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inford Uniyersity Libraries
3 6105 04918 6898
.5 04918 6898 _r-_fT__ ^_
ELpS^INTkEUSE OF
Good English
BEPiBTMENT OF EDDOATlOJi
~lllll SlECEieiC Mill
i, ail »;d i£! aa ffii lie a jj,mi4^
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
LIBRARY
La
TEXTBOOK COLLECTION
GIFT OF
THE PUBLISHERS
STANFORD N^p/ U N 1 \' K K S I T V
LIBRARIK5
The tvtaU price of this book b f .
DEPABTMMT OF EDUCATION
pi *.TT^. '■■'.:: ' ..■•;"■"? '^.iTi
HELPS
IN THE USE OF
GOOD ENOLISH:
A HAND-BOOK FOR ALL WHO DESIRE TO SPEAK
OR WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH.
BY
ALBERT N. RAUB, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Author op " Lessons in English," " Practical English Gbamxab/'
"Practical Rhetoric," "Studies in English and Akerz-
CAN Literature," " Methods op Teaching,"
"School Management," etc.
PHILADELPHIA :
R A UB & CO.
1897.
\i •
'•
593630
_C
Copyright, 1897,
BY ALBERT N. RAUB.
— ^^ .„__^,fcj
ELectrotVped Bif
Wbstcott d Thomson, Philada.
William IIutter Company,
BOOK MAHO^AOTItRfcaS.
BbVenth and Cherry SxREEts, PhIlada.
PREFACE.
The object of this book is that of serving as a con-
venient hand-book for editors, lawyers, teachers, clergy-
men and others who have occasion to write or speak
the English language, and who desire to do so in
accordance with approved modern usage.
The aim of the author has been to make the book
helpful to all who may find it necessary or interesting
to consult its pages, especially on the subjects of Cap-
ital Letters, Syllabication, Syntax, Punctuation, Letter-
Writing and Diction.
Only those points in Grammar have been discussed
which, it is thought, may prove most helpful to those
who desire to speak or write the language correctly.
Many sentences taken from the works of reputable
writers, but illustrating violations of correct usage, have
been incorporated in the book, and the proper correc-
tions indicated, either in marks of parenthesis where
a word has been improperly omitted or in brackets
where the wrong word has been used by the author
quoted.
8
4 PREFACE.
A list of synonyms most frequently used, and a list
of words most liable to be misused, as given in the
book, ought to be both interesting and beneficial to all
who desire to express themselves accurately.
The author hopes that the book may meet with the
approval of all who are interested in the use of good
English.
A. N. R.
CONTENTS.
CAPITAL LETTERS . . 1
First Word in a Book . . 1
First Word of a Sen-
tence 1
Kumbered Clausen . . . 1
First Word of an Eiam-
Ple 1
After an Introductoiy
Woni 1
An Knumeradon of Par-
ticulars . 1
Direct QiiestionB . . . . 1
Direct (Quotations . . . 1
Poetry 1
Proper Names 1
Particular Objecls . . ■ 1
Proper At^ectives . . - 1
Titles ]
Names of tbe Dcily . . 1
landO 1
Book Titles 1
Common Noiina . . . . 1
Thu Kible 1
Specitie Terms 1
Spkciai. Rules 1
Letter Addresses .... I
Letter C'lo«ing 1
A Seri^ of Questions . . 1
Indirect Quotations . . . 1
SeaKonB, MoDtha, Days ■ 1
Pronouns Representing
Names of the Deity . . ]
Titles as Paris of Names. ]
The Word State . . . . ]
Objects or Events made
I'ar
culir 18
s of rrofesHions . . 18
Nar
Personification . . . . 1
Words Derived from
■ Proper Names .... 3
Titles of Books, eta. . . i
Names of Places . . . . '
Names of Cities . . . . i
Added Names i
Words and Pliroses . . . S
De, dn, von, etc. . . . i
One Capital Letter . . . i
Two Capital Letters ■ . ^
f..nipk-.t Niiraea .... 5
St. for Street i
SYLLABICATION . . . . S
TheUseofthkHyphen . i
SPELLING ;
Fiua] E . . . .
Final Y . . . .
Final Consonant
35
CONTENTS,
PAGE
Able and ible 39
le or ei ? 46
ENGLISH GRAMMAR . . 41
Nouns 42
Number 43
Plurals, how formed . . 43
Nouns Ending in Y . . 44
Nouns Ending in O . . . 44
Nouns Ending inforfe. 45
Nouns Ending in jf . . . 45
Plurals of Figures, etc. . 45
Plurals of Proper Nouns . 45
Complex Proper Names . 45
Plurals of Compound
Nouns 46
Compound Nouns from
Foreign Languages . . 46
Abstract Nouns .... 48
Two-form Plurals ... 48
Plurals of Fractions . . 60
Collective Nouns .... 50
Whereabouts 51
Gender 51
Masculine without a fem-
inine form 52
Names of occupations in
common gender ... 52
Case 53
The Possessive Case . . 53
Syntax of Nouns ... 54
Mistakes in Writing the
Possessive 54
Possessive of Compound
Words 56
The Possessive when an
Adjective follows the
Noun 55
In joint ownership ... 56
PAGE
In separate ownership . . 56
The Possessive with
Nouns in Apposition . 56
The Possessive with a
Pronoun in Apposition 57
The Possessive limiting a
Participial Noun ... 57
The Nominative Case . 59
The Nominative Case Inde-
pendent 60
The Objective Case . . 61
The Objective Case after
a Verb 61
The Factitive Construc-
tion 61
The Objective Case after
a Preposition .... 62
The Case by Apposition . 65
Same Case after a Verb . 67
**Itisme" 68
Notes on Nouns .... 69
Adjectives 71
Complex Adjectives . . 71
Compound Adjectives . . 71
Numeral Adjectives . . 72
Comparison 73
Syntax of Adjectives . 74
Limiting Precedes Quali-
fying 74
Ordinals Precede Cardi-
nals 74
Ordinal Precedes Noun . 74
Cardinal Follows Noun . 74
Plural Adjective requires
Plural Noun 76
''A ten-foot pole" ... 76
"I feel bad" 76
Order of Adjectives ... 77
"Farther," J* further" . 77
CONTENTS.
PAGE
"Each Other" .... 77
"This," "these" ... 77
The article before few,
dozen, etc 78
Syntax of Articles . . 78
The article before * * few ' '
and "little" .... 79
The article repeated . . 79
The article before several
adjectives 79
"Sing the first and the
second stanza" .... 80
Kepetition of the arti-
cle 81
The article before titles . 82
A or an before h .... 83
None, every, each, any,
either, neither, many
83, 84
All and whole 84
Fewer and less 84
Pronouns 86
Two-form Pronouns . . 86
Syntax op Personal
Pronouns 87
Antecedents connected by
and 87
Antecedents connected by
or or nor 87
Antecedents connected by
as well as 88
Order of Pronouns ... 88
Use of we and you . . 89
Kelative and Interroo-
ATivE Pronouns . . 90
Who, which, what, that . 90
Syntax op Relative
Pronouns 91
The Restrictive Clause . 91
PAGE
The Relative Represent-
ing a Collective Noun . 92
That for who or which . 92
Reflexive I*ronouns . 94
Verbs 95
The Transitive Verb . . 95
The Intransitive Verb . 95
Voice 96
Mode 96
Tense 98
Syntax op Verbs ... 101
Verbs having Collective
Nouns as Subjects . . 102
Subjects connected by
"and" or "as well
* as ••....■• xUtS
Subjects connected by
"or" or "nor" . . 105
The Subject with Modi-
fiers 107
Nominative to be Ex-
pressed 108
Discrepant Subjects . . 108
The Subject limited by
Adjectives 110
Distributive Pronouns
as Subjects Ill
Indefinite Pronominal
Adjectives as Subjects 111
Relative Pronouns as
Subjects 112
Relative Pronouns to be
Repeated 113
Connected Verbs ... 114
Ellipsis of the Principal
Verb 115
Disjoined Subjects . . . 115
The Concord of 'There" 116
Error of Proximity . . 117
8
CONTENTS.
PAGE
The Verb after" Than »'
as a Connective . . . 119
Infinitives 120
Participles 123
Adverbs 125
Phrases Modified . . .125
Independent Adverbs . 126
Conjunctive Adverbs . . 126
"The'' an Adverb . . 126
The Placing of Ad verbs. 127
Improper use of "how "
and "how that" . . 127
Improper use of " when "
and "where" ... 128
"Like" as a Conjunc-
tive Adverb . . . •. 128
Complex Adverbs ... 131
Compound Adverbs . . 131
"Farther" for "fur-
ther" 131
Prepositions 133
"Set in," "Were look-
ed for" 133
Appropriate Preposi-
tions 133
Prepositions become Ad-
verbs 133
Conjunctions 139
Correlatives 140
Introductory Conjunc-
tions 141
"As follows" .... 141
"Than whom" .... 141
"And which" .... 142
"That" instead of
"but," "but that,"
"lest" 143
"Not only," "but,"
"but also" .... 143
PAGE
Words I'sed as Different
Parts of Speech ... 145
"As," "before," "af-
ter," "till," "until,"
"both," "but," "ei-
ther and neither,"
"for," "like,"
"since," "that,"
"then," "what,"
"well," "while,"
"yet" 145-150
PUNCTUATION 151
The Period 152
Complete Sentences . . 152
Abbreviations .... 152
Complete Expressions . 153
Numbers of Paragraphs 154
The Comma 154
Compound Sentences . . 154
Relative Clauses . . . 154
Dependent Clauses . . 155
Parenthetical Expres-
sions 156
Intermediate Expres-
sions 1 57
Transposed Elements . 158
Series 158
Words in Pairs .... 159
Words in Apposition . . 159
W^ords in the Vocative . 159
The Absolute Construc-
tion 160
Omission of the Verb . 161
Logical Subject . . . . 161
Quotations 161
Numeral Figures . . . 161
Ambiguity 161
The Semicolon .... 162
CONTENTS.
9
PAGE
Parts of Sentences . . . 162
A General Term ... 162
Short Sentences .... 162
Successive Clauses ... 163
Additional Clauses . . 163
Before*' As" 163
"Yes'^ and**No" . . 164
The Colon 164
Parts of Sentences ... 1 64
Additional Clauses . . 164
Quotations 165
Formal Introduction . . 1 65
Title-Pages 165
The Interrogation
Point 165
Questions 165
Doubt 166
The Ex clamation
Point 166
Interjections 166
Exclamations 167
The Dash 168
Sudden Changes .... 168
Parenthesis 168
A Pause 168
An Omission 168
Summing-Up 169
Repetition 169
Eeflex Apposition ... 169
Titles Run In .... 169
Dialogues 169
With Other Marks . . 169
Marks of Pa renthesis . 170
Quotation Marks ... 170
Direct Quotations . . . 171
A Quotation within a
Quotation ..... 171
Quoted Paragraphs . . 172
The Hyphen 172
PAGE
Other Marks of Punc-
tuation 172
Brackets 172
The Apostrophe .... 173
The Ellipsis 173
The Section 173
The Paragraph .... 173
The Caret 173
The Index 173
The Brace 173
The Ditto Mark .... 174
The Cedilla 174
The Tilde 174
The Dia?resis 174
The Macron 174
The Breve 174
Leaders 174
Book Notes 175
A Corrected Proof-
Sheet 176
Explanation of Proof-Marks 111
Sizes of Books .... 178
LETTER-WRITING ... 179
The Heading 179
The Introduction . . . 181
The Address •• ... 182
The Salutation .... 184
The Body of the Let-
ter 187
The Conclusion. .... 188
The Complimentary
Closing 188
The Signature .... 189
The Superscription . . 190
Invitations and Re-
grets 192
Hints on Letter-Writ-
ing 193
10
CONTENTS.
PAGE
iBfPORTANT Abbrevia-
tions 194
CHOICE OF WORDS . . 200
Noun Synonyms .... 200
Adjective Synonyms . 209
PAGE
Verb Synonyms .... 219
Adverb Synonyms . . . 225
PRErosiTiON Synonyms . 227
Spurious Words .... 231
Words Liable to be
Misused 233
HELPS
IN THE rSE OF
GOOD ENGLISH
CAPITAL LETTERS.
In the employment of capital letters usage is nearly
uniform, though occasional differences exist in the appli-
cation of some of the rules.
The following are the chief rules for the use of capital
letters :
1. The First Word in a Book, etc. — The first word
in every book, tract, essay, etc., and of every chapter or
section, also the first word of every note, letter, or other
writing, should begin with a capital letter.
2. The First Word of a Sentence.— The first word
of every sentence or its equivalent should begin with a
capital letter. Thus,
" Where have you been ?" " It is a very pleasant day."
3. Numbered Clauses, etc. — ^The first word of each
of a series of numbered clauses or phrases should begin
with a capital letter. Thus,
"He stated three things: 1. That he had not been present;
2. That his brother had not been present ; 3. That neither had
any desire to be present."
11
12 GOOD EXGLISIL
4. First Word of an Example. — The first word of a
clause or a sentence, wlien used as an example, should
begin with a capital letter. Thus,
Ex. " To err is human."
5. After an Introductory Word.— The first word
after an introductory word or clause should begin with
a capital letter. Thus,
Resolved^ " That all land should be taxed."
Be it enactedj etc., '* That a tax of three mills," etc.
6. In an Enumeration of Particulars. — The first
word of each new line in an enumeration of particulars,
when arranged in lines, should begin with a capital let-
ter. Thus,
The expenses of the committee were as follows :
For Advertising $4.20
For Clerk Hire 10.00
For Postage 7.00
It will be noticed that the chief items in a statement
of this kind or in a bill begin with capital letters. Thus,
Mr. John Henderson,
To William Brown & Co., Dr.
To 4 lb. Coffee @ 30^ $1.20
" 10 lb. Sugar @ 6^ 60
" 12 yd. Muslin @ 7f^ 84
7. Direct Questions. — The first word of a direct ques-
tion should begin with a capital letter. Thus,
"The question is, Where can we get a better?"
This rule is taken also by some to cover an important
statement. Thus,
"My remark was this: If he does not do the work properly,
he must be dismissed."
CAPITAL LETTERS. 13
8. Direct Quotation.— The first word of every direct
quotation should begin with a capital letter. Thus,
The Bible says, " Blessed are the meek."
9. Poetry. — The first word of every line of poetry
should begin with a capital letter. Thus,
"Now came still evening on, and twilight gray
Had in her sober livery all j;hiugs clad."
10. Proper Naines. — Every proper name should begin
with a capital letter. Thus,
John, Susan, New York, Thomas Jefferson Jones.
11. Particular Objects or Events. — Words naming
particular objects or events should begin with capital
letters. Thus,
Niagara Falls, Fourth of July, The Statue of Liberty, The
National Educational Association, The Park.
12. Proper Ac^jectives. — Adjectives derived from
proper names should begin with capital letters. Thus,
English, American, Welsh, Johnsonian.
13. Titles. — Titles of honor, office, or respect, usually
begin with capitals. Thus,
President Cleveland, General Grant, Superintendent Brooks,
Sir Walter Scott, Mr. Williams, Richjfrd the Third, Professor
Greene, Colonel Meredith, Mrs. Johnson.
14. Naines of the Deity. — All appellations of the
Deity should begin with capital letters. Thus,
God, Almighty, the Divine Architect.
15. I and O. — The words I and should always be
written as capital letters.
16. Book Titles. — In the titles of books, or the sub-
14 GOOD ENGLISH.
jects of essays, etc., every noun, adjective, verb, and
adverb, should begin with a capital letter. Tlius,
« Helps in the Use of Good English."
17. Common Nouns. — Common nouns, when strongly
personified, should begin with capital letters. Thus,
" Come when his task of Fame is wrought."
18. The Bible. — When reference is had to the divine
origin of the Bible, the name of the book itself or any
particular part of the book should begin with a capital
letter. Tlius,
" The Holy Bible " ; " The Acts of the Apostles."
When the Bible is spoken of simply as a book, as
"Several bibles were sold on Saturday," no capital is
required.
Capital letters are used also to begin the names of other
sacred writings, as The Koran, The Zerid AVesta, etc.
19. Specific Terms. — The words state, academy, col-
lege, university, park, etc., when used specifically, either
as nouns or as adjectives, should begin with capital let-
ters, and at other times with smaller letters. Thus,
" The State, a state election ; The College, a college course ;
A drive in the Park, the park along the river."
The foregoing rules cover the ordinary cases where
words should begin with capitals, but in the case of
hand-bills, advertisements, etc., much is left to the dis-
cretion of the printer.
Special Rules.
The following special rules for the use of capital letters
should be observed :
Letter Addresses. — In the address of a letter the first
CAPITAL LETTERS. 15
word of the salutation and of the title should begin with
capital letters, but no other words. Thus, we write.
Dear Sir, My dear Sir, My dear Aunt Lizzie, My very dear
Mother, My much esteemed Friend, etc.
Letter Closing. — Much the same rule holds good
here; namely, that only the first word and the title
should begin with capital letters. Formerly, many
writers began each word of the closing with a capital
letter; thus. Yours Very Truly, but the best usage is
against this at present, and one should write, Yours
respectfully. Yours very truly,
Cy €i'm^ ^pn^ </e€i4, ^^^;^^i^^i^
Cy <i^n^, ©^^^ -f^^iJC^ ^/t/e€i^ ed^ee^yn^
A Series of Questions. — When a series of questions
is propounded, each of which requires a separate an-
swer, each question, though but part of a sentence,
should begin with a capital letter. Thus,
What is one-third of 6? Of 18? Of 24?
What is the capital of Maine? Of Oregon ? Of Missouri?
Indirect Quotations. — Indirect quotations do not re-
quire the use of capital letters.
Notice that in the following: Remember the maxim,
"Honesty is the best policy," the quotation is intro-
duced by the use of a capital letter, but the same thought
may be conveyed indirectly without the use of either cap-
ital letter or quotation marks, as follows : Remember the
maxim that honesty is the best policy.
k
16 GOOD EXGLISIL
Seasons, Months, and Days of the Week. — No cap-
ital letters are used in writing the names of the seasons,
but it is difierent in writing the names of the months
and the davs of the week, which should always hQ^An
with capital letters. This is probably because some of
the months and some of the days are named after de-
ities and persons. Thus, January (Jamis)^ March (Mars)^
May {Maie)^ June (Juno), July (Julius Cxsar), August
(Augustus Cxsar), are all derived from proper names,
and should begin with capital letters. In order to make
the rule uniform, the name of each month should, there-
fore, begin with a capital letter. The same is true of the
days of the week; thus, Sunday is sun day ; Monday,
moon day; Tuesday, Tiw^s day; Wednesday, Woden^s
day ; Thursday, Thor's day; Friday, Friga's day ; Sat-
urday, Saturn s day. Five at least of the names of the
days of the week are derived from proper names and
should begin with capital letters. In order, therefore, to
make the rule uniform in its application, the names of
the months and the days of the week sliould each begin
with a capital letter.
Names of the Deity. — As stated in Rule 14, all ap-
pellations of the Deity should begin with capital letters,
but usage with regard to writing pronouns referring to
the Deity is not uniform. The most careful writers of
English seem to favor the use of small letters rather
than capitals in beginning these pronouns, except when
the pronoun is equivalent to the name of the Deity.
Relative pronouns, when referring to the Deity, begin
with small letters. The following sentence shows the
correct usage : "We prayed to Ilim who rules the world."
When a name usually applied to the Deity is applied
to created beings, no capital is used ; as, " Lord of lords^
King of kings,- ^
CAPITAL LETTERS. 17
When the word " heaven " is used to mean the Deity,
it should begin with a capital letter; as, "May Heaven
protect us," but when it means the firmament, the word
should begin with a small letter. When it refers to the
abode of the blest, it is written by some with a capital
letter and by others without. Usage is not uniform.
The adjectives universal, eternal, divine, omniscient,
etc., when applied to God, need not begin with capital
letters, but usage requires capital letters in the follow-
ing : Almighty God, Infinite One, First Cause, Supreme
Being.
Titles. — When a title is part of a name, the word in-
dicating the title should begin with a capital letter ; as.
President Monroe, King James, Colonel Thompson ; but
when such titles follow the name no capitals are used.
Thus, we would say, " James Monroe was president of
the United States," " James II. was king of England."
When a title precedes a proper name for the purpose
of explanation, as, "The apostle Paul," "The prophet
Isaias," "The poet - Milton," it begins with a small
letter.
When it is desirable to make the title take the place
of the person's name, the title is usually begun with a
capital letter, as in the following: "The President w^ill
give us an audience at 10 o'clock ;" " The Teacher will
begin his lectures tliis morning."
In the foregoing sentences reference is made to a par-
ticular president or teacher, and the word in either case
has the force of a proper noun.
The word " state " is one which is frequently written
improperly. Where it is a specific term it should begin
with a capital letter; as, "The State is responsible;"
where it is not a specific term the word should begin
with a small letter, as in the following: "New Jersey
2
18 GOOD ENGLISH.
and other states bordering on the Ocean." In some
printing offices the direction to the compositors, es})e-
cially the learners, is to begin the word " state " with a
capital letter wherever it occurs. This is wrong. It is
correct to begin the word " state " with a capital letter
only where it refers to a particular state, or where tlie
individual name of the state having been referred to,
the word "state" is made to take the place of the proper
name itself. Thus, we write, " The State of Virginia was
settled by the English;" "Pennsylvania lies south of
New York; the State is noted for its manufactures."
Even some of our best writers have violated these
rules. Thus, Bancroft writes of the " canebrakes of the
state of Louisiana," and Everett speaks of "the union
of the States."
Objects or Events Made Particular. — Words which
particularize objects or events give them the force of
proper nouns, and they should therefore begin with
capital letters. Thus, we may write, " The young man
is attending college," but " The College is the most im-
portant institution of the village." Similarly we write,
" The City has a beautiful park," but " The Park is a
pleasant place of resort."
When certain dates become the names of special
events, the chief words of the date should begin with
capital letters. We may write, '* Independence was de-
clared on the fourth day of July, 1776," but " The Fourth
of July is one of our chief holidays." So also, we write,
" The revolution of the American colonies against Eng-
land was entirely successful," or "The American Revo-
lution led to the independence of tlie American colo-
nies."
Names of Professions, etc. — When the name applied
to a profession or calling is considered in its widest sense,
CAPITAL LETTERS. 19
the best usage is in favor of beginning the word with a
capital letter. Thus, Mandeville says, " For the Bar or
the Pulpit." It would be better to write, " The calling
of the Teacher is honorable," rather than " The calling
of the teacher is honorable." So also, " The prosperity
of the Merchant depends much upon his honesty and
integrity," meaning merchants as a class, is a better
form than "The prosperity of the merchant," etc.,
which might refer to an individual merchant.
Personification. — According to Rule 17, common
nouns, when strongly personified, should begin with
capital letters; thus, "The entrance to the garden of
Hope was by two gates, one of which was kept by Rea-
son, and the other by Fancy." But not every noun that
is personified should be so written. Only those which
are used in the sense of proper names should begin with
capital letters. In the sentence from Milton, "Wave
your tops, ye pines," the word pines, though addressed,
does not represent persons, and it is not tlierefore written
with a capital letter.
Words Derived from Proper Names. — Words de-
rived from proper names usually begin with capital
letters; as, American, Welsh, French, Latinize, Wes-
leyan, English, etc.
The two words "italics " and " italicize " are, however,
frequently written witliout the use of capital letters.
Whenever a word derived from a proper name has
lost its reference to the original name, and has taken its
place as a common noun or a common adjective, it no
longer is written with a capital letter. Thus, damask no
longer has reference to Damascus, the word from which it
was derived. So also colossal no longer has reference to
Colossus, nor stentorian to Stentor, nor godlike to God, nor
ariesmn to Artois, nor peach to Persia, nor mudin to Mo-
20 GOOD ENGLISH.
eul; hence none of these words nor any of their kind
are written with capital letters. The same principle
applies to the writing of such words as china-ware,
champagne, daguerreotype, galvanize, laconic, academic,
and others.
Titles of Books, etc. — Sometimes it is difficult to de-
termine the exact meaning of an oral expression that
may be made perfectly clear when written, by the use
or the non-use of a capital letter. Thus, in spoken
language we detect no difference between ^'Webster's
Speeches'' and "Webster's speeches." When the ex-
pressions are written or printed we recognize that ** Web-
ster's Speeches " is the title of a book, while *' Webster's
speeches" means the speeches of Webster. So also,
" Longfellow's Poems " and " the poems of Longfellow "
have a different meaning, determined by the use or the
non-use of a capital letter.
The same principle applies when the adjective new
precedes a noun. Thus, "The new Ironsides" refers to
a new steamer named Ironsides, but in the expression
"The New Ironsides," the name of the steamer is " The
New Ircmsideay The new Ironsides is a new boat ; the
New Ironsides may be either new or old.
So we write also of the prindpcd of a school when we
refer to his duties, but when we refer to his title we
write of him as the Principal of the school. Princeton
University was formerly the " College of New Jersey,"
and while that was its proper title it should have been
spoken of as "The College of New Jersey." If the
name Princeton were necessarily used, then it should
have been written not "Princeton College," but "The
Princeton college;" that is, the college at Princeton.
Notice the difference in the two expressions, " William
Penn with a few other Friende" and "William Penn
CAPITAL LETTERS. 21
with a few of his friends." Notice also the difference
between "The Planter's House," a hotel, and "The
planter's house," the residence of a planter.
The Lock Haven normal school is a normal school at
Lock Haven, but the proper title is " The Central State
Normal School of Pennsylvania." So also the Newark
academy is an academy at Newark whose corporate title
is " The Academy of Newark."
Names of Places. — In many cases words originally
beginning with small letters are now written with capi-
tals because they have become names of places. Thus,
Clark's ferry has been changed to Clark's Ferry, Pike's
peak to Pike's Peak, Chadd's ford to Chadds Ford,
Dobb's ferry to Dobbs Ferry.
Names of Cities. — In cases where the word city is
used with a proper name, " city " should begin with a capi-
tal letter only when it forms part of the name. Thus,
we write Jersey City, Atlantic City, Oil City, Mahanoy
City, Salt Lake City, because the word city hi each case
is a part of the corporate name ; but the word city in
such expressions as New York city, Philadelphia city,
Baltimore city, Washington city, is not written with a
capital letter, because in none of these does it form a
part of the corporate name. We ma}^ speak of Balti-
more, New York, Boston, etc., but not of Jersey, Atlantic,
Oil, or Salt Lake as cfties.
Added Names. — When a new proper name is formed
from an old one by the addition of a word, the latter
becomes a part of the complete name and should begin
with a capital letter. Thus, Philadelphia, West Pliila-
delphia ; Chicago, South Chicago, Chicago Junction ;
Baltimore, South Baltimore, North Baltimore; Chester,
West Chester, South Chester; Canada, Upper CauAda;
Virginia, West Virginia.
22 GOOD ENGLISH,
Words and Phrases. — The rule requiring a capital
letter at the beginning of a sentence aj)plies also to
words or phrases comprising an entire saying of some
other person when introduced as having been said by
him. Thus, "He shouted, 'Help, helpl'" "Every
tongue shall exclaim with heart-felt joy, * Welcome!
welcome! La Fayette.'"
De, du, von, etc. — In general, the best usage favors
beginning these words with capital letters, especially
where they begin a heading or a sentence. Thus, the
correct forms are Van Buren, Van Dyck, Du Pont,
O'Reilly. Bulwer writes uncertainly " Captain de Cax-
ton ;" " the old De Caxtons," seeming to indicate that
the absence of a capital is correct when a name or a
title precedes the de; but Hood writes "Wolfgang von
Dilke;" "even Von Raumer."
One Capital Letter. — Goold Brown, in his "Gram-
mar of Grammars," gives as one of his rules on capital
letters, " Compound proper names which by analogy in-
cline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should
be so written, and have but one capital ;" as, Eastport,
Eastville, Westfield, Westtown, Whitehaven, German-
town, Blackrock, Mountpleasant, Dekalb, Newfoundland,
etc. He adds on another page, " I would observe that
perhaps there is nothing more puzzling in grammar
than to find out, amidst all the diversity of random
writing and wild guess-work in printing, the true way
in which the compound names of places should be
written."
In writing the names of places containing the word
Haven, usage is not uniform, but the better plan is to
begin both words with capital letters. Thus, Lock
Haven, New Haven, White Haven. The same is true
in words of which "Mount" forms a part. The proper
CAPITAL LETTERS. 23
forms are Mount Holyoke, Mount Aubtfrn, Mount Pleas-
ant, Rocky Mount. So also the forms De Kalb and Des
Moines are preferable to Dekalb and Desmoines.
Two Capital Letters. — Brown gives the following as
one of the rules for the use of capital letters: "The
compounding of a name under one capital should be
avoided when the general analogy of other similar
terms suggests a separation under two." He then gives
the following as examples : " Ben Chat, Ben Golich, Ben
Nore," etc. Following this rule he decides that the words
East, West, North, South, denoting relative position, and
the word New when it distinguishes a place by contrast,
require generally a separation of the words and a capital
letter for each ; thus. East Greenwich, West Greenwich,
North Manchester, South Manchester, New York, New
Haven.
There are, however, many exceptions to this rule, as
in the names Easthampton, Northhampton, Westchester,
Southport.
It may be said that in names like Westchester and
Newcastle usage varies. Any of these forms, New-Castle,
New Castle, Newcastle, has authority for its usage.
Whether the words are connected by a hyphen or writ-
ten separately, each part should begin with a capital
letter, but only one capital is used when the words are
joined without a hyphen.
The conditions under which two capital letters are
needed aie as follows:
1. When an adjective is added to a proper name, as
in New York, New England, North Carolina, South Da-
kota, Great Pedee, West Cleveland, Lower Canada.
2. When a proper noun with a possessive termination
is used with a common noun following it; as, Glenn's
Falls, Baffin's Bay, Martha's Vineyard, Booth's Corner.
24 GOOD ENGLISH,
When names of this kind are united they drop the
possessive sign and have but one capital letter; as,
Gravesend, Crowsnest, Whitestown, Scottsboro, Penns-
burg.
3. When two common nouns with a preposition be-
tween them are used as the name of a place ; as, Isle of
Shoals, Lake of the Woods, Cape of Good Hope, Fish-
kill-on-the-Hudson.
Complex Names. — In names consisting of two words,
both words are written with capital letters if the com-
mon name precedes the particular; thus, Mount Wash-
ington, Lake Superior, Cape May, Bayou Teche. When
the common name of the object, as bay, mountain, city,
river, etc., follows the particular name, usage varies. If
the name of the object seems necessary to make the ex-
pression intelligible, it is best to begin both words with
capital letters. Thus, when we speak of Hudson's Bay,
we could not appropriately call it "the Hudson's;" so
also of Long Island Sound, Albemarle Sound, Hampton
Roads, Cape Cod Bay, Delaware Bay, White Mountains,
Rocky Mountains. Both capital letters, in each case,
seem to be necessary in these words, especially in the
example last named. Most mountains being rocky there
must be a distinction between " the rocky mountains "
and "the Rocky Mountains."
In complex names where the first word conveys the
meaning intelligibly without the use of the other, the
capital letter in the second word does not seem neces-
sary. Thus, we may refer to the Susquehanna river as
" the Susquehanna," to the Hudson river as " the Hud-
son," to the Mississippi river as "the Mississippi," to the
Catskill mountains as " the Catskills," and our language
will in every case be intelligible. The words mountains,
rivers, etc., in such expressions need no capital letters.
CAPITAL LETTERS. 25
The same is true of nearly all the oceans. We may
write " the Atlantic ocean " or " the Atlantic ;" " the Pa-
cific ocean " or " the Pacific," the distinguishing name
of the natural body of land or water being sufficient to
make the meaning intelligible. The distinction is clearly
shown in speaking of " the Delaware " and " Delaware
Bay." The first term would not be mistaken for the
second. The first refers only to the river.
When an adjective forms part of a geographical name
it should begin with a capital letter; as, Green Moun-
tains, Green Bay, White Mountains, Red River.
A good rule for the use of capital letters in complex
names is as follows: When both names are necessary to
express the meaning, each should begin with a capitid
letter; thus, Green Mountains, Casco Bay, Bering's
Strait, Berkshire Hills, Chapel Hill, Rocky Point, Mam-
moth Cave, Block Island, Michigan City, Fair view Vil-
lage, Bunker Hill, Central Park.
When only one name is needed to make the meaning
intelligible only the proper name of the object should
begin with a capital letter; as, Missouri river, Adiron-
dack mountains, Mediterranean sea. Pacific ocean, Wash-
ington city. '
Street. — St. as the abbreviation for street is by some
written without a capital letter ; but there seems to be
no good reason why this should deviate from the rule.
Chestnut St. is better than Chestnut st. It requires the
two terms to make the name. It is true that authority
may be given for either form. Irving wrote the expres-
sion, "Mulberry street," and Bryant the expression,
" Grand Street," but John Wilson, an excellent author-
ity on such matters, writes "School Street," and the
Atlantic Monthly, "Nassau Street."
Goold Brown seems to claim that a hyphen should
26 GOOD ENGLISH.
occasionally be used to make an expression clear, and
he would write "The New- York Directory," claiming
that without the hyphen the plirase might mean the
new directory for York : but this position is not tena-
ble. If a new directory for York were meant, the word
" new " should not begin with a capital letter, and the
expression should read ** The new York Directory." The
"New York Directory" is a directory for New York,
either new or old. If a new one is meant it may be
written " The new New York Directory," in which the
second word new is part of the name of the city. In
general, it may be said that unless there is good reason
for using a capital letter it is better to use a small letter
instead. The tendency of the uncultured is to use more
capitals than are necessary.
Errors in the use of capital letters are frequent even
among reputable writers. We append some examples
to show how even the best informed may sometimes
violate the current rules.
1. The Lord mayor of London's authority. — Murray* 8 Gram-
mar.
2. We stayed a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of
his country. — Id,
8. The Chestnut ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the
AUeghanies, and Laurel ridge ten miles further [farther] west.
— Balbi*8 Geography,
4. Staten Island, an island of New York, nine miles below
New York City. — Universal Gazetteer,
6. He who sells a christian sells the grace of God. — Magazine.
6. In colleges and halls in ancient days,
There dwelt a sage called discipline. — Wayland,
Goold Brown gives the following as written incorrectly.
They are taken from Williams^ Universal Gazetteer,
"Salt Creek, the name of four towns in different parts of
CAPITAL LETTERS. 27
Ohio ; White Clay, a hundred in Newcastle county, Delaware ;
Newcastle, a town and halfshire of Newcastle county, Dela-
ware ; Sing Sing, a village in West Chester county, New York ;
White Water, a town of Hamilton county, Ohio ; Red Hook, a
town of Dutchess county. New York, on the Hudson ; Kinder-
hook, a town of Columbia county. New York ; Charles City,
James City, Elizabeth City, names of counties, not cities."
Mr. Brown would in each of these names join the two
words with a hyphen or reject the second capital letter
and make each name a name of one word. Present
usage does not sustain Mr. Brown.
Note. — ^As regards the name White Clay, in Delaware, which is
the name of both a creek and a political division known as a hun-
dred, a peculiar local pronunciation has become established which
would not be recognized elsewhere. The name of the stream is
known as Whitely Creek, though spelled White Clay Creek, and of
the hundred, Whitely Greek hundred.
SYLLABICATION.
Syllabication is the process of dividing words into
the syllables of which they are composed.
The following are the most important principles to be
followed in the division of words into S3'llable8:
1. Words should he divided usually according to their
prefixes, suffixes, or grammatical endings if they have
any. Thus, re new, larg fr, wis dnvi, hurtful, rock y, ci der.
2. Compound words should be divided into the simple
words of which they are composed. Thus, millwheely
pen man, fore most, tea kettle.
3. When the derivation and the pronunciation seem
to conflict, the division should be made according to the
pronunciation rather than the derivation. Thus, rep re-
sent a tive rather than re pre sent a tive; ap a thy rather
than a path y ; pred i cote rather than pre di cate; ther-
mom e ter rather than titer mo me ter; as cribe rather than
a scribe.
4. In dividing words we should give to every syllable
all the letters necessary to the correct pronunciation of
that syllable. Thus, preface not preface, matron not
mat ron, twin kle not twink le, bril liant not brill iant.
6. A word having two or more syllables may be di-
vided at the end of a line, but only at the end of a syl-
lable. In applying this principle the part on either line
should consist of two or more letters, otherwise the word
should not be divided.
It is important also that the word should be so divided
2S
SYLLABICATION. 29
as to convey no misconception at first glance. Thus, a
word like occurrences is better divided occur rences than
occurrenc es.
6. Two or more words conveying a single idea should
be united ; as, beehive, steamboat, complanter.
7. Consonants should be joined with the vowels whose
sounds they modify. This is but another form of stating
the third principle named. Thus, we divide reformation
into refor ma tion or re for ma tiorn according to the mean-
ing of the word as governed by the pronunciation of the
first syllable.
8. Diphthongs and triphthongs are not divided. Thus,
we write buoy ant, loy at, boy ish.
When two vowels come together and do not form a
diphthong, they form parts of separate syllables, and
they may be divided ; as, a e ri al, co op er ate, zo ol o gy,
etc. •
9. When a single consonant comes between two vow-
els, if it does not shorten the sound of the first vowel
it goes to the second ; as, re bel, ea sy, co zy, era zy,
8tu dent,
10. When a single consonant comes between two vow-
els it goes to the first vowel if the vowel sound is thereby
shortened ; as, reb el, heav y, stud y.
11. When a mute and a liquid come between two
vowels the same principle applies ; the first consonant
goes to the first vowel if that vowel is thereby short-
ened ; as, dt ron, pat ronize; but when the first vowel is
not shortened both consonants go to the second vow^el ;
as, pu trid, pa trol.
12. When a liquid and a mute coming between two
vowels blend with the first vowel, they are generally not
separated ; as, post age, icest ern.
13. When a liquid and a mute coming between two
30 GOOD ENGLISH.
vowels do not blend with the first vowel they are sep-
arated, as in dan ger.
In other cases two consonants occurring together are
usually separated, as in geti der, em pire, col lee tion.
Close attention to principle Seven would have saved
some of our grammarians grave doubts, one of whom at
least seems to be in a quandary as to whether the words
river and fever should be divided ri ver and fe ver or
riv er and fev er.
It will be noted, by this same principle, that Walker's
rule that a consonant coming between two vowels must
go to the latter, is incorrect ; but even principle Seven,
while general in its application, seems to have some
exceptions in such words as rising^ sizable^ and dronish.
The Use of the Hyphen.
The use ^f the hyphen is considered here because of
its importance in connection with syllabication.
Compound words, or those made up of two or more
words, sometimes require a hyphen to connect their parts.
The following are the most important principles gov-
erning the use of the hyphen :
1. Permanent compounds, such as bookseller, penman,
and shoemaker, are consolidated ; while temporary com-
pounds, such as good-natured, laughter-loving, etc., require
a hyphen.
2. Words regularly united, and usually known as com-
pound words, should not be broken. Tlius, railroad is a
better form than rail road, red-hot is better than red hot,
and well-being better than well being,
3. The hyphen is used to join the parts of com-
pound words that do not suflBciently coalesce without
it; as, dew-drop, curly-headed, rosy-cheeked, Jorty-five, to-
night.
SYLLABICATION, 31
4. The compounding of words is sometimes necessary
to make the meaning clear. Thus, there is a well-defined
difierence between a glass-house^ a place for making glass,
and a glass house, which is a house made of glass. So,
also, the distinction between a live oak, a living oak, and
a live-oak, a species of evergreen, is made clear by the
use of the hyphen. So, also, the hyphen makes clear
the distinction between a singing bird and a singing-bird,
a dog^s ear and a dog^s-ear, many colored goods and many-
colored goods.
When part of a word is common to two or more con-
secutive words it should be left separate or be used with
both words. Thus, we may write of " the minute and
the second hand of a watch ;" better, *' the minute-hand
and the second-hand of a watch.''
When several compounds occur together, it is usually
best to combine them in groups; as, "Cripple-Creek
gold-mines ;" " Broad-Mountain coal-fields."
A phrase used as an epithet or as a modifier is com-
pounded, and the hyphen used ; as, a " never-to-be-for-
gotten " event, a " flower-bedecked " meadow, an " I-am-
surprised " expression of countenance.
When compounds are formed by the union of a pos-
sessive and the noun limited, if the meaning is lit-
eral, both possessive sign and hyphen disappear; thus,
tradesman, doomsday, ratsbane. When these same terms
have not a literal meaning, as hound^s-tongue, beards-foot,
or wolfs-bane, names of plants, both possessive sign and
hyphen are retained.
When the compound term is used as an adjective,
both the possessive sign and the hyphen are retained, as
in the expressions, " a camelVhair shawl," " neat's-foot
oil," " a bird's-eye view."
A phrase having a possessive and used as a proper
32 GOOD ENGLISH.
name retains the possessive sign but does not take the
hyi)hen ; as, Hare's Corner^ SeiveWa Point.
Cardinal numbers from twenty to one hundred are
written with a hyphen ; thus, twenty-one^ sixty-seven,
eighty-four. So also fractions ; as, two-thirds^ three-fourths^
nine-tenths.
A foreign phrase that is used as an epithet, or whose
parts have so lost their meaning as to become Anglicized,
is written with a hyphen ; as, piano-forte^ billet-doux. But
if the words convey their original meaning, they remain
separate and no hyphen is used; thus, habeas corpus,
scire facias, casus belli.
Prefixes, or similar parts, are not consolidated with
the rest of the word if they stand before a capital letter,
and the hyphen is used to separate; thus, pi-e-Adamitej
ex-President, Anglo-Saxon, anti-Deviocratic.
The hyphen is used also to preserve the separate
sense of the parts of a compound term, as in eUctro-
magnetism, vice-admiral, hydro-carbon.
The words to-day^ to-night and to-morrow should always
be written with a hyphen.
The tendency to consolidation in compounds seems to
be well marked. Thus, the word schoolhouse was orig-
inally written as two words, school house ; later the hy-
phen was inserted, making it a single word, school-house,
each syllable taking equal stress ; later still the accent
was shifted to the word school, and the hyphen was
dropped, and it seems to be the general rule in these
compounds that where the accent shifts to a single syl-
lable the hyphen disappears.
Some amusing errors, occasioned by the misuse of the
hyphen, are here presented, together with the names of
the authors.
Webster's Spelling Book tells us that " men load hay
SYLLABICATION. 33
With a pitch fork;" also that "it is no more right to
steal apples or water melons than money."
The following are taken from prominent writers :
"She formed a venry singular and unheard of project." —
Goldsmith,
"I judge not my ownself, for I know not my ownself." —
Wayland,
" Our discriminations of this matter have been but four footed
instinct." — Rushy on the Voice.
"A tin peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels." — Noah
Webster.
"The town has been for several days well behaved." — The
Spectat-or.
" Both the ten and eight syllable verses are iambic." — Blair's
Grammar.
" Obscured, where highest woods, impenetrable
To star or sun-light, spread the umbrage broad."
— Milton,
" He manylanguaged nations has surveyed." — Pope.
"Bluntwitted lord, ignoble in manner." — Shakespeare,
"You might have trussed him and all his apparel into an
eel-skin." [Notice there is but one accent.] — Shakespeare,
"They may serve as land-marks to show what lies in the
direct way of truth." — Locke,
" A falling off at the end always hurts greatly." — Blair,
"The north west winds from the high lands produce cold,
clear weather." — Webster,
" The soldiers, with down cast eyes, seemed to beg for mercy."
— Goldsmith.
"His head was covered with a coarse worn out piece of
cloth." — Goldsmith.
" Constantia saw that the hand writing agreed with the con-
tents of the letters." — Addison,
" Hunting, and other out door sports, are generally pursued."
— BalbVs Geography,
" The consequences of any action are to be considered in a
two fold light." — Wayland,
3
34 GOOD ENGLISH.
'*The time when screech-owls cry and bandogs howl." —
Shakespeare.
"The greatest part of such tables would be of little use to
English men." — Priestlifs Grammar,
" They have put me in a silk night-gown and a gaudy foors
cap." — Addison.
An old song runs,
" We'll wander where the cows-lips bloom."
SPELLING.
It is not the province of this book to decide whether
the rules for spelling should be taught in schools or not.
There are many words, of course, to which the usual
rules do not apply, but that is no reason why we should
not familiarize ourselves with the rules so far as they do
apply.
The following are the most important rules for spelling:
1. Final E. — Words ending in silent e generally drop
the e on receiving an additional syllable beginning with
a vowel; as, ice, icy; move, moving; advise, advisable,
2. Words ending in silent e generally retain the e on
receiving an additional syllable beginning with a conso-
nant; nB, wise, wisely ; shame, shamefid.
The following are exceptions to the rule :
Duly, truly, wholly, awful, nursling, wisdom, judg-
ment, abridgment, acknowledgment, argument, and (ac-
cording to some authorities) lodgment.
3. Pinal Y. — Words ending in y preceded by a conso-
nant sound change the y into i before any other termina-
tion or additional syllable than 'a and those beginning
with i; as, pretty, prettily.
The following are exceptions :
a. Y is changed to e in beauteom, duteous, bounteous,
piteous, plenteous.
b. In the derivatives of dry (except drier, driest), shy,
sky, sly, spry, wry, the y is not changed.
4. When a vowel precedes the final y, or when a suf-
35
36 GOOD ENGLISH,
fix is added beginning with t, the y is generally retained
in words receiving an additional termination; as, boy^
boyish.
The following are exceptions to the rule :
Pay, paid; lay, laid, lain; day, daily; say, said, saith;
slay, slairiy together with the compounds of the fore-
going.
6. Pinal Consonant. — Monosyllables and words ac-
cented on the last syllable, ending with a single conso-"
nant preceded by a single vowel, double the final conso-
nant on taking an additional syllable beginning with a
vowel; as, run, running; begin, beginning.
The following are the exceptions :
a. In the derivatives of the word gas, the s is never
doubled.
b. The letters x, i, t?, are never doubled.
6. When a word ends with two consonants, when the
last consonant is preceded by a diphthong, or when
the accent is not on the last syllable, the final con-
sonant is not doubled on taking an additional sylla-
ble beginning with a vowel; as, hghi, fighting ; benefit^
benefited.
Crystal, crystalline is an exception.
Monosyllables which end in /, /, or «, preceded by a
single vowel, end in a double consonant; as, off, will,
glass.
The words defy if, of are written with a single /, and
the words as, gas, has^ was, is, his, this, yes, us, thus, pus^
with a single s.
Monosyllables ending in any other consonant than /,
I, or s do not end with a double consonant.
The following are exceptions: add, ebb, egg, err, inn,
burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz.
SPELLING. 37
■
The words in, 6ur, but^ conform to the rule.
Final x, being equivalent to A», is not doubled, nor is
the firfal consonant doubled when it follows a single
vowel preceded by qu^ which is really equivalent to kw.
If the derivative does not retain the accent on the last
syllable of the root-word, the final consonant is not usu-
ally doubled; thus, refer', referencey referred^; prefer',
'preference^ preferable, preferred^, prefer^ rible ; infer', in'-
ference, in[ferable, inferred^, infer^rible.
Letters doubled in the Latin are usually doubled in
the English without regard to accent or any other prin-
ciple; as, excel, excellent, excellence; m&ame, inflammable,
inflammation; Britain, Britannia, Britannica,
The dictionaries of Webster and Worcester differ some-
what in the application of Rule 6, with reference to the
spelling of derivatives whose primitives end in L Wor-
cester has reveller, traveller, etc., while Webster follows the
rule, and writes the words, leveler, reveler, traveler, etc.
There seems to be no irecessity for the principle quoted
by Goold Brown, that the final I of words ending in el
must be doubled before another vowel, lest the power
of e be mistaken and a syllable be lost in such words as
traveler, dudlat, marvelous, gravelly. Only the last of these
seems to require the doubling ot the I to distinguish it
from the word gravelly.
When ly follows I, as in really, orally, woolly, etc., there
is no doubling, but simply a joining of the suflBx ly to
the root. When, however, ly follows words ending in II,
one of the Ts is dropped, as in full, fully ; droll, drolly.
In compound words, when three letters of a kind
come together, one is dropped, as in chaffinch, or a hy-
phen is used, as in ill-looJcing, still-life.
In general, words ending with any double letter retain
both letters when followed by any termination not be-
38 GOOD ENGLISH.
ginning witli tlio same letter, and drop one of the letters
wlien followed by a termination beginning with the same
letter; as, agree, agreement ; tree , freedom, freer ; see, seeing^
itcer ; shrill, ehriU/ness, shrilly.
Some writers reject one I when full or ness is added to
a word ; as, skill, sldlfxd; but Webster and others retain
the Uj and write willful, ekillfid.
In derivatives from the words bias, worship, kidnap^
some writers double the final consonant, but the usual
custom is to follow the rule, and write the words, biased,
worshiped, worshiper, kidnaper.
According to Goold Brown, the final U is peculiar to
monosyllables and their compounds, with the few deriv-
atives formed from such roots by prefixes; hence, all
other words that end in I should end with a single I; as,
excel, repel, withal, control, damsel, consul, tranquil.
The words distill and instill, as given by Webster, may
be properly written w^ith annul, until, as instil, distil, be-
cause they are not derivatives of tiU.
Most writers agree that words ending in ce or ge,
should retain the e before able or ous, to preserve the
soft sound of c or j ; as in traceable, courageous, charge-
able.
The e is also retained in singeing, swingeing, tingeing,
to avoid confusion with the words singing, swinging, ting-
ing.
Judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment are now written
without the e, but the older authorities, Walker, Cobb,
Lowth, Beattie and others, wrote these words with the e
retained.
When the final e is preceded by a vowel it is some-
times omitted on taking an additional syllable ; as, due,
duly; awe, awful; true, truly; argue, argum£/nt; blue,
bluish; but we write blueness, trueness, eyeless.
SPELLING. 39
While the rule for the changing of the final y to t,
when preceded by a consonant, applies to derivatives, it
does not apply to compounds. Thus, we have 'penniless
but pennyworth^ merciful but mercy-seat.
Before ing and ish the final y is retained to prevent
the doubling of i; as, pity, pitying^ baby, babyish.
Words ending in iCy dropping the €, change the i into
y to prevent doubling the i on taking an additional syl-
lable beginning with i; as, die, dying; lie, lying,
Ize or ise? — In words ending in ize or ise, sounded
alike, as in size and wise, z is used in such as are formed
essentially by means of the termination; as, apologizey
philosophize^ sympathize, brutalize; and s is used in such
as are formed essentially by means of prefixes ; as, rise,
arisCy advise, devise, supervise, surmiscy comprise, compromise.
There are, however, many exceptions to this rule, as
in the words advertise, catechise, chastise, criticise, exercise,
exorcise, merchandise; also, size, assize, capsize, detonize, reo
ognize.
If the rule could be made efiective it would be the
means of rejecting many variable spellings.
Some words ending in II drop one / in composition ;
as, all, always; full, beautiful, artfxd; well, welfare.
Of words ending in or or our, there are more than
three hundred, but few of them now, in America at
least, retain the form our. Labour, behaviour, honour,
and endeavour, though occasionally so written in Eng-
land, are, in the United States, written with the termina-
tion or instead of our, and this whole class of words will
probably at no distant day become uniform in the use
of the termination or, just as the k has disappeared from
such words as musich, publick, logick, etc.
Able and ible. — It is frequently diSicult to remem-
ber which of these endings to use in the writing of
40 OOOD ENGLISH,
certain words. Is it collectable or collectible f The only
safe guide seems to be one's knowledge of Latin. For
the first conjugation the termination is abiliSj from
which we get able, as in arable. For the second con-
jugation the termination is ibilis, from which we get
ible, as in docible. For the third and the fourth conju-
gation it is ibiliSj giving us ible. But to one who has not
been a student of Latin these rules will be of little use,
and yet nothing more satisfactory can be offered.
The tendency at the present time in the case of such
words as center, is to use the termination ter rather than
ire, though either is correct, and we may write center or
centre, theater or theatre.
Many words of the language have two or more forms,
with authority for each ; as, plough, plow ; inquiry, en-
quiry ; hight, height ; indorse, endorse ; meter, metre.
Frequently words are written by inserting an apostro-
phe for an omitted letter or letters. Thus, we have don^t
for do not, doesnH for does not, i&nH for is not, wonH for woU
not, the old form of will not, FU for I will, sha^nH for shall
not, ma^am for madam. His and ii^s for it is, e'en for even,
eW for ever, oW for over, pr^ythee for I pray thee, o^clock for
of the clock, and many others.
le or ei? — In words contiiining the combinations ie or
ei, c is usually followed by ei and the other consonants
by ie, but there are some exceptions to this rule; as,
seize, seizure, leisure, weird.
Always write c with ian, never tian.
A late writer on orthography says there are only
eleven efies, derived from arefy, calefy, humefy, liquefy,
madefy, rarefy, 'putrefy, tabefy, torrefy, stupefy, defy; thus,
liqaefied, rarefied, etc. All the others are ifies; as, sim-
plify, &\m^\ified, verify, verifies, verified. Even of the
eleven efies, not more than six are words in common use.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The object of this book is not to give a full discussion
of the subject of English Grammar, but simply to pre-
sent such points in both the etymology and the syntax
of our language as are likely to be interesting and useful
to writers and speakers.
There are many parts of grammar which, while use-
ful and interesting to the student and the teacher of
English, are of comparatively little importance to one
who desires simply to know how to write or speak the
language correctly. These it has been thought best to
omit, as being in a measure foreign to the purpose of
giving practical help in the use of good English.
The words of our language are divided according to
their use into classes called parts of speech. These
classes are known as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Under
this classification adjectives are made to include articles,
and verbs to include participles.
Every word in the English language may be placed in
some one of these classes, according to the use made of
the word in expressing thought.
Each of these classes has its special function, — the
noun to represent names of things ; the pronoun to act
as a substitute for a noun ; the verb to express action,
state or being; the adjective to modify the meaning of
a noun or a pronoun ; the adverb to modify the mean-
ing of an adjective, a verb, or another adverb; the
41
42 GOOD ENGLISH,
preposition to show relation; the conjunction to con-
nect; and the interjection to express emotion.
Nouns.
Any name of an object is a noun. The word object,
as here used, is meant to include anything that can be
thought of, whether perceptible to the senses or not
For instance, the senses give us no perception of time,
cause, space, and other intuitive ideas, or of spirit, soul,
or the mind itself, but we know that all these things
exist, and their names are therefore classed as nouns.
The names of signs, symbols, words, etc., are nouns
when spoken of, as the italicised words in the following
sentences: "-4 is a vowel;" " The is usually an article;"
"/ is a pronoun;" " + {plus) is the sign of addition."
Any part of a sentence when used as a name may be
called a noun, as the phrase admission free in the follow-
ing : " Admission free " was posted on the walls.
The most important division of nouns, so far as writ-
ing correctly is concerned, is that into Common and
Proper nouns; that is, names representing classes; as,
hoy^ girl, ocean, city ; and nouns having individual or
particular names ; as, John, Mary, Atlantic, Philadelphia,
The chief thing to be observed in the writing of nouns
is that every proper noun should begin with a capital
letter.
When a proper noun is made to denote a class, as
"He was the Cicero of his age;" that is, "the orator of
his age," it becomes a common noun, but the capital
letter is retained.
When a common noun is used as the name of a par-
ticular object, it becomes a proper noun, and is written
with a capital letter; as, "The Park;" "The College;"
"The River."
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43
When two or more words are used to express but one
proper name, as General Meade, William Henry Eussell,
Queen Victoria, Duke of Kent, Chesapeake Bay, it consti-
tutes but one name, known as a complex proper noun,
and each of its principal or component parts begins
with a capital letter.
When a noun consists of two or more parts consoli-
dated or united by a hyphen, as grandfather, son-in-law,
it is known as a compound noun.
Many proper names, of which there are said to be
over 70,000 of places alone, had their origin in common
names or common adjectives; thus. Brook, Dale, Hill,
Woods, Rivers, Waters, — names of natural objects ; Brown,
White, Green, Black, Gray, — names of colors ; Smith, Car-
penter, Driver, Seaman, Sailor, Fisher, Bishop, — names of
Occupations ; Wolf, Fox, Sheep, Bear, Beaver, -Hare,— names
of animals.
Frequent compounds occur, as Whiteman, Greenman,
Greenwood, Gottlieb (God love), Greenhut (green hat), Pe-
terson (son of Peter), Johnson, Jackson, Williamson.
Nouns are further divided into collective, verbal, and
abstract.
The collective noun is the name of a group or collec-
tion ; thus, flock (of sheep), herd (of cattle or swine),
drove (of horses), covey (of partridges), audience (of hear-
ers), bevy (of girls), group (of paintings), crowd (of peo-
ple), congregation (of people), school (of learners), are all
collective nouns.
NUMBER.
One of the chief things to be considered in connection
with nouns is number.
1. Usually nouns form their plurals by annexing s to
the singular when the sound of that letter will coalesce
44 GOOD ENGLISH.
with the last sound of the singular form of the word ;
as, girl, girls ; tree, trees ; book, hooks,
2. When the sound of s will not coalesce with the last
sound of the singular form, as in the word jox^ es is
added. Thus, fox, foxes; church, churches; ash, ashes;
bush, bushes.
An attempt to pronounce any of the words in the pre-
ceding paragraph by adding s to the singular form will
at once show that es, which has the 2-sound, is preferable
to s as an ending.
The foregoing rules cover most cases for the forma-
tion of the plural, but some forms require further dis-
«
cussion.
Nouns Endingr in Y. — The spelling of the plural
forms of nouns ending in y follows the rules heretofore
stated, — words ending in y preceded by a single conso-
nant, change the y to ie and add s.
Formerly the spelling of such words as lady, glory,
etc., was ladiey gloiie, etc.; hence it may be said that
these words form their plurals regularly by changing
the y to ie, and adding s.
Nouns Endingr in O. — Nouns ending in o preceded by
a vowel add s only in forming their plurals ; as, cameo,
cameos; iolio, folios.
Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant usually
add es in forming their plurals; as, echo, echoes; negro,
negroes.
The following, however, are exceptions to the fore-
going rule : The plural of two is written twos, and the
following are usually written cantos, hxilos, juntos, quartos,
solos, tyros, duodecimos, octavos, pianos, mementos, lassos, pro-
visos.
Most nouns ending in /or fe are made plural by
changing the f ox fe to ves; as, life, lives; loaf, loaves.
ENGLISH QBAMMAB. 45
The following nouns ending in / orfe form their plu-
rals by adding s : Brief, chief dwarf ffe^ grief gulf hoof
rocf, proof reproof safe, scarf surf turf strife, kei'chicf mis-
chief, handkerchief
Nouns ending in ff form their plurals regularly by
ad^ding s; as, muff, muffs; staff, staffs, except where staff
means a cane, when the plural is written staves (pro-
nounced stavz).
When other parts of speech are used as nouns, their
plurals are formed according to Rule 1; as, "The ins
and outs of office;" "The ifs and bvis weakened his
argument."
The plurals of figures, letters, and symbols are formed
by annexing an apostrophe and the letter s; as, 4-, +'s;
*, *'s ; b, b's ; 6, 6's. In such cases the apostrophe takes
the place of an omitted letter, as in -hes, 6es.
Plurals of Proper Nouns.- — Proper nouns form their
plurals regularly, by the addition of s or es; as, Caesar,
the twelve Caesars; Mary, the two Marys; Carolina, the
Carolinas; Dervish, DervishC'S.
Some writers, however, use the forms the tw^o Maries,
the Henries.
Complex Proper Names. — In writing the plural
forms of complex proper names, s, the plural sign, is
added to the last word only; as, The George Washing-
tons, the Sir Isaxjx Newtons,
When a proper name is preceded by a title, the plural
termination may be annexed to either the name or the
title, or to both. The following are examples: "The
Miss Bertrams."— Sir Walter Scott " The Miss Burtons."
—Buhoer. " The two Miss Wellers.''— Dickens, " The
Miss Hornecks." — Irving. "The Misses Smith." — Bry-
ant. " The Ladies Butler:'— Swift.
When a numeral or the title Mrs. precedes the proper
46 GOOD ENGLISH,
name, the name only is usually made plural; as, "The
two Miss Scotts ;" '* The Mrs. Welbys ;" '' The two Miss
Thompsons."
When the title belongs to several names, the title only
is made plural ; as, " Messrs. Green and Wilson ;" " Messrs.
Jones, Adams and Smith ;" '^ Drs. Brown, Good, and Hen-
derson."
When two titles equally prominent are used, both are
made plural ; as, " The Lords Commissioners North and
Russell."
Proper names ending in the syllable wan, not being
compounds of the word man^ form their plurals regularly
by adding s; as, Germans^ Turcomans^ Mussulmans.
Plurals of Compound Nouns. — In compound nouns
the part which names the object is made plural; as,
schoolhouse, schoolhouses ; tooth-brush, tooth-brushes; son-
in-law, soTW-m-Zaw? ; j^esLY'tree, pear-trees ; hanger-on. hang-
ers-on; major-general, major-generals; attorney-general,
attorneys-general
In such words as spoonful, cupful, cartful, cartload,
the words fid and load name the object or quantity;
hence the plurals are spoovfuls^ cujrfuls, carffuls, cartloads,
meaning one spoon, cup, or cart, full a number of times.
If more than one spoon or cup were meant, the plu-
rals should be written spoons fvU, cups fuU, but not with
a hyphen or as one word.
Compound Norms from Foreigrn Languages form
their plurals regularly by annexing the plural termina-
tion to the last term : as, piano-fortes, ipse-dixits, scire fa-
doses.
A few compound nouns have both names made plu-
ral ; as, me^i-servants, women-servants, ignes-fatui.
Some writers add to their list of double plurals the
word knightS'templarSj but there seems no good re«ison for
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
47
departing from. the regular usage in the writing of this
word, which is properly knights-templar^ as given in
" Mitchell's History of Freemasonry.'*
Foreigrn Nouns. — Some foreign nouns adopted into
our language have two forms for the plural, an English
and a foreign one. The following are some of the most
familiar examples :
Bandit,
Beau,
Cherub,
Encomium,
Focus,
Fungus,
Gymnasium,
Medium,
Seraph,
Stamen,
Most foreign
the following :
Alumnus,
Amanuensis,
Analysis,
Antithesis,
Axis,
Basis,
Crisis,
Criterion,
Datum,
Desideratum,
Diaeresis,
Effluvium,
Ellipsis,
Emphasis,
Erratum,
English Plural.
bandits,
beaus,
cherubs,
encomiums,
focuses,
funguses,
gymnasiums,
mediums,
seraphs,
stamens.
Foreign Plural.
banditti,
beaux,
cherubim,
encomia,
foci,
fungi,
gymnasia,
media,
seraphim,
stamina.
names retain their original plurals, as in
alumni.
Genus,
genera.
amanuenses.
Hvpothesis,
hypotheses.
analyses.
Larva,
larvae.
antitheses.
Madame,
mesdames.
axes.
Monsieur,
messieurs.
bases.
Nebula,
*nebul8B.
crises.
Oasis,
oases.
criteria.
Parenthesis,
parentheses.
data.
Phenomenon,
phenomena.
desiderata.
Eadius,
radii.
disereses.
Stimulus,
stimuli.
effluvia.
Stratum,
strata.
ellipses.
Terminus,
termini.
emphases.
Thesis,
theses.
errata.
Vertebra,
vertebrae.
48 GOOD ENGLISH.
Abstract Nouns. — Tlie names of metals, virtues, vices,
arts, and sciences, and the names of things measured,
have no plural form ; as, wisdom, gold, temperance, dr aw-
ing, arithmetic, wheal, milk.
When different kinds of the same substance are re-
ferred to they may be written in the plural form ; as,
sugars, cloths, etc.
The names of sciences ending in ics, as mathematics^
physics, optics, mechanics, are in the singular number.
Alw^ (almesse), news, mx)lasses are in the singular
number.
Some nouns have no singular form. The following
are examples : Archives, ashes, bellows, billiards, bitters, cat-
tle, clothes, compasses, goods, manners, measles, morals, nup-
tials, nippers, pincers, pantaloons, scissors, thinks, tongs^
tidings, tweezers, trousers, shears, scales, vitals, wages.
Some nouns are alike in form in both numbers ; as,
deer, sheep, trout, salmon, vermin, apparatus, series, species,
means, odds, pains (efforts), riches, etc.
The number of nouns which have the same form in
both numbers can be learned only by the meaning of
the noun in the sentence.
The w^ords head, brace, pair, couple, dozen, score, hun-
dred, etc., having the singular form, may be either sin-
gular or plural in meaning; but they may be written
also with pilural forms. When preceded by a numeral
they take the singular form; as, Four pair of gloves;
Three brace of quail; Five dozen eggs. At other times
they take the plural form; as, **They came in pairs f^
^^ Hundreds of birds were in the meadow."
Two-form Plurals. — The following nouns have two
forms for the plural, with different meanings:
Brother, brothers (of a family), brethren (of a society).
Ck)W, c(yw8 (two or more), Hne (the kind).
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 49
Die, dies (stamps for coining], dice (cubes for gaming).
Fish, Jishes (individuals), fish (species or quantity).
Genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits).
Index, indexes (tables of contents), indices (exponents).
Pea, peas (two or more), pease (kind or substance).
Penny, pennies (coins), pence (amount of value).
Odds is either singular or plural.
Pains (labor) is used as either singular or plural, but
mostly in the singular; as, "No pains is taken," — Pope.
" Your pains are registered." — Shakespeare.
Means (instrument) is both singular and plural. We
may say " By this means,^^ or " By tJiese means.^^
Oats is used almost wholly in the plural. The sin-
gular is usually expressed by " a grain of oats " rather
than by "an oat."
Cannon, shot and shell are used in a collective
sense; as, "Stormed at with shot and shell.^^
Youth and heathen have regular plurals; as, "A
hundred youths." — Dryden. "The ancient heathens."
— Addison. But both words are often used in a col-
lective sense; as, "Why do the heathen rage?" — Bible.
" They hate us youth." — Shakespeare.
Trout, heningr, shad, etc., are often used in a collect-
ive sense, and each word requires a verb in the plural ;
as, "The trout live in the brook." The word herring has
also a plural form ; as, " Myriads of herrings." — Baird.
Sail when it denotes a collection of ships is plural ;
as, " The fleet consisted of twenty saiZ."
Head is sometimes used in the plural; as, "Thirty
thousand head of swine." — Addison.
In such expressions as " A three-cent piece," " A five-
dollar bill," " A ten-foot pole," and the like, the word
joined to the numeral by the hyphen loses its proper-
ties as a noun, and as a part of the adjective retains its
4
50 GOOD EyOLISH.
original form. An author humorously remarks that it
would be quite as proper to speak of " they-goats " for
the plural of " he-goat " as to speak of a ten-feet pole.
Fractdons. — Since we speak of two-thirds, three-fifths,
etc., it is best to read such fractions as ^, ^\, three
twenty-firsts, five thirty-fifths.
Collective Nouns. — The number of a collective noun
is determined by the thought to be conveyed by the sen-
tence in which it is used.
A collective noun conveying the idea of unity is in
the singular number; as, "The army has left nothing
in its track but a ruined country ;" " The committee hag
read its report."
When the idea conveyed by a collective noun is that of
plurality or has reference to the individuals included in
the term, it is in the plural number, and both pronouu
and verb agreeing with it should have the plural form ;
as, " The public are invited ;" ** The jury disagreed in
their opinions ;" " The committee were not unanimous
in their decision."
In rare cases the collective noun in a sentence may
be used in both numbers ; as, " Each House shall keep
a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time pub-
lish the same, excepting such parts as may in ^Aar judg-
ment require secrecy." — Constitution of the United States.
The sentence from Irving, " There is a tribe in these
mountains who are fairer and more intelligent than the
other Indians," might probably be improved by substi-
tuting the words, "whose members are fairer," etc.
A possession or attribute common to several objects
should be expressed in the singular. Thus, " We ought
to be content with our lot;^^ "It is the duty of all to
care for their health," not healths.
Some names of building material, as bricky stone, planhy
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51
joist^ are frequently used in a plural sense without the
8, especially when referred to in quantity ; as, " A pile
of brick ;" " A cartload of stone ;" " A thousand feet of
plank." When spoken of as individuals they may take
the plural form; as, "Several bricks;" "A half dozen
or more stones ;" " Two planks ;" " Some joists."
Whereabouts. — ^A common mistake, made especially
by newspapers, is that of using whereabouts as a plural
noun and making it the subject of a verb in the plural.
Thus, one paper says, " His whereabouts are unknown,"
and another, " His whereabouts have not vet been dis-
covered." These sentences are of course incorrect.
Whereahouta means simply location or staying-place
and is in the singular number.
GENDER.
Gander is the distinguishing of nouns with regard to
sex. ' It has been argued by some that as there are but
two sexes there should be but two genders. But sex
and gender are not synonymous. Sex is an attribute
of objects ; gender is an attribute of language. Objects
are either male, or female, or without sex. We therefore
have the masculine gender, denoting the names of males ;
the feiininine gender, denoting the names of females ; and
the neuter gender, denoting the names of such objects as
have no sex. The use of these three genders covers the
ground when the sex or the absence of sex is known ;
but there is a host of names of objects whose sex we do
not know by the noun-form, and we therefore need an-
other gender which may be applied to such words as
friends^ parents, neighbors, children, etc. ; that is, a gender
which is common to names including both sexes. In
the sentence, " I expect some friends to visit me to-mor-
row," it might be incorrect to speak of friends as mascu-
62 GOOD EXGLISH.
line, because they might be women ; it might be equally
incorrect to speak of them as feminine, for they might
be male friends; indeed, they might consist of both
males and females. To attribute either masculine or
feminine gender to the word parents, in which both
sexes are represented, would be absurd. There is,
therefore, a necessity for tlie Common gender, a term
which is common or applicable to both sexes.
Some masculine nouns have no corresponding femi-
nine; as, printer, brewer, hostler, laivyer. This is true
probably because originally none of these occupations
were pursued by women. For a similar reason, some
feminine nouns, as seamstress, laundress, have no corre-
sponding masculine form.
The tendency at present is to write the names of occu-
pations in a common gender, without reference to sex.
Thus, editor means a person that edits ; there is no need
of the w^ord editress. We thus also write the word painter
to represent either sex; also teacher, poet, doctor, physi-
cian, guide, and there seems to be no necessity for such
words as paintress, teacheress, poetess, doctress, physicianess,
or guidess.
Sometimes the names of animals are regarded as mas-
culine or feminine, not because of their sex, but from
their general characteristics. Thus, " The lion does not
fear his enemy ;" " The fox escaped from his pursuers ;"
" The dove coos softly in her nest ;" " Every bee minds
her own business." — Addison,
Such inanimate objects as are noted for firmness,
power, boldness, etc., as sun, war, anger, are sometimes
personified by the use of pronouns in the masculine
gender. Thus, "The Sun rose in all his glory and
power;" "Then Anger rushed, his eyes on fire.'' — Cot-
lins.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 53
Such inanimate objects as are characterized by the
feminine attributes of gentleness, beauty, etc., are per-
sonified by the use of pronouns in the feminine gender;
as, "There lay the City before us in all her beauty;"
"The Ship glides smoothly along in her course."
In writing of children or the lower animals, sex is
usually disregarded, and the neuter form is used; as,
" The little child prattled on till it fell asleep ;" " The
cat caught the bird and ate it."
A collective noun is regarded as neuter when the col-
lection of objects is taken as a unit ; as, " The army in
its march destroyed much property."
When the objects indicated by a collective noun are
considered separately, the gender must correspond to
the sex of the individuals; as, "The jury could not
agree in their (masculine) opinions."
CASE.
Case is that property of nouns or pronouns which
denotes their relation to otlier words.
In English there are three cases, the Nominative^ the
Possessive, and the Objective. Of these, the Nominative
and the Objective of nouns have the same form. The
Possessive has a special form to denote possession, the
singular difiering from the plural.
The Possessive singular of nouns is usually formed by
annexing the apostrophe and the letter s ('s) to the nom-
inative form ; as, man, man's.
When the nominative plural does not end in s the pos-
sessive is formed in the same manner as the singular
possessive; as, men, m^n^s; children, childrerCs.
When the nominative plural ends in s, the possessive
plural is regularly formed by annexing the apostrophe
only; as, boys, hoys'" ; ladies, ladies'.
54 GOOD ENGLISH.
Inasmuch as the possessive sign always follows the
full form of the nominative, a safe plan is to write the
nominative form first, and then convert it to the pos-
sessive form by annexing the possessive sign. Tlius,
fly,/y'a; flies, ^/es'; mouse, moude's; mice, mice's; father-
in-law, father-in-law^a ; fathers-in-law, fathers-in-law'^ s.
When the form of the noun is the same in both num-
bers, the apostrophe may for the sake of distinction pre-
cede the 8 in the singular, and follow it in the plural ;
as, " A deer's hoofs ;" *^ Deers' hides for sale."
When the nominative form ends with the sound of 8
or z, the 8 of the possessive sign is sometimes omitted,
especially if the next word begins with the sound of »
or z; as, "For conscience' sake;" "James' slate."
In general, the regular possessive sign should be an-
nexed unless the combination forms a disagreeable
sound, as in the expression "Moses's laws."
The following seem particularly lacking in euphony :
" Demosthenes's life." — Blair. "Some of -^chylus's
and Euripides's plays." — Blair. "Confucius's sj^stem."
Care should be taken to place the possessive sign
always at the end of a word.
The possessive sign ('«) is an abbreviation of the old
English form is or es. Thus in Chaucer we find, " The
kyngis crowne," "The knightes tale," "In widdowes
habite."
Syntax op Nouns.
Of the use of the nominative form as subject of a
sentence, little need be said. Mistakes are likely to
occur only in answers to questions, as where one calls
out, "Who is there?" and the answer is "Me;" or
"Who brought the flowers?" "Me;" that is, "Me
brought them."
ENGLISH OBAMMAB. 55
The possessive case is the one in the use of which
writers are most liable to err.
Compound words are formed sometimes of a possess-
ive and the noun limited. In such cases, when the literal
meaning is retained, the apostrophe is omitted, as in
ratsbane, tradesman; but when the meaning is figura-
tive rather than literal, the apostrophe is retained, as in
JoVs'tears, wolfs-hane, hound^s-tongue, — names of plants.
When the compound term is used as an adjective the
possessive sign is also retained ; as, "A bird's-eye view;"
" A camel's-hair shawl."
The possessive sign is used with nouns only, never
with pronouns, to denote possession. It''s is not the
possessive case, but a contraction of it is.
In complex nouns the sign of the possessive should
be affixed to the last word of the name ; as, Sir Walter
ScotVs "Tales of a Grandfather;" Henry Ward Beecher^s
sermons.
When an adjective^ belonging to a noun in the pos-
sessive case follows the noun, the possessive sign is
affixed to the adjective, so as to place the sign imme-
diately before the modified noun ; as, " This is some-
body else's book."
The same principle applies in such expressions as
"Edward the Third's reign." We could not possibly
attach the possessive sign to the word Edward without
destroying the sense of the expression. Such expres-
sions as " Edward the Third " and " somebody else " are
complex, and take the possessive sign only at the end
of the expression.
Sometimes when the last word of a complex title is in
the objective case, it is preferable to express the idea
of possession by means of a preposition and its object
rather than by the use of the possessive form. Thus,
r,G GOOD EXGLlSn.
Ui(! pxjjrcsiiion "The dominion of tlic Emperor of Ger-
iiiuny " is ii littter exjircHsion than is " Tlio Emperor of
(iiTiiiiiiiy'H (liimiiiiun."
Ciiro iiiuat be taken when two or more connected
iiiiimtt in the iio^essive denote joint ownership, to afiiz
tin- ]i(K'st'i'«ivo sign to the kat noun only, Tims, "Fei>
diniiiid and lotibelhi's reign," meaning one reign ; " Por-
ter and .lolin»on's store," meaning one store belonging
tti thf linn of I'orter & Johnson.
Wlit'ii tivo or more connected nouns in the possess-
ive eawe denote separate ownership, the possessive sign
Kht'utd 1h' ailixed to each noun. Thus, "Porter's and
Johnson's store," moaning Porter's store and Johnson's
store. The winie thouglit may be expressed by placing
tho word stort' after the first noun; thus, Porter's store
omt JiJtHM'n'a, when, it will be noticed, both possessive
si^ns U't-otne neivssjiry. The word elore retains the sin-
liular form in tnlher expn'ssion, because it is expressed
tittor oiu< vf tbt* Doling and understood after the other.
If lbi> wor»i t^i-rr, foUowinjr either of these possessive?,
wen' writlt-n in tbo plural form, it would mean that
eiii'h pemou had two or more stons. If the thought is
li> W vxprx'twt'tl that I'orter and Johnson own several
Kt\»t>« in |>;irtnersliip. we should write the expression,
fV-d*' .iM^.A'Vw'iV jri'-Yii. In fact, a single ownership,
ttl»-lh\'V l>y one j-erson alono or by a number in partner-
»\\\\\ t>mui\i« « !<iii}ilo i>\>sses#ive sign: separate owner-
\\ ^^^'\\ a Uinm in thv jHwswsive cast- I
H^mirt itk ai'|w»ili»*. the sjyu is j
\Ht *b*- ^^^..!^«(«^V^•^pn;"'*'n^*^
tHUhvH *1 K\.un^'b«<',"' T1» 1
ESGLISH GRA^aiAB. • 67
When a nonn is put in apposition with a pronoun in
tlie possessive case, the sign of tlie poBsesBive may Iw
orailted from the noun ; as, " Hii success as a teacher is
certain;" that is, fliisuecesa as a leacha'i awxea is cet-
. tain.
When the possessive limits a participial noun or a
participle used as a noun, tlie possessive form should
be used in the limiting word. Thus, "Have you any
objection to my listening?" "The objection to your
speaking was plausible." " Our being present seemed
to encourage the children."
The word limited by a possessive term ie frequently
omitted, especially in conversation ; "aa, " We bought the
books at Lippincott's ;" that is, at Lippincott'g store.
If the noun limited is not expressed, we may use
either of two forms, " At Wilson the tailor's," or " At
Wilson's, the tailor," the second expression takintc a
comma after the possessive sign to indicate u omis-
sion.
Though some writers place the poesessive after the
first of two nouns in apposition, as " We bought Uift
goods at Smith's, the grocer," the best usa^e At^ ttnt
sanction the practice. The sign should be put kft«r
the second noun or after both. Thus, "^ We brmpht t'r*
goods at Smith tlie grocer's," or " We booght the er«U
at Smith's, tlie grocer's." The first of thes^ aprtmW,TA
expanded means " at Smith the grocers fUin' ia ■wr >r.
the poesesBive a^a is pbced at the end f,f H.t trm^^x
^expreseion. The second eipreaaiw nua.ia-'n^K^'-t \
L(««rej the grocers store.'' The first of tL«« ^^;h
"""ferable.
should tu* write, «We V>ii2l.t th* v,^^ ,.
™ of ]lK.Jg|gh" tot '^tt tU it«e r/ Mr.
lKjg^"b
56 GOOD ENGLISH.
the expression " The dominion of the Emperor of Ger-
many " is a better expression than is " Tlie Emperor of
Germany's dominion."
Care must be taken when two or more connected
nouns in the possessive denote joint ownership, to affix
the possessive sign to the last noun only. Thus, " Fer-
dinand and Isabella's reign," meaning one reign ; " Por-
ter and Johnson's store," meaning one store belonging
to the firm of Porter & Johnson.
When two or more connected nouns in the possess-
ive case denote separate ownership, the possessive- sign
should be affixed to each noun. Thus, " Porter's and
Johnson's store," meaning Porter's store and Johnson's
store. The same thought may be expressed by placing
the word store after the first noun ; thus, Porter^s store
and Johnson^s, when, it will be noticed, both possessive
signs become necessary. The word store retains the sin-
gular form in either expression, because it is expressed
after one of the nouns and understood after the other.
If the word store^ following either of these possessives,
were written in the plural form, it would mean that
each person had two or more stores. If the thought is
to be expressed that Porter and Johnson own several
stores in partnership, we should write the expression,
Porter and Johnson^ s stores. In fact, a single ownership,
whether by one person alone or by a number in partner-
ship, requires a single possessive sign ; separate ,owner-
ships, separate signs.
Wlien a noun in the possessive case has one or more
nouns in apposition, the sign is affixed to that only
which immediately precedes the noun limited ; as, " Da-
vid the psalmist's reign;" "The work was Longfellow's,
author of Evangeline." The word work is here under-
stood after Longfellow^s.
ENGLISH GBAMMAB. • 57
When a noun is put in apposition with a pronoun in
the possessive case, the sign of the possessive may be
omitted from the noun ; as, " His success as a teacher is
certain ;" that is, His success as a teacher^ s success is cer-
tain.
When the possessive limits a participial noun or a
participle used as a noun, the possessive form should
be used in the limiting word. Thus, " Have you any
objection to my listening?" "The objection to your
speaking was plausible." " Our being present seemed
to encourage the children. "
The word limited by a possessive term is frequently
omitted, especially in conversation ; ^s, " We bought the
books at Lippincott's ;" that is, at Lippincott's store.
If the noun limited is not expressed, we may use
either of two forms, " At Wilson the tailor's," or " At
Wilson's, the tailor," the second expression taking a
comma after the possessive sign to indicate an omis-
sion.
Though some writers place the possessive affcer the
first of two nouns in apposition, as " We bought the
goods at Smith's, the grocer," the best usage does not
sanction the practice. The sign should be "put after
the second noun or after both. Thus, "We bought the
goods at Smith the grocer's," or " We bought the goods
at Smith's, the grocer's." The first of these expressions
expanded means " at Smith the grocer's store," in which
the possessive sign is placed at the end of the complex
expression. The second expression means "at Smith's
(store) the grocer's store." The first of these forms is
preferable.
We should not write, "We bought the goods at
the store of Mr. Smith's," but "at the store of Mr.
Smith."
58 . GOOD EXGLESIL
Frequently it is better to denote the idea of possession
by a prepositional phrase rather than by the use of a
possessive term. This is particularly true of nouns in
the neuter gender. Thus, " The roof of the house " or
" The roaring of the wind " is better than " The house's
roof" or " The wind's roaring." It is true, we have such
authorized expressions as "a day's labor," "a week's
wages," "a ship's length," "the law's delay," and a few
others, but when an expression is not already recog-
nized as current English, it is best to denote posses-
sion by a prepositional phrase as in the case of neuter
nouns.
Violations of the Correct Usage of the Possessive Sign.
Many reputable writers, through carelessness or other-
wise, occasionally violate the rules of syntax.
The following are illustrations of incorrect usage of
the possessive form:
Man only of a softer mold is mnde,
Not for his fellow's ruin, but their [his] aid. — Dryden.
All liars shall have their parts [part] in the burning lake. —
Watts.
And l(/ve^s [love] and friendship's finely pointed dart
Falls blunted from each indurated heart. — Goldsmith,
A collection of writers [writers'] faults. — Swift,
That is, as a reward of some exertion on our parts [part], —
Gurnexfs Evidences,
Such was the occasion of Simon Glover [Glover's] presenting
himself at the house of Henry Gow. — Scott.
He pointed out the diflSculty of counsel [counsel's] doing
public justice without preparation. — Lord Campbell.
There are all reasons for suspicion [suspicion's] falling on
him. — Dickens.
■ Their healths [health] perhaps may be pretty well secured. —
Locke,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 59
The Nominative Case.
The Nominative Case is that which is generally used as
the subject of a sentence.
The subject may consist of a noun or a pronoun, or
any word, phrase, or clause, used as a noun.
A verb may have several subjects in a sentence ; as,
"David and Henry have come."
In some sentences the subject is not expressed. This
is usually the case in commands ; as, ** Come ;" '' Strive
to excel." In parsing such expressions the verb is said
to agree with a noun or a pronoun understood.
The subject usually precedes the verb, but not alwaj^s ;
it is sometimes placed after the verb or after an auxil-
iary ; as, ** Great is Diana;" "Why do you not come?"
"Shall we reach the train in time?"
The subject of a finite verb should have the nomina-
tive form.
The subject of a verb in the infinitive mode takes the
objective form. We may say, " I believe that he is hon-
est," or " I believe him to he honest."
Violations of the Correct Usage of the Nominatiye Case.
He has dined here and me [I] with him. — Jeffrey,
He was by nature less ready than her [she]. — A, TroUape.
She professed the greatest regard for the lady, whom [who],
she assured us, was an angel. — Scott
It is much easier to respect a man who has always had our re-
spect than to respect a man whom [who] we know was last year
no better than ourselves. — Boswell.
He offered his daughter in marriage to whomsoever [who-
soever] might jsubdue the place. — Irving,
The very two individuals whom [who] he thought were far
away. — B, Disraelu
60 GOOD ESGLISH.
THE NOMTNATIVB 0A8B INDEPENDENT.
The nominative form of a noun or a pronoun is used
not only as the subject of a sentence, but also in what
are known as the independent and the absolute con-
struction.
A noun or a pronoun is said to be used independ-
endy —
1. When it represents a person or a thing addressed;
as, " Boys, are you ready ?" '' Gentlemen, shall we have
order ?" " Dear Sir, I wish to see you."
2. When it is used in exclamation ; as, " Delightful
task! to rear the tender thought;" "Great Goodness, I
did not expect such a result!"
3. When by pleonasm the attention is directed to an
object before anything is said of that object; as, "Thy
rod and thy staff, they comfort me."
Nouns or pronouns used in the three preceding ways
are said to be in the nominative case independent by
address, by exdamatimi, by 'pleonasm,
A noun or a pronoun is said to be used absolutely, or
to be in the nominative case absolute —
1. When it is placed before a participle as the subject
of an abridged clause ; as, " The teacher having come, we
began work."
2. When it is used after an infinitive or a participle
of a copulative verb, as part of an abridged proposition ;
as, *' His being a reliable nian w\as greatly to his advan-
tage;" " To be a learned man was his ambition."
Sometimes the nominative which should logically
precede the participle is omitted ; as, " Admitting your
argument;" that is, ''We admitting your argument."
Sometimes also in the absolute construction, the
participle is omitted; as, "The war at an end, the^
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 61
soldiers returned ;" that is, " The war being at an end,"
etc.
By some grammarians such expressions as the titles
of books, the headings of chapters, the names on signs,
etc., are considered as being in the nominative case in-
dependent by specification.
The Objective Case.
There are two circumstances under which a noun or a
pronoun may be in the objective case.
The first of these is where it represents the object of a
transitive .verb. The objective case may follow also the
participle of a transitive verb.
A verb or a participle may have several objects ; as,
"He teaches both grammar and logic^
The object of a transitive verb may be any word,
phrase, or clause, used as a noun ; as, " The boy likes
study ;^^ "He likes to study ;^^ "He knows that whoever
studies vnU improved
Some transitive verbs have two objects, one denoting
some person or thing, and the other that which the ob-
ject is made to be in fact or thought; as, "They made
him king;" "They crowned him king." Either of these
sentences may be taken to mean, "They kinged him."
Him is the direct object, and king is the factitive object,
by some grammarians called the complement.
Sentences of similar construction are, " They elected
him President;" "They chose Mr. Smith captain." In
each case the verb has the sense of to make, and the con-
struction is called factitive, from facio, I make.
The principal verbs used in this construction are
choose, elect, make, appoint, name, call, constitute, render,
consider, reckon.
Some transitive verbs may be followed by two objects,
62 GOOD EyGLISn.
the first being the object of a preposition understood
and the second the object of tlie verb; as, "I gave
John some rno/ie»//' When the objects change places
tlie preposition is expressed ; as, "' I gave some money
to John."
The indirect object, or object of the preposition under-
stood, is by some writers made the subject of a verb in
the passive voice ; as, ** I was asked my opinion." The
propriety of this usage is, however, questionable, and it
ought to be avoided. A better form for such sentences
is, " My opinion was asked." If the sentence be correct
as given, there must be an ellipsis, the meaning being " I
was asked (for) my opinion."
The Objective Case After a PrepoBition. — ^The ob-
jective case occurs after a preposition used to show the
relation of the noun or other objective following, to some
preceding word.
The objective case is used after the adjective toorthy
and sometimes after like, near, nigh, without a preposi-
tion expressed ; as, *' He is like his father ;" " The book
is worth a dollar." By some grammarians the object
here is called an adverbial objective ; others claim that
a preposition is understood after the adjective.
When a noun or a pronoun is the object of two or
more prepositions it should be made to follow the first
preposition, and a pronoun representing it should be
placed after the others. Thus, " He spoke in favor of,
but voted against, the measure," should be " He spoke
in favor of the measure, but voted against it"
The same principle holds good where a noun is used
as the object of both a verb and a preposition. Thus,
'' He advocated and voted for the measure," should be
"He advocated the measure and voted for it."
Whom and which should be made to follow rather than
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63
precede the prepositions of which they are the objects.
Thus, "To whom did you speak?" is better than
"Whom did you speak to?"
The word home, and nouns denoting time, space, de-
gree, amount, direction, as years, feet, time, etc., are put
in the objective case without a preposition; as, "The
wall is four feet high;" "We have walked several
miles;" "You will not be a dollar richer by the
change;" "I have lived here ten years." In each of
these sentences a preposition is implied. Thus, "The
wall was high hy ten feet ;" " We have walked (over the
space or distance of) several miles;" "You will not be
richer (by or to the value of) a dollar by the change."
Violations of the Correct Usage of the Objective Case.
The following illustrations show violations of the
principles controlling the use of the objective form :
But first I must show who [whom] I mean by the govern-
ment. — Benton,
To poor we [us] thine enmity is most capital. — Shakespeare,
He loves he knows not who [whom]. — Addison,
Let him not boast that puts on his armor, but he [him] that
takes it off. — Barclay,
John Home Tooke was refased admission only because he
had been in holy orders. — Diversions of Parley, (Admission was
refused to John Home Tooke, etc.)
Who [To whom] had been unexpectedly left a considerable
sum. — Dr, Johnson,
He [him], who had always inspired in her a respect which
almost overcame her affection, she now saw the object of open
pleasantry. — Miss Austen.
Thackeray having been requested to write in a lady's
album, found the following :
64 GOOD ESGLLSH.
"Mont Blanc is the monarch of moontaina —
They crowned him long ago ;
Bat who they got to put it on
Nobodv seems to know.**
Whereupon Thackeray added the following:
A Humble Suggestion.
I know that Albert wrote in a hurry ;
To criticise I scarce presume ;
But yet methinks that Lindley Murray,
Instead of urJko^ had written fckom.
W. M. Thacke&ay.
Wash ye, make ye [you] clean. — Brown** QmoMrdanoe,
Hodgson's Errors m En(^i^, from which we take some
of the foregoing, criticises the following:
God will send no such foob as I upon his errands. — Kingsky.
This sentence is correct as it stands, meaning "God
will send no such fools as I (am) upon his errands."
Tlie conjunction really connects sentences here instead
of the words " fools " and " L"
The following are examples showing the misuse of
the prepositional objective:
All debts are cleared between you and / [me]. — Shate^itecare,
So you must ride on horseback after we [us]. — Qnpper,
This life has joys for you and / [me],
And joys that riches ne'er can buy. — Bum%,
He hath given away above half his fortune to the Lord knows
who [whom]. — Fielding.
I have plenty of victuals, and between you and / [me], some-
thing in a corner. — Day's ** Sanford and MertonV
There are still a few who, like them and / [me], drink noth-
ing but water. — Gil Bias,
We are still much at a loss who [whom] civil power belongs
to, — Locke^
. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 66
I cannot tell who [whom] to compare them to. — Bunyan,
That they should always bear certain marks who [whom] they
came from. — Butler's Analogy,
It is in this particular that the great difference lies between
the laborer who moves to Yorkshire and he [him] who moves
to Canada. — Westminnter Review,
Now he had lost her, he wanted her back ; and perhaps every
one present, except he [him], guessed why. — Kingsley, in " West-
ward Ho,'*
But if you can't help it, who [whom] do you complain of? —
Collier,
I see there is some resemblance between this good man and /
[me] . — Bunyan,
The Case by Apposition.
When a noun or a pronoun is joined to another for
the sake of explanation or emphasis it is in the same
case as the noun which it explains or emphasizes.
This is usually called the same case by apposition.
As has been explained before, when several nouns
come together to express but one name, as General
Ulysses Simpson Grant, they constitute a complex
noun, and are not in apposition.
Sometimes the common noun is put in apposition
with the proper ; as, " Milton the poet ;" and sometimes
the proper noun is put in apposition with the common ;
as, " The poet Milton."
Sometin'ies a noun is put in apposition with a sen-
tence ; as, " Always attend to business, a good rule, was
his guiding motto ;" and sometimes a sentence is put in
apposition with a word ; as, " His motto. Always pay as
you go, is a good rule."
A plural term is sometimes for the sake of emphasis
put in apposition with several nouns or pronouns pre-
ceding; as, "Children, relatives, friends, — aU have de-
serted me."
5
66 GOOD ESGUSn.
Distributive pronouns arc sometimes put in apposi-
tion with a ])lural noun or pronoun; as, "They called
each other ;" that is, " They each called the other," each
being in apposition with ihqf.
As is sometimes followed by a noun denoting office
or rank, which is in apposition with a preceding noun
or pronoun. Thus, "i/w work as a teacher is satisfac-
tory," in which teacher is in the possessive case, being in
apposition with his.
Nouns in apposition need to agree in case, but not
necessarily in person, number, or gender.
When a noun is in apposition with a pronoun in the
possessive, the possessive sign of the noun is omitted.
See the foregoing sentence, "His work as a teacher is
satisfactory."
Violations of the Bule for the Same Case by Apposition.
Mrs. Brownlow had presatned to scold her, to blame her, for
what she was doiog, she [herj whom nobody ever blamed. —
Mrs. Oliphant.
God forbid that John Hawkins's wife should refase her last
penny to a distinguished mariner, and he [him] a gentleman
born. — Kingsley,
Amidst the tumult of the routed train
The sons of false Antimachus were slain ;
He [him], who for bribes his faithless counsel sold,
And voted Helen's stay for Paris' gold. — Pope.
I saw him before me, he [him] who had since our first meet-
ing continually contrived to pass some inappreciable slight on
me. — Lever,
It is characteristic of them to appear to one person, and he
[him] the most interested, the most likely to be deluded. —
W. J. Fox : Works,
I don't forget the danger and the woe of one weak woman,
and she [her] the daughter of a man who stood in this room.
— Kingsky,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67
To send me away, and for a whole year, too, — / [me] who
had never crept from under the parental wing — was a startling
idea. — C, J, Mathews.
The word came not to Esau, the hunter that stayed not at
home, but to Jacob, the plain man, he [him] that dwelt in tents*
— Penn.
Christ and him [he] crucified was the Alpha and Omega of
his address. — Sermon,
Same Case after a Verb.
Intransitive verbs and verbs in the passive voice liave
the same case after them as before them when both
words mean the same thing.
The verbs usually placed between two nouns or pro-
nouns meaning the same thing are he^ become^ seem, ap-
pear, and intransitive verbs of motion, place, or position;
also the passive form of such transitive verbs as call,
choose, name, elect, appoint, consider, esteem, constitute, and a
few others.
A noun or a pronoun either preceding or following
one of these verbs may be in the same case as a phrase
or a clause separated from it by the verb. Thus, " It is
a disgrace that we should be compelkd to remain,^^ or " That
we should be compelled to remain is a disgrace." In the
first of these sentences, the meaning may be expressed
by transferring the explanatory clause and putting it
directly in apposition with the subject; as, " It, that we
should be compelled to remain, is a disgrace."
The noun or the pronoun following an intransitive
infinitive, and meaning the same thing as the noun or
the pronoun preceding the verb, is usually in the ob-
jective case, since the word preceding the verb, and
known as the subject of the infinitive, is in the objec-
tive case. Thus, i^ I took him to be the judge.^^
Some writers have agreed that the sentence "It is
68 QOOD KNGLISIL
me " is correct, beciiuse it is common. Tills is not true.
It is a direct violation of the rule, nor is the expression
common among correct writers. If ** It is me " were
correct, then also would **It is him," '*It is her," "It is
them " be correct ; but they all violate the well-estab-
lished principle that intransitive verbs have the same
case after them as before them when both words mean
the same.
The noun or the pronoun after a passive or an intran-
sitive participle limited by a possessive is in the nomi-
native case independent; as, "No one thought of its
being /."
In such expressions as "He was taught grammar"
there is an ellipsis of a preposition, as will appear
when we substitute the word "instruct" for the word
"taught." Thus, "He was instructed in grammar."
The subject and the predicate noun or pronoun need
agree in nothing except case. Thus, we may say " It is
I," " It is he," " It is she," " It is you," " It is they."
Those who would admit the correctness of "It is me,"
as Dean Alford does in "The Queen's English," and
quote Shakespeare as authority, in King Lear, where
the fool's expression is " And yet I would not be tliee,
uncle," will on further examination of the same play
find Shakespeare saying " Be as well-neighbored, pitied,
and relieved as thou ;" " Tis they have put him on the
old man's death;" ''It is both he and she;'' "TisAe;"
" 'Twas he;'' " Alack, 'tis he;" " 0, this is he." Shall the
rule or the exception govern ?
In practice, it matters not which of the nouns precedes
or which follows if both are in the same case. Some-
times both follow or both precede the verb. Thus, "Am
J a Jew ?" " Art thou Elias ?" " I was eyes to the blind,
and feet \vas I to the lame." " I know not who she is."
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69
Violations of the Bule for the Same Case after the Verb.
He had taken Oliver to be ^ [him], — Dickens,
If there is any one embarrassed it will not be me [I], and it
will not be she. — W, Black.
It cannot be me [IJ. — Swifi.
These are her garb, not her [she]. — Hannah More.
Although I know it to be he [him]. — Dickens.
It is not me [I] you are in love with. — Adam Smith.
Art thou proud yet? Ay, that I am, not thee [thou]. — Shake-
speare.
Time was when none could cry, " It was wie" [I]. — Dryden,
Notes on Nouns.
Some discussion has arisen as to whether we shall say
" the United States is " or " the United Stiites are." Bry-
ant in his famous Index Expurgatmius, which determined
the question of usage for " The New York Evening Post,"
of which he was editor, used the term in the plural. The
Secretaries of State before the late Civil War used the
expression in the same way. Many authorities have ad-
vocated the opposite view, and usage is still unsettled.
A reasonable view seems to be that where the General
Government is meant, or where the term expresses the
name of the nation, we should* consider the term sin-
gular, and say " The United States is," as we would say
" Central America is," or as we would say of any other
country made up of individual states. If we were to
refer to the states as individuals, we should say " the
United States are," but a doubt miojht arise as to the
propriety of beginning either ** united " or " states " with
a capital letter.
Foreign Nouns. — Frequently the plurals of foreign
nouns are incorrectlv formed. The word naminp: the
graduate of an institution of learning is a good exam-
70 GOOD ENGLISH.
pie. The following are the proper forms: The term
applied to a male graduate is alumniia (sing.), alumni
(plur.) ; to a female graduate, alumna (sing.), alumnse
(pUir.) ; and where an association consists of both sexes,
the proper term is ^^ alumni association."
It is best in general to use the Anglicised plural of
foreign terms where they have become words in com-
mon use. Thus, animalcules is preferable to animalcule
except in scientific treatises, solos to soli, ignoram,uses to
ignorami, funguses to ficngiy stamens to stamina, gymnor
siums to gymnasia, focuses to foci, heaus to beaux, and enco^
miums to encomia,
. The general tendency in writing the names of profes-
sions and other callings is to abandon the use of the
feminine termination where women occupy the same
plane and enjoy the same privileges as men; hence we
have for women as well as men, doctor, teacher, poet, ediUn-,
instructor, merchant, and the like; but when the calling is
essentially one belonging to the sex, a termination which
indicates the sex is given to the word ; as, actress, count-
ess, duchess, and the like. In the case of actress the
reason for using the forms actor and actress is probably
because the parts played by the two sexes are different.
Asa rule, in forming new nouns it is best to take the
affix from the same language as the root- word. This is
sometimes known as "The law of verbal formation."
Thus, in the word telegraph, we have tde (Gr.), "afar
off," and graphein (Gr.), '^ to write," and the word tele-
graph, as also the word telegram, is a legitimate word;
but the word cablegram is a hybrid derived from the
French and the Greek.
The suffix ist, from the Greek, is frequently affixed
incorrectly to an Anglo-Saxon root, producing as a re-
sult such monstrous hybrids as walkist, talkist, fightist.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 71
and timist. Many of these have dropped out, and we
have walker, talker, and the like, but ^Himist" is still
used by some to denote one who keeps correct time in
his musical performances. The proper word is time-
keeper, from timnian (A. S.) and ceopan (A. S.).
Many abbreviations of nouns have crept into modern
usage, some good, some bad. Thus we have, among the
forms which have secured recognition, van for " van-
guard," cab for ** cabriolet," consols for '* consolidated an-
nuities," mob for " mobile vtdgus,^^ proxy for " procuracy,"
chum for "chamber-fellow," hack for "hackney-coach.''
But there is no known excuse for the use of " co-ed "
for female student at a co-educational school, " exam "
for examination, "gym" for gymnasium, "pants" for
pantaloons, " pard " for partner, " prex " for president,
"gents" for gentlemen, "prof" for professor, "spec" for
speculation, " prelim " for preliminary examination, or
"bike" for bicycle.
Many of these abbreviations are the product of the
playground, where they are thought to savor of smart-
ness, but none of them should be used unless recognized
by reliable authority as having established themselves.
Adjectives.
Adjectives are used to limit or qualify the meaning
of nouns and pronouns.
Two adjectives taken together as one term, without
the use of a hyphen, may be called a complex adjective;
as, "A pale blue sky ;" "On^ hundred and twenty dollars,"
Numerals below one hundred, when taken together,
are united by a hyphen ; as, thirty-two, sixty-three, ninety-
six.
An adjective may modify a noun modified by another
72 GC'^'D EsausH.
adjti'Ciivt ; thus, ~ A li:;le giri f " A beautiful little girl."
In the s<'Corid exanuie, " Wiuiiful " modifies the expres-
sion " ii::le ir.r!.'"
Wht-n an adj^-ccive pnect^es an expression in which
a jK^^5S€ss:ve limits ano;hcr nuun,the adjective limits the
noun in the posse^ive nuher than the noun limited by
the jK>ssos5?ive. Thus, in the expression, *'The old man's
cvul w;is torn/' tue and M moilifv man^.
m
An adjtviive usuidly pret\-des the noun but follows the
pronoun which it modiiies; thus, "He is a wise man;"
*• He is wise." There are, however, many exceptions to
this principle, as in the expression '•The boy is active."
When an adjective is use^l abstractly after a participle
or a verb in the infinitive mode, as '*To be prudent is
sometimes difficult/* it does not relate to any noun or
pronoun.
Some adjectives merely limit; as, this, thaty six; while
others qualify.
Among the limiting adjectives are the articles, a, an
and they numeral adjectives, and pronominal adjectives.
Of the articles, a and an always limit nouns in the
singular ; a l)eing used before consonant sounds and an
before vowel sounds. An attempt to pronounce a com-
bination where a precedes a vowel sound, as " a apple,"
"a orange," will readily show why it is more eupho-
nious to use 071 before vowel sounds. Similarly, an at-
tempt to pronounce an before a consonant sound, as " an
cart," "an book," will show why it is more euphonious
to use a before the sound of a consonant
The may be used before either singular or plural
nouns.
Of the numeral adjectives, those relating to number,
there are three kinds : the Cardinal, which denote how
many, as one, two, three, etc. ; tlie Orduuih, which denote
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 73
what order, as jirst^ second^ thirds etc. ; and the Multipli-
cative, which denote how many fold, as doubU or twofold^
triple or threefold, etc.
Pronominal adjectives are those which may, without
the use of the article, represent a noun when understood.
The pronominal adjectives are either Distributive, as each,
every, either, neither, — Demonstrative, as this, that, these, those,
yonder, former, latter, — or Indefinite, as some, one, any,^ such,
none, other ^ another.
In the case of pronominal adjectives, when they limit
a noun expressed they may he called simply adjectives.
When the noun is understood, as in " This is mine," the
pronominal adjective may be called a pronoun.
Words derived from proper names, as American, Po-
lish, Roman, etc., are known as Proper Adjectives, Proper
adjectives should begin with capital letters except as
noted heretofore in the treatment of Capital Letters.
In the comparison of adjectives, when two objects are
compared, strict usage requires the employing of the
comparative degree to express a greater or a less degree
of quality ; as, vnser, gentler, more beautiful, less savage.
In the comparison of three or more objects the super-
lative degree is required to express the highest or the
lowest degree of quality; as, wisest, most beautiful, least
savage.
Monosyllables, and dissyllables ending in le or y, are
compared by the use of er and est; as, simple, simpler,
simplest; spicy, spicier, spiciest.
Other adjectives are usually compared by the use of
more and most or less and least; as, beautiful, more beau-
tiful, most beautiful; dangerous, less dangerous, least dan-
gerous.
Many adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good,
better, best; evil, worse, worst.
74 GOOD ESGLLSK
Some adjectives, as superior^ inferior, preferable, previous^
do not admit of comparison. This is true also of adjec-
tives denoting qualities which cannot exist in different
(lojrrees ; as, round, square, perpendicular, etc., though some
writers use the comparative and the superlative forms of
these words on the theory that the words are not used in
a strict sense. Thus,
"The most perfect society." — Everett
" Sight is the most perfect of our senses." — Addison,
" The extremest verge." — Shakespeare.
Syntax op Adjectivbs.
When a limiting and a qualifying adjective modify
the same noun, the limiting adjective is placed first ; as,
" This excellent advice ;" " The three brightest boys."
When two numeral adjectives are thrown together, the
ordinal should generally precede the cardinal ; thus, " The
first three ;" " The last six."
Some grammarians object to this form because the
" first three " implies a " second three," and in groups
of less than six there can be no second three. This is
not necessarily true. While there may not be a " first
three" and a "second three" in five, there ma}' be a
*' first three " and a " last three," just as in competition
we speak always of "the best three out of h.wQ,^'^ and
not the " three best " out of five.
When an ordinal adjective limits a noun it should
precede the noun ; as, the fifth page, the tliirteenth lesson,
the second month, the eighth day.
When a cardinal adjective limits a noun it should fol-
low the noun ; as, page five, lesson thirteen, post sixteen, part
one, not " part first."
Adjectives as well as nouns may have the factitive
construction, as in the following : " They made the land
ENGLISH QBAMMAR. 75
rich ;" that is, " They enriched the land ;" " They washed
their hands clean;" that is, "They cleansed their hands."
It will be noticed that the predicate verb and the facti-
tive adjective are together equivalent to a single verb.
When the passive form of the verb is used, as, "The
land was made rich," the adjective becomes a predicate
adjective.
The comparative degree presents the objects compared
as in different classes or divisions, and is followed by
than; as, "Boys are more rugged than girls."
The superlative degree presents the objects compared
as being in the same class or division, and is followed
by of. Thus, "Samson was the strongest of men." We
may say "Solomon was the wisest of Hebrew kings,"
but not " Solomon was wiser than any of the Hebrew
kings," for he himself was one of the Hebrew kings.
We may say "Eve was the fairest of women," but
not "the fairest of her daughters Eve," as given by
Milton.
When only two objects of the same division are com-
pared the comparative may be used like the superlative,
and is followed by of; as, " Henry is the older of the two
brothers."
Some writers have used the superlative in the com-
parison of two. Notice the following :
"The most agreeable of the two." — Cowper,
" The most fatigued of the two." — Hood,
" The strongest of the two." — Hawthorne,
'* Which of the two was the most active?" — Q, P. Marsh,
"The least of the two,'*—Southey.
"The eldest of the two sons." — Thackeray,
" Wherever God erects a house of prayer,
The devil always builds a chapel there ;
And 'twill be found, upon examination,
The latter has the largest congregation." — Defoe,
76 GOOD ENGLISH,
Double comparatives and double superlatives should
not be used. When Shakespeare wrote the expression,
** the most unkindest cut of all," he probably was aware
that he was sacrificing the grammar of the sentence to
make the meter correct.
Each, Every, Either, and Neither are in the singu-
lar, and require verbs, nouns, and pronouns connected
with them to be in the singular.
Even wlien two or more singular subjects are con-
nected by and^ if they are preceded by each^ every ^ or no,
they are considered separately, and require a verb in the
singular; as, "Each tree and each shrub has its assigned
place;" "Every boy and every girl was ready for the
work;" "No chair and no cushion was out of place."
When an adjective is necessarily plural the noun
which it limits must take the plural form ; as, six Jeet^
ten mile8^ seventy dollars; but when the adjective and
the noun together form a new adjective the noun-part
of the adjective retains the singular form ; as, " a ten-
foot pole," "a two- foot rule," "a three-cent piece," "a
five-dollar bill."
W^hen quality is to be expressed, the adjective and
not the adverb should follow the verb. Thus, " I feel
sick;'' " I feel had;'' " Eggs boil hxird;" " The three stood
tall and silent'' — Macaiday; " Many a nobleman lies stark
and stiff," — Shakespeare; " Time hangs heavy in the haJl,"
—Scott,
A correct plan for determining whether the adjective
or the adverb should be used in such sentences as the
foregoing is this : If any part of the verb be or become
can be substituted for the verb in the sentence, the verb
should be followed by the adjective. Thus, " I feel (am)
wicked ;" " I feel (am) bad ;" " She looks (is) beautiful;"
" The eggs boil (become) hard ;" " The apples taste (are)
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 77
sweet;" "The marble looks (is) cold;" "He felt (was)
better;" "The child lay (was) motionless."
When several adjectives limiting the same noun' fol-
low one another and are separated by a conjunction, the
simplest is placed first. Thus, we say, " The boy whom
we met is older and more intelligent than his brothers."
If written in this form, " The boy whom we met is more
intelligent and older than his brothers," the word more,
in effect, modifies not only intelligent^ but also older;
thus, "more intelligent and more older."
Care must be taken, when two adjectives limiting the
same noun are joined without the use of a conjunction,
that that adjective be placed nearest the noun which
with the noun may be modified by the other. Thus,
"A rugged little church" rather than "A little rugged
church;" "A pretty little girl" rather than "A little
pretty girl."
In referring to distance farther should be used, not fur-
ther. Thus, " The sun is farther from us than is the moon."
Farther is used in the sense of additional. Thus,
"Have you any further remarks to make?"
The best authorities seem to agree that each otfier
should be used when reference is made to two onl}'',
and that one another is the proper term to use when
reference is made to more than two. Thus, "The boys
like each other;" that is, each boy likes the other. The
number is limited definitely to two. We may say also,
"The soldiers followed one another;" that is, one fol-
lowed another, the number being indefinite.
This and its plural these refer to what is near or last
thought of. That and its plural those refer to what is
distant or last thought of. Thus,
Farewell my friends I farewell my foes I
My peace with these [foes], my love with those [friends].
78 QOOD ENGLISH.
This and that modify words in the singular; these
and those, words in ihe plural. It is incorrect to say
these kind or those sort, .
The words a and the, though generally used as arti-
cles, may be used as other parts of speech. Thus, when
a is used as a substitute for at^ on, in, or other preposi-
tions, as "He has gone a-fishing," it becomes a prep-
osition. So also in sentences where the is used to modify
an adjective or an adverb, it is properly an adverb, as in
" The more I sing the better I like it;" " The deeper the well,
the cooler the water."
When the article a is used before the words dozen, few,
hundred, etc., the combination of article and adjective, as
a few, may be parsed as a complex adjective. Some gram-
marians prefer to think that a preposition is understood ;
as, " A dozen (of) eggs." When millions and larger num-
bers are used the preposition is expressed ; as, " Two mil-
lions of dollars."
Syntax op Articles.
When a common noun is used in its most extended
sense, no article is placed before it ; as, " Iron is hard ;"
" Glass is brittle."
No article is placed before a noun denoting a mere
title or name used as a name. Thus, " The chief officer
in some towns is called mayor; in others, burgess;"
"His title is captain."
The article should be placed before an adjective used
as a noun ; as, " None but the brave deserves the fair."
The article should be used before a common noun
when the latter is used to denote a particular class ; as,
"The rose is a beautiful flower."
When several particulars are included in a class, the
article must precede each of the particulars if it is
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 79
placed before any. Thu^, " Nouns have three cases, —
Nominative, Possessive and Objective," or " Nouns have
three cases, — the Nominative, the Possessive, and the
Objective."
The article a is used before the words few and little
to denote some. Thus, "A few remained to greet the
stranger;" "We have a little money."
The article a is omitted before these adjectives to
denote none, not many, or not much. Thus, " Few were
present to listen to the address ;" " But little change has
been noticed."
The article is used before each of two names when
they are compared if they refer to separate persons
or things; as, "The house is more costly than the
bam."
The article is omitted before the second of two names
compa,red if they refer to the same person or thing;
as, "Longfellow was a more celebrated writer than
speaker."
When several nouns have different constructions, or
when it is desired to express direct contrast, or to give
emphasis or prominence to each noun, the article should
be placed before each. Thus, " The teacher and the pu-
pils were frightened ;" " The street but not the number
was given ;" " Twenty thousand dollars was paid for a
store and a farm."
When several adjectives in succession limit the same
noun, an article is placed before the first only ; as, " A
red, white, and black cow," meaning one cow.
When several adjectives in succession limit a noun
denoting several objects of the same name, the article
is placed before each adjective ; as, " A red and a white
cow," meaning two cows of different colors.
Applying this principle to the following sentences,
80 GOOD ENGLISH,
a. Sing the first and second stanza,
b. Sing the first and the second stanza,
c. Sing the first and second stanzas,
d. Sing the first and the second stanzas,
it is evident that only the second sentence (6) is correct.
With reference to the first sentence, the single article
indicates a single stanza, but a stanza cannot be first and
second at the same time. The same is true of the third
sentence; the stanzas must be first and second at the
same time.
The fourth sentence means that the first stanzas shall
be sung and the second stanzas shall be sung, whereas
there is but one of each. The fourth sentence could be
correct only on the supposition that the first stanza of
each of several hymns was to be sung.
The second sentence is correct in either of the follow-
ing forms:
Sing the first and the second stanza.
Sing the first stanza and the second.
A prominent writer on Grammar says we may say,
" the north pole and the south pole, or the north and
the south poles." The latter form is incorrect In the
expression " a red and a white cow," the word "cow " is
understood after the adjective "red." So also in the
expression " the north and the south poles," the word
poles is understood after the word north, as indicated
by the presence of the article, and therefore the expres-
sion means " the north poles and the south poles," an
indefinite number of each.
There is objection also to the statement of a late writer
who argues that we may say, " the first and second edi-
tions of a book," which means editions that are at the
same time both first and second.
ENGLISH GRAMMAK 81
In the expressions,
The old and new book,
The old and the new book,
The old and new books.
The old and the new books,
the first and the third are incorrect, and the others cor-
rect.
The proper expression for the books of Scripture is,
" The Old and the New Testament."
The guiding principle in determining the use of the
article in such sentences as the foregoing is, that where
several adjectives in succession modify a noun which
refers to as many distinct objects as there are adjectives,
the article must be placed before each adjective, if the
noun is omitted after each except the last; thus, "The
first, the second, and the third stanza," means three
stanzas. Notice also that the singular form of the
noun, stanza, is the correct one, because it is un-
derstood after each of the adjectives where it is
omitted.
When the adjectives limiting a noun denote but one
object, the article occurs but once, and that before
the first adjective; as, "A white and black [spotted]
dog."
In general, as many objects or groups of objects are
suggested in expressions like the foregoing as there are
articles. Thus, " A red, a white, and a blue flag " (three
articles, three flags). "A red, white, and blue flag " (one
article, one flag). Thus, also, "The first and second
stanza " (one article, one stanza). But a stanza cannot
be first and second at the same time, therefore the ex-
pression is incorrect. The proper form is " The first and
the second stanza " (two articles, two stanzas).
6
82 GO»jD ESGUSH,
S>nrie;iiii€< fc»r ir-e sake of eE:;pL:isis or through poetic
licti*;?e, a wriitr def<ins ir\:»iii the rule ; as,
" A siitider and x wister man
Ue rose tbe oiorTOv mora.'* — Oukrid^
Where oilier limning words are used with the adjec-
tive, liie same principle applies. Thus, ** His first and
last will " meaiiiS oce wiiL " His first and liis last will "
(not wills) means two wiils-
As to the words naming streets, usage is not uniform.
Shall we sav " Eleventh and Chestnut Streets," " Elev-
enth Street and Chestnut Street,'' or "Eleventh Street
and Chestnut?"
This does not really come under the principle stated.
Strcd is not the noun modified bv the words eleventh,
etc. The real names of the streets are Elleventh Street
and Chestnut Street, just as the name is not Delaware
but Delaware Rny. Two words. Chestnut and Street, are
necessary to form the complete proper name. Custom
seems to sanction Eleventh and Chestnut Streets, but the
form Eleventh Street and Chestnut also is used, and the
form " Chestnut Street below Tenth '' seems to have no
exceptions. Where a street crosses an avenue both the
words street and avenue are used ; thus, " Broad Street
and Columbia Avenue."'
The definite article is usually placed before such com-
plimentary titles as rererend and honorable; as, "The
Reverend Phillips Brix)ks;'' "The Honorable W'illiam
E. Gladstone." We mav sav also " The Reverend Mr.
Brooks," and "The Honorable Mr. Gladstone."
Butlers Grammar claims that of should not be in-
serted l>etween both or all and a noun following, but
that it may be inserted between both or all and a pro-
noun foUowing. Thus, we sa\', "Both the boys" and
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83
" All the men," or " Both of them," " All of them." The
use of the noun without the preposition is preferable.
The adjective 8(mie may be written before numerals to
render the number less definite ; as, " Some twenty years
ago, Tom."
Usage seems to difier with regard to the use of a or an
before words beginning with h. All agree, how^ever, that
before words beginning with h and accented on the first
syllable, a is the proper article to use ; as, " A history ;"
" A horseman." When the accent is on the second syl-
lable, in such words as historical, either a or an may be
used, according to the taste of the writer. Some gram-
marians declare that the article in such cases must be
an; as, "An historical account," "An hotel," and yet
few people would speak of " an hotel." Usage is decid-
edly in favor of the form " a hotel," and divided as to " a
historical " or " an historical."
Pronominal Adjectives. — Every is sometimes used to
limit a numeral adjective and a noun taken together;
as, "Every ten days;" "Every five dollars."
None may be used in either the singular or the plu-
ral ; as, " We waited for a car, but none came ;" " The
train was wrecked and none of the passengers escaped."
Every means all considered separately, and requires
a verb or a pronoun in the singular ; as, " Every good
boy is ready to do his duty."
Each means all considered separately, and requires a
verb or a pronoun in the singular; as, "Each girl is
ready to do her share of the work."
Any denotes an indefinite object as opposed to a par-
ticular one or more ; as, " Can any one do this ?" " Have
3^ou any money ?"
Either means one or the other of two, but not both.
It implies a choice; as, "Take either of the books."
84 GOOD ESGUSH.
Neither means not the one nor the other.
Many when followed by a may be considered a com-
plex adjective. It means much the same as every, but
does not denote alL
All and whole mean much the same, but they are
not interchangeable. We may say " All the world " or
" The whole world,'' and we may say " All the apples,'*
but not ** The whole apples," in the same sense.
Fewer and less are sometimes misapplied. Fewer
refers to number, and less to size. The school officer
who said to the teacher, " There are less girls than boys
in your school," probably told the truth, but it did not
express the thought he meant to convey, that there were
fewer girls than boys in the school.
Violations of the Correct TTsage of Adjectives,
Isabella was the cause of more misery in both countries than
any (other) woman who ever lived. — History of France,
Neither of them are [is] remarkable for precision. — Blair,
Neither of which are [is] taken into account. — Dean Alford,
Mazzini may be said to have done more for the unity of Italy
than any (other) living man. — Spectator,
The word party for a man occurs in Shakespeare. — Dean Al-
ford. (Drop a.)
The two sisters were extremely different, though each had
their [her] admirers. — Scott,
Never did a set of rascals travel further [farther] to find a
gallows. — W. Irving,
A proper fraction is less than one, because it expresses less
[fewer] parts than it takes to make a unit. — D, P. Oolburn,
We may consider the whole space of an [a] hundred years as
present. — Beattie,
Which created a great dispute between the young and (the)
old men. — GotdsmUh,
It was read by the high and the low, by the rich and (the)
illiterate.— ZV. Johnson,
N
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 85
So diflScult is it to separate these two things from one another
[each other]. — Blair' 8 Rhetoric,
They stand now on one foot, then on another [the other]. —
Walker's Particles,
The head of it would be an [a] universal monarch. — Butler's
Analogy.
Scripture, w., appropriately and by way of distinction, th« books
of the Old and (the) New Testament, the Bible. — Dictionary,
In two separate volumes, entitled the Old and (the) New Tes-
tament. — Wayland.
The creed of Zoroaster .... supposes the co-existence of a
benevolent and (a) malevolent principle, which contend together
without either [cither's] being able decisively to prevail over his
antagonist. — Sir Walter Scott,
Here they confound the material and (the) formal object of
faith. — Maturings Sermons,
Mr. Stanley was the only one of his predecessors who slaugh-
tered the natives of the region he passed through. — London Ex-
aminer, (Omit "of his predecessors.")
A close prisoner in a room twenty foot [feet] square. — Locke,
A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the
Sublime and (the) Beautiful. — Burke,
There are no less [fewer] than five words with any of which
the sentence might have terminated. — GampbeWs Rhetoric,
The letters published after C. Lamb's death and that of his
sister, by Mr. Talfourd, make up a volume of more interest than
any (other) books of human composition. — Leslie,
To the antiquary and (the) artist those .columns are a source
of inexhaustible observations and designs. — Byron,
Her two brothers were one after another [the other] turned
into stone. — Art of Thinking,
Memory and forecaste just returns engage,
This [that] pointing back to youth, that [this] on to age. — Pope,
For beast and bird ;
These [those] to their grassy* couch, those [these] to their
nests repair. — Milton,
The landlord was thought to see further [farther] and deeper
into things than any (other) man in the parish. — Fielding,
86 good english.
Pronouns.
A pronoun may represent a noun or any phrase or
clause used as a noun.
A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person,
number and gender; but the case is determined by
the rehition of the pronoun to other words in the sen-
tence.
The pronoun thou is now rarely used except in the
solemn style. You is used instead in both the singular
and the plural, but the verb which agrees with it is
always of the plural form.
Some difficulty is experienced in expression because
the language has no singular pronoun in the third per-
son to represent males and females. When both sexes-
are represented, the masculine form, he, is used by com-
mon consent; as, "i/e that hath ears to hear, let him
hear."
Some of the personal pronouns have two forms for the
possessive, one of which, my, our, thy, your, her, their, is
used wlien the noun is expressed ; as, my book, her pen-
cil ; and the other, mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs, when
the noun is understood or implied ; as, The book is mine;
The pencil is hers.
In parsing this latter form the simplest plan is to
call the word a personal pronoun, having the possessive
form, and then determine the case by the use of the
word in the sentence. Thus, in the sentence, "The
book is mine," mine is a personal pronoun, having the
possessive form. It is in the first person, singular num-
ber, and in tlie nominative case after is. The word mine
here means my hook.
Care must be taken never to write the possessive form
of pronouns with an apostrophe.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87
Syntax of Personal Pronouns.
When the antecedent of a personal pronoun is a col-
lective noun conveying the idea of unity, the pronoun
agrees with it in the third person, singular number,
neuter gender. Thus, " The army marched onward in
its course."
When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying
the idea of plurality, the pronoun agrees with it in the
plural number, the gender corresponding to that of the
individuals in the collection; as, "The jury did not
agree in their opinions."
When a pronoun is used to represent two or more
nouns connected by and^ but meaning different things,
the plural form must be used ; as, " Both the boy and
the girl spoke to their father."
When a pronoun is used to represent two or more
nouns in the singular, connected by and^ and meaning
the same thing, the singular form of the pronoun must
be used ; as, " Our teacher and protector has her home
in the village."
When two or more nouns in the singular, connected
by and, are preceded by each, every, or no, the pronoun
which represents them is in the singular number; as,
"Every bush and every tree is putting forth its leaves."
When two or more nouns in the singular, connected
by or or nor, are represented by a pronoun, it agrees
with them separately in the singular number. Thus,
"Neither Henry nor William has found his book."
When two or more nouns of different numbers are
connected by or or nor, the pronoun should be made
plural, and the plural noun should be placed nearest to
it. Thus, " Neither the teacher nor the pupils felt that
they had cause to regret their action."
88 GOOD ESGLISIT.
AVhen two or more nouns are connected by as well ew,
and ali(0, but nitty or similar connectives, they belong to
(HUVrent propositions, and the pronoun represents the
first noun onlv. Thus, *'Tlie bov as well as his father
believed that he would succeed."
When two or more antecedents, connected by and, are
of different persons, th^ pronoun which represents them
is of the first person if either of the antecedents is of
the first person. Thus, '' William and I are anxious to
please our friends."
If none of the antecedents is of the first person, the
pronoun is of the second person ; as, " You and your
brother must be kind to your sisters."
When using the pronoun of the second person, sin-
gular, tlie same form must be preserved throughout.
Thus, "Thou and thy sons shall bear the burden of
thy sins."
When several personal pronouns in tlie singularnum-
ber are used together, the second person is placed before
the others, and the third is placed before the first. Thus,
'* You and I," " He and I," '' You and he."
When several personal pronouns in the plural number
are used together, we is usually placed first, you second,
and they third ; thus, " We and you," " We and they,"
"You and they."
When the use of a pronoun causes ambiguity, the
noun should be repeated. Thus, the sentence, "The
farmer told his neighbor that his cows were in his
corn," may mean four things, —
a. The farmer's cows were in the farmer's corn.
b. The farmer's cows were in his neighbor's corn.
c. The neighbor's cows were in the farmer's corn.
d. The neighbor's cows were in the neighbor's corn.
We, though plural, is sometimes used by editors and
ENGLISH GBAMMAR 89
others to denote but one. Our is used in the same way.
Thus, " We give this as our opinion."
You is often used to denote but one; but the verb
agreeing with it must have the plural form.
When neuter nouns are personified they are repre-
sented by pronouns in the masculine or the feminine
gender. Thus, " Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud."
Such collectives as dozen, many, few, score, preceded by
a, are represented by pronouns in the plural; as, "A
few of them were present."
Antecedents in the singular number but of different
persons cannot be represented by a single pronoun. A
separate pronoun must be used to represent each ante-
cedent. Thus, "The boy found his pencil, but his sister
did not find hers."
Violations in the Usage of Pronouns.
Every one in the family should know their [his] duty. — Penn,
His form had not yet lost all her [its] original brightness. —
MiUon,
I shall not learn my duty from such as ihee [thou]. — Fielding,
But he must be stronger than thee [thou]. — Southey,
No one will answer as if I were their [his] friend or compan-
ion. — Steele, in Spectator,
She was no better bred nor wiser than you or 7ne [I]. — Thack-
eray,
If the part deserve any comment, every considering Chris-
tian will make it themselves [himself] as they go [he goes]. —
Defoe,
Now these systems, so far from having any tendency to make
men better, have manifest tendency to make him [them] worse.
— Wayland,
Every nation have their [has its] refinement. — Sterne,
Neither gave vent to their [hia] feelings in words. — Scott,
Everybody will become of use in their [his] own fittest way.
— Buskin,
90 GOOD ENGLISH.
The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the fkster the less
weight it [he] carries. — Addison.
Nobody knows what it is to lose a friend till they have [he
has] lost one. — Melding,
I do not mean that I think any one to blame for taking care
of their [his] health. — Addison,
"Rose Satterly, the mayor's daughter?"— "That's her'' [she].
— Fielding,
Relativb and Intbreogativb Pronouns.
A Relative Pronoun is one which relates to a preced-
ing word, phrase, or clause, called its antecedent, and
unites with it a subordinate clause.
The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and that
Some grammarians consider as a relative pronoun when
it follows such, same, or many ; as, "We give you such as
we have." Others claim that there is an ellipsis in such
expressions, the relative pronoun being understood, the
foregoing sentence meaning, "We give you such as
(those are which) we have."
Who is used to represent persons, which to represent
inferior animals and things without life, what to repre-
sent things, and thxit to represent both persons and
things.
What, that, and which have the same form in the nom-
inative as in the objective case.
In many sentences what is equivalent to both the ante-
cedent and the relative ; as in —
a. That is what I saw.
b. He bought what he wanted.
In parsing what, a form something like the following
is the simplest : In the first sentence, " What is a rela-
tive pronoun having a double construction. It is in the
nominative case after is, and in the objective case after
saw;."
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 91
Three of the words used as relative pronouns, who^
which, what, are used also as Interrogative Pronouns.
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions.
The possessive form of who and which is whose. What
and that have no possessive form.
Syntax of Relativb Pronouns.
The relative pronoun who is sometimes applied to the
names of animals when these are personified ; as, " The
fox, who now addressed the assembly," etc.
Which was formerly used in referring to persons ; as,
" Our Father, which art in heaven," but the question is
pertinent as to this expression, the opening of the Lord's
Prayer, May not the use of which here arise from the
thought that the petitioner was addressing the Lord not
as a person but as a pure spirit?
A clause introduced by a relative pronoun is said to
be restrictive when it limits or restricts the meaning of
its antecedent word as would be done by an adjective.
Thus, " The man who is indiistrious will succeed ;" that
is, " The industrious man will succeed."
Notice the difference in the force of the relative clauses
in the following :
a. "My brother that is studying law will be examined
in June." (Restrictive.)
h, " My brother, who has been spending the summer
with us, will return to the city soon." (Non-restrictive.)
In sentence h, the subordinate clause " who has been
spending the summer with us," may be stricken out
without changing the meaning of the main clause, but
this cannot be done with a restrictive clause.
Relative pronouns which are used apparently in an-
swer to questions, as " Who spoke ?" — " I do not know
who spoke," are known as Responsive Relative Pronouns.
92 GOOD ENGLISH.
The relative pronoun should be placed near its ante-
cedent to avoid ambiguity.
When a relative pronoun represents a collective noun
denoting unity, xchich is used; as, "The school, which
convened at nine, has been dismissed."
When a proper name is used merely as a word, it is
represented by which; thus, "Washington, a name which
is dear to everv American."
What should not be used instead of the conjunction
that; as, "We do not know but what [that] he may
come."
Whom and which generally follow the preposition by
which they are governed ; that always precedes both the
verb and the preposition. Thus, "To whom did he
speak?" "Here is the boy that I spoke to."
That is frequently used instead of who or which. The
following are the most important cases :
a. After who used interrogatively ; as, " Who that has
seen his work is not pleased ?"
b. After an adjective or an adverb in the superlative
degree; as, "This is the best that we could get."
c. When reference is made to antecedents which sep-
arately are represented by who and which; as, "Both the
horse and the rider that we saw fell off the bridge."
d. After the adjectives same, very, and every, when the
relative clause is restrictive ; as, " This is the same man
that called yesterday."
e. After the pronoun it used indefinitely; as, "It was
not I alone that was careless."
/. After all and similar antecedents when the limiting
clause is restrictive; as, "All that are studious will im-
prove."
By many writers and speakers the last of these rules
is not strictly observed. Thus, while it is certainly cor-
ENGLISH GBAMMAB, 93
rect to say "AH that are interested will remain," the
form "All who are interested will remain " is sanctioned
by custom at least.
A change of relatives referring to the same antecedent
should be avoided. The following is incorrect : " This
is the same person thai called, and whom we met in the
city."
Violations of the Correct TTsage of Relative Pronouns.
Who [whom] have we here ? — Goldsmith.
Our party of seventeen, the largest which [that] ever entered
the valley. — Richardson.
Massillon is perhaps the most eloquent writer of sermons
which [that] modern times have produced. — Blair.
Who [whom] should 1 meet the other day but my old friend?
— Steele.
The princes and states who [that] had neglected or favored
the growth of this power. — Bolinghroke,
The army whom [which] the chief had abandoned, pursued
meanwhile their [its] miserable march. — LockharVs Napoleon.
Both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose be-
tween his [their] duty and (their) reputation. — Junius.
The first American wJw [that] adopted literature as a calling,
and who [that] successfully relied on his pen for support, etc. —
A History of Literature,
This is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for
their [its] service to the body. — Collier^ s Antoninus.
When you press a watch or pull a clock, they answer [it an-
swers] your question with precision, for they report [it reports]
exactly the hour of the day, and tell [tells] you neither more
nor less than you desire to know. — Bolinghroke.
Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances
which [that] was [were] published in this country. — TJmckeray.
Not the Mogul, or Czar of Muscovy,
Nor [or] Prester John, or Chan of Tartary,
Are [isj in their houses [his house] monarch more than I.
— King : British Poets,
94 GOOD ENGLISH.
Bryant was the first American who [that] discovered that the
flowers and birds of New England were not those of Old Eng-
land. — A History of Literature,
The same might as well be said of Virgil, or any (other) great
author, whose general character will infallibly raise many casual
additions to their [his] reputation. — Pope,
The crisis is one of the most singular which [that] have ever
occu rred. — Econom ist.
All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fin-
gers, but hi8 [its] follies and vices are innumerable. — Swift,
Undoubtedly he was the most powerful speaker, the most
active minister, the truest man, which [that] the kirk has had
since Chalmers' death. — W. C, Smith, in Tlieological Review,
Reflexive Pronouns.
Dr. Morris, in English Accidence, shows that formerly
the simple personal pronouns might be used reflexively,
as in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, " I do repent me,"
the addition of the syllable self only rendering their re-
flective signification more emphatic. Self was an adjec-
tive, meaning some, but afterward it became a noun.
Ben Jonson uses the phrase " my woeful self."
The use of myself, yourself, etc., for I, your, etc., is not
sanctioned by good authority. Thus, ^* Myself did it,"
is not regarded as good English, because the word myself
here loses its reflective character and becomes the simple
subject.
Violations of the Correct Usage of Compound Personal
Pronouns.
I saw that it was impossible that Sir Lionel Somers and my-
^eff [I] should ever get on well together as man and wife. —
£^ingsley,
Jerrold, Mr. Herbert Ingram, Mr. Peter Cunningham, and
Myself [IJ were out for a day's ramble. — Z>r. Charles Mackay.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95
Mr. Studer and myself [I] had already decided on taking one
man apiece as a personal attendant. — Prof. P. Forbes.
Parliament, yourself [you] and many other independent mem-
bers, were unwillingly, etc. — Benj. Disraeli.
The reader will be indebted for any interest he may find in
these pages as much to my correspondents as myself [to me]. —
Public School Report.
In October, George and myself [I] went to spend a w^eek or
ten days at Hampton Court. — Mrs. Grote : Life of George Grote.
Verbs.
The chief division of verbs is into transitive and in-
transitive, the former of which may be followed by a
noun or a pronoun in the objective case, and the latter
not.
A transitive verb expresses action, and this action is
such as either literally or figuratively passes from the
actor to a receiver of the act.
A transitive verb requires an object to complete its
meaning. Thus, " He makes " is not complete in sense
until some noun or pronoun in the objective case is
made to follow; as, "He makes wagons." Makes is
therefore a transitive verb.
When the sense is complete without the use of an
object, the verb is intransitive; thus, the verb hake in
the sentence, "She can bake," though in the sentence
"She can bake bread," the same verb, hake^ is transi-
tive.
An intransitive verb that does not express action is
known as a Neuter Vei'h ; as, is, are^ was, etc.
An intransitive verb may be used transitively when
followed by a word of similar meaning ; as, " I dreamed
a dream f^ "She lived a wretched life.'*'*
An intransitive verb may also be used transitively
96 GOOD ENGLISH,
when it has a causative meaning; as, "The boy flies
his kite" i^causes it to fly); "The engineer runs his
engine."
A verb may be transitive with one meaning and in-
transitive with another. Thus, "I will return the
books" (trans.); "We will return to the city" (in-
trans).
VOICE.
Transitive verbs are said to have voice, a property
which shows whether the subject of the sentence rep-
resents the actor or the thing acted upon; as, **The boy
shot a bird ;" " A bird was shot by the boy.'' The first
form, where the subject represents the actor, is known
as the Active Voice^ and the second as the Passive Voice.
The verbs in these sentences, shot and wols shot, are the
same verb in two forms, either showing that the action
passes from one object, boy, to another, bird.
Intransitive verbs may, when followed by a preposi-
tion, take the form of the passive voice ; as, " We were
laughed at^' (ridiculed). In such sentences the verb,
including the preposition, is a complex verb.
Sometimes transitive verbs have the active form with
a passive meaning"; as,
a. Some goods sell readily.
b. The field ploughs well.
MODE.
Mode is the manner in which an assertion is ex-
pressed. Most grammarians give five modes of the
verb, — Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and
Infinitive,
Some reject the potential, and others seem inclined to
reject the subjunctive.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 97
Hodgson, in liis Errors in the Use of English^ says, "The
mood in the use of which mistakes are commonest, is
the subjunctive, a mood that as a separate inflection is
dying out in the language, the tendency being to merge
the distinction between it and the indicative."
The subjunctive mode is used to express an assertion
as doubtful or conditional.
The distinction between the indicative and the sub-
junctive is usually carefully observed by correct writers.
Thus,
o. If it rains (now), let us remain indoors.
6. If it rain to-morrow, we cannot go.
The first of these sentences admits of no doubt. It
either rains or it does not rain, and the fact that we
know is implied in the indicative form, "If it rains."
But in the second sentence we are in doubt, unable to
tell whether it wiU or will not rain to-morrow, and
therefore express our doubt in the subjunctive form,
" If it rain."
Sometimes the sign of the subjunctive is omitted ; as,
" Were I in his place;" that is, " If I were in his place."
The conjunctions mostly used to introduce the sub-
junctive form are unlesSj if though, lest, except, provided;
but these conjunctions, or at least a part of them, may
be used with the indicative form. For a verb to be in
the subjunctive mode, the essential thing is that it
express doubt, or a future contingency or condition.
Errors in the Use of Modes.
We shall be disgusted if he gives [give] us too much. — Blair,
If thou findeat [find] any kernelwort in the marshy meadow,
bring it me. — Neefs Methods of Teaching,
What is it to thee, if he neglect thy urn,
Or without spices lets [let] thy body burn? — Dryden,
7
98 GOOD ESGLISH.
A certain lady whom I could name if it was [were] necessary.
— Spectator.
Human works are of no significancy till they be [are] com-
pleted. — Karnes,
Though perspicuity be [is] more properly a rhetorical than a
grammatical quality, I thought it better to include it in this
book. — Cumpbelfs Rhetoric,
Although the efficient cause be [is] obscure, the final cause
of those sensations lies open. — Blair,
Our disgust lessens gradually till it vanish [vanishes] alto-
gether. — Karnes : Elements of Criticism,
It ought to weigh heavily on a man's conscience if he have
[has] been the cause of another's deviating from sincerity. —
W, J. Fox : Works,
Enough has been done, I trust, to satisfy them that if Keble
was a scholar, a divine, a remarkably gifted poet, if he were
[was] exemplary as a friend, a brother, son, and husband, so he
was admirable in the discharge of his duties as a parish priest.
Sir J, T, Coleridge.
If the cavern into which they entered were [was] of artificial
construction, considerable pains had been taken to make it look
natural. — W. Black,
If I am [be] in the City at that time, I will do all I can to
prevent the desecration of the Sabbath. — Newspaper,
TENSE.
Tense is said to denote the time of an action or event.
The indicative mode has six tenses : three absolute, — the
Present, the Past, and the Future; and three relative, —
the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Per-
fect.
The indicative mode is the only one in which the
tenses indicate time accurately.
The Present and the Present Perfect tense both refer
to present time. The former represents an act as taking
place at the present time ; as, " I write," while the Pres-
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 99
ent Perfect represents an act as completed during present
time ; as, " I have written to-day." The present perfect
tense of the indicative mode has for its sign the word
have; as, "have sung;" "have seen."
The Present Tense, in addition to denoting present
time, may express a general truth; as, "Cold freezes
water."
It may also express a habit or a custom; as, "The
boy is diligent;" "We think constantly."
It may also represent the past or the future as pres-
ent; as, "Columbus crosses the ocean and discovers a
new world ;" " I see the era of prosperity as it dawns
upon us."
The Past Tense denotes ivhat took place in past time ;
as, " We sang;" " We were singing."
It also expresses what was customary; as, "They
always were very agreeable."
The Past Perfect Tense denotes an action or an event
as complete before some past time; as, "The meeting
had convened before we arrived;" that is, we arrived
in past time, but the convening of the meeting, also
in past time, had taken place before our arrival.
The sign of the past perfect tense in the indicative
mode is had; as, "had gone;" "had sung."
The Future Tense denotes future time ; as, " We shall
come;" "They will pay us a visit."
The sign of the future tense is shaJJ, or wiU,
In promises, toUl is used in the first person, and shall
in the second and the third ; as, " I will go ;" " He shall
go."
To denote futurity or prediction, shall is used in the
first person, and mil in the second and the third; as,
" We shall be there ;" " Will vou be there ?"
The Future Perfect Tense denotes an act completed
100 GOOD ENGLISH.
before some future time; as, "The train will have gone
before we reach the station ;" that is, we shall reach the
station in future time, but the going of the train will be
an act completed before our reaching the stjition.
The sign of the future perfect tense is wiR have or shall
have. Thus, " The snow will have melted before spring
comes ;" ** We shall have completed the work before the
close of the week."
There are many errors made in connection with the
past perfect and the future perfect tense, especially in
ordinary conversation.
Goold Brown gives the following sentence from Blair
as an impropriety for correction : " I had written before
I received his letter." The sentence is correct.
Errors in the Use of Tenses.
It was observed by Newton that the diamond possessed [pos-
sesses] a very high refractive power compared with its density.
— Haven.
It always was [has been] my opinion that we would succeed
finally. — Newspaper.
As we remember to have heard an acute and learned judge
profess his ignorance of what an articulator was [is], we may
explain, etc. — Westminster Review.
He insisted that the Constitution was [is] certain and fixed,
and contained [contains] the permanent will of the people, and
wa>s [is] the supreme law, and could [can] be revoked only by
the authority that ma^e it. — Kent.
It was [is] a pity I was the only child ; for my mother had
fondness of heart enough to have spoiled a dozen. — Irving,
Arts were [had been] of late introduced among them. —
Blair.
The wittiness of the passage was [had been] already illus-
trated. — CamphelVs Rhetoric.
They have done [did] anciently a great deal of hxui.-^Boling'
broke.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 101
I observed that love constituted [constitutes] the whole moral
character of God. — Dwight.
Two young gentlemen, who have made a discovery that there
was [is] no God. — Swift,
Syntax op Verbs.
A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and
person.
Though the pronouns we and you are frequently used
to represent a single person, the verbs used with them
must agree with them in the plural form.
When it^ used indefinitely, is the subject of a sentence,
the verb agrees with it in the third person, singular num-
ber, but the verb may be followed by a nominative dif-
fering from the subject in either person or number, or
both ; as, " It was either you or they that called to me."
When the subject of a sentence is a phrase or a clause,
the verb agrees with it in the third person, singular num-
ber; as, "To know great and good men is a pleasure."
The finite verb never agrees with a noun in the first
or the second person, but with a pronoun representing
it. Thus, " I, James Smith, do hereby depose ;" " Boys,
you deserve much praise."
The number of a verb fiaving for its subject a noun
whose form is the same in both numbers, is determined
by the meaning of the sentence. Thus, " A sheep was
sold;" "Some sheep were sold."
When a verb has several subjects of different persons,
it agrees with the first person rather than the second,
and with the second rather than the third. Thus, "You
and I will go ;" " He and you came ;" " He and I will
go."
When two or more subjects in the singular number,
connected by and^ follow the verb, it is sometimes used
JO-
mil
ENGLISH GJiAMMAR 103
The House of Commons were [was] of small Weight. — Hunt,
m
Small as the number of inhabitants are [is], yet their poverty
is extreme. — Payne's Geology.
The number of school districts have [has] increased during
the year. — School Report.
In France the peasantry goes [go] barefoot, and the middle
sort makes [make] use of wooden shoes. — Harvey.
Above [?more than] one-half of them was [were] cut off
before the return of spring. — Robertson's America,
Subject® Connected by And or As well as. — A verb
having two or more subjects denoting different persons
or things taken together, agrees with them in the plural
number ; as, ** Father and mother ^re here."
A verb having two or more singular subjects connected
by and^ but referring to the same person or thing, is in
the singular number. Thus, "The great orator and
statesman, Webster, was a senator."
When two or more subjects in the singular number
are preceded by each^ every ^ or no^ the verb agrees with
them in the singular number. Thus, "Every man,
woman, and child was attentive."
When two subjects in the singular number, connected
by and^ are emphatically distinguished, they belong to
different propositions, and the verb expressed agrees
with the first only, the predicate of the second being
understood. Thus, "Their pleasure, and not the wel-
fare of the people, was their chief consideration."
When the verb separates the subjects, it agrees with
that which precedes it ; as, " Thy beauty walks, thy ten-
derness and love."
When two subjects are connected by and^ one of which
is affirmative and the other negative, they belong to dif-
ferent propositions, and the verb agrees with the affirm-
ative subject, and is understood with the other. Thus,
98 GOOD ENGLISH.
A certain lady whom I could name if it was [were] necessary.
— Spectator,
Human works are of no significancy till they he [are] com-
pleted. — Karnes,
Though perspicuity be [is] more properly a rhetorical than a
grammatical quality, I thought it hetter to include it in this
hook. — CampbelVs Rhetoric.
Although the eflScient cause be [is] obscure, the final cause
of those sensations lies open. — Blair,
Our disgust lessens gradually till it vanish [vanishes] alto-
gether. — Karnes : Elements of Criticism,
It ought to weigh heavily on a man's conscience if he have
[has] been the cause of another's deviating from sincerity. —
W, J, Fox : Works,
Enough has been done, I trust, to satisfy them that if Keble
was a scholar, a divine, a remarkably gifted poet, if he were
[was] exemplary as a friend, a brother, son, and husband, so he
was admirable in the discharge of his duties as a parish priest.
— Sir J, T, Coleridge,
If the cavern into which they entered were [was] of artificial
construction, considerable pains had been taken to make it look
natural. — W. Black,
If I am [be] in the City at that time, I will do all I can to
prevent the desecration of the Sabbath. — Newspaper,
TENSE.
Tense is said to denote the time of an action or event.
The indicative mode has six tenses : three absolute, — the
Present, the Past, and the Future; and three relative, —
the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Per-
fect,
The indicative mode is the only one in which the
tenses indicate time accurately.
The Present and the Present Perfect tense both refer
to present time. The former represents an act as taking
place at the present time j as, " I write," while the Pres-
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 105
Consequently, wherever space and time is [are] found, there
God must also be. — Sir Isaac Newton,
For where does [do] beauty, and high wit
But in yon constellation meet? — Butler^ s Hudihras,
Thence to the land where flows [flow] Ganges and Indus. —
Milton.
High rides the sun, thick rolls the dust,
And feebler speeds [speed] the blow and thrust. — Sir W, Scott
By which an oath and (a) penalty was [were] to be imposed
upon the members. — Junius,
There is [are] also the fear and (the) apprehension of it. —
Butler^s Analogy,
Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear
Compels [compel] me to disturb your seasons due.
— Milton^ s Lycidas,
But it, as well as the lines immediately subsequent, defy
[defies] all translation. — Coleridge.
But their religion, as well as their customs and manners, were
[was] strangely misapprehended. — Bolinghroke,
But his jealous policy, as well as the fatal antipathy of Fon-
seca, were [was] conspicuous. — Robertson^s America,
By that time every window and every door on the street were
[was] full of heads. — Newspaper,
Subjects Connected by Or or Nor. — When two or
more subjects in the singular number are connected by
or or nor^ the verb agrees with them in the singular.
Thus, "Neither parent nor child. was saved."
When one of the subjects connected by or or nor is in
the plural number, it is placed nearest the verb, and the
ferb is made plural. Thus, "Neither the teacher nor
the pupils were present."
When the verb has two or more subjects of different
persons, connected by or or nor^ it agrees in person with
the one nearest to it. Thus, " Neither he nor I am will-
ing;" " Neither Henry nor you are ready."
106 GOOD ESGLISH.
Errors in the Use of Verbs.
No monstrous height, or length, or breadth appear [appears],
— P0})f.
Nor want nor cold his course delay [delays]. — Johnson.
Neither the intellect nor the heart are [is] capable of being
driven. — Abbott.
Nor he nor I are [am] capable of harboring a thought against
your peace. — Walpole,
By which he, or his deputy, were [was] authorized to cut down
any trees in Whittlebury forest. — Junius.
A lucky anecdote, or an enlivening talk, relieve [relieves] the
folio page. — fgaac Disraeli.
Yet sometimes we have seen that wine, or chance, have [has]
warmed cold brains. — Dryden.
A rusty nail, or a crooked pin, shoot [shoots] up into prodi-
gies (?a prodigy). — Spectator.
Neither history nor tradition furnish [furnishes] such infor-
mation. — Robertson.
Praise from a friend or censure from a foe.
Are [is] lost on hearers that our merits know. — Pope.
Neither Charles nor his brother were [was] qualified to sup-
port such a system. — Junivs.
When, therefore, neither the liveliness of representation, nor
the warmth of passion, serve [serves], as it were, to cover the
trespass, it is not safe to leave the beaten track. — CampbelPs
Hhetoric.
Neither the general situation of our colonies, nor that partic-
ular distress which forced the inhabitants of Boston to take up
arms, have [has] been thought worthy of a moment's considera-
tion. — Junius. ^
Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know
some man or woman who carry [carries] this atmosphere of
peace and good will about them [?]. — Kingsley.
No action or institution can be salutary and stable which are
[is] not based on reason and the will of God. — Matthew Arnold.
Neither his conduct nor his language have [has] left me with
that impression.— Zorc? Houghton.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 107
The excommunication" of the Stock Exchange is far more
terrible than the interdict of the Pope or the ban of Empire
ever were [was]. — /Vo/". Rogers,
. The Subject, with Modifiers. — A modifier of the sub-
ject of a sentence does not afi*ect the form of the verb.
Thus, "The number of visitors increases daily;" "Three
months' interest is due."
When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb takes
its number from the antecedent. Thus, *' The new audi-
torium is one of the finest buildings that ever hxive been
erected in the City."
Errors in the Use of Verbs.
The ninth book of Livy affords one of the most beautiful ex-
emplifications of historical painting that is [are] anywhere to
be met with. — Blair,
The idea of such a collection of men as make [makes] an
army. — Locke,
How beauty is excelled by manly grace
And wisdom, which alone is [are] truly fair. — Millon,
What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown,
While others sleep, thus range [rangestj the camp alone?
— Pope,
The rapidity of his movements were [was] beyond example. —
Wells^ History,
The mechanism of clocks and watches were [was] totally
unknown. — Hume,
And each of these afford [affords] employment. — PercivaPs
Tales,
The judicial power of these courts extend [extends] to all
cases in law and equity. — School History,
This is one of the very best treatises on money and coins that
has [have] ever been published. — J. R. McOullough,
I confess that I am one who am [is] unable to refuse my [his]
assent to the conclusions of those philosophers who assert that
nothing exists as it is perceived. — P. B. Shelley,
108 GOOD EXGLISff,
Canlinal Wiseman has taken advantage of the attack to put
forth one of the most brilliant appeals that has [have] appeared
in my time; — Miss Mitford: Yesterdays with Authors,
Whenever Don Guzman replied with one of those smiles of
his, which (as Ay mas said afterward) wcu [were] so abominably
like a sneer, that he had often hard work to keep his hands off
the man. — Kingsley,
Nominatives to be Expreeeed. — Every finite verb
not in the imperative mode should have a separate
nominative expressed except when the verb is repeated
for the sake of emphasis, or is connected with another
verb in the same construction, or is put after bat or than.
Subjects Improperly Omitted.
There is no man (who) would be more welcome. — Steele,
Tliere is no man (who) doth a wrong for wrong's sake. — Lord
Bacon,
The web of the natural and (that of) the supernatural are so
woven together in the soul that they cannot be untied. — John
Duncan, LL.D.
Who is here so base that (he) would be a bondsman. — Beau-
ties of Shakespeare,
Mr. Prince has a genius (that) would prompt him to better
things. — Spectator,
Between an antecedent and a consequent, or what goes before,
and (what) immediately follows. — Blair's Rhetoric,
All the various miseries of life, which people bring upon
themselves by negligence and folly, and (which) might have
been avoided by proper care, are instances of this. — Butler^s
Analogy,
Will martial flames forever fire thy mind.
And (thou) never, never to Heaven be resigned? — Pope,
Discrepant Subjects. — Sometimes in compound sen-
tences a single predicate is used in connection with two
or more subjects; as, "Not a dram was heard nor a
funeral note,'*'^
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ] 109
This construction is admissible only where the sub-
jects are in the same number, otherwise the rule for the
agreement of a verb with its subject is violated, as in the
following : " They are easily avoided, and their existence
( ) forgotten."
Verbs Improperly Omitted.
The civil government was then very submissive, and heretics
( ) almost unknown. — Lecky,
His beard was white, his face ( ) pale and melancholy, his
eyes ( ) lustrous, — Miss M, B, Edwards.
His diet was abstemious, bis prayers ( ) long and fervent,
and the alms which he received with one hand he distributed
with the other. — Gibbon,
The evening was made pleasant with sacred music, and the
fatigues of two long services ( ) repaired by simple refections.
— Holmes,
Massinger is a decided Whig ; Beaumont and Fletcher ( )
high-flying, passive-obedience Tories. — Leslie Stephen,
He belongs to one caste, and the hewers of wood and drawers
of water ( ) to another. — W. J, Fox,
The oddity has become always odder, the paradoxes ( ) still
more paradoxical. — Lowell,
His brow was wrinkled, his lips ( ) compressed, his eyes ( )
full of a terribly strong calm. — Kingsley,
Still was her inward structure unchanged, her essential duties
were unvaried, her course ( ) pursued with equal success. — Car-
dinal Wiseman,
At present all contributions of facts are to be welcomed, all
hasty theorizing (is to be) encouraged. — Spectator,
They were spreading his reputation, and every day ( ) bring-
ing new friends. — J. T, McClennan, in Memoirs of Thomas Drum-
tnond.
Not only was the watch discovered, but duplicates ( ) [also]
found. — Ih-aifs of Charact^,
Public opinion is a reality as solid to him as the globe, its
phenomena ( ) as influential as sunshine and darkness. — W,
E. Alger.
110 GOOD ENGLISH.
But the young doctor came, and the old doctor came, and the
infantji were laid in cotton-wool, and the room ( ) heated up
to keep them warm, and bay-teaspoonfuls of milk ( ) given
them . — Holmes,
These tracts were always kept lighted, and the expense
thereof ( ) defrayed by a special tax. — The Cdming JRace.
The offenses against morality are condoned too easily,- and
the line between vice and virtue ( ) drawn in accordance with
certain distinctions which even Parson Adams could scarcely
have approved. — Leslie Stephen, «
The Subject Limited by Ac^'ectives. — When a sub-
ject is limited by two or more adjectives, it is in the
plural if each adjective is preceded by an article, but in
the singular if there is but one article used. Thus,
**The logical and the historical analysis coincided
(There are two analyses.) "The figurative or meta-
phorical expression has a different meaning from the
literal." Figvrative and metaphorical take but one article
because they limit a noun in the singular, which in turn
takes a verb in the singular as its predicate.
Errors in the Number of the Predicate Verb.
The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and ambi-
tious are [is] admirably drawn. — Spectator,
The material and (the) mental world have their points of
union, blending them together. — W. J. Fox,
Note. — Dr. Hodgson would have this read " The ma-
terial and the mental worlds have," etc. This would
mean "The material worlds and the mental worlds,"
w^hich is incorrect. The word loorld is understood after
the word material in the expression, but the article the
should precede mental, to show that two worlds are
meant.
The expression " Vocal and instrumental music now
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 111
invariably form a considerable part of the programme,"
which Dr. Hodgson condemns, is correct as it stands.
So, also, in the following the verb is correct: "But
with Socrates moral and intellectual excellence were in-
separable, and as he could discover no security for con-
duct but knowledge, so he could find, in the first instance
at least, no other subject for knowledge but [than] hu-
man conduct." — Saturday Review,
The following sentences, given by Dr. Hodgson in
Errors in the Use of English, as illustrations of the incor-
rect use of the verb, are correct, except where noted by
the marks of parenthesis:
Bodily and intellectual labor were paid at the same rate of
wages. — M, D. Conway,
Sacred and profane wisdom agree in declaring that "pride
goeth before a fall." — Spedaior,
Those most important and complex changes which political
and social science have brought about. — Sir H, Holland,
To be worth anything, literary and scientific criticism require,
both of them, the finest heads and tlffe most sure [surest] tact. —
Matthew Arnold,
It is not only possible, but (also) probable, that lay and cler-
ical opinion are at variance. — Manchester Examiner,
It is true that the Scotch and (the) English patronage are
two different things. — Spectator,
In each of the six foregoing sentences a noun is under-
stood after the first of each pair of adjectives.
Distributive Pronouns as Subjects. — The distribu-
tive adjective pronouns, each^ either^ neither^ when used
as subjects, require verbs and pronouns in the singular
number ; as, " Each of the boys has done his duty."
Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives as Subjects. — Of
the indefinite pronominal adjectives, when used as pro-
nouns, some and all are used in the plural ; one^ other , and
112 GOOD ENGLISH,
another, in the singular ; and any and none in either the
singular or the plural, according to the sense implied in
the sentence.
Errors in the Use of Verbs having Adjective Prononns as
Subjects.
It is true that not one of the bright particular stars of Polish
history were [was] of that line or age. — Saturday Review,
While either of these are [is] hungry,
Nor poppy, nor mandragora,
Nor all the drowsy syrups of the East
Will ever medicine them [him] to slumber. — Fielding.
Neither of these boys were [was] so remarkable for their [his]
talents as for (the) thoroughness of their [his] work. — Rev, G,
Butler,
In this composition neither of the arms cro88 [crosses] the
body. — Lady Eastlake,
Neither of us deny [denies] that Homer and Virgil have great
beauties. — Blair,
But neither of these circumstances are [is] intended here. —
Horne Tooke,
And yet neither of them express [expresses] any more action
in this case than they [he] did in the other. — Bullions.
Each in their [his] turn like Banquo's monarchs«to/^ [stalks].
— Byron,
"Mind," says one, "soul," says another, "brain or matter,"
says a third ; but none of these are [is] right. — C, Bray: Illu-
sion and Delusion:
Relative Pronouns as Subjects. — Frequent errors
occur in the putting of a relative pronoun in the object-
ive case where it is used as the subject of a verb. Thus,
" I saw the boy whom [who] we thought had gone."
Errors in the Use of Eelative Pronouns as Subjects and
Predicate Nominatives.
Nina was annoyed by the presence of Mr. Jekyl, whom [who]
her brothers insisted should remain to dinner. — Mrs, H, B, Stowe,
ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 113
Those two, no matter who spoke, or whom [who] was ad-
dressed, looked at each other. — Dickens,
I offer a prize of six pairs [pair] of gloves to whomsoever
[whosoever] will tell me what idea in this second part is mine.
— Dickens,
The face of the good Samaritan was written on the face of
whomsover [whosoever] opens to the stranger. — Miss Alcott,
Why should I be told to serve Him if I do not know Whom
[who] it is I serve? — Florence Nightingale,
Pray, remain single and marry nobody, let him be whom
[who] he may. — Sidney Smith,
Milton, in his " Iconoclastes," insolently wrote, " I shall not
instance an abstruse author, wherein the king might be less
conversant, but one whom [who] we well know was the closest
companion of these solitudes, William Shakespeare." — /. Dis-
raeli,
Friday, whom [who] he thinks would be better than a dog,
and almost as good as a pony. — National Beview,
I was assured that if taken up by English capitalists, whom
[who] they seemed very anxious should buy and work them,
the mines would be found highly remunerative. — King: Fen-
nine Alps,
Eelative Pronouns to be Eepeated.— In contracted
sentences, when the case or the government is changed,
the relative should be repeated. Thus, " The upper part
of the house, of which I know nothing and have never
seen," should read "which I have never seen."
Eelative Pronoims Improperly Omitted.
The domain of the husband to whom she felt that she had
sold herself, and (by whom she) had been paid the strict price —
nay, paid more than she had dared to ask. — George Eliot, in
Daniel Deronda,
Originality in politics, as in every field of art, consists in the
use and application of the ideas which we get or (which) are
given to us. — Justin McCarthy,
8
114 GOOD ENGLISH.
It is a persuasion which we all smile at in one another, and
(which) we all justify in ourselves. — Miss Martineau.
A man could not sustain such a position ; it represents a mo^
raentary action, which the sculptor must have often seen, and
(which) is perfectly true to nature. — Lcult/ Eastlahe,
One of the last of his parliamentary speeches was delivered
in defense of Warren Hastings, with whom he was on terms of
intimate friendship, and (whom he) regarded as a consummate
statesman, and the savior of India. — W, F. Eae, in John WUkes,
While at Brussels he fought a duel by moonlight with a Span-
iard with whom he had been gambling, and (whom he) suspected
of cheating him. — Lady Jackson, in Old Paris,
Agreement in Tense. — Verbs connected by and, nor,
than, etc., and referring to acts occurring at the same
time, must agree in tense.
A proper succession of tenses should be observed
where one verb depends on another.
*
Srron in the Use of Teiues.
It would doubtless have exhibited itself quietly enough if it
were [had been] absolutely undiluted. — Justin McCarthy,
If with equal force of character his intellectual power had
been less, we should feel [should have felt] the shock without
the mysterious attraction. — Leslie Stephen,
Very amusing and useful companions Dharma would have
found them, were it not [had it not been] for her longing after
the woods and sea-breezes of Cliffdale. — Dharma, vol. iii., p.
290.
We can conceive no argument more utterly baseless than
that which assumes (thai) he would have accomplished all he
has done, and a great deal more, if a different principle of
action were [had been] substituted for that which, as yet, has
always been the main-spring of his movements. — Quarterly
Hevieto,
It is entirely reasonable to doubt that were [had] temporal
aid and support also (been) offered, they would likewise have
been at once thankfully received. — Bev, W. Mcllwaine,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115
Ellipsis of the Principal Verb. — In subordinate
clauses, in contracted sentences, and in answers, the
auxiliaries do, have, may, can, shall, and uoill, 'sometimes
admit of an ellipsis of the principal verb ; as, " He never
did like the work and he never will."
An ellipsis of this kind is permissible only when the
form of the verb in one clause is such that it can be
repeated without change in the other. Thus, " I have
not spoken, and I cannot (spoken) " is neither correct
nor justifiable.
Improper Omission of Verbs.
I am anxious for the time when he will talk as much non-
sense to me as I have (talked) to him. — W. &\ Landor,
Some part of this exemption and liability may (be) and no
doubt is due to mental or physical causes in the unhappy or
(in the) fortunate individual. — Spectator,
Shelley, like Byron, knew early what it was [is] to love ; al-
most all the great poets have (known). — Memoirs of Shelley,
She could meet no one among the lanes and (the) cornfields
who could claim her as had those odious relations [relatives] of
hers (claimed her). — Mrs, Linton, in Sowing the Wind,
But the problem is one which no research has hitherto solved,
and probably never will (solve). — Sir H, Holland,
No introduction has (authorized), nor in all probability ever
will authorize, that which common thinkers would call a lib-
erty. — P, B, Shelley,
He ridicules the notion that truth will prevail ; it never has
(prevailed) and it never will (prevail). — Leslie Stephen,
I never have (attacked) and (I) never will attack a man for
speculative opinion. — H, T. Buckle,
Di^oined Subjects. — When a subject in the singular
number is connected with another noun or pronoun by
with instead of and, the verb should have the singular
form. Thus, " The house and its contents were burned,"
but " The house, with its contents, was burned."
116 GOOD ENGLISH.
Wliere plurality is signified, as "the house and the
barn," it is better to use and rather than with,
Errors in the Use of Verbs with Disjoined Sabjects.
My sympathy with him in this ill-usage, along with my ad-
miration for his fortitude and generosity, were [was] the begin-
ning of the great affection that I afterward had for him. — Hope:
Stories of Ideal Life,
Poor Mrs. B's crippled baby, with all his many other failures,
were [was] at once forgotten by his patience. — John Hollings-
head, in Ways of Life.
The amount of discussion which finds utterance in the poem,
equally with the valuable analysis of mental phenomena, are
[is] nothing less than startling. — H B. Forman,
The electric light, with powerful reflectors, are [is] the means
to be employed. — Newspaper,
When Leonidas, the Spartan king, with [and] his chosen
band fighting for their country, were cut off to the last man. —
Karries' Elements of Oriticisrn,
And a considerable village, with gardens, fields, etc., extend
[extends] around on each side of the square. — Liberator,
The spacious firmament on high.
With all the blue ethereal sky,
And spangled heavens, a shining frame,
Their great Original proclaim [proclaims]. — Addison,
The side AB, with the side BC, form [forms] a right angle.
— Geometry,
The bag, with the money and the checks in it, were [was]
stolen . — Newspaper,
The King, with [and] the Lords and (the) Commons, consti-
tute an excellent form of government. — Orombie^s Treatise,
The .Concord of "There." — Either a singular or a
plural verb may follow there introducing a sentence,
according to the number of the noun used as the sub-
ject of the sentence.
Dr. Abbott cites thirty-two passages from Shakespeare
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 117
in which " There is," " There was," etc., singular forms,
are followed by plural subjects, or two or more singular
subjects. But this is not in accordance with good usage,
nor should this bad example be imitated.
Errors in the Concord of There.
On the table there was [were] neatly and handily arranged
two long pipes. — James Greenwood, in Unsentimental JouV'
neys.
There exists [exist] sometimes only in germ and potentiality,
sometimes more or less developed, the same tendencies and pas-
sions which [that] have made our fellow-citizens of other classes
what thev are. — Matthew Arnold,
There is [are] such malice, treachery, and dissimulation, even
among professed friends and intimate companions, as cannot
fail to strike a virtuous mind with horror. — Smollett,
Although. the market traffic had not yet commenced, there
was [were] considerable noise and confusion, — James Green-
wood,
There was [were] the buoyancy of spirit, the undoubting con-
fidence, that the riddle of the universe had at last been satis-
factorily solved, and the power of seizing the picturesque and
striking aspects of things, and embodying abstract theories in
vivid symbols, which marks [mark] the second order of intel-
lects. — Leslie Stephen,
There was [were] about her the brilliancy of courts and pal-
aces, the enchantment of a love-story, the suffering of a victim
of despotic power. — Madame Bonaparte,
Surely there is [are] both grandeur and eloquence in his '
apostrophe to the atheists whom [who] he knew abounded in
Louis XIV.*s Court, and whom he warned that their eternity
was an inevitable fact. — Bossriet and his Gompanions,
Error of Proximity. — Frequently the subject of a
sentence is obscured by the intervention of two or more
prepositional phrases or dependent clauses between the
subject and the verb agreeing with it.
118 GOOD ENGLISH.
Errors of Prozmity.
I have no feeling connected with my general recollection of
them, but those to which the combination of good sense, wit,
and genius naturally giv€ [gives] rise. — Sydney Smith,
A moral and honorable mode of action and thought are [is]
enforced as a duty. — Mayhew : German Life.
If a man's conscience is either crotchety, superstitious, or
cowardly, this is positive proof that the man himself must
have been either felse, idle, or cowardly in his thoughts, and
some degree of disappointment and contempt are [is] the appro-
priate punishments [punishment] for these offenses. — Saturday
Review.
The game was played out, and the end wa>s come [had come],
as the end of such matters generally eom^ [comes], by gradual
decay, petty disaster, and mistakes. — Kingsley.
A sojourn of five years in the military hospitals, camps, and
towns of Algeria have [has] originated and strengthened these
opinions. — Miss M. B. Edwards.
Culture points out that the harmonious perfection of genera-
tions of Puritans and Nonconformists have [has] been in conse-
quence sacrificed. — M. Arnold.
The introduction of such beverages as tea and coffee have [has]
not been without their [its] effects. — Westminster Review.
On the tenant [tenant's] being ejected, the unexhausted valv^
of the unpaid manures go [goes] to the landlord. — Scotch Agri-
cultural Report.
M. Guizot's republication of some of his more important
political essays, written at intervals during a period of fifty
years, are [is] interesting at the present time. — Westminster
Review.
The opposition of interests which we have spoken of refer
[refers] only to variations in the relative magnitude of those
portions or shares into which wealth is distributed. — Fawcett:
Manual of Political Economy.
As has been stated already, the severity of the symptoms were
[was] no criterion of the severity of the disease. — A. Griffiths :
Memorial of Millbank.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 119
The translation of specimens of the " Kecent French Poets,"
by Arthur O'Shaughnessy, are [has been] very brightly done. —
. Guardian.
The inferior number of red particles in their blood do [does]
not make women the political inferiors of men. — Prof, T, C,
Leslie,
Nothing but dreary dikes, muddy and straight, guarded by
the ghosts of suicidal pollards, and by rows of dreary and des-
olate mills, occur [occurs] to break the blank gray monotony of
the landscape. — F, W, Farrar : St, Winifred,
"Than" as a Connective. — Than, as a conjunction,
is used to connect sentences ; as, " He is older than I "
(am old). Dr. Hodgson and some others take the
ground that than must connect like cases, nominative
with nominative, and objective with objective. Thus,
they would condemn the following sentence from Kings-
ley's Westward Ho : " Think not of me, good fellows, nor
talk of me; but come behind me decently, as Christian
men, and follow to the grave the body of a better than
I " and change the / to me, on the ground that the con-
junction connects the noun man in the objective with
the pronoun /, which they claim should also be in the
objective case.
The conjunction than connects sentences here as else-
where, and the sentence means, " Follow to the grave a
better man than I " (am good), and it is correct as writ-
ten by Mr. Kingsley.
So also the following from Dickens, which Dr. Hodg-
son condemns, is correct: "The smooth manner of the
spy, cautiously in dissonance with his ostentatiously-
rough dress, and probably with his usual demeanor,
received such a check from the inscrutability of Carton,
who was a mystery to wiser and honester men than Ae,
that it faltered here, and failed him."
120 GOOD ENGLISH,
Errors in Case with "Than** as a Connective.
I'll tell you what, brother Frank, you are a great deal wiser
than me [I], I know, but I can't abide to see you turn up your
nose, as it were, at God's good earth. — Kingsley.
He must be a wiser man than me [1] who can tell what ad-
vantage or satisfaction he derives from having brought such a
nest of hornets about his ears. — Smollett.
Infinitives.
A verb in the infinitive mode is not limited by person
or number.
It may be used as a noun in either the nominative or
the objective case.
It may be used also as a modifier of any part of
speech except an article, a preposition, a conjunction,
or an interjection.
When the infinitive is used as a noun, it may still be
modified as a verb.
The verb in the infinitive mode is sometimes used
independently; as, "To confess the truth, I forgot the
date."
The infinitive of an intransitive verb, or of a transi-
tive verb in the passive voice, may be followed by a
noun or a pronoun used independently; as, " To become
a successful man requires industry."
The infinitive after a word of command is usually
preceded by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case ;
as, "We ordered him to come," the whole expression
being the object of the finite verb ordered.
The sign to must not be separated from the remaining
part of the infinitive by an intervening word. Thus,
"He tried finally to pay," not "He tried to finally
pay."
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 121
After the active voice of the verbs hid (to command),
see, feel, hear, let, make, dare (to venture), and verbs of
similar meaning, as watch, behold, etc., the sign to of the
infinitive is omitted ; as, " See him go ;" ** Let us play."
The sign to is occasionally used after a few of the
foregoing words when they are emphatic; as, "Barest
thou to beard the lion in his den?"
The infinitive sign io should never be used for the full
form. Thus, " I did not go because I did not want to,"
should be " I did not go because I did not want to go."
When the action, being, or state, expressed by the
infinitive, is present or future as compared with that
expressed by the verb which it limits, the present tense
of the infinitive is used. Thus, " I expected to come ;"
that is, I expected at that time to come then or in the
future.
When the action, being, or state, expressed by the
infinitive, is past as compared with that expressed by
the verb which it limits, the present perfect tense of the
infinitive is used. Thus, " Caesar seems (present time)
to have been (past time) ambitious."
Verbs expressing hope, intention, desire, command, or
expectation, are followed by the present tense of the
infinitive.
Errors in the Use of the Infinitive.
There are several faults which I intended to have mentioned
[to mention]. — Webster,
They hoped to have met [to meet] each other. — Newspaper,
So as neither to embarrass nor (to) weaken each other. —
Blair,
Their character is found and made (to) appear. — Butler's
Analogy,
He wanted to go, but he had no opportunity to (go). — NewS'
paper.
122 GOOD ENGLISH.
He was made (to) believe that neither the king's death nor
(his) imprisonment would help him. — Sheffield's Works,
He can show his moral courage only by daring (to) do right.
— Goold Brotcn,
The bulls of Guisando are two vast statues remaining in that
town ever since the time of the Romans, supposed to be [to have
been] set up by Metellus. — LockharVs Don Quixote,
We ought not to try and [to] define God. — Taine,
They would not say that the facts stated in the indictment
would have been fully sufficient to have warranted [to warrant]
the judge to have directed [to direct], and the jury to have given
[to give], a general verdict. — Lord Erskine,
(Better, " Fully sufficient to warrant the judge in directing
the jury to give," etc.)
I found him better than I expected to have found [to find]
hi m . — Priestley* s Grammar,
I meant, when I first came, to have bought [to buy] it. — Sydney
Smith,
It has been my intention to have collected [to collect] the rem-
nants of Keats' compositions. — Shelley,
I intended to have insisted [to insist] on this sympathy at
greater length. — RnsHn,
Friendships which we once hoped and believed would never
have grown [grow] cold. — F, W, Farrar : Julian Home,
Could I have chosen my own period of the world to have lived
[to live] in, and my own type of life, it should be [would have
been] the feudal age, and the life of the Cid, the redresser of
wrongs. — Rev, F, W. Robertson,
I had hoped never to have seen [to see] the statues again when
I missed them on the bridge. — Maeaulay,
He paid me many compliments upon my sermon against bad
husbands, so that it is clear he intended to have made [to make]
a very good one. — Sydney Smith,
We should have thought that the Bishop might have been
contented to have pointed [to point] out that to nations, as to
individuals, selfishness is its own worst punishment. — Spectaiar.
We happened to have been [to be] present on the occasion. —
May hew : German Life,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 123
We would have liked to have read [to read] it to Isola ; it
would have been pleasant to have heard [to hear] his own voice
giving due emphasis to the big words. — Mrs, Lynn Linton:
Sowing the Wind,
If he had lived longer, it would have been difficult for him to
have kept [to keep] the station to which he had risen. — H. L,
Bulwer, in Historical Characters,
That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards
in order to rightly correct [rightly to correct] them. — Herbert
Spencer,
I wish the reader to clearly understand [to understand clearly].
— RusH?i, '
Transactions which seem to be most widely separated [to be
separated most widely] from one another. — Dr, Blair,
The ladies seem to have been expressly created [to have been
created expressly] to form helps meet for such gentlemen. —
Macaulay,
The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed to be
considerably damped [to be damped considerably] by their con-
tinued success. — Scott,
That virtue which requires to be ever guarded [to be guarded
ever] is scarcely worth the sentinel. — Goldsmith,
In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in mul-
titude, is to be very cautiously guarded [to be guarded very cau-
tiously] . — Burke,
Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning
to be strongly tinctured [to be tinctured strongly] with austerity.
— Macaulay,
Participles.
A Participle partakes of the nature of a verb and of
an adjective.
When a participle is used as a noun it may be in
either the nominative or the objective case, and be mod-
ified in all respects like a verb.
A participle used as a noun may be limited by a pos-
sessive; as, "i/i/ staying did not interfere with their lULn-
ning,^^
124 GOOD ENGLISH.
A participle may be followed by a noun or a pronoun
used independently ; as, " My being a minister gained me
ready entrance."
The perfect participle, and not the past tense, is used
with the auxiliaries have and he in the different modes
and tenses. Thus, "We had gone;" "We have writ-
ten;" "They have been singing."
The past tense, and not the participle, should be
used to express past time. Thus, "We went;" "We
wrote."
When the participle is preceded by the^ and generally
when it is preceded by an adjective, it is followed by of;
as, " The curbing of the temper is necessary."
The placing of a participial phrase should be such as
to make clear the meaning of the sentence in which it is
found.
A participle should not be used when the infinitive
mode, a common noun, or a phrase equivalent, will
better express the meaning. Thus, "The planting of
a tree is evidence of a love of beauty," is better than
"Planting a tree is evidence," etc.
Errors in the Use of Participles.
In the choice they had made of him, for (the) restoring of
order. — Rollings History.
In (the) punishing of this we overthrow
The laws of nations and of nature too. — Dryden,
It is the giving (of) different names of the same object. —
Karnes,
The keeping (of) juries without meat, drink, or fire, can be
accounted for only on the same idea. — Wehsier^s Essays,
And yet the confining (of) themselves to this true principle
has misled them. — Home Tooke.
Which require only the doing (of) an external action. — But-
ler* s Analogy,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 125
Miraculous curing (of) the sick is discontinued. — Barclay^ b
Works.
Never Bit^m^t prolonging [to prolong] the pathetic too much.
— Blair,
But Artaxerxes could not refuse pardoning [to pardon] them.
— Goldsmith* 8 Greece,
You have proved beyond contradiction, that acting [to act]
thus is the sure way to procure such an object. — CampbeWa
Rhetoric,
And sound sleep thus broke [broken] off, with sudden alarms,
is apt enough to discompose any one. — Locke,
Garcilasso was master of the language spoke [spoken] by the
Incas. — Robertson* 8 America.
When an interesting story is broke [broken] off in the middle.
— Karnes,
I assure you therefore seriously, and upon my honor, that the
carrying (of) this point seems essential to the success of this
measure. — W. J, Fox,
I suppose her knowledge of the Emperor [Emperor's] having
left nothing to his son induced her to make such a will. —
Madame Bonaparte,
A hammer is the cause of the nail [nail's] being driven. —
Haven,
Is not the bare fact of God [God's] being the witness of it suffi-
cient ground for its credibility to rest upon ? — Chalmers* Sermons,
As in the case of one [one's] entering upon a new study. —
Beattie*s Moral Science,
From the general rule he lays down, of the verbs [verbs']
being the parent word of all language. — Home Tooke,
Adverbs.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, participles, and other
adverbs.
Adverbs may also modify phrases or clauses that per-
form the office of adjectives or adverbs. Thus, in the
sentence, "The road crosses the creek just below the
126 GOOD ENGLISH,
city," the adverb just does not modify the preposition
bdow^ as is stated by some writers on grammar, but it
modifies the adverbial phrase "below the city."
"The bird flew directly over the house ;^^ "The orchard
is just beyond the meadow ;" " I was struck just below the
eye,^^ are similar sentences in which directly and juM
modify prepositional phrases used as adverbial modi-
fiers.
Adverbs when not modifiers may be used independ-
ently, as the italicised words in the following:
Wellj are you ready ?
There were six in the carriage.
NoWf let us start.
The w^ords yes, yea, ay, no, nay, when used in answer
to questions, are usually equivalent to propositions.
They may be parsed as adverbs used independently.
The word amen may be parsed in the same manner.
Such expressions as " Up with " and " Down with "
are properly complex verbs.
Adverbial phrases should be parsed as single expres-
sions only when the words of which they consist cannot
be parsed separately.
A conjunctive adverb not only connects two clauses,
but it also modifies a verb in each clause.
The independent adverb there is by some grammarians
called an expletive.
In such expressions as " scalding hot," " freezing cold,"
"dripping w^et," the words scalding, freezing, dripping, are
adverbs used to modify the adjectives which follow
them.
The word the is an adverb when it modifies an adjec-
tive or another adverb, aa^ in " The deeper the wxll, the
cooler the water;" " The more I study, the better I like it."
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127
When simple quality is to be expressed an adjective,
and not an adverb, should be used; as,
" The rose smells sweets
" The lady looks beautifulj*
" I feel bad:'
Adverbs should be so placed as to show clearly what
words they modify. Thus, " I have only one," not " I
only have one."
As suggested in the discussion of infinitives, an adverb
should not be placed between to and the remainder of
the infinitive.
Special care must be taken to place the adverbs only^
chiefly, merely, solely, and others of a similar signification
in such a position that the meaning of the sentence may
not be misunderstood. Thus, " He chiefly spoke for our
entertainment," should be " He Spoke chiefly for our en-
tertainment," in which chiefly modifies the phrase " for
our entertainment."
No as an adverb can modif}^ comparatives only ; as,
no longer, no better, no more. It should not be used as a
substitute for not, as in " I do not know whether I shall
go or no [not]."
The adverb ever, when it follows such words as rarely
and seldom, is preceded by if; as, "Rarely, if ever;"
"Seldom, if ever;" but the adverb never in such cases
is preceded by or; as, "Rarely, or never ;'^ "Seldom, or
never." All these are correct English expressions.
When negation is intended, but one negative adverb
should be used; as, "We have nothing to give;" but
when affirmation is intended, not may be used before a
word having a negative prefix ; as, " He was not disqual-
ified;" "They were not dissatisfied."
The adverb how and the words h^ow that should not be
128 GOOD ENGLISH,
used as substitutes for the word that in adding a sub-
ordinate clause ; thus, " They said that he must be pun-
ished," not " how that he must be punished."
From should not be used before the words hence^ whence^
thence^ as it is already implied in these words. Thus,
whence means *^ from where," and from whence must mean
" from from where."
Where and when should not be used as substitutes for
which and its adjuncts when meaning place or time.
Thus, "I have forgotten the name of the town ichere
they live," ghould be " in which they live." Also, " The
year when this took place," should be " The year in which
this took place."
Avoid the use of ^most for almost, \cay for axoay, illy for
iU, and directly for as soon as. There is no such word as
Uly,
Some writers on grammar object to the use of the
word like as a conjunctive adverb, as in the sentence
"The bird flies like a swallow." They claim that as
should be substituted for like in all such cases. But
there are manv sentences in which such a substitution
would be misleading, and therefore incorrect. Notice
the difference of meaning caused by the reconstruction
of Byron's sentence,
a, " The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold ;"
b, " The Assyrian came down as a wolf," etc.
•
In the first and correct form of the sentence the mean-
ing is, "The Assyrian came do^n like a wolf (comes
down) on the fold."
In the second form, " The Assyrian came down as a
wolf," etc., the Assyrian is made to assume the character
of a wolf, a thought wholly foreign to the intention of
the author.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 129
In the following sentences no question can arise as to
the propriety of using like as a conjunctive adverb :
a. Satan goeth about like a roaring lion (goeth about), seek-
ing whom he may devour. — Bible,
h. Sail like my pinnace (sails) to these golden shores. — Shake-
speare,
c. I have ventured,
Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders (venture),
This many summers in a sea of glory. — Shakespeare,
d. Like one (stands) in prayer I stood. — Longfellow,
e. The cattle are grazing,
Their heads never raising,
There are forty feeding like one (feeds). — Wordsworth,
f. Since I may say, now lie I like a king (lies). — Shakespeare,
g. Spreading himself like a green bay tree (spreads itself). —
Psalms,
h. Like the dew on the mountain ( ),
Like the foam on the river ( ),
Like the bubble on the fountain ( ),
Thou art gone and forever. — Scott,
i. [The sound] rang in his ears like the iron hoofs of the
steeds of Time (ring). — Longfellow,
J. Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village
staring like a bewildered man (stares). — Hawthorne,
Sometimes when the verb is expressed in the subordi-
nate clause, as or as if takes the place of like as the con-
nective ; as, " I do with my friends as I do with my
books." — Etiierson,
One author on grammar says that like must not be
followed by a noun or a pronoun in the nominative
case; but it always is so followed when the verb in
the principal clause expresses action.
Another writer on grammar makes the very positive
statement that like is never a conjunction, and therefore
it cannot be used instead of as to introduce a clause.
9
130 GOOD ENGLISH,
This author claims that it is incorrect to say " Run like
I run," but that we may say "He runs like me," in
which of course like is considered an adjective or an
adverb. But the verb ruins being active, and actions
being compared, the true meaning of the sentence is,
" He runs like me runs," or, corrected, " He runs like I
(run) ;" and " like " clearly performs the office of both
conjunction and adverb, and is therefore a conjunctive
adverb.
Another author, in sentences such as " He walks like
I walk," pronounces like a subordinate conjunction of
manner. This is at least a new but wholly unnecessary
division of conjunctions, which is already covered by
the term conjunctive adverb, as the office of the word is
not that of a conjunction alone nor that of an adverb,
but of both.
Like is used also as an adjective, in which case a prep-
osition seems to be understood after the word " like " in
sentences expressing a comparison ; Thus,
" The boy was like (unto) his father."
" What though my wingM hours of bliss have been,
Like ( ) angels' visits, few and far between." — Campbell,
" The boy looks like [resembles] his father."
The distinction between the use of like as a conjunc-
tive adverb and as an adjective is —
1. That like as a conjunctive adverb compares actions ;
as, " She sings like an angel (sings) ;" whereas like as an
adjective compares objects; as, ^^John is like his father ;^^
"The school is like a government ;^^ ^^ She looks like her
TTwtherJ^
2. When like is used as a conjunctive adverb it is pre-
ceded by a verb denoting action, and the same verb may
be taken as the predicate of the clause following; as,
ENGLISH QBAMMAB. . 131
"He runs like a deer (runs);" "You act like a child
(acts)."
When Wee is used as an adjective in sentences ex-
pressing comparison, the verb in the principal clause,
preceding Zife, does not express action; as, "There is
no statue like this living man."
3. Like as a conjunctive adverb connects clauses of a
complex sentence, and is followed by a noun or a pro-
noun in the nominative case, used as the subject of the
subordinate clause.
In sentences where like is used as an adjective it is
part of the predicate of the simple sentence in which it
is found, and is followed b}^ a noun or a pronoun in the
objective case ; as, " He is like ( ) me ;" " He is not
unlike ( ) his father."
The examples given show that it is entirely in accord-
ance with the best of authority to use like as a conjunc-
tive adverb with a nominative case following, or as an
adjective with an objective following.
Such sentences as "He talks like her" and "She
walks like me," can mean only "He talks like her
talks " and " She walks like me walks," and are gross
violations of one of the simplest principles of grammar.
Sometimes the adjective form of a verb is used ad-
verbially ; as, "The swallow sings sweet from her nest in
the wall." This is usually done in poetry to make the
meter correct.
Adverbs consisting of two or more words not united
may be regarded as complex adverbs; as, hy and hy^
upside dovm^ now and then.
Adverbs consisting of two or more words united may
be regarded as compound adverbs; as, someJioWy helter-
skelter, topsy-turvy.
Far, farther, farthest, relate to distance, and may be
132 GOOD ENGLISH.
used either as adjectives; as, " It is farther to Asia than
to Europe;" or as adverbs; as, "I have gone farther
than you."
Forth, further, farthest, are used when meaning " some-
thing additional ;" as, " I have nothing further to say ;"
"Are there any further arguments to be offered?"
Errors in the Use of Adverbs.
Most men dream, but all do not [not all do], —Beattie,
By hasty composition we shall acquire certainly [certainly
acquire] a very bad style. — Blair.
We have often occasion [often have occasion] to speak of time.
— Lowth.
Whether it can be proved or no [not] is not the thing. — But-
ler^s Analogy.
Can I make men live whether they will or no [not] ? — Shake-
speare.
Which is scarce [scarcely] possible at least. — Sheridan^s Elo-
cution.
What need is there that I should say anything farther
[further] on this question? — Popular Lecturer.
Shall we have any farther [further] discussion? — Superintend'
ent's Address.
They will, too, not merely interest [interest not merely] the
children, but (also) grown-up persons. — Westminster Review,
Homer was not only the maker [the maker not only] of a
nation, but (also) of a language and of a religion. — Athe^
nceum.
We were only permitted to stop for refreshments [permitted to
stop for refreshments only] once by the way, so that without
the provision of cold fowl, bread, and wafers, which we only
happened to think of [happened to think of only] the moment
before setting out, our situation would have been somewhat
deplorable. — Mrs. Ellis : Summer and Winter in the Pyrenees,
The result is not pleasant to us only [pleasant to us not only]
because it fulfills our predictions, but (also) because any other
would have been productive of infinite mischief. — Spectator,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133
We seldom or ever [if ever] see those forsaken who trust in
God. — Aiterbury,
In considering the life of Seneca we are not only deeding
[dealing not only] with a life which was rich in memorable
incidents, but also (with) the life of one who climbed the lofti-
est peaks of the moral philosophy of Paganism. — Rev. F. Wi
Farrary D. D.
Prepositions.
A Preposition is used to show the relation between
some noun or pronoun following it and some preceding
word which the preposition with its object modifies.
When two prepositions used together express a single
relation they may be considered one term, and be called
a complex preposition ; as out of in the sentence " They
came running out of the house."
But is a preposition when it is used in the sense of
except; as, "All but him have come."
In such expressions as had set in, were looked for, etc.,
the preposition becomes part of the verb; had set in
means "had commenced," and were looked for, "were
expected."
A preposition ending a sentence without an object
becomes an adverb; as, "Come in;" "Come on.^^
After like, near, nigh, and opposite, the preposition is
usually omitted..
The preposition is also sometimes omitted after verbs
of giving, procuring, and a few others ; as, " Get ( ) me
a book ;" " Give . ( ) me some help ;" " Teach ( ) me
the way."
The preposition is omitted also before nouns dcnotinjj;
time, value, or measure; as, "We talked ( ) an hour;"
" The book is worth ( ) a dollar ;" " We. had walked
( ) ten miles."
134
GOOD ENGLISH.
In exclamatory sentences the antecedent is frequently
omitted ; as, " Oh, for a home !*' That is, " Oh, I long
for a home!"
A preposition should not be omitted except when
such construction is sanctioned by good usage. Thus,
" We fled the country," should be " We fled from the
country."
Care should be taken to use the proper preposition to
exjMress the meaning intended. Certain words require
the association with them of certain prepositions.
The following are some of the most important com-
binations :
Abatement of.
Abhorrence of.
Abhorrent io.
Abide in or at & place, with
a person, by & decision or an
award.
Abound in that which is pos-
sessed, with that which follows
or inhabits.
Absolve from.
Accede to.
Accommodate a thing to, a
person with.
Accompanied by persons or
animals, with things inani-
mate.
Accord toith (intransitive), to
(transitive).
Accountable to a per8on,'/or
a thing.
Accuse of
Acquaint with.
Acquiesce in.
Acquit of
Adapted to a thing, for a
purpose, yrom a production.
Adjourn to a place, at an
hour, from one place or hour
to another.
Admission to (access), into
(entrance).
Advantage over a person, of
privileges.
Advice to a person, of a trans-
action.
Advise of
Advocate of a cause, for a
person.
Affinity of sounds or colors,
for a person, between persons.
Agree to proposals, with a
person, upon something deter-
mined.
Agreeable to.
Allied to a cause, with a per-
son.
Alter from one thing, to an-"
other.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
135
Analogy between two objects,
to or with another.
Angry at a thing, with a per-
son.
Answer to a person, for an
offence.
Antagonism between two
things, to or against a thing.
Anxious /or success, about
one*s welfare.
Apologize for an affront, to
another.
Appoint to a place, over oth-
ers.
Argue i(7tYA a person, against
a project.
Array vfith arguments, in col-
ors or dress.
Arrive a£ a place, in a vehi-
cle, from a place.
Ask of a person, /or what is
wanted, after one's health.
Aspire to a thing, o/K&r an
abstraction, as immortality.
Attend to (listen), attend
upon (wait).
Averse to.
Banish from a place to an-
other.
Bargain vnth a person, /or a
thing.
Bestow on or t^/>07i.
Betray to a person, into a
project.
Bind to a person, by a bond.
Blush at a sight, /or anoth-
er's conduct.
Boast qf.
Border on, or upon.
Bound for.
Call at a place, on a per8on,/or
a person or a thing, in question,
by name, to or after a person.
Care for, about.
Careful of our possessions,
about our conduct.
Charge on an enemy, with a
crime, against a person, to one's
account.
Clear o/" harm, from guilt.
Communicate to a person,
mth others.
Compare icith in quality, to
for illustration.
Comply with.
Complain against a person,
of actions.
Concede to.
Concur with a person, in an
opinion.
Condemned /or a crime, to a
punishment.
Confer on or t^|>on a measure,
tvith (to consult), t^joon (to give
as a favor).
Confide in (to trust in).
Confide to (to entrust with).
Conform to; in conformity
with; conformable to.
Congratulate on or upon.
Connect vnth an equal, to a
superior.
Connive ?(;tVA a person, a>t a
proceeding.
Consist of (composed of),
consist in (comprised in).
136
GOOD ENGLISH.
Contend with a person, against
an obstacle,/or a right or a prin-
ciple.
Contradictory of.
Controversy with a person,
between two, about matters.
Convenient for persons, to
places.
Conversant with.
Convert to a doctrine, into
something else.
Copy after actions, from
things, out of a book.
Correspond with (by letter),
to similars.
Covered with or by.
Debar /row entrance,©/* priv-
ileges.
Defend others /row, ourselves
against.
Depend, dependent, on or
vpon.
Derogatory to:
Desirous of.
Devolve on or upon.
Die ofdi disease, /rcww hunger
or thirst, by violence or an in-
strument, for another.
Differ with a person in opin-
ion, from a person in qualities
or characteristics, about or con-
cerning a question, among (to
disagree).
Different from.
Diminution of.
Disagree in opinion, to some-
thing proposed.
Disappointed of something
not obtained, in something ob-
tained which fails to meet our
expectations.
Discriminate one from an-
other, between two.
Disgusted with a person, at,
with, or by a thing.
Disqualified for a position,
from holding office.
Dissent from.
Distinguish /row another, be-
tween two.
Divest of.
Divide between two, among
several, with others.
Dwell in a house or a city, at
a place, on a street or a farm.
Embark at a place, in busi-
ness, /or profit or a place.
Embellished by an artist^
with or by engravings.
Emulous of.
Enamored of.
Encroach on, upon.
Equivalent to.
Expel from, out of.
Expert at when followed by
a noun, in when followed by a
participle.
Expose to loss or danger, for
sale.
Familiar to me, I am famil-
iar with.
Favored by a person, vdth
entertainment.
Fight toith another, against
foes, for a principle.
Followed by.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
137
Founded in truth, or upon
a basis.
Free from.
Frown at a person, on con-
duct.
Frugal of.
Glad of something gained,
of OT at what befalls another.
Graduate at or from an insti-
tution, in a class.
Grateful to a person, for a
favor.
Ill of
Illustrated by an artist, with
or by cuts.
Impatient with a person, a^
his conduct, of restraint, un-
der misfortune, fw something
wanted.
Incorporate with (to com-
bine), into (to take into).
Incumbent on, upon.
Independent of
Indulge with a single thing
or act, in something habitual.
Inquire of the person asked,
after or about the subject of in-
quiry, into when search is made
for particular knowledge.
Insensible to.
Inseparable from.
Insist on, upon.
Introduce to a person, into a
place.
Involve in.
Jealous of.
Join to something greater,
wUh something equal.
Killed by an enemy, \oith an
instrument.
Lean on or against a support,
to an opinion.
Live at a village or a for-
eign city, in a city or the coun-
try.
Long after, for.
Marry to.
Martyr for or to a cause, to a
disease.
Need of.
Notice of.
Observance of.
Opinion on, about.
Part fr(mi persons, with be-
longings.
Pay for something, to a per-
son, m^A money.
Placed in, on.
Preferable to.
Prevail on, upon, or with (to
persuade), against (to over-
come).
Profit by.
Pronounce against a person,
on a thing.
Protect others/ro?»,*ourselve8
against.
Provide for, against, with.
Put into, in (place).
Reconciled with a person, to
a condition.
Eeduce to a state, under sub-
jection.
Regret for.
Rejoice with a person, at or
in good news.
138
GOOD ENGLISH.
BelieTe from restraint or
anxiety, of property.
Rely on^ upon.
Remedy /or, against
Remonstrate with a person,
against a proceeding.
Resemblance to each other,
between two.
Reside at a village, in a city
or the country.
Restrain from.
Rid of
Search for or after a person,
into particulars, oiU the truth.
Seized by an enemy, with ill-
ness.
Smile on or upon favorably,
at unfavorably.
Speak to an audience, to or
with a person, on or about a
subject.
Strive with a person, for an
object, against an obstacle.
Struggle with an adversary,
for an object desired.
Suspected of a fault, fcy a
person.
Suitable to one's station, /or
a purpose.
Swerve from.
Sympathize vnth a person, in
one's sorrow.
Think of on, about.
Thirst for, after.
Trust in (to have confidence
in), to (to depend on).
Unite to (transitive), with
(intransitive).
Useful to a person, for a pur-
pose.
Unworthy of.
Yestin a person, with a thing.
Vexed with a person, at con-
duct.
Wait on a person (to serve),
at a table, for what is expected.
Errors in the Use of Prepositions.
Based in [on] the great self-evident truths of liberty and
equality. — Scholar's Manual.
Looked at in [from] this point of view, we cannot refuse to
regard them as organisms of some peculiar and amazing kind.
— Smiles.
I think it must have been to [from] some such primitive ex-
planation of the whooping-cough that there has grown up in
Austria the unique custom of treating that disease by adminis-
tering the rod. — M. D, Conway: Francis May,
He has not been averse from [to] a moderate quantity of
good, sound, fruity port. — G. A. Sala,
Politics, as he makes even Demosthenes admit, are [is] the
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 139
sad refuge of restless minds, &Yer»e/rom [to] business and from
[to] study. — Leslie Stephen,
This brings to my mind another instance of the same nature,
where our English poet, by not attending to the peculiar expres-
sion of his author, has given us a picture of a very different kind
than [from] what Homer intended. — Fitz Osborne.
The seventeenth century evidently had a different notion of
books and women than [from] that which flourishes in the nine-
teenth. — Pall MaU Gazette,
Conjunctions.
Gocjunctions are used to connect either words,
phrases, or sentences.
Care must be taken, however, that they connect like
parts ; thus, a word with a word, a phrase with a phrase,
or a clause with a clause ; and in connecting words, the
words must be of the same parts of speech, a verb with
a verb, an adjective with an adjective, etc. ; but a noun
may be connected with a pronoun.
Elements of equal rank are connected by what are
known as coordinate conjunctions, and, aho, but, yet,
etc.
A modifying clause is connected with the principal
clause by means of a eyubordinate conjunction ; as, " He
will attend, that he may learn."
A modifying clause may be connected with the prin-
cipal clause also by a relative pronoun or by a conjunc-
tive adverb.
The subordinate clause alwa^'s modifies some word or
words in the principal clause.
Sometimes conjunctions, or conjunctions with other
parts of speech, are used in pairs to mark the sense
more clearly. These pairs are known as correlatives.
140 OOOD ENGLISK
The chief correlatives are —
Both .... and : ^^ Both teacher and pupils were tired."
Either . . . . or : ** Nouns are either common or proper."
Neither .... nor: "Men are neither wholly good nor
wholly bad."
"Whether .... or :" I care not whether you go or stay."
If ... . then : " If this be treason, then make the most
of it."
Thougrh .... yet : " Though deep, yet clear,"
Such (adj.) .... that (conj.), to express a consequence :
"His conduct was such that all will see the wrong."
As (adv.) .... as (conj.), to express equality: "My chances
are as good as yours."
As (conj.) .... so (adv.), to express equality: "-4« the
teacher is, so is the school."
So (adv.) .... as (conj.), to deny equality; "You are not
so young a« you were."
So (adv.) .... as (conj.), to express a comparison: "How
can you be so base as to lie?"
So (adv.) .... that (conj.), to express a consequence: "/Sb
live that you may be fearless of consequences."
So (adv.) .... as (adv.), with an infinitive following, to
express a consequence : " We ought so to read a« to make our-
selves distinctly understood."
Not only .... but (conj.), when the latter term of com-
parison includes the former: ^^ Not only Pennsylvania but the
whole nation is interested in this question."
Not only .... but also (conj!), or but even (conj.),
when the latter term of comparison does not include the for-
mer: ^^ Not only Pennsylvania but also Delaware is west of the
Delaware river;" ^^ Not only the children but even the teachers
were frightened."
When several words are taken together to form a con-
junction, the combination is known as a complex con-
junction.
The principal complex conjunctions are —
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 141
as if,
but also,
but likewise,
as well as,
but even,
even though,
forasmuch as,
but that,
except that.
inasmuch as,
The conjunction that is sometimes used merely to in"
troduce a subordinate clause which is made the subject
of the sentence ; as, " That you have been deceived, is
very clear."
The conjunction as is often used to unite words that
are in apposition ; as, " His work as a teacher was satis-
factory ;" " He offered himself as clerk ;^^ "This gentleman
as my friend will protect me."
The expression as follow is used by many where the
antecedent is a noun in the plural number; thus, "His
words are as follow." — Spectator. In such sentences the
meaning probably is "as they follow;" or if as is re-
garded as a relative pronoun, it may be taken in the
plural, and the word follow properly agree with it in the
plural. Many writers, however, claim that the singular
verb should be used, and the expression read " as fol-
lows," meaning as it follows.
Occasionally the conjunction that is understood ; aSy
"The truth is (that) w^e have been badly treated."
After than or a«, when connecting the terms of a com-
parison, there is usually an ellipsis of some word or
words; as, "He is older than I (am)."
The sentence, " He gave me more than you," shows
the necessity of supplying the omitted words to make
the sentence clear, as it may mean " He gave me more
than he gave you," or " He gave me more than you gave
me."
As to the expression "than whom," Lennie^s Gram-
mar, 1830, says, " When who immediately follows than,
it is used improperly in the objective case ; as, * Alfred,
142 GOOD ENGLISH,
than whom a greater king never reigned ;' — than whom is
not grammatical. It ought to be than who, because who
is in the nominative to was understood. It is true that
some of our best writers have used other phrases which
We have rejected as ungrammatical; then why not reject
this too?" Why not?
Professor Fowler, an authority of note, says with re-
gard to the expression, " Satan, than whom none higher
sat," that it should be " Satan, than who none higher
sat."
When two terms connected are to be completed in
sense by a third, they must be so expressed as to make
sense with it. Thus, " He has made changes and addi-
tions to his house," should be " He haa made changes
in his house and additions to it."
Two terms connected by a conjunction should be the
same in kind or quality rather than different.* Thus,
"The help was prompt and cheerfully given," should be
"The help was prompt and cheerful," or " The help was
prompt, and it was cheerfully given."
After also, other, otherwise, rather, and other English
comparatives, the latter term of an exclusive compari-
son should be introduced by the conjunction than,
Thusi " There were no others than these ;" " His speech
was nothing else than deception."
Relative pronouns being connectives, they exclude con-
junctions, unless there are two or more relative clauses
to be connected. The following sentence is faulty:
" The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil,
and which he possesses beyond all poets, is tenderness."
It should read, " The principal and distinguishing ex-
cellence of Virgil, an excellence which he possesses
beyond all other poets, is tenderness."
After expressions denoting doubt, fear, or denial, that
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 143
should be used instead of but, but thaty or lest; as, "I
doubt not that you will succeed."
It is correct to use the words but also only where the
words but in addition could be substituted.
Errors in the use of the proper correlative of not only
are frequent even with reputable writers.
Errors in the XTse of Conjunctions.
I have and pretend to be a tolerable judge. — Shakespeare,
He was more beloved but not so much admired as Cintbio. —
Addison,
The Court of Chancery frequently nytigates, and breaks the
teeth of the common law. — Spectator,
Antony, coming alongside of her ship, entered it without
seeing or being seen by her. — Goldsmith^ s Greece,
Composition is excellent, and (it is] the vital principle in all
these things. — Dr, Lieber,
To have [having] only one time, or measure, is not much
better than having none at all. — Blair,
Facts too well known and (too) obvious to be insisted on. —
Blair,
I cannot doubt but that [that] these objects are really what
they appear to be. — Kamei^ Elements of Criticism,
We've both the field and honor won ;
The foe is profligate, and (he has) run. — Budibras,
I question not but [that] my reader will be pleased with it. —
t^ctaior,
I doubt not but [that] such objections as these will be made.
— Locke,
The terms rich or [and] poor enter not into their language. —
Bobertson^s America,
There being no other dictator here but [than] use. — Oamp'
beWs Rhetoric,
Many of Lord Jeffrey's reviews are little else but [than]
special pleading. — Tuckerman,
I have no doubt but that [that] the pistol is a relic of the
buccaneers. — W, Irving,
144 GOOD ENGLISH.
Their relation, therefore, is not otherwise to be ascertained
but [than] by their place. — CampbeWs Rhetoric,
There is no other method of teaching that of which one is
ignorant but [than] by means of something already known. —
2>r. Johnson.
O fairest flower, no sooner blown but [than] blasted. — Milton.
As if religion were intended
For nothing else but [than] to be mended. — Hudibras.
About the time of Solon, the Athenian legislator, the custom
is said to have been introduced, and which still prevails, of writ-
ing in lines from left to right, — Jamieson^s Rhetoric. [Change
to '^The custom of writing in lines from left to right, which still
prevails, is said to have.been introduced."]
Conversation w^ith such who [as] know no arts which polish
life. — Spectator.
For the torrent of the voice left neither time or [nor] power
in the organs to shape the words properly. — Sheridan^a Elocu-
tion.
Its influence is likely to be considerable in the morals and
(in the) taste of a nation. — Blair*s Rhetoric
Whether the subject be of the real or (the) figurative kind. —
Blair.
Bruce spoke of himself and his compeers as being neither
Scottish or [nor] English, but Norman barons. — Scott.
It is perhaps the finest of all Juvenal's satires, the mightiest,
the sternest, and (the) most deeply impressed, not merely by a
sense [by a sense not merely] of bitterness, but (also) of the
deep responsibility of life. — Westminster Review,
The author has sat at the feet of our Elizabethan dramatists,
and in one or two places has caught not merely [has not merely
caught] their idioms and phrases, but has (also) become imbued
with something of their manner of spirit. — Idem,
Homer was not only the maker of a tuition [the maker not only
of a nation], but (also) of a language and of a religion. — Athe-
nceum.
The result is not pleasant to us only [pleasant to us not only]
because it fulfills our predictions, but (also) because any other
would have been productive of infinite mischief, — Spectator.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 145
. Its almost vulgar personality may convey to those who are
neither acquainted [acquainted neither] with the writer or [nor
with] his books. — Quarterly Review,
The hardship is that in these times we can neither speak of
kings or queens [speak neither of kings nor of queens] without
suspicion of politics or personalities. — Byron,
But he was neither fitted [fitted neither] by abilities nor by
disposition to answer the wishes of his mother.— ifm Austen,
Taking the Thackeray gallery as a whole, we cannot admit
thai either in qualities of [that in qualities of either] head or
heart his women are inferior to the women we generally meet.
— North British Review,
The engraving is neither like [like neither] me nor the pic-
ture. — Miss Mitford,
Neither our vices or [nor] our virtues are all our own. — Dr,
Johnson,
This is consistent neither with logic nor (with) history, — The
Dial,
Whilst they are learning and apply [applying] themselves
with attention, they are to be kept in a good humor. — Locke,
He firmly refused to make use of any other voice but [than]
his own. — Goldsmith's Greece,
Your marching regiments. Sir, will not make the guards their
example, either as soldiers or (as) subjects. — Junius,
Words used as Different Parts of Speech.
It is a well settled principle of Grammar that use
determines the classification of a word.
The following are some of the most important words
whose classification varies according to the use of the
word :
As is a conjunction when it means since or because;
thus, "^« he was ambitious, I slew him."
It is an adverb when it represents time, degree, or
manner ; as, " He came as soon as he could ;" " I fared
as well as I expected."
10
146 GOOD ENGLISH,
m
It is a conjunctive adverb when it introduces a subor-
dinate clause; as, "They went out as we came in."
Before, After, Till, Until, are advei'hs^ or rather conjunc-
tive adverbs^ when they introduce subordinate clauses ;
as, " Think before you speak ;" " They came after we had
gone." " We waited until the meeting closed."
They are prepositions when used to show relation, and
they should be followed by a noun or a pronoun in the
objective case; as, "We stood before him;" "The dog
ran after the rabbit ;" " The storm delayed us till night."
Both may be either an adjective or a conjunction.
1. It is an adjective when it is used to limit a noun ;
as, ^^ Both men earned their wages."
2. It is a conjunction when it is used with and to con-
nect sentences or parts of sentences; as, "They were
both tired and hungry."
But may be a preposition, an adverb, or a conjunc-
tion.
1. It is a preposition when it means except; as,
"Whence all but him had fled."
2. It is an adverb when it means only ; as, " I have
made the trip but once."
3. It is a conjunction when it connects sentences or
parts of sentences ; as, " It is not he but you that are
to blame."
But implies some opposition or exception. Yet and
however are nearly equivalent, but are milder in their
application. Nevertheless, while having a meaning sim-
ilar to but, is a much stronger term.
Either and Neither are used as pronominal adjectives
and as conjunctions.
1. They are used as pronominal adjectives when they
limit or represent nouns ; as/^ Neither man answered;"
'[Either boy may help."
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 147
2. They are conjunctions when they assist in connect-
ing sentences; as, ^^ Either you or your brothers should
come;" ^^ Neither the man nor his son was here."
The proper correlative of either is or^ and of neither^
nor.
As adjectives, either and neither are in use limited to
two. When more than two are referred to, any one or
none should be made to take the place of either or
neither. Thus, we say ^^ Either of the two," but '^ Any
one, of the five;" so also, ^^ Neither of the two;" but
^^None of the three."
Either as an adjective may imply " each of two ;" as,
"A farm on either side of the railroad;" that is, two *
farms, one on each side of the railroad. " A farm on
both sides of the railroad" means one fiirm through
which the railroad passes.
As conjunctions, either and neither may be used with
any number; as, ^^ Neither man, woman, nor child was
spared from an attack of the dread disease."
For may be either a conjunction or a preposition.
1. It is a conjunction when it means because, or is used
in giving a reason ; as, " Let us return, for it is getting
late."
2. It is a preposition when it is followed by a noun or
a pronoun in the objective case; as, "He bought the
book for me."
The three words, for, becmisej and since, are to some
extent interchangeable. BecauM means "by the cause
of," and had originally a reference to physical cause.
It is now used chiefly to express a reason, especially in
answer to why. Since is less formal than " because," and
in its conjunctive sense is usually placed at the begin-
ning of a sentence. The difference in the words is il-
lustrated in the following sentences : " We will not go
148 GOOD ENGLISH.
becariM the day is too cold." ^^ Since the day is so cold,
we will not go."
Like may be used as a noun, as a verb, ob an adjec-
tive, and as a conjunctive adverb.
1. It is a noun when it is used as a name ; as, " Like
begets like;'^ " We shall never look upon his like again."
2. It is a verb when it expresses action ; as, " I like the
music ;" " I like order."
3. It is an adjective when it modifies a noun, or when
it compares objects ; as, " The girl is like her mother."
4. It is a conjunctive adverb when it compares actions
or connects clauses ; as, " She sings like an angel ;" " He
fights like a tiger."
Since may be a conjunction, a preposition, or an
adverb.
1. It is a conjunction when it means for the reason that;
as, ^^ Since you wish it, I will remain."
2. It is a preposition when it is followed by a noun in
the objective case denoting time ; as, " We have had no
rain since June."
3. It is an adverb in all other cases.
That may be a conjunction, a relative pronoun, or a
pronominal adjective.
1. It is a conjunction when it is used to introduce a
subordinate clause or connect sentences ; as, " I believe
that we shall succeed ;" " That we shall succeed is cer-
tain."
2. It is a relative pronoun when it is used instead of
"who" or "which;" as, "This is the first one that
came."
3. It is a pronominal adjective when it limits or rep-
resents a noun ; as, " That knife is mine ;" " That is
my knife."
Then may be used as a conjunction or as an adverb.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 149
1. It is used as a conjunction when it means "there-
fore" or "in that case;" as, "If this be treason, then
make the most of it."
2. It is an adverb when it denotes time ; as, " It was
then too late to correct the mistake."
What may be a relative pronoun, an interrogative
pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an adverb, or an in-
terjection.
1. It is a relative pronoun when " that which " or
" those which " may be substituted ; as, " We know
what he wished to say."
2. It is an interrogative pronoun when it is used to
ask a question; as, ^^What have you brought?"
3. It is a pronominal adjective when it limits a noun ;
as, ^^What beautiful flowers these are!"
4. It is an adverb when it means " partly ;" as, " What
by threats and what by stratagem we succeeded."
6. It is an interjection when used to express surprise ;
as, ^^ What I Shall we give up without a contest?"
Sometimes what is used both as a pronominal adjec-
tive and as a relative pronoun, when it limits a noun
and at the same time " that which " or " those which "
may be substituted for it ; as, " What money we had was
useless."
Well may be a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb,
or an interjection.
1. It is a noun when it denotes an object; as, "The
well is deep."
2. It is a verb when it expresses action; as, "The
water wells out from under the rocks."
3. It is an adjective when it is used to limit a noun or
a pronoun ; as, " The boy is tvelV^
4. It is an adverb when it limits a verb; as, "That was
well done."
150 OOOD ENGLISH.
6. It is an interjection when used as an exclamation ;
as, ^'Well, well! This is an important affair."
Well as an adverb is sometimes used independently to
introduce a sentence ; as, " Well, shall we start?"
While may be a noun, a verb, or an adverb.
1. It is a noun when it means a portidn of time; as,
"Let us sit here for a while.^^
2. It is a verb when it means to " spend " or " pass ;"
as, "We fished to while away the time."
3. It is a conjunctive adverb when it means during the
time in which, or is used to connect clauses ; as, " They
were attentive while the teacher spoke."
Yet may be either a conjunction or an adverb.
1. It is a conjunction when it means n£vertheles8 or not-
mthstanding; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in
him."
2. It is an adverb when it means thxis far, in addition,
or at the present time; as, "We have not yet completed
our work."
PUNCTUATION.
Punctuation treats of the use of points in dividing
written composition. It is essentially a grammatical
process.
The chief use of punctuation is to divide discourse
into sentences, and sentences into parts, in such a man-
ner as will best show the relation of these parts to one
another.
Usage differs somewhat among authors of good repute
with regard to the use of some of the marks of punctua-
tion, but that is more the fault of the authors than of
the system, and it ought not to be quoted as an argu-
ment against punctuation.
There is of course much left to individual judgment,
just as there is in determining the meaning of a sen-
tence, but it is equally true that the punctuation of a
sentence frequently determines its meaning.
The chief marks of punctuation are —
1. The Period ( . )
2. The Comma ( , )
3. The Semicolon ( ; )
4. The Colon (:)
5. The Interrogation Point (?)
6. The Exclamation Point ( I )
7. The Dash (— )
8. Marks of Parenthesis ( )
9. Quotation Marks ( " " )
10. The Hyphen (-)
151
152 GOOD ENGLISH.
In addition to these there are a few other marks used
by writers and printers, which will be explained far-
ther on.
The Period.
The Period was the first punctuation mark intro-
duced, and was used originally to indicate the comple-
tion of a sentence.
The following are the chief rules for the use of the
Period :
1. Complete Sentences. — A 'period should he placed
after every declarative or imperative sentence.
When long compound sentences are broken up into
shorter ones, each of these shorter sentences should be
followed by a period.
Sometimes a conjunction, as and or but, is used to
introduce a sentence, but it has no efifect on the punc-
tuation. A familiar example is —
" And Moses spake unto the children of Israel.''
2. Abbreviations. — A period should be placed after every
abbreviated vx/rd.
Some abbreviated words consist of initials only, as
U. S. Grant for Ulysses Simpson Grant. In such cases
the period should follow each initial.
Letters are sometimes used in mathematics to indi-
cate angles, lines, etc. These are not abbreviations, and
they take no period after them. We speak of them as
the angle A, the angle A BC, or the line C D, but in no
case where so used do they require a period.
Sometimes letters are used also to represent fictitious
persons in the statement of mathematical problems ; as,
" Mr. A bought a farm," etc. In such cases no period is
necessary.
PUNCTUATION. 153
When the Roman numerals are used to denote num-
bers, a period is usually placed after the combination ;
as, Geo. III., Chap. XVI., A. D., MDCLII., though it
may be remarked that some late writers omit the
period.
When letters are doubled to indicate the plural, as 11.
for lines, pp. for pages, MM. for Messieurs, LL. for legum,
only one period is placed after the abbreviation.
When the abbreviated word closes the sentence, but
one period is used. Thus, *'Our neighbor is James
Hodgson, M. D."
When the abbreviations represent separate words, a
period follows each ; as. Post Master, P. M., Doctor of
Medicine, M. D., Master of Arts, A. M., Doctor of Laws,
LL.D.
When abbreviated words become current as abridged
words in good use, as cab for cabriolet, consols for consol-
idated annuities, no period is required after them.
When an abbreviated name becomes a nickname, as
Ben, Dan, Will, Sue, no period is used.
Ordinal adjectives, as 2d, 3d, 4th, 6th, etc., are not
abbreviations, but substituted forms for second, third,
fourth, sixth, etc. No period therefore should be placed
after them.
Note that 2d, 3d, and all words ending with these
forms, as 22d, 23d, 42d, 43d, etc., end with d only, not
nd or rd.
3. Complete Expressions. — A period should be placed
after each Heading, Title, Signature, Imprint, or Advertise^
ment, when the expression is complete in itself.
The title-page of a book usually consists of three
parts: 1. The name of the book; 2. The name of the
author, with his professional titles appended ; 3. The
name of the publisher, with the place of publication.
154 GOOD ENGLISH,
Each of these parts should be followed by a period. A
practice has lately become fashionable to omit periods
altogether from title-pages, but it is wholly without lit-
erary autliority.
4. Numbers of Paragraphs. — A 'period should follow
each figure or letter indicating the number of the paragraph,
the sentence^ or the particidar heading. Thus,
Some of the chief marks of punctuation are —
1. The Period,
2. The Comma,
3. The Semicolon.
Thb Comma.
The Comma is used to mark the least degree of sep-
aration in the divisions of a sentence. The words comma,
semicolon, and colon were originally used to denote the
portion of the sentence cut off rather than the mark.
The following are the chief rules for the use of the
Comma :
1. Coi^ipound Sentences. — A comma is used to sepa-
rate the members of a compound sentence when the degree of
separation is slight. Thus,
" There was an abundance of game, but we had no gun."
2. Relative Clauses. — Relative clauses which are ex-
planatory or which present an additional thought are set
off by commas, but when such a clause is restrictive it is not
separated from the chief clause by a comma,
A restrictive clause is one that limits its antecedent to
some particular meaning, while a non-restrictive clause
is equivalent to an additional thought. Thus, in the
sentence, "The man who is industrious will succeed,"
the clause " who is industrious " is restrictive, the sen-
tence being equivalent to " The industrious man will sue-
PUNCTUATION. 155
ceed." In the sentence, " Mr. Sharp, who is an industrious
nian, will succeed," the clause in italics simply adds an
additional thought with regard to Mr. Sharp, and it is
therefore non-restrictive. It may be dropped from the
sentence without destroying the sense of the principal
clause; thus, "Mr. Sharp will succeed."
In the sentence, "The man who is industrious will
succeed," the restrictive clause limits the meaning not
only to " man," but to a particular man, " The man who
is industrious."
If several words intervene between a relative pro-
noun and its grammatical antecedent, a comma should
be placed before the relative clause. Thus,
" He will be most likely to win success, who is most faithful."
If a relative pronoun is followed by a word or a
phrase enclosed by commas, a comma should be placed
before the relative clause even when this clause is re-
strictive. Thus,
" They, who, notwithstanding the fact that they were stran-
gers, defended us, merited our gratitude."
When the relative has for its antecedent several nouns
or clauses in succession, it should be separated from the
last by a comma, even though the relative be restrictive.
Thus,
"There were present laborers, merchants, and professional
men, who doubted the arguments of the speaker."
If the comma were omitted after the word "men," the
sentence could be construed to mean that only the pro-
fessional men doubted.
3. Dependent Clauses. — Dependent clauses are uMtally
set off by commas, especially when they precede independent
clauses. Thus,
" If you wish to win, you must struggle."
156
GOOD ENGLISH,
A dependent clause is one that modifies or completes
the meaning of another clause. It is usually introduced
by some coordinate conjunction or a conjunctive adverb,
and it often precedes the clause on which it depends.
When the dependent clause follows that on which it
depends, in many cases it is not set oflf by a comma; as,
" We will remain if you do not object."
When the dependent clause follows that on which it
depends, and is introduced by " that," it is not set oflf
by. a comma unless "that" is equivalent to "in order
that," and is placed at some distance from the verb.
Thus,
a. " I believe that it will rain."
b, '' I 8hall listen to his arguments, that I may come to a con-
clusion for myself."
4. Parenthetical Expressions. — Parenthetical words
and phrases should be set off by cornnms.
Expressions are parenthetical when they are placed
between the related parts of a sentence, but are not
strictly essential to its meaning.
The following are among the expressions commonly
used parenthetically:
Accordingly,
doubtless,
consequently,
finally,
however,
indeed,
moreover,
namely,
perhaps,
then,
therefore,
too.
After all,
as it were,
as it happens,
beyond question,
for the most part,
generally speaking,
in the first place,
in fact,
in short,
in a word,
in truth,
in general,
no doubt,
of course.
in the mean time,
now and then,
in reality,
on the contrary,
on the other hand,
without doubt,
you know.
When one of these parenthetical expressions occurs
PUNCTUATION, 157
at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, only a
single comma is used to separate the expression from
the main part of the sentence.
When any of these same expressions are used to
modify some particular part of the sentence, they lose
their parenthetical character, and are no longer set oflF
by commas. Observe the use of the word however in
the following:
a, '* You will, however, be late."
b, " However, you will be late."
c, " He will do the work however late he may be."
Some words, known variously as expletives, inde-
pendent adverbs, etc., as iww^ why, weU, yes, no, again,
first, secondly, further, etc., when they stand at the begin-
ning of a sentence, are set off by commas. Thus,
" First, let me make a statement."
" Well, we are ready to go."
" Why, that I cannot answer."
When now and then or here and there are used to in-
troduce contrasted expressions, they are set off by com-
mas. Thus,
" Now, all is peace ; then, all was disorder."
5. Intermediate Expressions. — Clauses and other ex-
pressions not of a pare^ithetical character, but so placed as
to come between the essenticd parts of a sentence, are set off
by commas. Thus,
" Man, even in his lowest estate, is a noble work."
In general, commas may set off any of these interme-
diate expressions when they can be removed without
destroying the sense of the sentence. Thus, in the sen-
tence, " Physical exercise, especially in the open air, is
of great importance to healthj" the expression **espe-
168 GOOD ENGLISH.
cially in the open air" may be removed, and the
remainder, "Physical exercise is of great importance
to health," still conveys the chief thought without any
modification.
6. Transposed Elements. — Transposed phrases and
clauses are usually set off hy commas. Thus,
** Of the many odd people I have encountered, he was the
oddest."
A comma is placed after a surname when it precedes
the Christijm name; as, Lindsey, George W.; Barker,
R.S.
This arrangement of names is frequently made in
alphabetical order in lists and indexes for convenience
of reference.
When in transposed elements the connection is very
close, the comma may be omitted; as, "At noon we
started on our journey."
7. Series. — In a series of more than two words, all being
the same part of speech, a comm/i should follow each word of
the series. Thus,
"The air, the earth, the water, teem with life."
When the conjunction is omitted between the last two
words of a series, a comma is placed after the last unless
it is followed by a single word; as, "Teacher, pupils,
friends, have gone."
When the conjunction is omitted between all except
the last two words of the series, a comma is usually put
before the conjunction, but some writers omit it. The
following is the usual form : " Days, months, and years
have fled."
When the words in a series are connected by con-
PUNCTUATION. 159
•
junctions the comma may be omitted ; as, " Days and
months and years have fled."
In some cases where a greater pause than usual is
desired, both conjunctions and commas are used; as,
" They suffered, and fought, and died, in their country's
cause."
In such expressions as "A beautiful little rose," no
comma is used to separate the adjectives, for the reason
that the first adjective seems to modify all that follows ;
but where the successive adjectives all modify the noun
with equal force, they are separated by commas, as in
the following: "A hard-working, faithful, honest old
man."
8. Words in Pcdrs. — When words are used in pairs a
comma shovld be placed after each pair. Thus,
** Houses and lands, offices and honors, gold and bonds, are
nothing to the man at Death's door."
9. Words in Apposition. — Words in apposition, Uh
gether with their adjuncts, are set off by commas. Thus,
" Milton, the author of * Paradise Lost,' was blind."
Pres. James McCosh, D. D., LL.D.
When the noun in apposition stands alone or has
only an article before it, no comma is required between
it and the word with which it is in apposition. Thus,
"Paul the apostle ;" " The poet Whittier."
When several words contain a description of some
person or thing, if the name be mentioned it should be
set off from the rest of th* sentence by a comma ; as,
" The greatest of poets. Homer, was blind."
10. Words in the Vocative. — Nouns in the Nomina-
tive Case Independent by address, with their accompanying
160 GOOD ENGLISH.
words, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Thus,
** GentlemeD, are you ready to hear me?"
" I am, my dear Sir, your friend."
This rule is applicable to the salutation in a letter.
Thus,
^^^-^ ar€i^i^e^^
<t.U4,
^'ttei> ^€id 'dee^ 4.ecei^^u^c^.
V
Whatever the salutation, it seems proper to place a
comma after the title on the ground that the title, with
its modifying adjectives, is in the nominative case inde-
pendent by address.
When the body of a letter begins on the same line as
the salutation, the comma is followed by a dash. Thus,
4^e
11. The Absolute Oonstniction. — A word placed in
the Nominative Case Absolvie is, with its accompanying
PUNCTUATION. 361
w&rda^ separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Thus,
" Peace having been declared, the army was disbanded."
12. Omission of the Verb. — When in a compound
sentencb the verb is omitted in any of the members foUomng
the first, a comma takes its place. Thus,
" Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist."
13. Logical Subject. — When the logical or complex
subject of a sentence ends vnth a verb of the same form as
the predicate verb, or consists of parts subdivided by commas,
it is separated from the predicate by a comma ; as,
" He who breaks, pays."
" Bananas, oranges, and figs, are the chief exports."
14. Quotations. — A quotation or anything resembling a
jguotation, introduced into a sentence, should be preceded by a
comma. Thus,
" Bacon says, * Knowledge is power.' "
" The question now is. Where shall we find a desirable site?"
If the quotation depends directly on the word which
precedes it, no comma is required. Thus,
" The cry of 'Down with the traitors I' rang through the hall."
15. Numeral Figures. — When any numbers except
dates are expressed by more than three characters, they are
separated by commas into groups of three, counting from the
right. Thus,
" The amount on hand is $16,437,842."
16. Ambiguity. — A comma is sometimes used to prevent
ambiguity.
Thus, " I awoke and called my brother to me," with-
out the comma means that I awoke my brother and
called him to me. With the comma, "I awoke, and
11
162 GOOD ENGLISH.
called my brother to me," means that I became awake
and called my brother to me.
The Semicolon.
The Semicolon is used to separate parts of sentences
less closely connected than those separated by commas.
It is used also to separate the divisions when the subdi-
visions are separated by commas.
The following are the principal rules for the use of
the Semicolon:
1. Parts of Sentences. — A semicolon should he placed
between the parts of a sentence ichen the subdivisions of these
parts are separated by commas. Thus,
" Without dividing, he destroyed party ; without corrupting,
he made a venal age unanimous."
When the members of a sentence are long, they are
sometimes separated by a semicolon though no comma
is used. Thus,
" Errors like straws upon the surface flow ;
He who would seek for pearls must dive below."
Some writers would in the foregoing set off the expres-
sion " like straws " with commas, but this is unnecessarv.
The golden rule in punctuation is to use a punctuation
mark only where there is a necessity for it in order to
make the meaning clear.
2. A General Term. — A general term having several
particidars in apposition may be separated from the particu-
lars by a semicolon. Thus,
Nouns in English have three cases ; Nominative, Possessive,
and Objective.
3. Short Sentences. — Short sentences which have a
PUNCTUATION, 163
alight dependence on one another as to meaning, are umally
separated by semicolons. Thus,
" Thete is good for the good ; there is virtue for the virtuous ;
there is victory for the valiant ; there is spirituality for the spir-
itual."
In the application of this rule usage differs somewhat.
Some writers prefer the colon, and others the period, in-
stead of the semicolon, but 'the best, usage favors the
semicolon.
4. Successive Glauses. — A semicolon is used to sepa-
rate several successive clauses in a complex sentence when they
Juive a common dependence on a principal clause. Thus,
" When my heart shall have ceased to throb ; when my life
shall have passed away ; when my body shall have been con-
signed to the tomb, — then shall all these things be remembered
in my favor."
Some writers prefer to separate the principal clause
from the others by a. colon, and the others from one
another by a comma and a dash.
5. Additional Glauses. — An additional dause which
assigns a reason, draws an inference, or presents a contrast,
may be set off by a semicolon. Thus,
" Straws float upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom
of the stream."
When the additional clause follows without the use
of a connecting word, some writers use a colon instead
of a semicolon.
Namely, for, but, yet, are some of the words com-
monly used for connecting an additional clause to
express a reason or a contrast.
6. Before As. — A semicolon should be placed before " as "
when U introduces an example. Thus,
164 GOOD ENGLISH,
" A noun is a name ; as, boy, Henry."
A semicolon is sometimes used before viz., to wit, L e.,
or that 18, when it precedes an example or an enumera-
tion of particulars.
7. Yes and No. — " Fes" or ^^no,^^ when forming j^art of
an answer and followed by a proposition, is usually set off by
a semicolon. Thus,
"Yes; I think it will rain."
When yes or no precedes a vocative expression, the
semicolon follows the expression, and a comma follows
yes or no. Thus,
"No, my friends; I cannot endorse this platform."
The Colon.
The Colon is used to separate parts of sentences less
closely connected than those separated by the semi-
colon.
The following are the most important rules for the
use of the Colon :
1. Parts of Sentences. — A colon should be placed be-'
tween the parts of sentences whose subdivisions are separated
by semicolons. Thus,
"The article contained two chief thoughts: the first, that
the Argument was not sound ; the second, that it Vas not con-
vincing."
2. Additional Clauses. — An additional dause not for-
mally connected with the preceding clause is set off from the
latter by a colon. Thus,
" Let others hail the rising sun :
I bow to him whose course is run."
This rule differs from Rule 5 with reference to the
PUNCTUATION. 165
semicolon, chiefly in the omission of the conjunction
which formally connects the clauses.
3. Quotations. — Wlien a quotation is introduced, but
not as the object of a transitive verb, it sJioidd be preceded by
a colon. Thus,
" For of all sad words of tongue or pen,
The saddest are these : * It might have been.' "
When a quotation follows such transitive verbs as say,
exclaim, reply, skout, cry, and similar verbs, as the direct
object, it should be preceded by a comma instead of a
colon. Thus,
" The speaker said, * Gentlemen, I am glad to meet you on
this occasion.' "
4. Formal Introduction. — A colon is placed after such
expressions as " this,^^ " these,^^ " as follows,^^ " the foUowing,'^^
and similar terms, when they promise or introduce somethingy
whether a quotation or not. Thus,
" His words were as follows : ' Poor work, poor pay.' "
6. Title-Pages. — In a titk-page, when an explanatory ex-
pression is put in apposition with the main title, without the
use of a conjunction, the two are separated by a colon. Thus,
" Helps in the Use of Good English : a Manual for All who
Desire to Speak or Write Correct English."
The iNTBRRoaATioN Point.
The Interrogration Point is used to show that a ques-
tion is asked.
The following are the chief rules for the use of the
Interrogation Point :
1. Questions. — An interrogation point should be^placed
after every direct question.
166 OOOD ENGLISH.
A direct question is one that admits of an answer; as,
"Why do you not go?" An indirect question is one
that is merely spoken of; as, " He asked why you did
not go."
When several questions are thrown together to form
one sentence, tlie sentence begins with a capital letter,
but an interrogation point should follow each question.
Thus,
''What is the meaning of all this noise? of all this confu-
sion ?"
When, in a series of consecutive questions, each is
distinct in itself, each should begin with a capital letter
and each be followed by an interrogation point. ThiJs,
"Does the applicant use profane language?" ^."Does he
smoke?" "Does he idle away his time?"
When the question is not complete till the end of the
sentence is reached, only one interrogation point should
be used. Thus,
" Which season do you prefer, summer or winter?"
2. Doubt. — The interrogation point is sometimes inserted
in curves to throw doubt on a statement Thus,
"His sound (?) logic was not convincing."
The Exclamation Point.
The Exclamation Point is used chiefly to indicate
some emotion.
The following are the chief rules for the use of the
Exclamation Point:
1. Inteijections. — The exclamation point is placed after
an interjection when it sJiotos strong emotion. Thus,
" Hurrah I we have won the game."
PUNOTUATIOK 167
When the emotion expressed belongs to the whole
phrase or sentence, the exclamation point is usually
placed after the entire expression, rather than after the
interjection; as, "Shame upon yovir actions!"
When an interjection is repeated several times in suc-
cession, the repeated words are separated by commas,
and the exclamation point is placed after the last only ;
as, " Well, well ! I am sorry for this."
is not immediately followed by an exclamation
point, but oh is so followed unless the emotion runs
through the whole expression. In that case oh is fol-
lowed by a comma, and an exclamation point is placed
after the complete emotional expression. Thus,
" Oh, long may it wave
O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave T'
When the interjections eh and hey are used at the end
of questions, they should be followed by interrogation
points.
2. Exclaniations. — An exclamation point should be
placed after every exclamatory expression. Thus,
" How very hot it is I"
Glorious I Bravo !' shouted the captain."
(( i
More than one exclamation point may be used to
express wonder, irony, contempt, or great surprise.
Thus,
" Trust to his honesty 1 1 A thief is honest in comparison."
The exclamation point is sometimes used in the same
manner as the interrogation point, to imply doubt.
Thus,
** Caesar was an honorable (I) man."
168 GOOD ENGLISH.
The Dash.
The Dash is used chiefly to indicate a sudden change
in the sense or the construction of a sentence.
The use of the dash for other punctuation marks is
permissible only where none of the others can be cor-
rectly used. The dash should not be used, as it is by
many writers, as a substitute for other marks.
The following are the chief rules for the use of the
Dash :
1. Sudden Ghangres. — A dash is used to mark some
sudden change in the construction or in the sense of a sen-
tence. Thus,
'* He had no malice in his mind —
No ruffles on his shirt."
2. Parenthesis. — The dash is sometimes used to set off
parenthetical expressions when the connection is not so close
as to require a commn. Thus,
"Those who hated him most heartily — and no man was hated
more heartily — admitted that his mind was exceedingly bril-
hant."
3. A Pause. — The dash is sometimes used to indicate a
pause made for rhetorical effect. Thus,
"It was admitted by all that the boy was quiet and well-
behaved — when he was asleep."
The dash is used also to denote an expressive pause.
Thus,
"The stream fell over a precipice — ^paused — fell — paused
again — then darted down the valley."
4. An Omission. — The dash is sometimes used to denote
an omission. Thus,
" Late in the summer of 18 — , the residents of were
- PUNCTUATION. 169
greatly agitated over a rumor that a railroad was to be built
through the town."
"See Chap. VI.: 1-5," meaning Chap. VI., verses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
5. Summing-Up. — The dash is xised to denote a sum-
ming-up of partlcalars. Thus,
" Eelatives, friends, home, — all are gone."
6. Repetition. — When a word or an expression is re-
peated emphatically for rhetorical effect, the construction
beginning anew^ a dash should be placed before each repeti-
tion. Thus,
" I wish," said Uncle Toby, with a deep sigh — " I wish, Trim,
I were asleep."
7. Reflex Apposition. — When words at the end of a
sentence stand detached and are in apposition with preceding
parts of a sentence, they are separated from the preceding
portion by a dash. Thus,
"Three of the world's greatest poems are epics — Paradise
Lost, The ^neid, and The Iliad."
8. Titles Run In. — When a title or a heading, instead
of standing over a paragraph, is run in so as to make a part
of the paragraph, it is separated from the rest of the line by
a dash. For illustration see the heading of this rule.
9. Dialogues. — The parts of a conversation or a dia-
logue, if run into one paragraph instead of forming separate
paragraphs, are separated by dashes. Thus,
"Good morning, Mr. Brooks." — "Good morning, Sir." — "I
hope you are well." — "Thank you, I am very well; how are
you ?"
10. With Other Marks. — A dash is often placed after
other marks to add effect.
The following are the chief instances :
170 GOOD ENGLISH.
a. After a side-head. Thus,
" Remark 1.— "
b. Between the end of a paragraph and the name of
the author if both are placed on the same line. Thus,
" Procrastination is the thief of time." — Young,
c. Between short quotations brought together in the
same line, as in example under Rule 9.
Marks of Parenthesis.
The Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, are used to
enclose such words as break the unity of a sentence and
have little, if any, connection with the remaining part
of it. Thus,
" To gain a posthumous reputation is to save four or five let-
ters (for what is a name beside) from oblivion."
The sentence containing marks of parenthesis is punc-
tuated as if no parenthetical part were included.
Whatever point may be needed is placed after the last
curve, unless some other mark precedes the last curve,
in which case the point is placed before the first curve.
Thus,
a. "Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the
proud man himself), is the most ordinary spring of action
among men."
b. " While we all desire fame, (and should we not desire it ?)
we should do nothing unfair to gain it."
The part within the curves is punctuated according to
the usual rules, just as if no curves were used.
Quotation Marks.
A quotation is the introduction into one's discourse of
words uttered or written by some one else.
PUNCTUATION. 171
Quotation Marks are two inverted commas at the
beginning, and two apostrophes at the close, of the part
quoted.
The following are the rules for the use of Quotation
Marks :
1. Direct Quotations. — Qxwtation marks are used to
enclose a direct quotation. Thus,
Everett says, " If we retrench the wages of the schoolmaster,
we must raise those of the recruiting sergeant."
When other words occur between the parts of the
quoted expression, only the quoted words are enclosed
by the marks. Thus,
" We can overcome the difficulty," said the speaker, "by per-
sistent effort."
^ When the quotation is not direct, no quotation marks
are needed. Observe the following :
a. Bacon said, " Knowledge is power."
h. Bacon said that knowledge is power.
2. A Quotation within a Quotation. — When one
quotation is included vrithin another j the included quotation
is enclosed with single quotation marks. Thus,
These were Longfellow's words :
" Life is real, life is earnest ;
And the grave is not the goal ;
* Dust thou art, to dust return est,'
Was not spoken of the soul."
If a quotation included within a quotation contains
another included quotation, the latter is enclosed in
double quotation marks. Thus,
I found the following: "Some one has said, * What a world
of wisdom is contained in the poet's words, " The grave is not
the goal." ' "
172 GOOD ENGLISH.
«
Notice that the number of quotation marks at the end
must balance those which begin the quotations.
3. Quoted Paragrraphs. — When a number of quoted
paragraphs come in sicccession, the inverted commas precede
each paragraph, but the closing quotation marks follow the
last paragraph only.
When a quotation is made, the quotation marks
should enclose the usual punctuation marks as well as
the words.
Observe the difference in the following :
a. His remark was, *' Why did you not go?"
b. Was his remark, " Must you go " or " Will you go " ?
The first sentence embraces a quoted question; the
second is a question itself, and therefore is followed by
an interrogation point.
Examples for illustration are sometimes enclosed iA
quotation marks. Thus,
The word " in " is sometimes an adverb.
The Hyphen.
The chief uses of the hyphen will be found discussed
in connection with the subject of Syllabication, pp. 30-34.
Other Marks.
The following are the most important of the other
marks used in written and printed discourse. Most of
them are used only by printers and proof-readers.
Brackets [ ] are used to enclose some word or words
necessary to correct an error or afford an explanation ; as,
" They [the Puritans] came direct from Holland."
Brackets are sometimes used in dictionaries and works
PUNCTUATION. 173
on language to enclose the pronunciation or the etymol-
ogy of a word ; as, Belles Lettres [bel let'r].
Brackets are used also in dialogues, dramas, etc., to
enclose instructions to the actors.
The Aposlrophe ['] is used to indicate the omission
of letters or figures —
1. To form contractions ; as, doesnH for does not, don't
for do not, isn^t for is not, e'er for ever, oW for over, etc.
2. To form plurals; as, 6's, +'s, S's, instead of 6es,
+es, Ses.
3. To indicate the possessive form of a noun; as,
king% queen'^s, widow^s, etc., the old forms having been
kyngis, queenis, widdowes, etc.
4. To indicate the century figures in the case of dates;
as, '97 for 1897.
The Ellipsis, [* * *], [ ], [ ], is used to show
that letters or words have been omitted ; as. President
C— — d, for President Cleveland, or Mrs. G***n, for
Mrs. Green.
The Section [§] denotes the smaller divisions of a
book or a chapter.
The Paragraph [f], now rarely used, denotes the
beginning of a new paragraph or a new subject.
The Caret [ a ] is used in writing to show that some-
a
thing is to be inserted ; as," Mr. Gry will remain with us
a week." ^
The Caret should always be placed below the line and
the correction immediately above it.
The Index [a^"] is us^d to point out something
special.
The Brace [}] is used to connect two or more terms
with another term; as, Pupils i v,?*^^'' -'
.... . . CGirls, 27.
174 GOOD ENGLISH,
The Ditto Mark ["] is used to indicate that the words
above it are to be repeated ; as,
2 pr. Shoes, @ $2.50 $5.00
6 " " @ 3.00 18.00
It is not correct to use the ditto mark to indicate the
repetition of the names of persons. The following is
incorrect :
Mary S. Evans,
Susan B. "
Samuel S. Miles,
" G. Conser.
The name in either case should be written in full.
The Cedilla [9], used in printing, and placed under
the letter c, gives that letter the sound of «, as in fa9ade.
The Tilde ["^J, placed over the letter n, shows that the
n is equivalent to n and y, as in cafion [canyon].
The Diaeresis ["], placed over the second of two suc-
cessive similar vowels, shows that they belong to diiOfer-
ent syllables, as in " zoology," " coordinate."
The Ma.cron [~], placed over a vowel, shows that the
vowel has the long sound ; as, " ale," " fire."
The Breve ["^], placed over a vowel, shows that the
vowel has the short sound; as, "&t," "fit."
The Asterisk [*], the Dagrgrer [f], the Double Dag-
ger [J], the Section [§], the Parallels [||], and the Par-
agraph [^], are generally used to refer to marginal
notes. Sometimes figures and letters of the alphabet
are used for the same purpose.
Leaders are dots used tb carry the eye from the
words at the beginning of the line to something at
the end of it. Thus, :
Spelling page 44
Syllabication "83
PUNCTUATION. 175
Book Notes.
The Title-page of a book is that page of the book
which contains the title. It is usually the first page.
Runningr Titles, or Headlines, are placed at the tops
of the successive pages, and are used to show the name
of the book, the subject treated of on the page, or both. .
Captions, or Sub-he€uis, are headings placed over
chapters or sections; they stand in the body of the
page, not at the top.
Side-heads are titles run into the line or made a part
of it.
A Frontispiece is a picture placed opposite the title-
page, and facing it.
A Vignette is a small picture, not occupying a full
page, but placed among other matter either on the title-
page or in some other part of the book.
In preparing manuscript for printing, one line ( ^
should be drawn under such words as are to be put
in italics; two lines ( . ) under such as are to be
printed in small capitals; and three lines ( )
under such as are to be printed in LARGE CAPI-
TALS. A waved line (^^^.^x^^) is placed under words
that are to be printed in bold-feoed type.
Italics should be used sparingly. Inexperienced writ-
ers generally use underscored words too freely to indicate
emphatic words.
Leads are thin plates of type-metal by which lines are
spaced apart. Matter spaced in this way is said to be
leaded.
Composing, as a part of the printer's work, is setting
up the type. The work itself is called composition.
The quantity of printed matter is counted by ems.
An cm is the square of the body of the type used.
176 GOOD ENGLISH.
A OORBBCTBD PbOOF-ShEET.
OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES.
Dr. Holmes ha/ been likened to Thomas ^
-£0? hood, but there is little in common between
them, save the powein/ of combining fancy ^
€ I and senUfment with grotesque drollery and
humor. Hood under all his whims and . /
ea I oddities, concaels the vehement inten sity ^
of a reformer. The iron of the ^orld's /, c.
wrongs has entered into his soul. There
S isan undertone of sorrow in his lyrics. His
X sarcasm directed against oppression and big- ^^
otry, at times betrays the earnestness of one
whose -ewft- withers have been wrung. <yfe/.
D . Holmes writes for simply the amusement of /4,
'A
himself and his readers.
-A
I He deals only with the vanities, the foi-
bles, and the minor faults of mankind, good. / - /
naturedly and almost sympathizingly sug-
uf./. gesting excuses ft/r folly/ which he tosses j j
about on the horns of ridicule/ Long may q
om, he live to make broader the face of our care-
ridden generation, and to realize for himself
the truth of the wise mans declaration that i/^
" A merry heart is a continual feast."
J. G. Whittier.
tJ^m/.
PUNCTUATION. 177
EXPLANATION OF PROOF-MARKS.
^ is a mark showing an inverted letter.
^ (Dele) means take away.
X indicates a broken letter.
-^ directs less space between words.
^^ over oe and ae indicates that they are to be printed oe or se.
Jf indicates that a space is needed where a caret, A> ^ P"^
O directs that all space be taken out.
I indicates that a space stands up.
[ sho^vs that a word or a line is to be moved toward the face of the
bracket, whichever way turned.
^ denotes that a new paragraph is to be made.
placed under letters or words erased indicate that they are to
be restored. The word Stet is placed in the margin.
tr. Transpose words or letters. Sometimes the letters are written
correctly in the margin instead of using tr,
w.f. shows that the type is of the wrong font, too large or too
small.
Lc, (lower case) directs that a small letter be substituted for the
capital letter used.
A, the caret, is used to denote where an inserted correction is to be
made.
D shows that the word before which it is placed should be set in.
JRom, means change to Roman letters.
Ilcd. means change to Italic letters.
(/ shows where an apostrophe, quotation marks, or references, as
indicated in the margin, should be placed.
No Tf or No break shows that a new paragraph is not to be made.
When a query is made on the proof-sheet, if the anthm* desires
the correction to be made, he erases the (?) or Qy, If he does not
wish the change made, he erases both the Qy. and the correction.
When several words have been left QUt, they may be written at the
bottom of the page, and a line be drawn from them to the caret indi-
cating the omission.
12
178 GOOD ENGLISH.
Sizes of Books.
The terms 8vo, 12mo, 16mo, 24mo, etc., indicate the
number of leaves into which a printed sheet is folded.
A book is called a Folio when the sheets on which it
is printed are folded so as to make two leaves.
In a QuartOj or 4to, each sheet makes four leaves.
In an Octavo, or 8vo, a sheet makes eight leaves ; in
a Duodecimo, or 12mo, twelve leaves, and so on.
Inasmuch as sheets of printing paper now vary in
size, the terms octavo, duodecimo, etc., do not indicate
definitely the size of the printed page.
LETTER-WRITING.
A LETTER consists properly of the following parts :
1. The Heading,
2. The Introduction,
3. The Body,
4. The Conclusion,
5. The Superscription.
The mechanical part of a letter should receive due
attention. The appearance of a letter sometimes exer-
cises more influence than the sentiment which it con-
tains. This is especially true of letters of courtesy.
The Hbading.
The Headingr of a letter consists of the name of the
place at which the letter was written and the date when
it was written.
When a letter is written from a large city, the first
line of the heading should include the door-number,
the name of the street, and the names of the city and
the state. The date should occupy the second line.
Thus,
When one does not care to have his residence known,
or is not permanently located, the number of the post-
179
180 GOOD ESGUSH.
office box may be given instead of the door-number.
Thus,
In a letter written from the country, or fit>m a village
or a small town, the county as well as the state should
be mentioned. Thus,
If the letter be written from a school or a prominent
hotel, the name of the institution or the hotel may oc-
cupy the first line of the heading, in which case the
heading may occupy three lines, as follows:
Or,
Figures are employed only for the door-number, the
day of the month, the year, and the number of the post-
office box.
When the heading is short, it usually occupies but
one line. Thus,
^jci^cud^ei.^ 0^€i., Q^^jf^. y, -/<r^^.
LETTEB-WBITINQ. 181
When the heading occupies more than one line, each
line should begin a little farther to the right than the
preceding line, as in the foregoing examples.
The first line should begin a little to the left of the
middle of the page.
Every important part of the heading should begin
with a capital letter.
A period should follow every abbreviation, and the
parts should be separated by commas. A period should
be placed also at the end of the heading.
The Date consists of the month, the day of the month,
and the year. The day of the month is separated from
the year by a comma.
In writing the date, either the cardinal or the ordinal
form may be used. Thus,
jSt4^ // "^^77/ or ^^^ /-^ ^^77-
Should the ordinal forms be used, no period must be
placed after them, as they are not abbreviations.
By some writers the date is placed at the close of the
letter. In such cases it begins near the left edge of the
page, and on the line below that on which the signature
is placed. In such cases, also, the name of the person to
whom the letter is written must appear in the introduc-
tion.
Business-men sometimes use figures to denote the
number of the month; as, 4/6/'96, for April 6, 1896;
but this is permissible only in business letters.
The Introduction.
The Introduction consists of the formal address and
the salutation.
The formal address varies with the style of the letter.
182 GOOD ENGLISH.
It consists of the namje^ the tUUy and the pld^ of bumiess
or the residence of the person addressed.
In some cases the name and the title alone are used
in the address. While this is not objectionable in social
letters, it is not the best form for business letters, as
there would be no way of ascertaining the ownership
of the letter in case it were lost or mislaid without the
envelope.
Titles should not be omitted, but they should be used
sparingly. It is usually sufficient to use the most prom-
inent title of the person addressed.
The Address may occupy one, two, or three lines, each
line followed by a comma, until the address is complete,
when it should be closed with a period.
The name of the person addressed should be written
plainly and in full.
Titles are prefixed as follows :
Mr, to a gentleman's name;
Messrs, (for Messieurs) to the names of several gentle-
men addressed in the same letter ;
Master to the name of a boy ;
Miss to the name of an unmarried lady ;
Misses to the names of several unmarried ladies ad-
dressed in the same letter;
Mrs. (mistress) to the name of a married lady or a
widow ;
Mesdames (ma dam') to the names of several married
ladies or wudows addressed in the same letter;
Dr, (plural Drs.) to the name of a physician ;
Eev. (plural Revs.) to the name of a clergyman, or
Rev, Mr, if his Christian name is unknown to you;
Rev. Dr.\, or Rev, , D. D,, if the clergyman is
a doctor of divinity.
Only one title of courtesy should be affixed to a
LETTER -WRITING. 183
name. Thus, it would be incorrect to write "Mr.
George Johnson, Esq.," both titles meaning popularly
the same thing.
In the case of married ladies, however, it is correct,
according to the best usage, to affix the title of cour-
tesy iffrs., and at the same time the honorary or profes-
sional title of her husband; as, Mrs. General Grant,
Mrs. Dr. Bush. *
Two or more literary or professional titles may be
used with the same name, provided none of them in-
clude any of the others. In such cases they should be
written in the order of their importance, which is prob-
ably the order in which they were conferred, using the
highest title last. Thus, " W. H. Hodson, A. M., Ph. D."
In addressing a person, it is not necessary to use all
his titles if there are more than one. John P. Smith,
LL.D., or Dr. John P. Smith, is quite as expressive on
an envelope as John P. Smith, A. M., Ph. D., LL.D.
The place of bimness or residence, sometimes called the
inside address, should give the name of the person's
post-office and the state in which it is situated. Thus,
'^^.
If the post-office be in a city of considerable size, the
door-number and also the name of the street should be
given. Thus,
184 GOOD ENGLISH.
The Salutation. — ^The complimentary salutation va-
ries with the degree of formality of the letter or the
position occupied by the persons addressed.
Strangers are addressed as Sir^ Madam^ Rev, Sir, Gen-
eral, etc., though the first two of these should be avoided
as far as possible as being too stiff and formal.
Acquaintances may be addressed as Dear Sir, Dear Mor
dam, Dear Miss Clark, etc., and the same forms are used
generally in social and in business correspondence.
Friends are usually addressed as Dear Friend, Dear Alice,
Friend Johnson, My dear Friend, etc.
Near Relatives and other close friends are usually ad-
dressed as My dear Daughter, My dear Child, My dear
Mary, etc.
When addressing a firm, consisting of several persons,
the term Sirs or Dear Sirs, or the word Gentlemen, may be
used as the salutation.
Never use Dr. as an abbreviation of Dear, or Gents, for
Gentlemen; neither is correct.
A military or a naval officer is saluted by his official
title, as Captain, Major, Commodore, or by the title Sir.
A Governor is addressed as Governor, His Excellency, or Sir,
The President is addressed as His Excellency, or as
President .
A married lady or an elderly unmarried lady is ad-
dressed in business letters as Madam, Dear Madam, or
My dear Madam,
In addressing a young unmarried lady, the salutation
is by some omitted. Thus,
tf
'UCiO. '^ 'C'njf(</i,^3^ ^aU'y «^.
LETTEB -WRITING. 185
This form is used to avoid the repetition of the word
"Miss." It would seem better, however, to address
young unmarried ladies by the same term. Madam, as
the married, inasmuch as the word "Miss," preceding
the name, shows that the lady is unmarried.
There is no objection to the following form :
€iu4. ^(e^^^i. -ojc '^e^t.^e^tc^'uy,^ 'C^c^.
The address is usually placed in the next line after
the heading, or the next line but one. It should begin
at the left side of the page near the margin, and when it
occupies more than one line each line should begin a
little farther to the right than the one preceding.
Sometimes the address is placed at the bottom of the
letter, beginning on the line next below the signature,
but at the left side of the page, in the same position as
if written before the body of the letter.
The salutation should follow the address on the next
line below, and should be followed by a comma because
the noun is in the ^Nominative Case Independent b}*'
address.
When the address consists of but one line, the saluta-
tion should begin about an inch to the right of the mar-
ginal line. Thus,
When the address consists of two lines, the salutation
should begin about an inch farther to the right than the
186 GOOD ENGLISH.
beginning of the second line of the address, but it may
begin under the beginning of the first line. Thus,
When the address consists of three lines, the saluta-
tion should begin under the first letter or figure of the
second line, but it may begin under the first letter of
the first line. Thus,
A 6 St Q^^d^ad^ C^ue.,
When there is no address preceding the salutation,
the latter should begin at the marginal line. Thus, .
Cautions.
Note the following cautions :
1. Separate the parts of the address by commas, and
place a period at the close of the address.
A't<:,€ia<f,
LETTER-WRITING. 187
2. Begin every important word of the address with a
capital letter.
3. Begin the first word and every noun in the saluta-
tion with a capital letter.
4. Place a comma after the salutation unless the body
of the letter begins on the same line, in which case place
a comma and a dash after the salutation.
5. Do not begin any two successive lines of the head-
ing, the introduction, the conclusion, or the superscrip-
tion of a letter, at the same vertical line.
The Body op the Letter
The Body of a letter is that which contains what
is communicated from the writer to the person ad-
dressed.
When the introduction consists of three lines or less,
the body of the letter should begin on the next line
below, the first word beginning a little to the right of
the first word of the preceding line. Thus,
€^€/m'C4^^
i^fd -U^^C^t -Cd €9^ ^€144,€/^ e/uo.
When the introduction consists of more than three
lines, the body of the letter may begin on the same line
as the salutation. In this case a dash should follow the
comma after the salutation. Thus,
188 GOOD ENGLISH.
The body of a letter should vary in style and length
according to its character. The language should be nat-
ural, and not stilted or florid. The penmanship should
be neat and legible, devoid of flourishes, erasures, blots,
interlineations, crosslines, and everything else that will
detract from its neatness or from ease in reading it.
Business letters should be short, omitting nothing that
is necessary, and avoiding all repetitions and unneces-
sary explanations.
The body of a letter should continue on the succeed-
ing pages in their regular order, b^inning with the first.
The Oonclusion.
The Concltifilon of a letter consists of the compliment'
ary dose and the signature.
The forms of the complimentary close vary according
to the relations of the writer and the person addressed,
but they should always harmonize with the salutation.
Thus, Yours truly and Truly yours may be used with Dear
Sir or Dear Madanty or be confined to business letters.
Sincerely 'yours denotes a greater degree of friendship.
Cordially yours is a still stronger expression. To begin
a letter with My dear Friend and close it with Yours
respectfully, or Yours truly, would be a serious blunder.
A letter beginning with My dear Friend would require
LETTER-WRITINQ. 189
some degree of aflTection to be expressed in the compli-
mentary close ; as, Your devoted friend, Faithfully yours,
or Affectionately yours.
Official letters close in a more formal manner. A
common form is the following:
d —
Or the following :
cJk @^
Or,
These forms, however, frequently take as substitutes
" Yours respectfully " or " Very respectfully."
Note the following cautions :
1. Never close a letter with the form " Yours, etc."
2. In closing a letter begin each line of the compli-
mentary close with a capital letter, but do not begin the
other words with capitals. Instead of writing Yours Very
Truly J or Your Devoted Friend, write Yours very tndy, Your
devoted friend.
The Signature. — ^The Signature, consisting of the name
of the person who writes the letter, should be placed^t*
190 GOOD ENGLISH.
the bottom of the letter, immediately following the com-
plimentary cloee.
In letters of importance the writer's name should be
signed in full.
A letter which by accident or otherwise goes astray is
sent to the Dead Letter Office, where it is opened and
returned to the writer if it contains his name and ad-
dress.
The signature should be plainly written. The writer
should remember that while he or his friends may be
able to recognize his signature, however poorly written,
he has no right to puzzle others with his illegible writ-
ing.
In writing to a stranger or an inferior, it is proper for
a lady to sign her name with her title prefixed. Thus,
Or, /cJf&i^J C^e:ce ^. ©^^i7^,
A married woman may use her husband's name and
initials. Thus,
A widow should use her own name and initials. Thus,
The Superscription.
The Superscription, or address on the envelope, con-
sists of the name of the person to whom the letter is
written, together with his proper title and post-oflBce
Address,
LETTER -WBITINO. 191
Care should be taken to make this address plain, that
the letter may not be miscarried or lost. It is said that
millions of letters are sent every 3'ear to the Dead Let-
ter Office, many of them because poorly or improperly
directed.
A proper address gives the title, the name, the post-
office, the county, and the state.
All the words in the superscription except prepositions
and articles should begin with capital letters.
A period should follow every abbreviation, and one
should be placed at the end of the complete address.
A comma should follow each line to separate the parts
of the address. Thus,
Iz.
Letters addressed to a city may omit the county, but
they should have the door-number and the name of the
street, or the number of the post-office box.
The practice of writing the superscription in any other
than £r horizontal direction is not in good taste.
The superscription should begin near the middle of
the envelope vertically, and usually near the left edge.
The other lines should begin each a little farther to the
right than its predecessor, so that the name of the state
comes near the lower right-hand corner.
When a person's official designation is given in full, it
forms the second line of the superscription.
Care must be taken to write the abbreviations of the
192 GOOD ENGLISH.
names of the states distinctly. Pcl and VcLj Penn. and
Tenn,j N. Y. and K J., are those which are most likely to
be confounded.
When the name of the county is written in the lower
left-hand corner of the envelope, it should be followed
by a comma, as it is fully as much a part of the address
as if placed immediately above the name of the state.
Invitations and BsaBBTs.
An Invitation is a formal note of courtesy. Invita-
tions are usually written in the third person, and when
so written the answer also must be in the third person.
Answers to invitations are either Acceptances or Regrets,
An acceptance is an afl&rmative answer; a regret is a
formal note which explains a non-acceptance.
Many invitations contain the letters R. S. V. P. at the
close. These are the initials of Bespondez a^U vovs plaity
meaning, " Answer, if you please."
Most invitations do not need an answer if the person
intends to accept. A failure to reply is understood to
be an acceptance.
An invitation to dinner or tea, however, requires a
prompt answer of either acceptance or regrets.
Answers to invitations to weddings, balls, receptions,
etc., should be sent not later than the third day after
receiving the invitation. •
The answer to an invitation should be acknowledged
and addressed to the person in whose name the invita-
tion is given. If given by a lady and a gentleman to-
gether, it should be acknowledged to both, but be
addressed on the envelope to the lady.
A regret should always state, at least in general terms,
the reason why the person invited cannot accept, and
this statement should be as brief as possible.
LETTER - WBITINO. 193
One may regret that " a previous engagement," " in-
tended absence," " sickness in the family," or some sim-
ilar reason prevents acceptance.
Abbreviations are not in good taste in invitations,
acceptances, or regrets. Initials may, however, be used.
Thus, we may write Mr. and Mrs. G. G. Adams, but not
Mr. and Mrs. Geo, G. Adams.
Hints on Letter -WRirma.
Letters of introduction are usually delivered in per-
son. They should, therefore, be left unsealed. If they
are to be delivered personally, the name of the person
to be introduced may be written on the lower left-hand
corner of the envelope, somewhat like the following:
Introducing Mr. Geo, JT, Fox.
All favors or courteous attentions that require ac-
knowledgment should be acknowledged promptly.
Letters about one's own affairs, when requiring an
answer, should contain a postage stamp or a stamped
envelope for return postage.
When one has been on a visit to a friend living at
some distance, he should, on returning home, write at
once of his safe arrival and of his appreciation of the
hospitality he enjoyed.
Social letters should never be written on foolscap
paper or half sheets.
One should sign his full name in writing to a
stranger.
A note written in the third person should never have
the writer's signature attached.
In replying to a note written in the first person it is
considered highly impolite for the one who replies to
use the third person.
13
194
GOOD ENGLISH..
It is not good taste for a writer to prefix his title to
his name in putting his signature to a letter.
A letter of introduction, if sent by mail, should be
sealed, and contain the card of the person introduced.
Never write an anonymous letter.
Important Abbreviations.
The following is a list of the most important abbre-
viations used in printing:
A. A. 8., Fellow of the Amer-
ican Academy of Arts and
8cience8.
A. B. or B. A., Bachelor of
Arts.
A. B. C. F. M., American Board
of Commissioners for For-
eign Missions.
Acct., Account.
A. D., In the year of our Lord.
ad lib. {ad libitum), at pleasure.
Adjt., Adjutant.
Adjt. Gen., Adjutant General.
-^t. or set., of age, aged.
Ala., Alabama.
Alex., Alexander.
A. M., Before noon ; Master of
Arts.
And., Andrew.
Anon., Anonymous.
Ans., Answer.
Arch., Archibald.
Ark., Arkansas.
Art., Article.
Ar. Ter., Arizona Territory.
Att*y Gen., Attorney General.
., August ; Augustus.
B. A., British America.
Bart., Baronet.
Bbl. or bbl., barrel, barrels.
B. C, Before Christ.
B. C. L., Bachelor of the Civil
Law.
B. D., Bachelor of Divinity.
Bds. or bds., Boards (bound
in).
Benj., Benjamin.
B. M., Bachelor of Medicine.
Bp., Bishop.
Br. Co\(, British Columbia.
Brig. Gen., Brigadier General.
Bro., Brother; Bros., Brothers.
B. S., Bachelor of Science ;
Bachelor of Surgery,
bu., bushel, bushels.
Cal., California.
Can., Canada.
Cant., Canticles, or Song of
Solomon.
Cap. (caput). Chapter.
Caps., Capitals.
Capt., Captain.
Capt. Gen., Captain General.
Cath., Catherine.
ABBREVIATIONS.
195
C. B., Cape Breton ; Compan-
ion of the Bath.
C. E., Canada East ; Civil En-
gineer.
C. or Cent., Centigrade.
Cf. (confer)^ Compare.
C. H., Court-House.
Chap., dhapter, Chapters.
Chas.^ Charles.
Chron., Chronicles.
C. J., Chief Justice.
Co., Company ; County.
C. O. D., Collect on Delivery,
Col., Colonel.
Colo., Colorado.
Com., Commander ; Commo-
dore.
Conn., Connecticut.
Cor., Corinthians.
C. P., Common Pleas.
ct, cent, cents.
cu. fk., cubic feet
cu. in., cubic inch, cubic inches.
C. W., Canada West.
cwt, hundred-weight,
d., days ; pence.
Dan., Daniel.
D. C. (da capo). Repeat.
D. C, District of Columbia.
D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Law.
D. D., Doctor of Divinity.
Dec, December.
dec, declination.
deg., degree, degrees;
Del., Delaware.
Dele ( B ), Erase.
Dist. Att'y, District Attorney.
D. M., Doctor of Music.
do. (ditto), the same.
Dr., Debtor; Doctor.
D. Sc, Doctor of Science.
D. V. (Deo volente), God will-
ing.
dwt, pennyweight.
E., East
Eccl., Ecclesiastes.
Ed., Editor; Eds., Editors.
Edm., Edmund.
Edw., Edward.
e. g. {exempli gratia), for exam-
ple.
E. I., East Indies.
Eiiz., Elizabeth.
Eph., Epbraira.
Esq., Esquire ; plur., Esqs.
Esth., Esther.
et al. (et alii), and others.
et seq. (et sequentia), and fol-
lowing.
etc or &c. (et ccetera), and so
forth.
Ex., Example ; Exodus.
Exc, Exception.
Ez., Ezra.
Ezek., Ezekiel.
F., Fahr., Fahrenheit.
F. A. S., Fellow of the Anti-
quarian Society.
fath., fathom, fathoms.
Feb., February.
Fig., Figure, Figures.
Fla., Florida.
F. M., Field Marshal,
fol., folio, folios.
Fran., Francis.
Fred., Frederic.
196
GOOD ENGLISH.
t^t
ft., foot, feet.
Ft., Fort.
fur., furlong, furlongs,
Ga., Georgia.
Gal., GalatiaDS.
gal., gallon, gallons.
Gen., General ; Genesis.
Geo., George.
Gov., Governor.
Gov. Gen., Governor General.
gr., grain, grains.
h., hour, hours.
H. B. M., His or Her Britannic
Majesty.
Heb., Hebrews,
hhd., hogshead, hogsheads.
H. M., His or Her Majesty.
Hon., Honorable.
H. R. H., His Royal Highness,
ib. or ibid, (ibidem) y in the same
place,
id. (idem)^ the same.
Id., Idaho,
i. e. [id e8t)y that is.
I. H. S. (Jesus hominum Salva-
tor)y Jesus, the Savior of
men.
111., Illinois.
incog, (incognito) y unknown.
Ind., Indiana.
Ind. Ter., Indian Territory.
Insp. Gen., Inspector General,
inst., instant, the present month,
la., Iowa.
f . O. O. F., Independent Order
of Odd Fellows.
Isa., Isaiah.
Jac, Jacob.
Jam., Jamaica.
Jan., January.
Jas., James.
Jer., Jeremiah.
Jona., Jonathan.
Jos., Joseph.
Josh., Joshua.
J. P., Justice of the Peace.
Jr. or Jun., Junior..
Jud., Judith.
Judg., Judges.
Kan., Kansas.
Kt., Knight.
Ky., Kentucky.
L., £y or 1., pounds sterling.
La., Louisiana.
Lat., Latitude.
lb. (libra) y pound or pounds, in
weight.
L. C, Lower Canada.
Lev., Leviticus.
L. I., Long Island.
Lib. (liber) y Book.
Lieut., Lieutenant.
Lieut. Col., Lieutenant Col*
onel.
Lieut. Gen., Lieutenant G^en-
eral.
Lieut. Gov., Lieutenant Gov-
ernor.
LL.B., Bachelor of Laws.
LL.D., Doctor of Laws.
Lon. or Long., Longitude.
L. S. (locus sigilli)y place of the
seal.
M. or Mons., Monsieur.
M. {meridifis)y Noon,
m., miles; meters,
ABBREVIATIONS,
197
M. A., Master of Arts.
Mad., Madam.
Mag., Magazine.
Maj. Gen., Major General.
Mass., Massachusetts.
Matt., Matthew.
M. B., Bachelor of Medicine.
M. C, Member of Congress.
M. D., Doctor of Medicine.
Md., Maryland.
Me., Maine.
Mem., Memorandum, Memo-
randa.
Messrs., Messieurs, Gentlemen.
Mgr., Monsignor.
Mich., Michigan,
min., minutes.
Minn., Minnesota.
Miss., Mississippi.
Mile., Mademoiselle.
MM., Messieurs, Gentlemen.
Mme., Madame.
Mo., Missouri,
mo., month, months.
Mons., Monsieur.
M. P., Member of Parliament.
Mr., Mister.
Mrs., Mistress.
MS., Manuscript.
MSS., Manuscripts.
Mt., Mount, Mountain.
Mts., Mountains.
Mont., Montana.
Mus. B., Bachelor of Music.
Mus. D., Doctor of Music.
N., North.
N. A., North America.
Nath., Nathaniel.
N. B. {nota bene), Mark well.
N. B., New Brunswick.
N. C, North Carolina.
N. E., New England ; North-
east.
Neb., Nebraska.
Nev., Nevada.
N. F., Newfoundland.
N. H., New Hampshire.
N. J., New Jersey.
N. M., New Mexico.
N. O., New Orleans.
No., Number ; Nos., Numbers.
Nov., November.
N. S., Nova Scotia.
Num., Numbers.
N. W., Northwest.
N. Y., New York.
O., Ohio.
Oct., October.
Ont., Ontario.
Or., Oregon.
oz., ounce, ounces.
P. or p., page ; pp., pages.
P. E. I., Prince Edward Island.
Pa., Pennsylvania.
Per ct., by the hundred.
Ph. D., Doctor of Philosophy.
Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it.
pk., peck, pecks.
P. M., Postmaster.
P. M. (post meridiem), after-
noon.
P. O., Post-Office.
Pop., Population.
P. P. C. (pour prendre conge), to
take leave.
Pref., Preface.
198
GOOD ENGLISH.
Pres., President.
Prof., Professor.
Pro tem. (pro tempore), for the
time belDg.
Prov., Proverbs,
prox. {proximo), the next
month.
P. S. ( po»t scriphtm), Postscript.
Ps., Psalm, Psalms,
pt., pint, pints.
qt., qnart, quarts.
q. v. {^od vide), which see.
Qy., Query.
R., R. (Recipe), take,
rd., rod, rods.
Begt, Regiment.
Rem., Remark, Remarks.
Rep., Reports.
Rev., Reverend ; Revelation.
R. I., Rhode Island.
R. N., Royal Navy.
Rom., Romans.
R. R., Railroad.
Rt. Hon., Right Honorable.
Rt. Rev., Right Reverend.
B., South.
8., seconds, shillings.
8. A., South America.
Sam., Samuel.
S. C, South Carolina.
S. caps., SMALL CAPITALS.
a R, Southeast.
sec, second, seconds.
Sect., Section, Sections.
Sept., September.
Ser., Series.
Serg., Sergeant.
Serg. Maj., Sergeant Major.
S. J., Society of Jesus.
Sol., Solomon.
Sol. Gen., Solicitor General,
ap. gr., specific grayity.
sq. ft, square foot or feet,
sq. in., square inch or inches,
sq. m., square mile or miles,
sq. rd., square rod or rods,
sq. yd., square yard or yards.
SS. (scilicet), Namely.
St., Saint ; Street ; Strait.
Stat., Statute, Statutes.
S. T. D. (Sancfce Theolo^ice Doc-
tor), Doctor of Divinity.
Stet, Let it stand.
Supt., Superintendent.
Surg. Gen., Surgeon General.
Surv. Gfen., Surveyor General.
S. W., Southwest.
T., ton, tons ; tun, tuns.
Tenn., Tennessee.
Ter., Territory.
Tex., Texas.
Theo., Theodore.
Theoph., Theophilos.
Thos., Thomas.
Tim., Timothy.
Treas., Treasurer.
U. C, Upper Canada,
nit. (ultimo), the last month.
U. S., United States.
U. S. A., United States Army.
U. S. M., United States Mail.
U. S. N., United States Navy,
vs. (versus), against.
Va., Virginia.
V. P., Vice-President
vid. (vide), see.
ABBREVIATIONS,
199
viz. [videlicet) y to wit, namely.
Vol., Volume ; Vols., Volumes.
Vt., Vermont.
W., West.
Wash., Washington.
W. I., West Indies.
Wis., Wisconsin.
wk., week, weeks.
Wm., William.
Wy., Wyoming.
W. Va., West Virginia.
Xmas., Christmas.
yd., yard, yards.
y. or yr., year, years.
CHOICE OF WOKDS.
Noun Synonyms.
SYXoyrMs are words having neariy the same meaning,
with shades of difference. The following are among the
iliost prominent synonyms, in the conrect use of which
the student of English should discriminate.
Acceptance, acceptation. — Accepiance is " the act of
acceptin<r,^ or ** favorahle reception," as the acceptance
of an office. Acceptation is the sense in which a term is
used ; as, *' In the present acceptation of the word."
Ability, capacity. — Ability is one's power of doing.
Capacity is the power of understanding, of acquiring, of
containing. ^* The teacher has great ability as a mathe-
matician." " The child's capacity is limited."
Act, action. — An act is a deed or a result viewed in
connection with the power or will of the doer. It is
never used of things mechanical. It is the simple exer-
tion of power preceded by volition. Action is the pro-
cess of doing. Smithy in "Synonyms Discriminated,"
says, "The act denotes power; the action involves the
mode in which the power is exercised. To speak gen-
erally, a>cts are primarily physical, and secondarily
moral; actions are primarily moral, and secondarily
physical." An act is single; actions are continuous.
"His saving of the boy's life was a noble act." "Our
character is judged by our actions."
Adherence, adhesion. — Adherence expresses the moral
200
CHOICE OT WORDS. 201
idea of attachment, while adhesion has reference to phys-
ical attachment. We speak of a man's adherence to the
principles of his party or the doctrines of his church,
and of the adhesion of an object fastened to another, as
the bark to the body of a tree.
Admittance, admission. — Admittance has reference to
the mere act of allowing to enter. Admission has refer-
ence in a moral sense to the reception with some sort
of sanction. Admittance is local, as the admittance into
a public building. Admission has rather the meaning of
a right to admittance. " It is the right of admission that
secures admittance," says Smith. " No admittance here "
is correct, as is also " We gained admission to the build-
ing." There is admittance when the way is open, and
admission when persons are willing to admit.
Advantagre, benefit, profit. — An advantage is that
which puts one forward, or places him in a better con-
dition as regards society or his work ; thus, "The advan-
tages of education, culture, and wealth." Benefit is any-
thing which makes the person who receives it happier
or more prosperous. We may reap benefits ourselves or
they may be conferred upon us. We exercise for the
benefit of our health ; we give to charity for the benefit
of the poor. Pivftt is gain from something expended ;
it is always the product of our own doing, whether in
action or in money, while " advantage may come to us
adventitiously, and benefits may be conferred upon us."
Affliction, distress. — Affliction is a malady of mind or
body, and is permanent. Distress is more mental than
])hy8ical. It may be entirely independent of physical
pain, and may be but temporary.
Agrsrressor, assailant. — An aggressor is one who begins
a quarrel ; an assailant is one who commits the first act
of violence, as in striking the first blow.
202 GOOD ENGLISK
A^n^eement, contract. — An agreement is the consent
of individuals or parties with reference to certain things
or on certain terms. A contract is a binding agreement
between individuals, formally written and executed.
Amateur, novice. — An amateur is one who is attached
to any art or science or who cultivates it. A novice is a
beginner.
Answer, reply. — An answer is a word or words given
in return to a question. A reply is a formal answer to
an argument, which may be more than a mere question,
as in debate the reply meets or answers certain points or
arguments. Reply is a broader term than answer. We
answer a question and reply to an argument.
Approbation, approval. — Approbation is a sentiment;
approval is the expression of that sentiment. We enter-
tain the approbation and express our approval.
Amount, quantity, number. — Amount is the total in
number or quantity. Quantity is used in connection
with anything that may be measured. Number is used
in connection with things that may be counted.
Avocation, vocation. — An avocation is that in which
one may be occupied or employed temporarily. One's
vocation is his regular calling or profession. Thus, " My
vocation is teaching; my avocation then was reading."
Balance, rest, remainder. — Balance means the differ-
ence between two sides of an account. Rest denotes that
which is left after the separation of a part or parts, and
is used in speaking of persons or things. Remainder is
the rest under certain conditions. It is usually the
smaller part which remains after the greater has been
taken away ; it is used only in speaking of things.
Body, corpse, carcass. — Body and coipaCj as a dead
body, are applied to human beings ; carcass, only to the
lower animals. Body, as far as the organization is con-
CHOICE OF WORDS, 203
oemed, applies to human beings and brutes ; corpse, to
the bodies of human beings only.
Bou^h, branch.— A branch is the limb of a tree con-
sidered simply with regard to its ramifications. A bough
is the branch invested with leaves, blossoms, or fruit.
" The fruitful bough, rich with the foliage of summer
and the fruit of autumn, becomes in winter the leafless
branch." — Smith,
Brace, pair, couple. — A pair, meaning two, must have
some likeness; a couple means two of the same kind
united. In a pair one is often the complement of the
other, as a pair of gloves, a pair of shoes. Brace is a
technical term used by sportsmen; as, "A brace of
quail."
Burial, interment.— ^wnaJ is simply the covering of
anything to hide it, as one may bury his face in his
hands. Interment is a word more restricted in meaning
than burial; it involves the idea of earth or soil.
Calamity, disaster. — The word calamity is usually ap-
plied to such events as produce extensive evils ; such as
failure of crops, destructive floods, or civil war. Disas-
ter is applied to such an occurrence as mars or ruins
particular plans or conditions, such as losses in trade or
railway accidents.
Character, reputation. — Character is what a person
morally is. Reputation is the prevailing opinion with
regard to a person.
Center, middle. — The center is a point or a definite
place, as " The center of a city." The word middle is a
less definite term than center; it may refer to space or
time; as, "The middle of the road;" "The middle of a
line ;" " The middle of winter."
Choice, preference. — Choice denotes the act and the
power of choosing. Preference is the exercise of choice
204 OOOD ENGLISH,
in reference to one or more objects. To say that one has
no choice in a matter means that he has no power to
choose. To say that one has no preference in a matter
means that he has no prevailing inclination or choice.
Companion, associate, comrade. — A companion is
one who goes in company with another temporarily''.
There need be no equality; thus, a man's companion
may be his dog. An assodale is one who is a habitual
and voluntary companion on the ground of personal
liking or community of feeling. A comrade is a com-
panion who is made so by circumstances and not by
personal choice. Thus, the students in a school or the
soldiers of an army are comrades.
Compensation, remuneration. — Compensation is an
equivalent furnished for anything parted with or lost
by another. Remuneration is compensation for personal
services done to the remunerator. One's salary or wages
is therefore remuneration.
Composition, mixture. — A mixture is any interfusion
of particles of a different nature into one mass, liquid
or solid, and it may be the result of either chance or
design. A composition is the union or mixture of parts,
elements, or ingredients designedly, and according to
certain proportions.
Convert, proselyte. — A convert is one who turns from
one set of opinions to another. A proselyte is one who
has been brought over from one religion to another.
The convert has changed his views, religious or other-
wise ; the proselyte is one whose views on religion have
been changed by the persuasion of others.
Comer, angle. — Comer is applied to the meeting of
two solid bodies, angle to the meeting of mathematical
lines. Corner refers to the point of meeting; angle, to
the space included between the lines.
CHOICE OF WORDS, 205
Crime, sin, misdemeanor. — A crime is a deed violat-
ing a law, human or divine. The word is now usually
restricted to mean the violating of a civil law. A sin is
a violation of divine law, or any law of a sacred charac-
ter. A misdemeanor is a minor crime.
Custom, habit. — Custom is a frequent or habitual rep-
etition, whether by individuals or communities. Habit
applies to individuals only, and is the resulting effect of
custom. Custom is voluntary ; habit is involuntary, and
sometimes unconscious.
Deception, deceit. — Deception is the act of deceiving.
It applies to individual instances or acts of one who
deceives. Deceit applies to the habit or quality of mind,
or the trait of character ; thus, we speak of " a course of
deceit."
Delivery, deliverance. — Delivery means a delivering
to; deliverance^ a delivering from.
Difllculty, obstacle.—The word difficulty is usually
applied to such impediments as are complicated, and
require patience to overcome. Obstacle is applied to
such as are simple.
Disability, inability. — Disability expresses the absence
of power from a subject capable of it ; disability may be
only temporary. Inability is the absence of power from
a subject incapable of it. Disability may be removed ;
inability is irremediable.
End, aim. — Aim has reference to the immediate object,
end to the ultimate object.
Extent, limit. — Exjtent denotes a superficial spreading
in one or more directions. Limit is the boundary or
restraint of such extent.
House, home. — A house is a building in which to live.
Home is the place where one habitually lives.
Idea, thought. — An idea is a mental impression or
20& GOOD ENGLISH.
picture ; thus, we have an idea of a rose ; we also have
an idea of red or redness. We combine these ideas and
we have a thought ; as, " The rose is red."
Impertinence, impudence, insolence. — Impertinence
has reference to the meddling with matters in which the
meddler has no concern. Impudence is an unblushing
assurance accompanied with a disregard of the presence
or rights of others. Insolence is applied to the unbridled
exhibition of impudence or pride, to the disregard of the
feelings of others. " Impertinence is no respecter of pro-
priety ; impudence, no respecter of delicacy ; insolence,
no respecter of persons."
Intellect, mind. — Intellect is used to denote the think-,
ing power of the mind, including perception, memory,
imagination, understanding, and intuition. Mind in-
cludes not only the intellect, but also the sensibilities
and the will.
Intention, purpose. — Intention is a general setting of
the mind on doing a thing. Purpose is stronger than
intention, indicating a resolution to be carried out. In-
tention is incipient volition, purpose is decisive.
Invention, discovery. — Invention is the making of a
combination of ideas a reality for the first time. A dis-
covery is the finding out of something heretofore exist-
ing but unknown. Thus, we invent machines and pro-
cesses ; we discover elements, causes, and truths.
Judgment, discernment. — Judgment is the power or
faculty which decides accurately in practical matters.
Discernment is combined keenness and accuracy of men-
tal vision. Discernment regards differences rather than
things, but judgment is concerned with the things them-
selves.
Limb, member. — In human anatomy limb is the term
applied to the arms and the legs, member is the term ap-
CHOICE OF WORDS. 207
plied to any organ or part of the body which performs
a distinct office, as the tongue, the eye.
Majority, plurality. — A majority is more than half of
the whole number. A 'plurality is the excess of votes
given to any candidate over the next highest. It is a
majority when there are but two candidates, but not
necessarily so when there are more than two. Thus, in
a hundred votes cast, fifty-one or upward is a majority ;
but if three candidates receive respectively forty, thirty-
six, and twenty-four votes, the candidate receiving forty
votes has a plurality, but not a majority.
Melody, haxmony. — Melody is a rhythmical succession
of single sounds so as to form a musical thought. Pop-
ularly it is known as the tune. Harmony is a concord
of two or more musical strains. In hymns and other
musical selections, the melody usually is one of the
strains.
Memory, remembrance, recollection. — Memory is
that mental faculty by which we retain and reproduce
a knowledge of past thoughts or events. It includes
remembrance, the power of retaining knowledge, and
recollection, the power of recalling knowledge. Strictly
speaking, the following, " Do you remember my name?"
means only " Do you hold my name in memory ?" What
the speaker means to imply is " Do you recall my name?"
That is, " Do you recollect my name ?" We remember any-
thing that may be recalled either now or in the future,
though we may not be able to recollect it when we wish.
The word usually in demand is " recollect ;" as, " I recol-
lect when it was thought impossible to send news by
telegraph."
Negligence, neglect. — Negligence is applied to the
habit; neglect, to an act or a succession of acts.
Novice, novitiate. — A novice is a beginner, or one
208 GOOD ENGLISH.
who is new in any business or calling. Novitiate denotes
the state or the time of being a novice.
Observance, observation. — Observance is the due or
proper rendering of a formal or practical recognition to
rule, law, custom, or occasion ; as, our observance of the
Sabbath, our observance of law or of the principles of
truth. Observation has reference to an act of close con-
templation, with a view of becoming acquainted with
the object, as the observation of an eclipse.
Opinion, sentiment. — An opinion is purely intellec-
tual, and is the result of a judgment on the subjects of
science, argument, facts, principles, or occurrences. Sen-
timent has to do only with matters of feeling.
Part, portion. — Part is the general term, meaning that
which is less than the whole. Portion is generally used
with some suggestion of allotment. Thus, a portion of
land is a quantity in which one or more persons are
interested.
Proceeding, procedure. — ^A proceeding is a complex
action whose steps or stages may be distinguished sepa-
rately. Procedure is the act or manner of proceeding.
Thus, we may say, "The proceedings were interesting."
" His method of procedure was approved."
Proposal, proposition. — A proposal is something put
forth or laid down for acceptance or rejection by another.
A proposition is simply a statement, an affirmation, or a
denial. Smith, in Synonyms Discriminated^ suggests a
further difference as follows: ^^Proposition being used
for something to be deliberated upon; proposal, some-
thing to be done." In general, it is better to say "I
h'ave a proposal to make," rather than " a proposition
to make."
Beason, cause. — A reason is that which accounts for
a conclusion. It is the why we believe as we do. Catise
CHOICE OF WORDS, 209
is that which produces an effect. The cause gives
the physical account; the reason, the logical or meta-
physical.
Receipt, reception. — The word receipt is used when
money or other objects are taken into possession. Re-
ception applies to persons and to such objects as are con-
nected with sentiment on the part of the giver. The
following are correct forms: "A receipt for the goods
was given ;" " The reception of the favor won our grat-
itude;" "The speaker met with a warm reception."
Relative, relation. — A relative is one who is connected
with another by blood or marriage. The word relation
was so used formerly, but it is now confined mostly to
its abstract sense; as, "What are his relations to the
congregation?" " What relation is Mr. Strong to you?"
Requirement, requisite. — A requirement is something
required by a person or persons. A requisite is some-
thing needed by the nature of the case to give complete-
ness. Thus, "The requirements of candidates for the
position are of a high order ;" " One of the requisites to
success is a good character."
Sewage, sewerage. — Sewage is the contents of sewers.
Sewerage has reference to the system employed in carry-
ing sewage.
Adjective Synonyms.
Acid, sour. — Acid and sour express different degrees
of the same quality. Acid is a concentrated corrosive
sourness; sour refers to a milder form of acidity. Lemon
juice is acid, buttermilk is sour.
Active, busy. — Active expresses a tendency to employ-
ment. Busy means simply closely or diligently employ-
ed. To be active implies energy ; to be busy implies at-
tention to one's work.
14
210 GOOD ENGLISH.
Adjacent, a^joininer, contigruous. — Adjacent means
lying near, without touching. Adjoining means touch-
ing at a single point. Contiguous means touching at one
or more sides.
Abundant, copious, plentiful. — Abundant is used
without reference to the source, but with reference to
the quantity of the supply; as, ''An abundance of
money." Copious means an abundant giving forth ; as,
" A copious stream." Plentiful is similar in meaning to
abundant, but it is limited more strictly to physical
things. We may speak of a plentiful or an abundant
harvest, but not of a plentiful cause for gratitude.
ArtAil, deceitfVil, designing. — The original meaning
of artful was simply ^' full of art," in the sense of con-
trivance. But the word now has reference to the use of
such means for one's own purpose as are hidden from
the observation of others. Deceitful has reference to a
more deliberate purpose of leading others astray. One
may be artful and yet not deceitful. The man who stands
and looks intently at the top of a tree along the street,
and thereby draws a curious crowd, may be called artful,
but he is not necessarily deceitful. The deceitful man
is ready, if necessary, to resort to falsehood to gain his
end. Designing denotes the exercise of artful conduct
with the specific purpose of securing certain results.
The designing man is always laying plans for the pur-
pose of accomplishing some end in the future.
Authentic, genuine. — Authentic means having autho-
rity. Genuine means real or true as opposed to what is
spurious. A document is authentic when it relates facts
and may be relied upon as being true and authoritative.
It is genuine when it is the production of a person whose
name it bears as author.
Beautiftd, handsome. — The word handsome is applied
CHOICE OF WORDS. 211
to persons, to certain objects, and to moral acts. Beau-
tiful is applied to persons and other objects of either
sight or sound. Thus, we speak of " a handsome man,"
" handsome conduct," " a handsome horse." We speak
also of " a beautiful woman," " a beautiful melody," " a
beautiful landscape." Handsome may be applied to men
or women ; horses, dogs, or other animals ; trees, houses,
and parks; but not to landscapes, views, or prospects.
Handsome is rarely applied to physioal objects of small
size; these are jyretty or beautiful.
Beneficent, generous, benevolent, liberal. — Benefr
cent denotes largeness of bounty, as the outflow of great
kindness combined with great power. The w^ord is now
restricted almost wholly to Divine giving. Generous de-
notes a mental disposition to give whether one has the
means or not. It applies to forgiving as well as to giv-
ing. Liberal denotes a character w^hich gives largely
when it gives. It makes no definite estimates as to
what is needed, but aims to give enough. In conduct
it considers favorable as well as unfavorable construc-
tions, and rather gives them the preference. Benevolent
has reference to the person rather than to the act. A be-
nevolent man will give when he can. In character he
will avoid doing injury, and aim to benefit where he
finds it possible.
Brave, bold. — Brave applies to the readiness to meet
such dangers as come from living or active opponents
whose power is to be dreaded. The stopping of a run-
away horse is a brave act, so also is the saving of a per-
son from drowning or from being burned to death. Bold
refers to a readiness or pretended readiness to meet dan-
ger, rather than to the conduct when the danger comes.
A man may be bold in his threats against an enemy, but
when he runs away he is not brave.
212 GOOD ENGLISH.
Bright, brilliant. — Brilliant is a stronger tenn than
bright Bright is used in a variety of meanings, — shed-
ding light, reflecting light, etc. BrilUant is shining with
intense or sparkling brightness which shines with a
changeful play.
Ceremonial, ceremonious. — Ceremonial is applied to
external rites, or public ceremony. CeremonioiLS is applied
in its present sense to dealing overmuch in conventional
forms between individuals.
Clean, cleanly. — Clean means free from filth or that
which is foul. In a moral sense it means that which is
free from evil. Cleanly denotes a disposition to be phys-
ical! v clean. It has reference to the habit.
Close, nesjr. — Close is a more definite term than near.
Houses or persons are close when they almost touch ;
they may be near and yet be separated by a moderate
distance.
Competent, qualified. — One is qualified for a task
when, either by training or otherwise, he has a special
aptitude for the work. He is competent when he has
simply the natural powers, to which such subsequent
training may be given as will make him qualified.
Complete, entire, whole. — Entire and whole are in
many cases interchangeable. An entire set of furni-
ture and a whole set of furniture mean the same thing.
Whole, however, applies to what is made up of parts.
Therefore, where the idea is such that the thing which
it represents cannot be divided into parts, the proper
word is entire, as in " entire confidence," " entire care."
Complete denotes the presence or possession of all that is
needful to constitute a thing. An object is entire when
not broken or mutilated ; it is complete when it lacks
nothing.
Corporal, corporeal. — Oorporai relates to the substance
CHOICE OF WORDS. 213
of the body ; corporeal, to the nature of the bod}'. We
speak of " corporal punishment " and of our ** corporeal
existence."
Diffident, bashful, modest, reserved. — Diffidence is the
positive distrust of one's self. Modesty is the absence of
any tendency to over-estimate one's self. Bashfulness is
excessive or extreme modesty. Bese^re is a keeping to
one's self. Sometimes it becomes faulty when it ap-
proaches too nearly to pride.
Docile, tractable. — Docile denotes the actual quality
of meekness. Tractable denotes the absence of refrac-
toriness. A docile child is easily taught and managed ;
a tractable child may be taught and governed by proper
attention.
Doubtfiil, tincertain. — Doubtful is used in the sense
of entertaining a doubt or admitting a doubt. Uncertain
simpl}'^ expresses a lack of sufi&cient knowledge to de-
cide. "It is doubtful whether we shall win, for it is
uncertain how many votes will be cast."
Eager, earnest. — Eager denotes an excited desire and
intentness in the pursuit of some object; as, "Children
eager to see ;" " Hounds eager in the chase." Earnest is
always used in a good sense, and refers to the steadiness
and energy of an occupation or a habit.
Eligrible, desirable. — Eligible means worthy of being
chosen, or qualified to be chosen. Desirable is broader
in its application. It relates to any kind of choice, as
of possession, conduct, or anything that is to be wished
for ; as, " a desirable residence," " desirable associates,"
" desirable absence of noise."
Endemic, epidemic. — An epidemic disease is one in
which the cause acts on a large number of people at the
same time. An endemic disease is one that is peculiar to
the people of a particular nation or community, its ori-
214 GOOD ESGLTSJEL
pin being connected with the local conditions or the
personal habits of those among whom it occurs.
Enonnous, hugfe, vast. — Huge denotes great size, with
massiveness predominating over proportion. Enormous
is huge of its particular kind ; thus, an apple five inches
in diameter would not be huge, but it would be an enor-
mous apple. Vagt has reference to the. quality of great
superficial area, as vast prairies and huge mountains.
Envious, jealous. — Envious denotes a feeling of un-
happmess caused by the contemplation of any good
enjoyed by another. Jealous indicates envy mixed with
rivalry. One is jealous of another when the latter stands
in some relation to a third which the former desires to
occupy. Nations as well as individuals may be jealous.
Equal, equable. — Equal is applicable to number, de-
gree, or measurement of things fixed. Equabk denotes
the quality of continuous proportion, and is applied to
action or movement. Thus, we say a vessel sails an
equable, not an equal, rate when it sails as great a dis-
tance in any hour as in the preceding.
Equal, equivalent. — Equal denotes that two things
agree in anything that is capable of degree, as number,
value, quality. Equivalent means equal in such propor-
tions as affect ourselves, or the use we make of things,
as value, force, effect.
Extraordinary, remarkable. — Extram-dinary denotes
that which is out of or beyond the ordinary. It is
sometimes equivalent to the word remarkable^ or that
which causes remark, but it cannot be used as equivalent
to remarkable except when the subject contemplated
excites remark.
Extravagant, prodigal. — Extravagant denotes a wan-
dering beyond. One may be extravagant in the exp)en-
diture of money, in speech, in compliments. Prodigal
CHOICE OF WORDS, 215
indicates a love of large and excessive expenditures. A
poor man may be extravagant, but he is prevented by
his poverty from being prodigal.
Female, feminine, effeminate. — Female is applied to
sex as opposed to male. Feminine indicates that which
is characteristic of females, as opposed to masculine.
Effeminate applies to those actions or characteristics of
men which would be more appropriate to women. We
speak of " female dress," " feminine accomplishments,"
"effeminate actions."
Garrulous, loquacious, talkative. — Garrulous denotes
being unduly talkative, especially about others' affairs
rather than our own. Talkative implies a desire to
engage in talk with others as well as to others. Lo-
quacious denotes the habit of talking continuously.
Gentle, mild, meek. — Gentle originally denoted well-
born. It indicates refinement and quietness of nature.
It is applicable to animals, and, by analogy, to external
forces and influences. We may speak not only of a
gentleman, but also of gentle lambs, gentle breezes, and
the like. Mild implies subdued but not deteriorated
energy, as "mild air," which might be harsh; "mild
expression," "mild disposition." Meek differs from mild
and gentle in never being applied to conduct, but only
to the temper or character. A meek person is one who
submits to wrong rather than combat it.
Gratuitous, voluntary. — Gratuitous means given with-
out recompense, or without proof. A gratuitous assertion
is one without proof; a gratuitous affront, one that is
unmerited or uncalled-for. Voluntary means by the con-
sent of one's will; that is, not done under compulsion.
Many acts are done voluntarily that are not done wil-
lingly.
Great, bigr, large. — Big gives the impression of relative
216 GOOD ENGLISH.
bulk ; as, a big fish, a big mountain. Large applies
chiefly to relative width or capacity ; as, a large build-
ing, one that is capacious. Great may be used not only
with regard to size or number, but with regard to any-
thing that may exist in degree; as, "a great noise," "a
great address," "a great battle." A great soldier may
not be a large soldier, nor a large soldier a great one.
Number, quantity, and extent are represented as large.
Power, knowledge, strength, wisdom, and such abstract
qualities as ignorance, weakness, and folly, with their
opposites, may be represented as great.
Hard, difficult. — Hard expresses in a general way
w4iat difficult expresses in a more refined and particular
way. Any work of the body or the mind which seems
to resist our efforts may be said to be hard. That which
is difficult presents a kind of hardness which requires
some mental aptitude, as well as work and persever-
ance, to overcome. Many occupations are not difficult,
but they require hard work. The process of solving a
problem may not be hard work, but it is often difficult.
We therefore speak correctly of difficult questions and
difficult problems instead of hard problems and hard
questions.
Hideous, shocking. — Hideous primarily denoted that
which is frightful to behold, but is now extended also to
noises. That which is shocking acts with a sudden effect
The hideous contradicts beauty and is lasting ; the shock-
ing contradicts morality and is temporary.
Lawftil, le^al. — Lawful denotes " in accordance with
law, whether civil or moral." Legal denotes conformity
to civil law, the law of the land.
Little, small. — Little is a general term, and applies to
quantity as well as size; as, "little attention;" "a little
boy." Small applies to size only. Litde is opposed to
CHOICE OF WORDS. 217
big ; small, to large. The terms are relative, little being
excei3tionally small.
Luxuriant, luxurious. — Luxuriant means superabun-
dant; luxurious, contributing to luxury; thus, "luxuriant
vegetation ;" " luxurious ease."
Noted, notorious. — Noted refers to that wliich is
well-known favorably or eminently, as "a noted ora-
tor." Notorious is employed to express what is widely
and publicly known, and usually, though not always,
unfavorably ; as, " A notorious thief."
Obstinate, stubborn. — An obstinate person is one that
will do what he has determined upon. A stubborn person
will not do what others wish him to do. One term is
positive; th-e other, negative.
Only, alone. — Only indicates that there is no other of
the same kind ; alone, denotes being accompanied by no
other. " An only child " is one that has no brothers or
sisters ; " a child alone " is one that is not accompanied
by any one. The following are correct : " Only members
are admitted;" "The request alone was sufi&cient to
secure the favor."
Opinionated, conceited. — Opinionated denotes self-con-
ceit on particular points in one's judgment, accompanied
with an obstinate determination to hold to one's opin-
ion. Conceited refers to the over-estimation of one s own
ability.
Penurious, saving. — Saving denotes the avoiding of
unnecessary expense, whether as a habit or for a pur-
pose. Penurious refers to the suffering of want in the
extremity of saving.
Pliant, pliable. — That which is capable of bending is
pliant. That which may be readily bent is pliable. A
whipstock is pliant, but a whiplash is pliable.
Bational, reasonable. — Rational denotes that which
218 GOOD ENGLISH.
pertains to the reasoning powers as a faculty. It is that
which distinguishes the man from the brute. Reasonable
has reference more to that which is in accord with our
sense of right or fitness, as "a reasonable excuse."
Ravenous, voracious. — Both these words apply to
the matter of appetite. A voracious animal is one that
eats large quantities of food ; a ravenous animal is one
that eats with great haste, usually because hunger has
been increased by privation.
Befractory* ungrovemable. — Refractory denotes per-
verseness in breaking rules or in disobeying commands.
Ungovernable denotes that which sets at defiance all at-
tempts to govern or control.
Begral, royal. — Regal means belonging to the attri-
butes of a king; as, "regal splendor." Royal denotes
belonging to the person of the king ; as, " royal robes ;"
"royal crown."
Ridiculous, ludicrous. — Ludicrous denotes that which
is likely to provoke laughter, but without any necessary
admixture of contempt. Ridiculous conveys " the idea
of the contemptible in things and the humiliating in
persons."
Righteous, godly. — A righteous man is one w^ho in a
practical way believes in revealed religion, and does
what he believes is in conformity with the Divine will.
A godly man is one who communes with God, in prayer,
meditation, apd the study of God's word.
Scarce, rare. — Things are rare when only a few of the
kind exist; they are scarce when they can be had only in
less quantity than usual.
Sensible, sensitive. — Sensible expresses a habit or
state of mind relating to a particular subject. Thus,
one may be sensible of cold, heat, or kindness. Sensi-
tive expresses a condition in which the sense or feeling
CHOICE OF WORDS. 219
is quickly acted upon, as one is sensitive to changes of
temperature.
Womanly, womanish. — Womanly denotes belonging
to woman. Womanish means effeminate. Thus, we speak
of the womanly traits of girls and the womanish ways
of some men.
Verb Synonyms.
Abdicate, resign. — These words differ chiefly in their
application to the importance of position. Abdicate means
to leave or reject a high power, dignity, or station, as a
king abdicates his throne. Resign means to quit or give
up any situation, office, or employment, high or low, as
an officer or an employee may resign his position.
Allow, permit. — To aUow is to give some degree of
sanction ; to permit is simply not to prevent.
Argue, debate. — To argue is to say all that can be
said either for or against a proposition ; to debate is to
sift by argument for and against.
. Assassinate, kill, mm'der. — ^To kill is the broadest of
these terms. It means simply to deprive of life, includ-
ing vegetable as well as animal life. To murder is to kill
with malicious thought and intention. To assassinate is
to murder by secret or sudden attack upon a person.
Banish, expel, transport, expatriate. — To banish is to
eject by ban or public proclamation. To expel is to drive
out. To transport is to carry beyond the sea to a penal
colony. To expatriate denotes the alienation from one's
native land. One may expatriate liimself, but he is
banished, expelled, or transported by some authority in
power.
Begin, conmience. — Begin usually refers to time or
order. Commence implies action. Thus, "A wicked life
begins with little sins." Formal and public transactions
220 GOOD ENGLISH.
are said to commence. Thus, " The work of preparing
the book was commenced before the holidays."
Collect, assemble. — To collect^ used intransitively, is
to gather from different places into one body or place.
To assemble denotes the same as to collect, but is appli-
cable only to persons.
Comprehend, apprehend. — Apprehend is to lay hold
of or grasp by the mind. It is simply the recognition
of a fact Comprehend implies more than apprehend.
To comprehend is to embrace or understand a thought
in all its extent. I comprehend a thought when I know
all about it.
Confess, acknowledge. — To acknowledge is to admit
that one has knowledge. To confess implies a fault. The
word confess is frequently misused for acknowledge or ad-
mit, as in " I confess I thought he was the taller of the
two.""
Confirm, corroborate. — The use of these words is to
give strength to assertions. To corroborate is used only
of the subjects ; as, facts, opinions, or statements are cor-
roborated, while confirm is used with reference both t.o the
minds of the persons and to the subjects. Thus, " His
statement was corroborated ;" " I am confirmed in my
opinion."
Conftite, reftite. — Confute applies both to an argument
and to the person who makes the argument. To refute
means to repel by the same kind of argument, and ap-
plies to anything that may be alleged against one, as
calumny and the like.
Congratulate, felicitate. — To felicitate originally meant
to make happy, and was the proper word to use when it
was meant to compliment a singer or a speaker on the
excellence of his performance. The word congratulate,
which implies a sharing in another's happiness, has,
CHOICE OF WORDS. 221
however, of late been made to take the place of the
word felicitate when we mean a simple expression of
formal politeness.
Devise, bequeath. — Devise is properly used for a gift
of real estate by will. Bequeath is properly used when
applied to a gift of personal property by will, but Law
Courts have in a measure extended the application of
the word " bequeath " to include what is properly ex-
pressed by the word "devise."
Descry, discover. — Discover is to bring to light what
was concealed or unknown. Descry is to discover by
the eye things difficult of discernment on account of
distance or dimness.
Dispel, disperse. — Dispel means to separate or scatter
in such a way as to cause to vanish. Disperse means
simply to scatter abroad. We dispel illusions. Sun-
shine dispels the fog. We disperse crowds.
Distinguish, discriminate. — So far as these words are
used as synonyms, discriminate is used only of mornl
subjects ; distinguish is used also in reference to physical
objects. We distinguish best by showing great differ-
ences, we discriminate best by showing slight differences.
Educate, instruct. — To instruct is to impart know-
ledge; to educate is to train and develop.
Excel, surpass. — To excel is to go beyond in good
qualities or in laudable actions. Excel is employed
only in an honorable sense. To surpass denotes to go
beyond others, but it is not limited to what is praise-
worth v.
Expend, spend. — Spend is applied indefinitely to
what we pay out. Expend refers to what we pay out
from a particular source on a particular object. Thus,
" He spends two thousand dollars a year, of which he
expends five hundred dollars on travel."
222 GOOD ESGLISH.
Foretell, predict. — To foretell is to tell or declare be-
forehand what is to happen. Predict differs from fore-
tell chiefly in being limited in its use to persons, while
foretell is used also of other indicators, as " Clouds fore-
tell rain."
Chieve, mourn. — To grieve is to feel trouble or the
pain of inward distress. It is purely mental. To mourn
is to give outward expression to our griet
Imbibe, absorb. — To imbibe means to take the moist-
ure away from one body into another. To absorb means
simply to take the moisture away. The rays of the
sun are said to absorb moisture ; a sponge both absorbs
and imbibes.
Incite, excite. — ^To excite is to call into greater activ-
ity, or to arouse to an active stiite powers before dor-
mant. To incite is to excite to a particular act or end.
Inhibit, prohibit. — ^To prohibit is to forbid by the force
of authority ; to irJiibit is to prohibit coercively. Pro-
hibition lies in words only ; inhibition is supported by
power to enforce the restraint
Intrude, encroaoh, obtrude. — To intrude is to thrust
one's self upon the presence or the society of another.
To encroach is to come gradually or imperceptibly upon
another's land or upon his rights. To obtrude is to thrust
one's self in the way.
Move, remove. — To move is to change the position
of an object, or to cause an internal motion of its parts.
To remove it is to take it away bodily.
Nominate, name. — To name is to mention for a gen-
eral purpose. To nominate is to mention for a specific
purpose. Only persons are nominated. Things as well
as persons are named.
Obstruct, hinder, prevent. — To obstruct is to place
something in the way of To hinder, the most generiJ
CHOICE OF WORDS, 223
of these terms, now means simply to keep one from his
purpose temporarily. To prevent is to render altogether
impracticable. To hinder supposes no design ; to pre-
vent denotes a premeditated act.
- Obviate, prevent. — Prevent means so to hinder that
an act shall not happen at all. Obviate means to pre-
vent its happening in the future. Crimes and calamities
should be prevented ; difficulties, inconveniences, trouble,
should be obviated.
Outlive, survive. — To outlive means to live longer than
another ; to survive is to live after another, or after certain
antagonistic influencce have been overcome.
. Pardon, excuse. — To excuse is applied to small faults ;
to pardon, to greater ones.
Pai^, peel. — Pare means to trim ; peel, to take off the
skin. An uncooked potato is pared; when cooked, it
may be peeled. We peel an orange, but pare an apple.
To peel denotes a natural process ; to pare, an artificial
one.
Prognosticate, foretell. — To foretell is to tell before-
hand. To prognosticate is to know beforehand. A phys-
ician prognosticates the progress of a disease by the
symptoms discoverable in the patient.
Bcize, demolish. — Raze means to make even with the
ground. Demolish means to destroy an organized body
or a structural mass, as the walls of a building.
Recede, retreat, withdraw. — To recede is to go back ;
the action is suited to our convenience. To retreat is to
draw back, usually from necessity, as to escape danger.
Withdraw has much the same meaning as recede, except
that recede refers to going back from a given spot, whereas
withdraw is applied where the place or persons are con-
cerned, as we withdraw from a room or from a company
of persons.
224 GOOD ENGLISH.
Receive, accept. — Used as synonyms, to receive is
to tiike back; to accept is to take to one's self. We
receive what is our own; we accept what others
ofl'er us.
Recline, repose. — To redine is to lean back. To repose
is to recline in such a position as is most easy and com-
fortable.
Recoil, rebound. — Rebound is to bound back or spring
back. Recoil is to coil or whirl back. A ball rebounds ;
a snake recoils.
Relieve, alleviate. — To relieve is to remove or take
away. To allevicUe is to lighten or lessen. That which
removes pain relieves it; that which affords ease from
pain alleviates it.
Share, divide, distribute. — To divide is to cut or sep-
arate into parts. To share is to divide into parts and
give those parts to others, reserving one or more parts
for ourselves. To distribute is to give all the parts to
others, reserving none for ourselves.
Shut, close. — To close means to bring together the parts,
as we close tlie eyelids. To shut is to bring the parts so
close together that there can be no ingress or egress.
The petals of a flower close. We close a book. The
door of a house is shut. One may shut his mouth by
closing his lips. There are many cases where the words
may be used interchangeably.
Slant, slope. — These words have substantially the
same meaning, but their application varies. Slant is
applied to small bodies ; slope, to those that are either
large or small. My pen slants as I write, but a hillside
slopes.
Slip, slide, glide. — To slip means an involuntary move-
ment. Slide refers to a voluntary movement. Slip and
slide indicate lateral movements of the feet, while glide
CHOICE OF WORDS. 225
indicates a movement of the whole body. We glide
when we slide; a ship glides in the water.
Speak, talk, converse. — To speak is simply to utter
articulate sounds. To talk is to speak to others. To
converse is to talk with others.
Treasure, hoard. — To treasure is to lay up for the sake
of preserving. To hoard is to lay up for the sake of
accumulating.
Utter, speak. — To utter is to put forth a vocal sound.
To speak is to utter an intelligible sound. We may utter
a groan, but we speak words.
Yield, submit. — To yield is to surrender one's self in
consequence of external pressure. To submit denotes
more of a voluntary action than to yield. We submit
sometimes because we deem it prudent, and our submis-
sion is only partial or temporary. We yield because we
are compelled, and the yielding is final. A person may
submit without showing any resistance, but he yields
only after a struggle.
Adverb Synonyms.
Advisedly, deliberately. — One who speaks or acts
advisedly does so with a full knowledge of the circum-
stances and the consequences of his conduct. One who
speaks or acts deliberately takes time to weigh the matter
in his mind.
Always, continually. — We do always what we do at
all times and on all occasions. We do continually that
which we do without intermission.
Almost, nearly. — Almost applies to matters of progres-
sion, degree, or force. Nearly is applied to matters of
time, space, and fact. Thus, " We have almost finished
the work." " I am nearly twenty years old." Nearly may
be preceded by a negative ; as, " It is not nearly so cold
15
226 GOOD ENGLISH.
as it was," but almost is never so preceded. A man
"almost killed" may have been seriously hurt; while
a man "nearly killed" has escaped entirely.
Consequently, therefore, accordingrly. — (hnsequently
means in consequence of; it is employed either in rea-
soning or in narration. Therefore means for this reason ;
it implies a conclusion and is employed in abstract rea-
soning. Accordingly means " according to some thing or
principle;" it implies an agreement or an adaptation,
and is used chiefly in narration.
Especially, particularly, chiefly, principcJly. — Espe-
ciaUy and 'particularly are superlative in their import.
They refer to one object out of the many that is supe-
rior to all others. Especially is the stronger word of the
two. The words are used as follows : " We are too prone
to listen to the evil that is spoken of others, especially
of our enemies ;" " There is but little rainfall in some
parts of the West, particularly on the plains." Chiefly
and principally are comparative in their import. They
denote a superiority over only some others; as, "In-
dians live chiefly in the Territories." "They mistake
the nature of criticism who think its business is prin-
cipally to find fault."
Frequently, often. — Often usually refers to a series
known to be established. It relates to a standard of
frequency; as, "How often does the wheel revolve?"
"How often do you come?" Frequently denotes the
simple repetition of anything without reference to any
standard or order; as, "We frequently have frost in
October."
Relatively, comparatively. — Oomparatively denotes
according to an estimate made by comparison. It is
opposed to positively. Relatively means according to a
relation to something else; it is opposed to absolutely.
CHOICE OF WORDS, 227
Comparatively regards an average ; relatively, a standard.
Thus, "The school has comparatively few students;"
that is, considering the number attending other schools
of like grade. " There were relatively few in attendance
at the lecture ;" that is, regarding the matter that was to
be discussed.
Scarcely, hardly.— These words in many cases may
be used interchangeably. Where there is a difference
scarcely relates to quantity; hardly, to degree. "There
was scarcely a bushel;" "It is hardly cold enough
to freeze."
Preposition Synonyms.
About, around, round, at. — About is less precise than
around or at. It may apply to place, time, quantity, or
number; as, "About the house;" "About midday;"
"About a bushel;" "About twenty."
Around means " on all sides," " encircled like a ring
or a globe." It implies rest, and locates place more
definitely than " about ;" as, " Around the fire-place,"
" Around the field." Round has generally reference to
a rotary movement or a partial encircling; as, "The
longest way round ;" " To go round in a circle ;" " Bread
enough to go round."
At means nearness; as, "At the window;" "At 4
o'clock;" "At rest."
At, in. — These two words are frequently used in speak-
ing of places or residence. Usually in implies enclosure ;
as, " We stayed in Holland ;" " They lived in Philadel-
phia." It also is more generally applied to countries and
larger cities, while at implies nearness to a point or bor-
der, and applies to smaller places or foreign cities ; as,
"They landed at Charleston;" "He stopped in New
York, but he lives at Dover."
228 GOOD ENGLISH.
Above, over, beyond. — These terms have both a lit-
eral and a figurative meaning. Above means higher in
position, number, degree, rank, etc. ; as, " The room above
this;" "The moral law is above the civil." Over indicates
what is expressed by oiore, with the addition of the idea
of verticality ; as, " The cliff juts over the river ;" " The
clouds hung over the valley." Beyond relates to the
measurement of distance, usually horizontal, but also
sometimes vertical ; as, "The forest is beyond the river;"
" The stars are beyond the moon."
Above, on, upon. — On and upon differ from above and
over in this, that they imply contact; as, "The book is
on the table ;" " The cup was put upon the shelf." On
and upon differ as to relative height; thus, 07i is properly
used when it implies contact on the upper side of any-
thing, or even when action is implied and the position
is low ; as, " The pen is on the table;" "Throw the water
on the grass." Upon denotes that the position is one of
some elevjition, and generally it is used in connection
with a verb implying action ; as, " Upon the moun-
tains;" "He tossed the book upon (up on) the shelf."
The two words are now, however, almost interchange-
able. Sometimes for the sake of euphony or rhythm,
upon is preferable to on ; also when motion into position
is involved.
After, behind. — After has special reference to the
order to which two things belong in common, espe-
cially as regards time; as, "The assembly did not con-
vene until after 10 o'clock ;" " The hounds ran after the
fox." BeJiind has reference to the position of two things
in space, without any notion of consecutiveness ; as,
"Behind the door;" "The tree behind the house;"
"He has left no estate behind him to create contro-
versy."
CBOICE OF WORDS, 229
Amid, among. — Amid and amidst mean so "sur-
rounded by " as to be in the midst ; as,
" Amid the lingering light."
'* Lead, kindly light, amid the encircling gloom
Lead thou me on." — Neinman.
" He stood firm amidst the storm."
" Undaunted amidst insults and mockeries."
Amxmg implies number ; also, " mingling with ;" as,
" Love among mortals is but an endless sigh." — Longfellow.
" Flowers among weeds."
"To be happy yourself you must live among the happy." —
Disraeli.
"He sent his apostles forth like sheep amongst wolves," —
GeiMe.
■Among, between. — The distinction between among
and between is one chiefly as to number. Between has
reference to two; and ammig, to more than two; as,
"Between daylight and dark;" "The proceeds were
divided between the merchant and his partner;" the
adage says, " There is honor among thieves," the num-
ber unlimited ; " We were among friends ;" " The good
opinion of the teacher soon spread among the pupils."
Betwixt, which was formerly used in the sense of
between, is now rarely used.
Below, under, beneath. — Smith, in Synonyms Discrim-
inated, says, " That which we are under is that by which
we are covered, overhung, or overtopped. That which
we are below is simply something which is higher than
ourselves. That which we are beneath is much higher
than we."
Beside, besides. — Beside means "by the side of" or
"at the side;" as,
" A cot beside the sea."
" Lovely Thais sits beside thee." — Dryden.
230 GOOD ENGLISH,
Besides^ as a preposition, means " in addition to " or " in
connection with ;'' as,
" Besides his wealth he has few claims to recogDition.''
*' The marquis had but little besides his palace/'
But. — But, when used in the sense of except, is a
prei)Osition, and should be followed by the objective
case; as,
" All but him had gone."
" The boy stood on the burning deck
Whence all but him had fled." — Mrs. Hemans,
Occasionally but is met with in literature, followed by
the nominative case instead of the objective, as in the
following from Scott:
" Should all the race of mortals die,
And none be left but he and I."
If this is correct usage, as is claimed by some, hut is a
conjunction, and the sense of the sentence is " And none
be left but he and I " (be left). Has the poet violated
a grammatical rule to make / rhyme with die? It
seems so.
By, through, with, — By means nearness.
a. In 'place; as,
" A city by the sea."
" The house was close by the river."
h. In time; as,
" We shall be ready by Wednesday."
" The angel came by night." — Stoddard.
c. In means; as,
" Success is won by hard work."
" Your message came by mail."
CHOICE OF WORDS. 231
d. In manner; as,
" We grew cold by degrees."
"They came in one by one."
By usually refers to persons : with, to things ; through
may refer to either. Thus, "The path having become
useless through neglect, it was cleared by the servauts
toith scythes and hoes." By denotes the agent; with,
the instrument; as, "He was shot by the guard with
a musket."
Spubious Words.
A number of words, used probably first by the uned-
ucated, but not recognized as good English, have found
their way into our language. A few of these, usually
known as spurious words, are here given.
Authoress, — There is no authority for this word, as
there is none for poetess or writeress. There are but few
words in our language which take the termination ess,
and most of these are titles which primarily denote the
names of males, and therefore take "ess" to denote the
feminine. The most important of these are abbotj baron,
duke, count, emperor, prince, marquis, and a few others
among titles; also, ambassador, govoTior, hunter, priest,
prophet, etc. But in the case of the words author, poet,
conductor, inspector, etc., it is not necessarily the man
but the person that acts ; hence, sex is not necessarily
indicated in the original forms author, poet, writer, etc.,
and no distinctive form is necessary for the feminine.
Agricidturalist is a word much used by writers on agri-
culture, but it has no legitimate existence. The correct
word is agriculturist. Matthews remarks that we might
as well speak of a gcologicalist or a chemicalist as an
agriculturalist.
232 GOOD ENQLISH.
Controversialist is another spurious word occasionally
used. The word is derived from "controvert." A con-
trovertist is one who controverts. The office being al-
ready filled by " controvertist " and " controverter," there
is no j)lace for " controversialist," which could mean only
one who " controversials," a term which is unknown to
our language.
Donate is one of the ill-born words for which the lan-
guage seems to have no use so long as we have the
words give, present, bestow, grant, etc. But donate is prob-
ably no worse than orate from oration, coUate from colla-
tion, ovate from ovation, and the like, none of which
should be recognized as legitimate words, or be used by
those who desire to speak correct English.
Enthuse, though lately growing somewhat into favor,*
is a word not yet recognized by the best authorities as
good English.
Firstly is sometimes used by even such reputable
writers as Dickens, but it is not a word in good stand-
ing. The word first is the proper word whether as an
adjective or as an adverb.
Folks for folk is condemned by the critics because the
word folk already implies plurality.
Had have, or, as it is often written by the illiterate,
had of or had or, is a vulgarism used for had. The proper
expression is " Had I seen him," not " Had I have seen
him."
Illy is frequently used for ill. III may be used as
either adverb or adjective. There is no such word as
illy.
Innumerable Number. — This expression, occasionally
used, represents something impossible.
Jeopardize is a word that has given rise to some dis-
cussion. The original word is jeopard, which, it is
CHOICE OF WORDS. 233
claimed, is a legitimate English word as old as the
hmguage, meaning " to expose to loss or injury, to im-
peril, to hazard." The word jeopardize^ though con-
demned by such writers on English as Gould and Rich-
ard Grant White, has still made considerable prog-
ress in the way of supplanting jeopard. But, as one
writer remarks, there seems to be no more necessit}'
for the word than there is for perUize, hazardize, and
similar words yet uncoined.
Leniency is another of the words not needed in our
language. We already have lenity and the adjective
lenient to cover the ground.
Preventative^ a spurious form for preventive, rotatory for
rotary, coMudity for casualty, underhanded for underhand,
speciality for specialty, are barbarisms which, as Mat-
thews says, should be excommunicated.
Stand-pointy though much used, is a questionable word.
Why we should have stand-point and not be allowed to
lise start-point as a legitimate word, is difficult to un-
derstand. The correct forms are " standing-point " and
" starting-point " if they are to be used. Stand-point is
used incorrectly for " point of view."
Then as an adjective, as in " The then king of France,"
is sanctioned by some authorities and condemned by
others.
The masseSy as a term meaning the people in general,
is condemned by the best authorities on the proper use
of English. In the statement, " It is a conflict between
the classes and the masses," one is inclined to ask, Masses
of what?
Words Liable to be Misused.
Words are frequently used which do not convey the
meaning intended. The speech of the Congressman
234 GOOD ENGLISH,
who, wlien an insinuation was made against his motives,
indignantly " denied the allegation and defied the alli-
gator," is a fixir illustration of how easily words may
be misapplied. When Shillaber makes Mrs. Partington
speak of the cesophagiis as the sarcophagus^ we enjoy the
wit because we know that the wrong word has been used
with a full knowledge of its meaning for the purpose of
amusing us ; but many of these misused words are mis-
used ignorantly or carelessly.
Frequently words that differ somewhat in meaning are
liable to be substituted for each other. Care should be
taken to give the proper shade of meaning to each word.
Careless or thoughtless writers frequently use words
loosely without regard to the exact meaning. Thus, the
word party is often used improperly for the word persmi.
A person is an individual human being; a party is a col-
lection of persons, or used in the singular it is one who
takes a part or is a party to a suit or a legal document.
Thus, also, the word success is sometimes used where
the adjective successful would be more appropriate. Thus,
" Our meeting was a great success " might be expressed
more elegantly by the form, "Our meeting was very
successful."
The word team is a word frequently misused. The
word properly means "two or more animals working
together." A single horse is not a team, nor is a horse
and a carriage, nor are two or more horses hitched to a
wagon. Two or more horses are a team when working
together, but the wagon or other vehicle constitutes no
part of the team. The term " foot-ball team " is strictly
correct.
The following is a partial list of words liable to be
misused.
Accord for grant. — To accord means to agree with or
CHOICE OF WORDS. 235
to suit; as, "That accords with my views," or "Your
views accord with mine." Bat in the expression, " He
accorded (granted) me many privileges," the word grant
implies what we wish to say.
Affable for good-^natured. — Affable means easy of
approach in conversation, ready to speak, but it is now
applied to express an easy and considerate manner on
the part of persons of superior position to those of infe-
rior rank. A President may be affable to his guests.
Aggravating for irritating. — Aggravating means mak-
ing heavier or more grave. It is frequently misused for
the word irritating, which means exciting unduly in
either a physical or a mental sense.
All of them for them all. — We may say I bought
"one of them" or "two of them," but not "all of them."
Of means here out of, and cannot be used with all. The
proper form is " them all ;" thus, " I bought them all."
Allude for say or mention. — To allude to a thing
means to hint at it playfully without any direct men-
tion of it. As an example of its misuse, speakers fre-
quently say as follows : " The gentleman in his remarks
has alluded to my speech on this question." It would
be better to say "has mentioned my speech," or "has
referred to my speech."
Alternative. — Alternative implies a choice between two
things. We cannot speak of two alternatives as being
offered, but one alternative or choice. When that choice
has been made there remains no more. Careless writers
speak of " several alternatives " having been presented
or offered.
Antecedents. — This word is used frequently in refer-
ence to a man's previous conduct or character, as in
"What do you know of this person's antecedents?"
Such usage is not correct. The antecedents of a person
236 GOOD ENGLISH.
are properly those who have preceded him. The proper
form of the question is, " What do you know of this
person's past life?"
Appreciates for rises.~The word " appreciate " is often
incorrectly used to express a rise in price ; as, " Wheat
has appreciated in value." In tliis sense the word is
improperly used for me (risen).
Apt for liable or likely. — Apt means the possession
of mental ability. An apt person qualifies himself for
any work with comparative ease. Thus, we say, " He
is apt to learn," or " He is apt to teach." Liable ex-
presses a capability of being acted upon ; as, " We are
liable to catch cold ;" " Iron is liable to rust." Likely is
used chiefly in the sense of probability; as, "It will
likely rain to-night." Frequentl}'^ the word apt is im-
properly used for liable ; as, " The weather is apt (lia-
ble) to change at any time;" "We are apt to be dis-
appointed."
At all is a needless phrase. It adds nothing to the
meaning or force of an expression in which it is used.
"Nobody at all was injured in the accident" and "It
^vas not at all strange," express no more than they
would by the omission of the phrase at all.
Balance for remainder or rest. — Balance is properly
the difference between the two sides of an account.
The rest is that which remains or is left after the sepa-
ration of a part or parts. The remainder is the rest
under certain conditions, usually the smaller part which
remains after the greater part has been taken away. In-
stead of saying "A large part of the arm)'^ escaped, but
the balance were either killed or wounded," say " the
rest" or "the remainder" were either killed or wounded.
Besides for beside. — Beside is a preposition, and means
^^by the side of;" as,
CHOICE OF WORDS. 237
" Harry sits beside his mother."
Usage has extended the meaning to " out* of the regular
course '' and " out of;" thus,
" It is beside my present intention to disturb those in office."
" Paul, thou art beside thyself."
Besides is a preposition when it means " in addition
to;" as,
'' Besides the children, the parents were much interested."
Besides is an adverb when it means " moreover;" as,
** Besides, there are other matters to be looked after."
Both alike. — The word " both" in the expression " both
alike " is superfluous. If two things are alike, each is
like the other, and "The two are alike," or "They are
alike," expresses the thought correctly.
Bound for determined. — It is not correct English to
say " I am bound to go." The word " bound " is here
incorrectly used for the word " determined." In the ex-
pression "The ship is botmd for New Orleans," the word
botind is derived from a root meaning " to make ready."
Bourn for country. — bourn is properl}' a boundary
or limit, and is correctly used in Hamlet's Soliloquy:
" The undiscovered country from whose bourn (edge) no
traveler returns."
It is not correct to use "bourn" as referring to the coun-
try itself.
BrinsT for fetch. — Bring implies motion in one direc-
tion only, toward the speaker. It is correct to say to a
person at some distance, " Bring me a book ;" " Bring
your friend with you ;" but to one at our side we should
say, " Fetch me the book from the library ;" that is, mo-
tion in two directions, " go and bring," first frmn then to
the speaker.
238 GOOD ENGLISH,
But for that or if. — But should not be made to take
the place of that or if. The word but is incorrectly used
in both the following sentences : " I do not doubt but
[that] he will be here ;" " I should not wonder but [if]
that were true."
Calculated for likely. — Calculate means to compute
or reckon, but its participle is often used in the sense
of likely, a shorter and better word for the purpose.
Thus,
'^The nomination of a strong partisan is calculated [likely]
to arouse the opposition."
Even Goldsmith says,
*' The only danger that attends the multiplicity of publica-
tions is, that some of them may be calculated to injure rather
than benefit society."
Can for may. — Can expresses power; may, possibil-
ity, permission, probability. I can do that which I have
the power to do. I may do that which I have permis-
sion to do, or that of which there is a possibility or a
probability ; ns, " I may be in the City to-morrow." " It
may rain before we return." " How many pencils can I
buy for a dollar?" " How many pencils may be bought
for a dollar?"
Carnival for festival or ftolic. — Carnival (carnis vale)
means literally a f^irewell to flesh. It was formerly used
to signify a festival celebrated with merriment and rev-
elry the week before Lent. But the word has been per-
verted to mean almost any party, frolic, or festival ; and
we have the expressions "boating carnivals," "sleighing
carnivals," " skating carnivals," notwithstanding the fact
that we have legitimate words appropriate to all these
frolics.
Catch for overtake. — Catch for overtake is a common
CHOICE OF WORDS, 239
error, so often made that many will hesitate to believe
that " try to catch a car " is not better than " try to over-
take a car," and yet the former is not a correct use of
" catch," which means " to seize." One may " catch up "
with a car, but not " catch it " in the sense of overtak-
ing it.
Citizen for person or resident. — ^A citizen is one who
has certain legal and political rights. Aliens are not cit-
izens, and persons either native born or aliens may be
residents without being citizens. The word " citizen " is
improperly used in the following: " A number of citizens
on the train offered their services in helping to care for
the wounded." The expression should be " A number
of persons," etc. "The citizens of the town, of all
classes and nationalities, entered their protest against
the nuisance." Better, "The residents," etc.
Consequence for importance. — Consequence has refer-
ence to what follows or to results. The root-word is sequoVy
to follow. Importance refers to things of moment in them-
selves. To say that something is of no consequence is to
say that it is of no following or result. The proper ex-
pression is, " It is of no importance."
Consider for think. — To consider is to ponder, to think
about carefully. We hear the expression, " We do not
consider the topic a fit one for open discussion," or " We
do not consider him fit for the place," when w^e have not
considered. We mean " We do not think him fit for the
place."
Contemptible for contemptuous. — Contemptible means
that which deserves contempt ; contemptuous means filled
with contempt. There may be contemptible persons and
contemptible acts. Our opinions of them are contemptu-
ous.
Convene for convoke. — Convene means to come to-
240 GOOD ENGLISH,
gether; convoke^ to call together. It is not correct to say
" The President convenes Congress." The President may
convoke Congress, but Congress convenes.
Correspond with for correspond to.— Man.y writers
use these phrases interchangeably. Objects correspond to
each other ; persons, with each other by writing. Thus,
"The ornaments correspond to each other;" "His man-
ner of living corresponds to his means ;" " The brothers
corresponded with each other so long as they lived apart."
Couple for two. — A couple is two coupled or united by
some bond. A man and his wife are a couple. Even
two of the same kind are not always a couple. Thus,
two gloves or two shoes, to be used together, are a pair ;
two partridges, a brace ; two oxen, a yoke or pair ; two
horses, a span or team. Such phrases as " a couple of
^ggs," "a couple of days," "a couple of dollars," "a
couple of books," etc., are all incorrect.
Crime for sin or vice. — ^A crime is a violation of the
civil law. What is a crime in one country may not be
a crime in another, and what is a crime at one time may
not be a crime at another, because the laws may change.
A sin is a violation of the Divine law. Vice is a course
of action or a habit of life which is harmful to the actor
and harmful to others.
Crushed out for crushed. — Generally the word crushed
is sufficient to express the thought intended. Thus,
" The rebellion was crushed " expresses concisely the
thought to be conveyed. "His skull was crushed" is
quite as expressive as "His skull was crushed in."
Curious for strange or remarkable. — Primarily cu-
rious meant inquisitive, and it is still used in this sense.
It was used by Addison in the sense of intermeddling
with all knowledge. It is sometimes used to mean nice
or intricate, as we speak of images " curiously carved,"
CHOICE OF WORDS, 241
but its use for strange^ remarkable^ or queer is not sanc-
tioned by the best usage.
Deadly for deathly. — Deadly is that which causes
death, while deathly is that which resembles death.
Thus, "a deadly weapon;" "a deathly pallor."
Deceiving is frequently used for the phrase trying to
deceive. It is thus incorrectly used in the sentence "You
are deceiving me." The meaning to be conveyed is that
" you are misrepresenting in order to deceive."
Decimated for reduced. — Decimated means reduced
by one-tenth. To speak of a regiment's having been
decimated by one-third is of course incorrect.
De&Ication for default. — Defalcation means a lopping
off. The right word to indicate the crime of not paying
to the proper parties the money which one has collected
for them is default. The verb indicating this action is
default, and the criminal is a defaulter,
Delicious for delighifiil,— Delicious relates to the grat-
ification of the senses. Delightful relates to the state of
the mind. Thus, we say "delicious food," "delicious
fragrance," "a delicious taste," etc.; but "delightful mu-
sic," "a delightful landscape," "a delightful entertain-
ment."
Depot for station. — A depot is a place of deposit
where goods are placed for safe keeping. Station is the
correct name of the place at which passengers gather to
take the cars. One would not say " The next depot is
Lancaster," but " The next station is Lancaster." Lit-
erally, the expression means that the next station at
which the train stops (sto, stare, to stand) is Lancaster.
Directly for immediately or instantly. — Directly is
applied to the action of persons. It is frequently used
in the sense of "as soon as," but incorrectly so; as,
" Directly he stopped, the coffin was removed by four
16
242 GOOD ENGLISH.
men." — Dickens. Directly means soon ; as, " We will c«all
them directly." Immediately refers to the course of time,
and signifies " witliout interruption or intervening time."
Instantly means " in an instant ;" it is a stronger word
than "immediately."
.* Dirt for earth or soil. — Dirt is filth. The word has
properly no other meaning. But we hear persons speak
of "dirt roads," meaning unpaved roads. These are
properly earth roads or gravel roads. The word dirt
should be restricted to its proper use.
Divine for clergyman. — Divine is properl}" an adjec-
tive, but it is frequently used as a noun as a substitute
for the word clergyman, a much more appropriate word.
Dock for wharf. — A dock is an open place, without a
roof, into which anything, usually a ship, is received
and enclosed for safety. So also a prisoner is placed in
the dock during trial. A wharf is properly the pier to
which a vessel is fastened while it lies in the dock.
Dress for gown. — Dress is really a general term in-
cluding one's entire apparel, undergarments included.
The proper word to apply to the outer garment of a
woman, often known as a dress, is goum. Frock, though
now rarely used, is applied to the outer apparel of either
sex.
Drive for ride. — Many persons make a distinction in
these two terms, by limiting the use of the word ride to
horseback exercise, which might now be extended prob-
ably to exercise on a bicycle, and using the word drive
for carriage-riding. But we may ride on horseback or
in a carriage. We may take a horseback ride, a carriage
ride, or a ride in the cars. The action in any of these
cases is riding; the person who manages the horse or
the engine is the driver. " To take a boat ride or a car-
riage ride in the Park " is correct English. " To take a
CHOICE OF WORDS. 243
ride in the Park " is ambiguous. It may mean a ride
on horseback or a ride in a carriage, or even in a street-
car.
Dry for thirsty. — Dry denotes the absence of moist-
ure. Thirsty signifies the desire for drink.
Either. — The hypercritical object to the use of the
conjunction eit/ier when more than two are spoken of.
While either^ used as an adjective, as "Either of the
boys," is limited in its application to two, there is no
such restriction in its use as a conjunction, the correl-
ative of or. We may say " Either the boy or his sister,"
and we may also say, " Either James, George, William,
or Henry," or we may supply the conjunctions, and say,
"Either James, or George, or William, or Henry," in
which case either is used as a, correlative with each of
the conjunctions separately.
The foregoing remarks apply with equal force to the
use of neither as a correlative conjunction.
Elder for older. — Elder is properly applied to persons
only, while older is applied to objects of any kind, ani-
mate or inanimate. One horse or one book may be
older, but never elder, than another.
Empty for vacant. — Empty denotes containing noth-
ing; as, "an empty purse;" "an empty pail." Vacant
refers to what may be occupied or is intended to be
occupied; as, "a vacant chair." A house is vacant
when no one lives in it; it is empty when it is devoid
of furniture or belongings.
Enough for sufficient. — Enough is the quantity which
one wishes to have ; sufficient is the quantity which one
needs. Enough implies more than sufficient.
Epithet for n&me,— Epithet is given by dictionaries as
an adjective. The noun to which it corresponds is name
or appellation. The words " villain," " coward," " fool,"
244 GOOD ENGLISH.
" knave," are appellations, but " vile," " cowardly," " fool-
ish," " knavish," "good," "just," " honest," etc., are epi-
thets. The import of epithet may be either good or bad.
When, therefore, we apply an epithet to a person we use
the adjective ; when we call him names we use nouns.
Equally as well for equally well or as well. — As well
as means substantially the same as " equally." " They
can do this equally well," or "They can do this as well
as we," is correct; but "They can do this equally as
well," or "equally as well as," is tautological.
Every for all. — The word every in such expressions as
" every praise," " every confidence," and the like, is used
incorrectly. If there were a number of praises or con-
fidences, these expressions might be correct, for every
means " each of all." It cannot be applied to abstrac-
tions. If we mean the term to apply to a number col-
lectively or to abstractions, the proper word is all; as,
" All men are liable to err ;" " We had all confidence in
him."
Evidence for testimony. — Evidence is frequently mis-
used for the word testimony, "Evidence relates to the
convictive view of one's mind ; testimony, to the know-
ledge of another concerning some fact," says Matthews.
In fact, the evidence in a case is sometimes the reverse
of the testimony.
Except for unless. — Except is a preposition. It cannot
be used to connect clauses. The correct word to use where
a clause is to be added is the conjunction unless. Thus,
*' No one need apply except he has a certificate," should
be " No one need apply unless he has a certificate."
Excessively for exceedingly. — ^^Exceedingly hot " may
mean simply very hot; ^^excessively hot^^ indicates an ex-
cess of heat. We may not object to great cold, but we
may complain when it is excessively cold.
CHOICE OF WORDS. 245
Executed for hanged. — Latterly the word executed has
in a measure taken the place of the word hanged. To
execute is " to carry out, to perform." Thus, " The Pres-
ident is bound to execute the laws." But it will "be
noticed that no such meaning as " carry out " or " per-
form " can be applied to the taking of one's life by
hanging, in the execution of the law. As between the
two words hanged and hung, the former is the proper
word for depriving of life by hanging. Our clothes are
hung in the wardrobe, and banners are hung on the
walls, but persons are hanged by the neck to deprive
them of life.
Exemplary for excellent. — Exemplary means more
than excellent, though frequently used as a synonym for
this word. Exemplary refers really to setting an exam-
ple that should be followed, as in " exemplary conduct."
Expect for suppose. — The word expect is loosely used
for think, suppose, giiess. It should be used only in re-
ferring to that which is to come. Thus, " I suppose you
had an enjoyable visit;" "I expect you will have an
enjoyable visit."
Experience for receive or suffer. — Thus, we suffer dis-
comfort or receive unkind treatment. We do not prop-
erly experience either, though it has been so written,
but incorrectly, " The prisoners experienced many hard-
ships." " Experienced " is also improperly used for felt,
as in the following : " The child experienced a new sen-
sation."
Extend for send. — Nearly every society now "ex-
tends" invitations when it should "send" them. Ex-
tend means to "stretch forth." Do we mean to stretch
forth an invitation when we send it? "Extend " is, of
course, much used in the sense of "send," but not
correctly so.
246 GOOD ENGLISH.
Factor for feature. — Factor is a much misused word
when it is substituted for the word feature. Thus, " One
of the important factors of the painting was a beautiful
sunset scene." The writer meant, of course, one of the
important features of the painting.
Female for woman. — As an adjective to denote sex
the word female is permissible, as in speaking of teach-
ers they are referred to in reports and elsewhere as male
teachers and female teachers. As a noun the word female
may be applied to other animals as well as man, and it
should not be used in place of the word woman. We
speak of the human members of the male sex as men or
gentlemen ; we should in the same manner speak of the
human members of the female sex as women or ladies.
Few, a few. — The accuracy of the expression a few
has been questioned. A fexo and a many, with proper
modifications, are correct. Few, preceded by a, means
"some;" as, "A few (some) came yesterday." Few,
without the article, means "almost none;" as,. "Few
came to-day." In the sentence " A great many came,"
a great, meaning " very," is properly a complex adverb
modifying the adjective many. We have the expression
in another form :
" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,"
where many a is a complex adjective modifying the
noun flower; and full, an adverb, modifying the adjec-
tive "many a."
Figure for amount, sum, or number. — Common
usage has made the word figure do duty for the ex-
pressions amount, number, sura. Thus, we have " Seven
hundred and twenty dollars, or about that figure
[amount];" "The united sales amounted to a very
large figure [sum]." Even Dean Trench uses the ex-
CHOICE OF WORDS. 247
p'ression, "has attained a circulation of 1000; no very
large figure [number], certainly."
Final completion. — The adjective " final " is here un-
necessary', as every completion is final.
Fly for flee. — These two words are frequently misused,
one for the other. Fly means to move with wings, either
swiftly or slowly. Flee means to move away with vol-
untary rapidity. " Fly to the mountains for safety "
evidently should be "Flee to the mountains," etc. A
newspaper lately, in referring to the burning of a sem-
inary building crowded with girls, says that "the fire
burned so rapidly and the danger became so great,
that the students were compelled to fly in their night-
clothes."
From hence, from thence, from whence. — In each
of these expressions the word from is superfluous.
Whence means "from where;" therefore "from whence"
means "from from w^here." The same. is true of the
words hence and thence, each includes the word from as
part of its meaning. " From whence cometh my help?"
should be " Whence cometh my help?"
Graduated. — Shall we say graduated at or was gi^adu-
atedfromf Modern usage seems to sanction either form.
Gould, in Good English^ refers to a memoir of Noah
Webster, in which it is stated that he graduated with
reputation in 1788, and then adds, "The biographer
might as well have said that * he born on the 16th of
October, 1758.'" There can be no question that the
form was graduated^ meaning " was graded," is correct,
and one can make no mistake in using that form. The
institution does the graduating, and the student is grad-
uated.
Gratuitous for unwarranted or unreasonable. — The
word gratuitous means " without recompense or equiv-
248 GOOD ENGLISH.
alent," or "without proof." A gratuitous assertion is
therefore properly one that has no proof, or is un-
founded; but an unwairanted or xmreasonable assertion
is not necessarily a gratuitous assertion.
Grow for become. — Grow means to increase, to be-
come larger in quantity, quality, or condition. Thus, a
smooth sea may become rough and grow rougher ; a clear
night may become dark and grow black or darker; the
moon may grow brighter, but become smaller.
Ice-cream and ice-tea are terms now commonly used
for what are properly " iced-cream " and " iccd-tea."
Issue for number. — A paper or a magazine is issued
at regular periods, and numbered according to the num-
ber of times it has been issued during a definite period.
We should speak, therefore, not of " a late issue " or " a
recent issue," but of a late or a recent number of a paper.
Jew, Hebrew, Israelite. — These words are now prop-
erly synonyms. Originally they were terms applied to
the race. A prominent writer says, " Under the theoc-
racy they were known as Hebrews, under the monarchy
as Israelites, and under foreign domination as Jews^ At
present they are known as Hebrexos in race and language,
as Israelites in religion, and as Jews in all three senses.
We may speak of the Hebrew language or the Hebrew
race, but not of the Hebrew religion. " Jewish " is now
more commonly applied than " Israelitish " to the re-
ligion.
Jewelry for jewels. — Jewelry properly refers to the
place where jewels are kept. It belongs to the same
class of words as library, shrubbery, armory, grocery,
infirmary, etc., all of which indicate place. " These are
my jewels,^^ said the mother of the Gracchi.
Lady for wife. — The word lady is interchangeable with
the word woman. The word wife is used in a more re-
CHOICE OF WORDS. 249
Btricted sense. A cultured man never refers to his wife
as his lady.
Last for latest. — The last has no successors. Last has
reference to the order of succession ; latest has reference
to the order of time. We should therefore say, " I have
received your latest letter," not "your last letter." Many
others may follow the latest.
Leave. — This word is frequently, though incorrectly,
used without an object ; as, " I shall leave to-morrow."
The object should be mentioned ; as, " I leave the city
to-morrow," or " I leave liome this morning."
Less for fewer. — Less refers to size ; fewer, to number.
We should not say " There were less than fifty present,"
but " There were fewer than fifty present."
Lie, lay. — The forms of tlie intransitive verb lie, mean-
ing to recline, are lie, lay, lain. Thus, " I lie on the couch
now. I lay on it yesterday. I have lain on it frequently.
I will lie on it to-morrow."
The forms of the transitive verb lay are lay, laid, hid.
Lay denotes transitive action.
The following sentences show the distinction between
the words :
Present. — I lie on the lounge (rest) ; I lay the child on
the lounge (action).
Past. — I lay on the bed yesterday (rest) ; I laid the
child on the bed (action).
Present Perfect. — I have lain on the lounge (rest); I
have laid the child on the lounge (action).
Future. — I will lie on the lounge (rest) ; I will lay the
child on the lounge (action).
Errors in the use of these words are frequent.
Senate Rule II. says, " When a question is under de-
bate, no motion shall be received but to adjourn, to lie
on ike tablef*^ etc. A rule of the House of Representa-
250 GOOD ENGLISH,
lives uses the same expression. Of course the phrase
should be " to hiy on the table ;" that is, to lay a motion
or a proposition on the table. As the rule stands, it would
seem to mean that a member of the Senate or of the
House is privileged to make a motion (movement?) to
lie on the table. The rule as it stands might be con-
strued as a reflection on the sobriety of Congress.
Liikewise for also. — Likewise couples actions or states
of being ; also classes together objects or qualities. Thus,
" The canary sang cheerily and the robin likewise ;" " He
is witty, also wise."
Loan for lend. — Loan is used properly as a noun, the
name of the thing lent. The word expressing the action
is lend. Thus, " Lend me your knife."
Most for almost. — Most is the superlative of much,
and refers to quantity or degree. Most is frequently
used incorrectly in the sense of almost or nearly ; as,
"Most anybody would like the work."
Most for very. — Most is frequently used improperly
for very. Thus,
" I had not been long at the university before I distinguished
myself by a most profound silence." — Addison,
" He was a most complete orator and debater in the House
of Commons." — Chesterfield,
"His affections were so social and generous that when he
had money, he gave it most liberally away." — W, Irving,
Mutual for common. — Mutual means reciprocal. It
refers to actions or sentiments, not to objects. Love or
friendship may be mutual, but friends cannot be mu-
tual. "Our Mutual Friend "is a misnomer. We may
speak of our common friend if necessary, as we speak
of our common enemy; that is, the friend of two or
more in common.
One, when used in the plural, is not grammatically
CHOICE OF WORDS, 251
incorrect, but it is better not to use the expression as in
"I found several very good ones among the books he
bought." Omit the words very good, and the sense is
destroyed.
One-half for a half. — Inasmuch as there can be only
one half, as two halves are a whole one, it is better to
say "two and a half," "six and a half," etc., than two
and one-half or six and one-half. Such expressions as
" two and one-fourth " or " two and three-fourths," are
correct.
Partially for partly. — Partially means properly " with
unjust bias." When anything is done in part it is partly
done.
Patron for customer. — One who deals with another
or buys of him is a customer, not a patron.
People for persons. — People means a body of persons
regarded collectively, a nation. "Many people are of
this opinion," should be "Many persons are of this
opinion."
Plenty for plentiftil. — Plentiful denotes the presence
of plenty, and is the proper form for the adjective.
Thus, " We have a plentiful supply ;" " Money will be
plentiful."
Portion for part. — A portion is a part set aside for a
special purpose or to be considered by itself A part is
usually an indefinite portion. Thus, "Some parts of
the city were crowded."
Present for introduce. — Present means to introduce to
superiors. Thus, persons of certain rank are presented
at court, and foreign ministers are presented to the Pres-
ident of our own country. Friends are introduced, Wq
introduce our friends to each other, usually the younger
to the older, a gentleman to a lady, the person in the
lower position to the one in the higher.
252 GOOD ENGLISH.
Previous for previously. — The latter is the adverbial
form, and is the correct one to use in modifying a verb.
Thus, "Previously to my coming no one had been
licre."
Promise for assure. — The former word is frequently
misused for the latter. Thus, "I promise you I was
much delighted."
Proposition for proposal. — A proposition is something
submitted for one's consideration ; a pvposal is a thing
proposed or something offered to be done.
Proven for proved. — The verb prove is regarded by
grammarians as a regular verb, whose past tense ends in
ed. Proved is therefore the correct past tense form, and
there is no need of tl>e word " proven," though it is fre-
quently used.
Purpose for propose. — Purpose indicates a settled state
of mind ; propose indicates only a contingent state. I pur-
pose to do that pn which my decision is fixed. 1 pro-
pose to do that on which my mind has not definitely
decided.
Quantity for number. — The word quantity should be
used in connection with a mass not to be counted ; as,
"a quantity of wheat," or "a quantity of iron;" but
when speaking of individual objects the word number
is the proper word to use ; as, " a number of sticks," " a
number of books," " a number of persons."
Quite for very. — Quite means completely or entirely.
Such expressions as " quite a number," " quite an exhi-
bition," "quite cold," are not in accordance with the
best usage; but we may say "quite full," "quite
empty," etc.
Recommend for advise or request. — Recommend
means literally to re-commend, or commend to some
one else. In the sentence, ^^ Resolved, — That tlie mem-
CHOICE OF WORDS. 253
bers of this association be recommended to meet at 9
o'clock," etc, the word " advised " should be substituted
for the word " recommended."
BeligiotLS, pious. — A 'piotia man has reverence and
love for a supreme being. A religious man acknowledges
a bond which requires the performance of certain duties
and rites in relation to a supreme being or to a future
state, or to both. Jews, Mohammedans, Christians, es-
pouse different religions, but the piety of all of them is
the same.
Remember for recollect. — What we hold in the mind
we remember, what we recall on effort we recoUect. We
may remember and not be able to recall or recollect when
we wish to do so. We cannot recollect without remem-
bering.
Kemit for send. — The word remit means to "send
again," or "to send back," and there seems to be no
good reason why it should be used for the word send.
If one were to comply literally with the request to remit
when a bill is sent, he would send the bill back instead
of paying it. The word has, however, found a place in
commercial transactions from which it could be dis-
lodged with difficulty.
Rendition for renderingr. — Rendition denotes surrender
or giving up, as when we speak of the rendition of a be-
sieged town or the rendition of a pledge for the payment
of a debt. When a drama is well presented we say cor-
rectly that " the rendering of the play was admirable."
Restive for restless. — Restive means standing stub-
bornly still, as a balky horse. Restless implies uneasy
motion.
Reverend, honorable. — These words are adjectives,
and should be used only Avith the names to which they
belong. The definite article is always used with them.
254 GOOD ESGUSH.
Thus, "The Rev. Mr. Miller," "The Rev. James Dob-
son," "The Hon. Mr. Stevens."
Section for neifirhborhood, vicinity, regrion. — The use
of the word section in the sense here noted, originated
probably in connection with the land sections of the
West, but it is not applicable to the words " neighbor-
hood," "vicinity," or "region," and it should not be
used in their stead.
Shall, will. — Probably no two words in our language
are more frequently used incorrectly than sliall and icill.
The following are the simplest rules for the use of
these words in independent sentences:
To denote futurity or to pi-edict^ shall is used in the first
person, and will in the second and the third. Thus,
1. " I shall be there."
2. "Will you be there?"
3. "He will be there."
In promises, will is used in the first person and shall in
the second and the third. Thus,
1. "I will go."
2. " You shall go."
3. " He shall go."
In dependent sentences, the usage is as follows :
When a subordinate noun-clause is introduced by the
word that and modifies such verbs as say, fear, think, etc.,
if the noun-clause and the principal clause have difier-
ent subjects, the distinction is the same as in independ-
ent sentences. Thus,
1. "The teacher says that Horace will come well prepared."
(Futurity.)
2. "Mother says that you^ill have a pleasant visit." (Futu-
rity.)
8. " My fieitber predicts that I shall succeed." (Futurity.)
CHOICE OF WORDS. 255
4. "They say that Henry shall go with us." (Promise or
volition.)
6. "The teacher says that you shall shut the door." (Voli-
tion.)
6. " The boy fears that I will punish him." (Volition.)
When the subordinate clause and the principal clause
have the same subject, and in all dependent clauses in-
troduced by if J when, aUhmigh, etc., shall is used to express
futurity in all the persons, and mil in all the persons
implies an exercise of the will on the part of the person
represented by the subject of the clause. Thus,
1. " The doctor says that he shall be pleased to go with us."
(Futurity.)
2. " I think I shall be glad to know your friends."
3. " You fear that you shall fail."
4. " Henry says that he will meet us at the office."
6. " You said that you will pay the expenses."
6. " I think that I will go along."
7. " When He shall appear, we shall be like Him."
8. " If you will let me help you, I shall be greatly pleased."
9. " If he will give us permission, we will hold the concert in
the chapel."
10. " Although we will not consent, they will leave at day-
break."
Shall and Will in Qnestions.
In questions will is never correctly used in the first
person except when it repeats a question asked by some
one else ; as, " Will you lend me your knife ?" " Will I
lend you my knife? Certainly."
In questions in which the second or the third person
is used, the auxiliary wliich is expected in the answer is
used in the question. Thus,
"Shall you be glad to take the trip?" " I shall." (Futurity.)
" Will you go with us ?" " I will." (Volition.)
" Will your brother go with us ?" " He will."
256 GOOD ENGLTSB.
Shoiild, woiild. — Should is the past tense of shall; and
wouldj the past tense of tciU.
The rules which govern the use of "shall" and "will"
apply also to the use of " should " and " would," but
should ^nd woxdd have in addition certain meanings of
their own to which attention must be given.
Should is sometimes used in the sense of " ought ;" as,
" You should attend to the work promptly ;" " I should
have gone ;" " They should have informed us."
Should is used also in a conditional sense ; as, " If it
should be very cold, we would not go."
Would is sometimes used to denote habitual action;
as, " Mother would sit in her easy-chair and wateh the
children at their play."
Would also sometimes expresses a wish, as in David's
Lament, " Would God, I had died for thee, O Absalom,
my son, my son I"
They who keep in mind these special meanings of
should and would may safely follow the rules given for
shall and will^ remembering that "should" and "would"
are simply the past tenses of these words.
Sit, set, settle. — Sit is an active but intransitive verb,
and like lie it implies rest. Set is a transitive verb that
implies action ; it needs an object to complete its mean-
ing.
The principal parts of sit are sit, sat, sat ; of set^ they
are set, set, set.
The use of the words may be distinguished as follows:
Present, — I sit on the bench (rest).
I set the pitcher on the table (action).
Past, — I sat on the bench (rest).
I set the broom in the closet (action).
J^es, Per/, — I have sat on the bench (rest).
I have set t\i^\>ioom\ii\\i^ <:\Qi9At (^action).
CHOICE OF WORDS. 257
Of the verb sit, the other tense forms in the indicative
are " had sat," " will sit," " will have sat."
Of the verb set, the remaining tense forms in the in-
dicative are "had set," "will set," "will have set."
The query as to whether we should say a "sitting
hen " or a " setting hen," may be answered by saying,
We set the hen, she sits, and is a sitting hen. As to a
" sitting " or a " setting " of eggs, they are to be set or
placed in the nest, and are therefore a " setting of eggs."
Why not say " The sun sits " instead of " The sun
sets," inasmuch as the action is intransitive ? The word
sets in this case comes from the Anglo-Saxon setlgange, for
settling. "The sun sets in the West" is only another
form for " The sun settles in the West," in which settles
is an intransitive verb.
Social for sociable. — Sociable means fitted for society,
quick to unite with others, usually for pleasure. Social
denotes the relation of men in society, or communities,
or commonwealths. Thus, persons who are quick to
join with others in a friendly way are sociable. A man
may be deeply interested in social science and yet not
be sociable.
State for say. — State in the sense of say is a useless
word. It really means to set forth the condition under
which a person or a thing stands. Thus, a bank states
its condition ; a debater states a proposition.
Stop for stay. — We stay at a hotel, not stop. One mny
stop at a hotel as he stops temporarily at a street-corner,
but his remaining for a time at a hotel or other place of
entertainment is expressed by the word stay.
Storming for raining. — A storm is a commotion of
the elements. It needs more than rain to make a storm.
Thus, we may have a wind-storm, a hailstorm of wind and
hail, or a rain-storm of wind and rain.
17
258 GOOD ENGLISH,
Such for so. — Suchj an adjective, is incorrectly used
for so. Thus, when one says that he never saw " such
a vicious dog," he means to modify the adjective
" vicious," and he therefore should use the adverb so,
and express the sentence thus, " I never saw so vicious
a dog."
Than you can help. — This expression is frequently
used in such sentences as " Make no more noise than
you can help," which really means " Make no noise that
you cannot help," or " Make all the noise you can." A
better form would be, "Make no noise that you can
avoid (or help)."
The first for any. — " The first " as a substitute for any
is an expression for which there seems to be no necessity.
The following are fair examples of its improper use for
the word any: "I haven't the first objection to your re-
maining ;" " I have yet to see the first instance of any
one's succeeding under such circumstances."
These kind, those sort, and similar expressions,
where an adjective denoting plurality is used to mod-
ify a noun in the singular number, are incorrect. The
correct forms are "this kind," "that sort," etc.
Transpire for occur, pass. — Transpire means to breathe
through or across. It cannot be used correctly in the
sense of occur or pass. Events occur and years pass, but
neither events nor years transpire. It is never correct
to use the word " transpire " where the phrase " to take
place" can be substituted.
Truism for truth. — A truism is a self-evident truth ;
as, " All men are bipeds." " The sum of the three an-
gles of a triangle is equal to two right angles " is a truth,
but it needs proof or demonstration, and is not therefore
a truism.
Try for make. — The word try is incorrectly used in
CHOICE OF WORDS. 259
connection with the word experiment. We do not try
an experiment; we make an experiment.
Ugly for ill-tempered. — Though not in general use,
the wor^Lugly is sometimes used for ill-tempered. Thus,
" He is ugly in his conduct ;" *' The boy has an ugly dis-
position." In such cases the word ill-tempered is usu-
ally the proper substitute for the word ugly.
Veracity for truth. — These words are synonyms, but
the expression " a man of truth and veracity " is fre-
quently used. Veracity is properly applied to persons,
and truth, to statements. Thus, we speak of a man's
veracity, but of the truth or truthfulness of an assertion.
Verbal for oral. — Verbal means consisting of Avords,
which may be either spoken or written. Oral refers to
spoken words only. A verbal report, so often referred
to, is simply a report in words. We should speak of a
spoken report, therefore, as an oral report.
Vicinity.— The word vicinity should not be used with-
out its being preceded by a modifying word. We may
say " This city and vicinity " because a modifying word,
this, is understood before vicinity, and we may say
" Philadelphia and its vicinity," but not " Philadelphia
and vicinity."
Widow woman for widow. — Widow is the proper
appellation for a woman whose husband has died. The
word woman is superfluous. We might as well use the
expression " a widower man " as " a widow woman."
Whereabouts. — There is a strong tendency to use
this word in the plural, probably because it ends with
8. Thus, a newspaper says, " The whereabouts of the
escaped prisoner are unknown." "His whereabouts
have not been discovered." Whereabouts is in the sin-
gular number. It means simply one's location or abid-
ing-place. Think of saying " His abiding-place are un-
260 OOOD ENGLISH.
known " I The verb agreeing with " whereabouts " must
be in the singular number.
Whole for all. — Wfiole refers to the component parts
of a single body. It is therefore singular in meaning.
All denotes a collection of individuals. It is better,
therefore, to say " All of the family are present " than
"The whole of the family are present."
The Spectator says, "The Red-Cross Knight runs
through the whole steps of the Christian life." It
should be " all the steps " instead of " the whole steps."
Alison, in his "History of the French Revolution," says,
" The whole Russians are inspired with the belief that
their mission is to conquer the world." He should have
said " All the Russians are," etc.
Witness for see. — Witness as a verb means to be able
to give testimony from personal knowledge. We may
vntness a theft, a murder, or the execution of a deed, in
each case so as to be able to give testimony. We see, we
do not witness, a scene, a mountain, a painting, or any
other object.
To avoid fine, this book should be returned on
or before the date last stamped below
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