The high school course in geography

B 3 IMS

EXCHANGE

BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

No. 382: High School Series. No. 10

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN
GEOGRAPHY

BY

R. H. WHITBECK

Assistant Professor of Physiography and Geography
The University of Wisconsin

ASSISTED BY
LAWRENCE MARTIN

Assistant Professor of Geology
The University of Wisconsin

MADISON

Published by the University
August, 1910

HIGH SCHOOL SERIES

1. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH, by Willard G.
Bleyer, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Journalism. 1906. 1907.
1909.

2. THE HIGH SCHOOL COUESE IN GEBMAN, by M. Blakemore
Evans, Ph. D., Associate Professor of German. 1907. 1909.

3. COMPOSITION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL: THE FIRST AND SEC-
OND YEARS, by Margaret Ashmun, Instructor in English. 1908.
1910.

4. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN LATIN, by M. S. Slaughter,
Ph. D., Professor of Latin. 1908.

5. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN VOICE TRAINING, by "Rollo
L. Lyman, Assistant Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory. 1909.

6. THE RELATIVE STANDING or PUPILS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL
AND IN THE UNIVERSITY, by W. F. Dearborn, Ph. D., Assistant
Professor of Education. 1909.

7. A COURSE IN MORAL INSTRUCTION FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL,
by Frank Chapman Sharp, Ph. D., Professor of Philosophy.
1909.

8. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN MATHEMATICS, by Ernest B.
Skinner, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Mathematics. 1909.

9. SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY GRADES, by W. F. Dearborn, Ph.
D., formerly Assistant Professor of Education. 1910.

10. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY, by R. H. Whit-
beck, Assistant Professor of Physiography and Geography,
assisted by Lawrence Martin, Assistant Professor of Geology.
1910.

Copies of these bulletins may be obtained by writing the
Secretary of the Committee on Accredited Schools, Room 119,
University Hall.

Entered as second-class matter June 10, 1898, at the post office at Madison,
Wisconsin, under the Act ol July 16, 1894.

BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

No. 382: High School Series, No. 10

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN
GEOGRAPHY

BY

R. H. WHITBECK

Assistant Professor of Physiography and Geography
The University of Wisconsin

ASSISTED BY
LAWRENCE MARTIN

Assistant Professor of Geology
The University cf Wisconsin.

MADISON

Published by the University
August, 1910

: .. ... r ...

HIGH SCHOOL SERIES

1. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH, by Willard G.
Bleyer, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Journalism. 1906. 1907.
1909.

2. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE ix GERMAN, by M. Blakeinore
Evans, Ph. D., Associate Professor of German. 1907. 1909.

3. COMPOSITION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL: THE FIRST AND SEC-
OND YEARS, by Margaret Ashmun, Instructor in English. 1908.
1910.

4. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN LATIN, by M. S. Slaughter,
Ph. D., Professor of Latin. 1908.

5. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN VOICE TRAINING, by Rollo
.L. Lyman, Assistant Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory. 1909.

45. THE RELATIVE STANDING OF PUPILS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL
A:XD IN THE UNIVERSITY, by W. F. Dearborn, Ph. D., Assistant
Professor of Education. 1909.

7. A COURSE IN MORAL INSTRUCTION FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL,
by Frank Chapman Sharp, Ph. D., Professor of Philosophy.
1909.

8. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN MATHEMATICS, by Ernest B.
Skinner, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Mathematics. 1909.

9. SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY" GRADES, by W. F. Dearborn, Ph.
D., formerly Assistant Professor of Education. 1910.

10. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY, by R. H. Whit-
beck, Assistant Professor of Physiography and Geography,
assisted by Lawrence Martin, Assistant Professor of Geology.
1910.

Copies of these bulletins may be obtained by writing the
Secretary of the Committee on Accredited Schools, Room 119,
University Hall.

Entered as second-class matter June 10, 1898, at the post office at Madison,
Wisconsin, under the Act of July 16, 1894.

^. CONTENTS

PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION 4

II. THE PRESENT TREND OF GEOGRAPHY 5

Early Status of Physical Geography 5

Report of the National Education Association's

Committee in 1893 6

The Progress of the Movement and the Present

Reaction 10

Report of the Committee of the National Educa-
tion Association, 1909 13

JII. THE TEACHING ov GEOGRAPHY , 18

The Problems of the Teacher 18

Ways of getting at Physical Geography 19

Oral Instruction 20

The Text Book and the Recitation 20

Selecting the Materials from a Text Book 22

Outline of a Course in Physical Geography 24

Review of Important Facts of Location 27

Laboratory Work 29

Field Work 33

Suggested Field Lessons 36

Rock Weathering and Soil 37

The Work of Streams 39

Sets of Illustrative Questions 41

Rivers, Valleys and Stream Work 41

Rivers and Valleys in their Relation to Com-
merce 42

Lakes and Some of their Relations to Human

Affairs 43

Shore Lines and their Influence 44

Some Climatic "Why's" 46

Mathematical Geography 47

IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY 49

A List of Helpful Articles and Books on Geog-
raphy Teaching 49

Reference Books for High School Libraries 52

I

INTRODUCTION

Geography as at present taught in the high schools is
principally physical geography, or, as it is often called —
physiography. It may be well at the outset to point out
the relationships between geology and physiography, and
between physiography and geography.

Sir Charles Lyell denned geology as "the science which
investigates the successive changes that have taken place in
the organic and inorganic kingdoms or' nature, * * * in-
quires into the causes of these changes and the influence
which they have exerted in modifying the surface and ex-
ternal structure of our planet." A modern text-book calls it
"the study of the structure, history and development of the
earth, as revealed in the rocks." Another speaks of it as
"earth history." Geography has been conceived of as the
latest chapter in earth history, and all geology has been
thought of as made up of an infinite series of paleogeographies.
Geography, according to this conception, is the geology of to-
day and physical geography is merely its inorganic side. In
ordinary usage, physiography, as presented in modern text-
books and as taught in most high schools, has included
much beside the inorganic phase, as is shown in a later sec-
tion on The Trend of Geography.

This introduction of the life side into physiography has
grown rapidly. Commercial geography, which describes tho
world in its relations to man as a producer and as a trader,
covers only one phase of the organic side of geography.

At the present time (1910)' there are 300 high schools in
Wisconsin. Of this number about 90 per cent teach physical
geography. Geology is taught in comparatively few schools.
Of the schools offering physical geography, less than half
give a whole year to the subject, the others giving one-half,
two-thirds or three-fourths of a year. In the latter schools
botany or -physiology usually is taught the balance of the
year. Commercial geography is taught in a considerable

(4)

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 5

number of high schools of the state. No school in Wiscon-
sin offers a course throughout the year in what may be
called general geography. As will be seen later, the present
trend of geography is toward a course which shall combine
both physical geography and the more general phases of
general geography and commercial geography. The wide-
spread ignorance of location among pupils who enter normal
schools and colleges leads to the conviction that somewhere
in the high school there should be woven into the teaching
a review of the important facts usually taught in locational
geography.

II
THE PRESENT TREND OF QEOGRAPHY

Early Status of Physical Geography

In the decade of 1880 to 1890, there were a half dozen
American text books of Physical Geography in use, more or
less alike. They consisted of a number of unconnected chap-
ters on astronomy, on geology, on meteorology, and on
phases of zoology and botany. There were chapters describ-
ing the main physical features of the continents, a treatment
of magnetism, of glaciers, of the distribution of the races of
men, and some other topics. Then, as now, the prevailing
character of the text books determined the nature of the
subject matter which was taught in the schools.

In looking over those earlier text books, one is impressed
with this fact; in their makeup there is no unifying prin-
ciple. Each separate chapter is like a separate monograph.
The books might almost have been a collection of chapters
borrowed bodily from ten or twelve text books on the various
sciences, with a limited amount of strictly geographical ma-
terial added. The study was not a real science. Perhaps it
was more truly an introduction to the general field of science
as it is today in England. When well taught it was interest-
ing, informing, and as useful as most school studies are, but
it was almost wholly a book study and a memory study. Few,
if any, teachers considered physical geography as a laboratory
science in those days.

6 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Report of the National Educational Association's Committee

in 1893

Twenty years ago, some leaders of thought in the field of
earth science, began to voice mild protests against this kind
of physical geography. A reform movement started, an'd in
1893 took shape in the epoch-making report of the Commit-
tee of Ten, or rather, the report of the sub-committee known
as the Geography Conference. The recommendations of this
committee were so manifestly sane that they appealed to the
thoughtful teachers in high schools and the colleges the
country over. This report recommended, among other
things, a closer delimiting of the field of physical geography,
particularly emphasizing the treatment of physiographic
processes, and of the origin, development, and classification
of land forms. Field and laboratory work were called for,
and it was recommended that the subject be given an en-
tire year of time, preferably the first year of the high school
course. (A fourth-year elective course was also recommended.)

Extracts from the report of the Conference on Geography to
the Committee of Ten of the National Educational

Association, 1893

."General Elementary Geography. There are important rea-
sons for devoting the work of the earlier and intermediate
years to those features of geography which will be most
serviceable to the majority of pupils without regard to any
sharp classification, because these are the only years during
which many pupils remain in school. The earlier courses
should, therefore, treat broadly of the earth and its environ-
ment and inhabitants. * * * It should deal not only with
the face of the earth- but with elementary considerations in
astronomy, meteorology, zoology, botany, history, commerce,
governments, races, religions, etc., so far as these are con-
nected with geography. Unless this admixture of subjects is
included under the elementary courses of geography many
scholars will not gain a knowledge of even the outlines of
these important subjects.

Physical Geography and Physiography. The special subject
of geography should take on a more advanced form and should
relate more specifically to the features of the earth's surface,
the agencies that produce and destroy them, the environing
conditions under which these act, and the physical influences

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 7

by whicn man and all the creatures of the earth are so pro-
foundly affected. This has usually been designated physical
geography. * * *

* * * The majority of the Conference wish to impress
upon the attention of teachers the fact that there has been
developed within the past decade a new and most important
phase of the subject, and to urge that they hasten to acquaint
themselves with it and bring it into the work of the school-
room and of the field.

The ground to be covered by physiography, when introduced
as a high school study, may be indicated by the following
topics: The wasting of the land surfaces, the transportation
of the waste to the sea, and its deposition on the marginal
sea bottoms; a brief account of the more common minerals
and rocks in their relation to wasting; the changes of river
action during the progress of land denudation; the relations
of lakes, waterfalls, divides and their migration, flood-plains,
deltas, etc., to the stage of river-development in which they
are observed; the development of shore lines and the varia-
tion of their features under the long continued action of the-
shore waves; the interruptions of the normal progress of
denudation and shore action by depression, elevation, or de-
formation ; and by volcanic action or by climatic change, in-
cluding briefly the effects of glacial action. The various kinds;
of land forms, as plains, plateaus, mountains, volcanoes, should
be considered in accordance with the constructional processes;
involved in their origin and with the system of development:
above outlined; and their distribution over the earth should
be briefly sketched. * * * Sufficient account of climate
should be given to introduce an intelligent consideration of
the conditions that determine the distribution of life; but
this should be made relatively subordinate to the main theme,
namely, the geography of the lands.

The asscciated study of the oceans should be relatively
brief. It should give a condensed account of the ocean basins,,
recognizing the deep continuous basins of the great oceans,,
the enclosed mediterraneans, and the continental shelves; of
the conditions of the ocean bottoms; of the composition and
deep currents of the sea, and of the tides. The relation of
these conditions to the distribution of oceanic life may be
briefly introduced.

Unless an additional course on meteorology is offered, a
sufficient practical use of the weather maps should be intro-
duced into the course in physiography to furnish the scholars
with a knowledge of the general principles of weather changes
and forecasts.

* * Each step should be satisfactorily taken before the
next is attempted. A rigid system which forces a class over a
given ground in a given time without regard to their ability

8 THE UMVKKS1TY C.I

to cover it properly will not be helpful to the best results.
* * * The \\ork should move on earnestly and at a pace
that makes the progress oovious to the scholars. Interest
lags when the advance is too slow. Dawdling and dwelling
on trivialities are among the great mistakes of the school-
room. They are especially vicious when mistaken for
thoroughness.

* * * The Conference offer, by way of suggestion, the
following scheme. * * * Reduced to a sentence the scheme
is: first, see; next, reproduce; then study the productions of
others, and, meanwhile, ponder and reason on all.

1. Observational Geography. In the judgment of the Con-
ference, observation should go before all other forms of geo-
graphical study and prepare the way for them; its object be-
ing ( 1 ) to develop the power and habit of geographic ob-
servation, (2) to give the pupils true and vivid basal ideas,
(3) to arouse a spirit of inquiry and a thirst for geographical
^knowledge. This work of observation should begin with those
features that lie immediately about the pupils and so fall
easily within the reach of their direct study and ready com-
prehension. * * * Pupils should observe the agencies that
produce surface changes, such as winds, rains, floods, thaw-
ing, freezing, cultivation, etc. The temporary streams that
follow heavy rains represent on a small scale many of the
natural processes by which surface features are produced.
From these immediate agencies, the observations should ex-
tend to the phenomena of the weather and the climate, such
as temperature, winds, clouds, seasons, * * * the shifting
of the sun north and south with the seasons and to measure
the amount of this by the length of shadows at noonday in
the different months of the year. * * * The pupils should
be encouraged to observe the differences of plants on uplands,
lowlands, marshes, etc., and upon sandy, clayey, gravelly or
stony ground, and to note the habitual dispersal of animals
and insects in the neighborhood, and also their relations to
each other, as in forming or frequenting forests, prairies,
meadows, etc. As a step toward the study of the human ele-
ments in geography, observations should be made upon the
population and its distribution, upon home occupations and
productions. * * *

Observation should not cj.ily begin the work in geography
but should continue throughout the entire course and be-
yond. * * * Every opportunity for observational work in
geography should be eagerly embraced. Excursions for the
special purpose should be made as frequently as practicable,
formally or informally, in school hours and out of school
hours, by classes and by individuals.

2. Representative Geography. Immediately after the mak-
ing of observations should come their reproduction in the

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY

form cf descriptions, sketches, maps, models, etc. * * *
The great end of education is to create productive ability.

3. Derivative or Descriptive Geography. * * * In this,
the observational and representative work of others than
themselves is made the basis of study. * The pupils

cannot carry their own observations over more than a very
small fraction of the earth's surface. * * * Their great
dependence must, therefore, be upon the work of others, the
work of geographical experts, and hence descriptive geography
must embrace much the largest portion of their attention.
The comnon mistake is that it embraces too nearly all of
it, and the observational and reproductive efforts which are
necessary to give the study of descriptions its greatest serv-
iceability are neglected.

,4. Kati( nal Geography. * * * This phase of the subject
which lesds the pupils into the reason of things, should be
assiduously cultivated, for it is the soul of the science. It
should, however, be carefully adapted to the capabilities of
the pupils, particularly in the earlier stages of the study.

* * * The reasonings should be such as they can follow
understanding^, if not work out themselves. * * * It may
not be wholly without value in some cases to give to children
a statement of the cause of phenomena even though they are
unable to understand the methods of their operation, but it
should be clearly understood that this is not teaching the
scholars to reason concerning phenomena. * * *

Methods of Teaching. We urge that at all stages and in all
parts of the study of geography the teacher, rather than the
textbook, should lead the class. A good textbook is neces-
sary. * * * It should give a better presentation of the
^subject tlan teachers can usually be expected to command.
.So, also, recitations based on textbooks are indispensable in
order to recure precision of understanding and of statement
on the part of the scholars. * * *

It is scarcely necessary to say that the simple memorizing,
or the slavish following, of the textbook should be avoided.

* * * In departing from the textbook, however, the op-
posite mistake of consuming undue time in giving tne schol-
ars what the textbook would give them in better form

* * * should be avoided. * * *

Modelling, drawing, and other graphic modes of expression
are fully recognized as indispensable means of aiding the
imagination, intensifying thought, and strengthening memory.
But these means should be kept subordinate to the study of
the subject itself. * * *

Topical recitation and study should be used as freely as
practicable. * * *

We urge upon teacher.s the free use of the crayon and

10 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

blackboard. The simplest illustrations are of the greatest
help. * * *

The greatest care should be given to secure clearness of
ideas. For this reason, we recommend again that observa-
tional study should form the beginning of every new division
of the subject, if it can be done. * * *

In order to secure the successful application and illustra-
tion of the principles of physiography in the home district,
we advise that the teacher of this subject should, if pos-
sible, have had some outdoor experience in geological field
work, as it is only through such experience that local il-
lustrations can be utilized to the fullest advantage and a
sufficiently practical turn can be given to the study."

The Progress of the Movement and the Present Reaction

Fortunately this report was soon followed by a very ac-
ceptable text book constructed on the lines laid down by the
Committee. In a case such as we are considering, a report
of a committee, no matter how sane and convincing, will
bear little fruit in the field of actual teaching unless the
teachers can have a text book embodying the principles and
the subject matter recommended by that report. The suc-
cess of this first modern American Physical Geography
brought forth other books of the same general character,
and by 1903, the new type of Physical Geography was being
generally taught. We have been at it long enough to give it
a fair trial. We have a large and varied collection of lab-
oratory manuals. We have had much discussion of the sub-
ject in educational gatherings. The Journal of Geography
has collected and published opinions of a considerable num-
ber of interested men, who have set forth very positively
their views. We have had a round-table discussion among
the foremost geographers of the country, at the Baltimore
meeting of the Association of American Geographers in De-
cember, 1908, followed by the appointment by that body of a
committee to make a report upon Secondary School Geography.
We had the appointment by the National Educational Associa-
tion at the Cleveland meeting in 1908 of a similar committee,
whose report was made at Denver in the summer of 1909.

Professor R. E. Dodge, . then editor of the Journal of
Geography, felt the pulse of the movement in the question-

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 11

naire which he sent out in 1908 to a score of leading geog-
raphers and teachers in various parts of the country. The
answers were published in the issues of March and April of
the same year. (Vol. VI, pp. 241-251, and 273-285.) The
general criticism of high school physical geography as re-
vealed in these answers may be summarized as follows:

First: It is too closely restricted to the description and
classification of land forms, is somewhat too geological, and
has a tendency to include unusual and unimportant land
forms and water forms in order that classification may be
complete. For example, it is not uncommon in a textbook
to find six, eight, or ten different kinds of lakes, or plains
or mountains described, even though, perhaps, one-third of
these are relatively rare forms.

Second: There is dissatisfaction with the kind of labor-
atory work which is being done, and with tEe results of
that laboratory work.

Third: There is a growing belief that geography in sec-
ondary schools should not be simply physical geography,
but should be based upon a preliminary study of physical
geography, followed by a study of geography in its broader
aspects; that is, geography in which the human element is
more conspicuous.

Below are six of the eight questions whch were sent out
by The Journal of Geography in the early part of 1908, to-
gether with a resume of the answers received. These
answers will indicate something of the trend of opinion.
The group of men who submitted these answers is a very
thoroughly representative group, and their opinions are en-
titled to as much weight as the opinions of any group of
men that could be secured in this country. The questions
were as follows:

(1) Do you believe that secondary school geography for
students not preparing to enter college should be restricted
to physical geography as outlined in the modern text books?

Nineteen persons answered the question. Everyone said
no.

(2) Do you favor a continuation and development of the
modern practice of emphasizing the detailed, systematic
classification of land forms?

.

12 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Nine said unqualifiedly, no. Three said no, with some
qualification. Four said yes, with some qualification.

(3) Do you believe that secondary school geography would
be equally valuable as a subject for pupils not proposing to
enter college, if it included more of a study of selected re-
gions of the world?

Eight answered yes, without qualification. Six, yes, with
qualification, and three, no, with qualification.

(4) Could a course along these lines (the study of se-
lected regions of the world) be as disciplinary and strong
as the present generally followed course?

Ten said yes, and four others, yes, with certain qualifica-
tions. Two said no, with qualifications.

(5) Should commercial geography be included in non-
technical high schools? If so, should it be as a separate
course or as an important phase of some systematic regional
treatment?

Of those who answered, eight favored the introduction of
some commercial geography into the high school course, and
nine objected to commercial geography, at least as a sep-
arate study in non-technical high schools.

(6) Is the content of the modern course too much in-
fluenced by our belief in the necessity of laboratory treatment?

On this question opinions are equally divided. Seven
answered in the affirmative with some qualification, and
seven in the negative with some qualification.

Upon four points the agreement was so complete as to be
absolutely convincing:

(1) That high school geography should not be restricted
to the subject matter as outlined in the present modern
text books.

(2) That we should not continue the practice of emphasiz-
ing the detailed, systematic classification of land forms.

(3) That the introduction of the study of selected regions
of the world into secondary school geography is desirable.

(4) That such a course could be as disciplinary and as
strong as the present generally followed course.

On the question of the proper place of commercial geography
and the value of laboratory exercises there was a division of
opinion. Certainly then, the trend of opinion as indicated by

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 13

this investigation is clear. It is toward the humanizing of
the study.

Extracts from the Report of the 1909 Committee of the Na-
tional Education Association, on Secondary School
Geography

There has been marked advance in the subject of physical
geography during the past sixteen years. *

In spite of this great advance there has been for several
years a growing dissatisfaction with the course as at present
organized. It is becoming increasingly evident that it does
not meet existing needs. * * * The next step in the evolu-
tion of the subject, a step to be taken in the near future, will
be of greater importance than that inaugurated sixteen years
ago.

Although the economic and commercial phases of geography
are receiving an increasing amount of attention, secondary
school geography is to-day practically physiography. * *
The following are the more important reasons for considering
a change in the nature of the course imperative:

1. The course, as at present organized, places too much em-
phasis upon the detailed study and classification of land forms,
and too little upon human response to those forms. The
amount of space devoted to the lands by the various physical
geographies varies from forty per cent to seventy-six per cent
of the, total. The criticism here made, however, is not that
too much space is devoted to the lands, as one of the four
great divisions of physical geography, but that the lands are
not sufficiently studied from the geographic point of view,
namely, the human.

2. A concrete study of human response to its environment
does not receive sufficient attention.

3. * * * Secondary school geography should aim to
render the greatest possible service in preparing the student
to meet successfully the opportunities and obligations of life.
The fulfilling of college entrance requirements — a matter
which now receives serious attention — should receive prac-
tically no consideration. * * * Practically all graduates of
secondary schools enter at once upon some business, some
profession, or the duties of home life. It is to these students,
more than ninety per cent of the total number, that the sec-
ondary school should devote itself heart and soul. * * *

4. Secondary school geography does not give the student a
grasp of the natural resources, the industries and the com-
merce of the worl'd. This condition is, of course, inevitable
so long as the geography in the secondary school is almost
exclusively physical geography. * * *

14 THE UNIVERSITY OF ^WISCONSIN

5. Geography in the secondary school does very little as a
preparation for the teaching of that phase of the subject
which, in the elementary school, receives chief attention.
* * *

6. Secondary school geography, as at present constituted,
can not give the student that knowledge ot the regions and
peoples of the world which intelligent participation in the
affairs of life requires. If broadly interpreted, this encom-
passes all of its weaknesses. * * *

* * * The lack of a knowledge of place relations, and of
regional geography in a broad sense, is a weakness so uni-
versally shown by students in the entering classes of both
normal schools and colleges as almost to discourage teachers
of geography in those institutions. It is this knowledge which
the average person, no matter in what walk of life, most
needs. * * *

We present the following as essentials of a course in geog-
raphy for secondary schools:

1. Those parts of mathematical geography which show most
clearly how human life is influenced by the relations be-
tween the earth and other members of the solar system. Such
points as the arrangement of the mathematical and heat
zones and the varying boundaries of the latter; the change of
seasons; latitude and longitude; standard time and the Inter-
national Date Line are important. Facts as to the size of
the members of . the solar system, their distances from the
earth or sun, and their periods of rotation and revolution are
not considered essentials.

2. First in importance among the factors influencing life is
climate. Therefore, atmospheric phenomena should receive
careful attention. The principles should be applied as fully
as time and the ability of the students permit. The topics
which should receive chief attention are the following: (a)
The conditions determining the temperature, pressure and
humidity of the atmosphere, (b) The great atmospheric
movements, (c) Storms, especially temperate latitude cy-
clones, studied by means of the weather maps, and their re-
lations to crops, floods and transportation, (d) Precipitation;
its causes and distribution; and its influence upon occupa-
tions and habits of life generally, (e) Weather changes, such
as the effect of unseasonable frosts upon crops, and the ef-
forts of man to prevent the damage. The influence of bliz-
zards upon stock on the western ranges, and telegraph and
railroad business in many parts of the country. The effects
of storms upon wheat, oats, hay and other crops. (/) We
urge the importance of a study of the work of the Weather
Bureau, having students present specific illustrations of the
value of its work, Comparatively few r alize the multitude

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 15

of human interests that are advanced through the operations
of this bureau.

3. A brief study of the ocean as a modifier of climate, as an
agent in the destruction and construction of land forms, as
the source of certain commodities, ana as a medium for the
transmission of the commerce of the world.

A detailed study of ocean depths, of temperatures at various
levels, of tides, of the character and distribution of ocean life
may well be omitted.

While our texts treat the ocean as a separate division of
physical geography, we favor an incidental treatment, with a
brief summary. The influence of the ocean upon climate — the
topic of chief importance — should be considered in connection
with the study of climate. Erosion and sedimentation along
shore lines should be treated under these topics. The com-
modities obtained from the ocean, as well as the commerce
which it bears, would naturally receive attention as a part
of commercial geography.

4. The larger geographic forms such as plains, plateaus,
mountains, valleys, rivers, falls, lakes and glaciers should
receive careful study. Human interests and activities are
largely confined to the lands, but it is obviously of far greater
importance that we should understand our relations to
geographic forms than that we should have a thorough knowl-
edge of their evolution, or be able accurately to classify them.

Graduates of secondary schools should know the location
of the great plains of the world, and how they are related
to the production of food, to occupations, to transportation
and the distribution of population. Whether or not these
students can name the six or eight classes of plains given
in our text books is a matter of very little importance. Stu-
dents should understand how certain mountains influence
climate, the distribution of plant life, human occupation of
their areas, the construction of railroads, the use of streams
for transportation and the development of water and elec-
tric power, how they served as national boundaries and have
helped to mold national characteristics. The ability to name
the different types of mountains, and to classify faults and
folds is of little value to the average person, however. In
other words, it is the human point of view that is important
as applied to every topic.

Students should be encouraged to discover human response
to its environment in the home area, as this gives reality
to the subject and prepares them to work out and appreciate
these relations in remote areas.

The amount of emphasis placed upon the study of various
geographic forms and processes will depend, in part, upon the
location of the individual school. A school situated in a

16 THE UNIVERSITY OF JW1SCONSIN

mountainous region would very properly devote more time
to the consideration of the influence of the mountains upon
life than would one in the prairie section. In the first-
named area the relation which mountains bear to climate, in-
dustries, settlement, and road building are relatively of
greater importance than in the second, because they are at
hand and are therefore more meaningful.

5. A study of the larger features of the resources of
our country, such as its soils, waterways, water powers,
forests and mineral wealth. These features of our geographic
environment are so vitally connected with the daily life of
every individual, as well as with our national progress, that
ignorance of them is a serious matter.

This study should show the distribution of our resources,
their accessibility, their relation to road building, to distribu-
tion of population, to development of industries, to location
and growth of cities, to commerce, and to social conditions.
The work of our government in modifying geographic en-
vironment should receive careful consideration. Our govern-
ment is expending vast sums of money in carrying on soil
surveys, in improving plants and animals, in reclaiming desert
and swamp lands, in the preservation and extension of for-
ests, in developing waterways and harbors. These are sub-
jects upon which every man and woman should be informed
from the geographic point of view. The value of such work
in molding useful members of society is certainly very great.

6. A knowledge of the general geography of the most im-
portant countries and peoples of the world.

The grasp of regional geography obtained in the elementary
school is necessarily very meager. Geography is quite gen-
erally discontinued in the seventh grade, and, as has been
stated, practically no attention is given to regional geography
in the high school. A knowledge of the geography of our
own country and of Europe is a much-to-be-desired factor in
good citizenship. A somewhat detailed study of these two
regions would incidentally put the student in possession of
considerable knowledge of the other continents. In addition
to this he would gain a "geographic consciousness" that
would be of great value.

If it be true that a large part of the education of the aver-
age individual comes through reading, 'then it is of the ut-
most importance that he should be able to read intelligently.
This, in the fullest sense, is impossible unless one's knowl-
edge of geography is wider than that offered by the present
high school course in this subject.

7. Some conception of how the history of nations has been
shaped by geographic conditions.

We do not forget that this should be a vital part of all
courses in history, but it should also receive very definite

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 17

attention in secondary school geography. All nations afford
illustrations of this, some more than others. That our own
country is a fruitful field is evidenced by such works as
Brigham's Geographic Influences in American History, and
Miss Semple's American History and Its Geographic Condi-
tions.

8. The ability to trace, in the large, the relationships be-
tween the most important geographic forms and geographic
processes, and to appreciate the responses which human life
everywhere makes to its physical surroundings.

Only as the student has observed the results of geographic
processes on a small scale can he have any definite concep-
tion of the evolution of larger and distant geographic forms.
When the student appreciates the significance of human re-
sponse in the vicinity of his home, he has laid the founda-
tions for the discovery and interpretation of this response in
remote areas. Moreover, this training will furnish some
basis for seeing in advance the general trend of the geographic
development of a new region.

In order to make it possible to present the essentials as
herein outlined, your committee makes the following recom-
mendations:

1. Geography, touching as it does the daily life of every
individual at so many points, should be, in some form a re-
quired subject in all secondary schools.

2. The subject should be pursued for not less than one year.

3. The subject should be presented during the first year of
the high school course.

4. There should be at least five recitation periods per
week.

5. About one-fourth of the total time should be devoted
to laboratory and field work. This should by no means be
confined to the study of physical geography. Much laboratory
work and some excursions should be undertaken in connec-
tion with the commercial phase of the subject, arid there
should be carefully planned exercises based upon maps and
models.

We recommend that about one-half year be devoted to the
larger topics in physical geography, with the human side
made more prominent than at present, and that the re-
mainder of the year be given to a study of North America
and Europe.

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

III

THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY

The Problems of the Teacher

In teaching a subject like geography, the teacher faces
two problems at the outset:

(1) The selection of the matter to be presented.

(2) The adoption of a general method.

The text book used will largely solve the first problem.
On the whole, any one of the widely used text books is a
safe guide as to subject matter. In selecting topics for
emphasis, the teacher must use her own judgment, getting
such help as is available.

In the adoption of a general plan of teaching the subject,
the teacher will, quite naturally, do about as her own teach-
ers have done, until she has evolved a more satisfactory
method for herself.

All studies which are entitled to a place in the school
curriculum yield a variety of benefits to the student who
seriously pursues them. But some studies, in their very
nature, are qualified to yield certain benefits in a larger de-
gree than others. The close application of mind required
in studying the classical languages, develops power of con-
centration. The study of algebra and geometry develops
power of logical reasoning. The study of history gives
breadth of mind and yields valuable information. The study
of physics yields some of the disciplinary benefits of math-
ematics and some of the general culture of the scientific
studies. Besides yielding their own particular benefits, each
yields in greater or lesser degree, all of the general benefits
of education.

Since some studies are particularly qualified for accom-
plishing certain ends, it is desirable that we find what these
ends are, in the case of a given study which we are to teach,
and then so direct our efforts that the greatest benefits may
result. Definiteness of aim is exceedingly desirable. In se-
lecting the subject matter to be taught and in determining
the method to be followed in physical geography the follow-
ing principles ought to obtain:

HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 19

(1) That kind of knowledge which will be most useful in
life deserves emphasis. In the case of physical geography,
knowledge which helps the pupil to understand the world of
nature immediately about him, and to have a healthy in-
terest in it; knowledge which suggests how he may improve
unfavorable environment, and utilize the favorable, is the
kind that is of most value. It is not, of course, the only
kind that may properly be taught.

(2) Physical geography is better qualified to give general
culture than to give rigid mental discipline. An effort to
make the study of physical geography yield the same kind
of discipline that physics is qualified to give will distort
the teaching. Such an effort will demand of physical geog-
raphy results which in the high school at least, it is not well
suited to give and at the same time will fail to get those
valuable cultural results which it is qualified to yield. Much
of the dissatisfaction with laboratory work in physical
geography is due to this misdirected effort. The knowledge
which physical geography gives to the student is its most
valuable contribution. On the other hand, it may be so
taught that its general cultural value is maintained and a
valuable mental discipline afforded at the same time.

As pointed out in an earlier section, there is a notable
trend of opinion among geographers in favor of teaching
geography instead of the more limited physical geography,
as for some years past has been the practice in secondary
schools. The belief is that geography, which gives more at-
tention to the human or life side of the study, is of greater
value for general culture, more useful in practical life, and
no less 'valuable for mental discipline. Though at the pres-
ent time (1910) no text book fully meeting these newer
ideals has been published, it is likely that such books will
appear as soon as the present trend of opinion has crystallized.
However, some of the best of the existing books lay con-
siderable emphasis upon the life side of the study.

Ways of Getting at Physical Geography
At least four ways of getting at the facts of geography are
available:

(1) Through oral instruction by the teacher.

20 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

(2) Through the printed text, and supplementary reading.

(3) Through laboratory exercises dealing with pictures,
maps, models and other materials which require interpreting
and thought on the part of pupils.

(4) Through field studies.

Oral Instruction

There are two very different types of oral teaching:

(1) Lecturing.

(2) Questioning, of the kind which is often called "devel-
oping" a topic.

Lecturing is not appropriate for the secondary school.
Sometimes the college teacher finds that lecturing is his
best method, even though very imperfect. His class may be
large, and often no suitable text book exists. These condi-
tions are not found in the high school. Lecturing seldom
stimulates self-activity on the part of the young hearer, and
does not develop power of self-help. Both of these are of
primary importance in the educative process.

The valid objections to lecturing do not preclude a teach-
er's supplementing the text book with facts and explanations
orally stated. Yet one of the commonest errors of teachers
is talking too much.

The other type of oral teaching, namely, leading the pupil
from the known to the related unknown by means of ques-
tioning, has much in its favor. When efficiently done it holds
attention, stimulates mental activity, and leads to clear
ideas. This, however, is teaching, not telling.

The Text Book and the Recitation

The method of assigning lessons to be studied in a book
and recited in a class is often criticised and sometimes
ridiculed. "Slavishly following the text book," "memorizing
facts," "parrot-like recitations," are expressions frequently
heard. Old time teachers spoke of "hearing classes." All
teachers know that these practices are not good. Some have
thought that better results may be obtained by substituting
for text book facts, statements from the teacher's note book,
dictated to pupils to be written in their note books, these,

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGBAPHY 21

perhaps, to be memorized and recited. It is to be hoped
that such a method is rarely practiced. Its weaknesses are
too obvious to call for discussion. The teacher who "slavishly
follows a text book" or whose teaching consists in "assign-
ing so many pages for a lesson," to be followed by "parrot-
like repetition of memorized facts," would hardly succeed
with any method. The text book-and-recitation method
readily lends itself to abuse. The overworked or incompetent
teacher may use the method in its objectionable forms.
Granting all this, the text book as a source of information,
and the recitation, as a method of self expression by the
pupil and of examination or testing by the teacher, are es-
sential parts of good teaching.

The good text book even with its imperfections is more
accurate and concise in statement, more logical in arrange-
ment, has its various parts better balanced, and its ma-
terial more carefully selected, than could be the case in a
teacher's note book. While the text probably will not con-
tain all that the teacher wishes the pupils to know, yet it
will contain a very large part of it. Every wide-awake
teacher will do some supplementing.

The following suggestions, though trite, may be useful:

(1) All of the material in a text book is not equally im-
portant.

(2) It was not expected by the author that all the topics
would be studied by any single class. He inserts enough
material to provide for selection to suit individual wants.

(3) The mere assignment of a certain number of pages
will seldom bring satisfactory results. One of the teacher's
functions is to direct pupils to the essential points in a les-
son. This may be done (a) by definitely specifying para-
graphs or parts of paragraphs for careful study; (b) by as-
signing definite topics to be prepared sometimes in writing,
sometimes for oral recitation.

(4) Definite assignments of work, reasonable in length,
are essentials. Long and vague assignments produce sloven-
liness in preparation.

(5) Pictures in the text book often are as worthy of study
as is the text itself.

(6) Frequent oral and (short) written reviews of the
fundamental matters are needed.

THE UNIVERSITY OF IWISCONSIN

Selecting the Materials from a Text Book

Writers of text books are under the necessity of treating
all topics, so far as emphasis is concerned, with a consid-
erable degree of uniformity. Their books are designed for
use in all sections of the country. Because of local geograph-
ical conditions, one teacher desires a book which treats
rather fully of glacial work. Another teacher whose pupils
live near the sea, wishes a book with an adequate discus-
sion of ocean phenomena; and so on through the list. Hence,
text books are not suited to the special needs of any one
locality. It becomes the province of the teacher to prune
some chapters in the text book and to expand others.

If a school is surrounded by the evidences of glacial
activity, there are good reasons for giving more than usual
attention to the discussion of glaciers and glacial work. If
the school is near the sea and pupils may observe the ebb
and flow of the tide, the action of waves and shore cur-
rents, types of coast lines, and similar things, then there is
ample reason why the chapter on the ocean and its shores,
should be emphasized and supplemented in that school. If
the school is in a village or small city where pupils know
something about soils and agriculture and have practical use
for fuller knowledge, then the discussion of rock weathering,
soil formation, soil fertility, drainage, etc., ought to be given
emphasis; and the text book material ought to be consider-
ably supplemented. In short, the first principle to guide the
teacher in distributing the emphasis is: Dwell upon those
topics which are most closely related to the lives of the
pupils and are best illustrated in the neighborhood.

The second kind of knowledge which is worth emphasizing
is that which explains phenomena, that directly affect the
lives of the people at large, their industries, and other ac-
tivities, as contrasted with knowledge which has no par-
ticular bearing on the life of the average person.

For example, the work of rivers in eroding valleys, spread-
ing sediment over flood plains, building deltas, filling harbors,
or supplying water power, is worth more to high school
pupils than knowledge of river piracy, or ability to talk
about the development of meanders, shifting divides, ' ante-
cedent rivers, engrafted rivers and dismembered rivers. Such

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 23

topics as the latter belong to more advanced study. Many
details about mountain growth, mountain structure and
various types of mountains, may well give place to the
discussion of the ways in which mountains influence climate,
industries, the distribution of people, the growth of cities
and the building of railroads, and their relation to rainfall, to
mining, to forests, etc.

While classification and description of mountains, rivers,
lakes, shore features, plains, volcanoes, or glaciers can not
be omitted, yet the emphasis should not be placed upon
mere classification and description. The second principle may
be stated thus: Emphasize those facts, a knowledge of which
helps in understanding the influence of man's physical sur-
roundings upon his activities and his well-being, rather than
those which have merely an academic value.

There are certain topics which are frequently considered
in physical geography, which have but little practical bear-
ing on man's life, and yet which it seems almost a misfor-
tune to disregard. A brief knowledge of the solar system,
and a brief knowledg-e of the most common minerals and
rocks belong in this class.

In mathematical geography if pupils can intelligently
answer the questions given on p. 47 they do well. If less
than one year is given to physical geography, it is doubtful
if all of those questions should be considered.

Comparatively little should be done with the tides. The
cause of the tidal wave on the side of the earth opposite the
moon is very difficult to explain and the brief explanations
found in text books are often misleading.

Memorizing the geological eras and periods is out of place
in physical geography.

24 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Outline of a Course in Physical Geography Recommended by

a Committee of The Association of American

Geographers, 1910

The Earth as a Whole.

The relations in space of the earth, moon and sun. Full

moon, new moon.
Shape and size.

Proofs. Significance in human occupations and daily

life.

Inclination of axis.
Earth Motions.
Rotation.

Proof, rate, significance.
Revolution.

Variation of seasons and significance in agricul-
ture.

Variation in length of day and night.
Mathematical zones. Pole, Equator, Tropics and

Circles.
Latitude and Longitude.

Meaning. Origin of terms.

Time. Standard Time. International Date Line.

Maps and their use. Scale and projection.

The Atmosphere.

Elements of weather and climate.

Heat Bells and their meaning. Distribution of great na-
tions in reference to heat belts.
Pressure.

How measured. Seasonal and annual conditions.
Winds — Great wind systems and the relations of con-
tinents thereto.

Humidity. Relative humidity; causes for variation; sig-
nificance of humidity.
Rainfall.

Relations to winds and larger surface features.
Causes of rain; distribution of rainy and dry
regions; relation to occupations and industries.
Storms — especially temperate latitude cyclones.

Types of weather conditions from weather maps. Re-
lation of weather to industries, transportation,
etc.
Climate of World.

Broader climatic areas and their principal subdivi-
sions into East Coastal, West Coastal and In-
terior Regions.

THE HIGH SCHOOL COUESE IN GEOGRAPHY 25

Distribution of principal countries according to cli-
mate.

Summer and winter climate in United States.
Climate of the growing season and importance.

The Lands.

The land as home of man. Relation of man to land,

water and air.

Simple study of processes producing, changes on surface
of land and the surface features locally to be
seen which are a result of these processes. Es-
pecial emphasis on work of running water, stand-
ing water, ice and atmosphere. Youth, middle
age and old age.
The larger land forms.

Plains. Character of plains; significance of plains
historically.

Alluvial plains. Character, distribution and import-
ance. Life features associated therewith.

Coastal plains. Character, distribution and import-
ance. Life features associated therewith.

Interior plains. Character, distribution and import-
ance. Life features associated therewith.

Regions of low relief.
Plateaus.

Character, elevation, results of dissection.

Occupations and life conditions on plateaus.

Broken plateaus.

Plateau countries.
Mountains.

Essentials of a mountain. Ranges, systems, peaks,
passes.

Mountain building and earthquakes.

Surface features and life relations of folded, block
and massive mountains.

Relation of mountains to climate and rivers. Moun-
tain regions over the world.

Note: Broken plateaus and block mountains may
well be deferred until they occur in the later
descriptive work.
Soils.

Importance of soils.

Character and origin of local soils.

Fertile and infertile soils as related to crops and
distribution of population.

Great groups of soils and their distribution.

Relation of soils to climate and water supply.

26 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Water supply.

Ground water, evaporation and rainfall.

Importance of ground water. Seasonal variation in
water table.

Relation of ground water to man, animals and plants.

Artesian water and irrigation briefly noted in areas

where not to be seen locally.
Importance of Valleys.

Valleys as routes of travel and centers of occupation.

Strategic points in river valleys.
Strategic Points in river valleys.

Head of tide, of navigation.

Falls, head of lake, foot of lake.

Junction of tributaries.

Water gaps.

Bluffs.

Carries.

Head of delta.

Mouth of principal distributary.

The Ocean.

The extent of the ocean. Ocean Basins and continents.
Ocean as a highway and source of food supply; its af-
fect on climate. Man's concentration near the
ocean.

Fog areas, ice floes, fishing banks, cable paths.
Shorelines.

Regular and irregular. Larger problem of origin.
Drowning. Relation to harbors and shipping.
Delta shorelines.

Waves and tides as related to accessibility of harbors.
Tidal occurrence, interval, relation to sun and moon.

Cause omitted.
Currents.

General direction as related to winds.
Special currents.
Monsoon currents in India.
Relation to distribution of temperature.
Great ocean routes as related to winds, currents and

continents.

Distribution of plants as related to climate and surface.
Larger world divisions.

Special features in United States, as evergreen forests,
mixed forests, grazing and dairy areas, mixed farming,
cotton, corn, winter wheat, spring wheat areas, etc.

The above outline is given for its suggestive value. It is
not recommended as an outline to be adopted unchanged.

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 27

Review of Important Facts of Location

The normal schools and colleges find that graduates of
the high schools come to them with a very vague knowledge
of the location of many of the important places, rivers,
mountains, etc. Tests given to freshmen in the University
of Wisconsin reveal a surprising lack of knowledge along
this line. The reason is clear. Pupils have little or no
drill in locational geography after they leave the grammar
school. Their fund of knowledge about the location of places
is gradually lost on their way through the high school.

The question arises — are there not many facts and details
of physical geography which are really worth less than cer-
tain important facts of locational geography? We believe
that, whether the high school pupil later goes to a higher
school or enters upon an occupation, he should be reasonably
intelligent in matters of general locational geography. This
does not mean that he ought to know where a host of rela-
tively obscure places, or 'rivers, or seas are, but that the
school ought to see that he has a fair degree of familiarity
with the geographical names that are constantly before the
reading public. The list of such names is really not large.

Our present text books in physical geography provide for
no review of this kind. The teacher must provide it, if it is
done. The most natural place to take up the great rivers of
the world is in connection with the study of rivers; to lo-
cate the dozen great mountain ranges, and celebrated peaks
in connection with the study of mountains; to locate the
important seas, gulfs, bays and islands in connection with
the study of the ocean. Incidentally the review should be
made to include the position of the leading nations and a
limited list of the world's great cities. This may not be
physical geography but no matter if it isn't. It is a sensible
thing to do, nevertheless. The possible mistake lies in try-
ing to locate too many places, nations, or physical features.
Of course this review of location should be done with maps,
pupils locating the places upon the map or globe, or still
better, indicating them on outline maps.

The following lists are suggested:

28 THE iTNlVbBSITY OF WISCONSIN

Countries:

Of Europe, all except the separate Balkan States.

Of South America, those bordering on the Pacific, on
the Caribbean Sea and on the Atlantic. (Also Bo-
livia.)

Of Asia, Turkey, Arabia, Persia, British India, Chinese
Empire (including by name Tibet and Manchuria),
Japan, Corea, Siberia.

Of Africa, Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Cape Colony, the
Belgian Congo and Abyssinia.

Rivers:

Yukon, Columbia, Colorado, Rio Grande, Missouri, Platte,
Mississippi, Arkansas, Red, Ohio, St. Lawrence, Mer-
rimac, Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Potomac,
James, Orinoco, Amazon, Plata, Thames, Seine,
Rhone, Rhine, Elbe, Danube, Tiber, Po, Volga, Nile,
Congo, Tigris-Euphrates, Ganges, Yang-tse-kiang, Ho-
angho.

Mountains and peaks:

Rocky, Cascade, Sierra Nevada, Coast Range, Ozark, Al-
leghany, Appalachian, Blue Ridge, Andes, Pyrenees,
Alps, Appenines, Caucasus, Ural, Atlas, Himalaya,
Mt. McKinley, Mt. St. Elias, Mt. Shasta, Pike's Peak,
Mt. Washington, Mt. Blanc, Mt. Everest, Mt. Ararat.

Arms of the sea:

Hudson Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Gulf of Mexico, Carib-
bean Sea, North Sea, Baltic Sea, English Channel,
Mediterranean Sea, Adriatic Sea, Black Sea, Red
Sea.

Straits:

Behring, Florida, Gibraltar, Bosporus.

Capes:

Horn, Cod, Hatteras, Good Hope.

Islands:

Newfondland, Cuba, Hayti, Porto Rico, Bermudas, Ja-
maica, Hawaii, Samoa, New Zealand, Philippines,
Java, Ceylon, Madagascar, Sicily, Corsica, Iceland,
Greenland.

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 29

Cities. .

United States — New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, St.
Louis, Boston, Baltimore, Milwaukee, Washington,
Denver, Louisville, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Kansas
City, Cleveland, Buffalo, Pittsburg, San Francisco,
Cincinnati, New Orleans, Indianapolis, Duluth, Salt
Lake City, Seattle, Tacoma, Galveston.

Europe — London, Liverpool, Manchester, Edinburgh, Glas-
gow, Madrid, Berlin, Hamburg, Vienna, Rome, Naples,
Athens, Constantinople, St. Petersburg, Paris, Mar-
seilles, [Venice, Antwerp, Rotterdam.

Asia— Bombay, Calcutta, Canton, Pekin-Tien Tsin, Hong
Kong, Jerusalem, Tokio-Yokohama.

Africa, Australia, and Scattered Islands — Cairo, Cape
Town, Melbourne, Sydney, Manila, Honolulu.

Western Continent Exclusive of the United States — Mon-
treal, Quebec, Rio Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Havana,
Mexico.

Laboratory Work

As laboratory work in physical geography has been but
recently introduced, it may be of interest to learn what
some of the authors of laboratory manuals give as the
reasons for such work:

Gilbert H. Trafton (1905) says:

"The reasons for the introduction of laboratory methods
in this subject are the same as those which demand its use
in the other sciences, namely, the training which the pupil
receives in the laboratory, and the additional light thrown
upon the subjects discussed in the class room. * * * This
first science should be so taught as to inculcate scientific
methods of study."

James F. Chamberlain (1906) says:

"The purpose of these exercises is to develop power and to
enable pupils to acquire certain important facts and prin-
ciples at first hand."

Everly-Blount-Walton (1908) say:

"A valuable service of the geographical laboratory is to
give concreteness and location to the general principles
taught in the text book."

30 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Frank W. Darling (1905) says:

"Mere copying of maps, charts, diagrams, etc., is of little
or no value. Such work must have in it something to stim-
ulate the self activity of the pupil so that his work will give
him a better realization of the principles involved."

He calls certain kinds of laboratory exercises, "pyrotechnics
and monstrosities."

W. M. Davis (1908) says in the preface to his manual that
its purpose is to provide "a series of disciplinary exercises."
He further says: "The student's attention must be directed
to and detained upon each feature of a complicated fact, each
step of a large problem, in order that the facts and prob-
lems may reach his understanding and remain in his mem-
ory." He points out also that such laboratory exercises as
he has arranged produce a more vivid impression upon the
pupil, than the text book statements can possibly do; that
they produce "strength of conviction" and "clearness and
fullness of conception."

It is quite clear that at least two motives have actuated
leaders in geography-teaching and makers of laboratory man-
uals: (1) The feeling that because physical geography is a
science, and sciences ought to be taught with laboratory ex-
ercises, therefore physical geography ought to be so taught.
(2) The belief that the facts of the text are illustrated and
impressed through, laboratory work, and that such work is
"disciplinary."

Before laboratory studies in physical geography had taken
definite shape, those in physics, chemistry and biology had
been worked out. It was entirely natural then, that the
existing types of laboratory exercises in those sciences should
strongly influence men in the preparation of supposedly suit-
able exercises for physical geography. In physics, it was
thought that the best disciplinary results are obtained by
quantitative experiments, and our high school manuals are
based upon that assumption. In some of the laboratory man-
uals in physical geography, it is evident that their authors
shared this prevailing feeling — that good laboratory exer-
cises ought to involve measurements and computations which
would give quantitative results. Moreover, the apparatus for
physics and chemistry were on hand and were therefore

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 31

utilized in physical geography. There are good arguments
in favor of that contention, particularly if mental discipline
is the chief purpose of the laboratory work. It has been
found, however, that satisfactory quantitative exercises in
physical geography are not easy to find and that when found
they are either difficult to perform, or do not appeal to the
pupils, or are of little practical value when performed. The
very fact that suitable quantitative problems could not readily
be found has probably been a benefit to the science, for there
are other types of laboratory work which are of more all-
around value.

The nature of laboratory work in physics and chemistry
calls for a distinct room properly fitted up and equipped.
The recitation room is a separate room, as it ought to be.
For the most part, definite hours are set aside for class
recitations and others for laboratory work.

It is not certain that either a separate room for a labora-
tory or fixed laboratory hours are really necessary in physical
geography. Often the orderly progress of the class calls for
more laboratory work Ihis month than it did last. If the
room used by the physical geography classes can be fitted
up as a combined recitation room and laboratory, then the
two kinds of work may go along together in a natural way.
No doubt there is a gain in having at least one double period
a week. Three single periods and one double period per
week make a good combination. It is not necessary that the
laboratory work be always done during the double period,
but the provision for the longer period enables the teacher
to begin and complete exercises which could not be com-
pleted in a single period. Recitations, discussions, work with
maps and other materials may very properly take place in
the same period. Some of our foremost geography teachers
prefer this method to the other method of making a formal
separation of laboratory work from the other work of the
class.

It is not proposed to give an outline of a laboratory course
here. The young teacher who has not had special training
in physical geography, and who is expected to do laboratory
work, will find it best to use a laboratory manual, carefully
selecting the exercises. The loose-leaf combined manual and

32 THE UNIVERSITY OF 'WISCONSIN

note book has certain advantages, providing the exercises
are satisfactory.

The laboratory work ought to go hand in hand with the
text book work, each supplementing the other. Every exer-
cise ought to have a clean-cut, definite purpose. If the super-
intendent should drop in and should ask the teacher. "Just
what do you expect to accomplish by this exercise?" she
should know, and should be able to tell him promptly. When
the pupils have finished the exercise, they, too, ought to have
at least a fairly definite idea of what they have been doing
and why they have been doing it. It would not be a bad
plan if the teacher made herself write out in a sentence, the
purpose of each particular laboratory exercise, as she sees it,
then keep this purpose in mind, and when the exercise is
completed, ask the pupils what they understand they have
been doing it for? The plain fact is that no small amount
of time is wasted in so-called laboratory work; that there
is a large amount of aimless effort and dawdling, partly, at
least, because neither teacher nor class know exactly what
they are after, and when they are through, don't know quite
why they did it. Such work can never bring pleasure or
satisfaction to anybody. Clean cut work, with a conscious
aim, does give pleasure and satisfaction as well as benefit.
All of the laboratory manuals now in use were prepared for
the use of classes in physical geography. Under the section
on the present trend of geography, it was pointed out that
there is a marked trend of opinion in favor of humanizing
secondary school -geography — of laying less emphasis upon
the purely physical side of the study and more upon re-
gional geography and those phases which deal with human
activities. If this change in the character of the high school
work shall take place, then our laboratory manuals must be
rewritten and our laboratory courses reconstructed. At any
rate, those laboratory exercises wnich bring out and illustrate
the cause and effect relations between the earth and its in-
habitants seem to have the greater interest and the greater
culture value.

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGBAPHY 33

The following articles, bearing upon laboratory work, have
appeared in the Journal of Geography, since January 1, 1902.*
The Use of Maps in the Teaching of Geography, by A. W.

Andrews, Mar., 1902, Vol. 1, p. 97.
Practical Exercises in Physical Geography, by W. M. Davis,

Dec., 1903, Vol. 2, p. 516.
Practical Work in School Geography, by R. H. Whitbeck,

Oct., 1904, Vol. 3, p. 374.
Laboratory Work in Physical Geography in Secondary Schools,

by Clara B. Kirchwey, Mar., 1905, Vol. 4, p. 122.
Some Contributions to Laboratory Physiography, by W. P.

Langworthy, Mar., 1905, Vol. 4, p. 131.
Practical Exercises on the Topographic Map, by Martha K.

Genthe, May-June, 19D5, Vol. 4, p. 221.

Map Reading, by Robert M. Brown, Sept., 1905, Vol. 4, p. 273.
Laboratory Work With the Sun, by J. Paul Goode, Mar.,

1906, Vol. 5, p. 97.
The Storing of Maps, by Frank Carney, Nov., 1908, Vol. 7,

p. 52.

Representation of Land Forms in the Physiography Labora-
tory, by R. S. Tarr & C. D. von Engeln, Dec., 1908, Vol. 7,

p. 73.

The Interpretation and Use of Maps, by Helen B. Mont-
gomery, Apr., 1909, Vol. 7, p. 173.
New Laboratory Methods of Instruction in Geography, by

W. H. Hobbs, Jan., 1909, Vol. 7, p. 97.
The Laboratories for Physical Geography in Two California

High Schools, by C. T. Wright and J. C. Fremont, Sept.,

1909, Vol. 8, p. 10.

Field Work

When conditions can be made favorable for field work, it
constitutes the ideal way of studying many of the phases of
physical geography. Geikie, one of the ablest English
geographers, goes so far as to say that one hour's instruction
in the field is worth twenty hours of reading or listening to
lectures. Again he says: "There is happily now a growing

•Back numbers of the Journal of Geography (prior to September, 1910)
may be secured of R. E. Dodge, Teachers College, New York City, at 15c.
each. The magazine is now published at the University of Wisconsin.

34 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

recognition of the principle that adequate geographical con-
ceptions are best gained by observations made at the home
locality."

Says Professor Tarr: "The value of field work is such
that every course in physical geography ought to be accom-
panied by at least some. No laboratory or text book work
can take the place of well conducted field work."

Said Colonel Parker: "Field lessons are an indispensable
means in teaching geography."

Leading geographers in America and abroad are a unit in
considering field studies to be the most effective method of
teaching physical geography. Teachers who have had the
benefit of good field instruction are usually enthusiastic ad-
vocates of it, at least in theory. Yet, it is a fact, in this
country at any rate, that field trips are only rarely taken by
any teacher and not taken at all by many. Here is a method
universally approved, but sparingly employed. Why is it so?
The explanation is easily found.

1. Many teachers do not feel competent to undertake field
trips. Either they have had no special training in field work
or they have had only a little, and that in a different region.
Besides, it is difficult to maintain discipline with a class of
youngsters in the open air. The strain upon the teacher is
a severe one, and she dreads it.

2. Usually, in arranging schedules of classes, no provision
is made for the teacher to be away from her room or for the
class to be away from school during a half day session, which
is often necessary for a trip. If field trips are taken they
must be taken outside of regular school hours. There are
many difficulties in the way of doing this.

3. In larger towns and cities, the class must go some dis-
tance, involving expense and time, and generally restricting
the excursions to places accessible by trains or trolleys.

4. To successfully conduct a field lesson, the teacher must
first find a suitable place to go, must go over the ground in
advance and carefully plan every detail of the excursion and
the lesson. This will be a drain upon her spare time and
will tend to dampen her enthusiasm and lead her to put it
off.

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGBAPHY 35

5. Not infrequently principals and parents regard field trips
as a form of play or as a picnic, and disapprove of them.

Any one of the above conditions is enough to put a
damper upon field work but in the most instances several of
these deterring conditions exist and the result is that field
trips are few and far between.

Yet some teachers have enthusiasm enough and energy
enough to find a way around difficulties and they are the
bright examples. If only two or three well planned excur-
sions can be taken in the year, the return upon the%invest-
ment will be large, providing of course the teacher is com-
petent and efficient.

The following suggestions are offered ("by one who has con-
ducted field trips for some fifteen years with grammar school
children, high school pupils, normal school and college stu-
dents). It is assumed that the pupils are of high school
grade.

1. Field classes should be fairly small: twenty or twenty-
five pupils are enough.

2. If the school's schedule of studies allows the teacher to
go out with her class during school time, attendance upon
the trip may reasonably be required and usually pupils are
glad to go. If trips must be taken outside of school hours,
attendance should be voluntary and the teacher will get the
best response by putting the matter in the form of a per-
sonal invitation to the pupils to go with her on out-door
trip. If the pupils are her guests, they are not likely to give
her much trouble in discipline. Some will not go, but that
need cause no serious concern.

3. If pupils are taken on trips as a regular part of the
school work and in school time, discipline must be main-
tained, yet it need not be quite so rigid as in school. When
walking or riding from place to place, ordinary freedom may
be allowed pupils. When the class stops for instruction, the
usual rules of the class recitation should be observed: no
communication between pupils, strict/ attention, speaking out
or answering questions only under the same conditions as in
a regular class. The trip may, if desired, be an outing but
the outing and the instruction features should be separated.
"Work when you work and play when you play."

36 THE UNIVERSITY OF VJTSCONSIN

4. The teacher must go over the ground in advance and
know exactly where she is going and what she is to do.

5. Best results are secured when each pupil has a copy of
the outline of the lesson directing him to be on the lookout
for certain things and giving questions whose answers he
is to discover. These outlines and questions may be mimeo-
graphed, or may be dictated to pupils before leaving the
school for the trip. This is one of the most important rec-
ommendations here made. Samples of such outlines follow.

6. On the whole, questioning is better than telling in a
field lesson as well as elsewhere. Yet time should not need-
lessly be sacrificed or interest deadened.

7. A summary of the facts learned in the field should be
made, either at the close of the trip, on the ground, or later
in the class room. A written report is generally the best
way for pupils to organize the information which they have
gained. The field work should te the foundation of subse-
quent class discussions.

The following articles bearing upon field work, have ap-
peared in the Journal of Geography since Jan. 1, 1902.
3. Field work in Physical Geography, by W. M. Davis, Jan.,
1902, Vol. 1, p. 17. Feb., 1902, Vol.. 1, p. 62.

2. Home Geography, by W. M. Davis, Jan., '05, Vol. 4, p. 1.

3. Observational Studies for Children, by Frank Carney, Jan.,

'05, Vol. 4, p. 12.

4. Out of Door Work in Geography, Feb., '05, Vol. 4, p. 49.

5. Field Work in Geography, by A. P. Irving, Sept., '05, Vol. 4,

p. 288.

6. The Field Work of a Physiography Class on a Glacial

Problem, by Geo. W. Low, Oct., '05, Vol. 4, p. 321.

Suggested Field Lessons

Different localities vary in the kind of illustrations which
they afford, and the teacher must shape the field work to
the locality. There are, however, certain studies which are
possible in almost any section of the state. The glaciated
portions furnish the greater variety of types for study. The
following lessons will, with modifications, fit most parts of
the glaciated area. Two or more trips may be required for
each of the following lessons.

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 37

NUMBER 1
ROCK-WEATHERING AND SOIL

Purpose: To see rocks in various stages of decay, to note
the changes due to weathering, to understand how soil
is formed, and to study different kinds of soil.

Materials: A geologist's hammer or small stone-hammer for
the teacher is desirable but not absolutely necessary-
Each pupil should have an outline or set of questions to
direct his observations. Additional interest will attend
the lesson if each pupil has a glass test tube six or eight
inches long with a cork to fit. Into the bottom of the
test tube place fine pieces of fresh rock an inch deep;
crowd in a little tissue paper to form a partition between
the rock fragments and the next layer. Then put in an
equal amount of small pieces of weathered, or partially
decayed, rock of the same kind as the bottom layer.
This shows the first step in soil making. Insert another
tissue paper partition. Make the third layer of finely
powdered weathered rock; the fourth, of the ordinary
brown or yellow soil of the region, and the top layer,
of the black top-soil, rich in decayed vegetable matter
or humus. Then insert the cork and you have a fairly
good series of samples showing the different stages from
fresh rock to rich soil. The teacher will, of course, ex-
plain that glacial soil is a mixture of many kinds of rock
waste, not the product of the decay of any one kind of
rock.

Locality: A railroad or highway cut where fresh earth is
exposed and various kinds of erratic bowlders are to be
seen is an ideal place. Any excavation where fresh
earth is revealed will do. Success in a field trip re-
quires that the teacher go over the ground in advance
and decide exactly how she will handle the lesson.

Directions and Questions

1. Find unweathered rock, also rock with yellow or red-
dish brown stain. This stain is probably due to the "rust-
ing" or weathering of particles of iron contained in the

1

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

rock. Nearly all rocks contain some iron and when they
weather, they turn brown or yellow and make soil of that
color.

2. Find rocks that are rather soft, and break up quite
easily. Do they seem to be decaying? What causes them to
decay? Find a number of such rocks and let pupils fully
satisfy themselves that rocks do actually decay. The full
appreciation of this is a long step forward.

3. Examine a little soil and note that it contains fine
flour-like powder. This is largely clay. The coarser gritty
grains are quartz sand. Soil is mostly clay and quartz sand
in varying proportions. There are very small quantities of
lime, potash, and phosphorus compounds also. These have
much to do with the fertility of the soil. Bring out that
when a rock decays, it gives to the soil whatever substances
the rock is made up of. The weathering of sandstone gives
a sandy soil. Limestones and shales give much clay. When
limestones decay, most of the lime is carried away by the
ground water and only the clay, an impurity, remains.

Have pupils explain why some soils are very sandy, others
largely composed of clay and others mixed.

4. Discuss the water-holding qualities of sandy soil and
clay soil, and why the former will do for potatoes but not
so well for meadows, while clay soil is well suited to grass
and grains and hence often leads to dairy farming. What
is loam? Why is it good soil for general farming?

5. Contrast recently dried ,clay soil with recently dried
loam and sandy soil. What are the chief differences? In
what ways do these differences influence farming?

6. Examine the black top layer of soil where there is sod.
Account for the color. Why is it rich? Why is forest mould
so rich? Why is swampy soil usually black? Does it make
good soil when drained?

7. Find a little flood plain of a stream. Discover the qual-
ities of alluvial soil. Why is it fertile? Name rivers that
have extensive flood plains. Contrast glacial till with al-
luvial soil. Explain the differences. How does till differ
from soil? What is sub-soil?

8. Upon what does the productivity of soil depend? (Both
the composition and the physical condition of the soil are

THE HJGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 39

factors.) What is meant by worn-out soil? How may it be
replenished? Why is rotation of crops practiced? How does
plowing clover under enrich the soil?

Other questions will suggest themselves to the teacher
and special points of interest will arise. Many of the ques-
tions can be discussed to better advantage in the class room
after the trip. Pupils should either write a report summariz-
ing the points brought out in the trip or they should take a
written test on the work.

NUMBER 2
THE WORK OF STREAMS

Purpose: To see a stream at work eroding, transporting, and
depositing; to gain an understanding of the methods- by
which it works and by reasoning and inference to ap-
preciate the great work of denudation on a larger scale.

Locality: If convenient, the first field lesson on stream work
should be a detailed study of a small but active stream;
this to be followed by the study of a large creek or river.
If both types of streams are not accessible the study of
one may still be highly illuminating.

Answer as many of the following questions as possible:

1. Where does the stream rise? Empty? To what ocean
do its waters finally go? Of what drainage system is it a
part? (Mississippi? St. Lawrence?)

2. Why does the water flow down hill? (Gravity.)

3. Whence comes the water which supplies the stream?
What is meant by ground water? By run-off?

4. Js this stream now being supplied by run-off or by
ground water? Explain.

5. Why does the water continue to flow long after a rain?

6. Is the drainage basin of this stream mostly farm land
or forest?

7. If farm land, how largely is it plowed land? Meadow
and pasture land?

8. Show how these facts affect the rapidity of the run-off
after a rain, and hence influence the regularity of flow of the
stream.

9. Explain how forests prevent floods.

40 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

t

10. Find places where, at present, the stream is deepening
its channel. Widening it. Also places where, at high water,
it has done effective eroding. Bring out the fact that in
flood season a stream does much work, but not very much at
low water.

11. Find places where the stream is undercutting its bank,
producing bluffs. Why does the face of the bluff remain
nearly vertical?

12. Find meanders. In what part of the meander is the
stream eroding its banks, and in what part is it building
sand bars? Explain.

13. Find places where there are evidences that the stream
has recently been overloaded.

14. How does the amount of material eroded by a stream
compare with the amount deposited? Which is the construc-
tional and which the destructional work? Must the two al-
ways balance? Why or why not?

15. Some streams, as in the mountains, do much eroding;
others do little. Name four conditions which determine how
much eroding a stream will do.

16. Generally speaking, is this an active or a sluggish
stream? Your reasons?

17. At present is the stream transporting much sediment?
Explain. How does the stream appear when it is transport-
ing actively?

IS. What i£ meant by the stream's visible load and its in-
visible load? (Material in suspension and in solution.)

19. Has this stream a flood plain? How was it built? Of
wrhat use is it? To what use are the flood plains of large
rivers usually put? Why?

20. How do you recognize a young valley? An old valley?
How do you class this valley? Why?

21. Has this stream rapids or fall;:? Tf so, to what are they
due? What are the advantages and the disadvantages of
rapids and falls in large rivers? Give examples.

22. Do you think that this stream made the valley which
it occupies? If so, can you explain exactly how it was done?
Is it a rapid or a slow process? Reasons?

23. If this stream emptied into a lake, explain how it could
build a delta.

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 41

24. Suppose, by some process, the mouth and lower course
of this stream were considerably lowered, what effect would
that have upon the swiftness of the stream?

25. Suppose the land about the headwaters were consider-
ably raised, what effect would It have on the swiftness of the
stream? Explain the rejuvenation of streams.

SETS OP ILLUSTRATIVE QUESTIONS

Following are six sets of review and test questions which
are designed to bring out both the physical side and the
human side of geography. - » J ', -

(i) ( ,- ; •]:"/*'.%; \\> -

Rivers, Valleys and Stream Work

1. What gives rise to rivers? In the beginning, what gives
direction to their course? What determines their volume?
Length? Swiftness? Constancy?

2. Why do rivers flow down hill? Why do they tend to
deepen their valleys? To broaden them? Excepuons?

3. What are a river's eroding tools? Whence do they come?

4. Explain three types of work done by a river (erosion,
transportation, and deposition).

5. Upon what does a stream's power of doing work depend?

6. Effect of weathering in valley formation?

7. Why does a river sometimes aggrade and sometimes de-
grade?

8. What causes wide variations in the load carried at differ-
ent times by the same river? By different rivers? Illustrate.

9. Characteristics of a youthful drainage system? Of a
young valley in rock? Of a mature system? Of a mature
valley?

10. Usual causes of waterfalls? Types? Illustrations of
each?

11. Explain the formation of flood plains, bars, deltas?

12. Causes which rejuvenate a stream? Effect upon stream?

13. Why so many waterfalls in New England and New
York? Account for Niagara Falls.

14. Why so many falls in the Piedmont Belt of the South?
Why so few in the Mississippi Valley?

THE UNIVERSITY OF .WISCONSIN

15. Account for the shape and great depth of the Colorado
Canyon.

16. Account for the estuaries of the rivers of the Atlantic
slope (of U. S.); for the sluggishness of the coastal plain
rivers; for the great length of the rivers of Siberia; for the
great size of the Amazon.

17. Why do all rivers not build deltas at their mouths?

18. Why do some rivers build flood plains and others build
practically none? Illustrations.

19. Why does the Missouri River grow smaller in crossing
the Plains?

: 20. The pia*;te*, ' i'a places, is a mile wide and six inches
deep. How possible?

L' - /-The ' he'adwaWrs of the Mississippi are a labyrinth of
lakes. Explain. How does this affect constancy of flow?
State principle.

22. Account for the natural levees of the lower Mississippi.
Why is a break so disastrous?

23. Account for the clearness of the St. Lawrence; for its
steady flow.

24. Why has the Niagara a gorge below the falls, but none
above?

25. Where is the earlier mouth of the St. Lawrence? Of the
Hudson?

(2).
Rivers and Valleys in their Relation to Commerce

1. Why is the mouth of a large river a favorable site for
a commercial city? Give examples in North America; in
South America; in Europe; in Asia.

2. Why is the junction of navigable rivers a favorable site
for a commercial city? Give several examples.

3. In a rugged country, cities and towns are usually found
at the jumction of valleys. Explain why. Give illustrations.

4. Why do valleys exert such an influence on railway build-
ing? Examples.

5. Consider the relation of rivers and valleys to the build-
ing of the Erie Canal and hence to the development of New
York State and New York City.

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 43

6. Why are the railway routes of the Central States less
influenced by stream courses than those of the Eastern States?

7. Show the relation of streams and valleys to the explora-
tion and development of a new country. Give illustrations in
the United States; in Africa.

8. Show the connection of streams with lumbering.

9. Show the influence of streams in the development of
manufacturing in New England.

10. Name five or six manufacturing cities whose early
growth was stimulated by water power.

11. Show the relation of streams to the present rapid de-
velopment of cotton manufacture in the South.

12. Show the dependence of commerce upon rivers in South
America.

13. Why is the internal commerce of the United States de-
pendent so little upon rivers while in China it is quite the
opposite?

14. What is meant by a canalized river? Examples.

15. Show the relation of rivers to irrigation. Some rivers
are practically useless for irrigation purposes. Explain.

16. The following named rivers are largely used in the
commerce of the countries through which they flow. Where
are these rivers? Rhine, Volga, Amazon, Danube, Seine,
Thames, La Plata, Yang-tse-Kiang, Yukon.

17. Give reasons for the decline of shipping on th3 Missis-
sippi.

18. Why is each of the following rivers not well suited for
shipping: Missouri, Rio Grande, Colorado, Mackenzie, Nile?

19. The tonnage carried on the Ohio River is large. Ex-
plain.

20. Stream valleys greatly aid in coal mining in the whole
Appalachian field. Explain.

, (3)

Lakes and Some of their Relations to Human Affairs

1. What are the leading causes for lake basins?

2. Whence comes the supply of water which feeds lakes?

3. What determines the location of the outlet of a lake?

4. Under what conditions do lakes ha.ye RO outlets?

44 THE UNIVERSITY OF JVISCONSIN

**

5. Why are most lakes longer than they are wide?

6. Why are there more lakes in the northern states than in
the southern?

7. Where was Lake Agassiz? Cause? Extent? Why has it
disappeared? Why did its existence benefit the region form-
erly covered by it?

8. Account for the great lakes of Africa. Name two of
them.

9. Account for the large salt lakes in S. W. Asia. Com-
pare the area of the Caspian Sea with that of Lake Superior.

10. Are the bottoms of the Great Lakes of North America
above or below sea level? Explain probable cause.

11. What are the causes which lead to the disappearance
of lakes?

12. Whence come the salts found in salt lakes?

13. How do lakes in a river course affect the flow of the
river? Why? How do they affect the clearness of the water?
Why? Examples.

14. Give some specific examples of the influence of large
lakes upon the neighboring climate and industries, e. g. upon
the fruit growing.

15. Discuss the importance of the great lakes to oftr iron
and steel industry.

16. What points on lakes seem to be favorable sites for the
growth of cities? Explain. Give examples.

17. Account for the early growth of Buffalo and the more
recent growth of Cleveland.

18. Account for the absenqe of large American cities on
Lakes Huron and Ontario; on the east side of Lake Michigan.

19. Can you assign satisfactory reasons for the situation of
Duluth, Superior, Milwaukee, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland,
Erie and Buffalo?

20. Pour or five commodities constitute most of the freight
carried on the Great Lakes. What are they? Explain.

(4)
Shore Lines and their Influence

1. What three causes chiefly account for the constant
changes in shore lines?

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 45

2. What is the character of elevated sea-bottom coasts?
Regions where such coasts now exist?

3. Character of straight mountainous coasts? Example.

4. Contrast the cause and character of straight; mountainous
coasts with those of irregular mountainous coasts. Give ex-
amples of the latter.

5. Why has Europe such an irregular outline? Why has
South America such a regular outline? Africa?

6. Discuss the effect of sinking of the coast lands upon a
shore line.

7. Show in some detail how an irregular coast line develops
seamanship in the people. Example.

8. Name some large bays, gulfs or seas that are due to
uplift of the surrounding lands. Name some bays that are
due to sinking of the land.

9. Name some islands that have been made such by sink-
ing of the coast lands. Name some peninsulas that have been
nearly severed from the mainland by sinking.

10. What is a fiord coast? How produced? Examples.

11. On a fiord coast, where are villages and cities usually
built? Why?

12. Account for the hundreds of islands which" fringe fiord
coasts.

13. What is an estuary? How formed? Why important to
commerce? Name important commercial cities located on
estuaries.

14. What off-shore conditions give rise to fishing banks?
Why is the development of ocean fishing closely connected
with the maritime growth of a nation? Examples.

15. Discuss the work of waves, tides and currents upon a
shore.

16. How is such a coast as that of New Jersey caused?

17. The state of Maine has a great number of most excel-
lent harbors, yet no large cities. Can you tell why?

18. Why has Alaska many good harbbrs, but California few?
Why has Western South America few good harbors? Mexico?
Africa?

19. Why is it probable that the coast Tine of Europe has
greatly aided her rapid advance in civilization?

20. Contrast the United Kingdom's advantages for ocean

46 THE UNIVERSITY (fr WISCONSIN

commerce with Germany's; Germany's with Russia's. Our
own with those of the United Kingdom?

21. What conditions, besides a good harbor, give New York
superior advantages as a commercial city?

22. The Puget Sound ports are gaining rapidly upon San
Francisco. What superior advantages have they?

23. Why are our South Atlantic and Gulf ports inferior to
the North Atlantic ports?

(5)

Some Climatic "Why's"

1. Why may 'there be perpetual snow on mountain tops in
the torrid zone?

2. Why does the land warm and cool faster than the sea?

3. Why is an oceanic climate more equable than a conti-
nental climate?

4. Why is North Western Europe milder than Labrador?

5. Why are there winds? Why are they such important
factors in climate?

6. Why is there a belt of equatorial calms? Why is it
rainy?

7. Why do wind belts migrate north and south?

8. Why is the equatorial calm belt prevailingly north of
the equator?

9. Why do the trade winds blow from the Northeast and
Southeast instead of from the North and South?

10. Why do the trade winds bring deserts to Africa and
jungles to South America?

11. Why are there belts of tropical calms? (horse latitudes.)

12. Why are the horse latitudes dry? Where are they?

13. Why are there alternate land and sea breezes on coasts?

14. Why and how are monsoons produced? Where best de-
veloped?

15. Wiry are monsoons alternately wet and dry?

16. Why is so much of western North America arid?

17. Why is the desert east of the Andes in Patagonia and
west in northern Chile?

18. Why is so much of Central Asia arid? of Australia?

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 47

19. Why does our Pacific coast have more rain in winter
than in summer?

20. Why are the frigid zones so cold? Why not warm in
July?

21. Why will wheat mature more rapidly in Canada than in
Kansas? (longer days).

22. Why does western Washington have such heavy rain-
fall?

23. Why is the weather of our central states so variable?

24. Why are these states not arid, being east of high moun-
tains?

25. Why is the hottest part of the day not at noon? When
is it?

26. Why is June 22 not our warmest weather? When is it?

27. Why can Mexico or Equador raise the crops of all lati-
tudes?

[' 28. Why can Italy, in the latitude of Pennsylvania, raise
sub-tropical fruits?

29. Why is the rainfall of northeast India so very heavy?
how heavy?

30. Why are North Sea ports free from ice when Baltic
ports are frozen?

(6)
Mathematical Geography

1. What is the earth's axis? North pole? South pole?
notation? Orbit? Plane of the earth's orbit? Shape of
earth's orbit? Revolution of the earth? Inclination of earth's
axis? Amount of that inclination?

2. What is a great circle on the earth? Small circle?
Meridian? Meridian circle? Prime meridian? Longitude?
Latitude? North latitude? South latitude? East longitude?
West longitude?

3. How many degrees in a circle? Same for all circles?
How many degrees from pole to equator? From pole to pole?
! 4. What places have no latitude? No longitude? Neither?
phy?

5. What is the latitude of each pole? The longitude?

*6. What do you mean by north on the earth? South? East?

THE UNIVERSITY DF WISCONSIN

West? What point is north of every other point on the earth'
South? What do you mean by down on the earth? Up I
Since there are people on all sides of the earth, why arc
some not walking with heads downward?

7. The earth's diameter in round numbers? Circumference!
How much does the equatorial diameter exceed the polai
diameter?

8. What do you mean by the attraction of gravitation?

9. Name the zones? Their respective widths in degrees^
Show the reason for the width of each zone. Which zone in-
eludes the largest amount of the earth's surface? Whyl
Smallest amount? Why? Why are the frigid zones called
caps, while the others are called belts? Which zone contains
the most land surface? The least?

10. Explain exactly why the tropic of Cancer, tropic ol
Capricorn, Arctic circle, and Antarctic circle, are where thejj
are?

11. What do you mean by the sun's vertical rays? Only
where do they fall? Why not elsewhere? When are they
vertical at the equator? Tropic of Capricorn? Tropic ofl
Cancer?

12. How many degrees wide would the torrid zone be if the
earth's axis were inclined 20 degrees? 25 degrees? 30? 50t
How wide would each of the other zones be in each of thes«
supposed cases?

13. At what degree of inclination must the earth's axijj
stand to cause the temperate zones to be 20 degrees widel
10? To wholly do away with the temperate zones? To cause
the tropic of Cancer to be north of the Arctic circle?

14. Explain what changes from present conditions would
result if the earth's axis were perpendicular to the plane ail
its orbit? Where would the tropic of Cancer be? Thel
equator? The poles?

15. Why do we have alternate day and night? Where
the earth are the days and nights always of equal length
Why? How long would the days and nights be at Quito
the earth's axis were inclined 25 degrees? 33 degrees? N<
inclined at all?

16. On what days of the year does the circle of illuminatio
pass through the poles?

THE HIGH SCHOOL. COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 49

17. Why are the days longer than the nights in summer?
Inhere do the longest days occur? Why there? What is the
fength of the longest day in the temperate zone? In what

art of that zone? Why can there not be more than 24 hours
continuous light or darkness outside of the frigid zones?

18. Is there a natural reason for dividing the year into 365
Hays? Explain? For dividing the day into 24 hours? The
jyeek into seven days? The year into 12 months? The month
into 28-31 days?

19. What three causes combine to produce our change of
seasons? Show why these three causes must combine to pro-
duce the change.

20. Assuming that it is sun-rise at New York at 5 a. m.,
how long before it will be sun-rise at a place 30 degrees
west? 40? 45? 60?

21. When it is 6 p. m. at New York is it earlier or later in
London? Rio Janeiro? Chicago? Manila? Honolulu? Cape
Town?

22. What is the international date line? Where is it?
What day of the week is it in Hong Kong? Jerusalem?

23. Ships crossing the Pacific either gain or lose a day in
reckoning. Explain why.

IV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A List of Helpful Articles and Books on Geography Teaching

Breeze, Fred J. High School Geography. School Science and
Mathematics, Vol. 5, pp. 516-519. Oct., 1905.

Takes the ground that high school geography needs
humanizing.

Brigham, Albert P. Geographic Influences in American His-
tory. Boston, 1903.

The shorter of the two recent books which trace the
more manifest influences of geography upon the history
of our country. Written in an easy ana somewhat pop-
ular style. Should be read by every teacher of American
history and geography. Inexpensive.

Chamberlain, James F. Some Essentials in Geography.
Jour, of Geog., Vol. 5, pp. 369-375. Oct., 1906.

Urges the study of home surroundings and industries,
causal relations, the use of maps, globes and pictures.
Sufficiently detailed and definite to be really helpful.

50 THE UNIVERSITY oV WISCONSIN

Chamberlain, James F., Chairman. Report of the N. E. A.
Committee of 1909 on Secondary School Geography. Jour.
of Geog., Vol. 8, pp. 1-9. Sept., 1909.

An analysis of the objections to the type of geography
generally taught, and a recommendation for the future.
The most important report on this subject since that of
the Geography Conference of the Committee of Ten in
1893.

Davis, William M. Geographical Essays. (Edited by Doug-
las W. Johnson.) Boston, 1909.

A collection of over twenty-five essays published in
various periodicals since 1889. Some of the topics are:
The Content of Geography (1906); The 'Progress of
Geography in the Schools (1902); The Teaching of
Geography (1892); The Extension of Physical Geography
in Elementary Teaching (1892); Geography in the Gram-
mar and Primary Schools (1893); Physical Geography in
the High School (1900); The Need of Geography in
the University \ 1895 ); Physical Geography in the Uni-
versity (1894); Methods and Models in Geographic Teach-
ing (1889); Field Work in Physical Geography (1902).
There is no other such valuable collection of geograph-
ical essays on the teaching side of the subject, at least,
not in America.

Dodge, Richard E. Geography for the Secondary Schools.
Jour, of Geog., Vol. 7, pp. 121-125. Feb., 1909.

Outline of the Round Table Discussion at the meeting
of the Association of American Geographers in Balti-
more, December, 1908. The first formulation of the plat-
form of the movement for humanized geography in the
secondary schools.

Dodge, Richard E. (Editor.) Equipment for Geography
Teaching. Jour, of Geog., Vol. 5, pp. 242-250. June,
1906.

Contains a rather full list of recommended maps,
periodicals, school texts, teachers' books, and reference
books both for teachers and pupils. Publishers' names
are given in each instance.

Dodge, Richard E. (Editor.) Geography in Secondary
School Courses. Jour, of Geog., Vol. 6, pp. 241-254 and
274-285. Mar. and Apr., 1908.

Professor Dodge sent out a questionnaire to a score
or more of geographers in various parts of the country.
The replies of nineteen are printed. These replies con-
stitute a most valuable collection of opinions on the
question of what ought to be the character of the sec-
ondary school geography work. Every geography
teacher in the secondary school should read them. The

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 51

replies indicate a marked change in sentiment in recent
years.

Dryer. Charles R. What is Geography? Jour, of Geography.
Vol. 4, pp. 348-360. Oct., 1905.

A valuable collection of definitions, opinions and quo-
tations from various sources, both European and Amer-
ican.

Fenneman, N. M. Problems in the Teaching of Physical
Geography in Secondary Schools. Jour, of Geog., Vol. 7,
pp. 145-157. Mar., '1909.

Discusses the changes both in the subject matter and
the method of secondary school geography within twenty
years. Gives suggestions for 'a course in introductory
Earth Science, discusses laboratory work, advocates Re-
gional Geography, or rational Commercial Geography,
ibbs, David. The Pedagogy of Geography. The Pedagogical
Seminary, Mar., 1907, Vol. 14, pp. 39-100.

One of our most thorough and scholarly papers on the
subject. Deals With: 1. A historical review of geograph-
ical text books. 2. A historical review of method. 3.
Present status of geography in Europe. 4. Geography in
high schools in the United States. 5. Geography in our
Normal Schools. 6. Geography in our Technical Schools.
7. Geography in American colleges and universities. 8.
Geography in the elementary schools. Contains a bibliog-
raphy of 95 titles.

Goode, J. Paul. The Human Response to Physical Environ-
ment. Jour, of Geog., Sept, 1904, Vol. 3, pp. 333-343.
Also in the Elementary School Teacher, Jan., 1904.

Discusses the gradual decrease in the control over man
exerted by his physical surroundings as he advances in
civilization. One of the few available papers on this im-
portant phase of modern geography.

Hubbard, George D. Geography in the Secondary Schools.
Proceedings of the N. E. A., Cleveland meeting, 1908.
pp. 978-984.

Defends the cultural value of the study and believes
that its value in this respect entitles ft to more time in
the high school course than it receives.

Merrill, J/A. Physiography in the Secondary School. Proc.
of the N. E. A. 1902, pp. 784-789.

Emphasizes the need of a large proportion of out door
work. »

Mill, Hugh Robert. Hints to Teachers and Students on the
Choice of Geographical Books for Reference and Reading.
London, 1908.

Especially good in the line of English publications.
The most complete bibliography of the kind in English.

52 THE UNIVERSITY OE WISCONSIN

Redway, J. W. The New Basis of Geography. A Manual for.
the Preparation of Teachers. New York, 1901.

Chapters 7 to 12 deal especially with the teaching of
geography. They treat of the Emphasis of Essentials;
Pictures, Models and the Globe; Maps and their Uses;
The Course of Study; Observation and Field Work; The
Teacher's Preparation. Contains a bibliography.

Surface, G. T. Geography in the High School. Jour, of
Geog., Vol. 6, pp. 348-355. June, 1908.

Makes a plea for concrete - regional studies, and illus-
trates with a detaued plan- for treating 'the Atlantic
Coastal Plain.

Sutherland, William J. The Teaching of Geography. Chi-
cago, 1909.

A strong and clarifying discussion by an experienced
teacher, well trained in geography. The analysis of the
aims and scope of geography is clean cut. Gives several
chapters ot practical suggestions for improving the teach-
ing of geography. Contains a bibliography of 40 titles of
books and papers on the teaching side of the subject
and 150 titles of the subject matter side. It is perhaps
the best single book for the average teacher.

Tarr, Ralph S. The Use of Physiography in Geography
Study. Bulletin of the American Bureau of Geography,
Vol. 1, pp. 1-11. Mar., 1900.

A brief and excellent presentation of the modern point
of view in the teaching of geography.

Whitbeck, Ray H. Secondary School Geography: What
Shall It Be? School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 7,
pp. 579-582; also Jour, of Geog., Vol. 6, pp. 104-107
Oct., 1907.

Plea for the humanizing of our high school course in
geography.

Reference Books for High School Libraries
Magazines Recommended to Teachers

Journal of Geography. $1.00 per year. Address, The Jour-
nal of Geography, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wiscon-
sin.

A journal whose purpose is to stimulate both the study
and the teaching of geography. Its articles abound in illus-
trations of the relations of geography to life. It publishes
outlines of field and laboratory exercises, sets of test and ex- .
amination questions, gleanings from government publications

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE I.\ GEOGRAPHY 53

in the field of geography, notes and comments on current
geographical events, etc. It aims to keep the teacher in
constant touch with the best ideas of the day. Sample sent
>on application.

National Geographic Magazine. $2.00 per year. Address,
The National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C., for a
sample copy.

It pays less attention to the teaching of the subject, but
contains valuable geographic material. It might well be taken
by the high school for students to read, as it is always in-
teresting and is beautifully illustrated.

Books

(See also list of books and articles, on pages 49-52)

Salisbury, R. D.: Physiography. Holt. $3.50.

An advanced text book written advisedly for college and
university use, and, therefore, of too advanced grade for high
school use by the students, though most useful to teachers as
a reference book, and for suggestions on map work. The
book has many maps and pictures, and full references to
articles and books on physical geography.

Davis, W. M.: Elementary Meteorology. $2.50. Ginn &
Company, New York City, N. Y.

A standard work explaining the phenomena of the atmo-
sphere.

Ward, R. DeC.: Practical Exercises in Elementary Meteor-
ology. $1.12. Ginn & Company, New York City, N. Y.

A book of well-tested laboratory exercises on weather con-
ditions and atmospheric phenomena.

Davis, King <C- Collie: The Use of Governmental \laps in
Schools. 30 cents. Henry Holt & Company, New York City,
N. Y.

A valuable guide in the selection and use of government
maps, including the IT. S. Geological Survey maps, the Coast
and Geodetic Survey charts, the Lake Survey charts, the
Mississippi, and Missouri River maps, etc.

Gregory, Keller and Bishop: Physical and Commercial
Geography. Ginn & Company, New York City, N. Y.

This is a new book (1910) and is the first attempt to care-

54 THE UNIVERSITY OF ^WISCONSIN

fully correlate the facts of Commercial and Physical Geog-
raphy. It is designed for use as a college text or reference
book. It is one of the books which shows the present trend
of Geography.

Mill's International Geography. D. Appleton & Company,.
New York City, N. Y. $3.50.

National Geographic Monographs. (Physiography of the
United States.) American Book Company, New York City,
N. Y. $2.50.

Shalcr's Aspects of the Earth. Charles Scribner's Sons,.
New York City, N. Y. $2.50.

Shalcr's Sea and Land. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York
City, N. Y. $2.50.

Russcl's Rivers of North America. G. P. Putnam's Sons,-
New York City, N. Y. $2.00.

Riissel's Lakes of North America. Ginn & Company, New
York City, N. Y. $1.75.

Russcl's Glaciers of North America. Ginn & Company, New
York City, N. Y. $1.75.

Bonney's Story of Our Planet. Cassell & Company, London^
$1.80.

Wright's Ice Age in North America. D. Appleton & Com-
pany, New York City, N. Y. $o.OO.

Vase's Wisconsin, Its Geology and Physical Geography.
(Can be bought of the author, Professor E. C. Case, Ann
Arbor, Michigan. $1.00.

All of these books are primarily reference books -exceed-
ingly valuable for reading because of their accuracy and in-
teresting style, but no one of them is suitable for class use
as a high school text book.

A three-sheet topographic wall map of the United States
should be bought for each high school. The cost is 60 cents
(or 36 cents if ordered with 100 or more of the topographic
maps listed below), and it may be mounted on cloth and used
in locating the larger scale topographic maps referred to
below. The size is about 4 ft. by 61/? ft. Address, The Di-
rector, IT. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., enclosing
a money order for payment in advance. It is also desirable
to have the railroad map of Wisconsin. This is 3 ft. by 3*&
ft. and may be obtained from the State Railroad Commission.

THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 55

In addition, a set of 100 topographic maps selected by the
IT. S. Geological Survey to illustrate features of the surface of
the United States should be bought and used by each high
school. These are on a scale of an inch to a mile (or 2
inches to a mile) and show rivers, lakes, swamps, and ocean
in blue; reads, houses, etc., in black; elevation of all points
above sea level (by contour) is shown; and in some cases,
forests in green. There is an accompanying sheet containing
a double index: first, by topographic features, as Dunes
shown on Wyndmere, N. Dakota, and Syracuse, Kansas, and
Easthampton, N.'Y., sheets, etc.; second, by sheets, as Eagle,
Wisconsin, sheet shows "glacial deposition, glacial swamps,
lakes of glacial deposition, morainal lakes, and moraines," etc.
These 100 maps may be purchased by sending a money order
for $3.14 to The Director, U. S. Geological Survey, Washing-
ton, D. C., asking for the "Topographic maps of the United
States showing Physiographic Types" with the index sheet.
These 100 maps, or an equivalent number, should surely be
bought and used by every high school in Wisconsin where
physical geography is taught.

In the state of Wisconsin many other areas have also been
mapped, and an inquiry might be made of the Director of
the U. S. Geological Survey whether the sheets including
the town of has yet been pub-
lished. If it has, or if an adjacent sheet has, 10 to 20 dupli-
cate copies should be purchased for use in the high school.
They cost 5 cents each, or 3 cents each if 100 or more are
ordered at a time, and must be paid for in advance by money
order, as above.

The maps should be used in connection with the indoor
study and field work on physiographic features; and sugges-
tions for map work are found in appendices in the books by
Tarr, Davis, and others, where other excellent map lists will
be found, as well as in the laboratory manuals. $3.50 will
buy the large map of the United States and the 100 indexed
topographic sheets; and any number of additional Wiscon-
sin maps, especially of the home region, if published, may
be bought at 3 cents each, if included in the same order.

LOAN DEPT.

immediate recall.

YB 44052 •

A

&JU3

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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