhsa.^  It  will  be  remembered  that  Mahavira  in 
a  previous  birth,  when  a  woodcutter,  gained  great  punya  by 
feeding  a  party  of  monks  who  had  lost  their  way.  His 
reward  was  that  in  his  next  incarnation  he  became  a  devata, 
and  after  many  many  rebirths  was  incarnate  as  Maha- 
vira. For  less  illustrious  services  one  may  in  the  next  life 
become  a  merchant,  or  a  ruler,  or  gain  some  other  coveted 
position, 
ii.  Pana  In  common  with  many  other  religions  that  have  arisen  in 
puriya.  sultry  lands,  Jainism  teaches  that  a  special  reward  is  attached 
to  giving  water  to  the  thirsty  {Pdtta  puuya).  There  is  no 
harm  in  giving  unboiled  water  to  a  layman,  but  boiled  water 
must  always  be  given  to  an  ascetic.  The  story  of  Neminatha, 
the  twenty-second  Tirthahkara,  shows  how  great  the  reward 
is.  A  king  named  Sahkara  and  his  wife  Jasomati  once 
showed  kindness  to  some  thirsty  monks  by  giving  them 
water  in  which  grapes  had  been  soaked.  In  their  next 
birth,  as  a  reward,  the  king  was  born  as  Neminatha  and 
his  wife  as  the  daughter  of  a  famous  king  of  Sorath  ;  in 
this  incarnation,  though  betrothed,  they  did  not  marry,  but 
instead  they  both  became  ascetics  on  the  day  fixed  for 
their  wedding,  and  eventually  obtained  moksa. 
iii.  Vastra      A  great  reward  is  also  obtained  by  giving  clothes  to  the 

^  The  Digambara  include  Punya  under  Asrava  (see  p.  139). 
^  i.  e.  destruction  of  life. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  iii 

poor  (Vastrapiuiya)  and  especially  to  monks,  as  the  following 
legend  teaches.  Once  upon  a  time  a  rich  merchant's  wife  saw 
some  monks  shivering  with  cold,  and  made  them  blankets  of 
cloth  of  gold  out  of  some  magnificent  material  she  had  by 
her.  As  a  recompense  she  became  in  her  next  birth  Maru- 
devi,  the  mother  of  the  first  Tirthankara  Risabhadeva,  and 
attained  moksa  in  the  same  incarnation. 

Another  legend  illustrates  the  reward  gained  by  any  one,  iv. 
even  a  heretic,  for  building  or  lending  a  house  to  a  monk  L^y^'?^ 
{Layana  punya),    or    providing    seats,    beds    or    bedding  v.  Sayana 
[Sayana  punya).     A  potter  named  Sakadala,  a  follower  of  P^^'jy^- 
Gosala,  once  saw  Mahavira  enter  his  village  and  approach 
his  dwelling.     At  first  he  thought  of  not  inviting  Gosala's 
great  opponent  into  his  house,  but  seeing  Mahavira's  divine 
qualities,  he  at  length  asked  him  in  and  gave  him  lodgings 
and  a  bed.     (He  could  not  offer  food,  as  a  sadhu  may  not 
eat  at  the  house  where  he  stays.)    In  return  Mahavira  taught 
Sakadala  the  law  and  converted  him  to  the  true  faith,  and 
he  became  a  devoted  Sravaka  in  this  life  and  after  death 
a  god.      Being  reincarnated  as  a  man,  he  became  a  sadhu 
and  so  reached  moksa. 

By  thinking  well  of  every  one  and  wishing  them  well  we  vi.  Mana 
gain  Mana  punya,  and  by  exerting  ourselves  to  render  them  P"'?y^- 
service  or  to  save  life  we  accumulate  Kay  a  or  Sarira  punya,  vii.  Sarira 
as  the  following  history  shows.     In  a  certain  forest  there  P^'^V^- 
was  a  small  clearing,  and  once,  when  a  terrible  fire  raged  in 
the  wood,  all  the  animals  rushed  to  this  spot,  and  it  became 
dangerously  overcrowded.     Even  the  mighty  elephant  had 
taken  refuge  there,  and  as  he  happened  to  raise  his  foot  to 
change  his  position  a  hare  ran  under  it.    The  elephant  saw 
at  once  that  if  he  put  his  foot  down  he  would  crush  the  hare, 
and  in  that  crowded  space  there  was  not  another  place  to 
which  the  hare  could  possibly  move.     So   the  elephant 
continued  to  hold  his  foot  in  the  air  for  hours  and  hours, 
until  at  last,  worn  out,  he  fell  to  the  ground  and  died. 
Immediately  he  was  reincarnated  as  the  son  of  a  mighty 


112 


THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 


VllJ. 

Vacana 
punya. 


ix.  Na- 

maskara 

punya. 


king,  and  in  his  next  birth  became  an  ascetic  and  attained 
moksa. 

Merit  is  also  won  by^  speaking  without  hurting  any  one's 
feelings,  and  so  as  to  influence  others  towards  rehgion  and 
morality  (Vacana  punya) .  Krisna,  for  instance,  the  favourite 
Hindu  deity,  when  King  of  Dvaraka,  once  heard  Neminatha 
preach.  He  felt  that  he  himself  could  not  face  the  hardships 
of  a  monk's  life,  but  he  urged  any  of  his  subjects  who  could 
to  receive  initiation,  and  promised  to  look  after  their  fami- 
lies. Some  of  the  people  thereupon  became  monks,  and  this 
brought  Krisna^  so  much  Vacana  punya  that  he  is  bound 
eventually  to  become  a  Tirthahkara,  though  he  has  a  lot  of 
karma  to  work  off  first. 

One  may  also  obtain  merit  by  reverent  salutations 
(Namaskdra  punya).  The  Jaina  say  that  one  first  bows 
to  religious  men,  then  one  gets  to  know  them,  next  one 
decides  to  follow  their  example  and  by  so  doing  one  attains 
moksa.  The  Digambara  and  Svetambara  can  obtain  merit 
by  bowing  reverently  to  the  images  in  their  temples,  but  the 
Sthanakavas!,  having  only  gurus  to  bow  to,  show  them 
double  reverence  and  so  have  been  accused  of  worshipping^ 
their  gurus,  which  they  indignantly  deny,  pointing  out  that 
they  make  them  no  offerings  of  flowers,  fruit,  &c.  It  would 
be  quite  impossible  to  write  down  even  the  names  of  the 
legends  told  with  the  object  of  illustrating  the  great 
rewards  gained  by  doing  reverence.  In  fact  the  first  step 
to  moksa  is  said  to  be  climbed  by  bowing.  We  have  seen 
that  the  god  Krisna  is  to  be  a  Tirthaiikara,  and  the  Jaina 
say  that  he  will  take  his  first  step  from  Patala  (a  lower 
region),  where  he  now  is,  towards  this  high  future  by  doing 
reverence. 


^  We  shall  find  constant  examples  of  the  influence  Krisna  worship 
has  on  the  Jaina,  Many  of  them  read  and  love  the  Bhagavadgitd 
almost  as  much  as  the  Hindus,  though  it  is  not  one  of  their  scriptures. 

^  They  point  out  the  following  mistake  in  the  Imperial  Gazetteer  of 
y/z^'Z/rt  (Oxford,  1907),  vol.  i,  p. 417  :  'The  Dhondiyas,  who  worship  their 
gurus',  by  which  they  complain  that  their  feelings  have  been  wounded. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  113 

We  have  seen  that  there  are  nine  chief  ways  of  laying  up  The 

merit  :    the  Jaina  believe  that  there  are  forty-two  ways  in  ^^^V' 

which  the  reward  of  this  merit  can  be  reaped.     If  one  is  ways  of 

very  happy  in  having  all  that  one  needs  to  eat,  drink  and  enjoying 

,  .  '  the  fruit 

wear,  one  knows  that  one  is  enjoying  Sdtavedamya.    If  one  of  Punya. 

is  born  in  a  high  family  (Uncagotra)  ;  if  one  has  had  the 
joy  of  being  born  as  a  man  (Manusya  gati\  and  not  as  a 
beast,  god,  or  hell  being ;  and  moreover  if  one  is  sure  to  be 
born  in  one's  next  birth  as  a  man  and  not  a  beast  [Manu- 
sya amcpurvt),  one  is  experiencing  three  happy  results  of 
punya.  The  last  of  these  results  is  often  likened  to  the 
reins  that  pull  an  ox  on  to  the  right  road,  so  strong 
is  the  force  inherent  in  punya.  If  the  merit  acquired 
were  very  powerful,  one  might  be  born  as  a  god  and 
so  enjoy  Devatd  gati,  even  becoming  Krisna  or  Indra. 
To  be  even  a  minor  god  is  a  stage  higher  than  being 
born  as  an  ordinary  man,  and  another  of  the  fruits  is 
Devatd  anupurvl,  which  keeps  one  on  the  path  of  becoming 
a  god. 

If  we  have  all  five  senses  in  this  life,  it  shows  that  we  are 
enjoying  P aficendriyapanum^  and  if  we  have  a  large  and 
imposing  body  instead  of  a  little  one  like  an  ant,  that  is 
owing  to  Auddrikasarira.  Sometimes  punya  has  a  magical 
effect,  owing  to  which  one  may  gain  Vaikreyasarira,  or 
a  body  like  a  god's,  which  can  appear  and  disappear  at  will, 
can  produce  six  or  four  hands,  and  become  mountainous  or 
minute.  Certain  monks  by  virtue  of  their  knowledge  and  of 
their  austerities  gain  the  power  of  sending  out  a  tiny  body 
from  themselves  which  can  go  to  Mahavideha  and  obtain 
answers  to  any  doubts  or  spiritual  difficulties  from  the 
Tirthahkara  there.-^  This  tiny  body  is  called  Ahdrakasarlra, 
and  the  power  of  creating  it  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
valued  fruits  of  punya.  Certain  other  fruits  of  punya 
[Auddrika  ahgopdriga,   Vaikreya  aiigopdnga,  and  Ahdraka 

^  Not  from  the  Siddha,  who  take  no  interest  in  anything  earthly. 

I 


IT4  THE  NINE   CATEGORIES  OF 

aiigopdnga)  carry  with  them  the  assurance  of  having  the 
full  complement  of  limbs  with  these  last-mentioned  three 
bodies.  It  is  only  through  having  heat  in  one's  body 
{Taijasasarira)  that  such  physical  functions  as  digestion, 
circulation,  &c.,  can  be  carried  on,  and  the  possession  of  this 
heat  is^one  of  the  fruits  of  punya.  Tejolesya  is  inherent 
in  such  a  body,  and  so  is  the  power  of  producing  magic 
fire.  Every  one  possesses  a  body  (Kdrma/jasarira)  round 
which  his  various  karma  accumulate,  and  without  which 
one  could  never  experience  any  of  the  happy  fruits  of  merit ; 
the  very  possession  of  this  body  is  owing  to  punya,  for  every 
one  has  amassed  merit  of  some  kind. 

Several  of  the  rewards  result  in  bodily  strength  or 
beauty,  such  as  V ajrarisahhandrdca  sanghayana^  which  en- 
sures one's  possessing  bones  in  one's  body  as  hard  as  iron 
and  as  strong  as  a  bull's  ;  Samacaturastra  santhdna,  that 
gives  a  well-proportioned,  shapely  and  elegant  body;  and 
Suhha  varna,  Suhha  gandha,  Subha  rasa  and  Suhha  spars  a, 
which  -endow  one  with  a  good  complexion,  pleasing  bodily 
odour,  good  corpuscles  in  one's  blood,  and  a  skin  that  feels 
smooth  as  a  peach  to  the  touch.  Again,  the  fruit  of  punya 
ensures  one's  being  neither  too  fat  nor  too  lean,  but  of 
exactly  right  weight  (Agurulaghu  ndmakarma),  and  also 
makes  one  so  powerful  (Pardghdta  ndmakarma)  that 
one  is  always  victorious.  Asthma  or  consumption  are  a 
clear  sign  that  one  has  committed  sin  in  a  previous  exis- 
tence, for  merit  would  have  won  Ucchvdsa  ndmakarma, 
which  ensures  one's  having  no  impediment  in  one's 
breathing. 

Jaina  also  believe  that  as  a  result  of  merit  they  may 
be  born  again  as  Jyotisi  devata,  living  in  the  sun  for  one 
life  and  giving  off  almost  unbearable  effulgence.  This  efful- 
gence is  a  result  of  Atapa  ndmakarma.  Others  as  a  reward 
of  merit  go  to  the  moon,  where  it  is  very  cold,  and  so  they 
give  off  a  cold  radiance  which  is  due  to  Anusna  ndmakarma. 
Even  one's  method  of  walking  is  affected  by  one's  previous 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  11.5 

actions,  and  a  stately  gait  (Subhavihdyogati) ,  like  that  of 
an  elephant,  a  goose,  or  a  bull,  is  a  much  coveted  prize  for 
merit. 

Another  fruit  of  punya  [Nirmdna  ndmakarma)  leads  to 
one's  being  born  with  all  one's  limbs  supple  and  perfect. 
Through  Trasa  ndmakarma  one  is  certain  to  be  born  as  at 
least  a  two-sensed  being  and  may  be  endowed  with  all  the 
senses.  Some  lives  are  microscopic,  but  if  one  has  acquired 
Bddara  ndmakarma,  one  may  rest  assured  that  one  will  at 
least  have  sufficient  size  to  be  perceptible  to  the  naked  eye. 
In  whatever  class  of  life  one  is  born,  provided  only  one  has 
gained  Parydpti  ndmakarma,  one  will  be  perfect  in  that 
class. 

Every  ailment  and  every  illness  is  traced  back  to  a  fault 
in  a  previous  birth  :  thus  a  rickety  child  must  have  com- 
mitted some  sin  which  prevented  its  gaining  Sthira  ndma- 
karma, for  that  would  have  given  it  strong  and  well-set 
limbs,  fine  teeth  and  a  well-knit  frame. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  Jaina  believe  that 
every  onion,  potato,  garlic,  carrot,  turnip  and  ground  root 
is  the  home  of  innumerable  jiva.  If  a  man  has  acquired 
Pratyeka  ndmakarma  he  cannot  be  forced  to  dwell  in  one 
of  these  underground  roots,  but  in  whatever  body  he  may 
be  born,  he  will  have  that  body  to  himself.  There  cannot  be 
more  than  one  jiva  inhabiting  a  human  body  at  the  same 
moment,  nor  more  than  one  in  a  bird,  beast,  or  insect ;  it  is 
only  underground  roots  that  take  in  troops  of  tenement 
lodgers. 

Certain  other  rewards  ensure  one's  having  a  handsome 
body  (Subha  ndmakarma),  at  least  from  the  waist  up,  or 
being  loved  by  all  with  whom  one  comes  in  contact  (Subhaga 
ndmakarma),  having  a  pleasant  voice  [Susvara  ndmakarma), 
gaining  respect  from  all  whom  one  meets  {Adeya  yidma- 
karma),  or  even  gaining  fame  wherever  one  goes  (Yasoklrtti 
ndmakarma). 

Three   different   results   of   punya   decide   the   term    of 

I  2 


ii6  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

life  which  one  will  spend  as  a  god  (Devatd  dyusya),  or 
a  human  being  [Manusya  dyusya),  or  a  lower  animal 
(Tiryauc  dyusya).  The  greatest  and  the  final  reward  of 
punya  is  Tirthankara  7idmakarma,  which  ensures  one  at 
last  becoming  a  Tirthankara. 

The  Fourth  Category:    Pdpa. 

The  In  order  to  understand  the  religion  of  the  Jaina  we  must 

eighteen    ^^^  ^^^  grasp  their  idea  of  sin,  for  it  is  a  very  different 
of  Sin.      conception  from  the  Western,  being  in  fact  often  ceremonial 

rather  than  moral. 
i.  Jiva  To  take  any  life  seems  to  the  Jaina  the  most  heinous 

himsa.  ^^£  g^jj  crimes  and  entails  the  most  terrible  punishment ; 
yet  the  central  thought  of  Jainism  is  not  so  much  saving 
life  as  refraining  from  destroying  it.  '  Ahinisd  parama 
dharma — Destroy  no  living  creature!  Injure  no  living 
creature !  This  is  the  highest  religion  ! '  declared  a  modern 
Jaina  lecturer,  and  with  almost  Irish  eloquence  he  goes  on 
to  say  :  '  I  stand  before  you  this  noon  to  speak  on  a  religion 
whose  glory  the  dumb  creatures,  the  cows,  the  goats,  the 
sheep,  the  lambs,  the  hens,  the  pigeons,  and  all  other  living 
creatures,  the  beasts  and  the  birds  sing  with  their  mute 
tongues  ;  the  only  religion  which  has  for  thousands  of 
years  past  advocated  the  cause  of  the  silent-tongued 
animals  :  the  only  religion  which  has  denounced  slaughter 
of  animals  for  sacrifice,  food,  hunting,  or  any  purpose  what- 
ever.'^  *  The  foundation  principle  of  the  Jaina  religion', 
•  writes  another,^  'is  to  abstain  from  killing.'  They  even  call 
'•  their  faith  the  religion  of  non-killing  [Ahwisd  dharma). 
To  people  believing  thus,  killing  [Hwisd)  is  the  greatest 
sin  and  abstaining  from  killing  [Ahivisd)  the  most  binding 
moral  duty.  There  is  a  higher  and  a  lower  law  for  ascetics 
and  for  the  laity.    A  monk  must  strive  not  to  take  any  life 

^  Lecture  by  Mr.  Lala  Benarsi  Dass,  Jain  Itihas  Society,  Agra,  1902, 
pp.  I  fif. 

^  Popatlal  K.  S\\3h,  Jama  Dharma  Nii'fepana,  p.  33. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  J17 

(insect,  vegetable,  or  animal)  that  has  even  one  sense,  but 
the  laity  are  only  forbidden  to  take  any  life  possessed  of.  two 
or  more  senses.  The  Jaina  make  a  very  interesting  distinc- 
tion between  spiritual  and  actual  murder  [Bhdva  hwisd  and 
Dravya  hwisd).  One  sins  against  Bhava  ahirhsa  by  wishing 
for  any  one's  death  or  desiring  harm  to  befall  them.  Not 
only  so,  but  if  one  does  not  continue  and  complete  one's 
own  education,  or  strive  to  improve  one's  own  mind,  or 
if  one  fails  to  exercise  and  discipline  one's  own  soul,  one 
commits  Bhava  hirhsa,  for  one  kills  by  stultification  what 
one  might  have  been.-*-  Dravya  ahirhsa  (or  the  forbidding 
of  material  killing)  is  absolutely  binding  on  all  Jaina  of 
every  sect,  and  to  offend  against  this  is  the  greatest  of  all 
sins.  Breaches  of  the  seventh  commandment  are  con- 
sidered as  breaking  this  law,^  because  more  than  one  jiva 
are  thereby  held  to  be  destroyed. 

As  a  man  kills  a  jiva,  so  will  he  be  killed  in  hell,  and 
lurid  pictures  are  published  to  illustrate  this  tenet ;  but 
if  any  one  kills  a  monk,  that  monk  in  the  next  world  is 
given  the  privilege  of  killing  his  murderer  without  sinning 
against  Ahirhsa. 

The  Jaina  say  (with  how  much  truth  is  doubtful)  that 
their  ancient  rivals  the  Buddhists  were  once  as  careful  as 
they  to  observe  the  rule  against  killing,  but  when  Buddhism 
spread  to  different  lands,  it  had  to  be  adapted  to  the  habits 
of  people  who  declined  to  give  up  slaughter.  A  Jaina  friend 
of  the  writer  once  acted  most  dramatically  the  way  in  which 
he  declared  Buddhists  in  Burma  who  desire  to  eat  fish  lift 
them  carefully  out  of  the  water,  and,  having  left  them  on 
the  bank  to  die,  say :  '  Lo,  here  is  a  poor  thing  that  has 
died  !  No  sin  will  accrue  to  us  if  we  eat  it.'  They  also 
assert  that   the  Buddhists  in  Tibet,   calculating  that  sin 

^  This  is  strangely  contradictory  of  the  general  aim  of  the  whole 
system,  which  is  none  other  than  the  gradual  and  complete  stultification 
of  character. 

^  In  another  aspect  such  offences  are  regarded  by  the  Jaina  as 
a  form  of  stealing. 


iiS  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

accrues  equally  whether  they  kill  the  smallest  or  the  greatest 
jiva,  say:  '  Therefore  since  we  must  acquire  sin,  let  us  kill  an 
elephant,'  and  so  get  as  much  as  possible  for  their  money. 

In  connexion  with  Ahimsa  the  lecturer  whom  we  have 
before  quoted  gives  a  derivation  for  the  word  Hindu  which 
is  perhaps  more  ingenious  than  ingenuous  : 

*  Hindus  were  not  those  who  originally  lived  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Indus.  Hindus  were  those  from  whom  himsd  was  away.  Let 
us  not  misunderstand  words.  Let  us  interpret  them  correctly.  It  is 
those  men  who  are  the  slaves  of  taste  who  say  that  Hindus  were  those 
who  lived  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus.  We,  Jaina,  call  Hindus  those 
from  whom  him  or  hiihsd  is  du  or  dilr,  i.  e.  away  ! '  * 

ii.  Asatya  Though  Hirhsa  is  the  greatest  of  crimes,  the  Jaina  also 
vada.'  '  recognize  seventeen  other  sins,  and  the  next  worse  of  these  is 
untruthfulness,  Asatya  or  Mrisdvdda.  They  divide  the  way 
ordinary  folk  talk  into  four  classes :  they  may  tell  the 
truth  ;  or  they  may  tell  absolute  lies  ;  they  may  occasionally 
make  use  of  white  lies ;  or  their  conversation  may  be  a 
mosaic  of  truth  and  lies.  Now  a  Jaina  is  only  allowed 
to  speak  in  two  ways  :  either  he  must  tell  the  truth ;  or,  if 
that  be  too  difficult,  he  may  avail  himself  of  white  lies  ;  but 
he  must  neither  lie,  nor  speak  the  half-truth  half-lie  that  is 
ever  the  blackest  of  lies. 

The  sad  story  of  King  Vasu  shows  the  power  of  absolute 
candour  and  the  fall  that  follows  any  declension  from  it. 
Vasu  was  known  as  '  the  Truth-teller  ',  and  his  throne  was 
established  on  veracity  ;  indeed,  so  strong  was  the  power 
engendered  by  his  absolute  fidelity  to  truth,  that  his  throne 
was  supported  by  it  alone  at  a  great  height  from  the  ground. 
Two  men  named  Parvata  and  Narada  came  to  him  to  ask 
him  to  tell  them  the  exact  significance  of  the  word  Aja,  for 
one  held  it  to  mean  '  grain  '  and  the  other  '  goat  '.  The 
king's  pandit  had  told  him  that  it  meant  '  grain  ',  but 
instead  of  saying  this,  the  king,  endeavouring  to  please 
both  parties,  gave  the  word  a  double  signification,  saying 

^  Lala  Benarsi  Dass,  loc.  cit.,  p.  75. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  119 

it  might  mean  either  'goat'  or  'grain'.  The  result  of  this 
deviation  from  the  strict  truth  was  that  the  king's  throne 
fell  to  the  ground,  but  if  you  look  in  a  dictionary  you  will 
see  the  word  bears  a  double  meaning  to  this  day  ! 

The  rules  regarding  truthfulness  and  untruthfulness 
differ  for  monks  and  laity,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come 
to  discuss  the  twelve  vows. 

Dishonesty  {Adattdddna)  is  another  class  of  sin  which  is  iii.  Adat- 
forbidden  to  all  Jaina ;  besides  actual  theft,  this  sin  includes  ^ 
keeping  lost  property  or  treasure  trove,  smuggling,  cheating, 
taking  bribes,  and  all  treason  and  law  breaking.  It  was 
explained  to  the  writer  that  the  reason  why  treason  and  law 
breaking  were  included  under  this  category  was  that  origin- 
ally they  led  to  much  financial  profit,  and  all  illegitimate 
financial  profit  was  stealing ;  nowadays  they  are  not  so 
advantageous,  but  they  are  still  strictly  prohibited.  Under 
this  head  is  also  forbidden  all  sharp  practice  in  business, 
together  with  the  misappropriation  of  trust  funds  and  the 
use  of  charitable  funds  for  private  gain. 

Another  sin  that  also  bears  a  different  connotation  for  iv.Abrah- 
the  professed  religious  and  the  layman  is  unchastity  "^^^^^y^- 
(Ahrahmacarya)  ;  for  whereas  a  layman  is  bound  to 
maintain  his  own  wife  in  all  honour  and  happiness,  it 
is  sin  for  a  sadhu  to  allow  so  much  as  the  hem  of  his 
garment  to  touch  a  woman.  When  we  deal  with  the 
vows,  we  shall  notice  how  much  Eastern  and  Western 
monasticism  have  in  common  on  this  point. 

The  Jaina  realized  how  many  sins  sprang  frorh  excessive  v.  Pari- 
love  of  one's  own  possessions.  They  taught  that  if  a  monk  ^^^ 
kept  one  garment  or  one  vessel  above  the  allowed  number, 
or  if  he  even  became  over  attached  to  one  that  he  lawfully 
possessed,  he  committed  the  sin  of  Parigraha,  or  covetous- 
ness.  In  the  same  way  the  layman  was  instructed  that  if  he 
showed  uncontrolled  grief  when  one  of  his  cattle  died  or  his 
money  disappeared,  he  too  had  given  way  to  greed.  ^i^ 

As  one  studies  more  closely  the  Jaina  idea  of  what  sin  Krodha. 


120  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OE 

consists  in,  one  is  struck  with  their  profound  knowledge  of  the 
human  heart,  a  knowledge  shared  by  all  faiths  which  practise 
confession.  Another  thing  that  strikes  one  is  the  great 
stress  they  lay  on  anger  (Krodha)  as  a  source  of  sin.  The 
merest  globe-trotter  notices  how  differently  we  Westerners 
look  at  anger,  hardly  accounting  it  a  sin,  while  to  an 
Oriental  it  seems  a  most  heinous  offence.  We  shall  have 
to  return  to  the  subject  of  anger  again  and  again  in  our 
analysis  of  Jaina  thought ;  here  it  will  suffice  to  notice  that 
the  Jaina  hold  that  anger,  though  generally  unrighteous 
(aprasasta)^  may  also  sometimes  be  righteous  (prasasta). 
For  instance,  it  is  righteous  for  a  guru  to  scold  a  lazy 
disciple  ^  or  for  a  magistrate  to  speak  severely,  but  it  is 
unrighteous  to  get  angry  without  a  cause,  or  to  add  to 
the  ill  feeling  between  two  persons. 
vii.  The  seventh  of  the  eighteen  kinds  of  sin  is  conceit  or 


Mana. 


1  That  even  when  angry  with  reason  a  guru  must  govern  his  anger 
the  following  legend  shows.  Once  a  guru  had  an  impertinent  disciple, 
and  as  the  master  sat  engaged  in  his  evening  Padikamanum,  thinking 
over  his  sins  of  the  day,  the  disciple  reminded  him  that  he  had  walked 
on  and  killed  a  frog,  and  must  perform  prayascitta  for  this  sin.  Now 
the  guru  had  not  killed  a  frog,  the  one  seen  by  the  young  man  having 
been  hurt  by  other  passers-by ;  and  feeling  that  at  any  rate  it  was  not 
a  novice's  part  to  remind  him  of  it,  the  guru  leapt  up  from  his  seat, 
brush  in  hand,  determined  to  chastise  the  cheeky  youngster ;  un- 
fortunately for  himself,  he  rushed  against  a  pillar  and  dashed  his 
brains  out. 

The  poor  guru  having  died  in  a  fit  of  anger  slipped  far  down  below  the 
human  level  he  had  been  on,  and  was  reborn  not  as  a  man  but  as 
a  snake,  in  fact  a  cobra.  He  took  up  his  abode  in  an  ant-hill  near 
Wadhwan  and  became,  sad  to  say,  not  only  a  cobra,  but  a  ^•ery  bad 
cobra,  who  bit  everybody  who  came  near  him  ;  at  last  he  established 
a  reign  of  terror,  and  the  road  leading  past  the  ant-hill  was  deserted 
through  fear  of  him. 

At  this  time  Mahavira  was  alive,  and  his  peregrinations  happened 
to  bring  him  to  Wadhwan  ;  despite  all  his  friends'  warnings,  he  deter- 
mined to  remedy  this  evil ;  so  he  went  out  and  sat  down  on  the  snake's 
ant-hill  and  meditated  there.  The  enraged  cobra  dashed  out  and  bit 
him  over  and  over  again,  but  Mahavira  continued  his  meditations. 
Suddenly,  as  he  looked  at  the  master,  all  his  former  life  came  back 
to  the  snake's  memory,  he  repented  of  his  wrath,  and  ever  after  allowed 
little  boys  to  chase  him  and  ants  to  walk  over  him  unmolested,  and 
eventually  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity.  He  is  now  steadily  mounting 
the  ladder  of  higher  births. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  121 

Mdna,  and  of  conceit  there  are  eight  forms  :  ^  pride  of  caste, 
of  family,  of  strength,  of  form,  of  wealth,  of  reputation,  of 
learning,  and  last  but  not  least,  the  pride  of  being  a  landed 
proprietor. 

A  great  deal  of  confusion  has  arisen  over  the  word  viii. 
Maya,  which  the  Jaina  use  to  denote  the  eighth  sin.  The  ^^^y^- 
Vedantists  of  course  use  the  word  to  mean  illusion,  and 
a  smattering  of  their  philosophy  is  now  so  common,  that 
many  people  loosely  read  Vedantism  into  all  Indian  philo- 
sophy and  suppose  maya  invariably  to  have  this  meaning. 
The  Jaina,  however,  consider  themselves  to  be  nearer  to 
the  Sahkhya  than  the  Vedanta  school  of  philosophy,  and 
their  properly  instructed  ^  teachers  declare  that  the  word 
generally  means  intrigue,  cheating,  attachment,  ignorance, 
wealth,  and  only  occasionally  illusion.  In  the  Jaina  scrip- 
tures it  usually  connotes  intrigue  or  cheating. 

A  commercial  people  are  naturally  prone  to  this  sin,  but 
the  sanction  it  carries  with  it  is  very  heavy — a  man  who 
cheats  in  this  life  may  be  born  a  woman  in  the  next !  Not 
only  commercial  but  religious  cheating  may  involve  this 
penalty,  as  the  case  of  Mallinatha,  the  nineteenth  Tirthah- 
kara  shows.  In  a  previous  life  he  and  five  friends  delighted 
to  perform  their  rehgious  duties  together,  and  all  six  fasted 
and  meditated  with  the  utmost  regularity  and  circumspec- 
tion. Gradually,  however,  Malhnatha  began  to  long  to  outdo 

^  Jaina  children  are  taught  to  remember  these  different  sorts  of 
conceit  in  little  rhymes  much  like  those  of  Jane  Taylor's  which  we 
children  of  a  Western  growth  learnt  in  our  childhood.  Legends  too 
are  told  showing  the  resuk  of  each  of  the  eight  kinds  of  conceit.  As 
an  example  of  the  evil  results  brought  about  by  pride,  hear  the  sad 
story  of  MaricI,  the  son  of  Bharata,  King  of  India.  Bharata  was  the 
son  of  Risabhadeva,  the  first  Tirthankara,  and  it  was  revealed  to 
him  that  his  son  should  become  a  Tirthankara  in  a  future  life.  Over- 
hearing this,  Marici  became  very  conceited  and  danced  and  jumped 
with  joy.  As  a  consequence  of  showing  too  much  emotion  a  fetter 
{tdnkum)  was  formed,  and  this  bound  MaricI  to  become  a  beggar  in 
his  next  incarnation,  though  nothing  of  course  could  prevent  his 
eventually  becoming  a  Tirthankara,  which  he  did  as  Mahavlra. 

^  It  is  a  common  complaint  amongst  the  Jaina  that  so  many  of  their 
gurus  are  extraordinarily  ignorant  of  their  own  religion. 


122  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

them  in  austerity,  and  thus  get  ahead  of  them  on  the 
path  to  hberation ;  and  so,  yielding  to  temptation,  he  once 
added  an  extra  fast  to  the  days  they  had  agreed  to  observe 
and  kept  it  on  the  quiet  without  telHng  his  colleagues. 
His  friends  were  deeply  grieved  when  they  discovered  the 
deceitful*  way  they  had  been  outdone,  but  Mallinatha 
suffered  also ;  for  though  he  had  acquired  so  much  merit 
that  it  automatically  made  him  a  Tirthahkara,  the  spiritual 
maya  he  had  indulged  in  turned  him  into  a  female  one.-^ 

ix.Lobha.  The  Jaina  have  many  legends  that  show  the  evils  of 
Lobha  or  avarice,  the  ninth  kind  of  sin.  Thus,  a  great 
king,  Subhuma,  lost  his  kingdom  through  greed  and  was 
drowned  in  the  sea  ;  and  it  was  through  avarice  again  that 
a  certain  merchant  prince  lost  all  his  millions  and  died 
without  a  pie.  Indeed  the  proverb  Lobha  pdpanuin  mula, 
'  avarice  is  the  root  of  sin  ',  is  current  not  amongst  Jaina 
only  but  among  all  Indians. ^ 

Kasaya.  We  now  come  to  an  analysis  of  these  four  sins  (anger, 
conceit,  intrigue  and  greed),  together  c2\\QdKasdya,  which  is 
of  the  first  importance  to  our  sympathetic  understanding  of 
the  strength  of  Jainism.  The  value  of  Jaina  philosophy  lies 
not  only  in  the  fact  that  it,  unlike  Hinduism,  has  correlated 
ethical  teaching  with  its  metaphysical  system,  but  also  in 
the  amazing  knowledge  of  human  nature  which  its  ethics 
display.  Very  often  Jaina  divide  and  subdivide  a  subject 
in  such  a  way  as  to  throw  no  fresh  light  on  it,  but  in  the 
subdivisions  of  these  four  faults  (which  they  rightly  and 
profoundly  regard  as  sister  sins)  they  have  seized  on  an 
essential  truth,  that  the  length  of  time  a  sin  is  indulged  in 
affects  the  nature  of  the  sin ;  for  sins  grow  worse  through 
long  keeping.^ 

^  Digambara  of  course  do  not  believe  this,  as  they  hold  that  no 
woman  can  ever  be  a  Tirthankara. 

2  It  is  interesting  to  compare  with  this  the  Christian  saying  :  *  The 
love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil.' 

^  Compare  again  :  *  Let  not  the  sun  go  down  upon  your  wrath ' ;  for 
the  anger  which  is  kept  overnight  has  grown  deadly  by  the  morning. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  123 

The  worst  degree  to  which  any  of  these  four  sins  may 
be  indulged  is  called  Anantdnuhandhl,  when  the  sin  is 
cherished  as  long  as  life  lasts,  and  if  there  be  an  offender  in 
the  case,  he  is  never  forgiven.  Whilst  under  the  sway  of 
sin  to  this  degree,  it  is  impossible  for  a  man  to  grasp  any 
ideas  of  religion  or  to  give  his  mind  to  study. 

In  the  next  degree  [Apratydkhydnl)  the  sin,  though  nursed 
for  a  year,  is  confessed  at  the  great  annual  confession  of  sin.^ 
During  the  time  that  a  man  is  under  its  influence  he  might 
possess  an  intellectual  grasp  of  religious  principles,  but  it 
would  be  impossible  for  him  to  carry  them  out  into  his 
daily  life. 

In  the  third  degree  [Pratydkhydni]  the  sin  lasts  only  for 
four  months  and  is  confessed  and  given  up  at  Comas!  ^  (the 
four-monthly  confession),  but  during  those  months  in  which 
it  is  indulged,  it  prevents  a  man  becoming  a  really  holy 
monk  or  layman,  though  outwardly  he  may  keep  the  vows. 
For  instance,  it  would  not  hinder  his  doing  some  outward 
act  such  as  giving  up  eating  potatoes,  but  it  would  prevent 
his  really  giving  up  all  attachment  to  the  world. 

The  same  four  faults  are  cherished  to  the  least  of  the 
Ifi-four  degrees  [Sanjvalana)  when  renounced  at  the  evening 
confession,  or  at  least  not  carried  beyond  the  fortnightly 
confession  ;^  but  during  the  time  a  man  indulges  them  to 
even  this  degree,  though  it  would  be  possible  for  him  to 
become  a  monk,  he  could  not  become  the  ideal  sadhu  as 
depicted  in  the  scriptures,  the  goal  which  every  true  ascetic 
has  set  before  him,  and  which  he  hopes  to  attain.  This 
point  the  enlightened  and  spiritually  minded  Jaina  love  to 
discuss  and  compare  with  the  Christian  ideal  of  consecration 
and  throwing  aside  every  weight  to  reach  the  goal. 

The  Jaina  are  past  masters  in  the  art  of  illustration, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  notice  in  their  sacred  books  and  in 
their  sermons   how   many  of   their   allegories   are   drawn 

^  See  p.  259.  ^  Sanskrit  Caturmasl. 


124  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

from  common  objects  of  the  countryside.  It  makes  one 
realize  how  largely  India  is  a  country  of  villagers. 

Each  of  the  four  sins  has  its  own  parable.  In  the  case  of 
anger,  the  least  degree  is  likened  to  a  line  drawn  on  water, 
which  soon  passes  away ;  the  next  to  one  drawn  in  the  dust, 
which  is  stamped  out  and  effaced  in  a  day ;  the  third  to  a 
crack  in  the  dried  mud  at  the  bottom  of  an  empty  village 
tank,  which  will  not  disappear  till  the  yearly  rains  fill  the 
tank  and  cover  it ;  and  the  worst  of  all  to  a  fissure  in  a 
mountain  side,  which  will  remain  till  the  end  of  the  world. 

To  illustrate  the  four  degrees  of  conceit,  the  Jaina  take 
the  stages  of  the  growth  of  a  tree,  and  remind  us  that  the 
twig  is  pliable  and  easily  bent  again  to  humility ;  that  the 
young  branch  of  a  tree  can  bend  humbly  if  a  storm  force 
it ;  and  that  the  wood  of  the  stem  may  be  taught  humiHty 
(though  with  difficulty)  by  being  oiled  and  heated ;  but 
conceit  in  the  worst  degree  outdoes  any  simile  taken  from 
a  tree,  being  as  unbending  as  a  pillar  of  stone. 

Deceit  or  intrigue  again  leads  to  crookedness  :  in  the 
least  degree  it  can  be  straightened  as  one  can  straighten 
a  bamboo  cane ;  in  the  second  degree  it  is  like  the  crooked 
track  of  moisture  left  in  the  dust  by  the  dripping  from  the 
water  carrier's  leather  bucket;  when  it  grows  worse  it  is 
as  crooked  as  a  ram's  horn ;  and  in  the  worst  degree  of  all 
it  is  like  the  knot  in  the  root  of  the  bamboo,  the  crookedest 
thing  in  the  land. 

The  most  subtle  perhaps  of  all  the  similes  is  that  which 
deals  with  greed,  and  the  Jaina  illustration  of  its  effects  on 
the  soul  is  of  special  interest,  for  this  sin  is  said  to  change 
the  colour  of  the  human  heart.  If  avarice  be  cherished 
even  to  the  least  degree,  it  will  stain  the  soul  yellow  like 
turmeric,  but  this  discoloration  can  easily  be  washed  off; 
if  greed  be  given  way  to  for  a  fortnight,  the  heart  will 
be  soiled  like  earthen  cooking-pots  which  can  only  be 
cleansed  with  great  labour  ;  if  one  cherishes  it  for  four 
months,  its  stain  grows  as  difficult  to  efface  as  the  marks 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  125 

left  by  the  oil  of  a  cart  wheel ;  and  in  the  last  degree  it 
can  never  be  washed  away  in  this  life,  whatever  efforts  one 
may  make,  but  is  as  ineffaceable  as  the  crimson  dye.^ 

The  result  of  any  of  these  four  sins,  if  indulged  in  to  the 
worst  degree,  is  to  condemn  a  man  to  rebirth  in  hell ;  the 
next  worse  forces  him  in  his  next  life  to  become  a  bird, 
a  beast,  or  an  insect ;  if  he  has  not  indulged  his  sin  for 
longer  than  four  months,  he  may  be  born  as  a  man ;  if  he 
had  thrown  it  off  within  a  fortnight  from  its  inception,  he 
might  become  a  god ;  but  if  in  all  his  life  he  had  remained 
free  from  all  wrath,  conceit,  intrigue  and  greed,  he  would 
become  a  Siddha  without  rebirth. 

All  these  four,  Krodha,  Mana,  Maya  and  Lobha,  are  called 
Kasaya,  or  things  which  tie  one  down  to  this  world  ;  they 
are  also  called  Candala  Cokadi,  the  four  vile  or  outcaste 
ones,  and  the  following  legend  is  told  to  show  how  indul- 
gence in  them  destroys  all  true  dignity  and  drags  one  down 
to  the  lowest  level.  A  certain  Brahman,  having  bathed 
and  worshipped,  felt  himself  polluted  by  the  accidental 
touch  of  a  sweeper  woman,  and,  being  enraged,  swore  at  her. 
To  his  astonishment  she  promptly  caught  hold  of  his  gar- 
ments, and  the  more  he  swore  at  her,  the  more  tightly  she 
clung.  Mad  with  rage,  the  Brahman  rushed  to  the  king 
demanding  redress.  The  king  asked  the  woman  how  she 
had  dared  to  catch  hold  of  a  Brahman,  but  she  replied  that 
the  Brahman  had  already  polluted  himself  by  receiving  a 
Candala  into  his  heart  when  he  became  angry,  and  therefore 
her  touch  could  no  longer  pollute  him,  for  he  had  become 
her  fellow  outcaste. 

The  Jaina  sum  up  their  teaching  about  these  four  sins  by 

^  To  Jaina  it  is  of  special  interest  that  about  a  century  before  this 
idea  had  been  incorporated  into  their  teaching,  the  great  Hebrew 
prophet  was  also  reflecting  on  the  discoloration  produced  on  the  soul 
by  sin,  but  declared  that  there  was  One  who  could  remove  even  the 
crimson  stain.  '  Come  now,  and  let  us  reason  together,  saith  the  Lord  : 
though  your  sins  be  as  scarlet,  they  shall  be  as  white  as  snow  ;  though 
they  be  red  like  crimson,  they  shall  be  as  wool.'     Isaiah  i.  18. 


126  THE   NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

saying  that  when  wrath  leaves,  forgiveness  for  others  ^  enters  ; 

when  conceit  goes,  humility  comes ;   intrigue  gives  place  to 

simplicity ;  and  when  avarice  disappears,  content  reigns. 

X.  The  tenth  class  of  sin  is  even  more  worth  our  studying, 

Raga  or    for  it  seems  to  put  into  our  hands  the  key  that  unlocks  the 
Asakti 

very  heart  of  Jainism  and  reveals  the  loneliness  within.    All 

over-fondness  (Rdga  or  Asakti)  for  a  person  or  thing  is  sin, 
since  it  hinders  that  perfect  detachment  from  the  world 
w^hich  is  the  goal  of  the  whole  system. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  in  a  coarse  way  an  attachment  may 
hinder  a  monk's  progress,  but  the  legend  that  the  Jaina  tell 
to  illustrate  this  obvious  fact  is  worth  recording,  for  it 
shows  how  clearly  they  have  realized  the  strange  contra- 
dictions in  character  that  may  exist  in  the  same  person. 
It  is  told  how  Mahavira  once  preached  at  the  court  of 
Srenika,  King  of  Magadha,  with  such  power  that  the  heir. 
Prince  Nandisena,  became  converted  and,  leaving  all  his 
splendour,  went  to  live  in  the  woods.  There  unhappily 
he  fell  under  the  sway  of  a  courtesan,  and  as  he  felt 
he  could  neither  leave  her  nor  give  up  his  belief  that 
Jainism  was  the  true  faith,  he  had  resort  to  that  most 
intricate  of  all  compromises,  a  bargain  with  his  conscience. 
He  decided  to  stay  with  her  and  also  to  preach  Jainism, 
though  he  no  longer  practised  it ;  he  determined  as  a 
further  sop  to  his  conscience  to  regularly  convert  ten  people 
to  Jainism  every  day.  He  continued  to  do  this  for  some 
time,  but  one  day  he  happened  to  have  only  ten  people  in 
his  audience,  and  though  he  converted  nine  of  these,  the 
tenth,  a  goldsmith,  was  a  very  hard  nut  to  crack.  The 
woman  wanted  her  breakfast,  but  the  erstwhile  prince  was 
determined  to  get  his  tale  of  ten  converts  complete.  At 
last  the  woman  called  out  'Why  on  earth  don't  you  convert 
yourself  and  so  get  your  ten,  and  let  us  have  our  breakfast.?' 
The  taunt  went  home,  and  there  and  then  he  tore  out  the 

*  The  Jaina  pathetically  believe  that  though  there  is  forgiveness  for 
sins  against  others,  there  is  none  for  sins  against  themselves. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  127 

hair,  which  had  grown  whilst  he  dalHed  with  sin,  and  re- 
turned to  the  forest.  The  Jaina  say  that  such  a  man,  having 
overcome  raga,  would  on  his  death  go  to  svarga. 

This  was  of  course  an  example  of  wrong  love,  but  the 
Jaina  believe  that  indulgence  in  even  right  aflection  will 
hinder  one's  attaining  liberation,  as  the  pathetic  story  of 
Mahavira's  greatest  disciple,  Gautama,  shows.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  Gautama  could  not  conquer  his  per- 
sonal attachment  to  the  great  ascetic,  and  despite  all  his 
endeavours  he  continued  to  think  of  him  as  '  my  master  ' 
and  '  my  friend ',  thus  showing  that  he  had  allowed  him- 
self to  become  attached  by  the  roots  of  his  personality 
to  another.  Only  on  the  night  that  Mahavira  died  was 
he  able  to  overcome  all  mamatva  or  feeling  of  personal 
devotion  and  possession.  It  had  been  easy  for  Gautama  to 
give  up  all  outward  possessions  of  wealth  and  property,  it 
was  agony  to  him  to  tear  out  love  from  his  heart.  Devout 
Jaina  are  very  interested  in  the  contrast  between  this  story 
and  that  of  the  Christian  disciple,  Thomas,  who  touched 
the  highest  development  of  the  Christian  faith  when  his 
mamatva  became  perfected,  and  he  could  say  to  his  Master: 
'  My  Lord  and  my  God.'  ^ 

Our  study  has  now  brought  us  to  a  most  interesting 
parting  of  the  ways  between  Jainism  on  the  one  hand 
and  both  Hinduism  and  Christianity  on  the  other,  for  the 
understanding  of  which  the  writer  is  deeply  indebted  to 
both  Jaina  and  Hindu  friends,  who  have  taken  endless  pains 
to  make  their  view-points  clear. 

As  all  personal  attachment  is  biirnt  up  in  the  glow  of 
asceticism,  the  true  Jaina  cannot  hold  any  doctrine  of 
personal  devotion  (bhakti)  to  a  god  such  as  has  inspired 
so  much  of  the  most  beautiful  Hindu  literature.  Yet 
there  is  amongst  some  modern  Jaina  a  tendency  towards 
giving  to  Mahavira  a  devotion  which  almost  resembles 
bhakti;    this  may  be  indirectly  due  to  the  influence  of 

^  St.  John  XX.  28. 


128  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

the  Bhagavadglta,  which  is  widely  read  amongst  them,  or 
of  the  stories  they  have  read  of  Jesus  Christ,  for  whose 
person  the  Jaina,  with  their  eager  love  of  all  that  is  tender 
and  beautiful,  have  a  great  reverence.  Nevertheless, 
according  to  their  creed,  they  do  not  believe  in  a  Creator, 
much  less  in  a  Father  Omnipotent,  to  whom  they  might 
feel  such  personal  devotion.  The  state  of  godhood  is 
what  they  fix  their  thoughts  on,  a  state  of  passive  and 
passionless  beatitude  enjoyed  by  several  separate  Siddha ; 
and  for  this  state  of  godhood  they  are  permitted  to  have 
an  attachment,  and  it  is  on  their  own  attainment  of 
this  state  that  they  fix  their  hopes  and  their  ambitions. 
'  Why  should  I  love  a  personal  god }  '  a  Jaina  once  said 
to  the  writer,  '  I  hope  to  become  a  god  myself  '.  And  in 
one  of  their  sacred  books  the  whole  matter  is  summed  up  in 
words  terrible  in  their  loneliness:  'Man!  Thou  art  thine  own 
friend  ;  why  wishest  thou  for  a  friend  beyond  thyself  } '  ^ 
xi.  Dvesa.  The  eleventh  kind  of  sin,  hatred  or  envy  (Dvesa  or  Irsyd), 
is  entirely  evil,  and  the  soul  that  would  proceed  on  the 
great  journey  must  completely  free  itself  from  it.  As  it 
often  springs  from  possession,  the  man  who  strips  himself 
of  all  property  goes  far  to  rid  himself  of  the  sin  too,  as  .2 
following  legend  shows. 

There  was  once  a  king  named  Dravida,  who  on  his  death 
divided  his  property  between  his  elder  son,  Dravida,  and 
his  younger,  Varikhilla,  leaving  the  senior  more  propert)} 
than  the  junior.     The  younger,  however,  succeeded  by  wise 
management  in  so  increasing  his  estate  that  his  elder  brother 
grew  more  and  more  envious,  and  finally  on  some  pretex 
or  other  a  war  broke  out  between  the  two.     During  t^ 
monsoon   there  was   perforce   a  truce,   and   Dravida  h; 
leisure  to  hear  a  famous  non-Jaina  ascetic  preach  on  t 
sin  of  envy  ;   becoming  converted,  he  went  off  to  the  cam 
of  his  younger  brother  to  beg  forgiveness.     The  brothers- 
were  completely  reconciled,   and  both  of  them  not  onl) 
^  Acdj'dhga  Sutra^  S.  B.  E.,  xxii,  p.  33. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  129 

renounced  envy,  but  agreed  also  to  renounce  their  kingdoms, 
the  possession  of  which  had  given  rise  to  so  great  a  sin.  They 
became  Jaina  sadhus  and  Hved  at  Satrufijaya,  and  passing 
from  thence  to  moksa  they  became  Siddha.  And  still  on  the 
full  moon  day  of  the  month  Kartika,  when  the  faithful  go  on 
pilgrimage  to  Satruhjaya,  they  remember  the  two  brothers 
who  gave  up  all  things  to  free  themselves  from  envy. 

Quarrelsomeness  or  Klesa,  the  twelfth  form  of  sin,  is  xli.  Klesa. 
specially  dangerous  to  family  happiness,  as  we  can  easily 
understand,  when  we  remember  how  many  members  of  a 
family  live  under  one  roof  in  India.  This  is  believed  to  be 
the  particular  vice  to  which  mothers-in-law  are  liable,  and 
it  is  often  only  owing  to  the  influence  of  this  sin  that  they 
complain  of  their  daughter-in-law's  cooking  !  The  Jaina 
scriptures  are  full  of  examples  of  the  evils  that  spring  from 
such  quarrelsomeness,  showing  that  it  has  often  not  only 
ruined  famihes  but  even  destroyed  kingdoms. 

So  greatly  do  the  Jaina  value  the  peace  of  their  homes,  xiii.  Abh- 
that  the  next  sin,  slander  (Abhydkhydna),  is  also  looked  at  y^^hya- 
chiefiy  as  a  home-wrecking  sin.     So  grievous  a  crime  is  it, 
that  nature  will  work  a  miracle  to  discredit  it,  as  illustrated 
b_^^:he  following  legend.     In  a  certain  city  a  fierce  mother- 
in-law  accused  her  son's  wife  of  unchastity.     The  poor  girl 
could  only  protest  her  innocency,  but  was  quite  unable  to 
prove  it,  till  suddenly  a  great  calamity  befell  the  city : 
the  massive  gates  of  the  town  stuck  fast  and  could  not  be 
noved !    An  astrologer,  being  called  in  to  help,  declared 
chat  they  could  only  be  opened  by  a  woman  so  chaste  that 
he  could  draw  water  from  a  well  in  a  sieve  and  sprinkle 
'th  it  the  obdurate  gates.     The  accused  girl  seized  this 
ance  to  prove  her  innocency,  and  did  it  so  successfully 
it  her  slanderer  was  confounded  and  condemned.^ 
Paisunya,  or  telling  stories  to  discredit  any  one,  is  another  xiv.  Pai- 
in  resembling  in  its  guilt  that  of  slander.  sunya. 

^  This  story  is  told  in  T/ie  Lives  of  Sixteeji  Chaste  Woiuen^  a  famous 
Jaina  classic. 

K 


130  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

XV.  It  is  also  a  very  serious  sin  to  be  always  criticizing  and 

Ninda.      finding  fault  (Nindd).     The  Jaina  tell  many  stories  to  show 
that  one  should  look  at  one's  own  sins  and  not  at  the  sins 
of  others,  saying  that  if  one  is  continually  thinking  of  the 
faults  of  others,  one's  own  mind  becomes  debased  and  one 
grows  like  the  very  sinners  one  criticizes, 
xvi.  Rati,      It  is  natural  for  an  ascetic  religion  to  reckon  the  lack  of  self- 
Arati.        control  in  the  presence  of  either  joy  or  sorrow  (Rati  Arati) 
as  a  very  grave  sin,  tending,  as  it  does,  not  only  to  injury 
of  health  and  spirits,  but  also  to  excessive  attachment  to 
temporal  and  transitory  objects  of  affection. 
xvii.  The  seventeenth  form  of  sin  in  our  list,  Mdydmrisd,  is  very 

Maya-  far-reaching.  It  is  that  species  of  untruthfulness  which  in 
'  *  *  ordinary  conversation  leads  to  suggestio  falsi,  and  which  in 
rehgion  leads  to  hypocrisy.  The  Jaina  love  of  the  country- 
side and  their  shrewd  country  wit  is  shown  in  the  fact  that 
the  typical  example  they  quote  of  the  hypocrite  is  the  stork. 
This  bird,  they  declare,  stands  on  the  river  bank  on  only  one 
leg  (to  pretend  he  has  the  least  possible  connexion  with  the 
things  of  earth)  and  seems  to  be  lost  in  meditation,  but,  if 
a  fish  appear,  he  swoops  down  and  kills  it,  thus  committing 
the  sin  of  hirhsa,  the  most  heinous  of  all  crimes,  whilst 
professing  to  be  engaged  in  devotion, 
xviii.  The  last  of  the  eighteen  sins,  Mithyddarsana  Salya,  em- 

Mithya-    bj-^ces  those  that  spring  from  false  faith,  such  as  holding 

darsana  / 

Salya.       the  renegade  Gosala,  who  was  nothing  but  a  failure,  to  be 

a  Tirthankara,  or  believing  in  a  false  religion,^  or  taking 
a  man  who  is  a  hypocrite  for  one's  guru.  There  are 
altogether  twenty-five  divisions  of  the  sin  of  false  faith, 
but  we  need  only  glance  at  one  or  two  of  the  most  impor- 
tant, as  throwing  an  interesting  light  on  the  way  Jaina 
regard  the  religions  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  Such 
are  Laukika  mithydtva,  or  believing  in  such  gods  as 
Ganesa  or  Hanuman,  whom  the  Jaina  do  not  believe  to  be 

^  All  religions  outside  Jainism  are  false,  but  those  which  do  not 
inculcate  compassion  are  specially  unworthy  of  credence. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  131 

gods  at  all ;  and  Lokottara  mithydtva,  which  includes  all 
forms  of  spiritual  bribery,  such  as  the  offering  of  vows  to 
various  Jaina  saints  or  gurus  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  wor- 
shipper's wishes.  Under  this  it  is  even  forbidden  to  pray  for 
a  child's  recovery  from  sickness  !  It  is  also  accounted  a  sin, 
though  a  venial  one,  if  a  Jaina  woman,  for  instance,  promises 
in  the  event  of  a  son  being  granted  to  her  to  give  a  cradle 
to  a  temple,  or  to  donate  money  to  a  sadhu,  or  that  her 
husband  will  feed  their  caste  fellows;  for  the  Jaina  say  that 
they  should  never  give  alms  with  any  object  save  that  of 
aiding  themselves  on  the  journey  to  moksa,  and  should  be 
careful  not  to  import  into  their  rehgion  the  practices  of  an 
alien  faith.^  Two  other  branches  of  the  sin  of  false  faith 
are  such  as  might  prevent  conversion  to  Jainism :  the 
obstinate  holding  of  a  behef,  when  the  holder  is  convinced  it 
is  false  [Ahhigrahika  mithydtva) ;  and  the  resting  content  in 
a  state  of  ignorance,  when  there  is  an  opportunity  of  striving 
to  learn  [Ajndna  mithydtva).  Other  sins  included  under  this 
head  consist  in  lack  of  reverence  towards  sacred  things  :  for 
instance,  he  who  fails  to  pay  the  honour  due  to  a  guru  or  a 
god  is  guilty  of  Avinaya  mithydtva ;  and  a  man  who  enters 
a  temple  wearing  his  shoes,  or  chewing  betel-nut,  or  who 
spits  in  the  temple  precincts,  is  guilty  of  Asdtand  mithydtva. 
The  last  of  these  twenty-five  which  we  need  enumerate  is 
Anabhigrahika  mithydtva,^  the  sin  which  any  Jaina  would 
commit  who,  for  example,  became  a  theosophist,  or  came  to 
regard  all  religions  as  true  and  all  their  founders  and 
apostles  as  equally  worthy  of  reverejice  and  belief. 

Such  are  some  of  the  faults  which  are  included  under  this 
sin  of  false  faith,  the  last  on  the  list  of  the  eighteen 
kinds  of  sin.  Such  a  list  is  in  itself  enough  to  justify  the 
claim  of  the  Jaina  that  the  philosophy  of  their  faith  is 
an  ethical  philosophy;    but  to  Western  eyes  it  seems  no 

^  The  intelligent  Jaina  clearly  recognize  that  Hinduism  has  a  very  great 
influence  over  the  religious  ideas  and  practices  of  the  less  instructed 
members  of  their  community. 

2  Otherwise  Anabhi grahitva, 

K2 


132  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

less  remarkable  for  its  omissions  than  for  its  inclusions. 
To  judge  this  list  fairly  one  must  remember  that  it  is 
not  an  unused  piece  of  lumber  stored  away  in  the  Jaina 
statute  book,  but  that  the  most  careless  of  Jaina  test  their 
consciences  by  it  at  least  once  every  year,  and  that  the 
more  devout  use  it  every  four  months  and  some  even  every 
fortnight.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  such  lists,  together  with 
kindred  enactments,  have  educated  the  Jaina  conscience 
to  some  knowledge  of  what  sin  is. 

The  Eighty-two  Results  of  Sin. 

Under  their  fourth  principle  the  Jaina  include  not  only 
the  forms  which  sin  takes,  but  also  the  results  which  follow 
from  it.  Jaina  have  a  great  admiration  for  beauty  of  person 
and  of  intellect,  and  they  believe  that  sin  in  a  previous  birth 
will  inevitably  produce  deformity  in  mind  or  body  in  the 
next  existence. 
The  five  They  say  that  there  are  five  ways  in  which  sin  can  im- 
jnana-  pg^^g  knowledge.  It  may  impede  the  free  use  of  the  intellect 
[Matijiidndvaramya).  It  is  true  that  when  a  man  becomes 
a  Siddha,  his  soul  will  have  perfect  knowledge  and  will  be 
able  to  cast  aside  the  mind  as  no  longer  needed,  but  in  this 
life  he  must  use  his  intellect  and  his  five  senses  to  the  full 
as  a  means  of  gaining  wisdom.  Sin  in  a  previous  birth 
hinders  all  exercise  of  the  intellect,  as  dirt  clogs  the  machi- 
nery of  a  watch.  Another  effect  of  sin  on  the  intellect  is 
to  prevent  our  gaining  any  good  from  hearing  or  reading 
the  scriptures  [Srutajndndvaranlya).  Sin  also  impedes  the 
use  of  occult  powers.  Certain  Jaina,  even  after  shutting 
their  eyes,  know  what  is  going  on  around  them,  but  the 
effect  of  some  sins  would  neutralize  this  knowledge  [Ava- 
dhijndndvaraniyd).  By  the  practice  of  austerities  these 
occult  powers  can  be  so  developed  that  a  man  can  know 
what  is  going  on  in  Jambudvipa,  DhatakI  Khanda,^  or  half 
of  Puskaradvipa,  but  previous  sin  (Mana/iparydyajndnd- 

^  O?'  Kalodadhi  Khanda. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  133 

varaniya)  would  spoil  these  powers,  even  as  another  of  its 
results  [KevalajndndvaraTtiya)  can  prevent  any  one's  attain- 
ing omniscience,  the  highest  knowledge  of  all.  Evidently 
the  Jaina  have  clearly  realized  that  part  of  the  wages  of  sin 
is  death  to  the  intellectual  life. 

Sin  can  also  impede  our  enjoyment  of  many  other  things  The  five 
besides  intellect.  If  one  is  longing  to  experience  the  pleasure  "  a^aya. 
of  giving  away,  and  even  has  everything  ready,  sin  will 
prevent  one's  actually  dispensing  the  alms  [Ddndntardya). 
If  a  man  works  hard  in  business,  but  never  manages  to  make 
a  profit,  he  knows  that  it  is  owing  to  sin  [Ldhhdntardya). 
In  this  case,  however,  he  may  hope  to  overcome  the  effect 
of  sin,  if  it  had  not  become  ripe  enough  for  punishment,  by 
accumulating  merit.  There  are  two  ways  of  enjoying  the 
possession  of  property  :  there  is  the  enjoyment  a  poor  man 
would  take  in  having  some  great  luxury  like  a  motor  car, 
and  the  enjoyment  he  has  in  using  such  necessaries  of  life 
as  food  and  clothing.  The  fruit  of  sin  will  prevent  his 
enjoying  either  [Bhogdntardya  and  Upabhogdntardya).  The 
Jaina  hold  also  that  sin  will  prevent  a  man's  rejoicing  in  his 
strength,  and  if  they  see  that  some  one,  though  evidently 
possessing  great  physical  or  spiritual  powers,  has  been  from 
his  youth  up  unable  to  use  them  (Vtrydntardya),  they  say  at 
once  that  he  must  have  committed  some  sin  in  his  previous 
birth. 

Sin  has  a  specially  evil  effect  on  sight,  both  physical  and  The 
spiritual   (Caksudarsandvaramya) :    one  effect  of  sin  may  j^^J^^^^. 
be  to  actually  render  a  man  blind,  .a  less  gross  sin  would  avara- 
result  in  his  being  short-sighted,  and  if  the  sin  were  only  "^y^* 
a  venial  one,  its  fruit  might  be  only  night  blindness.     Other 
sins  would  injure  other  senses  [Acaksudarsandvaraniya)  such 
as  hearing,  smelling,  tasting  and  the  sense  of  touch.     Then, 
just  as  we  saw  that  the  degrees  of  knowledge  were  impeded 
as  a  penalty  for  sin,  so  with  regard  to  sight  in  various  de- 
grees :  sin  prevents  any  one  seeing  with  the  eyes  of  the  soul 
what  people  at  a  distance  are  doing  {Avadhidarsandvaranlya), 


134 


THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 


The  five 
Nidra. 


Five 

unclassi- 
fied 
results. 


and  of  course  also  hinders  any  one  from  getting  that  super- 
natural vision  which  is  only  possessed  by  the  omniscient 
[Kevaladarsandvaraniya).  If  any  sin  be  very  heinous,  its 
fruit  may  ripen  in  the  very  life  in  which  it  was  committed,  so 
that  the  sinner  may  suffer  for  it  before  death  without  having 
to  wait  for  rebirth,  but  usually  the  wages  of  sin  accumulate 
and  only  affect  a  jiva  in  succeeding  lives. 

Sin  seems  to  have  a  specially  unfavourable  influence  on 
attempts  at  meditation,  for  one  of  the  fruits  of  sin  is  slumber, 
that  great  foe  to  prayer.  All  indulgence  in  sin  leads  to 
sleepiness  :  if  the  sin  had  been  slight  the  slumber  is  light 
(Nidrd)^  and  the  sleeper  can  be  awakened  easily ;  but  heavier 
sin  brings  on  heavier  slumber  (Nidrdnidrd),  from  which 
the  awakening  is  painful.  In  a  worse  state  sleep  comes  un- 
invited to  a  man  as  he  tries  to  meditate  when  he  is  standing 
up  or  sitting  down  [Pracald)  ;  and  as  a  punishment  for  yet 
grosser  sin  it  does  not  wait  for  movement  to  cease,  but  over- 
powers him  even  as  he  is  walking  along  the  road  [Cald  or 
Pracaldpracald).  The  worst  type  of  slumber  [Stydnarddhi 
or  Thinarddhi)  is  the  fruit  of  gross  sin,  and  indues  its  victims 
with  terrific  vigour,  so  that  they  possess  at  least  half  of  the 
strength  of  the  great  Vasudeva.  With  this  strength  they 
commit  in  their  sleep  all  sorts  of  crimes,  murders  and  man- 
slaughters, so  that  their  guilt  is  increased,  and  with  it  is 
increased  also  their  slumber,  hence  they  are  perpetually  in- 
volved in  a  hideous  circle  of  crime  bringing  forth  slumber  and 
slumber  bringing  forth  crime,  from  which  there  is  no  relief. 

In  the  long  list  of  eighty-two  results  of  sin  one  comes 
after  Nidra  to  some  unclassified  results,  which  we  shall 
deal  with  more  fully  elsewhere,  such  as  the  being  born 
in  a  low-caste  or  poor  family  (Nlcagotra),  being  born  in 
hell  {Narakagati),  or  suffering  sorrow  on  sorrow  [Asdtd- 
vedanlya),  perhaps  in  hell.  As  a  result  of  sin,  too,  the  force 
[N arakdnupurvl)  is  accumulated  which  will  send  one  to  hell, 
and  the  time  one  will  have  to  spend  there  (Narakdyu)  is  also 
dependent  on  our  previous  sins. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  .135 

Next  on  the  long  list  come  the  twenty-five  Kasaya  (those  The 

sins  which  result  in  tying  men  to  the  cycle  of  rebirth).    We  [j^^^'^" 

have  discussed^  sixteen  of  these  under  the  heads  of  anger,  Kasaya, 

conceit,  intrigue,  and  greed,  and  their  subdivisions,  and  Jj^cluding 

must  now  look  at  nine  minor  faults  [Nokasdya)  and  their  nine 

results.     These  sins  are  such  as  it  is  very  important  for  Noka- 

.       1  ,  saya. 

ascetics  to  avoid,  but  as  they  are  not  m  themselves  very  " 

heinous  transgressions,  they  do  not  bring  such  terrible  con- 
sequences in  their  train.  Nevertheless  a  sadhu  must  avoid 
the  sin  of  laughter  (Hdsya),  for  when  he  made  the  great 
renunciation  he  bade  farewell  to  all  enjoyment  of  merriment. 
If  a  sadhu  laughs  even  once,  some  punishment  will  follow, 
and  if  he  persists  in  the  indulgence,  it  will  lead  to  his 
rebirth.  The  next  sin  is  worth  remembering,  for  it  brings 
out  most  clearly  the  difference  between  the  Christian  ideal 
of  asceticism,  as  typified,  for  example,  by  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi  or  David  Livingstone,  with  their  joy  in  all  the  beauty 
and  wonder  of  the  world,  and  the  Jaina  ideal.  A  sadhu  must 
not  rejoice  in  beauty  {Rati^)  nor  in  the  joyousness  of  a  httle 
child,  nor  in  the  sound  of  exquisite  harmony,  nor  in  the 
glories  of  art,  for  a  religious  has  done  with  all  pleasure  which 
is  worldly  and  arises  from  delight  in  pudgala.  A  monk  has 
bidden  farewell  also  to  all  disgust  (Arati),  and  must  not  feel 
dismay  at  the  sight  of  an  evil-looking  person,  or  on  hearing 
even  the  vilest  abuse.  A  sadhu  must  bafree  from  all  fear 
{Bhaya)  of  men  or  animals  :  indeed  in  their  scriptures  he  is 
expressly  told  that,  even  if  he  sees  a  vicious  cow  coming  for 
him,  he  is  not  to  leave  the  road,  but  with  a  mind  '  not  directed 
to  outward  things  '  continue  in  contemplation.^  Similarly 
he  must  never  indulge  in  grief  [Soka)  through  being  deprived 
of  anything,  but  must  remain  undisturbed,  even  if  thieves 
rob  him  of  his  last  garment.  Many  legends  record  how 
scrupulously  good  monks  have  abstained  from  the  next  sin, 

^  See  pp.  122  ff. 

^  Rati  and  Arati  bear  various  meanings  in  Jaina  philosophy. 

^  Acdranga  Sfttrd^  S.B,E.,  xxii,  p.  147. 


136  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

that  of  feeling  dismayed  when  assailed,  either  by  words  of 

hatred  or  contempt,  or  by  an  evil  smell  [Duganchd).     The 

remaining  three  minor  faults  (Purusaveda,  Strlveda,  Napui'n- 

sakaveda)  remind  us  how  completely  the  Jaina  ascetic  has 

parted  with  love  and  affection,  for  if  he  be  a  true  monk, 

he  must  form  no  friendship  even  with  another  monk,  and 

similarly  no  nun  may  desire  the  companionship  of  another 

nun,  or  a  neuter  of  a  neuter.     Though  these  nine  minor 

faults  are  sins  that  the  ascetic  is  specially  bound  to  shun, 

they  also  show  the  things  that  the  layman  will  do  well  to 

avoid,  for  the  over-indulgence  in  any  of  them  will  result  in 

rebirth. 

Six  re-  Sin  will  further  affect  the  class  of  beings  into  which  one  is 

^"!^^  .       born  in  the  next  incarnation,  for  the  Taina  draw  no  barriers 
anectino' 

class  of^   between  animal  and  human  life,  and  the  result  of  sin  in 
Ji^^-  this  life  may  be  to  accumulate  a  force  [Tiryafic  anupurvl) 

which  will  cause  one  to  be  reborn  on  the  next  occasion  as 
a  beast  or  a  bird  [Tiryanc  gati)  or  as  a  one-sensed,  two- 
sensed,  three-sensed,  or  four-sensed  being  [Ekendriya  ndma, 
Be-indriya  ndma,  Tri-indriya  ndma,  Corendriya  ndma). 
Six  Sin  also  results  in  personal  ughness  of  various  kinds.     If 

^]g_  ^  one  sees  some  one  who  walks  in  a  very  ugly  way  like  a 
mishes.  camel  or  a  donkey,  one  knows  at  once  that  it  is  the  result 
of  sin  (Asubha  vihdyogati) ;  certain  ugly  diseases  ( Upaghdta 
ndma),  such  as  boils  under  the  tongue,  diseases  of  the  throat, 
teeth  dropping  out,  or  curvature  of  the  spine,  are  caused  by 
sin.  Indians  very  much  admire  a  complexion  of  the  colour 
of  ripe  wheat  and  dislike  a  very  dark  skin ;  and  Jaina  believe 
that  complexions  are  the  result  of  conduct  in  a  past  life,  and 
that  a  really  black  skin  is  the  fruit  of  sin  {Asubha  varna). 
So  is  an  unpleasant  bodily  smell  [Asubha  gandha) ,  unpleasant 
bodily  essence  [Asubha  rasa),  and  a  skin  that  is  unpleasant 
to  the  touch  [Asubha  sparsa).  The  general  result  of  beliefs 
of  this  kind  is  to  dry  up  sympathy  for  sufferers  from  bodily 
defects.- 

Sin  also  results  in  loss  of  bodily  strength,  and  to  under- 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  137 

stand  this  we  must  try  and  grasp  a  new  idea  of  anatomy.  The  five 
The  Jaina  beheve  that  sinews  are  wrapped  round  the  ^^"^' 
bones  of  the  human  frame  hke  a  bandage,  and  that  on 
the  tightness  of  this  wrapping  the  strength  of  the  body 
depends.  Sin  has  affected  this  bandage  in  five  particular 
ways :  firstly  [Risahhandrdca  saiighena),  owing  to  the 
general  depravity  of  the  age,  the  peg  that  fastened  the 
bandage  tightly  to  the  human  frame  and  prevented  its 
getting  unwound  has  dropped  out,  and  got  permanently 
lost,  so  that  there  is  no  security  against  loss  of  bodily 
strength.  As  the  world  has  grown  steadily  wickeder,  the 
bandage  has  passed  through  successive  stages  of  becoming 
loose  [Ndrdca  sangheftd)  and  so  greatly  weakening  the  body ; 
dropping  half  off  (Ardhandrdca  sanghena)  ;  slipping  right 
off  [Kllikd  sangheHo),  so  as  to  leave  only  the  two  little  nails 
that  fastened  the  bones  before  they  were  bandaged  ;  until 
at  last  we  reach  the  present  epoch,  when  not  only  has  the 
bandage  entirely  disappeared  (Sevdrtta  sanghena),  but  also 
the  nails  that  held  the  bones,  and  so  the  human  frame, 
having  lost  the  strength  the  bandage  formerly  gave,  as  well 
as  the  cohesion  due  to  the  nails,  now  only  keeps  together  in 
a  weakened  condition  '  owing  to  sockets,  &c.'  ! 

Sin  also  results  in  various  deformities  in  the  human  body.  The  five 
A  good  figure  is  held  to  be  a  reward  of  past  merit,  and  the  ^^^' 
various  failures  to  reach  the  perfect  physical  standard  are 
the  fruits  of  sin.  As  the  upper  portion  of  a  banyan  tree  is 
famous  for  its  beauty,  whilst  nearer  the  ground  it  looks  ugly 
enough,  so  it  often  happens  that,  though  the  head  and  trunk 
of  a  man  are  perfectly  formed,  his  legs  are  short  and  spindly; 
this  failure  of  upper  and  lower  to  correspond  {Nyagrodha- 
parimaiidala  sanisthdna)  is  the  fruit  of  sin.  So  is  the  reverse 
{Sddi  sanisthdna),  when  the  head  and  trunk  are  miserably 
thin  and  badly  developed,  while  the  legs  are  strong  and 
vigorous.  Or  the  head  and  legs  may  be  normal,  but  the 
torso  ill-formed  [Kuhjaka  sanisthdna).  The  result  of  sin 
may  be  to  make  a  man  a  dwarf  [Vdmana  sanisthdna) ;  and 


138  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

still  grosser  sin  may  result  in  the  malformation  of  every 
limb  and  every  feature  [Hunda  sanisthdna). 
The  Pursuing  our  way  down  the  long  list  we  come  next  to 

Sthavara  ^  rather  heterogeneous  group  of  ten  results  of  sin.  Certain 
sins  condemn  the  soul  that  commits  them  to  be  born  in  the 
next  life  in  the  class  of  motionless  beings  [Sthavara),  or  per- 
haps to  be  so  tiny  as  to  be  invisible  and  unable  to  move 
(Suksma).  Other  sins  prevent  a  soul  acquiring  the  full 
number  of  powers  and  senses  that  belong  to  the  class  in 
which  it  is  born  [Aparydpti).  A  still  more  dreaded  result  of 
sin  forces  a  soul  to  take  up  its  abode  in  a  body  already  in- 
habited by  numberless  other  souls  {Sddhdrana).  Jaina,  as 
we  have  seen,  believe  that  thousands  of  lives  lodge  in  every 
single  potato,  onion,  artichoke  and  beet ;  and  so  they  never 
eat  any  tuber,  root,  or  bulb,  lest  they  should  take  not  one 
but  thousands  of  lives  by  so  doing.  No  punishment  is  more 
feared  by  the  Jaina  than  that  the  jiva,  instead  of  having 
some  shelter  (human,  animal,  or  vegetable)  to  itself,  may  have 
to  lodge  along  with  myriads  of  others  in  an  overcrowded 
dwelling.  Again,  as  the  result  of  sin,  the  body  that  the  jiva 
inhabits  may  be  complete  in  every  respect,  but  the  limbs 
may  be  unstable  [Asthira) :  a  shaky  hand,  a  palsied  head  and 
loose  teeth  are  all  put  down  to  sin  in  a  past  life.  Sin  may 
make  a  man  unlucky  and  his  name  so  inauspicious  (Asubha) 
that  people  do  not  hke  to  mention  it  early  in  the  morning, 
lest  misfortune  pursue  them  all  day  ;  or  it  may  make  a  man 
a  failure  (Durbhaga),  so  that  everything  he  touches  goes 
wrong.  The  voice,  too,  may  be  affected  [Dusvara],  so  that 
it  becomes  unpleasing  to  the  listener  and  lacks  all  harmony : 
a  donkey's  bray,  the  hooting  of  an  owl  and  the  cracked 
voice  of  a  man  all  bear  witness  to  sin  in  a  previous  life. 
Though  the  sound  of  a  voice  may  be  all  right,  the  effect  of 
sin  may  be  to  take  away  all  authority  from  it  (Anddeya) : 
when  a  man's  commands  are  disobeyed,  his  warnings  dis- 
regarded, and  his  words  disbelieved,  it  is  plain  that  he  must 
have  sinned  deeply  in  his  last  birth.     One  notices,  too, 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  139 

that  however  hard  some  men  strive,  disgrace  instead  of  fame 
seems  to  be  their  lot  (Ayasa) ;  this  also  is  the  result  of  sin. 

The   last    of   the    eighty- two   fruits    of   sin    {Mithydtva  Mith- 
mohanlya)  is  the  most  terrible  of  all,  for  it  deprives  a  man  Y^^va 
of  the  power  of  believing  in  the  truth.     He  is  forced  by  it  niya. 
to  believe  in  a  false  instead  of  in  a  true  god  ;  in  an  evil  guru 
and  not  in  a  good  one  ;    and  in  a  false  creed  instead  of  the 
true  faith. 

The  Fifth  Category  :    Asrava. 

Karma  (the  accumulated  result  of  action)  is  one  of  the  The 
central  ideas  of  the  Jaina  faith,  and  the  fifth  principle  of  (pyty-two 
Jaina  philosophy  deals  with  the  way  karma  is  acquired  by 
the  human  souL  Just  as  water  flows  into  a  boat  through 
a  hole  in  it,  so  karma  according  to  the -Jaina  flows  into  the 
soul  through  Asrava  and  impedes  its  progress.  No  soul 
can  attain  to  moksa  till  it  has  worked  off  all  its  karma, 
auspicious  and  inauspicious  [Subha  and  Asubha).  There  are 
forty-two  chief  channels  or  Asrava  through  which  karma 
enters  a  jiva ;  and  of  these,  seventeen  are  regarded  as  major. 

The  easiest  way  for  karma  to  enter  is  through  the  senses  :  The 
so  the  five  indriya  must  be  guarded  ;  otherwise,  through  the  seven- 
ear  for  example  [Kdna  asrava)  pleasant  sounds  may  be  heard  major 
and  so  gloated  over  and  indulged  in  that  a  man  would  find  Asrava. 

it  impossible  to  live  without  them,  and  eventually  through  J^  ^^^^ 
^  .  .  '  J  >=>     Senses. 

his  delight  in  these  siren  sounds  forget  all  duty  and  be 
lost  to  all  progress  in  the  upward  path.  Or  once  more 
through  the  lust  of  the  eye  [Ankha  asrava)  he  may  be  so 
entangled  by  the  beauty  of  women  or  art  as  to  be  hindered 
from  any  progress,  and  so  evil  would  flow  into  his  soul. 
Again  the  delight  in  sweet  odours  (Ndka  asrava),  as  of 
flowers,  perfumes,  or  scent,  may  make  him  forget  his  duties. 
Similarly  taste  [Jlbha  asrava)  may  become  a  hindrance  to 
him,  for  he  may  waste  time  and  money  in  purchasing  deli- 
cacies, and  even  eat  things  forbidden  to  the  devout.  The 
Jaina  lay  great  stress  on  the  importance  of  controlling  the 


I40  ,    THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

sense  of  taste,  for  if  that  be  disciplined,  all  the  other  senses 
can  also,  they  say,  be  kept  in  restraint,  whereas  gluttony 
affects  sight,  hearing,  smell  and  the  sense  of  touch.  The 
sense  of  touch,  too,  must  be  carefully  controlled  {Sparsa 
dsrava),  or  the  love  of  touching  smooth  things,  for  example, 
may  become  such  a  snare  that  the  toucher  may  be  lulled 
into  unconsciousness  through  the  pleasure  of  it. 
The  four  Karma  may  enter  through  the  four  emotions  (Kasdya)  ^ 
Kasaya.  ^^hose  exercise  ties  the  soul  to  the  cycle  of  rebirth,  for  if 
anger  be  indulged  (Krodha  dsrava),  it  burns  the  soul  of  him 
who  gives  way  to  it,  as  well  as  the  soul  of  the  person  he  may 
injure,  and  so  both  are  harmed.  Conceit  and  pride  (Mdna 
dsrava)  are  a  terrible  foe  to  progress  and  open  the  door  to 
all  sorts  of  karma,  besides  they  are  the  deadly  enemy  of 
courtesy,  by  which  merit  is  obtained.  Deceit  and  intrigue 
(Mdyd  dsrava)  lead  to  many  kinds  of  falseness  in  word  and 
deed,  and  thus  much  evil  karma  is  accumulated  ;  and  lastly 
avarice  (Lobha  dsrava)  leads  first  to  cheating  and  then  to 
actual  thieving,  and  is  opposed  to  self-sacrifice  and  self- 
restraint. 

The  Jaina  say  that  these  four  evil  emotions  must  be 

checked  on  the  principle  of  cultivating  the  corresponding 

virtue.     Thus  the  angry  man  must  exercise  forgiveness, 

the  proud  man  humihty,  the  deceitful  frankness,  and  the 

avaricious  contentment ;  but  how  this  is  to  be  done  is  not 

explained. 

The  five        Again,  through  not  taking  the  five  great  vows  evil  karma 

Avrata.     ^^y  ^^^  ^^  j^-^  £^g  ways  [Pauca  Avrata).     If  a  man  fails  to 

go  to  a  guru  and,  standing  in  front  of  him,  to  promise  with 

folded  hands  that  he  will  not  kill,  this  simple  omission  to 

promise,  without  any  commission,  will  lead  to  the  acquisition 

of  karma ;  for  the  Jaina  hold  that  without  the  stiffening  of 

^resolution  that  comes  through  taking  the  vow  one  is  more 

liable  to  do  wrong ;  this  liability  leads  to  instability  of  mind, 

through  which  some  karma  enters.     Of  course  more  karma 

1  See  pp.  122  ff. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  141 

would  enter  if  one  should  go  further  and  act  contrary  to  the 
spirit  of  the  vow.  Similarly  karma  is  acquired  by  failing 
to  take,  or  offending  against,  the  spirit  of  the  vow  against 
lying,  thieving,  coveting  and  acting  unchastely. 

Karma  will  also  flow  into  any  soul  which  has  allowed  The  three 
either  mind,  speech,  or  body  to  become  too  entangled  with  ^ 
a  material  object.  If  the  mind  is  taken  up  with  meditation 
on  a  Tirthahkara  or  on  a  Siddha,  the  influence  is  good,  and 
a  favourable  channel  [Subha  dsrava)  is  opened  up,  through 
which,  instead  of  karma,  merit  (punya)  flows  into  the  soul ; 
but  if  the  mind  is  occupied  with  an  evil  thought  (e.  g.  if 
such  and  such  a  merchant  dies,  I  shall  get  his  wealth),  a  bad 
channel  is  opened,  and  through  this  bad  channel  [Asuhha 
dsrava)  evil  karma  enters.  In  the  same  way  there  is  a  subha 
and  asubha  asrava  of  speech :  by  repeating  the  name  of 
Siddha  or  the  Pafica  Paramesvara  merit  is  acquired,  but 
by  evil  or  abusive  speaking  bad  karma  enters  the  soul. 
Finally,  if  one  saves  life,  for  example,  by  bodily  exertion,  it 
is  subha  asrava,  whilst  killing  is,  of  course,  asubha  asrava. 

Besides  these  seventeen  major  channels  or  asrava,  there  The 
are  twenty-five  minor  ways  by  which  karma  is  acquired,  J^^^^ty- 
all  of  them  connected  with  action.     If  one  is  not  careful  minoi 
about  the  movements  of  one's  body,  an  injury  may  be  dsrava. 
inflicted  on  some  person  or  thing  [Kdyikl  dsrava)  and  evil 
karma  acquired,  and  the  same  thing  may  happen  through  the 
careless  use  of  weapons  (Adhikaranikl),  or  through  hatred 
(Pradvesikl) ,  or  intentionally  [Paritdpanikl),  or  some  prana 
[PrdJidtipdtikl)  may  be  injured.  Again,  by  beginning  to  build 
a  house  or  to  till  a  field  some  insect  life  may  be  hurt  [Aram- 
bhiki),  or  by  gathering  together  great  stores  of  grain,  cattle, 
or  wealth  covetousness  may  arise  (Pdrigrahikt)  and  give 
birth  to  karma.     One  might  do  some  one  an  injury  through 
deceit  {Mdydpratyayikl),  or  acquire  evil  karma  by  acting 
contrary  to  the   dictates  of  Mahavira   and   obeying   the 
commands  of  some  false  faith  [Mithyddarsanapratyayiki). 
Through  omitting  to  take  a  vow  to  go  to  a  certain  place  (e.  g. 


142  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

to  America)  one  might  go  there,  and  when  there  acquire  evil 
karma,  or,  in  the  same  way  through  omitting  to  take  a  vow 
against  eating  certain  things  one  is  hable  to  eat  them  and 
so  acquire  karma  (Apratydkhydniki) .  By  looking  at  some 
object  with  excessive  love  or  hatred,  one  makes  a  channel 
for  karma  to  enter  (DrisHki),  and  by  touching  other  objects 
one  produces  the  same  effect  {Spristikl).  Another  interest- 
ing belief  of  the  Jaina  under  this  head  is  that  sin  committed 
in  a  previous  existence  forms  a  channel  through  which,  in 
this  life,  karma  may  be  more  easily  acquired  (Prdtityaki). 
The  Jaina,  who  in  all  sorts  of  ways  show  their  realization 
of  the  dangers  of  wealth,  believe  that  if  the  possessor  of 
many  goods  be  much  praised  for  possessing  them  and  thus 
give  way  to  conceit,  he  opens  the  way  for  evil  karma  to 
accrue  [Sdmantopanipdtiki). 

Machinery  is  guilty  of  destroying  so  much  insect  life,  that 
Jaina  should  only  use  it  with  the  greatest  caution,  for  a 
man,  even  if  he  be  an  employe  working  at  the  express 
command  of  a  rajah  whom  he  is  bound  to  obey,  does  not 
therefore  rid  himself  of  his  personal  responsibility,  but 
acquires  evil  karma  through  every  life  he  takes  [N  aisastriki) } 
The  employer,  however,  is  also  responsible,  and  if  a  servant 
in  obedience  to  his  master's  order  so  acts  as  to  injure  any 
jiva,  his  guilt  is  shared  by  his  master,  who  will  also  have 
acquired  evil  karma  (Svahastikl).  There  is  an  expressive 
Gujarat!  adjective  '  dodhadahyum  '  applied  to  people  who 
are  too  wise  by  half ;  when  folk  suffer  from  this  in  religious 
matters  and  know  more  than  Mahavira  taught,  they  open 
the  way  for  karma  to  flow  in  {Ajfidpaniki).  Defamation 
also  leads  to  karma,  and  if  a  man  unjustly  speaks  ill  of 
another,  he  has  thereby  opened  the  door  to  evil  karma 
{Vaiddranikl).  The  caustic  wit  of  the  Jaina  shows  in 
the  next  item  on  the  list,  for  they  teach  that  if  a  man 
pretends  to  be  listening  to  a  sermon  with  great  interest 
and    all   the   time    his  wits   are  wool-gathering,    he    has 

^  Or  Naisristikl. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  143 

formed  a  new  channel  {Andhhogikl)  for  karma.     They  also 
aim  a  shrewd  blow  at  all  reformers  and  such-like  troublesome 
folk  by  declaring  that  a  very  dangerous  way  of  opening  new 
inlets  for  ka^ma  is  to  act  in  anyway  against  the  prejudices, 
usages,  or  beliefs  that  one  knows  one's  fellow  caste-men  to 
hold  in  this  world,  or  that  one  believes  they  will  hold  in 
the   next  !    [Anavakdnksdpratyayiki).     In   the  same   way 
karma  accrues  if  one  acts  against  rule,  or  fails  to  control  one's 
speech,  body,  mind,  or  movements  (Prayogikl).     There  is 
a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  next  item  on  the  list 
[Sdmuddyikl).     Some  pandits  hold  that  it  refers  to  the 
channels  an  individual  may  open  by  acting  in  such  a  way 
that  all  the  eight  karma  simultaneously  flow  in.     Others 
believe  it  denotes  the  channels  a  crowd  of  people  may  open 
at  the  same  moment,   as,   for  instance,  if    a  number   of 
persons  go  to  see  a  man  hanged  and  all  hope  that  the  hang- 
man will  not  keep  them  waiting  about,  but  will  get  the 
execution  over  as  quickly  as  possible ;    when  this  occurs 
every  single  member  of  the  crowd  who  feels  this  desire  has 
opened  a  passage  for  bad  karma.     When  people  act  under 
the  influence  of  deceit  or  covetousness,  they  open  a  way  for 
karma  [Premiki),  and  so  they  do  when  swayed  by  anger 
{Dvesiki).    In  fact,  karma,  either  good  or  bad,  must  accrue 
so  long  as  one  has  a  body;   even  a  Kevali  (who,  know- 
ing all  sin,  tries  to  avoid  it),  so  long  as  he  is  in  the  flesh,  is 
forced   into  some  action,  and  every  action  good  or  bad 
produces  karma  (Irydpathikl).     So  long   as   there  is  any 
karma  remaining,  either  good  or  evil,  one  cannot  reach 
moksa.     The  logical  outcome  of  this  behef  one  sees,  for 
example,  in  the  action  of  Mahavira's  parents,  who,  trying  to 
avoid  all  action,  lest  karma  (the  result  of  action)  should  keep 
them  from  liberation,  abstained  even  from  the  taking  of 
food,  and  so,   prompted  by  the  highest  motives,  died  of 
starvation.     Only  by  dying  can  a  Jaina  help  acquiring 
karma,  and  karma,  either  good  or  bad,  ties  them  inexorably 
to  the  weary  cycle  of  rebirth.     Here,  again,  we  touch  one 


144  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

of  the  great  contrasts  between  the  teaching  of  Mahavira, 
who,  good  and  great  as  he  was,  taught  a  system,  the  logical 
outcome  of  which  is  death,  and  that  of  the  Founder  of 
Christianity,  who  came  that  His  followers  might  have  life, 
and  have  it  abundantly.^ 

The  Sixth  Category  :    Sanivara. 

We  now  come  to  the  sixth  principle  of  Jaina  philosophy, 
which  is  the  converse  of  the  fifth,  the  way,  namely,  in 
which  the  inflow  of  karma  into  the  soul  can  be  impeded. 
The  karma  that  has  already  been  acquired  can  be  dissipated 
and  so  liberation  attained,  if  only  no  new  karma  accrue  : 
'As  a  large  tank,  when  its  supply  of  water  has  been  stopped, 
gradually  dries  up  by  the  consumption  of  the  water  and  by 
evaporation,  so  the  Karman  of  a  monk,  which  he  acquired 
in  miUions  of  births,  is  annihilated  by  austerities,  if  there 
is  no  influx  of  bad  karman.'  ^ 
The  fifty-      The  Jaina  themselves  consider  this  principle  of  Sarhvara 
waT  f     ^^  supreme  importance,  and  it  contains  matter  that  is  more 
impeding  often  quoted  by  them  than  anything  else.    Long  and  weari- 
some as  we  shall  find  the  lists  it  contains  of  the  fifty-seven 
ways  of  impeding  karma,  yet  they  are  worth  our  study, 
for,  having  already  learnt  what  the  Jaina  mean  by  sin,  we 
shall  now  learn  what  they  mean  by  holiness. 
The  five       The  first  five  ways  of  arresting  the  inflow  of  karma  refer 
to  outward  behaviour.     A  man  who  would  be  holy  must 
observe  the  greatest  care  whenever  he  walks  anywhere  not 
to  injure  any  living  thing  [Iryd  samiti).     This  rule  is,  of 
course,  specially  binding  on  all  monks  and  nuns,  for  the 
Jaina  have  a  comfortably  lower  standard  for  the  laity. 
Ascetics  must  enter  and  leave  their  monasteries  with  the 
greatest  care,  lest  they  step  on  any  insect ;    they  must, 
wherever  possible,  avoid  field-paths  and  keep  to  highways, 
where  an  animal  or  an  insect  can  be  more  easily  seen  and 
avoided  ;    they  must  walk  miles  round  rather  than  cross 
^  St.  John  X.  lo.  2  S.B.E.,  xlv,  p.  174. 


karma. 


Samiti. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS 


145 


a  green  patch  of  ground  wherein  there  are  likely  to  be  many 
living  things  ;  and  they  must  carefully  examine  the  ground 
a  vama's  length  ahead  (i.e.  the  distance  of  outstretched 
arms)  before  treading  on  it.  A  sadhu  to  keep  this  rule 
must,  curiously  enough,  never  cross  the  open  sea,^  though 
he  may  cross  a  creek.  In  order  that  a  layman  may  keep 
this  rule,  he  must  strive  always  to  act  so  as  to  give 
trouble  to  no  living  thing  whilst  he  is  walking,  sitting,  or 
sleeping. 

To  arrest  the  inflow  of  karma  one  must  also  guard  the 
words  of  one's  mouth  (Bhdsd  samiti) :  one  must  always 
speak  kindly,  never  by  word  inflict  pain  on  any  one,  and  in 
every  way  strive  not  to  sin  through  speech.  The  Jaina 
believe  in  auricular  confession ;  and  if,  for  instance,  a  man 
has  eaten  a  potato  but  means  never  to  do  so  again,  he  will 
confess  his  sin  secretly  to  a  sadhu,  and  the  sadhu  (if  he  is 
certain  that  the  penitent  means  never  to  offend  again)  will 
inflict  a  certain  penance  according  to  the  rules  laid  down 
in  the  Vyavahara  Sutra,  Nisitha,  or  Brihatkalpa.  Should 
the  sadhu,  however,  break  the  seal  of  confession  and 
repeat  what  has  been  told  him,  he  will  have  failed  in  Bhasa 
samiti  and  be  guilty  of  great  sin.  Under  this  rule  one  must 
also  guard  against  frightening  any  one  by  speech,  making 
a  mock  of  any  one,  or  preaching  false  doctrine. 

Circumspection  must  also  be  exercised  about  all  matters 
connected  with  eating  [Emit a  samiti).  A  sadhu  is  only 
allowed  to  use  fourteen  kinds  of  things  all  told,  inclusive 
of  wearing  apparel,  food  and  drink.  He  has  to  beg  for 
everything  he  eats,  but  even  then  his  food  is  limited,  for  in 
order  to  guard  against  karma  he  must  be  careful  only  to 
take  such  food  as  is  allowed  to  him,  e.g.  he  must  not  take 
food  underneath  which  a  fire  is  burning.     If  it  is  raining, 

^  It  was  this  interpretation  of  the  rule  which  prevented  any  sadhu 
from  accepting  the  invitation  to  speak  at  the  ParHament  of  ReHgions  in 
America,  or  from  even  deputing  any  one  to  go.  The  difficulty  was 
solved  by  the  lay  community — the  sangha — sending  a  layman. 


146  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

a  monk  must  not  go  out  from  the  Apasaro  (monks'  rest- 
house)  to  beg  for  food  ;  and,  as  no  layman  may  take  food  to 
the  Apasaro,  it  often  happens  that  during  the  rainy  season 
the  sadhus  get  really  hungry  in  their  endeavours  to  avoid 
acquiring  karma.  Again,  a  monk  must  not  take  food  if  he 
thinks  that  by  so  doing  he  will  leave  the  donor's  household 
in  straits  ;  in  fact  there  are  altogether  forty-two  faults 
which  a  sadhu  must  avoid  committing  when  he  begs  for  or 
receives  food.  A  layman  is  simply  bound  to  refrain  from 
committing  sin  in  order  to  obtain  food.  Under  this  rule 
again  all  intoxicants^  are  forbidden  to  monks  and  laymen, 
and  so  are  meat,  butter  and  honey. 

In  order  to  stop  the  inflow  of  karma  a  sadhu  must  also 
be  careful  to  possess  only  five  cloths  [Addnaniksepa?td  sa- 
miti),  and  when  these  are  presented  to  him  he  must  take 
them  with  the  greatest  care,  gently  removing  anything 
that  may  be  on  them,  lest  in  the  very  receiving  of  them 
he  injure  any  insect  life.  If  he  borrows  a  stool  (for  he 
may  not  own  one)  he  must  dust  it  carefully  and  then  sweep 
the  ground  free  from  any  insects  before  he  sets  it  down. 
In  the  same  w^ay  a  householder  should  arrest  the  possible 
inflow  of  karma  by  carefully  dusting  all  his  books  and 
vessels  with  a  poujani,  the  small  brush  used  by  the  laity, 
which  is  a  smaller  edition  of  the  brush  a  sadhu  may  never 
part  from.  A  layman  must  also  scrupulously  sweep  his 
hearth  and  the  wood  he  is  going  to  burn,  and  be  very  care- 
ful that  the  room  he  is  going  to  keep  his  water-vessels  in  is 
thoroughly  swept.  The  result  of  these  rules  (as  any  one  who 
has  had  the  privilege  of  friendship  with  Jaina  ladies  will 
testify)  is  to  keep  a  Jaina  house  exquisitely  clean  and  fresh. 

The  careful  disposal  of  rubbish  and  refuse  is  another 
way  of  preventing  karma  being  acquired  (Parithdpanikd 
samiti^  or  Utsarga  samiti).     If  a  sadhu  after  begging  food 

^  So  particular  are  the  old-fashioned  Jaina  no!;  to  touch  intoxicants, 
that  one  reason  they  give  for  refusing  to  take  European  medicine  is 
that  it  might  contain  alcohol. 

-  Otherwise,  Pratisthdpaiia  samiti. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  147 

find  that  there  is  insect  life  in  it,  he  must  neither  use 
it,  nor  throw  it  carelessly  away,  but  carefully  deposit  it 
where  it  can  neither  do  nor  suffer  harm.  A  monk  must  • 
never  keep  either  food  or  water  overnight,  but  must  care- 
fully dispose  of  anything  that  remains  over  from  the  last 
meal  in  some  convenient  place.  Monks  must  try  when  out 
begging  only  to  accept  as  much  food  as  they  actually  need, 
for  if  they  have  often  to  throw  away  things,  karma  is 
acquired.  All  other  refuse  of  every  kind  must  be  carefully 
disposed  of  by  both  laity  and  monks  in  desert  places  where 
nothing  can  be  injured  by  it. 

Of  equal  importance  with  the  five  rules  for  outward  The 
l^ehaviour  are  the  rules  for  the  controlling  of  mind,  speech  ^^^^; 
and  body,  and  the  Jaina  speak  of  the  eight  rules  together 
as  '  the  essence  of  their  creed  which  a  sage  should  thoroughly 
put  into  practice ;  such  a  wise  man  will  soon  get  beyond  the 
Circle  of  Births  ',^  and  again  as  comprehending  the  whole 
of  the  teaching  of  the  Jaina  and  of  their  sacred  books. ^ 

In  order  that  karma  may  be  arrested,  the  mind  must  be 
controlled  (Manogupti)  in  three  ways  :  one  must  not  indulge 
in  uncontrolled  grief,  anger,  joy,  or  anxiety  [Asatkalpandvi- 
yogi) ;  neither  must  one  show  any  partiality,  but  must  think 
alike  of  rich  and  poor,  realizing  that  in  both  there  is  a  soul,  and 
one  must  fix  one's  mind  on  doing  kindnesses  and  obeying  the 
tenets  of  religion  [Samatdhhdvinl) ;  and  above  all  [Atmdrdma- 
td)  one  must  think  steadily,  not  of  external  things,  but  of  one's 
own  soul  and  of  the  saints  who  have  attained  omniscience. 

Speech  can  be  specially  controlled  [V acanagupti)  in  two 
ways  :  either  by  observing  a  vow  of  silence  (Maimdvalambi) 
for  a  certain  number  of  days,  or  [Vdkniyami)  by  speaking 
as  little  as  possible,  and  when  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  speak,  holding  a  piece  of  cloth  (mumati)  in  front  of  one's 
mouth  in  order  not  to  injure  the  jiva  of  the  air. 

The  movements  of  the  body  must  also  be  controlled 
{Kdyagiipti)  if  the  acquisition  of  karma  is  to  be  arrested : 

^   Uttarddhyayana^  S.B.  Zf.,  xlv,  p.  136.  ^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  130. 

L 


148  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

a  human  being  must  be  careful  to  control  his  move- 
ments according  to  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  scriptures 
{Vathdsutr aces tdniy ami),  and  at  last,  when  he  becomes  a 
saint  omniscient,  must  maintain  his  limbs  in  that  state  of 
absolute  immobility  (Cestdnivritti)  possible  only  to  a  Kevali. 
There  is  the  same  difference  in  standard  as  to  the  way 
a  monk  and  a  layman  must  observe  the  gupti  that  we  have 
noticed  in  all  the  Jaina  rules,  and  the  following  example 
may  illustrate  it.  If  a  sadhu  and  a  layman  meet  a  shooting 
party,  and  the  sportsmen  ask  where  the  deer  they  are  trying 
to  shoot  has  gone,  the  monk  must  keep  silence,  for  he  may 
neither  aid  in  the  taking  of  life  nor  lie,  but  the  ordinary 
man  may  point  in  a  wrong  direction  or  give  an  untrue 
reply,  for,  in  order  to  save  life,  a  layman  may  tell  an 
untruth.  The  keeping  of  the  gupti  is  supposed  to  protect 
a  sadhu  from  all  temptation ;  and  the  scriptures  say  that  if 
a  monk  possesses  the  three  gupti,  his  peace  of  mind  cannot 
be  disturbed  even  by  well-adorned  goddesses.-^ 
The  Since  the  inflow  of  karma  can  also  be  checked  by  endur- 

twenty-     ^^g  hardship,  the  laity  should  endeavour  to  sustain  certain 
Parisaha.  hardships,  but  the  ascetic  was  expressly  commanded  by 
Mahavira  himself  "^  to  endure  '  the  twenty-two  troubles ' 
{Parisaha^)  that  are  likely  to  beset  him  in  his  life  as  a 
wandering  mendicant. 

A  monk  must  accordingly  be  prepared  to  endure  the  trial 
of  hunger  (Ksudhd  parisaha),  if  he  cannot  obtain  food  blame- 
lessly and  without  committing  one  of  the  forty-two  faults, 
even  though  he  were  to  grow  as  emaciated  as  the  joint  of  a 
crow's  leg.  However  thirsty  (Trisd  p.)  he  may  be,  he  must 
never  take  unboiled  water  lest  he  should  destroy  some  life. 
However  cold  a  monk  may  feel,  he  must  endure  it  [Sitap.), 
without  wishing  that  the  sun  would  rise,  that  a  fire  were 
lighted,  or  that  he  had  more  clothes ;  nor  must  an  ascetic 

^   Uttarddhyayana,  S.B.  E.f  \\w,  T^.  \2>6. 
^   Uttarddhyayafia,  S.  B.  E.,  xlv,  p.  9. 
"  Or  Parisaha. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  149 

ever  warm  himself  at  a  fire,  or  light  a  fire.  In  the  same 
way  he  must  endure  heat  [Usnap.),  without  fanning  himself, 
going  to  a  river  side  to  cool  himself,  or  longing  to  pour 
cold  water  over  his  body.  If  when  a  monk  is  meditating, 
a  mosquito  or  a  hornet  sting  him  {Dainsa  p.),  he  must  not 
brush  it  away  nor  be  irritated  by  it,  but  must  remain  un- 
disturbed, and  by  self-control  conquer  his  internal  foe,  as 
an  elephant  at  the  head  of  the  battle  kills  the  enemy. ^ 
A  monk  must  also  endure  anything  in  the  way  of  clothing 
[Vastrap.'^),  being  content  either  to  be  without  it  or  to  receive 
dirty,  old  and  torn  garments.  He  must  also  be  absolutely 
indifferent  to  the  sort  of  lodgings  (Aratip.)  he  may  be  given 
in  the  different  villages.  To  the  Jaina,  woman  was  always 
the  temptress,  never  the  helpmate,  and  the  ascetic  is 
warned  to  renounce  all  liking  for  women's  society  (Strl  p.), 
remembering  that  they  are  '  a  slough  '.  An  ascetic  is 
bound  also  cheerfully  to  keep  the  rules  about  changing  his 
lodging  {Caryd  p.) :  he  must  never  stay  longer  in  a  village 
nowadays  than  a  month  in  fine  weather,  or  four  months 
in  the  rainy  season,  but  the  shorter  time  he  stops  the 
better  (if  possible  only  one  night),  lest  he  should  grow  fond 
of  any  one  and  form  a  friendship  however  innocent. 

All  monks  must  perform  their  meditation  either  sitting 
or  standing,  keeping  the  eyes  and  limbs  absolutely  im- 
movable. The  more  disagreeable  a  place  one  chooses  to 
meditate  in  the  better,  so  the  holiest  monks  choose  the  most 
unpleasant  spots  [N aisidhikl  p }) .  Every  Indian  believes  that 
the  place  where  corpses  are  burned  Is  haunted  by  all  sorts 
of  hideous  evil  spirits,  so  that  by  going  to  meditate  in  such 
a  spot,  or  in  a  jungle  haunted  by  tigers  or  lions,  a  monk 
very  effectually  endures  hardness,  and  shows  his  indiffer- 
ence to  fear  by  remaining  immovable  even  when  attacked 
by  evil  spirits  or  wild  beasts  !  If  a  monk  be  benighted  on 
his  peregrinations,  he  must  gladly  endure  such  hardships 

^   Uttarddkyayana,  S.  B.  E.,  xlv,  p.  I  !•  ^  Or  Acela  p. 

^  Or  Naisedhiki  p. 


I50  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

[Sayyd  p.)  as  sleeping  in  the  open  air  or  under  a  tree, 
without  even  a  plank  for  a  bed  ;  and  in  the  same  way,  if  no 
one  lends  him  a  bed  in  a  town,  he  must  sleep  contentedly 
without  it,  knowing  that  he  is  thus  arresting  karma.  Karma 
is  also  checked  by  calmly  enduring  taunts  and  reproaches 
{Akrosap.)  and  not  taking  cruel  or  rankling  words  to  heart. 

The  Jaina  say  that,  before  the  '  Pax  Britannica '  ruled  in 
India,  there  was  constant  quarrelling  between  members  of 
the  various  religions,  and  the  followers  of  Saiikaracarya  in 
particular  persecuted  them  ;  this  often  led  to  fights,  but  the 
Jaina  sadhus  were  urged  to  receive  even  beatings  philoso- 
phically, being  assured  that  such  endurance  {Vadhap.)  would 
hinder  the  accumulation  of  karma ;  and  to  help  them  they 
were  told  to  reflect,  when  struck,  that  after  all  it  might  have 
been  worse,  for  they  had  not  lost  their  lives.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  a  rich  man's  son  or  even  a  prince  becomes 
a  Jaina  sadhu ;  and  it  is  specially  unpleasant  for  a  man  of 
such  social  position  to  go  round  begging,  for  '  the  hand  (of 
the  giver)  is  not  always  kindly  stretched  out  to  a  monk  when 
he  is  on  his  begging  tour', ^ but  by  enduring  this  (Yd/icdp.)  he 
retards  karma.  Sometimes  too  a  monk  is  met  with  a  blank 
refusal,  or  for  fear  of  committing  any  of  the  forty-two  faults 
has  himself  to  refuse  food  offered  to  him  ;  he  must  bear  this 
[Aldhha  p.)  calmly,  thinking  that  though  he  get  nothing 
to-day,  he  may  perhaps  get  something  to-morrow. 

Illness  (Roga  p.)  affords  a  monk  a  chance  of  checking  the 
growth  of  karma,  if  he  endure  it  patiently  as  punishment 
for  past  sin  (we  have  already  seen  that  Jaina  look  on  all 
illness  as  punishment  for  sin  in  a  previous  existence)  and 
neither  desires  medical  attendance,  nor  cries  out  that  he  is 
dying  or  dead,  but  continues  to  think  of  the  welfare  of  his 
soul,  neither  acting  himself  nor  causing  others  to  act.  The 
jungle  grass  in  India  is  so  full  of  thorns  and  prickles  that 
the  Jaina  scriptures  truly  say  that  if  a  naked  ascetic  lies 
on  the  grass  he  will  certainly  be  badly  scratched  ;  in  the 
'   Uttarddhyayana,  S.B.E.,  xlv,  p.  13. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  151 

sun  the  pain  of  the  scratches  will  grow  insupportable,  but 
the  ascetic  who  cheerfully  endures  this  pain  [Trinasparsap.) 
knows  that  he  is  impeding  karma.  If  a  monk  is  given 
water  that  has  been  previously  boiled,  he  is  allowed  to 
sponge  his  body  or  wash  his  clothes  with  it,  but  he  may 
never  bathe  or  wash  his  clothes  in  a  running  stream  ;  when 
an  ascetic  feels  dirty  and  sticky  and  hot,  he  must  never 
allow  his  mind  to  rest  on  the  delicious  joy  and  refreshment 
of  a  bathe,  but  is  told,  on  the  contrary,  that  by  enduring 
the  horror  of  feeling  dirty  in  his  body  [Mela  p.)  he  is  benefit- 
ing his  soul  (!),  and  practising  '  the  noble  excellent  Law,  he 
should  carry  the  filth  on  his  body  till  he  expires  '} 

It  is  a  perilous  moment  for  a  monk  when  he  is  praised ; 
but  if  he  can  listen  with  absolute  indifference  [Satkdra  p.), 
he  has  obstructed  the  inflow  of  karma;  and,  vice  versa,  he 
must  also  carefully  perform  the  easier  task  of  hearing 
himself  blamed  unmoved.  Even  without  being  actually 
praised  by  others,  a  man  may  become  puffed  up  through 
reahzing  the  extent  of  his  own  learning  and  accomplish- 
ments :  such  feelings  must  be  sternly  repressed  [Prajndp.)  if 
karma  is  to  be  checked.  To  other  monks  there  comes  the 
opposite  temptation  to  be  cast  down  at  the  thought  of  their 
own  ignorance  (Ajudna  p.),  but  this  also  must  be  endured 
with  indifference.  Finally,  when  enduring  hardships  or 
studying  other  religions,  a  monk  must  never  allow  a  doubt 
as  to  the  value  of  asceticism  or  the  truth  of  his  own  religion 
to  enter  his  mind,  but  must  be  wiUing  to  endure  martyrdom 
rather  than  change  his  faith  [Samyaktva  p.). 

An  ascetic  can  also  stop  the  inflow  of  karma  by  faithfully  The  ten 
observing  his  ten  great  duties,  which  in  a  lesser  degree  are^"^'^^  °^ 
binding  on  the  laity  also.  The  first  of  these  duties  is  for- 
giveness [Ksamd)  :  every  day  and  every  moment  of  the 
day  a  monk  must  learn  to  control  his  anger,  and  instead 
of  giving  way  to  wrath  practise  the  difficult  duty  of  forgive- 
ness.    Monks  are  constantly  reminded  of  how  Mahavira 

^  Uitarddhyayana,  S.B.E.,  xlv,  p.  14. 


152  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

forgave  his  enemies,  and,  instead  of  getting  angry  and  so 
letting  karma  flow  into  his  soul,  even  preached  to  a  wicked 
cobra  which  bit  him. 

Every  day,  too,  a  monk  must  strive  to  control  the 
arrogance  which  rises  in  his  soul,  for  that  would  open 
the  door  to  endless  karma,  and  instead  he  must  cultivate 
the  humility  [Mdrdava)  which  subdues  pride.  This  duty 
the  Jaina  illustrate  by  the  story  of  the  two  sons  of  the 
first  Tirthankara  Risabhadeva,  which  they  entitle  '  O 
Brother,  come  down  from  the  Elephant  of  Pride '.  Risa- 
bhadeva's  younger  son,  so  the  legend  runs,  became  a 
sadhu,  and  some  time  afterwards  the  elder  son,  Bahubaja, 
followed  his  example  and  became  an  ascetic  too,  renouncing, 
as  he  thought,  everything  to  do  so,  but  he  found  that  there 
was  one  thing  he  could  not  renounce,  and  that  was  pride  in 
his  seniority  of  birth,  so  that  he  could  not  bow  down  to  his 
younger  brother,  who  was,  of  course,  his  senior  in  the  reli- 
gious life.  For  days  poor  Bahubaja  struggled  in  vain  alone 
in  the  forest  to  overcome  his  pride,  till  at  last  his  father 
became  aware  of  the  spiritual  conflict  he  was  going  through, 
and  sent  his  daughter  to  help  her  brother.  She  spoke  so 
beautifully  of  the  glory  of  humility,  that  it  enabled  him 
to  conquer  his  pride ;  and  so,  becoming  humble  enough  to 
receive  help  from  a  woman,  he  also  became  humble  enough 
to  do  reverence  to  his  younger  brother  and  thus  check  the 
entry  of  karma,  which  would  otherwise  have  annulled  all 
the  merit  he  had  gained  through  being  an  ascetic,  besides 
binding  him  for  centuries  to  the  cycle  of  rebirth. 

Again,  by  separating  himself  from  every  sort  of  intrigue 
or  deceit,  in  speech  or  action,  and  cultivating  that  simnhVity 
(Arjava)  which  is  opposed  to  cunning,  a  monk  or  a  layman 
can  prevent  the  entry  of  karma.  He  must  be  careful, 
however,  not  only  not  to  tell  a  direct  lie,  but  also  never  to 
indulge  in  speech  that  could  bear  two  meanings. 

A  sadhu  must  keep  himself  free  from  all  greed  {Nirlo- 
bhatd),    possessing   nothing   but    the   oldest    clothes,    and 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  153 

retaining  no  metal ;  ^  if  he  borrow  so  much  as  a  needle, 
he  must  return  it  ere  nightfall,  lest,  any  door  being  left 
open  through  which  avarice  might  enter,  karma  should 
enter  with  it.  The  Jaina  love  to  tell  the  story  of  Kapila, 
a  layman  who  through  fear  of  greed  became  a  sadhu. 
Kapila  had  been  left  an  orphan,  and  his  friends,  seeing  his 
poverty,  advised  him  to  go  to  the  court  of  a  certain  king 
whose  custom  it  was  to  give  a  boni  (morning  gift)  of  two 
masa  to  the  first  beggar  he  met.  On  his  arrival  at  court 
Kapila  took  good  care  to  be  the  first  petitioner  the  king 
should  see,  but  when  he  was  offered  the  customary  two 
coins,  he  explained  to  the  rajah  that  he  was  really  very  poor, 
and  that  as  a  maso  ^  was  a  very  small  weight,  two  would 
not  go  far.  The  king  told  him  to  sit  down  and  think  what 
gift  would  satisfy  him,  and  he  would  give  it  him,  so 
Kapila  sat  down  in  the  pleasant  garden  and  began  to  think. 
He  asked  himself  if  two  or  four  or  even  eight  masa  would 
content  him,  but  his  greed  steadily  growing,  he  saw  that 
even  half  the  kingdom  would  not  satisfy  him,  for  he  would 
still  desire  the  other  half.  It  frightened  him  to  think 
what  karma  he  might  accumulate  if  avarice,  when  given 
way  to,  grew  at  this  terrible  rate.  He  saw  that  greed  and 
selfishness  are  one,  and  the  root  of  all  the  evil  in  the  world, 
and  he  realized  that  for  him  there  was  no  safety  save  in  the 
rehgious  life,  for  a  sadhu  is  forced  to  check  the  very  begin- 
ning of  avarice. 

All  monks  and  laymen  must  also  practise  fasting  and 
austerities  (Tapa^),  for  by  so  doing  they  combat  desire,  one 
of  the  great  ways  through  which  karma  enters.  We  shall 
have  to  examine  the  twelve  ways  in  which  austerities  are 
to  be  practised  when  we  are  studying  the  eighth  principle, 
Nirjara.* 

A  monk  is  also  bound  to  subdue  and  control  his  mind, 

^  The  writer  has  known  of  two  sadhus   who  evaded  this    rule  by 
keeping  their  fortune  not  in  coin  but  in  notes  tied  about  their  person  ! 
^  A  weight  of  gold  equivalent  to  g-y  of  an  ounce. 
^  Sanskrit  Tapas.  *  See  p.  163. 


154  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

his  body  and  his  speech  [Sai'nyama)^  lest  through  any  act, 
thought,  or  word  karma  should  be  acquired,  and  in  parti- 
cular he  should  guard  against  taking  life  in  any  way. 

An  ascetic  must  be  careful  to  speak  the  truth  (Satya),  lest 
any  deviation  from  it  should  give  rise  to  karma,  but  he  is 
bound  to  speak  the  truth  lovingly  and  in  such  a  way  as  to 
hurt  no  one's  feelings. 

There  is  a  manifold  duty  of  purity  and  cleanliness  {Sauca'^) 
binding  on  all  monks,  for  an  ascetic  must  keep  himself  free 
from  all  suspicion  of  dishonesty  or  thieving,  and  oppose  to 
this  the  constant  giving  of  alms,  and  he  must  also  keep  his 
body  pure  and  his  soul  free  from  all  dark  thoughts. 

An  ascetic  must  also  remember  never  to  look  on  anything 
as  his  own  [Akiincinatva)  :  he  must  regard  no  person  as 
related  to  him,  and  no  thing  as  his  property. 

A  monk  must  strictly  observe  the  duty  of  cehbary  and 

chastity  [Brahmacarya)  in  nine  specified  ways,  which  are 

called  the  Nava  Vada  or  Nine  Ramparts,  and  which  we  need 

not  trouble  to  detail.     In  a  passage  which  throws  a  most 

interesting  light  on  an  old-world   Indian  household  long 

before  the  birth  of  Christ,  one  of  the  Jaina  sacred  books,  the 

Sutrakritahga,  describes  the  fate  that  awaits  a  monk  who 

breaks  the  law,  marries  and  settles  down.^     It  recites  how 

he  will  have  to  fetch  and  carry  for  his  wife,  bringing  her 

lip-salve,  ribbons,  combs,  looking-glasses,  &c. ;  and  how,  if 

a  son  be  born,  he  will  have  to  hold  the  baby  or  hand  it  to 

its  mother.     '  Thus  some  supporters  of  their  sons  have  to 

carry  burdens  like  camels.     Getting  up  in  the  night  they 

lull  the  baby  asleep  like  nurses.  .  .  .  This  has  been  done  by 

many  men  who  for  the  sake  of  pleasures  have  stooped  so 

low ;   they  become  the  equals  of  slaves,  animals,  servants, 

beasts  of  burden — mere  nobodies.' 

The  five        The  inflow  of  karma  is  also  arrested  by  observing  the  Five 

Rules  of  Conduct  or  Caritra,  which  are  specially  binding  on 

monks  and  nuns,  but  should  also  be  observed  by  the  laity. 

^  Instead  of  Sauca  some  sects  substitute  Tyaga,  or  the  renunciation  of 
palatable  food,  nice  furniture  and  a  comfortable  house,  and  Antaratyaga, 
the  renunciation  of  black  thoughts.  ^  S.  B.E,,  xlv,  pp.  276  ff. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  155 

The  first  rule  (Sdmdyika  cdritra)  entails  two  things :  the 
giving  up  of  all  evil  conduct,  and  the  turning  to  good  actions 
such  as  meditation.  Both  Sthanakavasi  and  Svetambara 
ascetics  are  supposed  to  give  themselves  up  to  meditation 
continually,  and  a  layman  must  do  it  twice  a  day.  A 
Digambara  layman  must  meditate  four  times :  morning, 
noon,  evening  and  midnight.  In  order  to  carry  out  the 
rule  perfectly,  both  laity  and  monks  must  endeavour  to 
keep  their  minds  in  a  state  of  equanimity,  and  to  look  on 
all  mankind  with  indifference. 

The  duty  of  repentance  [Chedopasthdpanlya  cdritra)  is 
also  binding  on  all  who  would  arrest  the  growth  of  karma. 
If  a  monk  sins,  he  must  confess  to  his  own  guru  and  do 
the  penance  inflicted,  which  will  be  designed  to  fit  the 
crime  :  for  instance,  if  a  young  monk,  feeling  hungry,  has 
eaten  some  of  the  alms  given  to  him  without  first  showing 
the  food  to  the  senior  monk  in  the  Apasaro,  he  may  be 
ordered  to  fast  for  two  days,  or  to  fast  from  the  particular 
grain  he  took  for  four  days ;  if,  however,  a  monk  has  com- 
mitted one  of  the  great  sins  which  infringe  the  five  vows, 
for  example  given  way  to  unchastity  or  dishonesty,  he 
would  have  to  take  the  great  vows  again,  meekly  standing 
in  front  of  a  guru.  This  retaking  of  the  vows  is  called 
Navi  diksa  or  re-ordination,  for  it  is  the  actual  taking  of 
the  vows,  and  not  the  accompanying  ceremonies,  which  is 
regarded  as  the  essential  part  of  initiation.  If  a  layman, 
on  the  other  hand,  sins  in  some  gross  way,  he  would  after 
confession  and  penance  have  to  retake,  not  all  the  twelve 
vows,  but  only  the  one  which  he  has  broken. 

The  third  duty  {Parihdravisuddha  cdritra)  is  variously 
interpreted  by  the  different  sects.  The  Sthanakavasi 
and  Svetambara  believe  it  to  be  carried  out  when  nine 
monks  at  the  order  of  their  superior  go  out  together 
to  perform  austerities  or  tapa  for  eighteen  months.  (Of 
the  nine  monks  six  will  do  tapa  for  six  months,  and  the 
remaining  three  will  serve  them ;  for  the  next  six  months 
the  three  servers  will  perform  their  austerities  together 


156  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

with  three  of  the  original  six,  and  be  served  by  the  three 
remaining ;  and  for  the  last  six  months  in  the  same  way 
another  six  will  do  tapa  and  three  serve.)  The  Digambara 
on  the  other  hand  regard  the  duty  as  performed  simply  by 
being  careful  not  to  injure  any  jiva  whilst  moving  about. 
It  is  not  very  clear  why  the  fourth  rule  [Suksmasampardya 
cdritra)  should  have  separate  enumeration  here,  for  we  shall 
come  across  it  again  when  we  are  considering  the  fourteen 
steps  towards  hberation.^  The  rule  emphasizes  the  impor- 
tance of  being  bound  to  the  world  as  loosely  as  possible,  and 
of  casting  out  the  very  last  root  of  passion  after  the  tumult 
caused  by  it  has  died  away.  If  a  man  has  done  this,  he  has 
reached  the  tenth  step  in  his  upward  progress. 

By  the  time  a  man  has  reached  the  last  stages  of  this  up- 
ward road,  he  will  have  lost  all  attachment  to  the  world,  and 
think  only  of  his  soul ;  so  that  he  will  automatically  keep 
the  last  ( Yathdkhydta  cdritra)  of  the  Five  Rules  of  Conduct. 

The  Finally  the  layman  or  the  monk  can  arrest  the  inflow  of 

BMvana  ^^^^^  W  keeping  the  Twelve  Great  Reflections  or  Bhavana 

orAnu-     always  in  mind. 

preksa.  First,  one  must  constantly  remember  that  all  things  in 

this  world,  ourselves,  our  bodies,  our  wives  and  our  children^ 
are  transient  (Anitya  bhdvand),  and  that  nothing  is  perma- 
nent save  Dharma  (religion)  and  the  soul  that  has  faith 
in  dharma.  Once  upon  a  time,  so  the  Jaina  illustrate 
the  truth  of  this  reflection,  a  beggar  having  eaten  an  un- 
usually good  meal  spread  his  miserable  bedding  under  a  tree, 
placed  his  waterpot  beside  him  and,  putting  a  stone  under 
his  head,  fell  asleep.  He  dreamed  that  he  was  a  king  with 
three  wives  to  admire  him,  servants  to  wait  on  him  and 
slaves  to  fan  him.  He  awoke  to  find  that  all  his  wealth  and 
all  his  grandeur  had  vanished,  and  that  only  his  torn  bedding 
and  his  waterpot  remained  :  even  so  in  this  life  we  must 
expect  everything  we  care  for  to  pass  away. 

Another  thing  that  a  Jaina  is  bound  constantly  to  remem- 

^  See  p.  189. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  157 

ber  is  that  there  is  no  shelter  for  him  [Asaraita  hhdvand). 
In  this  world  of  misery,  disease,  old  age  and  death,  neither 
wife,  friends,  nor  guru  can  afford  us  protection ;  only  by 
the  practice  of  dharma  can  we  escape  from  the  cycle 
of  rebirth.  To  illustrate  the  truth  of  this  reflection  the 
following  story  is  told.  There  once  lived  in  India  the  son 
of  a  wealthy  landowner,  who  was  so  handsome  that  his 
father,  his  mother  and  his  wife  all  adored  him.  Suddenly 
the  young  man  was  stricken  with  an  excruciating  disease 
of  the  eyes,  and  though  his  parents  and  his  wife  strove 
to  lighten  the  pain,  they  were  powerless.  Gradually  the 
youth  realized  that,  as  no  one  could  shelter  him  from  disease, 
so  no  one  could  be  his  refuge  from  death,  and  the  reflection 
induced  him  to  promise  to  withdraw  from  the  world,  if  reli- 
gion could  cure  him.  His  eyes  were  immediately  healed,  and 
he  went  as  an  ascetic  to  live  in  a  distant  forest.  The  king 
of  that  country  happened  to  pass,  and  was  astounded  to 
find  so  goodly  a  youth  living  the  life  of  a  monk,  and  thought 
he  must  have  withdrawn  from  the  world  in  consequence  of 
some  injustice  or  oppression.  He  therefore  offered  to  take 
up  his  cause,  remedy  any  wrong  that  had  been  done  to  him, 
and  protect  and  shelter  him  against  future  injustice.  But 
the  ascetic  showed  the  king  how  impossible  it  was  to  find 
any  shelter  in  this  world  from  oppression  or  from  disease 
and  death,  and  how  the  only  true  refuge  was  to  be  found 
in  voluntarily  forsaking  all  that  one  had,  and  following 
a  law  whose  goal  was  death  ;  on  one  who  had  taken  up  such 
a  life  no  injury  could  be  inflicted.  The  king,  listening  to  this 
moving  discourse,  realized  that  in  this  world  he  could  not  even 
protect  his  own  royal  self,  and  so  he  too  became  an  ascetic,^ 
and  by  so  doing  stopped  up  all  the  channels  through  which  he 
could  be  wounded  or  through  which  karma  could  flow. 

By  never  forgetting  that  the  cycle  of  rebirth  is  end- 
less, and  that  one  may  be  reborn  as  a  bird,  or  beast,  or 

^  Other  Jaina  deny  that  the  king  became  an  ascetic,  and  say  he  was 
merely  convinced  of  the  truth  of  this  bhavana. 


158  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

denizen  of  hell  [Saihsdra  bhdvand),  the  wise  will  be  stirred 
up  to  try  and  stop  the  inflow  of  karma  in  this  hfe,  the  only 
opportunity  a  man  may  have  for  so  doing. 

We  must  also  rememberthatwe  came  unaccompanied  into 
the  world,  that  we  shall  go  out  of  it  unaccompanied,  and  that 
unaccompanied  we  shall  have  to  endure  the  expiation  of 
our  karma  (Ekatva  bhdvand).  A  king  named  Nami  was  led 
to  understand  this  reflection  in  the  following  manner.  He 
once  fell  very  ill,  and  his  queens  called  in  a  physician,  who 
ordered  him  to  be  rubbed  with  sandal  wood.  Each  queen, 
terrified  of  being  widowed,  seized  a  piece  of  wood  and  rubbed 
some  part  of  the  king's  body.  As  they  rubbed,  their  many 
bangles  jingled,  and  the  august  patient,  who  was  not  only 
ill,  but  also  irritable,  exclaimed  against  the  din.  Instantly 
each  of  the  ladies  tore  off  all  her  bangles  save  one  (to  have 
taken  all  off  would  have  been  unlucky,  since  it  would  have 
looked  like  anticipating  widowhood)  and  the  rubbing  pro- 
ceeded in  silence.  The  king  asked  what  they  had  done,  and 
when  they  explained  to  him  that  each  of  them  was  now  only 
wearing  one  bracelet,  the  true  meaning  of  the  bhavana  he 
had  heard  so  often  dawned  on  him.  Exclaiming  that  he 
was  born  alone  and  must  die  alone,  he  renounced  the  world 
and  his  wives,  and  proceeding  to  the  forest,  received  initia- 
tion as  a  monk,  and  died  in  a  few  years. 

Again,  karma  is  impeded  by  remembering  that  in  reality 
the  soul  is  separate  from  the  body  (Anyatva  bhdvand),  though 
through  ignorance  we  think  of  it  as  attached  thereto,  for  a 
soul  cannot  actually  be  united  to  body  or  wealth,  wife  or  child. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  importance  of  this  reflection  the  Jaina 
tell  the  following  legend.  Once  upon  a  time  the  great  King 
Bharata,  the  son  of  Risabhadeva,  was  seated  on  his  throne, 
magnificently  arrayed  in  all  his  jewels,  when  he  noticed  that 
the  ring  he  had  been  wearing  on  his  little  finger  had  slipped 
off.  He  thought  how  ugly  the  finger  looked  without  it,  but 
reflected  that  the  finger  had  never  possessed  the  ring,  the 
contact  with  which  had  been  purely  fortuitous.    Amused  at 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  159 

the  idea,  he  removed  the  rings  from  each  finger,  and  notic- 
ing how  bare  each  looked  when  stripped  of  all  adventitious 
decoration,  he  became  so  strongly  convinced  of  the  truth 
of  this  refaction,  that  the  inflow  of  karma  was  arrested,  he 
became  at  once  omniscient,  and  as  in  a  few  more  years  all 
his  acquired  karma  also  disappeared,  he  eventually  became 
a  Siddha. 

The  object  of  another  reflection  (Asauca  hhdvand)  is  to 
^•^lead  us  to  despise  our  bodies.  To  do  this  we  must  con- 
stantly remember  that  the  body  is  compact  of  filth,  and 
has  such  dirty  habits  that  even  our  souls  become  soiled  by 
contact  with  it.  If  we  forget  this  reflection  and  become 
proud  of  our  bodies,  great  misfortune  will  befall  us,  as  the 
following  story  proves.  A  certain  prince  called  Sanatku- 
marawas  so  handsome  that  his  beauty  was  discussed  in  the 
assembly  of  the  gods,  two  of  whom  were  sent  down  in  the 
guise  of  Brahmans  to  discover  if  he  were  really  as  beautiful 
as  he  was  described.  Unfortunately  this  visit  of  the  gods  gave 
rise  to  such  pride  in  the  heart  of  the  prince,  that  karma 
flowed  rapidly  into  his  soul ;  and,  as  a  result  of  this  karma, 
ill  health  (which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  always  traceable  to 
karma)  beset  the  prince,  until  at  last  he  had  no  less  than  six- 
teen diseases.  However,  he  patiently  endured  the  karma  his 
conceit  had  given  rise  to,  gradually  worked  it  ofl,  received 
initiation  as  a  sadhu,  and  finally  became  a  Siddha. 

The  seventh  reflection  [Asrava  hhdvand)  reminds  us  that  in 
the  worldly  life  karma  is  constantly  flowing  in  through  the 
various  channels  which  ouractions,  passions  and  senses,  if  un- 
controlled, leave  open  to  it,  and  that  all  our  sufferings  come 
as  a  result  of  this  karma.  How  much  we  may  suffer,  if  we 
ourselves  open  the  channels,  we  may  learn  from  the  story  of 
King  Pundarika.  There  were  once  two  brothers,  both  of 
whom  ruled  as  kings,  but  the  elder  brother,  Pundarika,  realized 
that  this  world  was  merely  a  junction  of  canals  through  which 
karma  was  continually  flowing,  and  so  decided  to  renounce  his 
throne  and  become  an  ascetic.    He  received  initiation,  but 


i5o  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

gradually  found  that  the  life  of  an  ascetic  was  too  hard  for 
him,  and  eventually  persuaded  his  younger  brother,  Kunda- 
rika,  to  give  up  the  kingdom  in  his  favour.  Becoming 
once  more  a  king,  Pundarika,  instead  of  being  happy,  found 
it  only  too  true  that  the  world  is  a  dreadful  place  for  acquiring 
karma ;  and  during  his  life  he  accumulated  so  much,  that  he 
is  still,  by  undergoing  countless  rebirths,  trying  to  expiate  it. 

One  must  also  reflect  on  and  determine  to  adopt  means 
(such  as  the  taking  of  vows)  which  will  impede  the  inflow  of 
karma,  and  this  reflection  {Samvara  bhdvand)  is  illustrated 
by  the  history  of  the  younger  brother  in  the  last  story. 
Kundarika  was  delighted  when  his  elder  brother  took  his 
crown,  for  now,  he  thought,  he  would  have  a  chance  of 
arresting  the  inflow  of  karma  ;  so,  meditating  on  this  re- 
flection, he  renounced  the  world,  took  the  vows  of  an  ascetic, 
and  soon  gained  moksa,  leaving  his  unfortunate  elder 
brother  still  tied  to  the  cycle  of  rebirth. 

Again,  one  must  remember  that  by  performing  austerities 
one  can  expiate  karma  (Nirjard  bhdvand). 

One  must  also  reflect  on  the  world  {Loka  bhdvand), 
remembering  that  it  was  created  by  no  one,  and  that  the 
elements  it  contains  are  in  a  sense  permanent.  By  thinking 
of  the  various  worlds  under  the  form  of  a  man,  one  will 
understand  that  at  his  feet  is  hell,  his  body  is  formed  by 
men  who  will  have  to  undergo  fresh  births,  the  head  is 
Devaloka,  and  at  the  top  of  the  head  are  the  Siddha,  those 
who  will  never  again  pass  through  rebirth. 

To  arrest  the  inflow  of  karma  one  must  also  remember 
{Bodhiblja  or  Bo dhidurlabha  bhdvand)  that  everything  is  easy 
to  acquire  in  this  world  save  the  three  jewels  :  Right  faith. 
Right  knowledge  and  Right  conduct,  which  can  only  be 
acquired  by  a  human  being.  In  the  long  cycle  of  rebirth 
it  seldom  happens  that  a  jiva  obtains  human  birth.  Re- 
flecting thus,  one  must  determine  to  use  this  opportunity 
to  the  fullest,  and,  taking  the  first  step  in  the  pathway  of 
religion,  continue  on  the  upward  course. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  i6i 

Finally,  one  must  remember  [Dharma  hhdvana)  that  the 
highest  rehgion  is  to  kill  nothing  and  to  injure  nothing,  but 
to  keep  the  three  jewels,  and  to  follow  thankfully  the  law 
of  the  Jaina.  So  doing,  one  will  be  able  to  cross  the 
troubled  ocean  of  the  world,  be  freed  from  the  cycle  of 
rebirth  and  attain  moksa. 

These  twelve  ^  reflections  are  considered  so  important  by 
the  Jaina  that  one  finds  them  referred  to  in  some  form  or 
other  in  every  book  on  Jainism,  and  it  is  recorded  of  them 
in  one  of  the  sacred  books,  the  Sutrakritdnga,  that  '  He 
whose  soul  is  purified  by  meditating  on  those  reflections 
is  compared  to  a  ship  in  water ;  like  a  ship  reaching  the 
shore  he  gets  beyond  misery  '.^ 

The  Seventh  Category :    Bandha, 

The  seventh  principle  of  Jaina  philosophy  deals  with  the 
bondage  of  the  soul  to  karma :  this  is  caused  by  the  union 
of  the  soul  with  pudgaja,^  and  the  difficulty  of  understanding 
it  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  word  pudgala  is  simply  untranslat- 
able. English-speaking  Jaina  usually  render  it  by  the  word 
matter,  but  that  is  unsatisfactory.  Perhaps  the  safest  way 
to  get  at  the  meaning  is  to  quote  some  of  the  illustra- 
tions the  Jaina  themselves  use.  '  Now  the  principle  of 
Bandha  or  bondage',  says  a  Digambara  Jaina,  Mr.  Latthe, 
'  is  defined  as  the  mutual  entrance  into  each  other's  spheres 
of  the  soul  and  the  Karman.  When  the  soul  is  attacked 
by  the  passions  like  anger  and  love,  it  takes  on  the  Pudgal 
[material]  particles  fit  for  the  bondage  of  the  Karmas,  just 
as  a  heated  iron  ball  takes  up  water-particles  in  which  it 
is  immersed.     This  is  the  bondage  of  the  Karmas.'  * 

Another  favourite  illustration  is  taken  from  spiUing  oil. 
If  oil  is  spilled  on  a  cloth,  dust  will  easily  adhere.     The 

^  They  are  sometimes  classified  into  the  nine  first  reflections  and 
the  three  additional  reflections. 

2  6".  B.  E.,  xlv,  p.  330.  ^  Or  pudgala. 

*  A.  B.  Latthe,  M.A.,  An  Introduction  to  Jaifiism,  Bombay,  1905 , 
pp.  9  ff. 

M 


i62  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES   OF 

cloth  represents  our  jiva  or  atma  (soul),  the  oil  represents  our 
passions,  transgressions  and  activities  [Kasdya,  Pramdda, 
Avrata,  Yoga)  by  which  karma  is  acquired,  and  the  dust 
represents  pudgala.  They  say  also  that  karma  represents 
a  book  of  which  pudgala  are  the  leaves. 
The  four  However  difficult  this  is  to  understand,  their  teaching  about 
Bondage  ^^^  actual  bondage  is  quite  clear.  They  classify  it  in  four  ways : 
according  to  its  nature,  its  duration,  its  intensity,  and  its  mass. 

Man  creates  his  own  karma  according  to  his  own  character 
[Prakriti)  :  if  we  are  by  nature  bitter  and  sharp,  we  shall 
have  to  endure  bitter  karma;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  we  are 
sweet  and  pleasant,  though  we  may  accumulate  karma,  yet 
it  will  be  sweet  and  pleasant. 

Karma  can  also  be  classified  according  to  the  time  it 
takes  to  expiate  [Sthiti)  :  some  will  take  a  thousand  years, 
some  only  a  decade,  and  some  can  be  worked  out  in  a  day. 

The  intensity  of  karma  [Anuhhdga)  also  differs  :  it  is 
much  heavier  at  some  times  than  at  others  ;  for  instance, 
if  two  boys  are  playing  ball  and  one  hits  a  cow  and  repents, 
but  the  other  when  he  hits  the  cow  is  rather  proud  of  so 
good  a  shot,  then  the  first  boy  will  have  far  less  heavy  karma 
to  expiate  than  the  second. 

Some  karma  has  attracted  more  pudgala,  some  less  ;  so 
the  Jaina  also  divide  karma  according  to  its  thickness  and 
thinness  (Pradesa). 

To  illustrate  these  four  classifications  the  Jaina  take 
a  ladu^  as  an  example.  Some  ladus,  they  say,  are  such  as  to 
cure  coughs  and  rheumatism  (!),  and  this  shows  their  nature; 
others  can  be  distinguished  according  to  the  time  they  keep 
good  ;  others  by  whether  they  have  melted  butter  in  them 
or  not ;  and  others  are  thick  or  thin  according  to  the  amount 
of  flour  with  which  they  have  been  made. 

We  shall  have  to  study  karma  more  in  detail  later  on, 
when  bondage  to  it  will  be  further  considered. 

^  A  ladu  is  a  large  round  sweetmeat,  about  the  size  of  a  tennis  ball,  made 
of  wheat,  sugar,  ghl  and  spices,  of  which  the  GujaratI  is  inordinately  fond. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  163 

The  Eighth  Category:  Nirjard?- 
In  spite  of  all  precautions  karma  does  accumulate,  and  one 
of  the  great  categories  of  the  Jaina  faith  deals  with  its  destruc- 
tion. This  can  only  be  accomphshed  gradually,  and  the  Jaina 
compare  the  way  in  which  water  slowly  drains  out  of  a  porous 
jar  with  the  tedious  way  in  which  our  accumulated  karma 
may  be  dried  up.  One  of  the  chief  ways  of  reducing  the  sum 
of  our  karma  is  by  burning  it  up  in  the  glow  of  austerities ;  and 
these  austerities  are  of  two  kinds,  exterior  or  bodily  (Bdhya), 
and  interior  or  spiritual  (Abhyantara),  all  of  which,  though 
binding  on  the  ascetics,  are  also  beneficial  to  the  laity. 

The  first  bodily  austerity  is  fasting  [Anasana).    One  may  The  six 

take  a  vow  to  fast  for  a  fixed  period  iltvara),  such  as  for  a  ^^tenor 
1  .  1  1  r         r      austeri- 

day,  or  tor  thirty  days,  or  one  may  take  a  vow  to  last  tor  ties. 

the  rest  of  one's  life  (Ydvatkathika).     Of  course  the  latter  ^-  Anasa- 

vow  is  the  more  beneficial  and  destroys  far  more  accumulated 

karma,  so  when  a  monk  is  very  ill,  and  knows  that  he  is  going 

to  die,  he  takes  this  vow.     If  he  has  taken  the  first  vow,  he 

may  eat  nothing,  but  may  drink  water  or  whey,  but  the 

second  vow  excludes  water  or  any  liquid  as  well  as  all  food. 

This  of  course  amounts  very  often  to  suicide  by  starvation, 

and  it  still  takes  place  far  more  frequently  than  Europeans 

realize.  For  instance  in  Ahmadabad,  as  lately  as  1912,  a  sadhu 

named  Chaganalalaji  took  this  vow,  though  in  perfect  health, 

and  died  after  forty-one  days'  fasting ;  ^  and  the  following 

year  in  Rajkot  a  nun  named  Jivibai,  having  first  seriously 

weakened  herself  by  prolonged  fasting,  took  this  vow  and 

died  after  two  or  three  days.     To  take  this  vow  and  die  on 

a  bed  of  Kusa  grass  is  called  Santharo  ;  and  though  in  this 

age  of  Dusama  ^  it  is  impossible  for  those  who  do  so  to  go 

straight  to  mok§a,  as  they  would  formerly  have  done,  yet 

*  In  order  to  avoid  confusion  it  should  be  noted  that  the  Vedantists 
use  a  similar  word  in  a  totally  different  sense  to  denote  God,  the  Nirjara 
or  undecaying  one. 

^  Ohe  of  the  writer's  pandits  went  fifty  miles  to  do  darsana  to  this 
suffering  man,  the  very  sight  of  him  conferring  merit  and  nirjara. 

^  Sanskrit  Duhsama. 

M2 


i64  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

•    they  pass  to  Devaloka,  and  may  hope,  if  their  previous 

karma  was  good  and  their  faith  in  the  Jaina  creed  strong, 

to  pass  to  moksa  after  fifteen  more  incarnations. 

ii.  If  any  one  fears  to  face  a  complete  fast,  he  may  yet  lessen 

Unodari.  ^jg  karma  by  partially  fasting  [Unodarl).     He  may  vow,  for 

instance,  to  take  a  mouthful  less  every  day,  and  so  gradually 

decrease  the  quantity  he  eats.     The  Jaina  consider  this  to  be 

very  beneficial  to  the  health  of  the  body  as  well  as  of  the  soul. 

iii.  Vritti-      There  is  another  vow  of  fasting,  or  rather  of  hmiting  the 

sanksepa.  {qq^  that  one  eats  [Vrittisanksepa)^  which  may  be  taken  in 

four  different  ways.     If  a  monk  or  layman  has  been  in  the 

habit  of  consuming  twenty  ^different  kinds  of  food,  he  may 

promise  to  limit  his  choice  to,,  say,  fifteen  [Dravya).     Or  he 

may  limit  the  number  of  places  from  which  he  will  obtain  food 

[Ksetra),  a  sadhu  vowing,  for  instance,  that  he  would  only 

beg  in  one  particular  street,  and  a  layman  ^  that  he  would  only 

eat  food  in  Rajkot  and  Ahm^dabad,  and  so  when  travelling 

between  those  places  refusing  food  at  the  junctions  en  route. 

Again,  one  may  promise  that  one  will  restrict  one's  food  by 

time  [Kdla],  a  sadhu,  for  example,  eating  only  the  food 

begged  before  noon,  or  a  layman  promising  not  to  take 

another  meal  after  his  midday  one.     Or  the  vow  might 

deal  with  posture  [Bhdva),  a  monk  promising  only  to  receive 

food  that  is  given  to  him  by  some  one  who  is  standing 

upright,  and  a  layman  deciding  only  to  eat  what  his  wife 

offers  him  in  a  certain  position. 

iv.  Rasa-       An  ascetic  usually  vows  when  ordained  to  abstain  all  his 

tyaga.       jjf g^  gave  when  ill,  from  melted  butter,  milk,  sugar,  molasses, 

or  any  other  food  that  specially  delights  him  [Rasatydga). 

He  does  this  lest  he  should  grow  fat  and  sleep  too  much,^ 

and  his  interest  in  rehgion  grow  dim.     A  layman  often 

promises  to  abstain  for  a  particular  day  from  the  special 

food  he  most  enjoys. 

V.  Kaya-       Jaina  believe  that  they  may  also  reduce  their  karma 

klesa. 

^  Many  laymen  vow  to  eat  only  in  their  own  houses. 

2  There  is  a  Gujarat!  proverb  :  *  He  who  eats  much  will  sleep  much.' 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  165 

by  bodily  austerity  {Kdyaklesa),  such  as  sitting  to  do  medi- 
tation in  summer  on  heated  stones  in  the  full  glare  of  the 
sun,  or  in  winter  in  the  coldest  places  that  can  be  found,  with- 
out wearing  sufficient  clothing.  There  is  one  such  austerity 
which  is  peculiar  to  Jaina  ascetics,  Loca,  or  pulhng  out 
the  hair  by  the  roots.  It  is  said  to  be  most  profitable,  as 
showing  to  the  ascetic  how  hard  a  life  he  will  have  to  undergo, 
and  at  the  same  time  proving  to  others  that  he  has  strength 
of  mind  enough  to  endure  it.  If  the  sadhu  is  ill,  the 
following  words  are  quoted  to  him  :  Locevd  mundevd 
kattevd,  i.  e.  if  the  pulhng  out  of  the  hair  cannot  be  endured, 
hair  cutting  or  shaving  may  be  employed.^ 

There  is  another  austerity  which  might  almost  be  de-  vi.  Saih 
scribed  as  the  avoidance  of  temptation  by  control  {Sam-  ^^"^^^• 
llnatd)  in  four  ways  :  first  by  governing  the  senses  (Indriya 
saj'nllnatd)  and  not  allowing  the  eyes,  for  instance,  to  look  at 
anything  beyond  a  certain  distance ;  then  by  controlling 
anger,  deceit,  pride  and  greed  [Kasdya  samlinatd)  \  or 
by  refraining  as  much  as  possible  from  the  exercise  of 
intellect,  speech,  or  body  [Yoga  sajhllnatd)^  sitting  silent, 
for  instance,  in  a  cramped  position ;  and  lastly,  by  being 
very  careful  where  one  goes  to  stay,  and  previously  ascer- 
taining that  no  woman  lives  near  {Viviktacaryd). 

Karma  is  also  dried  up  by  the  right  use  of  six  interior  The  six 
or  spiritual  austerities.  interior 

The  first  of  these,  confession  and  penance  [Prdyascitta),  is  ties, 
binding  on  both  ascetics  and  laity.     The  ascetic  must  con-  i.  Prayas- 
fess  to  the  chief  guru,  and  the  laynmn  to  whatever  sadhu  ^^"^" 
he  chooses;  and  they  must  perform  the  penances  allotted  to 
them,  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  sacred  books. 
Also  every  morning  and  every  evening  when  they  engage 
in  Padikamanurh  ^  they  must  confess  their  faults  generally 
in  the  following  Magadhi  formula :   Micchdmi  dukkadai'n,^ 

^  Dr.  Jacob!  {S.  B.  E.,  xxii,  p.  308,  note  i)  says  he  is  not  aware  that 
removing  the  hair  is  resorted  to  in  the  case  of  nuns,  but  the  writer 
knows  as  a  fact  that  it  is  regularly  done. 

^  Sanskrit  Pratikramana,  ^  Sanskrit  Mithydme  duskritam. 


i65  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

'May  my  sin  be  forgiven.'  Greater  faults  a  layman 
will  confess  privately  to  a  sadhu  at  intervals  of  two  or 
four  months,  or  whenever  he  specially  feels  the  need  of 
confession,  and  will  perform  the  penance  given  to  him. 
A  sadhu  should  confess  a  grave  sin  at  once,  for  if  he 
should  wait  even  till  the  time  of  Padikamanurh  some 
karma  will  have  accumulated,  and  more  still  if  he  should 
w^ait  for  the  big  fortnightly  Pakkhi  Padikamanurh.  The 
accumulation  of  karma  will  be  worse  if  he  does  not  confess 
till  the  quarterly  Comasi  (Caturmasi)  Padikamanurh,  and 
his  last  chance  comes  at  the  annual  Sarhvatsari  Padika- 
manurh. If  he  misses  that  and  continues  with  his  sin  un- 
confessed,  though  to  all  outward  seeming  an  ascetic,  he  has 
ceased  to  be  a  true  sadhu,  and  if  he  dies,  he  will  slip  far  down 
the  ladder  of  birth  [Adhogati).  Similarly,  if  a  layman  should 
nurse  the  sin  of  anger  unconf essed  and  unrepented  of,  despite 
all  the  opportunities  these  various  services  give,  he  would 
undoubtedly  pass  to  hell  on  his  death. 
ii.Vinaya.  Another  interior  austerity  on  which  the  Jaina  lay  great 
stress  is  reverence  {Vinaya),  for  this,  duly  paid,  destroys 
a  great  accumulation  of  karma.  Both  laity  and  ascetics 
should  show  respect  to  all  who  are  their  superiors  in  know- 
ledge [Jitdna  vinaya) ;  in  faith  (Darsana  vinaya) ;  and  in 
character  (Cdritra  vinaya).  They  must  keep  their  minds 
{Mana  vinaya)  in  an  attitude  of  humility  towards  their 
superiors ;  and  do  them  honour  by  politeness  when  speak- 
ing to  them  [Vacana  vinaya) ;  and  by  salutation  and  bodily 
service  (Kdya  vinaya) ;  and  should  observe  all  the  old  customs 
of  reverence  prescribed  in  the  religious  books  {Kalpa  vi- 
naya) to  be  performed  either  in  the  house  or  in  the  monas- 
teries. Under  this  last  heading  is  included  all  the  reverence 
a  wife  should  show  her  husband.^     On  rising  in  the  morning 

^  A  great  many  Indian  gentlemen  were  being  almost  unconsciously 
influenced  by  the  chivalrous  way  in  which  they  saw  Englishmen  treat 
ladies,  when  the  crude  militant  'suffragette'  movement  arose.  It  is 
impossible  to  over-estimate  the  evil  that  this  movement  did  to  the  cause 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  167 

a  Jaina  woman  prostrates  herself  at  her  husband's  feet  and 
worships  him.  (The  sentence  in  the  EngHsh  wedding  service 
where  the  husband  says  to  the  wife  '  With  my  body  I  thee 
worship  '  comes  as  a  terrible  shock  to  an  old-fashioned 
Jaina  gentleman  !)  During  the  day  the  wife  prepares  her 
husband's  meal  and  only  eats  when  he  has  finished ;  and 
in  the  evening,  when  he  comes  home  tired,  she  massages  him. 

Karma  may  also  be  worked  off  by  another  '  austerity  '  iii.  Vaiya- 
[Vaiydvacca),  service  rendered  to  ascetics,  or  to  the  poor,  ^^^^^' 
the  helpless  and  the  suffering,  by  giving  them  food,  water, 
shelter,  or  clothing.  All  the  friends  of  the  Jaina  desire  to  see 
them  taking  their  proper  share  in  the  uplift  of  India,  and 
perhaps  one  might  suggest  that  this  belief  of  theirs  in  the 
reflex  benefit  of  helping  others  provides  them  with  a  power- 
ful text  from  which  to  preach  the  duty  of  social  service. 

Study  is  another  interior  austerity  [Svddhydya).  The  iv.  Sva- 
Jaina  lay  great  emphasis  on  the  duty  of  studying  their  ^l^Y^ya* 
doctrines  and  their  scriptures  by  reading,  catechizing, 
repetition,  meditation  and  preaching,  but  they  declare  that 
there  is  no  duty  that  their  laity  and  especially  their  college 
graduates  more  neglect.  Rich  Svetambara  laymen  often 
pay  a  pandit  to  teach  their  sadhus  during  the  long  intervals 
of  the  day  when,  having  finished  their  begging  round  and 
having  nothing  else  to  do,  they  spend  their  time  in  idleness; 
but  they  complain  bitterly  that  the  ascetics  are  generally 
too  lazy  to  learn.  A  Sthanakavasi  monk  may  not  study 
with  a  paid  pandit,  only  with  one  who  gives  his  services 
freely;  but  they  also  show  little  desire  to  learn.  The  whole 
question,  however,  of  the  education  of  their  monks  is  now 
occupying  the  attention  of  the  educated  laymen  of  both 

of  women  in  the  East ;  for  every  foolish  act  of  militancy  was  chronicled 
in  the  papers,  and  men  who  were  formerly  anxious  to  educate  their  wives 
grew  afraid  to  do  so.  Perhaps  the  Western  women  in  their  selfishness 
scarcely  realized  the  solidarity  of  the  modern  world.  One  might  almost 
say  that  every  window  they  broke  in  England  shattered  the  prospect  of 
some  Indian  woman  gaining  a  wider  outlook  on  life  ;  and  every  time 
they  chained  themselves  up,  they  riveted  the  fetters  more  firmly  on 
their  suffering  Oriental  sisters. 


i68  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

sects,  and,  together  with  caste,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
burning  questions  of  the  day. 
V.  Karma  is  also  destroyed  by  meditation  [Dhydna),  which 

Dhyana.  ^j^^  Jaina  consider  to  be  another  austerity ;  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  there  are  also  two  evil  ways  of  meditating: 
one,  grieving  too  much  for  the  dead  {Arta  dhydna),  wailing 
and  beating  one's  breast  in  grief  for  them ;  and  the  other, 
remembering  with  anger  any  personal  injuries  one  may 
have  sustained  and  brooding  over  them  [Raudra  dhydna) ; 
by  doing  either  of  these  things  one  only  accumulates  karma 
instead  of  destroying  it.  There  are,  however,  two  good 
ways  of  meditation :  the  first  is  thinking  on  religious  sub- 
jects in  accordance  with  the  precepts  laid  down  in  the 
sacred  books  [Dharma  dhydna)  ;  and  the  second  (which 
can  only  be  performed  after  Dharma  dhyana)  is  the  purest 
and  highest  meditation  of  all  {Sukla  dhydna),  when,  freed 
from  all  earthly  thought  and  cares,  the  soul  meditates  on 
the  fact  that  it  itself  is  on  the  way  to  become  a  Siddha. 
vi.  The   last   discipline    (Utsarga)    consists  in  showing  and 

Utsarga.  fueling  absolute  indifference  to  the  body  and  its  needs.  Only 
ascetics  as  a  rule  practise  this  in  its  furthest  development 
{Pddopagamana  santhdro),  which  leads  to  death.  The  sadhu 
climbs  some  sacred  hill  such  as  Parasnatha,  Girnar,  or 
Satrufijaya;  and  there,  in  order  to  do  nothing  that  may  lead 
to  karma,  he  does  absolutely  nothing  at  all,  but  awaits  death 
without  moving  hand  or  foot,  head  or  body.  The  influence 
of  a  negative  religion  is  then  worked  out  to  its  irresistible 
conclusion,  and  with  all  the  sorrows  and  ills  of  the  world 
waiting  to  be  relieved,  the  soldier  deserts  his  post  in  order 
to  free  his  own  soul  from  suffering. 

It  is  strange  that  a  religious  system  which  begins  with 
the  most  minute  regulations  against  the  taking  of  the  lowest 
insect  life  should  end  by  encouraging  human  suicide. 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  169 

The  Ninth  Category:    Moksa, 

When  the  atma  is  freed  from  all  bondage  to  karma  and 
has  passed  for  ever  beyond  the  possibility  of  rebirth,  it  is 
said  to  have  attained  moksa  or  complete  deliverance.  The 
old-fashioned  Jaina  believe  moksa  to  be  a  place  situated 
above  the  head  of  the  figure  that  represents  Devaloka ;  ^ 
while  some  of  the  more  enlightened  describe  it  as  a  state  or 
condition  of  freedom. 

A  being  who  has  attained  moksa  is  called  a  Siddha  or 
perfected  one,  and  only  a  human  being  can  directly  become 
a  Siddha.  '  The  space  occupied  by  each  of  the  perfect  is 
boundless  ',  says  the  NavaTattva,^  'and  increases  according 
to  any  one's  desire.^  The  term  in  which  they  remain  in  this 
state  is  also  infinite.  Their  parts  are  innumerable.  There 
is  no  returning  again  to  a  worldly  state,  and  no  interrup- 
tion to  their  bliss.' 

The  Jaina  definition  of  a  Siddha  is  a  being  '  without 
caste,  unaffected  by  smell,  without  the  sense  of  taste,  without 
feeling,  without  form,  without  hunger,  without  pain,  with- 
sorrow,  without  joy,  without  birth,  without  old  age,  without 
death,  without  body,  without  karma,  enjoying  an  endless 
and  unbroken  calm  '. 

Some  Jaina  say  that  no  one  who  is  born  a  neuter  can  ever 
reach  moksa ;  and  the  Digambara  declare  that  no  woman  can 
ever  reach  moksa  without  first  undergoing  rebirth  as  a  man. 

The  Svetambara,  whilst  holding  that  it  is  possible  for 
a  woman  to  become  a  Siddha,  nevertheless  declare  that  very 
few  women  indeed  have  ever  ha^  sufficient  strength  of 
mind  or  body  adequately  to  study  the  faith,*  or  endure  the 
hard   life  of   an   ascetic.     But  while  not  more  than  ten 

^  See  p.  160.  ^  J.  Stev tnson,  Nava  Tafva,  London,  1848,  p.  127. 

^  Some  Jaina,  however,  deny  that  the  space  can  be  increased. 

*  That  the  merestudyof  the  Jaina  faith  is  considered  an  adequate  quali- 
fication for  Siddhahood  may  be  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  the  present 
writer  has  been  assured  by  more  than  one  Jaina  that  she  was  bound 
ultimately  to  become  a  Siddha,  whether  she  would  or  no,  simply  because 
she  had  devoted  seven  years  to  the  study  of  this  religion. 


I70  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES  OF 

neuters  or  twenty  women  in  the  old  days  used  to  attain 
perfection,  one  hundred  and  eight  males  used  to  do  so';  for 
the  Jaina  seem  to  think  men  more  religious  than  women. 
All  the  twenty-fourTirthahkara,  ending  withMahavira,  have 
obtained  moksa  and  become  Siddha,  though  it  is  still  by  the 
name  of  Tirthankara  that  the  people  love  to  speak  of  them. 

In  the  country  of  Mahavideha  there  are  at  present  about 
one  hundred  and  sixty  Tirthankara,  as  well  as  many  Kevali, 
who  will  ultimately  proceed  to  moksa.  No  one  in  the 
present  age  can  proceed  to  moksa  from  Bharataksetra, 
which  includes  modern  India. 

There  are  fifteen  different  kinds  of  Siddha :  those  who  have 
been  Arihanta  and  have  become  Siddhaarecalledy^;m5^^^/^a; 
those  who,  without  even  having  been  Arihanta  themselves, 
haveyet  been  the  disciples  of  Arihanta  are  called  ^7ni<^5/^^/z^. 

A  Tlrtha  Siddha  is  one  who  has  been  previously  a  Tirthan- 
kara, and  to  be  considered  a  Tirthankara  a  man  must  have 
been  an  ascetic,  have  preached,  and  have  founded  a  com- 
munity or  Tlrtha  consisting  of  at  least  four  people  (a  monk 
and  a  nun,"  a  layman  and  a  lay  woman).  If  a  man  die  before 
he  has  preached  or  founded  a  community,  he  will  neverthe- 
less become  a  Siddha  if  he  has  had  the  requisite  history 
behind  him  (for  such  a  history  automatically  compels  one 
to  become  a  Siddha),  but  he  will  be  called  Atirtha  Siddha : 
for  instance,  the  mother  of  Risabhadeva  became  a  Siddha, 
but  an  Atirtha  Siddha,  for  at  the  time  that  she  attained 
moksa  no  community  had  been  founded. 

Though  the  recognized  path  to  Siddhahood  is  by 
becoming  an  ascetic,  a  householder  of  eminent  holiness 
might  nevertheless  on  his  death  pass  straight  to  moksa,  as 
King  Bharata  did,  without  ever  having  been  an  ascetic  ; 
Vsuch  a  jiva  is  called  a  Grihaliitga  Siddha.  It  is  the 
glory  of  Jainism  that,  whatever  its  present  practice,  its 
doctrines  steadfastly  declare  that  conduct  is  greater 
than  caste.  It  is  possible  for  a  non-Jaina  who  exhibits 
perfect  holiness  in  his  life  to  pass  to  mok$a  and  become 


FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  171 

an  Anyalinga  Siddha :  for  instance,  the  famous  ascetic, 
Valkalaciri,  who  never  professed  the  Jaina  creed,  became  a 
Siddha  of  this  class.  Those  who  follow  the  usual  path  and  find 
deliverance  by  way  of  asceticism  are  called  Svalinga  Siddha. 

The  dwellers  in  moksa  are  also  classified  according  to 
their  previous  sex  into  Pullinga  Siddha,  who  were  formerly 
men ;  Strllinga  Siddha,  who  were  women,  and  Napui'n- 
sakaliiiga  Siddha,  who  during  their  past  life  were  neuters. 

Again  they  are  divided  according  to  the  influences  that 
led  them  to  become  Siddha.  If  it  was  their  own  gurus  who 
influenced  them,  they  became  Buddhahohi  Siddha ;  if  it  was 
some  particular  thing,  Pratyekahuddha  Siddha ;  and  if  it 
was  of  their  own  notion  without  any  outside  influence, 
Svayamhuddha  Siddha.  They  are  also  classified  according 
to  whether  they  proceeded  to  moksa  by  themselves,  as  Eka 
Siddha  ;  whereas,  if  in  the  same  samaya  one  hundred  and 
eight  went  together,  they  are  called  Aneka  Siddha. 

The  Siddha,  though  they  are  the  highest  class  of  jiva, 
are  never  worshipped,  although  the  Tirthankara  are.  When 
one  asks  the  reason  why  the  same  Being  should  be  wor- 
shipped in  his  unperfected  and  not  in  his  perfected  state, 
even  the  non-idolatrous  Jaina  give  as  the  reason  that  the 
jiva  who  has  reached  Siddhahood  has  no  longer  a  body, 
and  that  it  is  impossible  to  worship  or  pray  to  a  bodiless 
soul.  The  answer  is  intensely  suggestive,  bearing  witness 
as  it  does  to  the  materialistic  influence  of  idol-worship  on  all 
sects  of  the  Jaina.  Jaina  are,  therefore,  very  interested  in 
the  entirely  opposite  idea  that  is  expressed  in  our  Lord's 
saying  that  God  is  a  spirit,  and  they  that  worship  Him  must 
worship  in  spirit  and  truth.^ 

It  is  illuminating  also  to  contrast  the  Jaina  idea  of 
heaven  with  that  of  the  Hindus  :  both  use  the  same  words, 
such  as  moksa  and  nirvana,  and  both  think  of  the  highest 
state  as  attained  by  those  who  have  completely  stultified 
their  personality,  and  who  are  not  perfected  characters  but 

^  St.  John  iv.  24. 


\^%  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES 

perfectly  characterless  beings  ^  who  touch  life  on  as  few  points 
as  possible ;  both  also  agree  that  souls  who  have  attained 
moksa  can  never  again  be  reborn  ;  but  the  great  ideal  of 
the  Hindus,  absorption  into  the  Supreme,  is  alien  to  Jaina 
thought.  The  Jaina  Siddha  through  all  eternity  will  main- 
tain their  separate  entity.^ 

Though  the  Christian  idea  of  heaven  is  so  foreign  to  them, 
the  Jaina  through  their  quick  sympathy  with  idealism  are 
deeply  interested  in  it  as  the  thought  of  a  fuller  life,  in 
which  a  man,  with  all  his  powers  perfectly  developed, 
his  ideals  realized,  and  his  will  absolutely  attuned  to  the 
divine  will,  moves  without  let  or  hindrance  to  fulfil  God's 
plan  for  him.  They  note  a  further  resemblance  in  the 
Christian  sloka  where  the  promise  is  given  to  him  that 
overcometh  (Jina)  that  he  shall  go  out  thence  no  more.^ 

They  feel  themselves  less  in  sympathy,  however,  with  the 
Buddhists,  who  seem  to  them  to  use  their  common  word 
Nirvana  as  connoting  extinction  not  only  of  desire  (with 
which  the  Jaina  would  agree)  but  also  oj  the  soul  itself, 
which  they  would  indignantly  deny. 

With  Moksa,  the  ninth  principle,  the  category  ends. 
Tedious  as  it  is,  its  study  is  essential  to  the  real  understand- 
ing of  Jainism,  whose  scriptures  declare :  *  He  who  is  ac- 
quainted with  these  nine  principles,  and  lays  hold  of  them 
by  faith,  is  perfect  in  knowledge.  He  who  is  ignorant  of 
themcannot  be  perfect  in  knowledge.  Thewordsand  doctrine 
of  all  the  Jain  Lords  is  here,  and  nowhere  else  to  be  found  ; 
therefore,  he  whose  mind  is  instructed  in  these,  possesses 
true  and  stable  knowledge.  He  who  has  had  this  knowledge 
impressed  on  his  mind  for  only  an  hour,  is  detained  only  by 
half  the  mental  and  bodily  attraction  that  he  was  before.'^ 

^  Cp.  Rev.  H.  Haigh,  Sof^e  Leadi?ig  Ideas  of  Hmdidsm^  London, 
1903,  p.  129. 

"^  Another  great  difference  we  have  already  incidentally  mentioned. 
In  the  Jaina  moksa  there  is  no  thought  of  escape  from  maya,  for  the 
Jaina  have  no  conception  of  mayfi  in  the  Hindu  sense. 

^  Rev.  iii.  12.  ■*  J.  Stevenson,  Nava  Tatva,  p.  128 


CHAPTER  VIII 

KARMA  AND  THE  PATH  TO  LIBERATION 

In  our  survey  of  the  Nine  Fundamental  Categories  of 
the  Jaina  faith  we  saw  that  the  thought  of  karma — the 
energy  accumulated  by  action — underlay  them  all,  that 
five  of  them  were  concerned  entirely  with  either  the  acqui- 
sition, prevention,  impeding,  or  destruction  of  karma,  and 
two  others  dealt  with  bondage  to  it  or  freedom  from  it. 
That  seven  out  of  the  nine  principles  should  be  thus  appor- 
tioned shows  the  enormous  importance  Jaina,  in  common 
with  all  other  Indians,  attach  to  karma.  For  them  it  is 
the  key  that  solves  all  the  riddles  of  this  unintelligible 
world.  Is  a  man  born  a  cripple?  It  is  owing  to  his  karma. 
Are  Indian  immigrants  badly  treated  in  South  Africa  and 
made  to  live  in  special  locations  }  It  is  owing  to  the  evil 
karma  they  themselves  acquired  when  they  oppressed  the 
outcasts,  and  compelled  them  to  live  apart  from  their 
fellow  men. 

If  a  man  plead  that  he  personally  never  thus  ill-treated 
his  brother,  the  doctrine  of  Transmigration,  the  undivorce- 
able  spouse  of  karma,  is  brought  in,  and  he  is  assured  that 
he  must  have  done  so  in  some  previous  existence.  Nothing 
is  more  extraordinary  in  Indian  thought  than  the  way  in 
which  the  unproved  doctrine  of  karma  has  been  univer- 
sally accepted  as  an  axiom. 

The  root  of  the  word  karma  is,  the  Jaina  tells  us,  the 
verb  kri  (to  do),  and  they  believe  it  to  be  the  result  of 
actions  springing  from  four  sources. 

The  first  source  of  karma  is  Aviraii,  or  attachment  to  the  The  four 
things  of  this  life  such  as  food,  raiment,  lodging,  women,  sources 
or  jewels.     The  unlimited  use  and  enjoyment  of   any  of 


174  KARMA  AND  THE 

these  gives  rise  to  karma,  and  the  more  one  limits  one's 

indulgence  in  them,  the  less  karma  one  acquires.     Karma 

is  also  engendered  by  giving  the  rein  to  anger,  pride,  deceit, 

or  greed  {Kasdya),  or  any  of  their  sixteen  divisions,  or  the 

nine  Nokasaya.    Karma  is  again  produced  by  uniting  one's 

body,  mind  and  speech  to  worldly  things  ( Yoga) ;  and  lastly, 

Mithydtva,  or  false  belief,  is  a  fruitful  source  of  karma. 

The  nine       Karma  can  be  arrested  by  not  using  one's  own  mind, 

ways  of     bofjy^  or  speech ;    by  being  careful  not  to  cause  any  one 

karma,      else  to  use  their  mind,  body,  or  speech ;    and  by  never 

approving,  or  in  any  other  way  associating  oneself  with 

what  another  does  by  mind,  body,   or  speech.     That  is 

to  say,  by  never  oneself  doing  any  work,  however  useful 

or  noble ;    never  influencing  any  one  else  to  do  any  such 

work ;  and  never  praising  any  work  when  done.     '  As  heat 

can  unite  with  iron ',  say  the  Jaina,  *  and  water  with  milk, 

so  karma  unites  with  the  soul,  and  the  soul  so  united  with 

karma  is  called  a  soUl  in  bondage.' 

Differing       We  have  already  seen  that  it  is  the  inequaHties  of  life 

views  of    ^j^(^  ^he  desire  to  account  for  them  that  have  given  the 

Jaina  so  firm  a  faith  in  karma  ;    to  prove  that  the  same 

belief  is  shared  by  others  they  quote  a  Buddhist  sloka,  in 

which  a  beggar  says  : 

*  In  the  prime  of  life  I  am  deprived  of  all  virility,  my  leg  is  injured, 
and  I  am  a  beggar.    All  this  is  the  result  of  my  karma.' 

The  Jaina,  however,  say  that  they  differ  from  the  Hindus 
in  two  main  points.  The  Hindus,  according  to  them, 
believe,^  that  God  [Paramesvara)  inflicts  punishment  for 
evil  karma  just  as  a  judge  inflicts  the  penalties  prescribed 
by  the  law.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Jaina,  who  do  not 
believe  in  a  Supreme  God  who  takes  any  active  part  in 
the  world's  governance,  declare  that  karma  accumulates 
energy  and  automatically  works  it  ofl^,  without  any  outside 
intervention. 

^  This,  however,  would  certainly  not  be  true  of  all  Hindus. 


PATH  TO  LIBERATION  175 

The  other  point  of  difference  they  lay  stress  on  is  that 
while  Hindus  think  of  karma  as  formless  {amilrta),  Jaina 
believe  karma  to  have  shape,  and  to  prove  this  they, 
argue  that  karma  cannot  be  formless,  because  formless 
things  can  do  us  neither  good  nor  harm.  The  sky,  they  say, 
like  space,  is  shapeless,  and  that  does  us  neither  evil  nor 
good ;  but  as  karma,  according  to  its  origin,  does  inflict  hurt 
or  benefit,  it  must  have  a  form  ! 

To  further  understand  karma  we  may  look  at  it  as  easy 
or  difficult  to  expiate.  A  scarf  may  accumulate  dust  that 
can  be  easily  shaken  off,  but  if  it  should  get  stained  with  oil 
it  will  need  much  washing ;  so,  according  to  its  nature,  some 
karma  is  got  rid  of  easily,  but  some  only  with  great  difficulty. 
As  heat  is  latent  in  wood,  oil  in  sesame  seeds,  and  ghi  in 
milk,  so  karma  is  latent  in  all  actions.^  Some  people  ask 
when  karma  attaches  itself  to  the  soul ;  this  no  one  knows, 
but  the  Jaina  say  the  important  thing  is  not  so  much  to  know 
when  the  two  were  united,  but  how  they  may  be  separated  ; 
for,  just  as  when  gold  is  found  in  the  earth,  the  important 
matter  is  not  to  inquire  how  it  became  impure,  but  to  free 
it  by  heat  (representing  austerities)  from  the  clay  and 
impurities  which  cHng  to  it,  so  in  the  spiritual  sphere, 
when  the  presence  of  karma  is  detected,  the  great  thing  is 
to  free  the  soul  from  it. 

There'  is  also  a  difference  between  Hindus  and  Jaina 
with  regard  to  the  remembrance  of  karma.  Some  Hindus 
believe  that  it  is  owing  to  Maya  (illusion)  that  all  remem- 
brance of  the  deeds  done  in  previous  births,  which  led  to  the 
accumulation  of  karma,  is  forgotten ;  but  Jaina  hold  that 
it  is  owing  to  Ajnana  (ignorance),  and  when  the  soul  by 
means  of  austerities  and  good  actions  has  got  rid  of  Ajfiana, 
it  attains  omniscience  and  remembers  all  the  births  it  has 
undergone  and  all  that  happened  in  them. 

^  Compare  the  Hindu  saying:  *As  fragrance  is  inherent  in  flowers, 
oil  in  sesame  seed,  fire  in  wood,  ghl  in  milk,  sweetness  in  sugar-cane, 
so  wise  men  should  recognize  the  soul  in  a  body.' 


176  KARMA  AND  THE 

The  Jaina  divide  karma  according  to  its  nature,  dura- 
tion, essence  and  content,  quoting  the  following  sloka  : 

*  These  are  the  four  parts  of  karma :  its  nature,  that  is,  its 
character ;  its  condition,  that  is,  the  time  it  will  last ;  its  constitution, 
that  is  called  its  essence  ;  its  scope,  or  the  whole  of  its  content.* 

As  long  as  the  jiva  or  atma  is  fettered  by  karma,  so  long 
must  it  undergo  rebirth,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
karma  is  acquired  through  good  as  well  as  through  evil 
actions.  If  the  karma  accumulated  in  the  past  life  was 
evil,  the  soul  is  bound  to  the  cycle  of  rebirth  by  iron  fetters, 
if  good,  by  golden  chains,  but  in  either  case  it  is  bound,  and 
until  the  karma  is  worked  out,  it  must  be  reborn  again  and 
again. 

Karma  is  intimately  bound  up  with  the  soul ;  accordingly, 
when  the  jiva  leaves  one  body,  the  weight  of  its  karma 
draws  it  irresistibly  to  another  gati  (state),  and  there  it 
forms  round  itself  another  body.  Only  when  the  soul  is 
freed  from  good  and  bad  karma  ahke  can  it  attain  the 
highest  state  and  become  a  Siddha. 

Here  we  notice  another  point  of  difference  from  common 
Hindu  thought :  the  Jaina  believe  that  once  an  atma  has 
attained  the  highest  state,  it  is  absolutely  indifferent  to 
what  is  taking  place  on  earth,  and  will  never  again  undergo 
rebirth ;  so  that  the  Hindu  idea  of  incarnation  in  order  to 
help  mankind  is  quite  foreign  to  the  Jaina,  and  they  could 
never  use  the  famous  sloka  : 

*  O  Bharata  (Arjuna),  whenever  there  comes  a  decline  of  faith  and 
irreligion  uprises,  then  I  will  take  birth.  In  every  age  for  the 
protection  of  the  good,  the  destruction  of  the  wicked,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  faith  1  become  incarnate.'     Bhagavadgltd,  iv.  7,  8. 


PATH  TO  LIBERATION  177 

The  Eight  Kinds  of  Karma. 

We  have  discussed  various  kinds  of  karma  as  we  have 
worked  laboriously  through  the  long  lists  of  divisions  and 
subdivisions  under  which  the  Jaina  classify  the  tenets  of 
their  faith  ;  but  it  will  probably  make  for  clearness  if,  in 
studying  the  most  popular  way  of  classifying  this  important 
doctrine  of  karma,  we  begin  as  it  were  de  novo  and  divide 
the  subject  afresh  under  the  eight  headings  which  the  Jaina 
themselves  most  frequently  quote. ^ 

The  first  kind  of  karma  is  that  which  hides  knowledge  i.  Jfianl- 
from  us.  As  a  bandage  bound  across  our  eyes  prevents  us  J^^^'^^^y^ 
from  seeing,  so  does  Jndndvaranlya  karma  prevent  our  re- 
ceiving mental  illumination  for  innumerable  oceans  of  time. 
It  is  divided  into  eight  classes  :  first  Matijndndvaraniya^ 
which  prevents  our  making  a  right  use  of  our  conscience 
and  intellect ;  this  again  is  subdivided  into  Utpdtikl,  which 
hinders  the  power  of  spontaneous  thought ;  Vainayiki,  the 
karma  which  prevents  our  getting  those  powers  which  are 
obtained  by  showing  deference  to  our  elders  ;  Pdrindyniki, 
by  which  we  are  hindered  from  gaining  any  benefit  or 
knowledge  from  experience ;  and  lastly  Kdmikl,^  a  karma 
which  impedes  our  obtaining  any  intellectual  stimulus  from 
memories  of  the  past  or  from  hope  for  the  future.  Perhaps 
these  are  nearly  sufficient  for  our  purpose,  as  showing  how 
completely  karma  can  prevent  our  gaining  knowledge ; 
but  the  Nandl  Sutra  goes  into  the  subject  at  great  length, 
and  discusses  twenty-eight  other  minor  ways  in  which 
Matijfianavaranlya  karma  may  impede  learning.  It  is 
important  also  to  note  the  other  kinds  of  Jfianavaranlya 
karma,  which  prevent  our  getting  any  knowledge  from 
reading  the  sacred  books  (SrutaJTidndvaramya)  ;  or  never 
allow  us  to  know  what  is  passing  in  the  minds  of  others 
[Manahparydyajndndvaranlya) ;  or  what  is  happening  at 
a  distance  (Avadhijndndvaramya) ;    and  lastly  prevent  our 

^  For  a  full  analysis  of  this  somewhat  confusing  subject,  see  Appendix, 
p.  309.  ^  Or  Karmajd, 

N 


178 


KARMA  AND  THE 


ever  attaining  omniscience  [Kevalajndndvaranlyd).  But 
Jfianavaraniya  karma  not  only  impedes  us  in  gaining  true 
knowledge  and  sound  learning,  but  actually  gives  rise  to 
false  and  hurtful  knowledge  and  misuse  of  the  intellectual 
powers.  For  instance,  weapons  are  invented  which  eventu- 
ally kill  people  owing  to  Mali  ajndna,  or  the  misuse  of  the 
intelligence ;  again  the  knowledge  gained  through  reading 
the  scriptures  may  be  misunderstood  or  misapplied  {Sruta 
ajndna),  and  this  might  lead  to  the  practice  of  bhakti 
(devotion  to  a  personal  god)  or  to  obscenity  ;  or  karma 
may  hinder  and  falsify  all  spiritual  insight  [Vibhanga  jndna) 
as  well  as  physical  sight.  All  this  obstruction  to  knowledge 
and  gaining  of  false  knowledge  can  be  traced  back  to  a 
former  life  in  which  the  jiva  has  been  jealous  of  another's 
knowledge,  or  has  failed  to  help  another  to  gain  knowledge, 
or  has  actually  tried  to  prevent  any  one  from  gaining  know- 
ledge by  employing  them  in  ways  which  left  no  time  for 
study,  thus  acquiring  this  evil  karma. 

The  second  of  the  eight  great  divisions  of  karma  is 
Darsandvaraniya,  the  karma  which  prevents  our  beholding 
the  true  faith.  As  a  door-keeper  may  prevent  our  getting 
into  the  presence  of  a  chief,  or  a  peon  hinder  our  gaining 
access  to  an  English  official,^  so  Darsanavaraniya  karma 
may  prevent  our  ever  seeing  the  true  faith,  however  much 
we  may  long  to  follow  it.  There  are  nine  divisions  of 
Darsanavaraniya  karma  w^hich  we  have  already  studied. 
It  affect^  those  jiva  which  in  a  previous  birth  have 
acquired  evil  karma  by  showing  want  of  reverence  to 
sacred  books  or  to  saints,  or  by  hindering  those  who  would 
like  to  believe  in  Jainism,  or  by  imputing  faults  to  Tir- 
thahkara,  or  by  manifesting  ill  feeling  to  other  religions. 
iii.  Veda-  Vedanlya  karma,  the  third  of  the  great  divisions,  causes 
us  to  experience  either  the  sweetness  of  happiness  or  the 


ii.  Darsa 
navara- 
nlya 
karma. 


niya 

karma. 


^  A  frequent  cause  of  misunderstanding  in  India  is  the  way  in  which 
a  peon  often  manages  to  prevent  Indians  from  approaching  British 
officials,  until  he  receives  a  sufficient  douceur. 


PATH  TO  LIBERATION  179 

bitterness  of  misery.^  The  Jaina  think  of  this  life  as 
resembling  two  sides  of  a  sword,  the  one  smeared  with 
honey  and  the  other  with  opium,  and  it  is  Vedaniya  karma 
which  determines  which  side  we  taste.  Sdtavedanlya  is 
the  karma  that  leads  to  happiness,  and  Asdtavedaniya 
that  which  produces  the  reverse.  One  ensures  happiness, 
or  Satavedamya  karma,  by  showing  reverence  to  our 
superiors  and  serving  them,  by  extending  forgiveness 
and  mercy  to  any  who  have  injured  us,  and  by  straight- 
forward dealings  with  all  mankind.  But  one  must  re- 
member that  good  no  less  than  evil  karma  has  to  be 
'  worked  off '  before  one  can  go  to  moksa,  and  that  though 
it  is  well  to  do  good,  it  is  better  to  do  nothing  at  all  after 
one  has  reached  a  certain  stage  in  development,  for  karma 
lurks  in  all  action.  It  may  perhaps  be  owing  to  the  in- 
fluence of  this  belief,  so  inimical  to  anything  like  pubHc 
spirit,  that  the  Jaina  have  shown  such  apathy  during  the 
famines  that  from  time  to  time  have  devastated  India.  They 
have  a  saying  that  one  needs  the  ship  of  good  deeds  or  punya 
to  go  from  one  harbour  to  another,  but  after  reaching  the 
harbour  the  ship  is  no  longer  needed  ;  meditation  alone  will 
transport  us  to  our  native  village  or  moksa. 

Just  as  wine,  say  the  Jaina,  prevents  a  man  speaking  or  iv.  Moha- 
thinking  clearly,  so  does  Mohanlya,  the  fourth  and  most  ^1^^^^^ 
dreaded  karma,  bemuse  all  the  faculties.  It  results,  gene- 
rally speaking,  from  worldly  attachments  and  indulgence 
of  the  passions,  but  each  of  the  twenty-eight  divisions  of 
Mohanlya  karma  springs  from  some  special  cause.  We 
have  already  (fortunately  for  the  reader  1)  discussed  most 
of  these  divisions,  and  only  a  few  remain.  The  first  of 
these,  Mithydtvamohaniya  karma,  induces  a  man  to  believe 
good  things  to  be  unwholesome,  or  falsehoods  to  be 
true,  just  as  a  patient  who  is  dehrious  often  longs  for 

^  Dr.  Bhandarkar  follows  Govindananda  in  believing  Vedaniya  karma 
to  mean,  '  the  belief  that  there  is  something  which  one  has  to  know '. 
Jaina,  however,  seem  to  give  it  in  this  connexion  the  meaning  rather 
of  experience.     Search  for  Sanskrit  Manuscripts,  p.  97. 

N  2 


i8o  KARMA  AND  THE 

harmful  things  and  dedines  health-giving  food ;  another 
type  of  this  karma,  Misramohaniya  karma,  forces  us  to 
vacillate,  resting  our  faith  sometimes  on  what  is  true  and 
sometimes  on  what  is  false  ;  while,  owing  to  Samyaktva- 
mohanlya  karma,  though  we  know  which  faith  is  true,  we 
cannot  attain  to  full  devotion  and  consecration  to  it.  The 
Jaina  liken  the  influence  of  these  three  classes  of  Mohanlya 
karma  to  the  results  arising  from  taking  the  grain  Kodaro. 
If  this  grain  be  eaten  without  any  preparation,  it  causes  the 
most  intense  giddiness  such  as  quite  to  bewilder  the  eater. 
Such  is  the  effect  of  Mithyatva ;  if  the  husk  of  the  grain  be 
removed,  the  result  is  less  stupefying  and  resembles  that  of 
Misra  ;  whereas,  if  the  grain  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  the 
occasional  slight  uneasiness  it  may  cause  is  comparable  to 
Samyaktva.  Another  karma,  Darsanamohanlya  karma, 
arises  from  taking  life  in  the  name  of  rehgion  (as  Hindus 
and  Mohammedans  do  when  they  slay  goats  at  their  religious 
festivals),  or  from  misappropriating  funds  or  falsifying  true 
religion.  Again,  taking  part  in  state  intrigues,  acting  im- 
morally, administering  evil  medicines,  spreading  false  super- 
stitions and  giving  full  play  to  all  the  passions  give  rise  to 
Cdritramohanlya  karma.  Only  when  Mohaniya  karma,  the 
greatest  of  them  all,  is  extinguished,  can  the  soul  reach  moksa. 
V.  Ayu  The  fifth  great  division,  Ayu  karma,  determines  the  length 
of  time  which  a  jiva  must  spend  in  the  form  with  which 
his  karma  has  endowed  him,  for  not  only  the  prison  but 
also  the  term  of  imprisonment  varies  according  to  the 
weight  of  karma  acquired.  There  are  four  divisions  of 
this  karma,  one  of  which  [Deva  ayu  karma^)  decides  how 
long  a  jiva  who  has  become  a  god  ^  shall  remain  one.  The 
Jaina  believe  in  four  classes  of  gods  :  those  who  inhabit  the 

^  Or  Devayidtkarvia. 

^  It  should  be  noticed  that  though  the  Jaina  use  the  same  names 
for  the  gods  as  the  Hindus  employ,  the  words  have  often  a  different 
connotation  ;  e.g.  whereas  the  Hindus  use  the  word  Indra  to  denote 
the  rain-god,  the  Jaina  believe  in  not  one  but  sixty-four  Indras,  who 
have  nothing  to  do  with  rain,  but  who  are  the  rulers  of  sixty-four 
different  kingdoms. 


karma. 


PATH  TO  LIBERATION  i8i 

planets  {JyoHsl),  evil  ghost-gods  {Vyantara),  gods  who  travel 
in  the  celestial  car  (Vaimdnika),  and  \3,st\y  Bhavanapati,  the 
lords  of  the  lower  regions,  who  inhabit  the  space  above  hell. 
Each  of  these  gods  has  a  different  ayu  or  term  to  serve. 

Another  branch  of  Ayu  karma  determines  how  long  a  jiva 
can  wear  a  human  form  [Manusya  ayu  karma'^).  There 
are  two  classes  of  human  beings  on  this  earth,  those  who 
live  in  the  land  where  work  is  done  {Karmabhumi^)  and 
who  exercise  themselves  in  warfare  (asi),  in  commerce, 
religion,  or  writing  [masi),  or  in  agriculture  {kasi)  ;  and 
those  who  live  in  the  land  where  no  such  work  is  done 
{Akarmahhumi) ,  but  where  all  needs  are  supplied  by  the 
ten  kinds  of  desire-fulfilling  trees  ;  both  classes  of  men  only 
hold  their  position  for  the  length  of  time  their  Manusya  ayu 
karma  determines.  Again  Ayu  karma  decides  how  long  a 
jiva  can  be  forced  to  inhabit  the  form  of  an  insect,  a  bird, 
or  a  lower  animal  (Tiryanc  ayu  karma  ^). 

The  fourth  division  of  Ayu  karma  determines  the  period 
for  which  a  jiva  must  dwell  in  one  of  the  seven  hells  [Naraka 
ayu  karma  ^). 

The  comforting  thing  about  all  four  divisions  of  Ayu 
karma  is  that  it  can  never  be  accumulated  to  last  beyond 
one  re-incarnation,  and  that  it  can  be  acquired  only  once 
in  one's  life,  generally  at  the  period  when  about  a  third 
of  life  remains.  It  is  accumulated  in  the  following  ways : 
a  man  wins  Deva  ayu  karma,  which  will  keep  him  in  the 
position  of  a  god  for  a  certain  time,  by  straightforward 
dealing,  by  avoiding  anger,  pride,  and  greed,  and  by 
practising  celibacy.  In  the  same  way,  by  being  always 
gentle  and  honourable  and  checking  all  tendency  to  anger, 
pride  and  greed,  a  jiva  gains  the  privilege  of  being  a 
man  for  a  period  that  varies  according  to  his  past  virtue 

^  Or  Mafmsydyuhkartna. 

^  Dr.  Jacobi  practically  limits  the  activities  of  Karmabhiinii  to 
practising  religious  duties.  This  would  ignore  asi  and  kasi  entirely. 
Acdrdhga  Siltra,  S.B.E.,  xxii,  p.  195. 

^  Or  Tiryagdyiihkarma.  *  Or  Narakdyujikarma, 


i82  KARMA  AND  THE 

(Manusya  ayu  karma),  and  also  enters  a  state  in  which  he 
understands  which  gurus  and  gods  are  true  and  which  books 
rehable,  and  in  obedience  to  them  he  protects  all  life  and 
follows  the  dictates  of  the  Jaina  religion.  But  a  man  who 
gives  way  to  craftiness  and  intrigue  will  be  sentenced  to 
pass  some  of  his  next  life  as  a  bird  or  beast  (Tiryanc  ayu 
karma);  another  by  indulging  in  any  of  the  following  sins: 
gambling,  drinking  intoxicants,  eating  flesh,  unchastity, 
thieving,  or  hunting,  is  determining  the  time  he  will  pass 
in  hell  (Naraka  ayu  karma), 
vi.  Nama  In  Studying  Ayu  karma  we  have  seen  that  a  jiva  may 
arma.  ^^  sentenced  to  spend  a  certain  time  as  a  man,  a  god,  an 
insect,  or  a  hell-being.  Each  of  these  four  states  or  con- 
ditions is  called  gati,  and  it  is  according  to  our  past  deeds 
that  we  are  born  in  the  Manusya  gati,  Deva  gati,  Tiryafic 
gati,  or  Naraka  gati,  the  karma  that  decides  which  of 
these  four  shall  be  our  particular  gati,  i.e.  in  which  prison 
we  shall  dwell,  being  called  Ndma  karma.^  There  are  one 
hundred  and  three  divisions  of  Nama  karma,  many  of  which 
we  have  already  discussed  when  we  were  studying  the 
categories  of  Papa  and  Punya. 
vii.  Gotra  An  Indian's  whole  life,  his  occupation,  the  locality  in 
karma,  -which  he  may  live,  his  marriage,  his  religious  observances 
and  even  his  food  and  fellow  diners  are  determined  by  the 
caste  into  which  he  is  born ;  so  that  it  is  small  wonder  if 
a  Jaina  attach  the  greatest  importance  to  the  accumula- 
tion of  Gotra  karma,  which,  as  he  believes,  determines  his 
caste  in  his  next  and  subsequent  lives.  There  are  two 
main  divisions  of  this  karma  :  it  decides  whether  the  jiva 
shall  be  born  in  a  high-  or  in  a  low-caste  family.  Pride 
is  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  determining  a  man's  future 
caste :    if  he  indulge  in   pride    about    his    high   caste,  his 

^  Dr.  Bhandarkar  quotes  Govindananda's  saying :  '  Namika,  i.  e. 
the  belief  that  I  am  a  person  bearing  such  and  such  a  name ; 
Gotrika,  i.  e.  the  knowledge  that  I  now  belong  to  the  family  of  the 
pupils  of  the  worshipful  Arhat.'  Loc.  cit.,  p.  97.  None  of  the  Jaina 
that  the  writer  has  consulted  accept  these  translations  as  correct. 


PATH  TO  LIBERATION  183 

form,  his  learning,  his  family,  his  fame,  his  strength,  his 
success  in  commerce,  or  his  austerities,  he  is  laying  up  the 
inauspicious  Gotra  karma  which  will  surely  cause  him  to  be 
born  in  a  low-caste  and  despised  family  in  the  next  life ;  if 
on  the  other  hand  he  sternly  curbs  his  conceit  and  that 
constant  criticizing  and  censuring  of  others  which  is  the 
surest  proof  of  pride,  and  also  in  every  possible  way  takes 
care  of  animals,  then  birth  into  a  high  caste  will  be  his 
reward. 

All  of  us  have  been  bewildered  by  the  ineffectiveness  of  viii. 
some  people  ;  they  seem  to  have  everything  in  their  favour  Antaraya 
and  yet  they  muddle  away  every  opportunity  that  life  offers 
them.  The  Jaina  find  the  answer  to  this  puzzle  in  their 
belief  in  Antardya  karma,  the  karma  that  always  hinders. 
If  we  are  wealthy  and  so  generous  that  we  long  to  revel 
in  the  keen  joy  of  giving,  and  yet  never  do  give,  we  know 
that  in  a  past  life  we  accumulated  the  karma  that  prevents 
giving  [Ddndntardya  karma).  If  we  realize  the  profit  that 
is  sure  to  follow  a  certain  course  of  action,  and  yet  we  never 
act  on  this  realization,  we  must  have  accumulated  Ldhhdn- 
tardya  karma.  If  in  spite  of  our  wealth  we  never  really 
enjoy  our  possessions  or  our  luxuries,  either  continuously 
or  even  for  an  instant,  the  cause  is  either  Bhogdntardya 
or  U pabhogdntardya  karma.  The  last  hindering  karma 
{Vlrydntardya  karma)  prevents  our  using  our  will  or  our 
bodily  strength  as  we  should  Hke  to  do.  The  convenience 
of  this  behef  is  obvious.  Life  in  India  is  for  Indians,  as 
it  is  for  Europeans,  a  constant  and  unending  fight  against 
slackness,  in  which  Europeans  have  the  advantage  of 
periodic  visits  to  a  cool  climate  to  brace  their  moral  as 
well  as  their  physical  fibre,  and  have  also  a  tonic  behef 
in  the  dignity  of  work  and  the  gospel  of  exercise.  Jaina 
have  none  of  these  advantages,  but  recline  on  the  ener- 
vating doctrine  of  Antaraya  karma,  which  provides  those 
of  them  who  are  lazy  with  an  excuse  for  every  sort  of 
inertia. 


i84  KARMA  AND  THE 

The  Arrangement  of  the  Eight  Karma, 

The  Jaina  have  a  special  reason  for  the  way  they  arrange 
the  eight  karma  :  they  say  that  the  first  thing  necessary  is 
knowledge  [jndna) ;  without  this  we  cannot  behold  the  true 
faith  (darsana) ;  if  we  possess  both  knowledge  and  faith, 
we  are  indifferent  to  pain  or  pleasure  (vedanlya)  ;  mohaniya 
follows,  because  through  pleasure  or  fear  of  pain  we  may 
become  entangled  in  worldly  attachments  ;  that  is  the  chief 
cause  which  determines  the  length  of  each  imprisonment 
{dyii)  ;  when  this  has  been  determined,  there  still  remains 
to  be  decided  the  state  in  which  we  shall  be  imprisoned 
[ndma) ;  on  that  again  depends  the  caste  and  family  [gotra) ; 
and  a  man's  caste  and  family  are  after  all  either  his  greatest 
help  or  his  greatest  hindrance  {antardya). 

Ghdtin  and  Aghdtin  Karma. 
The  eight  karma  are  also  classified  into  the  Ghdtin  karma, 
which  can  only  be  destroyed  with  great  labour,  and  which 
include  Jiianavaraniya,  Darsanavaraniya,  Mohaniya  and 
Antaraya  karma:  and  the  Aghdtin  karma,  namely  Vedanlya, 
Ayu,  Nama  and  Gotra  karma,  which,  important  as  their 
results  are,  can  yet  be  more  easily  destroyed.  The  Jaina 
say  that  if  the  Ghatin  are  once  burnt  up  in  the  burning 
glow  of  austerities  (tapa),  the  Aghatin  can  be  snapped  as 
easily  as  a  piece  of  burnt  string.^ 

Three  Tenses  of  Karma. 

The  Jaina  also  divide  karma  according  to  the  period 
when  it  was  acquired,  is  being  experienced,  or  will  be  experi- 
enced. The  karma  which  we  accumulated  in  past  lives 
they  call  Sattd_ ;  that  which  we  are  even  now  in  this  present 
life  sowing,  and  of  which  we  shall  reap  the  harvest  in  a  future 

^  Here  again  will  be  noticed  a  difference  from  the  interpretation 
of  Govindananda  (who  thinks  four  karma  '  are  of  use  to  enable  one 
to  know  the  truth;  therefore  they  are  Aghatins,  i.e.  not  injurious, 
favourable ') ;  and  from  Dr.  Bhandarkar,  who  considers  the  Ghatin 
Karman  to  mean  *  the  disabling  Karmans '.     Loc.  cit.,  pp.  97  n.  and  93. 


PATH  TO  LIBERATION  185 

life,  is  named  Bandha;  and  the  karma  whose  fruits,  good  or 
evil,  are  now  ripening  and  being  experienced  is  Udaya} 
The  Jaina  illustrate  these  three  divisions  of  karma  by  the 
three  stages  the  water  in  a  well  passes  through.  When  the 
water  is  in  the  well,  they  hken  it  to  Satta  karma  ;  when  it 
is  in  the  leathern  bucket  that  draws  it  up  from  the  depths 
of  the  well,  to  Bandha  karma,  and  as  it  flows  along  to  the 
plants,  to  Udaya  karma. 

The  whole  teaching  of  Jainism  on  karma  would  lead  to  Nikacita 
fatalism  of  the  most  mischievous  kind,  were  it  not  for  the  ^,"d 
belief  that  there  are  two  great  types  of  karma.     One  type,  karma. 
Nikacita  karma,  v/e  have  stored  up  for  ourselves  and  we  are 
bound  to  experience;  but  a  ray  of  hope  comes  through 
the  existence  of  Sithila  karma,  or  that  destiny  which  we 
may  by  extraordinary  exertions  evade.     Only  the  Kevali 
know  to  which  class  a  mortal's  karma  has  been  assigned, 
so  that  every  man  is  left  free  to  hope  that  he  may  by  present 
exertion  escape  some  of  the  suffering  he  has  earned  in  his 
past  history.     It  was  probably  seeing  the  tragic  effect  of 
absolute  fatalism  on  Gosala  which  led  Mahavira  to  incor- 
porate this  tenet  into  the  body  of  his  doctrine. 

The  Fourteen  Steps  to  Liberation  from  Karma. 

So  long  as  the  soul  is  bound  by  karma,  it  can  never  attain 
dehverance,  but  the  Jaina  believe  that  there  is  a  ladder  of 
fourteen  steps  [Cauda  Gunasthdnaka  ^)  by  which  a  jiva  may 
mount  to  mok§a. 

The  Jaina  beHeve  that  the  soul  while  on  the  first  step  i.  Mi- 

(Mithydtva  gunasthdnaka)  is  completely  under  the  influence  thyatva 

of  karma,  and  knows  nothing  of  the  truth.     There  are  two  tha'naka. 

divisions  of  this  step  :  when  a  soul  is  on  the  lower  [Vyakta- 

mithydtva  gunasthdnaka),  other  people  can  see  that  it  is 

mistaking  false  religion  for  the  true  faith ;  when  one  has 

advanced  to  the  slightly  higher   step   (Avyaktamithydtva 

^  It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  three  divisions  with  the  Vedanta 
Sancita,  Kriycwidna  and  Prarabdha  karma. 
'^  Or  Gunasthd?ia. 


i86  KARMA  AND  THE 

gwtasthdnaka),  though  one  may  continue  in  this  mistake, 

one  is  not  doing  it  so  unhesitatingly  as  to  be  obvious  to 

others.    Just  as  taking  an  intoxicating  drug  prevents  one's 

distinguishing  white  from  yellow,  so  a  soul  on  this  step 

makes  mistakes.     A  Jaina  sloka  says  : 

'As  a  man  blind  from  birth  is  not  able  to  say  what  is  ugly  and  what 
is  beautiful,  a  man  on  the  Mithyatva  gunasthanaka  cannot  determine 
what  is  real  and  what  is  false.' 

ii.  Sasva-      The  soul,  w^hirled  round  and  round  in  the  cycle  of  rebirth, 
sadana      loses  some  of  its  crudeness  and  ignorance,  and  attains  to 
fhanaka.   the  State  (called  Granthihheda)  when  it  begins  to  distinguish 
a  little  between  what  is  false  and  what  is  true  ;    unfor- 
tunately, it  next  moves  into  the  state  (named   Upasama 
sankita)  when,  though  it  knows  there  is  a  distinction,  it 
forgets  it,  and  so  is  not  able  to  put  it  into  practice  ;    but 
when  some  faint  remembrance  comes  back,  it  has  arrived 
at  the  second  step  [Sdsvdsadana  ^  gunasthdnaka)  of  the  stairs 
to  moksa.    The  Jaina  say  that  Upasama  sankita  resembles 
fire  hidden  under  ashes,  for  though  a  man's  bad  qualities 
may  be  hidden  and  under  control  for  a  long  time,  they  are 
bound  to  blaze  out  at  last, 
iii.  Misra       ^  ^^^^  Xh.d.t  mounts  to  the  third  step  [Misra  gunasthd- 
gunas-      naka)  is  in  an  uncertain  condition,  one  moment  knowing 
t  ana  -a.  ^j^^  truth  and  the  next  doubting  it.     It  is  Hke  the  mixture 
formed  by  stirring  together  curds  and  sugar  to  make  the 
sweetmeat  called  srikhanda,  which  is  half  sour  and  half 
sweet.     No  one  will  die  in  this  mixed  condition,  but  will 
either  slip  back  to  the  second  step  or  proceed  onward  to 
the  fourth, 
iv  Avira-      '^^^  vcid^w  at  the  fourth  stage,  Aviratisamyagdristi  gunas- 
tisamyag-  thdnaka,  has  either  through  the  influence  of  his  past  good 

■'^•'        karma,  or  by  the  teaching  of  his  guru,  obtained  true  faith, 
gunas-  '         ^  -^  °  fc>        ' 

thanaka.   A  famous  sloka  runs  : 

*  Liking  for  principles  preached  by  Jina  is  called  true  faith,  it  is 
derived  either  from  nature  or  from  knowledge  given  by  the  guru.' 

^  Or  Sdsvddatia. 


PATH  TO  LIBERATION  187 

The  soul  is  still  unable  to  take  those  vows  which  help 
in  the  fight  against  karma  (which  we  shall  discuss  in  the 
next  chapter)  and  so  the  step  is  called  Avirati.  He  can 
now,  if  he  likes,  control  anger,  pride  and  greed  and  three 
branches  of  Mohaniya  karma  (Mithyatva,  Misra,  and  Sam- 
yaktva),  and  it  is  a  very  dangerous  thing  not  to  destroy  all 
of  them,  for  they  may  lead  to  a  man's  falhng  back  to  the 
second  step.  Whilst  on  this  fourth  step,  the  jiva  gains  five 
good  things  :  the  power  of  curbing  anger  {Sama) ;  the 
realization  that  the  world  is  evil,  and  that  since  it  is  a  place 
in  which  one  has  to  reap  the  fruits  of  one's  own  karma,  one 
need  have  little  aft^ection  for  it  [Samavega  ^) ;  he  also  realizes 
that  his  wife  and  children  do  not  belong  to  him  (Nirveda) ; 
and  that  he  must  try  and  relieve  any  one  who  is  in  trouble 
[Anukampd] ;  and  lastly  he  gains  complete  faith  in  all  the 
victorious  Jina  (Asthd).  We  have  seen  that  the  distinguish- 
ing mark  of  this  stage  is  that  a  man  does  not  yet  take  the 
vows ;  he  may  wish  to  do  so,  but  though  he  has  destroyed 
excessive  anger,  pride  and  greed,  he  has  not  yet  entirely 
escaped  from  their  influence. 

The  fifth  step,  Desavirati  ^  gunasthdnaka,  or  the  step  of  v.  Desa- 
merit,  as  it  is  often  called,  is  specially  interesting,  for  up  s^^ly^tL 
till  now  faith  has  been  the  chief  point  that  has  exercised  samyata 
the  thoughts  of  the  climber,  but  now  he  reahzes  the  great  fjj-^^^^ 
importance  of  conduct,  and  so  can  take  the  twelve  vows 
which,  as  we  shall  see,  deal  largely  with  questions  of  be- 
haviour.    The    step    has    three   parts.      First   {Jaghanya 
desavirati),  a  man  promises  not  to  drink  intoxicants  or  to 
eat  flesh,  and  he  constantly  repeats  the  Magadh!  salutation 
to  the  Five  Great    Ones  (Panca  Paramesvara)  :    '  A  bow 
to  Arihanta,  a  bow  to  Siddha,  a  bow  to  Acarya,  a  bow  to 
Upadhyaya,  a  bow  to  all  the  Sadhus  of  this  world.'    Then, 
though  still  on  the  fifth  step,  he  may  advance  a  little  higher 
on  it  [Madhyama  desavirati)  and,  keeping  all  the  twelve  vows, 
take  special  care  only  to  make  money  in  righteous  ways. 
^  Or  Samvega.  ^  Otherwise  Samyatdsamyata, 


i88  KARMA  AND  THE 

Every  day  he  should  be  very  careful  to  keep  the  six  rules 

for  daily  life,  which  are  described  in  a  well-known  sloka  : 

'  One  must  worship  God,  serve  the  guru,  study  the  scriptures,  control 
the  senses,  perform  austerities  and  give  ahns.' 

Thirdly,  while  still  on  this  step,  he  may  advance  to  Utkrista 
desavirati,  eating  only  once  a  day,  maintaining  absolute 
chastity,  resigning  the  society  even  of  his  own  wife,  eating 
nothing  that  possesses  even  one  life,  and  finally  forming 
the  determination  to  become  a  sadhu.  This  is  the  highest 
step  that  a  layman  can  reach  as  such,  for  if  it  be  successfully 
surmounted,  he  will  become  a  sadhu. 

At  this  stage,  too,  moderate  anger,  deceit,  pride  and  greed 
are  controlled  and  sometimes  destroyed, 
vi.  Pra-        We  now  come  to  the  sixth  step  on  the  ladder,  Pramatta 

matta       aunasthdnaka,  which  can  only  be  ascended  by  the  professed 
gunas-       °    •  '  •'  11    J  J 

th^naka.   ascetic.      Even  slight  passions  are  now  controlled  or  de- 
stroyed, and  only  certain  negligences  [Pramdda)  remain. 

'  These  five  Pramada :   Pride,  Enjoyment   of  the  senses,  Kasaya, 
Sleep  and  Gossip,  torment  the  soul  in  this  world ' 

runs  a  Magadhi  sloka,  and  the  Jaina  believe  that  if  a  soul 

is  to  mount  the  next  step,  he  must  never  indulge  any  of 

these  for  more  than  forty-eight  minutes  at  a  time  ;    if  he 

does,  he  will  not  mount,  but  on  the  contrary  will  descend  to 

the  lowest  step  of  all. 

vii.  Apra-      At  the  seventh  step,  Apramatta  giutasthdnaka,  anger  is 

matta       either  absolutely  quiescent  or  actually  destroyed,  and  only 

fhanaka.   in  a  slight  degree  do  pride,  deceit  and  greed  remain.     The 

soul's  power  of  meditation  increases,  for  the  bad  qualities 

which  lead  to  sleep  are  absent,  and  lastly  one  is  freed  from 

all  negligence. 

viii.Niya-      Among  the  Digambara  sonje  say  that  women  can  only 

tibadara    niQunt  as  high  as  the  fifth  stage ;  others  believe  they  can  reach 

vaka-        the  eighth  step,  which  is  called  Niyatibddara  gunasthdnaka. 

rana)  gu-  i|-  jg  also  called  the  Apurvakarana,  because  the  man  who 
nastha-      ,,.r  ...  .*  .,.  ui_ 

naka.        has  his  foot  on  this  stair  experiences  such  joy  as  he  has 

never  known  before  in  all  his  life.     As  anger  disappeared 


PATH  TO  LIBERATION  189 

on  the  seventh  step,  so  does  pride  now,  either  temporarily 
or  for  ever.  A  man  at  this  stage  increases  his  powers  of 
meditation  by  Yoga,  and  the  fetters  of  karma  are  fast 
becoming  unloosed  ;  in  fact  so  elevated  is  this  step,  and  so 
few  attain  to  it,  that  it  is  also  called  '  the  Unique '. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  the  Jaina  think  it  easier  ix.Amya- 
to  eet  rid  of  anger  than  of  pride,  and  that  deceit  does  not  tibadara 

»  °  r  >  ...    gunas- 

disappear  till  the  man  has  reached  the  ninth  step  [Aniyati-  thanaka. 
hddara  giutasthdnaka),  whilst  greed  persists  longer  than 
any  of  the  other  Kasaya ;  any  one  who  has  watched  the 
characters  of  Indians  develop  and  improve  would  acknow- 
ledge how  extraordinarily  true  this  psychological  succession 
is.  Not  only  does  the  man  attain  freedom  from  deceit  at 
this  stage,  but  he  becomes  practically  sexless.  One  great 
difficulty  still  persists,  for  he  is  haunted  by  the  memories  of 
what  he  did  and  saw  before  he  became  an  ascetic. 

The  description   of  the   tenth  step,   Suksmasampardya  x.  Suks- 
gunasthdnaka,  emphasizes  the  enormous  difference  between  ""^^sam- 
the  Jaina  and  the  Christian  notions  of  asceticism,  for  this  gunas- 
stage  is  only  reached  by  the  advanced  ascetic,  who  there-  thanaka. 
upon  loses  all  sense  of  humour,  all  pleasure  in  beauty  of 
sound   or  form,   and  all  perception   of   pain,    fear,   grief, 
disgust    and   smells.     One   contrasts  with   this  a  certain 
•  Cowley  father's  saying  about  '  the  sheer  fun  it  was  to  be 
a  Christian  '  ;    and  many  devout  Christians  tell  us  that, 
having   made    the   great   renunciation,  they  have   found 
almost  unexpectedly  that  the  surrender  of  worldly  ambition 
and  the  wire-pulling  it  entails  has  endowed  them   with 
an  entirely  new  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  nature,  the 
treasures  of  art  and  the  joy  of  living,  besides  giving  them 
a  deeper  power  of  suffering  with  others.    In  short.  Christian 
asceticism  is  a  development  of  personality,  whilst  Jaina 
asceticism  amounts  to  self-stultification. 

Some  slight  degree  of  greed  still  remains  to  the  Jaina 
ascetic  who  has  reached  this  stage.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  Jaina  sadhu  generally  comes  from  the  commercial 


190 


KARMA  AND  THE 


xi.  Upa- 

santa- 

moha 

gunas- 

thanaka. 


xii.  Ksl- 
namoha 
gunas- 
thanaka. 


xiii.Sayo- 
gikevall 
gunas- 
thanaka. 


class,  and  often  from  a  money-lender's  family.  This  helps 
us  to  understand  how  difficult  some  ascetics  find  it  to  get 
rid  of  greed,  and,  whilst  professing  to  give  up  everything, 
contrive  by  hook  or  crook  to  retain  their  fortune,  some- 
times, as  we  have  noted,  even  keeping  it  in  paper  money 
hidden  on  their  persons,  to  the  great  disgust  of  their  fellow 
Jaina.  Those  who  manage  absolutely  to  destroy  every 
trace  of  greed  will  pass  straight  to  the  twelfth  stage,  whilst 
others  have  to  pause  at  the  eleventh. 

When  a  man  has  attained  to  the  eleventh  stage,  Upa- 
sdntamoha  gunasthdnaka,  he  has  reached  a  really  critical 
point,  v/here  everything  depends  on  how  he  deals  with  the 
sin  of  greed.  If  he  destroys  it,  and  it  becomes  quite  extinct, 
he  is  safe ;  but  if  it  only  remains  quiescent,  he  is  in  a  perilous 
state,  for,  like  a  flood,  it  may  at  any  moment  burst  its  dam, 
and  the  force  of  its  current  may  carry  the  soul  far  down 
the  slope  he  has  been  climbing,  depositing  him  on  either  the 
sixth  or  seventh  step,  or  even  on  the  lowest.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  he  deal  successfully  with  greed,  he  becomes  an 
Anuttaravasi  Deva  and  knows  that  he  will  become  a  Siddha 
after  he  has  undergone  one  more  rebirth  as  a  man. 

If  a  man  be  on  the  twelfth  step,  Kslnamoha  gunasthdnaka, 
he  has  won  freedom  for  ever  not  only  from  greed  but  from 
all  the  ghatin  karma,^  and  though  the  aghatin  karma^  still 
persist,  they  have  little  power  to  bind  the  soul :  in  fact, 
so  limited  is  their  power,  that  at  death  a  soul  passes  at  once 
through  the  two  remaining  stages  and  enters  moksa  without 
delay.  The  Digambara  believe  that  at  this  stage  the  first  two 
parts  of  pure  contemplation  (Sukladhyana)  are  developed. 

If  a  man  who  reaches  the  stage  of  Sayogikevali  gunas- 
thdnaka preaches,  and  forms  a  community  or  tirtha,  he 
becomes  a  Tirthahkara.     He  first  (according  to  the  Digam- 

^  i.  e.  those  difficult  to  destroy,  or  according  to  another  interpretation 
those  which  destroy  omniscience  :  Jnanavaraniya,  Darsanavaranfya, 
Mohanlya  and  Antaraya.     Cp.  p.  184. 

^  i.e.  those  easy  X.o  destroy,  or  those  which  do  not  destroy  omni- 
science :  Vedanlya,  Ayu,  Nama  and  Gotra. 


PATH  TO  LIBERATION  191 

bara)  obtains  'eternal  wisdom,  illimitable  insight,  everlasting 
happiness  and  unbounded  prowess  '.     When  this  absolute 
knowledge  is  acquired,  Indra,  Kubera  ^  and  other  heavenly 
beings,  including  the  celestial  engineer,  Vaisramana,  raise 
the  Samavasarana  (or  heavenly  pavilion)  where  the  twelve 
conferences  meet  to  hear  eternal  wisdom  from  the  Kevall. 
After  prayers  have  been  offered,  the   Kevali  goes   about 
preaching    truth,    until,    when    the    day    of    deliverance 
approaches,  he  takes  to  the  third   part  of  pure  contem- 
plation (Sukladhyana).     Here  the  soul  reaches  every  part  \ 
of  the  universe   and  is  yet  contained  within   the  body,  "C 
though  its  only  connexion  with  it  now  is  residence.     The  / 
last  part  of  contemplation  follows  when  the  fourteenth. step 
is  ascended,  and  the  body  disappears  like  burnt  camphor. 
This  is  Nirvana. 2 

Before  proceeding,  however,  to  discuss  the  fourteenth 
step,  we  may  quote  the  famous  sloka  that  describes  the 
pomp  of  a  Tirthankara  : 

'  The  tree  of  Asoka,  the  shower  of  celestial  flowers,  the  singing  of 
heavenly  songs,  the  waving  of  fly  whisks,  the  lion-shaped  throne,  the 
shining  of  the  halo,  the  beating  of  celestial  kettle-drums,  the  umbrella, 
all  these  eight  things  attend  the  Tirthankara.' 

As  we  have  seen,  it  is  the  Tirthankara,  the  man  at  this 
thirteenth  stage,  that  the  people  worship  ;  for  once  he 
passes  to  the  next  step,  he  loses  all  interest  in  people,  besides 
parting  with  his  own  body.  The  Siddha  alone  know  exactly 
where  every  one  is  on  the  heavenward  road,  but  they  have 
lost  all  interest  in  the  question. 

The  moment  a  man  reaches  the  fourteenth  stage,  Ayogi-  xiv.  Ayo- 

kevall  gujtasthdnaka,  all  his  karma  is  purged  away,  and  he  S^kevalr 

proceeds  at  once  to  moksa  as  a  Siddha  (for  no  one  can  tha'naka. 

remain  alive  on  this  step).     In  moksa  there  is  of  course  no 

absorption  into  the  infinite,  but  the  freed  soul  dwells  for  ever 

a.bove  the  land  called  Siddhaslla,  from  whence  it  returns 

no  more,  and  this  is  moksa. 

^  Or  Kuvera. 

^  A.  B.  Latthe,  M.A.,  An  hitrodudioji  to  Jaitiisni ,  p.  42. 


192    KARMA  AND  THE  PATH  TO  LIBERATION 

There  '  innumerable  delivered  souls  exist  and  are  to  be 
there  for  ages  that  never  were  begun  and  which  never 
close'.    Asloka  describes  the  qualities  of  the  Siddha  thus: 

'  Omniscience,  boundless  vision,  illimitable  righteousness,  infinite 
strength,  perfect  bliss,  indestructibility,  existence  without  form,  a  body 
that  is  neither  light  nor  heavy,  such  are  the  characteristics  of  the 
Siddha.' 

As  a  soul  passes  from  stage  to  stage,  it  gains  the  three 
jewels,^  and  the  possession  of  these  ensures  the  attainment 
of  moksa. 

The  writer  was  recently  discussing  these  fourteen  steps 
with  some  Jaina  friends,  and  it  was  most  interesting  to 
notice  the  way  they  realized  that  Christians  not  only 
believed  in  an  upward,  heavenly  path,  but  also  in  the  con- 
stant companionship  of  a  Guide  who  held  their  hands  and 
steadied  their  feet  over  the  difficult  places.  The  Jaina  of 
course,  denying  as  they  do  a  Creator,  are  deprived  of  the 
belief  in  a  heavenly  Father,  who  watching  over  us  *  neither 
slumbers  nor  sleeps  '.  The  vital  difference  on  this  point 
of  the  two  faiths  is  well  illustrated  by  the  contrast  between 
Christian  evening  hymns  such  as : 

'  Abide  with  me :  fast  falls  the  eventide  ; 
The  darkness  deepens ;    Lord,  with  me  abide : 
When  other  helpers  fail,  and  comforts  flee, 
Help  of  the  helpless,  O  abide  with  me.' 

— and  the  following  Magadhi  sloka  which  many  devout 
Jaina  repeat  after  their  evening  readin-g  from  the  sacred 
books : 

'  The  soul  is  the  maker  and  the  non-maker,  and  itself  makes  happi- 
ness and  misery,  is  its  own  friend  and  its  own  foe,  decides  its  own 
condition  good  or  evil,  is  its  own  river  Veyaranl.^  My  soul  is  my 
Kudasamall.^  The  soul  is  the  cow  from  which  all  desires  can  be 
milked,  the  soul  is  my  heavenly  garden.' 

^  Right  knowledge,  right  faith  and  right  conduct.     See  p.  245. 
^  Or  VaitaranI  :  the  river  in  which  hell-beings  are  tormented  and 
drowned  by  Paramadhaml. 

^  A  tree  under  which  souls  are  tormented  by  Paramadhaml. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA 

The  importance  of  being  born  a  man  is  early  emphasized  Baby- 
in  Jainism ;  for  the  moment  a  child  is  born,  if  it  be  a  boy,  ^°°"* 
a  brass  tray  is  beaten  by  the  proud  father  or  other  relatives 
in  order  to  announce  the  happy  event,  and  also,  they  say,  to 
get  the  child  used  to  noise  from  the  first  and  to  ensure  that 
it  shall  never  be  frightened. 

Whether  the  child  be  a  girl  or  a  boy,  the  exact  moment  of 
its  birth  is  noted,  that  the  astrologer  may  later  on  be  able  to 
draw  its  horoscope,  on  which  its  future  marriage  will  depend. 

The  baby  is  then  bathed  in  water  and  its  little  mouth  is 
washed  with  wool  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  sugar-cane  water 
and  melted  butter. 

If  the  child  be  the  first-born  son  of  the  household,  the 
parents  send  presents  of  such  things  as  sugar,  sweets  and 
fruits  to  their  friends,  but  of  course  no  such  extravagance 
is  indulged  in  if  it  be  a  girl. 

When  the  little  mite  is  five  days  old,  its  friends  bind  Fifth 
white  threads  round  its  neck,  its  hands  and  its  feet  for    ^^* 
luck,   and  send  presents  of  cooked  sweetmeats  to  their 
friends. 

The  Jaina  believe  that  a  boy's  whole  future  is  decided  Sixth 
the  night  that  he  is  six  days  old,  and  on  that  night  ^^' 
Mother  Chatth!  is  worshipped.  A^  little  stool  in  the 
sleeping-room  is  covered  with  a  piece  of  white  cloth,  and 
on  it  are  placed  a  white  sheet  of  paper  and  a  white  pen, 
a  lamp  of  melted  butter  is  lighted,  and  then  some 
relative  takes  the  baby  on  her  lap,  covers  its  head, 
and  worships  both  the  stool  and  its  contents  before  the 
family  retire  to  rest.  When  all  is  quiet  they  believe  that 
Chatthi  or  Vidartha  will  come  and  write  secretly  on  the 
paper  a  description  of  the  sort  of  fortune  that  will  meet  the 

o 


194 


THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA 


Ninth 
day. 


Naming 
cere- 
mony. 


Fifteenth 
day. 


Hair- 
cutting. 


child  during  life,  and  the  length  of  time  it  will  live,  but  no 
one  is  ever  able  to  see,  much  less  decipher,  the  mystic  writing. 

On  the  ninth  (or  with  some  sects  the  eleventh)  day  after 
the  child's  birth  the  mother  is  bathed.  After  the  bathing 
she  stands  so  as  to  face  the  sun  and  shakes  from  her  finger 
a  drop  of  kahku  (turmeric). 

When  the  baby  is   twelve  days  old,  it  is  named  with 

much  ceremony.     In  a  silk  sari  (the  shawl-like  overdress  of 

Indian  women)  are  placed  some  grain,  the  leaf  of  a  pipala 

tree,  a  copper  coin  and  a  sopari  nut,  and  then  four  boys 

(or,  if  the  child  be  a  girl,  four  girls)  are  called,  and  each 

seizes  a  corner  of  the  sari  and  begins  to  rock  it.     The  baby 

meanwhile  is  lying  in  the  arms  of  the  father's  sister,  and 

as  the  children  rock  the  sari  and  sing 

*  Oli  jholi  pipaja  pana 
Phaie  padyuiii  [Rdmj'l]  nama,' 

the  aunt  at  the  right  moment  declares  the  child's  name, 
and  of  course  also  gives  it  a  present ;  for  while  all  the  world 
over  the  profession  of  aunt  is  an  expensive  one,  it  is  no- 
where more  so  than  in  India. 

Fifteen  days  after  the  child's  birth,  the  mother  goes  to  the 
river  to  fill  the  water-pots  for  the  house.  She  takes  with 
her  seven  different  kinds  of  grain  and  a  cocoa-nut.  Arrived 
at  the  river,  she  lights  a  tiny  earthenware  saucer  containing 
ghl,  splits  open  the  cocoa-nut,  and,  after  arranging  the  grain 
in  seven  rows,  she  fills  a  water-pot  from  the  river,  and  then, 
picking  up  one  of  the  seven  rows  of  grain,  she  puts  it  in  her 
lap,  and  as  she  walks  home  carrying  the  filled  water- vessel, 
she  scatters  the  grain. 

The  next  thing  of  great  importance  is  the  cutting  of  the 
child's  hair.  This  is  done  when  he  or  she  has  attained 
either  the  third,  fifth,  seventh,  or  ninth  month  of  its  first 
year.  (The  particular  month  is  not  of  great  importance, 
provided  it  be  an  uneven  number.)  The  barber  is  called, 
and  after  the  operation  is  over,  he  is  given  a  special  present, 
and  a  lucky  mark  is  made  on  the  child's  forehead. 


THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA  195 

On  some  auspicious  day  during  the  early  months  the  feed-  Feeding 
ing  ceremony  [Aboiana)  takes  place,  at  which  the  father's  ^^^^" 
sister  again  presides,  but  this  time  she  gains,  instead  of  giving, 
a  present.  The  aunt  takes  the  baby  on  her  lap  and  places 
some  dudhapaka  ^  on  a  rupee,  and  seven  times  over  takes 
some  of  this  and  places  it  in  the  child's  mouth,  whereupon 
the  father  makes  her  a  present. 

In  another  ceremony,  GotYijhdrandm,  which  takes  place  Gotri- 

when  the  child  is  three  (or  sometimes  five)  months  old,  the  J"/P" 

^  '  '  nam. 

aunt  is  once  more  the  gainer.  This  time  all  the  women  of  the 
household  join  in  preparing  specially  dainty  food  in  readi- 
ness for  a  feast,  and  then  place  on  a  stool  some  grain,  some 
sopari  nut,  some  small  copper  coins  and  a  silver  coin ;  the 
baby  is  made  to  bow  to  this  collection,  and  then  the  father 
presents  the  piece  of  silver  to  his  sister  and  feasts  all  his 
friends.  Very  much  the  same  ceremony  is  repeated 
when  the  child  goes  to  school  in  either  his  fifth  or 
seventh   year. 

The  whole  thought  of  a  household  in  India  seems  to  an  Betrothal, 
outsider  to  centre  round  marriage  and  motherhood,  and  all 
the  steps  that  lead  up  to  them  are  marked  with  ceremonials. 
The  age  of  betrothal  (Sagdi)  is  steadily  rising,  and  though 
it  varies  in  different  localities,  a  boy  among  the  Jaina  is 
usually  betrothed  about  fifteen  or  twenty  and  a  girl  some- 
what earlier.  The  parents  on  both  sides  look  out  for  a 
suitable  match,  and  when  one  has  been  discovered,  the 
girl's  father  sends  to  the  boy's  father  as  a  token  of  his 
intentions  a  cocoa-nut  and  a  rupee,,  and  a  priest  is  called 
in  to  mark  the  forehead  of  the  boy  and  his  relatives  with 
a  candalo  or  auspicious  mark.  A  lucky  woman  (i.e.  one 
whose  husband  is  living  and  who  has  never  lost  a  child)  or 
a  virgin  then  takes  the  cocoa-nut  and  marks  a  candalo 
on  it  and  on  the  rupee,  and  the  boy's  father  summons 
all  his  friends  to  a  feast,  to  which  each  of  the  guests 
brings  a  cocoa-nut.  After  two  or  three  days  a  present, 
^  A  favourite  Indian  dainty  resembling  milk  pudding. 

02 


i9<5 


THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA 


Jamana. 


consisting  of  a  cocoa-nut  and  ten  rupees,  is  sent  back  to  the 
girl's  house  as  a  sign  that  all  goes  well. 

This,  however,  is  only  the  beginning  of  the  presentations, 
and  in  a  few  days  another  gift  from  the  boy's  house  follows, 
consisting  of  a  complete  costume  in  silk  (sari,  skirt  and 
bodice),  five  rupees  in  money,  half  a  maund  of  crude  and 
half  a  maund  of  refined  sugar ;  hidden  in  the  refined  sugar 
are  two  rupees.  Not  to  be  outdone,  the  father  of  the  girl 
sends  something,  though  of  less  value :  his  gift  consists  of 
half  a  seer  of  crude  and  half  a  seer  of  refined  sugar  and  the 
two  rupees  returned. 

Then  follow  two  children's  parties  [Jamana).  First  the 
boy's  father  invites  the  little  fiancee  and  some  other 
children  to  a  feast  and  gives  her  three  silken  garments, 
and  afterwards  the  girl's  father  invites  the  boy  and 
some  children  to  a  feast  in  his  house  and  makes  him 
a  present. 

After  a  short  interval  the  boy's  father  sends  two  more 
sets  of  silk  clothes  and  some  ornament  worth  perhaps  Rs.  300, 
and  the  girl's  father  replies  with  a  substantial  tip  to  the 
lucky  servant  who  has  brought  the  gift. 
Lagana-  By  this  time  the  parties  are  beginning  to  think  of  the 
actual  wedding.  An  astrologer  is  called  in  who  decides 
when  everything  will  be  auspicious  and  fixes  the  day,  and 
this  date  is  written  in  old  ink  and  carried  by  some  children 
from  the  bride's  house  to  that  of  the  boy's  parents. 
When  the  bridegroom's  dwelling  is  reached,  the  child  who 
bears  the  paper  is  placed  on  a  stool,  and  one  of  the  ladies 
of  the  house  comes  and  takes  the  paper  from  him  and 
gives  him  sugar  in  return.  All  the  children  are  feasted, 
and  that  night  auspicious  songs  are  sung  in  both  houses. 

On  either  the  fifth  or  the  seventh  day  after  this  five 
'  lucky  '  women  wreathe  the  future  bride  and  bridegroom 
with  flowers  and  rub  them  with  powder. 

About  three  days  before  the  actual  wedding  ceremony 
a  booth  or  mapdapa  is  erected,  when  appropriate  songs  are 


Samura 
ta. 


patra. 


Manda- 

•    • 

pakriya. 


THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA  197 

sung,  and  dates  and  sugar  are  divided  amongst  those  who 
are  present.  The  carpenter  who  is  to  erect  the  booth  brings 
with  him  a  special  piece  of  wood,  and  on  it  is  placed  a  green 
stick  and  some  fruit,  all  of  which  are  carefully  placed  in 
the  hole  dug  for  one  of  the  poles  that  support  the  booth. 
A  Brahman  next  mixes  together  some  curds,  milk  and 
sopari  nut,  repeating  as  he  does  so  appropriate  mantras, 
and  the  bridegroom  takes  this  mixture  in  his  right  hand 
and  pours  it  over  the  pole  of  the  booth.  For  a  week  from 
the  date  of  the  erection  of  the  booth  all  near  relatives  of 
the  bride  and  bridegroom  are  feasted. 

One  of  the  most  popular  of  the  Hindu  gods  is  Ganesa,  the  Ganesa 
remover  of  all  hindrances,  and  at  wedding  times  he  is  worship, 
worshipped,  not  only  by  the  idol-worshipping,  but  even  by 
the  non-idolatrous,  sects  among  the  Jaina.  Accordingly 
the  day  after  the  erection  of  the  booth  even  SthanakavasI 
Jaina  bring  an  idol  of  Ganesa  to  the  mandapa.  A  heap 
of  grains,  sopari,  rice  and  wheat  is  arranged  on  a  stool 
covered  with  a  white  cloth,  and  Ganesa  is  placed  on  the  pile. 
Then  around  the  stool  they  place  twenty-five  ladus  in  heaps 
of  five,  and  twenty-five  dates,  and  when  this  is  done,  two 
virgins  carrying  cooked  rice  in  their  hands  come  and  wor- 
ship the  idol  and  mark  it  with  auspicious  marks.  The 
relatives  have  also  been  summoned  to  come  and  worship 
Ganesa,  and  they  obey,  bringing  both  wheat  and  rupees  with 
them  to  offer  to  the  idol.  (After  the  wedding  the  paternal 
aunts  of  both  bride  and  bridegroom  will  have  the  right  to 
these  rupees.)  The  bride  and  bridegroom  are  seated  on 
stools  near  the  god,  and  now  a '  lucky '  woman  takes  four  pieces 
of  wood,  dips  them  in  oil,  and  touches  the  bride  and  bride- 
groom's heads  with  them.  The  paternal  aunt  plays  an 
important  role  in  the  wedding,  as  she  did  in  the  other  cere- 
monies, and  she  now  comes  forward  and  ties  an  iron  ring  on 
the  bridegroom's  cotali  ^  and  gives  him  two  rupees,  and 
then  an  uncle  of  each  of  the  couple  lifts  them  down  from 

^  The  lock  of  hair  that  most  Hindus  leave  uncut. 


198  THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA 

their  stool  and  gives  them  a  few  rupees.  Sometimes  seven 
lucky  women  come  to  the  pair  whilst  they  are  still  standing 
on  the  stool,  and  seven  things  are  poured  into  their  laps. 

Ukaradi        Occasionally  on  the  night  after  the  booth  was  erected  girls 

Notari.  g^  outside  the  great  gate  of  the  house  and,  after  singing 
auspicious  songs,  dig  a  little  hole  in  which  they  place  small 
copper  coins  and  grains,  carefully  covering  them  afterwards 
with  earth,  and  then  re-enter  the  house  singing. 

Caka.  About  this  time  also  the  girls  of  the  family  go  to  a  potter's 

yard  and  mark  his  wheel  with  red  powder  and  throw  rice 
on  it.  The  potter  gives  them  some  pots,  which  they  bring 
back  to  the  booth  and  place  near  the  idol  of  Ganesa. 

Wedding       When  the  actual  wedding  day  arrives,  the  family  goddess 
^^'  is  worshipped,  and  fourteen  girls  are  fed.   The  potter  is  again 

visited,  and  in  exchange  for  a  present  of  some  three  pounds 
of  wheat,  some  dates  and  a  cocoa-nut  he  provides  four  water- 
pots.  Either  the  bride  or  the  bridegroom  is  now  seated  in 
the  booth,  and  'lucky'  women  come  and  either  bathe  them 
or  else  content  themselves  with  at  least  bathing  a  toe. 
The  all-important  aunt  now  comes  forward  and  ties  a 
silver  ring  where  the  iron  one  had  been  in  the  boy's  hair, 
and  the  maternal  uncle  gives  some  money  to  the  lad  and 
lifts  him  down  from  the  stool. 

The  bridegroom  is  then  dressed  in  his  most  magnifi- 
cent clothes,  and,  carrying  a  cocoa-nut  in  his  hand,  goes  on 
horseback  in  procession  towards  the  bride's  house,  but  is 
met  half-way  by  a  procession  from  thence. 

The  actual  marriage  ceremony  takes  place  after  sunset, 
and  is  the  occasion  for  some  mild  horse-play.  The  bride's 
sister,  for  instance,  goes  out  to  meet  the  bridegroom's  pro- 
cession, bearing  a  water-pot  and  a  cocoa-nut.  She  makes 
the  auspicious  mark  on  the  forehead  of  the  bridegroom 
and  then  pinches  his  nose,  and  the  groom's  party  put 
some  rupees  in  the  water-pot.  Some  one  then  lifts  the 
bridegroom  down  from  his  horse,  and  the  lad  raises  the 
garlands  from  the  doorway  and  passes  in. 


THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA  199 

The  bridegroom  and  his  friends  feast  at  some  house  quite 
close  to  the  bride's  house,  ladies  present  him  with  four 
ladus,  and  the  barber  powders  his  toe  and  then  washes 
it.  Sometimes  the  bride  also  goes  and  receives  a  sari 
and  some  rupees  whilst  the  bridegroom  is  feasting.  When 
the  dinner  is  over,  the  groom  mounts  his  horse  and  goes 
to  a  temple  to  worship,  and  then  returns  to  the  bride's 
house. 

The  bride,  who  is  now  sitting  behind  a  curtain,  spits  Tambo]a 
betel-nut  juice  at  the  bridegroom,  whilst  his  mother-in-law  j^^^^-* 
marks  him  with  the  auspicious  candalo,  and  then  throws 
balls  made  of  rice  and    ashes  over  him,  and  also  waves 
water  in  a  vessel  round  his  head. 

The  bridegroom  next  takes  his  seat  in  the  booth,  and  his 
friends  bring  his  gift  of  clothing  and  ornaments,  and  after 
showing  them  to  the  committee  of  leading  Jaina  in  the  town 
(Mahajana),  give  them  to  the  bride's  friends.  The  bride  and 
bridegroom  are  now  sitting  side  by  side  under  the  booth, 
and,  after  they  have  shaken  hands,  her  sari  (shawl)  is  tied  to 
his  scarf,  and  he  gives  her  some  rings  and  other  jewellery. 
The  father  and  mother  of  the  bride  then  offer  some  clothing 
and  jewellery,  and  the  father  washes  the  hand  of  the  bride- 
groom whilst  the  mother  washes  the  bride's  hand,  and 
when  this  is  finished,  the  mother  places  the  hand  of  the 
bride  in  that  of  the  groom. 

In  the  centre  of  the  booth  a  special  fire  has  been  lit,  Kanya- 
round  which  the  boy  and  girl  walk  four  times  from  left  to  ^"^* 
right,  the  boy  offering  handfuls  of  sopari  nut  to  any  lucky 
women  he  sees.  The  Brahman  cooks  who  are  present  and 
the  mother-in-law  offer  sweetmeats  to  the  couple,  who, 
however,  must  refuse  to  take  them.  The  young  pair  next 
go  to  the  bride's  house  and  worship  her  gotrija,  and  then 
to  the  house  where  the  bridegroom  had  been  staying  and 
worship  his  gotrija,  after  which  the  bride  returns  to  her 
house  laden  with  ladus,  dates,  rupees,  and  the  kernels  of 
four  cocoa-nuts 


200 


THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA 


The  first 
child. 


Rakhadi 

ban- 

dhana. 


The  feasting  is  kept  up  for  three  or  four  days,  and  then 
the  bride's  parents  summon  the  Mahajana,  and  in  their 
presence  give  a  suitable  quantity  of  ornaments  and 
clothing  to  the  bridegroom,  who  distributes  money  in 
charity.  After  this  is  done,  the  bride's  parents  give  her 
leave  to  go  and  live  in  the  bridegroom's  house. 

As  the  bride  leaves  her  home,  she  marks  its  walls  with 
the  imprint  of  her  hands  dipped  in  red  powder;  and  when 
the  couple  pass  the  marriage  booth,  they  stop  at  the  stool 
and  mark  one  of  the  groom's  party  with  the  auspicious 
mark,  a  sari  being  presented  to  the  bride.  The  bride 
gets  into  the  carriage  holding  a  cocoa-nut,  and  a  cocoa-nut 
is  also  placed  under  the  wheel  of  the  carriage  in  such  a  way 
that  it  shall  be  crushed  and  broken  when  the  carriage  starts. 
The  moment  this  happens,  the  pieces  are  picked  up  and 
offered  to  the  bride  with  four  ladus  and  two  brass  vessels, 
and  the  wedding  ceremonies  are  completed. 

The  whole  position  of  the  new  daughter-in-law  will 
depend  on  her  bearing  children,  and  the  young  mother  is 
guarded  in  many  ways  from  the  supposed  influence  of  evil 
spirits  before  and  after  the  child's  birth. 

One  of  these  protective  ceremonies  takes  place  during 
the  fifth  month,  when  the  husband's  sister  binds  a  little 
parcel  done  up  in  black  silk  by  a  white  thread  to  the  wrist 
of  the  expectant  mother.  In  the  parcel  are  a  cowrie  shell, 
a  ring  of  iron,  a  piece  of  black  silk,  some  earth  from  the 
junction  of  three  roads,  some  dust  from  Hanuman's  image 
and  seven  pulse  seeds.  (Some  Jaina  prefer  the  parcel  to 
be  done  up  in  green  or  red  or  yellow  silk  rather  than 
black,  which  they  regard  as  unlucky.)  If  the  husband 
had  no  sister  living,  a  priest  would  be  called  in  to  tie 
on  the  parcel,  and  in  return  would  expect  enough  food 
to  last  him  for  a  day.  Whilst  tying  on  the  parcel,  he 
would  probably  bless  the  woman  in  words  that  might  be 
translated  :  *  Auspicious  time,  auspicious  junction  of  the 
planets,  happiness,  welfare,  freedom  from  disease,  good  : 


THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA  201 

let  all  these  be  yours  without  hindrance.'  No  man  older 
than  the  husband  is  allowed  to  be  present  at  this  cere- 
mony, and  it  is  considered  better  for  the  husband  not  to 
be  in  the  house  at  the  time  of  any  of  these  functions. 
The  father  and  mother  of  the  girl  feast  all  their  relatives 
at  this  time ;  and  from  now  on  the  expectant  mother  is 
not  allowed  to  do  any  drudgery  or  hard  work  about  the 
house. 

A  very  important  ceremony  takes  place  on  some  auspici-  Simanta 
ous  day  in  the  seventh  month.  The  bride's  mother  sends  ^j^qjq 
special  clothes  for  the  occasion,  and  the  bridegroom's  bharavo. 
relatives  also  give  presents,  including  three  pounds  of  rice. 
The  expectant  mother  fetches  seven  water-pots,  and 
then  goes  and  worships  the  gotrija.  Then  the  auspicious 
direction  for  that  particular  day  being  settled,  she  is  taken 
to  a  room  facing  that  quarter  and  there  bathed,  whilst 
she  sings  and  is  fed  on  sweetmeats.  A  little  boy  is 
also  brought  into  the  room  and  seated  beside  her  whilst 
she  bathes,  and  is  afterwards  presented  with  a  rupee  by 
the  bride's  parents.  The  girl's  own  mother,  or  her  repre- 
sentative, comes  into  the  room  whilst  she  bathes,  and  parts 
the  young  wife's  hair;  she  is  then  dressed  in  the  special 
clothes  sent  by  her  parents,  her  hands  and  feet  being 
coloured  red.  A  rich  piece  of  cloth  is  spread  outside 
the  bathing-room,  and  on  this  the  girl  steps  very  slowly 
and  majestically,  bearing  a  cocoa-nut  in  her  hands.  For 
every  step  her  father  will  have  to  give  a  present  to  the 
ubiquitous  husband's  sister,  but  the  gifts  progressively 
decrease  in  value,  for  whereas  the  first  step  will  cost 
her  father  a  rupee,  the  next  will  be  valued  at  only 
eight  annas,  the  third  at  four,  and  so  on.  When  the 
edge  of  the  carpet  is  reached,  the  husband's  relatives 
offer  the  wife  one  rupee  and  throw  over  her  balls  of  ashes 
and  rice. 

She  then  sits  on  a  stool  near  the  family  goddess,  and  some 
milk  is  poured  out  on  to  a  plate,  which  she  drinks ;  the  two 


202 


THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA 


Death 
cere- 
monies. 


fathers  give  her  two  rupees,  and  she  also  asks  her  mother- 
in-law  for  some  money.  Her  husband's  youngest  brother 
then  makes  the  auspicious  red  mark  on  her  forehead  and 
slaps  her  seven  times  on  her  right  cheek,  for  which  kind 
office  the  girl's  parents  pay  him  handsomely  in  rupees  ! 
The  husband's  sister  plays  yet  another  part,  for  she  now 
ties  a  silver  and  gold  thread  on  the  young  wife's  right 
hand  (which  she  will  take  off,  however,  the  next  day).  A 
lucky  woman  then  presents  rice,  lotus  seed  and  a  pome- 
granate to  the  girl,  who  gets  up  and  bows  to  her  mother-in- 
law  and  other  elders  as  a  sign  that  the  ceremony  is  complete. 

The  next  day  the  young  wife  receives  sweetmeats  from 
her  father's  house  and  distributes  them  amongst  her 
husband's  relatives,  and  on  the  third  day  she  goes  to  her 
own  old  home  and  stays  there  till  the  child  is  born.  She 
does  not  usually  return  to  her  husband's  house  till  the 
child  is  three  months  old,  and  then  the  maternal  grand- 
father makes  a  handsome  present  of  jewellery. 

When  a  Jaina  seems  to  be  dying,  his  relatives  summon 
a  monk  or  nun  to  preach  to  the  patient.  As  the  ascetic 
is  not  allowed  to  sit,  he  cannot  preach  for  very  long  at  a 
time,  so  a  devout  layman  or  laywoman  may  be  called  in  to 
supplement  his  work.  In  a  case  the  writer  knew,  where  a 
Jaina  lady  was  dying  of  consumption,  this  rehgious  instruc- 
tion was  given  for  three  hours  a  day  for  twenty-two  days. 

As  death  approaches,  the  patient  is  urged  to  take  the 
vow^  of  giving  up  all  attachment  to  worldly  things  and  of 
abstaining  from  all  food.  Enormous  sums  are  given  in  charity 
by  the  dying  man  or  his  relatives  to  ensure  his  happiness 
in  the  next  world.  (Recently  in  the  writer's  town,  for  in- 
stance, one  gentleman  gave  Rs.  70,000  on  his  death-bed,  and 
the  sons  of  another,  who  was  killed  in  a  railway  accident, 
immediately  gave  Rs.  15,000  in  their  father's  name.)  Then 
the  name  of  Mahavira  is  repeatedly  whispered  in  the  dying 
man's  ear,  till  all  is  over. 

^  See  Santharo,  p.  163. 


THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA  203 

As  soon  as  death  has  taken  place,  the  body  is  moved 
from  the  bed  and  placed  on  the  floor,  which  has  been 
previously  covered  with  a  preparation  of  cow-dung  to  make 
it  hallowed  ground.  The  corpse  is  so  arranged  that  the  face 
of  the  dead  is  turned  towards  the  north,  and  a  lamp  filled 
with  ghi  is  lighted  beside  him.  In  memory  of  the  deceased 
even  animals  are  made  happy,  for  sweets  are  given  to  the 
pariah  dogs  of  the  village  and  grass  to  the  cows ;  nor  are 
the  poor  forgotten,  for  grain  is  distributed  amongst  them. 

Directly  a  Jaina  dies,  all  his  relatives  weep  as  loudly  as  Funeral 
possible,  and  so  advertise  the  fact  that  death  has  taken  ironies 
place.  If  it  be  a  woman  who  has  died,  she  is  dressed  in  her 
best,  probably  in  a  sar!  with  a  gold  border,  a  silk  bodice, 
and  a  petticoat  of  silk.  Formerly  these  things  used  to  be 
burnt  with  her,  but  nowadays  they  are  removed  before 
the  actual  burning  takes  place,  so  the  corpse  is  swathed 
with  green  cloth  from  knees  to  waist  underneath  the  silken 
garments.  If  the  corpse  be  that  of  an  ordinary  widow,  she 
is  dressed  not  in  silk  but  in  black,  but  if  the  woman  had 
been  what  is  known  as  a  vesa  widow  (i.  e.  one  under  thirty 
whose  husband  had  died  whilst  she  was  still  a  little  child), 
her  corpse  is  not  dressed  in  black. 

When  a  man  dies  and  leaves  a  widow,  her  ivory  bangles 
are  broken,  one  of  them  being  tied  to  the  bier  and  the  other 
taken  to  the  river  by  some  women.  Even  if  the  wife  he 
leaves  behind  be  a  virgin,  she  must  take  off  her  jewels  and 
wash  off  the  red  auspicious  mark  from  her  forehead,  and 
never  use  either  again.  She  is  no^t,  however,  always  com- 
pelled to  wear  black  garments,  abstain  from  sweetmeats, 
or  sleep  on  the  floor,  until  she  attains  womanhood. 

The  corpse  in  the  case  of  a  man  is  dressed  only  in  a  loin- 
cloth, a  costly  cloth  being  wrapped  over  all.  Four  cocoa- 
nuts,  a  ball  of  flour  and  four  small  flags  are  placed  on  the 
bier,  and  two  annas  are  put  in  the  dead  man's  mouth,  which 
will  later  on  be  given  to  the  sweepers  as  rent  for  the  ground 
on  which  the  corpse  is  burnt. 


204  THE  LIFE  STORY  OF  A  JAINA 

The  dead  body  is  now  lifted  on  to  the  bier  and  carried 
by  near  relatives  to  the  burning-ground,  where  a  pyre  has 
been  arranged,  which  is  lit  by  the  son  of  the  dead  man. 
Women  can  follow  the  bier  no  further  than  the  threshold 
of  their  house. 

The  fire  to  light  the  funeral  pyre  is  taken  from  the  house, 
and  special  attention  is  paid  by  the  relatives  and  friends 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  fire  is  carried  from  the  dead 
man's  home  to  the  burning-ground.  If  it  is  carried  in 
a  cup,  it  is  an  intimation  that  the  feasting  and  funeral 
expenses  generally  will  be  moderate,  but  if  the  fire  is  carried 
on  a  plate,  it  is  a  sign  that  a  great  feast  will  be  given.   ^ 

Curiously  enough,  as  the  Jaina  carry  the  corpse  to  the 
burning-ground,  they  call  aloud  'Rama  Rama',^  just  like 
ordinary  Hindus,  but  the  writer  has  been  assured  that  they 
are  not  then  thinking  of  the  god  Rama  of  the  Ramayana, 
but  simply  use  the  word  as  synonymous  for  Prabhu  or  Lord, 
and  in  their  own  minds  are  thinking  each  of  his  own  parti- 
cular god. 

When  the  body  is  burnt  to  ashes,  most  of  the  relatives 
return,  but  one  of  the  party  goes  to  a  potter  and  gets 
a  water-pot,  and  the  next-of-kin  fills  it  four  times  at  the 
river  and  pours  it  over  the  ashes  four  times,  and  after  the 
fourth  time  he  leaves  the  pot  lying  there. 

On  the  second  day  after  the  death  the  near  relatives  all 
go  to  the  Apasaro  and  listen  to  sermons. 

^  They  do  not,  however,  use  these  words  as  an  ordinary  salutation. 
Jaina,  when  they  meet,  greet  each  other  with  the  words  Jiihdra  or 
Jayajinendra  ;  Brahmans  usually  say  Jayajaya  ;  other  Hindus  Rama 
Rama ;  Mohammedans  Saldm  ;  while,  in  Gujarat  at  least,  the 
Christian  greeting  is  Kusalatd. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND  HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE 

The  Twelve  Lay  Vows. 

The  Jaina,  though  they  do  not  know  of  any  dynamic 
power  such  as  would  give  a  man  strength  to  keep  his 
promises,  nevertheless  firmly  believe  in  the  helpfulness  of 
taking  vows.^  Through  these,  they  say,  a  man  is  aided 
towards  keeping  the  third  jewel,  that  of  Right  Conduct, 
and  by  failing  to  take  them  he  acquires  karma  from  which 
they  might  have  saved  him. 

We  have  seen  that  it  is  only  after  he  has  made  some 
progress  in  the  upward  path  that  a  man  wishes  to  take 
these  vows,  2  though  after  a  certain  time  he  is  able  to  keep 
the  spirit  of  the  vows  without  needing  to  renew  the  vows 
themselves.  Not  only  must  the  candidate  have  reached 
the  fifth  step,  but  he  must  also  have  attained  to  firm  faith 
in  a  true  Tirthahkara,  true  guru,  and  true  rehgion. 

Further,  he  cannot  take  any  vow  unless  he  has  first  re-  Pafica 
nounced  five  faults  {Pafica  Aticdra)  and  so  has  no  doubts  ^ticara. 
[Sankd] ;  no  desire  to  belong  to  another  faith  [Kdhkhd) ; 
no  questioning  about  the  reality  of  the  fruits  of  karma 
[Vitigicchd) ;  undertakes  not  to  praise  hypocrites  {Parapd- 
khanda  parasamsd) ;  and  not  to  associate  with  them  (Para- 
pdkhanda  santhana). 

If  all  these  conditions  be  fulfilled,  the  man  may  take  the  The  five 

first  vow  [Prdndtipdta  viramana  vrata),   promising  never  ^,^^^^ 

intentionally  to  destroy  a  jiva  that  has  more  than  one  .    p  _  __ 

sense.    This  vow  would  not  prevent  a  king  leading  an  army  tipata  ' 

vira- 

*  Other  Indians  also  believe  strongly  in  the  virtue  of  the  Jaina  vows,  rn^na 
It  is  said,  for  instance,  that  the  mother  of  Mr.  Gandhi,  the  South  African  vrata. 
leader,  though  herself  a  Vaisnava,  persuaded  her  son  before  he  left 
Rajkot  for  England  to  vow  in  front  of  Pujya  BecarajT,  a  famous  Jaina 
sadhu,  that  he  would  abstain  from  wine,  flesh  and  women. 

^  See  p.  187. 


2o6  THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND 

in  defence  of  his  kingdom,  but  would  prevent  one's  fighting 
with  a  lunatic,  or  a  blind  man  who  had  hurt  one  uninten- 
tionally. The  vow  also  forbids  the  killing  of  weak  creatures 
hke  mosquitoes  and  any  other  troublesome  insects,  and 
prohibits  acting  as  '  agent  provocateur  '. 

The  man  who  takes  this  vow  must  avoid  five  faults  in  the 
treatment  of  animals :  he  must  never  tie  an  animal  up  too 
tightly;  beat  it  unmercifully;  cut  its  Hmbs;  overload  or 
overwork  it ;  or  neglect  to  feed  it  properly .^ 

The  vow  is  infringed  by  planning  to  kill  any  one,  even 
if  the  evil  purpose  be  never  carried  out.  It  also  forbids 
animal  sacrifice,  the  Jaina  arguing  that,  if  mok§a  be  attained 
by  sacrifice,  we  had  better  sacrifice  our  fathers  and  mothers ! 
If  an  animal  is  in  pain,  it  is  not  permissible  to  kill  it  in 
order  to  end  its  sufferings,  for  who  knows  that  it  will  not 
suffer  worse  things  in  the  next  life  } 

The  reason  the  Jaina  give  for  their  horror  of  killing 
(hirhsa)  is  not,  as  some  say,  the  fear  of  being  haunted  by 
the  dead  animal's  ghost,  but  the  realization  that  every  jiva 
has  two  bodies,  Karmana  and  Taijasa,  and  also  a  third 
which  may  be  Audarika  (i.e.  human  or  animal)  or  Vai- 
kreya  (i.e.  a  demi-god  or  a  hell-being).  Every  jiva  (save 
a  Siddha)  forms  round  it  through  its  karma  a  body,  which 
is  called  its  karmana  body,  and  also  another  invisible  body, 
taijasa,  which  at  its  death  will  enable  it  to  assume  a  new 
form ;  these  two  unseen  bodies  are  indestructible  and  loathe 
being  separated  from  the  third  body,  which  is  destructible, 
be  it  audarika  or  vaikreya.  If,  therefore,  we  destroy  a 
living  body,  it  is  like  destroying  the  beloved  home  of  the 
taijasa  and  karmana  bodies. 

The  actual  words  used  in  taking  this  first  vow  are,  in  the 
case  of  Sthanakavasi  Jaina,  mixed  Gujarat!  and  Magadhi, 
and  might  be  translated  : 

*  I  will  desist  from  destroying  all  great  lives  such  as  Trasa  jiva  (i.  e. 

^  It  would  surely  seem  advisable  to  quote  these  five  faults  in  the  publi- 
cations of  the  Indian  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals. 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  207 

lives  of  two,  three,  four  and  five  senses),  either  knowingly  or  inten- 
tionally, excepting  offending  lives  living  in  my  body  which  give  pain  ; 
but  I  will  not  with  evil  intent  destroy  vermin  or  lunatics,  and  I  also  vow 
not  to  destroy  minute  one-sensed  lives.  As  long  as  I  live  I  will  not  my- 
self kill  ;  nor  cause  others  to  kill ;  nor  will  I  kill  by  mind,  speech,  or  body. 
Thus  have  I  taken  the  first  vow,  so  I  must  know  the  five  Aticara 
concerning  it,  but  I  must  not  commit  them.  I  repeat  them  in  their  usual 
order  :  binding,  killing,  mutilating,  overloading,  wrong  feeding.' 

Another  thing  forbidden  by  this  vow  is  the  burying  of 
people  in  a  trance ;  for,  as  the  Jaina  sagely  remark,  it  is 
very  likely  to  kill  them  ! 

The  Jaina  prophesy  that  certain  penalties  will  be  accu- 
mulated by  acting  contrary  to  this  vow.  For  instance,  if  a 
man  commit  murder,  he  may  die  even  in  this  life  in  an  un- 
timely fashion.  (The  British  Government  has  a  knack  of 
seeing  that  this  prophecy  is  fulfilled  !)  He  may  also  be 
drowned,  or  become  a  leper,  or  lose  his  hands  and  his  feet, 
if  not  in  this  birth,  at  least  in  the  next. 

The  second  vow  [Mrisdvdda  viramana  vrata)  of  the  Jaina  ii.  Mrisa- 

layman  is  directed  against  falsehood  or  exaggeration.    In  a  ^?  ^    ^ 
^  fc>  fc)fc)  viramarta 

country  where  the  women  live  in  purdah,  one  can  see  how  vrata. 
easy  a  thing  it  would  be  to  spread  untrue  or  exaggerated 
reports  about  them  ;  and  so  a  man  who  has  taken  this  vow 
must  never  tell  lies  about  any  girl,  including  his  own  daughter, 
never  for  example,  in  order  to  marry  her  well,  saying  that 
she  is  younger  or  prettier  than  she  is,  or  denying  her  bodily 
defects;  he  must  likewise  be  careful  never  to  speak  against 
a  prospective  bridegroom.  The  vow  is  also  concerned  with 
commercial  honesty,  and  forbids  a  man,  for  instance,  when 
selling  cows  or  buffaloes  to  say  that  they  give  more  milk  than 
they  actually  do,  or  when  selling  land  and  houses  to  describe 
the  boundaries  or  the  number  of  trees  on  the  estate  falsely. 
If  the  man  taking  the  vows  is  a  banker,  he  must  keep  any 
deposit  honestly  and  give  it  back  when  demanded,  even  if 
no  receipt  be  producible.  If  he  have  to  take  part  in  the 
courts  or  in  the  Paiica^  he  must  never  give  false  evidence. 

'^  Village  Council. 


3o8  THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND 

Now  this  vow  is  notoriously  difficult  to  keep,  and  so 
Jaina  laymen  are  advised  always  to  guard  against  five 
things:  rash  speech;  revealing  secrets ;  running  down  one's 
wife;  giving  false  advice;  and  cooking  accounts.  (In  this  list 
the  Digambara  substitute  forgery  for  false  advice.) 

When  one  meets  a  dumb  man,  or  a  man  with  a  bad 
stutter,  one  knows  that  he  has  broken  this  vow  of  truth- 
fulness in  a  previous  life. 

The  actual  v/ords  of  the  vow  might  be  rendered  : 

*  I  take  a  vow  not  to  utter  great  falsehoods,  such  as  lies  concerning 
brides,  cattle,  estates,  deposit's,  and  [not  to  bear]  false  witness.  I  will 
abstain  from  all  such  lies.  As  long  as  I  live  . .  .  [and  then  it  goes  on 
as  in  the  first  vow  down  to]  the  five  Aticara,  which  are  rash  speech, 
revealing  secrets,  speaking  ill  of  one's  spouse,  giving  bad  advice,  falsi- 
fying accounts  or  forging  documents.' 

iii.  Adat-      Stealing  or  taking  what  is  not  given  is  renounced  in  the 

tadana      third   vow   (Adattdddna  viramana  vrata),  which   includes 
viramana  ,.         .      ^        ,  ,  .        .   '       ,         n        i  •   i  i 

vrata.  '  stealmg  from  a  house,  takmg  from  bundles,  highway  rob- 
bery, opening  any  one's  lock  with  one's  own  key,  or  appro- 
priating lost  property.  In  especial,  a  man  is  warned  never 
to  buy  stolen  property,  never  to  encourage  another  in 
thieving,  never  to  act  seditiously,  to  smuggle  or  to  work  in 
any  way  against  the  Government,  not  to  use  false  weights 
or  measures,  to  adulterate  goods  or  to  sell  them  false  to 
sample.  The  penalty  for  breach  of  this  vow  is  either  to 
be  born  in  a  condition  of  poverty  or  (if  the  offence  was  very 
rank)  in  a  state  of  actual  servitude. 

A  free  translation  of  the  actual  words  used  in  taking  the 
third  vow  might  run  : 

*  I  take  a  vow  not  to  thieve  in  any  of  the  following  ways  :  not  to 
steal  from  a  house,  not  to  steal  from  a  bundle,  not  to  steal  on  the  high- 
way, not  to  open  another's  lock,  not  to  appropriate  lost  property.  I  will 
abstain  from  such  forms  of  thieving.  I  take  a  vow  not  to  steal,  except 
in  things  relating  to  trade  and  things  belonging  to  my  relatives  which 
will  not  give  rise  to  suspicion.  As  long  as  I  live  [and  then  as  in  the 
other  vow  to]  the  five  Aticara,  which  are  buying  stolen  property,  encourag- 
ing others  to  thieve,  committing  offences  against  Government,  using 
false  weights  and  measures,  adulterating  or  selling  goods  false  to  sample.' 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  209 

The  vow  of  chastity  (Maithuna  viramana  vrata)  follows,  iv.  Mai- 
by  which  a  man  promises  to  be  absolutely  faithful  to  his  own  ^^^^^ 
wife  at  all  times  and  never  to  allow  any  evil  thoughts  in  his  mana 
own  mind  about  goddesses.     The  vow  may  be  broken  in  ^rata. 
five  ways  :   consummating  marriage  with  a  young  child, 
or  forming  a  temporary  connexion  with  a  widow  or  other 
woman  whom  it  is  impossible  truly  to  marry;  unfaithfulness 
before  marriage ;  match-making  and  marriage  brokerage  ; 
excessive  sexual  indulgence  ;    and  lastly,  evil  talk.     The 
breaking  of  this  vow  carries  with  it  penalties  too  horrible 
to   put   on   paper.     Many   of   the   enlightened   Jaina   are 
beginning  to  feel  very  strongly  the  evils  of  early  marriage; 
and  here  again  one  would  venture  to  suggest  to  them  that 
their  protest  cannot  be  fairly  termed  an  innovation  when  the 
abuse  of  early  marriage  is  expressly  forbidden  in  this  vow. 

The  Jaina  have  shrewdly  realized  that  the  true  way  of  v.  Pari- 

increasing  our  wealth  is  by  curbing  our  desires.    The  fewer  Sf^^^ 
o  -^  °  .  vira- 

things  we  allow  ourselves  to  use,  the  fewer  our  desires  be-  mana 
come,  and,  safe  within  the  circumscribing  walls  we  ourselves  vrata. 
have  built  round  our  potential  possessions,  we  find  not  only 
peace  of  mind  but  also  safety  from  many  temptations. 
Why  should  we  steal  when  we  already  have  all  we,  desire, 
or  why  cheat  and  defraud  in  the  race  for  wealth,  if  we  already 
are  as  wealthy  as  we  will  ever  allow  ourselves  to  become? 
After  all,  few  people  forge  or  gamble  to  gain  money  to  give 
in  alms.  When  we  remember  that  the  Jaina  creed  has 
forced  its  holders  to  become  a  commercial  people,  we  see 
the  special  value  this  vow  of  limitation,  Parigraha  vira- 
mana vrata,  might  have,  if  it  were  really  lived  up  to. 
Unfortunately  it  has  not  been  kept  sufficiently  to  prevent 
the  name  of  Baniya  being  considered  a  synonym  for  a 
money-grubber. 

The  vow  may  be  translated  : 

*  I  take  a  vow  not  to  possess  more  of  the  following  things  than 
I  have  allowed  myself;  a  certain  fixed  quantity  of  houses  and  fields, 
of  silver  and  gold,  of  coins  and  grain,  of  two-footed  or  four-footed 

P 


2JO  THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND 

creatures,  furniture  and  plenishing.  Beyond  this  limit  I  will  regard 
nothing  as  my  own  possession.  As  long  as  I  live  I  will  not  myself 
regard  in  body,  mind,  or  speech  things  beyond  these  as  my  own.  . .  . 
[The  five  Aticara  are]  transgressing  the  limit  fixed  in  houses  and  fields, 
silver  and  gold,  coins  and  grain,  two-footed  or  four-footed  creatures, 
furniture  and  plenishing.' 

The  man  who  takes  this  vow  promises  that  he  will  never 
allow  himself  to  retain  more  than  a  certain  fixed  quantity 
of  houses  and  fields,  gold  and  silver,  cash  and  corn,  servants 
and  cattle,  furniture  and  plenishing.  The  vow  is  broken  by 
passing  beyond  the  self-prescribed  limits  by  means  of  such 
devices  as  banking  the  superfluous  money  in  a  daughter's 
name,  or  substituting  four  big  houses  for  the  four  small 
houses  originally  agreed  on.  As  a  proof  of  how  this  vow  is 
observed  the  Jaina  are  fond  of  quoting  the  recent  case  of 
a  Mr.  Popata  Amaracanda  of  Cambay,  who  when  quite  a 
poor  man  had  promised  that  he  would  never  possess  more 
than  95,000  rupees.  He  became  a  very  successful  man  of 
business,  but  as  soon  as  he  had  made  the  prescribed  number 
of  rupees,  he  gave  to  the  building  of  temples  or  the  founding 
of  animal  hospitals  all  the  extra  money  he  made. 

These  five  vows  are  called  the  five  Anuvrata,  and  they 

resemble  in  their  content,  as  we  shall  see,  the  five  great  vows 

a  monk  takes.     If  a  layman  keeps  all  five  Anuvrata  and  has 

also  abandoned  the  use  of  intoxicants,  animal  food,  and 

honey,^  he  possesses  the  eight  primary  qualities  of  a  layman 

The  three  ^-nd  is  rightly  called  a  Sravaka. 

Guna-  The  first  five  vows  are  followed  by  three   Gunavrata, 

vrata.  .  .  j  .  i 

which  '  help  '  the  keeping  of  the  first  five  vows. 

^  Honey  seems  to  the  Jaina  to  resemble  hirhsa,  the  depriving  a  jiva 
of  his  house,  and,  moreover,  by  the  brutal  way  in  which  honey  is 
gathered  in  India  by  burning  a  torch  under  the  comb,  the  bees  and 
their  eggs  are  destroyed.  Jaina  are  therefore  most  interested  to 
learn  that  Europeans  actually  build  houses  for  bees  in  which  the 
arrangements  are  so  efficient  that  the  eggs  and  bees  are  not  injured 
when  the  honey  is  removed,  and  also  that  sufficient  food  is  left  to  the 
bees.  So  strongly  do  the  Indian  villagers  feel  about  their  own  destruc- 
tive way  of  taking  honey,  that  they  have  a  proverb :  *  The  sin  incurred  in 
destroying  one  honey-comb  is  as  great  as  that  accumulated  by  destroy- 
ing twelve  villages.' 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  211 

We  saw  how  the  Jaina  believe  that  the  limitation  of  vi. 
desire  curtails  sin   by  limiting  the  motives  for  sinning  ;     ^s^^^rata 
they  also  believe  that  setting  bounds  to  one's  travels  (Disi-  mana. 
vrata  parimdKo)  curtails  sin  by  restricting  the  area  in  which 
one  can  sin. 

The  vow  taken  runs  : 

*  I  fix  a  limit  of  height  and  depth  and  circumference.  If  I  have  to 
pass  this  limit,  willing  and  in  my  body,  I  vow  not  to  indulge  any  of 
the  five  asrava.  .  .  .  [The  five  Aticara  are]  transgression  of  the  limit 
above,  below  or  around,  altering  the  position  of  the  bounds  fixed  by 
increasing  one  and  decreasing  the  other,  and  proceeding  further  when 
a  doubt  arises  as  to  the  limits.' 

It  is  only  laymen  who  take  this  vow.  A  sadhu  does  not 
vow  that  he  will  limit  the  possible  places  to  which  he  may 
wander,  for  the  farther  he  wanders  the  fewer  intimate 
friends  he  can  make ;  and  friendship  is  forbidden  to  a 
sadhu,  lest  it  lead  to  love.  But  he  does  promise  never 
to  make  his  wanderings  an  excuse  for  luxury  by  sitting  in 
a  boat,  a  carriage,  a  cart,  or  a  train,  or  riding  on  a  horse.^ 
Breaking  this  vow  leads  to  excommunication. ^  A  sadhu 
/bf  the  Tapagaccha  sect  travelled  constantly  by  train  and 
was  therefore  excommunicated.  He  still  continues  to  go 
by  rail  wearing  sadhu  dress ;    but  seeing  him  in  a  train 

^  The  writer  had  an  opportunity  not  long  a^o  of  seeing  how  strictly 
the  ascetics  keep  this  vow.  An  aged  nun  was  very  ill,  and  the 
community  was  most  anxious  that  she  should  go  and  see  an  English 
lady  doctor.  She  refused  to  be  conveyed  to  the  hospital  by  carriage 
or  in  a  litter,  and  at  length  in  despair  her  friends  asked  the  writer  to 
request  the  doctor  to  go  and  see  her  at  the  Apasaro. 

•^  Excommunication  of  sadhus  is  still  faifly  common  ;  for  instance, 
a  SthanakavasI  sadhu  in  Rajkot  bit  his  guru  and  was  excommunicated 
in  consequence.  The  SthanakavasI  laymen  ordered  a  coat  and  trousers 
to  be  made  for  him  and  forced  him  to  abandon  his  sadhu  dress  and  don 
these.  They  then  gave  him  a  railway  ticket  to  Than  (a  station  about 
forty-four  miles  distant)  and  sent  him  away.  They  told  the  writer  that 
they  could  do  this  because  this  cannibal  dofute  bouche  had  been  enjoyed 
in  a  native  state  ;  they  would  have  been  afraid  to  act  so  sternly  in 
British  territory.  This  sadhu  repented  most  deeply  and  implored 
forgiveness  in  Rajkot,  but  the  laymen  refused  it.  In  other  towns  he 
was,  however,  acknowledged  as  a  sadhu,  and  he  died  wearing  sadhu 
dress. 

P2 


212 


THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND 


vii.  Upa- 

bhoga 

pari- 

bhoga 

pari- 

mana. 


no  Jaina  layman  of  any  sect  will  acknowledge  him  as  a 
religious  person  or  salute  him. 

The  layman  vows  not  to  go  beyond  set  limits,  such  as  Ceylon 
in  the  south,  the  Himalayas  in  the  north,  England  in  the  west, 
and  China  in  the  east.  The  vow  can  be  broken  in  five  ways : 
by  climbing  too  high ;  descending  too  low ;  going  obhquely  ; 
increasing  the  limits  fixed ;  and  forgetting  these  Hmits. 

The  second  of  the  assistant  vows,  Upabhoga  parihhoga 
parimdna,  is  intended  to  help  people  to  keep  their  vows 
against  lying,  covetousness  and  stealing,  for  it  hmits  the 
number  of  things  a  man  may  use. 

This  vow  is  taken  in  words  somewhat  as  follows : 

'  I  take  a  vow  of  indulging  only  to  a  certain  fixed  extent  in  things  to 
be  enjoyed  once  and  in  things  to  be  enjoyed  from  time  to  time,  such 
as  towels,  things  for  cleaning  teeth,  the  anointing  of  oneself  with  oil  or 
such  like,  washing  oneself  with  soap,  bathing,  clothing,  besmearing 
oneself  with  saffron,  sandalwood,  &c. ;  decorating,  incense-burning, 
drink,  eating  of  sweetmeats,  of  rice,  pulse,  nutritious  things  (milk, 
butter,  ghl  and  the  like),  vegetables,  indulging  in  sweet  drinks  (such 
as  grape-juice,  sugar-cane  juice),  ordinary  meals,  drinking-water,  sleep- 
ing on  beds,  [eating]  raw  things  containing  lives,  and  other  miscellaneous 
things.  I  have  fixed  certain  limits  in  respect  of  the  above  twenty-six 
things.  In  transgression  of  these  limits  I  will  never  indulge  in  things 
to  be  enjoyed  once  or  from  time  to  time  with  a  view  to  seeking  pleasure 
therefrom.  I  will  observe  this  vow  as  long  as  I  live  ;  and  I  will  not  go 
beyond  the  limit  for  personal  enjoyment,  in  mind,  speech  or  body. 

As  a  layman,  I  must  have  knowledge  of  the  five  following  Aticara, 
and  avoid  acting  according  to  them,  and  I  repeat  them  in  their  usual 
order :  Eating  things  containing  life ;  eating  things  partially  animate 
and  partially  inanimate  ;  eating  things  having  some  remnants  of  life  in 
them  (such  as  partially  ripe  fruit,  the  unripe  part  having  life  but  not 
the  ripe  part) ;  eating  highly  spiced  things  ;  eating  things  in  which  the 
greater  part  has  to  be  wasted  (such  as  sugar-cane). 

I,  a  layman,  must  have  knowledge  of  the  fifteen  Aticara  concerning 
means  of  livelihood,  and  must  avoid  putting  them  in  practice.  I  repeat 
these  in  their  usual  order  :  Burning  a  kiln  ;  cutting  jungles  or  getting 
them  cut  ;  making  carts  and  selling  them  ;  receiving  rent  of  houses ; 
digging  the  earth ;  trading  in  ivory  ;  in  hair  (such  as  fly-whisks) ;  in 
liquid  things  ;  selling  poison  ;  dealing  in  sealing-wax ;  owning  a  mill  or 
working  with  a  machine  ;  mutilating  or  cutting  the  limbs  of  animals  ; 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  213 

burning  jungles  ;  wasting  the  water  of  a  pond,  spring  or  lake  ;  taming 
(dogs,  cats,  and  such)  obnoxious  animals  and  selling  them.' 

In  practice  a  man  frequently  agrees  only  to  use  twenty- 
six  things,  viz. :  a  towel ;  tooth-brush ;  fruit ;  soap  ;  water 
for  washing ;  wearing  apparel ;  tilaka  (mark  on  forehead)  ; 
flowers ;  ornaments ;  incense ;  drinking- vessels  (nowadays 
these  include  tea-things) ;  sweetmeats ;  wheat  and  grain ; 
peas ;  ghi ;  oil  and  milk  ;  vegetables  ;  dried  fruit ;  dinner  ; 
drinking-water ;  pana,  sopari,  &c.  ;  conveyances,  railway 
trains,  and  horses  ;  boots  ;  beds,  tables,  chairs,  &c. ;  any- 
thing unmentioned  that  turns  out  to  be  really  necessary ; 
anything  that  has  no  life.  The  grouping  of  this  list  is  very 
curious,  and  under  the  last  two  items  considerable  latitude 
is  allowed  to  creep  in ;  it  is  only  through  these,  for  instance, 
that  any  books  are  permitted. 

In  trying  to  keep  this  vow  one  must  be  on  one's  guard 
about  both  food  and  commerce:  for  with  regard  to  food,  one 
might  sin  through  eating  unripe  vegetables,  or  eating  ripe 
and  unripe  together,  or  partaking  of  food  that  needs  a  lot 
of  fire  to  cook  it,  or  food  like  sugar-cane  of  which  only 
a  small  portion  is  eaten  and  the  greater  part  has  to  be 
thrown  away;  of  course  onions,  potatoes,  and  all  roots, 
being  inhabited  by  more  than  one  jiva,  must  never  be  eaten. 
In  the  same  way  one  vows  to  be  very  careful,  in  choosing 
a  profession,  to  avoid  any  business  which  involves  the 
taking  of  any  life,  however  low  in  the  scale.  One  should 
therefore  never  be  a  blacksmith,  a  limeburner,  or  a  potter, 
or  follow  any  other  trade  in  which-,  a  furnace  is  used,  for 
in  a  fire  many  insect  lives  are  destroyed;  wood-cutting 
also  often  involves  the  accidental  death  of  many  minute 
lives,  so  a  Jaina  should  never  cut  down  a  forest;  in 
the  same  way  he  must  never  make  a  railway  carriage,  or 
even  an  ordinary  cart,  for  railway  trains  sometimes  run 
over  people  ^  and   often   run    over   animals   and  insects. 

^  Especially  in  India  where  railway  employees  will  go  to  sleep  with 
their  heads  on  the  rails  ! 


214  THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND 

One  must  never  sell  artificial  manure  (as  it  is  sometimes 
made  of  the  bones  of  dead  animals),  or  take  any  contracts  for 
building  houses  or  sinking  wells  that  involve  much  digging 
(for  one  might  dig  an  insect  in  two).  One  has  to  be  very- 
much  on  one's  guard  if  one  thinks  of  selHng  anything  :  one 
must  never  sell  ivory  (for  that  might  be  made  of  elephants' 
tusks),  or  butter  or  honey  (the  latter  involving  the  destruc- 
tion of  bee  life),  or  fur  or  hair  (lest  any  jiva  should  have  been 
pained),  or  sealing-wax  (for  insects  might  be  killed  by  it). 
A  Jaina  may  not  sell  opium  or  any  poison  (lest  the  buyer 
should  use  it  to  take  life),  neither  may  he  sell  mills  (for 
machinery  causes  many  insect  deaths).  He  is  very  ham- 
pered with  regard  to  agriculture  :  he  may  not  dig,  burn 
weeds  in  a  field,  drain  water  from  land,  wells,  or  tanks  (lest 
fish  should  die),  or  even  rent  land  that  has  been  drained  by 
some  one  else.  All  of  these  restrictions  on  trade  and 
agriculture  have  had  the  very  doubtful  benefit  of  forcing 
Jaina  more  and  more  into  the  profession  of  money-lenders ; 
but  the  last  clause  of  the  vow  has  certainly  proved  bene- 
ficial, for  it  forbids  slave-owning  and  the  keeping  of  any 
animal  or  woman  for  any  cruel  purpose,  and  is  considered 
so  important  that  it  is  rehearsed  every  day. 
viii.  The  eighth  vow,  the  Anartha  danda,  is  designed  to  guard 

Anartha    against  unnecessary  evils.     It  runs  : 
danda  ^  ^ 

vrata.  '  I  take  the  vow  called  Anartha  Danda  Viramana,  which  has  four 

divisions :  not  to  do  the  two  evil  meditations,  not  to  be  careless  about 
keeping  or  using  weapons,  not  to  persuade  people  to  do  evil.' 

The  vow  contains  four  divisions  :  first,  one  promises 
(Apadhydna)  never  to  hope  that  evil  may  befall  some  one 
else,  or  to  think  evil  of  any  one ;  next  [Pramdda  caryd), 
to  be  as  careful  as  possible  not  to  take  life  through  careless- 
ness, but  to  cover  all  oil,  milk,  or  water  in  which  a  fly  might 
be  drowned  ;  again,  remembering  the  injuries  that  are 
often  accidentally  inflicted  through  weapons,  one  promises 
[Hiihsdddna)  not  only  to  keep  as  few  actual  weapons  as 
possible  but  also  as  few  knives  or  other  things  that  could 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  215 

be  used  as  weapons  ;  finally  one  promises  [Pdpopadesa) 
never  to  use  one's  influence  for  evil  or  to  persuade  any  one 
else  to  do  so.  In  keeping  this  vow  five  special  faults  must 
be  guarded  against,  the  vow  being  broken  if  one  writes  an 
immoral  book,  sells  evil  medicines,  or  indulges  in  evil  con- 
versation; if  one  takes  part  in  buffoonery;  indulges  in  vile 
abuse;  leaves  one's  guns  lying  about  when  loaded  or  in 
any  way  is  careless  about  them  ;  or  lastly,  if  one  thinks 
too  much  about  things  to  eat  or  drink. 

The  remaining  four  of  the  layman's  twelve  vows  are  The  four 
called  Siksdvrata,  and  they  are  all  intended  to  encourage  ^^^  • 
the  laity  in  the  performance  of  their  religious  duties. 

The  ninth  vow  is  taken  in  the  following  words  :  ix.  Sama- 

yika. 
'  I  take  the  ninth,  Samayika,  Vow  which  teaches  me  to  avoid  all  evil 

actions.     I  will  sit  in  meditation  for  forty-eight  [minutes],  ninety-six,  or 

whatever  period  I  may  have  previously  fixed  upon.    Whilst  I  am  sitting 

in  meditation  I  will  not  commit,  or  cause  any  one  to  commit,  any  sin 

in  the  space  of  the  whole  world  by  mind,  speech,  or  body.' 

A  man  hereby  promises  to  perform  Samayika,  i.  e.  to 
spend  at  least  forty-eight  minutes  every  day  in  meditation, 
thinking  no  evil  of  any  one,  but  being  at  peace  with  all  the 
world,  to  meditate  on  what  heights  one's  soul  may  reach. 
One  may  observe  as  many  periods  of  forty-eight  minutes  as 
possible  (e.  g.  ninety-six  minutes  or  one  hundred  and  forty- 
four),  but  forty-eight  minutes  is  the  least  unbroken  period 
one  may  spend.  A  Jaina  should  engage  in  Samayika  every 
morning,  afternoon  and  evening,  but  of  these  the  morning 
Samayika  is  considered  the  most  irnportant.  Whilst  doing 
it,  one  must  neither  sin  oneself,  nor  cause  any  one  else  to  sin, 
but,  sitting  with  one's  legs  crossed,  one  should  fix  one's  gaze 
on  the  tip  of  one's  own  nose.  (Nowadays,  however,  Jaina 
quite  often  j  ust  sit  or  stand  comfortably  whilst  they  are  doing 
it.)  The  usual  place  for  Samayika  is  the  temple  or  the 
Apasaro  (there  used  to  be  an  Apasaro  in  every  man's  house). 
If  an  idol  be  there,  they  kneel  in  front  of  it,  and  if  a  guru  be 
present,  kneel  before  him  and  ask  his  permission.     Three 


2i6  THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND 

times  they  kneel  (pancdnga)  in  front  of  idol  or  guru,  and 
three  times  also  they  perform  dvartana,  i.  e.  make  a  circle 
before  their  faces  from  the  right  ear  round  to  the  left  ear, 
holding  a  mouth-cloth  or  other  piece  of  material  in  front 
of  their  mouths,  and  repeat  the  Tikkhutto,  which  may  be 
translated  : 

*  Making  avartana  from  the  right  ear  to  the  left  three  times,  I  salute 
and  bow,  and  I  worship  and  adore  you  ;  you  are  a  guru  [or  a  god],  you 
are  auspicious,  you  do  good,  you  are  full  of  knowledge,  so  I  serve  you.* 

If  no  image  and  no  guru  be  there,  the  Jaina  kneel  towards 
the  north-east  (in  which  direction  they  believe  the  country 
of  Mahavideha,  where  certain  Tlrthahkara  live,  to  be 
situated)  and  then  ask  permission  of  the  first  of  these,  the 
Simandhara,^  before  repeating  the  Tikkhutto.  During 
the  forty-eight  minutes  they  not  only  meditate  but  also 
read  the  scriptures,  and  at  the  end  of  the  forty-eight  minutes 
they  repeat  the  particular  patha  for  closing  Samayika  which 
refers  to  five  special  faults  which  may  be  committed  during 
meditation,  namely ;  failing  to  control  thoughts ;  mind ; 
actions  ;  failing  to  observe  the  fixed  time ;  and  not  repeat- 
ing the  patha  correctly. 
^  ,_  The  tenth  vow,  Desdvakdsika  vrata,  which  resembles  two 

kasika      that  we  have  already  discussed,  is  taken  in  the  following 
vrata.        words : 

'  I  take  the  tenth  vow  called  Desavakasika.  I  will  not  go  beyond 
the  limit  fixed  by  me  in  any  of  the  four  directions  in  mind  or  body, 
and  will  not  open  any  of  the  five  asrava  [channels]  for  sin.  In  the 
limit  that  I  have  fixed  I  will  not  enjoy  any  of  the  things  which  I  have 
vowed  not  to  enjoy.  I  will  not  transgress  nor  cause  others  to  transgress 
it  by  mind,  speech,  or  body;  and  I  will  not  enjoy  such  things  in  mind, 
speech,  or  body  for  one  day  and  night.' 

In  taking  this  vow  a  man  promises  for  one  particular  day 

to  still  further  contract  the  limits  he  has  undertaken  not 

V      to  transgress,  and  he  may  bind  himself  during  that  day 

^  Simandhara  was  the  earliest  Tirthankara  from  the  land  of  Maha- 
videha, just  as  Risabhadeva  was  the  first  in  Bharata  (India). 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  217 

never  to  go  outside  the  Apasaro  or  the  village,  and  only  to 
have  one  meal,  or  to  drink  nothing  but  water.  At  the 
same  time  he  promises  that  he  will  spend  longer  in  medita- 
tion. He  must  guard  against  infringing  the  vow  by  extend- 
ing the  number  of  things  used ;  borrowing  some  one  else's 
things ;  sending  a  servant  to  fetch  things  or  asking  some 
one  he  meets  in  the  road  to  do  so ;  or  by  making  signs 
and  so  asking  even  without  words ;  or  by  throwing  stones 
to  attract  people's  attention  and  then  getting  them  to 
fetch  it. 

We  have  seen  how  Mahavira  realized  the  importance  of  xi. 
connecting  the  laity  closely  with  the  ascetics,  and  how  this  ^^^.^^-^.^ 
close  connexion  saved  Jainism  when  Buddhism  was  swept 
out  of  India.  The  eleventh  vow,  Posadha  vrata,  is  one  of 
the  links  that  bind  the  two  sections  of  the  Jaina  com- 
munity together,  for  the  taking  of  it  compels  a  layman  to 
spend  some  of  his  time  as  a  monk.  He  promises  that  for 
twenty-four  hours  he  will  touch  neither  food,  water,  fruit, 
betel-nut,  ornaments,  scents,  nor  any  sort  of  weapon,  and 
will  commit  no  sort  of  sin,  but  observe  celibacy.  He 
further  promises  that  by  day  he  will  only  wear  three  cloths 
(a  cloth  over  his  legs,  one  over  his  body,  and  a  mouth-cloth), 
and  that  at  night  he  will  use  two  cloths  only  (one  spread 
above  him  and  one  below  him). 

Devout  laymen  usually  perform  Posadha  four  times  a 
month,  but  those  who  hope  eventually  to  become  sadhus 
observe  it  six  times  a  month  at  least. 

The  Digambara  keep  this  vow  more  strictly  than  any 
other  Jaina,  for  they  begin  to  observe  it  the  night  before 
the  twenty-four  hours  fixed  (i.  e.  they  keep  it  for  two  nights 
and  the  intervening  day),  and  during  all  that  time  they 
never  even  touch  water.  Neither  do  they  go  to  an  Apasaro, 
but  choosing  some  lonely  place  they  read  the  scriptures  and  j 
meditate  there. 

The  other  Jaina  go  to  their  Apasaro,  read  the  scriptures, 
sing  the  praises  of  the  Tirthahkara,  and  ask  questions  of 


2i8  THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND 

their  sadhus — in  fact,  as  a  Jaina  friend  said  to  the  writer, 
*  We  use  the  time  to  cram  the  points  of  our  rehgion  '. 

In  keeping  this  vow  there  are  five  faults  which  must 
be  avoided  :  neglecting  to  search  the  clothes  for  vermin  ; 
failing  to  remove  it  carefully  out  of  harm's  way  when 
found  ;  any  other  carelessness  which  may  result  in  injuring-- 
insect  life  ;  not  fasting  as  one  has  vowed  ;  and  allowing 
oneself  to  sleep  in  the  day  instead  of  meditating.  The 
keeping  of  this  Posadha  vow  is  considered  one  of  the  highest 
of  religious  duties,  and  at  the  solemn  yearly  fast  of  Pajju- 
sana  even  careless  people  keep  it  most  strictly.  As  a  rule 
it  is  more  scrupulously  observed  by  women  than  by  men. 

The  following  is  a  hteral  translation  of  the  actual  words 
used  when  this  vow  is  taken  : 

'  I  take  the  eleventh  vow  called  Posadha,  in  which  I  promise  to 
abstain  for  twenty-four  hours  from  food,  drink,  fruits,  sopari,  sex  enjoy- 
ment, from  wearing  ornaments  (gold,  silver,  or  diamond),  from  wear- 
ing a  garland  or  anointing  my  body.  I  will  not  use  weapons,  or  a 
heavy  club,  or  any  destructive  missile.  This  I  will  observe  for  twenty- 
four  hours  and  will  not  infringe  it  myself,  nor  cause  others  to  infringe 
it,  in  mind,  body,  or  speech.' 

xii.  Atithi      The  twelfth  vow,  or  Atithi  samvihhdga  vrata,  which  the 

samvi-       Digambara  call  the  Vaiyd  vrata,  runs  as  follows  : 
bhaga  °  ^  ' 

vrata.  <  I  take  the  twelfth  vow,   the   Atithi  sarhvibhaga  vrata,  by  which 

I  promise  to  give  to  Sramana  or  Nirgrantha  any  of  the  fourteen  things 

which  they  can   accept  without   blame,  namely  :   food,  drink,  fruits, 

sopari,^  clothes,  pots,  blankets,  towels,  and  things  which  can  be  lent 

and  returned,  such  as  seats,  benches,  beds,  quilts,  &c.,  and  medicine.' 

The  purpose  of  this  vow  is  to  encourage  the  laity  to 
support  the  ascetic  community,  on  whom  they  bestow  in 
alms  food,  water,  clothing,  pots,  blankets,  and  towels  for  the 
feet,  and  also  lend  them  beds,  tables  and  other  furniture. 
They  must  never  give  a  sadhu  unboiled  water,  bread  hot 
from  the  fire,  bread  on  which  green  vegetables  have  rested, 
or  anything  that  has  gone  bad.     Neither  must  they  call 

^  Monks  may  not  take  betel-nut  whole,  but  may  take  it  chopped. 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  219 

a  servant  and  tell  him  to  give  the  alms  to  an  ascetic,  but 
they  must  get  up  and  give  them  themselves,  and  must  give 
without  conceit. 

The  sadhu  on  his  part  must  never  send  notice  beforehand 
of  his  coming, for  a  layman  must  alwaysbe  prepared  to  give; 
neither  will  most  Jaina  laymen  (except  members  of  the  Tapa- 
gaccha  sect)  invite  an  ascetic  to  their  house,  as  this  is  thought 
by  them  to  be  forbidden  in  their  scriptures ;  but  they  will 
invite  a  layman  who  has  just  completed  Posadha  to  dine,^ 
since  feeding  such  brings  punya  to  the  host  if  done  with 
that  intention  ;  if,  however,  he  gives  the  invitation  simply 
thinking  it  to  be  his  duty  to  do  so,  he  will  obtain  nirjara. 

That  some  benefit  is  always  obtained  by  giving  alms,  the 
following  legend  shows.  Once  upon  a  time  in  the  state  of 
Rajagriha  there  was  a  poor  lad,  so  poor  that  he  rarely 
tasted  rich  food  ;  but  once  as  a  great  treat  his  mother 
prepared  a  dish  magnificently  formed  of  rice  and  milk 
and  sugar !  Just  at  that  moment  a  sadhu  came  by,  and 
the  model  youth  passed  on  the  tempting  dish  to  him.     As  ! 

a  reward  the  pleasing  lad  was  born  in  his  next  incarnation 
as  the  son  of  a  rich  merchant,  and,  determining  to  become 
equal  to  a  king,  he  became  a  sadhu,  and  in  his  next  birth 
will  proceed  to  moksa. 

When  a  Jaina,  proceeding  on  the  upward  path,  has  reached  How  a 
the  fifth  step  2  in  the  Cauda  Gunasthanaka,  he  necessarily  J^y^^^JV 
desires  to  take  the  twelve  vows,  and  accordingly  goes  to  twelve 
the  Apasaro  and  tells  a  guru  of  his  wish.     The  guru  reads  vows, 
out  the  vows  and  gives  him  an  instruction  on  each  one  and 
its  infringement  similar  to  the  foregoing  notes  on  the  vows. 
The  layman  assents  to  the  instruction  and  fixes  the  limits  of 
the  distance  he  will  travel,  the  amount  of  money  he  will 

^  A  friend  of  the  writer's  recently  invited  a  Khoja  who  had  become 
a  Jaina  to  dine  with  him,  after  he  had  performed  his  Posadha  vow. 
She  was  told  that  such  a  convert  could  be  invited  to  dine  with  the 
sahgha  but  not  with  the  ndta,  i.  e.  he  was  asked  to  their  religious  feasts 
(though  even  there  he  had  to  sit  separately)  but  not  to  their  caste  dinners. 

2  See  p.  187. 


220  THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND  • 

allow  himself  to  use,  &c.  These  hmits  he  writes  down  in  his 
note-book,  and  at  the  great  yearly  confession,  Sarhvatsari, 
he  goes  to  any  guru  who  happens  to  be  present,  confesses 
any  infraction  of  the  vows  and  accepts  the  penance  given. 
Besides  this,  every  day  of  the  year  when  he  performs  Padika- 
manum  he  privately  confesses  his  transgressions  against 
the  vows.  Every  day  also  both  morning  and  evening  the 
layman  repeats  the  vows.  The  period  for  which  they  are 
taken  varies  :  some  Jaina  promise  to  observe  them  as  long 
as  they  live,  others  fix  a  certain  period,  consisting  very 
frequently  of  two  years,  and  at  the  expiry  of  that  time  take 
them  afresh  if  they  feel  inchned. 
The  ad-  The  Jaina  believe  that  great  advantages  flow  from  keep- 
Tth^^^  ing  the  vows  :  physically,  since  the  moderation  they  enjoin 
vows.  keeps  the  body  in  training  and  health ;  and  morally,  because 
they  free  the  soul  from  love  or  enmity,  and  ultimately  lead 
it  to  moksa.  A  layman  who  keeps  all  these  twelve  vows  is 
called  a  Desavratt,  or  one  who  keeps  the  vows  in  part ; 
a  sadhu,  who  as  we  shall  see  keeps  them  in  a  more  stringent 
form,  is  called  a  Sarvavratt,  one  who  keeps  all  the  vows. 
Santharo.  When  a  layman  realizes  that  he  is  growing  old  and  that 
his  body  is  becoming  very  frail,  he  spends  more  and  more 
time  in  the  Apasaro  and  tries  to  use  fewer  and  fewer  things, 
and  daily  after  Padikamanum  repeats  the  old-age  vow  or 
Santharo  Pdtha,  which  contains  the  promise  of  dying  by 
voluntary  starvation.  He  does  not  vow  not  to  take  food, 
however,  until  he  feels  that  death  is  approaching. 

Before  repeating  the  words,  he  should  seat  himself  cross- 
legged  on  a  stool  of  darbha  grass,  with  his  face  turned  to  the 
north-east,  and  folding  his  hands  he  should  encircle  his  face 
with  them  [dvartana)  and  say  as  follows  :  *  I  bow  to  all  the 
adorable  Arihanta  who  have  attained  to  the  highest  state.' 
He  then  repeats  all  the  twelve  vows,  and  determining  to 
keep  himself  free  from  all  sin,  particularly  himsa  (against 
which  he  takes  a  special  vow),  he  promises  never  to  lie, 
thieve,  &c.,  as  long  as  he  lives. 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  221 

'  1  will  be  from  henceforth  till  death  quite  indifferent  about  this  my 
body  which  once  was  dear  and  beautiful  to  me.  It  was  like  a  jewel-case 
which  I  carefully  protected  from  cold,  heat,  himger,  thirst,  serpent-bite, 
the  attack  of  thieves,  insects,  diseases  such  as  cough  and  high  fever.' 

Then  he  should  meditate  on  the  five  Aticara  which  would 
infringe  the  vow  and  should  strive  to  avoid  them :  that  is 
to  say,  he  should  not  wish  to  be  a  king  or  a  rich  merchant 
or  a  deity  in  his  next  life ;  he  should  not  wish  for  long  life ; 
nor,  being  weary  with  the  dreadful  hardship  of  Santharo, 
must  he  desire  immediate  death.  He  must  then  quietly 
wait  for  death,  longing  for  moksa,  but  not  for  any  amehora- 
tion  of  his  present  state. 

Every  Jaina  hopes  to  make  a  Samadhi  death,  i.  e.  to  die 
by  self-immolation.  It  is  true  that  near  relatives,  standing 
by  the  death-bed  of  a  younger  man,  will  often  not  permit 
him  to  give  up  all  hope  of  life  and  decline  to  take  food,  but 
if  an  old  man  is  evidently  dying,  and  if  he  wishes  it,  he 
repeats  the  Santharo  Patha,  and,  before  promising  indiffer- 
ence to  his  body,  he  says  : 

'  I  take  a  vow  to  abstain  from  food  and  drink  and  fruits  and  soparl 
as  long  as  I  live.' 

The  same  words  are  also  used  when  this  terrible  vow  is 
taken  voluntarily  in  good  health  by  ascetics  who  wish  to 
reach  the  highest  point  of  holiness.^  After  his  death  a  man 
who  has  done  Santharo  is  called  Samadhistha  and  held  in  the 
highest  honour,  and  while  he  is  suffering  the  dreadful  pangs 
of  thirst  before  his  death,  his  relatives  and  friends  encourage 
him  to  carry  out  his  resolve  by  every  means  in  their  power. 

The  Eleven  Pratimd.^ 

We  have  already  noticed  that  the  Jaina  aim  seems  to  be 
to  close  as  many  as  possible  of  the  channels  which  love  and 

^  The  Jaina  consulted  by  the  writer  do  not  agree  with  those  who 
say  that  Santharo  is  only  performed  after  twelve  years  of  austerities, 
declaring  that  there  is  no  time  fixed  before  which  Santharo  may  not  be 
performed.  ^  Or  Padimd. 


222 


THE  JAINA  LAYMAN  AND 


i.  Dar- 

sana 

pratima. 


ii.  Vrata 
pratima. 


iii.  Sama- 

yika 

pratima. 

iv.  Posa- 
dhopa- 
vasa 
pratima. 

v.Sacitta- 

parihara 

pratima. 


affection  open,  and  through  which  suffering  might  enter 
our  hves,  and  to  abstain  froqi  action,  lest  karma  should  be 
acquired  with  all  its  penalties. 

The  twelve  vows  were  shaped  in  accordance  with  the  fixed 
idea  of  all  who  hold  the  doctrine  of  karma  that,  though  it  is 
well  to  do  good,  it  is  better  to  do  nothing ;  their  aim  is  also 
to  bridge  over  the  gap  between  the  lay  and  the  ascetic 
life.     The  eleven  Pratima  bring  the  approach  still  closer. 

A  layman  who  is  desirous  of  reaching  a  higher  stage 
in  the  upward  path,  or  Cauda  Gunasthanaka,  than  that 
attained  by  keeping  the  twelve  vows  will  also  keep  the 
eleven  Pratima,  which  lead  him  gently  on  towards  the 
point  when  he  will  be  able  to  take  the  five  great  vows  of 
the  ascetic. 

By  the  first,  or  Darsana  pratima,  a  layman  undertakes 
to  worship  the  true  deva  (i.e.  a  Tirthankara),  to  reverence 
a  true  guru,  and  to  beheve  in  the  true  dharma  (i.  e.  Jainism). 
He  also  promises  to  avoid  the  seven  bad  deeds  which  are 
mentioned  in  a  well-known  Sanskrit  sloka  that  may  be 
translated  thus  : 

'  Gambling,  eating  meat,  wine-bibbing,  adultery,  hunting,  thieving, 
debauchery — these  seven  things  in  this  world  lead  to  the  worst  of 
hells.' 

He  next  promises  to  keep  each  of  the  twelve  vows  (Vrata) ; 
and  when  death  comes,  to  receive  it  in  absolute  peace,  and 
that  he  will  perform  Santharo.  (This,  the  perfect  death, 
is  called  Samadhi  Marana.) 

He  goes  on  to  vow  that  he  will  engage  in  Sdmdyika 
at  least  three  times  every  day. 

He  also  vows  that  he  will  observe  Posadha  at  least  six 
times  a  month  (i.e.  on  the  two  eighth  and  the  two  four- 
teenth days  of  the  moon,  and  also  on  the  full-moon  night 
and  one  dark  night). 

Again,  with  the  object  of  never  even  taking  vegetable 
life,  the  layman  promises  [Sacittaparihdra  pratimd)  to  avoid 
all  uncooked  vegetables,  or  cooked  vegetables  mixed  with 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  223 

uncooked,  never  to  break  a  mango  from  a  tree,  and  only  to 
eat  it  if  some  one  else  has  taken  out  the  stone. 

Lest  in  the  darkness  he  might  unwittingly  devour  some  vi.  Nisi- 
insect  he  promises  [Nisibhojanatydga  pratimd)  never  to  eat  ^y^^^"^' 
between  sunset  and  sunrise,  or  to  sip  water  before  daylight,  pratima. 
If  a  guest  arrives  during  the  night,  the  layman  may  prepare 
a  bed  for  him,  but  never  offer  him  food,  lest  he  cause  his 
guest  to  sin. 

Getting  nearer  to  the  ascetic   ideal,  the  layman   next  vii.  Brah- 
promises  (Brah?nacarya  pratimd)  to  keep  away  from  the  "^^^arya 
society  of  his  own  wife,  and  never  in  any  way  to  scent  or 
adorn  his  body,  lest  he  should  cause  his  wife  to  love  him. 

As  the  layman  is  now  steadily  mounting  the  steps,  he  viii. 
must  be  very  careful  never  to  begin  anything  that  might  ^^^^'^  ^ 
entangle  him  in  such  worldly  pursuits  as  involve  the  de-  pratima. 
struction  of  life.    So  he  undertakes  [Aramhhatydga  pratimd) 
never  even  to  begin  to  build  a  house  or  take  up  a  trade 
(like  a  blacksmith's)  which  entails  the  taking  of  life. 

He  must  also  use  his  remaining  days  in  the  world  as  a  ix.  Pari-. 

sort  of  novitiate ;  and  first  he  must  be  careful  not  to  have  p^^^- 

tyaga 

any  attachment  for  his  worldly  possessions  [Parigrahatydga  pratima. 
pratimd),  and  to  avoid  it  he  should  divide  his  property, 
for  instance  money  or  grain,  amongst  his  children,  or  give 
it  away  in  charity.  He  must  also  prepare  for  the  hardships 
he  will  have  to  face  by  never  allowing  his  servants  (if  he 
has  any)  to  work  for  him,  but  should  always  wait  on  him- 
self and  only  allow  the  servants  to  wait  on  his  children. 
Having  made  this  resolution,  he  should  endeavour  in  every 
way  to  lead  a  quiet  unambitious  life. 

The  next  resolution  [Anumatitydga  pratimd  ^)  shows  a  x. 
further  step  taken  towards  a  sadhu's  life,  for  the  erstwhile  j-y^ga 
layman  promises  to  keep  the  sadhu  rule  of  never  allowing  pratima. 
any  special  cooking  to  be  done  for  him,  and  only  to  take 
what  is  over  when  others  have  dined,  and,  if  none  remains, 
just  to  fast.     He  also  vows  that  he  will  never  give  advice 
^  Or,  according  to  the  Digambara  Jaina,  Antwwdanavrat a  pratimd. 


224  THE  JAINA  LAYMAN 

in  any  worldly  or  household  matter,  but  will  keep  his  mind 

free  from  all  thoughts  about  such  things. 

xi.  Ud-        When  he  has  taken  the  last  [Uddhista  or  Sramanahhuta) 

'^[^  -     pratima,  he  is  practically  a  monk,  for  he  has  promised  to 

wear  a  sadhu's  dress,  to    remain  apart  in  some  religious 

building  (when  the  Digambara  call  him  a  K§ullaka  Sra- 

vaka)  or  in  the  jungle  (when  they  name  him  an  Ailaka 

Sravaka),  and  to  act  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  in 

the  scriptures  for  sadhus  to  follow. 

The  As  a  layman  endeavours  to  attain  to  this  exalted  stage, 

one^^uali-  ^^  ^^^^^  strive  to  develop  those  twenty-one  qualities  w^hich 

ties  of  the  distinguish  the  Jaina  gentleman.     He  will  always  be  serious 

ideal         jj^  demeanour ;  clean  as  regards  both  his  clothes  and  his 
gentle-  '  ° 

man.  person  ;  good-tempered  ;  striving  after  popularity ;  mer- 
ciful ;  afraid  of  sinning  ;  straightforward  ;  wise ;  modest ; 
kind  ;  moderate  ;  gentle  ;  careful  in  speech ;  sociable  ; 
cautious;  studious;  reverent  both  to  old  age  and  old 
customs  ;  humble  ;  grateful ;  benevolent ;  and,  finally, 
attentive  to  business. 

Only  the  very  best  of  men  ever  possess  the  full  com- 
plement of  the  whole  twenty-one  virtues,  but  ordinary 
mortals  strive  to  possess  at  least  ten. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  JAINA  ASCETIC 

The  layman  has  now  reached  the  summit  of  his  ambi- 
tion, and  is  prepared  to  take  those  five  celebrated  vows 
which  Mahavira  himself  laid  down  as  the  only  entrance 
through  which  a  man  can  pass  to  the  ascetic  state. 

As  one  reads  the  biographies  of  the  great  Jaina  saints, 
or  even  studies  the  lengthy  route  we  have  just  been  follow- 
ing, one  can  see  that,  though  the  Jaina  did  not  insist  on 
their  candidates  taking  a  long  training  like  that  of  the 
Vedic  schools,  they  nevertheless  did  not  intend  their 
monks  to  be  the  ignorant,  ill-prepared  and  undisciplined 
men  they  often  are  at  present.  The  Jaina  openly  wish 
that  they  could  insist  on  a  thorough  preparation  for  their 
sadhus  such  as  is  customary  for  the  Christian  ministry. 

The  Life  Story  of  an  Ascetic. 

The  life  story  of  an  ascetic  may  be  said  to  begin  with  Initia- 
his  initiation  or  Dlksd,  and  the  writer  is  indebted  to  a  *'°"* 
Svetambara  monk  for  the  following  account  of  a  Jaina  call 
and  ordination. 

The  man  in  question  had  heard  a  famous  sadhu  preach 
on  the  transitoriness  of  life  and  happiness  and  the  supe- 
riority of  the  religious  over  the  lay  life,  and  had  thereupon 
followed  the  preacher  for  a  year  as  his  disciple,  and  at  the 
completion  of  twelve  months  received  initiation. 

A  great  procession  was  formed  and  he  was  led  through 
the  town  to  a  banyan  tree  (an  asoka  tree  would  also  have 
served).  There  a  pujari  (officiating  priest)  had  arranged 
a  small  three-tiered  platform  with  an  image  of  one  of 
the  Tirthankara  at  the  top.     A  Jaina  layman  began  the 

0 


226  THE  JAINA  ASCETIC 

proceedings  by  performing  the  ordinary  daily  worship,  and 
then  the  candidate  took  off  his  jewels  and  his  clothes,  and 
giving  them  away  to  his  relatives,  put  on  a  sadhu's  dress. 

An  ascetic  can  only  retain  five  garments  (three  upper  and 
two  lower  ones),  the  colours  of  which  vary  according  to  his 
sect,  a  Svetambara  wearing  yellow,  or  white  with  yellow  over 
it,  and  a  Sthanakavasi white.  A  Digambara  ascetic,  however, 
may  wear  no  clothing  at  all,  and  such  are  accordingly  to  be 
found  only  in  jungles  or  desert  places  outside  British  states. 
In  Bhopal  my  informant  met  a  man  claiming  to  be  a  Digam- 
bara sadhu,  but  because  he  wore  a  loin-cloth,  the  laymen 
of  his  community  refused  to  recognize  him  as  such,  and 
drove  him  away. 

The  next  step  in  the  initiation  is  the  removal  of  the  hair. 
A  peculiarity  of  the  Jaina  cult  is  that  they  insist  on  ascetics 
tearing  the  hair  out  by  the  roots  at  least  once  a  year ;  but 
when  at  his  initiation  a  man's  hair  is  removed  for  the  first 
time,  the  merciful  method  of  shaving  is  resorted  to,  and 
only  a  few  hairs  are  left  to  be  pulled  out ;  these  are  plucked 
off  behind  a  curtain  in  private.  After  this  a  mixture 
called  Vasaksepa  is  applied  to  the  man's  head,  and  this  is 
the  crucial  point  in  the  initiation,  for  until  this  is  applied 
he  is  not  a  sadhu.  Whilst  the  mixture  is  being  put  on, 
a  sadhu  whispers  a  sacred  mantra  in  his  ear.  The  newly 
made  sadhu  then  performs  the  morning  worship,  and 
devout  laymen  feast  the  ascetics  who  are  present. 

If  the  ascetic  were  a  Digambara,  he  would  take  an  entirely 
new  name ;  if  a  Svetambara,  he  might  either  change  his 
name  or  add  a  new  one  to  his  old  one ;  but  a  Sthanakavasi 
retains  his  original  name  intact. 

He  is  now  to  be  a  homeless  wanderer,  possessing  nothing 
and  dependent  for  his  very  subsistence  on  the  alms  of  the 
charitable.  He  may  possess  no  metal  of  any  sort :  even 
a  needle,  if  borrowed,  must  be  returned  at  sunset,  and  his 
spectacles,  if  he  wear  them,  should  be  framed  in  wood.  A 
man  was  once  pointed  out  tothewriter  at  Palitana  as  a  sadhu 


THE  JAINA  ASCETIC  227 

who,  however,  was  wearing  gold-rimmed  spectacles ;  and 
when  she  asked  for  an  explanation,  the  bystanders  all  turned 
and  jeered  at  the  discomfited  ascetic,  declaring,  much  to 
his  chagrin,  that  since  he  had  infringed  this  law,  he  had  no 
claim  to  be  accounted  a  monk  at  all.  Constant  evasions 
of  the  rules  against  non-possession,  however,  do  take  place, 
to  the  great  indignation  of  the  laity,  some  monks,  as  we 
have  seen,  even  retaining  their  property  on  their  persons 
in  the  shape  of  bank-notes,  thus  keeping  the  letter  and 
breaking  the  spirit  of  the  law. 

The  ascetic  may  have  some  pieces  of  cloth  to  strain  away 
any  insects  from  the  v/ater  he  will  drink,  and  also  some 
wooden  jugs  or  some  gourds  in  which  to  keep  his  drinking- 
water,  but  no  brass  vessels.  All  monks  also  possess  a  piece 
of  cloth  to  wear  over  their  mouths,  not,  as  has  been  usually 
thought,  to  prevent  them  injuring  the  minute  insects  in 
the  air,  but  to  guard  against  hurting  the  air  itself.^  The 
less  strict  Svetambara  only  keep  this  mouth-cloth  in  their 
hands,  but  the  Sthanakavasi  always  wear  it  night  and  day  ; 
and  the  writer  found  that  it  always  pleased  ascetics  if 
she  covered  her  lips  with  a  handkerchief  when  speaking 
with  them  or  when  in  the  presence  of  any  of  their  sacred 
objects. 

Every  Svetambara  monk  also  carries  with  him  five 
shells  ;  these  must  be  spiral  and  must  turn  to  the  right  ; 
shells  turning  to  the  left  are  useless.  The  shells  are  con- 
secrated at  the  time  of  the  Divali  festival. 

All  ascetics  have  to  guard  most  scrupulously  against  the 
taking  of  any  insect  life,  so  all  three  sects  furnish  their 
monks  with  something  with  which  they  may  sweep  insects 
from  their  path.  Amongst  the  Sthanakavasi,  who  are  the 
most  punctilious  of  all  the  Jaina,  the  monks  have  a  long- 
handled  brush ;  the  Svetambara  ascetics  use  a  smaller 
brush  ;  and  the  Digambara  a  peacock's  feather. 

We  shall  later  study  the  five  great  vows  that  guide  an 

^  See  p.  100. 
Q2 


228  THE  JAINA  ASCETIC 

ascetic,  and  we  have  already  learnt  something  of  his  philo- 
sophy and  his  belief  in  austerity,  but  it  may  be  of  interest 
here  to  record  the  actual  daily  life  of  a  Svetambara  ascetic, 
as  one  of  their  number  described  it  to  the  writer. 
Daily  They  are  supposed  to  rise  about  four  o'clock,  summer  and 

duties.  winter,  and  perform  Rdyasl  Padikamanuvi^  in  which  in 
a  set  form  of  Magadhi  words  each  monk  confesses  the  sins 
of  the  past  night,  and  especially  the  taking  of  any  life 
and  any  injury  he  may  have  inflicted  on  any  sacred  thing, 
or  any  of  the  earth,  water,  fire,  air,  or  vegetable  bodies. 
It  is  at  this  time  that  the  laity  perform  their  meditation 
or  samayika,  but  in  many  of  the  Svetambara  sects  a  sadhu 
performs  samayika  at  the  time  of  his  initiation  and  never 
again. 

After  padikamanum  he  engages  in  a  search  for  any  insect 
life  that  may  be  sheltering  in  his  clothing.  This  search, 
which  is  called  Palevarm,  is  carried  out  as  a  religious  duty, 
and  any  insect  found  is  carefully  removed  to  a  place  of 
safety. 

The  sadhu  neither  bathes  nor  cleanses  his  teeth  ;  he  does 
these  things  before  his  initiation  for  the  last  time  in  his 
life,  but  now,  without  waiting  for  either,  he  leaves  the 
monastery  and  goes  to  the  temple  to  perform  Darsana. 
Unlike  a  layman,  he  dons  no  special  clothes  at  the  temple 
gates,  but  worships  in  his  ordinary  ones.  When  he  enters 
the  temple,  he  stands  in  front  of  the  idol  and  baws  down  to 
it,  and  then  performs  a  mental  exercise  known  as  Bhdvapujd, 
during  which  he  meditates  on  the  undoing  of  karma,  the 
qualities  of  a  Tirthahkara,  and  similar  subjects.  He  now 
performs  Pradaksind^  circumambulating  the  shrine  either 
four  or  seven  times.  If  he  do  it  four  times,  he  meditates 
on  the  four  gati,  namicly,  whether  he  will  be  born  as  a  god, 
a  man,  an  animal,  or  a  denizen  of  hell;  if  he  walks  round 
seven  times,  he  thinks  how  he  can  best  escape  dwelling  in 
any  of  the  seven  hells. 

An  ascetic  can  neither  cleanse  the  idol  [jala  pujd),  nor 


THE  JAINA  ASCETIC  229 

mark  it  with  saffron  (candana  pujd),  nor  offer  flowers 
{puspa  pujd),  nor  wave  incense  before  it  [dhupa  pujd),  nor 
wave  a  lamp  [dipa  pujd),  nor  offer  rice  {aksata  pujd),  nor 
sweetmeats  (naivedya  pujd),  nor  fruit  {pha/a  pujd);  neither 
can  he  mark  his  own  forehead,  as  a  layman  would,  with  a 
cdndalo  (auspicious  mark)  ;  but  his  worship  seems  to  be 
almost  entirely  mental  and  'interior',  and  sometimes  in- 
cludes acts  of  worship  known  as  Khamdsamana,  Caitya- 
vandana  and  Jdvanticaydnain.  He  also  usually  sings 
some  hymn  in  praise  of  the  qualities  of  the  Arihanta,  and 
then  joining  his  hands  repeats  a  mantra.  After  meditating 
in  a  particular  posture  {Kdusagga),  he  tells  his  beads,  mak- 
ing salutations  to  *  the  Five  '  {Arihanta,  Siddha,  Acdrya, 
Upddhydya  and  Sddhu),  and  to  Knowledge,  Faith,  Character 
and  Austerity.  When  he  has  done  this  and  said  the 
Avasahl,  which  allows  him  to  enter  his  worldly  affairs  again, 
he  feels  that  Bhava  puja  is  complete  ;  with  its  different 
parts  and  their  variations  it  generally  lasts  about  an  hour. 

After  completing  his  Bhava  puja  the  ascetic  goes  back 
to  the  monastery  and  either  preaches  or  reads  one  of  the 
scriptures. 

About  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  one  of  the  monks  goes  Begging, 
out  on  a  begging  round ;  as  a  rule  one  begs  for  the  whole 
monastery,  whilst  the  other  monks  study.  Curiously 
enough  the  English  fashion  of  tea-drinking  has  spread  so 
much  in  India  that  even  monks  now  indulge  in  an  early 
cup  of  tea;  and  the  writer's  informant  told  her  that  he  used 
not  to  wait  till  ten  o'clock,  but  about  an  hour  after  sunrise 
he  always  went  on  a  preliminary  round,  and,  begging  tea 
and  milk  for  his  guru  and  the  other  monks,  took  it  back 
to  the  monastery.  According  to  their  scriptures,  ascetics 
are  only  supposed  to  beg  once  a  day,  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact  they  often  do  so  three  or  four  times  a  day.  When 
the  monk  goes  out  at  ten,  he  expects  to  receive  gifts  of 
rice  and  split  peas,  bread,  vegetables,  curry,  sweets,  and 
dudhapaka  (a  kind  of  milk  pudding). 


230  THE  JAINA  ASCETIC 

There  are  innumerable  rules  that  should  be  observed 
when  begging,  with  regard  to  which  all  the  sects  and  sub- 
sects  differ.  A  yellow-robed  Svetambara  sadhu  will  only 
accept  food  from  Jaina,  and  would  refuse  alms  from  Brah- 
mans,  Ksatriya,  and  even  from  Vaisnava  and  Mesarl  Baniya; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  white-clad  Svetambara  sadhu  wil] 
take  food  from  Brahmans  and  Ksatriya,  and  in  Marwar 
they  will  even  accept  it  from  a  Hajama  (barber),  with  whom 
a  high-caste  Hindu  will  not  eat. 

My  informant  told  me  that  he  was  most  careful  to  go 
only  to  houses  in  which  the  door  was  standing  open,  and 
that  he  always  repeated  the  formula  :  Dharma  Labha. 
He  was  not  nearly  as  particular  as  the  Sthanakavasi 
about  the  boiled  water  he  took  :  for  whereas  they  would 
only  accept  water  which  has  been  boiled  not  more  than  four 
hours  previously,  lest  new  life  should  have  been  formed  in 
it,  this  Svetambara  sadhu  told  the  writer  that  he  generally 
begged  enough  boiled  water  in  the  morning  to  last  the 
whole  day,  and  that  it  was  only  in  the  rainy  season  he  was 
particular  to  keep  the  water  for  a  shorter  time.  They  are 
very  particular,  however,  not  to  take  vegetable  life ;  and  if 
on  the  steps  of  a  house  they  see  a  green  leaf  or  a  vegetable 
lying  they  refuse  to  pass  over  it,  turn  aside  and  go  to 
another  house.  In  the  same  way,  if  they  see  the  w^oman 
of  the  house  cleaning  rice  or  wheat,  they  will  not  take  it, 
but  will  only  accept  rice  or  grain  cleaned  before  they  came 
on  the  scene.  If  a  mother  is  nursing  her  baby  and  offers 
to  leave  it  to  go  and  get  food  for  them,  they  refuse,  lest 
they  should  be  guilty  of  making  the  child  cry. 

All  sects  agree  in  only  taking  what  they  may  reasonably 
consider  to  be  food  left  over  after  the  needs  of  the  household 
have  been  satisfied ;  none  will  take  things  specially  prepared 
for  them.  They  never  sit  in  a  layman's  house,  but  take 
the  gift  back  to  the  monastery,  and  after  showing  it  to  the 
Head,  divide  it  with  the  other  monks.  They  will  not 
receive  food  if  it  is  taken  specially  to  the  monastery  for 


THE  JAINA  ASCETIC  231 

them ;  but  a  Svetambara  will  accept  an  invitation  to  go 
and  fetch  food  from  a  layman's  house,  a  thing  which  a 
Sthanakavasi  will  never  do. 

With  regard  to  clothes,  the  rule  is  the  same  :  the  monk 
may  not  ask  for  clothes,  may  not  accept  them  if  taken  to 
the  monastery  specially  for  him,  and  may  only  receive 
them  if  the  householder,  as  he  gives  them,  explains  that 
he  has  no  longer  any  need  of  them. 

These  rules  were  clearly  drawn  up  to  prevent  the  order 
becoming  too  great  a  tax  on  the  charitable  ;  but,  despite  all 
this  care,  the  numberless  '  holy  men  '  in  India  are  a  most 
unfair  burden  on  the  earnings  of  the  industrious. 

The  begging  round  is  finished  about  eleven,  but  before  Confes- 
breakfasting    the     ascetic     makes     auricular     confession  ^'°"' 
(Aloyand)  to  his  guru  and  has  a  penance  appointed. 

The  monks  breakfast  as  near  eleven  as  possible,  for  they 
may  not  warm  up  the  food,  and  so  eat  it  as  quickly  as 
they  can. 

From  twelve  to  one  they  may  not  study ;    this  hour  is  Kala. 
called  Kala,  and  to  study  during  it  would  be  a  sin. 

From  one  to  three  they  ought  to  study,  and  the  laity  are  Study. 
so  anxious  that  they  shall,  that  devout  Jaina  often  pay  a 
pandit  to  instruct  the  monks  in  Sanskrit  or  Magadhi,  but 
they  complain  most  bitterly  of  the  monks'   aversion  to 
intellectual  labour. 

In  the  early  afternoon,  from  about  three  to  four,  they 
again  perform  palevana,  searching  their  clothing  for  insects. 

About  half-past  four  they  go  out  to  beg,  and  after  coming 
in,  make  confession  just  as  they  did  in  the  morning.  They 
dine  from  five  to  six  on  their  gleanings  from  the  charitable, 
generally,  as  at  breakfast,  on  rice  and  peas,  bread,  vege- 
tables, curry  and  sweets  ;  this  meal  they  must  finish  before 
sunset,  and  during  the  night  they  may  not  even  drink  water. 

They  may  not  leave  the  monastery  after  dark,  but  they 
perform  their  evening  Padlkamanum  there  for  about  an 
hour.     As  no  light  can  be  brought  into   the  monastery. 


232  THE  JAINA  ASCETIC 

their  day  closes  about  nine  o'clock,  when  they  perform 
Santhara  Porasi,  spending  about  an  hour  asking  the  pro- 
tection of  Arihanta,  Siddha,  Kevall,  and  Sadhu. 


Nuns. 

Female  ascetics  (sadhvl)  are  held  in  the  greatest  reverence 
by  the  Jaina,  and  their  lives  follow  much  the  same  lines  as 
those  of  the  male  ascetics.  They  always  wander  about  in 
twos  or  threes  and  have  of  course  their  own  Apasara.  At 
their  initiation  their  hair  is  shaved  and  pulled  out  just  like 
a  monk's,  and  the  mantra  is  whispered  to  them  by  a  sadhvi 
instead  of  a  sadhu. 

They  choose  the  head  of  their  Apasaro  generally  for 
learning ;  if  she  be  strong  enough,  she  wanders  homeless 
just  like  the  other  nuns,  but  if  old  and  feeble,  she  is  allowed 
to  continue  to  live  in  the  same  nunnery  without  change. 

A  nun's  day  much  resembles  that  of  a  monk.  The 
stricter  ones  will  only  beg  once,  eat  once,  and  sleep  for  a  few 
hours  in  the  twenty-four  ;  but  these  more  rigid  rules  are 
falling  into  abeyance,  and  the  nuns  the  writer  has  met 
confess  that  they  do  not  now  rise  as  they  should  after  a 
few  hours  sleep  to  meditate  twice  in  the  night. 

The  funeral  of  a  nun  ^  is  carried  out  with  the  greatest 
pomp,  and  during  it  childless  women  strive  to  tear  a  piece 
from  the  dead  sadhvi's  dress,  believing  it  will  ensure  their 
having  children,  whilst  men  anxiously  endeavour  to  acquire 
merit  by  carrying  the  palanquin  in  which  the  corpse, 
covered  with  a  rich  cloth,  is  borne,  boys  from  the  Jaina 
school  acting  as  a  guard  of  honour. 

In  all  the  neighbouring  towns  also,  directly  the  telegram 
announcing  the  nun's  death  is  received,  a  crier  would  be 
sent  out  to  tell  the  news  and  to  ask  the  Jaina  to  observe 
Amdra,  i.  e.  not  to  grind  or  pound  grain  or  do  anything 

^  A  full  description  of  a  nun's  funeral  is  given  in  the  writer's  Azotes 
on  Modern  Jainis??i,  Blackvvell,  1910,  pp.  28  ff. 


THE  JAINA  ASCETIC  233 

that  might  involve  the  destruction  of  hfe.  All  the  Jaina 
who  know  the  Logassa,  or  praise  of  the  twenty-four  Tirthah- 
kara,  would  repeat  it  four  times,  sitting  in  the  Kausagga 
position,  either  in  their  own  houses  or  in  the  Apasara,  and 
all  the  Jaina  schools  would  be  closed. 

A  pathetic  case  recently  occurred  in  Kathiawad,  when 
a  wealthy  old  Jaina  lady  and  her  husband  became  ascetics. 
Their  initiation  was  celebrated  with  great  pomp  ;  but  of 
course  the  lady  suffered  most  severely  by  being  suddenly 
deprived  of  all  luxury  and  comfort;  and  even  when  she 
was  ill  with  fever,  it  was  not  possible  for  her  husband  to 
see  her,  as  the  two  might  never  meet. 

Gorajl. 

Amongst  the  sadhus  we  have  not  included  the  Goraji  or 
Yati,  because  the  orthodox  Jaina  do  not  hold  them  to  be 
sadhus  at  all.  They  are  considered  to  be  a  fallen  class  of 
monks,  for  they  take  money,  go  about  in  palanquins,  and 
keep  watchmen  and  guards.  They  exact  a  tax  from  their 
followers  of  five  rupees  and  upwards,  which  they  annually 
go  out  to  collect,  returning  again  to  their  own  monastery. 
Their  spiritual  heads  are  called  Sripujya,  and  are  to  be 
found  in  Bombay,  Baroda,  Mandvi,  Mangrol,  Jaisalmer, 
and  many  other  towns.  The  Goraji,  in  fact,  much  resemble 
the  Safikaracarya  or  Vaisnava  Acarya ;  and  orthodox 
Jaina  say  they  prove  the  wisdom  of  Mahavira's  insistence 
on  constant  change  of  abode,  for  they  have  not  a  high 
reputation  for  morality,  and  strict  Jaina  will  not  give  them 
any  money  or  go  to  their  Apasara,  though  ignorant  Jaina 
sometimes  contribute  through  fear  of  their  power  to  harm, 
since  the  Goraji  claim  to  know  many  mantra. 


sa. 


234  THE  JAINA  ASCETIC 


The  Five  Great  Vows  of  Ascetics. 

We  may  now  examine  the  famous  five  vows  taken  by 
all  ascetics.  They  resemble  the  first  five  of  the  layman's 
tw^elve  vows,  and  this  accordance  bears  witness  to  the  fact 
that  these  are  the  five  points  in  the  Jaina  religion  w^hich  are 
to  be  regarded  as  of  supreme  importance. 
i.  Ahim-  The  first  vow  the  Jaina  monk  takes  is  that  he  will  never 
destroy  any  living  thing.  This  is  also  the  first  vow  that 
both  Buddhist  and  Brahman  monks  take,  and  it  was  the 
resemblance  between  the  vows  that  led  people  for  so  long 
to  deny  the  early  origin  of  Jainism.^ 

The  Jaina  ascetic  takes  a  vow  of  >Non-killing  [Ahij/isd]^ 
which  is  described  as  follows  : 

'Not  to  destroy  life,  either  five-,  four-,  three-,  or  two-sensed,  or  im- 
movable (i.  e.  one-sensed),  even  through  carelessness,  is  considered  as 
keeping  the  vow  of  non-killing.'  ^ 

There  are  five  buttressing  clauses  {Panca  Bhdvand),  the 
remembrance  of  which  assists  a  sadhu  to  keep  this  vow. 
First  {fry a  samiti  or  samai),  a  monk  must  be  careful  never 
to  run  the  risk  of  breaking  the  vow  in  walking  :  for  instance 
he  must  walk  by  trodden  paths,  in  which  the  presence  of  any 
insect  could  be  detected.  He  must  also  [Bhdsd  samiti  or 
Vatii'n  parijd?idi),  be  watchful  in  his  speech  and  always  speak 
in  gentle,  kindly  ways,  such  as  could  never  give  rise  to 
quarrels  or  murders.  If  he  were  not  careful  as  to  the  alms 
he  received  [Esand  samiti  or  Aloi  pdn a  hhoyana),  he  might 
infringe  some  of  the  forty-two  rules  as  to  receiving  alms, 
e.g.  by  accepting  food  containing  living  insects.  When 
a  monk  receives  or  keeps  anything  that  is  necessary 
for  religious  duties,  he  must  see  {Addnaniksepand  samiti 

^  The  whole  question  has  been  authoritatively  discussed  by  Dr.  Jacobi, 
S.  B.  E.,  xxii,  pp.  xixfif. 

^  The  words  resemble  those  of  the  layman's  vows  with  the  addition 
of  *  Ekendriya '. 


THE  JAINA  ASCETIC  2,35 

or  Aydndbhanda  nikhevand),  that  it  has  no  insect  hfe  on  it. 
And  at  night,  when  putting  away  all  that  remains  over 
from  the  food  he  has  begged,  he  must  deposit  it  and  any 
other  refuse  so  carefully,  that  no  insect  life  is  injured 
[Pratisthdpand  samiti  or  Parithdpanikd  samai)} 
The  following  sloka  sums  up  these  five  clauses  : 

'  A  man  should  respect  the  vow  of  Ahimsa  by  exercising  self-control, 
examining  things  taken,  always  maintaining  the  Five  Samiti,  and  by 
inspecting  things  before  he  eats  or  drinks,  and  before  he  receives 
them.' 

The  Jaina  monk  further  takes  a  vow  against  untruthful-  ii.  Asat- 
ness  [Asatya  tydga)  which  is  defined  in  the  following  words  :  ^^  y^S^. 

*  Undertaking  to  speak  what  is  pleasant,  wholesome  and  true  is 
called  the  vow  of  truthfulness.  Truth  is  untruth  if  it  is  not  pleasant 
and  wholesome.' 

The  five  bhavana,  or  strengthening  clauses,  to  this  vow 
supply  a  remarkable  psychological  analysis  of  the  causes 
which  lead  to  untruthfulness.  The  first  [AnuhlmabhdsT) 
condemns  speech  without  dehberation  ;  then,  as  wrath 
often  leads  to  falsehood,  monks  must  never  speak  when 
angry  [Kohavi  parijdndi) ;  nor  for  a  similar  reason  when 
moved  by  avarice  (Loha/n  parijdndi) ;  nor  by  fear  [Bhayam 
parijdndi) ;  finally,  they  promise  never  to  tell  a  falsehood 
for  fun,  or  from  the  desire  to  return  a  smart  repartee 
[Hdsarn  parijdndi). 

A  Sanskrit  sloka  which  sums  up  these  clauses  may  be 
translated  as  follows  : 

*  One  should  respect  the  vow  of  truthfulness  by  always  avoiding 
jesting,  greed,  cowardice  and  anger,  and  by  thinking  before  speaking.' 

The  third  vow,  that    of   non-stealing  [Asteya  vrata),  is  iii.Asteya 
defined  as  follows  :  vrata. 

'The  vow  of  non-stealing  consists  in  not  taking  what  is  not  given  ; 
wealth  is  the  outward  life  of  man,  and  if  that  is  taken  away  the  man  is 
undone.' 

^  Some  Jaina  substitute  for  this  the  duty  of  searching  mind,  thought 
and  intention  {Manaparijdndi). 


236  THE  JAINA  ASCETIC 

The  five  bhavana  are  as  follows  :  First,  a  monk  must  ask 
permission  of  the  owner  before  he  occupy  any  one's  house 
(Miugdha  jdti).  Then  a  junior  monk  must  never  use  any 
food  without  showing  what  he  has  received  in  alms  to 
his  guru,  and  receiving  his  permission  to  eat  it  [Anuna 
vihapdna  hhoyane).  Again,  a  monk  must  not  be  content 
to  ask  permission  only  once  from  the  owner  to  use  a  house, 
but  he  must  frequently  ask  if  he  may  occupy  it,  and  also 
ask  how  much  of  it  he  may  use,  and  for  how  long  a  time 
{Uggaha?h  siuggdhitaj'iisi).  He  must  not  use  any  furniture, 
such  as  beds  or  seats,  that  may  be  in  the  house,  without  the 
owner's  permission  [Uggahai'n  vauggahwisa  abhikhanam). 
Lastly,  if  a  sadhu  arrives  after  another  sadhu  has  already 
obtained  permission  to  use  the  house,  the  second  arrival 
must  ask  the  first  sadhu  to  go  again  and  get  permission  for 
him  also ;  and  if  the  second  sadhu  arrives  ill,  the  first 
must  willingly  give  him  all  the  room  he  needs  [Anuvli 
mitoggaha  jdti) . 

The  following  sloka  describes  these  clauses  : 

'  One  should  ask  for  a  place  of  residence  after  reflection,  and  renew 
the  request  every  day  :  "  I  only  need  so  much  of  it."  Thus  speaking, 
one  should  renew  his  petition.  With  people  of  one's  own  rank  one 
should  ask  in  the  same  way.  One  should  gain  permission  before  eating 
or  drinking.     In  these  ways  the  vow  of  non-stealing  is  respected.' 

iv.  Brah-      The  monks,   as  their  fourth  promise,   take  the  vow  of 
vi-ata^^'    chastity  (Brahmacarya),  and  the  Sthanakavasi  monks  in 

Kathiawad  every  night  and  morning  repeat  the  following 

words  : 

'  The  vow  of  chastity  is  eighteen-fold.  One  should  have  no  dealings 
with  gods,  human  beings  or  animals  of  the  opposite  sex,  should  not 
encourage  them,  or  cause  others  to  do  so,  by  speech,  thought  or  deed.' 

This  vow  also  has  its  five  strengthening  or  protective 
clauses.  To  prevent  any  approach  to  transgressions  of  the 
main  vow,  monks  should  not  talk  about  a  woman  [Abhi- 
khanai'n  itthinain  kahani  kaha  itame) ;  or  look  at  the  form  of 
a  woman  [Majwhardi  indiydi  dloetae)  ;   or  even  recall  the 


THE  JAINA  ASCETIC  237 

former  amusement  and  pleasure  women  afforded  them 
when  they  hved  in  the  world  [Itthmani  puvdraydiin  puva- 
kiliydi  sumaritae) ;  they  must  not,  for  similar  reasons,  eat 
or  drink  ^  to  excess,  or  partake  of  too  highly  spiced  dishes 
[Ndtimapdna  hhoyaim  hhoi)  ;  nor  must  they  live  in  the 
same  building  as  a  woman,  a  female  animal,  or  a  eunuch 
[Itthl  pasu  pandaga  sanisatdi  say  arid  sandini  sevitde). 

All  these  rules  mutatis  mutandis  apply  to  nuns. 

The  sloka  that  sums  up  the  whole  vow  and  its  clauses 
runs  thus : 

'  The  vow  of  chastity  is  maintained  by  not  sitting  on  seats  previously 
occupied  by  women,  female  animals  or  eunuchs,  and  by  not  living  in 
their  vicinity,  not  participating  in  exciting  conversation  about  women, 
not  remembering  former  delights,  not  looking  at  a  woman's  form,  not 
decorating  one's  own  person,  not  eating  or  drinking  to  excess,  or  par- 
taking of  too  highly  seasoned  food.' 

This  Jaina  vow  seems  limited  to  negative  chastity,  which 
shudderingly  avoids  its  fellow  creatures,  lest  they  should 
prove  occasions  of  stumbling,  and  it  appears  ignorant  of  the 
sunlit  purity  that  so  delights  in  its  walk  with  God  on  the 
open  road  of  life,  that  it  cannot  be  bored  with  nastiness. 

The  last  great  vow   {Aparigraha  vrata)  consists  in  re-  v.  Apari- 
nouncing  all  love  for  anything  or  any  person.     The  defini-  ^^^J^^ 
tion  of  it  may  be  translated  as  follows  : 

'  Having  no  possessions  consists  in  relinquishing  greed  for  any- 
thing ;  if  we  think  that  a  particular  thing  is  our  own,  the  mind  is 
agitated  by  greed.' 

In  the  Jaina  scriptures  the  vow  is  held  to  exclude  all 
likes  and  dislikes  in  regard  to  sounds,  colours,  or  smells,  as 
well  as  people.  In  short,  the  way  to  maintain  this  vow  is 
to  be  indifferent  to  anything  our  senses  can  tell  us. 

This  fifth  vow  of  the  monk  foreshadows  what  the  con- 
dition of  the  Siddha  will  be,  when  all  his  powers  are  entirely 
shrivelled  up. 

1  It  will  be  remembered  that  no  Jaina,  lay  or  ascetic,  may  ever 
drink  wine. 


238  THE  JAINA  ASCETIC 

The  following  sloka  tells  how  the  vow  is  kept: 

'  Renouncing  liking  for  pleasant  touch,  taste,  smell,  form,^  or  word,'^ 
and  for  all  the  objects  of  the  five  senses,  renouncing  hatred  for  un- 
pleasant objects,  these  are  the  ways  to  maintain  the  vow  of  Aparigraha.' 

Ratribho-      Certain  Svetambara  add  a  sixth  vow,  that  of  never  dining 
t^"^a        Q-fter  it  is  dark  [Rdtribhojana  tydga),  lest  they  should  in-' 
advertently  take  life,- but  most  Jaina  consider  this  included 
under  the  other  vows  that  protect  insect  life. 

Twenty-seven  Qualities  of  the  Ideal  Monk, 

We  have  seen  -that  the  Jaina  have  a  conception  of  the 
ideal  layman  ;  and  in  the  same  way  they  also  show  us  the 
picture  of  a  perfect  monk,  summed  up  in  a  Magadhi  sloka  : 

'The  true  ascetic  should  possess  twenty-seven  qualities,  for  he  must 
keep  the  five  vows,  never  eat  at  night,  protect  all  living  things,^ 
control  his  five  senses,  renounce  greed,  practise  forgiveness,  possess 
high  ideals,  and  inspect  everything  he  uses  to  make  sure  ^hat  no  insect 
life  is  injured.  He  must  also  be  self-denying  and  carefully  keep  the 
three  gupti,  he  must  endure  hardships  in  the  twenty-two  ways,  and 
bear  suffering  till  death.' 

^  i.e.  beauty.  '  ^  i.  e.  literature  and  oratory. 

^  Of  the  six.  classes. 


CHAPTER  Xir 

THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD 

Panca  Paramesvara. 

We  have  traced  the  journey  of  a  jiva  along  the  upward 
path  that  leads  through  the  destruction  of  karma,  by  way 
of  the  fourteen  upward  steps  and  the  keeping  of  the  twelve 
vows  and  the  eleven  Pratima,  to  monkhood.  It  only  re- 
mains to  us  to  note  the  different  ranks  a  man  may  hold 
as  an  ascetic  before  he  finally  attains  moksa. 

First,  he  is  just  an  ordinary  ascetic  or  sadhu  ;  if  he  be  a  Sadhu. 
Digambara,  he  will  wear  no  clothes  and  live  in  the  forest, 
lost  to  the  world  and  immersed  in  meditation,  eating  only 
once  a  day  and  tearing  out  his  hair  as  it  grows.  Nowadays 
one  hears  of  only  two  or  three  Digambara  ascetics.  If  he 
be  a  Svetambara^  or  a  Sthanakavasi,^  he  will  move  from 
Apasaro  to  Apasaro  clad  in  white  clothes. 

The  next  step  to  which  he  can  rise  is  that  of  Upadhaya  or  Upa- . 
instructor.  An  exceptionally  clever  monk  may  be  chosen  ^"Y^y^- 
from  amongst  the  others  as  teacher,  when  he  is  expected  to 
study  the  scriptures  and  teach  them  to  his  fellow  monks. 
Amongst  the  Tapagaccha  no  monk  can  be  chosen  as  an 
Upadhyaya  till  he  has  been  an  ascetic  for  at  least  a  year,  but 
this  does  not  seem  to  be  always  the  rule  with  other  sects. 
The  scriptures  he  will  most  probably  teach  are  the  Uttara- 
dhyayana  Swtra,  the  Upasaka  Dasahga  Sutra,  and  the 
Bhagavati  Sutra.  The  last,  the  Bhagavati  Sutra,  holds 
almost  the  same  position  amongst  many  Jaina  that  Hindus 
give  to  the  Bhagavadgita  or  Christians  to  the  Gospels. 

^  Unless  he  be  a  follower  of  either  AtmaramajT  or  Anandavija- 
yajT,  when  he  will  wear  yellow  clothes. 

^  The  followers  of  SrIlalajT,  however,  who  are  found  mainly  in  Malwa, 
never  live  in  an  Apasaro  lest  they  should  be  held  guilty  of  the  lives 
destroyed  in  building  it. 


240  THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD 

These  scriptures  most  Jaina  laymen  are  familiar  with, 
but  the  instructor  should,  according  to  some  Jaina,  have 
also  studied  the  scriptures  the  laymen  have  not  read,  namely, 
the  eleven  Aiiga  and  the  twelve  Upahga  or  the  Caranasitari  ^ 
and  the  Karanasitar!  2,  or,  according  to  others,  the  eleven 
Ahga  and  the  fourteen  Purva.  All  teaching  and  studying 
is  a  kind  of  austerity ;  if  a  man  studies  intentionally  to  gain 
merit,  he  will  get  merit  [punya)  ;  if,  however,  he  studies 
and  teaches  to  gain  and  impart  knowledge  with  no  thought 
of  acquiring  merit,  he  will  destroy  certain  karma  [nirjard). 
Acarya.  A  Still  higher  rank  is  attained  when  a  monk  becomes  an 
Acarya  or  Superior.  In  many  sects  the  Acarya  is  chosen 
simply  by  seniority  (this  is  nearly  always  the  case  in 
Kathiawad),  but  in  others  the  Acarya  is  selected  for  ability, 
or  powers  of  leadership,  as  is  generally  done  in  Malwa. 

The  choosing  of  a  new  Superior  or  Acarya  is  made  the 
occasion  of  great  rejoicing.  Jaina  laymen  come  to  the 
Apasaro,  take  the  twelve  vows  or  renew  them,  and  sing 
songs  and  make  the  greatest  noise  imaginable.  In  order 
to  permit  of  animals  sharing  in  their  rejoicing,  they  pay 
butchers  varying  sums  to  cease  killing  for  those  days. 
An  Acarya  is  a  man  of  very  high  dignity  :  he  never  travels 
alone,  but  is  always  accompanied  by  at  least  two  sadhus  ; 
and  as  his  fame  grows,  the  number  of  his  disciples  increases. 
When  the  writer,  for  instance,  had  the  pleasure  in  Rajkot 
of  meeting  Sivalalaji  Maharaja  (who  is  considered  the 
most  learned  Sthanakavasi  acarya  of  the  present  time),  he 
had  travelled  thither  with  twenty-one  attendant  sadhus. 

The  power  of  excommunication  for  religious  offences  lies 
with  the  Acarya^  acting  with  the  Jaina  community  or 
saiigha,  and  it  is  to  the  Acarya  that,  whenever  possible,  the 
monks  of  his  sahgha  should  make  confession.  As  a  rule 
the  Acarya  wears  the  same  dress,  eats  the  same  food,  and 

^  Or  Carandmiyoga.  ^  Or  Kanmdnuyoga. 

^  The  Acarya,  acting  with  the  community,  excommunicates  for  reli- 
gious offences ;  but  for  offences  against  society  the  Mahajana  (committee 
of  leading  Baniya)  excommunicates. 


THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD  241 

follows  the  same  rule  as  his  fellow  monks  ;  sometimes,  how- 
ever, his  little  sitting-board  is  raised  slightly  higher  from  the 
ground  than  those  of  the  other  monks. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  the  ordinary  sadhu  must 
gain  the  rank  of  Instructor  and  Superior  to  go  to  moksa,  a 
simple  ascetic  can  do  that ;  but  it  is  generally  easier  for  the 
higher  ranks  of  ascetics  to  attain  deliverance  than  for  the 
lower,  because  their  office  helps  them  to  develop  the  neces- 
sary qualities.  An  Acarya  should,  of  course,  observe  with 
special  attention  all  the  usual  ascetic  discipline. 

A  Magadhi  sloka  describes  the  ideal  Acarya  as  possessing 
thirty-six  qualities  :  he  controls  the  five  senses  ;  he  is  chaste 
in  the  nine  ways ;  he  keeps  the  three  gupti ;  he  is  free  from 
the  four  kasaya ;  he  keeps  the  five  great  vows  ;  he  observes 
the  five  rules  of  conduct ;  and  he  maintains  the  five  samiti : 
such  are  the  thirty-six  qualities  of  an  Acarya. 

The  goal  of  every  monk  is  to  become  at  last  an  Arihanta  Tirthan- 
or  Tirthahkara,  the  Being  who  has  attained  perfection  of  Y^^-t  ^^. 
knowledge,  perfection  of  speech,  perfection  of  worship,  and 
absolute  security,  for  no  danger  or  disease  can  ever  come 
where  he  is.  Having  become  a  Tirthankara,  the  jiva  is  at 
length  freed  from  the  dread  that  overshadows  every  Jaina, 
the  fear  in  this  life  of  suffering  or  sorrow,  which  has  to  be 
borne  with  no  Friend  at  hand  to  strengthen  and  comfort, 
and  the  dreary  expectation  after  death  of  the  endless  cycle 
of  rebirth. 

A  meaning  often  given  to  the  word  Tirthankara  is  that  of 
one  who  finds  a  ford  [tirtha)  through  this  world  {samsdra) 
to  moksa,  or  one  who  attains  a  landing  on  the  other  side. 
But  many  Jaina  say  it  denotes  one  who  forms  four  com- 
munities [tirtha)  of  monks  and  nuns  and  male  and  female 
lay-followers.  When  a  new  Tirthankara  arises,  the  fol- 
lowers of  the  preceding  one  follow  him,  as  the  followers  of 
Parsvanatha  followed  Mahavira. 

We  have  noticed  ^  the  eight  glories  which  surround  a 

^  p.  191. 

R 


242  THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD 

Tirthankara  when  he  preaches  ;  besides  these,  the  Jaina 
assign  to  him  an  enormous  list  of  attributes.  A  Tirthan- 
kara, for  example,  is  worshipped  by  the  sixty-four  Indra, 
and  has  thirty-five  special  qualities  of  speech,  and  thirty- 
four  pertaining  to  his  body,  which  is  distinguished  by  one 
thousand  and  eight  specified  marks.  We  shall  probably, 
however,  gain  a  better  idea  of  the  Jaina's  real  conception  of 
a  Tirthankara,  not  by  working  through  this  long  bare  list  of 
quahties,  but  by  studying  one  of  their  prayers  of  adoration 
— that  surest  mirror  of  a  man's  mental  picture  of  his  god. 
The  writer's  Sthanakavasi  friends  tell  her  that  every 
morning  and  evening  during  Padikamanum  they  worship 
the  Tirthankara  in  Gujarati  words  which  maybe  rendered 
as  follows  : 

'You  I  salute  at  various  times,  the  Lord  Arihanta.  What  kind  of 
a  Lord  is  He  ?  He  knows  what  is  passing  in  your  mind  and  my  mind. 
He  knows  what  is  passing  in  the  mind  of  every  man.  He  knows  what 
is  going  on  at  various  times.  He  sees  all  the  fourteen  worlds  as 
though  they  were  in  his  hands.  He  is  endowed  with  these  six  quali- 
ties :  boundless  knowledge,  insight,  righteousness,  austerity,  patience, 
strength.  He  is  endowed  with  thirty-four  kinds  of  uncommon  qualities. 
He  is  endowed  with  speech.  He  is  endowed  with  thirty-five  kinds  of 
truthful  speech.  He  has  one  thousand  and  eight  auspicious  marks. 
He  is  free  from  the  eighteen  sins  and  endowed  with  the  twelve  good 
qualities.  He  has  destroyed  four  of  the  hardest  karma,  and  the  four 
remaining  karma  are  powerless.  He  is  longing  to  get  moksa.  He 
dispels  the  doubts  of  souls  ^  with  yoga.  He  is  endowed  with  body, 
with  omniscience,  with  perfect  insight,  and  has  the  before-mentioned 
righteousness.  He  has  the  highest  kind  of  sankita,  which  is  per- 
manent ;  he  has  Suklalesya,  Sukladhyana,  Suklayoga ;  he  is  wor- 
shipped, adored  and  saluted  by  the  sixty-four  Indra.  He  is  the 
most  learned  pandit.  He  is  endowed  with  these  and  other  endless 
qualities.' 

Siddha.  We  have  seen  that  a  Tirthankara  has  still  four  karma 
left  which  bind  him,  and  until  these  four  do  actually  snap, 
the  jiva  which  began  its  upward  journey,  perhaps  from  a 
clod  of  earth,  has  not  yet  reached  its  final  goal.    When  by 

^  i.  e.  B/iavfnjiva,  those  souls  who  will  eventually  obtain  moksa. 


THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD  243 

austerities  these  last  karma  are  destroyed  and  break  '  like 
a  piece  of  burnt-up  string  ',  the  soul  loses  its  body  and 
becomes  a  Siddha. 

The  Siddha  has  the  following  characteristics  :  absolute 
knowledge,  faith,  insight,  righteousness,  and  prowess.  He 
also  has  the  power  of  becoming  minute  and  gigantic  at  will, 
and  of  moving  anywhere  unhindered ;  he  is  unaffected  by 
anything,  so  that  neither  death,  disease,  rebirth,  nor  sorrow 
can  any  longer  touch  him.  He  is  also  without  a  body ;  and 
this  is  the  reason  why  Jaina  feel  they  can  never  pray  to 
a  Siddha.  A  Siddha  has,  however,  one  hundred  and  eight 
attributes,  and  these  the  Jaina  recite,  telling  their  rosary 
of  one  hundred  and  eight  beads.  An  ordinary  Jaina  tells 
his  beads  five  times  a  day,  but  a  very  devout  Jaina  might 
tell  the  one  hundred  and  eight  beads  one  hundred  and  eight 
times  a  day.  The  Jaina  say  they  do  not  worship  or  salute 
the  Siddha  when  doing  this,  but  tell  their  beads  only  with 
the  object  of  stirring  up  their  spiritual  ambition  and  in 
order  to  remind  themselves  of  the  qualities  a  Siddha  must 
possess,  in  the  hope  that  some  day  they  too  may  reach  their 
desired  goal,  and  rest  in  perfect  bliss  in  the  state  of  Nirvana, 
doing  nothing  for  ever  and  ever. 

Thirty-five  Rules  of  Conduct. 

How  even  non- Jaina  may  reach  Moksa. 

One  of  the  unique  glories  of  Jainism  is  that  it,  unlike 
most  Indian-born  religions,  believes  in  the  possibility  of 
aliens  reaching  its  goal.  Even  Europeans  and  Americans,^' 
although  they  may  never  have  heard  of  Jainism,  if  they 
follow,  though  unconsciously,  the  thirty-five  rules  of 
conduct,  of  necessity  destroy  their  karma  and  so  are  sped 
to  moksa  like  an  arrow  from  a  bow. 

It  will  therefore  be  well  worth  our  while  to  study  these 

^  Quite  uncivilized  races  might  reach  moksa,  but  it  would  be  easier 
for  Europeans  and  other  civilized  people,  provided  they  were  vege- 
tarians, to  do  so. 

R2 


244  THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD 

rules,  for  they  contain  the  pith  of  the  Jaina  creed  expressed 
in  terms  of  conduct.  The  thirty-five  rules  are  contained 
in  ten  Sanskrit  sloka  which  describe  the  true  Jaina,  and 
which  might  be  rendered  thus  : 

1.  He  who  gains  his  livelihood  by  honesty,  and  admires  and  follows 
excellence  of  conduct,  and  marries  his  sons  and  daughters  to  well-born 
and  well-behaved  folk. 

2.  He]  is  known  to  be  afraid  of  committing  sins,  he  follows  the 
customs  of  his  country,  never  speaks  evil  of  any  man  and  especially 
not  of  his  ruler. 

3.  He  lives  in  neither  too  secluded  nor  too  open  a  residence.  It 
must  be  situated  in  a  good  locality  and  have  good  neighbours.  The 
house  must  not  have  too  many  entrances. 

4.  He  always  associates  with  good  men,  worships  his  parents,  and 
abandons  an  unprotected  place  of  evil  reputation. 

5.  He  regulates  his  expenditure  according  to  his  income,^  dresses 
according  to  his  position,  and  being  endowed  with  eight  kinds  of 
intelligence  hears  religious  discourses  every  day. 

6.  If  he  suffers  from  indigestion,  he  does  not  eat.  He  eats  only  at 
fixed  times.  He  should  gain  his  three  objects  "^  in  such  a  way  that 
one  does  not  interfere  with  the  other. 

7.  He  gives  alms  to  him  who  comes  unexpectedly,  to  the  sadhu  and 
to  the  poor,  is  free  from  obstinacy  and  has  a  partiality  for  good 
qualities. 

8.  Knowing  his  own  strength  and  weakness,  he  avoids  such  actions 
as  are  not  suited  to  the  time  and  country  [in  which  he  lives].  He 
worships  persons  who  are  rigid  in  keeping  their  vows  and  far  advanced 
in  knowledge,  and  he  feeds  those  who  deserve  feeding. 

9.  He  is  provident,  has  more  than  ordinary  knowledge,  is  grateful 
for  what  is  done  for  him,  is  loved  by  people,  is  modest,  merciful,  of 
a  serene  disposition  and  benevolent. 

^  The  old  Jaina  rule  with  regard  to  the  regulation  of  income  was  to 
divide  it  into  four  equal  parts,  of  which  they  set  one  part  aside  as 
savings,  invested  another  part  in  trade,  paid  all  their  household  ex- 
penses with  the  third  portion,  and  devoted  the  remaining  quarter  to 
charity.  The  rule  is  not  strictly  followed  now,  but  it  is  still  usual  to 
divide  the  income  up  and  apportion  it,  though  not  giving  so  largely 
to  charity  as  in  the  old  days. 

^  Every  Indian,  Jaina  included,  has  four  great  objects  in  his  life  : 
dharma,  artha,  kama,  moksa  (religion,  wealth,  pleasure  and  moksa). 
A  devout  Jaina  householder  is  only  supposed  to  give  attention  to  the 
first  three,  for  if  he  acquit  himself  well  in  gaining  these,  the  last  will 
follow  naturally. 


THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD  245 

10.  He  is  always  intent  on  defeating  the  six  interior  enemies^  and 
controls  all  his  five  senses.  Such  are  the  suggestions  of  a  house- 
holder's duties. 

The  Three  Jewels  [Ratna  Tray  a). 

The  Jaina  sum  up  all  their  belief,  as  expressed  in  the 
Tattva,  in  their  vows,  and  in  their  rules  of  conduct,  under 
the  heading  of  the  Three  Jewels  :  Right  Knowledge  [Sam- 
yak  Jhdna),  Right  Faith  [Samyak  Darsana),  Right  Conduct 
[Samyak  Cdritrya). 

The  Sanskrit  sloka  that  defines  Right  Knowledge  runs :      Right 

Know- 
'  Wise  men  call  that  knowledge  Right  Knowledge  which  one  gets,  ledge. 

whether  concisely  or  in  detailed  form,  from  the  Tattva  as  they  exist.' 

Right  Knowledge  is  in  fact  knowledge  of  the  Jaina  creed ; 
and  this  jewel  must  be  gained  before  any  other  can  be 
obtained,  for  only  when  Right  Knowledge  is  possessed  can 
a  man  know  what  virtue  is,  and  what  vows  he  ought  to 
keep.  Mahavira  himself  said :  '  First  knowledge  and  then 
mercy',  for  unless  a  man  know  what  a  jiva  is,  how  can  he 
show  mercy  to  it  ? 

Central  among  the  Three  Jewels  is  Right  Faith ;  for  unless  Right 
one  believes  in  what  one  knows,  how  will  one  follow  it }  Faith. 
Samyak  Darsana  stands  for  true  faith  and  insight  into  the 
great  Jaina  doctrines  and  scriptures.  The  Jaina  say  that 
it  is  like  the  digit  i,  which,  standing  before  the  ciphers  that 
follow  it,  gives  them  value,  for  without  faith  all  conduct  is 
worthless. 

'To  hold  the  truth  as  truth,  and  untruth  as  untruth,  this  is  true 
faith/ 

The  Jaina  say  that  there  may  be  Right  Knowledge  and  Right 
Right  Faith,  but  if  these  are  not  accompanied  by  Right  Conduct. 
Conduct  all  are  worthless.     To  the  monk  Right  Conduct 

^  Both  Hindus  and  Jaina  believe  that  there  are  six  interior  enemies  : 
passion  {kdma),  anger  {krodha),  greed  {lobha),  pride  [mdna),  excessive 
exultation  {harm)  and  envy  {jnatsara). 


246  THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD 

means  the  absolute  keeping  of  the  five  great  vows.     His 

conduct,  as  we  have  seen,  should  be  perfect,  or  Sarva- 

caritrya,  for  he  must  follow  the  conduct  laid  down  for  him 

in  every  particular;   but  the  layman  is  only  expected  to 

possess  Desacaritrya  (partial  conduct),  for,  so  long  as  he 

is  not  a  professed  monk,  he  cannot  be  absolutely  perfect 

in  conduct. 

Three  Right  Conduct,  however,  can  be  ruined  by  three  evil 

Salya       darts,  or  salya.     The  first  of  these  is  intrigue  or  fraud 
that  in-  -^    ,  => 

jure  [Maya  salya),  since  no  one  can  gain  a  good  character  whose 

Caritrya.  jjfg^  social  or  religious,  is  governed  by  deceit.    Even  in  such 
holy  matters  as  fasting,  intrigue  can  make  itself  felt. 

A  second  poisonous  dart  is  false  belief  ox  Mithydtva  salya, 
which  consists  in  holding  a  false  god  to  be  a  true  one,  a  false 
guru  to  be  a  true  guru,  and  a  false  religion  to  be  a  true 
religion  ;  by  so  doing  one  absolutely  injures  Right  Know- 
ledge and  Right  Faith  which  lead  to  Right  Conduct ;  this 
is  therefore  a  highly  poisonous  dart.  The  great  evil  wrong 
behef  does  shows  how  supremely  important  it  is  for  men 
to  know  who  is  the  true  Tirthafikara,  and  the  definition, 
which  the  Jaina  repeat  every  day  at  their  devotions,  runs 
as  follows: 

*  He  who  is  omniscient,  free  from  all  love  of  the  world  and  from  all 
failings  ;  he  who  is  worshipped  by  the  three  worlds  and  who  explains 
the  inner  meaning  [of  religion]  as  it  exists  :  this  adorable  deity  is  the 
great  god.'  ^ 

The  Jaina  similarly  define  a  false  god  : 

*  Those  gods  who  retain  women,  weapons  and  rosaries,  who  are 
steeped  in  attachment  and  so  stained,  who  are  in  the  habit  of  giving 
and  accepting  favours,  these  can  give  no  help  towards  deliverance.' 

In  the  same  way  it  is  of  great  importance  to  recognize 
good  gurus,  especially  in  a  land  swarming  with  worthless 
ascetics.  This  is  the  Jaina  definition,  which  is  also  repeated 
by  them  every  day  : 

*  They  who  keep  the  (five)  great  vows,  are  steadfast,  live  only  on 

^  i.e.  Tlrthankara. 


THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD  247 

alms,  are  immersed  in  meditation,  preach  religion  :   these  are  to  be 
considered  gurus.' 

And  in  contrast  the  Jaina  say  : 

*  They  are  not  gurus  who  are  slaves  to  all  desires,  eat  everything, 
have  worldly  possessions,  are  unchaste  and  preach  falsely.' 

Still  more  interesting  isitieir  definition  of  true  religion : 

*  That  which  holds  beings  from  falling  into  an  evil  state  [after  death] 
is  called  religion.  Self-control  is  the  foremost  of  its  ten  divisions.  The 
omniscient  says  that  such  a  religion  is  the  means  of  hberation.' 

The  Jaina  definition  of  false  religion  runs  : 

'  Religion  which  is  full  of  false  precepts,  which  is  stained  by  killing, 
even  if  it  is  thoroughly  known,  is  the  cause  of  wandering  through 
rebirths. 

Covetousness  [Niddna  salya)  is  the  third  poisonous  dart 
which  destroys  Right  Conduct.  If,  for  instance,  when  a  man  is 
performing  austerities,  he  admits  some  such  worldly  thought 
into  his  mind  as,  '  Now  after  this  austerity  I  may  have 
gained  sufficient  merit  to  become  a  king  or  a  rich  merchant', 
that  very  reflection,  being  stained  with  covetousness  and 
greed,  has  destroyed  like  a  poisonous  dart  iall  the  merit 
that  he  might  have  gained  through  the  act.  In  the  same 
way,  if  a  man  indulges  vindictive  or  revengeful  thoughts 
when  he  is  performing  austerities,  the  fruit  of  his  action  is 
lost,  and  no  merit  is  acquired  and  no  karma  destroyed. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  Three  Jewels  with  the  Three 

Buddhist  Tri-Ratna  :  Buddha,  the  Law  and  the  Order  ;  and  J^^^^^ 

com- 

with  the  Mohammedan  Triad  :   Happiness  [Khera],  Mercy  pared. 
{Mera),  Prayer  {Bandagl) ;   and  again  with  the  Pars!  Trio : 
Holy  Mind,  Holy  Speech  and  Holy  Deeds, 

Perhaps  also  in  no  more  concise  fashion  could  Jainism  be 
compared  with  Christianity  than  through  their  three  jewels; 
for  whilst  the  Jaina  beheve  in  Right  Knowledge,  Right 
Faith  and  Right  Conduct,  referring  to  an  impersonal 
system,  each  of  the  Christian  jewels,  Faith,  Hope  and  Love, 
refers  to  a  personal  Redeemer. 


248  THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD 

Faith,  The  Jaina  religion  enshrines  no  Faith  in  a  supreme  Deity  ; 

^Tl  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  Christian  the  dark  problems  of  sin  and  suffering 
are  lit  up  by  his  faith  in  the  character  and  power  of  God, 
which  ensure  the  ultimate  triumph  of  righteousness. 

Hope  to  the  Jaina  is  almost  a  meaningless  word  :  he  has 
hope  neither  for  his  own  future,  overcast  as  it  is  by  the 
shadow  of  innumerable  rebirths,  nor  for  that  of  his  religion, 
which  will,  he  believes,  in  its  due  season  perish  from  off  the 
earth.  To  the  Christian,  on  the  other  hand,  his  present 
circumstances  and  his  future  are  alike  bathed  in  the 
golden  sunshine  of  hope,  so  that  hopefulness  may  be 
said  to  be  the  very  centre  of  the  Christian  creed  and  the 
foundation  of  its  joy.  No  evil  can  befall  the  man  in  this 
life  who  with  Dante  has  learnt  that  in  God's  will  is  our 
peace;  and  even  in  the  presence  of  death  he  is  sustained 
by  the  living  hope^  of  a  glorious  future  assured  to  him  by 
the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ  from  the  dead. 

As  to  the  future  of  his  faith,  he  waits  with  unswerving 
confidence  the  fulfilment  of  the  magnificent  sloka : 

*  The  earth  shall  be  filled  with  the  knowledge  of  the  glory  of  the 
Lord  as  the  waters  cover  the  sea.'  ^ 

But  it  is  the  third  jewel.  Love,  that  most  clearly  dis- 
tinguishes the  Christian  from  the  Jaina  ideal.  To  the 
Jaina,  love  to  a  personal  God  would  be  an  attachment  that 
could  only  bind  him  faster  to  the  cycle  of  rebirth.  It  is 
a  thing  that  must  be  rooted  out  at  all  costs,  even  as  Gau- 
tama tore  the  love  for  his  master  Mahavira  out  of  his  heart. 
But  to  Christians  love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law,  and  it  is 
in  its  light  that  they  tread  the  upward  path;  for  it  is  through 
love  that  they  see  the  form  of  their  guide,  and  '  with  un- 
veiled face  reflecting  as  a  mirror  the  glory  of  the  Lord  are 
transformed  into  the  same  image  from  glory  to  glory '. 

Such  is  the  greater  Tri-ratna  that  Christ  is  holding  in 
His  pierced  hands  and  which  He  offers  to  the  Jaina  to-day. 

1  I  Peter  i.  3  ff.  2  Habakkuk  ii.  14. 


THE  END  OF  THE  ROAD  249 

And  the  Jaina  in  their  turn,  when  they  are  won  to  Him, 
will  pour  into  His  treasury  their  trained  capacity  for  self- 
discipline  and  self-denial  and  their  deliberate  exaltation 
of  the  spiritual  and  eternal  over  the  comfortable  and 
material,  which  are  so  greatly  needed  in  the  Christian  Church 
in  all  ages. 

Then  all  the  jewels,  set  together  and  no  longer  separated, 
shall  adorn  a  glorious  diadem  for  the  thorn-crowned  Man 
of  Sorrows. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


Temple 
worship. 


Digam- 

bara 

worship. 


^vetam- 

bara 

worship. 


JAINA  WORSHIP  AND  RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS 

The  Jaina  are  most  courteous  in  permitting  outsiders 
to  witness  the  ritual  of  their  temples,  only  asking  that  the 
spectators  should  remove  their  shoes.  In  the  Digambara 
temples  the  idols  are  nude,  and  the  eyes  are  cast  down  as  a 
sign  that  the  saint  represented  is  lost  to  all  worldly  thought. 
The  Svetambara,  like  the  Digambara,  have  images  of  the 
Tirthaiikara  sitting  in  meditation  in  the  Kausagga  position 
with  legs  crossed  and  hands  in  the  lap,  but  unlike  the 
Digambara  their  idols  are  given  loin-cloths,  have  staring 
glass  eyes  looking  straight  in  front  of  them,  and  are  adorned 
with  necklaces,  girdles  and  bracelets  of  gold.  The  writer 
has  elsewhere  fully  described  the  worship  in  the  temples  :  ^ 
here  it  may  suffice  to  give  only  a  short  summary. 

The  officiant  in  a  Digambara  temple  must  himself  be 
a  Jaina  (though  this  is  not  the  rule  among  the  Svetambara), 
and  he  will  never  eat  any  of  the  offering  made  to  the  idol. 
In  the  course  of  the  morning  worship  he  washes  the  idol 
{Jala  pujd)  and  dries  it,  being  most  careful  that  no  drop 
of  water  falls  to  the  ground,  marks  it  with  three  auspicious 
marks  of  yellow  powder  [Candana  pujd),  and  offers  rice 
[Aksata  pujd)  and  dried  (not  fresh)  fruit  [Naivedya  pujd). 

In  the  evening  the  worship  consists  of  Arati  pujd,  when 
a  five-fold  lamp  is  solemnly  waved  from  left  to  right  for 
a  few  minutes  in  front  of  the  idol. 

Thestrangepartof  Svetambara  worship  is  that,  if  no  Jaina 
be  present,  it  can  be  performed  by  a  non- Jaina,  and  the  writer 
has  at  various  times  seen  paid  officiants  who  were  Brahmans, 
gardeners,  or  farmers  by  caste  performing  the  ritual. 

If,  however,  a  devout  Jaina  be  present,  he  will,  after  bathing 
and  changing  his  clothes  to  the  two  pieces  of  cloth  he  keeps  for 


Notes  on  Modern  Jainisju,  pp.  86  ff. 


RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS  251 

the  purpose  in  the  httle  dressing-room  outside  the  temple, 
often  bid  as  much  as  five  annas  for  the  privilege  of  perform- 
ing the  Jala  pujd,  when  he  will  carefully  wash  the  idol  with 
water,  then  with  milk,  and  then  again  with  water;  the  same 
worshipper  might  also  perform  Angaluilchand  pujd  and  dry 
the  idol  with  five  or  ten  separate  cloths,  which  are  kept 
in  the  temple,  and  whose  number  seems  to  vary  according  to 
the  wealth  of  the  shrine.  A  worshipper  may  do  the  Can- 
dana  pujd  and  mark  the  idol  with  fourteen  auspicious 
marks,  but  only  the  paid  ofiiciant  is  allowed  to  perform  the 
Anga  pujd,  since  this  involves  the  handling  of  the  valuable 
jewellery  belonging  to  the  idol.  If  the  worshipper  for  whose 
benefit  it  is  performed  has  paid  a  large  sum,  such  as  fifty 
rupees,  the  best  crown,  necklace,  ear-rings,  bracelets,  arm- 
lets and  girdle,  all  wrought  in  pure  gold,  will  be  brought  out 
and  put  on  the  idol;  if  he  only  offers,  say,  twenty-five  rupees, 
the  idol  will  only  wear  its  second-best  silver-gilt  ornaments. 
Then  flowers  and  garlands  [Puspa  pujd)  ^  are  offered,  and  this 
completes  that  part  of  the  ritual  for  which  special  dress  must 
be  worn,  and  the  performance  of  which  is  restricted  to  men. 
The  remaining  acts  of  worship  can  be  done  by  women,  or  by 
men  in  their  ordinary  dress,  since  the  inner  shrine  need  not 
be  entered.  They  consist  of  Dhupa  pujd,  the  waving  of  a 
stick  of  incense  before  the  shrine ;  Dlpa  pujd,  the  waving  of 
a  lamp;  Aksata  pujd,  the  offering  of  rice;  Naivedyapujd,  the 
giving  of  sweetmeats;  and  P ha/a  pujd,  the  offering  of  fruit. 
It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  way  each  different  worshipper 
arranges  the  rice  in  the  Aksata  pujd ;  it  is  usually  placed 
thus :  ^j^     (c) 

{b) 


•  • 


■-p-i  {<») 


The  Svastika  sign  [a)  is  intended  to  represent  the  Gati  or 
state  in  which  a  jiva  may  be  born  as  either  a  denizen  of  hell, 
^  The  writer  once  saw  flowers  offered  even  in  a  Digambara  temple 
at  Borsad  (Kaira  district). 


252  JAINA  WORSHIP  AND 

or  of  heaven,  a  man,  or  a  beast.  The  three  Httle  heaps  {b) 
symboHze  the  Three  Jewels  of  right  knowledge,  right  faith, 
and  right  conduct,  which  enable  a  man  to  reach  Moksa, 
represented  by  the  sign  {c). 

When  fruit  is  offered  it  is  noticeable  that  the  Svetambara 
have  no  scruple  about  including  fresh  fruit  in  their  gift, 
a  thing  which  the  Digambara — the  stricter  sect — will  not 
allow,  considering  that  by  so  doing  they  take  life.  The 
evening  temple  worship  of  the  Svetambara,  as  of  the 
Digambara,  practically  consists  in  Aratl  piljd — waving 
a  lamp  before  the  shrine. 

Meritorious  as  it  is  to  perform  the  worship  in  the  temples 
in  one's  own  town,  far  more  merit  is  gained  by  doing  so  at 
places  of  pilgrimage,  particularly  at  special  seasons  of  the 
year.  On  great  festival  days  at  Abu,  Girnar,  and  above  all 
Satrufijaya  the  temple  court  is  thronged  with  would-be 
worshippers,  all  out-bidding  each  other  for  the  privilege 
of  performing  the  various  ritual  acts,  whilst  the  temple 
custodians,  acting  as  auctioneers,  employ  the  familiar 
wiles  of  the  auction  room  to  run  up  the  price.  The 
auctioning  is  carried  on  under  the  phraseology  of  bidding 
for  ghi  (melted  butter),  and  the  man  who  offers  the  most 
seers  of  ghi  obtains  the  coveted  privilege.  No  ghi  of  course 
changes  hands,  the  seers  being  only  a  conventional  phrase  for 
a  fixed  number  of  annas. 

The  present  writer  saw  a  man  at  Satruhjaya  perform 
the  cheapest  service — the  Sandtana  pujd — for  which 
privilege  he  had  paid  only  two  annas,  though  at  Abu 
he  would  have  paid  at  least  five-and-a-quarter.  After 
bathing  and  donning  the  two  cloths,  he  marked  the  idol 
in  fourteen  places  and  filled  up  time  by  playing  on  a 
harmonium.  He  then  took  in  one  hand  a  tray  containing 
roses,  almonds,  rice,  saffron  and  sugar,  and  in  the  other  a  jug 
containing  water  and  milk,  and  round  the  jug  and  round  his 
wrist  he  tied  a  red  thread.  After  performing  Dlpa  puja  and 
Ak§ata  puja,  he  did  what  is  called  Camari  piljd,  i.e.  gently 


RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS  253 

waved  a  brush  of  cow's  hair  in  front  of  the  shrine,  whilst 
the  paid  ofFiciant  was  decking  the  big  idol  in  its  jewellery. 
He  then  placed  a  little  image  of  a  Tirthankara  in  front  of 
the  larger  image  in  the  inner  shrine  and  bathed  it  and 
marked  it  with  the  auspicious  marks.  It  was  interesting 
to  notice  that  whilst  doing  this  he  kept  on  showing  the  Httle 
idol  its  own  reflection  in  a  pocket  looking-glass,  as  a  thought- 
ful ladies'  maid  might  have  done  to  her  mistress  as  she 
assisted  at  her  toilette;  he  completed  his  service  by  offering 
the  articles  on  the  tray  to  the  Tirthankara. 

The  next  cheapest  service  to  this,  the  Pancakalydna 
pujd,  costs  the  worshipper  about  five-and-a-quarter  rupees. 

The  singing  of  the  idol's  praises,  Sditavanmna  Stuti,  can 
be  done  at  any  time  and  without  the  worshipper  requir- 
ing to  bathe  or  change.  A  man  walks  into  the  temple, 
makes  the  signs  we  noticed  before 

^     {c) 


•  •  • 


I. 


^  («) 


on  a  board  and  sings  the  idol's  praises  out  of  a  hymn-book. 

At  Satrufijaya  behind  one  of  the  main  temples  are  housed 
several  solid  silver  chariots,  and  for  the  sum  of  about  thirty 
shillings  a  pilgrim  can  seat  himself  in  a  tiny  silver  barouche 
and  be  drawn  round  the  temple  accompanied  by  silver 
elephants  and  other  delights,  and  so  feel  that  he  is  doing  his 
pilgrimage  de  luxe. 

The  pilgrimage  of  all  others,  however,  to  try  and  do 
at  Satrufijaya  is  the  'Ninety-nine'.  It  takes  about 
three  months  to  perform,  for  the  pilgrim  must  toil  up  the 
thousands  of  steps  that  lead  from  the  bottom  of  the  hill 
to  the  summit,  encircle  the  most  famous  temple,  and  tramp 
down  to  the  bottom  again  ninety-nine  separate  times,  and 
the  last  days  he  must  observe  as  strict  fasts  from  food  and 
drink.     When  the  last  toilsome  ascent  has  been  made,  the 


254  JAINA  WORSHIP  AND 

priests  drag  out  a  silver  throne,  and,  placing  it  under  a 
canopy  erected  in  the  court  of  the  main  temple,  set  the  image 
of  a  Tirthahkara  thereon.  The  pilgrim  does  the  eight-fold 
worship  [Jalapujd,  Candanapujd,  Puspa  pujd,  Dhupa  pujd, 
Dtp  a  pujd,  Aksata  pujd,  Naivedya  pujd,  and  Phala  pujd) 
eleven  times  over,  and  in  the  intervals  hymns  are  sung  to 
the  accompaniment  of  a  harmonium  ;  and  when  the  writer 
witnessed  it,  boys  dressed  in  shepherd-plaid  trousers  and 
bright  pink-frilled  jackets  danced  to  the  jinghng  accompani- 
ment of  bells  round  their  ankles.  The  pilgrim  was  in  this 
case  a  little  girl,  who  seemed  to  be  utterly  exhausted  by 
fasting,  thirst  and  fatigue. 
Private  The  SthanakavasI  Jaina,  being  non-idolatrous  and  having 
worship.  j^Q  temple  which  they  can  attend,  naturally  pay  more 
attention  to  meditation  and  private  worship  than  the  other 
sects,  and  if  the  reader  would  really  learn  to  understand  the 
heart  of  Jainism,  it  will  repay  him  to  study  their  private 
devotions  with  some  minuteness,  since  after  all  a  man's 
meditations  are  generally  a  true  reflection  of  his  creed. 

The  Digambara  Jaina  are  said  to  use  a  good  deal  of 
Sanskrit  in  their  devotions ;  the  Svetambara  employ  both 
Sanskrit  and  MagadhI ;  but  the  SthanakavasI,  who  claim 
to  hold  closest  of  all  the  sects  to  primitive  practice,  confine 
themselves  as  far  as  possible  to  Magadhi.  Sanskrit  would 
seem  therefore  to  have  come  into  use  with  idol  worship  under 
Hindu  influence,  and  where  reverence  is  refused  to  images, 
the  sacred  language  of  the  Brahmans  is  also  neglected. 

Every  devout  SthanakavasI  ought  to  rise  two  hours 
before  sunrise  in  winter  and  summer,  and,  taking  in  his 
hands  his  rosary,  consisting  of  io8  beads,  recite  the 
Navakdra  mantra,  saluting  Arihanta,  Siddha,  Acarya,  Upa- 
dhyaya  and  Sadhu,  and  also  Knowledge,  Faith,  Character 
and  Austerity,  and,  this  done,  should  if  possible  repair  to 
the  monastery.  Every  Apasaro,  as  also  every  temple,  has 
a  little  room  where  the  Jaina  keep  their  clothes  for  worship, 
which  usually  consist  of  five  articles  :     two  long  pieces  of 


RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS  c^ss 

cloth,  one  of  which  they  wear  round  the  loins  and  the  other 

over  the  shoulders,  a  little  strip  to  cover  the  mouth,  a  piece 

of  cloth  to  sit  on,  and  also  a  brush.     The  devout  layman, 

wearing  only  the  two  cloths,  sits  down  on  what  is  in  fact  his 

prayer  carpet,  and,  after  asking  permission  from  his  guru, 

begs  forgiveness  of  any  living  thing  he  may  have  injured 

on  his  way  from  his  house  to  the  monastery. 

He  is  then  in  a  position  to  perform  Sdmdyika,  the  most  Sama- 

essential  portion  of  which,  Karemi  bhante,  consists  in  the  y*^^* 

repetition   in   Magadhi   of   a   vow   which   might   be   thus 

translated  : 

'  I  vow  that  I  will  not  sin  in  regard  to  Dravya  for  the  space  of  forty- 
eight  minutes  anywhere  in  the  whole  world.  In  right  earnest  I  vow 
not  to  sin  in  any  of  the  six  ways.  O  adorable  one,  I  take  this  vow, 
and  I  will  keep  it  in  this  manner  :  I  promise  to  keep  it  in  thought, 
word  and  deed  myself,  and  not  to  cause  others  to  break  it  in  thought, 
word,  or  deed.  Again,  O  adorable  one,  I  thus  free  myself  from  all 
sinful  actions ;  I  condemn  them  in  the  presence  of  my  spirit  and 
preceptor,  and  I  vow  to  keep  my  spirit  free  from  such  actions.' 

The  worshipper  then  praises  the  twenty-four  Tirthahkara  Cauvi- 
of    the   present    age    in    Magadhi   verse    (Cauvisanttho^),^^^^     ' 
which  might  be  rendered  : 

'  I  sing  the  praise  of  the  twenty-four  Tlrthankara  and  other  KevalT, 
who  have  shed  the  light  of  religion  on  this  world,  who  formed  com- 
munities and  so  became  Tlrthankara.  I  salute  Risabhadeva,  Ajitana- 
tha  [here  follows  the  list  of  the  twenty-four].  I  praise  these  and  all 
others  who  have  shaken  off  the  dust  of  karma  and  have  destroyed  old 
age  and  death.  May  these  twenty-four  Tlrthankara  show  mercy  to 
me.  May  these  Tlrthankara,  famed  in  this  world,  whose  praises  I 
have  sung,  whom  I  have  worshipped  in  mind,  and  who  are  excellent  in 
this  worlds  grant  me  that  religion  in  which  Ineditation  forms  the  chief 
part  and  which  protects  from  all  diseases. 

Ye  are  brighter  than  the  moon,  more  brilliant  than  the  sun,  more 
awe-inspiring  than  the  ocean.  Grant  to  me,  O  Siddha,  to  reach 
Siddha-hood.' 

Next  follows   Va7idaitd,   i.  e.  salutation   and  prayer  for  Vandana. 

forgiveness  to  the  guru,  if  he  be  present,  or  in  his  absence 

to  the  north-east  corner  of  the  building,  that  being  the  direc- 

^  Or  Caturvi7}isatistava. 


256  JAINA  WORSHIP  AND 

tion  in  which  Mahavideha,  the  abode  of  the  Tirthahkara,  is 
said  to  He.  All  sects,  even  when  they  add  special  Vandana 
referring  to  idol  w^orship,  seem  to  use  a  general  form,  which 
could  be  freely  translated  as  follows  : 

'  O  forgiving  Sadhu  !  I  desire  to  bow  to  you  and  to  salute  you  to 
the  best  of  my  bodily  powers,  forsaking  all  evil  actions.  Permit  me  to 
approach  you,  to  touch  your  lotus-like  feet.  I  touch  them.  Pardon 
me  if  the  touch  annoys  you.     O  adorable  !     The  day  is  passing  away. 

0  adorable,  holy  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage !  I  crave  forgiveness  from 
you  for  all  the  evil  actions  I  may  have  done  during  the  course  of  this 
day.     If  I  have  committed  any  of  the  thirty-three  errors  {asdtand),  if 

1  have  done  anything  wrong  through  body,  speech,  or  thought,  or  from 
anger,  pride,  deceit,  or  greed,  and  if  during  this  day  I  have  in  any  way 
or  at  any  time  violated  any  of  the  duties  enjoined  by  religion,  I  would 
be  free,  O  forgiving  Sadhu,  from  all  such  sins,  which  I  condemn  and  con- 
demn again  in  your  presence.    I  will  keep  my  spirit  free  from  such  sins.' 

Padika-  P adlkamamu'n'^  proper  then  follows,  in  which  the  Twelve 
manum.  y^^^g  ^^^  repeated  and  any  breach  of  them  is  confessed. 
This  part  of  the  devotions  is  most  lengthy,  as  sins  are 
confessed  in  all  their  subdivisions  :  for  instance,  if  the  wor- 
shipper has  sinned  against  knowledge  in  any  of  fourteen 
ways,  or  against  faith  in  five  ways,  or  has  uttered  any  of  the 
twenty-five  kinds  of  falsehood  ;  the  eighteen  classes  of  sin 
are  also  enumerated  at  this  time,  and  the  man  confesses  any 
sins  he  may  have  committed  in  respect  of  any  of  them,  or 
against  any  of  the  Pafica  Paramesvara  (or  Five  Great  Ones). 
Every  sect  and  sub-sect  practises  Padikamanurh,  but  of 
course  with  infinite  variation  in  the  forms  of  confession 
used.  The  Sthanakavasi  make  their  confession  in  a  form 
in  which  Magadh!  and  vernacular  words  are  mingled. 
Kau-  The    worshipper    then    seats    himself    cross-legged    and 

sagga.  repeats  the  salutation  to  the  Five  Great  Ones  (i.  e.  Navakdra 
mantra),  says  again  the  Karemi  hhante,  and  then  repeats 
the  very  interesting  Icchamithdmi  Kdiisagga,  which  might 
be  translated  as  follows  : 

^  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  whole  of  their  devotions  is  sometimes 
loosely  called  Padikamanurh. 


RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS  i^^ 

'  I  now  wish  to  arrest  all  the  functions  of  my  body.  Before  doing  so, 
however,  I  pray  for  forgiveness  if  I  have  committed  any  fault  (Aticara) 
in  body,  speech,  or  thought  during  this  day,  if  I  have  acted  contrary 
to  the  scriptures,  or  gone  astray  from  the  path  of  moksa,  or  done 
anything  against  the  laws  of  religion,  or  unworthy  of  doing ;  I  ask 
forgiveness  if  I  have  thought  evil  of  others,  entertained  unworthy 
thoughts,  acted  in  ways  undesirable,  longed  for  undesirable  things,  or 
if  I  have  done  anything  unworthy  of  a  Sravaka  (devout  Jaina  layman) 
in  respect  of  the  three  Jewels,  the  three  Gupti,  the  four  Kasaya,  the 
five  Anuvrata,  the  three  Gunavrata,  the  four  Siksavrata,  or  violated 
any  of  the  twelve  duties  of  a  Sravaka.  May  all  such  faults  be 
forgiven.' 

The  worshipper  then  performs  the  fourth  part  of  Kausagga 
by  reciting  the  Tassottari  patha,  in  which  he  says  : 

'  Sitting  in  one  place  I  will  now  arrest  all  my  bodily  functions  in 
order  to  purify  and  sanctify  my  spirit  and  to  remove  all  darts  (Salya), 
and  other  sins  from  it.  My  arresting  of  bodily  functions  (Kausagga) 
must  not  be  regarded  as  broken,  however,  by  any  of  the  thirteen  actions 
of  inhaling,  exhaling,  coughing,  sighing,  sneezing,  yawning,  hiccoughing, 
giddiness,  sickness,  swooning,  slight  external  or  internal  involuntary 
movement,  or  winking.  I  will  also  hold  my  spirit  immovable  in 
Kausagga  and  in  meditation  and  silence,  until  I  recite  Namo  arihanta- 
nurh  ;  until  then  I  will  keep  it  free  from  sin.' 

The   sixth   and    last   part   of   Padikamanum    is    called  Paca- 
Pacakhana  and  consists  of  vowing  to  abstain  from  four      ^"^' 
kinds   of   food,  for  an  hour  if  it  is  said  at  the  morning 
Padikamanurh,  or  for  the  coming  night  when  it  is  repeated 
in  the  evening.     The  promise  runs  as  follows : 

'  I  take  a  vow  to  abstain  from  the  four  following  kinds  of  food : 
food,  drink,  fruits,  spices,  in  thought,  speech  and  deed.  I  promise  to 
keep  my  soul  away  from  those  four,  provided  that  they  are  not  forced 
on  me  or  given  to  me  whilst  I  am  in  a  state  of  unconsciousness  or 
meditation.' 

There  are  at  least  ten  variations  of  this  vow  :  a  man  may 
promise  to  eat  only  once  a  day,  or  not  until  three  hours  after 
sunrise,  or  to  take  only  one  sort  of  food,  or  to  fast  altogether; 
but  every  variation  seems  to  show  the  stress  the  Jaina  lay 
on  the  duty  of  fasting,  an  emphasis  that  is  easily  understood 
in  a  religion  whose  adherents  hope  eventually  to  die  fasting, 

s 


258  JAINA  WORSHIP  AND 

and  which  teaches  that  the  greatest  crimes  are  those  com- 
mitted for  the  sake  of  eating. 

Some  Digambara  Jaina,  instead  of  taking  a  vow  to  fast, 
apparently  promise  to  abstain  from  their  specially  be- 
setting sins.  At  the  end  of  Padikamanum  and  at  the  end 
of  Samayika  the  worshipper  performs  N amotthunain  or 
general  praise. 

The  different  parts  of  Padikamanum  need  not  be  said  in 
any  exact  order,  but  it  should  generally  last  about  forty- 
eight  minutes  every  morning,  and,  since  it  is  a  daily  duty, 
it  is  also  called  Avasyaka. 

At  the  end  of  it  a  devout  layman  would  go  to  the  Apasaro 
and  if  possible  hear  a  guru  preach,  and  on  returning  to  his 
house  would  give  alms  to  a  sadhu  or  to  a  poor  man.  He 
breakfasts  about  ten  or  eleven,  then  goes  to  business,  return- 
ing in  time  to  take  his  last  meal  about  five  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  so  that  he  may  have  his  meal  over  before  sunset, 
since  no  Jaina  may  eat  after  dark. 
Evening  In  the  evening,  and  if  possible  in  the  monastery,  he  makes 
worship,  confession  of  the  sins  of  the  day  [Devaslya  Padikamanum)^ 
sings  praises  [Sajhdya  Stavana),  and  vows  not  to  eat  till 
sunrise,  and  before  he  sleeps  he  must  tell  his  beads  and  do 
salutation  to  the  Five  three  times  over.  If  he  is  a  very 
devout  layman,  he  will  repeat  the  Santharo  patha,  reflecting 
that  he  may  never  wake  again,  and  so  be  prepared  to  make 
a  meritorious  death. 
Scripture  Some  time  during  the  day  the  layman  should  read  one  of 
rea  ing.  ^-^^  scriptures,  unless  hindered  by  any  of  the  thirty-two 
reasons,  such  as  having  been  near  a  dead  body,  or  finding 
a  bloodstain  on  his  clothes,  or  being  in  any  other  way  cere- 
monially impure.  Again,  he  must  not  read  the  books  if 
there  is  a  mist,  or  a  thunderstorm,  the  fall  of  a  meteor,  an 
eclipse,  a  full  moon,  no  moon,  or  when  a  great  king  or  even 
a  great  man  dies,  or  if  the  sky  has  been  red  at  sunrise  or 
sunset,  or  if  there  has  been  a  dust-storm.  He  must  not  read 
them  on  any  of  the  first  three  days  of  the  bright  half  of  the 


RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS  259 

moon,  in  a  house  where  meat  is  eaten,  near  a  funeral  pyre, 
on  a  battle-field,  or  in  the  twilight  of  the  early  morning  or 
late  evening.  In  fact  on  any  day  that  a  Sthanakavasi 
Jaina  feels  too  lazy  to  read  the  scriptures,  he  can  find  some 
ceremonial  reason  to  prevent  his  doing  so,  and  hence  the 
scriptures  are  not  in  actual  fact  much  studied  by  them. 

Jaina  Holy  Days} 

The  ordinary  routine  of  daily  worship  of  course  alters  Pajju- 
on  the  great  days  of  Fasts  or  Festivals  ;  for  instance,  at  ^^"^* 
Pajjusana,  the  solemn  season  which  closes  the  Jaina  year, 
many  devout  laymen  fast  for  eight  days  or  even  longer  and 
attend  special  services  at  the  Apasara.  They  also  take  this 
opportunity  of  doing  posadha,^  i.  e.  temporarily  becoming 
a  monk.  We  have  seen  how  the  whole  teaching  of  Jainism 
tries  to  lead  the  laity  along  the  path  of  asceticism  towards 
deliverance,  and  during  the  fast  of  Pajjusana  householders 
are  urged  to  live  a  monk's  life  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours. 
During  the  twenty-four  hours  that  he  is  performing  posadha 
a  layman  never  leaves  the  monastery,  but  spends  his  time  in 
meditation  and  fasting.  As  a  matter  of  fact  every  house- 
holder is  supposed  to  perform  posadha  twice  a  month,  but 
the  generality  of  Jaina  content  themselves  with  doing  it  at 
the  end  of  the  year.  If  posadha  be  too  exacting,  a  layman 
may  observe  the  partial  fast  of  dayd  or  saihvara,  when, 
though  he  sit  in  the  monastery  for  some  fixed  period,  he 
may  take  food  and  boiled  water  at  will. 

The  closing  day  of  the  Jaina  year  and  of  Pajjusana,  Samvat- 
Samvatsari,  is  the  most  solemn  fast  of  all.     Every  Jaina  ^^^^' 
fasts  throughout  the  day  from  food  and  water,  and  the 
Apasara  are  crowded  with  men  and  women  making  their 
confessions.    No  outsider  can  visit  these  gatherings  without 
being  deeply  impressed  with  the  determination  of  all  present 

^  For  a  full  account  of  these  see  article  '  Festivals  and  Fasts  (Jain) ' 
by  the  present  writer  in  E.R.  E.,  vol.  v,  pp.  875  ff, 
^  Or  posaha. 

S  2 


26o  JAINA  WORSHIP  AND 

to  carry  no  grudge  and  no  quarrel  over  into  the  next  year. 
At  the  close  of  the  meeting  every  one  present  asks  forgive- 
ness from  his  neighbours  for  any  offence  he  may  even 
unwittingly  have  given,  and  they  all  write  letters  to  distant 
friends  asking  their  forgiveness  also.  This  determination 
to  start  the  new  year  in  love  and  charity  with  their  neigh- 
bours they  do  not  confine  to  their  own  community ;  for 
example,  the  writer  used  to  be  bewildered  by  receiving 
letters  from  Jaina  friends  and  pandits  who  had  never 
offended  her  in  any  way  asking  her  forgiveness  in  case  they 
had  unwittingly  vexed  her.  One  cannot  help  feeling  that 
this  beautiful  custom  of  the  Jaina  is  one  of  the  many 
precious  things  they  will  bring  as  their  special  tribute  to 
that  City  of  God  into  which  at  last  shall  be  gathered  all 
the  glory  and  wealth  of  devotion  of  the  nations. 

Some  time  during  the  Pajjusana  week  the  Svetambara 
Jaina  often  arrange  a  special  procession  though  the  town 
in  honour  of  their  Kalpa  Sutra. 

Another  pageant  the  same  sect  arrange  is  a  cradle  pro- 
cession on  Mahavira's  birthday,  which  is  now  conventionally 
fixed  for  the  first  day  of  Bhadrapada,  the  fourth  day  of 
Pajjusana.  Sthanakavasi  Jaina  are  not  permitted  to  cele- 
brate the  day,  lest  it  should  lead  to  idolatry,  but  the  other 
sects  decorate  their  temples  with  flags  on  this  and  on  the 
conventional  birthdays  of  other  Tirthankara. 
DivalT.  Curiously  enough  Divali,  the  next  great  holy  day  of  the 

Jaina,  is  really  a  liindu  festival  in  honour  of  Laksmi,  the 
goddess  of  wealth.  All  through  our  studies,  however,  we 
have  seen  the  great  influence  that  Hinduism  has  exerted  on 
Jainism,  and  here  it  pressed  a  mercantile  community  at  its 
weakest  point,  its  love  of  money ;  naturally  enough  such 
a  community  was  not  willing  to  omit  anything  that  could 
propitiate  one  who  might  conceivably  have  the  bestowal  of 
wealth  in  her  power.  The  festival  has,  however,  been  given 
a  Jaina  sanction  by  calling  it  the  day  on  which  Mahavira 
passed  to  moksa,  when  all  the  eighteen  confederate  kings 


RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS  261 

made  an  illumination,  saying:  'Since  the  light  of  intel- 
ligence is  gone,  let  us  make  an  illumination  of  material 
matter.'  How  thin  this  excuse  is,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
the  celebrations  seem,  despite  the  protests  of  the  stricter 
Jaina,  to  be  more  concerned  with  the  worship  of  money  than 
with  the  passing  of  Mahavira.  On  the  first  day  [Dhanaterasa] 
the  Svetambara  women  polish  their  jewellery  and  ornaments 
in  honour  of  Laksmi,  on  the  second  (Kdlicaudasa)  they 
propitiate  evil  spirits  by  placing  sweetmeats  at  cross-roads, 
and  on  the  third  (Amdsa)  all  Jaina  worship  their  account- 
books — Sdradd  pujd.  A  Brahman  is  called  who  writes  Sri 
(i.  e.  Laksmi)  on  the  account-books  over  and  over  again  in 
such  a  way  as  to  form  a  pyramid.  The  priest  then  performs 
Laksmi  pujdy  the  oldest  obtainable  rupee  and  the  leaf  of 
a  creeper  being  placed  on  an  account-book,  and  also  a  little 
heap  of  rice,  pan,  betel-nut  and  turmeric,  and  in  front  of 
it  a  small  lamp  filled  with  burning  camphor  is  waved, 
and  the  book  is  then  marked  with  red  powder.  No 
one  closes  the  account-book  for  several  hours,  and  when 
they  do  so,  they  are  careful  to  say  :  '  A  hundred  thousand 
profits.' 

Perhaps  the  full-moon  fasts  also  bear  witness  to  Hindu  Full- 
influence  ;  at  any  rate  these  days  are  carefully  observed  by  ^^^^ 
the  Jaina.  The  great  religious  excitement  of  the  community 
is  found  in  going  on  pilgrimages,  and  on  the  full-moon  days 
that  fall  in  October-November  {Kdrttikl  punema),  or  in 
April-May  [Caitrl  punema),  they  try  if  possible  to  visit 
Satrufijaya.  On  the  other  full-moon,  days,  which  fall  in  the 
spring  and  summer,  they  fast  and  hear  special  sermons, 
but  the  summer  full-moon  day  [Asddhl  punema)  is  one  to 
which  the  ascetics  pay  special  attention,  for  wherever  they 
spend  that  day,  there  they  must  remain  till  the  rainy  season 
is  over. 

In  connexion  with  the  antiquity  of  the  Jaina  scriptures  Jnana 
it  is  interesting  to  notice  that  once  a  year  a  fast  is  observed  Pf "^l  <- 

called  Jnana  paficami,  on  which  day  all  Jaina  sacred  books 


a6a 


JAINA  WORSHIP  AND 


Mauna- 
gyarasa. 


Saint- 
wheel 
worship. 


Days  of 
absti- 
nence. 


are  not  only  worshipped  but  also  dusted,  freed  from 
insects  and  rearranged.  If  only  this  custom  had  prevailed 
with  regard  to  all  English  parish  registers,  how  many  of 
our  records  might  have  been  saved  ! 

We  have  studied  the  road  through  which  a  jiva  passes 
by  toilsome  stages  towards  deliverance  ;  to  recall  these 
steps  to  the  popular  mind,  the  Svetambara  (and  a  few 
Sthanakavasi)  once  a  year  keep  a  solemn  fast  called 
Maunagydrasa  on  the  eleventh  day  of  some  month,  pre- 
ferably the  eleventh  day  of  the  bright  half  of  Margasirsa 
(November-December).  The  worshipper  fasts  absolutely 
from  food  and  water  and  meditates,  as  he  tells  his  beads,  on 
each  of  the  five  stages  (Sadhu,  Upadhyaya,  Acarya,  Tirthah- 
kara  and  Siddha)  of  the  upward  path,  and  the  next  day 
he  worships  eleven  sets  of  eleven  different  kinds  of  things 
connected  with  knowledge,  such  as  eleven  pens,  eleven 
pieces  of  paper,  eleven  ink-bottles,  &c. 

The  worship  of  the  Siddha  cakra,  or  saint-wheel,  which 
is  kept  in  every  temple,  serves  also  to  remind  the  worshipper 
of  the  stages  he  must  pass,  for  on  the  little  silver  or  brass 
tray  are  five  tiny  figures  representing  the  Five  Great  Ones 
(Sadhu,Upadhyaya,  Acarya,  Arihanta,  Siddha),  but  between 
the  figures  are  written  the  names  of  the  three  jewels  (Right 
Knowledge,  Right  Faith,  Right  Conduct)  and  also  the  word 
tapa,  austerity,  which  might  almost  be  called  the  key-word 
of  the  whole  Jaina  system.  This  little  tray  seems  to  bear 
inscribed  on  it  the  Jaina  Confession  of  Faith,  and  it  is 
regarded  as  of  so  much  importance  that  no  Svetambara 
temple  is  complete  without  it,  and  twice  a  year  in  the  spring 
and  autumn  it  is  worshipped  by  having  the  eight-fold  puja 
done  to  it  every  day  for  eight  days.  Jaiajdtra,  or  the  water 
pilgrimage,  is  celebrated  with  much  rejoicing  once  during 
each  of  these  eight  days,  when  the  little  tray  is  taken  to 
some  lake  near  the  town  and  ceremonially  bathed  before 
being  offered  the  eight-fold  worship. 

Fasting  is  considered  so  important  by  the  Jaina,  that  the 


RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS  26^ 

more  devout  observe  twelve  days  in  every  month  as  days 
of  abstinence,  but  the  less  strict  content  themselves  with 
fasting  more  or  less  strictly  on  five  days. 

Besides  the  regularly  recurring  holy  days  of  the  year,  there  Conse- 
are  special  occasions  of  rejoicing,  such  as  Anjanasaldkd  (the  an^iJJ^^Ji  ° 
consecration  of  a  new  idol),  which  is  celebrated  with  great 
pomp,  but  which  rarely  occurs  now  owing  to  the  enormous 
expense  it  entails  on  the  donor  of  the  idol.  In  the  case  of  a 
Svetambara  idol,  mantras  must  be  repeated,  the  glass  eyes 
inserted,  and  the  statue  anointed  with  saffron,  before  the  idol 
is  regarded  as  sacred,  but  the  expense  lies  in  the  payment, 
not  so  much  for  this  consecration,  as  for  the  feasting  and 
processions  which  accompany  it. 

Another  rare  act  of  Jaina  worship  is  the   bathing  of  The 
colossal  figures  such  as  that  of  Gomatesvara  at  Sravana  ^^J?'"S 
Belgola,  which  takes  place  every  twenty-five  years.     The  tesvara. 
actual  bathing  is  not  unHke  the  ordinary  Jala  puja,  and 
the  privilege  of  pouring  cups  of  curd,  milk  and  melted 
butter  over  the  idol  is  put  up  to  auction. 

There  is  one  day,  0/i  or  Amhela,  which  is  the  fast  par  Oil. 
excellence  of  Jaina  women.  It  occurs  eight  days  before 
Caitri  punema,  and  all  women  who  long  for  a  happy 
wedded  life  (and  every  woman  in  India  marries)  fast  from 
specially  nice  food  for  twenty-four  hours,  remembering  that 
a  princess  once  won  health  for  her  royal  husband  who  was  a 
leper  by  fasting  and  worshipping  the  saint  wheel  on  this  day. 

The  ever-present  influence  of  Hinduism  is  perhaps  felt  Hindu 
even  more  by  Jaina  women  than  by  Jaina  men,  and  it  is  they  f'^stivals. 
w^ho  insist  on  keeping  the  Hindu  festival  of  Sitaldsdtama, 
the  festival  of  the  goddess  of  small-pox,  and  the  two  feasts 
of  Virapasalt,  when  brothers  give  presents  to  their  sisters 
and  the  sisters  bless  them,  and  of  Bhdlbija,  when  the  sisters 
ask  their  brothers  to  their  houses.  Often  also  girls  and 
women  fast  on  the  Hindu  holy  days  of  Bolachotha  and 
Moldkata.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  many  Jaina 
men  and  women,  despite  all  the  efforts  of  the  reformers,  still 


264  JAINA  WORSHIP  AND 

take  part  in  the  Holi  celebrations — the  detestably  obscene 
festival  of  spring  ;  thoughtful  Jaina  feel  that  it  ill  becomes 
a  community  who  boast  of  their  purity  to  share  an  alien 
festival  of  which  all  enlightened  Hindus  themselves  are  now 
ashamed.  At  Daserd,  the  great  Ksatriya  festival,  the  Jaina 
eat  specially  dainty  food,  and  on  Makarasankrdnti  they 
fulfil  the  duty  of  charity  by  giving  food  to  cows  and  cloth- 
ing to  the  poor. 

Jaina,  of  course,  ought  not  to  observe  the  Hindu  death 
ceremonies  or  Srdddha,  and  they  have  so  far  discontinued 
the  custom,  that  they  no  longer  throw  food  to  the  crows  ; 
but  they  still  observe  them  to  the  extent  of  eating  specially 
dainty  food  on  those  days. 

Jaina  Superstitions. 

Neither  in  the  regular  routine  of  their  daily  worship  nor 
in  the  pleasurable  excitement  of  their  frequent  holy  days 
do  the  Jaina  (and  especially  the  Jaina  women)  find  all  the 
emotional  outlet  they  need  ;  and  so,  besides  these  recognized 
acts  of  ritual,  they  perform  many  others  which  are  frowned 
on  by  their  leaders.  The  women  beheve  in  nearly  all  the 
Hindu  superstitions,  so  that  they  have  as  it  were  a  second 
cult,  that  of  warding  off  evil  spirits  and  demons,  to  whom 
all  their  lifetime  they  are  in  bondage  through  fear. 
The  evil  The  ordinary  people  amongst  the  Jaina  believe  most 
^^^*  strongly  in  the  evil  eye  and  are  terrified  of  coming  under  its 

influence  [Najardi  javuih)^  though  it  is  quite  contrary  to 
the  tenets  of  their  creed.  They  fear  perfect  happiness,  and 
whenever  they  see  it,  they  believe  that  some  person  who  is 
a  favourite  with  some  god  or  goddess,  such  as  MeladI  Mata, 
Khodiyara  Mata,  Kalaka  Mata,  or  Bhairava  Deva,  will  harm 
the  happy  one  through  jealousy.  Anything  dark  or  bitter 
will  avert  this,  and  so,  if  new  jewellery  is  worn,  a  black  thread 
is  tied  on  to  it ;  if  a  new  house  is  built,  a  black  earthen  vessel 
is  placed  outside  ;  and  the  writer  was  herself  entreated  to 
mark  her  only  child  with  a  black  smear  on  the  cheek-bone 


RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS  365 

or  at  least  behind  the  ear.  In  the  same  way  at  a  wedding 
a  lemon  is  tied  in  the  turban  of  the  bridegroom  and  in  the 
dress  of  the  bride,  that  something  sour  may  safeguard  the 
sweetness  of  their  lot. 

When  illness  occurs,  it  is  put  down  to  the  influence  of 
the  evil  eye.  If  a  child  has  fever,  or  is  sick  after  eating, 
the  women  at  once  say  that  its  illness  was  caused  by 
some  person  possessing  the  wicked  power  of  the  evil  eye, 
and  elaborate  remedies  are  taken.  A  very  usual  method 
is  to  take  a  little  cup  and  put  in  it  smokeless  burning 
embers,  and  over  them  mustard,  salt  and  grain,  till  a  fine 
smoke  is  made,  and  then  to  turn  it  upside  down  on  to  a 
brass  plate,  and,  holding  it  firmly  in  position,  to  fix  the  two 
together  with  manure  and  water.  They  call  this  Najara 
handhi  and  put  it  under  the  sick  child's  bed.  After  three 
or  four  days,  when  in  the  course  of  nature  the  fever  has 
abated,  they  pull  out  the  cup  and  plate  and  throw  the 
contents  away  at  a  junction  of  three  roads. 

If  a  man  is  ill,  one  method  of  removing  the  influence  of 
the  evil  eye  from  him  is  to  wave  a  loaf  of  millet  bread  round 
his  head  and  then  give  it  to  a  black  dog ;  if  the  animal  eats 
it,  they  believe  the  influence  of  the  evil  eye  passes  into  him. 

The  more  enlightened  Jaina  declare  that  they  have  no  fear  Evil 
of  evil  spirits  (bhuta),  but  the  women  are  very  much  afraid  ^P^"^^- 
of  them  and,  like  all  Indians,  believe  that  Europeans  share 
this  fear  and  have  their  elaborate  freemasonry  ritual  as 
a  means  of  dealing  with  such  spirits.  Bhuta  are  specially 
active  at  Divali  time,  and  in  order  to  prevent  them  coming 
to  visit  their  homes,  the  women  before  Divali  go  to  some 
cross-roads  where  three  or  four  ways  meet,  carrying  water- 
pots.  They  make  a  circle  in  the  dust  with  the  water  and 
in  the  centre  of  this  place  a  small  cake  of  grain.  Indeed  at 
any  season  when  they  are  afraid  of  evil  spirits  visiting  their 
house,  they  put  vermilion,  grain  and  something  black  into 
the  bottom  of  a  broken  pot  to  guard  against  their  coming. 

Bhuta  also  live  in  pipal  trees,  and  during  the  last  days 


266  JAINA  WORSHIP  AND 

of  the  month  Sravana  one  often  sees  women  watering  those 
trees  to  keep  the  evil  spirits  that  hve  there  happy  and  so 
prevent  their  coming  out. 
Ances-  Sravana  is  in  fact  an  anxious  month,  and  on  the  fifth  day 

tors.  Qf  j^  many  Jaina  women  worship  serpents,  apparently  to 
propitiate  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors.  They  draw  a  picture 
of  a  snake  on  the  walls  of  the  room  where  the  water- vessels 
are  kept,  in  order  to  pacify  the  spirit  of  any  of  their  forefathers 
who  may  have  died  suddenly  in  battle  or  been  murdered 
before  he  could  fulfil  some  strong  desire  he  might  have 
possessed ;  for  they  fear  that  such  ancestors  may  return  to 
carry  out  their  interrupted  purpose.  To  cool  these  desires, 
they  encircle  the  picture  of  the  snake  three  times  with  water 
(just  as  the  lamp  is  waved  before  the  idol  at  arati)  and  offer 
it  little  cakes  to  make  it  happy. 

The  spirits  of  ancestors  are  also  appeased  once  a  year 
on  either  the  eighth  or  twenty-ninth  of  Asvina,  when  an 
offering  of  naivedya  is  made  to  them.  A  lamp  is  lighted 
and  placed  in  some  corner  facing  the  quarter  in  which  the 
ancestor  once  lived  ;  an  offering  of  sweetmeats  is  then  made 
to  the  lamp  and  subsequently  eaten  by  the  offerers  them- 
selves. 
Plague.  When  frightened  by  the  prevalence  of  plague  or  cholera, 
the  Jaina  have  recourse  to  the  Brahmans  to  ask  how  they 
shall  appease  the  mela  deva  (evil  god)  who  is  affecting  them. 
The  priests  instruct  them  to  light  a  fire  in  their  own  houses 
and  circumambulate  it.  Near  the  flames  they  place  an 
offering  of  naivedya  and  then  walk  round  the  fire  three 
times  carrying  water.  After  this  they  themselves  eat  the 
actual  naivedya  that  has  been  offered  and  give  dry 
materials  for  naivedya  and  money  to  the  Brahmans. 
Small-  In  the  same  way,  if  a  child  actually  has  small-pox,  or  if 

^°^*  there  be  an  epidemic  of  it,  a  Jaina  mother  almost  invariably 

goes  to  the  shrine  of  Sitala  Mata,  the  goddess  of  small-pox, 
whose  shrine  is  to  be  found  in  almost  every  Indian  village, 
and  vows  to  make  an  offering  of  artificial  glass  eyes  or  money 


RELIGIOUS  CUSTOMS  267 

to   the   Mata    if    her    child    recover    or    escape    infection 
altogether. 

It  is  pitiful  to  see  Jaina  women  who  are  childless  Children, 
going  to  Hindu  temples  and  promising  to  offer  cradles 
or  money  if  only  a  little  son  may  be  born  to  them.  They 
even  promise  that  for  three  or  four  years  the  child  shall  be 
treated  as  a  beggar,  and  no  name  given  to  him ;  all  they  ask 
is  that  their  reproach  may  be  taken  away. 

The  orthodox  Jaina  declare  that  all  these  superstitions 
which  their  women  folk  have  copied  from  the  Hindus  are 
contrary  to  their  religion  and  indeed  must  even  be  accounted 
Mithyatva  Salya ;  ^  but  they  do  not  see  that  they  are  born 
of  fear,  and  that  they  will  only  disappear  when  the  timid 
ones  begin  to  trust  a  personal  God  and  learn  that  the  All- 
Powerful  is  the  All-Loving  too. 

^  See  pp.  i3off. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

JAINA    MYTHOLOGY 

The  Jaina  declare  that  they  do  not  worship  their  gods, 
but  that  they  regard  them  as  instruments  for  working  out 
the  fruits  of  karma.  They  say  also  that  their  gods  differ 
from  the  members  of  the  Hindu  pantheon  in  being  graded  : 
indeed  they  might  almost  be  considered  as  having  caste 
amongst  themselves.  In  spite  of  being  gods,  they  are 
inferior  to  men,  since  before  they  can  attain  moksa  they 
must  be  born  again  as  human  beings ;  yet,  if  they  have 
accumulated  good  karma  in  previous  births,  they  may  now 
be  enjoying  greater  bliss  than  men. 
Gods  in  The  lowest  gods  are  in  Hell,  where  their  work  is  to  tor- 
Hell,  ment  jiva ;  these  deities  are  divided  into  fifteen  classes 
according  to  their  different  functions.  Amongst  them  are 
the  Amha,  whose  special  task  it  is  to  destroy  the  nerves  of 
their  victims  (as  a  mango  is  pinched  and  crushed  in  a  man's 
hand  to  soften  it,  so  do  they  wreck  the  nerves  of  the  jiva 
they  torture)  ;  the  Amharasa,  who  separate  bones  and 
flesh ;  the  Sdma,  who  beat  and  belabour  men  ;  the  Sabala, 
who  tear  the  flesh  ;  the  Rudra,  engaged  in  striking  men 
with  spears  ;  the  Mahdrudra,  occupied  in  chopping  flesh 
into  mince-meat ;  the  Kdla,  who  are  roasting  the  flesh  of 
their  victims  ;  the  Mahdkdla,  who  are  tearing  it  with 
pincers ;  the  Asipata,  engaged  in  cutting  their  victims 
with  swords  ;  the  Dhanu,  who  are  shooting  them  with 
arrows ;  the  Kumbha,  who  are  indulging  in  the  pastime,  so 
often  employed  in  Indian  native  states,  of  torturing  with 
chillies  ;  the  Vdlu,  who  steep  men  in  hot  sand  ;  the  Veta- 
rani,  who  like  devilish  dhobis  dash  their  victims  against 
stones  in  streams  of  boiling  water  ;  the  Kharasvara,  who 
force  men  to  sit  on  thorny  trees  ;  and  last  in  the  fearsome 
list,  the  Mahdghosa,  who  shut  men  up  in  black  holes. 


JAINA  MYTHOLOGY  269 

On  the  same  level  as  Hell,  but  in  a  different  direction,  is  Gods  in 
Patala;  there  are,  however,  no  human  beings  in  Patala,  ^^tala. 
and  so  the  gods  who  dwell  there  are  not  torturers  as  they 
are  in  Hell.  They  are  divided  into  two  main  classes, 
Bhavanapati  and  Vyantara.  These  are  again  subdivided, 
there  being  ten  kinds  of  Bhavanapati :  first,  the  dark 
god  Asura  Kumdra,  whose  body  is  all  black,  who  loves 
to  wear  red  garments,  and  in  whose  crown  is  a  great 
crescent-shaped  jewel;  then  Ndga  Kumdra,  whose  body 
is  white,  whose  favourite  garments  are  green,  and  in 
whose  crown  is  a  serpent's  hood  for  a  symbol ;  the  body 
of  Suvarna  Kumdra  is  as  yellow  as  gold,  his  clothes  are 
white,  and  his  symbol  is  an  eagle ;  Vidyut  Kumdra  is  red 
in  body,  he  wears  green  vestments,  and  has  a  thunderbolt 
in  his  crown ;  the  body  of  Agni  Kumdra  is  also  red,  but 
his  dress  is  green,  and  his  symbol  is  a  jug ;  the  next  god, 
Dvipa  Kumdra,  is  red,  with  green  clothes,  but  has  a  lion  for 
his  sign  ;  Udadhi  Kumdra  is  a  white  god  with  green  clothes, 
whose  symbol  is  a  horse ;  an  elephant  is  the  sign  of  the 
red  Disd  Kumdra,  who  is  clad  in  white  ;  the  god  Vdyu 
Kumdra  has  a  green  body  and  wears  clothes  as  red  as  the 
sunset  sky,  and  his  token  is  the  crocodile  ;  and  the  last  of 
the  ten  Bhavanapati  is  Sthanita  Kumdra,  with  a  body  as 
yellow  as  gold,  white  clothes,  and  a  shallow  earthen  pot  as 
his  symbol. 

The  other  denizens  of  Patala,  the  Vyantara,  are  demons 
of  various  classes,  and  all  have  trees  as  their  trade-marks. 
Pisdca  are  black-bodied,  and  have  a  Kadamba  tree  as  a 
symbol ;  Bhuta,  whose  sign  is  the  Sulasa  tree,  are  also  black- 
bodied  ;  so  are  Yaksa,  who  possess  the  Banyan  tree  as 
their  sign ;  Rdksasa  are  white  and  have  the  Khatamba 
tree ;  the  green  Kinnara  have  the  Asoka  tree  ;  the  white 
Kimpurusa  the  Campaka  tree  ;  the  Naga  or  snake  tree  is 
the  symbol  of  the  black-bodied  Mahoraga ;  and  the  last 
of  the  Vyantara  demons,  the  black  Gdndharva,  have  the 
Timbara  tree  for  their  sign. 


270  JAINA  MYTHOLOGY 

Besides  these  there  are  lower  demons  called  Vdnavyantara, 

who  are  named  respectively  AnapannI,  Panapanni,  Isivayi, 

Bhutavayl,  Kandlye,  Mahakandiye,  Kohanda  and  Pahahga. 

All  these  live  in  the  lower  regions. 

Gods  in         Then  there  are  the  gods  of  the  upper  regions.     In  Svarga 

Svarga.     j-j^igj-g  aj-g  two  classes  of  gods,  Jyotisl  and  Vimdnavdsi. 

Jyotisi  gods  inhabit  Surya  (the  sun),  Candra  (the  moon), 
Graha  (the  planets),  Tara  (the  stars)  and  Naksatra  (the 
constellations).  The  Jaina  believe  that  there  is  a  sun 
that  moves  and  another  that  stands  still,  and  that  the 
same  is  the  case  with  the  moon,  planets  and  stars,  and 
that  each  of  these  has  its  own  gods. 

The  class  of  VimanavasI  has  three  divisions :  first,  the 
godsof  Z)^i'^/o^a(Sudharma,  Isana,  Sanatkumara,  Mahendra, 
Brahma,  Lantaka,  Mahasukra,  Sahasara,  Anata,  Pranata, 
Arana  and  Acuya)  ;  then  the  gods  in  Graiveyika  who  rule 
over  Bhadde,  Subhadde,  Sujae,  Sumanase,  Priyadamsane, 
Sudamsane,  Amohe,  Supadlbhadde  and  Jasodhare ;  and 
lastly  in  Anuttaravimdna  there  are  five  places,  each  with 
a  god  called  Indra  to  rule  over  it,  viz.  :  Vijaya,  Vijayanta, 
Jayanta,  Aparajita  and  Sarvarthasiddha. 

As  on  earth  (or  rather  as  in  India)  there  are  sweepers 
who  act  as  scavengers  for  men  and  live  apart  from  them, 
so  in  the  heavens  there  are  gods  who  do  menial  service  for 
the  other  gods  and  live  apart  from  them.  The  name  of 
these  gods  is  Kilvisiyd,  and  they  are  practically  the  out- 
caste  or  sweeper  gods.  There  are  three  divisions  of  them  : 
those  who  live  beneath  the  first  and  second  Devaloka, 
those  who  live  below  the  third,  and  those  who  dwell  under 
the  seventh ;  a  little  higher  in  the  social  scale  come  the 
servant  gods — the  Tiryak  jdmhrik — who  each  live  in 
a  separate  mountain  in  a  different  continent ;  and  above 
these  again  are  the  Lokdntika  gods,  who  are  higher  ser- 
vants, and  who  live  in  the  fifth  Devaloka.  Altogether 
there  are  in  heaven  and  hell  ninety-nine  kinds  of  gods  who 
are  regarded  as  menial  because  they  serve. 


JAINA  MYTHOLOGY  271 

Could  anything  show  more  clearly  the  terrible  way  in 
which  caste  has  fettered  not  only  the  lives  and  customs  of 
the  Jaina  but  even  their  imagination,  than  this  fact  that 
the  very  gods  who  serve  are  regarded  as  polluted  and  con- 
taminated by  that  service  ?  It  is  this  belief  that  hinders 
Jaina  from  taking  their  share  in  the  social  uplift  of  India ; 
and  it  is  only  the  revelation  of  a  Son  of  God  who  was 
amongst  us  as  one  that  serveth  that  can  set  them  free. 

Over  all  the  Devaloka  there  is  a  place  called  Siddhasila, 
in  which  the  Siddha  live. 

All  the  gods  are  in  a  state  of  happiness,  eating,  drinking 
and  singing;  the  good  gods  [Samakitl)  make  a  point  of 
being  present  and  listening  whenever  the  Tirthahkara 
preach,  but  the  false  gods  [Mithydtvi)  do  not  attend. 
Even  the  Samakitl  will  have  to  be  born  as  men  before  they 
can  attain  moksa,  but  they  will  soon  arrive  there,  whereas 
the  Mithyatv!  will  have  to  undergo  numberless  rebirths. 

Indra  is  the  supreme  god,  ruhng  over  all  the  gods,  and 
his  commands  they  must  all  obey. 

The  Jaina  illustrate  their  ideas  of  heaven  and  hell  by  the 
diagram  of  a  man's  figure.  The  legs  of  the  figure,  they  say, 
represent  Adholoka,  wherein  are  situated  the  seven  hells  or 
Naraka.  Ratna  Prabhd,  the  first  hell,  is  paved  with  sharp 
stones  ;  Sarkara  Prabhd,  the  second,  with  pointed  stones 
of  sugar-loaf  shape;  Vdlu  Prabhd  with  sand;  Panka  Prabhd 
with  mud ;  Dhumra  Prabhd  is  filled  with  smoke ;  Tama 
Prabhd  is  dark  enough  ;  but  Tamatama  Prabhd  is  filled  with 
thick  darkness.  The  hideous  torments  inflicted  in  these 
terrible  hells  by  the  evil  gods  we  have  already  studied,  but 
in  all  these  hells  the  jiva  have  the  hope  that  they  will 
eventually  escape  from  thence  when  their  karma  is  ex- 
hausted. A  Svetambara  sadhu,  however,  told  the  writer  of 
a  still  worse  place,  Nigoda,  situated  below  the  feet  of  the 
figure  in  our  diagram,  in  which  are  thrown  evil  jIva  who 
have  committed  specially  heinous  sins  like  murder,  and  who 
have  no  hope  of  ever  coming  out.     They  suffer  excruciat- 


272  JAINA  MYTHOLOGY 

ing  tortures,  such  as  having  millions  of  red-hot  needles 
thrust  into  them,  and  know  that  their  pain  is  unending. 
So  many  jiva  are  condemned  to  Nigoda  that  there  is  an 
endless  procession  of  them  passing  thither  like  a  long,  long 
train  of  black  ants,  of  which  we  can  see  neither  the  end 
nor  the  beginning. 

To  return  to  our  diagram,  the  waist  of  the  figure  is  our 
world,  Tiryakloka,  which  is  made  up  of  two-and-a-half 
islands,  each  containing  a  secret  district  called  Mahavideha, 
whose  inhabitants  alone  can  attain  moksa  ;  above  comes 
Svarga  or  Urdhvaloka,  where  the  gods  of  the  upper  world 
live ;  the  breast  of  the  figure  represents  Devaloka  ;  the 
neck  Graiveyika ;  and  the  face  Anuttaravimdna,  all  of 
whose  gods  we  have  studied  ;  while  the  crown  of  the  figure 
is  Moksa,  where  dwell  those  jiva  who,  after  being  born  as 
men,  have  at  length  attained  deliverance. 

Jaina  Divisions  of  Time. 

In  common  with  so  many  oriental  faiths  the  Jaina  think 

of  time  as  a  wheel  which  rotates  ceaselessly  downwards 

and  upwards — the  falling  of  the  wheel  being  known  as 

Avasarpini  and  the  rising  as  Utsarpini.     The  former  is 

under  the  influence  of  a  bad  serpent,  and  the  latter  of 

a  good  one. 

Avasar-        Avasarpinl,  the  era  in  which  we  are  now  living,  began 

pi^?i«         with  a  period  known  as  Susama  Susama,  the  happiest  time 

of  all,  which  lasted  for  four  crores  of  crores  of  sagaropama,^ 

^  Jaina  technical  words  for  time  : 

Sainaya^  the  smallest  unit  of  time.  Countless  samaya  pass  whilst 
one  is  winking  an  eye,  tearing  a  rotten  piece  of  cloth,  snapping  the 
finger,  or  whilst  the  spear  of  a  young  man  is  piercing  a  lotus  leaf. 

Avalikdy  the  next  smallest  division  of  time,  is  made  up  of  innumerable 
divisions  of  samaya. 

Then  comes  Mtihurta,  which  is  composed  of  16,777,216  avalika  and 
is  equivalent  to  forty-eight  minutes  of  English  time. 

Ahordtra  consists  of  thirty  muhurta,  or  a  night  and  a  day. 

After  Ahoratra  the  Jaina  count  like  Hindus  by  fortnights,  months, 
and  years,  till  they  come  to  Palya,  composed  of  countless  years,  and 
Sdgnropajna,  which  consist  of  one  hundred  millions  of  palya  multi- 
plied by  one  hundred  millions. 


JAINA  MYTHOLOGY  273 

and  when  every  man's  height  was  six  miles,  and  the  number 
of  his  ribs  two  hundred  and  fifty-six. 

The  children  born  in  this  happy  period  were  always  twins, 
a  boy  and  a  girl,  and  ten  Kalpavriksa  (desire-fulfilling 
trees)  supplied  all  their  need  ;  for  one  tree  gave  them  sweet 
fruits,  another  bore  leaves  that  formed  pots  and  pans,  the 
leaves  of  a  third  murmured  sweet  music,  a  fourth  gave 
bright  light  even  at  night,  a  fifth  shed  radiance  like  little 
lamps,  the  flowers  of  a  sixth  were  exquisite  in  form  and 
scent,  the  seventh  bore  food  which  was  perfect  both  to  sight 
and  taste,  the  leaves  of  the  eighth  served  as  jewellery,  the 
ninth  was  like  a  many-storied  palace  to  live  in,  and  the 
bark  of  the  tenth  provided  beautiful  clothes.  (In  many 
of  the  Jaina  temples  representations  of  the  happy  twins 
are  carved,  standing  beneath  these  desire-fulfilling  trees.) 
The  parents  of  the  children  died  as  soon  as  the  twins  were 
forty-nine  days  old,  but  that  did  not  so  much  matter,  since 
the  children  on  the  fourth  day  after  their  birth  had  been 
able  to  eat  as  much  food  as  was  equal  to  a  grain  of  corn  in 
size,  and  they  never  increased  the  size  of  this  meal,  which 
they  only  ate  every  fourth  day.  The  children  never  com- 
mitted the  sin  of  killing,  for  during  their  whole  lives  they 
never  saw  a  cooking-vessel  or  touched  cooked  food,  and 
on  their  deaths  they  passed  straight  to  Devaloka,  without 
ever  having  heard  of  religion. 

In  the  next  period,  Susama,  which,  as  its  name  indicates, 
was  only  half  as  happy  as  the  first,  the  twins  born  into  the 
world  were  only  four  miles  high,  had  only  one  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  ribs,  and  only  lived  for  two  palya  of  time,  but 
the  ten  desire-fulfilHng  trees  still  continued  their  kind  offices. 
The  parents  of  the  children  lived  longer  now  (the  Jaina, 
according  to  this,  would  seem  not  to  consider  the  long  life  of 
their  parents  essential  to  their  own  happiness  !)  and  did 
not  die  till  the  children  were  sixty-four  days  old ;  and  mean- 
while human  appetite  had  so  far  increased  that  twins  ate 
a  meal  equal  to  a  jujube  fruit  three  days  after  their  birth, 

T 


274  JAINA  MYTHOLOGY 

and  continued  to  do  so  every  third  day  throughout  their 
lives. 

In  Susama  Dusama  the  happiness  has  become  mixed 
with  sorrow ;  the  twins  are  now  only  two  miles  in  height, 
have  only  sixty-four  ribs,  and  live  only  for  one  palya,  but 
on  their  death  they  still  go  to  Devaloka.  It  was  during 
this  period  that  Risabhadeva,  the  first  Tirthahkara,  was 
born.  He  taught  the  twins  seventy-two  useful  arts,  such  as 
cooking,  sewing,  &c. ;  for  he  knew  that  the  desire-fulfilling 
trees  would  disappear,  and  that  human  beings  would  then 
have  only  themselves  to  depend  on.  Ri§abhadeva  is  also 
credited  with  having  introduced  politics  and  established 
a  kingdom,  but  his  daughter  Brahmi,  the  Jaina  patron  of 
learning,  is  even  more  interesting  than  her  father.  This 
learned  lady  invented  eighteen  different  alphabets  (oh, 
misdirected  energy  !)  including  Turkish,  Nagar!,  all  the 
Dravidian  dialects,  Canarese,  Persian,  and  the  character 
used  in  Orissa.  From  these,  the  Jaina  say,  were  derived 
Gujarat!  and  Marathl.  It  is  strange  that  a  people  who 
believe  the  patron  of  letters  to  have  been  a  woman  should 
so  long  have  refused  to  educate  their  own  daughters  :  surely 
in  this  particular  they  might  safely  follow  the  example  of  so 
illustrious  a  being  as  their  first  Tirthahkara. 

In  the  period  of  Dusama  Susama,  which  lasted  for  one 
crore  of  crores  of  sagaropama  less  forty- two  thousand  years, 
the  height  of  man  was  five  hundred  span,  the  number 
of  his  ribs  thirty-two,  and  his  age  one  crore  of  purva. 
The  women  born  in  this  age  ate  twenty-eight  morsels  of 
food,  the  men  thirty-two,  and  they  both  dined  once  during 
the  day.  During  this  time  the  Jaina  rehgion  was  fully 
developed,  and  there  were  born  the  remaining  twenty-three 
Tirthahkara,  eleven  Cakravarti,  nine  Bajadeva,  nine 
Vasudeva,  and  nine  Prativasudeva.  People  born  during 
this  epoch  did  not  all  pass  to  Devaloka,  but  might  be  reborn 
in  any  of  the  four  Gati  (hell,  heaven,  man,  or  beast),  or 
might  become  Siddha. 


JAINA  MYTHOLOGY  275 

Dusania,  the  period  in  which  we  are  now  living,  is  entirely 
evil.  No  one  can  hope  to  live  longer  than  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  years,  to  have  more  than  sixteen  ribs  or 
a  greater  stature  than  seven  cubits.  The  era  began  three 
years  after  Mahavira  reached  moksa,  and  will  last  for 
twenty-one  thousand  years.  No  Tirthankara  can  be  born 
during  Dusama ;  nor  can  any  one,  lay  or  ascetic,  however 
good,  reach  moksa  without  undergoing  at  least  one  rebirth 
(so  that  there  would  not  seem  to  be  much  use  in  becoming 
an  ascetic  nowadays  !).  Bad  as  things  are  now,  they  must 
become  yet  worse,  and  Jainism  itself  is  doomed  to  disappear 
during  our  present  era  ;  the  last  Jaina  monk  will  be  called 
Duppasahasuri,  the  last  nun  Phalgusri,  the  last  layman 
Nagila,  and  the  last  laywoman  SatyasrI. 

It  is  this  belief  that  Jainism  must  disappear  that  is 
paralysing  so  much  effort  at  the  present  time ;  for  the 
younger  Jaina  feel  that  anything  they  may  do  to  spread 
their  faith,  for  instance,  is  only  building  castles  in  the  sand 
that  must  be  swept  away  by  the  incoming  tide  of  destruction . 
It  seems,  in  fact,  impossible  for  any  religion  which  is  not 
illuminated  and  irradiated  by  Hope  to  become  a  really 
missionary  faith. 

Our  present  era,  will  be  followed  by  a  still  more  evil  one, 
Dusama  Dusama,  which  will  also  endure  for  twenty-one 
thousand  years.  A  man's  life  will  then  only  last  sixteen 
or,  according  to  some  sects,  twenty  years  at  most,  his  height 
will  only  be  one  cubit,  and  he  will  never  possess  more  than 
eight  ribs.  The  days  will  be  hot  and  the  nights  cold, 
disease  will  be  rampant,  and  chastity,  even  between  brothers 
and  sisters,  will  be  non-existent.  At  the  end  of  the  period 
terrific  tempests  will  sweep  over  the  earth,  and  but  for  the 
fact  that  the  Jaina  know  their  uncreated  world  can  never 
be  destroyed,  they  would  fear  that  the  earth  itself  would 
perish  in  the  storms.  Men  and  birds,  beasts  and  seeds, 
will  seek  everywhere  for  refuge,  and  find  it  in  the  river 
Ganges,  in  caves  and  in  the  ocean. 

T2 


276 


JAINA  MYTHOLOGY 


Utsar- 
pinL 


The 

twenty- 
four 
coming 
Tirthan- 
kara. 


At  last  during  Dusama  Dusanta,  in  some  month  of 
Sravana,  and  in  the  dark  half  of  it,  the  era  of  Utsarpin!  will 
begin,  and  the  wheel  of  time  start  its  upward  revolution. 
It  will  rain  for  seven  days  seven  different  kinds  of  rain,  and 
this  will  so  nourish  the  ground  that  the  seeds  will  grow. 

Dusama  will  bring  slight  improvement. 

In  Dusama  Susama  the  first  of  the  new  twenty-four 
Tirthankara  will  come. 

The  name  of  this  first  Tirthankara  will  be  Padmandbha. 
In  Mahavlra's  time  this  Padmanabha  was  a  king  in  Maga- 
dha,  and  at  present  he  is  expiating  his  bad  karma  in  the 
first  hell.  When  in  the  upward  revolution  of  the  wheel 
Susama  has  been  reached,  the  other  twenty-three  coming 
Tirthankara  will  be  born. 

Suparsva,  the  uncle  of  Mahavira,  who  at  the  present 
moment  is  in  the  second  Devaloka,  will  be  the  second 
Tirthankara,  and  w^ill  be  known  as  Suradeva. 

The  third  will  be  Udaiji,  who  was  the  son  of  Kunika  and 
so  grandson  of  King  Srenika ;  he  is  at  present  in  the  third 
Devaloka,  but  will  be  called  the  Tirthankara  Suparsva. 

The  fourth,  a  certain  Potila,  now  in  the  fourth  Devaloka, 
will  rule  as  Svayamprabhu. 

Dridhaketu,  the  uncle  of  the  husband  of  Mallinatha  (the 
only  woman  Tirthankara),  now  in  the  second  Devaloka, 
will  be  the  fifth  Tirthankara,  Sarvdnuhhuti. 

Karttikasetha,  the  father  of  the  most  famous  of  all  Jaina 
laymen,  Ananda,  who  is  at  present  in  the  first  Devaloka, 
will  be  the  sixth,  Devasruta. 

Sankhasravaka,  a  man  in  the  twelfth  Devaloka,  will  be 
reborn  as  the  seventh  coming  Tirthankara,  Udayaprabhu. 

The  eighth  will  be  Anandasravaka,  now  in  the  first 
Devaloka,  who  is  to  be  called  Pedhdla. 

Sunandasravika,  in  the  first  Devaloka,  is  to  be  reborn 
as  the  ninth  Tirthankara,  Potila. 

A  man  called  Satakasravaka,  in  the  third  hell,  is  to  be 
re-incarnate  as  the  tenth,  Sataklrti, 


JAINA  MYTHOLOGY  %!-] 

The  eleventh  is  more  interesting,  for  it  is  Devaki,  the 
mother  of  Krisna,  at  present  working  out  her  karma  in  the 
eighth  Devaloka,  who  will  be  incarnate  as  Munisuvrata. 

The  dark  god  Krisna  himself,  now  in  the  third  hell,  is  to 
become  the  twelfth  Tirthahkara,  Amama. 

Harasatyaki,  the  guru  of  Ravana  of  Hindu  mythology, 
when  he  leaves  the  fifth  Devaloka,  is  to  be  incarnate  as  the 
thirteenth  Tirthahkara,  Nikasdya, 

Krisna's  brother  Baladeva,  now  in  the  sixth  Devaloka, 
will  become  Nispuldka,  the  fourteenth  Tirthahkara. 

Sulasa,  a  man  now  in  the  fifth  Devaloka,  is  to  be  the 
fifteenth,  Nirmama. 

We  have  not  even  yet  come  to  the  end  of  Hindu 
influence,  for  the  stepmother  of  Krisna,  RohinI  (the  mother 
of  Baladeva),  who  is  in  the  second  Devaloka,  will  be 
incarnate  as  Citragupta,  the  sixteenth  Tirthahkara. 

Revati,  a  woman  now  in  the  twelfth  Devaloka,  who  in  her 
past  life  was  married  to  Mahasutaka,  a  famous  Jaina  lay- 
man, will  become  Sumddhi,  the  seventeenth  Tirthahkara. 

The  eighteenth  was  in  her  past  life  Subhala,  and  later  a 
very  chaste  woman  (if  not  an  actual  sati),  Magavati,  and 
is  at  the  present  time  in  the  eighth  Devaloka,  from  whence 
she  will  issue  eventually  as  Samvarandtha. 

The  Hindu  ascetic  Dvaipayana,  who  set  fire  to  Dvaraka, 
and  is  now  a  god,  Agni  Kumara,  will  at  last  be  incarnate  as 
the  nineteenth  Tirthahkara,  Yasodkara. 

The  twentieth  shows  again  the  enormous  popularity  of 
the  Krisna  cult  and  the  influence  it  wields  over  Jaina  as 
well  as  Hindu  thought,  for  it  is  that  of  Kunika,  who  in 
his  past  life  was  Javakumara,  a  relative  of  Krisna's.  At 
present  he  is  in  the  twelfth  Devaloka,  but  eventually  he 
will  issue  forth  to  be  born  as  Vijaya. 

Narada,  who  was  a  layman  in  the  time  of  Ravana,  and 
who  is  in  the  fifth  Devaloka,  will  be  the  twenty-first  Tirthah- 
kara, Mallinatha  or  Malyadeva. 

Ambada,  a  former  ascetic  (or,  according  to  other  traditions, 


278  JAINA  MYTHOLOGY 

a  famous  layman),  now  in  the  twelfth  Devaloka,  will  become 
the  twenty-second  Tirthankara  as  Devajina. 

The  twenty-third  is  Amara,  now  in  the  ninth  Graiveyaka, 
and  will  be  called  Anantavirya. 

The  twenty-fourth  and  last  of  all  the  coming  Tirthankara 
is  Svayambuddha,  now  in  the  highest  of  all  the  Devaloka, 
who  is  to  be  incarnate  as  Bhadrajina. 

The  first  of  the  new  series  of  Tirthankara,  Padmanabha, 
will  much  resemble  Mahavira,  and  will  accomplish  as  much 
as  he  did  in  spreading  the  faith.  After  him  each  succeed- 
ing Tirthankara  will  carry  on  the  work,  and  the  world  will 
grow  steadily  happier,  passing  through  every  stage  till  the 
happiest  of  all  is  reached,  when  the  decline  of  the  wheel 
must  once  more  begin  that  leads  at  last  to  the  destruction 
of  Jainism,  and  so  on  in  endless  succession. 


CHAPTER  XV 

JAINA  ARCHITECTURE  AND  LITERATURE 

Jaina  Architecture. 

The  earliest  Jaina  architects  seem  to  have  used  wood  as 
their  chief  building  material :  it  was  easily  obtained  and 
very  suitable  for  use  in  a  tropical  country ;  but  one  quality 
it  conspicuously  lacked,  that  of  durability,  and  the  earliest 
Jaina  buildings  have  all  disappeared  as  completely  as  the 
early  wooden  churches  in  Ireland. 

The  habit  of  using  wood,  however,  left  to  subsequent 
Jaina  architecture  some  notable  legacies,  one  of  which 
can  be  seen  in  the  exquisite  fineness  of  the  carvings  in 
the  interior  of  Jaina  temples,  tracery  so  delicate  that  it 
seems  almost  incredible  it  can  have  been  carried  out  in  so 
stubborn  a  medium  as  stone ;  whilst  another  legacy  is  to 
be  found  in  the  many-curved  strut  that  sustains  Jaina 
arches  and  seems  to  have  taken  its  origin  from  the  wooden 
support  of  a  timber  arch. 

But  if  the  hand  of  time  robbed  Jainism  of  its  wooden  Stupa. 
treasures,  the  lack  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of  early  scholars, 
which  accredited  all  stupa  and  all  cave-temples  to  Buddhists, 
robbed  Jainism  for  a  time  also  of  its  earliest  surviving 
monuments.  It  is  only  recently,  only  in  fact  since  students 
of  the  past  have  realized  how  many  symbols,  such  as  the 
wheel,  the  rail,  the  rosary,  the  Svastika,  &c.,  the  Jaina  had 
in  common  with  the  Buddhists  and  Brahmans,  that  its 
early  sites  and  shrines  have  been  handed  back  to  Jainism. 
The  importance  of  accuracy  in  this  respect  is  enhanced 
by  the  fact  that  in  its  architecture  we  have  an  almost 
perfect  record  of  Jaina  history  enshrined  in  loveliness. 

Jaina  and  Buddhist  art  must  have  followed  much  the 


28o  JAINA  ARCHITECTURE 

same  course,  and  the  former  like  the  latter  erected  stupa 
with  railings  round  them  in  which  to  place  the  bones  of 
their  saints.  But  such  has  been  the  avidity  with  which 
everything  possible  has  been  claimed  as  Buddhist,  that  as 
yet  only  two  stupa  ^  are  positively  admitted  to  be  of  Jaina 
origin.  One  of  these  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Fiihrer  on  the 
Kahkali  mound  nearMathura,  that  centre  of  Jaina  influence, 
and  dates  from  the  Satrap  period,  and  another  at  Ramnagar 
near  Bareilly. 

Dr.  Burgess  ^  gives  the  following  account  of  the  construc- 
tion of  a  stupa  built  on  the  Asoka  pattern  about  200  b.  c. : 

'  On  a  low  circular  drum,  a  hemispherical  dome  was  constructed, 
with  a  procession  path  round  the  latter,  and  over  the  dome  a  box-like 
structure  surmounted  by  an  umbrella  and  surrounded  by  a  stone 
railing.  Round  the  drum  was  an  open  passage  for  circumambulation, 
and  the  whole  was  enclosed  by  a  massive  rail  with  gates  on  four  sides.' 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  even  now  after  the  passage 
of  twenty-one  hundred  years,  circumambulation  (pradak- 
sina)  plays  an  important  part  in  Jaina  temple  worship,  and 
to  sit  for  ever  under  an  umbrella  is  the  highest  privilege  of 
their  Tirthahkara. 
Cave-  Of  about  the  same  date  as  the  stupa  were  the  Jaina  cave 

temples,  excavations  containing  caitya  caves  for  worship  and  also 
caves  for  the  monks  to  live  and  sleep  in.  The  Jaina  caitya 
were  not  as  big  as  the  Buddhist,  for  their  religion  did  not 
necessitate  the  calling  of  such  large  assembhes  ;  but  in  other 
respects  the  resemblance  between  them  was  so  strong  that  like 
the  stupa  they  were  all  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  Buddhists. 
The  wonderful  caves  in  Junagadh,  for  instance,  with  their 
traces  of  beautiful  carving,  are  certainly  Jaina,  and  now 
that  the  State  is  for  the  time  under  British  administration, 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  such  thorough  excavations  may  be 
carried  out  as  will  throw  light  on  many  disputed  points. 
Dr.  Fergusson^  also  numbers  amongst  Jaina  caves  of  the 

^  Imperial  Gazetteer,  ii.  iii.  2  ibJd.,  ii.  139. 

^  J.    Fergusson,   History    of  Indian   and   Eastern   Architecture^ 
London,  1910,  vol.  ii,  p.  9. 


AND  LITERATURE  281 

second  century  b.  c.  those  in  Orissa,  and  as  of  later  date 
those  at  Badami,  Patna,  Elura  and  elsewhere. 

If  only  we  could  trace  the  development  from  the  earlier 
wooden  structures  to  the  exquisite  eleventh- century  tem- 
ples, we  should  have  solved  one  of  the  great  problems  of 
Jaina  history;  but  we  have  as  yet  no  material  to  do  so. 
The  blossoming  period  of  Jaina  architecture  is  like  the 
sudden  flowering  of  Flemish  art  under  the  Van  Eycks :  in 
both  cases  all  the  intermediate  stages  have  been  swept  away 
by  the  ravages  of  time  and  the  devastation  of  war,  and  we 
are  abruptly  confronted  with  the  perfection  of  loveliness, 
whilst  the  toilsome  steps  that  led  up  to  it  are  hidden  from  us. 

From  this  time  the  story  of   Taina  architecture  is  clear,  i.  The 
and  it  seems  to  fall  into  four  main  divisions,  the  first  of  ^^^  ^" 
which,  the  golden  age,  almost  corresponds  with  the  Gothic 
movement  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

The  plan  of  the  temples  of  this  period  is  somewhat 
similar :  each  has  an  open  porch  {mandapa),  a  closed  hall 
of  assembly  [sabhd  mandapa),  and  an  inner  shrine  or  cell 
(gabhdro)  in  which  the  idol  is  kept.  The  whole  is  surrounded 
by  a  closed  courtyard  carrying  on  its  inner  wall  numerous 
separate  cells,  each  with  its  own  small  image  of  a  Tirthah- 
kara.  The  temple  is  surmounted  by  a  pyramidal  roof,  often 
ending  in  the  representation  of  a  water-pot,  and  only  the 
carving  on  this  pyramid  (or  Sikhara)  as  it  appears  over  the 
temple  wall  gives  any  hint  of  the  rich  beauty  enclosed 
within  the  courtyard.  The  inner  shrine  is  usually  guarded 
by  richly  carved  doorways  ;  the  idol  itself  (nude  and  blind 
in  the  case  of  Digambara  and  with  loin-cloth  and  staring  glass 
eyes  in  the  case  of  Svetambara  temples)  is  of  no  artistic 
merit ;  the  sabha  mandapa  has  very  little  carving,  and  is 
only  too  often  defaced  by  vulgar  decorations  and  hideous 
glass  globes,  but  the  outer  portico  (the  mandapa)  is 
a  very  fairyland  of  beauty,  the  fineness  of  whose  carving 
is  only  equalled  by  the  white  tracery  of  hoar-frost. 
From  the  dome  of  this  porch  hang  pendants  of  marble, 


282  JAINA  ARCHITECTURE 

whose  workmanship  dims  the  memory  of  the  stairway  of 
Christ  Church  and  the  roof  of  the  Divinity  School  in  Oxford, 
and  gives  the  spectator  a  new  standard  of  beauty.  The 
many  pillars  that  support  the  dome  are  all  so  perfectly 
carved,  that  the  element  of  '  control '  is  never  lost,  and 
the  many  curved  struts  between  the  pillars  recall  the  days 
when  the  Jaina  wrought  their  dreams  in  wood.  No  de- 
scription can  give  the  reader  any  idea  of  the  dainty  elabora- 
tion of  the  carving  in  white  marble :  indeed  the  learner 
needs  to  pass  many  times  from  the  blinding  glare  of  a  dusty 
Indian  day  into  the  cool  whiteness  of  these  shrines  and 
surrender  himself  to  the  beauty  and  stillness  of  the  place,  ere 
he  can  hope  to  unravel  half  their  wealth  of  legends  in  stone. 

We  know  that  the  eleventh,  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies saw  the  zenith  of  Jaina  prosperity.  Not  only  were 
kings  reckoned  amongst  the  most  ardent  disciples  of 
this  faith,  but  great  wealth  poured  into  the  community ; 
and  as  this  acquisition  of  power  and  wealth  coincided  with 
a  time  of  real  religious  fervour,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
there  followed  a  marvellous  epoch  of  temple-building,  in 
spite  of  occasional  outbursts  of  fierce  persecution.  Mount 
Abu,  bearing  on  its  bosom  shrines  that  are  marvels  of  fretted 
loveliness,  the  frowning  rock  of  Girnar  crowned  with  its 
diadem  of  temples,  and  Satrufijaya  in  its  surpassing  holiness, 
half  fortress  and  half  temple-city,  bear  witness  to  the  fervour 
of  those  days,  when,  for  example,  even  the  masons  after 
completing  the  work  for  which  they  were  paid  on  Mount  Abu 
voluntarily  erected  another  temple  as  a  free-will  offering, 
which  is  called  to  this  day  the  Temple  of  the  Artificers. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  this  the  golden  age 
of  Jaina  temple-building  in  India  is  also  the  period  of  the 
great  Gothic  cathedrals  of  Lincoln,  Salisbury  and  Wells 
in  England;  and  of  Amiens,  Rheims  and  Chartres  in  France. 
Both  styles  show  a  complete  control  of  the  principle  of 
vaulting  and  a  marvellous  inventiveness  in  the  wealth  of 
detail  with  which  the  interiors  are  decorated. 


AND  LITERATURE  ^^83 

The  Mohammedans  found  in  the  Jaina  temples  not  only  2,  Under 
quarries  from  which  to  steal  ready-made  the  pillars  for  ^^^  ^ 
their  mosques,  but  as  it  were  garments  for  the  expression  of  of  Islam, 
religion  that  could  be  '  made  over  '  for  their  use.     As  easily 
as  an  elder  sister's  clothes  are  cut  up  and  altered  for  the  use 
of  the  younger,  so  conveniently  were  Jaina  temples  trans- 
formed for  the  appropriation  of  this  newest  arrival  on  the 
Indian  scene.    All  that  the  victorious  Mohammedans  had 
to  do  was  to  make  slight  structural  alterations. 

'  By  removing  the  principal  cell  and  its  porch  from  the  centre  of  the 
court,  and  building  up  the  entrances  of  the  cells  that  surround  it,  a  court- 
yard was  at  once  obtained,  surrounded  by  a  double  colonnade,  which 
always  was  the  typical  form  of  a  mosque.  Still  one  essential  feature  was 
wanting — a  more  important  side  towards  Mecca ;  this  they  easily 
obtained  by  removing  the  smaller  pillars  from  that  side,  and  re-erecting 
in  their  place  the  larger  pillars  of  the  porch,  with  their  dome  in  the 
centre  ;  and,  if  there  were  two  smaller  domes,  by  placing  one  of  them 
at  each  end.'  ^ 

No  original  mosque  the  Mohammedans  ever  erected 
rivalled  these  *  made-over  '  temples  for  beauty.  In  the 
zenith  of  their  prosperity  Jaina  architects  had  taught 
Hindu  builders  much  ;  now  in  adversity  they  still  influenced 
their  persecutors,  and  the  still  too-little-known  mosques  of 
Ahmadabad  owe  more  of  their  unrivalled  beauty  to  Jaina 
inspiration  than  to  any  other  source. 

But  the  Jaina  did  not  only  teach  ;  like  true  scholars, 
they  also  learnt  even  from  their  opponents,  and  it  is  to  the 
blending  of  the  pure  Jaina  style  with  Mughal  features  that 
we  owe  modern  Jaina  architecture.  The  present  writer  was 
shown  both  at  Abu  and  Satrufijaya  on  the  interior  of  the 
roof  of  the  temple  courtyard  miniature  representations  of 
Mohammedan  tombs,  which  she  was  assured  had  been 
placed  there  to  guard  the  shrines  from  the  iconoclastic 
zeal  of  the  conquerors.     This,  however,  was  only  a  small 

^  Fergusson,  loc.  cit.,  ii.  69. 


2,84  JAINA  ARCHITECTURE 

matter  compared  to  the  other  modifications  due  to  Moham- 
medan influence  that  were  to  follow. 
3. Modem      When   the   Mohammedan    tyranny   was    overpast,    the 

Jaina        natural  outcome  of  Jaina  belief  in  the  merit  of  building 

architeC" 

Jure.         temples  again  showed  itself  in  the  erection  of  new  shrines 

on  the  old  sites,  in  additions  to  the  temple  cities,  and  also 
in  the  buildings  that  may  still  be  seen  in  such  places 
as  Sonagarh  and  Mukhtagiri.  The  peace  and  prosperity 
that  have  followed  the  establishment  of  British  rule  in 
India  have  led  to  an  unprecedented  outburst  of  temple- 
building  ;  and  all  these  shrines,  whether  erected  in  the  six- 
teenth or  in  the  nineteenth  century,  have  so  many  character- 
istics in  common,  that  they  may  be  grouped  together  as 
modern.  The  pointed  pyramidical  roof  is  seldom  seen, 
and  the  true  Jaina  dome  is  superseded  by  the  Mughal,  and 
the  openings  are  now  usually  the  foliated  pointed  arch  which 
the  Mohammedans  introduced.  The  style,  too,  though  rich 
and  ornate,  has  lost  much  of  its  original  eleventh-century 
purity. 

Perhaps  one  distinct  gain  may  be  chronicled  that  is  seen 
at  its  best  in  a  Jaina  temple  in  Delhi,  namely,  the  filling 
in  of  the  space  behind  the  strut  with  beautiful  pierced  work, 
that  makes  the  whole  resemble  a  bracket  supporting  the 
arch. 

On  the  debit  side,  however,  there  must  be  recorded  the 
terrible  vulgarity  that  often  disfigures  modern  Jaina 
temples  and  is  seen  at  its  worst  in  places  like  the  temple 
city  of  Palitana,  where  the  older  buildings  throw  the 
modern  craze  for  crude  colour  washing  and  paintings  into 
terrible  relief.  Perhaps  the  most  famous  of  the  modern 
temples  is  that  erected  by  Setha  Hatthisirhha  in 
Ahmadabad  in  1848,  where  despite  all  the  beauty  of  its 
carving  one  still  longs  for  the  more  austere  loveliness 
of  the  earlier  fanes.  The  old  '  Gothic  '  days  seem  to 
have  passed  now  into  an  over-elaborated  period  of  mixed 
styles. 


AND  LITERATURE  285 

The  Jaina  architecture  of  the  south  forms  a  class  apart ;  4.  South- 
it  has  three  chief  divisions.  First,  temples  {Basil)  that  ^^"  India, 
possess  shrine,  assembly  hall  and  porch,  like  similar  buildings 
in  the  north  of  India,  but  with  more  ornate  outer  walls. 
Secondly,  open-air  courtyards  [Betta)  containing  images  not 
of  any  of  the  orthodox  Tirthahkara  of  the  north,  but  of 
Gomata  or  Gomatesvara,  a  Digambara  saint  unknown  in 
northern  India.  (It  is  to  this  saint  that  the  famous  colossi 
of  the  south  are  dedicated.  The  best  known  of  these  is  that 
at  Sravana  Belgola  in  Mysore,  which,  cut  from  a  single  block 
of  gneiss,  stands  some  fifty-seven  feet  high;  others  are  to  be 
found  at  Yenur  and  Karkala  in  South  Kanara.)  The  third 
class  of  temples  is  found  in  Kanara,  and  with  their  Venetian 
blinds  they  curiously  recall  the  house  of  some  European 
official,  but  their  general  style  and  especially  their  reversed 
eaves  resemble  the  buildings  of  Nepal. 

Another  feature  of  note  in  Southern  Jaina  architecture  is 
the  stambha  or  pillar.  In  Abu  the  custodian  of  a  temple 
drew  the  writer's  attention  to  a  stambha  within  the  en- 
closure and  explained  that  no  temple  was  complete  without 
one.  But  the  Abu  pillar  was  plain  indeed  compared  to  the 
lavishly  carved  stambha  that  are  to  be  found  in  the  south. 
At  Mudabidri  a  most  interesting  question  is  raised  by  the 
presence  on  the  bottom  of  these  pillars  of  the  curious  inter- 
laced basket-work  pattern  familiar  in  Irish  manuscripts 
and  on  Irish  crosses. 

'  It  is  equally  common  in  Armenia,  and  can  be  traced  up  the  valley 
of  the  Danube  into  central  Europe  ;  but  how  it  got  to  the  west  coast 
of  India  we  do  not  know,  nor  have  we,  so  far  as  I  know,  any  indication 
on  which  we  can  rely  for  its  introduction.  There  was  at  all  times  for 
the  last  fifteen  centuries  a  large  body  of  Christians  established  on  this 
coast  who  were  in  connection  with  Persia  and  Syria,  and  are  so  now. 
It  would  be  strange,  indeed,  if  it  were  from  them  the  Jains  obtained 
this  device.'^ 

May  not  this  symbol  from  the  ancient  crosses  now  so 

^  Fergusson,  ii.  82. 


386  JAINA  ARCHITECTURE 

strangely  found  in  the  very  centre  of  a  Jaina  temple  be  a 
prophecy  of  the  coming  of  the  spring  ? 

Jaina  Writers. 

Jainism  has  produced  so  vast  and  varied  a  literature,  that 
we  can  mention  here  only  the  leading  periods  of  activity 
and  the  languages  used. 

All  the  books  of  the  Canon  are  in  Ardha-Magadh!,  the 
vernacular  spoken  by  Mahavira  and  his  monks,  which 
thus  became  the  sacred  language  of  Jainism. 

All  early  commentaries  on  the  Jaina  Canon  and  a  good 
deal  of  the  secular  poetry  composed  by  Jaina  are  in  what  is 
known  as  Jaina-Maharastri,  a  vernacular  closely  allied  to 
early  Marathl. 

After  the  Christian  era  Sanskrit  gradually  won  its  way  to 
the  place  of  lingua  franca  in  North  India.  It  was  generally 
used  in  inscriptions  and  in  royal  proclamations  ;  and  lite- 
rary men  of  all  the  religions  employed  it  in  preference  to 
other  tongues,  because  it  alone  was  understood  by  cultured 
men  everywhere.  This  explains  the  existence  of  a  great 
body  of  Buddhist  literature  in  Sanskrit.  The  Jaina  were 
rather  later  than  others  in  substituting  Sanskrit  for  their 
accustomed  vernacular,  but  finally  most  of  their  sects  also 
yielded,  though  in  varying  degrees.  A  large  part  of  Jaina 
Sanskrit  literature  consists  of  scholastic  and  philosophic 
works  connected  with  the  exposition  and  defence  of  the  faith ; 
but  the  Jaina  also  hold  a  notable  place  in  ordinary  literature. 
They  specially  distinguished  themselves  in  grammar,  lexico- 
graphy and  moral  tales.  The  two  northern  recensions  of  the 
Pancatantra,  for  example,  show  considerable  Jaina  influence. 
The  work  of  this  period  culminates  in  the  activity  of 
Hemacandra,  with  whose  writings  we  deal  briefly  below. 

In  South  India  the  earliest  literary  movement  was  pre- 
dominately Jaina.  In  Tamil  literature  from  the  earliest 
times  for  many  centuries  Jaina  poets  held  a  great  place. 
The  Jivaka   Cintdmani,  perhaps  the  finest  of    all  Tamil 


AND  LITERATURE  287 

poems,  is  a  Jaina  work.  Eight  thousand  Jaina,  it  is  said, 
each  wrote  a  couplet,  and  the  whole  when  joined  together 
formed  the  famous  Ndladiydr.  To-day  this  consists  of  only 
four  hundred  verses,  but  the  discrepancy  is  accounted  for 
by  the  action  of  a  hostile  monarch  who  flung  the  whole 
multitude  of  poems  into  a  stream  and  destroyed  all  but 
four  hundred  particularly  good  ones  !  Each  of  the  verses 
is  quite  unconnected  with  the  other,  but  has  a  most  unim- 
peachable moral,  and  so  they  are  taught  in  Tamil  schools 
to  this  day. 

More  famous  still  is  the  Kurral  of  Tiruvalluvar,  the 
masterpiece  of  Tamil  literature.  Its  author,  an  outcaste  by 
birth,  is  claimed  by  every  sect  as  belonging  to  their  faith, 
but  Bishop  Caldwell  *  considers  its  tone  more  Jaina  than 
anything  else  '}  In  any  case  it  must  come  from  the  earliest 
period.  Another  name  that  adds  lustre  to  these  times  is 
that  of  a  Jaina  lady  Avvaiyar  *  the  Venerable  Matron  ', 
one  of  the  most  admired  amongst  Tamil  poets,  who  is  said  to 
have  been  a  sister  of  Tiruvalluvar.  Nor  was  it  only  amongst 
the  fields  of  poesy  that  the  Jaina  gained  renown  ;  a  famous 
old  dictionary  and  the  great  Tamil  grammar  are  also 
accredited  to  them. 

Jaina  writers  also  laid  the  foundations  of  Telugu  litera- 
ture, and  classical  Kanarese  literature  begins  with  a  great 
succession  of  Jaina  poets  and  scholars.  The  period  of  their 
greatest  activity  runs  from  the  eighth  to  the  twelfth  century. 

But  the  greatest  of  all  Jaina  writers  was  undoubtedly 
Hemacandra.  He  was  born  in  Dhanduka  near  Ahmadabad 
in  A.  D.  1088  of  Jaina  parents,  his  real  name  being  probably 
Cangadeva.  His  mother  dedicated  him  to  the  religious  life 
under  the  care  of  a  monk  named  Devacandra,  who  took 
him  to  Cambay,  where  he  was  eventually  ordained,  receiving 
the  new  name  of  Somacandra.  In  Cambay  he  studied 
logic,  dialectics,  grammar  and  poetry,  and  proved  him- 
self a  past  master  in  every  branch  of  study  he  took  up. 

^  Imperial  Gazetteer,  ii.  435 . 


288   JAINA  ARCHITECTURE  AND  LITERATURE 

Hemacandra's  chance  came  when  he  was  appointed  spokes- 
man of  the  Jaina  community  at  Anhilvada  Patana  to 
welcome  the  great  Caulukya  king,  Jayasirhha  Siddharaja, 
on  his  return  from  a  famous  victory  in  Malwa.  His  poem 
won  the  king's  heart,  and  he  was  appointed  court  pandit  and 
court  annahst  in  the  royal  capital.  There  he  compiled  two 
lexicons  and  wrote  his  famous  Prakrit  grammar,  with  which 
the  learned  king  was  so  delighted,  that  he  engaged  three 
hundred  copyists  for  three  years  to  transcribe  it,  and  sent 
copies  all  over  India.  Hemacandra  was  just  as  popular 
with  Jayasimha's  successor,  Kumarapala,  whom,  if  he  did 
not  actually  convert  to  Jainism,  he  at  least  persuaded  to 
follow  the  Jaina  rule  of  non-killing,  and  to  build  many 
temples.  During  this  reign  Hemacandra  continued  to 
write  a  number  of  science  hand-books,  lives  of  Jaina 
saints,  and  other  works,  including  a  History  of  Gujarat  and 
the  famous  Yoga  Sastra  and  commentary  thereon ;  and  he 
also  found  time  to  instruct  many  scholars  who  carried  on 
the  literary  tradition.  (In  Anhilvada  Patana  one  may  still 
see  the  ink-stained  stone  on  which  Hemacandra's  cushion 
was  placed,  and  where  he  dictated  his  works  to  his  pupils.) 
About  A.  D.  1172  Hemacandra  died  of  self-starvation,  in  the 
approved  Jaina  fashion,  shortly  before  his  friend  and  patron 
Kumarapala. 

It  is  astonishing  that  with  such  a  magnificent  record  of 
early  writers  the  Jaina  of  to-day,  despite  their  educational 
advantages,  should  number  so  few  authors  of  note  amongst 
them ;  their  literary  activity  seems  at  present  to  find  its 
chief  outlet  in  journalism  and  pamphleteering.^ 

Modern  Jaina  literature  is  mostly  in  Gujarat!,  but  books 

in  Hindi  and  in  English  are  also  numerous. 

^  It  is  interesting  and  encouraging  to  notice  that  out  of  every 
possible  way  of  spreading  their  faith  the  Jaina  have  deHberately  chosen 
as  the  best  adapted  for  Oriental  use  the  now  classic  methods  selected 
by  the  great  old  Christian  missionaries  (true  Tirthankara)  of  the  past. 
Thus  they  have  Jaina  tracts,  Jaina  newspapers,  Jaina  schools  and 
Jaina  hostels  ;  each  sect  has  also  its  own  Conference,  with  its  Ladies' 
Day,  and  there  are  even  Jaina  Young  Men's  Associations. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM 

The  more  one  studies  Jainism,  the  more  one  is  struck 
with  the  pathos  of  its  empty  heart.  The  Jaina  beheve 
strongly  in  the  duty  of  forgiving  others,  and  yet  have  no 
hope  of  forgiveness  from  a  Higher  Power  for  themselves. 
They  shrink  from  sin  and  take  vows  to  guard  against  it, 
but  know  of  no  dynamic  force  outside  themselves  that 
could  enable  them  to  keep  those  vows.  They  see  before 
them  an  austere  upward  path  of  righteousness,  but  know 
of  no  Guide  to  encourage  and  help  them  along  that  diffi- 
cult way. 

A  scholar-saint  once  summed  up  the  Christian  faith  by 
saying  that  the  personal  friendship  of  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord 
was  that  gift  which  God  became  incarnate  to  bestow  on 
every  man  who  sought  it.  It  is  this  personal  friendship 
with  the  Incarnate  Son  of  God  which  is  the  great  gift  that 
Christianity  has  to  offer  to  the  Jaina.  Already,  with  their 
power  of  hero-worship  and  their  intense  love  of  all  that  is 
gentle,  long-suffering  and  loving,  the  Jaina  cannot  but  be 
attracted  to  Him.  It  is  perhaps  easier  for  a  Jaina  than  it 
is  for  us  to  appreciate  the  wonderful  portrait  of  Himself 
which  Christ  drew  in  those  rules  for  happiness  which  we  call 
the  Beatitudes ;  for,  while  approving  of  the  Ten  Command- 
ments, to  w^hich  in  many  respects  their  own  rules  bear  a 
strong  resemblance,  it  is  to  the  Beatitudes  that  they  are 
specially  attracted,  since  these  meet  their  faith  at  its  highest 
and  yet  point  out  a  still  higher  way. 

The  younger  Jaina  are  worried  by  the  old  ascetic  ideal 
that  is  placed  before  them.  They  feel,  even  when  they  can 
hardly  express  it,  that  the  ideal  needed  for  modern  life  is 
the  development,  not  the  negation,  of  personality;   they 

u 


290         THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM 

are  also  increasingly  bewildered  by  the  conflict  between 
modern  science  and  their  own  faith.  The  appeal  of  Chris- 
tianity may  come  to  them  through  their  realizing  that  the 
true  way  to  ensure  the  growth  of  one's  own  character  is  by 
gaining  the  noblest  of  friendships,  that  of  the  man  Christ 
Jesus. 

But  it  is  when  talking  to  the  older  men  and  women  that 
one  realizes  most  how  restless  and  dissatisfied  they  are  at 
heart,  since  the  ideal  their  religion  offers  them  is  a  ritual 
rather  than  a  personal  holiness.  A  Jaina  magistrate  once 
said  to  the  writer :  '  I  call  Jainism  a  dummy  religion.  Even 
if  I  took  bribes  and  gave  false  judgements,  I  should  still  be 
considered  a  holy  man,  so  long  as  I  was  careful  never  to  eat 
after  dark.'  And  an  older  man  made  this  pathetic  con- 
fession :  '  It  is  a  terrible  thing  to  a  Jaina  to  grow  old  ;  we 
may  have  tried  all  our  lives  to  keep  our  innumerable  laws, 
but  we  know  the  awful  doom  that  awaits  us  if  we  have 
broken  even  one  of  them,  and  for  us  there  is  no  forgiveness.' 
His  pitiful  fear  seemed  wonderfully  to  enhance  the  glory 
of  the  old  Evangel :  *  I  came  not  to  call  the  righteous  but 
sinners  to  repentance  ' ;  but  the  man  could  hardly  grasp  the 
fact  that,  while  the  Redeemer  of  the  World  never  uttered 
one  word  of  hope  or  forgiveness  to  strong,  self-sufiicient, 
self-righteous  folk.  He  freely  offered  the  riches  of  His  grace 
to  the  sinful  and  fallen,  to  the  weak  and  helpless,  to  women 
and  to  little  children. 

A  short  time  ago  the  writer  was  talking  to  a  student,  who 

had  himself  left  Jainism,  but  was  explaining  to  her  how  many 

beautiful  things  there  were  in  the  Jaina  creed.     At  length 

she  asked  him  why  he  was  no  longer  a  Jaina.     He  turned 

to  her  and  said :  '  Because  in  all  our  creed  there  is  no  such 

word  as  "grace ".' 

The  In  a  book  such  as  this  one  can  only  throw  out  a  few 

problem    suggestions  for  a  comparison  between  Jainism  and  Chris- 

ing.  tianity,  and  one  of  the  chief  points  on  which  they  differ  is 

in  the  value  they  give  to  sorrow.     To  Christian  thought 


THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM         391 

sorrow  is  not  necessarily  an  evil :  to  the  Jaina  it  is  either 
a  calamity  to  be  avoided  at  all  costs,  or  a  punishment  from 
which  there  is  no  escape.  One  can  easily  understand  how 
Jainism  arose :  how  sensitive  souls,  finding  the  pain  of  the 
world  intolerable,  would  resolve  to  free  themselves  from 
every  tie  that  might  be  the  means  of  bringing  sorrow  upon 
them,  and  to  give  no  more  hostages  to  fortune.  But  they 
forgot  that  by  shutting  themselves  off  from  pain  they  closed 
the  gates  for  ever  against  development,  not  realizing  that, 
as  all  advance  in  knowledge  can  be  gained  only  at  the  price 
of  weary  drudgery,  and  even  the  supreme  joy  of  motherhood 
is  not  won  without  danger  and  pain,  so  character  can  only 
be  completely  developed  by  the  discipline  of  sorrow :  the 
only  result  of  shirking  suffering  is  for  scholars,  ignorance ; 
for  women,  barrenness ;  and  for  all,  even  the  highest,  moral 
atrophy. 

The  more  one  comes  to  know  the  Jaina,  the  more  sure  one 
feels  that  they  will  not  for  ever  remain  satisfied  with  the 
thought  of  a  divinity  which,  by  avoiding  emotion,  has 
become  a  characterless  being,  taking  no  interest  in  the  lives 
of  his  followers  and  powerless  to  help  them.  Already  many 
are  attracted  by  the  idea  of  a  God  who,  becoming  incarnate 
for  us  men  and  for  our  salvation,  not  only  promulgated  a 
law  of  self-denial  and  of  loving-kindness  to  every  living  being 
more  stringent  and  far-reaching  than  the  Jaina  rule,  but  also 
Himself  suffered  in  His  life  and  death  more  loneliness,  more 
insults  and  more  pain  than  ever  Mahavira  endured,  and 
whose  suffering  only  increased  His  -  love  and  power  to 
help  men  in  their  sorrows.  Alone  amongst  the  religions 
of  the  world  the  faith  of  Christ  Jesus  opens  to  its  followers 
conquest  through  pain  and  mystic  joy  in  sorrow. 

Despite  the  differences  between  Jainism  and  Chris- 
tianity, the  resemblance  between  them  is  striking. 
Both  religions  arose  in  the  East,  and  both  are  to  this 
day  thoroughly  Oriental  in  their  character  and  spirit. 
The  founders  of  the  two  faiths  were  each  the  son  of  a 

U2 


292         THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM 

king,  and  each  left  his  high  estate  for  a  hfe  of  poverty 
and  insult.  Each  wandered  homeless  through  sunny 
lands,  followed  by  a  band  of  twelve  disciples,  proclaiming 
the  beauty  of  poverty  of  spirit,  of  meekness,  of  righteous- 
ness, of  mercy,  of  purity,  of  peace,  and  of  patient  suffering. 
Alike  they  illustrated  their  teaching  from  the  every-day 
life  of  the  countryside,  showing  how  much  greater  a  thing 
it  was  '  to  be '  tha,n  *  to  do ',  and  how  perilous  *  to  have  '  ; 
but  each  teacher  gave  his  followers  a  different  motive  to 
rule  their  lives,  for  the  command  of  the  one  was  to  love 
and  of  the  other  to  escape. 
No  The  Jaina  do  not  believe  in  one  supreme  God.     Innumer- 

supreme    able  men  of  like  passions  with  themselves  have,  by  steadily 
eradicating  all  that  belongs  to  personality,  passed  to  take 
their  places  amongst  the  Siddha  in  a  still  land  of  endless  in- 
I   activity ;    but  none  of  these  -efe*  first  and  none  second  :  all 
•   are  equal ;   and  none  takesany  interest  in  the  human  toilers 
who  are  climbing  the  steep  ascent  leading  to  the  goal  which 
they  themselves  have  reached. 
Forgive-       The  loss  suffered  by  those  who  have  relinquished  their 
ness.         belief  in  a  supreme  God  it  is  impossible  adequately  to  gauge. 
For  instance,  the  Jaina  can  have  no  conception  of  the  for- 
giveness of  sin,  for  to  them  there  is  no  God  against  whom 
they  have  sinned,  but  whose  property  it  is  to  show  mercy, 
and  who,  by  pardoning  past  failure,   can  give  an  oppor- 
tunity for  future   conquest.      The  Jaina,    when   they   do 
wrong,  only  feel  that  they  sin  against  themselves,  injure 
their  own  characters,  and  so  lose  ground  on  the  upward 
way,  and  that  such  lost  progress  can  only  be  made  up  after 
countless  ages  of  useless  (because  unremembered)  suffering. 
Prayer.         Again,  a  system  without  a  God  has  no  room  for  prayer, 
for  it  knows  of  no  almighty  and  most  merciful  Father  to 
whose  love  and  wisdom  His  children  can  confide  their  secret 
desires  ;  and  to  this  day  the  Jaina  count  it  a  sin  if  a  mother, 
watching  beside  her  suffering  child,  should  appeal  to  some 
higher  power  to  save  the  little  life. 


THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM         293 

There  is  no  question  that  the  Jaina  feel  to  be  more  critical  Caste, 
than  the  intricate  problem  of  caste  in  modern  India.  The 
one  solvent  that  can  ever  weaken  the  grip  of  those  iron  fetters 
is  the  thought  that,  despite  all  barriers  and  all  differences, 
we  have  been  created  by  the  same  Father  and  are  therefore 
all  children  of  one  family  ;  but  a  philosophy  that  denies  the 
Fatherhood  of  God  is  able  to  deny  the  brotherhood  of  man  ; 
and  the  notices  on  their  temple  gates  show  that  there  are 
no  people  in  India  more  caste-bound  than  the  Jaina.^ 

The  negation  of  a  personal  God  affects  also  the  Jaina  idea  Moksa. 
of  heaven.  The  Jaina,  as  we  have  seen,  think  of  moksa  as 
a  bare  place  of  inaction  reached  by  those  who  through 
suffering  and  austerity  have  completely  killed  all  their 
individuality  and  character  and  have  finally  snapped  the 
fetters  of  rebirth.  The  Christian,  like  the  Jaina,  believes 
in  a  state  whose  bliss  we  shall  never  leave,  but  to  the 
Christian  heaven  is  also  that  sphere  where  the  Lord  God 
Omnipotent  reigneth,  and  over  which  His  will  has  absolute 
sway.  There,  in  a  golden  atmosphere  of  happiness,  the  re- 
deemed from  all  nations,  with  every  power  disciplined  and 
developed,  move  without  let  or  hindrance  to  accomplish  the 
Divine  will.  There  His  servants  serve  Him,  for  they  see 
His  face.  It  is  a  land  full  of  joy  and  singing,  from  which 
all  sorrow  has  vanished,  not  because  the  character  of  its 
citizens  has  become  so  stultified  that  they  can  no  more  feel 
grief,  but  because  the  promise  has  been  fulfilled  that  '  God 
Himself  shall  be  with  them,  and  be  their  God  :  and  He  shall 
wipe  away  every  tear  from  their  eyes  ;  and  death  shall  be 
no  more  ;  neither  shall  there  be  mourning,  nor  crying,  nor 
pain,  any  more.  .  .  .  He  that  overcometh  [the  jina]  shall 
inherit  these  things  ;  and  I  will  be  his  God,  and  he  shall  be 
my  son.'  ^ 

^  The  notice  on  Hatthisimha's  temple  in  Ahmadabad  runs  :  '  Low- 
caste  servants  in  attendance  on  visitors  and  dogs  cannot  be  allowed  to 
enter  the  temple.' 

^  Rev.  xxi.  3-4  17. 


294        THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM 

Karma  Instead  of  a  God  delighting  in  mercy,  who  rules  and 

f"^      .     judges  the  fair  world  that  He  has  made,  the  Jaina  have 
gration.     set  in  His  place  a  hideous  thing,  the  accumulated  energy 
of  past  actions,  karma,  which  can  no  more  be  affected  by 
love  or  prayer  than  a  runaway  locomotive.     On  and  on 
it  goes,  remorselessly  dealing  out  mutilation  and  suffering, 
till  the  energy  it  has  amassed  is  at  last  exhausted  and  a 
merciful  silence  follows.     The  belief  in  karma  and  trans- 
migration  kills   all   sympathy   and   human   kindness   for 
sufferers,  since  any  pain  a  man  endures  is  only  the  wages  he 
has  earned  in  a  previous  birth.     It  is  this  belief  that  is 
responsible  amongst  other  things  for  the  suffering  of  the 
thousands  of  child  widows  in  India,  who  are  taught  that  they 
are  now  reaping  the  fruit  of  their  unchastity  in  a  former  life. 
There  is  no  conscious  justice  in  this  solution,  for  how  can 
a  man  possibly  accept  a  sentence  as  righteous,  when  he 
does  not  even  know  for  what  he  is  being  tried  and  has  no 
recollection  of  ever  committing  the  crime  ? 
Ahimsa.        Much,  however,  as  the  Jaina  find  to  admire  in  Christianity, 
one  of  their  tenets,  that  of  Ahimsa,  casts  for  them  a  great 
shadow  across  the  Christian  faith  :    they  feel  that  the  fol- 
lowers of  Christ  are  stained  with  the  sin  of  animal  murder, 
and  until  this  feeling  is  removed,  they  will  never  really 
understand  the  beauty  of  our  religion. 

One  would  like  to  remind  them  first  of  the  quite  elemen- 
tary fact  that  a  great  many  Christians  are  actually  vege- 
tarians, and  that  no  Christian  is  under  any  obligation  to  eat 
meat ;  in  fact  the  great  missionary  apostle  expressly  said, 
*  If  meat  maketh  my  brother  to  stumble,  I  will  eat  no  flesh 
for  evermore  '.^  Not  as  though  there  were  any  sin  in  eat- 
ing or  in  not  eating  meat.  Jesus  Christ,  realizing  that  there 
were  enough  real  sins  already  in  the  world,  created  no  arti- 
ficial ones  by  laying  down  ritual  regulations  for  His  followers 
to  govern  the  details  of  their  daily  lives.  But  though  He 
gave  them  no  narrow  code  of  rules,  as  though  they  had  been 

1  I  Cor.  viii.  13. 


THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM  295 

slaves,  He  did  lay  down  for  them  certain  great  principles 
on  which  they  might  fashion  their  lives  in  absolute  freedom, 
and  one  of  these  was  the  principle  of  self-sacrificing  service. 

Science  has  taught  us  that  the  physical  world  is  governed 
by  the  law  of  sacrifice  :  that  all  existence  is  maintained 
through  the  death  of  others,  and  that  every  living  organism 
is  built  up  through  the  silent  and  invisible  work  of  the 
minute  bacteria  of  decay,  which  release  from  the  dead 
the  material  needed  by  the  living.  It  is  this  same  law 
of  sacrifice,  of  life  through  another's  death,  which  governs 
also  the  spiritual  world.  When  animals  and  insects  are 
killed  that  a  Jaina  may  have  light  to  study,  material 
for  clothing,  shoes  to  wear,  bread  to  eat,  water  with  which 
to  wash,  or  air  to  breathe,  it  seems  to  him  that  the  sin  of 
murder  has  been  committed  (for  the  Jaina  have  not  yet 
learnt  clearly  to  distinguish  between  human  and  animal  life) ; 
but  to  the  Christian  it  seems  that  he  has  accepted  strength 
from  others,  which  he  is  therefore  bound  to  expend  in  ser- 
vice. And  this  is  the  reason  that  at  every  meal  he  thanks 
God  for  the  food  given  and  asks  that  the  strength  gained 
may  be  used  in  God's  service.^  For  the  follower  of  Christ 
has  realized  that  his  very  entrance  into  the  world  was  pur- 
chased by  another's  pain  (perhaps  death),  and  that  through- 
out life  his  food,  his  clothing,  and  even  his  leisure  for  study  or 
for  art  is  earned  by  the  toil  of  others.  He  cannot  therefore 
count  himself  his  own,  but  as  a  *  debtor  '  he  is  bound  to  use 
his  life  and  his  leisure  in  the  service  of  others,  that  they  in 
their  turn  may  by  his  work  be  helped  to  labour  more  happily. 

Following  this  thought,  we  seem  to  catch  a  glimpse  of 
what  is  perhaps  one  great  purpose  of  God,  that  all 
His  creatures  should  be  linked  to  one  another  by  golden 
chains  of  self-sacrificing  service.      In  the  highest  realm 

^  Compare  the  old  College  grace ;  'Benignissime  Domine,  benedic 
nobis  et  hisce  creaturis  in  usum  nostrum  ;  ut  illae  sanctificatae  sint  et 
nobis  salutares,  et  nos  inde  corroborati  magis  apti  reddamur  ad  omnia 
opera  bona,  in  laudem  tui  nominis  aeternani  per  lesum  Christum 
Dominum  nostrum.     Amen.' 


296        THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM 

of  all  the  same  law  still  holds :  '  Surely  He  hath 
borne  our  griefs,  and  carried  our  sorrows.  .  .  .  He  was 
wounded  for  our  transgressions,  He  was  bruised  for  our 
iniquities  :  the  chastisement  of  our  peace  was  upon  Him ; 
and  with  His  stripes  we  are  healed.  All  we  like  sheep  have 
gone  astray ;  we  have  turned  every  one  to  his  own  way ; 
and  the  Lord  hath  laid  on  Him  the  iniquity  of  us  all.'  ^ 

But  the  golden  chain  that  binds  us  all  into  one  loving 
whole  is  broken  by  cruelty,  and  it  is  here  that  the  Jaina  fail. 
Their  belief  in  the  duty  of  not  killing  is  not  in  practice  com- 
plemented by  an  equal  fear  of  cruelty.  It  is  surely  happier 
for  instance,  for  an  animal  to  be  well  tended,  well  fed,  and  well 
cared  for,  and  then  to  die  swiftly  and  painlessly  before  old  age 
and  suffering  come  upon  it,  than  to  linger  on,  as  one  so  often 
sees  in  India  (even  in  a  Jaina  asylum  for  animals  ^),  neglected, 
suffering,  and  even  starving,  once  it  has  passed  its  prime. 

Moreover,  the  logical  outcome  of  the  doctrine  of  Ahirhsa 
is,  as  the  Jaina  themselves  admit,  a  reductio  ad  absurdiim. 
They  must  not  move  for  fear  of  treading  on  and  killing 
some  minute  insect;  for  the  same  reason  they  must  not  eat 
and  they  must  not  breathe.  So  that  in  order  not  to  com- 
mit himsa  Jaina  sometimes  commit  suicide,  yet  suicide  they 
consider  one  of  the  wickedest  of  crimes.^  It  is  scientifically 
impossible  to  take  as  a  life's  motto  Ahiihsd  parama  dharma, 
since  it  is  contrary  to  the  order  of  nature.  To  carry  it  out, 
a  man  ought  not  to  be  born,  lest  his  birth  should  cost  his 
mother  her  life  ;   he  must  not  continue  to  live  when  he  is 

^  Isaiah  liii.  4-6. 

^  These  asylums  or  Pdyijardpola  are  peculiar  to  Jainism,  and  all  sects 
of  the  Jaina  unite  in  striving  to  acquire  merit  by  supporting  them.  They 
are  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  large  towns  and  villages  throughout  India, 
and  house  decrepit  and  suffering  cattle,  horses,  donkeys,  goats,  &c.  ; 
even  pariah  dogs  are  collected  in  special  dog-carts  (i.e.  wheeled  cages) 
by  men  armed  with  long  iron  pincers  with  which  they  can  safely  pick 
up  the  most  savage  and  filthy  curs.  But,  as  far  as  any  real  kindness 
to  animals  is  concerned,  these  institutions  in  their  actual  working  leave 
much  to  be  desired,  however  meritorious  the  intention  of  their  founders 
may  have  been. 

^  The  whole  Jaina  position  in  relation  to  suicide  is,  however,  most 
puzzling.  Apparently  simple  suicide  is  held  to  be  a  crime,  but  santhdfo, 
or'religious  suicide,  is  a  meritorious  act. 


THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM  297 

born,  since  every  instant  he  breathes  he  takes  hfe  '^  he 
must  not  commit  suicide,  for  that  is  taking  Hfe ;  he  must 
not  even  die  a  natural  death,  for  in  the  burning  of  his 
corpse  after  death  some  hfe  would  be  destroyed. 

But  though  our  Lord  gave  to  His  followers  the  law  of  self- 
sacrificing  service,  not  that  of  Ahirhsa,  He  was  nevertheless 
careful  to  teach  them  how  exceedingly  precious  in  the  sight 
of  the  Creator  was  the  life  of  even  the  smallest  of  His 
creatures.  '  Are  not  two  sparrows  sold  for  a  farthing }  ' 
said  Christ,  '  and  not  one  of  them  shall  fall  on  the  ground 
without  your  Father.'  ^  And  again  in  His  great  Sermon 
on  the  Mount :  '  Behold  the  birds  of  the  heaven,  that  they 
sow  not,  neither  do  they  reap,  nor  gather  into  barns ;  and 
your  heavenly  Father  feedeth  them.'^ 

And  so  through  all  the  history  of  Christendom  it  has 
been  proved  true  that 

'  He  prayeth  well,  who  loveth  well 
Both  man  and  bird  and  beast. 
He  prayeth  best,  who  loveth  best 
All  things  both  great  and  small  ; 
For  the  dear  God  who  loveth  us, 
He  made  and  loveth  all.' 

Another  great  difference  between  Christianity  and  System  of 
Jainism  lies  in  the  fact  that,  while  Jainism  may  fairly  be  ^^"'^^• 
regarded  as  a  system  of  ethics  rather  than  a  religion,  yet  the 
intensely  self-centred  point  of  view  of  Jainism,  in  which  all 
actions  are  judged  by  the  profit  (puny a)  that  may  accrue 
from  them,  differentiates  it  also  from  altruistic  ethical 
systems;  and  this  self-centred  attitude,  perhaps,  it  is  which 
largely  accounts  for  the  failure  of  the  Jaina  as  a  whole  to 
take  their  share  in  social  reform. 

The  supreme  difference,  however,  between  Jainism  and  Person- 
Christianity  we  have  already  glanced  at  more  than  once ;  y}^  ^ 
it  lies  in  their  treatment  of  personality  and  life.  The 
object  of  Christianity  is  to  educate  every  sense  and  to 
train  the  whole  personality,  till  the  highest  development  is 
reached,  and  we  all  attain  '  unto  a  fullgrown  man,  unto  the 
1  St.  Matt.  X.  29.  2  g^^  y[2Xt.  vi.  26. 


298         THE  EMPTY  HEART  OF  JAINISM 


The  un- 
known 
God  of 
Jainism. 


measure  of  the  stature  of  the  fulness  of  Christ  '.^  The 
key-word  of  Jainism,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  ehmination 
of  personahty.  So  long  as  a  man  has  to  live  in  this  world, 
he  should  daily  curtail  his  opportunities  of  development ; 
and  if  he  attains  to  the  ascetic  life,  he  should  see  to  it  that 
his  personality  withers  the  faster,  for  atrophy  is  his  goal. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  before  Mahavira's  death  nine 
out  of  his  twelve  disciples  carried  their  Master's  precepts  to 
their  logical  conclusion  and  gained  the  goal  of  death  through 
religious  suicide  by  starvation  ;  and  we  have  seen  how, 
through  the  long  centuries  right  down  to  the  present  time, 
this  has  been  the  practice  of  his  most  devoted  followers. 
What  could  be  a  greater  contrast  than  the  lives  of  the 
twelve  men  who  followed  Christ,  and  whose  work  after 
His  death  and  resurrection  turned  the  dead  old  world 
upside  down  ;  for  the  Master  they  served  was  one  who  had 
come  to  give  Life,  and  to  give  it  more  abundantly. 

There  is  a  strange  mystery  in  Jainism ;  for  though  it 
acknowledges  no  personal  God,  knowing  Him  neither  as 
Creator,  Father,  or  Friend,  yet  it  will  never  allow  itself  to  be 
called  an  atheistic  system.  Indeed  there  is  no  more  deadly 
insult  that  one  could  level  at  a  Jaina  than  to  call  him  a 
nastika  or  atheist. 

It  is  as  if,  though  their  king  were  yet  unknown  to  them, 
they  were  nevertheless  all  unconsciously  awaiting  his  advent 
amongst  them,  and  proudly  called  themselves  royalists. 

The  marks  which  they  will  ask  to  see  in  one  who  claims  to 
be  their  king  will  be  the  proofs  of  Incarnation  [avatdra),  of 
Suffering  [tapa),  and  of  the  Majesty  of  a  Conqueror  [Jina). 
But  when  once  they  recognize  Him,  they  will  pour  out  at 
His  feet  all  the  wealth  of  their  trained  powers  of  self-denial 
and  renunciation.  Then  shall  He,  the  Desire  of  all  nations, 
whose  right  it  is  to  reign,  take  His  seat  on  the  empty 
throne  of  their  hearts,  and  He  shall  reign  King  of  Kings 
and  Lord  of  Lords  for  ever  and  ever. 

^  Eph.  iv.  13. 


APPENDIX 

I.     ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NINE  CATEGORIES 

First  Category:  JIVA. 
It  can  be  classified  : 

i.  In  two  divisions  :     a.  Siddha. 

b.  Sarhsarf. 

ii.  In  three  divisio7is  :  a.  Male. 

b.  Female. 

c.  Neuter, 
iii.  In  foitr  divisions  :    a,  Narakl. 

b.  Tiryanc. 

c.  Manusya. 

d.  Devata. 

iv.  In  Jive  divisions',      a.  Ekendriya.       (Prithvlkaya,     Apakaya, 

Teukaya,   Vayukaya,    Vanaspatikaya 
[Pratyeka,  Sadharana].) 

b.  Be-indriya  (Dvlndriya). 

c.  Tri-indriya  (Trindriya). 

d.  Corendriya  (Caturindriya). 

e.  Pancendriya  [Samjfil  and  Asamjni]. 
V.  In  six  divisions :     a.  Prithvlkaya. 

b.  Apakaya. 

c.  Teukaya. 

d.  Vayukaya. 

e.  Vanaspatikaya. 
/.  Trasakaya. 

vi.  In  seven  somewhat  artificial  divisions  for  symmetry. 
vii.  In  eis'ht  divisions  :  a.  Sales!. 


"b 


b.  Those  swayed  by  Krisnalesya. 

c.  „        „  „  Nilalesya. 

d.  „        „  „  Kapotalesya. 

e.  „        „  „  Tejolesya. 

f.  „        „  ,,  Padmalesya. 
jr.        „         „  „  Suklalesya. 
h.        „        „  „  AlesT. 

viii.  Artificial  division  into  7iine  classes. 

ix.  I?i  te?i  divisions  :  Ekendriya  i  .  _    ' 

(  Aparyapta. 


300  APPENDIX 

(  Paryapta. 
Be-mdnya      j  ^p^^y^^p^^^. 

Tri-indriya     j  P^^V^P;^' 
^        (  Aparyapta. 

^  ,  .  I  Paryapta. 

Corendnya     \  .  _  ^_ 

(  Aparyapta. 

Pancendriya   ]   .  _    "_ 

(  Aparyapta. 

X.  /u  elevc7t  divisiofis  ;    Ekendriya. 

Be-indriya. 

Tri-indriya. 

Corendriya. 

Narakl. 

Tiryanc. 

Manusya. 

Bhavanapati  deva. 

Vyantara  deva. 

JyotisT  deva. 

Vaimanika  deva. 
xi.  Artificial  division  into  twelve  classes. 
xii.  Artificial  division  into  thirteen  classes. 
xiii.  Artificial  division  into  fourteen  classes^  two  beifig  new,  viz.  : 

Suksma  ekendriya. 

Badara  ekendriya. 

Second  Category:  AJIVA. 

A.  Ariipi  Afiva. 

1.  Dharmastikaya  (Dravya,  Ksetra,  Kala,  Bhava,  Guna). 

Skandha. 

Desa. 

Pradesa. 

2.  Adharmastikaya  (Dravya,  Ksetra,  Ka]a,  Bhava,  Guna). 

Skandha. 

Desa. 

Pradesa. 

3.  Akasastikaya  (Dravya,  Ksetra,  Ka]a,  Bhava,  Guna). 

Skandha. 

Desa. 

Pradesa. 

4.  Kala  (Dravya,  Ksetra,  Ka]a,  Bhava,  Guna). 

B.  Rupi  Ajiva. 

Pudgalastikaya. 


APPENDIX  301 


Third  Category  :  PUNYA. 

Nine  Kinds  of  Punya. 

1.  Anna  punya. 

2.  Pana  punya. 

3.  Vastra  punya. 

4.  Layana  punya. 

5.  Sayana  punya. 

6.  Mana  punya  (Manas  or  Manasa  punya). 

7.  Sarira  or  Kaya  punya. 

8.  Vacana  punya. 

9.  Namaskara  punya. 

Forty-two  Fruits  of  Pu7iya. 

1.  Satavedanlya. 

2.  Uncagotra. 

3.  Manusya  gati. 

4.  Manusya  anupurvi. 

5.  Devata  gati. 

6.  Devata  anupurvi. 

7.  Pancendriyapanum. 

8.  Audarikasarlra. 

9.  Vaikreyasarlra. 

10.  Aharakasarlra. 

11.  Audarika  angopanga. 

12.  Vaikreya  angopanga. 

13.  Aharaka  angopanga. 

14.  Taijasasarlra. 

15.  Karmanasarlra. 

16.  Vrajrarisabhanaraca  sanghayana. 

17.  Samacaturastra  santhana. 

18.  Subha  varna. 

19.  Subha  gandha. 

20.  Subha  rasa. 

21.  Subha  sparsa. 

22.  Agurulaghu  namakarma. 

23.  Paraghata  namakarma. 

24.  Ucchvasa  namakarma. 

25.  Atapa  namakarma. 

26.  Anusna  namakarma. 

27.  Subhavihayogati. 

28.  Nirmana  namakarma. 

29.  Trasa  namakarma. 

30.  Badara  namakarma. 


302  APPENDIX 

31.  Paryapti  namakarma. 

32.  Sthira  namakarma. 

33.  Pratyeka  namakarma. 

34.  Subha  namakarma. 

35.  Subhaga  namakarma. 

36.  Susvara  namakarma. 

37.  Adeya  namakarma. 

38.  Yasoklrtti  namakarma. 

39.  Devata  ayusya. 

40.  Manusya  ayusya. 

41.  Tiryanc  ayusya. 

42.  Tirthankara  namakarma. 


I 


Fourth  Category  :  PAPA. 

Eight ee7i  Kinds  0/  Sin. 

1.  Jiva  hirhsa. 

a.  Bhava  himsa. 

b.  Dravya  himsa. 

2.  Asatya  or  Mrisavada. 

3.  Adattadana. 

4.  Abrahmacarya. 

5.  Parigraha. 


Kasaya 
or  Can- 
dala 
Cokadl. 


6.  Krodha.\ 


Ki7ids 


a.  Aprasasta. 
.  b,  Prasasta. 
Length  of  time  indulged  in  :  Anantanubandhl, 
Apratyakhyani,  Pratyakhyani,  Sanjvalana. 


7.  Mana, 

8.  Maya. 
V  9.  Lobha. 

10.  Raga  or  Asakti. 

11.  Dvesa  or  Irsya. 

12.  Klesa. 

13.  Abhyakhyana. 

14.  Paisunya. 

15.  Ninda. 

16.  Rati,  Arati. 

17.  Mayamrisa. 

18.  Mithyadarsana  Salya. 

Some  of  the  twenty-five  divisions  of  Mithyadarsana  Salya : 

Laukika  mithyatva. 
Lokottara  mithyatva. 
Abhigrahika  mithyatva. 
Ajiiana  mithyatva. 


APPENDIX  303 

Avinaya  mithyatva. 
Asatana  mithyatva. 
Anabhigrahika  mithyatva. 

The  Eighty-iiL'o  Results  of  Sin  : 

Five  Jndndvaraniya. 
Matijnanavaranlya. 
Srutajnanavaranlya. 
Avadhijfianavaraniya. 
Manahparyayajnanavaraniya. 
Kevalajnanavaranlya. 

Five  Antardya. 
Danantaraya. 
Labhantaraya. 
Bhogantaraya. 
Upabhogantaraya. 
Viryantaraya. 

The  Four  Darsandvaraniya. 
Caksudarsanavaramya. 
Acaksudarsanavaranlya. 
Avadhidarsanavaranlya. 
Kevaladarsanavaranlya. 

The  Five  Nidrd. 
Nidra. 
Nidranidra. 
Pracala. 
Pracalapracala. 
Styanarddhi  {or  Thinarddhi). 

Five  Uiiclassijied  Results. 

20.  Nicagotra. 

21.  Narakagati. 

22.  Asatavedanlya. 

23.  Narakanupurvl. 

24.  Narakayu. 

Twenty -five  Kasdya. 

25-40.  Sixteen  already  discussed   (Anger,  Pride,  Deceit,  Envy, 
and  their  subdivisions) 

and  Nine  Nokasaya,  namely  : — 

41.  Hasya. 

42.  Rati. 

43.  Arati. 


I. 

I. 

2. 

2. 

3. 

3- 

4. 

4- 

5. 

5- 

6. 

I. 

7- 

2. 

8. 

0- 

9- 

4. 

10. 

5. 

II. 

I. 

12. 

2. 

13. 

3. 

14. 

4. 

15. 

I. 

16. 

2. 

17. 

3- 

18. 

4. 

19. 

5- 

304  APPENDIX 

44.  Bhaya.  I 

45.  Soka.  I 

46.  Dugancha. 

47.  Purusaveda. 

48.  Strlveda. 

49.  Napumsakaveda. 

Six  Results  aff'ecting  Class. 

50.  Tiryanc  anupurvl. 

51.  Tiryanc  gati. 

52.  Ekendriya  nama. 

53.  Be-indriya  nama. 

54.  Tri-indriya  nama. 

55.  Corendriya  nama. 

Six  Physical  Blemishes. 

56.  Asubha  vihayogati. 

57.  Upaghata  nama. 

58.  Asubha  varna. 

59.  Asubha  gandha. 

60.  Asubha  rasa. 

61.  Asubha  sparsa. 

Five  Sahghena. 

62.  Risabhanaraca  sanghena. 

63.  Naraca  (or  Naraya)  sanghena. 

64.  Ardhanaraca  (-naraya)  sanghena. 

65.  Klhka  sanghena. 

66.  Sevartta  sanghena. 

Five  Samsthdna. 

67.  Nyagrodhaparimandala  samsthana. 

68.  Sadi  samsthana. 

69.  Kubjaka  samsthana. 

70.  Vamana  samsthana. 

71.  Hunda  samsthana. 

Sthdvara  Dasaka. 

72.  Sthavara. 

73.  Suksma. 

74.  Aparyapti. 

75.  Sadharana. 

76.  Asthira. 
']'].  Asubha. 

78.  Durbhaga. 

79.  Dusvara. 


APPENDIX  305 

80.  Anadeya. 

81.  Ayasa. 

82.  Mithyatva  mohanlya. 

Fifth  Category  :    ASRAVA. 

Fo7ty-t'wo  Chief  Channels  by  which  Karma  may  enter. 
Seve?iteen  Majo?-  Asrava. 

1.  Kana  (Karna).  \ 

2.  Ankha  (Aksa). 

3.  Naka  (Nas).        V  Karma  enters  through  the  Five  Senses. 

4.  Jibha  (Jihva). 

5.  Sparsa.  / 

6.  Krodha.\ 

7.  Mana.        .^  ,  ,     ,     ^        ^^ 

^    ^_   _      Y  Karma  enters  through  the  Four  Kasaya. 

9.  Lobha.  i 

10.  Killing. 

11.  Lying. 

12.  Thieving. 

13.  Coveting. 

14.  Unchastity 

15.  Mind. 

16.  Body. 

17.  Speech. 


Karma   enters  through  not  taking  the  five 
vows  to  avoid  these  sins. 


Karma  enters  through  not  maintaining  the  Three 
Yoga  (control). 


Twenty -five  Minor  Asrava. 

1.  Kayikl. 

2.  AdhikaranikT. 

3.  Pradvesikl. 

4.  Paritapaniki. 

5.  PranatipatikT. 

6.  Arambhikr. 

7.  ParigrahikT. 

8.  Mayapratyayiki. 

9.  MithyadarsanapratyayikT. 

10.  Apratyakhyanikl. 

11.  Dristiki. 

12.  Spristikl. 

13.  Pratityakl. 

14.  SamantopanipatikT. 

15.  Naisastriki. 

16.  Svahastiki. 

17.  Ajiiapaniki. 

X 


3o6  APPENDIX 

1 8.  VaidaranikT. 

19.  Anabhogikl. 

20.  Anavakahksapratyayikl. 

21.  Prayogikl. 

22.  Samudayiki. 

23.  Premikl. 

24.  Dvesikl. 
2$.  Iryapathikl. 

Sixth  Category:  SAMVARA. 

Fifty-seven  Ways  of  Impeding  Karma. 
Five  Samiti. 

1.  Irya  samiti. 

2.  Bhasa  samiti. 

3.  Esana  samiti. 

4.  Adananiksepana  samiti. 

5.  Parithapanika  samiti  {or  Utsarga  samiti). 

Three  Gupti. 

6.  Manogupti. 

a.  Asatkalpanaviyogl. 

b.  Samatabhavinl. 

c.  Atmaramata. 

7.  Vacanagupti. 

a.  Maunavalambi. 

b.  Vakniyami. 

8.  Kayagupti. 

a.  Yathasutracestaniyami. 

b.  Cestanivritti. 

•  •  • 

Tiveiity-tiuo  ParTsaha. 

9.  Ksudlia  parlsaha. 

10.  Trisa  „ 

11.  ^Ita  ,, 

12.  Usna  „ 

13.  Uariisa  ,, 

14.  Vastra  „ 

15.  Arati  „ 

16.  Strl  „ 

17.  Carya  „ 

18.  NaisidhikI  (Naisedhikl)  parlsaha. 

19.  Sayya  parlsaha. 

20.  Akrosa      „ 


APPENDIX 


?,^'1 


21.  Vadha  parlsaha. 

22.  Yaiica  (Yacana)  parlsaha. 

23.  Alabha  „ 

24.  Roga  „ 

25.  Trinasparsa 

26.  Mela 

27.  Satkara 

28.  Prajna 

29.  Ajnana 

30.  Samyaktva 


5J 


») 


)5 


>; 


>J 


J> 


7>«  Duties  of  Monks  (Dasa  Yatidharma). 

31.  Ksama. 

32.  Mardava. 

33.  Arjava. 

34.  Nirlobhata. 

35.  Tapa  (Tapas). 

36.  Sariiyama. 

37.  Satya. 

38.  Sauca. 

39.  Akiriicinatva. 

40.  Brahmacarya. 


41. 

42. 

43. 
44. 

45. 


Five  Caritra  or  Rules  of  Conduct. 

Samayika  caritra. 
Chedopasthapanlya  caritra. 
Pariharavisuddha  caritra. 
Suksmasamparaya  caritra. 
Yathakhyata  caritra. 


>•  Nine  first  Reflections. 


Twelve  Bhavana  (or  Amipreksa). 

46.  Anitya  bhavana. 

47.  Asarana 

48.  Sariisara 

49.  Ekatva 

50.  Anyatva 

51.  Asauca 

52.  Asrava 

53.  Samvara 

54.  Nirjara 

55.  Loka 

56.  Bodhibija 

57.  Dharma 


\ 


Three  additional  Reflections. 


X2 


3o8  APPENDIX 

Seventh  Category:  BAND  HA. 

Bondage  to  Karma  is  of  four  kinds  : 

1.  Prakriti. 

2.  Sthiti. 

3.  Anubhaga. 

4.  Pradesa. 

Eighth  Category  :  NIRJARA. 

Karma  can  be  destroyed  by  '.—Six  Exterior  (Bahya)  Austerities, 

1.  Anasana. 

a.  Itvara. 

b.  Yavatkathika. 

2.  Unodarl. 

3.  Vrittisanksepa. 

a.  Dravya. 

b.  Ksetra. 

c.  Kala. 

d.  Bhava. 

4.  Rasatyaga.  . 

5.  Kayaklesa. 

6.  Saitillnata. 

a.  Indriya  sarrillnata. 

b.  Kasaya  samlinata. 

c.  Yoga  samlinata. 

d.  Viviktacarya. 

Six  Interior  (Abhyantara)  Austerities. 

1.  Prayascitta. 

2.  Vinaya. 

a.  Jiiana   vinaya. 

b.  Darsana     „ 

c.  Caritra      ,, 

d.  Mana         „ 

e.  Vacana  „ 
/.  Kaya  „ 
g.  Kalpa         „ 

3.  Vaiyavacca  (Vaiyavritya). 

4.  Svadhyaya. 

5.  Dhyana. 

Arta  dhyana.     ]       .. 
Raudra  dhyana.) 
Dharma  dhyana.)  , 

Sukla  dhyana.     l"-'^' 

6.  Utsarga. 


APPENDIX  309 


Ninth  Category  :  MOKSA. 

Inhabited  by  Fifteen  Kinds  of  Siddha. 

1.  Jina  Siddha. 

2.  Ajina  Siddha. 

3.  Tirtha  Siddha. 

4.  Atlrtha  Siddha. 

5.  Grihalinga  Siddha. 

6.  Anyalinga  Siddha. 

7.  Svalinga  Siddha. 

8.  Pullinga  Siddha. 

9.  Stnhnga  Siddha. 

10.  Napumsakalinga  Siddha. 

11.  Buddhabohl  Siddha. 

12.  Pratyekabuddha  Siddha. 

13.  Svayambuddha  Siddha. 

14.  Eka  Siddha. 

15.  Aneka  Siddha. 

End  of  the  Nine  Categories. 

Analysis  of  Karma. 

Four  Sources  of  Karma. 
Avirati. 
Kasaya. 
Yoga. 
Mithyatva. 

Eight  Kinds  of  Karma. 
A.  Ghatin  Karma. 

I.  Jnanavaraniya  karma. 

a.  Matijnanavaraniya. 

Utpatikl. 
Vainayikr. 
Parinamikl. 
Kamiki. 

b.  SrutajiianavaranTya. 

c.  Manahparyayajiianavaranlya. 

d.  Avadhijiianavaranlya. 

e.  Kevalajfianavaranlya. 
/.  Mati  ajMna. 

g.  Sruta  ajiiana. 
h.  Vibhanga  jMna. 


3IO  APPENDIX 

2.  Darsanavaranlya  karma. 

3.  Mohanlya  karma. 

Some  of  the  twenty-eight  divisions  : 
Mithyatvamohanlya  karma. 
Misramohanlya  karma. 
Samyaktvamohanlya  kanr.a. 
DarsanamohanTya  karma. 
Caritramohanlya  karma. 

4.  Antaraya  karma. 
B,  Aghatin  karma. 

5.  Vedaniya  karma. 

Satavedanlya. 
Asatavedanlya. 

6.  Ayu  karma. 

a.  Deva  ayu  karma. 

Jyotisi  ayu  karma. 
Vyantara  ayu  karma. 
Vaimanika  ayu  karma. 
Bhavanapati  ayu  karma. 

b.  Manusya  ayu  karma. 

Karmabhumi 

Akarmabhiimi. 

c.  Tiryanc  ayu  karma. 

d.  Naraka  ayu  karma. 

7.  Nama  karma. 

8.  Gotra  karma. 

Three  Tenses  of  Karma. 

Satta  karma. 
Bandha  karma. 
Udaya  karma. 

Two  types  of  Karma. 
Nikacita  a7id  Sithila  karma. 
Fourteen  Steps  of  Liberation  from  Karma. 
(Cauda  Gunasthanaka.) 

1.  Mithyatva  gunasthanaka. 

Vyaktamithyatva  gunasthanaka. 
Avyaktamithyatva  gunasthanaka. 

2.  Sasvasadana  gunasthanaka. 


APPENDIX  311 

3.  Misra  gunasthanaka. 

4.  Aviratisamyagdristi  gunasthanaka. 

5.  Desavirati  {or  Sariiyatasamyata)  gunasthanaka. 

a.  Jaghanya  desavirati. 

b.  Madhyama  desavirati. 

c.  Utkrista  desavirati. 

6.  Pramatta  gunasthanaka. 

7.  Apramatta  gunasthanaka. 

8.  Niyatibadara  {or  Apurvakarana)  gunasthanaka. 

9.  Aniyatibadara  gunasthanaka. 

10.  Siiksmasamparaya  gunasthanaka. 

11.  Upasantamoha  gunasthanaka. 

12.  KsTnamoha  gunasthanaka. 

13.  Sayogikevah  gunasthanaka. 

14.  Ayogikevalr  gunasthanaka. 


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INDEX 


Abhayadevasuri,  84. 
Abhigrahika  mithyatva,  131. 
Abhikhanam      itthlnam      kaham 

kaha  itame,  236. 
Abhinandana,  52,  312. 
Abhyakhyana,  129. 
Ablutions,  228. 
Abotana,  195. 
Abrahmacarya,  119. 
Abstinence,  262  f. 
Abu,  252,  282  ff. 
Acaksudarsanavaraniya,  133. 
Acaranga  Sutra,  13,16,  27n.,  gSn., 
_  99  n.,  128  n. 

Acarya,    80  n.,    229,    240  f.,    254, 
_  262. 
Acarya,   Thirty-six    qualities    of, 

241. 
Account  books,  worship  of,  261. 
Acela  parlsaha,  149  n. 
Acuya,  270. 

Adananiksepana  samiti,  146,  234. 
Adattadana,  1 19. 
Adattadana  viramana  vrata,  208. 
Addhasamaya  Kaja,  107. 
Adeya  namakarma,  115. 
Adharma,  106  n. 
Adharmastikaya,  106  ff. 
AdhikaranikI  asrava,  141. 
Adhogati,  166. 
Adholoka,  271. 
Adinatha,  see  Risabhadeva. 
Adoration,  Prayer  of,  242. 
Adultery,  see  Chastity. 
Affection,  see  Attachment. 
Afghanistan,  74. 
Agamikagaccha,  87. 
Aghatin  karma,  184,  190. 
Agnibhiiti,  65. 
Agni  Kumara,  269,  277. 
Agriculture,  214. 
Agurulaghu  namakarma,  114. 
Ahara,  104. 

Aharaka  angopanga,  113. 
Aharakasarira,  113.     - 


Ahiihsa,  89,  loo,  116,  234,  294  ff. 
Ahiriisa  dharma,  116. 
Ahmadabad,    19,    87,    163,     164, 

283  ff.,  293  n. 
Ahoratra,  272  n. 
Ailaka  Sravaka,  224. 
Air,  100. 
Ajayapala,  17. 
Ajina  Siddha,  170. 
Ajitanatha,  51,  312. 
AjTva,  78,  96,  106,  300. 
Ajlvika  order,  58,  86. 
Ajiiana,  175. 
Ajfiana  mithyatva,  131. 
Ajiiana  parlsaha,  151. 
AjiiapanikI  asrava,  142. 
Akampita,  65,  65  n. 
Akarmabhumi,  181. 
Akasastikaya,  106  ff. 
Akimcinatva,  154. 
Akriyavada  doctrine,  91. 
Akrosa  parlsaha,  150. 
Aksa  asrava,  see  Afikha  asrava. 
Aksata  piija,  229,  250,  251,  252, 

254. 
Alabha  parisaha,  150. 
Alabhika,  42. 
Ala-ud-din,  17. 
AlesT,  104. 
Alms,  133. 

Aloi  pana  bhoyana,  234. 
Aloka,  108. 

Alphabet,  invention  of,  274. 
Amama,  277. 
Amara,  232. 
Amara,  278. 
Amasa,  261. 
Amba,  268. 
Ambada,  277. 
Ambarasa,  268. 
Ambela,  263. 
Amohe,  270. 

Anabhigrahika  mithyatva,  131. 
Anabhogikl  asrava,  143. 
Anadeya,  138. 


INDEX 


3^5 


Ananda,  276. 

Anandasravaka,  276. 

Anandavijayajl,  239  n. 

Anantanatha,  55,  313. 

Anantanubandhi,  123. 

AnantavTrya,  278. 

Anapana  prana,  96. 

AnapannI,  270. 

Anartha  danda  vrata,  214. 

Anasana,  163. 

Anata,  270. 

Anatomy,  Jaina  ideas  of,  137. 

Anavakanksapratyayiki      asrava, 

143- 
Ancalagaccha,  76  n.,  Zj. 

Ancestors,  266. 

Anekantavadin,  91. 

Aneka  Siddha,  171. 

Anga,  40. 

Anga     puja,    see    Angaluiichana 

puja. 
Anga,  the  eleven,  13,  64,  72,  Son., 

84,  240. 
Angalunchana  puja,  251. 
Anger,  103,  ii9ff.,  173, 181,  i87ff.; 

see  also  Krodha. 
Anhilvada     Patana,    see    Patana 

(Anhilvada). 
Animals,  loi,  102. 
Animals,  asylums  for,  296,  296  n. 
Animals,  kindness    to,   61,   206, 

294  ff. ;  see  also  Ahiiiisa. 
Animism,  89,  97. 
Anitya  bhavana,  156. 
Aniyatibadara  gunasthanaka,  189. 
Aiijanasalaka,  263. 
Ankha  asrava,  139. 
Anna  punya,  no. 
Anojja,  29. 

Antagada  Dasanga,  13. 
Antakritanga,  13. 
Antaratyaga,  I54n. 
Antaraya   karma,   133,  183,  184, 

190  n. 
Antarmuhurtta,  98  n. 
Anubhaga,  162. 
AnubimabhasT,  235. 
Anuja,  29. 
Anukampa,  187. 
Anumatityaga  pratima,  223. 
Anumodanavrata  pratima,  223  n. 
Anuna  vihapana  bhoyane,  236. 
Anupreksa,  see  Bhavana. 


Anusna  namakarma,  114. 
AnuttaravasI  Deva,  190. 
Anuttaravimana,  270,  272. 
Anuttaropapatika,  13. 
Anuttarovavai  Dasanga,  13. 
Anuvli  mitoggaha  jati,  236. 
Anuvrata,  the  five,  205,  210,  257. 
Anuyogadvara,  14. 
Anyalinga  Siddha,  171. 
Anyatva  bhavana,  158. 
Apacakhanavaranlya,  j"^^  Apratya- 

khyanl. 
Apadhyana,  214. 
Apakaya,  97,  98,  102,  104,  105. 
Apapa,  61. 
Aparajita,  80  n.,  270. 
Aparigraha  vrata,  237. 
Aparyapta,  104,  105,  106. 
Aparyapti,  138. 
Apasaro,  Apasara,    81,   ^t,,   146, 

158,215,217,219,  232ff.,  239 ff., 

254,  258,  259  ff. 
Ape,  52. 

Apramatta  gunasthanaka,  188. 
Aprasasta  krodha,  120. 
ApratyakhyanT,  123. 
ApratyakhyanikT  asrava,  142. 
Apiirvakarana,  188. 
Araja,  see  Nuns. 
Arambhatyaga  pratiina,  223. 
Arambhiki  asrava,  141. 
Arana,  270. 
Aranatha,  56,  313. 
AratI,  266. 
Arati  parlsaha,  149. 
AratI  puja,  250,  252. 
Arati,  Rati,  135. 
Architecture,  279  ff. 
Arcot,  18. 

Ardha-MagadhT,  15,  286. 
ArdhanSraca  sanghena,  137. 
Ardraka,  59. 
Arhata,  39. 
Arihanta,  39,  220,  229,  232,  241, 

254. 
Arista  Neminatha,  57. 
Arjava,  152. 
Armenia,  285. 
Arta  dhyana,  168. 
Artha,  244  n. 

Artificers,  Temple  of  the,  282. 
Aruhanta,  39. 
Arupi  Ajiva,  106. 


3i6 


INDEX 


Aryaraksita,  78  n. 

Asadha  Acarya,  73. 

Asadhl  punema,  261. 

Asakti,  126. 

Asariijfil  pancendriya,  loi,  106. 

Asarana  bhavana,  157. 

Asatana  mithyatva,  131. 

Asatavedanlya,  134,  179. 

Asatkalpana  viyogi,  147. 

Asatkarya  doctrine,  90. 

Asatya,  118. 

Asatya  tyaga,  2,35. 

Asauca  bhavana,  159. 

Ascetic,  the  ideal,  238. 

Asceticism,  Ascetics,  i  fif.,  23,  30, 
32,34ff.,4o,48,  73,  88,112,131, 
145  ff.,  188  ff.,  225  ff.,  289  ff. 

Ascetics,  five  vows  of,  234  ff. 

—  ten  duties  of,  151  ff. 

Asi,  181. 

Asipata,  268. 

Asoka,  King,  12,  70  n.,  74,  74  n., 
85,  280. 

Asoka  tree,  31,  191,  225,  269. 

Asrama,  3. 

Asrava,  216. 

Asrava,  the  forty-two,  iion.,  139, 

_  305  f- 

Asrava  bhavana,  159. 

Assistant  vows,  see  Gunavrata. 

Astapada,  i.e.  Kailasa,  51. 

Asteya  vrata,  235. 

Astha,  187. 

Asthikagrama,  41. 

Asthira,  138. 

Astikaya,  61. 

Astrologers,  193,  196. 

Astronomy,  70. 

Asubha,  138. 

Asubha  asrava,  141. 

Asubha  gandha,  136. 

Asubha  karma,  139. 

Asubha  rasa,  136. 

Asubha  sparsa,  136. 

Asubha  varna,  136. 

Asubha  vihayogati,  136. 

Asura  Kumara,  269. 

Asvamitra,  73. 

Asvasena,  King,  48. 

Asvina,  266. 

Atapa  namakarma,  1 1 4. 

Aticara,  five,  205  ff. 

Atirtha  Siddha,  170. 


Atithi  sariivibhaga  vrata,  2i8f. 
Atma,  37,  91,94,95,  176. 
Atmaramajl,  239  n.  | 

Atmaramata,  147. 
Attachment,  126,  130,  136. 
Attraction,  see  Adharmastikaya. 
Aturapratyakhyana,  15. 
Auction  of  ghi,  252. 
Audarika  angopanga,  113. 
Audarika     body,    see    Audarika- 

sarlra. 
AudarikasarTra,  113,  206. 
Aupapatika,  13. 
Auspicious  signs,  23  ff. 
Austerity,  89,  153,  155,  160,  229, 

254  ;  see  also  Tapa. 
Austerities,  the  six  exterior,  163  ff. 
—  the  six  interior,  165  ff. 
Avadhidarsanavaranlya,  133. 
Avadhi  jiiana,  33. 
Avadhijnanavaraniya,  132,  177. 
Avalika,  272  n. 
AvantT  Kumara,  75. 
Avarice,  152  ff. ;  see  also  Lobha. 
Avartana,  216,  220. 
Avasahi,  229. 
AvasarpinI,  68  n,  272  ff. 
Avasyaka,  14,  258. 
Avatara,  298  ;  see  Incarnation. 
Avidya,  91. 

Avinaya  mithyatva,  131. 
Avirati  karma,  173. 
Aviratisamyagdristi       gunastha- 

naka,  186. 
Avrata,  the  five,  i4off.,  162. 
Avvaiyar,  287. 
Avyakta,  73. 

Avyaktamithyatva  gunasthanaka, 
_  185. 

Ayanabhanda  nikhevana,  235. 
Ayasa,  139. 
Ayodhya,  48,  51,  55. 
Ayogikevall  gunasthanaka,  191. 
Ayu  karma,  i8off.,  184,  190  n. 
Ayu  prana,  96. 
Ayuhpaccakhana,  15. 
Ayusya,  116. 

Babyhood,  193. 

Badami,  281. 

Badara,  106. 

Badara  namakarma,  1 1 5. 

Bahubaja,  152. 


INDEX 


?>^1 


Baladeva,  56  n.,  58,  274,  277. 

Bala  prana,  96. 

Bandagl,  247. 

Bandha,  161  ii.,  185,  308. 

Baniya,  21,  22,  24011. 

Banyan  tree,  225,  269. 

Bappabhattlsuri,  83  fF. 

Bareilly,  280. 

Baroda,  233. 

Barodia,  U.  D.,  92. 

Basti,  285. 

Beads,  telling  of,  243,  254,  258. 

Be-indriya  jTva,  97,  99  ff.,  104. 

Be-indriya  nama,  136. 

Begging,  219,  229  ff. 

Benares,  48,  49,  78. 

Benarsi  Dass,  Mr.  Lala,  35,  Son., 

ii6n.,  ii8n. 
Bergson,  107  n. 
Besarh,  21. 
Betel  nut,  see  Soparl. 
Betrothal  ceremonies,  195  ff. 
Betta,  285. 
Bhadaravo.  month  of,  see  Bhadra- 

pada. 
Bhadde,  270. 
Bhaddila,  64. 
Bhaddilapura,  53. 
Bhadrabahu,  10,  18,  70 ff.,  Son. 
Bhadrabahu  Samhita,  70. 
Bhadrajina,  278. 
Bhadrapada,  76,  260. 
Bhadrika,  42. 

Bhagavadglta,  Ii2n.,  128,  239. 
Bhagavatlji,  13,  239. 
Bhaibija,  263. 
Bhajrava,  264. 
Bhaktamara  stotra,  80  n. 
Bhakti,  127  ff.,  178. 
t\   BhanajT,  88. 

Bhandarkar,  Dr.,  81  n.,  90  n.,  92, 

95n.,  106 n.,  I79n.,  i82n.,  i84n, 
Bharata,  i.e.  India,  56,  216  n. 
Bharata,   King,    51,    121  n.,   158, 

170. 
Bharataksetra,  170. 
Bhasa,  104. 

Bhasa  samiti,  145,  234. 
Bhava,  108,  164. 
Bhava  himsa,  117. 
Bhavana,  Pafica,  234. 
Bhavana,  the  twelve,  1 56  ff. 
Bhavanapati,  105,  181,  269. 


Bhava  pijja,  228  f. 

Bhavnagar,  13. 

Bhavya  jTva,  242  n. 

Bhaya,  135. 

Bhayam  parijanai,  235. 

Bhogantaraya,  133,  183. 

Bhopal,  226. 

Bhiita,  265  f.,  269. 

Bhutavayl,  270. 

Bihar,  8,  13,  17,  40,  41,  84,  86. 

Bindusara,  10. 

Birth  ceremonies,  193  ff.,  200  ff. 

Black  statues,  58. 

Blemishes,  physical,  136. 

Boar,  54. 

Bodhibija  bhavana,  160. 

Bodhidurlabha  bhavana,  160. 

Bolachotha,  263. 

Bombay,  233. 

Bondage  to  karma,  162. 

Borsad,  251  n. 

Brahma,  31,  270. 

Brahmacarya,  154. 

Brahmacarya  pratima,  223. 

Brahmacarya  vrata,  236  f. 

Brahmans,  3  ff.,  17,  18,  21,  26,  31, 
34,  35n.,  39,  46,  48,  50,  52,  61, 
63,67,  70,  76,  78, 81  n.,86,89, 94, 
197,  199,  204n.,  230,  234,  250, 
279. 

Brahmi,  274. 

Brihatkalpa,  14,  145. 

Broach,  78. 

Brush,  see  Whisk. 

Buddha,  39,  40,  42,  43. 

Buddha  (name  of  Mahavira),  27. 

Buddhabohl  Siddha,  171. 

Buddha  Kirti,  50. 

Buddhimana,  Son. 

Buddhism,  3,  9,  12,  17,  18,  59,  67, 
74,77,81,82,84,86,87,89,91, 
94, 1 1 7, 172,  217,  234,  247, 279f., 
286. 

Buffalo,  54. 

Buhler,  Dr.,  28,  86 n.,  106 n. 

Burgess,  Dr.,  280. 

Burma,  117. 

Buttressing  clauses  to  vows,  234  ff. 

Caitanya,  95. 
Caitrl  punema,  261,  263. 
Caitya,  280. 
Caityavandana,  229. 


3i8 


INDEX 


Caka,  198. 

CakravartI,  25,  56,  274. 
Caksudarsanavaranlya,  133. 
Caksurindriya,  96. 
Camarl  puja,  252. 
Cambay,  287. 
Campaka  tree,  269. 
Campapurl,  40,  41,  54. 
Candala  cokadi,  125. 
Candalo,  195,  199,  229. 
Candana,  61  n.,  66,  66  n. 
Candana  puja,  229,  250,  251,  254. 
Candapannati,  14. 
Candavijaya,  15. 
Candra,  270. 
Candragaccha,  80  n. 
Candragupta,  10,  70,  7011. 
Candraprabhu,  53,  312. 
Candraprajnapti,  14. 
Candrasuri,  80  n. 
Candravedhyaka,  15. 
Cangadeva,  287. 
Canon  of  Scriptures,  11,  I3fif. 
-7-  (Digambara),  16. 
Carananuyoga,  16,  240  n. 
Caranasitarl,  240. 
Caritra,  the  five,  154  if.,  241. 
Caritramohanlya  karma,  180. 
Caritra  vinaya,  166. 
Caritrya,  246. 
Carya  parlsaha,  149. 
Caste,  9,  21,  168,  182,  270 f.,  293. 
Categories,  the  nine,  94  ff.,  App.  I. 
Catuhsarana,  14. 
Caturindriya,  see  Corendriya. 
CaturmasI,  see  Comasl. 
Caturvirhsatistava,  see  Cauvisant- 
.  tho. 
Cauda  Gunasthanaka,  185  ff.,  219, 

222. 
Caudasa,  see  Kallcaudasa. 
Caulakya  dynasty,  288. 
Causarana,  14. 
Cauvisanttho,  255. 
Cavada  dynasty,  82. 
Cave-temples,  280. 
Celibacy,  68,  70 :  see  also  Brah- 

macarya. 
Cestanivritti,  148. 
Cetaka,  King,  40,  66  n. 
Character,  162,  229,  254,  297  ff. 


Charity,  202,  203,  244  n.,  258. 
Chastity,    -^7^   59,  n?,  118,  209, 

236,  237,  241  ;   see  also  Brah- 

macarya. 
ChatthT,       Mother,      see     Sixth, 

Mother. 
Chedagrantha,  14,  16. 
Chedopasthapanlya  caritra,  155. 
Childless  Women,  267. 
Children,  131,  193  ff.,  267. 
Cholera,  266. 
Christ,  see  Jesus  Christ. 
Christianity,  122  n.,  125  n.,  127  n., 

144, 189,  192, 239,  247  ff.,  288  n., 

289  ff. 
Circumambulation,  280. 
Citragupta,  277. 

Classification,  Jaina  genius  for,  109. 
Cleanliness,  146  ff. 
Climate,  2. 
Clothing,  145,  149,  226,  231,  239, 

239  n. ;  see  also  Nudity. 
Cocoa-nut,  194  ff-,  293  ff. 
Cold,  enduring,  see  Sita  parlsaha. 
Colour  of  the  soul,  102,  124  ff. 
Colours,  108. 
Comasi,  123,  166. 
Commerce,  213  ff. 
Committees,  see  Mahajana. 
Compromise,  126. 
Conceit,  see  Pride. 
Conch  shell,  58. 
Conduct,   the   five    rules    of,   see 

Caritra. 

—  Right,  205,  245  ff.,  262. 

—  Thirty-five  rules  of,  243  ff. 
Conferences,  Jaina,  288  n. 

—  the  twelve,  191. 
Confession,  50,  loi,  120, 123, 166, 

231,  256. 

Consecration  of  an  idol,  263. 

Constellations,  270 ;  see  also  Nak- 
satra. 

Contentment,  152  ff. 

Converts  to  Jainism,  219  n. 

Corendriya  jiva,  97,  100,  104. 

Corendriya  nama,  136. 

Cotall,  198. 

Covetousness,  119,247. 

Crab,  53. 

Creator,  Creation,  109,  128,  192. 

Cremation,  see  P'uneral  cere- 
monies. 


INDEX 


319 


Crocodile,  53. 

Crooke,  W.,  100. 

Cruelty,  296. 

Cult,  18. 

Customs,  193^1,  r'.54  fif. 

Cuttack,  85. 

Dadhivahana,  King,  61  n. 
Daily  Duties  of  Ascetics,  228. 
Daiiisa  Parlsaha,  149. 
Danantaraya,  133,  183. 
Danda,  46. 
Darbha  grass,  220. 
Darsana,  163  n.,  228. 
Darsanamohanlya  karma,  180. 
Darsana  pratima,  222. 
Darsanavaranlya  karma,  133, 178, 

184,  190  n. 
Darsana  vinaya,  166. 
Dasapurvl,  72. 
Dasarnabhadra,  74. 
Dasasrutaskandha,  14. 
Dasavaikalika,  14,  16. 
Dasa   Yatidharma,  see  Ascetics, 

ten  duties  of. 
Dasera,  264. 
Daya,  259. 

Death,  Beliefs  about,  44. 
Death  ceremonies,  202  ff. 
Deceit,  152,  173  ;  see  also  Maya. 
Deer,  56. 

Deliverance,  see  Moksa. 
Demi-gods,  loi,  105,  268  ff. 
Demons,  41,  54,  97,  268  ff. 
Desa,  io6ff. 
Desacaritrya,  246. 
Desavakasika  vrata,  216  ff. 
Desavirati  gunasthanaka,  187. 
Desavrati,  220. 
Deva,  105,  222. 
Deva  ayu  karma,  180. 
Devacandra,  287. 
Deva  gati,  182. 
Devajina,  278. 
DevakT,  26  n.,  277. 
Devaloka,  6on.,  160, 164, 169,  270, 

273,  274,  276,  277,  278. 
—  gods  of,  270,  272. 
Devananda,  26,  46,  47. 
Devapala,  King,  ']']. 
DevarddhI,  13. 
Devaslya  Padlkamanurii,  258. 
Devasruta,  276. 


Devata,  97,  97  n.,  no,  114,  116. 

Devata  anupurvi,  113. 

Devata  gati,  113. 

Devata  ayusya,  116. 

Devayuhkarma,  see  Deva  ayu 
karma. 

Devendrastava,  15. 

Devi,  Queen,  56. 

Devindathuo,  15. 

Dhamila,  64. 

Dhanaterasa,  261. 

Dhanduka,  287. 

Dhanu,  268. 

Dhara,  52. 

Dharanendra,  49. 

Dharma,io6n.,i56, 157,  222, 244 n. 

Dharma  bhavana,  161. 

Dharmadasaganl,  82. 

Dharmadhyana,  168. 

Dharma  Labha,  230. 

Dharmanatha,  55,  313. 

Dharmasena,  80  n. 

Dharmasena  II,  80  n. 

Dharmastikaya,  106  ff. 

Dhataki  Khanda,  108,  132. 

DhatakI  tree,  49. 

Dhritisena,  Son. 

Dhumra  prabha,  271. 

Dhundhla,  I9,  88. 

Dhupa  puja,  229,  251,  254. 

Dhyana,  168. 

Diagram  of  heaven,  hell,  &:c., 
271  f. 

Digambara,  12,  18,  23,  24,  25,  28, 
30, 31  n.,  33,  36,  40,  41,  44,  53  ff., 
67  n.,  72,  78,  79,  79  n.,  80,  80  n., 
94,  lion.,  I22n.,  155,  156,  169, 
188,  190,  208,  217,  224,  226  f., 
239 ff.,  250 ff.,  258,  281. 

—  Canon,  16,  72. 

—  Worship,  250. 
Diksa,  see  Initiation. 
Dilavara  temples,  see  Abu. 
Dinnasuri,  ']^  n. 

Dlpa  puja,  229,  251,  252,  254. 

Disa  Kumara,  269. 

Discipline,     five     rules     of,     see 

Caritra. 
Dishonesty,  see  Honesty. 
Disivrata  parimana,  211  ff. 
Divall,  44,  45,  227,  260,  265. 
Dravida,  128. 
Dravida,  128. 


INDEX 


Dravya,  6i,  95,  108,  164,  255. 
Dravya  abiriisa,  117. 
Dravya  hirhsa,  117. 
Dravyanuyoga,  16. 
Dreams,  the  fourteen,  22  fF. 
Dridhaketu,  276. 
DristikI  asrava,  142. 
Dristivada  Anga,  15. 
Dudhapaka,  195. 
Dugancha,  136. 
Duhsama,  see  Dusama. 
Duppasahasuri,  275. 
Durbhaga,  138. 
Dusama,  163,  275,  276. 
Dusama  Dusama,  275,  276. 
Dusama    Susama,    26,    51,    274, 

276. 
Dusvara,  138. 
Duties  of  monks  and  nuns,  1 5 1  fF., 

228  ff. 
Dvaipayana,  277. 
Dvaraka,  112,  277. 
Dvesa,  I28ff. 
Dvesikl  asrava,  143. 
.Dvlndriya,  see  Be-indriya. 
Dvlpa  Kumara,  269. 

Eka  Siddha,  171. 
Ekantavadin,  91. 
Ekatva  bhavana,  158. 
Ekendriya    jTva,    97,    104,    105, 

106. 
Ekendriya  nama,  136. 
Elephant,  51. 

Elephant  of  pride,  the,  152. 
Elura,  281. 
Emotion,  102. 

Endurance,  Ways  of,  see  Parlsaha. 
Enmity,  see  Dvesa. 
Envy,  103,  128. 
Epigraphy,  85. 
Esana  samiti,  145,  234. 
Eschatology,  169  ff.,  268  ff.,  293. 
Eternity  of  the  world,  272  ff. 
Ethics,  Jaina,  122,  131,  297. 
Evening  Worship,  258. 
Evil  eye,  264. 
Evil  spirits,  265  f. 
Excommunication,  211  n.,  240. 
Extension  of  Jainism,  9ff. 
Faith,  229,  248,  254. 

—  false,  see  Mithyatva. 

—  Right,  245  ff.,  262. 


Famine,  the  great,  10,  70  ff. 
Fasting,  31,  32  n.,  39,  253,  259  ff. 
Fasts,  see  Festivals. 
Fatalism,  60,  73,  185. 
Fatherhood  of  God,  128,  192. 
Faultfinding,  see  Ninda. 
Fear,  see  Bhaya. 
Feeding  ceremony,  195. 
Female  division  of  jiva,  96. 
Female  Tirthankara,  56,  122. 
Fergusson,  Dr.  J.,  280. 
Festivals,  259  ff. 
Ficus  religiosa,  53. 
Fifth-day  ceremonies,  193. 
Fifteenth-day  ceremonies,  194. 
Fire,  98,  99. 
Five  faults,  205  ff. 
Five  Great  Ones,  the,  see  Pafica 

Paramesvara. 
Five,  Salutation  to  the,  187,  229, 

258. 
Flemish  art,  281. 
Flowers  in  Worship,  Use  of,  see 

Puspa  piija. 
Food,  138,  148,  213,  219,  258. 
Forgiveness,    I26n.,    259  f.,   290, 

292. 
Form,  see  Pudgalastikaya. 
Fruit,  99,  252. 

—  Offering  of,  see  Phala  piija. 
Fiihrer,  Dr.,  280. 
Full-moon  fasts,  261. 
Funeral  ceremonies,  203  ff. 

Gabharo  (or  shrine),  281  ;  see  also 

Temple  Worship. 
Gacchacara,  15. 
Gajapurl,  56. 
Gana,  65. 
Ganadeva,  Son. 
Ganadhara,  61,  65,  66. 
Giindharva,  269. 
Gandhi,  Mr.,  205  n. 
Ganga,  73. 
Ganges,  river,  275. 
Ganividya,  15. 
Ganivijaya,  1 5. 
GaranTjI,  see  Nuns. 
Gardabhila,  75,  76. 
Gargarisi,  82. 

Gati,  176,  182,  228,  251,  274. 
Gautama  Indrabhiiti,  40,  44,  $0, 

61,  65,  68,  127,  248. 


INDEX 


321 


Gfciitleman,  the  ideal,  224. 
Germs,  102,  103. 
Ghatin  karma,  184,  190. 
Ghranendriya,  96. 
Gifts  to  Religious,  231. 
Girnar,  Mt.,  17,  58,  168,  252,  282. 
Goat,  56. 
Goblins,  105. 

God,  128,  192,  246,  248,  292  ff. 
Gods,  97. 
—  false,  246. 

Gomata,  see  Gomatesvara. 
Gomatesvara,  263,  285. 
Goose,  Red,  52. 
GorajT,  233. 

Gosala,  36,  58  ff.,  65,  68,  72,  97  n., 
ij02,  III,  130,  185. 
GoTsip,  188. 
Gosta  Mahal,  J^. 
Gothic  Architecture,  281  f. 
Gotra  karma,  182,  184,  19011. 
Gotrija,  199,  201. 
Gotrljharanam,  195. 
Go  vara,  61. 
Govardhana,  80  n. 
Govindananda,i79n.,i82n.,i84n. 
Grace,  290. 
Graha,  270. 
Graiveyika,  270,  272. 
Granthibheda,  186. 
Gravity,  Laws  of,  106. 
Greed,  1 22 fif.,  140, 173,  i8i,i87ff. ; 

see  also  Lobha. 
Grief,  see  Soka.    « 
Grierson,  Dr.,  21. 
Grihalinga  Siddha,  170. 
Grihastha,  67  n. 
Griswold,  Dr.,  107  n. 
Gujarat,  GujaratI,  17,  68,   6911., 

84,  86,  16211. 
Guna,  108. 
Gunasthanaka,  185  ff. 
Gunavrata,  the  three,  210,  257. 
Gupti,  the  three,  147,  238, 241,257. 
Guru,  219,  246  f. 
Guru,   Reverence    to,    112,   215, 

255. 

Habakkuk,  248  n. 
Haigh,  Rev.  H.,  172  n. 
Hair,  Removal  of,  32,  165,  226. 
Hair-cutting  (of  infant),  194. 
Hajam,  230. 


Haiiisa,  80. 

Hand,  mark  of,  200. 

Hanuman,  130. 

HarasatyakT,  277. 

Hari  dynasty,  57. 

Haribhadrasuri,  80,  82. 

Harsa,  245  n. 

Hasarh  parijanai,  235. 

Hastinapura,  55,  56. 

Hastipala,  King,  43. 

Hasya,  135. 

Hatred,  see  Dvesa. 

Hatthisimha's  temple,  284,  293  n. 

Hawk,  55. 

Heat, enduring,  see  Usna  parlsaha. 

Heaven,    6on.,    160,*  164,     169, 

171  ff.,  270  ff.,  293  ff. 
Hegel,  92. 

Height  of  mankind,  51  ff.,  273  ff. 
Hell,    46,    60  n.,    117,    125,    229, 

268  ff.,  276. 
Hell-beings,   loi,  102,   158,  160, 

268. 
Hemacandra,    17,   84  ff.,   ^6,   95, 

287_f. 
Hemacarya,  see  Hemacandra. 
Heroes,  sixty-three  great,  56  n. 
Himalayas,  51. 
Himavata,  Mt.,  23.  • 
Hiihsa,    no,    ii6ff.,    130,    206, 

210  n.,  220. 
Himsadana,  214. 
Hindu,  Derivation  of  the  word, 

118. 
Hinduism,  Relations  with,  67  n., 

71,   127  ff.,   131  n.,   174  ff-,   180, 

180  n.,  254,  263  f.,  264  ff.,  268  ff. 
History,  7  ff.,  65  ff.,  68  n. 
Hiuen  Tsang,  18. 
Hoernle,.Dr.,  22,  28,  43  n.,  58,  59, 

7on.,  72,  79,85. 
Holi,  264. 
Holiness,  144. 
Holy  days,  see  Festivals. 
Honesty,  ii9ff.,  208,  235. 
Honey,  210  n. 
Hope,  248. 
Horoscope,  193. 
Horse,  52. 

Houselessness,  j^^  Wandering  life. 
Human  beings,  loi,  102. 
Humility,  152  ;  see  also  Pride. 
Hunda  samsthana,  138. 


32: 


INDEX 


Hunger,  see  Ksudha  Parlsaha. 
Hylozoism,  89. 
Hymnbook,  253. 
Hypocrisy,  130. 

Icchamithami  Kausagga,  256. 
Ideal  ascetic,  the,  123,  238. 
Ideal  layman,  the,  224. 
Idolatry,  11,  19,  69,  81,  197. 
Iksvaku  family,  57. 
Illness,  265. 
Illusion,  121. 
Images,    58,     250  ff. ;      see    also 

Idolatry. 
Immobile  life,  102. 
Impeding  of  Karma,  144  ff. 
Impurity,  see  Chastity. 
Incarnation,  176,  291,  298. 
Incense,  see  DhQpa  piaja. 
Income,  Apportionment  of,  244  n. 
Indra,  26,  26  n.,  32,  32  n.,  34,  38, 

52,  54,  113,  180,  191,242,271. 
Indrabhuti,  see  Gautama. 
Indra  Dhvaja,  24. 
Indradinna,  75,  78. 
Indriya,  95,  104,  136,  139. 
Indriya  prana,  95. 
Indriya  samllnata,  165. 
Inertia,  see  Adharmastikaya. 
Initiation,   38  ff.,    82  n.,    ZZ^    155, 

159,225. 
Insects,  100,  146  ff. 
Institutions,  Jaina,  288  n.,  296  n. 
Intoxicants,  146. 
Intrigue,  103  ;  see  also  Maya. 
Irish  ornament,  285  f. 
Irsya,  128. 

Irya  samai,  see  Irya  samiti. 
Irya  samiti,  144,  234. 
Isaiah,  125  n.,  296  n. 
Isana,  270. 
Isatpragbhara,  96. 
IsIvayT,  270. 
Itthlnam  puvarayairh  puvakiliyai 

sumaritae,  237. 
ItthI  pasu  pandaga  sarhsatai  sa- 

yana  sanaim  sevitae,  237. 
It  vara,  163. 

Jacobi,  Dr.,  28,  40,  91,  95,  97  n., 

99  n.,  106  n.,  165  n. 
Jaghanya  desavirati,  187. 
Jaina-Maharastrl,  286. 


Jainism,  antiquity  of,  97. 

—  decline  of,  17. 

—  history  of,  see  History. 

—  zenith  of,  17. 
aipur,  Z'J  n. 
aisalmer,  233. 
ala  jatra,  262. 

aia  puja,  228,  250,  251,  254,  263. 
amali,  29,  72. 
amana,  196. 
ambudlvapannati,  14. 
ambudvlpa,  108,  132. 
ambijdvlpaprajiiapti,  14. 
ambu  Svami,  44n.,  64,  68 ff.,  72, 

80. 
asodhare,  270. 
asomati,  no. 
avakumara,  277. 
avanticayanarh,  229. 
ayajinendra,  204  n. 
ayanta,  270. 
ayapala,  80  n. 
ayasena,  80  n. 
ayasikhara,  83. 
ayasimha,  see  Siddharaja. 
esus  Christ,  128,  144,  17I)  248, 

291  ff. 
ewels,  the  three,  160,  161,  192, 

205,245,  252,257,262. 
ibha  asrava,  139. 
ihva  asrava,  see  above. 
ina,  25,  27,  39,  187,  298. 
ina  Siddha,  170. 
inakalpT,  79. 
itakalpa,  14. 
iva,  45,  62,78,  89,  91,  93,  94  ff-, 

136,  176,  213,  214,  268,  299. 

—  Divisions  of,  96. 
Tvabhigama,  13. 

Iva  himsa,  see  Hiiiisa. 

Ivaka  Cintamani,  286. 

iiana,  32. 

nanajl,  Z^. 

iiana  pancaml,  261. 

iianavaranlya  karma,  132,  177  f., 

184,  1900. 
fiana  vinaya,  166. 
natadharma  Kathariga,  13. 
fiataputra,  27. 
^ohn,  St.,  I27n.,  144 n.,  I7in. 

—  Revelation  of,  172  n.,  294  n. 
'rimbhakagrama,  38. 

rimbhikagrama,  38  n. 


INDEX 


3^3 


Jrimbhila,  38  n. 
Junagadh,  280. 
Jyotikaranda,  15. 
JyotisT,  105,  114,  181,  270. 
Jyotiskarandaka,  15. 

Kadamba  tree,  269. 

Kadlpatana,  82. 

Kailasa,  see  Astapada. 

Kala,  Kala,  61,  106,  107  ff.,  164, 

231. 
Kala  (name  of  a  god),  268. 
Kalaka  Mata,  264. 
Kallcaudasa,  261. 
Kalikacarya,  75  ff. 
Kalikagaccha,  75. 
Kalinga,  48. 

Kalodadhi  Khanda,  13211. 
Kalpa,  division  of  Heaven,  g.v. 
Kalpa  Siitra,  15,  16,  28  n.,  32  n  , 

37  n.,  43n.,  44n.,  63,  86,260. 
Kalpavantasika,  14. 
Kalpa  vinaya,  166. 
Kalpa  vriksa,  273. 
Kama,  244  n.,  245  n. 
Kamatha,  49. 
Kamikr,  177. 
Kaihsacarya,  80  n. 
Kana  asrava,  139. 
Kanada,  78  n. 
Kanara,  285. 
Kanarese,  287. 
Kanauj,  83. 
Kandlye,  270. 
Kankall,  280. 
Kankanapura,  52. 
Kankha,  205. 
Kanku,  194. 
Kanyadana,  199. 
Kapila,  46,  153. 
Kapotalesya,  103. 
Kappavadlsayya,  14. 
Kappla,  14. 

Karananuyoga,  16,  240  n. 
Karanasitarl,  240. 
Karemi  bhante,  255,  256. 
Karlgara,  Temple  of  the  (Abu), 

see  Artificers,  Temple  of  the. 
Karkala,  285. 
Karma,  5,  23,  30,  31,  39,  44>  45  ff-, 

62,  89,  91,  94,  95,  107, 109, 112, 

139  ff.,  161  ff.,  I73ff.,  228,  242, 

268  ff.,  294,  309  ff. 


Karma,  arrangement  of,  184. 

—  bondage  to,  see  Bandha. 

—  destruction  of,  see  Nirjara. 

—  differing  views  of,  174  ff. 

—  impeding  of,  144  ff.,  174. 

—  sources  of,  173  ff. 

—  tenses  of,  184. 

—  the  eight  kinds  of,  39,  177  ff. 
Karmabhiimi,  181. 
Karmaja,  177  n. 

Karmana    body,    see    Karmana- 

sarira. 
Karmanasarira,  114,  206. 
Karna  asrava,  see  Kana  asrava. 
Karttikasetha,  276. 
Karttikl  punema,  129,  261. 
Kasaya,  122,  135,  140,  162,  188, 

241,  257. 
Kasaya  karma,  174. 
Kasaya  sarfallnata,  165. 
Kashmir,  12. 
Kasi,  181. 
Kathiawad,  13,  17,  58,  233,  236, 

240. 
KattavTra,  79. 
Kaundinya,  79. 
Kaundinya  gotra,  29. 
Kausagga,  229,  233,  250,  256  ff. 
Kausambi,  40,  52,  66. 
Kautika  sect,  86. 
Kaya  bala,  96. 
Kayagupti,  147. 
Kayaklesa,  165. 
Kaya  punya,  see  Sarira  punya. 
Kaya  vinaya,  166. 
KayikI  asrava,  141. 
Kesara  (saffron)  paste,  see  Can- 

dana  puja. 
Kevaladarsanavaranlya,  134. 
Kevala  -jiiana,  33,  '38  ff.,  44,  48, 

49,  62,  63,  65,  68,  80. 
Kevalajiianavaranlya,  133,  178. 
Kevalr,  24,  33,  46,  63,  68,  97,  99, 

143,  148,  170,  185,  190  ff.,  232, 

255. 
Khamasamana,  229. 
KhandagirJ,  85. 
Khaputa,  Arya,  y8. 
Kharasvara,  268. 
Kharataragaccha,  87. 
Kharavela,  85. 
Khatamba  tree,  269. 
Khera,  247. 


Y2 


324 


INDEX 


Khodiyara  Mata,  264. 

Kholo  bharavo,  201. 

Kllika  sanghena,  137. 

Killing,  vow  against,  205  ff.,  234  ff. 

Kilvisiya,  270. 

Kimpurusa,  269. 

Kinnara,  269. 

Klesa,  129. 

Knowledge,  132,  229,  254. 

—  five  kinds  of,  32. 

—  Right,  245  ff.,  262. 
Kodaro  grain,  180. 
Kodlgaccha,  80  n. 
Kohaiii  parijanai,  235. 
Kohanda,  270. 
Kollaga,  64. 

Krisna,  18,  26,  28,  58,  112,  113, 

277. 
Krisnalesya,  102. 
Kriyamana,  185  n. 
Kriyavada  doctrine,  91. 
Krodha,  ii9iTf.,  140,  245  n. 
Ksama,  151. 
Ksanikavadi,  J^)- 
Ksatriya,  _4,  21,  26,46,  230,  264. 
Ksatriya  Acar^^a,  Son. 
Ksetra,  loS,  164. 
Kslnamoha  gunasthanaka,  190. 
Ksudha  parlsaha,  148. 
Ksullaka  Sravaka,  224. 
Kubera,  191. 
Kubjaka  samsthana,  1 37. 
Kudasamall,  192. 
Kuladhipa,  33. 
Kulapura,  33. 
Kumaragrama,  37. 
Kumarapala,  17,  84,  86,  288. 
Kumarapura,  jy. 
Kumbera,  King,  56. 
Kumbha,  268. 
Kuna,  18. 

Kundagrama,  21,  31. 
Kundarika,  160. 
Kunika,  40,  276,  277. 
Kunthunatha,  56,  313. 
Kurra],  287. 
Kuvera,  see  Kubera. 

Labhantaraya,  133,  183. 
Ladu,  162,  197  ff. 
Laganapatra,  196. 
LaksmI,  23,  24,  260,  261. 
LaksmI  puja,  261. 


Lalajl,  Sri,  ^^. 
Lalitavistara,  82. 
Lamps,  250,  252,  266. 
Lantaka,  270. 

Latthe,  Mr.  A.  B.,  161,  191. 
Laughter,  135. 
Laukika  mithyatva,  130. 
Lay   adherents,   66,    145  ff.,   188, 
205  ff. 

—  twelve  vows  of,  30,  187,  205  ff. 

—  twenty-one  qualities  of,  224. 
Layana  punya.  III. 
Leaders,  the  great,  68. 
Legends,  25  n.,  27,  28. 

Lesa,  61  n.,  102  n. 

Lesya,  the  six,  61,  102,  105. 

Liberation,  the  fourteen  steps  to, 

185  ff. 
Life,  95. 

—  destruction  of,  50,  61, 110,  147, 
222,  223,  227,  230,  238,  239  n., 
273,  294  ff. ;  see  also  Hirhsa. 

—  four  objects  in,  244  n. 
Lightning,  99. 

Lights  in  Worship,  see  Dlpa  puja. 
Limitation    of    Possessions,    see 
Parigraha  viramana. 

—  of  travel,  see  Disivrata  pari- 
rnana. 

—  of  use,  see  Upabhoga  paribhoga 
parimana. 

Lion,  23. 

Literacy,  standard  of,  20. 

Literary  influence  of  Jainism,  18, 

84,  286  ff. 
Literature,  81,  84,  286  ff. 
Lobha,  122  ff.,  140,  173,  245  n. 
Loca,  165. 
Lodging,  149. 
Logassa,  233.  _^ 
Loham  parijanai,  235. 
Loka,  108. 
Lokacarya,  80  n. 
Loka  bhavana,  160. 
Lokantika,  270. 
Lokottara  mithyatva,  131. 
Loneliness  of  Jaina,  158,  241. 
Lonka  Sa,  2>7. 
Lonka  sect,  19,  ^yi. 
Lotus,  blue,  57. 

—  red,  52. 
Love,  248. 

Luck,  good  and  bad,  195,  202. 


INDEX 


3^5 


Luther,  Sy. 
Lying,  see  Truth. 

Madhyama  desavirati,  187. 
Magadha,  8,  10,  13,  40,  41,  126, 

276. 
MagadhT,  41,  165,  187,   188,  228, 

231,  241,  254  ff. 
Magadhi,    Arddha,    see    Arddha 

Magadhr. 
Magasara,  see  Margasirsa. 
Magavati,  277. 
Magha,  81. 
Mahaghosa,  268. 
Mahagiri,  y^  fif. 
Mahajana,  199,  200,  240  n. 
Mahakala,  268. 
—  Temple  of,  75. 
Mahakandlye,  270. 
Mahanisitha,  14. 
Mahapurusa,  see  Sadhu. 
Maharastrl,  see  Jaina-Maharastrl. 
Maharudra,  268. 
MahasatI,  see  Nuns. 
Mahasukra,  270. 
Mahasutaka,  277. 
Mahavideha,  113,  170,  216,  256, 

272. 
MahavTra,  8,  9,  II,   21  ff.,   56  n., 

58ff.,65, 66, 67, 68,  72,  79,80,85, 


87,  loi.  III,  120 n.,  121  n. 


126, 

151, 
233» 
276, 


127,  142,  143,  144,  148, 
170,  185,  202,  217,  225, 
241,  245,  248,  260,  275, 
278,  286,  291  ff.,  298. 

—  birth  of,  21  ff. 

—  childhood  of,  28  ff. 
■ —  death  of,  42  ff. 

—  disciples  of,  40  ff.,  58  ff. 

—  enlightenment  of,  38  ff. 

—  initiation  of,  31  ff. 

—  predecessors  of,  48  ff. 

—  previous  incarnations  of,  45  ff. 

—  sermon  by,  62  f. 
Mahendra,  270. 
Mahiyasa,  80  n. 
Mahoraga,  269. 

Maithuna  viramana  vrata,  209. 
Makarasankranti,  264. 
Mala,  see  Beads,  telling  of. 
Male  division  of  Jiva,  96,  170. 
Mall  (gardener),  250. 
Mallinatha,  56,  121  ff.,  276,  313. 


Mallinatha  II,  277. 

Mahva,  240,  288. 

Malyadeva,  277. 

Mamatva,  127. 

Mana,  104. 

Mana,  120 f.,  140,  245  n. 

Manabaja,  96. 

Manadeva,  80  n. 

Manahparyaya  jnana,  33,-68. 

Manahparyaya       jiianavaranlya, 

132,' 177. 
Manaka,  70. 
Manaparijanai,  235  n. 
Mana  punya,  ill. 
Manas,  see  Mana. 
Manatunga,  Son. 
Mana  vinaya,  166. 
Mandalika,  King,  17. 
Mandapa,  281. 
Mandapakriya,  196. 
Mandara,  Mt.,  37. 
Mandara  flowers,  23. 
MandvT,  233. 
Mangrol,  233. 
Mankhali  Putra,  59. 
Manogupti,  147. 
Manoharai  indiyai  aloetae,  236. 
Mantra,  233. 
Manuscripts,  17. 
Manusya,  97,  105.- 
Manusya  anupurvT,  113. 
Manusya  ayu  karma,  181. 
Manusyayuhkarma,  see  adove, 
Manusya  ayusya,  116. 
Manusya  gati,  113,  182. 
Marathi,  286. 
Mardava,  152. 
Margasirsa,  262. 
MaricI,  45,  46,  121  n. 
Marks  on  images,  250. 
Marriage,  196  ff.,  209. 
Marudeva,  43. 
MarudevI,  in. 
Marwar,  230. 
Masi,  181. 
Maso,  153. 
Mata,  264,  266,  267. 
Mathura,  57,  85,  86,  280. 
Mati  ajnana,  178. 
Mati  jiiana,  32. 
Mati  jiianavaranlya,  132,  177. 
Matsara,  245  n. 
Matter,  see  Pudgala. 


326 


INDEX 


Matthew,  St.,  297  n. 
Maunagyarasa,  262. 
Maunavalambi,  147. 
Maurya  dynasty,  10,  70,  85. 
Maya,  91,  121,  130,  140,   17211., 

175. 
Mayamrisa,  130. 

MayapratyayikI  asrava,  141. 

Maya  salya,  246. 

Meditation,  155,  168. 

Megharatha,  52. 

Mela  deva,*266. 

Mela  parlsaha,  151. 

MeladI  Mat  a,  264. 

Menial  gods,  270. 

Mera,  247. 

Mercy,  296  f.  ;  see  also  Ahimsa. 

Merit,  see  Punya. 

Meru,  Mt.,  25. 

Mesarl  Baniya,  230. 

Metal,  prohibition  of,  153,  226  f. 

Misra  gunasthanaka,  186. 

Misramohanlya  karma,  180,  187. 

Mithila,  2  n.,  42,  56. 

M ithyadarsanapratyayiki  asrava, 
141. 

Mithyadarsana  Salya,  i3ofif. 

Mithyatva,  l3off. 

Mithyatva  gunasthanaka,  185. 

Mithyatva  karma,  174. 

Mithyatva  mohanlya,  1 39,1 79,187. 

Mithyatva  salya,  246,  267. 

Mithyatvl,  271. 

Miugaha  jati,  236. 

Mobile  life,  102. 

Mohammedans,  17,  18,  19,  Z^, 
180,  247. 

Mohanlya  karma,  179,  184,  187, 
190  n. 

Moksa,  35,  38,  51  fif.,  62,  68  ff.,  91, 
94,  io4ff.,  iioff.,  129,  I3I,I39j 
143,  160,  161,  163  ff.,  169  ff., 
179,  185,  219,  220,  221,  239  ff., 
252,  260,  268,  272,  293  ff.,  309. 

Molakata,  263. 

Money,  I53n.,  227,  260. 

Moneylending,  214. 

Monks,  see  Ascetics. 

—  the  duties  of,  151  fif.,  225  fif. 

—  the  five  vows  of,  234  ff. 

—  the  twenty-seven  qualities  of, 
.    238. 

Monthly  fasts,  259  ff. 


Moon,  23  n.,  53,  270. 
Mosquitos,  149. 

Mother  Sixth,  see  Sixth,  Mother. 
Motion,  106,  108. 
Mourning,  203,  204. 
Mouth-cloth,  100,  147,  227. 
Mrisavada,  118,  130. 
Mrisavada  viramana  vrata,  207. 
Mrityu  Mahotsava,  43  n. 
Mudabidri,  285. 
Mughal  architecture,  283  f. 
Muhapati,  see  Mouth-cloth. 
Muhiarta,  2720. 

Mukhapattika,  see  Mouth-cloth. 
Mukhtagiri,  284. 
Miilagrantha,  the  four,  14. 
Mumatl,  see  Mouth-cloth. 
Muni,  65. 

Munisuvrata,  57,  277. 
Mysore,  9,  10,  70  n.,  285. 
Mythology,  268  fif. 

Naga  Kumara,  269. 
Naga  tree,  269. 
Nagasena,  80  n. 
Nagila,  275. 
NaisastrikI  asrava,  142. 
NaisedhikI  parlsaha,  see  below. 
NaisidhikT  parlsaha,  149. 
NaisristikI  asrava,  142  n. 
Naivedya  piija,  229,  250,  251,  254, 

266. 
NajarabhandhI,  265. 
Najarai  javum,  264. 
Naka  asrava,  139. 
Naksatra,  80  n.,  270. 
Naladiyar,  287. 
Nama   karma,    1 14  fif.,    182,    184, 

1 90  fif. 
Namaputra,  27. 
Namaskara  punya,  112. 
Name,  change  of,  226. 
—  choice  of,  27,  194. 
Nami,  King,  158. 
Naminatha,  57,  213. 
Naming  ceremony,  194. 
Namo  arihantanum,  257. 
Namotthunarii,  258. 
Nandavartta  svastika,  56. 
Nandimitra,  80  n. 
Nandisena,  126, 
Nandl'SOtra,  14,  177. 
Napumsakalinga  Siddha,  171. 


INDEX 


?>'^1 


Napumsakaveda,  136. 

Naraca  sanghena,  137. 

Narada,  277. 

Naraka,  see  Hell. 

Naraka  ayu  karma,  181. 

Narakayuh  karma,  see  above. 

Narakagati,  134,  182. 

Narakayu,  134. 

Narakl,  97,  105. 

Nas  asrava,  see  Naka  asrava. 

Nata,  219  n. 

Nata  clan,  22. 

Nataputta,  27  n. 

Natimapana  bhoyana  bhoi,  237. 

Nature,  see  Prakriti. 
Nature  (of  a  thing),  see  Bhava. 
Navakara  mantra,  254,  256. 
Nava  Tattva,  169  ;  see  also  Cate- 
gories, the  nine. 
Nava  Vada,  the,  154. 
Navl  diksa,  155. 
Naya  clan,  22,  31. 
Nayaputra,  27  n. 
Nayasara,  45. 
Neminatha,    17,   56  n.,    57,    no, 

112,313. 
Nepal,  72,  285. 

Neuter  division  of  jiva,  96,  170. 
Nicagotra,  134. 
Nidana  salya,  247. 
Nidra,  the  five,  134. 
Nidranidra,  134. 
Nigantha,  86. 
Nigoda,  271,  272. 
Nigranthagaccha,  see  Nirgrantha. 
Nikacita  karma,  185. 
Nikasaya,  277, 
Nllalesya,  103. 
Ninda,  130. 
'  Ninety-nine '     Pilgrimage,    the, 

253- 
Ninth-day  ceremonies,  194. 

Nira  valla,  14. 

Niray  avail,  14. 

Nirgrantha,  36,  75,  218. 

Nirjara,  153,  163^,219,  240,  308. 

Nirjara  bhavana,  160. 

Nirlobhata,  152. 

Nirmama,  277. 

Nirmana  namakarma,  1 1 5. 

Nirvana,  36,  44,  55  ff.,  63,  171  ff., 

191,  243. 

Nirvega,  187. 


Niryukti,  15,  70. 
Nispulaka,  277. 

Nisibhojanatyaga  pratima,  222. 
Nisltha,  14,  145. 

Niyatibadara  Gunasthanaka,  188. 
NojTva,  78. 
Nojlva  schism,  78. 
Nokasaya,  135,  174. 
Non-Jaina  and  moksa,  243  ff. 
North-east  comer,  216,  255. 
Nudity,  II,  35fif.,  58,  71,  79,  80, 

226. 
Nun,  funeral  of  a,  232  f. 
Nuns,  66,  80,  211  n.,  232  f.,  237. 
Nyagrodhaparimanda]a       sams- 

thana,  137. 
Nyaya  school,  91,  94. 

Offering  to  idols,  see  Puja. 

Officiants  in  temples,  250  ff. 

Oghaniryuti,  14. 

Oh,  263. 

Omniscience,  see  Kevala  jiiana. 

Organization,    Jaina    genius    for, 

18. 
Orissa,  85,  281. 
Orthodox  Jaina,  25  n. 
Osavala  sect,  69, 

Pacakhana,  257. 

Padikamanurh,   loi,    120 n.,    165, 

220,  231*,  265  ff. 
Padima,  221  n. 
Padmalesya,  104. 
Padmanabha,  276,  278. 
Padmaprabhu,  52. 
Padopagamana  santharo,  168. 
Pahanga,  270. 

Pain,  problem  of,  see  Suffering. 
Paisunya,  I29ff. 
Pajjusana,  76,  218,  259. 
Pakkhl,'  166. 
Palasa  Nagara,  50. 
Palevana,  228,  231. 
Palitana,  ']%,  226,  284 ;  see  also 

Satruiijaya. 
Palmistry,  82. 
Palya  of  time,  5,  102,  272  n. 
Pampa,  see  PavapurT. 
Panapannr,  270. 
Pana  punya,  no. 
Pafica,  207  n. 
Pafica  Astikaya,  61. 


32S 


INDEX 


Panca  Aticara,  205  ff. 

Panca  Avrata,  140  ff. 

Panca  Bhavana,  234. 

Panca  Indriya,  see  Indriya. 

Pancakalyana  puja,  253. 

Panca  mahavrata,  see  Vows,  the 

five  Ascetic. 
Pancahga,  216. 
Panca  Paramesvara,  141,239,256, 

262. 
Panca  samiti,  see  Samiti. 
Pancatantra,  286. 
Pancasara  Parasanatha,  83. 
Paiicendriya  Jiva,   97,   loi,   104, 

105. 
Pancendriyapanurh,  113. 
Paiicindriya,  see  Pancendriya. 
Pandu  (Acarya),  Son. 
Pandusila,  32  n. 
Panjarapola,  296  n. 
Pahka  Prabha,  271. 
Pannavana,  14,  y^. 
Papa,  Ii6ff.,  302  ff. 
Papa,  the  eighteen  kinds  of,  i  l6ff., 

256. 
Papapurl,  see  Pavapurl. 
Paper  money,  190. 
Papopadesa,  215. 
Paraghata  namakarma,  114. 
ParamadhamI,  192. 
Paramahariisa,  80. 
Paramanu,  109. 
Paramesvara,  174. 
Paramesvara,  Paiica,  see    Pafica 

Paramesvara. 
Paranurh,  33. 

Parapakhanda  parasanisa,  205. 
Parapakhanda  santhana,  205. 
Parapravada  ninda,  see  Ninda. 
Parasnatha  Hills,  38,  56,  168. 
Parigraha,  119. 
Parigrahatyaga  pratima,  223. 
Parigraha  viramana  vrata,  209. 
ParigrahikI  asrava,  141. 
Pariharavisuddha  caritra,  155. 
Parinamikl,  177. 
Parisaha,  see  ParTsaha. 
ParTsaha,  the  twenty-two,  148  ff. 
ParitapanikI  asrava,  141. 
Parithapanika  samiti  (samai),  146, 

235- 
Parliament  of  Religions,  145  n. 

Parsis,  20,  247. 


Parsvanatha,  8,  31,  33,  35,  41,  48, 
58,  59,85,  241. 

Parsvanatha,  Mt.^see  Parasnatha. 

Partridge,  red,  52. 

Paryapta,  104-6. 

Paryapti  namakarma,  115. 

Paryapti,  104,  105. 

Paryusana,  see  Pajjusana. 

Pata,  68  n. 

Patala,  112,  269. 

Pataliputra,  Council  of,  11,  16, 
72. 

Patana  (Anhilvada),  83,  287,  288. 

Patha,  216. 

Patna,  II,  21,  281. 

PattavalTs,  85. 

Paul,  St.,  294  n. 

Paustilacarya,  80  n. 

Pavapurl  or  Papa,  42,  43,  45. 

Payanna,  the  ten,  14. 

Pedhala,  276. 

Penalties,  207  ff. 

Penance,  155,  166. 

Pentha,  76. 

Persia,  285. 

Personality,  297  ;  see  also  Cha- 
racter. 

Pessimism  of  Jainism,  275. 

Peter,  St.,  248  n. 

Phala  pijja,  229,  251,  254. 

Phalgusrl,  275. 

Philosophy,  89  ff.,  122, 131. 

—  six  schools  of,  90  ff. 
Pilgrimage,  252  ff. 

'  Pillar  '  edict  of  Asoka,  85. 

Pinjarapola,  see  Pafijarapoja. 

Pipal  tree,  265. 

Pisaca,  269. 

Place,  see  Ksetra. 

Plague,  55,  266. 

Planets,  105,  270. 

Points    of   Compass,   auspicious, 

201,  203,  216,  255. 
PofijanI,  146. 
Popata  Amaracanda,  210. 
Popatlal  K.  Shah,  116  n. 
Population,  Jaina,  20. 
Posadha  vrata,  2l7ff.,  219,  259. 
Posadhopavasa  pratima,  222. 
Posaha,  see  Posadha  vrata. 
Possessions  (of  an  ascetic),  145  ff. 

—  limitation  of,  see  Parigraha 
viramana  vrata. 


INDEX 


329 


Posture,  see  Kausagga,  Sampar- 

yanka,  &c. 
Potila,  276. 
Potter,  198. 
Prabha,  271. 
Prabhava,  69  ff. 
PrabhavatI  (wife  of  Parsvanatha), 

48. 
—  (mother  of  Mallinatha),  57. 
Pracala,  134. 
Pracalapracala,  134. 
Pradaksina,  228,  280. 
Pradesa,  106  ff.,  162. 
Pradvesiki  asrava,  141. 
Praise  worship,  253  ff.,  255. 
Prajiiapana,  14. 
Prajfia  parlsaha,  151. 
Prakirna,  the  ten,  14. 
Prakrit,  15,  84,  288. 
Prakriti,  91,  162. 
Pramada,  162,  188. 
Pramada  carya,  214. 
Pramatta  Gunasthanaka,  188. 
Prana,  95,  97,  99,  100,  loi,  105. 
Pranata,  270. 

Pranatipata  viramana  vrata,  205. 
PranatipatikI  asrava,  141. 
Prarabdha,  185  n. 
Prasannajita,  48. 
Prasasta  krodha,  120. 
Prasna  Vyakarana,  13. 
Prathamanuyoga,  16. 
Pratikramana,  see  Padlkamanuiii. 
Pratima,  the  eleven,  221  ff.,  239. 
Pratisthapana  samiti,  see  Paritha- 

panika  samiti. 
PratityakI  asrava,  142. 
Prativasudeva,  56  n.,  274. 
PratyakhyanI,  123. 
Pratyeka,  99. 

Pratyekabuddha  Siddha,  171. 
Pratyeka  namakarma,  115. 
Prayaga,  40. 
Prayascitta,  120  n.,  165. 
Prayer,  131,  242,  292. 
Prayogiki  asrava,  143. 
Preaching,  58,  62,  225. 
PremikI  asrava,  143. 
Pride,  152,  173,  181,  187  ff.;  see 

also  Mana. 
Pristicampa,  41. 
Prithivlkaya,  see  Prithvlkaya. 
Prithvlkaya,  97,98n.,  102, 104, 105. 


Priyadamsane,  270. 
Priyadarsana,  29. 
Processions,  260. 
Pudgala  (Pudgala),  91, 1 06, 108  ff., 

135,  161  ff. 
Pudgalastikaya,  108  ff. 
Puja,  the  eight-fold,  262  ;  see  also 

Worship. 
Pujarl,  225  ;  see  also  Officiants. 
Piijya  BecarajT,  205  n. 
Pullinga  Siddha,  171. 
Punamlyagaccha,  86. 
Pundarika,  159. 
Punema,  261. 

Punishment  of  sin,  268,  271. 
Punitabhumi,  42. 
Punya,  iioff.,  141,  301. 
Punya,  the  fruit  of,  1 13  ff. 
Punya,  the  nine,  iioff.,  301. 
Puphaculia,  see  Puppaculla. 
Puppaculla,  14. 
Pupphiya,  14. 
Purl,  -jZ. 
Purity,    154;    see  also    Brahma- 

carya. 
Purnima,  see  Punema. 
Purusaveda,  136. 
Purva  (of  time),  51. 
Purva,  the  fourteen,  il,   15,   72, 

80  n.,  240. 
Puskara,  108,  132. 
Puspadanta,  53. 
Puspaculika,  14. 
Puspaka,  14. 

Puspa  piija,  229,  251,  254. 
Pyre,  funeral,  204. 

Quality,  see  Guna. 
Quarrelsomeness,  see  Klesa. 

Raga,  f26. 
Rails,  279. 
Rajagriha,   41,    57,    63,    65,    68, 

219. 
Rajaprasniya,  13. 
Rajkot,   163,    164,   205  n.,  211  n., 

240. 
Rajono,  see  Whisk. 
Rajput,  51  ff. 
Rakhadi  bandhana,  200. 
Raksasa,  269. 
Rama,  18. 
Ramnagar,  280. 


330 


INDEX 


Rasabhl,  75. 

Rasatyaga,  1 64. 

Rasendriya,  96. 

Rathavirapura,  79  ff. 

Rati  Arati,  130. 

Ratna  Prabha,  271. 

RatnapurT,  55. 

Ratna    Traya,    see    Jewels,    the 

three. 
Ratribhojana  tyaga,  238. 
Raudradhyana,  168. 
Ravana,  277. 
RayapasenI,  13. 
RayasI  padikamanum,  228. 
Rebirth,  36,  31,  94,  294. 
Reflections,  see  Bhavana. 
Reformation  in  Europe,  87. 
Reincarnation,  i,  294. 
Religion,  true  and  false,  247. 
Re-ordination,  155. 
Repentance,  155. 
Results   of  sin,  the    eighty-two, 

132  ff. 
Re  vat  1,  67,  277. 
Reverence,  166,  178. 
Rhinoceros,  54. 

Right  Conductji-^^ConductjRight. 
Right  Faith,  see  Faith,  Right. 
Right  Knowledge,  see  Knowledge, 

Right. 
Rijukula,  39  n. 
Rijupalika  river,  39. 
Rijuvalika,  39  n. 
Risabhadatta,  26,  56  n. 
Risabhadeva,   22  n.,   45,   51,   ill, 

152, 158,  170,  2i6n.,  274,  312. 
Risabhanaraca  sanghena,  137. 
Roga  parlsaha,  150. 
Rohagupta,  78. 
RohinT,  26  n.,  277. 
Rosary,  243,  254,  279. 
Rudra,  33,  268. 
Rules   of  conduct,   the    five,   see 

Caritra. 
Rules  for  daily  life,  six,  188. 
Rupl  Ajlva,  106,  108  ff. 

Sabala,  268. 
Sabha  mandapa,  281. 
Sacittaparihara  pratima,  222. 
Sacred  thread,  81  n. 
Sacrifice,  law  of,  295  ff. 
Sadharana,  99,  138. 


I 


Sadhu,  45,  51  ff.,  65,  98,  100,  105,      \ 

112,  131, 145  ff.,  187  ff.;  see  a/so 

Ascetics. 
Sadhvi,  see  Nuns. 
Sadi  samsthana,  137. 
Sagai,  195. 

Sagara  (of  time),  51  ff. 
Sagaropama,  102,  272,  272  n. 
Sahasara,  270. 
Saint-wheel  worship,  262. 
Saitavarnana  Stuti,  253. 
Saiva  temples,  75. 
Sajhaya  Stavana,  258. 
Sakadala,  71,  iii. 
Sala  tree,  39. 
Salesi,  102  ff. 
Salutation,  204  n. ;  see  also  Five, 

Salutation  to  the. 
Salya,  246,  257. 
Sama,  187. 
Sama,  268. 

Samacaturastra  santhana,  114. 
Samadhi,  221,  222. 
Samadhista,  221. 
Samaga,  39. 

Samaka  or  Samaka,  39  n. 
Samakitl,  271. 
Samantabhadrasuri,  80  n. 
SamantopanipatikI  asrava,  142. 
SamatabhavinT,  147. 
Samavasarana,  191. 
Samavayanga  Sutra,  13. 
Samavega,  187. 
Samaya,  98  n.,  272  n. 
Samayika,  2i5ff.,  228,  255. 
Samayika  caritia,  155. 
Samayika  pratima,  222. 
Sambhavanatha,  51,  312. 
Sambhutivijaya,  70. 
Samedsikhara,    see    Sameta    Si- 

khara. 
Sameta  Sikhara,  49,  56  ff. 
Samiti,  the  five,  144  ff.,  234  ff.,  241. 
Sarhjiil  pancendriya,  loi,  106. 
Samllnata,  165. 
Samparyanka  posture,  43. 
Sam  prat  i,  73  ff. 
Sarhsara,  241. 
Sariisara  bhavana,  158. 
SarrisarT,  96. 
Sariiskrit,  see  Sanskrit. 
Sarhsthana,  the  five,  137. 
Samudayiki,  143. 


INDEX 


^^^ 


Samudravijaya,  57. 
Samuhurtta,  see  Samurata. 
Samurata,  196. 
Samvara  (King),  52. 
Sam  vara,  144,  259,  306  f. 
Samvara  bhavana,  160. 
Samvaranatha,  277. 
Sarhvatsarl,  166,  220,  259. 
Samvega,/^^  Samavega. 
Samyak  Caritrya,  245. 
Samyak  Darsana,  245. 
Samyak  J  nana,  245. 
Samyaktvamohaniya  karma,  180, 

187. 
Samyaktva  parlsaha,  151. 
Samyama,  154. 
Sariiyatasarhyata   Gunasthanaka, 

187. 
Sanatana  puja,  252. 
Sanatkumara,  159,  270. 
Saficita,  185  n. 
Sangha,  52,  219  n. 
Sanghayana,  114. 
Sanghena,  the  five,  137. 
Sanjaya,  91. 
Sanjvalana,  123. 
Sanka,  205. 
Sankara,  no. 
Sankaracarya,  150,  233. 
SankhajT,  67. 
Sankhasravaka,  276. 
Sankhya  school,  4  n.,  90, 91 ,  94, 1 2 1. 
Sankita,  242. 

Sanskrit,  15,  231,  254,  286  ff. 
Sanstaraka  Payanna,  14. 
Santhana,  114. 
Santhara  Payanna,  14. 
Santhara  PorasI,  232. 
Santharo,    163,    168,    220,    221, 

221  n.,  222,  258. 
Santinatha,  55,  213. 
Santistotra,  80  n. 
SaptabhangI  Naya,  91. 
Sarada  puja,  261. 
Sarathi  Khanda,  3 in. 
SarayQ  river,  50. 
Sardhapunamlyagaccha,  87. 
Sarira,  104. 
Sarira  punya.  III. 
Sarkara  Prabha,  271. 
Sarvanubhuti,  276. 
Sarvacaritrya,  246. 
Sarvarthasiddha,  270. 


SarvavratT,  220. 

Sasananayaka,  27. 

Sasvadana  Gunasthanaka,  i86n. 

Sasvasadana  Gunasthanaka,  186. 

SatakajT,  67. 

Satakasravaka,  276. 

Satakirti,  276. 

Satanika,  40. 

Satavedaniya,  113,  179. 

Satkara  doctrine,  90. 

Satkara  parlsaha,  151. 

Satrap  period,  280. 

Satruiijaya,  78,  78  n.,  87, 129,  168, 

252,  253,  261,  282  ff. 
Satta,  184. 
Satya,  154. 
SatyasrI,  275. 
Sauca,  154. 
Saurlpura,  S7; 
SavathI,  see  Sravastl. 
^ayambhava,  70. 
Sayana  punya,  ill. 
Sayogikevah  Gunasthanaka,  190. 
Sayya  parlsaha,  1 50. 
Schism,  the  great,  12,  72  ff.,  78  ff. 
Schisms,  12,  72  ff. 
Scriptures,  Jaina,  li,  13  ff. 

—  antiquity  of,  16. 

—  preservation  of,  261  f. 

—  reading  and  study  of,  16,  240, 
258. 

Sea-voyages,  145. 

Sects,  rise  of,  69,  72,  86  ff. 

—  differences  between,  23,  28,  30, 
3in.,  33,  36,  53  ff.,  76  n.,  80, 
no,  112, 155, 167,169,188, 190, 
197,  208,  217,  223,  226,  239  ff., 
250  ff.,  258,  260 ff.,  281. 

Self,  95. 

Senses,  the  five,  see  Indriya. 

Serpents, "j^*?  Snakes. 

Servant-gods,  270. 

Sesavati,  29. 

Sevartta  sanghena,  137. 

Seven  (the  number),  194-6,  198. 

Shaving,  see  Hair,  removal  of. 

Shells,  227. 

Siddha,  96,  104,  108,  109,  Ii3n., 
125,  129,  132,  141,  159,  160, 
169  ff.,  176,  190  ff.,  229,  232, 
237,  242  ff.,  254  ff.,  262,  271, 
274. 

—  different  kinds  of,  1 70. 


33^ 


INDEX 


i 


Siddha    cakra    puja,   see    Saint- 
wheel  worship. 
Siddharaja  Jayasirhha,  17,  84,  288. 
Siddhartha  (Acarya),  Son. 
Siddhartha(MahavIra'sfather),22. 
Siddhartha  (Mahavfra's  cousin), 

.38. 
Siddhartha  Rani,  52. 
Siddhasena  (Acarya),  83. 
Siddhasena  Divakara,  76. 
Siddhaslla,  191,  271. 
Siddhasuri,  81  ff. 
Sikhara,  281. 

Siksavrata,  the  four,  215,  257. 
Sllagunasuri,  82  ff. 
Sllangacarya,  Sllankacarya,  84. 
Simandhara,  216. 
Simanta,  201. 
Siiiihagiri,  78  n. 
Sirhhapurl,  54. 
Sin,  see  Papa. 
—  results  of,  132. 
Sitala  Mata,  266. 
Sitalanatha,  53,  312. 
Sitalasatama,  263. 
Sita  parlsaha,  148. 
Sithila  karma,  185. 
Siva,  31. 
Sivabhuti,  79. 
Sivalalaji  Maharaja,  240. 
Sivaraja,  56. 

Sixth-day  ceremonies,  193. 
Sixth,  Mother,  27,  193. 
Skandha,  106  ff. 
Slander,  129. 
Sleep,  134,  188. 
Sloka,  222,   235,   236,    238,  244, 

245,  248. 
Sloth,  134. 
Smallpox,  266. 
Smell,  96,  169. 
Smith,  Vincent,  18  n.,  85. 
Snakes,  48,  49,  105. 
Social  service,  167, 209, 271,  288n. 
Soka,  135. 
Somacandra,  287. 
Somadatta,  34. 
Sonagarh,  284. 
Soparl,  194  ff.,  212  ff. 
Sorath,  no. 
Soul,  see  Jiva. 

Southern   India,  architecture   of, 
'    285. 


Southern  India,  literature  of,  286  ff. 

Space,  see  Akasastikaya. 

Sparsa  asrava,  140. 

Sparsendriya,  96. 

Spristiki  asrava,  142. 

Sraddha,  264. 

Sramana,  218. 

Sramanabhuta  pratima,  224. 

Sravaka,  67,  210,  257. 

Sravana,  266,  276. 

Sravana  Belgola,  10,  70,  263,  285. 

Sravanendriya,  96. 

SravastT,  42,  51,  59. 

Sravika,  67. 

Srenika,  41,  126,  276. 

Sreyamsanatha,  54,  312. 

Sri,  23,  261. 

SrIdevI,  56. 

Srikhanda,  186. 

Srilalajl,  239  n. 

Srimala  (city),  81. 

Srimala  (sect),  69. 

Sripujya,  87  n.,  233. 

Srivatsa  svastika,  53. 

Sruta  ajnana,  178. 

Sruta  jiiana,  32. 

Sruta  jnanavaranlya,  132,  177. 

Srutakevall,  72. 

Stambha,  285. 

Stars,  270. 

Stealing,  see  Honesty. 

Steps  to  liberation,  the  fourteen, 

156,  185  ff. 
Stevenson,  Rev.  J.,  169  n.,  I72n. 
SthanakavasT,    12  ff.,    19,  23,  62, 

66,   76  n.,   79,   87,  104  n.,   112, 

155,  167, 197,206,211  n.,  226  ff., 

239  ff.,  254  ff.,  260  ff. 
Sthanahga  Sutra,  13. 
Sthanita  Kumara,  269. 
Sthavara,  138. 
Sthavara  Dasaka,  the,  138. 
Sthavira  kalpa,  79. 
Sthira  namakarma,  115. 
Sthiti,  162. 

Sthulabhadra,  10,  11,  71  ff. 
Stork,  130. 

Strllinga  Siddha,  171. 
Strl  parlsaha,  149. 
Strlveda,  136. 
Study,  167,  231. 
Stupa,  279,  280. 
Styanarddhi,  134. 


INDEX 


333 


^ubha  asrava,  1 41. 

Subhadde,  270. 

Subhadeva,  80  n. 

Subhaga  namakanna,  115. 

Subha  gandha,  114. 

Subha  karma,  139. 

Subhala,  277. 

Subha  namakarma,  115. 

Subha  rasa,  114. 

Subha  sparsa,  114. 

Subha  varna,  114. 

Subhavihayogati,  115. 

Subhuma,  122. 

Substance,  see  Dravya. 

Sudamsane,  270. 

Sudarsana,  56. 

Sudharma,  9,  44  n.,  63-9. 

Sudharma  (god),  270. 

Sudharman,  see  Sudharma. 

Suffering,  problem  of,  290  ff. 

*  Suffragette '  movement,  166  n. 

Suhastin,  12,  74  ff.,  85. 

Suicide,  30,  163,  168,  296  n.;   see 

also  Santharo. 
Sujae,  270. 

Sukladhyana,  43,  168,   190,   191, 
,  242.  ^ 

Suklalesya,  104,  242. 
Suklayoga,  242. 
Sliksma,  105,  138. 
Suksmasamparaya  caritra,  156. 
Suksmasamparaya         Gunastha- 

naka,  189. 
Sulasa,  67. 
Sulasa  II,  277. 
Sulasa  tree,  269. 
Sumadhi,  277. 
Sumanase,  270. 
Sumangala,  52. 
Sumatinatha,  52,  312. 
Sumitra,  57. 
Sun,  270. 

Sunandasravaka,  276. 
Sundavana,  31 n. 
Supadibhadde,  270. 
Suparsva,  276. 
Suparsvanatha,  52,  312. 
Superstitions,  264  ff. 
Supreme  Being,  174,  292. 
Suradeva,  276. 
Surapannati,  14. 
Surastra,  see  Kathiavvad. 
Surat,*  88. 


Surya,  270. 

Siaryaprajfiapti,  14. 

Susama,  273,  276. 

Susama  Dusama,  51,  274. 

Susama  Susama,  272. 

Susima,  52. 

Susthitasuri,  75,  86. 

Susvara  namakarma,  115. 

Siitra,  y8. 

Siitrakritariga  Siitra,  13,  59  n., 
154,  l6i. 

Suvarna  Kumara,  269. 

Suvidhinatha,  53,  312. 

Suyagadanga  Sutra,  13. 

Svadhyaya,  167. 

SvahastikT,  142. 

Svalinga  Siddha,  171. 

Svarga,  270  ff. 

Svasocchvasa,  96,  104. 

Svastika,  53,  56,  97,  251,  279. 

Svayambuddha,  278. 

Svayambuddha  Siddha,  171. 

Svayamprabhu,  276. 

Svetambara,  12  ff.,  28,  29,  30, 
31  n.,  36,  40,  53  ff,  66,  70,  72, 
74,  79,  86,  87,  155,  167,  169, 
225  ff,  239  ff.,  250 ff.,  260  ff., 
281. 

Sweeper-gods,  270. 

Sweeping-brush,  146. 

Syadvada,  92. 

Syamacarya,  y^. 

Syria,  285. 

Taijasa  body,  see  Taijasasarrra. 
Taijasasarira,  114,  206. 
Tama  Prabha,  271. 
Tamatama  Prabha,  271. 
Tambola  chantanam,  199. 
Tamil,  286 ff" 
Tandulavaicarika,  15. 
Tandulaveyalla,  15. 
Tankum,  121  n. 
Tapa  (Tapas),  153,  155,  184,  262, 

298. 
Tapagaccha,  24  n.,  yS  n.,  87,  87  n., 

211,  219,  239. 
Tara,  270. 
Tassottarl,  257. 
Taste,  96,  169. 
Tattva,  61,  94,  106. 
Tattvartha  Sutra,  y^' 
Taxila,  80  n. 


334 


INDEX 


Tejolesya,  103,  114. 

Telugu,  287. 

Temple  worship,  250  ff. 

Temples,  22,  281  ff. 

Teukaya,  97,  98,  102,  104,  105. 

Thananga  Sutra,  13. 

Theft,  see  Honesty. 

Theosophy,  131. 

Thinarddhi,  134. 

Thirst,  endurance  of,  148. 

Three  Jewels,  see  Jewels,  the 
three. 

Thunderbolt,  55. 

Tibet,  117. 

Tikkhuto,  216. 

Timbara  tree,  269. 

Time,  see  Kala. 

Time,  divisions  of,  272. 

Tirtha,  the  four,  42,  65,  170. 

Tirthankara,  22  n.,  26  n.,  32  n.,  33, 
42,48,  50  ff.,  56  n.,  79,  112,  113, 
116,  121  n.,  122,  130,  i7off., 
178,  190  ff.,  205,  216,  217,  222, 
225, 228,  233,  241  ff.,  246, 253  ff., 
262,  271,  274,  275,  280,  285, 
288  n.,  312,  313. 

—  list  of,  5 iff.,  312,  313. 

—  to  come,  the  twenty-four,  276  ff. 
Tirthankara  namakarma,  116. 
Tirtha  Siddha,  170. 
Tiruvalluvar,  287. 
Tiryagayuhkarnia,    see    Tiryaiic 

ayu  karma. 
Tiryak  jambrik,  270. 
Tiryak  loka,  272. 
Tiryanc,  97,  105. 
Tiryanc  anupurvl,  136. 
Tiryanc  ayu  karma,  181. 
Tiryaiic  ayusya,  116. 
Tiryanc  gati,  136,  182. 
Tolerance,  178. 
Tortoise,  57. 
Touch,  95. 
Trades,  2 1 3  ff. 
Training  of  Sadhus,  225. 
Trana  Yoga,  see  Yoga,  the  three. 
Transmigration,  89,  104,  294. 
Trasakaya,  102,  105. 
Trasa  namakarma,  115. 
Travel,  145,  211  ff. 
Treason,  119. 
Treasure   houses   for   books,   ^y, 

261. 


Trees,   the   desire-fulfilling,    181, 

273. 
Tri-indriya,  97,  100,  104. 

Tri-indriya  nama,  136. 

Trimurti,  31. 

Trinasparsa  parlsaha,  151. 

Trindriya,  see  Tri-indriya. 

Triprista,  46. 

Triratna,  see  Jewels,  the  three. 

Trisa  parlsaha,  148. 

Trisala,  22,  40,  47,  66  n. 

Trivatur,  18. 

Truth,  118  ff.,  152,  154,  207,  235; 

see  also  Satya. 

Turmeric,  see  Kanku. 

Twins,  happy,  273  ff. 

Tyaga,  I54n. 

Ucchvasa  namakarma,  114. 
Udadhi  Kumara,  269. 
Udal,  276. 
Udaya,  185. 
Udayaprabhu,  276. 
Uddhista  pratima,  224. 
Uggaharh  siuggahitarhsl,  236. 
Uggaharii     vauggahimsa      abhl- 

khanarh,  236. 
Ujjain*,  33,  74,  77  n. 
Ujjayini,  see  Ujjain. 
UkaradI  Notari,  198. 
Umasvati,  J2)' 
Unbelief,  139. 
Uficagotra,  113. 
Unique  step,  the,  189. 
Unodari,  164. 

Untruthfulness,  see  Asatya. 
Upabhogantaraya,  133,  183. 
Upabhoga   paribhoga   parimana, 

212. 
Upadesamala,  82. 
Upadhyaya,  229,  239,  254,  262. 
Upaghatanama,  1 36. 
Upakesa  Pattana,  69. 
Upanga,  the  twelve,  13,  64,  jt,, 

240. 
Upasaka  Dasanga,  13,  16,  239. 
Upasama  sankita,  186. 
Upasantamoha       Gunasthanaka, 

190. 
Upasarga       Harastotra       Kalpa 

Sutra,  70. 
Upasaro,  see  Apasaro. 
Urdhvaloka,  272. 


% 


INDEX 


335 


Use,  limitation  of,  see  Upabhoga 

paribhoga  parimana. 
Usna  parlsaha,  149. 
Utkrista  desavirati,  188. 
Utpat'ikT,  177. 
Utsarga,  168. 
Utsarga  samiti,  146. 
Utsarpini,  272,  276  ff. 
Uttara,  79. 
Uttaradhyayana,  14,43,  62, 63, 94, 

14711.,  14811.,  14911.,  15011.,  239. 
Uvavai,  13. 

Vacana  bala,  96. 
Vacanagupti,  147  ff. 
Vacana  punya,  112. 
Vacana  vinaya,  166. 
Vadha  parlsaha,  1 50. 
VaidaranikI  asrava,  142. 
Vaikreya  angopanga,  113. 
Vaikreya    body,    see    Vaikreya- 

sarlra. 
Vaikreyasarlra,  113,  206. 
Vaimanika,  105,  181. 
VainayikI,  177. 
Vaisall,  21,  31 ,  41,  66  n. 
—  government  of,  22. 
Vaisaliya,  27. 

Vaisesika  school,  78,  90,  91,  94. 
Vaisnava,  230. 
Vaisramana,  191. 
VaitaranI,  see  Veyaranl. 
Vaiyavacca,  167. 
Vaiya  vrata,  218. 
Vaiyavritya,  see  Vaiyavacca. 
Vajrarisabhanaraca    sanghayana, 

114. 
Vajrasena,  78  ff. 
Vajrasvami,  78. 
Vakniyami,  147. 
Vallabhi,  13,  17. 
Valu,  268. 
Valu  Prabha,  271. 
Vama,  48. 

Vamana  samsthana,  137. 
Vanaraja,  83. 
Vanaspatikaya,  97,  99,  102,  104, 

105. 
VanavasTgaccha,  80  n. 
Vanavyantara,  270. 
Vandana,  255. 
Van  Eycks,  the,  281. 
Vanhidasa,  14. 


Vania,  see  Baniya. 

Vanijyagrama,  21,  41. 

Vanita,  52. 

Varanlya,  132  ff. 

Vardhamana,  27. 

Vardhamana  (village),  41. 

Varikhilla,  128. 

Vasaksepa,  226. 

Vastra  parlsaha,  149. 

Vastra  punya,  no  ff. 

Vasu,  54,  56  n. 

Vasudeva,  King,  46,  134. 

Vasudeva,  the  nine,  274. 

Vasumati,  61. 

Vasupiija,  54. 

Vasupujya,  54,  56  n. 

Vatirii  parijanai,  234. 

Vayubhuti,  65. 

Vayukaya,  97,  99,  102,  104,  105. 

Vayu  Kumara,  269. 

Veda,  16,  71. 

Vedanlya  karma,  178,  179,  184, 

190  n. 
Vedanta  school,  90, 91, 95 n.,  98 n., 

121,  185  n. 
Vedantists,  see  Vedanta  school. 
Vegetable  life,  99. 
Vegetarianism,  294. 
Vesaliya,  see  Vaisaliya. 
Vestments,  228,  251,  254  f. 
VetaranI,  268. 
Veyaranl,  192. 
Vibhanga  jfiana,  178. 
Vidartha,  193. 
Videha,  40. 
Vidyadhara,  66. 
Vidyut  Kumara,  269. 
Vijaya,  270. 
Vijaya  (Acarya),  80  n. 
Vijaya  (coming  Tirthankara),277. 
Vijayanta,  270. 
Vijya,  57. 

Vikramaditya,  *]']^  yy  n. 
Vimalanatha,  54,  213. 
Vimanavasi,  270. 
Vinaya,  166. 
Vindhya,  69. 
Vipaka  Sutra,  13. 
Vipra,  57. 
Viraji,  88. 
VirapasalT,  263. 
Virastava,  15. 
Virathuo,  15. 


S^6  INDEX 

Viryantaraya  karma,  133,  183. 
Visakhacarya,  80  n. 
Visnu,  31. 
Visnu  Acarya,  Son. 
Visnudeva,  King,  54. 
Vitigaccha,  205. 
Vivihapannanti,  13. 
Vivikta  carya,  165. 
Vows,  30,  140  fif.,  186. 

—  the  five  ascetic,  39, 155,  234fF., 
241. 

—  of  laymen,  see  Lay-adherents. 

—  advantage  of  keeping,  220. 

—  of  Parsvanatha,  the  four,  49. 
Vrata,  205. 
Vrata  pratima,  222. 
VriddhavadI,  yy. 
Vrihatkalpa,  14. 
Vrisabhasena,  66. 
Vrittisanksepa,  164. 
Vyaktamithyatva   Gunasthanaka, 

185. 
Vyantara,  105,  181,  269. 
Vyavahara  Sutra,  14,  145. 
Vyavaharika  Ka]a,  107  n. 

Wadhwan,  41,  82,  120  n. 

Wandering  life,  28  fif.,  36,  149  ff. 

Water,  98,  110,  218. 

Water-jar,  57. 

Waves,  98  n. 

Wedding  ceremonies,  198  ff. 

Wheel,  279. 

Whisk  for  insects,  227,  255. 

Widows,  child,  203. 


Williams,  Sir  M.  Monier,  36. 

Wind,  99. 

Women,  56,  67,  121,  166  ff.,  169, 

188,  203,  263. 
Wooden  buildings,  279. 
Worship,  250  ff. 

—  private,  254. 

—  temple,  see  Temple-worship. 
Writers,  Jaina,  286  ff. 

Yacana  parlsaha,  see  Yafica  p. 
YakanI,  80. 
Yaksa,  269. 
Yafica  parlsaha,  150. 
Yasobhadra,  70. 
Yasobhadra  II,  80  n. 
Yasoda,  29. 
Yasodhara,  277. 
Yasoklrtti  namakarma,  115. 
YasovatI,  29. 

Yathakhyata  caritra,  123,  156. 
Yathasutracestaniyami,  148. 
Yati,  233. 
Yavatkathika,  163. 
Yenur,  285. 

Yoga,    141,    162,   165,    174,    188, 
242. 

—  karma,  174. 

—  samllnata,  165. 

—  Sastra,  288. 

—  school,  91. 

—  the  three,  141,  162. 
Young  Men's  Associations,  288  n. 

Zoroastrianism,  see  Parsls. 


i 


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Stevenson,  Sinclair 
The  heart  of  Jainism  / 


BL    1351    . S74    1915 

Stevenson,     Sinclair,     1875 
1957. 


The    heart    o±    Jainism