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THOMAS HUTCHINSO

$400

HERE IS

TELEVISION

Your Window to the World

COMPLETELY REVISED EDITION

By
THOMAS H. HUTCH INSON

HERE IS TELEVISION is a comprehensive ac
count of television as it exists today with a fore
cast of the developments we may expect in the
future. Written in non-technical language, it
takes the reader from the first entrance into the
studio through all the steps that lead up to a
finished production and its reception in the
home.

The emphasis is on program and production
technique but, in addition, an over-all picture of
the industry is presented and the problems that
the industry will face are approached from a
commonsense point of view. There is a thorough
discussion of the physical tools of television, a
complete outline of the possible types of pro
grams, and an analysis of station and network
technique and operation. The book concludes
with a survey of "Jobs in Television," a sample
television script, and a glossary of television
terms.

HERE IS TELEVISION will be of value to all
those who are professionally interested in television
— broadcasters, advertisers, producers, actors,
entertainers, and writers — as well as to the lay
reader who wants an easily understood guide to
the background and possibilities of this newest of
the entertainment and communications industries.

HASTINGS HOUSE

Publishers New York, 22

From the collection of the

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San Francisco, California
2006

HERE IS TELEVISION

Artist's sketch of the multiple-use television tower on the Empire State Building.

Here is

TELEVISION

Your Window to the World

THOMAS H. HUTCHINSON

WITH

NINETY-FOUR
ILLUSTRATIONS

HASTINGS HOUSE

Publishers New York

Second Printing, Revised, April, 1948

Third Printing, February, 1950
Completely Revised Edition, November, 1950

Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE

The author of this book has helped to shape the beginnings of
television, the newest of the instruments available to those in the
future who seek to inform the minds of men, or to win their sym
pathy and understanding. It takes imagination and daring to
leave the security of a known medium, to explore, through trial
and error, with tools which are often anachronisms as soon as
used, a new medium which has a limited audience, no traditions,
no certainties of technique. It was in part this same imagination
which led the author to teach what was perhaps the first Univer
sity class in Television Programming. Offered by the Washington
Square Writing Center of New York University in the fall of
1940, this course has been conducted each semester since that
time, with the exception of a brief period during the war, and
this volume is an expansion of these lectures, discussions, and
demonstrations.

It is of special interest that this book grows out of teaching
and will be widely purchased and used as a textbook. With tele
vision admittedly in its infancy as an industry and as an art form,
why, it may be asked, should we presume to teach the techniques
of television programming?

The answer is that we have a tradition of demanding that our
best doctors, artists, and scientists shall teach us who seek to fol
low in their steps. Happily, most creative people are genuinely
interested in helping us to share whatever secrets of technique or
knowledge they possess. Moreover, the wisest of them realize that
teaching benefits both him who learns and him who teaches. The
task of communicating what one knows or has done is in itself
clarifying. We do not have knowledge in its fullest realization
until we have attempted to express it, to communicate it to
others. Thus it is fortunate that when we as students seek to
benefit from what pioneers in any field have learned, knowledge
itself is perfected in the very process of teaching.

vi PREFACE

Although in this analysis of past and present problems and
dilemmas of television the author continually makes reference to
the improved methods and equipment to be expected in the near
future, we as readers already believe in the technical marvels of
tomorrow. There are few who would not agree that soon we
shall have full color, big screen television in our theaters and in
our homes. We need no persuasion that we shall actually be wit
nessing the Red Army parade in the Red Square as it is happen
ing, and hear the shouts of the crowds; we shall see the blue
windows at Chartres, the mourning crowds at the funeral train,
the circus parade, the ninth inning rally. "You see the action the
very second it happens," writes Mr. Hutchinson, "and probably
from a more advantageous point of view than you would have if
you were there in person. You are there, to all intents and pur
poses."

We agree. We know this is to be true. We are even willing
to wait some years until future scientific discoveries shall have
been made. We know they will be. But the phrase "to all intents
and purposes" sticks in the mind. We are "there," we agree. But
with what "intent?" To what "purpose?" Such a question must
surely tease us out of all mere complacency with our scientific
triumph. We know, now, the structure of the atom, "to all in
tents and purposes." But what is the intent and what the
purpose?

In television we have an instrument which can make possible
our identification with our fellow men over the face of the earth.
We shall hear them speak to us and see them clearly in their
appeal for understanding. They will see and hear us, and we
must make them know our purposes. This has been possible
through the newsreel, but television will make the immediacy of
relationship beyond escape.

To what "intent?" Let it be our intent, in the words of Joseph
Conrad, that

". . . one may perchance attain to such clearness of sin
cerity that at last the presented vision of regret or pity, or
terror or mirth, shall awaken in the hearts of the beholders
that feeling of unavoidable solidarity; of the solidarity in
mysterious origin, in toil, in joy, in hope, in uncertain
fate, which binds men to each other, and all mankind to
the visible world."

PREFACE vii

Characteristically, our schools are concerned with the advance
ment of "science," not with the uses of its manifold practical
applications. Through our colleges of engineering we have long
since made provision for the study of radio, electronics, and
vacuum tube theory, thus ensuring constant improvement in
electronic and television equipment. But nowhere in our col
leges and universities is there exhibited enough concern with the
responsible use of radio and television, or any systematic interest
in the professional training of those who will make careers in
such fields. There are professional schools of law, of medicine,
of dentistry, of accounting. Even of retailing. But there is, as yet,
no School of Communications.

Boys and girls seeking preparation for living in today's world
have forced colleges to offer training in the techniques of radio
programming. And so it will be with television. If there are few
courses now, it is certain there will be more in the near future,
when colleges assume, as they must, some of the responsibility for
the use of the inventions which their graduates in science have
produced. Then, too, we shall perhaps have a degree awarded,
not only in the sphere of technical achievements, but also in the
sphere of how-to-use these achievements. The day is near at hand
when training in the use and employment of scientific discoveries
will be considered as important as the discoveries themselves. A
volume such as this is a stepping stone towards this future in edu
cation, and as such is a distinct contribution.

Those who work in magazines, in books, in radio, in motion
pictures, in television, hold our tomorrow in their hands. In this
tomorrow the most talented and fair-minded among us must be
trained to use the several media of communications which science
has placed at our disposal. As one of the first textbooks for this
training, the present volume deserves the gratitude of all who
believe tomorrow is worth working for.

PAUL A. McGHEE, Dean,

Division of General Education,
New York University

INTRODUCTION

It was only a little over one hundred years ago, on May 26,
1844, to be exact, that the first successful test of electronic com
munication was made. On that date a telegraphic message was
sent from Washington to Baltimore and our great present day
means of communication was born. No one realized then that
the development to come in less than a century would make the
now famous message, "What God hath wrought," tapped out on
that crude telegraph instrument, seem meager and primitive.
Telegraphic communication, crude as it was, proved that mes
sages could be sent by means of electric impulses. And with this
knowledge came experiments and improvements that brought the
telephone, wireless telegraphy, and radio. As early as the year
1847 experiments were suggested for sending a visual as well as
an oral message by means of electricity. These experiments were
conducted with varying success for almost fifty years. Then, in
1923, Vladimir Zworykin filed his first patent on the television
iconoscope and seeing as well as hearing through electronic means
became a reality.

Today we stand poised on the threshold of a future for tele
vision that no one can begin to comprehend fully. We are aware
of some of its possibilities, but we are a long, long, way from
knowing what eventually may be done. We do know, however,
that the outside world can be brought into the home and thus
one of mankind's long-standing ambitions has been achieved.

When we stop and realize how new inventions have changed
the thinking and living habits of the peoples of the world we get
an inkling of what television may accomplish. The steam engine,
the motor car, the telephone, and the radio all changed our ways
of life. Who can say where television will lead us?

For one thing it will undoubtedly change the face of the en
tertainment world. Motion pictures and radio have broadened
the entertainment horizons that used to be limited by the foot-

x INTRODUCTION

lights of the theater. In television a whole new future lies before
us. Television will take everything that has been learned from
the theater, from radio, and from pictures and will develop a
technique of its own until a new means of entertainment is born.

Today the television horizons are limited; but we know that in
the not too far distant future London, Paris, Moscow, and Wash
ington will be next door and all the peoples of the world near
neighbors. To make this dream come true everyone interested in
television is faced with the problem of developing this new
industry.

In this book the author will attempt to present television as it
exists today, and to hint at its future possibilities with the hope
that it may help young men and women find their place in this
new field.

What Is Television?

To many people Television is still an unknown development
of the future. To some it is as vague as the cyclotron smashing
atoms in Berkeley, California. To others it is a practical every
day visual means of communication and it is only a question of
time before it will become just that to millions of Americans.

Television actually is a window looking out on the world.
Radio brought sound to the home— television adds the visual
image.

The average viewer will purchase a receiving set— there are now
many different makes and types available— and have it installed
in his home. The size of the picture will depend entirely on how
much he pays for the receiver. Picture sizes vary from about
six by eight inches on up to three by four feet. The popular
choice will probably be for receivers that deliver pictures ranging
between twelve by nine inches up to twenty-four by eighteen.
Sets reproducing pictures of this size cost very little more than
the early models of good console radios. The receivers are very
simple to operate and any child can properly adjust them.

You, in your home will see events of national importance just
as they happen. Personalities that we only heard yesterday will be
seen as well as heard tomorrow. Sporting events of all kinds will
be there for you to see with a twist of a dial. Drama, news, music
—every known type of entertainment will be waiting at your fin
ger tips. Television programs on film as well as live studio pro-

INTRODUCTION xi

ductions will present the finest talent and material. For some
time television program schedules may be limited to only part of
the time now being used by radio; but as set sales increase so will
the hours of programs.

Television isn't radio and cannot be treated as such. To get
the most out o£ a television program you must give it your un
divided attention. This means that television programs must be
above the entertainment average that radio has set. And they
will be.

The impetus that it has received from the broadcasts of World
Series baseball, championship boxing bouts, the President and
Congress of the United States, and the general caliber of pro
grams have raised the sale of receivers far above early predictions.
Program service is available every night in the week in the prin
cipal cities of the eastern part of this country; it is only a matter
of time before it will be available to the majority of homes all
over America and eventually to the world. Canada, Mexico, Eng
land, Belgium, and Russia are all planning extensive television
operations.

Television means the world in your home and in the homes of
all the people of the world. It is the greatest means of communi
cation ever developed by the mind of man. It should do more to
develop friendly neighbors, and to bring understanding and
peace on earth, than any other single material force in the world
today.

Throughout the book the editorial "we" refers to me or to
those television pioneers who have labored with me in an en
deavor to find out what television was all about. In many cases,
where production problems are discussed, I have directed or
supervised the programs referred to and in all cases I have seen
the program or discussed the problems involved with their pro
ducers. While the opinions expressed are my own, they are based
on my personal experiences in New York while Television Pro
gram Manager for the National Broadcasting Company, Super
visor of Television Programs for Ruthrauff and Ryan, Produc
tion Manager for the RKO Television Corporation, and director
of some of today's foremost commercial programs.

I would like to express my gratitude to the Allen B. Du Mont
Television Laboratories, The General Electric Company, The
Columbia Broadcasting System, Lever Brothers, The National

xii INTRODUCTION

Broadcasting Company, The RKO Television Corporation,
Ruthrauff and Ryan, Empire State, Inc., WPIX and Television
Productions, Inc. for the use of photographs and drawings in
cluded in this book; also to acknowledge with sincere apprecia
tion the suggestions and guidance I have received from Thomas
H. Belviso, Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith and Olga Lee.

THOMAS H. HUTCHINSON
Larchmont, N. Y.

CONTENTS

PREFACE v

INTRODUCTION ix

Part One

THE TOOLS OF TELEVISION
CHAPTER PAGE

1 THE TELEVISION STUDIO 3
Physical Aspects— Setting the Scene— Lighting— Lighting

the motion picture set— Television lighting

2 THE CAMERA 11

Cameras Must Move— The Camera Cable— The Picture
Tube— Lenses— Stopping Down the Lens— The Camera
man—Color Response of the Camera Tube

3 TELEVISION SOUND 21
Sound Perspective— Studio Operation— Special Micro
phones—Sound Effects

4 THE CONTROL ROOM 26
The Video Engineer— The Switching Engineer— Means of
Switching— The Sound Engineer— Sound Effects— Video
Effects-The Operating Crew

5 PROGRAM OPERATION 39
The Director— The Rough Draft of a Script— The Shoot
ing Script— Operating Problems

6 THE PROJECTION BOOTH 51
The Physical Arrangement— Motion Picture Projection-
Audience Reactions— Use of Film— Still Pictures— Impor
tance of Proper Installation— The Announce Booth

7 THE MOBILE UNIT 61
Outside Pick-up Equipment— A Typical Day's Work— The
Outside Camera Men— Remote Camera Control— At the
Track— The Orthicon Camera— Sending the Picture Back
—Later Developments

8 THE MASTER CONTROL ROOM 73
A Typical Operation— The Flow of Programs

xiii

xiv CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

9 THE TELEVISION PICKUP TUBE 78

The Mosaic— Scanning— Reconstructing a Picture— Speed
of Operation— The Image Orthicon— New Lenses— The
Picture

10 THE TRANSMITTER 91

Broadcasting Channels— Sending the Picture Out-Action
of Short Waves— Unusual Results

11 THE TELEVISION RECEIVER 102
The Receiving Antenna— Types of Receivers— A Vacuum

and a Law of Physics

Part Two
TELEVISION PROGRAMS

12 PROGRAMS IN GENERAL 113
What Are We Going To See?— Production Technique-
Audience Reactions

13 INTERVIEWS 119
Prepared Programs— Announcers— The Master of Cere
mony—Experiments—Political Candidates

14 INFORMATIVE PROGRAMS 128
Music Lessons— Dancing Lessons— Exercises— The World

We Live In— Other Subjects— Televising Art-Children's
Programs— Bridge Lessons— General Education— Clay
Modeling— Making a Dry Point Etching

15 VARIETY PROGRAMS 139
The Television Approach— Skaters— Legerdemain— Ani
mal Acts— Contests— Jugglers— Preparation— Drawing— At
Home— Vaudeville— The Good Old Days— The Night
Club— Looking in on Radio Programs— Television Quiz
Programs— Visual Picture Quizzes— Charades— Further Ex
periments

16 DRAMA 157

Writing for Television-Choice of Material-Production
Problems— Television Scenery— Building the Production-
Stage Properties— Motion Pictures As an Adjunct to
Studio Drama— Casting— The Rehearsal— Proper Use of
Cameras— Getting Ready to Face the Camera— Actors-
Special Techniques— The Final Rehearsal

CONTENTS xv

CHAPTER PAGE

17 MUSICAL PROGRAMS 184
Small Musical Units— Dancing— Musical Comedy— Opera
—Popular Dance Bands— Visual Music

18 PUPPETS 194
The Television Approach— Possible Development

19 REMOTE PROGRAMS 198
Choice of Material— Sports— Wrestling— Basketball— Track
Meets-Tennis-Baseball - Soccer — Roller Derby - Hockey
—Football— Availability of Events— Announcers— Boxing-
Other Experiments— Special Programs

20 NEWS 216

Special Events— Early News Programs— Later Develop
ments—Covering Political Conventions— News on Film

21 PROGRAMS ON FILM 230

Perfection of Film Presentations— Broadening trie Scope
of Studio Programs— News Films— Travelogues— Old Pic
tures—The Position of the Exhibitor— Film Costs— Editing
—Repeat Performances— The Time Situation— Off the
Line Recordings

22 VISUAL EFFECTS 243

The Use of Miniatures— An Effects Studio— Mechanical
Effects— Electrical Photographic Effects— Visual Effects on
Film— Titles— Lettering— Types and Styles of Titles

23 TELEVISION RIGHTS 253

Author's Rights— Specific Instances— Royalties— Music
Rights— Non-Dramatic Rights— Dramatic Rights— Me
chanical Rights— State Laws

24 OTHER TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROBLEMS 261
Individual Programs— Audience Reactions— Off Camera
Narration— Scenic Problems— Special Lighting Effects—
Simul-casts— Censorship — Other Studio Problems— We

Must Produce Good Entertainment— Modern Programs

Part Three
THE COMMERCIAL ASPECT

25 COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS 273

Early Commercials— Early Fashion Shows— Particular
Programs— What to Show and How to Show it— Automo-

xvi CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

biles— Commercial Announcements— Sponsoring Sports—
The Proof of Television Effectiveness— Commercial Au
thorization—The Renaissance— Visual and Aural Mes
sages—The Wide Variety of Sponsors— The Straight Com
mercial Program— Unanswered Problems

26 LARGE STATION OPERATION 291
Rehearsal Time— A Place to Rehearse— One Day's Sched
ule—Changing the Scenery— A Weekly Schedule— Studio
Construction— Personnel— Theoretical Problems— Studio
Locations— The Ultimate Requirements

27 SMALL STATION OPERATION 308
The Availability of Film— Local Programs

28 TELEVISION NETWORKS 312

Possible Means of Distribution— Air Relays— Early Relay
Tests— Stratovision

29 THEATER TELEVISION 318

Theater Versus Home Television— Distribution— Live
Dramatic Productions— Special Events

30 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 325

Color Television— Cameras— Other Uses— Background
Projection— Electronic Superimposition— The Upper Fre
quencies

31 JOBS IN TELEVISION 335

Operation — Writers — Actors — Directors — The Producer—
The Cameraman— Studio Program Personnel

32 A SUMMARY OF TELEVISION PROGRESS 341

Early Historic Dates— A Step Forward— Experiments with
Electricity— Programs on the Air— The Beginning of the
Electronic System— Television in England— Holland— Ger
many— France— The Problem in America— Commercial
Television at Last

A TELEVISION SCRIPT 352

A GLOSSARY OF TERMS 365

Part One
THE TOOLS OF TELEVISION

I—A studio scene. 2— The control room. 3— The mobile unit. 4— Master con
trol. 5— The broadcasting antenna. 6— The picture in the home.

THE TELEVISION STUDIO

A visit to a modern television studio in operation usually im
presses the mind of the inexperienced with a picture of finished
operational simplicity or complete bedlam, depending entirely
on how the visitor views this wonder of transporting pictures
through the ether to the millions of homes throughout America.
But, regardless of how it first affects one, the answer is that it is
a bedlam resolved to minute simplicity of operation. The tele
vision cameraman's movement of his camera to a desirable posi
tion for the picture he is about to pick up, is in itself a very
simple operation; but behind that act stands hours and perhaps
days of preparation. The pickup of an involved live television
program represents the ultimate in the theatrical world in the
coordination of personnel and equipment.

In television, unlike motion pictures, there are no retakes, the
job must be done correctly the first time with actors, cameramen,
sound men, stage hands, electricians, stage managers, engineers,
and directors all doing their part in the right way and at the
right moment.

In this book, among other things, we will attempt to break
down the operational picture and to present each man's job in
its simplest form.

Physical Aspects

A television studio may vary greatly in size and shape. In most
cases dimensions are governed by the location of the studio itself.
In New York they range from a floor space of approximately one
hundred feet by a hundred for large productions to those only
about thirty by forty feet which were planned for intimate pres
entations. These small studios have proved to have a very defi
nite value as each program must be thoroughly rehearsed and it
is too expensive to have small cast units monopolizing thousands
of feet of floor space. But regardless of its size, a television
studio is first a soundproof room, with coaxial outlets through

4 HERE IS TELEVISION

which the electronic pictures originating in the room may be
sent to the transmitter. In addition, there must be sound equip
ment, proper lighting facilities, ventilating systems, and space
enough for scenery to be placed so that actors may walk through
their parts and be picked up by the television camera and the
sound microphone. It must be of sufficient height to allow for
scenery well above the heads of the actors and provide for lights
and microphone pickup without ceiling interference. It must be

Three sets in operation at WRGB. Scene at left is on the air; announcer at
extreme right. The remotely controlled lights are seen at the top of picture.

adjacent to dressing rooms for the artists, scene docks for scenery,
and storage space for properties and should allow for the en
trance of all the large objects needed, be they automobiles,
pianos, or elephants.

The studio should be readily available to talent and the pro
gram staff; but so far there is a wide range in the location of
television studios. In New York all of the main television studios
are in the heart of Manhattan. For the most part they are in
office buildings served by elevators with no direct door to the
street. This is a serious handicap to program operations as many
desirable properties can not be brought into the studios. In Eng
land before the war, the BBC studios were in Alexandra Palace
some distance from the heart of London. General Electric's stu-

THE TELEVISION STUDIO 5

dios in Schenectady have proved to be in many respects the best
located for all around programming. In a one story building,
surrounded with spacious grounds easily available to everyone,
it offers the program builder facilities not found in other cities.
In Chicago we find a television studio atop a large office build
ing, while in Los Angeles one is on a motion picture lot and an
other on top of a mountain.

The four main phases of television: (a) The studio; (b) The control room;
(c) The transmitting antenna; (d) The receiver.

The studio need not of necessity be adjacent to the transmitter.
We find some studios in the same building and some several miles
away. As the picture may be carried to the transmitter by coaxial
cable or radio relay distance is not a serious problem.

Let us examine our television studio a little further. In one
wall we will see a large glass panel and behind it we will find the
television control room. Here behind a soundproof wall, sit the
men who supervise the picture originating in the studio and who
pass it along, after it is styled to their liking, to the television
audience. We will discuss the control room and its functions in a
later chapter, but we must know that the control room is the
"seat of the mighty" in television.

6 HERE IS TELEVISION

Setting the Scene

Let us assume that we are about to produce a live television
program and we begin to assemble the physical properties neces
sary for its production. The first step is to a great extent similar
to that followed for a stage or moving picture production. If the
action is in a home the carpet usually goes down first. This is laid
on the studio floor for picture values and for its sound deadening
effect. Most studios today are floored with heavy linoleum. In
radio studios this was usually on the dark side, but the value of
reflected light from the floor will influence the color selected in
television studios of the future. Either the floor itself will be light
or light ground cloths will be used. Then comes the scenery.
This has been designed by the scenic designer for the production,
built in the carpenter shop, and painted by the scenic depart
ment. It must be of the proper height and weight to facilitate
moving and yet make a practical setting for the production. So
far most television scenery has been built along stage lines rather
than to Hollywood specifications. One television production can
not tie up studio space for any longer than is absolutely neces
sary. The scenery must be easily handled and, because of this,
very few attempts have been made to build the semi-permanent
sets we see in the movies. Much remains to be done in building
television scenery. Cracks or joints are unforgivable but how to
get the effect of a solid wall and still be able to take the set out
of the studio quickly and easily is a problem that requires care
ful planning and construction.

With the scenery properly set, the stage properties come in.
Furniture, curtains, dressing and hand properties. Then elec
trical fixtures such as chandeliers, floor lamps, and other home
equipment. Once the set is complete, we are ready to begin our
investigation of how to turn the picture of this scenery in the
studio into electronic impulses that will be broadcast to television
receiving sets and again reformed into visual pictures on the
home viewing screen.

Lighting

The first job is to properly light the set that we have assem-

THE TELEVISION STUDIO 7

bled, and in this connection television presents a different prob
lem to that encountered on the stage or in the movies. In the
theater the main objective of lighting is to create an overall
picture that is pleasing to the audience and to accentuate the
principal actors with sufficient light to point up their personality
or bring attention to various parts of the stage. This is done for
the most part with footlights, borders, and floodlights augmented
with specially placed spotlights, from the front of the house, from
off stage, or from above. In general, theater lights are in a fixed
position although individual spots may be swung or turned to
follow a performer.

There is no limitation either in brightness or lack of light that
is essential to the success of a theatrical performance. Early stage
productions were lighted with candles and tapers; then came gas
and finally electricity; but as long as there was sufficient illumina
tion for the audience to see the actors, the show could go on.
Today many scenes are played in low level blue lights and in
some cases action is carried on in complete darkness.

Lighting the motion picture set

In motion picture lighting, some of the freedom of the stage is
lost due to the fact that photographic film will not register a
scene unless there is sufficient light on a subject to affect the sensi
tivity of the emulsion. The film in use today, however, will
react to a very low level lighting and motion picture directors
have taken advantage of this fact to produce artistically beautiful
effects. In a motion picture production the lights are usually so
arranged that they may be diffused or concentrated on any given
area. The lights are installed on a heavy platform, built around
and just outside of the set, and each lamp is controlled by elec
tricians who work the lamps from the catwalk. They must be out
of the line of vision of the cameras and in the big studios lamps
are located far up in the ceiling. These basic sources of illumina
tion are augmented by floor lamps and spotlights.

Once all the lighting equipment is installed, and its placement
varies with each production, each light is focused on a particular
part of the set. Motion picture procedure, of photographing
short scenes and then stopping, allows for perfect placement of

8 HERE IS TELEVISION

light. There will be special spots to cover any location or artist
and to highlight his face or hair. We find special facilities for
back lighting and all of the lights on the picture set may be
shifted for each scene so that illumination always comes from the
most advantageous position for proper photography.

Television lighting

Television presents a problem which in many ways combines
the lighting techniques of both the stage and the motion picture
studio plus some demands peculiar only to itself. First and most
important is the fact that there must be a definite amount of
light, evenly spread all over the set to be picked up by the tele
vision camera; or the pickup tube in the camera, will not respond
to the images focused upon it. Photographic light levels, that is,
the amount of light in each square foot of space to be photo
graphed, are measured in "foot candles." Roughly speaking,
some one thousand foot candles of light were required, spread
fairly evenly all over the set, to get a readable response from the
pre-war iconoscope. But today in general, good motion picture
lighting is the standard in television, with especial emphasis
placed on the average results obtained as performers move about
the set. Early lighting requirements are a thing of the past. Im
proved pick-up tubes in the cameras have dropped the required
light level down to below three hundred foot candles. Still tele
vision presents a lighting problem peculiar only to itself in that
every light must be so placed that the overall picture results are
good no matter from what angle the scene is "shot." In an open
ing scene the camera may be directly center but the next "take"
may be made from the left or right of the set and in some cases
from a camera position on the set itself. This means that motion
picture technique "per se" can not always be followed. Every
television lighting engineer constantly strives to obtain highlights
on the actors wherever possible— to heighten the beauty of a
woman's hair, to get natural shadows as the characters in the
play move about the set, and above all to give naturalness to
everyone who is to be picked up by the camera. He must avoid
dark shadows under the eyes and especially under the chin. This
requirement is in itself a problem. Low lights on the floor of the

THE TELEVISION STUDIO 9

studio (footlights as they are called in the theatre) are virtually
impossible to place properly as cameras are mobile. The studio
floor between the actors and the cameras must be clear to allow
the cameras to move in closely when necessary.

Once a live television program starts there is no possibility of
stopping the action as in the movies, and the theatrical approach,
the sustained performance, demands that lights must be so placed
that the best over-all results may be obtained. Television light
ing equipment is for the most part hung from the ceiling or from
permanent catwalks built over and around the studio. It is im
practical to attach the large number of light units required to
the top of the set as is done in Hollywood because of the lightness
of the set and the quick change requirements on television scen-

An overall studio operation at WCBW— New York. The newsbay is at the
left. The golf program at right is on the air. The studio audience in the
background are ready for the program that is to follow.

ery. Various types of lights are used in commercial studios de
pending entirely on the physical aspects to be met. One station
may use banks of fluorescent lights suspended overhead for their
"overall" or (as it is known in television) "key lighting." Then

10 HERE IS TELEVISION

various limited areas where important scenes are to be played are
highlighted by means of spotlights with lamps of varying degrees
of brightness. Unless a special effect is desired these spotlights
are equipped with lenses that diffuse the light to some extent so
that the edge of the lighted area melds into the overall light pat
tern. Standard lighting equipment provides a wide range of pos
sibilities including baby spots with low wattage lamps to large
spots with incandescent lamps that will handle two or three thou
sand watt bulbs or even more. All these spots are adjustable and
may be mounted on movable floor standards or hung from over
head pipes.

Another studio may prefer to provide the key lighting by using
large incandescent bulbs in big reflector mounts. "Scoops" as
they are commonly called. These units can also be adjusted to
throw light as required. It is also possible, where overhead fix
tures are impractical, to mount sufficient lighting units on two
heavy upright stands, one lamp above the other, and then move
these stanchions to any position desired. Mercury vapor lamps
have also been used successfully in T V operations. In some stu
dios lamps have been attached to the camera itself which turn
with the camera and thus always illuminate the object directly
in front of the lens. But however it is accomplished every set
must be so lighted that at no time is light ever thrown into the
lens of the camera.

The high light level of the prewar days meant in many cases
that lighting engineers catered to the sensitivity of the iconoscope
and artistic lighting suffered. The heat generated in a studio was
intense. Actors suffered extremely in spite of very efficient air
conditioning systems. But today, with the improvements made
in pickup tubes, most of the apparently imponderable problems
in lighting have been solved. Present day pickup tubes are so
sensitive that acceptable pictures have been picked up by the
light of one candle. It is standard practice to light dancers or
singers— if so desired— with only a strong spot light. Shadow
effects and night scenes that were impossible once, are now every
day procedure.

But to go on with the production of our program. We instruct
the electrician to "light up" the set. The overhead lights are

THE CAMERA 11

swung, turned and tilted to cast an even distribution of light
over the entire area that is to be shown. Spotlights and banks of
directional flood lamps are moved into position. The overall key
light level is checked and approved and we are ready to examine
our pickup equipment, the television camera.

2
THE CAMERA

From outside appearances the television camera today is a
metal box with a lens at one end and a viewing system at the
other which enables the cameraman to see what he is picking up.
There are several makes of cameras on the market but in general
they operate in much the same way. Actually the camera consists
of two separate and independent pieces of equipment. The lower
two-thirds houses the pickup tube and the necessary electronic
mechanism to resolve the picture subject matter on which the
lens is focused into electrical impulses, while the upper one-third
is an independent television receiver. The kinescope or picture
tube in this viewing equipment is small as compared to the size
of receivers in the home as the camera man only sees a picture
about three by four inches in size but he sees clearly the subject
matter he is picking up and manipulates his controls accordingly.
The electronic viewing screen came into standard commercial
operation after World War II. Prior to that time, in the early
iconoscope cameras, the picture being picked up was seen on a
ground glass, through an eye-piece by the cameraman. This sys
tem had the disadvantage of showing the scene in color, and a
cameraman was sometimes misled in picture composition due to
the contrasting colors in the studio that did not give the same
picture values in monochrome. It was an expensive installation
as the scene on the ground glass appeared upside down unless in
verting mirrors were included and an automatic gear-driven ar
rangement was necessary to show the exact outside edges of the
picture on the glass as the focus of the camera was changed. An-

HERE IS TELEVISION

other method consisted of a rifle sight attached to the side of the
camera. The cameraman gauged his field of vision by lining the
picture up through this metal frame.

These early arrangements were practical but they failed to give
the results attainable today. The cameraman sees in his view-
finder, the picture the audience at home is seeing, when his cam
era is on the air and consequently there is no question as to
proper "framing" and "composition." The electronic view finder
has the added advantage sometimes in low light operation of
showing more detail than the cameraman might see even with
the naked eye.

A modern television camera.

THE CAMERA

Cameras Must Move

The box that houses the camera has a handle that turns the
camera on its base, that is pivots it in a circle (which in motion pic
ture parlance is known as "panning" from the word panorama).
Another handle tilts it up or down and still another control al
lows the cameraman to keep the picture constantly in focus. This
whole arrangement of camera and controls is mounted on a mov
able base. It may be a pedestal on wheels or castors, or a motion-
picture dolly. The last mentioned equipment is the better as it
enables the camera, in addition to being raised or lowered, to be
dollied (moved in or out) closer to the object to be picked up for
a close-up, or back for a long shot, without switching to another
camera. These motion picture-dollies, however, are expensive,
they take up room in the studio for their manipulation, and they

A close-up of a camera.

14 HERE IS TELEVISION

require an extra man to move them as the cameraman rides the
dolly. Several types have been tried out. But one camera on a
dolly of some kind is virtually "a must" in every television studio
for smooth flowing program production.

In using the simplified and cheaper type of pedestal, the cam
eraman stands on the floor and moves his camera to a desired
position by pushing the camera on its movable base. He should
have controls for elevating or lowering the camera as well as for
panning to right or left but he must get set in a given position
before the output of the camera is picked up. Equipment of this
kind limits the use of the camera as it must not be dollied while
it is on the air, due to the physical inability of a cameraman to
center his picture properly and keep it in focus while he is trying
to change the basic position of the camera. The first duty of a
cameraman is to keep the picture correct from an artistic point
of view and, at the same time, constantly in focus. Television
cameras today cannot be carried around nor may they be used
while the cameraman is holding them, as they are far too heavy
for that kind of operation.

Another choice in camera bases is simply a heavy duty tripod
equipped with a panning head. These are used chiefly in out
door pickups where the camera can be set in a fixed position and
need not be moved. However they have been used advantage
ously on movable mounts— a triangular base on castors— in many
studios where outside equipment has been brought in for tem
porary operations.

The Camera Cable

In addition to its weight and the heavy dollies, the studio tele
vision camera is definitely limited in where it can go and how it
can be used, for (according to present practice) it is tied forever
to the studio wall by its coaxial cable. This coaxial cable is a
specially constructed electrical line capable of carrying the elec
trical impulses, which constitute the picture, from the camera in
the studio to the control room. It also has additional circuits for
communication, that is, telephone lines between the control room
and the camera. The picture being picked up flows through this
co-ax in the form of minute electrical impulses, and thus it can

THE CAMERA 15

be readily seen that these coaxial cables are a necessary evil if we
are to send our studio picture on to the television audience. The
mobility of the cameras is limited to the physical length of the
cable. Cameras may be moved at will in the studio but only as
far as the coaxial cables will allow them to go. There are further
restrictions in the use of cameras in a studio due to the fact that
one camera may not physically cross the coaxial cable feeding an
other camera. The present day cable is about one inch in diame
ter and any shots that are planned must take into consideration
the physical factor of these picture output cables. Each camera
at all times must "stay in its own alley." So we must plan the
placement of cameras with relation to each other in every pro
gram we propose to televise. In normal operation we have two
or three television cameras in the studio capable of being moved
to various positions, panned, and focussed; and it is the proper
use of these that makes a flowing television program possible.

The Picture Tube

Inside the metal box of the camera is the electronic pickup
tube that makes television possible. The first one, the iconoscope,
invented by Dr. V. K. Zworykin of R.C.A., has been called the
heart of the television camera. It really is the heart, brain, and
eyes of the television system; until this tube was perfected, elec
tronic television as we know it today was non-existent. The in
dustry has progressed a long way in the development of this tube
and the results attainable today are beyond even those hoped for
during pre-war broadcasting. We will discuss later the operation
of the pickup tube but for now we need to know only that if the
televisions system is working properly, and we focus the camera
on a scene, the picture tube is capable of breaking down the pic
ture into millions of electronic impulses which are reassembled
as points of light on a viewing screen, forming a reproduction of
the scene before the camera.

Lenses

It takes lenses to focus the scene in front of the camera on to
the mosaic, the pickup plate in the picture tube, and their action
is the same in a television camera as it is in a movie or still cam-

16 HERE IS TELEVISION

era. In the early days of television cameras were usually equipped
with lenses of different focal length and thus varying results were
obtained both in the area covered and in focal depth, depending
on the distance of the camera from the object to be picked up. In
three camera studio operations, camera number one might be
equipped with a wide angle lens while considerably narrower
angle lenses would be used on the other two. If a full shot of an
artist was wanted, the picture would be picked up on camera
number one, while a close up of the same scene might come from
camera two or three. The lenses used in television cameras were
considerably larger than those used in motion picture work as
they had to throw a picture large enough to cover the mosaic.
In the iconoscope the mosaic was roughly some three by four
inches in size. But with the advancement in the development of
the camera tube, the size of the mosaic was reduced to a photo
electric plate about one inch by an inch and a quarter.

This important change made possible the use of more than one
lens on each camera. Four lenses are mounted in a turret head.
They are interchangeable and thus the four lenses most valuable
to the particular program to be picked up are inserted in the
head. It is controlled by a handle in the back of the camera and
the cameraman can rotate his turret to any desired photolength
lens at will.

There is a comparatively wide range in the selection of lenses
that may be used. In studio productions the choice will probably
include a wide angle lens (35 or 50 mm), a 90 mm lens for me
dium shots and two close up lenses. A 135 mm or an 8i/£ or 13
inch lens is usually selected for this work depending on the shots
required and the position of the camera at the time the shot is
needed. Each lens covers a different amount of floor space at a
given distance from the object to be picked up. For example. A
35 mm lens will cover a space approximately ten feet wide when
the camera is ten feet away from the object to be televised. At
the same distance away a 50 mm lens will cover about seven feet
of floor space. The 90 mm lens at ten feet reduces the area to
about four feet. The 135 mm pulls the coverage in to about two
and one half feet. At the same distance the 81/2 inch lens and
other close up lenses reduce the area still further until we find

THE CAMERA

50 mm

Comparative area covered with various focal length lenses

that with a 25 inch lens we have less than one foot of coverage.
Thus it will be seen that by using various sized lenses, the cam
eras can work at unequal distances from the object to be tele
vised, which helps in physical operation. Let's put it another
way. To get a picture covering approximately ten feet of studio
space the 35 mm lens would place the camera ten feet away from
the subject but with a 90 mm lens the camera would be back
about twenty-six feet to cover the same area while a 13 inch lens
would place the camera almost ninety feet away.

Focal depth is another factor to be considered in the operation
of cameras. A wide-angle lens, 50 mm or less in focal length, gives
more depth of focus at the same distance from the subject than
you would get if you used a 90 mm or 135 mm lens. The further
away from the subject, with all lenses, the greater the depth of
focus. If a camera with a wide-angle lens is well back from a sub
ject, the focal depth is practically infinity, but as the camera is
brought closer to the object the focal depth is markedly dimin
ished. For practical purposes we may say that the depth of focus
diminishes from nearly infinity, when the camera is well back from
a subject, to an inch or two when it is in close. This focal prob
lem is one that television has in common with motion pictures.
Out-of-focus backgrounds can often be seen in motion picture

18 HERE IS TELEVISION

close-ups but they become more pronounced in television. This
happens because the relatively small size of the viewing screen
demands more close-up work.

Stopping Down the Lens

In every lens is an iris type shutter that governs the amount of
light passing through the lens. In an ordinary camera the larger
the aperture, the shorter the exposure necessary to get a sharp pic
ture. This is true as a larger opening (wider stop) allows more
light on the photographic film. In television we have no film in
the camera, but to get a picture on the mosaic of sufficient detail
to allow it to be reproduced there is a limit below which we
cannot go. If the image in the camera is too faint, the picture in
the home will be grainy, uneven, and unpleasant. Naturally, the
best picture possible is the objective of all television producers;
so with a given number of foot candles of light in the studio, the
lens is stopped down as far as possible in order to obtain the
greatest possible depth of focus. If the light is increased the stop
may be further reduced; this means greater depth of focus, while
less light means that the lens stop must be opened with resulting
loss of detail.

In the early days almost every new picture tube was slightly
more sensitive than the one in use before it. Engineers would
tell the actors of this and they would anxiously ask: "That means
you can use less light and get just as good a picture with the new
tube as you are getting now?" "That's right," the engineer would
reply and they would plunge happily into the next production.
While the statement was true the actors never ''got the breaks,"
for instead of reducing the amount of light the engineers stopped
down the lenses and the lights were just as hot as they ever were.
While we might have obtained the same picture that we had
before with less light, we got a better picture by stopping down
the camera lens and keeping the same amount of light in the
studio. Our sympathies were with the actors, but better pictures
were the important thing.

The Cameraman

Everything that the television audience sees is the result of

THE CAMERA 19

what is picked up by the cameraman. It is his work that con
tributes vastly to the success or failure of a smooth flowing tele
vision production. He must think fast, know the operation of his
machine, and have a sense of artistic picture values. The duties
of a television cameraman however differ greatly from those of a
still-picture photographer or motion-picture cameraman. In still
photography the "cameraman" poses his subject, checks the light,
and arranges the over all subject matter. The success of the pho
tograph depends on his artistic and photographic ability. His
decisions are final. In making a motion picture the chief cinema-
tographer is responsible to the director for the pictures that are
taken. His decisions are vital in camera angles, lighting, and sub
ject matter. His cameramen and assistants are the men who
photograph the picture and it is their knowledge and experience
in coordination with the director that gives us the results that we
see in the motion-picture theaters of today. But in television, the
cameraman loses a great deal of his executive functions. Because
of the very nature of a television program, namely, the continu
ous flow of a program, the television cameraman has no oppor
tunity to pose his people before each shot is made. Neither can
he arrange lights just to his liking for each particular shot. He is
limited in angles by the size of the studio, the type of dolly his
camera is mounted on, the nearness of other cameras, sound
booms, and floor lighting arrangements in the studio. In general,
it is his duty to deliver to the television director specified shots
where and when they are wanted, just as they were set at re
hearsal. All his actions are relayed to him from the control room
by means of a telephonic communication system. The camera
man wears a telephone head set and he is instructed in detail as
to camera angles and just when and where he is to move for the
picture desired. We will go further into camera operation in our
chapter on the control room, as the cameraman's operations in
the studio are at present continuously tied to the guiding voice
on his telephone head set.

Color Response of the Camera Tube

Each individual picture tube has to a certain extent character
istics applicable to itself alone. There is nearly always a variation

20 HERE IS TELEVISION

in the response of each tube due to the difficulties encountered
in its manufacture. This is particularly true in the color re
sponse. Some tubes may be high in the red response while others
tend to give better results under bluer light. The objective of
the manufacturer is to develop a tube with true color response
and as far as possible eliminate variations between tubes. Usual
procedure by a broadcaster is to check results produced by new
tubes and those with similar reactions are used together. In
monochrome television, colors will often give a different result
in the gray scale than one would expect. Two objects that appear
to be exactly the same color to the human eye may vary a great
deal in the shade of gray that they produce on the viewing screen.
In general, however, reds all tend to appear light in a television
picture and most of the light pinks, blues, yellows, and greens all
appear as a light gray while the browns, purples, and dark colors
fall into a darker range. Pastels will fall into the lighter gray
scale but in view of the surprises one often finds in camera tube
response it is often advisable to disregard color entirely in tele
vision scenery and paint everything in shades of gray.

My first experience with this problem in scenery came with the
delivery of a soft blue set for one scene and a beautiful pink for
another. They were perfect in the studio but through the tele
vision system the two sets appeared identical. By painting all
television scenery in shades of gray, variations can be worked out
by the designer and scenic artist that give admirable results.
Improvement in pickup tubes will some day result in a definite
color response but until then the idiosyncrasy of each tube must
be catered to.

This improvement is already seen in results obtained in
make-up. At first it was necessary for artists to appear before the
camera in gruesome make-ups of blue-black and white. In fact,
only a comparatively few years ago the black-and-white make-up
was still necessary; but today a heavy street make-up on a pan
chromatic base does a perfectly acceptable job.

One interesting fact that the television camera discloses is that
dyed "red heads" haven't a chance of fooling their audience. Do
not cast a dyed titian haired beauty for the part of a brunette for
she will turn out to be a blonde. Her dyed red hair may look real

TELEVISION SOUND 21

in the studio but not to the television camera. Only a real red
head will be a brunette.

3
TELEVISION SOUND

Almost all the publicity that has been given television, particu
larly along basic promotion lines, has stressed the point that tele
vision adds sight to sound. But in an actual television production
the problem is how to best pick up the sound that must accom
pany the television picture. The answer is not a simple one.

In radio the microphone is king. Everything in a radio studio
pivots around this electronic ear. Streamline studios, soundproof
ing, acoustics, everything that radio engineers have learned has
been utilized to make the sound pickup in a radio studio perfect.
And then along comes a television camera and a new king of the
studio is crowned. And what happens to our microphone? We
no longer find it down stage center in the spotlight. It is out of
the picture doing its job but shorn of its glamor; and as if resent
ing its fall from eminence— the microphone becomes one of the
most troublesome appurtenances of a television studio.

In the first place, we must admit that it is most important but
it can very easily ruin a good picture if it suddenly sails into
view of the camera. The microphone must be so placed as to
pick up all the sounds emanating from the television studio but
at all times it must remain unseen. This is accomplished in most
productions by hanging the "mike" over head suspended on a
movable boom. Television has borrowed the sound boom from
Hollywood. It is a heavy duty tripod on castors that can be
moved about the studio; from this tripod extends a long arm.
This arm can be extended or shortened by means of a hand
operated crank which is geared to the movable arm. The whole
apparatus can be raised or lowered on its base. The microphone
is fastened to the end of the long movable arm and can be easily
swung into any position with relation to actors or cameras. But
our microphone now demands an attendant— a man to keep the

22 HERE IS TELEVISION

microphone constantly in such a position that the spoken lines
can be heard readily but at no time should the mike appear in the
picture. This means constant coordination between the ''boom
man," his sound engineer in the control room, the cameramen,
and the director.

Most of our present day microphones give best results when
they are close to the speaker. This means that if the picture at
any given moment is on a close up— filling the television viewing
screen with the head of an artist— the mike should be just above
the head of the speaker. Now if the next shot is to be a longer
one, such as a three quarter shot, or the area is to be widened to
take in two or more people, the microphone must be elevated so
as not to appear in the next picture. This is accomplished by
telephonic communication and practice. The boom man is
equipped with a pair of earphones, just as the cameramen are
and he also receives his instructions from the control room. Prac
tice with his equipment in rehearsal usually makes it fairly simple
for the boom man to judge just where his mike should be. He
quickly learns the approximate distance he must be above the
heads of the actors through a knowledge of the field of the cam
eras from any given distance. If he should guess wrong, he will
immediately be told from the control room to raise or lower his
microphone as it will appear on the preview monitor screen. It is
his responsibility to have the mike just above the actor or actress
who is speaking at the moment. If an artist crosses from one part
of the stage to another the mike must follow. If for any reason a
scene is rehearsed with two actors seated at a distance from each
other— the boom man must swing his mike back and forth be
tween them to get the best possible pick up. This is bad produc
tion technique. A scene staged in this fashion should be avoided
if possible although sometimes it is necessary. At all times the
boom man is one of the busiest men in a television studio and
one of the most important.

Sound Perspective

Sound perspective has long been an objective in pictures, and
television will certainly iron out some of the phases in this
process. So far it has been impossible to accomplish much along

TELEVISION SOUND 23

these lines, that is, to have the sound intimate and near in a close
up but seem further away in a long shot. This seems easy on
paper but in the studio we find that as we move the mike away
from a speaker we must raise the "gain," the amplification of the
sound picked up by the mike, to make the distant speaker audible
and we lose the perspective we would like to have. Just as the
camera must have a definite amount of light on a subject before
a television picture becomes visible just so a given amount of
sound signal must be picked up before the voice becomes audible.

It is obviously quite possible to lower the sound level but we
must constantly watch the ratio of "noise" or unwanted sound
pick-up, to voice. If we drop the over-all level in an effort to
obtain the effect of distance, the listeners in their homes usually
turn up the gain on their receivers and the effect is lost. As yet
neither Hollywood nor T V have been able to successfully solve
the sound perspective problem.

Another difficulty in television sound pick up is the scenery.
In radio our sound studios are tested and "sound treated" so that
exact results may be attained and, to accomplish the same purpose,
television studios are also equipped with sound absorbent walls.
Then in comes the scenery which acts as a perfect sounding
board. It immediately changes a good sound studio into one that
is so "live" that good quality sound becomes a constant problem.
A soft material used as a back drop will help but we can't play all
our television dramas in front of a couple of curtains.

Studio Operation

In the production of a program the boom is always right where
you want something else to be. Usually when planning camera
shots before he goes into the studio, a director forgets all about
the sound boom. He will map out a beautiful camera routine,
making allowances for his coaxial cables, lights, and dollies, and
arrange his shots to cover every angle. Then he walks into the
studio and there is the sound boom. And the base of this inven
tion of the devil is something that cannot be dismissed lightly. A
thirty foot boom has a base requiring about fifteen feet of floor
space and there are wires to carry the sound from the microphone
to the control room. In some studios these wires are suspended

HERE IS TELEVISION

An early studio picture from the set. The boom operator is at left controlling
the microphone above the actors. The control room windows are seen in the
background.

from the ceiling but always the boom must be in the most favored
floor position because of the necessity of reaching all parts of the
studio; usually the sound boom is in the way of all the cameras
and all your picture shots must be replanned around it.

Television studios of the future will probably be equipped
with sound booms extending out from balconies or hung from
the ceiling which will free the studio floor for camera operation.

Special Microphones

It is some times possible to place special mikes in hidden loca
tions on the set, and this is standard policy wherever possible. If
a master of ceremonies is seated in a program involving other
people, it is very good practice to place a microphone directly in
front of him on the table and mask it from the camera with a few
books. This enables the boom man to follow the other actors and
results in a smoother flowing sound pick up than would result if
the boom had to be swung back to the master of ceremonies each
time he spoke. If a scene in a dramatic program is played across

TELEVISION SOUND 25

a table or desk, a hidden microphone might be used to advantage.
If this is done, care must be taken to avoid any sudden physical
contact with the table or this unwanted noise will be heard "on
the line."

When a scene is played by one or two people and they stand
in one position for its duration a "mike" may be suspended above
their heads just out of the picture. This is often done when a
demonstrator is working at a table during a commercial. It is
obvious that the actor must favor the microphone in this opera
tion as it can not be moved. In large studio productions two
booms are often used but this means another operator and space
in the studio. When a program is being picked up in a theatre,
two or three microphones are usually suspended on pulleys down
stage. These can be lowered as desired to the top edge of the pic
ture and proper manipulation eliminates the need of a boom.

In general, good television actors keep their eye on the
microphone and they should not speak until it is within easy
range, particularly if the speech ahead of theirs is delivered
by some one some distance away. Correct usage of the boom
mike is a godsend in many ways to a television director. If
he finds himself restricted in camera shots, due to lack of space in
a studio, he can have an actor move over to a new set "off camera,"
while the camera is on something else— a still picture, a long shot
of an opening scene or a printed receipt— without interrupting
the speech the actor is reading; in this way the flow of the story
is held and new camera positions are opened up. In one produc
tion an actor changed his clothes— off camera— while reading a
long speech and the visual interest was held by watching the re
actions of the actor to whom the speech was addressed.

Sound Effects

Television, by its very nature, changes the whole picture of
sound effects as they are used today in radio. No longer will the
script writer fall back on the sound of marching feet or diving
aeroplanes when his story begins to drag. Our first job is to try
and make the "effects" we see, sound the way they normally
would in real life. In television you don't make a house burn
down with crinkled cellophane nor crack skulls by dropping

26 HERE IS TELEVISION

watermelons off step ladders. The day of the sound effects man's
efforts to simulate normal noises with mechanical contraptions
is over. Obviously, if a television actor closes a door, we see as
well as hear him. If we need to suggest movement, we see the
actors move instead of hearing weird noises that are supposed to
be footsteps. When one thinks of the thousands of supposedly
well-to-do homes in radio programs that have apparently never
had carpets on the floors, it almost always brings a twinge of em
barrassment for the limitation of the medium. Just how success
ful radio sound effects have been, however, was proven very
realistically in an early television program. An actor seated at a
desk was to crumple a piece of writing paper and put it in a
drawer of the desk. He did so and a visitor, who wasn't looking
at the picture asked: "What is the fire and the door slam for?"
And that is just what it sounded like. Sounds created by the
handling of paper, the opening and closing of drawers, footsteps,
etc., all give a much more blatant pickup than the human voice
and consequently everything of this nature must be arranged to
blend in properly in its natural level in television. Aeroplanes,
automobiles, trains, and the thousand and one things that have
been so important in radio must be seen in television and neces
sitate the use of film or elaborate "Video" effects which we will
discuss in a later chapter.

4
THE CONTROL ROOM

The Control Room of a television studio combines some of the
factors of the control room of a radio station, the shooting stage
of a motion picture lot, the film cutting room, the preview room,

THE CONTROL ROOM

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THE CONTROL ROOM

and the first night at a Broadway opening. Every live television
performance is a first night, and in the control room the program
that the television audience is to see is cut, edited, directed, and
produced. Here the final decisions that govern the picture qual
ity of the program are made and executed.

All television control rooms are built along similar lines with
only slight variations in physical placement of equipment. In
general, they contain the necessary amplifiers, shading controls,
viewing screens, and other electrical apparatus that make it pos
sible to choose the particular picture wanted in the studio and
pass it along, together with the sound, to the transmitters. The
control room in all cases is adjacent to the studio and in most of
them in operation today an unobstructed view of the studio is
to be had.

Looking through control room to studio at WCBW.

30 HERE IS TELEVISION

Directly in front of the director's desk is the viewing screen
that reproduces the picture the audience is to see. In addition to
this line monitor are the preview monitors "kinescopes" that
show the output of each camera in the studio. There are two
basic arrangements used in television control room monitoring
systems. The first requires only two screens, one being the line
monitor and the other the preview of the shots available on all
the studio cameras. This is accomplished by switching the output
of any camera, at will, to the preview screen or to the line mon
itor. It can best be explained by a concrete example. In the
control room we have the line monitor A and the preview screen
B.

In the studio we have three cameras: #1, #2, and #3. By press
ing a button we first preview the output of camera #1 on preview
screen B. If the picture is satisfactory we press another button
and the picture from camera #1 disappears and on the same
screen we see the output of camera #2. The picture on camera
#3 is previewed in the same manner and now, since we have seen
the output of all three cameras, these previewed pictures may be
put on the line by merely pressing the button that controls
the camera wanted. Above each screen, numbers that identify the
camera in use, appear as we switch. This system has both advan
tages and disadvantages. Its advantage lies in the fact that it
requires a minimum of electronic equipment and with only two
screens to look at, the line monitor A and the preview screen B,
it is easier for the director. Its disadvantage is that it might re
quire another operator, if many cameras were in use; for after a
program starts and the output of camera #1 is put on the air,
cameras #2 and #3 must be previewed on this one preview mon
itor. Obviously when $2 is switched to the line, then #1 and $3
must be previewed, and this operation continues throughout the
program, constantly keeping the picture to follow on the preview
viewing screen.

The other system is one in which separate preview kinescopes
are provided for each camera. The output of camera #1 is seen
on preview screen #1, camera #2 on screen #2 and so on for each
camera used in the production. Each preview screen is numbered
to correspond to the camera picking up the picture, as the direc-

THE CONTROL ROOM 31

tor must be able to identify the camera that is on the line at all
times. In addition to the preview screens there is, of course, the
line monitor and, as in the previously described system, the out
put of any camera can be switched to this monitor and thus put
on the air. This arrangement is used generally; its chief advan
tage lies in the fact that the director can see, at all times, what
every camera is picking up. More equipment is needed, however,
as there is a kinescope and necessary wiring and switching facili
ties for each camera, but the possible need of a special operator
for preview switching is eliminated. In a control panel of this
type the line monitor should be slightly larger than the indi
vidual viewing screens, as it is very easy for a director to become
confused during a performance. Actually it requires extreme con
centration to avoid looking at the wrong picture. A director must
look at a preview screen, then watch it on the line monitor, and
again concentrate on the preview of the next picture coming up.
With three or four pictures to look at, he is in trouble if he looks
at the wrong one at the wrong time. Almost unconsciously he
may become interested in camera movement on a preview screen
and forget to watch what the audience is seeing. Many a director
has found himself in a dither over a fault in a picture that the
audience did not see, not realizing that he was looking at a pre
view monitor and not at the line. Only experience can teach the
director how to overcome this error. He must make sure that he
looks at the correct preview screen before he switches it to the
lines but, once this system is mastered, the director can work all
his shots and angles out well in advance and it lends itself to a
more finished performance. The number of preview screens a
director must watch depends of course on the number of cameras
he is using. In normal commercial operation, five cameras are
about all that will be needed. Before the war in Germany, there
was a control room under construction in Berlin which included
seven viewing screens: a large size line monitor and six preview
camera screens.

One might ask the reason for so many viewing screens, as so far
we have only mentioned the pictures coming from the cameras in
the studio; but the pickup of all cameras used in the program
must be visible in the control room if the program is to ''flow."

32 HERE IS TELEVISION

If slides or motion pictures are to be used in conjunction with
the live studio, then they must be previewed by the director. If
the program is to use a mobile unit pickup from outside the
building, then he must see that also. This means that every
camera involved in the program must be so wired that the pic
ture it is picking up may be seen in the control room, and a
preview monitor for each one is needed. If facilities are limited
a single monitor could be so arranged that it could be used for
all the cameras as described previously, but separate monitors
are preferable.

The Video Engineer

The output of each camera is viewed not only by the director,
for its artistic and theatrical value, but by the video engineer for
its electronic picture quality. He is the man whose sole responsi
bility is to deliver to the audience the finest electronic picture
possible with the equipment at hand. The picture delivered by
each camera is controlled electrically for adjustments in bright
ness, contrast, electrical focus, and all the delicate shading varia
tions that are needed to produce a perfect television picture. The
video engineer checks each picture before it goes "on the line."
Varying amounts of black, white, or gray in a camera shot, that
is, in each individual picture, as the camera is swung from one
actor to another, means that the video engineer must constantly
equalize these values before the picture can be put on the air. A
preponderance of dark color in one scene will require a complete
change in electronic shading if it follows a scene that is basically
on the light side, and vice versa. In commercial operation the
video engineer is a highly competent electrical master artist, for
with his dials he paints a picture by adjusting the output of the
camera, so that the artistic effects planned by the director and
executed by the cameraman reach the audience with the finest
precision possible. Today the video engineer is able to deliver
pictures ready for the air just as rapidly as the director wants
them, but in the early days of television operation the output of
a camera was never available to a director until the video engi
neer was completely satisfied with the shading of the electronic
picture from the camera. If it took him five minutes to adjust it

THE CONTROL ROOM , 33

to his satisfaction the director and the audience waited before
switching to another camera; but today there is no delay. The
video engineer knows his job and does it quickly and efficiently.

The Switching Engineer

So far in our control room we have properly shaded pictures
which are being picked up by the cameras in the studio, visible
on our monitor and preview screen. Now let us see how we
manipulate them. This operation is handled by the switching
control room engineer. In some studios this job was done by the
assistant director, but in the majority of stations it is handled by
the engineer in charge of studio operations. On the desk in front
of this operator are video faders and push buttons that control
the switching of the output of the cameras. His duty is to deliver
the snap switches, fades, lap dissolves, or super impositions re
quired by the director.

Let us look for a moment at a typical television script and see
its operation as it applies to the switching engineer.

'The output of camera #1,
which has been previewed,

r*t\*vT> A in ^ *s switched to the line mon-

CAMERA #1— Opening title . . , . ,

^ by pressing a button

which controls the output
of the camera.

~ ,,o T» j [The output of camera #2 is

Camera #2— Ready on clock I

[now on the preview screen.

CAMERA #2
Lap dissolve to clock face

[The picture on Camera #1
Camera #l-Ready on opening scene L pr(fviewed

FADE OUT #2

The output of Camera fl
is faded down as the out
put of #2 is faded in.

The picture on Cam<
is previewed.

Camera #2 is slowly faded
out. When the screen is
completely blank,

34 HERE IS TELEVISION

FADE IN #1 Camera #1 is faded in.

This operation, which calls for complete coordination between
cameramen, director, video shading engineers, and switching en
gineer is repeated time after time through the program. Thus
the correct pictures are sent to the transmitter.

Means of Switching

Just as in motion pictures, various types of switching from one
picture to another may be desired by the director, and almost
anything he wants along these lines can be accomplished. Back
in the 1930's, almost all switching was done by fading one camera
out and, when the screen was empty— "black" is the colloquial
term used— fading the other camera in. In television a black
screen isn't always black, for without a well lighted picture the
viewing screen has a tendency to take on a grayish white flare.
This system of switching was considered adequate by engineers in
the laboratory, but when the equipment was delivered to the pro
gram builders in a studio for regular operation, they demanded
and got additional equipment. Today, instead of the slow fade-
out before bringing the other picture in, you may, if you desire,
lap dissolve from one camera to another, as one picture fades out
the other picture fades in over it and replaces it. Snap switching,
that is, instantaneous cuts from one camera to another, was also
made available to the director and as in motion pictures it is the
basic switching technique today. Superimposition is also pos
sible; that is, a figure being picked up on camera #1 may be made
to appear in the picture coming from camera #2. This is done by
feeding the output of both cameras into the line at the same time.
In most cases a ghostly effect is thus created but, if the subject
matter to be picked up on camera #1 is properly lighted and a
suitable background is used, the pickup from camera #1 can be
made a part of the pickup of camera #2, so that a well outlined
picture may be delivered. "Wipes" either vertical, horizontal, or
fan, by which the picture is wiped off and replaced by another,
are possible through electronic controls of the video signal. They
require special circuits but give a very valuable program effect.

THE CONTROL ROOM 35

A "split screen," where two actors in different locations can be
made to appear in the same picture is also possible.

The Sound Engineer

Let's forget the visual aspect for a moment and check our
sound. This is monitored from the television control room just
as it is in radio. In fact the facilities provided in a radio control
room are all in its television counterpart under the supervision of
the sound engineer. Through his controls come all the sound
originating in the studio and this is broadcast simultaneously
with the video signal. As already mentioned in chapter three, the
main sound pickup is from the boom in the studio. It is possible
of course that additional mikes may be used and music may be
fed into the system from an orchestra from another studio or
from a remote part of the main studio. In some early English
productions, to gain floor space in the studio, the orchestra was
installed on a high platform that was open underneath so that
cameras and personnel could work under it. In short, television
sound may come from the studio, from a remote pickup point,
from film sound track, or from records; but everything is handled
as in radio from the control room.

Sound Effects

In some television control rooms you will find facilities for
feeding the turntable sound effects or other recorded parts of the
program into the system. This is handled by an operator whose
sole responsibility is to see that everything originating from rec
ords is available and comes in as wanted.

Today, in radio operations we find the sound man with his
turntables and records in the studio itself. He must follow the
instructions indicated in the script as they are cued in by the wild
gesticulations of the radio director, in an effort to try and deliver
the sound effects as they should be heard. The majority of sound
men do a good job in this way and there obviously isn't space in
a radio control room for the paraphernalia that is required for
"live" sound effects in a modern radio program. But with the
addition of sight the sound man must see the picture to properly
synchronize the sound effects of moving objects. So, we find him
with his sound effects records in the control room, or in some

36 HERE IS TELEVISION

cases, just as in radio, he is ensconced in some corner of the
studio. Now however he has a viewing screen alongside of his
microphone and thus feeds into the program line the door bells,
telephones, wind, thunder, aeroplane and automobile motors
and all the other effects needed. These may be picked up from
radio sound effects records, from transcriptions or perhaps from
motion picture film. Normal studio sounds are picked up from
the studio as the actors go through their lines.

Video Effects

Television has brought a new entity into the broadcasting pic
ture in the "video effects man." He is responsible for all the
visual effects and his work is an important cog in the machinery
of a television program. Every presentation will need some sort
of visual identification. In radio the announcer orally gave the
name of the program and the sponsor who presented it. In the
theater we have the printed program. In the movies we have
the lengthy credit titles and so in television we have the vis
ual opening, under the supervision of the visual effects direc
tor. This opening may be a facsimile of the product or the
product itself. It may be an elaborate moving title or a simple
card telling the name of the program. Eventually many of these
openings will probably be on film, for as already stated we can
switch to film and back to the studio at will and film eliminates
the possibility of errors. Miniatures and motion picture back
grounds, process shots, as they are called in Hollywood, will take
an important place in all programs. These visual effects will test
the brains and ingenuity of many directors. We will go further
into this interesting branch of television programming in a later
chapter. For the present we know that the visual effects must be
in the hands of a capable man in the studio ready to deliver to
the director the effects he wants, where they are called for.

The Operating Crew

The man in charge of program operations in the control room
is of course the director. He and he alone makes the decisions
regarding the camera shots to be used. To get these shots he is
in communication with the studio crew by means of telephones.

THE CONTROL ROOM

Each camera man, the boom operator, the studio floor manager
and any other key program operator, such as the studio sound
man or the musical director, has a telephone head set adjusted
so as to leave his hands free to manipulate equipment or any
other task he has to do. Each man is told just what is required of
him and he executes the orders as requested. Additional tele
phonic equipment tie in the film projection booth, master con
trol and any other outside point of program origin. These out
side lines are usually manned by the technical director or "T D"
as he is known in some studios.

As in everything else in life there is more than one way of do
ing things and television is no exception to this rule. It is obvi
ous that telephone lines may be arranged in any way that is
desired and in some studios the director does not speak directly
to the cameramen. If we are to assume, as in radio, that the

Left— "The operating crew in the NBC control room. In foreground is sound
engineer; behind him, the director. Standing is the assistant director. Switch
ing engineer is seated at right of director with video shading engineer in
background. Microphone leads to loud-speaker in studio while breast phones
connect with operating crew in studio. Shades are drawn over studio windows
at left. The picture monitors are in upper left of picture.
Right— Studio view from the control room at the Television Production
Studio in Hollywood. The images the cameras are picking up are seen on the
monitor screens at the top of the picture.

38 HERE IS TELEVISION

sound engineer in the control room is responsible to the program
director for the sound emanating from the studio then he should
be held responsible for the operation of the boom and should be
in telephonic communication with the boom man. If the switch
ing engineer is held responsible for the pictures the director gets,
then he should talk to the cameramen, and preview the pictures
to be used. This system is in effect in some studios. The director
tells the switching engineer, the "T D," just what shots he wants
and holds him responsible for their delivery.

In other studios the director and his assistant talk directly to
the cameramen. Usually the assistant director, working from a
script marked exactly the same as the director's, sets up the cam
era shots, watching them on the preview screen to see that they
are correct, thus they are ready for the director to take when he
wants them. When the first system is used the technical director
really functions as an assistant director and with so much to be
done the director is in a position to get better results if he is not
tied down with any manual operation. A lot depends on the
abilities and personalities of the individual men involved. Actu
ally everyone on a show must work together as a team, and this is
particularly true of the men in the control room.

The physical operation between control room and the studio is
this. From a script with camera shots predetermined at rehearsal
the assistant director or technical director advises the cameramen
of the shots wanted. Instructions to them may include panning
from right to left or tilting up and down for good picture com
position. While a camera man is responsible for focus and good
composition he cannot see what the other cameras are picking up,
so he must abide by the decisions reached in the control room.
They will also receive instructions as to the size of the subject
matter in the picture. They may be asked to dolly in for a close-
up or pull back for a longer shot. Usually the complement of
lenses in the turret head enables a cameraman to deliver the
picture requested by simply changing lenses. It is seldom neces
sary to move his camera any great distance. When the preview
shots are correct on the viewing screen the director calls for his
switches, fades or lap dissolves as he desires. As soon as he re
leases a camera his assistant sets the shot for the next take.

PROGRAM OPERATION 39

During rehearsal the director speaks to the actors in the studio
over a loud speaker but once the program is on the air this system
is dead and his only contact with the performers is through his
studio floor manager. He is responsible, as is the stage manager
in the theatre, for the placement of properties and he is the man
who sees that actors, lights, costumes and everything that is neces
sary to the program is ready when and where it is needed.

5
PROGRAM OPERATION

With the basic personnel and studio facilities fresh in our
mind let us pick up a television script and take it into our studio
for production.

A television script, when first submitted to a director may be
in almost any form. It may be a short story, a radio script, a stage
play or even a motion picture scenario. But regardless of what
it was originally it must be reworded, rearranged, and adapted
for television. The first thought in the back of the adapter's mind
must, of course, be the dramatic values of the story; but parallel
to this thought is the constant problem of production. There are
many things that offer no problems to a motion picture director
that cannot be done successfully in a live studio television pro
duction. Everything in live television programming must in
many ways follow stage production limitations. For instance,
actors cannot be in two places at the same time nor can they
appear in different costumes unless time is allowed for them to
change. A sequence of scenes in a script under discussion called
for a man and woman to meet in front of a house. She invites
him in, he accepts, and they enter the front door as the picture
fades. The next scene opens with both of them seated at the
dinner table finishing their after dinner coffee. This could be
accomplished only by interposing a close up of a clock, or some
other means of denoting the passage of time, to allow the woman
time to get her hat and coat off and for both of them to physically
walk to the dining room set and sit at the table. A television

40 HERE IS TELEVISION

script adapter must constantly keep in mind the physical prob
lems that any production presents. He must also consider the
economic angle. He must bear in mind that his script will be
judged on the number of sets to be used, the space in the studio,
the use of film, and the size of the cast. It may be necessary to
rewrite some scenes, if those in the original manuscript call for
production facilities beyond the possibilities of the studio, but
additions and embellishments must depend on the entertainment
value gained in their relation to additional cost. It must be obvi
ous that the extra money required by the script is warranted.

Regardless of the source of the original story, a more or less
set script form is required for studio production. This is neces
sary because of production demands. A television director is
called upon to do the almost impossible. He must watch his
script, cue in music and effects, preview the shots to come, and
if they are not right correct them; and while he is doing all this,
he must watch the picture, the finished work, that the audience
is seeing. It goes without saying that a television production calls
for the highest efficiency not only on the part of the director but
from each person, no matter how minor his part, who is in any
way involved in the performance. The lowliest "bit actor" may
spoil a program by walking in front of a camera and there have
been many instances where this has happened. Usually it has
been done by some one who knew better but who forgot for the
moment. So, with the accumulation of problems involved, it
becomes necessary to arrange a shooting script in its simplest
form with all cues and camera shots worked out in a pattern
comparatively easy to follow.

The Director

The television director faces a problem in concentration un
known to the stage director or motion picture director. In the
i heater the director must rehearse his actors, plan his production,
and work out the effects he desires; then, after long weary hours
of rehearsal, the day of the "dress" finally arrives. There he
criticizes and corrects the imperfections before the opening per
formance, but on the first night he has only to sit in the audience
and view the results of his labor. After the curtain is once up

PROGRAM OPERATION 41

there is little he can do to better that particular performance.
But in television the director hasn't the opportunity to relax at
the first performance. He must do in advance of that date every
thing the stage director is called upon to do and on the night
of the broadcast he is as much involved in the production as
anyone else in the studio. The success of the program rests in
his hands for, regardless of the work involved in preparation,
the execution must be perfect. If a big scene is played well but is
improperly photographed, the effect is lost. If the output of the
wrong camera is sent to the audience, the work of many hours
of rehearsal may be wasted. It is not unusual for a director to
find himself more nervous in a control room prior to a televsion
broadcast, when he realizes the responsibilities that rest on his
decisions, than he ever was in some other type of entertainment.
In motion picture work the director always has another chance.
If a scene looks bad in the preview screening room he can always
shoot it over. If his judgment was wrong or if actors depart from
the way the scene was rehearsed, he can make a retake or cut it
entirely; but in television once the action starts the audience
must see a continuous flowing performance and if mistakes are
made they are seen by the audience.

The Rough Draft of a Script

With these problems in mind let us examine what might be a
typical script accepted for production. If it was originally a story
or radio script the scenic requirements would have to be desig
nated and stage positions considered. Let's take a concrete ex
ample. We will assume the original story has been worked over
and is now in shape for scrutiny as a first draft of a rehearsable
script. It might be something like this:

Destiny
A Television Comedy

By
Timothy Smith

The first scene takes place on the veranda of a Long Island
country estate. On the stage right are French doors leading into
the main part of the house. Running from up center to down

HERE IS TELEVISION

An effective terrace set.

left we see a porch railing. Back of the railing is a trellis that
masks the view of the garden beyond. The veranda is hung with
flowering plants and a suggestion of wisteria is given on the trellis
above the porch. Down right center is a rustic table with three
chairs. Up center a porch swing. The entrance to the left would
lead off into the garden. On the table is a tray with ice, glasses,
and a siphon of soda.

The time is late on a summer afternoon. As the action starts
we see Harry Withers, who is dressed in a typical sports outfit,
mixing himself a drink. He raises the glass to his lips and starts
to drink as Grace Lyons, his hostess, who is dressed in a summer
sheer, enters from the house through the French windows.

Grace: Hello Harry. Drinking again!

Harry: (Smiling) Well, you don't blame me— do you?

Grace: That all depends. (SHE CROSSES TO THE TABLE

AND SITS)

PROGRAM OPERATION 43

Harry: On what I'm drinking?

Grace: Perhaps. (SHE PICKS UP A NEWSPAPER FROM
THE TABLE AND GLANCES AT IT.)

Harry: (AS HE TASTES HIS DRINK) Apparently I am not as
interesting as the news.

Grace: Who is? (EXCITEDLY) Harry-did you see this?

Harry: (LEANING OVER HER CHAIR) Interesting isn't it?

Aileen: (ENTERING FROM DOOR R.) Very. And you two
make a very charming picture. (HARRY AND GRACE
REACT TO AILEEN'S SUDDEN ENTRANCE.)

Now let us see how to best transpose the information contained
in the first page of our potential television script into a working
shooting script. For while we need all the information con
tained in the script above to design and build our set, once it is
built— the properties secured and the actors rehearsed— the direc
tor is interested only in the necessary steps to visualize the story
for the television audience. The style and layout of our shoot
ing script is purely arbitrary. If a director preferred the camera
and other cues on the right hand side of the page, there is noth
ing to prevent him having it laid out that way. But because we
read from left to right and because everything indicated on the
right half of the page has been already built and rehearsed, the
director is interested mainly in the things that he must do and
they are all tabulated on the left side so that he sees instantly
the things he must handle.

A major problem, that hasn't been cleared up as yet, are stage
directions in a television script. In the theater "stage right" was
the right of the stage facing the audience, and naturally so, as
that was to the actor's right. A stage director who faced the
actors, as the audience would, quickly learned to adjust himself
to saying right when he meant left. This is simple when only the
director is involved and actors are rehearsing without cameras,
but when they come into the studio and start to rehearse with
cameras before the viewing screen the actors' right becomes the
cameraman's left. So to get an actor to cross right and to have
the camera pan with him, the director must tell the actor to cross
right and the cameraman to pan left. It was and still is slightly
confusing, to say the least.

HERE IS TELEVISION

The Shooting Script

But back to our television script. The first page or two of the
script of "Destiny" worked out for actual studio production
might appear like this.

CAMERA #3

START MUSIC

CUE TITLE TO ROLL

(Preview #1 on C.U. (*) of

Glass)
(Preview #2 on Door R for

Grace's entrance)

LAP DISSOLVE FROM #3
tofl

(Cue Harry to go ahead)

(#3 Ready on C.U. of Grace
in chair at table)

PAN UP WITH GLASS TO
HIS FACE ON #1 AND
DOLLY BACK TO C.U.
OF HARRY

FADE MUSIC

SWITCH TO #2 ON C.U.
OF GRACE

(•) C.U.-Closc Up.

OPENING TITLE
MUSIC
The

Paragon Broadcasting

Company

Presents

"Destiny"

An original story by
Timothy Smith

Cast:

Harry Withers

Wendell Ayer
Grace Lyons

Jean Davis
Aileen Rankin

Kathryn Fleishman

(AS THE TITLE ENDS)

A glass on table— we see a
piece of ice dropped into it
and some soda added then—

A man's hand raises glass to
his lips— he starts to drink.
He sees Grace in door R. He
gulps the drink.

Grace enters and stops in
doorway.

PROGRAM OPERATION

(#1 Holds on C.U. of Harry)

SWITCH TO #1

(#2 Holds on Grace ready to
pan with her as she X's to
table.)

#2 PANS WITH GRACE
TO TABLE AND IN
CLUDES HARRY

SWITCH TO #3 C.U. OF
GRACE AS SHE SITS
AND PICKS UP NEWS-
PAPER

SWITCH TO #1 C. U. OF
HARRY

(#2 Ready on door R)
(#3 Pulls back a little)

#1 DOLLIES BACK FOR
M.S. (*) OF GRACE AND
HARRY

SWITCH TO #3 GRACE
(#1 continues to dolly back)

GRACE: Hello Harry-
Drinking again 1

HARRY: (SMILING) Well,
you don't blame
me do you?

GRACE: That all depends
(SHE X'S TO
CHAIR AT R. OF
TABLE.)

HARRY: (BEHIND TA
BLE) On what
I'm drinking?

GRACE: Perhaps. (SHE
SITS AT THE
TABLE, PICKS
UP NEWSPAPER
AND GLANCES
AT IT.)

HARRY: TAKING AN
OTHER LARGE
SIP FROM HIS
GLASS)

Apparently I'm
not as interesting
as the news.

GRACE: Who is? (READ
ING PAPER EX
CITEDLY) Harry
did you see this?

(•) M.S.-Medium Shot.

HERE IS TELEVISION

SWITCH TO #1 GRACE
AND HARRY

SWITCH TO #2 ON AI-
LEEN IN DOOR R.

(#1 continues to dolly back)

SWITCH TO #1 WHICH
PULLS BACK TO COV
ER WHOLE SCENE.

HARRY: (LEANING
OVER HER
CHAIR) Interest
ing isn't it?

AILEEN: (ENTERING
FROM DOOR R.)

Very. And you
two make a very
charming picture.

(HARRY JUMPS
BACK AND
GRACE RISES.)

Operating Problems

Radio had its limitations but one of its advantages was that the
audience painted its scenery to suit itself. A listener always
visualized the scene as he would like to have it appear. But
television is forced by the nature of the medium to deliver a
veranda that will meet the requirements of the audience as well
as the studio limitations. It must be economical, practical, and
above all look well in a television picture. That is a problem
for our scenic designer. We will assume that he has turned out
a workable set and it is ready for shooting in the studio.

Now let us see what must be done by each member of our tele
vision production 'team to turn our shooting script into a visual
performance. Our first direction reads: "Camera #3— Opening
title." This requires that the camera picking up the title has
been previewed, the title card adjusted as to distance from the
camera, and the lighting checked. If it is animated in any way
the device has been tested. The stage manager has seen that the
hand properties for the entire performance are all in their right
place and the actors are ready. Camera #1 is set and previewed
on the glass with the camera in close.

Camera #2 is ready on the door. In a case of this kind when we
plan to pick up an artist as she enters, it is necessary for the
cameraman to focus his camera on the door frame or otherwise

PROGRAM OPERATION 47

approximate his focal range so that when the artist makes her
entrance she will be in proper focus. With our preview shots set,
on a "go ahead" from Master Control, we start our music and
fade in picture and sound. As soon as our opening shot is well
established we give the cue to roll the title and hold the shot
until it is finished. As this ends we lap dissolve from the title to
the close up of the glass on the table. Two principles are in
volved here. First, if the lap dissolve is done manually, care must
be taken that camera #3 is faded out at the same speed as #1 is
faded in. Eventually all lap dissolves will be done automatically,
with the elapsed time desired to fade out Camera #1 and fade in
the other camera preset on the controls. Obviously the length
of time taken to make the dissolve depends on the mood of the
scene and the subject matter involved. The other point is the
focal depth of the #1 camera taking the glass on the table. As
stated before, as the distance from the camera to the object being
picked up is lessened, the focal depth decreases. In making a
shot of just the glass care must be taken that the picture is under
standable; that is, the audience must be able to see what it is
and a "split" focus will probably be best. This is obtained by
focusing on an imaginary line drawn through the center of the
glass or perhaps the ice in the glass. In working too close the
front and back edges of the glass may be slightly out of focus so a
picture of this kind must be carefully previewed and the correct
camera position determined.

At this point there are two operating cues to watch. We have
released Camera #3. So through our telephone we tell camera
man #3 to get set for a close up of Grace after she sits in the chair
to the right of the table. This may take a little time as the
camera was in close on the title, the cameraman may have to
move his camera some distance to get the right shot on Grace,
and he must be prepared to do a quick focal job when she sits.
In preparation he might use the back of the chair as a focal point.
Also through our telephone, we tell our stage manager to give
Harry the "go ahead" for putting the ice in the glass. One of the
most inexcusable faults, and it is one that continually happens,
is to be late in cuing actors before the cameras to go ahead.
Most studios have a red or green light on the front of each

48 HERE IS TELEVISION

camera and this bulb lights the second the output of that camera
goes on the air. Consequently, the actor can tell immediately
which camera is picking him up and when the switch is made
but, if a delayed cue is necessary, as in this case, the director
must anticipate it and tell the stage manager to give the actor a
"go ahead" just before the effect is needed. The director now has
two more things to do at once. He must carefully watch his pic
ture "on the line," that is the one the audience is seeing, and
also preview the picture that is being readied on #3. If the angle
is wrong he must tell that camera man to move in or out, pan
right or left as the picture must be correct when it comes on the
air. Here is a perfect case, where team work between the director
and his assistant is important. With the director concentrating
on the "air" shot the assistant might line up the shot on the third
camera. This procedure may be worked out through the entire
performance if desired. Our next move is to instruct the dolly
man to move back. A shot of this kind should only be attempted
with a good dolly on which the cameraman rides, as his whole
attention must be on the focus of the glass, which of course will
change as Harry raises the glass to his lips and the camera moves
back. This means that the cameraman must correct these focal
changes, while the camera is moving, to hold the picture con
stantly in focus.

You might ask why make it harder by dollying back at the
same time that Harry raises the glass to his lips. The answer of
course is that it must be done if we are to follow the glass to his
lips as we are too close on our opening shot to get a picture of
Harry's face, though we automatically take advantage of. the
distance between the glass on the table and Harry behind it, as
his face is farther from the camera than the glass in his extended
hand. Instead of moving the camera we might have Harry move
but this is usually very bad practice for we lose contact with
Harry the minute the program starts. Just as in the theater once
the curtain rises the actor is pretty much "on his own." It is
much simpler and we constantly control the situation by having
Harry hold his position while we move the camera. The distance
we dolly back is also important and it is something that cannot
be determined until we see the picture at rehearsal.

We might stop here for a moment and discuss another way of
opening this scene. The director may want to pull #1 back far

PROGRAM OPERATION

#2 Camera
#3 Camera
x M Michrophcme

C Coaxial cable

Studio wall

Diagram of camera positions in opening scene of "Destiny"

enough to disclose the whole scene; to establish at once in the
minds of the audience, where the scene is taking place. If this
is done, at the end of the movement Camera #1 will be too far
back to get a good close up of Harry's face. If this procedure is
decided on— Harry's business and the dolly back must be slowed
down to give #3 time enough to get into position for a good C.U.
of Harry. If this took too long, obviously camera directions could
be changed and #2 could take the C.U. of Harry while #3 covered
Grace. If it is decided to do this, it will at once become neces
sary to change all the following camera shots. While the shots
may be the same, they will be picked up by a different camera
and they must be set in advance as the operation of all cameras
must flow right through the program and any change in routine
on one camera may affect the others. It is usually best to in
dicate camera changes in the pre-rehearsal script but to delay
actually designating the camera numbers until you get into a

50 HERE IS TELEVISION

camera rehearsal in the studio. The effect of the little opening
scene might be heightened if we switched to Grace in the door
way before she spoke. This would let the audience in on the fact
that Grace was watching Harry and on her line "Hello" we
would cut back quickly to Harry on #1 who would react on
Grace's "Hello" and then proceed as before. Were we to decide
to do this we need not seriously upset our camera routine, as we
are simply adding shots for $1 and $2. But let us continue with
our original plan of operation.

The position of the #2 camera is important as it is our first
glimpse of Grace and she immediately X's to the table and sits.
We must have our camera in such a position with relation to
the door and table that Grace will cross on a line parallel with
the lens of the camera. Wherever we have action by actors it is
advisable to pick them up with a camera that is so placed that
they do not directly approach or recede from it. A direct ap
proach to the camera can be used for special effects but in normal
scenes it is desirable not to change focus, once we have switched
to a camera, unless that camera is on a dolly as explained above.
All movement wherever possible should be planned in the same
focal plane. The moment Grace sits in the chair, #3 is focused
for the C.U. it is to take. We now have Grace and Harry both
in on #2's shot. All through this opening scene we have kept #1
in on a C.U. of Harry. We now prepare to take advantage of
our dolly to show more of the entire scene. At this moment #3
is on a C.U. of Grace, #1 on a C.U. of Harry, and #2 includes
both. This whole operation is really keyed to the original posi
tion of #2 for the cameraman has had no time to move the base
of his camera and from his opening shot on Grace he must be
able to merely pan as she X's to include Harry.

The suggested camera routine just discussed is predicated on
the assumption that we have a wide angle lens on #1, a medium
lens on #2 and a narrow angle lens on #3. Thus $3 could get a
close shot of Grace even though the camera was further away
from her than either #1 or #2. Camera #1 now moves back to
include both Harry and Grace and #2 is released for Aileen in
the door R. Camera #l's final position, that is, the distance it
pulls back is of course a decision of the director.

THE PROJECTION BOOTH 51

Quite obviously there are many ways in which the scene just
described could be televised. The lenses, wide, medium, and
narrow would not have to be on the cameras indicated here.
Lenses could be changed by merely rotating the turret head in
the cameras and close-ups or long shots would be available without
moving the cameras. A director might want to open the scene
with a long shot to show the whole set especially the position of
the door with relation to the table, and then dolly in to a C.U.
But, regardless of what the camera routine is, every shot must be
worked out at rehearsal and plainly marked in the script, so that
when the time of broadcast rolls around every movement of every
participant in the program is definitely set.

6
THE PROJECTION BOOTH

Motion picture film is one of the most important sources of
program material in television. Many thousands of feet of film
have already been broadcast over the now existing television
transmitters throughout the world and transcribed television pro
grams on film have already won a place second to none.

The television projection booth may physically be situated any
where near the main operating studio. It need not be necessarily
adjacent but it should be conveniently close to save wire installa
tions and time involved in physically going from one studio to
the other. But from a television operational standpoint it can be
located anywhere in the main studio building. The equipment
in this room will depend on the size of the station but, in general,
it should contain at least two television camera chains. This
means two pickup cameras so arranged that they may feed to the
transmitter the pictures from 35 m.m. motion picture film, 16
m.m. motion picture film, and still pictures in the form of slides.
And naturally it must contain the necessary motion picture and
slide projectors. The television cameras will of course require
the electronic controls, that are required in a "live" pickup stu
dio. The personnel usually involves three men— the supervisor,
the projectionist, and a video and sound engineer. The actual

HERE IS TELEVISION

personnel may vary depending on how the output of the studio
is handled.

The Physical Arrangement

Motion pictures and still slides are projected into the television
camera in the same manner that they are thrown on the screen of
any theater. The only difference is the size of the picture pro
jected. The television cameras in some stations are mounted on
a track to enable them to be moved in a direction parallel with
the lenses of the projectors so that one television camera may
pick up the output of several projectors. But the cameras must
be so arranged that they can be firmly locked in position directly
in front of the projector in which the film is running.

CUT-AWAY DRAWING OF THE TELEVISION PROJECTION BOOTH.

CONTROL ROOM AND MONITOR SCREENS AT LEFT, THE FILM

PROJECTORS CENTER AND CUTTING ROOM AT RIGHT

In a studio camera the object to be picked up is focused on the
sensitive photo electric surface of the pickup tube, by means of
lenses in the camera itself. In picking up motion pictures, the
lenses in the television camera are removed and lenses in the pro
jector are used to focus the picture on the plate. Thus, through
proper adjustments, a picture the exact size wanted is thrown on
to this plate and the picture is then scanned electronically as it
is in an ordinary television camera.

THE PROJECTION BOOTH

Motion Picture Projection

While this description aptly describes the pick-up of a still pic
ture, motion pictures are the same up to a certain point but they
need another control. Thirty-five millimeter film is projected at
the standard rate of ninety feet a minute of twenty-four frames
per second. Television standards call for thirty frames per sec
ond. To synchronize the two a special shutter is attached to the
motion picture projector. Standard motion picture projection is
intermittent, that is, the pictures you see in a theater are not
constant. What happens in the motion picture projector to pic
tures you see on the screen today is that a single frame of 35 m.m.
film is thrown on the theater screen. Then a shutter, revolving at

-A -*J

Left— The film cameras on sliding rack in the motion picture viewing room.
The film projectors are behind wall.

Right— The motion picture projectors in the projection booth. The television
cameras are behind ports in wall.

a high speed spins in front of the film cutting it off for a fraction
of a second. The shutter then opens a second time, again flashing
the same picture briefly on the screen. Then the shutter closes for
the second time. During the time the shutter covers the picture
for the second time, the roll of film is jerked quickly one frame

54 HERE IS TELEVISION

ahead, the shutter opens and we see the next frame. This whole
operation is sensible only because of a little quirk of nature
known as persistence of vision. Our eyes hold the impression or
image of the picture we have seen long enough for the shutter to
close and the next frame to be pulled into place. Motion pictures
prove the old phrase "seeing is believing" to be an utter fallacy,
for half the time we spend in a moving picture theater we spend
looking at an utterly black screen. But in a television motion
picture projector, the shutter and the intervals at which the film
is moved ahead are adjusted so that we see six of the 24 frames
for an additional fraction of a second. The whole thing is really
a mathematical trick but it works out so that the television cam
era sees the picture 30 times a second and we see the motion
pictures on our home receivers.

As we mentioned before, the television camera is so mounted
that it can slide from one film projector to another. This is
particularly important in any installation, as it may govern the
amount of equipment needed. Big T V stations will have prob
ably two standard 35 m.m. projectors; two 16 m.m. projectors and
two or three slide projectors. These might include a projector for
2x2 inch slides, 3i^x4 inch slides, and a Belloptican or some
similar arrangement for picking up small still pictures. This
means you may have seven or eight projectors of one type or an
other. By sliding the television cameras in front of each projector
as it is to be used, the saving in electronic equipment is evident.
Two 35 m.m. projectors are necessary, as the standard film con
tainer is not large enough to carry a full length motion picture.
The ordinary projector can carry only about two reels of film.
When the film has run out on the first projector, the second is
started and the picture is shown without a break.

The problem of synchronization is an important one in all
television program operations where film is used. Care must be
exercised in all switches from film to film or from film to studio
to avoid gaps of blank screen on the home television receiver.
Dead air is one of the unforgivable errors of radio and it is just
as necessary to avoid in television. Some television station opera
tors used to think nothing of asking their audience to spend

THE PROJECTION BOOTH 55

many precious minutes looking at a blank screen while some one
got a projector up to speed, changed a slide or simply made a
mistake. When a switch is to be made from any live source of
programs to film, the projector must be started before the switch
is made and the director must see the picture on his preview
monitor before he throws the output of the film projector on the
line.

Audience Reactions

While operations of this kind require accurate judgment and
experience they are simple if they are handled intelligently. And
they are very effective. In one early studio dramatic program we
had previously made a short motion picture sequence showing
the actors in a hansom cab. As the first scene in the studio ended
with the line "Come on, we'll go over right now"— we faded into
film and saw the actors on their way. The audience viewing room
at that time was separated from the television studio by a plate
glass window covered by a shade. Before the show started the
visitors were able to see the scenery, actors, and camera in the
studio but just prior to the start we pulled the shade down and
watched the program on a television receiver. All was normal
during the first scene but shortly after we switched to the film
sequence of the cab driving down the street, one of our female
visitors rose from her seat and raised the shade in order to see
into the studio. "What is it?" we asked. "Nothing," she replied,
"I just wanted to see the horse."

Use of Film

Motion picture film will always play a big part in television
programming and all of it need not be the standard theater size.

The use of 16 m.m. sound film is possible and lots of it has
been used; in many stations it has eliminated 35 m.m. entirely.
The synchronization problem is not a difficult one as sound
16 m.m. film uses the same number of frames per second as
35 m.m. While we still have the intermittent blank screen mo
ments the same shutter procedure is used in a 16 m.m. projector
as in a 35 m.m., so that when it is adjusted to conform to televi
sion requirements we get 30 frames a second for television scan-

56 HERE IS TELEVISION

ning. If 16 m.m. silent film is to be used another projector with
proper shutter adjustments will be necessary as 16 m.m. silent
film runs at 16 frames per second. The two factors that are detri
mental to the use of 16 m.m. film are, first, the quality of the
sound is far below that delivered by 35 m.m. film. The equip
ment being used today reduces the brilliancy of the sound qual
ity to a noticeable degree. Secondly, the visual quality suf
fers as well. This is caused by the fact that the picture on
the 16 m.m film is so much smaller in size it is impossible
to get as much light through it and consequently we fail to
get as clear a picture projected on the pickup tube as that from
the larger film. But the advantages gained by using 16 m.m. film
more than outweigh any loss of picture quality. First, if 35 m.m.
film is used it means that you must have a fireproof projection
booth as it is highly inflammable. In the second place the film
costs are considerably higher both as to raw stock and processing
and projectors are very expensive. And lastly taking pictures
with 35 m.m. cameras is a highly competitive commercial busi
ness but the thousands of 16 m.m. cameras all over the world are
a valuable source of potential program material. In spite of the
loss in quality, 16 m.m. film is used extensively.

Still Pictures

The still projectors (there must be two of them if we are to
avoid seeing the slide pushed into the picture) are a very im
portant adjunct to any television station. Any still picture or
photograph that might be picked up from the studio may be
made into a slide either 31/^x4 inches or 2x2 inches and pro
jected into the system just as motion pictures are. The sizes
given are the slide sizes. The picture is matted down still further
in each case. The use of this equipment is almost constant. Call
letters, visual announcements, pictures of all kinds can be used
very advantageously and better results can be obtained in most
cases by using a projector than is possible in a direct studio
pickup. By shooting a picture or card direct in the studio you
eliminate one step of preparation— that of making a slide from
the picture— but if it is subject matter that is to be used often,
such as call letters or a standard announcement, then the space

THE PROJECTION BOOTH

The film monitor desk. The cameras are behind the operators.

saved in storage alone more than makes it worth while to reduce
it to a slide. If this is done and the picture or card is reduced to
film in a well equipped photographic studio, perfect lighting may
be attained, and this is reflected in the resulting television pic
ture. Another advantage is that all television pictures must be
wider than they are high. Roughly this is in a 3 x 4 ratio. If we

Full picture Camera should move m to properly frame picture

EXAMPLE OF POOR AND GOOD FRAMING OF A STILL PICTURE

HERE IS TELEVISION

have a picture higher than it is wide then it must be properly
"framed" to get the best results on television.

Of course this can be done in television studios but better
results can be obtained if it is done by photography. In addi
tion, every shot put on from the film projection booth frees a
studio camera.

A projector that will pick up direct from post cards, small pic
tures, and printed matter will enable one to project them directly
into the system and this equipment, while not a must, is a valu
able addition to any television studio.

Importance of Proper Installation

In laying out the pickup equipment arrangement in the film
studio, thought must be given as to how the projectors will
normally be used. Once they are installed they cannot be moved

Arrangement I

PROJECTORS

16
.mm

Slide

35
mm

Slide

16
mm

,'\

Glass Port

Waif

CAMERAS _L_!

Glass Port

1 1

overhead track

Arrangement 1 1

"""""' Outlet

Slide

Mirror

Outlet

POSITION OF FILM PROJECTORS WITH RELATION TO THE TELE
VISION CAMERAS IN THE PROJECTION ROOM

THE PROJECTION BOOTH 59

readily and if only two television cameras are to be used, then the
position of the projectors with relation to the pickup equipment
is very important.

The accompanying diagram gives an idea of how the equip
ment might be arranged.

This arrangement allows the most facility in normal procedure
as it gives greater freedom of operation. We must be able to slide
our cameras in front of the projector wanted without limiting
our program demands.

We will constantly see new developments in T V equipment.
One of these has added considerable flexibility to the use of
cameras for picking up film. In fact it virtually makes one cam
era do the work of two. The device is simply a clever arrange
ment of mirrors. (See Arrangement II.) Two projectors are so
installed that the output of both is thrown by means of mirrors
directly into the camera. The picture from projector fl strikes
the mirror set at a forty-five degree angle to the camera and the
reflected picture is thus thrown on to the plate of the pickup
tube. The second projector is mounted to throw a picture from
the other side. This means that no movement of the equipment
is necessary. The light source in projector number one is dimmed
as a reel finishes and the light in number two is turned on. Thus
a continuous flow of program material is possible and the per
manently mounted equipment is cheaper and simpler to operate
If a slide projector is installed above the mirrors in such a way
that its projected picture strikes the camera plate from only a
slight angle, three sources of pictures are made available for
programs. Regardless of what equipment is used, thought should
be given to all studio installations from a program point of view
for, after all, the smooth operation of the station's output is the
important thing and programs should not have to be limited by
the placement of equipment if this can be avoided.

Various animated announcements may originate in the film
studio. One ingenious arrangement throws a clock face with the
correct time directly on to the pickup tube. Another contrivance
projects a kaleidoscopic effect into the system with very favorable
results. As said before, when cameras in the film studio are used,
personnel and equipment are released in the main studio. Oper-

HERE IS TELEVISION

ative costs are, and will be, high; but careful working out of
schedules will often make a big difference on the final cost sheet.
Aside from film projection equipment, the film studio will
need turntables for picking up music and recorded effects. In the
early days of the war motion pictures of the London bomb raids
were shown. By supplementing the sound on the film with
phonograph recordings of guns, aeroplanes, and bombs and by
feeding both the film sound and the recorded sound into the
system the overall effect was considerably heightened.

The Announce Booth

Somewhere in or adjacent to the projection studio, should be
an announce booth. This operates practically the same as its
counterpart in radio. It is designed to free other studios, when
only a single voice is needed for any program operation, in con-

The announce booth. Announcer center reads narration to accompany pic
ture seen on receiver left. Director cues him for proper synchronization.

THE MOBILE UNIT 61

junction with silent motion or still pictures. It is not arranged
for a video pickup but its usefulness is obvious. It is equipped
with a microphone, a picture line monitor, and turntables. The
phonographic pickup equipment that is used in conjunction
with the film studio may be located in the announce booth if it
is so desired.

Station call letters must be given orally as well as visually. So
to use the least equipment they are presented visually by a slide in
the still projector and orally from the announce booth. In the
operation of the booth the announcer merely follows picture op
eration on his monitor screen and opens his "mike" when he
should come in. Comment on still pictures or silent movies is thus
handled simply and efficiently. While it is not an absolute must,
an announce booth will more than pay for itself in only a few
months of broadcasting.

THE MOBILE UNIT

While every angle of television is full of interest and excite
ment, the one department that will probably transcend all others
for romance and glamor is the mobile unit.

What the eventual television mobile pickup equipment will be
cannot be definitely stated at this time. Already the heavy two
truck unit is practically obsolete and the same must be said of
the three truck unit in use in London before the war. Units have
been put together with power supply, transmitter, and pickup
equipment all in one light truck, and no one knows how far im
provements and inventions will carry us in the future. But in
this chapter we will discuss the mobile unit as it was before Pearl
Harbor for no matter how the equipment is improved the same
basic operational problems will remain.

Outside Pickup Equipment

Before the war the Mobile Unit mounted on two ten ton trucks
consisted of a traveling control room and a television transmitter,
capable of sending both sight and sound back to the main

62 HERE IS TELEVISION

transmitter. The control room unit was equipped with virtually
everything found in the studio control room. This included
generators, synchronizers, amplifiers, shading controls, viewing
screens— in short— everything involved in picture and sound
pick-up. The crew consisted of two camera men and a sound man
outside the truck and a shading operator, a sound engineer, and
a supervisor, who acted usually as a switching operator, inside.
Just as in a studio pickup the output of the two cameras was
seen on a preview screen as well as on a line monitor. The pic
ture had to be electronically shaded and the sound monitored
but from there on the similarity with studio procedure ended, if
it ever began, for a mobile unit crew faced problems that never
beset their fellow engineers in the studio. Their day started early

The mobile unit trucks in Rockefeller Plaza. The camera and parabolic
microphone are being operated from the roof of the truck housing the control
room. The antenna of the television relay transmitter on top of transmitter
truck at right.

THE MOBILE UNIT 63

with the truck chauffeurs delivering the equipment at the point
of pickup.

Let us follow through an ordinary broadcast of a horse race.
Firsi and most important the original survey had to be made,
which meant approval for the broadcast by the proper authori
ties. A power check was necessary for no picture was possible
without 3 phase 60 cycle alternating electric current available to
the unit at a location close by the point of pickup. During an
early demonstration in Washington, D.C. we found that a picture
from the Capitol of these United States was impossible, for in
1939 there was no alternating electric current anywhere in the
building. After suitable power leads were found the camera and
microphone positions had to be decided on and a line of sight
location picked for the antenna.

Let us look for a moment at the truck which housed the trans
mitter. On the roof was an adjustable antenna. This steel pole
when raised to an upright position sent the pictures picked up by
truck #1 back to a receiver at the main transmitter. Within this
truck were generators, amplifiers, and all the electric power sup
ply equipment necessary for operating picture and sound trans
mitters. This equipment was powerless, however, until a local
source of electric power was hooked up with the equipment.

In England the three truck unit included in addition to the
transmitter and control room, a mobile power supply, a generator
motivated by a gasoline engine. This arrangement removed the
limitation of finding adequate power at a broadcast location but
our unit did not include this. All new models will prob
ably include some arrangement for generating their own elec
tricity so that the location of future sites will be broadened
considerably.

A Typical Day's Work

At our race track location we have parked the trucks in a posi
tion where we can reach power, where we have line of sight
transmission to our main transmitter, and where our microphone
and camera leads will reach the pickup points decided on. It
may well be that from where our trucks are parked it is impos
sible to send a picture back but from the roof of the grandstand

64 HERE IS TELEVISION

we have line of sight. This means that our transmitting antenna
must be installed on the roof of the building and this may result
in a lot of hard work, for all the equipment necessary must be
taken up and assembled. Obviously, we must have at least one
of our cameras on the roof, if we are to attempt to see across the
track; so the camera and microphone with their wire leads are
hauled to the top of the grandstand. Our second camera might
be wherever we wanted it as long as we have sufficient camera
cable. We found that by installing it near the paddock we had
something of pictorial interest between races as we could see the
horses and riders before they went to the post and from that posi
tion we could interview interesting personalities.

In early operations cameras differed from those used in the
studio as far as focus and camera finders were concerned. In
the studio the camera operator saw the picture he was picking up
on a ground glass within the camera case, but in mobile unit
operation this arrangement was far from practical. In the studio
everything to be televised had been predetermined and the visual
subject matter was relatively close to the camera; consequently a
viewing screen, either on a ground glass or on a kinescope at
tached to the camera, was perfectly satisfactory for studio opera
tions; but when we attempted to cover outside events neither the
director or cameraman knew in advance what the next picture
would be. At a football game, if a kick was blocked and the cam
era man had his eyes glued to a view finder, he would have to
leave his finder, see where the play was going, and then swing his
camera to cover it. This procedure was not suitable for practical
operation, so a rifle sight was provided for our mobile unit cam
eras. This arrangement lacked the precision of a studio finder but
allowed the cameraman to see what was going on outside the
restricted field of vision of his camera. But the introduction of
the electronic view finder and turret head lenses changed all this.
Today a remote cameraman sees the picture that the audience is
seeing on his viewing screen just as in a studio camera. He is of
course in a fixed position. His camera doesn't move. But by us
ing the multiple lenses available to him he may take long shots or
close-ups as required. His problem always is to use the right lens
at the right time on the right subject matter and the results that

THE MOBILE UNIT 65

are being attained today are excellent. We expect to see close-ups
of an outfielder in baseball catching a long fly ball or a football
forward receiving a pass and we do. The credit for this should
go to the cameraman. He must gauge his shot— focus it and then
keep the action centered on his viewing screen.

The Outside Camera Men

Telephone connections are of course established from the con
trol room in the truck to the cameraman and the program man at
the point of pickup, but in normal outside operations the studio
procedure, where the director tells the cameraman what to shoot,
is not used. This is our only choice, for the director in the truck
can only see what appears on his viewing screen. He has no way
of knowing what is going on unless the camera covers it. He still
has the choice of cameras as he may switch from one to the other
but he is extremely limited when it comes to making decisions
on subject matter. Because of this the mobile unit cameraman
must take the responsibility for what the audience sees. We have
two way communication lines to the camera but cameramen can
only talk back to the director when their cameras are well away
from the announcer's microphone, for if he were near it any con
versation from the camera end would be picked up by the mike
and broadcast to the audience. Because of his restricted point of
view the director becomes the voice of the television audience. If
he fails to see something he wants to see, he makes it known to
the cameraman and if he sees anything that isn't perfectly clear he
asks the announcer "What and Why?" The announcer then
clears up the point over the microphone which is heard by both
the director and the television audience; but the success of an
outdoor pickup depends for the most part, on the cameraman.

Remote Camera Control

In prewar broadcasting, outside cameras were equipped, for a
while, with a remote focusing control. On the studio cameras
each cameraman focused the picture he was seeing on his viewing
screen, but on the mobile unit cameras, the cameraman had no
means of seeing what he was picking up except by estimate
through his rifle sight and, consequently, he had no means of

HERE IS TELEVISION

checking his focus. So a special device was installed in the truck
and the camera was focused by remote control. By turning a
small handle at the control board in the truck, a small motor on
the camera was made to move the lens in or out. Actually there
was considerable physical motion in the lens, and one of the pet
jokes of the crew was to leave the camera standing alone; usually
it was immediately surrounded by a group of small boys, and
some not so small. Nearly always somebody would attempt to
look into the camera from the front end; as he stuck his nose
almost against the front lens the boys in the truck, who could see
what was going on, on their monitor screen, would spin their fo
cusing control and suddenly the lens would start forward right at
the person in front of the camera. To say that it was surprising,

Remote control focusing device on mobile unit camera.

THE MOBILE UNIT 67

to the would-be investigator, was putting it mildly. He usually re
tired to a respectful distance after such an experience, for to see
the inside of the camera suddenly coming right at him through
no visually apparent means, was awe inspiring to say the least.
The remote control focusing device had both advantages and
disadvantages. While it eliminated a job for the cameraman and
allowed him to concentrate on keeping his camera on the center
of action, it made the operation in the track much more involved.
The man on the controls was faced with the problem of focusing
the camera on what he saw and not always on what the camera
man wanted to show. In Washington, on an early demonstration
out-of-doors, we had arranged for a blimp to fly over the camera.
That afternoon, while we were picking up interviews, we got
word that the blimp was in sight. We told the cameraman to go
up and get it and he immediately tilted the camera up and our
viewing screen showed an expanse of sky. But no blimp. We
went through focus from end to end. Still no blimp. After about
three minutes of empty sky we finally gave it up. This occurred
of course because we went through the correct focus on the air
ship without knowing it. We simply couldn't see it on our view
ing screen because of its small size due to its height. But today
the outside cameraman must deliver a properly focused picture.

At the Track

We have wandered a long way from our horse race so let us get
back where we are set up and ready to go ahead. Both picture
and sound pickups have been tested and we have made an air
check with the main station. The picture is sent back from our
truck transmitter to the receiving antenna near the main studio
and is lead from there into the master control room where both
the picture and the sound are checked. This arrangement, send
ing the picture through master control and not directly to the
main transmitter, allows the mobile unit program to be handled
in the same manner, as far as program traffic is concerned, as a
program eminating from any of the studios. With everything OK,
we relax until air time.

Some few minutes before the start of the first race we get our
signal to go ahead. We open on our #2 camera at the paddock

68 HERE IS TELEVISION

where our announcer greets the audience, gives them the line-up
of the day's racing, and interviews jockies, trainers, and prom
inent sport fans. Then, as the horses come into the paddock, we
get a picture of the men and horses in the race. The horses leave
for the track and we switch to our #1 camera on the roof of the
grandstand where our racing commentator takes over the micro
phone.

Racing on television has its handicaps from a pictorial and
entertainment point of view. In the movie newsreels, we almost
always see only the last of the race— the home stretch and the
finish— and always this is a good close-up. The elapsed showing
time is measured in seconds. But in television we take a whole
afternoon and any comparison in picture values must take into
consideration that with our telephoto lens we see everyhing that
a spectator at the race track would see— but no more, and we see
it in the same elapsed time as he does. To a person who is not
interested in horse racing a television afternoon of this sport
might be extremely dull. Everything except the race itself seems
to drag unmercifully, for we must remember that six races take
less than ten minutes to run but the sport is so handled that it
takes about three hours to see it done. At the track racing fans
compensate for the long waits between races in many ways, but
at home we do not have the same facilities. We see but we cannot
participate. Another handicap is that the objects in the pictures
are all too small. If the race starts on the other side of the track,
we see tiny specks moving on our television screen. But in spite
of these handicaps the real value is that what you are seeing is
taking place at the moment you see it. The moving picture ver
sion is a visual historical record— but on television we are seeing
history being made.

There was a rather amusing sidelight in connection with our
racing programs. It seems that bets were being made in a back
room somewhere in greater New York and the results of the race
were phoned to the room after each race. As there was no hurry
there was always some delay before the man at the track made the
call. An enterprising better discovered a television set virtually
next door to the bookmaker, so he would watch the finish of a

THE MOBILE UNIT

race and then walk next door and place his bet on the horse that
he had seen win. When the telephone call came, he would collect
his money. The racket didn't last long as the bookmaker bought
a television set.

In the early days of television programming we used to swing
the camera on the pari-mutual betting board and leave it there
between races, but in the future we will probably cut back to the
studio or develop something of interest at the track. On the
whole, mobile unit race track pickups are not only feasible but
good television fare.

The Orthicon Camera

Probably the most important pre-war addition to the mobile
unit pickup equipment was the orthicon camera. This camera
tube, a later development than the iconoscope, was not an im
provement on the first tube but another way of doing the same

Size of lens used in early outdoor pickups.

job. The results varied tremendously. The orthicon was more
sensitive than the "ike," but the resulting picture never gave the
detail possible with the other tube. In a given scene, with good
lighting, both pictures were satisfactory, but the results obtained

70 HERE IS TELEVISION

with the iconoscope were much the best as far as details were
concerned. If both types of cameras were used to pick up an
event on a clear day, with the sun shining brightly, both pic
tures were good but, as the sun began to go down, we saw
startling things happen. As the light faded the orthicon pic
ture began to far surpass the iconoscope. We had no more
detail in the orthicon but we had far less in the iconoscope;
and so by comparison, it shone like a jewel at low light levels.

Actually, a large part of the mobile unit pickups made in New
York would never have been possible without the orthicon. On
dark winter days it was indispensable. Football broadcasts have
been successfully picked up in light so low that it was necessary
to turn on the "night baseball" lighting equipment at the play
ing field to enable the players and spectators to see the ball. The
orthicon camera enabled the television viewers to follow the
game. This could not have been accomplished without it as the
iconoscope picture had gone completely hours before.

Basketball and boxing pickups would never have been possible
without the orthicon as only that camera would deliver a picture
with the lights available. The telephoto lens was installed in the
orthicon and all the outdoor close-ups were taken on that camera.
It was designed with a ground glass viewing screen in the camera
similar to the studio cameras and, because the cameraman was
always interested in close-ups, this arrangement worked very well.

Camera positions were always important in outside pickup as
well as truck locations. The trucks could never be further from
the point of pickup than the coaxial cable lead, and there was a
limit to the amount that could be carried. Naturally, the time of
day and the sun decided most of our problems, at least to the
extent of limiting the positions from which cameras would func
tion. We have shot pictures from the third row at championship
fights, from the rafters in westling arenas, from the tops of trucks,
buildings, and second-story windows. For some time to come the
man in charge of mobile unit pickups, when planning a program
will have to consider where he can get the necessary power, where
to place his equipment, and where to locate the antenna to get
the picture back to the main transmitter. What will the weather
be? If the sun is out, where will it be with relation to the shots

THE MOBILE UNIT 71

he wants to take and last, but most important of all, where will
he put his cameras? Once all these problems are answered a very
interesting television program is possible.

Sending the Picture Back

So far we have only considered the possibility of sending the
television pictures to the main transmitter by means of a radio
link. We are referring to the transmission of the picture signal
from the mobile unit transmitter to a receiver at the main broad
casting studios, but it is possible, if the distance is not too great,
to send the picture back from the point of pickup by wire.

Prize fights, hockey games, and basket ball games were picked
up in Madison Square Garden in New York and sent to the stu
dio by a balanced pair of ordinary telephone wires. This arrange
ment is limited at this time to inter-city operations but its use
simplifies the problem when the event to be broadcast is rela
tively near or the relay transmitter cannot be placed so as to make
the use of the radio link feasible.

Later Developments

As we pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, real
changes have been made in remote pickup equipment. This has
been possible by the continual development of the image orthi-
con camera, which we will discuss later. The gear necessary for a
good picture has been improved, simplified, and refined. Today's
trend seems to be toward what is called "suit-case" equipment.
This means, in the main, that all the electronic paraphernalia
that was formerly permanently installed in the trucks has been
broken down into small portable units. The use of this equip
ment has altered the operation of the crew to some extent but,
whether the necessary electrical equipment is in ten-ton trucks,
station wagons, or is carried by hand, the basic problem remains
the same.

In the "suit-case" operation the necessary camera control units,
monitor and switching control units and the synchronizing gen
erator are all contained in portable cases. These, together with
the cameras, tripods, coaxial cable, and sound equipment, must
be transported by automobile to the desired location and then by

HERE IS TELEVISION

hand to the actual point of pickup. Once there the various units
are connected, the cameras and "mikes" set, and a lead is run to
the terminal of the telephone wires or relay link which will carry
the picture back to the master control room at the main studio.
While this type of equipment eliminates the necessity of find
ing a parking place for the trucks it adds a problem in that space
suitable for a control room must be found near the point of
pickup. There the equipment is set up, the output of the cam
eras and sound pickup is monitored, and the director handles the
program just as he did from the truck.

The portable control equipment necessary at the point of pickup in addition
to cameras when the truck is not used.

The value of this type of equipment is evident for semi
permanent pickups, especially if two or more broadcasts are to
originate each week from any given location. Its portability

THE MASTER CONTROL ROOM 73

really adds studios to any broadcasting station. It may be in
stalled in a light truck or an aeroplane and should broaden the
scope of tomorrow's remote television programs, providing on the
spot coverage of the news as it happens.

In normal operations the announcer sits in a position where
he can see the action on the field but in front of him is a televi
sion monitor where he can see the picture that the home audi
ence is seeing. Thus it is possible for the director to show by
proper camera switching the event the announcer is describing
or the announcer may explain a picture that the director puts on
the line from any of his cameras. Team-work on the part of the
cameramen, the announcer and the director is essential to a good
program.

8
THE MASTER CONTROL ROOM

Now as we leave our studios and mobile unit, which are both
program pickup points, we might take a look into the master con
trol room. This is the traffic tower through which pass all the
programs that the television audience eventually sees. It is the
final check on pictures leaving the studios and the switching
point for all operation. Its specific location will probably vary at
each broadcasting station due to the physical setup of studios.
Considerable latitude is possible as almost every station operating
today handles the problems involved in a different way and from
a different location, but somewhere at each station you will find a
master control room or its equivalent. It is there that the pro
grams, erninating from the live talent studio, the mobile unit, or
the film studio, are finally assembled and sent out to the audience
as an organized whole. It is the central contact point for all the
elements of a flowing program schedule.

Facilities, of course, include all the necessary electronic equip
ment for sending the picture on its way and, most important
from a program point of view, a preview screen that may be
switched to any point of pickup, a line monitor where we see the

HERE IS TELEVISION

programs as they go out, and an off the air monitor where the
pictures, as they are sent out by the transmitter and received on
the average receiving set, may be seen and checked.

A Typical Operation

Let us look at a typical two-hour program schedule and see
how the master control room would function. In normal opera
tion today, each television broadcasting station is required under
its license to give its frequency and power at the start of every
broadcasting period. This "sign on" is usually followed by test
pattern, for audience set adjustments. The test pattern may orig
inate in the master control room itself, through the use of a
special monoscope in which the test pattern is permanently
etched on the mosaic. This is done to save personnel, as the test
pattern can be sent directly on to the line without requiring a
cameraman or attendant. It could come from the main studio.

Test pattern broadcast prior to regular program for receiver adjustments.

THE MASTER CONTROL ROOM 75

with the test pattern on a card— which necessitates lights, camera
nnd operators in the studio, and a control engineer in the studio
control room— or it might come from the film studio where the
test pattern would be fed into the system from a still projector.
The "sign on" requires an oral announcement as well as visual
call letters. After this is made and while the test pattern is on the
air, accompanying sound might be the radio programs being
broadcast by the affiliated radio station at that time or simply a
constant test tone.

Let us assume that we are going to follow our opening an
nouncement with a test pattern, that the visual call letters and
test pattern are to come from our film studio, that the oral
announcement is to originate from the announce booth and that
we are going to follow it with records. Normal procedure would
be for master control to check with the film studio, where the call
letters would be on one still projector and the test pattern on the
other. Knowing that they were ready they would preview the
output and check picture levels. Next they would check the an
nouncer in his booth and make a sound test and then contact the
point that was to originate the music to accompany the test pat
tern and test the pickup from there. Then they would line up
controls to feed the picture and sound from these two pickup
points to the transmitter. A final check with the transmitter to
see that all was well there and then they are ready.

At the appointed hour— we will assume the time set is seven
thirty— a switch is thrown and the output of the film studio is
fed to the transmitter, the announcer is notified by telephone to
go ahead, and the program is "on the air." At this point visual
program controls go to the film studio, for at the conclusion of
the opening announcement the operator in charge switches from
camera #1 which is picking up call letters to camera #2 which is
carrying test pattern. Master control would switch the sound
lines to wherever the accompanying sound was to originate and
would be free for a moment to check picture level, brightness,
shading, pedestal, synchronizing generators, sound level, and the
thousand and one things that must constantly be watched to keep
the television picture at its best.

76 HERE IS TELEVISION

The Flow of Programs

At eight o'clock the record program would conclude. The
operator in the film studio would switch back to camera #1 for
call letters and master control would switch sound channels to
wherever the oral station announcement was to originate. Usu
ally this is done from the studio that is to originate the next
program; if it is to come from outside the building, it would
come, of course, from the announce booth.

Let us assume that the next half-hour program was to come
from our main studio and the oral announcement preceding it
was to originate there as well. While the test pattern was on,
master control has tested the visual and oral signal from this
studio and so, as the film studio switches their camera to the
visual call letters, master control throws the sound channel to
the main studio and gives them a "go ahead." The announce
ment ends, and the visual output from the film booth is switched
to the main studio.

The director in the main studio now controls the output of the
station— both sound and pictures. If film or still pictures are to
be a part of the program, master control would throw switches
that would make the output of the film studio available to the
control room of the main studio, where film sequences and still
pictures could be previewed at will and thrown onto the line.

Now let us assume that we are going, at eight thirty, to the
mobile unit out somewhere on location, for an hour. At nine
thirty we will go to film and at nine forty-five back to our main
studio.

As soon as master control sees that the program from the main
studio is flowing properly, they contact the mobile unit by tele
phone and preview their picture. Levels for sound and picture
are set and they are ready for the next program.

At the conclusion of the program from the main studio, call
letters, both aural and video would be given from there as there
might be noise at the mobile unit point of pickup. Then con
trols are switched to the mobile unit. For an hour we feed the
transmitter with the output of the mobile unit, with the film
studio standing by, ready to go on the air if necessary.

THE MASTER CONTROL ROOM 77

At nine thirty we have two choices. We may go to the main
studio for call letters, both sound and visual, or we may go to the
film studio for visual call letters and put our announcer back in
the announce booth to give the call letters orally from there.

It would probably be handled that way as our next fifteen
minutes of program is to be on film and if we were to go to the
main studio we would interrupt the rehearsal. So at the conclu
sion of the mobile unit program we switch the video output to
the film studio and the sound to the announce booth. After the
call letters the film studio takes the sound line and the sound
motion picture rolls. Again master control contacts the main
studio for previews and tests and at nine forty-five we return to
the main studio for the final program. At its conclusion the
station signs off, probably from the same studio, with call letters
and frequency and power announcements.

While we have gone into considerable detail in the description
of this operation, it graphically pictures the moves that must be
considered from a purely operational angle; the final decisions as
to what shall be done will of course depend on facilities and
personnel. It can always be accomplished in several ways— the
only question is, which way is the cheapest and best.

We have followed program operation from master control for
two hours of television programs. You can readily see what detail
will be necessary when a station is on the air eight or ten hours
per day, seven days a week. More studios and equipment will
make the problem more difficult. Every single piece of equip
ment from the largest tube in the transmitter to the smallest
condenser in any circuit, and there will be hundreds of them,
must function perfectly on demand. There can be no mistake.
Switches from studio to studio, from film to mobile unit must
flow with a machinelike precision. Radio operation has proven it
can be done. It simply requires the necessary equipment, intelli
gent planning, and efficient operation by a trained crew of engi
neers to make it an accomplished fact in television.

In the majority of stations, call letters, both visual and aural,
are on motion picture film. This has proved to be the simplest
method of handling this information as station identification

HERE IS TELEVISION

usually precedes or follows a film commercial spot and the whole
operation can be handled quite simply from the film studio.

THE TELEVISION PICKUP TUBE

In the days to come the important thing regarding television
will be what is seen on the receiver, but we cannot afford to
ignore the means of accomplishing this and some knowledge of
how our studio picture gets to the home receiver will be of inter
est to the program builder and the lay viewers alike. We will
probably never need to know all the involved answers about how
and why television works, as we can safely leave them to our
electronic engineers, but we do need to know the first principles
for we will find them with us always. We will look at our pickup
tube from a layman's point of view and not from the practical

An early iconoscope. The mosaic is the dark rectangular plate in the tube.

THE TELEVISION PICKUP TUBE 79

electronic standards. Potential electronic experts will need to
know much more about the workings of an iconoscope than we
shall attempt to describe here and many authoritative works are
available. But every program builder should know how to get the
best television picture possible with the equipment at hand and
the fundamental operating principles will help him.

Television as we all know consists of picking up a picture in
one location and making it visible in another. A simple compari
son is the wired circuits controlled by photocells more commonly
known as electric eyes. You have probably seen them used in
elevators to prevent the doors from closing while passengers are
getting in or out and to open and close doors in hotels, railroad
stations, and other public buildings. Their operation is simple.
A light is focused on a photocell and as long as the light shines
on the cell nothing happens, but if anything comes between the
light source and the cell, cutting off the beam of light shining on
it, things begin to operate, for a circut is thus closed; we can thus
make bells ring, doors open or shut, motors start, lights light, or
do almost anything else we choose. The action of stopping the
light shining on the photocell is just the same as though we
turned on an electric switch in our home. Now let us see how we
might use it to transmit a picture.

Let us say that we had a bank of photocells closely packed to
gether to form a rectangle. Some distance away we had a bank of
electric lights also closely assembled in the same general form
with a lamp for each photocell. Let us assume that each indi
vidual photocell was connected by wires to its corresponding
lamp. Now we throw a white light from a projector on the bank
of photo cells. The light shining on the cells would activate them
and close the circuit to the bank of lights, thus all the individual
lamps in the bank would stay lighted as long as the photocells
were illuminated.

If we place an opaque object, the letter T perhaps, in our
projector, the dark area caused by the letter would fall across
certain photocells in the bank. As soon as the light from the pro
jector was cut off by the opaque T, those photocells in that area
would break the circuit to the corresponding lamp bulbs and on
our bank of lights we would see an unlighted number of lights

HERE IS TELEVISION

in the shape of a T corresponding exactly to the shape of the T
in the projector. If we used a star or a circle in the projector,
that shape would automatically appear in our bank of lights.
This simple illustration is not present-day television but it does
show that pictures may be carried from the slide in the projector

Amplified wire line to each lamp

Bank of
Lamps

Bank of Photocells

"T" in slide projector

Each photocell is connected to its corresponding
lamp through an amplifier and separate wires

ELECTRICAL REPRODUCTION OF STILL PICTURE

to a lighted screen and reproduced there electrically. If we con
sider the mosaic in the television pickup tube as the bank of a
tremendous number of extremely tiny photocells and the receiver
in our home as the equivalent of the bank of lights, we begin to
see how television works. But we still have a long way to go; so
let us examine our television camera and see what is inside it.

The Mosaic

In the front of the metal television camera case we find a lens
and behind this lens is an iconoscope, an orthicon, dissector tube,
or whatever pickup tube you may be using. Let us assume that
our tube is an iconoscope. This tube is a glass vacuum tube
shaped roughly like a dipper. Within it we find first a light-
sensitized plate called the mosaic. Comparatively speaking this
plate is the bank of photocells we have been discussing.

Actually the mosaic in an iconoscope is a very thin sheet of
mica covered with untold millions of caesium coated silver glob-

THE TELEVISION PICKUP TUBE 81

ules. While a mosaic looks to the naked eye like a solid sheet of
material it actually is composed of an amazing number of tiny
isolated pin points of caesium. If a bright light is thrown on any
group of these tiny globules they will react to the light thrown
on it by generating from their surfaces a tiny charge of electricity.
This phenomenon takes place because of the physical properties
of the caesium, and it is this action which makes electronic tele
vision possible. If the amount of light thrown on any individual
globule is weakened it generates less electricity. Thus two tiny
pin points (globules) on the mosaic will react— (generate elec
tricity) entirely independently of each other, depending on the
amount of light thrown on them. In our camera the iconoscope
is so placed that by means of a lens in the front of the camera
various degrees of light may be focused on the mosaic. We place
an object (let us take our T) in front of the lens in the camera.

Mosaic

Deflection coils
Diagram of Iconoscope

We paint it lighter than the wall in back of it and illuminate
the T and the wall behind it brightly. The lens now throws a
light T in a dark area on the mosaic in the iconoscope. Instantly
the tiny globules that are covered by the light form of the T gen
erate high charges of electricity while those outside that are re
ceiving the low light from the background behind and around
the T in the studio generate a smaller charge of electricity. So
we have for a moment varying degrees of electrical charges trapped
on our mosaic in the shape of a T. We now have the same result
that we had when we focused our T on the photocells in the first
experiment.

S2 HERE IS TELEVISION

Scanning

Naturally, we cannot have individual sets of wires leading
from each tiny globule; so the problem now is how to get the
picture, which is nothing but electrical charges on the mosaic,
changed into a visible image. To accomplish this we scan the
mosaic with an electron gun. This unique piece of apparatus
can best be understood if we visualize it as a nozzle on a garden
hose. The electron gun will play a fine stream of electrons over
any area desired if properly directed, much as one might direct
a fine stream of water from a hose nozzle over a given area in a
garden. So in the neck of our vacuum tube we install an electron
gun which is pointed at the mosaic. The stream of electrons from
the gun is as fine as is necessary for sharp receiver pictures, but
the area which it covers embraces many of the individual glob
ules on the mosaic. Now if we aim the gun at one tiny pin point,
the stream of electrons from the gun hits the globules in a very
small area and releases or neutralizes the amount of electricity
that was generated or stored in these globules and this tiny elec
tric impulse, thus released, is led off from the mosaic through a
wire to the outside of the tube. But there are thousands of such
groups of tiny globules, so we must swing our electron gun from
side to side and from top to bottom if we are to release the
electronic impulses stored in each tiny image point. Special
controls are placed in the neck of the tube which enable us to
swing the gun in a regular order from the top left-hand corner
of the mosaic straight cross it to the right-hand corner. Thus we
neutralize one complete line of image points, or rather the
charges on their globules, and the electrical charges they con
tained are in effect led off, one after another, as the electron
stream sweeps across them. It is obvious that we must sweep
across or scan each line that composes our picture so we change
our controls, move the gun back to the left-hand side, drop it to
the third line of the picture, and again move it to the right.
This procedure is continued until we have scanned every other
line on the mosaic from the left-hand upper corner to the lower
right corner. Now we swing the beam from the electron gun
back to the upper left-hand corner and scan the second line from

THE TELEVISION PICKUP TUBE

left to right. Then we move it down and to the left to the fourth
line and so on until all the lines in the picture have been
scanned.

The scanning of lines I, 3, 5, 7 etc. constitutes one field

The addition of lines 2, 4, 6. 8 etc completes one frame
THE ACTION OF THE SCANNING BEAM

This system of scanning lines 1, 3, 5, 7, and returning to
scan lines 2, 4, 6, 8, to complete the picture is known as the "odd-
line interlacing system" and is standard in American television
operations. The movement of the beam of electrons in the gun is
directed by means of specially designed electromagnets forming a
so-called "yoke" around the neck or stem of the tube. This yoke
is the electronic hand that swings the stream of electrons from
side to side and up and down. When we want the stream to move
up or down we put power into the vertical unit or coils of the
yoke and pull the beam up to the top, then the power in the
horizontal units or coils of the yoke causes the beam to swing to
the right. The "pulling power," so to speak, is a set of four
electromagnets, one to the left, one to the right, and the other
two above and below the stream of electrons. As stated, left- and
right-hand magnets pull the stream back and forth to the left or

84 HERE IS TELEVISION

right as the lower and upper magnets pull it down two lines (for
interlaced scanning). Thus, by supplying appropriate currents
to the coils in the yoke, we may move the beam as we choose.

Naturally the oftener we swing our scanning beam back and
forth in each picture, the narrower the picture lines and the more
picture detail we receive. In early television pictures the beam
scanned the mosaic 180 times per picture and produced our first
180-line picture. But detail was lacking. While 180 lines would
reproduce our "T" very nicely, line structure as coarse as this
failed to show the varying degrees of light and shade necessary
for a commercial television picture. So the thickness of the elec
tron beam was squeezed down until a stream of electrons fine
enough to scan the mosaic 525 times was developed. This is the
standard number of lines in television pictures in the United
States today.

We now have our scanning beam swinging across each line of
the picture and as it sweeps over each tiny group of globules the
tiny electric charge stored within them are released. These re
leased charges, minute electric impulses, pass off a conducting
coating in the back of the mosaic and through the feed wire in
exactly the same order in which they are released. Thus we have
the electric impulses that were formed by the image of our T all
in a single line flowing out of the iconoscope. Some of the im
pulses will be strong and some weak depending entirely on the
amount of light that brought them into existence. Now we send
this string of very low powered impulses into an amplifier which
builds up each impulse until it can be utilized as a motivating
force, but the amplification treats them all alike— they still retain
their relative strength.

Reconstructing a Picture

These amplified impulses are carried through a coaxial cable
to our control room, and here they are fed through additional
equipment which makes it possible to control these impulses and
to properly manipulate the overall result in such a manner as to
make the resulting picture readable. We will make no attempt
to explain the operation of all the electronic equipment that
makes the finished picture what it is, but we might mention the

THE TELEVISION PICKUP TUBE 85

synchronizing generator for it is the regulator of the whole opera
tion. It synchronizes the speed with which the electron gun in the
camera iconoscope scans the picture to the same action in the re
ceiver. Everything is necessarily interlocked. The picture we see
can only be obtained by this interlocking system. In fact the tim
ing of the scanning beam must be accurate to about one ten-
millionth of a second. Another function of the "sync" generator
is the blanking control. We have described the action of the
electron gun in scanning a picture and mentioned that the scan
ning beam returned to the left-hand side of the mosaic as it
finished one line to be in a position to scan the next line from
left to right. Each of these left-hand swings or returns must be
blanked out, for we must only see the result of the scanning beam
from left to right. As it returns as many times as it swings to the
right you can see that the blanking control must blank out the re
turn line 525 times in each frame. There are actually 527 blanks
in each complete scanning as the beam has to move from the
bottom back to the top of the mosaic at the completion of each
field or half picture.

The result of our scanning, synchronizing, and blanking is
seen as an electronic picture on an oscillograph. On this small
electronic vacuum tube the television signals appear as narrow
bright green lines on a black field. The curious wave forms which
they show are understandable in the main only by electronic en
gineers. As far as program builders are concerned, the oscillo
graph is the volume control of a radio control room and you can
ignore it with impunity. You can also forget electronic positions,
"front porches," contrast, keystoning, shading, sweep circuits,
pedestals, and levels. Leave them to the engineers. All you are
interested in is the finished picture which you will see in a mo
ment, for now the amplified impulses which were discharged by
the electron gun from the mosaic in the iconoscope are fed into
another electron gun in the base of another vacuum tube known
as the monitoring kinescope. This tube, which is funnel shaped,
is covered on the inside of its face with a flourescent material
which glows in proportion to the amount of electronic energy
sprayed on to it from the electron gun in its base. This electron
gun is controlled, moved up, across, down, and across line by line,

86 HERE IS TELEVISION

just as the electron gun in the iconoscope moved; so as the im
pulses strike this fluorescent material they activate it, make it
brighter or darker, in exactly the same shape and degree of light
and shade that was first established on the mosaic when the lens
in the camera threw the picture of the T on to the iconoscope.
Thus our stream of single line impulses are in effect shot on to
the face of the kinescope by an electron gun in the base of the
tube, line by line, and on our receiver we see the T that was
picked up by the camera in the studio.

Speed of Operation

And now comes the really wonderful part of this whole opera
tion—the speed with which it is accomplished. The scanning once
of every other line on the mosaic is known as a field, and two
fields, or the complete scanning of every line on the mosaic is
called a frame. The electron guns in both the pickup tube and
the receiver completely scan each frame in 1/30 of a second, so
that during each second of a television program we see 30 com
plete reproductions of the picture before the lens of the camera.
We see it as continual action of course, because of the persistence
of our vision. Human eyes cannot see breaks in a picture that do
not last for more than an approximate 1/18 of a second so with
our 30 pictures per second we have plenty of margin. The speed
of operation of most mechanical or electrical contrivances is meas
ured in revolutions per minute but in the iconoscope our only
measurement is in fractions of a second.

Actually the iconoscope operates so rapidly that it is almost
impossible for the lay mind to comprehend it. The beam from
the electron gun scans 525 lines 30 times a second. That is
15,750 lines per second. To scan each line takes three different
movements of the beam— across, down and back. This means that
the yoke coils act on the beam three times for each of the 15,750
lines which must be scanned each second. Thus we have over
47,000 electrical controls each second in a single television
picture!

If the physical size of your receiver is an 8 x 10-inch picture you
can figure the speed with which the beam swings across the face
of the tube. It figures out somewhere around 300 miles per min-

THE TELEVISION PICKUP TUBE

ute, or some 18,000 miles per hour. It is thus very easy to see why
mechanical television scanning was found impractical.

The Image Orthicon

So far our discussion has been only of the operation of the
iconoscope. We have previously mentioned the orthicon tube
and stressed its greater sensitivity, but this tube was but a step in
the development of the pickup tube we have today. Present cam-

The new RCA image orthicon camera and control equipment.

era tubes are almost unbelievably sensitive to light and it would
be foolish to attempt to foretell the advancements we will some
day see. Some of this new equipment has finally arrived.
During October, 1945 The Radio Corporation of America dem
onstrated the new "image orthicon" pickup tube. This camera
tube is the result of experiments conducted during the war. It
was this tube that was used by the Navy in the television bomb.
The camera, installed in the nose of a robot plane, enabled the
"pilot," who was in another plane far from the target, to see his
objective and to send the flying bomb, by remote control on its

HERE IS TELEVISION

deadly mission. Commercially the use of this tube opened up vast
new fields. The Navy Day dinner at the Waldorf Hotel in New
York, the first public use of this camera, was picked up with only
the normal room lighting. No spotlights nor auxiliary lighting of
any kind was added.

The pickup tube of RCA's image orthicon.

The greater sensitivity of this new development of the orthicon
is achieved by increasing the picture signal electronically within
the tube.

R.C.A. describes the new tube in this way. "A light image from
the subject (arrow at extreme left) is picked up by the camera
lens and focused on the light-sensitive face of the tube, releasing
electrons from each of thousands of tiny cells in proportion to
the intensity of the light striking it. These electrons are directed

THE TELEVISION PICKUP TUBE

on parallel courses from the back of the tube-face to the target,
from which each striking electron liberates several more, leaving
a pattern of proportionate positive charges on the front of the
target. When the back of the target is scanned by the beam from
the electron gun in the base of the tube, enough electrons are
deposited at each point to neutralize the positive charges, the rest

IMAGE SECTION

RCA IMAGE ORTHICON TUBE

SCANNING SECTION

MULTIPLIER SECTION

i r~

SENSITIVE

PHOTOELECTRIC

SURFACE

RON MULTIPLIER <— OUTPUT
SIGNAL

of the beam returning, as indicated, to a series of "electron mul
tiplier" stages or dynodes, surrounding the electron gun. After
the returning "signal" beam has been multiplied many times, the
signal is carried out of the tube to the television broadcast
transmitter."

The results attained are remarkable. A picture can be seen
from the light of one candle. The tube is said to be almost
a hundred times more sensitive than those used earlier. This
camera has changed many preconceived requirements for tele
vision operations. By one broadcast, it rendered all previously
used field pickup cameras obsolete. Its potentialities for studio
use were obvious. Over night, plans for future studios were
altered. Originally it lacked the definition possible in the icono
scope, but through electronic improvements it will ultimately
equal and surpass any results previously attained. Its low light
sensitivity saves thousands of dollars in studio equipment, for
the studio light level now drops from around 1200 foot candles

90 HERE IS TELEVISION

to about 300. It changes the basic operational requirements and
makes artistically lighted pictures possible.

The small size of the tube allows for much lighter cameras.
The target area in the tube is only about an inch and a quarter
in diameter and this feature permits the use of turret lenses.
Four different focal length lenses are mounted in a revolving
turret or head and that gives a director the equivalent of four
cameras, for a flip of the turret head brings a different focal
length lens into operation. If necessary, this can be done while
the camera is on the air. The greater sensitivity of the image
orthicon allows lenses to be stopped way down, which results in
much greater depth of focus. This camera is equipped with an
electronic view finder.

New Lenses

Another new development particularly advantageous to out
side operations is the Zoomar lens. This new camera accessory
may add a great deal to the flexibility of both television and mo
tion picture results. With it the camera can be made to appar
ently "zoom," that is, approach rapidly the subject matter being
viewed. At a boxing match, an overall shot of the ring was used
at the start of the program and then by manipulating the lens
and without a break in the picture the camera apparently moved
forward toward the ring until a sharp close-up of the contestants
was given to the television audience. The advantages of a lens
of this kind are obvious, and many costly installations for moving
cameras while on the air are eliminated.

The Picture

Regardless of the nature of our camera the electronic impulses
derived from it are handled in the same way between the point of
pickup and the transmitter. So the picture elements flying
through the coaxial cable are reassembled for a moment in the
control room. There, visible on the monitor screen, they are
properly shaded and adjusted electronically and then sent on to
the master control room. From there they go to the transmitter
where they are broadcast, together with the accompanying sound,
to the television homes of America.

10
THE TRANSMITTER

The television transmitter and receiver have been called a
"lock and key combination." The transmitter broadcasts the
electronic impulses that make up the television picture and your
home receiver picks them up and reproduces these impulses into
a visual image. The "lock and key" reference is apparent when
we realize that the transmitter and the receiver must be so ad
justed that they operate in perfect synchronization and are there
fore capable of working together exactly. The scanning beam in
your receiver must flow across your viewing scieen at the same
instant the beam in the camera picks up the picture in the studio,
for this instantaneous picture is received in your home— the mo
ment it is picked up, and this necessitates perfect adjustment and
similar electrical circuit operation in many steps.

In our last chapter we took our electronic signal from the
studio through the control room and sent it on to the transmitter.
Now comes the problem of broadcasting— spreading the picture
from the antenna in such a manner that it may be received in
your home. To understand this there are several basic points that
we must cover.

Broadcasting Channels

First, television is broadcast on very short wave lengths high
in the radio spectrum. This radio spectrum is an unstretchable
segment of usable space into which all radio, television, facsimile,
radar, and kindred services must be crowded. More technically
the radio spectrum is a mathematical scale of frequencies; that is
the number of times a second an electromagnetic wave vibrates
Starting at ten kilocycles, which means 10,000 vibrations a second
the scale goes upward from the long waves to short waves, ultra

92 HERE IS TELEVISION

shorts, and microwaves. At its lower end we find the long-wave
radio services: point to point, ship to shore, air route beacons,
S.O.S., and the standard radio broadcast band. Above these serv
ices come the short-wave broadcasting systems, and in the ultra-
short waves we find frequency modulation (F.M.) and television.
The top of our radio spectrum contains the microwaves which
eventually merge into infra-red light. That's all there is, there
isn't any more. Radio will not function usefully below ten kilo
cycles, and so far commercial use of the microwaves is nil. This
means that all types of radio services must be assigned operating
space within a given segment of the spectrum. The hope of the
future is that the millions of cycles in the very high frequencies
will some day be utilized— there seems to be plenty of space for
everything in the microwaves if electronic engineers can figure
out a way to use them, but right now our workable spectrum is
overcrowded.

In the medium wave standard broadcasting section of our
spectrum all the stations in the United States are handled within
1050 kilocycles. Approximately nine hundred radio stations oc
cupy about one million cycles. Television presents a new prob
lem; for each present-day television station requires six million
cycles to get the pictures and their accompanying sound from the
point of pickup to the receiver. One television station requires
roughly six times as much space in the spectrum as is occupied by
all the standard broadcasting stations in the United States.

There have been hours upon hours of study by the best brains
in the industry to determine just where in the spectrum television
belonged. Today our thirteen television channels run from 44 to
88 and from 174 to 216 megacycles. Some day television will un
doubtedly move on upward in the spectrum bringing us color
and better definition, but today we are about as high as man has
been able to make commercial television function. Experiments
in the microwaves have been made but, regardless of the frequen
cies eventually used, we must produce the programs that are to
be broadcast with cameras, lights, and people and while program
facilities may improve the basic problem will remain constant.

Naturally every television receiver must be keyed or responsive
to the wave frequency over which the picture is broadcast and to

THE TRANSMITTER

The CBS antenna in the Chrysler Building for Station WCBW is seen at the
top of the picture while in lower foreground the new ultra high frequency
antenna is visible. This site was used prior to CBS's move to the Empire
State Tower.

94 HERE IS TELEVISION

the correct number of lines and fields per second of the picture.
Before the war, channel number one was from 44 to 50 mega
cycles and some seven thousand receiving sets were manufactured.
Then all the television channels were moved up and channel
number one went from 50 to 56 megacycles. That meant that
every receiver had to be adjusted to correspond to the new
frequency. Originally television sound was broadcast on an
amplitude modulated wave— then it was changed to frequency
modulation and all the receivers were correspondingly shifted.
About this time the Radio Technical Planning Board was formed
to recommend to the Federal Communications Commission just
where in the spectrum television was to be, and to insure, among
other things, receivers being sold that would pick up the pro
grams as they were broadcast.

Today all that is behind us. Every good television receiver will
be capable of receiving the picture signal sent out by every sta
tion in any given community. Our commercial television fre
quencies today are as follows:

Frequency Band

Channel #1 - 44- 50 Megacycles

#2 - 54- 60 " "

#3 - 60- 66 " "

#4 66- 72 " "

#5 - 76- 82 " "

#6 -. 82- 88 " "

#7 - 174-180 " "

#8 - 180-186 " "

#9 - 186-192 " "

" #10 - 192-198 " "

" #11 - 198-204 " "

" #12 - 204-210 " "

" #13 - 210-216 " "

Far above these comparatively low frequencies the F.C.C. has
assigned space for other channels for television experimentation.
These upper channels are planned to be about 20 megacycles
wide, that is, over three times as wide as our present 6 million-
cycle channels. It is in these upper channels between 480 to 920

THE TRANSMITTER 95

megacycles (or perhaps on still higher frequencies above 5000
megacycles) that we will some day have television in full color
and perhaps in three dimensions. It is conceivably possible
(though not particularly likely) that they may add the sense of
smell. It has been suggested that program interest might be
heightened if bottles of various scents were incorporated in our
television receivers. When a forest scene was being transmitted—
from our receiver would come the scent of pine trees. A meadow
would bring us the smell of new-mown hay, a dank cellar more
unpleasant odors— while each star would have her own indi
vidual perfume. It's possible, but we are dealing now with actu
alities, so we will leave conjecture out of our discussion.

Sending the Picture Out

Let us go back to our master control room at the studio and
send our television picture, composed now of electronic currents,
on to the transmitter. To accomplish this we may use coaxial
cable or a radio relay.

In almost all of the television stations operating today we will
find our transmitter and antenna for both sight and sound some
where near our studios on the highest point available— be that
the top of a skyscraper or a mountain. In New York City— the
NBC transmitter is in the Empire State Building with the an
tenna on the very top of the structure 1300 feet above sea level.
It is about a mile from the studios in Radio City. The CBS
antenna was atop the Chrysler Building across the street from
their studios in Grand Central Station. DuMont's transmitter
and antenna were at 53rd Street some three or four miles from
their Wanamaker studios. At all these stations the picture is car
ried from the studios to the transmitter by coaxial cable, but
where the transmitter is situated some distance from the studio,
as is the case at the General Electric station in Schenectady
(where the studio is twelve and one half miles from the trans
mitter which is on a mountain top that overlooks the whole
countryside), the signal is sent from the studio to the transmitter
by radio link.

The coaxial cable previously mentioned is a specially devel
oped wire carrier of electric impulses. It was extensively de-

96 HERE IS TELEVISION

veloped by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company
and is capable of carrying the many segments that go to make up
the television picture as well as the sound without objectionable
loss of signal quality. It also provides a channel practically free
from outside interference. Through this cable the amplified
electric currents generated by the pickup tube in the studio cam
era flow at the frequency of about four million cycles per second
and are delivered to the transmitter in the same sequences and
relative strengths as they were sent out.

The other television carrier in wide use today that has been
developed by the radio industry is the relay link. This actually
is a low-powered transmitter which sends a directed signal to a
receiver, tuned to the particular frequency in use, and physically
aligned to receive directionally the output of the transmitter.
The signal so sent cannot be picked up by ordinary receivers in
the home as the frequency used is far removed from the one used
in broadcasting the picture to the public. The development of
point-to-point television transmission is the basis, either in con
junction with coaxial cable or by radio relay link for our televi
sion networks.

Once these signal currents from the studio master control room
are received at the transmitter, they are again monitored, ampli
fied and, together with the synchronizing impulses and accom
panying sound, broadcast to the television audience.

Action of Short Waves

Because both our picture and sound are broadcast at very high
frequencies, as compared to ordinary or standard A.M. sound
broadcasting, they do not behave in transmission as ordinary long
waves do. These high frequency waves, known as short waves,
tend to take on some of the characteristics of light waves in that
they travel in straight lines, and do not bend to any extent
around obstacles in their paths. Our signals go out from the an
tenna as light rays would do if a high powered beacon light were
installed on the top of the antenna tower.

In ordinary long wave broadcasting, the waves travel out into
space in all directions from the transmitter, and some portions of
them strike far overhead reflecting surfaces, known technically as

THE TRANSMITTER 97

"the Kennelly-Heaviside" layer and then return to the earth.
This action causes the waves emanating from a radio broadcast
ing transmitter to cover not only all the area in the immediately
surrounding territory but also, under certain conditions, to
bounce again from earth to sky to earth and to continue, if the
signal is strong enough and conditions are favorable, for thou
sands of miles. This was proven when a highly directional
short-wave signal was sent out from a given location and, after
it had gone clear around the world, it was received again at the
sending station.

Television Transmitter

^**^

The Earth

ACTION OF ULTRA-SHORT WAVES

The ultra-short waves used in television, acting more as light
waves do, fail to return to the earth by reflection as in longer-
wave radio, but proceed onward in straight lines out into space.
Consequently a television station's coverage is, for the most part,
that area lying within the line of sight of the top of the antenna
or as far as the horizon.

If we draw a circle on the earth's surface as seen on a clear day
from an elevation one thousand feet high its radius at sea level
would be roughly fifty miles. Thus a television station with a
thousand-foot antenna would have as its primary coverage area
all that territory within fifty miles of the transmitter. As can
readily be seen, the higher the antenna, the greater the coverage,
so that some day every hill or mountain top will probably be the
site of a television transmitter. Already mountain tops are being
reserved all over the country as possible locations, and the very
interesting suggestion has been made that transmitters of the
future be carried in planes flying high in the air. With a plane
circling over a given area at 30,000 feet the estimated coverage by

98 HERE IS TELEVISION

this so-called "Stratovision" should be a circle somewhere around
four hundred miles in diameter, that is, a radius of 200 miles
from the plane.

Because our signals have a tendency to travel in straight lines
similar to light it is not unusual to expect them to have other
characteristics in common with these waves, and they do. They
may be reflected. Just as a mirror or any other smooth surface
reflects light, large solid areas will bounce or reflect our televi
sion signal. In an early demonstration in Washington, D.C. our
mobile unit transmitter was installed at a street corner for a dem
onstration in the capital city. The test was OK and we were all
set for the show but the next day when we turned on our re
ceivers—there were two pictures where there should have been
only one. The following few minutes were unhappy ones for
everyone concerned. "What has happened?" was the question on
everyone's lips. "It was all right yesterday." Then a phone call
was made to the engineer in charge of the mobile unit trans
mitter. "Is your transmitter truck just where it was yesterday?"
"Yeah— about." "About what?" "Oh, I guess we are twenty feet
further from the cross street than we were yesterday." "Well— put
the truck just as close to the spot you were in yesterday as you
humanly can." "Woof," which is the radio-television engineer's
equivalent of "OK— Will do— Goodbye." In a few minutes our
picture cleared and everything was as it should be. What had
happened was this— when the transmitter was twenty feet back of
its original location, the picture signal came direct to the receiver
and another signal from the side away from the receiver hit a
building fifty feet away and reflected back to the receiver another
almost perfect picture just out of line with the first. When the
truck pulled up past the end of the building, the signal on the
side away from the receiver went blissfully down the street and
bothered us no more. In television one good picture signal is fine
but two are awful.

This principle sometimes makes it possible to receive a good
picture when the receiver is not in a line of sight relation with
the transmitter. A receiver behind a hill for instance may still
get a picture if there is a reflecting surface for the signal to hit.
The signal travels from the transmitter to the reflector and

THE TRANSMITTER

bounces back to the receiver. This same principal may cause re
ception trouble in large cities, for the signal may bounce off many
buildings, and all of them may come flying into your receiver;
but proper installation of your receiving antenna will overcome
this. In outlying neighborhoods, the elimination of this "ghost

Truck First Day

Receiving Antenna

Truck Second Day

EXAMPLE OF REFLECTED PICTURE SIGNAL

Building Wall

image" is a much simpler problem and the suburban viewer may
for the most part forget it. Diathermy machines, automobiles
without ignition interference eliminators, and direction finding
equipment from airplanes do not help the television picture, but
they will all be controlled before our technical experts get
through.

Unusual Results

Now, while our television picture should go only to the horizon
and then on out into space, some very interesting things actually
happen. With the antenna one thousand feet high the average
coverage is, as already mentioned, about fifty miles from the

100 HERE IS TELEVISION

transmitter, but in many instances good pictures have been
received up to approximately one hundred miles. On rare occa
sions television signals have been seen from locations many times
that distance. When the British Broadcasting Corporation first
began television broadcasting from London, reports came out
that the picture had been received in South Africa. In answer to
the query "How could it?" a very competent engineer replied "It
probably isn't true." Then one day, some time later it was an
nounced that motion pictures, taken off a television receiver
screen, of a broadcast in London received on Long Island, New
York, would be shown. Again came the question "How could
they get London in Long Island?" Again a cryptic, "They prob
ably didn't." Tests made then in taking motion pictures of a
television receiver screen had not been commercially practical—
but readable visual records had been made and when the
16 m.m. projector started rolling— there was the BBC television
picture. It was not good. The leading man and leading lady
were indistinct and fuzzy but the British call letters were read
able. Only recently, a New York television director asserted that
he received a long distance telephone call from a televiewer in
Indianapolis telling him how much he was enjoying the program.
It was still going on and the set owner in Indiana described over
the phone what he was seeing as it was being broadcast in New
York at that moment.

All of this sums up to the fact that we do not begin to know
yet what we may eventually accomplish in the way of long
distance television transmissions and very few men know why
these freak receptions occur. They apparently only happen at
infrequent intervals. We know that radio waves hit the overhead
Kennelly-Heaviside and bounce back to the earth. Perhaps the
television waves are hitting a higher or lower reflecting layer, the
troposphere, the ionosphere, or maybe more fancifully the moon
itself is reflecting our picture. Choose your own layer or planet;
but somehow, under certain conditions, the occasional range of a
television transmitter is far beyond anything we believe practical
today.

And in the face of all the theoretical television knowledge and
principles, we saw for quite a while a demonstration to prove

THE TRANSMITTER

101

that we do not know the possibilities of this wonderful medium.
Before the war General Electric was experimenting with a receiv
ing station on the top of the Helderberg Mountains in New York
State. The receiver was 129 miles from New York City and even
though it was atop a high mountain it was far below the horizon
with relation to the NBC transmitter in New York. But there
was the NBC television picture— clear and true; so they relayed
it on to their own transmitter just out of Schenectady and then
rebroadcast it to the Albany, Schenectady, Troy area. Thus the
first television network was born.

THE NEW YORK-SCHENECTADY RELAY LINK

THE TELEVISION RECEIVER

The one television instrument that the general public will be
most familiar with is, of course, the receiver. This is the viewing
screen that brings to our living room everything that takes place
in the world about us; and it is only natural that we will want a
good picture.

Through experiments over the past ten years it has been proven
that good television pictures can be seen in the homes of America.
These experiments have included work on the size of the picture,
the line structure and the overall clarity. The final result is that
we have a picture available in our home that is comparable in
general to a 16 m.m. moving picture.

The detail we see in a television picture is dependent for the
most part on the fineness of the line structure. The more lines
we have, (that is, the more times the scanning beam swings across
the mosaic per picture), the better definition we attain.

Early experiments were first seen on a 180-line picture. It was
immediately evident that a television picture composed of so few
lines did not contain enough detail to satisfy the viewing audi
ence and experiments were immediately launched to increase the
line structure. Another reason for increased lineage was the ne
cessity of enlarging the early small receiving tubes that were only
about eight inches in diameter in the early sets.

As we increase picture size the line structure composing it is
spread and the lines become visible unless a sufficient number are
used. This is plainly evident in ordinary photographic enlarge
ments. The original negative must be of a very fine grain or as
the size of the picture is increased we see the component parts.
So from 180 lines in the early television pictures the number of
lines was increased to 343 in 1936, then further to 44 1, and fi-

102

THE TELEVISION RECEIVER 103

nally today it is held by the F.C.C. regulations at 525. When we
consider the size of the picture seen on an average television re
ceiver, the detail in picture structure is evident. The smaller the
picture the more closely compressed are the lines and conse
quently picture detail. The 525-line composition allows for good
pictures from as small as a manufacturer cares to go to a pro
jected picture almost twenty-four inches in width, or even larger
on special projection equipment.

Further developments may some day increase the line structure
in a television picture, but that our present standards are ade
quate to start this new industry was demonstrated when a 441-
line picture was projected on a motion-picture screen, in a
theater television demonstration to a twenty by fifteen foot size,
with more than satisfactory results.

I
The Receiving Antenna

In our previous chapter, we sent our television picture out into
space, wave after wave, and now we must recapture it and repro
duce the picture in our home. To do this we mount our receiv
ing antenna on as high a location as we can find on or adjacent
to our homes. Most early television antennas consisted of two
metal rods mounted on either side and at right angles to a sup
porting mast. This type is known as a simple dipole antenna.
The television signal is sent out on a so-called horizontally
polarized wave and, consequently, it must be trapped with a re
ceiving antenna parallel to the earth. Because the television
signal is broadcast on a short wave length, the total antenna or
dipole is not longer in physical length than i/£ of the longest
wave sent out by any television station. The length of each metal
rod to bring in channel No. 1 is about 63 inches (about 1.6
meter). As all the other channels are shorter in wave length
(higher in frequency) our 10i/£ foot (about 3.2 meter) dipole
(true metal rods 68 inches long) will capture all of them fairly
well. Our antenna, when first erected is rotated on its supporting
mast until the maximum signal from all the stations in the area
is received on our receiving set. If all the stations in a given
locality are in the same general direction from your home there
is no particular problem in "tuning," properly lining up, your

104 HERE IS TELEVISION

aerial, but if you are in between two or three stations you may
have to install a different type antenna or a group of antennas,
one for each station. The best picture is received when the dipole
is at a right angle to the direction of the signal from the station.

Improper placement may result in ghost images for as already
described, the signal can and will bounce. If you run into ghosts,
you may be in for trouble. Reflector-type antennas will help, and
special shielding devices can be and have been devised, but ghosts
are not general unless you live downtown in a large city and are
unable to get a line-of-sight location for your antenna. If
this happens your fate rests in the hands of a good television
installation engineer.

We will probably see multiple set antennas erected on apart
ment buildings and hotels in metropolitan areas. These specially
built aerials and amplifiers will furnish the picture to all the
receiving sets in the building.

From the antenna our picture signals are led down to our re
ceiver by means of a transmission line which is shielded from out
side electronic interference. There has been considerable experi
mentation in various types of conductor wiring and any service
man knows the answer to your particular problem. If the dis
tance from the antenna to the receiver is of any considerable
length the "lead in" wire should be properly shielded to pre
vent unwanted interference.

Types of Receivers

There are two basic types of television receivers, those in which
the picture is seen on the end of a vacuum tube (direct-vision re
ceivers) and the so-called projection-tube type, where the enlarged
picture is projected on to a translucent screen.

The first type was developed and was in use long before any
satisfactory projection type was found commercially practical.
In receivers of this kind the size of the picture depends entirely
on the size of the tube as the picture is seen on the end of the
tube itself. This tube or "kinescope" as it is called is a funnel-
shaped glass vacuum tube. It was described in our chapter on
the pickup tube. In its operation in the control room it was fed
by wire from the studio, but at home the action is just the same

THE TELEVISION RECEIVER

105

except that now the electron gun is controlled by the synchro
nizing impulses sent out from the transmitter at the same time it
sends the signals through the air. Thus the electron stream in the
kinescope in the set at home moves right across the face of the
tube, back and down and across again, line by line, at exactly the
same moment the beam in the studio scans the picture miles
away.

Electromagnetic coils

Luminescent screen

KINESCOPE TUBE USED TO REPRODUCE THE TELEVISION

PICTURE

Left— An early RCA kinescope. The picture is seen on the face of the tube.
Right— The electrical connections in the chassis of a television receiver.

The television audience will probably have many types of re
ceivers to choose from, and the price will be in direct proportion
to the size of the picture. We may have our choice from a small
direct viewing tube with a five-inch picture to a projection type
job with a picture somewhere around two by three feet.

106 HERE IS TELEVISION

The size of the picture is a subject that has been discussed at
length, and obviously there are many opinions. Before the war
the largest picture available commercially was about 12x16
inches and only a few of these sets were manufactured. The ma
jority produced a picture about seven by ten inches. The vast
majority of potential purchasers wanted a television picture as
big as a 16-m.m. movie screen, but very few of those who de
manded a picture of this size had sets in operation in their homes.
Actually the size of the screen you should choose depends entirely
on how you plan to use your receiver. Before the war we had no
choice, but prospective purchasers now have their choice of pic
tures from 6x8 inches to 18x24, and even larger. If you are
planning to install your receiver in a large room where it is to be
viewed by a fairly good-sized group, obviously, you want a large
picture. It was under condition such as these that the early
criticisms of picture size originated. But it is a law of optics that
the larger the size of a picture you are looking at— the further
away you must be, to view it properly. There is always a best
spot to view any picture— be it an illustration in a magazine or a
painting in the Metropolitan Museum. A viewer should be at
least five times the height of the picture from the viewing screen
and could be ten times or more and still see well.

In the early days of television everyone wanted to see this new
medium and sets were few. Hundreds crowded around a seven-
by-ten inch receiver. The majority were disappointed. But in the
home a picture of this size was adequate. One consistent viewer
remarked, "Our receiver has been in a room about 10x12 feet
in size— if we buy a receiver that delivers a larger-sized picture
our set must move from the den to the living room. We are not
so sure we want it there." Few wives are anxious to turn their
living rooms into motion-picture theaters. But the choice will
rest with the buying public— if they want large pictures, they will
be available, but they will probably be relatively expensive.
Good definition is possible in very small pictures and our arm
chair sets— designed for one person only— may be one answer to
the low priced set.

THE TELEVISION RECEIVER 107

A Vacuum and a Law of Physics

One of the limiting factors in picture size in the early experi
mental stage that still governs manufacture today is the law of
physics, that a vacuum enclosure must resist a pressure of 14 Ibs.
to the square inch, which is the normal pressure at the air around
us. This means that the bigger the receiving tube, which is a
vacuum tube, the more force on the face of the tube from outside
atmosphere or normal air pressure. In Germany they experi
mented with a vacuum tube 26 inches across the face. They said
that they had made a dozen and the other eleven had collapsed.
Also to resist the air pressure it was necessary in pre-war tubes to
curve the face of the tube slightly and because of this curvature
the picture was always fuzzy at the edges.

Today flat-faced tubes have been developed that produce a
much better picture and the development of plastic lenses has
made projection tube receivers possible. In a projection set, a
small tube which functions exactly the same as the larger receiv
ing tubes but which is high-powered for the picture brilliance
throws its picture reflected from a spherical mirror and passing
through a transparent corrector plate on to a translucent viewing
screen.

The smaller sized tube, as compared to the large kinescopes
and the development of a cheap practical plastic corrector plate
have reduced the potential price of these sets immensely. In most
of the sets that have been designed so far the viewing screen is
attached to and is a part of the receiver; but sets have been de
signed where the tube and optical projection system would be
used similarly to those in a motion-picture projector with the
picture thrown on the wall or a detached screen.

Today on almost all television receivers you will find various
sound and picture controls: a station selector that allows you to
choose the station you want to see, a control for fine tuning, a
brightness control which gives you a choice in the amount of pic
ture signal you desire, a contrast control to vary the relative
brightnesses of black and white in the picture, a sound volume
control, and, on some sets, a focusing knob.

Other knobs allow you to control the vertical and horizontal

108

HERE IS TELEVISION

Aspherical
Correcting /
Lens /

Kinescope /

(Receiving /
Tube)9/

Spherical Mirror
HOW LARGE-SCREEN TELEVISION WORKS

THE TELEVISION RECEIVER

109

size of your picture and also to control its position on the face of
the tube (but once these are set you can usually forget them). In
spite of all the controls, sets are very simple to operate. We will
probably find in many receivers television, frequency modulation,
and broadwave radio combinations while other sets will contain
only television receivers with no other service included. Natu
rally these will be the cheaper sets.

Dr. Zworkin with two types of direct viewing receivers.

110

HERE IS TELEVISION

In all probability many new wonders will be incorporated into
this medium but they are developments of the future. If a better
picture can eventually be transmitted in the higher frequencies,
stations will broadcast at very little additional cost on both the
low and high channels. This means that anyone who buys a tele-

An early RCA projection receiver.

vision receiver today is certain to get his money's worth. Of
course new and better models will be developed, but in the mean
time the home viewer will have thousands of hours of enjoyable
entertainment; and when color comes he can put the old receiver
upstairs in the bedroom and install the new one in the living
room. Many sets in operation today have been in use for almost
ten years. We don't ask that of automobiles so we know we will
get our investment out of our television receiver.

Part Two
TELEVISION PROGRAMS

Du Mont's Wanamaker studio from the gallery which is open to the public.
The picture being broadcast is seen on the receivers in the upper part of the
picture.

The new Du Mont Wanamaker studios from the rear of the control room.
The five-screen viewing system is seen in the center of the picture with three
studio sets in the background.

12
PROGRAMS IN GENERAL

So far we have been investigating the physical equipment that
makes television possible, now let us turn our attention to the
subject matter that we will put on our transmitter. It is obvious
that when a would-be televiewer purchases a receiving set he is
more interested in the programs he will see than he is in the set
itself. The purchaser of a television receiver buys program serv
ice and the successful operation of a station will depend on a
good electronic picture and the programs that emanate from that
station.

Just what comprises a good television program is a formula
that will probably be heatedly discussed for many years to come.
The real answer is that probably everything under the sun has
its place in a television program schedule if it is properly pre
sented. There is nothing hidebound about this new medium. It
takes in its stride entertainment from every existing source. It
embraces the simplest parlor game to the peak of metropolitan
theatrical production. The race track or the baseball diamond
has no terrors for this new means of communication. Hollywood
and its huge resources could only begin to supply a part of the
vast number of hours of television program units that will be
necessary to fill our schedules. With television we see and hear
and thus we can intelligently transmit every single thought so far
developed by the mind of man. While radio could talk, the old
axiom "that a picture is worth ten thousand words," makes tele
vision infinitely more flexible.

But whether or not the television audience of the future looks
and listens to the things we put on their receiving sets depends on
what we include in our schedule and how we present it. In the
early days of program experimentation no one knew what would
or would not be good television fare. In our early quest for suit
able program material the answer to the query "Do you think

113

114

HERE IS TELEVISION

this will be good television?" was always "Try it and see." We
still are a long way from knowing the final answer. We have
tested many hours of material. We have found the obvious things
but we haven't begun to approach the ultimate that may yet be
accomplished. So far only a comparative few have concentrated

Studio operations at NBC in 1937. The plain scenery and early lights are
worthy of note.

on developing television programs. No one can know what will
eventually be learned and probably ways and means will be de
vised to make possible the use of hundreds of ideas that today
seem unsuitable. The ultimate success or failure of television is
going to depend entirely on the program content available to the
viewer in his home.

What Are We Going To See?

The wonder of television passes quickly. A new owner accepts

PROGRAMS IN GENERAL 115

the medium from an electronic standpoint overnight and then
sits back and demands to be entertained. This challenge is one
that the television program builders must accept and it cannot be
passed off lightly. While television has the tremendous advan
tage of bringing the world visually into a home, it is not going to
be received by everyone with wholehearted approval; for it must
meet immediately opposition that has been built up through the
years and is an accepted part of our everyday life. Every televi
sion viewer will decide for himself just how he will spend his
evenings. If television hopes to claim the major part of his spare
time it must give him more pleasure than he can obtain in any
other way. If we stop to analyze this we find it is a pretty big
order.

Television in the home is in active competition with every
thing that goes to make up the happiness of the American family
as we know it today. If television is to compete successfully with
other forms of entertainment and information— and it will— the
average man and woman must give up a certain amount of time
formerly devoted to bridge, magazines, books, the radio, automo
bile rides, and the moving picture theater. No one today sits
around home in the evening doing nothing. On the contrary
every American today can have plenty of amusement every eve
ning of every day; and now we suddenly offer a new form of
communication which he can only find time to watch if he gives
up something that he has been doing for a long time. Television
can not find an audience and hold it unless the programs it offers
are more interesting than anything else our televiewer may find
to interest him.

Production Technique

This new medium offers another challenge to producers, for
as yet no method of presentation has been evolved that is artisti
cally new and unique. So far, everything that has been broadcast
has already existed as entertainment subject matter in some other
field. It has been seen in the legitimate theater, on the movie
screen, or in the world of sports.

Television program procedure so far has been to adapt to tele-

116 HERE IS TELEVISION

vision a form of entertainment that was already enjoyed in some
other medium. That, in itself, is fairly simple; but television
holds pitfalls as well as advantages and while the basic dramatic
values are the same in any medium how they can best be brought
out on the television screen presents problems unknown to the
stage or to Hollywood. While we are thinking along these lines
we may find the answer in the reactions of the television audi
ence. Can we present situations, facts, data over our television
transmitter in a way that has not been tried in some other visual
medium? Television has an intimate approach that nothing else
we know of today possesses.

Audience Reactions

The biggest single factor in audience reactions is that televi
sion programs are seen in relatively small groups, usually by one
or two people at a receiver in the home, at the most by ten or a
dozen. Every other form of visual entertainment has been
planned for consumption by a large audience, the bigger the
better. It has been built to take advantage of the contagious
reactions of the members of the audience. A man or woman
laughs— other members of the audience catch his mood and the
whole house is soon reacting not only to the actors but to the
other members of the audience. Every actor knows that one or
two people who are "with him" in the audience can do more to
make him a success than all the clever lines in the world. Radio
faced the same problem and quickly solved it by inviting big
audiences to every broadcast, and in some cases television has
done the same thing in an effort to put comedy across. If no one
laughs at the comedians, the act is a failure; so we may see all
our television comedy programs broadcast from large theaters
with big audiences. But is that the answer? Perhaps— but in that
case we are merely "looking in" at home while other people
enjoy a live show. Such a procedure does not seem to be the solu
tion. We must devise a way to produce intimate television pro
ductions for the family in the home or they may go out to the
television theater or the movies.

None of these questions has been answered in the short time

PROGRAMS IN GENER4L 117

that television has been trying to make itself seen— they can only
be answered in the future. Perhaps television is only a new means
of communication, a medium for seeing what the other fellow is
doing, and if it is only that, it need make apologies to no one. In
line with this thinking we might do well to consider that there
are two basic schools of thought regarding all types of television
programs. Should they be basically built for sound or picture
values? Should the approach for afternoon programs differ from
evening programs or should it depend entirely on the subject
matter of the program?

In a motion picture theater if you were to close your eyes you
would not be able to follow intelligently the story being told by
the majority of the films shown today. Hollywood has resorted
almost entirely to a presentation technique in which the picture
must be seen to be understood. Almost all of the good television
programs being produced today have followed this same line of
production. But there are those who maintain that good televi
sion programs can be delivered by merely turning a camera on a
radio show. They point out the great interest that people have in
seeing present-day radio broadcasts and they maintain that elab
orate visual productions are unnecessary. They also argue that
the cost of a completely pictorial production, if made according
to Hollywood standards is prohibitive. And then there is the all
important question of how the American housewife can find time
to drop everything else and look at television all day.

It seems thoroughly practical to assume that some leaning to
ward radio technique may be perfectly practical in television.
Sound may justifiably become more important and may be used
more extensively in television than in motion pictures, but there
is a limit as to how far we can go. In one experiment a series of
dramatic radio programs were presented. Complete radio pro
cedure was adhered to. We saw the announcer and the cast
huddled around a radio microphone with their scripts in their
hands. We saw them all reading their various parts and the re
sults were highly unfavorable. All the dramatic suspense of the
program that would have been very effective if sound alone had
been used, was completely destroyed by the visual presentation.
People are anxious to see a radio program produced to see their

118 HERE IS TELEVISION

favorite stars in person and to see at first hand "what makes the
wheels go round," but on a dramatic program in particular the
emotional values reached in the home are never equaled in the
studio.

On the other hand, if our radio daytime dramatic programs
were presented by television in simple sets the story could be
carried virtually by sound alone. Naturally the actors would have
to learn their lines and dress the parts but a listener-viewer could
follow the story just as they do today through the spoken word
plus the opportunity of looking up at the television picture when
ever they desired to see how new characters looked and again
when visual values were built up. In this way the dramatic radio
program would develop a new and larger audience and still not
disrupt the lives of Mr. and Mrs. America any more than the
radio does today. The more a producer relies on sound to carry
his story— the more he can reduce his production costs and intel
ligent handling of sound may develop a very interesting, fairly
economic television program. On the other hand, there are those
who say that television is merely a new way of presenting a new
kind of motion picture. But no matter how we theorize, televi
sion is a visual medium. Television pictures are "moving pic
tures," whether they originate in a studio, out of doors, or from
film. The visual approach is the important thing to consider in
every program we produce. Now we can see through the air and
we must give our audience something to look at.

With this obligation in mind let us consider some of the pro
gram elements that we may choose for broadcasting on our tele
vision station. At this time the subject can not be completely
developed. It probably will not be twenty years from now, for
new developments in the world about us will profoundly influ
ence the programs we transmit. Even so the basic fundamentals
of television programs will remain constant, for the same objec
tive that influenced the producers of the Greek Drama, helps
directors today to make decisions in Hollywood. Tomorrow's
programs will be better but they still must make their audience
laugh and cry and above all they must make their television
audience willing to give up some other amusement to watch the
transient shadows on their television receiver.

13
INTERVIEWS

The simplest form of live television programs and those that
have been seen the most are interviews. It is obviously the easiest
type of program to produce, as two people are placed before a
camera in a fixed position and the quality of entertainment de
pends entirely on what is said. This formula is pure radio. It
is true that we see the people doing the talking but aside from
that, the information that is conveyed to the audience could
have been handled just as well by sound alone. We are natu
rally visually inquisitive, however, and because of this an inter
view type of program does have its place.

Interviews on television are good or bad depending entirely
on three factors: first, the personality and appearance of the in
terviewers; second, the personality and appearance of the inter
viewee, and third, the subject matter of the interview. You need
all three factors to make a perfect program and the attempt had
better be stopped if you haven't at least two of them.

The main object of a program of this type is to bring out the
personality of the person being interviewed, and this is accom
plished for the most part by the questions asked and the general
format of the interview. On early mobile unit programs we used
to set up a camera on a street corner in New York City and select
people out of a crowd at random. The results in general were
very good for we put people on the air in this way who had never
seen television, who were typical of the man on the street; and
we were able to get their views on subjects that were in the pub
lic mind at that time. A good interviewer could bring out points
that he felt might be interesting but he constantly faced the
danger of having program interest drop. This could happen al
most without his knowledge, as it is quite possible for a tele-

119

120 HERE IS TELEVISION

vision subject to be interesting in person and dull on the receiver.
This was a responsibility of the director in the mobile unit
control room. When a subject was exhausted or the person inter
viewed lost interest he immediately signaled the interviewer to
discontinue the discussion. A good television interviewer used
plenty of tact, among other things, and those being interviewed
were always found to be cooperative.

An operation of this kind can be handled best if two inter
viewers work together on one program. Thus while one man is
on the air— the other can be lining up the next interview. Two
interviewers of course are only necessary on a fully unrehearsed
program. When the people to be interviewed are lined up in
advance of the broadcast one interviewer and a program man
connected to the control room by telephone can do the job well.
The production problems are simple. Necessary stage directions,
if needed, can be given by the interviewer while they are on the
air. References to microphone and camera are not out of line
in an impromptu program if it is obvious to the audience that
the person being interviewed has never before faced a television
camera. This is especially true of the "vox pop" type of program
on a street corner or other public place. In general, references
to lights, cameras, and "mikes" are much better omitted. Much
too much of this has been done. While the newness of television
may overwhelm the novice, the constant reference to the mechan
ics of operation by experienced masters of ceremony is more than
boring to an audience who has heard this far too many times.
Many program builders believe that the main appeal of television
is informality, but when we talk on a telephone we do not con
stantly refer to the receiver in our hand. Informality in television
programs should come from the flow and apparent ease of presen
tation rather than from operational references.

Prepared Programs

Rehearsed interviews, or those taking place in a studio, imme
diately terminate many of the hazards of the outdoor pickup.
First, the subject matter has been discussed in advance and the
person being interviewed has had an opportunity to see the
cameras and lights. Microphone movements and camera shots

INTERVIEWS , 121

can be planned at rehearsal, but even so the majority oi inter
views seem stilted and static. No one so far has taken advantage
of the pictorial possibilities of television in handling interviews.
Just how this can best be accomplished is a real problem— but
two people sitting in one spot talking is not good television. It
w good radio and in that medium it has to be done that way, for
broadcasters are limited in their physical movements to a close
proximity to the microphone. But on television we have free
dom of movement and this can and should be utilized to increase
the picture value of the program. Not that an interview would
be improved by having the two parties running madly around
the studio, but if normal movement fits in with the general
scheme, it should be made.

Announcers

In all probability the majority of people who are to be inter
viewed on television will be questioned by the station announcer,
and on this person falls a very heavy responsibility. The tele
vision announcer faces one of the hardest jobs that will ever
develop in this new industry, for he must be welcomed in every
home, not once but many, many times. If every time a television
set is tuned on the audience sees a personality that they do not
like, it is perfectly obvious that the viewer will turn to another
station. The necessary requirements of a good announcer are
many and who to select is a much more serious problem than one
might think. First, should our announcer be a man or a woman?
We will probably have both but in some respects the women
have a decided advantage. For a long time to come we will want
close ups in television. Regardless of the size our viewing screens
eventually reach we will always have small ones (actually a very
interesting television picture is possible as small as 3x4 inches
in size) and we are going to have individual receivers on the arm
of our chairs at home, on trains and in aeroplanes. Television is
an intimate medium so of course we want to see the face of our
announcer as well as we can and in general a pretty girl looks
better in close up than a man. She has the advantage of present
ing a pleasing picture to the audience while the majority of men
are far more attractive in a medium shot than in close up. If

122 HERE IS TELEVISION

coupled with the fundamental requirements of a beautiful tele
vision picture a girl has poise, charm, and personality she has
nine tenths of the jury in her favor. She cannot be "beautiful
but dumb." The requirements of the job will demand correct
decisions at a moment's notice, tact, good voice, diction, sound
judgment, and plain ordinary television horse sense. The girl
who gets the job must have enough of all these qualifications to
make the majority of television viewers want to see her as many
times as they will have to in the course of a week's broadcast.
This means that some tested few will be very much in demand.
The experienced television announcer of the future will find an
attractive salary and a big audience waiting for her.

Now let's look at the male side of the picture. With all due
respect to the abilities of the many successful radio announcers
whose voices come into our homes today, the majority face a
problem in television that they did not have to contend with in
radio. They must be photogenic. Their physical appearance
must be such that the majority of viewers will want to look at
them. There is no implied suggestion that all television an
nouncers must be prize winning beauties but they must be "good
to look at." Their requirements from the point of view of ability
are the same as the women: good personality, voice, and diction.
In this respect the majority of men have a slight advantage over
the women as a man's voice is usually more pleasing on radio.
And now comes the all important question which will finally
settle the sex of the announcer. Who are we playing to in tele
vision, the husband or the wife? Of course we are playing to both
but it is doubtful that many men look at programs that their
wives don't want to see and usually, in the long run, women
would rather look at attractive men than at other women. So it
doesn't seem that the girls are going to walk away with all the
television announcing jobs. There will be plenty for the men.
No one can say at this time what the future will bring to tele
vision announcers. So far there is no set rule as to how they will
be used. Every station operating today has its own ideas on the
subject and is acting accordingly.

The FCC regulations demand that station call letters be given
visually and orally. Consequently we never see the announcer

INTERVIEWS 123

when call letters are given. We see the station call letters on a
slide and hear the same information given by an "off camera"
voice. On some stations we never see the station announcer at
any time. Program titles are presented visually, usually over mu
sic, as is done in moving pictures. If a voice is necessary, they
again use the Hollywood technique where we hear but do not
see him.

Stations have regular announcers on their staff, and some used
attractive young women, who opened and closed every broad
casting session. This procedure has a value and was used by
BBC in London before the war. The only criticism is the con
stant repetition. Other stations have used men as regular an
nouncers while individual programs use men and women as
announcers or masters of ceremonies. The chief fault is the over
use of announcers. On one program the station announcer in
troduces the program announcer who in turn introduces the mas
ter of ceremony. Why stop there or do we need them at all?
Operational experience will answer the question in the near
future.

Television announcers, be they men or women, will be much
more important to the audience than the radio announcer as
we know him today. They will have a much more personal con
tact. A very interesting experience that proves this point was
unconsciously enacted by a young lady who had seen a lot of tele
vision and suddenly came face to face with Ray Forrest. Ray
had done an exceptionally fine job as a television announcer for
NBC and had come into the young lady's home via television
almost every night for a year. On seeing Ray in person she
turned toward him impulsively and said "Why, Mr. Forrest, how
are you?" Ray never having seen the lady before in his life
turned to her with a polite but completely baffled expression.
The lady gasped and said, "Oh please forgive me. I've seen you
so close so many times I felt that I knew you. I just forgot that
you didn't know me as well as I know you."

The Master of Ceremony

Everything that is important and true of a television announcer
is just as vital in a television master of ceremonies. This field

124 HERE IS TELEVISION

is going to be one of the most difficult to cover. In any public
gathering that is handled by a master of ceremonies or a media
tor, that person, by the very nature of the proceedings, monopo
lizes more of the elapsed time of the meeting or program than
any other one person present. He introduces each speaker and
carriers the load of motivating the proceedings. In the flesh we
may or may not look at the master of ceremonies while he is
talking— at least we make the decision. If we don't like him we
try and forget him and feast our eyes on something or someone
more attractive. In television we face a different problem. It can
be helped to a great extent by judicial use of the camera but it
is only human and sensible to pick up the principal actor at the
moment he is talking with the result that the master of cere
monies appears to be "hogging the camera," talking too much
and otherwise monopolizing the spot light. Heaven help the
master of ceremonies who gets to the place where the audience
has had enough of him! A perfect television master of ceremonies
should always be at his ease, always know the right answer, al
ways be ready to pull a show out of the doldrums, and always
make the audience want more of him as he builds up and gives
way to the guest artists on his program. It is quite a tall order.
The best friend of the master of ceremonies will be the tele
vision director. He must know when the audience has had too
much of a given personality and deliberately switch his cam
eras to other people or points of interest. In doing this he
risks being accused of attempting to submerge the master of cere
monies or of simply doing a bad job of directing. To prevent
this possible criticism of himself, the average director turns the
cameras on the master of ceremonies every time he speaks, with
the muttered imprecation— "You'd better be funny." In any event
and with the best of camera work, the television master of cere
monies faces many tough problems. It may well be that "name"
personalities, men and women who have qualified as stars on the
stage, radio, and in pictures will, because of their very importance
in their profession, take the television camera in their stride; but
even they must realize that television is an intimate medium and
unless they are visually interesting at close range, they too will
face problems.

INTERVIEWS 125

Many series of successful interviews have already found their
place on television, but the popularity of these programs has
depended entirely on the personality and visual interest of the
individual. An interview spot on an afternoon program was
interesting when famous names were brought before the tele
vision camera. Favorable results were achieved in England, with
the same idea. The television audience was interested in "see
ing" in their home personalities and celebrities with national
reputations, but in many cases the interviews suffered from lack
of "visual thinking" in planning the programs.

On a series of interviews of well-known women, interest was
high as the program started. We saw the lady in person. Her
dress and hat— the way she wore her hair; we saw her sniffle—
the little mannerisms she had when she talked. What she said
for the first few moments didn't matter. Then having satisfied
our visual curiosity we wanted something to make us keep on
looking. Interest dropped when she began telling about the
teas she had attended. Actually the bottom fell out, as far as
program interest was concerned, for it immediately took on the
flavor of a radio program. When we interviewed Gypsy Rose
Lee— everyone wanted her to do just one thing and she didn't.
Care must be taken to prevent the visual possibilities built up
in the minds of the audience from detracting from what they
actually see. In radio this does not happen for everyone who
tunes in knows that they will hear an interview— in television
they expect to "see" one and they wanted to be shown. All this
only proves that we should not attempt something that can't be
done, neither should we forget that television makes demands
on program builders that must be met, and that all interviews
on television must be planned from the visual rather than the
oral angle.

The visual interest has been worked out effectively in many
interviews by showing the audience pictures of the subject be
ing discussed. Obviously a perfect visual interview— if the man
interviewed is an explorer or traveler— is accomplished by show
ing silent motion pictures of the places he visited— while he tells
us of his travels. Obviously that is not an interview at all in a
strict sense but it may mean that interviews on television will

126

HERE IS TELEVISION

cease to find an audience unless they are developed along simi
lar visually interesting lines.

Experiments

In an attempt to find the answers to some of the problems we
have mentioned, some very interesting approaches have been

The Town Meeting of the Air broadcast simultaneously by radio and tele
vision from the WRGB studios in Schenectady.

made. One of the earliest was the "debate" approach. The win
ners of two university debating teams were put on a program.
While the boys were interesting personally, it was all talk. Their
subject matter might have been worked out from a visual angle
but in this case it was not. A debate can only be good television
if the whole approach to the subject discussed can be made pic-
torially interesting.
Another program consisted of asking a group of high school

INTERVIEWS 127

students their opinions on world affairs. This was better but
again the visual interest depended entirely on the personality
of the children.

Programs that include discussion of vital problems of the
day (of interest to all of us) come close to making controversial
subjects visually interesting. A subject for discussion is chosen
and authorities on the subject argue the point. It is presented in
a fictitious court room with judge, attorneys and court attend
ants. (The audience is the jury.) The experts are called as
witnesses and their time for presentation of evidence, cross ex
amination, and argument is limited. To see and hear important
controversial questions discussed from both sides by recognized
authorities and to witness their arguments and reactions is very
interesting television. The program has movement and color
and the right subject and personalities make it worth seeing.

One of radio's feature programs has been presented very suc
cessfully on television. The Town Meeting of the Air, a simon-
pure discussion, was broadcast at the same time on radio and
television from General Electric's Studio in Schenectady. The
audience that regularly attends these radio broadcasts were in
vited to the studio. One television camera "down front" covered
the speakers and the mediator, in close up, while the other was
so placed that it could show a long shot of the stage and the
individual members of the audience as they asked questions.
Here was an example of television showing the viewer at home
everything he would have seen if he had been there in person.

Political Candidates

What this medium will mean to future election campaigns
can be estimated to some degree by what radio and the motion
picture accomplished. It is true that we have seen all the candi
dates in the news reels but the shot is usually very short. If we
show, and we will and have, a speaker throughout his whole
speech, it may influence voters decisions. There is nothing so
dull on television as a speaker reading a speech. That is radio.
His only chance is to "put across" his personality so definitely
and favorably that we want to watch him talk. Just as radio
changed campaign methods, television may usher in a com-

128 HERE IS TELEVISION

pletely new order. While it will help some candidates it may
prove to be a serious handicap to others. Television cameras are
factual to an embarrassing degree. The "ike" portrays what it
sees. This does not mean that all our future statesmen must be
Adonises but they must have a personality that puts them in a
favorable light with the majority of voters. Can you imagine
anyone being elected to office today, if they did not sound as
if they knew what they were talking about? In television they
must not only sound but look convincing.

14
INFORMATIVE PROGRAMS

Educational or informative programs on television open vistas
that virtually stagger the imagination. If there was ever any
question concerning this, the Second World War proved the
value of visual training for all time. The results that were
attained in the armed forces through the use of motion pictures
as a means of demonstration and training speak for themselves.
There is nothing that can not be taught by means of sight and
sound. True, we are only using two of our five senses but those
two are adequate to teach the people of the world everything
that they may be taught through personal contact with a teacher
in a school room. It requires very little use of our imagination
to foresee that pupils of the future may be taught collectively
by the foremost teachers— experts in their respective lines— in
every country school throughout the world. No longer will low
paid educators teach the three R's to small boys and girls in
rural school houses in isolated districts. Instead every country
school in the world will have a large screen television receiver,
in each classroom. Facing the camera will be the highest paid
experts in the world, who will bring the knowledge they have
gained through years of hard work and study, direct to the youth
of America. Again let us repeat, there is nothing that cannot
be taught by television. We will see the wonders of the world

INFORMATIVE PROGRAMS 129

through travel pictures. Planetariums, available now to a re
stricted few, will bring a clear picture of the universe to pupils
in the backwoods counties of every clime. Visual demonstrations
in physics, chemistry, algebra, geometry and languages will be
brought home to youthful minds in detailed animation.

Probably the first concrete demonstration of the feasibility of
teaching by means of television was carried out during an experi
mental program several years ago. The project was tested on a
closed circuit to a viewing room which contained several re
ceivers in Radio City. Substituting this viewing room for a
classroom of the future, a class in electronics from New York
University was brought there by their instructor, who was picked
up by the cameras in the studio. Thus a practical approach was
made. The professor delivered his lecture directly to the class
and among the points covered was a demonstration of the elec
tric eye. The class saw as well as heard just how this marvel of
present day electronics operates. All of the highlights of the
lecture were illustrated with practical demonstrations in the stu
dio and it is obvious that the class could have been thousands
of boys and girls in classrooms anywhere.

Music Lessons

While we are a long way as yet from the Utopia we hope to
reach, a crude beginning has been made along many lines. Edu
cational experiments of all kinds have been included in regular
program schedules. One of the first tele-lessons was a music les
son. An accomplished pianist was seen seated at a piano. At his
side was a little girl who had come for her first music lesson. We
saw a close-up of the teacher's hands on the key board. We saw
and heard him strike the notes of the scale, chords and arpeggios.
We saw his little pupil start her first lesson. We saw and heard
the mistakes she made and the corrections given her by the
teacher. This one demonstration proved that television could
do a job of this kind and almost immediately suggestions for im
proving our visual music lesson began to come in. One writer
suggested the possibility of coordinating the printed musical
notes to those on the piano, in the mind of the pupil, by elec
trically connecting the keys of the piano to a replica of the

130 HERE IS TELEVISION

printed page. When the note "A" was struck on the piano tiu
"A" on the printed page would glow and so on for all the notes
of the scale. While this suggestion was never carried out it was
perfectly feasible and in this way the printed note would have
easily become identified in the mind of the pupil with the note
it represented on the piano. Hundreds of new ideas will be in
corporated into programs of this kind. The fundamentals of
every musical instrument can be taught by means of television.
Heaven help us all when the saxophone class of the air starts!

Dancing Lessons

Dancing was another art that had an early experimental try-
out. Competent dancing teachers appeared before the television
cameras. Steps were charted, explained, and then demonstrated
to the home audience. The final developments in teaching this
art form may need additional work and special visual courses but
the overall problem is fairly simple. Dancing of all kinds can be
taught. While our early lessons were based on the popular steps
in vogue at that time more recent experiments have included
ballet, folk dances, and the latest of ballroom steps. Educational
programs of all kinds can be made interesting even to those who
are not particularly anxious to try the lessons themselves. Good
dancers are easy to watch in any medium, regardless of the type
of dance they are doing.

Some telecasts built around the dance required routines espe
cially designed for television. This was particularly true of bal
let. A long line of girls was a problem due to the size of the
receiver but let us at least be fair in our demands of this new
medium. When you go to the theater do you watch a "line of
dancers" as a whole or do you single out a particular dancer?
You cannot focus your attention on the alluring charm of an
individual without losing the overall effect of the dance as a
whole. Neither can the television camera. You may see the long
shot of the whole group or the close-up of the individual. With
proper camera work the dance can be used as an important sub
ject in television programming and because radio could not
handle this type of entertainment it will come into its own in
this visual medium.

INFORMATIVE PROGRAMS 131

Exercises

Closely allied to the dance is the means of improving the fe
male figure. Because women like to be slender and sylphlike
there is a tremendous interest on the part of the fair sex as how
best to accomplish this. They can be shown just how to go about
it through television. And strange as it may seem the men al
ways managed to be around when the demonstrator was in front
of the cameras in the studio. The male interest in a women's
program of this kind is high. Seriously though, television is the
perfect means of showing both men and women how to properly
stretch, bend, relax, and balance. A great deal will be accom
plished along these lines. We will see how to walk, breathe and
sit. Proper carriage, hair-styles, make-up and every sort of per
sonal appearance will be realistically demonstrated.

The World We Live In

Let us think for a moment what can be done in an educational
way regarding travel. Informative programs showing how people
live in other parts of the world will be invaluable. We have per
haps forgotten the old illustrated lectures of the early nineteen
hundreds and the travel books with their hundreds of illustra
tions of the far corners of the earth, but the travelogues we saw
in the early days of the movies are still comparatively fresh in
our minds. They were an attraction at every motion picture
theater. With television we may look at the world without mov
ing from our favorite chair. Already railroads, steamship lines,
and air transport companies have seen the possibility of selling
their wares by means of television. Trips of the future will be
planned, photographed, and shown to prospective customers in
advance, and if we are too lazy to get up and go we may use
television as our magic carpet. We may travel anywhere from
the poles to the tropics. Travel books of the future will be re
corded on film and they will be visible on your receiver in your
home.

Other Subjects

How simple it is going to be to teach languages! We will see
lip movements, see the object the word signifies, see the printed

132 HERE IS TELEVISION

word while we are hearing it pronounced. History has already
been brought home visually to some of our early televiewers. A
series of dramatized incidents of famous American historical
events has been filmed by a large eastern university. This series
has been televised with very favorable results. The youngsters
of tomorrow will see a reenactment of all of the great historical
events. From the film libraries of the world will come the pic
tures of the happenings of this century. The wide use of film in
World War II will make a visual record possible that will some
day be seen by every school child in the world.

Every form of sport can be easily illustrated either by means
of live broadcasts or film. We have had master golfers in the
studio show us proper grips, swing, stance, and follow through;
then by cutting to film we have seen these points demonstrated
on the golf course. We have seen the fine points of fencing, the
precision necessary in billiards, and champions in table tennis
matches. Lessons in home decorating have been not only in
formative but intensely interesting. Cooking can be taught in
every detail from the first steps in preparation of a dinner in the
kitchen to the final serving at the table.

Everything that has been mentioned so far as well as hundreds
of other subjects are obviously suited for good television produc
tion; but it is apparent that the manner of presentation is going
to be most important. Many people have conceived ideas for
television programs, but ideas in themselves do not interest tele
vision program managers. It is the detailed working out of an
idea, its presentation in the studio, the way the script is written,
and the manner in which it is photographed that make a pro
gram idea good or bad.

Televising Art

Let us take a typical idea, a program on art, designed to show
painting and sculpture. The idea is sound. Television must in
clude the finer things in its program schedule. So, where do we
start? What makes a program of this kind good or bad? The first
suggestion was to take the mobile unit cameras to a museum and
actually show the originals as they hung in the gallery. Some
day that may be done but we found that a good reproduction

INFORMATIVE PROGRAMS 133

gave us just as good results, if not better, than the original. We
were also confronted with the problem of properly lighting
the painting as it hung on the wall at the museum. We also
faced the constant television picture ratio of three high by four
wide. The source of power had to be considered. There was the
necessity of hiring extra personnel on an overtime basis at the
museum if we broadcast the program at night. We would have
had to rope off that part of the building from which we were
to broadcast and we soon saw the impossibility of a flowing pro
gram as the pictures we wanted to use were in various galleries
which meant a complete shifting of equipment between each
picture. On the other hand, if the broadcast was done from the
studio, by getting the reproductions in advance, in an approxi
mated ten by fourteen inch size, we could show them as rapidly
as we desired. By mounting them on cards and placing them
on an easel the pictures were in a fixed position and could be
well lighted. So it was decided to use the studio. Then came
one of the most important production problems. It is one that
will confront television program producers in like situations for
all time, for we found that the person who knew the most about
the subject under discussion was not particularly "telegenic."
Many times it is not a physically attractive person who spends
his life delving into the minute points of interest regarding the
whys and wherefores of a masterpiece or an Egyptian mummy.
On the other hand actors in general may be attractive, hand
some, and personable but they seldom know at first hand the
intricate details of the subject to be explained. They can learn
the lines and do a creditable job of "putting them over" but the
knowledge, the facts, must be written out for them, worked out
in detail by an expert on the subject who in many cases is both
shy and reticent when it comes to personally appearing in public.
Why, oh why, can't all the people who really know things be
beautiful? Of course some of them are, but if they all were life
would be simpler for television directors. But back to our pro
gram. It is conceivably possible that the man who had the origi
nal idea, who delivered the reproductions to you, who knows
the facts behind the world's great art treasures, is a good talker
and his personality is one that would make the television audi-

134 HERE IS TELEVISION

ence lose themselves in the pictures he is talking about. If not,
the things he knows must be transcribed, learned, and delivered
by some one with the personality to do a good job. Another
problem is the right to use the reproductions it is planned to
televise. However, all these details can be worked out and the
person who knows his subject, who chooses interesting material
and then gives a commentary that is not only educational but
exciting will be the one who will make a success of a program
of this kind. It is true that the audience is limited but it may
be possible to make the program so interesting that many casual
viewers stay and learn.

CBS accomplished this in their programs given in cooperation
with the Metropolitan Museum of Art. For the most part these
programs feature odd bits of sculpture and objects d'art from
the collections in the museum. They were brought to the tele
vision studio and there one of the staff of the museum explained
when and where they were found, how they came into the pos
session of the museum, the probable sculptor— in fact all the data
pertinent to the subject under discussion. He knew his subject
and proper presentation both visually and orally held an audi
ence that might have been expected to switch to a program of a
supposedly more entertaining nature.

Children's Programs

Many program experiments have been carried out with broad
casts designed to appeal to the youngsters. One in particular
was on the air each Saturday afternoon and it was put together
to show what the younger generation was thinking with regard
to aeronautics. A boys' club, which helped boys build model
aeroplanes, was the key to the program. This club participated
in the broadcast and through the cooperation of airlines and
aeroplane manufacturers we saw what was new in aerodynamics.
We showed model planes and explained how to make them.
Not only drawings of all the best planes were shown and dis
cussed but parts of actual planes were also brought into the
studio. The instrument board of a commercial plane was shown
and explained in detail. All of the new inventions— jet and
rocket planes, radar, etc.— can be described in detail to the

INFORMATIVE PROGRAMS 135

youngsters of tomorrow. If such a program is properly presented
many adults will also find it interesting. During a broadcast
in conjunction with a prewar automobile show in New York
the special features of the new cars of that year were successfully
demonstrated. We saw cut away motors in operation, the latest
improvements in design, and the advantages of each new car.
While the approach was commercial we must not lose sight of
the educational value of programs of this kind. "There Ought
To Be A Law" is another idea that was tried on CBS. On this
program high school students from various schools in New York
presented their ideas as to whether there should be a law pre
venting something that might or not be in the public interest.
While it was basically an aural program the personalities of the
students and the earnest expression of their opinion made the
potential possibilities very interesting.

Bridge Lessons

Bridge is one of the few subjects that presents difficulties that
must be worked out before it can be televised satisfactorily. Most
of the trouble is caused by the size of the receiving screen. It is
a fallacy to assume that all future receivers will deliver a picture
two feet or more in size and with a small picture bridge lessons
pose a real production problem. In other media bridge hands,
when printed, are shown like this:

North

S A-K-J-10-5
H 8-7
D None

East C 8-7-6-5-4-2 West

S Q-8-3-2 S 6-4

H Q-6-4 H A-J-1 0-3-2

D K-9-7-3 D Q-J-8-6-4

C A-J South C 10

S 9-7
H K-9-5
D A-10-5-2
C K-Q-9-3

136 HERE IS TELEVISION

How to put this information on a television screen stumped
many enthusiasts who felt that bridge lessons would be interest
ing program material. Obviously it is impossible to reproduce
all the above information on a small viewing screen. If you
show one hand at a time you must constantly flash back to all
the others to make your point clear. It is impossible to lay out
fifty-two cards so that they may all be seen at the same time.
Some day bridge lessons will become an accomplished fact, but
at present this is one of the problems that remains to be worked
out. In London the BBC had very interesting broadcasts of ex
perts playing unusual hands. There we saw the cards they held
from over their shoulder while an off screen commentator ex
plained the problems involved. Some one will find the right
way to put bridge lessons across on television before very long
and the one who discovers the best way to do it will find the
results more than worth while.

General Education

World's fairs have always featured the manner in which ordi
nary things of life are developed. Some of the chief exhibits
have revealed to the layman the hidden secrets of many everyday
facts. It was a real thrill to those of the television audience who
attended the world's fair in New York in 1940 to calmly walk
right by an exhibit that was holding the attention of hundreds
of out-of-town visitors; for they had seen it all on television in
their homes. One in particular was what is technically called a
Micro-Vivarium demonstration, an investigation of the secrets of
the minute animals that live and develop in a drop of liquid.
To say that such a procedure is fascinating is a definite under
statement. It is accomplished by placing a drop of liquid on a
microscopic slide. This drop is then projected on a translucent
screen and the television camera is merely focused on the pro
jected image. No camera switches, no cues, no change of focus
are necessary. Instead everyone loses themselves in the doings
of the animals that live in a drop of swamp water. Through the
enlargement of this single drop of water we see two of these
animals meet, pass the time of day and lo and behold about five
hundred little animals have suddenly come into existence. If

INFORMATIVE PROGRAMS 137

you'd like to know what goes on in a drop of vinegar just take
a look at it through a microscopic enlargement on television. To
put it mildly, there is plenty. Seriously, the amount of visual
education that may be brought into the home and the school
room by this method is almost unlimited.

Another interesting program that was suggested during a dis
cussion of possible informative subjects was a rather unusual
experiment that had been conducted in a univerersity class
room. A wire maze was constructed with many false passages.
One of these led to the center which contained a piece of cheese.
Well fed white mice took quite some time to fathom the intrica
cies of the maze but "good and hungry" mice found their way
to the cheese in no time at all. This experiment proved for all
time that hungry mice are smarter than well fed characters and
it could have been demonstrated effectively on television.

During a series of afternoon programs we attempted a garden
class through the cooperation of a large agricultural college. We
saw just how to handle plants, the proper way to cut when trim
ming the roots of various plants, how to thin and separate an
over-developed plant, how to plant various bulbs, and how to
care for them in winter. In fact, we saw all the things the ama
teur gardener wants to know and never does.

Floral arrangements were also demonstrated in a very interest
ing manner and programs of this nature can help aid the housewife
in making her home attractive.

Another series of programs that showed great promise was
carried out in conjunction with the New York Bureau of Miss
ing Persons. Here photographs and descriptions of persons who
had disappeared were given to the television audience and the
possibility of a real service along these lines was clearly shown.
The Weather Bureau is another branch of our civil government
that can be demonstrated very well by means of television. Just
how it functions, where weather information is obtained, etc., can
all be shown comprehensively.

Clay Modeling

Clay modeling has been brought to the television audience by
many sculptors and with various degrees of success. This is no

138 HERE IS TELEVISION

reflection on the ability of the sculptors who have appeared be
fore the cameras but rather on the planning of the program
before it was presented. The majority of television programs of
this kind suffer from a lack of sufficient rehearsal or a lack of
knowledge of the subject matter on the part of the director
handling the program. It takes time to do a clay head. The
movies have spoiled us by the speed with which things are ac
complished on finished film. In television you are dealing with
physical facts as they exist. After several bad trys we finally found
that the best results were achieved, when working with clay, by
having three heads of the same model all in various stages of
completion. We would start with the raw clay and the sculptor
would show the basic fundamentals involved in starting a head
then we would lap dissolve to a head that was nearly completed
to see the technique involved in that phase of the work and
finally we would switch to the completed head. Proper television
presentation of subjects of this kind is going to take serious study
on the part of the sculptor as well as the television director to
ascertain how they may best be presented.

On the General Electric station in Schenectady clay was the
subject matter of a most interesting educational program. It
consisted of a simple demonstration of a potter's wheel. To ac
tually see a man take a lump of clay and fashion it into a vase
was very interesting. Demonstrations of this kind should awaken
the creative genius in all of us and help to make the world) a
better place to live in.

Making a Dry Point Etching

Another interesting informative program was a detailed de
scription of how to make a dry point etching. The majority of
people know nothing of this process and perhaps academically
care less, but our television audience hung on the dials for a
real job was done on this program. The credit goes almost en
tirely to the demonstrator. He knew his subject and was willing
to give us all the rehearsal time necessary to bring to the audi
ence the details of the operation.

We saw each step in the process from the drawing of the first
picture to the finished etching as it came off the press. The sue-

VARIETY PROGRAMS 139

cess of the program was mainly the time spent in rehearsal. The
demonstrator had the patience to go over and over his lecture
so that when he finally went on the air the right camera was on
the right subject from the correct angle at the proper time. When
we were through the results more than justified the time spent
in preparation.

A good formula for an interesting informative program might
well be: secure a man or woman who is a good talker, who looks
well and who knows and can demonstrate an interesting subject,
assign studio technicians to the program who are interested in
putting out the best job possible, put the program in the hands
of an experienced director who is familiar with or who has the
time and energy to become thoroughly acquainted with the sub
ject to be shown. Plan every shot in advance. Rehearse and
rehearse and rehearse. The result will be a program that the
television audience will find to be informative, interesting, and
entertaining. What more can we ask of any medium?

15
VARIETY PROGRAMS

In programming television the most obvious source of enter
tainment consists of individual artists doing what ever it is they
do best— but doing it before a television camera. And this type
of entertainment, taking in the whole gamut of songs, dances,
dramatic readings, magic, etc., may be considered broadly under
the heading of variety programs. Whether they are good or bad
on television depends on two things: first, the ability of the
artist and second, how they are presented.

The first television demonstration using the present all elec
tronic system was given in New York on July 7, 1936, in the
NBC studios in Radio City. The program included stars from
various fields of entertainment but the production from a theat-

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HERE IS TELEVISION

Eddie Green and George Wiltshire participating in the first demonstration of
the present day electronic television system: NBC studios July 7, 1936.

rical point of view was a long way from being the finished prod
uct that we are seeing on television today. There were many
limiting factors in this first television program. First, there was
only one camera and consequently the artist simply stood before
the camera and "did his act." The iconoscope was lacking in
sensitivity. White make up and black lips were necessary to give
a semblance of reality. The program was done in front of draped
curtains. The lights were not right and the picture only had 343
lines. But this crude beginning proved that the possibilities of
television program development were virtually unlimited and
immediately a schedule of program experiments began that ex
tended over a period of five years. Pearl Harbor put an end
temporarily to active programming and it was the fall of 1943
before television experimentation again became active, but many
things were learned in those years and they are basic funda
mentals that we may take advantage of in future programs.

VARIETY PROGRAMS 141

The Television Approach

In any television program that we plan we must remember that
it is to be viewed in the home by a small group of people. We
immediately lose the advantage of mass reactions. A singer in a
night club may win the applause of the occupant of every chair
in the cafe, where they see her in person, and that same enter
tainer may be a dismal failure on television. First the television
camera has a heartless eye. It shows faults as well as perfection
not only in ability but in appearance. In the night club our
soloist will probably appear in soft mellow lights. The whole
atmosphere of the place is subdued and we are in sympathy with
the performer even before she begins. We came there to be enter
tained and probably went to this particular night spot to hear
this particular singer. You may note, we go to a night club, the
opera or a concert to "hear" a singer. The "seeing" we take for
granted. But as yet on television we tune in to see and the hear
ing becomes of secondary importance for we could hear her on
the radio. And even at the club we are not as close to the artist
as we seem to be when we view her on our television screen.
Some one has said "everything looks good if it is far enough
away" and that is all too true in television. In this medium,
especially in a small sized viewing screen, we want close-ups and
our subject must be able to "come up smiling" under the most
minute scrutiny. For our close-up lens brings us a picture that
we would only see if we sat about six feet away from our night
club performer and looked at her through opera glasses.

In general those are the conditions under which vaudeville
artists, night club performers, and concert soloists must work. No
more do they need to project to the last row of the gallery. They
are always playing to the front row. And this one feature is
going to result seriously for old vaudevillians. One team with an
international reputation was suggested as television program
material. Out of deference to their reputation, they were to be
scheduled for an appearance without an audition. But "on
advice of council" we asked them to run through their act.
Thank Heaven we did, for they were both so used to projecting
their material, to putting their personalities across the foot lights,

142 HERE IS TELEVISION

that their television personality was far from what it had been in
the theater. We saw them "work." We saw "the wheels go
round." They strove so hard to put the act "over" that they were
totally unsuited for this new medium.

In spite of the lights, the boom microphone, and the cameras,
artists must remember that they are really in a living room, only
six to ten feet away from their audience and they must approach
their television viewers from this point of view. And while this
is too complete a change in technique for some of the "old
timers," others take to television like a duck to water. Loud
speaker systems have trained many, radio has helped others, and
if a proven performer knows how to take advantage of the televi
sion system, as represented by the output of the television camera,
he can do a job that will keep him working as long as he wants
to. There are few people who wouldn't be thrilled if they could
casually remark to their next door neighbor, "Come on over to
night, Bing Crosby is coming to our house, as our guest, and he's
going to sing." Radio brought Bing's voice to our home, so did
phonograph records. But television brings the man himself, his
personality, and his charm. Some of the best television programs
have been done by outstanding personalities but other artists not
so well known, have been equally as good. The right performer
with the right personality and the right material is a television
natural.

Skaters

We have tried almost every type of variety program and, from
a production point of view, trick roller skaters are among the
best. They always perform on a hard wood mat not over twelve
feet square, so if a director sets his camera to cover that amount
of space he always has a good picture. If his camera is back far
enough to take in a twelve-foot area it also has good depth of
focus. With one camera set to cover the overall area the close-up
camera can be readied to pick up interesting close-ups. We know
that those close shots will always be within that twelve-foot area.
So when the male skater spins the lady by her feet and just
grazes the floor with her nose, we can always get a perfect close
shot of the proceedings.

VARIETY PROGRAMS 143

Legerdemain

Magicians are another television problem. Magic must develop
a new technique before it can take its rightful place in this new
medium. Magicians always guard their secrets carefully. They
never explain their tricks and to protect them it behooves all
magicians to be wary of television. It might be a kindness to say
that a magician should never perform before a television camera
unless his manager or personal representative, is in the television
control room. As you know each camera has its corresponding
viewing screen, and you also know, a magician succeeds in fool
ing the audience by prevailing on them to look where he wants
them to. In slight-of-hand particularly he makes the audience
look at his right hand while he executes the trick with his left,
but he may lose this ability on television. If a television director
sets his cameras in close-up, one on each hand of the magician,
directs his cameraman to stay with that particular hand no
matter what the magician does, and then watches not the hand
he is supposed to watch but the other one, he can usually see
how the trick is done. Of course the television audience does
not, for during a program cameras are switched to heighten the
surprise; but at rehearsal— magicians bewarel

Seriously the main problem with legerdemain on television is
that we yearn for detail and if we roll into a "close-up" we inev
itably cut off a hand or two. And if we eliminate a hand from
our television picture who knows what is going on "off camera?"
It would be the simplest thing possible for a magician to hold
both of his empty hands in close up before the camera, swing
them out of sight for a minute (out of the range of the picture)
and bring them back full of cabbages and kings or what have
you. To show the versatility of a conjurer— you must keep both
his hands in the picture at all times. This means that once a
magician starts a trick you must keep one camera on him that
will completely include him, at least to the knees, until the trick
is completed. If he is doing a card trick the visual results are not
good as the cards are so small they are unreadable. The red spots
show very light and they are too small to recognize. Does all of
this mean that the art of magic is no good for television? Of

144 HERE IS TELEVISION

course not; but it does mean that a director must know what to
show and when to show it. He must never let the audience real
ize that they didn't see the magician's hands all the time. That
itself is quite a trick— but it can be done. While magic is obvi
ously suited for television it is a production problem that should
not be dismissed lightly.

Animal Acts

Trained animal acts came in for their share of early experi
mentation. The boxing cats in their little ring were fine, trained
canaries behaved well, but we came to grief with dogs. We ar
ranged a simple setting that in the main duplicated a vaudeville
stage. At the rehearsal everything was perfect. Towser and his
pal performed like the troopers they were. We made chalk rings
on the floor so the cameraman might make a rough focus of the
spot until the dog came into it. The trainer saw our problems
and everything was fine. We went out to dinner with high hearts.
Then, some three hours later, the show went on the air. The
first trick was just as rehearsed but from then on the performance
took on all the characteristics of a good game of "hide and seek."
The cameraman would cover the circle on the floor but no dog
came into it. The director frantically called to the cameraman
over his telephone line— "get the dog." The cameraman, knowing
his camera was where it should be, was naturally unhappy but he
reluctantly left the eye piece of his camera to gaze around the
studio in a frantic search for the star. And there was our hero
standing on his head as ordered but over in the corner completely
out of range of our lights. Frantic signaling on the part of the
stage manager finally induced the trainer to go bring the dog into
the lights. But doggie had already stood on his head. That trick
was over and he had no intention of repeating it. In the mean
time his co-star had decided that he should investigate the tele
vision cameras. Again the director urged the cameraman to get
on dog number two instead of on the trainer's feet but by that
time, dog number two was out behind camera number one and
furthermore he had decided about then that he didn't want to
be televised and he wasn't. From that point on— neither camera
ever again caught up with either dog— and we signed off with the

VARIETY PROGRAMS 145

fervent vow— no more dogs. Undoubtedly we will have hundreds
of dog acts on television. But under the conditions just related
other things are easier.

Contests

Various types of indoor sports and games might roughly come
under this category. Ping pong was an early program experiment
and as yet it is not one of the best. First the players are so far
apart due to the regulation size of the table that to see them
both we must pull our camera way back and the resulting pic
ture is lacking in detail. If we try close-ups, the action is so rapid
that the viewer fails to properly comprehend just what is going
on. Larger viewing screens will help but that isn't the final an
swer. This game needs more experimentation before we can hope
to learn how to present it properly.

On the other hand, billiards is a perfect television game. We
have a definite limit of action. Everything of interest happens on
the table top. Beautiful close-ups of the balls in action are
possible. We can show how to hold the cue correctly, how to hit
the balls. We can see complete demonstrations of draw shots,
follow shots, and just how to put "English" on a ball. Every
program of this kind that has been tried was very good. Of
course you need a good player but competitive games are a pos
sibility in the smaller stations between local players. There is
only one problem and that is the table. It is no simple task to
install a billiard table weighing several tons in the studio and
once it is placed in a position it must stay.

Fencing has also had its television baptism. It offers no par
ticular production problem. Both close-ups and long shots can
be presented effectually. All sorts of competitive matches are
interesting if they are done well. Who knows, some day checkers
and chess may be developed, as television contests.

Jugglers

Jugglers are, for the most part, easy to present visually and
they provide interesting program material. Juggling naturally
takes a good performer and it needs a certain amount of long-
shot camera work to give the overall picture, but there are plenty

146 HERE IS TELEVISION

of opportunities for close-ups. Indian club jugglers once put on
a great television act, as we put the camera in line with the man
who was throwing the clubs and he threw them directly at the
lens of the camera. His partner stood beside the front of the
camera and reached out and caught the clubs just before they
hit the camera. The effect was spectacular— but be sure the
station owner doesn't watch rehearsals or he may cancel your
camera shot. Of course, if the catcher ever misses just start look
ing for another job— but visually it's worth trying.

The perfect television act is the one where the juggler lies flat
on his back and juggles men and articles with his feet. We were
never able to find a good troupe who specialized in this, as the
Japanese were the principle exponents of this type of balancing
act, but it ought to be very easy to produce and it should be good
entertainment. Tumblers need only to stay within a certain floor
space to do a good job. Trapeze acts offer more problems par
ticularly due to the equipment used. Our only venture in this
type of entertainment meant cutting holes in a concrete floor to
anchor the base of the trapeze and then we found that it was im
possible to catch the performer at the top of his swing because of
the studio lights. An act of this kind needs a high studio and
special lighting.

Preparation

Rehearsals for nearly all variety acts are more of a work-out
for the camera crew tjian for the artist. The performers know
their routines. They have done them day after day, so for them
to walk into a television studio and put on their performance is
just part of a day's work. But while rehearsals are simple for the
performer— the director and the cameramen must know at all
times just where to focus the camera. There is always some high
point of action in variety acts, other than straight singing acts,
and if the act is to "go across" in television these high points
must be brought to the attention of the audience by correct cam
era work. Whenever possible it is advisable for the director to
see the act in a theater so that aside from knowing the routine in
advance, he can plan his close-up shots, basing them on the high
point in audience reaction in the theater. If advance viewing is

VARIETY PROGRAMS 147

not possible, the acts must be rehearsed enough to definitely set
every camera shot. Variety performers for the most part, resent
going through their routine time and time again. This means
that a television director handling this type of performance must
be able to make up his mind in a hurry and work out a cue sheet
that will make it possible to do a photographic job when they
go on the air. He must also have a whole lot of luck. A good
variety act can easily be ruined by poor camera work.

Many directors apparently fail to grasp the importance of hav
ing their program set and also to be prepared for any emergency.
There have been broadcasts of cartoonists where the artist actu
ally stood between the camera and the picture he was drawing.
We'll say this was the result of a mistake either in camera posi
tions or on the part of the artist, but there is a reasonable doubt,
for the camera position wasn't changed for at least five minutes
and we saw a very charming picture of the artist's back. This
kind of television production is inexcusable. Barring accidents
it can only be the result of lack of rehearsal or inexperience on
the director's part. Many well-known artists appearing on tele
vision seem to feel that it is unnecessary for them to rehearse at
all. While this gesture of importance on their part may inflate
their ego it fails to make a good impression on the audience. If
an artist walks out of a picture or if he moves to a spot that the
director and cameramen do not anticipate, anything may happen.
It is very easy for a performer to walk out of the lights and thus
spoil the picture. If an artist cannot take the time to rehearse he
would be far wiser to forego television altogether. He may not
need the rehearsal but the cameramen and the director do, and
the artist cannot do a good job without their help.

Usually a director can chart a routine of an act based on stage
business or music and he then can know where his cameras
should be at all times. Only in that way can perfect results be
achieved.

There is one must for a good director. At any time in any per
formance he must be able to tell instantly the next shot on every
camera he is using. This isn't easy but it can and must be done
if a smoothly flowing program is to register on the viewer's
receiver.

148 HERE IS TELEVISION

Drawing

We mentioned cartoons a moment ago. This type of program
material is or should be good television, but it takes a fine artist
and one who works fast. Very few artists can or want to carry on
a running conversation while they are working and the drawing
of a complicated picture is dull entertainment without sound of
one sort or another. Again the program usually lacks action. If
some kind of semi-animation could be worked out in combina
tion with straight drawing, a very interesting program might re
sult. For instance, if in a comic strip type of program all the
printed matter in the "balloons" that the characters are supposed
to say could drop into position or suddenly appear as soon as the
characters were completed and the artist started his next picture
while the audience was reading the one just finished it might
help considerably. This could be accomplished very easily by
having the completed drawing with the written conversation
lined up on camera #2. The artist draws his cartoon on camera
#1 and as soon as the picture is drawn a switch is made to cam
era #2 for the finished work. We haven't even begun as yet to
program television properly, there is so much to be done and so
many ideas to be worked out. Every set owner is going to see
the medium develop as new men and women work out their
ideas. But a word of caution to directors— don't try your ideas on
the air until you have at least tested them on a closed circuit or
you may find your audience tuning into another station. The
television viewer is long suffering and very tolerant and easily
pleased— but after all he is entitled to and will demand good
entertainment. At least be eighty percent sure you are right
before you go ahead.

At Home

So far we have discussed various types of acts that might be
used in a television program. Now let's look at the program
problem that is involved in putting variety acts into a unit hole
—a smoothly running overall performance. So far in our televi
sion studios we have relied entirely on presentations as they might
have been put together in some other medium. It still remaim

VARIETY PROGRAMS 149

for some imaginative director to build and present a television
variety show within a framework that is new and perhaps only
possible on television. Up to now we have seen variety presented
in several basic forms: the "at home" type, straight vaudeville,
burlesque (before the advent of the strip tease), and the modern
night club approach. You might ask, "How else are you going
to present variety?" That is a question we will not attempt to
answer at this time. That is one of your television program
problems.

Let's look for a moment at what has already been done. We
fade in a title card reading "At Home with Esmerelda Brannon."
and then a quick switch to Esmerelda's living room, where we
see people grouped about the room listening to Esmerelda play
ing the piano. She finishes and everyone applauds and whispers
"Wasn't that just too wonderful." Esmerelda tells everyone how
glad she is to have them as her guests with a sly glance at the
audience and then turns to Amelia who is leaning unhappily
against the piano and says "Now Amelia, you sing a song." After
some hesitation Amelia sings and everyone says it is "just won
derful." Then our hostess singles out Elmer who is sitting de
jectedly with a guitar in his lap and says "Oh Elmer, can you
play the guitar?" Yes, Elmer can, and does, and it is just "so
wonderful." Then Esmerelda sees Gertie. Gertie has been there
all the time but Esmerelda acts as though she had just dropped
in through the transom, and tells all the guests what a wonderful
dancer Gertie is. Gertie then proceeds to prove that she isn't and
after everyone tells her how "wonderful" she was some one sug
gests that Esmerelda play again and all the other guests think
that is a "wonderful" idea and Esmerelda starts the routine all
over again.

Perhaps this criticism is overly severe but this type of presen
tation is as near the bottom of program planning as anything
that may be attempted. There is no imagination, no sparkle. It
has none of the spontaniety of a group having a good time among
themselves in a living room. It actually "comes across" as a num
ber of performers in a television studio pretending that they are
in a home and for no reason on earth, except that the director
told them to, they sing, play and dance. An honest approach

150 HERE IS TELEVISION

where an announcer says we have invited a group of entertainers
into our studio to sing and dance for you is much more real and
enjoyable.

Vaudeville

And a vaudeville show is really just that. You might set the
scene in an old-time theater. You might look over the heads of
the audience to the orchestra in the pit and above them, see the
advertising "Opery House" curtain. You might have a short
overture as the front curtain rises and the little lady in the pink
opera length stockings puts the first identifying card on the easel
at the side of the stage as the show starts. Many old-time vaude
ville programs have been presented, for the most part, as is sug
gested above and their success has depended on the caliber of
the acts that were included on the bill. There are hundreds of
old vaudeville routines that are still very funny and television
may bring back this type of entertainment. The amateur hour,
with the right master of ceremonies, is also a good frame for
presenting this type of program. Youngsters who are talented in
any way are good television material but their amateur standing
must be built up and once that is done the audience will take
them to its heart.

The Good Old Days

Another formula that can be used in many ways is the "Gay
Nineties" set. It may be in the "back room" in a small cafe*,
or in any of the hundred and one places where people used to
get together in the days before automobiles and radio. It may
be any gathering from a Church social to a picnic, from a pink
tea to the tap room in Grogan's. Wherever the location, it gives
a frame work for the presentation as a whole that aids the writers
and helps to set the scene and mood of the program. Once the
proper atmosphere is established it is easier for the performers
to entertain their audience.

Practically all of the programs that we are seeing today are
based on results that have been achieved through experimenta
tion either in television or even in some other entertainment

VARIETY PROGRAMS

151

medium. Our biggest variety programs were a very simple step
from the revue type of theatrical entertainment. In fact televi
sion simply moved into the theatre. Comedians needed an audi
ence and it was impossible to crowd a large number of people
into a studio where scenery was spread out for effective T V
camera work. So the cameras went to the auditorium.

The installation for television was fairly simple. Usually a
ramp was built down the center aisle of the theatre at the same
height as the stage. The camera, on a dolly, was then able to
move in or out as the subject matter to be picked up dictated.
Two other cameras were installed at stage right and left. They
were either on the stage itself or on raised platforms in front of
the boxes. While these cameras do not move the four lenses in
the turret head give them a wide range in shots that may be
made. By panning they can also pick up the audience when it is
desired. Sometimes a fourth camera is installed in the front of

Dorothy McGuire and Tom Terris in an early television production.

152

HERE IS TELEVISION

the balcony for wide angle shots or close-up work with a narrow
angle lens.

With this camera arrangement the master of ceremonies intro
duces each act and the audience at home and in the theatre have
a complete picture of what takes place. The entertainment value
rests with the M C and the performers selected but the whole
gamut of theatrical personalities can be used.

A typical cafe" setting as reproduced in the NBC studios.

The NightClub

One of the favorite frameworks for variety programs on television
today is the night club. In a program of this type actual condi
tions as they exist in the Broadway night spots can be duplicated.
The majority of the popular after-theater rendezvous are small.
The performers are actually close to the audience and the for
mula of presentation is ideal for television. The whole studio
can very easily and inexpensively be made to simulate a favorite
location. The scenery is placed entirely around three sides of

VARIETY PROGRAMS 153

the studio. A small stage is built for the orchestra. With a space
for the dance floor with tables placed around it, an entrance for
the artists, and a main entrance, if you want it, you are ready
to go. You invite your friends to attend your television program.
Their price of admission is an evening dress for the ladies and
at least a "black tie" for the men. You seat them at your cabaret
tables perhaps serve them some ginger ale, if the sponsor feels
generous, and you are almost set. You need of course a hat check
girl and a couple of waiters. You need a small orchestra, a master
of ceremonies and as many "acts," artists if you prefer, as you
think necessary to round out your allotted time. You need very
little rehearsal for your artists all work in the cleared dance floor
which need not be large. You do not require a great deal of
camera movement. One camera should be placed for an overall
establishing shot. Your opening might be a high shot of all the
guests dancing. As the dance ends, the master of ceremonies
steps out on the floor; you switch to a close up and the show is
on. In a program of this kind you have many aces up your sleeve.
Food, drinks, and clothes are there to be looked at and talked
about. Audience reactions can be used to fill a gap, if perchance
you have to move the piano. Every type of act is possible from
Hawaiian dancing girls to acrobats. Intimate entertainers make
the most of this almost perfect setting for a television variety
program and to top it all the entertainers can play to the audi
ence in the studio legitimately and the viewer in his home be
comes one of them at a table next to the dance floor.

Looking in on Radio Programs

Many potential television sponsors were interested in simply
turning the cameras on radio programs and some of them held
an audience. While from a sound, rather than a visual approach
to television, that is, where the television program is designed for
listening and only casual viewing, they had a value, we must re
member that a visual presentation shows up the faults of a pro
gram, especially where artists appear before a microphone with
scripts in their hands and the announcer gives the audience cues
as to when to applaud. Some of these have been used, however,
and the quiz programs came the closest to doing a good television

154 HERE IS TELEVISION

job. Seeing the contestants had a tendency to heighten audience
interest.

Television Quiz Programs

Several types of "quiz" programs have been tried on television
and the results have varied considerably. There is no doubt that
people are interested in problems, but what problems to use and
how to present them has been the biggest question. To be a
hundred percent successful the home audience must participate.

On some programs of this kind, higher than average contest
ants have been asked various and sundry questions. They have
included the enactment of parlor games, from musical chairs to
throwing marbles in a dish balanced on the contestants head. We
have seen visual problems where the contestants are asked to draw
as well as to identify pictures and drawings. One of the principal
dangers in programs of this kind is a lack of interest on the part
of the television audience, in the personalities of the contestants.
They at least must have a favorite.

An old-fashioned spelling bee was a regularly scheduled pro
gram for some time. It reached its peak of audience interest
when the contestants were such that the home audience sympa
thized with the loser and applauded the winner. It is difficult to
include the audience in contests of this kind, and yet a way to
accomplish this must be found. Aside from either knowing or
not knowing the answer, if the viewer at home has no way of
entering into the game he really is merely an observer. It is true
that this same situation exists in radio, but television being visual
should offer more.

It is comparatively simple to reset radio program procedure
so that it will look well on camera. Early experiments proved
that radio technique had to give way to visual demands. The
problem was how best to accomplish this. We forget for the
most part when attempting something of this kind, the organiza
tion needed to do a good job. We tried out a program for a
while where the contestants were children on the theory that
youngsters would be visually interesting. The first problem was
to find the right youngsters and then to determine what ques
tions to ask them. We wanted to get away from completely oral

VARIETY PROGRAMS , 155

questions in an endeavor to stress the visual. This meant that
the television audience had to see the picture or object that the
children were looking at, at virtually the same time they did.
The audience also wanted to see the kids as they studied the
picture. Frankly, this formula has yet to be worked out correctly.
It sounds simple but the program attempts that have been made
so far leave one with a sense of something lacking. Another com
mon production fault and one that is very easy to fall into, is to
stay too long on the quiz master. This must be avoided at all
costs as the quiz master, while important to the program as a
motivating force, is not the high point of interest to the viewer.

Visual Picture Quizzes

We also tried a completely visual type of contest. We took
some part of a well known picture or subject and enlarged just
that unit, such as the statue on top of a well known monument,
a carving on the front of a building, a motto over a door, and
then asked our contestants to identify the pictures. Development
of ideas of this kind have plenty of possibilities, but it involves
the gathering of the photographs, enlargements of the units to
be shown and clearance on the use of the pictures. Making them
into slides aids the operation of the program, as the audience
may look at the slide while the contestant looks at the photo
graph.

Charades

One visual quiz program was tried out with more than ordi
nary success. It was simply a development of plain old fashioned
charades. In the home, two teams are chosen. Names of books,
songs, plays, or quotations are written on a piece of paper and
the opposing team must guess the name written on the slip as
enacted by the member of their team. The total elapsed time in
guessing the answer is the deciding factor in determining which
team won. On our television program we formed a team of "ex
perts" who were challenged by any other team who cared to par
ticipate. Quotations were sent in by the audience and a prize
was given for the ones selected with additional prizes if the ques-

156 HERE IS TELEVISION

tion remained unanswered. Cards bearing the quotation were
prepared, and placed on an easel which was located so that the
contestants in the studio could not see them although they were
visible to the television audience. At the same time the audience
saw the quotation or name it was handed to the person, who
was to enact the sentence, on an ordinary slip of paper. The pro
gram called for ingenuity and intelligence, and it proved to be
amusing and interesting. We included the audience from time to
time by not showing them the quotation to be guessed so they
were in the same position as the people in the studio who were
trying to find the right answer.

Undoubtedly quiz programs have a value as subject matter for
television programs and eventually we will find the best manner
of presenting them. They offer possibilities not only as network
features but also as local programs, for groups in a small com
munity could compete with each other and interesting low-cost
programs might very well be the result.

Further Experiments

Another type of audience participation program was Colum
bia's "The Missus Goes A-Shopping." This program was lifted
bodily from radio. There was very little deviation on television
from the radio routine. We were shown the assembled guests and
then the master of ceremonies called his contestants up from the
audience. The stunts they were asked to perform did not require
much intelligence on the part of the doers and even less on the
part of the viewing audience. We have seen men struggle into
corsets— contestants guessing the number of pennies in a bowl,
a girl being kissed three times by one man while she was led to
believe it was done by three. We have seen eating races and
other games that recall the first party we ever attended in our
youth; but the station received an award for putting the program
on the air— and so it goes. You have undoubtedly seen "Informa
tion, Please" in the movies. This is just a foretaste of what you
will see some day on television. Quiz programs may need to be
dressed up for television but our normal human inquisitiveness
will always make us interested in puzzles and contests. This

DRAMA 157

means that all we have to do is to find the best way to present
them and we can be sure that our audience will look in.

Another program that found a certain amount of public ac
ceptance perhaps proves that some types of radio techniques will
have a place in television. On this program we saw the master
of ceremonies call a member of the television audience at his
home. We waited while the recipient of the call answered the
phone. Then we heard and saw the M C telling the party on the
phone that he was going to show him a problem on his television
receiver. Then we waited while the man at home came back to
his set. The M C presented the visual problem and asked for
the correct answer. Again we waited while Mr. Jones went back
to the telephone. If his answer was correct we waited some more
while he came back to the receiver to select the prize he had won
and after another wait we were informed of his selection. While
the program lacked visual interest it shows that all sorts of ideas
have been tried out and from some of them have come practical
television programs.

In the main, quiz programs are static— that is, there is little or
no movement before the camera. The quiz master and the con
testants sit in one position and answer questions. This means
that the entire entertainment value rests on the personalities of
the people before the camera. But just as radio used every pos
sible approach to the quiz type of program, so too, will television
and the proper combination of personalities, "gimmicks" and
subject matter will eventually find its place in a program schedule.

16
DRAMA

Probably the most popular television programs will be basi
cally dramatic. Taken altogether more experimentation has been
done with this type of entertainment than with any other and
with the most gratifying results. While a dramatic program is
the most difficult kind to produce it also is one that challenges

158 HERE IS TELEVISION

the ingenuity of the director. It gives him an opportunity to ex
press himself in many ways, to discover what to do and how to
do it. Because of the place that drama had won for itself in
Hollywood, it was a foregone conclusion that experiments must
be made to learn how best to fit this form of entertainment into
the new medium.

Early dramatic programs were simple, nothing involved was
attempted, but as the success of this type of entertainment was
proved the plays presented became longer, the casts larger, and
the productions more pretentious.

The first experiments were nearly all short dramatic blackouts,
from musical comedies, or one act stage plays. The casts were,
for the most part, small and the action was restricted to one
set. From virtually the first broadcast it was apparent that the
material selected for presentation was as important, if not more
so, than the way it was done. "The Play's the Thing" took on
a new significance. The limitations imposed by facilities coula
not be ignored. Whether the play to be presented was an adapta
tion of some existing work or an original television story, the
problem from a production point of view was the same.

Writing for Television

In some respects it is more difficult to write for television than
it is for radio. During the past twenty years definite techniques
have been developed for radio. Because we are only using the
sense of hearing we must "picture the action" in our radio story
by means of words or sound effects. Thus it takes many more
words to convey a scene to an audience by means of radio than
it does in television. In a dramatic scene it is necessary first to
have the narrator describe the scene. This may take from thirty
to forty seconds of broadcast time. In television the audience sees
the scene and the forty seconds must be filled with additional
plot development or good dialogue. If we want our radio audi
ence to know that our leading lady is going upstairs to get a
warmer wrap for the baby we hear "I'm afraid I'll have to get
something warmer for little Alice." "She's a cute baby isn't she,
but I do worry about her." "Oh dear, I'll have to go upstairs
and get a warmer wrap. I won't be a minute." Then we hear

DRAMA 150

the supposed click of high-heeled shoes walking across a floor
without any carpet and up an endless flight of steps, again car-
petless, then the door handle turned and the door opened. All
of these sound effects take time. In television we'd see the action
and probably rule it out as uninteresting. This simple illustra
tion shows how radio scripts differ from television plays. We
must think in terms of visual presentation and, in general, it is
more difficult to paint pictures that we can see than it is to set
our scene with a word picture. In radio it is doubtful that any
two listeners visualize a scene that is described in a radio story
in the same way. We build the set mentally to suit our own
imagination from the description we receive. "A dark paneled
library" might appear one way in your mind's eye and entirely
different to the man next door. But in television we lose the
advantage of the listeners' mental picture. We must show the
paneled library convincingly. It must be real enough to create
in the mind of the viewer through the eye, the room he "saw"
through the medium of sound alone.

If we eliminate altogether the difference in elapsed time be
tween television dramatic productions and radio dramas, the
author must still face a more difficult problem in writing, for the
audience demands more from a visual performance. In listening
to radio the audience is constantly trying to visualize the story
and the people in it and consequently our plot development may
move slower. We can take more time to relate the happenings
of any given scene. We cannot take time out in television, as in
radio and in fiction, to tell what the heroine of the story is think
ing. We must write a play in which the actress is able to "put
across" to the audience visually the things in her mind.

Radio has developed a tremendous reliance on sound effects.
Many dramatic climaxes in radio rely entirely on effects. We
successfully build to a high dramatic situation and top it with
sound effects and music. We have proved the efficiency of a pro
cedure of this kind in sound only but it is much more difficult to
achieve the same effect visually. An automobile accident in radio
is sound on a record. In television it means either hours of work
on a miniature or a motion picture crew shooting a real accident.

In spite of the difficulties, writers will adapt themselves to this

160 HERE IS TELEVISION

new medium and the successful original dramatic programs we
are seeing proves that it can be done. The majority of tomor
row's television writers may and probably will come from young
people who are as yet unknown. The successful radio, theater,
and motion picture writers were until recently not particularly
interested in spending hours of their time in writing material to
develop this new industry. Their sound economic reasoning was
that until television could pay them what they get from their
present job they would continue to write for other mediums. It
is true of course that thousands of copyrighted short stories that
have already been published will be produced on television, but
every year brings a greater demand for good material. Fees com
parable with and in some cases higher than radio are being paid.
Writers in television should come in to their own because of the
great demands that will be made for original programs.

Choice of Material

The television program director faces many serious problems
when he sits down to decide which particular script he will rec
ommend for television production. In its broader sense he has
the whole world of literature to choose from. What shall he
select from the myriad pages of written material for production
on his station?

As television program schedules expand the choice of ma
terial selected will broaden, but in the early days of television
the dramatic programs were restricted to easily produced play
lets and sketches. This type of dramatic material is usually se
lected because of the limitations that exist in studio space,
equipment, and personnel. There probably will never exist
anywhere in the world a television studio with sufficient equip
ment to enable a director to forget his limitations in studio facili
ties when planning a production. So any material chosen must
first and foremostly be considered from the point of view of
"Can I physically do a first class job in the studio with this play?"

Nothing has been written that equals in intensity and theat
rical values the old dramatic sketches of vaudeville. A short cast
of characters set a scene, developed a situation, and reached a

DRAMA 161

dramatic climax in less than twenty minutes. The "blackouts"
of English and American reviews took this same formula but they
shortened it in elapsed time. The short-short stories of modern
fiction carry out the same idea. In approaching the problem of
what to select for presentation it is wise to bear in mind a pro
gram policy that has been generally successful. The theory of
it is this. The radio (or television) audience welcomes your pro
gram, they give their time to listen to and look at your program.
Regardless of its subject matter, be sure the audience doesn't
resent the time spent, be sure they are glad they listened. And
actually a director doesn't need much more than this formula
tucked away in the back of his mind and a little theatrical horse
sense to know what to select for television production.

As facilities expand and the operating crew becomes more
facile in their studio operations, more ambitious programs may
be attempted, but it is better to underplay your hand in tele
vision.

At first it seemed that hundreds of successful stage and screen
vehicles were utterly beyond the studio facilities of television
production but that is a thing of the past. Experience has proved
that the job can be done and has established an operational for
mula for its accomplishment. Unfortunately too many tele
vision directors attempt productions far beyond their capabili
ties and the results are bad both for the director's reputation
and television as a whole. Some young directors seem to think
they are accomplishing wonders in the results they are achieving
with the meager facilities at their disposal. It may be that they
are, but why should a purchaser of a television receiver care what
the production limitations are in the studio? All he sees is a bad
production. It is much better for the director's reputation and
the broadcasting station's audience reactions to have a good sim
ple production well done than to attempt a major effort and
have it fail because of physical limitations. A television director
once made the statement that he only rehearsed a thirty minute
program for eleven minutes. Unfortunately the program looked
as though it had not been rehearsed at all. Programs of that
caliber are not good television, are not good for television as an
industry, and have no place on a station's schedule.

162 HERE IS TELEVISION

Production Problems

Now let us assume that we have selected material for a half-
hour dramatic television program. We have chosen a story in
fictional form, perhaps a short story that we have read. We will
make this assumption because, if we select a one act play, half
our problem is already licked. A one set, "one acter" written for
the theater, is no problem on television unless you attempt to
broaden it visually from a motion picture production point of
view; if this is attempted you face the same problems that we
will discuss in our adaptation of our fiction story.

The first step is to break down the story you are going to adapt
into playable dramatic scenes bearing in mind the number of
sets you plan to use. The decision as to whether you will use
three sets or twelve in telling your story will probably depend
for a long time on the size of the studio and the production
budget you have to work with. Anyone can produce a good tele
vision program if you give them enough time, money, and equip
ment. Those are your three limiting factors and a successful
producer must use all of them wisely and well.

Many times directors have insisted on a complete set of scenery
and additional actors to start a story when the idea might have
been "put across" very well by simply using a narrator. The

Opening titles on miniature signboards. Camera trucks parallel to sidewalk.

DRAMA

163

narrator might be reading the story, or perhaps telling it. Again
you may accomplish the same purpose through film or visual
effects. In one short program that we presented we wanted to
take the audience to a small suburban home. It might have been
done in many ways, but we chose the hard one. We faded in
on a miniature sidewalk backed by a picket fence. Our camera
started to truck, moving parallel to the sidewalk. Behind the
fence were miniature outdoor sign boards. On them were carried
the name of the playlet, the author, the cast and other credits.
We traveled past these sign boards and stopped at a miniature
suburban cottage. Then we started to dolly in toward the front
door. We had constructed the front door and porch roof of the
cottage in full size exactly duplicating the miniature so as we

Miniature house at end of signboards. The front door was duplicated in
life-size studio set.

164 HERE IS TELEVISION

dollied in on the miniature door with camera #1 we watched the
preview on #2 that was focused on the real door. When the
picture on #1 exactly duplicated the real door on #2, we switched
to that camera as the lady of the house opened the door to get
her morning mail. Now was that "good" television program plan
ning? At the time we did it, we were trying to prove to ourselves
that it could be done effectively. We did it but whether or not
the expense involved would be warranted in a regularly sched
uled program will be one that each director and program man
ager will have to decide for himself. It took time and money to
build the miniature— it was only used once. Perhaps the time
and money involved might have been used to better advantage
somewhere else in the program.

Again you must decide how far you should go in production
expense in developing a scene. We know that if a young hus
band were leaving his wife in New York for an extensive trip,
that the departure might be heightened, the pictorial effect
broadened and the dramatic values increased, if we saw them
leave their apartment and take a taxi to the air port and wit
nessed their final goodbyes as he stepped aboard the plane, with
the plane in the air as our final sequence. That's one way to do it.
Could you still hold the visual and dramatic interest of your
audience if you only show their goodbyes in the apartment, with
the wife sobbing on the couch as the husband closed the door?
Obviously the second treatment is more economical but we lose
in visual interest.

Television Scenery

Now let us say that you have decided to use three sets in your
thirty minute production: an exterior, a living room, and a bed
room. First let us approach our exterior. Exteriors are very dif
ficult to make convincing in television. Beautiful clouds painted
on a back drop are lovely perhaps in a long shot, but when you
roll into a close-up and an irregular shaped cloud that somewhat
resembles a cornucopia seems to emerge from the left ear of
your leading lady, you realize that something is wrong. Scenic
effects that look fine on a theater stage in soft lights just won't
work on television. In close-up, a theatrical grass mat does not

DRAMA

165

give you the illusion of being a lawn, instead it looks exactly
like what it is. We were having trouble trying to overcome this
difficulty, so as an experiment, in a play that called for a wood
land dell, we rented some twenty or thirty very real looking
imitation trees. They were well made and to the human eye
in the studio the scene was perfect. We had a bower of green
that would have done credit to a Broadway production. Then
we looked at it through the television camera and our beautiful

Left— An example of poor scenery design. The actors fade into the back
ground behind them.

Right— Robert Lynn and Helen Lewis in a woodland dell.

deep bower flattened out like a poor pencil drawing. With the
improvements we have now in camera tubes this might not hap
pen today but we had to have so much front light that we were
unable to pour enough light through the branches of the trees
from the sides and rear to enable us to get any depth or realism
out of the scene. If we lowered our front light our actors went
into silhouette. One of the big problems in every television scene

166

HERE IS TELEVISION

is to make it look well from every position the camera is to take.
It must be lighted and designed with this thought constantly in
mind.

So television exteriors must be approached from a slightly dif
ferent angle. Every scene must have something more or less solid
to act as a background. This might be a high hedge, the outside
of a building, a wall, anything that will look well both in close-up

Terri La Franconi singing in the WABD studios. Note use of photo mural as
background.

DRAMA 167

and long shot. If an exterior drop must be used the more detail
that is painted in, the better. Large photo murals seem to give
the best results, but a low wall or balustrade should be set in
front of the drop to prevent the actors from getting too close to
the distant scene. Very good effects have been worked out for
the porch of a house. In any event the director and scenic de
signer must plan their setting to give them the best visual results

An early experimental setting.

possible, allow for easy flow of movement of cameras and actors,
and not lose perspective.

Interiors also cause troubles. There are many wrong ways to
paint a television interior. One expert on the subject maintains
that all sets should be painted from an architectural drawing
point of view rather than from a stage scenic approach. Wall
paper sets look fine in a long shot but big flower designs are not
good in close-up. Paneled walls give good results. While the
set must have individuality it still must not be so blatant that it
overpowers the actors. The close up result must be considered

168

HERE IS TELEVISION

constantly. A flat gray wall gives the best background for the
actor but an unadorned flat wall does not make a believable
setting. Scenery should also be designed to allow for the proper
placing of properties. Very effective results may be attained
through proper use of curtains, drapes, and pictures. A general
rule is that the more true to life your set is, the better it will
reproduce. Placement of pictures is important for the edge of
a pictured frame in a close-up is almost as bad as the aforemen
tioned cloud.

An effective interior from "Ode to Liberty.'

In planning your production you need to consider the relation
of your sets to each other in the studio. If you move from set
number one to number two, back to one and then to number
three you must so place them that your cameras are in such rela
tion to each other, and to the sets, that the operation can be
made smoothly and efficiently. Remember that the camera co
axial output leads are permanently installed somewhere in the

DRAMA 169

wall of the studio and because of this, camera relations to each
other must remain the same throughout the performance. If
camera #1 is on the right of camera #2 at the start of the pro
gram, it must remain there throughout the performance. It is
of course physically possible to lift the coaxial cable that feeds
#1 over the top of camera #2 but such an operation usually leads
to complete confusion before the program is over. Consequently,
if cameras work from the center of a studio and the scenery is
set around the cameras against the walls there is no physical
problem that cannot be worked out efficiently, if it is planned
correctly in advance.

Building the Production

With our script adapted and the production planned at least
in the director's mind, it is time to call in the working depart
ment heads. This meeting should include the scenic designer, the
chief carpenter and the top cameraman. The earlier in program
planning that the various production units know the overall
problem, the easier the whole program will go together. It may
be that some directors will turn the whole production over to the
studio manager to a designer or some other responsible depart
ment head but no matter what the procedure the practical an
swers to lights, cameras, properties, actors' requirements, and
pickup facilities must all be considered.

In planning the production your designer must consider con
stantly the audience's reaction to what they will see. Your bed
room must be individual enough to constantly distinguish it
from the living room, so that if you suddenly cut from one room
to another it is immediately evident in the minds of the audience,
which room they are seeing. Angles seem to help television sets,
particularly jogs and corners. Instead of planning your set with
long flat areas, break it up with small-sized pieces of scenery. A
room set on an angle to the cameras gives you better results than
one directly facing them and it generally helps you on your studio
space. Rather than a plain three-walled set as is indicated in
plan A, a set constructed along the lines suggested in plan B
would probably give better results.

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HERE IS TELEVISION

Remember in general you are unable to make reverse angle
shots as is done in the movies. There is no way for you to take
down half the wall and shoot from the back of the set toward the
front wall. You have the same limitations as the theatre in this
respect. You must always look at your actors from the front. To

PLAN "A"

Backing

Window
I 1

Arch

PLAN "B

COMPARATIVE SCENERY ARRANGEMENTS

DRAMA , 171

overcome this limitation ingenious scenic plots have been de
vised. In one production a large picture on the wall was mounted
in such a way that it covered a large hole in the scenery. During
the action of the play it was removed, the camera was moved in
behind the set and an effective reverse angle shot was made. This
operation required special planning for in ordinary programs if
a shot of this kind were attempted the lights would be facing the
camera and your lighting must be right or you haven't a good
picture.

With the details worked out you turn your production over
to your building crews. They must build and paint the scenery
so that on the day of the first camera rerlearsal it can be brought
into the studio complete in every detail.

Stage Properties

You must check your property list and turn it over to your
property man. Every single article to be used must be listed and
sometimes they seem to be legion. Pictures, drapes, curtains, car
pets, electric fixtures, lamps, furniture, and hand props.

You must remember that the scenery has a tendency to act
like a sounding board. The minute you bring tightly stretched
canvas on a frame into your studio you liven the sound quality
of the studio as a whole immeasurably. As previously mentioned
a carpet will help to deaden this overall liveness.

In furniture do not use dark pieces if you can avoid it. Stay
on the light side, for dark furniture simply absorbs your light.
You are constantly striving for naturalness without too much
contrast in subject matter. Dark pianos are a liability, gray or
unfinished light wood give far the best picture results. Do not
use bulky heavy pieces of furniture and stay away from low
chairs. A tall man standing beside anyone seated in a low chair
makes a good close-up impossible. A short leading lady and a tall
leading man will not be a good television combination, from the
point of view of close camera work, as their faces are physically
too far apart.

Everything that is to be used in the program must be checked.
What titles will you use and how will they be presented? This
means a conference with your title experts and complete instruc-

172 HERE IS TELEVISION

tions. If you plan to use still pictures either in the studio or
from your slide projector they must be arranged for and some
one assigned to see that they are ready on the day of the broad
cast.

Motion Pictures As an Adjunct to Studio Drama

If you are planning any motion picture sequences, now is the
time to arrange everything you will need. There is a very definite
value in using film in conjunction with live studio dramatic
plays for you immediately broaden your scope tremendously but
you also increase your production costs, particularly if the mo
tion picture sequence is made especially for a specific production.

As the director you must make the decision as to whether the
costs are worth the results to be gained. Also remember that
anything shot on film especially for any one live-talent studio
program, is forever lost unless you again assemble the same cast
for a repeat performance.. Unquestionably the use of film is good
but the cost is the decisive factor.

Let's look at a few examples. In one production the first scene
was in London, the second in Egypt. As we faded out our first
scene, on the line— "I'll meet you in Cairo," we faded in on a
motion picture of Egyptian boats on the Nile. Then we saw the
pyramids, the Sphinx and a street scene in Cairo with its innu
merable bazaars. We duplicated, in the studio, one of the little
shops in the picture. Thus our flow of visual continuity was
good. The motion picture (about one minute) gave our leading
man time to change his clothes and the overall results accom
plished were decidedly worthwhile. The film was a series of
"stock shots" and relatively inexpensive.

In another program we were presenting a television adaptation
of a full length play. On the stage, the big climax of the third
act occurred when several characters listened to a prize-fight, in
which the hero was fighting, over the radio. Obviously we could
have done the same thing quite easily but we wanted to show
the fight. To heighten the visual interest, we wanted the audi
ence to see the fight taking place. It was utterly impossible to
stage the fight in the studio as it was filled completely with the

DRAMA

173

sets for the other acts in the play. So a few days before the pro
gram was to be broadcast, we put up a fight ring in the studio
and the actors who were to take part in the live television per
formance enacted the fight scene, before a movie camera.
Theatrically the final effect was perfect as we flashed to the fight
just as the radio announcer started to describe it. Economically
there remained several hundred feet of film showing a prize fight
that was shown once and will probably never be shown again.
But when we consider that a live television program, once broad
cast, is gone forever, a few strips of film are unimportant.

In another play, a Sherlock Holmes story, we closed one scene
as Dr. Watson said over the telephone, "We'll be there this eve
ning." While he and Sherlock Holmes changed their clothes, we
faded in a film sequence. We saw them in a hansom cab on their
way to their appointment. They pulled up in front of the house,
paid the cabby and entered the outside door of a lodging house.
Just as the door shut, we switched back to the studio and saw
the two men as they came to the hallway door and rang the bell

Interior of a WPIX studio.

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HERE IS TELEVISION

of the apartment they were searching for. We felt the movie
sequence was more than worth the cost involved as it gave added
interest to the picture and a touch of realism that we couldn't
attain in the studio.

Casting

With the production underway the cast must be decided on.
The actors to be selected must first be able to play the parts
assigned to them and, as on the stage and in pictures, they must
look the part and they must be able to memorize their lines.
Television casting is visual casting. While the actors' voices are
important, their appearance is even more so.

Your first rehearsals will probably be far removed from your
television studio and your script may be utterly devoid of camera
instructions. Many writers feel that they cannot write for tele
vision without a television script in front of them. This is not
necessary and many directors would much prefer that an author
submit his first script in play form, without any attempt to indi-

A scene from the television premier of "Susan and God" with Nancy Coleman.
Gertrude Lawrence, and Paul McGrath.

DRAMA 175

cate how cameras will be used. As authors gain experience in
writing for this medium they may want to indicate possible cam
era shots but the final pictorial job is up to the director and too
many early directions only tend to confuse.

The Rehearsal

Just how a script is worked out with regards to cameras is up
to each individual director. He should of course go into his first
rehearsal with most of his camera angles tentatively blocked out,
otherwise it would be impossible to give intelligent stage direc
tions to his actors. But just when he will switch, on what line
or piece of business can best be determined at rehearsal. Actually
a good television director learns his script at rehearsal just as the
actors do, but while they study lines, he studies camera positions,
visual effects, and composition.

Movement of actors in a television set is sometimes vastly dif
ferent than it is on the stage. Business of course must always be
natural but often a good stage director will give actors crosses or
movements to break up a scene. Two people should not just sit
and talk for too long a time in one position. Here is where the
television director has an advantage over his brother in the
theater, for he can not only move the actors— he can also move
the audience. If a scene tends to become monotonous from one
angle he simply switches to another camera. Instead of having
an actor move to a position behind the leading woman, to give a
different point of view to the audience, he moves his camera and
we see our leading lady over the shoulder of our leading man.

Our first rehearsal will, for the most part, be identical with
one for a theatrical performance. We indicate the scenery walls
with chairs or other means of marking off our space on the re
hearsal hall floor. Furniture is placed as nearly as possible in
the position it will occupy when the play goes on the air. Doors
and windows are located and we begin our first "walk through"
of the play.

The size of the sets will depend on the space in the studio and
the approach the director plans to use in presenting his play.
There has been some confusion in the minds of many people

176 HERE IS TELEVISION

unfamiliar with television production. Some of them have la
bored under the delusion that all settings must be small, because
of limitations of the television camera. This is not true. The
majority of settings have been small but only because of limited
space in the studio. Sets can be as large as a director wants them
to be as far as camera "pickup" is concerned but if he plans to
show a large portion of a room in one shot the larger the room
the further away his camera must be and the smaller the actors
will appear on a television screen. The limiting factor in set size
is the size of the studio and the size of the viewing screen.

In a television presentation of a scene from the Broadway suc
cess "Susan and God," we exactly duplicated the set used in the
Broadway production with the exception that we made the set
narrower by about ten feet as our studio was not as wide as the
theater stage. In this set, the theater cast played the scene just
as they did it on Broadway and the television results were highly
satisfactory.

In presenting the complete Broadway play "When We Are
Married" practically nothing was changed from the stage pro
duction. The theater set was duplicated in the studio except
again because of space the set was not quite as wide, but none of
the stage business was altered except in two scenes where it was
found advisable to bring the actors closer together for pictorial
reasons.

Proper Use of Cameras

In a stage production it is considered good theater technique,
in a scene with many people on the stage, to have lines spoken
by actors from various parts of the stage. This is particularly true
in a scene where all the characters are involved. Actor A at stage
center may ask a question that may be answered by actress B at
extreme stage R and the next line may come from actor C at
extreme L. This is not particularly good in television. Usually
a director plans his camera shots so that camera #1 has a fairly
long shot of two or three actors. He thus can keep the relative
positions of actors, to each other, in the minds of the audience.
His other two cameras will probably be situated so that he can
take close-up shots of individual actors as they speak. If the

DRAMA , 177

actors are spread all over the stage it is difficult in a general
scene to keep the visual continuity clear. It is much better to
have people relatively close together and if necessary take a line
from one actor who may be out of camera range and give it to
Another rather than upset the camera routine, and more specifi
cally, the sound which is picked up by the overhead boom. It is
almost impossible to swing the boom microphone from one side
of a set to another quickly, so Unless additional microphones are
available, thought must constantly be given to the sound pickup
and actors in any given scene must not be too far apart. The
value of close-ups must not be forgotten. Some directors have
successfully presented a full length play entirely in close-up.

Accepted camera work in general requires an overall shot of
the basic scene early in the program. This establishing shot gives
the audience a picture of the scene as a whole. They see, for
example, the kind of room and the location of the doors and
windows as well as the furniture, so that the close-ups that follow
can be readily placed with relation to objects in the room. The
establishing shot need not necessarily be the opening shot. It
is perfectly good technique to start your program with a close-up
as was discussed in Chapter Five, but the camera should pull
back for a long shot after a short interval so that the audience
may know where the close-up is taking place. Again you may
reverse this procedure by opening with a long shot and then
dolly in for your close-ups.

The many possibilities that are open to a director particularly
as they apply to camera switching should not be abused; unfor
tunately they have been in many cases. At present lap dissolves,
instantaneous switches, and fades are available in the best tele
vision studios. In the not too distant future we will probably see
wipes of all descriptions made possible. But many a good per
formance has been handicapped by injudicious use of facilities,
Lap dissolves and fades should only be used when the progres
sion of the story needs them. There is no hard and fast rule, but
straight fast cuts are better in a dramatic scene, when we switch
from character to character, than either fades or lap dissolves.
Either of these latter too may be used effectively when there is
a lapse or passage of time or we come to the end of a scene, but

178 HERE IS TELEVISION

they should not be used continually throughout a performance.

Getting Ready to Face the Camera

Our main objective of course in our pre-studio rehearsals is to
set the show as nearly as we possibly can to what it will be on
the air; then, when we go into our camera rehearsal, the majority
of our problems relating to stage movements by actors and their
relation to each other and to the various cameras are already

Television cameras from the actor's point of view.

DRAMA , 179

behind us. Obviously we can only go so far without the cameras,
but the more we accomplish the better. The first and most im
portant thing that must be done at rehearsal is for the actors to
learn their lines and stage positions. When you move into the
studio you have no time for mistakes in lines or lapses of memory
on the part of the cast. In almost all cases the lines motivate
the show, that is, the speed at which lines are read governs the
picture work. Of course there are exceptions, particularly where
special camera shots are to be used, but in general, if the lines
stop, so does the program, and switching cues must be based on
the lines and movements of the actors.

It takes experience for any director to mentally picture the
results he will get on his cameras. He must know the approxi
mate coverage of his lenses or he may find his close-up camera
in his long shot and actors completely out of a scene. He must
know his approximate depth of focus and he must estimate his
camera angles and picture content. The closer a director can
estimate his final results the more time he can save in his final
camera rehearsal. It seems possible that a dummy camera could
be built by means of which a director using various openings
in a mask might see the almost exact results, as far as camera
coverage is concerned, that he would get from his various lenses.
Some sort of system of this kind should be of tremendous help
at pre-camera rehearsals. Proper sized masked openings to give
the same size picture as the camera should be fairly simple to
work out. With these "lens fields" a director could know just
how far away from his actors his cameras should be and he could
set the positions of his people much more definitely than he
could by guess work.

The length of the rehearsal period will depend on the length
of the play and the caliber of the actors. For a full hour perform
ance we usually started our television rehearsals a week or ten
days before the broadcast. We would go completely through the
play on three successive days, then omit a day or two to give the
actors time to study, and then continue with rehearsals up to
the day of the broadcast. All in all we would go through the
play six or seven times before we went into our studio for our
camera and dress rehearsal. If experienced actors can gain com-

180 HERE IS TELEVISION

plete knowledge of the program in a shorter time there is no set
rule and program directors should plan their rehearsal schedules
accordingly.

No one can say now, what the final ratio of rehearsal time to
time on the air will be. Obviously the more involved programs
will take more rehearsal than simple ones but in general straight
one hour dramatic programs that are done properly require
about twelve hours of pre-studio rehearsal and around eight
hours with cameras for a total of twenty to one. Again this is an
approximate figure but it is at least a guide to the time that may
be necessary.

Actors

The demands on actors in television are probably going to
parallel those of the other visual arts. Television rehearsals are
much more like those in the theatre than in radio. The necessity
of finding an actor who can look the part as well as play it is
going to increase the casting difficulties of the director and limit
the possibilities of jobs for many radio actors. The basis of their
remuneration will be worked out from a new premise. In radio,
the basis of pay for actors is based on the time they spend in the
studio and their ability to read lines. They come to the studio, they
are given a typewritten manuscript and after reading it through
at one or more rehearsals, they read it during the broadcast. In
television it does not seem that the radio approach is the final
solution to actor-employer relations. Too many requirements,
other than time and dramatic ability, enter into a possible tele
vision contract. Time of course is important and a television
program properly rehearsed and produced will run into astro
nomical figures as compared to radio. As mentioned before, the
actor, aside from the time he spends in the studio, must learn
his part. Who can say how long it will take individual actors to
accomplish this? Aside from their ability to study and play the
part there are other things to consider. Actors will have to look
the part. The old Broadway bug-a-boo of "sorry you are not
quite the type" will be back with a vengeance. Posture, personal
ity and looks are going to be the key on which an actor's future

DRAMA 181

will depend almost as much as histronic ability. Costumes,
make-up and hair dressing are all going to enter into a television
program. Television is Broadway and Hollywood far more than
it is Radio City.

Special Techniques

At our rehearsals we must also plan pieces of business necessi
tated by special camera effects or other presentation problems.
In one performance we had a "cut back" and it was necessary
for the principle actor to close one scene in a tuxedo and open
the next scene in street dress, with no lapse of time. The first
scene ended with a long speech by our leading man directed to
another central character. Both scenes involved were fairly short,
so we compromised on the trousers. He wore his tuxedo jacket,
shirt, collar and tie but dark street trousers. The scene was di
rected in close-up and the audience never saw him in this se
quence below the waist. We established the scene, by showing
our leading man seated on a couch before a fireplace talking to
a man standing with his back to the fireplace. We showed several
close-ups of both men and a final close-up of our leading man
and then as he began his last speech we cut to a close-up of the
other actor who faced the speaker. The minute we switched to
the other character our leading man left his position, crossing
to a temporary dressing room in the studio. There he continued
his speech as the boom "mike" went with him but while he spoke
he removed his evening coat, collar, and tie and slipped on an
other collar, tie, and street coat, while we watched the reactions
to his speech on the face of the actor in front of the fireplace.
Our leading man then took his position for the next scene. We
faded out his voice at the end of the scene and the actor we
had been watching and faded in on our leading man as he said,
"That's just the way it happened."

I will admit that it was a difficult job for an actor. To change
coat, tie and collar while delivering a highly dramatic speech
should test the histronic ability of even the best of them but the
whole thing was effective and highly successful. Actors will prob
ably be called upon to do many strange things in television. So

182 HERE IS TELEVISION

far they have certainly been martyrs. They have worked under
hot lights in winter costumes, accepted and handled last minute
changes in stage directions because of equipment failures and
undergone hours of rehearsal, and have come up smiling. In
one production an actress in an emotional scene dropped her
head on her arms and leaned sobbing on a metal table. As she
lifted her arms she found that she had left a long strip of skin
on the table top. That is how hot it was under early television
lights but it was the exception and not the rule. It is not easy to
remember lines in front of television cameras. One actor, after
his first performance said, "Never again. It's impossible. Those
cameras are like one-eyed prehistoric monsters creeping up on
you out of the darkness. The lights blind you. The microphone
boom most of the time just grazed my head. No— I can't do my
best in this medium." But when his friends and critics told him
how successful the show was and congratulated him on the job
he did, he was right back ready for more the next day. But tele
vision is now, and for some time in the future will remain, a
very difficult job.

Another handicap from an actor's point of view is his lack of
contact with the audience. As in motion pictures he never hears
the applause for a job well done. If it is on film he at least can
see himself as others see him but in a live broadcast he has to
take the other fellow's word for his ability.

The Final Rehearsal

The day of the broadcast finally arrives, and the director sees
for the first time everything he is to use in the performance
assembled in one place. To a director the morning of a broad
cast, particularly of a full length play is always a thrilling time.
The sets are up, the camera crew and actors are in the studio
and the long grind of whipping the production into shape begins.
The camera crew and stage manager don their telephone head
sets and the cameraman is ready to roll the camera into position
for the first shot. The procedure all through the performance is
the same as was outlined in Chapter Five. With the first three
shots previewed, if it is a three camera job, the rehearsal starts.

It is now that you learn for the first time whether or not every-

DRAMA 183

thing you have planned and rehearsed in your early sessions will
work the way you want it to. If something unforeseen happens
to spoil a shot, then actors' positions or camera routine must be
changed. Many times you find that you have a better shot on
camera #2 than the one you had planned to use on #3. Of course
this means a change in your camera switching and if you follow
it through you find it just can't be done. Or you may suddenly
be aware that a shot you had figured to make one way is much
better from an entirely different angle. If stops occur for any
reason you must go back and lead into the scene in question as
time— time for cameras to change position, time for actors to
cross, time for actors to change costumes, is the essence of a live
television broadcast.

And so on through the play you go, with every camera shot
carefully worked out and so indicated in the script; for you must
be able to duplicate everything you do at rehearsal when you take
the air in the evening. No two productions are ever exactly alike,
each one presents new problems; but as you grow in television
you learn the basic methods and the individual situations are
easily met.

You will probably schedule your dress rehearsal in the after
noon, some time after luncheon, depending on the length of
time consumed in your first camera run through, which was your
biggest hurdle. Once you have gone through the play and you
know that all your camera shots are possible and interesting, the
dress rehearsal and the performance are simply a repetition but
they must be perfect in detail and execution.

Live studio dramatic television programs are not easy. There
is hard work for every single person who is a part of the produc
tion. They must do their jobs, just the right way at just the
right time; but perfect studio co-ordination results in programs
that are interesting and entertaining.

Before we leave the subject of dramatic television programs
let us remember first that two people talking do not necessarily
make a good program. Long scenes with little or no action sim
ply will not hold the visual attention of the audience. Your script
must be good theater or it will never be good television. Its sub
ject matter may cover any interesting topic. It may be serious

184 HERE IS TELEVISION

drama, comedy, or farce, but by and large comedy dramas are the
favorite with strong dramas and mystery stories a close second.
The element of surprise is a valuable asset in any dramatic work
and it lends itself well to television plays.

Character studies are not particularly good unless the central
character is played by an artist of outstanding ability. Television
drama needs action. Not the broad action of early movies but
definite plot development. People must do things, not just sit
and talk. The extent to which an action or a happening is pic-
turized will depend of course on studio facilities, but in a story
that is built, let us say, around an automobile accident, we must
see the accident. We cannot simply describe it. The same is true
of a major plot situation. It would be better not to do the story
than to present it in such a way that the pictorial value is lost.

Drama of one sort or another will probably take the place in
television that music has held in radio. Programs of this kind
will require thousands of trained men and women. Writers, di
rectors, scenic designers, painters, carpenters, stage crews, elec
tricians, engineers, cameramen, actors, musicians, make-up men,
and costumers. In short, television will need everything that
Hollywood needs and a lot more of it.

17
MUSICAL PROGRAMS

Just what place music will eventually take in television is a
question that time alone can answer. It will undoubtedly be
important but whether it will ever hold the position in television
that it holds in radio is another matter. Music has always been
the mainstay of radio. On many stations before the war musical
programs provided as much as seventy percent of the programs
broadcast. This ratio dropped during the war because of the
public interest in news, but music was always the number one
radio feature. Music does not appeal greatly to the visual sense.

Many people close their eyes at a concert in order to better
appreciate the music. So why should we expect our music lovers,

MUSICAL PROGRAMS 185

and they are the ones to be considered, to watch with eager-eyed
absorption while an oboe player, a violinist, or a tuba player
performs?

There are those who say that to see a great artist playing any
instrument would be their idea of perfect enjoyment. We have
no argument with them. Certainly every one wants to see the
great artists as well as hear them; but the vast majority of our
radio musical programs are played by good musicians, not stars,
and we must consider this when we try to visualize hours of
musical programs on television.

The motion picture industry realizes the value of music but
musical pictures where the basic subject matter is an orchestra
playing are few and far between. It seems reasonable to assume
that music in television will be as important as it is in the en
tertainment world in general, exclusive of radio. Music will al
ways be vital to many television programs, but it must relinquish
the spotlight.

Many musical programs have been tried and the outlook is far
from discouraging. On early programs solo artists were pre
sented; many are still seen today and their value as television
material seems to rest entirely with the artists themselves. Musi
cians have nothing to fear from television but they are valuable
visually as much for their reputation as for their visual appeal.
An early program which featured a harpist had certain valuable
visual effects. We saw her hands on the strings as well as inter
esting shots of her face through the strings, but as solid visual
entertainment an "act" of this kind is limited. Telegenic per
formers will always have an advantage over those not so fortunate
but ability in presentations of this kind will still be the final
answer.

Small Musical Units

Musical groups are not easy to make visually interesting. A
string quartette was never assembled as visual entertainment.
Spanish musical groups had a certain element of pictorial value
when television was young. The viewers remark "Look, you can
see his hands actually playing the guitar" doesn't mean much
today. In short, if we are to use music as a basis for television

186 HERE IS TELEVISION

programs, we must combine it with other entertainment ele
ments; when this is done a great deal is possible.

Let us look at other musical features that have been tried on
television. The quartette is a snare and a delusion from a pic
torial point of view. As a producer you are constantly faced with
the three to four ratio of picture size. If you have four men
singing side by side you pull your camera back to include all four
and your picture ratio, if you fill the screen from side to side,
will cut them off somewhere around their knees. This size picture
is only interesting for a very short time as the audience will want
a close-up. You find that a close-up of the second tenor will prob
ably include the ear of the top tenor and half the face of the
baritone. So you start all over and put two men in front and
two behind. This allows you to get closer for your medium shot
and still have your men slightly separated from each other on
their close-up.

In this discussion we have assumed that we must bring our
singing groups into close-up. Perhaps we shouldn't even attempt
to do this. In a musical program should we attempt to use our
television camera as we would a pair of opera glasses or should
we only strive for the overall picture? If we were to attend a
performance at a large New York Theater and were seated in the
mezzanine, what would we see? It might be a group of singers
in a special setting, a huge window perhaps under which small
figures of men sang very lovely music. We could count the num
ber of figures in the group but we probably could not distinguish
a single face. Pictorially, the overall effect might be perfect, but
the artists as individuals would be beyond our perception. Per
haps we should treat our television singing groups the same way
and strive only for the effect achieved in an overall picture. We
can only say "perhaps," for experience has shown that our audi
ence would not consent to continual treatment of this order, but
it is only fair to point out that we are asking our television pic
ture to bring us details that we would not see if we were in the
theater in person unless we were in the first five rows of the
orchestra section.

An artist at a piano has a little better chance than a vocal solo
ist, for we do have some action and keyboard technique is of

MUSICAL PROGRAMS

187

interest to anyone who appreciates music. The biggest problem
here is the matter of focal depth. A real close shot of an artist's
hands on the keyboard requires constant panning because of the
focal limits of the camera lens. If you pull back far enough to
get the whole keyboard in focus the over all picture composition
is bad as you must shoot at an angle because of the position of
the artist in front of the piano.

Two pianos offer just twice as much trouble as one. Nested
grand pianos force your camera way back and both artists are
much too small if you attempt to show the whole unit. If you
sit the two artists back to back you again run into trouble in
artistic composition.

The use of several cameras will help pickups of this kind; but,
after all, do we heighten the musical enjoyment by constantly
switching from one camera to another? Perhaps we should treat
the artists pictorially in the same way that we would see them

Olga Lunick, dancer, in an unusual set by James McNaughton at WCBW.

188 HERE IS TELEVISION

if we were at a concert in person; that is, decide on a good pic
ture position and hold it without any attempt at camera gymnas
tics. Again we come back to the question as to whether a viewer
would watch a program of this kind in preference to a highly
visual program on a competitive station. The answer rests en
tirely with the personal likes and dislikes of the individual
viewer.

Dancing

Dancers may furnish the visual interest that puts music across
on television. Dancing was a lost art in radio but it may very
easily come back into its own now. Every sort of dance is prima
rily visual entertainment* Folk dances, tap, ballroom, soft shoe
and even ballet lend themselves to television. We have seen Bill
Robinson tapping out his stair dance, and ballerinas in their best
rendition of rhythmic excellence. From lessons in every form
of dancing we may travel to performances by the stars.

Musical Comedy

In musical entertainment that is built around plot develop
ment we have a totally different picture. Musical comedies, light
operas and operettas will fill a spot on television that will be
just as important as the place they have filled on the stage and
in the movies. But just as entertainment of that kind is more
expensive to produce in other fields, so will it be far more costly
on television than straight dramatic programs. In a musical pro
duction you have all the costs of a dramatic show— scenery, cos
tumes and actors— plus an orchestra and singing and dancing
chorus. This means that programs of this kind will probably not
be numerous for some time to come. The orchestra, singers, and
dancers almost double the price of a dramatic production. Good
programs of this kind have been, perhaps, the highlights of en
tertainment schedules, but as yet we have not reached the com
petitive position in station operation where they are necessary
to hold an audience.

In this country relatively few complete musical productions
have been attempted, particularly those that have lasted an hour
or more in length. Some of the first few were "The Pirates of

MUSICAL PROGRAMS 189

Penzance," "Topsy and Eva," "H.M.S. Pinafore" and an original
work entitled "The Boys from Boise." All of these have proved
conclusively that musicals will find their place in television pro
grams. When we realize the wealth of material that may be
presented we can only hope the time will come soon when the
audience will demand them. Hundreds of successful musicals of
the past will be seen on tomorrow's schedule.

The production problems are similar in general to a dramatic
program but more thought must be given to the work of adapting
the material for television presentation. In most musicals we
find more scenes than we ordinarily find in dramas and studio
limitations will necessitate intelligent planning. If a chorus is to
be used more space must be allowed in the studio. So far the
number of dancers that can be shown well is limited, unless we
are content with an overall picture. Television will probably
develop choreographers who will specialize in this medium. Al
ready artists are endeavoring to design sets that will provide
space and still not prevent good close-ups. A drop that looks well
behind a group of dancers may be entirely unsuited for a close-up.
In "The Pirates of Penzance" the overall picture of the rocky
glen was very good but the detail was bad in close-up scenes as
the rocks lost their realism when we saw only part of them. This
is a problem that can and will be corrected, but it is one of
which we must not lose sight.

The fact that singers must be able to act, or if you prefer that
actors must sing, puts more demands on the cast. The close-ups
are going to require personable, attractive artists. The pre-studio
preparation may take longer than drama, for music and dance
routines as well as the dramatic lines must be rehearsed. Once
the production is ready for the camera rehearsal, the procedure
is the same as for a straight dramatic show as far as camera work
is concerned, the only variation being that the orchestra must
be so placed in the studio that the sound pickup is satisfactory
and the conductor can see the singers. Good camera work will
do a great deal toward making old favorites live again. The
intimacy of television helps to a great extent in "putting the show
over" if that fact is considered when the production first goes
into rehearsal.

190

HERE IS TELEVISION

Opera

Television may be the medium that changes the popular think
ing with regard to opera. Let us assume there are three schools
of thought on this important subject. One is that Grand Opera
should only be produced in a Grand Opera House with a full
orchestra, and if it can be picked up in that setting by means of
mobile cameras— then and then only should it be televised. An
other group maintains that opera should be streamlined, that it
should take off its "top hat" and be modernized. The third group
feels that opera should be presented in the best manner possible,
but that it should be presented regardless of the lack of produc
tion facilities. They feel opera will stand on its own feet in spite
of the limiting factors in present day television. We will not
attempt to take sides in this issue but will try and discuss them
all fairly for each has merit.

Lois Eastman and John Hamill in "La Boh£me."

MUSICAL PROGRAMS 191

Unquestionably a good way to pick up an opera would be from
a great theater. The orchestra, the diamond horseshoe, the
patrons, the gallery, and the rank and file of music lovers attend
ing a performance, would all add color to an operatic presenta
tion; but when we stop and consider the handicaps that present
themselves in a program of this kind, we wonder if it is the final
answer. Operatic programs have been picked up from the Metro
politan Opera House in New York. They had a definite program
value but any camera and sound installation for a pickup of a
performance that is being done for a theatre audience that has
paid admission to see the show must give way to those attending.
This requirement limits the television broadcast in many ways.
Those that have been made under these conditions tend to take
on the flavor of a reporting job. The theater audience takes
precedence over the home audience. The intermissions slow the
program. Camera positions and the resulting pictures are not
what they would be in a program planned for the home. Special
lighting installations have to be made for few of us stop to think
how many operatic scenes are presented in soft blue lights. They
can not be played in white light that would be suitable for tele
vision for the effect in the theatre would be lost. Some pickups
of this kind have been made with supplementary infra-red lights
which did not hurt the pictorial appeal in the theatre and made
a television picture possible but the lighting effects that could
have been attained on the home receiver if the television results
alone had been the only consideration, were not achieved. We
saw the opera as it was presented at the "Met" but it was not a
television program designed for television viewing.

The second idea, that of streamlining the opera or moderniz
ing it, is an approach that will vary considerably in the doing
and the final result can only be answered by the individual who
works out a given story. Actually very little has been done but
many music lovers, who are aware of what television can do,
are thinking along these lines. In the theater, Billy Rose's pro
duction of Carmen Jones which was a modernized performance
of Bizet's "Carmen" enacted by an all colored cast in modern
dress is a sample of what might be accomplished. In television
we have seen some operatic productions when the story was in-

192 HERE IS TELEVISION

troduced by a composer at his desk. He gave us the necessary
plot, so that when our first scene came on the screen the action
flowed normally and well. Concise adaptations that retain the
important musical passages will probably find favor, but we need
adaptors and directors who know both the opera and television
before the final possibilities of this approach can be determined.

The third idea, opera as it is presented from a television studio
has had by far the most experimentation. The audience reaction
has been favorable for the most part, depending entirely on the
ability of the artists appearing. Test programs were broadcast
with small groups who were "up" in scenes from the operas and
they proved that operatic excerpts could be made interesting
visually as well as musically. The top achievement along these
lines was the especially prepared version of Leoncavallo's "Pag-
liacci." The settings followed those usually seen in the theater
and the roles were sung by a selected group from the Metropoli
tan Opera Company. More recently an hour and a half produc
tion with a full cast of outstanding operatic stars singing the roles
in a performance especially tailored for television found almost
universal approval. There is much that can be done in this field
for proper use of cameras does a great deal to enhance the enter
tainment value of the great operatic works.

Hollywood has as yet done very little with opera. There is
of course apathy on the part of many people to grand opera but
television may be the medium that will popularize this form of
entertainment. Television can do it, if anything can.

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From opera to swing music is a broad jump but television
takes it in its stride. Just how completely popular dance bands
will hold a visual audience is at yet a moot question. So far,
just as in motion picture shorts, the bands that have been tele
vised have presented the routine that they do on the motion pic
ture theater stages of America. Just how interesting they will be
to viewers at home remains to be seen. People crowd into thea
ters to see their favorite radio bands; but will they sit at their
receivers and watch musicians play and singers sing? It is of
course interesting to see a name band leader at work, to see the

MUSICAL PROGRAMS 193

trio, the quartette, the soloists, and the orchestra; but it may
well be that a definite visual routine or many pictorial ap
proaches, must be worked out, if we are to watch a band week
after week.

The hillbilly type of orchestra has much more visual appeal
than a straight dance band. The costumes, the personalities of
the individual performers, even the music, allow for a more inter
esting picture. The performer who plays a chorus by deflating a
balloon, the musical saw performer, the hot slap bass player, and
the trick trap drummer all are interesting to watch. Musical
glasses may become a standard instrument in groups of this kind,
just as the "jug bass" is now. But a good group can be and has
proved very interesting musical material.

Visual Music

There is a totally different approach to the visual side of music
that may open up new fields. This is best exemplified in the
light organ. This machine has had very little publicity but it
may come into prominence with the advent of television. Several
means of illustrating moods with varying shades and patterns of
lights have been worked out. The easiest to describe is the old-
fashioned kaleidoscope. These instruments have been so mod
ernized and adapted that we may follow the melody of a song
through variations of light. We see perhaps a dull gray as the
orchestra strikes a somber opening cord. Then as the violins
come in— points of light appear and travel across the screen of
our receiver in time with the music. Undulating, twisting, fad
ing, approaching. Brilliant now when we hear a bold passage,
soft and hazy as the music drops to a minor melody. What Walt
Disney did in "Fantasia" is a sample of what might be done. It
is possible that when we tune in on our favorite orchestra for a
strictly musical program we will see the mood of the music car
ried out in moving patterns of light on our receiver; and when
color finally comes, who will want to watch the performers?
Whether the result is accomplished by means of kaleidoscopes,
light organs, or film animation is not important— the main thing
is that developments of this kind are very interesting to look at
and they will mean a great deal to music on television.

194 HERE IS TELEVISION

We might also give some thought to the old illustrated songs
of the early 1900's. It may be that we will see songs enacted, with
living actors carrying out the story and embellishing the song,
utilizing the approach that we used to see on lantern slides. It
is something to think about. The community sing may become
popular with the words of a song shown to us on our television
screen as we used to have them in the motion picture theater
while the organist played the popular melodies.

So far in television we have tried to present existing musical
approaches as they have been worked out for the home, the dance
floor, or the theater. There surely will be vast opportunities to
experiment with music and pictures for television alone.

18
PUPPETS

Puppets are rapidly finding a place for themselves in television.
The possibilities that this type of visual entertainment opens up
are enormous. They compare favorably with many animated
cartoons. They may in fact challenge real live actors. But this
type of program material needs lots of special preparation, not
only in the development of individual programs but also in work
ing out a way to present these dolls effectively to the television
audience, and to be effective we must go far beyond anything that
has been done along these lines in ordinary performances.

The majority of theatrical people know very little about pup
pets, but even a superficial investigation is interesting. In reality
there are two schools. Those interested in puppets, which are
the hand-operated dolls and the others who specialize in marion-
nettes which are manikins worked by strings or wires. In general
puppets are placed upon the operators hand and the operator
works below the puppet. The old Punch and Judy shows were
true puppet performances. Marionettes on the other hand are
worked from above. In most cases the operators favor one school
or the other, and devote most of their efforts to developing the
type of manikin they favor. Many puppet plays have been writ
ten. Some of them go back to antiquity, but television has

PUPPETS , 195

already brought puppetry into the limelight of home entertain
ment. The success of programs already on the air will bring
many more.

When we first attempted to present marionettes on television,
operators insisted on bringing involved miniature stages into
the television studio. All this theatrical paraphernalia is neces
sary when the show is presented to a live audience. Then the
proscenium arch and the special stage with its overhead platform
for the operators are needed; but in television most of this could
be eliminated. On the stage or in an auditorium the whole per
formance must be planned as a consecutive flowing unit in one
location but we can forget many physical limitations in the tele
vision studio.

The Television Approach

We once televised a unit with a very involved program de
signed for the vaudeville stage which took about 240 square feet
of studio space. The whole show could have been presented in
a special television "setup" in half that space and much expen
sive gear might have been eliminated.

A marionette or puppet show is frequently interesting to a
live audience because they are constantly reminded of the small
size of the manikins. The audience is fully aware that they are
watching a puppet show because they see at all times the small
stage situated in a room of normal size. And this factor adds
considerably to the entertainment value of the show as a whole.
But on the television screen we completely lose our sense of pro
portions. The television camera frames the picture. While it is
sometimes advisable to have a front curtain, wings or a prosce
nium arch are completely unnecessary as we can only see as far to
the side as the television camera allows us to see. If we pull back
on a long shot of a marionette to include its full height, regard
less of what that height may be, we see the puppet on the tele
vision screen in exactly the same proportion as we would see a
human actor. If we see a puppet from his head to his toes he
will appear on our screen in exactly the same size as we would
see a living actor if we photographed him from head to feet.

And this fact changes the program problem for marionettes
and puppets in television with this basic exception: if an oper-

196 HERE IS TELEVISION

ator appears in the television picture with his marionette we
view the act from the same point of view as an audience attend
ing a puppet show in real life. We are constantly reminded of
the size of the marionette through comparison with the manipu
lator. Some operators have special acts in which they manipulate
the little figures while dancing. And of course Charlie Mc
Carthy wouldn't be worth much without Bergen. Acts of this
type are the exception, for our television puppet shows of tomor
row will, in all probability, be built not to feature the skill of
the operator visibly but to entertain the audience with interesting
material enacted by puppets or marionettes.

If we approach the problem from this angle we open up a
whole new vista. Let us follow this idea a little further. The
best puppet or marionette shows, from a television point of view,
have been those where realism "of a kind" was attained. In all
our experiments we were striving to make these shows convincing
and we succeeded up to a point. In a marionette presentation of
Pinocchio we succeeded in carrying the story forward until we
went in for a close-up. You might say, "Why go in?" The reason
was that the lifelike actions of the well-manipulated marionettes
in a long shot made us want to see them in close-up—just as we
do in television programs with real people. We took the close-up
and saw an uninteresting wooden doll— utterly motionless, for
his only action was confined to his arms and legs. On a close-up
of his face we wanted his eyes and mouth to move but they
didn't. The little dog was the best thing in the show because he
could wag his tail.

If we are to make the most of this type of entertainment we
should entirely eliminate the theatrical audience approach and
endeavor to find a way to best utilize the possibilities of both
marionettes and puppets in combination. By thinking only of
the overall results, regardless of the methods used, it seems en
tirely possible to accomplish a great deal. It may be that the
proper development of puppetry may even challenge the ani
mated cartoons of filmdom.

Possible Development
A program of this kind would take considerable planning and

PUPPETS t 197

preparation but the results should more than repay the work and
expense involved. A basic story idea should be evolved that
would allow for repeated use of specially constructed marionettes.
They would require finished workmanship for they must be at
tractive to look at. Then for each character a separate head could
be manufactured that would stand close scrutiny. The mario
nette leading man and woman would be able to move head, hands,
arms and legs and these actions would be seen in medium or long
shots. When a close-up was wanted the picture would be switched
to a camera focused on the head of the same character and then
we would see the eyes and lips move. The marionette should be
able to smile, frown, and weep. This could be done with a hand
puppet. The size of both the marionette and the puppet would
make no difference in a television operation. Both could be built
of a size best suited for manipulation. The correct picture results
would be attained through proper use of cameras. When a
close-up of the marionette's hands was wanted it might be that
real hands could be used.

If the script writer used imagination and constantly bore in
mind the limitless realm of fantasy, much could be accomplished.
The physical operation would require a small set built in pro
portion to the size of the marionettes. This stage could be rela
tively low which would eliminate the necessity of forcing the
manipulators to work from an elevated platform. This scene
would be picked up by one camera and as many sets as were
required could be placed side by side. Nearby would be the
close-up camera for faces, hands and objects. The background
necessary here would be simple as it would be back far enough
to be out of focus but it should approximate a portion of the full
set, roughly painted, in proportion to the close-ups to be shown.
The lines should be spoken not by the puppeteers but by expe
rienced radio actors and the number required would be few as
they would be selected for their "doubling" ability.

In a program of this kind the limitations would rest almost
solely with the writer if he utilized all the opportunities possible.
The opportunity is so vast that programs of this nature can open
a new field to those who care to venture into it. Everything that

198 HERE IS TELEVISION

has been done in animated drawings can be attempted with
puppets. The cost of manually manipulated dolls is a fraction of
that involved in film animation and a great future awaits the
man or woman who can devise programs and present them on
television so that they are artistic and convincing.

19
REMOTE PROGRAMS

If you were a television program director in charge of all out
side pickups, exclusive of news, with a mobile unit and crew at
your disposal, how would you use this equipment and what pro
grams would you select for broadcasting?

This is a question that every television man in charge of
mobile unit operation will have to answer some day. At first
sight it seems fantastically simple. You might say, baseball, foot
ball, hockey, boxing— in fact the whole field of sporting events.
That of course is the overall answer but there are many problems
before the final picture is seen on the home receiver.

There are three complications to begin with. First, you have
an operating crew that works a basic number of hours per week
and you will have to give this crew two consecutive days a week
off. Second, will. the events you plan to pick up, come at a time
that fits in with the overall station schedule. Third, can you buy
the events you want for the price you want or can afford to pay?

None of these are simple problems. Let us assume you are
working with a mobile unit similar to the one described in
Chapter Seven. Improvement in equipment will eventually make
your problems easier but in any event you will have relay trans
mitter engineers, cameramen, sound men, and control men in
your portable unit crew. It is conceivably possible that some day
permanent equipment may be installed at various pickup points,
but until that time comes you will be lucky if you can get four
pickups per week out of your mobile unit and one crew. If this
seems an overstatement, let us quickly summarize. First, the
equipment must be driven to the stadium. Then the antenna

REMOTE PROGRAMS 199

must be installed somewhere high on the top of the grandstand
roof, if you are sending back your picture by relay, or lines must
be run to the coaxial or telephone lead if it is going by wire.
This means that perhaps hundreds of feet of cable must be run
from the truck to the sending point. Unfortunately, at public
gatherings the fire laws will not permit you to string wires and
cables just anywhere. They must be out of the way and pass in
spection. Then from each camera goes another lead to the truck.
More cable and more work. And your crew can not do all this
preliminary work just before the game starts. All of which means
that for an afternoon broadcast your men must be on the job
around nine in the morning. By the time the doors open their
equipment must be all installed and ready. After lunch they are
back early for preliminary signal tests and after the broadcast,
everything must go back in the trucks. It all takes time.

All of this affects you as mobile unit program director, as you
are not going to be able to dash out somewhere in the morning,
catch another pickup in the afternoon, and top it off with a final
show at night. From the first moment you start planning your
schedule you must consider your physical operational problems.

Choice of Material

Now let us look at possible program events. Probably the ma
jority of early broadcasters will face the same problems every
where. They will not have the money available to go out and
buy the event they want simply because it would be a good tele
vision broadcast. And even if they could, is it to be held at a time
that fits into program operations? In your capacity as program
director you may feel that the station's schedule should be built
around your mobile unit, but things just do not work that way.
Because baseball games, football, racing and track meets happen
to be held in the afternoon doesn't mean that everyone who has
a television receiver is going to devote all his afternoons to watch
ing your programs. Thus you are forced to plan some evening
programs if you are to round out your schedule. You say to
yourself that everything is still fairly simple. "Baseball one or
two afternoons, and hockey or wrestling at night. That's all there

200 HERE IS TELEVISION

is to it." But is it? When they are playing baseball in the after
noons there isn't any hockey at night. Whoever invented the
seasonal sporting events of America had no thought for the tele
vision mobile unit program director. Let's see: baseball, April to
September; football, September to New Year's; wrestling and
hockey in the winter; horse racing for limited periods, depending
on where the race is held; track meets and tennis in the summer
and fall. You do get a break on boxing as the matches may be

Left— Cables from the truck to the grandstand at the Army-Navy game.
Right— A balloon in Macy's Thanksgiving parade broadcast by NBC.

scheduled summer or winter, but it is primarily a winter sport.
So the first job to do in scheduling your unit is to make a rough
chart for each month of the year and see how you come out. Of
course you will have parades, special events, and a thousand and
one invitations to pick up the doings of this or that group who
feel that the world would be interested in seeing their President
receive a citation from "the Ladies League for Better Bouquets,"
but with all these, you are still faced with the problem of finding
four programs per week, fifty-two weeks a year, that are of inter
est to the majority of your television friends. Tt isn't easy.

REMOTE PROGRAMS 201

Sports

And now we come to the right to pick up the things you want.
As we mentioned before if you could select every event you
wanted the problem would be a simple one; but, strangely
enough, men who own baseball clubs and stadiums seem to feel
that they should receive some financial remuneration for allow
ing you to put your television cameras in the best viewing posi
tion in the house and letting every Tom, Dick, and Harry in that
part of the world see the game over a television receiver. The
promoters' demands are perfectly justified, so you must now look
at your program schedule from a point of view of dollar values.
Is a baseball game worth more than a football game? Is hockey
worth more than basketball? We will not attempt here to evalu
ate the relative drawing power of the various sports. But an
attraction is worth just so much money per person at the box
office. As long as a television broadcast helps to bring buyers to
the box office through publicizing the event, then television is of
value to the promoter; but the minute that television begins to
keep people at home, people who would go to the event if they
didn't have a receiver, then we have a totally different picture.

Wrestling

So far, television has been of advantage to promoters. For in
stance, many people have never seen a wrestling match. They
may have seen part of a bout at their motion picture theater in
the newsreel, and that about ended their experience. The possi
bility of putting wrestling on television came at a time when we
were racking our brains in a vain endeavor to determine what to
do with the mobile unit crew on Monday night. Out of the blue
came the suggestion "Why not wrestling?" In an endeavor to
answer this query, we contacted the powers that be and found
that it was entirely possible. The promoter was agreeable at a
price within our budget. Power for the mobile unit was avail
able, they even agreed to let us raise the light level in the ring,
if necessary, to get a good picture. And wrestling went on tele
vision. From many points of view, wrestling is one of the best
television sports that exists today. First, as in some other features

202 HERE IS TELEVISION

of this kind, you have a definite field of action. Your ring is only
about 16 feet square. It is brilliantly lighted while the rest of
the auditorium is in darkness. And unlike boxing the con
testants do not try to keep out of each other's reach. Nearly all
wrestling is good close-up material. Perhaps there are tricks to
the game, there are in all trades, but if the contestants are trick
ing you they do it beautifully. When we introduced an interview
period before the bout and saw at first hand that "Battling
Bowser" was after all only a kid from Freeport who was trying
to get by, "the scissors," "the half Nelson," "the flying mare," all
became a means of accomplishment.

It is good fun to watch a wrestling match on television. When
you think your favorite is all done and he comes suddenly to
life, bounds off the ropes and hits his opponent with the full
force of his flying body and they both land out of the ring in the
laps of the press representatives, it is grand entertainment. A
very interesting development is the way the contestants play to
the television cameras. It is standard practice in the wrestling
game to appeal to the audience for its sympathy if a wrestler
feels that he is being imposed upon by the referee. Be he right
or wrong his apparently broken-hearted pantomime plea to those
watching at the ring side always brings boos or cheers depending
on the audience's feelings in the matter. This really is part of the
fun of the game, and when a contestant turns to the television
camera and with outstretched arms appeals for its sympathy and
it has been done, there is a definite feeling that television has
arrived.

Basketball

Basketball is another good television sport. The playing field
is not too large. The rules or the technique of the game call for
a procedure that is very easy to follow. We move with the ball
from basket to basket. The play is easy to comprehend, you see
why the stars are stars. Because of the comparatively small size
of a basketball court it is possible to follow the entire play with
only one camera. Of course an additional camera will give more
information, but one gives very intelligent coverage.

REMOTE PROGRAMS , 203

Track Meets

Track meets are much more difficult to pick up than the two
sports already mentioned. To do the right kind of a job is
eventually going to take a multiple camera hookup. A pickup of
this kind is particularly difficult because the events all take place
at different points on the field. If you are faced with the problem
of broadcasting a track meet you must decide where to put your
cameras and your decision will rest on where the majority of the
races will finish and how close you can get to an advantageous
pickup point. You must also consider camera locations with rela
tion to the time of day, as you can't shoot into the sun. You will
be up against the fact that you cannot put your camera inside the
oval. Eventually permanent conduits will be laid to allow co
axial cable leads to terminate inside the track. Until that is
done you will find that you must place your camera outside, as
no track association is interested in having the contestants hur
dling your camera cable. This is true also of horse racing. But
eventually we will be able to see the horses from inside the track.

Your inability to get in close means that the broad jump, the
high jump, the pole vault, the shot-put and all inner oval events
must be picked up at some distance from the contest. Fortu
nately, telescopic lenses make this possible, but the camera in
relation to each event is not just where you would like to have it.
What you really must do is to estimate when you can get the best
overall results and there you place your cameras.

Indoor track meets are somewhat easier. Many of the cham
pionship events that have been held in Madison Square Garden
in New York have been televised. To sit in your home and see
world records shattered, to see new stars ascend as new times are
set for races, new heights for pole vaults, new distances for
jumps and throwing events, is a privilege that no other genera
tion has had. With the camera located in the center of one side
of the arena a fairly representative picture can be picked up of
nearly everything that takes place. Multiple cameras will bring
every detail to future audiences.

What television will eventually do to sports is something for
the future to answer, but if ten million or more people can wit-

204 HERE IS TELEVISION

ness an event by means of television, the paltry few thousand in
an arena mean nothing. But lots of experimental work must be
done before the picture on the receiver is what it eventually will
be. Some day our television audience will demand perfection
and we must know how to give it to them.

Tennis

In a track meet we show the pole vault as the contestant clears,
or fails to clear the bar. We see the milers as they pound around
the track, saving their energy for the final spurt, we know where
the important final decision will be made. But a cameraman at
a tennis match has no set routine to follow. Who can know
where the "champ" will knock the ball on his next shot. Of
course he can always play it safe and pull back until the camera
covers the entire court and quit worrying. But if he is honestly
trying to do a thorough job, a tennis match will come as near to
breaking down his morale as anything he may attempt.

One thing we have learned is that a close-up television camera
at the net where the judges sit, is not all that one might think.
You may have seen movies of a crowd at a tennis match and
noticed the rhythmic swing of heads as the ball goes from court
to court. Apparently it is something we do unconsciously if we
are there in person; but having the camera swing from court to
court, as the ball moves back and forth across the net, is inclined
to make our television audience seasick. In spite of the cynical
note of a moment ago, the best place for your camera on a tennis
match seems to be back of one of the courts in a position where,
with an easy tilt, the court closest to the camera can be covered.
This throws the opposite court into a relatively small picture,
but the play can still be followed easily.

There are so many interesting experiments still to be made in
television camera technique that it is a little difficult to guess all
the answers. If a camera was installed behind each court, assum
ing of course that the sun was in a position with relation to the
court that such a camera arrangement was possible, what would
be the effect if we switched from camera to camera each time the
ball was struck?

Could the audience follow the play from such divergent points

REMOTE PROGRAMS 205

of view? If they could, without confusion, should the camera
show the near court on the serve or the receiver? Apparently this
experiment has never been tried. Perhaps it is going to take a
tennis expert at the camera switching controls and the result may
be that we can put the viewer in the position of the player. That
is just one of the many things still to be done in television
pickup.

Baseball

When we first began to broadcast baseball on television we
had a real argument as to where our cameras should be placed
to pick up a game properly. Should one go behind the catcher
with a close-up lens, or should we put it between third base and
home plate? Should our camera with the wide angle lens be be
hind home plate, between first base and right field, between third
base and left field, or hung from the top of the grandstand roof?
There have been many opinions rendered. Some authorities feel
that we should see a close-up of the pitcher as he winds up, that
we should then pan with the ball, from a position near the third
or first baseline as he throws it to the batter, and then see the
batter as he hits or misses it. Other viewers contend that we
should stay behind the catcher from the time the pitcher begins
his windup and see the play of the ball as the catcher or umpire
sees it. Still others feel that we should watch the batter at all
times. Each theory has its advantages and disadvantages. The
chief thing wrong with the first formula is the rapid pan with the
ball from pitcher to batter. It might be better to have one cam
era in a close-up on the pitcher and another on the batter and
switch from one camera to the other as the ball is thrown. If
this is done we have nothing to cover the bases if the play is
there and the close-up lens used on the pitcher is not always the
best one to cover a play if the ball is hit to the outfield. If the
camera is behind the catcher, a special installation of some kind
is needed as the camera must be protected. If this is provided,
your picture composition is bad, in that the catcher and batter
are close to the camera with the pitcher off in the distant pitch
er's box. If the camera is properly placed, a wide-angle lens will
cover this variation in focal planes, but as the pitcher throws the

206

HERE IS TELEVISION

ball and it rapidly approaches the camera it looms larger as it
gets nearer. The only fault with this arrangement is that if we
continually watch the batter we have no way of knowing what
the other players are doing. The best answer today is probably a

NBC picks up the Brooklyn Dodgers and the New York Yankees. Rifle sight
view finder is visible on center camera. Commentator at extreme left.

compromise between the three methods suggested. With the mul
tiple camera chains that we have today, where three or more
cameras are used to cover a ball game, a director has perfect cov
erage of the play at all times. With the battery of various lenses
in his turret, the cameraman may take close-ups or long shots at
will. It is nothing to see a batter hit a ball and start for first and
then see the fielder in deep left catch the ball in close-up. There
is still some variation in the way that different plays are covered
and with more than one television station available to the viewer,
he will watch the one that gives him a picture which best satisfies

REMOTE PROGRAMS 207

his individual ideas; and that means that good camera work will
have a direct bearing on television audiences. In general cameras
must be spotted to cover both the infield and the outfield, partic
ularly the batter, the runner, and all infield positions. Its loca
tion must be firmly established in the minds of the audience, par
ticularly with relation to the long-shot camera, so that when a
switch is made the audience can instantly and intelligently follow
the play.

Soccer

The importance of definitely fixing the camera's position in the
mind of the audience cannot be stressed too much. In an early
experimental pickup of a soccer game, many people were unfa
miliar with the rules. The playing field in this game is a large
area. We had one camera halfway between the center of the field
and one goal line and the other camera in the same position near
the opposite goal. During the play the ball covered so much
territory that it was necessary to switch almost continuously from
one camera to the other with the result that the audience was
unable to follow the play. They never knew which goal the
teams were approaching and consequently lost interest in the
program. To hold an audience any television broadcast must be
easily understandable.

The Roller Derby

A sport that came into popularity after television was an every
day occurrence was the Roller Derby. T V helped this game find
an audience. It is fairly simple to televise but it keeps the direc
tor and the camera men on the alert as there is no way of know
ing just where the pretty captain of the girls' team is going to
fall down— and we must see that. The play is very fast and ex
citing and it requires more than ordinary camera operation to
show the audience everything that is going on.

Hockey

Hockey requires fast camera work even on a wide-angle lens.
The cameraman must follow the puck and that requires concen-

208

HERE IS TELEVISION

trated attention and plenty of physical work. A close-up lens is
not of much value as the play is so rapid it is almost impossible
to keep the puck in the picture. A play at the goal however does
lend itself to close-ups if the cameraman is fast enough. The ice
helps the overall picture contest because of its light reflective
tendencies. Hockey has proven a highly successful television
sport.

Football

Football comes the closest perhaps to being the television cam
eraman's dream.

The game is almost perfect composition for television cameras
as they operate today. The kickoff of course needs a wide-angle

The Army-Navy game in Philadelphia brought to New York by coaxial cable.

lens. From a position near the fifty-yard line if the camera is
elevated, at least half the field is in camera range. As the ball is
kicked it is possible to cut to close-ups, if the cameraman is
familiar with the game and if he can anticipate the plays. Usu
ally this is not difficult as in most instances he has the assistance
of a "spotter," a man who knows the members of the team and

REMOTE PROGRAMS ,• 209

who can usually anticipate the next play from his knowledge of
their systems. The director always has a safety in that if the
close-up cameraman misjudges the play and loses the ball he can
always cut to his wide-angle camera. From the kickoff on, the
formation of the players makes an almost foolproof television
picture. Of course the distance of the position of the ball from
the camera constantly alters the size of the players in the picture,
but in general it is quite possible to follow every play in detail.
The large size of the ball also makes for a good television picture,
as compared to an ice-hockey puck or a baseball. The differently
marked suits of the opposing teams also go a long way toward
aiding the television audience in identifying the players.

Availability of Events

Just how the promoters of the big time sporting events will
cooperate with television broadcasters in the future remains to be
seen. The advantages so far have been mutual. The broadcast
ing of professional football in the New York area may even have
helped the sport gain public interest. But with the rapid sale of
receivers and the growth of the television audience the price to
the client and the broadcaster has increased considerably. A
television broadcast of any sport tends to make the viewers want
to see the game in person. The decision on the part of the pro
moters to approve television pickups has done a great deal to
advance the medium, both by furnishing the broadcasters with
program material and by allowing program personnel to gain
firsthand experience in picking up the events. From experience
already gained the broadcaster knows how to go about doing a
thorough job. He knows where his camera should be placed, he
knows what his cameramen must do and more important he knows
what equipment will be needed. In sporting events of all kinds
television proves conclusively the advantage of sight over sound.
As an experiment, on an evening with guests in the house and a
very poor picture coming in on the television receiver, we
switched over to radio. The event was being described, blow by
blow, by one of America's outstanding sports commentators.
Unanimously everyone shouted, "Go back to television!" Poor
as the transmission was, it was infinitely more interesting than

210 HERE IS TELEVISION

the radio account. In radio, you hear an announcer who is there,
tell you what is going on. You know the results but even though
the delay in forwarding the information to you is only a matter
of a few seconds you never get the impression that you are there
yourself. The reverse is true in television. You are there to all
intents and purposes. Through the "eyes of the camera" you see
the action the very second it happens and probably from a more
advantageous point of view than you would have, if you were
there in person.

Announqers

Television, in one sense, is a headache to radio commentators
and the better the commentator, the bigger the headache. It is
true of all contests, and successful sports announcers of tomorrow
must learn an entirely new technique if they are going to hold
their present standing.

In an early experimental broadcast a special boxing bout was
staged in the studio for executives of the broadcasting stations,
the managers of the contestants, important figures in the world of
sport, and members of the press. A top flight commentator took
over the microphone and the match started. No one anticipated
that day what was to happen though we might have, had we pro
jected ourselves only slightly into the future. The gong sounded,
the contestants came into the center of the ring, and one of the
boxers promptly punched his opponent in the eye. The recipient
of the blow took a lusty swing and missed. This all happened "in
less time than it takes to tell." How often have we read and
heard that? Here we saw it happen, for the announcer in his
best radio style went on something like this. "There goes the
gong— the two men come out of their corners, they spar for a
minute, they are just feeling each other out— oooh— a left jab to
the eye— a beauty." What actually happened was that the blow
was struck while the announcer was saying "the two men come
out of their corners." This procedure went on throughout the
broadcast and when the action was rapid the announcer was from
ten to fifteen seconds behind the action. That one experiment
doomed for all time the radio technique of sport commentary. It
is perfectly obvious that a spectator does not have to be told what

REMOTE PROGRAMS 211

he is seeing, some few seconds after he has seen it. This applies
to all sports pickups and it makes necessary a new approach for
commentators. This is not easy for experienced radio men as
they have developed the ability to narrate events in the order of
their happenings, no matter how far behind they actually are.
The radio audience only knows what it is told and the an
nouncer is free to tell it his way, but when the announcer has to
analyze what the audience has seen and then make his comments,
tell them only what they can't know from merely seeing, the job
takes on an entirely new flavor.

Television announcers will have an important place in sport
ing events but instead of being narrators of the event they become
a sort of handy encyclopedia of pertinent information. In a foot
ball game an announcer never needs tell the audience that the
ball is resting on the twenty-five-yard line, they know that, they
can see it is, but they may not know the name of the player who
made the tackle. They can see the formation of a line when it is
ready for the next play but they may not know what that forma
tion is called. In wrestling the audience can see that one man is
sitting on the other's left ear and is busily engaged in trying to
pull his arms out of their sockets, but they may not know that
that particular hold is the "three-quarter Mariah." In a track
meet we can see who wins a race or clears a high-jump bar but
we like to be told factual data that is not so evident. In many
cases a director can aid immeasurably by asking the announcer
through his telephone headset questions that he would like to
know, and which remain unanswered by what is seen. The
director gets the audience's point of view and thus can ask for
information on points that have not been covered. The "spotter"
usually knows the answers to anything interesting about the con
testants and thus a complete report is made to the audience.

Boxing

The big favorite with the majority of television viewers will
probably be boxing. This sport has had extensive experimenta
tion. We have seen amateurs and professionals. We have been
able to follow elimination bouts from the start of the "Golden
Gloves" and the "Diamond Belt" contests to the final evening

212

HERE IS TELEVISION

when the winners get their coveted prizes. Boxing events of one
sort or another have been a feature of weekly television schedules
almost regularly for nearly five years. The pickup of "fights" is
not particularly difficult. We have had the camera on the floor
of the auditorium with the audience and in specially hung cages
from the front of the balcony.

One of our first professional boxing broadcasts was the Nova-
Baer fight in the Yankee Stadium. Last minute arrangements

A sporting event comes to the television studio. Amateur boxing at WCBW.
A special effects machine is seen in left foreground.

made it necessary for the camera to be fairly close to the ring, so
down went the camera in a ringside seat. The angle of vision was
not all that it should have been, and when the fans stood up in
front of the camera at an exciting moment, everyone watching
the picture unconsciously yelled "down in front"; but we saw
everything that happened and as one viewer put it, had we
bought comparable seats at the fight for the guests watching it in

REMOTE PROGRAMS 213

our home, it would have taken almost as much money for tickets
to this one event as it took to purchase the television receiver.

Most boxing matches are picked up from semi-permanent in
stallations. Special camera cages are suspended from the front
of the balcony giving the camera a clear view of the ring. The
distance from the ring is not too important as our long focal
length lenses put us almost inside the ropes with the fighters.
The present day sensitivity of modern television cameras has al
most completely overcome some of the early pickup problems
particularly that of shooting into a brightly lighted ring sur
rounded on four sides by an unlighted auditorium.

Sonic- day we will probably see multiple camera installations
with the cameras suspended over the ring from different angles;
this would allow a director to switch to the camera with the best
picture, giving better pictorial results than could be gained if the
viewer were in a ringside seat.

Other Experiments

Experimental pickups have been made of nearly every type of
amusement. Our programs from Madison Square Garden in
cluded not only the sporting events already mentioned but also
a very interesting broadcast of the six-day bicycle race. That was
one event that was available to our program schedule when we
wanted it, as long as the event lasted, but unless you were a fan
there was only limited program interest as the boys pedaled
around the track. Other pickups included the Harvest Moon
Ball, the Ice Follies, the Rodeo, and the Circus. It doesn't seem
possible that a television broadcast will ever hurt circus attend
ance. Who wants to see animals and not smell them? On second
thought, perhaps some people do but, be that as it may, we were
able to present some very interesting circus pictures to our televi
sion audience. With the image orthicon the Rodeo was almost as
real at home as it was in the Garden. Spotlights as used in the
regular show gave ample light for a good picture.

Special openings of important pictures in firstclass Hollywood
style were among other experiments. Our camera, just outside
the theater entrance, gave "the lookers in" a close-up of the film

214 HERE IS TELEVISION

celebrities as they drove up in their cabs to view the picture. In
the lobby another camera gave us an opportunity for short inter
views. The opening of "Gone With the Wind" at the Capitol
Theater in New York was one of the most successful broadcasts
of this kind.

Special Programs

Scanning the possible material available for programs to be
staged when you need them is a matter that offers serious prob
lems. It may very well be that this demand, that is tailormade
mobile unit programs, may create a new form of outdoor pro
gramming. It seems fantastic that as a program manager you may
have a perfectly good mobile unit and crew available and still
have two or four unfilled afternoon hours in your program sched
ule, but such very easily may be the case.

Probably tight schedules will be worked out when the time
comes that you can afford to buy all the baseball, football, and
kindred sports that you want, but until it does, building special
programs for outdoor mobile unit pickup is almost a necessity
and an art in itself.

Our first year of operation, fortunately for us, came at a time
when the New York World's Fair was going on. Without that
tremendous enterprize almost at our front door we would have
been hard put for program material. A good electronic picture
on the screen doesn't in itself hold listeners; the program content
must be interesting.

The first television picture of a distant location was thrilling.
On one of the early mobile unit tests, we set up the cameras at
a country cross road. The close-up of the road sign read, "23
miles to New York." The thrill came when we realized that we
could see that far from our transmitter. But what good was
there in seeing if there was nothing to look at? At the Radio and
Television Show in Berlin in 1938 one of the sets showed a vista
of a Berlin Street. A camera had been focused out the window
but few people were interested. You simply don't stand on a
street corner and watch traffic for very long.

In our hectic search for program material we found two
or three very reliable sources. One of these was the "old swim-

REMOTE PROGRAMS 215

ming hole." Any good-sized public pool offers much to interest
the viewer at home. Special features were easily arranged as
applicants for competitive swimming and diving events were
easily found. There is always something interesting to watch at
a swimming pool and a camera dolly that made it possible to
move the camera the full length of the tank gave use very inter
esting shots.

A photograph of a kinescope picture of an early demonstration in Washing
ton, D. C.

Another source was found through the cooperation of the U.S.
Army. In Washington, B.C. a field artillery unit performed in
their usual style before our cameras. The local airport was the
point of origin of many of our mobile unit shows. The arrival
and departure of planes is of interest to the average American.
If people will go in person to see something, they also find inter
est in the same subject in television.

216 HERE IS TELEVISION

Television offers many surprises and unexpected thrills. One
afternoon at home we were watching a pickup from LaGuardia
Airport in New York. We saw a large passenger plane all ready
to take off. The announcer droned "all aboard for Boston." We
saw on our receiver the plane taxi down the runway, head into
the wind, and take off on its regular run. A few minutes later
we stepped out into the afternoon sun and there directly over
head was the Boston plane winging its way East— the same plane
that a minute or two before we had seen start on its journey from
the airport twenty miles away. All we need is vision in using
this medium. Its potentialities are unlimited.

20
NEWS

The Time: The year 1960.

The Place: A large city on the Eastern Seaboard of the United
States of America.

The Scene: The News Headquarters of TYX, the local televi
sion broadcasting station.

In a comfortably air-conditioned room, with the soft glow of
the late afternoon sun diffused through special plate glass walls,
sits an energetic young man at a large desk. On the wall opposite
him a large television screen is bringing the final minutes of play
of a football game. On the right wall of the room we see what
appears to be a large map of the city and the surrounding coun
tryside, but at various points on this map are slowly moving
points of light. One of them is motionless and has been for
some time. A slight frown of annoyance passes across the face of
the young man at the desk. With a sigh he presses a button, one
of perhaps twenty-five, in a row on the desk in front of him.
Immediately a light glows above it and from a hidden loud
speaker we hear a voice saving.

"H 27 answering your call." The young man at the desk turns
to a microphone at his side.

"Say listen you fellows, will you please tell me what the eternal

NEWS , 217

Sam Hill you are doing? You haven't moved for half an hour-"

"Thirty-seven minutes and thirty-eight seconds, to be exact,"
the voice replies. "You know you always said to be exact, Chief."

"I'm glad you remembered something I said," he answers, "but
just what are you 'Eyes of America' doing?"

"Well right now, Chief," the voice over the loudspeaker con
tinues, "we are watching a very good football game. You can see
fine from up here. Want to take a peek?" The young man at the
desk cuts in sharply.

"I do not. Do you guys think I am keeping you in a helicopter
patrol to have you sit up in the sky and watch a football—" His
voice stops suddenly for a large red bulb in front of him has
begun to flash. He presses one of the other buttons in the long
row and over his speaker he hears.

"Municipal airport calling." With a crisp, "Go ahead airport,"
the young man listens.

"Transoceanic plane from Paris is just off the coast. It's break
ing the record from France to America. It's due at the airport in
twenty minutes. Shouldn't we take it?" There is no perceptible
pause as the Chief answers.

"Right. Get your plane out to escort it in. Send back a test
picture as soon as you contact the ship. Get going."

"OK"

He presses the first button again and hears, "H27 calling.
Listen Chief—" He interrupts crisply.

"Keep still and listen. Get out to land's end just as fast as
you can. Be ready to send in pictures of Paris plane and our T 1
as they pass you. Send test picture as soon as you see them. Get
going. That's all." Again he presses a button on the desk and
another voice comes in.

"M 4 speaking, Chief."

"Harry, get that mobile truck of yours out to the airport fast.
I want you there when the Paris plane gets in. You've got just
twenty minutes."

"We're gone."

He kills the radio telephone switch and cuts in his intercom
municating phone.

"Hello. Program Central and Master Control." Almost im-

218 HERE IS TELEVISION

mediately Master Control comes back.

"MC Chief." A second later, "Program Central on." His
orders are concise.

"All right fellows, here it is. The Paris plane is making a new
speed record. It's due at the airport in nineteen minutes. How
much longer will the football game run?" The program mana
ger answers.

"I'd guess ten minutes."

"OK. Line me up this way. Make an announcement of a spe
cial pickup as soon as the game ends. Our T 1 unit in the jet
plane is on its way to contact the Paris ship. Master Control will
monitor their transmitter and feed me the picture from T 1 as
soon as it makes contact. H 27 in the helicopter will pick them
both up at land's end. I want that picture too. The truck is on
the way to the airport for the landing from the field. They will
interview the passengers after the ship lands. Give me the picture
from M 4 as soon as they get there. Both of you got it?"

"OK"

"Right."

During the next five minutes he repeats his instructions to the
jet plane, the helicopter, and the truck all speeding toward their
various destinations. A special announcement is made to the
audience of what is coming and within ten minutes from the first
order the test pictures come in from the jet plane. Over the loud
speaker in the news office comes:

"T 1 calling news." On a "Go ahead" from the Chief, we hear.

"We're there, Chief. Contacted plane, she's just coming into
the picture. Are you getting the Paris plane?" A flip of a switch
and on the preview monitor he sees a tiny speck, black against
the sunset sky. He calls back.

"Hello T 1. Getting picture. Follow ship into airport. Listen
into station and come in on cue." He throws another switch.

"Master Control."

"Right Chief."

"Put the newsroom line on the air and follow our switching
cues." And on the television receiving sets in that area there
fades in the picture of an aeroplane in full flight. On the loud
speakers the audience hears the announcer saying, "Hello every-

NEWS t 219

one. We are happy to have you witness another scoop from
station TYX. The plane you are now seeing is the Paris Trans
oceanic Liner that will set a new transatlantic record when she
lands at the airport in about ten minutes. You are seeing the
ship from our special television news plane that met the Paris
ship out over the Atlantic."

Suddenly both ships appear on the television screen as they
are picked up by the camera from the helicopter. While we are
watching a third ship comes into the picture and we see the East-
bound plane dipping its wings in salute to the new queen of the
airways.

The ships reduce speed as they approach the airport and our
helicopter still has them in the picture. The young man in the
news room is switching his cameras back and forth from the jet
plane to the helicopter, while the commentator gives a first-hand
verbal description of what is happening. The planes come in
for a landing and he switches controls to the cameras in the
mobile unit truck waiting at the airfield. As the Paris plane
glides in for a perfect landing we see and hear a new world's
record in transoceanic history made.

Now of course to some of you this may sound a little like Jules
Verne and as we said, at the start of our chapter, the time is 1960
but with a jet plane, a helicopter, a fast unit truck with self-
contained transmitting equipment and three present-day televi
sion cameras and relay transmitters the program as outlined
could be brought to you tomorrow. The television equipment
needed has already been built and tested, we actually saw every
thing described here back in 1939. The only difference was we
didn't break a flight record and it took more than ten minutes
to get our cameras where we wanted them.

What we actually did see was the first television picture of a
plane in flight, taken from another plane. A passenger plane
from Philadelphia was met some distance from New York by our
special plane in which a television camera had been installed.
Our camera plane flew with it over New York City. We saw New
York from the air, the rivers, the bridges, and the buildings, as
well as a close-up of the sister ship that was flying with it. The

220 HERE IS TELEVISION

cameraman in the plane received instructions from the ground
and showed us the views we wanted. This special job was put to
gether as a test pickup and it included a receiver in the passen
ger plane. The passengers saw, just as we did on the ground, the
picture the television camera plane was picking up. After its
flight over New York the passenger plane flew back to Washing
ton, D.C. High in the air above that city the New York picture,
broadcast from the Empire State transmitter, was well received,
but when the plane dropped below a certain altitude the picture
was lost. After several tests over Washington, the plane which
carried the receiving set started back for New York. At La
Guardia Airport our mobile unit was waiting. The passengers
in the plane were watching on their television receiver, as were
other viewers in the Metropolitan New York area, a test pro
gram being put on from the studio in Radio City; but when the
plane became visible to the mobile unit at the field we switched
pickup controls to that point and saw the plane from Washing
ton coming in for a landing. The passengers in the plane saw
the picture too, and we have from an eye-witness that one of tin-
passengers, casually looking at the television set, remarked "Look
there's a plane coming in for a landing." Another passenger
nodded his complete acceptance of the statement and remarked
—"I hope they have a smooth landing." About that time the
pilot cut his engines, the plane leveled off. The first viewer
watching the set said "Huh— darn good landing"— and suddenly
the full import of what he was seeing struck him. The realization
was completely unexpected. All he said was: "My God— that's
us." And it was. They were the first people in the world to
actually see, from a point on the ground, the plane they were in,
make a landing.

Special Events

Perhaps, in our zeal for the advancement of television we are
expecting too much. We described at the start of this chapter a
pickup that is physically possible for either sight or sound; but
with all the wonders of radio, that great medium has never at
tempted to do the things we are expecting from television. Radio
broadcasting stations have mobile trucks, yet we have never had

NEWS

221

regular radio on the spot news coverage, and we expect that from
television. It is possible to cover many special events at very short
notice if a service is set up to handle them. On radio we have
heard descriptions of parades. On television we have seen them.
We have brought to the television audience, not a word of mouth
description of Macy's Thanksgiving Parade, Army Day, Memorial

President Roosevelt opens the New York World's Fair. Television camera at
right of picture.

Day, and St. Patrick's Day parades, and many others, but a
picture.

The first instance of on the spot news coverage occurred on a
routine test. The television cameramen suddenly found them
selves directly in the line of sight of an unexpected fire and we
saw it in the viewing room. If at an ordinary outdoor pickup
anything unexpected should suddenly happen, the television
audience would see it. As a matter of fact we saw one day the

222

HERE IS TELEVISION

body of a young woman hurtling through our picture. She had
plunged or fallen from the building we were facing, and the
cameras showed us her falling body. A few New Yorkers traveled
across the Atlantic ocean to be in Paris when King George of
England visited that city. Some stood on chairs atop tables in a

A photograph of President Roosevelt taken from a television receiver during
the opening of the World's Fair, April 30, 1939.

cafe on the Champs Elysees when the King drove by. But later,
in their living rooms in New York, they had a much better view
of him on their television set when he drove up Riverside Drive
than they did in France. We saw President Roosevelt open the
New York World's Fair. It wasn't a brief fleeting glimpse. We
saw and heard everything he said during that ceremony and we
were not forced to brave the weather on that rainy April day as
thousands of others did. We sat comfortably in our living room
and saw everything that those who were there saw and heard.

NEWS 223

Back in the early experimental days our news programs did
not start with aeroplanes or mobile units. We felt that we must
learn how to do the job of televising news from the studio. To
day we have a very acceptable answer which will improve with
experience, but then we were starting from scratch. Our first
effort was to simply turn our television cameras on a popular
radio news commentator. For some months Lowell Thomas' news
program was broadcast as a regular television feature. There
were no elaborate preparations, no rehearsal, in fact a camera
was simply focused on him as he gave his regular radio broadcast.
This experiment was successful. The audience at that time voted
the program consistently one of the best programs on the air.
But did that prove that programs of that kind would be success
ful tomorrow? We doubted it. Could a program of this kind
hold the television audience against the illustrated news pro
grams we felt sure we were going to have? Frankly, we didn't
know. We felt, however, that in planning a visual news program
we would have to be careful if we attempted to illustrate it with
still pictures. Television is a "moving picture" and stills become
lifeless and static. Motion pictures and television itself have
made us impatient of still pictures. We can see them in our
magazines, we want action on our television receiver. There was
only one way to find the answer, so we started.

Early News Programs

The program as planned was to consist of news items, delivered
orally as in radio, but each subject was to be illustrated with
photographs. A news service agreed to supply us with pictures
and information, so each morning the wire news was scanned,
items picked out for the broadcast that evening and then pic
tures were selected to illustrate the points mentioned. Our first
problem, and it will probably remain a constant factor as long
as we have television, was that regardless of the shape of the
original, the television picture had to conform to the ratio of
the pickup plate. If a photograph was shot originally as a full
length picture only the portion that could be picked up on a
3 to 4 ratio could be used, unless a wide margin was left visible
on the receiver. Another point was the size. Nothing was

224

HERE IS TELEVISION

standard. The picture morgue had photographs that varied
from 3x4 inches to 8 x 10 or even larger in size. There is a limit,
with present-day lenses, as to how small photographs may be if
they are to be picked up by the television camera. Eight by ten

The crowd in Times Square, New York on VE Day.

is about as small as is practical. Glossy prints were not satis
factory as they reflected the studio lights. Different sized pictures
meant that two cameras had to be used, as the camera position,
with relation to the photographs, had to be changed with each
picture. The pictures all had to be mounted on heavy cardboard.
To overcome the many difficulties that we faced we decided to
photograph each picture selected and project the resultant film

NEWS 225

print into the system by means of a standard projector. As soon
as the pictures were selected, they were rushed to a photographic
studio, where the proper ratio of size and the proper density were
secured for their television broadcast, by placing the picture to
be photographed at the proper distance from the photographic
camera. Thus we were sure of a picture wider than it was high.
Faking advantage of one of the idiosyncrasies of the television
system, we were able to use the negatives, as it is quite possible
to set controls so that negative film or still pictures come out
positive on the home receiver, thus we were saved the necessity
of making positive prints. Then the question arose as to how
many pictures per minute were needed. We didn't know.

As a practical approach to the question ask yourself, how long
do you look at an illustration in a book or magazine? The answer
of course is that you look at any still picture until you have ab
sorbed the visual message it contains. If it is merely a photograph
of an individual you lose interest in a very few seconds, while you
stay longer with a picture that contains lots of detail. Because of
the size of the television picture on the receiver, long shots and
small objects were of little or no value. Consequently, we chose
close-ups and pictures with fairly simple composition to illustrate
our commentator's talk. We found that we needed between ten
and fifteen pictures per minute to hold the visual interest of the
audience. For five minutes of elapsed time, this meant fifty to
seventy-five pictures to be selected, photographed in the right
proportion and size, developed, and mounted in slide holders.

When we eventually saw the finished results we came to the
conclusion that there must be an easier way to illustrate news
broadcasts on television, for the still picture technique alone
was definitely unsuccessful.

Later Developments

Obviously there are many other ways to do the job and the
successful news broadcasts of today are using a combination of
many devices to accomplish the desired results. Maps of sufficient
size and detail to allow for good close-ups, with the important
towns located by means of a pointer in the hands of the com
mentator or his assistant, have been used. Some maps have been

226 HERE IS TELEVISION

prepared where a certain amount of interesting animation is
possible. By placing a translucent map in a horizontal position
on a piece of glass and then picking it up by means of a mirror
some very unusual results are possible. The mirror is placed at
a forty-five-degree angle to and above the map; when the cam
era is focused on the mirror the reflected map appears to be
upright. Because of its flat position objects may be moved across
it or allowed to rest in any desired location. By means of a con
trolled light source both below and above it, opaque objects
when moved over it, give the effect of animation. Lighted arrows
may show troop movements or dark lines may be moved to show
border changes. There is really lots of flexibility in a machine of
this kind and, while it is still crude, its cost is slight as compared
to motion picture animation. In addition, it can be changed each
day to fit the news of the moment. Many adaptations of this
device will probably be worked out for tomorrow's television
stations.

A combination of still pictures, animated maps and close-ups
of the commentator is being used successfully today to bring us
a graphic description of what is happening in the world we live
in. The war was brought to our living rooms through the use
of motion picture film. All in all, television news is more inter
esting than radio and it will very easily better its position as time
goes on.

Covering Political Conventions

The proof of what television can really accomplish, from a
news coverage point of view, was shown in the pickup of the
Republican National Convention in Philadelphia in 1940. Plans
were laid well in advance. In and about the convention hall
were installed four television cameras. One was equipped with
a telephoto lens which was focused on the speaker's stand. This
camera was on a small platform hung from the balcony about
midway in the hall. Beside it was another camera, with a wide-
angle lens, to cover the floor of the auditorium. In our news
room another camera was installed. Here we interviewed all
the important personalities who attended the Convention. Col
umnists, commentators, convention members and the principle

NEWS 227

speakers. Our fourth camera was out in front of the convention
hall. Through telephonic communication we were able to switch
to any of the four cameras as desired. The convention was in
session four days and every minute of that time was broadcast
over NBC's television station in New York over ninety miles
away. The picture was picked up in Philadelphia, sent to New
York by coaxial cable, and then broadcast from the television
transmitter on the Empire State Building. The television audi
ence saw and heard everything that took place in Philadelphia:
the speakers, the demonstrations on the floor, and the final nomi
nation of Wendell Willkie. Actually the television audience
knew more about what went on than many people who were
there in person. We found people who were there going to a
television receiver to see who was speaking as they couldn't get
where they could see in person.

An amusing side light occurred one morning, when we thought
it would be interesting to have a herd of elephants, which were
there publicizing one of the potential nominees, parade in front
of our cameras. The director was explaining what we wanted to
the elephants' trainer when one of the elephants, on which he
had turned his back while talking to the trainer, affectionately
put its trunk around the director's neck. He was startled, to say
the least, and made a wild rush to leave the elephants forever
behind him. Then the cameraman turned the camera on him
and his wife who was viewing the program in Westchester County
in New York saw him hurrying away from his elephantine inam
orata. The moral is, that people can see what you do when
you get in front of a television camera. When you are away from
home, stay away from television cameras unless you want the
world and your wife, to know what you are doing.

The year 1948 saw both the Republican and Democratic Na
tional Conventions scheduled in Philadelphia. There are those
who say that the reason that city was selected by both parties was
television.

Television is rapidly finding its place in the political field, for
important congressional events have been covered and the Presi
dent of the United States has been televised many times. Mem-

228

HERE IS TELEVISION

NEWS 229

bers of Congress and Governmental Department heads are seen
regularly from Washington.

News on Film

News coverage by means of film has been a regular feature on
television programs for some time. Many stations have their
own motion picture crews in the field and they are covering im
portant news events all over the world for television release.
They have in many instances shown pictures of news events from
one to two days prior to their release by newsreel companies in
the theatres of America. This was possible because the television
station only needed one copy of the negative film and did not
have to wait until hundreds of prints of the picture were sent to
all the theatres in the picture company's chain. New York view
ers have seen the receptions given the top military and naval
commanders on their arrival in the metropolis on the evening
of the day the event took place. When this news coverage project
was first started it was apparently far out of line compared to the
cost of studio programs, but it has proved to be not only a fine
program service but also a profitable venture through the sale of
the film to other stations.

The Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 1940 and
both the Republican and Democratic conventions in 1944 were
covered for television audiences, on film. The pictures were
flown to New York and broadcast on the same day. On the eve
ning of the day the convention opened we saw pictures of the first
session that took place that morning in the Chicago Auditorium.

The wedding of Princess Elizabeth, the highlight of 1947, was
broadcast in America the day after it took place. Reciprocal ar
rangements with the BBC have provided European coverage, and
all the world news will be available for television before long.

Motion picture companies see in television an additional source
of profit for their news reels and they are furnishing sponsors with
the output of their studios. News on film is one of the outstanding
services that television can bring to the home viewer. With sta
tions all over the country employing crews to shoot the local
events as they happen, we will see what is going on in every cor
ner of America.

21
PROGRAMS ON FILM

Whenever television programming is discussed one naturally
thinks of visual entertainment; and the minute we begin to think
in terms of visual programs, it is impossible to ignore the results
that have been attained by the motion picture industry. Some
television program directors and station managers have attempted
to play down the value of film in television but without film
it would have been impossible, from an economic and opera
tional point of view, to have programmed existing television sta
tions, both in the United States and England, as effectively as is
being done today. What film will mean to the television pro
grams of tomorrow is so important to the industry that, if we
are to approach television programming intelligently, we must
consider the vast possibilities that exist in its use.

Everyone who has made any comparison between film and live
talent programs has pointed out the value of spontaneity in tele
vision as an argument that all programs, to be effective, must be
done live. No one in his sane mind would attempt to deny that
live programs are going to be an important part of any television
station's program schedule, but to say that all programs will be
live is as silly as saying that because we have two arms let's cut
one of tHem off. We are going to be able to do things on film
for television that cannot possibly be done live and the fact that
a program on film is available to a station manager where and
when he wants it is going to be tremendously important to the
industry.

In television programming as it exists today, with possibly one
exception, film units of one kind or another have been a com
ponent part of 90 percent of every program that has been broad
cast. From the time broadcasting first started in New York in

230

PROGRAMS ON FILM 231

1936 virtually 50 percent of the television programs that have
been seen on home receiving sets have been on film. When NBC
was on the air with a regular schedule of 15 hours per week, at
least five of them were on film. At that time there were some
where in the neighborhood of 60 employees giving their full
time each week to the production of these programs. We had
one live broadcasting studio, a mobile unit, and a film studio.
If we had not had film available to us, we would have had to
double our personnel and to have added at least one more stu
dio; and it is doubtful whether we could have maintained that
15-hour-a-week schedule without another mobile unit, which
means that the use of film replaced a studio, perhaps a mobile
unit, and somewhere in the neighborhood of 50 or 60 people.
It has been said that the television audience objects to film
programs merely because they are on film. This is not true. Hun
dreds of interested viewers have looked in on live dramatic pro
grams and time after time they have asked, at the conclusion of
the program: "Wasn't that program on film?" We must recog
nize the fact that the audience was paying, everyone connected
with the program, a very high compliment for the finished tele
vision program they were able to produce and it was proof that
the lay viewer has no objection to film as a basis for good televi
sion drama. The television director's chief aim is to have a
smooth flowing performance. With the many problems that he
must face in a live program, if he succeeds in putting out a pro
gram that a lay viewer thinks is on film, he has done a tremendous
job. At first everyone was sympathetic to television production
problems. Critics in their reviews constantly referred to the good
job that was done with existing facilities, but today we are de
manding perfection and mistakes are not dismissed lightly.

Perfection of Film Presentations

A television program on film has advantages that are difficult
to offset in the studio, chiefly from the point of view of a smooth
running performance. We have discussed in detail the problems
of a director in producing a live talent dramatic program. Ob
viously good programs of this kind are possible but at no time
are they foolproof. In a recent live program, everything had been

232 HERE IS TELEVISION

checked and we were ready to take the air when it was suggested
that the cameraman get closer to a young lady in a close-up shot.
The procedure following this first "take" was to pan to two
other girls. All three were seated at a table. We had checked
the camera's position with relation to the three girls so that the
pan made an arc of a circle with the girls at equal distances from
the camera lens. The program started, the first shot, in slightly
closer than at the rehearsal, was just what we wanted. The cam
eraman panned to the second girl and that shot was fine; then
he swung over to the third girl and catastrophe overtook us. The
third girl was so close to the camera that it was impossible to
focus her correctly and the result was a badly out-of-focus shot.
It could not be corrected by the cameraman as his focal depth
was not enough to get her face and her hat both in focus. In this
case the fault was the director's, as he should not have asked the
cameraman to change his position after the final rehearsal. What
happened was either that in moving his camera in he lost his
proper base for the arc of his pan shot or that the young lady
in the third chair unconsciously leaned slightly forward. There
was no way to correct the mistake as it was a very brief shot and
the camera was not on a dolly. The audience's reaction was "Yes,
the show was pretty good but it was too bad you missed that
shot." On film the audience would never have seen that mistake.
In another live studio program we were trying to build up the
menace of a sinister spirit that was influencing the lives of the
people in the story. We were striving for a special effect and after
hours of rehearsal, we thought we were all set. On the night of
the broadcast, however, through a mistake in timing, we saw a
human hand placing the properties that were supposed to be so
awe inspiring; the result was that we completely lost the effect
that we were trying to secure. It was an accident that might have
occurred at any time in an involved television production. In
still another story, the climax of the play was built around an oil
lamp being shattered by a bullet. When we came to that point
in the story, the mechanical contrivance that we had planned to
use to break the lamp failed to work. The result was that all our
time, effort, and money was completely lost, as the whole plot
revolved around the lamp's breaking.

PROGRAMS ON FILM 233

If these two programs had been on film we would have known
beforehand that they would be perfect when they went on the air.

Broadening the Scope of Studio Programs

Another thing that we must consider in tomorrow's television
schedules is that we must in some way broaden the treatment of
the subject matter that we include in our programs. There is a
definite limit to what can be accomplished within the four walls
of any television studio. Almost without exception when out
door shots on film are incorporated into a live dramatic program,
the interest value is raised immeasurably. Undoubtedly every
director of a live talent program will strive to enlarge his point
of view by using film inserts. Every shot supposedly taken on a
train will need a film sequence to cut to or the effect of move
ment is lost. We need to see the countryside rushing by and we
can only get this by using film. But, aside from film as an ad
junct to live programs, we are going to see the world before our
eyes only through motion pictures.

News Films

In the early surveys made of television audience reactions, the
travel film seemed to be a leader in popularity. To bring the
far places of the world to the living room means that pictures
taken at the scene of the action must be used. One of the out
standing regular television programs of 1945 was a film presenta
tion of the development of the war. Every motion picture news
reel is made up of not more than ten minutes of important hap
penings in the world. During the war this ten minutes was, for
the most part, selected from the motion pictures taken by the
signal corps, by other army and navy personnel, and by news reel
cameramen. Thousands of feet of film were taken every week;
yet five news reel companies selected ten minutes of material
twice a week and that was all the public saw. Realizing that there
were thousands of feet of interesting film, that the news reel com
panies were not showing, the National Broadcasting Company's
station WNBT presented a regular program of wartime film. It
found a very appreciative audience.

Only on film can we hope to cover the news of the world as it

234 HERE IS TELEVISION

must some day be handled. With representatives in the principal
cities of the globe, a world television news service can literally
"cover the earth" by sending to a central office film shots of the
happenings of every country on the globe. Of course we will have
television networks, but a live pickup from South Africa at the
scene of the discovery of the largest diamond yet known to man
does not seem practical for some time to come. Events of that
nature can be put on film and sent by plane to the world tele
vision centers. Wonderful as the possibilities of future mobile
unit pickups may be we are still going to use the advantages that
will acrue through the use of motion pictures.

If the President of the United States, the King of England or
any outstanding personality is to address the world at a pre
determined date and hour, of course that broadcast must be live;
but if some future Admiral Byrd is to describe the aurora bo-
realis over the north pole or the setting sun from the mountains
of the moon, the chances are it will be brought to the television
audience of the world on film.

Travelogues

We have seen the wonders of India, South America, Europe,
and Asia on television— all through means of film. Lecturers and
world travelers have brought us visual evidence of their experi
ences through this medium. Burton Holmes, Julian Bryan, Car-
veth Wells and others have already brought many thousands of
feet of film presentations to the homes of television set owners.
Doug Allen's "Thrills and Chills" was one of the first regularly
scheduled programs incorporating this type of entertainment. It
was popular for an unusually long time. His program featured
world travelers, adventurers, and explorers from almost every
country and they brought back a motion picture record of their
experiences from the far corners of the earth.

The procedure on almost all travel programs today is a combi
nation live and film presentation. Usually the lecturer is intro
duced in person, with a live pickup from the studio. In this way
we see him as he is and in this interview learn something of the
details of his preparation and motives for going. Then "on cue"
we cut from studio to film. If it is sound film there is, naturally,

PROGRAMS ON FILM 235

nothing from the studio, but in the majority of programs of this
kind silent film is used. A picture monitor is placed in the stu
dio so that the lecturer and his interviewer can see the output
of the film studios. With the film on the video channel the sound
comes live from the studio and a flowing continuity of questions
and answers is possible.

Old Pictures

At first, film programs especially made for television were
virtually non-existent. Some very few had been made, but practi
cally all of the film shown on television were old shorts and
features made for exhibition in theaters. These film presenta
tions have included almost every type and kind of program that
Hollywood has ever made. Many of the old full length features
have already made their television debut. At first the television
broadcaster was hard put to find film material for his station but
of late a fairly large amount of feature films have been made
available. This is especially true of films that are difficult to
book in local theatres. The demand for programs on film has
brought new television film producers into existence. Most of
these companies strive to cut production costs and some of their
productions have been more than satisfactory. Lucky Strike's
series of dramatic programs was one of the first of these and we
will see many more.

The Position of the Exhibitor

The economics of television operation will be one of the prin
cipal reasons for the use of film. We need not expect that the big
motion picture companies will release any great portion of their
product for television. There are several reasons why they should
not.

One is the fear on the part of the exhibitor as to what tele
vision programs in the home will do to his business. Just as some
theater operators believed that radio would put them out of
business, the bugaboo of television drives film exhibitors to a
state bordering on panic.

Some few years ago a film feature that was released regularly
in the theaters of America was made available for a television

236 HERE IS TELEVISION

showing on a New York station two weeks after it had played
the metropolitan New York theaters. The program was broadcast
for several weeks, when an exhibitor in a city south of Washing
ton, D.C. wrote into the releasing office of the picture to the
effect that if the picture was shown on television in New York
he would no longer book the feature in his houses. At least, that's
the story. Because of his demand the television release date was
moved back six weeks after its New York theater showing and
the Virginia Theater manager was satisfied.

Television programs cannot for years to come, if ever, hope
to compete with motion picture theaters from a production point
of view. Television program builders will never have the money
to spend that Hollywood producers have, nor will they have the
facilities. People will still want to go to their neighborhood the
ater or the downtown picture palaces to see the stars and the
stories by outstanding authors, the super-productions that tele
vision can't hope to duplicate. Television may some day seri
ously affect radio as we know it today, but the motion picture
industry will "adopt" television, with large screen projected pic
tures, and ultimately use this new art form to further its hold on
the theater-going public.

Film Costs

Another reason for Hollywood's reticence is that television is
limited as a source of revenue. At the height of its operation be
fore the war there were never more than ten thousand receiving
sets in America. Programs were produced as cheaply as possible
and no station could afford to pay very much for its program
material. New films were simply out of the question. When
you realize that many feature pictures have cost a quarter of a
million dollars and run for ninety minutes it puts the cost per
minute at almost $3000. If the picture cost a million dollars,
and there are many feature pictures that have cost more than
that, it jumps the price to over $10,000 per minute. In radio our
very best programs seldom cost more than $25,000 for a thirty
minute program, which is about $850 per minute. If television
costs twice as much to produce as radio we will have a cost of
about $1600 per minute as against $3000 per minute for pictures.

PROGRAMS ON FILM 237

That is not an impossible difference for television to absorb but
it has been an impossibility up to now. Consequently the only
pictures that were available to television stations were pictures
with little or no box-office value left.

These basic figures as to motion picture costs (these just quoted
are low) have been used in many discussions relating to the fu
ture of film in television. But it does not hold that films made
especially for television need to cost as much as our present day
Hollywood features. Many short subjects have been made for
around $500 per minute which is less than the cost of the better
radio programs. The whole problem is one that is going to test
the ingenuity of future producers. When we put a television
program on film, must we accept Hollywood's standards? In the
motion picture industry it is "bad" technique to produce too
many minutes of finished program per day. With all due respect
to Hollywood's results the unwritten and unmentioned motto
is "Don't shoot too much." The best directors don't hurry. They
take more time than the cheaper men. Of course more time
devoted to producing a picture gives some additional value but
a man who knows what he wants can shoot far more than Holly
wood's three minutes per day and the result can be acceptable
television entertainment. The whole problem of programs on
film will take planning and very intelligent operation, but good
film can be produced far cheaper, than many "B" pictures of to
day. It has been said that the average motion picture sequence
we see in our neighborhood theater is the eighth take. That is,
the director photographed a given scene eight times before he got
it the way he wanted it.

Everyone is interested in producing television programs that
are just as good as it is possible to make them but many Holly
wood traditions may be smashed in so doing.

Hollywood has proved that good pictures "pay off," but may
we not seriously question the necessity of maintaining the stand
ard of production called for in a feature motion picture, when
the film is made solely for television consumption? The television
audience has a right to expect and will demand good programs,
but when we walk into our living room and flip a switch are we
going to demand of our television programs the finished results

238 HERE IS TELEVISION

we see at our favorite picture theater, when we hurry through
dinner, stand in line to buy a ticket, stand in line to get a
seat, and finally spend most of the evening dodging the people
who seem to have a mania for standing up right in front of us?
Going to the theater is still more or less of an event in the lives
of the American public. You are forced to exert yourself to the
extent of getting yourself to the theater. But now, at least if you
choose, you may wander into the living room and with no effort
at all, see entertaining television programs.

Television programs can be produced that will hold your in
terest for a fraction of the cost that the same story would demand
if it were done in true Hollywood style. Some time ago a Broad
way play was adapted for television and produced over that
medium. Some time later it was presented as a motion picture.
All three productions, the stage, the television production, and
the motion picture told the same story in entirely different ways.
Each was entertaining but entirely foreign to the others in the
manner of presentation and the costs varied tremendously.

Editing

The editing of television programs is also going to be a serious
problem, especially in commercial programs. A director, no mat
ter how experienced, may very easily call for the wrong shot, an
engineer may press the wrong button, any one of a dozen things
may happen to put a picture on the receiver that doesn't belong
there. The human element, working at high speed, can only be
definitely controlled by putting the program on film.

This is true for many reasons. Let us look at the situation first
from the sponsor's point of view. His "commercial," the visual
proof of what his product will do, must not only be interesting
but it must also be technically correct. Remember we have the
pure food law. We have laws that state that only certain claims
may be made for any product. We cannot imply that the article
to be advertised will do anything that it will not do. All of this
must be adequately and minutely controlled. If the claims are
made in words it is a simple problem but when we go into visual
demonstrations we find new troubles presenting themselves.

On an early demonstration we had a famous radio food expert
in the studio. She was to demonstrate the value of the product

PROGRAMS ON FILM 239

she was selling by making a pan of biscuits. This was to be done
in full view of the audience. They were to see every step in the
operation. This meant a practical kitchen with running water,
ice box, and stove. They were secured and our demonstrator
started her program. She mixed the biscuits, we saw all the prep
aration, and the finished product "in the raw" was deposited in
the practical oven. At the appointed time the oven door was
opened and out came, not, the resplendent mouth watering deli
cacy but the sorriest batch of biscuits you ever beheld. Either
the demonstrator didn't know her oven, the heat control was
wrong, or the stove was full of gremlins. In any event that tele
vision program planned as a perfect demonstration of the prod
uct was a complete failure. This must not happen in tomorrow's
programs. The results must be perfect and how can anyone guar
antee perfect results in a live demonstration. Only on film can
we be sure of our results. There we know they will be right. If
we were demonstrating unbreakable glass and it broke (and it
might), where are we? If a mobile unit was picking up a new
car in motion at an automotive proving ground and a tire blew
out on a curve which overturned the car, would you buy one?
Of course not. If we are to limit all our future commercial dem
onstrations to those that cannot go wrong we are eliminating
our best sales arguments.

On film we can forget all this. If during the shooting of a
scene an accident occurs, we simply eliminate that scene and do
it over. If the results are not perfect the first time we keep shoot
ing until they are, and that can't be done in live television
operation.

Probably all commercial openings will be on film. Cards in
the studio must be physically handled. On the first performance
of a live commercial program that had been rehearsed until we
were sure of the results, a studio operator pulled the sponsor's
credit card off the easel while the audience was looking at it. He
should have changed the other card but he didn't and we were
off to a very bad start in our first twenty seconds of program. We
immediately put the whole opening on film and never had an
other mistake. Animation, that needs no proof of its effectiveness,
can best be done on film, and many uses will be found for this
type of commercial. Radio's singing commercials with film ani-

240 HERE IS TELEVISION

mation for a time almost monopolized the television "spot" busi
ness. We saw "Tide's" singing clothes, "B. V. D.'s" very humorous
animated trade mark, "Lucky Strike's" marching cigarets. A
host of twenty second or one minute spots have been created and
sold to sponsors. They had to be on film for they were repeated
at regular intervals. Many of the regular commercials given in
conjunction with live programs are on film. Sales messages are
best driven home by repetition. While the subject matter and
entertainment of the live program is changed with each per
formance, the film commercial is repeated week after week and
only re-made when the sponsor or his advertising agency feel that
it has lost its sales effectiveness.

Repeat Performances

Perhaps most important of all is the possibility of repetition
when a television program is once put on film. It is almost un
thinkable that expensive television productions will be broadcast
only once. In England it was standard practice to repeat in the
afternoon a feature program of an evening or two before. The
audience reception to this idea was good. While it has not as
yet been included as a regular operation here many of our best
programs have been repeated and the approval of the audience
was definitely in favor of such a procedure. Just because it has
never been done in radio doesn't mean that it shouldn't be done
in television. To condemn this practice is the same as taking a
first class Hollywood picture and playing it only once. We also
know that if there are competitive stations, a viewer cannot look
at two stations at the same time. Why then, if we build an ex
pensive television program, should we not play it until the ma
jority of the viewers have seen it, just as is done with a motion
picture. It might even be scheduled for first, second and third
run showings. We must consider the viewing habits of our audi
ence. Television will tend to change our leisure hours but can
we say that the audience will be allowed to see our program
only on one specific day and hour.

The Time Situation

The mere fact that there are different time zones in the United

PROGRAMS ON FILM 241

States is going to influence the thinking of sponsors and broad
casters. If we assume that the evening hours from eight-thirty
to eleven are to be the choice time, and we have every reason to
believe they will be, how can a sponsor intelligently ask viewers
on the West Coast to look at an expensive production during the
late afternoon and early evening hours? Radio was able to over
come this situation, for it was possible to listen to late evening
eastern programs during dinner without disrupting the homelife
of the average Pacific Coast radio listener. But with television
can we expect people to entirely replan their lives to suit the
programs on their television set? The answer of course is that
we cannot. A program broadcast on the East coast at eight is
five o'clock Pacific Time and the hours from five to eight will
probably only be fair listening hours. So the sponsor of an eve
ning program designed for a national audience must plan to
repeat his program and he has two choices. He may, if it is a
live show, and network facilities are available, broadcast a repeat
performance for the West coast as is done in radio. The big ar
gument against the use of film is its first cost, but it is quite
possible that a repeat performance plus the cost of the original
program may very well approach, if not exceed, the cost of put
ting the program on film in the first place. With his program on
film the sponsor may then schedule it where and when he wants
it. Film will facilitate regional network releases and we will
probably see lots of them. A program on film "in the can" is an
asset that cannot be equaled by any live talent show from a prac
tical point of view. A program on film can be shown anywhere
that there is a motion picture projector and until America is
blanketed with television stations there will be an audience for
television programs on film in communities without television
stations. Early television programs on film are being shown all
over America, in classrooms, YMCA's, churches, lodge halls and
in motion picture theaters. Thus, all of the people in the United
States can see what is being done on television and this could
be accomplished only by using film.

Off-the-Line Recordings
Another important film development is the perfection of the

242 HERE IS TELEVISION

system of kinescope recordings. It is possible to adjust motion
picture cameras, both 16 arid 35 mm, so that television programs
can be photographed from the receiving tube, just as they are
broadcast. The wedding of Princess Elizabeth in London was
covered by the BBC. As it went on the air a motion picture
camera in front of a receiver recorded the whole event. The film
was processed and sent by plane to New York, where it was tele
vised the day after it took place.

The perfection of this process, which has long been the dream
of many enthusiasts, means that sponsors can have a permanent
record of their live programs, which can be rebroadcast on other
stations if they so desire. The possibilities that kinescope-record
ings offer both the broadcaster and the sponsor are many. By
taking a motion picture of a live television program it is possible
to re-broadcast it anywhere. Programs that are produced live in
New York and Los Angeles are recorded on film and sent all over
the country. Until every city in the United States is inter-con
nected by T V networks this procedure is and will be used. It
brings the big programs costing many thousands of dollars to all
the small stations. The film is simply mailed to the station and
it is put on the air sometime later. It is possible that many pro
grams that we are to see may never be seen "live" at any time.
They may be enacted in a studio in front of television cameras
but it is the filmed picture that the audience will see. This pro
cedure is especially valuable for spot commercials as the time
saved in production is considerable.

Basic contracts with talent restrict the use of these films to
some extent and station controls are also imposed, depending on
which major station produced the original program, but kine
scope recordings on film have played a large part in the advance
ment of television coverage and they will always be a vital cog
in the distribution of programs.

22
VISUAL EFFECTS

In the early days of radio a considerable amount of ridicule
was voiced when it was first learned that executives were plan
ning to organize a sound effects department. A whole department
to make some stupid noises? Nonsense I Just how far wrong the
skeptics were is evident to anyone familiar with radio broadcast
ing today. Tomorrow the "video effects departments" in tele
vision will be more important to that industry than sound effects
are to radio.

All of us know that the major picture studios have their spe
cial effects departments; so will television. It will be an art al
most to itself and one that will be handled by trained men and
women. Their chief worry among other things will be to pro
duce and project on the viewing screen believable video effects
and miniatures for comparatively little money. In the motion
picture industry the cost of an accident in miniature is incidental
to what the expense would be if it were done live and once that
shot has been made on film it frequently may be used again; if
not the money spent is unimportant when we consider the whole
cost of the picture. But in television, expenditures for effects of
this kind must be kept down. If they become too expensive, the
pioducer rewrites the script and eliminates them, and if they
are not believable visually they come out. So again our two main
problems are cheapness and visual effectiveness. So far our exper
iments have been comparatively meager but the few effects we
have seen have proved conclusively the value of "television takes"
of material of this kind.

During our early experimental period we one day brought
into the studio a large metal tank, clay, lumber, pots, pans,
matches, nails, glue, paint, scissors, and cardboard. Then the

243

244

HERE IS TELEVISION

boys went to work. Some weeks later we were asked to see the
result of their labor. It was very interesting. There was a sea
port complete in every detail. Ships sailed in the harbor, the
lighthouse beacon flashed and life in miniature seemed to move
and breathe. It looked real on the television screen and the

Diorama of miniature seacoast city.

pictorial results were good; but it had taken many man-hours
of work to produce it and we had on our hands a diaorama that
filled half the studio and had to be dismantled before we could
get it out. Impractical as this particular experiment was, it
proved that miniatures could be made that would more than
justify their expense if a way could be found to have them avail
able for repeat usage when wanted. This has not been accom
plished as yet, except with small moving titles and standard
effects, but we may see before very long large spaces in future
television studios devoted to this sort of thing or perhaps a rental
studio that would supply effects when wanted.

VISUAL EFFECTS 245

The Use of Miniatures

The main point is that already these visual effects have found
their place in television. In an early operatic presentation the
full set patterned after that used in the opera for an act in Aida
was made in miniature. Down stage R was a stone seat in an
arbor where a miniature man and woman sat. This bench and
arbor was duplicated in full size in the studio and the two artists
sat in the same position as the figures in the miniature. The pro
gram started, we opened on the full stage setting with the open
ing music and then began to truck in, panning slightly toward
the bench and arbor. Before the audience could see that the tiny
figures were not real we switched to a close-up of the live artists
and so on into the program. The miniature gave us a feeling
of realism that we could never have achieved by opening directly
on the arbor. On another occasion we constructed, as a test, a
small valley with trucks moving over it, while near by was a
fleet of ships at sea. We were supposedly in a aeroplane. We flew
over the line of supply trucks, bombed them and saw the flash of
our exploding bombs. Then we zoomed down on the squadron
of ships. By manipulating the camera boom we got the effect
of diving down on the ships that we saw in our cross-hair view-
finder. Incidentally what we simulated in the studio is an accom
plished fact as exemplified in the control of bombs by television.

An Effects Studio

It may very well be that all pickups of visual effects will even
tually come from an entirely separate studio. This approach was
tried in conjunction with one dramatic program and the results
were very effective. The main argument against such a proce
dure is, of course, the necessity of tying up studio space and cam
era equipment. But the advantages are many. First, space must
be assigned for the building of effects and if they can be picked
up from that same location, valuable space in the main studio is
saved. The effects would not have to be moved and thus time
and effort would be eliminated. Simple telephonic communica
tion with the control room, a camera outlet with a monitor, and a
few lights would make such a pickup point usable. Most impor-

246 HERE IS TELEVISION

tant of all would be the fact that the pictures emanating from this
video effects studio would be silent. This would simplify pro
duction problems considerably and save confusion in the main
studio.

We used this arrangement on a dramatic program that called
for several important close-up effects. In the studio we showed
a group of men around a dining table on which was a candelabra
with the candles lighted. As the butler opened the window, one
of the candles was supposed to go out. To accomplish this we
put a duplicate candelabra in the effects studio. Behind the
center candle on the side away from the camera, we led a line
of rubber tubing which ended just below the flame, out of sight
of the audience. On the air, we showed a long shot of the table
and the candles burning. The window was opened and we cut
to a close-up shot of the candelabra in the effects studio. The
effects man blew the candle out by means of the rubber tube.
While we were taking the close shot in the effects studio, the
candle on the table in the main studio was extinguished, and we
then flashed back to the group at the table. Sound of course
came continually from the main studio. This effect might have
been done in the main studio but other effects used on the same
program would have been more difficult. The leading character
supposedly developed a photographic negative in his dark room.
As he looked at it he accidentally brushed against a bottle of
acid that fell to the floor. As he fought against the fumes he
discovered he was locked in and, in his efforts to escape, knocked
over another bottle that slowly poured over the negative and de
stroyed it. This whole sequence was broadcast efficiently and
well by taking the long and medium shots, plus close-ups of the
actor in the main studio, while all the close-ups of the bottles,
negative and the acid destroying the picture were done in the
effects studio.

Mechanical Effects

Some very ingenious effects machines have already been built
and we will undoubtedly see many more. On the CBS news
program during the war we saw battle lines move forward, spear
heads advance and captured territory change tone. The appara-

VISUAL EFFECTS 247

tus used is described in Chapter Twenty. The effects achieved
were novel and interesting. Kaleidoscopic effects have been
worked out by another studio that give an ever changing design
in tune to music if you want it. It is so designed that pictures,
titles and other effects can be superimposed on this moving back
ground. Unusual effects have been accomplished by drawing di
rectly on motion picture film, in fact a crude animated story was
worked out in this way. Shadowgraphs have been experimented
with to some extent, but their eventual possibilities haven't ever
been touched. It should be fairly simple to illustrate stories for
children by this means.

Some experiments with a fully mechanized puppet which was
remotely controlled proved that the possibilities for manikins of
this kind would be unlimited.

The commercial angle especially opens up a whole new field
in visual effects and animated figures. Many of the trademarks
of well known brands could do a real sales job if they were prop
erly animated. We may see many of our favorite products prov
ing their usefulness without a human being in the picture. Just
how this will be accomplished awaits the ingenuity of a budding
genius, but the demand would indicate that we will see it done.

The important thing in all video effects is that they must be
visually effective and they must "work" on cue. They must be
sure-fire and smooth or all semblance to reality is lost. As yet
comparatively little has been done with transparencies, where
one object is seemingly made to move through space. The effects
that have been accomplished in Hollywood by this means will
surely be used in television.

Electrical Photographic Effects

What can be accomplished by means of utilizing the television
system itself still remains for the most part an unexplored field.
Lack of studio space and proper equipment has hampered de
velopments along these lines. The mere fact that the output of
two cameras can be put together in one picture makes many
startling effects possible.

A rather unusual setting for an underwater ballet scene was
secured by taking a close-up of a glass tank of fish and electrically

248 HERE IS TELEVISION

putting the fish in the scene with the dancers. First a full-sized
set was built, painted to resemble the bottom of the ocean. Here
the dancers performed their ballet. This picture was lap dissolved
into the line with the camera that showed the close-up of the
gold fish bowl and thus the dancers and the fish appeared in the
same picture, with the fish apparently swimming around the
dancers.

With the right lenses, lighting and scenery it is possible to in
ject small figures into normal sized settings. We might easily
put dancers on pianos, on table tops, in a man's hand, or where
you will. This could be accomplished by mixing the output from
a close-up camera with a very long shot from another. On a test
with a special lens we filled a television screen with a penny.

Visual Effects on Film

What has been accomplished through animation on film needs
no discussion here. It undoubtedly will be used extensively in
television but it is an expensive method. If an animated opening
on film can be used on a commercial program over and over
again, then it will be financially justified; but the cost of ani
mated film precludes the possibility of using this technique on
one-time shots. A way may be found, however, to use visual
effects on film more than once. We may see film libraries of
effects that may be bought or rented, just as we have libraries of
sound effects records today. But whether they are on film or
done live, we will find visual effects claiming a prominent place
in television and the field is wide open for the video expert.

Titles

An important division in the visual effects department will be
television "titles." They will be as important in this medium as
they are in the motion picture industry. A program gets off to a
good start if the opening titles are easily readable, clever, and
interesting; and to accomplish this takes thought, ingenuity,
and often hard work.

From the very start of program experimentation there were
two schools of thought regarding the opening of a television pro
gram. There was the radio group who felt that television

VISUAL EFFECTS

249

programs should be opened by an announcer, just as they are in
radio, and those who leaned toward the visual, who felt, we
should adopt the Hollywood pictorial opening technique. Both
have their place, but the visual method is far more expensive
and for the most part more effectual.

BETTY FURNESS
JAMES MONKS
FRANK CURRAN

JAN MINER
TON I FAVOR

WILLIAMS

ftf URIEL
RUTH MASTERS

A moving title as used at WCBW.

There are many factors to be considered. First copy changes,
that mean only a scratched-out word or two in a radio script,
take on new importance in television. If an announcer has
learned his copy, and he should if he is going to do a good visual
job, then changes become of major importance for they are an
other hazard which he must overcome. It goes without saying
that if visual titles have been made, any change necessitates
doing them over. All of which means that television titles and
copy must be worked out well in advance of the program and
once they are set they should not be changed.

250 HERE IS TELEVISION

Titles usually are prepared on cards which are placed in front
of the television camera. The size of the cards is not important
as long as they are big enough to be picked up by the camera.
In general a card approximately 7x 10 inches in size is as small
as is practical with normal lenses. If the cards are larger the
camera simply pulls back to fill the mosaic with the copy to be
shown.

The best results so far have been obtained by using a gray
card for title work. White or black lettering may then be used
satisfactorily. The present system is not at its best when we at
tempt to reproduce white on black or black on white for it
generally results in some picture distortion. This is usually visi
ble as a streak continuing on across the picture following the
letters. The scanning beam builds up energy with the black let
ters on a white background and fails to cut off with the last
letter. This is a fault in our present-day system that will prob
ably be eliminated eventually, but it can be overcome now by
using a gray background.

Lettering

The size of the letters to be used is very important, as well as
the length of the message on any one title card. Regardless of
the size of the original card in the studio, the picture the audi
ence sees is always the size of their receiver screen. Because the
majority of our screens are small we must plan the "copy" ac
cordingly.

Five lines of about twenty letters each is roughly the present
capacity of a receiver. It has been said that many more words
may successfully be put on a "title card" and it has been and
probably will be done. But the audience is not interested in try
ing to read small type on their receiver. If copy is not easy to
read from the position in front of the receiver that the viewer
likes best, you will not put your message over. Many title credits
on motion pictures are completely unreadable when the film is
televised. The surest test is to draw your letters on a piece of
paper 7x 10 in size and then stand off about ten feet and see if
you can read it easily in a medium light. If you cannot then you
must reduce the number of words on the card. Lettering and

VISUAL EFFECTS 251

style are important but any type of lettering that is easily read
able is satisfactory.

Types and Styles of Titles

The general approach used will rest entirely with the director
and his art department. Titles may be embellished with figures
and scrolls. Any style printing may be used. Decorative motifs

A photograph of receiver picture in early tests at NBC.

may be included. Titles can be lettered over still pictures if the
picture is one that lends itself to this operation. The name of
the dramatic work to be broadcast often suggests such title treat
ment.

Aside from placing cards on easels many variations will be
worked out for work of this kind. A large paddle wheel with
block letters on the paddles was used effectively. The paddles
were about two by three feet in size and a solid wooden letter

252 HERE IS TELEVISION

was glued to the board. Cross lighting gave an effective shadow
design. The wheel was turned toward the camera, which threw
the panel out of focus as it turned down and forward toward the
camera, and as the second panel came into focus an almost per
fect dissolve was accomplished.

Vertical or horizontal moving titles can be worked out effec
tively by placing opaque letters on a transparent or translucent
moving roll. The vertically moving title gave the best results.
In using this type of machine great care must be used in its man
ufacture. The machine must be heavy enough to allow the rollers
to be turned without shaking. Uneven movement of any kind in
title work fairly screams "amateurish." A good substantial ma
chine has been proven practical, and when the rollers are turned
by a motor, a constant steady movement is assured.

A special title machine was used effectively at NBC that not
only gave precise clear titles but made possible mechanical lap
dissolves and superimpositions. While electrical dissolves are
constantly used the value of a mechanical lap is especially im
portant for title work as it means that only one television camera
is needed. The effects were attained by placing a title card in
the machine in a direct line with the camera but behind a half-
silvered mirror set at a forty-five-degree angle to the camera. At
right angles to the first card a second card was placed. Both cards
were in metal holders that slid into position from the top.

When the first picture was lighted we saw it through the
mirror. Then as the lights were gradually dimmed on the first
card and brought up on the card at right angles to the camera,
the first card faded out of the television picture and was replaced
by the second card— reflected in the mirror. While we were look
ing at the second card, the first one was replaced by a third and
the lights were then reversed. Thus a constant flow of changing
titles was achieved. We undoubtedly will see special wipes de
veloped through purely mechanical means and they will help in
creating interesting titles.

One program at NBC was titled by panning along a clothes
line with the names and credits roughly drawn on the washing.
There is no limit as to what may be done along these lines. The
suggestion of a story from a book is achieved by printing the

TELEVISION RIGHTS , 253

various title credits on pages and slowly turning them. Theater
prosceniums, with the copy on the rising curtain, are suitable
for a theatrical suggestion. Revolving turntables and spinning
disks open up combinations. In short, imagination and com
petent execution are almost the only limiting factors aside from
cost. Good titles cost money but they are worth it. In any big
production center the art title department will be an important
cog in good television programs.

23
TELEVISION RIGHTS

Once television facilities are in existence and a means of send
ing pictures into individual homes is available, the first question
that confronts a program manager is, What shall we put on our
transmitter? Once that choice is made, be it music, drama, news,
or anything else, the question immediately arises, Have we the
right to broadcast this material? It is not an easy question to
answer, for in many cases we have no precedent. There is no
doubt that the next few years will see definite precedents set re
garding what may and may not be done, but as yet on certain
legal angles many attorneys are as vague as a summer zephyr.

Author's Rights

If it is planned to produce an original dramatic work espe
cially written for television the problem is a simple one. The
producer and the author agree on a price. A contract is signed
and the deal is closed. But when the material to be used is an
adaptation of a book or a play that was written some years ago,
the problem becomes much more complicated.

Under the copyright laws of this and other countries every
original work may be protected by an author or composer for a
given length of time. Though many of our present-day indus
tries that utilize copyrighted material were unknown at the time
the copyright act was written, it is so broad in its scope that

254 HERE IS TELEVISION

original works performed in modern mediums of expression
automatically come under its egis. But television is unique in
its requirements and care must be taken to be certain that the
right to use copyrighted material of any kind is firmly established.

Our present copyright law gives an author, or his heirs com
plete rights for 28 years to any original material and at the end
of that time the copyright may be renewed for another 28 years.

It also provides that an author or composer may dispose of the
rights to his original material to a publisher, a producer, or to
any one he desires; and naturally the title to the work then rests
with the copyright owner. After 56 years, the work that was
originally copyrighted, goes into "public domain" and is avail
able for use by anyone. If material in "public domain" is selected
for production, it must be definitely established that the material
to be used is actually the work originally copyrighted, for a story
may be revised, edited, and republished and a new copyright
obtained for the revised work. If this were done it would prevent
the use of that particular version without the permission of the
copyright owner. If a broadcaster can lay his hands on a copy of
the material he plans to use and that material holds a copyright
date over 56 years old, he then may make an adaptation of the
work and televise it without royalty. In fact if he copyrights
that adaptation it may not be used again without his permission.

Another important point when clearing a script for television
use is to determine the true owner. If a play or picture scenario
were sold to a producer before television was heard of, the tele
vision rights might remain with the author or his heirs depend
ing on the terms of the original contract. Obviously an author
did not sell a right that was non-existent at that time unless the
sales contract specifically stated that it included any future
rights that might accrue and this clause in past contracts was
very unusual.

Specific Instances

In one case we wanted to do a television adaptation of a pub
lished story by an English author, who had died some time
before. We secured permission from his estate through his Lon-

TELEVISION RIGHTS 255

don literary agents as they controlled complete rights to all
works.

In another we wanted to do a play that had been produced in
New York some years ago by an author who was also deceased.
We went to the executor of his estate who advised us that he
didn't control the television rights as the rights of the play had
been sold to the producer. Further investigation proved that he
had sold only stage and motion picture rights and that the estate
still controlled the television rights and they gave us permission
to use it for a small royalty.

In still another case a Broadway play agent representing a
foreign author gave us permission to do a performance of a cer
tain play. We started rehearsal and then learned that the play
as produced in New York had been a translation from the Italian
and that the translator maintained that he controlled the tele
vision rights. Then to make matters worse the producer claimed
that he had acquired an interest in the television rights through
his New York production. The final blow came when a second
play agent advised us that the first agent no longer represented
the author and that we must deal with him. With such an array
of legal technicalities staring us in the face we simply dropped
all plans for the play's production.

The above was an unusual situation. In general it is quite
simple to determine who really owns a work. In recent writing
there is no problem unless the piece has already been sold for
pictures, the theater, or for publication. In that case it is neces
sary to be sure that there are no television restrictions in any of
the sales contracts. Many contracts drawn during the past ten
years have contained a clause prohibiting the author from selling
the television rights even though the original purchaser didn't
buy them. We will probably see script clearance departments set
up by the main television station operators, and naturally writers'
representatives will know the complete picture with respect to
the authors they represent, so future clearance should not be too
serious a problem. The important thing to remember is— be sure
you have an undisputed clearance on the material you plan to
produce.

256 HERE IS TELEVISION

Royalties

When television broadcasting first started it was very difficult
to establish a fair price for the right to produce a script. The
questions of course included: What value should be placed on
the one-time performance right of a fifteen-minute dramatic story
to a restricted television audience? How much for a thirty-minute
vehicle or for a full-length play? When a price is agreed upon
are we not setting a precedent for future television script
royalties?

The final answers to these questions remain under discussion
after several years of commercial broadcasting. Just how much
royalties on scripts eventually will be cannot even be guessed at
now. The medium is far too new to form an opinion. It is diffi
cult to even form a basis. Should material be evaluated on the
number of stations broadcasting the story, thus on the number
of people seeing it, or should contracts be written for a certain
length of time? It is only reasonable to expect that authors will
jealously guard their rights and thus their eventual income from
a successful television script. So far only one-time performance
rights have been granted for television productions and this is a
basis of payment that most authors would like to see continued.
They would prefer to have a continual source of revenue over a
long period of time on everything they write.

The principle difficulty encountered so far in setting a price on
television scripts has been the market, for we find independently-
owned stations, with small growing audiences, buying scripts for
their own use. Instances where material has been contracted for
network release pose new problems. While we will probably see
a minimum rate set for material, the top prices will depend most
likely on the merits of each script accepted. In the early days of
television the royalty for a one-time performance ran anywhere
from ten dollars to fifty depending on the length of the play and
the theatrical value of the work.

While this fee was actually low it was tremendously high if
future prices are to be based on what was paid then. A $50.00
royalty on a stage play for an hour performance on television to
be seen by 5000 sets, which was about the maximum number in

TELEVISION RIGHTS 257

the metropolitan New York area at that time, would mean a
royalty of $10,000 if the same basis was used when the television
audience reached a million sets or more. No one expects any
such fantastic figure to be reached but tomorrow's good televi
sion writers will make a lot of money.

Music Rights

The first step in approaching the problem of producing a
dramatic-musical program is to make sure that you have the right
to use the music as well as the dialogue in your television broad
cast. As we begin to consider this problem we find that rights to
all musical compositions that are to be included in radio and
television broadcasts fall into two general classifications: dramatic
or grand rights and non-dramatic or small rights.

Non-Dramatic Rights

A non-dramatic or small right is one which involves the rendi
tion of the work as a strictly musical selection, that is, the right
of a singer to sing the song publicly or an orchestra to play it. In
the United States the majority of the successful composers belong
to one of two large associations which may license any one to use
their music. There are some composers and publishers who con
trol their works independently but most composers prefer to
have their work handled by an association. To obtain the right
to use a work controlled by an association a broadcaster pays an
annual license fee and under this license he may use the music
of any composer it represents, as a member must release his
music through the association. The license confers the right to
broadcast non-dramatic rights only.

Dramatic Rights

If a musical composition is to be dramatized or enacted in any
way an entirely different right is involved. Composers and pub
lishers, for the most part, have retained these dramatic or grand
rights to themselves and permission to use a work in this way
must be obtained from the publisher, or composer direct, depend
ing on who holds the rights. This right is based on the fact that
the United States Copyright Act gives a composer, among other

258 HERE IS TELEVISION

rights, the right to dramatize his material so there is a potential
dramatic right in every piece of music which rests with the com
poser, his publisher, if that right was included in the contract
with the publisher, or his authorized agent.

Just when a song that is sung on television involves a grand
right has not been clearly defined. In many cases it still remains
a legal opinion. If a singer is shown singing a song as part of a
program with no plot development involved it is purely a small
right. If the same singer were to sing the song as a serenade
under a balcony and because of his singing the .object of his
affection says "yes," is there a grand right involved? There will
probably be definite decisions rendered on this and similar situ
ations before long, but until then every case will probably have
to be analyzed on its own merits.

Naturally, if you are planning a live musical comedy or opera
and you secure the right to do the performance from the copy
right owner that will automatically include the dramatic rights
to the music, but if you are planning to dramatize a popular
song be sure you have the right to do so.

These two rights, grand and small rights, have been discussed
so far solely with regard to performing or broadcasting rights.
That is the right to sing the song, or play the music publicly in
a theater, or dance hall or to broadcast it over a radio or tele
vision station.

In live radio and television broadcasting while both dramatic
and non-dramatic rights may be involved, depending on how the
music in question is used, when the performing or exhibition
right is once cleared, the broadcaster may proceed without the
possibility of legal entanglements.

Mechanical Rights

But when the song in question is to be recorded either on a
phonograph disk, on motion picture film or any other reproduc
ing medium, other rights come into the picture. These are called
mechanical or synchronization rights and they must be cleared
before the music may be recorded.

Let's take a simple case where we are about to put a song "on
wax" for future radio broadcasting. The maker of the record musf

TELEVISION RIGHTS 259

secure from the copyright owner a release allowing him mechani
cally to record this music. This is secured and the record is made,
but before that record can be played on a radio program, the
broadcaster must have cleared the performing right. The right
to record the music does not carry the performance right. If it
is merely a record of a singer singing a song, any broadcaster may
include it on his program, if he carries a license, with the associa
tion that controls the song. If it is by a composer who has not
assigned his performing rights to an association or if a dramatic
right is involved, then the broadcaster must secure permission
from the copyright owner before he can broadcast the music on
the record.

The same is true of motion pictures and here we are very much
interested; for if we plan to televise a motion picture we must
know for a certainty that we have the right to include it in our
television program. The mere fact that we have the film in our
possession with the permission of the owner of the picture to
broadcast it does not mean that we have the right to broadcast
the music that is recorded and is a part of the picture. If the
music that is included in the picture has been composed by a
member of the association under whose license we operate we
may broadcast it but we must be sure that such is the case,

Just as in a dramatic work, the copyright on a piece of music
lapses after a period of fifty-six years and the song goes into
"public domain," free for anyone to use. In the face of this
there are still problems, for any musician may make an arrange
ment of a piece of music in the public domain and copyright
that arrangement. If the arranger is a member of the society that
licenses your broadcasts then you may use it, if he is not, you may
not use it without his permission. The usual procedure when
booking a picture is to get a music sheet from the booker or
distributing agent so that you can quickly see whether you have
the right to broadcast the music that is included in the picture
by identifying not only the composer but the arranger as well.
If it is impossible to obtain a music cue sheet then it is necessary
for an accomplished musician to listen to the music on the film
and try to identify it. Even then there is a possibility of trouble
for he might hear the melody of Old Black Joe and knowing it

260 HERE IS TELEVISION

was in public domain think you were in the clear; but before you
really are you must be sure that the musical arrangement of the
song is in public domain or is by an arranger who is a member of
the society that has licensed you to use their music. If you can't
identify the melody and the arrangement of all the music in a
motion picture don't broadcast it unless you want to take a
chance on a lawsuit.

The same situation exists in the exhibition of motion pictures
in theaters, as in broadcasting. There the exhibitor pays a license
fee to the associations or the owner of the copyright for the right
to exhibit the music which was put on the film under the license
paid by the producer to the composer.

State Laws

The points that have been referred to above are all based on
the laws of the United States as a whole, but there are certain
State Laws that may affect television operation in individual
localities. Some states have a law governing "the right of pri
vacy," which means that pictures of individuals may not be
exhibited without their express permission. This law primarily
affects pictorial news programs. It has been established that a
photograph of an individual in a crowd at any public gathering
does not necessarily invade the right of privacy if that individ
ual is shown merely as one of a group of people in a compara
tively "long shot" of the crowd. The individual must not be
shown, however, as a personality in close-up without his permis
sion. The above interpretation applies in general to strictly
news pictures distributed clearly as an information service.
Whether a sponsor may use such material to further the sale of
a product without a release from each person in the picture may
affect their use in commercial television. In general, if you are
planning a television program of any kind and there is a question
in your own mind about anything you plan to use, it is far wiser
to get a competent legal opinion before the broadcast than
afterwards. Remember, too, that purely visual material may be
copyrighted and the right to use it must be secured. This is par
ticularly true of photographs, drawings, paintings, reproductions,

Other Studio Problems

Today the color response of cameras is very often a headache
to a director. The results will vary with each individual pickup
tube and to a far greater degree when different types of lights
are used to illuminate a scene. The response in black and white
'o a shade of blue that is lighted with fluorescent lights will be
different than that obtained when incandescent lighting or even
mercury vapor lamps are used. All of this makes the production
problem a little harder for the director particularly in a fashion
show or where materials are being shown. Several ingenious
color charts have been worked out. Splotches of various colored
cards have been placed upon a stand or board and by viewing
them through the camera the various results can be tabulated.
For directors dealing in color this knowledge is important. Cos
tumes for television will be made of special color combinations
for the contrast visible to the naked eye is completely lost on the
viewing screen. Shades of pink and blue may result in identical
tones of gray; brown, purple, and dark green give similar re
sults; so special planning and color combinations will probably
be used by the wardrobe department in costuming a program.

We Must Produce Good Entertainment

In general, production as a whole must be improved if we are
to maintain a quality that our viewing audience has a right to
expect. And every day we are seeing new equipment being added
to facilitate program operations. One of the best of the new
units is a high boom or "crane" type camera. With this base it is
possible to make shots high in the air, as the boom is about sixteen
feet long. While it is expensive this unit is valuable as it broad
ens the scope of camera operation.

Periscopes have also been worked out where by using mirrors
either high in the air or on the studio floor we again add to our
picture possibilities. The "split screen" is another feature that is
possible and is in general use. By means of a special circuit the
output of two cameras can be shown on the viewing screen at
the same time. One picture occupies the right half of the screen
and the other the left half. Thus it is possible to have a man in

270 HERE IS TELEVISION

Washington, in half the picture, talking to a man in New York
in the other half. It is valuable in telephone scenes and its
unique possibilities open up new vistas to the producer.

But with all our expensive equipment television is only as
good as the people who operate it. Trained personnel are abso
lutely necessary to properly produce good programs. Some
of our present-day mistakes are dismissed lightly. They should
not be. Of course accidents will happen in live television
productions. There was the program for instance when the
young lady was demonstrating with a hot iron and while she
blithely told how simple and easy it was to operate it suddenly
burst into flame. Again on a program titled "The Closed Book"
the book opened revealing the cast, the time, and the locale; then
another page turned revealing not the name of the director but
the closing title "The End." It was almost "the end" before the
program even started. Constant care, alertness, and "know how"
must be the watchword of television producers.

Modern Programs

That television programming is moving in the right direction
is evident in the caliber of entertainment being offered. Baseball,
football, and sporting events in general have created a demand
for sets that exceeds the supply available. Outstanding programs
with big name stars are proving every day that television is rap
idly finding its place in the sun. Station schedules are improving,
with a wider range of subject matter and better produced enter
tainment. Sponsors are making money available and it is being
well spent. The type of programs that early program builders
saw possible are being produced. There is still room for im
provement, but every sign points to the fulfilment of that goal.

Part Three
THE COMMERCIAL ASPECT

25
COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS

When we first launched our craft on the sea of commercial tele
vision we were sailing an uncharted ocean. There was virtually
nothing to guide us, no precedents, no definite information. We
were on our own and no one could know then what the final
result would be.

We knew that the experiment was a very important one to
television program development for we were now taking every
thing we knew about visual entertainment values and were try
ing to apply that knowledge to the requirements of an adver
tiser. If the sponsor was to pay eventually for programs, if he
was to fill the same position in television that he had filled in
radio, these experiments had to be successful. The chief question
that a prospective television client asked in 1944-45 was: "Why
should I go into television now?" This point of view is not that
of sponsors today but it was before the war ended. You might
ask: "Why mention it?" But the situation must be understood if
we are to discuss early commercials on television.

Actually, after about twelve years o' program experimentation
our progress with "Commercials" was woefully restricted. As we
have mentioned elsewhere in this book, Pearl Harbor virtually
stopped all television broadcasting; then, in the fall of 1943,
farsighted people began to realize that the war would be over
some day and that if nothing was done to learn something of the
sales aspect of television they might find themselves in a very
embarrassing position when sets eventually went on sale. So
limited experiments were started.

Up to this time two of the New York stations, NBC's WNBT
and CBS' WCBW had completely controlled all production prob
lems that were broadcast over their facilities. Their answer to

273

274 HERE IS TELEVISION

prospective clients' requests for commercial programs during the
early days of the war was: "We haven't the facilities nor the
manpower now, but when the time comes that they are available,
we will gladly produce your commercial television programs for
you. We will have the trained staff and 'know-how* based on our
years of production experience." This seemed logical to some
advertisers, who took the position that when television meant
something to them as an advertising medium, then they would
hire the people who knew how to produce good and effective
programs and their troubles would be solved.

About this time Du Mont's WABD began transmitting a good
picture and a policy wholly at variance with the other two sta
tions was announced. They offered their station facilities, fully-
manned studios, equipment, and time on the air absolutely free
to any advertising agency, client or client's representative who
cared to experiment in television programming. The producer
of the program was to pay for the talent, scripts, and any pro
gram expense involved, but there was no charge made by the
station.

This offer on the part of Du Mont put a totally different aspect
on the commercial television picture in New York. Almost im
mediately those with the idea of finding out something about
this new medium began to investigate.

Many of the big advertising agencies were not sold on televi
sion. They held the view that television as a good advertising
medium was still many years off. They said, "There are only
about five thousand receiving sets in the metropolitan New York
area. Why should we recommend that our client invest any
money at all now?" Others felt that here was a God-given oppor
tunity, with the small audience, to find out at first-hand what
might be accomplished. They knew that many mistakes would
be made but they said: "Now is the time to make them." They
saw that experimental errors might not be serious with the small
audience then in existence but that they would be when a large
television audience existed. They also maintained that the cost
would never be as low again as it was then. And in rebuttal of
the statement that eventually clients would hire expert program
builders, they asked, "Where are the experts to come from?"

COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS 275

Actually there were very few experienced television program pro
ducers available. Most of those who had had experience before
the war were either in the armed forces or scattered to the far
corners of the earth.

With all of these arguments being discussed pro and con, some
five or six sponsors decided to go ahead on an experimental basis
and commercial television was launched. That was the picture
in New York a year or so before and leading up to VE Day. In
this chapter we will discuss some of the programs that have been
produced and insofar as is possible try and draw some conclu
sions.

Early Commercials

Back in 1939 and '40, before the situation just described existed
at all, certain limited experiments had been made. We will not
attempt to cover all the programs presented nor all the adver
tisers who had ventured into this new medium. Only those
programs which were the first of their type or those that pre
sented new problems will be included.

In the spring of 1939, the National Broadcasting Company
launched their program schedule of fifteen hours of entertain
ment per week, and it was from then until December 7, 1941 that
the first commercials made their appearance. The schedule as a
whole was "sustaining" as commercial station licenses; that is, the
right to charge a client for time on the air, had not as yet been
granted to the existing stations by the F.C.C. During this period
and "for free" most of the so-called commercial films produced
by the large manufacturers, were televised. This included semi-
educational pictures showing how automobiles were made, trips
through the great manufacturing plants of this country, and
other promotional subjects. These quasi-commercials also in
cluded travel films put out by the leading railroad, steamship
and aeroplane lines of this and foreign countries. The man who
paid originally to have the picture produced was more than
glad to have it shown to the television audience, for his biggest
problem in pictures of this kind was distribution. The broad
caster, on the other hand, had to stay on the air a given number
of hours per week to hold his license and he was also anxious to

276 HERE IS TELEVISION

establish friendly relations with large potential advertisers; thus
he was more than glad to televise these pictures free of charge.
But these industrial films soon proved that in themselves they
were not the answer to television commercial programs. There
were too many long shots, dark interiors, badly-lit sequences.
But perhaps most important of all there was no attempt at direct
selling. They used an almost straight educational approach with
comparatively few references to the product except in a general
way. There were those who felt that television commercials
should be limited to this general type of selling but the majority
of the people interested in the future of commercial television
believed otherwise.

Early Fashion Shows

One of the early groups of potential sponsors for television
programs were the business houses interested in fashions. Radio
had been virtually a dead loss as far as being a medium for sell
ing women's clothes; those interested saw in television the an
swer to all their prayers. Stores, manufacturers, newspapers and
magazines were all interested in seeing how fashions could best
be presented on television and this problem is one that is still
being actively weighed.

In all fashion shows where dresses are featured we come up
immediately against two serious problems. First, the necessity of
showing the complete outfit, from the top of a model's pretty
head to the soles of her well-shod feet, means that we must pull
our cameras back and take a long shot. In dramatic programs
we might use a long shot to establish a scene or location but we
usually go into close-ups as soon as possible and carry the action
forward in close intimate shots. This isn't possible in a fashion
show. It is true that we can go into a close-up to show details
of shoulders, sleeves, belts, and pockets but we must pull back
to give an overall picture of the dress. As yet, it is impossible to
show many things that the advertiser would like to have the
audience see as there is a definite limit to the size of small objects
that can be shown. Texture for instance cannot be televised
satisfactorily as the system simply will not resolve the detail. In
the long shot, the small size of the viewing screen is a limitation;

COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS

277

but we can show the lines of the garments, the styling, and the
overall appearance. The second problem was the lack of color.
The color, in almost every article featured was important, yet all
we could show were varying shades of gray. A light pink dress
looked no different than a blue, a green, or a lavender.

A fashion show where models were shown on turntable. Commentator at right.

Another problem was the aspect ratio of the picture. If we
could have shown all our models lying down we could have come
in closer but to get the necessary height, we had to include a lot
of open space on either side of a model. Scenery was a problem.
If we painted a set that was visually interesting where the stage
was empty, we found that our scenic decorations detracted seri
ously from the good clear contrasting picture of the dress we
wanted to show.

Actually there is very little "theater" in a program of this
kind. In a live fashion show, models walk around in new dresses.
And that is all they do. The movies had introduced little or no
dramatic interest in fashions and how was television to do the

278 HERE IS TELEVISION

job? Even today the main criticism of fashion shows is that they
are too static. It seems only logical that it is going to take a
combination fashion expert and theatrical producer to turn the
trick. Frankly, we have not found the answer.

With these problems in mind we launched into our fashion
experiments. We learned many fundamentals quickly. First, a
model must be completely outfitted. A chic dress requires all the
accouterments— hat, shoes, gloves, and bag. Models must learn to
move but not too much especially when close-ups of various
parts of the dress, gloves, hat or jewelry are attempted. Color of
the clothes to be shown again caused trouble.

In all programs built for entertainment, we cater to the limita
tions of the system. Costumes are selected for the various players
that give the best television picture but in a fashion show we ask
the system to pick up what we want to show. It does not always
do it satisfactorily. In one program we attempted to present a
special line of winter fur coats. They were all dark brown or
black. The dark coats absorbed so much light that the picture
was almost unintelligible. And again we found that models
merely "walking on" are not the best type of television enter
tainment.

Particular Programs

One of our first shows was a major effort and was fairly suc
cessful. Five complete sets were constructed. First we saw our
fashion authority in close-up. And let us pause a moment here.
It is quite possible that fashion experts are not the ones who
should narrate the program. While they may know how to design
dresses, they may not have a television personality from either a
visual or aural point of view. Of course we want to meet these
personalities, but they should not attempt, except in special cases,
to carry the show. If we are to hear an oral description of the
dresses we are to see, that narration must flow and be well-deliv
ered and if we are to see our narrator at any time she must be
"telegenic." Realizing this we had the words of a fashion author
ity read, by an attractive actress. We saw her as she greeted the
audience, and briefly set the scene then we flashed to a hotel
lobby. Four young ladies were checking in. A bellboy brought

COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS 279

in their traveling bags, which gave us an opportunity for a
close-up inspection of the bags and as the girls entered we saw
the four traveling outfits they were wearing. Then to give them
a chance to change we cut to a single girl in a raincoat, umbrella
and hat. With an electric fan and some strips of cellophane we
managed an interesting shot of a girl in a futuristic rainstorm.
To get a little male interest we switched to a beach umbrella and
models in bathing suits. Then a close-up, while milady had her
hair done by an expert. From this to a tea table with appropriate
gowns and hats and we closed with all the models in evening
gowns. The visual content just described was backed up with
"off camera" comment by our announcer.

In another program we tried to dramatize our fashion show to
some extent, by working out a semi-pantomime plot for the
models. The scene was a sidewalk cafe*. There were tables, a
waiter and the necessary properties. Two of the girls were dis
covered at a table finishing lunch. We saw close-ups of their
hats, gloves, and jewelry. As they paid the check their purses
were seen. Another girl came in and they discussed her outfit.
Then as they arose to go we saw what they were wearing. At the
entrance they met a friend with her dog and we saw the latest
thing in canine trappings. They left her as she joined the other
girl in the restaurant. We saw the waiter help them with their
coats. The plot was simple but it gave legitimate action; and
with the natural business throughout the program the narrator
had a real reason for mentioning the articles we saw.

Other early shows featured hats, furs, accessories, jewelry,
make-up, swimming suits and shoes. None of these programs
made any attempt to include in their format any entertainment.
All of the television time was free to the potential sponsors and
the station staff worked with the stores and manufacturers in
developing a program.

What to Show and How to Show it

From these simple program experiments it was seen very read
ily that while fashions could easily be televised the mere showing
had only a limited value from an entertainment point of view.
Of course the audience was new in those days and they had not

280 HERE IS TELEVISION

as yet completely lost their amazement at the marvels of the new
medium. While the station welcomed these experimenters, none
of them attempted to put on regularly scheduled programs week
after week. They were interested in one time only and not a
great deal was gained in determining the receptivity of the
audience of the future to programs of this kind. The sole reason
for doing program experimentation was to gain information for
the advertisers rather than to attempt to sell goods. But fashions
held no monopoly on television.

One of the early programs was a complete visual demonstration
of the most important machines in every-day office use put on for
a well-known business machine company. Into the studio were
brought adding machines, typewriters, mimeographing and du
plicating units— practically the full line manufactured by that
company. There were expert demonstrators at each machine and
a pretty announcer took us on a television tour from one machine
to another. Aside from the fact that nearly all the machines were
black, with a tendency to flare, we saw all of them in operation.
A speed champion did tricks on a typewriter at the conclusion.

Automobiles

The 1938 Automobile Show in New York was one of the first
commercial programs to tie studio and mobile unit pickups to
gether into a single production. All the representatives of the
various automobile manufacturers were in town and the televi
sion program was a sales promotion job on the part of the
broadcasting station. In this program we attempted to mold the
commercial and entertainment units into a connected whole. In
the studio we had a family group gathered about an old album.
As they looked at the pictures in the book we switched to our
film studio for stereopticon slides of early model automobiles.
At the finish of the pictures we cut back to the family scene in
the studio, where the father of the family remarked: "Yesterday
the automobile industry became a reality, tomorrow it will be
television. We will be able to see things at home like this." Then
we cut to a series of variety acts to show some of the entertain
ment possibilities of the medium. Then another switching cue,

COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS 281

as the father said: "In television we'll see the new models in
automobiles too." This time we cut to our mobile unit cameras
in Rockefeller Plaza and there were the new models in person.
We saw the new cars as they were driven up to the main entrance
at Radio City.

Picking up a new model automobile in Rockefeller Plaza, 1938.

The program was a definite success. We easily demonstrated
some of the possibilities of future commercial television pro
grams. All of our facilities were in use during the program— the
film studio for the slides, the studio for the live talent part of
the program, and the mobile unit out-of-doors. As it was a spe
cial demonstration it was scheduled in the afternoon which made
the outdoor pickup possible; had it been an evening program,
which is where it would be in normal operations, the mobile
unit or commercial feature would have demanded lights which
would have made the whole program much more involved.

282 HERE IS TELEVISION

Commercial Announcements

In view of the radio network rule that commercial messages
must be limited to a small percentage of the overall program
time the question had often been asked: How long will television
commercials be? Some people maintained that they would be
longer, others shorter, than radio plugs. It seemed then that they
could be longer if they were interesting. So far no one has re
sented very seriously the length of commercials but there has
been definite criticism of their subject matter and manner of
presentation. One of the best commercial television programs
ever produced was over an hour in length. Naturally it was not
sixty minutes of sales messages but it was a commercial from start
to finish. Considerable ingenuity and imagination was evidenced
in the completed script and it was an almost perfect sample of
what can be done if some real thought is given to a problem.
The original order was to produce a television program to pub
licize the opening of a new downtown furniture store by a com
pany that had been in business in New York for many years.
There was nothing glamorous, nothing of particular interest as
program material. In fact it was a difficult program assignment
if we were to get away from the prosaic commercial approach.
The men who finally solved the problem did a very commend
able job. Taking the well-known sentence "New York is a fine
place to visit but no place to live in," as the motivating idea back
of the program, our writers started the story by introducing two
visitors in New York and they made the aforementioned remark
to the guide who was showing them the big town. To disprove
their statement he told them the life story of a man who came to
New York as a young man. We saw him get his first job. We
were with him when he first met his future wife; attended their
marriage; shared his heartaches and pleasures, saw his advance
ment in the business world, the opening of his first shop, and
finally the culmination of his ambition with the opening of his
big downtown store. The whole program was built around the
product and the men who made it successful. In short it was an
hour of commercial but told in such a way that it held our inter
est every minute of the time it was on the air.

COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS 283

While this program again was for one time only, it gave somt
slight indication of what might be done in the handling of com
mercials on television. During this early series of experiments
some of the regular commercial programs that were broadcasting
on radio at that time were brought before the cameras for a
sustained series of broadcasts. While they were basically so good
from a program point of view that they were interesting on tele
vision, they proved that radio programs will have to be re-
groomed before they will be as visually interesting as they must
be to hold their position. If a program is good radio there are
about ten chances to one that it will not be good television.
Pantomime is perfect visual material and television is going to
need visual interest in every program if we are going to keep our
audience looking.

Sponsoring Sports

Probably the high point in commercial programs on regularly
at this time was the sponsorship by Adams' Hats of wrestling.
Elaborate commercial displays were built in the studio. One that
was very effective consisted of a complete reproduction of a hat
store window. After an overall view of the window the camera
dollied in for close-ups of the merchandise on display. The
program would open in the studio and then switch to the arena
for the mobile unit pickup. Between bouts we came back to the
studio for our visual messages.

The Proof of Television Effectiveness

Slowly other advertisers began regular broadcasts and early in
this experimental period the possibilities in television advertising
were conclusively proved in a survey which included both the
radio and television audience. Several copy points were stressed
in a radio commercial for several programs and these same points
were covered in a television commercial. Then the audience was
contacted in person in their homes. While those people who had
listened to the radio program remembered having heard the
points mentioned their conception of how the articles mentioned
were used was vague while those who had seen the television
program knew what the questioner was talking about, they knew

284 HERE IS TELEVISION

what the product would do, they had seen it demonstrated and
this will be true of every product that is properly presented in
the days ahead of us.

An Adam's Hat shop window as reproduced in the VVNBT studios.

Commercial Authorization

On July 1, 1941, the F.C.C. authorized stations holding com
mercial licenses to charge clients for advertising programs. At
that time, in spite of the war in Europe there was a cumulative
interest that was beginning to make itself felt. Sets were on the
market and it was just prior to and during this period that some
five or six thousand receivers were purchased in and around New
York.

Interest on the part of advertisers was still low, but there were
some sponsors who were willing to go ahead and several contracts
for regular programs were signed. The Bulova Watch Company,

COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS 285

introduced a time signal on NBC which consisted of a clock face
that filled the screen and was held for a full minute while the
second hand turned; but there were no oral announcements. All
that was heard was a music box.

Botany Ties began broadcasting a weather report on film.
This was a short animated film showing the doings of Botany's
"Woolly Lamb," with a direct plug for the product and then a
slide showing "Tomorrow's Weather." Several other sponsors
began to plan programs. Then came December 7th.

The outbreak of war found commercial television actually no
where to all practical purposes. The eighteen months of opera
tion had stressed the entertainment end of the medium and aside
from the comparatively few programs that had been attempted
the development of commercial programs had been insignificant.
There were not enough receiving sets in the hands of the public
to make television as a medium interesting. The cost per viewer
was far too high and sponsors in general had decided to wait.
\Vithin a matter of a few months television for all commercial
purposes closed for the duration in New York.

The Renaissance

But television refused to stay dormant and after some fourteen
months of idleness a new surge of interest began to quicken the
pulse of potential advertisers. Station operators realized that the
war would not last forever and that there were still many things
to be learned. Equipment was dusted off and a restricted pro
gram schedule, primarily directed to the returning servicemen
in the hospitals in and around New York, was resumed. The
offer made by Du Mont to furnish facilities free of charge brings
us to the situation described at the start of this chapter. While
the New York stations had been comparatively idle, the General
Electric station in Schenectady had been broadcasting a limited
schedule all through the war and had done more experimenta
tion along commercial lines than anyone else. Most of these
programs had been carried out in conjunction with advertising
agencies. When Du Mont made their facilities available several
sponsors decided to go ahead in New York.

One of the first of the new programs was "Wednesday's At

286 HERE IS TELEVISION

Nine" sponsored by Lever Brothers. During the two years that
this program was on the air many important commercial ideas
were tried out. Some were successful while others proved impos
sible of production at the time. One of the troubles encountered
was that it was virtually impossible to show various degrees of
"whiteness." Soap manufacturers in much of their magazine and
radio copy have stressed the results obtainable through the use
of their product. The problem was to show this by means of
television. It simply couldn't be done with the equipment in use
at that time. Two identically white shirts would appear vastly
different when shown side by side if there was the slightest varia
tion in light level on either garment or if there was a variation
in the shading controls. It was easy enough to compare a blue
shirt and a white one but it wasn't exactly cricket to say that
they were both white and such a misstatement of fact could only
lead to embarrassing complications. This experiment proved
that as yet television can't do everything and if we are to get the
most out of the medium we must cater to it, even if it means
changing a whole advertising campaign. Television may easily
influence sales plans of tomorrow.

The sponsorship of the program alternated between a laundry
soap, a bath soap, a shaving cream, and a shortening. The last
three were simple, due to the fact that they were demonstratable— a
girl in a bath tub, a man in a shower were easy. But the program
showed that television copywriters of tomorrow are going to have
as much plain hard work in devising visual approaches as radio
gag men have now.

Some of the effects we tried were interesting. Our girl in the
tub was a young lady in a shoulderless evening gown standing
behind a sidewall of a bath tub. The camera framed the picture
and made the illusion complete. Another interesting effect was
achieved by having two actors face each other through a square
hole in a piece of scenery painted to look like a mirror. A perfect
effect was achieved as we never saw the face of the man facing
the mirror. He unhappily shaved until his "reflection" handed
him a tube of the proper brand and said, "Here, try this." This
trick was a complete surprise to the audience and helped put our
commercial message across.

COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS 287

The shortening was simple— actual demonstrations of how to
prepare cookies, pies, and cakes with a close-up of the finished
product. All in all, we proved that any demonstratable product
was fairly simple, but to visualize the cleaning efficiency of a
brand of soap was something else again. Another problem was
the lack of interest in laundry soap. No one is interested in dirty
dishes and soiled clothes.

Left— Revolving turntable used for display purposes at WABD.
Right— Kinescope photograph of the television picture delivered to the audi
ence during a Lever Brothers program.

Visual and Aural Messages

In all television commercials there still remains to be tested
the amount of oral plugging a product needs. If a boxing con
test is sponsored and if a large banner with "Fight Fleas with
Fixum" is visible in the background all through the broadcast,
does the client need to do a lot of talking? Will a banner of this
kind be annoying? In early baseball broadcasts the large "Gem"
sign on the fence next to the score board in the ball park was
prominent in all our pictures; all it needed was a slight reference
to it to make our sustaining program a sponsored one.

Repetition of slogans, visual identifications, and openings will
do a great deal to establish identity in the minds of the audience.
In a recent survey the sponsor identification of a certain televi-

288 HERE IS TELEVISION

sion program was 95% which is higher than any radio program
on the air today.

The Wide Variety of Sponsors

It was evident very early in this experimental period that
demonstrable products were easy to make interesting. When
there was something to actually do, a demonstration was obvi
ously good television. Mending tape was an interesting commer
cial as the audience saw the results that could be attained by using
the product. A dog food manufacturer came up with a good idea.
The story is that the hungry little dog turned up his nose at some
very delicious-looking food and gobbled up the proper dog food
on cue, simply because there was kerosene on the competitive dish.

Through most of these commercial endeavors there was evi
dence of the realization that entertainment was vital, that the
television audience would demand it; and some producers leaned
over backwards in trying to incorporate it in the commercials.
Vocal soloists were injected into fashion shows for no apparent
reason. Puppets were made masters of ceremonies and in most
cases failed to entertain. Some few of the live commercial pro
grams were planned with the entertainment built around the
product or designed simply as a vehicle to carry the commercial
message to advantage, but no successful combination was defi
nitely established. The film programs had more true entertain
ment; with them the sponsor's name was shown before and after
a travelogue or short that had been originally produced for
theater consumption.

The Straight Commercial Program

In the midst of feeling around for new approaches, this
thought was suggested: no one resents the advertisements in to
day's magazines. Most everyone reads them but they need not
unless they care to. Why not try an unadulterated straight com
mercial? Why not present the subject matter with a simple "serv
ice to viewers" approach? With this in mind Macy's launched
their "Teleshopping with Martha Manning."

At no time was this program planned to be anything but an

COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS 289

informative source of shopping news. It was only five minutes in
length and was broadcast just before the regular evening schedule
began and it proved that television commercials in themselves can
be made to be interesting visual fare. On this deliberately factual
program more individual articles were shown in five minutes
than other advertisers were presenting in programs of twice that
length of time. The formula in general was to introduce the mis
tress of ceremony who after a very short opening presented the
articles that were featured that week.

The program proved many things. First, we succeeded in mak
ing television do what we wanted it to. There was of course a
limit to the size of objects below which it was impossible to go in
presenting small articles, but purses, hats, Mothers' Day gifts,
soaps, perfumes, camp outfits, brides' gifts, bathing suits, coats,
dresses, household appliances, and many other articles were
shown well.

Second, we found that rapid camera switches and good close-
ups held interest. We did not dwell on any one article for too
long a time. Once the audience had seen it we switched to
something else. At no time did the program drag. The copy was
pertinent and short.

It was never without an audience because of its lack of enter
tainment for coming as it did, just before the regular evening
schedule it was not forced down the throat of those who were not
interested. If the televiewers didn't want to look they didn't have
to, but they did. A program of this type belongs in the morning
or afternoon but undoubtedly a store may show milady their
bargains for the day by television and then wait for the phone to
ring. In the main we must develop a good technique of presenta
tion, the correct way to emphasize the visual sales appeal, but if
a program of this kind is handled correctly, it will do a job.

Unanswered Problems

In spite of the experiments that have been made and of those
programs that are now on the air, serious study of commercial
problems opens up vast fields. All of the commercial experiments
discussed in this chapter are ancient history now. But these early
ventures were perhaps more exploratory than anything else and

290 HERE IS TELEVISION

while some of the experience gained then has been incorporated
into the commercials we see every day, in the main, present-day
sponsors have a tendency to do just what they did in radio. Just
because we have tacked sales messages on to an entertaining radio
show is there any reason to believe that we must do the same
thing in television? If we raise the emotional reactions of the
audience to a pitch equivalent to that achieved in the theater or
by a movie can we then blatantly ask them to buy the cure that
fixed father without incurring their resentment? Must we follow
radio precedent at all? There is perhaps sound reasoning behind
this procedure. If radio sold goods by merely repeating over and
over the good qualities of a product then television should be
able to do the same thing. But just as television is more effective
when the commercial message is designed for visual presentation,
so too is it conversely annoying when the audience is constantly
subjected to a commercial that doesn't find the audience ap
proval that the sponsor had hoped for. In other words the
sponsor by constant visual repetition of a commercial runs the
risk of extreme adverse criticism. While many thousands of dol
lars are being spent on the entertainment end of the program
many sponsors seem satisfied to show the same film strip lauding
their product week after week. If television is to "make friends
and sell people" then it behooves those who make the final de
cisions on a sponsor's commercial to see that it does. Many of
the one minute spots are clever and interesting but their appeal
fades with too much repetition. Another commercial approach
that is questionable is the similarity of competitive advertising
copy. If every time we are shown a refrigerator we are shown the
same features in the same manner regardless of make, is the sales
job being done properly? Every cigaret commercial makes the
same claims no matter what the brand. If television is expected
to sell goods it at least ought to be given an individual copy
story worked out in an interesting visual manner that is different
from the story of the competing manufacturers. Sponsors are really
asking a good deal of the viewer when, just as the interesting part
of a dramatic scene should be played, the story is broken off and he
is forced to interest himself in a new idea— namely, an unwanted
commercial. A few sponsors have realized this and are presenting

LARGE STATION OPERATION 291

novel and amusing commercial messages which meet with definite
audience approval. How to put television sales messages across
effectually and hold the approbation and attention of the audi
ence is an approach that must be learned if commercial programs
are to be as successful as they can be.

It is difficult at this time to even estimate what the costs of
tomorrow's television programs will be. Even today it is hard to
arrive at an exact estimate. Station time is a set figure but the
production costs vary tremendously. Because of existing facili
ties, a production, built in one part of the city, transported to
the broadcasting studio and, after it is used, returned to a ware
house makes for a wide range in prices. This procedure is often
necessary as very few producing studios have building facili
ties on or near the premises. Salaries of artists vary from about
two dollars an hour for important parts in a dramatic show
where several days of rehearsal are required to fantastic fees for
the stars and VIP. In 1945 the average cost of commercial tele
vision programs was very close to ten dollars per minute of time
on the air. This figure was for program content alone, facilities
charges were additional. By 1950 a conservative estimate would
probably be between one hundred to two hundred and fifty dol
lars per minute and in many cases far higher. In spite of the
limited experiments so far carried out, it is a certainty that tele
vision stations with a large viewing audience will eventually
make commercial television programs a good investment for the
sponsor. If radio could do a successful sales job, television will
do a better one.

26
LARGE STATION OPERATION

The problem of supplying programs to the television audience
brought the broadcaster face to face with a vicious circle. Which
should come first, the audience or the programs? There were
those who maintained that the average American would not buy
a television receiver until a good program service was available;
on the other hand, there was plenty of argument to prove that

292 HERE IS TELEVISION

the broadcaster could not afford to provide good programs until
there was an audience with television receivers to pick up the
entertainment offered. Actually, television broadcasters had to
carry the load until such time as there were enough receivers in
the hands of the public to warrant advertisers buying time on
their stations. Every survey showed that the American people
would buy receivers and that meant the broadcaster must provide
programs. How best to do this has been the problem the broad
caster has had to meet.

The first problem of course is studio space and as program
schedules expand so too will the demand for more facilities. Each
New York station has met the demand in a slightly different way.
NBC has over-flowed from their two studios that were redesigned
for TV operations, into their radio studios. These originally
were equipped with remote television pickup chains and addi
tional studios were scheduled as needed. In addition to these
mid-town studios they completely reconverted a large motion
picture studio uptown and have additional space available
there. CBS redesigned their large studio space in the Grand Cen
tral Terminal and made two large and one small permanent
studios. In addition they took more space in an old lodge hall
and equipped it for television operation. ABC took over an in
door riding academy which they split up into two large studios
with several smaller studios adjacent to them. DuMont had three
studios in Wanamakers in addition to their small studios in the
center of the city. FIX built two studios in an addition to the
News Building and also leased outside studio space. In addition
to these studios, adapted for strictly studio types of programs, each
New York station is originating broadcasts from theatres in mid-
Manhattan. Programs that play to live audiences are broadcast
from these theatres. Just when the demand for additional space
will end will depend on the eventual program schedule that must
be met.

Rehearsal Time

Any plans for a major television station should be based first
on the number of hours the station will be on the air. There is a
very definite limit to the number of program hours that can be

LARGE STATION OPERATION 293

produced in any one studio regardless of its size. We have today
both large and small studios in operation and we still come back
to the fact that while pretentious program units will require
large studios, no two programs can rehearse in one room at the
same time. Consequently a simple basic statement of television
operational requirements is that the number of studios necessary
will depend on the number of hours on the air.

Before we go into probable requirements based on studio
operations as they are being handled today, we must take several
production facts into consideration. We know there is a reason
able rehearsal limit below which we cannot go. All our experi
ments so far have shown that it takes just so long to acquaint
everyone involved in a program with the part he must play in it.
Just as a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, so too will the
rehearsal time depend on the time it takes to coordinate the ac
tion of the slowest operator in the production regardless of his
importance.

In all our discussions in this chapter we have taken an arbi
trary figure in the amount of camera rehearsal time that should
be allowed for each program. It is based on actual experience.
The average camera rehearsal time on the better dramatic pro
grams was almost eight hours to one. This did not include line
rehearsals. The actors came into the studio "up in their lines."
Scenery, properties, and lights were in place and a complete
routine of camera shots had been previously worked out. Curi
ously enough short programs if they are at all involved, demand
more rehearsal than long ones. On a five-minute program the
best ratio was around twelve to one and it ran as high as twenty
to one when things went wrong. This average is based on twenty-
four programs. At no time were we able to improve that average,
as the more we accomplished the more we strove to better the
production, and that tendency will prevail with everyone who is
attempting to produce good television programs. As programs
become more involved, and more perfect results are demanded, it
may be that the time devoted to preparation will be extended. If
this happens any time element that we fix for rehearsals today
may be completely out of line tomorrow. On the other hand,
experienced personnel may be able to deliver a higher quality of

294 HERE IS TELEVISION

entertainment and still hold the rehearsal time factor constant.

It is quite possible that the overall weekly program schedule
on any station may suffer from lack of studio facilities. If more
studios were available, which would allow more rehearsal time
per program, it might be reflected in the final results on the air.
Lack of studios may make it necessary to eliminate certain pro
gram suggestions altogether and, while this policy may be criti
cized, there is an economic limit to studio facilities. Actually the
overall problem is to provide adequate facilities and then do the
best possible job with the utmost efficiency.

There is another factor that we must consider before we can
begin to crystallize our studio requirements. That is the working
hours of personnel. For the sake of argument let us assume that
our crews are going to work a forty-hour week. This means that
we must constantly evaluate the cost of personnel against the
capital and overhead tied up in studios and equipment. Obvi
ously you can't afford to pay personnel while they are not work
ing, so again we come back to the number of studios we must
provide to get the maximum result from our employees.

A Place to Rehearse

Physically we must first have rehearsal rooms. The number
will depend on the hours on the air we plan to broadcast. Here
the early "walk throughs" are held as well as pre-camera re
hearsals. Every hour spent in a room of this kind frees a broad
casting studio. If these rooms can be a duplicate, in size and
arrangement, of the stqdio in which the program is to be broad
cast a certain amount of time might be saved later. The first
contact between the director and the artist, however, will take
place in this pre-rehearsal room in an involved program. We
found that, as we learned what we wanted, the rehearsal room
was more and more in demand and it may be that two rehearsal
rooms should be planned for every studio.

The amount of rehearsal time spent in the rehearsal room as
well as in the television studio proper will vary tremendously
with each program. We have previously mentioned a ratio of
eight to one for dramatic programs. On the other hand, many
programs went on the air with a ratio of two to one in the studio

LARGE STATION OPERATION

295

with no pre-rehearsals. Vaudeville acts, quiz programs, inter
views, and many others can be televised successfully with only a
camera walk through. In general, an overall rehearsal ratio of
between four and six to one should be practical.

To try and visualize the whole operation let's lay it out on a
studio chart.

of suqqested stvd/o operations for e/<?M- hoars per ctay
of L/V£ 7e/ev/'s/on Programs.

5TODIO-1ISTUOIO-2JSTUOIO-3 JSTUDIO-4-! STUDIO -b \ STUDIO-6 JSTUOIO-7

G HOURS Am TIME.
53 HAS IS" RFHEAXSAL

TiMf

SAM

TECHNICAL

30% 30-: 30%

3ff'+30"

6hrs.30': 6hrs. • Shrs.lS"! 9hrs.30"- 8 hrs 9 hrs ! 6hr».

Director

Asst. -

Technical Director

Video Engineer

Sound ••

Sound Effects operator

Camera Man

Camera •>

Camera

Dolly • AIR TIME

Dolly - II -12 AM

Electrician 2-5 P.M.

Asst - 7-M PM.

Property Mo«1
Boom Sound -
Staqe Monaoer
Video Effects

* = S =

0 = A =

II E^ — 3

I8hr5. 15* Scenery Crew/
Studio Operatinq Crew

This chart is based on the assumption that each studio is of sufficient
size to aHow scenery for two half hour proqrams to be sefop at one time
(Three cameras, two of them on dollies, would be used )

Now let us look at what might be a typical operation for an
eight-hour day. Some New York stations are on the air in excess

296

HERE IS TELEVISION

of that number of hours now, and any plans for studios in a
major station should be so worked out that a full day's schedule
could be handled even though the original building plan fell
short of that capacity.

One Day's Schedule

Just as a case in point let us assume that our schedule worked
out something like this. Daily:

11 A.M. to 12 M.

2 P.M. to 5 P.M.

7 P.M. to 11 P.M.

Let us also assume that we had seven television studios. Now let
us break down the studios, and the personnel we would have to
engage on a permanent basis, to make the operation of such a
schedule possible. A typical day's program might be worked out
as follows:

11:00 to 11:15
11:15 to 11:30
11:30 to 12:00

Studio 6

15-minute programs

2:00 to
2:30 to
3:00 to
3:30 to
4:00 to
4:30 to
7:00 to
7:30 to
8:00 to
8:30 to
9:00 to
9:30 to
10:00 to
10:30 to

2:30

3:00

3:30

4:00

4:30

5:00

7:30

8:00

8:30

9:00

9:30

10:00

10:30

11:00

7
1
2
3
7
1
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
6

30-minute programs

Of course we have taken many arbitrary premises. For instance
a typical day might not consist of fifteen thirty-minute programs

LARGE STATION OPERATION 297

and two fifteen-minute units. It might have three or four straight
hour broadcasts or many more shorter units; but no matter how
we split up our broadcasting schedule we will approach some
parallel to the studio requirements we have laid out.

This chart too is based on the false premise that all programs
will originate live from the broadcasting station. We know they
will not. Many programs will be on film and obviously every
hour of film eliminates a studio and the personnel necessary to
operate it. Furthermore we will have many hours of mobile unit
pickups which will eliminate studios unless we plan to offer
studio facilities to our client for his commercials. We do not
know as yet what the demands will be so let us assume we are
going to fill eight hours per day with live talent programs.

This chart of suggested studio operations for eight hours a day
is based on several other assumptions: First, that each studio is
of sufficient size to allow for the placing at one time of all the
scenery to be used, in one hour of television programs. Second,
it is assumed that each thirty-minute unit can be rehearsed with
cameras in approximately three hours. In studio #1 we show five
and one-half consecutive hours of rehearsal before the first pro
gram goes on the air with an additional hour before the second
program is broadcast.

We have presupposed that the second program will have been
rehearsed during part of this five-and-one-half-hour rehearsal
period. The program to be broadcast between 4:30 and 5:00
might rehearse from 8:00 to 10:00 in the morning and from 3:30
to 4:30 in the afternoon. The first program from this studio,
scheduled from 2:30 to 3:00, would rehearse from 10:00 to 12:00
and from 1:00 to 2:30. This would allow three hours rehearsal
for the program broadcast from 4:30 to 5:00 and three and one-
half hours for the program broadcast between 2:30 and 3:00.

If these two-and-one-half hour programs were competitive
commercial programs, and it was found impossible to rehearse
both programs in the same studio on the same day, it is obvious
that another studio and another operating crew would be neces
sary. This procedure would apply to each program on the air
and to each studio in use.

298 HERE IS TELEVISION

Changing the Scenery

We have made no attempt to indicate the exact number of studio
operating crews necessary to do the job. In studio #4, for example,
we show three thirty-minute programs. If the procedure sug
gested in studio #1 were applied here one operating crew would
report at 8:00 A.M. and rehearse until 11:30 A.M. The program
would then be broadcast from 11:30 to 12:00. At 1 o'clock a new
operating crew would report and would rehearse and broadcast
the two programs scheduled from 7:00 to 7:30 and from 9:30 to
10:00. We have made no attempt to fill in the extra day for the
first operating crew. Under this procedure they have only worked
a four-hour day but at the same time, unless there is an addi
tional studio available, there is no way, with only seven studios,
to utilize their services in active operation for the other four
hours. We will always be forced to balance operating man-hours
against studio facilities. It will always be virtually impossible to
get lOO^fc efficiency out of any operating crew. We have arbi
trarily allotted time for changing scenery during rehearsal
periods. This has been done in an attempt to increase the effi
ciency of the scenery crew. It will be seen that if the scenery time
scheduled on the chart during an operational day is eliminated
and all scenery is changed after the studio is through for the day,
two crews would still be required assuming of course that two
hours were sufficient in each studio. The chart in this case only
shows the possibility of daytime operation. Night rates for per
sonnel will probably be higher. The actual time necessary to
change scenery cannot be estimated without some knowledge of
program requirements. No reference has been made in this chart
to the number of men involved in the scenery crew. That will
rest entirely with the amount of scenery used for each program,
and that again will depend on the type of programs produced
and the production standards set by the station. It seems only
reasonable to assume that the seventeen program units indicated
on the chart would require at least one set each, and some pro
grams may run as high as five or six sets per unit. All of these
sets must be designed, built, and painted and no attempt has

LARGE STATION OPERATION 299

been made to estimate the amount of time or the number of men
required to do this.

Roughly, it is seen that each hour of program per day is going
to require a studio, an operating crew of eighteen men for each
studio, a crew to change scenery and a crew to build and paint it.
We have attempted in this chart to show how one studio might
be eliminated in a normal day's operation if the programs were
planned and produced as indicated. The chart only covers pro
duction for one day. On a seven-day operating week it is obvious
that it would be necessary to use additional crews for the extra
two days and all schedules should be arranged to allow the same
crew to produce the same program each week.

A Weekly Schedule

Let us stop for a minute and consider a real week's schedule.
In spite of everything we have shown in our operations chart,
actual broadcasting should be far simpler. In the first place, as
we have said, no large television station will attempt a program
schedule comprised entirely of live studio pickups. Film pro
grams will fill many hours. Just what the percentage will be can
only be a guess but authorities have rated the percentage of
programs on film from forty to sixty percent. Again, many pro
gram hours will originate out of the studio by means of mobile
unit pickup. It is probably a fair estimate to say that almost
twenty percent of all live programs will come from points outside
the studio. This figure is probably low as every boxing match,
football or baseball game— in fact every sports program— runs
well over an hour, and it is fair to assume that our audience will
want to see the whole event. This means that five remote pickups
per week, which is about the limit that could be handled by one
crew, might deliver over ten hours of programs weekly.

In planning facilities for an eight-hour day a broadcaster
should plan as a minimum on from four to six studios. Each stu
dio should have at least three cameras with a fourth as a standby
or for use on special programs. He should have at least two com
plete sets of mobile equipment with three or more cameras in
each unit. He should have a projection room with at least
two television cameras. To serve these cameras he should

300 HERE IS TELEVISION

have two thirty-five millimeter motion picture projectors and
probably two sixteen millimeter film projectors. He will also
need one or two still picture projectors and some type of pro
jector for small objects and printed material either pictorial or
reading matter.

Studio Construction

Above all every production center should be planned to take
care of normal expansion, eight hours per day can only be the
beginning. Several ingenious studio arrangements have been
planned by outstanding architects but few take into consideration
the overall size of the plant that must eventually be built.

Various suggestions have been made for studio construction.
Some favor large revolving stages, others movable platforms.
Thought has been given to the reconversion of existing theaters.
The mobility of cameras tends to rule out the revolving stage for
it is easier to move the cameras than the scenery. If a revolving
stage could be divided into soundproof segments, however, so
that one set could be changed while another was on the air, much
studio space could be saved; but from experience such an ar
rangement seems questionable. Individual movable platforms
that could be moved out of a studio with a set fully assembled
might be workable, and the theatrical fly gallery of the legitimate
stage will be used extensively. We will probably see many inno
vations along these lines for time and space must be saved, but
studio space alone is not all that needs be considered.

Before anything can go into the studios it must be planned by
the executive department and the office space needed in a major
station will be considerable. The program department will need
room to spread out for it is there that the material that we will
see on our receiver is chosen, written, and developed.

From our program offices, we go to our scenic designers' depart
ment. There each program is laid out and designed. Drawings
are made which go on to the carpenter shop. When the scenery
is constructed it must be painted. While this is being done the
property department is securing properties and they must have
space to work. Shops and equipment for the costume department
must be planned. Finally the production as a whole is ready to

LARGE STATION OPERATION

301

be assembled in the studio for rehearsal. While all this was going
on actors have been rehearsing in the rehearsal room and they
now move into the dressing-rooms for make-up and costumes.
Only after all this has been done, and remember this routine will
be followed on each individual program, are you ready for the
camera rehearsal in the studio. Let us look at another chart.

Space

Executive
Office Space

Program Production Dept.
Engineering Dept.

Sales and Service
Scenic Dept.

Carpenter Shop
Property Shop
Electrical Dept.
Visual and Sound Effects
Paint Shop
Wardrobe Dept.
Control Room
Studio

Dressing-rooms
Film Studio

Personnel

Station Manager
Sales
Program
Engineering

Writers
Directors

Engineers

Operating Maintenance

Salesmen

Designers
Artists

Carpenters
Property Men
Electricians
Effects Specialists
Artists
Costumers
Operating Engineers

Operating Crew
Actors

Make-up Men
Hairdressers

Projectionist
Operating Engineer
Librarian

302 HERE IS TELEVISION

Space Personnel

Master Control Operating Engineers

Transmitter Operating Engineers

Maintenance

Personnel

Each of these department units function on every television
program. How much physical space each one will need will vary
but they must all have somewhere "to hang their hat."

Just how many men or women you will need in each depart
ment will of course depend on the demands put on them. In the
program department the number needed will depend on indi
vidual ability and the creative nature of their work. In the early
days we felt that if a director selected a script, adapted it for
television, cast it, rehearsed it, and produced it he was doing a
good job if he delivered one full hour of drama every three
weeks.

The one group of employees that is very definitely set is the
studio operating crew. It will be physically impossible to elim
inate any of the crew listed on our studio chart as facilities exist
today and nothing that we know of would cause very much
change in the future. You must have a man at each control and
on each piece of equipment, whether it be a camera, a dolly, a
sound boom or a light.

The final union control of all television operators will deter
mine salaries and category. Today, at some studios, the camera
men are electrical engineers, because of the theory that each
cameraman should be able to get the most out of his equipment
through his personal knowledge of its electrical operation. In
other studios the cameramen are in the program department,
selected because of some experience in the operation of ordinary
photographic cameras. In Hollywood the motion picture camera
men have, in some instances, "gone on the floor" in a television
studio. But, whatever their background, you still must have a
cameraman for every television camera you plan to use every
time you plan to use it. The demands on scenery will astonish

LARGE STATION OPERATION 303

you, for you will find that you cannot use the same scenery week
after week. Of course some sets will be used time after time but
even though there is a legitimate reason for the same set its con
stant use is visually very monotonous.

Any major studio must include in the overall plan facilities for
background projection. So far this process has had very few tests
but it will be a factor in many programs and studios must allow
space to handle it. We will discuss its operation in a later
chapter.

Theoretical Problems

The present-day radio station manager who plans to go into
television has a basic personnel problem that only he can solve.
Should he put his best radio executives and operators who are
making his radio station a success into television or should he
leave them where they are, and put new personnel in television?
This isn't exactly an easy problem. If he brings in new men to
operate his television station, what should he do with his com
petent radio crews when television becomes the backbone of his
broadcasting business? Television isn't radio. A good radio man
cannot step into a comparable position in television, sometime
in the future, with only a superficial knowledge of its operation.

If, because a radio station manager needs his radio men in
their present positions and brings in new television crews what
can he do with his television personnel when his radio men
finally take over? The answer probably is that television some
day will require many more men and women than it is employ
ing now. Television will absorb both radio and television crews
but the process will be an interesting one for the people involved.

Studio Locations

An immediate problem is of course the location of future tele
vision studios. Should they be in the heart of a great city as radio
stations are, or should they be out in the suburbs? There are
arguments on both sides. The price of property, overhead, and
rent will of course be less out of the city; but will transportation
offset this? Will actors, directors, and other employees, to say

304

HERE IS TELEVISION

Exterior of General Electric's Schenectady studio with relay transmitter.

LARGE STATION OPERATION 305

nothing of sponsors travel out to a plant some distance from the
heart of things?

If the public is to be as much a part of television as it is in
radio how will people get out to a television "lot" to witness and
participate in programs?

In all probability television will make its own rules and will
not be hidebound by radio precedents and conventions. Space in
metropolitan areas will be expensive. Separate studios in various
locations will seriously affect efficient operation. In New York,
radio actors fly from one studio to another to virtually compete
with themselves on various stations. Many times they are on the
air on one program while they are due for rehearsal at another.
In Hollywood, however, if actors go to a studio for a day's work
they stay there. The same is true in the theater. Television
will make the same demands as motion pictures or the theater.
The very nature of the actor's job will require him to be avail
able for long periods of time.

If studios are out of town clients, celebrities, and the public
who want to see a broadcast will have to come to the place of
origin no matter where it is.

In Schenectady the General Electric Studio is in a detached
building on its own grounds. Because of this they have been able
to work outside and produce programs impossible in New York's
downtown studios. In England the Alexandria Palace studio of
the B.B.C. was in a park quite some distance from the center of
London. Buses took the actors out to the studio where they
spent the day.

The Ultimate Requirements

We must look at a major television station from a broad point
of view. Even with only eight hours of programs a day, we are
talking about a total number of hours of Ttainment per week
per station that approaches if it doesn't surpass the entire weekly
output of the motion picture industry with all its Hollywood and
newsreel facilities. To try and meet this demand a major televi
sion station must have huge program facilities. They should
include not only ample studios, and ample in this case is unpre
dictable now, but also tennis courts, sports arenas, baseball and

306 HERE IS TELEVISION

football stadiums, swimming tanks, and perhaps a permanent
circus ground. Eventually television need not run madly from
one point of interest to another for program material. It is not
inconceivable that we may see features of all kinds done exclus
ively for television. When we cease to cater to the few thousand
people who attend any sporting event and play everything for
the cameras we will have better entertainment in the homes of
millions of viewers. These are problems that only time can solve,
but large combined studios outside the metropolitan area are al
ready being considered and it is probably only a matter of a few
years before they become a reality.

At first the FCC required that a commercial television station
broadcast twenty-eight hours per week and at least two hours
every day. Who can say now what tomorrow's schedules may be?
Eight hours, twelve, or eighteen? There are those who say that
television will never entirely replace radio. Others claim that
radio will cease to exist when the visual service is fully operating.
We do know that silent motion pictures are no longer a factor in
theaters and that may be an indication of where we may be
going. Sound movies killed the silent screen, visual television
may eliminate sightless radio.

Now where are all of tomorrow's television programs to come
from? No one organization can hope to supply the demand for
entertainment, education, and factual news that this medium
will require. The answer is that we will probably see hundreds
of independent program-producing companies. Thousands of
hours will be on film, produced by the entire motion picture in
dustry. Thousands of hours will be made up of sports pickups.
The world is entertained today in many ways; we may see all of
the now-existent originating entertainment centers of the world
releasing their features and finding their audience through televi
sion. In any event we know this, a major television station will
cost real money to equip and many dollars a year to operate.
The eventual profit or loss sustained will depend entirely on
how rapidly television develops as an industry, but it will be a
"big business." Tomorrow's major television station will not be
a one-ring circus, it will be a ten-ring affair with a new show
every day. By its very nature, and through public demand, it
must be the Greatest Show on Earth.

LARGE STATION OPERATION 307

TELEVISION PROGRAM PERSONNEL

I. PREPARATION

1. Program Manager

2. Director

3. Assistant Director

4. Writer

5. Designer

6. Carpenter

7. Assistant Carpenter

8. Scenic Artist

9. Assistant Scenic Artist

10. Property Man

11. Electrician

12. Stage Manager

13. Video Effects and Titles

14. Make-up Man

15. Cos turner

16. Grips

II. OPERATION

IN CONTROL ROOM ON MOBILE UNIT

Director Director

Assistant Director Chief Engineer

17. Switching Engineer Switching Engineer

18. Video Engineer Video Engineer

19. Sound Engineer Sound Engineer

20. Sound Effects Operator

IN STUDIO OUTSIDE

21. Cameraman Cameraman

22. Dolly Man

23. Cameraman Cameraman

24. Cameraman Cameraman

308 HERE IS TELEVISION

25. Boom Man Sound Technician
Video Effects and Title Man

Stage Manager Stage Manager

Electrician Electrician

26. Assistant Electrician Assistant Electrician
Grips Grips

Property Man Property Man

IN PROJECTION ROOM

27. Shading Engineer

28. Projectionist

29. Librarian

Master Control Personnel, Transmitter Crew, Maintenance
Crew

SMALL STATION OPERATION

In spite of all the trials, tribulations, trouble, and expense that
we have outlined in the preceding chapter for the large station
operator, the man who plans a single station in a moderately
sized city should find himself in a very good economic position.
He can immediately forget many of the problems that confront
a metropolitan station particularly if that station is a network
originating point. His only responsibility is to bring to his com
munity a daily schedule that is of a sufficiently high standard to
hold his audience and with the programs that should and will
be available to him, this is not a difficult nor economically pro
hibitive assignment.

For the sake of argument let us assume that he plans a broad
casting schedule of eight hours a day. He may, if he can make
the proper arrangements, simply operate as an outlet for network
programs, coming from the large originating station. His only
problem then is to build and operate a television transmitter and

SMALL STATION OPERATION 309

broadcast the programs fed to him. There may be many privately
owned stations that will choose to operate this way for several
reasons. First there will probably be more programs available
than there are competitive television stations in many localities.
It seems only reasonable to assume that there will be at least five
competitive major stations in every large community. If these
five stations each maintain an eight hour per day schedule there
will be forty hours of programs produced daily in that originat
ing city. This means to the small station operator, that in the
metropolitan centers enough programs are being produced daily
to program five stations. Unless he has four competitors in his
area, he will find more programs available than he could possibly
use. Let's not discount the fact that network originating stations
will attempt to tie up local outlets with non-competitive release
contracts; but in spite of this, the local station manager is in a
very strong position. It stands to reason that distribution will be
a dominant factor in the cost of television programs. The pro
duction costs on any program will be relatively expensive in
exact proportion to the number of people who see them. If an
elaborate program is produced on a New York station it must in
some way be made available to the millions of viewers outside
the metropolitan area.

We mentioned that there should be programs on at least five
major large city stations. This does not mean that there will
necessarily be five television networks, but the majority of the
good programs seen on any one large station will surely, through
some means or other, be made available to stations serving non-
competitive areas.

The Availability of Film

Programs on film will play a tremendously important place in
this operation. While they will be used as radio transcriptions
are today they will never have to overcome the difficulties that
transcribed radio programs faced. In the early days ot radio
broadcasting the quality of recorded programs was not up to that
attainable in the studio with live talent. On film that difference
does not exist and we will never have that problem in television,
for if a film is properly photographed and recorded for television

310 HERE IS TELEVISION

release, the sight and sound reception in the home will be just as
good from film programs as it will be from live programs.

If an advertiser's program was originally produced on film he
would be free to arrange a simultaneous showing of his program
in every city in the United States on the same day and at the
same hour if he so desired. He could accomplish the same end by
rotating his program; that is, he could place this week's program
in New York and have it broadcast next week at the same time
in Chicago, and so on throughout the country with the conse
quent saving in print costs. Direct pickup on television networks
will be unbeatable for broadcasting events of national impor
tance such as sporting events, special ceremonies, and spot news,
but again we are faced with the unhappy fact that unless the
television audience stop everything that they are doing to watch
the program at the time it is being broadcast, regardless of what
time a day it happens to come, that program will be lost unless
it is put on film. And it is the local station manager who will
reap most of the benefits from operations of this kind.

He will of course need a good film studio, projectors, and tele
vision pickup equipment; but once this is secured the cost of
operation and personnel is relatively small. It seems well within
reason to believe that a single station could be programmed en
tirely by film if it was so desired.

Local Programs

But of course the local station manager must consider his obli
gation to his community and plan on studios for a certain
amount of live pickups. How many will depend on his total
hours on the air and the percentage that will be live. He still
must face the overall ratio of one studio for each hour of pro
grams broadcast, but if he has a network service available to him
as well as film, judicious program arrangements may allow for a
possible ninety minutes from one studio during a day. This
might be accomplished by using the studio thirty minutes in the
morning, again in the afternoon and finally at night if he had
rehearsal rooms and the studios were large enough to handle all
the scenery needed.

He faces the same personnel problem per studio as the major
operators, his only saving might be in the elimination of one

SMALL STATION OPERATION 311

camera. Local production technically must be as good as that
provided by the originating network station. He must have a
trained studio crew and, while their individual salaries may be
lower than their metropolitan team-mates, their work must be as
good as those in the big cities. He will be restricted of course in
talent, but General Electric in Schenectady has maintained an
interesting live schedule without the professional actors that are
available to stations in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles.

A possible source of live talent material may come to him
through traveling television units. It has been suggested that
companies of actors and actresses be formed, that these profes
sionally trained artists then "get up" in a repertoire of television
plays, and that they then travel from city to city and enact their
material before the television cameras of the various stations
throughout the country. This, of course, would mean that the
celevision station would take the place of the theater that used
to house the traveling road-shows and vaudeville acts of yester
year. Physically this plan is possible. It would seem much more
expedient and economical, however, to put the program on film
and then ship the film from station to station rather than the
actors.

Local department stores are going to use time on television
and every station should plan facilities to handle business of this
kind. The medium has already proved its value in this type of
advertising. We will see in our homes complete demonstrations
of everything a store has to offer.

In addition to his film and studio requirements it may be that
a single station manager will find mobile unit pickup equipment
a virtual necessity. Just as major sporting events will be of inter
est nationally so, too, will local contests be valuable program
material for many communities. New improvements in this type
of equipment have widened its use. Cameras are lighter, the
mobile unit has been broken down into "suit case" equipment
that can be carried in an ordinary light truck and installed
wherever it is to be used. Public gatherings, lectures, church
services, and other civic and community events should prove to
be interesting television material. The more sensitive cameras
now available should make pickups of this nature practical.

A television station in a moderately sized city should be not

312 HERE IS TELEVISION

only a good investment for its owners but also should provide
employment for many people and visual entertainment, educa
tion and news to the whole community.

28
TELEVISION NETWORKS

While television networks today are a long way from what
they will be eventually, tests already made have proved that pic
tures can successfully span the country. Ever since early 1941 a
limited network has been functioning in and around New York
City. This service was expanded rapidly. From an early opera
tion with stations in New York, Schenectady, and Philadelphia
competitive network service soon linked Boston and Richmond,
Virginia. Then came network facilities toward the west and Chi
cago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Milwaukee and St. Louis were added
to the cable. These cities all received programs originating in
New York, while Chicago programs were sent eastward. Network
service will move westward in a march that will end only when
New York and the west coast are joined together in a perma
nently operated flow of programs.

Possible Means of Distribution

Television signals may be sent from point to point in four
ways. By coaxial cable, by air relay and for short distances by a
"Balanced Pair" of ordinary telephone wires or by transmitting
a signal through a hollow metal shield similar to a gutter pipe.
Successful tests have been conducted by means of each method
and pictures have been transmitted with comparatively little loss
in overall values. The last two methods have proved practical
so far for short distances only but both coaxial cable and air
relay have been tested over long distances with good results.

The prime mover in the development of television network fa
cilities by means of coaxial cable has been The American Tele
phone and Telegraph Company. Their plans call for complete

TELEVISION NETWORKS 313

coverage of the nation. They announced a program calling for
the completion of six thousand miles of cable in five years and
they finished the job ahead of schedule. When a few short gaps
are completed, transcontinental service will become available.

The first tests by this means go back to 1937 over a two line
coaxial cable which was installed between New York City and
Philadelphia. This line was first constructed for commercial
telephonic services but its ability to handle television has already
been proved. In New York a picture was picked up by a tele
vision camera and fed through one cable to Philadelphia and
returned to New York by the other. Two monitor screens were
set up, side by side. On one was seen the picture as it was origi
nally picked up and on the other at the samt instant was seen
the picture that had traveled roughly one hundred and eighty
miles, namely to Pennsylvania and back. In looking at both pic
tures it was difficult to observe any difference that could be
attributed to the long distance trip.

The pickup of the Republican National Convention in Phila
delphia was sent back to New York over this cable in 1940
and then broadcast to the New York area. In that same year
the telephone company installed a four cable coaxial circuit from
Stevens Point, Wisconsin to Minneapolis, Minnesota, a distance
of some two hundred miles. Tests were made in 1941 over these
lines, the picture traveling each way twice for a total distance of
about eight hundred miles, and still the picture was satisfactory.
So from everything we know now it is quite logical to say that
television pictures eventually can be sent from Coast to Coast,
from Canada to Mexico, the limiting factors being money, men,
and material.

Physically, a coaxial cable is a copper tube with a single wire
in its center. With proper terminal and repeater equipment, a
pair of these coaxials can handle over four hundred and fifty
telephone circuits all at the same time. This capacity makes it
possible to transmit both the visual impulses and their accom
panying television sound. As many as eight of these coaxial
cables have been put together in one casing and we may see even
more included eventually.

The big important factor in coaxial networks is the cost.

314 HERE IS TELEVISION

When a cable is used to transmit a television program it natu
rally cancels the availability of the circuit for telephonic com
munications. It is only reasonable to expect that the charge for
the use of thes*1 facilities for television will be in the neighbor
hood of the amount of revenue the company would receive if the
line was being used for telephone service.

The telephone company originally made these facilities avail
able for television experimentation from Washington to New
York. This new, two-way coaxial circuit made it possible to
pick up programs in Washington or Philadelphia and broadcast
them in New York or the other way around. While the lines were
available to television broadcasters for experimental programs
without charge for a brief period of time, a rate was soon estab
lished and network programs went on a commercial basis.

The early availability of network facilities stimulated the
growth of television immeasurably. In some cities "on the cable,"
stations went on the air with no local pickup facilities of any
kind. They simply built a transmitter and broadcast network
programs. This was a temporary situation but it created an im
mediate demand for receivers in that area without putting the
broadcasters to the expense of installing expensive studio equip
ment.

When the first coaxial cable was put in service to the west
there were some four or five competing stations in New York
putting commercial programs on the air. They couldn't all have
the cable so a plan was worked out where they shared the line.
One station sent their programs west on certain hours on certain
days then in turn the other stations took over. This operation
completely broke down the tight affiliations between stations out
side of New York and any one network. A station in Pittsburgh
might broadcast programs coming from competitive network
originating points. This was only possible where there were
fewer local outlets than there were stations in New York or Chi
cago and it continued only until dual coaxial facilities were made
available.

TELEVISION NETWORKS 315

Air Relays

The other basic means of transmitting picture signals from
point to point over long distances is through the use of a micro
wave relay system, popularly known as a radio relay.

The first practical demonstration was conducted by RCA-NBG
in 1941. It is true that before this pictures had been received in
Schenectady from New York and rebroadcast; but this phenome
non was not a true operating network from a commercial point
of view, as this link was too long and from an engineering point
of view it was not reliable.

In a radio relay system a highly directional signal is sent out
on a very high frequency. This is far above that used by ordinary
television transmitters and the receivers in the hands of the pub
lic cannot pick up these signals. But some thirty to forty miles
from the transmitter a receiver, tuned to receive the frequency
being used, is set up. This "relay station" not only receives the
picture from the originating station but sends it on, "relays" it,
to another receiver another thirty or forty miles further on.
Through amplification at each relay point the picture can theo
retically be sent as far as desired but there is a slight loss in
picture signal each time it is sent on, so with present facilities,
or until such time as this loss is overcome, there is a limit to
the distance that a picture can be sent. Manufacturers and engi
neers tell us, however, that present day equipment is capable of
delivering a picture from coast to coast. This means that one
hundred relay points spaced thirty miles apart should take a
picture from New York to Hollywood. While a project of this
kind is no simple operation, still by comparison to wartime ex
penditures it fades almost into insignificance. Facilities for a
national television network could be put in operation for less
than the cost of one battleship. A big advantage in relay opera
tion is that once the relays are installed they are purely auto
matic. If a tube blows out another automatically swings into
operation. So a circuit rider can keep many relays supplied with
tubes with a normal amount of expense and effort. Naturally the
higher the physical location of the relay the further its signal

316 HERE IS TELEVISION

will carry. Mountain top relay sites should cut down the number
needed to span America.

One of the first major links in the overall network system to
use this means of transmission was put into operation by the
telephone company between Boston and New York. To provide
constant service in the face of possible power failure each relay
point on the system was capable of generating its own power. If
the normal power supply failed, immediately a set of batteries
were automatically cut in and if the power failure lasted for
more than thirty seconds local generators started and the tele
vision programs were picked up and sent on with no break in
service.

In addition to the New York-Boston link, the Philco Manufac
turing Company installed an air link between Philadelphia and
New York and General Electric sends their pictures from New
York to Schenectady by air relay. The picture quality is just as
good when sent through the air as it is when sent by coaxial
cable and combinations of these two means of transmission will
be used to provide the network service that spans America.

This electronic high road is capable of carrying much more
traffic than just one television program. It is stated that a radio
relay system can handle several television programs, in addition
to telephonic communications, airplane radio beacons, frequency
modulation programs, and many other services.

Early Relay Tests

Let us go back to our original network demonstration. First,
the. mobile unit pickup equipment, with its transmitter was sent
to Camp Upton on Long Island in New York. This pickup point
is around seventy miles from New York City. A location for the
first relay point had been selected near Hauppauge some seven
teen miles from Camp Upton. Another relay station had been
set up near Bellmore which was twenty-three miles southwest of
the first point and finally a directional receiving antenna was
erected on one of the upper floors of the R.C.A. Building twenty-
eight miles from Bellmore where a bank of receivers was installed.

TELEVISION NETWORKS 317

This network thus consisted of a pickup unit, a transmitter, two
relay points where the original picture signal was received and
then rebroadcast in a slightly different direction and on a differ
ent frequency and finally the receiver in Radio City.

The experiment was a decided success. On the receivers in
New York City, we saw the troops in training at Camp Upton.
The pictures were good and proved that television networks
could operate through the use of air relays as well as by coaxial
cable.

Radio relays may some day replace telephone poles. Plans
are underway to handle the telegraphic services of the country
by radio relay. The American Business Machine Company has
made tests between Washington and Schenectady and the Ray
theon Manufacturing Company is planning the "Sky Top" relay
system for operation in the Western United States. This plan
calls for relay stations on high mountain peaks of the Sierra Ne
vada and Rocky Mountain ranges. If these tests are successful
the number of relay points necessary will be considerably reduced
because of the long range that can be covered from a high moun
tain top.

Stratovision

If the latest idea in the distribution of television programs
should prove feasible we could forget both relay and coaxial net
works. This plan which has been termed "Stratovision" has been
suggested jointly by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation and
the Glenn L. Martin Company. This idea would require specially
designed aeroplanes equipped with suitable transmitting equip
ment flying high in the air over a given area. It is claimed that
with the plane at an altitude of thirty thousand feet a television
signal could be broadcast over an area some 422 miles in diam
eter. Eight planes could transmit a signal that could be picked
up anywhere between New York and San Francisco. Additional
planes would give television service to other parts of the country.
This suggestion gives us some idea of what we may expect in the
way of important developments. Stratovision if it was practical

318 HERE IS TELEVISION

and there are no electronic reasons now known to prevent it,
would not only give immediate network service but it also would
eliminate the necessity of ground stations entirely. Each plane
would carry four television transmitters and would broadcast
four different programs at the same time. These programs would
originate in central studios somewhere in America and would
be sent to the plane by point to point relay. Each plane would
then broadcast the programs and also by means of a relay trans
mitter send them on to the next plane. How this would affect
local programs and who would control the programs broadcast
from the plane involves an almost complete change in television
operations as we know them today.

The progress already made in long distance transmissions, re
gardless of the service used, proves conclusively that television
networks will span the nation. How it will affect the lives of the
American people remains to be seen, but television will be avail
able to every home from the Canadian border to Mexico and
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, just as radio was. In program
schedules we may have a more serious problem than in radio be
cause of time zones but, if Los Angeles and Seattle can look in on
New York and Washington, a way will be found to utilize this
network to the best advantage of the people of America.

29
THEATER TELEVISION

Just what will television in the theaters of America mean to
the average American? Actual experimentation in this country
has, up to this time, been extremely limited but it has been suc
cessfully demonstrated that large screen theater television is prac
tical and the next ten years should see tremendous strides taken
in this branch of the industry.

The first successful commercial tests of theater television were

THEATER TELEVISION

319

made in England. Several systems were developed and in 1939
television projectors capable of delivering a picture approxi
mately fifteen by twenty feet in size were installed in four Lon
don theaters. The program content for the most part consisted
of pickups of horse racing from the tracks near London and box
ing bouts from the local arenas. The success of the enterprise,
from an audience point of view, was immediate. Racing and
boxing fans jammed the theaters and for the Derby paid as high
as two dollars and fifty cents a seat. It seemed that theater tele
vision was a commercial reality almost over night. Then came
the war and the discontinuance of all English television broad
casts.

Troops at Camp Upton seen in New Yorker Theatre on first radio relay
demonstration.

In the United States both Scophany and Baird demonstrated
their large screen systems but no commercial development was
attempted. While English experiments were being carried out,
The Radio Corporation of America had been conducting tests
of their own and had developed a practical large screen television
projector. This system was demonstrated to the members of the

320 HERE IS TELEVISION

Federal Communications Commission in the spring of 1941 at
the New Yorker Theatre in New York.

The television projector was installed in the front of the
theater balcony and it threw a picture about fifteen feet high
by twenty feet wide on a motion picture screen on the theater
stage. The program was fed to the theater projector by telephone
wires from the NBC studios in the RCA Building some ten city
blocks away. The entertainment included live pickups in the
studio and among other acts a brief ballet sequence and the
enactment of a dramatic story that included film inserts. Then
controls were switched to Camp Upton, seventy miles from the
theater and the picture from that point, being picked up by the
mobile unit, was sent on to New York by means of a radio relay
system.

Some few weeks later, on May 9, 1941, a preview of this new
est development in theater entertainment was unveiled to a house
full of specially invited guests. The lobby resembled a Holly
wood premiere, for most of the top executives of the Motion
Picture Industry were present. The equipment was the same as
that used for the FCC demonstration and the program included
Lowell Thomas and the news, a round table discussion of the
future possibilities of theater television by some of the leading
authorities in the world of sports and a dramatic presentation of
an episode of one of radio's then popular programs, "The Parker
Family." All of these units originated in the NBC studios in
Radio City. A televised motion picture newsreel came next and
then, after a brief intermission, direct from Madison Square
Garden, the audience saw on the theater screen the World's
Middleweight Championship Bout between Billy Soose and Ken
Overlin. That evening was a memorable one in television history
as it demonstrated conclusively what theater television could do.

Theater Versus Home Television

We talk today of radio as one of the big industries of America,
and it is; but its "gross take" falls far below that of the box
offices of the motion picture theaters of America. Unquestion
ably, theater television and the home brand will be competitors
for big attractions, and it seems probable that a chain of tele-

THEATER TELEVISION

321

Drawing of RCA's large screen demonstration at the New Yorker Theatre.

vision theaters might have a decided advantage if the motion
picture industry as a whole endorsed such an operation. There
were approximately eighteen thousand theaters in ten thousand
and fifteen cities and towns in the United States in 1944. These
theaters contain eleven million, seven hundred thousand seats.
There was a motion picture theater for every eight thousand peo
ple. The American public paid one hundred and fifty million
dollars a month to see the pictures shown in these theaters. This
amounts in two months to more than the radio industry spends
for broadcasting in a year.

Now can we assume that the people of this country are spend
ing six times as much each year as is spent for all the radio pro
grams they hear because sight is six times more effective than
sound? When their home television receivers deliver them sight,
will they patronize theaters less? We do not need to know the

322 HERE IS TELEVISION

answers to these questions now but we may easily deduce from
the above figures that home television will have a tremendous
competitor in theater television for high priced national events.
It is easily seen that with the income possible from the theater
audiences of America that the World's Series, world champion
ship boxing bouts, and all the really big sporting events may
never be seen in the home simply because theater television could
outbid any sponsor with its tremendous cash audience. But after
all that isn't too important. The really vital thing is that by
means of television, either in the home or in the theater, every
one in America will be able some day to see everything that hap
pens anywhere in this world we live in.

Distribution

There are those who claim that television should be made
available only to sets in the home, that theaters should not be
given channels. Obviously this is a biased opinion, for the fre
quencies allotted to theater television will in no way affect the
public broadcasting services. But once the theaters of this coun
try are tied together in a television chain it will be interesting
to try to deduce just what television might mean to the motion
picture industry. Let us look ahead a few years. Today an ex
pensive motion picture is produced in Hollywood. The money
involved in the production is tied up over a period of many
months, sometimes for years, as a picture producer must await
his final financial return until after the picture has played in
thousands of theaters throughout the world. Aside from his origi
nal production costs he has a large investment in picture prints,
and the life of a print is limited. But with television it would
be possible that, with at most a dozen prints, a producer might
turn over the money involved in a big production in a matter of
a few weeks. Let us assume for a moment that one large theater
in every city was a part of a television theater chain. A new mo
tion picture costing a million or more is completed. If that pic
ture were shown for one week over that chain of theaters by
means of television, it would be possible for nearly everyone in
America to see it in that length of time if they desired to. Today

THEATER TELEVISION

323

certain first-run houses hold a picture for a considerable length
of time. This happens because those certain theaters have it
exclusively. The picture is not shown in other cities or in other
theaters in the same city until the potential audience that might
see the picture in that particular theater has either attended or
shown no inclination to do so. Only then is it released for show
ing in other theaters. By means of a theater television network
every theater in the country might become a first run house.

Studio set used in dramatic playlet during large screen demonstration.

324 HERE IS TELEVISION

Live Dramatic Productions

This same procedure might completely change the legitimate
theatrical field as we know it today. The stage play, Life With
Father ran on Broadway for years simply because only so many
people could get into the theatre at one time. If, by means of
television, everyone in America could see a play with its New York
cast in their local neighborhood theater, its run would probably
end in less than a month. Theatrical producers are interested in
profits and if they and the actors involved in the production
could make as much in a month by means of television, as they
would make from a Broadway showing in years they would use
television and be free for other productions. Theater television
might seriously affect legitimate Broadway theaters for it would
deliver the same actors in plays by the best writers to every thea
ter everywhere.

Special Events

Everything possible in sports pickups for home television is
available as program material in the theater. Instead of sitting
in the sun on a hot day to watch a baseball game or freezing on
a cold one to see a football game, sports fans of tomorrow will
be able to recline in a comfortable theater and see the games just
as they happen without experiencing the rigors of either summer
or winter.

There has been a certain amount of criticism of sporting events
on theater television based on the fact that if special events were
televised in the theater at the moment they happen the regular
motion picture schedule could not be adhered to. Realizing the
truth of these statements a new approach to the subject has been
made through experiments in a new type of projection equip
ment. This development when fully completed would utilize a
motion picture camera to photograph the televised event at the
time it happened, from a television receiver. The film thus
exposed would then be developed and printed immediately and
a few seconds after the event took place it would be projected
on to the theater screen by means of a standard motion picture
projector, or if so desired, it could be held and shown later. The

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 325

value of such a system is evident for special events could then
be scheduled to conform to the regular theater program and still
be far ahead of any other means of communication. It would also
allow for a special news release, the final round of a boxing bout,
an exciting inning in a ball game or the finish of a horse race
to be shown at a preadvertised time on the evening theater pro
gram. But regardless of the system used, theater television is a
medium to be reckoned with that may influence the whole enter
tainment field.

30
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

Any discussion of the future development of television must
be theoretical as the final answers to the questions raised can
only come from the laboratories. We as laymen, however, should
be aware of what is planned and be ready to use the results.

One of the interesting developments in New York City is the
final crystalization of an idea that had been discussed for some
time but had never been worked out. This is the centralization
of television transmitters at a common broadcasting point. It has
been quite obvious that with transmitter antennas in different
physical locations in any given city it was extremely difficult to
aline receiving antennas for perfect reception on all stations. If
a home antenna was lined up perfectly for one station it was im
possible to get perfect reception from stations located in a posi
tion out of line with the first. Every installation of a home an
tenna was a compromise with the antenna so positioned that the
picture received in the home was the best that could be received
from all the broadcasting stations in that area. In most cases this
meant that the viewer never had perfect reception from any sta
tion. This situation has been overcome in New York by locating
the broadcasting antennas of five stations in one location. The
television mast atop the Empire State Building will carry the sig
nal output of five powerful television stations. This means that
when a home receiving antenna is lined up for good reception

326 HERE IS TELEVISION

from the Empire State tower, perfect pictures should be received
from all five stations. It is true that one is above the other but
the building is so high that the position of the lowest antenna
will be far above any other location in greater New York. WOR
has its own high antenna tower on the banks of the Hudson, but
NBC, CBS, ABC, Du Mont and FIX are all on the Empire State
Building. It is something that competitive stations in other lo
calities should consider.

Color Television

While it was demonstrated as early as 1940 that color television
was possible, its commercial debut was delayed for several reasons.
The principal one was, "What shall our TV color standards be?"
CBS had developed a system that required a three color spin
ning disk in front of the camera as well as in front of the receiv
ing tube in the home. The revolutions of this color wheel were
synchronized so that the red, blue and green filters in the home
receiver passed in front of the receiving tube at the exact moment
that they revolved in front of the pickup tube in the camera in
the studio. RCA developed an all electronic system which
eliminated the moving disk. This was accomplished by using
three separate pickup tubes in the camera and by a system of
filters, each tube picked up only one of the three basic colors. In
the receivers a unique treatment of the inside face of the receiv
ing tube translated the three colors which were broadcast in a dot
sequential procedure into a perfect color representation of the
scene in the studio.

In comparative tests before the FCC in Washington, CBS, RCA
and Color Television, Inc. demonstrated their systems. It was
decided that the results obtained under the Columbia system
were the best and the FCC authorized the use of this system for
commercial color broadcasting.

In color every problem that had to be met in black and white
becomes more vital, especially in actual studio operation. Color
response varies with the type of light and the individual pickup
tube in a camera. Electronic shading becomes of major im
portance, for the overall colors in the picture may become
distorted if there is a preponderance of any one of the three

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

327

\ \

Color camera used in 1940-41 demonstrations at CBS. The revolving color
disk is in projecting tube at right of camera.

colors. The exact amount of red, blue, or green as seen by the
camera through the filters must be reproduced on the viewing
screen, and this is controlled by the shading engineer. Costumes,
scenery and make-up require much more attention, and the
movement of actors before the camera demands a much more
detailed lighting job than in black and white, as color response
has a tendency to change under varying degrees of light. All the
motion picture commercials that we now see must be remade in
color. Whether all television broadcasts of the future will be in
color, or whether we will see both color and black and white,
remains for the future to answer. In any event, color is going to
be much more fascinating to the viewer and much more difficult
to produce.

328 HERE IS TELEVISION

Cameras

As television advances we will probably see lighter and more
flexible cameras. In the studios we will probably see many more
cameras being used. Three cameras were thought to be all that
was necessary in the early days but modern studios are now
equipped for four, five and six cameras. They have proved their
worth through improved program results. Before many years
pass we should see remotely controlled cameras installed in the
ceiling, from the walls, and from cat walks. How future possi
bilities are developed and used remains to be seen but more
cameras should triple the visual interest of a production if they
are properly used.

In sports we should again have many cameras. In our chapter
on baseball we discussed the problem of where cameras should
be located. That will not be too important in the days to come
as every base and every player will at all times be covered by a
camera. Again it seems probable that low powered transmitters
can be developed that would allow for free movement of a cam
era similar to the present day walkie-talkie. If television cameras
could be loosened from their restraining coaxial cable leads,
much more in the way of pickups could be accomplished. At a
horse race it would be possible to have cameras all the way
around the track and we would see the various positions of the
horses all through the race.

Other Uses

Another possibility in the use of remotely controlled cameras
is in outdoor news pickups. As described in the chapter on the
mobile unit (Chapter Seven) it is common practice to focus cam
eras remotely. It should be just as simple to pan or elevate cam
eras in the same way. This might mean that cameras could be
installed in key positions and the output of the camera could
be made available without a crew of men being present. Cameras
could be permanently installed at airports, depots, busy street
corners, and any other place that might provide last minute
news. The pictures from these cameras could be taken at will
through lines to the master control room.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

A television camera in the nose of a plane and the pictures received on the
viewing screens at the control point in recent tests. The results possible
through the use of television cameras in robot planes are clearly evident.

RCA has already put on the market a light serviceable camera
for commercial use. If the manager of a large plant wanted to see
at any time what was going on in various parts of the building

330 HERE IS TELEVISION

or if he wanted to check his production line it would be a very
simple matter, if he had an intra-factory television system. With
television he could look where he willed whenever he wanted.
Along these same lines private television systems will probably
be used extensively throughout large department stores. There
have been several operational plans suggested but it is obvious
that television viewing screens throughout the store could call
attention to articles on sale in all departments and a system of
this kind should do a great deal toward increasing the overall
sales of the store.

Background Projection

One of the big advantages that will be available to live studio
productions of the future will be the use of background projec
tion. Undoubtedly this operation will take a very prominent
place in every program. Just as "process shots," as they are called
in Hollywood, bring Cairo and the South African jungle, the
Taj Mahal and the Himalayas to the picture lot, so too will the
far places of the world come to the television studio. Background
projection, to the uninitiated, means throwing a scene by means
of motion picture projectors on a translucent screen thus replac
ing ordinary scenery as the actors work in front of the projected
scene. Many of the big scenes in motion pictures are made in
this way and its use in television opens up new vistas of what
can be done from a scenic point of view. Instead of thousands of
pieces of scenery tomorrow's scene dock may become rolls of film
in a tin can.

Comparatively very little has been done in experimenting with
motion pictures as a source of background scenery for, as ex
plained elsewhere, a special shutter is needed on the television
camera to synchronize the twenty-four frame per second motion
picture to the thirty frame television camera. Again perfect syn
chronization must be achieved between the rear projector and
the camera or we might see nothing but a blank screen because
of the intermittent operation of a motion picture. In Hollywood
the projector and the camera are locked together by synchronous
motors so that the camera shutter opens only when the projected
picture is on the screen. Some adaption of the same process

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

331

The exterior scene behind Jean O'Neil was projected on a translucent screen
from a stereopticon slide.

can be worked out for use in the television studio.

The proof that projected still picture backgrounds can be used,
has already been demonstrated. Two factors limited the develop
ment of this type of pickup: first, the size of present day studios
and secondly, lack of sensitivity of the old iconoscope. In spite of
this, still pictures projected on a screen have been used success
fully as scenery with the actors appearing in front of the pro
jected picture. The high light level required to see the actors
in front of the screen made it necessary to install a very strong
light in the projector. The heat generated by the lamp was so
high that special cooling devices had to be installed to prevent

332 HERE IS TELEVISION

the slide from breaking. But this was overcome and the opera
tional proof of the feasibility of background projected scenery
was demonstrated. Studios of tomorrow should be designed to
provide space for pickups of this kind. Naturally the size of the
picture projected will depend on the distance of the projector
from the screen so that considerable physical space is required in
the studio. More sensitive pickup tubes will mean that the key
lighting in front of the screen can be lowered and a sharp clear
picture should easily be attained. To switch from a scene in a
ballroom to a feudal castle will not mean hours of work building
sets but simply another slide in the projector. The possibilities
this procedure opens up are unlimited.

Electronic Superimposition

Another interesting possibility for tomorrow that is as yet only
an engineering promise, but men who know tell us it can be
done, is to take the scenery entirely out of the television studio
The procedure would be that, if a scene in a park were wanted,
a mobile camera would be set up in front of a predetermined
outdoor scene. Measurements, with relation to each other, of
trees, benches, and other physical properties would be made and
their positions chalked out on the studio floor. Then the actors
would assemble in the studio and enact the scene in front of a
black drop. The output of the two cameras, the one in the park
picking up the scene and the one in the studio picking up the
actors would be blended together, fed into the same circuit, and
the audience would see the actors playing the scene in a real park.
If this can be accomplished and we are told that it can be, it is
possible that a great deal can be done in cutting down on produc
tion expense. It may be possible through further development of
this theory to put live actors in miniature sets or even in front
of sets projected into the system from slides. We know this can
be done by background projection but it may some day be done
electronically by projecting the slide directly into a camera and
then putting the actors in front of it. Another program possibil
ity is to combine the use of either mobile unit pickup or film with
action in the studio. We might show a roadside stand in the

JOBS IN TELEVISION 333

studio but so arrange the electronic circuits that this stand only
took up two thirds, or any percentage that we wanted, of the tele
vision picture screen. In that part not used in the studio picture
we might show automobiles traveling down a highway past our
roadside stand. The moving automobiles might be on film or be
actually picked up by a remote camera. Experiments have already
been made successfully of pickups of this kind.

The Upper Frequencies

There is very little doubt in the minds of those who have inves
tigated the subject, that the real future of television lies in the
high frequencies. In 1950 all the stations in the United States
were operating on channels lying between 50 and 216 megacycles.
It was quite apparent that the thirteen channels assigned to tele
vision were inadequate to give this country the video service it
will some day demand. The Federal Communications Commis
sion had arbitrarily assigned certain channels to various cities
and communities and it was on these channels that all the tele
vision stations in existence were operating then. Working on the
premise of providing the best service possible to the greatest
number of people, the thirteen television channels had been so
apportioned that it was possible to have some four hundred televi
sion stations in the United States. Compared to radio's 900 A.M.
(amplitude modulation) stations, and with channels provided
for many more F.M. (frequency modulation) transmitters, the
television situation was woefully inadequate, but with the neces
sity of channels six megacycles wide there was no way to provide
for any more and still allow workable space in the lower part of
the spectrum for other services.

It was with the idea in mind of providing additional space for
television that the commission set aside the frequencies between
480 and 920 megacycles for television experimentation. In this
segment of the spectrum twenty-two television channels not six
megacycles but twenty megacycles wide if necessary have been
reserved. It is within this space and on these channels that the
future of television lies.

One might well ask: If we are to go there eventually, why not

334 HERE IS TELEVISION

now? When experiments were first made in the lower frequencies
the problem of lack of space in the spectrum was not considered
as important as the problem of broadcasting a picture, but almost
immediately that situation changed and those in charge of regu
lating the future of television realized the soundness of the ques
tion quoted above. Seeking an answer, experimental stations
operating in the ultra high frequencies were put on the air. The
results attained have proved that they are definitely feasible.
Their success opened up the whole realm of the upper frequen
cies. The limitation of only a certain number of stations has
been removed. If we were to have color and three dimensional
television we had to have more space and that answer has been
found. It may be necessary to broadcast on both the high and
low frequencies to prevent sets already in the hands of the public
from becoming obsolete, but that is a simple matter. With sta
tions operating in the ultra high frequencies we should see tele
vision stations in all the comparatively small cities of the United
States. While their coverage will be restricted, the price of the
transmitter will be greatly reduced and the possibility of taking
television out of the "blue chip" category seems possible. Cheaper
installations will mean many more television stations, more pro
grams, more hours on the air and more employment.

Everything considered, it is safe to say that the future holds
unlimited possibilities for television. Future developments will
make everything we are even thinking of today seem antiquated
and dull. In television tomorrow holds a glorious promise.

31
JOBS IN TELEVISION

The number of people that will eventually be required in the
production of television programs should provide ample oppor
tunities for all those who desire to enter this field, but they must
have the talents and the necessary training to be of value.

One musical program that was broadcast for an hour employed
over one hundred and fifty people in its preparation and execu
tion. Of course this particular program used a large orchestra,
but even if we eliminate the musicians and break this feature
hour down into separate fifteen minute units, we will find that
television is going to require, on an average, very close to one
hundred people to write, prepare the production and put it on
the air. When we multiply this figure by the number of hours
of broadcasting each day and then by the number of stations in
each city that originate programs we begin to see the number of
jobs that must be filled.

Television will offer employment to millions of workers, and
it will not be limited to any one class of people. Before we even
approach the operational schedule let us check off the people
who will be involved in providing facilities. First, transmitting
equipment must be manufactured. This means jobs for engi
neering designers and builders. It takes brains to design tele
vision equipment and it takes hours of labor to execute those
ideas and turn them out as finished serviceable goods.

Hand in hand with transmitters will come the demand for
receivers. Today it is estimated that there are fifty-nine million
radio receiving sets in America. This gives us some idea of the
number of television receivers we will have eventually. Again
they must be designed, built, and serviced. This means thousands
of jobs for the days ahead.

335

336 HERE IS TELEVISION

Operation

Just how many television stations we will see in operation can
only be a guess but, whatever the number, thousands of engi
neers will be needed to operate them. The mere fact that every
television station will require more employees than are needed
in radio will make the medium more expensive and will increase
the operating cost of the station; but much of this added cost
will go directly to payroll which means more jobs and income
for many more people. The industry should be a godsend to
the youth of America, for television will require youth. Experi
ence will, of course, be important but thousands of people in all
lines of television work will be needed.

Writers

A great unexplored field lies ahead in writing alone. As said
before, we cannot expect high priced successful writers in other
fields to devote all their time to television. At its inception many
people saw in this visual medium an immediate development
that would quickly overshadow radio. It does not seem today
that such will be the case. Too many things must be manufac
tured in all lines to allow television to develop as rapidly as it
might under different economic conditions. It will grow rapidly
but not to the extent that tremendous fees will be paid for scripts
or actors in the immediate future. This means that the young
writer will be in demand. He may throw aside many of the re
quirements of radio scripts and write for visual presentations.
He may develop his own style and approach, for television will
develop a means of presentation that we have not seen on the
stage or motion picture screens. The vast amount of material
that will be needed opens the door wide.

Actors

Radio, great as it is, restricted tremendously the number of
jobs in America that called for actors. The movies were another
restricting influence. Before sound pictures came into reality
every major city and many comparatively small ones supported
at least two theaters where actors were needed. Vaudeville was

JOBS IN TELEVISION 337

popular. Dramatic stock companies flourished which gave oppor
tunities to thousands of thespians. Theatrical road companies
brought New York successes to the hinterlands. Then came the
movies and radio. These two industries threw hundreds of actors
out of their jobs, for a local theater with its group of performers
could not hope to compete with Hollywood. Radio centralized
its program production in New York, Chicago, and Hollywood.
Within a decade we saw the almost complete extermination of
dramatic stock companies, vaudeville, and "road companies."
Theaters were torn down or taken over by the movies and the
distribution factor of both radio and the motion picture industry
meant that comparatively small groups of performers could en
tertain the world. It is true this left only the best and raised our
standards of entertainment, but from an actor's point of view it
was almost catastrophic in its effect. It no longer took many
actors to entertain America when one radio program or one
movie was seen or heard by everyone everywhere. While tele
vision will, we hope, hold the entertainment standard set by
other media, it still will require many additional actors because
of the vast amount of programs and material that must be pro
duced. It will also take longer to prepare for television broad
casts. In radio a group of competent actors assemble for two
hours and broadcast a dramatic program. In some cases many
radio actors work as many as three radio programs per day. That
can't be done in television. If dramatic serials are attempted it
will mean that actors will be engaged on a weekly basis and they
will devote most of that time to learning, rehearsing, and broad
casting one television program per day. Where ten actors were
needed in radio at least twenty-five will be required in television
to provide the same number of hours of program time on the
air. It is only normal that radio actors will hold on to their
present high paid positions as long as they can for, in spite of
its advantages from an audience point of view, television cannot
for some time hope to pay actors for one program a comparable
amount to what they receive now on radio for three.

Thus television opens the way for young actors. It will be the
proving ground for inexperienced youthful aspirants and from
this group will come the future stars of America.

338 HERE IS TELEVISION

Directors

Many people have asked with justifiable curiosity, "Where are
tomorrow's television directors to come from?" It is a question
that cannot be passed off lightly. The answer is that they will
come from all branches of the entertainment field. From radio,
from the movies, from the theatre and from television itself.
Many men who are directing today started only a few years ago
as studio managers and assistant directors. They showed an apti
tude that gave them their chance when the opportunity pre
sented itself and promotion has been rapid for television is de
manding more and more people in the program production side
of the industry. But the majority of directors actively engaged
in television had a well-rounded background in the entertain
ment world. For the most part they brought to television many
years of experience from the theater, from radio, or from motion
pictures— in many cases from all three. In view of the fact that
television makes use of some of the normal production procedure
from all three mediums, a director with experience in any one
of them can find a place for himself in television. It is not neces
sarily true that a man with motion picture experience will do a
better studio job than a radio or stage director. The first pre
requisite is that he know a good show when he sees it and is able
to make the best possible use of his television facilities to visualize
it to his audience. If a show is bad in the theater the chances are
that it will be worse on television. Television direction isn't
easy. A director can only rest on his laurels after the show is off
the air. It has often been said that in Hollywood a good cutter
can make or break a director. This is still true, but in a different
sense, in television; the director does his own cutting, which
makes the job just a little more difficult.

In general, a television director must know how to cast and
how to get the cast he has assembled to read lines as they should
be read. He must know dramatic values and tempos and how to
get a finished production in the studio. From radio he must
know where and how much to cut to conform to the time limits
of his broadcast and when to speed up and when to slow down
the speed of his performers. From motion pictures he must knotf

JOBS IN TELEVISION 339

picture values and how to achieve the best results through proper
lighting and use of cameras. He must know when to cut, what
shots to use and what to eliminate. Above all he must be able
to handle some twenty-five to fifty people. He must know what
he wants and how to get it in the least possible time. Time will
always be of vital importance in all television program prepara
tion and the highest paid director will probably be the man
who can put on the best program in the least amount of time.

Naturally those who come into the medium in the hope of
becoming television directors cannot at the outset have had very
much actual television experience. That is true of all television
program work, but employers will not demand it. All they will
be interested in is the applicant's basic entertainment knowledge.
They will be more interested in his potential development than
his television experience. If his background is right he can learn
how to produce television programs.

The Producer

The job demanding much more experience in the entertain
ment field is that of producer. The word is used as it is in Holly
wood rather than in radio. This man is responsible to his prin
cipals, be they sponsors or network officials for the overall results
attained on the program. He makes the decision as to how his
budget will be broken down, and what the program content will be.
He engages the director and the players. He decides what will be
spent on scenery, costumes and all the component parts that go
to make a good television program. As each program unit will
be under the direct supervision of a producer it is obvious that
we will need as many producers as there are programs.

The Cameraman

The man at the controls of the television camera today is, be
cause of the nature of program production procedure, in a differ
ent position than his counterpart in the motion picture industry.
We might say that a picture director tells the cameraman what
he wants and the cameraman gets it for him. This basically is
true also in television. The cameraman is responsible for proper
focus, lenses, stops, and artistic picture composition; but the

340 HERE IS TELEVISION

speed of the whole operation is so rapid, and the cutting together
of the output of all the cameras in the studio is so important, that
the man who sees the overall result of the shots picked up in
the studio on his various monitor screens in the control room, is
in a much more advantageous position to decide what should be
done in the studio than the individual camera operator. Right
or wrong the procedure today throws the full weight of respon
sibility of picture subject matter on to the director. The camera
man is responsible for a good sharp picture at all times. He must
be able to take his cues for camera movement and placement
through his telephone head set and immediately deliver the pic
ture wanted. He can of course and is to some extent at liberty
to decide the precise angle to shoot from; a director must rely on
his cameraman for that. A very slight change in a camera's posi
tion, especially in close-up, may benefit a picture immeasurably.
Television cameramen should be able to think fast and to take
advantage of any pictorial possibilities that appear. They must
work rapidly and get their shots in a relatively short space of time.

Today, the chief studio engineer has usurped the position of
chief cinematographer in Hollywood. It may be that we will see
experienced cameramen come in to their own and take their
place beside the director in the control room. The electrical en
gineer was the logical man for the job in the early days, as the
electronic picture was more important than the artistic one; but
when the system is finally set so that electronic operational pro
cedure becomes more nearly routine, we will become vastly more
interested in picture composition. A good cameraman, instruct
ing his assistants in the studio, who is capable of delivering to
a director the most artistic pictures possible, when he wants them,
should do much to improve any television production.

The outside cameraman on sport and news pickups, as well as
on all unrehearsed programs, has a much greater responsibility
and much more latitude in what he picks up with his camera
than the men in the studio on a rehearsed program where shots
are set in advance. For the most part his camera position is fixed,
but if at a ball game he isn't on the right play at the right time,
he alone is responsible. There will be jobs for thousands of cam
eramen in television and they should find a place for themselves
comparable to movie cameramen in the near future.

A SUMMARY OF PROGRESS 341

Studio Program Personnel

Obviously every studio, every individual program, must have
an executive on the floor. He will function much as a stage man
ager in the theater. His responsibilities will include the proper
placement of everything used in a production, the presence of the
artists, costumes, properties, lights, and all the accoutrements
needed. He must be able to intrepret how a given scene in a
studio will look best in the viewing room. A man who knows
his business can do a great deal to aid the pictorial value and
smoothness of a production. He is in personal contact with the
subject matter while the director is only seeing what the camera
picks up. Slight changes in the studio sometimes help a picture
tremendously. He can make or break a good show by seeing that
everything in the studio functions perfectly.

It goes without saying that television will also need hundreds
of competent make-up men, costumers, scenic designers, painters,
carpenters, electricians, property men, and grips. The industry
should give employment to many thousands of people in these
lines of work. Experienced artisans will find employment first
but if the supply of experienced men is exhausted, television will
train new ones.

Lastly television will need hundreds of good executives— men
with sound judgment who will decide how the medium shall be
handled, what the public will see, and how it will be presented.
On these men will rest a great responsibility and the industry will
welcome men who are capable of doing a god job.

32
A SUMMARY OF TELEVISION PROGRESS

In many respects the history of television follows closely the
development of other important inventions. Very few of our
modern conveniences, that we accept today without a thought,
came into general use without a struggle on the part of those
who sought to prove their advantages to the public. While tele
vision has had comparatively few viewers who were willing to

342 HERE IS TELEVISION

forget all about it and go back to radio or took the "go get a
horse" attitude that greeted the early automobiles, television has
taken longer to launch and has cost more money on the part
of those who believed in it, than any other modern invention.
But, in spite of the delays caused at first by a lack of knowledge
and later by war, television has advanced.

Early Historic Dates

The first date that is in any way associated with television is
1817. In that year Baron Jons Jacob Berzelius, a Swedish chemist
succeeded in isolating selenium. This date is an important one
for the discovery of selenium made television possible some hun
dred years later. Though he had discovered a material capable
of changing light energy into electrical energy neither he nor
anyone else realized it, nor did they have any intimation of the
importance of his discovery or the part it was to play in the his
tory of the world. This day was the beginning but also marked
the first setback in the development of television for the discoverer
of selenium knew nothing about photo-electricity. Nevertheless
the "germ" of television had come into existence.

The next step was the accidental discovery that selenium would
react to light. It had been used in electrical circuits as a resist
ing substance to limit the flow of current and, in 1873, a tele
graph operator by the name of May noticed that the flow of
electricity through the selenium varied with the amount of light
shining on it. This meant that light energy could be turned into
electrical energy and scientists were quick to see the possibilities
of such a fact. Shortly after May's discovery the early develop
ment of television began both in Europe and America. All of
these experiments were centered around the possibility of finding
a means of controlling the characteristics of selenium and putting
them to work. An early idea involved the construction of a
group of closely assembled selenium cells and then throwing a
picture on them of varying brightness. As each individual cell
would release electrical energy in proportion to the amount of
light thrown upon, it seemed possible to send a picture by means
of such an arrangement, if each cell was connected by wires to

A SUMMARY OF PROGRESS 343

a corresponding lamp. (See drawing, page 80.) The idea was dis
carded due to the thousands of wire lines necessary to provide a
good picture.

A Step Forward

In spite of this setback the idea of television was still alive.
In 1880 the principle of scanning was suggested. This meant
breaking the picture down into small segments and then sending
them, one at a time, to the receiving point where they would be
reassembled. Maurice Le Blanc suggested this basic principle
and he proposed to accomplish it by means of a system of revolv
ing mirrors. Then, in 1884, Paul Nipkow took out a patent in
Germany for scanning a picture by means of a spinning disk with
holes punched near the edge in the form of a spiral. When the
disk was rotated the eye could see only the top line of the picture
through the first hole in the disk, the second hole scanned the
second line and so on until the whole picture became visible line
by line. The system was planned to deliver each line of a pic
ture to a selenium cell behind the disk. As the cell would react
to the amount of light thrown on it the strength of each signal
sent would vary with the shades of black and white in the origi
nal picture. The process was reversed at the point of reception.
A light source was to distribute the varying degrees of light and
shade controlled by another disk spinning in exact synchroniza
tion with the one at the point of pickup. Variations of this prin
ciple were the basis of "mechanical television." But with the
theory evolved, television again stopped. There was no means
available to receive properly the rapid changes of light and there
was no way to amplify the low level currents generated by the
light cells.

Experiments with Electricity

The next important step came with the turn of the century.
Scientists had continued their search for a means of developing
Nipkow's principle and into their investigations electrical ad
vancement began to appear as a possible aid. Photoelectric cells
were built and demonstrated and, in 1895, Marconi had sent and
received his first wireless signals. Karl Braun, using electricity for

344 HERE IS TELEVISION

the first time in conjunction with television, began work on a
crude receiving tube in which he sprayed electrons on to a chem
ical substance within a vacuum tube. It was successfully demon
strated that the stream of electrons could be reduced to a fine
point and directed as desired by means of magnets. This tube
was the forerunner of the receiving tube we have today. In 1907,
using this tube as a receiver, Boris Rosing, a Russian, patented a
television system; but the pickup equipment was still mechanical.
Shortly after this the idea of a full electronic system was sug
gested by A. A. Campbell-Swinton. Then came World War I and
television development stopped again.

With the end of hostilities research was resumed and improve
ments in Dr. Lee de Forest's three-element vacuum tube, which
had been developed during the war, gave impetus to the work.
Demonstrations were given in 1925 by C. F. Jenkins, an Amer
ican, and John L. Baird, a Scotchman, using the mechanical
scanning system. Based on the success achieved by these two men,
one in America and the other in England, television started for
ward again. Regular demonstrations in this country began
around 1926 and for almost ten years interest was high. The
system used was a development of the scanning disk for picking
up the picture while the receiver was electronic.

Programs on the Air

Naturally, American manufacturers of electronic equipment
were interested in this new medium. So was The Bell Telephone
Company. This company successfully demonstrated the possibil
ity of sending pictures by wire as early as 1927 and, in the fol
lowing year, using a long wave radio signal as a carrier, subjects
were televised in London, broadcast from there, and received
here. During this period several long distance demonstrations
were made and, in May, 1928, radio station WGY in Schenectady,
went on the air with a regular program schedule. Programs were
broadcast three days each week and on September 1 1 of that year
the first complete dramatic program ever to be broadcast in this
country by means of television, went on the air. The play, a
one-act melodrama, was a piece entitled "The Queen's Mes
senger."

A SUMMARY OF PROGRESS 345

It was not long before other companies began to realize the
potential possibilities of television. The end of the year 1931
saw five television stations with experimental programs on the
air. They were General Electric in Schenectady, RCA-NBC,
CBS, and Gimbel Brothers in New York and Don Lee in Los
Angeles. All of these stations were using some variation of the
mechanical scanning system with a one hundred-and-eighty-line
picture. Eventually the line structure was raised to two hundred
and forty lines but that was the highest definition achieved by
this system.

These regular schedules on the air were of comparatively short
duration for by 1932 every station had discontinued their trans
missions. The reason for the termination was obvious as the
experiments had proved that the limits imposed by the scanning
disk were such that the perfection needed would never be at
tained as there was a definite limit to the scanning speed that
could be developed with mechanical pickup equipment. Seeing
the impossibility of developing a workable commercial system,
the stations went off the air. Television stopped again and went
back to the laboratory.

The Beginning of the Electronic System

The success attained, meager though it was, strengthened the
belief in the minds of those interested that television could be
made a commercial reality if higher definition pictures could be
produced. Already new discoveries were pointing a way to ac
complish this. In 1923, Vladimir K. Zworkin had filed a patent
application on the first form of the modern television camera
tube. He called it the "Iconoscope" from the Greek words, "icon"
—image and "scope"— to observe. Shortly after this he demon
strated a tube for televising a scene without any mechanically
moving parts. He had also demonstrated a receiving tube, the
"Kinescope," which was all electric in its operation; but so far
this device had been used only in conjunction with mechanical
scanning. In the interim he had gone on with the development
of his electronic pickup tube. Other inventors were also working
along the same lines and Philco T. Farnsworth developed an elec
tric camera tube that he called an "Image Dissector."

346 HERE IS TELEVISION

In the meantime, Baird and others had been active in England
and in 1935 it was recommended that the British Government
establish a short wave television system as a public service. The
year 1936 saw the start in England of regular television trans
missions with the use of a full electronic system. The number of
hours on the air was limited, but a regular service was estab
lished.

Here in America we were as yet a long way from any regular
service. Experiments had been made using the electronic system
with a 240-line picture, but to really improve the mechanical
system it was obvious that a better picture must be delivered and
development work was begun to accomplish this. In 1936, RCA
broadcast the first television picture using the electronic system
to deliver a 343-line image. Shortly after this Don Lee, CBS, and
the Zenith Television Corporation began making plans for elec
tronic broadcasts. For the next year or two no regular schedules
of any moment were attempted but many experimental programs
were broadcast. The line structure of the picture was raised to
441 lines and the overall detail of the picture was improved. The
year 1939 seemed, in the minds of many, the real starting point
for television in America. NBC began a regular program sched
ule of fifteen hours per week. .Zenith inaugurated a regular
schedule in Chicago. Don Lee was on the air regularly in Los
Angeles. Manufacturers offered receiving sets for sale to the
public. Imposing demonstrations were given daily at the New
York World's Fair. The stage seemed set for television.

Television in England

While America had been getting ready Europe had gone ahead
and by the summer of 1938 was far in the lead. The BBC had
studios in Alexandra Palace and had two years of program expe
rience behind them. Their program schedule at that time in
cluded an hour of film each weekday morning for dealer set
demonstrations. An hour of live television in the afternoon every
day except Sunday, and from one to two hours every evening for
a total of over fourteen hours of live studio programs each week.
The permanent staff, devoting their time exclusively to televi
sion, was approximately three hundred and sixty-seven people.
Some six thousand receiving sets had been sold and plans were

A SUMMARY OF PROGRESS 347

under way for extensive additions to their studio facilities.
Shortly after this program quality was improved, public interest
became much more evident, and the sale of sets jumped con
siderably.

Between 1936 and 1939 the English television audience had
seen variety, drama, music, and educational programs from the
television studios. They had seen the Coronation procession of
King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, plays telecast directly from
the stage of London theaters, the English Derby from Epsom
Downs, the Oxford-Cambridge boat races, tennis at Wimbledon,
and many other outstanding events.

Holland

In Holland the most significant television activity of impor
tance consisted of public demonstrations given by means of a
completely mobile unit. The cameras and receivers were trans
ported from city to city to public fairs and other gatherings; at
every showing there was considerable public interest. The iron
ical part of the whole thing was that the company who inaugu
rated these demonstrations did so to show to the people of
Europe that television was not sufficiently developed to make it
worthwhile as a public service. They attempted to demonstrate
this fact with a picture, better perhaps, than the one the BBC
was broadcasting in London.

Germany

At the 1938 radio show in Berlin television was very much in
evidence. Four different makes of sets were offered to the public
with pictures varying from 7 to 16 inches in size. Two companies,
"Telefunken" and "Fernseh Ag" had large screen demonstra
tions. The Germans had been using a mechanical system but
were then changing over to the full electronic operation. A lim
ited program service was on the air. Television telephone service
was in operation and was open to the public between Berlin,
Leipzig, and Munich. Anyone planning to use this service would
notify in advance the party they wished to talk to who would
come to the post office at the appointed hour and then by means
of television both parties saw as well as heard each other.

348 HERE IS TELEVISION

France

In France the mechanical system which had been in use for
regular transmissions was being discarded. Because of the sta
tionary nature of the French mechanical camera, close-ups were
achieved by moving the whole set, be it a room, a garden or
whatever the play called for, up to the camera. The entire stage
was on a movable base. The impracticality of the whole thing
was self-evident to anyone, so the advent of the electronic system
was looked forward to with considerable rejoicing on the part
of those involved in producing programs. Good electronic re
ceiving sets had been developed and with the antenna on the
Eiffel Tower, French television enthusiasts anticipated a new era.

Then came the outbreak of war. The BBC closed their studios
and development everywhere in Europe ended. In the United
States television continued, but from 1936 to the present time it
has undergone growing pains, perhaps unequalled by any other
new industry. It has started and stopped and then started again.
It was for a brief period authorized as a commercial medium.
This status was then cancelled to be authorized again later. Fre
quencies have been changed, necessitating changes in transmit
ters and receivers; the war has intervened. Arguments for and
against television have made themselves felt. The unexpected
results experienced through transmissions by stations in various
parts of the country raised more questions concerning the alloca
tion of frequencies that had to be answered.

The Problem in America

The motivating force behind all the delays in regulations has
been a desire on the part of the FCC, the manufacturers, and
the broadcasters to establish an American system of television
that would do the most good for the greatest number of people.
Many manufacturers were anxious to go ahead as early as 1938.
As a matter of fact sets were manufactured and placed on sale
But the first advertisement that stated that television was ready
and that sets were on sale brought down severe criticism by the
FCC. They felt that if thousands of sets were purchased by the
public it would be impossible to change the standards later.

A SUMMARY OF PROGRESS 349

The result was that while some few thousand sets were sold, tele
vision is only now experiencing a complete go ahead on the part
ot everyone in the industry.

From the first the possibility of improvements in the system was
one of the main stumbling blocks. The false starts with mechan
ical television and the improvements evident in the electronic
system were conclusive evidence that better and better television
could eventually be developed. What to do in the meantime was
the burning question. Definite factions and lines of thought were
developing and the whole American situation was far from what
it should have been.

In 1939, NBC, Zenith, and Don Lee were on the air with regu
lar schedules. In September the BBC went off the air. In No
vember the General Electric Company began tests. The FCC
authorized nineteen television channels for experimental broad
casting but forbade any commercial operation in which fees were
charged for the use of facilities.

In February of 1940 the FCC approved limited commercial
television operation effective in September. In March the order
was rescinded and a new hearing was set for the following April.
Confusion as to where television was going was evident on all
sides. Some people bought sets, others decided to wait. In that
same month General Electric rebroadcast pictures in the Albany-
Schenectady area that originated in New York, starting a service
that has been continued with some few interruptions ever since.
The Philco Radio and Television Corporation went on the air
to broadcast the Republican National Convention to those sets in
the Philadelphia area, with NBC releasing the pictures in New
York.

In September the Columbia Broadcasting System demonstrated
three-color television. The argument immediately started over
whether to go ahead with monochrome or wait for color. In
November the Allen B. Du Mont Laboratories went on the air
with experimental tests in New York. In January of 1941 Bala-
ban and Katz began experimental broadcasts in Chicago. In
May, FCC issued new rules, set up new frequencies for channels
and authorized commercial television to become effective on
July 1st.

350 HERE IS TELEVISION

The change in channels meant that all the receiving sets as
well as the transmitters on the channels affected had to be altered.
Incidentally, television lost a channel in this new alignment, the
channels available were reduced from nineteen to eighteen.
Only seven were in the relatively lower frequencies, however, and
nothing had been tried on channels in the upper frequencies.

Commercial Television at Last

On July 1, 1941, commercial operations began with NBC and
CBS on the air with fifteen hours of program per week. More
sets were sold until the television receivers in the New York area
were estimated to be around six thousand sets. Some few hun
dred were in the Albany-Schenectady area, some in Chicago and
somewhere in the neighborhood of a thousand in Los Angeles.
Then came Pearl Harbor. No one knew exactly how our entry
into the war would affect television but they soon found out. At
first the possibilities of the medium as an aid in training air raid
groups and other civilian war workers was utilized, but the war
soon began to make inroads in technical personnel and equip
ment. In January, Zenith discontinued their broadcasting opera
tions. In June, CBS reduced their program schedule to four
hours per week, while Du Mont inaugurated a regular weekly
service. In September, Television Productions began operations
in Hollywood and two months later CBS discontinued service
altogether. In April of 1943 a policy of accepting commercial
programs produced by advertising agencies for broadcasting was
in augurated by General Electric and in May the same policy
was decided on by Du Mont.

In the midst of all this stopping and starting the overall tele
vision picture was not good. No new sets were being manufac
tured as everything that was produced went to the armed forces.
Old sets were wearing out and no new tubes were available. The
final answer as to what was eventually to happen to televi
sion was reached in 1944. The FCC asked the entire industry to
get together and submit a working plan. This resulted in the for
mation of the Radio Technical Planning Board, composed of the
outstanding men in the electronic field. Their findings were
accepted by the FCC as the basis of television operations.

In May, 1944, CBS resumed a program schedule of four hours

A SUMMARY OF PROGRESS 351

per week, and during the following year and a half programs
were broadcast every night by some one of the three stations
operating in New York. During the next four years television
finally started and continued its advance until today we have
over a hundred stations in operation in the United States. Al
most fifty per cent of them are connected by some type of network
facilities, and there are over seven million receivers in American
homes. This vast growth took place even though the FCC sus
pended the acceptance of new station applications until a final
decision was reached as to the higher frequencies. Meanwhile
color tests were being made, and in October, 1950 the FCC au
thorized CBS to start commercial color transmissions on Novem
ber 20.

This announcement started a controversy of major proportions
in the industry. Both RCA and Color Television, Inc. had held
comparative tests before the FCC in Washington. When the CBS
system was accepted, protests were made by most of the promi
nent set manufacturers, as none of the sets in the hands of the
public would receive broadcasts in color without the addition of
a converter. Nor could color transmissions be received in mono
chrome unless an adapter was added, because the CBS color
system operated on a different line standard than that used for
black-and-white. It was feared that this decision would affect the
sale of receivers, as the public might be undecided as to whether
to buy black-and-white receivers or wait for color.

All this is now history.

Television in the last few years has demonstrated definitely just
what a wonderful medium of communication it really is. The
successful advertising results to sponsors, the financial success of
dealers, the increased revenue to stock holders have removed the
limitations that seemed for a while to be almost insurmountable.
New channels mean more stations and more stations mean a
greater demand for programs. Programs need actors, ideas and
program and engineering personnel. All these contributing fac
tors mean more sets in the homes of the American public. Inter-
world television is only around the corner. Television is still
very young but it is swiftly emerging in the minds of everyone as
the wonderful medium it really is. Nothing can stop television.

A TELEVISION SCRIPT

The following television shooting script is not included
in this book as a criterion of dramatic material. It is in
tended simply to illustrate the complete operation involved
in putting a script of this kind on the air. Individual di
rectors might use different camera routines f program man
agers might not like the story, but the constant flow of
pictures in unbroken continuity is common to all dra
matic television productions.

WHEN TOMORROW COMES

A SAMPLE TELEVISION SHOOTING SCRIPT

From a story suggested by Julian Funt

The scene is a New York bachelor apartment.

Down stage R is the hall door. Below it a light switch, above
it a small table. Up C a large window looks out on a typical New
York skyline. A plant on a stand in the window. A book case up
L and below it in the L wall a door leads to the balance of the

New York Skyl'"6 Backing

Studio Set for WHEN TOMORROW COMES

352

A TELEVISION SCRIPT

353

apartment. Another table below this door. In the C of the room
is a large davenport. At its R end is a small table with an un-
lighted (practical) electric lamp. At the L end of the davenport
is another small table on which are a radio and a telephone.
There are comfortable chairs down R, up R.C. and down L. It
is early evening and the moonlight streams in through the win
dow on to the couch. The radio is heard softly.

The camera routine is laid out for a wide-angle lens on camera
#1, to work C on a dolly. Cameras #2 and #3, will be equipped
with close-up lenses and work R and L of number one.

Camera directions will be indicated from a point facing the
actors while stage directions will be from on stage, facing the
cameras. Thus stage R is the camera's L. All shots and move
ments of cameras while on the air are indicated in capital letters,
while ready cues are in parenthesis in small type.

This property is duly protected by copyright and no perform
ance may be made without special permission of the copyright
owner.

Preview
Camera #2
(Close-up of Bill)
Camera #1
(M.S. Bill)

START MUSIC
CAMERA #3 TITLE

Start title machine
FADE IN £3

Popular melodic air.
(Moving title to read as fol
lows)

WHEN TOMORROW
COMES

DOROTHY ERWIN

BILL . .

HELEN .
TERRY . .
THE PLACE
THE TIME

JAMES TAYLOR

. ROSE NORTON

. JOHN LEHE

NEW YORK CITY

1945

354

HERE IS TELEVISION

LAP DISSOLVE TO
CAMERA f 1. M.S. Bill
(#3 ready M.S. door down R.)

CAMERA #2 C.U. BILL

STOP MUSIC

(#1 pulls back to cover door
R and couch L.C.)

CAMERA #3 M.S. DOOR

(#2 pulls back a little)
CAMERA #2 M.S. BILL
CAMERA #3 M.S. TERRY

LIGHTS UP FULL

Bill is seated on the right end
of the couch. He fumbles
nervously with the knife on
the end of his watch chain.
He is obviously under a tre
mendous mental strain. He
rises. Buttons his coat. Half
turns toward the window.
Changes his mind. He sits
again. Reaches over and
turns off the radio.

(A key is heard in the lock of
the door R.)

(Bill freezes as he hears the
key)

BILL: (In a panic) Who's
there?

(We see the door before it
opens)

The light from the hall
streams in as it
opens.

BILL: (Off Camera) Who
is it?

TERRY: (Standing in door
way) Just me, Bill.

BILL: Come in. (He sinks
back on the couch)

TERRY: (He closes door and
presses light switch
below door.)
What are you do
ing here in the
dark?

A TELEVISION SCRIPT

355

(#2 in a little)

CAMERA #1, FULL SHOT
OF ROOM

(#3 ready C.U. Terry.)

CAMERA #2 C.U. BILL
(#1 in a little)

CAMERA #3 C.U. TERRY

CAMERA #2 C.U. BILL
(#3 back to get M.S. shot of

Terry as he rises.)
CAMERA #1 BOTH MEN

(#2 back a little.)

BILL: Nothing, I—

TERRY: (Throwing his hat
on table above
door.)

What's the matter,
Bill?

(Xing toward
couch)

BILL: I thought for a mo
ment that you
were—

TERRY: That I was who?
(He starts to swing
chair below win
dow to C.)

BILL: (Slowly) Helen.

TERRY: (He stops his action
on Bill's speech.)
Helen 1 Is she in
town?

BILL: (Breaking the ten
sion that has existed
up to now.)
Yeah. She got in
today. She phoned
from the station.

TERRY: (He swings chair to
L. of Bill and sits.)
(Sympathetically)
Are you sure that
you want to go
ahead with this,
Bill?

BILL: Definitely.

TERRY: She's going to take

it pretty hard.

BILL: There isn't any
other way.

356

CAMERA #3 M.S. TERRY

CAMERA #2 M.S. BILL
(#3 ready on door R.)

CAMERA #1 BOTH MEN

DOOR BELL RINGS
(#2 back to get Bill and
Helen.)

CAMERA #1 PANS WITH
TERRY

CAMERA #3 M.S. HELEN

AND TERRY
(#1 pulls back to include

couch and door.)

HERE IS TELEVISION

TERRY: Ah Bill-

BILL: (Hard) No Terry.
I'm going through
with it.

TERRY: (He rises) I don't
envy, you your job.
Oh, why did this
have to happen?
Why did it have to
be you— and she's
such a swell girl.

BILL: (Bitterly) Cut it,
Terry.

TERRY: When is she com
ing?

BILL: She's on the way
up here now. She
ought to be here
any minute.

TERRY: Then I'm getting
out.

BILL: You might at least
Vait till she gets
here.

FERRY: (Sits again) O.K.
(Bill looks at door)

TERRY: (Watching Bill)
(He rises)
Well, this is it.
(He X's to door and
opens *• it. Helen
stands in the door
way.) (She wears a
W.A.C. uniform.)
(Casually) Hello,
Helen.

A TELEVISION SCRIPT

357

CAMERA #1 AS SHE X's
(#3 in for close shot Helen
and Bill.)

HELEN: (Very cordially)

Why Terry, you
old tramp you. I
didn't expect to see
you here. When
did you become a
civilian?

TERRY: (Opening door wide
and stepping above
it) About a month
ago.

HELEN: (She sees Bill.) Oh
Bill. (She X's to
him impulsively)

BILL: (Who has risen)
(Very coolly) Hello
Helen. It's nice to
see you again.
(Terry closes door
R and X's above
them to door L.)

HELEN: Nice to-(She stops
—chilled by his re
ception.)

Then it is true.
Everything you said
in your letter is
true. I couldn't be
lieve it. (Again im
pulsively) Oh Bill,
it can't be. After
everything we've
had together, Eng
land—those nights
just outside Lon
don- Oh Bill-

BILL: I'm sorry Helen.

358

HERE IS TELEVISION

CAMERA #2 M.S. HELEN
AND BILL

CAMERA #3 C.U. HELEN

AND BILL
(#1 in for C.U. of both)

(#2 in for C.U. of Helen)

CAMERA #2 C.U. HELEN
(#3 in for C.U. Bill)

TERRY: (He exits door L.)

HELEN: (Ignoring Terry's
exit) You're sorry.
I'm not. I wouldn't
give them up for
anything.

BILL: I didn't mean that.

HELEN: What did you
mean?

BILL: That I'm sorry I
had to write you
that letter.

HELEN: (Pulls him down on
the couch beside
her) Bill you can't
mean it. What hap
pened? What have
I done?

BILL: You haven't done
anything.

HELEN: You mean-that
you have?

BILL: Yes. You see-I've-
I've changed, Helen.

HELEN: I never thought
you would. You
gave me something
—something I've
never lost and never
will— but it will al
ways be incomplete
without you.

BILL: You'll get along all
right without me.

HELEN: Get along? Yes,
mebbe. But who
wants to just get

A TELEVISION SCRIPT

359

CAMERA #3 C.U. BILL

CAMERA #1 C.U. OF
BOTH

(#3 moves to L and up stage.)

along? Oh Bill. I
don't mean to go
on like this— per
haps I shouldn't
have come here at
all. My pride
should have stopped
me— but somehow
I don't seem to
have any. When I
got your letter my
world just seemed to
stop. There wasn't
anything left. Per
haps you don't real
ize what you meant
to me.

BILL: I couldn't have
meant anything
that you can't for
get. You're young—
with the world be
fore you. There are
other fellows—

HELEN: Bill I just can't un
derstand how you
can look me in
the eye and say
things like that. Yes,
you have changed.
Somehow I didn't
think it was possi
ble. You've always
been so fine, so real,
so dependable. I
always felt that I
could count on you.

360

HERE IS TELEVISION

CAMERA #3 C.U. OF BILL
INCLUDING HELEN
FROM BEHIND HER

(#1 Back to include Helen as
she rises.)

CAMERA #2 CLOSE UP
HELEN

CAMERA #1 ON BOTH

CAMERA #3 C.U. BILL

I never thought
you'd let me down.

BILL: I'm not letting
you down, Helen.

HELEN: How can you say
that? You seem to
forget that I love
you. I don't care
what you say or do
I'll always love you.

BILL: You're making this
kind of tough,
Helen.

HELEN: I'm making it
tough. What do
you think you are
doing to me? All
the things we've
talked about— our
plans, our life to
gether, you're tear
ing them to shreds.
(She rises) Oh it
isn't true— I won't
believe it. (Bill
rises) To end every
thing between us
here— now— with a
few words. In just
a few seconds to
destroy something
beautiful.

BILL: That's life, I guess.

HELEN: Life?

BILL: Yes. We plan and
build and then sud
denly everything is

A TELEVISION SCRIPT

361

CAMERA #2 C.U. HELEN HELEN:

CAMERA #1 ON BOTH
(#2 moves to his R.)

BILL:
HELEN:

CAMERA #2 C.U. OF
HELEN OVER BILL'S
SHOULDER

(#1 in for C.U. of both.)

BILL:

HELEN:

changed. Nothing
is the way it was
and can never be
again.

(After a long pause)
OK Bill. If that's
the way you want
it.

I do Helen.
All right. But let
me say this. No
matter what hap
pens—if things don't
work out. If she-
Let's keep her out
of it.

Just as you say.
But Bill, before we
say goodbye, I want
you to know that I
think you are the
grandest guy that
ever lived.
Oh Helenl (He
moves toward her
impulsively)
I mean it. I was
nothing, a nobody.
You gave me every
thing I have. Self-
reliance — courage.
You taught me how
to find a place for
myself. And I love
you for it Bill. I
loved you for some
thing else too. No-

362

CAMERA #3 C.U. OF BILL
OVER HELEN'S SHOUL
DER

($2 moves to get
Helen at door.)

CAMERA #1 C.U. ON
BOTH

HERE IS TELEVISION

body ever meant to
me what you did. I
hoped and planned,
now that the war
is over, to have
our home and—
(She breaks off) For
get it, I won't bore
you any longer.

BILL: You're not boring
me.

HELEN: I guess you think
I'm just a punk kid
after all.

BILL: I'll never think
that after the job
you've done. You've
changed complete
ly. You've grown
up.

M.S. of HELEN: Are you trying to
say that our love
was just a kid af
fair? A war ro
mance?

BILL: It was a fight
against time Helen.
Neither of us knew
what was ahead of
us. We both had a
job to do and we
did it. And now
that it's all over,
we still have a job
to do.

HELEN: Bill how can you
say that? We've

A TELEVISION SCRIPT

363

#1 DOLLIES BACK KEEP-
ING THEM BOTH IN
PICTURE

(#3 ready on Terry at door.)

CAMERA #2 M.S. HELEN
IN DOOR

CAMERA #1 ON BILL

BILL:

earned the right to
be happy. (Long
pause) The right to
to be happy. Yes,
you've earned that
right, Bill. I'm go
ing now. (She crosses
part way to the door
R.) In a way I'm
sorry I came. But
I had to. Somehow
I didn't believe
those words you
wrote in that letter.
I had to hear you say
them. And now that
you have— Good
bye Bill. Lots of
luck and— be happy.
You're breaking my
heart but I want to
thank you for every
thing you've given
me. They were the
happiest days of
my life and even
you can't ever take
them away from
me. Goodbye, Bill.
(She goes out the
door R and closes
it.)

(He stands still a
minute.)

Helen— my Helen.
(He X's toward the
door R.) I had to
do it.

364

HERE IS TELEVISION

(#2 moves to get closing shot
on Bill and Terry.)

LIGHTS DOWN

CAMERA #3 M.S. TERRY
FOLLOWS TERRY TO
COUCH

CAMERA #2 C.U. BILL
AND TERRY

FADE OUT CAMERA

(He turns and walks
towards the couch.
In doing this he
walks directly into
the small table at
R of couch knock
ing it and the lamp
over. It crashes to
the floor. He feels
helplessly for the
couch— finds it and
sinks down on it.)
(The door L opens
and Terry enters.
The light from the
door streams on to
Bill on the couch.
Terry X's to him.)

TERRY: (Kneeling at his
side.) Bill-Bill.

BILL: She's gone, Terry.
Gone. But I did it.
She never knew I
lied. She doesn't
know I'm blind.

TERRY: Blind or not Bill,
you're still one hell
of a guy.
The picture fades.

A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

ASPECT RATIO — The ratio of width to height in a frame.

AUDIO Pertaining to sound transmission, from the Latin, meaning"! hear."

BLACK SCREEN — Nothing visible to a viewer on his receiving set.

BLANKING — Elimination from a television picture of the visible results of
the action of the scanning beam as it returns from right to left.

BLOOM — Glare caused by an object reflecting light into the lens of the
camera.

BRIGHTNESS CONTROL — The knob on the receiver which varies the aver
age illumination of the reproduced image.

BUSINESS — Any action or movement in a dramatic program.

CAMERA CABLE — The wire that carries the picture from the camera to the
control room.

CAMERA CHAIN — A television camera and the necessary electronic equip
ment to deliver a picture for broadcasting.

CAMERA TUBE — The tube that converts light energy into corresponding
electrical energy.

CATHODE — The electron source in a vacuum tube.

CATHODE RAY RECEIVER TUBE — Vacuum tube for converting electrical
energy into corresponding light energy.

CENTER (C) — A stage direction meaning the middle of a stage.

CENTER UP — To center the composition of a picture and bring it into
proper frame.

CLOSED CIRCUIT — The picture is not broadcast, but fed to viewing screens
at certain locations by wire. A private showing.

CLOSE-UP (C.U.) — A shot taken at close range in which the object or per
son practically fills the screen.

COAXIAL CABLE — A special type of cable composed of a copper tube with
a single wire in its center capable of conveying television signals. A pair
can provide 480 telephone circuits, or both the visual images and ac
companying sound for television programs.

CONTRAST — Picture signal strength, similar to volume in sound.

CONTRAST CONTROL — The knob on the receiver for controlling the vol
ume of signal received.

CONTROL ROOM — The room or location containing the monitoring equip
ment from which the program is both directed and controlled.

CYCLE — A unit of electrical measurement. One complete alternation of an
electric wave.

DEFLECTION COILS — The electro-magnets in the yoke that control the
scanning beam.

D I POLE — A type of antenna used for reception of high frequency broadcasts.

365

366 HERE IS TELEVISION

DOLLY — A wheeled trucklike platform used to move the camera into differ
ent positions on the set.

DOLLY SHOT — A shot taken when the camera is moving upon a dolly.

DOUBLE — To play more than one part in a dramatic program.

ELECTRON GUN — Electron source for a strong and highly concentrated elec
tron stream.

FADE-IN — The gradual appearance of a picture from total darkness to full
visibility.

FADE-OUT — The gradual disappearance of the screen image from its full
brilliance to total darkness.

FIELD — The scanning of every other line in a picture. Two fields make one
frame.

FOCUS — A control for bringing the picture into the sharpest definition pos
sible.

FRAME — One complete picture. Thirty of these are shown in one second on
a television screen.

FRAMING CONTROL — A knob, or knobs, on the receiver for centering and
adjusting the height and width of a picture.

FREQUENCY — The number of cycles per second.

FRONT PORCH — Difference in time from the start of the blanking signal to
the start of the synchronizing signal.

GHOST — An additional and unwanted image appearing in a television pic
ture as a result of signal reflection.

GOBO — A light-reflector used to direct light both in the studio and out of
doors.

HEIGHT — Vertical adjustment of picture size.

HOT LIGHT — A concentrated light used in the studio for emphasizing fea
tures and bringing out contours.

ICONOSCOPE — (Slang: "Ike") A type of television camera tube developed
by RCA.

IMAGE DISSECTOR — A television pickup tube developed by Farnsworth.

IMAGE ORTHICON — RCA's latest ultra sensitive pickup tube.

INTERLACING — A technique of dividing each picture into two sets of lines,
one set transmitted after the other, to eliminate flicker.

KEYSTONING — Electrical compensation for difference in angle between scan
ning and optical path.

KILOCYCLE — A thousand cycles.

KINESCOPE — A type of cathode ray receiver tube developed by RCA.

LAP DISSOLVE — To fade the picture from one camera out as the picture
from the other camera is faded in, overlapping one picture on another.

LEFT (L.) — A stage direction, meaning to the actor's left as he faces the au
dience.

LEVEL — Measurement of an electrical circuit.

LINE — A single scanning line across a picture, 525 lines make a complete
television frame.

"LIVE" TALENT — Participants in a program picked up directly in the
studio.

LONG SHOT (L.S.) — An establishing shot taken from a distance sufficient to
include a complete view of the scene.

A GLOSSARY OF TERMS 367

MEDIUM SHOT (M.S.) — A camera position from a middle distance. It

might include an actor from about knee level to his head.
MEGACYCLE — A million cycles.

MICROPHONE BOOM — An adjustable crane which suspends the microphone.
MONOSCOPE — A pickup tube with a single picture; a test pattern or call

letters, etched on the mosaic.

MOSAIC — A photosensitive plate in the camera "pickup tube." The picture
is projected upon it by a lens and scanned by the electron gun turning
the picture into electrical impulses.

"ON THE LINE" — A picture going to the transmitter for broadcasting.
ORTHICON — An RCA development of a more sensitive "pickup" tube. It

requires less light than the iconoscope.
PAN — From the word "panorama." To swing the camera to the right or left

horizontally.

PEDESTAL — Blanking signal.

PROCESS SHOT — A scene projected from the rear on* to a translucent screen.
The picture is then used as a background for studio action, replacing or
forming part of the scenery.

REMOTE — A program originating outside of the main studio.
RETAKE — To rephotograph a scene in a motion picture.
RIGHT (R.) — A stage direction, meaning to the actor's right as he faces the

audience.

SAWTOOTH — A wave of electric current or voltage used in scanning.
SCANNING — The action of the electron stream in traveling across the mosaic
line by line in the camera pickup tube, thus releasing the electric charges
held there.
SHADING — Eliminating electrically the undesired signals in a picture caused

by scanning.
SIGN ON — To commence broadcasting with a statement of station frequency

and power.

SIGNAL — Any form of intelligence transmitted by radio wave or wire com
munication.

SNAP SWITCH — An instantaneous cut from one camera to another.
SUPERIMPOSITION — To impose the picture from one camera on to the pic
ture from another. To put the output of two cameras on the line at the
same time.

SWEEP CIRCUIT— Scanning circuit.

SYNCHRONIZATION — The maintenance of exact timing between the elec
tron stream in the camera pickup tube and the cathode ray tube in the
receiver.

TELECAST — A television broadcast.

TELEVISION — The transmission of a succession of images and their reception
in such a way as to give the impression of a continuous reproduction of
a scene to a distant viewer.

TILTING — A vertical change in the position of a camera.
TRUCKING SHOT — A shot taken as the camera, on a moving dolly, picks up

a scene.

VIDEO — Pertaining to the transmission of transient visual images, from the
Latin, meaning "I see."

368 HERE IS TELEVISION

WALK THROUGH — A rehearsal in which all stage business is observed with
out cameras.

WIDTH — Horizontal adjustment of picture size.

WIPE — A picture is replaced by another by apparently pushing the first pic
ture of? the screen by the edge of another. The bottom edge of the top
picture pushes the top of the bottom picture down off the screen. In a
horizontal wipe the action is from the side of the picture. In a fan wipe
it is semi -circular.

WOMP — A sudden surge in signal strength resulting in a flare-up of light in
the picture.

X — A stage direction meaning to cross or move.

YOKE — The electro-magnetic control of the scanning beam in a pickup tube
or receiver.

Here is what the critics soy:

. . one of the most comprehensive presentations
of the whole operating and service functions of
television to date.

7e/ev/ser

. . . sober, mature in judgment, it is replete with
practical advice on every phase of video plan
ning and programming . . . There is an excel
lent chapter on future employment possibilities.

The New York Times

This is television to date. Fluidly written, amply
illustrated, and planned for those with profes
sional interests, HERE IS TELEVISION by pro
ducer director Thomas Hutchinson covers the
wide range of television station operation, pro
gramming, and production technique. . . . Def
initely worthwhile reading.

A.T.S. News

One of America's foremost television directors,
and the man who supervised the development of
NBC's television program for its first six years,
Mr. Hutchinson speaks with authority. Surveying
the over-all problems of television, the heart of
the book is a solid, 160-page section of practical
advice on the handling of all types of programs.
There is plenty of red meat here, based on Mr.
Hutchinson's own experience.

Theatre Arts Monthly

The volume benefits greatly from the author's
wealth of practical experience. . . . The chapters
on programs are unsurpassed.

Journalism Quarterly

HASTINGS HOUSE

Publishers New York 22

Affiliated Photo-Conway

About
the Author

THOMAS H. HUTCHINSON, now actively engaged in New York as a tele
vision producer and director, has probably produced, directed and seen
more television programs than any other man in America. He was a partici
pant in the advent of television in America and studied at first hand the
development of television in England, Holland, France, and Germany.

As television program manager and director for the National Broad
casting Company, the R. K. O. Television Corporation, Ruthrauff & Ryan,
McCann Erickson and other metropolitan advertising agencies, he has pro
duced over five hundred hours of television entertainment. He has, as well,
an impressive list of "firsts" to his credit. He took part in the first electronic
television demonstration in New York in 1936, directed the first one-hour
commercial program and the first thirty-minute dramatic program in 1937,
the first scene from a Broadway success (Gertrude Lawrence in Susan ana*
God) in 1938, the first full-length drama (The Donovan Affair) in 1939, the
first television demonstration in Washington, D. G, and the first motion pic
ture produced for television for R. K. O. He directed the first commercial
television programs for Lever Brothers, Macy's, and Swift. More recently he
has directed TV programs sponsored by Sheffield Milk and The Whitehall
Pharmacal Company.

He taught what was probably the first course in television programming
and production at New York University and is now active in the educational
field in conjunction with his commercial commitments. HERE IS TELEVISION
is the fruit of more than fourteen years of active television experience.

Publishers • * HASTINGS HOUSE • New York, 22

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