THE BOOK WAS
DRENCHED
Tight Binding
Damaae
CO > UJ
164387
THE HYDERABAD LITERARY SOCIETY
Call No. il^l'S/P 5 "^'* Accession No. \ !
Author
Title
This book should be returned on or before the date last marked bdow.
HIGHER PERSIAN GRAMMAR
FOR THE USE OF THE
CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY
SHOWING
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AFGHAN AND MODERN PERSIAN
WITH
NOTES ON RHETORIC
BY
LIEUT.-COLONEL D. C. PHTTJ^TOL^-M.A PH.D., F.A.S.B.,
Late Secretary, Board of Examiners, Calcutta,
Translator of the, * Baz-Nama-yi Nasiri,* etc.,
and
Editor of the Persian Translation of l Hajl Baba of Isfahan*
and of the
CALCUTTA :
FEINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS, CALCUTTA, AND PUBLISHED
BY THE UNIVERSITY.
1919.
PREFACE.
THIS work is intended mainly as a book of reference, and for this purpose
is printed with a copious index, It has been written chiefly for those
students who have learnt, or are now studying, Persian in India. It
should be borne in mind ^hat considerable differences exist between the
Persian of Afghanistan and of Persia, not only in pronunciation and
diction J but also in construction. Many of these differences are illus-
trated in this work. It is hoped that the notes on composition and
rhetoric will prove especially interesting to Indian students, many of
whom have to study Persian through the medium of English, and it is
for their benefit that these subjects have been treated from an English
point of view. These notes, however, are not intended to supplant
the study of Arabic or Persian rhetoric, but merely to supplement it.
The author, not being a poet, has made no a/t^npt to deal with
Prosody. >*.
In writing this grammar, the works of Plaits 4 ,* Ranking, Rosen,
Chodzko, Haggard and Le Strange, Tisdale, Socin, Thacher, Wright,
and others, including several works in Urdu and Persian, have been
freely made use of. My acknowledgments are specially due to Agha
Muhammad Kazim Shirazi, Persian Instructor to the Board of Examin-
ers, who has assisted throughout in seeing the work through the Press,
and also to his brother-in-law, the late 8hatns"'l-'Ulama* Shaykh
Mahmud Jilan!, and other Persian friends, for constant advice.
The addition of a large amount of Arabic (viz. portions of the
Qur*an, the Alif Laylali and other Arabic works) to the Persian Course
has necessitated a far larger amount of Arabic grammar than was
anticipated, a task for which I felt myself by no means competent.
This portion of the work has grown much beyond the limits originally
set for it. In compiling it, my thanks are chiefly due to Shams" 7-
'Ulama* Muhammad Yusuf Ja'farl, Khan Bahadur, Head Maulavi of
the Board of Examiners, to Shams' 1 7-' Ulwn&* Shaykh Mahmud JilanI,
and to Maulavi Hidayat Husayn of Presidency College, and others, who
1 in modern Persian, for instance, ta mlz ^\ means clean, " dimagh U> " nose,"
)& "stomach," imtiyaz ^ULcf " order, medal,"
IV PREFACE.
helped me throughout its compilation ; and also to Professor L. White-
King, C.S.I., of Dublin, who assisted in revising the proofs and at whose
suggestion numerous additions were made.
Owing to the War and the consequent loss of manuscript} and
proofs at sea and to other unfortunate causes, this work has been un-
duly long in issuing from the Press.
D. C. PHILLOTT, Lieut. -Colonel
CAIRO :
March 1918.
TO
THE HON'BLE MR. JUSTICE ASUTOSH MOOKERJEE,
aS.L, D.L., D.Sa, F.A.S.B., F.R.S.E.,
VICE-CHAN CELLOR'I OF THE CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY, CHAIRMAN OF THE
TRUSTEES OF THE INDIAN MUSEUM, VICE-PRESIDENT
OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,
t DEDICATE THIS BOOK,
IN RECOGNITION BOTH OF PERSONAL FRIENDSHIP
AND OF THE SERVICES HE HAS
RENDERED TO ORIENTAL
SCHOLARSHIP.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
CHAPTER T.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
Page
Sec. 1. The Alphabet .. .. .. ..I
,, 2. Pronunciation of Consonants .. .. ..11
,, 3. The Short and Long and Dipthong Vowels . . . . 21
., 4. Ilnmza and the Short Vowels at the beginning of words . . 23
,, 5. The letter a (at the beginning of words) . . 27
., 6. Jazm or 8ukun . . . . . . 28
., 7. Ta*h<Rd and Ughftm .. .. .. 29
M 8. Tamcin . . . . . . . . 30
, t 9. Waslah , . . . .. . . ..31
,, 10. Solar and Lunar Letters . . . . 31
11. Ahjad .. . . .. .. ..32
12. Numeral Figures . . , . . . 33
,, 13 To find the year A.D. corresponding to the year of the
Hijm . . . . . , . . 34
., 14, Siyaq .. .. .. .. ..34
,, 15, Letters in Poetry . . . . . . 34
., 16. Handwriting . . . . . . 35
,, 17. Punctuation . . . . . . , . 37
., 18. Abbreviations, Contractions and I mala , 38
., 19. Summary , . . .. .. ..40
., 20. Exercise in Translation . . . . . . 41
,. 21. Accent .. .. .. .. ..45
CHAPTER II.
Sec. 22. Division of Persian and Arabic Grammar . 48
23. Etymology .. _ .. . . ..48
24. The Article .. .. .. .. ..48
25. The Substantive . . . . . . 48
26, Declension , , . . . . . . 51
., 27. Examples of Declension . . . . . . 56
28. Formation of the Plural Classical Persian . . 58
,, 29. Plurals Modern Persian . . . . 64
VJii TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
PRONOUNS.
Page
Sec. 30. Persona] Pronouns . . . . . . 68
31. The Affixed Pronouns . . . .^ . . 71
,, 32. Possessive Pronouns .. , . .. ..75
33. Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns . . , . 77
,, 34. Simple Demonstrative Pronouns . . 82
,, 35. Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . 87
,, 36. Compound Demonstrative Pronouns . . 88
,, 37. Interrogative Pronouns .. .. .. ..91
38. Substitutes for Interrogative Pronouns . . 98
, 39. Indefinite Pronouns . . . . . . 98
CHAPTER IV.
THE ARTICLE AND THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
Sec. 40. The Definite Article . . . . . . . . 130
41. The Indefinite Article .. .. .. ..131
,. 42, The Relative Pronouns and the Demonstrative or Relative ^ 141
CHAPTER V.
Sec. 43. The Adjective . . . . . . . . 149
M 44. Compound Adjectives . . . . . 161
,. 45. Intensive Adjectives . . . . . . . 169
,, 46. Degree of Comparison and Comparative Clauses . . 171
CHAPTER VI.
THE NUMERALS.
Sec. 47. Cardinal Numbers . . . . . , . . 182
48. The Ordinals . . . . . . . . . . 191
,. 49. Fractions . . . . . . . . . . 194
,, 50. Adverbial Numerals . . . . / , . . . 196
51. Multiplicative Numerals .. .. .. .. 197
,, 52. Distributive Numerals . . . . . . . . 198
,; 53. Recurring Numerals . . . . . . . . 198
,, 54. Approximate Numbers . . . . . . 199
,, 55. Numeral Adjectives . . . . . . . . 199
CHAPTER VII
Sec. 56. . Arabian Months . . . . . . . . 200
57. The Turki Year-Cycle .. .. .. ..203
58. The Zodiac . . . . . . . . . . 204
TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX
Page
Sec. 59. The Seasons . . . . . . . . . . 205
,, 60. Ancient Persian year . . . . . . . . 206
61. Yazd-Gardi year .. .. ,. ..209
62. Days of the Week . . . . . . , . 210
CHAPTER VIII.
Sec. 63. Money .. .. .. ,, ,.212
,, 64. Measures of Length . . . . . . 213
65. Weights .. .. .. ., ..214
1
CHAPTER IX.
Sec. 66. The Verb . . . . . . , . . . 217
67. The Separate Substantive Verb .. . . ..219
,, 68. The Verb Transitive and Intransitive .. ,. 221
Tenses from the Imperative . . . . . . 223
Tenses from the Shortened Infinitive . , 225
,, 69. Active Voice . . . . . . . . ..229
70. Verbal Adjective . . . . . . . . 234
71. Negative Verbs .. . . .. ,.235
., 72. Euphonical Rules and Accents in the Verbs . , . . 237
73. Interrogative Verbs . . . . . . . . 238
74. Roots or Stems of Simple Verbs . . . . . . 239
75. Hybrid Verbs . . . . . . . . 248
76. The Auxiliary VerbShudan .. . , . . 248
,, 77. Tawanistan .. .. .. 249
78. Giriftan .. .. ..254
79. The Verbs " to begin, etc/' ., . . . . 256
80. The Auxiliary Verb Khwastan .. .. ..257
81. Guzashtan, Dadan, Mandan ; and Verbs
" to Permit, Allow " . . 261
,,82, Kalian .. .. ..263
83. Dashtan ,. .. ..263
,, 84. Impersonal Verbs . . . . . . . . 2CO
85. Compound Verbs . . . . . . . . 274
,, 86. Certain Common Verbs used in the Compounds . . 280
,. 87. Causal and Reflexive Verbs . . . . . , 282
,, 88. Passive Voice and Passive Verbs . . . . 285
CHAPTER X.
Sec. 89. Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases . . . . . . 289
90. Prepositions .. .. ,. .. ..322
91. Simple Conjunctions . . . . . . . . 338
* TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
Sec. 92. Compound Conjunctions . . . . . . 354
93. Interjections and Interjectional Phrases, Greetings, Compli-
ments, etc, . , . . . . . . 366
94. Signs and Signals .. V. .. ,.389
, r 95. Bibliomancy, Divination, Superstitions, etc. . . . . 390
CHAPTER XL
Sec. 96. Diminutive Nouns . . . . . . . . 394
,, 97. Affixed ^ and Arabic Abstract Noun . . . . 398
98. The Terminal . . . . . . . . 404
,, 99. The Suffixes ban or van, vana, un and van . . . . 406
100. ,, gar, gar, gari, kar . . . . . . 407
101, ar, dar, al . . .. .. ..408
102. The Turkish Suffixes fi, cAi, bash, tash or dash . . . . 409
103, The Suffix c5 .. .. .. ..410
104. The Suffixes zar, sar, start or istan, lakh, kada, yah, abad,
gard, khana, shan, na . . . . 410
,, 105. The Suffixes umawJ* wand, mand, nak, ak . ..413
106. bar, yar . . . . . . . . 413
107. ,, avar, mr. rar } gan, man . . . , 414
j, 108. ., ana, ma, m, an,, an, ra, van . . . . 415
109. agin or gin ,. ., ..417
110. The Formative alif .. ,. .. ..417
111. The Suffixes fam (pam and warn), gun, charta . . 418
112. ,, a-a, sa, san, iw$h t das, dl$, vand . . . . 419
113. The Suffix urn .. .. .. .. 420
114. The Termination 1$% .. . . .. ..420
CHAPTER XII.
Sec. 115 Verbal Nouns and Nouns and Adjectives derived from
Verbs .. . . .. .. ..421
3 , 116. Compound Substantive . . . . . . . . 425
PART II.
CHAPTER XIII.
SYNTAX.
Sec 117. On the use and omission of izafat . . . . . . 433
118. The Cases of Nouns . . . . . . . . 445
119. Number of Nouns. Nouns of Multitude and their Concord 464
TARLE OF CONTENTS. XI
CHAPTER XIV.
Paqe,
Sec. 120. Pronouns .. .. .. .. ..476
CHAPTER XV.
Sec. 121. Adjectives .. .. .. .. ..490
122. Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . 405
,, 123. Conjunctions .. .. .. ..497
,, 124. Prepositions .. .. .. ..502
CHAPTER XVI.
Sec. 125. Use of the Tenses Aorist . . . . . . 505
CHAPTER XVII.
Sec. 126. Subjunctive Mood . . . . . . . . 538
CHAPTER XVITT.
COMPOUND AND COMPOUNDED SENTENCES.
Sec. 127. Conditional Co-ordinate, and Optative Clauses. . . . 545
128. Conditional Clauses (continued) . . . . . . 552
,, 129. Concessional Clauses . , . . . . . 556
130. Relative Clauses . . . . . . . . 558
131. Predicative (subordinate) Clauses .. .. ,. 562
}J 132. Subordinate Clauses (continued). Adverbial (Temporal,
Local and Modal) Clauses . . . . . . 570
,, 133. Subordinate Clauses (continued). Adverbial (Final and
Causal) Clauses . . . . . . . . 573
134. Co-ordinate Clauses . . . . . . . . 576
CHAPTER XTX.
Sec. 135. Concord of Subject and Verb . . . . . . 585
130. (continued) .. ..591
Errors in Concord, etc. , . . . . . . . 591
Concord of Adjectives, and Pronoun with Noun . . 600
137. Government of Verbs, Prepositions, and Errors . . 600
CHAPTER XX.
Sec. 138. Order of Words and Phrases . . . . . . 604
CHAPTER XXI.
Sec. 139. Apposition . . . . . . . . . . 614
140. Repetition of Words and Phrases ; Jingling Sounds ; Al-
literation . . . . . . . . 622
Xii TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIT.
Page
Sec. 141. Notes on Rhetoric and Composition . . . . 629
142. Number of Words and Arts of Abbreviation, etc. . . 644
143. Further Observation on Style . . . . . . 652
144. Examples of Errors in Rhetoric . . . . . . 659
APPENDICES,
Appendix A. Arabic Grammar (with detailed list of contents) . . 675
Appendix B. (Continuation of Sec. 125) . . . . . . 899
INDEX .. .. .. .. .. ..909
Higher Persian Grammar.
PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY ( t> fl* ) AND ORTHOEPY ( *dji ) .
1. The Alphabet. ( ^ -*j^ ).
(a) The Arabs and other Muslims write from right to left, and their
printed books and manuscripts begin at what Europeans would call the
end of the book. Their writing may be regarded as a species of shorthand,
the short vowels being omitted.
In printing, each lei er is not kept separate as in the Roman character;
there are no capital letters, no stops, and no paragraphs; in short, not one
of the devices valuable alike to the printers and readers of Europe; from
cover to cover their books appear to contain but one long unbroken sentence,
and many of the words are jumbled together, or, at the end of a line, written
one on the top of the other* In some carefully written MSS. , a line in
coloured ink^on the top of a word indicates a proper name or the commence-
ment of a new paragraph, but even this aid is rarely given.
Of existing alphabets, the Arabic ranks next in importance to the Latin
alphabet. It has supplanted the Greek alphabet in Asia Minor, Syria,
Egypt, and Thrace, and has supplanted the Latin alphabet in North Africa.
It is the sole alphabet of Arabia, Western Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, Tartary ,
Turkey ; and of all the alphabets employed in India, it is the best known. 1
44 That the local alphabet of Mecca should have exterminated ail other
Semitic scripts, and have established itself as the dominant alphabet of Africa
and Asia, is an illustration more striking than any other that can
be adduced, of the power of religious influences in effecting a wide and rapid
diffusion of alphabets. ******
<l It took no more than eighty years (632 712) for the Arab conquerors
to found a dominion wider in extent than the widest empire of Rome, and
to extend the alphabet of Mecca from the Indus to the Tagus." *
The Arabic and English Alphabets can, it is said, be traced back to the
same primitive Phoenician source.
1 " The Alphabet," by Isaac Taylor.
2 THE ALPHABET.
The Arabs originally used the Syrian alphabet, in which the characters are
in the same order as in the Hebrew. Remains of this former order
are still preserved in the numerical value of the letters, which in their
numerical order are arranged in a series of meaningless words that serve as a
memoria technica and correspond with the order of the Hebrew or Phoenician
alphabet. 1
The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, all consonants.
The arrangement of the Arabic alphabet is morphological,* i.e. letters of similar
form are brought into juxtaposition for the sake of comparison and as an
aid to memory.
With the Qur*an, the Persians 8 adopted and adapted the Arabic
alphabet, though ill-suited to their requirements, adding to it the four 'Ajami
or Farsi letters y p, ^ ch, j jh and ^J* g. The Persian alphabet therefore
consists of thirty- two letters, all consonants; four of these letters are pure
Persian 6 and eight 6 are peculiar to Arabic , while the remaining twenty are
1 So far as their alphabets extend, i.e. up to o 400.
2 From Or, morphl ** form " and " logia." Other methods of arrangement are (1)
the Chronological, in which the letters are added according to the date of their adoption;
{2} the Ideological, in which the characters are classed according to the meaning
of their names (from Gr. 'idea "idea" 4- loqia\\ as in the arrangement of tho hierogly-
phic signs by Egyptologists ; (3) the Phonological, the scientific arrangement of which
the Deva-nagari is the most perfect example ; in this, the letters are arranged according
to the organs of speech by which they are articulated, viz. gutturals, palatals, etc.,
each division being also scientifically arranged. Vide ** The Alphabet ** by Isaac Taylor.
2 For an account of the Ancient Persian Scripts, vide ' The Alphabet 9 ' by Isaac
Taylor. At the time of the Arab conquest the Persians uned tho Pahlavi character.
* Also printed !> In MSS. and in books lithographed in the East, the diacritical
bar that distinguishes g from Jc is generally omitted. This puzzles a beginner.
It will be noticed that the body of these four letters is identical with that of Arabic
letters, and that the only distinction is by tho diacritical marks.
They are adaptations of v ~ " J ant * ^* Persians do not always regard the
peculiarly Persian sounds as new letters but occasionally represent them by the Arabic
letters they resemble; thu* ^**f "horse " is frequently written v** 9 !.
6 The four letters purely Persian are enumerated in tho school rhyme:
^ - ^j J^ - j ^j wy f&
-> w ^ . ,^ I
6 These eight letters are enumerated in a school rhyme:
The Urdu or Hindustani alphabet contains three more letters to correspond with
three sounds, found in words of Hindi or Sanskrit origin; it thus consists of thirty-five
letters.
THE ALPHABET. 3
common to both languages. The form of many of these letters varies
somewhat according to their position in a group of letters.
In addition to the Alphabet, there are three vowel signs, which, if
written, are placed directly above or below the consonants to which they
belong, i.e. which they follow in enunciation : in practice they are omitted
in writing, but are sometimes inserted in books printed specially for
beginners. 1
There are also certain orthographical signs, a knowledge of which is
necessary.
The following table should be studied, in conjunction with the remarks
that follow and elucidate it. The greater number of the letters are by
Persians 2 pronounced as in English:
1 Qur'ans are printed or lithographed with all the vowel-points and orthographical
signs, as it is considered a sin by Muslims to mispronounce a syllable of the sacred text.
Notwithstanding this, mo^t, if not all, of the editions printed or lithographed in India
have. numerous orthographical errors. Inserting the vowels and signs adds considerably
to the cost of production. The State edition of a Qur'an printed and published in
Turkey, and said to be letter perfect, is sold in Baghdad at the rate of thirty rupees,
i.e. 2 a copy : a similar edition, but printed in the Roman character, would probably
be sold for five Blullings. The Arabic character, beautiful to look at, is an enemy to
printing and an enemy to the diffusion of knowledge.
The written character of a language is merely a collection of conventional signs, a
mere mechanical device used to give it expression. The Arabs have already changed
their alphabet once.
Many Muslims object to printed or lithographed Qur'ans, which they do not con-
sider mutdharrak. The Persian Shrahs however do not seem to share this objection,
2 Vide (k) page 10.
THB ALPHABET.
09
S
S
2
M
<
o>
4q
OS
'
1
S o-
C3s O
rS Q* ,
g 3
o a
bO
d
8 a d
a v o o .S
QQ o
<M
'I
V
I
eo (j;
4 -'VI
1-
V^ 0}
^ ^
JU : g
H I i
-oaid
jo
tn
1
8
8. 2
ar. !-
.2 "|
.p^ loel
3. ],
4
" J|
5
- 1 ^
s 1
^ CO:
S O w
1 ll
i S5
^
!3 '*
t o J
T 1
"*'
*^ <M CO
^ 1C
5D JS o
' iar\T^\
u-
9
** t 'P*Cy
2
fe
&
' fi
<;
J
THE ALPHABET.
I s *
" 'S.
1
.3
3
P
CO OO
Z I I
.g
'3) " M
a .a
o .g .g *
I
.3 .3
S
A
S
4?
4
r \\ H.
.* ^3
J -
7 _D- *2 x % x
\ ^ \ -5
tf -if
s
It*
4 i!2 "*
3- W- J=
i
b 1
P Nl
-
S
e
N3
I|IS ft
I l 4 4
o *-
10 co
00
I
^3 ^ -^ <J
THE ALPHABET.
i!^
g
CO
-<
03
I
I
.-S
ter
Tr
eg
fl
1
o
f
w
"^ vvi
*l
ii
S PH
s I 'a
^^5^
d oo
&0 ^H
I
s
^ U
F3 W c
d i
r-l ^j
m ^
O
10
.S
' , .
o^J J3
^ j
L '-2
S
...
1
a I
C .^j-^jL
-5
! I 1 ! 'i
S 1 1 s -s "
K r9|
M ^^ tfjt 5
je IC8 -^
a * \
^ ^ ^ *: -|
I
i
*-< C<l CO T*<
C^l <N C^ (N
s s g5 s a
S- L!
fe
<3 <S
PM
THE ALPHABET.
<D 00
ii!
s ||
sc a s
13 '-3 a
a 1
a t -
'S> 2 -S
5
5 | tf
S S 2
I
2 ^
U a
., T3
c8 _g
CO (
4)
SO
I
ans
I
g> _|
'i "2 a
"&&!
t-^1
*T? 5^5 Q >
9
^ 1
cp "bO
j-i
o -^
CD
r j JM
<D CD
g a
L< r/:
a
o ."S
ie~ o
"~*^ -i?
o ^
CD
O
c
p
o
!
Hi
I
3
*S c
J-
<S C
CD Q_)
t ^ ^
O .^
oL g
02 r?
4.
P.
** <y -ri
.2 '* >^2
e 5 g
>
u
o
,1
iS
a
18
^
o
ice
O ^ g
o V
"S ^ -
si i
r^ ^ o .
5 ^
~ *
** K^ 1C?
4> P^ f^
-Sig
S is
r-^* rt CD
sl*;
| .a ^
CD 2
* "I "I
11 ?*^ ^
*^J O
THE ALPHABET.
i
o> 45
g i
S
e
i
i
&
" IJi
05 M I "O
CO
REMARKS.
The short vowel a (fathah) is
common than the other two.
i
oo
1
*
8
&o
.S
3
cS
S
t .
1
.s
d
o* a
2^
05 S
F s
g 5
4^, j, t, between consonani
present the above vowels
| longed in sound, and by c<
, combinations of the two, 4
thongs ' are formed.
O
CO
1
i
a
g
ss
"3
d
i ^~
i -9
^ *s
&
""S J2
g 1
!
o
-d Q
$
+3
GO
"TO nd
1
*0
d y
W 53
(33 "-
^ ^
8 I
o>
i >
5 8
d Co
111
i
?S ^
S ts d
^
H
PS
$
"- fl .^
g
2
\*~**+s
<3 <J
D
w
CO
so A
r- -^
O S g
eS
p3
*2
n
nS'- 3
?
CO
TJ
'i
^*s.
c3
^3 d
T3
I
-
i) A
i
i
1
I
0$
JSI
i
1
<
d
ts
2 9
i>< c3
-M {S3- !
!
o
f5*
3
%
*Vv ^ '9
r$
e
1
1 W 4
d
i
i^
C^ CO
fe,
THE ALPHABET. 9
(d) It will be noticed that the letters f - a - i - j --) - j and j never alter
their shape, and though they are joined to the letter that precedes them
(on their right), they are not joined to the letter that follows them
(on their left) ; hence if they occur in the middle of a word, a gap or
interval is formed nearly similar to the interval between two adjacent words.
Inaccurate spacing is one of the difficulties in reading the cheap lithographed
books of the East.
(e) The letters ^ and J=> though they do not change in shape, yet unite
with the letters on both sides of them.
(/) The eight letters peculiar to the Arabic are ^ - ^ - (jp - o* - ^ - & -
and <> The four letters peculiar to the Persian have been enumerated pre-
viously. In the Table of Consonants these two sets are distinguished
by the abbreviations Ar. and Per. respectively.
V Remark. The letter (fiction & occurs generally in Arabi<f words, but is
?
also found in Persian words, as d(& '"kid"; J^ "comb of bees**;
jj^ " shout ' ' ; jj)U ' ' rouge."
(g) Those letters :>that resemble each other in shape and are merely
distinguished by the position or number of the dots, ^ - - g - etc., are
called huruf-i mutashabih {^UJlc oj^ ), and sometimes huruf-i mutamdsil
Sometimes also letters that have only an imperfect resemblance, such as
3 and <>, are included in this term.
(h) Those letters as mlm.nun aud vav 1 whose names are palindromes *
(and these are all formed by three consonants) are called Maktubi ( && )
If, however, the first and third letters of the anagram differ, as in fim t
qaf, etc., the letters are styled Malfuzl ( u&j&o ).
Masruri ( <s)jf~* ) is a term applied to letters whose names are formed
by two consonants only, as k etc.
() Letters distinguished by dots are called huruf-i manqufo
) or huruf-i mu'jama (
1 Combined, these form the Arabic wordoo?m (fj* ) " sleep,**
* A palindrome is a word or sentence that, read either from right to left, or left
to right, is exactly the same. Adam made the first palindrome when he introduced him-
self to Eve by, " Madam, I'm Adam/' Letters transposed anyhow to make a
new word or sentence are anagrams, thus * rat * 13 an anagram of 4 tar * and * tear ' of
* rate/ A palindrome is also called an anagram.
t * * b*
s Nuqfc Ar. ** a dot " ; (*?^7 to mark with diacritical points. The term
) (for f ?^*+Jf kiJt <J*> ) is also applied to the alphabet
irrespective of the order in which it is arranged. It is so called as containing dotted
letters, in contradistinction to the ancient Arabic character called *>A*J/ tiJf , in which
there were no dots.
10 THE ALPHABET.
Dotted letters are further subdivided into jawqam ('<^tfy ) those dotted
above, and tahtam ( ^U^j ; those dotted below.
Dotted letters, whether fawqdm or talitanl, are further distinguished by
*** *** ***
the epithets muwahhada ( ****;* ), musannat ( *^*> ) ? and musallasa ( a^U* )
according as they are marked by one, by two, or by three dots.
(j) The system of transliteration in the present work is practically
the Hunterian system. Modifications are q (instead of k) for <3, and m for e>
before a quiescent b or p ! : for the final Arabic vowels, a small a, i, and u,
written above the line, and a small n for the nun of the tanwn. In the rare
cases where s-h and z-k are separate letters, a mark or comma is placed be.
t ween them. Ex. asjiald^l " more or most easy ", az,har )tej\ " blossoms."
A final C5" ( or ^ ) pronounced like alif is q. A silent j as in <^L^ is trans-
literated by ;. In the few words where j is pronounced short, as in zj&>
" self " and y " thou " , it is transliterated u.
The ya or the hamza of the Cl ya of unity ". etc., or of the izafat, are
transliterated as pronounced.
Hamza in Arabic words is shown by a hamza , as in fcfida.
Remark I. In some Arabic words the alif of prolongation is omitted,
but expressed by fatha written perpendicularly over it: thus haza 4< this" is
} f
always written \&A or !^A . and d+**j is usually in Arabic eJ-*^ ; vidz a ^ so
at end of j and ^.
Remark II. In Persian, an alif that is not mamduda or 'prolonged',
as in e>i^j^, is also by Indians incorrectly called maqsura *' abbreviated ",
though this latter term is properly applicable only to a final! and ^^ or
& : vide under letter ^.
(&) It will be seen in the table that there are two letters ( ^ and * )
transliterated by h, four letters ( i - j - ^ and & } by z, two ( o - J> ;
by t 9 and three i & - ^* - ^o ) by s. In Arabic ail these represent different
sounds, but the modern Persians make no distinction between the pronuncia-
tion of the various letters in each group. A few pedants and poets affect
the Arabic pronunciation, generally that of Baghdad.
(I) Certain letters, especially at the beginning of words, are frequently
placed, not alongside each other, but above one another : this is the case
in combinations with ^ - - - ^ - .
(m) In the case of a change in letters' 2 as fil J* Ar., from ptl JAJ, P.,
it will be found that a labial is changed into another labial, a dental into a
dental, etc., etc.
l There are five labials^ - ( - o - y and *->
J^' 5 ' tabaddul-i-huruf.
THE ALPHABET. 11
Something similar occurs in the permutations of weak consonants,
a vowel (English) being usually changed into a vowel.
Sometimes, however, a palatal becomes a lingual, as in (#*- and ^^
' ' China "; Jtf and ^ (m.c.) "squint-eyed."
2. Pronunciation (talaffuz i!3) of Consonants.
-4K/. (a) The Persians, unlike the Arabs, look on alif as an original
letter and not as born from ^ or> If it commences a word, it is to be re-
garded as having no sound of itself ; it is merely a prop for the vowel
(written or understood) that accompanies it: vide under 4 (6). 1
If it occurs in the middle of a word, it is a prolongation of the short
vowel fatha and is transliterated by a, irrespective of its modern pronuncia-
tion. In this position most Arabs, Indians, and Afghans pronounce it like
a in ' father ' ; Ex. V UT Utah " a book " : some Persians and some Afghans
would pronounce this f more broadly, like a in "ball." This broad pro-
nunciation is characteristic of the tent-people and of certain dialects
in Persia.
In the Ears dialect, a before n or m is nearly always pronounced like u ;
99
Ex. e>&> " a shop " is duJcun <%*, and bam lC roof " is bum &. This incor-
rect pronunciation Is in certain common words, the colloquial pronunciation
of many parts of Persia; for example Jb "bread** and u>f "that"
and its compounds are generally pronounced as though spelt nun e^ 5 etc.
In many cases the aUf is pronounced broad ; thus & bad lt wind " is pro-
nounced nearly like bawd, the alif being given the sound of a in the English
word jail. 8oine Afghans too have this broad pronunciation, but the Indians
always pronounce the aUf like a in the English word father. In Persia,
however, if this last pronunciation be used, the word will be taken to mean
**} ba*d ** after *, and even an educated Persian will be puzzled by it,
In Khimlsan, on the other hand, the j is turned into alif; Ex. andaran
e?jM for C>M " the women's apartments " ; and khan e>^ for &}** " blood/'
For the pronunciation of alif with a hamza (I) in the middle of a word,
vide under a in this section.
Remark I.
Alif in arithmetic represents the number one ; and in astronomical tables
and almanacs,* Taurus and Sunday. It also signifies an unmarried man.
1 In this case it is usually called hamza, to distinguish it from alif as a letter
of prolongation.
* There are two kinds of almanacs, taqvlm-i Farsl t$**r 5 fdj^* *> which the days, etc.*
are written in full, and taqvim-i- ruqiiml &*& (H^ in which signs and the letters of the
Abfad <**u* are used to represent the days of the week. etc.. etc.
12 THE ALPHABET.
In Arabic it is a particle of interrogation; Ex. A-lastu bi-rabbi-kum, " Am
<j
I not Your Lord ? " Quran VII. 168, whence the Persian vs*J( or
Q
vs*~Jf jj; ' the day of the original covenant between God and Man at
the creation.'
Poets frequently compare an erect stature, 1 or the straight nose of a
beauty, or sighs, to alif. Also ^*~ c f* ^ jof ^ j ' jf = " from the creation of
Adam to the birth of the Messiah"; t>j*>\ cM "the equinoctial line":
alif 9 ba (e the alphabet/' etc., etc. Alif is also a sign of the Unity of God.
Remark II. Indian Grammarians assign various names to the letter alif
according to its use :
Kinds of alif.
(1) Alif-i rabita ( *tyj <-&i ) "binding or copulative alif" joins two
words that are identical; as, %ao &*> dast-a dast <4 from hand to hand; (a
ready-money bargain)." This alif is also called alif-i ittisal ( JUri! u&f )
" the alif of junction ", or alif-i inhisar { )U**uf <-ft)t . Some Grammarians
style this alif-i vast ( JLaj <Jty ) but vide (10).
Similar to the above is the alif-i c atf ( <-*ke <-ftJf ) ** the conjunctive
alif," which conjoins two dissimilar words; as, skab-a-ruz (3jy M^ ) " night
and day; always": tak-a-pu (jj&) (or takapuy ^j$&) ' ' diligent search ;
bustling."
(2) Alif-i fd'iliyyat ( oaLU i_&f ) ts the alif of agency " ; as the alif in
the adj. bina ( U*> ) ^seeing", which word has the force of a present
participle.
(3) Alif-i mafuliyyat ( o^Afic v^J, ) that gives the force of the past
participle; as, zlba ( U?j ) ^adorned " ( = 8^*^ ).
(4) Alif-i masdar ( JXA* J$ ) which forms abstract nouns from adjec-
tives; as, UjS (m.c.) ^warmth", ^ (m.c.) " breadth", from ^armand pahn
adjectives.
(5) AKf-i tanwm ( ^y3 ^ ) the alif of the Arabic accusative case ; as,
#
in the adverb U5f^ da*im n " continually, for ever."
w^
(6) Alif-i- qasamiyya ( &&~$ ^\ ) the alif of the Persian vocative
^g
when expressing an oath; as, Haqqa IA^ ** O, or by, God ! "
When this vocative alif is not used in an oath, but as a simple vocative,
it is called Alif-i nida* ( *'*> uty ) ; as, lf> dila " heart ! ' ' bulbula ^Ul " oh
If however it is used in words expressing grief, etc., as in U^a " alas,"
" oh help ! or oh distress ! " it is called Alif-i nudba ( **** %^f ) " the
alif of plaint " or alif-i madd-i sawt ( o^ A* v^Jf ).
An erect stature is also compared to a cypress tree.
THE ALPHABET. 13
(7) Alif-i du'autamannq ( ^*3 ^ U^ <Jd\ ) "the precative alif in
verbs " ; as, mabada f ^ta "may it not be " : kunad ^ " may he do. "
(8) Alif-i tahsm-i kcdam ( fHf ^-WJ CA^I ) "the alif of embellish-
ment " ; as, in &? " he said." This is also, and more properly, called xfy <-&(
#7&/-t zoft'^ or <c superfluous alif " : vide (12).
(9) Alif-i mubalaglia ( *xJU< uftJ, ) " the afe'/ of exaggeration" or alif-i
kasrat ( ci^Sf efl)l ) c c the alif of excess ' ' is found at the end of some adjec-
tives; as, in UjA " Blessed ! How happy ! "
This is also called the alif-i firawam ( ^\^ *M )
(10) Alif-i wasll ( JL*>) *Jti ) is said to be the superfluous alif at the
beginning of certain Persian words ; as, in ushtar j^f (or shutur) " camel "
and also the alif in Arabic marked with a wasl cUj ; ( ~ } 9 but vide (1).
This is really alif-i zafid.
(11) In certain cases the alif-i nida*, vide (6), is also called alif-i
mutakallim ( j*li* 4-afj }; as, Dust-a muhtaram mihrbana t>^- +jZx** ii^^
" oh my respected kind friend."
(12) Alif -i zafid ( *$\\ ^ ) <l superfluous alif" is sometimes, in poetry,
added for the sake of metre :
cu*st ^^^^ U'i^ l^S <>juiiU<Jj A> ^i*Af b AaxiiP
Verses written on the tomb of Mirza Sa^ib.
In m^fa tk,-.^, chapa La., ,5a62;a ran^/, ^i; Df-, the a??/ is
Vide also * Derivation of Words ' for ' Formative Alif.'
(13) Alif-i liyaqat ( ^^ tJtii ) expresses fitness or capability; as,
khwana ( U^ ) legible. *
C^ B in Persian words is sometimes interchangeable with / ; as, zafan ^3 l
(for P, za6a ej^J) " tongue " ; with m; as, ghuzhm ftp [for ghuzhb
v ^c (old)] f< a single grape " ; with v; as, vas <j*^ j (for bas ^^o)
** enough " ; khwav and ^aw? } (for fchivab) <( sleep " ; with tcor t?;
as, aw f (for a6) f< water " ; nahw ^ (for the Persian nahlb
*' fear. 55 a Pronounced as in English.
Remark. Ba-yi za*id ( ^fj ^ ) ** superfluous w as m (*J-H- ^^ under
* Verb Transitive and Intransitive 5 and ( Prepositions.'
This letter is often called ba-yi muivahhada ' the single-dotted b ' to
distinguish it from *->.
i^ P is called &a-/^ farsl ^^ ^5^, or 6a-/i 'ajami u*^ c5^ There
being no p in the Arabic alphabet, it is frequently interchangeable
1 Still used in speaking by Zardushtis.
* The letter that has been changed, i.e. substituted, is called mubdal J 4 ***, and the
* , '<* ^
original letter from which the change was made is called mubdal minh* ( ***> (J*** )
14 THE ALPHABET.
with / J, as fll JA* (for pil JAJ ) " elephant " ; safld **&* (for sapid
*>ou* ) " white " ; jlruzl ^)jjt> (for plruzl <s)jj%) " victory."
d> - T\ the Arabic * is generally written in Persian o and so pro-
nounced : vide under *.
<-j 8 by the Arabs is pronounced like th in Cuthbert, and sometimes
as s; in Egypt it is pronounced &.
Among the Persians and Indians, it is an English s.
Some Afghans and some educated Indians give it the sound of th.
~ J called jlm-i faw ^j^ ^, or jlm-i 'arabl ^j* *&>, to distinguish
it from . It is the contraction for the two Muslim months
Jamadq'l-Ulq a,ndJumadq'l'Akhir. It is sometimes interchangeable
with zhj ; as, kazh y (old) (for kaj /) " crooked " ; withc/& - and z\\
as, chuza *}>> (old) for juja **-+** (m.c.) "a chicken, and the young
of a bird"; with g; a,a 9 Jilan for Gllan a province S.W. of the
Caspian ; with sh o2; as, kaj ^ (old) for kash <J& " would that."
^ Oh called jim-i jar si ^^- ^^, or jlm-i ^ajami ^5*^^ +^. It is some-
times confounded with -J It is sometimes interchangeable with
sh ^4; as, lakhclia &^sJ (for lakhsha *J ) "flame"; with z } as,
puchushk -^^ (old) (for pizishk ^A-V) k< a physician," In
Arabicized words it changes to (je>; as, Sin ^>/o Ar. (for Chm &**)
<c China" ; ^^ sanj, Ar (for chang Jj^ ) ** cymbals,"
^ Called 1m yi huttl c^^ C5^> ha-yi halqi ^^ ^*> 9 and ha-yi muhmala
A!*.^* ^U. The Arabs, some educated Indians, and some Afghans,
make this a strong aspirate, something like the h in "haul" if
this word be pronounced in the throat. To catch this sound,
the beginner should copy an Arab or an Afghan many times when
he says the word v^^ 5 Sahib: (he should also note the sound of ^
in this word).
By the Persians this letter is pronounced like *, q.v.
Remark. Children in Indian schools are taught to make a distinction in
pronunciation when reading between ^ and *, and between (jo and <_r, but in
practice, in speaking, 110 such distinction is made,
Kh called kha-yi sakhiz ** ^U, kha-yi mcmquta *k>*A> ^l^, and
kha~yi mu'jama A*?UUO ^lk. Great care must be taken to make this
a guttural and not a k. (There is a story of a doctor who seriously
alarmed a patient by mispronouncing the word e^ khun (i blood.")
It is sometimes interchangeable with <3; as,cAaMmaM ^UM. (for
ctiaqmaq jU^ ) " flint or cock of a gun ' ' ; and with h ; as, uU (old)
(for khak <J() <c earth."
1 In Abjad, it has the same value as , viz. 3.
THE ALPHABET. 15
4> D called dal- iabjad*^ Jta ; dal-i gjiayr manquta &j&scj*fi J(a, O r dal-i
muhmala aU^ J|^. It is sometimes interchangeable with t ci; as,
o^ ^
turraj ^[y (for durraj <j& ) " black partridge ' ' ; with si; as, wsJaz l
ill*! (for wsJad alM ) " master " ; saza? Ar. form of sada *& ' ' a kind
of plant" ; with z): as, dizarj^ (for oWary*^).
called zal-i manquta *k?$x*> Jii, or za^" mu'jama *+****> Ji. It is
sometimes interchanged with d j>; as, tXxi? for >.i?. By the Arabs it
is sounded like the th in " though," if, when pronouncing it, the tip
of the tongue be thrust well forward t between the front teeth of
both jaws and slightly compressed: compare with & and u^-
By the Persians like ), or as z in c< zeal." It is a contraction for the
month Zul-liijjah A^3*J< ji, while f5 is the contraction for Zu* l-qa'
\ R is always rolled and never as r in " are." : Called ra-yi
imtnquta &L^^ j>& ^ci^ or ta-yi muhmala ^tU^c ^^. It is a con-
traction for either of the months Rnbi'. It is sometimes interchanged
o
with I as mlufal c-U^US (for nilufar ^->V) '"a convolvulus; afc'O
<s a waterlily ' * ; chanal J^ (iruc.) (for chanar ; JU ) ^ plane-tree/*
j Z called ^a-yi hnvwiz \$& ^>Cs 2a-?/i manquta AJJ^VO ^ij^ and sa-^i
mu'jama *^*-o ^cfj. It sometimes is interchangeable with ; as, #&;" s
T > (for suz 3r*) with^; as, gurljA &/ (for gunzjtjS } ; with 5; as,
i?/a$ (for ^?/a^) ; with - q.v. Zi ( j ) is a poetical contraction of
the preposition J*
j ZA called ^a-?// /am u*;!* ^(3, or 20-^1 c a;ant 4^+^ ^3- It inter-
changes with q.v. It is pronounced as j in French jour or as s in
Si measure."
$ called sin-i ghayr-i manqula *kj&* j** ^*, and sin-i muhmala
^
&l*y* ^xvo. It interchanges sometimes with J^ ; as, kustl ^L3 (for
kushfi ,^+f) f< wrestling"; also the Zardushti belt 4 worn under the
clothing, and J^ f or jJ^< *musk/ " Also sometimes with ^e; as,
j for
*, AS'A called $Mn-i manquia A^s** <^^, and sliin-i mu'jama
*""' -.
It is an abbreviation for Shamal JU^ "the North." It inter-
changes with -; as, pachan e.^b (tor pashan eA^) <c scattering" ;
with *, as, kaj J (for kash sjk^ ) " a pine " ; also with u* Q*v.
^Sf called sadri <thayr-i manquta *j?^aix ^x^ ^l*, and ,sad-^" muhmala
^
UD. It is the abbreviation for the month of Safar yU and
1 Pathans say usiaz in Pushtoo.
*^ and J are sometimes interchangeable. Ex.^HJ** or
3 Still used in speaking by Zardushtis.
4 The Bombay Parsees call this belt kustl, but the Persian Zardushtis call it kushti.
16 THE ALPHABET.
also for the word sadiq <j*l* lt genuine" which shows that an
account has been audited ; hence sad kardan ^jj? oU> (old) to so
mark an account, etc. By the Persians it is pronounced like <j.
In Arabic a stronger and harder sibilant than in English. Educated
Indians and Afghans affect the Arab pronunciation : vide remark
to ^ h.
A Z, zad-i manquta, or zad-i mu'jama. Pronounced by the Persians
like 3, i.e. like z in zeal. In Baghdad like the thin though if pronounced
with the tip of the tongue behind the root of the front teeth
of the upper jaws. (In Egypt a hard palatal d).
Jb T called td-yl hutti ^k*> ^Lt, ta-yi ghayr-i manqutn, and ta-yi muhmala.
By the Persians pronounced like o. By the Arabs a hard palatal t.
Educated Indians and Afghans imitate the Arab pronunciation. It
interchanges with a ; as, &*^ for *&fa=L
fe % called za-yi manqufa ^l^aix ^& 9 or za-yi mushala &JI&* <^$&* By the
Persians, like 3. In Baghdad like the tl\ in though pronounced
naturally*
c * called 'aynri g&ayr-i manquta &Jsy*i* j*c ^, or 'ayn-i muhmala
*^*t* crf^* It is often in Persian not distinguishable as a separ-
ate letter (as prosody proves). In some words it is interchangeable
with * h. It is transliterated by an inverted comma.
In Arabic the ^ is a strong guttural Few Persians can imitate
the Arab pronunciation.
At the beginning of a word, it is by the Persians treated as though it
were the prop for a vowel. Ex. eoU* f ibadat "adoration " (as though spelt
oaty).*
At the end of a word it is, in Persian, either quite silent as *A. jam'* or
eke more properly there is a slight vowel sound like a half a or half e
as in tarna' *k The Persians never say jama* like the Indians. 8 Many
words like +^ jam' and (** man' are often pronounced with a drawl, and
a peculiar intonation that sounds affected to English ears; such words are not
pronounced in the least like ^ jam or ^ man : If so pronounced they 'will
often be unintelligible.
In the middle of a word this letter has a half-bleating sound like
f
i By the Persians Oj* is pronounced as though spelt Oj t, but the Arabs would
give a distinct and peculiar sound to the consonant before pronouncing its vowel u J[
* This at least is the case in Southern Persia with some words of three letters end-
ing in In the more accurate pronunciation of the better classes in Tehran the final
9 is perhaps always pronounced though slightly.
8 The Arabs fully enunciate this final 9 , though not quite like the Indians.
THE ALPHABET. 17
a double a; Ex. **~ sa ( d is pronounced sa-ad. 1 Words like ;U*t are
pronounced i-i-tibar and transliterated, of course, i'tibar. [An Arabic word
with a mute hamza in the middle, has, in Arabic, and should have in
correctly-spoken Persian, this same half-bleating sound; Ex. j^^> ma*mur
" ordered ; a commissary *' (pronounced ma'amur)].
When a begins a middle salable of a word, there is a very perceptible
^ ^
pause in the enunciation; Ex. *M qal-'a "a fort": care must be taken to
make this pause in the correct place, as the pronunciation ga-l'a or qal'a is
generally unintelligible. The Arabs do not make this pause.
c. Gh called ghayn-i manquta, **&> ^ or ghayn-i mu'jama *+^** &** .
A hard guttural something between gh and r, the r being sounded
much like the r in Parisienne, by a " Parisienne." It represents
ItOO in arithmetic and hence is with Persian poets a symbol for
the bulbul-i hazdr dastan e^'j> ;t>* cUl\ It interchanges with (3
as ayngJi ty (old for ayaq JM) " a cup."
V^.3 -^ called /a-y* sa { fas o&ft*-* ^^: sometimes interchanges with Y < l- v '-
^ Q called qaf-i qarshat c^^y J'^ Sometimes interchanges with q.v.
In Baghdad and by Persian Turks of ten pronounced like a hard English g.
A guttural like q pronounced from the depth of the throat as if undergoing
suffocation, or like ck in stuck when pronounced at the back of the throat.
It must not be pronounced like k, a common English mistake,
By the uneducated it is confused with c, and even educated Turks give
it this pronunciation in certain common words : Ex. j>* ghadr instead of
qadr ^. In Turkish words u>ed in Persian, the two letters seem interchange-
able: a Turk of Persia will often spell the same word with either letter
indifferently.
The distinction in spelling is generally observed between Uf " a eunuch "
and tf| " master " , but both are colloquially ag&d.
K called kaj-i tdzl ^ o ! <, or kaf-i 'arabi <jj* o! It is in Persian
frequently confounded with gaf.
called kaf-i farsi ^;l* <J^, or kaf-i 'ajami i ^^^ <Jf^. It is some-
times interchangeable with ^, as lijam ^M for lagdm f& " bridle;
halter" (Persia).
<J L is an abbreviation of the month shavvdl J^- Poets compare it
to a ringlet.
^
f M is an abbreviation for the month Muharram f^ 3 ^*. It sometimes
interchanges with n c^; as, ban ^ (in.c.) (for bam, fb* (m.c.).
1 Vide Haggard and Le Strangea' Vazir-i Lankuran. In ba'd *xJ, the doable
sound is leas perceptible.
& Pronounced bun and bum.
2
18 THE ALPHABET.
y) N. There is no nasal n l in Persia. In India, however, n is in some
words almost nasal or is imperfectly pronounced, as in chunan,
jatian; it is then called nun-l g&hunna^ but before a vowel (and
consequently before an izdfat) the nasal sound disappears. It has
usually the sound of m f when it immediately precedes b ^ (or
p^>). Ex. JAO (tanbal) "lazy" is pronounced tambal: note that
this is transliterated m. Nasal n always follows a long vowel.
j W or F. At the beginning of a word, or in such words as U( 9 ^ javdb
"an answer ", v 1 ^ savab "rectitude", ^ty savab " a reward" or
"a good work," it is amongst Persians a consonant like v; but
amongst Arabs, Afghans and Indians it is a w, like the w in we or
went. In ^.^ and p*jj* it is pronounced like a v, or between a v and
a w. The v sound is common in Isfahan and Kirmau.
Before an alif and after , j has, in pure Persian words, no sound ; Ex.
j*\j=*> - 4^-*^, etc., are pronounced jchdhar, khdhish, etc. ; there is, therefore,
no difference in pronunciation between ^A**^ Ichwastan "to wish" and
^.ju.lk khdstan "to rise up " : this silent j is transliterated w. Khwish <^y*
and its compounds are pronounced khlsh (transl. khwish). In Arabic words,
however, j before alif is pronounced ; Ex. u*>*> pi- of u*^. In
&yjs* "to eat" and its derivatives, the j is pronounced like pish L and
is transliterated u\ also 3* du, "two", y tu <c thou" ? ^ khud < self",
c4r^ fckush "pleasant", <vj^ khurshld 4< the sun", ^i-;^ khursand
c< happy ". j*- and >-+* are often pronounced chi and hamchi.
A few Arabic words like ****. hayat ^life", x^ salat "prayer", are
generally in Persian phonetically written oU^ and o&.
^ is sometimes interchangeable with J, as ydfa b'b (old) [for ydva\^
(m.c.)] <c vain, foolish ". The vdv that occurs before an alif and is
not pronounced, as in khwdslan cA-'A> * s called vdv-i ma'dula
a^A*^ y^ " distorted mv, or vav-t iskmdniri zamma &+>* ^U^f j|j
" the vat? that gives a smell of 9 " : this is maktub-i ghayr-i tnalfuz
( &f&c j*& v y&* ) *' written but not pronounced." A vdv-i malfu$-i
gayr-i-maktub ( V JJ*^A* ^AJUy^ ) sometimes occurs as in ^^Ub
id'us ** a peacock," but the more correct form (j*?^^* is also found.
In Ar. both the lodws have the sound of w in this word.
Remark. A letter that is written, but not pronounced, is also called
harf~i masruq ( ($)j~* u^ ) <c a stolen letter." For further remarks on j, vide
cinder vowels 3 (b) and (d).
1 In Arabic the nasal nun occurs before the letters et,d>,,^,i,J, crU*f (J*>
>, Jo, J, o, (3, <), as in the words ^&c " from thee " sif " thou **
* ^wn-* ghhunna only occurs after the weak consonants <^ - 5 " !
THE ALPHABET. 19
8 B called ha-yi havvaz ()j*> <*s\*), or ha-yi mudawwara (tyj** C5^) (round
ha). A decided aspirate like A in hope, except when it ends a
Persian word l or a feminine Arabic word (which is always preceded
by a fatha*). In this case it is called the "obscure," "imper-
ceptible" or "silent A", and is transliterated a; Ex. *il^ khana
"a house", **tf gufta "said" (Past Partciple). This ' obscure'
h is in India pronounced like jaiha y but in Persia it is pronounced
like a short e, or 6 as Ichani or gufte. (If the silent h precedes an
alif, 'as in fl ^ "I have said", there may, it is said, be a slight
breathing sound of the h, as guftah-am, but the writer is of opinion
that this sound is imaginary aud that the h generally remains silent.
In the first case, i.e. when aspirated, the * is called ha-yi malfuzl (^U
), fia-i muzhar or zahir (^^ ^^ or ^Us), or ha-yi jail (c$ 1 ^ cs^ )
"manifest," i.e. sounded; in the second case it is (^fti^*> cs-U or ^^^ }
ha-yi mukhfafl or makhfl " concealed ", i.e. mute.
>
The h is distinctly but not too markedly sounded in & nuh " nine", *>
nih "place" (Imper.), ** bih "good" (but * ba or bi, the preposition
"to" or "for"), *t &> bahbah(m.Q.) " well done, excellent," and in such
like words. 8
In A- si " three ", &*. chi " what? ", AT ki the interrogative pronoun
"who?" and the conjunction "that", there is no aspirate, and the final
* is pronounced like short t.
In & na and A* <&& " not ", it is silent according to rule; but &* mih
" great ", also " a mist, fog", and &<Q mah moon.
Final ? after r - j or ^5 is fully sounded ; Ex. aUkU* padishah " a king",
*^ guh ** human excrement ", etc., etc. In A shah " king " , **> mah " the
moon " or " a month ", fy rah " a road " , where the fatha stands for alif, the
final h is aspirated,
O.' O
It must be distinctly pronounced in words like j^> mahr, jt* m% ^ r an "
X* mt/Jir and in similar words, and in the proper names ctf^ Tih-ran* and
* Mash- had.
A final silent & will sometimes become <3 in Arabic, as ftistaq ^Jl-** Ar.
^ Some grammarians consider the Persian silent * to be a vowel.
2 Except when changed into o. The * is not silent in Arabic. This final 8 can
only be silent (in Persian) when not an original letter,
8 Note that when final * is sounded, it is transliterated by h and not by a. Ex. it
dah ten."
* Three distinct syllables, not two as in India.
* Two syllables, not three. In 1908 Persian newspapers changed the spelling
to
20 THE ALPHABET.
(for pista **w P.) " a pista-nut " ; also , as nakdj jJffi (said to be Arabic)
(for nagdh itfb P.) suddenly."
In Arabic, final * is in certain cases written i and is then called by the
Arabs id marbuta l and by some Indians hd-td, and is in classical Arabic
pronounced like t except in pause or before a vowel. In Persian this is
often pronounced and written o; Ex. oJl*w instead of &U.. In English
dictionaries this is generally treated as the fourth letter of the alphabet, i.e.
as o.
Sometimes the same word is written both with * and o, but with different
significations. Ex. f f dla is generally so written when it has the signification
of an instrument or apparatus,' 2 but oJf dial (pi. ojjf ) when it signifies
" penis." ay a d*=^ *iy ^ " is this paper correct ? ", but Ojf> A*^*<juLy ^
" is this paper signed ? "
This distinction is, however, seldom observed and is considered pedantic,
thus jihat " cause " and qimat " price*' may be written both *a^ or <^
and o~fr*j or A**?.
Vide also remarks on oU=>- and o^U at the end of j.
(^ 7, yd-i tahtdmijya JuSUao ^Ij. At the beginning of a word is the
English consonant y\ also in the middle of a word after an initial long
vowel; Ex. iff dyd "whether." When, for the sake of euphony, the
initial alif of a verb is changed into ^, $his letter is pronounced y as it
retains its original short vowel; Ex. from i*>^T dmadan <s to come", t*
mayd " don't come " ; e^s&r uftddan (( to fall " , nay uf tad ^&i> (t he did not
fall, etc."
In the middle of words, ^ also represents the long vowel I (pronounced
as i in pique) or a diphthong ai: vide 3 (d).
At the end of a word it is a long *, but at the end of the words ^t* and
U JU.L it is sometimes shortened ; thus bale or ball and khayle (for khayli or
khaiti). It is long in the verbal prefix ^, thmmi-guft: but is sometimes
in careless talking pronounced short. (The Afghans and Indians pronounce
this prefix me).
In Persia, as in India, the dots are never written under the ^ w^ere
final : in some printed books, however, the dots are inserted. In Arabic the
dots should be omitted in the alif-i maqsura.*
A ^ at the end of a word, and preceded by a fatha, is pronounced like
oK/, and is transliterated a: thus c^o (also in India written &j**) is
pronounced da'wi. This ^ is in Arabic called fy^a* <-Jf alif-i maqsura
"the abreviatcd alif", as opposed to alif-i mamduda ( aj<Ux) ^| ) <the
* Colloquially in Indian schools it-gird.
2 Abb or *Wb j s> jn modern Persian, often incorrectly spelt t^**^; it is pronounced
baqile.
& In Persian this <^ is often written as aUf.
THE VOWELS. 21
prolonged alif" [vide 4 (d)], and is not sounded when in contact with alif-i
vasl; thus ^j^UJf ^^ " the contention of the moderns" is pronounced
da'vq ' l-muta*akhkhirtn .
I * >
Note that in the Persian-Arabic compound y^M or yjJj! the ^ is in
reality a final letter, and the comparative suffix y can be written separately,
asy Jj.
Remark I. In Urdu or in Indian writing ya-e ma' bust or " reversed yd "
( <_ ) is written at the end of a word to show that the ^ has a majhul
sound. In modern Persian the ' reversed yd ' has the same sound as the
ordinary ^
In the Turkish oU^x** suyursat "supplies levied in kind", the ^ is
frequently omitted, both in writing and pronunciation; it is however better
to omit it in both cases : this word has no singular.
For further remarks on ^ vide 4.
Remark IL Even when quoting Arabic or reading the Qur'an, the
Persians do not try to give the Arabic pronunciation to all the Arabic letters.
Indians and Afghans, on the contrary, not only attempt but greatly exag-
gerate the Arab pronunciation of certain letters.
For the Arabic and the Persian pronunciation of the alphabet and the
form of certain letters before the izafat, vide ' Peculiarity of Arabic Words/
In Indian dictionaries a letter preceding another is termed J ^,
and one following another is styled **<u I* : thus in the word w), the letter ra
is b <J^5 U ma qabl-i bd.
3. The Short and Long and Diphthong Vowels (in the middle
of words).
(a) There are no regular vowels in the Arabic written language, but the
Arabs make use of the three signs z. ~ L [vide table, 1 (c)} which they call
cs^aaJf al-Ji-arakat t( the movers (lit. " motions"), and one of these signs
placed above or below a consonant determines its vowel sound. When
<**
a consonant is accompanied by one of these "movers", it is called ^3*^1*
muiahanik or " moving." The short vowels were originally quite unrepre.
sen ted. As the "movers" only give the vowel sound essential to a
consonant, it is obvious that they cannot stand alone at the beginning of a
word: vide 4 {c}.
For pronunciation, vide Table.
(6) The letter having kasra or z%r below it, is called maksftr ( jr-**), that
having fatha or zabar above it, maftuh ( *)&* ), and that having zamma or
pish, mazmftm ( fo+*** ).
(c) In Arabic, the vowels, as terminal signs of inflection, are called ra/,
22 THE VOWELS.
vp
( !> ) or nominative jL,/ar (j*>) or genitive (T), and nasb (*-***) or
accusative (H), and the words, not the letters, so marked, are styled mar/ft*
) majrur (^M), and mansub ( v^aix> ) : vide 8.
Remark. The short vowel i is in Persian oftener pronounced like e in
'fen* than like i in ' /?n.' Also fatha is locally so pronounced, as kerd
for
(rf) Long vowels (in the middle of words).
Alif, } and ^5 are weak or infirm consonants l or semi- vowels and
correspond respectively with the "movers ", i.e. the short vowels a, u 9 i*
In Arabic writing the long vowels are formed by a combination of two
?
of these affinities; (Ex, t ba, j* bu and ^ 61) and pronounced like a in
*v
father, u in prude and i in police or pique*
Remark I. In C , the alif is written to indicate that the fatha belonging
to the - is prolonged in sound : vide 2 (a).
Remark II. The ^ and ^ of prolongation and tjy6&Jl t*M (& or is^)
are before (vide 2, p. 21) a wasla shortened in pronunciation, thus jjM ^
is pronounced ft \r\awr (fil-faivr).
(e) Diphthongs (in the middle of words).
By combining fatha with ^5 and with ^, the diphthongs ai or at/, and au
or aw, are formed, and pronounced like a* in aisle (rare in Persian) or
ey in they, and on in stout ; Ex. U*^ mail* or mayl " inclination 3 * , f>* 4 saum
or sawm <( fasting."
In modern Persian the a#is most often pronounced like ey in they; Ex.
^5%^ is pronounced both khaiR and kheyll (also khaile, etc., etc.) (i?i^e under
letter ^); ako the aw sound, characteristic of the Arabic, Afghan, or
Indian accent, tends towards the sound of o in hose.
(/) The original Persian vowel system was that of the Sanskrit, with the
semi- vowel ft peculiar to the latter excluded,
" weak letters * ' is the term applied to <^ ) - * as opposed to
the * real consonants.* These are included in the school rhyme :
* Hence o/t'/ is called u%hi-i fat^a "sister of fatha"; vav is called ukhht-i zamma
" sister of zamma " ; and ya is called &&*- kaara <c sister of fcaro."
8 When c$* - j - f form vowels th*y are called ^ ^j?;'^ buruf**l-madd " letters of
prolongation *', or huruf^l ishba* a'fil/t o^^ "letters of filling up or impregnating
with a sufficiency of colour."
* In modern Persian pronounced more like meyl and 0om.
HAMZA. 23
When ^ and ^ follow a consonant unmarked by a short vowel oif
by jazm, they were said to have an open sound called Jj^* majhul,*
or "unknown" (i.e. unknown to the Arab invaders) ; Ex. * mar an ant,
*~ slier " a lion " l ; but when a 9 was preceded by a consonant pointed with
L or a (s with ~, then the sound was called cJj^t* ma'ruf or " known" ;
9
Ex. o*r w#s& " a mouse " : *3* shir " milk."
The majhul sounds o and e are still preserved in the Persian spoken by
Afghans and Indians, but they are now unknown in Persia: in modern
Persian 9 (c an ant" is called mur, and there is nothing in pronunciation to
distinguish the word for " lion " from shir ll milk."
Remark /. There are thus, exclusive of the majhul sounds, at least nine
vowel sounds in Persian, a, a, *, ?, u t u t and diphthongs ai, ay, and aw.
The last takes the place of the au sound characteristic of Indians.
Remark II. To sum up the remarks on the weak consonants, <^ - ^ - f
( ^JU J;^ > 9 when ^ and ^ are initial , or are movable in the middle of a word,
they are real consonants and are pronounced with their proper vowels ; when
they follow a jazm they are consonsants, as in juzv *>\ and when they follow a
consonant that has neither a vowel nor a jazm they were in classical, and
are in Indian Persian majhul. When the consonant preceding ^ has a pish
or zamma ( ^__) the sound is u ; when the consonant preceding ^ has a zlr
or Icasra (-7) the sound is ?.
When j and ^ follow a consonant that has a zabar or fatha they
may be called diphthongs.
4. Hamza 3 (*) and the short vowels at the beginning of words,
(a) In endeavouring to pronounce a vowel without a consonant, a
distinct though slight effort is made with the muscles of the throat; this
jerked sound or hiatus is by the Arabs called hamzah, which signifies "prick,
impulse ", and is represented by *, the form of which has arisen from the
*?In Persia lion isj* **a&tr" and a tiger jg babr. In India the tiger is called
sher and the lion babar : the word sher is also loosely applied to the leopard,
panther, etc.
* i.e. in Persia. Dr.Rosen justly remarks in his grammar: "The Persian of Tndiamay
be looked upon as a petrifieation of the old classical language. It has also preserved
the " majhul" vowels e and o for I and u, and many other differences of pronunciation.
The Persian-spoaking Indians, whose studies are mostly confined to the classics and
poetic exercises, have followed none of the developments of the modern language."
The Persian of India, therefore, though far purer both in idiom and pronunciation
than the language of Persia, sounds pedantic, and is almost unintelligible to ordinary
Persians.
8 Denotes " pressure" or " puncture." Among Arab grammarians the first letter
of the alphabet is more generally called hamzah.
24
SHORT VOWBLS AND HAMZA.
letter of the word j 1 ^. In other words hamza represents the cutting
off of the stream of breath preceding or following a vowel.
In Arabic, hamza is placed over or under alif, or over j and ^c, but
when final is written by itself, and may follow any of the letters. The letter
so marked is called )*+** mahmuz or <c hatnzated", a term also applied
to a word having hamza for one of its radicals.
Remark. Alif when it is merely a letter of prolongation is not hamza.
(b) Short vowels at the beginning of words. In most cases alif occurs as the
bearer of hamza and then performs a function essentially different from that
9
in the Remark to 13 (d) ; Ex. v f ab, v f w6. When an i sound follows, then
the sign * is placed under the bearer r, as .
For the pronunciation of a silent hamza in the middle of a word, vide
f* '
under letter * 2. In the word c^U ma*zun "permitted**, the hamza is
silent, and, having no vowel to give it life, it represents the jerked sound
mentioned in the beginning of the paragraph ; and, as the first letter, viz r c is
pointed with ^, , the two together in Persian give the half -bleat ing sound
mentioned in the remarks on the letter * 2. 1 In the word <jf~) ra'%8 "a
head **, " a chief ", the hamza is not silent, but is marked with "^ and is con-
,9
sequenfly pronounced like ^ at the beginning of a word. In the words *?*-s!j*\
^j, the final * has no vowel and also follows a letter without a vowel. The
Arabs would pronounce the final * in these words .something like shay-a, su-a
umard-a, but the Persians ignore the * in such Arabic words 4 : they do how-
ever pronounce the * at the end of *?, probably to distinguish it from the
/
Persian word^* $u "direction, towards.'*
In the pronunciation of an Arab, the hamza is an articulation very
perceptible, especially when it begins a syllable that is in the middle of a
9 ?
word, as in c,!^ - ^1^ 8 which are not pronounced qur-an and jur-aL
1 Note that though the / is marked with _^ the * hamzaled* alif doe? not serve to
prolong the sound of the as would be the case if hamza were abnent from the f ; thus
to all intents and purposes alif-harma (or hamza) anJ alii are two separate letters.
* This final * in Arabic must not be confused with the Persian * following a silent
h (or a ^ ) as a sign of the genitive case. That th3 Persians do ignore the Arabic
9 t ' 9 '
* in such words as jtj*\ and >l^. (Arabic broken plurals of j*ri and v - fi- ' - ;'*), is shown
by their manner of writing thse words in a state of construction, thus: \s+*j lS*j*t r
%a ^?5 c^V" "the nobles of the time "
8 When hamza is found at the end of syllable, it is in Urdu changed into the letter
**. '
of prolongation corresponding to the short vowel that precedes ; thus^-fr*^ 1 and
+
;* *
become in Urdu j*?$ failr and c/*y* mumin.
LONG VOWELS AND HAMZA. 26
(c) The latest Arabic Dictionaries treat alif-hamza as the first letter of
the alphabet, and alif alone as aj> or ^ ; for example, if it be desired to look
s * *
out the Arabic root J ~ scfal* " he asked", the f must be looked for at the
beginning of the alphabet; if however it be desired to look out JL> sal* "it
flowed ", the alif must be treated as a ^c, and the searcher must look for a word
spelt sin, ya, lam (instead of An, alif, lam), while for ;U sar < he scaled a
wall ", he should look for sin, waw, ra. The reason is, that, in Arabic, alif is not
considered an original letter, but is supposed to be the offspring of one of the
two weak consonants j or ^, l and according to certain laws of euphony
a weak consonant undergoes certain changes or permutations when it comes
together in a 'measure' or 'form' with a vowel that is not analogous to
it: accordingly, in the last two examples, an original ^ or ^ has by permuta-
* " /-<" /-
tion been changed into an alif. Similarly ^ " a prophet" is from U^ - k>,
and the letter after v must be treated as the first letter of " the alphabet."
The second letter of jL is Jiamza, because it is mutaharrik or movable, while
* ^
the second letter of JU is called a/*/, because it is a letter of prolongation.
f ,
Hamza, however, may be sakin, as in c*J>
(d) Long vowels at the beginning of words. As already stated, the long
vowels are formed by a combination of a short vowel and the weak consonant
that is its affinity ; and the manner of writing the long vowels in the middle
of words has been demonstrated in 3 (d). It follows by rule [vide short
vowels at beginning of words (6)], that the long vowels at the beginning of a
^ i
word are introduced by a hamza , thus w>f ^ub; and ^ ^t&. Similarly v 1 *
$
should ^a6; but to avoid this awkward form the second alif is written over
the first, thus f : this alif on the top is called madda ** the mark of madd or
prolongation. * J a
(e) By the same rule the "diphthongs" at the beginning of words
are written w/f aib (or ayb), and v y aub for aivb); for pronunciation,
vide 3 (e).
1 It will be noticed that the three weak letters or semi-vowels are oli/ f ray and ya.
The Jiamza is a strong letter, although in certain cases it is liable to modification or
change lik f > any of the weak letters. \\ hile vav and ya are sometimes real consonants,
the alij is not regarded as such at all ; but only as a prop for hamza, or as a letter of
prolongation, as in the word Jt* .
* An ali/ so marked is by some Grammarians called aliH mamduda, as c^T Pr.
44 to come." Alif-i mamduda can only occur at the beginning of a syllable: d\j*
Qvr-an. In Arabic the term alif mamduda is restricted to a final ahf followed by
hamza, as in *UW , *U*>, i n contradistinction to ali/ maqsura, as in ^ and ^.
26 LONG VOWELS AND HAMZA.
As in Arabic, hamza following a long I a is written on the line, 1 the alif
that precedes such a hamza is generally marked with a madda, but this madda
'*' ' '
has no effect on the pronunciation ; thus in Arabic *U>, for fl* , " he came."
This is also the case when^ or ^ act as bearers of hamza, e.g. J5U qcfil"*?
Final hamza in Arabic words (as t\*k\ 8 ) is rarely written in Persian, and
always disappears in writing before the ^ of the izafat; as, f^** c5 ( fbt
" medical officers of the Military Department" : were the * retained, the ^
might be mistaken for the ^ of unity : vide Remark to (g) ; vide also
26 (/) (2).
(/) In Persian the sign * over t at the beginning of words is omitted,
even in words fully pointed with the vowels, etc.; and in the dictionaries,
Persian and Urdu, no distinction is made between alif and hamza; i.e. both
are at the beginning of the alphabet.
Hamza' corresponds to an English hyphen in such words as re-open, 4 and
is then written over a y (^) without the dots: in other words, hamza is
thus written, instead of over the prop alif in those cases when (according to
Englishmen) one syllable ends in a vowel and the next begins with one;
Ex. *$J fa*ida ( ' benefit " instead of s.^U or *.j>. 5
When two ^ come together, it is more correct to omit the dots in the
first and place the sign * over it, as : &<5^ pd*idan <( to stand firm." This
word may also be written c>^*^ plyidan, bat in this case the first ^ must be
treated as a consonant and transliterated y. Similarly gunjcfish <J^?^ or
gunjayish ^isof.
Strictly speaking a hamza in Persian ought to be used whenever a
* As a rule hamza has in Arabic no bearer when it is movable by a fatha and
f*
follows a long vowel, or when it is final and preceded by aukun. In words like A ^*->
i.e. in words where the long vowel preceding the hamza is 45", the hamza is placed on
$ ^ * ** ' *
or above the line, or is written over a ^ (without dots): thus *lxkS* or 4-*k&.
.* s
4 In Modern Persian usually pronounced qayiL
& In Persian, it is optional to write or omit the final * in such words.
* In Urdu a hamza does duty for a h3phen, e.g. cJj*^ /5-tZA " may I go T",
y* ja-o "go,"
It will be seen that the Persians and Indians have extended the use of the Arabic
orthographical sign hamza.
* In Persian pronounced fay id a. A hamza is not correct in such Persian words as
^(f gfov cow, though Indians do write ^j!f (g<**u).
In *^li qa'ida and such words no hamza can be written, as is a strong consonant
and cannot take *.
THE LETTER *AYN. 27
syllable beginning with a vowel is added to a root, thus: ^^ l (for ^j. -<^ )
and p*'>*>* (for ^[ *>* ), but this rule is only observed in certain cases when it
is necessary for distinction [vide Remark I (g)]. For the Persian " hamza' 9
as a sign of the genitive case, etc., after an obscure h or after a final ^5, vide
26 (/) ; as substitute for the ^ of unity, vide 41 (c) (d).
(g) Hamza in the middle or at the end of an Arabic word used in Persian,
is often omitted, both in pronunciation and in writing; as, pA* qayim for ^
qcfim, but generally safil <-UU, rarely sayil JjU.
Remark L The practical uses of hamza, and its omission in modern
Persian, are best illustrated by the following examples : \*$ gada " beggar" ;
^ *$ gadafi* " begging"; <J* < gada-i* " a beggar"; &\* ^\< gada-yi-
Kirman " the beggar of Kerman."
It will be noticed that the distinction between the words for t( begging"
and "a beggar (with ^ of unity) " lies in the accent only,
Main 4^*^* * e fish " ; <^*k m^ihi-i 8 (class ) * : a fish " [^ 4 ** <-& yak mah% in
m.c.] : ^o U ^ yak mah-i dlgar (m.c.) c< one month more " : ^^ ^U ^
yak mahi-yi digar (m.c.) "one fish more"; also in m.c. ^^^ ^*&> mahl-yi
<Rgar-l and classically j&& ^i^U mahi-t digar: ^i*> nnmayam " I show
but j**^ nuwiyim (i we show."
Remark 77. Note the division of syllables when * occurs in the middle
of a word: O^>A. or of^ is jwr-at (not ju-rat). In the same way $*>(/
Qur-an: <xJUx> or ali-*u> mas-ala.
5 The letter ^ (at the beginning of words).
In Persian (but not in Arabic) the consonant at the beginning of a
word is pronounced like the consonant hamza, thus <-*i* is pronounced like
* *
v^ f > and WJA* l u f ub (Ar. broken plural of *?***) " defects, vices," as though
spelt *~*x1 , vide 20. In the Roman character, * is transliterated by a
reversed comma above the line.
* If*** would in modern Persian be taken to be badl-l ** a badness,** but in
t^f^ jttda'i the hamza is necessary. When a syllable begins with a vowel, the
mark hamza is used to introduce it. But this hamza being written above the
line requires "a prop"; and this in the case of a is I > in the case of u it is y
(with or without *), and in the case of i it is ^s (with or without * ), only that in the
initial form this last is [often] distinguished from the ordinary y by losing its dots : e.g.
J^j** tu-al *' a question," JV"^ mas-ul '* inquired of", **$l fa-ida " advantage."
Palmer's Concise Eng.-Per. Diot.
4 Note the different position of the accents in the two words.
3 For
28 JAZM OR SUKtfN.
6. Jazm or Sukun.
(a) In Arabic and Persian, the first letter of a word is always accom-
panied by a vowel, hence in the mouth of an Arab or Persian a word like
Smith becomes Ismith (or Ismit). 1
When a consonant in the middle or at the end of a word is followed by
no vowel sound, it is said to be sdkin c/*-s i.e. " quiescent, inert, or mute,"
and the symbol called fj** jazm "cutting off, or amputation," or &j**
9ukun "rest " [ __A *_o_ ] is placed over it. In the word joj* mardum
" men," the first letter ( f ) is " moved'' by fatha, but the second letter (;)
is "quiescent, inert, mute, or silent", having the sign jazm ( o) over it ;
while the third letter (.>) is 'moved' by zamma or pish; and finally the
last letter ( f } is "quiescent."
A letter so marked is called sdkin " quiescent " or majzum] it has none
of the *>&> *z&j** When two or more quiescent letters occur together, the
first only is termed sdkin, the others being termed mawquf oy>* " dependent
on" or te supported "; thus in cu^ dust " friend" the ^ is sdkin and the
jj and o arc mawquf.
In Persian (bub not in classical Arabic), the last letter of all words is
quiescent; this being a rule, the sign jazm is omitted in the case of
final letters. Jazm therefore signifies that (in the Roman character) two
eonsonaats in the middle or end of a word have no vowel between them.*
(6) In such words a? Jik - J^> - &i> , great care must be taken in Persian
to avoid even the suspicion of a vowel between the two last letters ; many
Persians pronounce these words almost like tifti, naqla, nagda, and in the two
last words slightly dwell on the fatha. The Arabs? and Indians pronounce
these words less affectedly; the Indians as though they were tijel, naqel,
naqed.*
Remark. The presence or absence of a jazm in a word of three letters,
sometimes completely alters the meaning, e.g. (j*i nafs means " passion" ;
"* C"' *
"the penis", but ^Jb nafas means "breath"; ^y "a fissure and the
privities of a woman, 4 " but ^ faraj " freedom from grief or sorrow,"
1 Fow illiterate Indians can pronounce two consonants at tho beginning.
* In Hindustani a few wo ds begin with two consonants with no vowel between
them. In such a\sos a jazm is not written over the first letter as theoretically a
quiescent/ consonant cannot occur at he beginning of a word. It is for this reason that
a vowel is often inserted; thus Brahman is often pronounced Birahman.
8 Barf *'snow" is in India pronounced 6ara/; this pronunciation renders the
word unintelligible to many Persians
* In Arabic the privities of either sex. Uneducated Persians pronounce both
words farj.
TASHDID AND IDOHAM. 29
7. Tashdld l and Idgham.
(a) A doubled letter in the middle of a word is written only once, but
the sign (* ), called *>*& tashdid " corroboration " or "strengthening", is
placed above it to indicate that it should be pronounced twice.
A letter so marked is called mushaddad ^^"strengthened ", <f corrobo-
rated." The first of the doubled letters ends one syllable, and the second
begins the following syllable.
(b) In practice, the Persians strongly emphasize the letter that is marked
with the sign of duplication; Ex. f,^ khurram "joyful"; &J\ albatta
" certainly." The Arabs however pronounce the doubled btter twice, unless
it ends the word, when it can only be emphasized.
(c) Arabic words of only two letters are rare ; consequently words
"** *** jj
like k2> and^i (shatt and daqj) are three lettered, even if the sign ( ) be
omitted. For further remarks on ( * ) vide under " solar letters " , 10.
Remark I. Without the tashdid, there is nothing to show whether a
word spelt like CL^ is gut " food " or quvvat e{ strength."
In Arabic words a euphonic tashdid occurs when the article al precedes a
word beginning with a solar lettter : vide 10.
Remark II. Tashdid is said not to be found over any of the four letters
^
that are purely Persian. The \vord &su bachclia is an exception ; if the { ^) be
omitted there is nothing to distinguish it from &^ bi-chi, (t for what";
vide also '-'Peculiarities of Persian words." In compounds, the tashdid
over bachcha is dropped, as sag-bacha, bicha khzr, bacha-Turk, etc. , and also in
the expression : Bacha/ mar-at bi-zanad (a curse). Other exceptions are *A>
hillock ' ' , and * " thick, dense."
(d) Idg&am +*tf signifies inserting one letter into another, coalescence, as
^ shappara (from shab-pira ^J -r^ ) As a letter so assimilated (mudg&am
f* ) is marked with tashdid, the two words are practically synonymous.
Eemark L Removing a tashdtd &** from a word, as jada $:U for T^
jadda "path", is called takhfif ^A^J " lightening ", and a word so
** ^
{< lightened " is mukhaffaf <-&****.
Remark II. 'Doubled* Arabic substantives in which the last two
radical letters are the same/ in order to avoid two quiescent letters coming
1 j&frar-i 63 tashdid ^Ai-> L^A. (m.c.) " most emphatically an ass."
* In Arabic v-ft^ -a* muza'af " a reduplicate verb, i.e. one whose second and third
radicals are the same. The term muza'af is also applied to a quadrilateral verb of two
equal syllables, as Jji) " zalzal."
30 TANWIN.
together, lose the tashdtd ^*> before the Persian plural termination ha ; thus
finn er^ "a spirit, a Jinn" has for its Persian plural jinha. Similarly
from saff Ju* " a line " comes the Persian compound saf-dar j*&* " rank
breaking ' * (an epithet of ' All). Such Arabic words frequently lose the tashdid
in Persian, as 3$ kaff n , Ar., " palm of the hand," kaf^tf, 1 P.; habb un ,
&
-**>. " a berry, grain, pill " becomes in Persian hab. Sometimes the tashcRd
is again restored before the ^ of unity, thus hab, P. (m.c.) becomes habb-i
Jx* (m.c.) t( a pill " ; fan ^ " art ", fann-% ^ ; but kaf <*Jf " palm of the
hand ", kaf-i ^ (m.c.) (not kaff-t <jM).
Remark III. A mushaddad letter is rarely found in a pure Persian
word; arra (S. dra " a saw"; farrukh (or jarukh) " happy, etc." are
exceptions.
8. Tanwln
In classical Arabic the short vowels are used as terminations to express
the three cases of nouns * :
_ is the nominative ^
T is the genitive Vide also 3 (a).
n. is the accusative J
If the noun is indefinite, these terminations are doubled and written
, "7, , and pronounced with the nun or w-sound. This is called \*xj
tanwn t{ giving the nun. 3 3>
Arabic nouns in the accusative case are in Arabic used as adverbs;
Ex. && ittifaq-** * ( by chance " the accusative of <j&^. Note that the final
alif is not sounded.
If the word ends in * or , there is no final alii; Ex. &&& *& bina***-
'alay-hi " accordingly * ' , &+&>* hikmat* an ^skilfully"; similarly if the
word ends in ^ ^ (in such words the tanwin is written over the letter
preceding the ^, and the 45 is unsounded), thus <^y*>* hawa* ** lovingly/*
In modern Persian the tendency is to omit the n and prolong the final a
1 Such words are considered by Lexicographers to be Persian.
* There is practically only one declension in Arabic.
3 In modern colloquial Arabic the final vowels and tanw'in are with 8 few exceptions
omitted: a noun in the accusative case, used as an Adverb, is given the tanwln.
Colloquial Arabic has, therefore, no distinction of case as found in the classical language.
# *
* The alif over the (s is now seldom written, the word being spelt <5>A : the c$-
is silent J^sux> ^ t Words like $** *uqb<f are generally written ^A^J (without aKf).
In the Roman character, a final <^ pronounced like a is transliterated a.
WABLAH AND SOLAR AND LUNAR LETTERS. 31
',
in the pronunciation of these Arabic adverbs; Ex. JIU- hal- a * " now,
<9
at present ", is in modern Persian always pronounced hald Jft*, while X*; " in
reality" is pronounced both with and without the n. In some words the
t
n is always retained; Ex. '&& ffhaflaU a * "suddenly" or "by accident",
*
\j**> jabr an " by force."
9. Waslah.
This word signifies " a conjunction or joining " and is only found over
the alif of the Arabic definite article J/ al " the " : it signifies that the alif
is suppressed in pronunciation and the J joined by the previous vowel ; thus
,/ v ~'
amir ui l-mu*rnimn e^^* 5 lj^f 1 " Commander of the Faithful" : vide Remark
II to 3 (d)*
If a word before a wctsla ends in a long vowel or in an alif-i maqsura, the
final vowel is shortened in pronunciation before the alif with wasla, thus
is pronounced fi'l-jumla and not fi'l-jurnla.
10. Solar and Lunar Letters.
(a) In Arabic the dental, liquid and sibilant letters, fourteen in all, are
called &~+jf vJjj^Jf al-hurufvs'h-shamttyyat* or " solar letters " for the by
no means obvious reason that the word shams ^j~+& " sun " begins with one
of them. They are o-&-a-3-j-3-(j-c4-u-o^-'k--'J i -e>. If an
Arabic word with the article J* begins with one of these letteis, then, for
euphonic reasons, the J of the article is not sounded, but to compensate for its
loss, the first letter of the word itself is doubled and marked with ^, thus :
* ~ ? *
lU Salah-d-dtn " the Peace of Religion " (Saladin). The dentals
~
sinniyya ^*W, those that are enunciated by the aid of the teeth, 3 are --&-
^ - & - eL'. The lingual asaliyya ( **l<\ ) are those that are pronounced by the
aid of the tip of the tongue, and are j )-3-o**u-u^- u*-*
(6) The lunar letters <*Jr*? ^^ huruf-i qamariyya are said to be so called
because j+* qamar the moon begins with one of them. With them no such
change takes place in the J of the article.
The lunar letters are subdivided into the labials shafahiyya or skafawiyya
* * " *
or **f& ) j - f o - vJ the palatals lahawiyya (>#} ) 45- - c5 - g ;
1 The hamza is pronounced.
* Difficulty of pronunciation or want of euphony is called istisqal ( JlSi
S The loss of the front teeth prevents the people pronunciation of the dentals.
* The letters 3 - u* " U* are called J^A^ ^Jj^ " sibilant letters."
32 ABJAD.
and the gutturals, halqlyya (&&**) 1 or hanjariyya
C ' C - '
Remark. Arab grammarians have themselves fallen into confusion over
these ill-defined divisions.
(c) The Arabs further term certain letters &JS1J| cJjj^ huruf*l-laqlaqah
4 'clacking letters"; huruf ut z-zalq (j^f o?^ or <ua^<W, J>ysJf al-huruf'^z-
zawlaqiyyah letters articulated with the tip of the tongue and the lips ; they
are the liquids ; - & - J : huruf'^l-lin ^M\ vJj^. " soft letters" I - 3 - is*
? ' *
mufbaqah JfijJa* *' arched", viz. (J* - ^e . & . > : niViyyah **&& letters pro-
nounced by the tongue and the fore part of the palate (viz. ^> - * - Jo ) :
muslafilah AJ&~*C " depresvsed (letters)" are those in which the tongue does
not rise.
11. Abjad. 8
(a) The following meaningless words give the letters in their numerical
order * :
The use of letters as numerals is confined to mathematical works,
almanacs, and chronograms. 8
The sum of the letters in the name of a work, or of a brief sentence or
verse recording an historical event, gives the year of the Hijra in which the
event took place. This practice of commemorating events by chronograms
is common in all Muslim countries.
This system is called abjad^ *?u) and hisab-i-fammal JU^ w^^> *& e
Arabic word jummal J*^ signifying " cable; addition." A letter marked
with tashdid &}&> is reckoned as a single letter.
(6) Examples : When Nadir Shah proclaimed himself sovereign of
Persia, he struck coins with the Arabic inscription as a chronogram
x^ ^ * v t *O'
t'J ** t*'-;**^ alkhayr* ft ma waqa' a " the best is in what happened." Tfie
^
sum of these letters = 1148 (A.H.) = A.D. 1735-6.
1 Letters formed in the uvula.
* Also (j^*^ 1 J5^.
S Vulgarly abujad.
* The Arabs of Morocco in the above words substitute u f or <j* - o* f or u* - <j
for {J ^ for &.
As regards the four Persian letters, w may have the value of y - g of - j
of 3 - *-> of -^, i.e. they may have the same value as their corresponding Arabic
letters.
NUMERICAL FIGURES. 33
The date of Taymurlang's death is in the dramatic words isj*x&*\&)
Vida'-i Shahryan " Farewell to Royalty," this = 807 (H.) = A.D. 1404-5.
A new gate l to the mosque at Kazimayn was constructed by Farhad
Mlrza, an uncle of Nasir^-'d-dm, Shah of Persia, in A.H. 1300 ( = A.D.
o
1882), and an Afghan poet of Bagdad, who wrote under the takhattus (jol*ri
or * nom de plume ' of Shihab, immortalised (as his son says) the event in a
poem, the chronogram of which, according to custom, occurs in the last, or
the last two misra' ^ (ft/0 (a line of verse) :
^ ^f jf cuAf^ u*J*j* V^ 1 ^ ty *^> J& ^ **+& ftp ^ y L&M*
" Shihab in a happy frame of mind fixes its date " May your road
to Paradise be by this gate." The sum of the letters in the second misra'
is 1299, but the writer says at the end of the first line "ba dil-i-shdd Jj>b
al" and these words may also be translated " with the heart of shad" : now
the heart of shad is alif which = < one, ' so this makes the total 1300.
Persians love obscurities.
The letters of abjad can also be used to represent figures, thus b for 12,
Kfor 21, etc.*
(c) In a certain style of almanac called taqwm-i ruquml ( <**>*; rt j& ) ,
the letters of the alphabet are used with special significations; thus the
letter * denotes Thursday, the sign Virgo, the planet Venus , and the inoon
when bright. Few Persians nowadays know these signs, and the almanacs
never contain a key. The taqwm-i Far si ^^ ^> is preferred,
12. Numerical Figures.
(a) The usual signs for the numerals (borrowed from the Hindus by the
Arabs) are :
* I r r r* a i v A <\
0123456789
In combination these are written from left to right as in English thus,
M* !? 1901.
1 Called by the Arabs the Bab*-*l-Farkadiyya and by the Persians Bab-i-
Fctrhadiyya.
* The abjad system is also used as a species of Morse alphabet for visual and
auditory signalling, in a manner that will readily be understood by Military Officers.
Double raps or long sounds, such as sighing or sucking a pipe, indicate the number of the
word in the abjad system, while single raps or short sounds indicate the position
of the letter in that word. Similarly, signs made by the right eye or eyebrow, or by the
tongue in the right cheek, or by the right hand or foot, indicate the word, while those
on the left, the letter. Vide also 16.
3
34 SIYAQ AND LETTERS IN POETRY.
(1) In MSS., variations in the signs for the numerals are for 2, g for 3,
(* or f for 4, , or D, or a for 5, * for 6, < for 7, and > for 8.
Fractional numbers are usually written as in English as :
L , !L * etc.
r v 7
13.
To find the year A.D. corresponding to the year of the Hijra:
Let M^the Muslim date in years and decimals.
Let E = the required English date in years :
Then E = M x 0-970225 + 621-54. The answer is the date A.D. of the
end of the year A.H.
The year A.D. 1900 (1st May) = 1318 H.
14. Siyaq ( J>W )"
Mustawfis (L*J*~~*>) or Revenue Accountants, and Munshis keep their
accounts in a system of figures called o^~* siyaq l or <.yf^ c&vam which Is
nearly the same p*j raqam of India.
For a detailed account of this system, vide Appendix to Woolaston's
English-Persian Dictionary. The system is a complicated one.
Shop-keepers and merchants keep their accounts in a form of siyaq
( <3l*- ) : fcne y ^ not understand the cRivam ( <^te ) or siyaq ( (3U* ) of the
Mustawfi ( ^i>~* ) .
Ruquml ( ^^) ) is applied to a system of writing a sum in a receipt : the
sum is first written in siyaq ( (${* ) and then in words underneath it; under
this again, Jialf the sum is written in siyaq.
15. Letters in Poetry,
Persian poets delight in discovering fanciful resemblances in the form
of letters. As already stated, an upright stature is likened to the letter
aft/,* but bent by grief or age it is a U: a bent neck is like a, while a
drooping head is like > The Persian poet Jam! in his beautiful but
1 The revenue accounts being kept in aiyak none but a mustawfi u*j**** or revenue
acoountant can interpret them. Persian officials are in the hands of their accountants.
* * I heard of one Governor who on removal from office had his accounts made up
and was found to be a debtor to Government to the extent of 80,000 tumams (16,000).
He got another mustawfi ( ^f^A**^ ) to examine his accounts and the latter brought him
out a creditor to the amount of 40,000 tumams.'* Yates 9 Khorasan and Sistan.
a Sighs are also compared to alif,
HANDWRITINGS. 35
somewhat lengthy poem "Yusuf and Zulaykha >SJ compares the heroine's
teeth to sin (<*), her mouth to mim (*), and her eyes to sad (<*) or 'ayn (*) ;
zuif is again compared to lam and jim.
16. Handwritings.
The two most important varieties of Arabic writing are the Kufi
and the Naskh? and all the other varieties, national or calligraphic, may be
referred to one of these two styles.
The Kufic took its name from the town Kufa on the Euphrates^ a
town that at one time was a seat of Muslim learning, and famous for
a school of Arabic copyists.
From authentic Kufic inscriptions, it is now no longer doubtful that the
Arab employed the Kufic style at the time of the conquest of Syria, before the
foundation of Kufa. It is now supposed that the naskh did not originate in
the second or third century after the Prophet but was used simultaneously
with the Kufic in the time of the earliest Khalifas, and possibly in the time
of the Prophet himself. 8
The Ta'ltq ( (p^** } 9 { hanging' hand, is an elegant court hand that was,
and still is, much admired in Persia.
* According to the Eastern romance Zulaykha saw and loved Yusuf in a dream
Many suitors hearing of her beauty vainly sought her hand, At length she agreed
to espouse the 'Aziz of Egypt, Qitflr (Potaphar of the Bible) believing him to
be the Yusuf (or Joseph) of her vision. Her marriage was a rude awakening and
her respect for her husband was doubtless lessened by the fact that, he was, for
some reason or other, \\ eunuch. Joseph is recognized and bought in the slave market by
Zulaykha and adopted by her husband, Zulaykha makes furious love to the unwilling
youth. Th> ladies of Memphis discover her secret and talk scandal. ZulaykhS hears
the gossip, and faces the difficulty by giving a banquet to all the ladies of her acquain-
tance. While sending for Yusuf she gives each lady an orange to peel, with directions
to observe Yusuf covertly the while, The ladies are so agitated at the sight of
the slave-boy's unexpected beauty that they absently cut their fingers instead
ot* the orange. They have to confess that Zulaykha has an excuse for her passion,
the temptation being so great. The Qur* an says : * * and she shut the doors and said * come
hither!* He said * God keep me ! Verity my lord hath given me a good home and the
injurious shall not prosper.* But she longed for him; and he had longed for her,
had he not seen a token from his Lord.'* Qitfir dies and Zulaykha becomes a beggar,
old, blind, decrepit, but Joseph retains his youth. Zulaykha builds a reed-hut on the
way by which the man she so faithfully loves has to pass. Joseph fails to recognize in
the blind beggar-woman his former mistress. She has however expiated her sin by
suffering. Her youth is restored to her, and Yusuf is directed to make her his wife.
Yusuf is a type of male beauty, the Adonis of the Muslims.
a Naslsh. jr** " writing of transcribers."
3 Qurans are written lithographed, or printed, in what is commonly styled M&M
'ardbi ( yfij* k*> ), i.e. nas&h with all the points.
36 HANDWRITINGS.
The nasta'Uq ( (JAJUI^S ) is a combination of the naskh ( ~* ) or ordinary
hand and the ta'Uq ( JN^ ): it is a beautiful hand, chiefly used by the
Persians for well- written manuscripts ; but the modern Arabs call the Persian
writing generally ta'ttq.
Some old Arabic manuscripts written in Persia are in this style.
The shikasta *x~& or c ' broken ' ' hand is the term generally applied to
the cursive or running hand used by the Persians and Indians. 1 In it the
dots are omitted and all the letters are joined together. It is very illegible
and puzzling even to natives.
The ruq'ah ***> is used by Arabs and Turks in ordinary correspondence.
U A
The cRwam ^y.z,* tughra ^*J, sulsi ^^ {or &&) s are the names of
other ornamental hands used in the titles of books, headings of diplomas or
edicts, etc., and correspond to flourished letters and monograms amongst
Europeans.
These several scripts are little more than calligraphic styles.
In Persia, even at the present day, calligraphy is one of the fine arts.
One or two lines written by certain old CalJigraphists sell for many pounds
sterling.
The Khatt-i sJmjan* ( ^/?^ ^- > or " tree- writing", a species of
enigmatical writing, is merely another application of abjad <^i; in it an
upright stroke represents as it were the trunk of a fir-tree in which thenumber
of branches on the right indicates the number of the word in abjad <*su?,
and the number on the left the letter in that word. Thus ia ^i* *.4lt, the
first letter occurs in the fifth word of the abjad system, namely in o^****, and
it is the second letter in that word. 'All would therefore be written:
J
Vide also 11 (6) footnote 2.
'Remark. In writing and in printing, Persian and Arabic words should
not be written half at the end of one line and half at the beginning of the
next ; also dual words connected by j should not be separated. Only inferior
copyists make mistakes in ' spacing * and resort to the practice of dividing words.
J The Arabs have a vile shikasta *&*& of their own.
* The diwarii ^ !>:?, a bold round hand, is the official character, in Turkish
passports, etc.
3 The uls **** is a fanciful character with calligraphic nourishes.
4 Called also &&aftt-t sarvl LSJJ* ^ * "cypress writing." There is now little
secrecy in this form of writing as it is widely known. Like the Arabic character, it is of
course written from right to left. Vide Brownie's " A Year Amongst the Persians.* 9
PUNCTUATION. 37
A greeting at the beginning of a letter is contained in one line : if there
is not sufficient room, instead of crowding in the last few words, they are
written above the line in one or more lines decreasing in length.
Two words are often written in one, as: ^f dnmard "that man."
Two words separated by an izafat are sometimes incorrectly joined in one as
(kitdb-i mard) , which ought to stand for kitdb-am-rd.
17. Punctuation.
In Qurans or ornamental verses, punctuation is represented by various
marks such as, ; .-. . : : etc., etc., but in manuscripts, as already
stated, neither are the short vowels written l nor the other symbols,
Even in printed works an occasional tashdld <^<x& or short vowel is the only
assistance given to the reader. This is one of the reasons that the Persians
and Indians mispronounce so many common Arabic words.' 2
The following punctuation marks ( *Alj &(*>&c ) are occasionally used:-
Comma ' aldmat-i ivaqfa
Colon ' aldmat-i mutlaq
Full stop ' aldmat-i dyat o^T o**&: , . o (for*)
Mark of interrogation * aldmat-i istifbdm, ^^AW <z+*&c . , **-M/)
exclamation 'aldtnat-i nidd, farydd, yd ta'ajjub
ww^uu b ifaj* $ tf&* c>*^ . . . . . c? (n)
Quotation, ( aldmat-i iqtibds ^^tw^f cu*3b . . . . * J
Parentheses { ), 'aldrtm-t-i jumh-yi mu'tariza Wyt** &+?- ^*&* t by
brackets [ ].
Poetry 'aldmat'i maxzuma
In manuscripts, a dash ( ) ; called lakht o^iJ, is sometimes used to
introduce the words of a speaker and consequently takes the place of
inverted commas. The modern sign ~~^ over a word signifies either that
it is a proper noun or that it begins a sentence. These signs, if used,
are frequently in red ink.
i In classical Arabic the short vowels are the most valuable part of a word: the
final short vowel distinguished the person in a tense, the case of a noun* or the gender
of a pronoun ; a short vowel makes the difference between the active and passive voice,
and frequently between a transitive and intransitive verb, and the presence or
absence of tashdid may entirely alter the sense: in the absence of '* marks, )f a triliteral
root may be pronounced in twelve different ways.
* The vowels of even Persian words^ are misplaced ; the Ispahanis say amruz for
imruZf and in most parts of Persia padishah is the pronunciation of pad-shah. A
common example is * awaz of the Persians, instead of 'iwaz ( (jj* ) The Persian word
girya &jj> is in m.c. gariya.
38 ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS, AND IMALA.
18. Abbreviations, Contractions, and Imala.
(a) An abbreviation of a word is strictly a part of it, as : A.D. for Am
Domini; diet., for dictionary.
A contraction is the elision of letters or syllables from the body of
word, made in such a manner that the whole word is indicated, as : rec'd pai
for " received payment."
f
The term olMi^o mukhaffafdt is applied to both abbreviations ai
contractions. 1
(a) Some of the most common abbreviations are :
(1) pc =, flUJf Jxis alay-hi-'s salam* " Peace be upon him.
(2) j*L<* ^ U. j *U* adJj ^L^ f Sallq-llah u 'alay-hi wa-sallam a " G(
be gracious to him and give him prosperity ' ' (of the Proph
only).
For Christ or other Prophets the Muslim says :
3
(3) ^ &JLc &\)\ j. " Sallq-llahu ' alay-hi" "God be gracio
to him." Also for 1 ^*^ * < correct."
(4) (^ or)** = (f4^* or) 4UU*iff ^JL> Salamv-llah? 'alay-hi or alayhw
" The Peace of God be on him (or them)."
(5) A-*; or ^j ~ *^ *^t ^^j. Raziya-llahu 'anhu. "May God
pleased with him."
(6) ) ~ ^JU <jdl? A^. Hahamalv-llah* 'alay-M. **The mercy
God be on him."
(7) ^*/ = ^.Ju i)} *J, La*nat*-'llah* 'alay-hi. The curse
God be on him."
(8) j. >* = ^W aJJfa+L.. Sattama-h^ttafa' ta'afa (for ordina
persons, in letter writing).
Nos. 2 and 3 are used for the Prophet only.
No. 1 is generally used for Saints, but not for the Prophet.
No. 4 is used for the Prophet or for Saints. 1
Nos. 5 and 6 are used for anyone.
No. 7 for Satan; for Yazld,* the assassin of the Prophet's grandson;
for anyone specially obnoxious to the writer.
No. 8 for Mujtahids, etc., when alive.
The form of writing the above Arabic abbreviations varies slightly.
(9) y/, for ijtf ^l, etc., in the sense of " and so on " (when t
^ ^ *
first few words only of a quotation are quoted).
ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS , AND IMALA. 39
(10) 5- for 54^ plural (also in the Qur*an for j5Lx a lawful pause) :
$ o*
**> for ** 5*^ plural of plural.
<T * jf t ^
(11) a for *k " name of town " (in geographical works).
(12) ^ for gjy " name of a place " (geographical works).
(13) a for **b ee name of a small town " (geographical works).
(14) j, = <j^~^ " Christian era."
* - <.$>* " Muslim era.' 1
(15) o ="*JU "note," and J*l> "subject" (gram.).
9
(16) e> - *i^~J ''note." Vide 17, line 13.
(17) ^ = ^*T " and so on."
(18) and = ,*o* and yj* "first," and "last," i.e. 'reverse
the order ' (read the word with f over it first and with
over it last) .
f also stands for *f*I^c "subject," and for ^ "predicate": vide
also (23).
(10) ^c ., Jytic ^object" (gram.).
(20) u**> ^ wALix: 4i author."
(21) tjj = (^yo^ (a well-known dictionary),
(22) ^ ^UU? ^U* (a well-known dictionary).
(23) f - c^UlIf ^3ui* (a well-known dictionary) : vide also (18).
(24) v - ^bi^ o^ (a well-known dictionary).
(6) The following common contractions occur in words purely Persian
in origin : -
(1) An initial alif followed by a quiescent consonant is frequently elided,
and the jazm being removed , the consonant is then pointed by the same short
vowel that occurs in the second syllable of the original word, as : &jiS\ aknun,
"now," &j& kunun; afmrdan ot*~^ "to freeze, be dejected," fusurdan;
isftdSf t**&**\ (obs.) i! a paint used by women/' sifiddf gi&>&~> (m.c.).
If the initial alif is pointed with kasra, the short vowel of the first letter
of the contraction becomes kasra, as: istadan e^UUj or istandan e^&*f
" to take/' sitadan e.^iw or sHandan c>^li*.
If the initial alif is pointed with pish and the second vowel is fafha, the
first vowel of the contraction can sometimes be either zlr or pish, as : uftSdan,
e^Uif < to fall" ; fttadan or futadan &*& or &&&*. [Another form by imala
*
is uf&dan]. Ishkastan &*~&>l (m.c.) for shikastan ^i-X*.
(2) Long vowels are sometimes converted into short vowels as:~
nigah *&, shah A^, digarj*, shuktih *>^, budan <&, for nigah K, shah *U,
(3) Examples of other contractions not subject to rule are: mar, ;L* for
btmar jUw "sick," for madar ^ "mother", and for mayar ** "bring
not " i chi, L*** fvular. and m.c.) for chtz. *** " thincr " : mi. ram. /*^
40 SUMMARY.
and m.c.) for mi-ravam fjj** ; mi-May ^l**** (vulg. and m.c.) for mi-khwahi
^yxuvo 9 sham ffor shavamf)**, [shum, tor Ar. ahum]; nusha^^, c ' happy"
for Aiyf ; anusha (old) ; chunuy^, for jt e^*> chun u ; ti for tihi ^ (tahi or
tuhl (mod.) (f empty " ; shandan, &*>(& for nisluindan o^^; a f (mod.) for
aqa ^f ; mi-rod, mi-shad and mi-dad are vulgarisms for mi-ravad, mi-shavad
a>ndmi-dihad; usta for ^^arf (vulg.); shazda for shahzada. Tu sanduq and
rH wwz are contractions for $-yf sunduq, ru-yi miz.
19. Summary.
From the preceding remarks it will be seen that the learner must take
special care :
(1) to discriminate between ^ an English k and kh (latter pronounced
like ch in foc&) ;
(2) to make a guttural (like ck in SMC& when pronounced in the
throat) ;
(3) to pronounce ^ with the half-bleating sound when it occurs in the
middle of a word : and when it begins a middle syllable , to make a pause
before pronouncing that syllable : and when it ends a word to omit it or half
omit it, and to pronounce the word with a peculiar drawling intonation.
In such words as ^toj, the must be slightly pronounced after the alif\
(4) to avoid the suspicion of a vowel between the two last letters of
o
words like uib tifl ;
(5) to aspirate the (or ^), particularly in words like jy* rnihr, wj^
Tihran, and ** mih (final silent * of course being exception).
Remark. As a rule every letter in a word must be distinctly enunciated ;
there must be no * English * slurring of words. An uneducated Persian
learning English would have little inclination to fall into the objectionable
habit of * * clipping ' ' his words.
A clear distinction must be made between the long and short vowels.
English people seem to have a passion for making the short vowels long ;
they also expend a good deal of energy in shouting and putting the accent
on every syllable. For accent vide 21.
The necessity for enunciating every letter will be discovered in distin-
guishing between such words as al^** sirishta SA mixed," *I&;^** sar-rishta
" a good knowledge or experience of a thing," and sar-wishta AJUj^* " the
end of the thread."
(b) The pure vowel sounds are a, i, u, and a, i, u, besides the diphthongs
ay (generally pronounced ey) and aw 1 (generally pronounced like owin cow).
1 In India ai as in aisle and au as in the German haus.
EXEBOISE -IN TBANSL1TEKATION. 41
There is also the rarer majhul vowel-sound o. 1
(c) Except as a sign of the izdfat [vide 26 (/)], hamza, in Persian, usually
occurs between two vowels (i.e. vowels according to English ideas) and thus
corresponds to a hyphen.
(d) A peculiar stress must be given on a double letter, i.e. a letter with
a tashcKd on it.
(e) In printing and writing, all short vowels and orthographical aids are
generally omitted.
20. Exercise in Transliteration.
(a) The following meaningless words are merely an exercise in reading
to teach the vowels :
' ' -j
Short ^t an &[ in e/f un
tire 'an &* 'in ^ ( un
Longjj (for JM) al JLj[ U J/f ul
JU <al cUc jj J^ <ul
*
Diphthong Jb| ayl J^f awl or ol
(Jj^ ayl Jj* 'awl
Remark. All Arabs, and many educated Indians and Afghans, make a
distinction in pronunciation between w? - *r^> etc., but not the Persians*
(6) The following is also an exercise in reading, but all the words have
meanings. Special attention is directed to words that are apparently spelt
the same.
The learner is recom mended first to cover up the right-hand column and
then by the meanings test his pronunciation :
<J a rose gul
J$ clay gil
wU. earth khafc
ty* gain, interest sud
fj* tribe, family qawm
# a willow bid
2 ^o a hair mn
vine-stock maw
u young, or the young of anything bachcha
ij for what bi-chi
1 As in c.}t o-i, oh!
There are many words in Persian pronounced differently though to the eye spelt
the same ; these have different significations.
42
TRANSLITERATION.
blood khun
the anus kun
a squire , a gentleman khan
a ' table ' with the meat on it khwan
face ru
go (imperative) raw
self khud
9
s*. a helmet khud
honor abru l
fi gutter (for water) - ab-raw
j* become or go (Imperative of the verb
shudan) shaw
f
* wash (Imperative of the verb shustan) shu B
* for him, to him (fory AJ) bi-du
+
>j run (Imperative of the verb dawdan) bi-daw
^ barley
f
j*. rivulet
* 9
*^ seek (Impera. of the verb justan}
xO x
c jj~j a follower, attendant
*'
a little son
J2/ a P^ge
jj/ if he (poetical contraction)
r ^.xs a defect, vice
[ w^ Ar. broken pL of above
^aday, Ar.
fbl Ar. } pL of above
) a day, P.
hope
table
jaw [jcw-i one grain].
ju
ju
pas-raw
pisaru
giraw
gam (for agar u$ jt\
'uynb
yawm
ayyam
ruz
nmtd or ummld
rmz
1 In modern Persian abaru.
* Or bi-shaw '* become." In modern Persian the Imperative )y* bi-shur is used
instead of the obsolete eh&j" 9 *
8 Also a " husband " (a word much used by the tent-folk).
* In modern Persian >W bi-ju *'seek " instead of ju.
6 The Indians and Afghans preserve the ** unknown*' sound of the vowel (e) in
these words.
TB ANSLITBKATION .
43
lion
milk
with
^ without
V
flj a blow or puff (with the mouth)
a blowpipe (for killing birds)
month; moon
a fish
/***t a name
r
mean, low, pi. of.
, the breast , nipple
strangers (Ar. pi.)
sister
wretched, miserable
boldness
(3^ & knocking at the door
Civil Code in Muslim law
an eye
) (A. head) a cape
chief
a leaf
a slave
a Major
an Arab
time
pi. of above
food
. pleasant
custom
bd
K
puf
pufak
mah
maht
ism
khwab*
pastan
pistan
khawdrij 8 (sing,
khwdhar a
Ichwar*
jur^at
( urf
varaq
banda 7 (pron, bande)
ydvar
'Arab
vaqt
awqdt
khurdk *
khush*
<ddat
1 The Indians and Afghans preserve the "unknown" sound of the vowel (e) in
these words.
2 The } not pronounced in these Persian words, vide 2 ( j )*
8 The ,5 is pronounced in this Arabic word, vide 2 ( j ).
The^ is not pronounced in Persian. The Afghans, however, generally pronounce
it in this particular word.
6 This Arabic phrase is common with professional story-tellers.
6 Note the half-bleating sound of hamza, vide 2 under >
7 Final h silent, vide 2 under 8.
8 This is one of the few Persian words in which the 1 is pronounced like short u:
vide 2 under .
44 TRANSLITERATION.
ftf Adam Adam
)j* loss, harm zarar
pft* Ar. standing, erect, firm qa*im l
(c) The following difficult examples of transliteration should be studied
khurd
khwastan
fi'l-Jumla
ma l na n
atibbd-and
jama'a-dar
na'uz* Wllah
o&*4 or O^UA hay^at
Salah" 'd Din
handa-yi u
Mil&i-^f tl
masJiJiad
azjiar
inmniyyal
(d) As already stated in 1 (a), the Arabic character is a species of short-
hand. The following Persian puzzles are exercises in inserting the diacritical
points, the solutions being given below :
(2)
Eemark. The solution to No. 1 is :
No. 2 begins mz- nary >> and ends with man chi-kunam *&* &*>.
(3) What is the word fj*. ? The guesser says haram, jazm, jurm, jirm 7
khurram, etc., tiO at last he says, Mar-am ( Ci I am an ass "). The reply then
is anchi guffi Jwstl vail In mst ^~-& ^ ^j t^^ <J$> Asuf ** what y<5u hare
said you are, you are ; but it is not the answer to this.'*
The key to the answer depends on the various significations of ja'far
yiAA. The first Ja'farj**^ is man's name, the second signifies " donkey, " 2
the third " parsley " and the fourth " a bridge. >? ' z
1 Practically * equals a hyphen in this Arabic word, but in m.c. the word is gener-
ally pronounced y, as qayim.
* Ja'far is a local word in Kir man for a ** donkey *' and also for a bridge: one of
the Arabic significations of ja'far is '* river."
ACCENT. 45
(5) A man named Badri ^^ went to the $adr-i A'gam fJ**\ ;*** or Prime
Minister and asked for money, but got nothing. He said :
The first is Badn-yam ; the second bad riyam (for ri-dam a crude word) ;
the last word is sad riyam.
21. Accent.
(a) The general rule in Persian is that the primary accent falls on the
last syllable. Ex. : &j pasha " a mosquito," t^ pisard " a boy " ; ^ ^^>^
dost kdsh " a led horse (old) " ; "a glove (m.c k )." [In India this word
means "an assistant to a falconer"]; l^^ *-^*>j> dast kashhd: u>^p
darakhtdn l ' trees ' * : )^ handz ' ' yet ' ' ; &tj$ karddn ' ' to do * ' : *t>j kardd l
"done" (Past Part.); ^^/ kardanl " that has to be done " ; ^ bihtdr
" better " wij v^ khub-tarin " the best, most beautiful," etc., etc.
Remark. The accent does not fall on the izafat nor on the affix !;.
Ex.: darakhtan-i bagh i(* ^^ ''the trees in the garden"; darakhtdn-ra
fli^ or darakhthd-ra t;l^;i 4w to the trees."
(6) Exceptions are :
(1) For the sake of emphasis the accent falls strongly on the first
syllable of all imperatives, negative or otherwise, (frequently with special
stress). Ex. : y&j* Mr-dar "take away"; && bi-lmn "do thou " ; H^
bi-kunld " do ye " ; &* m&kun, **&* md-kurild " don't do " ; ^^ bi-ravand
il let them go " ; ^ bi kunam " let me do."
(2) The accent falls on the first syllable of the Aorist (or Present Sub-
junctive), of the Present, and of the Imperfect tenses, whether negative or
affirmative. Ex. : +& kunam, ^ bi kunam (t I may do, shall I do," etc, :
JXxx> mi-kunam " I am doing, I will do, etc." ; c^ft* ml-kardam " I was
doing, etc." ; ^**> ndnn-kwiam; ?&&+* tidml-kardam.
In the phrase ^> ^ ta na-gffi , the accent seems to fall on the 5
rather than on the negative : in i^*& % ta na-bim it seems to fall either on
the negative or on the first syllable of the verb (bi). Afghans and Indians
say $ go*e.
Should these tenses be preceded by a preposition that is part of the
verb, the accent still falls on the first syllable, i.e. on the preposition.
Ex. : /*;iM' c ^ bar mi-daram " I will take it away " : ^!H^y bar nami-daram ;
(*JJT*+*>> ddr nami-ravam.
(3) In the Preterite (except when it is negative), the accent is on the
penultimate of all persons except the third person singular, when it is on the
amada "prepared" has the accent on the second syllable: the infinitive
dmadan is obsolete ; amada karddn is used instead.
46 ACCENT.
last syllable. Ex.: f**j$ pursidam " I asked": *jj>^y' farmtidid " you
ordered " : &*1* dddand "they gave": p*& gujtim " we said, etc. " ; but
H~^ pursid " he asked " : a^i farmud " he ordered," etc.
(4) In negative Prets. , the accent falls on the negative unless preceded
by a preposition, as mentioned in (6) (2) ; in the latter case the accent falls
on the preposition. Ex. : aU*| uftdd " he fell," ^a^ ndyuftad " he did not
fall," but ^UijjJ j* ddr na-yuftad.
(5) The affixed pronouns do not take the accent. Ex. : t^lt-i^ darakht-
hd-yash " his trees " : c^t^ kitabhd-yitan (( your books" : i^likft** madd*
Ichil-ishan ; * their income": o**| ejlxy** bas-i-tdn ast "it is sufficient for
you/'
(6) The accent never falls on the ^ of unity ] [but it may fall on the
demonstrative ^J.
Remark. Abstract nouns ending in ^ and formed from adjectives and
nouns, as also adjectives ending in ^ that are formed from nouns, follow the
rule and take the accent on the last syllable, i.e. on the ^. Ex. : ^xJ nikl
<< goodness" : ^*>> dustl t( friendship " (from mk *J*# 4< good" and dust
cu*j^ ^a friend"), 2 etc. It therefore frequently happens that there is
nothing but the accent to distinguish between two words which are spelt the
same; thus ^i-^ may stand for dust-% < * a friend J> or dusii ' friendship",
( l ar&$-t) B may mean i( a bride" or ** nuptials " ('amsf).
(7) The following indeclinable particles have the accent on the first
syllable :
Uj dmma " but " : (1 ^J llkin * " but " : ^ bale (or ball) ll yes " : ^uu
or ^f, /&<%? or tinl " that is to say " : ^ vS 5 ** but yet, however " : bf
aV (an interrogative particle) " whether or not," etc," : ^yf V? <{ yes, very
well" : ^ijf inak ** here is, behold " : *^Ju 6d^H <4 perhaps, moreover, on the
w*
contrary " : ^ 8 Idbbay (in Persian generally a6g) " here I am."
In the preposition ^[^ " for the sake of" the accent is on the second
syllable. Ex. : bard-yi' 1 Khud-a "for God's sake."
l This rule applies equally to a hamza that stands for this <j?, vide 4 (g).
* Afghans and Indians say n&, dost, etc.
3 In m.c. (^J^T* is a bride (not a bridegroom).
* The Afghans and Indians say lekin, the Arabs lakin
6 Afghans and Indians wale, or wa-lekin.
i
6 "Here I am, yes" for Arabic ^^ Idbbayka. Labbay is common amongst
women.
7 Pronounce the ^ slightly as a consonant. The Afghans and Indians say 6or5,.
Bear ay ^f^ Impera. of
ACCENT. 47
(8) The following Infinitives have the accent on the first syllable:
My&rdan " to eat" : c^^f dshamidan " to drink: e;<>#LA khwdbtdan
"to sleep" : e^f dmadan "to come." 1
(9) The simple prepositions take no accent, neither do the particles tf
and &<*- or the conjunction ). As pronouns, * and **. may take the accent.
The particle (&*> is accented, except when it forms compounds, as in
chunauj chundn ki.
(c) A correct accent, pronunciation, and intonation can only be acquired
by ear, i.e. they must be caught orally. The rules given above have,
however, few exceptions, and if carefully studied will prove a great aid to
the learner.
It must, however, be remembered that there are dialectical differences in
accent, as well as in pronunciation: of two well-educated Persians, one may
say pidar-i man and another piddr-i man.
According to Dr. Rosen the only Persian noun with the accent on the
first syllable is j&* sdnndr " a penny," a contraction of jlij3 6^ sad dinar.
This remark probably refers to the more correct modern Persian spoken at
Teheran. In Shiraz, however, and some parts of southern Persia, the accent
falls on the first syllable of the following common Persian and Arabic
nouns :
j&> pidar " father " : j^U madar ' ( mother" : j*\j^ khwdhar " sister " :
e;ky twman (a coin, in value about three rupees or about four shillings) :
jli?d dinar *' (an imaginary and infinitessimal coin, 50 of which go to one
shahi, 200 to one *abba& and 1000 to one qirdn) : ^*= 'abbasi (the fifth of a
*>
qiran) : *J*&* qdssab - " a butcher/'
In )&\j* baradar, " a brother," the accent is on the second syllable.
There are probably other exceptions to the rules in (a] and {6}*
(d) In the old-fashioned classical Persian of India and Afghanistan, the
accent does not follow the above rules.
i In the Past Part, the accent falls according to rule, as, amadd t to be distinguished
from amada ** prepared " j vide note i to 21 (a),
4 In Arabic nouns of intensity of the form J^ the accent is on the second syllable,
as 43^** V** f* Swtip-i mashshaq " a drill-master Colonel.'*
CHAPTER II.
22. Persian and Arabic Grammar is divided into t^j^ Sarf 1 Ety-
tology and ^sO Nahw Syntax. The Arabs say U>?l ^^l j f>M H o^aJt
accidence is the mother of knowledge and syntax is its father."
23. Etymology ^jy.
PARTS OF SPEECH Aqsam-i kalima * ( j$ +U\ )
There are according to Arab and Persian Grammarians three parts of
seech : (1) p~*\ ism,* which includes substantives, adjectives, numerals,
ronouns, and participles ; (2) J*i fifl, the verb ; (3) o^ harj the particle,
inch includes the remaining parts of speech, viz. adverbs, prepositions,
injunctions, and interjections.
The harf is divided into mufrad < single, simple " and muratkdb " com-
ound." The former consists of letters of the alphabet that are used singly as
articles, as j and j for the prepositions jt and * : these are said to be
24. The Article.
It is customary to say that there is no article in Persian. There is,
owever, a means of rendering a substantive both definite and indefinite : vide
40 and 41.
In the absence of any article a substantive like wfy* sJiarab signifies
ther " wine " or " the wine/' according to the context*
25. The Substantive 8 { oy*j *-*! ) Gender ( ,ju },
(a) 'Alam ^ a proper name includes not only names, as Ahmad
tc., but titles (khitab yiiaa., and 0506 <~*i ) ; ' noms de plume * (takhailus),
i *Sar/ 4< accidence or etymology (gram.)** ; ishtiqaq ^UWf ** derivation of Arabic
ords; deriving words from an Arabic root ** : vajh-i taamiya (lit,) ** cause of naming "
"derivation,**
^ Not to be confused with kalam (f$f ) sentence; proposition, etc, KaUma also
leans the * Muslim profession of faith.* The distinction between { *+i^ ) kalima and
j/g ( M/ ) is that the former is a word with meaning whereas the latter may be a
p ord (of two or more letters) without meaning.
* The term ' noun * in English formerly included * adjective * : noun-substantive
ad noun-adjective were the terms used.
THE SUBSTANTIVE GENDER. 49
surnames or nick-names or epithets (laqab) of famous people, as Ruym-tan
eP o&; " brazen-body," i.e. "invulnerable" (name of Isfandyar); any
9
common contraction by which a person is commonly known, alias ('urf iJ^e ),
as Kalian (Indian) for Kola KhZn, Ma'rafi (Persian) for Muhammad Raft,
M%rzd; and the filionymics and patronymics (kunyat) of Arabs (which
precede the name) as Abu'l-Qasim Muhammad bin Yusuf.
(1) Definite nouns ( **.**> p~>i ) include 'alam (mentioned above) ; nouns
ordinarily indefinite that become definite by construction, as g&ulam-i Zayd
AJ) ^ C the servant of Zayd " ; any common noun given as a secret epithet
(ma'hud-i zilim J^XAJ tj^**), 1 as dust o*jj!> "the (our) friend," dushman <r*$
"the (our) enemy" ; any common noun used as an epithet and commonly
known (ma'hud-i khariji ^^) ( ^ ^**> ), as Gh ula m- i Misr ^a* ^ " the slave of
Egypt (Joseph), KhaKl* ~ y liah *Ui JUiA. the Friend of God" (Abraham) ; the
mu^af of a pronoun ; and the personal and demonstrative pronouns : vide 40
(b) Remark.
(2) Indefinite nouns ( *j& ^ } ; ya'm iam-i har chiz-i giayr-i mu'ayyan
Remark. In kas-i ra shumdam (*& \j*r& the object is considered
indefinite though marked by the postposition ra.
(6) Grammatically speaking it may be said that there is no gender in
Persian. Males and females* are either expressed by different words, as:
dlv y_& and pan ^^ ; zan na-dlda %***> &j and dushiza %y* ^ ; ^ mard
**a man," c>j ^ 4< a woman"; khwvja &*. ^ ** lord, etc.," khatnn&y*\**
^lady": or else they have the words y nar < male " and ** mada
(t female/' etc., added, as jj* % or _V<f 'ft&r-gav (Indian) or gav-i nar (m.c.)
4< a bull," & &>U or t* ^ mzda-gav or gav-i mida ** a cow" ; j*^*shir-i nar
* f a lion" ; *&> j$** shir-i iwada " lioness >>4 ; mard-i biva %& j* and zan-i biva
**% cy [bwa %& however generally means * widow * only and zan-murda
(m.c.) is [* widower '] ; t* &j* " beggar-man," \<& ^ " beggar-woman,"
^
Remark. Tazfar j&** the masculine gender; ta f ms &#& the feminine
%** +* f
gender : muzakkar^$&* and mtf&nnas c^>^ (adjee.) masculine and feminine.
Tamyiz-i jins t^r*^j>*+* ** distinction of gender."
I Asp ra fani&htl v^^Jtr 5 ^**"\ ** did you sell the horse ? ** ; aap ra ia
Vide 26 (k) Bern. II.
* Arabic nouns are either masculine or feminine, and wheu in Persian qualified by
Arabic adjectives, distinction of gender is sometimes observed, as will be shown later.
8 Pronounced vulgarly gab* The Afghans and Indians say ga t tt, writing the word
with a hamza, *)tf.
* Nar-ahlr j* j> and mada shir j**> i^ are not used by Persians. #ar-' a*& ia
vulg. m.c. means " the yard of a house " ; o"/^ j narral&ar-i in m.c. means a great fat
blockhead," bub j& j nar-i &&ar vulg. means *' the yard of a jack-ass." Nariyan and
' stallion " and *' mare *' in m.o.
4
60 THE SUBSTANTIVE GENDER.
(c) Many Arabic nouns form the feminine by adding ah (in Persian the
imperceptible 8 ] ) to the masculine, as <-&*> malik " a king " ; aJU> malika P.
" a queen " ; e>^<* sultan 9 , &lkL sultana l P. (class.).
Eemark. In Arabic this feminine termination is called ta marbutah
( JDJ>J* *G ) and by Indians hata ( 5 ). It is, however, only in certain words
pronounced and written t in Persian : vide remarks on *. This termination
is also called ta*yi ta*ms ( ^*& c5^ ) Ex. *^>
(d) Kluinum **&> " a lady " is the feminine of ^t^ khan "a squire ** (at
present a title given to almost every officer), and begum 9 ' pt# is the feminine
of beg uJ^j. Grammarians call this f, mtm-i taints,
(e) The Persian wordyb banu " a lady, a princess," (a word sometimes
also added to female names) is not the feminine of ^, a woid only used in
compounds, as e>l? U ba$&-ban <v a gardener," etc.: thus^U &$ kad-banu
* { a neat house-wite >>s ; Cj^ L5^^ banu-yi haram "female guardian of the
harem" (specially for the Shah), Vav j must not, however, be considered a
Persian feminine termination:^ zalu **a leech " ; yj z&nu *' the knee";
jjteddru ^medicine, gunpowder, wine" and such words are neither mas-
culine nor feminine.
In words like jj~$ pisaru and j/^6 dukhtaru the j is diminutive : these
words are distinctly vulgar and should be avoided.*
t
The wordy^. khalu is a maternal uncle " is from the Arabic J^ and has
for its feminine
Remark. By the uneducated, 3 is sometimes added in familiar talk, as
maharu bi-gir (t take hold of the camel's mahdr (nose-string) * *;
f j^l yaru amad va guft ** the fellow came and said" ; (yarn is here
used in a half- joking sense). 8
f* '
1 In Arabic the * is not silent ** In modern Persian haram-4 shah v*
*
" wife of Shah."
* Turks, also Afghans and Indians, give the e the broad majhul sound ; but in
mode n Persian the e is pronounced short as in the English verb ** to beg.**
8 Also kad-banu shud *& j& &$ "the girl is -married, i.e. became a mistress
of a house."
* In Kir man a vav (j), and in Teheran a ya (i/), is often vulgarly added to proper
names, as A^madu - jW^( and Ahmadl <^*>*^l for Ahmad *+*>\*
8 ghala **t^ is properly the feminine of &&5Z J^ Ar. '* a maternal uncle "which
is not used in Persian.
* In India yaru ^ is often vulgarly used as the vocative of yar jL?
DECLENSION. 61
(/) Kam-tarln ^.jM>, the superlative of ^ " little in quantity," has in
modern Persian for its feminine &*+!> l kamina, which in modern Persian
is used as a substantive by women instead of the pronoun "I" or "me/ 5
when writing to a superior. Ex. : (f**V or) >*** u^ ****^ kamfna 'arz
mi-kunad (or mi-kunam) "I (your slave) make petition"; ^^ **& ^U
^jlojAt oti&f bi-ln kamina javab iltijat bi-farmayid " kindly inform me (i.e.
your slave-girl the writer)." Kamina ***+ is apparently the feminine of
the contracted superlative kamtn.
(g) Arabic past participles, used as substantives, make their feminines
in the imperceptible [vide (c)]. Ex. : ^yo v^*^ mahbub-i man "my friend
(male)," (^ &jfw> mahbuba-yi man "my friend (female)": fy**j* marhum
"the deceased (male)"; ax^yo marhuma (female): (j^**x> and &?>**
ma'shuq* and ma'shuqa "beloved": &*&*> mutallaqa* "a divorcee" (set
free). Vide also 43 (*).
(h) Real feminines, i.e. nouns expressing living things that are feminine,
are called &**&* ^V or c5^ **>^*, as opposed to ^^^ j** *J^x O r
i^U** %J^x> "grammatical or irregular (Jit. 'heard') feminines," such as
shams (_r+ * c the sun,' * arz o^f * ' the earth/ * which are feminine in Arabic.
Semark. u&s) Co>* are Arabic words that are feminine by form, as
jannat** ; &jtf [fern, of j^f ].
26. Declension, Tasrlf or Qardan ( ^1*3*3 or 4_jbyj ).*
There is only one declension.
(a) When indefinite, the accusative case is usually the same as the
nominative : when definite f; ra is affixed to the nominative.
(6) The dative is formed by prefixing the preposition &? 6 bi to the
nominative, or by affixing \j raJ>
1 In classical or modern Persian kamina is used as a positive adjective signifying
* mean, vile.* la the Panjab it is used in the plural or qualifying a collective noun to
signify "camp followers/*
guft kamina an ki murad-i
" he said the least {of their qualities) is that they put the desires of their friends before
their own comfort, i.e. they are unselfish : an izajat after kamina is wrong. Here S*adi
used *M*^ as a masc. superlative. Vide 40 (a) (2).
2 In classical Persian &\* 'aahiq is generally used for the male lover, while <3>** IL *
or v^ 3BVX ' ^ e beloved * is generally considered to be feminine of necessity, and is not
therefore distinguished by the feminine termination : vide also 43 (t) (6).
3 In Arabic (J^-k is more usual for divorcee,
* These, especially gar dan &\&f t also signify " conjugating a verb.'*
6 Seldom written separately in its full form unless the word following it begins with
a 6. The dative with *J is generally used in m.c. in preference to t>
52 DECLENSION.
Remark. The ra I; of the dative case is sometimes considered the
equivalent of the izafat: in yak-l ra khar-i dar gil uftada bud )t </* \> ^
& ted*\ JS - (class.), the same meaning could be expressed by ^ ^
Wwr4 yak-i.
(c) The vocative is formed by prefixing ^t ay or ya " oh" , or one of
the interjections calling attention. For the vocative in alif in poetical or
rhetorical language vide 27 (e) and 118.
(d) The Ablative, Instrumental, and Locative cases are formed by
prepositions.
(e) There is no proper Genitive in Persian. This case is expressed by
coupling two nouns together by a short t (or kasra *r^) 1 called by gram-
marians the kasra^yi izafat ju*X*| \j~ ("the i of annexation" or " the
i of joining"), or more commonly *l*tff izafa or izafat. The thing possessed
is placed first. Ex. : J& j~$ pisar-i ] malik (< the son of the king ' ' ; ^*J wti^
uL* kitab-i pisar-i malik " the book of the son of the king."
Remark
Grammarians enumerate many kinds of izafat :
(1) The izafat-i tashbthi ( tH*~> c*iU ) < the similitudinary izafat, 5
and izafat-i isti'ara tyl***i oJl*# ( the metaphorical izafat,' vide (12) and (2) (iv).
(2) The izafat-i tawsifi ( ^a*-^ oJUf ) f the izafat of qualification,*
as w>^ ^yo. Here mar^is termed * the (noun) qualified/
The qualifying izafat * is subdivided into :
***
(i) The j***> t^ ft i-*y o**Ur the simple qualifying izafat, as mard-i khub
(it) The ^ <.$&**** cuS-M where the substantive is qualified by a
privative adjective, as darkht-i K barg ^ ^ ^^ <4 a leafless tree" ; mard-i
kam-'aql J^ f$ ty* " a man deficient in sense."
(Hi) The ^*y t*%*P uuA^t where the substantive is qualified by a
compound agential adjective, as mard-i sukhan-chm &**$ cr*^* ^7* <i a criticiz*
ing (fault-finding) man." Vide (vii).
(iv) The ^affi cA-^P a**W where the substantive is qualified by
a metaphorical iadjective, as marfci sang-dil J^ vJi* < ^x> <f the stony-hearted
man."
( v ) L*$^J* o*k tf*^^ ****^ where the substantive is qualified by a com-
pound privative agential adjective, as pisar-i na-sa'adat-mand txi* o^
< undutiful son."
1 In modern Persian this i is often pronounced like the e in bed. The second
noun is in construction and is called **Jf oUl*. I n modern colloquial Arabic the two
nouns are placed in juxtaposition without any sign of the genitive case, as, ibn malik " a
son of a king "; tbnu'l-malik " the son of the king,*' etc.
DECLENSION. 53
(vi) The ertH&*<^%^ oJUf is where the substantive is qualified by
two adjectives.
(vii) ^j*)J\ oU* ig* ^^y cuiUt links a substantive to a compound ad-
jective the first part of which qualifies the second part, as a$p-i tiz-raftar
jU*j jjj Y~\ (= asp-i t%z_s -~*i). Vide (Hi).
(3) The izafat-i zarfi 1 ( ^*j& A>iUf ) ' the adverbial izafat,' as sht#ha-yi
gulab ^^ <la. (c bottle of rose water, " or conversely ab-i shisha &&* vJf
" bottle water," abi-i birka tfj* v f " tank water.' 1
(4) The izafat-i fa'ili ( ^U oJUl ) "the agential izafat," as fatu-
shanda-yi kitab ^li^ x*>ijy' " seller of books."
(5) The izafat-i maf'uli ( I^JA&Q cJUt ), as sulchta-yi aftab ^(^ &Ly
" burnt by the sun."
(6) The izafat-i tamllkl ( <j^+> *&*Mt ) " the possessive or property
izafat" or the izafat-i haqiqi ( ^^a^ o.-^ ) "the true izafat," as ganj-i
hakim ^Cx *& "the sage's treasure (i.e. the 1st chapter of the Qur^an) ;
Shah-i Iran cil^l l& " the Shah of Persia." Vide also No. (8).
(7) Izafat-i taJchslsi (^^x^J cuU{) < the particularizing or specificizing
izafat, " as dukan-i qassdb ^& eXi. t{ the butcher's shop,"
(8) Izafat-i tabyini ( 4/H^ ^ ;( ^ ) or izafat-i bayanl (^^ vsJUi) i{ the
descriptive izafat," as s&at-i tila && o^^U tr a watch of gold.' *
The descriptive izafat includes the jJ* ^^ cu^'t^t which shows posses-
sion of the 1st person singular, as, kitab-i man &# wll? " my book"; the
j^\ * ^Kixs ^t^j c^JUt which shows possession of the speaker and his friends
(i.e. 1st person plural) , as kitab-i md U ^U' - < O ur book "; the wJ^^^^ ^# o,*l*f
shows possession of the person addressed; the &Ji jlx> ^(y cuil^i shows
possession of the third person, as kifab-i u^\ *JX " his book."
These might also all be included under "the possessive izafat"
(No. 6).
(9) The izafat-i tawziM ( ^^H^y wi*Uel ) "the izafat of manifestation,"
which is nearly identical with the ' izafat of specification (No. 7),' as, Jcitdb-i
thdistan ( c*UL~Jl wUtf ) "the book Gulistan"; ruz-i shamba AM^ ^
"Saturday."
Remark. The difference between the two is that the members of the
second compound can be reversed, as SJiahr-i Mash,had *^x> j^ or Mash, had
Shdhr j^ ^** ; but in the first they cannot be reversed,
(10) The iqafat bi-'l-jins ( u^sJt? o,^U| ) "the cognate izafat," as
bad-i saba ( U* ^ ) t( the morning breeze."
(11) Izafat-i ibm J^\ cuiUt " the izafat of filiation," as 'Abbas-i *AK
^ cr^ " Abbas son of AIL"
(12) The izafat-i tashbihi ( ^^^ oJUt ) " the izafat of simile/' as nargis-i
chasm* ^>- >j&j " the narcissus of the eye (i.e. the eye like a narcissus)/'
i garf <Jj& "
8 Properly nargfo-chaahm is an implied simile and nargia-i ohaam a metaphor.
54 DECLENSION.
Theizafat-i fetf'ara* *'jULi eJU; "the izafat of metaphor" or the
izafat-i majazi ^jl**.* vs*U*j " , the figurative izafat ,' ' as dast-i 'aql cUc c**o ' c the
hand of wisdom " and daftar-i shikayat c*>w yi>. The distinction between
the two is that in the former there is an implied simile, in the latter there is
not.
(13) For fakk-i izafat cu^'U! ^>* and izafat-i maqlutt <?>&* cu'Uf "the
inverted izafat" vide 117.
(/) If the first substantive terminates in a semi- vowel ( ^ - j - f ), or in a
siletot A, 1 the izafat is pronounced yi and is then no longer written * but
as follows :
(1) After silent h it is written * or *, as, y &LL khana-yi mard* " the
house of the man."
For the pronunciation of hamza when it stands for the ^ of unity,
etc., vide 41 (c). 8
Remark. After aspirated * it is written ~; as, <jJyc! j>Jy o~# blst
*
nuzdah-i amval-ash " nineteen- twentieths of his wealth."
(2) After alif or vav it is in modern Persian written <^,* without *, as
*j* ts't pa-yi mard (C the foot of the man ' ' ; Jf ^tbu-yigul <( the scent of the
rose (or flower)." It used also to be written * or *, asjl ^ rS-i/i %,u^ ^t^>
tada-yi butand ; but modern Persians maintain that * is incorrect in such
cases as also after LS : in the latter case they maintain that kasra is
correct. 6
Should however the final alif stand for *f at the end of Arabic words the
w* *
izafat is, or should be, written in the ordinary way, as o^^j! Jbbj^Ui c_&L>
Bafk-i dima*-i ziyada az hadd < * shedding blood to excess ' * ; ^^ &+* sama-i
Inland <4 the lofty sky." In these two examples *kcj> stands for *W
"streams of blood," pi. of ^ ** blood," and *U* for A*-* (pL of^*-*) : vide
also 4 (e). As however the final * of Arabic words is often disregarded in
Persian, such forms as ^ <^a*j commonly occur for ^y* &>
1 But not after an aspirated h as in mah, f< a moon ; j& 2 U u$ yak-iriah-i dtgar
*>
** another month," but yak mahl-l dlgar j*& u 3 ^ 1 -* <~& ** another fish,"
* The hamza-yi izafat is Persian and has nothing to do with the Arabic hamza.
8 Affcera final ^ *> the izafat is also written in the ordinary way, ,7 instead of *,
as*^^^ yt*** I but *, though perhaps more correct, is not used for the izafat after
^S in modern Persian though so used in India.
* In order to distinguish it from the ^ of unity vide 41 (6). This ^ IB called yo~
yi izafat.
* Persians never write jl^j etc. They also state that ly\ykU is correct and
incorrect.
DECLENSION. 55
(3) After final ^ it is usually written in the ordinary way T, as, t^^U
^
maht-yi darya " the fish of the sea''; but according to some grammarians
it should be written * (or * ), as (%* ^U. As however final <^ with * is liable
to be mistaken for the i^ of unity following a weak consonant (vide
4 (g), the former method is preferable.
After a silent ^ preceded by fathah (i e. alif-i maqsura) or by tanwn fathah
f& t^^ at the end of Arabic words, the final ^ is changed to alif and the
izafat c^'Uf expressed by <jr, as, c/f ^i** ma'na-yi an " its meaning." The
Arabic ^Ux> * is also pronounced in Persian ma'm and may therefore
optionally in the genitive be written e>T { J^^ (or, as above e/f c^^" ).
Similarly da'va-yi ishan may be written d^J c$t^, or eA^t <^^^> though it has
the same meaning would be pronounced da'm-yiwhan.
Proper names, however, should not be, but often are, changed; thus
jA+.u j^yo Muqs Payy&ambar or incorrectly ^*+**2 C5^X*> Musa-yi Pay-
ghambar " Moses the Prophet"; &*~* c5^H^ for ^-^ v^-*^. ; but 'Isi-yi
, {- C
Maryam or <Isq-yi Maryam.
With the exception of case (2), the sign of the izafaty&*i'$ is omitted
in writing and printing, it being a short vowel.
(4) In modern Persian an absolute genitive is expressed by prefixing the
word JU mal ' * property/* 2 Ex. : ^^j J^ mal~i zamm ff of or belonging to the
earth " ; o^t b)d JU jj^ ^f Inchiz mal-i darya ast (( this is imported" (belong-
ing to, or coming from the sea) : to the question, ** whose son is this ? " the
answer might be &* J^ mal-l man v< mine, *' or (*;^y <J^ mal-t baradar-am
s *
c< my brother's. 5 '
In mc. this word mml JU is frequently inserted unnecessarily, especially
by the vulgar. Ex. : e>&-H^ J^* *J*~4* qunsul m&l-i Slstan i the Seistan
Consul (i.e. not the Kerman Consul) ' ' ; c~*! ^^ JU mal-i qadwn ast (for qadim
ast) fl it is ancient, or of ancient days.' '
(g) The Indians and Afghans do not pronounce the i%afat like yi [vide (/)
(!) and (2)], but whether expressed by * or 45 they give it the classical pro-
nunciation of jo-e majhul, as : &y* &U* kh&na-e mard, ^ ^^ w5J&>e dar^.
(h) After the semi- vowels and silent A, the izafat is by them generally
written, if written at all, as explained in (/} (1) and (2). A kasra %j~ may
however accompany *or ^ as !** &<&> banda-e khuda " the servant of God "
j*$ &^ 1* e padar B <<; the place of the father "; or instead of a ^, hamza
is the correct Arabic form.
^ The broken Arabic plural J,j*l amwal is only used in the sense of " possessions*
property, wealth, etc."
3 In modern Persian
56 EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION.
and kasra may be written as, J? *# bu-e gul ^ *U.* This form is common
in the Punjab.
In practice the * with <^ of the izafat is suppressed for the reason men-
tioned in 4i (d).
Remark /. In #s cKv tc a demon," j>&^ khadw " Khedive,' ' giariv
* * clamour, lamentation ' ' and such words the 5 is treated as an ordinary
consonant and not as a weak consonant or semi-vowel, i.e. it takes the
kasra ( ~) for the izafat.
Remark II. Nouns are called proper ism-i-lchas ( u^ p*\ ) ; common
ism-i-'dm ( ^U ^t ) ; collective ism-i jam' ( 5+^ p*' ) ; generic ( o^ <*~f )
A concrete noun (ism-i zat) is the name of something that has a concrete
existence as opposed to an abstract noun ism-i si fat or ma'na ( <^i**> or
cJi>*f%{). The term abstract is specially applied to that class of nouns
which is formed from adjectives and denotes character, as, " goodness'*
t^j, and more generally to all nouns that do not name concrete things, as,
fj "kingdom."
Nouns are also "primitive " ( <**U p~\ ), and "derived ' ' ( <5&x ^\ ).
A noun is * definite ' ma'rija ( **f* ) or * indefinite ' nakira ( %* ).
For definite and indefinite articles vide 40-2, When a common noun is
made definite, and, by an allusion that is understood, is used to supply the
place of a proper noun, it is called ^*<i ^ AXJ ma^md-i zihm, thus an dust
<z**j^1 meaning J{ So-and-so, our friend about whom we're talking." When
a common noun is used as an epithet or nickname, i.e. as a proper and
definite noun, it is called ^^ ^**>; thus KhalU J*i^ "The Friend (of
God)/' an epithet for Abraham. Vide also 25 (a) (1).
27. Examples of Declension.
(a) Singular Number ^i*, or &ji or, ^'5 a<xc.
Halai (cJ^) "case"
N. 2 ^li eJU mard *j* man or the man.
f dastri, mard ty* cu**5 the hand of the man,
G. s cu>Uf <iJU> j khana*yiffiard ,yo ^ ! ^ the house of the man.
( pa-yi mard * ty* <^U the foot of the man.
l The izafat o'^t is occasionally expressed in these manners in old MSS. written
in India, Note that* modern Persians would s&ybanda-yi Tchuda y f<^ f*V ; ja-yi pidar
Fa'il ( J^l*) ^subject." Maf'til ( J>*axi ) "object" is applied to any case
governed by a preposition.
8 Of two words coupled by the izafat O^l^J the first is called the muzaf ( oUa* )
and the second the muzaf ilayh ( *J| oUi* ).
* In India and Afghanistan pronounced j* <Xil*x fehanfre mard and &j* 4.5^ pa-e mard.
For another form of the genitive in m.c. vide 26 (/) (4).
EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION. 57
( mardrra 1j t>/> to the man.
JLs <
( bi-mard ^ l to the man.
A 9 t ,, (mard-ra \\ &** the man.
Ace.* t 5O** X5 <&J(** ] ^
(. mard ty *nan.
V. *f*x> iJU> ray ward ^ c$f oh man.
or -5
jj ( marda
Ab. ( ^A. oJU ) az manZ jy* jf from the man.
T|he remaining cases are formed by adding the prepositions.
f 9 ^.'
Remark. The accusative case is also called & JJ*AX> and the ablative is
>*c /o^u" O a jf^ox
sometimes called <*i* J>** and the locative &* J>*AAJ.
* * *
The dative in fjis considered the accusative.
(b) The plural /am* ( **. ) is declined in precisely the same manner.
(c) In classical Persian and in modern poetry the particle y mar is
sometimes added to some of the cases. It is generally redundant but
occasionally restricts the meaning to the case in point.
With the nominative it is emphatic, as o^ mar jan* " the life itself"
u)f^ mar an "that very/'
(d) Vulgarly the accusative sign ro ?; is supplanted by one of the short
vowels, thus marda, mardu or mardi for mard ra. This is said to be a sur-
vival of a Pahlavi termination.
In asbu ra biyar fa* bj***< > the ^ is a vulgar diminutive.
(e) A form of the vocative chiefly found in poetry is formed by affixing
a to the nominative, as ^Ub bulbula fi O nightingale "; ^**?^ dusta <( O friend/*
This form is found in the singular only. If the nominative ends in a or in
a long vowel , the euphonic rule in 28 (c) is applied. Danghfi ^^ * * alas 5! and
M* 5 ^ Khudjaya <4 O God" are still used colloquially. The vocative in a
cannot be followed by the izafat, thus, bulbula (or ay bitlbul*
This preposition *? ia seldom written separately except before a w.
Fa'tt {JrU) ^subject.** Maj'ul (J^***) ^object 5 * is applied to any ease
by a preposition.
Har ki daru dad mar jan-i mat a
Burd 8\mu zarr u mar jan-i mar a. Mawlavi.
c * Whoever will heal my loved one
He will get from me silver and gold and coral."
Zarr for zar by poetical license.
* The bulbul of Persia (Sylvia luscinia) is a real nightingale and must not be
confused with the bulbuls of India and Turkish Arabia : its song in the writer's opinion
is not inferior to that of the English nightingale.
58 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
" oh bulbul," but butiul-i bagfai ma U> ^U Jxb " oh bulbul of our garden."
For this vocative qualified by an adjective, vide 118.
Nouns ending in silent * do not admit of this form of the vocative. 1
28. Formation of the Plural ( **> ) Classical Persian.
s \
There are two numbers, singular and plural. Old Persian ( p?,*3 <j*j* /
had a dual : later Persian had none.
The following are the rules for formation of the plural in classical
Persian :
(a) Rational beings and animate nouns form the plural by adding eiU
Ex. : *U^ ( J padsliah "a king," pi. cMly^b padshah-an; ^f asp " a horse,"
pi. aspdn eAH ; Irani ^f^f " a Persian," pi. Iraniyan e^f^t.*
Remark I. If the noun end in ?, as ^^ Jiaki ' c a narrator ' ' it follows
the general rule, the final ^ becoming a consonant, as: eA^k* hakiyan.
Similarly kay ^ " king " has kayan &(*?, etc.
Remark II. The origin of this plural termination is stated to be a
repetition of the demonstrative pronoun e>f, i.e. "that and that," or in
other words "more than one."
(6) Inanimate objects and sometimes irrational animals form the plural
by adding t* lia. Ex.: *J& kitab "a book," pi, ty&? kitab*ha; Y*** f ^P
t( a horse," pi. ^J*f asp-ha (as well as asp-an &{$<*>).
Remark L There are exceptions to this rule. Sa'd! uses the plurals
^Ua^ and c)Uit^. This is perhaps done to confer dignity on these nouns, the
plural in of being more noble than the plural in U. Still under this supposi-
'tion it is not easy to account for such plurals, as ^^^ - e^jjU e>W$> and
tM[). The plural in an e>f is frequently used both in prose and poetry for the
sake of rhyme.
Remark II. Rarely in classical Persian the plural in ha is used for living
creatures, as: ndmburdaha U ^ ^ * s the (people) mentioned above ":
(Iqb. Namaryi J,, p. f U ed. Bib. Ind. of Beng. As. Soc.).
Remark III. In a few words a distinction is made, as : saran ^!j***(m.c.)
^chiefs," but sar-lm U^ " heads,"
Rukh <) " cheek " has in modern Persian either rukhan c)^) or rukh-hd
; similarly angushtdn e;ti&&. and angushtha ^s>\ t fingers"; akhtaran
and akktar-ha U^Lxt " stars " ; abru-ha U^Jt and abruvdn ^Ij^f "eye-
brows."
1 If they did there would be no distinction between the plural and this form of the
vocative.
> The word Yazdan "God" (also Izad *}>! and Yazd <&. ) is said to be the
corruption of a Pehlevi pi. and to have been originally used in a plural sense.
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 59
(c) In forming the plural in an, if the noun ends in alif t, or else in a^ u
from which a ^ is apocopated, a ^ is inserted for the sake of euphony.
Ex.: lifa dana "a sage," pi. i^bty^ dana-yan; ^ (^J pari-ru (f or <^$j) ^jj)
" fairy-faced," pi. e^^j pari-ruyan.
After a final j, when radically final, the <^ is omitted. Ex. : jjlj bazu
"the arm, the upper part of the arm," pi. &\j)(> bazuwan, jj*\ abru 1 " the
eyebrow," pi. &\jy\ abruvan*
Remark I. The plural of UJ niya "grandfather, ancestor" is
niyagan.
Remark II. The plurals (J*ft*> saliyan and c^ A ^ are occasional^ met
with as plurals of sal Jk*> and mah fa. These are exceptions and rare. The
regular plurals of these words are to be preferred.
(d) If the word ends in an obscure , this is, before o!, generally changed
into J 5 as *j>y murda c< dead " (past partic.), pi. ^tj* murdagan.
Sometimes, but rarely, the * is retained in writing, as \J JJ*^ : this is
incorrect.
In poetry the plural termination gan is employed contrary to rule :
* * *
Qa-ani says :
(e) If the noun is inanimate and ends in silent A, this h usually and
properly disappears in the plural, as : &*b nama ** a letter," pL %*& namaha.*
If however by the elision of the * any ambiguity is likely to tirise, it is
better to retain it, thus, *Jl^>c mahalla* **a quarter of a town" has for its
plural & al^vc^ i n preference to the correct ^i^ } which latter might easily be
**
mistaken for the plural of JU**. In modern Persian the * is genera ly
retained.
l Must be distinguished from the word j^ff ab-tu ** honour.**
4 The plural o>? dw and similar words is divan c>l^*i, or (mod.) divha
vide 26 (h) Remark. Modern Persians often pronounce these bazivan cJ|j>3 and abri*
8 As l^l> may stand for either riamha ^^ ** names ' ' or nama-ha UA^U < letters/ '
it is usual in modern Persian to write the latter k **>^. For the same reason tha
plural namajat e^la^cG s preferred. Similarly other words, ^t*^ "houses" for
instance, might in modern Persian be mistaken for ^ u>^> fyhan-ha khans. If the
orthographical sign jazm be written this ambiguity disappears. To avoid such
mbiguifcy the spurious plural u>&*!^ is used even in colloquial.
* The final of Arabic words ought logically to be retained.
60 FOKMATION OF THE PLURAL.
Remark. Nouns ending in * preceded by a long vowel 1 follow the
general rules in (a) and (6), thus U b plural IA U^b; *j rah " a road,"
pi. to afj rah-ha. Both the letters shouldbe pronounced, i.e. the word should
be pronounced as written.
(/) Arabic words take the Persian plural or the Arabic broken plurals ; *
Ex.: w^ kitab t( a book," Pers pi. ^ifc kitdb-ha, Arabic broken pi.
kutub ; JU>U 'amil " a labourer," pi. o^* 1 * 'amilan and *U* <amala. s
Remark. The broken (or irregular) plurals jam'-i mukassar
are commoner in Arabic than the regular masculine plurals, and are applicable
to both rational and irrational beings. Some words in Arabic take the
regular as well as one or more broken plurals.
There are two kinds of broken plurals recognized by Arabic gram-
marians, * the plural of paucity ' and ' the plural of multitude,' vide Arabic
Grammar ; but the distinction is not observed in Persian except by a few
pedants.
In the rhetorical style, almost any Arabic word and its broken or inner
plural can be used. Sometimes a word has several broken plurals : if such a
word be used in different meanings in the singular, it will generally take one
plural in one sense and another in another. Ex. : from <^-#. bayt " a house or
tent, a verse in poetry," we get c^# buyvt. "houses," and oUjf abyat
<&?
"verses"; J^t* Ct a labourer," pi. <*JUc "labourers" and JU* 'umvml
"agents."*
f
(g) The regular feminine plural in Arabic ends in e>?, which is an
expansion of the regular feminine affix * ; thus, masc. f?, karim,** " kind."
fern. *+*/ karimal 11 * and fern. pi. oU.^ karimat"* ; in Persian karlm y karima,
kanmaL
1 This h is of course not * silent * nor * obscure,* but aspirate^.
2 Called also inner plurals because they are formed, not by affixed terminations, but
by internal change. They are really collective forms, and in Arabic are trfeated
grammatically as feminine singular, even when they apply specially to males.
: These broken plurals are a difficulty in Arabic and only a less difficulty in Persian :
they are so irregular and various that no rules really help the student. Arabic
grammars give long tables of the various * measures ' of these plurals which however
only bewilder the beginner. The broken plurals of all words met with in reading should
be written down and committed to memory. If this be done, the learner will be
surprised to find that in a short time they ceaso to be a serious difficulty.
8 In m.c. this word is used as a singular and the plural is formed by the barbarous
form 'anwlajat eU> &Uc.
* Compare the English plurals * pennies ' denoting a number of penny-pieces and
* pence f so much value ; * fishes 'and * fish ' ; * cows ' and * kine ' ; * brothers * and
brethren.'
FORMATION OP THE PLURAL. 61
This regular feminine plural is frequently used for nouns with a neuter
$** * f >
sense, as fU*. Jiammam un "a bath," pi. oU>U*> hammamat"*; 1 J(*> hdl 11 *
f *~ /
"condition," pi. oj/l*. haldt un \ *U* * samd un "heaven," pi. ofjU*.
samdwdt vn .
The regular feminine plural of Arabic nouns with a neuter sense is of
common occurrence in Persian, but the regular feminine plural of rational
beings is rare; thus, j*& 'aduv " an enemy" (masc.) takes in Arabic the
regular feminine terminations, singular and plural, but in Persian the word
is both masculine and feminine. 3
Remark. The Arabic noun of relation or relative adjective is formed
by affixing the syllable <^T and rejecting all such inflections as the of the
& 1 *
feminine, or the dual and plural signs. Ex. : x> " Mecca" ; ^^Co " a person
of Mecca." In Persian this final ^ has no tashdid. In Arabic, from the
relative adjective a collective plural may be formed by simply adding the
6
wj
feminine termination ; as ^y^ dahriyy un (in Persian ddhri ^s r *>) " one
who asserts the eternity of matter and denies the resurrection or the world
to come, atheistic"; *y>^f ad-dahriyyat^ (< the sect who hold this belief."
This collective plural 111 Persian (without the Arabic article) is *^d dahriyya*
Only a few plurals of this description are used in Persian, principally those
of various religious sects. Qajariyya &>;W^ " the Qajars" (the tribe of the
reigning Shah) is used in m.c.
(h) Plurals of plurals (^W 1 *^-)- An additional broken plural is in
1 This plural is rare in modern Persian : hammam-ha ^U^. is preferred both in
speaking and writing.
2 In classical Arabic the alif with ma>1da would be given the ordinary sound, then
the hamza would be pronounced and finally the tanwln : * vide * 4 (e) Remark, The
modern Arabs have simplified the word into sama, while the modern Persians say sama,
slightly prolonging the final alif. In ofjU** the hamza is changed intoj : in Arabic also
f
written oi^U*
s In modern Persian the feminine *?*** may occur in writing. ****! J** 'aduv-i
a s da? signifies ** deadly enemy ** (lit, enemy of enemies) : dutshman-i duskmanan
<*;U*<&^ {)+*> has a different signification, viz. the enemy of (my) enemies, i.e. my friend,
but dushmantarln-i dushmanan &{*+& ^3 *.?+*o is used in this sense of " the
+ 9. * '
greatest enemy." In Arabic j& ^^r is the idiom and not *fM J^, though the
latter is grammatically corract.
Words like oUJ&J naqliyyat and e?lA*A^ wahmiyyat meaning *' things narrated,*'
and " things imagined,*' are the regular feminine pi. of the Arabic adjectives ^^
and t5**j (vide relative (.s) f**j wahm the substantive '* conjecture, imagination"
has for its broken plural f^jf awham.
62 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
Arabic sometimes formed from the broken plural, as, *> yad" n " a hand,"
(for cf4>j), pi. u*t aydl " hands," pi. of pi. <j^bf ayddl " hands; benefits."
Sometimes the regular feminine plural is added to the broken plural, as
ju# fayt " a- house," pi. ct^j buyut "houses"; pi. of pi. oi^j buyutdt
lt a cluster of houses ";^A^ jawhar "a gem, jewel," broken pi. j**j=
jawahir "jewels," pi. of pi. otyKyx jawahirat " jewels of various kinds ":
jawhar j^^ is the Arabic form of the Persian gawkar^^. 1
The shade of difference in meaning between a plural and a plural of a
plural is not always observed, thus there is apparently no difference in
meaning between ($j> turuq (mod.) the broken plural of <3o* tartq "a road "
and the double plural e*U^l> turuqat (class, and rare), though the latter ought
to signify " many roads and ways." 2
(*) A barbarous plural is sometimes made by affixing to an Arabic
broken plural the Persian plural termination U, thus ^*>j& zurufhd from
zuruf " vessels " the broken plural of zarf; 8 ^^1 "many kindnesses " from
alfaf otW{, broken plural of lutf.
These double Persian- Arabic plurals occur only in nouns with a neuter
sense.
(j) A few words purely Persian have been adopted by the Arabs and
given an Arabic broken plural, and the Persians have in tore borrowed the
broken plural of their own Persian word.; thus the Persian word ejty farmdn
becomes fardmm u ( *j^^* ) in the plural, and in Persian without the final
vowel of the classical Arabic, faramtn.*
The word andgur )J&\ 5 " grapes " is vulgarly used by Persians as the
plural of the Persian word angur )y&\. There are probably one or two other
Persian words, vulgarly arabicized in this manner by the Persians.
Dastur ;^i a Zardushtl priest, pL dasdtir j*s^& ; Kkdn e>^% Persian,
a title like squire, Arabic pi. &&j** khavdmn (m.c.), used only in Persian.
(k) In imitation of the regular feminine plural in Arabic, the termina-
tion of at is sometimes added to Persian words, thus e&jy navdzisMt
" favours" and cuU^Uji farmdyishdt ** orders, commands,"
>^ are used in m.o. Persian, but c^l anc * c^^f only occur in
high-flown Persian.
* In Urdu the same broken plural may be a plural in one part of India but a
singular in another.
8 Zarlf ** witty, ingenious " has for its common plural zurafa 9 *
w- 9
* Such a word is said to be y^ mu'arrab " made Arabic " or <4 Arabicized }> :
this term is applied to any foreign word adopted into Arabic. Similarly a word is said
***
to be <j;&' mufarraa ** made FSrsi," i.e. adopted into Farsi or Persian.
* Anagur is of course an imitation broken plural : the correct form would be
anaglr.
For the Arabic dual with a purely Persian word vide 29 (i).
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 63
When the word ends in a silent h, the affix of this bastard Arabic plural
becomes oU. and the h ( * ) disappears, 1 thus *&y navishta " a written com-
munication " (past participle of the pure Persian verb navishtan " to write")
becomes e>t*JLy navishtajat, and the Arabic word <**!* qaVa* "a fort"
becomes ci>U\*ljf qal'ajdt. This plural occurs only in nouns with a neuter
sense. An exception e>U?uUc : vide p. 60, note 3.
These imitations were considered vulgar and were rarely used in clas-
sical Persian.
Remark. Sometimes the broken Arabic plural and the imitation plural
have different significations, thus from fja dawa Ar. " medicine," the broken
pi. *JjM adviya signifies in Arabic (t medicines," but in modern Persian
"spices," while the Persian plural eU^ davajat signifies in modern
Persian " medicines."
(/) Regular masculine plural Arabic , jam'-i sahth or jam' 4 sdlim ( ^^^ +=*
or jJU +>*> ). The regular plural masculine in classical Arabic has two cases
s ^
and is formed by affixing to the singular e>j un* for the nominative, and ^
m a for the remaining cases : these are an expansion of the singular Arabic
terminations. Thus in classical Arabic, the regular nominative pi. of JUU
is tijjUt* *amilun* ** workers,"
In modern colloquial Arabic the second affix only is used with the
omission of the final vowel, thus 4^1U 'amilln (for all cases) " workers."
In Persian, Arabic plurals in un<* &) occur only in quotations from the
classical Arabic. The modern plural however is occasionally used. Ex.:
^^Uo mu'astrin (in writing and speaking) "contemporaries,"
(m) Arabic Dual iasniyah ( *i^ ). The dual in classical Arabic is formed
by adding to the singular &l an 1 in the nominative, and ^ ayn 1 in the other
" *
cases. In construction, or when followed by the affixed Arabic pronouns
the & drops out.
The classical dual occurs only in quotations from the Arabic.
In modern Arabic the dual is very rarely used : it is formed by adding
^ ayn for all cases.
1 The Persian tendency would be to transform * into <-, but the suffix being Arabic,
the Arabic-Persian letter is substituted for the pure Persian.
2 Qal'a A*JJ> ; the final h has no sound whatever. The Indians and Afghans say
*9
qila*. The Arabic broken plurals are f &S and f ^.
^ s V.
64 PLURALSMODERN PERSIAN.
In Persian this termination ayn only is used. Ex. : ^jti\ zu-'l-qarnayn l
' ' bi-cornous " (an epithet of Alexander the Great) ; e^*u j ^y ^'tLo SuMn-i
barrayn o bahrayn "Sovereign of the two continents and the two seas";
e^*/* haramayn "the two harams," i.e. the shrines of Mecca and Medina.
Vide 29 ().
(n) Akh f Ar. " brother" ; aTch-1 ^\ Ar. " my brother." The Persians
instead of akh^l generally say akhavii* c5>^' as : ^Maw Husayn mi-guy ad " my
brother Husayn says ." Hence akhavi has come to be regarded as one
word, as: akhavi-yi man vulg. "my brother" and akhavi-yi mukarram
(polite, in letters). The broken plural ikhwan <^!>=M is used in the sense of
brethren (religious), as: ikhvan-i safa, i.e. ham-dinan.
The plural of ukht o^f sister is akhavat o!>3wl : akhavat-i mukarrama
is an address in preaching.
29. Plurals Modern Persian.
In the modern language, spoken or written, the plural in U is by far the
most used : it is applied to nearly every substantive, animate or inanimate,
Arabic or Persian. 8 In official documents or in rhetorical writing, the plurals
in &) are still used, as well as the Arabic broken plurals and the Arabic
regular feminine plurals of inanimate substantives: Mullas, and travelled or
educated Persians, frequently use these plurals in speaking, when ordinary
people use the plural in * A .
Remark. In the vulgar form of the spoken plural the s of ^* is dropped*
Wt* _
Thus instead of bachcJia-Jia l*xu the vulgar say bachcha. Khuddman for
khudhd-man &l#b*tjA. is a double vulgarism.
(a) The plurals ^Ut! 4 " horses," e>bj^ "arms," u>?^~^ 6 glsuvan ** curls
1 Various reasons are assigned for this epithet : one is that it arose from the pattern
of helmet depicted on Alexander's coins ; another that it signified that he ruled lor two
garn &j*. According to a saying of the Prophet ten qarn &j* make a century, but
according to others the word means a space of ten years or any multiple thereof up to
!20. In m.c. it frequently signifies 30 years or 50 years. At this time the life is in
x
danger : d)*d e^* Afvj e#t In bachcha qarn darad (soothsayer's idiom) ** the life of this
child is in danger.* *
* In modern Arabic C5^ akhuya '* my brother."
* Zanan u^J, kharan cJt^, aspan cjU-f, gavan &^ t marduman e>^^/, shlran
&1j**> 9 pisaran ttJ(.j*^f du&htaran eity^.i f etc., are ail common in m.c. as well as their
plurals in ha.
* In m.c. generally pronounced aaban*
ft Ola u*$ or g\au ?~4 is also applied to a woman's long hair. The side locks
are called cAI) zulf and the fore locks *j*> chafar.
PLURALS MODERN PERSIAN. 65
or long back hair," cj!f*xu "slaves or servants," &\&)& " trees" and others
are still used by the professional story-tellers. 1
Muzhj* " eyelash" is in m.c. muzha fyo and the common plural is
muzhaM \& tfy*. The old plurals muzhagan ^(f)^, mizhagdn ejfcVj*: muzhgdn
&ty> and mizhgdn &tfj* came to be regarded as singulars ; hence the modern
form muzhqdn-hd l-^lfyo or mizhgdn-kd t^(fy.
(b) The rule for writing the plural in IA of substantives ending in silent h
(vide 28 (e) and Remark) is often neglected in modern Persian, thus U AiUt
may be written for l^U> and ^ for I ^JJ;.^
(c) A few Arabic broken plurals are used in speaking even by the vulgar ;
jj
thus *Uf ashyd* ' l things " fbf ayydm "days" (plurals of ^ shay* and
fj* yawm) are never used in the Persian plural: the word ^^A** kazarai
"sirs, gentlemen" (a word common in speeches) has no Persian plural.
Fuqard* t\J* (pi. of faqir "poor"), <^U} ahdli (pi. of ahl " people"), <jjJ>JU
saldjln (pi. of sultan), ^\ zavvdr s (pL of zcfir ** pilgrim"), &*>l~* masdjid
(pL of masjid ** mosque "), and a good many others are in common use even
by the uneducated.
Remark. In the m.c. a few broken plurals are incorrectly used as
singulars. Ex. : <*JU* <-& yak 'amala * f one workman/* o~-! &Ui ^f in fa'ala as^
** this is a labourer/* * For idu (= zawu pL of zu) * vide * under Zu.
Nd*ib v^^> ft a lieutenant," has for its plural nuvvdb v ! ^> ^ u ^ ^ n Persian
**?
by a change of the first vowel the word navvdb v^> nawab 5 (the title), is
used as a singular. Arbdb ^k) f (pi- ^ ra &b vj) m m * c if master" and has
for its Persian pL arbdbdn c^^)t and arbdbhd t^U>f : the singular rabb w) means
** Lord " (of the Deity only).
(d) Some Arabic regular feminine plurals are also used in speaking (as
well as in writing), as ^UJt* "tracts of country"; <^!>Us *un5ra (&&<*)
44 buildings."
Persian words with the imitation feminine Arabic plural {vide 28 (k)] are
also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as : ctUb bdg&dt (rare) ** gardens",
ci*U^ dihdt ^villages**, ci.UU^ khwdhishdt (m.o.) "wishes, desires**,
or j *A* qissar^h^an or qisaa-gu : also &$ CWA. hikayat-kun aad
^ - . .
ma'rakagir , i.e. " one who collects a crowd." (In m.c. *^* is often incor-
rectly pronounced qassa and
% The correct plural ^* *b is preferred in modern Persian.
3 In Persian generally (but incorrectly) zuvvar. In Arabic zdfir has also the
regular masculine pi. e^U*
* *JU* broken pi. of cU^, t^e 28 (/): *l** plural of
6 In India the tashdtd is usually omitted.
5
66 PLUBALS MODERN PERSIAN.
farmayisMt eulfyU^' "orders. When however the termination is cuU 1 the
silent h of the singular is often retained in writing, thus ei>U *jy a (instead
of cW^* mivajat "fruits."
(e) A few plurals of plurals with the feminine termination [vide 28 (&)]
-^
are also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as: CL^AI^ e>Uj# - ofjyo? ;
( jyf umur broken pi. of^*f amr).
The double plurals, one Arabic, one Persian, mentioned in 28 (i) are
also used in speaking.
Remark. In m.c. the double plural oUaJU* 8 "workers" occurs,
though cXU is not a * noun ' with a neuter sense : vide 28 (k).
(/) The plural of the Turkish word JL^I tl " a wandering or nomad tribe ' *
is oUL> lliyat (and incorrectly sometimes e&r Hat)*
(g) The substantive e>Uj~& biqsumat* " biscuits ", and the Turkish word
oUj5^ suyursat or oL*;^. sursat " rations, requisitions ", are either singular
or plural. The termination c,-l is not the plural termination.
(h) The regular Arabic plural, masculine, is occasionally used by
educated Persians in speaking (as well as in writing). Ex. : t^?*^ ^^y^la*. 6
M%irin-i majlis '* gentlemen" (addressing an assembly ; lit. those present in
the meeting) ; &*&j* *-* eH^***^ 5^*^- fami'-i mnltazimm-i ma budand (Shah's
Diary) " all our retinue were present."
(i) The dual is also occasionally used in speaking (as well as in writing).
Ex, : *ij tiHi*^ both sides of the road; ^~^ Hasanayn " the two Hasans/'
1 Sometimes an Arabic word is used in Persian with its correct Arabic pL termina-
tion and sometimes with the Persian imitation O^ ; thus wf** liavala ** a transfer
consignment '* is in the plural c*>Jf*_^x : in Persian ojli^a- (rare) is used as well as
Hal "state, condition**; J^t aftval and e.^S^f ahvalat, an Ar. double pl M
but only used in Pers, ; raqlm ^) ** letter ; tablet ** (in Persian raqlma with the> of
unity) Ar. pi. ^^J raqcfim, and Pers. raqlmajaL
* In modern Persian the 8 is generally retained in this word as well as in
(also oUd** ).
8 cUU has thus several plurals used in Persian (1) *JU* workmen,*' (2)
" agents," (3 and 4) oU.aU* and U*kc workmen' ' (bastard doubl<- plurals):
(6) the regular Arabic masculine plural eH^ x ^ '5wu7?n ( a>\^ vd*\* 'amiRn-i divan
(m.c.) *' Collectors of revenue '*), which is occasionally used as well as the classical form
^jjlxlc j the latter however is only used in classical Arabic or in a quotation from the
classical Arabic.
4 t^^M lliyatl, adj., signifies *'a man of the ifoyat euUbf am j nag a
l^jJUL) Hiyatl-ha.
6 The word bitkut e>^C^ ig also used in Persian as singular and plural.
**
* Hazir j*^ has also a broken plural jiuzzSr j\'**>.
PLURALS MODERN PERSIAN. 67
i.e. Hasan and Husayn, the two martyred sons of 'All : daulatayn ^jj^a *' the
two kingdoms," etc. : vide 28 (m).
In imitation of the Arabic, the dual is even occasionally added to
Persian words, 1 as :
Bisyar lab-i chu la'l u zulfayn-i a chu mushk ;
" and many a ruby lip and musky tress." (O. K* 137 Whin).
(j) A few words are found with the Turkish plural lar, ^ or jlf* as,
For an imitation broken plural of a purely Persian word vide 28 (?).
i.e., one curl on each side of the head behind the ear
CHAPTER HI.
PRONOUNS.
30. Personal Pronouns Ism -i Zamir ( l y^ ***\ ).
There is no distinction between the personal and possessive pronouns :
they are of two kinds, separate and affixed.
The separate personal pronouns are less used in Persian than the
personal pronouns in English, as, except when emphasis is required, the verb
terminations sufficiently indicate the persons.
(a) The following are the separate ( zamlr-i munfa&il <J*A&# ^-k+* )
pronouns :
N. fc/ man * I , k ma, or UU maha we (also mayan
Dat. ) . I Afg.).
V fr*> *nara* me, to me !
Ace. > J I
N. tu* thou j UA shwnS, or W*A skumaha (m.c.),
Dat * * fy Item thee to thee I y u ( aho *5y* ***** Pers. and
Ace. S j A fg.)._
( j| u B or <jj t?a^ he (also w*l e)^^ Ish&n, or^^ 6 ushan, they (also
? ^^t classical and poetical), i ^^'1 isT&nan Afg.).
Vulgarly, ma U is used instead of man 4^ as, Ma raffim ^i*^ U.
Compare the English vulgarism, * Give us a penny ' for * give me a penny.'
The vocatives of the 2nd personal pronoun are ay tu ki 3* ^\ , and ay
shuma ki tt U- <^f : such forms however are unchaste (g&ayr-i fasth). In
classical Persian however ay anki &f ^\ occurs as :
^A U pp o.*x> \s*+* * fj& o^jJ ^-Jb )& y J^-^ * &f c5"^
^1^ an^i bi-iqbal-i tu dar *alam nlst
Oiram ki gham-at mst gham-i ma ham nt$t ?
(Gul. chap. I, st. 13).
1 PI. >$U*. It must be recollected that all pronouns come under the head
of " iem " ^*f
* For ithe vocative of man c^ as a possessive pronoun vide 32 (6).
8 Sometimes vulgarly in m.c. man-ra \) (j^ ', but with the L$ ^ un ity manri-ra
*> is correct: vide 41 (y).
* Note that the j is pronounced short like . pish.
5 The Afghans often say o.
^ The Afghans say eshan, oshan ; and eahanan ; majhul sounds.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS -ISM-I ZAMIR* 69
The preposition & with J and ^ is generally written & and (# ; but
also, especially in poetry, bi-du & and ^^ bi-duy. In m.c. & is very
occasionally used: ejU^V is classical, and rarely, if ever, used in m.c. 1 The
preposition bi when used for the dative case is called ba-yi maf'ul Jy*** ^.
Vay <j-j is used for u j\ , for the sake of euphony , in the following sentence :
oAJ^jf U bi-vay guft (m.c, and classical). To avoid the repetition of the
second pronoun u ji, the vulgar also say u bi-an guft cui? ^b y " he said to
him." It may be said that vay is not used in m.c.
Remark I. The first personal pronoun is called fi&< mutakallim
" speaker"; the second v^* mukhatab "addressed" or _,<*(*> hazir
"present " ; and the third v^ gtfiyik " absent."
(b) For the third persons, the demonstrative pronouns ^t In " this " and
i^f an "that" with their plurals InhS (m.c.) and anha (m.c.) [or man ^1
class, and anan ^ class., vide 34 (b)] are sometimes used. Also jt is
sometimes substituted for the demonstrative pronoun ^f . Ex. :
Andarun az to* am khafi dar
Ta dar-u nur-i ma'rifat bm% (Sa'di) ;
here jf is used for of ': vide also 34 (n) No. 10.
Remark. *&1 an-fa (classical and in modern writing) is " he who";
not u ki &? jt.
(c) Instead of the first and third persons singular, s*u banda " the slave ' ? ;
u^^x> mukhlw "the (your) devoted"; J^r ^^\ ttW5j-iwft 4 " the (your)
most devoted;" & kamtarm "the least " ; and for the feminine &&f
{vide 25 (/} ] ; J*& kanlz s * 4 the (your) handmaiden or female slave," etc,,
are often used when addressing superiors, and sometimes to equals out of
respect*
In classical Persian (and in India and Afghanistan) these words are
always followed by the third person of the verb, both in speaking and
writing, as : *** \ji*j& i*v banda 'arz ml-kimad "I beg leave to represent"
(lit. the slave makes petition), but in modern Persian (except in official
documents) the first person is more usual even in writing, as : ^% u^* **M
" I the slave make petition " ; pte jJ^o> ***. ** ^f In banda chi taqsirdaram ?
(m.c.) u what fault has this slave (I) committed ? "
bar *on," j* dar "in,",Jf az il from," etc., u j and ishan Ot are
generally contracted into one word, as: j>p daru, o^!^ 6arwfeSn, jjj azu. Chunu
** is poetical.
^ cW klsh (classically kesh) is a subs, signifying " faith, religion ': in compounds
practising, addicted to. " Ex. : J^ ^> gwlw* kith " oppressive.' '
3 Also 4>*tf kanizak, properly the diminutive of kanlz j& .
70 PERSONAL PRONOUNS ISM-I ZAMIR.
(m.c.) "the mean"; j$ Uj> du'a-gft (in writing); ^U da't (in
+
writing); M aqatt (in writing) "the least" are also used as substitutes for
the first person. With the exception of s&*. haqir, these are all followed by the
third person singular of the verb : p&' 0^^*. haqw *arz nfi-kunam (m.e.)
"I this humble individual make petition ' ' ; *jl& j**u <^Uo &* chi dakhl-% bi~
haqfr darad (m.c.) "what has this got to do with poor me ? "
Remark. In Persia, a friend writing to an equal would use banda ****,
etc., with the first person ; to use the third person would be too abasing.
In addressing the Shah U, banda Jv and haqir j&*> do not express suffi-
cient humility; such phrases as fidaw <^*j, jan-nisar jlii &(*>, khana-zad
atj &iU> "house-born (slave)", khak-sar ^UTla., etc., are used. A common
^
signature is (oJU) aUJ| Jjff agatt* 'l-'ibad (fuldn) " the least of the slaves (so-and-
j^ jj
so) " : Sayyids sign t( aqall's- Sadat" cufdM cfcf and Rawza-khwans &^M\ J|
c * aqall*' z~zakirin" : Hajis may sign *Jl d&f aqall^l-Hajj.
(d) After o^ hazrat "Highness," ^ & Qibla-yi 1 'alam "Qibla of
the world," and similar respectful terms, the third person plural is used
(even when addressing people present), both in classical and modern Persian.
In m.c., however, after % J^ V W janab-i f ali ** Your Excellency " the second
person plural is preferred (but not in formal letters).
(e) As the plural is used instead of the singular in addressing people of
standing, its place is frequently taken in m.c. by the double plural. The
double plural in ^ of all three persons is used by the Afghans. In the m.c,
of Persian UI+& and e&*+-* are common; UU is less common, while the
plural of ii>^f is unknown,
(/) The following is an example of the use of these polite forms
of speech : <>-& &>!? ^^ ( 3 <JM c*^^ or ^tS- or ) <^lc v^ a>t-*jto^i farma-
yisMt-i Janab-i ( AEhali-yi banda na-shud C *I have failed to grasp Your
Honour's meaning."
Remark /. Man &* is the only one of the personal separate pronouns
that can properly be coupled to an adjective by an izafaL Ex. :
f
Chand gu*% ki bad-andtsh u hasud
*Ayb-juyan-i man-i misldn-and? (Sa*dl).
** How long wilt thou say that the malignant envious seek to find fault
with poor helpless me ? ' *
1 aJLu qlblah, the direction of the face in prayer, especially the direction of the Ka'bah
*&, the sanctuary of Mecca; the Arabic dual qiblatayn signifies Mecca and Jerusalem.
* Janab v^5" signifies mar gin," etc.; " threshold " and hence "a place of
refuge," and hence "Your honour, etc.": yH signifies "high." Even a Governor-
General in attracting attention would say to a Consul, Janab-i Qunsal d~*j5 v^
* Hazrat c^*aa^ is from the same Arabic root as^^^ fyuz&r '* presence ", and
ajatt is the Arabic comparative or superlative of d^ jalU " glorious, illustrious " s
must not be confused with <-M ojal **the appointed hour of death or doom.'*
THE AFFIXED PBONOUNS. 71
(*s> ^c man-i bar-bad 1 shuda (m.c.) " I the ruined one " ;
man-i maz.lum (m.c.) " I the oppressed."
The Afghans say *v &*> man-i banda, but classically and generally in
^
Persia the izafat is omitted ; man banda ^J i#*. Man banda, ummtd awarda
am fto>yf A*O| *jJj ^ (Sa'dl).
In m.c., the izafat is also incorrectly joined to the pronouns of the second
person singular, and the first and second person plural ; as, *x>;la ;i *o. ^ ^ai ^y
tu-yi* facfir ra chi kar ddrand (m.c. only) "what have they to do with
you, poor creature ? " ; xii&<o cxii i^^aaj ^ ^U U maha-yi bl taqsir ra aziyyat
mi-kunand (m.c. only) e they are punishing us though we have committed no
fault" : *if ^ u^ 5 " l^- ^^^ I) *>Nw c^^U-i shumaha-yi bl chara ra chird
mja hobs karda and ? (m.c. only) "why are you poor creatures imprisoned
here?"
Instead of ishan-i bichdra tylfvAJ &(&.)) (not used), anha-yi, bichara
*/?Hrf cfr^T is used in m.c., and an mardum-i bichdra *&& f&j* o>f in
writing.
Remark II. Man u iu y ^ ^< " I and thou 5> , " both of us ", is an ex-
pression of frequent occurrence, especially in poetry :
Bar-kfnz birawm az m vilayat imm u
Tu dasi-i niard biglr u man daman-i
31. The affixed Pronouns ( ^^ix^SU^ zama'ir-i mutt&sila).
(a) (I) The affixed pronouns are :
Singular. PlwaL
First Pers. ^ am my ; me ; to me cA* 10 ~^ * n#in>
Second pers. e>! at thy ; thee ; to tliee &$ v i tan
Third Pers. ijt\ ash his t hers, its; him, her,
it; to him, to her, to it ** ~ islmn
Remark. The plural of the affixed pronouns was in all probability formed
regularly, i.e. by adding the plural termination ^f an to the singular, thus ft
am " mine, me, etc." would result in the plural <^Uf am-an. However fatha
has now given way to kaora.
(2) In classical Persian ash <Ji and shan c?^ ,were used for animate
things only. In modern Persian they are applied to inanimate things also.
1 Barj* " on" and bad ^ * the wind" : bar bad raftan {^) d*j> to be destroyed;
bar bad dadan d)*\* *btf tr. to destroy."
* In ra.c. t>^>> tuv fchudaiB for \*&* ly tura bi>&buda: tuv 1shud<?l (vulg. and
local.) * without pay, impressed " ; perhaps a corruption of muft-i
3 In prose this would be tura.
72 THE AFFIXED PRONOUNS.
(3) In pronunciation these affixes should be, but seldom are, preceded
by a slight pause ; in other words they do not affect the syllabic accent of their
words, thus : e>tj>^ uAsw> )& (sj& *Ju5T 3 etfjj** 9 -*irV ^**f 6t>^ darigk amad-am
bi-tarbiyat-i suturdn va a*ind-ddri dar mahfil-i &#nm (Sa'dl) "I felt a disin-
clination to teach beasts and to hold up a looking-glass in this quarter
of the blind"; dmadam f^Wf would be " I came", but amad-am ffWf
" it came to me " as in the example.
(4) In words terminating in the vowel i, the final letter becomes
a consonant, as : bint <^i# " nose " ; J^^ biniyash " his nose " or poetically
Knish. Sometimes the affix is written separately, as : <J\ ^^ but it is
not so written by modern Persians.
(5) Words terminating in alif-i maqsura JJ)^AAX> vJJi change the & to alif
and then insert the euphonical y t as: &y^ da'va, {J^i\j^> da'vd-yash "his
claim or quarrel, etc." ; in m.c. often o^fya: ma'nd-yash (J*^*** and ma'ni-
yash cA^*-* are both correct.
Remark. By poetical license the vowel of the affix can be omitted,
as pidar-sh cAj 4 ^ " his father."
(6) After Arabic words ending in *f , as A^ kibriya*, the alif of the affix
should be retained, thus (J\ A*ji : ^^ is poetical or modern colloquial.
(b) In classical Persian the full forms of the singular are written in full,
only after a word terminating in. silent h. Ex, : pt *kL &hana*am J : in other
cases the alif is omitted, as f}&^ mddaram " my mother.",
Remark. Shaykh Sa'd! writes
Here at could not be joined to &> , but for the license of poetry.
(c) After ! or ^* a ^ is inserted for euphony, as ^b pa-yam t( my foot " ;
-yat ' * thy hair * * ; bdzu-yat **4j$> * * thy arm ' ' ; oU^U^ dast-ha yi-mdn
" our hands."
In m.c. and in poetry, however, this euphonic <^ is often omitted, as
dastha-man c> u V**> ; ja-ah <j!^ "his place": bazu-sh dj$> diram-ha-ah
<J&f)t> (better cr^V -^ diramha-yash) ; o^vil^ jadu-sh "his magic," ^ also
U. jadu-yash.
(d) Examples of the affixed pronouns are :
(1) ^ fJU nan-am bidih "give (to) me bread."
(2) (jUitf guftam-ash " I told him."
(3) j^ cA^J ptsh-ask biydr (m.c.) " bring him forward."
l So written (probably) to indicate that the h is not sounded.
a In the m.c. ^# |^ (^|jj>yk Aa/ du-ash ra biyar, ot )\*> \) o^j* j* har duycuh
ra-biyar " bring both of them," the ^ is omitted or inserted indifferently :
har duyishan or &&tf **$)* j* har du-yi ls\an.
THE AFFIXED PRONOUNS. 73
digar bi-zaban-asli nayavarad. "she will not
again mention him" (lit. bring him on her tongue) ; ash here
is the object " him ' ' (and is not * her ', possessive).
(5) f^LSJ o(<x<? (m.c.) sadd-'t 1 na-shamdam " I did not hear you.*'
(6) fb^ OL>| !<x*> (m.c.) sada-at kardam " I called you.'!
(7) oU^^J 2 padar-i man " our father."
(8) (jlkjUj** sarha-yishan "their heads" (but e>^t ^U^* sarha-yi
ishan). Also colloquially sarha-shan.
(e) In classical Persian the plural affixed pronouns are not much used :
the separate pronouns are used instead.
In classical Persian the affixed pronouns may be joined to almost
any word in the sentence except to the simple prepositions and to some of
the conjunctions 3 [vide (h)] : *j* ^^ J^k *>&jf )*i A&Gf 31 ^ ^ yak-i ra az
anan ki ghadr kardand ba man-ash dusti bud (Sa'dl) " one of those who
mutinied had a friendship with me."
(/) It will be noticed that the plural affixed pronouns are preceded by
a kasra (or in the case of (c) by a ^f). If, however, the noun end in
silent A, 4 the izdfat is in modern colloquial often omitted, as d* &{** khana
sJmn b <v their house," or & <&*. JeKana-yi shan. In classical Persian this
would be ejU^i <UrL khana-yi-tshan or ^l^^U. khana-yi sJian; also in modern
Persian it would be better to say cMi* ^^ kb& na ~yi ishan than jchana-yi
or khana-slxin,
The kasra is omitted in the following:
Examples of both :
^5^f ^ c^>-*l 3^^->f ^ vjfjj; ^i?H^ A* ^ c;U 3^1 3
Zi-andarz-i man ka$ na-ptcMd ruy
Ki and&rz afzun kunad abruy
(Shah-Nama, Book I, sending message from Salm and
Tur to Faridun, p. 21),
" None turned his face from our advice.
Because advice "
1 m.c. for sadayat.
* In m.c. generally pidar.
S *\$ (j^^ )J 5 * >-r!^ o^^ 3 &))
Gar-at zi-dast bar-ayad chu nakh.1 bash karlm
Var-at zi-dast na-yayad chu sarv bash azad (Sa*di)
** If thou const , bo generous like the date palm. But if them canst not, then
be free like the cypress * * : the epithets karlm f>.j and azad ^f **e frequently applied
by poets to these two trees. Note the affixed pronoun at is joined to the conjunctions
gar^f and vagar J*j "if " and " and if."
* Final silent * is considered a vowel by some Grammarians. There is no final
silent % in Arabic.
fi In modern Persian sometimes written c>^^ (without the &)
74 THE AFFIXED PRONOUNS.
Z< pand-i man ar mayhz-i tan shud tuhl
Chird az khirad-(i)-tdn na-mand dgahi?
(Shdh-Ndma, same page as above).
Bi-farmud-i shdn td nawdzand garm
Na-khwdnand-i shdn juz bi-dwdz-i narm
(Shdh-Ndma, Book I. Pddishdhi-yi Tahmuras-i Dw-
band si sal bud, p. 8).
Bi-ayvdn-i Zdhhdk burdand-i shdn
Bi-ddn azkdahd-fash sipurdand-i shdn
(ShdfirNdma, Book I. Bar takht nishastan-i
va bunyddri bi-ddd niMdan, p. 11).
Buvad khdnahd-shan sardsar palds
Na-ddrand dar dil zi- Yazddn hirds
(Shdh-Nama, same page as above).
Remark L In modern Persian the plural affixed pronouns, when affixed
to verbs, retain their kasra, as &\!& gujtri-shan "he told them >J ; &(+&
guftam-irsJidn ** I told them."
Remark II. It will be noticed that the affixed pronouns, when the
direct or indirect object of the verb, i.e. when personal pronouns in
the Accusative or Dative case, are not followed by f; rd : vide 32 (a)
for t> in ni.c.
(g) Sometimes there is ambiguity which even the context does not make
clear, Ex. : ^i ^ bad-am guftl in m.e. would mean " you spoke ill to
me", but it might also mean "you said that I was bad" : in >& ^ ^*%a
darbdn-am rahd na-kard " the porter did not let me go (or let me in)", * darbdn-
am ' might mean " my porter ?> : ^^ J&^ ^j*& <-& <^Ht-^ )f
oJUjjx &M oJiu J \j t& %f a^jJ ^y khwdhar-i tu az khas%s% misl-i
Isfahan* panir-rd tu-yi shlslta karda nan-ash rd l pusht-i shlsha mi-mdlad (m.c.)
**your sister who in miserliness is the equal of the Isfahan merchants,
putting her cheese into a bottle and rubbing her * (or its ? ) bread on
the outside of the glass"; here nan-ash ^U instead of " her bread"
might mean " the bread of it."
l In classical Persian a noun in the accusative to which a possessive affixed pronoun
is attached often omits fj.
* Here the ash would probably not refer to cheese ' as the cheese is inside the
bottle and therefore does not belong to the bread. Otherwise the ash could easily mean
either 'her 'or 'its.'
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 75
(h) In m.c. [vide also (e)l the singular affixed pronouns can be, and fre-
quently are, affixed to some of the simple prepositions, as : e&ty barayash
"for him, her, it"; <j*)f "from him, etc." : <Jjt "in him, etc."; <Jtl> for
o*t *J, colloquially <_rJ " to him, etc." : <jtf3 z * r " as h "under it" : tft.fi bi-am
dad (m.c.) "he gave it to me " ; ab olj bi-at dad or c*j (m.c.) "he gave it
to thee"; az-am f)\ ; az-a ojt f< from me; from thee " ; in kdr az-%shan?
i^t^jf jf j( ^| (m.c.) - " they are not capable of doing this." (Such expressions
are still considered vulgar, but will probably soon be recognized as correct),
They are never affixed to y bar " on " , b ba ' * with " , ^ bi [ " without ",
tf ^ " up to " , J^ 7^2 " except ' ' , yj za&ar "above ", and some others.
When the affixed pronouns are possessive, the pronoun of the first
person is called mim-i izafat oJl*| ^yo, the second ta-yi izafat vsJl^i ^U, and
the third sJvin-i izafat ovl*| ^^.
When used for the dative or accusative of a personal pronoun, the first
is called mim-i maf'ul Jj*i* f**, the second ta-yi maf'ul J>*i* c?^> and the
third shm-i maf'ul J**&* &$ or shin-i zamir-i maf'ul J^h^^^a ( ^.
(i) The following are modern vulgarisms that are creeping into writing :
Ma g&risnorman ast ws^t |U ^L^? U < we are hungry" ; sliutna tishnatan
ast cu^f ^ AxiJ UJi 4 f you are thirsty * ' ; IsMn garm-i sMn ast c-^f ^Ux^ ^Iwui
** they feel warm " ; man sarma-m ast o*i ^l^* ^> I feel cold."
y) In modern Persian the affixed pronouns can take the place of the
reflexive pronouns when the latter are used aspossessivepronouas, vide%%(h).
(k) In kitab-ha, hama-yi shan khiih ast ^*s ^^ && l^l^Ur^r "the
whole of these books are good " - m ktiabhH Jiama khUb ast v^ *** ^^ &**
JU^K The singular ask <J could be substituted for sJmn &L& in the pre-
vious case; In kitabJt&hama-yagh khub ast (m.c.) cu-^f^^ fj^ &+&
"these books, the lot taken as whole, are good ? % bat in the sentence
ha az zamm chaha<r v&jab buland bud va sar-i shan (or sarha-yi-sJuin) tlz (m.c,)
y3 ( tflZjiAty* or) e>U j** j ^ *>iJu ~^j ;l^ (j-i^j $ ^t^H^ the singular ash c/&
could not be substituted as the various pegs give a scattered idea,
Remark. >*/* J*c* j*+*> " attached pronoun, nom. case " ; JUtlo j-*^*
v >^ve <( attached pronoun, ace. case, etc/*
32. Possessive Pronouns.
(a] It will be seen from 31 (a), and (/), Examples 5, 7, and 8, that the
affixed pronouns are possessive as well as personal. In the m.c., the
affixed pronouns when possessive are properly followed by t; when their noun
is in the accusative case.* Ex. : ^ \> pl~* dast-am ra blgir " take my hand "
or dast-am
1 Afghans and Indians say be.
* In classical Persian I; is only used after the affixed possessive pronoun, third person.
Ex. : Yak-l az frukama 9 pisar-aah-ra nahi hard az bisyar feburdan ki- I; U"*r*^ *^*- 3 f ^
" a philosopher warned his son against over-eating saying that "
76 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
The dative and other cases are usually formed by prepositions, both in
classical and modern Persian (and seldom by f;). Ex. : cu*o| ***<*) oJ^i bi-gush-
at rasida ast "have you heard? " ; pisar-ash ra guft cui? fj ur^ (Sa'dl).
Remark. If the possessive affixed pronoun refers to more than one sub-
stantive, it is affixed to the last only. Ex. : (\>jr*> ^*b$ pushak u khurak-
am " my clothing and feeding." If the substantive is followed by qualifying
adjectives, the pronoun comes last. Ex.: e^js j+* 'umr-i l aziz-at "thy
dear life ! " : vide also Remark to (b).
(b) The possessive pronouns can also be expressed by the personal
separate pronouns coupled by the izafat, to the thing possessed. Ex. : er*;<^
pidar-i man "my father (lit. the father of me)"; oU*l &U* khana-yi ishan 1
"their house/'
(Pidar-i shan &l ;*J and khana-shan &( <kU> (m.o.) would have the
same meaning).
In the accusative, the separate pronoun is put in its accusative form
with f> Ex. : oi/ \j* ca * dast-i mara girift " he caught me by the hand."
The dative can be formed with !;, but preferably with &. Ex. : |^| ;^
f*\* pidar-i u-ra dadam **Igave it to his father (m.c.)"; more commonly
bi pidar-i u dadam f\z j\ j^ *j.
Remark. In a continuous sentence, etc. , the separate pronouns also come
j +> *
last [vide Remark to (a)]. Ex. : - y* y ^ y J>*> *^*3 &}j<* 5 )r> s j"j} ^*^
^U^ixx? {^ ^ tabl'at'i pur sharr u shur va sBmt-i zisht-i bad-far az dlv-i u bar
kas ra ml tarsanid "hiB evil nature and ugly appearance worse than that
of a demon used to terrify all.**
The vocative of man ^ as a possessive (not as a personal pronoun), does
exist, as pidar-i mand Ux> ^u " oh my father! "
(c) In m.c, the affixed pronouns are preferred, but in writing and correct
speech the separate.
(d) The separate pronouns can also be used in the ablative to express
possession. Ex. : xU*o $\ )\ AJ ^ U jt A) o;U* ^f In 'imarat na az shumd va
na az u mi-bashad (m.c. or class.) " this building belongs neither to you nor to
him " : In mal az man ast B cu~f ^ y JU ^f (m.c.) " this belongs to me."
(e) In certain cases the reflexive pronouns denote possession, vide
33 (a).
(/) "Mine", <c thine", " his", etc., are expressed by the demonstrative
Afghans and Indians say fehana-e eshan.
In ra.o. dast-am ra (^-^ (affixed pronoun) would be more commonly used.
Also in m.c. in irial-i man oat o
REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS. 77
pronoun e/f, as: ^ ctf j! az an-i man "mine " ; & * e/f jt az an-i
** '
4 c to whom did it belong (whose was it) ? ' '
tcfifa-i, bi-man guman-i ddrand l
Man zan-i khud-am chunan ki hastam hastam.
(K. Rub. 334 Whin.)
" Each sect miscalls me, but I heed them not,
I am my own, and, what I am, I am."
Sometimes jl is omitted as:
p - C ; j> Otj-^ ^~Vy e;f ^J ^A (^oj (^j; ;J> AT ^f
-4^ ^ ^ a ^* ru-yi zamin-i, hama waqt an-i tu mst
Dlgaran dar shikam-i madar u pusht-i pidar-and
here an-i tu mst cu-xJ y ^f means *' does not belong to you."
(g) In m.c. "mine, thine, etc." are generally expressed by JU>, lit.
"property." Ex. : ^ 'JU mal-i man "mine" ; ^>t<^ ^y l^j ^^ JU a
maZ-i man u shuma taw fir na-ddrad "whatever is mine is yours." The
classical e/f is also used, as : gav-l az an-i Barahman birun avardand &$ jf
s * they had out a bull belonging to some Brahmin."
Remark. Possession, in classical and in modern written Persian, can
sometimes be expressed by the dative case, as : ^ <^3U \^ $U^b padishShrfa
g&ulam-i bud " the king had a slave."
33. Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns,
(Ism-i mushtarik u^x^c ^-4; also tXxTU^x*^ Zamtr-i
(a) There are three reflexive pronouns in the classical language,
khud* o^^ khiplsh* and ^^^ khiplshtan, meaning "self": they are
indeclinable and as a rule can refer only to the subject of the sentence : they
take the place of the personal and possessive pronouns when they refer to
the subject. Khud is applicable to either animate or inanimate nouns, and
of the three is the most common. The following examples will explain their
use:
(I) c*i> ^ &l*u jf u b\ khana-yi IthuA raft " he went to his own house" ;
ojl^l &Uu ^t u bi-khana-yi u raft "he went to his (somebody else's) house";
1 Note plural verb after har.
* Note that Jl* need not be repeated before l* : j*&> taw/ir, A. " increasing,
etc." in modern Persian has come to signify '* difference."
8 Broken pi. *^(j? Barahima.
* Note that the u is short, vide remarks on on ^ 2: &hud signifies "a helmet."
From Wiud " self " is derived the Persian word g&uda " God " (the self -existing).
6 Note that the j is not pronounced, vide Remarks on j 2. In modern Persian
means also " a plough." The Afghans and Indians say Jehyeah for " self.'*
78 REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
U ma bi-khana-yi khud raftim " we went to our own house " ;
kk >> f; ^3 t^ wem Za^c? ra dar khana-yi khud-ash dldam " I saw
Zayd in his own house ", but man Zayd ra dar tehana-yi khud didam Ij xjj <jx
(**?,> ^ &l&> ;4 > would mean " I saw Zayd in my own house." Khud-ash
is used in classical as well as in modern Persian, as:
<f A stag that enters the haunt of lions,
In its home will make a death- vacancy
(Anv. Suh., Chap. IV, St. 7): in the preceding examples ^ i s for the
possessive pronoun.
(2) pi*) ^ khud raftam " I went myself", or more forcibly ^ ^ y*
c< myself, I went " ; iXxi^ ^ khud raftartd " they went themselves", or more
forcibly *xif ; ^ c) l ^> ; ba khud burd ^ ^ l> * he took it away with
himself"; **X l;^ 1 M^ ra tes^ <4 he killed himself": in these
instances M^ is reflexive.
(3) In the sentence **Ui Jl^ ^ J^r j ; ^ &+* j lama kas-rd <aql4 khud
bi-kamal numayad (S^dl) (( every one thinks his own brains perfect," and
similar sentences, the reflexive pronoun is necessary: hania kas ^ A+*
though grammatically in the dative must be considered the logical subject of
the sentence.
(4) With immaterial things, " fame ", f( love " , etc., khud *<* or khwish
u*^ in their possessive sense are used, and not khmshtati ^^Ll^.
(5) The phrase ^su ^ khud bi-khud signifies "spontaneously", "of
my, thy, his, etc,, own accord."
(6) In the language of mysticism ^&}^ bi-kh<udi or <^c>wjtf oJta* halat-i
bi-khud% signifies * a state of religious abstraction or ecstacy in which the soul
temporarily leaves the body.'
Note the meanings of khud ^ in the following two lines from *U?mr-i
Khayyam * :
f^ &*. ^^ ^ *3 &$ \^ g ** *^J^\*^ <^tj*^j-* & c?>-i^
Aknun ki tu ba khud-i nordanistx tit eh
Fardd ki zi Mud ram ehi khwahl danist ?
Thou who whilst in possession of thyself knowest naught
To-morrow (i.e. the day of Judgment) when thou leavest thyself
(by death), what more wilt thou know ?
"But, if you know naught here, while still yourself,
To-morrow, stripped of self, what can you know? "
(0. K. Rub. 52 Whin.).
kbudlcushi " suicide."
"tent-sewer," the taj^hallus (poetical * nom de plume ') or possibly
the profession of ' Umar ; in either case the iza/at.
8 Past tense with present meaning.
* For jf ; poetical license.
REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS. 79
jU& jjj) A? o-*! ud^. AaevVlf &f jli*' vUJU^ t
/ft ahl-i qubUr khdk gashtand u g&ubar
Bi-khud shuda va bl-khabar-and az hama kdr
Har zarrd zi har l zarra giriftand kindr
Ah ! in chi sardb ast ki td ruz-i shumdr ?
"The tenants of the tombs to dust decay,
Nescient of self, and all beside are they ;
Their sundered atoms float about the world,
Like mirage clouds, until the judgment day."
(0. K. Rub. 242 Whin.).
Remark I.Khud **&> is largely used in compounds, both classically and
colloquially, as: ^ aj^ khud-bm " proud, self -concei ted " ; ^ ^ khudr
ray "self-opinionated :J ; <J-)|AJ^ khud-ddrl (m.c.) '* self-possession, com-
posure"; <^&j*> khudl (rare) " egotism."
Remark 21. In the speech of the vulgar, khud c^ has a plural khud-hd
U^ before the affixed pronouns, which is contracted as follows :
Khudhdyimldn ^U^Ui^^ khudhd man c)^*^^^ and khuddmdn (vulg.) ;
and so on for the other persons.
</v
(6) For emphasis, the Arabic phrase *~&u bi-nafsi-hi signifying in pr&pria
personnd (or ^AUb bi-nrnafsi)* can follow c^-, etc., for all persons, both in
speaking and writing. Ex. : f*^ ( u^^t or) &~ix : ( fj ^^ khud-ash rd bi-
nafsih (or bi-n-nafs) dldam (t I saw him in his own person" ; &~iu tj&> (Jty
4^*) tshdn khud bi-nafs-ih raftand ** they themselves, personally, went."
(c) Khiolsh cA? ^ cau be substituted for ^ in places where the latter
signifies possession, but J^^ rarely like &j*> stands alone without a
substantive. It is also classically used in compounds, as : <*,># ^.^ khwi$h~
bin. As a reflexive pronoun 4^!^ is not used in m>e., vide (/).
Example of khiplsh <J*^ standing alone :
Chu B dil bi-dusfi-yash khwish rd *alam rnzad
Ohird bi-dusJmiam-yi man *alam bar afrdzad?
(Anvdr-i Suh., Chap. I, St. 15.)
** My heart affection's flag for him displays
Why should he then a hostile banner raise? "
(East. Trans.)
^\) <^ subs.
The Persians usually follow the modern Arabic pronunciation and say bi-nafsih
&V in the first instance and bin-nafs <j*ixJb in the second. As already stated, the
final short vowels are omitted in modern Arabic. For the doubling of the n in the
second instance, vide 10. In *^A^J the final hi is the third person masc. affixed
pronoun '* he, it " : in Arabic this final pronoun would be changed to agree with the
subject or object, in number and gender, etc., but the Persians often neglect this point
of Arabic syntax. In writing they, however, also do use the Arabic dual and plural
forms bi-nafsihuma and bi-nafaihum.
8 Chu j^ is in speaking always chi.
80 REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
Khwish Jte?*> is applied to persons only, but cannot be employed to
emphasize a noun or a pronoun : man khwJsh raftam p**j o^^ w* could not
be said.
(d) Khwishtan ^/A^ is compounded of erJ>^ khwish and ^ tan
" body " ; it is both possessive and reflexive, and unlike J^y*- it can stand
/
alone and can emphasize a noun or pronoun. Ex. : o*o I; &&* j* khwishtan ra
kusht " he killed himself " ; ojt*** o-*^ |^ ^lij^L ^^\ ^j&> har kas awlad-i
khwishtan ra dust mi-darad (m.c.) ** every one loves his own offspring*':
0**) eH^ (^>j*- (^ l> t>[frtf adamt-zad 1 rd jan-i khwishtan shirln ast
(class.) " man holds his own life dear " , or " his own life is dear to man."
Tark-i dunya bi-mardum dmuzand
Khwishtan slm u ghfllla andftzand (Sa^I).
" To others they teach retirement from the world
While they themselves are engrossed in collecting silver and
grain,"
Khwishtan ^J^xj^L also occurs in a few compounds, as : khwishtan-bfn
^xi ^jLl-uah. (class).
Khwishtan ^&*JA> is applicable to rational beings only.
(e) In modern colloquial, although &j*> is occasionally used alone, it is
more usual for it to be coupled with the affixed or separate pronouns singular
and plural. Ex. : pti ^ 25^ Jchud-i man guftam* (m.c. only), or *is f&j&>
Ichud-am guftam (m.c.) **I myself said" ; ojJua? U-i o^ khud-i shumd guffid
(m.c, only), or **$ &$ c^ Khud-itan gufttd (m.c. only} l ' you yourselves
said"; ^^ <Jk^ khudash raft (vulg.), ^*^ &j* e/T ^ khud-i an mard raft
( IB. c. only) "that man went himself ";^- c^ \sdar khud-i shahr (m.c,
only) * * in the city itself. ' *
The forms khud-am f^., khud-at ^^^, etc., are also classical, as :
Dada falak ( inan-i irddat bi-dast-i tu
Ya'm ki man kit/am bi-murad-i khvd~am rasan
Khasm-at kuja-st zir-i. qudum-i khud-at figan
Ydr-i tu klst bar sar u chashm-i man-ash nishdn
(Hafiz, Letter Nun.)
I Note that <^<s adami *'man*' has three syllables and not two as in Hindu-
stani, but adam-i " a man" : also that Jslwplahtan (ytt?.j*> does not here refer to the
grammatical subject of the sentence. However in sentences of this kind where no
ambiguity can arise, **his own, etc.*' must be rendered by a reflexive and not by a
separate personal pronoun.
* Note the m.c. position of J&hud j>y^ and the iz&fat c^*U| ; classically
man k&ud guftam.
REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS. 81
Remark /. In ordiftary conversation the rule that the reflexive pronoun
should be used when the pronoun refers to the subject, is frequently broken
if no ambiguity can arise from the violation of the rule, thus : ^f^iux
f*>^j t^+i*iA mi-khhwdham dastam rd bi-shuram <( I wish to wash my hands,"
instead of (*))&> fy<i>^ o*,> ^Afj.iu/o mi-khwdham dast-i khudam-rd bi-shuram
(m.c.) : ^Ajja fdj&* f**3*-? f*^- khudam bi-chashm-i khud-am didam (m.c. and
emphatic) "/, / myself, with my very own eyes saw (it) " : vide last two
examples in (a) (1).
Remark II. Though khud is indeclinable, such (incorrect) expressions as
ta> 5** &UEU ^liuf are occasionally met with.
The advantage of using the affixed pronouns with khud &j&* as possessives
is shown in the last two examples of (a) (1).
Remark III. In m.c., the phrase f*<^*u bi-khudam means "I am myself
again," while j>>uj bt-khud means "foolish, useless; also in a faint":
vide lines in (a) (6).
(/) In the m.c. o^y^ is usually used as a substantive only, signifying
" a relation" ; khmshan u dUstan e>UL*^ ^ ^IS^i, ** relations and friends";
khmsh u qawmi na darad 4t he has no kith or kin."
t;a Imkarna*' gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwlsh asi n& baradar ast va nx
khmsh ast (Sa'dl) " and the sages have said that a brother who is wrapped
up in self is neither brother nor kinsman " : in this extract from the Gulistan
there is a play on the two meanings of khwlsh : [another reading is baradar-* ki
*&)$j* without the second asf\.
Khunshdwand a^UL?^ subs. **a relation, kinsman," is classical and
modern.
(d) Khmshtan <Jk~y^ is used in m.c, for the reflexive pronoun (in the
ace.) : for its use, vide (d).
(It) In modem Persian, spoken or written, the affixed pronouns can take
the place of the reflexives when the latter are used as possessives, as :
mt-khwdham dast-am rd bi-shuram f)?^ fj ^U^ ^h^^ ** 1 want to wash my
hands" (for dast-i khud rd \$ ( -^ o~o or dast-i khudam-rd ty f^ *^*z) :
dyd shitmd dya-idn } rd khwdnda id* ***w)j*> yUlf U^ Uf "have you read
your verse ? ' '
The separate pronouns cannot be so used. It should be noticed that
[j+Juo may stand either for dast-am rd or dast-i mard, but lyo vi*o represents
only dast-i mard.
(i) Yak-digar ><>&<> and ham-digar j&*+* "one another; each other"
are reciprocal pronouns: yak-digar rd mi-zanand *uyv* \) j&*&> "they are
striking each other; fighting together." Hama tawdt'-i yak-digar bi-kumd
4.A (GuL, St. IX, Chap. I) " do you all bid farewell to each
l Plural ayat-i tan ra.
82 SIMPLE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
other." For mislri ham p* cU* " alike (like each^ther), etc.", vide under
Adverbs of Comparison.
34. Simple Demonstrative Pronouns (Ism-i Mara j^Lii p~*\ ).
(a) The demonstrative pronouns are ^ in " this" (ism-i ishara-yi qartb
V*^ ^^t /**! ) and e>f * an " that " (ism-i ishara-yi ba'id **** ^Uf p\) ; they
refer either to persons or things,* and precede the noun they qualify. When
qualifying a noun they are indeclinable. Ex. : y ^ In mard " this man ' ' ;
OJ etff i n zan "this woman"; l^U* &?.\ in kitab-ha "these books";
e*>! in marduman " these men."
,?
Remark. The noun demonstrated is called &d\ j(&*.
(b) A more ancient form of ^ was fl im, which perhaps remains in Jjj
imruz "to-day"; Jl~xf imsal " this (current) year"; *-*2\ imshab "to-
night"; and in y**f imbar "this time" (old). Imsubh ^ f\ "this
morning " also occurs, but is not chaste.
In classical Persian the plurals Inan eJ^jf and anan e>^f "these" and
"those " are used for rational beings (zi-ruh ^jj.* ) sometimes as a separate
substitute for and in the sense of cJ^ ** they " and tyl Inha and ^f anha
for things giayr-i zt-ruh ^i j* These plurals are used only when the
pronouns stand alone as a separate substitute for a substantive. Ex. : &$> Uf
*^**H'* ^ 31 cM andmki qabl az ma mi-budand * * ' those who existed before
us/* Note the relative ^ [vide 42 (g)] after c>^f anan. In modern Persian
these plurals in an of are rarely used even in writing and then only if followed
by the relative ki **. AnM ki ** i^f, or anlw*i ki **&\ =" they who "
(iskan ki ^xSU^f cannot be used).
Anha (ki) is however classically used for " they " :
-j jahan zir-i qadam farmdand
V'andar talab-ash har du jahan paymud&nd
"The sages who have compassed sea and land,
Their secret to search out and understand, "
(O. K. Rub. 151 Whin.)
l In conjunction with the preposition &} frequently in classical and in m.c.
and (^!<V bi-dan eabab, bi-dm sabab or jihat are used in m.c. ; but not bi-dan mard-
bi-dan zan. The demonstrative pronoun for ** that * * must not be confounded with the
Arabic word of " time." The O of these pronouns must not be pronounced nasally
a common fault amongst English that are accustomed to speak Hindustani. In m.c. Sr
is frequently pronounced un.
* <^J &l~** *f of y^. f&t guftam ba-juz an ki tu hamsaya-yi u*i (Sa*di), tl I sak
except this that thou art its (of the house) neighbour " ; here }\ is used for e/f : vide als<
30 (6) and 34 (n) (10).
3 In modern Persian budand &*&# would be used.
* Har du jahan O^^^T^. i.e.^this world and the next.
SIMPLE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 83
Ariha ki dar amadand dar-jush shudand
tc Many have come and run their eager race."
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 237.)
(c) In modern Persian the plural in lia U * only, is used. Ex. : j &*&> l^xM
ixif &U* Ipf mha so, fid va anha siyah and ' ' these (things or persons) are white
and those black " ; bi-dnhd iriam dad va ba-inJia dushnam (m.c.) t\t> fUi| l^U
l*tt<i V^-> " h g av e rewards to those (or to the former) and abuse to these
(or to the latter)."
(d) For phrases ^ e/T j{ * " mine," etc., vide 32 (/). Ba'zl bar an-and
<>iif ji {.#6*1 "some are of opinion" is classical as well as modern; this
idiom occurs in the Iqbal-Nama-yi Jahangm, ' vide ' p. 19, Ed. Bib, Ind. of
Beng. As. Soc.
(e) In ^1 also means " the latter " (i.e. the nearer of two), and e/f " the
former " : vide Example second in (e), and Syntax.
(/) of jf means <( for that reason, for that purpose," classical, Ex.:
*S pti e/f Jf > U ^/<=w ^ j va in hikayat ba tu az an guftam ki (class.) f * my
reason for relating this story was " ; so also Shaykb Sa'dl says :
Humay bar hanna H mwrgh&n az an sharaf Mrad
Ki nstukhimn khurad va jan-war nayazarad
is The Huma * is exalted above all birds because
It lives on bones and injures no living thing."
Apparently c*f Jf stands in such sentences for
* ft3^ *+*"> of jfete*-* fy *t^ &tt * n h&rfh& r & bi-khatir-i an bi-slmma
ml-guyam ki (m.c.) <4 1 tell you all this, only that (merely that} you ."
Bemark. Compare * l^jf 3', vide Compound Conjunctions.
((/) Note the employment of e>f in the following examples which are both
classical and modem :
^\$j ^ J^ {/ ** *-^*f c^f (^ o^U. Imjat-i man an ast ki mam dil-shSd
gardanl " my need is this, that thou shouldst make me happy" ; &* of f#
fj ^&& f&*jy *$ bim-i 5 an bud ki az zakhm halak skavam * 4 1 nearly died of
the wound (lit. there was a fear of that, that I might die of the wound),"
1 In modern Persian *& o^ ' is used in writing, but seldom or never man
2 After the prepositions^ * jt> - and 3t, the alif of these demonstrative pronouns
may be omitted, and they may be joined to their preposition in one word. Ex. (&.J& for
Ltff )* 9 (itijl &*$ vide page 69, note 1.
3 No izafat after *+* : m.c. requires the iza/at.
* The huma U* or humay ^U* is the bearded vulture or lammergeir and is not
a fabulous bird as translators have supposed: vide Jl. As. Soo. Beng., Dec. 1906. There
are however fables attached to it; one is that the person on whom its shadow falls will
rise to sovereignty ; another that if any one kills it, his death will occur within forty
days : from this word is derived the adjective e^UA humayun " auspicious," etc.
6 The izafat cannot be omitted after bvm.
84 SIMPLE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
\*y f ;
Oar kushi var jurm bakhshi ruy u sar bar astan-am
Banda ra farman na-bashad har-chi farma** bar em-am (S'adl).
"Whether thou slayest or pardonest, my head is laid on thy threshold,
Thy slave (I) has no will ; whatever thou decreest he accepts with
resignation." (Gul, Chap. II, St. 2.)
In classical and modern Persian the phrase *x>f j i^*** ba'zi par an-and
"some are of opinion." etc., is of common occurrence.
(h) In mystic poetry e/T is often a substantive and signifies something
that can be felt rather than defined, grace, individuality. The following two
examples, which the writer does not attempt to translate, exemplify this
obscure meaning :
JU) ^-J jj**> b> &)\& *^ o**jj
^f* J$ ) *$* itftf ** ^**l of
Shahid In nist ki ddrad khat-i sabz u lab-i la'l
Shahid an ast ki tn ddrad u dn-t\ ddrad
Shdhid an mst ki mufiyyu* miydn-l ddrad
Banda-yi lal'at-i-dn s bash ki dn-l ddrad
(t) In m.c. m u an signifies various things, as : *> &1 } &$ &**** suhbat-i
In u an shud ** we talked of this and that (different topics)."
Na %n vanadn &$ & j &1 & * * neither this nor that, neither the one nor
the other":
Sufi shuda-% 9 In na-khwuri an na-khwuri?
Dar*khwurd-i tu sang-ast; bi-raw sang bi-]ch>wnr (O.K,)
** Sufis, you say, must not take this nor that,
Then go and eat the pebble k s 4 off the plain/'
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 261.)
In man-am M mt-ravam (m.c.) fjj** * f*> &% ts I am just going or about
to start, or I will go " ; In u'st ^~*j\ ^ (or tnak u'st vi^jl vJ^ul ) " here he
is " 6 ; In u'st ki mi-ravad " he is just going."
1 Var is poetical for f\ j : am at the end of the lines stands for "I am " and is
not the affixed pronoun.
& Tashdld on the ^ by poetical license : "one hair."
8 TaVat " aspect or face."
* Sang ftbwurdan eJ>j>^ <& also means '* to be stoned " ; there is a double
meaning.
5 Inak man-am p** <*^?t, or Inja-yam {l-ijf m.c. "here I am."
SIMPLE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 85
(/) In the following m.c. sentence f <H**; e/ ** &*?\ wit ill j ^ j(f
kar bi-kun va ilia m ast ki man rasidam " work or else I shall be down on
you," In oat is used in a dramatic sense and signifies " here I am," i.e. I'll
be with you ; cXut l could be substituted for In ast ki o~^ &>\ in this sense-
but not in In ast ki bd shuma guftam f$> U ^ *$ o^t which means " this is
the reason that I spoke to you."
(k) The modern colloquial and classical phrase (^ of j \**f &a "in kuja
vaankuja "where is this and where is that," signifies 'you can't even
compare the two one is so much the superior to the other.'
(1) The following idiom is old, but still in use amongst the Afghans :
**j &\j \j# fj )ti pi)\ )& &f ^\ y &j*. chun az in ki dar inam jarigh shawam
mara yad bidih c 6 when I am at leisure from this (work) that I am engaged in,
remind me (of that)."
(m) In (a) it was stated that the demonstrative pronouns precede their
nouns, but this rule is violated when emphasis is necessary. Ex. : )\j* *$ <^A*f
c u| jojj &> asp-i ki savar shuda budam In ast "the horse I rode this
is it."
(n) The following added instances of demonstrative pronouns perhaps
exhaust their meanings in the m.c.
(1) f*fj&* ^y^ jf b (^U *tjj ^{ )* Ji jW ilia dar m panjah-salagl ' z bd
u kushti ml-giriftam ** otherwise in spite of these fifty years of mine, I would
have wrestled with him, even with these fifty years of mine ." Vide also
No. (8).
(2) oj&S *>U p* j*>f ^^ j&t& *&** - ^^*) ^^ ^^1 ittifSq** shuma
rasidRd; waqti-ki tmzdik-tar slmM an ham cJidra na-did * f by chance you
arrived ; when you drew near, he too (the other party over there) saw no
help for it ."
Remark. Note the slovenly change from plural to singular in the verbs.
NaztRktarj&ty means "nearer than you were when you rasiiRd
Note the use of c>T for $ " he" ; better u,
(3) ailSX* bjrt& *& *&*> o^ j ^^x ci^xp^xC^ bar yak digar gkayrat
mi-burdand va bi-dan rasld ki kamz ra bi-kusktowd (class.) " they got jealous 8
of one another and matters reached to such a pitch that they killed
the girl."
now " ; also "behold, lo"; used in writing and in m.c.
2 Panjdh-sala ^U ^^j adj. from *l*aJ fifty" and JU "year'*: subs.
panjah-salagl &&{* ^ S F^ " the state of being fifty years old."
3 Qhayrat O^XP here jealousy : this word has generally a good sense and means
<4 a nice sense of honour; jealousy for the honour of one's womankind." Bl-ghayrat
Oj^&fcJ (m.c.) is used as an abusive term by Muslims. In modern Persian hasad W^.
or raahk -^) would be substituted for yhayrat c^fei in the sense of *' envy " in the
above example.
86 SIMPLE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
chand-i 1 ba'd a&%n (classical and m.o.) = ts***- jt **J
ba'd-az chand-l " a little after this " ; **f y e*y *** cs)j> r5-t cftand 6ar in bar
amad (class.) " a few days passed after this."
(5) xi& ^jjj^. ^xj AJ owl&j A^ ejf <J& tj** oj ^1^3 j>U 'adaihJa-yi bad nor
ddrad misl-i an-ki angusht birbinwji khud-ash bi-kunad " she (a little girl) has
no bad habits such as picking her nose."
Remark. Angusht is used in a general sense and does not require J;
after it.
(6) o~* life* aifa gbuj ^ijf m-ham panjah ddna tila 9 st " and here are fifty
pieces of gold. ' ?
Remark. Note that there is no izafat after dana ; also o~slU> for CL
Ji^ dana-yi tila could also be said.
(7) A&f ^{^j baray-i an-ki fl because ."
(8) dUij )jlo A*. ^5?)^ (j|^ ^AA,^^ &f ^iJU e>[jf.-^ hayrdn iriandam ki dirakht-l
bi-dan buzurgl chl taur uftad (m.c.) "I remained lost in astonishment as to
how a tree of such size (or in spite of its size) could have fallen ' ' : vide also
No. (1).
Remark. The clause after * is in the direct narration.
(9) %&j jb (jX-o jj> o*2Bu {^ (jj^i V^)^ &\ ^JJ p*^ ^3 Zt^ba khanum zud an
darb-i utaq ra sakht du-dastl baz karda" Ziba Khanum suddenly and violently
with both hands bursts open the other door of the room . "
(10) &&/ fa* ty Ay^ s c^>^" 4^* cA^ pisJi-i -man cMz-i mpiya bud ; u ra
girifta (Afghan) *' I had a few rupees by me; taking it ."
jRetnark. Note \^\ u-ra for !j ^ : the latter would be more correct. This
idiom is common amongst the Afghans.*
(11) j of oJj of )& j f*j**> ft \&\ &*> **+*) &$ ^ d&r In vaqt nmn m kar
ml'kardam va dar an vaqt an kar (Af^an) "at one (special) time I did one
thing and at another fixed time another."
(12) A^U^^cu^f ^jf <J&e misl-i m ast ki nabasfiad <4 it is as if it were
not / ' i.e. ' * not worth speaking of, contemptible."
I Classically chande, ** an indefinite quantity ; some ; a little while.*'
* Pawjah ashrafl (now a two-ttlman piece) or panjah lira or some such phrase
would ordinarily be used instead of panjah ddna tila.
8 Chlz-l 4,53^ m.c. and classical for LSJ** qadr-% t( a little." In m.c. nazd-i man
chand rupiya-l or chand dana rupiya bud.
* U jl and ishan i^lA-lf are strictly applicable to rational beings only except in
the case of personification. This rule is however frequently neglected.
For classical examples of substitution of ^t for of vide 30 (6) and footnote 2 to
34 (a).
EMPHATIC DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 87
ta Inki and *Cif 13 ta dnki (( until, before " : jl f<H~; h^f *&! 13
ta in-ki anja rasidam u murda bud (m.c.) "before I arrived there he
had died" : *j^iu ^y'f u^ a^f $ p*jj*l u*j*&*jt )>j?J ruz bi-ruz bar
miqddr ml-ajzudam ta anki sharab asar nami-bakhsKid (m,c.) " every day
I increased the quantity (a little) till (at length) wine lost its exhilarating
effect."
(13) In bud' ki *f w &J ''this was the reason that": an ki *&f
(classically and in modern writing) "he who " ; not u ki.
(0) In mak **&>\ " behold here, here is," and anak J^T " behold yonder,
there is," the affix appears to be the diminutive affix, but the signification
is intensive : ^U ufljj behold, here I am " ; tnak mi-ayad *tf ^ *J&| " here
he is coming ": 'U$man Ag&a (Inak nam-iu) ( j /*l> wJU-ji ) Lef oUJc " e Usman
Agha (for such was his name)" : mak-am f\ ^*u\ <k behold here am I."
(p) Ant cuSf is " bravo!"; and ant ojf or anat cujf, for an tura ty of
l< that for thee " ; also ml ' c bravo ! " ; and Int c^vf or in-at ctf ^f "this
for thee," occur only in poetry.
35. Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns.
Ha mm c^** "this same one, this very one" and e^+* ! ia-man <4 that
very one" are more emphatic forms of the demonstrative pronoun and are
of more frequent use in the modern language than in the classical. They are
simply the demonstratives strengthened by the particle ham +*> : dar haman
ruz )j) O>UA >N = 1mm dar an ruz ^ e>T j^ ^>, etc. ? etc. In m.c. the plurals
^H+A and ^U^ are also used. These words have other significations illus-
trated below. Examples :
(a) Ham&n&te haman d^ signifies * 5 when -- then (that same time)/*
<( as soon as" ; ^ o 1 *^ f)$j* &?j*j e>U.* c^ cJ^*f c^/j^ blrun amadan-i khun
hajftfin m murdan-i haradar-atu haman bud " as soon as he was bled iny
brother died," ** no sooner was he bled than ." * This idiom is classical
as well as m.c. : eide also (c).
(1) Hamln ^^^ aij d hamati ^U* also mean 4i the same," Ex.: ^U* &*\
In haman ast ki dldld ' * thivS is the very same one you saw * * ;
3* az Immm rah amadim '** we came by this very road, this is
the same road we came by." ^ <j.*+* &* ^^\^ khivaliisJi-i man hamm bud
" my desire was the same; this very thing was what I too wished" : man
ham an-am f! <jU* ^ (m.c.) " I am that very person, I am he " : *-$+* U>
f*ty ** ^UA ma hamlsha haman-im ki budlm (m.c.) '* we are always just as
we have been, we are always the same."
1 hi ni.c. often pronounced hamun ; for ^f p* and c)T (**> )\ f* are the emphatic
of jl etc.
2 Or birtin amadan-i tehun va murdan-i baradar-am yak-l bud (m.c.) oJ>>^
88 COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
(0) v**)jf j**f & i^xufc hamln ki amadam u raft (m.c.) " as soon as [
came, he went " [vide (a)].
(d) *ta cj e>**A hamm yak dana, " only this one " (classical and m.c.).
(e) * &&> U e>fcfr& hamm ja kushta shud, " he was killed in this very
spot"; l^ji cHt-^ hamln farda (m.c.) " not later than to-morrow " = the
English vulgarism " to-morrow as ever is."
(/) ^ urt+A u-Mt* 3 ***^ (^UA iJ^'Mjs*. harakat-ash haman va sukhanha-yash
hamm bud (m.c.) " such was his conduct and such were his words."
36. Compound Demonstrative Pronouns.
(a) Compounds with the adverb <^. chun l (( like, manner, etc." , are :
(1) ^i^ chunin (for <^l e^ = like this) and ert^** lw>m chunin " such
a one as this " : also adverb " in this manner."
(2) ^UA. chunan (for e/f c^^ ' like that *) and ^li^A ham-chunan cc such
a one as that " ; also adverb " in that manner " : ^5"^*^^^ cr-Jt^ chunin
va chunaw kardl ** you did so and so " : ^> ejlia. j (^ia. Jl^ ci^*> surat-i Ml
chunm va chunan bud ( ' the matter was so-and-so ' ' :
^jJu^ j ^ijux ^f ^U aTy * ^^ ^(j * ^ $j* ^b
here chuiidn va chunm <^**-j J^ is contemptuous, * Oh So-and-so.' ' l
Remark. &&* ^ *n chunin 3 and &&*. e>T an chunan are ratlier more
emphatic forms.
(b) j xjUi OA^V** ^^aa^ ^AXa. b * bd chunin shakhs-l suhbat na-briyad kard
(m.c.) 4< one should not converse with such a person" ; *s~*\ ^^ c/tumn a$i?
** is the case so ( is it so ? " ; here chunm &**** is an adverb. 5
(c) Chumn ^^ can be combined with ^t 6 *; as, ^cj*^ u^^ t^f ^ U^o
^AiX? ^^ A^ ^u ^A-i ma^i ?^ chunin chlz-l na-bud ki 'iwaz bi-diham (m.c.)
" I had no such thing with me that I could give in exchange " ; 13 ^^ ^f
f*)f*j*^ ~ in ch un * n & y a h f ars <*M*> raftlm (m.c.) <4 in this manner we
travelled a farsakh " ; here In chunin ^^ ^ is an adverb. 7
1 Chun e>>^" also means " how?, because and when.**
2 Tu kaun liai ay aise taise ? (Urdu).
3 Dor talash-i m chunin ja-i budam fty, ^^ &*?*$ ^ {Jl%*)*
* Or ba chunin ashbhas ^je^ml c^i^ ^ (without <^ of unity).
6 Chunin (^^- and chunan c>^^- are aama-yi Icinayat.
6 Similarly chunan cJ&^ with an. Ex. : va faivr-i-ki an murgh-ha avaz ml-kardand
an chunan gah-l na-shunlda budam fty ^^^^ e^^f^t ^^j^o Jyf l^o ^f AL'^Js ^
(class.) " I had never heard birds sing as those did.' '
7 The ^ of unity can be added to chunan c>^- and ham-chunan o^^-^ (but
rarely if ever to chunin or ham-chunm) : vide page 89, note 2,
&l^b e;lfA. .j .i^w jj]^ Lojb j^l x> j| *&ot i^.
Chunan-i ki az madar-i parsa
Bi-zayad, shavad bar jahan padishah
(Shah-Nama, Jild-i Avval, Ra^y zadan-i Kaymis dar kar-i Sudaba va Siy*aush).
COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOtTNS. 89
Remark. In the second example )^o ^\ In tawr would be more usual.
(d) e^y (^Hjia. j cA^ 1 chundn u chunin kardan (or guftan) "to pro-
crastinate, evade, have recourse to subterfuge."
(e) Chunmhd It-H^- and chundnhd l^^*- "such like things " are not used.
(/) er^f 1 ** ham-chunln is merely a more emphatic form of ^-^ chunln.
Ex. : ***>f l^ijf ^Aaiug* ^Laci+A ham-chunln shakhs-l mjd dmad (m.c.) "a person
exactly like this came here": e/-? ;^ er*^ 1 ** JwM-ehuntn kdr bi-kun (m.c.)
"act like this" ; in the latter example ham-chunln is an adverb: ** c^f 1 ^
>ti p& I^Q <jyte>j>}>J ham-churiin Jci tu zur ddrl man ham-ddram (m.c.) '* just
as you are strong, so am I too strong."
(g) Similarly e>U*<i is merely a more emphatic form of &(**.. Ex. : ham-
chundn ddam-l m dnjd dldam ^xja UJf \j ^*^f ^liasv.^ 4< I saw a man there
just like him "; ham- chundn sJiakhs-l man dar 'umr-i khud na-didam (m.c.)
(**& j^k j+& )& ^/o ^^aiv^ ^Usv^A ll I have never in my life seen a man like
him " : f^ * vj* ty A^SUap-^ &* man Jiam-chundn ki bud 'arz kardam (m.c.)
" I related it exactly as it happened (or as was the case)."
Remark. It will be noticed that ham-chumn ^^S^A & is for near, and
ham- chundn ^jli^x^-A for remote , things.
(h) There are three other words that may be considered as demonstrative
pronouns and deserve notice, viz. }&& hamchu "so (in m.c. pronounced
hamchi), such," and ^r'*^ and c^loJ^ chandin* and chandan ** so much."
Their use is best illustrated by examples.
(1) ysx+A hamcJm or cir^** hamchun. Ex. : &jS jjb^,.^* \j^ kar-ra hamchu
bayad kard (m,c) ' * the work must be done like this " : * o^w^J^ ^^f >SX*A s
**-**; ^pjlc Jiamchu ddani-i diKr-\st ki misl-ash nlst (m.c.) li he is such a brave
man that there's none like him"; jj^^f 1 *^ 6 hamchu ruz (class.) i( clear as
daylight."
Benutrk* t^F^ hamchm is also occasionally used in m.c. The follow-
ing vulgar saying is an illustration of these two words : (^** j c#+a
a^a> ^.u^ hamchu ti va hamchin, hamchln-ash khusha (vulgar) "he does it
like that and like this, but this is the way that pleases him."
l For *uto*- chunanchi and *&&*> chunanki, vide under Conjunctions.
* 'Arza daahtam p**\& &*y* (m.c.) '* I made a petition in writing."
3 The (s of unity added to ham chunan or chunan ki by the Afghans and
occasionally by Persians is perhaps incorrect. Ex.: tawf >>jf (or
\$3J p*> ^ <x j^J (Afghans) " I was entangled (or imprisoned) there
exactly as he was " : vide Adverbs and Conjunctions.
* For chand *&*- " a few, etc.'* vide 39 (g).
6 Instead of hamchu ;&+* the words hamchunan O^f 1 ^ or hamchunln
could be used here.
8 In (m.c.) mil C*Uo would be used instead of 'hamchu
90 COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
is vulgar for khush, ast c*w c^A- Instead of ham-chftn
and hamchin &*&+*>, the words chundn e)^ and chumn (^^ would
be better.
(2) Chanddn t^f^i*. 1 <c so much as that; so many; that amount; all that
time," and chandin e^^^ " all this; this long time," etc., are used with or
without a substantive. Ex. : chandan l vu^*** : f&>lj& *$ *h &+! vLr** <$***'
f3xj chandan sharab bi-man dad ki na-tavanistam bi-khuram (m.c.) (t he gave
me so much wine that I couldn't drink it (all)"; chandan misl-i u naml-
danam +>l<^ jf JUx> ^1^ (m.c.) "I don't know such a lot as he does ";
chandan dakhl-i* bi-zaban-i Farsi na-daram fj*i <j**)\* dty 4^^^ ^t^^ (class.)
" I have not a great knowledge of Persian."
To chandan ejf^^. the indefinite ^ can be fixed as : Chandan-l az ta'un
murdand lei - &* ^^c u>y>Lk jt ^3}^ia. Ci such a number died of plague that ."
Chandan-i az in malikhulya firu yujt 8 ki buh taqat-i guftan-ash na-mand
U. AT ^tfjj* l^xuJU ^31 ^t^ (Gul., Chap. Ill, St. 21)
so much did he rave like this that he ceased from mere exhaustion."
'Umr cliandan-l ki kam bashad pansltnm kam ast - <xU
the shorter one's life the less one's worry."
Chandan also means (i fold " : e>l^^ &* f& (^it* J
iX cU>Ux c^^t^^fy j^Uj -(^fjf cJtandfin ki man dar In muqam mazlum shudam
sad chandan az an. ziyada~1ar istirahat hasil shud (m,c.) f{ in comparison with
the oppression I underwent there, my ease was a hundredfold (lit. as much as
J was oppressed there, a hundredfold more than that was ease obtained)."
(3) Chandin (.#*** : chandm sal ast ki sliuma ra na dida am (m.c.) <^<>^
^ 35*X|^ !j l*-i &$ c^**f JU (t it is so many (i.e. many) years since I have seen
you " : cx^x ^H^A^ hi-chandtn jihat (m.c.) (< ior several reasons."
Remark, Xote that chandan &]&*>*> and chandm ^^^ precede their
nouns which are in the singular.
(i) For chandanchi atsuf^ "howniuchsoever, notwithstanding" and
chandanki *^t^^. 4t as oft as, as many as, insomuch, although, as soon as,
etc., ride Adverbs and Conjunctions.
(;') For bi-chandm martaba afzun e^jif ^-^ (*)***&* (class.) "how much
the more," vide Adverbs and CWj unctions.
1 With the c5 of unity chandan-i j*\&*^- "of any amount, however much";
vide (3).
2 In modern Persian rabt-i fk*j would be used instead of (**> daWri.
3 CJwndan-i <^>l<^- means " such a quantity" and not *'such a long time."
firu jj* may be redundant, but I think it is meant to emphasize the fact that he raved
in a low voice like one in delirium.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 91
37. Interrogative Pronouns Ism-i latifhdm ( faK*>\ *! )
There are four interrogative pronouns or adjectives : pia^ kudam ; * ki ;
**$. chand " how many ? ' ' ; and <**> chi. 1 They are strongly accented in speak-
ing, and for emphasis immediately precede the verb or come close to it.
(a) pl*f kudam or &**>)*<> kudamin* " which ? " ; both forms are used in
m.c. as well as in the classical language; they are applied to substantives,
animate or inanimate, singular or plural. Ex. : t^aacwi ^ fo^ kudam shakhs
(m.c.) " which person ? " ; f^ |*fo^ kudam rah (m.c.) " which road ? " ; xJU^fij
fjta oi ; j cWf s l^cysvxsG ptitf b ^ fuj <*j bi-farma*id bi-bmam man bd kudam
na-mahram-ha dmad u raft ddram c * be pleased to say let me see with what
unwarrantable people have I coinings and goings ? " : - f\* c>T *& *~JfJ> ^^
cu^f^j f\* $ wA/o nami-danistam ki an kudam mulk u kudam nahr ast (m.c.)
" I did not know (whilst I was gazing) what country or what river it was."
Remark. It will be noticed that p\*f is used both for direct and indirect
questions. [In the last example the Imperfect is used in a continuous sense,
" I was not knowing (all the time I was gazing) " ; ast ^~*\ is dramatic present.]
(b) ftdf g-y* Inch kudam, "none, not one of them/* has the same
meaning, as hldi yak <-*! ^ ; but hlch kas ^ -**& means "nobody (at all)."
(c) In the modern language ^<* ?/#&-?* is generally added, as: *z~~*<* *\<&
kudam yak-l-st " wliieh one is it * " : o-f v ^ ^UjX* ^t^" kudam yak-*-shan
khub ast " which of them is good ? ** The answer might be ^-o
Remark. Kudam ^^ can also be used instead of the accusative plural
of ** " who ? " : vide Remark to (A).
(d) For fl*j* ^ each " or "every," vide 39 (j) and (k).
(e) The Afghans wrongly use kudam f\? in the sense of the Hindustan i
&#,?. Ex. : ^& ^ o) ftf * * some woman told me " : ^s*** h ^J~? f ^ kudam
kcuse-ra dull "have you seen anybody? " : 5 ^t^ j^^ $J\ uy &&*tf j^ $
fty fc^oJ ^j^. ^t )$ \j ^UJj az roz-i dmadan-l man Ha imroz kuddme* insan rd
dar m jazira na-dida budam, <( from the day of my arrival till to-day I had
J For chigiina &JJA. &* a substitute for ^*- T vide 38 (a).
2 In the accusative \j is of course added, as: kudam kar ra kardl
(m.c.) '* what work have you done ? " : kudam ra dadl <^^ti \J f^ (class.) " to which
one did you give it ? *' U-U dadl e?^tO *^ or bi kudam kas <j^ ft*& in m.c. The
ordinary prepositions can of course be used for other cases.
3 Na-mahram j*juolj "unlawful man," i.e. one not within the degree of relation-
ship (brother, etc.) permitted to enter the '* haram."
* Yak v^j numeral <4 one" and ^5- of unity.
6 Kudaml tyof**' for kudamin <&*{*\^ is used in class., and modern Persian in
writing, for kudam. In correct Persian hwh insan ra l/>^t ^^> instead of kudam or
kudaml insan ra
92 INTEEBOGATIVE PEONOUNS.
never seen any man in the island": v^ l^t** kudame-ra bi-talab " call
some one " (for v^ L> LS~? kas-i rd bi-talab).
(/) JB *L" wil " ; acc - !) *^ r !/ K^ 5 " whom ? " ; dat. kira or bi-ki
\jf or J&. 1 Ex.: ^ JU maW it "whose (property)?": L$*J [f M za <
" whom didst thou strike ? " : ^ato( *& or)!/ ^*ra (or fo'-H) dKdK " to whom
didst thou give it ? " : <>y &f ki kard " who did it ? " : ^*l to 1 ***?! *>" H istada
ast " who is standing ? " :i t iJj^J A^ a W budand " who were they ? " : ^ I; vX-
d/ ct^ ^agr m Jb* vai/? 8 &ard " who loosed the dog? " : *>J^-A> 5^ ki hastand
1 ( who are they ? " (or klstand *&~*t ) : hikmat az ki amukhti
(Gul.) '*from whom didst thou learn wisdom? "
Remark L This interrogative pronoun (' noun ' or ^[ ) is called kaf-i
islifham ( (*lfi&*f ol< ) or kaf-i kudamiyya
When used (interrogatively) to imply a negative it is called kaf-i
istifham-i naft ( ^sb f\^&\ <J(^ ). Ex. :
^iiU ^Uo| ^^j o^^Jf AT ^i^ A^$ li^^^f (Sa dl).
The particle ( J^ ) A^ is also a conjunction : for its various significa-
tions, etc., vide Conjunctions.
Remark //. In the accusative, &$ is generally used in the singular only,
but vide Remark to (A).
(g) Before ^1 am '*! aoi" and all its persons, the of ki is changed into
4^ for euphony. Ex.: ^^ tu ki-l Jt who are thou?" but fa U-l is also
found: **z~~j6 fast " who is it, who is he ? " : *&*? &&*$ ishan kiyand ** who
are they ? ' '
A similar change may take place before f*~*Jiatam tr lam, I exist"
and all its persons. Ex.: *&*<*? Kstand (or ki Jiastand) " who are they? "
In the third person singular c^-* &? is not used. [The contraction ^+*~*f
stands for o*^ A^, vide foot-note.]
(h) The plural 6 ^i^ kiyan is rare in classical Persian, but is still in
l The remaining cases are of course formed as usual by the simple prepositions. The
dative and accusative is also written 1) &* , but in this caso care must be taken, to
distinguish it from the dative or accusative of *^ kih ** small " or of huh &> poetical for
kuh * "a hill."
* It will be noticed that ** is applicable to persons only, and to both singular and
plural. The plural ki-ha is also used in m c.
3 Also pronounced vel to rhyme with the English ' bell.*
* Vulgarly, tyf kiya is also used : final 35 is vulgar for ast. Kwt o**J^ appears to
be the contraction of vS**f *& rather than of o*~fc A^.
6 Ordinarily written &>\ *& or <^l ^/.
In modern Persian e)^ is used as the plural of the old Persian word ^ kay
( =Shahin-8hah), .the term applied to the ancient kings of Persia before Islam.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 93
colloquial use amongst the Afghans. Ex. : - l?^ jt eA'l **
jJJUf j \ij^cf e>^ e>w ^ dar In fikr u khiyal bud ki Ishan az kuja bicKn makan
dmadand va klyan and (class. Persian, and m.c. Afghan) "he was wondering
whence they came and who they were."
In the m.c. of Persia the plural (4*? kihd or (*>** ki-ha is of frequent use.
Ex. : **& tA&a.^ *>**$ U*r ki-ha amadand va chi-ha guftand? (m.c.) " what
people came and what things did they say ? "
Remark. The accusative plural <^aj tj (&? kiha ra zadi " what people
did you strike ? " though correct is by some avoided in talking, as in quick
speech it might sound like j kir " the penis." Instead ^j Ij aUS' &A. chi
kasan ra zadl (m.c.) might be used, or y^T f\^ kudam adamha-ra .
In classical Persian the construction would probably be
ashkhas-% ki zadl ki budand ?
(i) In m.c. the phrase CA~.X& tf ki bi-kist <( who is with whom ? " signifies
disorder (amongst people).
Anja ki raftid shuma ra namzish kardandl Na khayr ki bi-last (m.c.)
c:^ *& &f j2^ ai ^ >&j> <J*ity r> UJi ii*i>; *$ Uuf 4< when you went there did they
treat you well ? No they were all in a bustle. "
(j) ^ v^-jf u sag-i klst " whose dog is he ? " in rn.c. signifies ** he is
nobody, of no account." The idea is that a dog has no respect on its own
account, but has merely some respect on account of its master, and c: *f ^~
sag last consequently means 'he is the dog of no one of any account/
Similarly ^*-^ * ** sag-i ki Jmstmn? ; ^^ <** U ma sag-i kistlm?
(k) ** chi "what, which? what! how great! in what manner or
kind? why?, etc."
Chi ^ is used for the singular or plural, generally for inanimate objects.
Ex.: ^j^** ** cu- juUT &*. chi kitab4*st kiim-khwa&l "what book do you
want? ", or better, o*~^ ^r^>^ &$u\X kitab-t ki tm-MwaM chtst? : ^ ^\
u^-s i^jtif %n chi kitabha-st " what books are these ? " a oJ^>j &*. (^fj^H^ ^5^^
kiiabM-t ki mZ-khieastl chi budand? (m.c.) "what books did you want ? " :
cu^x ^ 31 az dii jihat 4i for what reason ? J> : ^ -f^ barayi-chi "for
what f : chi nishlni ^^ &* (m.c.) "why I wonder are you sitting
here ? " : chi niskasfafi ^-^J fe. ditto.
1 Note that this first & ki is really a conjunction and not the interrogative pronoun.
For this connecting t vide Relative Pronouns.
* Or kudam kitabha-ra mi-Wiwastl ? ^^ ^^ t; 1 ^ 1 ^ f\** vide (ra).
' I knew what things were in the boxes" - danistam ki chi chlzha dar sanduqha
bud &# (f*)&L* j& l*}**- *$- ** (&~*\* (m.c.). Though this sentence is correct, a Persian
would naturally in speaking omit the word chizha ^^ and say daniatam (ki) dar
sanduqha chi bud tj* &* lfljl*^ (&f) p*~3\& (or chiha '{* less common) : an Afghan
would say kudam chizha {*)*$- f\*f instead of '*_'*^- *$> chi chizha.
94 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Remark /. Chi ** like ki * often combines with the word following it,
as, chlst ^~~**- " what is it ? how ? " : chisan e>^ " in what manner ? " :
chiguna &j** " how ? "
Remark II. In m.c. az chi <**. Jt sometimes means " for what reason ? "
It usually means ' c of what substance or material ? ' '
(/) The dative [^ chira "for what?" is only used as an interro-
gative, " why ? wherefore?" or as a causal conjunction (*Z f^ chira-ki)
" because that."
The dative formed by the preposition can however be used. Ex. :
U bi-chi jihat " for what reason ? "
Remark. In m.c., chira [^ is commonly used in the sense of " certainly,
of. course" (i.e. why not ?).
(m) An accusative with ra after chi is rarely used: its place is taken by
ft***' kudam, as : ScXxiU^ ^^^ \> ^ f\ ^ j& ouj^ khud-at bigu kudam kar ra l
bi-anjam rasanlda-l (m.c.) " tell me yourself what work you have com-
pleted," or chi kar ra bi-anjam rasamda-i looiU; ^Uuf ^ ^ jg Aa. (rare).
Chi kitab mi-khwaht ^L?^^ v^ ^ (m.c.) ** which book do you want ? "
also "what sort of book do you want?", but ^^^ tj ^X ftj kudam
kitab ra * mi-khwahi? ** which book do you want ? "
Remark. \&^ j ** chi kar karda-% could also be used, but might also be
taken to mean 4 * what fault have you committed ? ' '
(n) In m.c,, ^ is generally followed by ^f^ chlz vt thing", j% kar
s< work", or vJ^*. karf ** word, matter." Ex. : *^~*t jj^ ^ $ u chi chlz oat
" what is he then ?" (i.e. " nothing"); f j >^ *<* chi cMz-%m " what are we ?"
(Le. vf ***> h%ch-lm (( we are nothing").
(o) The following are common colloquialisms: s &. ^^J bi-man chi *' what
business * is it of mine ? what have I to do with it ? " : &*-jt etc. :
ya'ni chi "what do you mean?", also "is it possible?":
chi cJiara " what remedy?" ; ^b o^ ** chi jan darad "what is he able
to do? what can he do? 6 (nothing)" ; xi^vo cxli^ ^ chi hdlat mi-kashad
"what a state he is suffering," i.e. how miserable is he 6 !: &*. tS u-if
guft ki chi " he said what ? ": ^^ fi^ j~ *< ^^\ ^> **. jf u chi sag-i
1 The ra necessary after kudam
^ Plural ace. kudam kitabha \)
3 Vulgarly ^5$- chi : ^^- &*> chi chi * 4 what ? " or 4 * what thing T " is a common
vulgarism.
4 *j ( jL^j^ ^hji ** ^ utf $ Lr* mara az an chi H parvana
bi-kushad ? (Sa'di, verse) " what care I that the moth kills itself ? "
6 Also u chi jism u jan darad ?
fl Also chi baruy-a*h mi-guyarad
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 95
ast ki sar-i bald-yam 1 bi-nishinad "who is he then (lit. what a dog is
he ?) to sit (at table, etc.) above me ? "
(p) ** What? Ex. : ^> *<* jjy^ I) & [ * <J shash nan ra har ruz chi
mi-kuni " what do you do with the six loaves every day? " :
mi-khwahi chi-kuni (vulgarism) "what do you want to do"?:
jjlj olo -*y iS *ijU chi mlrdanam shayad ki u ham najat ydbad " what do I
know but that he too may escape ? " : <x a^ p*\ ^*$+> nami danam asp-
am chi shud* (m.c.) " I don't know what became of my hcrse": fj *U~
f& *$* L) *4j&* fttfcvjj** siyah ra bi-tu bakhshidam; kanlzak ra chi kunam
(Sa'di) " the negro is yours but what can I do with the girl? "
Remark. It will be noticed that A*, is used in indirect as well as in
direct questions.
(q) **. " How ! " " what ! " Ex. : &# ^xl^A ^ ^ chi-qadr* hawlnak bud
' how fearful, terrifying it was ! " : ^ (o*iu^ a*. ^ man chi kambakht am ' c how
unfortunate am I ! ": v>^ Jj^ ^ c ^ manzil-i khub " what a fine mansion !"
(r) **. <( How? In what manner? why?": xx ^U <^ ^ j ^M ^
zan guft bar man chi '(ishiq shuda-i " the woman said, ' Why have you fallen
in love with me ? ' " : J^ &*- ^Ij* dar In chiharf ? 4i there is no doubt about
it " : & tJfyS *^> w^ ^ <4r"" J^ ** ***^ i> u*ijj*&^ Iskandar-i Rum* ra
guftand ki diyar-i mashriq u maghrib bi^chi girifti ki (Sa^l) " Alexander the
Great was asked how he had conquered the East and West, because ** (lit.
lt they asked, ' In what manner didst thou conquer 9 ?) " : oJ,^o ^b ^y
^^ &^j>*tsj&*jf iuki bi~mmihnat giriftar-l shukr bi-chi gu^l? (Sa'dl) " for
what (or how) can you return thanks since you are entangled in this afflic-
tion ? " : *>*! ttJ^f v^^^ ^ oJjt^a- ^ *tit &(&+ Subhana'llahf Chi Khuda-
wand-i 'dlim u whib*-* 8k>shan ast! ** Praise be to God ! What a wise and
mighty God is he ! J * : &$* ** ^^ ^ <J&& ^-^ kaM guft-ash chi nishmi ki fuidn
(Sa^i) " some one said to him, * Why do you remain seated here because V 4
- c hi budi 5 (classical) ' ' would to God ! 5 ' : ^U. (^ or) j!\ ^djj &<*>
a? 6 chi budl agar (or ki) hakim Inja ml-dmdd " would to God the
Governor had come here (or were to come here) ! 5)
This idiom is still in use amongst the Afghans.
1 For bala-yi sar-am fj* <^$* \ better balatar az man (
* But nami-danam chish shud (vulg.) * (J^ ^f>**> 4< I don't know what (sickness)
has come to it."
8 Also qadarjfr* *' quantity"; etc.
* Cr (without hamza) " a ball."
* But C5^ p*jp* j*!& JM jr^ **^t *^ chi ba&hadagar bar-i dlgar mutarannim shavi*
" how nice it would be if you were to sing again ! " ; chi baahad or chi mlshud ' what
would it matter if ."
6 Ohi budl Inja bi-ya yad *&> l^ijl (^&j> *%- (class.) " would that he would come ' ' ;
in m.o. chi khub bud &j* w^ **- or chi fehftth bud &j* (jSj^- fy is used instead of chi budl
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
5** j\ &*j& )&jf* agar dar mufdvazayi u
rtzHtf kardl chi shudR? (Sa'dl) " had he delayed but, one night in his inter-
course with her, what then ? "
(t ) The plural of &* is ^ chi-hd : it is rare in classical Persian. In
modern Persian the plural is also written I* &*.. Ex. : ***&*> ^ ** chi-hd
miguyand " what do they say, or what are they saying?": &$(&&*
oA& A^ l^o. y &j& chihd ki na-kard va chihd ki na-guft (m.c.) "there was
nothing he didn't do or say/'
(u) Chi-chi &*.-&*. signifies "what does it matter one way or the
other"; also " whether whether ." Ex. v^Uv^^^ *<*. &ty# cuiu^j a^. chi
bar takht murdan chi bar ru-yi khdk " what matters it to die on a throne or on
the bare ground ? ; it is the same thing to die on a throne as on the bare
ground": j&* **> j&>\ &$ chi amir chi faqir (m.c.) "whether gentle or
^t'
simple " =chi shah chi gadd (m.c.) ; *J<x*o ^ ^ *a. chi dur l chi sadaf ** whether
a pearl or an oyster shell " : ^ ^ j -A^ ^ chisharif u chi wan' " as well
high as low."
Remark. f^ khivdh repeated could be substituted for a^ 2 in these
examples.
This chi is called chi-i (not chi-yi) musdvat (otf^l~x> &*. ) "the - of com-
parison or equality,"
(v) It was stated above, in (&), that &* is generally used for inanimate
things. It is however also occasionally used for animate beings, as : <H*vi *^
<xlb ^ ^xj^f &*. ^1 * SMJi pursld ki m chi ddamhd mi-bdshand (( (ni.c.) the
Shah asked * who are these men?*"; {instead of in ddam-hd klstand'*
<*&*>-* ^jf ^0 In the former case, however, &*> has rather the sense
of " what sort of , " whereas * merely asks * who are they? * o^ ^ ^ ^ &>\
In mard chi kas ast (rn.c.) ? ** what sort of man is this ? " [in mard chi fcdra
ast o~s' *j &*> j*> ^3\ fm.c.) "what sort of man is this, or what is his
profession ? " tu chi kdra-l ^ **$** (m.c.) *' what is your work ? ", also ~bi-tu
chi ? **> & ] : ^^j* & { ~***\ ^ c/ &* )* ** 8 y ^ **- chi kas-ttu ki dar haqq-i
)nan In ihsdn farmudl (class.) "who art thou who hast acted so kindly to-
wards me ? ' '
(w) Chand***- "how many" is applicable to things animate or inani-
mate, with or without a substantive. The substantive, if used, must be
in the singular.
1 Note that the final letter is doubled durr J$ and must therefore in prose
be pronounced with a stress on it. Here by poetical license the word is dur.
** The distinction that exists between t^ and ^ (vide " Hindustani Stepping-
Stones ") in Urdu does not exist in Persian between *l^ and *^.
8 In m.c. this chi kaa-l tu ^^ &<$> would be too familiar an address to be followed
by iJisan farmudl
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 97
Chand ***- is also an interrogative signifying * ' how much ? how many ?
how long? to what length? etc." Ex.: axA^w^jt cxia. * **(**+* nami-
danad lei chand az shah guzashta " he knows not how much of the night has
passed (i.e. how near morning it is) " (Sa'di).
Pa-yi misktn piyada chand ravad
K-az tahammul sutuh shud bukhfi-' (Sa'di)
1 ' How far can the weary foot- man go
For the camel has no more endurance left in it ? "
s ^^\ ^a. ajAU^o y Turd mushahara chand ast? Guft " hich."
(Sa'di) " how much is your pay?" He said "nothing": <^&^ *^^-
bi-chand girijti' 1 (m.c.) " how much did you pay for (this) ? "; jL> ^c^aric? bar
* ' how often ? " : <>ia* 13 ta-chand i( for how long ? ' '
Like chi *., chand <*i^ is occasionally used in exclamation.
Remark 1. In composition: <*JL JA. chand-sala, adj., signifies "of few
years " or " of how many years ? " according to the intonation of the voice.
Remark II. Chand *** is only used of things that can be counted.
For quantity that can be measured t^j** and ^^^ are used.
In m.c., chand taab w/f &**. means, ** how many parterres of ground each
measuring five oj3 by five eji will this stream water in twelve hours?" A
plot of the size mentioned is called by villagers *-*&$ .
(#} Grammarians distinguish the particle (*J^) chi &*> by various names :
(1) Chi ^ as a simple interrogative, as ^tj-^-vc *^ chi-mi-khwah*?, is
called cMm- istifham ( ^fftx*f^a. ).
(2) Ghim-i istifhani*i nufl ( ^jto |*^^* ! f^- ) iniplies negative interroga-
tion, as : aw ^ra^ r^?' ml danad *>ifax ^^j^'f * c what does he know ? nothing *' :
also (6),
(3) Chim-inahi ( ^e ^*^ ) implies prohibition, as: in sada chi ml-faml
(m.c.) "why do you make such a noise ? =don't do it."
(4) Ghlm-i mvbalagM ( &*)\*# px ) the *** of amplification precedes an
adjective and intensifies it, as : ^tr^^^i) &* chiziba mi-khwanad (m.c.) *' how
nicely he reads."
(5) Ch%m-i ta'zim ( ^jJa*5^^ ) the ** of honouring precedes a noun, as
In chi mard-i st o~o^* &&. ^ ' what a man (brave) he is ! "
(6) Chim-i tahqtr (^*a3 p**> ) the ^ of disdain" implies negative
interrogation combined with contempt, as : o*f Jbll *^. ^( %n chi qabil ast
(m.c.) " how can he do this; how is he fit for this business ? " This chi **
is practically identical with chim-i istifham-i nafi (2) q.v.
(7) Ch%m*i tahayyur ( ^3 ^ ) <* the **. expressing astonishment," as:
(m.c.) " what is this you're saying! what do you mean !"
A strong breed of camel with two humps.
Also in m.c. dar chand girifta i'j **^> )* or elliptically chand ginfti
7
98 INDEFINITE PEONOUNS.
(8) Ch%m-i tahassur (j~*^* p**> ) " the ** of regret " as in dar\g>
Fatak ba man chi karcK ^^/ *^ &* ^ **&* c^f U$p " Alas ! O wheel of the
how has thou dealt with me ! * '
(9) For chtm-i musavat * vide ' (M).
(10) For cMm-i tasgj&r j**>*> p**> or "the **. of diminutiveness " ,
Diminutives.
38. Substitutes for Interrogative Pronouns.
Connected with &*> are the inter rogatives A*^. chiguna " how ? in
state ? " , from &* chi and A3^? * guna ' * colour , manner ' ' ; and e^ appar
derived from &*> and the demonstrative pronoun of.
(a) Chiguna. o~>i <^^f a *^^ chiguna adam-% *st (classical and m.<
OM^yoaf *J>^ ) *' what sort of a man is he ? "
For the m.c. phrase vi*w * ; fe &^ *^*i.J| ?w mard chi-kara ast ? mWe exa
at end of (v) 37.
Remark. In the above example, chiguna **j&^ qualifies the noun adav
In the phrase &*&* chiguna-i" ho ware you ? " , chiguna &>*. is an ad^
(6) Chun.* Ex, : ^^^ U^ y tu bt-ma chun-% ({ away from us, how d<
find yourself? " (lit. 4t how art thou ? what art thou ? ") : jo> 'j JU^ju (
^JL _*^ * <j*rt* 5 J^ t5^^ J c5^^ darvish-i za l ?/ M2 ra <iar tongft w khust
sal ina-purs ki chun-i ? magar (Sa f dl) ** don't enquire from the poor da
during a famine year how he is, unless ."
/
39. Indefinite Pronouns ( +4** +*A )^ 6
(a) There are very few indefinite pronouns properly so called. ThS d
is supplied by the ^ of unity or by substitutes, as will be seen fron
following list of examples :
i Guna *}y , also gun &)* \ be careful to pronounce the j long and the final !
e-t &>j>*$- chigvne &*j* **&- chand-guna '* of different kinds, various'*; also e
guna-gun " of different colours or sorts."
^ Chiguna &>j&*- here equals )j> ** chifawr or p~$ **> chiqism. Note thafct
is that of ' unity ' (and is not that of ^^ adaml " man "), as in chiguna zan-i 'at
o^^>) *' what sort of a woman is she? "
8 Note the difference of meaning of ****. i n the following two sentences : M
ra dar Basra didam-, hajl chiguna bashad ; <**? tej^f u*^ f*^^ *T^ )* ^
(Sa*di) " I saw him in Basra; how ran he then be a pilgrim from Mecca ? ' * : ch
what sort of a pilgrim is he ? " * Quf tarn-ash chiguna-i dar m fyafat ? ' ^
j^- "-(Sa'dl) '* I asked him how he was feeling.*'
* Chun e?j^ is also in some districts vulgarly used for kun &j& * the anus/'
5 Another reading is Wmshk-sall ^^ cki. which is certainly a commoner wo
9 Chwnln ^^ 9 chunan c^^> fulan >^, etc., chand <>i^, chandan and \&
are called kinayat ouUT.
INDEFINITE PBONOUNS. 99
(1) "Other, another," dlgar ^.^^ precedes or follows its noun, as: digar
ruz)jjj&* 9 OT ruz*i dlgar jt*t> jjj "the next day" also "another day";
dlgar rah fy .*, or rah-i dlgar ^ fy " another road " ; dlgar bar jyt* 9 or
bar-i digar ^ jb "another time; a second time, again " ; digar-gun &jf j&*
"in another state, altered"; jt** jUi namaz-i dlgar (Afghan idiom) "the
afternoon prayer ' ' ; dlgaran &\j&s or dUgar-ha ^Xj^ "others, other people ' 9 ;
dlgar kas 1 ^ >.* (class.), or kas-i, digar ^ ^ (class.), or better with
the ^ of unity ** ^~$ kas-l dlgar " another person, some one els " : % ^s.*
" another person, another"; U^^y^ c&gar 'azvha " the other (remaining)
limbs"; digar baradaran-ash ij*\)tij* jZt* "his other brothers" (Gul.,
Book I, St. 3).
The expression ^* <^$j>& oJ>; ^. yak-i raft digar-% mand " one went, the
other remained " is classical as well as m.c. 8
Yak digar ^^ and hatn dlgar jl**.*** are reciprocal pronouns * each
other,' * one another.'
Remark I. In classical and m.c., dlgar j&$ is frequently used as
an adverb signifying "otherwise, again, any more, why then," etc., as:
j^Liu^JliJ j fi o*^^r^-* lia dlgar kas nam Da mshan-a,$h na-sMnavad (GuL,
Book 3, St. of the Boxer, No. 68) "and no one ever hears of him again" ;
here cRgarj^t* is an adverb " again," and does not qualify kas : digar payin-
tar yi; ^J^a {ni c.) " further down,"
Remark II. In compounds and in poetry^Sa digar, as: ct^^i dt gar-gun
tl changed, altered, otherwise."
Bazarcha-yi qasab-faru$han digar ast * vj>f jl
store of Cairene cloth or silk have we."
(O. K. Rub. 58 Whin.) ; lit, "the mart of the muslia-sellers is
another place."
Remark III. For the ^ of unity with dlgar ji#>, vide 41 (p).
1 For " the one the other * ' , vide yak-l (c) ( 1).
2 j{j& ^j yak-l dlgar " one other, another" ; note position of ^ of unity in these
two words ; also in^A-!^ cSVf*' chiz-i digar : ^5^.^ means *' another person/' so iSJ^*-J&5"
chlz-i digar-l should mean ** the thing of some one else " ; in m.e. however it often incor-
rectly means " another thing." These expressions are exceptions to rule. Instead of
chu-l dlgar j&* c^i^-* y<*k chlz-l dlgar ^.^ C^34^ ^ could be used; vide also Remark
to (b).
d j^ ^ ^>*^ J oAjdJf JU a^if ^C A^y **3ti^ ^ j AJ^J 6^xj J> u^ ji
( c5X*u ) - >j& JUtf j oJLycf JLc a^}f . Here isj&z could have been used.
4 Baxarcha *^> ^tj'j dimin. Qasab v* -* fine linen of Egypt (word not used in
modern Persian).
100 INDEFINITE PBONOtJNS.
(2) j*# ghayr is properly a substantive (pi. ag&yar " strangers "). Ex. :
j* JU mal-i gbfiyr 1 "some one else's property": cJi? ^j& o* 2 *** #hakh$-i
gh&yr-i guft* "a stranger, some one else said this."
To the question " are you a relation of theirs ? " the answer might be
*ri* ay* man gh&yra hastam (m.c.), " I am an outsider.' '
Dar umftr-i zatl va karha-yi gjb&yr bd man kunkash namudl -5 ^f i j>*t p
^Ki/ fc/ob^i C$- I A>{< (Tr. H. B. Chap. V) "he used to consult me on his
own affairs and those of the community " ; ghayr-i ^j* " another person, a
stranger."
Remark. Qhayr j+* is prefixed to substantives and adjectives, and Arabic
participles, with the privative sense " un- 9 im- 9 " etc., to form adjectives.
Ex. : gh&yr-i abad * { *f j** < uncultivated " or * c uninhabited " ; gh&yr-i insaf
o^l j** <v unjust" (but if the compound ivS a substantive the izdfat is
omitted, as ghayr insafl ^^\ ^ (class.) "injustice"); &Jj&*>j+e gb&yr-i
manqula ** immovable (property) " ; A^y^ix)^ ghayr-i mankuha "unmarried,
i.e. illegitimate (wife)"; **& jJ> g&ayr-i nafiz "inoperative, of no effect";
^))y*j** gkayr-i maivrusi " not inherited " (also ghayr-i mawrus ^5
mod. Per.).*
?**>. P. (for wa-gj&yr* "-hu ^^, Ar.), and uJJi^p^ va
/
zalik (for Ar. ^3^^ ), and gAaa/r-s* an eif ^ = " et cetera" ; but ghayr <& &
5 f jf ji = " with the exception of him."
The izafat o^Ui in modern Persian after ghayr j** in compounds is
f
perhaps a corruption of the final vowel of the Ar. noun, thus c* 5 ^^,
^
gh&yr" khalis^, Ar., and cfayr-i kfwlis, Mod, Pers M ** impure/*
(6) "One another" :
(l)^JUs^ yakdtgar (one word) classical compound of yak **& "one"
(numeral) and digarj&.z (t another." Ex.: ^*^f^** *z>**}* \jj**& yak&gar ra
dust mi-darim "we are fond of each other": ^^ &iiu ^1^ raftlm
bi-kkana-yi yakdigar " we went to each other's houses.*'
YakcRgar j&.*& is used in colloquial only by educated people : ham-dlgar
ji+*> is used only by the vulgar.
Remark I. This reciprocal pronoun must not be confounded with
j&* 4J& yakl-dlgar "another individual," vide footnote 2, page 99.
1 4^*r?i J^ malri digar-i ** the property of some one elne."
2 The expression o"ut p ghayr ehakhfi, though correct, is not used in modern
Persian ; fihakk* i yhayr-l is used instead.
B In modern Persian the izafat v**l*| jg uded after ghayr j*P in compound
adjectives.
In old classical Persian, however, the Izafat **'*4t appears to have been omitted
after ghayr j** It is omitted in India and Afghanistan.
INDEFINITE PEONOUNS. 101
Remark IL Note that in the second example <w^ is used collectively.
would also be correct, but less usual, to use the plural
(2) j&& p*> ham digar (m.c.) : ba ham-digar nishasta and
.c.) " they are seated together " : oJ>x)f ^*j?,& p* v^* j' az *aqab-i ham-c&gar
amadand (Shah's Diary) f ' they (the ships) followed one behind the other."
(c) " One " , " some one " , < any one ' * and <c a person.' '
(1) t5^ yak-i (the numeral yak "one" with the ^ of unity). Ex.:
ixiLU?^j ^ULjj ^^^aaJo tj ^j &$ j^^ax> ^j> ^^R sukhun bar In muqarrar
id ki yak-i ra bi-tajassus-i ishan bar gumashtand 1 va (Sa'dl) "it was
sided to appoint some one to spy on them ' ' : jyix> j| ^X* yak-i az muluk
. e dl) " one of the kings " : o) j:> ^ yak-i dar zad (m.c.) " some one loiocked
the door."
The following are colloquialisms : anyak-i ' l ^i d (m.c.) "that one,"
1 in yak-i <^>. ^ (m.c.) " this one." Ex. : f* ^*U> jd ^^J of ^$ pusht-i
yak-i dar qcfim shudam (m.c.) 6J I hid behind that there door."
"The one the other" is yak-i <^& dlgar-l v5>^^, or m yak-l ^ ^
digar-i ^5^:^ of. In classical Persian digar j>* cc the other" also occurs
dlgar-i <^ji. Vide foot note 2.
Remark. Yak-i ^ is also a numeral ; thus, to the question, c< what is
ir average * ' % tlie answer might be *j ^ ^i yak-i dar dak ( * one in ten
rtridges, etc.)."
Note the following idiomn : *>ty. ^H /**^ &+* hama bd-ham yak-i budand
key were all of one mind, unanimous (yak-dil budand ^^ J^ -^} ;
n-yak-i~am ^ ^* ^^ i{ 1 am one, alone," but yak-i man-am az in miyan
* it^t ) f^o ^O (Saklf) ^ I am the one who ,"
For yak-i ^, adv.. ** in the tirst place," w/e Adverbs, FaM ^ is
> a subs, {note accent) 44 unity, oneness, concord."
For yak <-?, the numeral, as a substitute for the indefinite article,
e 41 (a) ; vide also under Numerals. JLfa yaka u tanha ^p j ^i &*> (m.c.
y) " I alone."
(2) ox=*( ahad* (the Arabic numeral "one" with the Persian ^ of
ty), though practically the same as yak-i <^, is only used in m.c. with the
b in the negative, vide <l No one " (d) (6).
l Note the Preterite tense is used to signify that not only was the decision arrived
but that ifr was carried out.
* Haklm-l guft khilaf-i In *a/o6 budl ki an yak-i bisyar-bhwar bud ffiqat-i b*-nava*-i
lasht halak shud va an dlgar tehwlsktanrdar bud "
jt (Sa*di) ** a philosopher replied> 'the contrary would have been strange because
former was a great oater and could not stand the fasting, so he died ; but the second
latter) was accustomed to abstinence. ' ' *
3 Or yak- bar dah
102 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Remark. The broken plural of ahad **M is ahad ^f "units, indivi-
duals.'* Ex. : f^ j$ *$ i)\* if** \)> k& i l ^ of*^ cx^ alaJf &)j~$ j> &&
guft bar pi$aran-i ahad-i ra'iyyat chandan jafd u iawbikh rava nami-darl ki
pisar-i mam (Sa'dl) " he said you do not treat the sons of any one of my
subjects with the severity you use to my son " : &V^ ** fV<^ fj ^T jl c^ 4 *^
*& C5J^ ahad-t az ahad ra na-didam ki chunm kar-l bi-kunad (m.o.) " I never
saw any one else do such a (disgraceful) thing as you have done."
(3) ^v-^ or t^~$\ kas or kas -t. } Ex. : ^0^^^ kas-% guft ki "some
body said that ." Sa'di says :
Rastl mujib-i raza-yi Khuda-st
Kas na-<Rdam ki gum shud az rah-i rast
Rectitude (or truth) is the means of pleasing God.
Never have I seen an upright man forsaken."
** Gar bi-ja-yi nan-ash andar sufra budl a/tab
Ta qiyamat ruz-i rushan kas na-duR dar jahan (Sa'di).
bi-i'timad*i an ki danad ki bi-kas^
na-guyam (Sa e dl) ** he replied because he relies on what he knows, viz. that
I won't repeat things to any one ' % ; vide also example in Remark to (a) (1) :
t5*y c^k '..* ^ j'jf v^xyo ^ ^i& ^)^ (^> J^ t^*-"* ** ki sukfaan juz
bi-hukm-i zarurat na-guftl va mulib-i azar-i kas bi-zaban-ash na ra//? (Sa'df)
* 4 who never spoke unless it was necessary, nor unbridled his tongue to
hurt anyone's feelings " ; (in m.c, ka$-i instead of kas) : /^ ^ Mif *Ua> ^
^>r? i^^?M u^ ^W $ u^ 7X? Jtukama* gujta and ckahar kas az diahar kas
bl-jan bi-ranjand* *' four people live in dread of four other people '* : jj !>^
^ j"^ ^ $ c^ r qaza-ra az kasan-i u yak-l hazir bud" by chance one of his
followers (people of the house) was present."
Remark. Kas <jr* is also used in the sense of "noble" (i.e. a * some-
body ') as opposed to na-kas ^& <* ignoble, mean" ; thus Sa*d! says:
1 Jn rn.c. lcas-1 < B 5~*$' ** some one," but ^^^1 n kaa 4 * this person." Care must
b taken to pronounce this word kas ijr* and not kus ^* (whence the Arabic kus}.
Kaa {jf is properly a substantive, "a person, a body"; chunin koaqn eJ^ e^^
4 4 such persons. ' *
4 In m.c. and in prose kas-i ra \j ^j~ would be used for has ^jr^ in the example.
8 ^f an kas " thafe person.* * Ex.: ^f ^ ^ ^f J^>4J U vi^Xj ( J3^^ da*t-
aah bi-girift ta bi-manzil-i an kaa dar avard ' * he took him by the hand and led him to
that person's house."
* Bi-ranj J*j* "in affliction " and W "are, 1 ' or else bwanjand **ajjj the 3rd
person pi. of the Aorist of ranjidan ()**&*) : both correct.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 103
Shamshir-i n%k az dhan-i bad chUn kunad kas-i ?
Nd-kas bi-tarbiyat na-shavad, ay hakim, kas (Sa'dl).
" How can a man make a good sword from bad iron ?
An ignoble man becomes not ; oh philosopher, noble by education."
Imruzhd u ham kas shuda ast exi *&~- ^ ^ $ Uj^cf (m.c.) " he has
become a big person, a somebody, these days."
Bar khud dar-i kdm u drzu dar-bastam
V'az minnat-i har na-kas u kas vd rastam.
" I close the door of hope in my own face,
Nor sue for favours from good men, or base.' '
(O.K., 315, Whin.)
Kas u nd-kas ^^ j ^ " high and low, all."
Bi-ka$ <j-*^ signifies (C friendless, destitute, an orphan,"
Kam-tar kas-% ^^ ^ " scarcely a person."
These significations of kas ^ \ na-kas ^*^^, and K-kas ^j^^, are rn.c.
as well as classical.
(4) "One": f at l adarn, ^tf adami, &{~*i\ insdn * c man"; oaJi
shakhs* <c a person." Ex. : oi**o c^*^ ^T adam hayrat mikunad ki "one
(lit, a man) wonders that " ; insdn could be substituted in such sentences :
*&jj*> vi o ij 4ja^ JJ ^c^ bu-yi gul shakhs rd mast m\-kunad " the scent
of the roses intoxicates one ' 5 ; shakhs na-bdyad In harna subuk bdshad
^U ^J^t <S*A ^f iX?Ui (jaii^ (m.c.) 4i a person, (a man) ought not to be so
impatient."
Remark!. s**j oa=R- shajchs-i vahid, <x jj &jf fard~i bashar, sigmfiea
"a single individual," and shakh$*i ^*&** **a person, some one." Ex.:
&xsu wf^+i j& ^ t o^ij ^?** shakhs-i vdhid bd dah nafar nami-tavdnad
bi-jangad <4 a single individual cannot fight with ten men": ^f ^^^
" some one came (to me) " ; but^^ shakhsi adj : (note accent) means
^personal."
I Adam f^ and insan c>^l both mean *'man" as opposed to ** beast," but the
latter is also used in the sense of, ' possessing politeness, good manners ; not a savage.'
The following classical sentence, Mi-tarsa'nmabada bi-dast-i adam-i jangalibi-yuftam
va in hamrchunan ast ki bi-panja-yi shir giriftar shudan (^^ S^" ^' *^*><V f>4* ^^^
,j)Ji j&j! j% <?"J^ *^ *$ *^^*l vy^*u^ ^| j |^AXJ (class.), would in modern Persian be
rendered Va In chunan ast ki guya, inaan bi-panja-yi shir girifffir shavad
* The plural of
8 In m.c. g$ or *f glj or glch would be more used in this sense.
104 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Remark II. The indefinite pronoun "one" in English, or "a man,"
may often be rendered in Persian by *5yb har-ki * whoever ' ' : *z+**\ j*&& **j*
cu*,|y ^U^j har-ki nazdik-tdr ast parishan-tar ast " the nearer one is, the
more one is in anxiety," lit. whoever is nearer is in great anxiety, vide 45
(v) ; oijAJ ^^xslj ^4J t;jA. ] AJ^iu ^iti c/ 4 *!) )* ^ j* harki dar zindagl
nan-ash na-khurand chun bi-mwad nam-ash na-barand (Sa'dl) "when a
man's bread is not eaten 1 in his lifetime, his name is not mentioned after
death." The following is often quoted by dervishes and Sufis :
(6) The indefinite pronoun " one" can only be expressed by putting the
verb, Aorist or Past Habitual, into the second person singular, as, gu*i ^
'* you would say " : <^^y ^**j &* ^-^t^t ^j^*> j~/\ ^lia. $j*) &j fkojf
izdiham-i zan u mard chundn-ki agar sar-i suzan-l-andakhll bi-zamln na-ras%di
(H. B. Chap. XI) "such a crowd of men and women that were one to
throw (or had you thrown) a needle's point amongst them it wouldn't have
reached the ground."
(d) "No one, none, nobody, nothing/ 2 no, some."
(1) <_r' $** Jilch kas y or ^ kas y with the verb in the negative. Ex. :
Sa'dl says : & &> &itiJ\ ^ ^ #& Mch kas bi-man iltifat na-kard ta *'no
one paid any attention to me " ; (m.c.) : ^^>ojU^ ^ ^ ^Jf UUJ^ }t <tf ' ^
h%ch ki az shuma-ha lai*q-i m kar nlstld (m.c.) ** none of you are fit for this
business"; Af*~*j &*> t^^+^j* (^-^ ui *^ 3 f ^ ^ && y&k az shuma-ha
layiq-imarhatmt-Iid'yimanmstid 4 (m,c.) "none of you is deserving of my
kindness" ; fl~-*ju &*/ xu ^15 ^ f^xU J^ ^ kick yak ma jam m qalam-band
kardan na-tatvanistam 5 (Afghan) <S I was unable to commit to writing any
one of the adventures " : &*> ^ %*> d* 3 ; u ^ j )j* rH* chaskm-i mur n
pd-yi mar u nan-i mulla kas na-did (modern saw) " none has ever seen ant's
eye, snake's foot, or Mulla's bread." *
oJifc *?**> Mch na-guft tl he said nothing " : hlch kas nayamad t
* * no one came" : vide also (/) (2) and 110 (m).
l Note this method of forming the passive.
* ' Nothing ' is in English a noun.
8 Or hlch yak <~& ***.
* Grammatically, of course, this should be riist *^**J ; this 2nd person plural is an
example of the slovenly thought so noticeable in modern Persian.
6 In m.c. this sentence would be hich yak az majaraha ra naml~tavanitam qayd
bi-kunam f&* * ^L-ofyu^j fj UyxU Jf cJo gA.
* Mullas * bleed ' people and are not bled. In m.c., rtMla-zada fofj H* is almost the
equivalent of * stingy/ etc.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 105
Remark. Hich *$*, which is used adjectively and substantively , is
applicable to substantives, animate or inanimate. As an adjective, it pre-
cedes its substantive. 1
(2) "Some, any." In composition, &**> without a negative some-
times implies " some," and with a negative *' none," etc.
Example :
Gar Faridun shavad bi-ni'mat u mal
Bl-hunar-ra bi-hlch kas ma-shumar (Sa'di).
" Even should he become a Faridun in wealth and possessions,
Do not consider the ignorant (mean) person anybody."
So^jAa. grAfr ($)*** ($* tu-yi sanduq Inch chtz hast "is there anything
in the box?"; ^f l*vvi <^ x> ^f g* hich adam-l inja amad <l did any man
come here?": **&**> yf^r" g& hich mard-l nayamad "no man came":
^A Mch kas anja hast l ' is there any one there ? z " ; oJ^ g*A
hich ixiqt mara yad mi-kuni " do you ever remember me?";
gtt* hich yah anja rafta-l (class.) <c have you ever gone there '? " ;
j ^.'f ^^V A ^=?-^ ^t^ hi-liich vajh mi-tavarii in kar-ra anjam
hidihl (m.c.) t4 can you by any means complete this work ? "
(3) In answer to a question, hich <*& and its compounds signify a
negative. Ex. : Q. ^$* &*. chi mi-fcunl kt what are you doing ? " A. ^** kick
tf nothing," To the question. e*-*r taut i; who is there ? ?? the answer might
be ^ ir*A * 4 no one."
Similarly m kama hich ast cu^i ^e* ^ A - ( f, siguilies "* this is all nothing " ;
htch chlz nist cu-xi (chiz-i ^Jjj^ or) JJ^ ^> " it is nothing " :
In hama Jiicli ast chun mi-bugzarad
Bakht u takht u amr u nahy u glr u dar.
" This is all naught, since it passes away, (viz.) fortune and sovereignty,
ordering and counter-ordering, empire and dominion." (Sa'di.)
Hich vaqt *^**> ^ * ever " ; hich vaqt-na ** v ^5 g*A ' never." Ex. : ghulam
hlchwaqt darya na-dlda bud W *&*> ^.)* -^ *r-y* (*^* (v^a'di) " the slave had never
seen (or experienced )i the sea."
* The m.c. phrase hich ka#-l nist c^-oji LT^gf*** or hich mar d nist^** &j* gt A
(not mard-i ity*> ), signifies " he is of no account, a poor creature ' * ; the latter sometimes
also signifies hich mardi na-darad >;t^ 4^^ ffi* (politely translated " he has no
manhood ").
106 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Dunya didi va har chi didi hick ast
Van } niz hi gufti va shunidi hich ast.
" You see the world, but all you see is naught,
And all you say, and all you hear is naught."
(0. K., Rub. 50, Whin.)
"He is less than nothing " az hich chiz kamtar ast* ^<~\ jr^+O*^ g** 3 1
(m.c.), or u az hich hich-tar ast ss^f j**** ^A 31 y .
Remark. It must, however, be borne in mind that Ac/i g**> properly
means " anything/' and WcA-na ^ ^ <c nothing " ; thus, <f eating nothing is
better than eating bad food " would be rendered by hich na-lchwnrdan bihta,r
az to'am-i bad khwurdan ast cu^i &*)?^ ** ^^ 3 1 jW ^^sfej Q** ; while hich
khurak khurdan ^^ ^\>y^ g* (Indian) would mean, if it meant anything
at all, "eating anything (or something) is better than/'
(4) "At all, ever?" In interrogative phrases ^ implies "ever, at
all; in the least." Example:
Ay ki hargiz faramush-at na-kunam
Hicli-at az banda yad mi-ayad ? (Sa'di).
44 Oh Thou whom I never forget,
Dost thou at all remember thy servant '( " (Sa'dl).
^ /> g& h* c & & r *f-2af (m.e.) " do you play the guitar at all 1 " :
** W d>^*> g& hich mi-slwvad u-ra bi-blnlm (m.c.) ** would it be (or is
it) at all possible for us to see him ? ' '
Remark. ~#> > ^ hich u puch signifies ** contemptible, anything silly or
futile."
(5) Hick g^A (like har j&) can be joined with kudam f\<*$, as, hich kudam
{l^-rt* "either (of two); anyone (of three or more)." With the nega-
tive, it signifies " neither and " none."
Remark. Hich *& and har j* [vide (/)] are called p*& o/^ or
Isfari mubham ( p**> f~\ ) is Indefinite Pronoun.
(6) ' ' No one " (m.c.) *j^-^^t ahad-ina (m.c.) , (i.e. ahad-i with the verb
in the negative) : vide (c) (2). Example : aj^ <*V e^ 1 ^
barham na-khurd. (Shah's Diary) "no one was upset (sea-sick).
1 For Vaan c/f >
2 Also u juzri hava oat v^f>A *J^ j (m.c.).
9 Poetical for faramush-at c^i-*!^
* Could also be written p&&> (rare).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 107
(7) Ghlz j#$- or cMz-i L$)**> followed by a negative verb signifies
" nothing," vide (p).
(e) "So-and-So, such and such, Snooks, what' s his name ": &* fulan (in
Persian also falan) is a designation of an undefined person or thing, present or
absent; as an adjective it precedes its substantive, as: fulan-kas ^ &%*
" such a person." Ex.: 1 p*.*(& ^aiy*^ cJ^^j t; <**U ^JU *$ yjf o)l^ va
basharat avard M fulan qal'a ra bi-dawlat-i khudavandl kushadim (Sa'df) "
and brought the good news that such and such a fortress had been taken ' ' :
2 j^U ^jlk' j^ j ^^ &A~ s$ ci-si? f^ t5^; l i ^) j*. 3 f C5^ yak-i az buzurgdn pdrsa'i 8
ra guft ki cfii gu-*i dar liaqq-i fulan f abid (Sa e d!) "a certain great man
asked a pious ascetic what his opinion was concerning a certain religious
person " ; <vf (^iu* or ^^) ^j &%*, or *<1 &&* fulan amad, or fulan kas
(kas-l or shakhs) amad **So-and-So came" : &&* &>* ^ &.* eA> ^ dar
fulan iarikh fl sana-yi fulan <c on such a date in such a year." Ya fulan
e>3b* L "ho! you there." Fulan is also used to indicate the private parts of
male or female. *
The feminine is <*>&*, but more often e>j e^i fulan zan, etc., is used.
Remark I. The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used with fulan
e>&, as: in fulan &&* ^ **this So-and-So*' and an fulan eJ^i c^T s< that
So-and-So."
Remark II. In vulg. ni.c., yaru ^ is used for men or women and
sometimes for things, as: yaru aniad **$ jfa ** So-and-so (man or woman)
came" : yam ra hiyawr *j* fjj^t- s< bring the wine" (or the goblet or gaming
things: for anything forbidden).
(2) ^^i* futanl refers to persons only, whether present or absent.
An exception is fa I) ^&* fulam-ra biyar (Tehran) ** bring it (wine)."
A caller, to avoid the mention of his own name, might say to the servant
at the door, Ingu^d Man * amadshuma tashnf na-dashSd, etc. , U **$ ^
In poetry fulani ^Mi sometimes signifies ' a mistress.' Fulan u Bahman
J^* and vulgarly Fulan u PasJimadan &]*+* ) &&* are also used for
persons or things when there are more than one, as: Fulan u Bahman am-
adand ai*vf cA^ ^W " So-and-So with So-and-So came " ; fulan u pashma-
dan guftand ^iii? &1*+^j &&* (m.c.) "they said such and such things."
1 Tn m.c. gushadan c^^*$ (not kushadan v
4 The two words parsa ^*)^j and *8bid ^^ have much the same signification ; the
former is Persian, the latter Arabic ; *56d *jl* signifies properly ^worshipping (God)."
Note the es* of unity.
* The m.c. abuse fulan-am bi~fulan-at cuiJli p>&* (or fulamash ^^JiU) h as an inde-
cent signification.
108 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Fulan e;lU can be used as an adjective, but fuldm ^llt cannot.
the former is indefinite (nakira *j&) and the latter definite (ma'rifa *
that is, if referring to a person known to the speaker and his listener,
^jiU would be used, otherwise fulan &&*.
Fulan u blstar (or blsar) yjUx ^ &&? is also used in modern P<
generally for things, rarely for persons.
(3) " What's his name " ; j*^ **- chi chiz, or chi chiz-l (m.c. ). Ex. :
Uf ^Uu - JAA. A^U foYaw; bigu bi-chi ch/iz, bi-Haji Agha (m.o.) " go ar
whaVs his name, I mean Haji Agha " : ^-^ f^, ^f e/ t>#->^ *^ c '
pisA-t maw amad-cfiulam Hasan <( what's his name came to me (jj
Hasan." In,^>f ^J ^Hi ^$< )\ ^j^^ b^ ^5-f ay saba nakJiat-1 az kii-yi
bi-man ar, fulanl = ma'sJiuq.
(4) Bastar u b%8tarj*~#j j&m'* "So-and-So," are obsolete.
Remark. In the following sentences :
dard ra dava-i ntst magar zahra-yi adam-i ki bi-chandin si fat inaivsuf bu\
(Sa e dl) " for this disease there is no cure, but the gall of a human bein|
has such and such qualities," the word fulan could be substitut<
chandtn &!**^ without materially altering the sense.
(/) Both," and neither of two."
(1) 2 >>^* har-du "both." Examples: ^j&> 4 ^ **^^^> ^ S A^ J
oJ/ har du linga ra bar-i shut-ur karda mahar-i shutur ra girift {m.c.}
loaded the camel with both its loads and took hold of the nose-stri
^^f^1 is*f J4^*^? M^^ J^j-tf bi-liar du dast dar dumbal-i kishti avikkl. (J
** he seized and clung with both hands to the stem (or perhaps the m
of the ship " ; ***O^ ^^ j/ ^ tjj*j* of j** ^*^ guff biglr an har du
tura sad dinar bidiMm 4C he said save both of those two and I will give ;
hundred dinars" 5 ; +**j ^ ^ ma har dn rajtim (or simply liar du ?
j* ) c * we both went. * '
1 Note the demonstrative or relative (^5-
* For har j* " every ", vide (?).
3 Linga ^*J is " one out of a pair; the load of one side of a beast of burden,
4 Mdhar jV* is the camel leading-string attached to a wooden key in the nose
certain districts (Khurasan for instance) the mahar )\%* is not used, the loading-
being merely attached to a rope halter. The classical expression jf* (jttj*** ^ l
"bl mahar (camel without a nose-string) signifies " refractory *' and sometimes "
dering aimlessly ": commonly used in India.
6 Formerly a coin of value. At the present day a dinar is an imaginary co
infinitesimal value ; fifty go to one shahl or to a half penny of English money. N<
tf for "and " : j would be unidiomatic.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 109
In m.c. , j*y* is also placed before the separate and affixed pronouns as
shown in the following examples : ^^T ^ ij*j* har du-yi ma dmad%m l " we
both came " : cJ&^ y*, or v^^ j^j** or e^All tsj* j* har du-yishdn, or har
du-shdn, or har-du-yi uhdn l "both of them " : ^ t><jl>*y> har du-ash rd
biydr (m.c.), or^Uj I; <jL>)*j*> har du-yash rd biydr (m.c.), (or har du shdn rd
biydr ^ lyU ^ yfc) e< bring both of them " : the last however is for living
things only.
Remark. In m.c., liama si shahr ^ <w <u*, etc., might be usedfor har si
shahr jfi **^a> " all three cities. "
(2) "Neither (of two) " ' 2 is expressed by ^ j& with a negative. Ex. :
8 o^ 5* j& ^f ty ) va turd m har du nist " arid both these (qualities) are
wanting in you, (you have neither of these two) " : *^~**> )&j*> e^3 f g- A U J^r**J
va sarv rd hich az m har du nisi 4t and the cypress has nothing of these two
qualities mentioned " (Sa'di). Fufealso (d) (1).
(3) ''Both." The Arabic dual e>*x>! ithnayn "both", pronounced in
Persian i#nayn, is occasionally used by Mullas, or in legal documents.
(4) Indirect ways of expressing "both" are given in the following
examples :
pjjjj ji j ^yc Mian it tu bi-rdvim " let us both (you and me) go " ; t^f ) U
^j^j md n dnlia, (or md bd dnhd) Mravim (m.c.) "let us both (us and them)
go " : ^y y b {+> shumd bd u (or shumd va u) bi-ravid (m.c.) " you go with
him, let 5 ? ou and him both go*"; ** f^f ^ ^ ^t f& ham m va ham an
rd biydr, or more commonly In u an rd-bii/dr j$* ^f ^ ^f , <f bring both this and
that (i.e. both)."
(5) s< Both sides" <J^b ji y* Imr du faiaf: also expressed by the Arabic
dual fcjH*V jdnibayn or &**j& famjayn tf the two sides, both sides; the con-
tending parties, both parties."
Remark. Similiar to >}>* har du <* both," are ^uyfc Jiar $i <c all three/*
etc. Ex. : *&*>jj* \j &j^ V^ 7~*vJ* ^ iar P^^j^db-i Ichud-ra farukhtam <( I sold
all five of my books."
(g) (1) <c Some, several, sundry, few." Qhand ***., or chand-i ^^- <c a
few," signifies an indefinite quantity ; it precedes or follows its substantive,
which should be in the singular, and may or may not have the ^ of unity.
l Or har <1u t& man arnadlm ^^ e>^ )& j* (m.c.): or har du ta shan
<jlt U (m.c.).
* * ' Neither nor * ' are expressed by ^ na &* na.
8 Lit. <c You have not these both."
* Note that the order of the persona is the reverse to that in English : the Persians
say " I and thou (or you) *' and the English " you and I,"
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS,
M^rrf (Sa'df) "in short he sunl
a few times" : l **f ^ e*oOJ!> *** cAaweZ y5 6ar w 6ar amad (Sa'dl) " s
few days after this"; *ia.*&if kalima-i chand (Sa'di) "a few words "
^Ly *ia. <y<>** qadam-i-chand biraftamt (Sadi) " I went a few steps " ; ^U
<\W sail chand (Sa'di) " a few years."
Chand ***- is an adjective. If it follows its noun, the noun requires the
indefinite <jr.
Remark. Chand 1***- ' a few ' properly indicates a number less than
ten. . ....
Khurush-i bar avard Elzhan chu shir
Zi Turkan bi-raftand chand-i dilir.
Shah-Nama Book 4, Giriftar shudan-i Mahuy-i Sun va kushta shudan-i u
bi-farman-i Bizhan-i Turk.
(2) In modern Persian, chand^s*- precedes its substantive, which is in
the singular with or without the - of unity, and the verb is generally in the
plural. Ex.: *&j jfe j*> ***> chand sarbdz rafland* "a few soldiers went ":
*^<y t5*^ chand-i murdand* (Afghan) "a few died"; j&**xL *&*. chand
khidmatgar <v some serving men," but^jK^<x^3f ^coia. chand-i az khidmatgar
ha ** a few from amongst the serving men."
(3) Colloquially and vulgarly the verb is frequently put in the singular,
Ex. : ^ 4uUJ (^4^ J&* ^ chand nafar Isfahan* nishasta bud 4 * there were
some Isf ahanis seated (there) "; the verb should be in the plural (budand
In the m.c. sentence *^^ p* j^.~ 4,5^^ *** ^^ c^)j> dar miyan-i darya
chand kuha-yi digar ham budand, il in the midst of the sea there were
some other rocks," kuh & the singular should be used with the verb
in the singular. Chand kasan &L~f <*&*. though sometimes used in m.c.,
is incorrect.
(4) The Afghans (not the Persians) in speaking frequently use a plural
substantive after chand ***.. Ex. : *>^ <*JU& ? ^3y oUxl<* ) * e^U <i% chand
tajiran u sahiban-i kothi nishasta budand (Afghan) " a few mercliants and
1 Or **$ j> e^? *^ iJj) (class.); also v^JV *xia. ( m .c.) " a few days." Ex. :
J*jr*t L5JJ) *^ ** ^^ ^ o^cd^sxj rnasldfyat an ast ki chand riiz-lbi-shahr dar-ayi
(m.c.) '* it is proper for you to come and stay in the city for a while."
2 The hamza is for the ^ of unity.
6 Colloquially, raft c*j the singular is used; but incorrectly.
* Chand nafar-l murdand *^>*y ^$j&> **%- a vulgarism and incorrect.
^ Or bud l^?. Also k&h lj& should be in singular after chand <>J^.
8 In m.c. chand nafar tajir j*>^ jto o^a- O r chand nafar tajiran
but the singular is the commoner.
7 This is the Hindi word Vjf kothi.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. HI
owners of warehouses were sitting (there)"; &> ^Uy&Cf &*. ckand
angushtarha-yi 1 tila "a few finger- rings of gold*'; *# ($j* a fUjf >ia. chand
aqsam-i 'araq bud (m.c.) " there were several kinds of spirits."
(6) In m.c., <j?^ chand-i,OT yak-chand-1 ^v^ cJo, means (f alittle while,"
several times. Ex. : *& **>* ^ Uuf ^ ^aia* a*' 3 <JUUJ( ^A. Haklm-^-l-
Mamamlik ki chand-% bud mja buddida shud (Shah's Diary) " the Hakim^-l
Mamalik, who had been here for some time, was interviewed by us " ; 4 < - s-^
^i*A UsJuf O*~A chand-i hast mja hastam (m c.) " I have been here for some
time " ; e^^jt ^*? &a'^ az chand-i (m.c.) tc after a little while " ; )* * ^ J*-
$ j\ j> j* o 1 ^ ^^t^ CIA^I^ chub-i ki dar dast dasht chand-i bar sar-i u zad
( Af. ) " he struck him several times with the stick he held in his hand."
Remark I. It will be noticed that in m.c. chand-l ^5-^ is used for
chand-gah * ** (classical), chand waqt o^ jia. (classical and m.c.), chand bar
^ *ia. (classical and m.c.), and chand daf'a **^ ^i^. (m.c.).
The Afghans use chand gah in speaking.
Remark IL Yak chand ais^ is used in the sense of c< a few " ; *xx^
***** c^^ y a ^ dwnd najar-% budand (m.c.) fi a few persons were present."
(6) txio. ^ tan-l chand (class.) signifies * * sundry persons" ; ^ xia. ^u
w^ i2*> C^A.^ tan-i chand dar mhbat-i man budand (Sa'di) " certain indivi-
duals were friends of mine ' * ; fj **?*$ *-&* 3 *>^^ ***f^ c>l^ 3t * ^. ( ^J
sJjJ c>VV L W ^it^ jj> *xj^x**jjb to?^i chand az mardan-i vaqi'a $ida va jang
azmuda ra bi-firistadand ta. dar shi'b-i jabal pinhan shudand (Sa*d!) " certain
experienced veterans were senfc to hide in a ravine in the mountains."
In in.c. , instead of the classical <xxa. ^ tan-t chand, J& *^ chand nafar
is used.
(7) For chand &*. as an interrogative, vide 37 (w).
(8) Yak-chand **& and chand ta U ooia. "a few, a little, somewhat."
Yale chand takes a singular noun, but a plural verb : vide (5) Remark II.
If ta $ is added, however, the verb is in the singular, as : yak chand ta
mard bud. Yak-chand-%, adv., is " a short while" : vide (5).
(9) Compounded with the demonstrative pronouns, ^^xia. chandln
"so much as this," etc., and chandan &\***> "so much as that," etc.: vide
36(6).
For chandan ki &|jJLa- " however much, as soon as, as long as," etc.,
vide 92 (d) (13).
Remark I. Chand ***. is connected with and a-if, and andak
1 Or singular.
* In the m.c. of Persia, aqsam f\~$\ the broken plural of qisni (*>~* might occasion-
ally be used under the impression that it was a singular word.
8 Title of the Shah*s physician.
4 i.e. days, weeks, or months (not portion of one day).
Similarly for things 13 ^ chand ta (m.c.) is used.
112 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Remark II. Ghand *** is only used for things that can be counted.
For quantity that can be measured l <^)* and;*fc* are used : vide (h).
For para tyk " some, a few," etc., vide (p) (2).
(h). (1) " Somewhat, a little quantity/' ^^ qadr-i. Ex.:
qadr-% ab bi-dih "give (me) a little water"; jV *>^ ^AJ qadr-t jaw biyar
"bring a little barley." Vide barkh-i ^^ t etc., " a little.
(2) {( So much, this quantity " is j*$ ^f 'in qadr.
(3) " That much, that quantity " is ^ c>f an qadr.
(4) " How much, what quantity " j** &* chi qadr ?
"
Remark. csrj*, et c. ? is only used for quantity, for things that can be
measured : vide Remark II (g) (10).
(i) " All, every, the whole" :
(1) **a> hama the whole, etc, ; also means ' 4 every " (^ar). In classical
Persian, <UA precedes or follows its substantive. Ex. : c^y 8 *+* Aama
marduman (class.), or *** ^^ marduman-i hama (Indian) " all the men " ;
jjkiij <UA < v^^yc or) ^.^c mardum 4 (or marduman hama raftand "all
the men went " (class, and modern).
In the Gulistan, hama *** generally precedes its substantive (without
an izafat), and the substantive and the verb are in the singular 6 or plural
according to the idea conveyed. Ex. : _*& <*+* hama shab (Sa'di) " the whole
night " ; j+* *** hama 'umr " the whole of one's life."
Naml-blm ki gav-t dar 'alaf-zar
Biyalayad hama gavan-i dih-ra? (Sa*dl).
4< Dost thou not see that one ox in a meadow
Can contaminate all the oxen of a village ? "
l^e A** 6 hama l aybha (class.) "all the vices" (i.e. every vice there
is ; the plural is here used in an intensive sense 7 to signify numbers).
1 Qadr-l; qadr, A. and P., signifies 4 * quantity, value ' ' and qadar, P. (in Arabic qadr}
signifies " fate, preordained destiny." Hence c^)** 5 qadart (note accent) *'a person
who maintains the doctrine of free will * ' as opposed to cr*^ jdbri ' 4 one who believes in
predestination, a fatalist/'
* To be distinguished from >^ ju or c$^ or juy (also jtib) " a running brook " and
the Imperative of justan of juyldan " to seek ' ' ; c51?^ jav-l *' a single grain of barley.'*
3 No izafat.
* Mardum (*^/* is a collective noun always treated as a plural, though it has also a
plural marduman e>^^*.
6 A singular noun is often used in a collective sense and with a plural verb.
9 M.C. hama-yi 'aybJia
I "
Similarly y^ muddafr-hd " ages, long times" is stronger than &*** muddat-i
^ a long tirne >f : X>U ^J^G ^^o < <he was iU for a ] ong time," but o*
he was ill for ages."
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 113
U &+* ^ pe &*. &ug guyand chi gham gar hama 'alarn murdand.
(Sa'dl) "they say 'what concern of ours is it, if the rest of the world
perish ? ' ' ' ; here ' dlam is a collective noun signifying ' all the people
of the world ' :
Garchi slm u zar zi sang ay ad haml
Dar hama sang-l nabdshad* zarr u aim (Sa'dl).
"Though silver and gold come from stone
Not in every stone is found gold and silver ;
.jj-
Chu dast az hama hilat-l dar gusist
Haldl ast burdan bi-shamshir dast (Sa'di).
'* When every ^single) stratagem has failed
Then only is it lawful to resort to force."
<xJL.JL oJbo ^ ^1^ A^ 3 JA. (^+*3 dushman chu az hama
hllatrl dar mdnad 3 silsila-yi dustl bi-jumbanad (Sa*dl) " when (your) enemy
has failed by every single stratagem (to injure you), he then tries to
make friends with you." In the last three examples hama, with the
^ of unity added to the substantive, signifies ( * each ' ' or 6 ' every ' ' considered
separately, i.e. har sang-i IJ&+* j&.
It is difficult to say whether *UA hama is a substantive or an adjective.
In classical Persian it either precedes its substantive without an izafat or
follows it in apposition (of corroboration **?$ ) without an izafat, as :
,^ e;!^* 3 -^*^ WA ^(*;l^. In modern Persian, though the same con-
structions are used, it is usual for hama A** to precede its substantive and be
coupled to it by an izafat: in this case it is obviously a noun.
In Indian Persian, hama <U<* is treated like an ordinary adjective, i.e.
it precedes its substantive without an izafat or follows it with one : it
can also follow in apposition.
(2) In modern Persian, hama <u* generally precedes the substantive 4 with
the izafat. 5 Ex. : oo j/of 1^3 ** tiama-yi zanhd dmadand 'or zanhd hama amadand)
" all the women came." However, hama zanhd dmadand is correct (though
l Poetical for agar-chi ^^f-
1 For zar )} ,' tashdld poetical license.
3 Or wand ^^ (Past tense) and jumband
4 OiL^^i <W& hawa-yi shahr sufe&t " the whole of the city (sing.) was burnt," but
<iAJj/x* j^> ^*A hama-y> shahr mt-guyand "all the people of the city say." (Sufflita shud
could be said instead of su&ht).
5 Tamarn f\+* and jami' ***> are always followed by the izafat.
8
114 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
rare) even in m.c. ; *-** &* hama-yi shab " the whole of the night " and jjj $+*
hama-yi ruz " the whole of the day " ; but hama shdb v* *+* (or hama-yi
shabha l^ fa) and hama ruz jj; *+* (or hama-yi ruzha Ujjjj *A *) mean
" every night " and " every day " ; o~>! V UJ ^^ *+* ^ dar hama* shahr-%
qassab ast & (modern vulgar and incorrect) e( in every city there are butchers "
(collective noun).
Remark. In modern Pe&ian, hama **A with a singular noun is equivalent
to harj*, and should be followed by a singular verb, but vide end of (4).
(3) Before the affixed pronoun U& ] there is no izafat. Ex. : Jtt M> **U
*f 6 >Vf ) jb J ^ k julga hama-ash ba safa u zabz u abad ast (m.c.) "the
valley, the whole of it, is pleasant, green, and fertile.''
Before the affixed plural pronouns, the izafat is either omitted or inserted
after hama *+A in speaking. Ex. : <M*? && &+* or &( $+&> hama-yi shan or
hama-shan (or hama*yi anha l^f ^** 6 ) bad-and " all of them are bad."
Remark. Even in m.c. it is considered better to omit this izafat after
fiama *+* : the omission is, however, rarely made even by the educated.
Hama-yi \n mardum fty e^i *** (m.c.) is lt all these people " : but In hama
mardum f$j* *+&' (in.e.) is ambiguous, as it may mean either ** all these
people' 3 or "so many people." In hama mardum jam' shuda budand ki
dlgar ja na-bud *& ^ji>* *$ ^>? *<^ fi*^ f*j* **$ (m.c. ft so many people
had collected that there was no room for more" is ambiguous; but in
m hama-yi mardum fty &+$ "all these people'* there is no ambiguity.
However, it would be better to say hama-yi m.
(4) Hama chiz J^ &+* "everything," hama-ja U- <w* "everywhere,"
hama-kas ^ *+* * 'every body, " andAa/na vagi cJ> A*A tf always*' are
classical as well as rn.c. In hama malcKarij ^;i=^ **t^f " all this expense"
appears to be modern.
Hama kas ^ A*A is followed either by a singular or plural 7 verb
according to the idea in the writer's mind ; hama Jcmdmad a*f ^ a+* (in.c.)
l Also *j)j ^*A hama-ruza * every day.'*
a No izafat : or dar hama-yi shahrha ^ji" *+*> J^
3 Sa'di, however, uses dar hama $ang-i <^&* *^A j^>
* Julga AMA, a valley, or plain, as opposed to hill.
6 Abad means "cultivated" and hence '* populous "; *~*** ^A^T ^^xijl mjaabadi
nlst means "there is no cultivation here," or "there is no human habitation here."
For neuter things hama-yi anha bad ast c^|^ l^if JUA.
1 Perhaps the only instance in the Oulistan where hama kas ^ <U* occurs as a
nominative to a verb, is in the verse ** <^* ^ M fj ^ & durr-i yatlm-ra hama
kas muthtari buwad.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 116
" everybody came " ; hama kas amadand *^<f ^ *+* (m.c.) " all the people
came," vide (i) (2) Remark.
(5) The Afghans in speaking also say hama Icasan ^^> 4Ua.
(6) The m.c. expression p* csP *** hama tu-yi ham means " all together,
indiscriminately" (= ^<y f*)t> *+* hama dar-ham bar-ham); *+A ^\ ^
ba in hama (classical and modern) "with all this, nevertheless, in spite
of all this " ; o*u*3 A+A ^f In hama nisi " this is not all, something remains."
Remark. It will be noticed that in classical Persian, &+*> hama is
considered an adjective, while in modern Persian it is generally treated as a
substantive.
(7) The regular plural of UA hama, c>&*-* hamagdn is old and not used in
m.c. Hamginan &{&+& is generally used as the plural of hama <*+*, and
signifies the whole collection regarded as individuals.
As the diacritical bar of ^ is omitted in Persian, there is nothing in
writing to distinguish the plural of ham-kun $^** "fellow-worker, com-
panion ' ' from hamginan ^iO>.
(8) ^^O) hamagi is a substantive, signifying "all, the whole, entirety,"
derived from *+& hama, as ^^- 1 jumlagi is from aJU^ jumla (vide 9). Ex, *
1 az hamagi-yi zanan fi out of all the women " (m.c.) ; <^>J* j!
JJt>i**i ^-^ } Jiamagl az buzurg n kudiak naml-favdnand
dan bi'kiimmd (m.c.) ^ali, great or small, lose their self-control; ^+* &*
f-jyf l> -^ ^^>^ n ^ n hamagl-yi chlzha-yi khud- ra avardam {S I brought all
my things." Hamctgl ^t+A also, like hama *+&, can follow the substantive
in apposition.
Hamagi ^^, followed by a plural verb, unlike hamginan e>&+* does not
refer to the whole regarded as individuals, but to the whole regarded as a
collection. It is generally followed by a plural verb, as : o*l>% (J +& fi all
went, " but vi*of V ^L J^tt+A (t all of it is good," Hamagl is rarely used.
(9) Jumfa *W c< sum, whole, total, aggregate" is a substantive, and is
usually followed by the izafat. Ex. : y &j*>) ^U^ fanifa-yi uwj&dri u (Sa*di)
{ ' the whole of his body " ; ^ ^Wt~* ^U^ j fy vi^f ^^ ^b^ &s guft du'a-yi
khayr* ast turn u jumfa-yi Miwalmamti m (a f dl) " he said, * it is a prayer of
welfare for you and the whole of the Muslim people* " ; j& ^Ua. jumla-yi
lashkar " the whole of the army (Sa'dl) " ; oUJjf ^U^ jumla-yi kafinvt ft the
whole of the things that be, all creation " ; u***~j* eHH^ ^^ 3 t5'^3 &*j*
JU> j\ ejtlaJU y j * agar man az ghuday ta'alq chumn
i Hama *+* is Persian, but jumla &*** is Arabic. Jumlagi is of course a Persian
noun.
*> is here an adjective: du'a-yi Jchayr j&* CS" 1 *** opposed to du'a-yi bad
There should be no izafat after gbuday though colloquially it is visually inserted.
116 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
tarstdami ki tu az Sultan az jumla-yi siddlqan budaml (S'adi) " had I fear<
God as you do the King, I would have been one of the Faithful * Testifi
cx*t e^t (*& J <3y j* A^ <&** jt ^ va az jumla-% ki dar firaq-i u guftam
(Sa'dl) *' and the following is an extract from all that I composed c
separation (his separation from me) "; <xi^ ll^L aJU.^ jumla khata ka
(S'adl) "the whole missed the mark"; jumla talaf shud *& cAtf <*JU*.
whole was destroyed."
Jumla <*JU*a> occasionally follows its substantive in apposition.
Remark. *JU^ e>Tjf az an jumla signifies "out of the whole, ;
example"; <*JUJ(j bi-l-jumla "in substance, in short"; <*JUJf
jumla ' * on the whole " ; *JUaaJ i ^ /?- ' I- jumla * "in short ' ' ; aJU^ ^-c
* c out of the whole."
(10; Jumlagi ^&+=*- (also ^t^*"^ jumlaht, rare) <f universality, total
TJiere is properly a shade of difference in meaning between jumla Ai*
jumlagi ^U^ Ex.: jumla-yi zanan amadand oJ<^of ^Uj ^JU^. "the
or nearly of the whole of the women came," but jumlagi-yi zanan anu
li the totality of the women came ? none was left."
Ra'iyyat-i an taraf hi-jumlagi mntl'-i farman gashtand ^^^^u o^Jb^f
(Sa'di) " the people (peasantry, etc,) of that district be
subject to him in a body (at once and without exception) 51 : jiJ ,
jwmlagi-yi lashkar t: the whole of the army"; i>- u&+*> jumlagl-yi ^
(m.c.) (i the whole body of the horses."
Remark. f * All came," can be expressed by hamagi (or jumlagt, la
kama, or jumla <*U^) aniadatid. Hamagi, (etc.) yi-khnrak sarf
if all the food was eaten/ '
Some Persians maintain that these uses of hamagi ^U& and jumlagi 4
are vulgar, and that tbe two \vords should be considered adverbs
zanan jumlagi amadand* <xi>^f ^^U^ &k\ the women came in a body.'
(11) Jam!' *+^- 4 *all, the whole, universal," is always followed by a
fat. Ex.: pj* *+*>jami'-imardum <4 all men, or all the men " ; i^)^^^^
zanhd " all women, or all the women" ; ^CSJ ^^^ jami*-i lashkar " the ^
s
of the army " ; but in ^a*>f ^*it*^ (*jy mardum jaml (Qn amadand *' the
^ '
of the people came," U**^ is an adverb in the Arabic Accusative. Mi
^j+^x. is occasionally used for +%, as : majmu ( -i banl Adam ftf ^u o
tc all the sons of Adam, mankind."
Siddlq &&** *' a faithful witness," an epithet of Joseph, Abu Bakr and Abr
" sincere, true.'*
Note the ^ of ^ is pronounced short /i.
Or zariun bir jumlagi amadand ^t^of ^^XUmj ejU) (m.c.).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 117
(12) Sa*ir yU properly signifies ''the remainder, the rest," but
is frequently employed in Persian to express ' ' the whole ' ' : it is always
followed by an izafat. Ex. : j *j& X l ^J*** j ^*(**> U jf <xU> LS\A*- A-UsJf ^
^*u * 1 (jp**o fi-l-jumla chlz-i na-mand az sa*ir-i ma'asl vamunkar-l ki na-kard
va muskir-l ki na-khurd (Sa'df) " in short there was no sin nor forbidden thing
that he had not committed, nor intoxicant that he had not tasted."
*f
(13) *& kaffa "all, universal"; and <uiU> qatiba ''altogether, all."
flj| & kaffa-yi anam "the whole human race" ; ^Jb &H kaffa-yi ( iilum "all
jo
the sciences": ft^.5 u^^ 3' f 1 ^' ^^ kaffa-yi anam az khawass u 'awamm.
(Sa'di) c< everybody , high and low.' '
These two words are not in common use.
? *..
Remark. **^ kaffata nn and &*>\3 qatibat an are adverbs, <: all of them, in
totality."
(14) Tamam ^ ^ complete,' 2 entire, the whole, all " is both a substan
live and an adjective, and has the same /?5/a#-constructions as kama :
it is also used, like Iiama, in apposition. Ex.: ^ ^Ui tamam-i ruz 3 (m.c.)
tv the whole day/* and Ujj +'*3 tanmm-i ntzJm (m.e; ^ every day " : ^ ^
tamam-i shakr (m.c.) "all the city " ; ^jJUx* fl+itamam-i makhlitq (m.e.) " all
the people"; x^ j*&=* ^j^ fU3 fa mam- i chizJta (or chiz) hazir shud (ni.c.)
v * every thing was ready ** ; ^ )U> j^. +\+Z tamdm-i chh Uiyyar skud (Afghan)
the samo ; ^U> j+* qamnr-l tamnm (rare), (in m.c. tnaJi-i tammn} v '*'the full
moon.'*
&*)\z 4i>^U5 U ^W UM
A#bab-i tamam na-t<tmamau darand
** And clumsiest workmen own the finest tools/'
(0. K. 141 Whin.).
In classical {and in Indian; Persian tamam } -U3 does not take an izafat
when it precedes its substantive.
Remark /. The phrase kar-chi lamam-tar y>cW ^.^A means "as much
as possible," as : 6? zudl-yi bar ehl tatnam-tar ^U3 *xy* s?^*^ * as qoickly
as possible."
Remark II. Tamam shwlan &*> fU* "to be completed" or * fc to be
ended, finished" ; tamam kardan &>>/ ^Ui ** to complete, finish off/'
(15) Instead of tamam j*U5, the adjective fti tamm (class.) is sometimes
l The demonstrative C5 1 .
1 o**>t ^U5 u$^\) ^^i) \) *&\) rast ra zinat-i rastl taniam aat (Sa*di) *' to the right
(hand), the fact of its being the right hand is complete and sufficient ornament in itself.* *
3 In India tamam ruzj)) (*UJ (without izafat).
118 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
used in writing. Tamm u tamam ^1*3 j fti l (emphatic) '* perfect and
plete"; f$ ^J&Uf istisnayi tamm (emphatic) " a complete exception."
(16) Tamami <yU3 (m.c.), substantive, is also sometimes used : f*j*
tamami-yi mardum " all the men."
(17) Tamamat e^U3 (class ) is a substantive, old, but is still
by Afghans and Indians in writing. Ex. : vi>&^ c^U> tamamat-i p
{Indian) "all the elephants."
Remark. UoW tamam*" is an adverb, " wholly,'* " in toto."
**
(18) Kull J^ substantive "all, universal, the whole, each":
**
common in Arabic phrases. Ex. : ^liJf <Jf kull u - y n-nas lt all the people,
i^f kull u ahad in Ar. "every one."
Kull JS is also used in m.c. and in writing, as : kull-i zandn
*+> ^
the women" ; j%*> J^ kuU-i shahr "ail the city " ; ptte d^ kull-i *alam
the world."
KM Jf, like hama *+&, can be used in apposition. Classically (ai
^
Indian Persian) kull J^ precedes its substantive without the izafat. Pos
the izdfat after kull in modern Persian is a corruption of the final vow
the Arabic nominative case kvtt tt .
(19) From the Arabic kull J^, the Persian abstract noun and the Ai
adjective ^tf kutti are formed. Ex. : ^5^ fty mardum bi-kulU raftand
"the whole of the men went"; ^ J 1 *^! ihtimal-i kulll ct every ]
ability * ' ; Arabic adjective.
*
Remark I. ^^^ bi-kulU, adv., ** altogether, generally." Kulli
# **
and kull** & are also two adverbs with different meanings, as : J/#3
t * ^
" (not kulliyat*" &&) amadand &>**$ %t ^^ (mc.) ** all the men can
****
but ?7 kMiyat* n razl nl8t^~& ^i> ^Jl> jf (m.c.) " he is quite dissatisfied.*
Remark II. ^^i^ kulluhum (Ar.) "the whole of them'* is use<
the Afghans in speaking; it is also occasionally used in m.c,
(20) *lc 'amma (class.), f>*c 'urn/Urn (m.c.), "the whole, etc." Fron
Arabic root p* 'amma **to be general, comprehensive" is derived
adjective fU <amm (m.c.) "common, universal" (as opposed to ooU. k
m.c., "special"); AU^ al-'amma (class, and rare) "the common pe
1 Emphatic, like the English saying ' most complete.*
In m.c. tamamiryi pllctn d^ &**+*
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 119
or the people in general" ; ^* am(m)i (m.c.) adj. "vulgar" ; |V+* 'wnum
(m.c.) "universality"; <.$*>* 'umuml> adj. (m.c.) and ^**s 'amim (class.)
"universal"; ****) ^ rf jl (*** u^** "his universal liberality." Hence
in Persian +*j* $#b 'amma-yi mardum (m.c.) "the whole of the people";
^plj pj+6 'umum-i nas (class.), and ^-U <toU 'amma-yi nas (class.) "the whole
of the people" ; oa*j IcU 'amma-yi ra'iyyat (m.c.) " the whole of the pea-
santry "; c>^3 ^^ ' amma-yi zanan (m.c.) " the whole of the women."
(21) *Jf ^U <3jJ^A> c^t ' fnmakhluq 'am(m)i aftd (class, and m.c.) " these
people are ignorant, uneducated"; o^t ^U ^o ^jf 2 m mard J ara(w)i-stf
<c this man is common, uneducated."
(22) @a98 u ( amm j*U ^ ^ia. also means " noble and plebeian";
the plural is f!>* j ul^ Ichawass u 'awdmm.
(23) -d^ ^>4^ 'umum-i mardum {( the people generally, very nearly all
the people ' ' (but in ^*j+* &**+* " a common matter," ' umum* ^^^ is an
adjective ; but In f umum3> darad " this is common **).
Bemark. From the same root comes the adverb U^P i nmum an in
general, i.e as a rule": o^yU/c Uj+c < umum* n mi-guyand tf it is commonly
said."
(24) ^^ f yak-sctr (m.c,; v< all together, in one body; suddenly"; also
** without a break, and direct."
(j) "Each," "every," "all," " whatever, "^A Aor 8 , ^j*har yak (or
(l)j*kar. Ex.: jb^* / 6ar "every time"; U j* har ja "every-
where" ; Jiar mz j&j*, har sal J^*, ter waqt oJ| yk, fer ^Aagf <^**^* e ^-
* every day,' * " every year," "every time or continually," " every thing, J>
etc.: ^l^^^^ 5 ^^^^^^ 1 ^^^ sujchun-idtgarbi-gu-
yam, agar rasl na-bas/wd bi*har 'uqiibat ki farma** saz&var-am* (Sa*dl) ** let me
say one more word and if it does not prove true, I am fit for any (or every)
* Inma&hlfiq *awxrnm-and <iJf f\j* jk&* ^f {m.c. only) <4 these people are un-
educated."
** -f
2 Not to be confused with the word 1 umml (Ar.) *' illiterate " derived from
,,.
<s^o| utnrnah ** people, nation, sect, etc."
3 &A>] j& har ahad is not used in modern Persian, and is rarely if ever used in
classical Persian.
* For htch'kudam (*t^ gA w ith or without negative, vide (d) (5).
6 Note the absence of the ^ of unity (?), which could, of course, be inserted.
JdiU) jU*o ^ cJ^ ^^ ij&j**? ki har yak-l badi'-i jahan va mumfaz-i zaman-
and (Sa'di) ** (slave girls) who are one and all such as are rarely found in this
world and are unequalled at the present time."
120 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
punishment you may command"; j* j^j* c^ie e
o-J+ bi-har zarf-i-ki sar-irtdn bi-gunjad klla-yi an zarf barabar-i sar-i shumd-st
(m.c.) '* any vessel that contains your head will be the measure of a quantity
equal to your head " ; az har taraf o^ty* jf < < from every side."
Harj* is properly a distributive and precedes its noun. It is emphasized
by the ^ of unity, 1 as har mulk-i zabdn-i darad ajf^ <J*^) <J& ^ A "each
separate country has its own language."
Har ^A is sometimes used instead of ha ma <u& "all," just as hama *+&
" all " is sometimes used for har ^ " every." [This confusion has probably
arisen from the fact that "every man says " = <l all men say ' '].
Remark. Har an itfj&, and har an ki *$ ^j*>, the more emphatic forms
of har, are used in relative sentences, vide (k) and (I),
(2) <-> J* (or ^j j&) } har yak (or har yak-l) ' every one ' ' ; ^ j* har ka$ 9 l
f!<>>>* har kudam " everybody " ; ^ij*> har yakl (or har yak) and (!*$' y> har
kudam take the singular or plural verb according to the idea in the speaker's
mind, but the singular is the more correct. Ex. : ^? J**- ( ^ j* or ) <*&j&
^jXxx or ^y^* har yak (or liar kas) ehlz-l mi-yuyad or ml-yuyand (m.c )
" every one says something different )? ; d-&*j& ^ ^ c!^ & *t& j &*t <^? j*
*&& ^+& &[* har yak-lbazla-l wa latlja-lchunanki rasm-1 zrtrifan bashad ham-i
guftand (Sa*df) "every one told some good story or pleasant jest after the
manner of wittv people"; (here the plural is used as the writer had in
his mind, a number of people in the assembly concerning which lie was
writing); >*< ^t; tjs*. tj^lt \J*5j*. t^O*-* va & ar */<*&-* ^ Jar vtf<l~i damsh-i khrud
ray mi-zad (Sa'di} ",and each one, according to his knowledge, gave
his opinion" ; (here the verb could not be in the plural), tf Jb U^ii^/^ff
8 AlU &&i &SL4 JL? ^\&* j& ^jb ^b^ agar yusfandhd dah ta hudand bay ad
har kudam-l yak yusfand ddshta bdshand (m.e.) fi if the sheep were ten
then everybody should have one sheep apiece"; (here the plural is also
used, for the same reason).
(3) Harj* also means '* whatever." Ex. : i/ J+** o-^b^i aisJ AC^yfc
har tmhv-i ki gujia and bdyist Carnal kard (m.c.) ** we must act in whatever
way we have been directed; (lit. in every way they have directed, in that
way it must be done). 51
l It is perhaps this <j? and not the demonstrative ^ that is found in the antecedent
to a relative clause when the antecedent is preceded by har, vide 42.
* Or <JN A*A, vide (i) (4).
8 Or grammatically dashta baahad *x^
* Bayiat ^^-sU, past, for future action.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 121
(k) "Whoever, whosoever" tf pftfy* har kudamki, *' of y> ] haranki,
fc har-ki, &~t j& /^;- &&$- &&, &' ^^^ <*+a> 9 hama kas-i ki.
(1) Examples:-
//ar aw-&i tukhm-i badl kisht u chashm-i niki dasht ,
Dimatjh-i bihtida pukht u khayal-i batil bast (Sa'di).
' Whosoev r er sowed evil seed and expected (to reap) good, imagined a
vain and foolish thing.' '
(2) tXJ^jj^A/o ^/oUif 6Jj\& ^*>\ ^ ;x /*l^yfc harkudamkiaxp-ldarand in' am-l wl*
glrand (m.c.) <w whoever has a horse, will get a prize."
Remark. In. *' take whichever you please " har kudam ra ki ml khwahld
bl-glrld *>-!^? A^fj-* 1 ^ *' !; X^^/* (m.c.), the m fj is necessary otherwise ff^ J-A
would be taken to be the subject.
(3) liar kas-l ki &&"*<> j* 9 harki s$ j*> &ndhama ka#-i kl *$ ^s +* are used
in the same way. Har kas-i ki (or har kas-ki tf ^ j*>) Iriyayad in'am-l ml-
glrad *j** ^^^ <^U J *A~ ' J A (m.c.) c< whoever comes (or every one who
comes) will get a reward " ;
Mar-itu, ki har Mra bi-binl bi-zani I
Ya bum ki har kuja nishml bikanl / (Sa'dl).
'* Art thou a snake that whomsoever thou seest thou strike.st ?
Or an owl that wherever thou sittest thou dest coyest? '"
Remark L In the following har j* is understood :
Remark //. Har an ki ^T y* is in classical language applicable to
tilings, also vide (I) (3).
Remark IIL^-*k & j& har-ki bashad ;t whoever he may be/*
(I) f Whatsoever, whichsoever, whatsoever thing * * ; a^yfc Mr-chi,
liar ckiz, ft* j*> har kitdam y ^f j*> liar an ld^ *<*> &^ j* har an chi ,
an chi.
(1) A^A har cM (classical and m.c.). Ex. : <^
j j>jU J5 ;j> 7^ar ii rfa^ az jan bi-shuyad har-chi dar dil darad U-guyad
1 Note *$ jf j& har u ki is not used; it does not exist in Persian. Har an ki
though old is not obsolete. It is more emphatic than har ki ** j**
* Har kaa-i ki is better and more common in modern Persian.
3 Har kas-l ki would be preferred in m.c.
122 INDEFINITE PBONOUNS.
(Sa'di) ' * whoever abandons hope of life, says whatever is in his mind (without
fear)."
Har-chi a^y> can also be used for living beings (in classical and modern
Persian) , as : syfej ^j^ eA^I j! * **J\j&ty a^ j *** ^\<> \) ejl&ji 1 *i>&^,> k^* ^S
guft har-chi darvishan~and ishan ra vam-i bi-dih va har-chi tavangaran-and
az ishan ch%z-l bi-khwah (Sa'dl) "he said, such of them as are poor, give
them a loan ; and such of them as are rich, ask a loan from them* (lend to
such of them as are poor, and borrow from such as are rich)/'
The following uses of har chi *^*> should also be noticed : **>** e^t &*?&
*MjVo vi/f har-chi In mi-zanad an mt-raqsad (m.c,) "as this one pipes, that
one dances (i.e. in whatever method or time he pipes)" or " the more he
plays the more he dances " ; y ^) &&*> har-chi zud-tar " as quick as possible " ;
ji*U3 &xj* har-chi tamam-tar " as complete as possible " ; ^y ^*^ ^^ A^A
&j har-chi tamam-tar sa l i karda shavad (Sa'dl) ft let the utmost endeavours
be made " ; &*huj$ -j*- V-&* ^^ &*>j*> har-chi gasht 'aqab-i jaw, glr na-yamad
(m.c.) (i however much he sought for barley, he couldn't find any (in spite
of all his seeking he failed to find any)."
(2) Har-chlz JJ^^A (classical and m.c.) ; c^r^ y ^ z i^J^j* ^ $ **!
^i^tol ^IKj ai^f ^ &+*> ijj ba'daz m har chiz-l ki mara zaruratbud hama ra
girifta bi-kinara guzdshtam (Afghan) * * after this I took whatever I had need
of (or every single thing that I had need of) and put it on shore.' '
(3) * e/fr* kar an ki; c*^*J!& *v** ^**1 t-T^ ^ 8 fl*5 )&& &1 j*> har
an divar-i qadlm lei pish dmacR bi-quwwat-i bazu bi-yafgandt (Sa*d!) ^what-
ever old ruined wall he came across, he cast down by the mere strength of
his arm. ' *
Har an ki A&fj* is also applicable to living beings, Ex.: *Cf f*~>
&S tty o^iJiatvo ^ t^U^i ^^ b * & Cir 4^i ^f j& bi-hukm-i an-ki har an
dushman ki bd-vay ihsdn kunl mukhdlafat ziydd Icunad (Sa*dl) ** because
whatever enemy you treat kindly, he increases his enmity towards you
(whenever you treat an enemy kindly he increases his enmity ) : vide
also (k) (1).
(4) Har kudam fl**j* ft whatever, whichever." Ex.: 5 c5>
1 Note the plural of the adjective : the plural here makes the adjective definite ;
harchl darvuh aat would mean " all the poor of the world."
* Instead of har chlz-l ki && ^rt$j*> the following : har chi mara zarurat bud or
har chi ki mt-l&wastam ff**^***** & **fj* or ^ ^)J? f * l/ ***J* (m.c.) (kinar ml-
gutaahtam ^t^A^j^).
B In modern Persian, har divar-i qadim-i ki *& t5^^*^tj^ j*>
* Or har dushman ki or har dushman-l ki fci+^ ^A O r &$ &+<& jb might be
used.
6 Or har kudam lcar-l ki *ij f\**j* (m.c.), or bi-har kar-l ki *&tffj** 9 or har kar-t
ki *&iftj* (m.c.), or bi-har chi
INDEFINITE PKONOUNS. 123
ti bi~har kuddm kar-i-ki dast rm-zarii khardb mi-
kunl (Afghan) " whatever you put your hand to you spoil": ^fj| f\*fj*
o*f CJ^L <JTJ*& W& har kudam az m kitabha bi-gm khub ast (m.c.) <6 whichever
one of these books you select, it will be a good business for you,"
(5) Har an chi **uf^ (classical or used in writing only) ; of*Jj ***j* f^j
aU fjj **uf y> (class.) "we have attacked the rinds let happen what
will." An-chi *$uf (classical and m.c.). Ex.: ^3 JjA3 ^lif ' afofyb Aar
an-cAt (or har-chi) guftam qabul na-kard " in spite of all I said, no matter
how much I said, he did not agree (lit. whatever I said)." * v Ui-o *^>T j
f*jtf t> fU3 *>^ ^a awc^^ dastyab shud tamam ra avurdam (Afghan) "and
whatever I could lay hands on I brought (the whole of it)" ; OAI^V* tf A^f
*i>* anchi H 3 rm-khwahad mi-kunad (m.c.) <c he does whatever he wishes" ;
f&j ; j ^1^ ^^| y j*lU dsxif ancAi ghulam u asp ddshtam farukhtam (m.c.)
c< whatever slaves and horses I had, I sold " ; <*# **** f; 1*&* ^^ *^
*# *^ l %? a^c/ii ^a/ar torda mulkha* ra dida budam bj-fa*ida bttd (m.c.) <{ I got
no benefit from all the travelling and visiting of countries I had done =
in spite of the fact that I had travelled and seen many countries I got no
advantage."
(m) (1) ' e A great number, many, enough " ; bas u+*+ Ex. :
namvar bi~zlr-i zamm dafn karda and
Kaz hasti-yash bi-ru-yi zatmn yak nislian na-mdnd (Sa*dl).
' * Many a famed one have they buried beneath the ground,
Of whose existence not a trace has remained on this earth."
Bas gursna 6 kjhuft va kas na-damsi ki
Bm jan bi-lab amad ki bar-u kas na~girlst*-~ (Sa*di),
4< Many a man has slept hungry and none knew who he was,
Many a man has been in death's agony over whom none wept."
Ba$-l tjr* "a many," and bam Uo with the "ali! of excess";
(vide 45) :
**& \ lfk 7 <^-t j va bas-l diXha az u shayda (Sa*dl) 4 * and a number of
hearts (were) fascinated by him" ; ba&t mardum mi-guyand ^^ f*f*
I Or better harchi **-;* or har qadr guftam
* In m.c. dast-gir j*&**.
3 Note ki *$ after anchi Af^f ; also the ** could be omitted ; or harchi
substituted for anchi ^^T.
* Note the plural is necessary here.
5 Poetical for jl ** ki az.
6 Also gursina^ gurma, etc., etc. : but nigariat o-**J^> "he looked."
7 This is perhaps the only instance in the Qulistan where 6fl-5 ^r* J occurs in the
prose portion ; and it is followed by the plural as in modern Persian.
124 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(m.c.) " many people say " ; bas-i zanan &(>j ^^ (m.c.) " many women,"
(bos zan or bas zanan not used) ; ^&*>y c*~* J f az bas-i farsang l (Sa'dl : verse)
" from many a farsang"
wJJJy* tf <^>Uj &' j>; J*> c-**o >z U> ^|
-i tiz-raw ki bi-mand
Ki khar-i long jan bi-manzil burd (Sa'dl).
" Oh how many a swift courser has flagged and failed,
When the wretched ass has reached the stage's end."
c$~^ bas-i zanha-yi jahisha dar Kirman hastand
(m.c. ? but uncommon) fc there are many loose women in Kirmaii" ; oU^| 8 U*>
**^*j basa ihmn farmudand (Afghan colloquial, and rare m.c.) " he (respectful
pi.) treated me with great kindness " ; ^ jy3 (cT- ^ or ) cT- ^ ^as zirak
bud (Afghan and Indian, written and colloquial) tfc he was very intelligent."
(2) Bas-i ur^ is also an adverb. Ex. : & ^^ f, ^^ bas-i bar na-yamad
ki " a long time did not elapse before ' ' ; ^^^ ^^' bas-i bi-gardid (Sa'cll)
ki he wandered about backwards and forwards a great deal (or a great while) "
(3) Basa U~ is old and rarely used even in writing : ^)^ ^ bam buzury
(classical old) li very big," ride 88 (1) (3).
(n) " Many of them, a large number/' ^*i guruli-i ^jU-j hixyari.
(1) From the adjective and adverb ^^bisyar ''much, many" comes
the substantive ^^^blsyari (modern Persian), and bisyar-l ^b*** ** a many "
(with ^ of unity). Ex. : ^^^ ^s)^!r** bisyar-l mi-guyand (m.c.) '* many
say," or **jf f*j*y oj^-^ bi8ijar-i az mardum mi-guyand (m,c.) ; but az
bisyan-yl ^ tnardnm rah na~bud JA* fy &j* ^j*?~* $ (m.c.) ** from the excess
of the crowd there was no room to pass. ' J
(2) Guruh *) "a troop, band, class/' Ex.: fy^ <j*Jjt (class.), or
f^j* $ ^*tj> guruh-l mardum, or gumh-i az-mardum (m.c.) * a body, a
number of men"; ^j^ (j*j$ guruh-i mt-guyand* (class.) 4< a cla.ss, a
certain number (of people) say/'
Remark, (ruruh gunth %j %*j> signifies ^ in troops"; guruh yttruh
mi-ayand ^T ^ fyj* ^ v< they are coming in crowds/'
1 In the clause p j* ^^ j va bas i shukr gujtam (Sa'di), it is not dear
whether bcts-l qualifies the substantive shukr j*"', or whether it qualifies the verb shnler
fjujtan (J& j**, and moans " a great deal, a good while."
This is not the alif of the vocative: basa bashad ki *$ *&* W (m.r.) (t prob-
ably."
5 In m.c. baa-l ilisan cJ^^t ^"^'
* Ki-az bisyarl-yi du*a wa zari-yi banda sharm haml daram (^)\j j [*3 c$^*H )\ *$
*)!& ^^A {^w JJ^AJ (Sa'di) " because from the excess of the beseeching and lamentation
of ray servant , I feel ashamed. ' ' Note accents.
6 *1* \) e>^^ tj*9r guruh-i, marduman ra did (Sa'di) " he saw a collection of
people " : note absence of izafat after C5*^r on account of C5 1 of unity.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 125
(o) " Mostof them" ()(& yf ; c/^&i aksar-ash ' ' most of it " ; v_J^t
(1) &\>*J&\ aksar-i-shan l (oraksar-i ishdn) "most of them"; (Jyi'\ aksar-
(m.c.) ' ' most of it." Aksar-i mat (or better amval) , ( Jf^l or) J'^J'f " most
the property " ; ^jj*'\ aksar-i zanha "most of the women"
ir-i kasdn (m.c.) " most persons " (aksar kas ^ ^\ not used).
Remark. -j*\ aksar also means c< for the most part."
(2) *-A*\ aghlab : a used like aksar.
(3) ^li^j blshtar or e^r^^ bishtarin, used as aksar
(p) " Something, a little, nothing " - ^^
(1) Chlz-i $y**> (lit. c< a thing "). Ex. :
^j.Aa. dar e ilm-i muhasaba chmian ki ma'lum ast chiz-l danam (Sa^dl)
know a little of accounts as is known to you " ; %iu c>fc^ &* y az man
-I bi'khwah (Sa'df) *' ask me for something (for a boon) " : y ^^ (^y^^ 1
1 dur-tar (Afghan) ' a little further"; ^^ > j c>^ 3 chiz-t sarbaz
? (rn.c. onlj^) i( has anything in the way of soldiers started ? (i.e. has
armed force been sent there ?)."
Remark. Ghlz-i ^51*^ with the negative signifies " not a thing." Ex. :
A^a=u <^>a- ^ va chlz-1 na-khwanda am (Sa'di) 4< I have read nothing,
ti unlettered " ; (*^^ ;t c>b^ ^r^i^ u^'jf ^<^ *^ sabab chiz-i kar na-kardam
\) v " for this reason I did no work." <x^" <^>^ 4 t?* ^^ ch%z-%kam shud
Chan) ^ the wind abated somewhat/'
(2) Pam4 S;U nubs. ** a piece, bit, patch" is usually followed by the
al. In m.c. only, it signifies Ji a little." Ex.: u&+^ ^^*^ ^^ l^b 5
g-t harfha dasJitam bi-gnyam-ash (Shah's Diary) "Iliad a few words to
to him" ; **&*) UjU^* s ; U para-i sarbdzM raftand, or para-i sarbaz raft
'j^j~* x;U ; para-i tajsll-i andarunl ^^1 {!*<*& l ; b (Ti\ H B. Chap. XIV)
mcerning some small arrangements of the harem " ; ^J l)b ^^ &*.tj<~ ^
** (H. B. Chap. KXIII) **I used to see some women in the court of the
dm, but ."
(3) Khurda-i s^;^ (m.c.) (lit. "a crumb, a speck ") ; also *^Xj yak-
1 Aksar j^l and ^-J^' aghlab acoorcling to the regular rulo of the superlative are
wed by a genitive. The*za/aJis, however, sometimes incorrectly omitted after these
words in m.c.
* In m.o., here qadr-l <*)***
3 Or sarbaz-i chlz-l raft? -***) J^^ v^J^r** (m.c.).
* In m.c. ^ bad would be used , hava \)& signifying " air.'* Indians and Afghans
hawci for '* wind " as well as ** air.'*
6 Or better Uy*- ^***> ba'zi harfha, and ba'zi az sarbaz-ha
126 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
khwurda (m.c.) "a little" (m.c.). Ex. : *AJ ( V T t| ) j* l^y*. khwurda-i jaw
(or ab) bidih " give me a little barley (or water)."
(4) Kam-i } ^ " a little " (classical and m.c.), from kam, adjeoiive "few,
little." Kam-% ^ * could be substituted foi khwurda-i L^ in the above
example.
(5) Andak-i* </*f (classical) "a little," or "a little time." Ex.:
f titaandak-i quvvat yaft (Sa'di) " till he gained a little strength ' ' ;
AJ JUa> ^oo| andak-l jamdl Wi az bisyari-yi * mdl (Sadi).
Andak ^^1 "little, few" ; and andak-l ^/^t " a little."
^4ttda& J*Jf is an adjective, pure and simple: it is according to some
Grammarians the diminutive of and **\ ; but according to others and <M is a
contraction of andak c^Jof : vide also " Approximate Numerals."
Remark /. Andak also means (classically) 4< a few," vide first example
Remark IL Qalll cU^, Ar., 4 * little, few" ; and qallli ^^ " a few "
are equivalents of the Persian andak *^\ and andak-l ^^\.
(6) Taraf-l ^^3 a portion (old classical). Ex. : <jj&M ^^ )\ uV^ 5 ^ *-^^
o* j-^ jt rwa^'A; r tamf-i az zama^im-i akhlaq-i u m&lum shud (Sa'd!) ** a por-
tion of his crimes became known to the king''; <_>? al<Ux> ^ } \ ^^Jb
^ &xwj (Sa*dT) ;< something of the matter had reached Ins ears."
(7) Barkh-l ^*yf (classical and rare modern). Ex.: &>***)< ^ 31 ^^ j
J va barkhri az 5 2>?/a^ az qabza-yi tam-rruf-i u hadar raft (Sa*di) ;
barkh-l amadand (mod.) ** a few came " ; ^) Jt ^5^;-? barkh-1 az
zanha (modern) "a few women"; *^>u \jj J-*^ ^ e^V c5^-? ^f c^f^ ^^_^l
a^ar r/ar ada-yi an barkh-i tahavun u takasul rava darand (Sa*di) " if they
show even a little slackness or neglect in performing (the duty) ' ' ; ^jj j
>jj^*> ^a, }j> ^W^ j+e y r va barkh-l az *wnar-i giran-maya bar~u kharch
namudtm (Sa'df) " we expended a portion of our precious life on it."
Barkh-% ^^ is lit. " a portion, a share." It is not followed by an izafat,
as an izafat cannot follow the ^ of indefiniteness or the ^ of unity. This is
perhaps the reason that it is more often followed by az. Compare ba ( z~i
^ IS of unity ; also kaml subs. " deficiency."
s (^^ qadr-i could also be substituted.
& Andak, adj. Ex.: atashri andak ra Ij u^X>l (J^^ (Sa*di) ; bi-andak muddat
aJf &> (Sa'di) ' in a little time."
* Not bieyar-l c^J^rt as might logically be expected. As jamal JU^- has two
syllables and mal one, euphony requires bisyarl-yi mal J^ Lfjfer^ to balance andak-l
jamal JU> ^/^t.
6 This first az }\ omitted in some copies : the two prepositions az dose together are
uneuphonious.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 127
(8) Juzv-l l isjj>*> (Persian) : juzvjfr** Ar. *> juz*, " part, portion,
on of a book" : and cj>* is either juzv-i for ij*y (t a little," or else
izvi, Pers. adj. for Ar. adj., ^[^ " partial." Ex. : p*)& JjJ c^jj^ juzv-i
dashtom (m.c.) "1 had a little money"; c>^ *^4>5j bi-qtmat-i juzvi
.) "at trifling cost"; * f>*j> j>j> <*&* juz-*% birinj giriftam (m.c.)
Dook a little rice" ; ^j*> ^J-^V bi-juz*i harf-i (m.e.) "at the least word,
partial word ' ' ; ^^ c*^^ bi-jut.} I naslm-% (m.c.) " at the least wind, at
rtial wind. ' '
Remark. Kull u juz* *y j ctf, or kulli u juz*-i ^ij^j u&, or az kulli u
^j "
L$l&j ^ 3' c< i n whole and in part, entirely." [There is also the
ctive c$2>^ juzvl ic petty, trivial," qimat-i juzm ^y*- ^^].
(9) Lakht-i z ^^ " a short time ' ' (old classical, and rare modern) from
5 "a piece, a portion," etc., etc. Ex.: osi> ^ a-So-xjlj ^^ lakht-i
idlshd faru raft (Sa'dl) **he considered a little"; *j^ ^^ t^?t )**\
tr In laJcht-i andisfiid (Sa*dl) " he considered a little about this."
(10) Sliamma-i %.+ (rarely used, Ar.) "an atom, particle, a pinch (of
), etc/' : ^j-> V) &+S* ^^ vaztr shamma-i rah burd (Bast.) c< the vazlr got
ikling of the matter " ; cui&xj i*Ji ^Lc &f&*)$jt <j&^ j ^U^jt^J^ ^jb
' vazlr az shama^il va akhlaq-i u da> rat-i inalik sJiamma-i mi-guft ki
ii) 4 * well (or so) the wazir was mentioning a few of the good qualities of
boy in the presence of the King, saying ."
Remark. Nabza $*& Ar. 4i small portion/' has much the same significa-
, but is rarely used.
(11) From $)i zarra *' an atom, a mote in a sunbeam/' comes yak zarra
X " one atom, the least part." Ex. : %> ^ $j& *J<* yak zarra ab bi-dih
.) " give me just a drop of water."
(12) Bi-qadr-i yak par-i kah-i 4 ^K^^ j&* (m.c.) * 4 a very little/ '
: cx^i^ o^Jf <^^j^ ^ j*&> bi-qadr-t yak par-i kah~% qimat na-d&$ht (m.c.)
was not worth a straw " (lit, a chip of straw).
(q) ^Some"; ^^ ba'zi, Per. and 4> ba*z> Ar. (lit. "a portion"),
: oJujxA ^Mi ba*z-l ml-guyand <i: some say"; I ^j3f<^*u ba'z-lazzanM
>me of the women"; l *>*^ <^*J ba ( z-t chlzha (m.c.) f< some things";
^^? ba'spi az rakhtha-yi khud ra dadam (m.c.) <s I gave some
1 Juzv-l C5J|3^ (m.o.) 4^ of unity : in writing also
* But p**jr t) if*j? -0^ '^ y a k juz'-i birinj ra giriftam (m.c.) " I took a portion of
ice."
8 Lakht-i jigar jf^- iju^bj (or dil J<3) " a corner of one's liver (or heart) "; meta-
ioally " a beloved child."
* Par-i gul (J> j* is a " petal of a flower ' ' : ^^ has the ^ of unity.
128 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
of my clothes "; txijj&x) (jcUvJif ^*** ba'z-l ashkhas ml-guyand (m.c.) "some
persons say"; ^-^ ^***? ba'zi khavamn "some Khans "; ba'zi az khava*
n%n ^\^ )\ t5^ "some of the Khans."
Ba'z o^V Ar. substantive "portion " is not used in m.c. ; it is followed
by the izafat, and by a plural noun or by a collective noun, vide barkh-l i^s>.
Ba'zi 4^** is an adjective l and therefore does not take the izafat, but ba'z
is a substantive and is correctly followed by the izafat, as: ba'z-i awqat u*
c^Ujjt 'sometimes.' The plural of ^>**t is [ ^.^^ .
Ba'zi murg&ha didam f**i (fy& -^** " < saw some birds (indefinite)."
Ba'zi az rakht-ha ra dadam ^of.* Ij U^j jf ^<A+* = ba ( zi rakht ra dadam
" I gave some of the clothes." The plural is better with ba'zi
(r) "Much, many," ^***> bisyar adj. and adv. Ex. : (^+3 *Uv* *$
^fj * W. )^* avarda and ki sipah-i dushman bisyar bud va Indn andak
(Sa'dl) <{ it is related that the soldiery of the enemy was much while the
latter (were) few " : j 1 *-' J [ i*j (*;^ ^^ o 1 ^ &{ yjf ^ cJC^uj j^>L^o G ^^ ool<^
shikayat'i ruzgar-i na-musa'id bi-nazdik-i man avard ki kafaf-i andak ddram va
'iyal-i bisyar (Sa^di) " complained to me of his wretched state (saying) that
v _
' I have small means and a large family ' ' J ; ^^^ cu^o b*-ma*haqqat-i bisyar
(Sa'df) "with much trouble"; ^^ j 1 ^- 1 ^^y ^ J yak-i tawbat-i bisyar
kardl (Sa*di) :t a certain man used to repent much and then " ; ^ ^^f )*
&j^~*j*"* aar asn&-yi r ^h shutitr bisyar' bud (or shuturha bisyar bndand)
(m.c.) <c on the way there were many camels'*; o.x^^o ^U~j ^^j zanha-yi
bisyar (or bisyar zanha) mi-guyand (m.c.) "many women say " :
Ow^C j &)JvJ J^*}-^ * \J^* J^'~~t ^ - ^ O-^J j ,,_-. ^i^O ji ^ & {J***
Ma-kitn takija bar mulk-i dunya va pusM
Ki bisyar kas chun-tu parvard u kusht (Sa*dl).
*' Place no reliance on this world,
For many like you it has nourished and slain."
Note the meanings of bisyar ^U~- in the following sentences : az shab
bisyar guzasht c^J>? t^j ._~ )t (m.c.) <% a great part of the night had
passed" ; bisyar shab (or shabhd) guzasht *^*t$( ^ or)w^^>^--o (m.c.) " maiw
nights passed," or o-Jio^ jt-j o l t^ shabhd^yi bisyar (juzasht (m.c.) ; ^~5 y\~j
jj (Ayj (m.c.) bisyar qism paranda-ha giriftam (m.c.) " I caught various
kinds of birds " = ^J ^^j r Uj"f (ni.c.).
Bisyar-t (az) < jl ; c^'t-^ <{ a much," and bisyan <^f)^~~> (subs.) "abun-
dance" : bisyar-l az mardum mi-guy and *^jS ^ f*^ jl o;^ ** many men
say " : bisyari-yi mal Jl* ^^ "abundance of wrath " : vide also (p) (5)
and footnote.*
J In Urdu ba'ze is an adjective.
^ The plural budand **&* could have been used.
& Or shutur-i bieyar j^-*> j^, or shuturha-yi bisyar
* In prose kasan
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 129
(s) " Remaining, remainder"; ^0, Ar. adj., is incorrectly followed by
the izafat as though it were a substantive :
(1) t^k bdqi (adj.). Ex. : c^a?**^ ^b bdqi-yi ruz ham guzasht (m.c.)
"the remainder of the clay passed", but l*jjy ^(* bdql-yi ruzhd "the
remaining days ' ' ;
Jib * * <.-> *U3 A <
Imshab-am dard-i dil tamam na-shud
Baqi-yi dastan bi-farda shab (Salim).
c< To-night I could not relate all rny suffering,
The remainder of the story stands over till to-morrow night."
Baqi put ra chi kardi or baqi-yi put rd chi kardi are both m.c.
The Indians and Afghans correctly omit the izafat after baqi <^b, on all
occasions.
v j.<+>
(2) <ui> baqiyya, subs, (classical and m.c.). Ex. : U~ ^ baqiyya-yi
sipdh 4< the remainder of the soldiers " ; jjj ixaj baqiyya-yi rUz ' ' the remainder
of the day."
(3) ^ U md baqiy a , Ar., in Persian md-baql ^u\*>, lit. * f that which
remained." This is used in modern (and perhaps in classical) Persian as a
substantive. Ex. : jj) ^^ ina-baqt-yi ritz (m.c.) ** the remainder of the
day."
Remark!. &+&1atimma, Ar. subs, " completion, appendix, etc." is used
tor the remainder or balance of an account, as : V U^. <u tatimma*yi hisdb.
The Ar, word &\ys mizdn lias the same signification.
Remark //. Pas-manda *<x>U ^j is generally applied only to remnants
of food ; *^U> v^ 5 ( aqab rnanda 4< to what remains or is left behind ; *>&* ^^
bag* mdnda "to what remains over" (of an account, etc., or of people,
things, etc., after counting).
CHAPTER IV.
THE ARTICLE AND THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
40. The Definite Article.
(a) Harf-ita'rif ( 1 Ju_j*S oj^ ). There is no article properly so called.
If the noun is definite and in the accusative case, it requires ra. Ex. :
t> \) wt ab-ra bidih " give (me) the water " ; but &V vt ab bidik " give me
water"; du asp-ra dtdam <C I saw the two horses"; but p^ *-***! j$
du asp didam te I saw two horses," and 2 f*j*> w*-t 3L0? ^13^ j* jjj*\ imruz dar
bazar asld* asp na-didam (m.c.) ki to-day^ I saw no horses in the bazar."
Remark. In the nominative case j&J j& du laslikar can mean * * two
armies " or " the two armies. 5 '
(6) Proper names, titles etc., the separate, the demonstrative, and the
reflexive pronouns, the interrogative *& kl y o&i and <^j&, 3 ^*^, {t + A , etc.,
^S A*A f ^JU.=k y ^^U^ ? g*A.,jjL } ^*>. and <*^$ j* 9 j* j* , etc., are considered
definite or ma'rifa ( &>j** ), and require fj, especially in modern Persian 4 ; so
also does the pronoun tjak-i <^ .
(c) In modern Persian, the affixed possessive pronouns when affixed to a
noun in the accusative case, are also usually followed by f>
In classical Persian, this construction is rare. In the Gulistan. the tj is
both omitted and inserted.
The fj of the dative, however, cannot be omitted. For further rules on
the insertion or omission of the \j of the accusative and dative, vide under
Syntax.
Remark, The following are also definite :
(1) All nouns that have the Arabic definite article Jt ; as )^'ti\ "The
Powerful."
j>
(2) Nouns preceded (or demonstrated aJt^liuo ; by the demonstra-
tive pronouns.
1 Ta'rif ( *-*>j*> ) also means " definition."
2 For as Z*.
3 Fulan&%* (adj.) and fidani j*&* (subs.).
* In the Gulistan and in classical Persian the t> of the accusative is often omitted,
contrary to the rules of syntax. As a rule the reason of the omission can be traced to
tho exigencies of the rhythm. Imitators of the style of Sa'di, especially Indians, raak e
syntactical mistakes of this description, but no ordinary modern Persian does.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 131
(3) The vJl** of a proper name or of a pronoun (affixed or separate),
as : f3Uy v Uf etc. ; or of a ^Ui ^x>, as : c\* *^*y*.
(4) Some nouns in the vocative, as :
(5) Proper names, noms de plume ( 1 L ^aJiJ ) 9 personal pronouns, and
and >
(d) In sentences such as, ***rt^*> j* ( U^l^w or) olj^** sarbamn (or m.c.
sarbazka) du hazar budand "the soldiers were two thousand", the plural
makes the noun definite; but du hazar sarbaz jbj** )^ j* signifies "two
thousand men " or " the two thousand men" : vide also example in Remark
to (a).
Remark. The cardinal numbers are not followed by a plural noun.
(e) In relative sentences, a demonstrative or relative 4^, often confused
with the ^ of unity (sometimes accented for emphasis), in conjunction
with the connective * makes the noun definite : vide 42 (6) and (g) to (r).
If the noun is to remain indefinite, the ^ (or *) must not be accented: vide
42 (p).
(/) In the sentences p*& ^U^U padishah-ira slianidam (SaMl) ** I have
heard of a certain king," ani *& ^<^ ^^^ <# \\ \$ ^^ yak-i ra az muluik
( ajam hikayat kunand (Sa'di) "it is related (they relate) of a certain one of
the kings of ' Ajam^' the objects are to be considered definite though accom-
panied by the ^ of unity or so-called indefinite article : for the rule of the
affix fj in such cases, vide under Syntax.
(g) The demonstrative pronouns, especially in m,c. ? frequently take the
place of the definite article, as : Atimaxrdki amad <Wf ^^of (for mard-Z-ki
amad&tf ^?^y) 4i the man who came" ; hence the reason vhat Persians
learning English generally say, **that man who" instead of "the man
who."
41. The Indefinite Article.
(a) Harf-i tanKr or 7a-yi wahdat ( ox^3 <^b or
The numeral ^ yak ct one " sometimes takes the place of the indefinite
article. Ex.: ftfy* *** j*U| cUU ^Ji ^ yak sJiab ta*mmul-i ayyam-i
guzashta ml-kardam (Sa e di) " one night I was pondering on olden times " :
here ^^ shab-i could be substituted ivvyakshab *-*& *Ji, without altering the
meaning. Vide also examples in (m). In m.c. this yak^&> is more often used
for the indefinite article than is the ^ of unity.
Remark. Yak <-X can also be joined to the ^ of unity, as ^ " one, a
certain person " : o*f ^f V5 C| v^I ^U^ ^\tf <xUa. y j\Qva az jumla-yi adab-i
1 Poetical nom-de-plume.
132 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
nudama-yi muluk yak-i In ast (Sa'dl) " and this is one of the (good) manners
of the companions of the kings."
There is nothing to distinguish from each other the ya-yi vahdat &&s*j ^k
or the ya-yi tanldr j ^., and the yayi mawsul Jj*j* ^ ( 42), except the
difference in signification. When the ^ signifies unity in this case its place
can be taken by the numeral yak it is known by the first name. When the <^
is used before a relative clause and is equivalent to t lie demonstrative pronoun,
it is known by the last name.
Remark. The c5" that follows j*> is probably not the demonstrative ^,
but the ( of unity.
(6) The ya-yi tankir j> ^. or ^ of mdefimteness acts as an indefinite
article. This ^, which has several uses, and is more or less emphatic,
either in magnifying or in minimising, was in classical Persian pronounced
with the majhul sound. 1 In modern Persian it is pronounced i, and with
the exception mentioned in 40 (e) is unaccented, in order to distinguish it
from the suffix ^s of abstract nouns. Thus in classical Persian mard-e <L-*J*
"a man" or " a certain man", but mardl ^Sj* ** manliness" : in modern
colloquial mard-l o^y t( a man", etc-; but mardl ^^ " manliness."
This s is supposed to be derived from the numeral yak <-& (or yog <-& )
of which the last letter has disappeared. Yi, for yak _G, exists still in some
songs in the dialect of Mazenderan. Yi-qadr aw bi-dih t* tf )<&. * * give me
a little water ' J is common in S. Persia.
In modern Persian, however, it can be added to a plural, making it a
collective noun : vide (k) (2),
(c) If the noun terminates in silent $, then, instead of the affixed 4^, the
symbol hamza is superscribed, but in modern Persian is still pronounced J,
[Me 26 {/)], as <*^u backcha-e (classical) and bachcka-* (m.e.) "a child " or
**a certain child.'* 2 If the noun is concrete and terminates in ^ } the ^ of
the noun is generally represented by* before the ^ of unity, as: ^5*^ mahl
"fish", but (^A^> (or 4^1*) mahl-i t( a fish."
(d) (1) If silent S precedes o^f ast "is", the * may be omitted and the
written o*wt. Ex. :
Var shakar-khanda-isl shirin-lab
Astln-ash bi-gir u sham* bi-kush (Sa*dl).
'* But if she be attractive and sweet-lipped
Take her by the sleeve 3 and put out the light."
I Vide foot-note 4, page HI.
* With thewo/a*, bachcha-yi kuchak *^' *&? (mod.): difference in transliteration
and pronunciation.
8 Attln (.^jjujf w probably the old hanging sleeve, in Persia still worn by some
darvisheg.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 133
Banda-i } st may be written ^^\ *L> or o~t !^x, and maht-ist may be
written *^~*>\ cs^fc^ , etc., or v^~j|
Remark. Grammarians, however, give this ^ different names according
to the sense in which it is used. Thus in :
' ' One and all need each other,
Even a small spider can hide a great prophet ' '
the first ^ is called i/a-/i tasg&r j***& ^ "the diminutive ya" or
tatiqir j*&**J ^. "the i/a of contempt", while the second ^ having the
contrary meaning is called ya-yi ta*zim f*&** ^Ij " the ya of respect."
For the names of the relative ^ (expressing the definite article in relative
sentences) , vide 42.
(2) After final alif *-&!, ?/a U, or udv *\j, this ^ is preceded by a *, to dis-
tinguish it from the ^ of the f?a/a^ o^Ut , as : ^5> 6?I4 " a scent J ' , but <J> ^>i
6i-?/e gul <f the scent of the flower" ; ^Ja* ^^ a*^ chunin dawlat-i s uzma-i
(m.c.) <c such a very great empire." A ^ should be inserted as bearer for
this hamza. Some Arabic words end in a hamza, which may or may not be
written in Persian, but before a suffixed ^, the Arabic *must fall away, thus:
** desert, or jungle as opposed to cultivation ", ^t^** " a desert " and
cs 3 ^* *" a ^at desert.' '
*
(3) If the Arabic word ends in a?if-i maqsura \& or ^ \ 9 with or without the
tanwin, the final letter is changed to a&/ before the ^ of unity, as : ^^f a'ama
?
for ^tj4*i > * blind"; ^U^l &ama~l ** a blind man." The word <j>** is in
Persian pronounced ma*m j^^ , or mafnq i t^**; its final letter may therefore
in Persian be considered to be either ya I* or alif-i maqsura %)}>&* ^t, thus:
or yii** ma'm-i (m.c.) 4i a meaning,"
Remark I. The ^ is sometimes added to adjectives, as : JU^ ^/^f
andak-% jamal (Sa'di) c< a little beauty": chand-% " a few." For sal-t du
^ JU, vide (/) 9.
Remark IL In old Persian, the ^ is added to the noun when it is
qualified by an adjective, and not to the adjective, as: mard-lkhub ^^ ^ty*
(class, and mod.) " a good man" ; dat andalc zaman-l ^l*} c^^t^^ (class, and
mod.) " for a little while." In modern Persian, the ^ is generally added to
the adjective, vide(k).
(e) The ^ of unity combines with o^i in pronunciation, but may be
written separately in full, or combined with the ast. Ex. : Khub mardi-st
(m.c.) " he is a good man " is written o-*| ^tj* v^, or
134 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
(/) Examples of the various significations of this ^ are:
(1) t\* ^.^ I L$J~! cs*^^ padishdh-l pisar-i bi-adib-i dad (Sa'dl)
"a certain >z king handed over a son of his to a tutor " ; pas-l az shab
guzasht cJj v^ jf t^^ " one watch of the night passed."
(2) fjf^ <^;( lcar-1 na-daram ' c I have no special business " ; U^J ^ly*^^
pit a^j ^5^*^- mi-khwaJiam bi-shuma khidmat-i ruju' kunam (m.c.) <c I want
to entrust you with a (special, or a certain) commission."
(3) j^jj {}#< *A hlch tadbir-1 no-bud ' c there was not a single plan ' ' ;
o**,| <M^*XJ ijLc&L ij>\j=*- j tylfaJu^JL. jt ^fy* jj bar liar yak-i az sa^ir-i bandagan
u hawashi khidmat-i mu'ayyan ast (Sa'di) "for every single one of his slaves
and attendants a special (or a separate) duty is appointed,"
(4) ij&$ )\X Uuuf \\ c^^ J^*Jt *$ ^^\ ^t c^i^ bihtar-ash In ast ki al-hal
bi-taivr-i az inja kinar kashl 3 (m.c.) '* the best thing is that somehow or other
you at once get away from here."
(5) ^T^e^J csV^JJl) ruzgar-i* bar-in bar-cimad (Sa'clT) 4< a short time
elapsed after this"; ^^^ sa'at-i c< a short time " or " one hour";
^JUj dar andak zaman-% (Sa'd!) * 4 in a little time " ;ti^ ** * !<
va ham shakk-i pay da shud ki mabadd (m.c.) "also a bit of a doubt
arose lest " (but va ham shakk paidd shud ^ t<^j cZ^ ^ j "there
was doubt lest "); Ji^o^ ov*,f &^j)t *z++* a/ UvJf j| ^i? j ^ ^s ^^ *l&f
A^ ^iT ^yo ff^A c5>^^ (^^jf ^JU{*x> angah ruy ba-man kard va, guft az anjd ki
himmat-i darvishan ast va xidq-i mwamala-yi tshan khatir-l luannrak-i man kunid
ki~^- (Sadi) "he then turned tome and said, 'on account of the gracious
magnanimity of dervishes and their uprightness in dealings pay a little
attention to me for ' " ; <xu G ^-^ burut-i-1abld (m.c.) he gave a alight twirl
to his moustache."
(6) *>$ j* ^ <yW^ ^f * ^* v< Jiy tf e^v' pv
Bi-ham bar ma-kun ta tavam dil-i
Ki ah-i jahan-i bi-ham bar kunad. (Sa'dl ).
'* Distress not, if thou canst avoid it, a single soul,
For one sigh to God (from a broken heart) can destroy
even a whole world." 6
1 Note that though there isno tjin this sentence, there is yet no con fusion as to sense.
* When this (^ has the adjectival sense of "a certain" and is followed by an
explanatory clause, its noun may be considered definite, and if in the accusative case
requires the affix ra, vide 40 (/).
8 More common in m.c. Jcinara kunl ( t ^ %y*S
* In m.c. ruzagar )^)j)'
6 It is this sentiment, the fear of the distressed sigh, that so often prevents the
punishment of a convinced malefactor in Persia. Some irresponsible person intercedes,
and the Governor, to hide his superstitious fears, professes to be overcome by pity.
The idiomi s biham kardan (and not kandan)
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 135
(7) o~ ^W| usw ^UaL ***jj)j Vazir chi khiySLt-st uftdda ast? (m.c.)
into what a way of thinking (into what kind of a fancy) has the Wazir
leii I wonder ? ' '
(8) vs**f ^Jf (J^js r i$hq dfat-1-st (( love is a great calamity.
f ' In despair is many a hope ;
The close of a dark night is fair.
For bas'l '' many a " vide 39 (m).
(9) <M^ ^oy j^ ^JU sdl-i du bar In bar dmad (Sa'di) " a couple of years
so passed after this " ; ^ JL^* fasl-i du (Sa'dl) "a couple of chapters.
For ^ with the plural in modern Persian, vide (k) (2).
(10) <^*y Fir'aun-i " a Phararoh (i.e. cruel and overbearing ] ) >? ;
itim-l* " a Hatim", a man generous as Hatim (but Jiatimi ^^ "genero-
"
(11)
* 8 L5'J^3j> b ^ <>~^ c^^ 4-A^^A 5 Aij na giriftdr dmddl bi-dast-i javdn-l
?, ki liar dam havd-l pazad wa liar lahza ray-l zanad va har shab ja-l Jchuspad
har ruz yar-l girad (Sa'dl) " you fell not into the bondage (of marriage)
bh a youth vain * * *, who at every breath starts a fresh fancy, and each
>ment states a new opinion, and every night sleeps in a different place,
d every day takes a new love."
(12) SiX^UJ U jjoA^f^k G vi.^1 ^5-i^i j^iJJLf qalandar darvlsh-l-st na-kharashtda
-tarashida (m.c.) 4< a Calendar is a kindoi darvish, rough and uncivilized."
(13) (./Ui~A> Ui c&o^j oi*j la'nat bar misl-i shuma Musalman-l " curses 011
Muslim like you " ; or U JLtc ^UL-xs^j oW la'nat bar mnsalmdn-i misl-i
umd.
(14) *>XA+J ft jj*> u>jl (^ di e)ly^ javdn misl-i man m jur kdr nami-kunad
i.e.) is a simple statement; but javdn-t inisl-i man-l ^^ di (^1^ ex "
esses a considerable amount of conceit and "brag" and" lays a stress on
van vi>!>^ and man ^ ; javan liamchu man-1 ^ix^si^A ^t^. expresses the
me idea, but in speaking there would be no stress on the word javdn (>[}*>.
(g) The noun with its cc of unity is often in m.c. preceded by the
A JP/r'awn e^^j 5 a title common to the ancient kings of Egypt, as Ptolemy to the
er ones. The Pharaoh of Hoses' time is known to Muslims as Valid. Fir'aun has
ne to mean * a cruel tyrant, insolent and unbelieving.'
2 In Persian sometimes Hatam +&*> : an illustrious Arab of the tribe of tfayy who
ed before the Prophet, but his son, who died at the age of 120 in the 68th year of the
ght, is said to have been a companion of the Prophet.
& Dust *-"**}^, in Persia, is only used for men, but yar ^ is a man-friend, or a
stress.
136 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
indefinite yak *, for additional emphasis, as: *oj ^-^ Jo (*\ agha yak cJiiz-t
bi-dih (beggar's cry) "gentleman, give me a trifle " ; *^\* ^Uw <y<c ^ tf
ki yak muddat-l bimari 1 dasht " so that he was ill from it quite an age"
(more emphatic than muddat-l alone).
(h) The <^ of unity does not admit of the izafat after it, thus : wf *-*J? ^f****
qadah-ii* barf-ab (Sa'dl) "a cup of iced water (i.e. water and ice mixed)]
** *>.* 8 fj ejky i>s*jj> guruh-i marduman ra did ki (Sa'di) " he saw a certain
knot of men who " : vide also (/) (1) ; *xuf^<S? ^yf **&* ^jjj &+\) Raja yuz-i
safid dvarda guzaramd (Jehangir's Memoirs) "the Raja brought a white
Cheeta and presented it to me. ' '
For a classical example vide quotation from 'Umar-i Khhayyam in 95
(b) (5).
(i) In classical and in modern Persian, a noun before its qualifying adjec-
tive or before another noun in construction, even if indefinite in meaning,
sometimes discards the ^s of unity, as : o^u^i &Afc ta'ifa-yi dustan (Sa'dX) " a
party of friends"; but ejUL-j,* J* ^Ifc L ba td'ifa-t az dustan ; s^;y^ fUic }f ^
4 ow|^l^ yak-i az 'ulama khuranda-yi bisyar dasht (Sa'dl) " a certain learned
man had a large family " ; 5 ^y AA-^O ^1^^ ^ c^^* f^* ^ ^ A ^^ padishah-i
ba gJiulam-i 'Ajamt dar kishtl nishasta bud (Sa'dl) "a. certain king was
seated with a Persian slave in a boat " ; pddishah-t ba vaztrjtjj b ^* { *^ <( a
king with his vazir ", but padisliJah-i ba-vazir-i ^)) ^ ^^^ "a king with
a vazir (perhaps the vazir of another king).
Remark. Note that ^ "one of" requires j f after it in all cases: it
cannot be followed by the izafat. Vide also (/).
(;) Concrete nouns ending in (^) I may take the ^ of unity ; but the first
U in writing is usually represented by a *, as : Sufi-% bi-man yuft c^i? ^j J**r*
In m.c., however, the indefinite *J^> usually takes the place of the ^ in such
cases.
Remark. Singular abstract nouns in ^5 do not admit of the ^ of unity :
the indefinite c& is substituted.
(k) (1) In modern Persian the ^ of unity is generally added to tfce
qualifying adjective [unless the adjective end in ^c, vide (m)] following the
noun and not to the noun. Ex. : v^i ^^ ^^3 qushun-i khub-l budand
(Shah's Diary) " they were a pretty soldiery " ; ^/ s?^ ^^ nutq-i ziyad-i
kardand (Shah's Diary) "they delivered long speeches."
^ Bimtir-i tS)^ (note accent) would mean * ho kept a sick man in his house/
2 In m.c. qadah is a basin.
3 Here ra \) is necessary though the object is indefinite, because of the *$ following.
* In modern Persian ^^^ )J^ && nan l&hwur-i bisyar-l (or bisyar
6 In modern Persian this would be (jjiulamrl *** and kishti-i
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 137
(2) The ^ can also refer to a plural and seems to give it a
collective sense. Ex.: o*-f ^jk^ ^(^J&A. chakushha-yi ykarib-l 'st (Shah's
Diary) " they are (were) a strange lot of hammers " ; zanha-l darad ] Kirmdn
ki zarda-yi tukhm ra az miyana-yi safida ml-duzdand p>**l **)) *$ cjjl/y j>jf^ (J*^j
4JjJ<X frxxil* <xHx*> y \j (m.c.) " Kerman has a class of women so tricky
that they can steal the yolk of an egg from the midst of the white."
Jn English, the indefinite article is still common before a general noun
denoting a sum of money or a space of time. The answer to a question,
" what is your pay?" might be: liich, du tuman-i ^^y j* - *r A (me.)
"nothing; a paltry two tumans" "From his birth * * * * to his death-
stroke on the field of Jena, what a seventy-one years" (Carlyle),
o^xl U* _AJ j .vliiA &*. ixx^ jjj^K ^ ijtfj* j*i 13 a)y jf az tavallud ta dam-i
marg-ash dar kar-zar-i Jena chi ha f tad u pan) sal-ist. In, du farsM^l bishtar mst
i-^^y^x^jj ^aa^^j j (m.c.) "it is not more than a couple of farsalchs^
the ^ has a diminutive force."
(3) If, however, the adjective is of the simple kind that can precede the
noun, the ^ is naturally affixed to the noun. Ex. o^yo v ^ khub
mard-l-st ' he is a good man" (m.c.); $ty* j# f plr-i mard-l (m.c.) "an old
man."
(I) In modern Persian the constructions f*>& 0^^* ^5*-*^ jam'-t murdu-
man didam "I saw a body of men" ; or jam" -I az marduman dldam
PJZ &l>c-j*> y j and jam' -I zanha didam f&>* ty) (jr**^, or jam' -I az
didam f*n V3 3> u* 4 ^ 1 - "^ 8aw a body of women ", are used. Vide also
(h) and (i).
(m) In modern Persian, as stated in (&), the ^ is generally added
to the qualifying adjective ; if, however, the adjective itself end in ^, the
numeral is preferably substituted, as: ' c an Abyssinian slave girl " >j^ -
^j^^ yak kanlz-i habashi (rn.c.) or ^i*^ ^sJ^^ kantz-i habashi (m.c.).
Note the following m.c.: "a spoonful of milk" (a) j* (3-*^ *-&, yak
qashuqsJnr, or (b) ^ ^#>( qashuq-l' 1 shir, or (c) ^sj** (5^ qashuq-i shir-i:
" a glass of water " ^f ^r^ gtlas-i ab-l, or ^ ^^^ (jtlas-i ab, or u*^ J^
*-jf yak gil<i$-i ab or in apposition yak gllas ab.
(n) Note the absence of ^ in the following: c=~b v^JJb ^) zakJi-m-i
palang dasht* (Sa*dl) "he had a (the) wound from a leopard " ; %
zakhm-i shamshir khwurda (m.c.) " he got a sword wound ";
1 i.e. the women of Kerraan generally are of such a class. Note the present
tense with the idea of " can (and consequently do) steal."
* For qfahiq <3^', T.
3 Here zaJshm ^j is used as the description of wound and it therefore becomes
(lefinite. It would be also right to say zaWun-i palang-l cr^J (**3> or better zalch.m-1 az
palang
138 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
va u-ra dar chunin martaba l did (Sa'df) "and saw him possessed of
such great rank."
In these examples the noun is considered generic, and, therefore, does
not take the ^. It does not mean the wound of one leopard; it might be
the wound of ten. Similarly ow-t Jib j^U hanuz tifl ast " he is still a boy.' n
(o) The construction <y^ ^^ kitab-i khub-i is occasionally met with ;
it aeems to mean "a book, a good one " ; ^fo ^AA&A ^^ pul-i hanguft-3,
dddam (m.c.) "I paid a thumping sum."
(p) As dlgar-l ^c^^ means lt another person", dlqar meaning "an-
other" does riot classically take the ^ of unity 3 : chiz-i digar ^&j> ^ y^ or
yak chiz-i digar jj>_j*<*- J^ " another thing, one thing more"; and in m.c.
(vulgarly) cMz-i digar-l <^j&> J^-. 4
As in m.c. the distinction is not observed, asp-i dtgar-i o*/&* f*)
may mean ' * another horse " or "another person's horse": but as already
stated the former is a vulgarism.
For an example of dagh-i diqar-l ^j*s f "another misfortune",
vide 94 (i) example from 'Umar-i Khayyam.
The following are m.c.: cu~ | <uUax j~*> &>.\ in pisara shaytan ast "this
boy is a devil ' ' , but *-^~t 5 e^-^ ^j~$ ( * he is a devilish boy ' ' ; ^*
pisar-i shaytan-i-st '*he is the son of a devil" ; adam-i khar-i-st *+**
or in adam Jchar ast o*t ^ ?tf ^ " he is an ass " ; marduman-i kh ar ~*
4>Ji ^cj=^ cJ^^^j or in inardum khayli khctr and &\ ** (^^ C 1 ^ &^ f
Remark. It is, however, correct in modern Persian to add the relative
^c, kitab'i digar-l ki & ^j^-* V 1 ^ ' ' ^e other book which (or that) ."
(q) The following construction is borrowed from the Arabic: ^y^*^
*^ltx \\ dar mashra^i nz mashari' (class.) "in a road (lit. in a road of
the roads) " ; &\j+* jt (^*^ ;^ dar mamarr-i az mamarrat (class.) 4 *m a place
of passage, in one of the places of passage" ; vJWi jf lfl> ^1*3 ^t*^ AT o^b
j cX)li& Icy ^cj^ ^cU ; ^ jt 4^;^^ ^'40 ^ikf ^^ bdshod ki Khuda'(yi) ta'alq
nagah az altaf-i khwish lutf-i numayad va dar-% az darha-yi ruzi bar ma
bi-kushayad (mod.) "it may be that God on High out of his gracious good.
ness may suddenly open a way of livelihood (out of his many ways) for us "
fj; vJf^tf j! (j*?^ bi-taraf-i* az atraf ravam (m.c.) "I may go in some direction
or other, somewhere or other."
i In modern Persian incorrectly martdba-l ***?*. This is the incorrect reading by
modern Persians, even when th e is omitted in the copies of the Gulistan.
* The (.5 could not be added to t.ifl*
S In m.c. L^r^ U**^ shabha-i cKgar-i "another person " is a common vulgarism.
* Also yak chlzlrl dlgar j*j.& Lji^ <^J.
5 Shayfian c>^^ is really an adjective here.
6 Erroneously f.arf J>fe. In Arabic tarf c*ji> is the "eye", but iJj-k toraf is
"a side, extremity, margin, etc.'*
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 139
(r) The ^ is occasionally added to Arabic phrases, thus :
>3jf *-*#j> ma hazar-i az ta'am iartlb kardand (Sa'dl) "they set out a
something of what was ready in the way of food ' ' ; here ma is the relative
pronoun Arabic "that which", andAa^r^a^ is the 3rd person singular,
raasc., Fret, of ''to be ready."
($) When substantives are coupled together, the ^ is added to the last
only : cA-^f *5\) J^&jp&j J>^ j d&* **?*** J^J^f ks[y*)*j* \j l Wj >J*>j~>
<2+&\$ Sarhang-zada ra bar dar-i sara-yi Ug&lamish" didam ki f aql u* kiyasat-i
va* fahm u firasat-i za^id'^l-wasf dasht (Sa'dl) "I saw the son of a certain (?)
officer at the door of the palace of Uglilamish , that was possessed of an
understanding and sagacity, and an intelligence and ingenuity beyond all
description"; ^t^U ^ UxJU^ oi.y a^/f o**0u ^^y fa jf ***> ^i&o A&f ^^u
ai^U bi-hukm-i an ki malaz-l mani c az qulla-yi kuh-l bi-dast avarda budand
wa malja u ma*va-i sakfita (Sa'dl) " because they have taken possession of
an impregnable asylum on the summit of a mountain and made it a place of
safe refuge."
In ni.c. the first substantive may, however, be preceded by yak uj, as:
yak kard u chancjal-i bi-dih <X' ^&a ^ dj('v^, or kard u changal-l bi-dih j ^
. "give me a knife and fork."
Remark [. -Similarly, in modern Persian, the ^c is added to the second
only of two adjectives qualifying one noun, as : safar-i dur u daraz-l $ )^J^
<syj* ini.c.) Si a long long journey."
Remark II. For an example in classical Persian of the ^_c added to both
of two adjectives qualifying one noun, vide last example of (c), 125.
(t) When the ^_- of unity supplies the place of a simple indefinite article ,
its noun does not as a rule take the fj of the accusative. Ex. : ^ m f~$ c4)^ ^^
aUu*ji pish-i pidar-ash kas-l ftristad (Sa'di) ** he sent some one to his father."
In the sentence AX^JS^J ^^> >x^ f; ^i^j zamin-i ra kanda sang barddshta
(Afgfian) the sense requires the definite sign t;, " having dug up a (certain)
special plot of ground and removed the stones."
Note the distinction in meaning between the two following :
khana-i atash zadand (m.c.) Ck they set fire to a house " ; but *5Jj>J (J^>T \>
khana-i ra atash zadand <c they set fire to one of the houses."
In the following : ^Uj <^)J> I; ^teA**^ (**& shumdam gusfand-i ra
buzurg-i rihamd (Sa*dl) lf I have heard that a certain elder released a
sheep ," the ra is necessary to distinguish the object and make the sense
1 Probably a copyist's omission; sarhang-zada-l ra \) 3\) v&A^ "an officer."
If sarhang-zada W) ^j!iA^. be the correct reading, it means ** the son of the Colonel "
referring to a local celebrity.
2 The son of Chinglz Shan : he reigned in Turkistan about 656 Hijra.
& Note these two pronunciations of j.
140 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
clear : omit it and buzurg-\ <^> at first sight appears to be an adjective
qualifying the nominative, gusfand-i
Remark. It will be noticed that the t; immediately follows the ^ of
unity. 1
(u) The ^5- can be added to some of the personal pronouns. Ex. :
4J (^frojji ij**> adam-i chun man-i bar zamm nami-khwabad (m.c.) "a man
like me does not sleep on the ground ' ' ; ^T ^j* dl* jof adam-i misl-i tu-i
amad (m.c.) "a man like you came" ; **& ej*A^ <M^ <^U* L& J*M adam-i
misl-i shuma-i na-bayad chuntn bi-kunad (m.c.) " a man like you ought not to
act thus"; * ^^ jl< <^f cU*> f^T adam-i misl-i u-i kar nami-kunad (m.c.)
"a man like him won't work. 1 ' In these examples the ^ could be added
to f^f, but in this case it must be omitted after the pronoun.
The ^c is not added to U ma "we" nor to &&>\ ishan "they."
(v) *^ &^ ^ )* p**> <^j yak-l man-am dar in miyan ki (Sa'dl) " I am
one of these here who " ; but man yak-% am *f ^6 ^c (m.c.) " I am alone,
single."
(w) In a negative proposition the ^ must be translated " not a ,
none." Ex. : &j* ^~ l^T anja kas-i na bud (or anja hich kas na-bud
^A> ^^ ^A laajf ) (m.c.) " there was no one there" ; ^f) ^^^ ^f
hayvdn-i na-bud (m.c.) " there was not an animal there."
(#) The indefinite ^o can be added to the substantive qualified by
chunm "such an one as this", or by eA^ chunan " such an one as that",
or to cjf'**^ chanddn " much, so much ", as: ^'ta. ^***- o>^ ^ ^A*O^ ^ ^^
** pty man dar just u ju-yi chunin ja-l budam ki (m.c.) *' I was in search
of just such a place as this . " <xij \&y jyio ^>\ V^ ^^A^^ &&$- chunan
shakhs-l na-bayad In taivr karha bi-kunad (m.c.) "such a person like that
ought not to act in this way" : ^>'^ <j~*)** ^3 ^ <J**-> c>I^J^ chanddn rabt-i bi-
zaban-% Farsi na-daram (m.c.) " I do not know a great amount of Persian."
This ^c can also be added to the substantive qualified by e>*^ ^ ~ 111
chunm, &\**> \*$ an chunan , ^^iacu*,* Jmm-chunin, &&*- ^ A ham-chunan, but not
to these words themselves.
For the definite or demonstrative ^ (relative witli *$ ) with chunan and
chandan, vide 42 (s).
(y) The personal pronoun 1st pers. sing, man "I" makes its accusative
regularly when the ^ is affixed, as : ^y o*o^M fj ^f**j&+& hamchu man-%
ra as%r-i dast-i tu kard "he made a person like me a prisoner in your
i Similarly in the dative case : magar marduman-l ra ki halat-i mutawassip. darand
gahrl In nawbat namirraead **
(class.) (in modern Persian hlch vagt instead of gahl) "but to men possessed of a modest
competence only, such a thing never happens."
BELATIVB PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OB RELATIVE ^. 141
hand " l : >**" ^ v luJI crHH# I) <^* d** O+^ ff& '**> Haji Baba "God
will not select a fool like me as a Prophet." This could also be expressed
by : }j ^/o J&o ^ft+A.) grjA \c&>. In neither case could mard )j*> be substituted.
(z) The ^5 can sometimes be added to the infinitive used as a noun,
as : ^ftf jt; raz-guftan-t ' * a telling of a secret ' * , but raz-i guftani ' ' a secret
to be told." Yak-didan-i " one visit " ; yak-kushtan-i fic one killing" (of one
person or of many).
(ad) For the demonstrative ^ as a definite article with the connective
* in relative clauses, vide 42.
42. The Relative Pronouns and the Demonstrative or
Relative .
HARF-l MAWSUL OR HARF-I 8ILA* ( *1^ J^*. or J>*>^ ).
(a) There are no relative pronouns. Instead . the indeclinable particle &t
ki is used as a connective, ( J^>- <Jr^ ) . 3 Thus the Persian construction of
the English sentence, t: The man that came yesterday, came to-day ", would
be , " The man that (ki) he came yesterday came to-day.' ' From this it will be
seen that in every relative clause there is a pronoun expressed or understood.
If this pronoun is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, it is usual
to omit it, except for the sake of special emphasis or for clearness. In
oblique cases it is often inserted. In m.c., however, ifc is of tener omitted
than in the classical language, as : ^^ ^ ;t>~ e>fy *^vo! asp-i ki bar an savar
mi-sham (class.) Ci the horse that you ride on it " (the horse which you ride) ;
in in.c. the e/[^ would be omitted.
(b) The noun that precedes a Persian relative clause may often be
regarded as definite, even if in English it be preceded by the indefinite article
{ J^^ cs^ 1 )-* I 11 Persian this noun is made specially definite by affixing
a demonstrative ^5 even to the plural : this ^ connects it with the particle
1 Manl (j^> P., is also a subs, "presumption; egoism; also the quality of
sufficiency that is peculiar to God ' ' : mam, AT., * * the seminal fluid ' ' ; also man-i, as in,
65 man-t ** thou art with me." Persian poets frequently play on these various
meanings.
2 Sifa ( &be ) conjunction ; note that this & is considered a particle ( v -^/ a * ) and
not a pronoun : for fuller explanation vide 130 ** Relative Clauses.'*
.-. Aa chi is also considered by some grammarians as a connective in relative
sentences. As, however, it is only in this use found joined to j* or of, as ^j* and
A^vJl, and does not moreover admit of the "relative C5", the author has preferred to
omit it and to treat the words **-j* harchi and *^cuT anchi as single words, indefinite
pronouns. Anchi, harchi , etc., are applicable only to manimate objects in the singular:
if the antecedent is a plural noun, rational or irrational, *& is the only connective.
4 Thus "a fool who lights, or the fool who lights, a wax candle by day" have
much the same meaning. If the noun before the relative is to be kept indefinite the
sentence must be arranged differently : vide (p) and Remark to (r).
142 BBLATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE ^.
ki. As however this ^, unlike the ^ of unity, 1 admits of the accent in
modern Persian for the sake of emphasis, it is perhaps an extension of the
izafat that connects an adjective to its noun. Ex. : *^** shakhsl-ki (nom.)
" a man who " or " the man who, the man that, etc." ; *$ \) ^A^^ shakhs-i
rd ki (ace.) "a (or the) person whom." It will be noticed that the demon-
strative ^ followed by #> corresponds to the restrictive relative pronoun in
English ; compare with (r).
(c) This ^ is called the ya-yi si/at or ^ of qualification and implies the
force of the demonstrative pronoun ' ' that.' '
This ^5, however, in such sentences as : cux ^> A p*^^^c A^U^ kitab-l ki
m\-khwaham ham-in ast " this is the book that I require ", is distinguislied by
some grammarians as ya-yi mawsul ( 4r^> x> ^^ ) or y<*-yi muzmar j+*^*> ^Ij
" the ya of the pronoun (the noun that is kept in mind}, 3 ' or ^f ^b yu-yi ^nl
" the ya equal to the demonstrative pronoun an ": while in such sentences
as :
Os9i-~x> d*j>_ jf*& & .*> <*r ^ . ~ AJ el* jUu _ *o (jJ^j*> y * ~~*^ytj> r
they consider the ^ to be the equivalent of chunan ' ' such a' ' and call it
ya-yi tawsijl <J***j* ^> " the ya b of description." For further remarks 011
relative sentences vide 130.
In writing, this ^ can either be joined to the *> or written separately,
thus ACx*A3^ or & ^s^i.
Remark. The ^ after j& and c/T^ is probably not the demonstrative
^5, but the * ^ of unity J , as in *# w^ ^^ ^ ^r^ 1 j* : ^We under tor ^
in Pronouns.
{(f) The pronoun in the relative clause may be either expressed (but is
seldom expressed) or understood. It is better to omit it unless necessary to
the sense [vide {/)].
In the following examples, words in parenthesis do not belong to the
examples, but may be inserted to show the complete construction :
Nominative : *y LS)>& Ct~ eA*) j L$^ abla-l ku z ruz-i rus/ian
sham'-i kafun^ nihad (Sa'di) " the fool who lights a wax candle in broad
day"- >Ai>aA> j* ( j ) t ^ j\ gav-i-ki (u) shir mi-dihad (m.c.) <fc the cow
that gives milk ' ' ; *uvo &** ( &(,>\ ) A&JUjbj*. sarbazha-t ki (Isfian) masJiq
mi-kunand (m.c.) " the soldiers who drill."
Genitive : e/ viJiu ^^ >JA*. ^ *$ b 4 ^ & ^ an na man basham ki
1 However in classical Persian both this ^ and the ^ of unity had the sarno
sound, i.e. the J^?^ majhid sound of e : vide 41 (6).
* For kiu.
3 From kafur '* camphor." The adjective is frequently applied to anything white.
Falconers even apply the term to a variety of hawk that happens to be unusually light
coloured.
4 t*/ *> and not na-man \& .
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE ^. 143
ruz-i jang Him puaht-i man (Sadi) "I am not that kind of man whose back
you'll see in the day of battle " ; t>j* ^U^ J^*** * (u$ ^^ b tabib-% ki habb-ash
bimar-am kard (m.c.) cc the doctor whose pills made me ill " ; ^j a&JUjtiu.
OM*| ^jj &\> sitarahd-i ki partav-i shdn rawshan ast (m.c.) " the stars whose
rays are bright."
Dative ; &j+>jj&a* cJ^ (j&^> tf ^] ay ki shakhs-i man-at haqir namud
(Sa'dl) (shakhs-i man turd) <: oh thou to whom my form appeared mean " ;
p*\s J)$ u*)*# ^ L$r*t pisar-l ki bi-pidar-ash put dddam (m.c.) "the boy
to whose father I gave money " : ^^>\ *&/ v^ f; *^ ^ii ; l^ijf^j *xJU^w
shahrha-i ki bi-danja (for bi-arifia] raftam liama-ra ab girifta ast (m.c.) t( the
cities to which I went, have all been washed away."
Accusative : ^J> ( tj^l ) ** ^^^^ shakhs-i ki (u rd) dldam (m.c.) *' the
person whom I saw" (lit. that J saw him);^*^ A^A (J"<m ^^ &?*- *^f
dnki rhun pista didam-ash hama maghz -(Sa'di) c( he whom I beheld all kernel
like the pistachio-nut ' ' ] ; ^^ &tf )jj& *<jJUjLo marhd-i ki diruz (dnhd rd)
kushta budam (m.c.) " the snakes which we killed yesterday " : o^A^ A^U*t
^*JL? 5 h ** A asbab-i ki dasht fiama rd farukht (m.c.) <c he sold all the things he
had, all his property."
Ablative : o~f^.k:L AjJax? ^j ^ *f fe ^f an kdr ki da/r vay* mazinna-yi 1
khatar ast " the proceeding in which there is a suspicion of danger " ; AT^U.
^** i^L^ ( ^f ^ ) khd-na-i ki (dor an or dar u) dakhil shitdi (m.c.) <4 the
house which you entered" ; <^u*** ! c?Tj^ )*> ^^ jay-l ki(dar an) mi-nishinl
(m.c. I "the place where you always sit ? '; +& w^ c>^t^*f c?^**t Jt *^^^
****j%* lliyat-l ki az ishdn a$pka-yi khub bifiam 'im-rasand {m.c.} ik the black-
tent tribes from whom good horses are obtained ."
Locative : o^ioJt aja *; ^J^ ^ **^ ^ 3*. ** ' s <^+$ gilim-i ki bar an
khufta bud, dar rah-i guzar-i duzd anddkht (Sa'dl) c< he cast the rug on which
he was (or had been) sleeping on the way the thief would pass ' ' ; e>&*^? of 3f
^jyf cux>fy *A:CU **. fjUo ^*j> ( vj/f j* )y & az an bustdn 6 ki tu (dar an) budl
md-ra chi tuhfd karamat avardl (Sa'di) **what rare present hast thou in
generosity brought us back from that garden in which thou wert ? " :
1 '* turned out to be skin on skin like an onion," i.e. 4 the man whom I thought
had sterling qualities proved a fraud. '
2 Also mazanna *iA* : or az vay.
3 A fiP gillm is a cheap carpet without any pile .
* But )**&\} Rah-guzar *' traveller, passer-by.*'
5 Another reading is 4,^^ &* ()&}* e>T ) dar an bustdn ki budl.
144 RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE
Tar dam na-rasi, bi-Ka'ba ay A'rabi
K-m rah ki tu mi-raw* bi-Turkistdn ast (Sa'di).
I fear thou wilt never reach the K'aba, oh Arab,
For this road thou goest leads to Turkistan."
i.e. kas-i ra ki iqbal gh/ulam-i u bdshad, or iqbal urd gkulam bdshad. [This
construction has led to the following erroneous but now common construe-
tion: ^ a}- xi5) ^^. \^\ *S lj?.*s* mard-i ra ki imruz chub zadand duzd bud,
where t^y mard-i ra is the object of the verb in the relative clause : vide(e)].
(e) There is another means of declining the relative (if in the dative or
accusative case) commoner perhaps in modern than in classical Persran. It
consists in putting the noun first in an oblique cavse and then the connective
<^ : in this sentence the pronoun cannot be inserted in the relative clause, as
its place is taken by the substantive in the oblique case at the beginning.
Examples : ^^ y ^Jt> a. ^*| tj^b -^S * \^ ( J kishtt-i ra ki Nuh riakhuda-
'st chi bak az tufan "what fear from the flood to the boat whose Captain is
Noah ? " In this example, instead of placing kishti-% ^^ in the dative
case at the commencement, it could be put in the nominative; and the
pronoun in the relative clause, expressed or understood, in the dative, as:
\J*j $ v^t <*^ o~f fjtfk tj ^ fjjf tf i^&S kishti-i ki an-ra Nuh nakhudd ast
chi bak az tufan ; &j* '^^\ jJ^j v_^. \^^ X> \) ^zj*> mard-i-ra ki dlruz chub
zadand imruz murd (m.c.) " the man who was beaten yesterday, died
to-day 5 ' ' : vide end of (d).
(/) An expression like j*^o \)j\ *S ^af ddam-l-ki u-ra didam "the man
whom I saw ", though correct, is heavy: as u-ra \jj is not necessary to the
sense, it is better omitted.
(g) The relative cannot be joined to the singular demonstrative pronouns
1 Ka'ba, lit. ' a cube." The cube-like building in the centre of the Masjid^&t
Mecca : it contains the black stone (hajar&l-aawad), white as milk when it first descended
from Paradise, but now black from the defiling touch of sinful man.
^ The broken pi. is y^l : the pi. of f*j is v-j^c.
3 Poetical for l; ctff * ki In rah.
4 <*Jj* ( df )* ) J>* ** M tu ( dar n ) ml-ravl.
6 This sentence, though grammatically incorrect, the noun at the beginning being
the object of the verb in the relative clause, is not uncommon in modern Persian. The
construction in *>jfjUj f* c^# & &>\& ^jf *-&^f/ <>sj+** & \) c5^J A dust-l ra ki
bi 'wmr-i fara chang arand na shay ad ki bi-yak dam bi-yazarand (Sa*di) ** to a friend whom
it has taken a lifetime to make, offence should not be given in a moment " is different,
as the accusative at the beginning is the object of the verb *i)fjl# biyazarand.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE -. 145
an c/f , and In ^t, nor to har j*> " every. " It is best to consider an-ki
an-chi *^T, tw-W <*&*!, har-ki ^_.t*, har-chi &*-;*> as single words.
However the plurals of the demonstrative pronouns anan
and man &ty, mha l^ij(, may take or omit the ^, thus : a&J^T anha%-ki, or
*f l$jf anha-ki, ] etc. As the demonstrative pronouns are already definite, the
definite ^c is a pleonism and may be omitted.
The personal pronouns too are definite in themselves and do not admit
of the relative ^; vide 41 (u). A sentence like *&*) *T ^1^1 tshan-t-ki
raftand (m.c.) "they who went* " is incorrect; the ^ should be
avoided.
(h) As the ' relative ' ' ^ before &t is used to make nouns definite, it can
be omitted when the uoun is already made definite by the demonstrative pro-
nouns [vide (g)] or by j* har. Ex. : cu-Jf yt *>Jixjj +ty &&> p X 1*1*^ ^ j va an
pustha ki dar khana-yi gazh-dum blnand asr-i an-ast (Sa'dl) " and those skins
that are found in scorpion- holes are the sign (remains) of that " ; ^^* cr* ^+&
^) w* j~> J * f^;^ &&* )* & ^^^ 8 ^^ ^-^ *-&- e^l ^ guft man fulan-am va In
sang haman sang ast ki dar fuldn tarikh bar sar-i man zadl (Sa*d!) "he said,
* I am So- and- So, and this stone is that very same stone with which you struck
me on the head on such and such a date ' " ; jt <^>& ^^-^ P ^s*** <s* ^
|j^ ^ lj& * Ifjf guft a?/ S'a^i ^ niz sukhan-1 bi-guy a*, anha ki dlda-l va
shunida-i (Sa'di) 4 'he said, 'oh Sa c dl, do you too relate some of the things
you have seen and heard " : o^f ^ ^5^ ^^ Ai^fj, c>^ ; ^ j} * ^j* <&* &t>
bidan band-i ytharib ki az vay nihan dashta bud ba vay dar avlkht (Sa'dl) ** he
closed with him by means of that tricky artifice (or throw) which he had kept
to himself " 6 ; jJuUi p\&5\ jjSJ^iu ^^ * \^ y*> har jd ki ravad bi-khidmat-ash
iqdam numayand (Sa*dl) ( * wherever he goes, he is well served " ; )t> it k?uf ^
*z+*+\ ^f^oh. fOj* vJo^ cu^t )\j^ va anja ki durr-i shahvar ast nihang-i mardum-
khwar ast (Sa'dl) l< and where the costly pearl lies, there too is the man-
devouring shark."
i Sa'dl generally omits the <j? ; ^ v^rp cA<J **&/ y* ** & y j ya k-l
az anan-ki ghadr kardand ba man-ash diistl bud (Sa'di) 4 ' one of those who had mutinied
had a friendship with me. ' *
4 In -tf x>l ***>) j *io>j c^-ty j^ a^l^jf ^ yak-l az shuma ki dilavar-
tar ast va mardana va zurmand bay ad ki (Sa*di) "any one of you who is braver than
the rest, and manly and strong of arm " , yak-l though it has a ^ before the connec-
tive *S is in itself indefinite. If it .be required to make the pronoun definite , some such
phrase as U Jt & (Sj** J* hw nafar-l ki az shuma " the one of you who is ", would
be used.
3 If the <^ were inserted *s*~-fc&*o c>UA haman sangl-st (m. c. ).
* Or dar tarlbb-i fulan d)&* &.$* )* could have been said.
^ But compare o^ 5 ^? Owo ($* j. && tt>f^?3j>y*t imruz bidan daqlqa-l bar mandast
yajt (Sa*dl) '* to-day by that one single artifice he overcame me."
10
146 RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE
In the above examples the ^ could be inserted. 1
(i) In the following examples the ^ is inserted : ^^ ** <J^*& of _
oif ^ *\i*i JLj )* ham-chu an na-bina-i ki shab-l dar vahal uftad va guft (Sa'dl)
"like that blind-man who one night fell in the mire and exclaimed ";
cx**i ^Jli, <>*;j^ ^U**! ^AJ ^< tf ^sj&*s urf M dukhtar-i-ki rni-bim ismrash
Khurshid Khdnum ast (Mod. Pers.) "the name of this girl that you see is
Khurshid Rhanum " : H>$i jl <X5 sjft^U ^^ jufcfyiuu* A>, ^-^^ ftar kas-i-ki nit-
khwahad bi-pushad bi-andaza-yi qadd-i u bi-burand (m.c.) "let it be cut
according to the size and figure of whoever is going to wear it ": t
har kas ki y or &>j& har ki, or u*^* har ka$ could be used instead of
har kas-i-ki.
In the above examples the ^ could be omitted.
(;) As proper names are definite, they do not require the ^ unless some
special distinction be required : v^J# i>f 3^7! * tf z?*^* Mahmud ki dlruz arnad
guft (m.c.) "Mahmud, who came yesterday, said "; but ^f )^ ** ^^f**^
Mahmud-i ki diruz amad "the Mahmud who came yesterday" (it being
understood that there is more than one of this name). Similarly in the
sentence OJ**>AJ vi/^-^j v^L^ ** o^V <j^' o,-?j ^UxcU Ut amma bi-i'timad-i
vus'at-i akhlaq-i buzuryan ki 'avayib-i zlr-dastan bi-pusJiand (Sa'dl) "but
trusting to the breadth of nature and magnanimity of the great, who hide
the defects of their inferiors ' ' , d$)\> buzurgdn does not require the ^ :
**^)j>. buzurgan-i-ki would mean "those (that section of the) great who ."
(k) If the noun with this ^ is qualified by a simple adjective that can pre-
cede its noun (vide under Adjective) it is better for the adjective to precede,
as: ty v^ **> tf d>^,\j** j> *$ ^i-^^^i-su nafchustln dushmati-i ki bar sar-i
ishan takht khwdb bud (Sa v dl) " the first enemy to attack them was asleep " ;
&<f Jj ! awal kaS'l'ki (m.c.) " the first person who ' ' : f\ *x?^ t$ ^ ^} )j$z
dilavar-tarin zan-i lei dida am (m.c.) "the bravest woman I have seen " :
tf *J\j ^ ^j^j* ^jj> buzurgtarhasrat'idnbdshadki 2 (S^dl) " the greatest
regret will be that " : ^^f _L? ^jU ^ ^^ &f {J ^ ) ^^b ^^ na-blm-ki
bi-andak ranj-l-ki burdam chi maya-i ganj avardam (Sa'd!) " dost thou not see
what an amount of gain I have brought in return for the small stock of
trouble I underwent ? " ; p*&te &f ig**j** ^^ bi-aabiqa-yi m&rifat-l ki daxhiim
" by the former friendship that we had ."
(I) If the adjective cannot precede the noun (vide under Adjective) it
follows it taking the relative ^, as: c^f j) yt* *&$ o^>^ y^^ dukhtar-i
i diruz amad (m.c.) " the pretty girl who came yesterday."
(m) Sa'df says: A
1 Similarly the nouns after ^p->T do not require the 4.5 : anchi asp u mal-i ki
dashtam (m.c.) (for anchi asp u mat ki daehtam) * whatever horses arid property 1
had ' ' , appears to be a confusion of two constructions.
2 In modern Persian this would be &> OM*| ^f o^**^. (&.j^)j* bmurg-tarin hasrat
in (Mi ki.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE ^5. 147
- hukamd* gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwlsh ast na baradar ast na
Ichwlsh ast " the wise have said that a brother who is wrapped up in himself
is neither brother nor kin." In modern Persian this would be ^;ity
barddar-i-ki. Possibly Sa'di considered j^fy baradar in the above sentence aa
a generic noun, or the copyist has omitted the ^. The reading in many
Gulistans is *^^ barddar-i-ki.
(n) The ^ can accompany a substantive preceded by a numeral when
it is required to make it definite, as : fi~ \j c/T *y &\> r* j\ *& ^* }**+ **
si sanduq-1 ki az sarbdzdn bud dn-rd ' shikastam (Afghan colloquial) " I broke
the three boxes belonging to the soldiers," but *$ o^^> *~* si sanduqki
*'I broke three boxes belonging to ."
(o) The phrase ^^ pj*** *&Jj* $ az qardr-l ki ma'lum mi-*havad means
41 as it appears/'
(p) If a noun is indefinite before a relative clause, the verb occurs before
the connective ki, as : &x*)y cA^^ &lj&* l&* & ^ <j?^j^ &^ of ;^ ^^^ ittifaq*"
dar an miyan javan-i l hud ki mwa-yi 'unfavdn-i sJiabdb-ash naw-raslda (Sa'dl)
fc< there was in that assembly, by chance, a youth, the flower of whose youth
had but newly bloomed''; *r tvcf ^jys mawqa'-i dmad ki (rn.c.) "an oppor-
tunity came which ."
Sahmfjin rib -I ki muryjidbi, dar u Iman na-bud
Kamtann mawj dsyd sang az kindr-ash dar rabud (Sa'di).
'* Such a terrible expanse of water that even the (a) water- fowl was not
safe in it.
Its smallest wave would have swept away a mill-stone off its banks " ;
in this example ^ is understood after db-i, hence db-i is indefinite. Vide (r)
Remark.
(r) Note the absence of ^ in the following 11011- restrictive relative clauses :
aju^ eJfJ k.y*^ ,>d &> (j**^^ **b* } c~*t %z&*\ p\y* *t^>{ j^ &Z ^s&*~* J^-*^ j^b zikr-i
jamil'i Sa'di ki dar afvdh-i 'avamm u/tdda ast va sit-i sukhan-ash ki dar
basit-i zamln rajta (Sa^di; v< the good repute of Sa*dl, which (and it) is in the
mouths of all, and the fame of his words, which (and it) has gone out into the
wide world -." ^(a o*)^ <vcT ^ j* U *$ ^fej$i ^^ O^A^ c*)U^ ^ dar 'imdrat-i
hazrat-i sadr-i a*gam ki ma liar du dmad u raft ddrim (m.c.) < inthe palace
of H. H. the Grand Wazir where we both have free access" : ^U^aJ J& ^j&
b AflxJU ^5ji)3l *^j J ^jJt c$V**J^J VJ^
tak tak qasrhd-yi khub va kushkhd-yi
buzurg u kuchik az ru-yi saliqa bd kamdl-i qashangi dar kindr-i rud-lchdna va
1 Should be \j ^ T anha ra.
% i.e. "a certain youth ' ' ; the noun is hardly indefinite.
148 BELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE ^.
bdld-yi kuhhd ki mushrif bi-rudkhdna ast sdkhta and (Shah's Diary) "here
and there on the banks of the river and on the sides of the hills, which
(and they) overlook the river, are erected fine palaces and summer residences
both large and small, all in good taste and of exquisite beauty." In the
last example the restrictive ^ is not added to kuh-hd, as the hills are not
particularized; ^ would signify " those hills that."
Remark. The indefinite article yak will also make the noun indefinite,
as : J**t ^\j t^W**! ****';>} >> <** yak naw' zird'at-% ki ism-ash rap ast (Shah's
Diary) " a kind of crop, which is called rape ."
However, a <^ before *t may represent an English indefinite article, as :
^ILol aJU^U &j2* )*$ )j*a* )& *^ir~j JJ*^I )y***> ja dar huzur-i u misl-i pisar-iki
dar huzur-i pidar-i khud bi-istad istdd (m.c.) f{ he stood in his presence as a
son stands in the presence of his father " : toxif cj!jj> ^> *4 &> Ji ^^ fUj
cxJdx&O *A}I xb tamdm-i lashkar misl-i galla-i ki gurg dar an uftdda bdshad
az ham pashidand 1 "the whole army scattered like a (that) flock of sheep
attacked by a wolf ."
($) Chundn eA<*- "like that, resembling that, to such a degree, in that
manner, so " ; and chandan ^^^ " as many as, how much soever, etc.", may,
in India and Afghanistan but not in Persia, take the demonstrative ^c with
*T, or omit it. Ex. : y'K *^/t J>xko o'^a ^* ^ > "=! v laxL^o ^U^JLfeup ^U^
^ry*yc vyf ^^ ) * ^(xa. yiuib du l a-yi mazluman mustajab ast va nala-yi sitam-
d/idagan maqbul agarcM kafir bdshand chunan-ki dar haqq-i an mahbus (m.c.)
*'the prayer of the oppressed is accepted and the cry of the distressed
heard, even though they be infidels, as was the case of that prisoner
(previously mentioned)" ; here instead of <*U^ chundn ki, **>&* or <*J^ could
be used : xUyo *-^tj^ J^ U ^AJ c^t vi^tj>3 *+*> & )$ *^^ chunan-l ki dar
nazd-i shuma zira'at ast plsh-i ma niz zira'at ml-basJuid 1 (Afghan) " we have
just the same amount and quality of cultivation that you have " : o*of ^^fc
zf J. i^U J^ A^UA. tufan-i dmad chunan-l-ki dil-i md-rd khmhk kard 3
(Afghan) "a storm came such as struck terror to our hearts (Afghan)":
^C J^J^Iftf ^JIAAA. chanddn ki guftam qabul na-kard (m.c.) " howevermuch
I said, he did not agree; in spite of all I said, no matter what I said, he."
An Afghan might here say chanddn-t ki .
Hamchundn-i-ki is, however, correct Persian.
For olia. chundn and ci f ^ chanddn qualifying an indefinite substantive
with the ^ of unity, vide 41 (#).
A Note that a plural verb after a collective noun is necessary here to indicate
scattered individuals.
2 Chunan-l-ki *^^ class. ; rarely used in modern Persian.
S In modern and classical Persian *$ **f ^j^ 9 ^ isfa*- chunan bufan-i amad ki would
be better.
THE ADJECTIVE. 149
(t) For remarks on the definite article, vide 40.
(u) For the use of the demonstrative pronouns of ay, as a definite
article before a relative clause, vide 40 (g).
(v) As with the ^ of unity [vide 41 (j) Remark], abstract nouns in
the singular do not admit of the relative <^. Ex. : Javdn bi-g&urur-i dilavari
ki dar sar darad ^*s)t>* ^tf*)^ o'>^ (Gul. Chap. Ill, St. 27).
The relative 45 may, however, be used with plural abstract nouns,
as: cu-f **jj~* Uji A&jJlfjjUji (j ndfarmdmhd-i ki az ma sar zada ast (m.c.);
*& *c>y U^ a&xSlfAJjflb, khubiha-l ki shuma karda td.
Concrete nouns however in ^ may take the relative c5> as ' t$3kX*U
*)\*j~ ;a *S e^V 1 * y ** ^f^i <^** aS (Gul.).
(w) When substantives are coupled together, the ^ is added to the
last only, as : magar ikhtiyar u s izzat-i-ki Khan Mid bi-u ddda ast kifayat-ash
nami-kunad? *&+* j^&lir cu**! a^yj JfU. &(. &*&* j ; 1 ^! j&* (m.c.) *' but
the authority and importance that the Khan has already given him are they
not sufficient for him ? "
CHAPTER V.
43. The Adjective. Ism-isifat (osi^^i).
(a) The adjective is called sifat ( oA* ) and the substantive qualified
mawsuf ( OJMJ^O ).
Persian adjectives qualifying nouns are as a rule indeclinable. In con-
struction, they usually follow and are coupled to their nouns by the izafat,
as : asp-i qizil-i man &* <J>* >-~*\ s ( my grey J horse."
(b) In old Persian prose, the adjective preceded its substantive without the
izafat. In modern Persian, some few adjectives may precede their nouns, and
in this case the izafat is discarded. This construction is called the * inverted
epithet ' izafat-i maqlubl ( ^^^ ^t* ).* The substantive has usually
the "^5- of unity/' Examples: ^^ v>^ M&& mard-l (m.c) **a good
man"; *)te Mpi^f ^j* ^-^^ ( ajab hava-i mja darad (m.c.) "this place
has a fine air, a good climate."
The adjectives JX mk " good " and ^ bad f< bad" frequently precede
their substantives in this manner.
With the exception of the simple adjectives " good " and " bad ", the
'inverted epithet' is used only in poetry or in rhetorical language, or in
modern colloquial for the sake of emphasis : in the last example above, v*^ p is
by position emphatic and signifies "a really fine air." Darakhshanda zan-i
3 (m.c.) **a bright, cheerful, woman"; sharir mard-i (m.c.)
1 Qizil, T., "red." Can this be a translation of the Arabic rummanl "scarlet like
the flower of the pomegranate," the epithet for a nutmeg grey, or is it applied to a grey
horse because in Persia the tail and legs of a grey are usually dyed with henna ?
2 Vide 117.
3 m.c. for duru&bshanda.
150 THE ADJECTIVE.
(t>j*j?.j** "a wicked man," etc., are used in modern Persian and are more
emphatic than tfce ordinary collocation.
(c) Arabic adjectives and compound adjectives should follow the nouns
they qualify, but vide 117 II (e).
Turkish adjectives precede their Turkish substantives, as: (J$> J>i> (m.c.)
lit. "red-head," a name for Persian and also for certain other settlers in
Afghanistan: L&-* fy qara-qush ' ' the golden eagle " (lit. the black 1 bird of
prey);^ty qard-kahar , adj., "dark bay (horse)." In Jjl? fy qardqdval,
m.c. for qarqaval ' 'a pheasant," the first word is perhaps not an adjective.
(d) The adjectives khaytt (mod.) and bisyar (class, and mod.) "much,
many/ ' take either a singular or plural, as : khayll (or bisyar) zan ( ;U~j or) ^J^-
e>; " a lot of women " ; khayR (or bisyar) zanhd l^) ( ;U~J or) J^- " many
women " ; also zankd-yi bisyar ^-^ c$Vj> but not zan-i bisyar ; zan-iziyddis,
however, used.
Note that ^^ unlike ;U~j cannot follow its noun.
Note too that ^;Jo ^$*^ ^"^ 3V^ * s ambiguous, for it may stand either for
jahdzhd-yi bisydr-i buzury " many large ships," or for jahdzhd-yi bisydr-buzurg
11 ships very large, very large ships." For examples of bisyar as an adverb,
vide. 89 (/) (2).
(e) Ghand ^x^ is followed by a noun in the singular, vide 39 (g) (1) to (7).
(/) Chanddn oi^i^ has many meanings; "many, as much, how long,
etc." When it signifies " much, many " it is followed by a singular noun and
in Modern Persian always by a negative verb, as : chanddn sarbdz dnjd na-bud
^ Uuf jLy. i^'o^ (m.c.) '* there was not a great amount of soldiery there ":
chanddn sar-rishta-t dar zabdn-i Fdrsi na-daram ^^ ^^ ^3 )* <k*;^~ c^t^^
(m.c.) " I don't know very much Persian."
Remark. Chanddn sarbdz dnjd budand *>ty l?^f 3^ ^ <^i*- " there
were many soldiers there", is old.
(g) In modern colloquial, one or two adjectives sometimes precede their
substantives with the izdfat, as : pir-i mard *?<;** a ' ' the old man ' ' ; pir-i mard-t
1 The young of the Golden Eagle is black.
2 Plr is also a founder or a chief of any religious sect : o&J jb .x> plr-i tfiriqat
*a spiritual guide." Sabza-Maydan, a square in Tihran, is vulgar for Sabz Maydarl.
Sabza &*** is also used as an adjective, "dark-complexioned," of people; rang-ash
aabza aat o** )A* eA^; (a.c.) ; but ailrat-ash sdbz oat: ll he looks green, ill."
^]{ x>y'f vJl *x* t; >>iA tf (jj$ AXA |-U!i )& ^^vi ijUJ ^ >>* J^J
" There was not a dark face, bad-looking, in the whole of Ind.
'Twas as though Ind were created of salt."
[The word " green," 'sobza? adj., is applied by the Persians to a dark complexion,
while a pleasant or good-looking face is said to be " saltish" or " "ull of salt" ,
9
J^c _j: the play on the words is lost in English.]
The Arabs, however, do not consider the word jpJU " good-looking about the
mouth " to be connected with JL* " salt."
J[>c "
THE ADJECTIVE. 151
" au ld man" ; pir-i zdl JfJ^ " the grey-headed old woman" :
W-* fartut-i (m.c. and class.) " a decrepit, worn-out old man" : but
eJ^^xj JM bdyhbdn, or ^u &\*c^. bdfj&bdn-i pir (Afghan and m.c.) " the old
gardener" : lo^U^u pw nd*khuda, 1 or^ ^f^li nd-khudd-yi plr (Afghan and
m.c.) " the old Captain."
Plr-sal JL-^jJ "aged" is an Afghan expression for JU te>j*t> dirina-sdl ,
or jj; *^r^ dirina-ruz, or s^>^ JU sal-khurda.
For the modern colloquialism L ^^A^ marhum-i shah "the late Shah "
and bachclia Turk ^Jy *^-> ? or Turk bachcJw *fxJ uiy (for ^3 <texj bachcha-yi
Turk), vide 117, III (6).
In classical Persian, the izd/at in the above cases is omitted, thus
jfir-mard-l <^y ^, etc.
(A) Adjectives, without an izdfat, may precede or follow nouns to form
compounds, as: ._&> c/S^ khush-rang "of pleasing colour " ; toj {* dum-zada,
" docked (of horses) " ; y^ ^ dum-daraz " long-tailed, i.e. donkey" ; 3i>> c4/
gush-dardz (m.c.), more commonly ij 'J\^ dardz-gush " donkey" ; vSAftlT ^^
yardan-kulujt, adj. 4< of strong-back (in a vulgar sense)"; also "a man ot
power, no weakling."
(t) When several adjectives are attributed to the same noun they
may .
(1) Be connected to their noun and to each other by the izn*at : this
construction is called tansiq* 9 s-sifat ( ei>&^( ^>-^^ ) '" the stringing, or
arranging, of the epithets.' ' Examples : kuh-i buland-i sangt-yi barf-ddr (m.c.)
)\* ojo ^&~> ^-> t^ "the high rocky snow-ottered mountain": ydr-i gul-
badan-i shlnn-zabdn (class.) vybj eri^-^ ^ J^>^ { * the mistress with delicate
* v
body and honied speech. ' '
(2) The adjectives may be coupled by the conjunction vav j a construc-
tion not common. Examples : Ja p ^ft. ^ o^f^ ^i^ ^ sjty ^ w^JG a$ ^\ (A
W f^ e>-y ^3 ^ J (Tr. H, B. 3 OLiap. XXXII) " though he was of a fine
soldierly appearance, he was in reality the most timid and pusillanimous
of men."
j
., OSop. F.,,% 20.)
* ' A gallant youth there was and fair
Pledged to a maid beyond compare."
(East. Trans.)
xojbf *$ sJujax: A^ (Afghan) 1 4< what
From
In modern Persian
152 THE ADJECTIVE.
does he see but that Ayaz has opened a wooden chest and taken out some old
and dirty clothes."
(3) The adjectives may follow the noun in apposition without the con-
junction j, vide 139 (b) (2) or with the conjunction j, vide 90 (a) (5).
Example: shakhs-i did siyah-fam za'lf anddm (Sa'dl) ftfU* ***> ^^
l^aJl *-&***o Ck he saw a person dark-complexioned and feeble-looking " :
^b iJ** j j**j+ ^\) j^AiL ^ ^.3xjM3 ^^ c^-^ <^*^f ;1^>J *J " thou didst not fall
into bondage to a youth, vain and foolish, hot-tempered and fickle " (Sa'di).
Remark L In modern Persian !; would be necessary after ^^
shakhs-i, otherwise it might be mistaken for the subject.
(j) If the noun is also qualified by an affixed pronoun, the pronoun is
affixed to the adjective and not to the noun, as : awqat-i 'aziz-at otfjl
o)ij* [or awqat-i *aziz-i tu\ " thy precious time."
The I; of the dative or of the accusative is added to the last adjective
^
only, as: jy *j* \) ^j* *-< *' robbers carried off the Arab horse " ; *-*>. <^tf
f***3j 9 b ^s)^"* **jsJ^ *H? ^&) c/2y*- ''Isold the large finely-coloured moth-
eaten Afshar a carpet."
(k) If an adjective is a predicate after the verb "to be " (in English), the
izafat is of course omitted, as : barf sard ast va dtash garm j o*i ^* iJ/j
For a predicate pluml in English (substantive or adjective) and qualified
by an epithet, vide 119 (o).
(I) If the predicate is a noun qualified by an adjective of the class
mentioned in (6), the adjective may, according to ordinary rule, either
precede or follow its noun, as: pidar-i tu mard-i khub-ist o~jj^ ^ ^3 jx>,
or pidar-i tu khub mard-ist cu-j^o v ^ f ^ . In such cases the noun of the
predicate has usually the ^ of unity.
(m) An adjective used substantively may be in the plural, as : *,j&+* ^;>
"the sages say": o*j c*!^^l<! j| az a1cbir-i Baghdad ast *'he is of the
influential people of Baghdad." In such cases the plural in an is usual; but
this plural is not rigidly adhered to in speaking: O ^ : P^ c^M^A khush-
gilha-yi majlis is m.c. and incorrect: ^>jj buz^^fha properly 4< big things "
is sometimes in m.c, applied to persons f < ' **ixe (soldiers) as opposed to
l^y kuchak-ha; but olf;^ buzurgdn "the gr^at in rank ; forefathers."
In English, adjectives may occasionally take the place of nouns; vide (p)
(3) and Remark.
1 The singular duzd aja gives an indefinite sense equal to the passive : either
* a thief or thieves stole ' ; or ' the horse was stolen,"
' 2 A scattered Turkoman tribe whose head-quarters a**e said to be in Azerbaijan.
Many are nomadic and live on the produce of their camels and flocks. The men act as
carriers and the women weave carpets. Nadir Sh*fc waa a& Afahar.
THE ADJECTIVE. 153
(n) (I) In a few instances in classical Persian, sometimes imitated by
modern writers, a plural substantive, Arabic or Persian, animate or
inanimate, is qualified by a plural adjective, Arabic or Persian.
(2) The use of a plural Persian adjective to agree with a plural noun
denoting rational beings is in imitation of the Arabic and should not be
copied. For an exception vide p. 122, line 4.
(3) It must also be recollected that, in Arabic, all broken plurals are
collective nouns, and may, therefore, be grammatically feminine singular, and
that the commonest Arabic feminine termination is * sing., and of pi.
(4) and (5) Examples: <xu~^ ;<v e ^$' j\ * ^^y* &\*j* (Sa'di) "the brave
men sprang out of their ambush": <^U? j ^ ^\^ ^LfexU (Sa'df) "they
appoint coarse ruffians ."
Bishtar-i ishan dilavar an va bahddurdn-i kar-dzmuda* j c>U>^ o^ty^#
**r*tf ;^ c^V (Trans. H. B. , Chap.) : here o : ;^,> dilavardn&nd ert>^ bahddurdn
are treated as substantives and predicates to oUfi ^shdn 9 and are qualified by
the adjective kar-azmuda *.^jT;l<.
Ashkhas-i akdbir j&i ^(^^\ (mod.) "persons, grandees," vide (1):
[akabw-i ashkhas "the great ones of the people," would be an ordinary
construction].
Qasamha-yi cfaildz *U ^l^-j' (m.c.) "solemn oaths"; ^ ^^ (J^*&r
^oJtj &lj^> 8 ,>fo^ (mod.) "I swore strong and mighty oaths." In the Quran
* * \ . J
occurs the phrase ^<*5 Je)U A^j^lx "angels strong and harsh," and this
probably accounts for the plural Arabic adjectives being (incorrectly) used
after U^JJ^ and (f~~*.
Common in jarmans are, flkc ^UjyL^ and f& ^1*
Shuhud-i muvassaqa (rare) *5^A) o>^ (or &*&?* ^^*) "trustworthy wit-
nesses "; ^j^ JU-; or *jy Jl^j (but not in Pers. rijal-i aqwiya* &* \ J^;)*
" strong men."
(6) The regular Arabic masculine plural of adjectives is sometimes used
for men, but always in the oblique case, as : Ghuzdt-i mujahicRn* tifcf**^^" *}j*
"true warriors of the Faith " : kubara*-i 'arifm &*j\* dy "great mystics."
A regular Arabic masculine plural substantive may be qualified either by
a regular Arabic masculine plural or else, less frequently in Persian, by
a masculine broken plural.
(7) A broken plural signifying rational beings may, as in Arabic, be
1 In some copies of the Gulistan dilavar occurs and no* * '""
* Or K^jf $ )&(tf )}$& ejLkjf^Lij^ O r *ty$ ^ j*i
* *
ishan dilavar va bahadur-i kar-azmvda or blshtar-i Ishan dill
8 Shidad ^f>A plural of Shadid *x>^, and ghilaz &%*
* But \f J^; is used in Persian. i
Not e^*^^ nom. pi.
154 THE ADJECTIVE.
qualified by an adjective in the masculine broken plural, as : A^imma-yi athar
(or reg. pi. tahirin) ;t^f ^t " the pure Imams/'
(8) As stated in (3), Arabic broken plurals are collective nouns and
grammatically feminine : it is therefore also correct to say a*imma-yi tahira
*j*lJD &J| ; hukkam-i 'azima **& (&*>, etc. ; but **j* Jl^;, however, does not
appear to be used in Persian, though correct Arabic. If, however, the broken
plural is not applicable to rational beings, it is usually followed by a singular
feminine, rarely by a broken plural, as: asma*-i husnq <j^~^ *U*ot = " the 99
attributes of God; ^<3^ ^&" ; exception ^* &&> c>^ f > vide (4).
(9) An Arabic regular inanimate feminine plural is usually qualified by
a feminine singular, less often of a masculine singular, and very rarely by
a feminine plural: darajat-i ' aliya &J^ eL*p " high ranks" is commoner than
<^U oL*;ii, while oUH* oU^a is rarer still. However, in a few instances a
regular Arabic feminine plural is qualified by a regular feminine plural, as
euUJU? eirUJ'b " pious works that are permanent ' ' : oljJU c^Ula*: < high places ' ' :
the first occurs in the Quran.
(10) A dual denoting rational beings may be qualified by a dual, as
walidayn-i majidayn ^x^U <^aJ(j '* noble parents."
A dual denoting irrational beings or neuters is rarely qualified by a
masculine singular, as tarafayn-i muqabil cMa/o ^J^Jb. but generally by a dual.
(11) An Arabic feminine singular denoting a lifeless object is usually
followed by an Arabic adjective agreeing with it, as yad-i bayza tl*a# V c< the
f
white hand (of 3Ioses), a miracle"; rutba-yi "ulya UU &) "of highest rank/'
It does not, however, always agree, as yad-i rahid ^Ij ^ *' monopoly."
If the noun ends in CL, for the servile Arabic Ji, the adjective is usually
masculine; thus ^U CU*A ? vide (t) (3).
When, however, an Arabic feminine rational noun is followed by an
adjective ending with the relative ^ (ya-yl nisbati), the adjective is
feminine: if irrational it is masculine or feminine, as: cs-JtrJ^ ] v^^ ^ u ^
** -. "
A>ij^ V^^; t5^ ^+*> but AjJUlc ^j.
(12) If a singular Arabic substantive denotes a rational being, the Arabic
adjective should always agree with it.
It will be seen that the concord of Arabic substantives and adjectives in
Persian usually follows the rules of Arabic grammar.
(0) Summary of rules of concord of substantives and adjectives other
than the ordinary Persian concord.
(1) A regular Arabic masculine plural denoting rational beings can be
'ified either by a regular plural or rarely by a broken plural.
^ A broken plural denoting male rational beings may be qualified by a
* f ral, a regular masculine plural, or rarely a feminine singular.
t But
THE ADJECTIVE. 155
(3) A broken plural not of rational beings is usually qualified by a
feminine singular, rarely by a broken plural.
(4) A dual of rational beings is qualified by a dual agreeing with it.
A dual of irrational (or neuter) things is rarely qualified by a mascu-
line singular, generally by a dual.
(5) A singular Arabic feminine of lifeless things usually has the adjective
agreeing with it, but not always.
If the noun ends in o for the servile X, the adjective is usually masculine.
An adjective ending in the yd-yi nisbatl and qualifying a feminine rational
Arabic noun is feminine in form; irrational, masc. or fern.
(6) If a singular Arabic substantive denotes a rational being, the adjec-
tive should always agree with it.
(7) Plural Persian nouns should not be qualified by a plural adjective,
neither Persian nor Arabic.
(p) (1) A few Persian adjectives are also treated as substantives, as:
ibyejT fkf ^jj t-&jj j ^&a. j(f)jj ^ j fjt j 3.>f> e^a* j aliu (Sa'di) " (thou wast
most fortunate that thou fellest to the lot of an old man) experienced and
travelled, one who had seen the ups and downs of life, and tried its good and
bad." The adjectives ^-y* j *& , and '^ j cW> , and ^JJb > o~J , are often
so used.
(2) Adjectives, Persian and Arabic, may stand for substantives, as:
of^of (pi. of ^AA>) " the dead ' ' ; also &&&$ and ^^o , vide (r) and 115 (r).
(3) An adjective standing for a substantive may be qualified by another
adjective, as : oj* jj-^*) <*sj~*$ ^ ^^- c5>^L^ (Sa'di) t( a certain rich miser had a
sick son " :
*V* c5t^ c& *=*** lJiAj*H ** <jr^^ ^f (Sa'di).
Remark. In English, -adjectives occur as nouns, generally in poetry, as:
i the past." George Eliot talks of the " painful right " and the "irreclaim-
able dead," but only a master of English prose can so introduce an adjective
qualified by another adjective.
(4) Sometimes an adjective is better, or as well, known as the substan-
tive it usually qualifies, and hence is used alone, as : c-Lj j
Hindi here stands for figi-i Hindi. Compare " my Toledo " for c * my Toledo
blade."
(q) A few substantives are in modern Persian treated as adjectives also,
as: # f l;f ) { #~J && kishti bisyar aram bud (Shah's Diary) "the boat was
calm, did not roll ": e^( o^i; ^U~j C5 ^>i^> ^\ (m.c.) "this chair is very
comfortable." That dram and rdhat are considered as adjectives arid
not as substantives forming a component part of a compound verb, is
shown by their having in modern Persian a comparative form dram-tar and
rahat-tar. Tamizj+> (for _>***> judgment, discrimination) in m.c. signifies
"clean."
156 THE ADJECTIVE.
(r) (1) The noun of agency, and as in English the present and past
participles, are used as adjectives. With these must be classed the verbal
adjectives in a.
(2) The noun of agency is not much used. In modern Persian it is nearly
always an adjective: shakhs-i bakhshanda (m.c.) &x&4u o<aJ "a liberal
man"; ru-yi darakhshanda (m.c.) *xiA)^ ^^ "a bright-looking, cheerful
face''; mard-i ' ata-kunanda (m.c.) *>ixf Ife* ^ a generous man." Vide
H5 (r).
Even classically, the noun of agency was used as an adjective:
"In synagogue and cloister, mosque and school,
Hell's terrors and Heaven's lures men's bosoms rule.
0. K. Rub. 49 W hin.
Remark. The adjective *M*jA sharmanda "ashamed" is from an
obsolete verb e* >**>.
**'
The adjective farkhunda *>i^y is connected with y , Pers., fromy far,
Pers., " beauty, lustre ", and ; rukh, Pers., "cheek, face."
In charand u parand >ijg j ^^ "grazing beasts, and birds," the * is
dropped. In m.c., charand ^^ alone, is an adjective, meaning " bosh, rot ' *
Manand, prep., " like" (in India vulg. manind), iuS from the verb
'* to be like, to resemble."
A few other adjectives, possibly derived from obsolete verbs, have this
agent form, as : diranda (m.c.) >J^ {< slow to act."
(3) Present Participle : c>D^ eA' 0> ^ ** ^^ J^" T^^^'* ^ 3; of c^j
c;^j (Sa'di) " 1 said you are like the fox who was seen fleeing away
and stumbling blindly in its haste."
(4) Past Participle : i;_y J^U j
jj^C^ (/Sa c ^?) * s in short none had ever seen his house with open door or
table spread" : ty.j^ jjj BH* 9 ;^ l$~^U? gilds-Jia ham raslda va pur bar bud
(Shah's Diary) " the cherries too were ripe and (the trees) well laden with
them": ^ ^j^iwU ^^ kar-i na-pasandida kard (m.c.) "he committed
a displeasing (or reprobated) act. * '
(5) According to Platts, mast, dust, and a few nouns and adjectives were
once past participles.
(s) (1) The Persian adjective ^xj appears to have a feminine r^j;
&J V*v fc^ -* </^ -^ *& ^ (L>* il Jb; e^O^ C5^ (Sa'cfi)
" Thou wouldst not have treated me roughly in these days
When ihou art a strapping youth and 7 a poor old woman."
Pira-zan cjj s^u is also used in m.c.
It must be recollected that Persians sometimes express or emphasize an
THE ADJECTIVE. 157
izafat by writing it as . Possibly, therefore, this * may sfeand for an izdfat y
vide (g).
(2) In modern Persian, &^ is used by women for the pronoun <; I " or
" me" when writing to a superior, vide pages 51 (/) and 69 (e).
In classical Persian, **** kamina is generally used as positive masculine,
" mean, vile."
*\*& j ^(fiXw uA *c )& t 1> ^ijj + f J*-i i & y&&
(SadI).
"Permit me for I am just a humble person-
To rank and sit amongst the slaves."
(t) (1) As stated in (n) (3), all broken plurals are grammatically feminine
singular, arid the Arabic feminine termination singular is .
(2) This feminine is frequently added to Arabic participles and
adjectives even if the noun qualified is Persian. Examples : masha*ikh-i
mazkura *)** ;~5U^> (class.) " the Shay kbs mentioned above";
"the women described"; ty^*^ oUuitf " the duties mentioned
^^JLoj^j Axiyyo mukatdba-yi marquma bi-dusti (class.) *' correspondence written
in friendship/'
(3) If the fern, noun is Persian or Arabic, singular or plural, and denotes
rational beings, or if the qualifying Arabic adjective is of the form JW* or
JU*j, the adjective is usually put in the feminine singular: al* o^^ or
(perhaps incorrectly) cW< o*+^ <f perfect wisdom," but cU ^^ of man's
power and Al<tf o)x? of divine power; vide (TZ-) (11).
(4) If, however, the Arabic adjective is separated from the Persian noun
it qualifies, or if it is a predicative adjective, it is preferably left in the
masculine form, as: *^*f cU'b ^LxL cjjy " she is a very intelligent woman. "
*
In txi a^Sfc/o^A ^ e^j e^?t **this woman became famous in the town," it
would be better to substitute ;^^.
(5) It appears that it is optional in modern Persian to add a 'i to Arabic
adjectives and participles: in speaking the * is generally omitted, but in
writing it is generally inserted. 1 Examples : y*U* ^UJ (m.c.), or fj^k'^lJ (in
writing) " rich apparel "; >!J* S^U* (m.c.), or *>?J* x^wfc (in writing).
There seems no sufficient reason for adding the to faKhir in the previous
example, as libSs is masc. in Arabic : in fr^ <j^ the i' is never added ; but
in a^l* os*U> the is correct, as khil'at o^JbL has itself the feminine
termination,
As &&****> is used as a substantive signifying " a woman (in m.c. especially
a married woman)," the feminine termination is only added to *-AVA* when
the qualified noun is a rational being: *-***+ e^U> madiyan-i za'tf "the
1 The author is of opinion that it is better to add the 8 to all Arabic participles and
adjectives when they qualify a noun, Persian or Arabic, that is feminine either logically or
grammatically.
158 THE ADJECTIVE.
weak mare," but madiyan-i za'tfa "the mare of the woman":
(m.c.) " the feeble lady" is commoner than &&$*<* ^JU..
In AaJiXp jjj^-o, generally translated "a court of justice." the second
word is an Arabic abstract noun formed according to rule, from the relative
adjective.
(6) The advantage of adding * to Arabic participles will be seen from the
following :
Axyx^x ^ " the deceased woman/' but (*>^ x ^3 "the wife of the
deceased " : ^ iXK^ ^ " the river intervened," but *# u*;y. j 1 ^ *A5l^ ^
(mod.) "the intervening river prevented an assault" : here <J5U^ could be
substituted, but AMU*, clearly indicates that it is a qualifying adjective and
not predicative, though ^ is not feminine.
(7) Arabic adjectives or participles that are commonly used as adjectives
in m.c., are seldom inflected for gender. There is, however, no rule; for
Persians that pride themselves 011 their Arabic, will use Arabic constructions,
even when contrary to Persian grammar and idiom. The Arabic past partic.
in m.c. means ''pretty," and hence is rarely inflected: however
is used in m.c. for " pretty girl," as well as J^a^^.1^^.
(8) In 4U)U ^ ) oi? (m.c.), there appears to be no grammatical reason
for the feminine termination. Possibly the explanation lies in the fact that
most of the common words in Arabic for ' conversation ' are feminine.
s* +>
(9) Musammq fe*~*> " named " (in Persian written and pronounced U~^
* * *
and <^>~ " musammi) has for its feminine musammat o>U~^ :
^ 1 & (^ ^ ^^* vsU o ^j b Issjf (m.c.) C{ there he married a lady
called Haji Blbl " ; but ^ l ^ ^ *U j^v U~*> ^^iU U ^ ^ ^^.
>> **
In India, in written documents ci^U**^ is prefixed to almost every
woman's name and Mrs., or Madame, or Miss.
(10) * Ali-jah slaxJU is used as a form of address for men, and ( ulya-jdh
t ?
aU. IJ^ for women. 'THya UU is the feminine of ^^ the elative of ^^.
The construction appears to be Arabic, i.e. U>U. IJLc " high as to rank."
1 Nikah in its literal sense signifies 'conjunction ', but in the language of the law it
implies the marriage contract and its celebration. The past part. fern. mankUhah A^yX-c
** joined in legitimate wedlock l ' i applied to a woman married by the ceremony of &
as opposed to that of &***> (lit. usufruct, engagement), which is a marriage contracted for
a fixed period and for a fixed sum a kind of legal prostitution. In Persia the word
**** is used only by the learned, the term **>>?* siyha being substituted both for the
ceremony and for the temporary wife. The children of a riyha wife are legitimate, but
do not rank equal with those of a &A>J&*> mankuhah wife, except in the eye of the
law. Though the Prophet sanctioned ' temporary wives ' as a preventive to vice and
the Shi'as still practise such marriages, the Sunnis consider them unlawful. Kirman,
in Persia, is noted both for the number of its *** ?igha women and of its prostitutes.
THE ADJECTIVE. 159
In India, and probably in Afghanistan, U ^U is still an address for
persons of position, but in Persia it is used for JjjG ^.5l> ncfib vakils, etc. '
(11) An Arabic feminine elative is often used to qualify a feminine noun,
Persian or Arabic, as : dawlat-i 'uzmq j^Jap <^Jj* " the most great empire " ;
"the smallest sister" : &>kc ^ <]$&* OAAA^ ^t ^ of*aa.* ^ &/cf
jjj^ fi&& ty **'^ ofy cJ*V ^^ *f* A & kj*f Iq. Nama-yi J.,
Ed. Bib. 2nd., As. Soc. Beng.
Remark. If an Arabic adjective of the measure cU>f has an elative
9
signification, its feminine is on the measure ( \^*> ; but if it denotes colour or
f
deformity its feminine is on the measure *&*, as j**> " yellow," fern.
S\ "lame," fern.
(u) Arabic participles used ^is substantives make their feminines in *
according to rule, as: er* v^^" "my friend (male)"; &*> i^x^x "my
friend (female)" : f?*j* "deceased (male)," &*j^j*> ll deceased (female) " ;
* 9
^^x^ and A3y^/o ; afiJJa*> 4< a divorcee."
In classical Persian and Arabic, <j^^ is generally used for the male lover,
while (jji^*^ or vj* 3 *" "the beloved" is generally considered to be feminine
of necessity, and hence it is not necessary to add ar fc to distinguish it
as feminine.
In classical Arabic, it is a rule that " nouns " which by their nature can
apply only to females do not take the feminine termination. Sa'dl, neglecting
this rule, writes M^l^ " pregnant," but observes it in the word (j^*^
4 ( mistress." 'Utnar-i Kliayytim, however, uses ma'shuqa : -
t In Paradise, they tell us, Houris dwell
And fountains run with wine and oxymel :
If these be lawful in the world to come,
Surely 'tis right to love them here as well."
0. K. 185 Whin.
9
(v) (1) Mushkil Jlwo (pi. mushkilat) is in classical Persian both a sub-
stantive and an adjective.
In modern Persian it is generally used as an adjective only, J^ ishkal
being usually used in writing and in in.c., for the substantive.
(2) 'Umda **+* is both a substantive and an adjective: i*+j^ "an
excellent thing"; ^y ^Jby^ J^w jfy (mod.) <{ he was one of my best
1 Great offence was once given to a Persian Governor by the Afghan interpreter of
a British official ignorantly writing to him as 'all-jah tk
160 THE ADJECTIVE.
customers' 1 ; *tjij} x*+* )\ *' of the best of the ministers"; f,i>Aax> $&** jt
66 my real object."
(w) (I) Two substantives are often substituted for an English substan-
tive with its adjective, as : ^ v3^*yoo^A ^AxJLw (or ty OJ^A> t>jjb cu*# ) "he
was endowed with high aspirations, a noble ambition" : c>U* *** <^iy^^ &LU
^y U> (Sa'dt) " by the previous acquaintance we had " ; o,**> ] &\y~> (Sa'dl)
"by former beneficences, by previous favours" ; (*l>* J^fj** (m.c.) ''former
days"
(Sa'di) "by the felicity of the companionship 2 of dervishes and the purity of
their nature, his evil qualities became changed to good ones " ; _j& AxjjV (m.c.)
"what is necessary for a journey "; ^xi &c)iJ (m.c.) "what planning is
necessary, the right course to take " ; e^.^ ^j (Sa'dl) " what is proper to
good companionship"; -=~' ( l *)t or) jl w^'lacu: j f ^t "this is a wonderful
exploit " : <xxi-^ oy j <ui) JU^ ;^ (SJiah's Diary) "they are in perfect bodily
health"; JU*' ^ 4< the highest perfection"; ^^
' ' complete error.
j*^ ^ ^^ * ^<
(2) Kull Jf Ar., and ^ Per., are vsubstantives ; while ^tf, fern. A^ is
an Ar. adjective. In sentences such as, *$ AJT** <J^ JUi^' (m.c.) " there is a
every probability that ", kulll is sometimes mistaken for a substantive.
Kuiliyyat && is also an Arabic abstract noun " totality " ; the Persians
also use kultt in the same sense.
o>
(3) The Arabic substantive ^r^ an d its antonym 4 *) are in classical
and in modern Persian frequently used instead of adjectives : *&lb ^f ^^ ^
+ *
c^-iu &* (^ er-*^ (Sa'di) "he entertained the very highest opinion of
9
this sect"; vJ>^Ju ( . r ^^ "upright conduct"; v^ f er<^ **good manners";
* .9
<jjUjf i^xu " by great good fortune, or very luckily " ; fl&if ^r^ " good ad-
ministration, also good discipline, etc/' A m.c. phrase is us
" the good thing about him is this " ; vulgarly also ^f^j^ &~* is used.
(pl- of *i^^ the fern, of <j^U ) " precedents " : &^<
birlcar-i sabiq 4t based on a precedent."
2 In m.c. ^3Eu0 means ''conversation, also " mention " ; ^^1^ OAS^ i&A^UMiy jf
(m.c.) '* he spoke in strong terms about him."
3 gama'im (pi. of A^-x/oi) "misdeeds, reprehensible qualities: ' * Jiama 9 id (pi. of
84^4^. ) 4< laudable actions or qualities."
* Note that the hamza in jf* distinguishes it from the Pers. su "direction " or
the Turki 8u " water."
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 161
Similarly with sy# : 1&& ty " evil thought, suspicion " ; <JU* * ^ " evil
doing" : J 1 ^ j~ " bad plight" ; +<*& *j~> " indigestion"; ^^ *y t or ^^ *f
" rudeness ' ' ; *wl^ $?* "evil end ' ' ; Jjl^ *r*> ' ' bad temper or nature. ' '
(x) The classical j*U ^^iu* " a common or well-known matter " is not so
* 9
common in modern Persian, as ^f+* c^**> or ^ *U ^^^ (m.c.). 'Umumi is
an Arabic adjective.
(?/) A few Arabic adjectives and some Persian and Arabic participles are,
before a substantive, followed by an izafat instead of by a preposition :
J&c J JUu/o (8a l di] ' c it is contrary to reason"; ooG ^'ij o^ (m.o.)
'* contrary to sound opinion " ; cu^: (+& ^i <^^^ (rn.c.) " this is not like your
usual good sense."
Muhal-i mumkin ^+^ Jt^x* (m.c.) is a vulgarism, apparently for muhal u
*
na-nmmkin ^^./ob j Jl^x/c.
(z) In m.c, vJ'b moans " clean, and religiously pure," but JUo means
^smooth, level"; o>^ ^*>, however, is <{ to strain liquid through cloth,"
and o^ j -b is ' ' clean."
Indians and Afghans use cJ'U in the sense of "pure" only, and <JU in
the sense of " clean " ; also ll completely wholesale (of a thing)."
Remark I. For the negative use of ^ andy +f vide, 121 (6).
(aa) The addition of ana <*> to substantives forms adjectives, and to
?
adjectives forms adverbs, as: **\tyo " manly, virile ": &>\4^* t( royal (from
muluk, pi. of malik ^ king") : *>\^& <c bravely, boldly " : &(&$ - AilA^f - AilUU ;
vide also 108 (a).
After a * vowel/ the usual euphonic change is made, as: danayana
&UUi^, etc.
y Ail^Uuaf "in a more masterly way" seems to be an exception, as the
adverb is here formed from a noun.
44. Compound Adjectives.
/**>
(a) Any noun with a particle prefixed may become an adjective, or a
whole phrase may be an adjective : JU I ^ A ' c the man possessed of
property: o^jj^ij (Sa'di) ^poor-spirited": Jf^^U pa dar gil (m.c.) =
jjjjLo^^ dar manda: \j*>)t>j< sar dar hava (m.c.) "awkward, thoughtless" :
sar bi-giriban &\**j>>j* *'full of thought, anxious" : e>'^ **> ^ignoramus" .
kun-ma^kun e^^ "hesitating; also a command": uy^ ^ has ma-tars
"fearing none": ^^ ^ has ma-purs " out of the way, outlandish
i Jlacuxj^jja. "impossibility."
11
162 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
i^." In sar-i dast 0*0^* "ready at hand," sar-i zaban (>(>) j~
"on the tip of one's tongue," sar is practically a preposition.
An epithet may consist of a whole clause, as : <jw>& w*Acw l**> banda-yi halqa
bi-gush (Sa'di) "slave with a ring in his ear " : A!*/ <_&^;j> c&x mulk-i dar
jang girifta (m.c.) " country taken in war " : o;^l^ ^jfj j Ai~< ^SAf efj^
*x~^ (Sa'di) l< a merchant whose ship has been wrecked and an heir who has
associated with Kalendars " :
(fla'dt).
" Oh thou that displayest thy virtues, but concealest thy defects."
o*tj.=su fc(Z* pj LS}"^ u*P <x ^ C5^ *^ u5^^^ ojlj f^x5 mara bi-khalvat-i
kuchak-i si su-yi basta-yi dar-ash bi-su-yi karam rjushuda bi-khwast Tr. H. B.
Chap. XVIII, "he called me into a private place, closed on three sides,
with its door opening into the harem.' 9 '
Note the position of ^ in: ^ *vxJ^U ^ ^ ^^x ^.{j ^f^^j?^ (m.c.)
" I have never encountered such a difficult law-case as this."
(b) Compound adjectives are formed :
(1) Of an adjective or participle prefixed to a noun :
*=*f3 erf ugly face }
- ^ A i, i i 4. j > both elements, Persian.
*-*> broken-hearted j
vJukJ of gentle disposition ^
. . , i i . , > both elements, Arabic.
in wretched circumstances J
of pleasant voice
ill-tempered
^i with moustache just coming M nixed elements.
J^ ot* pure- hearted
Ja ^JL, simple-minded, rather stupid J
Remark I. Compounds with e>i and ^ are rare in modern collo-
quial. The compound fi ^i^ is common.
Remark II. The adjectival member can qualify- two substantives, as :
^G^iUI ^ Jbj Jb ^y jij> f^W (.ftf. J5. CVzap. F/) "a muleteer stout and
strong, 'All Qajfcir by name " ; here J^ Jb c^y stands for Jlj
In modern Persian the former construction is preferred.
(2) Of a Persian noun prefixed to a Persian adjective :
sad, bored,
oppressive.
i In modern Persian, both in writing and in speaking, * *- and
or -AxW 5jJ= and <-M^ JU.
$5n (pi. of ^n) '* notes'* ; ilhan inftn. t( chanting."
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 163
(lit. round-toothed) one that drives hard bargains.'
> v ulg., a thief.
Vide also adjectives of resemblance, No. (25).
Remark. The members of the compound are frequently inverted, thus :
o or 4ji^ <*+&*> " grey- beard, old man, etc." '
(3) Two nouns ; vide also (16) :
lion-hearted ")
r . , , ! r both elements, Persian.
lairy-cheeked )
with tlie appearance of an ^
an el - [both Arabic.
diabolical in thought j
*J ruby-lipped !
scattering pearls !
^.Persian and Arabic.
billowy as the ocean (of a j
large army). J
munificent ) . , . , ^
, , [ Arabic and Persian.
w^J oyb ruby-lipped )
Remark. Rarely the compound consists of two Arabic broken plurals,
as l v->t*yf (^d^x; ^jcliv^f (t people of exquisite mariners " : vide also (16).
(4) Of a substantive, Persian or Arabic, prefixed to a Persian verbal
root :
^li,* (jiof scattering h're. "1
$$ J> heart-afflicting. Lsubstantive Persian.
2& ^^ world-conquering. )
Ifci fault-forgiving. ) 8 ubstaiitive Arabic.
t^x> assembly adorning. J
^4-= x) f AlLxj c
"Pardon these hands that ever grasp the cup,
These feet that to the tavern ever stray."
(0. K. 884 Whin.)
This compound has often a passive, not an active, sense, as: ^wj txk
khuda bakhsh "given of God": <jA& $ ru shinas " known by face, i.e.
acquaintance" : 3>^T ^"^ dast-amuz " tamed (of wild birds, etc.)" : JU ^U
pay-mal " trampled under foot."
L In modern as well as classical Persian, shir "lion" is often an adjective
' ' brave. ' '
2 Mahasin (*y(^*> pi. of nr^ <f beauty, any good quality; the moustache and
beard" : adab v^f, pi. of adab ^&\ manners.
164 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
(5) Adjective (P. or A.) or adverb prefixed to a Persian verbal root t
* sweetly-singing.
LvJ well-wishing.
1 ft* *-&) ^ quick apprehension. [> prefix Persian,
who thinks after the deed is
done; imprudent.
1+J^.xft' mild looking, but not >so in 1
reality. I .
..... . -prefix Arabic.
uj fy>c apparently oppressed, but in
reality a tyrant. j
Some of these compounds have a passive signification, as )
experienced, a beginner" : v^ f t( difficult to be obtained, scarce."
(6) Of substantive (P. or A.) and past participle :
<)^ experienced. i . , T>
,y r i substantive Persian.
c^JL^ tried in battle, proved. j
one that has seen trouble. "i
shame- stricken. J
1 substantive Arabic,
whose owner is dead (abuse to j
an animal). \
In a few words the final is dropped, as j>/f : ^) "rusty":
"foremost, perfect; also subs, froth, scum; a chief": ate laA "given by
God."
Compounds of Arabic nouns and past participles are rare :
"of ill-omened fate, unlucky."
(7) Of substantives with prepositions, k - * J - <y -j* - yj - j>.) 9 etc. :
irreligious.
unjust.
cowardly.
unwise.
lasting.
} imperious, tyrannical.
>j subordinate, oppressed.
useful.
ti useless; vide (10)].
9
jjV b (m.c.) of robust frame,
jj I wealthy.
j I with salt ; pleasant-featured ; pleasant of conversation,
b possessed of sense.
1 From c"**+t 9 a Persian verb from the Arabic root
i Properly cJtap^ fefaajlat.
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 165
(8) Of a substantive, or a Persian verbal with the prefix p& :
j +*> bed- fellow. . . .
' __ v Persian substantive
fellow-traveller. j
T* *a of the same age. ) . ,. . A
, ' ; Arabic substantive.
"^ * school-fellow. J
^; ^ A travelling together.
3^> ^A playing together.
(9) A substantive with the prefix l * as a privative :
cuiu +$ unfortunate (contemptuous). 1 ^ . . , , .
r ^Persian substantive.
^j>3 f* 1 ' weak. J
aj^su ^.r inexperienced. 1 ,
.. , 1.1.^1 -x i r Arabic substantive.
cucUu ^ possessed of little capital. J
(10) Na U a prefixed to adjectives, substantives, Persian verbals and past
participles (compare with 12) :
H^ ^ displeased (class.); unwell )
(mod.). J
^ ^ impure; in m.c. saucy, roguish ^adjective, Persian.
(of a woman, in a good sense). J
not liked. J
j ^ under a ore, immature. ) ... ,. A u .
' adjective, Arabic.
*> ^ rough. ^
J IJ of impure intent. )
^ inconstant ; not durable. j
k useless. > various compound*.
1) out of place.
^ of mean resolution or ambition.
ignorant.
not understanding,
xity U rude ; rough.
C unpraised.
unabridged.
k c Was e'er man born that never went astray ? "
0. K. 391
K L> unmanly, coward.
l-> worthless.
Ij hopeless.
1 For the negative use of f$ and ^, vide 121 (6).
2 In compounds usually na and not no. Before an infinitive either l-> or
166 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
In modern Persian & is frequently used instead of li ; as Axafaoi o*&/ in
modern Persian is preferred to Aiafcvj li o^/ : **x^ (*> ^J cc rice not steamed
(after cooking)."
In negative compounds, when part of the compound is a verbal root, the
negative should immediately precede it, as vj& !*** '* Godless ' ' : vl^ l*/^
"not having slept." Sa'di, however, has <j*^ (j*& for <jj^ J^.
* .
Remark I. In speaking, na-ghafil is often used for *!AP gh.afl,at an .
(11) The privative^* yhayr-i l prefixed to Arabic nouns, participles, and
phrases, and Persian adjectives :
j^ g&ayr-i insaf contrary to justice (not unjust).
X
x* ghayr-i tahqiq " not verified.' 7
absent.
p unconditional.
11 ^ ^ or( i er or proper arrangement.
not in use, obsolete.
(fern.) unmarried (wife).
uncultivated, etc.
involuntary.
not allotted.
uneducated, ill-bred.
(m.c.) unofficial.
incapable of being cultivated
irrecoverable.
fj o^ jj>j^ ^ **A o^jl^jJi^jji z jj)' ^ ^7 X (Shah's Diary)
14 men and women without number were everywhere drawn up in lines on
both sides of the way."
Remark. In *<*e^/c jc "not taken possession of, unappropriated" and
AJjiux j** " immovable (property)," the participle is feminine to agree with
a broken plural understood, viz. : *JJU'. In A-'yiU ^ , it is not clear why the
feminine is used.
1 In Persia, but not in India, the izdfat always follows j** : the use of^J^ is rare
^
in modern Persian. In Arabic ^6 is a substantive, and when privative is followed by
^
the genitive, as: CJ^ ^*i* "impure." Possibly the izajat of tho_>J^ in Persian is a
corruption of the JL of the Ar. nom. case.
2
ft In Persian often incorrectly written and pronounced 51 alu.
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 167
Sometimes the participle has the ^ added to it, as: ^5)5* j& "not
inherited."
(12) Of a Persian or Arabic substantive or adjective prefixed by the
Arabic SI "no, not" ; [compare with (10)]:
&;lj K belonging to no one.
<yl3 II unique.
\U J| )
* ,. > helpless, without remedy ( *)U. ).
;l^ u J
Remark. La-uball ^JU K, adj., '"careless," is really an Arabic verb
"'x>> .fo*-
"I do not care," from alfUxj (root ^ ), vwfe (15).
(13) Arabic substantives prefixed by the privatises, *>**, adj., " void of "
and *j.**>c, past part. " non-existent "
j*>jh /*jxc non-existing.
yjli ; -^i3Jt (m.c.) lost to ken, disappeared (of a thief).
*~:pJt |^*x**= +,y\ 2}**yo " known by name but non-existent, i.e. fabulous"
(as the SlmuryJi).
Remark. --The substantive ^ is used for forming substantives, as :
Uy ,o^, Ar., and ^, ^j^, Per., " want of fidelity."
\ 14) Compound Arabic adjectives, comj)ounded of an adjective or a
participle and a substantive in the genitive case ' :
- *
Ui^ (m.c.) of noble dignity.
Aj*. known by name only.
s
(15) Arabic phrases, 2 as <*^t jtxil/o "mentioned above"; Axff ^>*> s
^ *
" mentioned, hinted at "; ^ S U " beyond expression " : o>j*j Jl lt immortal "
.?
(lit. ' * he will not die " ) : f j>'^ ' e uncultivated ' ' (lit. it was * not sown) : ^1 r ; ^
" boasting " i lit. " you will not see me ") : uXl^U <{ possessions," subs. (lit.
what he possesses) : -ka^ J| *' unceasingly, adv. ; J^l-^l cf'U^ adv., {< as for-
merly" ; Ja*. SI ^^^ mast-i la ya'qil " dead drunk [lit. drunk (and) he knows
nothing "J.
Remark. When the phrase contains an Arabic verb, such as in Allah
ta'ala ^^ &M " God, may He be exalted," the Persians, if the first word is
1 The final short vowel of the genitive is omitted.
5 Many of these are substantives as well ae adjectives, vide 1 H (>?).
>
6 Tn m.e. m~#nl ilayh &*J\ ^^. Mitshar 11 * ilayh &)\ ^*** can bo used alone, but
* *
q ilayh ^V 1 ' J^y must qualify a noun.
5
Lam in Arabic gives to the Aorist a preterite sense.
168 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
Persian, frequently but incorrectly insert an izafat, as : Khudawand-i ta'alq
*L ; mast-i la ya'qil. <Ja*j Jl
(16) Adjectives of resemblance are formed by affixing to nouns certain
words, chiefly substantives, vide (3) :
.* like an angel, angelic.
i acting like a fairy.
(3w shaped like a boat.
*Jti (old) like the sky.
like a houri.
with a face like the moon ; beautiful.
Mdnand ^U ? adj., "like", is derived from &*uU; and, affixed to a
substantive, forms an adjective, as: darya-manand ^\~*> Ijp "like the sea* *
(gen. to signify quantity).
Rarely, a broken plural is used, as : haza*ir-i falak-naza^ir J-51& c^U^Lka*
enclosures high and inaccessible as the heavens ' ' : 8^k> vJU* falak nazlra (or
nazw) would also be correct.
(17) In a few compounds, a numeral is prefixed to a noun :
very alert.
U- four-cornered ; square, oblong.
la. four-year-old; vide 98 (6) (4).
Remark. Adverbs and substantives are also so formed, as: e>M> ^*^^
<4 to go at full gallop'': ^i-^ ^ ; U to sit tailor- fashion " : j~* ^
6 * a market- pi ace. ' '
(c) TliQ following words, chieily Arabic, are frequently attached to
substantives and adjectives to form compound adjectives :
(1) ^jikj "receiving," as: JP.JOO Jy<^ "possible"; jto j**** (m.C.)
" can be mended " (prop, of buildings).
(2) &&* pana h "asylum, refuge, shelter", as: tia e^i*>c "asylum of
pardon ' ' (an epithet for kings, governors or mujtahids) ; ^ c l t^ (^ or kings).
(3) 5 V U ma-ab lit. " place of return": v^ ij^j* (in5d.) " European-
ized."
(4) ^Uxi shi'ar, lit. "outer garment; anything that envelops the
body ' ' ; ;l* &)j**> " clothed with justice."
Kirdar ^^ from kardan &&j$ ', when one would expect kardar
In mod. Pers. ishtibah *Lwli>/ means " doubt, error."
3 Hurl <^)^ Pers. ISur J^, Ar., is pi. of j^, fern, of )^\. In Persian
huriyya is used as a singular: though Ar. pi. in form, this word is not used in Arabic.
4 From pazlrujtan ^jiJy&j or pizruftan t^>)* tl to receive."
'
From vV? V f ' * * return ' '
INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES. 169
(5) jjf asar " trace, sign " : j*\ ^^ " inspiring awe, majestic."
/if asar, pi. of yt : ^ o^ friendly " (of people).
#55
(6) e;UJ nishdn "sign, mark" : cjUJ e^}.c = o^-c *_^l*.
" * s
(7) v^f i**fe& ''arrangement, manner" : ^^1 j*$ = ^j^T ytf ;
f o4^ " well-shaped " (of things).
(8) ;!y>' ^arar "dwelling, fixed abode" : ^ )j* "dwelling in Hell."
(9) e^^/c mashjmn "tilled" : ^XL-^/O j^oUx "wicked."
(lO)^A^ 1 7/ia5?* (rare in mod. Pers.) "place of returning, going":
ojl&i " unfortunate."
$
(11) ^l^ maddr 4< centre, pivot " ; j!^^> o>c " centre of respect."
(12) ^j&o makan "place " : ^^ ^^ "dwelling in Paradise (of Muslims
only).
JJ S
(13) v-Ajj^J nasz6 "portion, fate": wo^-i cr^a. "having received the
award of Paradise."
(14) A^LXJ /j^M "trade " : <**^u ^ = j(^ ^ " tyrannous."
(15) ^^i ^arm adj. " joined, contiguous " and ^^ maqrun past. part.
44 joined, contiguous" : oO* ^^^^ viA^^o^ ^.^l^; e,^ c^.
^jr ft ' c c^Jj^ "fortunate, wealthy"; ^JL?^ 3 ^l*** = o^*- I.
Note also the following qarln-i maslahal o>*0la^ ^^jl < 4 advisably ":
o*3x^j e^ft/o " healthful, etc., etc."
y
(10) The verbal adjective in alif is very rare in compounds: US'^U.
jadtt-kuna (obs.) * * practi&ing-inagic ' * : ^ c?^U (old) 4 * wandering in the
desert."
5. Intensive Adjectives.
(a) (1) An intensive adjective is formed by adding to the simple ad*
jective a iinal alif, 1 called alif-i kasrat *j& -^i, or alif-i mubalay&a k^U>c ^ } O r
'i ta'ajjub *^>^&* <-AJf, as: Khushd bi-hdl-i sulh-kunandagan JU> Jl^u U^.
>^ <4 Blessed ;\re the peace- makers."
This intensive alif, which is probably the vocative alif and is ot rare
occurrence, except after the adjectives <j4r^ . jj and ^^ usually precedes
the noun it qualifies ; but ' vide ' basd Adverbs of Quantity (I) 3.
(2) In old Persian, the substantive so qualified has often a final alif
. O''
as well, as : khusha Shir am " oh delightful is Shiraz ! " : ^ &* ^ tjy &>jj* \*>
(b) (1) The adjective may be intensified by adding an adverb or adjeo^
1 From jt**?. y** -
1 There are several final ali/s, as: *$$ ^f, ^*^> , *$& (j-^^ , f<*> , vide p. 12.
170 INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES.
9
tive, as : JX^^. ] ^^ (rn.c.) ' <( very pretty " : & ;U-o " very bad " :
"a great eater, glutton": J-a^ ^^j "a perfect fool " : jf^li o.=fcu "very
unpalatable " : J^* <-x> (class.) " quite easy " ; x ; f ^ o*iu*. / % saMtf sfead
shud (m.c.) " he became very delighted": ojlfj^ ^ ^su j& J^A ^^Jk;j
j^+jujx ^sJiA^^ vsJ^ the precipices appeared in my eyes extremely terrify-
ing"; vide. 45: *X;<xJ b^A. (m.c.) "an accentuated ass, an ass and an ass
f
again."
For bas, az baz, etc., mWe Adverbs of Quantity (I) (3).
(2) It may be intensified by the ^ of unity, as : z}$ ^&
is a very beautiful flower " = tw 7^? c/?t rany-i khub-i darad ' * what a very
fine colour this flower has."
(c) (1) Repetition 2 may give a continuative or intensive signification, as:
*VxrU j e^U pak u pdklza 4< very clean " ; 3 ( ;^j;j^ ^wr u daraz <c very far
9
away " : *i^ **>j rujta sliusta " tidied and cleaned (lit. swept and washed)."
(2) Sometimes the meaningless appositive gives this meaning, vide 140
(a) and Remark.
(3) The repeated adjective may be in the plural, as : mast-i mastnn
ejlw^ o~x: "dead drunk": c^**^^* faqir-i jaqiran, or ijzti ^>ft> faqir i 'l-
fuqara* ' ' a pauper of paupers , very very poor. ' "
In the title ^Uiiulx modern Persians and Indians insert the izdfal. Mons.
Raymond, the translator of the i( Seir Mutaqherin," who knew at least one
Indian holder of the title, used the izafai.*
In Turkish, Mir Miran d\j** j** is a title equivalent to Amir^l-
Umara* 1 \j*y\j** .
(d) For sar mast, sar sabz, etc., vide 117 (j) (4) Remark.
(e) (1) The prefixes U - ^ -#& to a substantive form an ism-i
mukabbar ( j&* ^ ) } giving the idea of size or fineness, etc., as: shah-rdh
Wj *& * ' main-road ": *-l^ ^ "a big cup or pot": ^ *' "flight-feather
(of wing) " : c^y U> " a large variety of mulberry " : )*j* t&, j;f*i ^, <^^ li,
etc.
Khar-magas j^Xc^x "horse-fly": *J^*>j^ "crab": 'f^ " large tent,
pavilion ' ' : ^J^*jo* ' ' a large stone ' ' : *xiuj^ " a species of large mosquito ' ' :
I The comparative and superlative can also be so intensified, as:
** much prettier. * '
Vide, Repetition of words 140.
8 He however k writes Rtiy-Bayan ' (an Indian title).
4 Khar j*. i n Pahlavi means "big, ugly."
DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 171
Div-savar Jy*^ " bold horse-man " p*& #& " a large kind of wheat":
t& #* "large clod": d> #& "whirlwind, frenzy": cAe>>^ "brave, hard-
hearted."
(2) In the following compounds, ^ signifies " ass " and not " large " :
khar-as ^/f ^ "ass-mill": ^Aj ^ hog- backed, a tomb":U>y^
"asinine": o^^^aL " stupidly drunk ": ( j^ j^ vulg. "having an ass-like or
very large penis."
(3) Whether ^^ ^ means "big-eared" or " ass-cared " is a disputed
point.
46. Degrees of Comparison and Comparative Clauses.
(ft) (1) The Persian comparative is formed by adding y to the positive,
i>
>s: purjam'iyyai-tarj* S^AJU^^J (m.c.) " more populous" : y cj>*j (Sa'di), in
Mod. Pers. y c^> b ; "more honoured ": y vs*I> (Sa'di), in Mod. Pers.
_3 ciy I. " more delicious."
(2) The superlative, which is not much used in Modern Persian [vide
( r ) (3)], i. q formed by adding tarm ^y to the positive, sometimes contracted
to in, vide (b) (6).
(3) The comparative can be used in the plural, as : U ^Uy cJ;> (m.c.)
" those greater than us."
(4) The superlative has no plural
Remark. Note that the comparatives of the past participles y *j^f
" more comfortable " ; y &v^ (( more intelligent " ; J ^^ f (< more humble "
are in common use : but not y *&!-' ^-h^,y ^-'^^,y **> /^> which are not in
use.
(6) (1) Arabic adjectives, in Arabic, form both the comparative and
9 ?' "-?
superlative on the measure J**f for the masculine, and ^** for the super-
lative ' feminine, as: kabir y^f "great," comparative and superlative
y" masc., and kubra ^jtf fern.
When comparative, the elative is followed by c^^ *' than," when super-
x
lative by the genitive.
(2) The Arabic elative (ao called because 1* includes both comparative
and superlative), when it is a comparative makes no change in Arabic for gender
or number. The Arabic elative is used in Persian.' 2
(3) Note the superlatives in : dar vaql-i ahsan tr ~^ 1 oJ^^ tc in the most
1 The Arabic comparative has no feminine nor plural.
>j Both as a comparative and a superlative.
172 DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.
propitious time": ^^j ^ uo! )* dar as'ad zaman-i "in a very fortunate
time " : as'ad-i zaman c> l *j t **** 1 " the most fortunate of the age."
(4) Sometimes a cognate Arabic noun follows an Arabic superlative :
J fiUut ^Jsf tf *jU lyo oUUxj a^&j} ^ ^ (Tr. H. B., Chap. XXI) "no,
no, such an honour is fit for me who am the most skilled of physicians * ' :
^t \j*& ytfit (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII) " I am the most poetical of poets.' '
(5) Generally speaking, Arabic adjectives in Persian form their degrees
of comparison in the Persian manner: JLel* _y JLel* ... ^y cl^U*.
(6) The affix t^ j y tarln is sometimes contracted to In, as : <jV* J
or e>lA j " the best": ^^ or & a j "the least": &w> or^yyo "the
greatest": &>> : -or u^y "the highest": these words are classical or
poetical only.
(c) A double comparative is sometimes formed by adding the Persian
affixes to the Arabic elative : d** y cXa*f p\c l^Us j l **jj (Sa'dt) " he asked
what is the best kind of worship " : \*j>j* (J"A' (m.c.) " the most excellent*' :
cu~M V^i c>^ ^i=i^ ^,1^*1 ^U! ^ cL*i ?i6^ ?* labar-i Islian munqati' kardan
aula-tar* ast (Sa'df) "it is better to destroy their stock, and root it out."
(d) Than with the comparative is expressed by :
(1) The preposition jf , as : &i& ^j** )* er^^y ^-^ ^ 3 ! (Su'di) " you
have never in your life spoken a truer word than this " : ^ ^ ^ j\ az m chi
bihtar (m.c.)=y ^^ &* &*) az In chi aulq-tar * m.c. " what better than this? "
Remark. Note the vsignification of Jl ce one of " in the following :
o ' JU; ^Ui y *t ** ALJf^ [Tr. H. B., Chap. VII). " it became known to
me that he was a man of the greatest consequence" : mara az quzidagan-i
shu'ara* sakht (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII) "he made me one of the chief est of
poets" : vide (e) (4).
(2) Nisbat o^, or bi-nisbat oo~j ^ "in comparison with," as: nisbat
bl-digarafi (or nisbat-i digaran) u bihtar-ast (rn.c.) ( ^j&>* *>**>> or) ^^^ cuf-o
o^f yy J 1 " m comparison with the rest he is g >od " : bi-nisbat-i n bihtar
ast (class.) " she is better than he " ; vide (w) (6).
(3) In classical Persian, &f is sometimes substituted for jt : (J)j** ^+&
tf aj (Sa'dl) " he said, ' dismissal from office is better than employ-
l The plural ^xfc>r could be substituted for the Pers. pi. eAfir^ here.
* Mihtar, the comparative, alao means, 4< prince, lord," and is the title of the ruler
of Chitral. In India a sweeper is by a euphemism styled Mih-tar, just as a tailor,
etc., is called Khalifa, and a water-carrier Jama 1 dar. In Afghanistan and Persia mihtar
means * * a groom. ' '
3 ^V aulq> '* more or most deserving*' is an elative without a positive, and must not
y *,
be confused with d?J ulq the feminine of <Jy 4< first." Aulq an kl dlgar gu/t n gu>
na-kuriim, (m.c.) ** it's best for us to hold our tongue."
* Plural of Jacf, elative of
DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 173
ment' " : L> jf ^ x ^ ** ^^ murdan-at bih ki mardum-azdn (Sa'df) "thy
death is better than thy afflicting of mankind ' ' :
" If thou desirest the truth, then it were better that a thousand eyes
should be blind (like the bat ] ) than that the sun should be darkened."
For the use of the positive for the comparative, vide (i).
(4) Occasionally the comparative is followed by an izafat,&s: bihtar-i
yihtarln guzin-i hama ** eMj^ oi/V^t (Nam-i Haqq of Shah Sharaf^d-
Dm, Bukhari the Prophet) "better than the best and chosen of all " : =
az bihtarm bihtar, vide (n) (4).
(e) (1) The superlative, Persian or Arabic, is followed by the genitive,
and generally by the plural : ^^ u4f& * ^ o^JU-c ^y ^^] (Sa'cK)
6 'I will not grant the rule over this country except to the meanest of the
slaves ' * : *U*> oy^ 1 " the most illustrious of the prophets ' ' : oli5l JLx i (Sa'di]
t4 the most noble of created things": cul^^/o J,*( (Sa'di) "the meanest
of existing things."
In J^Sff ^r-a.1 <l the best of shapes, the best shape" and like construc-
tions, the second noun is in the Arabic genitive plural.
In cnJJisx (^^t ahsan-i khilqat 1 "the best of creation," the singular is
correct.
For the superlative followed by ** hama and for its substitution for a
comparative, vide (I).
(2) When the superlative qualifies a noun absolutely, it is treated as
an ordinary adjective, as: pk? &?) " the greatest support": ^Jkf j&*> "the
Prime Minister " : u bihtarm mard ast, o?mard-i bihtarm ast o
or ^~ ! cHt^ ^ < ^ ie ^ s ^ ie ^ es ^ man -"
W) j* o^;^ 31 -^*
<: Such a terrible water that the water-bird was not safe in it,
Its least wave would sweep a mill-stone from its shore."
In old poetry and prose it is sometimes merely intensive :
" 1 will not say I have given a most noble pearl (lady) to a most
renowned husband." 3
(3) Such sentences as "go to the nearest village" may be rendered,
>j> e>U^ eVT $ ^^ e? j y *-&5>V (class.) ; but more usual *k
(m.c.).
1 Mush-i kur )j> O*?"' i s " * no hat " and not the " mole ' '
2 But khilqat-i ahsan w****\ ^^ ' * tho best creation. ' '
s This construction is not used in this sense in Modern Persian.
174 DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.
" This is the largest hriuse in Kirman " may be rendered in five ways :
(i) Buzurg-tar 'imarat-i ki dar Kirman ast in ast &(
(ii) Buzurgtarin-i makanat-i ki dar Kirman ast in ast
(Hi) Buzurgtarin makdn-i ki A
(iv) Makdn-i buzurgtarin-i ki &>
(v) In makan-i buzurgtarm-i Kirman ast o
(4) " One of the most " is expressed by y ^ : Rustam yak-i azdilavar-
tarin-i Iraniyan bud ty e/t-^f e^y ^S^Jf ^ (****;> vide (d) (1) Remark.
(/) The comparative can be strengthened by prefixing the adverbs
^$1^ and ;^, etc. : vide Intensive Adjectives, 45 (6) (1) : ^\ jt-jr ^s^*
(Shah's Diary) "peaches of a very excellent kind" : o*t ^-Ji^L^j "this is
much more fitting" (m.c.): o^ ^ <^j^ &>} In khayli bihtar ast (m.c.) " this
is much better."
(g) The comparative can stand alone, as : o** 1 v-^^Ji ^^A, orcu*! jJ^ &$+*
(m.c.) " this is better, this is the better course : &> o-of \^\ aula an ast ki
(m.c.) = W c^^ty^ CJ^A haman bihtar ast ki " the better course is."
(h) The Persian comparative and superlative of <J^K "perfect" (a super-
lative in itself) are vulgar or poetical, and correspond to the incorrect English
expressions ' ' more perfect, most complete, more unique, etc." The Persians
also say y ^y f arid- tor, but not^J' U^ yakta-tar.
(1) (1) The positives AJ - Af - AX> - and ^ are sometimes used for the com-
parative : ^ l j~** & (^ ji o^U* cxp|y a^ ^jU ^5*^ y ^t^j jt ^^ ^
(Sa'di) "we [the king] will make ready accommodation for you in the
city, so that leisure for worship better than this may be obtained ' by you ' ' :
in bih az an ast (m.c.) c^* t e>(; f *t ^ lt this is better than that " : JU^ ^f& !
JU^jU-^3 ^ andak'i jamal bih az bisyari-yi* mdl (Sa'di) ^ a little beauty
is better than much wealth ' ' : cuiu. ^jb tf au o<iu ^jb bazu~yi bakht bih ki
bazu-yi sakht (8a*di). Vide also (d) (3).
(2) Bih AJ is also a comparative or optative in poetry :
" A traitorous army, let it be disbanded,
One that seeks the ruin of his country, let his head be cut off."
(3) The positive can also be used in such sentences as, " come nearer,"
Uj (j&ty or) *-^u>, nazdik (or nazdik-tar) biya.
(4) Ziyad a^j is a positive, and ziydda 1^3 ^ s a comparative for ^ jU3
i Muyassar jr*^ properly means "facilitated."
^ Here c)^r^ might be either an adjective with the ^$ of unity, or a noun ; but
for the sake of euphony (number of syllables) Persians make it a noun and say bisyuri-yi
mal.
8 In Modern Persian ear afganda 1&&*) j< means ** ashamed."
DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 175
ziydd-tar: x*> ^j or fcvy ^bj " give ine more," nutq-i ziyad-i
(m.c.) <c a long speech"; but oa*+;x <x^ jf ^Uj " an excessive concourse of
people. ' ' Ziydd az hadd*^ jf ^,) is a modern vulgarism for ziyada (or ziyad-tar)
az hadd ^ jt l (y^ j or) *^>
(5) Afzun c>'l and 6^ Ji-AJ " more " are practically comparatives.
Pish Jk|J " before (of time)," has also a comparative sense. However
y cj^t -y <ji# andy <JkJ are also used.
(6) The comparative "more" can also be expressed by the words
jf J 5 l.:lx> mutajaviz az, jl j&.> cKgar as, j^^ 'alava bar ; f;l<^ ^&i oy* u ^
,<j& *' man yak harj-i dlgar na-daram ki bi-guyam (m.c.) "I have not a single
word more to say."
(j) An English adjective qualified by "too" is expressed by the
positive (as in Urdu) : " This teais too weak " o**f ( -&r^ or ) ^~ ^s^ u*M
m chay subak (or kam-rany) ast (m.c.) : c^>t ( ^~* ^l^ e^t (m.c.) " this tea is
too strong."
(k) In m.c., the adverb 6^2 30 is used in the sense of " better," as :
& ^f jL> cu*t ^ ^-^ l tf^' eM J *^ qafo-h kJfwyfi bad astfiaz m yak-1 (m.c.)
"these carpets are bad but this one is somewhat better (but still not
good)."
(/) When a comparison is drawn between a person or thing and the rest
of the class, either the comparative or the superlative may be used, as
follows : " They say the ass is the meanest of animals " A \\ ^ &$ u
c^t y o~j IA JT >U guyand ki khar az hama-yi janvarlia past-tar 1 asl (m.c.).
This could also be rendered by: o^^A. ;^iU. ft ^y o--) A" ^/ or ^ ^/
(m) The following is a vulgarism : -
fc^ 4^!, -si dukhtar dasht, yak-t buzurg, yak-i kuchak, yak-i kucJmk-i
kuchah-tar.^oi. 8. T. "he had three daughters, one big, one little, one
smaller than the little one." The third term should be az hama kuchak-tar
jf, or kuchak-tarin-i hama &+*> vifa-jf-
(ri) The superlative can also be expressed as follows :
(1) Ear chi tamam-tar y^U JU^A " as complete as possible": e^|*J b
J ^ *^;* (m.c.) '* I came out with feelings of the greatest regret
in my mind."
, (2) kiazan buzurg-tar (or kamtar, etc., etc.) nisi (or nami-shavad) :
o^ojy ^j> e>f 31 /JU^5A> o^f 8<x f*xu ^,-Ui lif^ laxxj) (m.c.) " a diamond
has been found here, the largest in the world (lit. as large as any in the
world)": *Jj^cy cuilJLc <xb ^ v lka. ^jf Jf yjfb ^^ cXU ^ ^ ^f; p f; v lki.
khitab-i Ramraj, ki dar mulk-i Dakan bald-tar az in khitab namibashad
l inayat farmudand.(Iq. Nama-yi Jah., p. 244, Bib. Ind. Ed. of As. Soc.
1 Adjectives ending in d> are sometimes incorrectly written as
Batar jh is classically and colloquially usod
a No izafat.
176 DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.
Beng.) : ^
(Tr. H.B., Chap. XXXIII) "the water-carriers had so sprinkled and swept
the roads that their work couldn't have been better done."
(3) By an intensive word signifying ''extremely, perfectly, unique,"
etc., as: ^j o*&j c^U.' bi-yjiai/at zisht-riiy " extremely ugly
" of extreme beauty " : ^^ JU r b (m.c.) " in a perfect rage
k ilq giayr*'n 'nihayat khush-gil " of utmost prettiness " ~<
nihayat khushgil: ty )&+* j+ac ^Jr^U j 1 J^ j> "he excelled all the
sovereigns of the age in justice" : ty) cua>^ ^J ^,1U| ^ "he was most the
pious of the Muslims": dar 'Urn yagdna (or bi-nazw or bi-qarina) ast
o^t ( e^iy t5 J or ji&^V or ) ^^ /*^ c )* '* ne ^ s un i ( l u 5 or alone, in knowledge":
yakta-yi 'asr ast O^I^-^P ^(&* if he is unique in his ago " : ^ (J,j> *> G A^^
(vulg. , in.c., abuse) = ^f^ ( j! e^.
jk _
Azhadd ^^}', z &a-5 ^ j 1 _, bi-sliiddat oaio, r^ar kamal-i marlaba <*x^ JU^ ^^,
or ^ar nihayat-i martaba ^^ ^^(^ ^ are similarly used.
(4) .42 bihtarin Inhtar Jiy w>j>? $ "better than the best" (or bihtar-i
bihtarin, e/irV^)* v ^ c (^) ( 4 ) etc -
(5) By the positive, as : ou^t 7t . ^Lif^ c ' he is the clever man of the city " :
o*t pj$ ))$3 = " he is the bravest of his tribe."
(6) In classical Persian bar y is sometimes prefixed to an adjective to give
it a superlative idea, as : bar buland &&> y (class, and rare) f< very high."
(0) The comparative or superlative suffix is also added :
(1) To participles, as: *UJUjf^ c^>' ^i^v-jti ^, ^La &f j& y CUX^AVC
jf*yAx~jU (Sa'di) "sin, by whomsoever it may be committed, is objection-
able, but from the learned it is especially objectionable": ^jy Jjf^ (m.c.)
"the prettiest": ^jy J^U sabiq-tarin "the most ancient": ^.^y; JujtiL^-o
musta'mal-tarin " the most used."
Remark. The superlative suffix ^.y is seldom added to Persian participles.
The comparative takes its place, as : In rang az hama girifta-tar ast &+& jt J^) e> Jf
o~! y & (m.c.) "this shade is the darkest." Asuda-tarin er^J te^,
mahbub-tarin ^^ ^^^^ are m.c. only.
(2) To a few prepositions and adverbs: bar ^ "upon,"^y "higher":
j> ( r w'j) "highest": ^j "below", y ^0 and e>y ^j or e^7 ^ :
^ , Sib, etc.
(3) To in modern Persian a few substantives: asudagi-tary ^^^f (m.c.
and vulg.) "more comfortable " foryaa^f asudatar: ! y o^T p ^j 1 UT
l Dam-i rfar ^^ ^ (m.c.) *' threshold of the door." " Radd ml-shavad does not mean
kV
that he went through the door." Radd, Ar. "driving back, repulsion": v'j^ 1 ^5
J*
" a retort, repartee.' * In m.c. ()& ^ means '* to pass, pass by, miss the mark," and
A>
radd-i pa ^ &) is a ' * foot-print. ' f
DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 177
<$> (Va^lr-i Lankuran, stage direction). " Taymur Aglja crosses at back
on the further side of the door " ; y oj-k ^ <^)&* " a little more this way " :
y ijjj? c)T e;^ " a li^ e more that way " : y o^tj " more comfortable" :
^*-f y^xi^xwjt (m.c.) "he is more of a lion (braver) than a lion": dush-
man-tarm-i dus/imanan (m.c.) c>^^ ^.y ^.^^ <f the most inimical of one's
enemies": dust-tarm-i duatan &$*j* (&*j**)& (m.c.) "the most friendlike of
all one's friends."
(p) To compounds of an adjective and substantive, the comparative suffix
may sometimes optionally be added, either to the end of the whole compound
or to its first member, as: 1&>* eAt"*> ;* ^**y -^> ^^ j f <>juui? i^ ] ^U? j*>l^
(Sa'di) " they asked Hatim-i Ta*i if he had ever seen anyone with a more
generous nature than himself." In this example buzurg himmat-tar y CU*A ^jj*
could be substituted for buzurg-iar himmat CU*A y ^)^: 9 and this latter
reading, more pleasing to the modern Persian ear, occurs in some editions
of the Gulistan.
It is more usual to add the suffix at the end of the compound.
Remark. The superlative is C^+A &j)j* buzurg-tann himmat (and not
cu^ ^;JJ buzury himmat- tar in) : but * ali-himmat-tann ^y c^wfc ^U is
correct.
(tf) ( 1 ) TJie comparative sometimes gives the meaning of the superlative :
a> <>b e/f cu>oLx5 3^ ^ c^T^y ^J-^ (Sa'dl) ** the greatest regret on the Day
of Resurrection will be this, that " (lit. a regret greater than others : j**>
l c^xxy *J^y o^ 'txc ^ac^ (Sa'di) " in the sight of enmity excellence is the
greatest blemish" : 3 o**y^ ^'tf l^vi 31 * which of these is the best ? " : ^;>
o*f ^I^Jr;o> A<-^| *y ^y> ^ y (m.c.) "the biggest and strongest horse in the
stable " : tf C^^A ^J j^^ (*$*j*J&)y. buzurg-tar mard-i, dar shahr kas-l hast ki
(m.o.) " the greatest man in the city is that man who ."
In all these examples there is an ellipsis of az hama A*^ jl , or az dlgaran
^'j&z jf. Note the ^ of unity.
(2) Buzurg-tar az buzurgtarin ^y ^)^ 3' y ^;^ < higher than the
highest 1 *: vide (d) (4).
(3) As already stated in (a) (2) the superlative is rarely used in modern
Persian. In compound adjectives, the comparative with az hama a+* 31 is
usually substituted as : o~.ty cjlaeJf (jS^^t^ ^l^JUb i** 31 cJUb ^ (m.c.) f< this
nightingale has the best note of all."
l Hatim is in Persian usually Hatatn. In India the iza at is omitted after Hatim, as
Satim T&i
* Or
s Or kudam yak bih-tar (not bihtarln) aat
* Or y ^c^ ^ *-^L^ vWc (0.
12*
178 DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.
(r) The phrase " and what was stranger still, etc." is rendered : y &
A- ^Jf (class.), and *&T y ^j* (mod.).
(s) The progressive double positive in English is rendered as follows :
" He got worse and worse " cu**y<x> j^ ^ (m.c.), or more correctly ;*
(t) (I) If two or more comparatives or superlatives occur together, the
suffixes can be added to each, or to the last only ; in the latter case the clause
may sometimes be ambiguous: L^T J f J^ > &< y &{** +& v UfA>^ v UJf jf^f
y ptjti"** j **u\.* (m.c.) " he (f;he king of the gods) is more ancient even than the
sun and the moon, and is more lasting and enduring than they." In khana
buzurg va va&i'-tar ast o*,y ^^ . \J^ &{ ^\ may mean either "this house-
is large and more spacious " or " this house is larger and more spacious " :
o~! l^U- <UA ^y g.*.) j ^^ aiUL ip>\ (m.c.) "this is the largest and most
spacious of all the houses," is open to the same criticism.
Note that in cu^> ^&j> ^U^ &+A ^y ^U ^ *Jjy ^:^ ^>\ (ni.c.), digctr
should be omitted.
(2) In the case of superlatives, the first may take the comparative instead
j>
of the superlative suffix, as: u-l/o^*^ ^ ^y ^^ \\ ^C< ^Uy ^U ^U; ^
^yo'yf ^^ (m.c.) "formerly Kirman was one of the most important
and most populated cities of Persia:" in this example ^*>c -, or ^^^^^,
could be substituted, but in all three cases the adjective is regarded
as a superlative.
(u) Locutions like " the quicker the better " are rendered as follows : " the
farther you go, the deeper the water becomes " oWy .>Lj v f ^j^y;?^ **>j*
(m.c.): " the nearer we approached the shore the rougher the sea became''
**> bp \ l ;*X5 ^ ^Jivof <* J> ^*y ;U^ ti ^ y (m.c.): zlra Mr
ki l nazdik-tar ast parishan-lar ast (m.c.) <^* y>^^ c^^t y^j^> tfj* >j)
4< because the nearer one' 1 is the more is one' 1 distracted."
(v) Comparisons between clauses are illustrated in the following
examples :
s*>
(1) ^Ubl^ib ^j&u i^i&i'co^x &' &jj ^lx3B.x> ^ftXx/o^i^ CU^UJAOXJ c;^ A ^^^( (Sa'di)
" kings are more in need of the advice of wise men, than wise men of associa-
tion with kings" : ;r^ >> ** ^^ ^y 8 ^* jt> ^**^ &***- c5 f ^t (tiaidi)
"the performance of such a service is better in their absence than in their
presence": ^ld> y *f ^U^jASi LU &)&> ^\ y, ^*> \ ^ ; lj ^ (Sa'dl) "0
friends! I'm more afraid of this escort 4 of yours than I am of the robbers " :
)&$ itf is a construction to be avoided though occasionally
heard in m.c.
* Note that A^^k " whoever " takes the place of the indefinite pronoun "one."
8 Ghaybat ^^^ absence, but yhlbat ^***f " back-biting."
In Mod. Pers.,o^ A^>^ means speeding a friend on a journey by accompanying
him a mile or so on his journey =
DEGRFES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 179
e~~a> ;U~j c/* y & dar an &ar bisyar
chust u chaldk bud (ki) man bi-an miqdar na-budam (Afghan) " he was much
quicker and cleverer at the business than I was."
(2) "I would rather die than beg " o~*f j^ <vf^ jl &*j* &* <_y (m.c.),
or more rhetorically hi-mirad insan va gada*i na-kunad *& J*^ j &L~>>\ ^^ .
(3) ' ' To be like, equal to " :
o!ay v-$* t^l ^ e>^ & &' o**: &(** c>^/ c) 1 ** k L$^ (Sa'di).
" To do kindness to the evil, is like (equal to) ill-treating the good.' '
(4) "She was as much renowned for chastity as for beauty " o^-oc ;>/
(m.c. and incorrect): "he has as much right as you "
. *^ c)^ J (m.c.) : " I have never eaten as much as I have
now" hlch vaqt an qadar na-khurda budam ! ila In vaqi :^iu x o>ajf oJ>^ ^xtb
(m.c.) : ' ; he was as brave as Rustam 2 and as wise as Luqman" 8
uS> )$ y : "he was as beautiful as Joseph 4
and as faithful as Majnun" 5 ^jiap-* ^^ j o^tj> ^Ay ^.^wx ^f : ^he was as
patient as Job and as afflicted as Jacob" u dar tahammul Ayyub va dar
huzn Ya'qub had (j j^i ^^ft*j CL>^;>J vj-^ 1 cA*-^ ;5 y : "the carriages and
carriage horses of this city are neither as numerous nor as good as those of
Russia ' ' vo I t4- t ) *j*j) o l * AC-J
s: *o l^uf (Shah's Diary).
(5) So as:
^ p*1 7 ^toJlL by ^A cu^j>
"Never would a father act so kindly to a son,"
"As Thou hast acted to the race of Adam."
J Or bhurda am +\ fc^j^. Instead of cui'j ^ jJ , it would be better to say JjLx &>
- < ailed also Eustam-i Zal Jij /*i^j and Rustam-i Sigzl ^_~* ^^j : he is the
Hercules of Persia: his exploits are celebrated in Firdausi's great epic, the Shah-Nama.
In IV tod. Per j?*+*> is pronounced hamchi.
"' Luqman, the sage of the East, said to have been a black slave and the author of
Lnqman's FaWes. Ho has been identified with /Esop Others state that he was a son of
Job's sist - a son of lob's aunt, a disciple of David, a judge in Israel.
* Joseph is the ideal of youthful beauty : Yusuf-i #anl ^>biJuo^. k * a second Joseph,"
and Yuafif-janial JU^> ^-&*f>, adj., mean "extremely beautiful/'
*
& MajnTm signifies "possessed by a jinn ^-^'' : it is the name of the celebrated lover
of Layty ^jJ .
6 Taha<nmul Jl^aRJ " enduring a burden patiently.'* The grief of Jacob is pro-
verbial amongst Muslims : from mourning for Joseph his eyes became * white. ' When
Joseph's shirt was yet a three days* journey distant, he perceived its odour, and his sons
said ho doted. The shirt was the same that Abraham wore when cast into the fire, and it
contained an odour of Paradise: it was on Joseph's neck as an amulet when he was in
the well. Joseph, by command of Gabriel, sent the shirt to Jacob for ' it shall not be
cast on any one afflicted with disease, but he shall be whole.'
7 Khurtadan ; for fchandan.
180 DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.
In this example * may be translated ' c such as " , or it may be considered
merely as the connective ' of a relative sentence.
jt e;&L> j'y ** \j****j* v*^ ^* <e f *^ $ o*^\ (Sa'di)
" had I but feared God as you do the king I would have been one of the
Faithful Witnesses." ]
(6) "Compared to"; vide also (d) (2): o*j~i ^ax/o ^IkL, o;Un*9 ^sS
^~**> kj* *jb* *^*~* ^b ojliu*j (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII) " I said, ' compared
to the generosity of our king the generosity of Sultan Mahinud is as a drop
to the ocean.' "
(w) " How much the more," and " how much the less " :
(1) " If Arabs die of eating dates, how much the more must Englishmen,"
u or]
(2) '* If you fear your Mulla like this, how much the more ought you to
fear God " erv^ |J ^* 3^ *V^ j** **$- <g~'j*v c ^ 3 f )** u^'>*^ f 5 or ^ ^ az Mulla
mi-tarsi bay ad az tariq-i awlq azKhuda bi-tarsi.
(3) then how much the more with regard to me who am seated in
chief seat of " ,-f<u~~ ^ ^^ j*x^> ^ tf yo ? CAX<.
(4) "If coffee intoxicates you how much the more must opium do
' .. 4
so" ( \ **f ^/oy i J JL^JO ^jJ &*. or) ^ c3.A^ A[^>C 4 ^JL^j ^J ^^^^ >^yf
(5) a If Persians can't pronounce the letter 'ayn, how much less can
Englishmen" *>\jk^ b ^J &J*> ^y oj^j <^J ^ && ^ {i ^ ^!^L^ ( -
(6) ' * If opium will not intoxicate you then how much the less will coffee ' '
o^!<i Ookj-iu^ -r^k A^ ^ji ti.K^^J c^*ix> f^j c^L^j ^?t (m.c.), or o^a/* tiryak turn
mast na-kunad (or nami-kunad) qahwa bi-tariq-i aula mast naml-kunad.
(1) " It has been said that there is no reliance on the friendship of
friends, how much the less then on the flattery of enemies " c ^*}^ <x>t AX?^
J*; &*> o^*A^ (ji^ 5 tf ^>- ^ ^'* iffl ' c;^^^ (Sa'di). In m.c. this would be
(8) "If Rustam could not kill the father how much the less could he
kill the son " &&& \j ^ *' ^-j **$ ^^J 'jj** o-^Siyi ^i^^i (m.c.).
1 There are four grades in Paradise ; the first for the vUfif ; the second for the
; the third for the f- ! j>^ ; and the fourth for the ^rsJL*.
2 Or bi-chand Jsia. ^u
8 Fa~kayj a is only exceptionally used in Persian.
* Tiryaq-i Faral " the bezoar stone" (also called pad-zahr j&) ^J, from pad ^ V U
'* protection" and za&r ^3 ** poison "), a stone found in the stomach of certain rumi-
nants. Tiryaq-i faruq is the best kind of antidote, or " discriminator " between health
and disease. In Mod. Pers. " opium " is generally <*^jJ> and antidote <5^y-
Jj ** worthier, better" Ar. eiative of ) -, not to be confused with ^>
the fern, of Jy.
Awlq J^jf ** worthier, better" Ar. eiative of ^) -, not to be confused with
DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 181
(9) ft I was unable to move it even ; how much the less could it be trans-
ported to the sea" <xia>c aoaJU,^ Uj<x &' ^f ^U. AA. ^wily^ * (jtXxiUi*. ^ &t
(Afghan).
In Mod. Pers. this sentence could be, af ^^ *<$ f*>& cu^ j+i~jtyo lyf
( AS* 8&xiU.^ or) f^*iH ljj^ ^ r ^ na-tavanistam harakat bi-diham chi ja-yi
an lei bi-darya bi-rasanam (or rasanida shavad) ?
(10) eH^i> /*"*^^ L^V - ^^'J^ ^^ J 1 ^ &$&* & c)T ^*^ *^ 7^^ jj>j
S jj 1 ^ oj^ <*> j^^ ^^./o _j x.; *x t\xiul5 *juiXl (Iq. Nama-yi Jah., Bid. Ind. ,
As Soc. JBeng., p. rpr).
(11) In Indian and Afghan writings, aoJU U*/ is sometimes used for
* how much the less."
" Hedoesn't smoke, much less drink.'' u\y ^ &M ^ e)^ (Indian).
This is perliaps a translation of the Urdu &
l In m.c. jumbamdan ^xXjJUx^ is a word to be avoided ; it signifies a kind ot'
poaturing in dancing and also gadan
CHAPTER V!.
THE NUMERALS Ism-i < adad (
~*\ ).
(a) The numerals, ism-i 'adad, are divided into cardinal numbers (:*- t
or
or
' } anc ^ ordinal numbers '
The thing numbered is called ^o*x> ''numbered/'
The cardinals consist of aMc oU>T )" units
tens" ; mi*at \ ott* } " hundreds " ; ^?7/ ( o^t >
or) u^jlj
47. Cardinal Numbers
'j . . yak
^ . . du
<* . . si
. . ckahar
AJ . . panj
^ . . shash
haft . .
hasltt . .
nuh . .
dah . .
yazdah (or ydnzdah) . .
davdzda (or davdnzdah)
sizdaJi (or slnzddh) . .
chahdrdah . .
pdnzda/i , .
ft
| r
> r
; 'ashardt <
thousands."'
a 1 dad).
o br. pi.
1
as/a/.
3
4 also ;l
5
6 classically sliasli, vulg.
shdnzdah
7 vulg. 7ia/.
8 ,, /^ff.^,
9
10
11
12 *
13
14 vulg. char dah.
15 in m.c. usually
dah.
16 in m.c.
1 'S'*'//' in Arabic is not a numeral as it represents naught, and not a number.
* For ^l I, obsolete. The article is added to yak (yak-l " a certain one ") but to
no other ot the cardinals. In yak-hazarl " fi.kran, " hazar is a noun.
fc In the Shahnama dah u du occurs for ' twelve.'
* Thirteen is an unlucky number amongst Muslims and Zardushtis, as amongst
Christians, though for a different reason. The Muslims believe that the twelfth Imam is
alive, but concealed, and that the thirteenth will be a false one. Hence the Persians
generally avoid saving slzdah: instead they say gr A hich " nothing," or 8^3 ziyada
" more." The Zardushtis consider the fifth, thirteenth and seventeenth of every month
unlucky.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
183
hafdah (or haft-
or ^
or;
or )
hashdah (or
hasht dah)
nuzdah (or nu-
vanzdah),
-$ u yak
f v
i A
r
r\
. . panjah
hajtdd
hashtad
navad
duvist (or in writ-
ing only du sad)
si- sad
chahdr-sad
pan- sad
shish-sad
haft-sad
has/it sad
hazar
du hazar
si hazar
hazar
\ *
r-
r-
f
llihavdahor hivdah\ <3
* I P i
i
v
18 (hajdah or hijdah 1
19 Mod. Pers. nuzdah,
vulg. nunzdah.
20 sometimes incorrect-
21
30
40 sometimes contracted
into chil u^..
50 colloquially pinjah.
60 Sometimes correctly
c^- shast, ^j not
being a Persian
letter.
70
80
90
100, in dictionaries, also
correctly ^~
200 du sad in prose and
poetry, not in m.c.
300
400
500, in m.c. usually pun-
sad.
600 classically shash-sad.
700, vulgarly in m.c. haf~
sad.
800 vulg. in m.c. hash sad.
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
10,000
1 Also *^* hizhdah (old).
* Notice that*'*- s/ is " three " and ^^ si "* thirty " : care must bo taken in the
pronunciation of these two. Though si is "thirty" si-s&dis " three hundred "; an
expression like ' ' thirty hundred ' ' cannot be used in Persian. Classically JM^UO si-sad
is met with, but this form is not used in modern Persian.
s To be distinguished from the Arabic word sadd prohibiting, checking."
184 CARDINAL NUMBERS.
. sad hazar . . t 100,000, in India the word cJ
lak (for lakh a ) is also
used.
. kurur . . a 3 500 ,000 in India a karor = KM)
Za&7& = ten millions.
1 oj*k or ) c>t^ milyun (or milyun) \ 1,000,000 modern only, from the
French.
Remark I. The masculine Arabic numbers from 1 to 10 are, &^\ or ***fj,
olii 1 , fijtf, 4-uy, aLjk. *!*,, afiu, WU$, *-J, j2L.* From 3 to 9 inclusive
these Arabic numerals (masculine) are used in Persian as adjectives to
qualify a plural noun, as: 'anasir-iarba'ah A*j;f j*>lu= " the four elements " ;
wvqat-i khamsa &+^ otfy "the five times of prayer"; havass-i khamsn
&-^ crly^ "the five senses"; kawakib-i sab' ah <***% v^!^ "the seven
stationary planets " ; jannat-i samaniya *xil*i oti^ <f the eight Paradises " ;
aftak-i tis'ah ^--3 *J$j "the nine heavens" ; 'uqul-i 'ashara r^ J^
44 the ten angels (of philosophers) " ; mavaUd-i salasa *X oJi^x " the three
kingdoms (animal, vegetable and mineral) " ; anajit-i arba'h i4 tiie four
**
Gospels" ; ayyam-i sitta &** fty " the six days in which God created the
world."
The Arabic ordinals up to 20 have been employed by some Persian
writers, but the use of these ordinals beyond 10 is by some considered
inadmissible.
Remark //.The word for 100 is written &*c instead of o* to avoid any
confusion between it and the common Arabic word sadd li boundary."
Similarly, ^^ 60 is written for ^~~^ which means " thumb ; fish^ftOtfk,"
In grammar, this is called ^-^ * s daf'-i iltibas "removing the confusion,
or obscurity."
Remark ///.The vulgar say yeg, and more commonly ye or yey for
** one" ; shish and shisht for " six " ; haf } hash for ' ' seven and eight " ; yazza ,
duvazza, slzza, punza, shunza and nunza.
(b) The Persian system of counting ceases at five hundred thousand, i.e.
at half a million or one kurur ^j/. 6 To express ' one million, five hundred
thousand ' they say si kurur ^^ A* } and so on.
1 Also ^UjJ tum&n (obsolete) and c^J lak, vide (b) and (c).
2 The words tafcfa (in Persian lak) and karor (in Persian kurtfr) are of Sanskrit origin,
and have been borrowed by the Persians from the Indian system of calculation. They
are terras to be avoided in Persian , as the ideas as to their values differ In Persian lak
(pi. lakuk) is correctly a hundred thousand.
& i.e., in Persia, a kurur is only half a million.
* From 3 to 10 the numerals assume the feminine form for the masculine, and
vice versa.
& i.e. half million according to the Persian calculation.
CARDINAL NUMBERS. I8t
While in Persia, a kurur ^ equals only half a million, in India it equal
ten millions. This must be remembered when reading Persian works writtei
in India.
The word lak J^ is rarely used by Persians. In India it signifies
hundred thousand, but according to Dr. Rosen it signifies only ten thousan
in Persia. The Zardushtis and merchants trading with Bombay give th
word its Indian value. 1
(c) Tuman &(*y, T., signifies a myriad (10,000), or a sum of money equal t
10,000 Arabic silver dirham ; hence, also a district supposed to furnish 10,00
fightingmen.*
The chief of a Baluch tribe is still called a Tuman-dar, corruption c
tuman-dar j*Jl*> y.
In Persia, the word tuman e>4P is only used for a gold coin, or it
equivalent of ten qiran, or = the word c^y j**' Amir tuman Ck commander c
(a nominal) ten thousand."
(d) From twenty upwards the numbers are arranged by having th
greatest number expressed first, and the lesser added by the conjunction j
[Though deviations from this rule may occur, they should not be copied
Example : k< eleven hundred and ninety-nine (1199) " is hazar u sad B u nava
u nuh <*- 3 ^ * *A<> j )*yt> * ( f n ij. Such expressions as Ci eleven hundred " ar
never used. The use of the conjunction^ is obligatory.
Remark. In the Tiiztiki Jahangirl (Jalmngir's Memoirs) the followin
occurs: ^T^ c;J>? <xUyo Jlajl/o ^ $ C^PA ^^ )\yt ^> A> ^J,3 *^-ib ? x^^
chaJiar sad u pn.nzdal* tola ki yak hazar $i u hafi u mm misqal rm-badiu
ba-wazn bar amad : in Modern Persian this would be ch,ahar sad u panzda
tola ki hazar u si u haft misqal u mm* j ^~
(e) A cardinal number precedes its noun (without the izafat) and th
noun is in the singular, as: jyj_va> hazar mard il one thousand men", bu
^cUx^i^iJ % dah nafar ashkhas e< ten individuals." An hazar mard *' th
thousand men."
Very rarely the ma 1 dud ^<***> precedes the 'adad ^*xc ; in this case tii
former has usually the indefinite ya, as : *>^T j ^.y ^^^U- sal-i du bar in bo
amad (Sa f dl) <l about two years, a two years or so, elapsed."
1 Vide note 2, p. 184.
2 Amlr-tuman ^*^j+*l (without izafat) is a Persian title.
8 Yak hazar u yak sad &*&^ { jj j }{*-' is also used for emphasis, but ordinarily tli
numeral yak is omitted except in Indian Persian.
* Notice the position of nlm in the second instance and the insertion of j hetvvee
hazar and al.
186 CARDINAL NUMBERS.
In poetry the cardinal sometimes follows for poetical license, as :
M (T
and
The ma 1 dud is occasionally understood, also by poetical license:
In Modern Persian at any rate, an Arabic plural, or Persian imitation
broken plural , is sometimes em ployed, as: *A*i to dah'fa'ala ! <c ten workmen" ;
cL-Ud+c & null 'amalajat "nine workmen" or "artificers"; ci>la**i* &~
si qal'ajat C three forts "; ofjfef ^^ chahar atraf (m.c.) "on all sides,"
for chahar taraf', bi-sad mushkilat o^&* **& (Afghan) for bi-sad mushkil, or
bi-sad ishkal (ni.c.).
In the rare instances where the numeral stands as a predicate to a
definite noun, the noun is in the plural, as: " the men were two thousand "
<* (j^j-* mar dan du hazar budand.
The noun may be in the plural after sadha U<w> " hundreds " ; Jiazaran
> orhazarha UyjA <4 thousands," as : !;^ (e>^^ ^ or better) <j*^ p* UyjA
t)j1 *xijb'.:x hazarha Iwm-jins-i* (or bettor ham-jins-Jia-yi 8 ) Wiud ra khivahand
award (m.c.) <; they will bring thousands of their own people ** : sadha fi,l*
J*i Ua*o (or incorrectly fil-ha) ; hazaran (or Jiazarha) fit (or fil-ha). The plural
after sadha, etc., is probably incorrect, for, as, already stated, sadha is rarely
used in m.c., haza.rha or hazaran being substituted : hazaran kurur (m.c.).
k thousands of krorzs" ; hazaran hazar (m.c.), or hazar hazar (m.c.) * many
thousands " (lit. " thousands of a thousand " and <c a thousand thousand ") :
chanrRn hazar " several thousand."
(/) A substantive preceded by a cardinal number does not admit of the
'j of the accusative unless specially definite, as : "I shot two and a half brare
of partridges to-day" *:>y ;^ *-***" **^ JkJ j-y imruz panj dana kabk* shikar
kardam, but har du man ra 6 firistad (m.c.) ^U^j t^JU ^^ yk *' he sent
both of us (def.) ; har si ra firistadam (&&*;> I; ^Uy> t( I sent all three " (def.).
[The dative, however, can be expressed either by \) or by the preposition
<V , as : j>Ai j^ ^o o e/f a-^ ^ man/ ra bigu, or ^J ^ ^^ ^b 6a an rfw mard( bigu
1 '! here is a tendency in m.c. to treat some of the commoner Arabic broken plurals
as singular ; s^U^J asbab, for instance, is sometimes treated as a singular : vide also 29 (c)
Remark and footnote ( I).
2 But u hazar ham jins darad (not ham-jinsfia).
z Here the plural ham jinsha sounds better ; also it conveys the idea of hazarha az
ham-jinsha-yi Mtud.
* The word hazaran or hazarha is used in m.c. and sadha rarely.
6 Or kabg m.c.
e Or har du-yi man raj or har du ta man ra, or ma har du ta ra.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
187
' ' tell those ten
* ' tell tliose two men " ; an dah mard ra bigu j& f; ^
men," etc.].
Sad tuman ra ki az man duzdidid pas nami dihid (m.c.) jt tf f;
^ A v u+> O^f *'*'^ v* " won't you return me the 100 tumans that you stole
from me ? ' '
Remark. liar du, liar si, etc., may be considered as pronouns.
(q) The Persians have several qualifying or determining words for
various objects when used with numerals, like the English " twelve head of
cattle," ' etc. These are placed before the substantive, which is in the
singular without the ' imfat' (vide 117), as: *^ ( v ;^ or) v lj ^^j* duwst*
bab khana,, 200 houses ; \(*j~j& ^~y bist nafar sarbaz" twenty rank and file ' ' ;
du farsakh rah " two farsakh's distance. "
Such words are especially common in writing. The following are those
principally employed :
*_& . > nafar . . \ji
Persons
Horses
Mules
Donkeys
Mules
Camels
Men or camels
M u 1 o s a 11 d
camels.
Klephants
I
ras
kamand
mahar
nafar
qitar
zawjir ; mirbat
du nafar far rash.
. y-t uwf; *~* si ra*$ asp,
applied to single animals.
kamand * ' a slip knot ;
lasso; scaling ladder."
y& (j& or) ;^ ; W chahar
mahar (or nafar) shutur.
qitar li a line, string," is a
string of camels under
one leader (of usually
seven camels).
zanjir = ' *' cliain ' ' ; mirbat
1 ' anything for tying or
binding such as halter,
etc."
1 Mso * twelve brace of partridges ' ; * six pair,' 'ten sail ' ; a thousand horse ' or
foot.' etc.
2 Colloquially o-"J^ didst. Derived from *-^~-*Jrf (k)to dah (ta) blsl " ten twenties."
&\A. o.v-,. v c^J yak dast khana moans one house with a complete set of rooms ; yak feliana
might consist of only one room.
.V,
a Far rash (j&j* lit. * carpet spreader ": a servant whose functions are to pitch tents,
sweep out the room, walk before his master, carry messages, apply the bastinado, and
bring tea. This functionary has been aptly described as * 4 anything from a housemaid to
an executioner."
* Also used colloquially
188
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
Sheep, goats . .
Fowls
Dogs
Hawks
Falconer
Guns (cannon)
Sails
Money
Jewels, fruit . .
Clothes
Guns, etc.
- l~ shakh ; dart a ; shakh = "horn" ; dana ~
'adad; ra^
dana
qilada
I; bahla
bazu
l arrada
farvand
dana
dana
sanb
" a grain"; ( adad = "a
number" ; ras-s '* a head."
61 a collar."
AwJ = "hand"; bahla 1
(classical) 4< a falconer'?
glove."
(classical); bazu "arm."
"a kind of small balista;
a cart (modern)."
' * a sail ' ' : vulg. farund.
^-ky & $ *** sad dana tu-
m>am (m.c.) 100 gold tu-
rn an <; pieces.
yak saub
qabza
jild
fard
takhta
sardarl (also less correctly
yak dtrna sardari).
, lula,qabza. . mJi " a bodkin for apply-
ing collyrium ; an obe-
lisk; a milestone; probe,
etc."; lula *'a pipe; a
barrel/'
.. qabza "hilt of a sword;
a handle."
i . <; volume."
. . corresponds to the Hindu-
stani word than.
. . "a unit ; one PITM<
. . * v a board."
Swords and
daggers.
Books
Shawls or piece-
goods.
Carpets * or . .
Felt
For mablagh
139 (A).
* Also naed colloquially.
'2 In m.c. dast-kash J^S o-^^ j s use d for a falconer s or any other glove, fn India
this word signifies " an assistant falconer," i.e., " one who strokes " the hawk.
sum (of money)" and muwazl lt equal to, etc.," wV
-
" a gold five
Panj hazar ;!> ^ -. , 4five qir5ngs h u t pan j fiazarl ^
bit ** (value now nine qirans).
* Carpets in Persia are woven and sold by the pair, each pair being identical in
pattern. Persian taste requires everything in a room to be in pairs : the same pictures
even (coloured prints of European women of ample charms only partially concealed),
repeat themselves on both sides of a doorway or arch. Fard also means " an account "
or "a list."
CARDINAL NUMBERS. 189
Remark I. A phrase like, "I struck him three blows with a sword" is
rendered "ura si shamshir zadam fo)^*&* *<* f^f, or si zakhm-i (or zarb-i)
shams Kir zadam p*)j^+ ( vj** or) ^j A~ (m.c.). 1
Remark II. In ordinary conversation,^ nafar is used for persons and
13 ta or A>'^ dana for things.
Tais also used in forming nouns of number, as : ^Iwxj ^ yak btstd^(m.c.)
'' a score " ; ^3(3 t^j* <-> yak davazda tafi (m.c.) " a dozen " : ^13 te ,_> yak
dah t(i*i, etc.
In classical Persian, the ^ of unity was sometimes added to form nouns
of number, as: davazdah-3, (in speaking duvaza-i ) ll a dozen" : duv-i (class.)
11 two and two " ; yak-i is a pronoun "one, some one."
Remark ///.It will be noticed that, as in the case of the cardinal
numbers, these determining numbers are usually followed'by a singular noun.
(li) Juft 1 cufiA. or jj zauj is a pair; A&J linga is the odd one of a pair,
or the load of one side of a transport animal ; &j)& cJo yak darzhan (or dajan)
(in.f.) is " a dozen" (applied to things generally sold by the dozen);
t^U) cu-,> u>-' yaA; dost libas " a suit of clothes ' ' ; J&^ j ^ c^^^ ^ yak dost
kdrd u changal 'one set consist! ag of 2 knives, 2 forks and 2 spoons' (or
' one place at table ') ; yak dast zarf ojfe ^ * wX " one set consisting of six
plates and six cups " ; yak dast finjan n'alnakl ^^^ ^**** o~*^ uXj t4 a set of
six cups and six saucers"; muqamir ra si shash mi-bay ad va llkin si yak
mi-dyad (Sa'cli) "the gambler wants three sixes, but three one's keep
coming up."
(i) The emphatic phrase l^xi j & ^ man yaka va tanha signities
" I single and alone ; quite by myself; unaided."
(j) The phrase &* ;^ Jk > du char shudan signifies to encounter unexpect-
edly." Ex. : ^*xu )^j& +*(> ba ham du char shudim * ( we met each other" ;
du chdr-i u shudam, or urn du char shudam (m.c. only) " I met him."
(k) 8adha* U^^; hazaran &\y\*>, hazdrhd U)|;A signify " hundreds of:
thousands of." Ex. : o^; ^U laJL^ cu^t JU UiX^ 4 sadha salast inja manda ast
(m.c.) <4 it has lain here for hundreds of years" ; j/ UKX* sadha kuroh
(Afghan) "hundreds of kos." b
1 In India si shatushlr zadam , ^? chitb zadam, etc.
i ,/M/^ nami-fchwaham ; linga ml-Mtwaham ^*^^a.^ ^JJ f^lr*-^ ^^ *' I want a
single (odd) carpet, not a pair."
3 The plural -an of this word not used.
* Hazaran would be more usually substituted in colloquial idiom : no dah nah
sad hazarha (Qa'ani).
5 A kos is an Indian measure of distance supposed to be about two miles : it
however, varies in districts and may be anything from H to 4 miles.
190 CARDINAL NUMBERS.
agar chunm e amal mi-kardam
hazarhd daf'ah bihtar mi-sJmd (m.c.) "had I done so, it would have been
thousands of times better for me" (better hazar chandan, "a thou-
sand-fold"): OA? j* jj$ ^J y ;Uju &*> sad bimar az lab-i gur
bar gasht " a hundred sick have (many a sick person has) returned from the
brink of death (recovered when given up)," but sadha bwnar "hundreds of
sick."
The Afghans sometimes (incorrectly) say sadha-yi marduman&\*>:j*^***
instead of sadha mard d/ ^<x*>.
(1) For the expression :( we two, both," etc., vide 39 (/) (3), ma du tin far
j& ^ t/o ? or ma liar du ?& j* I* , or bar du-yi man d*> ^^ **>.
(m) The cardinals are used to express the year, vidv 48 (*)J
3 This life is often, especially in poetry, referred to as In panj ruz jj; ^ <^'f,or
In du nlz-i 'umr j+* JJ) * &> . Dar du dunya l ^^ )2 )t means "in this world and in
tho next " : haft qalam ^ c^Urf> <k is the seven styles of writing " ; haft iqllm *-^ ^&*>
* the seven climes of the world" ; haft darya {{)& oJik tk t]io seven seas " ; haftjahannam
*>
+t^ oA* l< the seven divisions of the Muslim ilell (each of which has a separate
name)" ; haft blhisht o-y oJi* the seven Paradises of Islam (exclusive of the Kursiy
or Falak^l-Buruj, and the ' Arsh or Falak**1-Aflak)." According to tlie vulgar there are
eight. . . .
Haftad u du j* 5 ^U&A for haftadudu millat ^~U j- j ,vUUu occurs in poetry for the
seventy-two religions of the world :
Jang-i ha/tad u <hi millat liama ra ( uzr bi-nih
f >hun na-dldand haqlqnt rah-i afsana zadaiid.
(Ha/is.)
Haftad u si firqa &*j* A - } ^Uft^ ig the seventy-three sects of Islam. Muhammad
is reported to have said that there were 71 sects of the Jows, 72 of the Christians, but
that there would be 73 of Muslims There are five more.
There are ninety-nine attributes of God called al as naP'l-hiinna or " the excellent
names," but commonly Persians talk of the thousand and one names of God. Alia hi*
called the Istn u 'z' z at or * essential name of God ' and ? with the ninety-nine attributes,
completes the one hundred names recited by means of the rosary in tho exercise or
zikr. The IsmP'l-A'zarn,, or tl Uroatname of God," is supposed to be known only to
saintly persons. 'AH is supposed to have one less, i.e. 1,000 names.
There are supposed to be 1,24,000 Prophets.
The world it is supposed is 8,000 years old, and will reach the age of 50,00(1
years :
Farda ki az in dayr-i kuhn darguzarlm
Ba haft hazar-salagan ham safar-im.
" To-morrow we shall quit this inn, and march
With comrades who have marched seven thousand years. ' '
(0. K. 312 Whin.)
THE ORDINALS. 191
48. The Ordinals.
(a) The Persian ordinals are formed by adding the termination urn to the
cardinals. This termination is turned by Grammarians rnim-i siiati
( ^l&o (>*) or mlm-i Wyln4 to,' dad ( &\**> (^**> p* ) They are treated as
adjectives and as such can precede or follow their substantives :
1st , , J>! - +& } -or o~--so . , avval (Ar.); yakum, or nufchnsl.
2nd . . ^ or ^^ . . duvvum or duyum.
*** ***
3rd . . +r* or ' l +**> . , sivvum or siyyum.
4th . f;^ chaharum.
5th . . f?^J panjum.
6th . . ^^ . . shishum, classically shashum.
7th . . f XR& . . ha j turn
8th . . ^.i^A . . has/itum.
9th ffj . . nuhum.
l()th ^A,V . . dahum.
30th . . fl '^w 2 . . si-urn.
(b) When there is more than one number, the formative affix is added to
the last only, as : f;^ -> ^-W -> ^^ ? ac ^ w chihal u chaharum " the hundred and
forty-fourth (144th)."
(c) The Persian ordinals can hi addition take the affix ^ w&, sometimes
contracted to ^, as: ^jjj^iu nukhusfin, (^*+:j3 duyyumin, etc. Ex, ^ij;
c.^ f raunaq-i avvalin * (Sa'di) " former brightness (or splendour)."
Remark. In poetry a cardinal number sometimes takes the place of
an ordinal, as: fjZ-' ** c>' ^3 f/ 3 ^
(^) The ordinals may be followed by the ra of the accusative, as:
Question: t $*[>-* x> h ^s^. f 1 ^ kudam yakl-ra mi-khwaht "which one
Inn, as we stay only a short time. Haft-hazar salagan, ** all the dead who have pro-
ceded us "
May kh.ur ki 9 z dil kasrat u qillat M-barad
V andisha-yi hajtad u du millat b>-barad.
" Drink wine to root up with a metaphysie's weeds
And tangle of the two-and-seventy creeds."
(0. K. 194 Whin.}
***
1 Yakum p&> is much less used in Persia than avval J^'. In India and Afghanistan
yakum is generally used instead of avval for the 1st of the month. Nufehust o^iu
and nuts&ustln ^>^*u are classical, and only used in writing nukhmt zad <( first born."
2 Note the distinction in writing between ** 3rd and 30th " in Persian.
S Here avval J;l could be substituted for avvalin &~j In avvalin u afyfairin
c^/^ ' 2 &~J ** ancients and moderns " the terminations are the oblique case of the
regular (classical) Arabic masculine plural.
192
THE ORDINALS.
do you want ? ' ' Answer : t; fo > cu-jj Ust u yakum rd " the twenty- first ' ' :
?<xi t; ^;t^. chahdrumi l rd bidih (m.c.) "give me the fourth."
(e) The Arabic ordinals, which are also adjectives, are to a certain
extent used up to "the tenth." 2 These are formed on the 'measure* of
.
the agent <J.cU (masc.), and isb' (fern.), the first excepted.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
1st
\
-lid
^L) or c'lJ . . | sani 8
3rd
^J6 . . $uli$
4th
^jf; . . ra6^'
5tli ^x:^ . . khamis
6th u-oU* . . sddis
7th
eu' .. &
8th c^-k . . samin
9th 5*U .. frm<
10th 7 ~lc 5 . . - 'dshir
i ula (rare in Per
(,?)
i sian;
| saniya.*
\
! sdlisa.
rdbi'a.
khdmisa.
sddisa.
sabi'a.
i
sdmina
i tdsi'a.
'ashira.
Remark I. The Arabic numbers 20, 30. etc., up to 90, and the numbers
100 and 1000 are the same for both cardinal and ordinal.
Remark II. An Arabic ordinal may be employed even with a Persian
substantive, as : (^^ ;* charkh-i samin " the eighth heaven."
(/) Sovereigns bearing the same name are distinguished by the Arabic
ordinals, as : <y li ^-1^1: & Shah Tahmdsp-i sani ' * King Tahmasp the Second ' '
(who lost Persia to the Afghans).
1 For chaharumln ra
2 In speaking up to 4< the third " only.
..A
s In Persian always <^ l > sanL
* In Pers. generally only used for * * a second of time. ' '
6 9- \)j**\& 'ashura is the tenth day of the first Muhammadan month Muharram, when
the miracle play is performed by Shi 'as. It must be recollected that in Muslim
calculation the night precedes the day.
THE ORDINALS. 193
(g) The Arabic ordinal Jy avval " the first" is generally used in dates,
as ^Ua.^; U Jy avval-i mah-i Ramazan 1 ''the first of Ramazan."
The feminine j^jf is rarely used in Persian even in the names of the
j^
Arabic months ; thus ^^if c^+r- is less used than Jjll! ^W-
Avval Jy is an adjective and is coupled by the izafat when it follows its
substantive. When however it precedes a substantive it is generally to be
considered a substantive, and is followed by a genitive, as: &\*j> ^\a* Jj) )&
dar avval-i khak-i Kirman (me.) "at the commencement of the district of
Kirman."
The plural of Jj avval is J'y a va til signify ing "the beginning; the first
part; the first ten d-iys of every month," as opposed to y^fy avakhir
the plural of /^f akhira ( and akhir y^T ) " ends, latter parts; the last ten
days of each month." Ex. : ) oJJii- JJty ^ dar ava*il-i saltanat-i u "in the
beginning of his reign " ; (J**>) ^3 ;^ dar avakhir-i zindagi " at the close of
his life," avval shab " the first night," but avval-i shab ^ Jy " the beginning
of the night." (J^J f^;^ ^^ c5;^^ \^ J f*fi $ az iurikh-i siwum-i
Janvarl li- <jjhayat-i chahardahum-i April (m.c.) "from the 3rd of January to
the end of tho 14th of April."
!j !>
Remark. Ula ^jf, the Ar. fern, of avval Jy, must not be confused with
^f awla " more or most excellent" which is the elative form from waU ^
and has no connection with avval, uln.
(h) The first of the month is also called ^ g&urra, Ar., which properly
signifiesa " blaze on a horse's forehead," or a "star too large to be covered by
the thumb-top, the new moon/ 2 etc., etc." The last of the months is also ^^
salkh<> Ar. , which has for its original meanings "to skin, flay; to shed
the skin (snake); to shed foliage and grow green again." Not an uncom-
mon phrase in writings is : &*<*) ^l~j ^ jl y ^ *U mah-i ( umr-i u az
gjmrra bi-salkh rasld " his day.s drew to a close," lit. " the month of his life-
time travelled from its ghurra to its salkh."
The first of the month is also called t^ Jy avval-i mah^ or U^* sar-i mah,
and the last aU^Lf akhir-i mah.
(i) The ordinals are used in computing the year of the reign of a
sovereign, but the cardinals are used in expressing the date of an era.
(j) The ordinals are sometimes vulgarly formed by adding digar to a
cardinal, without an izafat y as: Ufy ^ to* j ^ jS.>$ &> si-dlgar tanumand u
tawana (Tr. H. B., Chap. VI) "the third was a man robust and strong."
J Ramazan, the ninth month of the Muslim year and the month of fasting.
* The new moon is hildl J^*, and badr )** the full moon : in speaking mah-i ahab-i
chafiardah to )^^ *r^** *' |/0 is generally used for the " full moon.*'
13
194
FRACTIONS.
OTHER CLASSES OF NUMERALS.
49. Fractions kusur
pi. of kasr\
(a) Persian fractions are usually formed by placing the denominator
after the numerator, as:.^ ^A haft du C{ two-sevenths " ( ). In mixed
numbers, the whole number precedes the fraction as in English. Examples :
To(H
mm
in m.c. only used in com-
pounds.
chahar yak
vulg. ^){<*- charak (used in
weights and measures).
chahar si
not used in Modern Persian.
si yak
seldom used in in c.
panj yak
used in m.c.
shash yak
used in m.c.
haft yak
,,
hasht yak
,,
dah null
not used in m.c.
sad yak
used in m.c.
fl sad navad u
c< in a hundred, ninety and
nuh.
nine."
hazar yak
m.c.
dah du
m.c.
dah nim.
not m.c.
bist yak
m.c.
Remark /.For jj, etc., tlie Arabic fraction du mis, g 5/A sumn, etc.,
must be used ; -s hasht yak or 7^a^ si would he wron.
Remark II. The fractions are followed by the izafat, as : *<x>
khhums-i in ra bi-man bi-dih "give me a fifth of this" : -=*~*t c^^
yak-i in haqq-i man ast (m.c.) c 'a tentJi belongs by right to me."
The Persian fraction \ si yak is not used, and ] chahar yah is only used for
weights and measures ; for ' ' give me a fourth of this ' ' the Arabic fraction
and not the Persian would be used: similarly ' half of this' ^ uun nfof-i
In, but t4 !^ yards broad cloth" c^t^ +** ) \t *J*> yak gaz u nim ma hut.
1 Kusiir-i *a?nn> " vulgar fractions " : kiisur-i a'shariyyah "decimal fractions."
2 Nlm +*? in generally used in compounds : in speaking nisf Oi^aJ ] s prefeireci.
Nlwa <Ux> is also used as nlma-yi rah (m.c.) fc; &+> "halfway " ; niwa-yi wah %k* ^Ux
(m.c.) " the fifteenth of the month " : nirna alone is used in m.c. for ** half a brick";
*J ^i^ ki'abat riima~yi dMar = ol3'i c-ft/o. c^jU^ kitabat nisf-ul-mulaqcit
Ar., ** writing (a letter) is equal to half a visit," i.e. correspondence with friends doen
away with half the pain of separation.
FRACTIONS. 195
(6) The Arabic fractional terms are sometimes used even in speaking.
In the singular, they are generally of the measure cU* (e.g. ^JL> "a third")
,^'
and in the plural JUf. Examples :
2 - - **&&> m's/ l . . Used in speaking instead of
nim.
9
i . *j . . rub' or ruha c . . PI. a ty arba' (rare).
1 . . >j A- . . si rub* (or ruba 1 )
"a -^ - . suls . . PL asla* (rare) ( - also the
three- thirds).
sulsayn 8 Dual; (the dependent case in
the classical language);
du suls in Persian.
khums . . PI. u*^ akhmas (not used).
PI- <j*t*~ asdas (not used).
. . PI. ^U-' asba' (not used).
. . PL ^^^t asman (not used).
. . PL ^Ui} a^sa* (rare).
. PL ;^^ ' ushiir * and ;t^
The duals arid plurals are very rarely used except by Mullas in writing 6
Remark. c A tjuarter to' is sometimes expressed, thus: chahdr ilia rub'
* four minus a quarter," etc., but the expression is perhaps incorrect.
v c) In m c. c^/^'jj v^*ai tiisf-i ziy ad-tar- ax k^ or better
/ii,s/ zii/a(f-t(tr-ash signifies c< more than half."
(d) In Modern Persian, mV v^^aJ is generally used for the substantive
"half" while mm ^ is preferred for compounds, as : jlaj ^A-^ tusj-i qut/r
^ radius of a circle (lit. half the diameter)," but v^ /*V nim-khwab "half
asleep."
However, in m.c., nwn-shab is occasionally used for " midnight/* as well
as tiisj-i shab and nitna-ifi shab : nim-rTiz (class.) * midday.'
1 Bil-muna#afa A^UJb > ir i halves, equally but\vooii two " : dar lutf-i iarlq
' half way.'*
S> '9 o '
'2 In Arabic the forms '; ami >J; (and similar measures) arc found, but in Persian
-
tho measure C/* ? only is used.
' ; In speaking du #idft t du kfeiims, si fcburns, etc., J, l), -\
* In Persian, the pi. ;>^ is used for the singular T \jtli.
fi In Arabic, the fractions above a tenth are expressed by a paraphrase *' so many
parts out of so many parts ( *y^ )."
196 ADVERBIAL NUMERALS.
(e) Such expressions as " 5%" are rendered by *u **> sad panj, or
.Ja <i*o ^9 fl sad pan]. Yak bar daft to> j u& " ten to one (in betting)/' '
(/) Decimal fractions are rendered by a paraphrase, thus *75"= j ^'&* ^^
g*\ Juj sad 2 haftdd u panj-i inch, or g\ o.*-J <w j' o*-J> ^j J&* haftad
u panj qismat az sad qismat-i inch.
(g) Fractions may also be expressed as follows : *& jl ^C ?/afc- as daA
"one out of ten, or one-tenth"; &^ j ja dw as 51 "two out of three,
or two- thirds."
50. Adverbial Numerals ( uJfi ^^ )
(a) The ordinals can be used as adverbial numerals. Ex. : ^^ <*&f ^.
ty v^J. ;lf ^ dj& $ j^t ^ ^iii> <*&f ^.i ^ v^ 2/a^-t anki garmi-yi aftab bud;
duyyum anki tufang u barudugulula yak bar bar man bud, "firstly, there
was the heat of the sun; and, secondly, the rifle with powder and bullets was
quite a load for me " ; in this sentence avval could be substituted for yak-l.
(b) The Arabic ordinals in the accusative case are also used in Persian
as adverbs :
;?--<
Jly anval- on , ; firstly, in the first place."
Uils saniy- an , "secondly, in the second place."
* A '
n , etc., etc
(c) The Persian ordinals, with the exception of yakum 8 added to
martaba, A*^ daf'ah, or ;L> bar ci time," etc., etc., signify <e first time,
second time," etc., as : Afyo Jy , or J^f V|/ X> avval martaba or martaba-yi avval
"the first time," etc., ^ <U?\> daf'a-yi duvvum (or daf'a-yi sani), py# &>*&
daf'ah-yi sly yum.
Remark. Bar-ha U ; l (pi. oi bar) means ' c oft-times." For du-chandan,
etc. "twice as much," trc'dfe Multiplicative Numerals.
(d) The cardinals prefixed to the same substantives signify "once,
twice," etc. Ex. : ;b &** si bar " thrice" ; ;L> ^ kam-bar (classical only) **
"seldom." Ex. : ^yj^ ^ *^ ^jj; ruz-i si\bar khwurdl (Sa'dl) " he used to
eat three times a day."
1 The expressions found in old Persian fl dah bis' 200 / ; and /* dah yak, or yak dah
are not used in modern Persian.
2 Sad ">, i.e. per 100. [As -75" is singular, it is wrong to say -75 inches.]
* The Arabic ordinal avval supplies the place of yakum.
* In modern Persian )b p kam-bar is an adjective signifying "of light weight or
load."
MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS. 197
*
(e) " Once again " is^jj> ' 4*^ ^ yak daf'a-yi dlyar, or )\^ bi-takrar
>j*>
( <k by repetition "), or )j&* mukarrar, or jL> 33 du bam.
(/) Such expressions as "twice two makes four," etc. are rendered as
follows :
2 x 2 du martaba du chahar ast*z+~\ ;l^ ^ *j*j*, or du bar du chahar
ast c^f jly*. j&jjt, or du du ta chahar td ^ y^ ^ j> ^
5-1-5 panj u panj dah ml shavad ^ ^ to ^ j -*J, or panj ta u panj ta
dah to & ^ ^ 13 Jj.
5 5 panj az panj, hlch g** ^u j ^
5-f-5 panj dar panj, yak u& ^ ;^ ^
51. Multiplicative Numerals.
(a) The multiplicative or reduplicative numerals are as follows :
" Single " ^xj mufrad, U5o yakta, A>KJ yagana.
"Double" ubUax; muza'af, &x j du chand, ^*^ 3* du chandan,
&^}z dur/ana, Uja rfw /a, J/^o> c?^ /a. 3
^ .,
"Treble'' ^\^ musallas; U A^ 5^* ^a; <>Aa. A^ 5i chand ; ^'^ *- ^t
chandan ; <*Jlf A- 5* ^ana ; J! AV, 54 /a. 8
"Quadruple" g^c murabba', oU^i A*J;| arba'a az'af, ^i^;^ chahar
chand, etc.
"Twenty-fold" c>f<>^ ^-*^ ^^ chandan, o^x Ms/, a, Jblix; c: jj
6i?^ muqabil, &L^ o^-y 6^9^ muqabala.
'* A hundred-fold " c;i<^^ <^ s^ chandan, il'tflx i)^, U xo, etc.
Examples : cu^; ^f ^ l ^^ v^ t^ J '* this is twice as much water as that " :
i? ^i '* this is twenty times the amount of wheat ' ' :
v^^l;i parisham-yi ma chahar chandan izafa shud
(m.c.) "our alarm was increased four-fold": in si barabar-i an ast (m.c.)
o^' e;Tj^7 J *^ cHl cc this is three times as much as that " ; +^ y.\y. &*jk (>*>
ft & \ f >=* f.f. ^vijfj^ or) man bi-u si barabar-i hakim (or duwazda barabar-i
hakim) dada am (me.) "I have given him three times (or twelve times) as much
as the Haklrn gave " ; oy ai^iyk *5of 3; f&\tji ^ Jbla/c A^ si muqabil ziyad-tar
dadam az an ki khwasta bud (rn.c.) (( I gave him more than three times what
he asked " : f>to' ^ ^ ^ Ai^tyx Aaeuf Jblax ^^ ^/o man si muqdbil-i anchi khwasta
bud bi-u dada am (m.c.) " I have given him three times what he asked."
(6) Of the above, the Arabic multiplicatives are seldom used. In
ordinary use are the compounds of 0' ta, 31 la, &*>*. chand, e;!*^ chandan and
muqdbila.
1 Or bar ;L> or martaba
i In India the word takrar is also used for " altercation, dispute."
^ Colloquially dulla, silla.
198 RECURRINU NUMEKALS.
52. Distributive Numerals.
The distributive numerals are : -X>^; l yakdyak, or <-* **> yak yak, or
v5^ ^ J . yak-i yak-l (m.o.), or && && * yagdnyagdn (obsolete) " one by one ' ' -
also jj-*j }& huva bi-huva (rn.c.) 3 : ^ ^ du badu, or *>> ^ du du, or Ujj> l^^ c?w /a
du ta, or dugan "by twos"; *~ A^ si se ''three by three, by threes ";
chahdrdri chahdrdn (old)" four &t,B, time'' ; t i&dahdali <k by tens";
yagdn u dugan (old) " by ones and twos." Examples : jj> ;&
^ixiix'C AJfjj^j v v ^^ j ^.;o.xf (j^^ AsuU^ ^xi5jjj/o *^f bi-nawbat jihai-i shikar
du du ddam me-raftem chundnchi du me-dmadem wa du-yi dlgor me-raflem
(Afghan) " we* used to go out shooting by turns, two of us at a time, viz.
when two of us returned two others from amongst us started in their place."
The Afghan idiom { -^ If&Jb ;^ ^b^^^^ L^^^J ^ er ^ manriimnlmsir,
yd sir sir bar ad, dar tujangha kardam (Afghan) s< I (oaded the guns with
half a seer or a seer each " would in m.c. be expressed mm sir yd yak sir yak
sir bdrud dar tufang- h d ka rdam (m.c.).
(2) Adverbs and Adjectives such as -H*^ takhmin " about." etc.
are also used to express approximation, as : takhmm fln Inst sal slmda ki
&> Tb<^> JU o/*oj 1x^4.3X3 " about 20 years have elapsed since : - "o^b* ** o^y ^J
j.^,1 ^c AAJ^ *^'^ pan') t'umdn ki mmcnzi-yi pdnzdah ruplya mi-bdshad
(m.c.) *' five tuman which is equal to fifteen rupees " ; qarib-i sad (or bi-#ad)
nafar shutur dnjd bud (m.c.) ^ Uufy^ j'su x^ ( o^aj or ) ^^ "there w^re
about 100 camels there."
(3) And *>j (connected witli ^oJ andak and ^^ eland), corresponds to
English "odd," as: <^'j oUy ^ si tuman ca and (class.) "thirty odd
tumans."
53, Recurring Numerals.
The recurring numerals are : '* alternately" e;^;^ ^0 yak dar miydn\
"once every ten days" &j-o ^ JD 8^ j& liar dah ruz yak martaba, etc.
Examples: ^ ^Ij^a j; ->: ynk ruz dar jniydn biyd " come every
other day 6 "; "cut down every third tree" du biguzdr siyumin rd bi-bur
' Also moana 4 * siuldouh.'
2 iSoiiio Ai'gliann still say yagan yagan \*y&* ^)^-. I he termination an appears to be
adverbial rather fchan a plural: ^J&LftA liaftagan "by sevens " (obs.) ; e^t^ *&*[> bum-
dadan "in the morning'' (Sa'di) : the Afghans say ($*]) rastan for the adrerb
" straight.'*
8 Means " in detail or exactly. " In Indian pronounced }&j*> hfi ba-hfi.
* In modern Persian t^- 1 f^ y j*' 6 ( j& J^. j& ^ or) j<V J& fo" *^t^ ***'; J **
p^j& c j*t&j&J*Jp J . t * M i ^f'Oj&j^ bi-nawbat jihat-i shikar du bi-du (or du nafar bi <tu
nafar) ml raftlm ya'nl du nafar ml amadlm va du nafar-i dlgar ml-raftim (m.c.).
^
* ^ ghibb an , ** at intervals, occasionally,** is also sometimes used in writing for
' alternate days ' ; from a saying of the Prophet who was somewhat bored by the daily
visits of a friend. The Prophet suggested to his friend that he should visit him y]ihibb- a ".
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 199
*^ J* or du dar miydn yak-1 rd bi-bur ; j}**>>
" take one dose every three hours."
54. Approximate Numbers.
(a) Approximate numbers are expressed as follows : ** ji du si,
or 15 4u j& du si td (m.c.) " two or three " ; ^ jl &> chahdr panj, or 13 ^ ^t^
chahdr panj td (m.c.) " four or five " ; cJU <_ s/*as/& fca/J, f * six or seven,"
etc., etc. Ex: o^> ^ y^ chahdr panj angusht, "four or five fingers'
Vi
breadth"; du si musht-i bar kalla-yi u zadam f jt $\$ y ^!L* &*jt> (m.c.)
<4 I boxed his ears once or twice for him."
Remark. In du si bar-i ^t *~>j* = " a two or three times or so." the
(^ is the indefinite ^5.
(b) In the m.c. phrase haft hasht dah td U *t> owSu C^A, ' some seven or
ten," the number nuh is invariably omitted.
(c) For *\^ e/?and, c< a few," vide 39 (gr) : _Jii ^*-Jo ^^y gart&-i 6^ na/ar,
<c about 20 persons," } or taqrib an or takhmln an blst nafar.
55. Numeral Adjectives.
(a) Many numeral adjectives are formed by means of the silent h : aJU ^A
shash-sala, ** of six years old " : &)(* *^**> j <^> ^ pir-i sad u panjdh sdla,
** an old man of 150 years " ; *&; oAfc hajtranga, " seven coloured (the rain-
bow) " ; *^ y t ^ v^w ^a7i7-i chahar-ruya, " a square a stone." In *Vj* ^-^ 5
tufang-i du-lula, " double-barrelled gun," the is already a portion of the
word Ma, lt a spout, etc." ; *<fcUy> har mdha, <4 of every month."
The adjectives 8j^j^ du-bdra &;k *^ si-bdra can also be used as adverbs,
wde 50 (d).
(b) Professional story-tellers (^ A^^O ma ( rika~gir, or J& naqqdl)*
often express ^everybody old and young " by the phrases eJU 31 (j^ a+&
AlL. ^UiA U aJu hama kas az haft-sdla td haftdd-sdla, or *JU liij 13 AJI* ^u 31
aa: panj-sdla td panjah-sala, or ^^U os^ U aJl* ji-i j| a^ shash sdla td shast
sola.
The following idioms (obsolete) occur in the Tuzuk-i Jahdngm (the
Memoirs of the Emperor Jahangir) : 6iw>y ^)^ ^A^jb j> ^^-^ e^b^3l
'* they are somewhat larger than the common wild pigeon " ; 3^ &*> 3 1 A ^- J*
e;ly AAU^J ^^Us ^tu ^jj^j tj y ^lU" jj^U ^ ''they (i.e. a pair of
, adv., means " at an estimate."
><
2 The Arabic adjective g*^ murabba' "square" is also used, particularly in
mathematics.
3 The term qie^Jsihwan is seldom used in Persia.
200 ARABIAN MONTHS.
newly-hatched sarus cranes) are somewhat larger than the young of
a goose, or about the same size as pea-chicks a month old 1 ': possibly
these idioms arose from the everyday Urdu idiom ikkls bis kd farq hai,
"the difference between them is very slight (lit. the difference of 20 and
21).
(c) Arabic numeral adjectives are J>& trilateral, triangular, "treble J '
) rub&i, a four-lettered word ; a quatrain: "quadruple" and so
on.
CHAPTER VII.
56. Arabian Months.
(a) The Muslim lunar months ' are arranged to consist of 30 and 29
days (usually alternately), so the whole year consists of 354 days (and
9 hours). In a period of thirty years an intercalary day is added eleven times,
i.e. the last month is eleven times in thirty years made to consist of 30
days instead of 29. (Hence the Naw Ruz would fall every year about 1 1
days earlier than the previous year and not, as it does, on 21st March.)
As with the Jews, the civil day commences at sunset, and the month
commences on that evening when the new moon * is visible. [Hence the early
Arab writers reckon not by the day but by the night ]
The ordinal numbers are used to express the day of the month.
(b) The following are the names of the months, which do not in any way
correspond with the English months :
ARABIAN MONTHS.
*> *.
or ?&>*> . . Muharram
2 8 _riJf ^ft^ or ^&*> . . Safar
3 * J^J/f #jj . . Rabi'- u 'lavval or Rabl tuni
'l-Awwal.
4 -r^Si C*; . Rabi' u 'l-Akhir or Rabi tuni
'l-Akhir.
1 The ancient Arabian year is supposed to have consisted of 12 lunar months as
now, but about A.D. 412 a system of intercalation was introduced, one month being inter-
calated into every three years. It is, however, related that the Prophet on a certain
occasion said, " A year is twelve months only as at the time of the creation," and by
this saying reintroduced the old lunar year. There also existed amongst the
Arabs a system of commutation by which Muharram, the last of the three continuous
sacred months, became secular and war lawful in it, and Safar sacred.
2 Hilal J4U is " the new moon" and badr ^ the " full moon."
8 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally in
speaking by the Persians.
* Or 'ayn-i-yak cJ
ARABIAN MONTHS. 201
.. . Jumadq'l-Ulq
6 1 y^Jff ^<iU.A. . . Jumadq'l-Akhir
7 ^^A.jJi WAJ, or ^=*j . . Rajab
8 % ^fe*4^l c) l -^j or e)U* . . Shcfban
9 a u()Ujf ^LA*^ or cjUaoj . . Ramazan
10 V^^t J f >~> or J 1 -^ Shavval. .
f8**ftJf,i Zu'l-qa'da
or or
Z* qa'dah
Zu'l-hijjah
or
Zi-hajjah
Remark. The fourth month is also called ^)lU( j^;, and the fifth and sixth
ungrammatically J^Vl ^l**- jamadi*' } l-avval 5 and ^ lj ^f ^^U^ 8 jamad u 's-
sam or^^t ^^l*^ jamadl u 'l-akhir.
o * o^
(c) The Arabic word for (( month" is^^ shahr* and the plural is )^
o ^
shuhur or^-if ashhur.
(d) Four of the above months are held sacred, Muharram, Rajab, Zu 9 l
Qa'da, and Zu'l-Hijfa.
(e) (I) Muharram fj**'* is the first month of the Muslim calendar and
is so called because both in the 'days of ignorance' and in the time of
Muhammad it was unlawful ( f\j* Jiaram) to go to war during this month.
The first ten days of this month are observed in commemoration of the
martyrdom of Husayn, 5 and the tenth day is called I;>1* 'ashura; some
very strict Sunnis fast on this day.
(2) Safarj&<6 is said to be derived from safar a , " to be empty," either
because the Arabs left their homes empty by going to war, or because they
left those whom they attacked empty. Another derivation is from sufar,
"yellowness," or the tint of the autumn leaves when the month first got its
name.
1 Or jlm-i-yak & *%*> and jlm-i-du ^ ^j^. The Arabs say ^,J( ^ujj j Jjjf| ^J j and
2 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally in
speaking by the Persians.
3 In Persian the forms with <^i are usually used. Jamadi incorrect for Jamada.
* Not to be confused with the Persian word shahr, " a city." The Persian word for
month is fcU^ mah, which also signifies "moon." Mah-i-qamari, " a lunar month"
a] so shahr-i hilall; mah-i shamal, " a solar month."
6 Husayn is called Sayyid* ' sh-ShtJiada. The descendants of All by wives other
than FStima 'Alavi.
202 ARABIAN MONTHS.
It was in this month that Adam was turned out of Eden, and it was
during this month that the Prophet was taken ill : it is the most inauspicious
month in the calendar. Hence the month is superstitiously called ^*Jf j&*
or the lucky month.
(3 & 4) ltabi tuni 'l-avval Jjill jyo> a,ndRabi uni 'lalchir jMf' > the first and
second spring months were so named when the calendar was first formed.
The Prophet died on the 12th day of Rabi tu 'l-avval.
(5 & 6) Jamdda 'l-ulq ^y\ <^j>U^ and Jamadq 'lakhira *>^JIl c5-aUa> are
probably derived from a^ jamad, " a dry year or season M or <c dry and on
which no rain has fallen."
(7) Eajdb v^j, the honoured month , the root-meaning signifying ' venera-
tion with fear.' Good Muslims spend the first Friday night (the English
Thursday night) in prayer.
(8) Sha'ban ^^*^, the month of disbanding or separation, is 20 called
because the ancient Arabs dispersed at this time in search of water. The
Arabs call the middle or fifteenth of this month, " the night of the middle of
Sha'ban," but the Persians ci>i^? v** Shab-i Barat "the Night of Registra-
tion," for Allah on this night records the actions of men to be performed
during the coming year, and those who are to be born and to die. Strict
Muslims pray all night.
(9) Eamazan <r^j, the month of the annual fast, is said to be derived
from a root-meaning " to be very hot." During this month the gates
of Heaven are opened and the gates of Hell shut.
In Persia, night is more or less turned into day and a great portion
of the day is spent in sleep : the bazars are barely stirring before noon. The
most irreligious become devout and read holy books aloud. Even those who
make a pretence only of keeping the fast will not touch wine, 1 perhaps through
the fear of being detected by the smell. Some Persians who secretly
break the fast, cover their lips with dust when they go abroad, to give them
the dried-up appearance of hunger and thirst.
(10) Shawwal Jfji lit. " a tail." The Id" 9 lFirt*jWt *** is on the first*
of this month.
9
(11) Zv> 'l-Qa'da *ft*Jf ji the month of "session" was a time of truce
cind peaceful occupations.
(12) Zu'l-Hijjah JsuaJtji is the month of the Hajj or Pilgrimage
to Makkah, which is made in the 8th to 10th of this month.
The <^*Kl *& W'l-qzhq (vulgarly zuha) " the feast of sacrifice," called
l The Persians maintain that the custom of drinking wine has come down from
Gdbr times.
2 Called also the " minor festival " ; fitr signifies " cleaving; breaking a fast."
THE TURKI YEAR-CYCLE. 203
also "the great 'id," is celebrated on the 10th of this month. 1 Muslims
are of opinion that it was instituted to commemorate Abraham's willingness
to offer up Isma'lL
(/) The Muslim era dates from the morning after the >?"> hijrah or
'flight''' of the Prophet from Makkah to Madinah, which occurred accord-
ing to most on the 16th July' 2 /V.D. (>22. tfaeh succeeding year begins
earlior than the preceding, and an anniversary, occurring one year in the
hot weather, will, sixteen years later, fall in the cold. Thirty-two English
years are nearly equal to thirty-three Muslim years.
(y) The 1st May AJ>. 1900 corresponds to A.K. 1318.
(//) (1) The number of solar years that have elapsed since any given
Muslim date = (current year of Hijra the given year) 3% of the remain-
der answer. For example, to find the number of years that have elapsed
since A.H. 800.
The current Hijra year is 1330 [ = 1912 A.D.]. Thus according to the
formula (1330 - 800) - 3% of (1330 - 800) - answer or 530 - 15 = answer,
i.e. 515 years have eJapsod since 800 A.H. or 1912 - 515, i.e. 1397 A.D. = 800
A.H.
(2) To find the equivalent A.H. year of an A.D. year :~-(A.D. -
021-54) + 3 % of A.H. - A.H. or (A.D. - 621-54) ~ '970225 - answer. For
example, 1330 is the current Hijra year. According to the formula it will be
equal to (the current A.D. - 621*54) -f- '970225, i.e. 1912 ~ 621-54, which is
970225
evident.
(3) To find the equivalent A.D. of an A.W. date, vide 13.
57 The Turki Year-Cycle.
ei>(jx~ Sanawat-i TurTci.
(a) This consists of twelve solar years each named after some animal in
a fixed order. The following old Turkish terms are the names of these
years :
1 Jj? cM^*~ sichqdn-il . . v ' The mouse year.
2 Jb> *y .. ud-il .. "The cow year."
3 J* < ^t . . bars -il ' ' The leopard year . ' '
4 Jbt ^Uy .. tavishqan-U .. " The hare year."
1 This feast, is known by various other names, in India it is generally called
*c *,& Baqara, Id - the cow '^7," and in Persia ^j* *** >ld-iqurban. In 1902 the
<ld-i qurban and the '& **? <id-i naw nlz fell on the same Friday, whirh day is called
cxTaxx^x^ id- },ufiamt fl adi this concurrence of three <Us is considered very fortunate-
^*uJ|l ^ or ^^ ^ "The Day of Victims": ^^Sl 1 being a collective
noun of which the noun of unity is Uu*l 4< a sacrificial animal."
2 Another date is 20th June, vide Hughe's Dictionary of Islam.
204 THE ZODIAC.
5 (Jjf ^p lui-il . . " The crocodile year."
6 JL?i e^U .. ilan-ll .. " The snake year."
7 <Jj ! oJ# .. $ until .. " The horse year."
8 Jji <_jj . . qm-il . . " The sheep year."
9 <A?' ^H^ bicht-tl . . " The monkey year."
10 ckf ^jj Uu .. takkdqui'll .. " The fowl year."
11 cXf ojf . . ?^-S . . " The dog year. 1 '
12 Jj' j./xi .. tanguz-il .. '^The hog year.
(b) In Shaw's "Grammar of the Language of Eastern Turkish tan" 1
the names are as follows :
(1) Sachqan, (2) Ui, (3) Bars, 1 (4) Tausqan, (5) Ralik [The Fish or
Dragon), (6) Ildn, (7) At ["The Horse 1 '], (8) Qoi, (9) Maimun ["The
Ape"], (10) ToMtt" The Cock"], (il) ft, (12) Tun&uz.
(c) Each entire cycle is called a muchal in Uigljur, but by the Persians
davazda sal-i TurH.
(d) The year begins and ends in the Spring, when the sun first enters
Aries.
When the cycle of twelve years is completed, it commences again.
(e) A.D. 18t51 = A.H. 1267-8 " the Hog year."
The Bars-U <Jj ^-;^ commenced with the Persian jj; y naw ruz of March
21st, 1902.
58. The Zodiac.
( a ) Jj^* (3^^ mintaq"' l-buruj (or r, ^ a'AkLc ).
"The Celestial Girdle," the Zodiac, is a belt of twelve constellations
extending about 8 on each side of the ecliptic.
A single sign is called ^ bur) t Ar. pi. ^f buruj) '< tower or bastion."
(b) The names of the signs or constellations are:
1 <J*^ . . Hamal ? .. "Ham" .. Aries (Nawruz).
2 ;>J .. Sawr ,. "Bull" . Taurus.
3 *')y .. Jauza* .. "Twins" . . Gemini.
4 oll^ .. Sarafan .. "Crab" .. Cancer (1st of
{*>j? or e)UUoG Summer)^
5 o^f .. Asad .. "Lion" . Leo.
6 <xJUi~ . . Sumbula ,. < Ear of Corn " . . Virgo.
7 e^lH^ Mlzan .. '"Scales" .. Libra( 1st of J^SU Autumn).
8 v^ 'Agrdb .. "Scorpion" .. Scorpio.
9 ^r^' . . Qaws . . " Bov^ " . . Saggitarius (1st of
Winter).
10 ^5^ .. Jady .. "He-goat" .. Capricornis.
1 This dialect of Turkish is called also Vighur.
2 Bars is properly the white leopard.
3 cu<* Jy etf^* J_jf are used in speaking, but all are used in writing.
THE SEASONS. 205
11 >^ Dalv .. " Bucket" . . Aquarius.
12 ei^ ..Hut .. "Fish" .. Pisces.
(c) In addition to the Arabic names, the Persians make use of
the following Persian names :
1 V . . barra . . The lamb.
2 jV . , gdv . . The ox or bull.
3 j**& - du-paykar . . "The two-faced " or ' ' two-figured."
4 ^'^ A . . khar-chang , . " The crab."
5 ^ .. 4 r .. "The lion."
6 &&;& . . khusha ' . . " The ear of wheat or barley."
7 jjty . . tarazu . . The scales."
8 pS^ . . gazh-dum* .. " The scorpion."
- e^U*' ., kaman .. "The bow."
^
10 c^y JJ . . Zmz-t' kuhl . . f< The wild goat."
11 ^ l **T J^jb . . dfU-i-asiyab . . " The feeder of the hopper of a water.
mill; bucket. 5 '
12 ^U .. mahl .. -The fish."
(d) The Zodiac is divided into twelve equal parts called signs and
named after the constellations, and the first point of Aries begins at the vernal
equinox, which is the Persian Naw-Ruz or New Year's Day, about 21st
March. The Sun spends a month in each of the above * mansions.' 5
(e) It is supposed that the Zodiac was formed about 2000 B.C.
59 The Seasons.
(a) The seasons are t% Spring" ( ;^ ( bahar) commencing with the jj;^>
Naw-Ruz or ' ' New Year's Day ' ' ; " Summer" (^U^'G tabistan or garma U^f)
commencing when th< j sun enters 'Cancer'; il Autumn" ( u'U ) pd^iz or
e; *^L khazdn or khizan) ; and " Winter ' * (^jU^^j * zamistan or (*y sarmd*).
^ **
(6) Ghilld *JU* or li^ is a vague period properly of * forty days.' The
vj^.y Ala. chilld-yi kuchak or "small chilld^ is a period of twenty days
of slight cold just after the ^;,> ^i^. chilld-yi buzurg, which latter is the
forty days of greatest cold preceding the ' * chilla-yi kuchak. " The ehilla-yi
also =" a bunch of grapes ' '
^ Or kaj-dum f*^ ' .
& A season is occasionally dated from the appearance of Suhayl or" Tanopus,' ' which
in Porsia occurs about the beginning of Mlzan.
* In writing also ^-* shita and ^*+ seyf for Winter and Summer : vjc^*and ^jB**
Adj. are applied to the Winter and Summer crops. The words *-*-^ and ^ are not
uaed in speaking ; they are often used in poetry.
^ Garma and sarma mean " heat " and '* cold. M
206 ANCIENT PERSIAN YEAR.
tdbistdn is the forty days of greatest heat in summer, and commences when
the sun enters Saratan.
(c) Yilaq, T. JjlUj ( or jU'b ), and qishldq, T. ^4*3 (or J^-^ ), are
"summer quarters" and " winter quarters, 1 " especially of the wander-
ing tribes, Turkish and others.
(d) The times of obligatory prayer * are :
1 Subh . . f* Dawn.
2 Zuhr .. .. ^ Noon [less common ntm-riiz* or nima-yi
ruz ; or nimaz-i peshm Afghan] .
3 'Asr . j>&* Between noon and sunset; [namaz-i dicjar*
Afghan].
4 Maghrib* . <-i* x "Sunset": namaz-i .tha HI."
5 'Jsha* .. . *\2* '* About one-and-a-half hours after sunset '':
(narn az- i khuftan } .
The three periods of voluntary prayer are :
1 Namaz-i ishraq . , tjy*' jUJ When the sun has well risen, i.e. about
9 A.M. (Sunni prayer).
2 Namaz-i chaiht .. cuU.jt*J About 11 A.M. (Sunni).
3 NamdZ'i tahajjud . . ^as^jlw "After midniglit " (Shi'a or Sunni ^.
The Shi'as, however, say the j%& ZuJir and j^^c- ' Asr prayer
together at either of tlie two times, and name them namaz-i Zubrayn, c^'^t^ 5 ;^*
Similarly , witli tJie ^j*>* magjirib and >l&c < isfia^ 9 which they name
^jj^Avcjl^ namaz-i nt-ag&hribai/n. They thus pray three times a (lav and not
five.
60. Ancient Persian Year.
(a) The ancient Persian year was Solar 6 and consisted of twelve months,
each of thirty days. Five days 7 were added to complete the year, and,, as
>ll>j moans ** to migrate" (of birds).
2 Arabic J^^ salat, Persian. }*+> namaz. Namaz-i panjc/ana or wimu~-i panj-
vaqtl is a sort of liturgical service repeated in Arabic. IVayer according to th^
Christian ide^t is best rendered by tho word ^J> du'a. In addition to tlie daily
prayers thore are special services for Hpecial occasions. Shi'as usually pray only three
times a dav but perform the same amount of prayer; they can combine tho noon and
evening prayer which is then performed any time between noon and .sunset, and in the
mayhrib they include the " laha p'-vyer which I'M then poformed any time hotueen
mo^hiib and midnight.
3 The Afghans often Bay nlm-i roz.
* This is, perhaps, the Panjabi word 'lifjur meaning evening, and not the Persian
word digar "another.*'
6 May!) rib is { hour after yjiarnb.
6 8al-i shamsl ^*+& Jl*> " ^olar Year " : it was bi-sextile and fall.
7 Panja-yi duzdlda *&*.&\& ^^ now also called /fcha n^sa-yi ' mustanqa *J*w>
ANCIENT PERSIAN YEAR. 207
with us, a leap year occurred every four years. 1 The new year commenced
when the Sun entered Aries ; i.e. about 21st March. The jj; y **? *id-i naiv-
ruz, or "New Year's festival," is still the great day in Persia, though the
above solar year has been superseded : the Persians changed their calendar
and their written character, with their religion.
It is supposed to have commenced with the mission of Zoroaster. Some
Avesta Scholars maintain that Zoroaster flourished 12,000 years before Christ 5
others 8000 years, and others later still. None, however, places him less than
4000 years #go.
Some modern Zardushtis maintain that ^* Day and not &J3)jj* Farvardm
was originally the first month, but all agree that the year began at )*J
Nawruz.
(6) The following are the Persian solar months, each month being the
name of an angel, who presides over the month :
1 &>&)}** . . Farmrdin . . March and April. The 1st of
this month (21st March)
is the Persian 'id-inaw-rvz.
2 cui^x^M- . . Ardi-lnhislit , or Urdl April and May.
bihishl
3 ^^))^ - Khur-dad . . May and June.
4 j*i . . Tlr . June and July.
5 jsij^A. . . Murdad 1 . . July and August.
6 tyj^ - WjaJtrivflr . . August and September.
7 jrf Mihr . . September and October.
8 cM , Abati October awl November. The
five" in leap-yoar six in.
tercalarydays were inserted
at the end of this month.
9 ;if . . Azar . November and December.
10 ^j> . . Day . . December and January.
1 1 c**t' Bahman . , January and February.
12 i*o;|ii~ ! . . Isfandarmuz or February and March.
(colloquially) Is/and.
(c) The following are the names of the days of the month as now pro-
nounced bv the Zardushtis of Persia : -
1 ^y A? 1 fJrmizd or ffurmuz
2 tir*f Bahman . . also llth month.
3 cuA^;f ,. Irdibihisht .. also the 2nd month.
4 ; ^j^ 1 fthahnvar . . also the 6th month.
l Kablsa * ^ " Leap Year."
5 A'MCtrdad ^ty\ 9 or murdad ^^j* : former more common.
3 Vide note 0, p, 206.
208
ANCIENT PERSIAN YEAR.
o
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27 c
28 ^
29
30
iX-o
r>'
or *
Isfanddrmuz
Khurdad
Amurddd
Day
Adar
Abdn
KJnr or Khurshid
Mdh
Tir or Tishtar
Gush
Day
Mihr
Rurush
Eashn
Farvardin
Bahram or Virahrdm
Ram
Bad
Day
Din
Ird or Arashvdng
Ashtad
Asmdn
Zdmydd
Mdntarasfind
Andrdm
also 12th month,
also the 3rd month,
also the 5th month,
also 10th month,
also 9th month,
also 8th month.
also the 4th month.
also 10 th month,
also the 7th month.
also the 1st month.
also 10th month.
Urmuz or Hurmuz, etc., the name of the 1st of the month, is the principle
of Good, as opposed to Ahrlman the principle of Evil; all the remaining
names are the names of Angels who preside over the days named after them.
It will be noticed that three days in the month are called Day, distinguished
as Day-ba-ddar, Day-ba-mihr and Day-ba-din.
SYRIAN MONTHS. Christians of the Eastern church use the modern
European calendar, but they call their months by Syrian names. Their
ecclesiastical year still begins, as formerly, on the 1st October. The names of
their months are :
Kanun*-8-.Ranl . . . <y$' j>K . . January.
Shubdt . . . J=U . . February.
Azdr .. . . jU'i .. March.
Naysdn or Nlsdn . . . . cA"*^ April.
*
Ay yor . . . , ;t^ f . . May.
Hazlrdn . . . . cjjj^ June.
YAZD-GARDi YEAR. 209
Tamuz . . . . j^w . . July.
Ab . . . . v f . . August.
Aylul . . . . JjJbf . . September,
Tishrin u -l-Awwal . . Jj$\ ^.^ . . October.
Tishrin^-s-Rani . . . . ^li tir.^^ November.
Kanun*-l-Awwal . . . . J^ilf c^y^ . . December.
(d) The Jalall yeai ' (^^ J^), also called Malaki and Malak Shahi, is
reckoned from Jalal-ud-din Malik Shah, son of Alp Arslan-i Saljuqi, and
begins A.D. 1079. The year begins with the Vernal Equinox, i.e. with the
Persian Naw-ruz, and consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 49 min,, 15 seconds,
and a fraction. The names of the months are the same as in the ancient
Persian solar year, but the intercalary days are added after tho end of the 1 2th
month. The Jalali year is entered in Indian, Persian, and Turkish
almanacs.
61. Yazd-Gardi year.
(a) The Zarduslitis of Persia and the Parsis of India have gone astray in
their calendar: they reckon by the Yazd-Gardi year ( ^^ $>> J^ ).
Yazdajircl ' l or Yazdagird (^ ^^ *j* b $J> ^ ) was tho name of several kings of
Persia of the Sassanlan race, but the name is specially applied to the
grandson of Nawshlrwan (the Just) the last of the Kayani kings of Persia.
The era commences from his doath at the hands of a Khurasan! miller f he
was treacherously killed while asleep) about A.D. 631 ; but, the leap-year
being omitted, their calendar has fallen into confusion.
(6) The names of their months are practically the same as the ancient
Persian year,' but their year commences five months later than the Naw-ruz. 4
The year consists of 3(35 days only. Tho last five days ot the year are not
included in any month but are added on to the end of the twelfth month 6 and
distinguished by a special name. The following are the names of these
' * stolen days " (/y/w *> <-**>) fchamsa-yi mustariqa, or &.j>)^ ^u panja-yi
duzdida (P.) :
(1) j^ ahnawad, (2) ,>y^T ushtawad, (3) o*JuJi* safantamad (or
safdnlaman), (4) ji^*>j wuhukh-shatr , (5) jS^yL&Aj wahashtu' ush (or
wahista-wisht) (Bir, p. 34).
l One of the astronomers who assisted in reforming this calendar was * Uuiar-i
Khayyam.
-2
3 They, however, call the second month Iridibihisht; the fifth Amurdad ; the ninth
A&ar or Adar ; the twelfth Isjand. Azar means fire and is supposed to have been
the name of the father of Abraham. The Parsis consider it to be the name of an angel.
* The Persians, both Muslim and Zardushtis, however, keep the festival of Naw-ruz
at tho Vernal Equinox, but not so the Indian Parsis: their festival lasts 20 days,
commencing 5 days before the fehamsa-yi mustariqa.
6 i.e., after Is/and (Isfandarmuz).
14
210 DAYS OF THE WEEK.
62. Days of the Week.
(a) The days of the week are :
. . Shamba . . Saturday . . 1st day of the We
. . Yak- Shamba . . Sunday
2 Du-Shamba . . Monday
. . Si-Shamba . . Tuesday
.. Chahar-Shamba .. Wednesday
. . Panj-Shamba . . Thursday
. . Jum'a ] \ Friday . . The Muslim Sabba
-* or or
(*Vf .. Adina
(b) As already stated, the day begins at sunset : the night precedes 1
day. Thus, if an Englishman wishes to say " Sunday night " in Persian,
must say " Monday night " instead. *
(c) A week is &&* hafta, from haft "seven": in Arabic *?>-? usb
from *- and <*A*>, sab* and sab' ah " seven."
(d) Ruz jy in Persian and ^ nahar (pi. ^ nuhur) in Arabic me
" day " as opposed to night : ^ shab* P. and cU^ layl " night time."
(e) Yawm ^ Ar. } a day, has for its plural f tf ayyam " days, tin
season."
(/) Shabana-ruz ^ ^JU^ is the civil day consisting of 24 hours ; <; for
eight hours' journey (by rail ) " 6 would be ** du shabana ruz rah ast.^
(c) The longest night is called f*xl w_^i shab-i yalda, and the longest d
^ijyu jjj ruz-i jawza*.
In Kirman, the shortest day is called ^5>* AM^I }j) ruz-i ishkamba-shi
i.e., the day is so short that while one is washing a sheep's tripe (shikamb(
the day is gone.
(d ) The last six or ten days of cold before the JJL>>* Naw-ruz are call
in the almanacs }y**l\&j> bard" 'l-'ajuz, Ar., and by the people
sarmd-yi pir-zal, 6 from a popular legend.
J The Zardushtis generally use *^oT Adlna (old Pers.) in preference to ***-=> Jtlm
the Muslim name.
2 Though the Muslims of India reckon in the same manner, many of them have a
adopted the English idiom for speaking to English people : vide Phillott's Hind. Ma
p. 225. This sometimes causes confusion. The Muslim world was dark before it ^
light; therefore the night precedes the day. The Zardushtis, however, say the woi
"with God was from all time and has no beginning. " With them the day precec
the night.
3 Used in writing.
* Plural shab-ha and ahdban : *AJ Ar. ' a night ' has for its pi. c5^
6 It is hardly necessary to remark that there are no railways nor even roads
Persia. The toy railway at Tehran, about 4 miles in length, can scarcely be counted.
6 The Persian Almanac of 1902 gives the period of the bard* 'l-'ajvz from llth
17th March.
DAYS OF THE WEEK. 211
(e) In m.c., for Tuesday, Friday, and Saturday , the phrases
shab-i ckahar-shamba, **+^ v* shab-i jam 1 a, and *AJU*> u> >^>J& shab-i yak
shamba are used. Superstitious people do not commence a journey on these
three days. Should a guest sleep at the house of a friend on the night of
any one of the above days (English computation), he ought for luck's sake
to sleep the night following as well. This superstition has nearly died out.
CHAPTER VIII.
63. Money.
(a) The following are the moneys now current in Persia. Dinar j'i^ an
imaginary and infinitesimal coin, used in accounts: there are 1000 in &*qirani
or qiran.
1 i^*\<$> Shahi = 50 dinar.
20 ,, ,, =1 qiran oy (or <y^ * ), or ;D* ^ yakhazar.
10 ij\j$ Qirdnl 1 tuman &l*y.
The tuman is a gold coin (rarely met with). The qiran, and half qiran
( ^^ ^ dah-shdhi), and the ^;[>* ^ d% Jiazarl or " two ^araw bit," are
silver. 2
(&) PftZ-i safid &*&* JjJ <f white money " is silver money, 8 and pul-i siyah
*^ <J^ " black money " is copper money or the nickel coins that have
taken its place. Sannnr, a corruption of )&& *x^, is a two-shahi nickel coin
(formerly copper).
(c) The following terms are occasionally used, though the values are not
now represented by actual coins :
4 jU Crhaz = 5 dinar.
Miihammadi = 100 r/^war = 2 shuhi.
'Abbasi = 200 ,, ^4 ,,
(or cc^*^) panahbad* rather less than half & qiran \ 23 = !
tuman (10 qiran).
^Uc jl^ chahar abbdsl = a depreciated ^im?i =16 instead of
20 *%?.
JUj n'?/^ = 1 : | qiran : originally the name of the Spanish dollar.
(j4r* or <Jk)j* (!> qurush or gh.urush, the Turkish piaster, value about 2d. of
English money or 17 1 shdMs: the term is used in certain places though the
coin may not be current. 7 European gold ducats, called j3*~* majar and
1 Also called O^ war* Uo yahib qiran.
5 The gold f/w hazari is now worth 4.1 qirans.
5 This term was.also applied to the nickel coins (introduced by Muxaffar-ud-din Shah).
* Yafc ghaz bi-*hunia naml-diham " T will give you not a farthing," the speaker
probably not knowing the real signification of the word yhaz.
6 Properly panah-bad but pronounced and sometimes is incorrectly written with or
without . In Kerrnan and Tehran panah bad is five ahahis, but in Yezd the term
panahbadl is used for ten ahahia.
Probably an Ar. pi. of o^r 5 > the German groshen.
7 The term is used in Kerman but the coin is not seen. Piasters are said to be
current in Beluchistan.
MEASURES OP LENUTH. 213
^i^lj l bajuytkl'i, are worth a little more or a little less than the
tuman: they are rarely met with.
C5 ~jj&l SjjJ Kra-yi Inglisi, and ^l*U'^ x^ lira-yi-'UsmanK, are the English
and Turkish pound: the former (in 1901) = 51 to 53 qlrdn.
***)) rupiya, "the rupee/' 2 fluctuates from 3} to 3| giran.
(d) ^U^-v! Askings, a Russian bank note; also any cheque.
d.'fjj Barat, a cheque or bill of exchange.
Jl-^.VA;f Impiriyal, " a Russian imperial (gold), present value 28 to 33 qirdn.
oli* Manat, " a rouble " = five qiran,
The above terms are not all current in every district.
(e) There i>s no postal money-order system in Persia. Money can be sent
by post, insured, in a sealed bag 3 for 10%. Registered articles by post
are called ^^Lftw sijarishi. Insured articles are sent only within Persian
territory. A parcel is called oJU| 9 amanat or basta: &&j(+#bima kardan
" to insure" : <xx ^ <jo*3 qabz-i rasld is "a receipt.* '
^AO ( ^ or) *^>' ^,yak kisa-yi (or surra- yi) -sot/
blma kardam, *' I sent 100 tumdns by insured post.''
(/) For the system of keeping accounts by <3^ w , vide Woll. Eng.-Per.
Diet, and also 14.
64. Measures of Length,
(a\ ^^ <J>> yak fiq, "the distance a shout can be heard. 3 * 5
y^ 5 ^+* mu-yi shutur (rare) " the breadth of a camel's hair."
^ j^ jaw, *'a barley-corn's length."
- o^l&l angusht > "a finger's breadth.
*;{-' bahar, length of one joint of the thumb (about 1| iuoh), or the thirty-
second part of a zar 1 .
o^ M v_0 6 yak band angusht (about 1J inch) "the length of a finger
joint."
% (jirah - 2 bahar (or about 2J inches).
yi ^ar' orj.f ^aa;, the Persian yard (of about 40 inches) : 16 girah-l zar 6 .
vajab, tf a span."
1 &iyal ml-kunl hi yak bajitglili bi-man dadl (m.c.) v^*^ t^*^
^^b " do you think you have given mo a vast sum for this ? "
2- The revenue of Beluchistan is paid to Kirman in rupees at the rate of 2J qirans a
rupee, the merchant exchange being 3J in 1902.
3 The insurance foe is called AiU*aJi J^x ^a^w 'z-zamana.
* This terra is only used in Persia for insuring within Persian limits to a foreign
country ^AtXyo &l/ojj Jja^ fj &L~.j ^jf tn 6as^a /a haqq tl z-zamana ml-diham* (t I'll insure
thin."
6 This term is much used by the black-tent folk : yak jlq-l rah ast.
Also colloquially yak band nakhun: by the vulgar the word nakhun, " nail,'* is
used for k * finger. ' '
214 WEIGHTS.
araj ( or <Jiy arash ) t
a cubit, from point of the elbow to the tip
of the middle ringer.
or p&* qadam a short pace.
l } ( the space between the tips of the fingers of both hands when
the arms are extended to form a cross with the body.'
j* <*&. yak sar, or *5 ^ yak qad (or *K kallah), the ordinary stature
of a man.
JU*^ farsang or j-**^ /aM = 6,000 graz = 12,000 qadam = 3^ English
miles.
v_~*jf ^fjXx/o maydan-i asp a vague distance, about half a mile.
In addition, there is the Turkish ell, &*)l arshin, much the same as the
Persian yard.
Remark. In Baluchistan, distance is estimated by the numbers of pairs
of sandals made of the dwarf palm (phis) that will wear out in traversing
the distance : they say yak phis rah-ast, du phis rah-ast etc.
(b) Tasuj** * is a word much used by the Afghans for a measure equal
to about the joint of a ringer. According to the dictionary it is a weight of
2 or of 4 barleycorns; or the twenty-fourth part of any weight or measure,
vide 65 (d). [Ar. ^~-k J of a danaq, the latter being J of a dirham and hav-
ing the weight of a habbah.]
(c) ( Arz (j^jc and tul J^t are the two words commonly used for
" * ^7
"breadth" and "length " : ^ 'arz an (adv.) "by breadth" and >t tul an
(adv.) "by length."
(d) Shash gaz dar shash gaz Jt Ji> ^ J> J^A "measuring six gaz each
way (square) , six yards square ' ' (not six square yards) ; but shash
gaz, murabba' &j*jf <J^ six square yards."
65. Weights,
(a) In Persia, as in India and Afghanistan, everything, liquids included,
is sold by weight and not by measure.
f*vf gandum, {< a grain of wheat ' ' ; about 3 go to 1 nukhud' 6 weight r
1 Care must be taken to distinguish the difference in pronunciation between these
two: in ^)^, the is not sounded, and the <^> is pointed by fatha. This measure is
roughly taken to bo the distance from *the tip of the fingers of the left hand when
the arm is extended to the tip of the nose when the head is turned to the right.
2 In the Anjuman-ara-yi Nasiri, a dictionary of old Persian (Fur*-i qadim), tasu is
given as the equivalent of sa'at.
8 In India, grains of rice are sometimes used for weighing minute quantities of drugs.
The lowest standard weight, however, in India is the rail, the seed of abrus precatorius,
which in appearance resembles a small scarlet bean with a black spot on the end : it is
used by goldsmiths, and weighs about 2 grains. In Persian works written in India the
rail is called
WEIGHTS. 216
^acu nukhud, a, small chick pea or grain of gram, said to weigh about
-j4 T of an ounce = 3 gandum.
misqal = 24 nukhud.
sir = 16 misqal.
* - ^ ^ J- .
f uqiyya (abbrev. a^j wuqiyyah or - *^ or waqiyyah) = 90 misqal (about
14 oz. avoirdupois).
cS'Jirt^ u" wwm-i ' Tabrizi " a Tabriz maund " 2 = $"vaqqa" 720
misqal (about 7J to 7J lb. av.).
^&U ^/o man-i sha/iior " Royal maund" nearly 2 Tabriz raaunds (14i
co 15"lb.).
^ ^* man-i Ray or " maund of Rai ' ' 4 Tabriz maunds (about 30 lb.).
^^U ^ man-i liashimi 16 Tabriz maunds (about 116 lb.) ; this weight
is only used in the South.
)hj^ kharvar or " donkey load " = 100 Tabriz maunds (725 lb.).
^J;^ charak is the quarter either of a Tabriz or of a Royal maund.
The carat, -fc^x? qlrat (br. pi. ^jty qarartt) originally Ja\jS qtrrat, is an
Arab weight and equals about 4 grains or ^ of a misqal : it is used for
weighing jewels. The Arabs sometimes apply the word qirdt to the T T of
anything ; and colloquially they apply it to a measure of about an inch.
In Kerrnan
Nisj-i haft dirham - . **>)* oi*ui<w = 10 J- misqal in weight.
Haft dirham .. ^;^ oi& 21 ,,
Panzdah sang . . -&** ^>>b =42 , ,
Si-sang .. ^^ ^^^ =84 ,,
Charak . . ^;U = 2 Si-sang ^** ^j^.
Nim-man ..&*{& =2 Charak
tii-charak . . u^;U c\.^ = 3 Charak
Yak-man (Tabrizi) . . (c^Jt^ ) u^^ = 4 Charak J[>U. ;t t ^.
In Yezd, ^;^ <x^ 50^ dirham = ^^^ eX ^ nim-man (Tabrizi) = 2
charak. In Yezd, the word JjU. charak is little used, ^A;^ t^xj panjah dir-
ham (etc.) being used instead.
(6) Water is measured by the sang J&> i.e. by a quantity sufficient to
turn a mill. One sang of water v f ^^ ^. (with or without izafat) is
^ *
supposed to be sufficient for one hundred v^> and a cMraA; is a fourth part
of this quantity.
(c) Water for irrigation purposes is also borrowed or bought by the a^u-U
iascha s or cjC*>lb aai ( c * a little cup " ) ; i.e. a metal cup with a small hole in the
1 Persian for mann Ar.
2 The word maund Is the Anglo-Indian term for man, but the standard man of India
is SO Ibs.
In Kerman fashta, forty of which go to 12 hours : also in Kerraan 30 jurra go to
12 hours,
216 WEIGHTS.
bottom is floated on water and the time it takes to sink is the unit of
measure. For instance, if a cultivator borrows six tasak of a certain
channel, the whole of the water in the channel is turned into his ground for
the time that the tasak takes to sink six times. The tasak is not a
standard measure, but varies locally, according to the requirements of a
village.
(d) Another vague term is ^-&fj> dang, which may be said to be the sixth
part of anything. Property of all kinds is ' divided into six imaginary parts,
each of which is called a dany. An owner of J share of land, a room,
or a horse would be described possessing ' ' two dang " : an owner of the
whole would say, "all six dang are mine": 0^1^ JU &(L. ^Jj>\^ ^J^ shish
dang khana mal-i 'man ast.
But generally only houses and lands.
CHAPTER IX.
66. The Verb Fi'l ( j^ ).
The verb "to be" (vide also 68) :
(a) The simplest form is the affixed substantive verb:
ft ! am (I) am . . . . ^\ im (We) are. 2
^sl (*or) i (Thou) art . . AJ. W (You) are.' 2
v^** 1 [-adj as (He) is . . &>\ and (They) are.
(b) (!) These affixes may be joined to a pronoun, adjective, participle,
or substantive, and sometimes to an adverb ; and the same rules that apply
to the written forms of the affixed pronouns [ 31 (6), (c), (d)\ apply in the
main here. Examples: eu-HjLL* j\ u sultanast (for *A***\ ^UxL* j\ ) "\\e is
a Sultan " ; ow*t JJJAJ jt w banda ast, or (with the ^ of unity) eu~ j| MAJ y [or
o**f sxxjy , or (old) o.j jjAij y ] M banda tst " he is a slave " ; pM & dana-yam
" I am learned": but fi'l-b dana^lm "we are learned"; ^-t ^y or
XAXJ^J /^ banda-i " art thou a slave 8 ? " : man-am r ! ^x= ^ or ^Lo " I am " ;
^JU we are " ; dana-l ^^h " thou art learned " ; u dana'st o^Oi^j* ; ishan
dana-yand aijLi^ vyl^j ; M?16 rw'^ o^o^ w>^ 5 f > or khub-rii ast cu^t ^ v^>
(not khubru-yast which is poetical only), but ishan khub-ru-yand
Maflmnihada nar bi-farman-i sharab
Jan karda fida-yi lab-i khandan-i shardb.
" 'Tis we who to wine*s yoke our necks incline,
And risk our lives to gain the smiles of wine."
(0. K. 21 Whin.)
(2) The alif <-flJi of the third person singular ast -=**' is frequently elided
in contractions, as: o^b;^ (for .SA^ bj^ ) ; dushmanan-am ra*st ui**!^ AJlx*^^
(for o^o ' ij ^U^i^ ).
After w and i, this aZi/ nearly always disappears, as: o~^& nikusl;
JJ
k(ir~i'st oij K; mudda'i'st cu^xc^/o " he is a claimant."
(3) In the other persons, the aft/ can ue retained or changed into ^
for euphony, as : f! !<>^ x^, or /*J!A^ x^w ; ^-t *Ufci, or ^vjUfci ; txi *i^.*e^ or
6i;faBu j^.
1 This affix is called mZw-'i i?6^ i fi'l <^*' olf>f ^.
'2 In classical Persian (and in India and Afghanistan) these are J/^' majhid
sounds em, ed.
s The full form is generally nsod after final alif, as: Muluk oz baray-i pas-i ra'aya*
and ( *>\ ^j ) (Sa'di) " kings are for the care of their subjects " ; ^irf^lf; ra^aya-yand
might also be used in modern Persian.
218 THE VERB.
(4) Alif-i maqsura sometimes becomes ^ before ast ow*f, as: c^
u Musi'st, but better o*t ^**>^ y ?i Musa ast " he is Moses.''
(5) After a vowel, the <^ of the second person is preceded by a * over a
C5"> as l ^^ " where art thou ? " In other words, two syllables ending and
beginning with a vowel are coupled by a hamza acting as a hyphen.
(6) The final * of Arabic words is, in Persian, sometimes written and
sometimes not. If, however, an Arabic word ending in f- precedes the first
person am ^', the & must be struck out to preserve the distinction between
the singular and plural of the verb. Thus the plural of jf& sha'ir a poet h
*\* shu'ara*, but fi\j* j*&\ ^ man ash'ar-i sh'uara-yam " I am the most
poetical of poets": were the hamza retained, the word might be read
shu'ara-tm p\j*&.
(7) The contraction is generally observed in speaking and reading, even
though it may be neglected in writing.
Remark A fit o*t "is" and riist o^i "is not" are termed *kit>
or "copula." In the proposition . " Religion is indispensable to happiness,"
the copula is joins the subject religion to its predicate, the remainder of the
sentence.
Any verb can be analyzed into the copula and a predicate ; thus " lives,"
into tc is" (the copula), "living" (the predicate).
(c) In the third person singular and plural, the euphonic ^ need not be
inserted : CL~*^J V ^A khub-ruyast (poet.) or o*~^; v ^ khub-rust " (she) is
fair-faced " : o*~jl>fa 2 dana-yast or cu^Uf^ dana-st : i^Uf^ danayand or
dana-nd ; cu-U ma-st (for o^t U ) ; o.-l^ shuma-st (for
Remark. Vulgarly, instead ofa^ o*l.-a (pronounced e) is used as Tchub-e
"it is good"; H-e " who is it ? "
(d) Tu ast o^l^j is contracted into eu~i fust (or o**^ ) and is so
pronounced even if written tu ast o^of^j. Klst ^~*>? and chist c^-^a. are
regular contractions for kl a^o^f ^* [vide 37 (g) ] and chi ast /os^t AA. :
i^ cMyim ' ' what are we ? * ' ; ^ chiyam b ' ( what am I ? "
1 Kujdfl t^'^R^ is an adjective '* of what place '* : ( j&'~>& ^^pf j* " of what
place are you a native ? " or colloquially ^^^ Tcuja^l-l ? This formis for (^[ ^4*^,
which is not used.
^ Dana-yast o~ob|d not m.c.
^ In modern colloquial, to the question (^^^ kuja*-% " where are you? " the
answer is {*! ' >: f^N>' in/a am: (Inja-yam is considered vulgar). The correct reply is en/a
astam p*~**> ' : -V O r nii-basham p\*.
* ^ ''who'' <5^. ^Ci (.5^, as well as ^ ^, signifies " who ?": similarly, ^a.
c&e (perhaps contracted form of chiz _}*<*- ) is another form of &*-. In modern Persian
all forms are used.
6 Better
THE SEPARATE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 219
As a rule, either the contracted or the full form can be used in writ-
ing ; but in either case the contraction exists in pronunciation.
Similarly, the final silent * of other words sometimes disappears before
vi~*f, as c^Jk&^y u barahna'st "he is naked."
Note the following forms or contractions, etc., &Vjj c*j zisht-ruyand
"they are ugly": ^y "thou art": f y x^xj banda-yi tu am " I am thy
slave " : ^\ \^ banda-yi u yam " I am his slave " : ^ty \*> U ma banda-yi l
u *i,m " we are his slaves " : ^jyoy tu mard-l-i (vulgar for tu mard-l hasi-i
"Who are they ? " Ishan kiyand &u i^L^Jf, or ki and &> &> ', or kistand
' : ishan kiyan-and <xL>Ufr ^l-iof '{ (m.c.).
(e) The ^ of the second person is called the ya-yi tchitabl ^^L. ^ the
' " y of address" : with a final and silent *, or a final ^, it is written as a
superscribed hamza, as: ^^ or & ki i 2 t( who art thou ? " : <Jtyl*jf kirmam-i
4 'art thou a Kirmani (an inhabitant of Kirman) ? "
(/) The above suffixes form the six pe" ,ons of every tense of the verb
with the exception of the third person singular, when ast becomes ad.
((/} The negative form of the simple affixed verb is nearly obsolete, or else
occurs only in poetry.
*** nay am, "I am not" .. /**5o naijlm "we are not."
<s ^ or ^ nayl e " thou art not" . . *&> nayld "you are not."
sjJ n'ist " he is not " . . <^> nai/and (or oJi w na and) f * they
are not."
Angar ki dar khalc na*i bar khak-i.
(i But now you are above earth, not below ! "
(O. K. 457 Whin.)
A villager sometimes says: ^ UpJut b ^UaJu^ y tu lnja-1 yd mja na-%
"are you there (here) or not ? " Villagers also use nayam p&. The third
person nist cu^jjj is in regular use.
(h) In old Persian (imitated by <yTtf), aste (mf *~*\ is found for
67. The Separate Substantive Verb.
(a) From an obsolete infinitive (^^ hastan and &*j*~& hasfidan 1 ( to
exist," are formed
> hastam " I am, or I exist " . . ^X-Jk hastim "we are, etc."
aS "thou art, etc." . . J^^A Aa,?^ " you are, etc;' '
hast " he is, etc.' ' . . *&~& hastand "they are, etc.' '
l Or bandog an
i Ftde p. 92, note 6 : $$ is probably the more correct form, as (J* should mean
thou art a king."
< s Vulgarly pronounced nahi ^p.
220 THK SEPARATE SUBSTANTIVE VERB.
Hastam j*i~**, etc., is substituted for am ^ whenever euphony requ
it, or whenever the verb has to stand alone.
matt zi may-i mughana mast-am , hastam
"Am I a wine- bibber ? what if I am?"
(O. K. 334
Here hastam p*~- * is used as the verb has to stand alone : the
could not be repeated. Also : _
ddnam u u, chunanki hastam, hastam.
cc He knows t as well as I, my sorry case."
(O. K . 315 W7/m.)
O~A is used for asf cuw when euphony requires the former,
In khdna chundn ki hast td sad sal davdm mi-kunad &*> ti o~* &&x*- *J^
***<> fa* JU ; if the & ki of A^li^. be omitted, chunan ast ki *$ ^ f c
must be written.
Z^a^ OV-SA also means ''exists/' as: Khudd hast o A lAi. "there 1
God": /aocZ /wzs^ OM-* ^j| ''there is a God/' ffeisJ o^ is also rr
emphatic, than ast o^f, as: AiWifi m TchalalVst ^^^ f; ^^ ' ' ther
something wrong with the ship " (a simple statement) but to a denial
reply would be, kishtt ra khalal-l hast C~~A ^l^. ^ ^-^^ c ' there is I tell yo
The above is the only tense now in existence.
(6) The negative form of this tense is (by contraction) as follows :
fi-fci nlstam lt I am not " . . **i-^> riistim 4; we are not."
t( thou art not " . . <*jJU^ >u5/K/ " you are not."
tl he is not >; . . <yxx~xi msland '* they are not."
(c) Probably, there was an ancient infinitve ?r7?^ c^>f or
^li. *' to be " i'rom which one or more of the above tenses are deri 1
d*iq-i qc
ma 1 ) -asti ki ha zagh-i bar dlwar-i bagJi-i khirdman hami-raftami (8a'dl)
wer i 7v> jtin g m y dignity to be (I ought to be) strutting on the wall
gar^ g ^ in company with a fellow magpie." }
^jla. (j^^j i^~** ^ ^.^j <Jkj^ J^ O*ASX^ suhbat-i gul khush budt gar n
tashvlsh'i Jchdr (Sa'di) ^companionship with the rose were sweet, were tj
no fear of the thorn." Similarly, Sa'dl uses +>**** skunidastam for shut
hastam ^^A **>\$> J have heard." Other instances occur in the
poets of this contracted form of hastam ^-~A> (instead of am p!) with
Perfect tense.
is the English magpie, common in the gardens of Persia. The chou<
called *^*?3- Here asti and null are Past Conditional.
THE VERB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 221
In kar-i jahan agar bi-taqlid-asti
flar ruz bi-ja-yi kh wish tan 'Id-astl',
Har kas bi-murad-i khiytsh d tst-l bi-zadi
Gar ^zanlci na in hi-hftda t&kdid-asti.
" If this life were indeed an empty play,
Each day would be an 'Tel or festal day,
And men might conquer all their hearts' desire
Fearless of after penalties to pay! "
(0. X. Rub. 434 Whin.)
^ &* OH *HO\ *S& f^^ C^^) ^^ M? ^x: J.
Gar man guniih-i ru-yi zamln kardastam
' Afa-i tu umid ast Id girad dast-am.
" Though I had sinned the aim of all mankind,
I know thou would'st to mercy he inclined."
(0. K. 333 Whin.)
J *+& ^jfjf y j^ j-tiww O~AJ ^
Man nlst shudain dar Tu, az an- am harna Tu
"And I am Thine, since I am lost in Thee."
(0. K. Rub. 400 Whin.)
(d) llasti ^i-** is a substantive signifying fck existence," and ^^ nisll
non-existence "
It ast o~~* and niat cu ^ are used as adjectives :
Chandan Id zi-thud ms-tar am has-tar-am.
^ The more I die to sell', I live the more."
(0. K. Rub. 351 Whin.)
68. The Verb Transitive (muta'addi ^^*Vx> ) and Intransitive
(lazim ] ,-351, or yAayr-i muta'addi ^-o^-L-o^ ).
(a) The Persian verb is simple. There is bufc one conjugation and the so-
called irregular verbs present no difficulty Every Infinitive or masdar
( ;0>*A/c } ends in &^ -dan or in ^ -tan, and the * shortened Infinitive ' or third
person singular Preterite is formed by cutting off the termination -an
All tenses zaman % ( e)Uj } are formed quite regularly from the root or
shortened Infinitive, 8 and from the second person singular Imperative : the
1 In India, laziml t^jJJ intransitive.
2 Zaman eA-*} <k Tense or time " ; mazdar * Infinitive or source."
3 The shortened infinitive is always identical with the third person singular of the
Preterite.
222 THE VERB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.
persons are formed by the affixed substantive verb. Every verb has t
two stems. As in most languages, the Imperative is the shortest form of
verb. A few verbs are both transitive and intransitive.
It must be borne in mind that native grammarians do not consider
Infinitive a verb. "How can it be a verb," they say, "when it has
tense or time ? ' '
(6) (1) There are two verbal prefixes &> l (or (~>) and ^o mi (or (
haml 1 ). The first is prefixed to the Aorist or Present Subjunctive (one t
the same tense), to the Imperative, to the> Preterite, and to the old I
Potential or Habitual tense that is formed by adding an indefinite ^ to
Preterite. The second is prefixed to the Present (or Present-Future)
distinguish it from the Aorist, and to the Imperfect to distinguish it from
Preterite.
In the following example (poetical), AJ is added to the shortei
Infinitive :
Bi'bazuvan-i tavana va quvvat-i sar-i dast
Khata-st panja-yi miskin-i natavan bi-shikast (Sa'dl).
" By strength of arm and power of hand,
It is a sin to crush the poor and helpless."
[Sar-i dast o^-o^/* is the end of the dast or fore-arm, i.e., the hand.]
Dar ku-yi kharabat magar bi-t(a)van yaft
An *umr ki dar sawma^aha gum kardlm?
(O. K. Rub. 339 Whin.)
In the following, to the definite future :
Bar anchi mi guzarad dil ma-nih ki Dajla bas-i
Pas az Khalifa bi-khwctfiad guzasht dar Baghdad.
< Set not thy heart on that which passeth away ; for the Tigris
Will flow on by Baghdad long after the E^iallfas."
(Oul. Book 8, Maxim, 105.)
1 Called ba-yi zayid. The same term is applied to the Ai in such words as bi-
' 4 except ' ' ; also in ^ ^j*>
^ There is no difference in ^signification between ml ^ and haml (.$+& ; b<
are probably contracted forms of , or connected with, hamfoha ; these can be joined
their verbs or written separately. In poetry this prefix is sometimes, by poeti
license, written after the verb.
THE VERB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 223
In the following, to the past participle :
^A A -o y
^2/ d^ hama asbdb-i jahdn khwdsta gir
Bdgji-i tarab-at bi-sabza drdsta gir
Vdngdh bar an sabza shab-i chun shabnam
Binshasta l u bdmddd bar-khdsta gir (0. K.)
" Oh soul ! lay up all earthly goods in store,
Thy mead with pleasure's flowerets spangle o'er ;
And know 'tis all as dew that decks the flowers
For one short night, and then is seen no more! "
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 243.)
(2) It will thus be seen that the prefix mi <^ (in old Persian also hami
) gives a continuative sense. It is, in poetry, even added to the
Imperative with this continuative sense, as :
Gar rahat-i javiddn fam ( mi-dari
Mi-ranj liamisha va ma-ranjan kas rd.
(0. K. Bub. 15 Whin.)
In yak nafas-i 'aziz rd khush mi-ddr.
(0. K. Rub. Whin.)
(3) Tlie prefix *-> is omitted in verbs compounded of an indeclinable
particle and a verb, as : >{Ay bar Ichiz " get up " from ^^s^j bar-khdstan :
f*J>j*j^\ agar bar gar dam 4< if I return/' from bar-gashtan ^ItJ^. Before
verbs beginning with a b ( ^ ) the prefix is in modern Persian often written
separately and not joined to the verb.
The verb o^y budan does not take the prefix AJ, nor does the Imperative of
e>4X& s/mdan.
(4) Very rarely do both prefixes occur together, as ^U> <^ mi-bi-bdyad.
(c) The auxiliary verb* ^^ budan " to be " is slightly irregular, in that
the Imperative is c/H j bdsh^ '* be thou." The shortened infinitive is bud.
TENSES FROM THE IMPERATIVE (j*\ )
THE IMPERATIVE (yf).
I. Bash* <j8b ' ' be thou ' ' -bdshU *>^ "be ye."
With the exception of the second person singular, all persons of th'
Imperative are identical with the Aorist q.v.
1 Bi-nishasta Ai*^v>j agrees with W&udra, I; <$}*> understood.
^ Fi'l-i mu'avin ( (Dj^** <J** ) " auxiliary verb.*'
Bu >> was another form of the second person singular of the Trnperative. It is
said to exist still in out-of-the-way districts : bu j> or bit ki **J " perhaps," is found
in mod. Persian, in poetry.
224 THE VERB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.
Remark I. The continuous Imperative is formed by prefixing ml or
haml. It is usually affirmative, but Qa'anl uses it negatively also.
Mi-bash <Jtt&* (vulg. coll.), or hami-bash u^ ^+* (obs.) "continue to be or
remain/'
Remark 11. The Present Participle (c>ll> bashan "being") and the
noun of agency bashanda 1 ( *<xil> " be-er ") are not in use.
// (A). The Aorisf or Present Subjunctive (
(I. 2 j*l> basham l( I may be [or let me be " ].
Singular . . J 2. ^b hashl " thou mayest be "
^3. oJb basliad* "he, she or it may be (or let him,
be, etc.)."
( 1. ,*j^l> bfjshlm* "we mav be (or let us be)."
Plural . . ^ 2. ^^iU bnsJild " ye may be (or Imperative, ' bo ye')."
! 3. 'Ax^b baihaud "they may be (or let them be)."
In modern Persian this tense does not take the prefix <. In old Persian
it does.
// (B). The following is an old form of this tense :
>'
1. fj pj> buwam " I mav be.'"
2. ^j biiwi "thou mayost be."
-" ^
' 5 ^j buu.ad" he, she or it may be ' ' (or '^t bddaor &\j*
buwad or ^tj bad).'
s
^>-' buv^m "we may be."
2. A^J 6 M ?rd "ye may be."
tXy bit wand "they may be."
1 Bashanda $-X*U (plural bashandagun ^'f^i-wb ) is a substantive signifying
**an inhabitant"; cUt is commoner in modern colloquial, as: fe&an aW-i Kirman
hastand &~& &{*>jf (J^> e>^ jl or i^.aw Kir,, < aril hasiand *>ii**rt> ^1*^" e^Jf. BasJmnda
fct^x^s), i n India bafihinda, IB used for "inhabitant" in Persia in writing, only when
the author is avoiding Arabic words.
2 i his mlm as a sign of the first person of the verb is called inlm-i mutakallim.
3 Bad or bada or buvad or buvadund buva the Precativeor Optative are still in use ;
(in m.c. bad and bnvad). Bavhad is not used as an Optative, &c.
^ Classically (and in Afghanistan and India still) these terminations of the first and
second plural are em, ed ; majhiil sounds.
^ The Afghans use this tense in speaking. Note that ) is pronunced both like
a w and a v. In m.c. ^ 6orf and <My buvad are both used.
6 To be distinguished from the third person singular of the Preterite &j* bud.
THE VERB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 225
///. The Present Tense ( J^ e/^j ) ^ n Modern Persian also a Future).
L ^ <* mi-baslwm " I am (or will be)."
f
Singular . . -] 2. ^^ ^ mi-bashi " thou art.
*&\j ^ mi-bashad "he, etc., is."
(I. f** 9 ^ ^ mi-bashim "we are."
Plural . . J 2. <H^IJ (^o mi-bastiid " you are."
V,3. <3lil-' ^ mi-bashand "they are."
The prefixes m? or hami t written separately or joined to the verb,
are used with this tense in writing in modern as well as in old Persian.
Remark. Me-buwam j** is an old form of this tense.
TENSES FROM THE SHORTENED INFINITIVE :
iy t The Preterite ( ^ibc
I ty budam " I was."
/
Singular . . 2. ^^ budi li thou wast."
(3. L & bud "he, etc., was."
C 1. ^Jj^ budim "we were."
Plural . . J 2. yj^o budid "you were."
(3. &t } j budand " they were."
F, T/^e Imperfect, etc. ( ^ U3 L ^*(*> ).
^ 1. (*^j <^<* mi-budam* " I was or used to be."
Singular . . ^ 2. ^^ ^y mi-budi " thou wast or used to be.
(.3. ^y ^ mi-bud " he, etc., was or used to be."
T 1. pjty ^ ml-budim "we were."
Plural . . < 2. >.^> ^^ Tfil-budid "you were."
(^3. ^o^J ^^ mi-budand "they were."
This tense is also used as a Past Conditional ayar mi-budam "if I had
been, etc., etc.," and sometimes as a *' Future Conditional."
The Preterite, budam, however, is generally used, especially in
speaking, instead of the Imperfect.
In poetry often contracted into <X) bud
Dar khwab budam mara te&irad-mand-l guft
May fchur ki bi zlr-l {chafe mi-bayad
(0. K. Rub. 61 Whin.)
* Ml c/ or haml ^^> ; haml is obsolete or poetical with the Imperfect of bildan.
Except in the Continuous Imperative, vide 68 (6), foot-note, tw is not prefixed to
this tense in modern Persian.
15
226 THE VERB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.
VI. The Past Conditional or Habitual (
budame "I would have been or used to be."
Singular -{ 2. c5^ bud* thou ,, ,, ,,
bude he, etc. ,, ,, ,,
budeme we ,, ,, ,,
Plural ..-{2. e*>ty budede ye
budande they ,, ,, ,,
.Remark. This tense is obsolete in modern colloquial, but is still used
even in speaking by the Afghans and Indians. In old Persian, the prefix me
or hame is also added. It will be noticed that the majhul sounds of the
tense have been retained in transliteration. A modern Persian, however,
would give the vowels the o^*<* ma'ruf sounds. The second person singular
and first person plural are very rarely used, and the second person plural
is, perhaps, not in existence.
?
VII. The Definite Future ( d^L-* ).
The verb ^.y^t^k Wiwastan } "to wish, desire," has for its Imperative
t^L Jchwah. Its Aorist is in consequence ^^ khipdham.
The Definite Future of all verbs is formed by conjugating the Aorisl of
khivastan with the shortened infinitive.
f 1. J>y f A !>^ Mtfivaham bud "I shall or will be."
Singular ..12. ^ cs*!*^ khwaht bud thou ,,
(^3. &y* *&\JA> khivdhad bud he, etc. ,, ,,
f I. ty p**^ Jchwahlm bud we ,, ,,
Plural . . -j 2. ^ **A\J. Tchwahld bud you ,,
(^3. ^ XXAI^ TchimJiand bud they ,, ,,
Remark. This tense is seldom used in modern colloquial, the Present
tense taking its place on all occasions : it appears to bo dying out. It is,
however, still used by the Afghans and Indians, who seldom use the Present
tense for the Future. By Persians it is used in correct writing. The people
of Kashan are said to use it freely in speech. *
VIII. The Past Participle ( <Jj**> ^\ ) is formed by adding * to the
shortened Infinitive: *^ buda " been" or " having been."
IX. The following tenses are derived from the Past Participle :
The Perfect Tense ( ^^ ^U ).
/ 1. ft ^ buda-am " I have been."
Singular . . <; 2. i& buda-i " thou hast been."
3. e~*i &^j buda-ast "he, etc*, has been."
Note that the j is silent.
THE VEKB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 227
/ 1. p>\ %& buda-lm " we have been."
Plural . . < 2. ^ *& buda-ld " you have been."
( 3. &\ *j buda-and " they have been."
Remark L In poetry the final 3 of this tense is sometimes omitted,
and the verb contracted into one word, thus; o^^j budast.
Pish az man u iu layl u nahar-i bud-ast.
"Days changed to nights, ere you were born, or I."
(0. K. Rub. 33 Whin.)
Remark II. Note that the full forms of the affixed substantive verb are
written after the silent , vide 66 (a) and (6). Note the form of the second
person singular; 66 (e).
. The Pluperfect Tense ( <v*j u bo ) not in use.
(Buda budam f^ jj^j, etc.)
XI. The Future Perfect ( ^& ^^U ) : (with " agar " Perfect Subjunctive^.
{ 1. ^ib tty buda basham " I shall or will have been " ;
Singular ..\ " J must have been -"
2. ^t> ^j 6^^ fea^M thou
1^3. ^b ^j fcitcZa bashad he, etc.
/ 1. ^^b i$^ buda bashwn we
Plural . . 2. ^b j^ 6i*& 65ftid! you
\ *3. <xxU ^y 6^a bashand they
. By adding to the Infinitive a ^, called by grammarians the
i ya-yiliyaqatoT "^ of fitness," a future participle or substantive
:> possibility is formed, thus ^j budam (i what was to be, or to happen ";
plural Ifi^y budani-ha :
Bar lawh l nishan-i budam-ha buda ast.
" 'Twas writ at first, whatever was to be. J>
(0. K. Rub. 35 Whin.)
(d) Bad ^b, and in poetry fab 6ada is an Optative or a Benedictive form,
as : ab 3};^ o^p ^mm^ darazbad " may thy life be long." #wvad jjt^j (old) is
another form of j>b 65d
The phrase (modern colloquial and classical) har chi bada bad ^ tat A^A
signifies " happen what will, let happen what may."
1 Lawh ^ the tablet upon which, according to Mohammadan belief, the transac-
tions of mankind have been written by God, from all eternity.
228 THE VERB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.
(e) Mabddd t^>*> (or mabdd) "let it not be; by no means; away;
God forbid; lest" may be treated as a conjunction. (Note that, contrary
to custom, the prohibitive * ma is retained with the third person Precative).
In modern colloquial, the phrase t^U/c '^ ^\^ bardy-i ruz-i mabddd
signifies " for a rainy day, for a day God forbid that it should come.' '
(/) Nist u nd-bud kardan &&^ j^li ^ cu~J (lit. to make ' is not ' and ' was
not ' ) signifies * ' to destroy utterly. ' '
(g) It will be remarked that there are three forms of the Present tense
of the verb "to be." In modern Persian there is no difference in their
signification; thus, "I am always here" nould be rendered equally in
modern Persian by man hamlsha mjd mi-bdsham, or haslam, or am, &o4& ^
f or *1~A or f-**^* t^V'
(h) Chi bude 1 (biidi) (class) <^-j^> ^ means l( Oh that! would that! " ;
c^^f (spS * ^LJfdj fj e^p e/f ^ X* * ^ &** chi bude l ki man an dirakht
rd biddnistame l ki kujd nst (Sa'dl) e{ Oh that I knew where that tree was to be
found."
(i) In modern Persian, the Preterite of budan is generally used for the
Imperfect and the Past Conditional; thus o^U. ^ /*^^^ l?uf cxsj e/f )& jt\
>^U4.> ^fj agar dardn waqt dnjd mi-budam mard hdjat-i qabr name-bud (Afghan)
" had I been present then, I would have had no need of a grave (for I would
have been buried in the ruins) " ; in modern Persian, budam and bud (without
the prefix mi) would ordinarily be used here.
(j) In modern colloquial, the Imperative <j*l' bash is used for "halt,
stand still," or "wait." Mi-bash (J(*^* (m.c.) is also used for "stay
here, ' * Compare :
imruz kdmrdn Vinl,
Digar-l rd dil az mujdhada risk.
Euzgdh^ chand bash id bi-khivurad.
Khdk mayhz-i sar-i khaydl-andish. (Sa^di).
* One to-day you ma} 7 sec successful,
Another broken-spirited from striving ;
Wait a short time till the grave
Swallows up their fancy-weaving brains."
l Majhul sounds. In m.c. tj u# **> chi mi-shavad ;
chi-mi-vhavad kiln lear ra bi-kunam, "I wish I could," chi khiib bud agar In ra mi-
danistam pi~^* *** \) ^! jf) ^^4 v^ *^
ft ** gh for Jjif ; note that the final * in the former is aspirated. Another, and
probably the correct, reading is (jO ruzak-l ( dimin.).
ACTIVE VOICE. 229
dast-ash bi-bandad Ruzgar,
Pas bi-kam-i khwlshtan magiz-ash bar-ar. (Sa'di).
The Afghans still use the present tense of budan in the sense of " to dwell,
live."
(y) Some verbs are both Transitive and Intransitive, 1 as '.arwkhtan' 1
e^iu^f "to mix, be mixed"; rlkhtan ^iiu; "to pour away, be poured
away, etc."; dukhtan* ^^ "to sew"; angikhtan* ^iu&t " to stir up,
rouse"; amukhtan e^^f "to learn, teach" ; sukhtan ^^ 9 " to burn";
avikhtan* e>^T 4< to hang"; gusliadan % &^ <( to open"; gusistan, ^i-?
" to break" ; payvastan e>**>*J ct to join " ; pusJMan* U*N^J <4 to hide" ;
afrukMan v&^ c< to kindle, inflame"; afsurdan* ^^\ " to freeze,
congeal"; afzudan \s>*jy\, fc to increase"; khastan* ^^U^ 4< to wound, be
tired, etc." ; mandan u*xiLo* cc to remain" (in Afghan Persian also transitive
"to place," ?;{(Ze 81).
69. Active Voice ( <*-*)<* ^ ) 6 .
The following is a conjugation 6 of the regular transitive verb &<&
kandan " to dig, root out, etc." :
(a) Infinitive( j<*z*> ^\ ) 7 ^^kandan : (the Infinitive can also be used as a
noun) : negative Infinitive, o*yitfi twi-kandan or &*& na-kandan.
(b) Imperative 8 ^ lean Ci dig thou, etc," (or bi-kari). Past Participle
( J^ixs p) ) (active and passive ) x^ kanda" "dug" or "having dug."
Present Participle (AAJU. ^t ) iylir frawSft "digging" (indeclinable). Noun
1 Mushtarik) i.e. "shared, common."
2 In modern colloquial, Transitive only.
3 In modern colloquial, afsurda (with shudan) only used.
* In modern colloquial, Intransitive only.
6 i.e., of which the agent is " known.'*
6 S*ar/ Oj^ "conjugation," tofr$/ kardan &&jf vJtJjWfti or gardaiidan eA>!^ to
conjugate." In India, gardan (*>\^j is used f or a " conjugation."
T For the Infinitive as a verbal noun, vide $ 115 (ft), and (r) Remark.
j>>
8 3igha-yi amr "Imperative mood," also called ZJ^AJ*] amr-i mniarrad to dis-
tinguish it from t $*'**y f amr-i mudami "the Continuous Imperative." The second
persons are called ^1^.^*1 amr-i Mzir, while the third persons of the Aorist or Present
Subjunctive bi-kanad "let him dig" <*ii& bi-kanand 4 *let them dig," are v.Ajljc^x{
* In such sentences as o-*j *^j^, which equals ^-^*^ 8^ ;l^ n>.-!f, this Parti-
ciple is called mazi-yi ma'f.Ufi, ( ^*^k*xs ^-alx)), the final * being considered the
equivalent of the conjunction ( *& J^ ) 7;a ^.
230 ACTIVE VOICE.
of agency (cUl* ^\ l ) **& kananda "a digger'' (declinable). Noun of
Possibility or Future Participle <^*if kandani " that is to be dug up, fit to
be dug up" ; plural ^^ kandamha " things that are to be dug up, or are
fit to be dug up/'
/. Aorist or Present Subjunctive ( muzari )L*c ).
prt or *& kanam or bi-kanam " I may dig up" (or "let me dig
U P")> J^ or c^ kani or bi-kani " mayst thou dig," etc.
Remark /.The termination ^ of the 1st person of the tenses of tran-
sitive or intransitive verbs is styled by grammarians mim-i mutakallim ( ^
,*WLc ).
The suffix am ['vide' 66 (a)] is termed mim-i isbat-i fi'l
( J* e>Ui| p** ), as in shadman-am ^ ; U^U 1 am rejoiced."
Remark II. In old poetry a pleonastic allf is sometimes found at the
end of the third person singular of this tense.
//. Present (zaman-i hoi JU. ^Uj ).
pti** mi-kanam "I dig up, or am digging up, etc. (also I will dig up)."
Remark. Present tenses can also be formed by prefixing participles or
a verbal adjective to the verb <e to be."
/// -4. Imperative ( siy_ha-yi amr j*\
e/ or ^^ kan or bikan "dig thou."
*& or xJXj kanid or bi-kanid f< dig ye."
The other persons are identical with the Aorist.
Remark. If the initial letter of the Imperative has zamma for its vowel,
the vowel of the prefix <fc may also be changed to zamma, as : bu-guzar or
bi-guzar. Such contractions as bugzar occur in poetry and in modern col-
loquial, vide 72 (a).
III. B. The Continuous Imperative (amr-i mudami
^AAJ mi-kan (clas.), or t^wfc Jwmi-kan (class.), or ^ O ^A hami bi-tcan
(class.) " continue to dig up ; keep on digging." In modern colloquial ^ ^
hay bi-kan is used.
or ^ &* ^*>f the rea/or regular Active Participle as distin-
guished from Adjectives and Compound Adjectives that have the Bonse of a Past
Participle.
2 In modern Persian the prefix & is nearly always used with the Imperative. It is,
however, generally omitted before _r* shaw the Imperative of e><^ , and always before
O& the Imperative of c^>j, and often before kun "do."
ACTIVE VOICE. 231
Remark. The Precative kanad ^ "Oh that he may dig" is
classical, and confined to the third person singular. In old poetry, how-
ever, other persons are found. [Mabada t^U* is both classical and modern
colloquial.]
///. C. Prohibitive Imperative ( e vide ' sigha-yi amr-i nahl ^ j^ **&* )
' ma-kan "dig not up (thou)."
i ma-kamd t( dig not up (ye.)' '
(The remaining persons are identical with the Negative Aorist.)
Remark. For an example, in classical Persian, of the Past Subjunctive
used as a Continuative Imperative, vide 125 (j) (6).
IV. The Preterite (mazi-yi mutlaq
f.^ kandam c ' I dug up. 2 ' '
This tense, in writing, when affirmative frequently takes the prefix A> ,
for eupliony only.
V. Imperfect* (mazi-yi istimrari ^7^-'^^).
C*** (j+* hami-kandam. or ?*&** mi-kandam "I was digging up, I used
to dig up."
(This tense is also used in past and future conditions.)
VI. The Past Conditional or Habitual, or the Optative* ( ^jj+*^ \j^ M V
^xcxi^ kandame (class.), or rarely me-kandame and hame-kandame, vide
68 VI.
Remark. This tense can take the prefix <?y. The second person singular
is rarely used, and the second person plural , perhaps, does not exist. The first
person plural is rare and, perhaps, should not exist ; vide Remark, 68
VI, Remark.
VII. Future Definite (mustaqbil cU^^c).
&S fAi^ khwaham kand " I will dig up."
The prefix & is sometimes added to the auxiliary ^>^ khwaham in this
tense. In poetry, the full and not the shortened form of the Infinitive occurs ;
vide also 80.
1 In modern colloquial k> is preferred, being less peremptory.
^ A classical form of the third person singular is formed by adding
alif-f tahsin as rafta (for raft). Sa'dl frequently uses ^ gufta, which is also m.c.
8 When preceded by agar this tense is called c5^r^ C5^ U mazi-yi shartj,.
* When preceded by o2( leash ^/^K kashki, etc., this tense is called <J&3
mazi-t/i tammana'i. The same term appears to be applied to the Imperfect and
PI uperfect when preceded by kash, etc.
232 ACTIVE VOICE.
VIII. The Perfect (mazi-yi qarib
(*( *xtf ] kanda am <% I have dug."
In the third person singular the o^t ast is often omitted, thus %^ for
Remark. An old form of the second person singular is ^X-a^ kandasti
(for Itxxf kanda-l) and a contracted form of the third person singular is **+&
kandast [vide 66 (d)} ; perhaps the other persons occur, but if
so they are rare. In a rarer form still, a c5 is found affixed to the auxiliary
of the Perfect. This form seems to be always Conditional.
IX. Pluperfect (mazi-yi ba'id
kanda budam " I had dug up."
This tense is also used in past conditions, in modern Persian only.
Remark. A little-used form of the Pluperfect, used in Conditional and
Optative clauses, is: ^*zy t^ kanda budami, i.e., to the Past Participle of
a verb, the Past Conditional or Habitual of ^^ budan, instead of its
Preterite, is added. Example: ^**y ^-^J ( j '^ Jjf j' e/^ ^ ay kadi az
awal Khuda ra paristida budami.
X. Future Perfect or Past Subjunctive * (mazi.yi shakkt ^ ^* ).
^ib*^ kanda bash am "I will have dug up; must have dug up; may
have dug up."
This tense is also used as a Past Subjunctive.
(c) The following tenses are rarely used :
(1) Continuative Perfect o~~f> ;>JAX mi-kanda ast (m.c.) "he has been
digging up " ; tho Imperfect is ordinarily used for this tense, vide 125 (t)
(2) f^M* xi< (J\) * (agar) kanda me-budam (old) "(if) I bad dug'*
the Imperfect or Pluperfect is generally used instead of this tense, which is of
doubtful accuracy and is not used by Persians.
i The second person is written X<^ > and also (but rarely) ^\
* This tense is also called ^Ui^.! <^*k* mazi-yi ihtimutt, and
waznwn, and -^^ /0 L5^^ c maziryi mashkuk (or tashkik) from t haml t4 imputing," zann
1 thinking, suspecting" and fthalek lt doubting."
8 Or (^*i^ W*f kanda budame (not used in modern Persian, and rare in old
Persian) : me-kanda budam is another form :
Qazl-l tariha shab-l ml-rajta bud.
Su-yi bustan did duzd-i hamchu dud.
" One night a Qazi was going alone towards a garden.
When he saw a thief (pass him) like smoke."
ACTIVE VOICE. 233
Remark. In the following example ***+* &i>L* ^ ix^y &LJ^j1 \ (m.c.)
agar nishista budid /car sakhta nami-shud "it you had remained sitting still,
nothing would have been found ' ' the Past Participle of the intransitive verb
is considered an adjective and not part of the verb; both verbs are, therefore,
correctly in the ordinary Imperfect to express a supposition.
(3) ixU*x> aaif. According to Forbes, "Let him continue digging."
I am unable to find any examples of such a tense. Such an expression
in modern Persian would be taken to mean "it is kanda " % (engraving),
just as X&UA>O *jftj nuqra mi-bashad signifies "it is silver."
(4) ty <tofj:k *&, a Future Perfect, "ho will have dug, he must have
dug." This tense is used by the Afghans and sometimes by the Persians.
It is of doubtful accuracy. For example, vide 125 (;') (3).
(5) pl toy JJcxi*' kanda buda am " I must have dug." This tense,
which is also of doubtful accuracy, is used in modern Persian. For example,
vide 125 (j) (5).
(/) The third person singular of the Aorist may be made Optative or
,?
Benedict! ve, by lengthening the fafha of the final syllable; thus ay bitvad
$
becomes ^ buvad or ^ bad; *X kanad becomes z\& kanad, " Oh that he
may dig * " : Guy and mar a hi Izad-at tauba dihad J*z *y <^^f ** ^ *^j$
" They say ' may Allah aid thee to repent ' " ! (0. K. 172, Whin.)
(g) Paraphrases of some of the tenses can be made by prefixing Parti-
ciples, Persian or Arabic, and Verbal Adjectives, to the verb "to be," as:
khwahan-i an bud Id &f ^^ &\A\*&> (m.c.) "he was desirous of -- ">
j*I~a c^-k) raftani liastam (m.c.) "I am about to go"; ow*t a^yc miirda
ast (m.c.) <c it is dead" (also "he has died"); ^~t JU ^iLt j\ u talib-i Him
asl "he seeks after knowledge"; cW f^*^ malum ast" it is known."
(h) To be about to do a thing, can be expressed as follows : Dar sadad-i
(or khayal-i) rajtan budam (*ay ^&j (J^ or) a<>-oja, or darsharaf-i raftanbudam
f&jj (^) J^^*i " I was 011 the point, eve of, departure " ; also in modern
colloquial by, mi-khwahad bi-ravad ki "he is on the point of going
when : u dar kar-i murdan ast (m.c.) u heis dying"; X$ f^y c^T ^ ^
*$ f)<& )^^> j\j (*;!^ eAjt^f v lu^ "I was on the point of approaching
her and jumping over the wall when " (Trans, of Haji Baba, Chap. XXII 1) ;
(dar kar also means to be actually engaged in) : f^J )^ y &****> ^skf* ; lj
tf " I was about to leap over the wall." (Tr. H. B. Chap. XXIII).
(i) The Imperative can also be expressed as follows: && y c**o ;l^
zinhar dast-i tu takan na-khwumd "don't let your hand shake",
*$ y&i* ma-guzar ki bi-yuftad "don't let it fall" ; *jl ;!^ bu-guzar
biyayad " permit (him) to come ' ' ; v^b ;!*& bu-guzar bashad ' * let it alone.' '
This alif is called alif-i da* a or alif-i tamanna.
234 VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
Gu " say, suppose, let " ( Imperative of guftan) occurs in writing with
much the same signification as bi-guzdr.
Gu-ki *$ (conjunction) " although."
o ^
Remark I. The Preterite Potential ^ ,JLJy (vide 77) is called the
mdzi-yi imkdni or mdzl ma ( a 'l-qudrat ( ^^ ^^, or e^^l *> cr^-* )
Remark II. Sarf-i sagh/ir ( ^-^^ o/^ ) is an Indian term applied to run-
ning through the moods and tenses of a verb, giving the Infinitive, the third
person singular of the Preterite, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Aorist, and
Present, the second person singular of the Imperative and the Negative
Imperative, and the Present and the Past Participles.
Sarf-i kabir ( jtf o^ ) is conjugating a verb in all its Persons, Moods
and Tenses, in both voices. This term, too, is Indian.
70. Verbal Adjectives.
(a) From the Imperative stem of some verbs a Verbal Adjective (or
Substantive) with the termination a is formed, which differs little in signifi-
cation from a Present Participle, thus: e*>^ dldan "to see," Imperative
<^x> bin " see thou," verbal adjective ti# bind " seeing, clear-sighted "
(plural <^&w bindydn (classical) ) ; &#\* nd-bind <c blind " or " a blind man ";
lvw bind shudan " to sjet sight, recover sight."
oSj^ P fy ^ )/
Dar kargatiri kuza~gar-i raftam dush,
Dldam du hazdr kuza guyd u khamush. 1
" Once in a potter's shop, a company
Of cups in converse, did I chance to see.
(0. K. 283 Whin.)
Vide also examples in 43 (r).
Similarly, from ^^-^ ddshtan andy<i ddr, comes \j^ddrd " holding fast;
a possessor, a lord, rich " (m.c.) : from c^^ justan and j*> ju or juy. comes
IJ^A. juya ** seeking"; from c;^J** sazldan [saz] "to be worthy " comes,
!>* sazd : and from ^fi? guftan and gu or ^$ guy, comes ^ guyd
tl speaking, etc." For an example of Lify tavdnd and cJfyG nd-tavdn^ * vide'
77 (e) and Remark.
Panrd ^AJ has a Passive as well as an Active sense. Some of these
Verbal Adjectives are not declinable, and are equivalent to Participles.
(b) A few nouns have a similar termination; thus from <^ pahn
"broad" comes U^ pahnd "breadth"; from &*)) rawshan " clear,
Poetical for
NEGATIVE VERBS. 235
bright" rawshana (*$ (old) "brightness," 1 also "Roxana" the Greek
form of the name of the wife of Alexander the Great, who was a daughter of the
king of Persia: U> tarsa a f< Christian."
71. Negative Verbs.
(a) Fi'l-i nafi ^ J*i negative verb and Fi'l-i nahi ^ J** prohibitive
verb. The Negative prefixes are: (1) 4u or /ma*; (2) <** or 3 & na; and
(3) b na. * The prefix f' is always omitted when the verb is negative, as:
fHtf <*' bi-binam " let me see " ; na-Unam, f*& "let me not see."
(6) I/a is used with the second person singular and plural only of the
Imperative, and with the Negative Precative, as: u^* ma-purs "don't
ask"; **&*> ma-kunid "don't do" ; and (with the Precative Aorist) d*&*
ma-binad tl may he not see." It is always joined to its verb in writing,
and in compound verbs immediately precedes the verb itself, as: CL>^ o**a
(last ma-zan &yo o^- ''don't touch"; *nde also Remark to (0). The
benedictive forms ma-manad ^liU* , ma-kunad *M*> 7 etc., are sometimes used
in m.c.
Remark. The ma occurs in the conjunction mabad or mabada (the
Optative of e^y); as also in the adverb mayar "but, perhaps," which is
compounded of ma and agar.
(c) In modern colloquial, however, ma &* is falling into disuse; and
na AJ is generally used instead, as it is less imperative and therefore civil.
(d) Na AJ is correctly prefixed to all the tenses with the exceptions of the
second person singular and plural of the Imperative [vide (b) ], and in modern
colloquial it is even prefixed to these also. It is also prefixed to the Past
Participle, and to the Shortened Infinitive as well as to its full form, as:
,^&AA: cX> n^jXj [^ cbJjiO i; )\4 ^\ In bar ra na-kunid Khuda na-karda bad
tm-shavad (m.c.) "don't do this (God forbid it), it may not turn out well."
It can, in writing, be joined to the verb or be written separately.
(ej The & immediately precedes the verb or its prefix mi. Example :
na-yuft t( he did not say " ; ^ ^ nami-guyam " I do not say."
If, however, the prefix be a *A hami and not ^ mi, the negative is
prefixed to the verb, as: hami na-guyam.
1 The usual forms, however, are pahna'l ^^tv rawshana'i ^^*>;. In modern
colloquial panha*i is used for pahnu-l. In India roshna-l geaerally means "ink," and
roslmi ''brightness."
* Called ^fc* ft* mlm i nafy.
8 Nun i nafy ^ A * &)* but with the Imperative it is, or should bo, called ^ &}*
mln-i nahy. For this nun is Interrogation, vide 73.
In y^# <^+> the negative is called &j& Ojr^, or u^-^ ; but when written *> it is
But the negative of the Past Participle used as an adjective takes na & only.
236 NEGATIVE VERBS.
Similarly, in compound verbs, the *i follows the prefix, being joined
to the verb itself, as: ^|j> ^j y o,*o dast bar nami-dari "won't you
remove your hand ? " or " won't you cease doing ? " : f*j&j*\ agar bar na-
gardam "if I don't return"; ^ o^ harf na-zadam ik I did not speak,"
vide 85 (c).
Remark. The same rule holds good for **, as : o^U (j { va ma-ist "don't
standstill"
(/) This rule is sometimes broken in poetry, and by the Afghans in
speaking, as :
Chun riist dar In zamana sud-l zi-]chirad
Juz bi-khirad az zamana bar mi na-khurad.
"Small gains to learning on this earth accrue,
They pluck life's fruitage, learning who eschew."
(0. K. Rub. 224 Whin.)
(g) Nati occurs only in compounds, as: ^^na-dlda (adj.) "unseen";
blind"; o*vot ^Uj^k U wJJao ^\ y j\ u az in matlab na-khwa/tan a>st
(local and incorrect) :c he does not want to do it."
The Infinitive being considered a noun, the Negative Infinitive is
often treated like a compound, and formed with k, seldom with &>. In
modern Persian, however, na *j is preferred to na U.
In &djtykj OV^M riist u na-bud kardan t the ^y is probably considered
a shortened Infinitive, or a verbal noun.
(h) In Persian, two negatives arc sometimes used where in English one
only is correct, vide 123 (6) (5) and (e) ; also for the negative verb with
^ hilch, vide 39 (d) (1), (2), (3) arid Remark. For the negative
after a verb of prohibition, vide 122 (n).
(i) With the auxiliaries bayad <\>k, etc., the negative is sometimes added
to the auxiliary and sometimes to the principal verb, as : bayad ki na-
kunad ^x& tf ^l, or na-bayad bi-kunad && ^U); na-bayad raft^*)&>^]
chira bayad bi-hukm-i shar' rdzi na-shavand? &*j& ^1) ^ j*Ca=u *& ^ (Tr.
H. B., Chap. VI) " why shouldn't the dispute be legally settled (as there is a
Mulla present) ? "
(j) Kam ft and andak ^^ , usually in poetry, can give the idea of a
Negative, as :
Not e^~Jt Ax.
EUPHONICAL RULES AND ACCENTS IN THE VERBS. 237
G/tandan lei justand kamtar yaftand (Gul.) "in spite of their diligent
search they couldn't find him," or "the mo re they searched, the less they
found him."
Vide also 121 (b).
72. Euphonical Rules and Accents in the Verbs.
(a) When the Imperative of a verb ends in j, this letter sometimes
differs in pronunciation in the Imperative and in the other tenses. If the ^ of
the Imperative is pronounced w t it becomes a v before #, as : _>& shaw 1 " be-
come, go" (Imperative of shudan), ^ shavam, Aorist;^; raw (or ro)
"go" (Imperative of <ji; raj tan), pj) ravam, Aorist; cA^ davidan "to
run" (Imperative j> daw), Aorist davam f*.
If the^ of the Imperative is pronounced u, a ^ is inserted for euphony,
as: u*5& guftan "to say," Imperative^ bigu " say," Aorist +>* bi-guyam.
The latter rule also holds good when the Imperative ends in a, as : c^+j
ncumudaUy U^ nama u to show," Present /*jl*> ^* mi-namayam. Such verbs
have two forms of the Imperative, one with and one without the <^,
as: M~OW justan "to seek," Imperative ^ ju or ^^ juy\ guftan "to
speak," Imperative ^ gu or <^ ^?l?y (classically go or #o,e) ; namudan
c^>^> nama U>" z or nanmy ^+>
(b) As stated in G8 (6) (3), the prefix & is omitted in verbs compound-
ed of an indeclinable particle and a verb.
(c) If the verb begins with alif without madda, this letter is generally
changed into ^ after the prefixes &>, <*J, or*^, for the sake of euphony, as :
o;k!t>J| andakht "he threw./' ^i^'txx^ nayandakht, *' he did not throw,"
(also written o.|yiUi ) : ^I>j uftam " I may fall," fiiw bi-yujtam: ;KJ| anj;ar
"consider," mayangat\ ^H^. 3
(^) If the verb begins with an afo'/ marked by a madda ( f ) , the a/*'/
remains, the madda of course being rejected: trf arad "he may bring ";
^U> biyarad " let him bring" ; ;U* mayar ( ' do not bring."
(e) In poetry, the *J often unites with the verb, as: <xU namad (for
nayamad) " he came not." This license is of ten taken by *Umar-i Khayyam.
The contraction occurs in modern colloquial also.
(/) The accent of the verb falls on the last syllable of either stem, except
there be one of the prefixes <t>, AJ, or &*> y or the verb be a compound with
1 In the modern language, both j shaw and ^ bi-shaw are used, but the latter is
less common.
2 Indians, especially Punjabis, have a passion for using 9 : they intrude it after every
alif or ya.
s In o~jU tj va ma-iat t thia euphonic 45- is always omitted.
238 INTERROGATIVE VERBS.
a preposition or an adverb; 1 in the latter cases, the accent falls on the
prefix or the prefixed preposition, vide 21 (a) and (6), (1) to (4).
73. Interrogative Verbs.
(a) Interrogation is usually expressed by the tone of the voice.' 2 It is
also expressed by prefixing to the question Ijf dyd " whether? " or j*>
magar ^ but ? " or by suffixing the words & U yd na " or not ? " Examples :
<*j (j ow Ai*j rafta ast yd na? lt has he left the place or not ? " ; ^ u**)^ ^
*&\& aya Fdrsi nami-ddmd " what, don't you know Persian ? ": eu-*>j *jyc yix
tiJj ^+J vJ^x <tf magar murda ast ki liarf nami-zanad " is he dead that
he doesn't speak ? " ; &t^ j*> magar dlvdna-i ? " are you mad? ", or tk I
fancy you must be mad."
In modern colloquial, bf aya is seldom used,^^ magar usually taking
its place. Interrogation magar is both positive and negative, and is used
idiomatically at the beginning and end of short exclamative phrases.
Examples : ^^jj** vir* 9 ^" magar shardb khhwurdi ? <: I think you have been
drinking," lit. *' but have you been drinking '* " ; _>^ ^'j raftl magar 'I " you
went there, didn't you '\ " (a sly question).
(6) 7H A^" followed by ya na &^, also signifies <f whether or not," as:
aJ ( U cxvof js^/c ^ i^fo^^ 3 naml-danam ki murda ast ya na"I don't know
whether he is dead or not ' ' ; the yd na at the end cannot be omitted.
Remark /. Interrogation is of course also expressed by the interroga-
tive pronouns or adjectives, as: chand *>J^ u how much ? " , or by the inter-
rogative adverbs, as : kujf or kujd lJ *' where ? " ; bardy-i chi sabab &* ^ji
v*^ *' for what reason, why ? >7
Remark II. A simple question with the object of obtaining a direct
answer is called ^U^l^t ^l^ii^i istifhdm-i istikhbari. If the question indi-
cates negation, as in, ki mt-guyad ki khaydl-i safar daradl JU^ & &.** **
*}\*^&* li who says he is thinking of going on a journey?", it is called
istifhdm-i inkdri. If the question expects the answer "yes," it
is called ^)\j*\ ^t^Av^f istifhdm-i iqrdrt, as in: p^t ovWf '* Am I not youc
Lord?"
1 Examples: eA^^ bardashtan, eH^*0^ & gashtan.
2 In negative interrogation as ^ji; <^-*^ nami-ravl * 4 won't you go ? J> the nun is
styled nnri istifham-i nafy (^ pl^Ai^f c^*), w'ste 71 (a) foot-notes (2 and 3). This
negative interrogation can imply assertion, as :
(; *a vJ^I? A +A jjjl AJ * jt} ciie^ ^^(f ^ ^i^ ^4.> (Gul.)
3 Indians for ki might substitute aj/a, which, however, is incorrect.
ROOTS. OB STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.
239
74. Roots or Stems of Simple Verbs.
(a) The number of simple verbs in Persian is small. As already stated,
the Infinitive ends in dan or tan. Such Infinitives are called masdar-i
munsarif ( <Jyaxx> ^*a/o ) as opposed to the Compound Infinitives, vide 85.
Infinitives in e>:> dan are preceded by the lon^ vowels a, I and u, or by
fatha, or else by the consonants r and n.
Infinitives in <J* tan are preceded by kh> s, $b or /.
(b) In the so-called irregular verbs the irregularity consists, only in the
Imperative differing from the root of the Infinitive. Thus &**& dtdan :( to
see ' ' has an Imperative ^ bin " see thou ' ' ; &&jf /cardan ' ' to do " , ^/ kun \
cjab dadan "to give," ^ dih, etc.
(c) The following are the rules for forming the Imperative or stem, 1
together with lists of the exceptions. Verbs marked by an asterisk are
obsolete in m.c., while those marked with a dagger are regular:
(I) Infinitives in adan or idan* and' ^nfinitives in tan preceded by ,s,
reject these letters to form the root; in the same way, infinitives in adan
reject this termination, i.e., dan and the fatha preceding, as:
Infinitive. Root or Stem.
. . firist cu^y
. . purs
. . z* <^3
. . tavan
dzh jf
EXGErTIONS. s
Root or Stem.
to bring forth young ; to zd Ij or zd,y ^(j (trans.
be born. and intr.)
f to create . . dfrin &Jjtf
to come . . ay ^f or d f
$ to choose . . guzin
m.c.
firistadan o,
ilxwj.? to send
m.c.
pursldan <^o
kA^^j to ask
m.c.
zistan e^-jj
to live
m.c.
tavdnistan e
yuoijS to be able
dzhadan ^W;
f
dzhidan ^^j
'r/
dzidan o^^j
., / to sew
lf 1
djidan o^-j^
F
Infinitive.
zddan 4 f
m.c. zd*ida
m.c. dfridan B
m.vC. dmadan
m.c. guzidan 6
i Verbs wliose Imperative stems are formed according to rules are called qiyasl
( L5*^4^ ) ** analogical, presumptive, regular " ; those that arc not so formed are called
{,<F\& j& ghayr-i qiyasl, or shazz (rare, irregular), or samafl ( i^+*> ) " traditiona
irregular. ' *
* The greater part of the simple Persian verbs end in Idan.
3 Verbs marked f are regular.
* Infin. used in m.c.
6 In m.c. afaridan.
6 But gazldan m.c. (regular) " to bite, sting."
240
BOOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.
m.c. (vulg.) gddan c^lf } copulate (of men gd tforgdy^tf
m.c. (vulg.) gd*idan f o^lf j only) .
dih 8<3
shunaw or shinaw ^
m.c. dddan &&\& to give
m.c. shariidan
\
shanudan &ty - to hear
m.c. shinuftan ^& )
m.c. gushadan c^U^ \
m.c. kushddan ^(M ( to lo 8e
m.c. kushudan'f c^y^ I
m.c. didan (j*xa to see
m.c. zadan &&) to strike
*bakhldan
to stitcJi
kushd ( or kushdy
bin 1 ^
zan c>j
bakhya kun ^ *
(m.c.).
*istandan
^dJU^i^
m.c. sitddati
m.c. sitdndan'\
I
^jJsljlvCi 1
-. rto carry away
i'att c)^
m.c. sitdnldan^
vjoylSU j
drastan ^vi^;t
, > to adorn
am^/ c5*b^ or ^ r ^ b^-
*dmddan cJ
*dmudan'\' &>
m.c. bdlidan c
^bdludan^ e
*bdld*idan^ &&
lAtcf ) .
1 ( to prepare
i^T)
;x)lj v
^y^ / to grow, increase
H^)
ama Ui or dmdij ^Uf;
(dmdda kardan in m.c.)
bdldy ^Jllj
rn.c. pa^oaft-t cJ*!^
m.c. pdyldan^ cJ*^
{ 1 to stand firm, endure ;
j look stedfastly at; to
pa b or pa?/ ^b ; (pdyistan
very rare).
*pdyistan &*~J\
j < trample under foot.
m.c. bdyistan u*~?h
' to be necessary
( c^b ) Imperative does
not exist.
payrdstan^ ^y^
*Lr^ to adorn ; to prune ; to
plrd or payrdy ^\ KAJ or j^xj ;
(pirdstan)
clip.
in m.c. pirdstan.
m.c. payvaslan (^^
j-y ^ J om ? to be joined
payvand 1 ^^, tr. ancl
intr. ; in m.c. the tr. is
payvasta kardan.
*tamdan"\ &
v> ) to draw tight ; to twist ;
tan ^
*tanudan &&j>
u ) be twisted.
1 The only verb in which the Imperative appears to be derived from a verb totally
different from the Infinitive.
* Payvand subs. " a joint, connection ; mark of a join": payvasta (Participle)
signifies also " always, continually."
BOOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VEBBS.
241
*jistan
m.c. jastan
r > to jump
^jJkMM^. i
jah fa*
m.c. justan <^-^ to search (in m.c. also . . /# ^a. or jtty
= to find).
m.c. chldan e)-^ to pluck, cull . . c^m ^
m.c. bar khastan L ^.i^U^j to rise up, get up . . barkhlz >^j
m.c. khwastan * e^t^ to wish, desire . . khiuah *i^
m.c. rastan ^^; to be liberated, to escape; . . rah ; trans, and intrans.
to let go.
m.c. ru^idan^ o<H$^)*|
9 >to grow
m.c. r us tan
*rlsian
*ristan
m.c. ristdan'f
m.c. rishtan 8
m.c. n^a/i
: (intrans. ;
vl. adjective).
L to spin
; (nsman
thread).
> to gtool _
m.c.
m.c. sUkastan
to break (trans, and in- . .
trans.). intrans.
in m.c.
A crude word, only
used by the vulgar.*
trans, and
m.c.
m.c. kastan
*qirislan 6
m.c.
m.c. gusistan
*gusustan
m.c. gusikhtan
to lessen
,
to weep
kah ^ tr. and intr.
m.c.).
to break off, to snap : . . gusil J~> trans, arid
f tr. and intr. intrs. ; in m.c. trans.
l Note that e^l^ and e^^f>* though spelt differently are pronounced the same.
z ^oa.'j; r u* Idan to grow ; &*?.j) rawldan or ravldan (old) " to go, travel, walk/'
s *Ruahtan (old), 4< to colour, dye."
4 In polite speech sar-i qadam raftan &*') f&3j* (to squat), or birkinar-i ab raftan
6 In modern Persian &bf j~$ kasr kardan is preferred for tr. for lowering of price
or value: & AA^t^ ^JUJ ^*AJ )f az qimat-i qall kasta shud m.c. ts carpets have gone
down. ' '
Niganst " he looked " and na-girist " he did not weep."
16
242
BOOTS OB STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.
*manistan l
m.c. mandan !
resemble
to remain, be super-
fluous; to be fa-
tigued; to resemble.
to sit
i ~\
*yarastan
m.c. bastan ^-^ to bind
*nishastan
rn.c. nishdndan'f
shu*idan * '
m.c. shustan
m.c. shuridan* c
to place
to wash
m.c. nishastan ^
*nigaristan 8
m.c. nigaristan <^-^y& Vto look at, view . .
*m"0rartefcmf e;*lr^ J
*yaristan* e^;b }to be able; (in dictionary
^ r other meanings also
>l*> intr. ; mdnd vl-
adjective.
J l <. The participle
mdnda is used as an
adjective, ' * fatigued , J>
especially by the Af-
ghans. In India it also
means "poor, worn
out" (of animals).]
nishln' 1
nigar j& : (nigaridan very
rare).
yar ){->.
band *w : [6a^a shudan
pass. m.c.].
nishdn ^Jfo : [nishdsta
in m.c. = starch].
5/ii// ^^-^ or sAur ;^- ; :
(shur is the stem most
in use in m.c., but
both are used).
Remark. It will be noticed that some verbs have two forms of the
Imperative stem, one ending in ^ and one in a vowel without ^ as : a f or
^/f ay. In writing, both forms are used ; but in modern colloquial the ^ is
nearly always discarded, as : ^ bi-gu " say " (not bi-guy <^* ).
1 Manand **&*> adv. (misl) <4 alike, resembling." The Afghans use these verbs
also as a transitive, " to put, place."
2 Nishasta aat is both Perfect Tense and Past Participle with aat for the English
Present tense: *-^~*{ *i-*^> Mp-M an/a niahctata aat " he is sitting (seated) there," but
l;*uf g n yg me-nMmod " that is where he always sits."
3 o*Jjx> -- nigrar^ ** he looked " or else no-giriat '* he did not weep."
4 The Gabrs use this word in writing, *^\)<i ^^ ^^ \) f^- yj3^ buzurgi-yi
ra kas-l naryarad daryajt none can perceive the greatness of God."
6 Shurldan &*>)j* (m.c.) also signifies '* to grow mad, be distracted."
BOOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.
243
(2) Infinitives in udan &&) of which there are not a large number
reject dan and change u into a or ay, as :
m.c. situdan !
m.c. namudan
m.c. budan
m.c. shudan
,
' v shudan
*tanudan
*tanidan-f
shanudan
m.c. shamdan
m.c. shanujtan
*zinudan
to praise
to do, to show
Exceptions.
to be
> to become, to go
} to draw tight, to twist,
) be twisted.
fto hear
iii^ j
to neigh
*darudan
m.c. darawdan^
m.c.
) to
reap
sita Uu or siidy 11 ^Uuo.
nama U> or namay ^Ui,
trans, and intrans.
6w j> or (jwU 6a5^.
5^a^ j.
tan ti>5.
shanaw j*S.
zinaw ^ : (shayha kashi-
dan in modern collo-
quial).
daraw ))&. (In mod. Pers.
the infinitive daraw
kardan is preferred).
ghunavidan^
to slumber, doze . , ghunaw
Remark. The following are regular : m.c. azmudan cJ^^jT '* to try,
to prove" (tr.) ; asudan e^>~>f " to rest, be satisfied, be at ease" (intr.) ;
m.c. ajzudan o>^>i or fuzudan cJj^ cf to increase" (tr. and intr.): m.c.
aludan c;^f "to stain, pollute; to be polluted" (tr. and intr.); (in m.c.
intransitive is aluda shudan c;* *pT ) : m.c. andudan 8 e)^*ii " to plaster,
smear, gild, to twist": m.c. paludan* &&jik ll to strain, filter; become
pure" (tr. and intr.) : m.c. bakhsJmdan eJ^Aiu (also m.c. bakhshldan ^jxlsiu )
" to give, bestow, forgive " : m.c. rubudan e^^; or *rubudan &wj) " to rob,
carry off; withdraw oneself from sight" (trans.): m.c. zadudan &wj
"to polish, .scour; wipe sadness from the mind": *sudan eJ^ (also m.c.
sdbtdan ^*>^ and m.c. sa^idan &*$l> ) " to rub, wear, anoint" (tr.) 6 :
1 Sita f ish kardan is also in use.
* Fide 72 (a).
3 In modern colloquial andud kardan is preferred.
* In m.c. v^ iJ^^ faluda-yi (or paluda-yi S^b ) .n& = ' sharbat of minced
apple, rose-water and sugar.' The Afghans use this verb and c>-H^ palldan for "to
search.*' Paluda in m.c. is also a sweetmeat made of starch and sugar. In m.c. this
verb is tr. ; the intrans. form is paluda shudan.
6 Intransitive eJ<^ J$^U* sa 9 lda shudan.
44
BOOTS OB STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.
iraudan ^byj* "to rub, wear; to be worn, old " (tr.) * : m.o. farmudan :*
\&j*j* "to order " : kushudan &&j*f (also kushadan c^^ ) "to open " :
i.e. gushudan oj^^ or gushadan e*>Uf.
(3) Infinitives in tan preceded by kh , reject tan and change into J :
pukhtan u-*^ to cook . .
anddkhtan
*akhtan
*akhtan 3
m.c. shinakhtan
ni .c . gusikhtan
m.c. gusastan
*gu8ustan
*sukhtan
.. , .
m.c. sanytdanj
*pikhtan
na.c. plchldan f
to throw
anddz
Exceptions.
i to draw a sword : to dkh
geld.
to recognize
^to break off, snap
I
to weigh
G
, . , ,
to twist, to coil
shinas
gusil d~S , tr. and intr.
sanj ^i-.
} S
pich -r^, tr. and intr.
'
Remark. The following are regular: m.c. afrakhtan (^i^^i, (or m.c.
frdshtdn (-ji&fyf) *'to raise on high; to exalt" (tr.) : afrukhtan ey^j/f
Q.C.) *' to set on fire" (tr.) : m.c. amukhtan ^.^^of 4 "to lear'nf
* teach" (tr. and intr.): m.c. amlkhtan ^.litxof ** to mix, mingle;
\ be intermixed" (tr. and intr.): rn.c. anglkhtan ^^^J! (also angidan
JJ\ ) "to excite, rouse": m.c. avikhtan ^Iscu^f "to hang, suspend"
r.) : m.c. bakhtan ^^ " to play, to lose at play" (tr.): m.c. pardakh-
n b (^^&jJ "to finish; bring to perfection; to be busily engaged"
r. and intr.) : m.c. parhikhtan u*k*H^ 6 (^) ** to educate " (but parhizidan)
, Imper. jjjA^j, " restrain oneself, abstain" (intr.): m.c. bikhtan u-
A Usually the participle t&f>j* with an auxiliary verb is used.
2 Also in compound verbs used as a substitute for kardan, to indicate respect.
3 But akhta kardan &&j$ <^^' " to geld " only.
* In m.c. to learn only: amuzandan &^jjy*>\ or amuzanidan cJ'H^j^' ' (me.
to teach.'*
5 Man bi-ln kar naml-pardazam fj'^i $+> ft (^& er* (m.c.) 4< I cannot do this "
an in fear ra pardab&tam ^^'^ j* \) ft ^ &* (m.c.) " I completed this" :
j( az nam&z parda&ht (m.c.) " he finished his prayers "= farigh ahud.
^tAj* ^abstinence" and pahrlz kardan &<^JrtPj only, are common in
odern Persian.
BOOTS OB STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.
245
"to sift" (in diet, also " to enslave; become weak") (tr.): takhtan 1
"to hasten; to assault: to make to gallop " (tr. and intr.) : tojchtan u-^y (old
"to pay a debt; to wish, to want"; m.c. dukhtan eH&ja "to sew"(tr. and
intr.): rikhtan ^^ " to pour, diffuse; cast, melt; scatter, disperse*" (tr.
and intr.): m.c. sakhtan ^X^U 3 "to make" (tr.) : *supukhtan &,****> " to
prick, pierce ; thrust one thing with force into another ' ' : m.c. sukhtan <ji^
" to burn, to be inflamed, to set on fire" (tr. and intr.) ; m.c. gudaTchtan
(^\^ "to melt, to be melted" (tr. and intr.) : m.c. gurlkhtan ^iu/ "to
flee away" : m.c. navakhtan* ^i^y " to soothe , caress , etc.' ; to play upon
an instrument; to sing"; (and with an instrument of punishment) "to
chastise."
(4) Infinitives in tan preceded by
into ; r, as :
m.c. dashtan
sh, reject ^ tan and change c4 sh
m.c. gashtan
m.c. gardidan*]
to have .. dar )\*.
Exceptions.
to become, to saunter; .. gard
to return; be inverted
*ag]iusliidan-\
_
embrace . . ayiush
*
m.c. kushtan ^&f to kill
. . kush
m.c. hisfitan
m.c. hiKdan-f
*\
> to let down ; to quiet, hil JA or hish <Ju*.
" ' *
m.c. sirishtan*
*sarisliidan
m.c. kdshtan^ 7
m.c. kishtan
^ to mix; to create; ..
) to mix.
to plough; sow; till
^ the land; to plant
sirish
\ inm.c. " tosow.
Takht u taz kardan cJ.i^'j -9 vi*i>t <4 to make an inroad" : takkttan Icardan
to attack": tak&t avardan c^^Jjf^^^ "to attack": tak&t u faraj
*A.lj " plundering." Hence from this verb, tazi came to mean "Arabic : an
Arab horse, an (Arab) greyhound."
a Bar sar-i kas-l riWtfan (^^) ^^ fj>. " to fall upon " : firil rikhtan (
" to pour out " : az ham rikhtan (m.c.) " to go to pieces ; also rlkhta shudan. &
3 In compound verbs, can take place of kardan, etc.
4 In modern colloquial, only to sing or play an instrument or chastise.
* Dar aghfoh girt f fan <^y <jw j.cf ^ in m.c.
* Sirisht c**j* * mixed; nature, etc."; sirishta Ax^*> ** mixed, kneaded," but
tar rishta " a knowledge of."
9
7 uJ&r A-w^ton to sow," but (&& kushtan " to kill/ '
246
BOOTS OB STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.
m.c. rtsidan f a****^
m.c. rishtan
*ristan
*ristan
m.c. navishtan ]
m.c. a&ashtan
m.c. aghishtan
* agiushtan
only in m.c.
to write ..
to mix; fco mois ten;
be moistened ; to
pf J defile.
rams
kun
Remark. The following are regular : m.c. ambashtan ^^U^f and
anbashtan ^^l^t (tr.) "to fill, etc."; m.c angashtan ^^>\ (or m.c. e^;&!
angarldan or *angardan (intr.) : "to think, imagine": *awbashtan
"to devour, swallow": m.c. pindashtan ^^iifolj (or *pindaridan
to think, consider; be proud" (intr.); m.c. ddshtan v&*^ "to
have, hold, keep" (tr.) : m.c. guzashtan ^J^fi^f <f to place, put on, leave"
(tr.) : m.c. guzashtan v*tf (l to pass, pass by" (intr. z ) : m.c. gumdshtan
^(3 "to appoint for a purpose 8 " : m.c. nigashtan ^.y^^i (or m c. nigandan
(Dtytyi " to paint, portray; embroider, to write."
(5) Infinitives in cw dan preceded byj r, or & n, reject dan ^^, as:
m.c. kandan &**? to dig, root kan e/.
m.c. avardan
m.c. shumurdan
m.c. burdan
m.c. kardan
m.c. murdan
m.c. sipurdan
*supardan
m.c. azurdan
^ __ , ,
*azardan f
m.c. afshurdan
*farkandan
Exceptions.
to bring
$j+* to count
to carry, to bear
to do
to die
to resign, commit,
avar f ;jf or ar ;f .
shumar ;^.
bar j*.
kun ^ .
wr ^y.
/ I deposit, travel.
J
to offend, to injure
azar
to squeeze ; to express . .
to dig a canal, bring
water into the fields.
^
;fjl :
, < / x
jfjf (m.c.).
afshar ;lAt.
farkan u^j*, and farkand
j nushtan (gen. nuahidan or nu/i kardan) " to drink*' ; bufc (jJ^y naviahtan,
etc. * 4 to write."
1 Also m.c. c^y ^^ ^wsar kardan to pass by (a person, etc.)."
* In India the past participle, *>U? gumashta, is a common term for a com-
missary, or agent, especially in the Commissariat Department,
ROOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.
247
(6) Infinitives in tan ^ preceded by <J /. reject tan, ^ and, by a law of
permutation common to several languages, change the /<J into b ^>: many
verbs, however, retain the /:
yab <->b.
.. baf ob.
m.c. ydftan eP^^ to get, obtain
m.c. baf tan c^^ to weave
Exceptions.
m.c. paziruftan u*ty*j to accept, approve
m.c. suftan l &.'&*> to bore, pierce
pazlr j.*J.
sumb v^ " sufta kun <uiu
(^ : sufta kardan
(D in m.c.
m.c. nihuftan ^xiy to conceal . . nihuft cui^.
m.c. dshuftan ^xft^T >
*- j,-// + * i \ to disturb .. ashub v^T
m.c. kaftan <^l \
m.c. kawdan c^j 1 ^ > to dig, to root up , . m.c. kdv <f, or (j/ A;a?i.
m.c. kandan]' &&> ,
m.c. shiguftan ^k&k ")to expand (of a flower) , shiguft oA^>
m.c. shikuftan ^xi.Cjl, ^
to smile.
m.c. raftan ^J^ to go
.. ratuj;.
m.c. shinuftan (^IAJ^^
m.c. shanudan. o^^ '
to hear . . shinaw j*.
m.c. shanldan M)^.*** )
m.c. guftan ^^^ to say .. ^^, or guy ^^.
m.c. kuftan']' cj^^l
*, /. ...x 1 to break, bruise, knock, M6 ^^.
*kujtan (.+&> >
trample under foot
m.c. kubidanj a)^^ j
m,c. ruftan^ i^**j9)^
*ruftan (^^
"to sweep . . H$ v^;*
m.c. rubldan^ CH>^J;
m.c. fariftan'f (j**^ )
to deceive fayib > ^,j s > also fiftb dad&n
*fariftan u**j* i
o$t> t r*ir > > m,c.
m.c. giriftan &^*jt to seize . . ^r ^-
1 6fw/to ^^ Past Participle, but ^/fa *ii- (in m.o. ^* /0 4< thick, coarse,
from an obsolete Infinitive.
* Guftan e^J sometimes means to say to oneself, hence " to think " :
^Toft^am bi-namaz u ruza chun ma 9 il shud
Ouf tarn ki muradri kulH-yam Tiasil shud.
*To prayer and fasting when my heart inclined,
All my desire I surely hoped to find: " (O. K 180 Whin.)
248 THE AUXILIARY VERBS.
m.c. khuftan && * (-khuft (m.c.)
m.c. khwabidan ] -\ c>H*!^ f *o sleep, crouch, I khwab (m.c.)
m.c. khusbldan^ e)Hf~^ I etc. 1 khusb (m.c.) *-*~^
m.c. khuspidan f c>^>^^ ( Wimp (m.c.)
*taftan-f
*taftan && > to twist . . tab wl
m.c.
Remark. The following is regular: m.c. shitaftan ^*Xw to hurry,
root shtiab v^"-
75. Hybrid Verbs.
In addition to the pure Persian verbs, a certain number of hybrids are
formed by affixing the termination Idan cA> to an Arabic root. Example :
m.c. e^+t* fahmidan "to understand"; &**&*) raqsidan (m.c.) (and raqs
kardan) <{ to dance"; c****^ talabidan "to summon" (m.c.) ; and a few
others. Ghaltldan ^^Mi (m.c.) " to roll, to wallow " was originally Persian
and then given an Arabic form by the Persians.
Challdan &**b (m.c.) is derived from the Urdu chalna IxU. " to go."
This hybrid Infinitive is called ^^^^ax, as opposed to ^^JL^f ; t x^ax: ) a true
Persian Infinitive.
76. The Auxiliary Verbs ( ^U* jUil ).
^
Shudnu o>^ lt to become " ; root shaw j& .
(a) The verb &<* shudan "to become, to go " is conjugated regularly.
The Imperative is^ shaw: in the other tenses, j before a vowel becomes v.
The noun of agency shavanda is obsolete or else extremely rare.* The Aorist
is shavam ^ or bi-shavam ^AJ, both forms are used. The Imperative s
seldom takes the prefix &* .
(b) The third person singular of the Present and Preterite tenses is also
used impersonally, especially in modem colloquial; ml>shavad &**> and nami-
shavad *j&*& " is it possible ?" and "is it not possible?" mi-shud <xlx*;*
nami-shud *&*+> "was it possible; was it not possible? " : vide 77 (d).
(c) Shudan &**> is also used for conjugating the grammatical passive
or fehwabandan cj^ < to lull to sleep; to mak
(a camel) lie down ; to lower (a flag or anything that is raised on high).
* Shavanda **>y** is sometimes used when translating literally from Arabic.
8 Gum show j~ fS, or gum bi-shaw ^. f fi be off with you," are both used
in m.c.
* Compare ahmaq I agar bi-tu tarsu mirguftand chi mi-shud ki fehud-at ra bi mahlaka
andal&hfi ? (m.c.J^J^f^f *&{ *t \) &tj*> ** >A^o ^ jiii^c ^y >M^f (j?* 3 ^ '* ass !
even if they did call you a funk what was there in that to make you go and cast
yourself into danger ? '*
TAVANISTAN. 249
voice. In other cases its place can be taken by either of its synonyms,
gashtan ey&? 3 or gardldan e>*JJ>/, Imperative gard ^.
(d) Note the following idioms :
(1) f&9) \&xx> ^i*; * ;^3 cyf an qadr Jci raftan ml-shud raftam l " I went as
far as I was able " ; an qadr ki karda mi-shud kardam ft>jf *>Ax* *j>y &f ^ e/f
" I did as much as I could."
(2) Churiin na-khwdhad shud kitf *> *A^=EU ^x*. (Afghan and m.c.)
"it will not happen that " ; jihat-i khurdk just u ju kardan na-khwdhad
shud & ^Afysu &t,j **> j o ^ ^h^ ^t*- (Afghan) " it will not be necessary
to make a search for food."
(3) Guftam chi mi-shavad agar in kdr rd kum ? ^ \) $6 &j.\ j>\ *?** *^ ^^
(m.c.) "I said why should you not do this ? " : guft agar dar mufavaza-yi u
shab-t ta f khir kardi chi shudi ^^ A=W ^^^i^^ ^^ j( &+e^&o )t> j$\ oJi? (Sa'dl)
''he said, if he had delayed having connection with her one night what
would it have mattered."
(4) Tajir bi-khanda shud * a*x=faj ^aA3 ''n.c.) <c the merchant began to
laugh/' vide I 79 (c).
(e) Bafd ma'lum mi-shavad 65-^x5 ^1** *> (m.c.) " we shall see "; also
ma'lum shudan &* ^l*/o (m.c.) <c to appear."
Remark. The auxiliary verbs are Tchwastan ^.^My^ " to want" (used in
the Future tenses of verbs); hastan ^-^A " to be, exist" (used in Perfect
tenses); budan &^> ** to be" (used in the Pluperfect tenses); tavdnistan
^^y " to be able" (used in the ^^ <jr^, etc.) ; bdsMdan &***{> " to be "
(used in the ^C^ ^^Ix* ) t and shudan &*> " to become."
A defective verb is called ^-a^u^f ^.jcjfU. Some of the auxiliary verbs are
also defective.
The AAAsfli jUi 1 are shud ^, bud ^, gardld X}^? and gasht^J^ , etc., and
sometimes dmad **>f and bar-dmad ^f y . They are called ndqis o^.^U because
though in appearance intransitive verbs, they yield no sense with a subject
alone, thus Ahmad bud ^ ^*^t by itself is really meaningless.
Examples of dmadan eA^T as a fi'l-i ndqis are : khayll puch bar-dmad
*xf^j ~jj " it turned out (was) very useless" :
77. Ta van f stan ^x-Jry^ u to be able*': root tavan
(a) This verb is regular, except that certain tenses, etc., such as the
Imperative, noun of agency, are not used.
(1) In classical Persian, this verb is usually either preceded by an
1 An qadr ki ml-shud bi-ravam ra/tam (m.c.) f**) fjj*
2 Tavftnldan vii^ty obsolete.
250 TAVANISTAN.
Infinitive or followed by the shortened Infinitive, as : ^viy ^+> &z>j$ ^ tanha
kardan nami-tavdnam (Afghan and Indian coll.) "alone I am not able to do
it" ; ( ^ I; j! c*i y i*^ ^*jyL f; ^o ^ /f tf ^ f; ^ J| *.**** urfljl
c^ty *&|ysu az m sa&afc avm/ chirdijh rd kushtam ki agar ru-yi pisar rd
khivdham did az shafaqat* u ra kushtan na-khwdham tavdnist (Afghan) :
)& cJj^ <j.*t,i o**/ *Jty3 ^ leas na-tavdnad girift ddman-i dawlat bi-zur (Sa'dl)
"none can compel fortune." This construction is still used by the Afghans
and Indians in talking. 8
Remark. In the Gulistaa, however, the full form of the Infinitive fre-
quently occurs after the auxiliary, as : v^r ** &*j* e.^*^ <yt^ l *^ oJ^*4.jyt
e)**f cJji^ p*lj& c^ty^ l^ jf j+z &$& ^b^JbU. oo*4A. agar bi-ma' unat-i shuma
jihat-l mu'ayyan gar dad ki mujih-i jam l iyyat-i khdtir bashad baqiyya-yi f umr
az 'uhda-yi shukr-i an na-tavdnam birun dmadan (Sa'dl) "if, through your
influence, some means be settled that would release me from this burden,
I will be grateful to you for the whole of my life ' ' ; <j^J c^> ji ^\j* ^
AS' ^j^ *-flkV-A) .ify ^Iwl? ^Ui' ^fjv^l^ o,3\-?j guftam bardy-i nuzkat-i ndzirdn va
fusha<t-i hdzirdn kitdb-i Oulistdn tavdnam tasnif kardan ki (Sa'dl) <( I replied
that I would perhaps compose 4 the Gulistan as a delight and a satisfac-
tion 6 to its readers 5 so that ."
(2) Or the auxiliary is apocopated, i.e. the stem with or without the
verbal prefixes is followed by the shortened Infinitive : in this case the verb
is a present impersonal. This construction is modern as well as Afghan and
Indian: ^ o-*.*j ^ U^bU ^ja*3 JuU> ufojbj ^.yjU. ^jj CA**J b;^J ^T ^=^
^ j>y ^fyj ^'^^J 7 bi-hukm-i dn-ki parvdrda-yi ni'mat-i In khdnddn-am va
bi-andak mdya-yi taghyir-i' 1 khdtir bd vali-ni' mat-i khud bi~wafd*i na-tavdn
kard ki (Sa'dl) <fc because I have been nurtured by the bounty of this House,
and one cannot be faithless merely on account of a slight change in the regard
of one's patron towards one ' ' ;
Dam Id chi gujt Zdl bd Rustam-i gurd?
( Dushman na-tavdn haqir u bichdra shumurd ' (Sa'dl).
' l Knowest thou what said Zal to the hero Rustam ?
' One ought not to count any enemy as despicable and impotent.' "
1 In modern Persian /**? & bi-bmam (Subjunctive) would be more usual.
1 Also pronounced shafqat.
8 Colloquially, the Afghans often use the Past Participle instead of the Infinitive
before the auxiliary, thus ; dlda nami-fawBnam f^ ^ *^ < f o r d * dan naml-tawanam
^ty ^ &*?.* )
in m. 41 am able to and D.V. will : note direct narration in Persian.
4 6 Lit. * ' amplitude. "
andakhtv The book being called the " Rose Garden," there i* a play upon the word j&&
even if tto* spectator."
6 i5&2/r j& " change," but tag&ayyur j& " anger."
TAVANISTAN. 251
Imruz bi-kush ki mi-tavan kusht
K'atash chu buland shud jahan sukht (Sa'di).
" Kill to-day while it is possible to kill,
For a small fire, if it becomes great, burns l the whole world."
Both constructions occur together in the following : *> &*J jfcjUiU
^ c>'y *t cjf;*y ^ ^^ ? c^*'^ ' t^LJtyo j oUit *ju*f^ ^ ^^ ^-j;^- maldmat-ash
kardand ki chunin sayd z dar dam-at uftad va na-tavanisti nigah dashtan? Guft
ay baradaran chi tavan kard? (Sa'dl) " They upbraided him saying, 'such a
fine fish 2 fell to thy lot 8 and thou coulds't not keep it '? He said, * my
brethren, what can one do ' ? "
Remark I. Sometimes the auxiliary is not apocopated but is used
impersonally in the third person singular, as : *J[yojx> <J)j)j& <*&T <j?[/ J 3 ! ^
1 &\Lm*j )$ *> txj^ guft az bara-yi an ki liar ruz-ash ml-tavanad did magar
dar zamistan ki (Sa'dl) if because one can see him (the Sun) every day,
except in winter, when--."
Remark II. The apocopated auxiliary is rarely followed by the full
form of the Infinitive :
^**J C*S ^43 3 f <^t*^ u* ^^3 ^s\*^ v'^3' e^^; ^ *^y )***.
Bi-'uzr-i tauba tavan rastan az ( azab-i Khuday
Va-llk mi-na-tavan az zaban-i mardum rast (Sadi).
" By the atonement of repentance one can escape the wrath of God,
But escape from the tongue of men one can never."
In this example rastan &>*) is used for rast <^~>j in the first line : also
ml-na-tavan o|y3 ^ in the second line for nami-tavan ofy ^ is a poetical
license only.
(3) A third construction is the Aorist (or Subjunctive) after the auxi-
liary, as :
Warna saza-var-i khudavandi-yash
Kas na-tavanad ki bi-ja avarad (Sa'di).
11 Otherwise fitting His Glory,
None is able to perform what is worthy of it."
(This construction is used in modern Persian.)
Note the Preterites for the Aorist and 1'resent tenses in a condition, after chun
4 Sayd *<* Ar. is applied to any game, or quarry, or prey ; anything in fact from a
mouse to an elephant : the Persian (and Indian) equivalent is shikar y&*>.
& Dam ff*> 'snare" is applied to any kind of net, snare, or trap, literally and
figuratively. By trappers it is specially applied to a noose or set of nooses.
252 TAVANISTAN.
Remark. Tavan && also takes the prefix <*J (bi-tavan <j^ ' Tavan
ejj^J is said to be sometimes contracted into tan ^ . SJiayad *>r|U and bayad
*& are sometimes used as synonyms for tavan e>iy .
(6) (1) In modern Persian, the last construction is the usual one, but in
speaking the conjunction & is generally omitted, as: p.^ <*>W (j+* nami-
tavanam bi-yayam "I can't come," or f ' I will not be able to come" for naml-
tavanam ki bi-yayam 1 f>k* ** f>^+* : ** [iL u^*** )* *&[&* **&* *^'> d* ^
&#$ J>*> agar mayl ddshta bashid rnl-tavanid dar mihman-khana manzil
kunid (modern colloquial; Rozen's grammar) "if you like, you can put
up in the hotel " : ki *t is understood after mlrtavamd *#\ ^.
(2) The shortened Infinitive after the tenses of this auxiliary is still used
by the Afghans and Indians, but in the modern colloquial of Persia this
construction is not common : when used it is generally in third person
singular, as : ^ *ity ^ !; ^ ^ u*** ^1 m shakhs In kar ra naml-tavanad
kard (m.c.) ct this man can't (or won't he able to) do this."
(3) The Impersonal construction is also used in m.c., as: ^( ijjykc ^>^
* *j* L) J^ chignna rni-tavan In kar ra kard? (m.c.) c< liow is one to do this ? " :
$jS jjO fc;fjw or) e)iy u+* naml-tavan (or na-tavan) bavar kard (m.c.) "one
cannot believe this": na-tavanist kard ^ o^Jtyi (m.c.) or namltavanist
kard ^ c*~jry ^ (me.) '* one could not (past) do this,"
Remark. The Perfect of tavanistan e^ujy is subject to the same rules
that govern the Perfects of other verbs, vide 125: vaqt-idar Landan budand
tavdnista and anja bi-ravand &jj* l?uf t>Jf aLJiy ^^ m*>y ^ J&) ; tlie Perfect
shows the speaker was not present.
(4) The auxiliary need not be repeated before the second of two verbs,
as : shuma mi-tavamd anja bi-yayld va asp-davarii kuriid? *tt& t^6f (Hifyu^c i+
OMJJ^ ^'^ WMI j (m.c.) "can you come there and (can you) gallop your
horse"?"
Occasionally, a transitive verb is understood, or tavanistan ^^SLofy is
itself considered transitive, as: ammd kas-i ki kucha va bazar-i Isfahan ra mk
bi-danad va dar shab rahnuma*i bi-tavanad, gh&yr az man na bud **>jZ &*~t Uf
^ ^M jf j*i ^f^j ^5Uo l; v^ 5 j> ^ <M*J *-^ b ^l^fl^f ;fjlj j (Tr. H. B.
Chap V), "but there was none but me who knew the streets of Isfahan, and
who could act as guide in them." Guftam ' anki kuk kardan-i sa'at ra
na-danad idara-yi mamlakat ra chiguna tavdnad ' ? \) o^U &^ u^y *^f fs$
Aif^j AJ^ f ; osJl*x> Sjf^f j>jf jj (Tr. H. B. Chap. VII) " I said, l how can a man
who does not even know how to wind up a watch, manage a kingdom ? ' " :
Lr v* ^^ ^t 31 ^ (Tr. H. B. Chap. XXXVIII):
U (Tr. H. B. Chap. XL).
i Man qadir naml-basham ki In kar ra bi-kunam f& fyf eH' ** f**^ <jt+" * )*
or ---- ^Lr**^-
^ Either a simple question cr in the sense of it is impossible to do this.*
TAVANISTAN.
(c) An Indian use of this verb is illustrated in the following example :
ty osuly <jy**> j &tf) JJ o^Ua. *ac^~.x> u j| JAI JLx A+J j*Ia? ^ U 6a Mwd guftam
bi-hama hdl ahl-i In masjid jamd'at-i buzurgdn va ma'drif tavdnad bud
(classical) " I said to myself perhaps the people of this mosque are a congre-
gation of big and well-known persons." If j^j *x*tyL was substituted, the
sense would be "must be": mi-bdshand *^b ^/o would mean "are."
Shdyad bdshand ^iAk ^\> could also be used.
(d) As already mentioned in 76 (6), the third person singular of the
Present and Preterite of shudan ox is used impersonally. It is followed either
by the Subjunctive or by the shortened Infinitive, as : <x ^ f^ ^^ &uf^
p#) i \S>j> j**> t jjj eA* bi-vdsita-yi badi-yi rah nami-shud hamdn ruz td bi-sar-i
kutal bi-rasim (m.c. Roz. Gr.) c< on account of the badness of the road it was
impossible to reach the top of the pass that day " : !j o^su^J ^\ &$ * ^.4,;
^^iC- oJ\j nami-shud 1 ki In naslhai rd bizanat bi-kuni (m.c.) " was it not
possible for you to give this piece of advice to your wife (and not to me) ? " :
*} (j+*j*^ *> na khayr naml-shavad (m.c.) '* ao, it is impossible " : <HC y fj*^
^) :>>* ^ pish az 'id* nami-shavad raft (m.c.) cc we can't go before the
1 Id " : j^x^j (^ ^>^A3( U j ^j nami-shavad td imshab pas bi-giram (m.c.)
i can't I possibly have it back by to-night? " Note the shortened Infinitives
in the following: c^x|*x>| cu^f^^j ^ >J&* ^^xx^Js <ju^. ^U> * *&$ J> \agar qasd*
na-bashad chi tawr mi-shud sang.rd barddsht anddkht (m.c.) ^were there no
intention, bow was it possible (how did it happen) to have picked up a stone
and thrown it ? " 5
(e) To be able, can also be expressed by the Passive, as: <**~ ^- ^5Uj ;^b A^
o^ ^3 AJ^t^ U o -^^'j p^ (j[p^ ^^ chi tawr bi-ydyim>khasta shuda
nd-tavan gashtim va qadamhd-yi* md bar-ddshta nami-shavad (m.c.) " how can
we come? we are worn out by fatigue, and cannot even lift our feet (our feet
cannot be lifted)."
Ddnista nami-shavad bi-mi'ydr-i l uqul
Sanjida nami-shavad bi-miqyds-i qiyds.
" No man of science ever weighed (it) with scales,
Nor made assay with touch-stone, no, not one! "
(0. K. 279 Whin.)
1 Generally pronounced kutal.
* Or chi mi-shud agar in nasihat ra bi-zanat ml-kardl (m.c.). Colloquially and vul-
garly the Imperfect is often used for the Present, apparently from a confused idea that
the Imperfect is a Subjunctive or Conditional, An English writer sometimes says>
* * What were you pleased to order ? * '
3 Vulgar *o2/rf.
* For qasd-at ^*A*.
&' This use of shudan v!)^ is classical as well as modern colloquial.
Or singular qadam f*3, as a collective noun.
254 GIRIFTAN.
Remark. Before a compound of substantive, etc. and verb, the auxih
iary 'can,' in modern colloquial, often immediately precedes the verbal
member of the compound, as : dvdza mi-tavdnl bi-khwdrii (^[y&* ^iy
(m.c.) "can you sing? ", or ml-tavdnl (ki) avaza bi-khwdrii jtyf ( )
J>lr*u (m.c.) ?
(/) Tawana Ufy is an adjective " powerful/' audits negative form is
na-tavan ^|y &, and also nd-tavdnd tify U (old).
Tavan-gar ^fiiy is an adjective, signifying "powerful, rich."
Tavdn ^y is a substantive " strength."
(g) Jdrastan <&*~*)k or ydristan &**& (rt. ydr ;lj ) "to be able; to
stretch out the hand," and drastan u^tf (rt. a/;T) "to be able; to
adorn ' ' occur frequently in poetry for tavanistan ^-Jfy .
Yard l;U (subs.) " boldness; power."
(h) Ddnistan <j~jf^ "to know" is in classical and modern Persian
used for "to be able": the construction is the same as with tavanistan
Pa<s 2i maldmat u shun t at ) gundh-i dukhtar chist
Turd ki dast bi*larzad guhar chi ddni suft ?
<4 After reproving and abusing [the husband] Sa'dl said, ' What is the
girl's fault ? '
How can you whose hand trembles, string a pearl [ ? ' " (Sa'dl).
(GuL, Chap. VI, last lines.)
U ml-ddnad bi-kunad ? *&* ^ot^' ^f (vulg.) " can he do it ; does ho know
how ? ' '
(i) l To be able ' can also be paraphrased by such expressions, as : agar az
da$t-at bi-ydyad <^Uj cuw^ jf ^S\ ; az ru-yi man nami-dyad (or nami-xliavad)
Id &g ( ^ ^o or ) ^jf ^ ^x ^^ jf ic I am ashamed to (i.e., I can't 2 ) " :
qddir budanbar j> &ty ^^ : qdbil-i or qdbil bar budan, &&y y cLlf or cLUI ;
dar quvva-yi khud dldan or budan (&*# L ) ^^o ^^ 1$$ )*: tavdnd nlstain ki
m kdr rd bi-kunam p& I; ;tf (^1 *' ^^^ U)y, or tavdnd*t-yi %n kdr rd na-ddram
^yoj lj j! ^l ^Ufy : iwfca?i ddshtan ^\t J<*>\ Vide also 76 (d) and
77 (e) for <( to be able."
78. Giriftan t
(a) Girijtan ^J*, root gir ^ "to seize, etc."; transitive and intran-
sitive.
The Imperative form g\r j4 is not used colloquially : always bi-gw j* .
l There is, of course, a double meaning: guhar-i na-sufta &&*UykjJ jg a poetical
expression for a virgin.
5 Kbayli pur-ru haati <^~A )) j* ^^ (m.c.) " you're very shameless " :
ru az pish bardasht (m.c.) (t he hid himself."
GIRIFTAN. 255
In classical Persian, in addition to its ordinary signification of " to take,
seize," this verb, preceded by an Infinitive, means "to begin," as:
<+9jS (jJ&? y u guftan girift " he began to speak " ; f Ua |; c^JU> c*fa * ^jt
<jii? & ^ *ju^? ,jd|j> bi-zaban-i lei ddshtmalik rd dushndm dddan girift va saqat
guftan (Sadl) "he began to abuse the king and use bad language in his
native-tongue: zabdn-dardzi kardan girift ^* &$ is)b* &ty (Sa'di) " she
began to scold."
This idiom is still used colloquially by the Afghans and Indians, but is
nearly obsolete in modern Persian. In a few cases only, in modern Persian,
does giriftan && mean " to begin"; dil-am tapidan girift oui/ &*\L ^
(m.c.) "my heart began to beat" : barf girift oj^ o^, bdrdn girift cu*/ e>l)k
(m.c.) " it began to snow; it began to rain." For "to begin'' in modern
Persian, vide 79.
(6) Giriftan (^^ also means <c to suppose, admit." (In poetry the Im-
perative glr j is frequently used interjectionally in this sense). Examples :
5 c^~v f& Uo pi cu^>> o^e &t pjj& giram ki yj^amat nist gjiam-i ma ham nist?
(Sa'di) "I admit you have no anxiety. Have we then none?": fi* 5
&*$ #> ( ^ f jjj or), va giriftam (or glram) ki amadand (m.c.) 4< and admitted (or
let me suppose) that they came": ( p>j3 or ) ^j&j* ^acuA (vulg.) Jiamchi 1
mi-girtm (or gmm} (m.c.) "we will suppose (or let us suppose) so."
(c) Colloquially and vulgarJy giriftan (^^ is used pleonastic ally, as :
/ u^Jte dallak girift khwdbld (m.c.) "the barber fell asleep";
bi-gir bi-khwab (m.c ) " go to sleep."
(d) Note the following intransitive or reflexive uses of this verb :
Ta chand kunam ( arza-yi nd-ddni-yi khmsh,
Bi-girift dil-i man az parisharii-yi Jchwlsh ?
*' Oft times I plead my foolishness to Thee,
My heart contracted with perplexity."
(0. K. 281 Whin.)
Didam ki nafas-am dar narm-girad bj^** ^ p~& ** p^ (Sa*'dl) " I saw
that my speech (breath) did not sink in made no impression" : o^^;^ vf
oJs? db dar gulu-yash girift ^ the water stuck in his throat; he choked" :
5yA> cu^AJ nafas-at 1 bi-glrad c< hold your tongue " (m.c.) lit. li may your breath
be caught, may you choke"; *^j> ^ ^*)\ f*^ tukhm az garml dar girift
(m.c.) ** the seeds were scorched by the sun" : <^y ^A^j zaban-ash ml-glrad
(m.c.) "he stammers" (lit. his tongue sticks) : od^f^y^ <jj* j u sar-ash
bi-divar girift (m.c.) "he suddenly struck his head against the wall" : nab$-
am tstada ast, chashm-am nami-bmad, gusJi-am girift, dh-ah-hay s raftim (m.c.)
1 Hamchu j-* 1 ^ is pronounced hamchi.
* i.e., " may you die " ; ='* hold your noise, d n you." Do not say nafa, which
generally means ' penis.'*
8 The conventional way of writing this exclamation is ^^ ^ Jif .
266 THE VERBS, ETC.
" my pulse has stopped, my eyes don't see, my ears too don't hear ah! I
am gone" (the last words of a dying man) ; ^j1 ^^ ^ ^ girya dar
gulu-yash girift (m.c.) "sobs choked his utterance."
(e) A/tab girifta ast o^t *& wli*f (m.c.) "the sun is eclipsed. 1 "
Girifta *i*/ is also an adjective, "dark," applied to colouring.
(/) In surat (or In sarud) glraniagi na-ddrad ( &)^** e*^ ^ ) o;^ ^f
j>jfju ^^jd (m.c.) " this picture (or this song) has no attractiveness in it."
(g) U tamdm-i shab az harf zadan vd-gw nami-kard (or dram nami-girift)
( cJ^ ^ ff,>T ^ ) ^*J j$ \) c^j o^ jt v* f l +* jt (m.c.) " he ceased not to
chatter all the night through. ~ ' '
(h) Ghilla-yi buzurg hanuz na-girifta ast o**>f AX^&^XA ^)j* &* (m.c.)
" the forty days of greatest heat (or greatest cold) have nob yet commenced."
(i) In modern colloquial giriftan e^*/ &nd sitdndan &&(* (vulg. istdndan
! ) are used for (t to buy."
79. The Verbs "to begin, etc/'
(a) For the use of giriftan ^*<f in classical Persian for " to begin," vide
78 (a).
(6) (1) The verbs 'Ho begin" are ij^lij 8 bind kardan ; 4 c>^r^J^T
dgj&z namudan; ^^ <^^ shuru,' kardan; ^^ *IAXJ| ibtidd* kardan (of a
work). They are followed by the Infinitive, as follows : ^y UU+i? f*j* & ^
l^>^ 5 va bind hardam bi-tamdshd kardan-i dukdnhd (m.c.) " 1 began to look
at the shops"; /*iuif^ ^^ ^ ^lu bind-yi rdh raftan guzdshtam (m.c.)
" I began to walk" : p)*> f*s* &! bind kardam bi-davam (vulg.) "I began to
run": ^ c^^ ?j?* shuru' bi-ktiwurdan namud (m.c.) <f he began to
eat " : ^^ &j& *&*'** ^ shuru' ml-kunadbi-girya kardan (m.c.) " she begins
to cry " : f>^ ^ r^* !&! ibtida* mi-kunam bi-ndm-i Khudd* (mod. writing)
4 ' 1 begin in the name of God. ' '
(2) Dast bi-kdr shudan &*& j& ^-^> also means " to begin " (of a work
only) : tXo*^> o^^ iX>b |^ fardd bdyad dasl bi-kdr shud (m.c.) ** we must begin
the business to-morrow."
1 Kusuf Oy*^* and khueuf o^-^- may signify an eclipse either of the sun or of
the moon, but the former is specially used for the sun and the latter for the moon.
These words are only used in talking by the learned.
* Va hama shab n&-yaramid az aufehanha-yipariahanguftan (Sa*di) : Mod. Pers. hama-
yi shab " all the night " and hama shab *' every night."
*+>
8 Biria* signifies '* building " and biria* kardan &&j? f&* "to build " ; ^ banna 9
is a ** mason ": bina bar jAv "because of*'; and bina bar-an &\j* ^ '* therefore " :
the * not written in Persian.
* Agkazldan c^J^T is obsolete.
6 Bp. Ar. pi. arifk* dakakm is also used in modern colloquial.
In this phrase the izafat is sometimes classically omitted.
KHWASTAN, ETC. 257
(c) The following are Afghan idioms : j^ ^JU&^y (J& kishti faro
nishastan namud (Afghan colloquial) < e the ship began to sink " : V ji ^ju
tjS i^kl* sang az kuh yhaltidan kard " the rock began to roll down the hill-
side" : ^^ Uj t;jx* &*j+> ^ j# er^J ^j ^ <for waqt-i peshin roz tayyar
namudan-i mez ra bina kardami 1 (Afghan colloquial) "at midday I began to
make the table " ; p&J g^ &*\f r> A*^ ^a$ 'aqah-i khema ra kandan shuru 1
kardam (Af. col.) " I began to dig (the ground) behind the tent " : ^^^ ^
&f+> &**)i bad-i lchawf-nak~i wazidan namud (Afg. col.) [bad-i sakht-i vazldan
yinft m.c.] e< a terrible wind began to blow' 5 : x aaiiu ^13 tajir bi-kJ^nda
shud (Afghan, and modern colloquial) " the merchant began to laugh (went
off into a laugh)."
(d) Man bi-khanda uftadam ^Us'i jitxiiu (1 ^c (m.c.) (< I began to laugh."
(e) There are in Persian no continuative verbs.
The continuative prefix ml <y or Tiami ^+& is added to the Imperative in
classical Persian, or in poetry only.
In modern Persian, however, there is a curious continuative particle or
particle of excess, hay ^ t which can be prefixed to several tenses to form
continuatives. This usage is at present considered vulgar, though used by
Qa'am, Hay shikar ml-kardim ^J^A/O ^K ^A "we kept on shooting";
hay bi-khur, hay bi-Jchur jj*u ^ - )^. ^ (to a greedy boy) " keep on
eating, do." Possibly connected with hamisha ^^>, this particle is prob-
ably immediately derived from the cry hay! hay! hay! of the camel- men,
used to keep a string of slowly-moving camels in motion : it is to camels,
what a swung lantern is to a shunting train. That this particle is connected
with hami <^+*> and consequently with hamisha &.$+&, seems probable from
the fact that haml ^^ is sometimes substituted, as : ^ ^ J^ &jk i^**
jj> j*l*jj j j> ^U^i cxU/c OA^^ ^t (Haji Baba, Chap. XXIX) *' by this means he
won the hearts of two persons ; the one who received the present and the
other who bore it * " : ura didam hami mi-khurad tj}^* ^5** f*?. \) $\
(m.c. or local) ** I saw him eating and eating " (i.e. a great deal).
80. KJiwiistan- j^]^ "to wish, etc/'
(a) As already shown in the paradigm of the verb, the Aorist of
khipdstan (^.f^x followed by the apocopated Infinitive is used in forming the
Definite Future, both in classical Persian and in modern colloquial.
1 Note the 'majhul sound of the vowels and the Infinitive without a preposition
preceding the verbs "to begin." Nimaz-i peshin ert**^ )^ is an Afghan and Indian
expression for the midday prayer : j^Jo *' ready " is a common word in *' Urdu."
^ The Shah as a special mark of favour sent portions of his meal to his host, and
to certain courtiers : they had to tip heavily the servants who brought the tid-bits.
Every one was pleased, including the Shah, who could thus pay his servants out of other
people's pockets. In the original 8 ^L*A,| Jg a slip for^j?
17
258 KHWASTAN.
(6) In the Gulistan the unapocopated Infinitive frequently follows the
Infinitive in the sense of a definite future, as : y f** **5f j* ^ ^^ *^ A
^^ <J*ap.*j c/f ejox*^7# e)*^ tXAi^sL "har chi ddnl ki har a*ina ma'lum-i tu
khwahad shudan bi-pursidan-i an ta'jil makun (Sa'dl) J " be not in haste to
enquire about anything ' that you know will of a surety become revealed to
you (without asking)."
*jy f^/o tf jj^* oju i^JtJ t/
Yar-i dirm-i mara gu bi-zaban pand ma-dih
Ki mara tawba bi-shamshir na-khwahad bwdan (Sa'di).
''Tell my ancient friend to proffer me no advice,
For I'll ne'er repent even at the point of the sword."
&- m zisJit-khu*~i dad dushnam
Tahammul kard u guft ay nik-farjam
Batar-z-anam ki khwahi guftan * an-i '
Ki danam e ayb-i man, chun man na-dant.
' * A bad-tempered person abused some one.
With resignation he replied, ' Oh thou, maycst thou be blessed !
Worse am I than anything thou wilt say I am ;
For thou dost not know my faults as I know them myself.' "
Khist-i ki zi qalib-i tu khipahand zadan
Ayvan-i sara-yl dlgaran khwahad bud.
" And see 2 your ashes moulded into bricks,
To build another's house and turrets high."
(0. K. 162 Whin.)
The same construction is used in the Gulistan when khivastan signifies
" to wish,*' (< to desire," as : ^; ^Afyx Usuf ^lalxi Jii, ^ va tifl ba-nadani
anja khwahad rajtan (Sa'dl) C and the boy tJhrough ignorance wished to ^o
there" :
x-p 35;
1 Note this meaning of har chi <*<^ A * * whatever. * '
2 " Stars " (understood) is the subject in the English.
S All one adjective.
4 Tot, w = '* it is not known " : la-yi tajahul.
&HWASTAN. 259
Ay hunar-hd nihdda bar kaf-i dast
'Ayb-hd bar girifta zir-i bagkaV
Td chi khwdbi kharidan, ay maghrurl
Ruz~i darmdndagi ba-sim-i daghal. (Sa'dl).
" Oh thou who display est abroad thy virtues,
But hidest away thy vices from sight,
Shame^! what wishes t thou to purchase, deluded being,
With thy base coin on the day of distress (the day of judgment) ? "
Remark I, In the Gulistan the auxiliary sometimes takes the prefix
as :
&. as'
Chi salha-yi jaravan va 'umrJia-yi daraz
Ki khalq bar sar-i ma bar zamm bi-khivahad raft
Chunan ki dast bi-dast dmadast mulk bi-ma
Bi-dastha-yi digar hamchunm bi-lchwdhad raft (Sa'di).
Remark II. The verb following the auxiliary is in classical Persian also
put in the Subjunctive [vide end of (c) and Remark to (c)]. Ex. : f; jt e^ ^>
^ix A ^Afj.a. ^A guft man n rd nami-khwaham ki bmam (Sa*di) ' e he said,
4 1 do not wish to see him.' "
(c) The Afghans in speaking sometimes use a similar construction, but
place the Infinitive before the auxiliary : ^*>^ e>*/ ^^ )& )jk* t&te^ c^
man Gluz-e ?) ba-tawr-i nazr pesfi 3 kardan khiyastam (Afghan coll.) ** I wished
to give him some small present"; turd ndiib-itkhud* 1 kardan mi-khwdham
^I^SRJU* o^ zj&. ^jli ty (Afghan coll.) " I wish to make you my deputy."
They, however, also employ the Aorist or Subjunctive after the auxiliary,
as : ly^i? f^ ^J&S' &> ^^sxx* jj^^f jl^;^ dumbdl dmada mt-khipdst ki kishtl rd
bi-girad " he followed and tried (wished) to seize hold of the boat."
Remark. This last is the ordinary construction in modern colloquial
except that the conjunction is usually omitted, as : mi-khwdham bi-pursam
f A !>*H^ " I want to ask you ."
(d) Khivdstan ^.w^ is also a transitive verb signifying: (I) " to send
for or to summon," (2) "to desire (a thing)" and (3) < to love, to be
fond of."
1 All one adjective.
* Ta '3 ~ " it is not known " : ta-yi tajahul.
?i Majhul J^t^* vowels; pish-kash tj**$ (ra.c.) a present from an inferior to a
superior (used politely).
4 Note that ra is omitted after khud (the second of two substantives in apposition
in the accusative case).
260 KHWASTAN.
(1) J*M^ f; U ^ e>*+ A , c*$j bi-jihat-i hanwn bud shuma ra Ichwastam
(m.c.) " it was for this reason that I sent for you " : *jS* ty |; y 0*0 I; Uib
*i**|^ bi-ishara-e dast o ra nazd-i khud khwastam (m.c. and Afghan colloquial)
" I called him to me by a signal with my hand. J '
(2) o>^ ^ c^l* 2 *-*" *-^/ 7^ agrcw mart; mi-khivahl bi-raw Oilan (proverb)
"if you desire death go to Gllan 1 "; xlxj ^JLof^ivx/o mi-khwastam bi-yayad
(m.c.) (vulgar, Imperfect for Present tense) " I wish he would come."
(3) ^&fysxyo^U~j f;j! ^x> man ura bisyar mi-khwaham (m.c.) "I am very
fond of him, love him very much/'
(e) In modern colloquial, and in Kabuli Persian too, this verb also signi-
fies "to intend," or "to be on the point of doing, " as: c^+j cx^iu/o
mi-lchwast bi-mtrad (m.c.) 2 "he was about to die (not wished to die)";
*'. J$*>^. <3^*> ^ *^ AAf^iu-o Uf agka mi-Jchwahad chand-ta shalaq bi-ashpaz
bi-zanad (m.c.) "the master threatens the cook with his whip (Roz. Gr.) " ;
Uf *r tjjj *>A!j.2cuuc mi-khwahad bi-ravad lei ag&a (m.c.) "he is about to go
when his master ": *j j5l^ t o^^ij* e^^ oi3\x>^.l*J3 tamam-i mihnat-i
man ml-khipast ki za*i' sliavad (Afghan coll.) " the whole of my labour was
nearly being wasted. 4 ' '
(/) This verb is also colloquially used in an impersonal sense meaning " re-
quires, "as : tx&t^iuAO ^x*-*^ &>t^ ^ : :i in khana ta'mlr mi-khivahad b (m.c.) "this
house needs repairing " : 6 j.Atj.2cu/o cu^jjtj^j UjAa. ^^ ci& ^^^uba-jihat-i naql
kardan-i chizha bisyar waqt mi-khwahad (Afghan) "much time is requisite to
remove the things" : *af>^ ^ -&;_y&w ^s)*$ o^f ^; ^ *^U> qaltcha kam
rang ast qadr-i bishtar rang mi-khwahad (m.c.) " the rug is too light in colour ;
it wants a little more colour." To the remark " I have forgotten to bring
any money," or "do you want such and such a thing?" the answer
might be 1 *&\j^ ^w nami-khwaliad (m.c.) "it is not necessary, it doesn't
matter."
The following are Afghan idioms: oAf^fcuj* &&jf &l-M;Jjtr x f imroz* ra
fdqa kardan me-khwahad* (Af.) "it is necessary to fast to-day" (for m.c.
imruz bayad ruza bi-daram (*;I^J tjj) ^ j^/ 6 ' ) ; o^!^^ ^^ c^tJ )^ )\* \j*
mara bar bar birun raftan me-khivast* (Af.) "it was necessary for me
to go out frequently" (for m.c. ^y &y ^ ^jJJ A*i^ \*. chand daf'a
1 Gilan is said to be the most unhealthy part of Persia.
Or u nazdlk bud bi-mirad &j& &# +J**& ) .
% Nazdlk "bud za*i' shavad (or bi-hadar ravad) ( &j) )&^* ^ ) ^^ fSU^j^J *Jj.t>y (m.c.).
* Compare the m.c. use of raftan in 82 (h).
6 In India o*| u^iJa cu^o marammat-talab ast : in modern Persian in writing
ta'mlr lazim darad ^fi pj* j^*-*- > .
* Modern colloquial lazim ast
1 Or lazim riist cu
8 Majhul vowels.
GUzASHTAN, ETC. 261
Idzim shud birun bi-ravam):
man u tu liar du nafar khwurdk me-khipdhad' 1 (Af.) "food is necessary for
both of us both for you and me."
(g) In modern colloquial, the Imperfect is also used in the sense of
"should," as: (^)^ t> ufc. etf+* Jjt J 1 L5 J ^b iu ^ mi-khwdsti az avval hamm
yak-i rd bi-ydvari (m.c.) "you should have brought this one at first":
iWf jjjjxf ^Af j cxU> Jjja cL/-*.fj.=sx.yo mi-khwdst diruz bi-ydyad va likin imruz dmad
(m.c.) " he ought to have come yesterday and not to-day" [for Jj>^ c*^
(yQj*A& bdyist* diruz bi-ydyad va likin ], vide 84 (o) : mi-khwdstam
bi-ddnam (m.c) " I should like to know " ; less peremptory than p>\*j p*\j^'
mi-khwdham bi-ddnam " I want to know."
81. Guzashtau, .^!js> Imperative, guzdr ^1^3; JDTidau ^\^
Imper.dih; ^ Mdndan jjjiU Imper. (jU; and Verbs
u to Permit, Allow."
(a) Ouzdshtan ^^}^ y Imperative )\*% guzdr ^ signifies <{ to quit,
relinquish; to place; to perform, etc." As an auxiliary followed by the
Aorist or Subjunctive, with a conjunction expressed or understood, it
signifies "to permit, let," as: <vUj j& bi-guzdr b biydyad "let him come,"
(the Imperative alone would mean, " let him come ") p#y o;^ $ (jUet o-^t<>^>
na-guzdsht utaq-i u harf bi-zamm (m.c.) " she did not permit us (give us
time) to talk in her room " : <J!>& fy^ ^j^W* ^i-A ^> *&) ^^ o|i^
jiilj ^Af^sxA/o bad zdt khudat-l lakdta ham hasti mi-khiydhi khudat-rd bi-kush ml-
khwdhi bi-guzdr (m.c.) " wicked yourself and a trollope what's more; if
you want to kill yourself why do ; if you don't, then let it alone."
(b) The Intransitive (^^^ guzashtati signifies " to pass " (of time) : vaql-i
javdrii guzasht, nawbat-i pin rasid >^; <^^ t ooy o^^^? c^'-^ *^ "youth
passed and old age came" : az palilu-yi u guzasht c^3l ^\ ^*i 6 j 1 (or guzar
kard ^ )'^) "lie passed by him" : az in matlab bi-guzar ;^ w-JJa/o ^f j\
(m.c.) " let this matter alone."
(c) The Afghans and Indians use the verb dadan '* to give " in the sense
of "to permit," 7 as: ^A^ ^Ikf I; *j* &\ an mardum rd gashtan diked
(Afghan) "let them wander about (for a time)" : *jf ^ <^ l;j! o rd bi-dih
l In modern colloquial bi-jihat o^J ; also lazim ast ^>^l fj$ instead of
mi-khwahad.
1 Majhul vowels.
s Bayad, or bayisi ; or mi-bay 1st diruz amada bashad
* Quzar )\*$ is also the Imperative of guzardan c^^)f^>
6 Colloquially often bu-guz_ar }\& J m.c. also bi-hilbiyayad (vulg.).
6 But of a place Mriar, as *^ ^ )\
1 Corresponds to the Hindustani verb dena * to give *' and " to allow."
262 GUzASHTAN, ETC.
ki bi-ravad 1 (Afghan), or * eA b $ ftan bi-dih (Afghan)* "let
him go."
(d) The following are further examples of the use of the verb dddan
(1) **j> (^ &j o^ ^AJ ;a tj y ura dar pish-i khud rah namt-dihad (rn.c.)
" he does not allow him to come into his presence."
(2) ate er*~*> f; c^L khud ra bi-bastan dad (m.c.) "he allowed himself to
be bound " (or khud-ra bi-bastan tasltm kard $ f>^~* ^JUj &> t;j>y* ).
(3) The Imperative *^ dih is used as an interjection of impatience
or annoyance, in modern colloquial, as: I^A^J* ij> a dih bi-raw murakhkhas-i
(m.c.) <e well then! go, you're dismissed."
(4) x>Jj<X' v ^>) )2 ^ \S)) ^ & ^ ^ J bay ad yag* nim-tana-yi zari-yi
abl dar Rasht bi-dihi bi-duzand (m.c.) " you must get a blue gold-embroidered
jacket made in Rasht" (lit. you must give it that they may sew it) :
v>i> I^A^ ( $) (ta) bi-dihad bi-kushand (m.c.) " (so that) he may get him
killed."
(5) The Imperative *> (or more commonly ^V 1 ) is a substantive;
^V* *^j or ^^^^ ^&> signifies the total revenue of a district paid to the
Shah.
(e) Other verbs for "to permit" are ijazn dwlati &&* *)^ t izn darfan
cJiiU &'^, murakhkhas (budan) ki * ( &&? ) u^v^ <fc permitted to " ; ram
dashtan v*h *j) l< to consider right or lawful"; and (^^|3? guzashtan; ,md
hiaktan, <-jXiA obsolete or vulgar.
(/) Mamlan e;^>^, intr. '"to remain," etc., is in Afghan Persian also
transitive, "to place." Note the following idioms :
(1) Az kar baz manda *,xiU> jl ;{ j (m.c.) " unable to work," " worn out."
(2) Manda *xU <: remained, left behind/' hence in Afghanistan " tired
and in the Panjab also "thin."
(3) Du mah hir'Id manda a<xH- *>AHJ U ^ (m.c.) "two months before
the 'Id."
(4) Kam mand 4 bi-mtram fj** &> <x!U *g (m.c.) "I nearly died."
(5) Azhalakatchiz-ina-mdndabud ay ^U> ^j^ &&* y (Gulistan, Book
II, St. IX) "you were within a hair's breadth of perishing."
} In modern colloquial n ra bidih bi-ravad ^^ 8^ \) ^ (m.o.) would mean ** give
him (the beggar) something to go, to make hirn #o. "
2 Ura bi-gitzar (Art) bi-raad 3)j> ^jl^j f^^f ( ra .c.).
'<> Yog vulgar for yak.
* Also commonly but incorrectly kam manda hvd ki &> -j* $^tc +f ',
DASHTAN, ETC. 263
82. The Verb Rtiftau, ^i) l "to go, to continue ";
Imperative j; raw.
(a) The Afghans colloquially use raftan ^) as an auxiliary signifying
" to continue," as : p&j** ^ <ykl' &*^ ^t j ^ ^.) e^"3 zamin regl bud
az In ba'is bi-asani kanda mi-raftam (Afghan colloquial), " the soil was sandy,
hence I continued digging it up with ease *' : a^ jljb ^ \j (&}$<** &!\ jjjt& (^
P&J&* man dlruz in chiz-Tia ra dar bazar dida mi-raftam (Afghan coll.]
C( yesterday I continued looking at these things as I went " : bi-kan bi-raw
}j* e^ (Afghan) also m.c. " keep on digging."
(b) Raft amad ^ o*;, or amad u raft ^)j **T is a substantive " coming
and going, frequenting; traffic."
(c) oJj o^^? 4< it is done, past; let us say no more about it" (m.c.).
(d) Raftar ^**j is a verbal substantive signifying tc gait, manner of walk-
ing; conduct" and in some Indian MSS. "ambling": raftar-i na-liamvar
jt^A l> ;U*) " (an inelegant way of walking), bad conduct " ; bad-raftar ^^ **
(adj.), bad-raftan ^^) ^ (subs.) "badly conducted, bad conduct."
(e) Rajla rafta ai(j 4i; "step by step, by degrees."
(/) Raw kardan &*j ^ (m.c.) signifies "to start, commence (a business
or matter)," as : qall bajl raw karda am f\ *^f $ ^-*b ^ti l (vulg.) "I have
commenced carpet- weaving " : raw kun raw kun <^f j), &? % vulg. interjec-
tion, "go on, go on ! "
(g) In modern Persian, "let me go with f/ow!" isbi-guzar ki hamra/t-i
minima bi-y'iyam ^^ U U*A A> y&i) but " let me go with him" is bi-guzar
ki hamrdh-t u bi-ravam fjjjj *\j^ *S y& .
(h) In modern Persian, raj tan is also used in the sense of " being on the
point of doing," "intending to do" [compare 80 (e) khwastan (^wr^ ],
as : rajtani an ra bi-giram ki dldam mar-i ruijash uftada ast *t pj& j^>f ^A->
o^.f ^IL' ^J^-^; cA)^ ?*t* (m.c.) Ci I was just going to take hold of it, when
I saw that a snake was lying on it " ; raftam p*>j does not here mean that,
4 1 went forward or progressed towards. 5
83. I)7tsltt(ut )J&& "to have, keep," etc.; Imperative y* dar.
(a) The peculiarity of this verb is that the Aorist (or Subjunctive) of the
simple verb (daram f; 1 ^ ) signifies "to have," while the Present tense
(ml-daram ^;^* ) signifies " to keep." 8
In modern Persian, therefore, to distinguish the Subjunctive from the
Indicative Mood, the Perfect Subjunctive is as a rule used instead of
^
1 fluftan i^*) " to sweep."
* Vulg. for rah andakhta am.
3 JPfK daram (j\& J>[ I have rnonoy '* : pill ra ml-daram f)l&*f *) (J>^ ** I keep
rgo of the money," for nigah mi-daram
264 DASHTAN, ETC.
the Present Subjunctive, as,: *xb <xi^|^ tLej^jj*** ^^JU^. &>(* bayad khayll
sabr va hawsala daslita bdshtd (m.c,) "it is necessary to have the greatest
patience and forbearance r " : **&*/ <-! fi^ y> *A* ( ty or) * *k 13 553 aJJL^^fi
jlb al(^ a^rar gusfand ddh td bdshad * (or bud) bay ad liar Jcuddm yak gusfand
dashaia bashand (m.c.) "were the sheep ten in number, then all (everyone)
ought to have one sheep apiece " : ^b **&?<> **> j y^> ^r^ ^ U>A ^ b^j
/& bd in hush bayad khayll shutur va rama dashta bashi (m.c.) * k with all this
intelligence you have, you must be possessed of many camels and flocks " ;
(rama specially for sheep and goats).
This has led to a modern form of the Imperative dashta bash utj *^L\
dashta bashld *v^ ab (m.c.) in the simple (not in the compound) verb;
kdr-t bi-tn na-dashta bash <J(j A^!XJ ^U ^cjtf (m.c.) "don't have anything to
do with this." Dar ;fa is also used in m.c., as :y*>\) ^ "keep this, hold
this." In ra nigah biddr = In ra dashta bash <^> Al^>i^ h ^t.
Story-tellers say o^L? Ai^i^ N( ' t ijf or ) ^M for *' here we will leave them
for the present (while we see what was happening to )."
(b) In classical Persian, daram pit, etc., is both the Present Indicative and
the Subjunctive : 0' &>y& &***> )\ o 1 ^ **^ ^ s^j* *-&* 'malik farmud td vajh-i 3
kafaf-i u mu'ayyan ddrand td (Sa'di) "the king ordered a sufficient means
of subsistence to be fixed for him*': padishdh amr farmud ki khizana rd
mahfuz bi-darand oJ>t<y &j&^* ij ait;^ & ^^ ^\ jsL&^'j is classical and
modern ; in modern Persian daslita bashand *xU ed^b could be substi-
tuted here : ,^b ^+& ^^ j*. ty J^ ^' c5^-' ytfni in qadr turn bar pay hami-
ddrad (Sa'di) "which being interpreted means that this amount (of food) is
sufficient to sustain thee " ; here nicjah mi-darad ^;l*>*- d&> could be substitu-
ted for haml'darad
Remark I. In modem, as well as in classical, Persian the Pres. Subj. of
dashtan <^^b is, in compound verbs, of the form of the Aorist, as:
u mard farmud td m ra bar-ddram fj*j* b u^ ^ ^j* \j* $ (m.c.) " he ordered
me to remove this " : ^^ A*ASX^ ^/olj^ bi-gu bd man suhbat bi-darad (m.c.)
"tell him to talk with me." But u toner ddrad A;|A ^*i> y ; az u khwdhish
daram *>IA ^^f^xjf jf ; iltimas az shumd ddram fjb U^3 ! u*^^ ; '^^? daram
u*j* ; ffdab ddram ^ ^it are Present Indicative.
Ta hamchu tu dust-i bi-daram.
Bale-am na-bavad Jcaahad bi-dar-am (classical).
*' As long as I have a friend like yon, no fear have I that he will crucify me."
Note singular, baahad *>-& for irrational animals ; also the plural dashta bashand
4&ta after liar kudam \*& j*.
8 Vajh *^j is also used in ra.c. for ** sum, money " : ba'd az mulahaza-yi In barat
vajh ra kar-sazl darid ^;b i$$"*&\) *+)&\j*. ^ fa^* j f ^ (m.c.) ; written on bills
of exchange.
DASHTAN, ETC. 265
Remark II. Frequently in compound verbs, and whenever the verb
signifies " to keep," the Present ml-daram ( *)I<H X> is used, as : har ruz bd u
suhbat mi-ddram ^l*** oa^ejl l> jj;y> (m.c.) " I converse with him daily "
urd dust ddram or mi-ddram (f^***) p;t^ o**^ f;y (m.c.) "I like him (or it)
very much" ; but man hanuz bd u suhbat ddram pj& oaaa^y ^3^ A cr* (m.c.)
"the matter is still under discussion, it is not yet finally settled": nigah
bi-ddr ;fw *& " keep " ; dast bi-ddr ;t<v o*.j> " cease from " : bar mi-ddrand
^t^-*^ " they are removing, carrying away."
Remark III. In modern colloquial, the Aorist form is also used for the
Future, as : In bardy-i shumd samar-i nd- ddrad &)\& c5>+-> {*** c^ltf vi^f ( n ^
nami-ddrad j^l**^ ), or na-khwdhad ddshl cu^b o^t;^ (m.c.) " this will be of
no benefit to you."
Remark IV. Such forms as sdkhta bash ^b ai^Lo (local ? ) c< be ready "
and drdsta bash (J&. <*J^>f;f <c be dressed," must not be confused with the form
ddshta bash <J& *i-b ; in the two first, the participles are adjectives, whereas
ddshta bash o^b <u(j> is a transitive verb. Vide 125 (j) (6).
(c) The Afghans and Indians say mi-ddram fj*^ for f;f^ ct I have."
(d) The Imperfect of the simple verb ddshtan ^y^b, except in conditional
entences, 1 is rare in modern Persian ; the Preterite, as is the case with the
verb budan c>^, usually taking its place; thus if, in the sentence j^ jt> **&}
A> ^^^A/O JUi. j*^j vaqt-l ki dar jahdz budam khayal mi-kardam ki , the verb
ddshtan i^b were substituted for kardan &s^, tho verb would be Khayal
ddshtam (&\t> J l i^ and not khaydl mi-ddshtam ^\^^c JUi..
In compounds, however, the Imperfect is used, as : bd u suhbat mi-ddshtam
jJU^A* o,Asuo^f b (m.c.) "I used to talk with him."
(e) In modern colloquial, ddshtan <jJUifj>is also idiomatically used with a
continuative and present signification, as : <xT <^*> ty\& )j**> hanuz ddrad
mi-dyad "he is now coming along": similarly ddrad ml-ravad <^/ *;b,
etc. : ddvhtand mi-dmadand ^^^f ^ xvx^f^ (m.c.) " they were coming along."
(/) In some parts of Persia, it is also used in the sense of 'hold/ i.e.,
6 consider' (for mi-ddnam ftf*^) : pjte 8-V^ f; J* &i\ in miz rd Khanda ddram 1
(m.c.) " I consider this table as bought ' ' : f)\& &MJ$ I) i^o ^yf ^yo man an murgh
rd girifta ddram (local) " I consider that bird as good as caught " =fi &*J ^ .
(g) The following is an Afghan colloquialism : (*;|^ ^^ ^3-^ )ty. )* er
man dar bazar chiz-1 kharidan ddram <{ I have to buy something in the
bazar."
(h) In modern colloquial ddrad ^(a is often used impersonally 'there is,
there are/ or with the subject understood, as : ^^ *-** 'ayb na-ddrad, or ^\ oJ ^
1 The Imperfect of the simple (as well as of the compound) verb is used freely in
^conditional sentences.
2 = In miz ra kharida girifta am; or (correct m.c.) kharida bi-dan.
266 IMPERSONAL VERBS.
zararna-darad(m.c.) t( thereis no harm in it; why not; I don't care if I do. 1 "
^'** <^&* *ayb-i na~darad, or ^ta <~**f &*. chi 'ayb ddrad % (m.c.) " it doesn't
matter; there is no harm in it, i.e., why not do so; yes": &)]&> fyU. char a
na-ddrad (m.c.) "there is no remedy " : o*f^ UU3 ^^x khaytt tamdshd ddsht
(m.c.) "it was a curious (or wonderful) sight" : ^ <*JU* 8 ;bU JUk^; JU* J?
az Shirdz ru ba-shimdl chdpdr khdna ddrad (m.c.) "from Shiraz northwards
there are post-houses " ; here the subject to ddrad is apparently the distance,
or the road , understood : ^ ^ v ^k <; & t ^^ - &)j^ &*. is)ty? o l tf ' asphd-
yi chdpdri chi-taur-and , khub yd bad ? khub ddrad va bad (m.c.) " what are the
post-horses like, good or bad? There are both good and bad "; here the
subject appears to be the chdpdr system.
In the last example from Sa*'d! in 84 (c) ddrad a;fa may be translated
' there is," the subject being the whole of the previous clause.
() In modern colloquial, Idzim ddshtan &''h fj$ signifies "to need,
require, etc."; f;fj> ^ ;Uo !; ^U. sd'at-am rd bisydr Idzim ddram (m.c.)
" I want my watch badly."
84. Impersonal Verbs.
"to be necessary, must."
" to be suitable; ought, etc., etc."
Sa&ldan* o>j>- "to be worthy."
Zi'blt/an ^^-hjj "to adorn; to suit."
(a) Bdyistan b er Ju.j(-j j shdyistan ^J^jti, and sazidan ^^^ are all
impersonal and defective: the Infinitive, Past participle, third person
singular of the Aorist (without the prefix), Present, 9 Imperfect, and Preterite
only are used, besides the future participle or noun of possibility.
In ty ^wj U y ^Okxjf ^Jiil/o ^lioij.^ )t> &+ JAJ (Tr. Haji Baba, Chapter
XXXII) "I was appointed to meet him at court after the morning
levee," the first person of bdyistan &*& is used: such use is rare and
ungrammatical.
' Corresponds somewhat to the barrack phrase ** I don't mind if 1 do," in reply to
an offer of a drink.
2 Ohi 'ayb darad &)\& <~?** &^ can also be a direct question, "what defect is there
in it ? "
3 Chapar, T. , properly the horse for a messenger or post, spelt jt( ^ and j$*-, and
indifferently pronounced either way ; chaparl rajtan &**) C5^^}^ " * travel post."
* Shayistan er^?^ and sazidan &&>j>** are the same.
5 Bd^idan &**3^ obsolete form.
Classically, the Aorist is used for the Present. In modern colloquial, the Present
Ajb ^fc ml-bayad is occasionally used, but by far the commoner form is bay ad ;
) ft ^i] 4^1 L ^x? l+ shuma mi~l>ayad in kar ra bi-kunid (m.c.)
IMPERSONAL VERBS. 267
Dar l alam~i jan bi-hush mi-bayad bud
Dar kar-i jahan khamush mi-bayad bud
" Be very wary in the Soul's domain,
And on the world's affairs your lip refrain."
(0. K. 167 Whin.)
Remark I. Bayad ^ and shayad AJ& are sometimes used as synonyms
for lawn ^ly, vide 77 (a) (3) Remark.
Remark II. Bayist-i vaqt cuJj c: jb (obs.) muqtaza-yi vaqt oJ>j
(mod.)
(b) In classical Persian, the Past Conditional ^i^ bayisti, as well as the
Aorist with the prefix (bi-bayad) 9 occur occasionally : for examples, vide (/).
(c) In classical Persian, these auxiliaries are followed by the Infinitive*
the shortened Infinitive, or the Subjunctive, the logical subject of
the sentence being generally in the dative. 1 Examples: -*&*& <j.2R.* oJrf
t; cA&Uob &*l,k - |; ^kL <*+& ^^ &jlj JJJKJOJU-J &j*> j ^ft? xiU grw/^ sukhan
bi-andivha bayad guftan va Jiarakat-i pasandida bayad kardan hama
khalq ra, khassa padishahan ra (Sa'dl), "he said all people ought to
speak with forethought and act decently, but especially kings";
& ^ .xjb )&^j) u lAl^^U ^_^o j O^A. jt az hiddat va saivlat-i padisha-han
bar liazar * bayad bud &/-(Sa'di) " one must be on one's guard against the
hasty and despotic nature of kings" : p^w ^Ix^U y d*^lft~j & A& fj ^^
ajli (^^3 I; o^fcj^^A *r ^^ 'alim-i ra na-shayad ki bi-safahat-i az ' 6 'ammwbi-hilm
bi-guzarad ki har du taraf ra ziyan-l darad - (Sadl) <c a wise man must not
quietly pass over the folly of an ignorant man " ; ^ ^^)^ &rt-jfr*jf &*.* ^sfi**
cx.t-li- f; ^J^M* JA. jL' guftar-i bl kirdar chun darakht-i bi-bar juz sukhtan ra
na-shmjad (classical) ' * a speaking without acting is like a tree without fruit, fit
for nothing except burning ": mara nami-sazad kiln kar* bi-kunam c^L^*
6 ^ ( & ^ ** ^>- (m.c.) c .'it is not suitable for me to do this (i.e. I am fit
for better); (sazidan is not used affirmatively in mod. Pers., but sazavar mi-
bashador ast ( o.^f or)
1 There are , however, in both the ancient and modern language exceptions; as
^U ^ I; )\$ *&> (Classical) and (m.c.) for ffi~*> **">& )^ ^ C5^ 3' bara-yi
hlch kar shayista nlstam (m.c.).
^ Also hizr: the idiom bar liazjar budan is also m.c. (not pur hazar).
% Note the izafat after bi-safahat.
4 Better guftar-i bl-kirdar j bj ^ J&L> .
6 -Ra omitted after kar as ra occurs at the beginning of the sentence,
G Also in modern colloquial zibanda-yi man riist hi
268 IMPERSONAL VEEBS.
Remark. The shortened Infinitive is used when the logical subject
of the sentence is understood, or can be expressed by the indefinitive
pronoun "one." If, however, the subject (in the dative) be expressed the
shortened Infinitive may still be used, vide, first example in (/).
(d) Sometimes the subject is put in the nominative, in which case it is
grammatically the subject of the second verb, as :- ^ ur* 3 ^ ^ ^ ^ *^U
4JUJ liUlcf fj o~^ st *Jty p&> &(*+& pddishdh bdyad ki id bi-hadd-i
bar dushmandn khashm na-rdnad ki dustdn rd i'timdd na-mdnad (Sa'dl) "a
king must not drive his resentment against his enemies to such an extent
that his friends even lose confidence."
This construction is the most common in the modem language.
(e) The Afghans and Indians use the above construction in speaking,
but the Infinitive generally precedes the auxiliary, as : <x>
tu-rd bi-khdna-e khud ra/tan bdyad (Afghan coll.), or ^
bdyad ki tu bi-khdna-e khud bi-ravi 1 (Af. colL) "you must go home'
budam ki dldan bdyad iardd ba-kudam qism marg bi-mwam (Afghan coll.)
** I was immersed in the thought of what sort of death I should have to die
on the morrow" ; in modern colloquial bdyad ctid *y>^ *A* would be substitu-
ted for dldan bdyad <MJ &**&.
(/) As stated in (6), the forms ty-ob and >.>'# are obsolete in colloquial
Persian. The following are examples of these forms in the Gulistan : )\ ^
<& jLj ^jja. p& \j> ^s.1 J=UA>J ^jjii' c;U^ ^f yak-l az an miydn bi-tariq-i
imbisdt guft turd ham cliiz-i bi-bdyad gu/t (Sa c di) "one from amongst
them said by way of a joke ' you also must say something ' " ; [vide Remark
to (c)] : ^^j c_o!3 U ^I^ a ^^(j ^j v^i? guft pathm bdyistl kdsJitan id
talaf B na-shudi (Sa f di) "he said wool ought to have been sown so that it
might riot have been destroyed" ; Ja* ^JUJ JU^so ^^^ f^ ^^^jf <-Af ^
ay malik ! az daricha-yi cliasm-i Majtiun bi-jamdl-i Lttyla* nazar
I The latter is also the visual construction in modern colloquial, except that the pro-
noun would ordinarily be placed first, as: tu bayad ki-kkana-yi kkud-at bi-ravl (rn.c.)
$ ^jbj.J. This construction is also classical:
Tu ka'z mihnal-i diyaran
Na-shayad lei nam-at nihand adaml (Sadi).
** Thou who art careless of the affliction of others,
It is not fit that thou shonldst be classed as man.'*
In this example, tu is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, vide Kelative
Clauses.
* Bayistl is occasionally used in modern writings in Persia.
3 This form is still used in India and Afghanistan, but in modern Persian the 1m-
perfective with the Subjunctive or shortened Infinitive would be used.
* In modern colloquial incorrectly Laytt.
IMPERSONAL VERBS. 269
bayistl kardan (Sa'di) "he said, Oh king, it was necessary (you ought to
have) to look at Laila's beauty from the window of Majnun's eyes."
(g) Bayad <xjb, without a second verb, signifies "to be requisite,
needful, to lack " and takes the dative of the person, as : ^ l> <^lj Jc \j jjU^b
Ai'f ^ padishah ra 'adl bayad ta baru gird ayand (Sa'dl) "a king needs
justice (justice is requisite for a king) so that they (the peasantry) may rally
round him ' ' : ura raham bayad o^lj ^^ \j _y J (m.c.) ' ( he lacks pity ' ' : ananra
ki karam bayad diram * riist o**i ^ Ajl ^ *t |j ^Gf (mod. saying) * ' those who
wish to give alms have no money."
(h) The distinction in meaning between bayad oob and shayad
often fine ; in the following example it is clearly indicated : *
*jl f; j^JU*> ^Auxi ** ^ c$>^ c5<xU^a. fjU g u ft j mr afiua ma-ra khirad-
mand-i kafi bayad ki tadbir-i mamlakat-ra shayad (Sa'dl) "he (the king)
said, ' certainly we need a competent wise person who is fitted for the
administration of State affairs."
The distinction is even more marked in the example in (j), which better
illustrates the difference in meaning.
() In modern Persian, written or spoken, the constructions 'are the
same, with the exception of the construction with the Infinitive.
The Present, Aorist, and Preterite ml-bayad **(* <^c, bayad c\b, and
bfiyist (vide q) c^jb are used for present times, and the Imperfect mi bay 1st
o~->b u* for past times 8 :
(1) "I have to buy something in the bazar" dar bazar bayad cliiz-i
bi-kharam pit? c4>h^ ^ ;0^ J^ (m.c.) ; *' must we (one) go by sea or land ? "
az rah-i bahri bayad (or class, mi-bayad) rajtya barri c*ij ( c>jUxxj ) joU ^^.^cu fyj
^ l (m.c.).
(2) "You should have done this last year" sal-i guzashta shuma mi-
bayist m-ra karda bashld (or bl-kunid) * ^h^^*^!;^! o^jb^xjUA .u^^ JU
(JSAXSCJ or) (m.c.); but dlshab mi-bayist birun bi-ravam vali^>~>j() ^ ^^
t5^ f)j*. &JJ* (m.c.) : "I ought to have gone 5 out last night, but' ' : " when
this was finished I had five or six other things to do, but I had no
leisure to do them" chun in kar ra tamam kardabudam panj shash kar-i digar
ml-bayistbi-kunamvalifursat na-kardam(m.c.)
1 Ura rahm bayad u mara mal is a common saying.
* Diram /p for dirham (**>J^*
3 In modern colloquial the past tense of all verbs is frequently used for the
present. Hence perhaps the reason why in m.c. the past tense of baylstan &**?*> (mi-
bayist 0"~jb ^o and bayist ^^ 1 are also used for bayad *tM or ml-bayad *}M <y*
4 The Present Subjunctive (Aorist) can bo, and usually is, used instead of the Past
Subjunctive : hero karda bashid <x^ ^ could be substituted.
5 Dishab lazim shud birun bi-ravam " I had to be out last night.'*
270 IMPERSONAL VERBS.
Remark /. It will be seen that after mi*bayist either the Aorist or the
Perfect Subjunctive may be used.
Remark II. In modern colloquial, bayist vr*~jU is frequently used for
bayad <>\* (butmi-bayist ^~?M tr* is always past), as : ^^ cu~ ^ f; ;l ^ j^* \
(vulgar) " I must do this to-day."
(3)
Jchud ra az miyan btrun hash wa-agar-na tura bayad sJiirkat bi-itmam rasani
(m.c.) "you must withdraw from this business or else you must be a
partner to the end": *& Jo^ ^ *(^> (m.c.) " the king lacks justice" ; gar
skaraf bayad-at himmat buland dar j\t **b o+a> O*AJ o^A (saying) V if
you want honour, have noble aspirations."
Remark. The following is an example of all these verbs : *->^(*> <*an.if
~
Ij <JM^) anc^s sahib 1 rish rti, mi-bay ad
bachcha ra nam%-shayad va zanra naml sazad " that which a man ought
to have,* is ^unfitting for a child, and unsuitable to a woman"; here
all three verbs practically have the same signification.
Bayad (or bayist) bi-navisam p~4j** ( ^ ^ ) **(> (in c.) ; and bayisti
mi-navishtam p^j* C5 -* '^^ l > (old) ~ mi-bay ist bi-navisam (or navishta
basham ^*^b aiy or ) /*-**i^V vj^^jL ^/o (m.c.) : vail bayad az dah nuqfa-yi sa*b
mi-guzashtim ^j^^t^ ^A^ &iea* %& y <>>U ^ (Memoirs of Abd-ur-Rahim,
p. 232) " but we should be obliged to pass ten 'difficult points*'; this
should be fi)*&> *?M " : guft bayad qabl az navishtan-i kaghaz ijaza ml-khivastld
j,jJuf^jjx) jjj(a.t AP(^ e>*"*P j f ^^ *& ^^ (Memoirs of Abd-ur-Rahim, p. 224)
" he said you ought to have taken permission before writing the letter" ;
this ought to be <*$^ <*juj^ ^j^t o**l> ^ : agar mi-Jchwastam sharh-i az
baray-i anha bi-diham az baray-i har ghiza^l tafsil-l bayad mi-navishtam
(*J^> <y ^ LS***** ^**j* c^U J 3 f (* A< ^ VT C5trf 3 1 <jr=^ (J^b*** ^ (Transla
tion of Monte Christo) ; here ml-bayist bi-navlsam ^^ vs.- -^U ^ would
be preferred ; ml-navishtam is perhaps Afghan.
(j) Bayad ^ is more peremptory and therefore less civil than slwytid
o^jli :o-^ ^Ui tijf inja na-bayad nishast (m.c.) f< you must not, you are
not, to sit here"; but inja na-shayad nishast c^-*^> ^jt^ij lapjjf (ni.c.)
u it is not fitting for you, you had better not, sit here."
(k) Shayad*AJ> " let it be proper " is also used as an adver.b "perhaps,
possibly."
(1) The past participles sliayista* *l~jU and rarely **~jk, are used as
adjectives: ^^ ^Vf ** <-^~*> l/0 &^ <x3LulA [shayista-yi sha^n-i ma nist ki
mja nishlriim (mod. and classical) " it is not fitting our dignity to sit
1 Or Sahib-i risk <JH) V 2 ^-* 9 but it is better to ornit the izafat.
* Harf-i na-ahayist ma-zan &J"* o^l^i li O T O^ (rn.c.) *' don't use unseemly
language (or abuse)."
IMPERSONAL VERBS. 271
here"; zan-i shayista AwjU ^} (m.c.) "a well-behaved wife"; sipas-i
bi-qiyas bayista-yi Hazrat-i Yazdanist cu^xif^ 0^*0*. &L..)b ^Uftjj <jU
(modern writing) * ( praise must be given (by us) to the God-head." Bayista
is not used in speaking. The substantive bdyist o*~.b is obsolete.
Remark, Shayista **>& can be paraphrased by the adjectives
sazavar, or (J'JI Ids-iq, or zibanda ****!j y or by the substantive <^UJ liyaqat,
as: ^j|w f ; ;t< ^Jt oJU) to ma liyaqat-i In kar rd na ddrim (or ma lawq-i in
kar nistim p~<*>^ nHt <>$ JJl* ) (m.c.) " we are not able to do this, it is beyond
us'* : o**oi U ( (j^jjf or ) ;'jj>* -^ e*>f iw /fear/ sazavar-i (or latiq-i) shumd
mst (m.c.) ' you should not say this, ought not to say this."
(m) Shayistagi ( ^&~jl& and sJidydn ^^ : shayistagi-yi In kar ra na-daram
f)\& t; ;( ciMf ^^S-jlw (m.c.) "this work is beyond me"; dar In Jiangdm
ki shayan-i bahjat va shayigan-i masarratast &&(> j CU^L^J ^IL^ tf &J&A ^^
o^c( e^^/o (modern writing) " at this time when it is fitting that we
should lejoice."
Shay an &(^ is not used in modern colloquial. Rayan &M* not used at
all. Shayitfani ^i^jU and bdyistanl L5 **~jl-> are both old.
(n) Bay ad bdshad kl> ^b signifies "must be" and mi-bay ist bdshad ^
>^b ojlj <c must have been " : tnd la-bud bdyad in kar ra bi-kuriim ^ *$ U
^i^j ^^ ^\ (m.c.) <4 we are obliged of necessity to do this,"
tXijj ^^AJtxi >jlj ^ e><H^; c^t/ (Afghan) "sensible people will say
that since he took so much trouble to construct a boat he must certainly have
previously made some plan for transporting it (to the water)."
(o) In modern colloquial bayad ^ sometimes means " should," as:
<>b y>b ^j\ ^b \j^ jj^ ^t In chiz chird bi-ln girarii bdyad ^bdshad (m.c.)
" why should this be so dear?"; (simpler "why is this so dear ? ?> chird
in qadr girdn ast o^*f &\^ ;^ftvi t^a. ). Vide 80 (g) for use of khwdstan ^^^
as ' should.'
(p) Bdyad cNjb is sometimes in modern colloquial prefixed to the fu-
ture Perfect, when it signifies" must have, "as: <x~>j cu>J^ ^ e^t ^ ^ ^
^b ^ f U> f^jlis' ( tvb ) c^-* tain ki in khan bi*Landan bi-rasad Fuldn
(bdyad) kitdbash rd tamdm karda bdshad (m.c.) " by the time this letter
reaches London, So-and-so will have completed his book " ; in this example
bdyad 1 vU could classically be omitted.
(q) In modern colloquial the Past tense bdyist is used for the Present,
as : ( &> or) &jfa OUM.^ cu~jb ' z bdyist dast ba-kar zad (or sliud) (m.c.)
l In modern colloquial ihvbayad ^b would ordinarily be inserted.
a Or bayad dast andar kar shud >A;K ;*i| o*.^ iX>b ( m .c.) " we must help each
other" ; *!f ^ ;tf ;^l ^^^ v^^t { ^ U /mma bci-tshan dast andar karbuda U (m.c.)
" you helped them."
272 IMPERSONAL VERBS.
" we must set to work "; hama bdyad (or bdyist) bi-mmm ( cu~jb I
p-jW (m.c.) " we must all die" ; [mi-bdyist bi-mwad ^+J c^^b ^ (m.c.) "he
nearly died ; ought to have died."]
Remark. The affixed pronouns can be added to the impersonal verb bayad
<x>b, as: /^*.^ x> mi-bayist-am " it was necessary for me":
mi-baylst-i- shdn "it was necessary for them."
(r) Note the substitutes for the verb bdyistan <^^b in the following
examples :
(1) ^ &&\)=*. jly* j& alaxijy jjf^A hamrdh-i u panjah nafar sar-bdz
khipdhad bud (m.c.) "there must be fifty soldiers with him"; [or bayad
liamrah-i u panjah nafar sarbdz bashad *&b )l> j j&* *(=uj j\ ty+A v*b (m.c.)] :
jy i3A|^ 0*0 ^ *kpl* JJ&T ^j^-c j J^Jaj *Jal^i ^jf m ihdtd bi-tul va ( arz l bi-qadr-i
panjah dast Jchivahad bud (Afghan) (or m.c. bayad bashad) " this enclosure must
be about fifty cubits z in length and breadth" ; *J<XXA> ^* ^~ ^.^ e/f;o?l
( |4 xiL> cu-oL for ) .sy JAI^. ;lf jjli? (^^x^ 3 tf o^if AAAS ^ia. a^ar dar an waqt kas-e
mara me-did chunin me-danist ki shakhs-i gunah-gar khwhdd bud (Afg. col.)
" had any one seen me then, he would have thought that I was (must be)
some guilty person."
(2) (m.c. o^ dAt^k f^y ^i-j or) ^ ^&}^ ^ii; e;^ J vf e^;jf cu^^xj ( ^CJ
/eAw ba-jihat-i awardan-i db berun raftan hhwahad shud (Afghan coll.) (or
m.c. raftan Idzim khwdhad shud) "but it will be necessary to go out to fetch
water."
(3) ^ t^J c^/ C-A^ J C^xsu-c ^j^ jlf JJ5 ^cl^j Jojv,; ^l^olj ;K C^f C>a.
c/iww m Mr ba-anjdm rasid bardy-i du kdr-i digar milinal o koshish kardan
paydd shud (Afghan coll.) " when this business was finished I had to toil and
labour to accomplish two other works."
(4) yox> jU^ ^,1^ ^^j l^uf e;3o^ o,^ jihat-i didan-i asphd berun
raftan bisydr me-shud (Afghan coll.) "I had to continually go out to have
a look at the horses;" (m.c. bi-jihat~i didan-i aspdn Idzim bud blrun ravam
(5) d>i*\ <j* ^ij; ^ e^^/ ^*^ ^I/J *^j O^XA: ^^ ^b *i ?ia bdrud kharch
me-shud wa na bard-e kabk giriftan ba-koh raftan me-uftdd (Afghan coll.)
4 ' neither was powder expended (by this plan) nor had I to go to the high
ground to catch chukor;" [in m.c. Idzim mi-gasht cu^ ^ ^ instead of
mi-uftad].
) c?^ *^ v^ ^f )* *-^-t c^^ A Jf y^ hdld dnchi kardan ast dar an
hah chi kardi? (Afghan coll.) "now how much have you done of what you
A Or tul an va 'arz an (*>j* j il^Jb (m.c.).
* Dast, c^.^ a cubit from the elbow to the tip of middle finger.
s m.c. mi-pindasht cu^fo-ij^ WO uld be preferred to mi-danfot 0-0)^^0: also
gunah-kar ^ Uff OP quna h-gar )^ *X.
IMPERSONAL VERBS. 273
had to do ? " ; [in m.c. hdld az dnchi mi-bdyist bi-kunl chl kardl ^
(7) Zarur dar Injd insdn-e dmada khwdhad l bud
^ ^Af^ &*x>f (Afghan coll.) "certainly some human being must have
come here" [in modern colloquial bi l -shakk Injd insdn-i dmada bdshad
JJXOJ ^^U*Of U?VXjf y^^^j
(8) Ldzim ast ki bi-ravam ^ &X ^*\ >j5f, or raftan am lazim ast
j or rajtan-i man az zaruriyydt (or vdjibdt) ast
i ( oUaJj or ) " I must go/'
Remark. A paraphrase of <( it is necessary" can be effected by such
Arabic expressions as mustahim pXw/o (tr.) "necessitating, wajib* 'l-qatl
ciiiiJf w^^fj etc. <v meriting death; necessary to be killed," etc.
(5?) Further modem colloquial examples of verbs used impersonally, or
with the subject understood after the manner of ddrad &y& [ 83 (h)]
are: o^-<>? ^ ^^ l^us j j*^>4.j * ^^-^ ^ &jif -^t^ bi-jihat-i kasrat-ikhar
magas bi-mardum va malJia khayll bad guzasht (ni.c. : Roz. Gr.) ' * on account of
the large number of horse-flies, man and beast had a bad time of it " ; here
the subject is apparently "the time" or " the day 6 " : ^Xsx^yi ^ h^-j* J\
sjZ-vo oi'^lf) ^.3xix; ^&tf j 3.jUJ i^o 6 agar gjturaba ra gazid asar-i sakhtrt mi-
numai/ad va gah-l munjar 1 bi-Jialakat ml-shavad (m.c. Roz. Gr.) ic if it bites
strangers it does a severe injury which sometimes results in death."
(/) Zlbad JAJJ *'it suits, becomes, behoves, etc.," is a synonym of shayad
^- and sazad y^ ; zib *-**) (subs.) " ornament, beauty ' ' (construed with dadan
c>-U and shikastan (^Ju*<^). Ziba Ujj is an adjective; chi zlbd wii-khwdnad
^UJKU^ (**\ to*, (m.c.) " how nicely he reads."
(u) Expressions like "it is said, it is related," etc., are rendered by the
third person plural of the transitive verb (vide 88 Passive) as: ^\ JbjyT
dvarda (Did ' f it is related (they, the ancients or the wise or the relators) have
related " ; jJf MA?^ vagufta and ** and it is said/'
(f) Some verbs, impersonal in English, take in Persian a nomina-
tive of cognate meaning: ^^ &\ bdrdn ml-bdrad (m.c.) "it rains";
i Amada *>^T is treated as though an adjective and parfc of a (vulgar) compound
verb amada. budan. cJ<*# 8^-^f ** to become."
* In modern colloquial ihtitual darad ^jb J^-^l or ydhtamil cU^u> could be used
in tho s^nso of " jjrobably/*
'*> Mardum (*<^ /0 a collective noun always used as a plural except by the vulgar.
* Ithar-magas ^j&*-j=*- used collectively.
6 Mtab-Jdiayll badbi-ma guzasht o-^<>? ^ ^ O"^ V^* ** we passed a bad night."
6 The bug called malla ^l* 3 or gana, ** or ^harib-gaz ^ *T*JJ* or " biter
of strangers."
^ .
7 For munjarr y
18
274 COMPOUND VEKBS.
*j* ^ **) l ra'd ml-ykwrrad (in.c.)"it thunders" or **&**> ;oJJ tundar mi-
tundad; x^ ^ J>y barq mi-darakhshad "it lightens," or <\=^ <3> barq
mi-jihad (m.c.).
(w) An impersonal verb in English is frequently rendered in Persian as
follows: & ^^ ^J f ; ^yf <^ *=-y* hich dil-l in rd pasand nami-kunad
(m.c.) " no one likes this," or "it is not approved" ; ^& }fc Ja* >aql bdvar
na-kunad.(S'a,'di) " it is impossible to credit " ; (m.c. nami-kunad
(x) For the impersonal use of :
(1) Tavanistan " to be able" ; vide 77 (a) (2) and (b) (3).
(2) Shudan c^ vide 77 (d).
(3) Khwastan ^^^ vide 80 (/).
(4] Gu.zashtan ^x^o.? vide (5) supra.
(5) Dashtan e.^fa vide S3 (/^).
S 85. Compound Verbs (
(a) The number of simple verbs in Persian is small : the deficiency
is made up of compound verbs, which, like other compound words, are
exceedingly numerous.
The compound verbs present no grammatical difficulty. They may
be classed as adverbial verbs, and nominal 2 verbs.
(b) (1) Adverbial verbs are simple verbs, transitive or intransitive, with
an indeclinable particle (ad verb or preposition) prefixed, as : ^.yJif jl> l^z yuftan
" to say a second time "; ^'A? jU bdz gashtan "to turn back, repent":
e)^T )t> dar amadati " to come in"; e^^~4! b va tstddan 3 "to stand still,
stop, halt " ; *>*f ;^ j^j! az dar dar dmad (Sa'di) 4< he came in " ; ^^^ y bar
dashtan "to raise up; to sutler, endure"; bar tdftan &**$ j* "to shine forth,
also to twist up J> ; zir u zabar kardan ^^f f)^f') " to make topsy turvy " ;
vd guftan &M\I (m.c.) "to repeat what one has heard, say again";
vd shustan <^j^i f^ "to wash again."
' - * _
(2) Faru ^i, firu j>y or furu j y * (before a vowel jarud ^ etc.) is
prefixed to some verbs and signifies "down, downward; low," as farad
dmad <>^f j^ "he carne down"; furu guft oJ# ^y 4 "he spoke low";
oJ; <p9 ^o\ ^ (rn.c.) " he went into the room."
(3) Far a U-> is another adverbial prefix and signifies "back, again,
1 Vulgar pat/a mi-tfnirr ad. bj*** &^.
1 Nominate are those formed by prefixing a noun or an mljectivo to a verb.
fc Va ^ in composition with verbs stands for 602; j^ " back ", again, open, etc.,
as: va dad ob fj ' he gave back," va guft cJiJfj * 'he spoke again "; \^ tjl; ;^ rfr m
t>5 fcun "open the door"; vsturla JS-iU-^jf standing" but va Istada Bc^^f^ ** halted."
* In m.c. jurTi guft = simply guft, the furu having no meaning.
COMPOUND VERBS, 275
over, opposite, etc., etc." It is often redundant, being prefixed merely to
avoid a cacophony.
Vide the rule applying to the auxiliary Jchwastan &\+t^ when used to
form the Definite Future, as : khayma ra far a khipahand girift <*i*fj^ \j* f; *+#*
: cuy " they will surround the tent " (Class.).
(4) Faraz 1 jf^i " above, up, before," as: chun bi-balin-ash faraz
amadam p^ j'^i U&VI* o^ (Gul., Chap. VI. , St. 1) " when I came up to his
pillow."
Faraz jij* sometimes strengthens a verb but often it is redundant.
(5) Pish <j^, blrun &itf, andar ;^f (or dar ;j>), are also common in
adverbial compounds.
(6) In a few verbs, the preposition has by use become incorporated
with the verb and the verb has ceased to be regarded as a compound ;
in such verbs the preposition is prefixed to the verb itself, as : tup khwahand
dar hard &j> ;j> :sx&iy2>. ^y ; fcJiwdhand dar guzasht c^^^;^ t\xa>|>^ ; khwdhnad bar-
khast' 1
Remark.- Bi-sha/ir (or dar sliahr) dar amadan
enter the city," but az shahr dar amadan cJ^-^T ;^7t^3' <e ^ come out of the
city."
(c) The participle in these yerbs precedes the usual verbal prefixes mi
<yo and bi *j, and the negative^ na &* &ndma *>* as : JsxxC^ ^ uj>y 3 tup dar
mi-kunand (rn.c.) " the gun is being fired" (lit. they are emptying the
cannon)"; az fcisa dar bi-yur ;Lj j^ * *' jt (m.c.) <c take it out of your
pocket." \
(d) Some verbs that in their simple form take the prefix <*-' do not
admit it when compounded witfli a proposition , as : ^^(^ y bar (chastan
4i to rise up" (bar khiz and bah kMzam, etc.); bar-yashtan ^&$j "to
return" ; m rdbi-dary^* \) ^' ''keep this", but in ra bar dar )\ty I; ^
61 take tiiis away " ; amikktan (^^4f (tr.) (Impr. j**^. bi-yamiz) " to mix " ;
dar dmikhtan ^^^T )* (intr.) Imp. ar-amiz j**tf ;*>.
Remark. In poetry, for thp fc-^^e of metre, the particle of a compound
verb sometimes follows the verbl 4 \
(e) Nominal verbs are simply vt >s of action, transitive or intransitive,
preceded by a Persian or Arabic \sub antive, verbal substantive, adjective,
or past participle.
1 Faraz u nisUlb -r^^ J^j 9 " "P 1 * anc ^ ( ^wns " or " ascents and descents."
* Dar khwuhanA Icard ^ ^i*(yxjj> ? dar\ khwahand guzasht cu^(>> JXXA[^ ^, and
^ \
bar khwahand khast o^l^ ^vAfja,^) are old.
* Note the absence of ^ : tup is u&ed geii vicaily: tup ra would moan one special
gun. Tup Ichwahand dar kard (Fut.).
* In modern colloquial bi-raw in }j> (not tubi-raw), }J ** go inside."
270 COMPOUND VERBS.
Usage alone will determine which auxiliary verb or verbs can be
used in forming the compound. Many auxiliaries used in modern colloquial
are not permissible in writing. Examples: &*f 0*-;^ durust kardan "to
make, construct "; "to correct 5 ' : ^ixx> vju*^ ^ cUL ^fy v Uajf ^ zan-i
qassdb baray-i bulbul 1 kirm durusl mi-kunad (vulg.) "the butcher's wife
breeds maggots (as food for) bulbuls } : ma'zul kardan ^^ j>*' (past
participle) " to dismiss from office"; ma'zul shudan eP^ 5 Jt>**> "to be
dismissed"; &$ *iU~;t 2 istdda kardan (classical^ (Persian past participle)
" to set up."
These nominal prefixes may be considered either as part of the
compound verb itself, or as the object of the simple verb; but in no case do
they admit of '; ra. Examples: ftj wj^ l;y u-rd chub zadam (m.c.), or
(TP V^S* ^ bi-u chub zddam (m.c-) "I beat him (with a stick)"; in the
first instance chub <~j*. may be considered an integral portion of the verb
zadam foj; in the second it may be taken as its object, but it would
be wrong to say bi-u chub rd zadam fj>j f; v>^ ^ '> \_ u ~ ra bd chub zadam
ft>\ V j^ I.- ;jt means'* I beat him with the stick"]: "talk Persian"
Far si harf bi zan &j> o^ ^j^-y or harj-i Far si bizan eJj- ^^^ uv,^ : khayll
intizdr kashida am f> ^A' ^Uai.t ^^U^ " I have expected (waited for) you a long
time " s ,; o>a^ J^ Jt** 9 ^ si sal t/ul kashid " tliree years passed " (here sal is
the subject of the intransitive verb tul kaxhidan which should be regarded as
one word).
The ism ^*t etc. is often separated fiom the verb that follows it 4
c^;!^ & bind yuzdrdan is "to begin"; bd man bind- yi namak bi~liar ami
(juzdrda a^t o*^ jf^i^f ^y ^ 3 ^ *-^-*.> ^ti' ^d (m.c.) -= bind c/uzdrd bi-na-
mak-hardmi kardan o^y ^L^ *^+^ t)\'^ ^ (m.c.). 5
From (jlr j*f , a verbal substantive from girijtan, is formed ()ir dmadan
&**tf j3 (m.c.) (for bi-gir dmadan) "to come into one's possession " and
qir dvardan ej^T j4 c< to bring into one's possession"; dnja chiz-i (fir-am
naydmad ^^l^> ^ \SjX5- ^f (m-c . V l nothing was got by me there ' ' ; dnjd chiz-i, gir
na-yavardam c^)^ j4 cffj^^l'tni.c.)" I obtained nothing there. 6 "
Remark I. It will be noticed th at rna^;/ compound verbs are intransitive
in meaning though the actual verb of the' j, pound is transitive.
J Maggots are bred and sold in Persia as */ ^-tjicie of trade tor caged nightingales.
2 In m,c. bar pa kardan &3J> ^>,ora| $(tin (^A^f^, O r ra ilashtan (^^\> 1^, or
nasb kardan (*)^ v^^' /
<c ' Or lh.ayll muntazir-i shuma bndam {?? [+& jSa&a ^i-^.
* In poetry it sometimes follows the ve:b.
5 Tn the sentence <*S)}*^ <*3LJf Axb ^UxLa e^^aa. (J'U ^jj p*$ 13 ta qasam bi-ruh-i
pak-i Hazrat-i Sulayman ('alayh* 's-aalan' na-khwurl " until thou swearest by the
sainted soul of Solomon (on whom be peac< '<} ," the wordqasam (which is a component
part of the verb ' k to swear ") could be ins- ed just before na-khwurl.
8 Olr amadan (D^\ j$ expresses ; ;re of chance than glr avardan
COMPOUND VERBS. 277
Remark II. Sometimes a compound verb admits of two constructions,
^j
as: ba marduman mahabbat mi-kunad jJ^x> o*aevo ^U^L (in which
j>
mahabbat 0*3*.* appears to be the direct object of the verb), and marduman
ra mahabbat mi-kunad JAX/C o^**.^ \) ^U^x; the latter construction seems
commoner in modern Persian.
(/) As stated in (c) the verbal prefixes ml ^* and bl & are intercalated
before the simple verb.
The same rule is observed with regard to the negative particles &* and
*J, as : dast bar narni-ddrl ^^ ^ J. ^~t> vide 71 (c) and (/).
(g) Usage alone will determine which simple verb is used in forming
a compound. The following are a few examples :
hamla avardan, (m.c.) "to attack, charge."
*c uzr khwastan, (m.c.) " to apologise, ask pardon."
uzr dvardan, (m.c.) " to make excuses."
tadaruk dldan , " to make preparation."
sitam didan, (m.c.) " to suffer opposition."
OL^x> maslahat dldan **to consider advisable."
L gham khurdan, (m.c.) <c to suffer grief. "
a. J/ ^ khurdan, (m.c.) <{ to be deceived."
qasam khurdan, (m.c.) to swear, take an oath."
2aMm khurdan, (m.c.) " to be wounded. })
y bi-zamin khurdan, (m.c.) "to fall on the ground; strike
the ground."
&)j &\& takan khurdan, (m.c.) "to be shaken, to shake, tremble."
fjirijtar amadan, " to be caught."
u-*^^y 6ar dushman yjialib amadan, t to overcome the
enemy."
Jr amadanaz, (m.c.) " to be tired of, disgusted."
** sir shudan, (m.c.) " to be satisfied, full from eating."
^/ar shumar amadan (class.), " to be counted."
' ;<> ^ 3 1 az pa dar amadan 1
-^ , _ , -t,-j , ** to be helpless, come to grief."
r ;js Ujf r/s pa dar ufiadan j *
*fy>'f Jan.AO ; w s dfar mahall-i iftirat-ast, " he is (or is likely to be) falsely
accused/'
(^j*.* j dar ma'raz-i khatar ast, ;< he is in danger."
^5^1^ (**>3 qadam-i mardanagi pishnihadan, il to act bravely."
furu nishandan, (m.c.) "quench (fire, anger)."
e.***/ \j* faragriftan, (m.c.) " to surround."
( j* )\ &**>>)* (*>>* chashm dukhtan (bar ) <k to stare at."
&&)&& vytij zaban gushudan, " to begin to speak."
1 In bi-dard-am naml-khurad (m.o.) *' this is no use to me."
278 COMPOUND VERBS.
<ol~j j* f aqd bastan (zan-i ra), " to perform the service of marriage "
(of the Mulla).
e>^ ^yt/^or c)^t; f&, kdm randan or ham-rani kardan. ct to live luxuri-
ously ; enjoy oneself."
^AAJ v_/..c 'aqab nisJiastan, " to retire (of enemy)."
**t j>>
tavallud ydjtan "to be born" ; also tavallud sliudan &*& *)ji.
o jf as das dddan , " to give up."
^ js c;^3 f ^ ? w ^ a ^ shustan (ordar quzashtan) <^x^;^ "to give
up hope of one's life."
cj&Xu*' o-a^ c>!^ j f a2 C ^-^ ffosJ kashldan, "to cease from (a thing
begun) ; to give up."
^U^f \(} ^jt*. \\ az chiZ'i bdz Istadan, "to refrain from (a thing not
begun)."
e^j Bj> 7 x) & eL~kU* )) \j tjs* Wind rd var sdkht ki murda ast, " he feigned to
be dead."
; rang rikhlan, " to play a trick, wile (in a bad sense)."
harf zadan, "to talk."
( eJ^A' r e;^ ) d)t>j ^^ faryad zadan or kardan or kashidan, "to cry
out."
e;y, ^a. } jam' zadan, "to add up."
kardan, " to collect."
or ) (j^^-i <^+fi tuhmat has/an (or tuhmot zadan] bar " to
accuse falsely."
crH/ jlr-* ^^ giriftan, " to become settled, to sit."
^*j> C5 I1" kushtl giriftan, Ct to wrestle."
( tr^/ or ) ^ of ^ o^ grw5/i ddddn (or giriftan), '* to listen to."
w.s^ kashidan, vulg. ( = j*^ c3>^> ) ;f to eaves-drop."
gush fard dddan ditto.
vi-*; e;Ux) jt az miyan rafian j " to be abolished; cease to be used."
^y ^^ 3 1 r/ ' s m 'iy n burdan (tr.) " carry off."
^^l ^^ ^'faw uftadan, " to get before, go before."
t^? cuiiA^ sabqat yriftan, " to surpass."
J^a. oA* sabqat justan, " to surpass, to anticipate."" 2
or) ^o-kj JUi^l ihtimal raftan (or dashtan), " to be probable."
ftj^SJ tashrif ddsJitan (polite), "to be at home, in the house."
| ^Joj nazar andakhtan, " to cast a glance at."
u bi'taMiir a.ndakhtan "to postpone."
l^ bi-taMlr uftadan (intr.) "to be postponed.
1 In India jam* kardan eJ*y ^*"^ " to collect " and also *' to add up.
a Birkharidan~i qall raftam vail bar man sabqat just
COMPOUND VERBS. 279
... _
. ( fijf or ) jlfjji) c^ir^ J *k Ja/fc/A ushmn-i ruzgar (or ayyam) chashi-
dan <( to experience the ups and downs of life."
c^j^ jf^jj) fj 9 ^j** sard u (/arm-i ruzgar didan (m.c.) the same as above.
ism-bur dan " to mention."
guman burdan (m.c.) "to think, doubt."
hasad burdan (m.c.; class. warzidan) " to bear malice."
giriftan " to catch fire."
atasli zadan ' ' to set fire to."
sliumdan (clsss. and m.c.) " to smell" (tr.).
zahmat 1 kashidan " to take pains ; suffer hardships."
salam ra shikashtan " to break up the audience."
<J.aj nuql-i majlis shudan (rn.c.) "to be in everybody's
mouth, be famous (lit. to be the sweetmeat of the assembly).
&$j> jA-> j ^~*y nisi u na-bud kardan " to destroy utterly (lit. to make,
is not and was not)."
Remark I . It will be noticed that a change of the verb in the compound
may make a verb transitive or intransitive in meaning, thus laghylr kardan
e^y^-j^ (intr.) " to change," but tayjiylr dadan ^t\t j**-> (tr.) " to change."
Remark II. It must be recollected that in modern colloquial,
prepositions and conjunctions are frequently omitted. In, na-bdyad ki shumd
fikr-i mk-naim-yi khud biyufild ^.^ J ^^ ^y ^^ j*^* ^+"* ** s -'^ (m.c.)
<c ought you not to be careful of your reputation ? " , the preposition AJ bi
that is wanting, has only to be inserted before fikr ji to make the sentence
perfectly cK^ar; for though in modern colloquial the compound verb jlqr
uftadan &?&*} & is used, its proper form is hi- fikr uftadan &*(**\ j&.' 1
(h) There are certain vulgar compounds in colloquial use, which
should not be imitated, as: (I) nanrachigunapukhtakuiiant, AAXO ^^ t; eA>
f& (Afghan) (for bi-pazam +y$> ) *' how shall 1 (or can I) cook the bread? " ;
danista nammlan ^^^ &j^Jfo (Afghan) " to teach, inform " ; xhikaxta kardan
&&jf &$*&' (Afghan) "to break"; mkhta kardan &*/ &-^j<~ (vulg. in.c.)
* 4 to burn" ; afrukhla kardan ^^ &^^i\ (class,), etc.
These compounds have come into existence owing to the frequent
adjectival use of the past participle of the simple verb, which is both
transitive and intransitive.
(2) A verb like Islada kardan c ^/ *MA~J "to set up," may be
admissible, but there is no necessity for tstada shudan* o^ *^IW (Afghan).
fn. mara az hama peshtar basta kardtt budi ^^ ^y AX*J ^A^AJ &+& \ '^./o
l In ladiii tahtif uft*-^ is used for zahwat c^^^j.
^ Kven in speaking, most Persians would say bi-fikr uftadan &&(*9' j^&s.
6 U az In bar baz istada shud ^ I*\***H ^ )^ 0'}'^ (m.c.) "he was prevented
from d oi?i c this."
280 CERTAIN COMMON VERBS USED IN COMPOUNDS.
(Afghan coll.) "you bound me first, before all the others," the verb might
just as well be, and should be, basta budl ^^ **>** *.
(5) As already stated, the Infinitive is regarded as a noun; hence
such barbarous compounds as jastan namud *j+> &***> (m.c.) "he made
a jump " or jast namud ^i o~-^ (Afghan coll.).
(') Some compound verbs consist of a phrase, and are both adverbial
and nominal, as : az pa dar-avardan e^/f^ ^ \\ (tr.) ; and az pa dar amadan
c>^T j* bj (intr.) ; pas pa kardan &&jf b ^ j " to cause to retreat,
dost bi-kar zadan &&\ fa cu^j> " to commence "; az dast dadan &&\t> ^~z\\
" to give up, relinquish," etc., etc.
86. Certain Common Verbs used in Compounds.
(a) One of the verbs most used in compounds is kardan &&j* (S to do"
or "to make." Namudan &*?+*, sakhtan ^y^U., gardanidan o^ 1 ^, and
in deferential language farmudan &&ycji can be substituted for kardan ^^
in any verb compounded with the latter. ' These are all used in modern
colloquial.
/
(b) In modern colloquial the forms kun ^f and bi-kun ^j are both in use
for the Imperative of kardan \*)&jf .
Remark. The past participle of kardan &$j? is colloquially used by the
Afghans with comparatives, in the sense of "compared with"; being
redundant, it can be omitted in any sentence where it occurs, examples:
4^^ pJk* y * J^,Utf f^ 2 M > 2 *.>y Jj jt *aw^ chunanchi az avval karda htt-
jum-i ash jar ziy a da-tar ma'lum gar did (Afghan coll.) ** accordingly the density
of the foliage appeared more than it did before (compared with previously) " ;
azawwal karda bih-tar shuda ast o^ ^ ^ *j>/ J* y (Afghan coll.) "he is
better than he was. ' '
(c) Namudan* CK^, Imperative muma* UJ, is both transitive and intran-
sitive, signifying "to show (tr. and intr.), to appear"; JoUx
ma'lum ml-numdyad (or ^^.^ /*^1** A^J ,^j ^ az qarar-l ki ma'lum ni
or simply ma'lum mi-shavad tt^.'o (^^ ) " it appears."
Remark. Note the change from karda %^ to namuda jf^*J in tlie
following modern colloquial .sentence, for the sake of euphony or variety :
lij! 3o>yf u* *^~> ^~>$ AJ^J^AX jfj^^ f JAJ tej) lijvi jxib UJ^ ^U. j* jb \) jy*+*
Timur ra dar liar ja-yi dunya bdshad suragh karda payda namuda mi-yirtd
dast basta mi-avarid inja (m.c.) *' having traced out Taimur in whatever
1 Any shade of meaning that may have formerly existed between kardan
fiamfidan u)*j+* 9 or saklitan (^Aa*.U in compound verbs no longer exists.
2 For Jy *J cu-A-j nisbat bi-avval (m.c.)
8 In modern colloquial often nimudan ((Tsfahani).
* Modem colloquial bi-numa Ux> only.
CERTAIN COMMON VERBS USED IN COMPOUNDS. 281
portion of the globe he may be (and) having produced him, you will seize
him; you will bring him here bound." l
(d) (1) Sdkhtan* ^.kU "to fashion; manage with; suit," is both
transitive and intransitive: the Imperative is jU saz (m.c. bi-sdz 3^>).
Example: ixijUj^ 3 ^j ^l^. (j(^j^ dar Kirman jdm-i rud ml-sdzand (or durust
mi-kunand ^ixS^/o o*^ (m.c.) "they make brass pots in Kirman"; ^U^
jot al^U shumd biham sdkhta Id (m.c.) " you have joined together, conspired ' '
(for a bad purpose only) ; jl~u ^U? s^ ^< ^ ay shikam-i khira bi-ndn-i bi-sdz
(Sa'di) " oh torpid belly, be content with a single loaf"; I*ULI ^j& ^ v f
^Lox ^j db u havd-yi m-jd bi*man mi-sazad (m.c.) " the air of this place suits
me."
bi-saz id davd*i ydbi
V'az ranj ma-nal td shifa*i ydbi
11 To find a remedy, put up with pain,
Chafe not at woe, and healing thou wilt gain."
(0. K. 451 Whin.)
Qhayr az sukhtan va sdkhtan cJidra-l nist
(m.c.) " there is nothing to be done, but to grin and bear it."
(2) Sdkht eu^U* and sdkhtagl L /^\M are substantives : sakht-i in qdll az
thist o*~o^ \\ ^U ^j o^U* (m.c.) " what is this carpet made of " ; skuma dar
In sdkhiayi karda-id t\ *$j* ^li^l^ ^..^ U^ (m.c.) "you have adulterated
this."
(3) SfJz J-* is frequent in compounds, as : dandun-saz \\~* &t*
<f a dentist" ; (dandan sdzi <^^ &*'*2 tl dentistry "). Note the folio wing : dar
' i$ht j-i mahbub bi-svz va bi-sdz \(~>j\}~* v^ :sw * <3^ ^ (mod.) Si in the love of
the beloved burn and be patient." Ham-sdz j^+* or Mm-dvaz y<X ^ "in
tune"; dam-sdz \(~*c ' ( a confidant." In mlva bardy-i man sdz-gdr nlst
o~oo j!fjUo ^ ^}ji ^AXJ ^jf (m.c.) " this fruit will disagree with me."
Saz ){*, a substantive, means " a musical instrument " and " necessary
furniture," as: sdz-i safar taddruk kard tj> ^ < j&* jl (m.c.) "he began to
get ready for the journey."
(e) Garddnldan &*&\&J , Imperative garddn &\t>J 9 is the transitive form of
gardidan &**& (or gashtan ((^SJ^ } and signifies "to change, avert, turn
round; cause to become."
1 Dast basta *i-f o*e^ might be an adjective agreeing with ( ^t understood. Basta
* is here Perf. Act. Participle, dast-iii ra basta mi-avarld.
2 In harf sakhtagist (m.c.) *' this is made up,, false " ; ba man sakktagl ma-kun
(m.c.) " dont't cheat me."
3 Qali baftan '* to weave carpets " not qali sakhian, which is unidiomatic; rud
vulgar for &Wj) rtl*?r?
282 CAUSAL VERBS, ETC.
(/) (1) Farmudan &byJ*^ Imperative farmd Uy, is transitive, "to
order or command." In compound verbs it is deferentially substituted l for
kardan c^y. sakhtan ^^L*, or namudan ^w, both in classical and in modern
Persian: -^>-> tej^j* <*>*- ^^ wli^ janab-i 'all chi farmuda budid' 1 '* (m.c.)
'' what did your eminence say?" Chi guftid ^^ &*. would be a very
familiar or very rude wa} 7 of expressing the same thing, and would generally
be used to inferiors only. Padishah bar takht juliis far mud <^>^ c^iuy &U><>b
$yoj ti the king sat (or ascended) the throne."
(2) In modern colloquial bi-farmd^id -vyUyij almost corresponds to the
English word " please." To a visitor it signifies " please take a chair" : if
two persons are about to enter a door together it means "after you": if
food is on the table, it = "kindly help yourself," or " begin."
(3) Far/nan &(*j* a substantive is a royal mandate. Farman-farma
(*j* ^cj9 "the issuer of mandates" is a title prefixed to the name of
a place, and signifies " Governor or Viceroy of ."
Farman-bardar ;l^j eJ^V " order- bearing, obedient."
Remark. The compound verb knr farmudan c'^^y ' )^ is not always used
in the complimentary sense. Sa'di in the Gulistan, speaking of a boxer,
says : va qaid-i hukama* ra kar na-farmud ^^ ^ h cl -*-^ J^^ ; also kafsh-
duz alat-i khud ra kar mi-farmayad (vuli?.) "the shoe-maker is using his
things."
(g) The verbs gashtan ^^ or gardtdan c?-^^/ [' vide ' (e)] can always be
substituted for slmdan ^-^-. either in a simple or a compound verb.
? 87- Causal Verbs ( j**)i ^< or *fe-*ulb -^>ju-c JA and Reflexive
Verbs
(n) (1) The causal verbs are formed by adding the terminations anidan
\-, or andan ^)tf , to the Imperative stem of the primitive verb, thus:
jastan* ^*~^ il to jump, leap," Imperative yah &*> \ jahanldan &iA^* or
jahandan c?>U^ if to cause to leap " : damdan ^^^ *' to run " {Imperative
daw j^ ) ; davandan ^^^ or dacanidan &**? y& "to make to run, to gallop
(a horse), etc., etc., etc." tazandan (*)nr& (rn.c.) " to gallop a horse."
(2) The Imperatives are formed regularly, that is by discarding the
infinitive terminations, &*- or ^~-
1 Farmana bl*j? i s used in precisely the sam inanner in Urdu.
5 In classical Persian, or by Indians and Afghans in speaking, the third person
plural would be used after the address ^UjUa, janab-i 'all. In modern Persian in
writing the third person plural is also preferred.
'> In contradistinction to a verb which is transitive of itself (
* In modern colloquial jahldan O^^^ in more used than jastan
CAUSAL VERBS, ETC.
283
Remark. In poetry the termination amdan &**$ is sometimes short-
ened to dntdan.
(b) The same termination makes some intransitive verbs transitive, vide
86 (c). This casual form will be transitive if formed from an intransitive,
and doubly transitive or causative if formed from a transitive verb.
(c) (1) Nishdndan ^jolfci (nishdnistan ^jJ-olfci obsolete) " to cause to sit;
to plant, etc.," the causal form of nishastan a J~&, is irregularly formed.
(2) Shinawdmdan &*&)* (not used in Persia) is the causal of shunudan
e^y^, and signifies " to cause to hear, tell, read aloud."
(3) Randan cA- v f; "to drive" is perhaps the causal of raftan <^J>j
"to go."
(d) (1) The verb guzashta,n u*^ , or guzandan cPt> ^ (old) " to pass, pass
by; cross over; die, etc." has several causal or transitive forms, viz.,
yvzardndan cPJ!;^, guzdrdnMan ^>xit^<>?, guzrdmdan e^Vl)^ , guzdrdan ^^^
and giizdrldan & *-*$&.
(2) Quzashtan ^\'^ (tr. ) "to quit, to discharge, perform":
namdz guzdrdan (not guzdshtan) &*jtf \\+* " to perform the duties of prayer."
(3) Afkandan l &&* "to throw," causal afkdmdan uj^Wf (obsolete).
(e) Verbs that have two roots admit of two forms of the causal, as:
xuftan ^aiu. " to bore " ; suftdmdan ^^AJU'i^ (obs.), and sumbamdan &^\**~
(obs.) " to cause to bore " : rustan ^^; or ru^dan ^^^ " to grow" (rt. ru
^ or nnj ^^ } ruydimlan ^^.*) (m.c.), or ruvdnidan &^j) (obs.) ' c to cause
to grow."
il\ X'erbs in whioh the fmperativo stem terminates in eJ> change tliis
letter into ^, as; slmndau (obs.) &**l& (for ^ ^>U > "to comb," causal
sJtaydnldan &* i-'^ (obs.) ; ddnistan ^^^ ''to know," ddydmdan* c)>*itf^
(obs.}; chidan ^*s- f< to pluck, collect," cJnndidan &$&*%* (obs.) or
Ln modern colloquial the shortened form of the causal verb is preferred ;
thus iarsdndan c o.jl~y is preferred to tarsdnidan e>-H J ^:A anc l khwdhum
tarsnnd ->^Ly ^AI^, to kjiwfiham farsdmd ^joU^3 ^**^.
(f/) Some verbs do not admit of a causal form. Examples: did#n & &**&
<- to se ' J ; gaftan ^^ " to say ' * ; dzmudan e>-r*3^ *' to ^ r y P rove 5>
(A) (1) Only a few of the causal verbs are used in modern colloquial.
When the Persians wish to mimic the Afghans or Indians, they make
an elaborate use of the causal verbs. An Afghan, for instance, uses
fahmanidan c^Uv* where a Persian would use hdll kardan
or some such expression.
1 Jn India afgandan, etc.
2 The form dananidan (obs.) also occurs.
3 The form cJ*>^ diyanldan as a causal of didan is doubtful.
284 CAUSAL VERBS, ETC.
Remark. The verb khurandan o>J|j^ " to feed " occurs in writing, but
not in speaking: khurdk bi-khurd-i u bi-dih **> y ^^ ^bj&* ( vu lg-) "give
it food to eat, i.e. feed it."
Instead of ravdmdan &*& ] j) 9 or ravdndan e;^;, ravdna kardan &&^ <Mj;
is used.
(2) The following are a few of the commoner causal verbs in modern
colloquial use :
Tarsdndan &*&j or tarsdnldan &*#lj " to frighten."
Davdndan &^\j* or davdmdan o^j* " to put into a gallop."
Rasdndan ^^U) or rasdnidan viP*JUj t( to cause to arrive."
Nishdndan eP^<k> or nishdnldan o-^LSJ " to plant, place, make to sit."
Khwdbdmdan ^AJbi^ or khwdbdndan&^tyjs*. to lull to sleep or lie down. ' '
Fahmdriidan c^Uf or fahmdndan ^iUfi "to cause to understand,
explain."
Amuzidan eP^j^T (obs. in Persia) or dmukhtan l ^jj^xf <c to teach."
Jdhdnldan e>^^ or jahdndan up^l^ " to make to jump."
Pardnldan (D^yljj or pardndan &**ty <c ditto ; also to cause to fly.' '
Remark. The passive of the causal verb is formed in the regular
manner, as: parvardriida shud fc-^l^v ' kundmda shud jj^wUr (Afghan).
Such passive causals are, however, rare and should be avoided.
(i) Causation can also be expressed by certain verbs, as : &&f ^ *xi> AAJ
^a ///, bi-dnki iztuHr-i mahabbal-i khud rd bi-u buruz
difiam, bi-shart-i vd ddshtan-i bi-sdkhtan-i asfcar-i ki yak bayt-ash bi-yak mixqdl
tild bi-yarzad pdsbdn-i u gardldam (Tr. Haji Baba, Cliapter VIII) "without
appearing to show any particular partiality to him, I succeeded in being
appointed to keep watch over him, under the plea that I would compel him
to make verses " (H.B.) : ura muxtalzam sdkhtam ki bi-rat/sad |*^>ll-/o \^\
1 obliged him to dance " ; urd bar an ddshtam ki bi-raqsad
&$ p&\ y \) 9 \ ' ' ditto ' ' : bi-raqs dvardan &t>rf u^ l ' to cause to dance' ' :
mard bar m ma-ddr ki chundn kdr bi-kunam +& j^ &*** ** ;t- v -< &>j* \j* t( don't
oblige me to do it " : bi-u zur dvardam ki bd man bi-ydyad ^ b *.> f^ ;;j ^
^?^ (m.c.) " I made Mm accompany me " : asp rd tdkht o^3 f; wt "he put
his horse into a gallop": bi-chidan dar dvardam f*)^ )& &***v <: to cause
to pluck " =urd vd ddshtam ki bi-chinad.
(j) Qabuldmdan cpJoU^J <<fco cause to confess (by torture, etc.)" is a
barbarous causal in m.c. use ; or in a joking sense = " make him agree."
(k) The place of the causal verbs is usually taken either by the simple tran-
sitives as : pddishdh dast u pd-yi urd bast c. f t^f ^^ ^ o-.^ jjl^j^b (m.c.)
"the king "bound him (had him bound) hand and foot"; or else some such
is also ** to learn."
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC. 285
expression, as "the king ordered (or signalled to) them that they should
bind ---- ," etc., is used.
(1) Reflexive verbs ( A-oJta ^^I* J** ) are formed by the transitive verb
and the reflexive pronouns, as : khud rd kusht cu>o I; ^^ " he killed himself"
= khud-kushl kard ^ ^>' t>j=* ' ' he committed suicide ' ' ; jdn-i khud rd
mi-sJmst e*JU*3 \) &js e;U cc he was washing himself."
88. Passive Voice ] ( (J*-* &a* ) and Passive Verbs.
(a) The Passive Voice is much less used than in English. The general
rule is not to use it, if it can be avoided ; in other words the passive is used
only for some special signification, or if the subject is unknown, or if known
it is desired to avoid mentioning it. This rule should be observed even
though violated by Persian authors. Only transitive verbs have a passive a
voice.
There are several ways of expressing the passive.
(6) The grammatical passive is formed by adding the tenses of the verb
shudan ^)^ 3 "to become " to the past participle of a transitive (or causal)
verb. The use of this construction is comparatively infrequent and very
seldom occurs in modern colloquial, for in addition to the simple intransitive
verbs the language contains a large store of compounds with a passive sense,
such as : e^;^ ^ j zakhm khurdan * ' ' to be wounded ' ' ; thikast ydftan
^b o~~ Cc to be defeated " ; zd*i' shudan &* jSUa c< to be destroyed " ;
f/ul khurdau ^;y^ J^ (m.c.) " to be deceived "; bl-duzcti rajtan, (^'&) ^j^->
''to be stolen"; an jam giriftan ^^ ^>\ "to be finished"; jarmdyish
dad an &h ^i'Uy "to order (goods)" (tr.) [but jarmdyish* raftan
(^) cr-'^y (intr.), as, o-^l AX ; ^jlxy 2$jU t u3 ^ J^^?~> cffy baray-i sawguli-
yash nlm-tana-yi tdza jarmdyish rafta astl (m.c.) "what! an order has been
given for a new jacket for his favourite wife, has it ? "] : bi-sar burdan
1 8lyha~yi maf/nd J^^-* C\A^ > Passive Voice," i.e., of which tho agont is
unknown.
5 The use of the Passive is antagonistic to the genius of both Persian, and Urdu,
Tho se of tho passive i^ largely increasing in Trdu, doubtless owing to the articles in
vernacular newspapers translated from English. Urdu idiom again affects the Persian
of India and in a less degree that of Afghanistan.
" Oashtan ^^ and gardldan iP^jr are occasionally substituted for shudan c)* .
* The passive meaning of most verbs signifying 4< to beat, to knock, cast/' can be
expressed by a compound with &&)J^ khurdan, as: takan k&urdan (D)j^ &r& (m.c.
kk to be pushed, to receive a push or shake " ; zamln kliurdan &)**> eHi^ " to fali on
the ground," etc.
> This example is from tho " Va/.ir of Lankuran.' 1 Ordinarily in m.c. this sentence
would be rendered ( ^1 *^J> or) ^>^f ^ **\* *fi &* f& ^ <j^;^ Jktf j* ^J baray-i
sawfjuliyash sifariah-i yak nlm tana-yi taza dada shitda ast (or dada and}.
286 PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.
(tr.) "to pass one's time," but bi-sar raftan c>H>~r^ (intr.) l "to be
passed."
(c) In modern Persian not every verb admits of the Passive. The
expression u> zada shud* ^ :>j ^ <<ne was beaten" is quite unintelligible
even to Persians with some education, whereas kushta shud && &-&> " he was
killed " is a passive in common use.
(d) The following are examples of the use of the grammatical passive :
(!) js-i AAAf ^i-l' p h"*- ^ f^T j*. C5^ jl 8 ; l -^' c5- <i>^ chundu
bi-ikhtiyar az jay bar amadam ki chiragb-am bi-astm kushta shud (Sa k di)
<fc I rose and came forward so hastily from my place that the lamp was
extinguished by my sleeve." Here the active kushtam p\2J instead of the
passive ^ AJ&T would signify " i purposely extinguished."
(2) The grammatical passive is of riot infrequent use in the Shah's Diary :
* jx^ ax^ j^t urVv <~^ c^ 3 *-^ )* -^~f "v 1 ;" cr*^l *' Ic';3 a^> c^< (Shah's
Diary) <4 we and others have to-day seen a species of crop called 'rape'
in the Prussian territory" : ^&xj> ^ l^cuut ^j ^>x^ *.$ cJ^JUJf ^^ (S.D.)
44 Haklm 1 ^ I- Mamalik ki channd-i bud mja bud dlda shud (S.D.) ''the
Hakim tk 'l-Mamalik who had been here some time was interviewed":^
^ t^j ^A ljj* t^xb du palang-i siyah Jiam dida shud (Shah's Diary) " two
black panthers were seen by us."
(3) The transitive Infinitive is often used for the passive: 6 (^^j ^ &+&
zyCjS o;U| hama-ra b i- kushtan isharat farmud (Sa*d!) ki he (the king) ordered
them all to bo killed"; ^AJJ ^^ fy joU shayad tura b i- kushtan bid ihctd
(ni.c.) " he may hand you over to be killed."
(4) The passive is also sometimes used to express possibility or impos-
sibility : ^ ^ AJ^I^I c^>j & &4* ;^' Ji cs^jjlif ^| m kitab'i-'st an
qadar sangln, ki bi-dast andakhta nami-shavad (m.c.) %< this is a book so heavy,
that it cannot be thrown by hand " ; ^ ^ AA^I^J ^ ^U y ^c ^\
In mlz az ja-yi khud bar dashta mi-xhavcid (m.c.) "this table can be moved,
it is not very heavy"; la du $i ruz anja tavaqquf 1 uftad Mr a ki bi^bd' is-i
l Ah bi-sar taft o^J;^J ^J\ (m.c.) ''the water boiled over " : agar u Inja bi-yayud
man bi-sar jilav-i u rn l-ravam (vulg.) (also bi-$ar davidan) * 6 if ho conios here I'll go to him
on my head (from delight) instead ot on my feet " : eJ^j^ j^i c^^j' ^ &^ 8;^ I y ;t .*
bi-*ar amadan &*1 j~> " to bo finished."
i In modern colloquial u rd zadand ^3J f;jf.
i Bi-ikhtiyur ;^^> ^ means " involuntarily " ; the unexpected sight of his friend
made him jump up ; bar amadan >>*! j* .signified merely fc< to get up " not coming
forward.
* In m.c. dlda shud ^ >J^ is frequently used unnecessarily, instead of the active
voice.
5 Kushta shudan could not be used.
<> Or Ishara *;^t.
^ In modern colloquiaH^i/a^ i tavaqquj *-^j-^ (3^f and az ba'u tZ+zi* j\ would be
substituted.
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC. 287
abr aftdb dida naml-shud ^ t>^ ^UJf^t ,^>U-< &$ t^a. (\>\ uajy Usuf \^ ^ ^ U
***> (Afghan) " we had to stay there two or three days, as it was impossible
to see the sun (to steer by) on account of the clouds " ; ba'd az g&altidan an
rd jumbdnldan na-tawfinistam chi ja*e an ki ba-darya rasdnlda im-skud
js-io** $>jJL^) Ij^j aSof ^U* ^ +i~*\j*> ,j.>uJUva. jyf ^xjJs.U jt ^*j (Afghan coll.)
" after (the boat's) rolling over I was unable even to move it; how much the
less could it be moved to the sea!"; in in.c. chi jd-yi an ki bi-daryd
rasdnam-asli ^^U^U) L^ A&J ^U. ^^ (or bi-rasdiiam, ^^y without ash) ; the
passive would not be used here in m.c. as the agent is known : &>>VA. jj^& ^
ty" C5^ ba taqdw jangida nanri-s/iavad 1 (Afghan) "it's impossible to fight
against Fate " ; in m.c. ^>/JL^ ^^ ^ o.^ b .
(5) The modern colloquial phrase ba'dazan, dida khwahad shiid c jf \\ SAJ
( ^AjkX) jj^j^or) -Z >^|^A ^>j^, or more commonly d/ida nu-shavad ^^> ^ $-^3
(m.c.), signifies fc we'll see."
(e) The passive can also be formed by an Arabic Past Participle, 01
a Persian adjective with a Passive sense, combined with the verbs am /*? 5
hastam /*-WA y etc., and sliudan c>^, budan e;^y, or f/ashtan ^v^. Examples : -
( ^WA J^^^) j*V*r x> marsul-am (or marsul hastam), (in writing) <c I am sent " J
*x^ J^ii^o maqtul shud (m.c.) "he was killed 51 "; ** tf^j*^ khabar-dur slmd
(m.c.) " he was apprised, warned " ; j>> ^5*^3 zakhml bud' 6 (Afghan) " lie was
wounded"; ^j *jiUf j t ^ <UA hauia chiz dmdda bud (m.c,) "everything
was prepared (previous to our coming) " ; \\mtamdda shud cx ^Uf = J< was
prepared after our coming "].
(/) The passive can also be expressed by using the third person plural
of the transitive verb, 4< they do such and such a thing." This construction
is both classical and modern colloquial. From the following examples
it will be seen that this construction corresponds to a real passive : &' j^y
j^ vJ^Lfl^ ^OAA a&|t*Ad. |; e;^ (^r^y farm'dd lei marsam-i fulanrd chandan-ki
hast muza'aj kunand~(ti&*dl) t he (the king) ordered that the allowance of
So-and-so, whatever it may be, should be increased" ; (hero it was the king
himself who increased the allowance) : &> <^lo tiajt v_^i^fji c5j**^ ^ 'J c5^j>
*^'3^(*^ ^^ dust-iraki bi-* umr-l jam chany 5 drand na-shdya-d lei bi-yak-dam
bujdzdrand (Sa'df) "a friend whom it has taken a lifetime to make
should rt not be made offended in a single instant"; (here there is only
1 Cornparo Urdu, taqdlr se lara nah r ifi jata ^^- e^Jtf* ^ ^ j-\^^.
i Or <H~*.} 4-Uaj bi-qatl rasid (rn.c).
s Zakhmi shud &* (j+^j rn.c.; zafchm daaht 0^*1^ f*^*3 " ho bad a wound."
* Has^ signifies that the speaker knew that thero was an allowance: bushad
" whatever it may be."
5 Fara chang ^i^f^> is to bo considered aa one word. Fara frequently precedes
verbs, and in many cases is merely used for the sake of euphony.
<> Note this use of shay ad *{&. Before yak-dam f*& , &i-awM^5 c^***" or bi-
tiqsir-i or some such word is understood.
288 PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.
one friend and presumably one person who has made him a friend) : *$ ]
j>jy af jvif an rd lei gusJi-i irddat girdn l dfrida and chun kunad ki bi-shinavad
va an rd ki bi-kamand-i sa'ddat kashtda and chun kunad ki na-ravad (Sa'di)
"he who has been created deaf to the divine inclination, how can he
manage to hear 2 ? and he who is forcibly drawn into the ]asso of happiness
how can he help travelling (the way it drags him) ? " ; (here the grammatical
subject to dfrida and *>! >-yf should not be "God" understood, as
the Deity in Persian is singular and addressed in the singular; to use
the respectful plural to the Deity is contrary to the idiom of the language ; 8
the verb is therefore a passive : the author has presumably avoided the active
voice on purpose, for to say " he whom God lias created deficient in . . ."
would be, or might be, imparting sin to, or a deficiency in the works of, the
Almighty. 4
This form of the passive is especially common in modern colloquial.
To the question, "where is the horse?" the answer might be bur da and
<^t *j>y "it has been taken away " ; this answer would signify that one of the
grooms or servants the precise individual unknown to the speaker had
taken it : if vsure of the subject, the name would be mentioned.
Remark. "A present was given to him" in'atn-i hi-vay ddda shud
(m.c.) - s ^ te\z ^5^-? i^**!, or better in'dm-l bi-u dddand ^>|j>^l? ^^^\ (in.c.).
(g) In a few instances, the passive can both in classical and in modern
colloquial be formed by dmadan c^xf instead of by ahudati
in sltakhs dar zumra-yi fuzala*- shumurda mi-dyad (rn.c.) s^-cj
A-f ^^ o^-w *li-A- ''this man is counted amongst the learned" ; dlda mi-
dyad ^f ^ ^--^ (class.) "it is seen" ; In qdli pasandida dmad ^U> ^f
>xT ^'3i-j (m.c.) "this carpet was approved." Compare matkhuz dmadan
e;.x*T i^ 1 * {* (class.), and giriftar dmadan ^>x>f yjji^? (class.).
1 Q ira n means "dear (not cheap) " as well as "heavy.**
2 i.e., it is impossible for him to hoar, as it is decreed he is not to hear.
* The use of the plural might lay the speaker open to the imputation of being a
muflhrik or '* polythoist " (one who imputes * partnership ' to the Deity), it may be
that Sa'di being a Muslim and an Arabic scholar ban adopted the Arabic idiom here and
elsewhere; tbe plural is used in the Qur'an when Allah himself speaks.
* In simiiiar instances the explanation of some translators is that tho Fates is
the subject. Though the Persians attribute misfortune to the ' revolution of the heavens *
or to the sky, no Muslim would attribute good to any but Allah: the Fates could there-
fore hardly be the subject of kashlda and.
CHAPTER X.
89. Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases,
(a) There are few adverbs properly so called : their place is filled
by adjectives or participles, or by substantives with and without a prepo-
aition, or by pronouns, or by phrases, etc.
Many adverbs are also prepositions.
There is no regular term for adverb : it is styled Jw^ tamylz " specifica.
tion" or ^Ai "the particle of negation" or Jj " vessel," according to
its sense. Harf-i %arf J^fc o^ is a particle used as an adverb : ism-i zarf
OyJo ff is a noun that can be used as an adverb : zarf-i muhham ^o o^Je
"dubious adverb " is an adverb (or noun, etc.) that does not express
a limit of time or space, as fKx* "time/' u^ " before (place or time) " .
;t is opposed to ^^^ c^Jo "limited adverb (noun, etc.) " as J^ "day," **(**
" house " : zarf-i makdn is ism-i zarf and includes such words ^ (j& (m.c.)
s
" the place where shoes of visitors are removed " ; e/ A/0 ^ (i n Turkish Bath):
!/*" (V^> *^ u^r^' etc., etc.
(6) Examples :
(2) Adjectives: AJU* J^ <j}ti vy^ J (m.c.) "he speaks Persian
well" : ty *xi^ o * ^\ } ^ j*i& (Sa'df) "a certain one had fallen into a
drunken sleep by the roadside"; ^i^x> ^ <*J!b"U y "he acts wisely":
^Iiix>o^UJ AJfjAl^ pb j^kj (Afghan) " I used to say (my prayers) in a perfunctory
manner " (in m.c. bi-tawr-i umuml zahirana namaz mi-1cardam).
<c**
" See ! the dawn breaks and rends night's canopy :
Arise ! and drain a morning draught with me !
Away with gloom ! full many a dawn will break
Looking for us, arid we not here to see ! ' '
(0. K. Whin. Trans. Rub. 295.)
In this quatrain bisyar is an adverb meaning " oft."
Remark. Adjectives ending in *tf or ;f> vide 43 (aa) 9 may be considered
as ad verbs rather than adjectives : AJblJuj " in a restless manner " ; AJLt^a. ^~
*^L^> " without concealment"; y ^faU**! "in a more masterly manner."
(2) Participles : xi^ f[yu*t U^j 5*JU,,> ^^ ^y (m.c.) "he is obliged
to treat you with respect before people" : %*jr* (m.c.) " suddenly " : A^UUJ
(m.c.) "plain, not artificial": <Wf etfjd c^> (m.c.) "he came running
19
290 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
all the way * ' : *Jk &ali~o| (m .c .) ' ' he remained standing " : &^ ) & \) l
ptfy* !&~&i (Afghan) "I did all my other business at home": *t>^ *>^
(m.o.) "by pretence": *:>jy* ^ (m.c.) "a little": vi*jxii. Aii^ (Sa'di)
' ' they laughed secretly ' ' : &;# * * always. ' '
(3) Substantives without Prepositions (with or without post-positions) :
f^ *oJU> ^bUj j* JSj &f v f~4 (Sa'cK) ' ' because I once was weary in the
wilderness" : ^^ or a " once, ever " : flj % " by name " ; I ) v**> (class, and
m.c.) "by night": \j [ *u "by chance," in m.c. usually l-* 31 : ^"oft-
times " : <^*>*/ &>*>3 l^ (Sa'di) " at times they were chanting low."
Remark. Sometimes a plural substantive gives the sense of an adverb
of quantity or time, as: ^^ U*x^c ^ ^/ l ^io (m.c.) "he made many
presents and many vows (or often took vows)."
(4) Substantives with Prepositions: vi^suj (m.c.) "needless, without
cause": l^ujf (j*) "here"; o/>j (m.c.) "without further words, without
doubt": c*yo or b (m.c.) "by turn": *J( *Ubf JlJ^ ^j *tj,)j oif
f^^*^ ^A^i^|^ v-irf^ ^ (m.c.) "he said, ministers are like physicians
and a physician never gives medicine except to the sick"; f^o ^ *'each
moment.' ' In m.c. the prepositions are frequently omitted, thus : f^f o^i;
c< we came comfortably." Before^^f (= Ar.yoi(t 7 A.f ) the preposition^
is understood.
(5) Substantive with Pronoun, Adjective, Substantive, Adverb : ^ &*A
(class, and m.c.) "everywhere": cJj *+* (class, and m.c.) and ^j a*A
(vulg.) "always"; 4 ^ v ^ (Afghan coll.) "well, in a good manner ' ':
o^bjt^, or cj>t ; ! t^y> " on all sides " : ^ o^^t (m.c.) " this side of the
city ' ' ; ^jj jj; ' in broad day ' ' : e^Jb ^^ " whither ? . 5 Ur " where ?"
^^ 4^ (m.c.) or^*j|vfujj (m.c.) "the remainder of my life" :
(m.c.) "always."
(6) Phrases : e>f 3' ^^ " after that, afterwards ' ' ; o^
>^-Vt^y ^^ ^y^* (Fa^r-i Lanlcuran) "the farrashes,
make a fresh movement and approach a little nearer " : cJo^
^*^y db j fj& " ^^ l ^ (ni.c.) "with my turban round my neck they carried
me before the Qazi and the Governor of the city " ; *a;^* *su (Sa'di) " of
1 In m.c. |^ Lfcj
Nam |*G "byname" is apposition, as: *U JJ)P tjfisvw "a person, his name
(an me) Aziz."
3 The Afghans often use daru for gunpowder, and Indians for spirits or wine.
* In Arabic and m.c. t&rh *> *Jb In gall J^ub faffy-l* *st is* xs Jb c->*^. i*J^3 <y}
(m.c.) " this carpet is of good design."
* Ku y (poet, and m.c.) " where, whither ? M : A;uA jjjy vulg. ' where is he ? "
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 291
necessity" ; ^1*0;^- ctfl>> " * n spite of his youth" : tjj*o at; j^/o j ;fj> ^y
?1 7ra/ (iar ^ ma-riz* ] rah mi-ravad (m.c.) " he keeps a middle course."
Ham p* "together, with, both, one another, mutual, all, whether,
either; also, likewise, in the same manner" : Biya tabi-ham (or bahami
bi-ravlm ^J ( ^U or) ^ ti Uj (m.c.) "come, let us all go," or " let us
go together " : ^^^^T +tf bi-ham arnlkhtagi " commixture" : darham barham
f *y fAja "topsy-turvy, mixed" ( = tu-yi ham rilchta Alu; ^ <^y ) : misl-i
ham *& ctax> " alike " : sar-i ham p&^*> "contiguous, joining " : pusht^i sar-i
ham p& j* cu^,j c< one behind the other, continuously."
(7) Verbs: &$ ^b " it may be that, perhaps " : ^U "'perhaps."
(8) Arabic phrases, and Arabic nouns in the accusative: A)UP J/ (m.c.)
" at least (lit. there is no remedy) " ; e*U^Jf ^^U " as long as life lasts, for
ever " : ^& jx> (m.c.) " with that, notwithstanding " ; /**Jf ^^^ "agreeably
, ^ ^ ^
to orders": ^Jb (m.c.) "completely" ( - Uii5 or Ul+3 ), man az in Icar
bi-l-marra khabar na-ddram (m.c.) " } am completely ignorant of this
O' O .
matter' 7 ): (^^^"circumstantially": ^ (^ ne conj. fa + the prep. Z^ +
fern. pron. Aa) "well and good" : ^Uj (3rd per. sing, rnasc. of the verb ^^ >
"that is to say, namely (lit. it means, intends"): <^*^ U <{ fittingly (lit.
like that which is proper) ": i^ftJ naqd' (m.c.) "at present; afooincash'*:
* *
'atnd an " purposely " : * }|U> 7^tt (for J|U. ) " at present."
__ ^
Al-hal Jl^Jf, vulg. il-hal, whicJi has the same signification as Jl^ and
.^ is an Arabic accusative ifor J'-sJ al-hal a ) } but is not used in Arabic.
In ^AJ u ^9 Ar., the Arabic pronoun *J^^ " that " is understood.
Such adverbs as : <**a&f AJU^f ^^ etc., that close a speech, are
called fK^iS. v^i^f.
(9) vbi cJi- - appears to be an old adverbial termination : ^bt^/cb (or
.vf^vxib) (Sa'di) "in the morning."
Tho Afghans still use this termination even in speaking, as: c^ A ^'
"suddenly " : cA^t> "'straight (adv. not adj.)."
Remark. The Afghans also say AJf J for "everyday/' but in (m.c,.)
ruzana means " by day."
(c) An adverb is sometimes combined with a preposition, as : e^ ^ '* till
now ' ' : taxif^ dar anja " there " : J)^j f az hala (ni.c.) " from now, henceforth r :
i Jn classical Persian Jy 5 jt- s ^-^ kaj da?* u ma-riz signifies an impossibility :
Jrfj* * )^ * * zy c>^ (*^ ^ J&JQ ^v* )& t$ ^^ LS+& |* ^
k< Thou say'st, ' Look not,' I might as well es^ay
To slant my goblet, and not spill my wine."
(0. K. Whin. Tr. Itub. 2(il).
'2 Iri colloquial Persian the nnnafion is dropped in most of these adverbs, but
not in all: for ins tam-e, &*** is always maxl nn f but ^^ always hala. Tho Indians and
Afghans preserve the nunation.
292 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
Ir 5 3 f r^ u ( Tr * H * B *> Cha P- XXVIII) "but we
hear, doctor, that your paradise has begun here on earth/'
(d) Adverbs of negation and Particles of warning such asj^fc, jl^j, c >t*.
etc., are called AJJJJO^ or &>*& o^ ; while particles expressing negation,
as AJ "not," <jj " without," are called <*w o^.
(1) AJ jfj-A ( "never."
A^ ^(f " at no time, never,"
J ^A* " not at all, in no wise."
** at no time."
, or^. aj "no, not."
* t p, or A3^ } or ^ ^ c< no no."
6 A> *i c< neither nor" (conj.).
^ Ult- "not at all."
^ &^ AA e< by no means."
6 *J ^^- grj* "nothing whatever" (pron.).
6 ^i^- . A <c none whatever ' ' (pron.).
6 AJ ^y.r g>& "no person" (pron.).
^ w b XA " on no account."
A
^t *\
j) ) "not at all, in no shape.
"more than this."
;^3> or )^& " never," vide Interjections of Warninc:.
} p!, or ff " not " and "less," vide 121 (6).
^ tf ULx 4i God forbid, never."
% cf not at all."
(2) Examples:
*jflL b ^J^MJ ^?uT (m.c.) " are you going there or not ? "
< I went nowhere.
l Hargizjj& with an affirmative verb *' over."
^ An adverb of time, but inserted here for convenience of reference.
8 ajtr* ( A ^ or)J^ ^t^> Jk*^' |/ ^ ** na tanhu mara fuhah dadriiz (or balkf}
mara zad (m.c ) **he not only abused me, but be.it mo.' '
* Class, and m.c. nay nay (m.c.) " no, no."
O^J ***"/ AJ j U3 AJ j ^J^ ^
*' No hopes have I above, no joys below." (0. K. Whin. Hub. 60.)
6 Conjunction, but inserted here for convenience of reference.
6 Indef. Pron., but inserted here for convenience of reference.
7 Hasha zadan eWJ ^^ (m.c.) " to deny."
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 293
(m.c.) " his pocket was not picked at all."
(class.) " he never does so."
j^j Uuf A3n.j a) ^j aJfyo aJ "neither was the man there, nor the woman,
nor the child."
**& C5+J ^ l r>Je^ ** l*uf (m.c.) " nothing can be obtained there."
**Ui wtyx dike i ^ j.U3 (Afghan) "I did not get a wink of sleep all
night (tamdm l skab)."
3 ^ lx>a c/ e>f* J ^ ( Sa'di) "how can the latter even resemble the
former ? "
ojt^i^ *& **"*\ u*l *cstj>j fof e/f (m.c.) "this man is much more than
you think (good or bad)."
(3) 'Scarcely,' etc. is expressed by a negative: *>j|>iu o^> j^x* jUj ji a*j
* JjusiS Jj*x> (Tr.H.B., Chap. XXXII) "he had 4 barely completed the
closing sentence of his prayers ' when ." j>Uii u& <tf jj^l^j *j ^^j <3 l Jbf ji b
(or *^f ^5U) pa as i*i[ag 6*^w na-nihada ki saqf pdym dmad (m.c,) "he had
barely (not yet) left the room when the roof fell."
(e) Interrogation often expresses negation : j\*y ^ 4
(Sa'dl) <c how can the sleeping awake the sleeping 5 ? " ; ^b *J *
(Sa'di) (l I said > kowv&n I go when my feet are unable to move ? " ;
u^^^-cr-'^ *Jtej (Afghan) "he knows, and he alone; what
does any one else know? (nothing) 2 ': &*. Jt&j o^U JU ^ jf * j& Lr ^
*j* *l*1 (Afghan) " then tell me, what hope was there of life ? "
(/) (1) Emphatic denial " never!" is in speaking and writing amongst
the educated : &U^ i^*J " we take refuge with God' j ! " : or AJL/|^A*i^f <4 1 ask
pardon of God." 7
(2) In in.c., emphatic denial or contempt is often expressed by the
following phrases : 8 *~j ^ o^ (m.c.) " he does not reach his dust even " :
Uf p*y ij+> l^ ^i* ^x> (m.c.) " I can't compare with you, Sir " :
1 In m.c., tamam-i shab v^ f*^, with izafat : also kh^wab nctrraftarn,
or khwab-am nayamad tWjo ^Jf^^.
a Kay ^ both in class, and m.c. ** when ? " and '* how ? "
5 Interrogation expressing negation or dissent.
* Vara means 4 < behind " ; but in o^t^&> (^^ eHl c^U^ it = V$
6 ' Can the blind lead the blind ? ' '
6 f 1 ^- el^^( ^xs Ajb i>*j " we take refuge with God from Satan the accused."
' " + . ' - S
Qur'ari.
o-: >^r f - ^""tr^- .". c
7 aJf v yf j ^ aJJfyuxv*?.
s The idea is taken from a grey-hound pursuing a gazelle, or a man galloping after a
wild ass.
* i.e. a dog can bark at the heels of a person, but he, is not anybody's dog to do as
much as this.
294 ADVEBBS AND ADVP^KBIAL PHRASES.
(m.c.) ' whose dog is he * " : )W tj*j = j^ oJblj (m.c.) : )i& u*jl*Mtf (m.c.)
" throw him away " : p>\$ ^ jof cK'a f;f ^ (m.c.) " I don't count him a
human being," or ah I dakhil-i ad am 'I ftf d**(j> T (m.c.) (ditto) : muhal az
'aql ast { ^~=* Ja*3 J J^ 30 ^ (ni.c.) " impossible! " : yum, ask kun (m.c.) *& <j^
" han him! 1 '; ahv *'I don't believe lie can do it, or send him off":
CXM.I cA^f 15 v**\ \\ ^3 jarq az zamm fa asman ast (m.c.) " all the difference
in the world.''
(g) (1) Na to for "no" is vulgar; na khayr GY khayr >x ^ or ^i. *> is
the polite form of ki no."
It is, however, better to avoid using ^A. alone : some such expression, as :
l *T^j^> ; or^^ *& AUt *Uxi! ; or ^^ A^ ilU ; or^>^ A^ ^-j^J (j. ( U ; or^A *> jyu*,,
etc , is preferred.
(2) A polite m.c. form of affirmation or negation is A.jto jUi^t "it rests
with you."
(3) An evasive reply that may mean "yes," or " no," or " I piefer not
to reply," is ^ ^j^ ** " what petition shall I make, what shall I say ' "
(7^) Note the phrase: ^r/^ *^ *J^^ O**AJ uio.ia. (m.c.) * l l had such a
lot of trouble."
(/) Adverbs of affirmation i J^i> o^ or ^^ J ) J^ > and <>f assurance
(I) crjf (ni.c.) ar?
^L (m.c.) bale or
>*
*-^f (ni.c.) albatia "certainly' 7 (contr. of *
c5^ J a^ ( m (? -) I a
: ^^> 1U (m.c.) bil
5 J (m.c ) f- without doubt.
^ J! (class. j
' It t\vo persons vvt-n- bowing at a tlu'.rway. each pojjtol\ dec lining to outer the
room first, one might ,su\ , fjj*j^*- \&* *$ *Z+M\ (Jiir Jlx niuhal-i 'atjta^tkt man j Haw
bi-racam
2 \lso oiyJ ^^ (J*"+f guM-a*h ktni bi-rntwd " luck him oil, let hun go to the devil."
" Kltuyr j%** for * 110 " i< not dsist-irai, nor i 1 ^ it us<-<i by Indian-^ and Afghans,
except as * v yes '* or ** welJ."
4 A.-* albatla *- v V' k< cfrtaiuly " and haniin tr;** '* tlii.s very " : the hitter word is
also called u^H 1 ^ 5 O;^.
* In Teheran a/'e ^jt" or art c $;f. Konnorlv /6/^- wtte used for "yes/'
^ Ky the .Vfghans further shortened into albat.
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 295
ttU* (class.) "^
<*.Ujf .* (olass.) > certainly.
<^aj or li**-' (m.c.) J
i^a. of course (m.c. only in this sense); also why '?
,'** ^ <y (m.c.) without ceremony, without reserve, without
jokinu.
cusjjixJi ^j (m.c.) in truth, really.
&*y la-bud ] ^
>of necessity.
*f*. $ la- jar am (class.) .'
( ^ , IJU (class.)
(m.c.) certainly, surely,
(m.c.) L
u^' labbayk (class.) j
^, J here I am for you, what are your commands ?
^ labbay (obsolete p
Remark /. Mann UU is always followed by A^, but after UU* the *>" can
be omitted.
(2) .7/v, arc. is used locally instead of bale, or 6a^.
(.*>) As a strong affinnativo, the phrase v^ 5 uCi Axl^ .^j 4t without the
admixture of doubt and uncertainty," is used in writing.
(-4) The phrase *J^t *U^>', or *JU| ft U ^ *' if God pleases," is, with regard to
future events, frequently used by Muslims for " yes." No Muslim asked, if it
is ^oiiiti; to rain, \\ill reply " \es " or tl no/' as this would be deciding for the
Almighty.' The answer ^-:f ^ }^ T ^1J( A^'y (m.c.} Cv l).V. I will come
to-morrow " s freqiiontlj 7 made by a Persian when he has not the slightest
intention of fulfilling his promise.
(5) The following common m.c. phrases also express affirmation : &? (^
(+' <s^ *s)~ ''I'm not lying to you"; p*~& *^5 " I'm not yarning";
(^ ^4-> ^^i^ * e^ x *" l' in uo ^ talking rot " ; * **$ ^* ^s^^ *& ^3* " f' ni n t
joking," etc., etc.
((>) Strong affirmation is also ex]>ressed in m.c. by <^' ^-- <l '*- ^j** j~*>
*! swear by your \eneraled head that"; ' f**$ b)b "by mv father's
* Hainana kl ^ bU^( class.) also moan-. " at the same tinu- that. 1 '
" The 1'rophet was onct a.^ked lio\v mam log* hi-, hor.st i had. He dismounted,
counted, and said four * Had lie stated four ' oil hand. Allah might have changed the
number and so convicted him of error.
* lt~ift /><7-;7?T//7 ya ijhwlr (m.c.) )** ^ C 5>* y ^^^^ " are you in earnest or joke
(cheating) t " ~ huk}il ml-ktinl </a jiddl ml-giiyi / ^5^^ w?*^ c5 -^ L5^J^-
*> Arwuh rlj;fpl. of r?7/< ^j^. Arvah-i pidar-at bi-rnw (rn.e.) IT- ^)>J ^f*jf " for
296 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
soul" : *$ p~S U^k+AAj^Aaj by our Prophet's tomb " :
"by the martyrdom of Husayn " : ] ^ <>su "by the rights of 'Ail":
v^*f cu*f^ ^f *$ p~.$ ftojj* &1*. ' ' by the life of my children I swear this
is true " : ^j&*j* " may'st thou die (i.e. don't be alarmed)" : ^ c&L?
A** ftx^ c^a* "may I see your beard bloody (i.e. your throat cut) if ,"
vide also 93 (k).
(j) Adverbs of Interrogation ( /> l^Ai
(1) f^. (m.c.)
why? : vide (4).
j
(m.c.)
*> tor what reason , why ?
> (m.c.) I J
31 (m.c.) J
&~*\5 (vulg.) wliy?
^ (m.c.) in what- manner ?
A*, (m.c.)
j| (m.C.)
how, in what way ?
^ (m.c.)
kay (m.c.)" z when ? how ?
(m.c.) how long ?
a. (m.c.) when ?
aa. (m.c.) at what hour \
<*A. c^z gar/r (m.cj how much, what quantity ?
(m.c.) how many *.
(m.c. and old poet. ; where, whither ? : vide (2).
^ (m.c.) what place, where ? : viWe (3).
(m.c.) which place ?
*^ (m.c.) what direction *.
(class.) how? : vtete (5).
(m.c.) perhaps ? : ato but : vwfe (8).
(m.c.) whether?: vide (9).
^*J (me.) what do you mean ? : vide (7).
a. (m.c.) why not ? : wWe (6).
1 For Shi 'as. Sunnis say, Chahar Yar qasam 4t by the Four Friends (Abu Bakr,
'Urnar, rsman, 'All)."
' 2 Kay ^ "when J> = c*^ ^ip&>\ ci^.
^ ^4 2 A';a ^^ajT jt <k whence ?": bi-kuja \- : F*& "whither?": ta kuja lvy G "how
long ? " : 7iar A*w/S ^ : F^ A "everywhere.**
* Chun c>>^ has other significations, not interrogative, as: "when, because, how
etc. " : it is used both in speaking and writing: vide (5).
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 297
(2) Ku y is m.c. and also classical poetical. Rush <jy " where is he ? "
is vulgar m.c. Examples :
44 The dove started complaining to each hill,
'Those whom thou sawest, have also gone whither, whither? ' "
'* I saw a bird on the walls of Tus?
Before him l&y the skull of Kay Kawiis ,
And thus he made his moan, ' Alas poor king !
Thy drums are hushed, thy 'larums have rung truce/ " 8
(0. K. Whin.)
~ *' A-Sj.f^^ 4A jljf
'* The Palace that to Heaven his pillars threw,
And kings the forehead on his threshold drew
I saw the solitary ringdove there,
And 'coo, coo, coo,' she cried, and * ooo, coo, coo.' "
(O. K.\ Fitzgerald.)
Ku is sometimes an interjection, as: ^^ (m.c.) = "oh I wish it
were morning! "
(3) Note the following idiomatic meanings of UR/: &^tf *> ^jj^ o-y^^U^.
(m.c.j ( ^x*f j*u; , or &** ej'j^v or ) l ^ <ine struck him such a blow as
no athlete (or Hercules) could have done " ; in Afghan colloquial ^**j* cA*-
o->>a. c;l^tv ** **** A ^^ ^ chunan zarbat ba-ii hawdla namud ki pafdawan
chlst ! : {** &\ j l^ (^| (m.c.) * 4 there is no comparison between the two":
UaJ v tr^> ^Uk Uo **j JJjA where is piety, where the intoxication of
wine? (i.e. the two are irreconcilable) " ; ^^ U^( ^(^ y tu va m karha kuja
(m.c.) = "you can't possibly do such deeds" : tyj^^* \** ^;AJ bi-dard-i kuja
mi-khurad (m.c.) *'of what use is this thing?": himdqat id kujd (m.c.)
U oJU^ " how much more folly will you display?^; U*/ kujd s 'is it
An example of the rhetorical figure o^t*?*** tajnis. The play is of course on
a dove " and kii, ku "whither, whither ? " The lines do not scan.
* fins cr^-k near Alayshapnr.
S Jams is a large camel- bell and perhaps the noise of departing and arriving
caravans. Kus is a large and very noisy drum. In i'ersia drums are beaten from about
1 5 minutes before and up to sunset (*i)fc* Aj ^ Ijfo naqqarakhana ml-zanand}. This is an
ustom, and, as formerly drums were also beaten at sunrise, the custom may
n in fire-worship.
298 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
possible?": #***)* aijU ^ \^> ^ man kuja va Khalifa dar Baghdad*
(prov.) (said by a deceived person to one that has gone back on his
word). 1
In m.c. the plural is also used, as : ^5f ^* UUtf \\ " from which of the
places in the world do you come ! " : ^^ UlsxS' U (m.c.) ki what places shall
we visit t "' '
Remark 1. ku,jd*i ^^ i^ an adjective ' of what place" ; ^
(m.c. only) "of what place are you a native ? "
Remark II. Kuja Uo is used in indirect as well as in direct questions-" 1
(4) Ottira \j* "why?", iu m.c. also means * fc certainly, of course":
possibly it is elliptical for ll why not > ' '
It is also an expression of astonishment, " what the Devil are you
up to? "
(5) Chun c>^ ( vidf note 4, p. 296) is sometimes used for <*Jj* :
g^jcy v^-k *^ *$ fjjrJ c^(m.c.) ' ' how can T help going when the Shah has sum-
moned me ? ' '
Hi-chun u cliiyim &j&* j o,>^ J is an epithet of the Deity.
Bi~c/iiin u rhira *j*. ) ^^ ^ ("without why or wherefore") signifies
kl implicitly."
(0) Old hns/iwt ki -^ cXili ^ (ctlass.) "what would happen if, why
not?"
/., Intro. Chap. 1, Si. 3) "why not [the cat saysj perform
what is due to courtesy and fraternity, and this time, when thou ^oest, take
me with thee '. " -East. Tr.
Baskad ki &* ^^, " it may be that," is also used : vide (k.)
(7) Ya'ni chi &*> ^U- 1 (m.c.) " what does it signify, what do you mean ? *'
is a common m.c. expression. Ya'ni ^** is the 3rd pers. sing. masc. of the
Ar. A or. The 1st pers. a'ani ^^ " 1 mean" as well as ^*: " it means"
are used in Persian for " that is to say, viz."
(8) J/of/ar j&* is used in m.c. for interrogation, positive mid negative, an :
iiyjs^Xx) ' are you mad, perhaps you're mad ? "
In a sentence such as U &t *>\ LT f7//*7 na-bayad ki $hunia
with the Indicative would be commoner in m.c. : vide 73 (6).
(9) riii *<*> and %5Uf : ^bj^ ^*-^ Jt ^ c>!^ e; J t ^ v^ x ^ f A J u f
< <xl (8ri*di) "how do you know, my friends whether this young man may
not be one of the robbers ? " : ayd ^ could be substituted for cki Aa., and
ya na 3U could be added to the end of the query; also *^U> could be
substituted for &^> .
ir Baghdad &\&*u )$ AJLxbL j (^xjjt\ ^^ moans 'i can do
wlint I like, fcliere is no one near to punish me.'
2 Like fcafta/i in Urdu, 4 vide ' Phillott's tlindu8taM Manual, p. '24.
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 299
(10) Short phrases in common m.c. use are : LSJ*+* ^ ^'ww'' to
which the reply is ^*j ^x ^ : ^^ U (tS =*j, or ^5^ '* Ls^L) "joking or in
earnest ? ' '
(fc) Adverbs of doubt ( && j v~* -V a O '
(1) ' <x; f (m.c.) perhaps, vide (3).
i <*b moreover ; in m.c. perhaps, vide. (3).
1 4^ jj|y (m.c.) possibly.
1 * 5* (class.) perad venture.
3 <uJa,c (m.c.) possibly (with Aor. or Pres.).
^ (m.c.) probably, as if, as though (with Aor. or Pres.), vide (4).
Ijf whether? (iriterr.), vide (j) (I).
^ perhaps ? (intorr.); r/7*0 l but": vzrfe (^') (S).
^X*.; (class.) possibly (3rd pers. singular masc. Aor. ; lit. "it is
possible ").
\z+* (ftdj.) (m.c.) possibly.
(m.c.) principally; also probably.
**c (m.c.) hardly, vide (5).
!? (m.c.) perhaps : vide (6).
W "^AX: ^ (m.c.) wbat would happen if : vide (7).
(2) Balki *^Jb '* moreover, rather, but," in m.c Ci perhaps" : o^j) yj>t
^o^t j f ^t> 45 L c^-voo jic^j *^ vi ,-^IXA: jjl^j ji^J J (m.c.) sfi when he placed
his hand on the curtain, he discovered that it wasn't a curtain but the
Wall 1? '. j^^I''i>ak.^Ji>,xJ Axi- 1 tXixJ ^^J (^l** 'J ^*-* viJl^ Cl^U^ * < ^ JJ ^jt^ c?^ *^Ufi>
11 *?*j* {*}* ! ; *^-* J i^-'f^ ** *3* (JSa'dT) *' lie said, * my Lord, your slave attri-
butes no fault to you in this: nay rather it was the fated decree of
God Must Hiirh that something unpleasant should happen to your slave ' " :
<>-'Uj *.<lj (11 i.e.) " b perhaps Jie may come."
Though balki *& is enhansi ve and not exceptive . yet in such a sentence as
vt I will not halt at the first stage but at the second," ^^, etc., are used ir
Persian as in English, when &L' would be obligatory in Urdu : vide Phillott's
/ Manual, p. 210 (e).
I These aie vorlis. \Vords signifying '* perhaps " are ualled * advorhs oi possibility
an<i doubt.'
'"' In iviniian, vuly.-irly brilkiun and balkam.
t;.finna~yi gandum chi-ant '' c^o*x^. ,*0>jJ tXxisx: J^yc 1 wk what i
the* pi'ii'o ciii'i'tMit of wheat to-day V
* Note the dramatic present : the L'ast would be wrong.
I Note :ird pers. after 8->-*J and also the old particle y before the dative. 1
m c. the 1st pors. usually follows <>^ ,
300 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
(3) Shayad ^U "perhaps" is always followed by the Aorist or by a
doubtful past tense: ^AJ ^L^ ^U^ ^U^ff (class.) "if perchance the men
of the boat should come. Shayad from <^**?l. "also meaning "to be
fitting " : xU a +J fy ^ ^ (m.c.) = o-~*> U^ u~jl J6 ^ (m.c.) : **
<s*J^J*j* (poet.) "it is not befitting that you should ever tell a lie.
(4) Guya Lj^J "perhaps, probably; as though" :
\ l ^T (m.c.) "probably (or perhaps) Mash,hadi j Muhammad is an acquaint-
ance of yours " : o^f ^o (jj$ 8ja^ ^j)j> ^5;^ j ^^ cu^3^.j ^^ i^ j| (m.c.)
"I saw him asleep on a bedstead with a sheet over his face like one dead."
Remark. Guya v is also a verbal adjective " speaking" from jti& :
c)^ ^jt (m.c.) "to begin speaking."
(5) Mushkil mi-danam bi-yayad ouUj ^'x^c jt**> (m.c.) " 1 hardly think
he will come."
(6) Gah ast c^f & : O^LJ o^f lf *>jf ^ j\ ^!>X^c a^Xa. U^ (m.c.) "how
can you say he won't come ? perhaps he may."
(7) Chi rm-shavad ki '* : S c^jt^f &* ^^ (Sj^ ** -J^ x *$ (m.c.)
" what would happen if, why should you not have compassion on me ? "
(I) Adverbs of comparison :
(i) 0-3
^>^j, vide (2)
o*^ -more.
o, t?We (3)
or
'^U-*j much more (stronger than bisyar] : vide (4).
- the most part.
- ^ less : vWe (5).
at least.
)
> small.
3
least.
c^^ (ni.c.) equal to.
parallel; equivalent to (of sums of money, weights, etc.).
(class.) of the same weight.
c^ f* ,,
* ^Ijj 20 ^ ^ ti neither more nor less.
1 Mash.hadl ^O^Axs a title of a Shi 'a that has made pilgrimage to the tomb of
Imam Riza in Meshed.
a For ziyad-tar y^> (not used).
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
also, equally, even, vide (7).
301
y
lower (of place, rank, price).
x
only, vide (8).
jr-as, like, equally.
alike.
like.
Remark.
^ and the suffixes
blance."
- <xuU -
"particles of resem-
arc called
In txxjf oU v *j^^ ii>ja. ^--), Rustam is called &v*c, and .sMr AJ x>^; and
chun, the ^^o^, comes between the two. In poetry, however, this order
is neglected :
&))*** &* v!^ )<* 3* f^?" V^ O^ j*"^* Vt?^" <^^ -i^)* 5 A)^ V^ ^ ^ "*** ^tt*
(Ghashm-i tu is the subject in the second misra*).
(2) As stated in 40 (i) (4) ziyad ^U) is a positive. But the positive is
sometimes used for the comparative, as : %&* ^U) ^aJ (m.e.) ^give me a little
more."
Ziyada te { t) is a comparative " more," but is construed with the word
following it, to which it is generally joined by the prepositions jf or y,
a,s : x*.)f ] jj^Oj (one compound word) : >?i*> J^ ^f y ^tj) (m.c.) c< don't
jaw any more."
It is also used in compounds, as : ^ tolj, subs., "talking too much."
(3) Bishtar JJ&AJ " (for) the greater part " : &jj * AkJjf j y^vj AT (class.)
<{ the greater part of which was of glass." Here Ulsh-tar may be a noun,
or an adverb, according to the reading.
(4) Bisyar-tar y ^U~j is not much used.
(5) Kam ^, kam-tar y - ff , and andak
tive sense, as : c
are often used in a nega-
j oJjji cXJf
1 Not ziyad
In m.c.
302 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
(Sa'dl) "for the sages have said fortune comes not by effort, the remedy
is not to worry much" ; &* + ^y** fuzuR kam-tar bi-kun (m.c.) "don't
interfere " :
& ($ ^ AJ ^ &^& ^ ~& ***J* cA^ <jyt*J &j*- (Sa'dl)
c ' Since you have not sharp-tearing claws
Better not engage in strife with wild beasts ' ' :
> *&f cA^ e^ -> (Sa'dl) ( ' and the best dervish is he that
does not mix with the rich." Vide also 121, (6), 71 (;').
(7) Ham p* "also, very" (emphatic), etc., and riiz _>*> "also." Ham
when it means "also" seldom commences a clause, whereas nlz does:
fj&** /* A (ir* (m.c.) = man riiz mi-guy am : $ p* p&$ &*> p*> " both he and I
said so " ; cuify f; jyx c^Oi J " also he said this " ; here ham could not be
used at the beginning of the clause.
Ham p*> is also an emphatic particle and as such often commences a
clause : oJL; && <ui* ^ ^ ^ * (Sa'di) "they say (the king) recovered
that very week " : *>\A \^\ ^ ^ ^^ ^ (Sa'di) " his leavings are fit for
himself and none other" : l^ujf ^ "in this very place" ^f *& " in that-
very place " : &(*>) ^ ^ p*> (m.c.) " at this very time." For ^ l +* and I^A+A-
vide (8). Vide 90 (a) (6).
Ham p* in compounds means c c fellow," as : ( ^^ f* or ) ^ ^ " fellow
citizen " : j*~*> ^ A ' ' bed-fellow, wife."
Note the following compounds: ^ j! "apart": p*> b "together":
f* L$J) " OI ^ on t ^ ie fc P ^ Another " : Ali ; ^ C5 .^ j and sometimes colloquially
f* C5Jt? t( on an average" : pAj** " contiguous (of lands) ; level " : p*j** ^l
"one behind the other": ^*A clto " alike, equally ": cuJ; ^> J^ ^l jf (m.c.)
"he was put out, angry " : jJVyc ^Ay |yc Jla. ^A ^ c^ 1 ^ 1 ^ v# (m.c.) " those
continuous dishes upset me": c^w ^b,j ^Ap *+A y (^U^ (m.c.) "ali your
business is upside down, confused."
(8) Haniin (^^ and haman ^U* : cu^f^ fj^-^> v^U* "he had only
that one son": <-^>t ooli*' ^i^. ^ j^A. ^>^A {jU (m.c.) "this mere eating
and sleeping is enough for us, we want nothing else."
Hamin ki ACix*.* means " as soon as " : ftvof ^^ cxij^i <*^ (^M.*.
(m) Adverbs of place ( <*>&<> o^ ) :
(1) J l^sxkjt j^, or l^- 1 ! (m.c.) here.
lax-f j^, or l-s^T (m.c.) there.
j** &\\ (m.c.) i
^ (m.c.) j ,, .
^ v 7 ^ -this way.
^f (m.c.) j
^f (m.c.)
Any of the simple propositions can f^e prefixed, as: nzlnja ^^-' ;' whence
m/a ^ c^^ A (emphatic), ride (I) (7).
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 3Q3
etc., etc. (m.c.) that way.
V within.
Without.
oj^ J
** . > under, underneath, down.
^j/ 5 J
l^ <UA everywhere.
U. ^J,A somewhere.
*j U* g*A nowhere.
^ (m.c.) somewhere.
L*^ nowhere,
near.
l
J
before, in front of.
</
rj level (lit* breast to breast).
u*,
CLAJ behind.
j , or CLA**^) cuvo^ on the right hand.
, or *-**> ^*o on the left hand,
outside.
> inside.
all the way.
opposite.
on the one hand.
^ on the other hand.
1>{ here , now : vide (5).
1 In m.c., andarun ^3>3t. i s a subs. " the harem " : Sa*di also uses it in the sing.
tndpl., as a subs., for " the inside, the stomach."
2 Nuzd ^ nizd " near " is not used as an adverb : only as a preposition.
3 Plshri man ^o <j**J of place, but pish az man ^yc J( (Jl*-u of time.
* Barabar ^^ also means continuously, Indian and Afghan.
6 For AT. *aqib, and vulg. in Persian 'aqqib.
304 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
p* cX> on the top of one another : vide also (I) (7).
^ty up : vide (6).
ly back, behind, etc. : vide (3).
J, above, over, upon.
below, down.
yj ]j~ head foremost ; upside down ; steep
^wherever.
j* J
here it is.
e^f here I am.
, or o~t ^T there it is.
, > somewhere else.
*^ j
tu or ^iii/ inside.
apart, aside.
higgledy piggledy.
upside down.
different, changed.
headlong.
except, besides: v^e (7).
_vi3 below (of place, in an assembly).
JU above ( ., ,, ).
Remark. Idar ^ '* here, behold," is obsolete.
(2) Faru ^ is used in compounds, as: cui?^? "he spoke low" :
)j < he got (the fire) under,' '
Before a vowel j^y is sometimes used (class, and m.c.).
(3) Fara iy is sometimes merely a euphonious particle, 8 as: o^^t;
1 Man bi-lcuh sar-a~bala raftam ^AS; Jflj |^M ^5o ^A3 (m.c.) " I went up the hillside " :
imruz u U-man mra-bala kard (slang) " he overcharged me ": jj)^ W> tr c5 l tV^ -? f
w 1iarf-h&-yi sara bala ml-zanad (slang) = "he's opening his mouth very wide (slang)."
2 t/z?r dast-i man nishasta ast o^*( *L*j ^.^ o,^*^^) ^t **he has taken a seat
below me": zlr-dast o-o ^>), adj., opposed to zabar-dast e~*.^ jJJ.
3 Redundant particles such as fy .^o. ^A, etc., are called
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 305
^*T f^<> ^ >* (Mem. of Jahangfr) " the Rajputs
came in armed bodies and surrounded the entrance to the Sultan's tent" :
cui^J \jZ \j &JUL ^U> _j yxsf V T (m.c.) " the flood came and swamped the house.'*
(4) Du barabar j\j* ^ - j*\j*. *~, etc., " twice as much, thrice as much.'*
(5) Inalc Mshtl mi-ayad <xf <^x> ^2J uJJLjf (class.) "here is the boat
coming": inak az Baft amad **f oAj y ^ J ' (m.c.) e( he has just come
from Baft."
It is rather pedantic to use male in speaking.
(6) Farazyj* has many meanings in classical Persian. It is common in
compounds: e*H*> jij*' "to occur": ^oxf jfy "to come close"; cuiJjfji
cu~& " (the king) sat on the throne " : jy* 9 <-?*& " descent and ascent."
(7) Wara-yi In matlab-l digar daram ^\^> * t^*x> ^t ^]^ (m.o.)
"besides this, beyond this, I have another object."
" Oh content ! enrich me,
For except thee there is naught else."
(n) Adverbs of Quantity :
(1) UM little: vide (2).
;U~ much : vide (2).
JUa. (m.c.) much, greatly: vide (2).
little.
)
^abundant, abundantly.
j) >
^X sufficient, sufficiently,
o*^ enough >
fwWe(3).
*' 0^3^ ai1 ^ u^ 3 f very much )
&***> even this,
[** - c^-h^ (class, and m.c.) nothing: n?^e (8) ],
^ jxft. (class, and m.c.) a little.
x x-
^"^ (class. I a little
^*^ (m.c.) ,, >vide (9).
(class.) ,,
^ l as much as.
i
J
| to the best of one's ability.
4j <kay& as much as possible.
l These are also adverbs of comparison, q.v.
20
106 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
;*5 A*, (m.c.) how much ?
(m.c.) how many ?
(m.c.) ^
(m.c.) > excessively : vide (4).
A ^ f (m.c.) j
j **. ^ (m.c.) boundless, innumerable,
(m.c.)
- , . little.
5 (m.c.)
(m.c.) little by little.
(m.c.) a hair's difference, a very little.
& (m.c.) in amount the length of one finger-nail, a little.
(m.o.) in armies.
(m.c.) in flocks.
(m.c.) altogether; afeo in one place.
(m.c.) > ,
7 {altogether.
(m.c.))
(m.c.) in toto, all of them.
^
. c ,) altogether: T?tWe (5).
(m.c.) as much as: vide (6).
(m.c.) ^
s about, at an estimate : vide (1).
(m.c.) )
(class, and mod.) however much, in spite of: vide (8).
(2) Andak-i dalil-i bisyar buvad ty ;U-^ c-U^ ^&\ (class, and m.c.) :
^ ^^!>t l <j?)b~> j *f *a*^3jl ^^;^> J tf^t ^ A * '^f (Sa l dl) "it is related
bhat he made an increase in their allowance, but a decrease in regard ' ' :
JU * ^jU-o j,i AJ JUa ^AJ! andak-i jamal bih az bisyari-yi mdl (Sa'dl) " a little
beauty is better than much wealth." Vide p. 126 (6).
Khayll ^^ (mod.) has the same signification as bisyar /*-*j ; but for
a slight difference in the usage of the two as adjectives, vide 43 (c).
(3) Bas ^, az bas ^ y, bas-i ^**> and basa l -y ; vide p. 123 (m) :
OJ^AXJ &ti ^j^j j| (class.)* 4 he was going very quickly":
(class, and m.c.) "he was exceedingly clever."
In speaking, *$ LrO i 8 commoner, as: ** &~-^ ^JUAi
<c I got weary from waiting such a long time.
Bas-t sulchan-i duahvar-l *st c*~^fj,3 (^su 4^^* (m.c.) * c itis very much
* The ^ of unity, as : bisyar-l az mardum mi-guyand ki~~ *$ *>i^A/c +^4 y ^jU-wo
(m.c.) " a many of the people say ." Bisyarl c/J~^ is also a substantive, ' vide '
infra.
* Bisyarl (j\*r*t here might be either a substantive, or else an adjective with the ^s
of unity. For the sake of balance it is here a substantive.
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 307
a difficult matter" : ^ Ajl^Jaivc ^*o (Sa'cK) "a long time one must wait
till " : bas-i ba u suhbat kardam, bi-dard-i ja-yi ma na-khurd o***u0 y U ^i
^wj U ^U, t>)*) f&jf (m.c.) " I talked a long time with him, but it was
useless."
" Ah! wealth takes wings and leaves our hands all bare,
And death's rough hands delight our hearts to tear."
(0. K. Whin. Rub. 102).
Basa ashkhas Jci murda and va na-ddnista and <u~Jf*Jj cM i*j# * <j0l| Uo
M\ (m.c,).
In classical Persian, ^ bas, tuf ~* 6a5-t, and l ~J 6asa often take the
place of ;U~> bisyar. Bas ^ is usually followed by a singular noun
and the other two by a plural. Instances of ^J bas-i with a singular noun
are few. These words are not quite out of use even in m.c. Bas-i mardum
f&j* Ls~*9 bas-l zanha lf>j ^^ (m.c.): basa bashad ki * *>^t l~j (m.c.)
4< it often happens that
Basa U; in m.c. also means " perhaps."
(4) Bi-g&ayat ojlij, nihayat oj^: ^^A *LiJ -^^ &* (m.c.) "I'm
^
exceedingly thirsty " : nihayat mahabbat ra ba-shuma daram ^ (JOA^XJ^^.;^
^;td UA (m.c.), or man bi-nihayat (or bl-nihayat) ba shuma mahabbat daram
fj\t> oskac^o l^i u ( ojl^i ^j or) J^^j ^^ (m.c.) "I have an excessive affec-
tion for you ": ^iax** ^^l ^\ -^f*^! c^-* (m.c.) " from the beginning
** x
to the end of his speech ": pf> e>Ui>o( i oj^;^ ^t u^ cu^a^o ^t jf ^xj
(m.c.) f< I am beyond measure grateful."
(5) Kull an M, Kulliyyat a*k. Kulliyyat &$S =- Ji^and signifies " com-
** ^. -
pietely," as: pjt*^ c^r^ ^ l *( ^^ or) ^K (ra.c.) *' I have nothing to
siy to you at all."
? * ^
Kull an $ means without exception: cxi^ CL^X> nr ^XLXJ ^j|j^ (m.c.)
<c they were all, without exception, drunk."
(6) Har qadr : * ^ (J^j> L5JU)^ J** ^^ ^ ^ O^*AX> ^f A^^^ ^
(m.c.) " as this nuisance decreased, my desire to return also decreased."
#
(7) Qarib v^V? taqrib U^M: xA o^j j*Uij w^jl^U&f ashya* qarib ba-
tamam bar bad shud (Afghan) '* the things were nearly all destroyed " =
... # .... . % >
j*i cAlii UW ^^j'^U^i ashy a* qarib tamam nn<l talaf shud (m.c.), or A+A Ix^^U.ii
^ vJJLJ ashya* taqrlb an hama talaf shud.
(8) Chanddn ki ; ^^ 3 ^ t^j^ ^ v^ 9 *^ isMA^- - &*$ }& C5^^^ ^'^ )t t^^
(Sa'di) *'a thief entered the house of a certain God-fearing person; in
spite of much search he found nothing."
1 Or cujlfXff j$c j^l. a Also timam an .
308
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
Chandan-i ki <*jjf>ia. is Indian or Afghan only.
(9) Barkh-i <^y, or taraf-i az y ^jl* 9 lakht-i
"a little neglect"; ^ jf >^ (Sa'dZ) "a little of Ms life":
(m.c.) "a few men say so" : ^f^ o~oU JLc jf
) " perhaps they will give up a portion of our property " :
kuj (Sa'di) " he pondered a little time on this " ;
(m.c.) s< one must consider this a little." Vide p. 126.
Lakhi-l ^I^J appears to be used of time only.
(0) Adverbs of Quality, Manner, etc. :
(1) wA ] m.c. i
>good, well.
r,^U m.c. )
(m.c.) middling: t?tWe (2).
(m.c.) in the manner that: vide (2).
(m.c.) in this manner; also.
^jf (m.c.) with heart and soul
(Sa <K)
*T
(m.c.) on my eyes
= w iHi ng ly.
o or
(class.)
)
> by
.) )
(3).
force.
or
(class.) per force; also nolens volens :
(14).
(class.)
nolens volens.
(m,c.) )
(adj.; helplessly; nolens volens.
ti (m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
-# (m.c.)
j (m.c.)
(class.)
(class.)
(m.c.)
3 (m.c.)
> suddenly.
purposely.
(m.c.) mounted.
(m.c.) on foot.
1 lii the Punjab K&ub .a an adj. or adv., but in JJdihi, Behar, etc. an adv. only.
* SavZr Jf, subs., ' a mounted man": aavara jtj- subs, and adv., "cavalry
on horse-back.*-*
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 309
j< (Afghan) mounted: vide (4).
' (m.c.) ]
_ (m.c.)
^ (m.c.)
(m.c.) Uecretly.
(m.c.) |
(m.c.)
(m.c.) openly.
(m.c.) inwardly, secretly,
(m.c.) divulged, openly. 1
\ { P en ly> clearly.
(m.c.) ) ,. ... ,
v gratis, gratuitously,
i (m.c.) )
comfortably.
n,c.) vide (5) )
(m.c.) vide (6), pure, only,
(m.c.) : vide (7).
(m.c.) )
^contrary to, against,
m.c.) 3
(ra.c.) one on the other; also on an average : vide (I) (7).
(m.c.) apart: vide (8) and (I) (7).
behind the other; vide (i
(m c.) losing one's head, in a flurry.
}! (m.c.) by deception, etc.
m.c.) falsely.
cJ? (m.c.) on the peg.
X
(m.c.) in substance, in abstract,
(m.c.) \
>**&> (m.c.) > in detail.
l Fash bi-gu j& (J*\>* (m.c.) " tell me without reserve."
* In Mod. Pers. ashgar fe\ and ashgara IjK^t.
> So bewildered that one doesn't know one's hand from one's foot: pacha in m..
is the leg of sheep or cattle only.
* For galu-yi mlMk jffr tsj& 1 }*'*& tf+.' c ^ vulg. "hang (the par da) on the
nail," Qul-miteh &* d& subs., peg with a head.
310 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRXSES.
j$j* (m.c.) level, continually: vide (9).
#
UUJf (m.c.) by guess.
aj'oJL (m.c.) at an estimate.
(m.c.) ditto.
cj> (mod.) )
, , . t on an average
(m.c. only) ) ^
u*j*li or &*NcLto sum up, in short.
&)j& as ; disguised as ; vide (10).
t5**o>} (m.c.) with both hands.
(j**?. T. (m.c.) slowly; silently,
ftyf (m.c.) slowly, at ease.
u~Af (m.c.) slowly; in a low voice; aside.
X) fj* (m.c.) headlong.
e>>&7~ (m,c.) ,,
^U-oU^j (m.c.) face upwards, supine.
X f* prone.
(m.c.) excessively : vide (12).
(m.c.) ditto.
' (class.) as before,
in a manner, like.
lj (m.c.) scarcely, barely.
(2) Miyana <*J'**, tawr-% ki *&>^i> : ^lav <^
<c if you act moderately you will not be upset" :
*j^ (m.c.) " why did you not do as I told you ? "
(3) Minnat m%-damm ?)\*** ^i<: To the question, "Will you do this
for me?" the answer might be: ^^^ J?*-* cuiw (m.c.) *'I will with
pleasure."
^
<e another has spoilt your business, and you are angry with me ? "
(4) The Afghans say sar-i asp, sar-i pa, sar-i rel, etc., etc. amadam
f **f . jj ; jjj . ^Or** ^r* * T' 1 * 1 r* ^ or ' ' ^ cam e on horse-back,on foot , by rail , etc. ,
etc." '
(5) 'Ayn u** "essence; eye, etc." (followed by the izafat : ^ A5ouf
OU-M cuasJLA^ ^^ /^>;^ U^> (m.c.) " what I am telling you, is the. course to
take "' : o^f UL^xc ;^^ c^W^ (m.c.) " the streets are cleanliness itself" :
>ju**f w^.*> ^^ >^^^? (^j *.if (m.c.) u what you said is accuracy itself."
(6) Mahz (ja*^> "pure, unadulterated " : U^yk^-o"^ (m.c,) " merely
for your sake" : U^ &*j>3 u**^+t (m.c.) "at the mere sight of you":
J*. (Shah 9 s Diary) " something
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 311
had been placed on the chair as a mark of respect" ; o,
(m.c.) this is pure calumny. "
In m.c., <ji.< is, as shown, also a preposition = <^fy. When it precedes.
a noun, it is a preposition or an adverb; when it follows, it is an adjective.
(7) Fardham ptiji i s a collective particle ::>>/ ^ p*tji v ^ (m.c.)
" he is collecting sticks' 1 : ^yf ^x> ^y ^ ^y o,^ j^ ( m . .) you are
collecting what will be a nuisance to you " : ^ p*\ r ^jj ^.lj ^xiif U Aacu.f
c^T (m.c.) "what you mentioned can't be collected together as quickly as
this."
(8) Az ham p* j\ " apart" :** t^ p* j (m.c.) " they separated."
" Until thou knowest that speech is absolutely proper,
Thou shouldst not open thy mouth " : (Sa'ctt).
^ \*s* ^Ajf \j ^ j.s ^i In du kagr/iaz ra az hamjuda na-kun (m.c.)
" don't separate these two papers." Vide (I) (7).
(9) Bardbar ; *^j* cfj l O^' d *-#. jfj*. (Afghan) "they continued play-
ing with eacli other." In m.c.. however, this would mean ' they were playing
opposite to each other.'
(10) Bi-surat-i: cM^j;^ ci^^j (Sa'di) " in the appearance of, disguised
as, a dervish " : J>t o;^^ (m.c.) '' as it was before."
Note the meanings of **>*jr* )i : :>yi &+> (^ l*t *> J^ ^ *$)?* )&
J^J^A: (m.(j.) "since I have done no wrong, why do you allege this against
me ? " : ^J ^b *^. ^yo xf ^ b/ jf ^^^> j^ (m.c.) " in the event of his not
coming to-morrow what am I to do? "
(11) Shikasta, lit. " brokenly " : ^3^ v ^f^ Ai~Ci j i (me.) * he jerks in
his speech (as children do, accentuating every syllable)."
(12) <jhfiyat-i: ^U *-*& ooU (Sa'dl) '*it will be the greatest kindness."
(13) Andtin oj^f or azTui c^jf <4 in that manner'*; and aydun &}*
/' and Mmi ^^ "in this manner" are really obsolete; and also
**now; always; in this manner."
*For five months, now, I have been in Shiraz
With an uneasy mind and scant means of living."
tl Now in the eye (of Faith) that illumines the mind
Abu Bakr is a candle and 'Usman a lamp."
(14) Khwah ma-khiydh jji^iuo *^, or khwahi na-khwahi ^\
f^^c t^. u!j +&j> &* \) J (^*) y (m.c.) 4< I told him not to go, but he
would go"; ^ ^ ojw c^^3^33 f >.* w>^ v^ ^ ( m - c - onl y) <tthe water
springs out of the ground of its. own accord " : **cy ^T y.*= ^l^ t/e (m.c.)
*' I was taken there nolens volens."
312
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
(p) Adverbs of Time ( cA*)'^
(1) Time present, etc.:
u^'f aknun (m.c.)
9
&j*f kunun (m.c.)
1 y(^- hald (m.c.)
JU*. hdl (m,c.)
* JUJ| alhdl (m.o.)
al-an (m.c.)
(m.c.) yet, as yet.
') tiHt j^ (m.c.)
) cH)^ (m.c.)
jf ^a (m.c.)
at present ; (
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
I * (m.c.) to-day.
(m.c.) to-night.
JUx>t* (m.c.) this year.
]**(j (rare in m.c.)
(class.)
(class.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
> (m.c.)
J-now.
J
) nowadays.
i
adv. in cash).
this instant.
break of day.
r before the false dawn.
j- true dawn.
f early in the
(early ), ete.
(class.)
(class.)
* subh-i zud (m.c.)
(m.c.) just as the sun rises.
.' (class, and m.c.) dawn, before sunrise.
(m.c.) ditto.
morning, or to-morrow
1 In Mod. Pers. pronounced and written hald : unless combined with another adverb
that has the nunation ; vide note (4), p. 314.
* For al'hdl a AT. ace. '* Now or never " kunun, ya hlch-gah & *:**> M ()& : dar
in vaqt ya hargiz j
S For al-an a AT. ace.
4 Im for in.
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 313
(m.c.) false dawn ; first indication of light.
(m.o.) dawn = fa jr.
^U* (*a.c.) = false dawn.
t^f &>>> (m.c.)). .
>m the twinkling of an eye.
^t **j-k (m.c.) >
le (m.c.) midday.
(m.c.) evening.
>* (m.c.) at the beginning of the night.
-a*ftJ (m.c.) midnight.
iJuaJ half-a-day.
fjj (class.) midday.
'f Jjl (m.c.) ) . . .
.. > when the sun is first rising.
y[^-* (m.c.) )
f f* (m.c.) just before sunset.
(m.c.) | by day.
(m.c.)
(2) Time past:
1^131 ^ (m.c.) | ^0^ this .
c*t jt JA> (m.c.) 3
(m.c.) 1
(m.c.) ^previously.
j^ (m.c.) J
53 (m.c.) quickly; aZ5o previously.
} (class.) 1
ji, or ^oj (m.c.) |> anciently.
xs (class.) J
(m.c.) formerly.
(m.c.) 1
(m.c.) '
> yesternight.
^ (m.c.) [ J e
^ i
, or oj^ (class.) )
l In Arabic zanab 11 ' s-sirhan " the wolf's tail."
* Nim-shab v^ |*V poet., not used in m.c. : ^ *4^- > ^-^ &* c5^5 (m.o.) " when
half the night had passed" : &\"&*) <X4Jo * 4 the 16th of Ramazan. In m.o., nima
is also xised for half a brick.
8
4 4^3^-jjy Jiji) ^ 2C 4** (m.o.) '* rise earlier in the mornings"
(m.c.) " why did you not tell me sooner ? "
& Dina ruz )j) *i}3 (obs.) 4 * yesterday/ 1
Also shab-gu&uhta *v*w *^^ (rn.c.), without an izajat.
U4 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
^ (class.) }, yesterday.
Ay;^ and e^j^ (class.) j
cV3x> (m.c.) J
JU u^(~* (m.c.) for years.
j*w ,4 (m.c.)
"~ v
, v the day before yesterday.
(m.c.) ) J J
o*v (m.c.) the day before the day-before-yesterday.
! i (m.c.) ^
rf JU. (m.c.) I
l^last year.
J
/ x
. (m.c.)
(m.c.) J
^b^ (m.c.) the year before last.
(obs.) yesterday.
(obs.) last night.
(3) Time to come :
2 t^T* (m.c.) to-morrow.
(rn.c.) | thene xtday.
(m.c.) )
(m.c.) to-morrow night.
(m.c.) the next niglit.
(m.c.) the day after to-morrow.
or ly o^v o*i (m.c.) the day after the day-after-tomorrow.
^y LT^ (m.c.) the night after to-morrow.
1 ** (m.c.) |
7 > next year.
J*. (m.c.) I
U> (m.c.) ) , ,,
. >next month.
U (rn.c.) J
(m.c.) ) , ,
snext week.
(m.c.) )
(m.c.) in future.
l 3 ! (m.c.) )
(m.c.) j
31 ->*J (m.c.) M n future, after this.
(m.c.) |
(m.c.) J
1 Vulg. pllar sal JL, ; iUj .
a In poetry often used for the Judgment Day.
3 Ya& Aa/ta t/i d</ar ml-diham /^^-fr* y*J^ &A* cJ^ (m.c.) u I'll give it in a week* a
time"
* Hal nn va i8tiqbal an W*&\ ) HU now and for the future" : in this case
has the nunation ; 4 vide ' (p) (1) note (1), page 312.
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 315
* (m.c.) )
{ henceforth.
x5 (class.) 3
(m ' C ' ) presently.
m.c.) 3
^^ (m ' c ') 2 presently, quickly.
^j (m.c.) )
(4) Time is also expressed as follows: ^U l^uf U> ; l^ ** (m.c.)
" 1 remained there, three or four months.
Also by the dative, as : ^ <wU- &^ j*y***^* 1 ->T ty v*" ** C*j* J^ o**^
(m.c.) <f I intended to stay there the night and go home in the morning " :
*>*) ^tx^j ^ULj| 0)1** j C5f^^3y *^^ *^^ I; T*** **&*> (Shah's Diary)
** well, at night, several bands took stand below the building and played a
great deal."
(5) Jakht cuiux " just now " (a village word and vulgar) is coming
into use.
In Kirman jakht is a substantive meaning " endeavour" and is sup-
posed to be corrupted for the Arabic <*^ : it is, however, probably from
the Persian ^^.A> , or cj^^^ "to strive, endeavour ; quarrel."
(6) Time indefinite and miscellaneous [vide also (1)1 :~-
J'^>> (m.c.) 1
j^Alf ^ (m.c.) ^immediately.
f;y (m.c.) J
.c.) ) .^ , , ,
[without delay.
* Jb (m.C.) 3
j (m.c.) without further words, immediately, without doubt.
(m.C.)
"\
r t e mpo r a r i ly .
(m.c.) obliged to, without further orders, immediately,
(m.c.) hot and hot.
(m.c.) especially.
j (m.c.) ,, more than all.
**Jf Ar. and Mod. Pers., especially.
^o 4 1 go to-day for certain ' : y >xj UCi WA^,! ji
(m.c.) " it is certain my horse is faster than yours " : )j* U^A "yon must go.'*
2 ;^ otf fj ^ (m.o.) "bring in the bread hot and hot": ^ )^ ff \*
(m.o.) "work continuously " (don't get cool between whiles)."
3 Pronounced vungahi.
316
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
(m.c.) many times, oft.
65r-t (m.c.) once: vide (7).
(m.c.) at times: vide (8).
^j (m.c.) at one time at another time : vide (8).
(m.c.) often ; (also much),
(m.c.) often.
p$ (obs.) seldom.
*
Uf, from time to time.
lf (m.c.) sometimes.
^(f (m.c.) sometimes sometimes.
(f (m.c.) occasionally: vide (9).
<j*# (m.c.)
(m.c.) x
(class.) quickly.
* (class.)
b ^3 sooner or later : vide (10)
;^ (class.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
f
(m.c.)
V (m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
-\
^rarely.
h seldom, less.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
always.
(m.c.)
Ar.
Jb (m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
(m.c.)
J
^continually.
l Sometimes, also, classically and in m.o. "no, not"
Ar. Past Part. Bi-frraf* darya mudam na&r mi-kardam
<m.o.) l( I kept on looking towards the aea."
**
ADVEKBS AND ADVERBIAL PHBASES. 317
(m.c.) } ^. .
> continuously.
J (m.c.) )
(m.c.) repeatedly.
(m.c.) one behind the other, in succession ; continuously.
,*j (m.c.) do. do.
jxj (m.c.), and **ij
j^A?; (m.c.) day by day, daily.
f **<>:> (m.c.) every instant.
ijtti* (m.o.) -\
AiAAjA (m.c.) V weekly.
1 AiftA (m.c.) J
jb cXiiAA (m.c.) once a week.
1>UM (m.c.) perchance : vide (11).
'lib' Cf every moment, moment by moment : vw?6 (11).
^-j (m.c.) from day to day.
(class.) a little.
b (m.c.) vide (7). ^
31 ^^ (m.c.) !
x , \ I. once upon a time, formerly, etc.
c^ (m.c.)
^
>
./
(m.c.) J
jj> (ra.c.) late.
(m.o.)
at last, finally.
^b (m.c.)
^^ AJU (m.c.) subs, and adv. ; for a day and night, 24 hours.
*aS cU3 (m.c.) > n 4.
^ > at no time, never, really not.
^ __ lUt (m.c.) }
^ r U3 (with or without izafat) (m.c.) all the day.
U (m.c,) as long as.
(class, and m.o.) in any case.
I Hafta-l chand ml-glri c^A- * &**> (m-o.) -bow much pay do you get a
week? 11
* Vulg. dwr-vaqt *^+
*
8 For
* ^2 ori na-d^tom t^ tUl ^ (m.o.) - 1 have never had it at all."
318 ADVEBBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
(m.c.) now* at present (m.o.); on account. 7
-o (m.c.) often.
(m.c.) as soon as: vide (12).
* (m.c.) as soon as ; merely: vide (12).
y
(m.c.)
& (class, and m.c) ; vide (13). i , . ,
, \ besides, moreover, apart from.
> a*Ut (class.) r
(m.c.); vide (14). J
y (class.) therefore.
jUj o*~J (m.c.) compared to formerly.
^Uj (m.c.) therefore, for that reason.
>j* Uj (m.c.) therefore, for this reason.
(m.c.) vat any rate, anyhow.
(m.c.) every moment.
(m.c.)
oswU (m.c.)
(m.c.) >in the end; vide (15).
(m.c.)
crw ^i 3 (class., or mod., in writings only) after this.
(7) Bar-l ^s)^:*)j* *j* *** <^U (Sa'di) " he sank a f ew * times ";
j/* cl?yij ^c; fj *^-^ ^l^b ^ ^ ^( (Sa'di) t( if you want to
kill this slave, a* Jea,$* (well) do so accordingto the interpretation of the law.' '
(8) Vaqt-i ^ij, vaqt-ha l^j :
(Sa'dl) ^M $ tj*> ^) *+* *&j t .*. *j\~*> *>* J^ & *$ oJ^JU fxJr k .
F^ is also poetically used for vaqt-l.
Similarly the plural vaqt-ha vaqt-ha signifies " at timevS and at other
times."
1 The correct meaning, of course, is " on account " and in this sense only it is used
in India and Afghanistan.
* Common in Indian Persian.
8 Bahama h&l namt-falfinam maqsud-i ahuma chlst UA ^^Aftx) ^9 ^w Jla. a^^j
(m.c.) "I haven*t in the least understood what yoxi're driving at*' : also jtf
bi-har jihat.
B5r- chand (class.) lt a few times." This might also be read Barl *' well," chand
bhurd '* he sank a few times.*'
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 319
(9) Gah> M etc. : >tf ^ \ft ^ (*'f *'f or ) ^lf i? (m.c.) " he occasionally
does this " : l cJ>?-* \j*^ j *^i* erif 1 ** * ^^ (m.c.).
In m.c. the ^ of unity is always added to *(f .
(10) " Sooner or later " ^ I* ^3, or tjj tf^ya *!>*, or e>t$>f 31
# . - - .*. * , *.
(11) Ahyan an ^^^i; 5n aM / a -5w aj| l>(i Uf : *jU {^ ^Joi-f GU:
" if perchance he should come, in the event of his coming, tell him to call
to-morrow " : J>>^ ^j ^ eU^*j ^ (3>^ ^^ ^f (in a letter) "every moment
I wish more and more to see you." (In an an j a -an an , f a ~" then, so, and ").
In Arabic t'>Ujx| means " sometimes, or seldom."
(12) Ta & and mujarrad &j*vo:fa jLa. )\ pA$ iy U (m.c. ) " as soon as I
saw you I swooned away " = bi-mujarrad-i didan-i shuma az hal raftam *j^+>
fa JU> 31 l*^ &*** (m.c.).
Mujarrad also means " merely," as: ejty ^w ij ^t j& *~&> &^J* ^=F^*J
$ CLM*U* (m.c.) '* merely on the evidence of one person, one can't punish
him" : ^ cU* *jUi a e>uS ^w^j (m.c.) ** one cannot act on mere suspicion."
(13) Digar ; (Sa'di) c^^^Jb ^^3^ ^ tf ^ *^ ^ ^^ u"^T^3^ **fjl* &f &I& j~& j
ijT^U "and again know that kings are for the protection of their people,
and not the people merely to render obedience to kings."
(m.c.) "and quite apart from this, it is against the public interest":
^)jj BpU could here be substituted for^&i gkj'.
(15) * Aqibat o*$ U :
ft None e'er learnt archery from me,
But that* in the end he made me his target."
a&jf J?v, or *!>} y j, or <*&at ^\j+ bi-juz in ki, or g&ayr az In ki, or
siva-yl In ki could, in prose, be substituted for c^JIU here.
(q) (1) Adverbs of Order and Number :
;U vX (m.c.))
^once.
;b^ (m.c.) twice.
3^ (m.c.) again, next: vide (2).
jf-i* (m.c.) again: vide 39 (a) (I).
first.
1 Colloquial for hamchuntn e^f 14 ^ ^d hamcfiunan
Or guman-i fi a little doubt" : vulg. gamftn.
3 KttWt, is here an adjective ; the 45- is not 45 of unity.
* Note t$ with negative = " but that " (i.e. who did not).
320 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
jt the first time.
1
>s
>secondly.
UilS J
(2) Bazjb " again; afterwards' 1 : ^ i^j * a^- )^ (m.o.) "don't do
such a thing again' 9 : A>t^y xu >l ^JjJij*u U& (class.) "do you read first,
I will."
(r) Adverbs of Exception l ( *ttiL| Jyx ) :
(1) *T a&fyU (class.) except, till: vide (2).
(m.c.) "except, but"; also "yet" (Afg.), to answer to
although ' ; vide (3) and (5).
(m.c.) but; vide (4), (6) and (8).
or { 1 y^ but.
except.' 2
[ except : vide (7).
v*/f ct?*^ )
j except that: vide (6).
j
besides >
wefe (7).
more than this, besides
(2) Magar dngah *&f J^Q \ &$ jjKif JL* ^yjj ^ +* 5 O^jt f* ^ ^
^ Aii? ^sv** (Sa'di) "he said, I will neither breathe nor move from this
spot, except (or till) some word has been spoken by thee."
(3) IUdy J/' 1 : ^f-** <xiLx jt J/f ^^J c$^j> **" ^ ^*T *&* y y o^ ^^
^c)^ (Sa'di) " he said had'st thou become so hard up that thou couldat not
steal from any but such a friend (or was the world so small that thou
would'st find no other place to steal from except ) ? >J
A "* *
^v ^U>A '^f^ (z)^*** Or* J ()\+& ^ri^> ^^jjj ill <yjs^ ^3cv*.A ^ux.*S( (Afffhao)
"although they did so, ye as soon as the niast was cut down, the ship
sank "; note this Afghan and Indian use of ilf to answer to Aa-^f ;
vide also (5). The idiom is incorrect in Persia.
(4) Magar j*> "but": In m.c. * is often used for "perhaps," or
instead of Uf in asking a question implying an innuendo ; vide (j) (8).
(5) Llkin ^J, etc. * but ' ' :Amma and Ukin " but ' ' and ^ "again ' '
(but not 5^) are used to answer &*.JS\ as : ()(>or c^^ or)U 0^.1 *J <^^ **f\
ciA-^i. (*^T (m.c.) "although he has committed a theft, still he is a
good man ' ' ; vide also (3).
In India **b " nevertheless, still " is also so used.
In Fi**it t> Urdu Granuuar tiio
Siva-yi in jfci. A^u ^^ ^unles
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 321
(6) Bidun-i an ki *f e/f c^*-?:
(m.o.) "without your ordering it I am ready to serve you" :
o*U &* f^*A U* (13 or*&f * or) A&T (m.c.) " I won't go without you.'*
(7) Ghayr az $ j*& - t ' alava bar ^ fy^; guzashta az)\ &&*$, etc.:
Though gfrayr az "except" also means "besides," it cannot always
be substituted for ^ >3U, as: o~oJ (tS ^ w*j\^ (3^ art* )* (m.c.) "except
me there is no one else in the room " ; here >3U could not be substituted :
but ^IAJ^O &> jJu*& ^li^i ( e>x>3t^ or) er^ *j^* (m.c.) ts besides me there are
others also who know " ; or guzashta az man ashkhas-i hastand ki )\ &i&!
> <xU~* ^^etiuif ^ "setting aside me, there are people who :" p& 3
oSb AJ 5 *! ^3 A> *^ ^IK3 xxiU o^ ^ly<> ^ A t; o*r^ Ai i) J^ "setting
aside poetry one can't even style it prose; it is like a takaltu neither
saddle nor palan." } The use of <u^ ;v for *.*? is rare and scarcely
modern.
Gbayr ^* is also followed by the izafat, as: gkayr-ima
shuma
Remark I. Although g&ayr azj\j** means " with the exception of, exclu-
sive of," and alava bar j ijk* means "besides, including," both are in prac-
tice often used synonymously.
Remark II. In the sentence ^3^0 **f ^ ((+>, the word fjS is termed
the thing from which the exception is made ' ; jt* is called o^
the particle of exception' ; and iXj the ^Ul~/o < the thing excepted.'
Sometimes the mustasna ^^^ is different for the general term, when
it is called ki* ^iiv-*x>. Ex,: f-xj^iu ^ j))*** e^j J-^-J (class.). (The
former example is <-Lax* ^iijLx3.)
**+>> ^jj+ jJ^ J^Jj,j (Tr. H. B., Chap. VI) "the only answer
returned was laughter" ; man bi-juz $am hargiz rahat na-dldam ^ijJ (&*
.c.), lit. " except sorrow I saw no joy " : ffAj^ay Jx^c/f>>
(m.c.)
This construction arises from a confusion of thought. Even a Persian
would not say, " in that jangal except fishes I saw no man.' '
(s) Adverbs of Qualification :
^t&.j (m.c.) more than all; besides; further: *Jb "moreover."
(t) Intensive Adverbs are: v-^ <^=^ " very well*'; <Jji o* 1 ^ "very
# # t *>
slowly 1 '; &~*\* ) ^i "knowingly and wilfully"; K^J Lr^ or ^j^ ^
"nolens volena"; ^i^x^ & *** " continually laughing "; e^b c/b *' whole
lapfuls at a time," Wj>$ ;/ " quite blindly."
In ^jr* ;r* 4< just like an ant; slowly," the first member of the com-
pound is a substantive : wfo also Repetition of Words.
1 Takaltu >&> is the pad of a Baluch saddle, and palan ^Wji is a pack-saddle for
a camel or mule*
21
or
322 PREPOSITIONS.
90. Prepositions Huruf-i Jarr ( *
~ ^
(a) The indeclinable particles called simple prepositions are only nine
__ ten. They are placed before the simple or nominative form of nouns and
pronouns, as : jf^ $ Uuu[ jf az mjd td Shirdz " from here to Shiraz."
The following are the simple Persian prepositions :
(1) Jl az l from, by, out of.
(2) b 6a a with, in company with.
(3) aj ba 8 or bi in, by, to.
(4) j* or^jf bar or abar * on, upon.
(5) j*\ andar, in, inside. 6
(6) f A kam with, together.
(7) ti td 6 up to, as far as.
(8) (^ 6i without.
(9) ^ dar in.
(10) ^ orj^u, juz or bi-juz 1 except.
(11) ^3 /, Ar. in. In Persian per ( xo ^ ).
The preposition and the noun it governs are called jarr and majrur.
Native grammarians include the postposition I; rd in the term jarr. For
examples, vide (h).
Remark I. Fard \j* "up to, back, toward" and fardz j\j* " above,
high, etc." are obsolete, or only found in compounds: vide 89 (m) (3) and
(6). Z\ ^j 8 " bounds, shore, towards" is practically obsolete.
Remark II. Arabic prepositions properly occur only before Arabic
words.
(b) In old Persian the particle mar j*> is found prefixed to the nominative,
dative and accusative cases, 9 as :
l In poetry 3 ze*.
* Poetically also o5a.
In modern Persian bi. Ba is said to exist still locally in Persia. (In Arabic
always bi.) In India ba.
4 Abar poetical :
* Affixed to the words madar, pidar, baradar and fcb&har it signifies " step-brother/ '
etc., and half -brother. In m.c. is prefixed to express the same idea.
To is also a conjunction.
1 J5, Ar.
Zi also stands for zi/ii or zahl ' * well done, etc."
9 In Steingass's Dictionary it is said to accompany the genitive case also, but the
present author has failed to find an example.
PREPOSITIONS. 323
Laill said, " You are that
By whom Majnun was oppressed."
" You are not more beautiful than other women."
She said, " Silence; you are not Majnun."
*
v.)vj QA^j c*^J &JA> UL; &>4>a* j ULCJ &tfjj ^| j*$ ^
*
maslahat chundn did td mar in rauza-yi 1 ra'na vahadtqa~yi g&alba chun
bihisht bi-hasht* bob ittifaq uftdd (Sa'di): xykj j^fe~*#Lj^J* l> *)* (&s*
*$ itfmar in dard rd dava-*i nist magar zahra-yi ddam-% ki (Sa'di) " there is
no remedy for this disease, but the gall of a man, who ": f&^j* <-&*
* x ^ =i V c^^^ cjtfak jl t>jl j*) malik dar khashm shud va marura az bandagdn
bi-siyah-i bakhshid (Sa'di) "the king fell into a rage and bestowed her (a
slave girl) or one of his blacks."
(c) (1) In old, occasionally too in modern, Persian writings, a noun is
sometimes both preceded and followed by a preposition, in prose or in
poetry, as : 0^1 ja J^j ^ jy ^ ^ ^ ^^^ hasud rd chi kunam ku zi khud
bi-ranj dar ast (Sa*d!) * ' but with the envious what can I do, for he is himself
in pain because of himself": p^f o^^jj ^^ y az khala^iq bi-zahmat
andar-am (Sa'di) '* I am troubled because of the people." In these two
examples the preposition is not part of the verb (vide 2 below), but refers
to the noun preceding it as is better shown in bi-daryd dar mandft' 3 bi>shumdr
ast vi~*! jU ^ jiUxja (jj& in voyaging there are endless profits."
(2) A preposition may also be added to a verb for emphasis, as: bi-shahr
dar dmad <Wf )* j-fij (class, or m.c.) " he entered into the city " : imruz (bi)
sar-i kucha bd * u bar khurdam ^^ j, jf b **$ J~*.MJ*\ (m.c.) " I encountered
him to-day at the end of the street."
(d) Sometimes two simple prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb,
can be joined together, as:>w bi-juz b (or j^ juz): +*>{* or *& bi-ham or
ba-ham "together": az hamp*j\ " apart": cJj^ 1 vt^S bi-khwab andarun
(mod. writing) : j<M ^& yjj 6 bi-zir-i sang andar (mod. writing) " under the
stone": AJUjJ f*> ^ *.+ &+*> hama shab 1 dida bi-ham norbasta* (Sa*dr) "I
closed not my eyes the whole of the night."
1 Rawza *+*}) ** a garden or a meadow; also the burial-place of a saint." In India
it is said that at the last day the burial places of the saints wiU become 'gardens.'
Hadiqa is a walled garden ; gkalba fern, of ayhlab means that the trees are close together.
The wording is apparently from the Quran.
An example of tajnis-i &&ajCJ*i or linear pun.
8 In prose, there would be an izafat after roana/T, but the scanning shows there
is none.
* Or bi-u. * Ba-yi zvfyid.
This *-> is also by some grammarians called ba-yi za*id.
7 In mod. Persian liama-yi shab v^* ^^ "the whole night," but hama shab
UA every night."
Basta is here transitive and dlda is the accusative case.
324 PREPOSITIONS.
(e) Ear j and dar ^ may also be substantives. Bar } j (f rom burdan
" to bear ") signifies " fruit,* profit, advantage " : bar also signifies " height ;
breast or bosom." The comparative bar-tar y^j and superlative bartann
e^P^ signify " higher ' ' and " highest " ; also " excelling." Bar-a-barjij is a
preposition signifying " level (lit. breast to breast)," or an adverb "con-
tinuously 8 " : az bar khwandan ^<M^y jf ' * to recite by heart " ; az bar raftan
u*h J*y " to be lost (as a mistress from the bosom of her lover) " ; dust az
bar-i man raft <Jj) &* j* jf ^^^ (m.c.) " I lost my friend." Dar )* as a
substantive signifies a " door " ; dar bi-dar shudan &*j*j ^ "to wander
from house to house"; bi-dar kardan c**/^ " to turn out."
(/) The phrase ***Jfy <y**^ ba'zi bar an-and (classical and modern)
signifies " some are of opinion."
(g) In old Persian, andar }>t sometimes takes the place of dar :
Jahan ay baradar na-manad bi-kas
Dil andar Jahan-afarm band u bas (Sa'di)
"The world, my brother, abides with none,
Fix thy heart on the world's Creator and nought else."
(h) The following are examples of the use of the simple prepositions :
(1) Azy : az Kirmdn ta Shlrazy^ & ^Uy jt "from Kirman to Shiraz " ;
this is called zci-yi ibtida^iyya (*-^m -fj ): hamagl az buzurg u kuchak
y ji ^*A "all, both great and small": man az firishtagan-am
y 12* "I am one of the angels"; this is called za-yi ba'ziyya*
fj ) : va si sanduq ki az mallahan bud qufl-i an-hd rashikasta oj^i^ ^* ^
^ ^ &^&*> y i (m.c.) " and having broken three boxes
that belonged to the sailors" : Jo^lvl ^ ^)j* ^-^^ ^i>fc ^t y az in
tuf an darakht-ha-yi buzurg dar uftadand (m.c.) '* [great trees were rooted up by 5
this storm " : ^ ^ )^\ *J->j u&*j jf ** 1* I; <j^>.* ^^J| ^ ^f^i &*y*
&# Musa Paygh^mbar ( 'alayfc's-salam) darvlsh-i ra did ki az barahnagi bi-rig
andar nihan shuda bud (Sa*dl) "the Prophet Moses (on whom be peace)
saw a darvish that on account of his nakedness had hidden himself in
1 Bar-i a/tab nithaatan (^-^ u*Ufy (m.c.) **to sit in the sun." The izafat is
used in m.c. after bar when it means "near, M as : bar-i man c>'- < ^/ > dar bar-i manJbi-nishin
<)*!& er^y J^ " sit near me " : here bar is probably the substantive " breast." Vide
p. 328, note 2.
* Perhaps for bar jb ' a load," the crop of a fruit-tree, etc.
8 This adverbial use is very common amongst the Indians and Afghans, but is not in
use in Persia.
* Qnl-i az bustan cAV^ jf ^1? is another example.
This is atfi~l**~>t vJ^, or *Jf<^j ; vide (2), notes (2) and (3), and Bemark II.
PREPOSITIONS. 325
the sand"; this is called za-yi 'illat cJLs ^fj (or za-yi sababiyya <SUM*
Sometimes azy, followed by a substantive or prtfnoun and signifying " a
portion of," takes the place of the object, which is in this case understood:
^H^y *?.* j* c$"*/ ^^;^ f^J* *f^T a jf /-k# baytdr az dnchi dar chashm-i
chahar-paydn kardl dar cKda-yi u kashid (Sa'dl) "the horse-doctor put some-
thing in his eye of the medicine he was in the habit of using for animals " 5
az dardhim giriftam p& f*!^ jl (class.) "I took some of the dirhams ' ' :
this is called za-yi tab'iz u*W 5 <^lj " the partitive z."
Than, in comparison, is expressed by jf, this is called za-yi tafztl
Az chand ruz ) 5 ; ^i^ jf " since how many days, how many days ago ? " :
az chub "made of wood' 1 ; az tild " of gold," this is called za-yi
mdddiyya (AjjiUo ^jj) : az khud ^^ y "involuntarily, of its or one's own
accord ' ' ; az du taraf <Jj.k ^ $ " reciprocally ' ' : oJi^J^j ^ jt az u bar guzasht
" he passed by him" (classical); c^o^^jf az u dar guzasht "he forgave
him " (class, and m.c.) : *& *> &>(** ^ y az rud-khana radd shud (m.c.) " he
crossed the river ' ' : ^f ja ^ 31 az dar dar amad * ' he came in by the door ' '
(m.c.) : az naw ^ jl, or az sar-i waw ^ j ji " afresh " : az sar-i In qissa dar
* *** '
guzashtam (class.) p&>tfj & &>** ^\ j y "I gave up this story" : 8 az parcha
saf kardan <D^ ol^ <^;Ujf (m.c.) "to strain through cloth"; az ham dar
raftan ^j ^ p& jt (m.c.) "to go to pieces " ; az ham guzashtan ^.j&M p*> )\
(m.c.) " to pass by each other; to give up mutual claims " ; vide also (o) (8).
Remark. In the idiom &* ^ ji az an-i man " mine " ; az ani Rustam
^ <^t
/T j|" Rustam' s, " the preposition is called za-yi milkiyya ( *jU (^fj ).
(2) Ba L> "with": Bd u raftam pti) j\ lj " I went in company with
him." * "Possessed of," as : ^f U baittila 6 , adj. (m.c.) " well-informed'* ;
y^i ^yUj fjlj ^ o-^f AX*^? ^\^ ^ o 1 ^ haris ba jahan-i gurisna ast va qani* 6f-
nan-i sir (Sa^df) " a greedy man even if possessed of a whole world is hungry,
while a contented man is filled by one loaf " ; ba shamshir kushlan^M ^UU
(m.c.) "to kill with a sword": ba anki *^T^ "with that, although": ba
In hama A*A ^\ b " with all this, in spite of this " : ba In panjah-salagl ^ ^
in^spite of these fifty years of mine."
1 In a similar sense az qahli murdan &ty *avj> jt to die of (or on account of)
famine (or hunger) " : &&+* JA^> **<* e)U^*^3 ^^^^3
* The word for " something " or ' a portion ' ' is understood.
B This y is called a j^
* This ^ is called ^"***> o ~^ ; vide (3) Remark TT.
326 PREPOSITIONS.
With guftan, either I? or & can be used: fj>> e^l* J 1 *^ ^f y*
a)f<*i awcAi 65 ^ guyad bi-amsal-i ma guftan rava na-darad (Sa'dl) "what he
says with you, he does not think right to tell to the like of us" : bakhud
guft v^if AJ, b (or khayal kard *>j* J l eA) m.c. " he said to himself. "
Sometimes ba b stands for the conjunction ' and,' as in :
)&j> J^tfcuf pZ**-j* *&f b j*)* ^U a&f ^Ux> o^t ^y (Sa'dl)
" There is a difference between him who has his mistress in his arms,
And him who is looking expectantly at the door (for her entry). "
(3) Bi l to (mod.) and ba (class.) "to, for, in, on, with, by, at" : bi-
Tihran raft ^ (dy& (m.c.) "he went to Teheran " : ^ ^ bi-u guftam*
(m.c.) "I said to him " : bi-zamtn (or bar zamln) uftad a^if ( w**jj* or)
(m.o.) "it fell to the ground"; ta'alluq-i bachcha bi-madar ;aUj Aa
(m.c.) "affection of a child for its mother": bi*panj tuman Jchwaham
farukht ^^/ p*^ o'^P ^^ (class.) "I will sell it for five tumans" :
bi-javab s guftam /*&? v ^su (m.c.) "I said in reply": bi-shahr daJchil shud
* Ja.^^3 (m.c.) " he entered the city " : bi-nazar dar rni-ayad ^T ^ >* j&>
(m.c.) "it comes insight" 4 : b*-Lfi'l J*^b "in fact."
Uftad, baz ba-si pa tstdda (or bar si pa istada) shud B *t>&~j\ &>**$>. d&\
2* ( 5UUj| b *^j or) (Afghan coll.) " it (the animal) fell, but got up again
on three legs": bi-dan sabab *-*** ^l^* (or bi-dan jihat o^ I^IAJ) (m.c.)
"on that account ": ura bi-tufang (or hamrah-i tufang) zadam t-&AL \^\
fbj ( ^Js& t>\j+& or) "I shot him with a rifle" : sher ba^-ghurridan-i bisyar
jb>
bar-khast o-.l^ y jU--j ^J^AJ^^ (Afghan) "the lion got up toith a great
roaring": c^^^f J l;r 4 bi~hdl amadan (m.c.) " to come to one's senses (after
fainting, etc.)": &' fty ^ix^f ^^L J)i* ^^j^j^xs man bi-rasidan-i manzil-i
khud arzu-mand budam ki (m.c.) " I was desirous of reaching (or to reach)
my home," but man dar rasidan-i manzil-i khud ^ J^vo &*) ^ ^ on
reaching my home (I was anxious to) ."
Bi'tadrtj g>y&* ft by degrees " : bi-har surat o^o ^ " by all means " ;
bi-har hal J^ ^ l< at all events": ^11^ b*-l-akhira "at length" (in
m.c. V-l-akhira ^Hb ). Vide also p. 334 (4).
1 Euphonically before demonstrative pronouns, etc., bi dan, bi-din, and bi-du, " to
him " ; generally, the **, both as a preposition and a verbal prefix, is only written in the
full form *^ before a word beginning with a 6 ; otherwise this preposition drops the %
and is joined to its substantive, as: ^ bi-u " to him " ; jj* bi-raw "go " ; but fli^ &*
bi-blnam 4< let me see " (also ^^ birbinam).
2 Or ba u guftam or bi-du guftam , or ura (or vayra} guftam, or bi-vay guftam ; all m.c.
3 Or da* javab vl*^ )* (m.c.) : the preposition used varies locally.
* Bi-nazar ml-ayad (m.c.) '* it seems."
6 In m.c. si pa latad (not Istada shud) without any preposition : pa show biraw
pish-i (m.c ) " get up and go to ."
8 In m.o. shir and bi.
PREPOSITIONS. 387
Remark /, Bi is also a verbal prefix, vide Remark II (i) and footnote.
Remark //.Grammarians give the preposition ** various names accord-
ing to its signification:
(i) BS-yi zcfid ( ^f) ^^ ) "superfluous 6 " as in cu^y -_>u, etc.
In si***J tf <j>^&* jl, or )t> l-i)*) [vide (c) (1)], or JA ^, etc., some
grammarians call the preposition *J "bd-yi za*id" : it is, however, the
preposition dar ^ that is superfluous. 1
(ii) Bd-yi zarfiyya ( ***j& c5 l * ) "the adverbial 6," stands for ;^ and
indicates place or time, as : ^i^^^A) bi-shahr raftam : jjjj bi-ruz " by day."
(iii) Bd-yi musdhabat ( c*x=*Lox> ^U ) " the 6 of companionship " stands for
^ or f, as : jahdn ay barddar na-mdnad bi-kas yj^ jJUi^i^j <^t e)^ (Gul.).
(iv) and (v) Sa-i/i rdbita or &a-i/i $h'saZ ( *t|; L$ I N or Jl^>l ^lj ) "the
copulative 6" or "the b of junction," as : ^^>J cu*o dast-bi~dast.
Ba-yi inhisdr ( ^tAsuf ^ ) " the 6 of restriction ' ' is practically the same,
but signifies completeness, as :_r^ j* sar-bi-sar for^~> $j sar td sar.
(vi) Bd-yi qasamiyya ( &**>~$ ^t ), as : }^^ < ^y God."
(vii) /?-/&' mubddalaty or 6a-^ taqdbul ( cLla3 <^lJ or cJ^U* ^b ) < the 6 of
barter or exchange," called also bd-yi ta'viz u^'.j** C5^ '* the b of substituting
or compensating," is used with verbs of buying, selling, etc., as : bi-dard-i ear
nami-arzad ^\ ^^ j AJJ (f the game's not worth the candle."
(viii) Bd-yi miqddriyya ( &*$***> ^U ) ' the b of measure," as: ba e d az
vafdt-i u bi-sad sal JU &**> j\ e*Uj }| **> (Gul., Story 2); here bi AJ = bi-
miqddr-i jf^a^ or bi-anddza-yi xjt-^l^ : bi-ntm bayza ki sultan sitam ravd ddrad
(ix) Bd-yi ibtidd*iyya ( *d\*&\ ^b ), as : bi-ndm-(i) Jahdn-ddr-i jdn dfrin
(Bustdri) e*yT o^>^^ (*^^ <f ^ (begin) in the name of ."
(x) Bd-yi intihd*iyya ( ^l^iif ^b ) is opposite to the above, as : ^iJtj i^ujf^
wat-talimmat u b v l khayr.
(xi) Bd-yi izdfi ( ^^ ^ ) *' the b having the force of an izdfat
o^'Uf," as-: muhtdj bi-pul nlsiam f~# J^ ^.U./c muhtaj-i pul nislam
(xii) The 6a-?/i isti'dnat or ^ar^a or a^a ( *tf or **J;i or o<JUJ^| ^U ) "the
6 of the instrument, etc.," as : bi-shamshir zad gardan-i u rd l;jt &$ aj^-k+^j .
(xiii) Ba-yi qurbat ( oy ^b) "the ^ that expresses wer, to, etc.,"
as : bi-pddishdh shikdyat burdand ^^ %SA.J^> jsU^lAj where bi stands for & or
pish (j*^) .
(xiv) Bd-yi maf'iil ( J^x>^lj ), or " the b of the object," or the bd-yi
ta'diya ( &**> ^b ), " the 6 that makes transitive," is the ^ that takes the
place of the dative in I;, as : in chlz bi-dn mard bi-dih >J b } * ^y& e^!'-
(xv) The bd-yi isti'ld* ( *iULt ^t ) is the bi that stands for bar j* or
'alq ^ '* upon," as : bi-ru-yi u nigdh kardam
1 The *- in verbs, as fjj/i - jj^J, etc., is also called ba-yi za*id.
328 PREPOSITIONS.
(xvi) The cJU ^b, or *^xA or AjW* 5 ^ the b that expresses the
cause or end, as: bi"dlddr-in raftam ^jtjl^* "I went to flee him."
(xvii) fla-2/i tow*rf ( JU,y ^b ) is the 6 that conjures assistance, as:
^ j^su Ijfd^ Khuddyd bi-hdqq-i bam Fdtima.
(xviii) Bd-yi muvdfaqat is the 6f that expresses "in accordance with,"
as : e/;!< cf ^ J^, or
(xix) Bd-yi tamyiziyya ( *i\*&* ^ ) is used for the y*** &** and
expresses ' for the sake of," as : Ud) = lUJ .
(4) Bar j* or abar^\ (and 6ar-i near ").
For this preposition, vide (e) and (/).
As already seen in (3), *J bi> especially in m.o,, sometimes takes the place
of bar j>, as : savdr bi-asp w^ l J ;^ (m.c.) (for bar asp ^ ^ ) " on horse-
back, mounted."
Examples : bar ] m\z bi-guzar j^ jV* f. (class.) ' * put it on the table " :
bar-i aftdb bi-nishin ^^^ v^^? (m.c.) " sit in the sun' 2 " : farmudam lei bar
ruptya u ra bi-Jkashand 5 **$& \\ *% j ** f*rJ (Jehangir's Memoirs)
" I ordered him to be weighed against rupees (in the scale) " : bar-a T^J (m.c.)
*' come out." In m.c. bar j* is rarely used as a preposition alone. Thus
instead of bar db ^ j " on the water," in m.c. bar ru-yi ab *Jt <^vj* or
simply ru-yi db wf ^sy would be used.
This preposition is .usually omitted altogether in modern Persian, as :
zamln bi-guzdr jiit ( ^^) (m.c.) (for bar zamin bi-guzdr j>& er^jy ) " put it
on the ground" : vide (ft).
Padshah bar takht nishast (or julus farmud) cu^xi cu^u y *U^U
( *ry LT.^ or ) would in modern colloquial Persian be pddishdh ru*yi takht
nishast ^ ^ ^J ^^ LA^b. Similarly ruy-i m\z y** ^% (m.c.) "on the
table " instead of bar mlz j**j* (class.), and ru-yi asp >~~*\ ^^ or savdr-i asp
^**f j'^ instead of bar asp %--*} j* ; (but sar-i mtz Jv j* "at the
table "). Bar taraf kardan &$j> o^fe j> (m.c.) " to dismiss (a servant)."
Abarji] is old and poetical:
&\*$ b Jb ^UM, <U+xx ^jf ^3 ^^>jf *t I) c^-^ V^
(5) .47icfar )*i ' ' in, into, within " : Shardb andar jam kun ^
1 In (m.c.) ru-yi m
2 Dam-i a/tab *J*tf ft (m.c.) =s in the shade juat near to the sunlight (so that a
slight portion only of the sun's warmth reaches the person): dar a/tab v^T )& and
ttiryi aftab w^ c^y (ra.c.) = bar-i aftab v^*^ right in the sunlight : sSyarU/lab
binishin (m.c.) " sit in the half shade (of a trde)." Dam-i a/tab v^f f* also gignifies
i n nxc. '* near sunset. * ' Vide p. 324 , note I .
8 In m.c. ham vazn-i r&plya kunand *>ii^ AJ^JJ> cjjj ^ A
PREPOSITIONS. 329
(m.o. vulg.) "put wine in the cup"; andar khana raftand 1
(vulg.) "they went into the house" : 5 *U~A ( J}i* ^ or) Jji* ^ andar
manzil (or dar manzil) hastand ? (vulg.) " are they at home ? " : libas andar
(or dar) bar kardand *>* j ( ^ or) j*i| ^JJ (vulg.) "they put on clothes.'*
Fide also (9) on dar ^.
(7) Ta CI (also conj.) " to, until, as far as, as long as, whilst, even to " :
to* inja UuLjl U " up to here, hitherto" : az shimal ta junub *->y^ $ J^**Jt
" from the north to the south*" : ta bi-aknun cJjtflj 6 " until now" : ta hat
JU. 13 (or ta bi-hal Jlaw 13 ) " up to the present " : ta bi-zlst cu-oj? l5 , (class.)
" while life lasts " : ta kay ^ " how long 1 " : ta na bas dlr j** o^ &> 13,
or ta na bas ruzgdr Jfjj) u~^ ^ (class, only) " not for long" : ta yak mah-i dlgar
j?*>& U cX U (m.c.) "in a month's time " : ta chi rasad ^ &*. 13 (also conj.)
class, and mod.) " how much the more" ; vide 91 (6) 12. Ta is also a
particle (poetical) signifying " beware! behold! for shame! never! it is
not known whether 3 ": for examples, vide 91 (6) (12); vide also (o)
(9).
(8) Bl if* :t without," a privative particle or preposition. When prefixed
to * nouns ' it corresponds to the English prefix in ; un ; im , etc.
Bl-tu nami-ravam ^ ^^ ^ (m.c.) "I will not go without thee";
bi-basar J*A> ^ "imprudent "; bi-khud ****# (m.c.) " useless, silly "; bt-abr
^ u* "cloudless"; bt-abi ^1 ^ (subs.) "want of water"; biydbdn c>^-
^uncultivated desert," (i.e., without fixed water-supply except rainfall);
bi-ihtirami ^x>(y^( ^ "disrespect" : bt-adab *->$ ^ " rude " ; bl-adabi ^\ ^
"rudeness " ; bi-adabana A^J^I ^ (adj. and adv.) "in a rude and disrespect-
ful manner": bi-harf w3^ ^ (adv. m.c.) "immediately, without further
words; without question." For e^ bidun* " without," vide (o) (6).
(9) Dar 6 )* "in," etc., vide (c) (e) (g). Dar-javab 6 guft cuif ^\j*>j& (m.c.)
" he replied" ; dar 1 vay nazar kard tjf j& ^ j* (Sa'dl) " he looked at him ":
AJ5/ Hr^^J W f**)* ** ^* shubha-l ki dar dil-am bud bar taraf gardld (m.o.)
" the doubt I had was dispelled " : ^iu ^ CUAA haft dar Jiajt " seven divided*
by seven": cJiahar farsakh dar chaMr farsakh -^f ?$ )* ***j* ->W "four
farsakbs square" : dar an ruz )j) cT )& "upon that day" : dar In miyan
" in the meanwhile."
1 This should be andariin i ]\jjjlna (both in writing and speaking; ; andarun raft in
m.o. also = *' he's gone to the women's apartments." These vulgar uses of andar are
not common and should be avoided.
i This U is called
8 This last is called ta-yi tajahul
* Also dun e)j^ : not used in m.o.
5 Dar )& is also the Imperative of darldan e)^i *' to tear."
* Or bi javab. Dar is called ^*^le Jy^ as it indicates the place or receptacle.
7 Or bar vay
330 PREPOSITIONS.
Vide also (6) on andar )M %
(10) Juz (or bi-juz) _>. (or J.J ) " except " : f;f*i
6i-;2 Khudd-(yi) Ta'dlq pandh-% na-ddram " except God I have no refuge " ;
mihtar jut towla na-bdyad jd-% pd bi-guzdrad *;!*& ^ <^W *jUi *kj^> j^yy
(m.c.) " the groom ought not to get his foot any where except (in) the stable " :
juz az an &1 jtj^ " besides or except that " : juz az in ki *&>\ 3'^ " with the
exception of this, in addition to this. " l
(11) The Arabic /? ^ is used in Persian for per, as: **> <y /* sad "per
cent " : /I sotf JU <y " per annum."
Remark. "Particles of exception" (>> - Sf -^-f^, etc.) are called
*UjjUf o^ huruf-i istisnd.
(12) The remainder of the prepositions are substantives or adjectives
preceded by one of the simple prepositions expressed or understood. They
take the izdfat:zir-i zamin c^*j^j, or bi-zir-i* zamm ^3^ " under the
ground": nazdik-i (or bi-nazd%k-i) shahr ^ ( ^^ or) cJj^ "near the
city " : bi-hukm-i ziydrat &$ ^^cu (Sa'di) " by way of pilgrimage (to a
shrine)": bd-vujud-i jaJidz 3 3^ ^j^ (Sa*dl) "in spite of, notwithstand-
ing, the dowry": ow jJU JS^ASL/O UJ^ 4 cUilw ( ,^c ^^j zindagi-yi man bi-
tufayl~i shumd mahfuz mdnda ast (m.c.) "my life has been saved by your
means " : A*U &^ ^iU ;t^ai bi-qardr-i ( ddat-i ki ddshtam (m.c.) " according to
a habit of mine " : az qardr-i ki ma'lum mi-shavad ^^< ^U/o A^^iyji (mod.)
4 * as it appears."
(j) The prepositions may be used adverbially when occasion requires,
as : pish dmad *vof < J^j " he came forward " ; andarun raft 6 ^) &jy*>\ (m.c.)
" he went inside or he went into the women's apartments."
(k) The following are a few of the commonest words used as prepo-
sitions :
y\) bald 6 upon, aloft.
e^'i pSsfn down, below.
_s*j zabar 1 above,
jy faraz* above.
7 w\ zir beneath.
1 Also yhayr-i In \&\ j? or ghaijr az In ki -
% Or dar zlr-i j*\ ;^.
S Also /aAts (class, and m.c.)-
4 cWi: used metaphorically in the sense of *-kj f ** J J^i from tu/ayl, the name of
a man of Kufa, who used to go uninvited to wedding-feasts ; hence an intruder, parasite.
5 Classically andar raft could be used.
fl With the izafat c^SJ^, as : bala-yi darakht *' on the tree " : & c5"^** *u-yi bagh
4 ' in the direction of the garden. ' '
7 Zabar, zlr and pw/i are the Persian names of the three Arabic vowel-points
fathah, zammah, and kasrah.
8 Faraz u nishib (subs.) " ascent and descent."
PREPOSITIONS. 331
and ^ 9 furu and furud l down.
^ 1 before.
pas after, behind.
* su 8 towards, direction.
;Ux3 miyan between, in the middle.
paklu by the side of.
y or <-&.>>*, wazd or nazdik near.
KttHH, vicinity.
j bwun, out.
t 4 andarun, in.
( jt ) JUS #aW (az), before (of time) ; vide (8).
*V fea'd, after.
o^ B ?'t7te, towards (old).
fc.Jlo. janib, side.
p , -
_ for, on account of.
> oaray
l^ 6 wa, except,
()\ )j* ghfryr (az), except.
t ) (c?ar) payramun, around.
(2) All the above may take simple prepositions before them in certain
cases.
(3) The preposition ba L> or bi AJ, however, cannot be prefixed to baray
iS\j* 9 bahrjtf, or qabl J^.
(4) No simple preposition can be prefixed to sipas (adv.) ; but ***> c/f Jt
2 cm bi-ba'd c v^w ii>f 3' azaw- si-pas.
(5) 5a'rf *u> may be followed either by the izafat or by az, as : &a'd-t" hafta-%
^*j ? or 6a'^ az hafta-t cxli^ jt ^ " after a week.' '
(6) The prepositions pisli J^^*, birun ^^, qabl <J*3, and giayr j& (bi-
ghayr j***) may either be preceded or followed by az 3'.
(7) Az pas ^JNJ jl "from behind," but pas az jt ^ " after that, after-
wards." Si-pas ^j^- (= pas <j~J ) is a contraction of az pas o^jK In
modern language 'aqab v-^ic is preferred to pas tj*>J.
1 IPurud before a vowel.
ft JZaftar, sir and pish are the Persian names of the three Arabic vowel-points
fathah, zammah, and kasrah.
5 Vide footnote 6, page 330.
* In m.c. andarun cLJ)^ is also used as a substantive " the women's apartments "
classically and in m.c. it also means " the stomach."
6 In modern Persian " because, for."
Siva kardan e)^[^-* *' to select, separate.* 1
332 PREPOSITIONS.
(8) Plshri man &<> J^J " before me " (place), but pish az man
" before me l " ( time) ; qdbl az man &* y cU* " before me ' ' (time) ; az qibal-i
man ^ JLjjfjf = az jdnib-i man.
Remark. In m.o. ptsh-i man ^ L f^ and less commonly nazdri man
\*>* &y, etc., signify " I have." In Ispahan, instead of pish ijty or nazd a>J;
pahlH-yi c^ a * 8 generally used with the same signification.
(9) Bi-nazdik-i khiradmandan ^f^ix?^ -Xj>^ (Sa'dl) "in the opinion
of the wise"; this idiom is used in speaking by the Persians, Indians and
Afghans 8 ; kishtl nazdlk-i ghaltidan or bi-nazdtk-i gkaltidan rasid <-&>>> 1^*"*
<>*-) cjjsjJtl* c&yju b c^jJxlp (Afghan) " the ship nearly rolled over " ; in m.c.
kishii nazcKk bud ki bi-gJt&lfad *U*> * ty ^.*y { ^^. Nazd &$, however,
is used only for persons.
(1) The comparative and superlative affixes tar f and tar in &>j* can be
added to many of these prepositions, as: pas-tar y ^J or payin-tar j
(adv.) "lower" ; pishtar y^ (adv.) : nazcRk-tann ^^ <*&*y (adv.), etc.
(m) The preposition need not be repeated before successive words
governed by the same preposition : ^ ^AJ ^j ^j& j c^ao.^ ^ ^fc^fcl^b
bdkhatir-dari va mahabbat va dustl bi-man pish* amad (m.c.) " he treated me
with hospitality and kindness and friendship. ' '
(n) In m.c. the substantives which most commonly take the place of
prepositions are nouns giving the idea of position or direction, as: rU ^
" face ' ' ; sar^ ' ' head ' ' (on) ; pusht owiu * < back ' ' (behind). Examples :
rw-yi mtz j** ^) ''on the table"; sar-l asp y^, 1 ^ 4 on 5 the horse"
(Afghan) ; pusht-i parda >^J ^io behind the screen."
Frequently, in mod. Pers., the preposition, or the noun that is a substitute
for the preposition, is entirely omitted, as: zamin bi-guzar ji<^o ^^03 (m.c.)
(for bar-ru-yi zamin bi-guzar j** ^*>j LSJ)J*) " put it on the ground " :
o**.^ (m.c.) (for bi-dasUi uast o^jt *z+~& (m.c.) "it is in his hand
khdna (for bi or dar or andar khana 6 ) nlst *~~> &&. Uf (m.c.) "the
master is not at home."
"
1 For pwhtar az man c/J'y^t In m.c. the comparative is generally used
adverbially.
ft Compare the mere pas of Hindustani. The dative with oat, as, maro aap-Vst (old),
is never used in speaking,
* Qanb Vir* ia not used in this sense.
* PisM man amad <>*f cJ*cT^ would mean M he came to me,*' and not "h*
treated me."
* In m.c. this could mean *' the head of the horse."
9 Or tfcyi iAana nltt m.o. ; andar khana is rare and vulgar, vide (6), pp. 328-9*
PREPOSITIONS. 333
(o) The following examples illustrate the use of a large number of the
prepositions and so-called prepositions in m.c. l :
(1) "In, into": *
<j-y tu-yi utaq "\
\ &j)&\ andarun-i utaq
, ,~ , /' . u v r inside the room,
i ;<*! andar utaq (class, and obs.) j
ar utaq J
miyan-i darya ") .
. _ . . [ m the midst of the sea.
6 dar miyan-i darya )
j bi-kishtl nishasta seated in a boat.
savar-i kishti on board.
bi-asp savar bud }
- . , , f mounted on a horse, on horse
savar-i asp bud > '
t back.
asp savar bud 1
bi-zamln uftad *\
uftad > he fell to the ground,
(me.) )
^ furud mi-ravad it penetrates into the earth.
U W (^N %^ dar rikdb i Shah 1 . ,, , . ... __.
JJ [>in the retinue of the King.
*U v (^ rikab-i Shah (m.c.) J
j! dA> i-baghal-iu 1. , .
^ r in his arms.
j\ J*j;j> rfar baghal-i u J
Sj^jJux* JUAJ t^t ^ T^aTi urabi'bag&al rm-glram I will embrace him.
.Ji J^l^ %a dar dakhil-i shahr }
7-, 7. T. T 7 inside the city.
dakhil-i shahr * j
darnazdlkl-yisaraparda, in the vicinity of the Royal (or
Government) tents.
I ,-j pay-i u )
v , -, . - C a ^ ter him, to look for him.
$ JU>3 dumbal-i u )
Remark /. Dar is in m.c. chiefly used with towns or countries, and dates ,
as: dar 'id-t* 6 naw-ruz jj; y H ;^> "on Now Year's day": dar anjd ^uf^
" there, in that place."
Remark IL The preposition in common (mod.) use for " in " is y tu.
1 The simple prepositions appear to be falling into disuse.
* Bayhal cU? also means "side, arm-pit,*' etc.
8 Bi-baghal (or bagkal) kardan c^/( J*J^ )<-!AJ AJ *to carry a child in the arm,"
but bi'bagkal or bagbal girifton L^*^ <-A^ t cUj aj is " to embrace a grown-up person."
* Kfrarij-i shahr jr^ ^J^, or dar Jsharij-i shahr jj* ^;^* )* '* outside the city,"
6 ZVozd *^>> or bi-nazd ^>f only used for persona : nazd tj* or dar nazdi man iqrar
hard bf ;tyl (j/ ^^^ ** u he confessed in my presence."
Vulg. *ayd AxP.
334 PBBPOSITIONS.
(2) On, upon, over:
a bridge has been made over the
river.
I
chair.
sar-i atash (for bi-sar-i) bi-guzar t put it on the fire.
*t> e# )* da? bayn-i rah \ on the way, in the midst of the
H> e/tf bayn-i rah ) road.
o**f <x>U> t^J ^j J>jj ") the snow has not stayed on the
barf ru-yi zamin na-manda ast ) ground.
(3) " Across," y az 9 vide (h) (1) and (o) (11).
+&*i or *JA *> ^f 3* ^ ^ n ?^ racW 1 shudim or guzashfim, we crossed
over that place.
(4) "To, towards, for" :
For the various uses of *J in this sense, vide (h) (3).
Bi & is frequently omitted in speaking like the other prepositions, as :
manzil raft &*j (Jj***, shdhr rafta ast o**f al*) ^A, etc. : also vulgarly "kitab
ra bidih man" e^ *^ b v^ ^ or kitab-ra bi-man bidih t& <&+> I; v 1 ^ '* give
me the book."
-ij ( AJ ) pan; tuman mt-farusham, or bi-panj tuman ml-
farusham, I will sell it for five tumans.
' ( vjrjJk or) o^
or) *s
towards the stage.
J?
oJ; c>!7t^ or ^ *^bt"^ k went to Teheran.
Jlw jj rtl bi-bala, upwards.
riZ bi-ahimal, towards the north.
b k)^ ^ (^ or ^ ar ^*> not use ^ * n m --) ^ i 8 situated on the
seashore.
tf kinar-i darya-st* it is on the seashore.
, or p>**)Jti, we reached the shore.
(5) "With, by":
Irani-hd ba dost nti-l&urand, (or vulg. hamrah-i) oJ^su^o OM^ U \&j>\
the Persians eat with their fingers. 8
*, bring the doctor with you.
r? barddar-am hamrah-am bud, my brother was with me.
1 Radd shudan elX&<>) (m.c.) ** to cross, pass " ; radd kardan (i to reject."
Or kinara-yi darya t %*& Kinar & means "side," and kinara
'bank, shore.*'
8 Dost: note idiom.
* Or 65 won <j* ^ .
PREPOSITIONS. 335
A b alj fab *^yk ! Aar cAi ladabad, bd Khuda-st, happen what may,
the issue is with God.
yL jU A+* ^| lj &a in Aama 6az Mar ast, notwithstanding all this, he is
an ass.
(6) "Without":
For ^ bi " without," vide (h) (8).
a&fej ^jj bidun-i ittila', without information.
*jU) *AOJ j*L j( AJ A&f eJj^ bidun-i an ki bi-u khabar bi-diham raftam,
I went without informing him of my departure.
(7) " Except " :
**V ^5^^^ *>1 t^*L) )^ ctff 3' u**^ ^^ Aawa kas az in kar rdz% and
bi-istisna-yi banda, all are pleased except your humble servant (me).
^
For juzy*, bi-juzj*u, ilia il, and gh&yr az JU**> a ll meaning *' except,"
vide 89 (r).
(8) " From, out of, by, of, for " :
in kitdb az Sa'di'st, this book is by Sa'dl.
tn i 8 book belongs to my brother,
az raA-t ft7^> ^ wft y oj ^ kindness, kindly.
li> ^^ 31 * az rw-i/i kitab-i khush-khatt mashq mi-kunam,
I am practising copying from a beautifully written MS.
f e^-^j *^ HA^jj3^>^ he can copy (pictures), but
not design.
3^ *^V 4^ >, the child can write from a copy.
^j' i don't you fear for your life ?
also (A) (1).
(9) "To, upto":
fl G ^f*> jt az subh id sham, from morning till evening.
&l#jf ^ l>Oi ^ rom Yezd to Barman.
Vide also (h) (7).
(10) ' * Under, below ' ' :-
v3^ v^J^j 3* r- * &*6 /tar/ 7mi-2an (m.c.) don't speak indistinctly or in
such a low voice (lit. under your lip).
iU|^ ^,i, or *y iUl^ damana-yi kuh 8 or dar ddmana-yi kuh, on the skirts
of the mountains.
\>*# & pa-yi minar* or bikh-i minar or bi- (or dar
minar, at the foot of the minaret.
1 Or har chi mi-ehavad bi-shavad &j*> ^^ ^J* ( or ^ or c ^ f bi-shavad bi-shavad
}( or ^jjt o 6or or az hi/% naviahtan (t to write down from memory."
8 Daman |^*to 4t skirt of a dress,' * etc.
* Colloquially munar )\*.
336 PREPOSITIONS.
jk ! pdyin-i rnindr (somewhere) below the minaret.
(11) " Through, across":
f<>^ lAoAja ft ^lf y \) U jal*. chadar-i shumd rd az Id-yi* darakht-hd
didam, I saw your teat through the trees.
yj>. <fci tfjJ * is^ jl ^^ gulula az la-yi nayhd bi-shikar khurd, the
bullet hit the game through the reeds.
u*UT <^Jf, between the leaves of the book.
Forjf " through, across," vide (h) (1).
(12) " Near, next to " :
eX^jJ nazdik-i shahr \
bi-nazdtk-i shahr t I near the city.
w-az^efc bi-shahr /
)* dar nazdlki-yi shahr, in the vicinity of the city.
pahlu-yi u, close by him; alongside of him.
y> p> dam-i dar, near to the door, to the very threshold of the door.
Jiif *t> dam-i aftab, at the edge of the sunlight (i.e. just within the
shade) ; also near sunset.
*Jjx> ^ G td dam-i marg, till death, till the last breath.
(13) f 'Outside " :
bwun-i shahr \
8 kharij-i shahr > outside the city.
j& dar kharij-i shahr )
(14) 4< Before, in front of " :
before me (place).
dar-pish-i man
C before me (place).
bi-ru-yi man )
A \t , AJ w^A 02 'id 7, ,
I - (before the *Id (time).
XC 3? cXu ga6Z az 'id )
JL^ cai^^ ri & bi-ru-yi Qunsul khdnaf in front of, opposite, the
Consulate.
jilav-i man bi-raw, go on ahead.
1 Or pa'in
* Az miyanri eA* Jf is more common. Yak laryi dar )& ^5 If <-^ or yak lingo- yi-dar
)b ifiJ cJi ** one door of the folding doors." La~yi dar ra baz kard tjf $* \) )* ^V
(m.o.) " he opened one fold of the door " ; dar-i du-dari <j? t )& j& )& " folding doors."
8 Az l&arija mi-ayad *>1 <^* a^)^ )l imported."
* Dar ra pish kun ^ (J% *) )t> (m.c.) ' close the door,*' i.e. put it ajar. Pish-i
man &*> (J^*J ' I have," like m8r& pas in Hindustani.
I In Persian J~^ ; in Arabic
PREPOSITIONS. 337
jt z jilav-i man bi-raw, get out of my way.
(15) " Back, backwards, after " :
* 3' LJ^ P as a % 'id-i Naw Ruz }
^^ after New ' Year's Day.
JJP J' ^ ba'd az ( id-i Naw Ruz }
&* fj o^u pusht-i sar-am chi mi-kum, what are you doing behind
my back ?
"-^ z pusht-i par da, behind the screen.
pa/-f ^ara, he went to fetch (after) butter.
kashid, he retired, drew back.
Uj ^yo w^fl^ ' aqafo-i man biya, come behind me.
((5) " Opposite" :
^^v^x) (^j^ j) ru bi-ru-yi masjid ~ |
muqabil-i masjid i
^-opposite to the mosque.
, . . ..,
dar barabar-i masyid
mahazi-yi masjid \
(18) "Around" :
> ;^'j^ dawr-a-dawri daryacha, all round the lake.
c>Vt J jt^* *-?r^jW chahar taraf~i~}
shahr biyaban-ast ; or ^^ ol^fcf ,^all round the city is desert.
o-voj c;UUj atraf-'i shaft r biyaban ast J
vi>^^J^t^ cPl^ hawati-yi shahr biyaban ast, in the neighbourhood
(suburbs) of the city there is desert.
Ijl^lf gulha ra dawr-i hawz bi-chm, arrange the flowers all
round the basin of the fountain.
(19) " For, on account of, out of " :
( o~L^ 3 r or ) c^Lr' V^ ! as P baray~i (or as; baray-i) tust, the horse is
for you.
t .*- bahr-i fuqara* )
> for the sake of the poor,
bakhsh-i
i^ on account of, because of, the
f darkness.
J
t About the 21st March : the vernal Equniox.
^ Pushtri ham p& ***+ tl one after another, continuously."
^ Pa^/ ^ r pay i^i ^<i c5y ( m - c -) ** continuously, one behind the other J) :
f ^/ tj^K c^!l l ^^ ^ b maw fehayli pa-pay ahudam td In kar ra kardam (m.c.) " I stuck
to this business till I carried it out. ' '
* Babhsh, lit. " lot, share."
6 Vulg. vasih.
22
338 SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
^U. * chdy vdsita-yi khdnum kujd'st, where is the tea
u bi-Mdtir-i Khuda
" for God's sake.
for the lady ?
mahz-i ihiirdm, out of respect.
merely for your sake.
)
- .,,-.. w 7- /
baray-i khatir-i Khuda y
c5l t #>S. ^J=l=j bi-lchntir-i khubtha-yi pidaram, for the sake of my
father's many kindnesses.
f 3JU yisuc UJi JUiia, ^ ^jf^j zindagl-yi -man bi-tufayl-i shuma
mahfuz manda ast, my life has been saved by your means.
(20) " Instead of ":
i>f 8 u2pLr? ^ l ^y 5 bi-ja-yi baradar-ash amad, he came instead of Ms
brother.
* ixb jjU. e^*jUx> t>xiv> ^y^j bi-'ivaz-i safid mi-bayist siydh bashad, instead
of being white, it should have been black.
^*? *^** ^^ ^"^ & ^ u*j* 6 'fiYi2-t tw-H sa/W bashad siydh karda-i,
instead of making it white you've made it black.
(p) It will be noticed that some of the prepositions are interchangeable,
thus A? and l can frequently be interchanged : U ba milirba.nl pish dmacf
(m.c.) J^f c^j (/ il ^rt* b 3 " he treated (me) with kindness " ; if, however.
the pronoun we is inserted, it is better to say bi-mihrbanl <j*\* #+\ to avoid a
repetition of the same preposition : *x>T ^^ ex tj ) l *~* ^ix* 3 J ubi-
mihrbdni-yi bisydr Id man pish amad (m.c.).
(q) Sometimes different prepositions may be prefixed to a noun without
altering the meaning. Thus : az y , or bar y , or bi-muqtazd-yi rdy-i u ^Uii+j
^csb " conformably to his advice." Sometimes a preposition is inter-
changeable with an izdfat, as : az shumd mamnun hastam ^WA ^i^ U jj, or
mamnun-i shumd hastam pi~& ^ ^^ *' I am obliged to you":
, or mashg&ul-i kdr
91. Simple Conjunctions.
(a) There is no general word for conjunction. The conditional conjunc-
tions are called huruf-i shart ( Jb^ o^^ ) s and this term includes the
temporal and concessional conjunctions. The causal and final conjunctions
we called huruf-i ta'lll ( JUU3 o;j* ) ; and the conjunctives huruf-i 'atj
1 Ohay, in m.c. generally chahl.
* Mahz (jfl> equals baray {$\j> in this sentence.
S For baradar-i 1$h.ud &j*> )Z\j* .
* Or safld ast bayad ki siyah bashad *~^ U* *$ *
5 Rakhtrthur m ra 'ivaz u badal karda ast (m.c.) *^**^f %$ J^o j <j!ej fj
* the washer-woman has changed this. " (In Persia women, not men, wash clothes).
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS. 339
Jj7** ). Particles signifying "moreover, rather, etc.'* are called
huruf-i izrab ( vj'^i OJ^A, ), and particles signifying "or" (adversative
particles) huruf-i tardtd ( oj>y Jj^ ), or huruf-i 'inad ( ^c Jj^ ).
The huruf-i 6 atf JJ^ ^Jr** or huruf-i 'atifa *ibk ^j^ are ^
sipas ur$**, ham J*A, TMZ J*>, (^^ar ^.s, and sometimes alif *-&l\.
Remark. The difference between ham +*> and niz j& is that the former
can occur both in the ma'tuf 'alayh *>!* ojk**>, and in the ma'tuf o^lw^o, as :
(b) The simple conjunctions are :
(1) j va or u (m.c.) " and ' ' ; vide (2).
*V niz (m.c.) )
"also" ; vide (3).
f* ham (m.c.) '
)\ ar (class.) ^
gar l (class.) ) if."
J\ agar )
l> ya* "or" ; vide (4).
(j tj ^ ya either or," " but or" (after a negative) ; vide (4).
y* juz s " except " ; vide (5).
jjfa.a. - *|^ kh wah khwah " either or " (vide 4) ; ^U-^ ^^- (poet.).
j&*> magar (m.c.) " unless, except, perhaps, etc." ; (vide 5 and 9).
ilt ilia (m.c.) Ck as, but, except, still, however, that" ; (vide 6).
Jb bal or *>!> 6a^?*, "but, on the contrary, rather" (in m.c. also
" perhaps " ; (vide 1).
2*. chu 4 (class.) )
> "when, because, since " ; vide (8) and (11).
.c.) >
;*^ chun (m.c.)
"*
f amma
SJ llfcin
1 }
V u but" ; (vide 9 and 5).
1 Vagar f} (class.) "and if"; vagarna **?j (class.) ** and if not, otherwise*';
gar f and ar } poetical ; agar chunanchi ^F ^^- f and chunanchi ^F^a. are also
used in m.c. for '* if."
In English the conditional conjunctions are if, (old Eng. and prov. an), unless, so
(when it means if only), and but (meaning unless).
Provided that, in case that* are conditional phrases.
* Or va-llkin ^f^j (m.o.), or va-amma ^*l^ (m.c.), or va-ya ^j (class.), often va an-ki
*^T^: *' as for me'* amma man &* ^t or manki ^xixs .
8 Or bi-juz ^^P-?
* In m.c.y** is pronounced ch& or chi. Chunk* &&& " when, how, and because.*'
Chun c^ also means "like,** as in 'Amalri padishah chun safari darya-ast *&*
(Sa'di) ** oflftce ia like a journey by sea ."
340 SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
pas "consequently.'
ba'd ''afterwards."
+' ku (m.c.)
^ Aa. chi cki " what does it matter one way or another " ; (vide 11).
^ chi " since, because, seeing that " ; (vide 11).
4b & <ua na " neither nor" ; (vide 4).
U ta [ (vide 12).
tf ki (vide 13).
bf aya (a particle of interrogation, etc.) (vide 14).
Remark. Conjunctions in English are chiefly of adverbial origin. * Also,*
for instance, is an adverb as well as a conjunction.
There are two principal classes of conjunctions: 'co-ordinate,' which
connect clauses of equal rank, and * subordinate,' which connect a sub-
ordinate or dependent clause to the clause on which it depends, as: "I
went where he was " ; " when he had gone I said," etc.
(2) The rule for the pronunciation of the vav-i 'atf <-okc j\j or " con-
junctive _}," is that if it connects two words which together form one notion,
or connects words generally coupled together, or two verbs having the same
subject, or nouns co-ordinate governed by the same verb, it is pronounced
u, and in speaking is joined to the word that precedes it: in other cases, it is
pronounced va? Examples : Shab-u-ruz ^ j ~+ " night and day " : sinn-u-
sal JU j ^^ " age" ; tang-u-kushad ^^ j -&> " (too) tight or 3 (too) loose " ;
pidar-u-madar ^U j ^ "father and mother"; amad-u-raft vsJj ^ <vof c< he
came and went"; but darakht-ha va bac^-ha va bul*bul-ha va khanajat
cijlaolA. ^ lA(J>Jb j Ifplj j \^)2 ; padishah va nawkaran ^j*j*j ^**^J " the king
and his servants": mddar va pisar 4 ^~J ) )&* " mother and son "; amad va
ba'd az yak hafta raft cx^j AiA^j ^t **> j &*! *' he came and after a week went
away."
Also after a vowel, and generally after a silent s, the j is usually
pronounced va as : sabu va 8urah% ^ t ^^ j j*~* ; burida va (or u) dukhta
&&jo ) s^J : banda va aqa. Also babl u sufi-gari ^^ ^>}*> 5 ^b, or babi-gari
va mjl-fjari ^ ^y* ) ^} ^jL,.
The^ may take the place of a colon or comma, etc., thus for veni; vidi;
visi ; '* amadam u didam u giriftam ^*Ii/ ^ p*j* j ^<vof .
Ta tf is used for "and" in English, when the second verb expresses
the cause of the first ; vide (12).
1 Also ta ki * ti * ; in order that, so that, until."
* Irregularities occur in speaking especially amongst the vulgar. It is also some-
times optional to give either pronunciation according to the idea in the speaker's mind.
Note that j is sometimes used in Persian, when in English we say or.
* Or madar u pisar j* ) j^^
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS. 341
is sometimes added superfluously ( *$\jjb ) to certain conjunctions,
^ **
as : va ammd Utj (or amma U>t ) ; va likin <^&J ^ (or likin ^^ ) " but ," etc. ;
Sf ^ va ilia "otherwise." At the end of letters and tales, the formula f&Jj
va's-salam signifies "and for the rest, good-bye."
In m.c., the conjunctions are often omitted: hence short phrases or
verbs are, in speaking, often entirely unconnected.
This particle sometimes indicates state or condition (&^^ jtj) , as : bachcha
amad va cjul-l dar dast-iu bud ^ j( ^*^^^ ^ ^ **>f *acu f ' the child came with
a. rose in his hand ; (and then he had a rose in his hand).' '
In such sentences, as: yak pin u sad blmdri ^U-u <x*> ^ ^^j ^ this
conjunction is called vav-i lasviyat ( &y^> $1 ) "the vav of equality/' the
meaning being that one old age is equal to, or accompanied by, a hundred
sicknesses.
Sometimes 5 is equivalent to yd I? "or" ; it is then called vav-i tardid
). Example: gul hamin panj ruz u shash bdshad )
) (Sa'di) "the rose lasts but for five or six days only."
In, man u inkar-i sharab, in chi harf-#t1 o *j* &*- &*\ w-
" I to refuse wine? what on earth are you saying?" the conjunction is
called vav-i istigirab ^j**>\ j\j ; but in man va In Tear Khudd na-Jcunad
i^& ix^ ^^ii^f ^ ex, tne j is called vav-i istib'ad ( dUM~> .. ). This is, of
course, mere hair-splitting.
In J^; JT o 1 ^ ^ ^ o^^^ ^yc J^J ^ ^ ^ fa* \
the conjunction is vdv-i luzum ^ (?, for the relation between dast o~^ and
daman ey!* is lazini fjK and malzuni fjj^^. Another example :
&$)&*:*> ^ -^ C^A ji j cuiXA^jk o^^tia/o ^jtj-iJL*! \\ j^*Jj. ^ e>^-
03 X T "~'*V ^ ^o <^> ^ -? ^^ e ^--* ^"^ ^ t c>A * j i 3 l r*~~ *~*jj^ **
(Anv. /SW?., CTap. 7, Pre/. xSY. 3.)
<c From the bone trickling flowed the sanguine tide,
In terror of its life it ' fled and cried ;
4 Could I escape this archer's hand, I'd dwell
Content with mine and the old woman's cell V
*****
(East. Trans.)
In 3lr^ J f$^ **-vT Jl* " next year Shira/ for me," the; is perhaps the
In
j o->^ r ** ^ ^ L^^!/ c^ jL> A ^r *^ r^ 3 f ^ ;* ^ y
is called vav-i mu'avazdt or the "vav of compensation."
As already stated in 43 several adjectives qualifying the same noun
are linked to it and to each other by the imfat.
l i.e. the cat.
342 SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
If, however, several adjectives follow a noun, the izafats are omitted, and
the conjunction^ generally precedes the last only, as : shakhs-lbud f aqil, dana,
hushyar u ziring >-&>jj j^*>* ^* ^ W ^^y^S* (m.c.) "he was a man,
intelligent, wise, clever and active." The j, however, may be inserted
between all the adjectives, as: ba'd az an dldam-ash zan-khwasta , va bikh-i
nashat-ash bur Ida 9 va gul-i-havas-ash pazkmurda &$ ) *I*fyv ^ jixiXp ^y <>*j
**j*5i cr-*^ $ j *<Htf jXRli (Sa'dl) " after that I saw him married, and
with a family, and the root of his joy severed, and the rose of his happiness
withered."
The adjectives can also be classed in pairs, each pair being coupled
as: Shakhs-i bud 'aqil u dana, hushyar u ziring C|^j <J*U
Compound words like amad-u raft ^) 5 o^of are treated as one word,
and the two portions in writing are not separated. Thus if amad *v<>f happened
to fall at the end of a line, the word raft ^j would be written on the top
of it, or in some corner, and not carried on to the next line. In other cases,
if the conjunction va j fall at the end of a line it is written, riot as the
last of that line, but as the first word of the following line, the conjunction
being treated as a portion of the word that follows it.
Remark /. The first noun, verb, or phrase preceding the <-flb* o^ (i.e.
the copulative conjunction) is called <*A!S <J^k*c, and the nouns, verbs, or.
phrases following the first j are called Jjla*x>.
Remark II. Vav 3 is also an Arabic particle used in swearing, as :
*Uh > 'USh* " by Allah. 3 "
(3) Ham p* "too, also, even" ; ham andar zdman &l>o) ;^Ji ^* (class.)
*' at this (or that) very time"; qadr-% ham nazdlk-tar j&fy p* ()** (m.c.)
"yet a little nearer " : ham bi-dih bi-Nisa l~J *> ^ ^ (m.c.) " then (empha-
tic merely) give it to Nisa : " m ham *& e/l "and this i ". Vide also
89(0(7).
Remark. Particles signifying e< also" are called harf- i ma'iyyat ( o^
In English also is occasionally considered a Copulative Conjunction.
(4) "Or, nor, either, neither, whether." Jax/o yu jj>
HjU& ta.f^ lj j tju jl*-u ^ L ow>y^h% va sim u zar dar safar mahaLl-i
khatar-ast, ya duzd bi-yak bar bi-barad> va ya khwaja bi-tafariq bi-khurad
(Sa'dl) 2 " and silver and gold on a journey are a source of danger, for
the robber makes off with it at one sweep, or else the owner (or merchant 8 )
himself finishes it by degrees."
i This expression, which corresponds to bi-Kjiuda f*J, is used in m c.
* Sim p+* in m.c. 44 wire." Note pronunciation of va ya ^j und vide (2).
' 6 Formerly only merchants braved the dangers of travel.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS. 343
chashm-i tang-i dunyd-ddr rd
Yd qand'at pur Jcunad yd khdk-i gur (Sa'dl).
" He said nothing can fill the covetous eye of the wealthy,
But contentment or the dust of the grave."
Khwdh dar razm khwdh dar bazm & ^ f>5. { ^ [^ (class, and mod.)
"whether in the field or in the council ' ' : ^tiMwdhma-khwdfiKj*^ tj*
or narkhwdh #,~ (class.), or Ichwdh-u ma-khwdh lj**j ^ , or khwdhl na-
khwdhi (j*\y^ (J*^ (class.) " nolens volens," vide Adverbs.
Na l mva na an of & 5 ^ &* "neither this nor that." In poetry
sometimes nah & ; also ^ ne (Afghan), or nay:
Nay tdb-i vast ddram ne tdqat-i judd*i
"neither have I the power to endure a greeting nor power to absent
myself."
Pas an ndddn rd khwdh 'Urn hdsil shud yd na, tikin bi-man fd'ida-tmt-
rasld o.jj^/0 i^jU ^ ^^J ^ L, x^ J^(^ JU '^ (yt^U ^f ^^j (m.c.) c< well,
whether that poor ignorant learnt or not, I learnt something": magar In
ma'lum na-bud ki Ishdn dtash rd dlda dar kishti nishasta bi-taraf-i an raftand,
j/a an ki qabl azshikastan-ijahdz kishti sliikasta bud, yd dnki mardumdn-i jahdz-i
diyar kumak bi-dnhd karda budand, yd ba'd az sawdr shudan-i kishti db-i pur
zitr-i anhd rd burda bud
bdyad az dunyd
Astin khwdh dardz khwdh kuidh
" At the last we must go from this world, whether rich or poor."
Remark. Disjunctive conjunctions ( ^ 8'jA <J^) are called
or ^U.c oj^. In English these are also styled "alternative" and are a
subdivision of adversative conjunctions.
i 5) Az hama kas pursid magar az man ^ jt ^* J *V;j cf*^ ***3* ( m - c -)
4 he asked every one except me," (or bi-juz'az man ^yo 3^33.3, or bi-gjiayr az man
1 Called niinri munfaail az ft 9 1 JUi jf cLaii* eJ(>>, as: M^wahl na-&hwahl Inkar *hud
^j| ^t^iu ^ly^ (m.o.) t4 whether you like it or not, it's been done.'* Shutur
? Na AJ - o^^* a proverb, said to a Persian who sees a thing, but makes as
though h did not see it (dida ra na-dtda kardan e>^/^> U *^)- -Va ^> saves a lot of
trouble. The tribes people say na to every question so as to be on the right side.
The mullaa say that naml-danam f^^ is **?/-* **'& f^ -ft-^.
^ The lover becomes 6t-f56 v^ (^ or 65-<5goe vSAjLb ^ when he loses his mistress.
344 SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
u^ 3* j&)- Juz * n charc^l niat-^ & *;l*> etflj^ "there is no other course
but this." ^>i^*J ^) *$ \) *J*A*J* f j>/ ^p*\) t; J e;UfrA ^^tja* cJ>a &U ^
^o v.%+ju Jljjj J( efor saya-yi dawlat-i khudavandi hamkunan ] ra razl Jcardam
magar hasud ra lei razl nami-shavad ilia bi-zaval-i ni'mat-i man (Sa'dl) :
agarchi dar In kar dil-i man mayil no-bud magar chi kunam er* J^ ;( &)& **$\
p& **-j*> tjju JLU (m.c.) "although I did not desire this to happen, still
what could I do ?"
Remark. The Adversative Conjunctions express difference, antithesis,
cantrariety, etc. In the sentence "he is honest but foolish," but is an
Adversative Conjunction and the whole proposition is called an " Adversa-
tive Proposition." But, yet, however, etc., make an arrest or restriction
of thought and are called "Arrestive Conjunctions." By Eastern gram-
marians, conjunctions signifying "but" are called ^i;*xw oj/^, which
may be translated "particles of emendation," while conjunctions sig-
nifying "moreover, rather, nay rather/' are called v^ 1 ^tr*- Imruf-i
izrab "particles of turning from, adversative particles."
(6) vi>^y^^*u Jff ^jAj wy~ix cJ^jUL ^ * oljyiu ^^usc^^f *JUA. chunanki
agar shakhs-i bi-kharabat ravad bi-namaz * kar dan , mansub na-shavad ilia bi-khamr
khurdan (Sa'dl) " for instance, if a person go to a tavern to ]>ray, nothing
else will be attributed to him, but that he goes to drink wine " : ^L> ^\
^^ia ^o 5l >j<xi ^J^o ^^ aksar bi-m 'ayb mubtala shudand ilia man na-
shudam 3 (Afghan coD.) " most of theai have fallen into this vice, but I have
not " : hick vaqt m qadar na-khurda budam 4 ilia In hala to;^io )&>* oJ>j ^
y^- u*? ? Jfr ^^ (m.c.) "I have never eaten as much as I have just done " :
bi-yak adam sar-anjam-i In kar dushvar bud va ilia bi-juz in cham-t no-bud
&# xjU. ^f jxu yij ^ )\j^& $6 e^ 1 (^Lr*r^^^ (me.) "to accomplish
this by means of one man was a difficult matter, still there was no other
remedy": dar In 'arsa ba'zi ruz baruli naml-shud ilia aksar mi-bartd*
*>)^ ^" ji^l HI *&*+> (J*j^ jj) ^s*" *<*)* (J.) (Afghan coll.) "at this
period there were a few days that it did not rain, still (or however) it
generally did rain' ' ; imruz bi-yak sukhun pish-i tu mi-ayam 6 ilia hari ra plsh-i
' In modern Persian ham qatur jfa* f*- Ham-kun o^-** is obsolete.
' 2 Kharabat oU \j^- ' ' a ruin, a tavern ; a brothel. ' * Wine was sold generally in ruins.
%Jbarabatl <^^[/^ ** a haunter of taverns." The word baa a mystical meaning amongst
Sufis.
* Better omit the words na-shudam f *^>.
* Or add na-khurdam f^xu, O r nu-bhurdti am (-1 >^su.
6 In ra.c. substitute namirbarid ^^ i*+* for nanil shad <***+>, and ammu M for ilia
S.
**
6 In m.c. substitute vail <J) or amma ^l.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS. 345
kas na-guyid *^& ^ jfcj t ; o^ ^jf & rf ^ y C>AJ e,^ ^ 3^1 (Afghan
coll.) " to-day I come to you with something to tell you, but mind you don't
tell anybody. ' '
(7) For balki *L k < moreover" and in m.c. " perhaps," vide p. 299,
(*) (2).
In the following two examples, <*Jb could be substituted for f j>/ M* and
rfL JUj'f p,*/ la^p j
(8) C7m% (or chunki ) ura dldam shad shudam ^ ^U ^^ \^\ ( &&J*- or) &?$
(m.c.) " when I saw him, I was glad " : u in amr rd /card chunki ( or chun)
shuma ra dust ml-dasht ^Jt>\&^ o,^^ iy+ ( &j*. or ) &&j*- ^ \)j*\ ^\ 3! " he
did this because he loved you." In matlab-i-ki bi-shuma yuftam bl-chun u
chird l a^cx^f (^ je^^j +& U^o &> ^5^1^ ^1 (m.c.) *' you must act implicitly
on what I have told you (i.e. you must not ask why and wherefore)." B% chun
u chigun e**&^ j &}* ^ is an epithet of the Deity. Also bi-chun u chand
= bi-chun u chird
(9) Ammd Ui, magar^j^, likin &d 9 vali ^ and Hid 1 & " but, still" ;
and bdz )b 4< yet, again." These frequently answer to agarchi *^/'
*' although " and introduce the principal clause : agarchi ma dur na-budim
bdz (or ammd, magar, likin } or vali) sdhil-i daryd bi-nazar nami-dmad ^^
*x<T ^^J^JaX) lj^^ JLswLo ( ^J^ b ^J . jL* - Uf \ ^^^^ U (m.c.) 4i though we were
riot far from it, still the coast was not in view " : agarchi havd qadr-i faru
nishasta budammd amvdj taskin na-yaft (#"* ^^ ^! ty & ^ ^r* ^sj** ^ ^r 1
^U^ (m.c.) " although the wind had dropped, the sea did not become cairn ";
agarchi khildf kardaast bdz ddam-i khub-i'st o^-^^ ^f Jb o^t ^ o^- *^^ f
(m.c.) "although he has not acted rightly, still he is a good man."
(10) (a) Gu / (the Imperative of guftan && ) "saythou," is common
in poetry, in the sense of *' suppose *" or " although."
1 Or bi-chun u chand >** c^^ ^. /n qimatri ki bi-shuma (juftani bl-chun u
chand ast ^>^>t *Xko. ^ o^ ^ ^f l^j A^*^* e^Km-c.) '*! won*t take less/*
In modern Persian amma ^f and 6as 3^ are preferred after agarchi *^~jrl I the
Afghans use i//5 ilf , and the Indians magar j&* and ta ham p&\>.
8 Or harchand &**>j& or hatchand-ki A^ ^a-^A ; 55 w,s/-i 5nH A5of *-**9lj> or /i5^a^A
aijjjt^., or ba-vujud-lki &t*y*j\*> or bu-vujrid-i anki *^T5^^ or ba-anki ^T^ : all
these signify "although" and could he substituted for agarchi *^rl in the example,
*
and answered by amma 1*1 and 65 s j^ , etc.
* In dunya gu ma-bash ij^-tj* lx>^ (jJt (m.c,) 4< suppose you have no wealth (it
does not matter). * '
346 SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
Darvlsh-i mk-slrat-i farkhunda khuy ra
Nan-i ribat u luqma-yi daryuza gu ma-bash 1
Khatun-i khub-surat u pakiza-ruy ra
Naqsh u nigar u khatam-i firuza gu ma-bash (Sa'di).
' * Suppose the pure-hearted and unworldly darvish
Have neither dole of bread nor morsel begged in charity.
Suppose the lady with figure and face
Have neither adornment nor jewels, (i.e. what matters it?).
* j*jjoa j^L^t | ; tpf tf j& \) |*aL ^i^j 1^* j**\ t; ^ *^V l t
ki ma ra asir mi-burdand Khudd ra shukr ! ki anha ra asir-i khud didlm
va gu hamisha bi-biriim (rare m.c.) '* those who used to carry us off captives,
praise be to God, we saw them our captives and may we always so
see them." Gu bi-yayad **Uj " let him come."
Remark : In m.c., ku is generally used for gu /. Rlmma chira ghussa
ml-khund ki u ml-mlrad, ku bi-mirad &?*& j>jV ^ )\ *$ ^.)^^ /0 < ^ ap ^ ^^
(rare m.c.) <k why are you sorry that he is dying, if he does die what does
it matter to us (we don't like him) ! ' '
(6) The 2nd Person Singular of tiie Aorist gu*i ^^ means " you would
say, one would say ? *' and hence " like " :
Har sabza ki dar kinar-i ju-i rust-ast
Gu*i zi'lab-i firishta-khu*i rust-ast,
"Yon turf, fringing the margin of the stream,
As down upon a Cherub's lip might seem/'
(0. K. b 2 Whin).
In modem Persian gufti ^u would ordinarily be used for gu*i ^^ .
(11) Chi chi, <fc* ** : chi bar takht murdan chi bar ru-yi khak c^io^j ^
^(^ i))j. &*> cJ-y (SaVll) " what matters it (it is all the same) to die on a
tti rone or on the bare ground ? " : chi durr chi sadaf ox^ *^ }$ **> lt whether
pearl or oyster shell."
Chi &* also means "because," both in classical and in modern
Persian : Ammd sardar bi-ja-yi in ki az bi-parvcffi-yi u bar ashubad (chi
hctrgiz chunan harf-fia-yi fn-parva bi-gush-ash na-khurda bud) asar-i khusfmudi
az chihra-ash numdyan shudd**>J$j* **. )ojy^f ^jl ^ij^j^ji A^I ^clapj;!^. Lof
^ ^UUJ u-IVt^ 3* <s*J&*** J*l ( W *dji^ J^^^ \jj> ^ ^5^07^ (Transla-
tion Haji Baba, Ch. XL). In m.c, chi A^, ft because," is sometimes followed
by a pleonastic a^, as: Anchi mi-guyam hi-paririd, chi ki (jjiaraz-i ba shuma
J Note the 2nd perRon Trnperativo after gn \ i.e., <s say them ' don't be.' "
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS. 347
na-damm ^|JJ Ut> O ^P <tf &*. **;*** &> y^ft* **^T ; [better omit ki *f] ( * act on
what I am telling you, because I have no selfish object in view with regard
to it " : (* *A[^L or ^^* or ) *?& l y* j^ v'-M v - ^* a ^ ^/j (j jK ^j| w fcar
rdbi-kunchi 1 liar shab atibab-i sar-dard^ na-shavad (or mi-shavad or khwdhad
shud) "do this so that it may not be a trouble every night": harchi
bi-guyam U-khud ast chi* ki marhamat-i shumd blsh az in-hd-'st p*>, **/>
^^.ifXjf j| J^AJ \+Z c^+^/o &? A^ o**i ^^x> (m.c.) " whatever I say is inade-
quate because your kindness is more than I can express.' }
In poetry chu ^ sometimes stands for ^^, and is often incorrectly
pronounced both ehi and chu. Sometimes ^ occurs for ^ in writing, but
it is a mistake.
6ar ai/a^ buland a/tab
Man u gurz u maydan u Afrasiyab (Firdawsi).
<c When the sun is high in the sky to-morrow
There will be I and my axe in the field with Afrasiyab."
(12) Ta and &ki (adv., conj., prep.) ( ** K and (3 ) have many significa-
tions :*' up to, until, within, by": id injd luj| ^ 4< up to here,"
" hitherto": td bi-hdl Jl^u U up to the present": tdbi-kay ^ G u how
loii^i " ? : td chashm kdr mlkunad *X*j\< pZ^ U (m.c.) <f as far as the eye can
reach " : nami-guzdram bi-ravi td na-gu^l mjd chi ml-kardi ^^. f}&& (m.c.)
^-d/yo <u. Uu| ^5^i lj "I won't let you go till 4 you say what you were
doing here " ; td yak mdli-i dlgar bar ml-gardam ^^^^ j j j*it *^- J
(ra.o.) "I will return by (within) another month."
"By the time" : - Td yak-i rd khalds kard dtyar-i haldk shud \) ^ ^
<xi ^A ^^i ^r ^^ (JSa'dl) 4< by the time he had saved one, the other
was dead " ; ta ruz rawshan shud an tdrik-dil mablag]i-i rah rafta bud & $$*
& & } *r> ^iJU>c J W N cJ^li ^f *A (Sa'dl) " by the time it was light, the black-
hearted mmi had gone a good distance": td ki b khatt dnjd rasld fasl-i
gandum guzashtd bud ^ *^*S ^ ^- ; ^r> ( ^ ^ ^ U (class.) "by the
time the letter reached, the wheat season had passed."
1 Sar-dard *)& j~ "headache/* but dardi sar j~* *) means 4< trouble."
2 Or ta-inki *^}t ^
3 In both classical and modern Persian the ** after **- is usually omitted and
stress should be laid on the word chi **-.
* Note na * lit. "up till you do not.' 1 The na *> could be omitted and
hi j7?A c5*>^ substituted without altering the sense.
6 Or the hi could be omitted. Tarki **$ also means -so that, in order that" ;
this ta ^ is called
348 SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
"In order that: that: to": guftam td aura bi-bdzdr burdand 1 td bi-
farushand *i**jy*J ti&tyjjb *-> fyf U^itf I ordered them to take it (and they
took it) to the bazaar in order to sell it " ; khwdst ta sang-i bar ddrad
^^*^ (Sa'dl ; also m.o.) " he wanted to pick up a stone."
This ta tf with the negative has also the force of " Let -not," as :
^4^ dust biyd ta gham-i fardd na-khurim
Vm yak-dam 'umr-ra g&animat shumurim
<k Oh let us not forecast to-morrow's fears,
But count to-day as gain my brave compeers ! ' '
(0. K. 312 Whin).
" And" : AA*J ^Uy Jo ^3 (1 yo\3 ^^ \^\ ura bi-'jlr ta man turd yak tumcin
bi-diham (m.c.) "catch him and I'll give you a tuman 2 "; here ^ could
not take the place of ta &.
' ' As soon as " : *$ osi? **$* ta-rasld guft-ki (m.c.) **as soon as he
arrived he said ."
Ta A dast-i Nasir u -d-din khatam-i shahl yirift
Sit-i dad u ma'dalat az mah ta mahi girift
"The moment (or since 3 ) the hand of Nasiru'd-Dln took the seal
of sovereignity,
The echo of his equity and justice resounded from the Moon to the
Fish (on whose back the Earth rests)."
The above was the inscription on the seal of the late Nasiru'd-Dln Shah
(assassinated).
As a substitute for *>$ " that," and &f than : "
U& j*jj &A.J <J* p,a* &*. G ^ o^o c>-O^ ^Uij/^.*
* Umr-i giran-maya darln sarf shud
Ta chi khuram sayf u chi pusham shitd (Sa'di).
" Our precious life passed in the thought of what to eat in
Summer and what to wear in Winter."
Guftam bi-raw va bi-nigar id klst c~~A r ^> j&*) )J (**& ( vu ^- m - c 5 a ^ so ^)
" I said, go and see (that) who is it."
Kardan-i in bihtar ast td an &)& o^f ^j ^ c^^ (m.c.) " it is better to
do this than that."
1 The past tense shows that the order was carried out; '* I ordered them
and they took -- " : if the Aorist bi-barand **j* to were (as it might be) used here, it
would merely indicate that the order was given: it might or might not have been
-carried out.
Or ura bi-glr ; man lura yak tuman ml-diham
(m.o.). Ta is not used like this in Urdu.
3 This 13 i 8 called
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS. 349>
It is not known l ; perhaps :
In sabza ki imruz tamdshd-gah-i md'st
Ta l sabza-yi khdk-i ma tamdshd~gah-i foist.
" As now these flowerets yield delight to me,
So shall my dust yield flowers, God knows l for whom.' '
61 Have a care " ; bewars* (This meaning of ta 13 is poetical) :
Ay ki shakhs-i man-at haqir namud
Ta durushti hunar na-pinddri(S& l di).
<c Oh thou to whom rny person appeared mean
Have a care that thou mistakest not coarseness for merit."
Bi-bln ta l turd na-zanam (rn.c.) " take care I don't whip you."
" Behold look here" *$ p\*&j U? AO. 13 ta chi gunah karda-am ki
(Sa'di) c< now what fault have I committed that ? " This is not the ta-yi
tajahul, as it might, at first, appear.
*' As long as" : j>-> ^ ^)\* cli^ &$ ta ki 3 'aql dan may na-khur (m.c.
and class.) " so long as you have sense, drink no wine."
Since the time that :
K'in zamdn panj panj ml-girad
Ta shuda Mu*min u Musalmand (Mush u Ourba).
" that now (the cat) kills five at a time
Since he has become a believing Muslim."
Until: Ta U with or without the negative: vide 123 (e).
61 How much the more" *~y *a. U: A gar kardjak 4 az sardi mi-mirad
id chi rasad bi-bulbul cUi> AJ <**j &*. G ^x^ ^ (^^ j\ ^s\jt \ (m.c.) "if the
magpies die of cold, how much more must the bulbuls."
(13) Ki & " that " has still more significations than td U :
(( That " : Ruz-i dlgar chun qdzi hama rd talabld va chub-hd rd did ma'lum
kard ki duzd kist 6 ^ *? *)* & *f (*j^ ^ b ^^ J *H^t b *^ cr*^* ^J^ .* )
(m.c.) "the next day when the Qazi summoned them all, and saw the
sticks, he discovered who the thief was"; this *$ first is called kdf-i bayan
^ ) or kdf-i tafsir (j*~& o!^ ) " the k of expounding.' '
l This ta 13 i 8 called ta-yi tajahul LAAl=pJ 43^. Klat ^^^ for ki ml-bashad
o *^^
This 13 is called *r!; l fj cc^, or
s Or omit the ** '.
* Or zagh f[3 is the common English Magpie; zayhcha *^ ^f) is the Chough,
i dblaq (J^t p^ is the Royston crow, and Kulagh, etc., the Raven.
f Kaf-i iaUfham f^^\ v3^, v^e Intern Pron.
360 SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
" Because" :BS in hama az u bi-g&dyat khd*if va mutahazzir budam ki
_ ~ .***
kasrat-i iqddm-i u bar safk-i dimd } mi-ddnistam ^3*1* ^ Ui'Uw o^Uj y y
ff<x?i oj' tf j*^ (class.) "in spite of all this J 1 stood in
great fear of him and ever remained on my guard, because I knew his
excessive eagerness to shed blood" : an pisar rd zadam ki mufsid bud tjj** c/f
ty *~&* *>' ft) "I beat the boy, because he was a mischief-maker." This
ki is called kaf-i 'illat ( ^^ ol< ) or kdf-i tcfRliyya ( *-JUl*^ v3'<" } "the
causative ki."
" When* ; if" : cu-Jb^i pd> ^Lifxu x> ^i& <jtj*\j9 <^U j J^i ^f j>?yk
hargiz an zawq va shadl faramusJi na-kunam ki plndashtam ki gandum-i
biryan-ast (Sa'di) " never shall I forget my delight and joy when I fancied
it was parched wheat " : in ra mi-gujt ki u dakhil shud *^ JL
*' he was saying this when she entered,' ' this ki is called 3
Qadr-i rah ki lay kard ^ ^ tf !; ^5;*^ (m.c.) ll ivhen he liad travelled
a short way."
Sometimes this *S ki can be translated by k< if," as: Mi-dani khwahar-i
tura ki bi-Khan bi-dihim ^**v &(=. AJ &f yyfcj^ ^1^ (m.c.) " you know
that if we give your sister to the Khan in marriage " ; here the Subjunc-
tive or Aorist after *$ signifies supposition or doubt; this ki *' is called
M ^
kaf-i shartiy^a ( ^>j^ o f ^ ).
"What will you lose if at your distressful lover
You cast one kind glance, oh cruel girl ? "
" Whether": Ahvdli in jd ma'lum nami-shud ki in jazira buzurg ya
khurd ast * ^^>\ ^ ^ ^> tyj+> ^ ** ** ^ fJ*** ^ ^ Jj^ (Afghan)
"nothing was known to me about this island whether it was large or small " :
?$ vf $ *^*i ^ (*^ <*& <jW* ** (**/ J [ ^3^ bdz hhayal kardam ki * bdld-yi kalak
bi-ravam yd piydda az db guzaram ' (m c.) " again I considered whether [direct
narration] I should go there in the raft or wade there " : va rdy-i kam*kunan
dar mashiyyaUi Allah ta'dlq ast ki savdb dyad yd khatd
UL"* Lj x^f vV* ** cu ** f c^^ *^ ! (Sa'di) * 4 and it depends upon the will of
God whether the opinion expressed by my companions proves right or
1 Note meaning of ba-in hama &fr^l ^ *'m spite of " ; dima* s^*b pi. (streams of
blood) to signify excess: kasrat-i i?dam ffA^I e^^ two substantives rendered in
English by a substantive and adjective.
5 Perhaps elliptically used for vaqt-i ki ^^) .
B Mufajat from ^P* ** falling on anything unexpectedly, rushing upon unawares" :
marg~i mufajat e>U&c J^c sudden death. "
* In m.c. kayfiyyat ma'lum nami-shud ki in jazira kuchak ast ya buzurg
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS. 351
wrong." l lbl&J J^t f '*>
< Or " : in fc&aft ra mi-kh walil ki an ra ly f *Z <$* !>=>* I; v^ o- 1 * ' do you
want this book or that? " ; this ki *t is called kaf-i tardid ( *jy ,J!<) <: the
& of opposing, or the disjunctive &."
"Saying that" : Sayyah-l glsuvan* 1 bar laft ki, "Man *Alavi-yam," *
va ba qdfila-yi Hijaz bi-shahr dar amad ki, <f Az hajj mi-ayam" va qasida-% pish-i
malik burd ki, "Man gufta am " 3^^ ^iiUI ^ j p'^ er *^ -^il3y i^lr-**? v^'-i**
l* ( <xli> ^yo A*' jy eXU ^AJ x^A05^ j+yf (^ ^ 3' *^ A<J f ^7t^ (Sa'dl) 3 <e a certain
travellei* fingered his curls and said he was a descendant of 'AH; he entered
the city with the pilgrim caravan from Hijaz, and gave out that he had
returned from the Mekka pilgrimage ; he took a poem to the king and said
he had composed it himself " : this ki is called kaf-i maqula ( *)yi/o ,J( ) < the
k of the object of discussion."
For *k "rather" : In the following, ki is used for balki aL>, and AJ na
for na tanha li> &i :
iV'a bulbul * 6ar gul-ash tasbih khwan-ast
Ki har khar-l bi-tasbih-ash zaban-ast
li Not only the bulbul on its rose is repeating His praise,
But each thorn is a tongue to praise Him."
2Va qand-i lei mardum bi-surat khurand
Ki arbab-i ma'nl bi-kay/iaz barand (Bustan).
" My poems are not sweets that men eat,
But they are sweets that poets write on paper."
This ki is called kaf-i mubalag&a (<*AJU"0 J() "the k of amplification or
superiority," or the kaf-i taraqqt ( ^y o! ) " the k of climax."
Instead of i^U^ or " lest 9 ' : Mara bisyar khawf bud ki dar panja-yi anha
l Note the order of this sentence in Persian.
* Qisuvan c^"Hi are the long locks like those worn by the Baluchis.
8 'Afawl <jE>k, or 'Alavl, a descendant of *A1I, the son-in-law of tho Prophet.
Hijaz is Mecca and the adjacent territory, Arabia Petra. Qasida 15^^ is an ode or
elegy longer than a yhazal \jj*-
Note that each of the three * means "saying that" and introduces the direct
narration.
Also that ^ takes the place of a point in punctuation.
^ The bulbul cW^ or Persian nightingale is the lover of the rose. It sings best
when the roses come into bloom, and is said to build its nest in rose-bushes.
852 SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
na-yuftam ' ^Siu t^f i^ ;a *S ty J^ ;U-*o y> (Afghan) " I had a great fear
lest I should fall again into their power " : correctly in m.c. khayll tars bud
and bi-ijuftam. Zan-i hajjam az bim-i an ki avaz-i u na-shinasad va bar an
hal wiquf na-yabad yara-yi javab dadan na-dasht *x*UAJ y jtyf a&f +yj\ ^lux ^3
vi~foJ &\& w^ ^f;U <ioUJ oyj JU of/ 5 (Anw. Suh., Chap. I, St. 8) "the
barber's wife in terror lest he should l recognize her voice and so become
aware of what was going on, had not courage to answer " (East. Trans.) ;
the negatives are incorrect.
Bar zamin-i bi-farsh naml-nishlnad ki libasha-yi u chirkm bi-shavad
*r> (^fjt*- j\ o-l^V ** ***& ^ u2y ^ &**) j> (m.c.) " he does not sit on
the bare ground lest his clothes should get dirty."
Instead of *t 6, "so that" etc. : Generally with a negative and the
Present Subjunctive, as : Snkhan-i yavana-khwaham guft ki mardum 'ayb-am
ua-kunand *xU& ^c f&j* *>' vi^A? ^Af^iJ j^L ^^^ ; if the negative be omitted
the conjunction becomes kaf-i 'ilfat ^j^ic J(^, as: sukhan-i yava na-khipaJiam
guft-ki mardum 'ayb mi-kunand (or bi-kunand) ft>j* &' o^i? +*lj.^> $>'j ^aeu.
( yxi^j or ) cxiiXiu* *-**.
(( of doing" : Khayal kardam ki bi-ravam fjjj *> +*j* JU^. (m.c.)
c< I thought of going."
"And; while " : Kaf-i 'atj ( uik* o^ i " the conjunction k" :
i tiz-raw ki bi-mand
* Ki ' khar-i lang jan bi-manzil burd. (Gul.)
** Oh ! Many is the swift steed that has lagged behind,
While (or and) the broken-down ass has reached the stage's end."
" As; B just as ; like " :
Ohunan ml-khurad zangl-yi kham ra
Ki zangi khurad mayAz-i badam ra.
Pleonastic ** : f*^*^ c^o^^x o^( ^ ^ ^jla. *f U ^a H jan-am dar tan ast
bi-khidmat hazir-am " as long as I live I'm ready to serve you." Naml-danam
ki aya rafta*ast ya na *J ^ o^ MJ Lf if ^>^w (m.c.) or naml-ddnam aya rafta-
ast ya ki na&* *$ ^ ^~' ^*; ^1* ^'^ t5** *' I don't know whether he has gone or
1 Mabada \^ could be substituted for &f . Confusion regarding a negative
verb alter verbs of doubting and fearing, is not uncommon even in English : for
44 I don*t think he will come," English country people say, " I doubt that he will
come/ 'and " I doubt he won't come." In the example, the negative should be
omitted. Similar confusion also exists, after the particle ta i( as long as, until," in
Persian ; and after jab tak in Urdu.
That he should not recognize, cf. Latin veror ne; vide also 133.
8 Baray-i tashbih.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS, 353
not " : this A*', though occasionally inserted in speaking in Persia, and though
common in India both in writing and talking, is probably incorrect. After
verbs of asking or saying, a pleonastic ki can be inserted, as : pur Ad (ki) kujd
mi-ram ^jj*> ^ ( *$ ) *>**^ (m.c.) " he asked me where I was going " : guft
(ki) nami-ddnam fi\**+> (**) ^+*f (m.c.) "he said he did not know":
a pleonastic ki often occurs after an oath, as : bi-khudd ki urd az jdn *aziz-tar
ddram f^yJO* o^ jf fjjf *
Native Grammarians call this A^, kdf-i zinhdriyga, and say it is equal to
zinhdr. It may, however, be pleonastic.
Emphatic * with Pronouns : In m.c. ki is often used to emphasize a
pronoun: man ki nami-ddnam p^**+> A^X* (m.c.) "I who don't know (but
/ don't know) " ; zarar-1 ki bi-shumd na-ddrad ^fOJ (+&> &$ ^s)j* (m.c.) "it
won't do you any harm."
" But" : In m.c. A**, sometimes before a pronoun in a short phrase, has
the signification of *' but " in English : jyo &? jt u ki murd " but he's dead."
The m.c. phrase p&i) *$ Uo md-ki raftlm (m.c.) signifies " we're off, we're
gone " (when about to start on a journey). These were the last words of
Fatah 'AJi Shah on his death-bed.
In :
the ki is emphatic or bardy-i tahsin-i kaldm, but some Grammarians call
it za*id. Ditto in az kujd ki chumn bi-kunam?, and bi-firdq-i ydrdn chi-ha ki
na-didam ?
Ljfe . i n na-buvad htch dagrhd-bdz ki u jf X }bli^ ^ ^ f the ki is called
kdf-i tashbih ( AJ^> vJ( ) "the k of similarity" and supposed to be equal
to mid ; it is also called kdf-i musdvdt ( otjU* of ) or kdf-i tasviya ( &>#** J^ }
" the k of equality." It might almost be translated by *' but."
"Comparison": For the use of a^ instead of y in comparisons, 1 vide
46 (d) (3), and (v) (1) : this is called kdf-i tafzil ( J*A& JK ) " the comparative
&"; also kaf-i naf* ( && vJK ) '*the negative &," since na-ki can be sub-
stituted for it.
For this particle ( <Jj^ ) as a relative pronoun, vide 42.
Remark L Ki *$ and chi A&. are largely used in forming compounds, as :
dnki A&f "he who"; chundnki' 1 A&Uo. "however much," etc.: *&
magar dnki " except " ; pas dngdh ki & (? e>T crJ "when, after that "
1 In **b <J\tfc * *J >i^y^ itijf (Gul.); for *$ either jl or A^ A> can be
substituted,
2 For various significations of chandanki, vide 92 (d) (13);
23
354 COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
ya dnki *&f U, or yd dnchi 1 <*of tj [yd dnchi shumd mt-gu^d sidq-ast va yd
dnchi man mi-guy am fij^** &* *f^T l * j *+*>) c3 t> ^ ^^^^ U **Jf I (m.c.)] :
ham-chundnchi AfuU*v+A <* in the same manner as, etc."
Remark IL In m.c., ki *$ introducing a subordinate clause in the
Subjunctive is frequently, if nofc generally, omitted, as: bi-gu bi-ydyand
oi,Uj^& (m.c.) "tell them to come " : similarly in interrogative sentences :
taqsir-i man chi chtz ast mard ml zanand ? <MJ) ^ lyo cu*of j^a. **. c/^^^
(m.c.) " what is my fault (that) they are beating me (for it) ? "
Remark III. Both classically and in m.c., ki &f is often omitted after
guftan <jyu , when it introduces the words of the speaker, and also after one or
two other verbs, as : u namt-ddnist chi khwdhad-shud *> t^f^A &*. v^^Jiooj^i y (or
insert ki * ) after nami-ddnist o~Jf^W (m.c.) " he didn't know wliat would
happen " ; but in, churiln ahmaq bud ki naml-ddnist dsmdn bdld-yi sar-i u-*t
<A**ojt j^ ^^b c>^T ^^ ^*+> ** W ^^f e^t^ (m.c.) the conjunction ki *S
could not be inserted after nami-ddnist cu~J'<3Jj+> for euphony's sake.
(14) Ayd tf " is it not? " is a particle of interrogation used in direct
and indirect narration, as: dyd Isidda ast yd (ki) * na? & *$ k cu^t a:>U~ot Ijf
(m.c.) " is he standing or not ? " : ^ f^ o^tf p*^* o^ ^ J^ Jjfi ^^
( ^^olfcf ^U. }-~j ***$ <Jkj~*j *^ Ijf *> ; %a m/a msi? o~*>o t^uuf It 4< is he not
here '* " Ayd ^T also signifies '* whether," as : nami-ddnam dyd (or ki) rafta-
ast yd na ^ ^ t o | <ui; ( ^ or) ^f ^H^ (m.c.) " I don't know whether he has
gone or not 8 " ; ( ^^-^l ^ ) ;^ ^ vs! t^^f*^ ^^ 5 ' ^ f>\<**> " I don't
know whether the mahaut was captured or not
a> b $& *XA^ cu^^ tx> ^^j ^i>oU> ^ j}LU L,f J
( <>r iuxAfc) AJta. ). As already stated in Interrogative Verbs, interrogation is
usually expressed by intonation or gesture : dyd kf is rare in m.c., magar ji*>
generally taking its place; vide 89 (j) (8).
<; Whether" can be paraphrased as follows: Raf tan-am yd na-raftan-
am* mislri ham-ast o*t ^ JJx> ^ixy L ^iii; (m.c.) *' it is the same whether
I go or don't go " (lit. my going or not going are alike).
92. Compound Conjunctions.
(a) Compounds of two or more Conjunctions :
m.c.^ vagar, and if.
m.c. *>/j vagar na, and if not, otherwise.
l Ya Inlci eharab bi-khur ya anki az majlis-i shuma mi-ravam (m.c.) 4t either drink
or I'll go."
* The *f being unnecessary is better omitted ; vide Pleonastic *& in No. (13).
8 In India ay a ty can begin the sentence, as : ay a ml-ravad ya naml-ravad yakl-'at
* * it is all same whether he goes or not. ' '
* Note negative infinitive c^M/ : nS-ra/tan (J^) U would also be correct.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS. 355
-\
v and but, but.
in j
m.c. ^Jj 'Gall
m.c. (J-&J? vallkin
m.c. *^ft agarchi i
/i , f i - t although.
(class.) *A.y garchi y
m.c. (jM kdsh l "1
(obs.) <V
ra.c. attfc kashki I may ifc happen> God Send ' h ' W uld
m.c. ^^1^ kashak-l
m.c. y j va-law, even if, although.
m.c. Jj or <*&> , bal-ki * orbal, what is more, moreover, rather: in m.c.
perhaps, 91 (ft) (7) and 89 (4) (2).
m.c. <*&^ chun-ki. since, wide 91 (b) (8).
(obs.) e)j wan, but, yet, however (obsolete).
^j
(h) The optative word kashki, etc. ( UJ o^ or t*j> cJ^ ) is in classical
Persian followed by the Past Habitual tense, 3 whether the idea is future or
past: kashki sa'adat-i shahddat darydftaml ^^^^ ^^V** ^^ l ^ (^fe (class.)
" oh, would that I could obtain (or could have obtained) the happiness of
martyrdom." Kash c4'< or kashki ^^K, etc., can be preceded by ay, as:
isty. &**)1 L${+> 4^*^ is\ ay I kash-ki ja-yi aramldan budl "Ah! would
there were a place of rest from pain." (0. K. 442 Whin.)
In modern Persian, however, the Imperfect is generally used for future,
and the Pluperfect for past, time : kashki mi-dmad *x>f <y (^&>1S (m.c.)
" would that he would come" (also had come), but kfisfi-Tci anjd manda
budam +ty J^JU lauf ^^tf (m.c.) "would that I had remained there (and
not come here)."
The Aorist can in modern Persian be also used as an Optative Future,
as : kash bi-ydyad *U> <j( (m.c.) <e would that he would come."
(c) Conjunction and Preposition, etc. :
ni.c. J^ bi-juz, excepting.
m.c. ^ or f*b bd-ham or bi-ham, together.
m.c. +* )\ az-ham, 4 apart.
1 Also kaj (old).
2 Occasionally Qhalat. kardam pbj* "** " I have erred, misstated," and nay nay
^ <y 44 no, no " supply the place of balki *^J. 5ai J?, balki *&*.
3 This tense is formed by adding the ya-yi istimrari ^)ls**+* 4,5^} (the ya of repeated
action) to the Preterite : this tense may also take the prefix ml (class, me) of the
Imperfect ; but after agar \ and kashki ^^, the prefix is usually dispensed with.
* Ru-yi-ham p* ^jj) * * one on the top of another ' ' ; pusht-i sar-i ham p*> j^ ( -^*J
** one behind the other, continuously " ; sar-i ham f* j+ contiguous ; ru-yi ham rafta
***) f* (Jf}) or colloquially ru-yi ham +*> ij), on an average.'*
356 COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
m.o. fA Jte * misl~i ham, alike, the same.
m.c. p*j ^^ pusht-i sar~i ham, one behind the other.
(Indian) +*> $ ta-ham, nevertheless.
(d) Conjunctions are also formed by the union of adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, and pronouns :
*. 7 , , ) notwithstanding all; in spite of: however
har chand } . . _ , v
, , J7 . much; vide (1).
har chand ki
ar in \ ,, ,. , .
| therefore ; accordingly ; in consequence of
bind bar an / ,,,. ,, ,. ., /ftx
, \ (this or that) ; ^e (2).
na%ar bar m A '
w) zwa-ld \ t .
T . , . < therefore, because; veae (3).
chwa-ly, v y
m.c. o^ (j,jf jf aa; m jihat \
m.c. ^ ^31 02: m ru f for this reason; therefore; vide
(class.) $ ^) zin-ru ( (3).
m.c.) ^xc ^tjt az tnsabab
m.c. ^ c^j 1 az
m.c. ti^ li-liaza -for this; therefore; wrfe (3).
mod. !<>J K-sa
m.c. *&f jt ^^J p*5A ^2; aw H, before that ; v*We (4).
m.c. &&T jf ^*j 6a'^ az an k^, after that; vide (4).
m.c. js*j ^x5 min ba'd, afterwards ; vide (5).
m.c. 0"$*" si-pas* afterwards.
m.c. *$ ^jf as; 6a5 ki, inasmuch as ; since (causal) ; from much ; vide (6).
m.c. 4Uaaf{ al-qissa* \
m.c. <*x4U Mw?a5a > well, in short.
m.c. ^^ bari )
m.c. A^^AJ tj ba-vujud-i-ki in spite of; in spite of all this;
m.c. <*&J| <3**jk ba-vujud-i 8 tw-W / although ; while ; vide (7) i.and
m.o. A+A (^| ^ io-i/i hama J (8).
m.c. *^/f agarchi \
m.e. A^/ garchi* \ although; vide (7) andi(8).
(class, only) ^i^/t agarchand }
w/, adj., is in Arabic a noun.
Lit. <4 The story," Ar.
& Can be answered by baz.
* Garchi poetical only.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS. 357
m.c. *S ^X^A harchand-ki "|
m.c. **^A harchi j
m.c. *$ (^\ **A*)(* bd vasj-i In ki or ^vide (9).
m.o. A^vlu^ I bd-vdsf-i ki
m.c. *^T lj bd-dn-ki
m.c. *^ stfjA or &j&,hargdh or hargdh ki, whenever; in m.c. if, w'de (10).
m.c. &&&j jf 2 vaqirl-ki
^ . - 7 . [since; wde (11).
m.c. *& i j| az an ki )
m.c. f& e/f j| az-dndam, since, vide (11).
(class. 1 and m.c.) A' l*u| Jf a^-aTi ^"a ii )
, - , . [since; seeing that; vide (3).
m.c. A&JA. chunki } &
m.c. j^e ^*A hamin tawr, while; wde (25).
m.c. U>UA hamdn ~]
m.c. A^M^A hamin-ki
^as soon as, i?ae (12)
m.o. o^^v oi-manz i
m.c. o^+J bi-mujarrad [m.c. ^a] J
x . . T _ 7 . , i as soon as ; however much ; not-
m.c. A&ixxfc. chandanki* \ . , ,. ,
< withstanding: as long as; as
m.c. &awt^A. chanddnchi i , ., /10 v
f much as; vtcZe (13).
m.c. r i^U m&ddm long
m.c. ASo-(^Lo ma-ddm-i-ki
m.c. Auji c* mg iw-fci )
m.c. Aap^^^f a^a?* chundnchi, as it were
m.c. A^ IJ ^ chundnchi >vide (16).
m.c. A^UA. chundnki, as for example
m.c. **0jfe laivr-i-ki* in the manner that ; vi^e (17).
(the fact is that; whereas;
m.c.
, .., , ,.
^ , , though; notwithstanding;
m.c. *$ J^. Aoi-ii j ., /1QV
w (18).
m.c. ^v^^ vdngahl (pronounced vungahi), more than all, beyond that,
besides.
m.c. &Q>)j<e )* dar surat-l-ki, inasmuch as ; in case ; in the event of ;
vide (19).
m.c. JL=v# bi-har-hdl, at all events; however; vide (20).
(rare in coll.) !** *> ma'-hdzd, with that ; in spite of; vide (21).
1 In m.c. az-an ja-l-ki
* The use of chandanki &&}*&* for "a soon as " is classical only.
8 In English the comparative conjunctions are just as, in the same measure ew, as if,
than, as (preceded by a correlative), etc.
* Should not be written A&JjU. > In Mod. Pers. always *$ tt>T J la > ) or *#f JU. ^.
358 COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
(class,) j*#\ o^ nihayat" *l-amr, at last; vide (22).
(Indian) ^G ta-ham, 1 nevertheless; vide (23).
m.c. UU* mabada *\
m.c. A&j-yjf az tars-i-ki >lest; vide (24).
a) # G a-^ %
m.c. tf Uy /arz aM fci \
m.c. Af f*j4 girim ki or *r ^f giram > supposing that ; w/e 78
(1) Harchand ^^j*, harchand-hi &? ^^.yfc, harchi &^j*> : Harchandki (or
harchi) bi-shuma guftam ki-anja ma-ravld qabulna-kardid ( t$ *\*j* or) A^^A
**&j& J^ ^^c l*^f ^ (*Ji? UAj (m.c.) f *m spite of all a (or liowever much)
I said to you about nob going there, you didn't listen to my advice";
harchand (or harchi) tangtar bihtar ^ yXu ( A^A or) >>J^^> ' c the narrower
the better" : harchi (or harchand) zudtar bihtar ^vy^3 ( ^-^y* or) A^A
"the quicker the better." Harchi tamamtar y-*>U A^A c 'a much
as possible," as: ba nadamat-i harchi iamam-tar birun amadam az plsh-i u
ji ^j-^JJt f^^T ctf^y^^ A*^ c**'^lj (m.c.) <e lcame out from his presence
with a regret, exceedingly great." Harchi A^A "in the same manner,"
as : harthi In mi-zanad an mi-raqsad ^^^ ^f *j<e ^ A^A (m.c.) t: the one
makes the time and manner of his dance correspond to the playing of
the other."
(2) Bina bar yLu, or bind bi AJ Uj '* having regard to, with regard
for," as: Hala man bina 3 bi-bad-raftariha-i lei dar ayyam-i iqtidar nisbat bi-
ra'iyyat vanawkar azshumdburuzkardaast na-bayad du-bara shughl-i vizarat-ra
bi-shuma ruju' kunam * ^^) AJ c^AyJ ^t^Jj} ^\ ^ A^x'U)U; * AJ U> ^ K^-
^ j>^; ^* ! j ^; ! 3j ^^ *>)^ ji ^'-^ ^^f *^ 3^ ^ 3 f fj* J (m.c.) "now I,
with due regard to (bearing in mind) your ill deeds done 6 by you towards
the peasants and subordinates, must not again entrust you with the office of
vazir " ; ammo, dar shugtii-i vizarat bina bi-islah-i c umur-i mulk va millat az
*** w^
man haqq-i tavaqqu 1 na-khwaJiid dasht o-U j iJU'* ^\ ^i(^l* Uu o;!3^ cl^-j^ Uf
(m.c.) <{ but (I) having due regard for improve-
ment in the state and the people, you will not have the right of expecting
1 Indian and perhaps Afghan.
2 In English the conjunction in this sentence could also be rendered by "notwith-
standing ' ' or * * although. ' '
3 Bina bar could not be used here : after bina bar j&> either an c/f or m ^
follows, or ariki *^T or Iriki A>.uf.
* A Y ote the subject man at the beginning of the sentence, and the verb kunam p**
after bayad &>b
6 Bnriiz kardin u)&jf Jtf *' to come out" = blrfin amadan
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS. 369
anything from me " : hdla maqsud-i mard ddnistid; bind bar an na-bdyad tajdvuz
kunid *& jjt?^ txjtjj cjy lw oui-^t^ tye O^^AJ JJU. (m.c.) "you have now
understood my object ; you must therefore not exceed your instructions ' ' :
bind bar dnki man khddim-i qadlmi-yi shumd has tan dnchi l arz ml-kunam 'ayn-i
maslahat ast cuscJLA* ^^ p&* u*j* *5^T *w& (+t> ^-j^' (*>^ ^^ A&T ^ &
o*t (m.c.) " because I am your old servant, what I tell you is quite right " :
nazar bar in ki shumd marhamat na-ddrid man tar/c-i khidmat mi-kunam
p&$x> o/o3^w,jy ^.yo j^t^j e^4^x> U^ A&uty^JaJ (m.tt.) " with regard to this (i.e-
because) you have no compassion on me, I will leave your service."
Remark. Conjunctions denoting inference [therefore, wherefore, hence,
whence, consequently, accordingly, thus, so, then], are called 'illative.'
(3) Chird-ki &$ ^ "because that." Man In shukhun rd bi-shutnd
mi-guyam chird ki ddarn-i khub-i hastid ^ & \j*. (+ J .** f Ui ij ^**^> ^] ^o
^ (m.c.) " I tell you this because you are a trustworthy person" ;
*^ \) jl^o &*\ f -y ^A*^ ijr^. &$ oJ/ oi^jjc \)}\ u rd ghayrat l yirift ki chird
jami'-i mardum In dukhtar rd dust ddrand (m.c.) "emulation seized her
because every one was fond of this girl ' ' ; (note that chird l>*- after *$
is properly interrogative introducing the direct narration , saying that
"why is everybody fond of this girl? 11 ): az in jihat (or az mru } QYazin
sabab, or az baray-i m) man bir shumd guftam ki diqargird-iinkhayalna-gardid
J^ ^ ^ j>.& *-' (*^^ '*^ e,^ ( &J ^j- y ^>r ^^ ^ y or ^ ^)\ or ) ^=F*M3t
xv^C (m.c.) "for this reason I told you this, that you should not think
further on the matter; I told you this, so that you might give up this
idea. ' '
Lihdzd 1^ ; u ki nihayal-i mihrabam* rd bd man ddrad li-hdzd man ham
bd u mihrabdn 1 hastam p*~*> d)hjf j\ ^ p* c^ ! V v '^ fl> &* ^ ^ ^jt* ^ f t^ ^
(m.c.) " since he is exceedingly kind to me, 1 too (therefore) am kind to
him."
Remark. The causal conjunctions are called ^^ ^j^ or
(4) Pish az dn-ki A^T;t cr^, ba e d az an ki *tfy ^* : '. Pish az an ki man
tnjd Iri-yayam^ u rd didam ^*Vo t^f pd# [^^ &<> &&\ jf <j*^^ (m.c.) ** before I
came 3 here I saw him " : ba'd az ankiaz nazd-i shumd murakhkfais shudam sar-
dard-i sakht-i bi-man 'ariz shud +*
(m.c.) e< after I left you I had such a bad headache."
J Qhayrat CI^AP is a good quality ; ghayrat-i mazjiabi, { j**>*' ^}*f " religious zeal.'"
^ Note this m.p. pronunciation of mfhrban ,' the Afghans also say mihraban, but
not the Indians.
8 Note the Present Subjunctive in Persian for the Preterite in English
360 COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
Remark. Note that while' the conjunction * before that ' requires a
Present Subjunctive in Persian, ' after that ' is followed by the Preterite as in
English.
(5) M in ba"d **t ^*> : Td hdld harchi bud guzasht, min ba'd bihtar raftdr
kunid ooi^Ui;^ *x*j ^ C*A? ^ a^y* Jfl^U (m.c.) " up till the present what-
ever has happened has happened, but for the future do better."
(6) Az bos lei *** jf : Az bas ki bi-u guftam khasta shudam f& jL> A-*? ^
f*& *i*x (m.c.) "I told him so often that I got tired" ; az bas-ki hama-y
mardwndn mi-mirand, dar jahdn dil na-bdyad bast OO^A* ^ ^to^o && A-J jt
^+~^ ^4^ J* &{&> )t (Indian) ft inasmuch as all men die, one should not
cling to this world only " ; in this sentence chunki *&>^* , or az an jd-t ki
t&iUufy, or bind bar in ki *&^ lw, or zird ki *'LHj> or az In sabab ki *^**~
*^ or az jihat-i an ki A^jf *+^j\ 9 etc., could be substituted.
i-gazam u ah mi-kasham
Atash zadam chu gul bi-tan-i lakht lakht-i khwish
(Hdfiz).
^Lr^ 3 1
6ew &' ^Aam va anduh az
atrdf va javdnib-i vay fard girifta l va mihnat-i ambuh bar havdK-yi vay mustawK
gashta, hlch chlz bar man az suhbat-i dil dushvdr-tar nisi (Anv. Suh., Chap.
V., St. 2.) "and inasmuch as grief and melancholy have usurped every
quarter and part of it, 2 and a throng of troubles have overrun its limits,
there is nothing more hard for me to bear than the society of my heart
and" (East Trans.).
Az bos ki <*~o y in Indian Persian often corresponds to the English
'inasmuch as,' and differs little from ' because* (vide last example).
In modern Persian, however, it is used in the sense of " because I did
a great deal," as: ^4z bas ki muntazir-i shumd nishashtam khasta shudam
px AwA. piu&i U^ jjfelix a.~o j (m.c.) " I waited for you such a long time that
I got tired." Man zabdn-am muy dar-dvurd, az bas ki bi-m nasihat kardam
f&if c^a\A^aj ^t &**)y ^f j& ^jx> ^t>j ^c (m.c.) "hair grew on my
tongue, from continually warning him."
(7) Bd vujud-i iti &j>&j*. 9 (> : Bd vujud-t ki urd nasihat kardam na~shariid
**& r ^T cuu^ |; 9 t A^^^b (m.c.) "in spite of the fact that (although) 8 1
warned him, he did not listen." In this example, 65-ww/- anki*
1 Ast understood.
2 ''It" = my heart."
3 This, as well as other words signifying * although," can often be answered by Jl*
or Lcf
* Or ba-vaaf-i ki
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS. 361
or agarchi *^/f, or harchi **^ A , or ba-lnki *&*f lj, or hal~an-ki a.^f JU.
or har chand ki &S *^A, could be substituted without materially altering the
sense.
The obsolete agarchand ai^/l would give the same meaning.
(8) Agarchi *^/l : agarchi u murd amma ja-yvafsus nist ^>f *j* j\ ** \
vi~*i urr -3f ^U. (m.c.) " although he died, it's no matter of sorrow."
(9) Ba-vasf-i Inki *vl Ju>) U : Ba-vasf-i m ki bi-shumd sifarish kardam
bar k&ilaf-i an kar kardld ***jZ $ c>f o^ ^ f*j? o*)^- L *^ *&Jt ****j ^ (m.c.)
" although I warned you many times, yet you acted against what I told you,"
[or hal an ki *&T JU* (vide 18) instead of ba vasf-i m ki a&uf ui^ l> ].
(10) Hargahltfj* in m.c. has usually the meaning of "if": Hargah
bi-shuma na-gufta budam haqq ba-shuma bud *j* U^> b &*> ( -^j Axi/li l+j ^j*
(m.c.) '* if I had not told you, you would have been in the right.' ' Classically
it means "whenever," but c if ' can sometimes be substituted for ' whenever '
without substantially altering the meaning : har-gah yadgar-i shuma ra
khwaham did shuma ra yad khwdham kard r^l*^ ^ (**[?** b *+*> )^^ *^*
& pAj^k jb (class.) '* whenever I look at your 1 keep-sake, it will remind me
of you."
(11) Az vaqt-l-ki &***j y, az an gah ki *& &f jf, az an dam ki * &f f^ )l :
Az vaqti-ki ura dida-am hdl-am digar-gun-ast &^ j&>* pJ^ /**** \) j\ **ujj\
vs**t (m.c.) "since I have seen him I have been quite upset" : either of the
other two conjunctions, or az an zaman-i ki **J^ e/f jf, could be substituted
for az vaqt-t-ki A^JJ^J y.
(12) "As soon as." Hamln-ki* *5ou^ (m.c.) elliptical for" at the very
time when," hence " as soon as " ; hamin-ki amadam, u raft ^*j ^ f-^f *^H^
(m.c.) " as soon as I came, he went."
Dava khurdan haman, murdan haman&{+* &tj* c^^* &&);**' h* (m.c.) '* as
soon as he took the medicine he died." Bi-mahz-i* khurdan-i davd murd
(m.c.) " merely by taking (i.e. as soon as he took) the
_
medicine, he died " ; or bi-mujarrad-i khurdan-i dava murd &j* ))
>
(m.c.); or bi-mujarrad-i ki davd khurd, murd ^ ^y^ \^ *^^*? (m.c.)
1 In m.c. har-vaqt *^+*j j* would be substituted for har gah ^*, and the
Subjunctive bi-blnam ^Hrf *J for the Future l&waham did
* Or az andam-l-ki *$ <^f^f 3'.
8 But haman ki ahuma dldid man haman ra dldam f*J>
(m.c.) ** I saw just what you did " : haman ki *^>UA cannot be used for " at that very
time. ' '
* Mahz-i bhap.ir-i ahuma U^^-t^ o^- (m.c.) "merely to please you"; 6i-
ft*oj-i didan-i tu 3* e*&& (^SL^J * at the mere sight of you " : in m.c. mahz
is frequently used for baray <^t^, as : mahz-i mulaqat-i u anja raftam j\ orj
^Xij bpjf t4 I went there to see him": m dava mahz-i khurdan va
44 this medicine is to be taken internally and externally."
362 COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
" as soon as he took the medicine he died/ * Td-davd khurd murd
(class, andm.c.)."
Mujarrad <^=F signifies properly ''stripped, bare 1 '; also a "bachelor" ;
bi-mujarrad-i guman e>U? */*+> " on a mere suspicion, merely on suspicion."
Chandan Id A&toJiA. also sometimes signifies " as soon as," vide (13).
(13) Chandan ki *fi^ ' as soon L as " :
****) J <^rH ^$ v.JU uj&ij;* j&> jf J&fdio* chandanki az nazar-i darmshdn
gfipfib gasht bi-burj-\ bar raft (Sa'dl) " as 'soon as he was concealed from the sight
of the darvishes he scaled a tower ' ' : chandanki pds-i az shab bi-guzasht a&toia.
o<& ^ jt ^b (Sa'df) " as soon as a watch of the night was passed."
" However much ," " m spite of all" : A&IJJU*. &?f ;a c^ 1 **;^ &l^a ^ja
v: ^^ c>*^ ^ v^ ^2:^-* dar khana-yi parsa-i dar amad ; chandanki talab kard
chiz-i na-yaft (Sa*dl) "a thief entered the house of a certain pious person;
however much lie searched (in spite of all his search) he found nothing ' ' : guft
zahidanra chanddn-ki talab kardam na-yaftam f&V f*^ v^ 3 A^foo^ fy|^f3 ^
(Sa'di) " he said, * in spite of all my search ' I did not (could not) find those
who were recluses."
" As long* as ' ' : & lj ^ j ^ \> v^li. A&f<>ia. chandanki khak ra buvad u
bad ra baqa (Sa'dl) " as long as the Earth and the Wind exist."
"As much as" : ^fyt j cu-i o>(;t &&**jt 1^ ^JlA> ^\ &* p !y *^l^
j&\j o^ e^fi^ t^ U^JA ^^ ^l chandanki mara dar haqq-i in ta*ifa-yi khuda-
parastan iradalastu iqrdr, In shukh-dida ra ( adavat-ast u inkdr (Sa'd!) "as
much as I like and believe in this body of God-fearing men, this saucy
fellow * hates and denies them " : id bi-ddnt ki cJianddn ki ddnd ra az nd-ddn
nafrat-ast sad cJianddn nji-ddn rd az ddnd vahsliatast &\tfcj\ \j t*f^ A^ioid.^!^ 13
%**! cu^^j L>|^ y yi^ c^lAW *x^ cuW &j& (Sa'di) "so that you may
understand that the ignorant man dreads the wise a hundred times as
much as the wise man hates the ignorant * ' (lit. : that as much as the
wise man dislikes the ignorant, a hundred-fold of that the ignorant man
dreads the wise man ").*
" So much ; to such a degree ' ' :
Bi-diddr-i mardum ahudan 'ayb ntst
Va Ukin na chanddn ki guyand * bas ' (SadI).
" There is no harm in visiting people,
But not to sucli an extent that they exclaim * this is enough '."
In modern Persian, chandanki A&!<>^. is not used in this signification; hangam-i ki
xA, or vaqt-l ki *&***j, or chun i^S-, is used instead.
* In modern Persian used in this signification in writing only: in m.c. " as inuh
, however much."
8 This is said half laughingly.
* Note the order in the Persian and English.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS. 36$
Remark. Chandanchi *Jfxka. is obsolete : it rarely occurs even in old
Persian.
Harchand ura bi-maktab burdandi az miydn-i maydan sar bi-zadi va
chandanchi ta'Kmi khatt-ash dadandl 1 mayl bi-nayza-yi kjiatti namudi ***- j*
(Anvar-i Suhaylf) " when they conveyed him to school, he would
suddenly make off and appear in the midst of the plain ; and whenever they
instructed him in writing, his thoughts darted away to the straight spear."
(Eastwick's Trans.).
(14) [Madam* f\*(* Ar.] ma-dam ki *t fbU, ma-dam-l-ki A^j^bU, ta-
ma-dam-t-ki ***>! ^ I* $ " as long as ' ' :
* oU^cJf ^t^U ma-dam a ''l-hayat " as long as life lasts. 3 "
Mudam *!^/c is an adj. ; bachcha-yi man mudam girya mi-kunad
jj^xx) & \* ^/o ^-l^j (m.c.) " my little child cries continually" : mast-i
mudam as I o^l +\**> *^ < (m.c.) "he is always intoxicated*" : mud,am u -'l-
awqat ^\3$\ ft**> (m.c ) " perpetually " (also dayim u -'l-awqat ^I5^ilf ^U (m.c.).
(15) Guy a ^ or misl-i mki *^ <Ji*> :
^f^axAx ^~ ( a&Jt (Ji or) ^ f^h^ c^t^f avaz-i shamdam guya (or misl-i
mki) kas-i mi-khwanad (m.c.) " I heard a voice as if some one were singing,
(I heard a sound like singing) " : misl-i mki bi-shuma guftam, bi-kunid (m.c.)
XA^J ^lif Uij A^iji <JU*> <{ do as I told you to do."
(16) Chunan ki <*&UA. (old) : chunanchi *apU- (mod.) :
ji^yo A^Jljua. 5 chunnnlci mi-guyand (old) f ' as the saying is " : guft chunan-
ki 5 tu guftl ta*ifa-i hasad burdand ^^ &~** fattls ^t y <^JUa. c^A? (Sa'd!)
' v he replied, * as you said, a number envied me.' "
Chunan- 1 ki ^^11^., or ham chunan ki ^li^u*^, and an chunan ki AxJUaaJf
have a similar signification, as: chunan-i-ki 6 ura zadam tura ham ml-zanam
f*j* p* ty ft) ^ ^ ^JU^. (m.c.) "I'll beat you as I beat him": man
ham-chunan 6 ki bud 'arza 6 dashtam *&o *^ ^ ^SUsu^ ^ ( m .c.) (( I have
' The final ^ of the Past Habit, (with the exception of the 2nd pers. singular) is
wi-yi majhnl in classical Persian, but by modern Persians it is pronounced as aya-yi
ma'ruf.
2 Ar. *?**> liayat.
& Ta-dam-i tnarg ^y f & " till the last breath."
* DayiipP-' *l-khamr j+&3\ *}\& (na.c.) a drunkard." Mudam also means * 4 wine."
5 Or chunanchi ^JU^. .
6 'Arz (jPj* "an oral petition"; 'ariza **&fy* t "a written one": 'arz daram
f)t* CO P ** 1 have a petition to make"; l arz ml-kunam p^? (ji*j* *' I will make (OP
am making) a p(^tition " ; but in the Past tense in m.c. 'arz kardani f^r (JPj**i or
'arza dashtan) /^*lv3 &*ej& (not f arz dashtam *&' OV* ) The Afghans T however,
say *r2 da*htam f*
364 COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
related the matter exactly as it -happened " : guft an chundnki shunldl khalq-i
bi-ta'assub l gird dmadand ****! &J> W*A*& y ^ ^^ t^s***** A&U^. <*/f cx
(Sa'dl) "he said, as you have heard, a whole people collected round
him from fellow-feeling 1 : avarda-and ki kazhdum* rd vilddat-i ma' hud met
chundnki 8 sd^ir-i hayvdndt rd j3\~ A&tx^ o*x> j>>t** &*fy L> fty ** ^ *^f
IjoG^jj*. (Sa'di) "it is said that the scorpion is not bom in the ordinary
manner like all other living things."
* <^0j j* <^) -A. ptyo ^ n hama
mardum chundnchi az durushil mutcfallim na-shudand az narml ham muta^ssir
na-gardidand (Tr. Haji Baba, Chapter VII) " the whole of them were as little
moved by roughness as they were by wheedling."
In Indian and Afghan Persian, chundnchi &^&*> at the beginning of a
clause means " accordingly " : Chundnchi ham-chundn kardam &&**+* *^^*-
fc>/ (Afghan) " accordingly, I did so exactly."
Though in modern Persian chundnchi ^xuUo* may occasionally be rendered
in English by "accordingly," its proper meaning is " so that " or "like,"
or *'for example," and, in translation into Persian, chundnchi must be
employed only when its meaning will admit of one of these interpretations.
Chundnchi *suU^ "like, for example": Dar yak sanduq ashyd-yi
khurdki bud chundnchi (misl-i) nan va* birinj va panir va-yhayra c> ^
*&J JW J **J J ^ *^^ W ufbj** </ l ^ f &**" (Afghan coll.): va har
pddishdhri dgdh ki maddr-i kdr-i khudbar hikmdt nihdda, mavd'iz-i hukamd rd
da8tur u 'l~'amal sdzad, ham mamldkat-ash dbdddn bdshad va ham ra l iyyat-ash
khush-dil va khurram, chundnchi Edy-i A'zam-i Ddbishlim-i Hindi
*b (Anvar-i Suh.,
Chap. I, Intro.) : " and every wise king who, basing his acts on wisdom,
makes the advice of sages his rule of conduct, his state will be prosperous
and his people joyful and happy, like the great king of Hind, Dabishlim
who."
Agar chundnchi u dmad b man mi-ravam fjjt* e/ ^T^f & ^^^\ (rn.c.)
*' if for instance he comes, I'll go; here chundnchi A^uU^ could be expressed
by fi-l-masal \
1 Ta'assub *-***** means " zeal, party spirit."
ft Anciently this word was gazh-dum ftff* In rn.c., the Arabic word l aqrab
is preferred.
3 Or chunanchi *3pj^ .
* The copulative j could be omitted. For chunanchi Af^Ao., it is better to
substitute here az qabil4 dfc** )\, or ma$al an ^i*.
* Note past tense in a condition, for present.
$i not correct Arabic.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS. 365
In m.c., chundnchi AaxiUo. alone is often used for " if " and " so that" :
y* c**j JJD AfoUu*. <^*/<jr>K v^^-c^lj yj cusp.^ fjjf (m.c.) "they bastinadoed
him so severely that he died the next day."
(17) Tawr-ikii
*** &J)*^ cA A p& ! +^ *&j?^ tawr-i-ki bi-shuma guftam hamdn tawr vdqi'
hud (m.c.) " it happened exactly as I told you."
(18) Hal an ki *&f JU :~
Hal an ki bi-shumd guftam na-shunidid &&^ p&> Uu A&f JU. (m.c.)
"although (in spite of the fact that) I told you, you did not listen ": or
bd-vasf-i Inki A&jf Jt*fj I* [vide (9)], instead of hdl an ki <*f JU>.
(19) Dar surat-i ki *)j* jt> "in the event of " :
Dar surat-l ki u bi-yayad man ml-ravam f*>j*> er* ^^ jt *+?)yoj$ (m.o.)
"in the event) of his coming, I'll go."
(20) Bi-har hdl J^^j, etc., " anyhow, at any rate ' ' :
Bi-har l hdl chdra-i nist %^u^x> l^la. Jla^^ (m.c.) " anyhow there is no
help for it."
(21) |iA jx3 W rV ^rT^a = 6a in hama A^^f L> e< still, in spite of " :
Bd-vujud-i-ki bi-u guffam in kdr bi-kunad va na-kard> ma* hdzd tark-i
dusti nami-kunam p& ^ ^^^ ^} \** &j& ) *& )^^ ^ ^ *^*f*& (m.c.)
" although I told him to do this and he didn't, still (in spite of that) I won't
give up his friendship."
(22) yift v^jl^J nihdyat u 'l~amr occurs rarely in writing for^/o^ioa^
dqjbat*'l-amr **at length, at last."
(23) /+A U td-ham " nevertheless ' is not used at all in Persia. It is a
translation of the Hindi tau-bhi ^y : it is Hindustani.
(24) " Lest " : Mabddd fdU*; shay ad ^jU :
The poet says, if you earn anything to-day, you should keep a portion
for to-morrow
Mabddd ki dar dahr dir isti
Musibat buvad piri u nisti (Firdausi).
*' Lest you live long;
For old age and want are a calamity."
\tj* &? faUx> ^.^Jux) y j& jf viJi? guft-az fikr-i tu ml-tarsam
ki duzddn asp rd bi-barand (m.c.) "I fear lest while you are think-
ing, the thieves may steal the horse " : mi-tarsam ki mabddd az injd na-ravam
^y Uciijt y \d& ** (K*J**Q (m.c.) " I fear I shall not get away from here."
In the above examples ** alone could be substituted for mabddd t^Uo
without altering the sense : ham shakk bud ki shdyad (or mabddd) sang 8 az
Or dar har b
Or mi-tarsam ki mabada l^'f* *$
Or sang-l
366 INTERJECTIONS AND INTER JEOTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
bala-yi kuh bar man uftad <&\ &*j>. * ^s^)\ v-&* ( f^y or) <xU tS
(m.c.) '* there was also some doubt that (lest) a stone might fall on me from
the cliff."
In the following Afghan colloquial sentence, mi-tarsam mabada dar
panja-yi dushman na-yuftam p&y er*^ ^^i j* ^^ f*j**' " I am afraid I may
fall into the hands of the enemy," the negative is wrongly inserted owing
to a confusion of thought.
In the following example from the Gulistan the same confusion seems to
*"
exist : andlshld ki agar bar mala* uftad fttna na-shavad M\ ] &*j*\ tf AA&JJJI
s^ && (Sa'di) " he thought that if the matter became known it might give
rise to discord" (i.e., should it become known I hope it won't give rise
to ) : modern Persians object to the negative here.
(25) Hamm taw ki mt-dawd uftad o>Ui[ **j*&t> *Z ^ ^X+A (m.c.) {v he fell
while he was running.' '
93. Interjections and Interjectional Phrases, Greetings,
Compliments, etc.
Interjections consist of either indeclinable particles expressive of
emotion or else of substantives in the vocative case.* Short exclamative
phrases, both Persian and Arabic, also act as interjections. 8
There is no general term for " Interjection." Interjections for regret
are called huruf-i afws <jy*'f vJ^ : for lamentation and grief, hurnf-i-nudba
4bdJ Oj^ : for attracting attention (ay, ya, etc.) huruf-i nidd \> vJj^v :
for admiration, wonder, huruf-i-ta ( ajjub v^*^ <**jj*- ( r kalima-yita s aj)vb
*-**>*> *&) : for warning, huruf-i-rad' , etc., etc.
The following are simple Interjections.
(1) Regret (harf-i-afsus oTharf-i-ta'assuf), or sorrow (harf-i-nudba) :
m.c. ur~^ afsus* ) ,
> alas !
class. U^y^Jt afsusa )
m.c.
m.c. >A \j ^)5 righa or va
\
a f
alas!
va hasrata
f ; note that the final letter is hamza and not alif ; the a is the fcttha
of the law.
* The vocative is either the same form as the nominative or else is marked
bv a final 3. The vocative alif in such words, as diriyha [**jb> alsoaydm^a ^j(i ^t,
is called atij-irnuiba *>** *^f . The latter form is used in the singular only. Dirigh
leardan &*jffc}* or dashtan 4^*^t> "to withhold, deny ": dirigh amadan c"^-*T J^)^
* to be sorry, regret " : dirigh nlst ^^ &)* " you are welcome to it."
8 Chodzko aptly compares the interjection to a species of musical note that gives a
tone to the whole phrase.
* Also sad hayf -ft^ &* and htizar afsua
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC. 367
m.c. uush. hayf 1
.. ._ _ tpity!
class, uka- hay fa
class, tap fj z;a darda or tj>;a darda, oh grief!
class. lj vah "\
m.c. ^Ij t,I C ah, alas.
class. j #w/i J
m.c. uj4J c5^ wM bi-man, woe to me.
m.c. *f aft )
I * -7 - C a si gh !
m.c. Uf a&a >
m.c. olfAA hay hat alas.
class, pf avakh* alas.
class. *kj txi^/a, alas.
m.c. &> 5 I^ va vayla, alas.
class. li%t 1^ vaasafa, oh my sorrow, alas.
m.c. <y ^ c^l^ ^t ay MaA; 3 6ar sar-am, dust on my head! (said on
occasion of death or when a false statement is made) ; vide (3).
Examples : viw <jfoeJ* ^^^ r; ^y tf >Jt afsus ki baradaram sakht
na-khush ast (m.c.) "my brother, I regret to say, is very ill."
Dawr-irjavani bi-shud az dast-i-man
Ah u datight an ziman-i dil furuz 6 (Sa*di)
" The time (revolution) of youth left me,
Ah alas! for that glad time."
Har ki shah an kunad ki u guyad
Hayf bashad ki juz niku guyad (Sa*dl).
" He on whose word the King (relies and) acts
A pity it were he should speak aught but the truth."
Hayf ast ki in-ha ra bi-burand 6 (m.c.) " it is a pity to cut these " :
*H e>!^ ^ (*^ hayf-i-Qhulam Eiza javanbud^ (m.c.) " alas for GhulamBiza,
he was young."
1 Also sad Jiayj -*#* ** and hazar ajsiia
* In speaking, aM ft is used for "Alas," as well as for an exclamation of pain
"Oh!"
3 Or bar sar-am alone: chi bhak bar sar-am fj^jl ^^ ^ " Oh what shall I do."
* The Persians refer all changes of fortune to the revolution of the heavens. Dawr
))& "revolution " also means the circulation of the wine cup.
6 From afruj&tan c^jj^f to kindle : also dil afruz ))f\ J^ (generally applied for
a lover).
6 Generally pronounced with only one r.
7 Applied to a dead person.
368 INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTION AL PHRASES, ETC.
tt/f
An murgh-i tarab ki ndm-i u bud shabdb
Farydd ! na-ddnam ki kay dmad kay shud
" A bird of youth ! I mark not when you came,
Nor when you fled, and left me thus forlorn."
(0. 155 K. Whin.)
In the following, the poet's plaint is addressed to himself :
Fa dsajd / vd dsafd / Iran 'ajab dar khwdb-i ghaflat ast (modern) " Alas !
alas ! In what a sleep of forgetfulness is Iran sunk " : ay khdk bar ear-am In
chi haif-ist (m.c.) < alas what words are these (i.e. they are untrue)."
Remark. Sometimes a verb is equivalent to an interjection, as :
Own bdd-i ajal ohirdg]i-i ( umrat bi-kushad
Tarsam ki turd zi-nang nap'zirad khdk
'* When winds of death shall quench your vital touch,
Beware lest earth your guilty dust expel/*
(0. K. 296 Whin.)
(2) Admiration ( e>O*f J e^-* 3 ^ oj^ ) (real or feigned), and surprise
m.c. vdh vdh Vj fy, good, good.
m.c. AJ u bah bah, 1 well done ; also, how nice.
m.c. erir^ dfirin, (create a ) ^
class. 1} zih ^ well done !
class. ^AJ zihl )
m.s. <j2ljU shdbdsh 3 hurrah (in India, well done).
m.c. {1 r~**\ ahsanf first rate !
1 For bih bih * AJ, 4< good, good", afrlnama Ax>U^j (^afrmbud
is a Zend word occurring at the end of Gabr prayers, and signifies " Oh God ! may our
prayer be more than what we are able to express. **
2 O God create more for us.
8 Classical also : much used by Afghans and Indians in speaking.
# ."ft' * < <,' * ' '<*'
4 \ JUif U or w JUif are two Arabic forms expressing admiration, as:
+
O 6*
of Af> (<j~&) "how handsome is Zaid."
1NTERJJEOTIONS AND INTERJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC. 369
m.c. Ua^/a marhaba, } well done (not welcome).
m.c. *JJt v^b barak Allah, may God bless you, good.
m.c. *iff -0'x tabarak Allah, good, strange (also used to express dis-
belief).
class. u>xx habbaza, well done.
m.c. jif\ M Allah" akbar, God is most great (for wonder or admiration).
m.c. *JUt >lU ma sha* Allah, as God will.
m.c. *-*- l ajab, wonderful !
m.c. ej*r*f )\j* ** s . aa hazdr a firm, by all means, a thousand times yes.
Examples: &*j* ^^ &zp &* ^JLff ^U. Uo ma sha** Allah chi bachcha-yi
khub-i darid (m.c.) 6( what a nice little child you have got ": barak Allah
chi kar-i khub-l-st 'a jab kar-i kard ^ cj^ **r *?^ \*>**>j* ^ &*- *J^f ^l>
(m.c.) "may God bless it! how excellent a thing this is! he has performed
wonders" : afirin bi-Mahmud j>j+*uo AJ e^yf (m.c.J " well done Mahmiid ! "
Firdawsl, the author of the S/iah-Nama, the great epic of Persia, claims
that it is written in pure Persian. He was confronted with his verses:
Ir u Qadar guft dih
Falak guft ahsan Malak guft zih
Firdawsl'a reply was that the Falak (not he) had said ahsan.
(3) Lamentation, mourning:
m.c. e;U* fuahcin 4 ")
^ ui . f Lament! Oh! Alas!
m.c. ^j vay
^, . ,
_ C Oh misery!
m.c. ^j 1 ^ v^ vayla >
m.c. fj** y ^^ ^ ay khak bar sar-am, vide, (1).
(4) Hatred, aversion, contempt ( ^^ o^ ) :
m.c. jA) - cA3 . of w/, 6 <%/, /t^/ft, tie, for shame, ako *j pah (for a bad
smell) ; if ugh (for a bad smell).
m.c. t a/L
1 In Arabic "welcome," but in Persian "well done," for marhab a "
p. 382, foot-note (1).
* Lit. "As God wills it, what a nice." The ma sha* Allah ^ *UU averts the
3vil eye. If a stranger wero to make the remark without ma aha 9 Allah
bbo relations of the child would at onco insist on this formula being added.
8 There is a distinction between qaza ^ and qadar }** .
* Fughan kardan &sj$ u^* 5 "to cry aloud, lament."
$+*?
* In Arabic uff of. For Ar. &>
24
370 INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
m.c. j^ dur, avaunt.
m.c. AlJU i^f a'uz u bi-lldh, God defend me (I take refuge with God).
m.c. *J pah.
(5) Attention or warning :
m.c. ^ 8> Uajyi injd nigdh kun, look here,
m.c. <^b <~>{~^j* sar-i hisdb bash, look out !
class, (rare m.c.) *Jo^ inak, behold! now!
class, and poet. e)l* hdn
, , 7-1 know ! in truth !
class, and poet. && h^n
m.c. )^*j zinhar y beware, never do! on no account !
m.c. *^yc ^t ay mardaka 1 look here; (ay is always followed by a
substantive).
m.c. A^y ^y o*i mardaka, } you there, fellow ! ; (0*1 can be used alone).
m.c. t^$ 2 ejlU ^c\ ay fuldn kas, oh So-and-so !
ni.c. ;>J ^ a# Tw'cfor, oh you there, (oh father! addressed to one older
than the speaker).
m.c. ^** 3 ^1 ay 'amu, oh uncle ! "i
m.c. ^*^+* <^t ay mashhadi, oh Mashhad! ! I
m.c. ^>&!f ^\ ay karbalas.1, oh Karbala*! ! { r *
m.c. j$\j ^\ ay baradar, oh brother !
m.c. y'U* ^| ay musafir, oh traveller ! j
Zinhar j(^) t or zinhar ^^j, when an interjection of warning, is followed
either by the 2nd person of the Imperative or of the Aorist, as : zmhdr bi-din
tama* digar-bar gird-i in dim na-gard ^t ^^ ^*! & )b > +k e^-^J^J
(Sa'dl) ** take heed, don't again through greediness approach the snare";
guft zinhar na-sitani ki bi-panjah dinar ham raz% shavand ^ ^^ j l ^3 ^
^ cr*L> p*jfi'.* 1 ?^ (Sa*dl) " he said beware lest thou (on no account) take
it, for they will even consent to give you fifty dinars (' to go elsewhere 3 ),"
Zinhar khwasian cr*"!^ A^j " to seek protection, sanctuary '* zinhari ^^\
adj. " under protection" : bi-zinhar amada-am c \ *^ j( & (m.c.) "I have
come to you for protection."
In the sentence guft mara kushta shudan qabul ast likan zintidr barahna
na-khwdham shud * ^\^ txtj ^ ^J c^t J^i ^ A i^r ^ oiT (m.c.)
i Marfaka A^XJ (m.c.) for mardak
Or /u/5na Ai&.
*^mw or ' arrmu j+* (m.c.), for *awm in Ar.
* These are all m.c. forms of addressing or calling to a stranger. Mashhadl
one who has made the pilgrimage to Mashhad o^U ; and Karbalai &&J, one who has
been to Karbala, are respectfully addressed to any stranger, and do not mean that the
person addressed has really made any pilgrimage. The Arabs use Ya hZjj ^ ^ in the
same manner* ^
INTERJECTIONS AND INTBRJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC. 371
"she said she could rather perish than undress," zinhdr y^j may be
considered either an interjection or an adverb of negation.
In modern colloquial, zinhdr )($ is used without a negative in the sense
of "mind you do," as: zinhdr zinhdr Ichidmat-i khud rd stidkh u barg-i bisydr
bi-guzdr ;!*& jU~o ^^ j & \ ) ^L cu^jA ^ j,^ (Tr. Haji Baba, Chap. 40)
"mind, whatever you do, that you embellish your services when relating
them."
Remark. Ha U " have a care ! behold ! " is in in.c. often corrupted into
a, as : shumd rd mi-zanam-d f - p*}**> \) U^ ; inyd biyd-d f - U> U*x|. Hdn eM
(with nasal n) is similarly used.
(6) Impatience :
rn.c. ^ *& nigdh kun, look here, conie here. 1
m.c. j^j tt> dlh bi-raw, go along, do; (also dih for wonder).
<jj
m.c. > fXf*, jahannam shaw, go to hell.
m.c. ^ (J^ gum-ash kun> hang him.
rn.c. ^ p$ gum sliaw, be off with you.
m.c. ( Jtf, or Jib, or JUij, or) v-jb ^ ^^' l bdji biraw 'aqab (or dumbdl,
or bald, or kindr), my good woman, you are in the way.
m.c. j+* jj> jM 2 kindr bi-raw 'ammu, my good man, please move.
pusht pusht (class., obs.). 8
posh posh (Afghan, class.). 3
m.o. 4^A Jo IA. jd bi-dihid, make room !
m.c. tx*U^<> dur bdshid, clear the way !
m.c. J~^t-* ^f^x^- khabarddr ! sar~i hisdb, take care, look out ! (gen. by
a person riding).
ni.c. <^ <*^ khafa bi-shl, may you be hanged (lit. throttled),
m.c, ^^J ^ viJ^ dil-at dard bi-ydyad, as above (lit. may you have a
stomachache).
(7) Distress, want :
m.c. djkf amdn, quarter !
1 Haji Ag]& nigah kun &$ K> ^T ^\*> (m.c.) 4 * Haji Aglia come here (H. A.
being in the next room)."
a Bajl c**^> l* fc - * sister'! *Amuj+* (for 'ammu) 'uncle,' not necessarily one older
than the speaker: two boys quarrelling will say biraw 'ammu j+* jtf = " what can you
do to me ? "
8 For explanation of these terms, vide p. 372, foot-note (3) : guyand ki pusht pusht
liammal amad *>*T JUa^ c**J o^ &f ^^ l here comes the porter with his precious
packs.* 1 (O. K. Rub. 218, Whin.).
372 INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
m.c. aky 1 faryad, injustice!
m.c. ,*!*# bi-dad, injustice, tyranny !
m.c. vu Lj ya Babb, Lord !
m.c. > cr~*a jt o^l aman az dast-i-tu, help from thine hand (of
oppression).
ni.c. y ^ { to*>)\ oU dad az jafa-yi tu, oh ! redress from thine injustice.
(8) Fie, for shame :
m.c. ^p^ oJlA khajalat bi-kash, feel shame '
m.c. *iX?T (^ &j* *ar-a^ nami*ayad, feelest thou no shame ?
m.c. *U* oojj ruy-at siyah, thy face is blackened.
UJ^;0 *^~NJ^ u^*- U^> ftat/a A$w& cliiz-ist dar dunya, a feeling of shame is
a good thing to cultivate.
(9) Repentance :
ra.c. f^j>^ & f^/ ^^ yhflfat kardam, guh khurdam, I have erred; I
repent humbly (lit. I have eaten human excrement).
m.c. t>jZ ^Ajyio jtj^ digar na-khwaham kard, I will never do so again !
(10) Miscellaneous:
^
m.c. ^ j) y(j yalla* raw kun, oh! begin!
class. ^>^ ^~*$ pusht pushtf make way ! look out!
m.c. v>j>^ khub, all right, go on, continue.
m.c. ^ >j ^^- chashm-i bad dur, a vaunt the evil eye.
m.c. (D&j& y )jz dur az dustan (Sa'dl), may you and my friends never
know the like.
m.c. &ifb iyti na'uz bi-llah *
m.c. <*Ub fiUp l aydz an bi-llfih \
m.c. txi^J ii^ Khuda na^kunad j^God forbid.
m.c. AL*Mx> i>ix Khuda na-khivasta \
_ "~ " i
m.c. UiU. hasfia ]
w jaryad karri an <*)$j> S^j* j ^ " to call aloud for justice" : faryad u
kardan &Zj' &^* 9 j a^* *' to lament " : bi-faryad rasidan e)^^; ^l^ " to assist,
succour" : az dast-i hakim faryudl hastam ^ * cf^^j* ^l^ o*^ jt (rn.c.) c< I am
making a complaint against the Governor."
* Vulg. for Y a Allah *M tj.
$ Possibly *'mind your backs" or ** turn your backs (i.e., face the wall; as a
great lady passes)." The camel-men of Afghanistan and the Indian N.-W. Frontier say,
posh I po#h\ for " get out of tho way," which is perhaps a corruption of the old
pusht pueht o^-> t**J . Another suggested derivation is that posh posh may mean
44 veil your eyes (as a lady is coming)." Pusht pusht also means *' one behind the other
in close succession.* *
4 God defend us! lit. "we take refuge with God (from Satan the accursed or
atoned ) . " Quran .
INTERJECTIONS AND INTER JECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC* 373
ni.c. <UJtyUL*t astacjkfir-" y llah, God forbid (lit. I ask pardon of
God).
ni.c. **$ t^ Khuda kunad, God grant.
m.c. &M\ e> lat 4~ Subhan*llah, Praise be to God ! (for wonder, m.c.).
m.c. !*> ^ ay Khuda "\
m .c. kfoA Khuddyd Oh God!
m.c. * ?/
m.c. ^t'f Ildhi, my God ! (in m.c. = " I hope ' .")
rn.c. ( ^t*^ or) *>*& t*A> Khuda danad (or mi-danad), God knows.
m.c. aJDi ^Lfi^t in sha* Allah, if it please God.
m.c. ^^ *JU' >L&f in shaf Allah Ta'alq, if it please God most High.
m.c. tti,^ ^r*y azbaray-i Khuda
[ for God's sake.
m.c. IOA. ^Jolu bi-khatir-i Khuda j
class. A J^f (J-i^ c?-* ft mbiV-'llah ~)
; in God s name.
m.c. '*^ M )* dar rah-i Khuda )
m.c. *JU A^^Ji al-Jmmd u li-'ilah, praise be to God (Thank God).
m.c. t^y^ shukr-i Khuda, thank God!
m .c. (JoJl^ '*i^ or) UA Jfe^a. ti>^ Khuda, hafiz-i shumd (or Khuda hafiz) t
good-bye z (God protect you).
m.c. ;f J> ( <^ Khuda niaah-dar ^
^;td *Ki ; LHW v^ Khuda shuma r may God guard you.
ra nigah darad
ni.c. j^j zinhar , beware! virfe (5).
ni.c. t a^a,- s goon, begin.
m> . t^ab.; ly turd bi-Khuda, 4 for mercy's sake !
m.c. L| i^jb &ar Khudaya, O Great God!
class. *-*V labbayk 6 (in m.c. labbe), here I am.
%1? gulula-yi shash 6 tnisqali, you want a bullet (to keep
you quiet) ; or tu-yi kun-at bashacL
^oJ qadam-i shuma bar chashm, welcome (to the coming
guest) ; or speed (to departing guest).
M
m.c. to Aaxj bachcha-ha 1 servants! attendants! (waiter!)
i Ilahl ! rahmat-at kam na-shavad ^^.J *& oJU^> ^^f (m.c.).
' 2 huda hafi^l kardan o^^ <^^'^ !^^ t4 to say ^ood-bye. *'
R Corruption of Allah,
4 Qasam ml-diham ^A*^^ ^*J> understood.
& Lahbayk* cJ^^jJ, Ar., " here I am for you (waiting your orders).'*
f > A bullet of six mitqals J^AXJ : i n m.c. one mivqal = 72 tjandum.
Corresponds to /fco, 7ia of Urdu.
374 INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTION AL PHRASES, ETC.
m.o. )\ty ttJ^:?/ y c**o dast az^\
girlban bardar \
- J-let me go.
m.c. )\* )j /f ' ** J Jf o-*a dast az yaqqa
am vardar J
m.c. ** *f* A hick hich , nothing, nothing !
m.c. .^ c*H&- c&*2- na-bud )
>it was nothing, of no consequence.
m.c. ib;!i^3 vioJbU qabiliyyat na-ddrad )
m.c. ajy ^ ^1*3^ bi-zahmat-ash nami-arzad, it's not vvortli the
trouble.
m.c. ^vo ^t ^x- ^f ay madad ay mad ad, help ! help !
m.c. eA^Ui-*^ ^J eiGUJUsxj ^t ay musalmanan ay musalmanan, Oh Muslims !
Oh Muslims !
bi~kumuk-am bi-ras ^corne to my help, come to my
j*t bi-fary ad-am bi-ras ) cries !
m.c. ^U ^t ^U ^f a a/ madar ay madar, help, help (children) !
e;U> Au ^.f 3 ay nana-jan, O dear mother (children to mothers ; also in
addressing women ; used by women when startled) !
cA^ kb ^.f ay baba jan, O dear father (a man's exclamation when
startled).
m.c. *> &A.J&* magar chi shud, what have I done !
m.c. <*jf ^5+J (^i-5^ *" cU*f asman ki paym nami-ayad, do so, don't fear,
the sky won't fall.
m.c. ^ $ duzd duzd ^
. , .thieves! robbers !
m.c. **>] ^ duzd amad )
m.c.^j^Jj^- 1 fei^r bigir. seize him, seize him!
m.c. o -it f j va %Kt, stop !
m.c. i^^x: \A j az jd 'ma-jumb \
7 don't move!
m.c. >c oo^ narakat ma-kun i
m.c. vlr* bi-fchivab
crouch down, take shelter.
m.c.
m.c. <j^^t=^ Ichamush, silence ! *
m.c. (J^l ) jtjAs* khabarddr bash, look out ! 4
m.c. ))z t&\j &j* sar-at-ra nigah dar, heads !
m.c. AxJU cuixLx multafit bashid^ please pay attention, listen!
m.c. {jt (Jj$ gush kun, listen (give ear) !
m.c. o2b A^ixi mutaivajjih bash, pay attention !
1 In m.c. yak&a *iv.-'. T. : vardar j&)J m.c. for bar dar
* A man would address an elderly woman as madar ^^.
8 Nona &* *J or Nana jan e>^ ^ J ** is a pot name used by mothers to their
children, or by children to their mothers. * Vide also (6).
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC. 375
m.c. (VU UJ* U &&)* dilitan ba man bashad, just pay attention to me for
a few minutes.
m.c.^o U IA^JO bi-gw, ha ha bi-gir, soo on then (to a greyhound) !
(11) The following imitative sounds or cries are used to animals :
cA*# cA'j P* s h pwh, puss, puss.
cuj^ chit, shoo (for driving away a cat).
4u.< AJO fo'^e fo't/e, 1 for calling fowls, pigeons, dogs, etc.
t chikh? shoo (for frightening away dogs).
y y y tu tu tu, fowls or pigeons (in Kerman).
^
^fr C A y^$^ Aws&, stand still (to donkeys).
<j^- ( achlsh, stand still (horses, donkeys).
f$ ft pikh pikh, for driving sheep.
&?* hun, for urging on a donkey.
^ ? hay, uttered at intervals by cam el- men to keep camels in motion.
Remark I. There are many other imitative cries used for calling camels,
goats, sheep, asses, etc., etc., as well as for urging on beasts of burden: such
cries cannot be represented in writing.
In the south of Persia, distance is represented by uttering ha several
times with a peculiar intonation, as: Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-a Kirman* "there
yonder in the distance is Kirman." [In the Panjab a peculiar way of
raising the voice (ohh pare hai " there it is yonder ") has a similar use.
(6) (1) Onomatopoetic nouns are called ism-isawt ( oj*> ^ ) Examples :
jlk jlk ~-^ *-&^" chirping of small birds " : ku ku t( cooing of doves " :
qah fjah tti ik* " noise of laughter": chir chir j*. j** "fizzling of meat
cooking": chakachak *J>**^ and chaqachaq <j & "tlie whizzing of a
sword, club, etc., through the air": fash-a-fasli ^U ll? and tran$-a-trang
v^yf ^Jjy <4 the whizzing of arrows through the air": qul-qul J^3 "the
gurgling of wine being poured out, etc., etc." Qa-ani has :j<o ^ *Z & &+=*
;lj r -j c5^^ y ^ chun gurba ki mu mu kunad az masti-yi bisyar. Such words,
however, as pish pish J^^ o^i anc ^ chikh* etc , are particles (harf).
(c) The following are the commoner dervish cries :
Ho ! Truth (or God) !
L ^ I, Ya Hu ! Ya Tlaqq 5 / \
1 For biya biya ^ J ^ ** come, come.*'
2 The Afghans say chibhe ^**-*- ', also m.c.
8 Can this havo any connection with the m.o. particle of continuation hay $*>-
J>oth are pronounced the same.
* For things far off only.
* Hu is the 3rd pers. sing. mase. Arabic pronoun "he*' also "He.** Haqq *' the
Truth " is another name of God.
376 INTERJECTIONS AND INTER JBCTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
Yd 'All madad, O ''All ! help (Shi' a ] dervishes).
t Yd Mawfud* Oh Omnipresent.
U lj Yd Qdziy- a 'l-hdjdt 9 Granter of the needs of man.
A0U Yd Ghaffdr*-l-2unub , Forgiver of sins (of the 'All Allah!
sect).
y^o <JJ Gul-Mawld, (a dervish greeting in which 'All is compared to
a rose).
Remarks, Certain cries are peculiar to certain sects : Sadd-yi yd ( AK
(or yd Husayri) buland shud * oxb ( { ^^ * b or) ^J^c b ^?\** could only be
applied to Shi* as, and sadd-yi yd Char Ydr s ;b jU. ^ <^!*x* to Sunnis only.
Yd Allah *Mi U could be used by either sect.
(d) the following are some of the street cries; * they are not current in
all parts of Persia :
Persia is the very home of flowery and figurative language, and striking
examples of this are to be found even in the street cries.
(1) Fruit or sweets:
b oyji)b oy quwat-i bdzu, b quwat-i pd, strength to your arms, strength
to your legs.
Sweetmeats :
*i)t ,oL^ c5 J **-^+*"i c f ~~ 6 ^;^ tol^ cj? 1 a y halvd-yi khdrak ay
pashmnk ay halvd-yi drda. 1
Figs :
o^^' Ab JUL^-xjciJi ^A.jf anjir, anjir-i bulhul-i hdyji-i bihisht, tigs! tigs tit
for the nightinealeiS of the Garden of Paradise.
1 The Surmi dervishes say Ya char y^r y- J ) <*- t- 1 , i.e. Abu Bakr, 'I'mar, 'Usmaii
and 'All.
4 These cries are used by dervishes either to announce their arrival at the doors of
the threat, or else when seeking alms in the bazars. A dervish entering doos not salute :
he utters one of these cries. The writer saw a Persian dervish in Baghdad crying
Ya Mawjud Zj**?* b in an unpleasant and excited voice till utterance nearly failed, and
the sweat streamed down his face from the exertion. The shop-keepers wore only
too willing to give him money ' to move him on.'
; " Abu Bakr u 'Urnar, ' Us man u Haydar ;^.^ j c^^* J j+* 3 7* J ^ (misra).
Haydar is a title of 'AH.
4 Republished from the JL As. Soc. Beng., 1906, by the courteous permission of the
Council.
Those interested in the subject should compare these with the street cries of
old London. Needless to add, some of them show a fin* imagination.
& A guest is sometimes pressed to stay and eat a * snack ' by the polite, bur
colloquial phrase yak chiz-i bl-bbur ki quvvat-i zann payda kii.nl <*>* *$ )}*** } ^J^ **^
V** 5 >4>< iv -^* f 3 (m.c.) : the idea apparently is that the refreshment will give the necessary
strength to the lea\ f o-taker's legs.
6 KJtiarak vJjlA. a dried date.
7 Halva-yi arda fc^jT ^j^* is made of sesame seeds, Hiigar, Hour, nnd butter.
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTION AL PHRASES, ETC. 377
,j o>* quvvat-i zdnU anjlr ast, strength to the knees are figs.
Pomegranates :
, - j- - .'} pomegranates have I; pome-
anar daram anar-i f ^ h ^
;. granates of the Garden of Para-
\
j dise.
bdb-i dil-i btmdr.
t^ ^jUf atabaki l daram nar, atdkabl daram ndr.
Cucumbers :
; 1 ^^ ' 2 ^ t^l 2/ qand-i tar, Tchiyar, oh liquid sugar, cucumbers!
Plums :
yf ^^ i^p ^f a ^ safra*8hikan alu, oh plums ! a cure for bile.
Grapes :
^y^xj ^u HJs ^75 daram, mushtari, gold have I, oh buyer !
Pistachio-nuts :
' * i . * . _ ~
^-yUux ^ejUxji <u^j ^t ay pista-yi Ddmcj_lian, mushtari, pistachio-nuts from
Damglian, oh buyer!
Nuts and edible seeds:
(i^ J ^ fj^ ^M.=?^ A+& hama 'ajil daram va bishkan.
Mulberries :
bl'ddna nabdt ; bi-ddna ab-i haydt; bl-ddna shakar-nabdt ; bi-dana,
bi-ya lazzat im-bari az ruh, (mulberries) luscious without seeds,
sweet as sugar-candy, priceless as the water of life ; seedless mulber-
ries like crystal sugar; seedless mulberries come and delight thy
soul.
Black Mulberries:
l^iu> ifj.x/o miva-yi safra-bur shah mlva.
White Mulberries:
( v^^,f J^ ~ ) jj^ J^ nuql-i liila ^ sweets with cardamoms (in India
( = hil a.st) j ildchl dana).
(2) Tripe;
^Ut"** cJ - ^em^t, oh tripe!
(3) Cinnamon Tea :
^ J c^;^ ^,1^ ^f a?/ chay-i dar-chln nabal* oh tea and cinnamon* and
sugar-candy all mixed I
I Atabaki (j&\ is a good variety of pomegranate.
- Qand is loaf sugar, the kind mosjt liked in Persia.
; " Pronounced Damyh fin: this and Simnan both moan ^lash-had and are famous for
pistachio-nuts,
* Nabat &*> is ki sugar-candy. '' Some Persians do not eat qand. A few old-
fashioned Muslims will not take tea, which comes from Hindus: nor loaf-sugar, which is
najis u*? ; firstly, because sugar is made by the hands of unbelievers, and secondly,
because it is purified by bones.
378 INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
(4) Water:
ij bi-nush bi-ydd-i Shahid-i Karbala, drink in remem-
brance ] of the Martyr of Karbala.
(5) Kerosine-oil :
v ^? <Ji*> pfa ^iii nail-i* ddram misl-i guldb, a naptha have I like rose-
water.
(6) Castor-oil (for lamps) :
jf^. $l b f^a. s $U b yd shdh-i ckirdgh ! yd shdh-i chirdgh.
(1) For clothes :
P)\ &U - (*ya &*.;b - ^tjj 4 OHi^ vj?l / gwfcis ddram pdrcha daram
shlla ddram, oh long-cloth have I, cloth have I, sdlu 6 have I.
(8) For pins and needles 6 :
tjjl^j AJUjf jUxi^ oj^^cf ay suzan sinjdq angushtdna yardq ) oh needles,
pins, thimbles, gold and silver lace.
(9) Scissors and embroidery (hawked in villages only)*
)*{*> f*i> (JiU^^f (j?\j**^ ay miqrdz ay yardq-i dam-i chddar, oh scissors,
oh gold (or silver) lace for chddars. 1
(10) For antimony 8 :
w^i^ rfkcj** ^y ^XLa i/c^yo ^jj Q.% surma-'i/i sang, o-l surma- yi sang,
oh antimony of stone.*
(11) Indigo 10 :
c5^ ! ****j cfj' m ^ vasma / o-? vavmct, oil leaves of Indigo, oh leaves of
indigo. * '
1 Husayn v^*-*^, slain at Karbala, was wounded in the mouth by an arrow, when
lie stooped to drink from the Euphrates. His death occurred twelve years after that of
his brother Hasan {r~ A -
2 oJa, Persian for ^ii.
s There is a shrine in Shiraz called Shah-i chirayh ^j^ ^^i where is buried the
brother of Imam Riza ^>) (*^K the 8tl) Imam (the latter is entombed at Mash-had).
Some Muslims salute the now ly-ligh tori lamp by salam i/a fthahs-i chirciifJi p|^^ **^ *? f****
Tlie Gabrs say Shab-i fehayr j^ v^ ^o each other, generally juniors to seniors.
* Called also chihtl-var )\j <Jfr^"> or chihil-yar )^ <J^' because each piece is folded
in forty var; var may be the Persian word " time, turn, regulation," or a corruption of
the English word yard; derivation doubtful.
6 Salu ^L* or shalu j*[* : Indian names of the red cotton stuff. Shlla A*A
is vulg. for ahilla *^.
6 These articles are usually sold by Jews.
7 The Zardushti women wear a special chadar j^la. without yaraq oLri
8 For the eyes and eyelashes. ^ ^
^ For some reason the best antimony is called aurma-yi sanq ^^ <X/c^ .
10 For the eyebrows; the dried leaves are pounded arid boiled. Sa'di says kushish-i
bl Ja*ida astvasma bar abru-yi kur )jf)f.\J, *+**J v= ^ i ' <<V^ (Jty>. Story 28, Book III.
1' Only used by the Muslimas, not by the Oabr women.
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTION AL PHRASES, ETC.
(12) Rouge:
v^r* cJf ~* surkhab, oh paint (lit. ] red water).
(13) Patches (for the face) :
fctkk ^\ ay khitat, oh moles ] !
(14) Amulets:
Not hawked in the streets in Persia; generally obtained as a hadiyya
from a Mulla. They are, however, hawked in India.
(15) Love philters :
**' _
^-*>3x/o j j^c <^sfjj> dava~yi mihr u mahabbat, medicine for love and affection.
(16) For live animals :
J^tSJf y^^i ^^ ~t pul-i buz, o-i pul-i buz, oh money for goats a ! oh
money for goats !
For sheep in the 'Id-i QurbanI :
j^> j\j* j*j iJi.^A 8 sheikh-ash bi-gw, savar shaw.
Small lambs:
J f ^*y efrjl; f jtrt *y ^ o-l barra-yi parvar, o-i barm-yi parvar, oh fatted
lambs ! oh fatted lambs !
Bulls (for the plough) :
<.sfi* v^ LSJ ] -* yab-i kart } oh ploughing bull !
Cows :
c .^ v^<o-y co^v 1 ^ cs^f ^$j* ^ LS^ o-i gab-i ahlri, o-i gob-i skirl, o-l
gob-i shin, oh milch cow! oh milch cow ! oh milch cow!
< 'alves :
AJL^?^! <jjU*j? ^f AJU^^i ay yawsala, ay cjawsala, ay gawsala, oh calves !
oh calves ! oh calves !
For poultry :
<S1$ cr^r^ LSJ B -* 'kkurus-i Lari, oh cocks of Lar (i.e. big cocks).
Kens:
^^.ivJ A^.AJ ^f ay murgi-i tukhmi, oh laying hens !
Chickens (alive) :
*^y^ o-f ay juja, ay juja, oh chickens ! oh chickens!
i Only used by the Muslimas, not by the Gabr women.
' 2 Buz JfJ is the female; the he-goat is called cliapish cAj^ or narl
;s Tliere is a belief that those who sacrifice a rain at this 'Id, will ride this very ram
at the Day of Judgment. The Persian Shi'as usually sacrifice a ram, and not a camel,
nor a cow.
* Vul#. for gav y& : karl e^ from kaahtan ^^ to cultivate, so\v, plough."
B Lar is famous for its large breed of poultry. No Muslim would buy dead poultry
for fear it had not been slaughtered properly. Tho hens are cried as munjh.
6 Modern, for the obsolete j>^ chtiza still in use in India and Afghanistan: chuza-
baz is an old woman fond of young men. In falcony chiiz, vulg. chwi, is the Indian
technical term for an immature hawk or falcon (in Persia buz or buzyur, T.).
380 INTERJECTIONS AND INTEEJEOTIONAL PHBASES, ETC.
Nightingales:
1 AfVfA. .j JL\JL> ^ *xxJt>^ J*b 45! ay bulbul-i khwananda, ay bulbul-i pur
chahcha, oh singing bulbuls, oh bulbuls in full song.
(17) Qur*ans:
f ay hadiyya- yi Qur*an, oh presents of Qur*ans !
Remark. It is impious to sell a Qur*an : hence it is offered as a present,
for which the owner takes a present of money in return. When a vendor of
Qur*ans cries his '* presents," the following comedy is enacted: A woman or
would-be purchaser enquires, * c in Quran chand hadiyya tm-khwahad oTy> ^
jjfcfyi^** AJJ^ <W '< how many presents for this Qur'an ? " The reply is bi-riza-
mand\-yi khudat o^ ^^x>(^t "what you please." The would-be purchaser
then takes the book, kisses it, produces some security, and tells the <k giver "
to call again. In the meantime the Mulfa is consulted , who says, for instance .
panj tuman hadiyya darad tj* *^A ^Uy ^. The " giver" calls again
for his ** present " and if dissatisfied, says bi-panj tuman hactii/ya nami-diham
jUy _-AJ j.
(18) Old clothes: ( AJMH 6 *^ = )^ aix A, ' a^ m^mi //o.
(e) The following are some expressions in saluting, or in welcoming an<l
speeding a visitor or guest.* Some of these are properly used by in-
feriors only, but there is no fixed rule in the matter :
^j^cf c^i> khush amadid "welcome!" (lit. you have come happily;
used on arrival or departure).
&
musharraf li \ am honoured (by your coming)."
muzayyan lt (my house is) adorned (by your coming)."
mujtakhir farmudid "you have made me (or us) proud."'
x matbakh-i khud-i-tanast. or ^ ' U fc^j^nshixiz-khnnti-
yi shuma nst " (our house) is your own kitchen."
o^j/T ti*> safa avardid "you have brought us happiness" (l>y your
coming; used either on arrival or departure).
^y^ fy) is the term applied by fanciers to the low warbling
of < age-bird^* before they are in full song, f'hahcha *^t^" l * ^ lr prin^ song when the
bulbul is mast.
<l Hadiyya. sp. a present to a superior.
' A Jews (called A^.^^- or &e) buy old clothes and broken articleB: in Calcutta thi^
trade is carried on chiefly by Bengali Hindus (bikrl wolnha}.
4 The term for walking or riding out some distance to meet an expected guest in
JUaL*! intiqbtil, while that for accompanying a departing guest some little distance to
speed him on his way is o**H* or Aj^yj fadraqa. The latter word also signifies " a
guide, escort, safe conduct."
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC. 381
j bismillah '* please enter (in the name of God)."
jjkjjju a xx5U^j bi-farmasid bi-nishmid " please take a seat."
cu*af jl^-o JU AjlA khdna mdl-i sarkdr ast, oW U Jj\* manzil-i
shnmd ast " our house is yours."
AJl.fL khdna vdhid ast B " our houses are one."
y*j Uijxtf j++Jli> ^ U S^ij J&P jojfy awldd-am g&uldm-zdda-yi
shumd va khdnum-am kamz-i shumd va khudam banda-yi shumd*yam *' my
children are your house-born slaves, and my wife is your handmaid, and I
myself your own slave."
cx~3 &l^ AJU. *r f z$j* ) UJ p karam numa va farud a ki khdna
khdna-yi tust c< be kind and alight, because this house belongs to you,"
(said to a great friend or to an exalted person.
oj^xi^ c^4A>j t^i^ khayli zahmat kashidid " you have troubled
yourself much (to come and see us)."
*o*~> ( o^t; o-*xj jy^AJ zahmat-i nisi rdhnt ast c 'no trouble at all; a
pleasure ! ' '
U- JojU. t^ or JaJla. t<^ 5 Khndd hdfiz, or Khudd hdfiz-i shumd, ^good-bye
(God be your Protector)."
|J+A t*>^ Khudd hamrdh. '*God be with thee " (spec, to a departing
traveller).
f^A*, t^ahj i)l*tihumd rd bi-Khudd supurdam, *' 1 entrust you to God"
(to a parting traveller).
jb**y j&* safar bi-khafar, "may your journey be without danger " (on
starting on a journey).
Cf"* C5"* U^^r* wurakliktias mi-shavam, *' I must go " (on taking leave).
?na rd ydd kuwrt , " don't forget me."
x }^A? ^U ^iUk jt <73 kJidtir-i 'all mard maliv ma-jarmayld*
"don't forget me. "
^yo exJ lazzat mj-barum, ** I am enjoying myself" (at seeing your
nice house, or at the good things you are giving me to eat).
& *j bah bah, ''good, good. 1 '
l Bi-'sm-i'llah *XI|^~o % this formula is used by Muslims before commencing any
work, i.e. boforo eating, mounting a horse, firing a gun, casting off a falcon, slipping
a grey-hound, etc., etc. Note spelling; after the Qur'an; p* for f*aU.
Note tills uso of bi/armayid ^t^j* (m.c.) "please.* ' The right hand only should
be used in eating; vidr Arabian Niights in the story of the young man who lost his right
hand for theft.
* Used in India, not in Persia.
* This civil phrase can, of course, be said on any suitable occasion.
6 gfcuda /'/*;* cr^'k* lv>: ^ is a subs, and adj.: &udu haftzi kardan
'* to say good-bye."
382 INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
13? j U* j*}\ awg&ur-i shuma bikhayr bashad, "may your omen be
good; good luck " (a form of greeting specially used by muleteers, camel- men ,
donkey- men with loads, etc.). Vide also U (,?).
i *
Remark. The Arabic greeting for ' welcome ' ahl an wa sahl an *r*j &M , or
t $
ahl an wa marhab anl l^*>j ^ is used by pedantic Mullas only, generally on
return from the pilgrimage.
(/) The wife of a host or of a friend should never be enquired after except
in exceptional circumstances. A respectable Muslim (not Gabr) when
mentioning his wife would refer to her as his khana 1 " house,' ' kuch ^f (rare)*
or 'iyal Jl-**, or ahl <J*f , or andarun &j)*>\ a ; and for the Shah, haram (*^. A
Persian who was jarangi-ma*ab ( v^ <j&j* ) or ' Europeanized ' might speak
of his wife as khanum pte, or of his mother as (?*> ^fw bi-bi-yi man.
An Englishwoman going about without a veil is liable to have filthy
remarks passed on her by the shop-keepers or street people.
(q) The Muslim greeting (in Persia accorded to Christians, Gabrs and Jews
s
also) is the Arabic phrase fj&* f&* B salam un alay-kum " peace be on ye,"
to whiqh in Persia the reply is the same, viz., salam un 'alay-kum ^U j*3L
The Indian Sunnls and the Afghans say as-solam"-' alaykum pd*
"the peace be on you," to which the reply is va ' alay-kum*' s-salam
^^ "and on you the peace." The Indian Shras among themselves say
salam nn 'alayk pd* f^* ** peace on thee," to which the reply is va 'alaykum 1 *
's-salam f&-4 f^kj ll and on you the peace."
The Afghans, Indian Muslims, Arabs, and Turks would not give the
greeting to any but to a Muslim,* but in Persia, in many parts at any rate,
no distinction is made.
The Jews in the Prophet's time used to slur the greeting and to say to
him a$-samm u 'alayk* ^J^ fWf "poison be on thee," to which he replied
va <alayk a <-4*j * ' and on thee." 5
1 TarMb ^^j* ** to welcome "; for the m.c. use of marhaba ta*/, vide (a) (2).
% Adarun-am fjjp^\ or fekana-um na-Mkush-aat ^^**f cAt^ ^ (*f*jl^-.
8 In Persia the classical ruination is retained, but the modern Arabs, Indians, etc.,
omit it.
4 The Jews in Baghdad slightly corrupt the Jewish salutation when greeting a
person of another faith. Englishmen in India sometimes fancy the Muslim greeting is
given to them, when it is in reality addressed to the sais behind. The author has been
frequently given the Muslim salutation in Persia even by mullas who objected to
shaking hands with him. In India a vessel used by a Christian would be washed three
times before use, but Persians will freely drink from an unwashed glass used by a
Christian.
5 The Persians neither salam, as in India, nor raise the hand to the head in saluta-
tion without bending the body as do Central Asians. Gentlemen incline the head in a
fcow, and servants place the right hand on the heart while bowing from the waist.
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC. 38.'*
(h) (1) A host, etc., speaks of his house as d)** ^ J banda-manzil 1 "the
slave's dwelling," and of himself as banda **ij "the slave."* The
coming of the guest in person is tashrlf avardan &?>)$ ui^iJ "to
bring honouring." To an invitation to call or honour the house, the invited
would reply )%*** v^V^ '^ 8 *^'*^ & * in dha* Allah farda skaraf-yab mi-
flkavam " I hope D.V. to have that honour to-morrow."
A visit and return visit are did <xj> and baz-did &t JL , and old residents
call on new arrivals, as in England. A Persian does not call after dining
out: it is the host's business to call on the guest, who has honoured him by
accepting his hospitality , and thus earned a return visit. *
A foreigner should call on fete-days, such as the Shah's birthday, and
the Naw-Ruz : it is a fault on the right side to call on religious festivals, such
as the 'Id, etc.
^*jj Jiy^t ahval-pursi is "asking after a person's health," i.e., kind
enquiries on meeting. 'lyadat c^Uc is " visiting a sick person."
To give and return salutations is a duty founded on the Quran, and the practice
of the Prophet. Salam sunnat ast va javab farz. A horseman salutes a footman, and
a person on foot those who are seated, it is sufficient for one of a party to give or
return a salute.
Muslim women do not and are not saluted in the street, but Zardnshti women salute
their men. A Persian recognizing his wife (veiled) in the street would not speak to her.
The laws of Islam forbid a man saluting a woman unless she be old.
Salutations must not be made with the left hand, as it is used for legal ablutions
and unclean purposes.
1 A compound noun : no iza/at.
% With the verb in the 1st person singular. Classically, and in India and
Afghanistan in speaking, the verb is in the 3rd person singular after banda.
3 In aha 9 Allah *JJ[ l&f "if God wills'* corresponds to * I hope so and think
so.'* To the common question " is it going to rain ? " a Muslim says in sha 9 Allah
A,Uf liof where an Englishman says "yes"; no Muslim would dare to decide for the
Almighty. A failure to grasp this idea sometimes causes Europeans much irritation:
they cannot understand not getting a "straight answer."
To accept an invitation is, according to a sunnat cui**, obligatory on a Muslim.
The word farda \&j* enters largely into the Persian vocabulary. During a two
years' residence in Kirman the author cannot once recollect hearing the word imruz
3jj/U An opium-smoker and it is estimated that 00% of the Kirmanis are opium
smokers will let * ' to-morrow ' ' run into years.
4 The time for visiting is either in the morning before noon (gen. for business), or
in the evening about two hours before sunset (for pleasure). It is usual to send a
servant a day before, or on the morning of the day, with an oral message to arrange for
a visit, so that the host may be at home and prepared to receive. The seat of honour,
sadr, and the chief guest are on the host's right hand. Persians have expressed
surprise to the author that he should take the top of his table at a dinner-party and
place the chief guests on his right and left. It is no easy matter to arrange the
seats at dinner for Persian guests, without giving offence. Guests sometimes ask
beforehand where they are to sit and decline to come unless promised a higher place.
384 INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
(2) The following complimentary phrases are in common use; vide also
1 aUj U-* *-*& W/-i shuma ziyad "thank you (lit. your favour is great).'*
oty U& * ci>U&t iltifat-i shuma ziyad " thank you (as above).' '
^b; U^ o+a^-o marhamai-i shuma ziyad " thank you."
U uftbJ ji az M/-* shuma, or U-& oU$' 31 as iltifat-i shuma " thank you
(by your favour)."
U **y jt as tavajjuh-i shuma " thank you (by your consideration)."
U cufti^ j! az shafaqat-i shuma (< thank you (by your indulgence)."
al$} U o*A3xx> mahabbat-i shuma ziyad "thank you (your affection for
me is great)."
^\ U O)P 'izzat-i shuma ziyad "thank you (may your rank be
great) ' ' ; (said to a departing guest).
s^^SJ ($ (+ &U saya-yi shuma kamna-shavad " I am much obliged : also,
good-bye (may your shadow never grow less)."
*i& W U- ow-a dast-i shuma dard na-kunad " thanks (may your hand or
arm never pain you)": 4 (said when receiving help : used by both men
and women).
^cyi ^xj pir sham <( mayest thou grow old" {generally said to a small
child).
( umr-i shuma ziyad "long life to you ! "
\**> Khuda shuma ra nigah darad " God keep you !"
&\& *$ IAS j* y f^U^ <&U> f>^ Khuda sdya-yi shuma ra az sar-i ma /cam na-
kunad " may God never remove your shade from our heads ! "
^AL*d, U^ LU Jjfe;^ dar zill-i panah-i shuma hasfim "we are under the
shade of your protection."
axb U^ (Jlfc <5K'.f shuma buiand " may your fortune be high ! "
S CAM.! w^ l *^ J f ^' ahval-i shuma khub astl " I hope you are quite
well ? (are your circumstances good ?) "
^ aj;'<x> &f b ^ bak-i ki na-dand? "I hope you are quite well (you have
no solicitude?) "
1 This phrase lias often been used as a reproach against Persians, through a
mistaken notion that ziyad means "more. " Ziyad is a positive adjective which
in certain cases only (not in the example) can be substituted for the comparative.
2 Iltifat OwJ| means "to pay attention to."
3 This phrase is often used at meeting or parting in a street : properly used by an
inferior to a superior. Some Persians state, it signifies * May old ago never overtake
you ' (an old man's shadow is less than that of a young man); but it properly means
1 may your shadow on U8 always remain.'
* Said especially by a woman when a dish is handed to her, etc. ; also to any one
after a display of skill in cookery, sewing, etc.
* The force of the * is that of 5^3 ^f at the beginning of a sentence ** is it not
so?' 1
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC. 385
of ^*S U-i ] ou*' kayf-i shuma kuk ast " are you well ? (is your condition
ell?)"
5 iXjyaJ &f 2 ^j** U na kh-usJu ki na-dand? "I hope you have no
disposition."
cu~*l <jU. l^i S fU>j> dimagji-i shuma chdq ast "are you quite well? (is
>ur brain quite fit ?) "
AjJLut. filx^j-* sar-i dimdyji hastid I "are you in the best of health and
ririts ? ' '
*^y c^^ ^ [^ cWra Aam illifatl kardld ss why have you shown a lack
kindness (in not coming to see me) ? ' '
The answers to the above would bo some such phrase as az dawlat-i sar~i
uma U^^-M. usJj^ j| tl by your good fortune (I am well, etc.)," or az shafaqat-i
umd U^> cuai^ jt , etc. , or jokingly, az marhamat-l ki na-dand ^;t^i &>A+AJ# j\
through the kindness you don't show " : in sha*Allah khidmat-i shuma mi-
sam f+*j' \+"> ^**>^ <t^Jf ^U c^f < if it please God I will come to see you " :
^f jL. p&tf kayf-am saz ast "my health is in tune" : ^ ^U^ dimtigh-l
tram "I am happy, exhilarated (either from wine, or from scent from a
irderi, or company of friends)," [but ^^> cl<a ^^ &$* fulankas dimagh darad
i.e.) 4 'he is proud" J : ^f*xi ^^ 3^} imruz dimagJi-i na-daram (m.c.) "I
n in low spirits to-day.'*
(/) Expressions of tenderness :
* \&fo *z*s*})* ^s ] a !f dawr-i sar-al hi-yardam (i may I bo thy sacrifice "
pj(*v o^^ dard-at hi-jan-am "your pain be on me."
*ei^ &\*j* qurban-i sar-at ** may I be thy sacrifice."
^uxlLi CL^AAJ sar-at salamat " may you be well."
i Kaijf ^-ft^r modern for kayi* " how," and ho nee tho ** how " of oiio's health ; also
hilaratiori of intoxicants. Kuk kardan a)^ ^j? (m.c.) is to wind up, or tune,
asical instruments, a watch, or clock, etc.: saz ra kuk kun (^ **& 1)3^* **tune the
jtruments'*: saz-ash kuk na bud i^> ^^ (j^jf^ 9 (m.c.) "his instrument was not in
no ' ' : tu-yi kuk-ash raftam pfc) <J\jt e$-y (slang) I pulled his leg, chaffed him ": kuk-
k kardam ki bi-asman raft *^+9j eA-**f *J &$ &j> (J^^ (slang) "I chaffed him till I
ew him well ' ' : fulan kaa kuk shud * uS>^ ^y^ &%s (slanp;) " he is drawn. '*
2 Na-khuahl (_^* j^-U { n modern Persian = ** sickness" : in old Persian (and in
dia, etc.) " displeasure."
3 In modern Persian dlmayh tc$ me ans **nose " : in oldPersian " brain, palate ;
Lde"; dimagh farfibhtan (y**>j9 ^^ (class, and m.c.) "to display pride": chi
r dimagh darad tyt * ^U^ j& &*> " what idea has he in hia head ? " : dar ra bi-dimayh-
t zad (local) he shut the door in my face."
* An expression used by both men and women. The woman sometimes circles
ind a sick person's bed with the idea of taking on herself any danger or calamity
at is to fall on the beloved. The custom is dying out.
386 INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
^AJ ^L. ^t ay jan-i pidar "oh life of thy father (said to a son or
daughter, by the father)."
* ct^U. ^i ay janan (in poetry) " oh all my lives (said to a mistress)."
y nur-i chashm-am ' light of my eyes (said to a son)."
U. &(*> jan-i jan-am "life of my life."
^U taj-i ear-am "crown of my head (a servant to a master, or wife to
husband)."
| albatta nazat bi-kasham " I'll willingly put up with your
whims (or coquettish wilfulness) " : said to babies or a mistress.
<*y ji in ki misl-i ruli-i ' e thou art like a soul to me."
a y l aziz-i man (used to friends, children, husband to wife;
a commonly used expression without any great force) " my dear."
(k) Adjurations :
j bi- sar-i shuma "by your head."
y turn bi-qabr-i pidarat " (I adjure) thee by thy father's grave.' '
)*J ^'JL>^ bi-arvah-i pidar-am " by my father's soul " (plural for sing. :
if the father is alive bi-jan-i pidar-am).
j bi-aabll-at qasam (vulg.) c< by thy moustache."
jl=?u bi-jan-i 'azlz-i khudat " by thy dear life."
bi-marg~i sliuma " by your death."
^ w bi-miri " mayst thou die," or " by thy life."
Remark. A man promises to come at a certain time. His friend
says, " Swear say tu bi-mirl ^^ >>," the reply is " tu bi-miri, mi-ayam
ptfLs* cs^p." By thy life I will come. The host then says man bi-miram,
zud bi-ya f id A^JUj ^ ^^ ^yo " ''May I die! Come soon" (if you want
me to die like an enemy, come late).
(I) Sar-ikhary^^ "ass's head" is a term applied to an unwelcome
guest who is for any reason a check on the conversation ; m.c. sar-i
khar paida sliud *& fajjj^a^*..
Sometimes a visitor will jokingly announce himself by zamm bi-shigaft,
sar-i Ichar payda-shud ^> f *y j^j** o^'KSj e^^}, (or j**j* &* \*# &*& cri^J)
(m) (1) The Persians belong to the Sbl'a sect of Muslims and are follow-
ers of *Ali the son- in-law, 6 and first cousin of the Prophet. They maintain
J Used when giving exhortations. A mother would say ay jan-i madar o^ c5^
*)l*.
* This word though apparently a plural is always used as a singular. The an e>f
may be a suffix as in abadan o>fJ^T . According to some it is an extension of the vocative
jana I
3 The idea in your head is worth swearing by, mine is not: therefore a servant, for
instance, would say to hi<? master bi-sar-i shuma U-w^^j.
* You are so dear to me that I swear by your death in preference to mine.
* 'All, the darling of the Persians, was the husband of Fatimah the Prophet's
daughter.
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC. 387
that 'All was the first legitimate Imam f Uf or Khalifa &&d (successor to the
Prophet), and therefore consider AbuBakr^y(, 'Umar^s and 'Usman e;Ui*
as usurpers. The Sunnis on the contrary maintain the claims of these three
as well as of AH. 1
(2) The following are some of the commoner maledictions' 2 :
& ) cjjj~o <J(A khak bi-sar-at (bi-kunand^) " may they bury thee."
khak-ash bi-daJian = " curse him."
? (y )j** *ty murda-shur turd bi-barad " may the corpse-washer bear
thee away."
j bi-sar-at bi-khurad "may (the matter you are worrying me
about) fall on your head. D n the whole thing."
(oJ^ Khuda marg-at bi-dihad " may God give thee death."
^ Khuda tamam-nl kunad " may God finish thee."
gU* ej(f3j>> ruzagar-at siydh '" may tliy days become black."
gtf
^^.j (J^j - *^.j bachcha buzurg na-shi, '* boy may you never grow up."
(^J)j cJf al-at bi-zanad, " may the Al strike thee. 4 "
i sar o tan-durust (a disguised curse to the vulgar).
vj J?^A hargiz bi-khdna-yi hakim piycida na-ri ' may you
be so sick that you will have to be carried to the doctor.'
libas-at naw bdshad, " may you die and not wear out your
clothes."
(3) Eastern languages have a rich and varied vocabulary of abuse, and
Persian perhaps stands foremost. The following are a few mild terms of
abuse in ordinary use :
5 pidar-sag , dog- fathered.
J*$ 6 pidar sukhta, D-d blackguard (lit. your father is
burnt).
1 tiunnl, lit "one of the path.'* The Slu'as still possess majtahids or
"enlightened doctors'*: they observe the ceremonies of Muharram, while the Sunnis
only observe the 10th day (' ashura 'jjy"*^)> the day God created Adam. The Shi'as also
allow temporary marriages and observe slight differences in ablutions and the forms
of prayer. They also say that taqiyya &-&> (or kitman ^)^^) } i.e. concealing one's
religion to escape persecution, is permitted.
2 Vide Jl. As. Soc. Beng., 1912.
3 A third person, in joke, on hearing this sometimes adds khak-i kahu jw* o^
** earth of lettuce'*: the lettuce is manured by human excrement, and is reckoned the
dirtiest feeder of all vegetables.
* A woman's curse to a woman. The Al is a monster that attacks pregnant
women. A Persian woman that sees the * Al ' insists on dying, such is the power
of imagination.
& A compound noun, pi. pidar-sag-ha
tf Subs, pidar
388 INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
^Jwi nasnds, ourang outang. *
tij oJj [ walad-i zina )
... , , ,, . -. / offspring of adultery.
b>/f *Jj walad" z-zma I r c J
2 ay lavand, fascinating coquette 2 (often used to little girls),
f ay lakata, oh flighty one.
T. qurumsaq, cuckold.
<JtfU> ja-kash, pimp.
&>j^ dayyus, cuckold.
uaaJ^j zan-qahba,* husband of a prostitute.
Jj^-i fuzul, meddler.
ahmaq, fool.
5 J ,j jiyk hir az pir nami-ddnad, he is such a fool he can't read
whether the word is hir or pir. 4
ablah, a fool.
' kawdan, a dunce.
haram-zada y base-born, illegitimate; frequently used in the sense
of trickster.
lull, blackguard.
<J&* qallash, cheat.
(4) The following, not to be translated, is a mild example of expres-
sions heard even amongst the educated. It is inserted, as it is sometimes as
well to understand what is being said as a protection against covert insult :
ti <J)*J i*A>3 ) f<xj ridam dar dahan-i pidar-ash c< Ispit on his father's
beard ' ' (mildly paraphrased).
There is besides a whole vocabulary of abuse called ^^j^^U jiocJ
fuhsh-i 1 madar u pidar, that is best omitted. The examples already given
will be found more than enough to indicate the general lines of such
language language found in the mouths of even tiny children. 3
Though the Persians use the crudest expressions in their daily speech,
they even the humblest and poorest of them can, when they choose,
administer a veiled and delicate reproof with exquisite skill.
1 Not often used as it is considered a sin to call a man this, who is not.
2 Used also in a bad sense.
3 Qahba &***-* in Arabic signifies lit. " cough."
* In Arabic j?\ (}* jw\ ^j^. SJi which is explained as meaning ** he knows not
a hirr or * cat,* from a birr or * fox's cub.' "
5 Lu$ derived from Lot. In "Urdu a '* sodomite."
tf A similar expression is used in tho Punjab.
8 It is perhaps some extenuation, that, from constant use, these words have lost
much of their force.
SIGNS AND SIGNALS. 389
94. Signs and Signals. 1
The following signs [ are not only in constant use, but reference to them
frequently occurs both in ancient and modern writings :
Silence: Dast bar sar-i damagh zadan ejj>j e\**j"j* e**>^. The right
hand is closed with the exception of the forefinger, which is held perpendi-
cularly (point upwards) with the middle joint touching the tip of the nose;
front of the forefinger to the left : or the tip of the forefinger is laid on the
tip of the nose.
Less commonly the tip of the forefinger is placed on the closed lips as in
England. Biting the lower lip is a secret sign to keep silence.
Gome here, biya LJ : As in India, i.e. the right arm is more or less
extended to the front, palm of the hand downwards. The signal is then
made by closing the fingers towards the palm, and extending them a few times.
No AJ : As in India. The open right hand, palm to the front, held
(roughly) level with the head is agitated from side to side. Additional
emphasis is given by turning the head to the left, closing the eyes and
smiling idiotically with the lips closed.
Slightly throwing the head back and closing the eyes also indicates
"No, " as well as, " He is talking rot/'
Raising the eyebrows slightly is a secret signal " No," or " Don't do it."
Raising them with a slight turn of the head means = " Ask him."
Yes: Dast bar cliaslim nihadan ^^ p^ j c**o. This action generally
accompanies the reply chashm p*- and signifies implicit obedience. The tips
of the fingers of the open right hand (back to the front) are laid on the right
eye. Also placing the right hand on the left breast and bowing = " Yes."
Lowering the eyelids in also a sign for " Yes."
Astonishment: Anyusht gazldan &&$ ^&i, or angusht-i tahayyur (or
ta'ajjub) gazidan 1 &*> ( v=F^ or) ^^J cu^> . The tip of the forefinger is
placed on the teeth of the lower jaw. This action is commonly represented
in pictures of the meeting of Farhad and Shlrin.
The Afghans lay the forefinger (underside to the front) transversely across
the mouth and close the teeth on it opening the eyes at the same time in
an astonished gaze.
Halt : Va ist* or bi-ist ^~*?.\ & or ^~~t\ fj. The right arm is held
perpendicularly, much as in the British Cavalry signal for "halt," or the
open and extended right hand is held up a little above the level of the right
shoulder, palm to the front.
I Republished for the Jl. As. Soc. Beng., 1907, by kind permission of the Council.
1 It is related that a European visitor at an Eastern Court nearly lost his life by
accidentally biting his finger (the signal for astonishment) when the king was relating
cue of his bes.t stories,
8 latgah *^*-^t * l railway station."
390 BIBLIOMANOY, DIVINATION, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC.
Mad: Tapping the right side of the nose with the tip of the fore-
finger = dimagji-ash khu$hk-ast o^ t u&^k ^^U^ "he's cracked."
Drawing the open right hand across the mouth downwards, from wrist
to tips of fingers, and blowing on it at the same time = "All gas, he's
talking rot."
Go out: Slightly poking the chin forwards.
95. Bibliomancy, Divination, Superstitions/ etc.
(a) Istikhara a t 8)Ufcuut signifies asking divine direction as to any course
to be pursued about which the seeker is doubtful, by opening the Qur*an and
finding the answer on the right-hand page. The seeker first repeats the
Surat^lFatihah a^li), g^ or "Opening Chapter of the Qur'an," the Su-
rat*-l-IKhla8 u^JI' *)? i( On the declaration of God's Unity' 1 (Chap. 112), and
the 58th verse of the 8u'mt u -*l-An'am fUiilf %~> " the Chapter of Cattle" (6th
Chapter) three times, and then opens the Qur*an. Sometimes seven Salawat
are repeated in addition ; or else the seeker first si salawat 3 mi- fir istad SljJL* *-*
. . &** * &.**'+ ,$^
Juj&{j/o, i.e. he says three times **L^ JT ^ >^=cuo ^.Jlc JU> -^.Uf . He then
* $/ *
says one Al-hamd (i.e. the Fatihah or Opening Chapter) and then Old hu^llali
AiJl^A JS, and lastly the Aya-yi-malat%h' l-(jjiayb ^*$\ ^3lix> if which is tht
58th verse of the sixth chapter or "Chapter of the Cattle."
*&&*
Then saying ^JysuLf ^\ Alluhumma'stakhir-m* the book is opened by
the seeker at random, by the forefinger of the right hand, and the top line of
the right-hand page is selected. If no verse begins in this line, the seeker
turns back and goes to the beginning of the verse. Verses issuing commands,
or expressing pity, etc., are propitious.
Another method is, after opening the book as above, to count the
number of times the word Allah occurs on the page, and then to turn over
(forward) the same number of pages, and again count the same number
of lines from the top, and then if no verse commences in that line to read
forward and take the first verse that oeeurs after that line.
1 Ropublishod from the Jl. As. Soc. Beng., 1900, by kind permission of the Council.
* IstiM&ia tyUv.L!, Kt, "asking favours, etc. 7 ' The istiM/ara *>^M that the:
Prophet taught was a prayer asking for guidance.
The seeker goes to a Mulla for an iatilchara, who takes no foe except perhaps an
offering of sweets or fruit.
One form of bibliomancy in England is to take an omen from the first word of the
lirat person heard reading the Scriptures. Taking an omen from a Bible suspended by a
key is still common enough.
S Sal at t\jk* is properly any prayer, being the Arabic equivalent of namaz jU* :
by the Persians, however, the word has generally a special signification.
* Incorrect Arabic for -r-khir-li " choose for me. * *
BIBLIOMANOY, DIVINATION, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC. 391
The answer is of course often extremely vague.
In addition to the above, the Persians, even the most irreligious,
generally take an istikhdra jUJL,f from the tasbih *$~* or " rosary." * The
Fdtihah is recited three times and any two beads are taken hold of at random.
As the first bead between these two points slips through the fingers the
seeker says Subhan^lldh <*M eAf* "Holiness be to God " ; as the second is
slipped Alhamdrli'llah &M ^Jf f< Praise be to God " : as the third is slipped
yjwala = "don't doit."
These expressions are repeated in this order till the last bead is reached.
According as the first, second, or third expression falls on the last bead , the reply
is favourable, indifferent, or negative, i.e. khub v^S miyana *^*>, or bad ***
From laziness, the Fdtihah is in practice usually recited only once.
This form of istikhdra *;ls\M takes little time or trouble for most
Persians carry a rosary in their pockets as a kind of play-thing and it is
resorted to on the most trivial as well as the most serious occasions. a
Tajcful J^& '* auguring," is generally applied to seeking a fal B or
' omen ' from Hdfiz. A volume of the Divan of the poet is held in the left
hand and the following words are said : c^jfjj-* vAwl^y ^ji^A &U* A^fyv (j
JIJsjuj JU. ^^ILc ^U ^j j Uj U^j Yd Khwdja Hdfiz-i Shtrazi tu kdshif-i har
rdz-i bar-i md biyd va yak fdl-i mundsib-i hdl biyanddz, 4 or ^j^ ^'^ *-^f>^ ^
e^eHt*^ ^^ v^t^J*^ ^ J>^ f & a*y&-s>x>^~J ci^UJ ^U Jsu iy 7a Khwdja
Hdfiz-i Shlrazl turd bi-haqq-i Shdkh-i Nabdt qasam mi-diham ki kull-i ahvdl rd
dar in kitdb-i Ichud mu'ayyan kun. The eyes are closed, the volume opened at
hazard 6 and the first line of the page on the right-hand is taken, and the seeker
turns back to the beginning of that ghazal J>. If the omen is unfavourable,
the ghazal J> following it is read (called the shdhid-i ghazal-i avval
Jjf <-i^ 3Al) and if propitious is acted on in preference to the first.
(c) The Persians also consult astronomers, and geomancers, 6 before start-
1 There are several ways of making this istikhara j^lasJU*}, one way is merely a
game of " odds and evens."
2 '* Shall I or shall I not take a purge ? " Out come the beads. Many a European
surgeon anxious to perform a critical operation has fretted and fumed, because day after
day the beads said the day was unfavourable.
3 Fal giriftan ^ij! JU " to take an omen" : tafcful zadan ^^j JV^
4 There is no fixed formula.
6 By running the nail of the forefinger of the right hand through the top edges of
the leaves, the book being held in the left hand by the back, front edges towards the sky.
8 Munajjim ^u*> " astrologer "; *ilm-i nwjtim ^su .JU "astrology"; rammal
^geomancer": *ilm-i raml cU; /JU (raml andakhtan ^^fjof <J-;) eomancy":
'ihn-i hayat ctUA JU "astronomy", a term also applied to Euclid. Zlch-i tali,
kashidan ^OJj^X jJl^t ^) " to cast a horoscope."
Falrgir j& Jl^ is applied to any professional omen-taker.
392 BIBLIOMANOY, DIVINATION, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC.
ing on a journey, closing a bargain, or even changing a sleeping-room in a
house, etc., etc.; they believe in lucky faces, fortunate numbers, and
unlucky days.
Geomancy is supposed to have been discovered by Daniel. Geomancers,
therefore, before casting, say, (t Td Hazrat-i Daniyal " J^f<> o^aa* L.
(d) The 13th of iSafar, the second month in the Muslim calendar, and
the 13th of Nawruz, are days of evil omen 1 ; also the 5th and 13th of every
month. To avoid the evil that might overtake them were they to remain in-
doors, all Persians leave their homes on the 13th of Nawruz, and spend the
day from sun-up to sun-down in the open air. Disaster follows a quarrel
during these hours. On the last Wednesday of Safar, boys and girls jump
over a fire.*
(e) Omens are also taken from birds, animals, the number of times a
person sneezes, the crossing of a threshold with the right or left foot first,
and many other things too numerous to mention.
(/) Persians also believe in the evil eye, chaskm-i bad &* p***-, or chashm-
zakhm ^J ^^. 3 Any one may be possessed of the evil eye without know-
ing it,* and some superstitious people say Ma sha* Allah aJDi &U before
gazing at their own countenances in a mirror, so as to ward off the evil
effects of their own admiring eyes.
Blue wards off the evil eye, and for this reason valued animals are
adorned with beads of this colour. Also the ispand seed is burnt in the fire.
Pretty children are often purposely kept dirty and unkempt, and further
guarded from malign influence by amulets ta'viz **j**. 6
Carpets are generally woven by the tribes-people with some small defect
in the pattern, to avert the evil eye.
l Manhw u*}*^* or bad ciJ.
* The Prophet died in the month of Safar. It is supposed that the Last Day
will fall on the last Wednesday of a $afar.
8 The Shah has the right to see every woman in the kingdom unveiled, and
the royal glance is fortunate.
The Mujtahida have the same right, being considered mahram.
* In mard bad-chcwhm ast cu*f AAV^ j j^o ^f^ or chasm-i shur (or ahwn) darad
$)\b ( +}> or ) )y *A. (m.c.): In ahatehtB-zaban-aah shum ast f^St ^J^bjO^^* (&*
o**t (m.c.) " this man always prophesies unlucky things."
6 Bazurband **ju jjb, a charm made by writing a text, wrapping it in bulghar ^UJU
or scented leather (qab-i Quran), which is then bound on the child's arm. An amulet is
also called *~Jljb ftiliam or *' talisman."
DamrrdM ^ykfj ^, more commonly sar-rahl ^tyjj**, is money expended in charity
on the threshold, by a departing traveller, to insure a safe return.
In India some Muslim women bind a coin on the arm of the departing relative to be
expended in charity on reaching the journey's end in safety.
BIBLIOMANOY, DIVINATIONS, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC. 393
Strange to say, a pig l in the stables will ward off the evil eye from the
horses and mules.
(g) Certain cities, Mullas' houses, a Consulate, the stable of certain big
people, etc., constitute sanctuary or bast o^. The writer once saw a soldier
clinging to a big gun in the square of Kirman, declaring it was bast *^*~*.
However in spite of his protestations he was finally removed by the
Governor's farr ashes.
(h) The time of Naw Euz jjj is a general holiday. People make picnics
for 13 days, and every master is supposed to present all his servants with
one month's pay. The chief of a dervish sect will auction certain sites,
such as the Governor's Palace, the British Consulate, etc., to his followers.
The purchaser erects a tent and blows a horn and refuses to move on, unless
given a sufficient sum of money over the sum for which he purchased the
site.
(i) Persians attribute misfortunes to the revolution of the heavens, to
the 'evil eye ' of time, to the world, etc., etc. 2
The influence of the heavens on the fortunes of man, appears to be an
ancient superstition dating back to a pre-Islamic period. It has been sup-
posed that Persians attribute their ill to the heavens, to avoid the appearance
even of attributing misfortune to the Deity. This is not, I think, the case.
The Persians still believe that the revolution of the skies affects man's fate.
Muslims who wish to avoid ascribing ill to the Deity, attribute the
occurrence to Fate, Qaza Ui, Qadar joJf, or Taqdlr jt*&. In the religious
drama of Husayn, the sky is accused of being the author of his misfortunes.
Examples:
Ay charkh-i falak kharabiaz klna-yi tust (0. K.)
" Ah ! Wheel of heaven to tyranny inclined."
(Whin, trans. Rub. 25).
aid
1 Tweedie mentions a wild boar being kept in the stables at Baghdad, and this is
occasionally done in Persia. Some say the breath of a pig is good for horses. In
'ArabistSn, pigs* flesh is said to be eaten under the name of guafand-i farangi ^xSJu^J
ij&j*. Ham in Persia is sometimes called gusht-i bulbul JUb oJ^ t a name said to
have been invented by a telegraph clerk. The Baluchis of Bampur (Persian Baluchistan),
a very different-looking race from the fine people near the Dera Ghazi Khan Frontier in
India, eat wild pig and foxes.
2 Oardish-i Falak ,Jlb' (jS^, Dunya Uio, Dahr jA^ Qardun &j&jS 9 Charjeh
394 DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
In charkh-i jafa~pi$ha-yi ' alt-bunyad
Hargiz girih-i kdr-i kas-i rd na-gushdd
Har jd ki dil-1 did ki ddgh-% ddrad
Dagh-i digar-% bar sar-i an dagk nihdd (0. K.)
" The wheel on high, still busied with despite,
Will nev'r unloose a wretch from his sad plight;
But when it lights upon a smitten heart,
Straightway essays another blow to smite.
(Whin. Rub. 154).
Ay charkh chi karda-am turd : rdst biguy
Payvasta figanda-t mard dar tag u puy (0. K.)
" Oh wheel of heaven, what have I done to you
That you should thus annoy me ? Tell me true."
( Whin. Rub. 499).
Chun Idla bi-Naw-ruz qadah gir bi-dast
Ed Idla-rukh-i agar turd fursat hast l
May nush bi-khurrami ki in charkh-i kabud
Ndgdh turd chu bad garddnad past. (0. K.)
" Like tulips 2 in the Spring your cups lift up,
And, with a tulip-cheeked companion, sup
With joy your wine, or e'er this azure wheel
With some unlooked-for blast upset your cup."
(Whin. Rub, 44).
CHAPTER XI.
96. Diminutive Nouns (ja-^t or^*^ p*i ).
(a) Diminutive terminations are : c - A*'. & and &*> ; also colloquially j.
These diminutive forms may express contempt, pity, affection, or
simply give the idea of diminutiveness. The diminutive nouns may further
be qualified by an adjective signifying "small," " little," etc.
(6) For rational beings the three first only - tf or * are used, as :
(1) 8 vJ,yo mardak " a small man."
mamdk "little mother" (Sa'di).
1 In prose ast would be used.
* Lola is in Persia, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, the name of the common red
poppy.
8 Colloquially mardaka tf&j*, also zanaka &>) (m.c.). This k is called kaf-i
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS. 395
-&5 zanak "a little woman " (rare).
1 tjf^a.* dukhtarak or tj&>*diikhtara ' a little girl."
Tiflak-i man na-khush ast o^f <jw^ U ^ ijj&b (m.c.) " my poor little
child is sick" : Farangiyak (Trans. H.B.) " contemptible European."
Remark. In bad-i khurusak iJU*^ ^ "croup" (so styled from the
sound of the cough) the ^ is nisbati.
(2) * generally gives a sense of contempt:
A^J*= * mardaka (m.c. only) tc fellow."
<*&j 2 zanaka, " virago."
(3) a generally gives the idea of immatureness, as :
*j~j pisara "little boy."
jj^a dukhtara " little girl."
In dushiza tyjS* ^ ft virgin " (from dushtdan ^<HJ to milk) the termina-
tion appears to be the &., referred to in Remark to No. (5).
M
*^u g bachclw " child, or young of any animal."
Remark /.--The termination * also occurs in substantives without
life, as: &>>&** safida 'from safld, adj. <c white"): **>jS kuha "a camel-
hump" (from a^ "a hill"): *&* falaka bastinado pole" (from /a/a&
6< tho sky "), vide 98 (6).
Remark //.-The fomis />^rS ^-J, dakhtarii J*A*, kitchukii j&&> are
colloquial only.
Remark ///.In to'm v 5 ' '' a toal (of horse or donkey), " jj
*'a lamb," A^^ /wy'a " chicken," etc., the final has no diminutive
ti cat ion.
Remark /V.- Final is frequently elided, as: s^ 6anrfa 'slave," dim.
bandak (class.) [in Mod. Pers. *^t >xi, or cA ^']. Ruz-nama Ax?G jjj
"newspaper," dim. ruz-namcha *^-< 1 ^, ''small book, or a daily account."
Sometimes it is changed into f/, ?^Vfc (5). Similarly ^ is sometimes elided,
as. ^>t /f//I, -'jKUTot," dim. / f /^^ cJU^k (class.); tjitiyak c^^A* (mod.).
1 An unmarried girl or woman is called dubhtar j*^ (m.c.).
2 These words are properly contemptuous, but from frequent use (in Kirman at
least) tlioy have so far lost their force that a husband and wife use these forms in. ad-
dressing each other. Generally if a woman is addressed as zanaka ^J she replies,
zanaka madar-at cs*)j>U> Ak)}.
* Said to be derived from au obsolete form bach. The tashdld is apparently used
to distinguish this word from bi-chi "for what, why V "
Darakht bacfazada '* the tree (or any plant) has sent out a sprout."
* Also falak : to which the feet are fastened by a loop and held soles upwards.
The pole is held by two men.
396 DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
(4) The only termination found in irrational animals is ^, as :
kharak-i miskm " poor wretched ass."
murg&ak-i kuchak " a little chick."
^$-l aspak-i kuchak " a little horse or pony."
This termination is generally added to the generic noun, as:
haywanak "poor creature"; ^jy murg&ak "wee little bird"; (vide also
last example (c).
(5) For inanimate objects ^ and *** (or za) are u ,ed :~-*su*^ or e*>^
hawzak or hawzcha (m.c.) " a small artificial pond " : *^U baghcha (m.c.) " a
ittle garden": *# * ia/cAa "a ladle" (kaf the palm of the hand):
4ujb bazicha "a little game": *$vii3 tufangchn "a pistol": *-^J pulak
" a spangle, a fish's scale, a scale on a bird's leg " : **u\* kamancha (m.c.)
" a violin bow" : p**- cJ^y mardumak-i chashm (m.c.) " pupil of the eye " :
*^-/ ^wcAa ' lane ' ' ; maslikiza *}*2^c a small leathern bottle " * ; ^ ^^
baytak-i chand (m.c.) "a few little verses " ; *i^ ^^) ruzak-l chand (Sa'dl)
" a few days."
} ^ Jt ; Jf I^t * ^JLXJ iJL, t^ ^iu ^Xi * ^<y^ ^ ^yi ,^u)^
Diltang shavi yak javak-i* bang bi-khur
Yd yak manak-i* bada-yi gul-rang bi-khur.
" Are you depressed ? then take of bang one grain ;
Of rosy grape- juice take one pint or twain."
(O.K. 251. Whin.).
In lakh.sha "a live coal, a spark/' naysha " a small reed " and in one or
two words the sha is merely a corruption of cha.
Words ending in a/i/take the termination *., as: ^ darya, dim. *-^ ^
daryacha\ tj 3 *-* sahra, dim. ^^ |^- sal\raclm\ ^ ^rrT, dim. saracha
As when forming the plural in em, final silent * becomes </, so sometimes
with the diminutive in *, as : jama &*L" garment, ' ' J&*^ jamagak f) ' 4 a little
garment " (vide also (3) Remark IV).
The termination ^ is also added to adjectives, as: t-^.** surkhak (m.c.)
"measles"; J^U talkh-alc (class.) "somewhat bitter; the colocynth" ;
" kam-tar-ak ^^ (m.c.) "a little less"; ^^ ^ dur-tarak (m.c.) " a little
further ' ' ; dir-tarak ^J*j*z (me.) "a little later ' ' ; past-tarak c^y c>*o (m.c.)
1 In modern Persian aspak 4 -^*f also means a '* toy hor^f " : in Indian Cavalry
Regiments it is applied to the leather covering for the cape when carried on the wallets.
2 In m.c kaf-glr j^&fj a name also given to a shovel for the fire.
8 A?JjJ>, qiziljih is properly for qizilcha (dim. of qizil) P. : aurtoh.dk (m.c.) =
" measles'* (in the diet, also a gold coin and a bag).
* Javok-l ^^ " a small barley corn or so, 1 ' manak-l ^^ t4 a small man or
so."
* Also in mod. Pers. *-f */ct^ jama-ale.
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS, 397
' ' a little lower ' ' ; ^ t zudtarak " a little quicker ' ' : muzd-i hammaml ra
bad-ak na dadam ^toJ^i ij ^U^. *yc " I tipped the bath attendant not at
all badly" (Tr. Haj. Bab. chap. 17).
Remark. The termination *j appears to be a form of A^, as : A*ufa or
tyh, danja or ddnzha 1 (class.) " a lentil," the diminutive of Aija dana.
In a few words idia *fu| and isha *&$ occur, as: dancha A^uj^ "a small
door, i.e., a window (opening like door)"; mahlcha **^*\s> "acrescent; orna-
ment." In bdzicha *fujk, the ^ belongs to the original form.* Iza is also for
animate nouns, as : dushlza tyjt " virgin " ; naviza >^G <l a small boat."
(c) The words pisar ^-o and bachcha A^U added to rational nouns,
sometimes give a diminutive sense :
yyo ^^j ^ a a y pi sara mihtar or pisar-mihtar (m.c.) " oh 5a^5 boy " (not
" son of groom "); gAulam-bachcha &*o ftt* (m.c.) "a boy slave" : shutar-
***%
bachcha *^> j& (Sa e df) " young camel"; darmsh-pisar j-* cA^;> (Sa'dl)
* a boy dervish."
Murgh-ak az bayza birun ayad u ruzi talabad
Va adamUachcha na-darad khabar az 'aql u
" The chick conies out of the egg and seeks its living,
But the young of man has nothing of sense or discernment."
Remark /.Words like 9 *>ju (or juy (^^) " a brook or stream " require
the ^ in the diminutive, as : wj^ or
Jaw ^^ " a grain of barley " becomes javak
Remark II. These diminutive suffixes are called chim-i tasgj&r
and kaf-i tasgj&r j**-*** o(^. In kharak ^ja* " poor ass" and pisark
" darling boy," the suffix may be called kaf-i tarahhum ( ^^ oK )
" the k of compassion or kindness." In zaluk <Jjl) "a leech " for zalu
(gen. zalu) the kaf is zaifid or superfluous.
(d) The diminutive termination ak also gives a modified signification
to the original noun, as :
^ chashmak (m.c.) "a wink," (chasm "eye").
dastak "clapping of the hands," (dasJ " hand ").
^ puslitak* *' somersault," (pusht f * back ").
l Similarly kaj " crooked " is sometimes gazh.
* Baghcha &3?-*(* " a little garden*' is in Urdu bayhicha
& Pisar-i mihtar j^^^^^ (m.c. and class.) *' the elder son/*
4 Bar 56 pushtak bi-zun (m.c. arid local) "dive into the water."
398 AFFIXED ^ AND ARABIC ABSTRACT NOUN.
tutehmak "water-melon seeds" (roasted and salted); (tukhm
or "egg").
zardak " a carrot."
U 6ad-^ khurusak " croup ' ' ; (imitative word).
Remark. Inak and dnak Jjuf and <-&f, the diminutives of m and an,
signify " behold !, here is! " ; (anak not used in m.c.).
(e) The m.e. k&chulu ^^ or ktichM J^^ " tiny" (for children
or things in a good sense) is creeping into writing. .Kuchuku j**> or
Michuku " small" is less diminutive than the former.
This diminutive j is very common in m.c., as: pisaru jj~j, dukhtaru
9 aspu j*l t kitabiijrt&, etc.
Mardu j*s and zanu yj are n t used, but mardakti jf*j*> and zanaku
J) ( vu lg- an d local) are used to express greater diminutiveness than mardak
or zanak <-Joj. Yarn jj^ (m.c. and vulg.) is used as " boy " is, by the
Irish, and does not express diminutiveness. This suffix is called vav-i tasghlr
(/) Khurasanis, in speaking, use the suffix gak ^ as a diminutive, as :
bacJichagak cj *.> " dear or tiny little child " ; baradar-gak-i shuma ^ ;^
U& "your small brother." Persians however look upon KhurasanTs as
(g) Mashkula AJ^^X) " a small mashk *&**> " (leather water-skin), and
mushkula dj&L* "a small bit of musk," are formed according to no rule,
and are probably the only examples of the diminutive terminations ula.
97- Affixed ^, and Arabic Abstract Noun.
(a) Grammarians enumerate several kinds of (Persian) formative ^ L :
(1) By affixing a ^ (ma'ruf <J^*x5 ) to an adjective, simple or compound ,
an abstract noun is formed, as: <^^ riiki ** goodness," ^lta danafi
" wisdom," from <J^i "good," and Ufa "wise": ^^j>3 zar-bakhshi "the
bestowing of gold"; ^\^ e)^ jahdn-ddrl "empire," (from J^iujj, adj.,
" giving gold " and jld e;^, adj., world-holding ").*
Abstract nouns are also formed by affixing this ^ to nouns, pronouns,
verbal roots, and past participles, etc., etc., as: padishdh *Uj>b "king/'
1 Briefly, from all adjectives and from some participles, abstract nouns are formed
by adding <_ 5 : silent h becomes gl.
From nouns, adjectives are formed by adding ^ I, as : 4^^^ tf-5*^ panjah tumani
t( worth 50 tumans."
2 A few abstract nouns and adjectives are formed by adding alif, as : gar ma ^^
(m.c.) u heat, hot weather" from garm "hot"; l#f# sarma (m.c.) *' cold, or cold
weather"; ahayda, P. "mad from love" from shayd, substantive: vide foot-note
<2) to (6) (3).
AFFIXED ^ AND ARABIC ABSTRACT NOUN. 399
padishahi ^a-U^b "sovereignty": hastl ^j^ ''existence"; nisti
" non-existence " ; manl ^U 1 " egotism."
In /aas^ 4.5^ " existence, being" and wwS <^~^ "non-existence, not
being," the ^ is added to the 3rd pers. sing. Pres. Tense. If the adjective
is compound, as: bi-dast u pa b^c^o ^ (e helpless, unweildy," the ^ is
usually added to the second part of the compound only, as: bi-dast u pa*$
^jb^ 0*0 <jj " helplessness."
Similarly in the case of a double simple adjective, the ^ is usually added
to the second only,' 2 ast^J^ ^y tar u tazagi "freshness" (for this vide
below) ; past u bulandi " ups and downs " ; ba kamal-i saf sadiql (H. B. Chap.
XLI, p. 236). Compare also: *&J ^J^ f* j e^ f* ()** ** ^ ^t^
f&\*j\ b ^UJLS p& (Tr. H. B., Chap. XXII) "for he permitted me to sit in his
presence, to eat with him, and even to smoke his pipe, " ; here, however,
ham-nishml ^^^ p& should be substituted for ham-nishin (j^^ p*.
This Persian ^ may also be added to some Arabic past participles.
Thus from murakhlchas 0^/0 permitted to leave and licensed," comes the
m.c. substantive mumlMthasi ^^A^O ^permission to depart, leave" which is
now preferred to the correct form rukhsat o/A^.^. 3
If the noun ends in silent 8, the s is changed into ^, as: banda t*v
"slave," bandagi ^&u " bondage"; shikasta AJL* "broken," ^j^-Xw
shikastagl " fracture, also being worn out, broken down (old age) " : chum
^^ and chigunagl <^j&*- "the how and wherefore; state."
This <_$ is called the y<l-yi masdar ^^^^^ ^(j y or the ^ of tlie verbal
noun, and also ya-yi ismi ^+~>\ ^b .
Such nouns arc included in hasil-i masdar j^^o (J^>1^ } vide 115.
A noun may be formed from the Imperative root of the verb by affixing
^, as: khud sitcfi ^^ :>yL u self-praise " (compound word); vide also
115 (e) and (/).
(2) Nearly allied to the ya-yi masdari ^)^^^ ^^ is the ya-yi mushabih,
or ya-yi musahabat c^A^l^/o ^(^ which expresses similitude or assumption
of character, as :
bi-farr-i tu humd^l kunad
8ar ki rasad pish-i tu pa*l kunad. (Nizaml).
. x
l Manl, P. * egotism," but Ar. from root ^"O " seminal fluid " ; also ba man-l
" thou art with me. ' '
* An instance of the Persian dislike to the repetition of the same word or sound.
Rul&sat is always used in India.
* Maslar )&*&* source, and hence the Inf. of a Persian verb or the root
in Arabic.
400 AFFIXED ^ AND ARABIC ABSTRACT NOUN .
" At seeing thy splendour the magpie acts the huma, 1
The head that comes near thee humbles itself (lit. acts the foot)."
In this example huma*i ^U^ and pa*t ^5b both illustrate the ^ of
similitude. Hatiml ^^ " boundless generosity (from Hatim of Tay, famous
for bis generosity)."
(3) The ya-yi nisbatl ' l c^-*~-> <^t> indicates relationship, as: Irani <yf^K
{i Persian," from Iran il Persia." " ^
vM
111 Arabic, the relative ^ has a tashdld, as: ^^ shamsiyy un " solar" ;
but in Persian the taskdid of the Arabic relative o - is omitted in the mas-
wW
culiae, as : shamsi 3 ~4^, but restored in the feminine, as, shamsiyya *&***+ .
If the substantive is Persian and ends in ha-yi makhfi ^A^* ^U, &hamza
is substituted for the ya-yi nisbatl J^ <^b, as : i*^* surma-** " blue-black in
colour" : &~J " light-green , i.e. , pista 5 -coloured." The forms ^X^ and
however also occur, but are incorrect. Sometimes the is changed into
before the ^, as: aSU^ khana "a house," ^(^ khdnagl ^domestic'';
qal'a "fort," (j^* qal'agi* " garrison- soldier." In India the form khanl
occurs as well as khanagt, vulg. khangi, vide also (a) (1).
If, however, the word is Arabic, the relative adjective should be correctly
formed according to the Arabic rule, 7 (vide. Ar. Gr., Appendix); thus from
<kaxj bayza " egg" is derived ,j**>., Ar. "oval." The form ci^ju is incorrect,
though occasionally used in Persian. Nuqra "silver" *y*J nuqra^i (mod.)
" made of silver " ; but classically ,J>Ju is also found.
As regards the final relative^ in words like ShirazI * vide p. 179 of Volume
1 Called alsomurgh-i dawlat &Jj fs** Huma 4< tho Common Lamniergeyer }> (vide
Jl. As. Soc. Beng., 1906) (not a mythical bird) is supposed to be fortunate; humayun
^^U^ adj. '* fortunate."
* +*
* This c^- is not the Arabic 45- that forms Arabic relatives, as : ts^** (Pors.
mien) <v Egyptian," etc., though it corresponds to it.
3 The "relative noun" is a substantive or adjective, as: arziyy un "earthy";
miriyy un "an Egyptian." For tho Arabic pi. of these nouns vide AT. Gr M Appendix.
* * i
Similarly abstract (Ar.) nouns are formed by adding *i~ , as: iluhiyyat &*Vl *'(Jod-
head"; *A->^| inaaniyyat * 'humanity." In imitation of the Arabic, this termination
is also added to Persian words, as: Wiariyyat "stupidity,'* also khari; zaniyyat
**
"womanliness"; mardumiyyat, etc., vide (1) (1). The words *dj&k fafuliyyat 4 child-
hood " and **&\jf karahiyat, etc., "aversion," are Arabic infinitives and not abstract
nouns of the above class. Vide (c).
+*
* Similarly with plural of sects, as : ^j&b, pi. dahriyya &<*j*& " the sect of dahrw."
"
the Hebrew language ' ' is the feminine of the word
6 i.e. the light-green colour of the skin of the kernel.
But C5*L5 a tinman."
'
7 Words of the form *1&* generally make
AFFIXED ^, ETC. 401
1, 2, p. 179 of the Grundries der Iranischen Philologie. It is derived from
the Pahlavi lie. Pahlavi dln-lk, Persian dlnl, pious. This Ik is derived from
an older yaka (old Iranian) or possibly ika.
The Hindi I is derived from a Sanskrit Ika and other terminations. The
old Iranian yaka or Ika, and the Sanskrit Ika, etc., have a common origin in
the old Aryan language.
Remark I. This 45 is added to the native city of a person as a
patronymic, but not to the name of a tribe, as : Muhammad Hasan-i Shlrazl
<*
^$31^ (J ^^ *+&jc " Muhammad Hasan the Shirazi (or of Shiraz) " ; but Fath
''All Shah-i Qajar jUU *U J^ Jtf : Afraslyab-i Turk <Jfy v^L^f ; Qhuldm
'All-yi Afshar " Ghulam 'All the Afshar (of the Afshar Tribe)." For things,
however, the ^ is added to both the city and the tribe, as: Shal-i Kirmdnl
^U^" JU "a Kirman shawl" and qaU-yi Afsharl ^;^if ^U "an Afshar
carpet."
The Persians, however, say mardum-i Kirman \&\*^ f^j* (not Kirmanl)
" the people of Kirman," and zanha-yi Shiraz 3^-i^ c^3 " the women of
Shiraz (and not Shirazi)."
Remark II. The Ar. ordinal <ytf sanl (for ^ l ) " second " does not end
in the relative ^ ; there is no tashdld, neither in the masculine nor in the
feminine : (*&& saniya the feminine of <yti; also means '*a second of time).**
Yahudl ^^. (P.) has for its feminine Yahudiyya &i*j# e *a Jewess " ; also,
" Judea ' ' ; and for its plural Tahud c^ ' * the Jews.' '
The forms bayzaw <&*& (for bayzl ^<A> a ) "elliptical" and Basravl
J (for Bisrl ^^ ) though used in Persian are incorrect ; vide Notes on
Ar. Grammar.
Remark III. This c5 ia sometimes added unnecessarily to an adjective,
as : dust-i qadlml <^+i&* o*j^ (m.c.) and dust-i samlml ^,5*^*^ v **ji In-hd
qadlml* shuda and M i^ ^+!** ^ (m.c.) *' these have become antiquated.*'
This ^ might be considered the ya-yi nisbat O-A-O LS (j y O r perhaps the
ya~yi zcfid ^13 (^b .
Remark IV. This ^ can be added to the Infinitive, as: navishtanl,
adj. (m.c.) " manuscript " = ^4^ khatt** Navistanl u&?> is also the Future
Participle " that has to be written " ; vide (b) (1).
1 The Arabic ordinals from 2 to 10 inclusive are formed on the measure of
2 Bayzl in Persian "whiteness, purity /' but in Arabic "elliptical. In mod.
Persian tubhm-murg&i A* p&Z ** oval " and '* elliptical."
8 The Indian Parsis are divided into two classes, rawi ^*^; (adj.) ** the moderns ' *
and qadlml <+>.** tl the old-fashioned."
* In India qalaml
26
402 AFFIXED ^, ETC.
* **
Remark F. From ^^ or ^^ " Delhi," e^^ DMam "a man from
Delhi." From ^do*** comes ^ik^^, also ^ila-ax> modern and corrupt.
Marvazl ^sjjj* ( a man of Marv ' is an irregular form of MargJiazl
* a man of Margb ' (the supposition being that Margh was the ancient name
of Marv) ; and Rdzl ^cjf; ' an inhabitant of Ray ' is derived from Rdz jt; the
older name of the city.
From Kdslidn &\\f is formed Kdshi ^ti 'an inhabitant of Kash/
and from Badakhshan, Badakhsham ^U^AJ or Badakhshl ^&*>&> (of
Badakhsh).
If this <j? is affixed to the Arabic kunyat *^ } the words abu ^t, ibn ^
disappear; thus, from ibn-i Zubayr ^ ^\ is formed Zubayri^j&j, and from
Abu Ham fa *J^i=w^jf comes Hanafl ^s&** .
Remark VI. Another form of the Arabic relative termination, chiefly
used in technical or scientific terms, is <^t as: ^1**^ jismdrii " corpo-
real" (no iashdld in Persian on the final ^): ^^j> ruham "spiritual";
<J>\} nurdnl {t bright, luminous" ; ^^ nafsdnl ^psychologic, etc/ 3 ; vide
notes on Ar. Gr., Appendix.
(4) The yd-yi maf'ul J^*i^ c5^ r o ^ ^ ne object, expresses some person
or thing being affected by some act, as : ^^l^ cu^t- dast khattl " signed " :
ifU*} la'nati " cursed."
(5) The yd-yi fd'il c^li ^-? is the u of the agent in such words as : jangl
^^i^ ** warrior " ; hikmati J**^ " man of science."
(b) Other descriptions of ^ are :
(1) The yd-yi liydqat ciJUJ ^U, or yd- yi qdbiliyyat c*jJUj ^(j, c the ^ of
fitness * ; this is the ^ added to the Infinitive, as : sukhtam ^ii^** "fit to be
burned * ' ; vide Remark IV.
(2) The yd-yi uxthdal o<^ ^U, ' the ^ of unity, 1 and yd-yi tankirj^ <^L ,
' the y of indefiniteness ' ; vide 41.
(3) The yd-yi khitabi ^'^ c5^> or *c^ * address,' is the <^ of the 2nd
person singular of the verb, as: kardl <^tjf " thou madest " ; nlk-l ^u
* c thou art good." 1 This second ^ is, however, usually distinguished as,
oUi| ^lj ya-yi isbdt-i fi'l.
(4) The ya-yi mutakallim ^^ ^, or ' ^ of the speaker,' is (in Arabic
phrases) the affixed pronoun of the 1st person sing., as: ^ ilahl or ^} rabbi
1 In Ya Rdbb tu Karim-i va karlml karam aet
44 Oh God, thou art generous and generosity is clemency/ 1 the accent distinguishes the
first karim-l from the second which is a substantive karlml.
403
"my Lord" 1 ; ^aa&* mushfiq-i "my friend." This ^ is also called
^y&JbUo ^b yd-yi muldtafatl " the yd of courtesy (or benignity)."
(5) The ya-yi sifat c^iL* ^b, or '^9 of qualification/ is the ^ that is
followed by the relative particle &\ and gives the force of the demonstrative
pronoun ; vide 42 (b) for other names of this 4,5.
(6) The ya-yi za*id <>oij ^b, or ' redundant <^,' occurs in the Imperative
after a quiescent alif or ^, as: bi-gushdy ^l&fc for bi-gushd U& "open
this " : bi-guy e5^ f r ^0^ j^ Also in other words as in j^ife (for^/; )
*' a clever workman " ; vide also (a) (3) 5 Remark III.
(7) The yd-yi ishbd 1 1>A ^b, ' the ^ of satiating or filling up,' is the <^
of poetical license used to eke out the measure of a verse as when an izdfat is
lengthened into ?:
Tlie metre is J^' ^Uclivo ^^tix) and the izdfats after ^^ and ^^ have
therefore to be pronounced long.
(8) The ya-yi istimrarl ^j+l***- <^b, or ; ^ of repeated action,' is the ^
added to the Preterite tense to form the Past Habitual z ; vide p. 225.
(9) The ya-yi ma'ruf J^*/o ^b is the ^ pronounced i (as in ; police ') ;
so named by the Arab invaders because they were acquainted with its
sound.
(10) The ya-yi majhul J^?^ <^ ^ is the ^ classically 3 sounded like e ;
so named by the Arabs because the sound was unknown to them.
(11) The u preceded by fatha and pronounced like the English diphthong
ai in 'aisle' or ey in 'they,' is called ya-yi sakin-i majtuli ma qabl, i.e.,
' quiescent <_$/ its preceding letter being movable by fatha.
(12) The yd-yi izdfat cJUi ^b, or ya-yi izdfl ^'Uf ^b, is the ^ that is
the substitute for the izdfat after the weak consonants ! and ^, as in ^ ^l*^^
and J 45^.
Remark /. The ^ in adverbs of time may be either the yd-yi vahdat
c.-t>o^ ^b, or else what might be called the yd-yi taqrib ^ tj & ^cb <c the yd of
approximation," as in ^<vof *Hiu tf ^ LS?** *asr-i bud ki bi-khdna aniadam
(m.c.) " it was about evening when I reached home" ; { asr-i may also mean
"one evening, an evening; this night" (Scottice *the night'). In shab-%
subh-i bdyad bi-ydyad dobj x>b ^^su^ ^^i (m.c.) " he must be here one of these
nights or mornings, i.e. in a few days," the ^ may be either yd-yi vahdat
b, or the yd-yi taqnb
1 With verbs, and certain particles that resemble verbs, this Arabic <^ becomes
hM
4^J, as: (^t 44 verily'*; ^^ 4t he struck me."
ft Obsolete in Persian colloquial, but preserved in the speech of Afghanistan and
India.
^ Preserved by Indians and Afghans.
404 THE TERMINAL .
Remark II. Yd is sometimies substituted for alif, as : ejUx^ yarmag&an
for armughan ol*;t (class, and m.c.) "a present." l
(c) Arabic abstract nouns of quality are formed:
(1) By adding iyyat:
First to nouns. Strictly speaking these are formed by adding the femi-
x *.*"
nine * to the relative adjectives, as: o^t "divinity": *;><x* " being dis-
cordant"; &SUof " humanity; politeness/*
Jk
Second to adjectives, as : ^^-^ " poverty."
jo
Third to participles, active and passive, as : ****** muriimiyyat " bestow-
ment " ; &ibj&vc mujarradiyyat " being in solitude."
Fourth to particles, as : o^ius' from VA^ " how ? " : oa*U> " substance,"
from>^ ma-huw a " what is it ? "
(2) This Arabic termination is even added to Persian words, as: o^.
Other Persian forms are oaLa* 1 - o^jf^Ax . o^& - o^jaL ; mrfe p. 400, foot-
note 3, and notes on Ar. Gr., Appendix.
Words formed by this addition are called ^jL*^ ;alax> "artificial
infinitives. * ' 2
Remark /. In the same way, the Persian words pddshahat (Indian)
and nazakat c^tji are formed on the Arabic measure of najabat o^Uu, hamdqat
Remark //.If the feminine termination is added to an adjective
terminating in a single ^, there is no tashdid, as: ^U, fern. *JU, but J^JU
<4 high " has of course for its feminine &Ac.
98 The Terminal .
(a) In Persian the terminal * is of two kinds, viz.yfcUi zahir, " manifest "
(i.e. sounded), and (.^iaoo ?na^A/i or ^M mukhtafi "hidden" (i.e. mute).
The former may be preceded by any one of the short vowels, as : rah '*/ ' road ,"
and&h *>Jf " grief"; jarbih*>j* " fat," and is consequently sounded. 3 As
already stated, final s when mute is unsounded and transliterated a : it is
considered a vowel by some Grammarians. 4
l Also rah-&vurd <ty) $) (class.) and oU^ sawybat ; all mean a present brought
back from a journey.
* Infinitive in the sense of the Arabic Grammar, i.e., verbal noun.
Panja " claws, grasp, ' f but panjah (for panjZh) fifty. ' '
Alter silent I, the izafat assumes the form of hamza, but after sounded *, it is
written in the ordinary manner, viz. */~^ kasrah. Mute I should be, but is not always,
dropped in writing before the ha of the plural.
THE TERMINAL . 405
The final a in Arabic words though aspirated in Arabic as in <uK kali-
waA,the pausal form of &+& , become silent in Persian, thus kalima\ the
fatha of mtm drops out.
(b) Mute or silent a is added to :
(1) A noun to form a noun that bears a relationship or resemblance to it,
as: dast^~* "hand," dasta *L*<* "handle"; garm-aba *>\*jf = hammdm ;
dvdza ajt^f " reputation; singing" : chahdr-chuba &?*> j^*- " frame " (of door,
picture, etc.) : dftdba #&T " ewer." This * is called o^lx> ^U hd-yi mushd-
bahat "the a of resemblance."
(2) It is added to both stems of the verb to form substantives. Thus
from bastan i*^ (Imp. stem band) "to bind" comes bandd **** "a slave,"
and from didan e^ (shortened Inf. did) comes dida t&>* "eye": giristan
eji~j/ (gin) "to weep," girya &.J "lamentation": ndlldan &*Jb (ndl),
nala A^U complaint" : shukufa &>," "blossom": larza %j) "trembling"
from larzldan &*>jj) : khanda *>Jx" laughter."
This is called ^ <^^^ ^^ ^o-t/i makhfi-yi fi'll t* the silent
verbal A."
(3) It is added to adjectives to form analogous nouns, as: safld *xi~
(adj.) " white," ,sa/da Wai** 1 : 5ii/aA U*> <{ black," siy^* ^^ " a ^
inventory, list of items" ; panj Ju * ' five," panja *^J " a claw, a bunch
of fives, grasp, possession" ; but chap^*> "left," chappa**** 11 left-handed."
(4) It is used to form adjectives or adverbs of time, age, number, etc.,
as: cJiaharsala* AJUj^a. "four years' old"; du-mdha &kU>^ "two months'
old ' ' ; har-ruza fyj j& * * daily ' ' ; chahdr-shaba A^ ;^ ' ' every fourth night ' ' ;
shaban-ruza ajj; &(*& "lasting 24 hours"; du-dila dj* "wavering, of two
minds " : du-bdra a;^ " once more, over again " ; chand-ruza aj^; ^ " endur-
ing for a few days, short-lived": har-sdla <*)U j* "yearly": ruza *)
u daily, also a fast " ; panj-shdkha *^U ^u <{ five pronged " : du-ruya* **))}*
" double, two-faced " ; du-marda* a^yo ^ " of two men " (task, work, etc.).
This a is called Jid-yi nisbat OA^J ^U .
i (or apido-?/) *ubh ^>* \<*&* the dawn " : siyahl-yi chashm
(m.c.) "the black of the eye," but siyalia-yi hisab v'**^ <^^-* (ra.c.)
tl a list of the account, statement."
* Subs, chahar-salagl (j^^ ^Wt pan;'-3to0i ^5^^ ^, etc., etc., tl the state of
being four and five years' old. 1 '
Du-rfiya sipah aU^ &tj)j& '* the opposing (facing) armies." Du-ruya ty) j&
sometimes means in two ranks, but whether facing each other or one behind the other is
doubtful.
* Afi-dSnwfom chand-marda /iolJ5; budam
knew my limitations ; capabilities."
406 THE SUFFIXES &(W, ETC.
(5) The feminine form of ^ome Arabic past participles is used substan-
t>J
tively in Persian, as : mujassama *+~3x<c a statue ", from mujassam " embod-
ga
ied": it is really a feminine agreeing with surat, etc., understood: Afcjx>
" an inclosure." This is also the " h of resemblance " ; vide (b) (I).
(6) In such words as shahana AJUUi " fit for a king (or kings) " : mardana
*Jf^, etc., the * is called by some native grammarians ha-yi liyaqat ciJlJ ^U
"the h of fitness or suitability," and is supposed to be added to the noun
in the plural (shahan, etc.).
Ana <k*f, however, occurs as a separate suffix, as in AJl*^' "in a self-
interested manner" ; dastana " glove" : salana " yearly " ; vide 108.
(c) Further uses of mute a are :
(1) To form the past participle, as: rafta *Jj>; "gone" (pi. raftagan /&*>
' ' the departed, the dead "). This I is called JJ*A*> u Ai^ ^* ha-yi mukhtafi-
yi maf^ul " the silent h of the passive participle."
When, however, the participle is past active, as: shunida guft oJi? t*#**
" having heard he replied, 1 ' the is called *~*k* ^-U ha-yi atf ' ' copulative 8 ' '
and is considered equal to the conjunction j **and," as: shunul va guft
(2) It is used to form the agent (a present participle) of the verb, as:
namsanda *oi~^ " writer" (also part, "writing") and is then called
oolcb' ^iiitx ^b ha-yi mukhtafi-yi fa'iliyyat '* the silent j< of agency."
(3) It is used to form the feminine of Arabic words, thus malik "king" ;
malika " Queen " (in Arabic malikah). This * is called v*jJU ^U ha-yi tarns.
Remark. In Persian, this feminine * is considered a silent h, but not so
in Arabic, thus &L* malikat un (and malikah) Ar.
(4) To form the diminutive of nouns, vide 96 (b) (3) and Remark.
Remark I. The final mute * of a Persian word sometimes becomes <3
in Arabic, thus <Ji~o pista, P. ** a pistachio-nut " is (5*~-* fustaq in Arabic.
Remark II. The final * is sometimes redundant, as in ;U. chara :
99. The Suffixes ^ ban or ^ [ van; ^ vana;
and e^t tin and &j van.
(a) These suffixes are said to be a corruption of man &U, contracted
from mananda gjJJU " remaining" (also "resembling").
They are more probably the Sanskrit suffix van or wan, and are, accord-
ing to Platts, in 0. P. and Zend pana.
1 Gari-w&n or garttan eJ^j^ or eJ^jtf Hindustani, "driver of hackney-coach*
etc."
THE SUFFIXES gar, ETC. 407
(6) This suffix added to substantives forms substantives, as:
(1) ^Utfl bag&ban (m.c.) ' c gardener "; darvan ofjp (m.c.) "porter";
pasidn d)\** [ J " sentry, watchman ' ' ; shuturban ^J^ ft camel-man (in charge
of camels) " : &(> *^U saya-ban "a shelter (from sun, rain, etc.)"; (this last
is usually written cjlj*L): girlban ^^ "collar of a coat*' (that which
guards the neck ^ )."
(2) To nouns it forma adjectives, as : ^^ mihr-ban "kind" (in m.c.
mihraban l ).
(3) Gar dun ^*j> " the wheel of heaven" ; wdzhun u ?|^ " inverted " ;
humayun z o^Ua> ' ( fortunate." Van o>, and vana &\j (and iw) , are also affixes
forming substantives of relation, as: parvana *J^ "moth (feather-like)";
astarvana aij^u.', astarvan e^y^*t, satarvan eJL?y^*> etc. (lit. mule-like) "barren,
a barren woman ' ' ; pulvan c/,j J^ (bridge-like) the raised path or partition
in a field."
100. The Suffixes gar /, gar ^, gan ^ > kar ;l^. 3
(a) The Persian suffix gar ^ is the old Persian suffix kara, Sanskrit kar :
it signifies "doer or maker," as: khidmat-gar ^^Uj^ " performer of service,
attendant" ; parvardagar *;^j^ '* one who provides nourishment, i.e. God
(also a king)" : ham-gar /<* " successful " ; dmuz-gar ffij>\ (m.c.) " teacher " ;
ruz-gar j^ "time, etc." : ; f #,>li yad-gar (in m.c. yad-i-gar) "souvenir";
j'fii? gunah-gar or^l^i? gunah-kar "sinner" : ;tf}^ saz-gdr also j^j^* saz-kar
(class.) "agreeing with (of food, climate)."
Remark. In yad-gar j^ t memorial, souvenir," etc., the idea of agency
is not marked.
In ruz-gar J^)^ " time ; fortune ' * it Ls even less prominent.
(6) Gar is a similar suffix, in Zend kara and in Sanskrit kar: it is
probably connected with, or contracted from, kar y<, gar ft, etc. ; vide (a).
It has the signification of the English suffix -er. Examples: zargar />>
" goldsmith (or a worker or maker in gold) " ; ^&ty tavangar " rich " ; kar-gar
j6 "one skilful in business; also taking effect (as of medicine, of an
oration, etc.) " ; ^k^ klmiya-gar " an alchemist."
1 Mihr, P. : Sanskrit mitr or mitra or mihira. By affixing a ^ [ya-yi masdar or
ya-yi mnshabahat, vide 97 (a) (I)| wo get further substantives, as: shutur-banl ^j&y^*
" the work or office of camel-man '* ; mihrbanl ^kj^ Ci kindness."
2 Hurna UA or humay (S^* A the Lamraergeier or Ossifrage, a bird anciently
reverenced.
8 All are connected with the verb c>^ kardan, P. ** to do, 1 * Sanskrit kartum, and
give the idea of actor or action.
* Sometimes written as : ;
408 ar, ETC.
Remark /. It should be noticed that gar ^ generally signifies a maker,
while gar jf indicates a performer.
Remark //.By adding a formative (S9 the suffix garl ^J is formed
which signifies " art, business," as : u shikar-chi-gari nami-danad ^ ^^^
oJta ^ (m.c.) "he knows nothing about the business of a shikari.' ' In India
baioar-ch^kharm-gan ^ *>U> ^j^U " the culinary art."
If two words occur together, it is usual to add the suffix to the
second only, as: Babl u l Suft-gari ^j> (jr* ) ^ "the Babi and Sufi
religions."
(c) Kar ji ' ' work ' ' is another suffix sometimes interchangeable with
y^ gar.
Bad-kar ^ '< evil-doer ' ' ; jafa-kar ;lli*> ' oppressor f ' ; gunah-kar ^ *U?
(in India gunah~gar) "evil-doer, sinner " ; taqsir- kar* jK^w "one who has
committed a fault."
Possibly in amuz-gar jfyj*! and kam-gar )^fo, etc., the affix is substi-
tuted for kar^. s
101. Ar ;T, ddr j* 9 al Jf.
(a) By cutting off the final ^ of the Infinitive * and adding ar, verbal
nouns are formed :
(1) Indicating action, as : guftar ^lii? " speech " ; kirdar 6 jtf " works
(as opposed to words) " ; didar ;lx?^ "seeing, sight."
(2) This termination sometimes gives the sense of an agent, as : kharidar
J*>j*- 6 (m.c.) "buyer"; firiftar * &>j "deceiver"; parastar j 1 *-*^ ' ( a wor-
shipper (class.); a nurse (modern)."
(3) Occasionally this termination is found in concrete nouns, as : kushtdr
;li^ (m.c.) "'anything killed (also slaughter); classically anything slain in
sacrifice "; murdar J&j* " carrion, i.e. anything that has died of itself ; also
(m.c.) anything killed otherwise than with the orthodox Muslim rite."
1 If, however, the suffix be added to both words, then the copulative j must be
pronounced t?a, as: babt-garl va *ufl~garl (^$f <*$***>) i>s ^^ ' vide also 97 (b) (3),
foot-note (3). Similarly taqslr u gunah-kar or taq#lr-kar va gunah-kar >l< ti& j
* Also ^jjii'*** togslr-war, jf^^^ftJ taq*lr-dd,r and <Xx/o ]**&* taqair-mand.
8 By adding ^5, substantives like isft ^^ khidmat-gart "service, office of
attendant " ; zargarl 4t the business of goldsmith " : c^T->^ Kargarl " skill (in doing or
making anything) " are formed.
* According to Platt'a (Hindustani Grammar) the suffixes are tar, and dar, added
after cutting oft dan.
* Note not kardar as might have been expected.
Farfohanda aoiS^f ( m . c .) not faru&tZr )V&>jji : farlbanda
THE TURKISH AFFIX ft, ETC. 409
(4) Some adjectives with a passive signification are formed by this suffix,
as: giriftar )&jt " taken captive ; arrested."
(5) Dwar Jjj* " wall " is said to be derived from ddv 1 jb " stratum "
und dr.
(b) Ddr jtJ> is the Imperative stem of ddshtan e^t^ " to have, to hold,"
and in compounds generally signifies "holder, keeper," as: plshdntddr
(m.c.) * { fortunate "; db-ddr a jla vT (m.c.) "a man who looks after
***
tea, pipes, etc." ; hissa-dar j(j> &*a*> (class.) " share-holder."
It is also used in forming adjectives from nouns, as: pich-ddr
" twisted."
If the noun be a compound of two synonyms, the affix is added to the
second noun only, as: pick u kham p2*> j ^-u <s twists," pick u khamddr
jla f* j 4g i: twisted " : 'aql u hush-ddr ;!^ <j2>^ Jac 8 " intelligent, etc."
Remark. The Infinitive itself can be used as verbal noun, as : amadan-i
man ^ c>*x>f " my coming " ; vide 115 (h).
The shortened infinitive can also be used as a verbal noun, as : Tcharid u
farukht ^^i j <x^ * buying and selling" ; az guft-i u man In kdr kardam
p*^ ft erft s&*> jl o^f y (m.c.) "I did this at his instigation"; vide
H60')(fc).
(c) Al Jf is a relative suffix that forms substantives, as : J&A. cliangal
" claw ; fork" ; JUi* duvnbal" tail, after-part."
In zangal J&j " rust ' ' (for zangar, the letters I and r being interchange-
able) the termination appears to be redundant.
102. The Turkish Affixes Jl ^ or chi ^, Bash - Task or Dash
(a) The Turkish affix cAt affixed to a noun, forms a noun of the agent or
a noun indicating possession ; it occurs chiefly in modern Persian. Example :
c$^ <j*y qush-chl ; * falconer " ; ^sJj&L banduq-chi " a musketeer " ; shikar-
chi (^to *' a shikari " ; qatir-chi ^j>(3 ll a muleteer " ; ^ ^ " a servant
who prepares coffee." 5
In Persian this chi ^ appears to be applied to professions only.
1 By imfila, div.
2 Abdarl <)!*^T is a mule with saddle-bags fitted for a journey; lamp, tea-materials,
pipe, etc., etc.: also called )1&j^ nah&r-dar.
8 Or 65 'aql u hush ijy* ) J^ b .
* Chi has much the same signification as wald in Urdu. In the UIghur dialect
of Turkish (Kashghar and Yarkand), this suffix is added to the Future participle of
Infinitive to signify the agent, and to a noun to signify profession, as : zakat-chl
* 4 custom's official. ' '
6 The business of ono servant, as guests are continually dropping in.
410 dan.
If the substantive end in *, the * is dropped, as: khizdn-chl
"treasurer" ; mash'al-chl ^^ cU^i torch-bearer (in India dish-washer,
scullion)" : parvanch* i*^Jjj "one who writes parwanas, or Government
orders, etc."
After a soft letter like o, chi ^ in m.c. sometimes becomes j% ^ 9 as :
bustanjl ^^ulLojj <c a gardener " ; miyanjl <^?^* a " a mediator." Possibly
ji instead of chl is commoner in Tehran owing to Turkish influence.
For the forms shikar-chi-gan ^Jf ^ y<, qush-chi-gari ^ ^ uj*,
etc., vide 100 (b) Remark II.
(b) A few compounds are formed by the Turkish words bash " head,"
and task or dash " companion," as : qiziLbash (lit. red- headed) " a soldier; a
Persian; Qizil-bash; etc., etc."; yul-dash (< a guide "; beg-tash or Jchwaja-
tash " fellow- servant."
103. Dan &**.
The affix dan &l^ signifies sometliing that holds, or contains, a vessel,
as: cJ f c> u+3 namak-dan lt a salt -cellar " ; ^'^*Xj 8 qalam-dan (ni.c.) " a pen-
case " ; eM^ khak-dan (m.c.) " the grave " ; kumaj-dan &)&* ^* * e a copper
cooking-pot " ; c^'^ ^ 5 anfiyya-dan (m.c.) ct snuff-box."
Remark. Compounds with the suffixes ^, and those mentioned here-
after that signify 'place,' as: *&' - aJU. . ^IL** -^13 - *lf - av & - jfc (as in
rud-bar), etc., form * Persian compound nouns of place ' ( ^j* *-*j& ^ )
In Arabic the c noun of time and place ' has special forms, as : maqtal cliflx)
*' place of slaughter, a vital spot " ; mashriq ^-^ " the East" (time or place
of rising) ; masjid <*ax~*/c mosque."
Those 'nouns of place' that signify * abounding in' (formed by the
suffixes zarj)), sar ;U, 6ar^b, lakh lf - - - are sometimes distinguished by
the term &j* ^t+~*) 'nouns of excess.'
Such words as ^'ixH cursed" are included under Jytix ^f. For
y^ ^t, vide 68 VIII.
104- Zdr j'j, sar ^U, stan e^ or istan c) li **', ^M $> kada *tf,
gdh *%, dbad ^f , grarrf y^ -, khdna &^, shan er^, na ^.
(a) The affix zdr yj signifies abounding in, as :
(1) Namak zar )}+* *' salt-ground (where nothing grows)"; shura-zar
1 In Arabic tW*^, but in Persian also
2 JJ is a Western Turkish form of chl.
* A long box with a sliding drawer that contains pens, an inkpot, and scissors with
specially-shaped handles, for cutting the paper. Some qalam-dans el**^ are beautifully
painted and are very costty.
* Originally used for baking a kind of bread in fat.
6 In Persian anfiya ***>! without tashdld.
Compare <j>+*> skilful ' : vide 108 (a) Kemark.
zar, ETC.
411
;fj t)j "saltpetre ground"; 'alaf-zar ;fj uiJU " meadow" *; kdr-zdr fa ^
" field of battle " (place of deeds) ; gul-zar yj d$ (m.c.) " any garden.'*
(6) The affix sar jU has the same meaning, and forms substantives and
adjectives, and denotes plenty, magnitude, similitude, or possession, as:
(1) Kuhsar ; U */ "hilly" 2 ; chashma-sar ;U &Jb* "a place full of
springs " ; sharm-sar ;U "full of shame."
Remark I. Sang-sar kardan cJ^;Uw " to stone a person."
Remark //.In rukhsdr jU^; ' cheek/' the termination appears merely
to modify the word rukh ; " face (m.c.)."
(2) It also denotes "like." khak-sar 5 ; U^LL "like dust, base, low-
born" : shah-sar ;Ua>U like a king, kingly."
(3) It is used for sar " head ," as \-sag-sar ; U Ji* (old) " dog-headed ' ' ;
subuk-sar ^U^ light-headed ; also unburdened by luggage " ; nigu-sar, or
nigun-sar jU ^ij or jUJjX), in classical Persian = "one who hangs the head
from shame"; but in modern Persian only "inverted (= sar-nigun).'"
(c) The affix stdn &&** or istan &&*\ signifies ' place ,' ' and is derived from
the Sanskrit sthan " place/ ' The former is used after a substantive ending
in a vowel and the latter after a consonant, as: bu-stan e>^>? " a garden
(place of scent) "; Hindustan* ^&<j*u*> " India" ; gulistan d~tf "garden"
(place of roses or flowers); qabristan ^Iw^j' "grave-yard"; Farangistan
"Europe."
In a few words the termination gives the idea of time, as : tabistan
< summer ' ' ; zamistdn ^U-xsj ' < winter ' ' ; c^^j^ baharistan ' ' spring.
Remark. As regards the termination c>T 5 an found in so many names,
M. Chodzko writes :
" Quelques erudits persans m'ont assure qu'anciennement le formatif
du pluriel &), donnait aux mots primitifs le meme sens geographique que
leur stdn i i.e. qui est tres probable; car an veut dire aussi : propriet6 de,
appartenant a ; ^^ ^f j! ez an hud, de son propre avoir, de ce qui In
appartient. Examples :
hemadan nom d'une ville, &V ttf ardelan nom d'une province,
gildn nom d'une province, c^'j^-3^ mdzenderdn de meme,
1 Ghaman is an artificial lawn or any stretch of good grass or a meadow, etc., '
zar j) ^^ a green spot covered with weeds and grass.
ft Kuhiatan &&*&}> means country with big mountains; kuhsar )\*ty " hilly. *'
3 With the formative ^ 9 fthak-sari (^US'lk * humility. "
* Also Hind.
6 For the adverbial termination an (bamdadan c>f^f^ p^, n&gahan &\f^ and
(Afghan), etc. vide Adverbs.
412 zar, ETC. ^
f /-
azer-bijan de meme, &*})^ vtJ^ deskt-i haveran, le desert de Haveran,
doivent, suivant ces erudits, etre traduits: les Hemeds, les Ardels, les
marais (jil), la contree dans la quelle (ender) il y a beancoup de grands
<maz) arbres ou des chenes (mazu), les adorateurs ou les enfants (big-beee)
du feu (azer), les deserts de 1' Occident (haver), etc."
Remark. In poetry istan is sometimes pronounced sitan, as: gulsitan
^IL elf, for gulistan cJ^J^.
(d) The affix lakh if signifies "place," or " numerous, copious," as :
^Kw l sang-lakh (m.c.) " a stony place; rocky, stony" : j(*!> div lakh
4 ' a demon-haunted place."
(c) Kada **? signifies "habitation, house," and as the last number of a
compound, " place," as iAtash-kada ttf tjtil (m.c.) " temple of the Magi " ;
may-kada *tf ^ (m.c.) " a tavern " ; mdtam kada *<tf ^U* (class.) <c house of
mourning" ; but-kada l*f c^ <( an idol temple."
Remark. In kad-khuda \**>*f <4 a married man, a householder"; kad-
bdnujhtf "a housewife, a good manageress," the prefix is an abbreviation
of kada ***.
(/) Odh tf (Sanskrit gatu) is an affix denoting :
(1) " Place," z&'.Khwab-gah (? ^^ <c bedroom, also acloth valise for
bedding" ; takht-gah l# o.^vi (m.c.) "an open-air platform for sitting on" ;
farud-gah & ^/ (m.c.) "halting place"; nishiman-gah jjlf t^*^ (m.c.)
" a seat " : aram-gah ^ ^f;f (m.c.) " a resting place."
(2) "Time" as: Sham-gah (f ,& "the evening time"; an-gah s &f
(m.c.) 4< then " ; pasangah &f u^ "after that" ; &?-gra& ^ < untimely, out
of season." Sukhan na-bayad guft magar angah ki maslakat bashad (class,
and modern) *~k o^JLAA> A/ *&f yi oif <^U^ er*^* J w "^ c a ^ so 1 ^^-
(g) The word aftad* abf suffixed to a noun denotes a city or place of
abode, as : Bahram-abad ttf ^^ (Bahram Town).
The adjective abadan &*^.1 is not used in forming compounds.
(h) The affix gird or gard ^ , found in a few names of towns, appears to
have a similar signification, as : a/ ff^ Bahram-gird : *j* &. Yazdijurd (for
Ya&digird).
In Darab-kard ^ >ty& (near Shiraz), the suffix is perhaps a corruption.
Also aang-lak&a (m.c.) and sangistan (m.c.).
In m.c. ma<aw-&&3rca or matam-aara
s Oa^ 'f is sometimes contracted into gah & : (not to be confounded with *> guh
which means *' human excrement)."
* Mad kardan c>^/ ^T *'to cultivate a place, or found a town ": iS
" cultivation; also the condition of being populous or inhabited."
umand, ETC.
(i) KM i *i&> "house" as a suffix has a somewhat similar meaning
to kada ** and gah (3*, as: kar-khana &'*(*$ "factory": rud-khana *'Ao* ^
properly " bed of a river ' ' ; and hence " a river.' ' l
(j) The suffix shan ^ added to nouns, also forms a noun of place,
as : gul-shan (^^S t( a rose-garden or rose-bed." In rawshan {jj) (for rawzari)
" window " it is a corruption.
(k) Na U (sometimes nay ^U) is added to nouns or adjectives, as:
tang-na U&3 " a narrow place"; tdz-nd or tlz-nay <^U J^3 (class.) "the
prominent part of the sword edge that does the work (lit. place of sharp-
ness) " ; ab-na l^f ec strait."
In Indian Persian, this suffix is often written ^li.
Remark. Na & is also added to some adjectives to form substantives of
cognate meaning, as : daraz-nd l>jf^ (class.) " length."
105. Dmand ^/oy, Wand &jj , and Mand - **>,
Nak u^U, Ak ^1.
(a) Mand *** is a suffix joined to nouns, generally to form adjectives,
and signifies et possessor of, possessed of," as : -
Khiradmand jix^yL* (< possessed of wisdom, wise"; " aqlmand xiU8^
"intelligent " ; sud-mand <>U ^^ profitable ' ' ; tanu-mand ^Uj^iJ strong."
In arjumand ( ^i^^l) (also arjmand) " noble," and baruw,and ** ^ " fertile,
fruitful,' ' the suffix is a form of mand.
Wand <3Jj is occasionally found for mand oi*, as in khwtshd-wand <xij
"kinsman"; pulad-wand ^^i/^ " hard (like steel)"; khuda-wand
"master."
(6) Nak J^li added to substantives, forms an adjective of quality, as :
gfaam-nak u^lu-i <c sad"; khawf-nak *JU^ "frightful"; khatar-nak v^l^ta.
" dangerous " ; dard-nak ^ *>:> " painful."
(c) Ak cf is a termination used to form some substantives from verbs,
as: pushak v^U^j "raiment" from eP^#; khurak ^^ "food" from
&&)}&* ; suzdk <*\jy ' ' gonorrhoea. ' '
Remark. In mag&ak ^Ux3 ditch; low place, etc.," from mag&*
"depth," and tabdk <JW "fever," the termination, apparently the same,
is termed a * relative suffix ' by native Grammarians ; vide 115 (e).
106. Bar ^ and Ydr ; t.
(a) (1) The suffix 6ar jb signifies 'abounding in,' as: zang-bar jb ^j,
i.e. Zangibar ( 'abounding in blacks'); rud-bar )(**# {class.) "channel of a
river " : sang-bar^ ^w (old) " abounding in stones, stony."
1 There is hardly a river in Persia. Any dry * nala * that becomes a stream after
rain, is called A^^^ rwc-&kana.
* With the formative 4.5, khiradmandi
414 tr, ETC.
(2) Bar ^ is also the root of e^L> and signifies " raining, scattering,"
and is used to form compounds, as :gawhar-bar l ^j*f "scattering
pearls" ; shakar-bar ;tj/ " raining sugar, mellifluous. "
(3) Bar ;L> is also a substantive signifying "load," and is also used in
compounds, as: pur-bar >(>jj "fruitful (of fruit trees)"; sar-bar jb/ (m.c.)
{ f a small ear/ra load on a transport animal."
In a few adjectives, the suffix takes the form of yar ^-\, as : bakhtyar^^u
" fortunate" (also bdkht-amr, bakht-var or bakhtur, and bakht-mand); hush-
yar j { *j* * or hiishyar jU* <; full of senses, intelligent."
107. Awwjyf (contracted jf ); Var j*, and twr ;fj> ; Gan
d$\ and
(a) The affixes auar >yf , and ar ^T, which are used in forming adj Ac-
tives from substantives, are from the verb ^;jT "to bring" and signify
"bringing, producing, or displaying," as: jjlb 8 dil-avar < brave (dis-
playing heart)": )^)^; zur-avar "strong (bringing strength)."
In sal&r j^l* *' chief," the suffix is the same, but contracted.
(6) Related to the above mentioned are var $> smdvar jj 4 and jrj vara:
these suffixes mean u endowed with, possessed of, full of," as: damsh-var
efii^ (m.c.) "learned"; ummidvar )^***'< "hopeful; a candidate";
gush-var (or gush-vara] >\j>J " a ear-ring (becoming or adorning the ear) " ;
shalirvar jt>kU "befitting, or worthy of a king, kingly "; zarra-var Jj *)&
"like an atom " ; jan-var )\j>(** " an animal (possessed of life) " ; sukhan-var
" eloquent " ; nam-var ^>cl> " famous.' ' In musht-vara jf)iy^ "handful,
the measure of a hand," the 5 is redundant.
IndilirjjJz (also dil-avar )^} "brave/ 7 is another contraction of the
same suffix.
Remark. The suffix var ^ is sometimes redundant, as: saza-var jfjf>
"worthy."
Inj^^j ranjur "sick," the suffix is perhaps the same as var.
(c) The suffix gdn ^ signifies similitude, as: khudaygan 5 oKjf<Xsx
*' a great lord ; happy.' *
It also, like var ;fj, signifies * worthy of," as: raygan* e;&L> ( o^ f j )
"worthless (fit to be cast on the road)"; ahay-gan* ^^ (for shah-gan)
" fit for a king" ; bazar-gan &^)$* (for bazar-gan) " merchant."
1 Gawhar-barl ($* j*jr subs, with the formative {
* In India generally, but vulgarly, hoshiyar.
3 With the formative c^ dttrftvari (j^jUj.
* All adjectives may be used as ad verbs , but adjectives in var )\) and ana W are
specially adverbial in their signification.
6 In India pronounced gbuda-e-gan ; ra-e-gan, sha-e-gan, etc.
ana, ETC. 415
Remark. Dihqdn &\&A* is the <~>j** of dihgdn &&*>* or dih-khan e
In girdgdn ^*J$ " walnut " the suffix is perhaps a corruption of &jS
"like."
(d) Man &(* 'Mike," as: as-man c; f +**f "sky" (like a revolving
'mill-stone'); mih-mdn cAt* " guest." In shddmdn u'x^U the suffix
seems to mean "continuity": e/^U or ^U* = " glad" (i.e. temporarily
happy). Musalman cA*A~* is by some said to stand for muslim-man, by
others to be a corruption of the Persian pi. of muslim, and by others to be a
corruption of the Arabic plural.
108- Ana *T j ; Ina *ij , In & ; and An & and An ^T Rd> ; and Vdv j.
(a) The inseparable suffix ana added to nouns or adjectives signifies
"like"; as an adjective it is usually applicable to things, not to persons,
as :
Marddna A^fjyo "like a man, manly"; div-dna ^fy^ "mad (like a
div) ' ' ; rubahana *JU^ " fox-like (in behaviour) ; wily " : zanana wl>3 c< femi-
nine, peculiar to women" ; zishtana &\&) ft in an ugly manner"; ziringana
"in a smart or c^ver manner" ; dast-dna *iU*o "glove"; ruzdna
(adj.) "daily" ; viae also 43 (aa) and 98 (6) (6).
It can also be added to Arabic adjectives 'djizdna AJf^U "helplessly,
in a helpless or humbled manner."
Kdyhaz-i dustana &&*)& &\ "a friendly letter " (but not mardi dusldna
* 4 a friendly man"); dustana AJU^^ could, however, be used as an adverb,
as: dustana kar kard ^jfc AiU*jd "he acted in a friendly manner."
In Ichawftiak-anapursid **"^ &{lijyS (m.c.) " he enquired fearingly," the
Persian affixed ndk ^ added to the Arabic substantive khawf J^, forms an
adjective "fearful," applicable to persons; while the additional affix ana
*if forms an adverb or an adjective applicable to things. Tarsndk-dna
AJltiuy has the same signification, but its compounds are all Persian.
(6) (1) In fc>j and ma *i^t are two more formative elements used for
forming adjectives of relation (nisbat), as: zarrin^j) (m.c.) "golden, made
of gold " from zar >) gold; simm B &*+& (m.c.) " made of silver" : pashimn
, adj. "made of wool," or pashmma &***&$, subs, "a woollen stuff" ;
1 All adjectives may be used as adverbs, but those in var and ana are specially
adverbial in their signification.
* Ruzlna (class.) " daily; daily pay, pension."
8 In modern Persian stm means "wire"; the Arabic word JJ/& nuqra is used for
silver and 1U> for gold : but M^ayll zar darad (m.c.) " he is very rich " ; zar-varaq
(m.c.) * ' gold leaf. ' '
416 ana, ETC.
pustln 1 cri*jj "an Afghan sheep-skin coat"; pustina* MJJU^J (adj.)
"made of skins"; pishm ^^y "of former times "; dlrma s AXJ^O (m,c.)
"old, ancient: &*> jj^b (rare) "of silver" (also & ;&, also ^'yJ and i;&).
Remark. Adjectives formed by the terminations asa Uf, -ana *Jf , etc.,
signifying "like," or by fam fti, gun & , etc. "colour," are classed as
AU> +*) " nouns (adjectives) of similitude."
(2) The termination In ^ also denotes resemblance in colour, as:
zumurradm &ity), "emerald green"; zarrin &*)) "golden coloured";
bulunn e*U>k " like crystal or made of crystal." It also forms superlatives.
Remark I. From sang s^U> " stone" comes sangin i^&~ " heavy,"
but sangl <^x** * ' made of stone."
Remark II. The suffix m &* also forms the % superlative degree, but in
pishin u**>J# and pasln &*~$ it seems to have a comparative sense.
It is also added to the cardinal numbers, as : awattn ^jt ; vide 48 (c).
(c) The suffix an e/f 4 , like the suffix In &*, is used to form relative
adjectives and nouns as in biyaban ^bU "desert" (from vf c^) ; payan
^tlj 'end"; kuhan cJ^y f< horse-saddle ; camel-hump."
The suffix in plsham ^^y " forehead " is probably formed from this em.
This suffix is found in names, as: Iran &\j>\ and Turan e)!;y 6 ; Isfahan
; Mdhan* c;UU (near Kerman).
In abaddn e^t^f "inhabited," it appears to be redundant.
In subhgahdn e;Ul<>*e, bamddddn ejf.tf^b, yagdn yagdn ^Kj ^&, baharan
the suffix is adverbial.
In jawdan cjt^ta. and jdndn e>^U. it is adjectival.
(d) An c> joined to some substantives forms relative nouns, as: riman
(adj.) from rim p>) "pus, matter," etc. ; jushan <j-r>^ " coat of mail "
from jush (J*f*> "a ring (in a coat of mail, etc.)."
It is sometimes pleonastic, as: pdddshan e^f^U for padash <j,'*U ;
zlban ciU3 for ziba Uj); sun ^>- for any* " side, direction " ; lafchan &&M for
lafch **) " thick-lipped, cam el- lipped."
l Puatln dartdan c)>J;c eH^^i (class.) " to blab out a secret" and
puetln Icandan (class.) or dar pustin-i lcaa-1 uftodan &&(i9l ^f~$ t^uj4 )t> (class.) "to
backbite * ' are classical idioms.
* In pust-i mlahina ast ya buzlna? ^^J ^ Oul *i^u*v &j* e>^l (m.c.) "is this
a sheep or goat*s skin ? "
3 Dir ji& "late," but yar-i dlrlna *ty6 )^> ct an old friend."
* An-i nfobat.
6 Ir jj\ and TUT )j* are said to have been sons of Farldun.
6 Always pronounced Mahun.
agin, ETC., AND THE FORMATIVE, alif. 417
(e) According to native Grammarians a final r is added to some
substantives for nisbat, as: angushiar ^A&f "ring" from angusht o^iXif
" finger" ; lahar ^ "tavern " from lah ^ " wine."
(/) Native Grammarians give instances of final formative vav (vdv-i
fa'iliyyat o.*JUlJ ^) in patu yb, from pat ou " goat's hair, wool"; (pattu
in India is a woollen stuff, but patu y^ in Persia " a blanket") : shashu ^^
"piss-a-bed " ; rlshu jfy) " bearded" : the last, however, is probably a
corruption.
109. Agin ^ , or Gin ^.
Gin (^ is a contraction of agin &*tf from dgandan c>>^T "to fill" ; gin
and agin therefore signify " filled with." They are used as suffixes to nouns,
to form possessive adjectives, as: gkam-gln &*+* "full of grief, sorrow-
ful"; khashm-gln ^UU. * ' angry ' ' ; sharm-gln l ^-^ " ashamed ' ' ;
'ambar-agln &*; ^xlc **full of amber" ; surma-gin ^^^ (class ) " full of
surma (or antimony for the eyelashes) " ; khirad-agln ^J^^. (m.c.) " wise."
110. The Formative a (alif f )
(a) This inseparable suffix forms adjectives and participles from verbal
roots, as, from dan &\* the root of ddnistan &l~* & " to know", dana* bf^
" learned " ; guyd t>/ ; bind li# ; vide also 70 (a).
It is added to adjectives to form abstract nouns as : garmd U/ " heat,"
sarmd l *>*o " cold " ; pahnd ^ " breadth " (also pahna-i
Remark. The following examples illustrate the forms that are included
under the title of 3 ^U^ J^ p*\ "Irregular Present Participle," as
distinguished from the ( o^*^ or ) </^^ ^ cl * /**' ** the Real or the Regular
Present Participle ' ' inanda ^ ^ : U;^ ' ' knowing ' ' : ^i*^ skilful ' ' :
yjjA> "purchaser" : &)& " thief " (Imp. rt.) ; ij*)&.j* (= ^^ 8xU;) "hearer
of complaints ": o-^ ^ "fond of learning": Jkb ^ "of little sense ":
otyG " feeble" : 4 ^ (Jty^ "of pleasing speech " : ; fcW^ " servant " : OAX)^
" a wise man" : ****)& "painful" : ^y^ "camel-man " : jy^U " king " :
JU^ "painful": if&*j^. "rifleman": ^JjtA^ 4< Lord": ^X>J "hard
as steel" :
Under this head are also included such words as : <jy^ * * spy ' ' : ^^
" executioner " : ^/ " kind " : ^ " mischievous," etc. Also, of course,
the Arabic Present Participle of the form JUli, as: ^JUe " tyrant.
"
1 Sharm-ru j) pj "shy, bashful."
4 This verbal alif is called AKf-i fa'iliyyat o^
8 Many of these are also ^j* ^<* f**l " compouad adjectives."
* The " participle " formed by adding an Impera. root to a noun is generally called
or
27
418 fam, ETC.
(b) Some adjectives expressing fulness and completeness are formed by
inserting an alif between the two compounds, as: lab-a-lab l *~J\d " lip to
lip; also brimful": sar-a-sar * j\j> "entirely"; gun-a-gun s &j? l^? "of
many colours, variegated" ; sar-a-pd ty^ "from head to foot, cap-a-pie."
Vide also 140 (h) (5), (6), (7) and foot-note.
(c) Prefixed to some Persian words it signifies privation, as: ajumbdn
e>UM "motionless, fixed."
(d) Alif is used to form the vocative singular. When used to summon
or to attract attention it is called alif~i nida**<y> vJUf " the alif of calling."
When used in the vocative of distress, as in darig&a lty& " alas! " it is called
alif-i nudba && ^\ " the alif of plaint."
For the different kinds of alif, vide 2.
(e) Bukhara f;tiu is said to be derived from bukhar jl^j (Zand) " wisdom,
1 earning," because of the learning that prevailed there. Some native
grammarians style this final a t alif-i vasfiyyat o,jjL>j *-&(, and give as further
examples zlbd l y) and ganda foif : in these, however, the alif appears to be
that of the participle [vide 2, Remarks II].
111. Fam* fli, (Pam fa and W dm ^ ) ; Gun ^ ; Charta *'^.
(a) The suffix fdm ^ (rarely fa or(*j) indicates "of the colour, form,
or likeness of," and is affixed to both substantives and adjectives : siydh-fdm
fU *U*o (me.) "blackish"; la'l-fdm fb* J*) "somewhat ruby-coloured":
nil- fdm fti <Jx* * bluish ' ' ; zumurrud-fam ^ ty*>) ' t rather like the green hue
of an emerald " ; kuhl-fdm (*ii Jl.^ 6 = misl-i surma (A/^J ciSx).
Instead of f li, sometimes p\~> is found, as : f b ^\> sapid-barn " whitish."
(6) Gun & signifies "colour, species, form, fashion, etc.," and in
compounds "of the colour of " : lala~gun & dJjf "poppy-coloured, scarlet";
gul-gun &j& (t rose-coloured " : gun-d-gun 6 & ^ " of various colours, also,
of various sorts."
Ouna-ash zard shuda *>^ ^j>3o^' ^ " he's become pale (from sickness)."
(c) Charta a^-, sometimes written chorda **,*. and also jarta AJ^, means
" colour, hue," and occurs in a few compounds, as: zard-charda *sj*. ^ and
1 Syn. ldb-rizj*jd ** overflowing/' lab-bi-lab ^^.^ ** Up to lip."
* Or sar-bi-sar f~*j* ' as bi-dih va bisitan-i man sar-bi-sar mi*guzarad
^tdXkX) j***j*> &* (m.c.) *' my income and expenditure are equal."
3 Syn. rang-a-rang.
* In Persian / and p are often interchangeable; pll or /tZ " elephant " ; saplda
^(Xu^e, saflda 8-**i*, * 4 white >J : pam or warn are not used in modern Persian as suffixes ;
but warn or pam (m.c.) " debt."
5 Kufyl or surma "antimony, collyrium."
Qulha-yi gun-a-gun &^jr LS^r " vftrio^ coloured flowers*'; kutttb-i gunro-gun
i$Ji U^S ^Sf ** books by various authors " ; murgh~i ba*parha-yi gun-a-gun dldam
(m.c.) " I saw a bird of many colours."
asa, ETC. 419
zard-charta *5^ & (old) " yellow coloured" (not used of people). Accord-
ing to some grammarians this affix is found only in the word siyah-charda
(d) Rang J&) is also used, as:^gul-rang J^jJ^, sdbza-rang JS> *)**>, etc.,
vide 112(/).
(e) In old Persian dlz ^ and eBza i^ are also found for dls ^/*^, as:
v-^ " night-coloured, black"; "the name of Khusrau's horse."
These suffixes are now obsolete ( *-^yx> ).
112. 3.sa Uf, Sd U; San c>U; Fas& oj, etc.;
(a) $a l U and asa Uf are affixes signifying " like," as : Uf uk* mushk-
dsd " scented like musk " : ambar-sa U^AXP " resembling amber (in scent) " ;
sihr-sa U^xu* * c like magic " \mard-asa Uf^ ** like a man, manly."
Remark. These suffixes must not be confounded with sa U from sayldan
"to rub," and asa Uf from dsudan &$)* f' z (m.c. intr.) "to be
satisfied, refreshed, etc.," both of which also occur in compounds, as: jabha-
(or jdbln-) -sa U a^ or ^ er^^ "rubbing the forehead on the ground,
making a profound reverence " ; ruh-asa Uf ^ c< soothing the mind."
(6) sdn c)U has the same signification as the suffix asa or sa, and is
probably akin to the Sanskrit saman and the Hindi sa. Examples : shlr-san
cjU^A~ (class.) "like a lion" : sham'-san ^U ^*^ (m.c.) "like a candle":
khursJnd sdn c>U *>^;>^ (rn.c.) " like the sun " (also khurshld-wdr )\j AA^;^ ) ;
yak-san e)UCj (m.c.) "alike."
Remark. Sdn c>U sometimes stands for istdn ^^U 1 , as: khdrsdn
(class.) for khdristdn J.^\^ (m.c.) "a thorny place."
In modern Persian sdn-i qushun dldan 3 ^^ o>* c^- "to review an
army 5 ' ; Imruz sarbdzhd sdn dddand *>*\s c>^ ^i^/- 9 jjtr^ ' > or as s & n guzashtand
^ii^jl ^U ji (m.c.) " the troops were reviewed."
(c) (1) Vash (Jb) (pash { Jy or fash ^i; obsolete), is an affix signifying
"like," as: mdh-vash o5U> (m.c.) "like, or beautiful as, the moon":
gbuncha-vash (Jj *^ "like a bud (of a pretty mouth) "; qamar-vash e>^
(class., rare) ; farishta-vash ^ Aigy (m.c.) [also farishta-sdn cjU ^I^i (m.c.)
or farishta-vdr fo *xy (m.c.)].
l Probably connected with the Hindi sa (kald-sa " black-looking " ; mujh-sa
" like me " ; dev ka sa *' like a demon ").
* In modern Persian asuda kardan cJ3^ *3>-->f and asuda ahudan ^* 8^f .
8 San ejU i s Eastern Turkish : in Uighur it signifies the total (in number). The
Qazzaq use aan c>U for either ten or a hundred millions (the author is uncertain
which)*
420 THE TERMINATIONS, Um 9 isk, ETC.
(2) In place of vash, are sometimes found fash and pash (but not in
modern Persian), as: shaft- fash <>> *& "like a Shah"; sarv-pash Jtjjs*
" like a cypress,"
Native Grammars also give the form bas t as: shir-bas u^ jt "like a
tiger."
(d) Das <jo and dts o*^ are also suffixes signifying "like," which are
used to form adjectives, as : khwdis o"*-/^ " ^ke ^ e sun " J mah-dis ^^ fa
"like the moon"; das ^/o has the same signification as dis yr^, but is
very rarely used.
fc. The Zardushtis sometimes write Khuda bl das va daman ast
i ^j IJA (old Persian) = "God is eternal."
(e) Vand *>> (: like," as : Khuda-vand ^f<^ " like God, lord, possessor " ;
hence by contraction khawnd *>)&* " master, husband" ; pjO&A-vand MJ&J*
* ' hard as steel, also the name of a hero.' '
This suffix is also used for mand *** ^possessed of," as: dawlat-vand
4>Jj oJ;i = dawlat-mand M*i^j^.
Remark /.The word *>J avand "furniture," especially "kitchen furni-
ture (as pots and pans)", appears to be derived from ab *-$ "water," and
vand ^ (old) ' * experiment ; labour; praise; vessel; vase; cup."
Remark //.These nouns and adjectives of similitude, formed by the
suffixes asa Uf , wash o*j, sar ;U, ana A)f , gun &^, vand ^, man ^, etc.,
are styled &*&* p~\.
Remark IIL Kirdar >\*J is also used to form adjectives of resemblance :
farishtakirdarjzjS *&j* "like an angel."
113. The Suffix urn ^ .
The termination f JL added to the cardinal numbers forms the ordinals,
as: chahar-um ^^ "fourth"; bist-uhaftum f&* j o-jj "the twenty-
seventh."
Note that in a compound number the termination is added to the
last only.
114. The Termination -wi ! ^ .
This termination added to the Imperative root forms abstract nouns, as :
ddnish ^Jf^ "knowledge" from danistan "to know"; blnish ^ijj (m.c.)
1 Called Mn-i mctsdari ^) >*&* cH^> or Mfn*t masdar. Radical ^, as in the word
Is called
CHAPTER XII.
115. Verbal Nouns, and Nouns and Adjectives derived
from Verbs.
(a) The Imperative root of the verb is sometimes a substantive, as from
sukhtan <^^> (tr. and intr.) " to burn ", suz ^ l (m.c.) " burning, inflam-
mation ' ' ; ranjldan a^^j * * to be grieved ' ' , ranj ^ c * grief ' ' ; bi-dih u bi-
stdn-i man 11 er (^^ j *& (m.c.) "my expenditure and my income"; bidih-
kdr & t& (m.c.) " debtor " ; bistdn-kar fe &(*~j (m.c.) " creditor."
(b) A few of the verbs ending in udan c^jf form substantives ending in an
of, as: farmdn c>4/ 6 " an order" from farmudan ; payman^*** "promise"
from paymudan " to measure; to travel."
Remark. Asan o^f , however, is an adjective "easy" (from asudari).
(c) A few nouns are formed by adding ak *Jf to the imperative stem, as :
suzdk c< gonorrhoea," vide 105 (d).
(d) For nouns derived from verbs and terminating in silent , vide
^8 (b) (2).
(e) Some nouns, generally compounds, are formed by adding a ya y or
hamza and ya, to the Imperative stem, as: had-guti ^^ &>\ rakht-8hu*i
^jt* o^;ado; bidih (m.c.) "debt"; ^^ bidihl (m.c.) "revenue of a
district"; ^(ji^ shinava"l "power of hearing " ; guy (^f (obs.), vide 97
In bina*t ^UAJ the termination is added to the verbal adjective taj.
For jaJiandan" sovereignty," vide 97 (a) (1).
(/) For ish added to the Imperative atern, as: afannish <^v.yT "crea-
t ion "from afridan, vide 114.
(g) For verbal nouns in ar jf, as : diddr j(*i* 4< seeing," vide 101 (a)
(1).
(h) The Infinitive alone, affirmative or negative, can be used as a noun, as :
az dad ufarydd kardan hlch fd*ida~i nisi *^~~^ * i*3tf ^A* ^^ ^it*j ^* 3f (m.c.)
" there is no use in screaming and crying out " : aznd guftan-i 6 in harf Jchayli
pashlman-am ^ [ +*&<* ^^ o^ ^l \J& Ujt (m.c.) *' I am very sorry I did not
mention this."
In bar ma takhlan dvurdand *>ytf Cl ^UU ^ they charged us," the
Infinitive is used as an object.
I Suziah (jW** is commoner.
* Bistan for bisitan.
8 Arabic broken plural fararnln ^yof^i. ^arm-on jjLpy has become anglicized
under the guises firmaun, flrmand, phirmaun, etc., etc,
* Or fa*ida (without ^ of unity).
6 In modern Persian Ai is often prefixed instead of U t vide (q).
422 VERBAL NOUNS, AND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS.
Poetically, and sometimes in m.c., this Infinitive can be used in the
plural, as :
Az paridanhd-yi rang u az tapidanhd-yi dtl
'Ashiq-i blchdra har jd hast rusvd mt-shavad.
" By his changings of colour, and the beatings of his heart,
The wretched lover compromises himself wherever he is."
Indmadan-hd va raftan-hd-yi ma samar na-kard tj& 7 *ji U ^^ii^ j
(m.c,) " these comings and goings of ours produced no result " ; but it would
be better to substitute here dmad u raft-i bisydr for the plural Infinitive:
Ifi^yk A? guh-khurdan-hd is a common expression in m.c.
(i) For compound nouns formed from the Imperative stem by affixing
c?, vide 97 (a) (1). Further examples :
Prom (D**'s " to smell" comes buy ^^ " scent "; from e;^J intr.
" to traverse" comes puy ^j, (but puy mi-kunad *tf** (s^i (m.c,) "he
s searching ") ; ^^ intr. " to grow," ruy ^^ ; e*H 5 > x) intr. (C to mourn " ,
muy 0^ ; s* ) ^~&8huslit u shuy < washing, etc." ; rakht-shuy ^^ c^
'* a washerwoman," but ^^ o^ ; rakht-shu*i c ' washing clothes : the act or
state of being a washerwoman."
(j) It was stated in (a) that the Imperative root is sometimes a noun.
Similarly the Preterite stem (or shortened Infinitive) is sometimes a noun,
as : sar-navisht o^i^ * " destiny " ; guzasht kardan &^ cu<tf " to pardon,
let ofl " ; rikht 0=^ " the casting ; form ' ' ; didu bdzdid * *+t ^ j&>*" visiting
and returning visits" ; vide also 116 (j).
(k) Sometimes the Preterite stems or shortened Infinitives of two verbs,
with or without the copula ^, are used as a substantive, as : dad u sitad
8 *1* j did (m.c,) <{ commercial transactions" : kharid u farukht oo^y^ x^ 4
*' commerce " ; dmad u shud * 5 ^T, or dmad u raft cJ ; ^ ^^ or in m.c.
also raft u dmad **tfj ^ : guft u shunld **& ^ oi? B (Syn, yu]t-u-gu). These
forms are sometimes in m.c. used in the plural, as : dad u sitadhd-yi u ziydd
ast e~| *dl#jy ^U^X^ j^td ' 4 he has extensive dealings."
Lawh-i Mahfuz J^svo ^ "the Preserved Tablet," on which the decrees
(*z+j*j**) of God regarding men are recorded. Tn the Qur^an the term is used for
the Qur*aii itself. The law tablets of Moses are called alwah.
5 Bazrdid 1$ jb can be used alone (for the return visit), but not d'td: bi-dldan-i u
rajtatn Jkji^ jj &*?& (m.c.) not did ({ I went to visit him."
* Compare Hindi len den.
* Or l&arU farul&t oukjy *,^L ; also W&rld u farush J^i ^ ^^ (m.c).
6 Qll u qal Jlji j JjJ " noise of taking" is somewhat similar; qil* Ar. "it was
said" and qal, Ar. "he said," are coupled by the Persian conjunction u ^ (in Arabic
j wa)i vide 116 (c) Remark on doubled words.
VERBAL NOUNS, AND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS. 423
(I) Sometimes both stems of the same verb are used to form a noun with
or without the copula^, as: guft-u-gu J j *J$ , or guft u guy ^j&tf , or guft-gu
9 1 oif, [= guft u shunid, ' vide ' (k)] "conversation"; just-ju or just u ju
f* j *~A. c search " (or just u juy).
This form, also, can have the usual plural.
(m) Sometimes in modern Persian two Imperatives of different verbs
are used, as: bi-gir u bi-kush (j&j^*& 9 subs, (m.c.) (seize and kill) tl arrest-
ing"; bi-gir u bizan e^V j j* J (rare) (seize and beat) " tumult, noise,"
or gir u ddr y* j j4 > or dar-gir j4 }* " tumult, confusion, trouble";
bi-gir u bi-band <>i# j j*& (m.c.) " tumult."
(n) Sometimes the Imperative stems alone are used, as: gir u ddr
tftj^f (m.c.) "tumult": vide (m) ; tak-a-pu j$ { & l (m.c.) "searching";
tak-a-daw JZ& " running."
(o) Sometimes the Imperative stem of the same verb is repeated, 2 as:
kash-ma-kash (J&* <J^ " pulling different ways; also quarrelling " (kash ma-
kash ddshtan): bi-kush u bi-kush (j&* ) ^f ^fighting, rowing (crying * kill
and kill') " ; kasha-hash J**^ 8 (m.c.) " a struggling" ; kasha-kashi ^
(old) "allurement, attracting" ( kashish, subs. m.c. <{ attracting").
(p) For the Noun of Agency farushanda x^xi-^j "seller" ; gu-yanda
il speaker," etc. ; vide 43 (r), and
Sdzanda-yi kar-i murda n zinda tu-i
Daranda-yi in charkh-i paraganda tu-i.
" Who framed the lobs of quick and dead but Thou ?
Who turns the troublous wheel of heaven but Thou ' ' ?
(O. K. 471 Whin.}.
(q) The suffix ^ added to an Infinitive (as kardani, pi. kardarii-h<!) forms
nouns and adjectives. Examples : in zuruf rikhtani hast O*~A ^uiu; Jj^ e*!
(vulg.) " these vessels have been cast " : in rang pukhtani, na shustani Jb) ^t
L5 iw^ & ^5^^ (vulg.) "this has been coloured by boiling not merely
clipping "; in sukhtani ast vi^f ^ii^.^ ^ti (m.c.) "this is for burning";
khurdani-ha ^t) 9 * (m.c.) " food, eatables " ; Masih dar dunya dmadani bud
& t^^T l^^ j* xpJr-^ (m.c.) ''Christ had to come into the world" : in khdna
khardb-shudani na-ddrad tj*> i^&*> vtr^ A ^ &i l (m.c.) *' this house is so
strong it will not go to ruin."
I This alif is called alif-i ( at,f ULfcu cJjf * Also tak u puy
* For force of repetition, vide * doubled words.'
Mard bayad ki dar Icashakash dafir
Sang-i zlrln~i fay a bashad.
424 VERBAL NOUNS, AND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS.
The negative is formed by prefixed na U as: na-guftani ^Ui?G (m.c.)
" unfit to be uttered " ; nd-shuriidani-hd l^i^u&b (m.c.) "things unfit to be
heard " ; vide also 116 (m).
In modern Persian, however, ai can be substituted, as: l$j^>ii.
(r) The Past Participle, Persian or Arabic, can stand for a noun, as:
** T 31 3 cr* 1 **** * *f> 3 1 * ^ **
Az hadlsa-yi zamdn-i ayanda ma-purs
Va'z har chi rasad chu mst payanda ma- purs
In yak-dama naqd rd ghanlmat ml l -ddn
Az rafta mayandlsh vaz ayanda ma- purs
" Ask not the chances of the time to be,
And for the past, 'tis vanished, as you see ;
This ready-money breath set down as gain,
Future and past concern not you or me."
(0. K. 278 Whin.).
Rafta *) and ayanda *^f <w what is past" and "what is to come,
hence "the Past" and " the Future."
^xf y j **%.< &(& J,> JJ^b ^lacu tf A? of
An bih ki bi-jam-i bada dil shad kunim
V'az dmada u guzashta kam 6 ydd kunim
" 'Tis well to drink, and leave anxiety
For what is past, and what is yet to be."
(0. K. 308 Whin.).
Vide also Example in (p).
Guzashtagdn or murdagdn ^^ or <^&&c& " the dead " ; vide also 43
(r).
Muharramdt o^auo "things forbidden; black clothes"; mahsurin
igl)yea*A " l the beseiged"; manzur ^JeJ^ (m.c.) "aim; objection, view,
intention"; maktub v> i^/o written ; a letter"; almaktub *->j&J\ "Holy
Writ."
Remark. Persian nouns derived from verbs are called ^f
"compound verbal nouns," or j^x J^L* ( or;x^Jij J^>bw ) as opposed to
the real Infinitive when used as a noun, which is then styled ^^i j*&x> p\ 9 or
In original zamana *^3 perhaps a misprint for zaman-i
Note continuative Imperative.
JCaw, negative; not "less", but " not."
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. 425
The Past Participle, however (used as a noun), is not called hasil-i
masdar.
A few Persian nouns of instrument ( A^T p\ ) are by some grammarians
included in the hasil-i masdar j**** JL*U>, as: aiU^ "a cup, a measure" and
" a razor," but this seems to be an error.
COMPOUND WORDS.
116. Compound Substantives.
(a] Persian abounds in compound words chiefly substantives and
adjectives.
Compound substantives are formed as follows :
(6) A compound noun analogous to such English compound as cart- horse,
is formed by the juxta-position of two nouns (in the English order) without
izafat, 1 as: ruz-nama A*Ujjj * ' newspaper * ; diary ; account of daily expendi-
ture"; jahan-panah lu ^(^ "Asylum of the World (in addressing the
Shah in writing or speaking)"; dsh-paz khdna 3 *U> j^f (m.c.) "cook-
house"; shab-khun *cJ>*u (class.) " night attack" ; barf-ab 5 _f J,J " snow-
water from the hills"; shutur-murgh fa* j& properly the " Ostrich" (but
wrongly applied to other birds): gul-barg J^ (poet.) ' ' rose- petal "; but
gul-i barg ^y uS (m.c.) " any non-flowering plant with coloured or variegated
leaves"; khavar-zamin &**>) ^(^ (class.) (or mashriq-zamm &**} O}^ ) "the
Orient"; gfaarq-ab v f (^ " deep water": miydn-pacha A^U &(*# (m.c.) "a
certain portion of the breeches ' ' ; tah-jur'ah 6 A*/?* a3 <* dregs."
This compound is styled murakkdb-i mazji 7 ( ^^^ v^O' )
Remark I. In some Arabic- Persian compounds the second part of the
compound is tautological, as: sahar-gah lf ,&* (m.c.) "morning," also
sahar-gahan ^Ulfys^ (mod.); manzil-gdh M Jv^ (m.c.) " a stage, halting
place "; maklab-khdna ^la. ^K/o "school " ; mashriq-zamm (^*j oj**' (m.c.)
"'the East, Eastern Countries"; matba' khana A*U. ^tx? (m.c.) ^printing
1 Adjectives are also formed by two nouns, as : 'bakht-yar j^i^V " fortunate; rich " ;
Jtj*r> shir-dil. Vide 44 (6) (3).
^ The words ifchbar and afchbar are also occasionally used for " newspaper."
3 Ash-pa* J* (J*>\ "a cook." lu India a cook is called bawar-chl t5^J>J^? (from
bawar, subs, and adj., and the T. affix chl), i.e. "a person to be trusted " : originally
an officer whose duty it was to taste the chief's food, perhaps to prove that it was not
poisoned: barwar-chl &hana ^^^-)^ (India) " cook-house" ; bawar-chl-garl (India)
4 * the culinary art. ' '
* Better ahab-V fc&wn (m.c.), also used by Firdawsi.
6 But ab-i barf oy wT " iced water " (cooled by snow).
6 But tah-i ab v^f *3 **the bottom of the water."
7 Amongst Indian Grammarians incorrectly
426 COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
house"; ma'bad-gah (? J>*** (m.c.) "any place of worship"; maw'id-gah
(m.c.) " appointed place of any meeting, rendezvous."
In a few compounds an adjective is prefixed to a noun, as: bad-bu j&j
M stench " (also adj.) ; khusk-sal JU cJL or khushk-sali <JU c&^ " a famine
year (a year of drought)"; sa fid-risk (J*>) &*&* (subs, and adj.) "grey
bearded; an old man."
Remark II. Such compounds as khwab-gah ^ v!^> e ^ c > have already
been mentioned in Derivation of Words, vide 99 (a) and (6), 100, 101
(6), 102, 103, 104.
Remark Ills Many compounds are formed with sar^, as : sar-chashma
" a spring of water," vide 117 III (a) (4).
(c) Two substantives of the same signification joined by the copula,
form a copulative compound noun, as : marz u bum ^ ) Jy (m.c.)
"empire, country" ; marz u kishvar )^ j jj* (class.) = marz u bum (mod.);
tab u tab ^ ^ ^ " heat ' ' ; pick u tab V l3 ^ #$* " writhing ' ' ; nashv u nama
*U jJ*>) "growing (i.e. growing and increasing)"; Tchar u Ichass (j^^ ^ }^
' * thorns " ; l dad u bl-dtid (l crying for help ' ' (shouting justice and injustice). 2
Remark.In qll u qal Jl^ cLj' the two portions of the compound are
Arabic, lit. qil a "it was said " and qal"' " he said."
(d) Also two substantives of different significations may be joined
either by Vav-i ' Atf ^b* )\> or by an alif, as : ab u hawa tyb j v f " climate
(water and air 3 ) " ; sayr u shikar 4 ;^ j j# " an outing and hunting " ; zana
shu^l 6 s*>j IJj " wedlock ' ' from zan ^} " wife " and shuy (jy& " husband ' ' ;
in adam misl-i dlvu dad (m.c.) ,> ^ ^ d^ ^j>T ^\ {C this man like a beast."
In khirt u pirt o;J j o^ (m.c.) "odds and ends, small belongings," the
words have separately no signification. Zur u sliur ;^ ^ ) " noise
and tumult " (of a waterfall, river, or of attacking soldiers entering a city,
etc.). Often the second word is a * meaningless appositive 5 6 ( tabi'-i muhmal
cU^ C^> as: sliur u shar ;L& ^ ^ = zur u shur jj 5 ).
Remark I. Adjectives used as substantives are also so employed, as:
garm u sard &j* > fjf, and talkh u shlrin ^^ 3 JCi "the tips and downs "
1 J& from Ar. *J&.
2 Compare also ahakh dar shakh (adj.) ** intertwined."
3 Easterns attribute good or ill-health to either the water or air of a place. Hava
can be used alone for "climate'* ; ab alone generally means literally that the water
of a place is good or bad.
* A Persian gentleman's shikar y&** is a sort of picnic.
6 For such compounds as tak-a-pu ^^ W, vide 114 (n).
6 By some Persians considered a radlfa &>&) ' synonym.'
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. 427
and " bitter and sweet" (of the world). In zlr u zabar kardan ^
" to make topsy-turvy," the words zir u zabar are in reality nouns used
ordinarily as prepositions.
In ntst u na-bud kardan ^^ ^>U ^ CA~^ " to annihilate" (to make 'ia
not J and c was not ' ) the two portions of the compound are verbs used as
substantives.
Remark II. The compound may consist of two Arabic words, as: akl u
$hurb v^ 5 ^ "eating and drinking ; meat and drink " : eM^f <j^ ^ <j^;
" ordering of affairs ' ' [Jp; "closing a fissure, mending ' ' , and (Jii " cleaving,
rending"]. For qil-u-qal, vide (c) Remark.
(e) The contracted Infinitives of two different verbs, or the contracted
Infinitive of a verb combined with the Imperative root of the same verb,
together form such compound substantives as : dmad u rait cu*; j ^x>f ; did
u bdz-did VA jU j <x?j> ; guft-u-gu 5 oJ ; vide 1 15 (k) and (I).
(/) For a compound noun formed from two Imperatives or Imperative
stems, vide 115 (m) (n) and (o).
(g) A Numeral or an adjective, with a substantive, form a compound
noun, as * si-pahar j^^> " the afternoon " ; yak-shamba <uL ^ t( Sunday " ;
chahdr-pd 1 J;^ l " a quadruped " ; char-fasl d*&* ;^ (m.c.) " summer-house ;
(open on all four sides)."
From adjectives similarly formed \vide 98 (b) (4)], the final formative
* is for nouns changed into gl, as : panjdh-sdla <^l~> l^, adj. ' ' of fifty years ' ' ;
panjah-salagl ^ilU lqp.ij 2 " the state of being fifty years old.''
Examples of an adjective and substantive : surkh-ab ^^^ rouge" ;
safid-db *Jt **&~* tl a liquid-white for the face."
(h) Substantives are also compounded from an Imperative root preceded
by a noun (or an adverb or a preposition), as : dsh-paz s jj <j*f "cook";
tir-andaz 8 31^! j*> *' archer " ; ru-numd ^j t( a present given to the bride by
the bridgegroom to induce her to show her face (for the first time 4 ) "; pma
* *Joj " a cobbler, who patches 6 shoes."
I Also Charhar-paya Ajb ;l^-, ^ u ^ ^ n fntlia this is a * bedstead."
52 Ba In punjah-salagl ml-tavanam ruz-l dah farsal^h. ~b r is1ii<ir }>u-pfyada bi-ravcun
fj>/ f; t^**^"X f**f ** s_5W |*V^ ^U lx;ij ^JJA (m.c.) "in. spito of my fifty
years 1 can walk more than ton farsakhs a day."
8 Ash-pazl ^*,j (J^^ " tho office or business of cook": tlr-anddzl ^$j &>\ ^
" archery."
* Tho Afghans call the first wife ** my father's wife," i.e. tho wife married to please
the father: the second wife they choose for themselves. In Persia, girls generally
manage to get a secret view of their intended, and of ten flatly refuse to accept him.
Ditto with tho men. The Parsi women are not in ru-band, they are rn-ba~~
6 KafaJirduz jj& {J& " a shoemaker."
428 COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
In pish-kash <Jtf ^>J "present, gift", pish is a noun used as a preposi-
tion: dast-band *v 0*0 "bracelet"; pas*andaz jf*i ^ "savings"; pish-
khizj^ J&ty " servant" (also adj.).
Remark. In zar-baft ^**J j>j, the corruption of zar-bafta, the verbal is not
the Imperative stem.
(/) A few compound nouns are formed by adding the Present Participle
in an to a noun, as: khil' at-pushan ^^ o**U> a place outside big cities
where the recipient of a robe of honour from the Shah advances to meet it and
be invested; barg-nzan djtj] ^ "autumn"; ab nzan &*) vJf a fete
observed by Zardushtis and Armenians, in which water is thrown.
Remark /. Sina-suzan e/jy* &** (m.c.) adj. ' 'running. fast "
Remark II. A Persian * noun of instrument' (AJf ^*f) is generally a
compound, as: <jy fti "penknife"; ^ & bad-bizan "fan": l jUJUa
dast-mal " handkerchief," but in Arabic there are special forms, as: miftah
-Uixj " key " : mibrad " file " ; vide Notes on Arabic Grammar.
(j) A few compound nouns are formed by suffixing the contracted
Infinitive or Preterits root to a substantive or adverb, as :
(1) Qarar-dad^* jj*" arrangement, engagement " ; sar-guzasht c^^f j*
" adventures " ; yad-dasht ciJf^ ^ " memorandum " ; chashm-ddsht o^|^^-
et expectation of favours."
This form can take the usual plural, vide also 115 (;').
(2) Baz-did <x>j> jb "return visit" ; baz-khwast ^^\^ $> "calling to
account, retribution; demanding reasons for action taken"; baz-dasht
**&>,* > "hindering 
