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V
LANGUAGE LESSONS: GRAMMAR-COMPOSITION.
A COMPLETE COUB8E ly TWO BOOKS ONLY.
THE BEST AND THE CHEAPEST.
I. Graded Lessons in English :
Ak Elbmbittaby EiTGUsn Gbammab, eonsisting of One Hund-
red Prfurtical Lessons, carefully graded and adapted to the
class room. 160 pages, 16mo. Bound in linen.
II. Higher Lessons in English :
A Work on English Grasocab and Composition, in whicli
the science of the language is made tributary to the art of
expression. A course of Practical Lessons, carefully graded,
and adapted to every day use in the school room, 280 pages,
16mo. Bound in doth.
The two books completely cover the ground of Grammar and
Composition, from the time the scholar usually begins the study
until it is finished in the High School or Academy.
For terms of introduction, which are very liberal, address
CLARK & MAYNARD, Publishers,
5 Barclay Street,
NEW YORK.
Higher Lesson^s its" English.
A WORK
ON
English Grammar
AND
COMPOSITION,
In which thb Sciencb of the Language is made tbibutaky
TO THE Akt of Expression.
A COURSE
OF PRACTICAL LESSONS CABEFXTLLY GRADED, AND ADAPTED TO EVERY
DAY USB IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM.
BY
ALONZO EEED, A.M.,
Ihbtbvoiob nr Ekoush Oeaiocib ur thx Bbookltit Colubgxatb Aim
POLYXXOHmO iNSnZCTS,
AND
BRAIlfEED KELLOGG, A.M.,
PBOR880B OF THS ENOUSH hJkXOUAQK AJXD LiTBIUTUHB IN THS BBOOKLTN COLLBGIATB
Ain> POLTTEOHinO INHTITUTJB.
NEW YORK:
Clark & Maynard, Publishers,
6 Barclay Street.
1880.
COPTBIGHT, 18W,
BT
Alonzo Bsbd aod Bbainkrd Ksllooo.
J. J. Uttle A Co.,
Printers, Kleotrotypera, and Binders,
10 to ao Astor Place, N. Y.
GlFE
R32-3
Prefac e.
EDUC-
^SYCH.
LIBRAB/
Eyebt one appreciates the valae of a correct use of langua^, and
yet the footing of grammar — the only study in our schools that aims
to teach this — ^is very insecure. Children are not enthusiastic in
praise of grammar, most parents recall without pleasure their own
trials with it, and many men of culture and of wisdom openly advise
its banishment from the school-room.
But two causes can be assigned for this wide-spread aversion to
grammar. There must prevail a belief either that there is another
and a better way to correct expression than that along which gram-
mar conducts one, or that the difficulties in this, the only path to it,
are so serious that few ever surmount them and reach the desired
goal.
There is, we believe, no other and better way to correct writing and
8i>eaking ; turning a child loose into the fields of literature will not,
we are sure, put his feet upon such a road. De Quincey says that
through a circuit of prodi^ous reading he has met with only two or
three writers who did not sometimes violate the accidence or the
syntax of English grammar, and any one knows that ordinary writers
trip on almost every page. ShW^^ literature better, in this regard,
4 Preface.
than it is, and were the influences snrroanding the child, when
among his mates in the street and on the play-ground, and even when
within the circle of his home, less untoward than they are ; how is it
possible that a mind not yet by special training made sensitive to
good usage, taught to discriminate, educated to choose and to reject —
how is it possible, we ask, that such a mind should be open to the
good and closed to the bad — ^receptive of the one and impervious to
the other ? Is it not enough to expect that the seed will take root
and grow, after it has been well harrowed into soil that has been
made mellow by the plough ?
But literature almost valueless, as grammatical discipline, to the
child hefore such training, is invaluable to him after it. It continues
the work which grammar has started him in, confirms him in all the
good habits he has begun, and carries him up beyond the groundwork
of simple correctness to the graces and felicities of expression.
We are constrained, however, to think that this general aversion to
grammar arises, not from a belief that there is within reach some
substitute for it, but from the manner in which its principles and
facts are presented by text-books and by teachers. These dry facts
are taught as something to be learned by the pupil, to be stored away
in the memory, and to be drawn out and used only or mainly in
parpung. It scarcely dawns upon him that all this knowledge can be
made helpful to him in his speech, even regulative of it, and can
appear in its proper essence and power when by tongue or by pen he
attempts to incarnate his thought in language.
We do not say that grammar, as still so generally taught, does no
good — ^we say only that it fails of the highest, the main good possible
Preface. 5
to it. Undoabtedly it has disciplinary value, and it may intiodnce
matnrer pnpils to the philosophy of language ; but this one thing
seems dear : the worth of grammar as mental gymnastics or as
lingoistic philosophy or as both cannot and will not mnch longer
justify for the study a place in our common and our graded schools —
it must bear on its branches more obvious and more serviceable fruit,
or the tree WiU be hewn down and cast out of the way.
It is to meet this imperative need of pupils and of teachers that the
authors of " Graded Lessons in English " have prepared the "ffigher
Lessons."
The aim of this work is to make the Science of the Language, of
which all the essentials are thoroughly presented, tributary to the
Art of Expression. Every principle unfolded in the "Hints," and
every idiom, common construction, and form, learned by the pupil in
the analysis and parsing of the wide range of sentences given, is fixed
in memory and, above all, in practice by varied and exhaustive drill
in composition. The pupil is constantly stimulated to the attrac-
tive labor of composing sentences, arranging and rearranging their
parts, contracting, expanding, punctuating, and criticising them— the
analysis furnishing him materials for the synthesis, and the synthesis
supplementing the analysis. Even if the study of grammar were
only to lodge in the memory the facts and principles of the language,
we contend that this could be done only by work in composition — ^this,
and this only, can make them permanent possessions. Pupils taught
in this way become, as we have ourselves seen, almost dangerous to
the peace of the class-room, so ready are they to criticise each other's
speech and even that of the teacher.
6 Preface.
The first half of the book is devoted to <' The Sentence and the
Parts of Speech ;** the next thirty pages to "Parts of Speech Sub-
divided ;" the next seventy to " Modifications of the Parts of Speech ;"
and the remaining thirty to " Composition."
We start with the sentence, because the whole can be more easily
understood than the parts, because words can be classified only from
their function in the sentence, and because the pupil should, from the
outset, see that that which determines the words in the sentence and
the sentence itself is the thought expressed. Bules for Punctua-
tion are given where they are needed, since the marks are as much
a part of the sentence as are the words themselves — the sentence is
not written tiU it is punctuated.
The large space allotted to " The Sentence and the Parts of Speech "
is necessary, because (1) the offices and relations of the several classes
of words are many and diverse, and inflections cannot be understood
till, by analysis and synthesis, these are mastered; (2) because
Arrangement must be studied, and the relations of clauses in the
complex and the compound sentence must be understood in order
to compose well; and (3) because, in reading, the pupil cannot
express the subordination of the dependent clause to the independent,
tnd the co-ordination of independent clauses, till he can detect such
clauses at a glance.
Errors in construction are fully exposed in ** Parts of Speech Sub-
divided" and in "Modifications of the Parts of Speech," and in
the latter division inflectional forms are thoroughly treated.
In " Ck)mposition" the pupil is thoroughly drilled in the use of all
Preface. 7
marks of Panctaation, is made familiar with the cardinal yirtaes of
Style, aad is led on to the grouping of sentences into Paragraphs
and Paragn^hs into Themes, to the construction of Frameworks
for Themes, and to Letter- Writing.
Many years of experience in teaching grammar both with and with-
out IMagrams* that picture to the eye the several relations of words,
phrases, and clauses in the sentence have convinced us of their great
value. But while believing that no teacher or pupil, once familiar
with them, will willingly part with their aid, we wish to say that they
form no tii^al x>art of the work. They could be stripped from the
pages, and the work remain intact.
The sentences given for analysis are largely gleaned from authors ;
but they will not always be recognized. To suit them to the special
purpose in hand, many of them had to be changed, and, when
changed, th^ could not be quoted ; so it seemed best to us to give
authors' names only in particular Lessons headed ** Miscellaneous
Exercises in Review."
We have preferred to make no departures from the ordinary classi-
fication and nomenclature, uidess what seemed to us to be some gross
error was to be avoided, or some practical good was to accrue to the
pupiL Nor, while shunning no difficulties that lay in our path,
have we turned out of our path to encounter any. The book was
not written to air crotchets or to resolve grammatical puzzles, but
for every day use in the school-room.
♦The Diagrams iu "Higher Lessons " were drawn by Masters F. J. Berlenbach
and C. 8. Francis, pupils in the Polytechnic Institute.
8 Preface.
- - — - ... ■ — ■
" Higher Lessons in English/' on its way through the press, has
been criticised by the distinguished philologist. Prof. Francis A. March
of Lafayette CJollege, Easton, Penn., and to him we are indebted for
many most valuable suggestions.
Polytechnic Institutb,
July 1, 1877.
SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER.
Though professing to be a complete grammar, this work is not intended
for beginners. In preparing it, we have supposed the pupil to be already
thoroughly familiar with " Graded Lessons in English " or its equivalent
Guard, then, against introducing *' Higher Lessons '* too early into the
course of study.
The pupil may find some diflOiculty, at first, in understanding such con-
structions as the Participle and the Infinitive used as dbjeciive complement;
and in mastering the philosophy of such adverb clauses as those of deffi^ee^
introduced by a» and ihan^ in Lessons 87 and 41 ; the distinction hetween
those expressing reason and those expressing cause^ in Lesson 64 ; and tlie
force of the several connectives in th« examples given in Lessons 1 W, 105,
and 106.
If these or any other points are found to be too abstruse, we suggest that
they be deferred till the book is reviewed.
Those who desire a brief course in technical grammar are referred to that
outlined In the " General Review," pp. 234r-8.
J
N D E X
A
Abbreviations ....
Adjective, The
ClaHses
ti
(I
((
•«
•I
Clauses
" Composition. . .
Composition
Construction
Modification— Compar-
ison
Adverb, The
Classes
Clauses
" Composition
Composition
Construction
Modification — Compari-
son
Alphabet, The
Analysis
Antecedent
Apostrophe, Rules
Am 50, 102, 138, 158,
Brackets, Rule
But
Capital Letters, Rules
24,45,
Clauses, Kinds 95, 118,
Colon, Rules
Comma, Rules
60, 98, 106, 114, 120,
Complements
Attribute
Composition
" Modified
" Object
Objective
«<
«(
PAGES.
140
25,26
29,80
189,140
95-98
98-100
81,32
140-143
193-199
32-34
144,145
100-106
106-109
84,85
146-148
195,196
15
17
183
251
154,155
262
161, 162
18,23,
116, 247
122,123
250
88,43,
247,248
60
52-64
56,57
50
50
54,56
PAGEP.
Composition 247-280
Conjunction, The 41-43
" Classes 152,153
Connected Terms, Composition. . 44-46
Connectives, Classes 153, 154
*' Composition 154, 155
" Construction 158-160
Consonants 15, 16
Copula 61
Dash, Rules 250,251
Diagram,The 18
Exclamation Point, Rule 45
Grammar, English 12
Hyphen, Roles 241
If. 105,164,155
Independent Words and Phrases. 75, 76
Infinitives 69-74
" Composition. 74, 75
" Expansion 124,125,
Interjection, The 41-43
Interrogation Point 78
It 72
It is mtf, etc 191
Language, Natural and Word 11, 12
Leat 154,165
Letter-Writing 274,28(i
lAhe , 79
Many a 101
Marks of Parenthesis, Rule 251
Miscellaneous Errors 147, 148,
160, 161, 191, 192. 198, 198, 199
Miscellaneous Excroises in Re-
view 47, 48, 79-81, 125-127
Mine, thine, etc 188, 189
Modifications 165
Modifier, A 29
Noun, The 21, 28
9
10
Index.
PAGES.
Konn, Classes 181, 182
•♦ Clauses 110-118
" " Composition 114-117
" Declension 188
Noans as Modifiers 57, 58, 59, 61, 60
l^onns and Pronoans, Moilifica-
tion&-Case 178, 179, 181-188
Nouns and Pronouns, Modifica-
tions—Gender 174-178
Nouns and Pronouns, Modifica-
tions—Number 166-178
Nouns and Pronouns, Modifica-
tions—Person 179-181
Object, The 148,145
Ordy 146
Order, Natural 83,84
" Transposed 84-91
Paragraph, The 262-268
Parsing 28,183
" Written, Models 48, 184,
196, 220, 221
Participles 64-68
" Composition 68,60
" Expansion 124
Period, Rules 18,28,247
Phrases 86,87
" Absolute 68,76
" Expansion 124
" Prepositional 36-88, 70-73
" Composition. 89-41
Predicate, The 18,17,19
" Compound 41-43
" Modified or Logical ... 33
Preposition, The 87, 38, 148, 149
" Construction 150-152
Pronoun, The 21, 22
" Case-Forms 190-193
" Classes 131-134
** Construction 134-139
" Declension 188-190
Person, Number, and Gender-
Agreement 227-230
Questions, Direct and Indirect. . . 116, 117
PAGXS.
Quotation Marks, Rule 116, 262
Review, Capital Letters and Punc-
toatlon 46, 47, 247-25«
Review Questions. .. .20, 85, 36, 49, 50, 62,
63,81,82,93,94,127-180,
162-164, 280-283, 234-238
Semicolon, Rules 120,249
Sentence, The 12, 18, 17
Sentences, Classes 78, 118
" Complex 95-117
" Compound 117-128
" Contraction 91-98
Since 158,154,156
Spelling, Rules 191
Style,. Qualities 254-262
Subject, The 18,17
" Compound 41-48
" Modified or Logical 29, 80
ThaA. 102,
111, 186, 137, 154, 156, 161, 168
The 140,141
There, 76
Theme, The 265-269
Theme-Writing 269-273
Thought, A 18
To with the Infinitive 69, 212, 218
Verb, The 27,28
" Classes 143,144,145
" Conjugation 205-218
*' Modifications— Mode 208, 204
" " —Mode and
Tense Forms 218-226
Verb, Modifications— Number and
Person 203, 204, 227-280
Verb, Modifications— Tense 203, 204
" " —Voice 199-202
Voice, The 14,15
Vowels 15
What 97,133,161,162
When^ where, and wMle 98, 156, 157
WUl and would, eJiaU and should. . 225, 226
TesmdM 144
LESSON I.
A TALK ON LANGUAGE.
We wish to talk with you to-day about a language that we never
learned from a grammar or a book of any kind. Nor was it ever
taught us by parent or by teacher. We came by it naturally and use
it without thinking of it.
It is a universal language, and so needs no interpreter. People of
all lands and all degrees of culture use it ; even the brute anhnals in
some measure understand it.
This Natural language is the language of cries, laughter, and
tones ; the language of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the whole face ;
the language of gestures by the hand, and postures by the body.
The child's cry tells of its wants ; its sob, of grief ; its scream, of
pain ; its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his eyebrows in surprise
and his nose in disgust, leans forward in expectation, draws back in
fear, doubles his hand into a fist in anger, hisses in contempt, and
calls his dog to him or drives him away by the tone in which he
speaks to him.
But feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to com-
municate. Early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to
think, and then we feel the need of a better language.
Suppose, for instance, you have formed a mental picture, or idea, of
a day ; could you express this by a tone, a look, or a gesture ?
If you wish to tell me the fact that yesterday was cloudy, or the
truth that the days are shorter in winter than in summer , you would
find it wholly impossible to do this by means of Natural language.
To communicate, then, your thougJUs, or even the mental pictures
we have called ideas, you need a language more nearly perfect.
This language is made up of words.
These words you lea/m one by one. You learn them from your
II
12 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
mothers, and so Word language is your mother-tongue. You leam
them from your friends and teachers, your playmates and companions,
and you leam them by reading ; for words, as you know, may be
written as well as spoken.
This Word language we may, from its superiority, call Language
Troper.
Natural language, as was said, precedes this Word language, but
gives way as Word language comes in and takes its place; yet it may
be used, and always should be, to assist and strengthen the latter.
In earnest conversation we enforce what we say in words, by the tone
in which we utter them, by the varying expression of the face, and
often by the gestures of the hand.
The look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word, or it
may contradict it, and so convict the speaker of ignorance or de-
ception.
The happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all
fine reading and speaking. The teacher of elocution is ever trying
to recaU, the pupil to the tones, the facial expressions, and the action,
so natural to him in childhood and in animated conversation.
Questiong on the 2V»lfe.— How did we come by Katnral langnage t How does
it differ from other languagee? Why is it a nniyersal langaage ? When do we nee
It? What is it made up of? How does the child employ it f What is Word lan-
gnage, or Langnage Proper, nsed for ? How do we leam it f What retires before it ?
How can Natnral langnage aid it ? What is an idea ? What two kinds of words are
there ? Give a definition of Langnage Proper. Define English grammar.
DEFINITION.— Xangrwaflre Proper consists of the spoken and
written words nsed to eommnnieate ideas and thoughts.
BYYnSITWN. — English Grammar is the science which
teaches the forms, nses, and relations of the words of the English
langnage.
LESSON 2.
A TALK ON THOUGHTS AND SENTENCES.
To express a tlionght we use more than a single word, and the
words arranged to express a thonglit we call a sentence.
Bat there was a time when, through lack of words, you compressed
A Talk on Thoughts and Sentences, 13
your tliouglit into a single word. The child says to his father, up,
meaning, take me up into yowr lap ; or, hook, meaning, tlm thing in my
hand is a hook.
These first words always deal with the things that can be learned
by the senses ; they express the child's ideas of these things.
We have spoken of thoughts and sentences; let as see now if we
can find out just what a thought is, and what a sentence is.
As a sentence is a group of words expressing a thought, — ^the body,
of which the thought is the soul, — and so is something which we can
hear or see, while a thought is not, let us try to find out what a
thought is by looking at a sentence.
In any such sentence as this. Spiders ^n, something is said or
asserted about something. Here it is said or asserted of the insects,
spiders, that they spin.
The sentence, then, consists of two parts, — the name of that of
which something is said, and that which is said of it.
TKe first of these parts we call the Subject of the sentence ; the
second, the Predicate.
Now, if the sentence, composed of two parts, expresses the thought,
there must be in the thought two parts to be expressed. And there
are two; viz., something of which we think, and that which we
think about it. In the tJwught expressed a moment ago, the insects,
spiders, are the something of which we think, and their spinning is
what we think or judge of them. In the sentence expressing this
thought, the word spiders names that of which we think, and the
word spin tells what we think or judge of them-
Not every group of words is necessarily a sentence, because it may
not be the expression of a thought. Spiders spinning is not a sentence.
Neither of the two ideas for which the words stand is thought of
the other or asserted of it.
Soft featliers. The shimng sun, are not sentences, and for the same
reason. Feathers are soft, The sun shines, are sentences. Here the
asserting word is supplied, and something is said of something else.
The sliines sun is not a sentence, for, though it contains the assert-
ing word sliines, the arrangement is such that no assertion is made,
and so no thought is expressed.
Qu«9Hnna on the Talk,— What do we nse words for? How are onr first
thongbts expressed ? What do our first words express ? What is a sentence f
14 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
What is it made up of ? What is each part called ? Of what two parts is a thought
composed ? Why is spiders spinning not a sentence ? Why is the shining sun not a
sentence f Conyert the shining sun into a sentence. Why is t/ie shines sun not a
sentence f
LESSON 3.
A TALK ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS.
We have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts
we use two kinds of words, spoken words and toritten words.
We learned the spoken words first. Mankind spoke long before
they wrote. Not until people wished to communicate with those at a
distance, or had thought out something worth handing down to after-
times, did they need to write.
But speaking was easy. The air, the lungs, and the organs of the
throat and mouth were at hand. The first cry was a suggestion.
Sounds and noises were heard on every side, provoking imitation, and
the need of speech, for the purposes of conununication, was impera-
tive.
Spoken words are made up of sounds. There are about forty sounds
in the English language. The different combinations of these give
us all the words of our spoken tongue. That you may clearly under-
stand these sounds, we will tell you something about the human
voice.
In talking, the air driven out from your lungs beats against two flat
muscles, stretched, like bands, across the top of the windpipe, and
causes them to vibrate up and down. This vibration makes sound.
Take a thread, put one end between your teeth, hold the other with
thumb and finger, draw it tight and strike it, and you will understand
how voice is made. The shorter the string or the tighter it is drawn,
the faster will it vibrate and the higTier will be the pitch of the sound.
The more violent the blow, the farther will the string vibrate and the
louder will be the sound. Just so with these vocal bands or cords.
The varying force with which the breath strikes them, and Iheir differ-
A Talk on Sounds and Letters. 1 5
ent tensions and lengths at different times, explain the different
degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of the voice.
If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well
ox>en, a class of sounds is formed which we call wwd sounds.
But if the 'ociu is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue,
teeth, or lips, (me kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made.
If the hreat/i is driven out without voice, and is held back by these
same parts of the mouth, the ot/ier kind of consonant sounds is
formed.
The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which repre-
sent to the eye these sounds that address the ear.
You are now prepared to understand us when we say that the
vowels are the letters that stand for the open sounds of the
voice, and that the consonants are the letters that stand for
the sounds made by the obstructed voice and the obstructed
breath*
The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A
perfect alphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one.
Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways : —
1. Some of the letters are superfltious ; c stands for the soimd of s
or of k, as in o^^ and can ; q has the sound of k, as in quit; and x
that of ks, gz, or 2, as in expel, exist, and Xenophon.
2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds ; as, th
in thin^e, th in thin, ng in sing, and s/i in shut.
8. Some letters stand ea^ih for many sounds. Twenty-three letters
represent over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty ;
e stands for two .sounds, as in m£tc and m>ct ; % for two, as in pine and
pin; for three, as in note, not, and move; u for four, as in
tube, tub, full, and far ; a for six, as in fate, fat, fa/r, faU, fast, and
fa/re,
TT is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a
vowel sound, and so is y when it has the sound of », as in rum, by, boy,
newly.
The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same
vowel are caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes.
These changes in its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that
unite in each of the compounds, ou, oi, ew^ and in the alphabetic i
ando.
i6
The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
1 2
Yocal Consfmants, Aspirates.
b P
d t
g k
^h
j cli
1 2
Vocal Consonants. Aspirates,
r— .
th til
(in thine) (in thin)
V f '
w
1-
z (in zone) s
z (in azure) sh
The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the
obstructed wice ; those in colnnm 2, except h (which is simple though
strong breathing), represent those made by the obstructed breat/i.
The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth,
lips, and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the
sounds of both letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of
the letters of any pair is simply this : there is voice in the sounds of
the letters in column 1, and only whisper in those of column 2. Give
the sound of any letter in column 1, as b, g, v, and the last or vanish-
ing part of it is the sound of the other letter of the pair.
Let the teacher write these letters on the board, as above, and drill the pupils on their
soands till they can see and make these distinctions. Exercise them on the vowels
also.
QuestlofiB on the Talk,— Which precedes, speaking or writing? When did
people need to write ? What do we use in speaking ? Of what are spoken words
composed f How man j sounds are there in our language f How is voice made ?
Give the illustrations. On what do pitch and loudness depend f What are vowel
sounds ? What are consonant sounds ? What are the t\<'o kinds of consonant
sounds ? What are letters ? What are vowels ? What are consonants ? What is a
perfect alphabet ? How is ours imperfect ? What are the three useless letters, and
for what do they stand ? What -combinations of letters stand for single sounds ?
Make the sounds of the vowels. When are w and y vowels ? What does changing
the cavity of the mouth do to the sound? In making the vowel sound** note these
changes. In sounding ow, oi, etc., how does the mouth change ? What are the let-
ters in column 1 called ? In column 2 ? In what respect do the sounds of the letters
paired resemble each other ? How do they differ ? Make all these sounds by them-
selves. What are the four things that we wifh you to distinguish ? Illustrate.
In closing this last formal talk with yon, we wish to emphasize one
point brought before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing ; we carry
Analysis and the Diagram. 17
in memory apuj/wre of the pencU, which we call an idea; and there
are the tvoo words naming this idea, the spokem, and the written. Learn
to distinguish clearly these four things.
( LESSOU 4.
ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM.
DEFINITION.— A Sentence is the expression of a thought in
words.
J>lrect Ion,— Let the pnpile bo exercised oa these sentences : —
Model,— Spiders sjdn. Why Is this a sentence f Ans.— Because it expresses a
thought. Of what is something thought f Ans.—* Spiders. Which word tells what
is thought ? Ans.—* Spin.
1. Tides ebb. 4. Carbon bums. 7. LeaTes tremble.
2. Liquids flow. 5. Iron melts. 8. Worms crawl.
8. Steam expands. 6. Powder explodes. 9. Hares leap.
You see that in these sentences there are two parts. The
parts, as you have learned, are the Subject and the Predir
cate.
DEFINITION.— Tlie Subject of a sentence names that of which
something is thought.
DEFINITION.— The Bredicafe of a sentence tells what is
thoogrht*
D£FINinON.~The Analysis of a sentence is the separation
of it into its parts.
l>ireefion.— Analyze these sentences : —
Model.— Beavers build. This is a «6;;f^c«,becan8e it expresses a thought. Beavers
is the suited, because it names that of which something is thought ; build is the
predicafey because it tells what is thought.
1. Squirrels climb. 4. Heralds proclaim. 7. Com ripens.
2. Blood circulates. 5. Apes chatter. 8. Birds twitter.
8. Muscles tire. 6. Branches wave. 9. Hearts throb.
♦ SpiderSt standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing ; spin, used merely
as a word, is In Italics. This u^e of Italics the teacher and pupil will pleaEe note.
lo T/^e Scnte7ice and the Parts of Speech.
J>irectioM.— Draw a heavy line and divide it thus :—
1
Let the first part represent the svJt^t of a sentence ; the second, the predicaU.
If you v»rrite a v»rord over the first part, you will understand that it is the sul^ect of
a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, you will understand that it is
the predicate of a sentence.
Love coiiQuera
Tou see, by looking at this expression, that Love congruers is a sentence ; that
Love is the subfect, and conquers the predicate.
These figures, made up of straight lines, we call Diagrams.
DEFINITION.- A Diagram is a pictnre of the offices aud rela-
tions of the different parts of a sentence.
J>ireetion,— Analyze and diagram these sentences :—
1. Frogs croak. 5. Flies buzz. 9. Books aid.
2. Hens sit. 6. Sap ascends. 10. Noise disturbs.
3. Sheep bleat. 7. Study pays. 11. Hope strengthens.
4. Cows low. 8. Blossoms swell. 12. Clocks crow.
LESSOU §.
COMPOSITION— SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
To the Teacher,— Ijet some of the pnpils write their sentences on the board
while others are reading theirs. Then let the work on the board be corrected.
Correct any expression that does not make good sense, or that asserts something
not strictly true ; for the pupil should early be taught to think acctiratelp, as well
as to write and speak grammatically.
Correct all misstakes in spelling^ and in the use of capital letters and the j)€iiod.
Insist on neatness.
Collect the papers before the iccitation closes.
CAPITAL LETTEB— ttULE.—Tlie first word of every sentence
mast begin with a capital letter.
PERIOD— RULE.— A period must be placed after every sen-
tence whicli simply affirms, denies, or commands.
J>lrcc/f on. -Construct sentences by supplying a «<^ec« to each of the following
predicates :—
I
Analysis.
T9
Ask yoorselyes the qaestions, What tarnishes ? Who sailed, conquered, etc. ?
1.
2.
8.
4.
5.
tamishes. 6.
capsize. 7.
radiates. 8.
sentence. 0.
careen. 10.
sailed. 11.
descends. 12.
glisten. 13.
absorb. 14
corrode. lo.
conquered.
surrendered.
refines.
gurgle.
murmur.
l>irMfk>n .—Constmct sentences by supplying a prtdicaJU to each of the foUo^-
ing subjects :—
Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what ?
1. Glycerine
2. Yankees -
S. Tyrants -
4. Pendulums
5. Caesar .
6. Labor .
7. Chalk .
8. Nature
9. Tempests —
10. Seeds .
11. Heat .
12. Philosophers
13. Bubbles .
14. Darkness
15. Wax .
16. Reptiles
17. Merchants •
18. Meteors —
19. Conscience
20. Congress —
21. Life .
22. Vapors
23. Music .
24. Pitch .
To the Teacher.— This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying several
subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject.
V
LESSON 6.
ANALYSIS.
The predicate sometimes contains more than one word.
l>ireetion.— Analyze and diagram as in Lesson 4.
1. Moisture is exhaled.
2. Conclusions are drawn.
8. Industry will enrich.
4. Stars have disappeared.
6. Twilight is f aUing.
6. Leaves are turning.
7. Sirius has appeared.
11. Nuisances should be abated.
12. Jerusalem was destroyed.
13. Light can be reflected.
14. Rain must have fallen.
15. Planets have been discovered.
16. Palaces shall crumble.
17. Storms may be gathering.
8. Constantinople had been cap- 18. Essex might have been saved.
tured. 19. Caesar could have been crowned.
9. Electricity has been harnessed. 20. Inventors may be encour-
10. Tempests have been raging. aged.
20
The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
2>ireet{4»n.— Point out the mbjtct and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons
12 and 17.
Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting who or what before this
predicate, the subject may easily be found.
To the Teacher,— Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily
point out the subject and the predicate in any simple declarative sentence.
When this can be done promptly, the first and most important st^ in analysis will
have been taken.
LESSON 7.
COMPOSITION— SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
J>ireetion,—See how many good sentences you can make out of the words in the
three columns following :—
The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 8 to make
coiDplete predicates. Analyze your sentences.
progressing.
tested.
command.
prolonged.
released.
falling.
burned.
measured.
prevail.
lost.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What is a sentence ? What are its two parts ? What is the subject
of a sentence ? The predicate of a sentence ? The analysis of a sen-
tence ? What is a diagram ? What rule has been given for the use
of capita^ letters ? For the period ? May the predicate contain more
than one word ?
To the Teacher,— Tntroduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of
this recitation. See Hints for Oral Instruction, below. The matter contained in the
"Hints'* should always be given to the class as a preparation for the next day's
work.
1
2
Art.s
is
Allen
was
Life
are
Theories
will
Science
would
Truth
were
Shadows
maybe
Moscow
has been
Haleigh
have been
Quantity
should have been
Classes of Words. 21
LESSON a.
CLASSES OF WORDS.
Nouns.
Introdaotory Hinti.— We have now reached the point where we must take
up the words of our language and classify them. But we are appalled by
their number. If we have got to learn all about the forms and uses of a
hundred thousand words by studying them one by one, we shall die igno-
rant of English grammar.
But may w€ not deal with words as we do with plants ? If you had to
study and name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, you would
never master the botany even of your garden plat.
But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one
another, and he has given us the power to detect resemblances and differ-
ences and to group and sort things according as they are like or unlik(f-on3
another.
From certain likenesses in foiin and structure, we put certain flowers to-
gether and call them roses ; from other likenesses, we get another class
called lilies ; from others still, violets.
Just so we classify trees and get the oak, the elm, the mople, etc.
The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. Study-
ing each class, we learn all we need to know of every object in it.
From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify wordi. We group
them according to their similarities in vm^ or oj^, in the sentence. Sorting
them thus, we find that they all fall into eight classes, which we call Parts
of Speech.
We find that many words nam£ things — are the names of things of which
we can think and speak. These we place in one class and call tiiem Nouns
(Lat nomen^ a name).
Pronouns.
How stiff and awkward is this sentence : Mr. (or Miss) A wants George
B or Mary C to call at Mr. (or Miss) A 's house after school.
How smooth this substitute for it : / want y<m to call at my house after
school.
Without the little words which we shall italicize, how all but impossi-
ble f^ one stranger to ask another, " Can yov. tell rm who is the postmaster
22 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
at B ?" One stranger wonld not know what name to nse instead of yo«,
and the other would not recognize the name in the place of »w, and both
would be bothered to find a substitute for who.
/, y<m^ myy me, what, we, U, he, who, him, she, them, and others, are used in
place of, or for, noufts, and arc, therefore, called Pronouns (Lat. pro, for,
and nomen, a noon), and form the third part of speech.
By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every ob-
ject in existence. We could hardly speak or write without them now,
they so frequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion and
repetition.
DEFINITION.— A Ifofin is the name of anything.
DEFINITION.—A Pronoun is a word used for a nonn.
The principal office of nouns is to name things of which
we say or assert something in the sentence.
JMreetian.— Write, according to the model, the names of things that can bum,
grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve.
Naura.
Wood
Paper
Gas
Honees
JTotfel.— ^^^
- bum or banw.
Leares
Flesh
Clothes
Wood lumSf Leaves hurn, etc., are sentences, and the
nouns wood, leaves, etc., are the subjects.
Every subject of a sentence is a noun, or some word or
words used as a noun. But not every noun in a sentence is
a subject.
2>lr«e<{on.— Select and write all the noons and pronouns, whether subjects or not,
m the sentences given in Lesson 18.
In writing them observe the following rules :—
^-Jlgat^-^. ^*^^
Capital Letters, 23
CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— Proper or individual names
and words derived from them begin with capital letters.
PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— Jl66ret;iafion«
generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the
period*
LESSOli d.
CAPITAL LETTERS.
JHreetian»—¥Tom. the following words select and write in one colnmn those
names that distiuguish individnal things from others of the same class, and in
another column the words derived from these names :—
Observe Rale 1, Lesson 8.
Ohio, state, Chicago, franco, bostonian, country, england, boston,
mil ton, river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city,
englishman, messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plato,
christian, broadway, america, jehovah, christ, british, easter, europe,
man, scriptures, god.
IHreefion.— Write in one colnmn the names of the days of the week and the
months of the year, beginning each with a capital letter; and in another column the
names of the seasons, without capital letters.
Mem,emher that some individual names are made up of a
♦class name and a distinguishing word. The distinguish-
ing word always begins with a capital letter. If this word
alone cannot clearly designate the object, the class name also
begins with a capital letter, but not otherwise.
f o^ampletf.— Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Milky Way, Jersey City,
Suspension Bridge, Pacific ocean, New York city. Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Ban-
ker Hill, Hudson river, Red River, Queens county, Lake Erie, General Jackson,
White Mountains, river Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew, North Pole.
* Dead Sea is composed of the class name sea, which applies to all seas, and the
word Dead, which distinguishes one sea firom all others.
Many writers would hegin city, river, county, ocean, etc., in the examples given,
with capital letters ; hut wc think the best usage supports tlie position taken above.
Tliere is going on a slow but steady desertion from the ranks of capital letters.
About a century ago every noun began with a capital letter.
24 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
IMreefion.— Write these words, neing capital letters when needed :•—
Ohio river, professor liuxley, president adams, doctor brown, arctic
circle, clinton county, westchester county, torrid zone, colonel burr,
secretary stanton, lake george, green mountains, white sea, cape cod,
delaware bay, atlantic ocean, united states, rhode island.
Memember that, when the distinguishing word preceded
by of follows the class name, and cannot alone clearly des-
ignate the object, the class name also begins with a capital
. letter ; as. Bay of Biscay. Otherwise, the class name be-
gins with a small letter ; as, state of New York.
l>ireotion.— Write these words, nsing capital letters when needed :—
city of london, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isth-
mus of darien, gulf of mexico, queen of england, bay of naples,
empire of china.
Hemeniber that, when a compound name is made up of
two or more distinguishing words, as Henry Clay, John
' Stuart Mill, each word begins with a capital letter.
l>ircc*lon.— Write these words, using capital letters when needed : —
great britain, lower California, new york, daniel webster, new eng-
land, Oliver wendell holmes, north america, new Orleans, james rus-
sell lowdll, british america.
JRemember that, in writing the titles of books, essays,
poems, plays, etc., and the names of the Deity, only the
chief words begin with capital letters ; as. Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire, Supreme Being, Paradise Lost, the
Holy One of Israel.
I>ir€Ction.— Write these words, using capital letters when needed:—
declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebel-
lion, Webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, lives of the poets,
son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, ban-
croft's history of the united states.
l>f reef ion.— Write these miscellancons names, using capital letters when
needed : —
erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of good hope,
essay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent *of
Abbreviations, 2?
america, new testament, she stoops to conquer, hymn on the nativity,
Indian ocean, cape cod bay, plymouth rock, anderson's history of the
united states, mount Washington, english channel, the holy spirit^
hew york central railroad, old world, long island sound.
LESiOfI 40.
ABBREVIATIONS,
Direction.— Some words occur frequently, and for convenience are abbrcYiated
In writing. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate these words by writing the first
five letters :—
Thursday and lieutenant.
These by writing the first four letters :—
Connecticut, captain, Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota,
Mississippi, Pennsylvania, professor, president, Tennessee, and Tues-
day.
These by writing the first three letters :—
Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Colorado, Dela-
ware, England, esquire, Friday, general, George, governor, honorable,
Illinois, Kansas, major, Monday, Nebraska, Nevada, reverend, Satur-
day, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names
of the months except May, June, and July.
These by writing the first two letters : —
Company, county, credit, example, idem (the same), Iowa, and
Oregon.
These by writing the first letter :—
East, north, Ohio, south, and west.
These by writing the first and the last letter ;—
Doctor, debtor, Georgia, Indiana, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana,
Maine, Maryland, Master, Mister, numero (number), saint, street,
Vermont, and Virginia.
26 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with a period after
each :—
Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year
of our Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (be-
fore noon), before Christ, collect on delivery. District (of) Columbia,
divinitatis doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medi-
cinaB doctor (doctor of medicine)^ member (of) Parliament, North
-America, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York,
post master, post meridiem (afternoon), post office, Rhode Island,
South Carolina, and United States.
■
direction, — TYi.^ abbreviations in colmnn 1 are irregular in the choice of
letters ; and those in colnmn 2, in not beginning with capital letters. These and
those yon have made mnst be committed to memory.
Acct. ,
account.
bu..
bushel.
Bbl.,
barrel.
do..
ditto (the same).
Chas.,
Charles.
doz..
dozen. [pl©)-
TJi. D.,
legum doctor
e.g..
exempli gratia (for exam.
(doctor of laws).
etc..
et cflBtera (and others).
Messrj.,
messieurs
ft..
foot, feet.
(gentlemen).
hhd..
hogshead.
Mme.,
madame.
hdkf.,
, handkerchief.
Mo.,
Missouri.
1. e..
id est (that is).
Mrs.,
(pronounced missis)
1.,
line.
mistress.
11..
lines.
Mts.,
mount/ains.
lb..
libra (pound).
Ph. D.,
philosophiae doctor
oz..
ounce. .
(doctor of philosophy).
P>
page.
Reed.,
received.
pp.,
pages.
Robt.,
Robert.
qt..
quart.
Supt.,
superintendent.
vs..
versus (against).
Thos.,
Thomas.
viz..
videlicet (namely).
yd..
yard.
To the Teacher.— Explain to the pupils that the doubling of the / in //. and
LL. 2>., and of p. in jjp., with no period between the letters, comes from plural-
izing the nouns linef lex^ and page. Hold the pupils to this Lesson till they have
mastered the application of the rules in Lesson 8, and have thoroughly learned all
these common abbreviations.
Verds, 27
LESSOfi U.
VERBS.
Introductory Hints.— We told you, Lesson 8, how, by noticing the essen-
tial likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, we could throw
the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes.
We began to classify toords according to their M«e, or office, in the sentence,
and found one class that name things, and called them 7iouns.
But in ail the sentences given you, we have used and have had to use
another class of words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do^
or assert that they arc, or exist
When we say Clocks tick, tick is not the name of anything ; it tells what
clocks do ; it asserts action.
When we say Clocks are, or There are clocks, are Is not the name of any-
thing, nor does it tell what clocks do ; it simply asserts existence, or being.
When we say Clocks Jiang, stand, last, lie, or remain, these words hang,
stand, last, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that clocks cKt or
simply exist ; they tell the condition, or state, in which clocks are, or exist ;
that is, they assert state of being.
All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call Verbs (Lat.
verbum, a word). The name was given to this class because it was thought
that they were the most essential words in the sentence. They form the
second part of speech.
Give a score of verbs that assert actim. Give all that you think assert
being or state of being.
DEPOmON.— A Verb is a word that asserts action, being,
or state of being.
There are two forms of the verb, the participle and the
infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), which express action, be-
ing, or state, without asserting it.
2>ircc«ion.— Write nfter e-^cli of the following noans as many appropriate verbs
as yon can think of :—
Let some express being or state of being.
28
The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
Model,—
Noun.
bams.
melt
scorches.
Fire
Fires
keep
spreads.
glow
rages.
heat
exists.
liemarfc.— Notice that the
simple form of the verb, as
bum^ melty adds an 8 when its
enbject nonn names bat one
thing.
Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind.
A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words ;
as, is learning, may be learned, could have been learned,
l}lreetion, —Unite the word:? in colnrans 2 and 3, and append the verbs thus formed
to all the nouru in column 1 with which they will make good sense :—
IXemark, — ^Notice that is, was, and has been are used with nonns naming one thing ;
and that are^ were, and have been are used with noans naming more than one thing.
Words
Cotton
Sugar
Air
Teas
Speeches
IS
are
was
were
has been
have been
exported.
refined.
coined.
delivered.
weighed.
imported.
The examples you have written are sentences ; the nouns
are subjects, and the verbs are predicates.
As verbs are the only words that assert, every predicate
must be a verb, or must contain a verb.
Naming the class to which a word belongs is the first
step in parsing.
IMrrc/iow.— Analyze nnd paree five of the sentences you have written.
Model,— Poland was dismembered. Diagram and analyze as in LesEon 4.
Parsinffn— Poland is a noun, because ; was dismembered is a verb, because it
asserts action.
Direction,— ¥1116. and write the verbs in the sentences given in Lessons 30 and 28,
and tell why they are verbs.
Modified Subject. 29
LESSON 4i.
MODIFIED SUBJECT.
Adjectives.
Introductory Hints.— The noun which is the subject and the verb which is
the predicate are not always or often the whole of the structure which we
call the sentence, though they are the underlying timbers which support
the rest of the verbal bridge. Other Mords may be built upon them.
We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from
one another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities.
Things are alike whose qualities are the same ; as, two oranges having the
same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, as an orange and an apple,
whose qualities are different.
It is by their qualities, then, that wc know things, and are able to sepa-
rate them or to group them.
Mpe apples are healtJ\fvl. Unripe apples are hurtful. In these two sen-
tences we have the same word apfdes to name the same general class of things ;
but the prefixed words ripe and wiripe, marking opposite qualities in the
apples, separate them into two kinds, the ripe ones and the unripe ones.
These added words ripe and unripe, then, limit the word apples in its scope ;
ripe apples or unripe apples applies to fewer things than apples alone.
If we say the, this, that apple, or an, no apple, or some, many, eight apples,
we do not mark any quality of the fruit : but th£, this, or that points out a
particular apple, and limits the word apple to that one ; and ati, no, some,
many, or eigM limits the word in respect to the number of apples which it
denotes.
These and all such words as, by marking quality, pointing out, or speci-
fying number or quantity, limit the scope or meaning of the noun, modify
it, and are called Modifiers.
In the sentence above, appies is the Simple Subject and ripe apples Is the
Modified Snbjeot. These and nil such words modifying nouns and profiouns
are called Adjectives (Lat. ad, to, andjacere, to throw), and form the fourth
part of speech.
D£FINITION«~A Modifier is a word or gronp of words Joined
to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning.
30 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
The Subject with its Modifiers is called the Modified
Subject. By some it is called the Logical Subject.
DEFINITION*— An A^ective is a word used to modify a noun
or a pronoun.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. The cold November rain is falling.
^ajplanafion.— The two lines shaded alike and
rain ^ is faaing placed uppermost stand for the subject and the
predicate, and show that these are of the same rank,
and are the principal parts of the sentence. The
lighter lines, placed under and joined to the subject
line, stand for the less important parts, the modi-
fiers, and show what is modified.*
Oral AnalyaiSt—CHeTe and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis and
parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Lessons.) 2%€, cold, and Novem-
ber are modifiers of the subject. The cold November rain is the mMiJled sut^ect.
JParaing.^Thet cold, and November are acfjectives modifying rain,— oJiW, and
November expressing quality, and The pointing out.
2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed.
8. A free people should be educated.
4. The old Liberty bell was rung.
5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned.
6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed.
7j, Every intelligent American citizen should vote.
8. The long Hoosick Tunnel is completed.
9. I alone should suffer.
* To the Teacher.— When several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjec-
tive does not always modify the noun alone. That old icooden house was burned^
Here wooden modifies house, old modifies wooden house, and Ihat modifies old wooden
hxmse. This may be illustrated in the diagram by numberins; ■
the modifiers in the order of their rank, thus : \j \ \ '
Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ * ^»
in rank in the same way, and in the diagram this difference may be indicated as above.
If the pnpils are able to see these distinctions, it would be well to have them made
in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation and the arrangement. See
Lessons 13 and 21.
Composition — A djectives, 3 1
10. Thej all remained.
11. Five large, ripe, luficious, mellow apples were picked.
12. The melancholy autumn days have come.
13. A poor black fugitive escaped.
14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed.
15. Immense suspension bridges have been built.
LESSON 13.
COMPOSITION— ADJECTIVES.
Caution. — When two or more adjectives are used with a
noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If they
differ in rank, place nearest the noun the one most cjosely
modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where they
will sound best — generally in the order of length, the
longest nearest the noun.
M»planation*—Two honest young men were chosen. A taU, straight, dignified
person entered. Young tells the kind of men, honest tells the kind of young m^n,
and tiDO tells the number of honest young men ; hence these adjectives are not of the
same rank. TaU, straight, and dignified modify person independentlj^— the person
is tall and straight and dignified ; hence these adjectives are of the same rank.
Notice the conuna after tall and straight ; and may be supplied ; in the first sen-
tence and cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21.
l>irtfc«io».— Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasons :—
1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog. 2. Level low five tl a
fields. 8. A wooden rickety large building. 4. Blind white beautif iJl
three mice. 6. An energetic restless brave people. 6. An enlightened
civilized nation.
lHrec«ion.— Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these predicates :—
1. have been invented, 6. — — were carved.
2. were destroyed. 7. have been discovered.
3. are cultivated. 8. have fallen.
4 may be abused. ?. will be respected.
6. was mutilated. 10. have been built.
$2 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
IMreeiion.— Conatnict ten sentences, each of which shall contain a subject
modified by tliiee adjectiTCs— one from each of these columns : —
Let the adjectives be appropriate. For ponctoation, see Lesson 31.
The dark simny
That bright wearisome
This diDgy commercial
Those short blue
These soft adventnrouB
Five brave fleecy
Some tiny parallel
Several important cheerless
Many long golden
A warm turMd
IXneeHoit.— Prefix to each of these nomas as many apprq;>riate adjectives as yon
can think of :—
River, frost, grain, ships, air, men.
l>Sr0efioM.— Conple those adjectives and noons, bdow, which most approinriately
go together :—
Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, futhfol, saucy, spirited,
violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly,
waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dov6>
sparrow, blackbird, cow, hen, cackling.
LESSOn u.
MODIFIED PREDICATE.
Adverbs.
Introdnotoiy Hints.— You haie learned that the subject may be modified ;
let us see whether the predicate may be.
If we say The kaveufcdly we express a fact in a general way. But, if we wl6U
to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say The leaves
fall early; of the place of their falling, The leaves fall here; of the magmer^
The leaves fall quieUy; of the caiue. Why do the leaves fall ?
Modified Predicate. 33
We may join a word to any of these modifiers, and even another to that,
and say The leaves fall io very quietly. Hero vei^ modifies quietly^ and 90
modifies very by telling the degree.
So vei'y quieUy is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predi-
cate with its modifiers is called the Modified Predicate. Such words as «o,
very^ here^ and quieUy form the fifth part of speech, and are called Adyerbe
(Lat ad, to, and verbum^ a word, or verb).
Adverbs magr modify adjectives ; as, Very ripe apples are healthful. Ad-
Terbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns — by limiting them. The
horse has diprovdstqp^ or The horse steps protidly.
The Tredicate with its Modifiers is called the Modified
JPredicate* By some it is called the Logical Predicate*
DEriJUTlON.— An Adverb is a word used to modify a Terb|
an a^ectiTe, or an adyerb.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. The leaves fall very quietly.
Uaves faU Mxplanation,— The two lines forming this group elant
the same way to show that each stands for a modifying
word. The line standing for the principal word of the
group is joined to the predicate line. The end of the other
is broken, and tamed to toach its principal.
OreU AnalffHs,—Very quietty is a modifier of the predicate ; quietly is the prin-
cipal word of the gronp ; very modifies quietly; The leaves is the modified subject ;
fall very quietty Is the modified predicate.
Parsing.^Quietly is an adverb modifying /off, telling the manner ; very is an
adverb modifying quietly, telling the degree.
2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down.
8. The stem, rigid Puritans often worshipped there.
XIxplanation.^There modifies worshipped, and (ften modifies toorehipped thstt.
Bee foot-note, Lesson 12.
4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere.
5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted.
3
34 T^he Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
6. The timely suggestion was very kindly received.
7. We Both turned rather abruptly.
8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided.
9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed.
10. Why will people exaggerate so ?
11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unex-
pectedly. ,
12. We now travel still more rapidly.
13. Therefore- he spoke excitedly.
14 You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed.
15.. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by.
16. The Hell Gate reef was Slowly drilled away.
V
I.ESSOII 4S.
COMPOSITION— ADVERBS.
Caution. — Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as
to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the
sound also.
I>ireet{on.— Place the italicized words, below, in as many different i>ositions as
possible, and note'the effect on the sound and the sense :—
1. I immediately ran out. 2. Oni^ one was left there. 3. Qoite a
shower f eU recently. 4. She looked down proudly. 5. Unfortunately ^
this assistance came too late.
IXreetion.— Select subjects from Lesson 5, and compose fire sentences having
modified predicates.
JDircc^ion.— Construct on each of these subjects three sentences having modified
subjects and modified predicates : —
For punctuation, see Lesson 21.
Model,— ckmda .
1. Darky Juavy^ threatening clouds are slowly gathering dbow,
2. Those brilliant^ crimson clouds tvUl very soon dissolve.
8. Thin^^eecy clouds are scudding over.
1. ocean , 2, breeze . 8. shadows
4. rock , 5. leaves .
Review Questions, 35
2Hree(ion.— Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify verbs \-^
Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, legibly, eva-
sively, everywhere, aloof, forth.
Z>{reetioM.— Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall modify
adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs :—
Far, usually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost,
too, rather.
LESSOfl 46.
REVIE\A^ QUESTIONS.
Vo the Teacher,— Unless the pupils have been very thorough in the preceding
work, make two lessons of these Review Qnestions.
Lesson 8. — ^What is classification? Why and how do we clas-
sify ? Illustrate. On what basis do we classify words ? How many
classes are there ? What are they called? What does noun mean?
What office have nouns? What substitutes have nouns? Why
used ? Illustrate. What does pronoun mean ? Give some pronouns.
Define a noun. A pronoun. What is the chief office of nouns?
What is every subject of a sentence ? Is every noun a subject ? Give
the Rules for the capital letter and the period.
Lesson 9.— Do the names of the days of the week begin vdth
capital letters? Of the months? Of the seasons? What is a class
name ? Give the reason for the two capital letters in Jersey City, in
Bla^ek Sea, in Red River, in Mmnt of Olives, in Long Island, in George
WasMngton, in Good Friday, in Isthmus of Suez, in Pilgrim's Prog-
ress, in Tent on the Beach ; for only one in Atlantic ocean, in Hudsort
river. In Eings county, in repulflic of Mexico, in empire of Japan ;
for the three in Holy One of Israel,
Less<m 10. — How have we classed abbreviated words? Dlustrate
each class. Give some that are irregular in their abbreviations.
Give some abbreviations that do not take capital letters.
36 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
■ ' ■ ■— — la
Lesson 11. — What office besides tliat of naming have words ? What
is a verb ? Illustrate the three things it may assert. What does the
word mean ? Must a verb consist of only one word ? What must
every predicate be or contain ? The first step in parsing ?
Lesson 12. — In what are things alike or imlSke ? nitistrate. How
do we separate or group things? What is an adjective? What
effect on the noun has it? Illustrate. The meaning of the word?
What is a modifier? The modified subject? What do some call
) this ?
^^ Lesson 13. — Give the Caution, and Ulustrate it and the explana-
tion.
Lesson 14 — ^May the predicate be modified? By what? Define
an adverb. What classes of adverbs are illustrated in this Lesson ?
What are groups of modifiers? What is the modified predicate?
What do some call this? What parts of speech may an adverb
modify ? Illustrate. What does the word mean ?
Lesson 15. — Give and iUustrate the Caution.
LESSON ir.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSI-
TIONS.
Introdnctory Hintt. — ^To express our thoughts with greater distinctness we
may need to expand a word modifier into several words ; as, A long ride
brought us tfusre^ A ride of one hundred mUes brought us to Chicago. Thepe
gro\xi^& otyrov^s of ime hundred miles SkXi^toCliicago — the one substituted for
the adjective long^ the other for the adverb there — we call Phrases.
^8 adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their equiva-
lent phrases ; we can say The train stops oiily at the station. They some-
times modify only the preposition of the phrase; as, He sailed neariy
around the globe.
That we may learn the office of such words as of to^ and a/, used to intro-
duce these phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to another may
be expressed. Weaithy men. These two words express two Ideas as relat-
Prepositional Phrases and Prepositions. 37
ed. Wc have learned to know this relation by the form and position of the
words. Change these, and the relation is lost— fwm tueaZ/A. But by using
of before toeo^^A the relation is restored — meii of weaUh, The word of does
not seem to express a distinct idea, but it shows the relation between the
ideas expressed by other words.
All such relation words are called Prepositions (Lat. prae^ before, and posi-
tiUy placed— indicating their usual position before the noun).
DEFINITION.^A I^hrase is a group of words dcfnoting related
ideas bat not expressing a tlionght
DEFINITION.— A Preposition is a word wliich introdnees a
phrase modifier, and sliows the relation, in sense, of its prineipal
word to the word modified.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of
vibration.
J^opplanatlon.— The diagram of
g^epends ^^ phrase is made up of a slanting
line standing for the introdoctory
word, and a horizontal line repre-
senting the principal >vord. Under
the latter are drawn the slanting
lines which represent the modifiers
of the principal word and the in-
trodnctory word of its modifying
phrase.
Oral AnalyBU.—The and the adjective phrase of the rmskal noU are modifiers
of the subject ; the adverb phrase upon the rapidity of vi^ation is a modifier of the
predicate. Of introduces the first phrase, and noU is the principal word ; the and
mtisical are modifiers of note ; upon fatrodnces the second phrase, and rapidity is the
principal word ; the and the adjective phrase of vibration are modifiers of rapidity;
of introduces this phrase, and vibration is the principal word.
ParsiMg.'-Cf is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of note, to pUch ;
etc., etc.
T6 the afe<Mjfcer.— Insist that, hi parsing, the pupils shall give specific leasont
instead of general definitions.
38 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
^ _^
2. The Golf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United
States bj the blueness of the water.
3. The North Pole has been approached in three principal direc-
tions.
4. In 1607, Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the
North Pole.
5. The breezy morning died into silent noon.
6. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis.
7. Ckml of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants.
8. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom.
WaXl*
\
Explanation,— Ordy modifies the whole phrase ; vxAiuiU tbc preposition.
9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just
below the Falls.
10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over the moon.
11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the
fifteenth century.
12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at
Seville by the Saracens.
13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000
miles.
14 The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St.
Helena to France.
N( LESSOU 46.
COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.
COMMA— RULE.— A Phrase oat of its *iiataral order or not
closely connected with the word it modifies, should be set off by
the comma.
^ ' ■ ■■■III 1^ . „ — . ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ I ■ I ■! »■ ■■ I ■ ■■■■»»■ ■■ I I— ^—1 .^i^— — ^^»^W^^^.»^B^— M^P—i— ^^^
* For the nataral order of words and phrases, see Lesson 51.
Composition — Prepositional Phrases, 39
JKosptonation.— This role most be applied with cantion. Unless the phrase is to
be made emphatic, or it breaks the continuity of the thought, the growing usage
among writers is not to set it off.
2>i9*eo<ion.— Tell why the comma is or is not used in these sentences :^
1. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley.
2. Of the scenery along the Rhine, many travellers speak with
enthusiasm.
3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor.
4 He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday.
6. In the dead of night, T<dth a chosen band, imder the cover of a
trace, he approached.
IMreefion.— Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation :—
1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans.
2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died.
8. For the sake of emphasis a word may be placed out of its natural
order.
4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced
with wit.
6. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth.
6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest
times to the present day.
Caution. — Place phrase modifiers where there can be no
doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard
to the sound also.
2>irec<ion.— Correct these errors in position, and use the comma when needed :—
1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by
the president.
2. That email man is speaking with red whiskers.
: 8. A message was read from the President in the Senate.
4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning.
6. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at
the old brick church was delivered.
2>ir(?eClon.— Form a sentence out of each of these groups of words ;—
Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation.
40 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
1. Of mind of splendor under tlie garb often is concealed poverty.
2. Of affectation of the joung fop in the face impertinent an was
seen smile.
3. Has been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of
the earth over the face.
V 4 To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last throngh
deep roads we after much fatigue came.
5. At the distance a flood of Hame from the line from thirty iron
mouths of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth.
JHreetion.—'^^» into how many good, dear sentences yon can convert these by
transposing the phrases :—
1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood.
^ 2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the
tenth of May Xn, 1776.
To the Tea«Aer.— Examine the text-books frequently, and see that no pupil marks,
upon the page, the panctnation of the sentences.
LESSON 4©.
COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.
IMreefion.— Rewrite these sentences, changing the italicized words into equivalent
phrases :—
Model,— The sentence was cartfuUy written.
The sentence was written tvUh care.
1. A brazen image was then set up.
2. Those homeless children were kindly treated.
3. Much has been said about the Swiss scenery. "^^
4. An uerial trip to Europe was rashly planned.
5. The Ameriean Continent was probably discovered by Oabot.
I>ire«f {on.— Change these adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases ; ana
then, attending carefully to the punctuation, use these phrases in sentences of your
own :—
1. Bostonian 6. hence 11. Arabian
2. why 7. northerly 12. lengthy
3. incautiously 8. national 13. historical
4 nowhere 9. whence 14. lucidly
5. there 10. here 15. earthward
Compound Subject and Compound Predicate, 41
l>iree<ion.— Compose sentences, nsing these phrases as modifiers :—
Of copper ; in Pennsjlyania ; from the West Indies ; around the
world ; between the tropics ; toward the Pacific ; on the 22d of
December ; daring the reign of Elizabeth ; before the application of
steam to machinery ; at the Centennial Exposition of 1876.
l>ire«tion.— Give the reason for eyery capital letter in Lessons 18 and 19.
To tike Teaeher»—M yonr pnpils need more drill in the analysis and parsing of
prepositional phrases, you can make np for them om exercise or two^ from the sen-
tences in Lesson 18, and those they are to construct in Lesson 19.
LESSON ao.
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND
PREDICATE.
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.
Introductory Hints. — Edward^ Mai'y^ and Elizabeth reigned in England, The
three words Edwardy Mary^ and ElizabethhiL^Q the same predicate — the same
action being asserted of the king and the two queens. Subjects having the
same predicate and united by words expressed or understood form a Com-
pound Snlirject.
Charles Z was seized^ wj» tried^ and vms beheaded. The three predicates was
seized^ was triedj and was beheaded have the same subject — the three actions
being asserted of the same king. Predicates haying the same subject and
united by words expressed or understood form a Oomponnd Predicate.
A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predi-
cate ; as, Mary and Elizabeth lived and reigned in England.
The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or a compound
predicate are called Oonjnnctions (Lat. cwi [c/tm], together, and jungere^ to
join), and form the seventh part of speech.
A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word mod-
ifiers — ^A dark and rainy night follows. Some men sin ddiberatdy and pre-
tiumptuoudy.
It may connect two phrases ; as, The equinox occurs in March and in Sep-
tember.
It may connect two clauses, that Is, expressions which, standing alone,
would be sentences ; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, bid the leaves
of the maple drop in autumn.
42 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
Interjections (Lat. ii^Xer^ between, aod jocerf, to throw), are the eighth anA
last part of speech.
Oh! aJi ! pooh I pshaf etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden and vio-
lent for deliberate sentences.
Hail/ fudge/ indeed/ amen/ etc., once verbs, nouns, or adverbs, have losfe
their grammatical relation to other words. These express condensed
thought as well as feeling.
Any part of speech may thus be wrenched from Its construction with
other words, and may lapse into an inteijection ; as. Behold/ shame/ what/
Two or more connected subjects having the same predi-
cate form a Compound Subject.
Two or more connected predicates having the same sub-
ject form a Compound Predicate.
DEFINITION.— A Conjunction is a word nsed to connect
words, phrases, or clanses.
DEFINITION. — An Interjection is a word used to express
strong or sudden feeling.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. Ah 1 anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news.
AK Mooplanation* — The three short her-
igfog» izontal lines represent each a part of the
j\ componnd sabject They are connected by
.aiders .1 * \ . toait > dotted lines, which stand for the conDecting
jft / \1. \ word. The x shows that a conjanction is
mothern 1/ v* ^ understood. The line standing for the word
"^ ^ \ "<""* modifier is joined to that part of the suhject
^ N^ line which represents the entire subject.
Turn this diagram about, and the horizontal
lines will stand for the parts of a compound predicate.
Oral Analyaia^^WiveSy sisters, and mothers form the compound subject; anx-
ious is a modifier of the compound subject ; and connects sisters and mothers.
Tarslng.—And is a conjunction connecting sisters and mothers; Ah is an inier-
Jectiony expressing a sudden burst of feeling.
2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discnsa
(For diagram see the last sentence of the **Exp]anation.'0
Composition — Connected Terms and Interjections, 43
8. The mental, moia!, and muscnlar powers are improyed by use.
^werfi came
4 The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a
strange parentage.
6. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball,
and there spreads out.
6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the
nerves of the human body.
7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are
found in the body.
8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of
all the faculties.
9. Ugh 1 I look forward with dread to to-morrow.
10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and
solemn, is seen.
11. Tush 1 tush 1 'twill not again appear.
12. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and
in other parts of Asia.
13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously.
14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century.
(The line on which h^tn'e stands should touch the part of the predicate line which
represents the entire predicate. Let x , in place of esAet^ follow did:)
15. The opinions of the New York press are quoted in every port
and in every capital.
LESSOn %\.
COMPOSITION— CONNECTED TERMS AND
I NTER J ECTIONS.
COMMA— RULE,— Two or more words or phrases connected by
foi^nnetions are separated from each other by the comma, unless
all the conjonctions are expressed.
44 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
— — — ^— ■ ■ ■
JBe»»arJlB.— When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs are separated ac-
cording to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not.
Wheif (1) two terms connected by or have the same meaning ; when (2) one term has
a modifier that without the comma might be referred to both ; or when (3) the parts
of compound predicates and of other phrases are long or differently modified, they
are separated by the conmia though no conjunction is omitted.
IHreetion.— Justify the punctuation of these sentences :—
1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca.
2. Empires rise, floorisli, and decay.
8. Ck)tton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States.
4 The brain is protected by the sknll, or cranium.
6. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute.
6. The room was f umiriied with a table, and a chair without legs.
7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well.
JSxplanation,— No comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. Oaken limits
bucket, old limits oaken bucket, and the limits old oaken bucket. Se6 Lesson 13.
8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Qreek, male or
female, friend or foe.
9. We climbed up a mountain for a view.
Mxplanati4>n,— No comma. Up a mountain tells where toe climbed, and fbr a '
vieio tells why we climbed up a mmintain.
10. The boy hurries away from home, and enters upon a career of
business or of pleasure.
11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the
realm, and the brothers and sons of the king.
JKreetion.— Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation, and ^to
your reasons : —
1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run.
2. Bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton.
8. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life.
(Where is the conjunction omitted?)
4 Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England.
5. TIicU relates to the names of persons or things without sex.
6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the
Syriac and the Chaldee.
7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet.
8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and
vrere fed with abundance of hay and grain.
• j
J
Analysis and Parsing. 45
— I I I I - I — ■ *
9. Spring and snmmer autumn and winter rush by in quick buc-
cession.
10. A few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted
village.
EXCLAMATION PODTT— RULE.— All exclamatory express
sions most be followed by the exclamation point.
J^Mnarfc.—Sometfanes an interjection alone and Bometimes the interjection and
the words following form the exclamatory expression ; as, Oh I U hurts. Oh, the
UauHful snow !
is used by many, if not most, writers chiefly or wholly in 4irect address ; as,
OfatheTf listen to me. Oh is nsed as a cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appc^
CAPFTAL LETTERS— RULE.— The words I and O should be
written in capital letters.
JHreetion,— Correct these violations of the two Bales given above :•—
1. o noble judge o excellent young man. 2. Out of the depths
have i cried unto thee. 3. Hurrah the field is won. 4. Pshaw how \
foolish. 5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed. 6. o life how uncertain n
o death how inevitable.
JHreeHoM.— Analyze and jMirse the first seven sentences given in this Lesson.
— . — y
LESSOfl Si.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
lMfl<«e<iOM.— Analyze and parse the remaining sentences given in Lesson 8L
LESSON as.
COMPOSITION— CONNECTED TERMS.
JHreetion^—T&lie the noons below and compose sentences with componnd sub-
jects; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predicates; and
others in which the adjectives, adverbs, and the phrases shall form compound modi*
In some let there be three or more connected terms. Observe Rule, Lesson 21, for
pfimctnation. Let your sentences mean something.
46 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
Nouns.
Arabs, Jews, Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry,
lightning, Lincoln, electricity, leaves, landscapes, pictures, trunk,
root, wall, mines, copper, petals, sepals, silver, flowers, gold, rose,
my.
Verbs.
Examine, accept, sing, pull, push, report, favor, shout, love, hate,
like, scream, loi^the, inquire, honor, approve, fear, obey, refine, hop,
elevate, skip, refute, disapprove.
Adjectives.
2>irecf ion.—See Caution, Lesson 18.
Bright, dull, acute, patient, careful, fastidious, apt, forcible,
simple, homely, happy, short, pithy, arid, sticky, friable, fertile,
wide, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous.
Adyebbs.
lNree«ora.— See Cantion, Lesson 16.
Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly, now, here, never, forever, well,
truly, really, hereafter, wisely.
Phrases.
On sea ; in the city ; by day ; on land ; by night ; in the country ;
by hook ; across the ocean ; under arches ; by crook ; for weal ; over
the lands ; for woe ; along the level road ; under the earth ; up the
mountains ; beneath the skies ; through covered bridges.
S-ESSOU a4.
REVIEW.
Capital Li^tters and Punctuation.
JDirecfion.— Give the reason for eyery capital letter and for every mark of pnno
tnation used below :—
1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or
skin. 2. The degrees of A.B., A.M., D.D., and LL.D. are conferred
by the colleges and universities of the country. 3. Oh I I am so
happy I 4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the
news. 5. Plants are nourished by the earth, and the carbon of the
Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. 47
air. 6. A tide of American travellers is constantly flooding Europe.
7. The tireless, sleepless son rises above the horizon, and climbs
slowly and steadily to the zenith. 8. He retired to private life on half
pay, and the income of a large estate in the South.
l>irec<ion.— Write these expreeeionB, using capital letters and marks of pnnctoa-
tion where they belong :—
1. a fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied 2. maj, cal,
bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl, st 3. o
father o father i cannot breathe here 4 ha ha that sounds well
5. the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of france
6. mrs, vs, co, esq, yd, pres, u s, prof, o, do, dr 7. hurrah good
news good news 8. the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents
and dimes and dollars. 9. the baltic sea lies between Sweden anc^
russia 10. the mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico
11. supt, capt, qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz 12. benjamin franklin was
bom in boston in 1706 and died in 1790
2>irec<ion.— Correct all these errors in capitalization and punctuation, and give
your reasons :—
1. Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People, 2. halloo, i
must speak to You I 8. John Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and,
stayed, for some time, with the Scholars of italy, 4 Most Fuel con-
sists of Coal and Wood from the Forests 5. books are read for
Pleasure, and the Instruction and improvement of the Intellect, 6. In
rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or rubbers
7. hark they are coming I 8. A, neat, simple and manly style is
pleasing to Us. 9. alas poor thing alas, 10. i fished on a, dark, and
cool, and mossy, trout stream.
LESSOU %%.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.
Analysis and Paksing.
1. By the streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the house of Never.—
2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest navi-
gators. — Oiibban,
48
The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the centre of
each and every town or city. — Holmes,
4. The arrogant Spartan with a French-like glorification boasted
forever of little ThermopylaB. — Be Quincep.
5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling
of pleasure or pain. — HamUUm,
6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through
every clime. — Marsh.
7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky
red by two fiery little gray eyes. — Irving.
8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand * with the cul-
ture of the imagination. — TyndaU.
9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and
washed and winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism
in the sea. — Swain.
10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese
Wall, and from the shores of the Caspian sea to those of the Indian
Ocean. — Draper.
11. One half of all known materials consists of oxygen. — Cooke.
12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham,
looked down on the plain of Memphis. — Stanley.
LESSOfi S6.
WRITTEN PARSING.
2>£r«etion.— Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this 3Todel for
Written Earning :—
Ist
Sentence.
2.
3.
Nouns.
Pron.
Veri)8.
A<i}.
Adverbs.
Prep.
Conj.
street!*,
By-and-
house,
Neyer.
one.
arrives.
the, the.
By, of,
at, of.
•
Int.
* Hand in hand may be treated as one adverb, or with may be lappUed.
Review Questions. 49
To the jTectcA^r.— Until the Stibdivisions and Modifications of the parts of
speech are reached, Oral and Written l^araing can be only a classification of
the words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson like this is
needed, and how much parsing should be done orally day by day.
In their Oral Analysis let the pupils give at first the reasons for every state-
ment, but guard agaiust their doing tliis mechanically and in set terms ; and when
you think it can safely be done, let them drop it. But ask now and then, whenever
you think they have grown careless or are guessing, for the reason of this, tliat, or the
other step taken.
LESSOn %7.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
Lesson 17. — What may we use instead of an adjective or an adverb
modifier ? Why do we use it? Illustrate. What is such a group of
words called? Define a phrase. By what may a ph];ase be modified,
and why ? How may relations lost by change in the form or the jk)-
sition of words be restored? Illustrate. What are these relation
.words called ? Do they express ideas ? What is their office ? Define
a preposition. What does the word mean? What have you now
learned that an adverb may modify?
Lesson 18. — Give the Rule for the punctuation of the phrase. What
is the explanation given of it ? Give fresh illustrations of the Hule.
Give instances in which the phrase out of its natural position is not
set off. Give the Caution relating to the position of the phrase. Give
violations of the Caution and correct them. May the phrase often
have many positions ? Illustrate this with a sentence of your own.
Lesson 19. — What may be expanded into a phrase ? Give adjectives
and adverbs, and expand them into phrases.
Lesson 20. — ^What is a compound subject? A compound predicate?
Give a sentence of your own containing both. What is a conjunction ?
What does the word mean ? Give examples showing what a conjunc-
tion may connect. What is an interjection ? What does the word
mean ? Has the interjection any grammatical relation to other words ?
If not, why? Illustrate the two kinds. What is the differenco be*
tweenthem? How many parts of speech are there ? Ans* Eight
50 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
Lesson 21. — Give the Rule for the comma with two or more con-
nected terms.* Illastrate it. Give illustrations of the exceptions
mentioned in the Remark. Give the Rule for the exclamation point.
What besides an interjection may be exclamatory ? How are and
oh generally used? Is ever followed by an exclamation point?
Give the Rule for writing /and 0.
LESSON SB.
NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS.
Introductory Hints.— In snylng 'WoihingUvii captured, we do not fully express
the action performed by Washington. If we add a noun and say Washing-
ton captured Oomwallis^ we complete the predicate by naming that which re-
ceives the action.
Whatever fills out, or completes, is a Oomplement. As CornwaUis com-
pletes the expression of the action by naming the thing acted upon — the
object, — we call It the Object Oomplement. A verb may be completed by two
or more connected nouns torminfi: a. compound olifect compleine'it ; as, Wash-
ington captured OomwaUis and the army.
DEFINITION.— The Object Complement of a sentence
completes the predicate^ and names that which receires the act.
The complement with all its modifiers is called the
Modified Complement.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. Clear thinking makes clear writing.
thinkinfj . makesi , writing Ji:mplanaUon,'^The line standing for the
' \ object complement is a continuation of the
^ predicate line. The little vertical Una only
touches this wlthont cutting it.
Oral Analyaia.—Writlng is the direct complement ; clear toriting is the modified
complement, and maJut dear toriting is the entire predicate.
Nouns and Adjectives as Attribute Complements. 51
2. Austerlltz killed Pitt.
8. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism.
4. Liars should have good memories.
5. We find the first surnames in the tenth century.
6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb.
7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod.
8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held
rank with the greatest schools of Europe.
tocik revdlve8_
Osford . / C, \ , rank moon
Ml Md / ^ Xi Iceeps . side
9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us.
10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread
and butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings.
11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer,
and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity.
12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a propor-
tion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art.
18. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk and thatch
roofs with the leaves of the cocoa-nut palm.
14 The Scriptures have never yet revealed a single scientific truth.
15. Kichelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the
brother, and banished the confessor, of the king.
LEiSOU as.
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE
COMPLEMENTS.
Introdnctory- Hints.—The subject presents one idea ; the predicate, another,
and asserts it of the first. Com is growing presents the two ideas of corn
and growing, and asserts the one of the other. Com gi'omng lacks the as-
serting word, and Corn is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted.
In logic, the asserting word is called the copula — it couples or unites these
two ideas to make a thou;;ht, — and the word expressing the idea asserted
is called the predicate. But as one word often performs both ofiSces,
52 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
e. g., Com ^row«, and as it is in dispute whether any word can assert with-
out expressing sometliing of the idea asserted, we pass this distinction
by as not essential in grammar, and call both that which asserts and that
which expresses the idea asserted, by one name — the predicate.
. The maple leaves become. Tlie verb become does not make a complete
predicate; it does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The idea
may be completely expressed by adding the adjective red, denoting the
quality we wish to assert of leaves or attribute to them — T7ie maple leave*
become red.
Lizards are repiUes, The noun reptUeSy naming the class of the animals
called lizards, performs a like oflSce for the asserting word are. Hdlfe^s wife
was Bxahontas. Ihcahonias completes the predicate by presenting a second
idea, which was asserts to be identical with that of the subject.
When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does not
unite wiih the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish it as the
Attribnte Oomplement.
Most grammarians call the adjective and the noun, when so used, the
Predicate Adjective and the Predicate Noon.
DEFINITION,— The Attribute Complement of a sen^
fence completes the predicate, and belongs to the subject.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. Slang is vulgar.
Slang is . indgar Explanation,— The line standing for the at-
I tribute complement is, like the object line, a con-
tinnation of the predicate line ; bat notice that the line which separates the incom-
plete predicate* from the complement slants toward the subject to show that the
complement is an attribute of it.
Oral AnalyaU,— Vulgar is the attribute complement, completing the predicate
and expressing a quality of slang ; is vidgar is the entire predicate.
2. The sea is fascinating and treacherous.
3. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable.
4. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial.
* We call the verb the predicate ; but, when it is followed by a complement, it is an
incomplete predicate.
Attribute Complements — Continued. 53
5. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dig-
nified, and artificial.
^ 6. The ear is the evor-open gateway of the soul. 1
7. The verb is the life of the sentence.
8. Good-breeding is surface-Christianitj.
9. A dainty plant is the ivy green.
JBSiepIanation.— The sobject names that of which the speaker sajB something;
The Urm» in which he says it,— the predicate,— he, of coarse, assnraes that the
hearer already understands. Settle, then, which— plant or ivy— Dickens thought the
reader knew least about and which, therefore, Dickens was telling him about, and yon
settle which word— jTton^ or ivy—\& the subject.
10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity.
11. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks
of good-breeding.
12. The north wind is full of courage, and puts the stamina of
endurance into a man.
13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and adventure in it.
14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and
grumbling, and curls one up in the chimney-comer.
15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and effeminate
suggestions of luxurious ease.
LESSOM 30.
ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS— CONTINUED.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. He went out as mate and came back captain.
y Explanation,—MaU^ like captain^ is an
voent V j mate attribute complement of He, Some would say
J \a^ that the conjunction <w connects i* to ffe,
came captain ^°^ ^® \h\x!^i this connection is made through
v^ ^ ' the verb went and that as is simply introduc-
^ tory. This is indicated in the diagram.
2. The sun shines bright and hot at midday.
8. Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy.
4. She grew tall, queenly, and beautiful.
54 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
5. Plato and Aristotle are called the two bead springs of all
philosophy.
6. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave.
7. He came a foe and returned a friend.
8. I am here. I am present.
fopplanati^rn.— The oflSce of an adverb eometimes fades into that of an adjective
attribute and cannot be distingoished from it. Hen^ like an adjective, seems to
complete am, and, like an adverb, to modify it. From their form and usual function
here should, probably, in this sentence, be called an adverbs and present an adjective
attribute relating to /.
9. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and grati-
tude.
10. The warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless corpse.
11. The apple tastes and smells delicious.
12. Lord Damley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband.
13. In the fable of the discontented pendulum, the weights hung
speechless.
14. The brightness and freedom of the New Learning seemed in-
carnate in the young and scholarly Sir Thomas More.
15. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and
the gentleman and idol of the time.
LESSOU 31.
OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS.
Introductory Hints.— i?^ made the wall white. Here made does not fully ex-
press the action performed upon the wall. We do not mean to say He
made the white wally but He made-white (whitened) the wall. White helps made
to express the action, and at the same time it denotes the quality attributed
to the wall as the result of the action.
They ^adeVictoria queen. Here made does not fully express the action
performed upon Victoria. They did not make Victoria, but made-qiteen
{crowned) Victoria. Queen helps made to express the action, and at the
same time denotes the oflBce to which the action raised Victoria.
Any word that, like the adjective white or the noun qv^en^ helps to com-
plete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object complement
Is called an attribute complement ; but it differs from other attnbute com-
Objective Complements, 55
plements by belonging not to the subject but to the o^< complement^
and 80 is an Objective Oomplement.
Some of tl)e other verbs which are thus completed are caU^ think, cTiooge,
and name.
DEFINITION.— -The Cfbjective Complement completes the
predicate, and belongs to the object.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. They made Victoria queen.
Explanation,— The line which sepa*
,yr- _ -y, , , rates the incomplete predicate from tho
, The^ , made ^ queen ^Tlctona complement slante toward the olvect com-
plement to show that the complement is an
attribute of it.
Oral A.r zly sis, —Queen is an objective complement completing the predicate
m<ide and belonging to Victoria ; made Victoria queen is the entire predicate.
2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul.
3. Destiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster.
4 President Hayes chose the Hon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of
State.
5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English
nobility, James I. created the worthless Villiers Duke of Buckingham.
6. We should consider time as a sacred trust.
Explanation,— As ^ you see, may be used simply to introduce an objective com-
plement.
7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane.
8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to
foreign coxirts.
0. Shylock would have struck Jessica dead beside him.
10. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous.
11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny.
12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music.
13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York.
14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very
ark of the constitution.
56 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
r. «
LESSOIf 32.
COMPOSITION—COMPLEMENTS.
CatUian. — Be careful to distinguish an adjective attri-
bute from an adverb modifier.
^applanation.— Mary arrived 8(tfe. We here wish to tell the condition of Mary
on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. My head feels bad (is in a bad
condition, as perceived by the Ben?e of feeling). The sun ehines bright {is bright —
quality,— as perceived by its shining).
When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, yon seo
that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.
J>ireetioM.— Justify the use of these adjectives and adyerbe :—
1. The boy is running wild.
2. The boy is running wildly about.
8. They all arrived safe and sound.'
4. The day opened bright.
5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies.
6. He felt around awkwardly for his chair.
7. The sun shines bright.
8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops.
9. He appeared prompt and willing.
10. He appeared promptly and willingly.
jDirecflon.— Correct these errors and give your reasons : —
1. My head pains me very bad.
2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter.
8. Don't speak harsh.
4. It can be bought very cheaply.
6. I feel tolerable well.
J>ireet ton.— Join to each of the nouns below three appropriate adjectives ex-
pressing the qualities as assumed, and then make complete sentences by asserting
these qualities :—
Hard
Model,^ brittle J- glass. Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent
transparent
Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships.
Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 57
> ■■ — ' — — — — ^— — — — — — —
IHrection, — Compose sentences containing these noons as attribute comple-
ments ; —
Emperor, mathematician, Longfellow, Hiclimond.
Direction,— Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, and these pro-
nouns as attribute complements :—
Is, was, might have been ; I, we, he, she, they.
JCemark,— Notice that these forms of the pronouns—/, we^ fhaUy he, ehe^ ye,
theyy and who — are never used as object complements or as principal words in prepo-
sitional phrases ; and that me^ w*, tfieey him, her, them^ and whom are never used as
subjects or as attribute complements of sentences.
IMreceion.— Compose sentences in which each of the following verbs shall have
two complements — the one an object the othsr an objective complement :—
Let some object complements be pronouns, and let some objective complements be
introduced by as.
Model,— They call me chief. We regard composition as very important.
Make, appoint, consider, choose, call.
LESSOia 33.
NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS.
Introductory Hints.— iSbj^omon^ 8 temple was destroyed. Solomon* sWmiiB temple
by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is, therefore, a modifier
of it.
The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apostrophe
and 8 (*«) added to the noun Solomon. This same relation of possession may
be expressed by the preposition of; Solomon's temple -^ The temple of Solomon.
Dom IMrOy the emperor^ was toelcomed by the Americans. The noun emperor
modifies Dom Rdro by telling what Dom Pedro is meant. Both words name
the same person.
► Sdomon^s and emperoTy like adjectives, modify nouns ; but they are names
of things, and, besides, when modified, are modified by adjectives, and not
by adverbs ; as. The toise Solomon's temple, etc. ; Dom Pedro, the Brazilian
emperor, etc. These are conclusive reasons for calling them nouns.
They represent two kinds of Noun Modifiers — the Possesftive and the
Explanatory.
58 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded bj James L
fav(yr\JU (MdUJgh) .wuheheaded Bmplanation. -Raleigh ia written on
\^ I \ " the subject line, becaose it and /avofite
name the same person ; but Saleigh is
Jame$l enclosed within curves to show th&t favor-
ite is the proper grammatical subject.
Oral Analysis,— Elizabeth's and JRaleigh are modifiers of the subject, the first
telling whose favorite is meant, the second what favorite. Elizaibeths favorite^ Raleigh
is the modified subject.
2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are
derived from Tyndale's version.
8. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero.
4 A fool's bolt is soon shot.
6. The tadpole, or poUiwog, becomes a frog.
JTopplanaf ion.— Logically, or in sense, poUitoog is explanatory of tadpole; bnt
grammatically the two words are of the same rank, as or connects them. See Les-
son 76.
6. An idle brain is the devirs workshop.
7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was bom in the year 509, and died in
682.
8. They scaled Mount Blanc— a daring feat.
Thet/ I scaled , Mount Mane
Bxplanation,—Feat is explanatory of the sentence They scaled Mount BlanCj and
in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short line placed after the sentence
line.
9. Bees communicate to each other the death of the queen, by a
rapid interlacing of the antennae.
Explanation,— Each^ denoting one thing, is explanatory of Bees which denotes
many things. Two or three words, as below, may be explanatory of one word ; or
one word, of two or three.
10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks — brain, blood, and
breath.
Composition — Nouns as Adjective Modifiers, 59
^r-^— ■ III ■ II IBM I III I -- 1 ■ ' -"
11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone— its shell and coat of
armor — are on the outside of its body.
12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1658, and ended
in 1668.
Explanation,— A8y namely^ to wlt^ viz.y i. «., e. g.^ and that is may introduce ex-
planatoiy modifiers, but they do not Beem to coimect them to the words modified. In
the diagram they stand like as in Lesson 90. J^rotector is explanatory of CromweWs*
13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful na-
tions, namely, Russia, Austria and Prussia, united for the dismember-
ment of Poland.
14. John, the beloved disciple, lay on his Master's breast.
15. The petals of the daisy, day'a-eye, close at night and in ndny
weather.
LESSOIf 34.
COMPOSITION— NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE
MODIFIERS.
COMMA— RULE.— An Explanatory Modifier ^ when it does
not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it, is set off
by the comma.
Explanation,— The tvords I and should be written in capital letters. The
phrase land restricts words, that is, limits its application, and no comma is needed.
Jacobus favotite sons^ Jos^h and Benjamin, were RacheTs children. Joseph and
Benjamin explains sons without restricting, and, therefore, should be set off by the
comma.
In each of these expressions, / myseHf, we boys, William the Conqueror, John
Adams, the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained, and no
comma is needed. If the order of the words in the name John Adams is changed, a
comma is needed ; as, Adams, John.
INreetion.— Give the reasons for the insertion or omission of commas in these
sentences :—
1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat-club.
• 2. The author of the Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the
son of a tinker.
3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary
reputation.
6o The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
4. The conqueror of Mexico, Ck)rtez, was cruel in his treatment of
Montezuma.
5. PizarrOy the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard.
6. The Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast
friends on a raft at Tilsit.
l>lrcc<fort.— Insert commas, beloA •, where they are needed, and give yoor rea-
sons :—
1. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name to
France.
2. My son Joseph has entered college.
8. You blocks I You stones I O you hard hearts I
4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans.
5. He himself could not go.
6. The poet Bpenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth.
7. Elizabeth Queen of England ruled from 1558 to 1603.
IMrection.— Compose sentences containing these expressions as explanatory
modifiers : —
The most useful metal ; the capital of Turkey ; the Imperial City ;
the great English poets ; the hermit ; a distinguished American
statesman.
l>irecfion.— Punctuate Ihese expressions, and employ each of them in a sen-
tence :—
See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit or, and note the eflfect.
1. Palestine or the Holy Land . 2. New York or the Empire
State . 3. New Orleans or the Crescent City . 4. The five
Books of Moses or the Pentateuch.
nirecHon.— After changing each prepositional phrase, below, to an explanatory
modifier by omitting the o/y use it in a sentence :—
Punctuate what you write.
1. His father's trade of wool-combing . 2. This land of Ca-
naan . 3. The hour of twelve . 4. The joyful cry of
" land " . 5. The islands of Cuba and Hayti .
IMrection.— Change each of these prepositional phrases to a possessive modifier,
and use it in a sentence : —
1. The experience of a little boy . 2. The history of Eng-
land . 3. The discoveries of Dr. Livingstone . 4. The ca-
reer of Cromwell .
Nouns as Adverb Modifiers. 6i
» .< . ^— ^«— ^1— ^»i ■■
LESSON 3§.
NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS.
Introdnotoiy Hints.— JETe gaxe me a book. Here we have what many gram-
marians call a double object, Book^ naming the thing acted upon, they call
the direct object ; and me^ naming the person toward whom the act is
directed, the indirect^ or dative^ object
You see that me and book do not, like ComwaUts and army^ la Washington
captured Comvxdlis and his army^ form a compound object complement .
they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for they do not stand in the
same relation to the verb gave. The meaning is not He gave me and the
book.
We prefer to treat these so-called indirect objects as phrase modifiers
without the preposition. If we change the order of tlie words, the preposi-
tion must be supplied ; as. He gave a book to me. He bought me a book;
He bought a book for me. He asked me a questimi ; He asked a question of me.
Teach^ tell, send^ and lend are other examples of verbs said to be followed
by*double objects.
Besides these so-called indirect objects, nouns denoting measure, quantity,
weight, time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverbially, being
equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition. We walked four
miles an hour. It weighs one pound. It is wortli a doUar a yai'd. 1 went
home that way. Tlie wall is ten feet^ six inches high .
The idiom of tlie language does not often admit a preposition before
nouns denoting measure, direction, etc. In your .analysis you need not
supply one.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. They offered Gtesar the crown three times.
They '. ofTered , croton Explanation.— Ccesar, the so-CAllcd dative
object, and times, the noun denoting measure,
stand in the diagram on lines representing the
principal words of prepositional phrases. But
there are no prepositions on the slanting lines,
nor is there an x to mark the omission, there
being no preposition understood.
Oral Analysis,— Caisar and times, without prepositions, perform the office of
adverb phrases modifying the predicate offered.
62 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
• — ■ ■ ' 1^
2. We pay the P^esidp^t of the United States $50,000 a year.
3. He sent his daughter home that way.
4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a
ponnd for his sugar.
6. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death.
G. Serpents cast their skin oaee a year.
7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, CJonn., fell Aug. 21, 1856.
8. Qood land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of com an
acre.
9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants
brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water.
10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water.
11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means
of gills.
12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor.
13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy.
14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an
ounce.
15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night.
LESSOli 36.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
To the Teacher,— It necessary, make two leesons of this.
' Lesson ^%, — What is a complement? Why so called? An object
complement ? Illustrate. What is a compound object complement ?
Illustrate. A modified complement ? Illustrate.
Lf^sm 29.— What office has the subject ? What two offices has the
predicate? Illustrate. What is the copula ? Why so called? What
distinction do we neglect in grammar, and why ? Define and illus-
trate an attribute complement. Why so called ? What is an incom-
plete predicate? Is there ever any difficulty in distinguishing the
Review Questions. 63
subject from the attribute complement? What is the way out of the
difficulty? Illustrate.
Lesson 30. — ^What is the office of as in the first sentence ? What do
some say of it? What is the reason for our disposition of it? Into
-what, in its office, does an adverb sometimes fade ? Illustrate.
Lesson 81. — Does made fully express the action asserted in the two
sentences? What words are needed to complete the expression of
the action? What are these words called ? What do they complete ?
To what do they belong ? What are some of the verbs thus com-
pleted ? What does a>s introduce in example 6 ?
Lesson 33. — What is the Caution, and what the explanation of it?
niostrate. Give some of the common errors. What forms of the
pronouns are never used as object complements or as principal words
in prepositional phrases ? What forms are never used as subjects or
as attribute complements of sentences ?
Lesson 33. — How do Solomon* s and em/peroT modify their nouns ?
What relation does *« in the first word show? Between what does the
relation thus expressed exist ? Do these words perform the office of
adjectives? Why are they not adjectives ? What kinds of modifiers
are they ? How are the two words in the fifth sentence related in
sense? How grammatically? What office have <w, namely, etc.,
before explanatory modifiers ? What may a single word be explan-
atory of? Two or three words? Illustrate fully.
Lesson 34.— Rule for the punctuation of the explanatory modifier.
Illustrate fully. ,
Lesson 35. — Give an example of the so-called double object. Which
is the direct, and which the indirect, or dative, object? What is our
disposition of the latter ? When is the preposition used before this
object? Illustrate. The usual position of this object? How are
nouns denoting measure, etc., used? Why are they not object com-
plements ? Do they often admit prepositions before them ?
64 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
LESSOU %1.
VERBS AS ADJECTIVES AND AS NOUNS— PA R^
TICIPLES.
Introdnotoiy Hints.— Cbrw grows; Com growing. Here growiiig differs from
grown in lacking the power to assert. Growing is a form of the verb which
cannot, lilie growsy malce a complete predicate, bi'causc it only assumes the
act — implies that the com docs the act. Corn may be called its assumed
suljeci.
This form of the verb is called the Participle (Lat. pars^ a part, and eapere^
to take), because it partakes of two natnrcs and performs two offices — ^those
of a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun.
BirdSy singing^ ddight tus. Here shiging does duty (1) as an adjective^ dc-
Bcdbing birds by assuming or implying an action, and (2) as a verb by ex-
pressing the act of singing as going on at the time they delight us.
By singing their songs birds ddight us. Here singing has the nature of a
yerb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement son^s; and
as a noun it names the action, and stands as the principal word in a preposi-
tional phrase.
Their singing so sweeUy delights tM. Here also singing has the nature of a
yerb and of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier sweeUy^ and as a
noun it names an act and takes a possessive modifier.
Singing birds ddight us. Here singing has lost it verbal nature, and ex-
presses a permanent quality of birds — telling what kind of birds, — and so is
a mere adjective. T/ie singing of the birds ddights us. Here singing is simply
a noun, naming the act and taking adjective modifiers.
You see that there are two * kinds of participles ; one sharing the nature
of the verb and of the adjective ; the other, the nature of the verb and of
the noun. The common endings of the participle are iwigr, ed^ and en.
The participle, like otlier forms of the verb, may be followed by an object
or an attribute complement.
* Many grammarians restrict the name participle to the first kind, calling
words of the second kimX gerunds, or verbal nouns, because tliey suppose
all verbal forms which are used as nouns to have a different origin, and to
have once had a different ending. But the original participles, like other
adjectives, are freely used as nouns.
Verf*s as Adjectives and as Nouns — Participles. 65
Analysis and Parsing.
The participle may be used as an adjective modifier.
1. Hearing a step, I turned.
I , tumBd ^a5pla?M»<ion.— The Hne standing for the participle is hrokcn ;
>^ one part slants to represent the adjective nature of the participle,
\*^na I tfgp ^^d ^b® other is horizontal to picture its verbal nature.
\ Oral ^nal2^«l«.— The phrase hearing a step is a modifier of
the subject ; * the principal word is hearing , which is completed by the noun step;
tttp is modified by a.
Parsing,;— Hearing is a form of the verb called participle, because the action ex-
pressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an adjective and of a
verb.
2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use.
JExplanation.— The complement is here modified by a participle phrase.
3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down-
ward through the back-bone.
4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the cele-
brated forest of the Hague.
JSxplanat ion. —The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here modified by
a participle phrase.
6. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the
populace with the sports of the amphitheatre.
The participle may be used as an attribute complex
tnent.
6. The natives came crowding around.
JSaDplanation.— Crowding here completes the predicate came, and belongs to the
subject natives. The natives are represented as performing the act of coming and
the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the predicate came seems
to extend over both verbs. ^
7. The city lies sleeping.
8. They stood terrified.
* Logically, or in sense, hearing a step modifies the predicate also. I turned when
or because I heard the step. See Lesson 79.
5
(36 The Sentence and tlte Parts of Speech.
II-, ,,. iiiii .^-^.M,
9. The philosopher sat bnried in thought.
10. The old miser kept grabbing and saving and starving.
The participle may be used as an offfective annplemefU.
11. He kept me waiting.
Explanation,— Waiting completes kept and relates to the object complement
me. Kept'Waiting expresses the complete action performed upon me. He hq^tt-
waiting me = He detained me. The relation of waiting to me may be seen by changing
the form of the verb ; as, I was kept waiting. See Lesson 31.
12. I found my book growing dull.
EoDplanation* —The diagram representing
V the phrase complement is drawn above the com-
ytofna y dull plement line, on which it is made to rest by
I means of a support. All that stands on the
I . found ^ yAy , book complement line is r^arded as the complement.
' N^ Notice that tlie little mark before the phrase
^ and the one before dull point toward the ottJeU
complement
13. He owned himself defeated.
14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in
turbulent mobs.
15. I felt my heart beating faster.
16. You may imagine me sitting there.
17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly tamed
into a king.
LESSOII U.
PARTICIPLES— CONTINUED.
Analysis and Parsing.
The participle may be used as principtU ward in a
prepositional phrase.
1. We receive good by doing good.
We fMeiue aood XJxplanatian.— The line representing the parti-
I ^ ' ytwtt ^jpj^ ^^^ j^ broken in the centre ; the first part rep-
resents the participle as a nonn, and the other as a
good verb. (Nouns and verbs aie both written on hori*
sontallinesO
receive , gi
Participles — Continued. 67-
Oral Analjf sis, —The phrase by doing good is a modifier of the predicate ; &y
introduces the phrase ; the principal word is doing ^ which is completed by the noun
good.
Parsing.— Doing is a participle ; like a noun, it follows the preposition by; and,
like a verb, it takes an object complement.
2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain.
8. The Ck)liseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand per-
Bons.
4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and
vigorously.
6. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having
suffered.
The participle may be the pHncipaZ word in a phrase
used as a subject or as an object complement.
6. Tour writing that letter so neatly secured the position.
Vl jting , letter Explanation,— The diagram of the sub-
ject phrase is drawn above the subject line.
— \\ \%
^ xri \ -A-ll that rc3ts on the subject line is r^arded as
the subject.
, secu red . position ^ , . . —
I ' ^ — \^ ' Oral Analj/sis.-The phrase Your writ-
\ ing that letter so neatly is the subject; the
principal word of it is writing^ which is com-
pleted by Utter; writing ^ as a noun, is modified by Tour; and, as a verb, by the
adverb phrase so neatly.
7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others.
8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent.
9. Qood reading aloud is a rare accomplishment.
The participle may be used as a mere noun or a unere
adjective*
10. The cackling of geese saved Rome.
11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many a long-
forgotten song.
12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility.
18. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner.
68 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
The participle may be used in independetU or €ib8olute
phrases.
14 The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the
river.
Explanatlon.'-The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a noun
ased independently with a participle, stands by itself. See Lesson 44.
15. Jesus having turned and ^K)ken to Marj, she recognized him.
\ 16. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's
" constitutionals."
\
\
\
LESSOM 3©.
COMPOSITION— PARTICIPLES.
COMMA— RULE.— The Participle used as au acUectiTe modifier,
-Vf ith the words belonging to it, is set oif by the commay unless re-
strictive.
Bxplanatian,-~A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me wUh a tong ; The
bird sitting on fJie wall is a wren. Lighting describes withoat restricting; sitting
restricts— limits the application of bird to a particular bird.
J!>lrec<ion.— Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson 87.
Caution. — In using a participle be careful to leave no
doubt as to what you intend it to modify.
JHreetion, — Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving 3rour
reasons : —
1. A gentleman will let liis house going abroad for the summer to a
small family containing all the improvements.
2. The town contains fiftj houses and one hundred inhabitants
built of brick.
3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor hand-
somely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap.
4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in
gnawing an acorn we espied a squirreL
Verbs as Nouns — Infinitives. 69
>
5. A po<5r child was found in the streets bj a wealthy and benevo-
lent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger.
JHre«<ion.— Recast these sentences, making the reference of the participle clear,
and ponctnating correctly :—
Model,-- Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen.
Incorrect, because It appears that the ocean did the climbing.
Climbing to the top of the hUl, we saw the Atlantic ocean.
1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo.
2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well.
3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock.
JHreetion.o Compose sentences in which each of these three participles shall be
nsed as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional )>hra8e, as the
principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object cimplement, as a mere
adjective, as a mere noun, and in an absolute phrase :—
Buzzing, leaping, waving.
LESSON 40.
VERBS AS NOUNS— INFINITIVES.
Introductorj Hints.—/ came to see yon. Here tlie verb see, like the participle,
lacks the asserting power — I to see asserts nolhing. See, following the prep-
osition to, * names the act and is completed by you, and so does duty as a
noun and as a verb. In office it is like the second kind of participles, de-
scribed in Lesson 37, and from some grammarians has received the same
name— some cuUinij both gerunds, and others callinj^ both infinitives. It dif-
fers from this participle in form, and in following only the preposition to.
Came to see ^^ came for seeing.
This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as
a subject or as an object complement ; as, To read good hooks isprofilable; I
like to read good books. Here also the form with to is equivalent to the parti-
cipial form reading. Beading good books is profitable.
As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without
limiting it to a subject, we call it the Infinitive (Lat. infitiUus, without limit).
* For the discussion of to with the infinitive see Lesson 134.
70 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
Frequently the infinitive expresses puipose, as in the first example given
above, and in snch eases ix> expi*esse8 relation, and performs its full function
as a preposition ; but when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as
object complement, the to expresses no relation. It serves only to intro-
duce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the verb.
The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the dif-
ferent complements.
nvwse ,
Analysis and Parsing.
The infinitive phrase may be used as an adjective or an
adverb modifier.
1. Tlie hot-hoase is a trap to catch sunbeams.
»o<-W J i. ^ trap Oral Anal»H,^7i> Intm-
^ \^ duces the phrase; catch is the
principal word, and sunbeams
catch , nmbeaiM completes it.
:Parsing.-To is a preposition, introduchig the phrase and showing the relation,
in sense, of the principal word to trap ; catch is a form of the verb called inflnUive ;
like a noun, it follows the preposition to and names the action, and, like a verb, it is
completed by sunbeams.
2. Kichelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and
decision of character.
3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were
defeated.
4. We will strive to please you.
Matpianatiofi,— The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the
predicate.
5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race.
6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy.
Explanation.— Happy completes make and relates to us.
7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.
Explanation,—'^^ iijfiultive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the
adjective hard. To^^^=,tobe healed,
8. The reprfisentative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to
seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle
palace, and again to sell off and wander.
Infinitives — Continued. 71
9. These apples are not ripe enongh to eat.
Explanation.— The infinitive phrase is here used adycrbially to modify the
adverb enough. To eat ^ to be eaten.
The infinitive phrase may be used as subject or coiti-
piement*
10. To be good is to be great.
^ \^ Explanation.— TOt in each of these phrases,
\ tg V good \ be y greaJt shows no relation — ^it serves merely to introduce.
The complements good and greai are adjectives
^ ^ ^ ^ nsed abstractly, having no noon to relate to.
A I » ^ A
11. To bear our fate is to conquer it.
12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is imx)ossibla
13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive.
14. He seemed to be innocent.
Explanation.— The infinitive phrase here performs the oflice of an adjective.
To be innocent — innocent,
15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him.
16. We should learn to govern ourselves.
Explanation.— The infinitive phrase is here nsed as an object complement.
17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice.
LESSOM 44.
INFINITIVES— CONTINUED.
Analysis.
Tlie infinitive phrase may be used after a preposition
as the principal term of another phrase.
1. Mj friend is about to leave me.
Explanation. — The preposition about intro-
duces the phrase used as attribute complement;
the principal part is the infinitive phrase to leave
me*
72 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
2. Paul was now about to open Ms mouth.
3. No way remains but to go on.
M»planation,—But is here used as a preposition.
The inflnitite and its assumed svXiject may form the
principal term in a phrase introduced by the preposition
for.
4. For ns to know our faults is profitable.
Explanation,— For introduces the sub-
— PY* j^c^ phrase ; the principal part of the entire
V bMM f uU* phrase is us toknawour favUs; the principal
y\^ V ' ^ Va — word is tw, which is modilied by the phrase
V U> know ourfauUs,
6. God never made liis work for man to mend.
Bxplanation,—The principal term of the phrase for man to mend is not man^
but m>an to mend.
6. For a man to be proad of bis learning is the greatest ignorance.
The infinitive phrase may be used as an exptanattyry
modifier*
7. It is easy to find fault.
Explanation,— The infinitive phrase to find
\ fault explains the subject it. Read the sentence
ytyf , fhtiU without W, and yon will see th3 real nature of the
~j phrase. This use of i^ as a substitute for the tieal
T(Cy/\\ is eaw subject is a very common idiom of our langnage.
I ^ It allows the real subject to follow the verb, and
thus irives the sentence balance of parts.
8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it.
9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope.
10. It is not all of life to live.
11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful.
The infinitive phrase may be used as (Objective com>pie^
fnent,
12. He made me wait.
Explanation.— The infinitive wait (here used without to) completes made and
relates to me. He made-wait 7ne = He detained me.
This use of the infinitive is similar to the third use of the participle, described in
Lesson 87. Compare Imw him do it with / saw him doing it. Compare also Il4
Infinitives — Continued, 73
made the stick 6cw<?— equalling He made-bend (or bent) the stick— vAUh He made the
stick straigM—equBWmg He made-straight (or straightened) the stick.
The relation of these objective complements to me^ Aim, and stick may be more
clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus : I was made to wait, He was seen
to do it, He was seen doing it. The stick was made to bend, The stick was made straight.
13. We found the report to be true.*
(The diagram for this will be sunilar to that for sentence 12, Lesson S7.)
14 He commanded the bridge to be lowered, f
15. I saw the leaves stir.
Explanation,— stir is an infinitive without the to.
16. Bishop Jewel pronounced the clerical garb to be a stage dress.
LESSOJ^ 4%,
INFINITIVES— CONTINUED.
Analysis.
The infinitive phrase may be used independently J^,
1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. .
2. Every object has several faces, so to speak.
3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinettei
were executed.
Jtetnarlc.—Yot the infinitive after as, than, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and
infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms ; as, shall (to) walk, have
walked.
♦ This diagram illustrates another way of treating the infinitive with its assumed
subject. The whole expression report to be true may be taken as a phrase comple
<rgpnrt ment equivalent to the clause that the
Ns* I V" report was true.
■ A v^
We found A \ ft< v true This method of treating the phrase to be
I ■ ' ^ > \ true indicates that it is merely an assumed
modifier of report; but it seems to us that
it is made to belong to report through the verb found, as may be seen by changing
the form of the verb— 7%« report was found to be true.
t Notice the difference, in construction, between this sentence and the sentence
Be commanded him to lower the bridge. Him represents the one to wfuym the com-
mand is given, and to lower the bridge Is the object complement. This last sen-
tence = He commanded him that he sTiould Uytcer the bridge. Compare He told me to go
with /fe told (to) me a story ; also^e taught me to read with He taught (to) me reading.
X These infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 7».
4
74 'J^he Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
Infinitives and Participles.
Miscellaneous.
4 It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord.
5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the
heat of the sun.
6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having
changed so.
7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze.
8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole.
9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies.
10. To be, or not to be, — ^that is the question.
11. I supposed him to be a gentleman.
12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and re-
pairing its waste, is a necessity.
13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another
time.
14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of
the window, to drown herself.
15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours
smoking and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling.
LESSON 43.
COMPOSITION— THE INFINITIVE.
lMree<{on.— Change the infinitives in these sentences into participles, and the
participles into infinitives : —
Notice that to, the only preposition nsed with the infinitive, is changed to ioicard,
fOTy of J at, irty or on, when ihe infinitive is changed to a participle.
1. I am inclined to believe it. 6. There is a time to laugh.
2. I am ashamed to be seen there. 7. I rejoice to hear it.
3. She will be grieved to hear it. 8. You are prompt to obey.
4. They trembled to hear such 9. They delight to do it.
words. 10. I am surprised at seeing you.
5. It will serve for amusing the 11. Stones are used in ballasting
children. vessels.
Words and Phrases used Independently, 75
» — _______^ — I — ■
2>irerf ion.— Improve these sentences by changing the participles into infinitives,
and the infinitives into participles :—
1. We began ascending the moon- 8. I commenced to write a letter.
tain. 4 It is inconvenient being poor.
2. He did not recollect to have paid 5. It is not wise complaining.
it.
2>ircc«o».— Vary these sentences as in the model :—
Model.— BiHnff early is healthful, To rise early is healthfnl, It is healthful to riM
early, For one to rise early is healthful.
(Notice that the explanatory phrase after U is not set off by the comma.)
1. Reading good books is profitable. 4 Endorsing another's paper is
2. Equivocating is disgraceful. dangerous.
8. Slandering is base. 5. Swearing is sinful.
JMreefioM.— Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitiTe shall be used as
an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in three as a nomi.
JDirection.— Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed by an
infinitive without fo :—
Model,— We saw the sun Hnk behind the mountain.
Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see.
LESS0I9 44.
^VORDS AND PHRASES USED INDE-
PENDENTLY.
Introductory Hints.— In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrases
that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of the
sentence.
27ie faulty dear Brutus^ in not in <yiir stars. Dear Brutus serves only to ar-
rest attention, and is independent by address.
Bx)r man! he fiever came back again. Boor man is independent by exclama-
tion.
Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort m£. Bod and staff simply call attention
to the objects before anything is said of them, and ore independent by
pteonasm^-9. figure used sometimes for rhetorical effect, but out of place
and improper in ordinary speech.
y6 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech*
ffis maater being absent^ the himnws was neglected. SU master being abaetit
logically modifies the verb toon neglected by assigning the cause, but the phrase
has no connective expressed or understood, and so is grtanmaticaUy inde-
pendent. This is called the a&«oZt«^/>Ara«e.
Bis conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking is a participle with-
out connection, and with tlie adverb generally forms an independent phrase.
To confess the truth, I was wrong. The infinitive phrase is indepen-
dent.
Some adverbs, as loeB, now, why, there, when, without modifying anything,
they simply introduce the sentence, are Independent. Wdl, life is an enig-
ma. Now, that is strange. Why, it is already noon. There are pitch-pine
Yankees and white-pine Yankees.
Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned,
and so are indejHindent
Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of
the rest of the sentence ; as, I stake my fame {and Ihadfame\ my heart,
my hope, my soul, upon this cast
Analysis and Parsing.
1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows.
Explanation*— Tom is independent by address, and in the diagram mnst stand
by itself. But is used as an adjective modifying shadows.
2. There are one story intellects, two story intellects, and three
story intellects with sky -lights.
JExplanation,—'T%ere was once an adverb of place. Bat often, as here, it is now
used idiomatically merely to throw the subject after the verb— the idea of place having
faded out of it. To express place another there may follow it ; as, There is gold there.^
3. Ah ! then and there was harrying to and fro.
4. Hope lost, all is lost.
5. The smith, a mighty man is he.
6. Why, this is not revenge.
7. Well, this is the forest of Arden.
8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool.
. 9. Tp speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies.
10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow.
11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday.
12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomiom upon Massachusetts,
Composition — Independent Words and Phrases, yj
*• — ■
13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs.
14. But the enemies of tyranny — ^their path leads to the scaffold.
15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman!) managed the matter
extremely well.
16. A day later (Oct. 19» 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Qrand
Army, from Moscow.
LESSON 4§.
COMPOSITION—INDEPENDENT ^WORDS AND
PHRASES.
COMMA— HULE.— Words and phrases independent or nearly so
are set off by the comma.
JB«nuirJip.— Interjections, as yon have seen, are nsnally followed by the exclamation
point ; and there, nsed merely to introduce, is never set o& by the comma. When the
break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in (5), Lesson 44, the conmia is used ;
bat if it is more complete, as in (14), the dash is required. If the independent ex-
pression can be omitted without affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marics
of parenthesis, as in (15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of pa-
renthesis, see Lesson 148.)
Words and phrases nearly independent are those which like however , of course,
indeed, in short, by the hye,far instance, and accordingly, do not modify any word or
phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole ; as, Lee did not, howevei\ foUxym
Washington's orders,
IHreetlon.—Wiite sentences illustrating the several kinds of independent expres-
sions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained.
JDireetion.— Write short sentences in which these words and phrase?, used in a
manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate tbem properly :—
In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover,
however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then,
too, of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore.
IMreetion.— Write short sentences in which these words shall modify some par>
ticnlar word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma :—
Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still.
78 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
LESSON 46.
SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO
MEANING.
Introdnctorf Hints.— In the previous Lessons wc have considered the sen-
tence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let us now
lool^ at it as a whole.
The mountains l\fl up their Tieculs. This sentence simply affirms or declares
a fact, and is called a Declarative Sentence.
Do the mountMTu lift up t/ieir lieada? This sentence asks a question, and is
called an Interrogative Sentence.
Lift up your heads. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an
Imperative Sentence. Such expressions as Tou must go^ You shall go are
equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperative
form.
Sow the mountains lift up their heads! In this sentence the thought is
expressed with strong emotion. It is called an Exclamatory Sentence.
Sow and what are usually used to introduce such sentences; but a declara-
tive, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may become exclamatory
when the speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelin"^ ; as, It is impos-
sible ! Sow can I endure it ! Talk of hypocrisy after this!
DEFCniTION.— A Declq,rative Sentence is one that afflrms or
denies.
DEFINITION.— An Interrogative Sentence is one tliat ex-
presses a question.
DEFINITION.— An Imperative Sentence is one tliat expresses
a command or an entreaty.
DEFINITION.— An Exclamatory Sentence is one that ex-
presses sudden thought or strong feeling.
INTERROGATION POINT— RULE.— Erery direct interrogatiTe
sentence should be followed by an interrogation point.
l>iree<ion.— Before analyzing these sentences classify them, and justify the
terminal marks of pnnctoatiou \~~
Miscellaneous Exercises in Review, 79
Analysis and Parsing.
1. There are no accidents in the providence of God.
2. Why does the very marderer, his victim sleeping before him,
and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow^ strike wide of
the mortal part ?
3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss.
(The sabject is you anderstood.)
4 How wonderful is the advent of spring I
5. Oh I a dainty plant is the ivy green I
0. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work.
7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of
his age.
8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself !
9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.
10. Lend me your ears.
11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has !
12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character?
13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God.
14 How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night
long, on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead !
15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag
into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his
den, and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his
cannon and the shouts of his triumph?
LESSON 47.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.
Analysis and PARSiNa.
1. My having in Sanscrit, like Orlando's beard, is a younger
brother's revenue. — B,. Q. White.
MaDplanati4nt»^IAke Is an adjective— /ij(:« {to or unto) beard,
2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu
would permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence.
— Stephen.
8o The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry ; a
flag, floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory
ministry to-day. — Conway,
4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of
foaming phrase. — Lowell,
5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew
into strong eddies about themselves aU the glory and the pomp of
Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art. — De
Quineey.
6. Beason's whole pleasure, all the joys of cense lie in three
words— health, peace, and competence. — Pope.
7. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye. — Tyler.
8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun.— ^
LongfeUow.
9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plan-
tagenets, become noble by association. — F. W. Bobertson.
10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night. —
Beecher.
11. In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Buth, went
gleaning the silent flelds of childhood, and found the scattered grain
still golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair. — Curtis,
LESSOU 4S.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.
Analysis Ain> Parsing.
1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of .Plus's bag, and
carries the two and thirty winds in the boiler of his boat. — Emerson.
2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes
the case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of Resurrec-
tion. — Holmes.
8. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of
the Old.-^Canning.
4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the
constant linguistlo exercise of that organ. — Warner*
Review Questions, 8 1
5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb
ticketed upon it. — Ewrle,
6. Tbe Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of des-
potism. — PhUHps,
7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so. — Gail
Hamilton,
8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds. — Lamb,
9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes
and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual calm. —
AddUan,
10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved be-
yond the power of science. — Breton's Oram,
Explanation,— Beyond the power qf teUnce = impossible^ and bo is an atmoate
complement. The prepoBition beyond shows the relation, in sense, of power to the
Bobject phrase.
11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories
by turning somersets in the air. — Longfellow,
LESSOM 49.
REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION.
IHreetiion,—Qiye the reason for the marks of punctoation used in Lessons 10, 18,
81,88,88, 87, 44, and 46.
LESSON §0.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
Lmon, 87.— How does growing differ from grows? Does it make a
complete predicate ? Why not ? What is it called, and why ? What
two natures has it? Illustrate the double nature and the double
office of the participle. What may it lose and become ? What kinds
of participles are here distinguished ? What are the common endings
of participles?
82 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
^ Lesson 88. — What are the seyen uses of the participle illustrated in
the sentences of Lessons 37 and 38 ? Explain each.
Wesson 89. — ^What is the Bnle for the punctuation of the participle
and the participle phrase ? Give the explanation. What is the Cau-
tion ? Illustrate errors under it.
Lesson 40. — How does see in I came to see you resemble a participle ?
How does it perform the office of a noun and of a verb? What is it
like in office? In what does it differ from a participle? How is this
form of the verb frequently used? What is its name, and why?
In I came to see you what does the infinitive express ? What office has
to f Does to before the infinitive always express a relation ? What
does it do ? What may the infinitive^ like the participle, be followed
by? What two uses of the infinitive are illustrated by the sentences
in this Lesson ? Explain each.
< Lesson 41. — ^What four uses of the infinitive are illustrated by the
sentences in this Lesson? Explain each. What is said of the use
otUf
Lesson 42. — ^What use of the infinitive is illustrated by the sentences
in this Lesson ? Explain it.
Lesson 43. — ^Into what may infinitives be changed? What does Pf
become in the change? After what verbs is to before the infinitive
omitted ? Illustrate.
Lesson 44. — ^What is meant by the independence of words and
phrases ? In what ways is the noun used independently ? Illustrate.
What is the absolute phrase ? Illustrate. Logically, does it modify
anything? What forms of the verb are used independently? What
adverbs, and when ? How are interjections and parentheses used ?
Lessen 45. — Give the Rule for the comma. What is, the substance
of the Remark? What is meant by words and phrases nearly in-
dependent? Illustrate.
Lesson 46. — ^How are sentences classified in respect to meaning?
How does each express the thought? Define each kind of sentence.
Qive the Rule for the interrogation point.
Arrangement — Natural Order, 83
LESSON §4.
ARRANGEMENT— NATURAL ORDER.
Let us recall the Natural Order of words and phrases
in a simple declarative sentence.
The verb follows the subject, and the object complement
follows the verb.
Example,— Drake circumnavigated the globe.
I>lree<ion.— Obserring this order, write three sentences each with an object com-
plement.
An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun,
and an explanatory modifier follows it.
Examples. —Man's life is a britf span. MoseSy the lawgiver y came down from the
Honnt.
l>ireef<on.— Observing this order, write four sentences, two with possessive mod-
ifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing an adjective.
The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective,
follows the verb, the objective complement follows the
object complement, and the so-called indirect object pre-
cedes the direct.
. Examples,— "Egjpt is the vdUey of the Nile. Eastern life is dreamy. They
made Bont^^rte consul. They offered Ccesar a crown.
l>iree<ion.— Observing this order, write fonr sentences illnstrating the positions
of the noun and adjective when they perform these offices.
If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely
modifying the noun stands nearest to it ; if of the same
rank, they stand in the order of their length — the longest
nearest the noun, if they precede it ; the shortest nearest
if they follow.
Exafnpl€9,—T\D0 honest yottng men enlisted. Cassias has a lean and hungry
look. A rock, huge and precipitous^ stood in our path.
lMre«f<on.— Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating the relative
position of adjectives before and after the noun.
An adverb precedes the adjective, adverb, or phrase
84 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
•mm
which it modifies ; precedes or follows the simple verb or
the verb with its complement ; and follows one or more
words of the verb if the verb is compound.
Xaeamples. ^The light far in the dUtance is so very bright. I soon found him,
I hurt him badly. He had qften been there.
JMreefion.— Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these several posi-
tions of the adverb.
Phrases follow the words they modify ; if a word has two
or more phrases, those most closely modifying it stand
nearest to it.
^xiimples,— Facte once established are facts forever. He sailed for lAverpool on
Monday.
IMreoeion.— Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the positions of
participle and prepositional phrases.
LESSON %%.
ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED ORDER.
Xntrodnctorf Hints.— The common and natural order, spoken of in the
preceding Lesson, is not the fixed and only order admissible in an Eng-
lish sentence ; on the contraiy, great freedom in the placing of words
and phrases is sometimes allowable. Let the relation of tf^e words be kept
obvious and, consequently, the thottgM clears and in poetry, in impassioned
oratory, in excited speech of any kind, one may deviate widely from this
order.
One's meaning is never distrihated evenly among his words ; more of it
lies in some words than in others. Under the influence of strong feel-
ing, one may use words out of their accustomed place, and, by thus at-
tracting attention to them, give them additional importance to the reader
or hearer.
When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of Its usual place,
appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the rear, we have what
we may call the Transposed Order. I dare not venture to go down into the <xiiHn
— Venture to go doton into the cabin I dare not. Ton shall die — Die you shall.
Their names toiU forever live on the lips of the people — Their names wiU^ on the lips
^ the people^ forever live.
Arrangement — Transposed Order, 85
When tho word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or the
principal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme example of the
transposed order ; as, A yeoman had he. Strange is the magic of a turban.
To the TeaeJ^er.— Where, in oar directions in these Lessons on Arrangement and
Contraction, we say change, transpose, or restore, the pupils need not write the sen-
tences. Tliey should study them and be able to read them. Bequire them to show
what the sentence has lost or gained in the change.
l>ire«<ion.— Change these sentences from the natural to the transposed order by
moving words or phrases to the front, and explain«the effect :—
1. He could not avoid it. 8. Ho ended his tale here.
3. They were pretty lads. 9. The moon shone bright.
8. The great Queen died in the 10. A frozen continent lies beyond
year 1603. the sea.
4. He would not escape. 11. He was a contentious man.
5. I must go. 12. It stands vmtten so.
6. She seemed young and sad. 13. Monmouth had never been ac-
7. He cried, " My son, my son ! " cused of cowardice.
J>i'reetion — Change these sentences from the transposed order to the natural, and
explain the effect :—
1. Him the Almighty Power 8. That gale I well remember.
hurled headlong. 0. Churlish he often seemed.
2. Volatae he was. 10. One strong thing I find hero
8. Victories, indeed, they were. below.
4. Of noble race the lady came. 11. Overhead I heard a murmur.
6. Slowly and sadly we laid him 12. To their will we must sue
down. cumb.
6. Once agun well sleep secure. 13. Him they hanged.
7. This double office the participle 14. Freely ye have received.
performs.
2>£rec«loi».— Write live sentences, each with one of the following nouns or adjec-
tives as a complement ; and five, each with one of the adverbs or plirases as predicate
modifier ; then transpose the ten with these same words moved to the front, and
expla!n the effect :— -
Oiant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in tho market, long
and deeply, then, under foot.
JMrcrtioOT.— Transpose these sentences by placing the Italicized wcrds last, and
note the effect : —
1. The clouds lowering upon our house are Jmried in tho deep bosom
of the ocean.
86 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
2. ^neas did hea/r from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the
old Anchises.
8. Sach a heart 'beals in the breast of mj people.
4 The great fire roared up the deep and wide chimney,
2>it*eet<on.— Change these to the natural order :—
1. Ko woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won.
2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its
proper price, displayed.
8. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of
the family, suddenly stopped.
4 Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the
earth, concealed.
5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in
school, the most difficult and valuable.
l>ire«fion.— Write three sentences, each with the following nonn or adjective or
phrase in its natural place in the predicate, and then transpose, placing these words
wherever they can properly go:—
Mountains, glad, by and by.
LESSON S3.
ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED ORDER.
IHreefion.— Kestore these sentences to their natural order by moving the object
complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell what is lost by the change \-^
1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth.
2. " Exactly so," replied the pendulum.
8. Me restored he to mine office.
4 A changed France have we.
5. These evils hath sin wrought.
XMrecfion. — Transpose these sentences by moving the object complement and
the verb, and tell what is gained by the change :—
1. The dial-plate exclidmed, " Lazy wire I "
2. The maiden has such charms.
8. The English character has faults and plenty of them.
Arrangement — Transposed Order. 87
4. I will make one effort more to save you.
5. The king does possess sucli great power.
6. You have learned much in this short joumej.
JDireeflon.— Write six transposed sentences with these noons as object comple*
ment8,and then restore them to their natural order :—
Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift.
JMreciion.— Restore these sentences to their natural order by moving the attribnte
complement and verb to their usual places, and tell what is lost by the change :—
1. A dainty plant is the ivy green.
2. Feet was I to the lame.
8. A mighty man is he.
4. As a mark of respect was the present given.
5. A giant towered he among men.
INreefioit.— Transpose these sentences by moving the attribnte complem^it and
the verb, and tell what is gained by the change :—
1. We are merry brides.
2. Washington is styled the " Father of his Conntiy."
8. He w&s a stark mosstrooping Scot.
4. The man seemed an incarnate demon.
5. Henry YIIL had become a despot.
INreetion.— Using these nouns as attribute complements, write three sentences
in the natural order, and then transpose them :—
Rock, desert, fortress.
lMre«<ion.— Restore these sentences to their natural order by moving the adjec-
tive complement and verb to their usual places :—
1. Happy are we to-night, boys. 7. Blood-red became the snn.
2. Good and upright is the Lord. 8. Doubtful seemed the battle.
8. Hotter grew the air. 9. Wise are all his wajrs.
4 Pale looks your Grace. 10. Wide open stood the doors.
5, Dark rolled the waves. 11. Weary had he grown.
6. Louder waxed the applause. 12. Faithful proved he to the last.
IHreofioM.— Transpose these sentences by moving the adjective c<HnpIement and
the verb 1-7
1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing.
2. The anger of the righteous is weighty.
8. The air seemed deep and dark.
4 She had grown tall and queenly.
88 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
5. The peacemakers are blessed.
6. I came into the world helpless.
7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless.
8. The fall of that house was great.
9. The uproar became intolerable.
10. The secretary stood alone.
J>ire«<ion.— Write five tnuisposed Bentences, each with <me of these adjectiTes as
fkttribate complement, and then restore them to the natmal order :—
Tempestuous, huge, glorious, livelj, fierce.
LESSON S4.
ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED ORDER.
2>ireef ion.— Kestore these sentences to the natural order by moving the adverb
and verb to their nsnal places, and note the loss :—
1. Now is the accepted time. 8. Away went Gilpin.
2. Then burst his mighty heart. 9. Off went his bonnet.
8. Here stands the man. 10. Well have ye judged.
4. Crack I went the ropes. 11. On swept the lines.
5. Down came the masts. 12. There dozed the donkeys.
6. So died the great Columbus of 18. Boom I boom I went the guns.
the skies. 14. Thus waned the afternoon.
7. Tictac I tictac I go the wheels 15. There thunders the cataract
of thought. age after age.
2>ir0efiora.— Transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and the verb :—
1. I will never desert Mr. Micaw- 6. A sincere word was never ut-
ber. terly lost.
2. The great event occurred soon 7. It stands written so.
after. 8. Venus was yet the morning
8. The boy stood there with dizzy star.
brain. 9. Tou must speak thus.
4. The Spaniard's shot went 10. Lady Impudence goes up to
whing I whing I the maid.
5. Catiline shall no longer plot 11. Thy proud waves shall be
her ruin. stayed here.
Arrangement — Transposed Order.
89
IHreef ion.— Write ten sentenceB in the transposed order, using these adverbs :—
Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never.
THrtetion, — ^Restore these sentences to the natural order by moving the phrase
and the verb to their nsoal places, and note the loss :—
1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh.
2. Seven years after the Restora-
tion appeared Paradise Lost.
8. Into the valley of death rode
the six hundred.
4 To such straits is a kaiser
driven.
5. Upon such a grating hinge
opened the door of his daily
life.
6. In purple was she robed.
8. Near the surf ace are found the
implements of bronze.
9. Through the narrow bazaar
pressed the demure donkeys.
10. In those days came John the
Baptist.
11. On the 17th of June, 1775,
was fought the Battle of
Bunker Hill.
12. Three times were the Romans
driven back.
7. Between them lay a mountain 13. To the very mouths of the
ridge. cannon they rushed.
IMreef {on.— Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and the verb : —
1. The disciples came at the same
time.
2. The dreamy murmur of insects
was heard over our heads.
8. An ancient and stately hall
stood near the village.
4 His trusty sword lay by his
side.
5. Pepin eventually succeeded to
Charles MarteL
6. The house stands somewhat
back from the street.
7. Our sphere turns on its axis.
8. The bridle is red with the sign
of despair.
9. I have served in twenty cam«
paigns.
10. Touch proper lies in the finger-
tips and in the lips.
I>if*«o#<on.— Write ten sentences in the natural order, using these prepositions to
introduce phrases, and then transpose them, and compare the two orders :—
Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to.
IMroeKon.— Write six sentences in the transposed order, beginning them iptith
these words:—
There (independent), nor, neither.
90 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
LESSON %%.
ARRANGEMENT— INTERROGATIVE
SENTENCES.
If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it,
the order is natural.
EooannpleM*— Who came last evening ? What star shines brightest ?
l>ire<;f Ion.— Write five interrogative sentences, using the flrst word below as a
subject ; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject ; the tbird as a
subject and then as a modifier of the subject.
Who, which, what.
If the interrogative word is object or attribute complement
or a modifier of eitlier, the order is transposed. .
Exaiinpl€9,—Whom did you see! What are personal comequencea f Whidi
course will you choose ?
IHreet ion. —Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as object
complement, and another with the second word as attribute complement. Write font
with the third or the fourth as object or attribute complement, and four with the
third or the fourth as modifier of the object or attribute complement :—
Whom, who, which, what.
If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is trans-
posed.
Mxatnples.—Why is the forum crowded ? WTiere are the fxnoers, the fair young
flowers ?
l>irectio».— Write six interrogative sentences, using these adverbs :—
How, when, where, wherefore, whither, why.
If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands
after the verb when this is simple ; after the first word of it
when it is compound.
Examples, —Have you your lesson ? ITas the gentleman finished ?
D<rc««<on.— Write six interrogative sentences, using these verbs : —
Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must
SAA
DOC
IMreeeion.— Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into declarar
tive sentences.
Contraction of Sentences. 91
-
LESlOU §6.
ARRANGEMENT— IMPERATIVE AND EX-
CLAMATORY SENTENCES.
The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sen-
tence; but, when it is expressed, the sentence is in the
transposed order.
Exank,ple9»-^Prai8« ye the Lord. Oive {thou) me three grains of com.
Direction.— Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which the subject
shall be omitted ; and in five, expressed :->
Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, stiiye, devote.
Although any sentence may without change of order be-
come exclamatory (Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sentences
ordinarily begin with how or what, and are in the trans-
posed order.
X!xafnples,—Baw quietly the child sleeps I How excellent is thy loving kindness \
Whet visions have I seen I What a life bis was 1
Direction*— Write six exclamatory sentences with the word how modifying (1) an
adjective, C^ a verb, and (8) an adverb -io three sentences let the verb follow, and
in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences with the word what modify-
ing (1) an object complement and (2) an attribute complement-4u two sentences let
the verb follow, and in two precede, the subject.
2><ree«oi».— Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into declara-
tive sentences, and then into interrogative.
l.£SS0f9 nt.
CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES.
IHreelion.— Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiers and
prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the lost :—
1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater,
and a great writer.
2. By their valor, by their x>olic7, and by their matrimonial alli-
ances, they became powerfuL
92 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
8. Sam. Adams's habits were simply a»d frugal and anostentatious.
4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental 1
5. There was no pause, no hesitancy, and no despondency.
6. They are truly prosperous and truly happy.
7. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remon-
strances and resolutions and defiance.
8. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations.
J>»recf Ion.— Expa^ tbese^by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the preposition,
and the conjuncUoir?—
IT'fie was a good son, father, brother, friend.
2. The tourist travelled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine.
8. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous.
4 Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart
l>lrec«on.— Write eight senteucesi, each with one of these words nsed four times ;
and then contract them, as above, and note the effect of the repetition and omis-
Bion:—
Poor, colossal, how, thus, with, through, or, and.
Direct ton .—Expand these sentences by supplying subjects :—
1. Give us this day our daily bread. 5. Where hast been these six
2. Why dost stare so ? months ?
8. Thank you, sir. 6. Bless me !
4 Hear me for my cause. 7. Save us.
2>{receion.— Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it :—
1. Nobody there. 6. Short, indeed, his career.
2. Death to the tyrant. 7. When Adam thus to Eve.
3. All aboard I 8. I must after him.
4. All hands to the pumps I 9. Thou shalt back to France.
6. What to me fame? 10. Whose footsteps these ?
2>ireeflo»».~Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note the loss
in vivacity :—
1. Upon them with the lance. 6. Off with you.
2. At youf service, sir. 7. My kingdom for a horse I
8. Why so unkind ? 8, Hence, you idle creatures f
4 Forward, the light brigade I 9. Coffee for two.
6. Half -past nine. 10. Shine, sir?
Review Questions, 93
11. Back to tlij punishinent, false 14. Once more unto thebieach.
fugitive. 15. Away, away I
12. On with the dance. 16. Impossible 1
13. Strange, strange 1
Direction,— Contmci these by omitting the subject or the verb :—
1. Art thou gone ? 6. How great is the mystery ]
2. Will you take your chance? 7. Canst thou wonder ?
8. His career was ably run. 8. May a prosperous voyage be to
4. Are you a captain ? you.
5. May long life be to the republic. 9. Are you here?
lHr«e<{ora«— Contract these by omitting both subject and verb, and note the gain
in force and animation : —
1. I offer a world for sale. 7. It is true, sir.
2. Now, then, go you^to breakfast. 8. We will drink a health to
8. Sit you down, soothless in- Predosa.
suiter. 9. I offer a i)enny for your
4 I want a word with you, wife. thoughts.
5. Those are my sentiments, ma- 10. Whither are you going so
dam. early ?
6. Bring ye lights there.
2>ireetion.~Con8tnict ten full sentences, using, in each, one of these adverbs or
phnises or nouns, and then contract them by omitting both subject and verb :—
Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room»
for the guns, water.
LESSON S8.
HEVIEW QUESTIONS.
2)0 Hie Teacher, —It necessary, make two lessons of this.
Leuan 51. — ^What is meant by the order of words ? By the natural
order ? Give the natural place of the verb in the declaratiYe sentence.
Of the noun in its several functions. Of the adjective in its. Of the
adverb. Of adjectives and adverbs in groups. Of single phrases and
of phrases in groups. Illustrate all these.
94 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
Lesson 52. — Is the natural order the common order ? Is it the only
order? Is there much freedom of position in English? In wh^
kinds of speech and writing do you find it ? What is the limit to it 7
How do words and phrases acquire importance in the sentence ? Give
the reason. What is the transposed order? The two grades of trans-
position? Illustrate both. What is the higher grade, and why?
Are words in the predicate often moved to the rear ? By which re-
moval, to the front or to the rear, do these words gain most, and why ?
Is the order of subject and predicate disturbed in the sentences of this
[jesson ? Which ^rade of transposition, then, is here illustrated ?
Lesson 53. — Is the order of subject and verb disturbed in this Les-
son? The noun in what function is first moved? In what other
function, afterwards ? What other part of speech is moved from its
natural place ? Illustrate all these.
Lesson 54. — ^What part of speech is here moved? What phrase?
How do the sentences in the natural and in the transposed order com-
pare ? There, nor, and neither, at the beginning of sentenoes, do what
to them ? Illustrate.
Lesson 55. — What is the order in interrogative sentences when the
interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it? What, when it is
object or attribute complement or nlodifier of either? What, when it
is an adverb ? What, when there is no interrogative word ? Illustrate
all these.
Lesson 56. — Is the subject usually expressed in imperative sen-
tences? What is the order when it stands in the sentence? How
may any sentence become exclamatory? With what words do ex-
clamatory sentences generally begin ? What is the order ? Illustrate
the grades of it.
Lesson 57.— What do we mean by contraction ? What are the sev-
eral grades of contraction? What is the highest? Illustrate them
all. What do sentences gain by contraction ? What is the main ob-
ject of transposition and contraction ?
Complex Sentence — Adjective Clause, 95
LESSOU §a.
COMPLEX SENTENCE-ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
Introdnctoiy Hints.— ^ discreet youth makes friends. In Lesson 17 you
learned that you could expand the adjective discreet into a phrase, and say
A youth of discretion makes friends. You arc now to learn that you can
expand it into an expression that asserts, and say A youth that is discreet
makes friends. This part of the sentence and the other, A youth makes
friends, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call Olanses.
The adjective clause that is discreet, performing the office of a single word,
wc call a Dependent Olante, and A youth makes friends, not performing such
office, we call an Independent Olante.
The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause,
we call a Complex Sentence.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. They ih»i touch pitch will be defiled.
Theu t Vfi^ fte defiled Mxpianation,— The relative importance of the
\ ^1 two clanses is shown by their position, and by the
\ difference in the shading of the lines. The pro-
\ noan that is written on tlie sabject line of the de-
t?iat\t touch I pitch pendent clause. T/iat performs the office of a
' conjunction also. This office is shown- by the dotted
line. As all modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify, yon
learn from this diagram that that touch pitch is a modifier of They,
Oral ^naly«<«.— This is a complex sentence, because it consists of an inde>
pendent clause and a dependent clause. They loill be defiled is the independent
clause, and that touch pitch is the dependent. That touch pitch is a modifier of Then
because it limits its meaning ; the dependent clause is connected by its subject th(A
to They.
To the TeaeA«r.— Illustrate the connecting force of tr/io, which, and that by
substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting the loss of connec-
tion.
2. The lever whicli moves the world of mind is the printing-press.
8. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blosh for
his habits.
MaDpUination,—Th.e adjective clause does not always modify the subject
96 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
4 Photography is the art which enables common-place mediocrity
to look like genius.
5. In 1685, Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the
Edict of Nantes.
6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures
which Sam. Adams framed.
^applanation.— The pronoun connecting an adjective clanse is not always a sub-
ject. If yon substitute meagurw for wAicAand transpose the clause, you will under-
stand the office of which,.
7. The guilt of the slaTe-trade, which sprang out of the traffic
with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins.
V \ ferred.
y(m , r^erred \ ^» Th© spirit in which we act is the
highest matter.
10. It was the same book that I re-
ferred to.
Bxplanation.—The phrase to that modifies rtfetred. That connects the adjec-
tive clause. When the pronoun that connects an adjective clause, the preposition
never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8).
11. She that I spoke to was blind.
12. Grouchydid not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him.
!Explanation,—K preposition is wanting. That = in whidIL
9
13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of.
14. It is to you that I speak.
^ospIanalion.—Here the preposition, which naturally would stand last in the
sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clanse. In analysis
restore the preposition to its natnral plice— It is you that I speak to. Analysis same
as that of (10).
15. It was from me that he received the information.
(Me must be changed to I when from is regtored to its natural position.)
16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of
the ocean.
J^x?>lana<{on.— The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of biue,
17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothen
interesting.
Adjective Clauses — Continued, 97
LESSOli 60.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES--CONTINUED.
ANALYBI8.
1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit ^the retina in
the time you take to breathe.
^ivpl<ma<ion.— The connectiDg pronoun omitted. Supply Mo/.
2. The ffowth takes his name from his mnoothing the metals he
works on.
8. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw.
4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth.
Explanation,— The adjectiTe clause modifles the omitted antecedent ottolunn.
Supply him.
5. He did what was right.
He t did , x
I \ JExplanation, — The adjective clause
\ modifies the omitted word thing^ or some
word whose meaning is generid or indef*
what \ . toaa y rigM inite.*
6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of
show.
7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived.
8. What men he had were true.
Explanation.— Mm is here taken from its natural position before what^ and
placed after it, as If the relative were an adjective. In analysis restore it to its
place— JIfen what (= thaC) he had were true.
* Another way of treating the relative what is preferred by many of the ablest
grammarians. It is well to know both methods.
/ In the sentence He did what was rights it is said that the clause what was right is
the object of did^ and that what ia the subject of was.
" W?iat was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its use
as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect interrogative ; it is
confined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives, and before which no ante-
cedent is needed, or permitted to be expressed. Its possessive whose has, howev<^,
attained the full construction of a relatiye.'^^i¥t2^. F. A. March.
7
98 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled.
JE?aej>latuseiof».— The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject {jnan or ht) of
the independent clanse.
10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest.
11. Whatever crashes individuality is despotism.
12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited.
depot , ig V p7flcg Explanatiwi,-!!^^ line represent-
* representing it as an adverb, modifies
are deposited. As where performs these two <^ces, it may be called a cor^uncUve
adverb. By changing where to the equivalent phrase in wMch^ and using the diagram
for (8), Lesson 50, the doable nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen.
13. He raised the maid from where she knelt.
(^wppij the place \)etore wliere.)
14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown.
15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a
losing suit against Antonio.
16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the opera-
tions of the universe are conducted.
• \^ \ ing wliere is made up of two parts ; the
upper part, representing where as a
conjunction, connects the adjective
LESSOli 61.
COMPOSITION— ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
COMMA.— RULE.— The Adjective Clause^ when not restrictiTe,
is set off by the comma.
Explanation.— 1 picked the apple which was ripe. I picked the apple, which
was rips. In the first sentence, t&e adjective clanse restricts or limits appU^ telling
which one was piclced ; in the second, the adjective clause is added merely to de-
scribe the apple picked, being nearly equivalent to I picked the apple, and it was
ripe. This difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.
Caution.— The adjective clause should be placed as near
as possible to the word it modifies.
Composition — Adjective Clause. 99
IMrtfcfion.— Correct the following errors of position, and insert the comma when
needed :—
1. The Knights of the Bound Table flourished in the reign of
King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits.
2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple.
3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm
which we had for breakfast.
4. You have no right to decide who are interested.
JHreetion, — Ck)n8tnict five complex sentences, each containing an adjective danae
equivalent to one of the following adjectives :—
Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable.
JDireeeion.— Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by
expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses :—
1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish.
2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of
our liberties.
8. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the
night.
4. Some i>eople, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages
of their native land.
5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphan-
age, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate
Chamber.
i>lreo<ion.— Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding
the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses :— >
1. I have many things to tell you.
2. There were none to deliver.
3. He had an ax to grind.
4 It was a sight to gladden the heart.
5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear.
JXreefion.— Form complex sentences in which these pronouns ond conjunctive
adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses :—
Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever.
/ When, where, and why.
IMreefion.— Change thai which in the following sentences to what^ and what to
(hat which ; whoever to 7u who, and whatever to anything or everything which ; wher€
and when to a/, on, or in which; wherein to in which; and whereby to by which :•
lOO The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
1. Thai vHiich is seen is temporal.
2. WliaJt God hatli joined together let not man put asunder.
8. Wli/oeter lives a pious life blesses bis race.
4. WlKiUneT we do has an influence.
5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands
on the very spot uihere brave men died.
6; The year vihen Chaucer was bom is uncertain.
7. The play's the thing ioherein TU catch the conscience of the
king.
8. You take my life in taking the means wheri^ I live.
JDireee ioM.—Bxpand these poesessiye and explanatory modiflers into adJectiTe
clauses:—
1. A man* 8 heart deviseth his way.
2. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck this flower, safety.
8. Bea9on*s whole pleasure, all the joys of sense
lie in three words — health, peace, and eompetenee.
LESSOfi 6i.
IHreetion.— Analyze the last twenty one sentences in the preceding Lesson.
LESSOU 63.
COMPLEX SENTENCE— ADVERB CLAUSE.
Introductory Hints.— J9« arrived late. In Lesson 17 you learned that you
could expand the adverb late into a phrase, and say He arrived atmidnight.
You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of Time, and say
He arrived when the dock strHck ttcelve.
He stood where I am. The adverb clause, introduced by icAeiy, is a clause
of Place, and is equivalent to the adverb here or to the phrase in this place.
This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant. The adverb clause, introduced
by tiM . . .CM, modifies prqfttaUe^ telling the Degree of the quality ex-
pressed by it
Complex Sentence — Adverb Clause. loi
Analysis and Parsing.
The adverb clause may express time*
1. When pleasure calls, we listen.
M^ , li^cn. jExplanation.^Wken modifies both listen and caUt,
I S. denoting that the two actions take place at the same time.
\^ It also connects i);0(wur« calls, as an adverb modifier, to
*'•& Uitsn. The offices of the conjunctive adverb Whm may
pleature \ calls ^ better understood by expanding it into two phrases
f^ thus : We listen at the time at which pleasure calls. At
the time modifies listens, at which modifies calls, and which connects.
The line representing When\B made up of three parts to picture these three offices.
The part representing it as a modifier of calls is, for convenience, written above its
principal line instead of below it
2. While Lonis XlV. reigned, Europe was at war.
8. When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord will
take me up.
wiUtake
X!aoplanatlan.—Bj changing then into at
the time, and When into at which, the offices
of these two words will be clearly seen. For
explanation of the line representing When^
see Lesson 14 and (1) above.
4. Gato, hefore he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the
night in reading " Plato's Immortality."
5. Many* a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave.
^^planation.—Many here modifies year, or, rather, year as modified by a.
The adverb clause may express place,
6. Where the snow falls, there is freedom.
7. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever
he could find it.
* ** Maniff man in Anglo-Saxon was used like Qerman mancher mann, Latin multus
Hr, and the like, until the thirteenth century ; when the article was inserted to
emphasize the distribution before Indicated by the shigular number. "—iVizf. F. A,
Mfaixht
I02 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
8. The wind bloweth where it listeth.
The adverb clause may express degree*
9. Washington was as good as he was great.
JSxplanation.—The adverb claase as he wa$ great modifies the first at^ which is
an adverb modifying good. The first a$^ modified by the adverb claose, answers the
question, Qood to wliot extent or degree ? The second a$ modifies great and performs
tlie office of a conjnuction, and is, therefore, a conjunctive adverb. Transposing,
and expanding a$ . . . as into two phrases, we have Washington was good in the de-
gree in which he was great. Diagram as above.
10. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became.
JCa^lanation,— The words 7^ ... ^^ are similar in office to a$ . . , as— He
became humbler in that degree in which he became wiser.
11. Gold is heavier than iron.
EaBplanatian.—Beavier = heavy beyond the de-
Odd I is V heavier ^'^' ^^^ '^^'^ ~ *** which. Tde sentence = Gold
I \^ is heavy beyond the degree in which iron is heavy.
\^ Is and heavy are omitted— freqaenily words arc
^ omitted after than and as. Than modifies heavy
iron t t \ X (understood) and connects the clause exprdssihg
* degree to heavier^ and is, therefore, a conjunctive
adverb.
12. Po be right is better than to be president.
Explanation.— To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be presi-
tent (would be good).
13. It was so cold that the mercury froze.
Explanation,— The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced.
The adverb «), modified by the adverb clause that the mercury frozen answers the
question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It was cold to that degree in which
the mercury froze. That^ as you see, modifies froze and connects the clauses ; it la,
therefore, a conjunctive adverb.
14. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury.
Explanation,— It was so cold as to freeze the mercwrsf would indicate or require.
Or, It was as cold as it tvould be to freeze the mercury. Some would resolve this
phrase into the clause that the mercury froze.
15. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding
for it.
16. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded.
17. To preach is easier than to practice.
18. One's breeding shows Itself nowhere more than in his religion.
Adverb Clause — Continued. 103
LESSOfi 64.
ADVERB CLAUSE— CONTINUED.
Introdnctoiy "BSxiXm.—He lived at the foci lives. The adverb clause, Intro-
duced by <u, is a clause of Maimer, and is equivalent to the ad verb /ootisA/j/
or to the phrase in a foolish manner.
The gi'ound is wet^ because it has rained. The adverb clause, introduced
by hecaitse^ assigns the Real Cause of the ground's being wet.
. Jt has rained^ for the ground is wet. The adverb clause, introduced by /or,
does not assign the cause for the raining, but the cause, or, rather, the
RMson, for believing that it has rained.
Analysis and Parsing.
The adverb clause may express manner.
1. He died as lie lived.
B»planation,^\le died in the manner in which be lived. For diagram, tee (1),
LeMon68.
2. The upiight man speaks as be thinks.
8. As the upright man thinks so he speaks.
(For diagram of of ...«>, see when . . . then (3), Lesson 68.)
4 As is the boy so will be the man.
5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the
Burf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore.
The adverb clause may express real cause.
6. The ground is wet, because it has rained.
around ^isKwet
V *''^ M»planaHon,^Beeause, being a mere conjmie>
\\ tioD, Stands on a line wholly dotted.
i( *\7ias raified
7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking.
I04 The Sentence and the Paris of Speech.
8. We should keep the pores of the skin open, for through them
the blood throws off its impurities.
9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, our sleeping
rooms should be well ventilated.
10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it com-
bines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits.
11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains, because bread is made
from its flour.
The adverb clause may express reason.
12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew
Ihem in the wilderness.
18. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh
found them here.
14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning.
15. We Americans are all cuckoos, for we build our homes in the
nests of other birds.
LESSOU 6S.
ADVERB CLAUSE— CONTINUED.
Introdnctorf Hints.— j[jri< roiiM, (he grwtnd will he wet The adverb clause,
introduced by ify asBigns what, if it occurs, will he tlie cause of tlie ground*8
being wet ; but, as liere expressed, is only a Condition ready to become a
cause.
He takes exercim thai he may get wdl. The ndverb clause, introduced by
that^ assigns the cause or motive, or, better, the PnrpoM, of his exercising:.
The ground U dry^ aWtough it Itas raitied. The adverb clause, introduced
by althougfi^ expresses a OonooMion. It is conceded that a cause for th<)
ground's not being dry exists ; but, in tpite of this cause, it is asserted that
the ground is dry.
All these dependent clauses of real cause, reasoti, condition, purpose, and
concession come, as yon see, under the general head of Oanse, although only
the first assigns the cause proper.
Adverb Clause — Continued. 105
Analysis and Parsing.
The adverb clause may expi*ess cmidition.
1. If the air is quickly compressed, enougli lieat is evolved to pro-
duce combustion.
2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always
use prose.
8. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an
image of a dull speaker and a lively listener.
4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors
and the rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part
of the year.
M9DplanatU^n,—T^^ relative position of the enbject and the verb renders the if
unnecessary. This emission of ^^ is a common idiom.
5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is
thrown into the grate to keep the furnace in play.
The adverb dause may express purpose.
6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to
each other.
JBxplanatton,—ThaU introducing a clanse of purpose, is a mere conjunction.
7. Spiders have eyes all over their heads in order that they may
see in many directions at one time.
JExplanation,— The phrases in order that^ to that s that,
8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that
European vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach
the Orient.
9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains
them dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it may
drop them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth.
The adverb clause may express concession*
10. Although the brain is only one fortieth of the body, about one
Bixih of the blood is sent to it.
io6 The Sentence and the Paris of Speech.
11. Thougli tlie atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen
pounds on every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its weight.
Mxplafiation,^SliUi yet^ etc., are con janctive adverbs, which, bes^ides modifying,
may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves.
12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his
foolishness depart from him.
13. If the War of Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, it
arrested its progress for a hundred years.
Explanation,— ](f here — even if = though.
14 Though many rivers fiow into the Mediterranean, they are not
sufficient to make up the loss caused hy evaporation.
LESSON 66.
COMPOSITION— ADVERB CLAUSES.
COMMA— RULE.— An Adverb Clause is set off by the comma,
unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies.
Explanation,— I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad. I will not call him
villain, because it would be unparliamentary. Paper was invented in China, \f the
Chinese tell the truth. In these sentences the adverh clauses are not restrictive, bat
are supplementary, and arc added almost as afterthoughts.
Glass bends easily when it is red-hot. Leaves do not turn red because thefroH
colors them. It will break if you touch it. Hero the adverb clauses are restrictive ;
each is very closely related in thought to the independent clause, and may almost
be said to be the essential part of the sentence.
When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off.
JDireetion.— Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in Lessons 68 and M.
l>ireceio».— Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses of time, place,
dejree, etc. (for connectives see Less. 100), and punctuate according to the Rule :—
1. The leaves of the water-maple turn red — time,
2. Our eyes cannot bear the light — time,
8. Millions of soldiers sleep— ^2a<^.
4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands— p^oc^.
5. Every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew — degree,
6. Vesuvius threw its lava so fBX—<Ugree.
7. The tree is inclined — manner.
Composition — Adverb Clauses. 107
8. The lion springs upon his prey — manner,
9. 123 persons died in the Black Hole of Caleutta — cavM.
10. Dew does not form in a cloudy night — cause,
11. That thunderbolt fell a mile away — reason,
12. We dream in our sleep — reason,
18. Peter the Great worked in Holland in disguise— ^2W9^poM.
14 We put salt into butter and upon raeaX— purpose,
15. Iron bends and moulds easily — condition,
16. Apples would not fall to the ground — condition,
17. Europe conquered Napoleon at last — concession,
18. Punishment follows every violation of nature's Isiw^— concession,
J>ireetion.'— Analyze the first nine sentences which you have here completed.
LESSOM 67.
COMPOSITION— ADVERB CLAUSES.
Abbangement.
The adverb qlause may stand before the independent
clause, between the parts of it, or after it.
JHreeflon.— Think, if yon can, of another adverb clause for each independent
clause in the preceding Lesson, and by means of a caret ( . ) indicate where it may
properly stand in the sei)tence. Note its force in Its several positions, and attend to
the piinctnation. Some of these adverb clauses can stand only at the end.
Z>lrect{on.— Analyze the last nine sentences which you completed in Lesson 66.
LESSOS^ SS.
COMPOSITION— ADVERB CLAUSES.
An adverb clause may be contracted into a participle or
a participle phrase.
l!xatnple,—W?ien he saw me, he stopped = Seeing me, he stopped.
T'ireefion.— Contract these complex sentences to simple ones : —
1. Coral insects, when they die, form yast islands with theif bodiesi
lo8 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
■ — A
2. The water will freeze, for it liaa cooled to 82*".
3. Truth, though she (may) be crushed to earth, will rise again.
4. Error, if he is wounded, writhes with pain, and dies among his
worshippers.
5. Black clothes are too warm in summer, because they absorb
heat.
An adverb clause may be contracted to au absolute
phrase.
J^osample.— FA€n nighi came on, we gave up the chase s= Night coming on, we
gave up the chase.
JHrecftion.— Contract these complex sentences to simple ones :—
1. When oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels,
heat is produced.
2. It will rain to-morrow, for " Probabilities " predicts it.
8. War, though we look at it in its most favorable light, is a dire
evil.
4 Washington retreated from Long Island, because his army was
outnumbered.
5. If Chaucer is called the father of our later English poetry,
Wycliffe should be called the father of our later English prose.
An adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional
phrase, having for its principal word (1) a participle, (2) an
infinitive, or (3) a noun.
l>ir«c«ion.— Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase
having a participle for its principal word :—
Model.^They will call b^ore they leave the city = They will call btfore leaving the
city.
1. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the
Atlantic.
2. If we use household words, we shall be better understood.
8. He grew rich, because he attended to his business.
4. Though they persecuted the Christians, they did not exterminate
them.
Direction*— Contnct each of these adverb clauses to an infinitive phrase :—
Jlfo«lel.— ^he stoops that she may conquers She stoops to conquer.
1. The pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors.
Composition — Adverb Clauses. 109
2. Philip I. built tlie Armada that lie might conquer England.
8. He is foolish, because he leaves school so early in life.
4 What would I give, if I could see you happy !
5. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently.
lMr«ef{on.— Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phraset
having a noan for its principal word :—
Model,— 1SL& fought that he might obtain glory = He fonght/or glory.
"L Luther died where he was bom.
2. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs.
8. The general marched as he was ordered.
4. Crindnals are punished that society may be safe.
5. If you are free from vices, you may expect a happy old age.
An adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting
such words as may easily be supplied.
Bxafnple,—When you are rights go ahead = When right, go ahead.
lMr«etion.— Contract these adverb clauses :—
1. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis L
2. Error must yield, however strongly it may be defended.
Explanation .^However modifies strongly, and connects a concessive clause.
8. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease.
4 No other English author has uttered so many pithy sayings as
Shakespeare has uttered.
(Frequently, clauses introduced by as and than are contracted.)
5. The sun is many times larger than the earth is large.
(Sentences like this never appear in the full form.)
6. This is a prose era rather than it is a x>oetic era.
An adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an adjec-
tive clause or phrase.
JE'jvampIe.— This man is to be pitied, beeatue he has no friends = This jnan, who
has no friends^ is to be pitied = This man, having no friends, is to be pitied = This
man, toithout friends, is to be pitied.
2>i9*eelion.— Change each of the following adverb clauses first to aa adjective
clause, and then to an adjective phrase :—
1. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music.
2. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three
good things.
no The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
LESSON 69.
ANALYSIS.
2Hf*«ef{on.— Tell the kind of adverb clanse in each of the sentences in Lesson 88,
and note the different positions in which these clauses stand.
Select two sentences containing time clauses ; one, a place clanse ; two, degree ;
one, manner; two, real cause; two, reaton; two, purpose; twOt oondiiion; and two^
eoncessiofit and aniUyze them.
LESSON 70.
ANALYSIS.
i>ireol{o».— Tell why the adverb clauses in Lesson 68 are or are not set off bf the
wmma, and analyse those not analyzed in Lesson 09.
LESSON 71.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE— NOUN CLAUSE.
Introductory Hints.— In Lessons 40 and 41 you learned that an Infinitive
phrase may perform many of the offices of a noun. You are now to learn
that a clause may do the same.
Obedience is better than sacrifice •— To obey is better than sacrifice — That
men should obey fs better than sacrifice. The dependent clause That men
should obey is equivalent to a noun, and i > the Subject of m.
Many people believe that the beech tree is never struck by ligMning. The de-
pendent clause, introduced by that^ is equivalent to a noun, and is the
Object Oomplement of bdieve,
27ie fact that nunUdy mildew, and yeast are plants is toondetftd. The clause
introduced by that is equivalent to a nonn, and is Szplanatory of fact.
A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. The clause
introduced by that is equivalent to a noun, and is an Attribute Oomplement
relatin<]^ to peculiarity.
Tourfutwe depends very much on who your companions are. The clause to^o
your companions are is equivalent bo a noun, and is the Principal Term of a
Phrase introduced by the preposition on.
The Complex Sentence — Noun Clause. iii
Analysis and Parsing.
The noun clause may be used as subject.
1. That the earth is round has been proved.
JJ^f^^ JKaBtplatiarton.— The clanse That ths earth is
I round is used like a nonn as the snbject of has
earthy ig\^round^ been proved. The conjunction That* simply in-
^ I troduces the noun clause.
' This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence.
X
^has been proved gtrictly speaking, there is here no principal
clanse, for the whole sentence cannot be called a
clause, i. «., a part of a sentence. We may say that it is a complex sentence in which
the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clanse.
2. That the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass
of gin is singular.
8. " What have I done ? " is asked by the knave and the thief.
4 Who was the discoverer of America is not yet fully determined
by historians.
JESseplaitaf ion.— The subject clanse is here an indirect question. See Lesson 74.
5. When letters were first used is not certainly known.
6. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty
Cain.
7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem
never solved by some.
The noun clause may be used as object cofnpletnent.
6, Galileo taught that the earth moves.
that
earth A moves ^xplaiust ion.— Here the clanse introduced by
\* ' I that is used like a noun as the object complement
^ I of taughL
OoKleo ■ tauffht j y\
9. The Esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber
are the dishes for his table.
* '* Tliat was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun, nued to point to the fact
stated in an independent sentence ; as, It was good ; he saw that. By an inversion
of the order this became He saw that (namely) it was good, and so passed into the
form He saw that it was good, where that has been transferred to the accessory clanse,
and become a mere sign of grammatical subordination."— (7. P, Mason.
112 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
« /
10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are.
11. It will ask of you, " What can you do ?"'
12. The peacock struts about, saying, *' What a fine tail I have I " «
13. He does not know which to choose.
(Expand which to choose into au indirect interrogative clause.)
14. No one can tell how or when or where he will die.
15. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control
over the current of thought in our dreams.
LESSON 7%.
NOUN CLAUSE— CONTINUED.
AiTALYSis Aim Passing.
The noun clause may be used as attribute completneni*
1. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed
words.
2. Tweed's defiant question was, "What are you going to do
about it ? "
8. The question ever asked and never answered is, " Where and
how am I to exist in the Hereafter ? "
4. Hamlet's exclamation was, " What a piece of work is man !"
5. The myth concerning Achilles is, that ho was invulnerable in
every part except the heel.
Tlie noun clause may be used as explanatory modifier m
6. It has been proved that the earth is round.
that
earth . is \ ground « . .. -« .. , , , . «
\g. I I Mxplanatlon,—T^e grammntical subject R
\ has no meaning till explained by the noun clause.
H ( xM . has "been proved
7. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply
of blood to the brain.
8. The fact that mould, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderfoL
Noun Clause, 113
9. Napoleon tamed his Simplon road aside in order that he might
Bare a tree mentioned bj* Caesar.
^ocpIanafloM.— Unless in order thai is taken as a conjunction connecting an
adverb clause of purpose (see (7), Lesson 65), the clanse introdnced by that is a noun
clause explanatory of order.*
10. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Night's candles are burnt oat/' is
one of the finest in literature.
11. The shortest and sweetest verse in the Bible is this: "Jesus
wept." V
^12. This we know, that our future depends on our present.
' The noun clause may be used as principal term of ^
prepositional phrmse.
18. Have birds any sense of why they sing?
birds I ffam ■ seme
>^ \ Bmplanation. — Why they Hnff Ik
^ ^^^ I ^^p "* indirect question, here used as the
'1 ^ principal term of a prepositional ph
hrase.
14. There has been some dispute about who wrote " Shakespeare's
Plays."
15. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole.
ExpJanation,— By snppljing of before that^ the noun clanse may be treated as
the principal term of a prepositional phrase modifying the adjective certain. By
supplying of thefact^the noun clause will become explanatory.
IG. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and
triumph.
17. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor
of his slfdn enemy pass into himself.
* A similar explanation may be made of on condition thaty in case that^ introducing
adverb clauses expressing condition.
8
114 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
LESSon rs.
COMPOSITION—NOUN CLAUSE.
COMMA— RULE.— The noun clause used as attribate complement
is generally set off by the comma.
.Befftarle.— Present usage seems to favor the omission of the comma with the
clause used as subject or as object complement. Sec next Lesson.
The punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other explanatory modi-
fiers—see Lesson 34. But the real subject made explanatory of {^ is seldom or never
set o£F. See next Lesson for the punctuation of explanatory clauses formally intro-
duced.
2M«*ee<ion.— Give the reasons for the use or the omiBdon of the comma with the
noun clauses in the preceding Lesson.
By using it as a substitute for the subject clause, this
clause may be placed last.
Example,— That the story qf William Tell is a myth is now believed = It is now
believed that the story qf William Tell is a myth.
Direction,— By the aid of the expletive it^ transpose the subject clauses in
Lesson 71.
Often the clause used as object complement may be placed
first.
2>i«*«e<{on.— Transpose such of the clauses, used as object complements, in the
preceding Lesson, as admit transposition. Punctuate them if they need it.
The noun clause may be made prominent by separating
it, and inserting the independent clause between its parts.
JBoDample,— The story of William Tell, it is now believed^ is a myth.
(Notice that the principal clause, used parenthetically, is set o£F by the comma.
l>lr«c<iott.— Write the following sentences, using the independent clauses paren-
thetically :—
1. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up
in Mexico in 1586.
2. I am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking
usually result from grammatical studies.
8. It is true that the glonous sun pours down his golden flood as
cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace.
Composition — Noun Clause. 115
l>ii*ec<ion.— Vary tbe following sentence so as to illustrate the five different kinds
•f noun clauses :->
Model,—!. That stars are suns is the belief of astronomers.
2. Astronomers believe that stars are suns.
8. The belief of astronomers is, that stars are suns.
4. The belief that stars are suns is held by astronomers.
5. Astronomers are confident thcU stars are suns.
1. Our conclusion is, that different forms of goyemment suit dif-
ferent stages of civilization.
The noun clause may be contracted by changing the
predicate to a participle, and the subject to a possessive.
Maoainple.—That he was brave cannot be donbted = His being brave cannot be
doubted.
lNree«on.— Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the noon
clauses to phrases :—
1. That the caterpillar changes to a hntterfly is a carious fact.
3. Everyhody admits that Cromwell was a great leader.
8. A man's chief objection to a woman is, that she has no respect
for the newspaper.
4 The thought that we are spinning around the sun some twenty
miles a second almost makes us dizzy.
6. She was aware that I appreciated her situation.
The noun clause may be contracted by making the pred-
icate, when changed to an infinitive, the objective comple-
ment, and the subject the object complement.
IHree<lon.— Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the pred-
icates of the noun clauses to objective complements, and the subjects to object
complements :—
JTodef .—King Ahasuerus commanded th(U Haman should be hanged =
King Ahasuerus commanded Haman to be hanged.
1. I judge that he is a foreigner.
2. The Governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free.
8. Many people believe that Webster was the greatest of American
statesmen.
4. How wide do you think that the Atlantic ocean is ?
5. They hold that taxation without representation is unjust.
Ii6 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,
IMreeMon.^Expand into complex sentences sucli of the sentences in Lesson 41 as
contain an objective complement and an object complement whicli together are
eqaivalent to a clause.
A noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase.
JExample.—Thai he should vote is the duty of every American citizen = To vote ia
the duty of every American citizen.
JUreefion.— Contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases :—
1. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty.
2. Every one desires that he may live long and happily.
8. The effect of looking upon the son is, that the eye is blinded,
i. Cffisar Aog^ostas issued a decree that all the world should be
taxed.
5. We are all anxious that we may make a good impression.
6. He does not know whom he should send.
7. He can not find out bow he is to go tbere.
LESSOII 74.
COMPOSITION— NOUN CLAUSE— CONTINUED.
QUOTATION MARKS— RULE.— Quotation marks (<< ") enclose
a copied word or passage.
CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— The first word of a direct qnota-
tion making complete sense, or of a direct qnestion introduced into
a sentence should begin wiili a capital letter.
JRefnark,—A direct quotation is one ivhose exact words, as well as thought,
are copied ; as, Nathan said to David, '' Thou art the nian,*^ An Indirect quotas
tion is one whose thought, but not whose exact words, is copied ; as, Nathan told
David that he toas the man.
The direct qnotation is set oH by the comma, begins with a capital letter, and is
enclosed withiu quotation marks— though these may be omitted. The indirect quota-
tion is not generally set off by the comma, does not begin with a capital letter, and is
not enclosed within quotation marks.
A direct question introduced into a sentence is one in which the exact words
and their order in an interrogative sentence (sec Lesson 55) is preserved, and which
is followed by an interrogation point ; as, Cain asked, **^m Imy broiher^e keeper f^^
An indirect question is one which is referred to as a question, but not directly
asked or quoted as such, and which is not followed by an interrogation point ; as,
Cain asked whether he woe his brother's keeper.
The Compound Sentence, ' 117
' The direct qaefitlon is cet off by the comma (but no comma is nsed after the inter-
rogation point), begins with a capital letter, and is enclosed within quotation marks—
though these may he omitted. An indirect question is not generally set off by a
conmia, does not begin with a capital letter, and is not enclosed within quotation marks.
If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally introduced (see
Lesson 147), it is preceded by the colon ; as, Nathan's words to David were these :
" Thou art the man.^^ He put the question thus : " Can you doUf''
2>iree«on.— Point out the direct and the indirect quotations and questions in the
sentences of Lesson 71, tell why they do or do not begin with capital letters, and
justify the use or the omission of the comma, the interrogation point, and the quotas
tion marks.
lHf*«e({«n.— Re-write these ^me sentences, changing the direct quotations and
questions to indirect, and the indirect to direct.
IMreef ion.— Write five sentences "icontaining direct quotations, some of which
shall be formally introduced, and some of which shall be questions occurring at the
banning or in the middle of the sentence. Change these to the indirect form, and
look carefully to the punctuation and the capitalization.
ANALYSIS.
IMreefion.—Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contraction, la
Lesson 78.
LESSON 76.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
Introdactory Hints.— CVomu^ made one revdtUion, and Monk made another.
The two clauses are indepcDdent of each other. The second clause, added
by the conjunctiou and to the first, contintiea the line of thought begun by it.
Man has ?ii8 inill^ but vjoman hasher toay. Here the conjunction connects
independent clauses whose thou<;hts stand in contrast to each o^A^— the sen-
tence faces, so to speak, half way about on lyat.
The Tiidcyrs were despotic^ or Jiistory bdies them. The independent clauses,
connected by or, present thoughts between which you may choose, but
either^ accepted^ excludes the other.
The ground is toet^ ther^ore it has rained. Here the inferred fact, tlie rain-
ing, really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, as cause to
effect — the raining made the ground wet. It has rained^ Jience the ground is
Ii8 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
wet. Here the inferred fact, the wetness of the gronnd, reaUy stands to the
other fact, the raining, as effect to cause— the ground is made wet by the
raining. But this the recUj or logkcd^ relation between the facts in either
sentence is expressed in a sentence of the compound form — an and is under-
stood before tfurefore and hence. Unless the con^ieeiiiig word expresses tbe
dependence of one of the clauses, the grammarian regards them both as
independent.
Temperance promotes JieoHth^ intemperance destroys it. Here the independent
clauses, are joined to each other by their very position in the sentence— con-
nected without any conjunction. This kind of connection is common.
Sentences made up of independent clauses we call Oompoand Sentences.
DEFINITION.— A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a
sobject and its predicate.
DEFINITION.— A Dependent Clause is one nsed as an a^ec-
tire, an adyerb, or a nonn.
DEFINITION.— An Independent Clause is one not d^endent
on anotlier clause.
DEFINITION.— A Simple Sentence is one that contains but
one subject and one predicate, either of wliich may be compound.
DEFINITION.— A Complex Sentence is one composed of an in-
dependent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
DEFINITION.— A Compound Sentence is one composed itf
two or more independent clauses.
Analysis and Parsing.
Independent Clauses in the same line of tl>Onght.
1. laglit has spread, and bayonets think.
Light . has spread Mxplttnation.— The clanses are of eqnal rank, and so
i the lines on which they stand are shaded alike, and the
1^^ line connecting them is not slanting. As one entire clause
* j is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn
haffon^ts A think hetween the predicates merely for convenience.
Oral jinaly9ia,—Th\B is a compound sentence^ hecause it is made up of inde*
pendent clauses.
The Compound Sentence. * 119
2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national lesooices, and abun-
dant streams of levenne gashed forth.
8. Some are bom great, some achieve greatness, and some have
greatness thrust upon them.
Independent Clauses expressing thoughts in contrast.
4. The man dies, but his memory lives.
6. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust.
6. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings
on ready writing.
Independent Clauses expressing thoughts in attema-
tion.
7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age.
8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are
they extremely warm^ in summer.
9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably.
X!aopianation,^EWier helps or to connect.
Independent Clauses expressing thoughts one of which
is an inference from the other.
10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be
raining.
11. The man takes exercise, therefore he is well.
Independent Clauses joined in the sentence without a
conjunction^
12. The camel Is the ship of the ocean of sand, the reindeer is the
camel of the desert of snow.
13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master^ thy spoken word is
master of thee.
14 The ship leaps^ as it were, from billow to biUow.
M3BplanaHon,—A8 it were \a an independent clause, nsed parenthetically. A$
simply introdaces it
15. Religionr— who can doubt it?— is the noblest of themes for the
exercise of intellect.
16. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the
two Pitts) contains such a father and such a son 1
I20 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
LESSoii rr.
COMPOSITION— COMPOUND SENTENCE.
COMMA and SEMICOLON— RULE.— Independent daiiseg^ wh^n
short and closelj connected, are separated bj the comma $ but
when the clauses are slightly connected, or when they are them-
selres dirided into parts by the comma, the semicolon is used.
Eacamplew,—!. We most conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer as.
2. The prodi£;al robs his heirs ; the miser robs himself.
8. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil ; bat good is in
the ascendant, and mast triumph at last.
ZMreeHon.— Punctuate the following sentences, and give your^reasons :~
1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven
over the green ^iH files the inconstant sun.
2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents
a disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind
pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emo-
tions of the heart.
8. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought.
4. . The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong.
5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood
finds its greatest satisfaction in self-abasement.
ZHreefion.— Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent clauses in the
preceding Lesson.
JHrecfion.— Using the copulative and^ the adversative but, and the alternative or
or fior, form compound sentences out of the following simple sentences, and give the
reasons for your choice of connectives :—
Read not that you may find material for argument and conversation.
The rain descended. Read that you may weigh and consider the
thoughts of others. Can the Ethiopian change his skin? Righteou.s-
ness exalteth a nation. The floods came. Great was the fall of it.
Language is not the dress of thought. Can the leopard change his
spots ? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sin is a reproach
to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell.
Compound sentences may be contracted by using but
Composition — Capipound Sentence. I2i
^ I ■ ■ ^-. — I ■ I. - I - ^ — .-■■■ - ■ ■ ■■ , I , ■ ■! ■ ■ ■ ,^- - ■ -■ I I I ■ ■ I ■ ■ ■ I ■■ ■■■».■■■ ■-■■■■
once the wrts common to all the clauses^ and compounding
the remaining parts.
Example,— Time waits for no man, and tide waits for no man = Time and tide
waitfornoman,
JHreetion,— Contract these compoand sentences, attending carefolly to the pnnc-
tnatiou z-r-
1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben
fought for American independence.
2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the
mind to benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring
autunm dispose the mind for contemplation.
8. The Spirit of the Almighty is within us, the Spirit of the
Almighty is around us, and the Spirit of the Almighty is above us.
A compound sentence may be contracted by simply omit-
ting from one clause such words as may readily be supplied
from the other.
J^oMtrnple.— He is witty, but he is vulgar = He is witty, but vulgar.
Direction, — Contract these sentences :—
1. Hirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should
not be the web.
2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so.
8. Was Cabot the first discoverer of America, or was he not the
first discoverer of America?
4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has
justly bden likened to him.
5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress
that pleased me.
A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a
complex sentence without materially changing the sense.
^xatnpfe,—Take care qf the minutes^ and the hours will take care of themselves s
J[^you take care of the minutes^ the hours will take care of themselves.
XMreeMon.— Change these compound sentences to complex sentences :—
1. Resist the devil, and he will fiee from you.
2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you.
8. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming.
122 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
4. He converses, and at the same time lie plays a difficult piece of
mosic.
5. He was faithful, and he was rewarded.
ZMreetion.— Change one of the independent clauses in each of these sentences to
a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause to a participle plirase : —
Jfixiel.— The house was built upon a rock, and thertfore it did not fall =
The house did not fall, because it was built upon a rock =
The house, being built upon a rock, did not fall.
1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered.
2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us.
JHreceion.— Using and^ but, and or for connectives, compose three c(nnpoimd
•entences, each containing three independent clauses.
LESSOU f%.
COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES.
Introductorf "SUnxni—Sun and mooti and stars obey. Peter the Great went
to Holland, to England, and to France, J came, I saw, I conquered. Here we
have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, and co-ordinate clauses, that
is, words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order.
Leaves full so very quietly. They ate of the fruit from the ti^ee in the garden,
Regulus would have paused if he had been the man that he was before captivity had
unst}'ung his sinews. Here just as the word modifier quietly is itself modified
by vei'y, and ve)'y by so; and just SLSfimit, the principal word in a modifying
phrase, is modified by another phrase, and the principal word of that by
another : so man, in the adverb clause which modifies toould have paused, is
itself modified by the adjective clause that he was, and was by the adverb
clause before captivity had unstrung his sinews. These three dependent clauses
in the complex clause modifier, like the three words and the three phrases
in the complex word modifier and the complex phrase modifier, are not co-
ordinate, or of equal rank.
Mary mai'Hed FhUip ; but Mizdbeth toould not marry, dltfuiugh JParliament
frequently urged it, and the peace of England demanded it. This is a compound
sentence, composed of the simple clause which precedes but and the com-
plex clause which follows it — the complex clause being composed of an in-
dependent clause and two dependent clauses, one co-ordinate with the
other, and the two connected by and.
Complex and Compound Clauses, 123
Analysis.
The clau9es of complex and compound sentences may
themselves be complex or compound.
1. Sin has a great many tools, but a lie is a handle which ^ii them
all.
^ 2. Some one has said that the milkman's favorite song should be,
** Shfdl we gather at the river?"
8. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated
with the most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal
wings, have passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of
the earth.
4 Still the wonder grew, that one small head could carry all he
knew.
5. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing,
/ or making furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration
tubes pour out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled.
6. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the lan-
guages, because one tongue was enough for a woman. — ' '
7. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers ;
the upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the centre faster
than the adjacent sides.
8. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New
England thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the cate-
chism.
9. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the
frogs and worms that would injure the dikes.
10. It is one of the most marvellous facts in the natural world that,
/ though hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter
of combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is
destructive to fire.
11. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by
disaster, when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the
Northwest had surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency
hung, like a cloud, over the land, who first relit the fires of national
glory, and made the welkin ring with the shouts of victory ?
124 ^^^ Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
LESSOM 7a.
EXPANSION.
Tarticiples may be expanded into different kinds of
J>trece{on.->Ezpand th« participles in these sentences into the danses indi-
cated :—
1. Simon Peter, having a sword^ drew it. (Adj. clause.)
2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Ckmcession.)
3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.)
4 White garments, reflecting the rajs of the sun, are cool in sum-
mer. (Cause.) X*
6. Loved bj all, he must have a genial disposition. (Reason.)
6. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. .(Ck>ndition.)
7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of " fire 1 " (Time.)
8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause.)
9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around.
(Ind. Clause.)
Absolute phrases may be expanded into different kinds of
clauses.
l>ireeeion.— Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indicated :—
1. Troy being taken by the Greeks, ^n^as came into Italy. (Time.)
2. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.)
8. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.)
4. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. (Con-
cession.)
5. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or
windy last night. (Reason.)
6. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Ind.
Clause.)
Infinitives may .be expanded into different kinds of
tlauses.
7>ireo*ion.— Expand these infinitives into the clauses indicated:—
1. They have nothing to wear. (Adj. clause.)
Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. 125
3. The weather is so warm as to dissolye the snow. (Degree.)
8. Herod will seek the yoong child to destrojr it. (Purpose.)
4 The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on
huJt. (Condition.)
6. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.)
6. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.)
7. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.)
IHreetlon.— Complete these elliptical expressions \—
1. And so shall Begulus, though dead, fight as he never fought
before. 2. Oh, that I might have one more day 1 8. He is braver
than utrise. 4. What if he is poor? 6. He handles it as if it were
glass. 6. I regard him more as a lustorian than as a poet. 7. He is
not an Englishman but a Frenchman. 8. Much as he loved his wealth,
he loved his children better. 9. Twill go whether you go or not.
10. It happens with books as with mere acquaintances. 11. No ex«
amples, however awful, sink into the heart.
LESSON SO.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.
Akaltbis and Parsing.
1. Whenever the wandering demon of Drunkenness finds a ship
adrift, he steps on board, takes the helm, and steers straight for the
Maelstrom. — Holmes,
2. The energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steam-
ships through the waves comes from the sun. — Cooke.
8. No scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human
Jabor ; smooth in field, fair in garden, full in orchard. — Buskin.
4. What is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth, which takes a thief
by the throat every morning? — Oer. Prov.
5. The setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the
level landscape, and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds,
and they became as blood. — LongfeHlow.
6. Were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as
the felicities of this, it were a martyrdom to live.— /Siir T, Brotone.
12(5 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
7. There is a good deal of oiatoiy in me, bat I don't do as well as
I can, in any one place, ont of respect to the memory of Patrick
Henry.— ^(Qwfty.
8. Van Twiner's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll
of everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and
streaked with dusky red, like a spitzenbcrg apple. — Irving.
9. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is
robbing the human race. — Mill,
10. There is no getting alcmg with Johnson ; if his pistol misses
fire, he knocks you down with the butt of it. — Oddsmith,
11. We think in words ; and when we lack fit words, we lack fit
thoughts. — WhUe.
12. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the
bottom of his subject. — Whately.
18. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it
will disgrace every man who is not. — Holland.
14. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve
are the men and women who bless their species. — Par ton.
LESSON $4.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIE^V.
Akaltsis and Passing.
1. A ruler who appoints any man to an office, when there is in his
dominions another man better qualified for it, sins against God and
against the state. — Koran,
2. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was not
Lot's wife in solution. — Ourtis,
8. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid
the roof will come down, if you sweep off the cobwebs. — Phillips,
4 Kind hearts are more than coronets, and simple faith than Nor*
man blood. — Tennyson,
5. All those things for which men plough, build, or sail obey
virtue. — Sallust,
6. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for
vou ; but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that. — Holmes.
Review Questions. 127
7. Of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these : " It
might have been." — Whittier.
8. I fear three newspapers more than a handred-thousand bayonets.
'-—Napoleon.
9. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is
trodden oiL-^Kant,
10. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand ctt
the water or the sand. — QUidstone.
11. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old
England's ale. — Mgffinson.
12. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land. — Sir H, OUberi.
13. No language that cannot suck up the feeding Juices secreted for
it in the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound,
lusty book. — Lowell.
14. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience
what are human ills and what is human wrong. — Country Parson.
16. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both great and
small ; for the dear God who loveth us, he made and loveth alL—
Coleridge.
LESSOII $2.
REVIEVSr QUESTIONS.
\ Lesson 59. — Into what may an adjective or a phrase be expanded t
What is a clause? Illustrate. What is a dependent clause? An in-
dependent clause ? A complex sentence? Illustrate the three. Whtt
pronouns introduce the adjective clause? What double office hava
they ? What words may the clause modify ? Illustrate.
^ Lesson QO. — ^Is the connecting pronoun ever omitted? Illustrate.
Is the word which the clause modifies ever omitted? Illustrate.
What are where, when, why, etc., introducing adjective clauses? Into
what may they be changed ? Illustrate.
^ Lesson 61. — Give the Rule for the punctuation of the adjective
clause. Illustrate restrictive clauses, and clauses not restrictive.
Give the Caution. Into what may infinitive phrases be expanded?
128 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
* Lesson 63. — Into what may adverbs be expanded? ninstrate.
What is an adverb clause ? What is meant by a clause expressing
time f Expressing plctce f Expressing degree f
\ Lesson 64. — ^What is meant by a clause expressing manner? Ex-
pressing real cause? Expressing reason? What is the difference
between real cause and reason ? Illustrate.
Lesson 65. — What is meant by a clause expressing condUion ? Ex-
pressing purpose ? Expressing- eoncession ? Show how the clauses
expressing reai cause, reason, condition, purpose, and eoneession come
under the general head of CauM clauses. In the absence of the con-
junction, what may yet, still, etc., do besides modifying?
Lesson 66. — Give the Rule for the punctuation of adverb clauses.
Illustrate the adverb ^clauses set off by the comma, and those which
are not.
Lesson 67. — ^In what different positions in the sentence may most
adverb clauses stand? Illustrate.
LESSOM S3.
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS— CONTINUED.
Lesson 68. — Show how an adverb clause may be contracted to a jMir-
ticiple or a participle phrase. To an absolute phrase. To a prepo-
sitional phrase having as its principal word (1) a participle, (2) an
infinitive, and (3) a noun. In what other way may an adverb clause
be contracted ? Show into what it may be changed.
Lesson 71. — ^What offices did you learn in Lesson 41 that an infinitive
phrase may perform? Show the five offices of the noun which a
dependent clause may perform. What is said, in the foot-note, of
that ?
Lesson 72. — ^How may the clause following in order thai, in case
that, on condition tha^t be regarded ?
Lesson 73. — Give the Rule for the punctuation of the noun clause
used as attribute complement. For the noun clause used as ex«
Review Questions — Continued. 129
planatory modifier. What office has the expletive it f Where may
the noon elause as object complement stand ? How may it be made
prominent ? How may the noun clause be contracted? Illustrate the
seyeral ways.
Lesson 74. — Give the Rule for quotation marks. For capital letters.
What is a direct quotation? An indirect quotation? How do you
write each ? What is a direct question ? An indirect question ? How
do you write each ? Give all the particulars. When is a quotation
/ormo^^^ introduced ? Illustrate. What is its punctuation?
LESSOM S4.
REVIEW QUESTIONS— CONTINUED.
Lesson 76. — ^What is an independent clause ? How are the clauses
which and connects related in sense ? Illustrate. Those which htU
connects? Illustrate. Those which or connects? Illustrate. How
are tlie facts in the clauses which hence and therefore connect related
to each other? What conjunction may be supplied? How then are
^ the clauses related to each other ? Must independent and dependent
clauses always have a connecting word ? How else may they be con-
nected? Illustrate. What is a compound sentence? Give all the
definitions in this Lesson.
Lesson 77. — When is the comma used between independent clauses ?
When the semicolon ? Show the two ways mentioned in which com-
pound sentences may be contracted. Into what may some compound
sentences be changed?. Illustrate. Show how some independent
clauses may be changed to dependent clauses, and these to participle
phrases.
\ Lesson 78. — ^Are all modifying words, phrases, or clauses of equal
rank? Give examples of those which are, and of those which are not.
Give an example of a complex phrase, a complex clause, a compound
clause.
Lesson 79. — ^Into what kinds of clauses may participles be expanded ?
Absolute phrases? Infinitives? Illustrate all of them. What are
some common elliptical expressions ? Expand them.
9
130 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.
To the Teacher.— It neceRsary, make a separate lesson of this.
General Questions. — ^Name and illustrate all the offices whieli a noun
may perform in the sentence. What are the several offices which
a participle may perform ? Illustrate. What are the several offices
whiih an infinitive may perform? lllnstrate. What offices of the
noun may a clause perform ? Illustrate. What are the several kinds
of adverb clauses ? Illustrate. In what ways may the thoughts ex-
pressed by independent clauses be related to each other ? Illustrate.
What three parts of speech may connect clauses ? Illustrate.
To tlie Teacher,— li would be well to exercise the pupils here in the synthesis of
simple sentences into complex and compound, and the resolving of complex and
compound sentences into simple. Any reading-book will furnish good material.
Model.— In the desert a route through the Band is always preferred. In sandy
tracts springs are more likely to be found. The sand presents a soft, dry bed. The
traveller can repose upon it after the fatigues of the day =
In the deseit a route through the sand is always preferred, because in sandy tracts
spnngs are more likely to be found, and because the sand presents a soft, dry bed on
which the traveller can repose after the fatigues of the day.
The breath of the ocean is sweet. The winds fill their mighty lungs with it They
strike their wings for the shore. They reach it. They breathe health and vigor along
all the fainting, waiting hosts =
The winds fill their mighty lungs with the sweet breath of ocean, and striking their
wings for the shore, they go breathing health and vigor along all the fainting hosts
that wait for it.
How to turn complex and compound sentences into simple ones Is hero suggested,
of conrse.
It might be well, before taking up ** Parts of Speech Subdivided," to turn
over to '' Composition," the fourth division, and exercise the pupils in the group-
ing of aentences into Parttgraphs, and I'aragraphs into Thetnes*
PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED.
I.ESS0I9 Si.
CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
Introdnctoiy Hints.— You have now reached a point wliere it becomes
necessary to divide tlie ei<j;bt great classes of words into sub-classes.
You Iiave learned that nouns are the names of things ; as, girly JSarah. The
name f/ifi is held in common by all girls, and so does not distinguish one
girl from another. The name Sarah is not thus held in common ; it does
distinguish one girl from other girls. Any name which belongs in com-
mon to all things of a class we call a Oommon Norm ; and any particu-
lar name of an individual, distinguishing it from others of its class, we call a
Proper Nonn. The proper names, which in Jlule 1, Lesson 8, you were told
to begin with capital letters, are proper nouns.
Such a word as wheats rmmc, or architecture docs not distinguish one thing
from others of its class ; there is but .one thing in the class denoted by
e:ich, each thing forms a class by itself ; and so we call these words com-
mon nouns.
In J.csson 8 you learned that pronouns arc not names, but words used in-
stead of names. Any one speaking of himnelf may use /, my, etc., instead
of his own name. Speaking to one^ he may use you^ tfiou, your, thy, etc., in-
stead of that person's name. Speaking of one, he may use he, she, it, him,
her, etc., instead of that one's name. Tiiese little words that by their
form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of are
called Personal Prononns.
By adding self to my, thy, your, him, he}\ and it, and selves to our, your,
nnd them, we form what are called Oomponnd Personal Prononns, used either
for emphasis or to reflect the action of the verb back upon the actor ; as,
Xerxes himself was the last to cross the Hellespont ; The mind cannot see
itself
If the speaker wishes to modify a noun, or some word or words used like
a noun, by a clause, he introduces the clause by who, which, what, or i?iat;
as, I know the man who did that. These words, relating to words in nn-
132 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
other clause, and binding the clauses together, are called Relative Fronoans.
By adding ever and ioevtr to wAo, tohich^ and wJiaty we form what are called
the Oompoond Relative Fronoans whoever^ whotsoevei\ whichever^ whcU€vet\ etc.,
used in a general way, and without any word expressed to which they
relate.
If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for
it, he uses wAo, tohich^ or what; as. Who did that? These pronouns, used in
asking questions, arc called Interrogative Fronoims.
Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words, pointing
them out as near or remote ; as. Is that* a man ? What is this^ or ti'lling
something of tlieir number, order, or quantity ; as. None are perfect ; The
loiter will do ; Much has been done. Such words we call Adjective Fronoans.
DEFINITIONS.
A Noun is the name of anything*
A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all thing^s of a
class.
A Troper Noun is the particular name of an individnaL
Itemark,— Two classes of common nouns— collective and abstract— it might be
useful to note. A Collective Noun is the name of a multitude of things taken
as one wliole ; as, army, multitude, vwb,jury.
An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality of a thing conceived as taken away,
or abstracted, from that thing ; as, beauty, softness^ prudence.
A Tronoun is a word used for a noun*
A JPersonal Pronoun is one that, by its form^ denotes the
speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.
A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some precedingr
word or words, and connects clauses.
An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is
asked.
* Such words as this and th^t may be called demonstrative pronouns ; and such
words as none, latter, and much, indefinite pronouns.
•'The difference between nouns and pronouns starts from the roots. Nouns, i. e.,
common substantives and adjectives, are formed from verbal roots, and denote
quality and attributes. Pronominal roots denote relations, and from them are formed
substantive and adjective words which indicate things by their relations. The de-
monstrutire roots are the most important of all."— Pr^. F. A. March.
Classes of Pronouns. 133
An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of
both an a^i^^^® ^^'^ ^ noon.
The simple personal pronouns are : —
I, thou, you, he, she, and it.
The compound personal pronouns are : —
Myself, thyself, y<mrself, himself, herself and Useff.
The simple relative pronouns are : —
Who, which, that, and what,*
The compound relative pronouns are : —
Whoever or whosoever, whichever or whiclisoever, whatever or what*
soever.
The interrogative pronouns are : —
W7io, which, and what.
Some of the more common adjective pronouns are : —
All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter. Ut-
ile, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that,
these, this, those, whole, etc.f
The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pro-
noun is used is called an Antecedent.
Direction.— Tolnt out the pronouns and their antecedents in these sentences :—
Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met
him. To He is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and
* Ai, in such sentences as this : Give such things as you can spare^ may be treated
as a relative pronoun. But by expauding the i^entence as is seen to be a conjunctive
adverb— Give such things ai those are which you can spare.
t But for the fact that such words as brave, good, etc., in the phrases the brave, the
good, etc., describe— which pronouns never do— we might call them adjective pro-
nouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns to be sup-*
plied.
The is not always used with these adjectives ; as, for better or worse, in general,
at random, in vain, in particular.
Some adjectives preceded by the are abstract nouns; as, the grand, the sublime, the
beautiful.
134 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
his companions were fed on pulse, wliicli was to their advantage. To
lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly^
which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body.
Wlio *(or \oliose and whmi)y iMch, and what are interrog-
ative pronouns when the sentence or clause in which they
stand asks a question directly or indirectly; they are relatives
elsewhere.
2>lree«on.— Analyze these sentoicee, and parse all the prononns :—
1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I n^yself know who ^le
my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard
what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom
the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and
who said it 1 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She
saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. lO. Whatever
is done must be done quickly.
LESSOM S6.
CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS.
To the Teacher,— In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correction,
the pupils* books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. To
insure care in preparation and close attention in the class, read some of the examples
in their correct form. Require specific reasons.
Caution, — Avoid he, it, they, or any other pronoun when
its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat
the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast
the sentence.
I>lrec/lon.— study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity :—
JITocfel.— The lad cannot leave his father ; for, if he should leave Aim, he would die
= The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave his father, his father would
dje. Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends = Lysias gave his father
this promise : " I will never abandon your (or my) friends."
1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bodk-
* See Lessons 60, 61, 71, and 72 for further treatment of these words, and of v^en^
where, whoever, whatever, etc., in adj stive and noun clauses.
Construction of Pronouns, 13^
seller, he told Mm it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend thai^
if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home.
(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what yon maj
tni^pose were the speaker's words.)
8. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not, because he was so
short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by
a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told
jhe lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair
that he should pay him for his loss.
Caution. — Do not use pronouns needlessly.
Direction.— Write these sentences, omitting needless prononns : —
1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother
she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it
mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let
every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo
having been lost, he gave himself up to the English.
Caution. — In addressing one, do not, in the same sen-
tence, use the two styles of the pronoun.
IHrcetioit.— study the CaAion, and correct these errors :—
1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news ? 3. You cannot always
have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thy-
self last, and others will love you.
Caw^ion.— The pronoun thmi should not be used for fhe
adjective those, or the pronoun what for the conjunction
that
2Hre«#io»ft.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors r—
1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail ?
8. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again.
Caution. — The relative who should always represent
persons ; which, brute animals and inanimate things ; thaty
persons, animals, and things ; and lohaty things. The ante-
cedent of what should not be expressed.
136 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
■
lNree«on.— study the Caation, and correct these errors :—
1. ThoBe which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends
which I know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was
called Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke
loose. 6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alex*
ander rode was named Bucephalus.
J>ir«e«on.— Write correct sentences illa>*trating every point in these Ave Cantions.
LESSoif sr.
CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS— CONTINUED.
Caution. — Several relative clauses relating to the same
antecedent require the same relative pronoun.
I>irccf ion.— study the Cantion, and correct these errors :—
1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of
the land, and whicl^ saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. He
who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget
him. 8. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the
stand last. 4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was
the first mate. *
CatUian. — When the relative clause is not restrictive,
and could be introduced by arid he, and it, and they, etc.,
who or which, and not that, is generally used.
Sample.— Water, which (= and U) Is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers
three fourths of the earth's sorface.
Direction »— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :—
1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound
of oxygen and nitrogen. 2. Longfellow, that is the most popular
American poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a pre-
cious gift, should not be wasted. 4 Man, that is bom of woman, is of
few days and full of trouble.
Caution. — The relative that * should be used instead of
* Some grammarians claim that the relatiye that should aiways be used in restric-
five clauses instead of who or which ; others say that vmaliy it should be. fiut all
admit that modem writers do not obscr>'e this distinction.
Construction of Pronouns — Continued. . 137
who or which (1) when the antecedent names both persons
and things ; (2) when it would prevent ambiguity ; and
(3) when it would sound better than toho or which, e. g,,
after same, very, all, the interrogative who, and adjectives
expressing quality in the highest degree.
Mxantple,—!!^ lived near a pond that was a nuisance. {That relates to pond
—the pond was a nuisance. Which might have, for its antecedent, pond^ or tiie whole
clause He lived near a pond; and so its use here would be ambiguous.)
I>fre<j*ion.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :—
1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief
material which is used now in building is brick. 8. Who who saw
him did not pity him ? 4 He is the very man whom we want. 5. He
is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school
which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him.
Caution. — The relative clause should be placed as near
as possible to the word which it modifies.
l><rec*ion.— Correct these errors :—
1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is dili-
gent. 2. Her hair hung in .ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A
dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was
picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was canon-
ized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 6. He
should not keep a horse that cannot ride.
Caution. — When this and that, these and those, the one and
the other refer to things previously mentioned, this and these
refer to the last mentioned, and that and those to the first
mentioned ; the one refers to the first mentioned, and the
other to the last mentioned.
Exaiinpl4i»,—High and taU are synonymp : this may be used in speaking of what
grows— a tree ; thai in speaking of what doe? not grow— a mountain. Homer was a
genius, Virgil an artist : in the mit we most admire the man ; in the other ^ the work.
l>i9*eet<oit.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :—
1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar ; tact, triumphantly ; this is
138 • Parts of Speech Subdivided.
complimented by the bench ; that gets the fees. 2. Charles XII. and
Peter the Qreat were sovereigns ; the one was loved by his i>eople ;
the other was hated. 8. The selfish and the benevolent are found in
every community ; these are shunned, while those are sought after.
2>ireet<o».— Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four
Cantions.
LESSON SS.
CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS— CONTINUED.
Miscellaneous Erbobs.
I>iree<{on.— Two of the sentences below are correct. Give the Cautions which
the other sentences violate, and correct the errors :—
1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father
died hef ore he was bom. 3. Whales are the largest animals which
swim. 4. B07S who study hard, and that study wisely make progress.
6. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the
light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served
under Washington, had been a British officer. 8. A man should sit
down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need
no spectacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able
to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12.t]^otton,
which is a plant, is woven into cloth. 13. There is no book which,
when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it.
14. The reporter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond,
that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the cattle
which were on the train were killed. 17. Beputation and character
do not mean the same thing : the one denotes what we are ; the other,
what we are thought to be. 18. Kosciusko, having come to this
country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 19. What pleased
me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general appear-
ance of the class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers
died when they were infants. » 21. One does not know but that the
future has these things in store for him. 22. Will you be able to sell
them boots? 23. I don't know but what I may. 24. Beer and wine
are favorite drinks abroad ; the one is made from grapes ; the other
Classes of Adjectives. 139
from barley. 25. There is ora marked difference between shiners
and trout ; these have scales, and those have not. 26. All the means
that grace display which drew the wondrous plan. 27. Help thyself,
and Heaven will help you.
LESSOI^ Sd.
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. . '
Xntrodnotoxy Hints. — ^You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentence Bipe
apples are healthful^ unripe apples are hurtful^ the adjectives ripe and unripe
limit, or narrow, the application of apples by describing, or expressinj; cer-
tain qualities of the fruit. You learned, also, that the, this, an, no, some, and
many limit, or narrow, the application of any noun which they modify, as
apple or apples, by pointing out the particular fruit, numbering, or denoting
the quantity of it.
Adjectives which limit by describing]: or expressing quality are colled
Descriptive Adjectives ; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering,
or denoting quantity are called Definitive Adjectives.
Adjectives modifying]: a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application
(1) when they denote qualities which always belong to the thinp: named ;
as, ydhw gold, the good God, the blue sky ; or (2) when they ore attribute
complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb ; as. The fields were
green; The ground was dry and hard.
DEFINITIONS.
An Aeyective is a word nsed to modify a noun or a pronoun.
A I>e8criptive Adjective is one that limits by expressing
quality.
A Definitive Adjective is one that limits by jointing out,
nambering, or denoting quantity.
The definitive adjectives an or a and the are commonly
called Articles*
A noun may take the place of an adjective.
Sxantples,— London journals, the New York press, silver spoons, diamond pin,
state papers, gold bracelet
I40 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
INreefioM.— Point oat the descriptive and the definitive adjectives, below, and
name each as do not limit :—
Able statesmen, mucli nun, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains.
Mansard roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt
diamond, the patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument,
moving spectacle, the martyr president, tin pans, eyes are bright, few
people, less trouble, this toy, any book, brave Washington, Washington
market, three cats, slender cord, that libel, happy children, the huge
clouds were dark and threatening, the broad Atlantic.
INreefion.— Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives in Lessons 8(i
and 81, and tell which denote oolor^ motkm, ahape^ potki^on^ Hze, or moral quaUUea,
I.ESS09I 80.
CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES.
Caution. — An and a are different forms of 07ie, For the
sake of euphony, an drops n and becomes a before letters
having consonant sounds.*
JExafnple8,—An inkstand, a bag, a historian, a hamble petition, an hoar {Ji is
silent), a unit {unit begins with the consonant soond of y), such a one {one begins
with the consonant soand of w).
2>lr<»<j#ion.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :—
A heir, a inheritance, an book, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an
uniform, an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero.
Caution. — An or a is used to limit a noun to one thing
of a class— rto any one. The is used to distinguish (1) one
thing or several things from others, and (2) one class of
things from other classes.
Explanation,— YJe can say a Jwrsty meaning any one hone; but we cannot say A
gold is heavy. This is a poor kind of a gas, William Pitt received the title of an earl;
because gold^ gas, and earl are here meant to denote each the whcle of a class, and a
limits its noun to one thing of a class.
* Some writers etill use an before such words as historian, use, one ; but present
usage favors a.
Construction of Adjectives. 141
The horse or the horses maet be tamed into the lot. Here the before horse distin-
gnlBhes a certain animal, and the before horses^ certain animals, from others of the
same class ; and the before lot distinguishes it from the yard or the stable— things in
other classes. The horse is a nuble animal. Here t/ie distinguishes this doss of animals
from other classes. But we cannot say The man (meaning the race) is mortal. The
an^tfr is a short mndness, The truth is eternal, The poetry and the painting are fine
arts, because man^ anger^ truths poetry, and painting are sufficiently distinguished
without the.
l>{ree«ot».— Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors :—
1. Thifl is another kindt of a sentence. 2. Chorchill leceiyed the
title of a duke. 8. A hUl is from the same root as column, 4. Dog is a
qoadraped. 5. I expected some such an offer. 6. The woman is the
equal of man. 7. The sculpture is a fine art. 8. Unicom is kind of a
rhinoceros. 9. Oak is harder than the maple.
CatUion. — ^Use ayi, a^ or the before each of two or more
connected adjectives only when these modify different nouns,
expressed or understood.
JEoDplanation.^A cotton and a silk umbrella means ttoo umbrellas— one cotton
and the other silk ; the word wnbrelta is understood after cotton. A cotton and silk
umbrella means one umbrella partly cotton and partly silk ; cotton and silk modify
the same norm— umbrella.
IHreetion,— Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors :—
1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and
the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. A Pull-
man and Wagner sleeping-coach. 6. The fourth and the Iftfth verses.
6. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary.
Caution. — Repeat an, a, or fie before connected nouns
denoting things that are to be distinguished from each
other or emphasized.
l>iree<ion.— study the Caution, and correct these error* :—
1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 2. We criti-
cize not the dress but address of the speaker. 8. A noun and pronoun
are alike in office. 4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and
adverb. 5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe.
6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached.
CatUion. — A feza and a little should be used when
142 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
opposed to none; few when opposed to many; and little
when opposed to much.
" Bxamplea,—Be saved a few things, and a little money from the wreck. If'etr
shall part where many meet. LUtie was said or done about it
J>iree<io».— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :—
1. There are a few pleasant days m March, because it is a storm
month. 2. He saved a little from the fire, as it hrd^e oat in the
night 3. Few men live to be a hundred years old, but not many.
4. Little can be done, but not much.
l>ire6No».— Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these Cantions.
LESSOn ©4.
CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES-
CONTINUED.
CatUion. — Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them
needlessly ; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it
l>ircc*lon.— study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors :—
1. It was splendid fun. 2. It was a tremendous dew. 3. He used
less words than the other speaker. 4. The lad was neither docile nor
teachable. 5. The belief in immortality is common and universaL
6. It was a gorgeous apple. 7. The arm-chair was roomy and capa-
dous. 8. It was a lovely bunn, but I paid a frightful price for it.
CaiUian. — Place adjectives where there can be no doubt
as to what you intend them to modify. If those forming a
series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one
most closely modifying it. If they are of the same rank,
place them where they will sound best — ^generally in the
order of length ; the longest nearest the noun, if they pre-
cede it ; the shortest, if they follow it.
2>ir«c«on.— study the Caution, and correct these errors: —
1. A new bottle of wine. 2, The house was comfortable and large.
Classes of Verbs, 143
8. A fialt barrel of pork. 4. It was a blue soft beautifiil sky. 5. A
fried dish of bacon. 6. We saw in the distance a predpitoos, barren,
towering mountain. 7. Two gray fiery little eyes. 8. A docile and
mild pupil. 9. A pupil, docile and mild.
ZHreetion.— Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these two Cautions.
\ Miscellaneous Errors.
ZHreeeion.— Two of the expressions below are correct Give the Cautions wliich
the others violate, and correct Uie errors :—
1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. 2. The
North and South Pole. 8. The eldest son of a duke is calljBd "mar-
quis." 4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him.
5. An old and young man. 6. A prodigious snow-ball hit my cheek.
7. The eyil is intolerable and not to be borne. 8. The fat, two lazy
men. 9. It was a fearful storm. 10. A white and red flag were flying.
11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him.
12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple. 13. A dried box of herrings.
14. He received a honor. 15. Such an use ! 16. The day was delight-
ful and warm. 17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious,
frugal, and simple. 18. The victory was complete, though a few of
the enemy were killed or captured. 19. The truth is mighty and will
prevail. 20. The sceptre, the mitre, and coronet seem to me pobr
things for g^^eat men to contend for. 21. A few can swim across the
Straits of Dover, for the width is great and the current strong. 22. I
have a contemptible opinion of you. 23. She has less friends than I.
LESSOli Si.
CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS.
Xntrodnotoiy Hints.— You learned in Lesson 28 that iu saying Wcufiington
captured we do not fully express the act pei*fornied. Adding OomwallU^ we
complete the predicate by naming the oue that rcceiyes the act which
passes oyer from the doer. Transitive means passing over^ and so all verbs
that represent an action as passing over from a doer to a receiver are called
TransitiTe Verba. If we say ComtoaUis vxu captured by Washington, the verb is
still transitive ; but the ctject, Coimwallis, which names the receiver, is here
the suX^fed of ihc sentence, and not, as before, the ot^eet complement. You see
144 Parts of Speech Subdivided,
that the 06^^, the word which names the receiver of the action, may be the
subjectf or it may be the object complement.
All Ycrbfl that, like/oU in LeaveifaU^ do not represent the action as pass-
ing oyer to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state of being are
called IntransitiTe Verbs.
A verb transitive in one sentence ; as. He vjrites good English, may be In-
transitive in another ; as. He writes well — meaning simply He is a good writer.
For a verb to be transitive an object must be expressed, or must obviously
be understood.
Washington captured CornioaUis. Here captured represents the action as
having taken place in paU time. Tense means timCj and so this verb is in the
past tense. OorninaUis captured^ the war speedily closed. Here captured is, as you
have learned, a participle ; and, representing the action as past, it is Apast
participle. Notice that ed is added to capture (final e is always dropped when
ed is added) to form its past tense and its past participle. All verbs that
form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed to the present are
called Regnlar Verbi.
All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by add-
ing ed to the present ; ^kB^faU^fdl^faUen; go, went, gone, are called Irregular
Verbs.
Early, liereafter, now, often, soon, presently, etc., used to modify any verb—
as wUl go\nl toiU go soon — by expressing time, are called AdTerbs of Time.
Away^ back^ dsewhere, hence, out, within, etc., used to modify any verb — ns
wiXt go in I wiU. go away — by expressing direction or place, are called Adverbs
of Place
Exceedingly, hardly, quite, svfficienUy, too, very, etc, used to modify a word
— as the adjective hot in The tea is very hot — by expressing degree, are called
Adrerbs of Degree.
Flainly, so, thus, weU^ no, yes,* etc., used to modify a word — as spoke in He
^ke plainly — by expressing manner, are called Adrerbs of Manner.
Hence, therefore, why, etc., used in making an inference or in asking fur the
cause — as, It is dark, hence, or t7iertfore, the sun is down ; Why is it dark ? —
are called Adrerba of Oanse.
* Many grammarians say that no and yes (nay and yea) are independent when they
an^^wer questions. But they seem rather to modify wOrds omitted in the answer but
contained in the question ; a:*, Did you see him ? iVo = I did no (not) see him. That
the form no is not now used in an answer except when the modified words are omitted
does not argue against the position taken. Compare whether or no, condemned by
some, but good English nevertheleps. Other wot6s change their form when the modi-
fled words are omitted ; as, 3fy book is new, JKine is new.
Yes (= certainly) may be explained in a similar way. Some make of these worda
a separate part of speech, and call them responsives.
Classes of Verbs and Adverbs, 145
Some adverbs fall into more than one class ; as, aw, «>, ihm.
Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and so arc called
OonjimctiTe Adverbs.
DEFINITIONS.
A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being«
An Adverb is a word used to modify a rerb, an a^jectiye, or an
adrerb.
GlABBES OF YeBBS WITH BBSFBCT TO MEANING.
A Transitive Verb is one tliat requires an object.*
An Intransitive Verb\% one tliat does not require an object.
Classes of Verbs with bbsfect to Foria.
A MegtUar Verb is one tliat forms its past tense and past
participle by adding ed to the present
An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense
and past participle bj adding ed to the present
Classes of Advebbs.
Adverbs of Time are those which generally answer the ques-
tion, Whmt
Adverbs of Place are those which generally answer the ques-
tion, Where?
Adverbs of Degree are those which generallj answer the
question. To vihat extent?
Adverbs of Manner are those which generally answer the
question, In what way ?
Adverbs of Cause are those which generally answer the ques-
tion. Why?
I>ii'«c«ion.— Point out the transitive and the hitransitive, the regular and the
Irregu'ar verbs hi Lesson 14, and classify the adverbs.
* The (^i^t of a transitive verb, that i^, the name of the receiver of the action,
may be the a^ect complement or it may be the nOt^ect; as, Brutus stabbed C4wor,
C5flMar was stabbed by Brutus.
10
146 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
—
LESSON 93.
Construction of adverbs.
Caution. — Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them
needlessly ; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it.
Examples,— \ could \U (not W.y) afford the time. She is a« tall as you are. She
is not so tall (not (u in denying equality) as you are. Do ob (not like) I do. This (not
this hei't or Vre) sentence is correct. He wrote that (not how thcU) he had been sick.
The belief in immortality is universally held (not universally held everywhere). His
Dose was very (not terribly or fiighifuUy) red.
J>ireet{<^n.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors :—
1. I returned back liere yesterday. 2. He liad not hardly a minnte
to spare. 8. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peace-
fully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull.
6. That 'ere horse has the heaves. 7. He isn't as studious as his
sister. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. 9. He seldom or
ever went home sober. 10. The belief in immortality is universally
held by alL 11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that 12. This is a
fearfully long lesson.
Caution.— ?\viCQ adverbs where there can be no doubt as
to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the
sound also. Seldom, if ever, should they stand between
the to and the infinitive.
Bxamples.—Ionly rowed across the river = 1 only (here an adjective), and no one
else, rowed, etc., or = I only imoed, etc., but did not swim or wade. I rowed only
across the river = across^ not up or d(ywn^ etc. T rowed across the river only = the
Hver only, not the bay, etc. Merely to soe (not to merely see) her was sufficient. Not
every trotter Is a Dexter (not Every trotter is no^ a Dexter).
I>fr««eeion.— study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors:—
1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals
a day. 8. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glit-
ters. 5. He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak.
7. All that glitters is not gold.
Construction of Adverbs — Continued. 147
Caution» — ^Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two
negative words so that they shall contradict each other.
Examples,— T^o one fias (not Jiasti't) yet reached the North Pole. No unpleaBan
circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to affirm).
J!>lree< ion.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors :—
1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He doesn't do nothing.
8. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There most be some-
thing wrong when children d<2 not love neither father nor mother.
6. He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found.
Cavtion.—Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives
for adverbs.
Bxamples,—!, The moon looks calm and peaceful (not calmly asA peacefully ^ as
the words are intended to describe the moon). 2. The moon looks down calmly and
peacefully on the battle field (not calm and peactfulj as the words are intended to tell
/una she performs the act). 8. I cannot learn so Umg a (not eitch a long) lesson.
J}lreetion.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors :—
1. It was a softly bine sky. 2. The river runs rapid. 8. You
must read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest.
6. She is most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The
prima donna sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels
badly. 10. He spoke up prompt. 11. He went most there. 12. He
behaved very bad. 13. This is not such a warm day as yesterday.
JHreetiOH.— Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four Cautions.
LESSOn 94.
CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS— CONTINUED.
Miscellaneous Ebbobs.
IMf^ctlon.— Three of these sentences are correct. Give the Cautions which the
vtbers violate, and correct the errors :—
1. Begin it over again. 2. This can be done easier. 8. The house
is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. The sparrow chirps
constantly. 6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 7. A circle can't
in no way be squared. 8. Thlq is a remarkable cold winter. 9. The
soldier died hard. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is pretty near
finished. 12. He isn't as stout as he was. 18. It is a wonderful fine
148
Parts of Speech Subdivided,
day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. Generally every morning
we went to tlie spring. 16. I wish to simply state this point. 17. He
tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. 18. The lesson was
prodigiously long. 19.^ The cars will not stop at this station only
when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good as any one can. 21. Most
every body talks so. 22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't understand.
28. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. 24 That
^ere book is readable. 25. I will not go but once. 26. I can't find out
neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. 27. They were
nearly dressed alike. 28. The tortured man begged that they would
kill him again and again. 29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely,
and prodigally spent. 30. Improper motives were not suggested. •
LSSSON @S.
PREPOSITIONS.
DEFINITION,— A Treposition is a word which introdnees a
phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal
word to the word modified.
Composition.
IMfveeion.— We give, below, a list of the prepositions in common nse. Make
short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or three of them
in a single sentence, Jii* jou wish :—
Aboard,
about,
above,
across,
after,
against^
along,
amid,
amidst,
among,
amongst,
around.
-♦
athwart,
before,
behind,
below,
beneath,
beside,
besides,
between,
betwixt,
beyond,
but,
by,
down.
ere,
for,
from,
in,
into,
of,
on,
over,
past,
round,
since,
through,
throughout.
till,
to,
toward,
towards,
under,
underneath^
until,
unto,
up,
upon,
with,
within,
without.
Composition — Prepositions — Continued. 149
Jiemark.— Bating, concerning , during, excepting, notvjithstanding, pending, re-
garding, respecting, saving, and touching are still participles in form, and sometimes
are sach in iLse. Bnt in most cases the participial meaning has faded ont of them,
and they express mere relations.
But, exc^t, and save, in sach a sentence as All but or eacq^ or save him were lost,
are nsoally classed with prepositions.
The phrases aboard qf, according to, aiong zoith, as to, because of (by cause of),
from among, from between, from under, etc., instead of (in stead of), out of, over
against, and round about may be called compound prepositions. But from in theso
compounds ; as. He crawled from under the ruins, really introduces a phrase, the
principal term of which is the phrase that follows it.
Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows them is
omitted; as, He rodejxw^, He stands abooe.
LESSOM 96.
COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONS— CONTINUED.
To the Teacher,— l/ioei prepositions express relations so diverse, and so delicate
in their shades of distinction, that a definition of them based upon etymology would
mislead. A hi^py and dit*criminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an
extended study of good authors. We do, below, all that we think it prudent or profit-
able to do with them. He should be a man of wide and careful reading who assumes
to teach pupils that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain
words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That gram-
marian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils* feet a path narrower
than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up.*
J)ireetion,—We give, below, a few words with the prepositions which usually
accompany them. Form short sentences containing these words combined with each
♦ Take a single illustration: grammarians, in general, teach that between B.vadibetwl'' t
" refer to two," are used " only when two things or sets of things are referred to. *
Ordinarily, and while clinging to their derivation, they are so used, but are they
always, and must they be ? " A choice between two or more alternatives."— JlfM^^ifl'art.
*' There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."—
V Estrange. " Between two or more authortt different readers will differ.'*— Campbell.
" Read between the Wnea.'*''— Matthew Arnold. " The Greeks left no spaces between
their words." — Wilson. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory
neck." — Bryant,. With wliat clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be filled if
prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology. What simple and graceful
substitutes could be found for the last phrase in these sentences : There were forty
desks in the room with ample space between them ; We have distinguifhed between
four things t
1 50 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
of the prepositions which follow them, and note carefully the different relations
repressed hy the different prepositions : —
Abide at, hy, with; accommodate to, with; advantage of, over;
agree to, with; angry cut, toith; anxious about, for; argue against,
with; arrive at, in; attend <w,or upon, to; beguile of, with; careless
about, in, of; communicate to, with; compare to, with; consists in,
of; defend against, from; die ly, for, of; different from; dis-
appointed in, of; distinguish by, from; familiar to, with; impatient
for, of; indulge in, with; influence on, over, with; insensible of, to.
LESSON d?.
CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS.
IMrecHow.— Do with the following words as you were required to do above : —
Inquire after, fo^% into, of; intrude into, upon; joined to, with;
liberal of, to; live at, in, on; look after, for, on; need of; obliged
for, to; part from, with; placed in, on; reconcile to, with; re^urd
for, to; remonstrate against, with; sank beneath, in, into; share in,
of, toith; sit in, on, or upon; smile at, on; solicitous aboi£t,for; strive
about, for, with; taste for, of; touch at, on, 01 upon; useful /<?r, in,
to; weary of, in, with; yeaxnfor, towards.
LSSSOM 9S.
CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS—
CONTINUED.
Caution, — Great care must be used in the choice of
prepositions.
2)irectio?».— Correct these errors:—
1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 8. They two
quarreled among each other. 4. Ho is in want for money. 5. I was fol-
lowed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in * the water. 7. He
fought into * the Revolution. 8. He bears a close resemblance of his
* In denotes motion or rest in a condition or place; into, change from one condition
or place into another. ** When one is oatside of a place, he may he ahle to got i/ito
it ; hat he cannot do anything in it, until he has got into it.'*
Construction of Prepositions — Continued. 151
father. 9. He entered in the plot. 40. He lives at London. 11. He
lives in the torn of the road. 12. 1 have need for a vacation. 13. The
child died with the cronp. 14. He took a walk, bat was disappointed
of it. 15. He did not take a walk ; he was disappointed in it. 16. He
was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a
mark between each leaf . 19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed
a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. 22. What
is the matter of him? 23. He broke his cane to pieces. 24. These
plants differ Mrith each other. 25. He boards to the hoteL 26. I board
in the hoteL 27. She stays at the North. 28. He was averse from
the war. 29. You make no use with your talents. 80. He threw him-
self onto the bed. 31. They are hard to work. 32. He distributed
the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park.
84. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree
with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 88. Can
you accommodate me in one of those ? 39. What a change a century
has produced upon our country I 40. He stays to school late. 41. The
year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The
Ck)lonies declared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent
my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing.*
LESSOII 9d.
CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS—
CONTINUED.
Caution. — Do not use prepositions needlessly.
l>lree*ion.— Correct these errors :—
1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in t
8. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last
Saturday. 5. He was oom August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see
a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a
horse about {Reading is transitive). 9. By what state is Kentucky
bounded by ? 10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where
* This sentence and many of the worst in this Lesson have been called fiom
school compositious.
152 Parts of Speech Subdivided,
are 70a going to ? 12. They admittod of the fact. 13. Raise your Ikx>1l
off of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of
what is the air composed of 1 16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where
have you been to ? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered
to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which 1 intend to write
about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Giye to me a
knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24 To what may Italy
be likened to? 25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed.
26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answer-
ing of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river.
Caution. — Do not omit prepositions when they are needed.
IMrecelon.— Correct these errors : —
1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I was
prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is unworthy
our charity. 6. What use is this to him ? 7. He was bom on the 13th
August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was
the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea.
l>lff*eceion.— Point out the prepositions in Lessons 80 and 81, and name the words
between which, in sense, they show the relation.
LESSON 400.
CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER
CONNECTIVES.
Introdaotory Hints.— The stars look down upon the roofs of the living and
upon the graves of tlie dead, hut neither the living tuw the dead are conscious
of their gaze. Here and, but, neither, and nor connect words, phrases, and
clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are called •o-ordinate Oonjimctions.
Both clauses may be independent, or both dependent but oi equal rank.
At the burning of Moscow, it seemed as [it would seem] if the heavens
were lighted up that the nations mi^ht behold the scene. Here 6W, if, and
that connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of higher rank,
and so are called Subordinate Conjunctions. One clause may be independent
and the other dependent, or both dependent but of unequal i*auk.
Classes of Conjunctions and other Connectives. 153
DEFINITIONS.
A Con^unuMon is a word used to connect words, phrases, or
danses.
Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words,
phrases, or danses of the same rank*
Subordinate Conjunctions are snch as connect clauses
of different ranlE.
Bemarh.Some of the connectiTes, below, are conjunctions proper ; some are
relative pronouns ; and some are adverbs or adverb plirases, wliich, in addition to
tlieir office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon
themselves, and connect the clauses. These may be called conjunctive adverbs.
CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES.
Copulative, — And, both . . . and, as well as,* are conjnnctions
proper. Aeeordingly, besides, consequenily, furthermore, hence, like-
wise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjanctive adverbs.
Adversative* — Bvi is a conjtmction proper. Hmbcoer, neoerthe-
less, nottnthstandin^g, on the contra^, on the other hand, still, and yet
are conjtmctiye adverbs.
Alternative, — Neither, nor, or, either , , , or, and neither . . .
nor are conjunctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjonctiye
adverbe.
SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES.
CJoNNBcnvBs OF Adjbctivb Clausbs.
That, what, whenever, which, whicheoer, who, and whoever are relative
pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjunctive
adverbs.
CJONNBCnVBS OF AdVEBB CLAUSES.
Time, — After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, wheneoer, while,
and whilst are conjunctive adverbs.
Place, — Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs.
* The at wdi as in He^ as well as T, went; and not that in Bt is as well as lam.
154 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
Begree. — As, than, that, and the are conjunctiye adverbe, correlative
with adjectives or adverbs.
Manner, — As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, -witli an
adjective or an adverb. "
Beat Cause. — As, because, for, since, that, and wJiereas are conjunc-
tions proper.
Reason, — Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper.
Purpose. — In order that, lest (= that not), that, and so that are con-
junctions proper.
Condition. — Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, pro^ ]
vided that, so, and unless are conjunctions proper.
Concession. — Although, however, if (=even if), notudthstanding,
though, and wlietlier are conjunctions proper. Whatever, whichever,
and wJwever are relative pronouns used indefinitely.
CJoNNBcnvBS OP Noun Clauses.
If, lest, that, and whether are conjunctions proper. What, which,
and who are pronouns introducing questions; how, when, whence,
where, and why are conjunctive adverbs.
JHreetion,— Study the limits above, and point out all the connectives in Lessons
80, 81', telling which are relative pronouns, which are conjunctions proper, and which
are conjunctive adverbs.
To the Tettcher.—Jt the pnpils lack mainritj, the six following lessons may be
omitted. The anthors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omission wUl
occasion no break in the course.
LSSS09I 401.
COMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES.
Direetion.— Write compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by the
connectives named in the three subdivisions of Co-ordinate CkmnecUvet.
C
1.SSS09I lOi.
OMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED.
JM9*0«t Ion— Write complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by the coo-
ncctives of adjective ckniees, and by the connectives of adverb datuea of time^ pl<»C€^
deg*ee^ and manner.
Composition — Connectives. 155
LESSON 103.
COMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED.
J!>if*eet{on.— Write complex sentences whose claases shall be joined by the con-
nectives of adtferb daueea of real causey reaeoit, purpote^ oondiUon^ and oonoetiUm^
and by the connectives of noun clatuet.
LESSON 104.
CONNECTIVES.
Analysis.
JDirect ion.— Tell what kinds of claases follow the connectives, below, and what
are the usual connectives of soch claases, and then analyze the sentences :—
As may connect a clause expressing manner, time, de-
gree, cause, or reason.
1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Monnt Washington.
2. As I passed hy, I found an altar with this inscription.
8. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas.
4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing.
5. Half -learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the
hand.
If may connect a clause expressing condition, time, con-
cession, or may introduce a noun clause.
6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free.
7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride.
8. Who knows if * one of the Pleiads is really missing.
9. If the flights of Dryden are higher. Pope continues longer on
the wing.
Lest may connect a clause expressing purpose or may in-
troduce a noun clause.
------ I , , I - I I II r- ^^* — — —
* Many grammarians say that (^here is imp?oper1y nsed for whether. But tliis nse
of it ifl common in good authors in early and in modem English.
1^6 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
10. England fears last Russia may endanger British mle in India.
11. Watch and pray, lest ye enter into temptation.
Since may connect a clause expressing time^ causCy or
reason,
, 12. It miu3t be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas.
' 13. Many thousand years have gone by, since the Pyramids wero
built.
14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted.
LESSOII lOS.
CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED.
Analysis.
2>lreee{on.— Tell what kinds of clanses follow the connectives, below, and what
are the utual connectives of snch clauses, and then analyze the sentences : —
That may introduce a noun clause or an adjective clause^
or connect a clause expressing degree, catise, or purpose.
1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men.
2. Yesuyius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii
were buried.
8. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into watec that he may
harden it.
4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed wsus idle.
5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them.
When may connect a clause expressing time, cause, con-
dition, an adjective clause, a noun clause, or co-ordinate
clauses.
6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses.
7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns.
8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present.
9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question.
Connectives — Continued, 1 57
10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common
people?
11. The dial instituted a formal inqniiy, when hands, wheels, and
weights protested their innocence.
Wliere may connect a clause expressing place, an adjec-
live clause, or a noun clause.
12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried.
18. Where Moses was buried is still a question.
14. No one has been where Moses was buried.
Wliile may connect a clause expressing time or conces-
sion, or may connect co-ordinate clauses.
15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents.
16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt.
17. While Charles L had many excellent traits, he was a bad king.
LESSON 106.
CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED.
Analysis.
J>lreetion,—V9Q the appropriate connectives, and change these componnd sen-
tences to complex without chan<>:ing the meaning, and then analyze them :—
Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause ; let three express cause ; five,
condition ; and two, concession.
1. Ciesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain hi^e
had it.
3. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it
becomes carnage.
8. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee.
4. You must oat, or you will die.
6. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom.
G. Let but the commons hear this testament, and thoy would go
and kiss dead Caesar's wounds.
7. Men are carrying umbrellas ; it is raining.
8. Have ye brave sons ? look in the next fierce brawl to see them
die.
158 Parts of Speech Subdivided,
9. The Senate knows this, the Consol sees it, and jet the traitor
lives.
10. Take away the grandeur of his caoso, and Washington is a
rebel instead of the purest of patriots.
11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon.
2>irec<£on.— Two of the dependent clauses, below, express condition, and three
concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, and then analyze the
-sentences : —
12. Should we fail, it can be Qp worse for us.
13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France^ there would neyer
have been an England.
14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him.
15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader.
16. "Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, more frigaite%
would be found written on my heart."
LESiOfi 407.
CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES.
Caution. — Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs
may stand in correlation with other words. And may be
accompanied by hotli ; as by as, by so, or by such ; but {but
also and but likeioise) by not only ; if by then; nor by
neither ; or by either or by whether ; that by so ; the by
the ; though by yet; when by then ; and tvhere by there.
Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and
stand where they belong.
JS'ajampIeff.— Bnrr was as (not so in affirming equaiity) bad a man as Arnold. Bnrr
was not so (not as in denying equality) bad a man as Arnold. Give me neither riches
vor (not or) poverty. I caimot find either my book or (not nor) my hat. Dogs not
only bark (not not only dogs bark) but also bite. Not only dogs (not dogs not only)
bark but wolves also. He was neither (not neit/ier was) rich nor poor.
IHreetion,— Study the Caution, and correct these errors:—
1. He not only gave me advice, but also money. 2. A theatrical
part may eiliier hnply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulatiou
Construction of Connectives. 159
of my real sentiments. 8. She not only dressed richly but tastefully.
4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New
York. 5. The elm is not as tall as the pine. 6. Not only he is suc-
cessful, but he deserves to succeed. 7. There was nothing either
strange nor interesting. 8. The moon is not as large as the sun, nor i«
it as bright.
Caution. — Choose apt connectives, but do not use them
needlessly or instead of other parts of speech.
JTflBatnpletf.— Seldom, \f (not or) ever, should an adverb stand between to and the
infinitive. I will try to (not and) do better next time. No one can deny that (not
but) he has money. A harrow is drawn over the gronnd, whicli (not and wkicfi) covers
the seed. Who donbto that (not but that) Napoleon lived? The doctor bad scarcely
left tphen (not but) a patient called. He has no love for his father or (not nor) for his
mother (the negative no is felt throoghont the sentence, and need not be repeated
by nor). Hu was not well, nor (not or) was he sick (not is expended in the first
clause ; nor is needed to make the second clause negative).
JHreetion,— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors :■—
1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other
poets, is tenderness. 2. Try and recite the lesson i>erf ectly to-mor-
row. 3. Who can doubt but that there is a God ? 4. No one can cat
nor drink while he is talking. 5. He seldom or ever wont to church.
6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season.
Caution. — Else, other, othertoise, rather, and adjectives
and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed
by than. But ehe, other, and^ more, implying something
additional, but not diflEerent, in kind, may be followed tf
hut or besides.
Examples,— K diamond is nothing else than carbon. Junius was no other than
Sir .Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk otherwise than on cmtches. Americans
would rather travel than stay at home. I rose earlier than I meant to. He can con-
verse on other topics besides politics.
JNree«on.~Stndy the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors :—
1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 2. The
moon is something else but green cheese. 8. ComwaUis could not do
otherwise but surrender. 4 It was no other but the President. 6. He
no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran.
l6o Parts of Speech Subdivided,
Caution^ — Two or more connected words or phrases re-
ferring to another word or phrase should each make good
sense with it.
Hxantples,—! have always (add *attf) and etill do say that labor is honorable.
Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add lived) or is now alive. The
boy is stronger than his sifter, but not so tall.
l>ireeeion.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors :—
1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful as iron. 2. Gold is not so useful,
but heavier than iron. 3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than
that. 4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn the lessons.
5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 6. This
dedication may serve for almost any book^that has, is, or shall be
published.
LESSOfi 40S.
MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.
2Mr«c*fon.— Correct these errors, telling what Cantion each violates :—
1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers : this city in Africa, and
that in Europe ; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean,
the other on the southern. 2. The right and left lung were diseased.
8. The right and the left lungs were diseased. 4. My friend has sailed
for Europe, who was here yesterday. 5. There are some men which
are always young. 6. I cannot think but what God is good. 7. Thim-
bles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. 8. A
told B that he was his best friend. 0» Them scissors are very
dull. 10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada.
11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked
up insensible, died. 12. The eye and ear have different offices. 13. I
only laugh when I feel like it. 14. This is the same man who called
yesterday. 15. He was an humble man. 16. He was thrown forward
onto his face. 17. A knows more, but does not talk as well as, B.
18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. 19. At what
wharf does the boat stop at ? 20. The music sounded harshly. 21. He
would neither go himself or send anybody. 22. It isn't but a short
distance. 23. The butter is splendid. 24. The boy was graceful and
Various Uses of What, That, and But, i6i
tall. 25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much. 26. One wonld
rather have few friends than a few friends. 27. He is outrageously
proud. 28. Not only the boy skated, but he enjoyed it. 29. He is
not as brave as he is reckless. ^. Who doubts but what two and two
are four? 31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt
water. 82. The problem was difficult to exactly understand. 88. It
was the length of your finger. 84. He bought a condensed can of milk.
85. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 86. The
death is inevitable. 87. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress.
LESSOfi 409.
VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT.
What may be used as a relative pronoun, an interrogative
pronoun, a definitive adjective, an adverb, and an i7iter'
jectio7i.
JExantpletn^Ke did what was right. WTiat did he say? What man is happy
with the toothache 1 What with conflnement and what with bad diet, the prisoner
found himself rednced to a skeleton (here what = partly^ and modifies the phrase
following it). WhcU I yon a lion t
That may be used as a relative pronoun, an adjective
pronoun, a definitive adjective, a conjunction, and a con-
junctive adverb.
Xmamples,—'H.e that does a good deed is instantly ennobled. That is heroism.
27iat man is a hero. We eat t/uU we may live. It was so cold that the mercury
froze.
But may be used as a conjunction, an adverb, an adjec-
tive, and a preposition,
Examples.— The ostrich is a bird, bvt (adyersatiye conjunction) it cannot fly.
Not a sparrow falls but (= wn^M»— subordinate conjunction) God wills it. He was all
but (conjunction or preposition) dead (a contraction of these two contradictory state-
ments: He was all dead, but he was not dead ; or of this : He was all (anything in that
line) except (the climax) dead). No man is so wicked but (conjunctive adverb) he
loves virtue = No man is wicked to that degree in which he loves not virtue— «o = to
that degree, but -in which not. We meet but (adverb = oniy) to part. life is but
11
1 62 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
■ I I — — — »
(adjective = only) a dream. All hat (preposition = accept) him had fled. The tears
of love were hopeless Imt (preposition = except) for thee. I cannot but remember = I
cannot do anything but (preposiiion = except) remember. There is no fireside but
[{but — exempt) the one which"] has one vacant chair {put is here called by some a nega-
tive relative equalling th^ noty and making the sentence = There is no fireside that
has not one vacant chair).
JHreetion.—Stndj the principles and examples given above ; point ont the exact
use of whatt that^ and but in these sentences, and then analyze the sentences:—
1. He did nothing but laugh. 2. It was once supposed that dys-
tal is ice frozen so hard that it can not be thawed. 8. What love
equals a mother's ? 4. There is nobod7 here but I. 5. The fine arts
were all but proscribed. 6. There's not a breeze but whispers of
thy name. 7. The longest life is but a day. 8. What if the bee love
not these barren boughs ? 9. That life is long which answers life's
great end. 10. What I I the weaker vessel ? 11. Whom should I obey
but thee ? 13. What \yj industry and what by economy, he had amassed
a fortune. 13. I long ago found that out. 14. One should not always
eat what he likes. 15. There's not a white hair on your face but
should have its effect of gravity. 16. It was a look that, but for its
quiet, would have seemed disdain. 17. He came but to return.
LESSOU 440.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
Less&n 85. — ^Define a noun. What is the distinction between a
common and a proper noun ? Why is music a common noun ? What
is a collective noun? An abstract noun? What are the classes of
pronouns ? Define them. What is an antecedent ?
Lesson 86. —Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting he, it, and
the^ ; the needless use of pronouns ; the two styles of the pronoun ;
the use of them for those, and of whai for thai; and the use of «?/«?,
which, that, and wTiat.
Lesson 87.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connected
relative clauses; the relative in clauses not restrictive; the use of
Review Questions. 163
that instead of v)Ju) or uikkh ; the position of the lelatiye clause ; and
the use of this and that, the one and the other.
Lesson S9. — Define an adjective. What two classes are there?
Define them. What adjectives do not limit t Illustrate.
Lesson 90. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of
the adjectives an, a, and tJie; and the use of a few and few, a little
and little.
Lesson 01. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice
and the position of adjectives.
Lesson 93. — ^Define a verb. What are transitive verbs ? . Intransi-
tive t Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and
the object complement t What are regular verbs ? Irregular ? Illus-
strate. What are the several classes of adverbs ? Define them. What
is a conjunctive adverb ?
Lesson 03. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the cJioice
and position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use of
adoerhs for adjectives and adjectives for adverbs.
LESSOfI 444.
REVIEW QUESTIONS— CONTINUED.
Lesson 05. — Define a preposition. What are some of the common
prepositions? What is said of some ending in ingf Of but, except,
and save t Of certain compound prepositions ? When do prepositions
become adverbs ?
Lesson 08. — Give and illustrate the Caution in this Lesson, as to
the choice of prepositions. Give violations of it, and correct them.
What, in general, is the difference between in and into?
Lesson 00. — Give and illustrate the two Cautions in this Lesson, re-
lating to the use of prepositions. Give violations of them, And correct
thenu
Lesson 100. — ^Define a conjunction. What are the two great elasses
of conjunctions, and what is their difference ? What other parts of
speech besides conjunctions connect ? What are adverbs that connect
164 Parts of Speech Subdivided.
called ? Into what three classes are co-ordinate connectiyes subdivided?
What are some of the conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of
each class ? What three kinds of clauses are connected b^rsubordinate
connectives ? The connectives of adverb clauses subdivide into what
classes ? Give the leading connective of each class.
Leswn 104 — What different kinds of clauses naj as connect? fff
Lest f Since f Illustrate.
Le99on 105.— What different kinds of clauses may that introduce
or connect? Whent Where t While f Illustrate.
Lesson 107. — Give and illustrate the four Cautions in this Lesson,
relating to the construction of connectives. Give violations of theni»
and correct them.
Lesson 109. — ^Name the different offices of what, that, and hut, and
illustrate them.
Chnerdl Qy>e9tions. — ^Which parts of speech are subdivided ? Which
are not?
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PABTS
OF SPEECH.
LESSOM U%.
Introdootoij Hinti.— You have learned that tw^o words may express a
^hon<;ht, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words.
You are now to learn that the meaning or u&c of a word may be changed
by simply changing its form. Tlie English language has lost most of its
inflectionSf or forms, so that many of the changes in the meaning and the
use of words are not now marl^ed by changes in form. These chnnges in
the /orm, meaningy and use of the parts of speech we call their Modifications.*
* Tbose grammarians who attempt to restrict number ^ ease, mode, etc.,— what we
here call Modifications— to form, find themselves within hounds which th'ey con-
tinually overleap. Thoy define number, for instance, as a form, or inflection, and yet
speak of nouns **plaral in form but singular in sense," or *' singular in form but
plural in sense ; ** that is, if yon construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form
but singular or plural form in sense. They tell you that case is aybnn, and yet insist
tliat nouns have three cases, though only two forms ; and speak of the nominative and
the ot^eetive ease ot the noun, ** although in fact the two cases are always the same in
form "— ^ two forms always the same inform!
On the other hand, those who make what we call Modifications denote only rela-
tions or conditions qf words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For instance, they
ask the pupil to " pronounce and write the possessive of nouns," hardly expecting, we
suppose, that the " condition " of a noun will be soiftided or written ; and they speak
of '* a noun in the singular with a plural application " in which «i7i(^ar mustbe taken
to mean singular form to save the expression from sheer nonsense.
We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to do what
by the common use of the word wc are allowed ; viz., to take Modifications with
such breadth of signification that it will apply to meaning and to use, as well as to
form. Primarily, of course, it meant inflections, used to mark changes in the meaning
and use ot words. But we shall use Modifications to indicate changes in meaning and
nse when the form in the particular instance is wanting ; nowhere, however, recogniz-
faiS that as a mod\fleation which is not sometohere marked by form.
1 66 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Modifications of Nouns and Pronouny,
Number.
Tlu boy ihouU, The hoys thout. The form of the subject hot/ is changed by
adding an s to it. The meaning has changed. JBoy denotes one lad ; boys
two or more lads. This change in the form and the meaning of nouns is
called Number ; the word boy^ denoting one thing, is in the Singolar Number;
and boysy denoting more than one thing, is in the Plural Number. Number
expresses only the distinction of one from more than one ; to express more
precisely hoio many, we use adjectiycs, and say tun boys^ four boys^ many or
mvercdboys.
DEFINITIONS.
Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in their
form, meaning, and use.
Nutnber is that modification of a noon or pronoun wliich de«
notes one thing ot more tlian one.
l!h»*Singular Number denotes one thing.
The Plural Nuinber denotes more than one thing.
NUHBEB FOBHS.
RULE.— The plural of nouns is regrularly formed by adding 8 ta
the singrular.
To this rule there are some exceptions.
"When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with
that of s, es is added to form another syllable.*
• In Anglo-Saxon as was the plural termination for a certain class of nomis. In
later English <u was changed to es, which became the res^lar plural ending ; a8»
bird-es, doud-^s. In modem English, e is dropped, and s is joined to the singular
without increase of syllables. But when the singular ends in an ^-sound, the original
•yllabiC es is retained, as two hissing sounds will not unite.
Number Forms. 167
JBemarJlB.— Such words as Uoth^ rAch*^ and cage drop the final t when u is added.
See Bole 1, Lesson 127.
Direction.— Form the plnral of each of the following nonns, and note what letters
represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of « :—
Ax or axe, arch, adz, box, brasli, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas,
glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz.
Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es
without increase of syllables.
JKreetion.— Form the plural of each of the following nouns :—
Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innacndo, motto,
mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico, potato, tornado, volcano.
Some nouns in o add * only.
IMreefion.— Form the plnral of each of the following nouns \-~
Canto, domino, duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo,
piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero.
(Notice that in the following nouns o is preceded by a vowel.)
Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio.
Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant add
es without increase of syllables. Nouns in y after a vowel
are regular.
Iteiinarh,— Fis chauged to i when « is added.* See Rule 3, Lesson 127.
IHreefion.— Form the plural of each of the following nouni* :—
Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, f dwsy, essay, fairy,
fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey,
valley, vanity.
Some nouns change/ or /e into ves.
lyireet ion.— Form the plural of each of the following nouns :—
Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, f
thief, wharf, wife, wolf.
* In old English such words as ladpj fancy ^ etc., were spelled Uxdieyfancis. The
modem plnral simply retains the old spelling, and adds a.
t {7* after 9 is a consonant.
t Staff (a stick or support), $tav€9 or siaffB ; staff (a set of officers), itafft. The
conipouud« of Btaff are regular ; tA^JUng^ikffa.
1^8 ' Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Some nouns in/and/(9 are regular.
Direeeion.— Form the plond of each of the following nonns :—
Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof,
reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif.
(Nouns hi jTf except staffs are regular ; as, cuff^ ct^s.)
Some plurals are still more irregular.
JHreetion.—Jjsaxn. to form the following plurals : —
Child, children ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; loose, lice ; man, men ;
mouse, mice ; Mr., Messrs.; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; woman, women.
(For the plurals of pronouns, see Lesson 124.)
LESSOM 113.
NUMBER FORMS— CONTINUED.
Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain
their original plural forms. Some of these take the English
plural also.
JHreeeion.— Learn to form the following plurals :—
Analysis, analyses ; antithesis, antitheses ; appendix, api>endices or
appendixes ; automaton, automata or automatons ; axis, axes ; bandit,
banditti or bandits ; basis, bases ; beau, beaux or beaus ; cherub,
cherubim or cherubs ; crisis, crises ; datum, data ; ellipsis, ellipses ;
erratum, errata ; focus, foci ; fungus, fungi or funguses ; genus,
genera ; h7X)othesis, h7x>otheses ; ignis fatuus, ignes f atui ; madame,
mesdames ; magus, magi ; memorandum, memoranda or memoran-
dums ; monsieur, messieurs ; nebula, nebulae ; oasis, oases ; parenthesis,
parentheses; phenomenon, phenomena; radius, radii or radiuses;
seraph, seraphim or seraphs ; stratum, strata or stratoms ; synopsis,
synopses ; terminus, termini ; vertebra, yertebr» ; vortex, vortices or
vortexes.
Some compound nouns in which the principal word stands
first vary the fii*st word ; as, so»5-in-law.
Number Forms — Continued. 169
^ — ■ ■ ■ 1 r I II I ■- I I -^^— — ^mi— _ I. . _ I ■
lHr««eion.— Fonn the plnral of the following words :—
Aid-de-camp, attomey-at-law, billet-doux, commander-in-cliief,
court-martial, cousin-german, father-in-law, hanger-on, knight-errant^
man-of-war.
Most compounds vary the last word ; as, pailful^,* gentlo-
men,
JHreetion,—VoTm the plural of each of the following nouns :—
Court -yard, dormouse. Englishman, fellow -servant, fisherman.
Frenchman, forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man-
trap, mouthful, piano-forte, porte-monnaie, spoonful, step-son, t^te-^
i6te, tooth-brush.
Memarh.— The following nouns are not treated as componnds of man— add s.
Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman.
A few compounds vary both parts ; as, nian-singer, men^
singers,
2>irec«lon.— Form the plural of each of the following nonns :—
Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer.
Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a title
form the plural by varying either the title or the name ; as,
the Miss Clarhs or the Misses Clark ; but, when the title Mrs.
is used, the name is usually varied ; as, the Mrs. Clarhs. f
JHreetion^—Vmrn in hoth ways the plural of the following compounds :—
Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green.
A title used with two or more diflEerent names is made
plural; as, Drs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Clark and
Maynard.
* PaUsfutt is not a compound. This expression denotes a number of pails, each
ftaU.
t Of the two forms the Miss Clarhs and the Misses Clarke we belieye that the former
is most used by classical authors. The latter is now quite popular ; but, except in
formal notes, or when the title is to be emphasized, it is rather still, if not pedantic.
Some claim that, when a numeral precedes the tiUe, the nams should always be varied;
as, the two Miss Clarhs.
The forms, the MRsses Clarhs and the two Mrs, Clarh, have but UtUe authority.
170 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
2Mree<i«».— Pat each of the following expressions in its proper form :—
General Lee and Jackson; Miss Marj^ Julia, and Anna Soott;lfr.
Green, Stacy, & Ck>.
Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe
and s to form the plural ; * as, a's, 2's, — '5.
2>ir«c<ioM.— Form the ploral of each of the following characters :—
S, i, t, +, X, * t, 9, 1, i, 5, 3.
LESSON 4U.
NUMBER FORMS— CONTINUED.
Some nouns have two plumls differing in meaning.
JKreclion.- Learn to form the following plurals; note the meaning of each, and
be able to put each into a sentence :—
(brothers (by blood).
Brother, \ brethren (of tlie same
( society).
(cannons (indiyidoals),
Gannon, \ cannon (in a collectiye
( sense).
(dies (stamps for coin-
dice (cubes for gam-
ing).
( fishes (individnals),
( fish (collection).
{feet (parts of the body),
foot (foot-soldiers).
(geniuses (men of ge-
Genius, \ nius),
(genii (spirits).
Head,
Horse,
Index,
Die,
Rsh,t
Foot,
(heads (parts of the
] body),
(head (of cattle).
j horses (animals),
(horse (horse-soldiers).
(indexes (tables of ref-
erence),
indices (signs in al«
gebra).
( pennies (distinct coins).
Penny, -j pence (quantity in
( value).
(sails (pieces of can*
] vas),
( sail (vessels).
( shots (number of times
\ fired),
( shot (number of balls).
Sail,
Shot,
* Some good writers form the plnral of words named merely as words, in the same
way ; as, the ^« and the (xnd'B, Bat the C) is here unnecessary.
t The names of several sorts of fish, as herring ^ Bhady trouty etc., are used in the
-•une way. Tlio compounds of Jisht as co<H/l8hf have the same form in both numbers.
Number Forms — Continued. 171
Some nouns and pronouns have the same form in both
numbers.
2>irection.— study the following list :—
Amends, beUows, corps,* deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds,
pains (care), series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, wages, who, which,
that (relative), what, any, none.
(The follovdng have two forms in the plnral.)
Apparatus, apparatus or apparatuses ; gallows, gallows or gallowses ;
heathen, heathen or heathens ; summons, summons or summonses.
(The following nonns have the same form in both numbers when used with
numerals ; they add 8 in other cases ; as, one pair^ two pair^ in pairs^ by scores.)
Brace, couple, dozen, pair, score, joke, hundred, thousand.
Some nouns have no plural.
(These are generally names of matetialSy gualUies^ of sciences.)
Names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can have no plural, but
they may be plural when kinds of the material or things made of it are referred to ;
•0, cottons, coffees, tins, coppers.
Direction.— Study the following list of words :—
Bread, coffee, copper, fiour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not a
book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, mo-
lasses, music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water, etc.
(The following were originally plural forms, but they are now treated as singular.)
Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences
in ics), news.
Some words are always plural.
(They are generally names of things double or multiform in their character.)
l>lrec<ion.— Study the following list:—
Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterica^
literati, measles, mumps, nippers, oats, f pincers, rickets, scissors,
shears, snuffers, suds, thanks, tongs, tidings, trowsers, victuals.
Vitals.
■ — -
* The singular is pronounced ktfr, the plural kdrz.
t Oat la aomelimefl used, but a grain itfoats would be better.
172 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
(The following were originally wingnlar forms, but they are now treated as ploral.)
Alms (Anglo-Saxon, almesse), eaves (A. S., efese)» riches (Nonnaii
French, richesse).
(The following have no singnlar eovregpomding in meaning.)
Colors (flag), compasses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs)^
letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service),
morals (character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), stays
(corsets), vespers (evening service).
(The singular form is sometimes an adjective.)
Bitters, greens, narrows, sweets, valuables, etc.
Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individ-
uals in the collection are thought of, and as singular when
the collection as a whole is thought of.
Examples,— The commiUet were unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged.
A committee was appointed, and its report will soon be made.
(Collective noaus have plnral forms ; as, committees, armies.)
REVIEW IN NUMBER.
IHreofion.— Write the ploral of the singular nouns and pronouns in the following
list, and the singular of those that are plural ; give the rule or the remark that applies
to each ; and note those that have no plural, and those that have no singular : —
Hope, age, bench, bush, house, loss, tax, waltz, potato, shoe, colony,
piano, kangaroo, pulley, wharf, staff, fife, loaf, flag-staff, handker-
chief, Mr., child, ox, beaux, cherubim, mesdames, termini, genus,
genius, bagnio, theory, galley, muff, mystery, colloquy, son-in-law,
man-of-war, spoonful, maid-servant. Frenchman, German, man-servant.
Dr. Smith, Messrs. Brown and Smith, x , i, deer, series, bellows, mo-
lasses, pride, politics, news, wages, sun-fish, clothes, alms, goods,
grounds, greens, who, that.
IMreeeion.— Give five words that have no plnzal, Ave that have no singolar, and
five that have the same form in both numbers.
Number Forms in Construction, 173
^— '^ ■ —I III ■■■■! ■■■ ■ ■ ■ I I ■ ^M. ■! . ,. ■! I I ■ .1 ■■ ■ , I ■ I ■ .11 — I. I ■ ■^■.■| ,. ■ ■■ ■■ j ^
2>{«*eet{on.— Correct the following plurals, and give the remark that applies to
each:—
Stagees, foxs, mosqoitos, dominoes, calicos, heros, soloes, babys,
trioes, chimnies, storys, elfs, beefs, scarves, oxes, pbenomenons,
axises, terminuses, genoses, motber-in-laws, aldermans, Mossulmen,
teeth-bnisbes, mouthsfol, attomey-at-laws, man-childs, geese^uillSy
2s, ms, swines.
LESSOM 446.
NUMBER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION.
The number of a noun may be determined not only by its
form^ but also by the verhy the adjective^ and the pronoun
used in connection with it.
Memarh^^Tluse sdiKfn an so dull that I cannot use them. The plarality of
hduon is here made known in four ways. In the following sentence Ihiiy i«, and \Jb
are incorrectly used : This scissors U so dull that I cannot nse it.
JHreetioN..— Constract sentences in which the nnmher of each of the following
nouns shall be indicated by the form of the t?«r&, the adieciive^ or the pronoun used in
connection with it :—
With the singular nouns nse the verbs fo, was, and ?ut8 been ; the adjectives an^ one,
this^ and that; the pronouns he, his, him, she, her, it, and its.
With the plural nouns use the verbs are, were, and have Peen / the adjectives thessy
those, and ttoo; the pronouns they, their, and them.
Bellows, deer, fish, gross, means, series, species, heathen, pair,
trout, iron, irons, news, wages, eaves, riches, oats, gaUows, vermin,
molasses. Misses, brethren, dice, head (of cattle), pennies, child,
parent, family, crowd, and meeting.
l>ireetion, — Compose sentences in which the first three of the following adjective
pronouns shall be used as singular subjects, the fourth as a plural subject, and the
remainder both as singular and as plural subjects :—
Each, either, neither, both, former, none, all, any.
174 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
LESSOli 447.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS— GENDER.
ZntrodnctorT- Hints.— 2^ lion vhu caged. The lioness was caged. In the first
fieuteoce something is said about a male lion, and in the second somethingf
is said about a. female lion. The modification of the noun to denote the sex
of the thing which it names is called Gender. Lion^ denoting a male animal,
is in the Masculine Gtender; and lUmesSy denoting a female animal, is in the
Feminine Gknder. Names of thina:8 that are without sex arc said to be in
the Neater Grender. Such nouns as cousin^ chUdy friend^ neigJibor^ naming
things of whose*8ex you are ignorant, are either tnaseiUine or feminine.
Sex belongs to the thing^ and gender to the noun which names it. Know-
ing the sex of the thing or its lack of sex, you know the gender of the
noun in English which names It ; for in our language gender follows tlie
sex. But in such modern languages as the French and tlie German, and in
Latin and Greek, the gender of nouns naming things without reference to
sex is determined by the likeness of their endings in sound to the endings
of words denoting things with sex. Tlie German for table is a masculitie
noun, the French, yeminin^, and the English,* of course, neuter.
DEFINITIONS.
Oender is that modiflcatioii of a noun or prononii irbieli
denotes sex.
The Masculine Oender denotes the male sex.
The Feminine Oender denotes the female sex.
The Neuter Oender denotes want of sex.
Gender Forms.
K"o English nouns have distinctive neuter forms, but a
feto have different forms to distinguish the masculine from
i\\Q feminine.
* " ' ' ■ ' ' ■■ " ■■■■■■ ■■■ I ■! .1^ » 11 I ■■■ —I— — ^— ■ »■■■■. ■■ »■■■■■■ I ■ ■ ■ %
* In Anglo-Saxon, the mother-tongae of our language, gender was grammatical,
as in the French and German ; bat since the union of the Norman-French with it to
form the English, gender has followed sex.
Nouns and Pronouns — Gender. 175
The masculino is distinguished from the feminine in
three ways : —
Ist. By a difference in the ending of the words.
2d. By different words in the compound names.
3d. By using words wholly or radically different.
Ess * is the most common ending for feminine nouns.
2>lree<ton.— Form the feminine of each of the following masculine nouns by
adding €9S :—
Author, baron, count, deacon, g^ant, god (see Rule 8, Lesson 127,
heir, host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule 1, Lesson 127),
prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor.
(Drop the vowel or o in the ending of the masculine, and add «m.)
Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor,
enchanter, hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter.
(Drop the masculine er, and add the feminine «m.)
Adventurer, caterer, governor, murderer, sorcerer.
(The following are somewhat irregular.)
2>ireee{on.— Learn these forms :—
Abbot, abbess ; duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; lad, lass ; mar-
quis (Lat. marchio), marchioness ; master, mistress ; negro, negress.
Ebs was formerly more common than now. Such words
as editor and author are now frequently used to denote either
sex.
2Mrec#ion.— Give five nouns ending in «r or or that may be applied to either sex.
Some words, mostly foreign, have various endings in the
feminine.
2>{reef ion.— Learn the following forms : —
Administrator, administratrix ; Augustus, Augusta ; beau, belle ;
Charles, Charlotte ; Cornelius, Cornelia ; czar, czarina ; don, donna ;
equestrian, equestrienne ; executor, executrix ; Francis, Frances ;
* The suffix «M came into the English language from the Norman-French. It dis-
placed the feminine termination of the mother-tongue (A. S. tstrt or istn^ old English
#for). The original meaning of tier is preserved in spinttUr. Er (A. 8. «re), which by
a change of the vowel becomes w^ was originally a masculine suffix meaning man ;
but it now generally denotes an ogMt without reference to sex ; as, r^ad-er, taU-or,
1 76 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
George, Geoigiana; Henry, Henrietta; hero, heroine; infante or
infant, infanta; Jesse, Jessie; Joseph, Josephine; Julias, JaUa or
Juliet; landgrave, landgravine; Louis, Louisa or Louise; Paul,
Pauline ; signore or signor, signora ; sultan, sultana ; testator, testa*
trix ; widower, widow.
In some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed or
affixed.
2>{rec<{on.— Leam the following fonns :—
Billy-goat, nanny-goat ; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit ; cock-sparrow, hen-
sparrow; Knglishman, Englishwoman; gentleman, gentlewoman;
grand-father, grand-mother; he-bear, she-bear; landlord, landlady;
man-servant, maid-servant; merman, mermaid; Mr. Jones, Mrs. or
Miss Jones ; peacock, peahen.
Words wholly or radically different are used to distinguish
the masculine from the feminine.
(This is a matter pertaining to the me»iin<; of words rather than to grammar.)
2>irec<ion.— Learn the following forms :—
Bachelor, maid ; buck, doe ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; friar or
monk, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; lord, lady ; nephew, niece ;
sir, madam ; stag, hind ; steer, heifer ; wizard, witch ; youth, dams^
or maiden.
The ^pronoun has three gender forms : —
Masculine he^ feminine nlie^ and neuter it*
ZHreeeion.— Give five examples of each of the three ways of di^ngnishing the
masculine from the feminine.
LESSOM \\%.
GENDER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION.
Gender as a matter of orthography is of some importance,
but in grammar it is chiefly important as involving the cor-
rect use of the pronouns he, she, and it.
* R^ although a neuter form, is used idiomatically to refer to a male or a female ;
ast It was John^ It was Mary.
Gender Forms in Construction, 177
When a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of
both sexes, it is commonly represented by a masculine pro-
noun.*
^oMxmpIe.— Every perfon has Ms faults.
The names of animals are often considered as masculine
or feminine without regard to the real sex.
JS7aMsmpIe«.— The ffrisly bear is the most savage of his race. The ccU steals upon
her prey.
Metnark,— The writer employs he or she, according as he fancies the animal to
possess masculine or feminine characteristics. Se Is more frequently employed
thuishe.
The neuter pronoun it is often used with reference to
animals and very young children, the sex being disregarded.
Examples,— ynien the deer is alarmed, it gives two or three graceful springs. The
little chUd reached out its hand to catch the sunbeam.
Metnark.— 26 is quite generally used instead of he or she, in referring to an animal,
unless scMue masculine or feminine quality seems to predominate.
Inanimate tilings are often represented as living beings,
that is, they are jpersonijied, and are referred to by the pro-
noun he or she,
Example,— The oak shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy mould.
Metnark,— The names of objects distinguished for size, power, or sublimUy are re*,
garded as masculine ; and the names of those distinguished for grace, beauty, gentle-
ness, OT productiveness are considered as feminine. Personification adds beauty and
animation to style.
JHreetion,—Stadj what is said above, and then fill each of the blanks in the fol-
lowing sentences with a masculine, a feminine, or a neuter pronoun, and in each ca^o
give the reason for your selection :—
1. No one is so much alone in the universe as who denies
God, 2. A person's manners not nnfrequentlj indicate morals.
8. Everybody should think fop . 4. The forest's leaping panther
shall yield s}>otted hide. 6. The catamount lies in the boughs to
* When it is necessary to distinguish the sexes, both the masculine and the feminine
pronouns should be used ; as, Each person was required to name his or her favorite
flower.
12
178 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
watch prey. 6. The mocking-bird shook from little throat
floods of delicious mnsic. 7. The wild be&st from cavern sprang,
the wild bird from grove. 8. The night-sparrow trills song.
9. The elephant is distingnished ' f or strength and sagacity.
10. The bat is nocturnal in habits. 11. The dog is faithful to
• master. 13. The child was unconscious of danger. 13. The
fox is noted for cunning. 14. Belgium's capital had gathered
then beauty and •< chivalry. 15. Despair extends raven
wing. 16. Life mocks the idle hate of arch-enemy. Death.
17. Spring comes forth work of gladness to contrive. 18. Truth
is fearless, yet is meek and modest.
ZHreeeion.— Write f entences in which the things named below shall be p^sonified
by means of masculine pronouns : —
Death, time, winter, war, sun, river, wind.
Direction.— Write sentences in which the things named below shall be personified
>y means of feminine pronouns :—
Ship, moon, earth, spring, virtue, nature, night, England.
Caution. — Avoid changing the gender of the pronoun
when referring to the same antecedent.
Direction, — Correct these errors : —
1. The polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries, as it suffers
BO much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement.
2. The cat, when it comes to the light, contracts and elongates the
pupil of her eye. 3. Summer clothes herself in green, and decks
itself with flowers. 4. War leaves his victim on the fleld, and homes
desolated by it mourn over her cruelty.
V_
LESSOM m.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS—PERSON AND
CASE.
Introdnctory Hints.— iVwrndcr and gendei\ as ybu have learned, arc modifica-
tions affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns— number being almost
always indicated Toy form, or injlection; gender sometimes. There are two
other modifications which do not refer to changes in the meouUng of uount
Nouns and Pronouns — Person and Case, 179
and pronouns, but to their different u^es and rdaHonn^ these uses and rela-
tions not often being indicated by /oi'm, or ir^fiectioti.
I, I\inl^ have written. Bitd^ thou art beside thyself. He brought Jhtd be-
fore Agrippa. In these three sentences the vrord Jhul has three different
uses, though, as you see, its form is not changed. In the first it is used to
name the speaker ; in the second to name the one spoken to; in the third to
name the one spoken of. These different uses of nouns and pronouns and
the forms used to mark them constitute the modification called Person.
/, tJwu^ and he are personal pronouns, and, as you see, distinguish person by
their /o/'/n. I^ denoting the speaker, is in the First Person; thou, denoting
the one spoken to, is In the Seoond Person ; and he, denoting the one Bpoken
of, is in the Third Person.
Instead of / a writer or speaker may use the plural toe ; and through
courtesy it came to be customary, except among tlie Friends, or in the
lan<;uage of prayer and poetry, to use the plural you instead of thou.
The bear killed the man. The man killed the bear. The bear's grease toaa made
finto hair oil. In the first sentence the animal, bear, is represented ns/)er-
forming an action ; in tlio second as receiving an action ; in the third as
possessing something. Consequently the word bear in these sentences has
three different uses. Tliese different uses of nouns and pronouns and the
forms used to mark them constitute the modification called Case. A noun
or pronoun used as subject is in the Nominatire Case; used as objeci com-
plement is in the Objeotl^e Oase ; and used to denote possession is in the
Possessire Oase.
Some of the pronouns have a special form for each case, but the possessive
ease of nouns is the only one that is now marked by a peculiar /o?7». We in-
flect, below,* a noun from the Anglo-Saxon and one from the Latin, the
* The Anglo-Saxon cases are nominative^ genitive^ dative^ accusative^ vocative^Sknii
instrumental ; the Latin are nominative^ genitive, dative^ accusative, vocative, and
ablative ; the English are nomiruUive, possessive, and directive.
Anolo-Saxok.
HIaford, lord.
Singular. . Plural.
Nom. hlaford, b1aford-a«.
Gen. hlaford-««| hlaford-d.
Dat. hlaford-e, Iilaford-««n.
Ace. hlaford, hlaford-d«.
Voc. hlaford, hlaford-d«.
Inst, hlaford-^; hlaford-«m.
Latin.
Dominns, lord.
Singular. Plural.
Nom. domin-w«^ domin-i.
Gen. domin-iy domin-ortctn.
Dat. domin-Oy domin-{«.
Ace. , domin-ufM^ domin-o«.
Voc. domin-^, domin-i.
Ab. domin-o; domin-i«.
Enoush.
Lord.
Singular.
Nom. lord,
Pos. lord-'*,
Obj. lord.
Plural.
Nom. lord-*f
Pos. lord-*%
Obj. lord-*.
i8o Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
r ■ ■ I ■ I .1 .■■I , . , ■ I ■_ ■ ,1 ,1. I , __■_■■ —II. ■ ■ ■■!»■-■■ - ■ I ^ ■ 11 I I ^1 1 1 I I ■ I I iM^
parent of the Norman-French, in order that you may see how cases and the
forms, or inflections, to marli them have been dropped in English. In Eng-
lish prepositions have largely taken the place of those cases and case
forms, and many think that by them our language can express the many
relations of nouns to other words in the sentence better than these languages
can by their cumbrous machinery of inflection. '
DEFINITIONS.
Person is that modiflcation of a noun or pronoun which denotes
the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of*
The First Person denotes the one speaking.
The Second Person denotes the one spoken to.
The Third Person denotes the one spoken of.
A noun is said to be of the first person when joined as an
explanatory modifier to a pronoun of the first person ; as,
7, JohUy saw these things ; We Americans are always in a
hurry.*
A notm is of the second person when used as explanatory
of a pronoun of the second person, or when used indepen-
dently as a term of address ; as. Ye crags and peaks ; Idle
time, John, is ruinous.
Direetion.— Compose sentences in which there shall he two examples of noons
and two of pronouns ased in each of the three persons.
Person Forms.
Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words
that have distinctive person forms.
Direction, — ^From the forms of the pronouns given in Lesson 124, select and write
in one list all the first person forms ; in another list, all the second person forms ;
and in another, all the third person forms.
■ . '
* It is doubtful whether a noun is ever of the first person. It may be claimed with
Bome propriety that, in the sentence 7, *7bAn, saw these things^ John speaks (^ his
own name, the expression meaning /, and my name is John^ etc.
Nouns and Pronouns — Person and Case, i8i
— %
Person is regarded in grammar, because the verb some-
times yaries its form to agree with the person of its sub-
ject ; as, / seey Thou seest, He sees.
DEFnnnoKS.
Case is that modification of a nonn or pronoun wliich denotes its
olilee in tiie sentence.
The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its
office as subject or as attribute complement.
The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its
office as possessire modifier.
The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its
office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional
phrase.
A noun or a pronoun used independently is said to be in
the nominative case.
Mxaimples,—! am, dear maaam^ your friend. Alas, poor Torickf He bekiff
dead^ we shall live. lAberty^ it has fled I (See Lesson 44.)
A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the
same case as the word explained, or "is put by apposition
in the same case."
^j0ample#.— The first colonial Congress, that of 1774, addressed the King^ Oeorge
Ilf. He buys his goods at JStewarVSy the dry-goods tnereharU.
A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in
the objective case.
.E!aBa«Mp{«.— They made him speaker,
A noun or a pronoun used as attribute complement of a
participle or an infinitive is in the same case {Nom, or Obj,)
as the word to which it relates as attribute.
JEjBBa«»ple#.— Being an artist^ he appreciated it. I proved i^ to be Mm.
Remarht^Whea the assumed subject of the participle or the infinitive is a po«>
1 82 Modifications of the Farts of Speech.
sessive, its attribute complement is gaid to be in the nominative case ; as, Its being h(*
should mf^e no difference. When the participle or the infinitive is used abstractly,
without an assumed subject, its attribute complement is also said to be in the nom>
inative case ; as. To be he * is to be a scholar, Being a scholar is not being an idler.
l>irection, — Study carefully the definitions and the remarks, above, and then
•compose sentences in which a noun or a pronoun shall be put in the nominati^ case
\n/our ways ; in tbe objective in Jive ways ; in the possessive in itco ways.
LESSOII 4iO.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
2>ireefion.— Analyze the following sentences, and give the case of each noun and
pronoun : —
1. Not to know what happened before we were bom is to be always:^
a child.
2« His being a Roman saved him from being made a prisoner.
8. I am this day weak, though anointed king. ^
JEaDplanation.—Nojma used adverbially are in the objective case, because equiv-
alent to the principal word of a prepositional phrase. (See Lesson 85.)
4. What made Cromwell a great man was his unshaken reliance
on God.
5. Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son. -
6. Arnold's success as teacher was remarkable.
^aeplanation.— Teacher ^ introduced by as and used without a i>08sessive sign,
is explanatory of ArnolcTs.
* The case of h£ in these examples is rather doubtful. The nominative and the
objective forms of the pronoun occur so rarely in such constructions that it seems
imiwssible to determine the usage. It is, therefore, a matter of no great practical
Importance.
Some, reasoning from the analogy of the Latin, would put the word after the
abstract infinitive in the objective, suppo8ing/(>r, with some word, to be understood ;
as, For one to be him, etc. Others, reasoning from the analogy of the German, to
which our language is closely allied, would put it in the nominative.
The assumed subject of the infinitive being omitted when it is the same as that of
the principal subject, him, in the sentence I wish to be Aiwi— equalling I wish (me or
myself) to be him— is the proper form, being in the same case as me. In the sen-
tence I have no doubt of his being a scholar, his is used instead of him to prevent
ambiguity ; and some would put scholar in the same case as him. For a similar
reason scholar would be nominative in the sentence Hie {he) bdng a scholar is beyond
doubt.
Parsing. 183
7. Worship tliy Creator, God ; and obey his Son, the Master, King,
and Sayionr of men.
8. Bear ye one another's burdens.
JElsvpIaNotion.— The singular ont is explanatory of the plural ye,
9. What art thou, execrable shape, that darest advance ?
10. O yon hard hearts I yon cmel men of Rome 1
11. Everybody acknowledges Shakespeare to be the greatest of
dramatists.
12. Think'st thou this heart could feel a moment's joy, thou being
absent?
18. Our great forefathers had left him nought to conquer but his
country.
(For case of him see Explanation of (8), above.)
14. I will attend to it myself .
Explanation,— Myself may ^ treated as explanatory of /.
15. This news of papa's* puts me all in a flutter.
16. What means that hand upon that breast of thine ?*
LESSON 424.
PARSING.
To the !teaehor,—We do not believe that the chief end of the study of grammar
is to be able to parse well, or even to analyze well, thongh, without question, analysis
reveals more clearly than parsing the structure of the sentence, and is immeasurably
superior to it as intellectual gymnastics. We would not do away with parsing
altogether, but would give it a subordinate place.
But we must be allowed an emphatic protest against the needless and mechanical
quoting, in parsing, of " Rules of Syntax." When a pupil has said that such a noun
is in the nominative case, subject of such a verb, what is gained by a repetition of the
definition in the Rule : '* A noun or a pronoun which ia the subject of a finite verb
is in the nominative case *' i Let the reasons for the disposition of words, when
given at all, be specific.
Parsing a word is giving its classification, modifications,
and syntax {%. e.y its relation to other words).
2H9*«et{oi».— Select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns found in the first
ten sentences of Lesson 120. For the agreement of pronouns see Less. 142.
* See foot-note, pages 188 and 189.
184 Modifications of tJie Parts of Speech.
. Model for Written JPar»ing.—I}lizabeth^8faooriUy Saleigh, vxu beheaded by
James I,
CLASSIFICATION.
MODIFICATIONS.
STNTAX.
Nouns,
Elizabeth's
favorite
Raleigh
James L
Kind.
Prop.
Com.
Prop.
Person.
3d.
4(
Number.
Sing.
«
Gender.
Fem.
Mas.
Case,
Pos.
Nom.
tt
im.
P06. Mod. of favorite.
Sub. of was bekeoded
Exp. Mod. lAfofDorite.
nm word in Prep, phrase.
To the Teacher.— Tai eaondMs In parsii^ nomis and pronouns, see Lessons 28,
as, ao»81,tt,S4. JS, 4i, ^ 9i,fl0,71, 78, 78, 80, and 81. Other exercises may be selected
fnnn examples previously given for analysis, and parsing continued as long as you
tliink it profitable.
LESSOM \%%.
CASE FORMS— NOUNS.
Nouns have two case forms, the simple form, common to
the nominative and the objective case, and the possessive form.
RULE.— The possessive case of noons is formed, in tlie singn-
lar, by adding, to the nominative, the apostrophe and the letter s
i^s) ; in the plural, by adding O only. If the plural does not end in
«, ('«) are both added.*
JExamplea.—Boy's^ boys\ m£fCs.
Metnarh.— To avoid an unpleasant succession of hif^sing sounds, the s in the
possessive singular is sometimes omitted ; as, conscience^ sake^ goodness'' sake^ AchUles*
svH)rdi Archimedes^ screw (the s in the words following the possessive here has its
influence). In prose 1 his omission of the s should seldom occur. The weight of usage
inclines to the s in such names as Miss Rounds' s, Mrs. Hemans's^ King James'' Sy wii-
ness% prince's. Without the s there would be no distinction, in spoken language,
between Miss Sound's and Miss Sounds\ Mrs. HemarCs and Mrs. Hemans\
JS«ntarA;.— Pronounce the ('*) as a separate syllable (= es\ when the sound of »
will not unite with the last sound of the nominative.
AetnarJIc.— When the singular and the plural are alike in the nominative, some
place the apostrophe after the s in the plural to distinguish it from the possessive
singular ; as, singular, sheep's; plural, sheeps'.
* In Anglo-Saxon es was a genitive (possessive) ending of the singular ; as, smith,
genitive^ smith««. In old English es and is were both used. In modem English the
vowel is dropped, and C) is used to mark its omission. The use of the apostrophe
has been extended to distinguish the possessive from other forms of the plural.
Case Forms — Nouns. 185
■ ii ■ - '
ZHreefton.— study the Rule and the Remarks given above, and then write the
possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of the following nouns :—
Actor, elephant, fanner, king, lion, genius, horse, princess, buffalo,
lieio, mosquito, negro, volcano, junto, tyro, cuckoo, ally, attorney,
fairy, Itdj, monkey, calf, elf, tMef, wife, wolf, chief, dwarf, waif,
child, goose, moaae, ox, woman, beau, seraph, fish, deer, sheep,
swine.
Compound names and gronps of words that may be treat-
ed as compound names add the possessive sign to the last
word ; as, a man-of-war^ s rigging, the queen of BnglancTs
palace,* Frederick the Great's verses.
Metnarh.— The possessive pltiral of such tenns is not used.
The preposition of with tlie objective is often used instead
of the possessive case form — David's Psalms = Psalms of
David {of ='s).
Metnark,— To denote the source from which a thing proceeds, or the idea of
belonging to, Q^is nsed more frequently than (V).
The i>osse88^e sign Qs) is confined chi^y to the names of persons, animals, and
things personified. We do not say the tree''s leaves, but the leaves qf the tree.
The possessive sign, however, is often added to names of things which we frequently
bear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and to names of periods of time ; as,
the earth's Bvatacey fortune* s smile, etemity^s stillness, a year's interest, a day'' s work.
By the use of qf, such expressions as witnesses statement^ mothers-in4aw*e faults
may be avoided.
•2>ire<j«lon,— Study carefully the principles and remarks given above, and then
make each of the following terms indicate possession, using either the possessive
sign or the preposition of^ as may seem most appropriate, and join an appropriate
name denoting the thing possessed : —
Father-in-law, William the Ck)nqueror, king of Great Britain, aid-
de-camp, Henry the Eighth, attomey-at-law, somehody else,f Jeffer-
son, enemy, hero, eagle, elephant, gunpowder, hook, house, chair,
torrent, sun, ocean, mountain, summer, year, day, hour, princess,
Socrates.
* In parsing the words queen and England separately, the (*«) must be transferred
to queen ; but the whole phrase queen of England may be treated as one noun in the
possessive case.
t In such expressions as everybody else^s business, the possessive sign is removed
from the noun and attached to the adjective. The possessive siign should generally be
placed immediately before the name of the thing possesaed.
1 86 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
L£SSOM Ii3.
CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE FORMS.
As the possessive is the only ease of nouns that has a
distinctive form, or inflection, it is only with this case that
mistakes can occur in construction.
Catitian. — When several possessive nouns modify the
same word and imply common possession, the possessive
sign is added to the last only. If they modify different
words, expressed or understood, the sign is added to each.
JCatplanation,— WiUiam and Henry^a boat, WiUiani's and Henry's boat. In the
first example, William and Henry are represented as jointly owning a boat ; in the
second, each is represented as owning a separate boat— 6oa^ is understood after
WiUianCs.
^emarA;.— When the different possessors are thought of as separate or opposed,
the sign may be repeated, although joint possession is implied; as, He was hw father'' $y
mother'' 8^ and sisier^s favorite, He was the kinff^s, as well as the people's^ favorite.
l>ireetion, — Correct these errors, and give your reasons :—
1. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's
reign. 2. Messrs. Leggett's, Stacy's, Green's, & CJo.'s business pros-
pers. 8. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate. 4. America
was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign. 6. We were
comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victories. 6. This was the sage and,
the poet's theme.
Explanation,— It an article precedes the possessive, the sign is repeated.
7. It was the king, not the people's choice. 8. They are Thomas,
as well as James's books.
Caution, — When a possessive noun is followed by an ex-
planatory word, the possessive sign is added to the explana-
tory word only. But if the explanatory word has several
modifiers, or if there are more explanatory words than one,
the principal word only takes the sign.
Hemarh,— When a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun, and the name
of ttie thing possessed is omitted, the possessive sign may be added to either the
Construction of Possessive Forms, 187
modifying or the principal word ; as, We stopped at Tiffany, the jeweUer'^Sy or, We
stopped At Tlffany^Sy the jeweller. (If the name of the thing possessed is given^ the
noun immediately hefore it talccs the sign.)
2>lr«c<ion.— Correct these errors :—
1. This Is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. 3. I took tea at Brown's,
my old friend and schoolmate's. 3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen
of England's, dominion. 4. This province is Victoria's, queen of Eng-
land's. 6. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's.
6. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's and
statesman's. 7. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace.
2>ireel{on.— Tell which of the sentences, ahove, may be improved by using of
instead of C«.)
Caution. — The relation of possession may be expressed
not only by ('5) and ofy but by the use of such phrases as
belonging to, property of, etc. In constructing sentences be
careful to secure smoothness and clearness by taking advan-
tage of these different forms.
IHreetion.— Improve the following sentences :—
1. This is my wife's father's opinion.
Correeeion.— This is the opinion of my wife's fatlur^ or held by my tp\fe" 9 father.
2. This is my wife's father's farm. 3. Prance's and England's
interests differ widely. 4. Frederick the Great was the son of the
daughter of George I., of England. 6. My brother's wife's sister's
drawings have been much admired. 6. The drawings of the sister of
the wife of my brother have been much admired.
Of is not always equivalent to the ('5).
X!aDplanation,~-The president's reception means the reception given by the presi-
dent ; but the reception of the president means the reception given to the president.
Direction, — Construct sentences illustrating the meaning of the following ex-
pressions :—
A mother's love, the lovo of a mother ; a father's care, the care of a
father ; my friend's picture, a picture of my friend.
Caution. — Often ambiguity may be prevented by changing
the assumed subject of a participle from a nominative or
an objective to a possessive.
1 88 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
IMrecrton.— Correct these errors :—
1. The writer being a scholar is not doabted.
Correction.— This is ambiguons, as it may mean either that the writer is not
doabted, becaose he is a scholar, or that the writer's scholarship is not doabted. It
shoald be The writer's being a scholar is not doubted, or That the writer is a sehdar
is not doubted.
2. I have no donbt of the writer being a scholar. 8. No one ever
heard of that man mnning for office. 4. Brown being a politician pre-
vented his election. 5. I do not donbt him being sincere. 6. Grouchy
being behind time decided the fate of Waterloo.
LESSON IS4.
NUMBER AND CASE FORMS.
Declension.
DEJHN1T105.— l>cc?en«tow is the arrangement of the eases
of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers.
IHreetion.— Learn the following declensions :—
Declension of Nouns.
LADY.
Singular, PlurcU,
Nom, lady, ladies,
Po». lady's, ladies',
Obj, lady ; ladies.
BOY.
8ingvla/r. Plural.
boy, boys,
boy's, boys',
boy ; boys.
HAN.
Sing. Plural.
man, men,
man's, men's,
man ; men.
FIBST PERSON.
Singular. PluraL
Nom. I, we,
Poa. ^7or o^or
mme,* ours,
Obj. me ; us.
Declension of Pronouns.
Personal Pronouns.
second person —
common form.
Singular. Plural.
you, you,
your or your or
yours, yours,
you ; you.
SECOND PERSON-^
old form.
Singular.
Plural.
thou.
ye<?ryou.
ihj or
your<>r
thine.
yours.
thee;
you.
• The forms mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, and theirs are nsed only when the name
nf the thing possessed is omitted ; as, Tours is old, nUne is new = Your book is old.
Number and Case Forms. 1.89
them-
selves.
THIBD PERSON — JfflW. THIRD PBRSON— -Ffem. THIRD PERSON — Ne^.
Singular, Plural, Singular, Plural. Singular. Plural.
N(m. he, they, 6he, they, it, they,
, . their or her or their or j^ their or
PoB, his, ^j^^.^^ j^^^^ ^j^^jjg^ > ^^ijg^
06;. him; them. her; them. it; them.
Compound Personal Pronouns.
Singular, Plural. Singular. Plur<d, Singular. Plural,
Norn, and Norn and Norn, and Mm. and Norn, and Horn, and
Old. 01^. 014, 01^, Obi. (Jitj.
itself; )
jBemarJk.— The pofMssive of these pronomiB is wanting.
Ourself and toe are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide their individuality,
and give authority to what they say.
Relative Pronouns.
Sing, and Plu. Smg. and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Phi.
Norn, who, which, that, what,
Pos. whose, whose, , ,
Ohj. whom. which. that. what.
IttfffMarXr.— Instead of using whote as the possessive of which, many prefer the
"pYatiMb qf which.
Interrogative Pronouns.
The interrogative pronouns who, which, and tohat, are de-
clined like the relatives whOy which, and wliat.
etc. Mine and thine were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound;
as, thine enemy , mine honor.
The expression a friend qf mine presents a peculiar construction. The explanation
generally given is, that qT is partitive, and the expression equivalent to one friend qf
my friende. And it is claimed that this construction can be used only when more
than one thing is possessed. But such expressions as this heart of mine, that temper
qf yours are good, idiomatic English— This sweet wee wife of mine.—Bume. This
naughty toorld qf ours.— Byron. This moral life qf mine.^Sher. Knowlee. Dim are
those heads qf theirs.— Carlyk. Some suggest that the word possessing or ouming is
understood after these poesessives; as, This temper of yours (your possessing);
olhcrs say that qf simply marks identity ; as in dty qf New York (see Lesson 84).
They would make the expression = that temper ^ your temper.
1 90 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
■ ■ ' — ' — ' — — ■ •
Compound Relative Pronouns.
SingvXar and Plural, Singular and Plural.
Norn, whoeyer, whosoeyer,
Poi, whosever, whosesoever,
Obj, whomever. whomsoever.
Wliichevery whichsoeverj tohatever, and whatsoever, do not
change their form.
Adjective Pronouns.
This and that with their plurals, these and those, have no
possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the
objective. OTie and other are declined like nouns ; and
another, declined like other in the singular, has no plural.
Uach, either, and neither are always singular ; both is always
plural ; and all, any, former, latter, none, same, some, and
such are either singular or plural.
Descriptive adjectives used as Jiouns are plural, and are
not declined. Such expressions as " the wretched' s only
plea" and ^Hhe wicked^ s den" are exceptional.
LESSON i%n.
CASE FORMS— PRONOUNS.
*
The pronouns /, tlwto, he, she, and who, are the only
words in the language that have each three different case
forms.
IMrection.— study the Declensions, and correct these errors :•—
Out's, jour's, hi's, heir's, it's, their's, youm, liisn, hem, theim.
Construction of Case Forms— Pronouns.
Caution.— If we, thoUf ye, he, she, they^ and who are
nominative forms, and must . not be used in the objective
Case Forms — Pronouns, 191
case. Mtf us, thee, him, her,* them, and whotn are o6*
jeetive forms, and must not be used in the nominative case.
Xtefnarh,—The eight nominative forms and the seven objective fonns here given
are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the language. All the
rules of syntax given in the grammars to guide in the use of the nominative and the
objective case apply, practicaUy, only to these fifteen words.
I>{r«ef Ion.— Study carefully the definitions and principles given under the head
of case. Lesson 119, and then correct tliese errors, giving your reasons in every
instance : —
1. It is not me f 70a are in love with. 2. She was neither better bred
nor wiser than 70a. or me.f 8. Whof servest thou under? 4 It
was not them, it was her. 5. Its being me should make no difference.
6. Him and me are of the same age. 7. Them that stud7 grammar
talk no better than me. 8. I am not so old as her ; she is older than
me b7 ten 7ears. 9. fle was angr7, and me too. 10. Who will go?
Me. 11. It isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land.
12. Not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him. 13. Him
being a stranger, the7 easil7 misled him. 14 Oh, happ7 us ! sur-
rounded thus with blessings. 15. It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh
promoted. 16. I referred to m7 old friend, he of whom I so often
* Her is also a possessive.
t Dr. Latham defends // i8 me, but condemns It U him and It is her. Dean Alford
regards as correct the forms condemned by Latham, and asserts that thee and me
are correct in "The nations not so blest as fft^c," "Such weak minister as me n«^
the oppressor bruise." Prof. Bain justifies If I were him. It was her, and He is better
than me, and even defends the use of who as an objective form by quoting from
Shakespeare, " Who servest thou under ? " and from Steele, " Who should I meet?"
They justify such expressions as It is me from the analogy of the French c^est moi,
and on the ground that they are ** more frequently heard than the prescribed form."*
But 8!ich analogy would justify K are them (ce sont eux)\ and, if the argument from
tlie speech of the uneducated is to have weight, we have good authority for " Her
ainH a calling we ; us donH belong to sihe^ A course of reading will satisfy any one
that the best writers and speakers in England are not in the habit of using such ex-
pressions as It is me, and that they are almost, if not quite, unknown in American
Literature. No one has so freed himself from the influence of early associations that
in a careless moment some vicious coHoqoialism may not creep into his discourse.
A violation of every principle of grammar may be defended, if such inadvertencies
are to be erected Into authority. To whatever is the prevailing, the habitttal usage
of a majority of the best writers and speakers the grammarian bows without ques-
tion ; but not to the accidental slips of even the greatest names, or to the common
usage of the unreflecting and the ancnltivated.
,^0h
192 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
« ' ' — — ' — — — — — — ■ —m»
speak. 17. You have seen Cossio and she together. 18. Between
you and I, I believe that he is losing his mind. 19. Wha should I
meet the other day but my old friend? 20. Who did he refer to, he
or I ? 21. Who did he choose ? Did he choose you and I ? 22. He
^that is idle and mischievous reprove. 23. We will refer it to whoever
you may choose. 24. Whosoever the court favors is safe. 25. They
that are diligent I will reward. 26. Scotland and thee did in each
other live. 27. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to
such as thee. 28. I knew that it was him. 29. I knew it to be he.
80. Who did you suppose it to be ? 81. Whom did you suppose it
was ? 82. I took that tail man to be he. 88. I thought that tall man
was him.
LESSON 4S6.
CONSTRUCTION OF CASE FORMS.
MiBci:iiLAioM)i78 — Review.
IHreetfon. — Correct these errors, and give your reasons :—
1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother ? 2. It did not occur
during Washington, Jefferson, or Adams's administration. 8. I con-
sulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary. 4 This state
was south of Mason's and Dixon's line. 5. These are neither George
nor Fanny's books. 6. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a noble
one. 7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's.
8. He visited his sons-in-law's homes.
J^oeiplanafion.— If the possessive plnral of snch nonns were used, this would be
correct ; but it is better to avoid these awkward forms.
0. A valuable horse of my friend William's father's was killed.
10. For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife. 11. For the queen's
sake, his sister's. 12. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was
that of fishermen. 13. He spoke of you studying Latin. 14 It
being difficult did not deter him. 15. What need is there of the man
swearing? 16. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again.
17. He thought it was us. 18. We shaU shortly see which is the
fittest object of scorn, you or me. 19. I shall not learn my duty from
euch as thee. 20. A lady entered, whom I afterwards found waa
Miss B. 21. A lady entered, who I afterwards found to be Miss B.
Comparison. 193
■IW ^^ W l J P ■ . ■ J i I
22. Ask BomebodT's else (pinion. 23. Let him be whom he "may.
24, I am sure it could not have been them. 25. I understood it to be
they. 28. It is not him whom you thought it was. 27. Let you and
I try it 28. AH enjoyed themselyes, us excepted. - 29. Us boys
eigoy the holidays. 80. It was Virgil, him who wiote the .Skieid.
*— V
LESSOM Ktl.
COMPARISON.
Introductory Hints.— 2^a< ap]^ U sweet, thai other is sweeter, but this one is
the sweetest. The adjective stoeet, expressing a quality of the three apples, iS|
as you see, inflected by adding er and esL
AdjectiveSf then, have one modification, and this is marked by /orm, or
{flection. This modification is called Oomparison, because it is used when
things are compared with each other in respect to some quality common to'
them all, but possessed by them in different degrees. The form of the ad'
jectlve which expresses the simple quality, as sweet, is of the Pocitire Degr«e ;
that which expresses the quality in a greater or a less degree, as sweeter, les$
sweet, is of the Oomparativo Degree; and that which expresses the quality in
the greatest or the least degree, as sweetest, least sweet, is of the Snperlatiye
Degree.
But even the positive implies a comparison, as we should not say This
apple. is sweet, unless this particular fruit had more of the quality than ordi'
nary apples possess.
Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and 8ui)erlative degrees
always expresses the quality rdativdy. When we say This apple is sweeter
Viuti that, or This apple is the sweetest of the three, we do not mean that any of
the apples is really or in the highest degree sweet ; but only that one apple
is sweeter than the other, or the sweetest of those compared.
The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may be in-
creased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective — we can sayt^w'yj
exceedingly, rather, or somewhat sweet ; far, stiU, or mtich sweeter ; by far ox
mttch the sweetest.
JSk>me aduferbs, a& well as adjectives, are compared.
13
194 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Adjectives have one modification ; viz., CamparisonJ^
DEflKITIONS.
Comparison is a modification of the a^eetive to express the
relative degree of the quality f in the things eimipared.
The JPositive I>egree expresses the simple quality*
The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less degree
of the quality*
The Superlative J>egree expresses the greatest or least degree
of the quality.
BCLE*— A^ectives are regularly compared by adding er to the
positive to form the comparative, and e^f to the positive to form the
superlative*
EULES FOB SPELLING*
BULE L— Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning irith a
yowelj BSj fine, finer ; lave, loving,
Mxeeption», ^The e is retained (1) after c and g^ when the suffix begins with a or
9 ; as, peaceable^ changeabU ; (2) after o ; as, hoeing ; and (8) when it is needed to
preserve the identity of the word ; as, Hngeing^ dpeing.
BULE II*— Final y preceded by a consonant changes to i when
« suffix is added not beginning with I ; as, wittj/, toUtier; dry, dried,
BULE m.— Those monosyllables and words accented on the last
syUable which end in a single consonant following a single vowel
double this consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as,
hot, hotter; begin, beginning,
X!xeeptiona,—X^ k^ and v are never donbled, and gas has g<uei in the plnral.
Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally com-
pared by prefixing more and most. This method is often
used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with
those of one.
MemarJc—Moit beautiful^ mod beautiful^ etc., can hardly be called degree
forms of the adjective. The adverbs more und most have the degree forms, and in
^1 ■ ■ ' ■ —— ■ ■ ■■■ .1 ■ ..I ■ -I ■ ■ . ■ - - ■ I ■ II ■■■ — ^1 I I ■ ■ ^. - ■ ■■ --^M
♦ Two adjectives, this and that^ have number forms— <Ate, these ; thaty thoH. In
Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms to indicate gender^ nutnder^ and ctue.
t Different degrees of quaniity also^may sometimes be expressed by comparlaon.
Comparisan. 195
parsing they may be regarded as separate words. The adjective, however, is varied
in sen^ the same as when the inflections er and est are added.
Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing less and
least; as, valuable, less valuable, least valuable.
Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be
compared, as their meaning will not admit of diflereni^
degrees.
JDlreetion,— From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be compared,
and compare those which remain :—
Observe the Rales for SpelAng given "above.
Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, hand*
some, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite,
witty, hnmble, any, thin, intemperate, ondeviating, nimble, holy,
lunar, superior.
Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more
easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be
preferred.
2>lrec«ioi».— Correct the following:—
Famousest, virtuouscst, eloquenter, comfortabler, amuslngest.
Sonie a€^verbs are compared by adding er and est, and
some by prefixing more and most.
I>lreeti4ni, — Compare the following : —
Early, easily, fast, fUnsly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely.
Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their com-
parison.
IHreetion,— Learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs :—
Adjectives Irregularly Compared.
P08, Comp. Superlative.
( af tmost or
(aftermost.
(Aft),* after.
Bad, ^
Evil, >. worse, worst
m. )
Pos.
Comp,
Far,
farther.
Fore,
former,
(Forth),
further,
Bttperlative,
( farthest or
( farthermost.
{foremost or
first.
( farthest or
i furthermost.
* These words enclosed in cun'es are adverbs— the adjectives following having oft
potltive form.
196 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
POB,
Good,
Hind,
(In),
Late,
little.
Gomp. Superlative.
better, best.
j hindmost (>r
* ( hindermost.
. ( inmoBt or
^"' i innermost
iltLteror (latest <w
( latter, i last.
Manjor
Much
07*}
■» )
(lessor
(lesser,
more,
least,
most.
P08.
Near,
Old,
(Out),
Under,
(Up).
Top,
Comp. Superlative,
(nearest (?r
nearer, < .
i next.
1 older 09' j oldest or
elder, ( eldest.
{outmost or
outermost ;
utmost or
uttermost.
undermost.
( upmost or
*^^ ' (uppermost.
topmost.
Adverbs Irregularly Compared.
P08,
little.
Much,
WeU,
Gomp, Superlative.
less, least,
more, most,
better, best
P08. Gomp. Superlative.
^'y worse, worst.
Far, farther, farthest.
Forth, further, furthest.
To the Teaeher.-We give below a model for writing the" pifrsing of adjectives
A eimllar form may be n«ed for adverbs. , . ^ , r
Exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from Lcs-
Bons 12, 14, 29, 80, 81, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 68, 64, 65.
Model for Written Bareing.-AU tlu dewy glades are stUl.
CLASSIFICATION.
Adjectives.
All
the
dewy
BtiU
Kind
Def.
Bes.
MODIPICATION.
Deg. <tf Comp.
Pos.
it
BTITTAX.
Modifier of glades.
tt it «»
tt tt tt
Completes art and modifies glaOm,
LESSON 42S.
CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND
SUPERLATIVES.
cr«te#ion.— In stating a comparison avoid comparing a
{hitig with itself.
Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives, 197
■■ -...^M ■ »■ ■■■■■■■^ I I. ^^^—^ M-.. I ..■■lll^ll. — — ■ ■ ---,1 ■.111 ■ -■■■■ ...^M
AetMarJk.— Tlie comparative degree refers to two things (or pets of things) as dis-
tinct from each other, and implies that one has more of the qnality than the other.
The comparative degree is generally followed by than*
l}ireetlttn, —Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors :—
1. London is larger than any city in Europe.
Correction,— The second term of comparison, any city in Europe^ inclndes London,
and so London is represented as being lar<<;er than itself. It should be London is
larger than any other dCy in Europe^ or London is the largest city in Europe.
2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe.
8. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is no
metal so useful as iron.
(A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is employed.)
5. All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, aboy&
all kinds of property, to be free from invasion.
Caution. — In using the superlative degree, be careful to
make the latter term of the comparison, or the term intro-
duced by off include the former.
' j{0«tMrrfc.~The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things) as belong-
ing to a group or class, and as having more of the quality than any of the rest. The
superlative is generally followed by of.f
IHreeeioM.— Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors :~
1. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings.
Correetlon.,— Of {^belonging to) represents Solomon as belonging to a group of
kings, and other excludes him from this group— a contradiction in terms. It should
bo Solomon was the toisest of Hebrew Hngs^ or Solomon was wiser than any otJier
Hebrew king.
2. Of all the oilier books I have examined, this is the most satis-
factory. 8. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcus-
able. 4. He was the most active of all his companions.
(He was not one of his own companions.) -^
♦ The comparative is generally used with reference to two things only, but it may
be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together ;
as. He is no better than other men^ It contains more instruction than all the othere
combined.
t The superlative Is geneniUy used with reference to more than two things, but it
may be used to compare two ; as, Which is the beet of the twof Many grammarians
claim that the comparative should always be used in such constructions ; but the
superlative is not incorrect, for (1) it is supported by the best usage, (2) it is sometime*
Jess stiff and formal than the comparative, and (3) the precedes the adjective, ^ foi-
lows it, and the latter term of the couiparisen includes the former— the construction
peculiar to the gnpeiiative.
1 98 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
—— — — — — -^ "N
6. Tliis was the most catisfactoiy of any preceding effort.
Caution* — Avoid double comparatives and double super*
latives, and the comparison of adjectives whose meaning
will not admit of different degrees.*
JDireeUon,— Correct these errors :—
1. A more healthier location cannot be found. 2. He took the
longest, but the most pleasantest route. 3. Diaw that line more per-
pendicular.
Correction.— Draw that line perpendicular, or mare neariy perpemiieular.
4. The opinion is becoming more universal. 5. A worser evil
awaits us. 6. The most principal point was entirely overlooked.
7. That f onn of expression is more preferable.
Caution. — When an adjective denoting one or more than
one is joined to a noun^ the adjective and the noun must
agree in number.
Metntirh.—A numeral denoting more than one maj be prefixed to a singnlar nonn
to form a compoand adjective ; as, a ten-foot pole (not a ten-feet pole), a three-cent
Btamp.
I>lreo«ion.— Stndy theOantlon and the Remark, and correct these errors :—
1. These kind of people will never be satisfied. 2. The room is
fifteen foot square ; I measured it with a two-feet rule. 8. The fiurmer
exchanged ^Ye barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 4. These
sort of expressions should be avoided. 5. We were traveling at the
rate of forty mUe an hour. G. Remove this ashes and put away that
tongs.
Miscellaneous.
(Two of these examples arc correct.)
1. He was more active than any other of his companions.
Correetion,—kM he is not one of his companions, other is nnnecessarj.
• Doable companitives and double pnperlatives were formerly nsed by good wntMS
fbr the sake of emphasis ; as, Oar worser thoughts Heaven mend X—Qhdkefpeare^
The most straitest Boct— Bible.
Many words which grammarians have considered incapable of comparison are ased
fn a sense short of their strict literal meaning, |iq4 pomptired by good writers ; as. My
chi^estefnterUAnment.— Sheridan, TX^echUfestpifi^fi.—^Oyroa, JHvineet Melancholy.
■^Milton. EjctremeetheU.—WhUtier^ Moei perfect httnaony.—LMQfelknc. Lsee per-
fect imitations.— ifodaulay.
Modifications of the Verb, 199
* II.. I.I I , ,1 ,
2. He did more to accomplish tliis result than any other man that
preceded or followed him. 3. The younger of the three sisters is
the prettier.
(This is the construction wliicli requires the superlative. Sec Remark 2, above.)
4. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 5. She was
willing to take a more humbler part. 6. Solomon was wiser than any
of the ancient kings. 7. Which of those two books is the best ? 8. A
farmer sold two span of horses, tc^^ yoke of oxen, twenty head of
cattle, and fifty pair of ducks. 9. This is the more preferable form.
10. Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North
America?
LESSOM 42S.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB.
Voice.
Iiitrodnctory- mni:S(S picked a rose. A rose teas picked by him. The same
thing is here told in two ways. The first verb picked shows that the subject
names the actor; the^econd yerjf^as picked shows that the subject names
the thing acted up^. These different forms and uses of the verb consti-
tute the modification called Voice. The first form Is in the Actiye Voice ; the
second U in the Passire Voice.
The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent ;
the passive when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive
voice may be used when the a<^cnt is unknown, or when, for any reason, we
do not care to name it ; as, The ship was torecked ; Money is coined.
DEFINITIONS.
Voice is that modiflcatioii of the transitiTe verb which shows
whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon*
The Active Voice shows that the subject names the actor*
The Passive Voice shows that the subject names the thing
acted upon*
The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into
200 Modificatians of tite Parts of 'Speech.
an asserting word (some form of the verb he), and an attri-
bute complement (a past participle of a transitive verb).
An expression ,consisting of an asserting word followed
by an adjective complement or by a participle used adjec-
tively may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice.
^o^ample^.— The coat was sometimes t^om bj Joseph {ij}a» Kwni— passive voice).
The coat wai badly worn. (!<'(w— incomplete predicate, t&orn— adjective complement).
Aefnarfc.— To test the passive voice note whether the one named I y the snbject is
acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed by 6^ before the name of the agent.
IHreotion.— Tell which of the foUowing completed predicates may be treated as
single verbs, uid which should be resolved into incomplete predicates and attribute
complements : —
1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This t^iik was not accomplished
ina'day. •S. Are you prepared to recite ?V 4. \AT^Xf*fz& soon pre-
pared. 5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. 6. Yon are
mistaken. 7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The
house is situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am 9l)liged to you.
10. I am obliged to do this. 11. .The horse .is tired. 12. A fool and^
his money are soon parted. 13. The^ tower Is inc lii^. 14 My body
is incliniad by years. 't^J / ^Tj
2>lf'eoli6i».-7-Name all the transitive veirbs ALesgbn 7B, and^ve their voice.
tESSOU 130.
• 4
COMPOSITIONr-VOICE.
The tlhject complement of a verb in the ScnvevoicehQGOxtxo
iha^^stibject when the verb is changed io ih^^Jtitssive voice.
siample,— The Danes invaded England = England was invaded by (he Danes.
lterharh,—Yon will potice that in the first sentence the agent ia made prominent ;
111 the second sentence the receiver.
Direction, — In each of these sentences change the voice of the transitive verb
without changing the meaning of the sentence, and n.ote the other changes th:it
occur :—
1. Mercury, the messenger' of the gods, wore a winged cap and
winged shoes. • 2. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they intro-
duced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the
Composition — Voice. 20l
Tentonic, or Gothic. 3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress
was chosen, not for a fine, glossy surface, but for such qualities aa
would wear welL 4 Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshipped in
many parts of Greece and Rome. '5. The minds of children are
dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed— in the preyailing
fashion. 6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood
circulates. 7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman
legions, vanquished the victorious Carthaginians. 8. His eloquence'
had struck them dumb.
JR«»t»«rJk.— Notice that the elective complement becomes the a^^ri&M^e complement
when the verb Is changed from the active to the passive voice. This does not, how-'
ever, alter the relation of these terms to each other.
9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. 10. The town had
nicknamed him Beau Seymour. 11. Even silent night proclaims my
soul immortal. 12. We saw the storm approaching.
(Notice that the objective complement is here a participle.)
13. He kept his mother waiting. 14. We found him lying dead on'
the field. 15, We all believe him to be an honest man.
(Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase.)
16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 17. Every-
body acknowledged him to be a genius.
The^Orcalled indirect, or dative^ object is sometimes made
the subject i»4>v^rb in the passive voice, while the object
complement is reiSpined after the verb. *
Maoatnple.— The porter csflllaed him admittance = He was refused adnUftance by
the porter.
(Some would treat admUiance as adverbial modifier of was rtfused.)
I>ireetiat^,—ChaDgG the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences, and note
the other changes that occur : —
18. They were refused the protection of the law. 19. He was
offered a pension by the government. 20. I was asked that question
yesterday. 21. He told me to leave the room. ,
JSxptanati9n,^^ete the infinitive phn»e is the object complement, and {to) tm
is used adverbially. 7\> leave the room s that J should leave the room.
■ ■ ^ I I. I W . I .1 II • — ■ ■ ■
* Some grammariam condemn this conBtmction. It is true that it is a violation of
the (ireneral analogies, or laws, of langna^re ; but that it is an idiom of our language,
«ttablishcd by good uaa^, is boy ood controreny.
202 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
23. I taught the child to read. 23. I taught the child reading.
24. They told me that your name was FontibeU.
2>irection.— Change the following transitive verbs to the passive form, nsiog first
the regular and then \ lie idiomatic construction :—
2tIodel.—JIe promised me a present = A present was promised me (regular) =itDai
promised a present idiomatic).
25. Thej must ajjlow \js the privilege of thinking isa ourselvea
26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion.
An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the
aid of a preposition.
JToMsmple.— All his friends laughed at him = He was laughed at (ridiculed) bj all
his friends.
.Retnarh,—Was lavgfud at may be treated as one verb. Some gnuxunarlans,
however, would call at an adverb. The intransitive verb and preposition are together
equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice.
. J>ir«j*ion.— Change tlie voice of the following verbs : —
27. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. 28. The speaker
did not even touch upon this topic. 29, He dropped the matter there,
and did not refer to it afterward.
AefftarJb.— The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic construction. A
transitive verb which, in the active voice, is followed by an object complement and a
prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, the principal word of the phrase for its
subject, retaining the complement and the preposition to complete its meaning ; as.
They took eare qf it. It was taken care qf,
I>lreeeion.— Put the following sentences into several different forms, and deter-
mine which is the best :—
80. His original purpose was lost sight of* (forgotten). 81. Such
talents should be made much of. 82. He was taken care of by his
friends. 88. Some of his characters have been found fault v/ith as
iasipid.
* Some would parse oft&^n adverb relating to xoas lost, and sight as a noun used
adverbially to modify was lost; others would treat sight as an object [complement] of
was lost ; others would call was lost sight of a compound verb ; and others, claiming
that the logical relation of these word? is not lost by a change of pot^ition, analyse it
as if arranged thus : Sight of his original purpose was lost.
It seems to us that any separate disposition of these words U unsatisfactory.
Mr. Goold Brown pronounces thii« construction *^ an unparsable synchyais, a fUa
snarl, which no grammarian should hesitate to condemn.'*
Modifications of the Verb — Continued. 203
LESiOi^ 131.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED,
Mode, Tbnse, Numbeb, and Person.
Introdnotory- Hints.— Jam^ vxUki, Here the walking is asserted as an (UiiudJi
fact. J(ime» may toalk. Here the walking is asserted not as an actual, but
AS a possible fact, ff James walk outj he will improve. Here the walking is
asserted only as thought of^ without regard to its being or becoming either
an actual or a possible fact. Jarnes^ walk out. Here the walking is not asserted
as a fact, but only as a command — James is ordered to make it a fact. These
different uses and forms of the verb constitute the modification which wo
call Mode The first verb is in the Indicative Mode ; the second in the
Potential Mode ,* the third in the Snbjnnotiv-e Mode ; the fourth in the Imper-
ative Mode.
For the two forms of the verb called the Participle and the Infinitive, see
Lessons 87 and 40.
I walk, Itoalked, I shall walk. In these three sentences the manner of
asserting the action is the same, but the time in which the action takes place
is different. Walk asserts the action as going on in present time, and, as
Tense means time, is in the Present Tense. Walked asserts the action as post,
and is in the Past Tense. Shall walk asserts the action as future, and is in the
Future Tense.
/ have walked out to-day. I had toalked out when his called. I shall have
walked Old by to-morrow. Have walked asserts the action as completed at the
present, and is In the Present Perfect Tense. Had walked asserts the action
as completed in t'he past, and is in the Past Perfect Tense. Shall have walked
asserts the action as completed in the future, and is in the Future Perfect
Tense.
/ walk. Thou walkest. He walks. TJiey walk. In the second sentence
walk is changed by adding e«f/ in the third sentence by adding*. Verbs
are said to agree in Person and Number with tlieir subjects. But this agree-
ment is not often, as here, marked by changes in the form of the verb.
DEFINITIONS.
Mode is that modification of the yerb which denotes the manner
of asserting the action or being.
The Indicative Mode asserts the action or l^ing as a fact.
204 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
The Potential Mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or
neeessity of acting or being.
The Subjunctive Mode asserts the action or being as a mere
condition, supposition, or wish.
The Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a com-
mand or an entreaty*
The Infinitive is a form of the Terb which names the action or
being in a general way, without asserting it of anything.
The Participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature
of an a^ectiye or a noun, and expressing the action or being as
assumed.
The Present Participle denotes action or being as continuing
at the time indicated by the predicate.
The Past Participle denotes action or being as pastor com-
pleted at the time indicated by the predicate.
The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as com-
pleted at a time preyious to that indicated by the predicate.
Tense is that modification of the rerb which expresses the time
of the action or being.
The Present Tense expresses action or being as present.
The Past Tense expresses action or being as past.
The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come.
The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com-
pleted at the present time.
The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com-
pleted at some past time.
The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be
leompleted at some future time.
Number and Person of a verb are those modifications which
show its agreement with the number and person of its sulject
Forms of the Verb — List of Irregular Verbs. 205
FORMS OF THE VERB.
Ck>NJUGATION.
DEFINITIONS.
Conjugation is the regnlar arrangement of all the forms of
the Terh»
Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one num-
ber and person in all the modes and tenses.
Auxiliary Verbs are those which help in the conjugation of
other rerbs.
The auxiliaries are do, did, be (with all its variations, see
Lesson 135), have, had, shall, should, will, would, may,
might, can, could, and must.
The Principal Parts of a Torb, or those ft'om which the other
parts are derived, are the present indicative or the present inflni-
tive, the past indicatire, and the past participle.
List of Irregular Verbs.
To the Teacher,— \t would be well to require the pupils, in studying and in reciting
these lists of irrei^iilar verbs, to frame short sentences illustrating the proper use of the
past tense and the past participlSj e.g., I began yesterday, He has begun to do better.
In this way the pupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing forms which
they already know how to use, and they will be led to correct what has been faulty
in their use of other forms.
Ifetnark,— Verba that have both a regular and an irregular form are called JB«-
dundant.
Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts, as can and may, are called Defeetive,
The present participle is not here given as a principal part It may always be
formed from the present tense by adding ing.
In adding ing and other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (see Lesson 127) should
be observed.
Itenuirk.— The forms, below, in Italic^ are regular; and those in smaller type are
cbeoUt^t and need not be committed to memory.
2o6 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Present. Past.
Abide, abode.
Awake, *^5^
' awaked.
Be, Oram, was.
Bear, bore,
{bring forth) bare.
Bear, bore,
(carry) bare.
Beat, beat.
Begin, began,
bent,
bended.
Past Par.
abode.
awoke.
OAJoaJced,
been.
bom.
borne.
borne.
Bend,
beaten.
begun.
bent.
hendsd.
bereft.
herea/Ded,
Beseech, besought, besought.
bet, bet.
betted, betted.
bade, bid, bidden, bid.
Bereave, ^^^^^'^^
Bet,
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blend,
Bless,
Blow,
Break,
Breed,
Bring,
Build,
Bum,
Burst,
Buy,
Can,
Cast,
Catch,
bound,
bit,
bled,
blent,
blended,
blest,
blessed,
blew,
broke,
brake,
bred,
brought,
built,
builded,
burnt,
burned,
burst,
bought,
could,
cast,
caught.
bound.
bitten, bit.
bled.
blent.
blended.
blest.
blessed.
blown.
broken.
bred.
brought.
built.
buUded,
burnt.
burned,
burst.
bought.
cast,
caught.
Present. Past. Past Pcyr.
Chide, chid.
Choose, chose.
Cleave, cleaned,
(fldhert) clave.
Cleave, clove,
isplU) cleft,
clave.
Cling, clung,
(Be)Come, came,
Cost,
Creep,
Crow,
Cut,
Dare,
{venture)
Deal,
Dig,
Do,
Draw,
Dream,
Dress,
Drink,
Drive,
Dwell,
Eat,
(Be)Fall,
Feed,
Feel,
Fight,
Find,
cost,
crept,
crew,
erofjoed,
cut,
durst,
dared,
dealt,
dealed,
dug,
digged,
did,
drew,
dreamt,
dreamed,
drest,
dressed,
drank,
drove,
dwelt,
dwelled,
ate,
fell,
fed,
felt,
fought,
found.
chidden.
chid.
chosen.
cleaved.
cloven.
cleft.
dung.
clad.
clothed.
come.
cost.
crept.
crowed.
cut.
dared.
dealt.
dealed.
dug.
digged.
dona,
drawn.
dreamt.
dreamed^
drest.
dressed.
drunk.
driven.
dwelt.
dweUed.
eaten.
fallen.
fed.
felt.
foughk
found.
For VIS of the Verb.
207
Present,
Past.
Poet Pa^,
Present.
Past,
Past Par.
Flee,
fled.
fled.
Knit .
knit.
knit
Fling,
flung.
flung.
*a ifcm^^
knitted.
knitted.
Fly,
fieWj
flown.
Know,
knew.
known.
Forsake,
forsook*
forsaken.
Lade,
(load)
laded.
laded,
laden.
Forbear,
forbore.
forborne.
Lay»
laid.
laid.
Freeze,
froze.
frozen.
Lead,
led.
led.
(For)aet,
got.
got.
gotten.
Lean,
leant,
leaned.
leant
leaned.
GUd,
gilt,
gilded.
gilt.
gilded.
Leap,
leapt,
leaped.
leapt.
leaped.
Gird,
girt,
girded.
girt.
girded.
Learn,
learnt,
learned.
learnt.
learned.
(For)Give
>gav©»
given.
Leave,
left.
left
Go,
went,
gone.
Lend,
lent.
lent
(En)Graye,^a96(7,
gra/oed.
Let,
let.
let
graven.
Lie,
lay.
lain
Grind,
ground.
ground.
(recline)
'"^j f
Grow,
grew.
grown.
Light,
lit.
Ut
Hang,
hung.
hung.
lighted.
lighted.
hanged,*
hanged.
Lose,
lost.
lost
Have,
had.
had.
Make,
made.
made.
Hear,
heard.
heard.
May,
might,
Heave,
hove,
7iea/oed,
heaned.
Mean,
Meet,
meant,
met.
meant
met.
Hew,
hewed.
hewed,-
hewn.
Mow,
mowed.
mowed.
mown.
mde,
hid.
hidden, hid.
Must,
mt,
hit.
hit
Ought,
(Be)Hold,
held.
held.
PfiSM
past,
past
n
holden.
<t ooo.
passed.
passed.
Hurt,
hurt^
hurt.
Pay,
paid.
paid.
Keep,
kept.
kept.
Pen,
pent.
pent
Kneel
knelt.
knelt.
(endOM)
penned.
penned.
kneeled.
kneded.
Put,
put.
put
* Hang^ to take life, la regular.
2o8 Modifications of the Paris of Speech.
LESSON 433.
LIST
OF IRREGULAR
VERBS— CONTINUED
Present..
Past.
Past Par,
Present.
Past.
Past Pant
Quit,
quit.
quit.
Shed,
shed.
shed.
quitted,
quoth.
quitted.
Shine,
shone,
shined.
shone.
shined.
Rap,
rapt.
rapt.
Shoe,
shod.
shod.
rapped,
rapped.
Shoot,
shot.
shot.
Read,
Rend«
read,
rent.
read,
rent.
Show,
showed.
shown.
showed-,
rended,
rended.
Shred,
shred.
shred.
Rid,
rid,
rid.
Shrink,
shrank.
shrunk.
Ride,
rode.
ridden.
Bhmnk.
shrunken*
Ring,
rang.
rung.
Shut,
shut.
shut.
(A)Ri8e,
rung,
rose.
risen.
Sing,
sang.
sung.
Rive
Wn/t/j^
riven.
Rink,
sank.
sunk.
AliXT V,
/ wVCWf
rived.
sank,
rnnkeiL
Ron,
ran.
run.
Sit,
sat.
sat
Saw,
sawed.
satoed.
Slay,
slew.
slain.
Say,
See,
said,
saw.
Bawn.
said,
seen.
Sleep,
Slide,
slept,
slid.
slept.
slidden.
slid
Seek,
sought.
sought.
sodden.
seethed.
Sling,
slung.
slung.
Seethe,
seethed,
Blang,
F
Slink,
slunk.
slunk.
Sell,
sold.
sold.
slit,
slitted,
sUt.
ditted.
Send,
sent.
sent.
sut.
(Be)Set,
set.
set.
Smell,
smelt,
smelt.
Shake,
shook.
shaken.
smeUed,
smelted.
Shall,
should.
Smite,
smote.
smitten.
Shape,
shaped.
shaped.
smit.
Shave,
shwoedj
shapen.
sTux/ved.
Sow,
satoed,
sown.
sowed.
ehavenV
Speak,
spoke.
spoken.
Shear
sheared.
sheared.
ppake,
Wi^MM!^mmM p
ehoro,
shorn.
Speed,
sped,
sped.
List of Irregular Verbs — Continued,
2og
PruetU.
Pent.
Past Par.
Present,
Past.
PaMPwr.
Spell,
spelt,
spelled,
spelt.
spelled.
Sweep,
Swell,
swept,
sweUed,
swept.
stoelled.
Spend.
spent,
spent
w
9
swollen.
SpiU,
spilt,
spilt.
Swim,
swam.
swam.
tpilled.
spUled.
swum.
Spin,
span.
span.
Swing,
swang.
swang.
span,
Take,
took.
taken.
Spit,
spit,
spat,
split.
spit.
Teach,
taaght.
taaght
Split,
split
Tear,
tore,
tare.
torn.
Spoil,
spoilt,
spoiled.
spoilt.
spaded.
Tell,
Think,
told,
thoaght.
told,
thoaght
Spread,
spread.
spread.
Thrive,
throve,
thriven.
Spring,
sprang.
sprang.
thrived.
thrived.
sprang,
Throw,
threw.
thrown.
Stand,
stood.
stood.
Thrast,
thrast.
thrast.
Stave,
stove,
staved,
stove.
staved.
Tread,
9
trod.
trodden,
trod.
Stay,
staid,
stayed.
staid.
stayed.
Wake,
woke,
Moaked,
tvaked.
Steal,
stole.
stolen.
Wax,
waxed,
waxen.
Stick,
stack.
stack.
icaxed.
Sting,
stang.
stang.
Wear,
wore.
worn.
Stink,
stank.
stank.
Weave,
wove,
woven.
stank.
Weep,
wept.
wept.
Stride,
strode.
stridden.
Wet,
wet, .
wet.
Rf.i*Ti(%1r
Moetted,
wetted.
Strike,
strack.
Stricken.
wm.
woald.
String,
Strang,
Strang.
Win,
won,
won.
Strive,
strove.
striven.
Wind,
woand.
woand.
Stiow,
stratoed.
strown.
strotved.
Work,
wrought,
vborlud.
wroaght
toorkMl.
Swear,
swore.
sworn.
Wot,
wist.
Sweat,
sware,
sweat,
stMOted,
sweat.
sweated.
Wring,
Write.
wrangf
•
wrote^
wrang.
written.
14
2IO Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
LESSOU 434.
FORMS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED.
CONJUGATION — SiMPLBST FOBM.
jtemarJb.— English verbs have few inflections compared with those of other
languages. Some irregolar verbs have seven forms— *cc, 9aw, seeing f seen, seesp
9ee8t, aaweat; regular verbs have six— walfc, walked, walking, walks,
walkeat, walkedat. As a substttute for other inflections we prellx auxiliary verbs,
and make what are called compound^ or periphrastic^ forms.
I>ireetion,—YVL\ out the following forms, using the principal parts of the vwb
walk. Present, walk} past, walked! past participle, walked,
INDICATIVE MODE.
Pbebent Tense.
Singular. Plural,
1. (I) JV^' r 1. (We) ■ J>-^' .
((Ton) Pres, , ^ ^^^^ iVe«. .
8. (He) Pres, ^.* 3. (They) .^res^.
Past Tense.
1. (I) _J^?L_, 1. (We) ^^ >
j(You) ^^- , 2. (You) i^' r
^ — Past, st
Pasi. . 8. (They) ^^' .
^* < (Thon) .^?M!!_ 8f ,
a (He)
PuTTJBB Tense.
1. (l) shall Pres , ^ 1. (We)«^aZZ -^^' >
UYou)tra^ ^^' .> 2. (You)traf -P»^- r
^M(Thon)tgt?-e. -P>^' , ^ ,^ ^ .„ -.^
3. (He)t^^ Pres, : 8. (They) i«» .^^--.
• In the indicative, present, second, singular, old style, st is eometiiiifes added in-
stead of est ; and in the third person, common style, es is added, when « wiU not
imite. In the tKird person, old style, eth is added.
Conjugation. 211
Pbbsent Pebfbct Tense.
Singvlar. Plural.
1. (I)Aa«6 Pan Pur. ^ i^ (yfe)1iav6 ?B?LI!^,
8. (H6)Aa-8 :^«L^»1-; ^ (They) hme PW Par.,
Past Pebfbct Teksb.
1. (I)Aad '^'jftir-, 1. (We)Aa(f i^w< J^r. ^
^ ((You)Aac{ Pa^ ^r.
3. (He)Aa<J ^??J^-; 8. (^ej) had i^iHSHz.
FuTUBB Perfect Tense.
1. (I) 9haU hofloe Past Par. ^ 1. (We) ehali have Pa^tPanr. ^
_ UYon) toUl have P^t Par. x „, *.,»«.
^'\(Th<Lwa.thave ^^il^. [ ^' (^9^) wUl have .^?L^,
a (He) K^tW Aat)« PoMPar.. 8. (They) «w?/ AflM>« -»»»< -R^y*-.
POTENTIAL MODE.
Pbbsent Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. (J) may Pre». , ^ (We) way iVe>. ,
g ((Yon) way ^^' ,
< (Thou) way.^ ive>. ^ 3. (You) may
iy«».
8. (He) way Pre». ; 8. (They) way ^>g»' .
Past Tense.
1. {T) might Prea. , ^ (We) wt^A^ ^^>> ,
A 5(You)wt^7i^ JVgg. , ^
^' <(Thou)wtaA^-^ ive.. ^ 2. (You) wii7A* _ZV£?:_,
8. (He) might Prea. . 3. (They) wt^A< ^«- -
Pbbsent PebfecI* Tense.
1. (I) way Aai?« lastjar., i (We) way Aa«« Past Par.^
Q ((You) way AatJ« ^'ft** ^ar. « ,^ , ^ r»^». «-
^- 1 (Thou) Jay-«« Aa*a ^^-l «. (You) «ay /««,. i5«^
8. (He)wayAat>« IS?ilB!ji; S. (Thej) may have Poftjar^
212 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Past Pbrfbot Tsnsb.
Singular* Plural,
-L (I) migU hme rat* Par, ^ j ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ p<m< Par.,
^ UYoxL) might ham ^^ ^g**- , ^ ,^ , . ., - p^ p^-
^- l(Thou) mi^ht^ hamPo^tFor,^ 2. (You) rni^A^ h^e i9?LlB!-.
& (He) m^A^ hem FaHPar^^^ 8. (They) iw^Al Ita/ne rwa Par.^
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PBBSBirr Tense.
Singular,
2. (If thou) Pret. . 8. (If he)* Prm, ^
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural
2. ^v«' (you or thouV 2. f»^' (yon)-
INFINITIVES.
Pbesent Tense. Pbesent Pebfect Tense.
t (To) ^^o- . (To) Jia^e ^^ ^'q^*-.
* The Biibjanctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the language. The only
distinctive forms remaining (except for the verb be) are the second and the tliird per-
son singular of the present, and even these are giving way to the indicative. Such
forms as If he have loved, etc., are exceptional. It is true that other forms ; as, ^O^A^
had knowriy Had he been. Though he should fall^ may be used in a true subjunctive
sense, to assert what is a mere conception of the mindy i. «., what .is merely thought of,
without regard to its being or becoming a fact ; but in these cases it is not the form of
the verb, but the connective or something in the construction of the sentence that de-
termines the manner of assertion. In parsing, the verbs in such constructions may be
treated as indicative or potential, with a subjunctive meaning.
The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly interclianging ; a
classification based strictly on meaning would be very difficult, and would confuse tlie
learner.
t Tb, as indicated by the (), is not treated as a part of the verb. Writers on lan-
guage are generally agreed that when to Introduces an infinitive phrase used as an
adjective or an adverb, it performs \U proper function as a preposition, meaning to-
wordy foTy etc. ; as, I am inclined to believe, I came to hear. When the infinitive
phrase is used as a noun, the to expresses no relation ; it seems merely to introduce
the phrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on the function of
•ome other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its n ame. In the expree-
■ious, pkiT me to do this would be wrong, Over the fence is out of danger, few gram-
Forms of the Verb — Continued. 213
PARTICIPLES.
Pbesent. Past. Past Pebfect.
frm. ing. Pa*^ Par,, Homng iV»« Par, ,
X>lr0el{oi».— Prefix do and did to the present, and make the emphatic form of the
present and ^e pairt tense.
U(<e can and mnut in place of may ; and eould^ would, and should in place of might,
Tdl how each tense is formed, and note all changes for agreement in number and
person.
To the Teaeher»—B/dqpite the pnpUs to fill out these forms with otlierTerhs, regn*
faur and irreignJar.
LESSON I3i.
FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED.
Conjugation of the Yebb BE.
J>ireetion,—Leam the following forms, paying no attention to the line at the
right of each verb :—
INDICATIVE MODR
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. (I) am , 1. (We) are -
3- j!^''^ n "' "^ 2. (Yon) are -
((Thon)art , ^ '
8. (He) is ; 8. (They) are
f
r
marians would hesitate to call /or and oner prepositions, although they do not express
reMion.
We cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning as
does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Those who call it a part of
the verb, confuse the learner by speakin<;of it as the " preposition to " (which, as they
have said, is not a preposition) " placed beforu the infinitive," i. «., placed before that
of which it forms a part—placed before itsolf.
In the Anglo-Saxon to was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it
had its proper function as a preposition ; as, nominative, etan (to eat) ; dative, ta
etanne; accusative, etan. When the dative ending ne was dropped, making the
three forms alike, the to came to be used before the nominative and the accnaatlTe,
bnt without expressing relation.
214 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
Past Tknse.
Singvlar. Plural,
1. (I) was , 1. (We) were ,
2. ^^^> 7«*^ ^ ^ 2. (Toa) were ,
( (Thou) wast ,
3. (He) was — ; 3. (They) were .
FuTUBB Tense.
1. (I)shallbe , l.(We)shanbe
2. \(^^ ^yi * ^ 2. (You) wiU be
((Thou) wilt be , ^ '
8. (He)wfflbc ; 8. (They) wiU bo
Pbesent Perfect Tense.
1. (I) have been -, 1. (We) have been —
2 ((You) have been ,or ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ _
((Thou) hast been , '
8. (He) has been ; 3. (They) have been
Past Perfect Tense.
1. (I) had been ^ 1. (We) had been —
2. \ ^^}fy^ ' ^ 2. (You) had been
( (Thou) hadst been ,
8. (He) had been ^ ; 8. (They) had been
Future Perfect Tense.
1. (I) shall have been , 1. (We) shall have been ■
o ((You) will have been ,or ^ /-c \ ,^w\.^^^\^^^
2- l.mv \ 1*1. V '2. (You) will have been -
((Thou) wilt have been ^ ^
8. (He) will have been ; 8. (They) will have been
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present Tense.
Smgvlar. Ptural,
1. (I) may be , 1. (We) may be ,
g ( (You) may be -— , c«- g ^^ou) may be ,
( (Thou) mayst be ,
8. (He)maybe ; 3. (They)maybe .
Fortns of the Verb — Continued. 215
PABT TEN8B.
SinfftUar. Plural.
1 (I) might be , 1. (We) might be —
2. iOTou) might be , or (You) might be ,
<(Thon) mightst be , ^' ^* ^ mig v u«
?. (He) might be ; 8. (They) might be w
FsESJSxrr Pebfbct Tsnbe.
1. (I) may have been , 1. (We) may have been —
ft ((You) may have been ,ar ^ ,^ . , ,
2. j)-^ \ '^ ., , 2. (You) may have been —
( (Thou) mayst have been , n / ^
8. (He) may have been — ; 8. (They) may have been -
Past Pkrpbct Tense.
1. (I) might have been , 1. (We) might have been -
o j (You) might have been ,orf. /^ x • vxv v
^- 1 (Thou) ^htet have been -L, 3- (Ton) imght have been -
8. (He) might have been ; 8. (They) might have been
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
SingtOar, Plural.
t (If I) be , 1. (If we) be ,
ft j (If you) be , or « ,x- ,
^- i(Ifthou)be :, 2- (K you) be ,
a (Ifhe)be ; 8. (If they) be .
Past Tense.
Singular.
1. (If I) were ,
2 j(If you) were , or
( (If thou) wert ,
8. (If he) were .
IMPERATIVE MODK
Present Tense.
lingular. Plural
d. Bo (you or thou) ; 2. Be (you) ^
2i6 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
iNFmrnvES.
PBESBITT TBNSE. PBESEXfTT PeRPBCT TeITSB.
(To) be , (To) have be^ .
PARTICIPLES.
Pbbsbht. Past. Past PiisracT.
Bdng w Been. Haying been .
LESSON 436.
FORMS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED.
Ck>NJUGATION— PbOGBBSSIYB AND PASSIVE FOBM&
A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining
ita prese7it participle to the diflferent forms of the verb be.
A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by
joining its past participle to the different forms of the
verb be.
Remark,— The progressiye form denotes a continiumce of the actioii or being ;
as, The birds are singing.
Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance— such as love, respect^ hunth^
fihonld not be conjugated in the progressive form. We say I love the child— not, I
am laving the child.
Mefnark.—The progressive form is sometimes nsed with a passive meaning ; as.
The house is building. In such cases the word in ing was once a verbal nonn
preceded by the preposition a, a contraction from on or in ; as. While the ark was
a preparing, While the flesh w<u in seething. In modem langoago the prepositioa
is dropped, and the word in ing is treated adjectively.
Another passire progressive form, consisting of the verb ft« completed by the
present passive particij^y has recently appeared in onr language— The hoxM^ ts being
built. Although it has been condemned by many of our ablest linguists as awkward
and otherwise objectionable, yet it has grown rapidly into good use, especially in
England. Snch a form seems to be needed when the simpler form would be am-
biguous, i. «., when its subject might be taken to name either the actor or the re-
ceiver ; as, The child is whipping, The prisoner is trying,
IHreeeian.— Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling all the
blanks left after the different forms of the verb be, in the preceding Lesson, with the
Conjugation — Continued, 217
|»reeent participle ehoodng ; and then in the jMiMli^/onn by iilling these blanks with
. the past participle eAoMA.
Notice that after the past participle of the verb he no blank is left. The past par-
'iciple of the pessive is not fonned by the aid of he^ bat in the same in form as the
simple active. In the progressive, the past participle is wanting. All the participles
of the verb cAoom are arranged in order below.
Present Past Past Perfect
Smpkttform. Choosing, chosen, having chosen.
Progressive form. Being dioosing, ■ haying been choosing.'
Passive form. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen.
IXreetion.— Write and arrange, as abo^'e, all the participles of the verbs breaks
drive^ rtad^ ^ft.
To the Teaeli«r.— Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them
rhk the progressive and the passive form. Beqnire them to give synopses of all the
forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use U or some tioun for the sub*
Ject in the third person.
LESSOfl 437.
CONJUGATION— CONTINUED.
IirrEBBOOATIVB ANB NbGATIVB FOBMS.
A verb may be conjugated interrogatively in the indica-
tive and potential modes by placing the subject after the
first auxiliary ; as. Does he sing?
A verb maybe conjugated negatively by placing not after
the first auxiliary; as, He does not sing. Not is placed
before the infinitives and the participles ; as, not to sinr,
not singing,
A question with negation is expressed in the indicative
and potential modes by placing the subject and not after
the first auxiliary ; as, Does he not sing ?
.Remarfc.— Formerly, it was common to nsc the simple form of the present and
i>ast tenses interrogatively and negatively thus : Lcnm hit I know not. Such f onus
are stUl common in poetry, but in prose they are now scarcely need. We say Does
he lovef I do not know. The verbs be and Tiave are exceptions, as they do not
properly take the auxiliary <to. W q Bay Have you another f Is it right f
I><reel<on.~Write a aynopHs in the thkd person, singnhir, of the verb walk con*
2l8 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
jngated (1) interrogatiwHyy (2) negatively, and (8) so as to express a guestitm wiGi
negation. Kemember that the indicative and the potential are the only modes that
can be used interrogatively.
To the Teacher, — Select other verbs, and require the pnpils to conjugate them
negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and the passive form. Beqnire the
pupils to give synoptes of all the fonns.
LESSON 43a.
MODE AND TENSE FORMS.
Compound FoBM&— Analysis.
The eofnpound, or periphrastic, forms of the verb may each be resolved into
an asserting word, and a participle or an infinitive used as a complement.
If we look at the original meaning of the forms I do write, I shall write, I
will write, we shall find thnt the so-called auxiliary is the real verb, and that
write is an infinitive used as object complement. I do write =: I do or perfortn
the action (to) write, I sliall write = I owe (to) write, I will tvrite = I
determine (to) terite.
May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, teould
write, and should write, may each be resolved into an asserting word In the
indicative mode and an infinitive complement.
The forms is writing, was written, etc., consist each of an asserting word (ttao
verb be) and a participle, used as attribute complement.
The forms have written, had written, ore so far removed from their original
meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with their history. They
originated from such expressions as / have a letter written^ in which have (= possess)
is a transitive verb, taking letter for its object complement, and written, is a imssive
participle modifying Utter. The idea of possession has faded out of have^ and the
participle, having los^t its passive meaning, has become a complement of have. The
fcise of this form has been extended to intransitive verbs— Spring has come^ Birds Jiave
JlowTiy etc., being now regularly used instead of Spring is come^ Birds are jtovm*
(Is comCy are Jlown, etc., must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive
voice.)
Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus : May have beet^
fvritten is composed of the compound auxiliary tnay have been and the parti-
ciple complement written ; tnay have been is composed of the compound aiixil*
iary may have and the participle complement been; and may have is composed
of the auxiliary may and the infinitive complement have. May is the aBsertixi|;
•word —the first auxiliary is always the asserting word.
l>ffecflon.— Study what has been said above and analyze the following verbal
forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that may be considered as part erf
^e verb, and words that must be treated as attribute complements : —
Mode and Tense Forms. 219
1. I may be mistaken. 2. The farm was sold. 3. I shall be con-
tented. 4. Has it been decided? 5. You should have been working.
C. The danger might have been avoided. 7. He may have been tir^
and sleepy. 8. She is singing. 0. I shall be contented. 10. The
rule has not been observed. 11. Stars have disappeared. 12. Times
will surely change.
Tensb Fobms— -MEAinKa.
The Present Tense is used to express (1) what is actu-
ally present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what fre-
quently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place
in the future, and (5) it is used in describing past or future
events as if occurring at the time of the speaking.
Examples,— I hear a yoice (action as present). The sun gives light (true at all
times). Ho writes for the newspapers (habitoal). Phillips speaks in Boston to-mor-
row night (future). He mounts the scaffold ; the executioners apirroach to bind him ;
he struggles^ resists^ etc. (past events pictured to the imaginatiou as present). The
clans of CuUoden are scattered in fight ; they raUj/^ tliey bleed ^ etc. (future events
now seen in vision).
The Pa«f Tense may express (1) simply past action or
being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and
(4) it may refer to present time.
Examples, —The birds sang (simply past action). He wrote for the newspapers
(past habit). If I should gOy you would miss me (future events). If he were here, he
would enjoy this (refers to present time).
The Future Tense may express (1) simply future action
or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in
time.
Examples,—! shall write soon (simply future action). He will sit there by the
hour (indefinite in time).
The JPresent Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or be-
ing as completed in present time (t. e,, a period of time — an
7iour, a year, an age—of which the present forms a part),
and (2) action or being to be completed in a future period.
Exatnples,— Homer has written po^ms (the period of time affected by this torn-
pleted action embraces the present). The cock shall not crow till tboo hast denied
me thrice (action completed in a ffiture period).
220 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
The Tast Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being as
completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a condi-
tional or hypothetical clause it may express past time.
ExampleB.—lhad teen him when I met yon (action completed at a epecified past
tme). If I had had time, I should have toritten (I Iiad not time— I did not trri^).
The Future Perfect Tense expresses an action as com-
pleted at some specified future time.
JBmatnple,—! shaU have aeen him by to-morrow noon*
J>irecfion.— Study what has been said above about the meaning of the tense
forms, and describe caref uliy the time expressed by each of the following verbs :—
1. I go to the city to-monow. 2. The village master taught his
little schooL 8. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three
sides. 5. To-morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many
important facts. 7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings welL
0. Cicero has written orations. 10. He wonld sit for hours and watch
the smoke curl from his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail
arrives. 12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much
trouble. 13. He will occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of
this week I shall have been in school four years. Id. If I were you,
I would try that. 16. He will become discouraged before he has
thoroughly tried it. 17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the
thrill of life along her keel.
LESSOfl 43i.
PARSING.
Direction,— Select and parse, according to the Model below, the verbs in th«
sentences of Lesson 42. For the agreumeiit of verbs sec Less. 14S.
Model for Written Parsing— Verbs,— The Yankee, selling- hit farmf wander*
away to seek new lands.
CLASSlFICATtON.
Ve?^.
* selling
wanders
♦seek
Kind.
Pr. Par.,Ir.,Tr.
Reg., Int.
Inf., Ir., Tr.
XODtriCATIOKS.
Voice.
Ac.
Ac.
Jiode.
Ind.
Tense.
Pres.
• 4
Num.
Sing.
STKTAX.
jrer.
Mod. of Yankee.
8d. Pred. of ''
Prin. word in phrasd
I 'hlLiH[. ot wanders.
* Participles and Influitives have no snbject, and, consequently, no person or
number.
Parsing.
221
i
M
^ OQ (I4 S O OQ
•d
s
eS
o
CO
°. "S
CO (I4
Is
I
I
1 i
O ^ O O
£ Q £ Si^
i
i
1
(z:
•
•
1
■
•
1
»
a
•
M. or P.
•
i
3
•
1
•
C J
«
^
•
s ^
s -
§
M
i
s -
-
•
1
1
•*
1 '-
1
1
•
.1
i
•
•
1
1
I'i
Def.
Com.
Adj.
BeL
i
Des.
Com.
Ir., Int.
Co-or.
Beg., Int.
Place.
Clou.
Int.
Pro.
Vb.
Prep.
Pro.
Pro.
Prep.
Pro.
Adj.
N.
Vb.
Conj.
Vb.
Adv.
II -if ^
"S JS a 3 P S
n
Of
I
§
1
I
1
I
222 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
LESSON UO.
CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE
FORMS.
Caution. — Be careful to giye eyery verb its proper fonn
and meaning.
l>iree<ion.— Correct the following errors, and glvp yonr reasons:—
1. I done it myself . 3. He thpowed it into the river, for I seen him
when he done it. 8. She sets by the open window enjoying the scene
that lays before her.
Explanation..— Lay (to place) is transitive, lie (to rest) is intransitive ; tet (to
place) is transitive, «W (to rest) is intransitive. Set in some of its meanings is intnn^
sitive.
4. The tide sits in. 5. 6k> and lay down. 6. The snn sits in the
west. 7. I remember when the comer-stone was lain. 8. Sit the
plates on the table. 9. Ho sat out for London yesterday. 10. Yonr dress
isets well. 11. The bird is setting on its eggs. 12. I laid there an hoar.
13. Set down and talk a little while. 14. He has laid there an hour.
15. I am setting by the river. 16. He has went and done it without
my permission. 17. He flew from justice. 18. S(Mne valuable land
was overflown. 19. She come just after you left. 20. They sung a
new tune which they had not sang before. 21. The water I drunk there
was better than any that I had drank before. 22. The leaves had
fell. 23. I had rode a short distance when the storm begun to gather.
24. I found the water froze. 25. He raised up. 26. He run till he
became so weary that he was forced to lay down. 27. I knowed that
it was so, for I seen him when he done it. 28. I had began to think
that you had forsook us. 29. I am afraid that I cannot learn him to
do it. 80. I guess that I will stop. 81. Tell me where you live, and
I will come to your house to-morrow. 82. I expect that he has
gone to Boston. 38. There ain't any use of trying. 84 I have got no
mother. 85. Can I speak to you? 86. He had ought to see him.
JffxplatMition.— As (mgM, is never a participle, it cannot be nsed after had to
torm a componnd tense.
Caution*— ^A conditional or a concessive clause requires
a verb in the indicative mode when the action or being is
Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. 223
assumed as a fact, or when the uncertainty lies merely in
the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when the action
or heing is merely thought of as a future contingency, the
subjunctive present is preferred. The subjunctive past of
the verb le is used chiefly to express a wish or a mere sup*
position contrary to the fact.
Examples,—!, If (= since) it rains^ why do you go f
2. If it raim (now), I cannot go out.
8. If it raiUy the work will be delayed.
4. If my friend were here, he would enjoy this.
J^jeplanaeion.— In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) there Is a mere nn.
certainty of knowledge. It either rains or it does not rain— the speaker is uncertain
which is the fact. In (3) no existing fact is referred to ; the raining is merely thought
of as a future contingency. In (4) a mere supposition, contrary to the fact, is made.
Ky friend's not being here is clearly implied.
Se9f»arJie«.— When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or the subjunctive
mode is required, use the indicative.
The present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to complete
omitted auxiliaries ; as, If it (should) rain, the work will be delayed. Till one greater
man (shall) restore us, etc. This will often serve as a guide in distinguii^hing the
indicative from the subjunctive mode.
Ify though^ left, ttnlese^ etc., are usually spoken of as signs of the subjunctive mode,
but they are now more frequently followed by the indicative than by the subjunc-
tive mode.
IXrection.— Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the following sentences :—
1. If this toere so, the diflaculty would yanish. 2. If he teas there,
I did not see him. 8. If to-morrow be fine, I will walk with you.
4. Though this seems improbable, it is true. 5. If my friend is in
town, he will call this evening. 6. If he ever comes, we shall know if.
JSaoplanation,—!!! 6 and 7 the coming is referred to as a fact to be decided in fn-
ture time.
7. If he comes by noon, let me know. 8. The ship leaps, as it
were, from billow to billow. 9. Take heed that thou speak not to
Jacob. 10. If a pendulum is drawn to one side, it will swing to the
other.
JSaoplanation,—Be is often employed in making scientific statements like the
preceding, and may therefore be allowed ; but there is nothing in the nature of the
case to justify such usage. If a pendulum it drawn = Whenever a pendulum i$
drawn.
224 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
11. I wish tliat I were a musician. 13. Were I disposed, I oonld
not gratify you. 13. This sword shall end thee mdess thou yidd.
14. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee. 15. I know not
whether it ts so or not.
I>ireetloH,-~9npply in each of the following sentences a verb in the indicative or
the subjonctive mode, and give a reason for yonr choice :—
1. I wish it in my power to help you. 2. I tremhle lest he
. 3. If he guilty, the evidence does not show it. 4. He de-
serves our pity, unless his tale a false one. 5. Though he —
there, I did not see him. G. If he hut discreet, he will succeed.
7. If I he, I would do differently. 8. If ye men, fight
LESSOII 141.
CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE
FORMS— CONTINUED.
Caution. — Be careful to employ the tense forms of the
different modes in accordance with their'meaning, and in
such a way as to preserve the proper order of time.
IHreetion* — Correct the following errors, and give yonr reasons : —
1. That custom has heen formerly quite popular. 2. Neither will
they be persuaded, though one rose from thQ dead. 8. He that was
dead sat up and began to speak. 4. A man bought a horse for one
hundred dollars ; and, after keeping it three months, at an expense of
ten dollars a month, he sells it f 6r two hundred dollars. What i)er
cent does he gain ? 5. I should say that it was an hour's ride. 6. If
I had have seen him, I should have known him. 7. I wish I was in
Dixie. 8. We should be obliged if you will favor us with a song.
0. I intended to have called.
Explanation ,— This is incorrect ; it shonld be, I intended to call. One does not
Intend to do what is already completed.
XetiMsrfc.— Verbs of commanding^ desiring^ (xpecting^ hoping^ intending^ permU'
tingy etc., are followed by verbs denoting pr«««n^ ov future time.
The present infinitive expresses an action as present or future, and the present per-
fect as completed, at the time indicated by the principal verb. I am glad to have mei
you is correct, because the meeting took place b^ore the time of being glad.
Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. 225
I aught to have gone \s exceptional. Ought has no past tense form, and so the pres-
ent perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time.
11. We hoped to have seen you before. 12. I should not hav«* let
70a eaten it. 13. I shonld have liked to have seen it. 14. He would
not have dared done that. 15. You ought to have helped me to havd
done it. 16. We expected that he would have arrived last night
17. The experiment proved that air had weight.
Semarfc.— What is true or false at all times is generally expressed in the present
tense, whatever tense precedes.
There seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When a speaker does
not wish to vouch for the truth of the general proposition, he may use the past tense,
giving it the appearance of an Indirect quotation; as, He said that iron was the most
valuable of metals. The tense of tiie dependent verb is sometimes attracted into
that of the principal verb ; as, I knew where the place was.
18. I had never known before how short life really was. 19. We
then fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent
of utility. The General. maintained that there was not ; Dr. Johnson
maintained that there was. 20. I have already told you that I was a
gentleman. 21. Our fathers held that all men were created equal.
■^ Caution. — Use will and toould whenever the subject
names the one whose will controls the action, and shall and
should whenever the one named by the subject is under the
control of external influence.
Jtemarlc—ThQ original meaning of shall = to owe^ to be obliged^ and will = to
determine^ gives us the real key to their proper use.
The only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these auxiliaries can-
not be found is, when the subject of wUl names something incapable of volition ;
as, The wind will blow. Even this may be a kind of personification.
X!xainple9,—1 shall go. You will go. He toiU go. These are the proper forms to
express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the original meaning of shall imd
will. In the first person the speaker avoids egotism by referring to the act as an ob-
ligation or duty rather than as something under the control of his own will. In the
second and third persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others than to
their duty.
I win go. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. He either
promises or determines to go.
You shaU go, He shall go. Here the speaker either promises the going or deter-
mines to compel these persons to go ; in either case the actor is under some external
influence.
15
226 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Shall I go f Here the speaker pats himself nnder the control of some externa)
influence— the will of another.
WiU I gof—i. «., Is it my will to go ?— is not nsed. It wonld be absurd for one to
ask what his own will is.
Shall yovL go f Am. I shall. WUljongof Ans.lwill. Shall he go? Ans. Be
thaU. Will he gof Ana. He wiU. The same auxiliary is used in the question that
is nsed in the answer.
No difficulty shall hinder me. The difficulty that might do the hindering is not to
be left to itself, but is to be kej)t under the control of the speaker.
You wUl see that my horse is at the door by nine o^clock. This is only an apparent
exception to the rule. A superior may courteously avoid the appearance of compul-
sion, and refer to his subordinate's willingness to obey.
They knew that I should be there, and that he timild be there. The same principles
apply to shofuld and would that apply to shall and wiU. In this example the events
are future as to past time ; making them future as to present time, we have, They
know that I shall be there, and that he teiU be there.
My friend said that he should not set out to-morrow. Change the indirect to a
direct quotation, and the force of shxndd will be seen.
IMreef ion.— Assign a reason for the use of shall or wUl in each of the following
sentences :—
1. Heap me, for I will speak. 2. If you will call, I sliaU be happy
to accompany you. 3. Shall you be at liberty, to-day? 4 I shall
never see him again. 5. I will never see him again. C. I said that
he should be rewarded. 7. Thou shaJt surely dia 8. Truth, crushed
to earth, shall rise again. 9. Though I should die, yet will I not deny
thee. 10. Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in
mine hand, yet would I not put forth my hand against the king's son.
2>lrec#ioro.— Fill each of the following blanks with shaU^ wUl^ should, or would,
and give the reasons for your choice :—
1. He knew who betray him. 2. I be fatigued if I had
walked so far. 8. Tou did better than I have done. 4 If he
come by noon, you be ready ? 5. They do me wrong, and I
not endure it. 6. I be greatly obliged if you do me
the favor. 7. If I say so, I be guilty of falsehood. 8. You
be disappointed if you see it. 9. he be allowed to
go on ? 10. you be unhappy, if I do not come ?
2>ircc«low.— Correct the following errors, and give your reasons :—
1. Where will I leave you? 2. Will I be in time ? 8. It was re*
quested that no person would leave his seat. 4 They requested tha*
the appointment would be given to a man who should be known to
his party. 5. When will we get through this tedious controversy ?
Construction of Number and Person Forms. 227
LESSON 44a.
CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND PERSON
FORMS.
Agkbbmbnt— Vbbbs — ^Pbonoxjns.
Caution. — A verb must agree with its subject in number
and person.
Bcntarfc.— Practically, this rule applies to but tew forms. Are and were are the
only plural forms retained by the English verb. In the common etyle, most verbs
have one person form, made by adding # or e« {hcLS^ in the present x>erfect tense, is a
contraction of the indicative present— Aa(w)*. The verb be has am (first person)
and is (third person).
In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending e»t, H, or t,
and, in the indicative present, the third person singnlar adds eth. (Sec Le>^ons 184
and 135.)
Caution. — A collective noun requires a verb in the plu-
ral when the individuals in the collection are thought of ;
but, when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb
should be singular.
Examples,—!. The multitude were of one mind. 2. The multitude was too large
to number. 8. A number were inclined to turn back. 4. The number present was not
ascertained.
Caution. — When a verb has two or more subjects con-
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural.
Exeeptiotia,—!. When the connected subjects are different names of the same
thing, or when they name several things taken as one whok, the verb must be
singular ; as, My old fi'iend and schoolmate is in town. Bread and milk is excel'
lent food.
8. When singular subjects are preceded by eack^ every., or no, they are taken
Bspnrately and require a singular verb ; as, Eveiy man, woman, and child was lost.
8. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with one
and is understood with the other ; as, Love, and love only, is the loan for love. (The
same 1^ true of subjects connected by as well as ; as, Pompey, as well as Ca^ar^ was
a great general.)
4. When one of the subjects is aflSrmative and the other negative, the verb agrees
with the affirmative ; as, Books, and not pleasure, occupy his time.
5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by
^28 Modifications of the Parts of Speech,
making the verb agree with that which stands nearest ; as, Ttiine is the lAngdom and
the power and the glory.
m
CatUion. — When a verb has two or more singular sub-
jects connected by or or 7ior, it must agree with them in
the singulai* ; as, Neither poverty nor wealth tvas desired.
J^emarh,—When the subjects are of different numbers or persons, the verb agrees
with the nearest ; as, Neither he nor they were satisfied.
When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural subject is generally placed
next to the verb.
In Ui^ing pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite for the speaker
to mention the one addressed first, and himself last, except when he confesses a fault,
or when, by using the pronoun we, he associates others with him.
When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is generally better to
repeat the verb with each subject or to recast the sentence.
Caution, — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in
number, gender, and person ; as, Thotc wJio tvritest, he tvJio
torites, they tvho write, etc.
The special Cautions given above for the agi-eement of
the verb apply also to the agreement of the pronoun.
Bemark,—Theee special directions for agreement may be summed up in this :
Let the meaning rather than the fottn control the agreement of the verb and of the
pronoun.
The pronoun you, however, even when singular in meaning, requires a verb askd a
pronoun of the plural form.
Direction.— Justify the use of the following italicized verbs and pronouns : —
1. Books is a noun. 2. The good are great. 8. The committee
were unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged. 4. The House
has decided not to allow its members the privilege. 5. Three times
four is twelve.* C. Five dollars w not too much. 7. Twice as much
is too much. 8. Two hours is a long time to wait. 9. To relieve the
wretched was his pride. 10. To profess and to possess are two dif-
ferent things. 11. Talking and eloquence are not the same. 12. The
♦ " Three times four is twelve," and " Three times four are twelve " are both used,
and both maybe defended. The question is (see Caution for collective nouns), Ib
the number four thought of as a whole, or are the individual imits composing it
thought of ? The expression = Four taken three times is twelve. Times Is a Dona
used adverbially without a preposition. (See Lesson 86.)
Construction of Number and Person Forms, 229
tongs ore not in ^A^r place. 18. Every one U accountable for Am own
acts. 14 Every book and every paper moob found in iU place. 15. Not
a loud voice, but strong proofs hring conviction. 16. This orator and
statesman luu gone to Am rest. 17. Young's "Night Thoughts" x%
his most celebrated poetical work. 18. Flesh and blood Ao^A not
revealed it. 19. The hue and cry of the country pursues him.
20. The second and the third Epistle of John contain each a single
chapter. 21. Man is masculine because it denotes a male. 22. There-
in consists the force and use and nature of language. 23. Neither
wealth nor wisdom is the chief thing. 24 Either you or I am right.
25. Neither you nor he m to blame. 23. John, and his sister also, is
going. 27. The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, is
here protected in his right. 28. There are one or two reasons.*
20. I believe that there is not more than one copy extant. 80. Mexi-
can figures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words, f
JMrectioH.T-Conrect the following errore, and give your reasons :—
1. Victuals are always plural. 2. Plutarch's "P^allel Lives*'
arc his great work. 8. What sounds have each of the vowels? 4 No,
no, says I. 5. We agree, says they. 6. Where was you ? 7. Every
one of these are good in their place. 8. Neither of them have re-
cited their lesson. 9. There comes the boys. 10. Each of these ex-
pressions denote action. 11. One of you are mistaken. 12. There is
^veral reasons for this. 18. The assembly was divided in its opin-
ion. 14 The public is invited to attend. 15. The committee wore
full when this point was dedded. 16. The nation are prosperous.
17. M<mey, as well as men, were needed. 18. Now, boys, I want
every one of you to decide for themselves. 19. Neither the intellect
nor the heart are capable of being driven. 20. She fell to laughing
like one out of their right mind. 21. Five years' interest are due.
22. Three quarters of the men was discharged. 28. Nine tenths of
every man's happiness depend upon this. 24. No time, no money, no
labor, were spared. 25. One or the other have erred in their state^
ment. 26. Why are dust and ashes proud t 27. Either the master or
* When two adjectives differing in number are connected without a repetition of
the noun, the tendency Is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed.
t The verb here agrees wiih Jlgure^t, as picture-toriting is logically explanatory of
figures, (See Lesson 88.)
230 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
his servants is to blame. 28. Neither the servants nor their master
are to blame. 29. Our welfare and security consists in unity. 80. The
mind, and not the body, sin. .
To the Tcaclier.— These exercises may profitably be continued by requiring the
pupils to compose sentences Ulostraling those constructions in which mistakes are
liable to be made.
LESSON 443.
REVIE\Ar QUESTIONS.
Lesson 112. — ^What are Modifications f What are inflections ?
What is their office ? Have English words many inflections ? Have
they lost any ? What is Number f Distinguish between the singular
and the plural number. How is the plural of nouns regularly
formed ? In what ways may the plural be formed irregvZarly f D-
lustrate.
Lesson 113. — Give the plural of some nouns adopted from other lan-
guages. How do compounds form the plural ? Illustrate the several
ways. How do letters, figures, etc., form the plural? Illustrate.
Lesson 114. — Qive examples of nouns having each two forms dif-
fering in meaning. Some which have the same form in both numbers.
Some which have no plural. Some which are always plural. What
is said of the number of collective nouns ?
Lesson 116. — In what four ways may the number of nouns be deter-
mined ? Illustrate.
Lesson 117. — What is Gender? What are the genders? What is
the difference between sex and gender f The gender of English nouns
follows what ? Have English nouns a neuter form f Have all English
nouns a mascvline and 9k feminine form f In what three ways may the
masculine of nouns be distinguished from the feminine ? Illustrate.
Give the three gender forms of the pronoun.
Lesson 118. — How is gender in grammar important ? When is the
pronoun of the masculine gender used? When is the neuter pro-
noun it used ? By what pronouns are inanimate things personified ?
In personification, when is the masculine pronoun used, and when the
feminine ? Illustrate. What is the Caution relating to gender ?
Review Questions. 231
Lesion 119. — What is Person f Is the i)erson of noons marked by
form ? Name and define the three persons. When is a noun in the
first person? In the second person? What classes of words have
distinctive person forms? Why is person regarded in grammar? What
is Case f Name and define the three cases. What is the case of a
noun used independently ? Of an explanatory modifier ? Of an object-
xve complement ? Of a noun or pronoun used as attribute comple-
ment? Dlustrato all these.
Lesson 121. — What is Parsing f Illustrate the parsing of nouns.
LESSOia 144.
REVIE\Ar QUESTIONS.
Lesson 122. — ^Howmany case forms have nouns, and what are they?
How is the possessive of nouns in the singular formed ? Of nouns in
the plural ? Illustrate. What is the possessive sign ? To which word
of compound names or of groups of words treated as such is the sign
added? Illustrate. Instead of the possessive form, what may be
used ? Illustrate.
Lesson 128. — In what case only can mistakes in construction occur,
and why? , Illustrate the Cautions relating to possessive forms.
Lesson 12i. — Wh&t is Declension f Decline ffirl and tooth. Decline
the several personal pronouns, the relative, simple and compound, and
the interrogative. What adjective pronouns are declined wholly
or in part? Illustrate.
Lesson 125. — What words in the language have each three different
case forms ? What are the nominative, and what the objective forms
of the pronouns ?
Lesson 127.— What one modification have adjectives? What is
Comparison f Name and define the three degrees. How are adjec-
tives regula/rly compared ? What are the Rules for Spelling? Illus-
trate them. How are adjectives of more than one syllable generally
compared ? How are degrees of diminution expressed ? Can all adjec-
tives be compared ? How are some adverbs compared ? Illustrate the
irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs.
Lesson 128. — To how many things does the comparative degree re-
232 Modifications of tlu Paris of Speech,
^
f er ? What does it imply ? May tlie superlative be nsed to compare
two things ? What word usually follows the comparative, and what
the superlative ? Give the Cautions relating to the use of compara-
tives and superlatives, and illustrate them fully.
Lesson 129. — What is Voice f Of what class of verbs is it a modi£«
cation? Name and define the two voices. When is the one voice
used, and when the other ? Into what may the passive form be re-
solved? Illustrate. What may be mistaken for a verb in the passive
voice ? Illustrate.
Lesson ISO. — In changing a verb from the active to the jMussivc,
what does the object complement become ? How may an intransitive
verb sometimes be made transitive ? Illustrate.
LESSON 44§.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
Lesson 181. — What is Mode? Name and define the four mode&
What is Tense f ' Name and define the six tenses. Define the infini-
tive. Define the participle. Name and define the classes of partici-
ples. What are the number and person of a vero ?
Lesson 183.— What is Conjugation f Synopsis? What are auxil-
iary verbs? Name them. What are the principal parts of a verb?
What are redundant and what are defective verbs?
Lesson 184. — How many forms have irregular verbs? How many
have regular verbs? What is said of the subjunctive mode? Of to
with the infinitive ? How is a verb conjugated in the emphatic form .'
Lesson 186.— How is a verb conjugated in the progressive fomf
How is a transitive verb conjugated in the passifloe voice ? Give an
example of a verb in the progressive form with a passive meaning.
What does the progressive form denote ? Can all verbs be conjugated
in this form? Give all the participles of the verbs clioose, break,
drive, read, lift,
Less<m 137.— How may a verb be conjugated interrogatively ? Neg-
atively ? Illustrate. How may a question with negation be expressed
in the indicative and potential modes ?
Review Questions. 233
Lesson 138. — Into what may the compound, or periphrastic, forms
of the verb be resolved? Illustrate fully. What is said of the par-
ticiple in have written, Iiad mritten, etc.? Analyze may Iiave been
written. Give and illustrate the several uses of the six tenses.
Lesson 140. — Give and correct the more prominent errors under the
first Caution. When does a conditional or a concessive clause require
the verb to be in the indicative? Illustrate. When is the subjunc-
tive preferred ? Illustrate. How is the subjunctive past of the verb
be used?
Lesson 141. — Give and illustrate the general Caution relating to
mode and tense forms. Give the Caution in regard to wUl and would,
shall and should. Illustrate the Caution.
Lesson 143. — Give and illustrate the Cautions relating to the agree-
ment of verbs and pronouns. Illustrate the Exceptions and the Re-
marks.
234 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
GENERAL REVIEW.
To the Teacher. — See that the pupils are ahle to reproduce these
schemes in the class-room, using the black-board or the slate.
The questions given below may be made to call for minute details
or only for outlines. In some cases a single question may suiiice for a
whole lesson.
The Noun.
Uses.
Classes.
Schemes fop the Noun and the Pronoun,
Subject.
Object Complement.
Attribute Complement.
Objective Complement.
Adjective Modifier.
Adverb Modifier.
Principal word in Prep. Phrase.
Independent.
( Common.
•j {Abatract and Collective,)
( Proper.
( Masculine.
Gender. ■! Feminine.
( Neuter.
(First.
Person. •< Second.
( Third.
( Nominative.
< Possessive.
(Objective.
Uses. — Same as those of Nouns.
' Personal.
Relp.tive.
Interrogative.
^ Adjective.
Modifications. -^Same as those of Nouns.
Modifications.
Case.
ThbPbonoun.
Classes.
Questions on the Noun.
1. Define the noun and its classes. — Lesson 85.
2. Name and define the modifications of the noun. — Less. 113, 117,
119.
8. Name and define the several numbers, genders, persons, and
cases.— Less. 112, 117, 119.
General Review.
235
4. Give and illustrate the seyeral ways of formiiig the plunJ. —
Less/112, 113, 114.
5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the gen-
ders. — Less. 117.
(5. How is the possessive case formed ? — Less. 122.
7. Give and.illustrate the principles which guide in use of the pos-
Bessive forms.— Less. 123.
Questions on the Pronoun,
1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists. — Lesa. 85.
2. Decline the several pronouns — Less. 124.
3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the
different pronouns. — Less. 86, 87.
4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the
number forms, the gender forms, and the case forms.~Less. 142, 118,
125.
Scheme for the Verb.
Thb Verb. -
Classes.
( To ai%ert action, being, or state. — Predicate.
• I To awame action, being, or state. | ^^^v^^'
FOBM.
I -fcT- » -^^^^ ( Transitive.
I Meaning. \ -,. ^.^-^
Regular.
Irregular.
(Redundant and Defective,)
Modifications. ^
Voice.
Mode.
Intransitive.
Active.
Participlbs.—
iNPINITrVES. —
Tense.
Number.
Person.
Classes.
Passive.
Indicative.
Potential.
Subjunctive.
Imperative.
Present.
Past.
Future.
Present Perfect,
Past Perfect.
Future Perfect
Singular.
Plural.
Plrst.
Second.
Third.
Present.
Past.
Past Perfect.
j Present.
i Present Perfect.
236 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Questions on the Verb.
1. Define the verb and its classes. — Less. 92, 132.
2. Name and define the modifications of the verb. — Less. 129, 131.
3. Name and define the several voices, modes, and tenses. — Les&
129, 131.
4 Define the participle and its classes. — ^Less. 131.
5. Define the infinitive. — Less. 131.
6. Give a synopsis of a regolar and of an irreg^ar verb in all the
different forms.— Less. 134, 135, 136, 137.
7. Analyze the different mode and tense forms, and give the func-
tions of the different tenses.— Less. 138.
8. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the
mode and tense forms, and of the person and number forms. — ^Less.
140, 141, 142.
Scheme for the Adjective.
( Modifier.
Ubbs. \ Attribute Complement,
(objective Complement.
CLAsaES. i I>escriptive.
i.XASSBS. ^Definitive.
( Positive Degree,
Modification. — Comparison. \ Comparative
( Superlative
Thb Adjbctivb.
«<
Questions on the Adjective.
1. Define the adjective and its classes. — Less. 89.
2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison. — Less. 127.
3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods
cf comparison. — Less. 127.
4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of ad-
jectives. — Less. 90, 91.
5. Give and illustrate the principles which g^de in the use of com*
parative and superlative forms.— Less. 128.
General Review, 237
Schemes for the Adverb and the Conjunction.
Clabbbs. ^
Thb Adtbbb. *
Time.
Place.
Degree.
Manner.
^ Cause.
Modification.— Some have Com- ir^!!r®2!fT'
parison. ig^°^Pff*^^®
*^ (Superlative **
THK COKJT-SmON.-CLASSES. jg^j^^^*^.
Thb Pbbfosition.— No Classes. No Modifications.
Thb IifrrBBJBcnozr.— No Classes. No Modifications.
Questions on the Adverb
1. Define the adverb and its classes. — Less. 02.
2. Illustrate the reg^ar method and the irregular methods of com-
parison. — Less. 127.
8. Give and illustrate tlie principles which guide in the use of ad-
verbs. — Less. 98.
Questions on the Conjunction and the Preposition.
1. Define the conjunction and its classes. — Less. 100.
2. Give the principal co-ordinate and subordinate connectives and
the oflace of each.— Less. 100.
3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of con-
nectives.— Less. 107.
4 Define the preposition, and ^ve and illustrate the principles
which guide in its use.— Less. 95, 98, 99.
238 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
m
%
OQ
Eh
%
I
Pk
Scheme for the Sentence,
iNoun or Pronoun.
Phrase.
Clause.
erb.
Complement.
Object.
Attribute.
09
OQ
Noon or Pronoun.
Phrase.
Clause.
Adjective.
Participle.
Noun or Pronoun.
Phrase.
Clause.
(Adjective.
Participle.
Noun or Pronoun.
Inf. or Part, phiaseu
"Adjectives.
Adverbs.
Participles.
Nouns or Pronouns.
Phrases.
Clauses.
( Conjunctions.
< Relative Pronouns.
(Conj. Adverbs.
Independent Pabts.
Simple.
One Independent Clause.
'^ (Simple.
g •< Complex.
ta (Compound.
^Adj.
MODIFIEBS.
Connectives.
Complex. •( One or more De-
pendent Clauses. '
o
Adv.
Time.
Place.
Degree.
Manner.
Cause.
Beaton.
Condition.
Pnrpose.
Concessioiio
LNoi«i.
(Simple. X
COMPOUND. — ^Two or more Inde- •< (implex.
PENDENT Clauses. (Compound.
o
»
Declarative.
Ilnterro^tive.
Imperative.
Exclamatory.
Additional Examples for Analysis, 239
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS.
It is thouglit by some people that all those stars which 70a see
glittering so restlessly on a keen, frosty night in a high latitude, and
which seem to have been sowil broadcast with as much carelessness as
grain lies on a threshing-floor, here showing vast zaarahs of desert
blue sky, there again lying close, and to some eyes presenting
" The beauteous semblance of a flock at rest,"
are, in fact, all gathered into zones or Btrata ; that our own wicked
little earth, with the whole of our peculiar solar system, is a part of
such a zone ; and that all this perfect geometry of the heavens, these
radii in the mighty wheel, would become apparent, if we, the specta-
tors, could but survey it from the true centre ; which centre may be
far too distant for any vision of man, naked or armed, to reach. — De
Quincey,
On this question of principle, while actual suffering was yet afar off,
they [our fathers] raised their flag against a power to which, for pur- .
poses of foreign conquest and subjugation, Home, in tho height of her
glory, is not to be compared — a power which has dotted over the sur-
face of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts ; whose
morning drum-beat, following the sun, and keeping company with the
hours, circles the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken strain
of the martial airs of England. — Webster,
In some far-away and yet undreamt-of hour, I can even imagine that
England may cast all thoughts of possessive wealth back to the bar-
baric nations among whom they flrst arose ; and that, while the sands
of the Indus and adamant of Golconda may yet stiffen the housings
of the charger, and flash from the turban of the slave, she, as a Chris-
tian mother, may at last attain to the virtues and the treasures of a
Heathen one, and be able to lead forth her Sons, saying, — " These are
my Jewels."— i2i«At;i.
And, when those who have rivalled her [Athens'] greatness shall have
shared her fate ; when civilization and knowledge shall have fixed their
abode in distant continents ; when the sceptre shall have pa&sed away
from England ; when, perhaps, travellers from distant r^ons shall in
240 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
^1-. ■■■ — ■ ■■■ — ■■■ ■I..I I — ■I—. I.— - l.,-.l !■■ !■■ --■■■- ■lll.ll.» ■ .I..I 1-^ ^
vain labor to decipher on some mouldering pedestal the name of onr
proudest chief, shall hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen
idol over the ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see a single
naked fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts,
— ^her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal youth,
exempt from mutability and decay, immortal as the intellectual prin-
ciple from which they derived their origin, and over which they exer-
cise their control. — Maeavlay,
To him who in the love of Nature holds
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks
A various language ; for his gayer hours
She has a voice of gladness and a smile
And eloquence of beauty, and she glides
Into his darker musings with a mild
And healing sympathy, that steals away
Their sharpness, ere he is aware. When thoughts
Of the last bitter hour come like a blight
Over thy spirit, and sad images
Of the stem agony and shroud and pall
And breathless darkness and the narrow house
Make thee to shudder, and grow sick at heart, —
Go forth under the open sky, and list
To Nature's teachings, while from all around —
Earth and her waters and the depths of air —
Comes a still voice. — Bryant.
Pleasant it was, when woods were green.
And winds were soft and low.
To lie amid some sylvan scene.
Where, the long drooping boughs between,
Shadows dark and sunlight sheen
Alternate come and go ;
Or where the denser grove receives
No sunlight from above.
But the da^k foliage interweaves
In one unbroken roof of leaves.
Underneath whose sloping eaves
The shadows hardly move. — LongfeUaw,
Additional Examples for Analysis. 241
I like the lad who, when his father thought
To clip his morning nap by hackneyed praise
Of vagrant worm by early songster caught,
CJried, " Served him right I 'tis not at all surprising ;
The worm was punished, sir, for early rising." — 8aae.
There were communities, scarce known by name
In these degenerate days, but once far-famed.
Where liberty and justice, hand in hand,
Ordered the common weal ; where great men grew
Up to their natural eminence, and none
Saving the wise, just, eloquent, were great ;
Where power v^v^s of God's gift to whom he gave
Supremacy of merit — the sole means
And broad highway to jwwer, that ever then
Was meritoriously administered.
Whilst all its instruments, from first to last.
The tools of state for service high or low.
Were chosen for their aptness to those ends
Which virtue meditates. — Henry Taylor.
Stranger, thes3 gloomy boughs
Had charms for him ; and here he loved to sit.
His only visitants a straggling sheep.
The stone-chat, or the glancing sand-piper :
And on these barren rocks, with fern and heath
And juniper and thistle sprinkled o'er,
fixing his downcast eye, he many an hour
A morbid pleasure nourished, tracing here
An emblem of his own unfruitful life :
And, lifting up his head, he then would gaze
On the more distant scene, — ^how lovely 'tis
Thou seest, — and he would gaze till it became
Far lovelier, and his heart could not sustain
The beauty, still more beauteous. — Wordsworth,
But, when the next sun brake from underground,
Then, those two brethren slowly with bent brows
Accompanying, the sad chariot-bier
242 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Past like a shadow thro' the field, that shone
FaHsummer, to that stream whereon the barge,
Pall'd all its length in blackest samite, lay.
There sat the life-long creature of the house.
Loyal, the dumb old servitor, on deck.
Winking his eyes, and twisted all his face.
So those two brethren from the chariot took
And on the black decks laid her in her bed.
Set in her hand a lily, o*er her hung
The silken case with braided blazonings.
And kiss'd her quiet brows, and, saying to her,
*' Sister, farewell forever," and again,
** Farewell, sweet sister," parted all % tears. — Tennywn,
Good name in man and woman, dear my lord.
Is the immediate jewel of their souls.
Who steals my purse steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing ;
'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands :
But he that filches from me my good name
Robs me of that which not enriches him.
And makes me poor indeed. — SJiakespeare,
When I consider how my light is spent
Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide.
And that one talent, which is death to hide.
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my Maker, and present
My true account, lest he, returning, chide, —
" Doth God exact day-labor, light denied \ "
I fondly ask : but Patience, to prevent
That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need
Either man's work or his own gifts ; who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best : his state
Is kingly ; thousands at his bidding speed.
And post o'er land and ocean without rest ;
They also serve who only stand and wait."
— Milton, — Sonnet on h%$ Blindne$9.
Additional Examples for Analysis. 243
All t on Thanksgiving Day, when from East and from West,
From North and from South come the pilgrim and guest;
When the gray-haired New-Englander sees round his board
The old broken links of affection restored;
When the care- wearied man seeks his mother once more.
And the worn matron smiles where the girl smiled before, —
What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye?
What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin-pie ?
That orbed maiden with white fire laden.
Whom mortals call the mopn.
Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor.
By the midnight breezes strewn ;
And wherever the beat of her unseen feet.
Which only the angels hear.
May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof.
The stars peep behind her and peer ;
And I laugh to see them whirl and flee
Like a swarm of golden bees.
When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent.
Till the calm river, lakes, and seas.
Like strips of the sky fallen through me on high.
Are each paved with the moon and these.
—SheUey.—The Claud
Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening's close.
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose ;
There, as I passed with careless steps and slow.
The mingling notes came softened from below ;
The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung.
The sober herd that lowed to meet their young.
The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool,
The playful children just let loose from school.
The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind.
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind,—
These all in sweet confusion sought the shade,
And filled each pause the nightingale had made.
— Goldsmith,
244 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell.
To slowly trace the f oresf s shady scene.
Where things that own not man's dominion dwell.
And mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely been ;
To climb the trackless mountain all nnseen.
With the wild flock that never needs a fold ;
Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean ; —
This is not solitude ; 'tis but to hoM
Converse with Nature's charms, and view her stores unrolled.
— Byron,
The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang.
And through the dark arch a charger sprang.
Bearing Sir Launfal, the maiden knighti
In his gilded mall, that flamed so bright
It seemed the dark castle had gathered all
Those shafts the fierce sun had shot over its wall
In his siege of three hxmdred summers long.
And, binding them all in one blazing sheaf.
Had cast them forth ; so, young and strong
And lightsome as a locust leaf,
Sir Launfal flashed forth in his unscarred mail
To seek in all climes for the Holy Grail.— X^oeK.
Be it a weakness, it deserves some praise,
We love the play-place of our early days ;
The scene is touching, and the heart is stone
That feels not at the sight, and feels at none.
The wall on which we tried our graving skill.
The very name we carved subsisting still ;
The bench on which we sat while deep employed,
Tho' mangled, hacked, and hewed, not yet destroyed ;
The little ones, unbuttoned, glowing hot.
Playing our games, and on the very spot,
As happy as we once, to kneel and draw
The chalky ring and knuckle down at taw,
To pitch the ball into the grounded hat.
Or drive it devious with a dexterous pat ; —
Additional Examples for Analysis, 245
The pleasing spectacle at once excites
Such recollection of our own delights
That, viewing it, we seem almost t* obtain
Oiir innocent, sweet, simple years again. ~C7(9t()per.
To the 2'0aelier.— Require the ptqiils to change the poetry, above, into prose.
Considering onr present advanced state of cnltore, and how the
toich of science has now been brandished and borne about, with more
or less effect, for five thousand years and upwards ; how, in these
times especially, not only the torch still burns, and perhaps more
fiercely than ever, but innumerable rush-lights and sulphur-matches,
kindled thereat, are also glancing in every direction, so that not the
smallest cranny or doghole in nature or art can remain unillumlnated ;
— it might strike the reflective mind with some surprise that hitherto lit-
tle or nothing of a fundamental character, whether in the way of philoso-
phy or history, has been written on the subject of Clothes. — Carlyle.
When we see 090 word of a frail man on the throne of France,
tearing a hundred thousand sons from their homes, breaking asunder
the sacred tics of domestic life, sentencing myriads of the young to
make murder their calling, and rapacity their means of support, and
extorting from nations their treasures to extend this ruinous sway,
we are ready to ask ourselves. Is not this a dream ? and, when the
sad reality comes home to us, we blush for a race which can stoop to
such an abject lot. At length, indeed, we see the tyrant humbled,
stripped of power, but stripped by those who, in the main, are not
unwilling to play the despot on a narrower scale, and to break down
the spirit of nations under the same iron sway. — Ghanning.
There are days which occur in this climate, at almost any season of
the year, wherein the world reaches its perfection ; when the air, the
heavenly bodies, and the earth make a harmony, as if Nature would
indulge her offspring ; when, in these bleak upper sides of the planet,
nothing is to desire that we have heard of the happiest latitudes, and
we bask in the shining hours of Florida and Cuba ; when everything
that has life gives sign of satisfaction, and the cattle that lie on the
ground seem to have great and tranquil thoughts. — Emerson.
Did you never, in walking in the fields, come across a large flat
stone, which had lain, nobody knows how long, just where you found
It, with the grass forming a little hedge, as it were, all round it, close
246 Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
to its edges ; and have yon not, in obedience to a kind feeling that told
you it had been lying there long enough, insinuated your stick or
your foot or yoiir fingers under its edge, and turned it over as a
housewife turns a cake, when she says to herself, "It's done brown
enough by this time ? " But no sooner is the stone turned and the
.'wholesome light of day let upon this compressed and blinded com-
fmunity of creeping things than all of them which enjoy the luxury
of legs^and some of them have a good many — rush round wildly;
butting each other and everything in their way, and end in a general
Stampede for underground retreats from tha region poisoned by sun-
shine. Next yea/r you will find the grass growing tall and green where
the stone lay ; the ground-bird builds her nest where the beetle had his
hole ; the dandelion and the buttercup are growing there, and the
broad fans of insect-angels ox>en and shut over their golden disks, as
the rhythmic waves of blissful consciousness pulsate through their
glorified being. — Holmes,
There is a different and sterner path ; — I know not whether there be
any now qualified to tread it ; I am not sure that even one has ever
followed it implidtly, in view of the certain meagemess of its tem-
poral rewards, and the haste wherewith any fame acquired in a sphere
so thoroughly ephemeral as the Editor's must be shrouded by the
dark waters of oblivion. This path demands an ear ever open to the
plaints of the wronged and the suffering, though they can never re-
pay advocacy, and those who mainly support newspapers will be an-
noyed and often exposed by it ; a heart as sensitive to oppression and
degradation in the next street as if they were practised in Brazil or
Japan ; a pen as ready to expose and reprove the crimes whereby
weidth is amassed and luxury enjoyed in our own country at this
hour as if they had been committed only by Turks or Pagans in
Asia some centuries ago. — Greeley.
To sweeten the beverage, a lump of sugar was laid beside each cup,
and the company alternately nibbled and sipped with great decorum,
until an improvement was introduced by a shrewd and economical old
lady, which was to suspend a large lump directly over the tea-table,
by a string from the ceiling, so that it could be swung from mouth to
mouth — an ingenious expedient, which is still kept up by some fami-
lies in Albany, but which prevails without exception in Communipaw,
"^rgen, Flatbush, and all our uncontaminated Dutch villages. — Irvinff.
COMPOSITION.
LESSON 146.
SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CAPITAL.
LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION.
Capital Lbttrbb, Tkeohsal Mabks, and thb Ck>iacA.
Caj^ital Letters. — The first word of (1) a sentence, (2)
a line of poetry, (3) a direct quotation making complete sense
or a direct question introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases
or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin
with a capital letter. Begin with a capital letter (5) proper
names and words deriyed from them, (6) names of things
personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital let-
ters (8) the words I and* O, and (9) numbers in the Boman
notation*
Period. — Place a period after (1) a declarative or an
imperative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number
written in the Roman notation.
Interrogation Point, — Eveiy direct interrogative sen-
tence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point.
Exctamation Point. — All exclamatory expressions must
be followed by the excitation point.
Comma. — Set off by the comma (1) a phrase out of its
natural order or not closely connected with the word it modi-
fies; (2) an explanatory modifier which does not restrict the
modified term or combine closely with it; (3) a participle
used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to
248 Composition,
it, unless restrictive; (4) the adjective clause, when not re-
strictive; (5) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and
restricts the word it modifies; (6) a word or phrase indepen-
dent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced into a
sentence, unless /orwa% introduced; (8) a noun clause used
as an attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to
another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by
the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless all the
conjunctions are expressed ; (ll)* co-ordinate clauses, when
short and closely connected ; and (12) i^ parts of a com-
pound predicate;, and other phrases, when long or differently
modified. Use (13) the comma when it is needed to prevent
ambiguity.
Direction.— Giye the Bnle for each capital letter and each mark of pnnctnation
' in these sentences, except the colon, the semicolon, and the quotation marks : —
1. Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III., three sons of Catherine
de Medici and Henry II., sat upon the French throne. 2. The pupil
asked, " When shall I use 0, and when shall I use ohl " 3. Purity of
style forbids us to use : 1. Foreign words,; 2. Obsolete words ; 8. Low
words, or slang. 4 It is easy. Mistress Dial, for you, who hare always,
as everybody knows, set yourself up above me, to accuse one of lazi-
ness. 5. He rushed into the field, and^ foremost fighUng, fell. 6. The
Holy Land was, indeed, among the early conquests of the Saracens,
Caliph Omar having, in 687 A. D., taken Jerusalem. 7. The first
maxim among philosophers, and men of sense everywhere is, that
merit only, should make distinctions.
8. No sleep till mom, when Youth and Pleasure meet
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet !
DfrcceiOH. —Use capital letters and the proper marks of panctnatlon in these sen-
tences, and give your reasons :—
1. and lo from the assembled crowd
there rose a shout prolonged and loud
that to the ocean seemed to say
take her o bridegroom old and gray
2. a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the loins by a
girdle or belt of hide was the only covering of that strange solitary
Summary of Rules — Continued. 249
man elijah the tiahbite 8. the result however of the three years' rei^
or tyranny of jas ii was that wm of orange came over from hoUand and
without shedding a drop of blood became a d 1688 wm iii of cngland
4 o has three sounds : 1. that in not; 2. that in note ; 8. that in VMyte
6. lowell asks and what is so rare as a dayin June 6. springis a fidde
mistress but summer is more staid 7. if i may judge by his gorgeous
colors and the exquisite sweetness and variety of his music autumn
is i should say the poet of the family
LESSON 44r.
SUMMARY OF RULES-CONTINUED.
Semicolon and Colon.
Semicolon. — Co-ordinate clauses (1) when slightly con-
nected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, must
be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon (3)
between phrases or clauses having a common dependence
on something which precedes or follows; and (4) before aSy
viz., to wit, namely, i. e., and t?iat is, when they introduce
examples or illustrations.
IMreeHon.-— Justify each capital letter and eacli mark of panctnation in these
sentences :—
1. It may cost treasoie, and it may cost hlood ; hut it will stand,
and it will richly compensate for both. 2. Some words are delightful
to the ear ; as, Ontario, golden, oriole. 8. The shouts of revelry had
died away ; the roar of the lion had ceased ; the last loiterer had re-
tired from the banquet ; and the Ughts in the palace of the victor
were extinguished. 4 Send it to the public halls ; proclaim it there ;
let them hear it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon ; let
them see it who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the field of
Bunker Hill ; and the very walls will cry out in its support.
Direction,— Vse capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sen'
tences, and give your reasons :—
1. all parts of a plant reduce to three namely root stem and leaf
250 Composition,
2. when the world is dark with tempests when thunder rolls and light-
ning flies thoa lookest in thy beauty from the clouds and laughest at
the tttorm 8. the oaks of the monntAins fall the mountains themselves
decay with years the ocean Bhrinks and grows again the moon herself
13 lost in heaven 4 kennedy taking from her a handkerchief edged
with gold pinned it over her eyes the executioners holding her by the
arms led her to the block and the queen kneeling down said rei>eatedly
with a firm voice into thy hands o lord i commend my spirit
Colon. — ^TJse the colon (1) between the parts of a sen-
tence when these parts are themselves divided by the semi-
colon, and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of par-
ticulars when formally introduced.
I>ireoeioi».— Justify each capital letter and each mark of pcmctnation in these
sentences '.—
1. You may swell every expense, and strain every effort, stiU more
extravagantly; accumulate every assistance you can beg^nd borrow ;
tjraffic and barter with every little, pitiful German prince that sells
and sends his subjects to the shambles of a foreign country : your
efforts are forever vain and impotent. 2. This is a precept of Socrates :
"Know thyself."
2>irecf{oM.— Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation lu these sen-
tences, and give yonr rea9ons : —
1. the advice given ran thus take care of the minutes and the hours
will take care of themselves 2. we may abound in meetings and
movements enthusiastic gatherings in the field and forest may kindle
all minds with a common sentiment but it is all in vain if men do not
retire from the tumult to the silent culture of every right disposition
, J^ireeeioM.— Write sentences illustrating the several uses of the semicolon, the
colon, and the comma.
LESSON US.
"SUMMARY OF RULES—CONTINUED.
The Dash, Mabks op Pabbitthbsis, Apostbophb, Htfhbn, Quo>
TATiON Mabks, and Brackets.
I>ash. — ^TJse the dash where there is an omission (1) ol
Summary of Rules — Continued, 251
letters or figures, and (2) of such words as aSy namely y or that
is, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use.
the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the
same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or another
takes its place; and (4) before a word or phrase repeated at
intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead
of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) even follow other marks,
adding to their force.
l>Xreoeion.--Jiistify each capital letter and each mark of pnnctoation in these
eenrence?:—
1. The most noted kings of Israel were the first three— Saul, David,
and Solomon. 2. In E-- — s xx. 1 — 18» 70a may find the ten com-
mandments. 8. And — "This to met'* he said. 4 Assyria, Greece,
Borne, Carthage — what are they ? 5. I do not rise to fawn or cringe
to this House ; — I do not rise to supplicate you to be mercif nl toward '
the nation to which I belong, — ^toward a nation which, though subject
to England, yet is distinct from it. G. We know the uses — and sweet
they are— of adversity.
l>iree<ion.— Use capital letters and the proper marks of panctoation in these sen-
tences, and give yonr reasons:—
1. the human species is composed of two distinct races those who
borrow and those who lend 2. this bill this infamous bill the way it
has been received by the house the manner in which its opponents
have been treated the personalities to which they have been subjected
all these things dissipate my doubts 3. during the winter of 1775 6
gen w n was besieging b n 4. lord marmion turned well was his
need and dashed the rowels in his steed
Marks of Parenthesis. — Marks of parenthesis may be
nsed to enclose what has no essential connection with the
rest of the sentence.
Apostrophe. — Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omis-
sion of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and
characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other
cases.
Hyphen. — ^Use the hyphen (-) (1) to join the parts of
253 Composition.
compound words, and (2) between the syllables, when a
word is divided.
Quotation Marks. — ^TJse quotation marks to enclose a
copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quota-
tion, this is enclosed within single marks.
Brackets. — ^Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting
another's words, you insert by way of explanation or correc-
tion.
IMreclion.— Justify the marks of pnnctnation used in these sentences :—
1. Luke says. Acts xxi. 15, ** We took up our carriages [lugga^],
and went up to Jerusalem." 2. The last sentence of the composition
was, " I close in the words of Patrick Henry, ' Give me liberty, or give
me death.*" 3. Telegraph-pole is a recent compound; telegraph is
divided thus : tel-e-graph, 4. The profound learning of Sir William
Jones (he was master of twenty-eight lang^uages) was the wonder of
his contemporaries. 5. By means of the apostrophe you know that
love in motJier^ love is a noun, and that fs isn't a verb.
2>irectio».— Use capital letters and the proj^er marks of punctuation in these sen-
tences, and give your reasons :—
1. next to a conscience void of offence without which by the bye life
isnt worth the living is the enjoyment of the social feelings 2. man
the life boat 3. dont neglect in writing to dot your is cross your ts
and make your 78 unlike your 98 and dont in speaking omit the hs
from such words as which wlien and why or insert rs in law saw and
raw 4. the scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow
5. The speaker said american oratory rose to its high water mark in
that great speech ending liberty and union now and forever one and
inseparable
LESSON 44d.
CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION-
REVIEW.
lMrcc«io».— Give t'.ie reason for each capital letter and each mark of punctuation
in these sentences : —
1. A bigot's mind is like the pupil of the eye ; the more light you
Capital Letters and Punctuation — Review. 253
pour upon it, the more it contracts. 2. This is the motto of the Uni-
versit7 of Oxford : " The Lord is my light." 8. The only fault ever
found with him is, that he sometimes fights ahead of his orders. 4
The land flowing with " milk and honey " (see N s xiv. 8.) was a
long, narrow strip, lying along the eastern edge, or coast, of the Medi-
terranean, and consisted of three diyisions ; namely, 1. On the north,
Qalilee ; 2. On the south, Judea ; 3. In the middle, Samaria. 5.
**What a lesson," Trench well says, "the word 'diligence* con*
tains!"
6. An honest man, my neighbor, — ^there he stands —
Was struck, — struck like a dog, by one who wore
The badge of Ursini.
7. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State;
Sail on, O Union, strong and great.
8. O'CJonnell asks, " The clause which does away with trial by jury
—what, in the name of Heaven, is it, if it is not the establishment of
a revolutionary tribunal ? " 9. There are only three departments of
the mind — ^the intellect, the feelings, and the will. 10. This — atrial I
11. American nationality has made the desert to bud and blossom as
the rose ; it has quickened to life the giant brood of useful arts ; it has
whitened lake and ocean with the sails of a daring, new, and lawful
trade ; it has extended to exiles, flying as clouds, the asylum of our
better liberty. 12. As I saw him [Webster, the day before his great
reply to Col. Hayne of South Carolina] in the evening, (if I may bor-
row an illustration from his favorite amusement) he was as uncon-
cerned and as free of spirit as some here have seen him, while floating
in his fishing-boat along a hazy shore, gently rocking on the tranquil
tide, dropping his line here and there with the varying fortune of the
sport. The next morning he was like some mighty admiral, dark and
i^rrible, casting the long shadow of his frowning tiers far over the
sea, that seemed to idnk beneath him ; his broad pendant streaming at
the main, the stars and stripes at the fore, the mizzen, and the peak ;
and bearing down like a tempest upon his antagonist, with all his can-
vas stndned to the wind, and all his thunders roaring from his broad-
sides.
To the Teiteiier.—lf farther work in punctaation is needed, require the pnpils to
jostify the pnnctnation of the eeutenccs beginning page 339.
254 Composition.
, LESSOM 4iO.
QUALITIES OF STYLE.
Style is tlie maimer in which one expresses himself, and in. some
tespects it must reflect the writer. But there are some cardinal qual-
ities which all good style must possess.
L Perspicaity. — ^Perapicuity is opposed to obscurity and ambigoitj,
and so means eleame^i of expresHon. This is an indispensable qual-
ity ; if the thought is not understood or is misunderstood, it might
as well haye been left unnttered. Perspicaity depends mainly upon
^ese few things : —
1. One's Olear UndersUnding of what he attempts to say. — ^Yoa
cannot express to others more than you thoroughly know, or make
your thought clearer to them than it is to yourself.
2. The Unity of the Soitence.^ — ^Many thoughts, or thoughts hav-
ing no natural and close connection with each other, should not be
crowded into one sentence.
3. The Use of the Right Words. — Use such words as convey your
thought — each word expressing exactly your idea, no more, no less,
no other. Do not omit words when they are needed. Bo cautious in
the use of he, she, U, and the^/. Use simple words, such as others
can readily understand, avoiding bookish terms, words that ha\e
passed out of use, and those that have ho footing in the language-
foreign terms, words newly coined, and slang.
4. A Happy Arrangement. — The relations of words to each other
shouid be obvious at a glance. The sentence should not need re-
arrangement to disclose the meaning, or to unite dislocated parts.
IL Bnergy. — ^By energy we mean vigor of expression. In ordinary
discourse, it is not always to be sought. We use it when we wish to
convince the intellect, arouse the feelings, and take captive the will—
Qualities of Style. 255
lead one to do something. When energetic, we select words for strength,
and not for beauty ; choose specific, and not general, terms ; use few
words and crowd them dease with thought ; place subordinate dauses
before the independent, and the strongest clause of the sentence, the
strongest sentence of the paragraph, and the strongest point of the
discourse, last. Energetic thought is usually charged with intense
feeling, and requires an impassioned delivery.
in. Imagery — Figures of Speech. — Things stand in many relations
to each other, some of which are these : they resemble each other in
some particular ; they stand one to another as part to a whole, or as
whole to a part ; they are associated by having been so long together
that one suggests the other. Figures of Speech are those expressions
in which, departing from our ordinary Btyle in speaking of things, we
OMert or assume any of these relations. Imagery adds beauty to style,
but it also makes the thought clearer and stronger — a diamond brooch
may do duty as well as adorn,
A Simile is a figure in which we assert a resemblance between two
things otherwise unlike ; as. The gloom of despondency hung like a
dcud over the land.
A Metaphor is a figure in which, assuming the resemblance be-
tween two things, we bring over and apply to one of them the term
which denotes the other ; as. Who carried your fiag into the very
eliops of the British Channel, and bearded the lion in his den f
A Synecdoche is a figure in which the name of a part denotes the
whole, or the name of the whole denotes a part ; as. All hands to
the pumps I The New World is geologically the oldest.
A Metonymy is a figure in which the name of one thing long as-
sociated with another is taken to denote that other ; as. Please address
the eha/MT, One needs to listen to the organ before reading Milton,
T7. Variety-— Variety is a quality of style opposed to uniformity.
Nothing in discourse pleases more than light and shade— the same
2$6 Composition.
word not appearing witli offensive frequency ; long words alternating
with short, and long sentences with short ; the natural order now and
then yielding to the transposed ; clauses haying no rigidly fixed posi-
tion ; sentences, heavy and moving slowly, elbow to elbow with the
light and tripping ; figures sparkling here and there from out the set-
ting of plain language ; the verb in the assertive form frequently giv-
ing way to the participle and the infinitive, which assume; the full
method of statement followed by the contracted ; in a word, no one
form or method continuing so long as to weary, but alternating with
another, and keeping the reader fresh and f&scinated throughout.
To the 2\eaelier.— Qae»tion the pupils upon every point taken np in this LesBon,
requiring them to give UlttstrtUione^ where it ia possible.
LESSON 4i4.
PERSPICUITY— CRITICISM.
General Direction.— In all your work in Composition attend sarefnlly to the
punctuation.
IHrect ion,— Toint out the faults, and recast these sentences, making them clear :->
* 1. He was locked in and so he sat still till the guard came and let
him out, as soon as he stepped out on the ground, he saw the dead and
dying laying about everywhere. 3, They used to ring a large bell at
six o'clock in the morning for us to g^t up, then we had half an hour
to dress in, after which we would go to Chapel exercises, then break-
fast, school would commence at nine o'clock and closed at four in the
afternoon allowing an hour for dinner from one until two then we
would resume our studies until four in the afternoon. 8. Jewelry
was worn in the time of King Pharaoh which is many thousand years
before Christ in the time when the Israelites left they borrowed all
the jewels of the Egyptians which were made of gold and silver. 4
When it is made of gold they can not of pure gold but has to be mixed
with some other metal which is generally copper which turns it a red-
• These four sentences and others In these Lessons, given just as we found them,
have been cnlled from school compo^itlons.
Perspicuity — Criticism, 257
dish hue in some countries they use silver which gives it a whitish
hue but in the United States and England they use both silver and
copper but the English coins are the finest.
2>irecti€»n.— Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, making them clear :—
Some may have each many meanings ; give these.
1. James's son, Charles I.^ before the breath was out of his body
was proclaimed king in his stead. 2. He told the coachman that he
would be the death of him, if he did not take care what he was about,
and mind what he said. 8. Bichelieu said to the king that Mazarin
would carry out his policy. 4. He was overjoyed to see him, and he
sent for one of his workmen, and told him to consider himself at his
service. 5. Blake answered the Spanish priest that if he had sent in
a complaint, he would have punished the sailors severely; but he
took it ill that he set the Spaniards on to punish them.
IMreetion.— Place these subordinate clauses where they will remove the obscurity,
and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged : —
1. The moon cast a pale light on the graves that were scattered
around, as it peered above the horizon. 2. A large number of seats
were occupied by pupils that had no backs. 3. Crusoe was surprised
at seeing five canoes on the shore in which there were savages. 4
This tendency will be headed off by approximations which will be
made from time to time of the written word to the spoken. 5. People
had to travel on horseback and in wagons, which was a very slow way,
if they travelled at all. 6. How can brethren partake of their Father's
blessing that curse each other ? 7. Two men will be tried for crimes
in this town which »ro punishable with death, if a full court should
attend.
IMreetion.— Bach of these sentences may have two meanings ; supply two ellipses,
and remove the ambiguity :—
1. Let us trust no strength less than thine. 2. Study had more at-
traction for him than his friend. 8. Ho did not like the new teacher
so well as his playmates. 4. He aimed at nothing less than the crown.
6. Lovest thou me more than these ?
17
258 Composition,
LESSON \%%.
PERSPICUITY— CRITICISM.
lNr«etion.— Place these italicized pbrasea where they wiU remoye the obscnri^,
and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged : —
1. These designs any man who is a Briton in any sittiation onght
to disavow. 2, The chief priests, mocking, said among themselves
toith the scribes, "He saved," etc. 8. Hay is given to horses as
well as corn to distend the stomach. 4. Boston has forty first class
grammar-schools, exclusive of Dorchester. 5. He rode to town, and
drove twelve cows on horseback, G. He could not face an enraged
father in spite of his effrontery, 7. Two owls sat ni>on a tree which
grew near an old wall out of a heap of rvJbbish, 8. I spent most on the
river and in the river of the time I stayed there. 9. He wanted to go
to sea, although it was contrary to the wishes of his parents, at the
age of eighteen, 10. I have a wife and six children, and I have never
seen one of them,
JHrecfion.— Place these italicized words and phrases where they will remoye
ambiguity, and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arrauji^ed :—
1. In Paris, every lady in fvU dress rides. 2. I saw my friend when
I was in Boston walking down Tremont street, 3. The transfers made,
a^ a whole f strengthen rather than otherwise the new administration.
4. What is his coming or going to you f 6. We do those things fre-
quently which we repent of afterwards. 6. I rushed out leaving the
wretch with his tale half told, horror-stricken at his crime, 7. Ex-
clamation points are scattered up and down the page by compositors
without any mercy, 8. I want to make a present to one who is fond
of chickens /or a Christmas gift.
Direction.— Make these sentences clear by using simpler words and phrases :—
1. A devastating conflagration raged. 2, He conducted her to the
altar of Hymen. 3. A donkey has an abnormal elongation of a/uricuUtr
appendages. 4 Are you excavating a subterranean canal? 6. He
had no capillary substance on the summit of his head. 6. He made a
sad faux pas. 7. A net-work is anything reticulated or decussated,
with interstices at equal distances between the intersections, 8. Diligence
is the sine qua non of success. 9. She has donned the habiliments
(tfwoe, 10. The deceased wnato-d&y deposited in his last resting-place.
Energy — Criticism, 2 59
11. The inmates proceeded to the sanctuary. 12. I have partaken of
my morning repast. 13. He took ilie initiative in inatigurating the
ceremony.
LESSON 4§3.
ENERGY— CRITICISM.
l>{ff*eef ion.— Expand these brief expressions into sentences fall of long words,
and note the loss of energy :—
1. To your tents, O Israel I 2. Up, boys, and at tliem I 3. Indeed I
4. Bah I 5. Don't give up the ship I 6. Murder will out I 7. Oh I 8.
Silence there I 9. Hurrah 1 10. Death or free speech I 11. Rascal I
12. No matter. 13. Least said, soonest mended. 14 Death to the
tyrant I 15. Til none of it. 16. Help, ho I 17. Shame on you I la
First come, first served.
l>{r0C<itfn. —Condense these italicized expressions into one or two words, and
note the gain : —
1. He shuffled off this mortal eoU yesterday. 2. The author sur-
passed all those who were living at the same time with him. 3. To say
that revelation is a thing which there is no need 0/ is to talk wildly.
4 He departed this life. 5. Some say that ever 'gainst tliat season
comes wherein our Savioui'^s birth is celebrated this bird of dawning
singeth all night long.
2>ireetion.— Change these specific words to general terms, and note the loss in
energy :—
1. Don't ^rd till you see the whites of their eyes. 2. Break down the
dikes, give Holland back to ocean. 3. Three hundred men held the
hosts of Xerxes at bay. 4. I sat &t her cradle, I followed her hoarse.
6. Their daggers have stabbed Caesar. 6. When I'm mad, I weigh a
ton. 7. Bum Moscow, starve back the invaders. 8 There's no use
in crying over spilt milk. 9. In proportion as men delight in battles
and bull-fights will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack,
IHreation.— Change these general terms to specific words, and note the gain in
energy :—
1. Anne Boleyn was eo^t^^^. 2. It were better for him that a ^^ODy
weight were fastened to him and that he were submerged in the waste of
waters. 8. The capital of the chosen people was destroyed by a Roman
26o Composition,
general. 4. Consider tlie flowers how they increase in size. 5. Csdsar
was siain by tlie conspirators, 6. The cities of the plain weie annihu
lated,
J>lreetio9^,—ATTajige these words, phrases, and clauses, hi the order of thehr
strength, phicmg the strongest last, and note the gain in energy :—
1. The nations of the earth repelled, surrounded, pursued, and re-
sisted him. 2. He was no longer consul nor citizen nor general nor
even an emperor, but a prisoner and an exile. 3. I shall die an Ameri-
can ; I live an American ; I was bom an American. 4 All that I am,
all that I hope to be, and all that I have in this life, I am now ready
here to stake upon it. 5. I shall defend it without this House, in all
places, and within this House ; at all times, in time of peace and in
time of war. 6. We must fight if we wish to be free, if we mean to
preserve inviolate our rights, if we do not mean to abandon the strug-
g^le.
LESSON 4§4.
FIGURES OF SPEECH— CRITICISM.
Ifireetion.—Nsaae these figures of speech, and then recast each sentence, using
plain language, and note the loss of beauty and force :—
1. Lend me your ears, 2. The robin knows when your grapes
have cooked long enough in the sun. 3. A day will come when hvllets
and bombs shall be replaced by ballots, 4 Csesar were no lion were
not Romans hinds, 5. The soul of Jonathan was knit to that of David.
6. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 7. He will bring down my
gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. 8. The pen is mightier than
the sword, 9. If I can catch him once upon the hip, I -m^lfeedfai the
ancient grudge I bear.him. 10. The destinies of mankind were trem-
hling in tlie balance while death fell in sJwwers. 11. O Cassius, you
are yoked with a lamb that carries anger as a flint hears fire, 12. Na-
tions shall heat their swords into ploughshares, and their spea/rs into
pnming-hooks, 13. The Mom in russet mantle clad walks o'er the dew
of yon high eastern hill. 14 The air hites shrewdly. 15. He doth
bestride the narrow world like a Colossus, 16. My heart is in the cof-
fin there with Caesar. 17. The gray-eyed Mom smUes on Wi^ frowning
Night. 18, The good is often buried with men's hones, 19. Beware
Variety in Expression. 261
■ . ■ ■ — — — -•
of the \ioUle, 20. All nations respect onr flag, 21. I have no spur to
prick the aidis of my intent. 22. 1 am as constant as the northern
6ta/r, 23. Then burst his miglity heart. 24 Lentulus returned with
victorious eagles. 25. Death hath sucked tlie honey of thy breath. 26.
Our chains a/re forged. 27. I have bought golden opinions. 28. His
words fell softer than snows on the brine. 29. Night's candles are
burnt outy and jocund Day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain top.
XHreeHon.—ln the ftrst four eentencea, use HmUes; in the second four, meta-
phot's; in the third four, synecdochet; in the last four, metonymies:—
1. "He flew wUh the swiftness of an a/rrow. 2. In battle some men
are bra/oe, others are cowa/rdty. 8. His head is as full of plans as it can
hold. 4 I heard a loud noise. 5. Boston is the pUice where American
liberty began. 6. Our dispositions should grow mild, as we grow old.
7. The stars can no longer be seen. 8. In battle some men are brave,
others are cowardly. 9. We passed a fleet of ten ships. 10. English
vessels plough the seas of the two hemispheres. 11. They sought the
king's life. 12. I abjure all dwellings, 13. His convivial habits have
been his ruin. 14. Have you read Lamb's Essays? 16. The water is
boiling. 16. We have prostrated ourselves before the king.
I>U»eetion.— The parts of a figure should agree, and should unite to form one whole.
Correct these errors : —
1. The devouring fire uprooted the stubble. 2. The brittle thread
of life may be cut asunder. 8. All the ripe fruit of three-score years
was bUghted in a day. 4 Unravel the obscurities of this knotty ques-
tion. 5. We must apply the oiw to the /<M^;itot;i of this evil. 6. The
man stalks into court like a motionless statue, with the cloak of hyi)oc-
risy in his mouth. 7. The thin mantle of snow dissolved, 8. I smell
a rat, I see him bretoing in the air ; but I shall yet nip him in tlie bud.
VARIETY IN EXPRESSION.
Itemark.-YovL learned in Lessons 52-S-4, that the natural order may give way to
the transposed; in 65-6, that one kind of simple sentence may be changed to another;
in 67, that simple sentences may be contracted ; in 61, that adjectives may be ex-
panded into clauses; in 67. that an adverb chiuse may stand before, between the parte
262 Composition.
of, and after, the independent clause ; in 68, that an adverb clan«e may be contracted
to a participle, a participle phrase, an absolute pbra^, a prepositional phrase, may be
contracted by the omission of words, and may be changed to an adjective clause or
phrase ; in 73, that a noun clause as subject may stand last, and as object complement
may stand first, that it may be made prominent, and may be contracted ; in 74, that
direct quotations and questions may be changed to indirect, and indirect to direct ; in
77, that compound sentences may be formed out of simple sentences, may be con-
tracted to simple sentences, and may be changed to complex sentences ; and, in 79,
that participles, absolute phrased, and infinitives may be expanded into different kinds
of clauses.
IHreoeion.— Take sentences and illustrate all these changes.
2>ir«ct»aM.— Recast these sentences, avoiding offensive repetitions of the same
word or the same sounds : —
1. We have to have money to have a horse. 2. We sidled across a
bay and sailed up a creek and sailed back and sailed in all about four-
teen miles. 3. It is then put into stacks, or it is put into bams either
to use it to feed it to the stock or to sell it. 4. This day we undertake
to render an account to the widows and orphans whom our decision
will make ; to the wretches that will be roasted at the stskke. 5. The
news of the battle of Bunker Hill, fought on the47th of June in the
year of our Lord 1776, roused the patriotism of the people to a high
pitch of enthusiasm.
2>ircc«ion.— Using other words wholly or in part, see in how many ways you can
express the thoughts contained in these sentences :—
1. In the profusion and recklessness of her lies, Elizabeth had no
peer in England. 2. Henry IV. said that James I. was the wisest fool
in Christendom. 3. Cowper's letters are charming because they are
simple and natural. 4. George IV., though he was pronounced the
first gentleman in Europe, was, nevertheless, a snob.
l-ESSOU 4i6.
THE PARAGRAPH.
The Paragraph. — ^The clauses of complex sentences are so closely
united in meaning that frequently they are not to be separated from
each other even by the comma. The clauses of compound sentences
are less closely united — ^a comma, a semicolon, or a colon is needed to
divide them.
The Paragraph. 263
Between sentences there exists a wider separation in meaning,
marked hj a i>eriod or other terminal point. But even sentences ma7
ho connected — ^the hond which unites them heing their common rela-
tion to the thought which jointl7 the7 develop. Sentences thus re-
lated are grouped together and form what we call a Paragraph,
marked by beginning the first word a little to the right of the mor^
ginal line.
I>ir€etion. — Notice the facts which this paragraph contains, and the relation to
each other of the clauses and the sentences expressing these facts :—
After a breeze of some sixty hours from the north and north-west,
the wind died away about four o'clock yesterday afternoon. The calm
continued tUl about nine in the evening. The mercury in the barome-
ter fell, in the meantime, at an extraordinary rate ; and the captain
predicted that wc should encounter a gale from the south-east. The
gale came on about eleven o'clock ; not violent at first, but increasing
every moment.
1. A breeze from the north and north-west. 2. The wind died away.
8. A calm. 4 Barometer fell. 5. The captain predicted a gale. 6. It
came on. 7. It increased in violence.
IHreetion. — State and nnmber the facts contained in the paragraph below : —
I awoke with a confused recollection of a good deal of rolling and
thumping in the night, occasioned by the dashing of the waves against
the ship. Hurrying on my clothes, I found such of the passengers as
could stand, at the doors of the hurricane-house, holding on, and look-
ing out in the utmost consternation. It was still quite dark. Four of
the sails were already in ribbons : the winds whistling through the
cordage ; the rain dashing furiously and in torrents ; the noise and
spray scarcely less than I found them under the great sheet at Niagara.
IHreetion.— Weave the facts below into a paragraph, supplying all you need to
make the narrative smooth : —
Bip's beard was grizzled. Fowling-piece rusty. Dress uncouth.
Women and children at his heels. Attracted attention. Was eyed
from head to foot. Was asked on which side he voted. Whether he
was Federal or Democrat? Bip was dazed by the question. Stared
in stupidity.
IHreetion.— We&Ye the facts below into two paragraphs, supplying what yon
need, and tell what each is about :—
264 Composition.
In place of the old tree, there was a pole. This was tall and naked.
A flag was flattering from it. The flag had on it the stars and stripes.
This was strange to Rip. But Rip saw something he remembered.
The tavern sign. He recognized on it the face of King Qeorge. Still
the pictnro was changed. The red coat gone. One of blue and buff
in its place. A sword, and not a sceptre, in the hand. Wore a cocked
hat. Underneath was painted — ** General Washington."
LESSOU \%7.
THE PARAGRAPH.
I>iree<iot».— Weave the facta below into three para<praphs, and write on the mar-
gin what each is abont :—
The Nile rises in great lakes. Rons north. Sources two thousand
miles from Alexandria. Receives two branches only. Runs through
an alluvial valley. Course through the valley is 1,500 miles. Empties
into the Mediterranean. Two principal channels. Minor outlets.
Nile overflows its banks. Overflow caused by rains at the sources.
The melting of the mountain snows. B^ins at the end of June.
Rises four inches daily. Rises till the close of September. Subsides.
Whole valley an inland sea. Only villages above the surface. The
valley very fertile. The deposit. The fertile strip is from 5 to 150
miles wide. Renowned for f ruitfulness. Egypt long the granary of
the world. Three crops from December to June. Productions — grain,
cotton, and indigo.
2>ir«e<ion.— Weave these facts into four paragraphs, writing on the margin of
each tlie main thought : —
The robin is thought by some to be migratory. But he stays with
us all winter. Cheerful. Noisy. Poor soloist. A spice of vulgarity
in him. Dash of prose in his song. Appetite extraordinary. Eats
his own weight in a short time. Taste for fruit. Eats vdth a relish-
ing gulp, like Dr. Johnson's. Pond of cherries. Earliest mess of
peas. Mulberries. Lion's share of the raspberries. Angle-worms
his delight. A few years ago I had a grape vine. A foreigner. Shy
of bearing. This summer bore a score of bunches. They secreted
sugar from the sunbeams. One morning, went to pick them. The
Paragraphs and the Theme, 265
Tobins beforeliand with ms. Bustled out from the leaves. Made
shrill, Tmhandsome remarks about me. Had sacked the yine. Rem-
nant of a single bunch. How it looked at the bottom of my basket I
A humming-bird's q%% in an eagle's nest. Laughed. Bobins joined
in the merriment.
LESSOn 4S8.
PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME.
IMrectlon.— Weave these facts into foar paragiUph? :^
Note that the several paragraphs form a oompasUion, or Tlieme, the general subject
of which Is
WOUTBB Van Twillbs (according to Diedrich Knickerbocker).
I. Who he was.— Van Twiller was a Dutchman. Bom ait Rotter-
dam. Descended from burgomasters. In 1629 appointed governor of
Nieuw Nederlandts. Arrived in June at New Amsterdam — ^New York
city.
II. Person^ — ^Was five feet six inches high, six feet five in circum-
ference. Head spherical, and too large for an7 neck. Nature set it
on the back-bone. Body capacious. Legs short and sturdy. A beer-
barrel on skids. Face a vast, unfurrowed expanse. No lines of
thought. Two small, gray eyes. Cheeks had taken toll of all that
had entered his mouth. Mottled, and streaked with dusky red.
ni. Habits. — Regular. Four meals daily, each an hour long.
Smoked and doubted eight hours. Slept twelve. As self -contained
as an oyster. Rarely spoke save in monosyllables. But never said a
foolish thing. Never laughed. Perplexed by a joke. Conceived
everything on a grand scale. When a question was asked, would put
on a mysterious look. Shake his head. Smoke in silence. Observe,
at length, he had doubts. Presided at the council, in state. Swayed
a Turkish pii)e Instead of a sceptre. Known to sit with eyes closed
two hours. Internal commotion shown by guttural sounds. Noises
of contending doubts, admircra said.
IV. Exploits. — Settled a dispute about accounts thus : sent for
the parties; each produced his account-book; Van T. weighed the
266 Compositton.
books ; counted the leaves ; eqaall7 heavy ; equally thick ; made each
give the other a receipt ; and the constable pay the costs. Demanded
why Van Rensselaer seized Bear's Island. Battled with doubts re*
garding the Yankees. Smoked and breathed his last together.
J>ireetion. — ^Weave these facts into four paragraphs, write on the margin the
special topic of each, and over the whole, what you think is the general subject of the
Theme : —
The prophets of Baal accept Elijah's challenge. They dress a bul'
lock. Call on Baal. Are mocked by Elijah. Leap upon the altar.
Cut themselves. Blood. Cry till the time of the evening sacrifice.
No answer by fire. Elijah commands the people to come near.
Repairs an old altar with twelve stones, one for each tribe. Digs a
trench. Sacrifices. Pours water three times upon it. Prays. Fire
falls, consumes fiesh, wood, stones, dust, licks up water. People see
it. Pall on their faces. Cry out twice, "The Lord, he is the God."
Take the prophets to the brook Kishon, where they are slain. Elijah
ascends Mount Carmel. Bows in prayer. ** Go up now, look toward
the sea." Servant reports, "There is nothing." "Go again seven
times." " Behold there ariseth a little cloud out of the sea, like a
man's hand." Orders Ahab to prepare his chariot. Girding up his
loins, he runs before Ahab to JezreeL
LESSON 4iS.
PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME.
I>ircc«fon.— Weave these facts into as many paragraphs as you th'nk there should
be, using the variety of expression insisted on in Lesson 150, and write on the
margin of each paragraph the special topic, and over the whole, the general subject of
the Theme :—
Fort Ticonderoga on a peninsula. Formed by the outlet of Lake
George and by Lake Champlain. Fronts south ; water on three sides.
Separated by Lake Champlain from Mount Independence, and by the
outlet from Mount Defiance. Fort one hundred feet above the water.
May 7, 1775, 270 men meet at Castleton, Vermont. All but 46, Green
Mountain Boys. Meet to plan and execute an attack upon Fort T.
Allen and Arnold there. Each claims the command. Question left to
the officers. Allen chosen. On eyening of the 9th. they reach the
Paragraphs and the Theme. 267
lake. DifOiculty in crossing. Send for a scow. Seize a boat at anchor.
Search, and find small row boats. Only 83 able to cross. Day is
dawning when these reach the shore. Not pradent to wait. Allen
orders all who will follow him to poise their firelocks. Every maii
responds. Nathan Beman, a lad, guides them to the fort. Sentinel
snaps his gun at A. Misses fire. Sentinel retreats. Thej follow.
Rush upon the parade ground. Form. Loud cheer. A. climbs the
stairs. Orders La Place, it is said, in the name of the great Jehovah
and the Ck>ntinental Congress, to surrender. Capture 48 men. 120
cannon. Used next winter at the siege of Boston. Several swords
and howitzers, small arms, and ammunition.
l>i9*(>ct{on.— These facts are thrown together promt scnonsly. Classify them as
they seem to yoa to be related. Determine the number of paragraphs and their orcfer,
and then do as directed above :—
Joseph was Jacob's favorite. Wore fine garments. One day waa
sent to inquire after the other sons. They were at a distance, tending
the flocks. Joseph used to dream. They saw him coming. Plotted
to kill him. In one dream his brothers' sheaves bowed to his. In
another the sun, moon, and stars bowed to him. Plotted to throw his
body into a pit. Agreed to -report to their father that some beast had
devoured him. Joseph foolishly told these to his brothers. Hated
him, because of the dreams and their father's partiality. While eating,
Ishmaelites approached. They isat down to eat. Were going down
into Egypt. Camels loaded with spices. At the intercession of Reu-
ben they did not kill Joseph. Threw him alive into a pit. Ishmaelites
took him down into Egypt. Sold him to Potiphar. Judah advised
that he be raised from the pit. Jacob recognized the coat. Refused
comfort. Rent his clothes, and put on sackcloth. They took his
coat. Killed a kid, and dipped the coat in its blood. Brought it to
Jacob. " This have we found ; know now whether it be thy son's
coat or no."
L£§SOI« 460.
PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME.
l>if*e«<ion.— Classify these promiscnons facts, determine carefully the n amber
and the order of the paragraphs, and then do as directed above :—
Trafalgar a Spanish promontory. Near the Straits of Gibraltar. Off
268 Composition.
Trafalgar, fleets of Spain and France, October 21, 1805. Nelson in
command of the English fleet. The combined fleets in close line of
battle. Collingwood second in command. Had more and larger can-
non than the English. English fleet twenty-seven sail of the line and
four frigates. Thirty-three sail of the line and seven frigates. He
signalled those memorable words : " England expects every man to
do his duty." Enemy had four thousand troops. Signal received vdth
a shout They bore down. The best riflemen in the enemy's boats.
C. steered for the centre. C. in the Boyal Sovereign led the lee line
of thirteen ships. A raking fire opened upon the Victory, N. in the
Victory led the weather line. C. engaged the Santa Anna. Delighted
at being the first in the fire. At l.lo N. shot through the shoulder
and back. At 12 the Victory opened fire. N.'s secretary the first to
fall, fifty fell before a shot was returned. '* They have done for
me at last, Hardy," said N. They bore him below. At 2.25 ten of
the enemy had struck. The wound was mortaL At 4 fifteen had
struck. The victory that cost the British 1,587 men won. These
were his last words. At 4.30 he expired. " How goes the day with
us ? " he asked Hardy. " I hope none of our ships have struck." N.'s
death was more than a public calamity. " I am a dead man, Hardy,"
he said. Englishmen turned pale at the news. Most triumphant
death that of a martyr. He shook hands with Hardy. " Kiss me.
Hardy." They mourned as for a dear friend. Kissed him on the
cheek. Most awful death that of the martyr patriot. The loss seemed
a personal one. Knelt down again and kissed his forehead. His
articulation difficult. Heard to say, " Thank God, I have done my
duty." Seemed as if they had not known how deeply they loved him.
Most splendid death that of the hero in the hour of victory. Has left
a name which is our pride. An example which is our shield and
strength. Buried him in St. Paul's. Thus the spirits of the great
and the wise live after them.
To the Tcacfocr.— Continne thi-« work as long as it is needed. Take any book, and
l^ad to the class items of facts. Require them to use the imagination and weare
these together, using all the graces of style.
Analysis of the Subject of the Theme. 269
LESSOli 4 84.
ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT OF THE THEME.
Analysis of the Subject. — A Theme is made up of groups of sen-
tences called Paragraphs. The ssntonces of each paragraph are
related to each other, hecaose the7 jointly develop a single point, or
thought. And the paragraphs are related to each other, because theso
points which they develop are divisions of tho one general subject of
the Theme.
After the subject has been chosen, and before writing upon it, it
must be analyzed into the main thoughts which comi)ose it. Upon
the thoroughness of this analysis and the natural arrangement of tho
thoughts thus derived, depends largely the worth of the Theme.
These points form, when arranged, the Framework of the Theme.
Suppose you had taken The Armada as your subject. Perhaps you
could say under these heads all you wished : 1. WliaX the Armada
was, 2. Wlien and by witom equipped, 3. Its purpose. 4 Its sail
aver tJie Bay of Biscay and entrance into the English Channel. 5. The
attack upon it by Admiral Howard and his great Captains-^Drake
and Hawkins, 6. Its dispersion and partial destruction by tJie storm.
7. TJ^e return to Spain of tlie surviving ships and men. 8. The con-
sequences to England and to Spain.
Perhaps the 1st point could include the 3d and the 8d. Be careful
not to split your general subject up into too many parts. See, too,
that no point is repeated, that no point foreign to the subject is intro-
duced, and that all the points together exhaust the subject as nearly
as may be. Look to the arrangement of the points. There is a
natural order ; (6) could not precede (5) ; nor (5), (4) s nor (4), (1).
To ths T«aD/ier.— Qaestion the pupils carefally npon every point taken up in
this Lesson.
I>lr««*fon.— Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects :—
1. The Arrest of Major AndrS, 3. A Winter In the Arctic Region.
2/0 Composition.
LESSON 46t.
ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS.
T>ireetion* — Prepare the framework of a therae on each of these subjects :—
1. Battle of Plattsburg. 2. A Day's Nutting. 3. What does a
Proper Care for one's Health demand ?
LESSON 463.
ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS.
IHreef ion.— Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects : —
1. A Visit to the Moon. 2. Reasons why one should not Smoke.
8. What does a Proper Observance of Sunday require of one ?
LESSON 464.
ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS.
JDireot {on.— Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects :—
1. The Gulf Stream. 2. A Descent into a Whirlpool. 8. What are
Books good for?
LESSON 46§.
HOW TO ^A^RITE A THEME.
I. Choose a Subject. — Choose your subject long before you are to
wyite. Avoid a full, round term like PntriotMm or Duty ; take a
fragment of It ; as. How can a Boy he Patriotic f or Duties which we
Scltodmoitee owe Each Other. The subject should be on your level,
should be interesting to you and suggestive, and should instantly
start in your mind many trains of thought.
n. Accumulate the Material. — ^Begin to think about your subject
How to Write a Theme. 271
Tom it oyer in 7001 mind in jour leisure moments, and, as thoughts
flash upon 70U, jot them down in jour blank-book. Paj little regard
to their order on the page or to their relative importance ; but if any
seem broad enough for the main points, or heads, indicate this. Talk
with no one on the subject, and read nothing on it, till 70U haT9
thought yourself empt7 ; and eyen then you should note down whU
the conyersation or reading suggests, rather than what 70U haye heard
orread.
nL Oonstruct a Framework. — Before writing hunt through 7our
material for the main points, or heads. See to what general truths or
thoughts these jottings and those jottings point. Perhaps this or that
thought, as it stands, includes enough to serve as a head. Be sure, at
an7 rate, that by brooding over your material, and by further thinking
upon the subject, you get at all the general thoughts into which, as it
seems to you, the subject should be analyzed. Study these points
carefully. See that no two overlap each other, that no one appears
twice, that no one has been raised to the dignity of a head that should
stand wnd&r some head, and that no one is irrelevant. Study now to
find the natural order in which these points should stand. Let no
point, to the clear understanding of which some other point is neces-
sary, precede that other. If developing all the points would make
your Theme too long, study to see what points you can throw out with
least break or incompleteness.
IV. Write. — Give your whole attention to your work as you write,
and other thoughts will occur to you, and better ways of putting
the thoughts already noted down. In expanding the main points into
paragraphs, be sure that everything falls under its appropriate head.
Cast out irrelevant matter. Do not strain after effect, or strive to seem
wisar than you are. Use familiar words, and place these, your phrases,
and your clauses, where they will make your thought the clearest.
As occasion calls, change from the natural order to the transposed,
2/2 Composition.
and let sentences, simple, complex, and compound, long and short,
stand shoulder to shoulder in the paragraph. Express yourself easily
•—only now and then putting your thought forcibly and "with feeling.
Let a fresh image here and there reliere the uniformity of plain lan-
guage. One sentence should* follow another without abrupt break ;
and if continuative of it, adyersatlve to it, or an inference from it, and
the hearer needs to be advised of this, let it swing into position on the
hinge of a fitting connectiye. Of course your sentences must pass
rigid muster in syntax ; and you must look sharply to the spelling, to
the use of capital letters, and to punctuation.
V. Attend to the Mechanical Xhcecution. — Keep your pages clean,
and let your handwriting be clear. On the left of the page leaye a
margin of an inch for corrections. Do not write on the fourth page ;
if you exceed three pages, use another sheet and insert it. When the
writing is done, double the lower haJf of the sheet over the upper,
and fold through the middle ; then bring the top down to the middle
and fold again. Bring the right end toward you, and across the top
write your name, the date, and the name of the teacher who is to cor-
rect the Theme. This superscription will be at the top of the fourth
page, at the right-hand comer, and at right angles to the ruled lines.
To the Teacfcer.— Question the pnpils closely upon every point in this Lesson, and
insist that they shall practice what is here laid down.
Additional Subjects for Themes.
1. Apples and Nuts. ' 10. I can.
2. A Pleasant Evening. 11. My Friend Jack.
8. My Walk to School. 12. John Chinaman.
4. Pluck. 13. Msh Characters.
5. School Friendships. 14 Robin Hood.
6. When my Ship comes in. 15. A Visit to Olympus.
7. Ancient and Modem Warfare. 16. Monday Morning.
8. The View from my Window. 17. My Native Town.
9. Homes without Hands. 18. Over the Sea.
How to Write a Theme.
273
19. Up in a Balloon. 53.
20. Queer People. 54
21. Our Minister. 55.
22. A Plea for Puss. 56.
23. Castles in Spain. 57.
24 Young America. 58.
25. Black Diamonds. 59.
26. Mosquitoes. 60.
27. A Da7 in the Woods. 61.
28. A Boy's Trials. 62.
29. Tlie Yankee. 63.
80. Robinson Crusoe. 64
81. Street Arabs. 65.
82. Legerdemain. 66.
83. Our Neighborbood. 67.
34 Examinations. 68.
85. Theatre-going. 69.
86. Donkeys. 70.
87. The Southern Negro. 71.
88. A Rainy Saturday. 72.
89. The Early Bird catches the 73.
Worm. 74
40. Spring Sports. 75.
4t. How Horatius kept the Bridge. 76.
42. Jack Frost. 77.
48. My Pirst Sea Voyage. 78.
44 Monkeys. 79.
45. Grandmothers. 80.
46. The Boy of the Story Book. 81.
47. Famous Streets. 82.
48. Pigeons.
49. Jack and Gill. y 83.
60. Make Haste Slowly. 84
61. Commerce. 85.
62. The Ship of the Desert. 86.
Winter Sports.
A Visit to Neptune.
Whiskers.
Gypsies.
Cities of the Dead.
Street Cries.
The World Owes me a Living.
Politeness,
Cleanliness akin to Godlinens.
Fighting Windmills.
Along the Docks.
Maple Sugar.
Umbrellas.
A Girl's Trials.
A Spider's Web.
The Story of Ruth.
Clouds.
A Country Store.
Timepieces.
Bulls and Bears.
Bores.
Our Sunday School.
The Making of Beer.
Autumn's Colors.
The Watched Pot never Boils.
The Mission of Birds.
Parasites.
Well Begun is Half Done.
The Tides.
The Schoolmaster in "The
Deserted Village."
A Day on a Trout Stream.
A Stitch in Time saves Nine.
Of What Use are Flowers ?
A Descent in a Diving Bell.
18
274 Composition.
LESSOU 466.
LETTER-WRITING.
* Letters need special treatment. In writing a letter there are six
tilings to consider— The Heading, The Introduction, The Body of the
Letter, The Conclusion, The Folding, and The Superscription.
The Heading.
Parts. — The Heading consists of the name of the Place at which
the letter is written, and the Date. If you write from a city like
St. Louis, Boston, or New York, give the door-number, the name of
the street, and the name of the city ; if you write from a small city,
add the name of the state. If you are at a Hotel or a School or any
other well-known Institution, its name may take the place of the door-
number and the name of the street ; as may also the number of your
post-oflBice box. If in a small country place, give your post-office ad-
dress, the name of the county, and that of the state.
The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.
How Written. — ^Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from
the top of the page — on the first ruled line of conmiercial note. If
the letter occupies but a few lines of a single page, you may begin
the Heading lower down. Begin the first line of the Heading a little
to the left of the middle of the page. If it occupies more than one
line, the second line should begin farther to the right than the first,
and the third farther to the right than the sefiond.
The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in
figures, the rest in words. Each important word begins with a capi
* In preparing these Lesions on Letter- Writing, we have followed the two best an
'^orities— Townsend and Westlake.
Letter- Writing, 275
tal letter, each item is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with
a period.
l>ii*eef ion.—Stady what has been said, and write the following headings accord*
ing to these models : —
1. Ripton, Addison Co., Vt., 3. Saco, Me., Feb. 25, 1877.
July 10, 1876. 4 Polytechnic Institute,
2. 250 Broadway, N. Y., Brooklyn, N. Y.,
June 6, 1860. May 3, 1868.
1. ann arbor 5 July 1820 michigan. 2. champlaln co clinton n y jon
14 1800. 3. p o box 2678 1860 oct 19 Chicago. 4 Philadelphia 670
1858 chestnut st 16 apr. 5. saint nicholas new york 1 hotel nov 1855.
The Intkoduction.
Parts. — ^The Introduction consists of the Address — ^the Name, the
Title, and the Place of Business or Residence of the one addressed
^and the Salutation, or Complimentary Address. Titles of respect
and courtesy should appear in the Address. Prefix Mr, to a man's
name, Messrs, to the names of several gentlemen ; Master to that of a
yoimg lad ; Miss to that of a young lady ; Mrs, to that of a married
lady ; Misses to those of several young ladies ; and MesdameS to those
of several married or elderly ladies. Prefix Dr, to the name of a phy-
sician, but never Mr, Dr, ; Bev, to the name of a clergyman, or Bev,
Mr. if you do not know his christian name ; Bev. Br, if he is a Doc-
tor of Divinity, or write Bev, before the name and D,D, after it. Prefix
His Excellency to the name of the President, and to that of a Governor
or of an Embassador ; Hon, to the name of a Cabinet Officer, a Mem*
ber of Congress, a State Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor. Give the
title of her husband to a married lady ; as, Mrs. Dr, Smithy Mrs, Sec*
retary Evarts, Mrs. Gen, W. T. Sherman. If two literary or profes-
sional titles are added to a name, let them stand in the order in which
they were conferred— this is the order of a few common ones : A.M.,
Ph.D,, D,B., LL.D. Guard against an excessive use of titles— the
higher implies the lower.
276 Composition.
8alut<Uums vary with the station of the one addressed, or tho
writer's degree of intimacy with him. Strangers maybe addressed
as Sir, Bev, Sir, General, Madam, etc. ; acquaintances as Dear Sir,
Dear Madam, etc. ; friends as My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My
dear Jones, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as My
dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Mien, etc.
How Written. — The Address may follow the Heading, beginning
on the next line, or the next but one, and standing on the left side of
the page ; or it may stand in corresponding position after the Body of
the Letter and the Conclusion. If the letter is of an official character
or is written to a very intimate friend, the Address may appropriately
be placed at the bottom of the letter ; but in all other letters, espe-
cially those on ordinary business, it should be placed at the top and
as directed above. Never omit it from the letter except when the let-
ter is written in the third x>erson. There should always be a narrow
margin on the left-hand side of the page, and the Address should
always begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more
than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope to the
right, as in the Heading.
Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of
it, when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or
farther to the right than the second line of the Address, when this
occupies two lines ; a little to the right of the marginal line, when
the Address occupies one line ; <hi the marginal line, when the Ad-
dress stands beloQV.
Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital
letter. All the items of it should be set off by the comma, and, as it
is an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every im-
portant word in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and
the whole should be followed by a comma.
Letter- Writins[— Continued. 277
jyjrwitimk. etndy what has been said, and write thiO following introdnctiona
aceofdli!^ to the models : —
1. Prof. Marcli, Easton, Pa. 3. My dearest Mother,
My dear Sir, When, etc.
2. Messrs. Clark & Maynard, 4. Messrs. VaUette & Co.,
6 Barclay St., Middlebury, Vt.
New Yoik. Dear Sirs,
Gentlemen,
1. mr george platt burlington iowa sir. 2. mass Cambridge prof
James r lowell my dear friend. 3. messrs i vison blakeman taylor & co
gentlemeanewyork. 4 rey brown dr the «rlington Washington dear
friend d c 5. col John smith dear ocdonel n y auburn.
LESSON 467.
LETTER-WRITING— CONTINUED.
The Body of thb Lettbb.
The Beginning. — ^Be^n the Body of the Letter at the end of the
Salutation, and on the «cwwf line, if the Introduction is long— in which
case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash ;—
on the line ^eZoir, if the Introduction is short.
Style.— Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other
kinds of writing. Spell correctly ; write legibly, neatly, and with
care. Avoid blots, erasures, interlineations, cross lines, and all other
offences against epistolary propriety. The letter "bespeaks the
man." Letters of friendship should be colloquial, chatty, and famil-
iar. Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your
friends, however trivial it may seem to a stranger. If addressing one
of your family, write just as you feel, otIy fed right.
Business letters should be brief, and the sentences should be short,
concise, and to the point. Repeat nothing, and omit nothing which
It is needful to gay.
Qffldai letters and formal notes should be more stately and ceremoni-
2/8 Composition,
oos. In formal notes the third person is generally nsed instead of
the first ; there is no Heading, no Address, no Signature, only the
Bate at the bottom, on the left side of the page, thus : —
Mr. <fc Mtb, -4. request the pleasure of Mr. B.*s company at a social
goitliering, on Tuesday Evening next, at eigM o'clock,
32 Fifth Ave., Nov. 6.
The Conclusion.
Parts. — The Conclusion consists of the Oomplimentary Olose, and
the Signature. The forms of the Complimentary (3lose are many, and
are determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In
\q\^ts ot friendship joM may use Tour sincere friend ; Yours affec-
tionately; Tour loving son or daughter, etc. In business letters you
may use ri?wr« / Tour^ truly; Truly yours; Tours respectfully ; Very
respectfully yours, etc. In official letters you should be more defer-
ential. Use I have the honor to he, Sir, your obedient servant; Very
respectfully, your most obedient servant; etc., etc.
The Signature consists of your christian name and your surname.
In addressing a stranger write your christian name in full. A lady
addressing a stranger should prefix her title— Miss or Mrs. — ^to her
own name.
• How Written. — The Conclusion should begin near the middle
of the first line below the Body of the Letter, and, if occupying
iwo or more lines, should slope to the right like the Heading and the
Address. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and punctuate as
in other writing, following the whole with a period. The Signature
should be very plain.
Direction.— Write two formal notes — one inviting a friend to a social party, an^
one declining the invitation.
Direction.— Write the Conclusion of a letter of friendship, of a letter of business,
and of an official letter, carefully observing all that has been said above.
Direction.—Write a letter of two or three lines to your father or your mother, and
another to your minister, taking care to give properly the Heading in its two parts,
the Introduction in its two parts, and the Conclusi(m in its two parts. Let the Addresj
lu the letter to your father or your mother stand at the bottom.
Letter- Writing — Continued, 279
> - ■ ■ " ' ■ " , ■ I ... ■ „ ■ — _ 1_^
LESSOfi K%%.
LETTER-WRITING— CONTINUED.
The Folding.
The Folding is a simple matter when, as now, the envelope nsed is
adapted in length to the widths of the sheet. Take the letter as it
Hes before you, with its first page uppermost, turn up the bottom of
it about one-third the length of the sheet, bring the top down over
this, taking care that the sides are even, and press the parts together.
Taking the envelope with its back up, insert the letter, putting in
first the edge last folded.
The Superscbiption.
Parts. — ^The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the
envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the
Title, and the full Directions of the one addressed.
How Written. — The Superscription should begin just below the
middle of the envelope and near the left edge — the envelope lying
with its closed side toward you — and should occupy three or four
lines. These lines should slope to the right as in the Heading and
the Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and
the last line should end near the lower right-hand comer. On the
first line the Name and the Title should stand. If the one addressed
is in a city, the door-number and name of the street should be on the
second line, the name of the city on the third, and the name of the
state, if needed, on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of
the post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on
the third, and the name of the state on the fourth. The number of
the post-office box may take the place of the door-number and the
name of the street, or, to avoid crowding, it or the name of the county
may stand at the lower left-hand comer. The titles following the
28o Composition.
name should be sei>arated from it and from each other bj the commit
and eyerj line should ^d with a comma except the last, whkh lediould
be followed by a period. The lines should be straight, and every
part of the Superscription should be Ic^^ible. Place the stamp at the
upper right hand comer.
I>ireetion.— Write six Saperecrlptions to real or imaginary friends or acquaint-
ABces ia different cities, carefolly observing all that has becfn suid above.
2Kr0e<io».~Write two short letters— one to a friend at the AUor Hmue, New
Torky and one to a stranger in the country.
To the Teacher.— Continue this work nutil the papils have mastered all the dA>
tails, and are able easily and qoickly to write any ordinary lett«r.
A Summary of the Rules of Syntax. 281
A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
At the request of many teachers, we here append a Summary of the
so-called Rules of Syntax, with references to the lessons which treat
of Ck)nstruction.
I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute
complement of a predicate verb, or used -independently, is in
the nominative case.
II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infin-
itive is in the same case (N"om. or Obj.) as the word to
which it relates.
III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in
the possessive case.
IV. A noun or pronoun used as object or objective com-
plement or as the principal word in a prepositional phrase
is in the objective case.
V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in
the same case as the word explained.
T'or Cautions f Principles, and Exanvples respecting the eases ofmomn*
and pronouns, see Less, 119, 122, 123, 125* For Cautions and Xiaoatn-
pies to guide in the use of the different pronouns, see JLess. 86, 87,
VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person,
number, and gender.
With two or more antecedents connected by and, the pronoun is
plural.
With two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, the
pronoun is singular.
For Cautions, Principles, and Examples, see Zess. 118, 142,
VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and num-
ber.
With two or more subjects connected by and, the verb is plural.
With two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor, the
verb is singular.
■For Cautions, Examples^ and Exceptions, see Less, t42.
?
282 A Summary of the Rules of Syntax.
m . I ^ I - ■ ■
VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is
used like an adjective or a noun.
For Uites of tl^ participle, see Zess. 37, 38, 39,
IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by to, and with
it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an ad-
verb.
For TTaeM of the infinitive, see Xe««. 40, 41, 49,
X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
For Cautions and Fxamples respecting the use of adjectives and of
comparative and superlative fortns, see Less, 90, 91, 128,
XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
For Cautions and Fxan^ples, see Less, 93*
XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and
shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the
word modified.
For Cautions, see Less, 98, 99,
XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
For Cautions and Examples, see Less, lOO, 107, '
XIV. Interjections are used independently.
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