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THiifverait? tutorial Series
HIGHER LATIN COMPOSITION
/V V V-O BY
A^ Hf ALLCROFT, M.A. OXON.
i
AUTHOR OF " LATIN COMPOSITION," EDITOR OF CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
VERGIL'S AENEID, HORACE' ODES, ETC.
AND
A. J. F. COLLINS, M.A. OXON.
EDITOR OF OVID: HEROIDES I.-X., ETC.
SI"
LONDON: W. B. CLIYE
DRURY LANE, W.C.
1911
PREFACE.
WHEN the accidence and the ordinary rules of Latin
have been mastered, and the learner for the first time
attempts to translate into Latin a piece of continuous
English prose, he is confronted by a new set of difficulties,
which lie rather in the relation of the English construc-
tions before him to the Latin constructions he has learned
than in the management of those constructions themselves :
he wants to know, not so much how, as when, to use them,
and his perplexity often comes from an incomplete under-
' standing of the exact bearing of the English.
In this book an attempt is made to meet these difficulties
by an analysis of some of the differences of idiom between
English and Latin sentences. Part I. deals with the more
striking differences that affect the sentence as a whole,
and Part II. with the Latin equivalents of some ordinary
English constructions. Parts III. and IY. bring together
more fully the main rules of Latin syntax, not so much
with a view to their being learnt from this book, as to
their application in the turning of English passages into
Latin; and to this end a considerable number of illus-
trative examples have been incorporated.
The twenty-three exercises at the end of the book, on
the subject-matter of the several chapters, are followed by
a number of continuous passages, many of which have
been set at the London University B.A. Examination and.
for Eesponsions at Oxford.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 1
PART I.
GENERAL DIFFERENCES OF ENGLISH AND
LATIN STYLE. IDIOM AND CONNECTION.
.PTER
I. IDIOM THE DIRECTNESS OF LATIN ... 5
II. ON THE RENDERING OF ENGLISH ABSTRACTS IN
LATIN 9
III. PERSONIFICATION, ALLUSION, AND METAPHOR . 12
IV. CONNECTION : SUBORDINATION. .... 17
V. ORDER 20
VI. CONNECTION : THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS . 27
PART II.
SOME LATIN EQUIVALENTS OF ENGLISH
CONSTRUCTIONS.
VII. THE ENGLISH PARTICIPLE 36
VIII. THE INTERCHANGE OF PARTICIPLES AND CLAUSES 40
IX. THE ENGLISH GERUND AND VERBAL NOUN . . 45
X. THE ENGLISH INFINITIVE . . . . . 50
XI. THE ENGLISH CONJUNCTION "THAT" ... 57
XII. ENGLISH AND LATIN TENSES. SEQUENCE AND
DEPENDENT QUESTIONS 65
vii
Vlll CONTENTS.
PART III.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
XIII. THE SIMPLE STATEMENT THE SUBJECT . . 76
XIV. THE ATTRIBUTE 83
XV. THE PREDICATE 89
XVI. THE OBJECT 96
XVII. ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF THE PREDICATE . . 101
XVIII. ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF THE PREDICATE. PHRASES
EXPRESSING SPACE AND TIME . . . .113
XIX. PRONOUNS 123
XX. COMMANDS AND QUESTIONS 134
PART IV.
SOME LATIN CONSTRUCTIONS AND THEIR
ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS.
XXI. THE ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS OF THE LATIN SUB-
JUNCTIVE ........ 142
XXII. REPORTED SPEECH (ORATIO OBLIQUA) . . . 155
XXIII. COMPARISONS 162
EXERCISES FOR TRANSLATION INTO LATIN
SENTENCES 167
CONTINUOUS PASSAGES . 190
HIGHER LATIN COMPOSITION.
INTRODUCTION.
THIS book is intended for use by learners who have
mastered Latin accidence and the main rules of syntax
and are now ready to begin continuous composition.
The first thing that the would-be writer of Latin prose
has to do is to get rid of the illusion that on a first casual
reading he knows the meaning of the English.
Just as it is often impossible to be certain of the mean-
ing of a passage in Shakespeare, till it has been mentally
paraphrased, so for the purpose of Latin prose the English
must be paraphrased either implicitly or explicitly before
it is translated. It must also be paraphrased from the
Latin point of view ; that is to say, all that is expressed in
the English must be stated directly, concretely, and in a
matter-of-fact way. Take for example as straightforward
a sentence as the following :
" Now it must have seemed to the eager eye of the
Carthaginian patriot as though Spain had been created for
the very purpose of supplying all these various and con-
flicting wants."
It may be safely said that such a sentence would have
been as unintelligible to a Roman as a highly metaphorical
passage in Shakespeare is to a third form boy. He would
ask (1) Who was the Carthaginian patriot? (2) Why, as he
was not looking at Spain, did anything connected with it
appear to his eye ? (3) What was meant by an " eager
eye " ? (4) He would not be acquainted with that view of
the Creation which is familiar to us, and if he were he
H. L. g, 1
2 INTRODUCTION.
would still think that to suggest that Spain had been
created to supply the wants of Carthage was a violent and
unreal way of talking ; (5) he would ask for a statement
of fact, not of what " must have been." To make the
meaning of the passage plain to him it would probably
have to be paraphrased as follows : "When he considered
these things, it appeared to Hamilcar that Spain was
exactly fitted to supply the many and varied things that
were required by Carthage."
Thus the first necessity is to strip the English of its
allusions, metaphors, ornaments, etc., and state the sense
in a matter-of-fact way. When this has been done, the
next step is to estimate the logical relations of the
various parts, which relations must be made quite clear by
subordination and connection in Latin, whereas in English
they are frequently left to the common sense of the reader.
The paraphrased English must be divided into logical units,
larger as a rule than an English sentence, each of which is
to form a Latin period. The simplest method for the
purpose is to make a precis of the English. When that
has been done, the statements of the precis will serve
as principal sentences in each Latin period.
Take for example the following passage : During the
long struggle the necessities of self-defence had compelled
the Welsh to settle their differences and oppose an un-
broken front to their foes, and the consequence was a sort
of national revival, of which Llewelyn ap lorwerth was the
leader. The reign of the next prince was unimportant ;
but in 1246 there succeeded another Llewelyn, who adopted
the policy of his grandfather, and took advantage of the
Barons' War to ally himself with Simon de Montfort and
to take a prominent part in the struggles. He earned his
reward when in 1269 Edward found it necessary to buy
off the Welsh prince by the surrender of the " four can-
treds " at the treaty of Shrewsbury.
The precis or abstract of this passage is " There was
a Welsh revival under Llewelyn of lorwerth. His son
did little, but his grandson continued his policy, and allied
himself with Simon de Montfort. Thus he secured the
four cantreds from Edward," If the passage be set out
INTRODUCTION. 3
so as to emphasise the logical relation of the parts it will
run us follows :
The Welsh, as they had been compelled during this long
struggle to forget their quarrels and to make a general
alliance against their enemies under the leadership of
Llewelyn ap lorwerth, became strong. When he died, his
son succeeded, but did not achieve much. When he also
died, another Llewelyn became king, and adopting the
policy of his grandfather, made an alliance with Simon de
Montfort, and helped him in the Barons' Wars. As by
this course he had made himself important, Edward, at the
treaty of Shrewsbury, preferred to secure peace with him
by surrendering the four cantreds.
The Latin of this passage will run :
G-alli, cum bello per tot annos protracto necessitate rei
coacti pugnando inter se destitissent atque universi contra
hostes societatem cc-niunxissent, rursus sub rege Levinio
vigebant. Quo mortuo, films eius, qui sex tantum annos
regnavit, nihil memoria dignum effecit. Huic autem
successit filius, et ille Levinius, qui, exernplo avi usus, cum
inter se nobiles et rex Anglorum de imperio contenderent,
societate cum Simone, nobilum duce, coniuncta haud parvam
belli partem suscepit, id quod ipsi valde profuit. Edwardus
enim, cum bello confecto Shrovii de condicioiiibus pacis
ageret, ne principem armis valentem bello persequi cogere-
tur, agros qui G-alliae erant confines Levinio concessit.
Notice (1) how in the first sentence the Latin brings
out the causal connection between the union of the Welsh
and the Welsh revival, (2) that the succession of the kings
is clearly marked, and (3) how the causal connection of
events from the succession of Llewelyn to the cession of the
four cantreds is definitely stated in Latin, whereas in the
English it is merely implied.
It is of course one thing to know what has to be done,
and another to do it, but to know what to aim at is in
Latin half the battle. The other half is to handle the
Latin language, so that it may serve to express what is
required. For that purpose a reasonably large vocabulary
is the first necessity, and a sufficiently accurate knowledge
4 INTRODUCTION.
of Latin syntax the second. But almost as important as
either is practice in manipulating the various elements of a
Latin period. Of these the first, and in some ways the
most difficult to use, is the perfect participle, next the
circumstantial and causal cum clause, then relative clauses
with or without the subjunctive, and finally other clauses
and phrases expressing purpose and result. For it is by
means of these clauses that the logical relation of events
expressed in a single period is made clear.
The arrangement or order of words in a Latin period is
partly a matter of skill and clear thinking, and partly a
matter of ear. Practice in analysing and reconstituting
periods will help to produce the necessary skill, and to
learn by heart and recite aloud passages from the best
authors will serve to train the ear. Beauty of rhythm is
one of the chief characteristics of Latin prose, and it was
probably attained by the excessive declamation which the
Eomans practised.
Moreover it is necessary not merely that logical relations
should be brought out within the period, but also that the
relation between different periods should be clear. The
root of the matter in Latin as in English is clear thinking ;
but the adverbs, pronouns, and conjunctions employed do
not always correspond in the two languages : some know-
ledge of the various means of connection used in Latin is
essential.
Finally, there are many cases, especially in historical
narrative, where the period is not used, and the sentences
are short and even less connected than they would be
in English.
It is customary to speak slightingly of the educational
value of Latin prose composition, and it is true that its
value cannot be inferred from the result, if result be taken
to mean the Latin produced. Learners who are not
specialising in classics cannot hope to use a language
which is not their own, and has been dead for fifteen
hundred years, as successfully as the greatest Roman men
of letters used it when it was a living tongue. There is,
however, no study better calculated to train the mind in
clear and concise thinking and writing.
PART I.
GENERAL DIFFERENCES OF ENGLISH AND LATIN
STYLE. IDIOM AND CONNECTION.
CHAPTER I.
IDIOM THE DIRECTNESS OF LATIN.
1. The chief differences between English and Latin
Prose in point of style can be arranged under two main
heads. First, Latin differs from English inasmuch as it
expresses itself concretely and directly, in a matter of fact
way; and secondly, Latin (of the best period) employs
complex periods instead of coordinate simple sentences.
In order to write Latin Prose, therefore, it is first
necessary to arrive at the precise meaning of the English,
and then rewrite the passage in Latin periodic form.
Chapters I.-III. will treat of the first, Chapters IY.-YI.
of the second.
2. If events to be narrated are considered from a matter
of fact standpoint, in most cases narrative can be resolved
into a series of statements that certain persons did or
suffered certain things. When a piece of English is given
for translation into Latin, the first thing to do is to read
it over, and where possible find a personal subject for each
predication. See Chapter XIII., 158. In the instances
5
6 IDIOM THE DIRECTNESS OF LATIN. [CH. I.
there given the subject is easy to find, but in more com-
plicated sentences difficulties may arise.
The defeat and slaughter of Catilina Ineunte modo vere proelio victus
did not take place till March. in acie cecidit Catilina.
The consulship without a colleague Q,ui sine collega consul omnibus
raised him above all the citizens civibus dignitate praestabat.
in dignity.
For exceptions see Chapter XIII., 159.
3. The subject, however, must not merely be a person,
it should be a proper name or personal pronoun ; allusive
descriptions of the subject are to be avoided. See Chap-
ter III., 16. These descriptive phrases belong to two
classes : (1) descriptions which are simply used to avoid
repeating the English subject, such as in the example
on p. 1 : in Latin these are simply omitted ; (2) de-
scriptions which imply an important attribute of the
subject.
In this second case the subject must be split up into a
name or pronoun on the one hand and an attributive
phrase or clause on the other.
The return of the long lost patriot Cicero ab optimo quoque civium
ivas like a triumphal procession, diu desideratus, velut trium-
phans in urbem iniit.
4. The predicate can as a rule be determined when
the subject is found. In the case of the impersonal con-
struction alone can difficulties arise.
Sufficient confidence ic as noiv felt on Eo ventum est, ut sibi uterque
both sides. eorum confideret.
At the same time fighting took place Eodem tempore duobus praeterea
at two other points. locis pugnatum est.
5. The same process on a larger scale may be illustrated
in the case of the following :
" Every effort was now made to fan the lukewarm
feelings of this student into a glow of hatred against
the monarchy. He was reminded by papers left in
6.] PERSONAL SUBJECT. 7
Ins praetor's seat of his alleged descent from Brutus
the tyrannicide. Stories were told that his wife
urged him to action by showing that she could
wound herself with a dagger unmoved."
Here the first predication is " The conspirators did all
they could to inflame Brutus against the monarchy"; the
second, "They left papers in the praetor's seat"; the
third, " There were persons who told that his wife urged
him to action," etc.
Illi nihil non temptabant, quo animum M. Bruti, viri
natura inertis et philosophiae dediti, in dominatum regium
incenderent. Complures enim litteris in sella praetoris
positis hortabantur ne se a Lucio Bruto qui Tarquinium
urbe expulisset prognatum esse oblivisceretur, neque
deerant qui narrarent uxorem eius, cum dolorem vulneris
quod ipsa sibi intentasset constanter ferre posse demon-
strasset, exemplo maritum ad agendum incitasse.
6. The following examples may also be studied.
Servius" 1 study was laiv. Long ^ervius ius civile didicit ; multum
watching and toil were his, vigilavit, laboi*avit ; multorum
his patience ivas often tried by stultitiam perpessus est, arro-
stupidity, his temper by conceit. gantiam pertulit.
The trial of Oppianicus took place Oppianicus apud eosdem iudices
before the same cotirt, when these reus est factus, cum his duobus
two previous verdicts had already praeiudiciis iam damnatus
proved him guilty. esset.
Soon the simultaneous sally of a Mox plures sinml conferti porta
larger body in close order by one effusi aequaverant certamen.
of the gates had made the contest
equal.
There is now a field ivherein you Habes nunc ubi ostentes tuam
may display your famous powers illam praeclaram patientiam
of enduring hunger. famis.
The same acute-ness of mental vision Ille eadem acie mentis haec quo-
enabled him to discern the re- que aspexit quae ad dicendi
quirements of rhetoric. artem pertinebant.
8
IDIOM THE DIRECTNESS OF LATIN.
[CH. 1.
Instruction should be pleasant, that
lightness of touch may mitigate
the natural harshness of correc-
tions.
On such a theory a dinner-party
given for electioneering purposes
would secure a conviction.
TMs was absolutely the first case
where a senator joined the popu-
lar party.
Their hope that the Senate would
put up ivith the unbridled free-
dom of this magistracy was with-
out foundation.
When she heard this, the woman
was seized with such terror and
trembling of every limb, that for
a long time she could not open
her lips.
lucundus debet ease praeceptor,
ut remedia quae alioqui sunt
aspera molli manu leniantur.
Ergo ad coenam petitionis causa
si quis vocat condemnetur.
Primus ille omnium ex patribus
popularis est factus.
Nam quod illi sperarent, effrena-
tam licentiam eius magistratus
Patres laturos eos fefellit.
Hoc ubi audivit, tantus pavor
tremorque omnium membro-
rum nmlierem cepit, ut diu
hiscere non posset.
CHAPTER II.
ON THE BENDEBING OF ENGLISH ABSTBACTS
IN LATIN.
7. Latin not merely avoids abstract subjects, but also
has a far smaller supply of abstract and verbal nouns
than English. It is a general maxim of Latin prose
writing to use verbs where English uses nouns ; e.g. " a
battle took place," pugnatum est ; " Catiline's departure
followed," quo facto urbe excessit Catilina.
8. The following are the more usual methods whereby
Latin avoids the use of abstract expressions or verbal
substantives.
(i) By the use of the substantival adjective or parti-
ciple :
The pinch of poverty. Angusta pauperum.
Wisdom and folly are herein agreed. Hoc quidem sapientes insipien-
tesque pariter consentiunt.
9. (ii) By the use of the predicative adjective or par-
ticiple, or an appositive substantive :
A conflict of opinions. Diversae sententiae.
At your suggestion. Te hortante.
Under the guidance of the gods. Dis bone iuvantibus.
On the advice of Fab ins. Auctore Fabio.
The assassination of Philip. Philippus interfectus.
The founding of the city. Urbs condita.
He had fiung himself in the path of Infesto venienti se obiecerat.
this hostile attack.
10
RENDERING OF ENGLISH ABSTRACTS.
[CH. n.
10. (iii) By the substantival use of the infinitive :
Sport is life.
But to none of these four classes,
according to Aristotle, belongs
reason or foresight, the acquisi-
tion or the propagation of know-
ledge, our individual discoveries
or the wealth of our memories,
love and hate, desire and dread,
pain and joy, or any similar
qualities.
Venari est vivere.
Cogitare et providere et discere
et docere et invenire aliquid
et tarn multa alia meminisse,
amare odisse, cupere timere,
angi laetari, haec et similia
eorum in horum. quattuor gene-
rum inesse nullo putat Aris-
toteles.
11. (iv) By the use of the gerund or gerundive :
An opinion as to the conduct of the
war.
More had fallen in the morning' 1 s
rout than in the subsequent re-
covery of the camp.
Wealth of speech.
Consilium de bello gerendo.
Perierunt plures in matutina
fuga quam in recipiendis cas-
tris.
Dicendi copia.
12. (v) By the use of the impersonal passive verb :
There was confusion after their
arrival in Home ....
There ivas no possibility of doing
harm.
A commencement was made ivith the
discussion of the terms of peace.
The question was, under whose com-
mand or with what forces was
there any chance of withstanding
the tide of Carthaginian success.
Tumultuabatur postquam Romam
ventum est ....
Non potuit noceri.
Coeptum est de pace agi.
Consultabant quonam duce aut
quibus copiis resisti victoribus
Poenis posset.
13. (vi) By the use of dependent questions :
Consider the nature of God. Vide qualis sit deus.
While our conviction of the reality Ut deos esse natura arbitramur,
of God comes to us by nature, our quales sint ratione cognoscimus.
knowledge of His attributes is
derived from reason.
14.]
THE INFINITIVE, ETC.
11
From them the Senate learnt that
these provinces would be the cause
of a great deal of fighting.
As to the nature of the soul, and its
whereabouts and origin, there is
much dispute.
If you fail to see its real nature, at
any rate you recognise its general
character ; or if even that is
beyond you, at least yon recognise
its importance.
Ab his edoctus est senatus, quan-
tum belli eae provinciae habe-
rent.
Quid sit porro ipse animus aut
ubi aut unde, magna dissensio
est.
Si, quid sit hoc, non vides, at
quale sit vides ; si ne id quidem,
at quantum sit profecto vides.
14. Many English abstract nouns such as " theory,"
" purpose," " circumstance," " consideration," " object,"
" question," " feeling," " belief," etc., are rendered in
Latin by a pronoun or " res."
The space seemed to have been left
for the very purpose.
These considerations induced Caesar
to cross the Rhine.
Spatium ad id ipsum esse relic-
turn videbatur.
Quibus rebus adductus Caesar
Rhenum transiit.
CHAPTER III.
PEESONIFICATION, ALLUSION, AND
METAPHOE.
15. The reason why proper names of persons are in
most cases the subjects of active verbs in Latin is that
Latin very rarely employs personification and allusion.
Ultimately the use of any name which is not the name of
a living being as the subject of an active verb constitutes
a personification ; and the use of other than proper names,
or names expressing such simple relations as "brother,"
" king," " consul," as subjects constitutes an allusion. The
difficulty for the would-be writer of Latin prose is not so
much to avoid personifications and allusions in Latin, as
to discover what are personifications and allusions in the
English set before him.
16. Simple instances of such personifications and allu-
sions have been given among the examples in Ch. II. ;
three more may be added here.
Personifications.
His personal influence had kept Illius auctoritate in officio per-
Burgundy true to England. manserant Burgundii.
The death of Bedford had left Bedio mortuo Barfius illorum qui
fleaufort at the head of the party pacem cupiebaut princeps est
ivhich desired peace. factus.
Allusions.
'lite young king had done his best Henricus (or rex) adhuc adulescens
to keep his promise of peace. quantum in se erat pacem quam
pollicitus erat praestare erat
conatus.
12
17.] COMMENT AND METAPHOR. 13
17. Akin to allusion is comment, which is very common
in English historical writers, and often takes the form
of an adjective used in a semi- predicative sense, which is
intended to express the writer's own view. Such adjec-
tives are never literally translated into Latin. Either an
attributive phrase involving a substantive in apposition to
that which the adjective qualifies is used, or the implied
predication becomes explicit and is stated as a fact in a
relative clause, or a verb or participle takes the place of
the original substantive and the adjective becomes an
adverbial phrase or clause.
The brave Cato. M. Cato, vir fortis.
Gloucester revived his absurd claims Iterum Glevius regnum Galliae
on Flanders. Belgicae sine ullo iure sibi arro-
gabat.
The dishonourable treaty. Indutiae quae parum ex dignitate
Anglorum ease videbantur.
18. With metaphor the case is the same as with per-
sonification and allusion: the difficulty is not to avoid
metaphor in Latin, but to recognise it in English. All
such words and phrases as the following are metaphors :
"hope revived, 1 " "there was an undercurrent of Lollardry,"
"the general feeling for peace gained ground abroad," and
the learner can discover a hundred others for himself in
any English history book. All such metaphors are simply
avoided. Thus " there was an undercurrent of Lollardry "
would be simply neque deerant qui clam Lollardis favebant,
and " the general feeling for peace gained ground abroad "
simply apud exteras etiam nationes omnes vehementius in
dies pacem desiderabant.
19. An example of the same process on a larger scale
will be seen in the following extract :
In heavy marching order, and with- Romanes, cum longo agmine
out a thought of danger, the Ro- maximisque impediments in
man army entered the valley of planitiem ingressi via quae
death and moved along the road praeter lacum ferebat procedere
that skirted the margin of the coepissent, omnino fefellerunt
14 PERSONIFICATION, ALLUSION, AND METAPHOR. [CH. III.
insidiae. Prima enirn luce
claris iam oriente sole superior-
ibus montium partibus, nebula
a lacu orta campum quern ipsi
transibant et vicinos colles te-
nebris adhuc obtegebat. Poeni,
cum in gum to turn, et si qua
intercedebat vallis aut cavum,
a suis obsessum viderent copias-
que hostium, quas sub pedibus
praeterire audirent neque cer-
nere possent, quo longius pro-
grederentur eo magis intercludi
et cladi omnes obici sentirent,
acres et certaminis avidi sig-
num exspectabant.
lake. A thick curtain of mist
hung over the lowlands which the
army was crossing, and hid from
view the base of the adjoining
hills, while their tops were catch-
ing the first rays of the rising
sun. With grim delight, and in
a fever of expectation, must the
soldiers of Hannibal, as they saw
above the mist the whole crest
of the hills, and each glen and
hollow ^vhich lay betiveen their
folds, crowded with their brothers
in arms, have listened to the
tramp of the 30,000 men whom
they could hear but could not see,
as they passed along a few hun-
dred yards below, each step mak-
ing the destruction of the whole
more sure.
Here, in the first sentence " valley of death," a frigid
reminiscence of Tennyson, is avoided. In the second
" curtain," a metaphor which has almost ceased to be
metaphorical, is dropped, as is " fever " lower down, and
also " folds." The third sentence is peculiarly unlike Latin.
A Eoman historian always tells his reader what happened,
even when his account of events is evolved out of his own
imagination ; therefore " must have listened," which shows
that the scene is imagined by the author and constitutes a
comment, must be rendered by a verb in the indicative.
" The thirty thousand men " is simply an allusive peri-
phrasis for " the Romans," while to speak of " a step "
doing anything would be in Latin a violent personifica-
tion, and quite impossible.
20. Sometimes an important metaphor should be ren-
dered by the corresponding metaphor in Latin if there
is one, or if not by another metaphor ; but the range of
metaphorical expression in Latin is confined within narrow
21.] PROPER NAMES. 15
limits, and metaphors are rare except as definite ornaments
in oratory.
His death left room for Richard Quo mortuo primas iam in civi-
Duke of York's appearance on tate partes agere potuit Biear-
the stage of politics. dus.
21. To avoid personifications, allusions, and metaphors
does not mean to shirk difficulties or to aim at baldness
of expression in Latin. All that the English expresses
must be translated and the points brought out, but
really careful sifting and testing of a passage will show
to an average intelligence, if conscientiously employed,
what is important and what is not. The sense of the
English and the Latin must be the same, but the words
and forms of expression by which in most cases that sense
is conveyed must be different; therefore reproduce the
sense, but not the words.
22. A few words may be added on the management of
proper names in Latin Composition.
(1) A Roman is usually referred to by his nomen and
abbreviated praenom.en, e.g. On. Pompeius, M. Tullius,
T. Labienus. When the name occurs frequently, the prae-
nomen may be omitted. (2) Caesar always speaks of him-
self by his cognomen and well-known persons are often
referred to in the same way, e.g. Cicero, Flaccus (Horace),
Maro (Vergil), Paullus. Such combinations as Quintus
Cicero or Julius Caesar do not occur in classical Latin.
English usage is irregular, for we speak of Horace, Vergil,
Livy, Pompey, Terence nomina, and Cicero, Cato, Catiline,
Plautus, Martial cognomina. Notice that "Rome" is fre-
quently populus Romanus, and " the Romans " nostri.
Greek names are as a rule transliterated, e.g. Pericles,
Aristides, and declined in a form partly Latin partly Greek .
23. The learner's chief difficulty will be concerned with
English names. The following methods for dealing with
the names which occur in English and modern history are
perhaps the best.
16 PERSONIFICATION, ALLUSION, AND METAPHOR. [CH. III.
If an ancient parallel can be found, alter all the names
on one plan; e.g. the career of Cromwell is in some respects
parallel to the career of Harms or Caesar or Vespasian,
there are analogies between Pitt and Pericles, English and
other kings may correspond to Roman Emperors, James I.
to Claudius, Charles I. to G-alba, Charles II. to Nero, Henry
VIII. to Tiberius, Louis XIV. to Augustus. The same
principle applies to the rendering of the names of modern
institutions. "Parliament" is as a rule best translated by
senatus, unless there is emphasis on its popular character,
when populus should be used. Gomitia never means any-
thing but " elections."
The advantage of this plan is in many cases two-fold :
(a) by creating the proper atmosphere it often supplies
vocabulary; if such a phrase as "republicans without fear,
without remorse, without hope " is associated with Cato,
some of the phrases used of him by Cicero will probably
occur to the mind, (6) it enables the writer to display any
knowledge of antiquities he happens to possess.
For an example of this method see 29.
24. If such a translation of the situation is not pos-
sible, names should be transliterated in such a way as to be
declinable. English personal names have a Latin equivalent
in use, e.g. Henry, Henricus ; Edward, Eduardus ; Walter,
Gualterus ; William, Gulielmus. In the Middle Ages
writers frequently Latinised their names, e.g. della Scala,
Sealiger; Komensky, Comenius, and so on, and the same
method of formation may be followed in composition,
e.g. Bradshaw, Baratsavius ; Wolsey, Lanamarius, etc.
Avoid English titles: Lord Salisbury would be simply Q.
Caecilius, the Earl of Worcester Vigornensis, etc. Do not
replace an English name by the name of an important
Roman unless there is some parallel between the two
persons; e.g. it would be allowable to call Burke Cicero, but
unsuitable to give him the name of Burrus.
CHAPTER IV.
CONNECTION : SUBOKDINATION.
25. Having arrived at the meaning of the English,
the next thing for the learner to do is to express that
meaning in Latin form. Narrative in its lowest terms
consists of a series of independent predications in
the grammatical form of simple sentences. In practice,
however, all languages subordinate the less important
predications to the more important, but inflected languages
in which the grammatical construction of a word is indi-
cated not by its position, but by its form, can, and as a
rule do, employ a more complex style of narrative than
uninflected languages.
26. In the initial stages of composition Latin or
English sentences may be reduced to their lowest terms,
and then built up again into periods ; but in writing,
after the matter of fact meaning of the English
has been discovered, it is not as a rule necessary to go
through the process of breaking up the English into co-
ordinate predications, but it may be assumed that what is
subordinate in English is also subordinate in Latin.
There are, however, many compound sentences in
English such that one verb should be subordinated in
Latin, and many independent predications of which the
verbs will require to be subordinated to more important
verbs. Latin prefers complex sentences to compound, and
compound sentences to independent predications with
different subjects.
27. Subordination in Latin is effected as a rule by
means of the perfect participle and circumstantial clauses,
particularly cum clauses.
H.L. c. 17 2
18 CONNECTION : SUBORDINATION. [CH. IV.
The perfect participle is the commoner because the
shorter construction, cum clauses being used where the
verb is intransitive in Latin, but not deponent (see 72),
to translate the English perfect participle active. Time
clauses with ut and ubi are not uncommon.
28. The question for the beginner is at what point
subordination is to stop, and the only answer that can be
given is that the amount of subordination is determined
only by the sense and the necessity for clearness.
Beginners as a rule attempt more subordination than
they can manage. Sentences in Caesar and Livy are not
as a rule long, and very complex periods are exceptional.
The length of the period in the first place depends on the
sense. Where a large number of closely connected events
or ideas have to be expressed, a long period may be used.
Thus Caesar describes his start for Britain and a great
part of the voyage in one sentence, but a beginner would
probably do better to subordinate not more than three
events at a time.
29. To determine the amount of subordination re-
quired, it may be well to make a precis of the English.
By this means it will be possible to arrive at the im-
portant predications which in Latin are to be principal
sentences. The predications which do not appear in the
precis may be treated as subordinate. E.g.,
" By request of Meetwood, the Rump had resumed its
sittings, and Monk, declaring himself the humble servant
of the members, announced his readiness to do their
bidding. Encouraged by his attitude, Hazelrig and other
members of the Commonwealth men endeavoured to em-
broil him with the City, where the chief strength of the
Presbyterians lay, by ordering him to pull down the gates
of London in punishment for a declaration of the Common
Council that, as London had no representatives in the
Eump, no more taxes should be paid till the vacancies had
been filled up. Monk obeyed ; but the folly of the action
convinced him that the cause of the Rump was hopeless,
29.] LIMITS OF SUBORDINATION. 19
and immediately afterwards lie joined the citizens in a
demand for a free parliament."
The above passage here contains three statements : (1)
Hazelrig and his friends ordered Monk to pull down the
gates of London, (2) Monk did so, (3) he then demanded
a free Parliament.
The rest is subordinate, for Hazelrig gave the order
with the purpose of embroiling Monk with the people of
London, and he did so because he felt encouraged, and he
was encouraged because, when the Rump met, Monk
seemed to be amenable. Moreover the order was given
ostensibly to punish the people because a declaration had
been made, and so on.
The second statement stands alone.
In the third sentence, as in the first, the main statement
is found in a verbal substantive. The sense is, " Monk,
as he was convinced that the cause of the Eump was
hopeless, having gone over to the people, asked for a free
parliament," i.e. that the elections should be free and not
controlled by the army.
The following is a rendering of the passage which
should not be beyond the powers of a moderately advanced
learner.
" Senatu iterum a Q. Pedio convocato, cum Octavius se
dignitati illius ordinis servire professus omnia ex auctori-
tate patrum se facturum esse confirmasset, maiore iam
animo Cicero et optimates, ut populuni, qui plerunique
Caesaris partibus faveret, offenderet Octavius, eum portas
urbis demoliri iusserunt, quod promulgata esset haec
rogatio : cum iam in senatu nemo esset Eomanus, ne quis
vectigal penderet, dum novi allegerentur senatores. Neque
recusavit Octavius. Brevi autem cum senafus, qui hoc
tarn stulte commisisset, causam iac^re satis appareret, coii-
silio cum populo communicate, ut libera essent comitia et
ipse postulavit."
The first period might be broken after the fourth line
and run, " Senatu iterum a Q. Pedio convocato Octavius
se . . . confirniavit. Quo facto elati Cicero, etc."
CHAPTER V.
OEDEK.
30. Besides logical considerations and the general sense
of the passage, the length of a Latin period is deter-
mined by the necessity for clearness. Particular points in
grammar may make it impossible to group in one period
series of events which are connected together closely
enough to form one sentence logically. It may not be
possible to secure a single subject for the chief predica-
tions, or it may be necessary to use several intransitive
verbs which have no perfect participle. But when these
preliminary difficulties are got over, the clearness of the
passage will depend on the order and arrangement of the
words. Thus Horace in a famous passage speaks of
" lucidus ordo," i.e. " enlightening order,"
31. The following are the rules which govern the ar-
rangement of words in a Latin sentence where the order
(as is very commonly the case) is not affected by considera-
tions of euphony or emphasis.
32. (a) The subject stands first.
NOTE 1. This does not apply to the infinitive used as
subject.
NOTE 2. Interrogative and relative words, conjunctions
and other words of connection or transition, are placed at
the beginning of the sentence or clause which they intro-
duce, except enclitics (-ne, -que, -ve), autem, enim, quidem,
quoque, and (usually) igitur, tamen.
20
33.] NORMAL ORDER IN SENTENCE. 21
(Z>) A finite verb (i.e. the primary predicate) stands
at the end of its sentence or clause, the secondary predi-
cate (if there is one) preceding the primary.
(c) The object is placed between the subject and the pre-
dicate, an indirect object usually preceding a direct object.
Caesar promised them his help. Caesar iis auxilium suum pollici-
tus est.
(d) Aii attribute, whether consisting of an ordinary
adjective, an attributive genitive, a substantive in ap-
position, or a phrase, usually follows the substantive to
which it refers, but a demonstrative or an adjective of
quantity or number precedes its substantive.
(e) An adverb or adverbial phrase immediately precedes
the word it modifies.
(/) A preposition precedes its case, except tenus and
enclitic cum. An attribute may intervene.
The Senate ordered a commission Senatus duurnviros ad earn aedem
of two to be appointed for build- pro amplitudine populi Romani
ing that temple in accordance faciendam creari iussit.
with the dignity of the Roman
people.
OBS. In the above example ad . . .faciendam is an at-
tributive phrase qualifying duumviros ; earn (a demonstra-
tive) is attribute to aedem ; Romani is the attribute of
populi ; populi Romani is attributive genitive qualifying
amplitudine ; pro . . . Romani together forms an adverbial
phrase modifying the verbal notion in faciendam.
33. A word is frequently, for the sake of emphasis,
put in some prominent position i.e. either first or last in
the sentence. The subject is, if emphatic, placed at the
end ; the verb, if emphatic, at the beginning. Either of
these positions emphasises any other word.
He was feared by his slaves, rever- Metuebantservi,verebanturliberi.
enced by his children.
It was through me that you recovered Mea opera Tarentum recepisti.
Tarentiim.
22 ORDER. [CH. V.
OBS. Here the normal order would be Tarentum opera
mea recepisti, a possessive adjective usually following its
substantive.
34. Dependent clauses other than consecutive are fre-
quently, but by no means always, inserted in the prin-
cipal sentence. Whether they are so or not will depend
upon considerations of clearness and emphasis. Confusion
arises when a sediment of verbs forms at the end of a
period.
Caesar exhorted his men to break Caesar suos hortatus est ut pon-
down the bridge which he had tern quern in Rheno fecisset
made over the Rhine. scinderent.
Here to have included the dependent command in the
principal sentence would have led to considerable awkward-
ness.
35. On the other hand, avoid weak endings or tails.
The Treveri refused to attend the Treveri, quod cum Germanis qui
assizes because they had formed an nuper Rhenum transierant
alliance with the Germans who societatem coniunxerant, ad
had lately crossed the Rhine. conventus venire nolebant.
Not to have included the relative clause which is doubly
dependent in the principal clause would have been to leave
the sentence with an insufferably weak ending.
36. Emphasis is usually obtained by placing the word
to be emphasised at the beginning or end of the sentence
(see 32), but any departure from the normal order will
give emphasis.
JT beg you in the name of heaven . . . Per te deos oro . . . (the invariable
order in this phrase) .
Do you see hoiv great is the disagree- Videsne quam sit magna dissen-
ment ? sio ?
In the same way a word for the sake of emphasis may
be placed outside its clause.
37.] MEANS OF EMPHASIS. 23
Had I believed such a story, I should Tali si credidissem fabulae, non
not have come. venissem.
There is no one who could better Nemo est tibi qui sapientius
advise you, suadere possit.
37. Contrasted words may be brought together for the
sake of emphasis.
The tyrant is gone, but I see that the Sublato tyranno tyrannida man ere
tyranny survives. video.
A common order under this head is chiasmus, where,
if the order of the parts of the first of two contrasted
phrases is aj) v the order of the parts of the second is
M 2 5 e -9->
Compare present evils with past Praesentiamalavoluptatibusprae-
pleasures. teritis confer, or
Mala praesentia prae teritis volup-
tatibus confer.
38. A further extension of the effect of contrast is
the balance between contrasted clauses. When the one
clause is subordinate to the other, an adverb or pronoun is
inserted in the principal clause which balances the sub-
ordinating conjunction or pronoun in the dependent clause ;
such pairs are
is qui and id quod and eo quo.
GO ut (final).
adeo, sic, ita ut (consecutive).
ita ut (comparative) .
prius )
* , > auam.
ante \
perinde ac si.
We take up pleating before we Ante ad agendum quarn ad cog-
acquire knowledge. noscendum venimus.
The man who is eloquent has all the Qui eloquens est, is virtutes onines
virtues. habet.
24
ORDER.
[CH. V.
He contrived to effect his retreat
without losing a man.
If a>t is defined as Antonius ex-
plained.
Ita copias reduxit, ut neminem
suorum desideraret.
Si ars ita definitur, ut Antonius
exposuit.
39. Cum (with indicative) turn are also used to
contrast clauses, in which case the subordinate clause
introduced by cum always stands first.
For my own part, while I always
held you to be a god in oratory, I
thought you deserved quite as
much credit for your good nature
as for your eloquence.
Equidem te, cum in dicendo sem-
per putavi deum, turn vero tibi
numquam eloquentiae maiorem
tribui laudem quam humani-
tatis.
40. Cum turn and ita
trast words and phrases.
We are anxious to win, and to win
too under your leadership.
Eumenes was prompted alike by
long-standing hatred and by a
more recent cause of wrath ; for
thanks to the king's treachery he
had been all but slain at Delphi
like a beast that is sacrificed.
He ivas not at once an unrighteous
king in time of peace and an in-
capable captain in war.
ut are also used to con-
Cum vincere cupimus, turn te
duce vincere.
Eumenem cum vetus odium turn
recens stimulabat ira, quod
scelere regis prope ut victima
Delphis mactatus esset.
Nee ut iniustus in pace rex, ita
dux belli pravus fuit.
And simply as a substitute for et et, et -que, etc.
Both in war and in everything else
luck is a mighty factor.
The Macedonians essayed the deed
with as much courage as folly,
and with as much cowardice as
folly they relinquished the at-
tempt.
Multurn cum in omnibus rebus,
turn in re militari potest fortuna.
Aggressi facinus Macedones ut in-
consulte ita audacter, coeptum
nee consulte et timide reli-
querunt.
41.] EUPHONY AND RHYTHM. 25
41. Euphony also affects the order of words in the
period. Words which have the same termination, more
especially if they have the same number of syllables, are
as a rule separated.
He asked me if this would be agree- Eogavit nura hoc mihi gratum
able to me. esset f uturum.
All the cavalry ivho were on the Omnes qui aderant equites.
spot.
42. Similarly a period does not as a rule end with a
weak rhythm. A word of three syllables is preferable to
one of two. In oratory the commonest rhythms are
(1) a four- syllabled word with the first and third syllables
long (double trochee), e.g. consequentur, appetivit, saevien-
dum ; (2) a combination of six syllables (usually in two
words), of which the first and fifth are accented, e.g. esse
moriendum and Cicero's favourite esse videatur; (3) a
combination of five syllables all long but the second, e.g.
audiebatur, esse laudandum.
43. The following version will serve to illustrate a few
of the points mentioned above.
"With every power that we have we can do two things :
we can work and we can play. Every power that we have
is at the same time useful to us and delightful to us.
Even when we are applying these powers to the furtherance
of our personal objects, the activity of them gives us
pleasure ; and when we have no useful end to which to
apply them, it is still pleasant to us to use them ; the
activity of them gives us pleasure for its own sake. There
is no motion of our body or mind which we use in work,
which we do not also use in play or amusement. If we
walk in order to arrive at the place where our interest
requires us to be, we also walk about the fields for enjoy-
ment."
" Quaecumque nobis insunt facultates, eas licet et ad
ludum et ad laborem adhibere, quippe quae omnes et utiles
nobis sint et iucundae. Nam sive quid commodi nobis in
26 ORDER. [CH. V.
agendo expetitur, habet iucunditatem quandam ipsa ilia
exercitatio : sive omnino non est, tamen id ipsum aliquid
agere delectat. Turn motibus illis omnibus vel animi
vel corporis, per quos quid in laborando efficimus, iisdem
necesse est in ludis oblectamentisque utamur (or Turn
nullus est motus neque animi neque corporis, per quern
quid in laborando efficimus, quo non in ludis etiam oblec-
tamentisque utamur) : quippe ambulamus ut eo quo corn-
modi causa velimus perveniamus, est non nulla etiam per
rura vagantibus oblectatio."
Notice (1) how the relative is balanced by the demon-
strative ; (2) how substantives and adjectives are placed
at the end for emphasis, e.g. in the sentence habet iucun-
didatem exercitatio; (3) how illis is inserted between
motibus and omnibus to avoid a bad rhythm ; (4) that
no sentence ends with a word of less than three syllables.
CHAPTER VI.
CONNECTION: THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS.
44. Three classes of words are used to connect sen-
tences in Latin : (i) demonstrative pronouns and adverbs,
(ii) relative pronouns, (iii) conjunctions. The following
are some connections selected from a page of ordinary
narrative: His de causis, Itaque, Rationem hanc, Haec,
Quibus disclusis, Interim, Quod ubi comperit, His constitutes
rebus, etc.
45. The chief demonstrative pronouns used for connec-
tion are hie, is, ille, and idem.
Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives when used for
connection are, as a rule, placed first, as in the phrases
above. An emphatic pronoun used with a definite refer-
ence may even be placed outside a dependent clause.
When he had fixed them (sc. the Haec cum in flumen defixerat.
piles) in the river.
But if the reference is general, the conjunction intro-
ducing the dependent clause comes first.
While this (sc. certain events] ivas Dum haec geruutur.
going on.
Demonstrative adverbs which express definite kinds of
relations (e.g. time, cause, etc.) between clauses are treated
below ( 48-53).
46. Closely akin to connection by means of demonstra-
tive pronouns is relative connection.
The connecting relative is never found in English,
whereas connection by means of the demonstrative is found.
The beginner has therefore first to learn that a connecting
relative may be used to translate an English demonstrative,
27
28 CONNECTION : THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS. [CH. VI.
and, having done so, to remember that it is not invariably
so used. " When he had finished these operations " may
be Quibus rebus confectis or His rebus confectis. If there
is any distinction in sense, it is that the relative connec-
tion is slightly closer and throws less emphasis on the
word which the pronoun represents.
The connecting relative always stands first.
When Caesar learnt this. Quae ubi comperit Caesar.
If, on the other hand, " Caesar" was to be the subject of
the whole period and the connection not too close, it might
be necessary to translate " this " by a demonstrative, e.g.
Caesar, cum Jiaec cognovisset, etc.
47. Sentences maybe connected in such a way as to im-
ply that there were certain relations between the events they
narrate, e.g. relations of time, place, cause, etc. These rela-
tions correspond to the relations which circumstantial and
result clauses bear to the predications they modify. They
are expressed by demonstrative adverbs or conjunctions.
48. (a) Time connection. The commonest adverbs in
use are turn, inde, deinde, "then"; interim and interea,
"in the meanwhile"; postea, "afterwards"; hie, " at this
point"; denique, "finally."
Notice that inde and deinde, which are commonly equiva-
lent to turn meaning " then," i.e. " next," are not equivalent
to turn meaning "then," i.e. "at that time"; thus deinde
and turn can be used together, "then in the next place."
First they teach that there are gods, Primum decent esse deos, deinde
then what is their nature, then quales Bint, turn mundum ab iis
that the world is governed by administrari, postremo consu-
them, finally that they take an lere eos rebus humanis.
interest in the doings of men.
Compare
First we ought to think over what Primum cogitare debemus ea quae
u-e intend to do, and then after acturi sumus, deinde turn dicere
that speak and act. ac facere.
49.] TIME, PLACE, CAUSAL CONNECTION. 29
Time connection may also be effected by phrases and
clauses expressing time. The following are common, and
it is to be noticed often represent English adverbs :
"meanwhile," dum ea geruntur; "thereupon," quo (or
hoc) facto. The references of English connecting words
are often general, and may require to be made explicit in
Latin.
49. (&) Place connection is expressed by the demon-
strative adverbs: hue, "hither"; hie, "here"; hinc,
"hence"; eo, "thither"; ibi, "there," etc. The relative
quo, "whither," i.e. "and thither," is common.
Various local phrases and clauses may be used as
above.
There ivas a wide plain and in it Planities erat magna et in ea tu-
an earth mound of considerable mulus terrenus satis grandis.
height. The spot tvas about Hie locus aequo fere spatio ab
equally distant from Caesar's castris Ariovisti et Caesaris
camp and that of Ariovistus. To aberat. Eo ut erat dictum, ad
it, as had been arranged, they colloquium venerunt.
came for a conference.
50. The same cautions as to clearness of reference
apply. Thus in certain cases, if the English " there "
meant "when he had come there," it might have to be
represented by quo cum venisset.
51. (c) Causal connection, i.e. connection which implies
that the second sentence expresses the cause or explana-
tion of what is stated in the first, is effected by the
conjunctions nam and enim, " for."
It is to be noticed that in many cases where the second
clause gives an explanation of the first, " for " is not used
in English where enim or nam is used in Latin.
But the natives were equal to the At consilium barbaris non defuit.
occasion. Their leaders gave the Nam duces, etc.
order, etc.
30 CONNECTION : THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS. [CH. VI.
52. (d) Result connection. If it is implied that tlie
second sentence expresses the result of what is stated in
the first, the following connecting words are used : itaque,
"and so"; ergo, "therefore"; igitur, "therefore"; also
ita and sic, but less commonly. The following should also
be noticed : quamobrem, quare, quae cum ita sint (essent) ;
all three may stand for " therefore " or " thus " ; the last
is often a useful rendering of " under the circum-
stances."
Under the circumstances, Catiline, Quae cum ita sint, Catilina, du-
do you hesitate to depart ? bitas abire ?
53. (e) Concessive connection. Sentences may be said
to be connected concessively when what is granted is stated
in the first, and what is " nevertheless " affirmed is ex-
pressed in the second. The connection is usually tamen or
sed tamen, representing the English " yet," " nevertheless,"
and atqui ("and yet"); also quamquam ("but" or "and
yet"), and less commonly etsi, in the same sense, are used.
The fighting ivas keen on boih sides, Pugnatum est ab utrisque acriter.
but our men got into great con- Nostri tamen magnopere per-
fusion. turbantur.
54. The following uses of coordinating conjunctions
may be noted :
55. Of the conjunctions meaning " and " the most
usual is et, which is used to connect words, clauses, and
sentences ; -que usually connects words, and is often used
in the case of two objects commonly associated.
The Senate and people of Rome. Senatus populusque Roman us.
Atque or ac properly means " and indeed," " and
especially," though often used by way of variety for et.
(Atque is used before a vowel or a consonant, ac before
consonants only.)
Thanks must be rendered to the Dis immortalibus habenda eat gra-
immortal gods, and especially to tia, atque ipsi lovi Statori.
Jupiter the Stayer himself.
56.] "AND" AND "BUT." 31
Within the walls, and indeed in the Intra moenia atque in sinu urbis
very heart of the city, there are sunt hostes.
foes.
OBS. When et and atque are used to connect periods,
they are equivalents and both mean " and indeed," " and
moreover," " besides " ; et may be strengthened by qiioque,
in which case an emphasised word comes between the two,
atque by etiam immediately following it.
56. In lists and enumerations et (if used at all) is
usually inserted before each item after the first, instead of
before the last only.
Old men are peevish, uneasy, wrath- Sunt morosi et anxii et iracundi
ful, and hard to please. et difficiles series.
OBS. Often, however, the items are enumerated with-
out any conjunction being used ; this usage is known as
" asyndeton."
57. Two attributes of a substantive must be connected
by a conjunction.
I have had many great contests with Mihi cum M. Crasso multae et
Marcus Crassus. magnae contentiones fuerunt.
58. Of the commoner conjunctions usually rendered
" but," sed limits or corrects a preceding statement, intro-
ducing something in contrast to it, whereas autem merely
denotes transition to a fresh thought ; at is strongly
adversative, and often means " but," " it may be objected."
It is difficult to do, but I will never- Difficile factu est, sed conabor
theless try. tamen.
Life devoid of friends cannot he Vita deserta ab amicis non potest
pleasant ; but enough of this (lit. esse iucunda ; sed haec hac-
these things so far] ; now the tenus ; constituendi autem Bunt
bounds (so to speak) of affection quasi termini diligen di .
have to be determined.
32 CONNECTION : THE USE OP CONJUNCTIONS. [CH. VI.
" The people decided amiss" ; but Male iudicavit populus ; at iudi-
it did decide: "it ought not cavit : non debuit ; at potuit.
to have done so " ; but it had
59. Of the conjunctions meaning "or," aut contrasts
things essentially opposed ; vel and the enclitic -ve leave
the choice open as to some detail.
So great is the force of goodness that Tanta vis probitatis est, ut earn
we esteem it either in those whom vel in eis quos numquam vidi-
we have never seen or in an enemy. mus vel in hoste diligamus.
Two or three friends of the king are Amici regis duo tresve perdivites
very rich. sunt.
60. A second final clause is, if negative, introduced by
neve or neu.
Caesar encouraged his troops to pre- Caesar milites cohortatus est uti
serve the remembrance of their suae pristinae virtutis me-
former valour and not to be moriam retinerent neu pertur-
troubled in mind. barentur animo.
61. Alternative conditional clauses are introduced by
sive . . . sive or sen . . . sen. These conjunctions are
also used when the alternatives are expressed by single
words or phrases instead of complete clauses.
I am in the habit of frequenting Illo loco libentissime soleo uti,
that spot with great pleasure, sive quid mecum ipse cogito
either if I am pondering any- sive quid scribo aut lego.
thing in my mind or if I am
ivriting or reading anything.
All lack liberty if they are slaves Omnes libertate carent sive regi
either to a king or to an aris- sive optimatibus serviunt.
tocracy.
OBS. The use of sive . . . sive must be clearly distin-
guished from that of utrum . . . an. The latter introduce
the two alternatives of a double question, direct or depen-
dent.
62.] " EITHER," " OR," ETC. 33
What does it matter whether ive are Quid refert utrum regi an opti-
s laves to a king or to an aris- matibus serviamus?
tocracy ?
62. Two sentences may be connected by beginning the
second with a word taken from the first.
The cavalry offered the stoutest re- Eques maxime resistebat, equi-
sistance, and of them the king tumque longe fortissimus ipse
himself was far the bravest. rex.
Be not covetous ; for there is no Noli avarus esse ; avaritia enim
more unbecoming fault. quid potest esse foedius ?
63. Similarly a word which is contrasted with some
word in the preceding sentence may be placed first. This
device produces adversative connection and emphasis at the
same time, and is thoroughly idiomatic.
A man who had no official rank Tiberium Gracchum .... privatus
killed Tiberius Gracchus .... and interfecit : Catilinam nos con-
shall J, a consul, suffer Catilint ? sules perferemus ?
Similarly Caesar, after he has discussed the private and
social customs of the Suevi, begins the next sentence with
the word Publice, "As a state," thus contrasting the
social and political institutions.
64. The following connections are used by Cicero :
Quid? ("again") and age, in the same sense, combined
with dum, nunc, vero, porro, are used at the opening of a
fresh division in a speech.
lam is used for transition, continuation, and summary ;
e.g. in the Speech on the Manilian Law, after discussing
Pompeius' self-control, Cicero proceeds to discuss his
affability: lam vero itafaciles aditus ad eum privatorum,
"Then so easy is he of access to unofficial persons." The
orator's next point is Pompeius' eloquence, and he proceeds :
lam quantum consilio, quantum dicendi gravitate valeat
saepe cognovistis, " Once more you have often had reason
to know with what wisdom and dignity he can speak."
H. L. 0. 3
34 CONNECTION : THE USE OP CONJUNCTIONS. [CH. VI.
The orator then closes the enunciation of virtues : Hu-
manitate iam tanta est, " Finally he is so gentle."
Velut and lit are used to introduce instances, or similes.
Other favourite connections in Cicero are, etenim (Greek
KCU yap), "for indeed," introducing a corroborative state-
ment; vero, "but," appended to a single word which is to
be emphasised (e.g. Nunc vero quae tua est vita, " But as it
stands, what sort of a life do you lead? ") ; tandem and
tandem aliquando, time connections meaning "now at
last," which in practice have come to be exclamations ;
proinde, " therefore " or "then," in expressions of advice,
(e.g. Proinde exeant, "Let them depart").
65. The following two imprecations are used for em-
phasis and transition, mehercle, or mehercule, and medius
fidius, " in heaven's name."
66. Frequently words are coordinated in Latin without
the use of conjunctions. The technical name for such
coordination is asyndeton.
He went away, he withdrew^ he Abut, excessit, evasit, erupit.
passed out, he burst forth.
67. Similarly the place of the Latin period may be
taken by a string of coordinate clauses without con-
necting words. In oratory this detached style is used in
argument and refutation, and in passages expressing
strong emotions. In narrative it is used frequently in
combination with asyndeton, (a) when the description is
vivid and rapid, (6) when many details have to be given,
(c) in summaries and conclusions.
(a) No sooner had they entered a Ubi in angustiorem viam et parte
narrower section of the road altera iugo insuper imminenti
dominated on one side by an over- ventura est, undique ex insidiis
hanging height, than the enemy barbari a fronte a tergo coorti
sprang out of their ambuscades cominus eminus petunt, saxa
in every direction both in front ingentia devolvunt. Maxima
and rear, fought at close quar- ab tergo vis hoininum urgebat.
67.]
COORDINATE CLAUSES.
35
ters, attacked them with missiles,
and rolled down great stones upon
the column. It was in their rear
that the number of their assail-
ants ivas greatest. The infantry
turned, formed line, and faced
the enemy ; but it was proved be-
yond a doubt that, if they had
not had a strong rearguard, they
would have sustained a terrible
disaster in the pass.
(b) Hasdrubal commanded the left
wing, Maharbal the right. Han-
nibal in person with his brother
Mago was in the centre. The
sun whether the troops ivere so
placed on purpose, or whether it
was by chance fell very conveni-
ently sideivays on both armies, as
the Romans faced south and the
Carthaginians north. The ivind
which the natives of the district
call Vulturnus was against the
Romans and rolled clouds of dust
in their faces till they could see
nothing.
(c) Such ivas the famous battle of
Trasimene, one of the most me-
morable disasters which ever be-
fell the Roman state. Fifteen
thousand Romans fell in the
battle, ten thousand flying in all
directions through Etruria made
for the city by various routes.
The enemy's losses in the actual
fighting were one thousand Jive
hundred, but many more on both
sides died of their wounds sub-
sequently.
In eos versa peditum aciea haud
dubium fecit quin, nisi firmata
extrema agminis fuissent, in-
gens in eo saltu accipienda
clades fuerit.
Duces cornibus praeerant sinistro
Hasdrubal, dextro Maharbal ;
mediam aciem Hannibal ipse
cum fratre Magone tenuit. Sol
seu de industria ita locatis, seu
quod forte ita stetere, peroppor-
tune utrique parti obliquus erat,
Romania in meridiem Poems in
septentrionem versis ; ventus
(Vulturnum regionis incolae vo-
cant) adversus Romanis coortus
multo pulvere in ipsa ora vol-
vendo prospectum ademit.
Haec est nobilis ad Trasumennum
pugna atque inter paucas me-
morata populi Roman i clades.
Quindecim milia Roman orum
in acie caesa ; decem milia
sparsa fuga per omnem Etruri-
am diversis itineribus urbem
petiere ; mille quingenti hos-
tium in acie, multi postea utrim-
que ex vulneribus periere.
PART II
SOME LATIN EQUIVALENTS OF ENGLISH
CONSTRUCTIONS.
CHAPTER VII.
THE ENGLISH PAETICIPLE.
68. A participle, unless it is used as an attribute,
implies a predication, of which the noun in agreement with
the participle is the subject. Thus a sentence containing
a participle, though still simple in form, is double in sense,
and stands midway between a purely simple sentence and
a compound or complex sentence.
69. Strictly speaking English has only two participles,
the present and the past, e.g. loving and loved ; but in the
development of the language a past participle active and a
present participle passive have come into use, e.g. having
loved and being loved, also an extra form of the past parti-
ciple passive has been formed, having been loved. It is
found, but is rare outside grammars. The present parti-
ciple passive in most cases takes its place, and in certain
phrases the older participle is still used, occasionally
strengthened by " when."
70. A participle in English is used either as a nomi-
native in agreement with the subject, or as a nominative
absolute, i.e. in such a case as "the day being fine, I took
a walk " : in this case the participial phrase the day being
36
71.] ENGLISH PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 37
fine modifies the predicate. These two uses have their
equivalents in Latin, which also uses the participle in
agreement with the subject and the ablative absolute as an
equivalent to the English nominative absolute.
71. As events to be related generally succeed each
other in time, the most useful participle is the perfect
participle, and the chief differences between English and
Latin are (A) that English has a perfect participle active
and Latin has not, but is compelled to use passive perfect
participles and circumstantial clauses; (B) that English
uses the present participle in a past sense, whereas Latin
never uses the present participle unless the action it ex-
presses is strictly contemporaneous with that of the main
verb.
72. (A) 1. Where the verb is transitive, the English
perfect participle active (and the present participle used in
a past sense) is translated by the Latin perfect participle
passive in the ablative absolute,
Having crossed the river he hurried Flumine tramisso ad urbem con-
towards the town. tendit.
2. When a pronoun which is the object direct or indi-
rect of the main verb refers to the noun which is the object
of the participle, that pronoun is usually, though not always,
omitted in Latin, and the participial phrase is constructed
as the object direct or indirect of the main verb.
Having snatched up a standard, he Arreptum vexillum trans vallum
threw it over the rampart. traiecit.
3. Where the verb is intransitive, the English past
participle active must be represented by a circumstantial
clause introduced by cum with the verb in the pluperfect
subjunctive.
Having arrived at the spot, he Eo cum venisset, civitatibus mili-
requisitioned the tribes for tea imperat.
troops.
38 THE ENGLISH PARTICIPLE. [CH. VII.
Such a circumstantial clause is at all times an equivalent
for the perfect participle and can be used even where the
verb is transitive, although the passive participle is the
commoner construction.
Sighting the enemy at daybreak, he Cum prima luce hostes conspex-
marshalkd his men for battle. isset, aciem instruxit.
4. In deponent and semi- deponent verbs the perfect
participle which has an active sense can be used in agree-
ment with the subject.
Dying, he left his kingdom to his Mortuus filio regnum tradidit.
73. (B) 1. The English present participle, both active
and passive, is most commonly used of actions already
completed at the time of the action of the main verb, and
is therefore usually to be translated as though it were a
past participle; see above (A).
2. Only when the participle and the main verb express
two contemporaneous actions, and no other relation be-
tween the two but that of temporality is implied, can the
English present participle be translated by the Latin. In
such cases the English participle is often constructed with
"while."
He fell fighting. Pugnans cecidit.
He ivas cut down ivhile escaping. Fugiens oppressus est.
3. Even where the purely temporal sense is emphasised,
it will usually be rendered in Latin by a temporal clause
introduced by dum with the verb in the present indicative.
Arguing thus with one another, we Haec et talia dum inter nos dis-
ivasted the entire day. putarnus, totum diem consump-
4. Where there is any other relation conveyed beside that
of time, a circumstantial clause must be used, most com-
monly a causal clause introduced by cum with the verb in
the present or imperfect subjunctive according to sequence.
74.]
ENGLISH PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
39
Knowing this, he changed his plan.
Quae cum intellegeret, consilium
mutavit.
If the relation is a conditional relation, a conditional
clause must be used.
Doing this, you will prosper.
Quae si facies, bene erit.
74. The following examples are recommended for study.
Tridui viam progress! rursus re-
verterunt, atque omni hoc iti-
nere una nocte equitatu con-
fecto, inscios inopinantesque
Menapios oppresserunt.
Having advanced for a distance of
three days' march they turned
back, the cavalry covering the
entire distance in a single night,
and so taking the Menapii quite -
unawares and unsuspecting.
From this point Marcellus marched
across Apulia without any en-
gagement worth relating; for
while Hannibal moved only by
night, seeking opportunities for
ambuscades, Marcellus followed
him only in broad daylight and
after previously exploring the
country.
Seeing that both of the consuls were
wounded, and one of them, run
through the body by a spear, was
in the act of falling lifeless from
his horse, the troops Jled from the
field. With them escaped the
other consul, though with two
javelin ivoiinds, and Marcellus,
likewise wounded.
Inde per Apuliam ducti exercitus
sine ullo memorando certamine,
cum Hannibal nocte signa
moveret, locum insidiis quae-
rens, Marcellus nisi certa luce,
et explorato ante, non seque-
retur.
Milites postquam vulneratos ambo
consules, alterum etiam trans-
fixum lancea prolabentem ex
equo moribundum videre, turn
et ipsi cum altero consule duo-
bus iaculis icto, et Marcello, sau-
cio et ipso, effugerunt.
CHAPTER VJII.
THE INTEECHANGME OF PAETICIPLES AND
CLAUSES.
75. The chief difference between English and Latin
style is that English uses short independent sentences or
compound sentences, while Latin has (in the best period)
complex sentences, or periods. Thus in translation from
English into Latin the less important predications must be
subordinated to the more important. Such subordination
is most commonly performed by substituting for indepen-
dent English predications phrases involving the Latin
perfect participle, or circumstantial clauses introduced by
cum with the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive. In the
following examples a participial phrase is used in Latin
for an independent predication in English.
The Germans abandoned all hope of German! desperata expugnatione
storming the fort and retired castrorum trans Rhenum,sese
across the Rhine. receperunt.
He raised a large force from the Magno coacto numero ex finiti-
neighbouriwg tribes and sent them . mis civitatibus in omnes partes
in all directions. mittit.
Basilus quickly effected the march Basilus celeriter confecto itinere
and surprised the enemy in the hostes in agris deprehendit.
open country.
76. As an equivalent for the perfect participle of in-
transitive verbs, a circumstantial clause with cum and
a verb in the pluperfect subjunctive may be used, or, if
the connection of events is purely temporal and there is
no idea of causal relation, a similar clause with ubi (or cum
with the meaning " at the time when ") and a verb in the
perfect indicative.
40
77.]
CUM-CLAtfSES, ETC,
41
Hannibal retreated to Acerrae ; and
Marcellus, having shut the gates
and posted sentries, that no one
might leave the toivn, at once
tried in the market place the men
who had had secret relations with
the enemy.
The day dawned and the enemy
withdrew. '
They came to the walls, and because
all icas still imagined that no one
was there.
Spring was now at hand, and Han-
nibal led his troops out of winter
quarters.
Hannibal cum Acerras
set, Marcellus extemplo clausis
portis custodibusque dispositis
ne quis egrederetur quaestionem
in foro, de iis qui clam in col-
loquiis hostium fuerant, habuit.
Ubi illuxit hostes se receperunt.
Ubi ad moenia accessere, quia
silentium erat solitude visa.
lam ver appetebat, cum Hannibal
ex hibernis movit.
77. When two actions or states are contemporaneous
and ar-e expressed in English by two independent pre-
dications, a circumstantial clause in Latin with cum and
the imperfect subjunctive can be used to represent one of
them. A Latin present participle can only be used where
the connection of events is purely temporal, and even then
a temporal clause with dum and the present indicative is
equally common.*
Hannibal was now fairly near, and
Marcellus sent forward the
Gaetulians with an officer called
Isalcas.
Day was dawning and Caesar led
out his forces from the camp.
Hannibal cum iam baud procul
abesset, Marcellus Gaetulos,
cum praefecto nomine Isalca,
praemittit.
Caesar albente caelo copias castris
educit.
78. Latin participial phrases involving the present or
perfect participle may be also used to represent English
circumstantial subordinate clauses.
* The present participle is fairly common in Caesar, but is much
less used in Cicero and Livy.
42 INTERCHANGE OF PARTICIPLES AND CLAUSES. [CH. VIIl.
(i) Time:
On receiving this reply Perseus was
convinced that his throne was
now assured to him, and resolved
to obtain influence in Greece.
I have written more in the short
tirne since the government was
overthrown than during many
years while it was still in power.
(ii) Cause:
Fulvius referred to the Senate at
Rome the men of Nuceria and
Acerrae, who complained that
they had nowhere to live, because
Acerrae had been in part burnt
down and Nuceria totally de-
stroyed.
In the course of the march the force
had been swelled by volunteers,
for both the veterans whose time
of service was ended, and the
young warriors also, spontaneously
offered their services.
(iii) Manner:
The festival was celebrated with
tremendous enthusiasm, the more
so because the monarch, by doffing
his crown and purple robe and
other articles of royal dress, put
himself in appearance on a level
with the rest.
(iv) Condition :
If these were vanquished or pre-
vented from returning home, they
were convinced that no one would
thereafter cross over into Britain,
at least for the purpose of attack-
ing the island.
Perseus hoc accepto response
firmatum iam omnino sibi reg-
num existimans, opes apud
Graecos parare statuit.
Plura brevi tempore eversa, quam
multis annis stante re publica
scripsimus.
Nucerinos et Acerranos querentes,
ubi habitarent non esse, Acerris
ex parte incensis, Nuceria dele-
ta, Romam Fulvius ad senatum
misit.
In ipso itinere auctum voluntariis
agmen erat, offerentibus sese
ultro et veteribus militibus
perfunctis iam militia, et iuven-
ibus.
Laetitia ingenti celebrati festi
dies, eo magis quod rex dempto
capitis insigni, purpuraque, at-
que alio regio habitu, aequa-
verat ceteris se in speciem.
His superatis aut reditu inter-
clusis neminem postea belli
inferendi causa in Britanniam
transiturum confidebant.
79.]
LATIN PARTICIPIAL PHRASES.
43
could name Romans from tlie Possum nominare ex agro Sabino
Sabine land, country folk who are
neighbours and friends of mine,
upon whose farms practically no
task of importance is ever under-
taken if they are absent from
home.
(v) Concession :
Though the number of the senators
was thus reduced, he resolved to
select no others, that their very
fewness might render the class
the more contemptible.
The town could not be carried by
assault because the ditch was so
wide and the walls so high, al-
though the defenders were only
few.
(vi) Attendant Circumstances :
rusticos Romanes, vicinos et
familiares meos, quibus absenti-
bus numquam fere ulla in agro
maiora opera fiunt.
Ita patrum numero irnminuto
statuit nullos in patres legere,
quo contemptior paucitate ipsa
ordo esset.
Oppidum propter latitudinem
fossae murique altitudinem
paucis defendentibus expugnari
non potuit.
They were married, Servius not so
much sanctioning the match as
declining to prevent it.
He gave instructions for the grain
to be brought into camp, appoint-
ing guards to escort these stores.
lunguntur nuptiis magis non
probibente Servio quam appro -
bante.
Devehi frumentumincastra iussit,
praesidiis datis quae commeatus
eos prosequerentur.
79. Latin participial phrases with all three participles
may be used to translate English relative clauses.
The cavalry destroyed those who were Fugientes equitatus oppressit.
trying to escape.
lie ordered the arrest of the envoys,
who had already started home-
Legatos iam domum profectos re-
prehendi iussit.
wards.
Those who are doomed to die salute
thee.
Morituri te salutant.
8O. For the use of the Latin participle in translating
the English gerund and verbal noun see 88, and for its
use in translating abstract substantives see 8.
44 INTERCHANGE OF PARTICIPLES AND CLAUSES. [CH. VIII.
81. The Latin present participle most commonly repre-
sents either English time clauses introduced by the con-
junctions while or as, or prepositional phrases expressing
accompanying circumstances.
I met them as they were approach- Advenientibus obvius fui.
ing.
They croivded round with tears in Lacrimantes circumfundebantur.
their eyes.
82. The Latin future participle is not of frequent
occurrence. It represents a variety of different expressions
in English, e.g. going to, about to, on the point of, destined
to, intending to, but is not used in good Latin to represent
an English gerundial infinitive of purpose or a purpose
clause.
With stick praiseworthy acts did His laudibus Perseus initia princi-
Perseus seek to make popular the patus commendabat, haud pares
commencement of his reign a inceptis habitura exitus.
commencement destined to have a
very different ending.
At the close of the war in Africa, Perfecto Africo bello, exercitum
when on the point of transferring in Hispaniam traiecturus sacri-
his army to Spain, he was offer- ficabat.
ing a sacrifice.
It seemed likely that they might Moenibus se certe, si non armis,
defend themselves with the toivn videbantur defensuri.
walls if not with their swords.
In person he made for the Lower Sea Ipse per agrum Campanum mare
by way of Campania, and it was inferum petit, oppugnaturus
probable he might attack Naples Neapolim, ut urbem maritimam
in order to secure a town upon the haberet.
coast.
83. It may be added that the Latin love of brevity
makes the use of the perfect participle of supreme impor-
tance. It is one of the commonest idioms in the language,
and no one can hope even to begin writing Latin composi-
tion until he can employ the perfect participle readily and
accurately.
CHAPTER IX.
THE ENGLISH GERUND AND VERBAL NOUN.
84. The English, gerund and verbal noun in -ing when
used as subject or object of a verb are translated by
the Latin infinitive (see 156). When the verbal noun
is used with prepositions, it is as a rule translated by the
Latin gerund, or the Latin gerund and prepositions.
When the English gerund is used with prepositions, it is as
a rule rendered by the Latin gerundive construction.
85. Both verbals, however, are far more commonly
used in English than are the gerunds and gerundive in
Latin, which often cannot be used to translate them.
The coincidence that the gerund and verbal noun, which
were in the first instance merely a single noun connected
by root with the verb, e.g. " warning," came to have
the same form as the present participle made it
possible to form a gerund or verbal noun corresponding to
every participle in -ing.
Beginners often have a difficulty in distinguishing the
verbal noun and gerund from the present participle, and
when in doubt about a form in -ing should parse it. The
gerund and verbal noun are substantives, the present par-
ticiple an adjective.
86. The English gerund when used as the subject or
object of a sentence is translated by the Latin infinitive,
being the equivalent of the English infinitive with " to."
I kate writing. Scribere odi.
The making of mistakes is human. Errare est humanum.
The putting of a Roman citizen Facinus est vincire civem Ro-
into bonds is a crime. manum.
45
46 THE ENGLISH GERUND AND VERBAL NOUN. [CH. IX.
They began fighting.
He mentioned your going.
Do you not recollect my saying so ?
Coeptum est disceptari.
Dixit te ire, or ivisse.
Meministine me haec dicere ?
87. (a) When the English verbal noun is used with
prepositions, it is translated by the cases of the Latin
gerund, and by the gerund and prepositions.
The following are parallel cases of the English verbal
noun and Latin gerunds :
Genitive : of going eundi.
of hunting venandi.
Dative : to or for going eundo.
to or for hunting venando.
Ablative : by, in, or from going eundo.
by, in, or from hunting . . .venando.
(5) The English gerund and its object when constructed
with prepositions are translated by the Latin gerundive
construction. If the English verb corresponds to a Latin
transitive verb and the English preposition to a Latin case
usage, the noun which is the object of the English gerund
is put in that case, and the gerundive (a passive verbal
adjective) constructed in agreement with it. If the English
gerund is governed by a preposition which requires to be
translated by a Latin preposition, the noun which is its
object is in Latin governed by the preposition, and the
gerundive agrees with it.
The following are examples of the translation of English
verbal nouns and gerunds by the Latin gerund and
gerundive :
They scoured the forests in hunting.
They wasted time at first in making
excuses.
The prospect of putting an end to
the mistake.
These were seized with the desire to
found a city.
Venando peragrare saltus,
Illi primum purgando tempus
terunt.
Spes finiendi erroris.
Cupido urbis condendae cepit.
88.]
LATIN GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
47
The policy of founding a city and
making it strong by peace or war.
He fell to seeking everywhere the
means of provoking war.
Three commissioners for founding
colonies and making allotments of
land.
He established a member of other
rites, and places for performing
such rites.
He thereupon turned his attention
to appointing priests.
His courage in recovering his an-
cestral kingdom.
To this day also the same authority
is exercised in making laws or
magistrates.
It ivas by giving rather than re-
ceiving benefits that they made
friends.
Consilium urbis condendae, bello
ac pace firmandae.
Undique materiam excitandi belli
quaerebat.
Tres viri coloniis deducendis, agrie
dividundis.
Multa aliasacrificialocaque sacris
faciendis dedicavit.
Turn sacerdotibus creandis ani-
mum adiecit.
Animus in regno avito recipe -
rando.
Hodie quoque in legibus magis-
tratibusque rogandis usurpatur
idem ius.
Magis dandis quam accipiendis
beneficiis amicitias parabant.
88. In the following cases the English gerund and
verbal noun cannot be translated by the Latin gerund or
gerundive :
1. The English verbal noun or gerund with the preposi-
tion of depending on an adjective is frequently represented
by a verb and an infinitive in Latin. "I was afraid of
doing this " is equivalent to " I feared to do this," and in
Latin hoc facere timui.
I should be chary of saying this.
Surely you were not afraid of
going ?
I should have been ashamed of say-
ing I did not understand.
2. After verbs of hindering, preventing, doubting, the
English gerund is represented by a dependent clause in
the subjunctive. Such clauses are introduced by quominus,
ne, and, when the principal verb is negative, by quin.
Quod quidem confirmare nolira.
Num. timebas ire ?
Puderet me dicere non intelle-
gere.
48 THE ENGLISH GERUND AND VERBAL NOUN. [CH. IX.
Nothing prevented Caesar from pur- Nihil Caesarem impedivit quin
suing the enemy. hostes sequeretur.
I don't doubt his thinking so. Non dubito quin ita censeat.
I am doubtful about his caring to go. Dubito num ire velit.
But with verbs signifying "to decree," "to propose," and
with a few others, especially facere, curare, locare, con-
ducere, the gerundival construction is regularly used to
translate an English gerund governing an object.
Caesar saiv to the building of a Caesar pontem in Arare faciendum
bridge over the Saone. curavit.
The Censors issued a contract for Censores vias silice sternendas
paving the streets with flints. locaverunt.
89. When the English gerund or verbal noun is con-
structed with a preposition expressing a time relation, e.g.
"before," "after," "on," it is translated by a participle
or equivalent clause.
On hearing this the Germans re- Hoc audito Germani se recepe-
treated. runt.
After advancing three miles he Tria milia passuum progressus
reached the Rhine. ad flumen Rhenum pervenit.
On coming to Home Metellus con- Cum Romam venisset Metellus
vened the Senate. senatum convocavit.
"Before" with the gerund can only be translated by a
time clause in Latin.
Before leaving the city Milo changed Milo antequam urbe excessit ves-
his clot/i es. tern mutavit.
90. There is a grammatical difference in English be-
tween a gerund or verbal noun and an abstract noun
expressing verbal action, although the forms are often the
same. This difference is apparent in the case of the gerund
and the abstract noun derived from the same verb, for the
first will be followed by an object, and the second by an
objective genitive. This distinction holds good in Latin.
VERBAL AND ABSTEACT NOUNS.
49
Compare (a)
Romulus was alive before the found-
ing of the city.
and (6)
Before founding the city Romulus
avenged Numitor.
(a)
There was talk of the toivn's sur-
rendering.
and (6)
There was talk of surrendering the
town.
Ante urbem
Romulus.
conditam vivebat
Romulus antequam urbem condi-
dit Numitorem ultus est.
Agitur de deditione urbis.
Agitur de urbe dedenda.
91. For the various methods of translating English
abstract substantives into Latin see Ch. II. The tendency
of modern English is to get rid of the ambiguity by using
terminations other than -ing for abstract verbal nouns, e.g
above, foundation for founding, and surrender for surren
dering. There are, however, limits to the process, as some
abstract nouns in -ing are firmly established in use, e.g.
meeting, speaking, parting, and suffering. Such nouns re-
quire care in translation.
H. L. c.
CHAPTER X.
THE ENGLISH INFINITIVE.
92. The uses of the infinitive in English and Latin do
not correspond accurately.
Certain usages, however, are common to both languages.
The English infinitive is translated by the Latin infini-
tive :
(i) when it is used as the subject of a verb (see 156) ;
(ii) in certain phrases (not very common in English)
where it is used as a predicate with the object; e.g.,
He felt himself to be beaten. Sensit se victum ease.
(iii) more commonly when it is used as a predicate after
copulative verbs and passives ; e.g.,
Caesar was said to have treated his Dicitur Caesar clemens erga
enemies with forbearance. inimicos fuisse.
93. The use of the infinitive after verbs of incomplete
predication is the same in English and Latin. The
infinitive follows
(i) verbs expressing ability, posse, queo, and nequeo ;
(ii) impersonal verbs expressing obligation (see 159),
oportet, decet, dedecet, convenit;
(iii) licet miJii, " I may."
94. The use of the infinitive as object in English is
virtually the same as the use of the verbal noun and
gerund as object (see 86). The objective infinitive is
used after the following verbs both in English and
Latin : to begin, coepisse and incipere ; to teach, docere ; to
learn, discere ; to allow, sinere and pati ; to bid, iubere ; to
forbid, vetare ; to fear (but see 114), timer e, metuere,
vereri ; to wish, velle and cupere ; to determine, statuere,
constituere.
50
95.] DEPENDENT COMMAND. 51
95. After verbs of "hoping," "promising," and "threat-
ening" the English objective infinitive, which is used when
the principal verb and the infinitive have the same subject,
must be rendered in Latin by the future infinitive, with its
subject expressed in the accusative.
On this part of the subject he pro- De hac parte pollicetur se dein- -
mises to speak next. ceps esse dicturum.
He threatened to stab him on the Se eum extemplo gladio trans-
spot. fixurum minatur.
96. Five uses of the English gerundial infinitive re-
main to be dealt with. It is a safe principle to think twice
before translating an English gerundial infinitive by a
Latin infinitive.
97. 1. The English gerundial infinitive is used objec-
tively to express a dependent command. Except in the
case of iubere and vetare above, it is never so used in
Latin. Therefore in dependent commands the English
infinitive is represented by a finite objective clause in Latin
introduced by ut (negative ne), with the verb in the sub-
junctive.
/ pray you to listen to me kindly Quaeso ut me benigne attenteque
and with attention. audiatis.
I pray you, gentlemen, do not take Quod quaeso, iudices, ne moleste
this amiss. patiamini.
With tears he besought them to un- Ab iis flens petivit, ut negotium
dertake the matter. susciperent.
To Cassivellaunus he gave orders Interdicit atque imperat Cassivel-
and commands not to injure Man- launo, ne Mandubracio, neu
dubracius or the Trinobantes. Trinobantibua noceat.
98. By a favourite idiom any dependent positive com-
mand may be expressed in the subjunctive without i<,t,
especially after verbs of entreaty in the first person (quaeso,
oro, precor, obtestor, tester) ; the potentials velim, vellem,
nolim, nollem, malim, mallem ; and the imperatives fac,
facite, cura, curate.
52
THE ENGLISH INFINITIVE.
[CH. X.
Please let me know how our friend
Cicero is.
Take care and keep in health.
I should like you to attend to this
point.
I should have preferred you to be
here.
I beg you keep in mind that my
purpose is not to find fault with
the dead man.
Next I beg you, when lam speaking
upon and clearing up each par-
ticular point, do not silently take
into consideration all that is an-
tagonistic thereto, but wait
until the end, and permit me to
preserve my own plan of speech.
Permit your poetry to be bruited on
the lips of men, and to spread
within limits as wide as the
Roman language.
Fac sciam, quid noster Cicero
Cura valeas.
Velim hoc cures.
Mallem affuisses.
Vos quaeso memoria teneatis, non
mihi hoc esse propositum, ut
accusem mortmim.
Turn autem postulo, cum ego de
una quaque re dicam et diluam,
ne ipsi quae contraria sint
taciti cogitationi subiciatis, sed
ad extremum exspectetis, meque
meum dicendi ordinem servare
patiamini.
Sine per ora hominum versus tui
ferantur iisdemque quibus lin-
gua Romana spatiis pervagen-
tur.
99. 2. The English gerundial infinitive is used to ex-
press purpose, and when so used is never rendered in
Latin by the infinitive. When the English gerundial in-
finitive expresses purpose, it is translated by a dependent
clause introduced by ut (negative ne), with the verb in the
subjunctive. This is the only admissible construction
when the infinitive is negative.
The assassins concealed themselves
behind a fence, erecting steps
against it, so as to shoot their
missiles therefrom upon the passer-
by as if from a, wall.
The king, on learning of the panic
from the terrified cries of the
fugitives, stabbed himself through
the heart, in order not to be
taken alive.
Post maceriem insidiatores se
abdiderunt, gradibus astructis,
ut ex ea, velut e muro, tela in
praetereuntem conicerent.
Tumultum ut ex pavido clamore
f ugientium excepit rex, traiecit
ferro pectus, ne vivus capere-
tur.
100.] ENGLISH INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE. 53
Both in dependent commands and in purpose clauses
ne is the invariable Latin negative ; it is combined with the
following pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs : quis, " any-
one"; ullus, "any"; umquam, "ever"; usquam, ''anywhere,"
etc. The second of two coordinate indirect commands or
purpose clauses, if negative, is introduced by neve or
(more rarely) by neque.
10O. In affirmative clauses only the following varieties
are possible :
(a) Wherever the principal sentence involves a con-
venient antecedent, whether substantive or pronoun, the
dependent final clause, if affirmative, may be introduced by
the appropriate relative (pronoun, adjective, or adverb) in
lieu of ut.
He appointed persons to arbitrate Arbitros inter civitates dat, qui
between the tribes, to assess the litem aestiment poenamque con-
matter in dispute and determine stituant.
the penalty.
There was given them a place to Locus, ubi habitarent, trans Ti-
dwell in, on the other side of the berim datur.
Tiber.
We have been banished not only far Nos non solum a patria procul
from our country and from Italy, Italiaque, sed ab hoste etiam
but far from our foe, to a place relegati sumus, ubi senescamus
ivherein we are to grow old in in exilio, ne qua spes, ne qua
exile and find no prospect nor occasio abolendae ignominiae,
opportunity of wiping out our ne qua placandae civium irae,
disgrace, or mollifying the anger ne qua denique bene moriendi
of our countrymen, or even of sit.
dying with honour.
Hence the use of quo as a final conjunction (= ut) in
clauses involving or suggesting a comparative force.
Next, in order to give to the senators Deinde quo plus virium in senatu
additional power, he raised their faceret, caedibus deminutura
number, which had been thinned patrum numerum ad trecen-
by murder, to a total 0/300. torum summam explevit.
THE ENGLISH INFINITIVE.
[CH. X.
To previous reasons there was now
added this, that Perseus might
the sooner be declared a public
enemy.
Caesar decided that he must punish
them the more severely, in order
that the privileges of envoys
might for the future be more care-
fully maintained by the savages.
(b) The following cases of the Latin gerund or attribu-
tive gerundive may also be used :
(i) the dative of purpose :
Haec ad priora accesseve, quo ma-
turius hostis Perseus iudicare-
tur.
In quos eo gravius Caesar vindi-
candum statuit, quo diligentius
in reliquum tempus a barbaris
ius legatorum conservaretur.
They elected a commission of three
to make allotments.
(ii) the accusative with in
causa or gratia :
When admitted they heaped their
shields upon the girl and so killed
her, either to the end that it
might seem that they had cap-
tured the citadel by assault, or to
make an example of her.
Is there amongst the human race a
finer nature than that of those who
deem themselves born to aid and
safeguard and preserve mankind ?
Those who had been sent to seek
supplies.
Tresviros agris dividundis crea-
verunt.
or ad, or the genitive with
Accept! puellam obrutam armis
necavere, seu ut vi capta arx
videretur, seuprodendi exempli
Quae est melior igitur in homi-
num genere natura quam
eorum, qui se natos ad homines
iuvandos, tutandos, conservan-
dos, arbitrantur?
Qui commeatus petendi causa
missi erant.
(iii) the attributive gerundive in agreement with a noun :
It is said that the children were
entrusted to his wife Larentia to
educate.
He made over the booty to 300 of the
Cretans to take charge of and
escort it to the camp.
Pueros Larentiae uxori educandos
datos ferunt.
Praedam custodiendam ducen-
damque in castra trecentis Cre-
tensium dedit.
101.] ENGLISH INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE. 55
(c) An accusative supine, if the main verb is one con-
veying the idea of motion.
We are come to tvarn, not to impor- Admonition venimus te, non flagi-
tune you. tatum.
About 4000 men went off to find Ad quattuor milia hominum fru-
provisions. mentatum egressa.
He sent one of his party to consult Ex suis unum sciscitatum Romam
his father at Home. ad patrem mittit.
Such verbs are ire, venire, ducere, mittere, and some of
their compounds. The idiom is an instance of the use of
the accusative as the goal of motion.
All the foregoing means of expressing purpose are affirma-
tive only, never negative.
101. In practice, where several English infinitives of
purpose occur in one sentence, the Latin construction will
be varied to avoid monotony.
The Senate resolved to send envoys Patres decreverunt mittendos ease
to inquire into the condition of legates, qui Macedoniae res
Macedonia, and Aulus Postumius inspicerent, et statim Aulo
was at once commissioned to start Postumio negotium datum.
thither.
102. 3. An English infinitive depending upon an adjec-
tive will often be turned by a Latin gerund or gerundive :
He showed himself quick to grasp Facilem se in rebus cognoscen-
facts, dis praebebat.
Very loth to write a letter. Ad litteras scribendas pigerrimus.
Yet more ready to undergo every Paratiores ad omnia pericula
danger. subeunda.
or by the dative (of purpose) or objective genitive of a
substantive.
Anxious to fight. Appetens pugnae.
Fit to rule. Capax imperil.
56 THE ENGLISH INFINITIVE. [cH. X.
103. Where it expresses result, the English infinitive is
represented by the subjunctive with ut quam, quam ut, or
quam qui in such expressions as
He was too false to be trusted (or to Infidior erat quam ut crederes
trust}. (or cui crederes).
A grief too great for me to describe. Dolor maior quam quern (ut)
dicere possim.
He is wise to have abandoned the Sapiens eat qui hoc consilium
plan. reliquerit.
and by the subjunctive with a relative, especially after
dignus, indignus, idoneus, and other adjectives expressing
fitness or the opposite.
JVo person seemed better qualified to Nulla videbatur aptior persona
speak on that particular period 1 of quae de ilia aetate loqueretur.
life.
104. 4 An English infinitive depending upon a sub-
stantive is in Latin represented
(i) by a gerund or gerundive :
The desire to win. Cupido vincendi.
(ii) or by various periphrases :
His fitness to command speedily Mox dux factus est, cum esset
made him the leader. natura aptus ad imperium.
They vied with one another in their Inter secertabantutpraestantiores
efforts to excel. viderentur.
105. 5. The English infinitive used parenthetically is
a variety of the infinitive expressing purpose, and is
translated by a dependent clause introduced by ut or ne
with the verb in the subjunctive.
For, not to leave you under a wrong Nam, ne TOS falsa opinio teneat
impression, it was not by any iniussu meo Albani subiere ad
orders of mine that the Albans monies.
approached the hills.
To tell you what is the solace and Satiari hac delectatione non pos-
delight of my old age, I can never sum, ut meae senectutis requiem
get enough of this particular oblectamentumque noscatis.
form of amusement.
CHAPTER XI.
THE ENGLISH CONJUNCTION "THAT."
106. The English conjunction that is used to introduce
substantival and adverbial clauses.
Substantival clauses may be used either (i) subjectively
or (ii) objectively. In both cases the English dependent
clause is usually represented by a phrase in Latin, in
which the Latin infinitive takes the place of the English
finite verb, and the English subject is rendered by the
Latin accusative, which stands as subject.
107. (i) An English substantival clause which is virtu-
ally subject is as a rule constructed in apposition to an
impersonal subject it.
It is an evil that rulers should make Malum est peccare principes.
mistakes.
108. But when such impersonal phrases as " it is said,"
" it is thought," " it seems," " it is believed," etc., in
English are followed by a substantival clause with a
personal subject, Latin prefers a personal construction.
It is said that Milo carried an ox Olympiae per stadium bovem hu-
upon his shoulders the whole length meris imposition Milo susten-
of the racecourse at Olympia. tasse dicitur.
It seemed to them that Tatius and Lente agere his Tatius Sabinique
his Sabines were acting but visi sunt.
tardily.
By this time rumours were beginning lam Caesar a Gergovia discessisse
to be heard that Caesar had fallen audiebatur.
back from Gergovia.
57
58 THE ENGLISH CONJUNCTION " THAT." [CH. XI.
109. A substantival clause used as the subject may
also be introduced by the Latin quod, denoting the fact
that. The verb of such a clause is in the indicative.
To this was added the fact that Accedebat hue quod in concilio
Dumnorix had affirmed in the Aeduorum Dumnorix dixerat
Aeduan assembly that Caesar was sibi a Caesare regnum civitatis
offering him the position of chief. deferri.
110. (ii) A substantival clause used as object is most
commonly used in dependent statements after verbs of
assertion or perception ; in such cases the accusative and
infinitive construction is invariably used in Latin.
They all brought intelligence that Omnes nuntiaverunt, manus cogi,
forces were being raised and an exercitum in unuiu locum
army concentrated to one point. conduci.
Thanks to many a teacher I have Multorum praeceptis mihi ab
from early youth been convinced adulescentia suasi, nihil ease in
that life has nothing greatly worth vita magno opere expetendum
the seeking, except only merit and nisi laudem atque honestum.
honour.
He learnt from his prisoners that Intellegebat ex captivis Sabim flu-
the river Sambre ivas not more men ab castris non amplius milia
than ten miles from the camp. passuum decem abesse.
Instead of dicer e, " say," followed by a negative (non,
nullus, nemo, numquam, etc.) Latin commonly substitutes
negare, " say . . . not."
Gollatinm said that there was no Collatinus negat verbis opus esse.
need of talking.
They say it cannot be done. Negant id fieri posse.
111. Beginners often find difficulty in recognising de-
pendent statements in English because the conjunction
that is frequently omitted, the statement being simply put
in juxtaposition to the verb.
Cato says Murena is a dancer. Affirmat Cato saltatorem esse L.
Murenam.
Titurius kept crying out they would Titurius ea sero facturos clamita-
be too late. bat.
112.] DEPENDENT STATEMENT. 59
112. Another difficulty is due to the ambiguous use of
the English past tense in dependent statements. Normally
in English after a principal verb in a past tense the im-
perfect is used of an action contemporaneous with that of
the principal verb, and is rendered in Latin by the present
infinitive ; the pluperfect is used of an action previous to
that of the principal verb, and is rendered in Latin by the
perfect infinitive ; the verb with the auxiliary should or
would is used of an action subsequent to that of the prin-
cipal verb, and is rendered in Latin by the future infinitive.
I said that you were making a mis- Dixi te errare.
take.
I said that you had made a mistake. Dixi te erravisse.
I said that you would make a mis- Dixi te erraturum ease.
take.
A difficulty, however, arises with regard to the translation
of the English past tense in dependent statements. It is
sometimes used instead of the past perfect in dependent
statements referring to a fixed point of time in the past,
e.g. " I said that you came a week ago," and also as it
represents the simple present of the direct statement,
" Titurius said that he thought Caesar had gone " he
actually said "I think Caesar has gone." The best method
of discovering how to translate the English past tense in a
dependent statement is to put the dependent statement in
the direct form, i.e. to quote the words used : if the verb in
the direct statement is in the present the Latin infinitive will
be present, if the verb is in the past the Latin infinitive
will be past.
He said his good luck was proved by Dixit felicitatem suam Helvetio-
the war with the Helvetii. rum bello esse perspectam.
(His actual words were " It has been proved," perspecta
est.)
He said he favoured the Helvetii Dixit se Helvetiis favere propter
owing to this connection. affinitatem.
(His words were "I favour," faveo.)
60 THE ENGLISH CONJUNCTION " THAT." [CH. XI.
113. Instead of the future infinitive passive, which is
rarely used, Latin prefers the periphrasis with fore lit or
futurum ut and a (consecutive) subjunctive. In the case
of verbs which have no supine-stem this is the only course
open.
I thought the law as to extortion Arbitrabar fore ut lex de pecuniis
would be repealed, repetundis tolleretur.
114. An English dependent statement after verbs of
fearing, if positive, is rendered in Latin by a clause intro-
duced by ne with the verb in the subjunctive ; a negative
statement may be introduced by ut, or the positive state-
ment may be negatived by non in the ordinary way.
Our men ivere not afraid that they Neque timebant nostri ne circum-
would be surrounded. venirentur.
They said they were afraid that Timere dicebant ut res frumen-
supplies of corn might not be taria satis commode supportari
brought up sufficiently easily. posset.
He was afraid that he might not be Verebatur ne hostium impetum
able to withstand the enemy' 1 s at- sustinere non posset.
tack.
115. Certain verbs expressive of emotional states ad-
mit the accusative and infinitive construction ; e.g. dolere,
acerbe and aegre ferre, gaudere, laetari, mirari.
I am glad, and rejoice extremely, Haec perfecta esse gaudeo vehe-
that this matter has been done inenterque laetor.
with.
I am less astonished that there is Minus miror obscurum esse de
some doubt as to the enemy' s leader hostium duce dedito missoque
having been surrendered and sent sub iugum.
beneath the yoke.
These verbs may also be followed by semi-causal clauses
introduced by quod.
They are vexed that you have the Quod spiratis, quod vocem mit-
breath of life, that you utter ever titis, quod formas hominum
a word, that you have even human habetis indignantur.
form.
116.] VERBS OF FEARING, ETC. 61
You are delighted that I promise to Gaudes quod me venturum esse
come to you. polliceor.
116. Statements depending on a verb expressing doubt
and actually or virtually negative, or on the phrase non
dubium est, are not rendered by the accusative and infini-
tive, but by quin with the subjunctive.
If anyone paid attention, there is no Non est dubium quin, si quis
doubt that he could notice the animadverterit quid sit quare
reason why some men speak better alii melius quam alii dicant, id
than others. notare possit.
He did not doubt that the Romans Non dubitabat quin Romani liber-
would deprive the Aedui of their tatem Aeduis erepturi essent.
freedom.
117. An English dependent statement involving a verb
of obligation is frequently the equivalent of a dependent
command, and is so rendered in Latin. See 97.
Ambiorix ordered the command to Ambiorix pronuntiari iubet ut
be given that they should throw procul tela coiciant.
their weapons from a distance.
118. The conjunction that is used in adverbial clauses
to express purpose or result.
119. Purpose is commonly expressed in English by the
gerundial infinitive ; but if the subject of the principal
verb is not the same as that of the dependent verb, a de-
pendent clause introduced by that takes the place of the
infinitive. Such a clause is rendered in Latin by a similar
clause introduced by ut (negative ne}. The verb in such a
clause is in the subjunctive.
Marcellus ordered the gates to be Marcellus portas claudi iussit, ne
shut, that no one might escape. quis effugeret.
The same varieties of expression are permissible as in
translating the gerundial infinitive when used to express
purpose. See 99.
62
THE ENGLISH CONJUNCTION " THAT." [CH. XL
120. Clauses expressing result are in English intro-
duced by that, and anticipated by some such word as " so "
or " such " in the main sentence. They are rendered in
Latin by a clause introduced by ut with the verb in the
subjunctive.
The negatives in all such clauses are non, nullus, nemo,
numquam, nusquam, non . . . neque, neque . . . neque, ne . . .
quid em, etc. (never ne).
For more than three hours the fight
went so that hope of victory in-
clined to neither side.
There was ready to hand such a
quantity of stone and wood that
it was possible to have had a wall
thrown up and towers erected.
The cliffs on either hand are so sheer
that one can scarcely look down
without the eyes swimming and
the brain being dizzy.
Pugnatum est amplius tres horas,
ita ut neutro inclinaret spes.
Et saxorum ad manum silves-
trisque materiae tantum erat,
ut vel murus obici turresque
excitari possent.
Rupes utrimque ita abscissae aunt,
ut despici vix sine vertigine
simul oculorum animique possit.
121. Instead of ut is, ut ea, ut id, ut ii, ut eum, ut
eius, ut ibi, ut eo, ut inde, etc., i.e. wherever there is a
convenient substantival antecedent, the corresponding
relative may be used in a result clause.
Who is so foolish, be he never so
young, as to take it for granted
that he will live until nightfall ?
Quis est tarn stultus, quamvis sit
adulescens, cui sit exploratum
se ad vesperura esse victurum ?
Where the result clause is introduced by a relative, a
pronominal adjective (is, ille, hie) is often added to deter-
mine the substantival antecedent.
Perfect wisdom I always considered
to be such as could speak with
fluency and elegance upon the
most weighty questions.
The spot was such that there ivas a
view down from it.
The terms were such as no one could
endure.
Hanc enim perfectam philoso-
phiam semper iudicavi, quae de
maximis quaestionibus posset
copiose ornateque dicere.
Is erat locus, unde despectus esset.
Eae erant condiciones, quas nemo
tolerare posset.
122.]
RELATIVE Itf RESULT CLAUSES.
122. Expressions like " of a kind to . . .," " such as
to . . .," ''of such sort as to . . .," are rendered by a Latin
relative pronoun or adverb and a consecutive relative
clause with a generalising force (generic subjunctive).
Out of all that host, scarce 1200
were found to possess arms, and a
mere handful of horse-soldiers
were found to have brought their
steeds with them.
After inspecting the country as far
as opportunity offered to one who
had not the courage to leave his
ship, Volusenus came back to the
camp five days later.
We have no other place in which to
take refuge.
Returning to the Danube, to their
great joy they found the river
covered with ice so thick as to
seem likely to bear any burden.
Vix mille ducenti ex tanta mul-
titudine, qui arma haberent,
perpauci equites, qui equos se-
cum eduxissent, invent! sunt.
Volusenus perspectis regionibus
omnibus, quantum ei facultatis
dari potuit qui navi egredi non
auderet, quinto die in castra
revertitur.
Nihil est praeterea, quo conf ugere
possimus.
Ad Histrum regressi, non sine
ingenti laetitia flumen alta con-
cretum glacie oifenderunt, quae
nullum onus recusare videretur.
123. The difference of meaning, according as the rela-
tive clause is in the indicative (simple attributive) or the
subjunctive (generic) mood, may be seen from the follow-
ing.
There are certain men who assert . . .
There are men (of a class] to
assert . . .
Yet there are men found to say so.
It is unkind of them, but never-
theless they do.
You scoff as though I were main-
taining that men not yet born are
to be pitied, and not simply that
all wlio have died are to be pitied.
Sunt qui dicunt . . .
Sunt qui dicant . . .
At sunt qui dicant. Dure illi
quidem, sed tamen dicunt.
Ita iocaris quasi ego dicam, eos
miseros qui nati non sint, et
non eos miseros qui mortui
sunt.
64 THE ENGLISH CONJUNCTION " THAT.'* [CH. XI.
124, Under the same heading comes the use of is . . .
qui and the subjunctive in such sentences as the following :
"And," said he, "I am not the "Neque is sum," inquit, "qui
one of you to be most afraid of gravissime e vobis mortis peri-
the risk of death." culo terrear."
We are not the sort of men for even Neque ii sumus quos vituperare
our enemies to censure without in ne inimici quidem poesint, nisi
the same breath complimenting us. ut simul laudent.
CHAPTER XII.
ENGLISH AND LATIN TENSES. SEQUENCE
AND DEPENDENT QUESTIONS.
125. Comparative Table of English and Latin Tenses.
[See next page.]
126. Within this scheme the following differences
should be observed.
The English continuous present is often used in a future
sense.
When are you coming to Rome ?
Quando Romam venies ?
127. The English simple present used in dependent
clauses where the principal verb refers to future time
must in Latin (as often in French) be rendered by the
future or future-perfect.
Quid ? censetis, cum iter ingressus
ero, nullasne insidias extime-
scendas ?
Hums memor esto, cum iam
pugnae signurn dabis.
Why, think you, ivhen I enter upon
that course, have I no pitfalls to
fear '!
Bear this in mind ivhen you give
the battle-signal.
There is good advice in that well-
known Greek proverb, "Let each
man practise the trade he knows
best."
If there are three divisions, when
one has got rid of two of them,
one must needs have the third left.
Come now ; even if he obeys, is it
in our ivishes or in our power to
treat this fellow (henceforth] as
a citizen ?
It is no excuse for a fault, that you
committed it to oblige a friend.
H. L. C.
Bene illo proverbio Graecorum
praecipitur, quam quisque norit
artem, in hoc se exerceat.
Qui e tripertita divisione duas
partes absolverit, huic necesse
est restare tertiam.
Age, si paruerit, hoc cive uti aut
volumus aut possumus P
Nulla est excusatio peccati, is
amici causa peccaveris.
65 5
66
ENGLISH AND LATIN TENSES. [CH. xii.
s s
1!! 1
1 &
i i
00 05
1]
rS-S
14
128.] ENGLISH PRESENT AND PAST. 67
But where the dependent clause refers to a fact or a
truth independent of the main verb, it will take whatever
tense is appropriate.
The law of Nature, which main- Lex ipsa naturae, quae utilitatem
tains and safeguards the good of hominum conservat et continet,
man, will decide. decernet.
128. The English present is frequently used of habits
or what occurs habitually. If the repetition or customari-
ness of the act or state is an important element in the
sense, it must be turned by some Latin phrase expressive
of habit.
I constantly wonder. Saepenumero mirari soleo.
On the customary date when the Illo die quo sacerdotes sclent no-
priests give in the names of the minare quos dignissimos sacer-
persons whom they account most dotio iudicant.
deserving of the office of priest.
129. The English simple present in the passive voice
is used to express the present result of a past action (cp.
the Greek perfect), in which case it must be rendered by
the Latin perfect.
/ am persuaded that this is trite. Persuasum est mini hoc verum
esse.
Your foes are vanquished, your Hostes devicti sunt, debellatum
warfare ended. est.
The Latin present only gives the process, not the result.
/ am being persuaded. Persuadetur mihi.
Your enemies are being vanquished. Hostes devincuntur.
130. The English simple past is used in a great number
of cases in which it cannot be translated by the Latin
perfect (aorist).
131. Wherever the English simple past expresses con*
tinuous, repeated, or habitual action, it must be trans-
lated by the Latin imperfect. As a matter of fact, it is
68
ENGLISH AND LATIN TENSES. [CH. XII.
a commoner equivalent of the Latin imperfect than is the
continuous past.
The phantom kept its place, and
continued beckoning with its
finger like one calling.
So music flourished in Greece, and
everyone learnt to sing to the
lute; indeed, the man who could
not do so was not considered to
have had a proper education.
After his expulsion from Syracuse
the despot Dionysius used to keep
a boys' school in Corinth.
An attempt teas being made to get
Ycrginius Rufus elected one of
the Board of Five.
At last, as their horses came to a
standstill, jammed together in one
crowd, man grappling with man,
they tried to unhorse one another.
As was natural in a crisis, the
Senate was at once convened, and
Publius Cornelius wished to recall
to the city's defence every com-
mander and army in Italy.
Stabat effigies irmuebatque digito
similis vocanti.
Ergo in Graecia musici florue-
runt, discebantque omnesfidibus
canere ; nee, qui nesciebat, satis
excultus doctrina putabatur.
Dionysius tyrannus, Syraciisis
expulsus, Corinthi pueros doce-
bat.
Inter quinque viros creabatur Ver-
ginius Rufus.
Stantibus et confertis postremo
turba equis, vir virum amplexus
detrahebat equo.
Ut in re trepida, senatu extemplo
vocato, P. Cornelius omnes
duces exercitusque ex tota Italia
ad urbis praesidium revocabat.
132. In narrative the English simple and continuous
past are rendered by the Latin historic present whenever
the events related are to be brought vividly before the
reader.
Hannibal sent the Numidians across
the river to attack the Roman
watering parties.
Hannibal Numidas ad invadendos
Romanorum aquatores trans
flumen mittit.
The historic present in Caesar is the rule rather than
the exception; and as it is foreign to good English prose, it
is often overlooked by beginners,
133.]
LATIN HISTORIC PRESENT.
69
133. The historic present is invariably used after dum
when it means " while," i.e. "within the time that." The
tense of the principal verb does not affect the tense of the
verb in the dependent clause.
While these events were in progress,
Sabinns made his way as far as
the lands of the Venelli.
While his friends were coming, he
walked up and down.
I shall feel less anxious while I am
reading it ; but as soon as I have
got it read, I shall at once feel
nervous again.
They were cut down while hesitat-
ing upon the bank, uncertain
whether to fight or to fly.
Dum haec geruntur, Sabinus in
Venellorum fines pervenit.
Dum veniunt amici, inambulavit.
Ero securior dum lego, statimque
timebo cum legero.
Dum cunctantur in ripis inter
pugnae fugaeque c 
